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23  WIST  MAIN  STRHT 

«VIUTRR,N.Y.  USM 

(71*)t7a^M3 


> 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


T«ehnic«l  and  Bibliooraphie  NotM/NotM  tcehniquM  at  biMiographiquM 


TiM 

tol 


TtM  liwtHut*  liM  attrnnptad  to  obtain  tha  boat 
orifffMl  oopy  avallaMa  for  filming.  Faaturaa  of  ;iiia 
eopy  wM«h  may  ba  bibUographieaHy  uniqua. 
¥thMt  mmi  altar  any  of  tha  imagaa  in  tha 
rapro<fu«tlon,  or  which  may  signif icantiy  changa 
tha  uaual  mathod  of  filming,  aro  cliackad  balow. 


□  Colourad  covart/ 
Couva'/tura  da  coulaur 


r~|  Covara  damagad/ 


D 


Couvartura  andommagta 

Covara  raatorad  and/or  taminatad/ 
Couvartura  raataur^a  at/ou  pailieulAa 

Covar  tMa  miaaing/ 

La  tftra  da  couvartura  manqua 

Colourad  mapa/ 

Cartoo  glographiquas  an  coulaur 

Colourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  hlua  or  black)/ 
Inora  da  eoulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noira) 


□  Coleurod  plataa  and/or  iliuatrationa/ 
Ftanohaa  at/ou  iliuatrationa  w\  eoulour 

□  found  Mrfth  othar  matarial/ 
NolM  avac  d'autraa  documanta 

0  Tight  binding  may  cauaa  shadows  or  distortion 
along  intarlor  margin/ 

LaroNura  sarrAa  paut  causer  da  I'ombra  ou  da  la 
dittortlon  la  long  da  la  marga  intirioura 


•lank  laavas  addad  during  restoration  may 
appaar  wHMn  tha  tax«.  Whonavar  posaibia.  thasa 
hova  boon  omittad  frrim  filming/ 
II 00  pout  qua  isarta^ros  pet^m  bkinchas  ^outias 
lof»  d'una  raataurs^^^y  ^  apt  :bralssant  dans  la  taxta, 
mala,  lorsqua  eala  Aviit  posaibia,  caa  pagaa  n'ont 
poa  «t4  fllm4as. 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  maillaur  axamplaira 
qu'il  iui  a  4tA  possible  da  sa  procurer.  Las  details 
do  cot  exemplaira  qui  sont  peut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographiqua,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  mithode  normaie  de  filmage 
sont  indiqute  ci-dessous. 


D 
D 
D 
0 
0 
0 
0 

n 

D 
D 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couieur 

Peges  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagAes 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurAes  at/ou  peiliculAes 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dAcoiorAes,  taclietAes  ou  piquAes 

Peges  detached/ 
Pages  dAtachtes 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Quality  inigale  de  i'impression 

Includes  supplementary  materiel/ 
Comprend  du  matiriel  supplAmentaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  idition  disponibie 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Las  pages  totalement  ou  partSeilement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuiilet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc..  ont  M  fiimAes  k  nouveau  de  fapon  A 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


Thi 
poi 
ofi 
filn 


Ori 
be( 
ths 
sioi 
oth 
firi 
sioi 
or  I 


Th< 
sh« 
TIA 
wh 

Ma 
difl 
eni 
be^ 
rig 
red 
mc 


D 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commantairaa  supplAmantaires: 


Somt  fidM  HMy  film  out  of  fooui. 


TMa  itom  Is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Co  dooumont  eat  film*  au  taux  de  rMuction  indiqu*  ci-dessous. 

KM  14X  ItX  22X 


28X 


aox 


s/ 

12X 


16X 


20X 


MX 


28X 


32X 


lails 
du 

tdifier 
une 
nage 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  hat  baan  raproducad  thanka 
to  tha  ganaroaity  of: 

Ixaak  WaKon  Killwn  Mamoriil  Library 
Dalhouiia  Univaraity 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
poaalbia  conaidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  Icaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  tpacificationa. 


L'axamplaira  filmi  f ut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
04n#roalti  da: 

laak  Walton  Killam  Mamorial  Library 
DalhoiMia  Unlvanity 


Laa  imagaa  auivantaa  ont  4tA  raprodultaa  avac  la 
plua  grand  aoin,  eompta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattatA  da  l'axamplaira  fiimA,  at  an 
conformitA  avac  laa  eondftiona  du  contrat  da 
fllmaga. 


Original  copiaa  in  printad  papar  covara  ara  filmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  impraa- 
sion,  or  tha  bacic  covar  whan  appropriata.  Ail 
othar  original  copiaa  ara  filmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  impraa- 
sion,  and  anding  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illuatratad  imprassion. 


Laa  axamplalraa  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  an 
paplar  aat  imprlmia  aont  filmte  an  commandant 
par  la  pramlar  plat  at  an  tarminant  aolt  par  la 
darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraaalon  ou  d'illuatratlon.  soit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  aalon  la  caa.  Toua  laa  autraa  axamplalraa 
originaux  aont  filmAa  an  Gomman9ant  par  la 
pramlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraaalon  ou  d'llluatration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  laat  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  — »>  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  V  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 


Un  daa  aymbolaa  auivants  apparaftra  sur  la 
darnlAra  imaga  da  chaqua  microficha,  salon  la 
caa:  la  aymbola  -^  algnlfia  "A  8UIVRE".  ia 
aymbola  ▼  algnifia  "FIN". 


Maps,  platas,  charts,  ^tc,  may  ba  filmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  iarga  to  ba 
antiraly  inciudad  in  ona  axposura  ara  filmad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  cornar,  iaft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framaa  as 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  iilustrata  tha 
mathod: 


Laa  cartaa,  planchaa,  tablaaux,  ate,  pauvant  Atra 
filmte  i  daa  taux  da  rAduetion  diff Arants. 
Loraqua  la  documant  aat  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  an  un  aaul  clichA,  11  aat  filmA  A  partir 
da  I'angia  aupAriaur  gaucha,  da  gaucha  A  droita, 
at  da  haut  an  baa,  9n  pranant  la  nombra 
d'imagaa  nAcaaaaira.  Laa  diagrammas  suivants 
iliuatrant  la  mAthoda. 


irrata 
to 


pelure. 
•n  A 


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PREIilMINART  CHAUT   OF 


KE  W  YORK  BAY^D  H  ARB  OR 


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'msC.'cmut^Caft'BipUEngn 

.Ant.in  chaige  ofOnti/       j^ 


Pitnn.  a  T-»itfoD.o-m.etrioal   Suj-vwy 
luvder  die  dipeclion.  of  AX>.BACHE,Svipei-intend«nt  of  t]i» 

SURVEY  OF  THE  COAST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

l^rian^atioii  '\rj  J.PER0U80N  anA  :E  .  BliUiSr  T ,  Aaats 
TopogFupkjr  bj  8  A  aiLBERT ,  A  8  WAD8W0RTH , 
AKSARRISON.HJVIIAMS  and H.L.  WHITING  Aeaistanta  . 
Sfdxogfrfljiil^  liy^  the  Faraes 
under  the  oonunand  of  Lleuta  .Comdg  R  'WAIirWBIOHT 

T  A  CRAVEN  and  W  G.TEMP1.K  U.BN    A8.te 

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ykriatiaau  of  the^MB^tMicirMdle 


liooality 


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HAILINi;    niHKC'TIONS 

fn  itiiiniiyi  fiirlhf  Bar  alor^  t/U'/ffVfi.iyfx'nf/  lulnnii   ihurr  .  aiiAil  gimiuf  m 
Itm  than    ti  Mhanu  till  ntar  thf,  L  \i/ht  Mhip 

OEDNK  V  H    c  •  (I  A  N  N  V.  I. 
liUtt  am  if  nirruA  m  nt  mean  low  mittv  thmi  the  I.Ufht  ■'>%tp  nturlf.W  Whtnin 
Sththtmu  /with  l-t,fhl  '^Sl/>  tftwuuf'^'E.ond  the  fxnnt  orWumiv  Honk  nn  witfifVUnnt 
Bmren .  .nrfr    ff  X     ViWiN.9i'Vitithrit\<jOtihif^'<'hi(nnfl  inui/t  tm  which 
iruuft  keep  tiU  part   the  Hook 

n      "'BTRAK'U'", 
Afo/i  and  ea*y  nin^i  tfcr  a  d^      .ger  Wifii  itp  iiith  tiedntvi' .  1>ni\q  thf  Eiut 
Ufaivtt  ift'hyS  ion  with.  WUton'n  Btaeim.     (Wijrai  the    Bar  tm  thi*  ixm^i  m  vpi 
let*  than  n  tUt .  cUiptmnq  to  4  thtlnmv    ■'tfcv  inoiv  -Wnilierfi;  rp  brtni)  the  (hctneyt 
fhcumel  'nn^c  an  .  M-Juc/t  eltni'n  the  Hoi'k 

oijU  hoitth  ( jrAwrrETL 

Th*  Elm  f/w  Lx/fhta  ( •Strath  Chnniirl  ll<iii(/e  inirrv  thonf/h  .  iitM  iipt  IfMthm 
n  Htel ,  deepening  tc  .f  ththorrui .  t  nsiile  Hep  nimv  to  (he  Weithixwd  to  /iii*.*  the  Book 
qt-vtna  it  a  htrth  iit'  t  mil*    or.  pott  it  on  (WAiityx  channel  rattift 

h'hen  inside tfuHook-itatui  to  ike  Sotit/miinl  and  Wtetmiivl  tohiinfj  the  Hixfk 
Luffit  HouM  juit  open  to  the  ^authttviti  of  the  ^i'e.it  Beacon  .it-hich  ninqe  clam 
the  SVrSpvt   Wlien  the  Chapel  Mill  Beonrns  are  I'l  ruiu/e  .  fteev  inth  them   up 
to  the  yarrows  Bohine  tUi/"  Lt.Ho.  heaniitf  yfyVt  Xj;  '-tS  "W)  mm   tir  it  and- 
when  dbrtoft  of' Quarantine .  Ttaul  up  ftir  tfiA  City 
trVTASn  CH^KNKL 

Wih  the  Elm  Tite Lightu  m  mn^e  ,r;ftet  <a/i  he  carried  through  ,kerpinq  t^e 
Vppei'Jiijpit  ffcfuit  open  aiout  tiri/>t  iii  lentjOi  to  Che  NorthMird  of  the  Lower 
eamen  through  .J »  fAtliom-r 

UOnH  CHASUEL 

Ji  M-H  thr  *>  Aet,  biit  nani*H\  and  no  good,  ranges  crm  he  i/lven. 

HA8T  CaAtTNEL 

h  .m/i  fbr  ttustle  of  light  droft-  hut  (V  v*rv.  Uttle  luied  ,n«  the  ronift.^  iire 
distant  and.  uncertain .  and  the  £aj>t  Bank  shoah  up  ivrv  .ruddenlv 

lUllCAKKS 

l%e  tUtrrentu  ofhalfEhh.  in  the  .fua.'h  Ouiunel .  Mi  to  the  X<t,ttititrd  ftrmipi 
ttrangerf  rmttt  btMore  of  hany  driHtd  on  /Jie  lioniiT  ahoal  iilmiin  /»i*'>7?u/ 
Oirouffh  theXart  Chaiinil   uhetv.  rtie  ileoA  set>  toMords  the  Ranvi-.thelJhhniMardt 
ffu  Da?t£ank 

•^trtaigers  .fTumJd  anchor  a.n  M^on  o.t  tnaide  the  Rook ,  ituteim^  to  the  ffmilh 
ward,  and  Tfiftt^trd  tdl  xn  .i  liiiinuit ,  the  aneiu>rai)e  t>  (food 


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Katth  ecC'Zilh'  13  WilUain  Tt  AVw  York 


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CYCLOPEDIA  OF  COMMERCE 


COMMEECIAL  NAVIGATION. 


»Jt 


EDITED   BY 


/ 


J.    SMITH    HOMANS, 

■loMTAar  or  thi  oiiauiieb  or  oomukboi  or  tui  btati!  or  niw  tork,  ahd  iditoi  or 

"Tna  BAMKIII'  MAOAIINa  AND  ITATIBTIOAL  •lOIRIB;" 


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J.    SMITH    HOMANS,  Jb.,  B.S., 

ADTHOB  or  "AH  UIITOUOAL  AIID  STATIRTIOAL  SKITCB  Or  TUB  rOBIIQN  OOVIinOl  Of  TBI  O.  ■." 

tWftli  fHn^n  anU  CnoTabrng*. 
SECOND  EDITION,  WITH  RECENT  STATISTICS. 


?"■ 


TO  WUICn  18  HOW  ADDBD 


A   C0ART  or   THE   BAY   AND   HARBOR   OF   NEW  TORK,   WTTII  THB    BOrMDINOB   OF   BAST  BITIB, 

NOBTn    RIVER,  HARLEM    RIVER,    NEWARK    BAY,   AND   NEW  YORK   BAY  ;    EXECDTBD 

UNIXBB   THB    DIBECnON    OF    TRE    8UPERIMTENDKNT   OF   TUB    COAn 

,  '  BDBVET,  V.  a. 


•^i> 


NEW    YOEKr 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHfeRS» 

FRANKLIN    SQUARE. 

1859. 


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",  -ii'ifiinT'  -•! (.  '11  '.   »   I 


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Entered,  according  to  Act  of  CongrcsA,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  luindrod  and 

flfty-cight,  by 

n  A  u  !•  E II  &  n  » f>  T  H  E  n  s, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Soutliern  District  of  New  Yorii. 


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PREFACE. 


# 


•  »i:i; :(    I 


■I' 


',1  ■.',■  I  '^1  I'   ,  '  ;  '   ell  111--)  IJoij 

The  want  of  a  comprobenBlVe  commercial  work  liaa  long  been  felt  in  the  TTnlted 
StatcH — a  work  exhibitang  tho  coiuliliou  und  resources  of  the  United  States  and 
the  Hcparute  Stiitex,  as  well  as  of  foreij,ai  nations.  Tiie  only  attempt  hitherto  mode 
in  this  country  to  HU|)])ly  tho  want  of  such  a  work  wua  tho  reprint,  twenty-flvo 
years  ago,  of  M'Oulloch's  DinUonary  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Navigation, 
Thig  work,  probably  us  complete  in  reference  to  tho  conmierciul  statistics  of  foreign 
countries  as  could  bo  made  at  tho  time  of  its  compilation,  is  very  deficient  in  sta* 
tistics  relating  to  this  continent,  particiUarly  of  tho  United  States.  Tho  later  edi- 
tions of  Mr.  M'Culloeh's  work  contain  much  nuitter  of  an  obsolete  or  local  char- 
acter, in  which  tho  American  reader  feels  but  little  interest ;  while  many  suhjectB 
of  great  importance  to  connnereial  men  in  this  country  are,  in  tho  English  work, 
either  omitted  entirely  or  mentioned  only  incidentally.  '  1      .  ' ...  ^ 

Tho  extensive  and  im{iortant  changes  that  have  taken  placo  within  the  post  ten 
years  in  commercial  afluirs — the  establishment  of  now  States,  new  Territories,  now 
commercial  j)lace8 — tho  unexampled  increase  of  tho  commerce  of  tho  United  States, 
of  the  development  and  tho  record  of  the  great  industrial  resources  of  tho  United 
States — all  seem  to  require  a  new  and  distuict  work,  with  a  view  to  place  before 
commercial  readers  a  more  ample  account  of  tho  progress  of  commerce  throughout 
the  world.  Tho  present  volume  has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  supply  this 
want ;  and  while  we  have  aimed  at  presenting  a  fair  exhibit  of  the  finances,  the 
internal  and  foreign  commerce,  the  staple  products  of  each  State,  we  have  at  tho 
same  time  gathered  together  the  latest  statistics  in  reference  to  the  products  and 
the  commercial  relations  of  foreign  nations ;  especially  of  those  with  whom  the 
United  States  have  the  most  intimate  intercourse. 

We  have  endeavored  to  present,  in  a  condensed  manner  and  from  reliable 
sources,  historical  and  statistical  details  in  reference  to  tho  great  staples  of  the 
country ;  of  those  important  products  whose  export  to  foreign  countries  has  con- 
tributed largely  to  tho  prosperity  of  the  States ;  and  the  increase  of  which  ia  cal- 
culated to  give  US  iu  future  years  a  cortrol  of  the  vast  markets  of  the  world,  and 


-^ 


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PHEt'AOE. 


thus  add  greatly  to  the  material  wealth  of  tho  tTiiioti.  Among  these  we  mention 
the  subjects  of  Wheat,  Corn,  Cotton,  llico,  Ucnip,  l'rovi»ion9.  Iron,  Copper,  Gold 
and  Silver,  etc. 

This  is  the  first  attempt  in  the  UnitiHl  Stnt<^M  to  collect  the  historical  and  statis- 
tical facts  in  reference  to  these  iniportunl  HulijcctM  into  one  single  work.  In 
collecting  these  materials,  and  condonHiiig  thuiri  within  n  moderate  compass,  we 
have  been  aided  by  the  valuable  ofllciul  Itt^portH  inHued  by  the  Treasury  Dcpart- 
vjnent  and  by  the  Patent  Office  of  tho  Uniti'd  HtiitcH,  for  a  scries  of  years;  and  by 
the  recent  and  highly  valuable  HeportH  oi'  ihi!  I  ){!partmi'nt  of  State  upon  The  Com- 
mercial Relations  of  the  United  States,  Much  of  tho  varied  and  important  informa- 
tion contained  in  those  official  documontH  Ik  brought  together  in  the  present  work 
under  its  appropriate  heads;  so  that  tho  reiwler,  inH&'ad  of  the  labor  of  consulting 
some  fifty  or  sixty  volumes,  may  find  every  >«ubjcct  discussed  under  its  alphabet- 
ical order. 

A  leading  feature  of  the  Ci/rlopcdia  of  Ci>mm''rri>^  at  least  to  the  American  read- 
er, ia  the  reproduction,  in  brief,  of  viewH  urged  by  Chnneollor  Kent,  Judge  Story, 
Professor  Parsons,  and  other  authorw,  u|)on  tho  Hubject^  of  the  Laws  of  Shipping, 
Insurance,  Maritime  Law,  Seamen,  etc,  Tho  oxtmctH  from  these  writings  are  only 
such,  however,  as  will  lead  the  careful  reader  to  refer  for  further  information  on 
these  subject  to  the  several  works  themsclvoM, 

In  regard  ,o  the  commercial  relationH  of  foreign  countries — their  finances,  pop- 
ulation, internal  and  foreign  trade,  staple  prodiictionn,  et(\ — the  reader  will  find 
condensed,  from  the  most  reliable  authoritiw,  much  valuable  infonnation  of  a  late 
date.  The  commerce  and  resources  of  tho  prineijial  maritime  countries  are  illus- 
trated up  to  the  years  1856-67,  and  tho  relative  importance  of  each  in  reference 
t»  the  others,  especially  to  tho  Unittul  Statt'S,  in  fully  illustrated.  The  foreign 
trade  of  the  United  States  with  each  country  for  the  last  thirty-six  years  is  also 
shown,  compiled  with  great  care  from  tho  Trciwury  Hcports  of  the  United  States 
from  1821  to  1857.  These  tabular  detailx,  vtthiabic,  as  shuwing  the  commercial 
progress  of  the  United  States,  have  not  been  oflltiinlly  comnnuiicatod  in  a  com- 
pact form  to  Congrcs.s,  but  are  reproduced  frnin  "iiii  llistorical  and  Statistical 
Account  of  the  Foreign  Couunerco  of  tho  UuiU'tl  .States,"  by  the  junior  editor  of 
this  work. 

The  editors  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  tho  valuable  aid  derived  from  Mr. 
Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature,  a  nceoKHary  appendage  to  the  editorial 
table,  and  a  key  to  the  fugitive  writingH  of  the  most  able  authors,  English  and 
American,  of  the  present  century;  also  froin  Mr,  Alexander's  olabcirato  and  relia- 
ble Dictionarij  nf  Weights  and  Meaaurex ;  from  I'rol'oHHor  llaehe's  official  Reports  on 
the  Coast  Survey  of  the  United  State's;  iVom  Mr.  Browne's  able  work  on  the 
TWes  of  America;  and  from  Mr.  Maury's  Vhymul  Oiwjraphij  of  the  Sea,  etc. 


%■ 


\ 


PBEFACP. 


A  Cyclopedia  of  Commerce  must  necessarily  be,  in  a  great  measure,  a  compilation, 
and  any  attempt  to  prepare  a  work  of  this  character  without  taking  advantage,  to 
the  fullest  extent,  of  the  labors  of  predecessors,  would  result  in  a  failure.  And 
though  all  of  the  articles  have  been  rewritten  or  remodeled,  to  adapt  them  to  this 
country,  and  with  new  information  to  bring  them  up  to  the  present  time,  many  of 
the  important  ones  are  entirely  origiuiil,  as  far  as  compilation  goes,  and  arc  care- 
fully collated  with  the  latest  commercial  statistics.  Full  use  has  been  made  of 
those  standard  works  on  commercial  affairs  which  could  give  information  pertain-^ 
ing  to  the  subjects  discussed.  Under  this  view  nothing  more  is  claimed  for  this 
work  than  that  it  is  a  well-digested  compilation.  The  plan  of  the  work  is  based  in 
many  respects  upon  M'Culloch's  Dlctionayy  of  Commerce,  and  from  this  work  and 
the  eighth  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Brilunnica  (now  being  published)  have  been 
principally  compiled  the  articles  relating  to  the  commercial  law  and  commercial 
trade  of  foreign  -countries.  The  statistics  of  the  commerce  of  this  country  have 
been  prepared  from  official  sources,  through  a  series  of  ycai'S ;  and  in  all  instances 
no  pains  have  been  spared  to  obtain  the  latest  and  most  reliable  tabular  detail' i  on 
all  subjects,  as  they  are  the  foundation  and  principal  value  of  a  work  of  this  kind. 
In  all  cases  where  possible,  charts  of  the  harbors  and  sea-ports,  by  the  latest  sur- 
veys, have  been  obtained ;  and  in  this  we  arc  much  indebted  to  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  Reports  for  accurate  details  of  the  harbors  of  our  own  country.  We 
add  here  a  list  of  those  works  consulted,  from  which  we  have  obtained  much  of 
the  valuable  information  contained  in  the  present  work. 

LIST  OF  AMERICAN  AUTIIORITIKS. 

Conimorcial  Relations  of  tlio  United  States.     Trepared  by  the  Department  of  State.     1856-'57. 

Reports  of  tlio  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  the  Finances,  Commerce,  and  Navigation  of  the  United  States. 
1815-'57. 

The  Encyclopedia  Americana,     rhiladclpliia,  14  vols.  8vo. 

History  of  the  Foreign  Commerce  of  tlie  United  States.     By  J.  Smith  Ilomans,  Jnn.     1857. 

Dictionary  of  Wciglits  and  Measures  of  the  World ;  adapted  to  the  United  States.  By  John  H.  Alexander. 
Baltimore:  8vo.     1850. 

Kent's  Commentaries  on  American  Law.     (Extracts,  l)y  permission  of  lion.  W.  Kent.) 

Manual  for  Consuls.  Regulations  prescribed  for  Consular  Ofliccrs  of  tlio  United  States,  by  the  Department 
of  State.     8vo,  p.  440.     1857. 

The  Trees  of  America,  Native  and  Foreign.  By  D.  J.  Browne,  of  the  Patent  Office,  United  States.  8vo, 
p.  520.     New  York,  1846. 

Condensed  Census  of  the  United  States,  of  185a-'51.     8vo,  p.  400.     1855. 

Index  to  Periodical  Literature.     By  W.  F.  Poolc,  Librarian  of  the  Boston  Atlicneum. 

American  Almanac  and  Repository  of  Useful  Knowledge.     Boston,  1830-'5S. 

Elements  of  International  Law.  By  Henry  Whcaton,  LL.D.  Edited  by  William  Beacli  Lawrence.  8vo, 
p.  728.     Boston,  1855. 

Tlio  Elements  of  Morcnnlile  Law.  By  Theopliilus  Parsons,  LL.D.,  of  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  8vo,  p. 
017.     Boston,  185G. 

Digest  of  the  General  Laws  of  the  United  States.     By  James  Dunlop.    8vo,  p.  1650.     Philadelphia,  1850. 

Hunt's  Mercha.'ts'  ^Magazine.     New  York,  1839-'57. 

ThePhysicaKieofeTaphy  oftho  Sea.     By  Lieutenant  M.  F.  Maury,  LL.D.    8vo,  p.  860.    New  York,  1857. 


i  ,?,.-■       '.   .'•  PREFACE. 

United  States  Patent  Office  Rjporto.     1850-'66.  ,'?,'.,". 

De  Bow's  Review  of  the  Soutli  and  West,    \Vashington,.  1846-'56. 

De  Bow's  Industrial  Resources  of  the  United  States.     3  vols.  8vo.     1854. 

Reports  on  the  Coast  Survey  of  the  United  States.  -  By  Professor  Bache.    4to,     1854-'S7. 

The  Bankers'  Magazine  and  Statistical  Register,  from  1846  to  1857. 

Progress  of  Arctic  Discovery,  to  1866. 

Blnnt's  Coast  Pilot.    Siro.    New  York,' 1867. 

Harper's  Universal  Gazetteer, 


'     f 


LIST  OF  FOREIGN  AUTHORITIES. 

M'CuUoch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Navigation.     London,  1866. 

The  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  eighth  edition,  now  in  course  of  publication  at  Edinburgh.     1856-'o7. 

Comipercial  Law  of  the  World ;  or,  the  Mercantile  Law  of  the  United  Kingdom  compared  with  the  Codel 
and  Laws  of  Commerce  of  all  Mercantile  Countries.     By  Leone  Levi.     2  vols.  4to.     London,  1854. 

Annals  of  British  Legislation.     By  Professor  Leone  Levi.     London,  1856-'67. 

Manual  of  Mercantile  Law  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    By  Leone  Levi.    8vo.     London,  1864. 

The  Mercantile  and  Maritime  Guide  for  Great  Britain.    By  Willmore  and  BedeU.    8vo,  p.  1168.    Lon« 
don,  1866.  ,  i 

Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates.    8vo,  p.  600.    London,  1856. 

Tuson's  British  Consul's  Manual.     8vo,  p.  672.     London,  1866. 

Bohn's  Cyclopedia  of  Political,  C'  nstitutional,  Statistical,  and  Forensic  Knowledge.    4  vols.  12mo.    Lon- 
don, 1849. 

Pope's  Teorly  Journal  of  Trade  for  185fr-'57.    8vo.     London. 

Bronde's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  the  Arts.    8vo,  p.  1352.    New  York,  1856. 

Urc's  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,     8vo,  2  vols.  p.  1118-1000.     New  York,  1856, 

Dictionary  of  Geography,  Descriptive,  Physical,  Statistical,  and  Historical,     By  Alex,  Keith  Johnston. 
Sto,  p.  1353,     1850, 

Gazetteer  of  the  Territories  under  the  Guvemment  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  of  the  Native  States  on 
the  Continent  of  India.     By  Ednard  Tliornton.    8vo,  p.  1016.     London,  1857.  .        . 

The  British  Almanac  and  Companion.     London,  1829-'57. 

Almanach  dc  Gotha,  1857-58. 

Year  Book  of  Facts  in  Science  and  Art.     By  John  Timbs,  F.S.A.     London,  1866-'67. 

Dodd's  Curiosities  of  Industry  and  the  applied  Sciences.    8vo.     London,  1854. 


LIST  OF  MAPS  AND  ENGRAVINGS. 


Chart  of  New  York  Bay  and  Harboi .  From 
a  Trigonometrical  Survey,  under  the  di- 
rection of  A.  D.  Bachb,  Superintendent 
of  the  Survey  of  the  Coast  of  the  United 
Stites ;  with  Sailing  Directions  for  Ged- 
ney's  Channel,  The  Old  South  Channel, 
The  Swash  Channel,  Hook  Channel,  and 

East  Channel frontispiece 

Artesian  Wells Page     62 

Atlantic  Ocean "        73 

Harbor  of  Unhia "        84 

Harbor  of  Cape  Town "      269 

Harbor  of  Constantinople "      401 

Dry  Docks "      650 

Harbor  of  Elsineur "      689 

Straits  of  Gibraltar "      816 


Gulf  Stream Page 

Marino  Dynamometer " 

Heights  of  Waves " 

Il.trbor  and  City  of  Havana " 

Lil'o-boats " 


Light-liouses . 


Harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro " 


016 

935 

9^3 

049 

1212 

1213 

1214 

1216 

1220 

1221 

1222 

1223 

1225 

1226 

1637 


.  if  .- 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED. 


E.  B.  for  Encyclopedin  BritannlcB.    J.  R.  M.  tot  John  R.  M'Culloch.    Com.  Eel.  for  Commercial  Rola- 
tioiu,  U.  S. 


t 


■"  -* 


I     ll  I  I  ■  I  »^ 


< 


lodet 

Lon> 

x  ■' 

Lou- 


ston. 


016 
935 
0J3 
94!) 
212 
213 
214 
216 
220 
221 
222 
223 
!25 
26 

bar 


/Y^    LIBRARY.     % 


/■\ 


v^^ 


PREFACE  TO  TH 


.viM 


't   .■   J  I 


The  first  edition  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Commerce  having  been  exhausted,  and 
a  favorable  estimate  placed  upon  the  work  by  the  public,  we  have  deemed  it  im- 
portant that  in  the  second  edition  recent  commercial  changes  hiiould  be  noticed, 
and  that  recent  statistics  of  the  United  States  and  of  leading  countries  throughout 
the  world  should  be  added. 

The  editors  have  taken  pains  to  introduce  a  few  fresh  subjects,  and  to  substitute 
new  tabular  details  of  recent  dates,  for  the  pages  contained  in  the  first  edition. 
The  following  articles  have  been  either  introduced,  rewritten,  or  enlarged  : 

Average.    Average  Bond. 

Baliia,  Trade  of.  Baltimore,  Trade  of ;  Banks  of,  1857-'69.  Bank  of  France,  Opcratlonn  of,  1  gfiT-'flO. 
Banks  of  the  United  States,  for  Years  1858-'59.  Banks  (Savings)  of  Great  Britain,  United  States,  and 
France.  Bankruptcy  in  1858,  Statistics  of.  Belgiam,  Commerce,  Tariff,  I'ort  Bcgulations,  etc.,  of. 
Board  of  Trade,  History  of.  Books,  Copyright  Law  of  Europe  and  United  States.  Boston,  CommcrcinI 
Statistics  of,  1858.  Brazil,  Commercial  Statistics  of,  1858.  Brcadstuffs,  Statistics  of,  1857-'58.  Buf- 
falo, Trade  of,  1858. 

Cadiz,  Trade  of,  1857.  Canada,  Finances,  Revenue,  Debt,  and  Trade  of,  1857-58.  Cliina,  recent 
Trcatic.  with.  Carpets,  Manufacture  and  Statistics  of.  Carriages,  Manufacture  and  Statistics  of. 
Cliarlcstffn,  South  Carolina,  Commerce  of,  1850-'58.  Chili.  Clearing-house,  Statistics  of,  1850- '58. 
Coal  and  Coal  Trade  of  Great  Britain  and  United  States.  Coffee  and  Coffee  Trade,  1867-'68.  Cotton 
Crop,  185G-'u8.  Cotton  Consumption  and  Distribution  throughout  the  World.  Cuba,  Commerce  and 
Finances  of,  1857-58. 

Denmark,  Commerce  and  Trade  of,  1857-'58. 

Flsineur. 

Franco,  Commerce,  Debt,  and  Finances  of,  1857-'58. 

Genoa,  Commerce,  Harbor,  etc.,  of.  Germany,  Commerce,  Manufactures,  etc,,  of.  Glass,  Statistics 
of,  1857-'58.  Great  Britain,  Commerce,  Manufactures,  and  other  Statistics  of,  1857-08;  Imports  and 
Exports  of,  each  Year,  1801-'58. 

Hamburg,  Commerce  of,  1856-'58.  Hanso  Towns,  Commerce  of,  1856-'08.  Ilidci,  Imports  and 
Exports  of,  1858.    Hospitals.    Hospital  System  of  the  United  States. 

Ice.    Ice  Trade.    Insurance  (Life),  Statistics  of. 

Jamaica,  Commerce  and  Statistics  of. 

Key  West,  Commerce  and  Wreckers  of. 

Lace,  Manufacture  and  Statistics  of.  Leipsic.  Liberia,  Products  and  Commcrco  of.  Lloyd's,  Sketch 
of;  Instructions  to  Agents  of.    Louisiana,  Statistics  of,  1857-'58. 

Madeira.  Mahogany,  Production  and  Uses  of,  for  Ships,  etc.  Malta,  Population,  Commerce,  and 
recent  Statistics  of.    Manufactures  of  the  United  States.    Marseilles,  Trade,  etc,  of,  lH57-'58. 

Netherlands,  Commerce  of.  Newfoundland.  New  Granada.  New  York  State,  Commerce,  Trade, 
Manufactures,  and  Banks,  1858.    New  York  C-tr,  Debt,  Population,  and  Property,  IH57-'5H. 


Viii  ^^      PnEFACE  TOTIIK  8KC0NI)  Knmojr, 

Paraguay,  Crmmeroial  Relations  of.  Pliiludclphiu,  Coninterce,  MwniifrtttiircK,  etc.,  of,  18r>7-'58. 
Philippine  Islands.    Porto  Rico.    Providence,  Ccnimerce,  JAntiutiteUmi,  elo,,  of,  1857- '58. 

Quebec,  Commerce,  Trade,  and  Shipping  of. 

Russia,  Commerce,  Trade,  and  Shipping  of. 

St.  Christopher,  Revenue  and  Commerce  of.  San  Domingo,  Uevemm  and  <  Ndnmorco  of.  San  Salva- 
dor, Revenue  and  Commerce  of.  Sardinia,  Revenue  and  Comniert'B  (if,  HUifi»,  Shlpjilng,  Suggestions 
by  the  Merchants  and  Under^vriters  of  New  York.  Slorrft  r<eoHO,  I'dliti  Oil  mu\  other  Trade  of.  Stadt 
Dues.    Sugar,  Product,  Consumption,  and  Price  of,  each  Vfldr,  IHIfi  7!H, 

Tahiti,  Whaling  Trade,  etc.,  of.  Tea,  Crop,  Coniumptloo,  hmiI  t'rUm  of,  each  Year,  1801-'fi8. 
Treaties,  Commercial,  with  all  Nations.    Trieste,  Commerce,  TMiiimge,  ntid  Trade  of. 

United  States,  Commerce,  Banks,  and  Shipping  of. 

Whaling.  Whale  Trade,  History  and  Statistics  of.  Wool,  Criip)  Kxport*  nod  Imports  of  every 
Country,  each  Year,  1840-'58.    Wrecks.    Wreckers.    Rules  of  Wrecking. 

ZoU-Verein,  Manufactures  and  Trade  of,  185 7-58. 

The  Navy  Department,  by  order  dated  July,  18.10,  ]m»  directed  that  the  Ci/clo- 
pedia  of  Commerce  be  added  to  the  list  of  books  furjiiglwd  for  tho  use  of  vessels 
and  navy  yards  of  the  United  States. 
New  Youk,  Juli/,  18C9. 


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istions 
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CYCLOPEDIA 


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COMMERCE 


every 


yclo- 
ssels 


COMMERCIAL    NAVIGATION. 


A  AM,  Aiim,  or  Ahm,  a  measuro  for  liquids,  use'l 
at  Anisteniam,  Antwerp,  Hamburg,  Franlifort, 
etc.  At  Amstnrilam  it  is  nearly  equal  to  41  Engli»/; 
wine  gallons,  at  Antwerp  to  3t>^  gallons,  at  Hamburg 
to  38^  gallons,  and  at  B'rankfort  to  39  gallons. 

Aback  (a  sea  term),  llio  situation  of  tiie  sails  when 
the  surfaces  are  flatted  against  the  masts  by  the  forco 
_of  the  wind.  The  sails  are  said  to  be  taken  aback  when 
they  are  brought  into  this  situition  either  by  a  sudden 
change  of  the  wind  or  by  an  alteration  in  the  ship's 
course.  They  are  laid  aback,  to  oflect  an  immediate  re- 
treat, without  turning  to  the  right  or  left;  or  in  the  sea 
phrase,  to  give  the  ship  ilemway,  in  order  to  avoid 
some  danger  discovered  before  her  in  a  narrow  chan- 
nel, or  when  she  has  advanced  beyond  her  station  in 
the  lino  of  battle,  or  otherwise.  The  sails  are  placed 
in  this  position  by  slackening  their  lee  braces,  and 
hauling  in  the  weather  ones ;  so  that  the  whole  eftbrt 
of  the  wind  is  e.xcrted  on  tlie  fore  part  of  their  surface, 
which  readily  pushes  the  ship  astern,  unless  she  is  re- 
strained l)y  some  counteracting  force. 

Abacus  is  the  name  of  an  ancient  instrument  for 
facilitating  operations  in  arithmetic.  The  exhibition 
of  numbers  by  counters  appears  happily  littcd  for  un- 
fulding  the  principles  of  calculation.  In  the  schools 
of  ancient  (Jreece,  tlio  boys  ac<iuired  the  elements  of 
knowledge  by  working  on  a  smooth  board  with  a  nar- 
row rim — the  oiii.r;  so  named,  evidently,  from  the 
combination  of  A,  I),  F,  the  lirst  letters  of  their  alpha- 
bet, resembling,  except  perliaps  in  sIt^c,  the  tablet  like- 
wise called  A,  H,  C,on  which  the  children  with  us  lacd 
to  begin  to  learn  the  art  of  reading.  The  pupils,  in 
those  distant  ages,  were  instructed  to  conipnte  by  form- 
ing progressive  rows  of  counters,  which,  according  to 
tlio  wealth  or  fancy  of  the  individual,  consisted  of  small 
pebbles,  of  round  bits  of  bone  or  ivory,  or  even  of  silver 
coins.  From  V'^of,  the  Greek  word  for  apeblile,  comes 
the  verb  Tpi/ipt^eiv,  to  compute,  lint  the  same  lioard 
served  also  for  teaching  the  rudiments  of  writing  and 
the  principles  of  geometry.  The  iibax  being  strewed 
with  green  sand,  the  jmlcit  ermlilua  of  classic  authors, 
it  was  easy,  with  a  radius  or  small  rod,  to  trace  letters, 
draw  lines,  construct  triangles,  or  describe  circles.  I(e- 
sidcs  the  original  word  A/Ja;,  the  Greeks  lia<l  the  di- 
minutive KjiamnVy  and  it  seems  very  pruliable  that 
this  smaller  bnurd  was  cominimly  used  for  calculations, 
while  thu  larger  one  was  reserved  among  them  for  the 
purpose  of  tracing  geometrical  diagrams. 

To  facilitate  the  working  by  counters,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  abacus  was  afterward  improved.  Instead  of 
the  pcrpendiculbi  Hues  or  bars,  the  board  had  its  surface 


divided  by  sets  of  parallel  grooTcs,  by  stretched  wires, 
1'  even  by  successive  rows  of  holes.  It  was  easy  to 
novo  small  counters  in  the  grooves,  to  elide  perforated 
I  cads  along  the  wires,  or  to  stick  large  uobs  or  round- 
headed  nails  in  the  ditlerent  holes.  To  diminish  the 
number  of  marks  required,  every  column  was  surmount- 
ed by  a  shorter  one,  wherein  each  counter  bad  the  same 
value  as  Ave  of  the  ordinary  kind,  being  ImU  the  inde:^ 
of  the  Denary  Scale. 

The  civil  arts  of  Rome  were  communicated  to  other 
nations  l>y  the  tide  of  victory,  and  maintained  through 
the  vigor  and  firmness  of  her  imperial  sway.  But  the 
simpler  and  more  useful  improvements  survived  the 
wreck  of  eiu|iire,  among  the  various  people  again  re- 
slorc'l  by  fortune  to  their  barbarous  iAdependence.  In 
all  transactieiis  wherein  mom  y  was  concerned,  it  was 
found  convemcnt  to  follow  tlu  '  ocedure  of  the  abacut, 
in  representing  numbers  by  coi  urs  placed  in  parallel 
rows.  During  the  Middle  Agi  it  became  the  usual 
]>ract>ce  ever  Europe  for  merci.  its,  auditors  of  ac- 
counts, or  judges  appointed  to  deci  in  matters  of  rev- 
enue, to  appear  on  a  covered  bank  <  i  bench,  so  called 
from  an  old  Saxon  or  Franconian  word  signifying  a 
seat.  Hence  those  terms  were  afterward  appropriated 
to  ofiiccs  for  receiving  pledges,  chambers  for  the  ac- 
,  commodation  of  money-dealers,  or  courts  for  the  trying 
of  questions  respecting  property  or  the  claims  of  thi' 
crown.  Hence  also  the  word  b.inkrupt,  which  occur 
in  all  the  dialects  of  Europe.  The  term  icaccanum, 
from  which  was  derive«l  the  French,  and  thence  th< 
Knglish  name  for  the  Exchequer,  anciently  signitied 
merely  a  chess-board,  being  formed  from  scaccum,  de- 
noting one  of  tlio  movable  pieces  in  that  intricate 
game.  The  reason  of  this  application  of  the  term  ii 
sulliciently  obvious.  The  table  for  accounts  was,  to 
facilitate  tlie  calculations,  always  covered  with  a  cloth, 
resembling  the  surface  of  the  ecaccarium  or  abacus,  and 
distingtdshed  by  per])endicular  or  chequered  lines.  The 
learned  .Skene  was  therefore  niistakc.i  in  supposing  that 
the  I'^xchequer  derived  its  name  from  the  play  of  chess, 
l>ccause  its  suitors  appear  to  light  a  keen  and  dubious 
buttle.* 

The  Court  of  Kxc.hequer,  which  takes  cognizance  of 
all  questions  of  revenue,  was  introduced  into  England 
by  the  Norman  Conquest.  Hichard  Fitznigel,  in  a 
treatise  or  dialogue  on  the  subject,  written  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  says  that  the  scaccariuat 

•  "  IlecnitBO  inony  persons  convceiiis  in  the  Checker  to  playe 
tlteir  cauws,  contmro  iithers,  as  f''  tliey  were  fechtand  in  aa 
arrayed  battrll,  qiiilk  is  tlie  forme  aui  ordour  of  the  saidpUye." 
— Skkm,  ad  vac.  Scaccarium, 


r 


i 


ABA  1 

wu  •  quavlrangular  table  about  ten  feet  long  and  Ave 
feet  broad,  with  a  ledge  or  border  about  four  inches 
high,  to  prevent  any  thing  from  rolling  over,  and  was 
surrounded  on  all  xides  by  scats  for  the  judges,  the 
tellers,  and  other  officers.  It  was  covered  every  year, 
after  the  term  of  Easier,  with  fresh  black  cloth,  divided 
by  pcrpcndieular  white  lines,  or  dlstlnctures,  nt  inter- 
vals of  about  a  foot  or  a  palni,*and  again  parted  by  sim- 
ilar transverse  lines.  In  reckoning,  they  proceeded,  he 
says,  according  to  (he  rules  of  arithmetic,*  using  small 
coins  for  counters.  The  lowest  bar  cxhildtcd  pence, 
the  one  above  it  shillings,  the  next  pounds ;  and  the 
higher  bars  denoted  successively  rtiu,  (if  en/iMjAurK/rcf/ii, 
thousands,  and  ten  thousandt  of  pounds ;  though,  in  those 
early  times  of  penury  and  severe  economy,  it  very  sel- 
dom happened  that  so  large  a  sum  as  the  last  ever  came 
to  bo  reckoned.  The  first  bor,  therefore,  advanced  by 
dozens,  the  second  and  third  by  scores,  and  the  rest  of 
the  stock  oi  bars  by  the  multiples  of  ten.  The  teller 
Mt  about  the  middle  of  the  tal>le;  on  his  right  hand 
eleven  pennies  were  heaped  on  the  first  bar,  nud  a  pile 
of  nineteen  shillings  on  the  second ;  while  a  quantity  of 
pounds  was  collected  opposite  to  him,  on  the  third  bar. 
For  the  sake  of  expediliun,  he  might  employ  a  different 
mark  to  represent  half  the  value  of  any  liar,  a  silver 
penny  for  ten  shillings,  and  a  gold  penny  fur  ten 
pounds. 

In  early  times,  a  chequered  board,  the  emblem  of 
calculation,  was  hung  out,  to  indicate  an  office  for 
changing  money.  It  was  afterward  adopted  as  the 
Bign  of  an  inn  or  hoslelry,  where  victuals  were  sold,  or 
strangers  lodged  and  entertained.  Wo  may  perceive 
traces  of  that  ancient  practice  existing  even  at  present. 
It  is  customary  in  London,  and  in  some  provincial 
towns,  to  have  a  chequer,  diced  with  red  and  white, 
painted  against  the  sides  of  the  door  of  a  chop-house. 

The  Chinese  have  from  the  remotest  ages  used,  in 
sU  their  calculations,  an  instrument  called  the  Sicnn- 
pan,  or  Computinq  Table,  similar  in  its  shape  and  con- 
struction to  the  abacus  of  the  Komans,  but  more  com- 
plete and  uniform.  It  consists  of  a  small  oblong  lioard 
surronnded  by  a  high  ledge,  and  parted  lengthwise 
near  the  top  by  another  ledge.  It  is  then  divided  vert- 
ically by  ten  smooth  and  slender  rods  of  bamboo,  on 
which  are  strung  two  small  balls  of  ivory  or  bone  in 
the  upper  compartment,  and  five  such  balls  in  the  low- 
er and  larger  compartment;  each  of  the  lattci  on  the 
several  bars  denoting  unit,  and  each  of  the  former,  for 
the  sake  of  abbreviation,  expressing  five. 

The  8\  stem  of  measures,  weights,  nnd  coins,  which 
prevails  throughout  the  Chinese  empire,  being  entire- 
ly founded  on  the  decimal  subdivision,  the  sv.an-pan 
was  admirably  suited  for  representing  it.  The  calcu- 
lator could  begin  at  any  particular  bar,  and  reckon 
with  the  same  facility  cither  upward  or  downward. 
This  advantage  of  treating  fractions  exactly  like  in- 
tegers was,  in  practice,  of  the  utmost  cons('i|iiencc. 
Accordingly,  those  arithmetical  machines,  liiit  (if  very 
diflferent  sizes,  arc  constantly  used  in  all  the  shops  and 
booths  of  ('anton  and  other  cities,  and  are  said  to  l)e 
handled  by  the  native  traders  with  such  rapidity  and 
address  as  quite  astonish  the  Euiopean  factors. 

Abaft,  a  sea  term  signifying  the  hinder  part  of  a 
ship,  or  all  those  parts  both  within  and  without  which 
lie  toward  the  stern,  in  opposition  to  afore.  Abnfl  is 
also  used  as  a  preposition,  and  signifies yiii-Mfr  aft,  or 
ntarer  the  stern;  as,  the  barricade  stands  ahafi  the 
main-ma.it,  i.  c  behind  it,  or  nearer  the  stern. 

Abandonment,  in  commerce  and  navigation,  \% 
used  to  express  the  abandoning  or  surrendering  of  the 
ihip  or  goods  insured  to  the  insurer. 

It  is  held,  by  the  law  of  England,  that  the  insured 

f   has  the  right  to  aliandon,  and  to  compel  the  insurers  to 

^jjff  pay  the  whole  value  of  tlie  thing  insured,  in  every  case 

^  •  Ha  calls  it  Arimnetua:  In  the  Mi/rrour  nf  ttir  H'orWr, 
printed  tiy  (;axton  in  USI,  it  Ir  stran iji'ly  named  A rs Mi-trike,  a 
proof  of  tlie  total  ignorance  of  Greek  at  that  period  in  England. 


\  ABA 

"  where,  by  the  happening  of  any  of  the  misfortunes  or 
perils  insured  against,  the  voyage  is  lust,  ur  not  worth 
pursuing,  and  llic  projected  adventure  is  frustrated  ;  or 
where  the  thing  insured  is  so  damaged  and  spoiled  as 
to  bo  of  little  or  no  value  to  the  owner;  or  where  tho 
salvage  la  very  high ;  or  where  what  is  saved  is  of  less 
value  than  tho  freight;  or  where  further  expense  is 
neccssarj',  ond  the  insurer  will  not  undertake  to  pay 
that  expense,"  etc.— M.viihiiai.i,,  book  i.  cap.  la,  §  1. 

Aliandonment  very  frequently  takes  place  in  cases 
of  capture:  (he  loss  is  then  total,  and  no  question  can 
arise  in  respect  to  it.  In  cases,  however,  in  wliich  s 
ship  nnd  cargo  are  recaptured  uilhin  such  a  lime  that 
the  object  nj'ihe  rot/age  is  not  tost,  the  insured  is  not  en- 
titled to  aliandon.  The  mere  stranding  of  n  ship  is  not 
deemed  of  itself  such  a  'oss  as  will  justify  an  abandon- 
ment. If  by  some  fortunate  accident,  by  the  exertions 
of  the  crew,  or  by  any  borrowed  assistance,  tlie  ship  bo 
got  offhand  rendered  capable  of  continuing  her  voyage, 
it  is  not  a  total  luss,  and  the  insurers  arc  only  liable  fur 
tho  expenses  occasioned  by  the  stranding.  It  is  only 
where  tho  stranding  is  followed  by  thipureck, or  in  any 
other  way  renders  the  ship  incapable  of  jirosccuting 
her  voyage,  that  (he  insured  can  aliandon. 

It  has  been  decided  that  damage  sustained  in  a  voy- 
age to  the  extent  of  forty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  value 
of  the  ship  did  not  entitle  the  insured  to  abandon.  If 
a  cargo  be  damaged  in  the  course  of  a  voyag<',  and  it 
appears  that  what  has  been  saved  is  less  than  the 
amount  of  freight,  it  is  held  to  be  a  total  loss. — 1'akk 
OH  Insurance,  cap,  9, 

When  by  the  occurrence  of  any  of  the  perils  insured 
against  the  insured  has  acquired  a  right  to  nliondon, 
lie  is  at  liberty  either  to  aliandon  or  not,  as  he  thinks  i 
proper.  He  is  in  no  case  bound  to  abandon  ;  bu(  if  he 
make  an  election,  and  resolve  to  abandon,  he  must 
abide  by  his  resolution,  and  has  no  longer  the  power 
to  claim  for  a  partial  loss.  In  some  foreign  countries 
specific  periods  arc  fixed  by  law  within  which  the  in- 
sured, after  being  informed  of  the  loss,  must  elect  either 
(o  abandon  or  not.  In  England,  however,  no  partic- 
ular period  is  fixed  for  this  purpose;  but  tlie  rule  is, 
(hat  if  the  insured  determine  to  abandon,  he  must  inti- 
mate such  determination  to  the  insurers  within  a  rea- 
smmble  period  after  he  has  got  intelligence  of  the  loss — 
any  unnecessary  delay  in  making  this  intimation  being 
interpreted  to  mean  that  he  has  decided  not  to  abandon. 

S'o  particular  form  or  solemnity  is  required  in  giv- 
ing notice  of  an  almndonment.  It  may  lie  given  eitlicr 
to  (he  underwriter  himself,  or  the  agent  who  subscribed 
for  him. 

"  The  effect  of  an  abandonment  is  to  vest  all  the 
rights  of  the  insured  in  the  insurers.  The  latter  be- 
come (he  legal  owners  of  the  ship,  and  as  such  are  lia- 
lile  for  nil  her  future  outgoings,  and  entitled  to  her 
future  earnings.  An  aliandonment,  when  once  made, 
is  irrevocable, 

"  A  total  loss  within  the  meaning  of  the  policy  may 
arise  either  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  thing  in- 
sured, or,  if  it  specifically  remains,  by  such  damage  to 
it  as  renders  it  of  little  or  no  value,  A  loss  is  said  to 
lie  total  if  the  voyage  lie  entirely  lost  or  defeated,  or 
not  worth  pursuing,  and  the  projected  adventure  frus- 
trated. It  is  a  cons(riic(ive  total  loss  if  the  tinng  in- 
sured, though  existing  in  fact,  is  lost  for  any  licnelicial 
purpose  til  the  owner.  In  such  cases  the  insured  may 
abandon  all  liis  interest  in  the  subject  insured  and  ajl 
his  hopes  of  ni'overy  to  tho  insurer,  and  call  upon  him 
to  pay  as  for  n  total  loss.  The  object  of  the  provision 
is  (o  enabli'  llu'  insured  to  be  pronipdy  reiiisiated  in 
his  capital,  and  l>e  therebj-  enaliled  to  engage  in  some 
new  imivantile  adventure,  l.ong  in  eruption  (o  a 
voynco,  and  uncertain  hopes  of  recovery,  .•  luldoften  be 
ruiniHss  to  the  business  of  the  merchant :  and  therefore, 
if  the  "bject  of  the  voyage  be  lost,  or  not  worth  pursu- 
ing by  mason  of  the  peril  insured  against,  or  if  (he  ear- 
go  bo  wj  damaged  as  to  be  of  1-ttle  or  no  value,  or  where 


ABA 


ABA 


elect  cither 
no  partic- 

llic  rule  i», 
iniist  iiiti- 

lliiii  a  rtn- 
llie  loss — 
lion  being 
abandon. 

ired  in  giv- 

iCn  eitlicr 

subscribed 


lolicy  may 

thing  in- 

ilunmge  to 

is  said  to 

,'fented,  or 

ilure  frus- 

'  tiling  in- 

cnellcinl 

lured  may 

mI  and  oil 

upon  liim 

provision 

istated  in 

!  in  Nome 

htion  to  a 

Id  often  be 

Itlicrpfore, 

Ith  pursu- 

lif  the  cor- 

1  or  where 


tho  salvage  is  very  high  and  further  cxpcnto  be  neces- 
sary, and  the  iniiurer  will  not  engage  to  bear  it,  or  if 
what  is  saved  be  of  less  value  than  tho  freight,  or  where 
tho  damage  exceeds  one  half  the  value  of  the  goods  in- 
sured, or  where  tho  property  is  captured,  or  arrested, 
or  oven  detained  by  an  indeflnilo  embargo;  in  these 
and  other  cases  of  a  lllu)  nature  the  insured  may  disen- 
tangle himself  and  abandon  the  subject  to  the  under- 
writer, and  call  upon  him  to  pay  a  total  loss.  In  such 
coses  the  insurer  stands  in  the  place  of  the  insured,  and 
takes  tho  sul  ject  to  liimscif,  with  all  the  chances  of  re- 
covery and  indemnity.  A  valid  abandonment  has  a 
rotrospertivo  effect,  and  docs  of  itself,  and  without  any 
deed  of  cession,  and  prior  to  tho  actual  payment  of  the 
loss,  transfer  tho  right  of  property  to  the  insurer  to  the 
extent  of  tho  insurance ;  and  if  after  an  abandonment, 
duly  made  and  accepted,  the  ship  shoul'd  be  recovered, 
an(l  proceed  and  make  a  prosperous  voyage^  tho  in- 
surer, as  owner,  would  reap  the  profits. 

"  These  considerations  have  introduced  the  right  of 
abandonment  into  tho  insurance  law  of  every  country, 
and  yet  the  text  writers  have  generally  condemned  tlie 
privilege  as  inconsistent  with  Just  nutiDns  concerning 
the  nature  of  tho  contract  of  iusurancc,  which  is  a  con- 
tract of  Indemnity.  But  it  has  now  become  an  ingre- 
dient so  interwoven  with  the  whole  system  of  insur- 
ance, that  it  can  not  be  abolished;  though  the  late  £n- 
gllsh  cases,  says  Mr,  Bcncckc,  show  a  stronger  inclina- 
tion in  tho  courts  to  restrict  than  to  enlarge  the  right. 
The  laws  of  Hamburg  distinguish  themselves  from  all 
others,  by  restricting  the  right  of  abandonment  to  the 
only  case  of  a  missing  ship. 

"As  soon  as  tho  insured  is  inrormed  of  the  loss,  he 
ought  (after  being  allowed  a  rciisonable  time  to  in- 
spect the  cargo,  and  for  no  other  purpose)  to  determine 
promptly  whether  he  will  or  will  not  abandon,  and  he 
can  not  lie  by  and  speculate  on  events.  If  he  elects  to 
abandon,  he  must  do  it  in  a  reasonable  time,  and  give 
notice  promptly  to  the  insurer  of  his  determination; 
otherwise  he  will  bo  deemed  to  have  waived  his  right 
to  abandon,  and  will  bo  entitled  to  recover  only  for  u 
partial  loss,  unless  the  loss  be,  in  fact,  absolutely  total. 
If  the  thing  insured  exists  in  specie,  and  the  insjrcd 
wishes  to  go  for  a  total  loss,  an  abandonment  is  indis- 
pensable. Tho  same  principle  which  requires  the  in- 
sured, who  abandons,  to  do  it  i.i  a  reasonable  time,  also 
requires  the  insurer,  who  rejects  an  abandonment,  to 
act  promptly.  Tho  object  of  the  abandonment  is  to 
turn  that  into  a  total  loss  which  otherwise  would  not 
be  one ;  and  it  is  unnecessary,  and  woi,ild  be  idle,  to 
abandon  in  the  case  of  an  entire  dcsti  ictlon  of  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  only  necessary  when  the  loss  is  construct- 
ively total  within  the  policy,  and  not  an  actual  total 
loss.  The  right  of  abandonment  does  not  depend  upon 
,thc  certainty,  but  upo'i  the  high  probability,  of  a  total 
loss,  either  of  the  property,  or  voyage,  or  both.  The 
insured  is  to  act,  not  upon  certainties,  but  upon  proba- 
bilities ;  and  if  the  facts  present  a  case  of  extreme  haz- 
ard, and  of  prol  able  expense,  exceeding  half  the  value 
of  the  ship,  the  insured  may  abandon,  though  it  should 
happen  that  she  was  afterward  recovered  at  a  less  ex- 
pense. Though  the  subject  may  physically  exist,  yet 
there  may  be  a  technical  total  loss  to  the  owner  if  llie 
things  be  taken  from  his  free  use  and  possession.  Such 
are  the  common  cases  of  total  losses  by  embargoes, 
by  captures,  and  by  restraints,  and  detainments  of 
princes, 

"  The  right  to  abandon  exists  when  tho  ship,  for  all 
the  useful  purposes  of  the  voyage,  is  gone  from  the 
control  of  the  owner;  as  in  the  cases  of  submersion,  or 
shipwreck,  or  capture,  and  it  is  uncertain,  or  the  time 
unreasonably  distant,  when  it  will  bo  restored  in  a 
stnto  to  resume  the  voyage ;  or  when  the  risk  and  ex- 
pense of  restoring  the  vessel  are  dis()roportioned  to  the 
expected  benefit  and  objects  of  the  voyage.  All  these 
general  doctrines  concerning  ubandonment  have  been 
entirely  incorporated  into  our  American  law,  and  they 


exist  to  all  essential  purposes  in  the  French  Jurispru- 
dence. 

"  I'pon  a  valid  abandonment,  either  of  the  vessel  or 
of  the  cargo  insured,  the  master  becomes  the  agent  of 
the  insurer,  and  tho  insured  is  not  bound  by  his  subse- 
quent acts  unless  ho  adopts  them.  The  owner  or  in- 
sured, equally  with  the  master,  becomes  the  agent  of 
the  insurer  on  abandonment,  and  he  can  not  purchase 
in  the  property  on  his  own  account  without  the  eon- 
sent  of  his  principals ;  and  if  he  does,  it  revokes  the 
abandonment,  and  turns  the  total  into  a  partial  loss.v 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  master,  resulting  from  his  situa- 
tion, to  act  with  good  faith,  and  care,  and  diligence, 
for  the  protection  and  recovery  of  the  property,  for  the 
benefit  of  whom  it  may  eventually  concern.  The  mas- 
ter of  an  insured  ship  injured  by-the  perils  of  the  sea, 
and  not  competent  to  coni|dcto  the  voyage,  may  sell 
her  in  a  case  of  necessity,  as  when  the  ship  is  in  a  place 
in  which  she  can  not  bo  repaired ;  or  the  expense  of 
repairing  her  will  be  extravagant,  and  exceed  her 
value;  or  when  he  has  no  money  in  his  possession,  and 
is  not  able  to  raise  any.  In  cases  of  capture,  lie  is 
bound,  if  a  neutral,  to  remain  and  assert  his  claim  un- 
til condemnation,  or  the  recovery  bo  hopeless.  His 
wages,  and  those  of  the  crew,  are  a  charge  on  the 
owner,  and  ultimately,  in  case  of  recovery,  to  be  borne 
as  a  general  average  by  all  parties  in  interest ;  and  if 
the  abandonment  be  accepted,  the  underwriter  becomes 
owner  for  the  voyage,  and  in  that  cliaracter  lialde  for 
the  seamen's  wages,  and  entitled  to  the  freight  subse- 
quently earned.  If  the  master  purchases  in  tho  vessel, 
or  ransoms  her,  the  insurer  will  be  entitled  to  the  ben- 
efit of  the  purchase  or  composition ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  insured  affirms  the  purchase  of  the  master, 
it  will  be,  at  the  option  of  the  insurer,  a  waiver  of  the 
abandonment.  Tho  insurer  can  accept  of  the  repur- 
chase of  the  master,  as  his  constructive  agent,  and 
aftin:  the  act,  or  he  may  leave  it  to  fall  upon  the 
master. 

"  The  assured  has  the  right  of  abandoning  the  freight 
when  there  has  been  a  constructive  total  loss  of  the 
ship  ;  and  he  has  sustained  a  total  loss  of  the  freight, 
if  hcaliandons  the  ship  V>  the  underwriters  on  the  ship, 
when  the  case  justifies  it,  for  after  such  abandonment, 
he  has  no  longer  the  means  of  earning  the  freight,  or 
of  receiving  it  if  earned,  for  the  freight  goes  to  the  un- 
<lerwriters  on  the  ship.  But  it  has  been  a  very  con- 
troverted question,  whether  an  abandonment  of  tho 
ship  transferred  the  freight  in  whole  or  in  |inrt.  It  was 
finally  settled  in  the  jurisprudence  of  New  York  and  of 
Massachusetts,  and  adopted  as  the  true  rule  in  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  the  United  States  for  Massachusetts,  ihut 
on  an  accepted  abandonment  of  the  ship,  the  freight 
earned  previous  to  the  disaster  wos  to  be  retained  liy 
the  owner  or  his  representative,  the  insurer  on  the 
freight,  and  apportioned  pro  rata  itineris;  ond  that 
the  freight  subsequently  earned  went  to  the  insurer 
on  the  ship," — Sie  Kknt's  Comm.,  Lect.  XLVllI. 
vol.  ill. 

AbasBi,  or  Abassis,  a  silver  coin  current  in  Per- 
sia, cqiiivulent  in  value  to  a  French  livre, or  at  prisent 
tenpcncc  sterling.  It  took  its  name  from  Schuh  Ab- 
bas 1 1.,  king  of  Persia,  under  whom  it  was  struck. 

Abatement,  or  Rebate,  is  the  name  sometimes 
given  to  a  discount  allowed  for  prompt  payment :  it  is 
also  sometimes  used  to  express  the  dedi.;'tion  that  is 
occasionally  made  at  the  custom-house  from  the  duties 
chargeable  upon  such  goods  as  arc  damaged,  and  for 
loss  in  wareluin.ses. 

Abattoir,  the  term  applied  by  the  French  to  desig- 
nate slaughter-bouses  for  cattle.  These  useful  cstali- 
lishmcnts  were  introduced  into  Paris  and  other  large 
cities  by  Napoleon,  Formerly  the  multitude  of  ani-' 
mals  slaughtered  in  Paris  became  a  nuisance  of  greal' 
magnitude  to  the  inhabitants,  from  the  cxhiliition  of 
the  burliarities  practiced  on  the  poor  animals  by  the 
butchers,  the  piteous  cries  of  sheep  and  cattle  pent  un. 


ABA 

without  food  or  water,  in  tho  confined  atallt  In  which 
they  were  crowded,  and  from  tho  oft'eniiive  vxlialatiuna 
of  putrid  blood  and  offal  that  proceeded  from  elauKh- 
ter-houMS,  often  planted  in  the  most  populuua  pans 
if  the  city.  The  ume  nuiaance,  till  lately,  diagraced 
the  Britiah  metropolia,  and  many  other  Kngliah  towns. 
It  appears  hardly  conceivable  that  Ix)n(lon  should,  till 
If^bi,  have  tulurated  the  nuisance  of  .Smithtleld  market. 
When  this  mart  was  eHtalilishcd  ttvo  centuries  a^u,  it 
was  far  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  city.  There,  in  the 
miilst  of  a  dense  population,  no  fewer  than  2't8,fi87  head 
of  cattle,  and  l,'l55,'i4U  aheep  were  sold  in  1852,  to  bo 
afterward  alaughtercd  in  the  crowded  lanes  and  ill- 
ventilated  courts  of  the  metropolia ;  whilo  tho  French, 
and  the  people  of  the  United  Statea,  do  not  tol<-rate 
such  aources  of  diaguft  and  diaeaao  in  the  interior  of 
their  great  towns. 

Tho  abattoirs  of  Paris,  created  by  Napoleon's  decree 
of  1810,  amounted  to  live  in  1818,  when  they  were  all 
completed,  and  put  under  excellent  regulation.  There 
are  three  on  the  north,  and  two  on  the  south  aide  of 
Paris ;  and  all  are  in  tho  outskirts  of  tho  town,  about 
two  miles  from  its  centre.  Tho  largcat  to  the  north  is 
In  the  Kue  Hochecliouart,  between  tho  Uarriorea  Pois- 
sonnieres  and  dcs  Martyres;  the  largest  on  tho  south 
side  is  just  behind  the  Place  Brcteuil ;  tho  rest  arc  near 
the  banks  of  the  Seine.  Tlie  cattle-markets  are  all  at 
the  distanm  of  aome  miles  from  Paris;  and  tho  cattle 
are  driven  from  them  tu  the  abattoirs,  round  Ijy  tho  ex- 
ternal Uoulovards,  so  as  to  avoid  the  streets  as  much  as 
possible. 

Each  butcher  goes  to  his  own  abattoir;  to  which  arc 
attached  proper  places  for  prcacrving  tho  meat,  pro- 
vided with  an  iron  rack  for  tho  fat,  pans  for  melting 
the  tallow,  and  stalls  for  tho  cattle  bnfore  they  are 
slaughtered.  The  stalls  are  furnished  with  proper 
racks  and  troughs  for  hay  and  water,  thai  the  animals 
may  suffer  as  little  as  po.ssihlc  before  t!  .y  aro  slaugh- 
tered. The  obattoirs  anil  the  whole  establishment  arc 
kept  very  clean  by  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  that 
carries  off  the  blood  and  all  impurities  into  aewerx. 
Considering  the  nature  of  the  place,  every  thing  is  coni- 
Diendably  clean. 

An  inspector  is  a' pointed  to  each  abattoir,  whose 
business  it  is  to  prevent  the  sale  of  unwiiolcaome  meat, 
and  to  enforce  order  and  cleanliness.  For  tlieae  aeconi- 
niodations  a  butcher  pays  according  to  tho  number  of 
animals  he  slaughters.  The  sum  now  paid  for  each  ox 
is  si>L  francs,  four  for  a  cow,  two  for  a  calf,  and  one  for 
n  sheep  or  lamb.  The  money  thus  raised  from  all  tlie 
Pariaian  alinttoirs  in  18)2  amounted  to  about  iM8,IHH) 
sterling.  It  la  greatly  to  be  wislied  that  some  regula- 
tions like  those  of  the  French  abattoirs  were  introduced 
into  the  principal  English  towns,  especially  London, 
Liverpool,  Manchester.  Glasgow,  etc.,  as  has  lately 
been  done  at  Edinl)urgh. 

In  1851,  the  corporntlon  of  Edinburgh  constructed  a 
greatly  improved  al)attoir  in  tliat  city,  from  designs 
prepared  Ijy  Mr.  David  Cousin,  tlie  city  arcliitect.  It 
occupies  an  area  of  four  acroa  and  a  quarter,  surround- 
ed by  a  screen-wall,  with  entrance  gates  on  each  side 
in  the  Egyptian  style  of  architecture ;  liehind  the  scrcen- 
M  nil  is  a  large  open  area,  from  which  access  is  given  to 
all  the  different  buildings  connected  with  the  eatablisli- 
nicnt.  The  slaughtering  l>ootlis  consist  of  a  daulih'  row 
of  buildings,  extending  in  a  atri.:ght  line  to  about  n7C> 
feet  in  length,  with  a  centre  roadway  26  feet  wide. 
There  are  three  separate  blocks  of  liuilding  on  each  side 
of  tho  roadway,  the  extreme  blocks  lieing  each  lUO  feet 
in  length,  and  the  central  one  140  feet,  with  cross-roads 
18  feet  wide  between  these,  giving  access  to  the  other 
portions  of  tho  groumls.  The  different  ranges  of  build- 
ing contain  42  Iwoths  in  all ;  each  booth  is  18  feet 
,  Wide,  24  feet  in  length,  and  20  feet  in  height,  having  a 
catti*  abed  attached,  18  feet  by  22  feet,  and  a  small  in- 
closed yard  Ijehind-,  wi'h  a  separate  back  entrance,  l)y 
which  all  tho  cattle  are  driven  into  the  sheds,  where 


(  ACA 

they  are  kept  previously  to  being  slaughtered.  By  a 
aeriea  of  large  ventilators  along  the  roof,  and  by  other 
contrivances,  theae  buildinga  are  thoroughly  venti> 
luted.  Tho  largo  doora  of  the  booths,  Inatead  of  being 
hinged  in  the  uaual  manner,  aro  hung  by  balance 
weighta,  ao  as  to  slide  up  and  down  similarly  to  an 
ordinary  aaah-window,  ao  that  they  never  Interfere 
with  tho  operationa  within,  or  with  the  thoroughfuro 
of  the  road. 

Improved  mechanical  contrivances  have  been  intro- 
duced, aome  of  them  of  a  novel  application,  which  have 
aecurcd  great  facilities  in  the  dressing  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  meal.  Each  booth  Is  amply  provide<l  Vk  ith 
water.  In  addition  to  the  slaughtering  booths,  there 
is  largo  accommodation  for  tripcries,  pig-slaughtering 
housca,  tallow-weighing  liouaes,  and  all  the  other  nee- 
caaaries  of  auch  an  establishment. 

Tho  whole  of  the  booths  have  been  laid  with  thick, 
wcll-<lrcaacd  pavement,  resting  on  a  stratum  of  con- 
crete twelve  inches  thick,  and  the  walla  to  the  heiglit 
of  seven  feet  are  formed  of  solid  aahler,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  poaaibillty  of  rats  burrowing  in  them.  With  this 
view  also,  the  wholo  aurface  of  the  roadwaya  has  been 
laid  with  concrete  and  causewayed  with  well-dressed 
w'dnatone  pavement.  The  drainage,  also,  conaiats  eii- 
t'rely  of  glazed  cartlicn-warc  tiles,  so  that  the  wholo 
area  of  tho  buildings  Is  rendered  impervious  to  these 
destructive  vermin.  There  are  two  distinct  acta  of 
drains,  one  for  au.face  water,  which  is  conveyed  direct- 
ly into  Luchrin  bum ;  the  other  for  soil  from  the  bootha, 
which  is  conveyed  into  large  tanks  formed  for  its  rccej)- 
tion,  and  sold  for  agricultural  purposes. 

liefore  the  erection  of  these  buildings,  private  slaugh- 
ter-houses were  scattered  all  over  the  city,  often  in 
tlie  most  populous  districta,  where,  through  want  of 
drainage  and  imperfect  ventilation,  they  contamina- 
ted the  whole  neighborliond.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
public  abattoir,  all  privato  alaughtcr-houscs  are  pro- 
iiiliited. 

Aboard,  the  inside  of  a  ship.  Ilcnco  any  person 
who  enters  a  ship  is  said  to  t/o  ribminl:  but  when  an 
enemy  enters  in  the  time  of  battle,  be  is  said  to  hoard; 
a  phrase  which  always  implies  hostility.  —  to  full 
(ibmrd  tj,  Is  to  strike  or  iiiivmiler  another  ship  when 
one  or  both  ore  in  motion,  or  to  be  driven  upon  a  ship 
by  the  force  of  the  wind  or  current. — Aloard-nmin-taclr, 
the  order  to  draw  the  main-tack,  i.  e.  the  lowci'  corner 
of  the  niainanil,  down  to  the  Ciikss-Tkkk. 

Abrasion  is  somclimcs  used  to  denote  the  wear  and 
tear  of  coins.  iThc  deficiency  in  the  weight  of  the  old 
worn  coins,  on  their  licing  called  in  to  be  recoincd,  falls 
upon  the  public.  Mr.  M'Culloch  reckons,  that  if  the  cur- 
rency of  the  United  Kingdom  consisted  wholly  of  gold, 
it  would  amount  to  at  least  sixty  millions  of  sovereigns, 
and  that  the  loss  sustained  by  abrasion,  including  w  b;  t 
results  from  shipwreck,  lire,  and  other  accidents,  would 
unioimt  to  a  hundredtli  part  of  the  sum  in  circulation, 
or  Xi;iH),(KH)  annuolly.— M'Cci.i.otil's  Trealitet  and 
Ensfit/H  on  Enmnmii'iit  /Vi/ic//,  p.  3J1. 

Acacia,  Egyptian  Thorn,  or  Binding  Bean- 
tree,  in  liolnny,  a  species  of  mimosa,  according  to  i,in- 
iiieus,  though  otiier  Iwtanists  make  it  a  distmct  genus. 
.Several  species  of  acacia  produce  jra/n'nraJtc,  especially 
.1 .  F.lirenbergii,  A .  tortilu,  A .  arabica,  A .  rera,  A .  Seijal, 
A.  Verek.  An  inferior  sort  is  produced  by  -i.  Adtm- 
mmii,  A.  nlhida,  and  A.  Karro.  These  a'o  natives  of 
'■'K.vpt,  Arnliia,  or  Africa.  The  inspissated  gum  of 
the  l)ark  of  A.  calcrhu  forms  the  astiingent  sul)staiieo 
named  catechu;  which,  however,  i^  also  produced  in 
Indio  from  strveral  other  trees.  The  bark  of  several 
species  of  acacia  produces  a  tannin ;  of  which  u  largo 
({uuntity  is  now  imported  from  Van  Diemen's  Land 
for  the  purposes  of  the  tanner,  and  is  chiefly  the  prod- 
uce of  .4 .  deiurrena  and  A .  moUmimn, 

A .  jiiilbrintin,  a  native  of  Persia,  has,  on  account  of 
its  elegant  foliage  and  flowers,  been  long  ac-limated  in 
England;  A.  lophora  is  a  fragrant  specica,  that  has 


ACA 


ACI 


mora  lately  Imm  introiliici'il,  anil  In  m-nrly  accUmntcd 
In  llio  loiitli  (irmir  Ulitnil,  It  lluwiim  oarly  In  Bprin);, 
anil  lii'iirit  many  elualurit  ii(  ricli  yi'lluw  Hiiwori.  The 
Huwcn  uf  u  ii|iiii  lim  iirtliu  acai'lu  uro  iiacil  liy  the  Chi- 
n«iM  In  niukln.(  lliat  ycllnw  wliirh  wo  nvo  Iwara  wash- 
lax  hi  their  nilkii  ami  ntu/r*,  ami  aiipearn  with  ao  much 
ele((aiH'a  in  their  |ittllitln((  on  |ia|ier.  Tliu  nictliuil  in 
thic  They  (;iithiir  the  lluwera  licfiire  they  ore  fully 
opi'n;  theai'  lliey  put  In  a  clean  earthen  vessel  over  a 
p'nile  heat,  anil  mir  thi'in  nnitinuully  alioutas  they  do 
the  tea-lnaviii,  till  they  linrome  ilryi»h  anil  of  a  yellow 
color ;  then  to  ';ulf  a  |iuniiil  of  flowers  they  ailil  three 
ipiHinfuU  of  fair  water,  ami  after  that  a  little  more,  till 
tlieru  is  Juit  enoiiKli  to  hold  the  llnwer..  Incorporated  to- 
^'iillior;  thi'y  IiimI  this  for  some  time,  and  the  Juice  of 
tlie  Howers  mi  iinn  with  the  water,  It  hccomea  thick 
and  yellow ;  tliey  then  luki.  It  from  the  fire,  anil  Htrain 
It  llirouKh  a  piece  uf  coarse  silk,  To  the  liipior  they 
add  half  an  oiini'n  of  niiiinni'i  alum,  and  an  ounce  of 
calcined  oyster-shelU  reduced  to  a  line  powder.  All 
h  tlieii  well  mixed  tii^elher;  and  thitt  la  the  lloo  last- 
ing yellow  they  have  »u  lun^  used, 

The  dyers  of  larxe  pieces  use  the  flowers  and  seeds 
of  Ihu  ucuciu  for  ilyi:\iin  threu  lilirerent  sorts  of  yellow. 
They  roust  tliu  (lowers,  as  liefore  observed,  and  then 
mix  the  seeds  with  tlu'm,  which  must,  lie  ((atherod  for 
this  purpose  when  fully  ripe;  dy  dill'erent  admixtures 
of  tliese  they  |{ive  the  dill'erent  slindea  of  color,  only  for 
liic  deepest  uf  all  they  odd  a  small  quantity  of  Urazil 
wood. 

Air.  (ieiifTroy  attrihntes  the  nrlKin  of  hezoar  to  the 
sei'iU  of  tills  plant;  which  lieln^  hrowsed  liy  certain 
a:iinml8,  and  vellJeatinK  tlie  stomach  liy  tlieir  great 
great  sourness  and  astrlii((ency,  cause  a  condcn.iution 
of  till)  Juices,  ti'il  at  leiiKth  they  liecoino  coated  over 
ultli  u  Htiiny  matter  which  we  call  liK/.oAn. 

AoapulOO,  a  sea-port  on  the  western  coast  of  Mex- 
ico, in  iut.  1"  fill'  iW  N.,  liiiiK.  ItIC  l(i'  W.  I'op.lO(K)(?). 
"  It  is,"  says  Captain  Hall,  "tlie  very  brau  idrnl  of  a 
liurlior.  It  Is  easy  of  access,  very  capneioiis,  tlio  water 
nut  too  deep,  the  liuldInK  )(riiuml  ni«>A,  (|uite  freu  from 
hidden  dangers,*  and  as  secure  as  the  tiasin  In  the  cen- 
tre of  rurtsmouth  ilock-yuril.'* — Honik  A  mfrirn,  11.  172. 
Previously  to  tliu  emancipation  of  .Spanish  America,  a 
Kallcun,  ur  larifo  ship,  richly  ludeii,  was  annually  sent 
from  Acapuleo  tu  Manilla,  in  the  I'hilippine  Islands, 
and  at  her  return  n  fair  was  held,  which  wis  niueli  re- 
sorted to  liy  «tran;(ers.  Hut  this  sort  uf  inlcrourso  is 
no  longer  carried  on,  tlie  trade  to  Manilla  and  a  .  otliur 
plaeea  lieiiiK  now  cundiieied  liy  private  Imlividuuls. 
riie  exports  consist  of  liullion,  cochineal,  cocoa,  indigo, 
etc.  The  imports  principally  consist  of  cotton  goods, 
hardware,  artic|.:»  of  Jewelry,  raw  and  wrought  silks, 
spices,  mill  aruniutics,  Acapuleo,  for  foreigners,  is  ex- 
tremely uiiheallliy;  and  though  it  lie  one  of  tlio  prin- 
cipal porta  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico,  its  commerce 
Is  liiit  iiiconsiderahlii.  The  navigation  from  Acapuleo 
to  (fuayai|uil  and  Cullan  la  exceedingly  tedious  and 
diflicult,  so  that  llierii  Is  liut  little  Intercourao  between 
Mexico  and  I'eru,  I'anama  having  of  late  years  be- 
ciinie  Ihu  leading  port  for  foreign  Imports  near  this  lat- 
itiiilc. 

Aooount,  or  Aooompt,  In  n  general  scnso^  com- 
pulation or  vuckuning  of  any  thing  by  nuniliera.  Col- 
lectively, I;  Is  used  tu  expresa  the  books  ^i.ich  nicr- 
chiints,  tr4iiera,  bankers,  «tc,,  use  for  recording  their 
transucliiins  In  business, 

AooOi^ntant,  or  Acoomptant,  In  the  most  gen- 
ernl  seiue,  is  u  person  skilled  in  accounts.  In  a  more 
rcslrictod  sinse,  |i  Is  applied  to  a  jierson  or  olllcor  ap- 
pointed to  keep  the  accounts  of  a  public  company  or 
olHce. 

AooounttUlt-Oeneral,  an  olTlcer  In  the  English 


*  Tills  Is  not  qiillii  SI  eiirste,  Th«rn  la  one  shoni  on  which  a. 
vessi'l  wss  liist  In  I7SI ;  liiit  Ik-Imr  IsIiI  down  In  the  cliarts,  it 
la  ciully  avulileil,— IluNUobiiT,  SuuvtUi  HtpOfiu,  tv,  9U. 


>j..,t  of  Chancery,  appointed  by  act  of  Parliament  to 
receive  all  niuncys  lodged  in  court,  instead  of  the  mas- 
ters, and  convey  the  same  to  the  Uank  of  England  tor 
security.  There  is  also  an  accuiintaiit-general  in  the 
Irish  Chancery,  and  one  in  Scotland,  who  has  charge 
uf  the  accounts  of  the  ('ourt  of  Session. 

Accounts,  Chamber  of,  in  tliu  French  polity,  a 
sovereign  court  of  great  antitpiity,  which  took  cogni- 
zance of  and  registered  tlic  accounts  of  the  king's  rev- 
enue; nearly  the  aumo  with  the  English  6'uui-(  uf  Kx- 
chequer. 

AolcU  are  a  class  of  compounds  which  are  distin- 
guished from  all  othcra  by  the  following  properties : 
They  are  generally  possessed  of  a  very  sliarp  aiul  sour 
taste :  redden  the  Infusions  of  lilue  vegetable  colors ; 
are  often  hlglily  corrosive,  and  enter  into  combination 
with  the  alltaUcs, earths, and  metallic  oxides;  funning 
compounds  in  which  tiie  characters  of  the  constituents 
are  entirely  destroyed,  and  new  ones  produced  ditt'er- 
lug  in  every  respect  from  those  previously  existing, 
Tlic  quality  or  strength  of  an  acid  is  gciicroUy  ascer- 
tained either  liy  its  rpecilic  gravity,  whioh  is  found  by 
means  of  the  hydrometer,  if  the  acid  be  liquid,  or  by  the 
quantity  of  pure  niiil  dry  sulicarbonate  of  potass  or 
soda,  or  of  carbonate  of  liuie  (marble),  which  a  given 
weight  of  the  acid  requires  for  its  exact  neutralization. 
This  latter  process  is  termed  Acidiinetry,  or  the  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  veiil  acid  existing  i.D  any  of  the 
liquid  or  crystallized  acids. 

The  principal  acids  at  present  known  arc,  the  Acetic, 
llenzoic,  Uoracic,  Ilromic,  Carbonic,  Citric,  Cliloric, 
('yanic.  Fluoric,  Ferroprussic,  Gnllic,  Ilydrobromic, 
Ilydriuilic,  Iodic,  Lactic,  sialic,  Margaric,  Moconlc, 
Muriatic  or  Hydrochloric,  Nitrous,  Nitric,  Oleic,  Ox- 
alic, Phosphoric,  Prussio  or  Hydrocyanic,  Purpuric, 
Saccholactic,  Suberic,  Sulphurous,  Sulphuric,  Tartaric, 
Uric,  and  many  others  which  it  would  bo  superfluous 
to  detail.  It  is  the  most  important  only  of  these,  how- 
ever, that  will  bo  here  treated  of,  and  more  particularly 
those  employed  in  the  arts  and  manufactures, 

Acelic  or pyroliyneoua  Acid. — This  acid,  in  its  pure 
and  concentrated  form,  is  obtained  from  the  fluid  mat- 
ter which  passes  over  in  distillation,  when  wood  is  ex- 
posed to  heat  in  close  iron  cylinders.  This  fluid  is  a 
mixture  of  acetic  acid,  tar,  and  a  very  volatile  ether; 
from  these  the  acid  may  be  separated,  after  a  second 
dislillution,  by  saturating  with  chalk,  and  evaporating 
to  dryness ;  aii  acetate  of  lime  is  thus  procured,  which, 
liy  mixture  with  sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's  salt),  is 
decomposed,  the  resulting  compounds  being  an  insolu- 
ble sulphate  of  lime,  and  a  very  soluble  acetate  of  soda ; 
these  are  easily  separated  from  each  other  by  solution 
in  water  and  liltration ;  the  acetate  of  soda  being  ob- 
tained in  the  crystalline  form  by  evaporation.  From 
this,  or  the  acetate  of  lime,  some  manufacturers  em- 
ploying the  former,  others  the  latter,  the  acetic  acid  is 
obtained  by  distillation  with  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vit- 
riol); as  thus  procured,  it  is  a  colorless,  volatile  fluid, 
having  a  very  pungent  and  refreshing  odor,  and  a 
strong  acid  taste.  Its  strength  should  be  ascertained 
by  the  quantity  of  marble  required  for  its  neutraliza- 
tion, as  its  .ipecific  gravity  dot^  not  give  a  orrect  indi- 
cation.  It  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  ace- 
tate of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  in  many  of  the  pharma- 
ceutical compounds,  and  also  as  an  antiseptic. 

Vinegar  is  an  impure  and  very  dilute  acetic  ncid, 
obtained  by  exposing  either  weak  wines  or  infusions 
of  malt  to  the  air  and  a  slow  fermentation ;  it  contains, 
besides  the  pure  acid,  a  large  quantity  of  coloring  mat- 
ter, some  mucilage,  and  a  little  spirit;  from  tlicse  it  is 
readily  separated  by  distillation.  The  impurities  with 
which  this  distilled  vinegar  is  sometimes  adulterated, 
or  with  which  it  is  accidentally  contaminated,  are  all 
of  vitriol,  added  to  increase  the  acidity,  and  oxidea  of 
tin  or  copper,  arising  from  the  vinegar  having  been 
distilled  through  tin  or  copper  worms.  These  may  lie 
easily  detected ;  the  oil  of  vitriol  by  the  addition  of  a 


V.  IIJ*  V^  V^T—V- 1- 


I 


ACI  I 

little  Kolutlon  of  miirlalp  cjf  Imiytpi  to  the  dlnlllcil  Mii- 
i'K«r,  whiili,  bIiouIiI  llif  aciil  I*  |)io»i'iil,  »lll  luiiitu  u 
(Iciinii  whitu  |in"ti(ilutu;  mill  lliu  oxiili's  of  llii  or  rap- 
per liy  Iho  iiUdlliuii  of  «uiiT  iiiipri'Biinliil  willi  siilpliii- 
rctfil'livilroKi'ii.  VliirKar  in  iitiploud  in  many  culinu- 
r)  unil  (li)MiLiilii' opi'riillunK. anil  uImi  \ ery  lnr«cly  in  the 
luaiiufartiiri*  of  llm  larlniiiiili"  of  luail  (« liili'-li nil). 

//i«{(/«'.l(ii/oxisti(  natiinilly  lorimil  in  tlicKimi  I't'n- 
zoln,  and  may  Ik'  pnnuroil  iltlirr  liy  siibniilllnt,'  llu'  Ihmi- 
coiii  in  llnu  povtilrr  li>  ripi'mcii  llnl>lln>ation^  or  l)y  dl- 
((I'litinK  it  »illi  limi!  and  »ulrr,  atralniiiK  ull  tlir  clear 
aoliillon,  anil  addiiiR  muriatic  arid,  wtdcli  enters  into 
comldnalion  with  the  llnie,  and  tlie  'izole  aeiil,  Mng 
nearly  inrolnlile  in  water,  fiillii  as  a  »  ..e  powder;  this 
may  l>c  further  puiilied  l>y  a  nuldimulion,  llunzoic 
aeiil  is  of  0  beautiful  pearly  w  hile  i olur  w  hen  pure,  has 
B  very  peculiar  aromatic  odor,  and  an  acrid,  acid,  mil 
hitter  taste  j  it  Is  used  in  ninhiiiK  pastilles  and  per- 
fumed incense.  This  acid  also  occurs  in  Iho  l>alsauis 
of  'I'ulii  and  I'eru,  and  in  iho  urine  of  the  bono  and 
cow. 

Jliniitie  Ariil  ia  found  In  an  uncoinMned  jiatn  In 
many  of  the  hot  sprinj?"  of  Tuscany,  as  al.«o  at  Sesso,  in 
the  Klorenline  territory,  from  whence  it  has  received 
the  nainu  of  Sessolln.  In  Thibet,  I'ersia,  and  South 
America,  it  occurs  in  conibiualinn  with  soda,  and  is 
imported  from  Iho  former  place  Into  this  country  In  a 
crystalline  form,  under  the  iiuinc  of  Tincul.  These 
crystals  arc  coated  with  a  rancid,  fully  substance,  and 
require  to  lio  purilted  by  repeuleil  solutions  and  crystal- 
lizalions;  after  which  it  is  sold  under  the  appclialinn 
of  horax  (liiborale  of  soda);  from  a  hut  solulion  of  this 
tall  the  boracic  acid  is  readily  obtained,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  snlphuric  acid  in  slight  excess ;  Bul|>hate  of  soda 
is  formed,  and  the  horacic  acid  crystallizes  as  tlie  solu- 
tion cools.  When  pure,  these  crystals  arc  while,  and 
ha^  0  an  unctuous  (jreasy  feel ;  they  are  solidile  in  alco- 
hol, conimunicatiuK  a  ureen  tinjfe  to  its  flume;  when 
fused  it  fonns  a  transparent  glass,  and  has  been  fonml 
by  Mr.  Faraday  to  unite  with  the  oxide  of  lead,  pro- 
ducini;  a  very  uinforni  glass,  free  from  all  defects,  and 
well  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  telescopes  and  other  as- 
trt/nomical  instruments.  Uorax  is  much  employed  iii 
the  arts,  particularly  in  metallurgic  operations  as  a 
flux ;  also  in  enameling  and  in  pharmacy.  (.See  Uu- 
RAX.) 

Carbonic  Acid. — This  acid  occurs  very  abundantly 
in  nature,  coudiincd  with  lime,  magnesia,  barytcs. 
aerial  acid,  fixed  air,  mephitic  acid  :  from  any  of  those 
it  is  easily  separated  liy  the  addition  of  nearly  any  of 
the  other  acids.  In  its  unciunbined  form  it  is  a  trans- 
parent, gaseous  fluid,  having  a  density  of  1 ','>.'),  atmos- 
pheric air  being  imity ;  it  is  absorlied  to  a  eousiderablo 
extent  by  water,  and  when  the  water  is  rendered  slight- 
ly alkaline  by  tlie  addition  of  carlionate  of  sudu,  and  a 
large  (luantity  of  gas  forced  into  it  iiy  pressure,  it  foniis 
the  well-known  refreshing  beverage  soda  « ater.  Tills 
gas  is  also  formed  in  very  large  (luantities  during  com- 
bustion, respiration,  and  fermentation.  Curliuniv  ucid 
gas  is  destructive  of  animal  life  and  combiisliun,  and 
from  its  great  weight  accumulates  in  the  bottoms  of 
deep  wells,  cells,  caves,  etc.,  wiiich  hnvc  lieen  closed  for 
a  long  period,  and  numerous  fatal  accidents  arise  fre- 
quently to  persons  entering  such  places  iiicaiiliously. 
The  precaution  8h.)uld  always  be  taken  of  introducing  a 
lighted  candle  prior  to  the  descent  or  entrance  of  any 
one ;  for,  should  the  candle  l>o  cxiinguislied,  it  would  be 
dangerous  to  enter  until  properly  ventilated.  The  com- 
binations of  carljonie aciil  with  the  alkalies,  earths, and 
metallic  oxides  arc  termed  earlionates. 

Cilrie  .liiJ  exists  in  a  freu  state  in  the  juice  of  the 
lamon,  lime,  and  other  fruits,  combined,  however,  with 
inilcllage,  and  sometimes  a  little  sugar,  which  renders 
il,  If  raquircd  to  be  preserved  for  a  long  psriod,  very 
liaUe  to  ferment ;  on  this  account  the  crystallized  citric 
add  ia  to  be  preferred.  It  is  prepared  by  satnruling 
th*  lemon  juica  with  chalk ;  the  citric  acid  conibinei 


t  Adt 

with  Iho  Ilmo,  forming  an  Insoluble  compound,  whlU 
the  carbonic  acid  is  liberated;  llie  insoluble  citrate, 
after  lieing  well  washed,  is  to  lie  acted  upon  by  diiutu 
sulphuric  add,  which  I'orms  sulphate  of  lime,  and  tho 
citric  add  enters  into  siilulion  in  Ihu  water;  by  filtra- 
tion and  cvuporalion  the  citric  add  is  obtained  in  col- 
orless transparent  crystals.  Tlie  chief  uses  to  w  liidi  it 
is  applied  are  as  a  preventive  of  seu  scurvy,  and  in 
making  rcrrcshing  acidulous  or  efVervesdng  ilrinki; 
for  w  hich  latter  purposes  It  is  peculiarly  filled  from  iit 
very  pleasant  flavor. 

Fluoric  Ariil  is  found  in  tho  well-known  mineral 
lluor  spar  In  combiualion  with  lime;  from  whiili  it  is 
procured  in  the  liipiid  form  liy  diKlillulion  with  ililuto 
sulplinric  add  in  a  Icadiii  or  silver  rdorl :  llie  receiver 
should  be  of  the  same  material  us  Ihu  retort,  and  kept 
cool  by  Ice  or  snow. 

This  acid  is  gaseous  In  its  pure  form,  highly  corro- 
sive, and  intensely  acid  ;  it  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  wa- 
ter, coinniunicating  its  jirnpertics  in  that  fluid.  Its 
chief  use  is  for  etching  on  glass,  which  it  corrodes  wilh 
great  rapidity.  Fur  this  purpose  u  thin  coating  of  wax 
is  to  bo  melted  on  llie  surface  of  the  glass,  and  tho 
sketch  draw  II  by  a  line  hard-poinlcd  iiislruiiicnt  through 
the  wax  ;  the  li(|uid  acid  is  tlien  poured  on  it,  uiid  after 
a  short  time,  on  the  remiival  of  the  acid  and  coaling, 
an  etching  will  bo  found  in  tlie  substnnce  of  tlie  glass. 
A  very  excellent  appllcaliuii  of  this  property,  posschaid 
by  fluoric  acid,  la  in  the  roughing  llie  shades  for  table 
lumps.  All  the  metals,  except  silver,  lead,  and  jilatiiia, 
are  ailed  npiiii  by  this  ucid. 

(liiliic  .lc/</.— The  source  from  wliicli  this  acid  is 
generally  obtained  is  the  mil-gall,  a  hard  piotubcraiico 
produced  on  the  ouk  by  the  puncture  of  insects.  Tho 
most  simple  inclhod  of  procuring  llic  acid  in  its  pure 
form  is  to  siiiimit  the  gulls  in  fine  powder  to  sulilinia- 
tiuii  in  a  ri'lurl,  taking  care  that  the  heat  be  uppliid 
slowly  and  w  illi  caution  ;  Iho  other  proces,ses  require  a 
very  long  jicriod  for  their  completion.  When  pure, 
gallic  acid  lias  a  while  and  silky  appearance,  and  a 
liighly  astringent  and  slightly  acid  taste.  Tlie  nut- 
galls,  whlcli  owe  their  propcrlies  to  tho  gallic  lu  id  llicy 
conluin,  are  employed  very  extensively  in  tile  arl.i  for 
dyeing  and  staining  silks,  cloths,  anil  woods  of  a  black 
color;  this  is  owing  to  its  forming  with  the  oxide  of 
iron  an  inlcnse  black  precipitate.  Wriliiig-iiik  is  made 
on  tile  saini)  principle;  n  very  excellent  receijil  of  the 
lute  Dr.  llluck's  is,  to  lake  I)  ounces  of  the  best  Alcjipo 
galls  in  fine  powder,  1  ounce  siilpliale  of  iron  (green 
vitriol),  1  ounce  of  logwood  finely  rasped,  1  ounce  of 
gum  arable,  1  pint  of  t!io  best  vinegar,  I  pint  of  soft 
wr-  I-  and  8  or  l(»  cloves;  in  this  case  the  Idack  pre- 
dpiluto  is  kept  suspended  by  lliu  gum. 

Ilyilriodic  Arid  is  a  compound  of  iodine  and  liy- 
drogcn.  In  its  separate  fonn  it  is  of  very  little  imporl- 
aiicu  in  tho  arts. 

.UtiHr  .InJ  exists  in  the  juices  of  many  fruits,  par- 
lieularly  the  apple,  as  also  in  the  berries  of  the  service 
and  mountain  ash. 

Mrcimic  A  rid  is  found  in  opium,  in  combinolioii  with 
morphia,  forming  the  meconalc  of  morphia,  on  which 
the  action  of  opium  principally  depends. 

Jfiirialir  A  rid,  or  flpirilt  nj' Salts. — This  ocid  (the  hy- 
drochloric of  tho  French  chemists)  is  nianufailurcil 
from  the  chloride  of  sodium  (dry  sea  salt),  liy  the  ucliiin 
of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol).  The  most  cconomiial 
proportions  are  H)  pounds  of  fused  sail,  and  20  ]iouiiil8 
of  oil  of  vitriol  previously  mixed  wilh  an  equal  wciglit 
of  water;  these  arc  placed  in  an  iron  or  earthen  put,  to 
which  an  earthen  head  and  receiver  are  adapted,  and 
submitted  to  distillation  ;  the  muriatic  add  pa.sses  over 
in  the  vaporous  form,  and  may  bu  easily  condensed. 
The  liquid  acid  thus  cblained  should  have  a  spccilio 
gravity  of  117,  water  being  equal  to  100;  it  has  a 
strong  ucid  taste,  and  a  sliglit  yellow  color ;  this  Is  ow- 
ing to  a  small  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron.  I)y  redisliU 
lation  In  a  glass  retort  at  u  low  tcmperuturc,  it  may  bo 


A.CI 


ACI 


liL'  iirlH  fur 
I  of  u  llllK  k 
!  (),\iiU*  of 
Ilk  is  iimiK' 
I'ilit  of  lli« 
1  ^t  AU'iijio 
ion  (itrui'ii 
uimct?  of 
lilll  of  i.ofi 
liluck  |jre- 

nnii  Iiy- 
If  iini'ort- 

fruits,  ])iu- 
tlio  SLTvko 


ciil  (tUe  liy- 

imifuituitJ 

•tliu  uilion 

coiioiiiirul 

20  |iuiuiil9 

|liul  \M  i^llt 

hen  |iut,  lu 
lu|ili'<l,  und 
liasst's  over 
loiuleiisi'il. 

n  (tpt'rifio 
;  it   lias   a 

this  isow- 
ly  ndislil- 

,  it  may  bo 


obtaiiioil  perfiictly  puro  and  colorlcs).  It  toni*tinica 
Gontuinn  a  llttln  iiiil|iliiiri<;  itcld;  tliif  ta  d«t«ctitd  liy 
a  aulntluii  of  niurlulu  of  huryti't.  Mnriutic  aclil,  in 
It*  uni'unil>lnud  ntuti-,  U  un  invltlliln  iluslic  Ku>,  hav- 
inu  a  very  HtroiiK  afllnity  fur  water;  Ihul  lluld  ulmorlt- 
Ihk,  lit  »  li'in|ii^nituri'  of  10  tuhrenhcll,  IWI  llnu's  Im 
volunii',  iind  lliu  ruaullin^  lli|ui>l  acid  has  u  dtsnsiiy 
of  r.'l.  So  uri'at  ia  tliia  attraction  for  walfr,  that 
when  III"  K'"*  I'*  liliitrutt'd  iiilo  tlie  air,  it  »imliiiii» 
with  Ihi^  moiatnru  alwaya  prvavnt  In  that  nu'diuni, 
funniiiK  dsnsB  whito  vapor*.  Un  coniliinationa  with 
tliu  alkulit'i*)  ulc,  uro  turniud  niurialva;  tliuKu  uf  the 
sri'iitrat  iniporlanio  arc  tini  ninrlatvi  of  tin,  aninioniu, 
barvti't,  and  aua  aalt.  Thx  ti.'«t  fur  thu  pri'neni'u  uf 
murlulic  acid  in  any  lii|uid  in  thu  nitrutu  uf  ailver 
(lunar  cauatlc),  which  cauaus  a  curdy  white  precipi- 
tate. 

t/itrie  A  liJ,  Uf  A  (/i<n/ortM.— Thia,  which  ia  ono  of  tlic 
moat  uaefnl  arlda  with  which  the  chcmlat  la  aci|naint- 
ud,  la  pri'parud  liy  actiiiK  upun  aallpctru  (nitric  or  ni- 
trate of  pi)ta.4K)  with  oil  uf  vitriul ;  the  proportiona  beat 
auiteil  for  thlrt  piirpnau  arc  three  parta,  liy  wei);lit,uf  ni- 
tre, and  two  of  oil  uf  vitriul ;  ur  100  nitre,  and  OO  ull  uf 
vitriul  previoualy  dlluteil  with  20  of  water:  cither  of 
these  propiTtiona  will  produce  a  very  excellent  Bci<l. 
When  siiliiiiitted  to  dlalillallon,  which  aliould  be  con- 
ducted in  earthen  or  kIuo"  veaaela,  the  nitric  acid  paa»e!i 
over  in  the  furm  of  vapor,  and  a  biaulphatu  uf  potaxa 
(aal  mi.xuni)  roninina  in  the  retort. 

Nitric  kcid  of  cuinnierce  haa  uauully  a  dark  orange- 
red  culor,  givinK  oir  co| .  lus  funiea,  and  having  a  ape- 
ellic  gravity  of  loO,  wat;  •  being  100.  It  la  atrungly 
achl  and  highly  rurruaive.  It  may  liu  obtained  perfect- 
ly colorleia  by  a  aecond  diatlllatiun,  rejecling  the  lirst 
portion  that  paasca  over.  It  ia  much  employed  in  tlie 
arts  fur  etching  on  cupper  platca  for  engraving;  ulao, 
fur  the  leparutiun  uf  allver  frum  gold  in  the  proceaa  of 
quartation.  In  iihurmaey  and  aurgery  it  ia  extensive- 
ly used, and  is  employed  for  destroying  cuntagioua  ef- 
fluvia. Coniliincd  wllb  mqriatic  acid,  it  formi  aqua 
rogia  (nitro-mnriutie  aeid),  used  oa  a  nolvent  for  gold, 
platina,  etc.  This  acid  is  frequently  contaminated 
with  the  muriatic  and  sulphuric  aeida;  tlieao  may  be 
detected  by  the  following  methuda:  A  portion  of  the 
anapecteil  aeid  ahould  be  diluted  with  three  or  four 
times  its  volume  of  distilled  water,  and  divided  into 
two  ghusses;  to  one  of  which  uitratu  of  silver  (lunar 
caustic)  in  aulutlon  ia  to  be  added,  and  to  thu  other  ni- 
trate of  barytes :  if  muriatic  acid  bo  present,  a  white 
curdy  |)rpcipitate  will  be  thrown  down  by  the  former ; 
anil  if  aulphuric,  a  whito  granular  precipitate  by  the 
Utter. 

Oxalic  AciJ  occura  In  combination  with  potass  aa 
biuo.xalute  of  potass  in  the  dillerent  varieties  of  sorrel, 
from  whence  the  binoxalate  of  potass  has  been  termed 
■alt  of  sorrel.  This  acid  ia  usually  prepared  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  upon  sugar,  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion, after  the  action  has  ceased,  to  the  consistence  of  A 
sirup,  and  redissolving  and  recrystallizing  the  crystals 
which  are  thus  procured. 

It  is  sold  ill  small  white  acicular  cryatala,  of  n  strong- 
ly ai'id  taste  and  liiglily  poisonous,  and  sometimes  in 
its  external  appearance  bears  a  strong  aimilarity  to 
Epsom  salts  (sulphate  of  magnesia),  which  it  has  lieen 
unfortunately  frequently  mistaken  for.  It  is  instantly 
distinguished  from  Kpsom  salts  by  placing  a  small 
crystal  upon  the  tongue ;  when  its  strong  acid  taste, 
compared  with  the  naoseoua  bitter  of  the  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  will  be  (luite  a  BulKclcnt  criterion.  In  cusea 
of  poisoning,  however,  by  this  acid,  lime  or  chalk, 
mixed  with  water  to  form  a  cream,  should  be  immedi- 
ately administered,  the  combinations  of  oxalic  acid 
witli  these  substances  being  perfectly  inert.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  removing  ink-stains,  iron-moulds,  etc.,  from 
linen  and  leather;  the  beat  proportions  for  tliese  pur- 
poses are  1  ounce  of  the  aciil  to  a  pint  of  water.  The 
most  delicate  tost  of  the  presence  of  oxalic  acid  is  a  salt 


of  lime  or  lime-water,  with  either  of  which  it  forms  > 
whit*  precipitate,  Inaoluble  in  water,  but  aolubl*  In 
acida.     Ita  comblnatioiia  are  termed  oxalatea. 

l'ho$fthoi-ic  AM  ia  of  '^vfy  little  linpurlanee  In  • 
commercial  point  of  view,  except  aa  forming  wl'ti  lima 
the  earth  of  Iwnea  (phoaphate  of  lime).  It  i  <  prepared 
by  heating  Uinea  to  whlteneaa  in  A  funiaee;  froiii  thia 
phosphoric  oi'd  Is  ol>lain«d  by  tlie  action  of  sulphuric 
acid,  atill  comldned,  how  ver,  with  a  amall  quantity  of 
lime,  'the  action  of  nitric  aeid  upon  phoaphorua,  the 
latter  being  added  gradually  and  In  small  piecea,  yields 
thia  acid  in  a  alate  of  purity :  its  combinations  are 
termed  phoa|ihalca. 

J'niuif  Aiiil,i)r  //gilrocynnic  Acid. — Thia  ncld, which 
la  the  must  virulent  and  polaonoua  acid  known,  Is  con- 
tained in  peach  blossoms,  bay  leaves,  and  nmiiy  other 
vegetable  productlona,  which  owe  Ibeir  peculiar  odor  to 
the  presence  of  pruaaic  aeid.  For  llio  purposes  of  iiied- 
icine  and  chemiatry,  this  aeid  Is  prepared  either  liy  dis- 
tilling ono  part  of  the  cy anuret  of  mercury,  one  part  of 
muriatic  acid  of  specilic  gravliy  I'lfi,  and  six  parts  of 
water,  six  parts  of  prnasic  aeid  being  collected ;  or.  by 
dissolving  a  certain  weiglit  of  cyanui'et  of  mercury, 
and  passing  a  current  of  aulphureted  hydnigeu  through 
the  solution,  until  the  whole  uf  the  mercury  siiall  b6 
precipitated;  if  an  c.xiri'ss  of  sulphureted  hydrogen 
should  be  preaent,  a  little  carbonate  of  lead  (white 
lend)  will  remove  it;  on  liltering,  a  colorless  prussic 
ii'id  will  be  obtained,  liy  the  lirst  process,  which  is 
tlie  one  followed  at  Aputbecaries'  Hull,  the  acid  has  • 
density  of  UU.'i,  water  being  equal  to  1(M)0;  by  the  latter, 
It  may  be  procured  of  any  re((uircd  strength,  depend- 
ing on  the  (|Uantily  of  cyaiuiret  of  mercury  dissolved. 
The  Iwst  test  for  the  preseme  of  this  acid  ia,  lirat  to  add 
a  small  qnuntily  of  the  protosulphate  of  iron  (solution 
of  green  vitriol),  then  a  little  solution  uf  potussa,  and, 
lastly,  diluted  sulphuric  acid ;  if  prussic  acid  lie  present, 
I'russian  blue  will  be  formed.  Its  combinations  are 
called  prussiutca  or  hydrocyanates ;  when  In  Its  con- 
centrated form,  it  is  so  rapid  in  its  eHects  that  large 
animals  have  been  killed  in  the  short  space  of  80  aec- 
onds,  or  from  a  minute  to  a  minute  and  a  half. 

/Sul/jliumiit  A  riii  is  formed  whenever  sulphur  Is  burned 
in  atmospheric  air;  It  is  a  sull'ocating  and  pungent 
gas,  atrongly  acid,  bleaches  vegetable  colors  with  great 
rapidity,  and  arrests  the  process  of  vinous  fcnncnta- 
tion.  For  these  purposes  it  is  therefore  very  much 
euqiloyed,  especially  in  bleaching  woolen  goods  and 
straws.  Fermentation  may  be  immediately  arrested 
by  burning  u  small  quantity  of  sulphur  In  casks,  and 
then  racking  oil'  Ibo  wine  while  still  fermenting  into 
tlieni ;  this  frc(|uently  gives  the  wine  a  very  unpleas- 
ant taste  of  sulphur,  which  is  avoided  by  the  uso  of  sul- 
phate of  potass,  madu  by  Impregnating  a  solution  of 
potass  with  sulphurous  aeid  gus. 

iSii/phiiric  Ariil,  ur  Oil  uf  yilriol,  called  oil  of  vitriol 
from  Ita  having  been  formerly  manufactured  from  green 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron).  In  some  parts  of  the  Con- 
tinent this  process  is  atill  followed.  The  method  gen- 
erally adopted  in  thia  country  Is  to  introduce  nine  parts 
of  sulphur,  intimately  mixed  with  one  part  of  nitre,  in 
a  state  of  active  combustion,  into  largo  leaden  cham- 
bers, the  bottoms  of  whicli  are  covered  with  a  stratum 
of  water.  Sulphurous  and  nitrous  acid  gases  are  gen- 
erated, which,  entering  into  combination,  form  a  white 
crystalline  solid,  which  fulls  to  the  bottom  of  the  cham- 
l>er;  the  instant  that  the  water  comes  in  contact  with 
it,  this  solid  is  decomposed  with  a  hissing  noise  and  ef^ 
fervescence,  sulphuric  acid  combines  with  the  water, 
and  nitrous  gas  is  liberated,  wliich,  combining  with 
oxygen  from  the  air  of  the  chamber,  is  converted  into 
nitrous  acid  gas,  again  combines  with  sulphurous  acid 
gas,  and  again  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber; 
this  process  continues  as  long  as  the  combustion  of  the 
sulphur  is  kept  up,  or  aa  long  as  atmospheric  air  re- 
mains in  the  chamber;  the  nitrous  aci  \  merely  serving 
as  a  means  for  the  transference  of  oxygen  from  the  at- 


ACO 


ADA 


nuxphtrp  to  th«  lulphnroui  trlcl  to  convert  it  Into  iul- 
phuric  ni'iJ.     'Ihu  wctur  if  rcniovuil  f^oni  the  chtiii- 
Iwr  whi'ii  uf  ■  (i^rlitn  ulrmiKth,  (ml  rupUcnil  l>y  (Vaali. 
ThrM  ac'lil  watcni  *r«  llivii  I'vapuratuil  in  Inaclcn  ImiII- 
*ra,  anil  lliially  cuiicvntralt"!  in  kI""  or  pintinn  vvunli. 
A*  lliua  nianuraiiureit,  •ulpliuric  arid  la  •  ilunie  otty 
fluid,  rulorlvM,  inl>ni«'l>'  uciil,  nnil  hiKl'ly  ournwivt, 
■ml  hai  k  ■poi'illc  gravity  uf  INIA,  water  Ix'hiK  i>(|ual 
to  IWH).     ThIa  add  li  the  nioHt  inipiirtant  with  whiili 
we  am  ac(|ualnled ;  It  la  eniployi'il  In  tliti  nianiifaituni 
of  thti  nitric,  muriatic,  acetic,  phunphiiric,  citric,  tartar- 
ic, and  many  other  acida ;  alio  In  the  prrparatinn  of 
chlorine,  for  the  nianuructiini  of  the  hluachinK  piiwdur 
(oxyniurlato  of  lime,  or  chloride  o(  lime),  for  the  prep- 
aration of  aniphate  of  mercury,  in  the  manufacture  of 
calomel  and  corronivo  •uliliniule,  and  In  Innunieralde 
other  chemical  nianufacturea.    In  the  proctieo  of  pliyalc 
it  it  alio  very  much  employed,     It  uaually  contaiiia  a 
little  oxide  of  lead,  which  la  readily  detected  by  dilut- 
ing the  acid  with  alioul  four  timea  ita  volume  of  wa- 
ter, and  altiiwinx  the  Kulphate  of  lead  to  aulwldu.     ItN 
comhinatiun!)  are  denominated  aulpbatea.     The  fuming 
aulphuric  acid,  aa  manufueturud  at  Norilhauaen,  con- 
talna  only  one  half  the  quantity  of  wutrr  In  Ita  compo- 
altion. 

Turlttrie  A  ctd This  acid  l»  procured  from  the  cream 

of  tartar  (hitartrateofpotai<a),ohtalnFd  liy  purifying  the 
cruit  which  acparatea  during  the  fermentation  of  winea 
by  aolutlon  and  cryatallizatiun.  Wlien  thia  purltlcd  Id- 
tartrale  l.t  dixmilved,  and  lime  or  carlionate  of  lime  add- 
ed, an  iniolulile  tartrate  of  lime  falU,  which,  after  k  .iiih- 
ing,  ahould  \m  acted  upon  hy  aulphuric  acid  ;  «ul|  hate 
of  limo  la  thua  formed,  and  the  tartaric  acid  enters  into 
aolutlon,  and  may  lio  obtained  liy  evaporation  and  irys- 
tallizatiun.  It  la  employed  very  much  in  the  nrta,  in 
calico-printing,  aa  aUo  in  making  etrorvescing  draughts 
•nd  iwwdcra  in  pharmacy, 

Vric  Acid  la  an  animal  acid  of  very  little  Import- 
ance, except  in  a  Hcientitic  point  of  view:  it  exiata  in 
the  excrement  of  serpents  to  the  amount  uf'JJ  percent., 
and  funua  the  baaia  of  many  of  the  urinary  calculi  and 
gravel. 

Aoom,  in  aea  language,  n  little  ornamental  piece  of 
wood  fashioned  like  a  cone,  an<l  fixed  un  the  uppermost 
point  of  the  apindle,  above  the  vane,  on  the  must-head. 
It  la  used  to  keep  the  vane  from  being  blown  olF  from 
the  apindle  in  a  whirlwind,  or  when  the  ahip  leans  much 
to  one  side  under  sail. 

Aoonu  (lier.  JCichtln,  t'riern;  Fr.  Glindt;  It. 
(Ikinnde;  Sp.  litUolat;  Hua.  Hcktdudii;  Lat.  UUmdei), 
the  seed  or  fruit  of  the  oak.  Acorns  formed  a  part  of 
the  food  of  man  in  early  ages,  and  frequent  allusion  it 
made  in  the  classics  to  this  oircumalance  (Vimiii., 
Gtorg.  lib.  1.  lin.  8;  OviD,  M<l.  lib.  i.  lin.  KMi,  etc.). 
In  some  countries  they  are  still  used,  in  periods  of 
icarclty,  as  a  substitute  for  lirvod.  With  us  they  arc 
now  rarely  used  except  for  fattening  hogs  nnd  poultry. 
They  are  said  to  make,  when  toasted,  with  the  addition 
of  a  little  fresh  butter,  one  uf  the  best  substitntcs  for 
coflce.     Their  taste  is  astringent  and  bitter. 

Aoro,  a  measure  of  superficies,  and  the  principal 
denomination  of  land-measure  in  use  throughout  the 
whole  of  Urcat  liritain  and  the  (Initcd  Stales.  The 
word  (formeU  from  the  Saxon  tuhir,  or  the  (ierman 
uktr,  a  field)  did  not  originally  signify  a  determinate 
quantity  of  land,  (jut  any  o[>en  grouml,  especially  a 
wide  campaign ;  and  in  this  antiqui!  sense  it  seems  to 
be  preserved  in  the  names  of  places;  as,  Castle-acre,  : 
West-acre,  etc.  Thcstundant  acre  is  formeti  i<\  rais- 
ing a  square  of  which  the  liari.s  is  the  chain  uf  (;i>  feet,  I 
or  22. yards,  or  l-80th  of  a  mile;  and  tin  of  these 
iquares  form  the  acre,  which  thus  contains  ^M-to  square 
yards.  This  is  divided  into  rmxls,  u(  which  there  ore 
n>nr  in  the  acre;  and  mia pulet  or  ii-Thes,  of  which 
^here  are  40  in  each  rood,  or  160  in  !he  acre.  The 
rood  will  thus  measure  1210s<|uare  yanl.i,  and  the  pole 
SOi  B4|uar«  yards,  according  to  tliu  following  table, 


which  con 
compamd 

aina  also  other  danumination*  uaaful  to  b« 
aitli  thu  aoiti 

l»ba(. 

i.i>li>. 

!           (WlVd 

I 

rial. 

IM 

««)ft 

1  1  V.r*. 

P«lM 

iir 
rank. 

I'itM 

VII'MI 

1) 

1 

Ull'iOt 

Mtl 

•IVIk 

801 

1     Ckslaa. 

MVint 

IIHNSI 

4:W) 

4144 

Ill         1       ,ao.>U. 

lli«M»0 

lltMNN) 

KMVII 

mn 

40  1    «)    1     t 

Arr*. 

«1T!»MU 

IWSIOU 

UMO 

4N4II 

lOO  1  10     1     4 

1 

U 

UtIIVM 

I 

lit'.'ia 

1 

IM 

8 

IMt 

n 

1  iM 

1 

S4'.11 

t 

ttoii* 

1 

1U-1« 

1 

SIM 

0 

«' 

0 

SO  40 

1 

4(» 

9 

W.*1 

t 

Vi-Vi 

0 

IHIW 

1) 

Hll 

8 

w-as 

S 

811  as 

1 

1T!I0 

0 

•it  si 

n 

m-Hi 

1 

81 HB 

u 

W'U4 

1 

lUtM 

A 

HUT 

1 

2T-78 

U 

I'.'IO 

•i 

V4'4II 

1 

80-41 

Thu  fuUowIng  table  ciintiiins  the  prlniipiil  foreign 
land-measures,  with  their  equivalents  in  acres: 

Arrt*.  Ro(mIi,  I'crrhM. 

France,  Are o 

"  Ilcrtsm 9 

'*  AnH-ul.  great 1 

"  Ar|H.'iil.  amall n 

Amatenlam,     Morxi'ii li 

UiTlIn,  MDrKi'ii,  lario 1 

"  M'TKcii,  siuall 0 

I)sntalc,  Mei'Kcn 1 

ilanilturtt,        MurKrii II 

"  H^'liefTfl  f)f  ci>m  land  . . .,     1 

Ntiniiiiberif,     MnrKcii,  rtirn  land 1 

"  Mnruen,  meadow 0 

Hanover,         Morifcn 0 

I'niKsiH,  Murxen 0 

Khitu'land,       Moriten 9 

Zurich,  Am-,  rninmon 0 

'•  Arn',  w<M»d 0 

'*  Acre,  iiifudow 0 

Haxony,  A<'n< 1 

Hpuli),  Fhiicks'U,  fur  rem  land  .     1 

"  Arrniiznilft,  fur  vliieyHrda    0 

Itussis,  Dcsai'tlii* 9 

Ho  edi'll,  Tiinclaiid 1 

Bwllteriand,    Faux 1 

Tuscany,         Qiiadrato U 

Vienna,  Jfich 1 

Nuiilea,  U<>KK<a I* 

Ituiiie,  I'cxsa 0 

I'urtiiKal,         (ii'lra 1 

In  thu  I'nitcd  states  of  America  the  imperial  acri'  Is  used. 
Tile  ItoniHii  JiiKrniiu  wns  HomcwIiHt  Urp-r  thiin  half  nii  impe- 
rial iicn', cimtninini: i  ri«iils,  11)  |Hrchc«,  Isu  wiimn  i.  .t.  Two 
Jngera  ferineit  n  li<-n-(llum.  hu  caih-d  from  Its  iH-in^  thi'  quan- 
tity (if  Isnd  orlKlniiitv  usNigncil  tii  inch  ItKiiian  citi/.m  ;  a  hiin- 
dri'd  hen-ilU  tonord  s  MiitiiTia,  mill  fi>iir  riiiiurlir  a  saltiia. 
The  (In'ck  iiU'thriin  > '  iialated  uf  4  arums  aud  oua  equal  to  8T 
perches,  l53M|iiarc  tV'et. 

Action,  in  C'lmmrrce,  ia  a  term  used  abroad  for  • 
certain  part  ur  share  of  a  public  cnmpaiiy's  capital 
■.lock.  Thus,  if  a  ciimpniiy  has  •ki.immi  livrcs  capital 
stock,  this  may  l>e  divided  into  ViiU  actions,  each  cun- 
sisiting  of  I  IKK)  livrcs. 

Aottuuy,  a  person  skilled  in  the  doctrine  of  \it9 
an.iuiliea  and  innurances,  and  who  is  competent  to  give 
opinii>ii*  upon  all  canes  iiivulving  annuities,  reversiuna, 
etc.  All  actuary  sumetiines  combines  with  tlie  profei- 
siunal  duticN  of  a  ».  ienlific  adviser  those  of  a  secretary, 
in  all  matters  in\olviiigciilculatiun,  upon  which  it  may 
be  suppDsed  tliat  the  members  of  the  board  are  nut  gen- 
erally ciiiivcrsant. 

Adarcon,  or  Daric,  ^fjaxfiv,  the  most  ancient  guld 
coin  of  which  any  spc.  iiiietii'  have  been  preserved  to 
the  pn'sent  day.  It  was  the  earliest  coined  money 
known  among  the  Jews ;  the  impression  on  the  coin  ia 
a  crvwned  archer,  in  a  garb  such  as  is  seen  in  tho 
sculpturra  of  I'ersepolis.  Tho  spedineiia  weighed  by 
Dr.  Ueniard  were  lifteen  grains  heavier  than  the  Kn- 
gliah  guinea;  their  intriiitic  value  .nay  therefore  be 
reckoned  at  twenty-five  sliillingB  sterling. — K<  kiiki,, 
IkKlrinn  Aummurum  Veterum;  KicitxAHl),  De  Mcniurit 
et  J'onderihut. 

Adaime,  in  Commrrtt,  a  nmall  weight  in  Spain, 
which  is  alsu  used  at  liuenos  v\yres, and  in  all  Spanish 
America.  I '  is  the  liith  part  of  an  ounce,  which  at 
Pari*  is  called  the  demi-grvi.    Uut  tho  Spanish  uunca 


s*'^ 


ADA 


ADE 


Rgula. 
1 

Am. 

4 

1 

1 


t'Vl 
IM* 

1  IM 
lii'ill 

iiiitH 
sie4 

6' 

tit)  DO 
4« 

n'4T 

Iff '60 

nH 

n-m 
anma 

IT  NO 
lilSl 

ai-vfi 

Sb-Ut 
IVM 
14'«T 
«TI8 
I'Mt 
•UW 
8U-4I 


nrrf  U  iiM'd. 

nilt  lui  liiip«- 
«n-  '■■•■t.    Two 

III:  tlK-  (luaii- 
I'u;  a  hiin- 

irlir  H  Mtltll*. 
UH  niual  to  UT 

iliroilil  for  k 
c'i|iital 
vrcH  rapital 
I,  I'Bch  con- 
trine  of  llfs 
iiiii  to  (five 
rcvtrKiuni, 
till'  proft'i- 
a  secretary, 
liii'li  it  may 
are  nut  gen- 

im-ient  Rold 
roKer>'eU  to 
lU'il  money 
tlie  coin  ii 
ceil  in  th* 
Ivoinlicil  by 
lun  the  Kn- 
herefore  bo 
-Kl'KIIKI,, 

tie  Mtruuri§ 

in  Spain, 

kll  Spanish 

whieh  at 

luiali  uuuca 


l>  Mvrn  per  rent,  llxbtrr  lliun  that  of  I'arii.  8lepli«n» 
ri'hilerii  It  111  Kiitjll'li  by  a  Jr.ii  Am. 

Adatala,  Adatla,  or  Adatya,  In  f.mimrnr,  n 

miiiillu  iir  ruttiiii  rliilll,  viiry  lliiii  iiihl  dear,  ufHlilili 
the  pii'oo  I*  ten  Krenili  rlU  liinu,  ami  tlinu  (|iiarli'rii 
bruail.  It  >'uinea  fruiii  the  l'',aat  iinllua,  anil  tliu  lliuiat 
la  niaile  In  IbnKal. 

Adelaide,  a  city  uf  .Smith  Auatralln,  capital  uf  the 
llritinh  I'liliiiiy  uf  that  naiiie,  about  7  niilea  M.^i.lC.  fruni 
lla  ncirt,  an  inlet  on  the  eitxt  i^lile  of  St.  Vincent'*  (iulf, 
Int.  :)!'  '>T  H.,  loiiK.  lie*  'M  v..  ThouKh  runntletl  au 
ri'ceiilly  ua  ImiII,  ami  not  well  aitiiatml,  thia  la  a  well- 
built,  pninperoua  town.  .Some  of  the  lionaca,  anil  moat 
Iiiirt  of  the  principal  bnlhlin^tii,  are  uf  brick  ami  atunu. 
'iipiiUllun  In  IHIU,  7MU;  anil  In  IHM  probably  about 
■a  |(reat. 

The  river  Torrena,  nn  which  Ailelaiile  ia  liullt,  loaca 
llHcir  in  A  marah  liel'iire  renchinK  the  aea,  ao  that  the 
city  la  about  7  inllea  iliatant  from  ita  port,  an  inlet  uf 
Nt.  Vlnccnl'a  (iulf.  Thia  inlanil  aituutiiin  In  n  aerluua 
drawback  on  the  trade  of  the  city ;  ami  It  would  accni 
that  a  miatttku  waa  cummltted  in  not  building  it  on,  or 
much  nearer  to,  the  coaat.  Thia,  we  are  aware,  liiia 
been  ilenied,  tliouKb,  aa  wo  think,  upon  very  un.tatla- 
fuctory  KroumU.  There  iippeura,  imleeil,  to  bu  but  little 
dnulit  that  in  no  very  lengthened  period  moat  part  uf 
the  commerce  of  tlie  town  will  be  tranafcrred  to  the 
port,  and  that  it  will  be  preferred  an  n  residence  by  nil 
cummerciai  people.  In  the  rainy  aeaaon  tloi  Torrena 
ia  much  lloodcil,  tlioiiKh  it  aebloni  overllows  ita  banka, 
wliich  are  nteep  and  lofty  ;  but  in  the  dry  aeuaun  it  hua 
no  current,  ita  bed  being  then  fornioU  Into  ■  ivrlvt  uf 
poula  or  tnnka. 

I'ort  Ailelaido,  7  miles  N.N.W.  tnm  the  city,  in  a 
low  and  niarnhy  aituatiim,  cunaiata  of  u  number  of 
dwelling  houai'H  and  wnrchouaea,  some  of  which  uro  of 
atone,  with  whurvea,  partly  beloiiKing  to  government, 
and  partly  to  the  South  Anatraliun  Company.  I'opii- 
lalion  In  IxlH  about  IWIO.  The  lidet  of  the  aea.  >'  ,. 
ingtho  harbor,  uppoaite  the  entrance  to  which  ^ht- 
veaael  ia  moored,  atrelchea  from  tiioOulf,  fnun  »  luch  it 
ia  aeparuli-d  liy  a  narrow  neck  of  bind,  fiii  "  at  •milea 
aouthn  .11.1,  surrounding  Torrena  lalund.  Ai  ii<  iitnutli 
ia  a  anndy  bur,  with  H  feet  water  at  el>h  am)  1)>  tsei  at 
Hood  tide ;  thia  depth  bt^iiif;  eonsidir-nhly  iiiMreaaed 
during  south  and  southwest  winda.  ^  lips  of  4UU  or 
6iH)  tons  may,  conaequently,  paaa  llui  t^r  in  safety,  and 
onca  over,  tliure  is  depth  enough  f.ir  the  largest  flilps 
to  the  head  of  the  harbor. — l)in\iN,  Hoiith  Aiistrnliii, 
p.  W'i.  Large  vessels  are,  howwer,  obliged  to  lie  in 
mid-channel ;  but  proji'cts  were  ccently  on  loot  for  im- 
proving the  harbor,  either  by  tarrying  out  |iiera  into 
the  deep  water,  or  by  catalili<hing  a  now  port  al>uut  'i 
miles  nearer  to  the  harUir'a  immtb,  nhem  the  watrr  iu- 
thore  ia  dei'per,  and  the  situulion  allordH  greater  facili- 
ties for  the  accominoilation  of  shipping.  I'ort  Ade- 
laide has  a  custom-house;  but  veaaels  are  oxenipted 
from  all  port  charges  in  this  and  in  the  other  ports 
of  the  colony.  A  rail«ay.  planned  to  unite  tlie  city 
witli  the  port,  will  must  liki iy  be  completed  at  an  early- 
date. 

The  trade  of  Adelaide  is  already  extensive,  and  will 
continue  to  Increase  with  ilie  increase  of  the  popula- 
tion and  tradi!  of  the  coUiny.  oftvhich  it  is  the  grand 
emporium.  The  mines  of  copper,  lead,  etc.,  discovered 
In  its  vicinity  are  of  the  richest  description,  and  the 
ores  furnialicd  by  thcin  form  nt  present  tlw  principal 
arlii'Ie  of  export.  In  lXiV2,  the  imports  of  copper  into 
llngland  rroin  .South  Australia,  principally  from  the 
Ilurrn-Uurra  mine,  amounted  to  N,'iM2  tons,  worth  above 
fliOd.illHJ !  The  discovery  of  the  gold  lielda,  liy  attract- 
ing many  of  the  laborers  from  the  copper  mines,  ^ave 
a  serious  check  to  the  progress  of  the  latter,  though  it 
is  probable  that  it  will  bo  but  temporar}'.  Wool  is 
also  an  Important  article;  and  the  imports  of  it  into 
Kiiglanil,  n  hieh  in  1K52  amounted  to  i),!l22,;iiH  ponnds. 
have  increased  with  tbo  sanio  u.xtraordiaary  rapidiiy 


a*  Ihoaii  from  the  other  part*  of  Aiialralla.  Among  llin 
lleina  of  Iniporl  from  thin  colony  in  INA.'  were  l;i,'>H 
pouiida  i|ulcksllvcr,  and  lllii  cwt.  bark.  We  Buitjuln 
the  following  atateini'iila  with  reapect  to  llio  trada, 
shipping, etc., of  I'ort  Adelaide  In  the  following  jearai 


Isu 

I  Mil 
IslT 
l»4s 
lti4U 


TuUl  hiiin.ib 

i.ii-'.tiiri  (I 

|s4,i|',»  IH 

Mv.im  I'J 

4|o.'«Vh  U 

11N|,'1.N  HI 

ri',iii,.'.i-.  10 


TuUl  Ki|.orli. 

II 

A'u.\.';i  11  a 

n 

l«i,g>ll    4  T 

u 

or.'.x:!!  Ill  « 

II 

IINi,:ils  Ii  1 

11 

tuyt.KHn    7  0 

It 

4011.  HIT    II  A 

Ytan. 

|S44 

KlpflrU  lh«  l'r'>.lil.>« 
of  Buulh  AlUOalM. 

tni|iutl«  ra  hi- 

linj.iift*  1  'iiiitintaU 

|i.irl«il 

III  tl.A  1  'ilouy. 

A'S'.'.'.'llH    III  S 

ill'.'.ll'il    III   10 

jiio.'.,iieu  l;)    1 

Mft 

Ilil.SISI     II  0 

Kl.m.s  H    T 

IIW.Illil   lit   10 

1-40 

'JhT.Of.S    1.1  0 

•iti.TTH    t>    0 

HOII.ll'il     T     W 

l^T 

itTri.iift  Ii  u 

TMUil    u    II 

Ulb,OU'i    »    4 

IMS 

4(Ih,N7s  HI  1) 

lH4lt 

8T4.lrpr>  ID  0 

It  would  be  to  no  purpoae  to  give  any  later  details  in 
rcyard  to  the  trade  of  this  colony.  'I'lie  illacovery  of 
the  giilil  lielda  in  Victoria  and  New  .Suiith  Wales  have 
bud  nearly  the  same  Inlluciicu  lii^rc  as  In  Van  Diemen'l 
l.und  (me  (iiiLii).  They  oceaaioned  an  excessive  em- 
igration, and  gave  a  suddi'n  and  severe  shock  to  all 
sorts  of  Industry.  And  tliouKh,  no  doubt,  the  colony 
Hill  in  the  end  recover  from  the  contingency,  and  will 
most  probably  he  improved  by  the  circumsiancea  in 
whii b  it  originated,  some  cousidcrabia  lime  will  havo 
previ(ninly  to  elapse. 

Aden,  a  sea-port  town  of  Southern  Arabia,  In  the 
possession  of  the  Kiist  India  (Jompnny,  on  the  Indian 
( Iceun,  1  IH  miles  east  from  the  Straila  of  Itabelmandel, 
lut.  I'J'  1(1'  l.'i'  N.,  long.  4j'  in'  20'  K.  It  stands  on 
the  east  side  of  a  promontory,  projeoting  south  Into  tho 
ocean,  called  tlie  I'eninaulu  of  Aden.  This  peninsula, 
'  I  'i  lerininatea  in  a  lofty  mountain,  bearing  a  strik- 
ing .-.semblance  to  tht^  rock  of  (iibraitar,  is  coiiiicetej 
with  tho  main  land  by  a  low  isthmus  alioiil  Im)  yards 
in  l>readth.  tin  the  north  uinl  west  the  town  Is  over- 
hung by  steep  and  craggy  rocks,  on  whiili  arc  the  re- 
mains of  old  forlillcntions.  The  east  or  out»:ird  har- 
bor of  Aden,  formerly  (and  ppparcntly  at  a  )->  •  cut  po- 
rh>d)  large  anil  commodious,  is  now  purtly  Idled  up 
with  suiid.  Hut  the  harbor  on  the  west  side  of  the 
town,  between  the  promontory  on  which  it  standi  und 
aiiotlicr  parallel  thereto,  is  a  magnilicent  basin,  .-apabla 
of  accommodating  the  larges'  liects.  It  has  a  >  ontraiit- 
ed  entrance,  which  inighi  .isily  lie  fortified,  so  as  to 
make  it  inuccessilde  to  a  hostile  -.tuadron.  From  this 
harbor  the  approach  to  the  town  is  over  a  low  ridge  of 
the  mountain,  tho  road  being  in  pa"  ut  through  the 
rock. 

The  site  of  this  town,  tho  best  adapted  for  trado  on 
the  «  hole  coast  of  Arabia,  and  the  K  ■  y  of  the  Ked  Se«, 
bus  always  made  it  a  point  of  prin  iry  importanco  in 
the  direct  trade  iietwcen  T  impe  an.:  tlie  Kust.  It  lie- 
cume  at  a  very  early  period  u  celebnkted  emporium  (the 
Aniliiw  emjHiriiiiii  of  I'lolciny).  After  the  Itomans  ol>- 
taiiied  possession  of  Kgypt,  and  llippniiis  (.v.ii.  M)  had 
discovered  the  ilircct  route  to  India,  they  destroyed 
.Vdeii,  lest  it  should  fall  into  hostile  hands,  and  interfere 
with  their  monopoly  of  this  lucrative  truHic. — ViN- 
i-KNr'.s  C'immerce,  etc.,  I'fihe  Imliiin  Oceiin,  ii.  .'I'J7,  628. 
It  is  not  known  when  or  by  whom  it  was  rebuilt;  but 
from  the  11th  to  tho  llJlh  century  it  was  the  great, 
or  rather  tho  oxelnsivo  rntn'i>ot  of  Kastern  eonimcrce. 
The  discovery  of  the  pa.vsago  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  waa  the  lirst  great  blow  to  its  importance.  Si- 
multaneously with  the  appearance  of  the  I'ort iigueso  in 
India,  the  Turks,  nnder  Solynmn  the  Magnilicent,  took 
possession  of  various  Arabic  ports,  Aden  among  the 
nninbcr.  Tliey  erected  the  fortilicutions,  the  ruins  of 
which  excito  the  admiration  of  every  traveler,  and 
which  rei>elled  the  attacks  of  tho  famous  Tortugucse 
general,  Albuquurque.    l-'rom  thia  date,  howercr,  Aden 


ADJ 


SO 


ADM 


I 


i«pldly  declined;  iior  did  the  ejtpuUlon  of  th«  Tufkn, 
which  took  place  about  the  mlilills  or  Ittut  Cfililliry,  rn. 
Urd  ita  downlsll.  Its  ruin  wm  more  t'onipk'lit  Ihitli 
could  have  been  antici|iiili'd;  for  lli  cunviiliitilit  Imr- 
bors  and  plentiful  supply  of  wator  make  It,  apart  frntit 
other  considerations,  a  most  desiralilu  port. 

When  first  occupied  by  tlie  llrilish,  it  liHil  not  IIKirti 
than  100  hauscs,  with  a  pared  of  wretched  liula,  ami 
(W)m  3000  to  toco  inhabitants.  It  had,  linU'i],  Iht  ritlim 
of  several  cistenis  and  reservoirs  cut  In  tliu  miljil  rvi'k, 
and  of  aqueducts  for  conveying  water  from  (Iim  niouiil- 
•ins  of  the  interior,  wliieli  fully  teslilliul  lis  fiirimtr 
greatness.  Itut  witliin  the  last  hair'  cln7,i>ii  yeurit  u  VH«I 
change  lius  taken  place,  and  the  ancient  pronperlt}'  tif 
Aden  bids  fair  to  be  again  restoreil.  IloluU  fur  tliu  an- 
comniodution  of  the  passengers  by  Ihs  tleami'rs  Imvti 
been  erected;  and  the  pa|iulation  of  thu  viiliiily,  at* 
tracted  by  the  security  allurded  liy  the  Kiiuliidi  t\n^, 
have  tloclied  to  ho  place,  which  has  now  (iM'i!))  ftoiii 
!6,00n  to  ,10,000  inhabitants!  8omu  dufenjiiva  work* 
have  already  been  constructed,  and  others  prnJi'Cliut, 
which,  if  completed,  will  make  It  (which  It  should  Im) 
the  Gibraltar  of  the  lied  Sea.  While  Its  euMiiMatMllll(( 
position,  excellent  port,  and  abundant  supply  of  vtnU'r, 
make  Aden  an  important  station  in  tlui  roulu  (mm  In- 
dia to  Europe  by  the  Ucd  Sea,  it  is  no  li'ss  favorAlily 
situated  for  becoming  an  tnlreiiul  lor  lliu  conllguiMi* 
countries  of  Arabia  and  Africa.  It  ohciI  Ita  fortiKi 
consequence  mainly  to  its  natural  advanliiges,  iiuil 
these  it  still  retains.  And  it  can  hardly  full  iignln  to 
become  an  important  emporium,  .md  to  bo  of  the  itri'Nt' 
•St  utility  to  the  surrounding  cunllnents.  Tliu  ellinali', 
though  hot,  is  not  unhealthy.  'I'lio  abundant  supply 
of  water,  for  which  Aden  is  remarkaldu  ani'ing  Arxlili' 
towns,  is  drawn  from  the  ravines  and  gullli'S  of  ilii' 
surrounding  mountains,  and  from  the  hind  i>prliig>, 
Wliicli  are  abundant  on  the  sea-shore,— (Heii  lii-iii/rii/ilf 
teal  IHiiionary,  art.  Aden,  and  other  aiilhurltles  tliori' 
t^uot  <l.) 

Adjustment,  in  Commerdul Nuvirinlhm,  llio  selllf- 
inent  of  a  loss  incuired  by  the  imiureil.  In  (lie  i'Hiih  of 
m  total  loss,  if  tlic  policy  be  an  upm  one,  lliii  inniirer  Ix 
obliged  to  pay  the  goods  according  to  their  jirime  i'dhI  i 
that  is,  the  invoice  price,  and  all  duties  and  eiipHiw'a 
incurred  till  they  are  put  on  board,  huhidiiig  tlm  pre- 
miiim  of  insurance.  Wlieihcr  they  might  have  iirrlvcd 
•.t  a  good  or  a  bad  market,  is  held  by  llui  law  of  \\»- 
gland  to  be  immaterial.  Tlic  insurer  is  siippowil  to 
have  insured  a  constant  and  not  a  variable  sum ;  and 
in  the  event  of  a  loss  occurring,  the  insured  Is  mcridy 
to  be  put  into  the  same  situation  in  which  lie  nluoil  \iv. 
fore  the  transaction  began.  If  the  policy  be  a  filiiril 
one,  the  practice  is  to  adopt  the  valuation  llxed  In  it  hi 
case  of  n  total  10.18,  unless  the  iuiiurcrs  run  bIiuw  ||in| 
the  insured  bad  a  coloralde  interest  only,  or  lliiit  llic 
goods  were  greatly  over-valued.  In  the  case  of  all  pur. 
tial  losses,  the  value  of  the  goods  must  Ihi  proved, 

"The  nature  of  the  contract  lietween  the  Insurnd 
and  insurer  is,"  says  Mr.  Justice  I'urk,  "  that  Ihu  gmnls 
shall  come  safe  to  the  port  of  delivery ;  or,  if  (hey  do 
not,  that  the  insurer  will  indemnify  tlin  ownor  to  Ihi' 
amount  of  the  value  of  the  goods  stated  In  tlm  policy, 
Wherever,  then,  tlie  properly  insurcrl  is  lessened  In  val- 
ue by  damage  received  at  sea.  Justice  is  dnun  by  put- 
ting the  merchant  in  the  same  comlillon  (relation  Is-liig 
had  to  the  prime  cost  or  value  in  the  policy)  in  which 
he  would  have  been  had  the  gooils  arrived  freti  from 
damage ;  that  is,  by  paying  him  such  proportion  of  the 
prime  cost  or  value  in  the  policy  as  iiirretpoiids  with 
the  proportion  of  the  diminution  in  value  occasioned  by 
the  damage.  The  question  tlien  is,  how  Is  the  propor- 
tion of  the  damage  to  be  ascertained  f  It  cerlaiiily 
can  not  be  by  any  measure  taken  from  the  prime  cost ; 
but  it  may  lie  done  in  this  way :  Where  any  thing,  as 
a  hogshead  of  sugar,  happens  to  Iw  spoiled,  If  you  can 
fix  whcthiT  it  l>e  a  third,  a  fourth,  or  a  tifth  worse,  then 
th«  damage  is  ascertained  to  a  mathematical  CDrtain- 


ty,  Ifow  li  this  to  be  fi/und  out  ?  Not  by  any  price 
itt  the  port  of  shipment,  but  it  must  be  at  the  port  of 
iMUierji,  when  the  voyage  is  completed  and  the  whole 
dntnagu  known.  Whether  the  price  at  the  latter  be 
high  or  low,  It  Is  the  same  thing ;  for  in  cither  case  it 
pipmlly  shows  whether  the  damaged  goods  are  a  third, 
M  fourth,  or  a  llfth  worse  than  if  tiiey  bad  come  sound ; 
i'otniei|iionlly,  whelher  the  injury  sustained  be  a  third, 
fiilirlll,  ur  llfth  of  the  value  of  the  thing.  And  as  the 
Insurer  pays  the  whole  prime  cost  if  the  thing  be  wholly 
lost,  so  If  it  be  only  a  third,  fourth,  or  fifth  worse,  he 
jiavs  a  third,  fourth,  or  fifth,  not  of  the  value  for  which 
it  Is  sold,  lull  iiflhe  tdliie  tiated  in  thepolinj.  And  when 
no  vnltiiillun  Is  staled  in  the  policy,  the  invoice  of  the 
coat,  with  the  iiddltion  of  all  charge,  and  the  premium 
of  Inaiirnncc,  shall  be  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
loss  shnll  be  computed." 
Admaaautement.    See  Toknaoe. 

Administrator,  In  Knijluh  J.nw,  he  to  whom  the 
ordliinry  romnills  Ihc  administration  of  the  goods  of  a 
persim  deceased,  in  default  of  an  executor.  The  origin 
of  ndmlnlstrstors  is  derived  from  the  civil  law.  Tlicir 
i<alabllshnicnt  \t.  Knglnm'  is  owing  to  a  statute  made 
In  the  ntst  year  of  Kdward  III.  Till  then  no  olfice  of 
tills  kind  was  known  besides  that  of  executor;  in  dc- 
fniilt  of  wlintn,  the  ordinary'  had  the  dii^posul  of  goods 
of  persons  Intestate,  etc. 

Admiral,  n  great  officer  or  magistrate,  who  has  the 
government  of  b  navy,  and  the  hearing  of  all  maritime 
''Siiaea,  There  con  lie  little  doubt  of  the  Asiatic  origin 
of  Ihn  nntnn  given  to  this  otiicer,  w hich  does  not  appear 
(0  have  been  known  in  the  languages  of  Kurope  before 
the  lime  of  the  holy  wars.  .1  mir,  in  Araliic,  is  a  chief  or 
I'omninnder  of  forces ;  it  is  the  same  word  as  ihe  nnif  cr 
of  the  lirtillisula  of  India  (us  osiffr  nl  imtrah,  Ihe  chief 
of  lords  or  princes),  and  the  emir  of  the  Turks  or  Sara- 
cens, who  had,  and  still  have,  their  emir  or  nmnr'l  du- 
rreii,  commander  of  the  sea,  amir'l  asker  diireea,  com- 
iiiaiider  of  (he  naval  armament.  The  incorporation  of 
the  article  with  (he  noun  appears,  we  liclieve,  for  the 
first  (Imein  ilie  Annals  of  Ku(ychius,pa(riarch  of  Alex- 
andria, In  the  (cn(h  cen(ury,  who  calls  the  Calif  Omar 
Amifrt  niiititiniim,  seu,  /mperaliir  Jidrliiim.  Spelman 
says,  "  In  regno  Saracenoruni  quatuor  prirtores  statuit, 
qui  iidmhrdii  V(Kaliantur."  The  d  is  evidently  super- 
llliolis,  and  Is  oniiKed  by  the  French,  who  say  Amiral. 
The  ,'4pnnlsh  write  /f/mtVn«/e ;  the  Portuguese  the  same. 
Milton  would  seem  (o  have  been  aware  of  (he  origin  of 
till'  word,  when  he  speaks  of  "the  mast  of  some  great 
AliitiilrnI,"  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  the  supposed  der- 
ivations of  fl?,/iiy)0f  from  the  Greek,  auiner  from  the 
I'ri'licli,  Biid  iirii  merml  from  the  Saxon,  are  fanciful 
and  Miinlithorl/ed  etymologies. 

Ailmhiil  Is  also  an  appellation  given  to  the  most  con- 
shleralile  ship  of  a  Hcet  of  merchantmen,  or  of  Ihe  ves- 
aela  einploveil  In  the  cod  fishery  of  Newfoundland. 
Tills  last  has  the  privilege  of  choosing  what  place  he 
plessca  on  the  shore  (o  dry  his  fish :  gives  proper  orders, 
nnd  appoints  the  fishing-places  (o  (hose  who  come  after 
hlinj  and  as  long  ns  (he  (ishing  season  continues,  ho 
larrlc a  a  flag  on  bin  iiiain-inast. 

Admiralty,  High  Court  of.    This  is  a  court  of 

law.  III  tt  lib  h  (he  aiilhorily  of  the  lord  high  admiral  is 
cxerelsed  In  his  jinflcinl  capacity.  Very  little  has 
been  left  on  record  of  (he  ancient  prerogudve  of  (ho 
add  'ala  of  England.  Kor  some  (imc  after  the  first  in- 
allfi.  in  of  (lie  oftlce,  (hey  judged  all  matters  relating 
In  nietchanls  «nd  mariners,  which  happened  on  (he 
tiialii  sea,  In  a  summary  way,  according  to  the  laws  of 
•  ilcron  (so  called  because  prorn.ilgated  by  Kichard  I. 
at  that  place).  These  laws,  which  were  littlo  more 
than  a  transcript  of  the  lihodian  laws,  became  the  uni- 
versally received  eustoins  of  the  western  part  of  Ihe 
world,  "  All  the  sea-fnring  nations,'  says  Sir  Lcolina 
.lenklna,  "soon  after  (heir  promulgation,  received  and 
cnlerlalned  (hc«e  laws  from  (he  Knglish,  by  way  of 
ilofvrvnve  (o  (ha  sovursignty  of  our  kiui^s  in  the  British 


ADU 


11 


ADU 


ocean,  and  to  the  judgment  of  our  coontiymen  in  sea 
affairs." 

The  vice-admiraUy  courts  in  the  British  colonies  are 
of  two  descriptions.  The  one  has  power  to  inquire 
into  the  causes  of  detention  of  enemies  or  neutral  ves- 
sels, to  try  and  condemn  the  same  for  the  benefit  of 
the  cap  tors,  as  well  as  to  take  cognizance  of  all  matters 
relating  to  the  oHice  of  the  lord  high  admiral.  'I'hc 
other  lias  power  onl"  to  institute  inquiries  into  misde- 
meanors committed  in  merchant  vessels,  and  to  determ- 
ine putty  suits,  etc.,  and  to  guard  the  privileges  of  the 
admiral.  The  former  are  usually  known  by  the  name 
of  I'fke  Courts,  the  latter  by  that  of  fmtance  Courts. 

The  following  are  the  colonies  and  foreign  posses- 
sions of  Great  Uritain  in  which  Prize  Courts  have  been 
established  :n  tlie  course  of  the  last  war :  Gibraltar, 
Mulls,  Newfoundland,  Halifax,  Bermuda,  Bahama 
Islands,  Barbadoes,  Antigua,  Tortola,  Jamaica,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Calcut- 
ta. The  following  British  colonies  had  Instance  Courts 
only:  Dominica,  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  St.  Christoplicr, 
Trinidad,  St.  Cervix,  Martinique,  Berbice,  Denierara, 
and  Esscquibo;  in  addition  to  which  is  a  court  estab- 
lished at  Sierra  Leone  for  the  trial  and  condemnation 
of  captured  slavers  only;  and  since  that  time,  Gibral- 
tar, Malta,  St.  Helena.  Berbice,  Ucmcrara,  and  ICs.«c- 
quibo.  Sierra  Leone  (this  court  hos  jurisdiction  only 
over  ships  concerned  in  tlie  slave-trade),  Newfound- 
land, Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  I'rince  Edward's  Island, 
Lower  Canada,  Barbadoes,  i'obago,  and  St.  Lucia,  An- 
tigua, Montsorrat,  and  Barbndoc.i,  Tortola,  Jamaica, 
Baliamas,  Falldand  Inlands,  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  Gam- 
bia, Gold  Coast,  Ceylon,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras, 
New  South  Wales,  Van  Diemen's  Laud,  Western  Aus- 
tralia, Soutli  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Vancouver's  Isl- 
and, Hong  Kong,  Lnhuun. — E.  B. 

"The  ordinary  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction, 
exclusive  of  prize  coses,  embraces  all  civil  and  crim- 
inal cases  of  a  maritime  nature ;  and  though  there  docs 
not  seem  to  be  any  difficulty  or  doubt  as  to  the  proper 
jurisdiction  of  the  prize  courts,  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
unsettled  discussion  respecting  the  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  of  the  district  court  as  an  instance  court, 
and  possessing,  under  the  constitution  and  judiciary 
act  of  1789,  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction. 

"  The  act  of  Congress  gives  to  the  district  courts,  ex- 
clusive of  the  Slate  courts,  and  concurrently  with  the 
circuit  courts,  cognizance  of  all  crimes  and  ott'enses  cog- 
nizal)le  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  and 
committeil  within  their  districts,  or  upon  the  high  seas, 
whore  only  a  moiUrate  corporal  punishment,  or  tine, or 
imprisonment,  is  to  bo  inflicted.  This  is  the  ground 
of  til?  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  district  courts;  and 
it  is  given  to  them  as  district  courts ;  and  as  it  includes 
the  minor  crimes  and  offenses  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  cognizable  in  the  courts  of  admiralty  under 
the  English  law,  the  district  courts  may  bo  considered 
as  cxcicising  the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  a  court  of  ad- 
miralty in  those  cases.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
Stales  declares  that  the  judicial  power  of  the  Union 
shall  extend  to  all  eases  of  admiralty  and  maritime 
jurisdiction :  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  federal 
courts  might,  without  any  slatule,  and  under  the  gen- 
eral delegation  of  admiralty  powers,  have  exercised 
criminal  jurisdiction  over  maritime  crimes  and  offenses. 
But  the  courts  of  the  United  Stales  have  been  reluctant 
to  assume  the  exercise  of  any  criminal  jurisdiction 
which  was  not  specially  cimfiirred  by  an  act  of  Con- 
gress."— Kknt's  Cnmvi.  Led.  XVII. 

Adulteration,  the  act  of  debasing,  byniixingwith 
any  pure  and  ganiiine  commodity  a  spurious  article,  or 
an  inferior  one  of  the  same  kind,  for  pecuniary  profit; 
but  it  nay  also  occur  accidentally,  as,  for  instance,  liy 
the  action  of  acids  and  oils  on  vessels  of  copper  or  lead 
in  culinary  and  other  operations.  But  few  articles  of 
commerce,  comparatively,  are  exempt  from  fraudulent 
deterioration ;  and  although  the  iidulteration  of  excis- 


able commodities  and  >  food  are  offenses  punishable  by 
law,  the  risk  too  frequently  is  outweighed  by  tlic  temp- 
tation of  gain.  In  Paris  malpuctices  connected  with 
the  adulteration  of  food  are  investigated  by  the  Conseil 
do  Salubrity,  and  punished ;  but  English  laws  are  di- 
rected chiefly  to  the  protection  of  sucli  articles  as  affect 
the  revenue.  Adulterations  of  food,  when  willful,  have 
been  made  punishable  by  the  laws  of  most  countries. 
In  Great  Britain  iiumerous  acts  have  been  passed  for 
the  prevention  of  adulterations :  they  ai-e  usually  pun- 
ished by  a  fine,  determined  by  a  summary  process  be- 
fore a  magistrate.  In  Turkey,  a  culprit  baker  has  bis 
ears  nailed  to  his  door.  By  61I1  and  (!th  Vict.  e.  93, 
§  1,  8,  8,  manufacturers  of  tobacco  or  snuff  are  liable 
to  a  i)enalty  of  il'iOd  for  having  in  their  possession  any 
substance  or  liquid  to  be  used,  or  capable  of  l)eing  used, 
as  a  substitute  for  tobacco  or  snuf)',  or  to  adulterate  or 
give  them  weight.  The  preparer,  vender,  or  disposer 
of  such  articles,  is  liable  to  the  same.  For  actual  adul- 
teration the  penalty  is  £300,  and  for  having  such  adul- 
terated goods  in  possession,  £200.  After  a  similar  man- 
ner, beer  is  protected  by  still  heavier  penalties ;  which 
laws  extend  to  chemists,  druggists,  and  beer  retailers. 
See  bf<lh  (Jeo.  III.  c.  68,  \st  Will.  IV.  e.  51,  04,  4M  and 
hth  Will.  IV.  c.  85.  Tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  pepper,  etc.,  are 
protected  by  law ;  but  the  adulteratiuns  of  these,  as  of 
most  other  articles  of  food,  are  almost  endless.  The 
mixture  of  chiccory  with  coffee,  is,  however,  authorized 
under  certain  conditions.  A  treasury  minute  of  27th 
July,  1852,  prohibiting  the  sale  of  "  chiccory  or  other 
vegetable  substances  nnxed  willi  codec,"  w  as  rescinded 
by  a  subsequent  minute  of  25th  February,  1853,  which 
permits  dealers  in  coffee  "  to  keep  and  sell  chiccory  pre- 
pared and  mixed  w  ith  coffee,  provided  the  packages  in 
which  such  mixture  is  delivered  to  purchasers  have 
printed  distinctly  thereon,  according  to  directions  which 
will  lie  given  by  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue,  the  whole 
of  the  following  words,  'Mixture  of  Coffee  and  Chic- 
cory.' " 

'i'he  following  results  were  obtained  by  a  recent  se- 
ries of  aimlyses  of  some  articles  of  common  domestic 
consumplion,  purchased  from  different  dealers,  chiefly 
in  London.  In  the  several  kinds  of  tea  were  found 
(partly,  perhaps,  accidentally  present)  exhausted  tea- 
leaves,  leaves  of  the  beech,  elm,  horse-chestnut,  plane, 
bastard-plane,  fancy-oak,  willow,  poplar,  hawthorn, 
and  sloe ;  catechu,  rose-pink,  bluck-lead,  soap-stone, 
sulphate  of  iron,  logwood,  indigo,  starch,  rice  husks, 
excremeni  of  silkworms,  Prussian  blue,  sulphate  of 
lime,  verdegris,  etc.  Of  18  samples  of  chiccory  pro- 
cured from  manufactories,  5  were  adulterated  with 
roasted  wheat-flour ;  and  of  Ki  samples  of  cbiccovy,  pur- 
chased from  (liflerent  grocers,  several  were  colored  with 
Venetian  red,  or  reddle.  Of  (i8  sain|iles  uf  cocoa  and 
chocolate,  39  contained  colored  earthy  sulistances ;  in 
some  samples  of  cocoa,  sugar  ami  starch  constituted 
more  than  half  the  article.  Of  24  samgiles  of  bread,  all 
:  contained  more  or  less  alum;  and  it  may  l.u  oliserved 
that  the  quartern  loaf,  as  delivered  at  houses  liy  13 
:  difl'erent  bakers,  showed  deficiency  in  weight,  the  max- 
!  imuni  being  between  3  and  4  ounces.  Out  of  30  sam- 
ples of  oatmeal,  IfJ  were  adulterated  with  barle^i -meal ; 
in  one  instance,  apparently,  much  more  than  (me  half. 
Or.'Ki  samples  of  arrow-root,  18  were  mixed  with  potato- 
!  flour,  or  potato-starch,  sago-pow  iler,  or  tapioca-starch, 
'  etc. ;  and  6  were  almost  entirely  potato-starch.  t)f  20 
!  samples  of  milk,  11  were  mixed  with  water,  in  propor- 
tions varying  from  II)  to  50  per  cent.  Of  28  sniuples 
purchased  as  isinglass,  10  consisted  entirely  of  gelatine. 
It  is  well  known  that  quack  medicines  frequently  con- 
tain ingredients  they  are  guaranteed  not  to  contain ; 
hence  the  evils  resulting  from  their  indiscriminate  use. 
Nor  are  woolen,  linen,  and  silk  goods  exempt  from  in- 
ferior adndxture ;  various  sulistances  are  employed  to 
give  liody  to  silk  fabrics ;  as  in  China  a  gluey  prepara- 
tion ft-om  the  h'ueus  Tennr  is  used  to  give  them  weight 
and  glosB.    The  above  facts  will  give  some  idea  of  the 


ADU 


12 


ADV 


•xtent  to  which  adulteration  ia  practiced  in  the  most 
common  articles  of  consumption,  We  may  add  tliat 
•11  legislative  enactments  on  the  suliject  will  prove  in- 
eifectual  unless  the  public  exercise  their  own  discrim- 
ination, and  dealurs  who  arc  discovered  to  have  im- 
posed spurious  commodities  are  made  vo  feel  that  hon- 
esty is  the  best  policy. 

Adttlleralion  of  Wines.— The  various  substances  used 
in  the  manufacture  to  flavor  and  to  color  wines  (such 
»i  almonds,  raisins,  orris  root,  burned  sugar,  brandy, 
logwood,  whortleberries,  elderberries,  etc.)  must  be 
distinguished  from  others  which  are  directly  deleteri- 
ous, such  as  alum,  used  to  impart  astringcncy,  and 
litharge  and  ccruso,  to  dulcify  "  pricltcd"  or  sour  wines. 
The  following  is  an  excellent  test  for  any  of  the  prep- 
arations of  lead :  mix  an  aqueous  solution  of  tartaric 
acid  with  liquid  sulpliuteted  liydrogen ;  when  added  to 
the  suspected  wine,  should  any  copper  or  iron  be  pres- 
ent, they  are  Icept  in  solution  by  the  tartaric  acid,  while 
the  lead  is  thrown  down  by  the  sulphureted  hydrogen 
as  a  dark  precipitate.  Red  wine  should  be  decolorized 
before  using  the  test,  which  is  conveniently  done  by 
mixing  the  wine  with  an  equal  wciglit  of  miilc,  and 
filtering  it.  When  the  tartrate  of  lead  is  found  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cask,  it  may  easily  be  detected  by  calcin- 
ing a  portion  of  the  insoluble  matter,  and  reducing  it 
by  the  blowpipe  on  charcoal.  A  portion  of  the  sedi- 
ment may  be  digested  with  vinegar,  which  would  Rive, 
by  evaporation,  acetate  of  lead ;  and  it  may  be  tried  by 
sulphureted  hydrogen.  Alum  may  be  precipitated  from 
white  wine  by  carbonate  of  soda  gradually  added  until 
no  more  falls  down;  filter;  on  the  filter  will  be  found 
alumine.  The  Bulph.tte  of  potassa  remains  in  the  solu- 
tion ;  but  the  quantity  present  may  be  found  by  precip- 
itating the  sulphuric  acid  by  muriate  of  baryta.  Iron 
is  sometimes  accidentally  present  in  wines ;  but  it  is 
not  dangerous,  and  may  be  detected  l)y  nutgalls.  Cop- 
per sometimes  occurs  from  the  use  of  copper  stop-cocks : 
It  is  detected  by  the  addition  of  ammonia ;  and,  if  much, 
by  a  plate  of  polished  iron  left  some  time  in  the  wine. 
Arsenic  has  occasionally  occurred  from  the  sulphuring 
of  the  cask.  After  decoloration  liy  animal  clmrconl, 
pass  a  stream  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  throiigli  the 
wine,  and  a  yellow  precipitate  will  fall,  which  may  lie 
reduced  to  the  metallic  slate  by  charcoal  and  soda. 
1  lie  same  tests  arc  applicable  to  all  fermented  liquors. 
— E.  li.    See  llKXDKRSOn'a  Ancient  andMixlem  H'iuet. 

AduIlenUion  of  Coin. — This  has  been  accounted 
among  all  nations,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
a  very  grave  ofTense,  and  punishable  l>y  death  in  sev- 
eral ways.  It  was  formerly  considered  as  treason  in 
Great  Uritain,  and  rigorously  punished  witli  denlli; 
but  in  the  amelioration  of  the  criminal  code  by  Lord 
John  Russell's  act  (Will.  IV.  c.  84,  Vict.  1),  the  pun- 
ishment has  been  commuted  to  transportation  for  uny 
period  not  loss  than  seven  years,  or  by  imprisonment 
for  not  more  than  four  years,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
judge.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure  gold  =  I'J'SO ;  stand- 
ard golcl~18-88;  pure  siiver=10-61 ;  standard  sil- 
ver=l(l''li  Tlie  proportion  of  alloy  in  the  gold  and 
silver  coin  of  lirilain  is  oue-twelffli  copper,  which  gives 
durability.  A  genuine  coin,  ur.lcss  it  be  cracked,  is 
quite  sonorous;  yet  even  this  quality  is  nut  an  invaria- 
ble test  for  counterfeit  money.  Much  false  coin  is  in 
circulation,  especially  in  llie  nietro|iulls,  a  statement 
confirmed  by  its  very  frequent  reception  as  change. 
Besides  the  frauds  by  clipping,  liliiig,  ca.iing,  electro- 
plating, etc.,  the  debasement  of  coin  lias  licen  eft'ecled 
by  boring  the  edge  of  a  piece,  and  plugging  the  cavity 
with  inferior  metal :  in  this  manner  has  platinum  licen 
inserted  in  gold.  Another  method  has  ben  practiced 
by  sawing  a  gold  piece  laterally,  and  skillfully  filling 
the  centre  with  platinum ;  a  fraud  which  cutting  alone 
could  detect. 

To  ascertain  the  adulteration  of  sliver  and  gold  coin 
by  e.xcess  of  copper,  the  following  processes  will  suf- 
fice :  dissolve  a  given  weight  of  the  silver  in  nitric  acid, 


and  precipitate  by  a  solution  of  common  salt;  dry, 
and  weigh  the  precipitate,  which  is  the  chloride  nj' sil- 
ver, and  contains  75-5  per  cent,  of  the  metal ;  or  it  may 
be  reduced  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe,  when  a 
button  of  pure  silver  will  be  obtained,  by  weighing 
which,  the  proportions  of  silver  and  of  copper  will  be 
known.  Silver  coin  is  very  frequently  imitated  by 
some  white  alloy,  generally  of  tin,  antimony,  and  lead ; 
it  may  be  known  by  its  pliancy  ond  dull  appearance, 
or  it  nmy  bo  tested  for  silver,  as  described  above.  Uer- 
nmn  silver,  a  beautiful  imitation  of  silver  by  nickel  and 
copper,  may  be  dcti;ctcd  liy  its  deficient  specific  gravi- 
ty, and  its  emitting,  when  briskly  rubbed,  a  faint,  cop- 
pery odor ;  or  by  dissolving  it  in  nitric  acid,  and  add- 
ing a  solution  of  common  salt,  w  hen  it  will  give  no  pre- 
cipitate. The  amount  of  alloy  in  gold  may  readily  be 
ascertained,  for  ordinary  purposes,  by  the  sireak  on 
touchstone,  and  comparing  that  with  the  streak  of  the 
gold  needles  made  for  the  purpose ;  or  more  nicely  by 
this  process :  file  oft'  a  given  weight  of  the  gold,  and 
dissolve  in  aqiid  reyia,  then  precipitate  the  gold  by  im- 
mersing in  the  solution  a  plate  of  silver  or  copper;  or 
more  quickly,  by  weak  galvanic  action ;  or  the  gold 
may  be  thrown  down  by  addition  of  an  alkaline  sulu- 
tion,  or  by  adding  the  muriate  of  tin,  which  throws 
down  the  purple  powder  of  Cassius,  from  which  tho 
quantity  of  gold  may  be  ea.slly  ascertained,  by  oxidat- 
ing with  the  blowpipe  a  given  weight  of  the  powder, 
and  so  obtaining  a  button  of  pure  gold. 

The  purity  of  copper  is  ascertained  by  dissolving  a 
given  weight  in  any  of  tlie  mineral  acids,  and  obtain- 
ing copper  of  ccment.'iion  by  immersing  a  plate  of  iron 
or  zinc  in  the  solution  ;  or  by  decomposing  the  salt  of 
copper  l)y  charcoal,  alkali,  and  heat,  in  the  usual  way. 
(iSVe  (."iiK.MisTKY.)  It  nmy  be  noticed  as  a  curious  fact 
that,  in  England,  the  copper  coinage  of  William  IV. 
was  found  to  contain  gold,  from  which  discovery  these 
coins  speedily  became  scarce. — E.  I). 

Ad  Valorem,  a  term  chiefly  used  in  speaking  of 
the  duties  or  customs  paid  per  cent,  on  goods.  The  du- 
ties on  some  articles  are  paid  by  llie  number,  weight, 
measure,  tale,  etc.,  and  others  paid  ad  valorem,  that  is, 
according  to  their  value. 

Advance  implies  money  paid  before  goods  are  de- 
livered, or  upon  consignment.  It  is  usual  with  mer- 
chants to  advance  from  a  half  to  two-thirds  of  the  val- 
ue of  goods  consigned  to  them,  on  being  requir.'d,  on 
their  receiving  invoice,  bill  of  lading,  orders  to  insure 
them  from  sea  rii^k,  etc. 

Adventurer*,  Merchant,  a  celebrated  and  en- 
terprising coni|)ttny  of  merchants,  was  originally  formed 
for  the  discovery  of  territories,  e.Mensiiin  of  commerce, 
and  promotion  of  trade,  by  John,  duke  uf  Kraliant,  In 
12U(I.  This  ancient  company  was  afterward  translated 
into  England  in  tho  reign  of  Edward  ill.,  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  fonned  it  into  an  English  corporation  in  lu(>4. 
— Amikuso.v. 

Advertisement,  in  its  general  sense,  is  any  in- 
forniation  as  to  any  fact  or  circumstance  that  has  oc- 
curred, or  is  expected  to  occur;  liut,  in  a  cunimerelal 
sense,  it  Is  understood  to  lehite  only  to  inlimatimis  with 
respect  to  the  sale  of  articles,  the  formation  and  disso- 
lution of  partnerflii|is,  baiikruplcius,  meetings  of  cred- 
itors, etc.  AdvertUements  in  newspapers  In  England, 
as  now  puldlshed,  were  not  genciul  until  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century.  A  penalty  of  £iM  was  Intllcted 
on  persons  advertising  a  regard  with  "No  questions 
to  1h^  asked"  for  tho  return  of  things  stolen,  and  on  tho 

printer,  25  Geo.  11.  1754 Ulalulei.     The  ad>erti8». 

mciit  duty  was  formerly  charged  according  to  tlie  num- 
ber of  lines ;  It  was  afterward  fixed  in  England  at  Si. 
()(/.,  and  In  Ireland  at  it.  OtI.  each  advertisement.  Tha 
duty  was  further  reiluced,  in  England  to  )>.  ti</.,  and  in 
Ireland  to  Is.  each,  l>y  statute  :t  anil  4  Will.  IV.  183S. 
The  duty  was  altogether  abolished  in  the  I'nltcd  King- 
dom, by  Ifi  and  17  Vict.  c.  (!,t,  Aug.  4,  18,W.— IIavdn. 

Advice  is  usually  given  by  uuc  merchant  or  bank< 


.*/ 


AFP 


13 
♦ 


APP 


ion  salt;  dry, 

chloride  of  til- 
)Xa\ ;  or  it  may 
rpipe,  when  a 
,  by  weighing 
copper  will  be 
y  imitated  by 
ony,  nm\  lead ; 
ill  appearance, 
d  above.  Uer- 
r  by  niekel  and 

rpccific  prnvi- 
;d,  a  faint,  cop- 
acid,  and  add- 
ill  give  no  pre- 
may  readily  be 

the  ftreak  on 
le  streal(  of  the 
more  nicely  by 
:  the  gold,  and 
the  gold  by  im- 
r  or  copper ;  or 
n ;  or  the  gold 
I  alkaline  solu- 
,  which  throws 
rom  which  tho 
ned,  by  oxidat- 
of  the  powder, 

l)y  dissolving  a 
dfi,  and  obtain- 
{  a  plate  of  iron 
>ing  the  salt  of 
the  usual  way. 
18  a  curious  fact 
of  William  IV. 
discovery  these 

in  speaking  of 
;ood».  The  du- 
uniber,  weight, 
alorem,  that  ia, 

goods  are  de- 
luiil  with  mer- 
rds  of  the  val- 
rcquir.Ml,  on 
rdcrs  to  insuto 

iratcd  and  en- 
iiully  formed 
of  commerce, 
f  llralmnt,  in 

nrd  translated 
and  Qiipcn 

iration  in  16U4. 

se,  is  any  in- 
hat  has  uc- 
a  commercial 
iniatloijH  with 
ion  and  disso- 
lings  of  crcd- 
s  in  England, 
he  beginning 
was  intiicted 
Nu  questions 
n,  and  on  tho 
he  adi'ertise- 
ig  to  the  num- 
ugland  at  3«. 
sement.  Th« 
In.  t>c/.,  and  in 
ill.  IV.  IHBS. 
I'niled  King- 
ja.— IIaviim. 
;baut  or  bank< 


er  to  uncthar  by  letter,  informing  him  of  tho  bills  or 
drafts  drawn  on  him,  with  all  particulars  of  date,  or 
sigiit,  the  sum,  to  whom  made  payable,  etc.  Where 
bills  appear  for  accoi)tanco  or  puymer.t,  they  arc  fre- 
quently refused  to  be  honored  for  tcaid  of  advice.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  give  advice,  as  it  prevents  forgeries : 
if  a  merchant  accept  or  pay  a  bill  for  tho  honor  of  any 
other  person,  he  is  bound  to  advise  him  thereof,  and 
this  should  always  be  done  under  an  act  of  honor  by  a 
noturv  public. 

Affreightment.  "  A  charter-party  is  a  contract 
of  atfreiglitnient  in  writing,  by  which  the  owner  of  a 
ship  lets  the  whole,  or  ii  part  of  her,  to  a  merchant,  for 
tlie  conveyance  of  goods  on  a  particular  voyago.  In  con- 
sideration of  tho  payment  of  freight.  All  contracts 
under  seal  were  anciently  called  charters,  and  they 
used  to  bo  divided  into  two  parts,  and  eacli  party  in- 
terested took  one,  and  this  was  tho  meaning  of  tho 
churta  partita.  It  was  a  deecl  or  writing  divided,  con- 
sisting of  two  parts,  like  au  indenture  at  conmion  law. 
Lord  Manslidd  observed,  that  the  charter-party  was 
an  old  informal  instrument,  and,  by  the  introduction  of 
different  clauses  at  different  times,  it  was  inaccurate 
and  sometimes  contradictory.  But  this  defect  has  been 
supplied  by  giving  it,  as  mercantile  contracts  usually 
receive,  a  liberal  construction,  in  furtherance  of  the 
real  intention  liini  !  of  trade. 

"  This  mcrcam..  ■'.  a  ship  descril)es  tho  par- 

ties, the  ship  and  t'  and  contains,  on  the  part 

of  the  owner,  a  sti)  .ts  to  sea-worthiness,  and  as 

to  the  promptitude  with  wliicli  the  vessel  shall  receive 
the  cargo  and  perform  tho  voyage ;  and  tho  exception 
of  such  perils  of  tho  sea  for  w  liieh  the  master  and  ship- 
owncrs  do  not  mean  to  be  responsililo.  On  the  part  of 
tho  freighter,  it  contains  a  stipulation  to  load  and  un- 
load within  u  given  time,  witli  an  allowance  of  so  many 
lay,  or  running  days,  for  loading  uiid  unloading  the  car- 
go, and  the  rate  and  times  of  payment  of  the  freight, 
and  rate  of  demurrage  beyond  the  allotted  days. 

"  When  the  goods  of  several  merclmnts,  unconnect- 
ed with  eiPih  other,  are  laden  on  board,  without  any 
particular  contract  of  affreightment  with  any  individ- 
ual for  the  entire  ship,  the  vessel  is  called  a  general 
ship,  liccuuse  open  to  nil  merchants ;  but  where  one  or 
more  merch.mts  contract  for  the  ship  exclusively,  it  is 
said  to  be  a  chartered  ship.  The  ship  may  be  let  in 
w  hole  or  in  part,  and  either  for  such  u  quantity  of  goods 
by  weight,  or  for  so  much  space  in  the  sliip,  which  is 
letting  tin:  ship  by  the  ton.  She  may  also  be  hired  for 
a  gross  sum,  as  freight  for  tlie  voyage,  or  for  a  particu- 
lar Sinn  Ijy  the  month,  or  any  other  determinate  ]ie- 
riud.  or  fur  a  certain  sum  for  every  ton,  cask,  or  bale 
of  goods  put  on  board ;  and  when  the  ship  is  let  by  the 
month,  tlie  time  does  not  l)egin  to  run  until  the  ship 
breaks  ground,  unless  it  be  otherwise  agreed.  The 
merchant  who  hires  a  ship,  moy  eitlicr  lade  it  with  his 
own  goods,  or  wholly  underlet  it  upon  his  own  terms; 
and  if  no  certain  freight  bo  Uipulated,  tho  owner  will 
be  eiuitU'd  to  rcicover,  upon  a  quimlum  meruit,  as  much 
frciglit  as  is  usual  under  the  like  circumstances,  at  tho 
time  and  place  of  .shipment.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  own- 
er of  tlu'  sliip,  not  only  to  see  that  she  is  duly  ecpiipped, 
and  in  a  suitiililu  condition  to  perform  the  voyage,  but 
he  is  liounil  to  keep  her  in  that  condition  throughout 
tli<!  \  oyage,  unless  he  be  prevented  l)y  perils  of  the  sea. 
If,  in  con»e(|uence  of  a  failure  in  the  due  equipment  of 
tlic  ves.sel,  tlio  charterer  does  not  use  her,  he  is  not 
bouuil  to  pay  any  freight;  but  if  ho  actually  employs 
her,  he  must  pay  the  freight,  though  he  has  his  rem- 
edy on  the  charter-party  for  damag'  sustained,  by  rea- 
son of  till.'  deliciency  of  the  vessel  in  her  e(|uipnieiit. 
The  freighter  is  liound,  on  his  part,  not  to  detain  the 
shi])  beyond  the  stipulated  or  usual  time,  to  load,  or  de- 
liver tli<!  cargo,  or  to  sail.  The  extra  days  beyond  the 
lay  ilays  (lieing  the  days  allowed  to  load  anil  unload 
the  cargo)  are  culled  days  ofdemurrar/e;  and  that  term 
is  likewise  applied  to  payment  fur  such  delay,  and  it 


may  become  due  either  by  the  ship's  detention,  for  th« 
purpose  of  loading  or  unloading  tho  cargo,  cither  b»> 
fore,  or  during,  or  after  the  voyage,  or  waiting  for  con- 
voy.   If  the  claim  for  demurrage  rest  on  express  con- 
tract it  is  strictly  enforced,  as  whore  the  running  days 
for  delivering  tho  ;arga  under  tho  bill  of  lading  had  ex- 
pired, even  though  tho  contlgnoo  was  pnivented  from 
clearing  the  vessel  of  tho  goods  by  tho  dc'ault  of  others. 
"  The  old  and  the  now  French  codes  of  commerce  re- 
quire the  charter-party  to  bo  in  writing,  though  Vslin 
holds  that  the  contract,  if  by  parol,  would  !>«  equally 
valid  and  bindiqg.     In  the  English  law,  the  hiring  of  ^ 
ships  without  writing  Is  undoubtedly  valid;  but  it 
would  be  a  very  loose  and  dangerous  practice,  at  least 
in  respect  to  foreign  voyages,    In  tho  river  and  coast- 
ing trade,  there  is  less  formality  and  lens  necessity  for 
it ;  and  the  contract  is,  no  douot,  frequently  without 
the  evidence  of  deed  or  writing.    If  ciihor  party  be  not 
ready  by  tho  time  appointed  for  loading  thn  ship,  the 
other  party,  if  he  be  the  charterer,  may  seek  another 
ship,  or,  if  he  bo  tho  owner,  another  cargo.    This  right 
arises  from  the  necessity  of  precision  and  punctuality 
in  all  maritime  transactions.    Uy  n  very  short  delay, 
the  proper  season  may  bu  lost,  or  the  oljcrt  of  the  voy- 
age defeated.    And  if  the  ship  bo  loaded  only  in  part, 
and  she  be  hired  exclusively  fur  tho  voyage,  and  to 
lake  ir.  a  cargo  at  ceitain  bpecltlod  rates,  the  freighter 
is  entitled  to  the  full  c:iJoyment  of  the  ship;  for  he  is 
answerable  to  tho  owner  for  freight,  not  only  for  the 
cargo  actually  put  on  Ijoard,  but  what  tho  vessel  could 
have  taken  had  a  full  cargo  lieen  furnished.     The 
master  has  no  right  to  complete  the  lading  witit  the 
goods  of  other  persons  without  the  consent  of  the  char- 
terer; and  if  ho  grants  that  permission,  tho  master  must 
account  to  him  for  thu  frelglit.    Ho  1ms  no  right  to  com- 
plain if  the  charterer  refuses  to  grant  the  permission,  or 
to  completo  tho  lading,  jirovidcd  ho  lias  cargo  enough 
to  secure  his  freight.     This  was  tho  regulation  of  tho 
French  ordinance,  and  it  has  been  adopted  into  the  new 
code.     liy  the  contract,  tho  owner  is  tiounil  to  see  that 
the  ship  be  sea-worthy,  which  means  that  she  must  bo 
tight,  stanch,  and  strung,  well  furnished,  manned,  vict- 
ualed, and  in  all  respects  equipped  in  the  usual  man- 
ner for  the  merchant  service  in  such  n  trade. 

"The  ship  must  be  lit  and  co.npetent  for  tho  sort  of 
cargo  and  for  the  particular  service  fur  which  she  is  en- 
gaged. If  there  should  be  a  latent  defect  in  n  vessel, 
uuliuown  to  the  owner,  and  undiscoverablo  upon  exam- 
ination, yet  the  better  opiniun  is  that  the  owinir  must 
answer  for  thu  damage  occasioned  by  the  defect.  It  is 
an  implied  warranty  in  the  contract,  that  tho  ship  bo 
sufficient  for  the  voyogo,  and  the  owtuir,  like  a  common 
carrier,  is  an  insurer  against  every  thing  but  the  ex- 
cepted perils.  To  tins  head  of  seo-worlhiness  may  bo 
referred  the  owner's  obligation  to  sec  that  the  ship  !s 
furnished  with  all  the  requisite  papers  according  to  tiio 
laws  of  the  country  to  which  she  belongs,  and  acc<ird- 
ing  to  treaties  and  the  laws  of  nations.  Such  ilucunuints 
are  necessary  to  secure  tho  ves-iel  from  disturbance  at 
home,  on  tho  high  seas,  and  in  foreign  ports.  If  tho 
charter-party  contains  any  stipulation  on  tho  part  of 
tlie  owner  to  keep  thu  ship  In  good  order  during  the 
voyage,  thu  entire  expense  of  the  repairs  requlsilu  in 
the  course  of  the  voyage  are  then  to  bo  liorno  by  tho 
owner,  and  arc  nut,  in  that  case,  tlio  subject  of  general 
average  or  contribution.  Uut  thu  owner  dues  nut  in- 
sure tlie  cargo  against  the  perils  of  the  sea.  lie  is  an- 
su'crablc  for  his  own  fault  or  negligence,  or  tlinse  of  his 
agents,  and  for  defects  in  the  ship  or  her  equipments ; 
and  generally,  as  u  common  carrier,  iiu  is  answtralilo 
fur  all  losses  other  than  w  hat  nriso  from  thu  excepted 
cases  of  the  act  of  (iod  and  public  enemies.  Tho  ro- 
sponsiliility  of  the  owner  begins  where  that  of  tho 
whartinger  ends,  and  when  thu  goods  aro  delivered  to 
some  accredited  person  on  board  thu  ship,  'the  cargo 
must  bo  taken  on  board  with  cnre  and  skill,  and  lis 
properly  stowed,  and  thu  contract  by  thu  bill  of  lading 


AFR  1 

imports  th»t  the  goodi  »re  to  bo  Mfely  ttowed  undw 
deck ;  and  if  they  are  stowed  on  deck  without  tb«  i«n- 
lent  of  the  ahipper,  or  without  (he  sancliun  of  uuntoiii, 
they  arci  at  the  ri»k  of  the  i  liip-owncr  or  niuiter,  and  ha 
•nd  the  owners  of  the  vc»r  '  would  not  he  protuclsd 
from  liability  for  their  losj  '  lie  exception  in  tliu  lilll 
ofladingofthe(/(iri^r*o/iA'  na:  If  Iheshlp  has  heeil 
advertised  by  the  af;ent  of  the  owner  for  frciitlit  us  it 
general  ship,  and  the  notice  had  stated  that  she  waa  In 
•ail  with  convoy,  tliis  would  amount  to  an  ewga^emmH 
to  that  elfect;  and  if  she  s«il>  without  convoy  and  Ix) 
lost,  the  owner  becomes  ans».  iublo  to  the  shipper  tri 
damages  for  the  breach  of  that  representation,"— 
Kkxt'h  Comm.,  Lect.  XLVil. 

Africa.  The  knowledge  of  this  great  continent 
which  ancient  writers  have  transmitted  to  posterity  I" 
of  very  limited  extent,  owing  principally  to  its  physic- 
al construction.  The  great  desert,  which  in  a  broad 
belt  strctclics  quite  across  the  continent,  forbade  a\jry 
attempt  to  pass  it  until  the  introduction  of  the  camel 
by  the  Arabs.  Tlic  want  of  any  known  great  river,  ex- 
cept the  Nile,  that  might  conduct  inio  the  interior,  con- 
tributed to  conliiie  the  Greek  and  Koman  colonists  to  the 
habitable  belt  along  the  northern  coast,  'i'he  I'hd'nI- 
dans  are  known  to  have  formed  establishmcnta  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  at  a  verj'  early  pcrioil  of  his. 
tory,  probably  not  less  than  3000  years  ago;  and  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  Camliyses  dates  as  fur  Imck  us 
the  year  n.c.  625.  We  may  consider,  therefore,  the 
coasts  of  Egypt,  of  the  lied  Sea,  and  of  the  ilcditcrra- 
nean,  to  have  been  settled  and  well  known  to  the  an- 
cient Asiatics,  wlio  were  constantly  pas.^iug  tlio  narro* 
isthmus  which  divided  their  country  from  Africa,  and 
led  them  immediately  from  parched  deserts  into  a  fer- 
tile valley,  wotercd liy  o  magnilicent  river.  Hut  wlu'lli- 
er  they  were  much  or  little  acquainted  with  the  wcslerii 
coast,  wlilch  bounds  tlie  .Vtlantic,  and  the  eastern  count 
washed  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  Is  a  question  that  h;  ex- 
ercised the  research  ami  inj;-jnuity  of  the  alilest  wliol- 
ars  and  geographers,  and  has  not  yet  teen  ^ati^facturiit 
answered. 

From  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  aliout  the 
latitude  of  20°  north,  the  population  of  Africu  oiiusjsis 
largely  of  tribes  not  originally  native  to  the  soil,  hut  of 
Arabs  and  Turks,  planted  by  conquciit,  with  a  cunsiil- 
erablc  number  of  Jew.s,  the  chlMren  uf  dii^pcrsion  ;  and 
the  recently  introduced  French.  The  llerliers  of  the 
Atlas  region,  the  Tuaricks  and  1ibl>us  of  the  Haliura, 
and  the  Copts  of  Egj'pt,  may  he  \  iewcd  as  the  descend- 
ants of  the  primitive  stock,  whik  thoKC  to  whom  the 
general  name  of  Moors  is  applied  are  perhaps  of  ndxed 
descent,  native  and  foreign.  I'rom  the  latitude  sluleil, 
to  the  Cape  colony,  tiilics  commonly  classed  together 
under  the  tirle  of  the  Ethiopie  or  ne^rro  family  arc 
found,  thoiigli  many  depart  very  widely  froui  the  pecul- 
iar physiogiiomy  of  the  negro,  wliicli  in  most  uppan  nl 
in  the  natives  of  tlic  (iuinea  coast.  In  the  Cape  colony, 
and  on  its  l>orders.  the  llottcn'.ots  form  a  distinct  vari- 
ety in  the  population  of  Africa,  most  closely  resembling 
the  Mongolian  races  of  Aria. 

The  British  colony  of  Sierro  I.eonc  extends  from  lio- 
kelle  Kiver  in  the  north,  to  Kater  Kiver  in  the  soiMli, 
and  about  twenty  miles  inland.     The  populalitui,  ron- ! 
sisting  chietly  of  liberated  slaves,  amounted  In  1HI7  to  \ 
i\,l'ih.     Freetown,  the  capital,  has  JO,.'>KO  inhabiliuits, 


I  AFR 

town  namml  afior  itt«  (imldent,  Mr.  Monro.  The  pop- 
ulatiun  Ntnotlitts  to  frt  lti,(lOO  to  16,000  native  inhab- 
\l»n\*,  ami!  Iti/OtI  lllieraitd  negroes  from  America. 

'i'hf  Ivury  r'uast  extends  from  Cape  I'almas  to  Cape 
Tlirci  l'ullllk,«ti(l  ulititlncd  lis  name  from  the  quantity 
of  lh«  anil  \»  tiufililkd  by  lit  numerous  elephants.  The 
Onid  I'mtH  •inilcht's  fnim  Cape  Three  I'oints  to  the 
Itlver  VullR,  and  lic^  been  long  frequciited  for  gold 
diitt  and  uliitir  t>rodu'  is.  The  Dutch  have  several  trad- 
ing purls,  Iff  which  Elnilna,  a  town  of  12,000  inhalw 
ilNiitii,  in  tlio  itrltirlpal  and  oldest  of  the  European  sta- 
tion*, futlttdeil  by  (lie  I'orliiguc^o  In  1111.  The  Uritish 
pu«Mis»  ('a|i«  (^naat  Castle,  a  spacious  fortress,  and 
Janivfi'ii  l^urt,  tt«ar  Accra.  The  Uanlsh  settlements  of 
Clirintlitioilmrg  and  frledelisburg  were  ceded  to  the 
KltglUb  III  \MV.  The  ftlavu  Coast  extends  from  thd 
liivur  Vfdia  in  the  Calabar  Klvcr,  and  is,  as  its  namo 
linpll*'*,  thn  chief  scene  of  the  most  disgraceful  traffic 
llmt  IdidK  llitt  lilst(ir>' of  mankind,  Eko,  or  Lagos,  one 
of  lliA  ehliif  l(Wt(*i  of  the  roast,  was  destroyed  In  1852. 
I  lie  Itllitfdotli*  (if  Ashanll,  I)ahomey,  Yoriiija,  and  oth- 
ers, oei'upy  Ihd  inleriur  country  of  the  Guinea  coast. 
The  eoant  from  llie  Old  Calabar  Kiver  to  tlie  Portu- 
guese possfMliiti*  Is  lliliablled  by  various  tribes.  Uuke'a 
Town,  oti  lh«  former  river,  Is  a  largo  town  of  .10,0(10  to 
'IO,(HNI  iiiliMldlanln,  with  considerable  trade  in  palm-oil, 
ivory,  and  llliilier.  On  the  (inbun  Kiver,  close  to  tliu 
equator,  Kv  a  t^rcndi  reltlement  and  American  xa'.n- 
tioMury  »(»ll«loi,  At  the  equator,  Soi-lhern  or  Lower 
tiulHea  lii'ijlim,  where  the  only  European  settlements 
aril  tlio>a  of  llid  J'ofdigucse,  Ixjango  is  reckoned  from 
the  equator  In  Old /n're  or  C<in^o  river.  Its  chief  town 
ii  Itoally,  called  l,(«i»Ko  by  the  Europeans.  Congo  ex- 
tends toMll)  ,'<f  lli>  /aire,  comprising  a  very  fertile  re- 
gion, with  '"Ins  (rf*  copper  and  Iron,  lianza  Congo, 
or  Ki,  Halvudiir,  Is  the  capital.  Angola  comprises  the 
iHo  dinfri'iii  of  Angola  proper  and  Jlenguela.  In  these 
reKl"n»  iImi  I'orluxiH'.Hi  settlements  extend  farther  in- 
Iiiiuj  ,lmtl  ill  lliti  Iwoprecedlngdlstricts,  namely,  about 
ViHI  miles,  Tli«  jiopulallon  of  Ihe  settlements  is  about 
(00,()(,0,  cotHpfl«l;(g  otily  I*ig0  Europeans.  The  capi- 
lul,  Kl,  I'wolo  de  t/ORttdo,  contains  HKX)  Europeans  and 
IINMi  nalivn  tnhnlillnnls,  and  has  a  tine  harbor.  iHt. 
FeliiMi  d«  Itciiguila  Is  situated  In  a  |iicturcsquc  but 
very  Ntarttiy  and  most  unhealthy  spot. 

TliB  coam  from  Iteligiula  to  the  Capo  colony  may, 
in  a  general  arrnntsement  like  this,  be  included  either 
within  M'«)»(  Africa  or  Houlh  Africa.  The  whole  coast 
is  litilu  tlkilKd  or  known,  being  of  a  most  barren  and 
d>'s<daltt  dckcriplioit,  mid  t>o<icies«lng  few  harbors.  From 
W»|(ic|i  Day,  Mf,  finlli'ii  recently  penetrated  nearly 
IfKI  mill's  into  lliii  liiler'or  toward  I.ake  Ngiimi,  and 
explored  (lie  coiililry  Inhatdted  '  ■.•  the  Ovahcrero,  or 
Damarao,  utid  <)ih<'r  tribes, 

I'nder  MoMlli  Affka  Ihe  Tape  .\»ny  only  Is  gener- 
ally cniM|iriu<d,  It  lakes  lis  naine  from  the  Cape  of 
(iood  ll"i»',  and  eulcnds  from  Ihrncc  to  the  Orange 
Kiver  In  Ihe  north,  and  lo  ihe  Tugela  Kiver  in  the  east. 
A  larKc  proportion  of  Ihe  territory  Included  v.  itldn  tiieso 
limiu,  cejiecially  In  ihc  north,  is  either  unoccupied,  or, 
ekci-piinu  inlMloiiary  slallons,  entirely  In  the  hands  of 
the  Nliorigllies, 

N'ulul,  or  V'bioria,  a  district  on  the  east  coast,  and 
M'l.uraled  from  ih"  Cape  colony  by  Katl'raria,  is  a  re- 

nlly  foriiiiid  llrltWi  «<lllcnient,  conlniiiing  an  area 


and  is.  after  St.  I.onis,  the  mo>t  considerable  European  I  of  aboul  lt,000  nqtiare  miles,     It  is  highly  favored  in 


town  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa. 

Till!  .Malngliettu  or  Grain  Coast  extends  from  NIerra 
Leone  te  Cape  I'almas.  Malaghella  is  u  species  of 
pepper  yielded  by  a  parasitical  plant  of  this  region. 
It  is  sometimes  styled  ilio  Windy  or  Windwari!  Const, 
from  the  fnMjueiicy  of  short  but  furious  tornudocK, 
throughout  Ihe  year.  The  Itepulilie  of  Lllwria,  a  SkC- 
tlement  of  the  American  Colonization  .Society,  founil- 
ed  in  Wii,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  free  people  of 
color  from  the  I'niled  .States,  occupies  a  con^illcrablu 
•xteat  of  the  coast,  and  has  for  its  capital  Montuvia,  a 


Ihote  rn«pec(«  jn  which  the  Cape  Is  most  ilclicient,  liav- 
iiig  Hliuiid/iiice  if  wood  and  water,  with  coal  and  vari- 
ous niiilHllic  orca,  a  line  alluvial  soil,  aixt  a  ilinialo 
loUpted  to  the  cull  Ival  Ion  of  I  he  products  for  hIjIcIi  the 
lioiiie  dnniHlld  Ii  large  and  constant — cotton,  silk,  and 
liMllgo,  rictcrni»rllr,lHir(f,  the  capital  of  the  settle- 
iiieiil,  lie*  fill  miles  from  (ho  coast.  I'orl  Nalat,  now 
KT'r'iaii,  "'a!*"!  on  a  fine  Inkt-like  bay,  is  the  only 
harbor. 

To  Africa  liclmo/  a  considerable  number  of  islands, 
ihf  HtMno,  UiluiigltiK  to  I'ortugal,  lie  off  ihe  north- 


/ 


AFB 


15 


ALA 


onro.  The  pop- 
M)  native  inliab- 
I  America. 
I'alnias  to  Cape 
oni  the  quantity 
elephant!,  Tho 
e  I'ointt  to  the 
ueiited  for  gold 
ivo  ■cvrrnl  trad- 
jf  12,0(H)  inhalw 
le  European  ata- 
11.  ihe  British 
us  fortresa,  and 
h  tcttlvments  of 
re  ceded  to  the 
xtcnda  from  thd 
I  is,  a.i  in  namo 
is;^raceful  traffic 
to,  or  I.agoii,  one 
!8troyed  in  1(<»2. 
i'orulja,  and  oth- 
10  Guinea  coast, 
cr  to  tlic  Portu- 
latribrs.  Duke's 
;o«\n  of  ;I0,<)(H)  to 
rade  in  palm-oil, 
ivcr,  close  to  tho 
I  American  mls- 
I'lhcrn  or  Lower 
)ean  settlements 
is  reckoned  from 
•.  Its  chief  town 
■ans.  Congo  cx- 
a  very  fertile  re- 
ISiinza  Congo, 
>ln  comprises  the 
iguela.  In  these 
ktend  farther  in- 

"  namely,  aliout 
lemcnts  is  about 

ans.  The  capi- 
uropeans  and 
harlior.     Hi. 

picturesque  but 

pe  colony  mav, 

ncluded  either 

ic  whole  coast 

St  barren  and 

liarliors.    Kroni 

letrated  nearly 

Ngami,  and 

Ovaherero,  or 

only  is  gener- 
in  the  Cape  of 
to  the  Orange 
cer  In  the  east. 
(I  v.illiin  these 
inoccupied,  or, 
I  the  hands  of 

ast  coast,  and 
Iruriu,  is  a  re- 
ining an  area 
ily  favored  in 
(Iilicient,  liav- 
iinl  and  vsri- 
nd  a  cIlMiato 
for  wliich  tho 
Iton,  i>ilk,  and 
lof  the  scttle- 
|t  Nalul,  now 
|,  IS  the  only 

^r  of  islands, 
bir  the  uorth- 


west  coast  of  Africa,  at  a  distance  of  about  860  miles. 
Madeira,  the  chief  islai.d.  Is  about  1(H)  miles  in  circuit, 
and  lias  long  been  famed  for  Its  picturesque  beauty, 
rich  fruits,  and  fine  climate,  which  renders  it  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  Invalids.  Wine  Is  the  staple  produce. 
Funchal,  the  chief  town,  with  nearly  80,000  inhabit- 
ants Is  a  regular  station  fur  the  West  India  mail 
steam-puckets  from  Southampton,  and  tho  Brazilian 
sailing-packets  from  Kalmouth.  The  Canaries,  belong- 
ing to  Spaii ,  the  supposed  Fortunate  Islands  of  the 
ancients,  are  situated  about  300  miles  south  of  Madei- 
ra. They  are  13  in  number,  all  of  volcanic  origin,  Tene- 
riffe  being  the  largest.  Tho  latter  Is  remarkable  for 
its  peak,  which  rises  as  a  vast  pyramidal  mass  to  the 
height  of  12,172  fe«t.  The  Capo  Vord  Islands,  uib- 
ject  to  Portugal,  are  a  numerous  group  about  80  miles 
from  Cape  Vcril.  They  obtained  their  name  from 
the  profusion  of  sea-weed  found  by  tho  discoverers  in 
the  neighboring  ocean,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a 
green  meadow.  They  are  also  of  volcanic  origin. 
Fernando  I'o,  a  very  moniitainous  island.  Is  in  the 
Biglit  of  Biafra.  Formerly  a  Britisli  settlement,  it 
was  abandoned  owing  to  its  iinhealthiiiess,  and  Is  now 
only  in'iabited  by  a  few  negroes  and  mulottoes.  St. 
Thomas,  immediately  under  the  equator,  is  a  Porlu- 
gue.^3  settlement;  as  also  Prince's  Island,  2°  north 
of  the  line.  Annoboin,  in  '2°  S.  lat.,  belongs  to  tlie 
Spaniards.  Ascension,  a  snioll,  arid,  volcanic  Islet, 
was  made  a  British  port  on  tlic  arrival  of  Napoleon 
Uonapurtc  nt  St.  Helena,  ond  since  retained  as  u  sta- 
tion, at  wliich  ships  may  touch  for  stores.  Green  Hill, 
the  summit  of  the  island,  rises  to  the  height  of  2K'10 
feet.  St.  Helena  is  a  Inige  'ark  mass  of  rock,  risiTig 
abruptly  from  the  ocean  to  the  height  of  2G'J2  feet. 
James'  Town  is  the  only  town  and  port,  containing 
6:iU0  inhabitants,  iladagascar,  the  largest  island  of 
Africa,  and  one  of  the  largest  In  the  world,  is  separatcjl 
from  the  Mozambique  coast  by  a  channel  of  that  name, 
aliout  2r)0  miles  wide.  Tho  area  exceed-  that  of 
France,  coirprising  225,000  square  miles,  and  the  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  4,000,000.  It  has  an  atmos- 
pliero  so  pestilential,  in  particular  localities,  thai  to 
breatlie  it  for  a  short  <Iuration  is  generally,  and  very 
quickly,  fatal.  But  other  parts  nro  not  insalubrious. 
The  lemurs,  an  interesting  tribe  of  animals,  are  pecul- 
iar to  Mailttb.'>scar  and  the  Comoro  Archipelago.  The 
Inhabitants  arc  diverse  races  of  Negro,  Arali,  and  Ma- 
lay origin.  Tlie  Ovahs,  a  people  of  the  central  prov- 
inces, ore  now  dominant.  The  principal  town,  Tun- 
anarlvn,  Uas  SOOO  inliabitonts.  Tlie  Comoro  isles,  four 
in  number,  are  in  llie  north  part  of  the  Mozambique 
Channel,  and  inhobited  hy  Arab  tribes.  Bourbon, 
4110  mileii  east  of  Madagascar,  ib  a  colony  of  France, 
producing  for  export  eoll'ee,  sugar,  cocoa,  spices,  and 
timber.  Mauritius,  cided  to  the  British  by  the  French 
In  IHl  I,  is  ',10  miles  uu:  tlieast  of  Bourlion.  The  sugai- 
cane  is  cliieily  cultivated.  Port  Louis,  the  capital, 
beautifully  situated,  has  20,000  hihabltants.  Within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Governor  of  'he  Mauritius  are 
tlie  islands  of  Itodriguez,  the  Seychelles,  and  the  Ain- 
irunti'  islands.  Soeotia,  a  large  island,  oast  of  Cape 
ilerdafViin,  with  an  Arab  population,  has  been  known 
from  early  times ;  it  is  now  a  British  possession.  This 
islund  was  long  celebrated  as  producing  the  tinest  alo- 
etic  drug ;  a  few  years  ago  this  was  denied ;  but  now 
it  is  found  !  till  to  produce  a  tine  kind  of  aloe,  though 
niiicli  of  what  passed  as  Socutrinc  aloes  really  came 
from  India. — K.  H. 

African  Company,  a  society  of  merchants  trad- 
ing to  .Africa.  An  ossociation  in  K.\eter,  wIkcIi  was 
formed  in  loSM,  gave  rise  to  this  company.  A  charter 
was  granted  to  a  joint  stock  company  in  U>\H:  a  third 
company  was  created  in  1031 ;  a  fourth  corporation  in 
ll>02 ;  and  another  formed  by  letters  patent  in  1(>72, 
and  reniodeleil  in  Ifi'Jo.  Tho  rights  vested  in  the 
present  company,  23  Geo.  II.  1749.  —  i'ee  Slave 
Thaiiu. 


Agato  (popularly  Coknklian),  Ocrm.  Achatf 
Du,  Achaat;  Vt.  Agate;  It.  Agata;  Riis.  Agat;  Lat. 
Achata,  A  genus  of  seini-pellncid  gems,  so  called 
from  tho  Greek  axart^,.  because  originally  found  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  of  that  name  in  Italy.  It  la 
never  wholly  opaque  like  jasper,  » or  transparent  as 
quartz-crystal;  it  takes  a  very  high  polish,  and  ita 
opaque  parts  usually  present  the  appearance  of  dots, 
eyes,  veins,  zones,  or  bands.  Its  colors  are  yellowish, 
reddish,  bluish,  milk-white,  honey-orange,  or  ochre- 
yellow,  flesh-blood,  or  brick-red,  reddish  brown,  violet 
blue,  and  lirownlsli  green.  It  is  found  in  irregular 
rounded  nodules,  from  tho  size  of  a  pin's  head  to  more 
than  a  toot  in  diameter.  The  lapida.ics  distinguish 
agates  according  to  the  color  of  their  ground,  the  finer 
semi-transparent  kinds  being  termed  Oriental.  The 
most  beautiful  agates  found  In  Great  Britain  are  com- 
monly known  by  tho  namo  of  Scotch  pebbles,  and  are 
met  with  in  different  parts  of  Scotland,  principally  on 
the  mountain  of  Cairngorm ;  whence  they  are  some- 
times termed  Cairngorms.  Tho  German  agates  are 
the  largest.  Some  very  fine  ones  have  been  brought 
from  Siberia  and  Ceylon.  They  nro  found  in  great 
plenty  at  tho  eastern  extremity  of  tho  settlement  of 
the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  and  arc  still  met  with  in  It- 
aly, lint  the  principal  mines  of  agate  are  situated  In 
the  little  principality  of  Rajpepla,  in  the  province  of 
Giyrat,  14  miles  distant  from  tho  city  of  Broach,  where 
they  ore  cut  into  beads,  crosses,  snuft-boxcs,  etc.  They 
arc  exported  in  considerable  quantities  to  other  parts 
of  India,  and  to  this  country;  and  hence,  perhaps,  the 
jewelers'  term  "  broach." 

Agent.     See  FACTon. 

Agio,  a  term  used  In  Commerce  to  denote  the  difTer- 
ence  betwci  n  the  real  and  the  nominal  value  of  money. 
In  sjnio  states  tho  coinage  is  so  debased,  that  the  real 
is  greatly  reduced  below  tho  nominal  value.  Some- 
times this  is  owing  to  abrasion,  and  the  wear  of  circu- 
lation. Where  this  reduction  amounts,  e.g.,  to  6  per 
cent.,  if  100  sovereigns  were  ottered  as  payment  of  a 
debt  in  England,  while  such  sovereigns  were  current 
at  their  nominal  value,  they  would  bo  received  as  just 
payment ;  but  if  they  were  offered  as  payment  of  tho 
same  amount  of  debt  in  a  foreign  state,  they  would  be 
received  oiily  at  their  intrinsic  value  of  £0,5,  tho  addi- 
tional ilu  constituting  tho  agio.  Tho  .same  principle 
is  applied  to  the  paper  currency  of  a  country,  when  re- 
iluced  below  the  bullion  value  which  it  professes  to 
represent.  According  to  the  respective  demand  for 
gold  or  paper  money  for  the  purposes  of  cominerce,  it 
liecoines  necessary,  in  order  to  procure  the  one  or  oth- 
er, as  the  case  nioy  re(iuire,  to  pay  a  premium  for  it, 
which  is  called  the  agio. — E.  II. 

Agrarian  La^^,  Agraria  Lex.  This  wns  nn  equal 
division  ameng  the  Koman  people  of  all  the  l:inda 
which  they  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  tlie  ncrca 
which  each  person  should  enjoy,  first  proposeil  by 
Sp.  Cnssius,  to  gain  tho  favor  of  the  citizens,  480 
u.o.  It  was  enacted  under  the  tribune  TilK'rius  Giac- 
chus,  132  n.c. :  Sut  this  law  at  last  proved  fatal  to  the 
freedom  of  Iton.£  under  Julius  Cojsar. — Livv ;  V'os- 
sii:s. 

Ahead,  a  sea  term,  signifying  farther  onward  than 
the  ship  or  at  any  distance  before  her,  lying  immedi- 
ately on  that  point  of  the  compass  to  which  her  stem 
is  directed.  It  is  used  in  opposition  to  astern,  which 
expresses  tho  situation  of  any  object  behind  the  ship. 

Ahull,  in  Xanil  l^nyuage  (he  s'tuation  of  a  ship 
when  nil  her  sails  are  furled  on  account  of  Ihe  violence 
of  the  storm,  and  when,  having  lashed  her  helm  on  the 
lee-slde,  she  lies  nearly  willi  her  side  to  the  wind  and 
ton,  her  head  being  somewhat  inclined  to  the  direction 
of  the  wind. 

Alabama,  one  of  the  Southern  Ignited  States,  Is 
bounded  north  by  Tennessee,  east  by  Georgia,  south  by 
Florida  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  west  liy  Missis- 
sippi.    It  Is  between  80"  10'  and  35°  N.  lat.,'  and  85° 


Jin u.i — -J" 


«.i 


ALA 


16 


ALA 


«nd  88°  80'  W.  lo"".,  »nd  between  S"  «nd  ll'  80'  W. 
long,  from  Wajhington.  It  contains  60,722  square 
miles,  or  32,462,080  acres.  Population  in  1800  was 
only  2000;  In  1810,  10,000;  in  1820,  127,901;  in  1880, 
808,997;  in  18-10,  690,760;  and  in  1860,  771,671. 
Whites,  426,607 ;  free  colored,  2272 ;  slaves  842,892.  1 1 
contained  in  1850  8fty-two  counties.  The  capital  is 
Montgomery,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alabama 
River,  838  miles  above  Mobile  by  the  course  of  the  riv- 
er. Mobile,  the  metropolis,  is  the  most  |H>pulous  and 
commercial  place  in  the  State.  The  other  principal 
places  are  IluntsviUe,  Florence,  Wetumpka,  Tusca- 
loosa, Cahaba,  Eufala,  etc. 

Surface,  Soil,  f<c.— The  surface  of  this  State  exhibits 
much  variety :  bordering  the  (iulf  .shore,  and  for  some 
distance  interior  it  is  low  and  level,  soil  sandy,  and  the 
prevailing  timber  is  pine.  The  central  portion  exhib- 
its an  undulating  surface,  with  a  deep,  rich,  and  pro- 
ductive soil,  especially  along  the  margins  of  streams. 
Approaching  the  north,  it  rises  into  a  hilly  region,  and 
in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  StaCo  it  becomes  mount- 
•inou.  This  is  caused  by  the  southern  termination 
of  the  Alleghany  liidgo,  which  here,  in  crossing  the 
State,  melts  away  into  a  hilly  district,  and  is  finally 
lost  in  the  rolling  prairies  and  gently  undulating 
plains.  The  Tennessee  Valley,  from  where  it  enters  the 
State,  near  the  northeast  corner,  uutil  it  leaves  it  at  the 
northwest  comer,  presents  rich  and  fertile  bottom  lands, 
•nd  the  lands  Imrdering  thereon  are  the  richest  agricul- 
tural portion  of  the  Slate.  The  climate,  varying  from 
the  south  to  the  north  part  of  the  State,  is  favorable  fur 
the  prodHclion  of  its  great  staples,  cotton,  rice,  sugar, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  Indian  com,  and  in  the  middle  and 
northern  part  wheat  and  other  cereals.  Alabama  has 
great  mineral  resources;  the  entire  middle  region  is 
underlaid  with  bituminous  coal,  and  deposils  of  iron 
ore,  and  in  dilTercnt  localities  throughout  the  State 
are  lead  ore,  manganese,  limestone,  marble,  etc. ;  in 
the  northeast  gold  mines  have  been  wrought  with  some 
success. 

There  were  in  this  State,  in  1850,  4,435,614  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  7,702,007  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms.  Cash  value  of  lurms,  ^64,323,224,  and  tlin  value 
of  implements  and  machinery  was  $5,126,663.  J.ire 
Stock:  horses,  128,001;  a8t.ci  and  mules,  59,896;  milch 
cows,  227,791;  working  oxen,  66,961;  otlier  cattle, 
433,263;  sheep,  371,880;  swine,  1,904,540;  value  of 
livestock,  $21,690,112. 

Agricultural  J'rixlucts,  c/c— Wheat,  294,014  bushels 
produced;  rye,  17,261;  Indian  corn,  28,754,048;  oats, 
2,966,696;  barley,  3,958;  buckwheat,  348;  peas  anil 
beans,  892,701 ;  potatoes,  216,001 ;  sweet  potatoes, 
6,475,201 :  rice,  2,;112,2,')2  pounds.  Value  of  products 
of  the  orchard,  |I15,408;  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$84,821 ;  pounds  of  butter  made,  4,0<I8,811 ;  of  cheeae, 
81,412;  sugar,  hogsheads  of,  8242;  maple-sugar,  643 
pounds;  molasses,  83,428  gallons;  beeswax  and  hon- 
ey, 897,021  pounds;  wool,  0.')7,118  pounds  prodnei-d: 
cottfin,  561, 129  bales;  flax,  3921  pounds'  silk  cocoons, 
167;  hops,  27(!  pounds ;  tobacco,  164,990;  hay,  32,685 
tons;  clover  seed,  138  bushels ;  other  grass  seeds,  647 ; 
Hax  seed,  69  bushels ;  and  there  were  inaile  220  gals,  of 
wine.  Value  of  home-made  manufactures,  $l,934,r<!(/ ; 
of  slaughter)  d  animals,  $4,823,4(<5.— C'eruu*,  1850. 

Sicfrt,  etc. — Slobile,  the  principal  river,  is  forme<l 
by  the  junction  of  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee  rivers, 
anil  enters  Mobile  liay  by  two  mouths.  TJie  Alalianiu 
is  navigable  for  vessels  requiring  six  feet  of  water 
60  miles  abnvc  its  junction,  and  has  four  or  live  feet  o( 
water  150  miles  to  the  mouth  of  the  Caliawba,  and  to 
the  junction  of  the  Coosa  nnd  Tallapoosa,  of  which  it  is 
formed;  it  has  in  its  shallowest  places  three  feet  of 
water.  The  Tonibif^bie,  the  other  constituent  of  Mo- 
bile Uiver,  is  navigable  for  schooners  120  miles  to  St. 
Stephens,  and  for  steamboats  to  (oluniliiis,  Mississippi. 
The  Black  Warrior,  a  largo  branch  of  it,  is  navigable  for 
iteamboftts  to  Tuscaloosa.    The  Chattahoochee  for  a 


considerable  dtitanee  leparatoa  tbli  State  ttom  Georgtt 
on  the  east.  The  Tennessee  curves  southwardly  from 
the  northeast  to  the  northwest  comer  of  the  Slate,  and 
is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Florence,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Muscle  Shoals. 

Mobile  Ilay  sets  up  80  miles  irom  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  12  mites.     See  Mobilil 

Internal  Improtementt,  etc. — Muscle  Shoals  CanuT  Ii 
designed  to  overcome  an  obstruction  In  the  Tennessee 
Kiver,  and  extends  from  Florence  36}  miles,  and  cost 
$571,835,  and  when  completed  to  Brown's  Ferry,  at  the 
head  of  the  shoal,  is  estimated  to  coet  $1,861,067. 
IluntsviUe  Canal  extends  16  miles  from  Triana,  on  Ten- 
nessee Kiver,  to  Iluntsvillo.  There  were  in  tuis  State, 
January,  1854,  six  railroads,  four  of  which  were  whol- 
ly or  in  part  in  operation ;  aggregate  miles  finished, 
221;  cost,  $3,546,000;  and  65  miles  chartered  or  In 
course  of  constnictlon.  There  are  three  banks  in  tho 
State,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $2,100,000.  Tho 
State  Penitentiary  is  at  Wetumpka.  There  is  also  m 
State  insane  hospital,  and  a  school  for  tho  deaf  and 
dumb  at  Kobinson's  Springs. 

The  railway  system  is  yet  in  its  infancy  in  this  Stole. 
There  are  236  miles  in  operation,  and  663  ndles  in  cun- 
struction.  Congress  has  this  year  (1856)  granted  land 
for  Alabama  railroads,  and  this  grant  will  doubtless 
be  suflicient  to  build  the  roads  now  in  progress.  Ala- 
bama is  ono  of  the  Slates  that  peculiarly  need  rail- 
roads. Its  products  are  not  consumed  in  the  State,  but 
have  to  be  transported  to  the  sea-board,  and  the  al>- 
senee  of  large  rivers  makes  railroads  indispensable  to 
tho  prosperity  of  tho  State. 

Manufncturet. — There  were  in  this  State  in  1850,  13 
cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of  $681,000, 
employing  34!*  males  and  397  females,  producing  3,281.- 
000  yards  of  sheeting,  etc.,  and  790,000  pounds  of  yam, 
valued  at  $398,585 ;  3  woolen  factories,  with  a  capital 
of  $3600,  employing  II  males  ..nd  3  females,  manufac- 
turing cloth  valued  at  $7470;  1  establishment  making 
pig  iron,  with  a  capital  of  $25,000,  employing  40  per- 
sons, producing  522  tons  of  pig  iron,  valued  at  $28,896 ; 
10  establishments  with  a  capital  of  $216,625,  employ- 
ing 212  persons,  and  making  1915  tons  of  castings, 
etc.,  valued  at  $271,126;  1  establishment  with  a  ca|>- 
ital  of  $2600,  employing  14  persons,  manufacturing 
100  tons  of  wrought  iron,  valued  at  $7500;  217  flour, 
ing  and  grist  mills,  294  saw  mills,  149  tanneries,  60 
printing-ofUces,  issuing  liO  newspapers,  etc. 

This  State  was  originally  included  in  tho  territorial 
limits  of  (ieorgia,  except  the  past  which  l)elonged  to 
Florida.  In  1802  (icorgio  ceded  all  her  territory  west 
of  Chattahoochee  Itiv  to  the  Mississippi  Kiver,  lo  ttio 
United  .States,  and  in  i817  it  was  constituted  the  Mis- 
si.'.sippi  Territory,  and  Alabama  continued  r  part  of 
this  territory  until  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  and 
became  an  independent  .State  in  1820. 

Alabaster  (tierm.  AUtlMtter;  It.  Alabantro;  Ft. 
Albafre;  Kuss.  Alttbittlr;  I,at.  Ahhastritet).  A  kind 
of  stone  resembling  marble,  Init  softer.  Under  this 
name  are  confocnded  two  minerals,  the  f/t/fiseoun  and 
calr<irenut  alabasters ;  they  are  wliiilly  distinct  from 
each  other  when  pure,  but  in  some  of  the  varieties  uro 
occa.«i(inally  mixed  together.  The  fomier,  when  of  a 
white,  or  yeUowish,  or  greenish  color,  semi-transpar- 
ent, and  capable  of  receiving  n  poli.sh,  is  employed  by 
statuaries.  It  is  very  easily  worked,  but  is  not  .lus- 
ceptible  of  a  polish  equal  lo  marble.  Calcareous  ala- 
baster is  heavier  than  the  former;  it  is  not  so  hard  as 
niarlile,  but  is  notwithstanding  suseeptil>le  of  a  good 
polish,  and  is  more  used  in  statuary.  The  statuaries 
distinguish  alabaster  into  two  sorts,  tho  common  iind 
Oriental.  Spain  and  Italy  yield  tho  best  alabaster. 
That  produced  at  Alontania,  in  the  Papal  States,  is  in 
the  hi^'hest  esteem  for  its  beautiful  whiteness.  Infe- 
rior .wrts  are  fouml  in  France  and  Germany.  Alabas- 
ter is  wrought  into  tables,  vases,  statues,  chimney- 
pieces,  etc. 


ALC 


17 


ALE 


kte  Arom  Georgin 
)uthwardl>'  fVom 
of  the  State,  and 
ce,  at  the  foot  of 

)  Gulf  ofMexico, 

See  tioDiLiL 
I  dhoah  CanuT  U 
in  the  Tennessee 
i  milea,  and  cost 
vn's  Korrv,  nt  tha 

cost  $1,861,057. 
u  Triana,  on  Ten- 
(cre  in  tuis  State, 
ivliich  were  whol- 
to  miles  finished, 
'  chartered  or  in 
iree  banks  in  tha 
Ji2,l(Mi,000.  Tho 
There  is  also  • 
for  tho  deaf  and 

mcy  in  this  State. 
Gt)3  miles  in  con- 
856)  granted  land 
int  will  doubtless 
n  progress.  Ala- 
uliarly  need  rail- 
i  in  the  State,  but 
loard,  and  the  al>- 
I  indispensable  to 

9  State  in  1850,  13 
istod  of  ||G81,!)00, 
,  producing  3,281, - 
(K)  pounds  of  yam, 
ic9,  with  a  capital 
.females,  raanufac- 
Iblifhuient  making 
mploving  40  pcr- 
valueiiat|t2«,8'J6; 
kilt'i.CriS,  employ- 
tons  of  castings, 
infnt  with  a  caji- 
is,  ninnufacturing 
l|i75O0 ;  217  flour- 
14U  tanneries,  60 
■»,  etc. 

in  the  territorial 
|hith  belonged  to 
lur  ti-rritory  west 
lippi  Kiver,  to  tlio 
istituted  llie  Mis- 
inucd  r  part  of 
|o  the  Union,  and 

Alabntlro;  Vi. 
Itrilft).  A  kind 
lur.  I'ndor  this 
llic  ipjpseouf  and 
ly  distinct  from 
fhe  varieties  nro 
irnier,  wlicn  of  a 
senii-lranspnr- 
lis  cmjiloyi'd  l)y 
Ibut  is  not  nus- 
ICalcarcous  ala- 
i  nut  so  hard  us 
Itilile  of  a  good 
T  The  stntuarlcs 
Ic  common  iind 
Ibest  alaba»tor. 
Inl  States,  is  in 
liteness.  Infe- 
lany.  Atabas- 
luea,  chimney- 


Alcohol  (ardent  sriHiT),  (Fr.  Etprit  it  Vm;\ 
Garni.  Wcingcitl ;  It,  Spirito  ardente,  Spk-ito  di  Vir.o, 
Acqtiarzinli),  the  name  given  to  the  pure  $pirit  obtain- 
able by  distillation,  and  subscijuent  rectification,  from 
■11  llquars  that  havo  undergone  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion, and  from  none  but  such  as  are  ausccptible  of  it. 
It  is  light,  transparent,  colorless  j  of  t  shar.n,  pene- 
trating, agre.iablo  smell;  and  a  warn;,  stimulating 
taste.  It  is  quite  the  same,  whether  obtained  from 
brandy,  wine,  whisky,  or  any  other  fluid  which  has 
been  fermenttd.  Tho  speciiic  gravity  of  alcc.oi  when 
perfectly  pure  is  from  •792  to  -800,  that  of  water  being 
1-000 ;  but  the  strongest  spirit  afforded  by  mere  distil- 
lati'in  is  alvjut  -820 ;  alcohol  of  the  shops  is  about  '835 
or  •840.  Alcohol  can  not  b«  frozen  by  any  known  de- 
gree of  •  'd.  It  boils  at  171°,  It  is  tho  only  dissolv- 
ent of  many  resinous  substances,  and  is  extensively 
used  in  niudicino  and  tho  arts.— X»r<.  A.  T.  Tuomson, 
Ukk,  etc. 

Aldar,  tho  Betuln  nintu  of  botarists,  a  forest  tree 
abundant  in  England  and  most  parts  of  Europe.  It 
thriven  l)cst  in  marshy  grounds  and  on  the  banks  of 
rivers.  H  rarely  attains  to  a  very  great  size ;  its 
wood  is  extremely  durable  in  water  or  in  wet  ground ; 
and  hence  it  is  much  used  for  piles,  planking,  pumps, 
pipes,  sluices,  and  generally  for  ail  p:;rposc8  where  it 
is  kept  constantly  wet.  It  soon  rots  when  exposed  to 
tho  weatlicr  or  to  damp ;  and,  when  dry,  it  is  much 
Bul)ject  to  worms.  Tho  color  of  tho  wood  is  reddish 
yellow,  of  different  aliadcs,  and  nearly  uniform.  Tex- 
ture very  uniform,  with  large  septa  of  tho  aanie  color  as 
the  wood.  It  is  soft,  and  works  easily. — Tredoold's 
Principles  of  Cnriteittry. 

Ale  and  Beer,  well  known  and  extensively  used 
fermented  liquors,  the  principle  of  which  is  extracted 
from  several  sorts  of  grain,  but  most  commonly  from 
barley,  after  it  has  undergone  the  process  termed  malt  ■ 
Ing. 

1.  Jlintoncal  Notice  of  Ale  and  Beer. — The  manu- 
facture of  ale  or  Iw.r  is  of  very  higli  antiquity.  He- 
rmlotus  tells  us  that,  owing  to  the  want  of  wine,  the 
Egyptians  drank  a  liquor  fermented  from  barley  (lib. 
li.  cap.  77).  Tho  use  of  it  was  also  very  uncicntly  in- 
troduced into  Greece  and  Italy,  though  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  ever  been  very  extensively  usi-d  in  these 
countries.  Mead,  or  metheglin,  was  probal)ly  the  ear- 
liest intoxicating  liquor  known  in  the  north  of  Europe. 
Ale  or  beer  was,  however,  in  common  use  in  Germany 
in  the  time  of  Tacitus  (.l/oW4.  Uerm.  cap.  23).  "All 
the  nations,"  say»  Pliny,  "  who  inhabit  the  west  of 
£u;  ';ie  have  a  liquor  witli  which  they  intoxicate  them- 
selves, made  of  corn  and  water  (J'l'ut/e  nunUda).  The 
manner  of  making  the  liquor  is  somewhat  ditl'erent 
in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  and  it  is  called 
by  many  various  names ;  but  its  nature  and  proper- 
ties are  every  where  the  same.  The  people  of  .Spain, 
in  particular,  brew  this  licpior  so  well  thai  it  will  keep 
good  for  a  long  time.  So  exquisiti'  is  tlie  ingenuity 
of  mankind  in  gratifying  their  vicious  appetites,  that 
they  have  tlius  invented  a  metliod  to  make  water  it- 
self intoxicate." — Hint.  Nat.  lib.  xiv.  cap.  22.  Tho 
Saxons  and  Danes  were  passionately  fond  of  beer; 
and  the  drinking  of  it  was  supposed  to  form  one  of  the 
principal  enjoyments  of  tho  lierocs  admitted  to  tlie 
hall  of  Odin. — M.ii.i.kt's  !\\>rthem  Antiijuitieii,  cap.  6, 
etc.  Tlu!  manufacture  of  ale  was  early  introduced 
into  Knijland.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Inn, 
king  of  Wessex ;  an<l  is  particularly  specilied  among 
the  liciuors  provided  for  a  royal  banquet  in  tlie  reign 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  It  was  customary  in  the 
reigns  of  tlie  Nonnau  princes  to  regulate  tlu'  price  of 
ale;  and  it  was  enaoted  by  a  statutu  passed  in  1272, 
that  a  brewer  should  l>c  allowed  to  sell  two  gallons  of 
ale  for  a  penny  in  cities,  and  three  or  four  gallons  for 
the  same  price  in  the  country. 

The  1180  of  hops  in  the  manufacture  of  ale  and  beer 
(corns  to  bavo  been  a  German  inveutioa.     They  were 
B 


used  in  the  breweries  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England  till  200  years  afterward, 
or  till  the  beginning  of  tho  lOtli  century.  In  1630, 
Henry  VIII,  enjoined  brewers  not  to  put  hop*  into 
their  ale.  If  would,  uowever,  appear  that  but  little 
alter  ,ioii  ./as  paid  to  this  order ;  for  in  1552  hop  plant- 
ations had  begun  to  bo  formed. — Beckmamn's  Uiil. 
Invent,  vol,  iv,  p,  836-841,  Engl,  edition.  The  addl- 
tion  of  hops  renders  ale  mora  palatable,  liy  giving  it  an 
agreeable  bitter  teste,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  fits 
it  fur  being  kept  much  longer  without  ii\]ury.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  English  brewers  employ  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  hops  than  the  Scotch, 


isot 

1S02 
1S03 
tSU4 
18(K> 
1806 
18(IT 
1808 
1809 
1810 

1811 
1812 
IHIU 
tSU 
1S15 
1810 
IStT 
1818 
1SI0 
1820 

1821 

lSt>3 

ma 

ISfib 

i8va 

IS'21 
1828 
182» 
1830 

1831 
18iW 
1833 
18:^4 
ISilli 
ISutI 
1837 
183.8 
1839 
1840 


MALT  IN  QRKAT  BRITAIN. 


Buliali 

chftrKfld  with 

duly. 


19,742,741 
&«,7ao,441 
34,710,084 
24,763,0'28 
26,M8,183 
80,710,1147 
27,7»1,()«4 
25,r.7,1,119 
2S,86A3.'>9 
20,880,183 

29,C7fl,82T 
21,23,1,023 
26,8ti4,2(l3 
'i9,743,04'2 
80,209,038 
24.200,(Hi3 
23,834,730 
20, 201,089 
25,8 15, 2M 
20,800,121 

20,308,411 
29,848,080 
28,104,497 
81,611,743 
3(I,'.J06,4.'K> 
8'2,4«8,779 
2<l,01fi,B01 
3tf,854.'.'(K» 
29,152,777 
82,904,454 

39,262,209 
37,390.085 
40,072. 8'.'5 
41,14r>,591 
42.S92,Of>.) 
44,387,780 
40.560.748 
40,555.  UO 
39,92S,3'>9 
42,400,882 


Duty  pitld. 


Kat«t  of  Duly  par  tiuahcl. 
EnglKud.    8«oUkd(I.  |  Iraland. 


1841  80,104,236 
1.842  8,^,871,394 
1843  '  86,093,890 
1S44  i  37,187,1.'^« 
1846  ;  80,645.990 
1840  ,  42,097,0S6 
1.847   86.307,815 

1848  I  37.645.912 

1849  88,98.\400 
1860     40,744,760 

(  1851   I  4n,!)ii7,4;2 
.  1862  j  41,071,030 


X 
1,317,770 
2,988,082 
8,977,300 
0,240,036 
6,806,300 
0,514,403 
6,980,663 
6,376,042 
6,4UI>,ai4 
6,741,992 
16S  buhls.* 
0,332,867 
4,498,7M 
6,401,964 
0,411,817 
0,707,410 
4,741,812 
2,709,188 
a,'i9rt,229 
4,076,4S6 
4,643,421 
1-88  bshU.* 
4,297,581 
4,082,88,8 
3,609,601 
4,172,463 
4,031,324 
4,177,278 
3,809,988 
4,781,686 
3,743,616 
4,231,997  ' 
1-39bslil8.» 
6.030,069 
4,799,063 
6,140,769 
6,'ii6,403 
5,409.883 
6,099,879 
6,210,804 
6,1.M,838 
4,139,804 
6,592,477 
1-60  Mils.' 
4,8,80,243 
4,S48,.5Sl 
4,827,9.'>0 
6,027,071 
6,638,033 
6,691,273 
4,776,091 
6,070,'238 
6,206,779 
6,511,440 
•72  bshls.* 
6,0!10,369 
6,823,085 


>.  J. 

1  4J 

2  6 
4  6i 


2  5 


S  7i 


27 


<.  i. 

0  m 

1  81 


2  7 

and  6 

per  cent 


1  81 

a'ii 


2  7 
8  7i 


f.  *. 
101 

i'oi 

2  9i 
2  Oi 


3  3t 
3  8( 
46 
«4t 


3  Oi 


?  7 


2  7 


2  7 

and  6 

percent. 


2  7 

and  6 

percent. 


*  l>«cenDUll  ftrerBge  unuil  coiuumptiOD  per  head. 
2.  Distinction  betieeen  Ale  and  Beer,  or  Porter. — This 
(llslincllon  has  licon  well  elucidated  by  Ur.  Thomas 
Tbomsdn,  in  his  article  on  Brewing,  in  the  Ahc^c/ojot- 
dlii  llrilimnica :  "  Both  ale  and  beer  are  in  Great  Britain 
obtained  l)y  fermentation  from  the  malt  of  barley;  but 
they  diifer  from  each  other  in  several  particulars.  Ale 
is  light-colored,  brisk,  and  sweetish,  or  at  least  free 
from  bitter;  while  lieer  is  dark-colored,  bitter,  and 
much  less  brisk.  What  is  called  porter  in  England  is 
a  species  of  beer ;  and  the  term  '  porter'  at  present 
signifies  what  was  formerly  called  strong  beer.  The 
original  diflereiice  betiveen  ale  and  beer  was  owing  to 
tho  malt  tnm  which  they  were  prepared.    Ale  inal^< 


ALB 


18 


AJ.E 


M 


WM  dried  at  «  very  low  boat,  and  consequently  wai 
of  a  pale  color ;  while  l)Oor,  or  porter  molt,  was  dried 
at  a  higher  teinpcroture,  and  had  of  consequence  . 
quired  a  brown  color.  This  incipient  charring  hau 
developed  a  peculiar  and  agreeable  bitter  Uste,  which 
was  communicated  to  the  beer  along  with  the  darit 
color.  This  bitter  taste  rendered  beer  more  aKreeablu 
to  the  palate,  and  less  ii\juriaus  to  the  constitution  than 
ale.  It  was  consequently  manufactured  in  greater 
quantities,  and  soon  became  the  commou  drink  of  tlio 
lower  ranks  in  England.  When  malt  became  high- 
priced,  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  taxes  laid  upon  it, 
and  the  great  increase  in  the  price  of  barley  which  tuu>( 
place  during  the  war  of  the  French  Kovolution,  the 
brewers  discovered  that  a  greulcr  quantity  of  wort  of 
a  given  strength  could  lie  prepared  tVoni  pale  malt  than 
from  brown  niait.  The  consequence  wos  that  pale  malt 
was  substituted  for  brown  malt  in  the  brewing  of  por- 
ter and  beer.  We  do  not  mean  that  the  whole  malt 
employed  was  pule,  but  a  considerable  proportion  of  it. 
The  wort,  of  course,  was  much  paler  than  before ;  and 
it  wanted  that  agreeable  bitter  flavor  which  character- 
ized porter,  and  made  it  so  much  relished  by  most  pal- 
ates. The  porter  brewers  endeavored  to  remedy  thesu 
defects  by  several  artlllcial  additions.  At  the  same 
time,  various  substitutes  were  tried  tu  supply  the  place 
of  the  agreeable  bitter  communicated  to  porter  by  tlie 
use  of  bi  wn  malt.  Quassia,  cocculus  indicus,  and  we 
believe  oven  opium,  were  employed  in  succession ;  but 
none  of  them  was  found  to  answer  tlio  pun'oso  sufli- 
dently.  Whether  the  use  of  these  substances  be  still 
persevered  in  we  do  not  know ;  but  xe  rather  believe 
that  they  are  not,  at  least  by  the  London  porter  brew- 
era." 

Ate  and  Wine  are  said  to  Imve  lieen  Invented  by 
Bacchus ;  the  former  where  the  soil,  ow  ing  to  its  qual- 
ity, would  not  grow  grapes. — Tookk's  Panlheon.  Ale 
was  known  as  a  beverage  at  least  404  n.c.  Herodotus 
ascribes  the  tirst  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing  bnrley- 
wine  to  Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris.  The  Uonians  and 
Germans  very  early  learned  the  process  of  preparing  a 
liquor  from  com  by  means  of  fermvntatlun,  from  the 
Egyptians. — Tacitus,  Ale-houses  arc  made  mention 
of  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex.  liooths  were 
set  up  in  England  A.i>,  728,  when  laws  were  passed  for 
their  regulation.  Ale-houses  were  licensed  1C21 ;  and 
excise  duty  on  ale  and  beer  was  imposed  on  a  system 
nearly  similar  to  the  present,  13  Charles  II.  ICUO.— 
Havuh. 

Alexandria,  so  called  from  its  illustrious  founder, 
Alexander  the  Great,  the  principal  sea-port  of  Egyi)t, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  14  miles 
W.S.W.  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile ;  the  linht- 
house  being  In  lat.  81°  11'  31"  N.,  long.  2'/  "  iH"  E. 
The  situation  of  this  famous  city  was  admirably  <  hosen. 
Until  the  discovery  of  the  route  to  India  by  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Egypt  formed  the  centre  of  llie  com- 
merce between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Worlds ;  and 
Alexandria  was  placed  in  the  most  favorable  |iusition 
in  Egj'pt  for  an  emporium,  being  the  only  port  on  its 
northern  coast,  where  there  la  at  once  deep  water  and 
security  for  shipping  throughout  the  year.  The  ports 
of  Rosctta  and  Damictta,  the  former  on  the  west,  and 
the  latter  on  the  eastern  arm  of  tha  Nile,  arc  both  dim- 
cult  of  entrance,  each  having  a  liar,  upon  which  there 
is  always  a  dangerous  surf.  Ships  liound  for  Alexan- 
dria avoid  this  serious  inconvenience ;  and  by  means 
•  I  an  artlflcial  navigation,  stretching  from  the  city  to 
the  western  branch  of  the  Nile,  it  bus  almost  the  same 
facilities  for  internal  navigation  that  are  cnj(^ycd  by 
the  cities  referred  to. 

It  may  I*  jiroper,  however,  to  mention  that  this  ar- 
tificial commuuicutlon  with  the  Nile  has  not  always 
been  open.  It  existed  in  antiquity,  but  fell  into  decay 
during  the  barbarism  of  more  modern  times.  After 
being  shut  up  for  sonic  centuries,  it  has  been  reopened 
by  Meheuiet  All,  who  dug  the  Mahuioudie  cauul  from  | 


Alexandria  to  Atfeh,  on  the  Nile,  about  27  mile*  above 
Kosetla.  This  important  work  is  44  miles  In  IcDf^th, 
uO  feet  in  breadth,  and  from  16  to  18  feet  deep.  It  wat 
opened  in  1811);  but  owing  partly  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  partly  to  some  dofecin  in  its  construction,  and 
partly  to  the  mud  deposited  by  the  water  of  the  Nile, 
it  Is  dillicult  to  keep  in  repair;  and  can  only  lie  navU 
gated  by  boats  that  draw  little  water,  and  are  not  suit* 
able  for  the  navigation  of  the  Nile.  Out,  with  all  It* 
defects,  the  construction  of  this  canal  has  been  of  the 
greatest  advantage,  not  to  Alexandria  only,  bat  to 
Egypt  and  oven  Europe. 

J'orlt,  elc. — The  ancient  city  was  situated  a  little 
more  inland  tlian  the  modern  one,  opposite  to  I  he  small 
island  of  I'haros,  on  which  was  erected  the  liglit-house, 
so  celebrated  in  antiquity. — C.naAU,  De  Hello  ('ivili,  lib. 
ill.  cap.  112.  This  island  waf  narlly  by  artificial  meana, 
and  partly  by  natural  causi-,-,  gradually  joined  to  the 
land  by  u  mound,  and  on  this  the  more  modern  town 
is  principally  built.  The  Isthmus  and  Island  have  now 
the  form  of  a  T,  its  head  being  northeast  and  southwest. 
A  square  castle,  or  tower,  built  on  a  small  islet  or  rock, 
at  the  extremity  of  a  mole  projecting  from  the  north- 
east angle  of  the  city,  is  still  called  the  I'lniros,  and 
may  perhaps  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  light-house ; 
a  light  was  exhibited  on  it  down  to  1812,  when  it  ceased. 
Un  each  side  of  the  city  there  is  a  port.  That  on  the 
western,  or  African  side,  called  the  Old  I'ort,  the  A'u- 
mutos  of  the  ancients,  is  by  far  the  largest  and  iicst.  It 
stretches  from  the  town  westward  to  Marabout,  about 
n  miles,  and  is  about  1^  miles  in  width.  It  is  Iround- 
cd  on  the  north,  partly  by  the  weslem  tongue  or  ungla 
of  the  island  on  which  the  cily  is  partially  built,  nt  the 
extremity  '^f  which  is  the  new  light-bouse,  and  partly 
by  rocks  and  ..  nd  banks.  It  has  three  entrances,  The 
lirst,  or  that  nearest  the  city,  having  17  feet  water,  is 
nearly  1  j  miles  southwest  I'runi  the  light-house;  liut  it 
is  too  narrow  and  ditTicult  to  be  attempted  by  any  one 
not  thoroughly  acquainted  wilh  the  port.  '1  he  eiultm 
side  of  the  second  or  middle  entrance  is  marked  by 
buoys  which  lie  aliout  2|  miles  southwest  from  the 
light-house ;  it  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  nnd 
has,  where  shallowest,  27  feet  water.  The  third  or 
western  entrance  has  its  wetltm  boundary  within  aliout 
three-eighths  of  a  mile  from  the  east  end  of  Marabout 
island :  it  is  about  half  a,pile  wide,  and  has  from  25  to 
27  feet  water  in  its  sliuliowest  places.  This  last  is  the 
liest  entrance.  Ships,  when  in,  may  anchor  close  to 
the  town  in  from  22  to  40  feet  water,  and  there  is  good 
anchorage  in  deep  water  all  along  the  shore.  Foreign- 
ers were  formerly  excluded  from  this  port;  but  this 
prohibition  no  longer  exists,  and  it  is  now  principally 
resorted  to  by  the  shipping  frequenting  the  port. 

What  is  called  the  New  (though  It  be  really  the  old- 
est) or  Asiatic  harbor  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  town. 
A  rock  called  the  Diamond  lies  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  I'haros  tower ;  and  ships  entering  the  port  ought 
to  have  this  rock  about  a  cable's  length  on  the  right. 
If  they  get  much  farther  tu  tlie  left,  they  will  come  in 
contact  with  a  shoal  which  stretches  westward  from 
the  Pharillon,  or  little  tower,  on  the  enst  side  of  the 
port.  The  water  Immediately  within  tlie  port  south- 
west from  the  I'haros  is  from  .111  to  40  feet  deep ;  but 
the  space  for  anchorage  is  very  llnilted,  and  is  exposed 
to  the  northerly  gales ;  and  the  ground  being  foul  and 
rocky,  hempen  cables  are  very  upt  to  iliafc,  and  sev- 
eral accidents  have  happened  in  conieiiueiice  to  ships 
unprovided  with  iron  cables.  Clriliniiiy  tides  rise  2 
feet;  but  during  the  overflow  of  the  Nile  the  rise  is  4 
feet.     Variation  l.'l°  west. 

Tnitle  of  Alfxandria. — The  Imports  principally  con- 
sist of  cotton  stuffs,  timber,  woolen  and  silk  stuffs,  iron 
and  hardware,  including  copper  and  tin  plates,  jewel- 
ry,  machinery,  aminunition,  paper  and  stationery,  cut- 
I(Ty,  etc,  etc.  The  exports  consist  principally  of  raw 
ottoii,  rice,  wheat  and  barley,  lieans,  liiisei'ii.  senna, 
and  other  drugs  and  guina  brought  from  tho  interior; 


/ 


ALE 


10 


ALE 


Indlf^n,  upluiii,  Mtrirh  ft-ilhBra,  itatna,  »oi\»,  llnan  cloth, 
eotl'i'u  fruni  Aralilu,  uti!,  'I'ha  «x|Mirtfi  i  fwhoal,  liarluy, 
and  puUe  for  ■  wtilla  duclliuid  In  I'oijmtqunnra  of  tha 
■upuriiir  uncuuragiinKnt  Klv«rt  to  III*  Krowth  of  cotton ; 
but  tlioy  hsvii  iti;*ln  lner«tMd,snd  In  \M9  wo  liroiiiflit 
from  Ali-xandria  120,1)04  <(».  wlinat,  'hi, Mi  qni.  Iieana, 
and  )ll,ir>l  qn.  Indian  corn.  'J'li*  chIiudi  of  flax  ha* 
duclined :  forniirly  from  AD.INMI  to  m,m}  i|uartcni  of 
linseed  hava  licun  oxport<Hl  (Vutn  Aliixandria  in  n  nin- 
kIb  seaaon,  Imt  tho  uX|iArt*  ar«  now  much  'cm.  Miiftnr 
hu*  Im!«u  lunK  cultlvatifd  In  Kuypt,  l>iit  not  tu  any  (p-oat 
extent,  lliouf(l>  ih*  will  and  cllnia' .  vf  I'|i|i«r  Kgypt 
are  nuid  to  Ixi  uapeclally  favorii*  ^i  to  Ita  Krowth.  In- 
di){«  and  inadilcr  uru  anioiiK  I'lii  artlcli.'t  of  culluro  In- 
truducdd  l)y  tli«  late  I'ai^ha. 

Cotton  liaa  liccn  Kfiivin  It;  KKypt  from  •  very  rc- 
mot«  period ;  prevloualy,  however,  to  tho  aarondrncy 
of  Meheniul  All  It  waa  hut  little  cMlllvalcd,  and  tliot 
little  wua  of  inferior  ipialily,  ahort>atapl«d,  and  cloacly 
re8ci.,liilii|{  "Hurata,"  under  which  name  the  ainnll 
quantitiea  exported  from  the  I'onnlry  wcra  uaualiy 
aold.  Hut  in  1K2<)  a  Frt.'ichman  of  the  nati<i  of  .Innicl 
accidentally  oltaorved  a  very  valualiie  variety  of  In  ■,(- 
stapled  cotton,  ralaed  from  aceda  lirouKht  fruui  Dmi- 
gola  unil  Senaar,  ifrowluK  in  the  ^ardi'ti  of  Mahis  llcy, 
atC'aini.  Juuiel  havinif  repreacntcd  lia  aiipcrlorily  to 
the  I'licjja,  iiK  eiiltlvutlon  waa  underlaitcn  on  a  larifc 
(calu  on  account  of  the  latter;  and  haa  ancccedcd  ao 
well,  tliat  Maliii  or  Mukito  cottonphaa  Imcn  for  n  length- 
cnod  period  liy  far  the  principal  article  of  export  from 
Kffyi't.  At  a  later  period  aeeda  of  the  Nea-lxlnnd  cot- 
ton were  inlrodueed,  and  for  a  while  it  alao  nniiwen'd 
rcniariiulily  well ;  lla  produce,  which  In  l'''K.v|it  waa 
called  Heniiar,  and  in  Knulund  "  KKypliiiti  Mca-lalnnd," 
ranking  next  in  tlie  eatiniation  of  (lie  niannfucturera 
to  genuine  "  Keu-i»land."  Unfortunately,  however, 
thia  variety  wua  found  In  degenerate,  and  ila  culture, 
which  waa  never  very  extenalve,  aa  well  aa  that  of  the 
old  sliort-atapled  variety,  hua,  we  helieve,  been  wholly 
abaniloinid. 

Conatantinopte  and  the  lalanda  of  thn  Archipelago 
are  the  gn-at  niarketa  for  the  wheat  and  other  grain 
exported  from  ICgypl.  'I'lie  anppliea  are,  Imwevcr,  ex- 
tremely uncertain.  Kvery  Ihlng  in  Kgypt  depends  on 
the  Nile ;  unil  when  it  doea  not  rlae  to  t^e  uxual  height, 
the  cropa  are  very  niuidi  Ih'Ihw  an  average.  Ileana 
are  extenaively  cultivated,  and  liave  aoniotlmes  !>c<'r. 
brought  to  Kngland,  hut  rarely,  if  e-. .r,  with  odvnnt- 
agu  to  the  iinportera,  They  are  iiiferior  to  Kiigliali 
beana,  and  jire  peculiarly  anhject  In  the  worm.  No 
oata  are  raiaeil  in  KgypI,  the  horaea  being  cnllrcly  fed 
upon  barley.  Hilk  la  grown  to  aonin  extent.  The 
dule-palm  thrlvea  in  every  part  of  KgypI,  and  the 
fruit  la  largely  ex|K)rted,  It  la  aingniar  that,  not- 
wilhatundliig  the  luxuriance  (;f  nuiny  of  IM  vegetable 
prodnctioiiH,  iCgypt  ahouhl  be  entirely  deatilute  of 
tinilier. 

jf/wicy.— AcTOunta  ore  kept  at  Alexandria,  aa  at 
Cairo,  in  currenl  piniilrc),  i^ach  plaaire  lieing  equal  to 
40  paraa,  or  niedini,  and  eaih  niedino  to  IK)  aapcra. 
The  medino  ia  alao  divided  into  H  borM,  or  0  I'orll.  A 
purHo  containa  '2/i,lK)0  inedini.  At  the  doae  of  \Xi'l 
tho  uxcliungi!  with  Kiiglutid  waa  D.'WM  current  piaatrea 
per  .t'l ;  liiit  ill  general  culculntlona  1011  piaatrea  are 
aupprwed  to  e(iuul  il.  I'nyineiila,  in  Iranaacliona  of 
any  inipurtaiice,  are  generally  made  In  Spanish  dol- 
lars. 

I)iil!i'». — With  llie  exception  of  the  arbitrary  prin- 
ciples on  which  I  he  I'uclia  llxes  the  priies  of  coinniod- 
ilics,  tlicre  ia  nothing  olijectlonable  in  liia  policy  aa  to 
coininerce.  The  dutiea  on  iniporta  are  only  H  per  cent. 
We  believe,  however,  tliul  a  amnli  increase  of  the  cus- 
toms' duty  would  cnmpenaaK!  the  I'adia  for  (he  iilioli- 
tlon  of  other  ii|ipri'''alvu  charges,  and  there  can  lie  little 
doubt  (Imt  Ilia  aulijecta  wouhl  lie  materially  benelitcd 
by  the  cliango. 

I.ctti  IS  written  laat  aummer  (|H5r>)  at  Alexandria, 


Kgypt,  atato  that  .Said  Taaha,  the  viceroy,  baa  f(tven 
ilie  nceeaaary  ordera  for  the  conatniction  of  a  railway 
acroaa  the  desert  between  Cairo  and  Huor,,  a  dialance 
of  H4  milea.  The  raila  are  to  be  brought  Jut  fh>in  Kn- 
gland, and  the  I'aaha'a  own  engineers  ho  are  Kr«nch- 
men,  are  to  carry  out  the  worka.  In  alKiiit  three  yean 
from  thia  time  It  may  lie  hoped  that  a  railroad  will  run 
(|iiite  acroaa  tho  country,  and  the  tranaitof  paaaexgers, 
which  now  occupies  more  than  two  days  of  unooiofort- 
able  traveling,  will  bo  reduced  to  ten  or  twelve  hours 
of  eaay  conveyance.  For  tho  extimsion  of  trade  and 
coinmiinlcatlon  with  India,  it  will  bo  very  desirable  if 
tho  J'aslia  ahould  consent  to  carry  coal  to  Muez  at  a 
moderate  charge,  as  the  high  price  of  coal  at  Mnez  ia 
at  preaent  the  principal  ol)aiaclo  to  other  steamers  reg- 
ularly coming  up  tho  Ucd  8ea  besldea  thosu  of  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  '!omparty. 
According  to  letters  from  Kgypt  dated  Uece  ,.il)er,  1855, 
tho  railway  between  Alexandria  and  Caiio  haa  been 
nearly  romploteii,  ond,  according  to  the  L  't  advices, 
ia  almnt  to  lie  opened  for  passengers  and  gnoda.  The 
Importance  of  this  communication,  in  supcraediiig  lioth 
Iho  canal  and  tho  Nile  passage,  and  shortening  the 
transit  between  tlio  two  cities  to  aliout  eight  hours, 
will  bo  readily  appreciated  Ijy  "very  per  jn  who  has 
traveled  ocrosa  Egypt,  "".le  cc'truction  of  the  por- 
tion of  the  railway  from  Oiro  ,  near  Suez,  widch  is 
to  coinploto  the  communication  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  tlio  lied  Sea,  ia  in  active  progresa.  The 
directors  are  endeavoring  to  induce  hie  highneaa,  tho 
viceroy,  to  construct  nt  tho  termini  of  these  railway* 
at  Cairo  and  the  lied  Sea  commodious  iiotels,  adapted 
to  the  convcniiMire  of  travelers  from  the  East.  The 
spirit  of  improvement  in  the  ICust  is  further  shown  by 
tiie  recent  estalilishnicnt  of  an  electric  telegraph  across 
Kgypt.  Thia  has  been  determined  u))ou  by  hia  liigh- 
ness  the  viceroy,  and  will  form  an  important  iinprove- 
ment  in  tiie  overland  communication  <vith  India,  ('lii- 
na,  etc.  Tiie  directors  sometime  sinco  submitted,  at 
the  request  of  the  viceroy,  a  proposal  to  establish  a 
monthly  postal  communication  with  Australia  as  soon 
aa  the  release  of  the  vessels  now  engaged  in  the  war 
service  should  enable  them  to  do  so.  No  detinite  ar- 
rangement has,  however,  been  yet  made  to  that  ef- 
fect 

Ann,f\l  TVade  of  Alexandria. — Alexandria  was  for 
a  long  series  of  years — first  under  the  Greek  successors 
of  Alexander,  and  subsequently  under  the  Komans — 
tlie  principal  eitlrtpdt  of  tlu^  ancient  world.  Moat  part 
of  the  traffic  between  Asia  and  Euroiie,  that  had  at  a 
more  early  period  wntrcil  at  Tyre,  was  gradually  di- 
verted to  thia  new  cniporiiini.  An  inti-rcourae  between 
the  porta  on  the  eastern  const  of  Egypt  and  those  on 
the  opposite  coast  of  Arabia  liad  sulisisted  from  a  very 
early  period.  That  between  Egypt  and  India  whs 
more  recent.  It  was  at  first  carried  on  Ijy  i-hips,  which 
having  sailed  down  tho  Kcd  Sea  from  Myoa  llornios 
aii<l  Iterenice,  coosted  along  the  .Arabian  sliorea  till 
[  they  reached  Capo  Hasscigate,  whence  a  short  course 
■  l)rought  them  to  India,  near  tlie  mouth  of  tlie  Hiver 
I  Indus.  This  was  the  course  followed  during  the  dy- 
'  nasty  of  the  I'tolemiea;  but  about  eighty  years  after 
Egypt  had  liceii  annexed  to  the  Koinan  empire,  Ilip- 
palus,  the  ciiniiiiiindcr  of  iin  Egyptian  ship  tniding  to 
India,  having iiiiscrvcd  the  regular  .-shifting  of  llie  trade- 
winds,  vcnlurccl  In  sail  with  tlic  western  monsoon  from 
the  Straits  of  Ibilii'biiandeb  right  across  tho  Arabian 
Ocean;  and  was  fortunate  enough,  after  a  prosperous 
voyage,  to  arrive  nt  Musiris,  in  that  part  of  India 
now  known  liy  the  name  of  the  Malabar  coast.  Hav- 
ing taken  on  lioard  a  cargo  of  Indian  produce,  llippa- 
Iiis  returned  in  safety  witli  the  eastern  nioiiMion  to 
Egypt.  Tills  (liscovcrv  was  diemed  of  so  much  im- 
portance, tlint  till'  name  of  tlie  discoverer  was  given 
to  the  wiiul  which  liad  carried  him  across  the  ocean  to 
India:  and  how  trillinjf  .soever  tiiis  voyage  may  now 
appear,  those  who  consider  Hint  Ilippalus  had  no  com- 


! 


ALE  I 

pau  by  which  to  diract  hl»  rourM,  «nd  that  owing  to 
thU  eircuinsOni'r,  and  the  othernUn  Initwrfxct  ilXu 
of  tha  art  of  iiaviKalluii,  the  anclenti  xldom  vaiilun-il 
out  of  »l({ht  of  U'ld,  even  ill  »«ai  with  whiih  they  w»r« 
wall  ac<|uainl«ii,  will  \>r  forward  In  admit  that  liU  4>n- 
tarprlM  and  darlnif  were  iiuwiav  iiifiTior  to  liii  tiicivM; 
and  that  he  wa^  w<-ll  oiilllled  to  tlir  Kralltudu  uf  hii 
contrniporarii      and  thi- n'»|M;i't  of  iMiilrrll". 

From  tbti  I'lwh  of  tliia  diai'ovury,  llmO  traded  |i«ri- 
odlcally  from  Kttypt  to  MuKlria,  i'oiiveyiii)(  Iho  produi  Id 
of  Kurope  to  India,  and  roin  "nidy.  Tliu  ludlaii  Koodn 
havinx  Imm'ii  landed  at  M\oa  llorinoa  ami  licreiiicv 
were  thence  conveyed  l>y  caravan*  to  Coiiton  (Ihu  iiioil- 
em  KcniiA),  on  the  Nile,  where  Ihey  »er/'  put  on  l«iard 
IlKhlcn  and  lent  to  Alexandria,  whence  they  were  din- 
tribiiteil  all  over  the  Weslern  World.  I'lic  (foods  sent 
to  India  were  conveyed  to  Myoii  llomtoii  and  llerenlcu 
by  the  lama  route.  Myos  llornion  ww  aituated  on  ihe 
shore  of  the  Araldan  (inlf,  alniut  a  d.-jiree  to  the  north 
of  the  ino4leni  porl  of  Coanelr.  T!ie  diatancv  from  it 
toCoptoa,  In  a  Mrni)(ht  line,  i«  alw.it  70  Knxli'b  mileii. 
Berenice  wa*  aitunlwi  u  Kood  way  I'urtlier  Miiith,  IwiiiH 
nearly  under  the  tropic.  It  wan  imilt  by  I'lolemy 
I'hiladelphuf.  Iti  dinlnnce  from  Coplon  ia  staled  by 
Pliny  at  2M  Koman  niiiea;  tb-j  dlderent  realinK-placea 
on  the  road  were  ilelerniinsd  l)y  the  wells,  and  tbu 
Journey  occupied  alioiil  Vi  day  a.  rtoluiiiy  seems  to 
have  preferred  this  slnlion  to  Myoa  llorinos,  tliouKli 
the  land-carriat{e  to  Coptoa  was  so  iiiucli  farther,  from 
Ita  greater  proximity  to  the  Straits  of  Itabclmandeli, 
and  its  lessening  the  voyage  up  thu  Ited  Hva.  I'liiiy 
fays  that  the  cost  of  llie  Indian  coininndities  brought 
to  Home  f.!ir<>ugh  Alexandria  was  increaiod  n  liiindrcd- 
fold  (nHlujjIiriilo  rrneiinl)  by  tbu  expense  of  carriage, 
etc.  We  suspect,  however,  thai  this  is  a  ilietoriiul 
exaggeration,  moaning  merely  that  their  prico  was 
very  materially  enhanced.  If  tbu  increase  was  any 
thing  iilio  that  mentioned,  it  must  have  Iweii  owing  to 
the  imposition  of  oppn-ssive  tolls  ami  duties,  for  it  could 
not  possibly  bavu  lieeii  occasioned  by  the  mere  expenses 
of  conveyance.  In  the  Itith  century,  the  cost  of  In- 
dian commodities,  brought  to  Western  Kiiropn  liy  way 
of  Alexandria  and  Aleppo,  was  aliout  three,  times  the 
cost  of  those  brought  liy  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. — See 
poil,  East  India  CoMfANY,  Hutmy  of.  Hut  Kgypt 
was  then  occupied  l>y  the  JIamelukes  and  Turks,  who 
threw  ev«ry  sort  of  obstacle  in  the  way  of  commerce, 
and  loaded  it  with  the  most  oppressive  exactions. — 
Plin.  IIUI.  Sat.  lili.  vi.  cap.  23;  Ameii.iion,  Commerce 
det  Kffgptieiu,  p.  161-176,  etc.;  KuuKKTanN'a  Ancient 
India,  note  20,  etc. 

Uesides  this  important  trnfTic,  which  supplied  Koine 
and  Ihe  Western  World  with  the  silks,  spices,  precious 
■tones,  and  other  products  of  Arabia  and  India,  a  great 
trade  in  com  was  carried  on  from  Alexamlria  to  Itome. 
Egypt,  for  a  lengthened  period,  constituted  Ihe  granary 
from  which  Uoine,  and  afterward  Constantinople,  ilrow 
the  principal  part  of  llieir  supplies ;  and  its  possession 
was,  on  that  account,  reckoned  of  the  utmost  conse- 
quence. Augustus  employed  merchantmen  of  a  lar- 
ger size  than  any  that  bad  previcusly  traded  in  the 
Mediterranean  to  convey  Ihe  corn  of  Egypt  to  Ostia. 
They  were  escorted  by  ships  of  '.var.     The  fleet  re. 


0  ALK 

celved  the  names  oliaera  tnti/ilii  emMe,  and  enjoyed 
several  peculiar  privileges.  Ihe  ships  belonging  to  it 
were  Ihe  only  ones  authorised  to  hoist  the  small  sail 
called  <u;i/Hii'UHt,  when  they  ilrew  near  the  coasta  of 
Italy.  Hume  of  I  be  fast-salliiig  vessels  attached  to  Iht 
lleel  wers  sent  on  liefore,  to  giv%  notice  of  lis  approach ; 
and  a  deputation  of  senators  »rnt  down  to  Ostia  to 
rereivo  thu  ships,  which  anchori'd  aniiosi  tlie  accian:a- 
lloiis  uf  an  imiiieiiso  nuinlier  of  fpeelators.  Tlie  cap- 
tains were  obliged  to  make  oath  llial  the  corn  on  lioaid 
their  ships  was  that  whiib  bad  iH'en  delivered  to  tlum 
in  I'^ypt,  and  that  the  cargoes  were  entire  as  shipped. 
— lli'KT,  t'ummeree  tl  Naviijiitiim  ilei  Anciini,  cap, 
xlviii. ;  Henerir  Hpitt.  Ixxvii.,  etc. 

Iiiltrriiiirif  u  i(h  Iniliii  Ihniuijk  Alnnndriii. — Tlicsa 
few  details  will,  perhaps,  serve  to  give  a  I'uint  idea  of 
Ihe  iniportanco  of  Alexandria  in  the  commerce  of  an- 
lii|uity.  It  is  inipnsi<ilile,  indeed,  for  any  one  to  gluncv 
at  a  ninp  of  the  world,  or  of  the  ancient  hcmlrpbere, 
and  not  to  perceive  that  K|:vpt  la  the  nulurul  tiiirfjiut 
ut  Ihe  commerce  between  Kiiropi,  and  all  the  vast  coun- 
tries stretching  east  from  Aralda  to  China.  'Hie  dis- 
covery of  thu  route  to  India  by  Ibe  Cape  uf  (iood  Hope, 
in  I  lliH,  must,  no  doulit,  have,  under  any  circuinstan- 
res,  diverted  a  considerable  portion  uf  the  trade  with 
the  western  Slates  of  Kurope,  and  In  the  heavier  and 
liuikb'r  class  uf  articles,  into  a  new  channel.  It  is, 
however,  abundantly  rertain  that,  bail  Ibe  same  facil- 
ities for  conducting  tin  triide  wilb  Ihe  East  existed  in 
Kgypt  In  Ihe  16tli  and  17lb  centuries  that  existed  in 
it  ill  antii|uily,  shu  would  have  continued  to  lie  Ihe 
centre  of  Ihe  trade  for  all  the  lighter  and  more  valua- 
lile  ).ro(luct!i,  and  the  route  of  the  greater  number  of 
the  individunis  passing  between  Europe  and  Asia.  Hut 
llie  lawless  and  arldlrury  dominion  of  the  Munielukes, 
who  loaded  all  individuals  |  ussing  through  Ihe  coun- 
try with  oppressive  exactions,  at  the  same  lime  that 
Ihey  treated  all  foreigners,  and  especially  Christians, 
with  insolence  and  contempt,  put  an  entire  slop  to  Ihe 
intercourxe  so  long  carried  on  by  Ibis  sliortcst,  most  di- 
rect, and  most  convenient  route.  Ila|ipily,  however,  a 
new  era  hasliegun,  and  Egypt  has  once  mure  licconie  Ihe 
grand  thoroughfare  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Worlds. 
After  good  order  and  a  regular  government  bad  been 
introduced  into  Egypt  liy  tlehemct  AH,  It  was  seen 
that  it  might  be  again  made  the  channel  of  coniniuni- 
calion  with  India;  and  Iho  importance  of  facilitating 
the  intercourse  with  that  continent  forcilily  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  llritlsh  government  and  the  I'.nst 
India  Company.  We  believe,  however,  that  the  ,>ulilic 
are  principally  indebted  to  the  exertions  uf  Mr.  Wag- 
horn  for  the  early  and  successful  <i|ieniiig  uf  wbnt  baa 
Ijeen  called  the  "over-land  rontc"  to  India.  At  all 
events,  the  cstaldisbinent  of  a  steam  communication 
lietwoen  Europe  and  Suulliern  Asia,  by  way  of  Alex- 
andria and  Suez,  is  one  of  Ihe  most  striking  and  im- 
portant events  in  recent  limes.  It  has  shortened  ll.o 
journey  to  India  from  Kngland  more  than  a  half,  niid 
rendered  it  comparatively  safe  and  expeditious.  Stenm- 
crs  ascend  the  Ni!"  as  far  as  Cairo ;  and  Ibe  passengers 
and  mails  arc  thence  conveyed  across  Ihe  ilesert  to  Suez, 
and  conversely,  with  comfort  and  expedition!  W* 
sulijoin  the  following  details : 


OvKaLAHD  Mails,— OcTWABK. 


9in  liondon. 

Via  Marseilles. 

Arrive  at  Alexandria 
about 

I,*ave  Suez 
about 

Arrive  in  llmiibay 
about 

Via  BouthRmplun. 

4th  and 

toth  of  every  month  by 
contract  steamers. 

8th  of  every  montli. 
24th  of  every  month. 

18th  of  every  month. 

4th  or  5lh  of  every 
month. 

Slat  or  22d  of  every 
niontli. 

Olli  of  every  nionlb. 

Arrive  at  Calcutta  ulwut 

6lh  or  7th  of  every 
nionlli. 

Island  intb  of  every 
niunth. 

The  steamers  that  take  tlie  Sontl^mpton  mails  call  at  OibralUir.  and  arrive  at  Malta  abniit  the  14th  and  •tlllh.  The  mails 
tnia  Marseilles  leave  that  |Kirt  by  one  of  her  Majesty's  ateamera  abniil  the  lltli  and  2Tth  of  each  month,  and  atrive  at  Malta 
the  16ib  and  Slst    At  .Malta  llie  uiaiis  arc  transUpped,  and  conveyed  by  steamcn  to  Alexandria, 


ALE 


41 


ALE 


OviBLANii  Mniic—llnMiwitnii.    Prom  RnaiiAT  Tn  I,niii)ni<, 


UUpntcbed  from  Ilonibijr 

hIh)iiI 

Arrin  M  Humi 
•bout 

L43ftvi)  AloxanilriA 

about 

Arrtv*  In  London  about 

Vto  MuMlllM. 

Vis  Boulhampton, 

latnfi'iirli  iiiunlh. 

tHth  of  ™cli  month. 

lUt  of  puh  wnnth. 

lit  of  each  month. 

WOi  ol  each  month. 

Dlipulclii'd  from  OlculU 

7th  of  onrh  mnnlh.       \ 

DUpnUilu'it  friim  Hiinilwy  - 

■iKiiit  'Mth  uf  iimIi  ninnlli) 

8th  of  each  month. 

10th  of  oach  month. 

2t>t  oloACh  month. 

Th«  ronlrart  ntcamrr  with  thK  outward  mall  waltii  at  Alexandria  fur  tlin  linmnwani  mall,  and  arrlTci  at  Malta  about  Iho  IStb 
tnd  'IVh  of  nvory  month,  wliero  lh«  Mamrllli'a  (lortlon  U  tmnafi'm-d  to  iino  of  her  Majcatv'a  atramcra,  whlcli  rarrli'a  It  to  Mar- 
ai'lllca,  whi'nni  It  la  wnt  by  land  to  I'aria,  and  via  lltivi'r  to  London  ;  lh«  n'malnli  k-  portion  la  laiidi'd  at  Noiithaniptnn,  and  l« 
tbiiiri'  M'Ul  h)-  railway  to  London.  Avi^raK"  >lnio  to  or  from  lloinhay,  via  .MaraiMiliii,  111  daya;  and  to  or  truui  Calciitla,  vto 
Miirw'lllin.  aluiul  4i  or  48  daya ;  anil  via  H(]iilliani|iton,  Aroin  4T  to  5,1  daya.  By  uliip  round  thi>  I  'u|h-,  4  niontlia.  Tlio  n«wa- 
papi'r  pronrli'tora  run  nipreaara  (Voin  Marat'llli-a  on  thu  arrival  of  each  mall,  and  thua  an  inablul  to  publUb  the  nvwa  loiua 
two  daya  bcforu  tlui  lutttin  arrlvo  In  Ijondou, 

Rovrm  rnn  Paaaimnnu.— Fitiar,  ria  RnvTiiAMrTOW, 


Tlma  oraunliK. 

ran  to 
alttinilrla. 

AliiaiKlrIa  to 

auu  to 
Htmtbay. 

rroni  Inti  to  tiylon, 
Maitru,iii('>kulla. 

riicaniora  Icavi'  8<iulliauiplon  the  4tli  and  Jfltli  of  ovi-ry  month,) 
and  call  at  (illirHltiir  and  Malta,  arriving  at  Aliiandrla 
about  the  l^th,  4tli,  or  5tli  of  rvrry  month.                          ) 

!•!  Cabin. 

£  1.  i. 

80  »  0 

!•!  labia. 
t  1.  *. 

12  0  0 

Ill  I'abla. 
t  i.d. 

r  0  0  0 

Ill  L'abUi. 
COL  to  701, 

BKitiNii  IIddtk,  vfu  Markkii.!  >H.- ny  Htcaniur  to  Hoiilognc;  railway  to  I'aria  and  t'balona-aur-Haoni';  thence  to  Lyoni, 
Avignon,  and  to  Manwlllra.  Tlnto  orcnpli'd,  tlircc  dm  f  Krcnrh  ^nvcninu'iit  wtvHinti't  Ii'uvi*  Mnnudlb'a  thu  0th,  lOtb,  and 
Stith  of  every  month.  rnllInK  at  Ij'Khoru,  DIvlla  Vrrihlit,  .Naplin,  Malta,  anil  >(<'SHlun.  Kri'Urli  pivirnnunt  atcainera  alio 
lonvu  Maravlllca  on  tliii  Uth  and  23d  ofivi-ry  month  for  Alexandria  and  lleymnt  din'rt,  rallInK  at  Malta  tin  the  way. 

The  Pnnlnaular  and  Oriental  Htoam  Np.vlffatlon  <'ompany  have  piibllahcd  the  f(dlowln((  statementa  ; 


Ratea  of  pnauKo  between  EnKland  and  Malta 

"  '*  "  Alexandria . 


rinl  claM. 

t  I.  4. 
20  fl  0 
RO  0  0 


SacuaJ  Clau. 

£  t.d. 
12  0  0 
10  0  0 


1  1.  W. 

10  0  0 

in  0  0 


ItATKa  or  i'AaaAUR,  ini  LuaivK  iir  Kxpiu»»»  ut  Thanhit  Tiinotiiii  K,<iyiT.  mrrwKKM  Kmaawn  Ann 

!atla.  Ptnanf.  "J^*"  Bilavla.    JjJJ  Adilali 


tientlenien  uecupyInK  a  berth  In  a  cabin,  with  2  or") 
S  othera,  on  the  lower  dork.  Lndlea,  If  bonked  I 
early,  a  lieitli  In  a  cabin,  with  two  or  three  oth*  { 
era,  un  the  npi>or  deck J 

MarriiMl  eoiioleH,  occupying  a  reaorved  cabin  on^ 
the  main  deck J 

Cblldn'n  with  the  parent,  S  yearn  and  under  11. . . . 

A  chiA  under  S  years  (no  berth  provided) 

HerviiUtH,  European 


native  . 


tn 


200 

SS 

Free. 

■M 

IS 


r<jioi 


£05 


240 

4.S 

Free. 

4.T 

211 


£100 


RO 

Free. 

4(1 

2S 


£105 


270 


Fht 


£W 


270 

M 

Fn'e. 

60 

!I0 


tllO 


290 

r<e 

Free. 
62 
81 


£120 


£130 


810  '    ailA 


00 
Free. 

en 

B3 


1      08 

Free. 

flO 


£1M 

noo 

76 

Free. 
76 


Port 
PUU|i, 
Hydflay. 


£1«0 


8(10 

60 
Free. 

RO 


For  large  fanilllea  an  ullowamro  will  lie  made  In  tlu>  foregoing  rittex  to  (!ey!on,  Mndraa.  and  (.'alcntta. 


The  expenaea  of  trunalt  thriiiigh  Egypt  are  charged  at  the  Compony'a  oilleeii,  at  the  timu  uf  securing  the  paaaage,  for  the 
Egyptian  government     Wo  aulOuln  an  extract  from  the 


TllANaiT  AnHINISTRATION  TASHT. 


B«tw««n  Alavaaftrta  i 
aaij  biMi. 

A  lady ")  (Mi 

A  gentleman In  vana    |    12 

A  child  above  ten  yeam >a,^roaa  the<     12  \ 

A  child  of  Ave  ycara  and  under  ten |     Ileaert.    |      S  | 

A  child  of  two  ycara  and  under  (Ivo. 


N.B.— Theae  chargea  are  now  Included  In  the  forea  to  Aden  and  Ceylon,  etc. 


A  child  under  two  year* 

A  European  female  aervant 

A  European  man  aervant  or  mechanic, . . 

A  native  female  servant 

\  native  man  at^rvant  un  a  dromedary  or 


Between  Alexandria 
and  Sunt- 

1    In  van.    f^'^'fi 

yacroaathe.^    *a 

j    Desert.    [_       I 

ifunkey 4 


Canal  helwten  the.  NiU  and  fhe  HedSra.-AVe  are  a.i- 
H'trcd  that,  were  tt  not  for  the  hostilities  in  whicli  tlie 
I'aolia  has  licen  almost  always  cngajjed,  ho  would  have 
alleniptivl  to  rcopon  tlio  famous  canal  that  formerly 
connected  the  Red  Sea  and  tlio  Nile,  According  to 
Herodotus,  this  canal  was  coimncnccd  Iiy  Ncchos,  kiiij; 
of  Esypt,  and  llnishcd  by  Darius  (lib.  lii.  §  l.M,  iv. 
80).  ITndor  tlio  rtolemica,  l>y  whom,  according  to  some 
authorities,  it  was  complet(>d,  this  canal  hccaine  an 
importai.t  channel  of  cunununiralion.  It  Joined  the 
cast,  or  Pcliisiac  branch  of  the  Nile  at  nubastis,  the 
ruins  of  which  still  remain ;  it  thence  proceeded  cast 
to  the  bitter  or  natron  lakes  of  Temrah  and  Cheik- 
Aneded,  whence  It  followed  a  nearly  south  direction  to 
its  Jnnctinn  with  the  lied  Sea  at  Arsinoc,  cither  at  or 
near  where  Suez  now  stands.  It  is  said  by  Strabo 
(lib.  xvii.  p.  805)  to  have  licen  1000  stadia  (122  miles) 
ill  length ;  but  If  we  measure  tt  un  the  IhisI  iiKidern 
ninps,  it  could  hardly  have  exceeded  from  85  to  95 
miles.  Herodotus  says  that  it  was  wide  enough  to  ad- 
mit two  triremes  sailing  abreast.     This  great  work 


having  fallen  into  decay  after  the  downfall  of  the  Ptol- 
(uiiaie  dynasty,  was  renovated  cither  liy  Trajan  or 
Adrian ;  and  it  was  finally  renewed  by  Amrou,  the 
general  of  the  ca\i{  Omar,  the  conqueror  of  Egypt,  anno 
li39.  The  French  engineers  traced  the  remains  of  this 
great  work  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  it  would  be 
uf  singular  advantage  to  Kgypt  and  the  commerce  of 
the  world  were  it  reopened. 

Marshal  Mannont  states  that  the  ground  has  been 
carefully  examined  by  AI.  Lep6re,  an  able  engineer, 
and  that  it  presents  no  sort  of  difliculty  that  may  not 
easily  lie  overcome.  This,  indeed,  might  have  been 
inferred  from  the  fact  of  its  former  construction;  for 
the  ancients,  being  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  locks, 
had  to  encounter  difliculties  in  the  construction  and 
working  of  canals  which  are  now  oliviated  with  the 
utmost  facility.  According  to  M.  I.cpere,  the  cost  of 
constructing  a  navigable  canal  from  tlie  Nile  to  the 
Red  Sea  would  not  exceed  17,000,000  francs  ,or  less 
than  X"00,000  (SIarmost,  iv.  IGl).  Tlie  completion 
of  this  work  need  not,  therefore,  be  despaired  of.    The 


aprnliiR  of  Ihr  Mdhniniidich  ('«n»l  from  Ali<)i«nilri»  to 
Alfc'h  nhowi  wh«l  till'  pDwiit  (fovi-niniriit  l»  Mv  U> 
»Lhli'H' ;  •ml  «»  onliir|pri«i'  like  lliiit  now  umli-r  roii- 
•liltrntlon,  llioii((hiMortMli(Hiiill,  woiilil  Uiof  ntlllKri'ul. 
ft  ImporUnm  to  Kifvpl,  «'  wiOl  an  I"  Kiiropc  inil  A«l«. 
Al(«bia  li  »  »;«iii'riil  imtlioil  of  ri'HilvInu  niatlii'- 
Diallral  prulili'iiin  I'v  incaim  of  i'|imlloii«,  or  II  It  «  ni'tli- 
orl  of  iH'rforiiiliii-'  '"'  '  il'  iilullutu  of  nil  »oit«  of  ipwiM- 
lltli'N  hy  iiH'Oii'  ni'iioral  "Ik"'  or  ihnrai'trm.  Ilu- 
nioili'rn  writerii  u»  ehi'  soljicl  «rii  l.miilM'rl,  ll'Aliiiii 
iK-rt,  l.a»(r«nK<',<><ai<uiii,  f«rtHnili'ri>oii,('li^lr»ut,('oiwiii, 
Triiiplxhor,  Kantii'T,  llc/.mil,  (inu»»,  I'tc.  Wlicro  al- 
gnlir*  mu  (lr»t  Uf<\,  aiicl  liy  wliom,  !•  not  prwl«'ly 
known.  I)lopli«iilii'<tlr«t  wroiniipoiilt  proimbly  »lK)ut 
A.0.170;  halniiaiiltolH'lIu' iiivi'nior.  llruUKht  Into 
8pain  liy  tho  SaraccnK,  nhuiit  '."Kl;  iiml  Into  Italy  iiy 
I^onarilu,  of  l'l»a,  in  \WJ.  The  llr»l  wrilur  who  u»nl 
•luchrairal  sUnd  win  Stlfollnii,  iif  Nnri'mluTK,  in  l.'il  I. 
Tlio  infotliirlion  of  Kyinlioln  for  i|naiililli'(  was  liy 
Fraiic'ii  Vlita,  in  l.'iliO,  whi-n  al^ilira  ramc  into  (c'm'rai 
nx'.— MoRKHi,  The  hinoniiai  tlicorcin  nf  Newiim,  the 
b««is  of  the  ilottrine  '■>  iliixionii,  ami  llm  now  analysin, 
ItHW  — lUriis. 

▲lloant*,  a  nea-port  town  of  Hpaln,  In  the  now 
provin™  of  Alicante,  Ut.  «H°  W  41'  N.,  Iohk.  0°  WC 
W.  Population  of  the  city  nlmiit  '.'D.INMI,  unit  of  tho 
provincf  IMt.'l,MtM).  The  port  in  an  open  anil  upaeiiiuii 
hay,  lietwefn  Cape  ile  lu  lliierta  on  tlio  nurthea.it, 
anil  Itia  I'lana  on  the  s^iilh,  distant  fnmi  each  other 
•outhwfft  and  northeast  alHUit  ten  niilen.  Ships  may 
enter  on  any  course  iHaween  these  points,  iteerinK  di- 
rect for  the  castle,  which  stands  on  iin  eminence  aliont 
4lXl  feci  hiifh.  Tliune  of  '  iinsideralilo  Imrdcn  iniMir 
north  and  south,  distant  from  i  to  1  mile  from  shore, 
In  from  4  to  M  railmniH  water;  they  nru  expimed  to  all 
winds,  from  K.N.K.  to  S.  liy  W. ;  but  the  holding 
((round  is  inx»\,  and  tliere  is  no  imitancu  iIuHiik  the 
last  twenty  years  of  a  ship  huviii^  U'cn  driven  from 
hor  nioorlnK*.  Small  cnift  lie  alon)(Kidu  the  mole, 
which  is  already  :iL>ll  yards  in  lenKlhi  and  is  cuntlnii- 
iii|;  to  Ih>  projected  still  farther  into  the  sea.  The 
mole  has  ■  Axid  liKht,  !).'i  feet  hi^h,  vi.^ilde  15  miles. 
The  trade  of  Alicante,  though  still  eonsiileralile,  has 
declined  much  withiu  the  last  few  years ;  a  conse^ 
qucnce  partly  of  the  emancipation  of  America  from 
the  Spanish  yoke,  lint  more  of  the  oppressive  duties 
laid  on  tho  importation  of  must  articles  ottonign  prod- 
uce into  Spain  (tee  C.tni/.),  and  the  extensive  amu),'- 
glinj;  carried  on  from  (iiliraltar,  Algiers,  etc. 

llaislns  form  the  principal  article  of  ex|iort;  and 
their  proJuce,  which  amounts  to  nearly  itWitKH)  cwt., 
has  Increased  rapidly  of  late  years.  They  are  princi- 
pally taken  otf  by  Kngland,  the  shipments  thither,  in 
1812,  having  liecn  U0,4U6  cwt.  ilut  with  this  single 
exception  all  the  other  articles  of  export  have  declined. 
Tho  principal  are  silk,  wool,  barilla,  almonds,  wine, 
■alt,  oil,  lead,  mats,  saffron,  brandy,  anise,  etc.  Tho  ex- 
portation of  barilla,  which  formerly  amounted  to  from 
60,(KX)  to  1(H),000  cwt.,  has  declined,  partly  from  Its 
havhif;  been  largely  adulterated,  but  principally  from 
its  beinft  to  a  ffrvtt  extent  superseded  by  muile  fuelice 
(artJHcial  soda),  to  little  more  than  20,()00  cwt.  The 
import!  consist  principally  of  su{{ar,  culfec,  cocoa,  and 
other  colonial  products;  cotton,  and  linen  stutrs,  and 
other  manufactured  Koods,  from  England  and  France  ; 
(alted  Ash,  tobacco,  iron  and  liardwarc,  deals  and  tar, 
etc. ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  estimate  of  the 
Imports  from  official  or  other  returns,  as  liy  far  the 
larKOBt  portion  are  supplied  clandestinely.  Indeud, 
the  whole  population  of  this  part  of  Spain  are  clotheil 
in  prohibited  articles,  which  are  sold  as  openly  In  tlie 
towns  as  If  they  were  of  Spanish  manufacture  \—C<m- 
ntCt  Report  for  1841.  An  Aatncineivn  Urilanim  has 
recently  been  formed  in  this  port  for  smelting  and  rc- 
tinin^  the  rich  argentiferous  lead  ores  of  Almaftrcra 
and  other  parta  of  the  province  of  Murcia.  The  man- 
ufacture of  woolens  is  carried  on  pretty  extensively 


I  An 

at  Almy,  W  miles  north  from  Allcanta  j  but  Ibay  aro 
coarse,  anil  of  liiferinr  i|uall(v. 

Allans.  "An  alien,  aeconllnK  to  the  laws  of  the 
rniii'd  States,  la  a  pcrnon  born  nut  of  the  Jurladlilluii 
and  allegiance  iif  the  Inlled  Stales.  This  varies  from 
tlie  mil'  adopted  by  the  ancient  iJiKlish  law,  as  In  the 
cuse  III'  the  I'hililreii  of  piiliilc  ministers  abriiad  (priivld- 
eil  their  wives  lie  r.iiKllah  women),  fur  they  owv  nut  even 
n  ioi  III  nlie)(lune«  to  any  forei^^n  power.  .So.  also,  li  j« 
Kiiid  that  in  every  ra»e  the  clilidren  Imrn  alirnail  uf  K.n- 
»;ltsli  parents  were  capable,  at  conimun  law,uf  Inlierit- 
iiit(  IIS  natives,  if  tiie  lather  went  and  ciinlliiiied  nl  read 
in  the  character  of  an  Kngllshinah,  with  the  appruba- 
lion  of  the  suverei^n. 

"I'he  Act  ofConKrvsauf  tito  t4lh  April,  IMnt,  eslali- 
llihlnK  a  uniform  rule  of  naturall/allon,  albels  the 
issue  of  two  classes  uf  persons,  ily  the  Ith  sciiion  it 
I  was  declared  that  '  the  children  of  persons  duly  nutu- 
I  ralir.ed  ninler  any  of  Ihe  laws  of  the  I  iilled  .Siiitii,  or 
!  who,  previous  to  the  passing  of  any  law  on  lliiil  suli- 
Jci  t  liy  the  (iiivernment  of  the  I'nitcd  Siaiis,  may 
have  luM'ome  lilitens  of  any  one  of  the  Stat' «  under 
the  laws  thereof,  lieint(  under  the  at{e  of  !«'  niy-one 
years  at  the  time  of  their  parents  beiii);  so  mil  i  <  .ilizeil, 
ur  admitted  to  the  rights  of  cititenship,  shall,  if  dwell- 
inK  in  the  I'niled  Slates,  be  cunsidereil  as  ciil/:ens(if 
tlie  I'liiteil  States.'  This  provision  appears  imlv  to 
apply  to  the  children  of  persons  uatnrali/cd,  or  spe- 
cially admitted  to  citi/enshlp  ;  and  llicre  is  color  for 
the  construction,  that  it  may  have  been  intenibd  to  be 
priiipcctive,  and  to  appl,\  jo  well  to  the  '  ii*e  uf  persons 
Ihrrriijlir  to  lie  naturall/.ed  as  to  those  who  liad  pre- 
viously been  naturalized.  It  applies  to  all  the  i  hil- 
ilren  of  'persons  duly  naturiiliicd' — under  the  reshii- 
tions  of  residence  and  minority — at  Ihu  time  of  tho 
liiilnrnlizntion  of  the  parent.  The  act  appilen  to  the 
I'hildren  «/  jirrtimt  duly  natnrali/ed,  lint  does  luit  ex- 
plicitly statu  whether  it  was  intended  to  apply  only  In 
the  case  where  both  parents  were  duly  naluraliziil,  or 
whether  it  would  be  snilicient  for  one  of  them  only  to 
be  naturalized,  in  order  to  confer,  as  of  course,  the 
righls  uf  citizens  iipun  the  resident  children  iH-in^  un- 
der age.  I'erhaps  it  would  be  suWeient  for  tli^l'/ilher 
only  to  lie  naturalized ;  for  in  the  snpphineiilnry  act 
of  the  ^ilth  of  March,  1W)4,  it  was  declared,  that  if  any 
alien  who  should  have  compiled  with  the  preliminary 
steps  made  rei|uisile  by  the  act  of  lufl'i  dies  before  he 
is  actually  naturalized,  his  inWoic  and  rliililnii  shall  be 
considered  aa  citizens.  This  provision  bhows  llnit  the 
naturalization  of  the  father  wis  to  have  the  elllcient 
force  of  conferring  Ihe  ri^ht  on  his  children  ;  and  it  is 
worthy  uf  notice  that  this  last  act  speaks  of  children 
at  lurxe,  without  any  allusion  to  residence  or  minority ; 
and  yet,  as  the  two  aiis  are  Intimately  connected,  and 
make  liut  one  system,  the  last  act  is  to  be  ronatrued 
with  reference  to  tho  prior  one,  accordinj;  to  Ihe  doc 
trine  of  tho  ease  af  Kx  jxirle  (heringttm.  Ity  a  subsc- 
ipient  part  of  tho  same  4th  section,  It  is  declared  that 
'  the  children  uf  persons  who  now  are,  or  have  been 
citizens  of  the  I'nited  Slates,  shall,  thuuKh  burn  out  uf 
the  limiU  and  jurisdiction  uf  Ihe  rnited  Slates,  be  con- 
sidered as  citizens  of  the  I'nited  Slates ;  provided  that 
the  right  of  citizenship  shall  not  descend  to  persons 
who.so  fathers  have  never  resided  within  Ihe  I'niteJ 
States.'  Tills  clause  is  certainly  not  prospective  in  Its 
operation,  whatever  may  be  the  just  construction  of 
the  one  preceding  It.  It  applied  only  to  Ihe  children 
of  persons  »ho  then  vrrt  ut  hail  been  citizens;  and, 
eunse(|uently,  the  lienelll  of  this  provision  nurroH  s  rap- 
idly by  the  lapse  of  time,  and  the  period  will  soon  ar- 
rive when  there  will  be  no  slatulury  regulation  for  thu 
iHinefll  uf  children  born  abroad,  of  American  puienia, 
and  they  will  lie  obliged  tu  resort  for  aid  to  Ihe  dor- 
mant and  doubtful  jirinciples  of  the  Knglish  common 
law.  Tho  proviso  annexed  to  this  last  provision  seems 
to  remove  the  doubt  arising  from  the  generality  of  the 
preceding  sentence,  nnd  which  was  whether  thu  act 


ALI 


ALK 


Intrmlsil  hy  the  wonl*  '  chlldrrn  of  p«ninn>'  hath  lh<>  l 

fitllixr  iimr  niollo''',  !■>  Inillniiun  <if  iIik  aluliitM  nf  'JA  | 
VAm.  1 1  I<,  or  ilxi  I'mliiT  unit,  «ri'orillii;(  In  tin-  nmri' 
IIIhtuI  ili'cliiruliiiii  cif  lliii  Klitlulii  i)(  I  liin.  II  tlii' 
urtivlnluii  ulao  illlli'ra  from  tlii>  prfciMllii^  In  In  lii^ 
wlilitiiit  miv  n'atrlctloii  a**  ('>  llw*  ii^r  or  rralilcni't'  >>[ 
tliii  I  lillil,  unit  It  iplM'ttM  III  liiivi'  Ih'cii  liilcMiilril  fur  iIk' 
I'hililri'ii  i>r  natural  iHirii  rliUi'iin,  or  of  lilltcnii  wlm 
wiirs  urixlxa'  i<'t'<r*  '■>  "<>■'  Ki'volutlon.  anil  llicri'lorK 
It  wa*  iiiorii  toni|iri'lioiiilvii  nml  niori'  llliorul  In  tlii'lr 
fiiviir:  liiit  till)  wholH  KtiUiitii  |irovlKl<iii  In  ri'ninrkiililv 
loiiw  anil  vuKUii  in  Itit  tiirnm,  nml  It  in  lanii'iilulily  ili'- 
fi'cllvii  in  l»'in|{  riinlliuiil  lo  llii'  caku  «(  i  liiMrrn  or  piir- 
•htii  who  wi'ru  I'ltUi'ni*  in  IHil',',  or  Imil  lii'i'n  no  prrvl- 
ouaW.  Ill"  formiir  art  of  'JlXli  Jnnunry,  ITii/i,  wan 
liut  >o;  fur  il  ili'i'liiri'il  ^I'ni'rnlly,  tliiit  Mini  rlilMivn 
ut  (llio'ioi  of  llu>  Initi'il  StiiliH,  hum  out  of  tho  llnilta 
•ml  Jiiri">lii'tiun  »f  thu  I'nlti'il  Sluliia,  nliall  Ih'  nniil'l- 
or<'d  UK  cili/cuii  of  thi>  Inlli'il  Stutcn.'  Anil  wlicn  wi' 
cuiiaiiliT  Ihc  univumul  |irii|ii<nHlty  tu  trnvrl,  tlio  lllii'ral 
Inturrourai'  lii'twrnni  nnliiinH,  tini  i-xti'nt  of  cominiTi'lnl 
anterprlaB,  ami  th"  ttiMiiun  aiiit  nplrit  of  our  innnii'i|iul 
inxlltullona,  it  la  i|uiti<  HurpriiiuK  lliut  tliA  rl^'liln  of 
thu  rhililriMi  of  Ann'rii'un  citi/i'ha  l>4irn  aliniinl  ithuulil, 
liy  Ihii  i'\iHlln)(  act  of  IMll.',  Ihi  left  no  iiriMarioun,  ami 
mi  far  inlVrlor  in  thii  aiourlty  which  has  lii^en  kIvch, 
umlur  like  clrcuniHtanccn,  hy  thu  Kn);linh  atatutus." — 
Ki;nt'!4  Ciimm.,  1^'ct.  XXV, 

In  KnulamI,  ali«na  wure  Krinvoualy  corrrcil  up  tu 
A.D.  1MT7,  Whun  tliuy  wore  to  h«  tripil  criniinnlly, 
thu  JiiricH  wcru  lo  liu  half  fonHKncm,  if  they  ao  ilcslrcd, 
1I;H(.  'I'hcy  wcro  nmtralnL'il  from  c^nrclal^({  any  tniiUi 
or  hamlicraft  hy  rntail,  1  In:I,  Thn  ct>lclirat>Ml  Alien 
Dill  pu»aml,  J,inunry,  171(11.  Act  to  rc){lator  Alii'na, 
17'.>r>.  Hilt  tu  aliulith  tlit'ir  iiuturalizatiim  hy  thu  huM- 
in^ufalock  in  the  hankaiif  .Scutlaml,.lune,  WH),  Nuw 
Uuuialralion  act,  7  (ico,  IV.,  IH-Jil,  Tlila  lout  net  waa 
r«|icali'il  ami  another  atatutu  paaaol  t!  Will.  IV.,  IHIIII. 
'J'ho  oclcliratuil  llaroii  (icramh,  n  cmiapicuous  and  fasli- 
lonulilc  furitj^'ner,  known  at  court,  was  nrdvrod  out  of 
Kn^'laml,  April  (1,  IMl' II.wum. 

Injiucnre  of  Ike  llmvUnic  of  Atient. — There  ran  lie 
110  douht  that,  ({onerally  apeukiuK,  the  resort  of  for- 
eiKUera  to  n  cuuutry,  and  their  realdeneo  in  it,  nre 
lii({lii.>'  conduclvo  to  ila  inti'reats.  Tlio,ie  who  omi- 
(trate  in  order  to  practice  their  rallii);  in  nn  old  net- 
tleil  country  aro  pretty  uniformly  dlstinnuiahed  for 
activity,  enterprise,  and  gfioi  conduct.  The  native 
inhiil)ilanta  huvu  ho  many  advantaKca  on  their  side, 
that  it  would  hu  ahaurd  lo  auppoau  that  forei){nera 
■hiiulil  uvcr  coinu  into  any  tiling  like  aucceasful  com- 
petition with  them,  unleKa  they  wore  accpiainted  with 
•oinu  hrancli  of  trade  or  niauufactnre  of  which  the  oth- 
ers weni  iKUorant,  or  poaaeaaed  anperlor  akiU,  industry, 
or  ecunoniy.  Hut  whether  aliens  practice  n«w  acts,  or 
introduce  moro  perfect  proceases  into  the  old,  or  dis- 
play superior  economy,  etc.,  their  intlux  can  not  fail 
tu  lie  of  the  greatest  advantaKu.  They  practically  in- 
struct those  umoun  whom  they  realdo  in  what  it  nio?.t 
concerna  them  to  know — that  ia,  in  those  departments 
of  art  and  science  in  which  they  iiro  inferior  to  others  ; 
aud  enul>le  them  to  avail  themselves  of  whatever  for- 
eign sagacity,  skill,  or  practice  has  produced  that  is 
most  perfect.  It  is  not  easy.  Indeed,  to  overrate  the 
leuelits  conferred  on  most  countries  hy  the  resort  of 
aliens.  I'reviously  to  tho  invention  of  prinlint;,  there 
was  hardly  any  other  way  of  l)cei>niinR  aciiuaintcd 
with  fiirel>;n  inventions  and  discoveries;  nnd  even 
now  it  is  far  ciwier  to  learn  any  new  art,  method,  or 
prowss,  from  the  example  ami  inatrnctiun  of  those  fa- 
miliar with  its  details,  than  from  the  host  possilde  de- 
scriptions. The  experience,  indeed,  of  every  a(;e  and 
country  shows  that  tho  protjreas  of  nations  in  tlic  ca- 
reer of  arts  and  livilization  ilepcnds  more  on  tho  fn>c- 
dom  of  commerce,  and  on  tho  lihcrality  with  wliidi 
they  have  treated  foriiignerg,  than  almost  any  thing 
uUo. 


AUudlaa.  Th«  dlallnKulihinK  characters  of  theia 
hudiea  are,  a  alrouK  acrid  and  puwerfidly  i  aualic  taate  | 
a  ciirriialve  adhiu  upon  ail  animal  lualler,  deairoylnii 
lla  texture  Mill)  cunalderalile  rapidity  ;  oxpuaeil  tu  thu 
almoaphere,  when  In  Iheir  cauatic  stale,  they  uliaurli 
larlioiiic  ai'iil  with  K^eut  rapidity,  and  iHicinne  carlain- 
ntcd  (iiT  mild).  Their  action  upon  vut(etal>le  colors 
nino  all'orila  nn  means  hy  which  the  presence  of  an  un- 
cumhlned  ur  carlninated  alkali  may  he  deteitcd;  thu 
ycMoH  color  of  turmeric  la  chan^cd  tea  red  hrown  tint 
when  Inimersiil  Into  sulullunn  cuuluinlnK  them;  thu 
hlue  color  of  Ihn  litmus,  after  lieliitf  reddened  hy  an 
acid.  Is  attain  reatureil;  the  Infunloiia  of  the  rid  cal>- 
ha^e,  the  violet,  and  many  other  puiple  vep-taidu  col- 
ors, nre  couverled  to  ^ri'cn,  l.itmna  iiapir  reddened 
hy  larhunic  add  Is,  however,  the  mun>  'idiiale  (eat  of 
the  preseni'u  of  nil  alkali,  >Villi  the  \  ,  luus  acida  they 
also  cumhine,  foriniiit(  the  very  iiiiporlant  and  extens- 
ive class  of  componmls  Kcnerally  called  sails — a  salt 
iKdnK  any  ciniipoun  I  formed  hy  the  union  of  an  acid 
with  an  alkali  or  iiielHllle  oxiile. 

Midliiiulnj.  ~\\w  nu'thiiil  liy  wldch  !•  j  value  of 
the  alkalies,  or  carhonatcd  alkalies,  is  dctcrinineil,  lie- 
in^  of  considerahle  iniporlaiice  in  u  cuminercial  point 
uf  view,  wu  shall  here  treat  II  luiiiewhat  in  detail.     It 
is  an  csluhlished  fact  that  l:>  parts,  hy  wei^dit,  of  oil 
of  vittiol  of  thu  specillc  ({ravity  of  l-dlxfi  are  exaotW 
('((ulvatent  to  the  neutralii'..ili  >ii  of  711  purls,  l>y  weiK'<., 
uf  pure  carlioimte  of  potash,  or  W  uf  pure  putass,  ur  jl 
uf  carlKinate  uf  soilu,  ur  11°.'  uf  suda, and  that  711  purl'    f 
uil  of  vitriol  will  therefore  he  necessary  tu  neiilruli/^ 
IIM)  parts  uf  carhonate  uf  putasa.     Hence,  hy  iinpluy- 
in^  a  kIusb  tnhe  of  ahout  two  ounces'  ca|iacity,  and  ac- 
curately diviilcd  into  iDOeipiul  parts,  taking  70  grains 
uf  oil  of  vitriol,  nnd  ililutiiiK  it  with  water,  to  make 
the  IIM)  measiin  s  cuniplete,  every  nieasui'e  uf  tills  di- 
lute acid  must  he  eiiuul  to  a  ^'rain  uf  pure  carhunato 
uf  potass.     The  perceiitUKc  of  real  carhonate  of  putt,  s 
existing  in  any  sanipfu  of  peurlush  may  hu  at  ome  a*- 
certaiued  hy  taking  1(H)  ((rains  of  the  nanipie,  dissolv- 
iiiK  it  in  hot  water,  straining;,  ami  adding  hy  di'ttrees 
11)0  measures  of  the  test  acid  uhove  inenlioned;  tho 
point  of  neutralization  (^when  it  ceases  to  ulVeci  litmus 
paper  or  reddened  litmus)  hcing  accurately  a.^ccrtain- 
ed,  tho  residual  add  will  give  the  percentage  of  im- 
purities ;  for  instance,  say  that  T&  measures  uf  tho  dl- 
iuto  acid  have  Ixwn  employed  to  render  KM)  grains  of  a 
sample  of  (learlash  perfectly  no.,    i.'-,  ''icn  we  have  a>- 
curtalncil  that  it  contains '.Ti  pi  I      ■><    inpurilies.    The 
same  process,  of  course,  must  ho  'm'.\  wed  in  examining 
samples  nf  harilla  or  kelp,  except  that  the  alkali  con- 
tained in  them  hdng  carlamate  of  soda,  'M-l't  of  oil 
of  vitriol  must  he  employed  instead  of  70.     Tiie  proc- 
ess recoinniendeil  liy  M"    Varaday,  nnd  in  which  he 
uses  only  one  test  ocld,  is  as  follows :  Into  a  tuhe  about 
thivc  ipiarters  of  an  iu'  li  in  diunu'ter,  and  nine  and  a 
I  half  lung,  and  as  cylindrical  as  pussihlc  throughout 
its  whole  length,  1000  grains  of  water  are  to  he  weigh- 
ed, and  tho  space  occupied  marked  on  the  tulie  liy  a 
line  Hie;  this  space  is  then  divided  from  nliove  down- 
ward Into  liM)  eipial  parts.     At  '2:!lt,  or  7('r5li  iinrts 
from  the  Inittom,  an  extra  line  should  he  ma  le,  and 
soda  marked  opposite  to  it ;  at  IS'UO  potass  should  be 
marked  in  the  same  way ;  at  6-4'G3  carbunnte  uf  soda ; 
and  ot  (!,')  carbonate  uf  potass.     A  diluted  acid  is  now 
to  he  prepared,  which  shall  have  a  spcciiic  gravity 
1-1'.'7,  and  this  is  made  liy  mixing  intimately  together 
I!)  parts,  by  weight,  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  HI  of  water. 
The  method  to  1h>  followed  in  tho  employnu'.nt  of  this 
acid  is  as  folluws :  Tho  dilute  acid  Is  to  he  meaKnrcil  in 
tho  tube  up  to  the  line  opposite  to  which  the  alkali 
sought  for  is  marked;  if  barilla,  which  cunlains  car- 
bonate of  soda,  51°filt  measures  are  to  be  taken.     The 
100  measures  aro  then  made  up  by  the  addition  of  wa- 
ter, and  Is  then  ready  for  use,  following  tho  raothod 
before  stated. 
Tbc  alkalies  arc  four  In  number;  namely,  .immonia 


ALK 


ii 


ALK 


\i 


w 


(or  Tolatile  alkali),  potau  (or  veKadblu  alkali),  Mxla  (er 
mineral  alkali),  and  lithla ;  wlijcli  Um  ii  uf  mi  llUlti  Ini* 
porUnco  tlii*  we  shall  not  treat  of  it  iiere.  Tlie  uuiiiiil. 
nation  of  tliese  alkalies  witli  tliu  various  ai'l>U,  wlitilluV' 
cr  they  form  compounds  of  any  importance,  will  liu  iiu- 
ticed.' 

Ammonia,  or  Spirits  nfllariihom,  or  VohilUe  All/nil, 
in  Its  uncombined  form,  is  an  clastic  Ktv^uus  Ix'ily, 
having  a  very  pungent  and  suffbcalinK  uilor,  lUstruyn 
animal  life,  converts  the  yellow  of  lurinuric  im|i«r  to  a 
brown,  which,  from  the  volatility  of  the  alkali,  is  auaiti 
restored  by  a  gentle  heat  to  its  original  culur,  I'lils 
gas  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  water,  ttliich  tiiktts  illlu 
solution  about  780  times  iu  volume,  forming  tliu  Ili|ul4l 
.ammonia,  or  what  is  commonly  called  Imrtsliorii. 
Ammonia  is  liberated  whenever  any  of  the  conipuutlds 
of  this  .alkali  are  acted  upon  by  potass,  auda,  lilH«,  and 
.many  other  alkaline  earths.  Lime,  from  its  beiiiK  tlitt 
most  economical,  is  generally  employed  {  the  lixtt  pru- 
.portions  for  its  preparation  are  equal  weights  uf  sal 
ammoniac  (muriate  of  ammonia)  and  frenb  slakud  llin«, 
.When  these  are  introduced  into  a  retort,  and  huat  ap* 
plied  ammonia  is  liberated  in  the  gaseous  form,  and  in 
conducted  by  a  Wetter's  safety-vube  into  a  vessel  of 
water,  by  which  the  gas  is  instantly  absorbed.  Mu- 
.riate  of  .lime  remains  in  the  retort ;  sometimes  wal«ir  is 
added  to  the  mixture,  and  then  distilled.  As  tlius  ub- 
tained,  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  •1)30  or  ■UW,  water 
being  equal  to  1-000.  The  most  concentrated  iwlutloil 
of  ammonia  has  the  speciflc  gravity  of  -876. 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia,  or  Volatile  Sail,  or  flubmr- 
bonate  of  Ammonia.— TUa  salt,  whicli  is  very  niui'Jl 
employed  in  various  processes  of  the  arts,  was  fur> 
merly  obtained  by  the  action  of  clialk  (carlxiualu  uf 
lime)  upon  muriate  of  ammonia  ;  a  doulile  decuniposl' 
tion  takes  place.  Carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  an 
sublimed  in  vapor,  and  muriate  of  lime  renitthis  in  lliu 
vessel.  A  much  less  expensive  process  is,  liuwtivnr, 
now  followed,  namely,  from  tho  waste  gas  liquors  uli' 
tained  in  the  purification  of  coal  gas ;  lliese  are  evap- 
orated, and  the  black,  impure  sulphurlu  acid  addfd, 
By  this  means  a  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  formed,  and 
tae  carbonate  procured  from  it  by  the  action  of  powder- 
ed chalk,  as  in  the  former  process.  Its  uses  are  prill- 
dpally  in  forming  other  compounds  of  animoiiia,  at 
snijliing  salts;  and  it  is  likewise  employed  rather  ex- 
tensively  by  pastry-cooks  for  making  light  pastry, 
i«hich  is  caused  by  the  volatile  carbonate  of  ainiimiiia 
.escaping  and  raising  np  the  pastry  by  the  b«at  of  the 
,oven.  It  is  entirely  dissipated  during  the  baking,  so 
that  no  ill  effect  can  arise  (Voni  its  use.  llotli  t)'ls 
jBompound  and  the  preceding  act  as  violent  sliiiiulaiits 
on  the. animal  system. 

Muriate  of  A  mmonia,  or  Sal  A  mmoniae,  was  formerly 
brought  to'Europe  from  Egypt,  where  it  was  procured 
by  submitting  the  soot  of  camels'  'ung  (there  employed 
for  tae\)  to  sublimation  in  closed  vessels ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, at  present  manufactured  in  very  largo  quanlltiits 
in  England  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  most  ecuiioin- 
ical  processes  are  either  submitting  sulphate  uf  ammo- 
nia mixed  intimately  with  muriate  of  soda  (sea  salt)  to 
sublimation,  or  by  substituting  the  bittern  uf  seo-waler, 
which  consisti)  chiefly  of  muriate  of  nmgnesia,  fur  titv 
sea  salt.  In  the  first  process  a  sulphate  of  auila  Is 
formed,  and  the  muriate  of  ammonia,  which,  liellig 
volatile,  rises  in  the  vaporous  form,  and  is  cuiMliuistid 
in  the  cool  parts  of  the  apparatus ;  in  the  latter  proiiess 
a  sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  sails)  results.  It  is 
generally  ttom  this  salt  (muriataof  ammonia)  that  the 
liquid  ammonia  is  manufactured  ;  it  is  aUo  einpluyed 
in  tinning  and  soldering,  to, preserve  the  metals  from 
oxidation.  It  is  a  senU-transparent,  lough  salt,  'lav- 
ing  an  acrid  and  cool  tante,  and  Is  usually  met  with  In 
the  form  of  hemispherical  masses.  Mai  aniinoiilan  is 
made  at  Calcutta,  and  is  thence  exported  toUreat  llr!:- 
ain,  the  United  Stales,  ami  the  Arabian  and  I'erslan 
Qu{6,    In  ISiir^  the  export*  amountod  to  Hi  toM, 


Mpkatt  </  /t  mmonia.— The  preparation  of  the  sol- 
pliato  has  been  already  given  under  the  head  of  am- 
liiunla;  It  Is  employed  in  the  manufacture  both  of  the 
darliunata  and  muriate. 

Acttah  of  Amnwnia. — The  spirit  of  Mindererns  is 
ulilainod  by  acting  upon  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  by 
ai'dtio  acid  I  the  carbonic  acid  escapes  witli  (■fler\'e8- 
c«m'e,  and  an  acetate  of  ammonia  is  formed ;  it  is  em- 
pliiyed  In  medicine  as  a  febrifuge.  All  these  salts  of 
aitiinonla  have  the  following  properties :  they  are  vol- 
alllu  at  a  low  red  heat ;  the  fixed  alkalies  decompose 
llii'tn,  combining  with  their  acid,  and  the  ammonia  la 
liberated.  When  combined  witit  a  fixed  acid,  such  as 
the  buracic  oi'  phosphoric,  they  are  decomposed,  the 
niiininnla  alone  being  volatilized,  and  the  acid  remain- 
ing pure.  Thit  proctu  viat  deicribedfor  obtaining  pure 
lilumjilioria  acid. 

J'ulaii,  or  Vegetable  Alkali. — The  original  source  of 
till*  alkali  Is  In  tho  vegetable  kiugdom,  whence  is  de- 
rived Its  name  of  vegetable  alkali.  \Vhen  wood  ia 
burned,  and  the  ashes  lixiviated  with  water,  boiled, 
•trahlitil,  Ajul  evaporated  to  dryness,  an  intensely  alka- 
lltis  mass  Is  obtained,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 

Iiutasli,  from  this  process  being  conducted  in  iron  pots, 
t  Is  then  removed  to  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  sub- 
mitted lu  heat,  and  a  current  of  air.  Tliis  burns  out 
extractive  matter  and  other  impurities,  and  the  salt 
assumes  a  pearly  white  color,  and  is  hence  called  pearl- 
anlics.  (.'are  should  be  taken  during  this  process  that 
tli«  potashes  do  not  enter  into  fusion,  as  this  "ould  de- 
stroy iho  full  cfl'ect  of  the  operation. 

I'tarliuhet.  —  I'earlashcB  generally  contain  obout ' 
from  (X)  to  Hi)  or  84  per  cent,  of  pure  carbonate  of  pot- 
ass, Its  uses  In  manufactures  are  numerous  and  im- 
portant, it  Is  employed  in  making  flint-glass,  of  which 
it  CMiistllules  about  one  sixth  of  the  materials  employ- 
ed I  In  soap-making,  especially  for  the  softer  kinds  of 
soap  t  fur  this  purpose,  however,  it  is  first  rendered 
caustic  by  means  of  lime.  In  the  rectification  of  spirits 
large  quantifies  are  employed  to  combine  with  the  wa- 
ter previously  In  union  with  the  spirit. 

Hubrarbimule  qf  I'otnse,  or  Salt  of  Tartar,  is  used  in 
preparing  the  subcarbonate  of  potass  of  the  Pharma- 
t'upit>la  (carbonate  of  potass  of  the  chemical  nomen- 
claturn),  ind  likewise  in  rendering  hard  tpriiig  waters 
»ufl,  and  In  cleansing  substances  from  grease :  it  ia 
suinetlliics  called  salt  of  wormwood.  When  made  by 
the  deflagration  of  two  parts  of  tartar  of  argol  and  one 
uf  nitrt,  It  Is  called  black  flux,  and  is  used  extensively 
In  mefallurgic  uiierntions.  From  the  sulKarlicmate  of 
potash  the  pure  ami  uncombined  potass  is  obinined,  by 
adding  an  equal  weight  of  fresh  burned  lime,  previous- 
ly slaked,  and  boiling  them  with  half  their  weight  of 
water,  lly  this  process  the  lime  combines  with  the 
carlMjiilc  acid,  and  the  potass  remains  in  solution  in 
Its  I'HIlstIc  slate ;  by  boiling  tlie  clear  solution  rapidly 
III  Iron  vessels,  and  submitting  it  to  fusion,  we  obtain 
the  fused  potass.  If  It  be  required  perfectly  pure  for 
clienilcnl  purposes,  it  Is  necessary  to  evaporate  in  sil- 
ver ve*s<ds,  nnd  dinsolve  in  strong  alcohol.  This  takes 
ii|i  tilt'  pure  potass,  and  leaves  any  portion  of  the 
•Mbcarl'iiiiale  thnt  may  not  have  been  acted  upon  by 
the  llliinj  then  the  alcohol  is  to  be  distilled  off,  and 
till)  (Hilass  fused  at  a  red  heat,  and  poured  out  in  its 
liquid  slate  on  a  cold  slab.  As  thus  procured,  it  is  ■ 
while,  lirlltlu  mass,  highly  deliquescent,  absorbing 
niuisture  and  carbonic  arid  rapidly  from  the  atmos- 
plliirif,  When  evaporated  in  Iron  vessels  it  lias  a  dirty 
I'ulor,  and  lets  fall  a  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron  when 
illbsulvad  In  n  alcr,  from  its  having  acted  upon  the  iron 
bulltirs,  I'otass  acts  with  great  rapidity  upon  animal 
slilislancer,  destroying  their  texture,  and  is  on  this  ac- 
I'uiMit  iiiiipioyed  as  a  caustic,  and  was  formerly  called 
limit  Itijimatit, 

t'lirfnmnle  (ur.  In  the  chemical  nomenclature,  Jliear- 
Inmate)  if  I'litan,  Is  prepared  by  passing  carbonic  acid 
gsi  through  a  solution  of  ihe  subcarbonate ;  and  evap> 


/ 


ALE 


25 


ALK 


orating  at  a  temperature  below  212°,  and  crystallizing. 
It  is  used  in  malting  effervescing  drauglits.  It  loses 
one  proportion  of  its  carbonic  acid  when  heated,  and  is 
converted  into  the  sulicarbonate. 

Sulphate  of  Patau,  or  Sal  Polychrat,  or  Vitriolated 
T\irtar,  is  obtained  by  submitting  the  salt  which  re- 
mains after  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid  from  nitre 
and  sulphuric  acid  to  a  rod  heat,  or  by  neutralizing  the 
excess  of  acid  contained  in  that  salt  by  subcarbonate  of 
potass. 

Biiuljihate  of  Patau,  or  Sal  Etiixum. — This  is  the  salt 
mentioned  above,  as  the  residue  from  the  process  for 
obtaining  nitric  acid.  It  is  employed  in  very  large 
'  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  alum ;  also  in  tinning 
iron,  for  pickling,  as  it  is  termed ;  it  is  sometimes  also 
used  as  a  flux. 

XUrate  of  Potaih,  Nitre,  or  Saltpetre. — This  salt, 
which  is  of  so  much  importance  in  every  branch  of  the 
arts,  is  found  native  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  espe- 
cially in  the  East  Indies.     It  is  obtained  from  soils 
composed  of  decomposing  granite,  the  feldspar  of  which 
gives  rise,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  potass.     The  nitric 
acid  is  not  so  easily  accounted  for,  except  it  is  by  a 
union  of  the  nitrogen  and  oxygen  gases  in  the  atmos- 
phere tailing  place  in  those  hot  climates ;  for,  from  au- 
thenticated accounts,  no  decaying  animal  or  vegetable 
matter  exists  in  the  nitre  districts  of  India.     By  lix- 
iviation  with  water  the  nitre  is  dissolved  from  the  soil, 
which  is  again  thrown  out  into  the  air,  to  be  washed 
the  following  year ;  so  that  it  is  formed  continually. 
These  lixiviations  ore  then  evaporated;  and  when  of 
a  certain  strength,  a  quantity  of  common  salt  separates, 
which  is  removed  as  it  falls ;  and  the  nitre  is  then  crys- 
tallized and  imported  to  England,  always  containing  a 
certain  quantity  of  impurities,  which  are  deducted  in 
the  purchase  of  large  quantities  of  the  article,  being 
termed  its  refraction.      It  is  generally  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  pure  nitric  acid,  refined 
or  recrystallized.    Nitre  may  be  also  made  artiticial- 
ly,  in  beds  of  decaying  vegetable  or  animal  substan- 
ces, mixed  with  old  mortar,  or  other  refuse  calcareous 
earth ;  these  are  watered  occasionally,  too  much  moist- 
ure being  hurtful ;  oftera  certain  periou,  depending  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  process  has  gone  on,  the 
whole  is  submitted  to  lixiviation  together  with  wood- 
ashes,  which  contain  subcarbonate  of  potass,  and  which 
decomposes  any  nitrate  of  lime  formed,  of  which  there 
Is  generally  a  considerable  quantity.    After  the  lixivi- 
ation is  complete,  which  takes  some  time,  the  solution 
is  separated  and  boiled  down ;  the  salt  separates  as  in 
the  other  process,  and  tlic  nitre  is  then  crystiillized.   It 
was  from  this  source  that  the  whole  of  the  nitre,  nearly, 
smployed  by  the  French  during  the  long-protructcd 
war  with  the  continental  powers  was  obtained.    Nitre 
has  a  cold,  penetrating,  and  nauseous  taste;  enters 
into  igneous  fusion  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  is  then  mould- 
ed into  round  cakes,  oiled  sal  prunella.    1 1  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid ;  of  gunpowder,  which 
is  composed  of  75  parts  by  weight  of  nitre,  16  of  char- 
coal, and  9  of  sulphur  (the  nitre  for  this  purpose  should 
be  of  great  purity) ;  and  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  of 
vitriol :  as  a  flux  it  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  wo  pos- 
sess ;  it  is  also  ucud  for  the  preservation  of  animal  food, 
and  in  making  frigoridc  mixtures :  1  ounce  of  nitre  dis- 
solved in  5  ounces  of  water  lowers  its  temperature  16 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. — See  S.\LTrETRE. 
Oxalate  and  /iinoTalale  of  Putn»»,—  'iho  binoxalate 
of  potass,  or  salt  of  lemon,  or  sorrel,  by  l>otli  which 
last  names  it  is  very  commonly  known,  is  procured 
from  the  juice  of  the  common  sorrel  {Ilumex  Acetoea), 
or  tlic  wood  sorrel  (fixalit  Aceliuella),  by  crystalliza- 
tion, after  the  feculent  matter  has  been  separated  by 
standing  a  few  days.     Its  chief  uses  are,  in  removing 
ink  spots  or  iron  moulds ;  and  also  as  a  refreshing  bev- 
erage when  mixed  with  sugar  and  water.    The  neutral 
oxalate  is  obtained  from  this  suit  by  combining  the  ex- 
cess of  acid  »liicU  it  contains  with  s  solution  uf  sub- 


carbonate of  potass.     Is  very  much  used  in  chemistry, 
as  the  best  test  of  the  presence  of  lime. 

Tartrate  ami  liitartrate  of  Patau. — Uitartrato  of  pot- 
ass, or  cream  of  tartar,  is,  when  in  its  crude  and  im- 
pure state,  called  argol,  and  is  deposited  in  the  inte- 
rior of  wine-casks  during  fermentation,  and  from  this 
source  the  whole  of  the  cream  of  tartar  is  obtained.  It 
is  generally  of  a  very  dark  brown  color,  but  may  bo 
pnrilied  and  rendered  perfectly  white  by  solution  and 
crystallization.  It  is  employed  very  extensively  in 
dyeing,  hut-making,  and  in  the  preparation  of  tartaric 
acid,  and  many  of  the  compounds  of  tartaric  acid,  as 
tartar  emetic,  solulde  tartar  (tartrate  of  potass) :  when 
heated  to  redness,  it  is  converted  iaio  carbonate  of  pot- 
ass and  charcoal ;  mixed  with  lial.'  its  weight  uf  nitre 
and  thrown  into  a  red-hot  crucible,  it  forms  the  black 
flux,  and  with  its  own  weight  of  nitre  the  white  flux, 
both  of  which  are  very  much  employed  in  nietallurgic 
operations.  The  tartrate  is  made  by  the  addition  of 
subcarbonate  of  potass  to  a  solution  of  the  bitartrate 
until  perfectly  neutral :  it  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  mild 
purgative. 

Ferro-cyanatc,  .r  Pruisiate  of  Patau. — This  salt  is 
obtained  by  the  action  of  subcarbonate  of  potass,  at  a 
low  red  heat,  upon  refuse  animal  matter,  such  as  hoofs, 
lioms,  skin,  etc.,  in  the  proportion  uf  two  of  subcarbon- 
ate to  four  or  five  of  the  animal  matter.  But  the  proc- 
ess recommended  by  M.  Gautier  is  preferable ;  ho  finds 
that  when  animal  matter  is  heated  with  nitre,  it  yields 
a  much  lar^rer  quantity  of  the  ferro-Prussiato  than  when 
either  potas!  or  subcarbonate  of  potass  are  employed ; 
the  proportions  he  finds  most  economical  are,  1  part  by 
weight  of  nitre,  3  parts  of  dry  blood,  and  iron  scales  or 
filings  equal  to  a  fiftieth  of  the  blood  employed.  The 
coagulum  of  blood  is  mixed  intimately  with  the  nitre 
nnd  iron  filings,  and  dried  by  exposure  to  tlie  air ;  they 
are  then  submitted  to  a  very  low  red  heat,  in  deep  iron 
cylinders,  as  long  as  vapors  continue  to  be  liberated ; 
when  cold,  the  contents  are  dissolved  in  12  or  15  timca 
their  weight  and  strained.  On  evaporation  till  of  the 
specific  gravity  1-284,  and  allowing  it  to  cool,  u  large 
quantity  of  liicarbonate  of  potass  crystallizes ;  and  by 
further  evaporation  till  of  the  specific  gravity  1'306, 
the  ferro-Prussiate  of  potass  crystallizes  on  cooling. 
This  is  to  be  recrystallized.  It  is  a  beautiful  yellow 
salt,  very  tough,  having  a  tenacity  similar  to  sper- 
maceti, and  is  decomposed  at  a  red  heat.  It  in  em- 
ployed very  extensively  in  dyeing  blues,  and  in  calico 
printing ;  also  in  the  manufacture  of  Prussian  blue, 
which  is  a  compound  of  the  ferro-Prussic  acid  and  ox- 
iilo  of  iron,  prepared  by  adding  1  part  of  the  ferro- 
Prussiate  of  potass  dissolved  in  water,  to  1  part  of  cop- 
|)eras,  and  4  parts  of  alum  in  solution, 

Chromate  of  Potass. — This  salt  is  obtained  from  the 
native  chromate  of  iron  by  the  action  of  nitre  at  a  full 
red  heat  in  equal  jiroportions.  I)y  solution,  filtration, 
and  evaporation,  n  beautiful  lemon-yellow  colored  salt 
results.  It  is  very  much  employed  in  dyeing,  calico 
printing,  and  called  making,  from  its  producing  bright 
yd!  -w  precipitates  with  solutions  of  lead. 

liichrumatc  nf  Potass  is  prepared  from  the  above- 
mentioned  salt,  by  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  to  the 
yellow  solution  obtained  from  the  heated  mass  by  the 
action  of  water;  on  evaporating  this,  a  dark  red  col- 
ored salt  crystallizes,  which  is  the  bichromate.  This 
is  also  very  largely  employed  by  the  calico  jirinters, 
and  when  mixed  in  solution  with  nitric  aciil,  possesses 
the  property  of  destroying  vegetable  colors ;  on  this 
account  it  is  of  great  importance,  as  it  at  the  same 
time  removes  a  vegetable  color,  and  forms  a  base  for  a 
yellow  dye. 

Chlorate  or  Hyperorymuriaie  of  Potass. — The  prepa- 
ration of  this  salt  is  attended  with  some  little  ditHculty, 
and  requires  a  great  deal  of  nicety.  It  is  obtained  by 
passing  a  current  uf  chlorine  gas  thrdugb  a  solution  of 
caustic  potass;  then  boiling  and  evaporating;  the  first 
salt  that  separates  is  the  chlorate  uf  potass ;  and  by 


"m-SiF^' 


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26 


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• 


Anther  evaporetJon,  muriate  of  poUM  Is  ottalned.  It 
is  used  in  making  matches  for  instantaneous  light 
boxes,  w  hich  are  prepared  by  first  dipping  the  wood  in 
melted  sulphur,  and  then  into  a  thin  paste,  formed  of 
8  parts  i-hlorate  of  potass,  2  parts  starch,  and  a  little 
vermilion ;  with  sulphur  it  forms  n  very  explosive  com- 
pound, generally  employed  for  filling  the  percussion- 
caps  of  fowling-pieces. 

Soda,  or  Mineral  Alkali.— T\ia  sources  of  this  alkali 
in  nature  are  various.  It  is  obtained  in  combination 
with  carbonic  acid,  when  plonis  which  grow  by  the 
sea-side  are  burned.  The  ashes  thus  obtained  are 
called  barilla  and  kelp :  and  also  in  some  countries  it 
is  found  as  an  cflioresconco  ui)on  the  surface  of  the 
eartli,  and  is  called  nitrum  or  natron  ;  this  occurs  par- 
ticulariy  in  Kgypt  and  South  America.  Trona  is  also 
another  native  carbonate  of  soda,  and  is  exported  from 
Tripoli.  In  combination  with  muriatic  acid  It  is  also 
found  in  immense  abimdance,  forming  the  rock  salt, 
and  sea  salt  or  muriate  of  soda.  It  is  obtained  from 
the  carbonate  exactly  in' the  same  way  as  potass  is  ob- 
tained from  its  carbonate,  namely,  by  boiling  it  with 
fresh-burned  lime  previously  slaked,  decanting  Hie 
clear  solution,  and  evaporating  and  fusing.  It  is  a 
white  brittle  substance,  and  by  exposure  to  the  air  be- 
comes converted  into  a  dry  carbonate.  Its  uses  in  the 
arts  and  manufactures  are  of  considerable  importance. 
In  soap-making  it  is  employed  in  very  large  quanti- 
ties, and  for  this  purpose  is  generally  procured  from 
barilla  or  kelp,  by  mixing  them  with  lime,  and  by  the 
infusion  of  water  procuring  a  caustic  soda  ley  ;  this  is 
mixed  with  oil  and  fatty  matters  in  various  propor- 
tions, and  boiled  ;  the  saponitication  of  the  fatty  mat- 
ter takes  place,  and  the  soap  formed  rises  to  the  sur- 
face; the  ley  is  then  drawn  from  l)encalli,  and  fres'h 
leys  added,  until  the  soap  is  rompletely  free  from  oil ; 
it  is  then  allowed  to  dry.  Soda  is  also  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  plate,  crown,  and  bottle  glass,  though 
lor  tliis  purijoso  it  is  generally  in  the  form  of  carbon- 
ate or  sul|ihate. 

Subcatiiinate  of  Soda.  (In  the  chemical  nomencla- 
ture it  is  called  cnrfc«n<f. V-This  is  generally  prepared 
bom  barilla,  which  contains  about  from  l(i  to  24  per 
cent,  liarilla  is  procured  by  incinerating  the  snU»lii 
toda,  and  other  aeo-side  plants;  it  is  made  in  large 
quantities  on  the  coast  ol  Spain.  Kelp  is  another  im- 
pure carbonate  of  soda,  but  does  not  contain  nion>  than 
4  or  5  per  cent. ;  it  is  the  ashes  obtained  from  seu-wecds 
by  incineration,  and  is  made  on  the  northern  shores 
of  Scotland.  From  these,  the  crystallized  carbonate 
(or  sulicarbonate,  as  it  is  more  frequently  called)  is 
made  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
boiling,  straining,  evaporating,  and  skimming  off  the 
common  salt  as  it  forms  on  the  surface :  '  rooling. 
the  sulKarlinniitc  of  soda  crystallizes.  Anuili>  i  method 
is  by  heating  the  sulphate  of  soda  with  carbonate  of 
lime  and  charcoal,  and  then  dissolving  out  the  soluble 
carl>onate ;  also,  by  the  action  of  carbonate  of  potass 
(pearlash)  upon  solutions  of  sea  salt. — />Vc  B.vhiii,i.a 
and  KEi.r. 

Hiciirlmnate  of  Soda  is  procured  by  driving  a  cur- 
rent of  carlionic  add  gas  through  solutions  of  the  car- 
bonate, and  tliiiii  I'vaporating  at  «  teniporaturo  below 
212' Fahrenheit;  i',  is  chiefly  employed  in  making 
ioda-waler  powders.  This  is  the  carbonate  ut  da  of 
the  I'harniAcopii'ia.     I)y  the  application  of  a  ri  d  heat 


it  loses  carbonic  acid,  and  is  converted  into  the  sub- 
carlionatc. 

Sulpkiite  of  Soda,  or  Glauber  *(//».— This  salt,  which 
has  received  the  name  of  filauber,  from  its  discoverer, 
is  the  residue  of  a  great  many  chemical  processes ;  for 
instance,  when  muriate  of  soiia  is  arle<)  upon  by  oil  of 
vitriol,  muriatic  acid  and  sulphate  of  soda  rcsuK ;  in 
making  chlorine  gas  for  the  manufacture  of  the  chloride 
of  lime,  or  bleaching  powder,  sulphate  of  sotla  and  sul- 
phate of  manganese  result — the  materials  employed 
being  sea  salt,  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol),  and  black 


oxide  of  manganese:  also,  in  the  preparation  of  acetic 
acid  from  the  acetate  of  soda,  and  in  the  preparation 
of  muriate  of  ammonia  from  sea  salt  and  sulphate  of 
ammonia.  Sulphate  of  soda  is  a  colorless,  transparent 
salt,  effloresces  readily  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
becomes  converted  into  a  dry  powder ;  it  has  a  cold, 
bitter  taste.  It  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  carbonate 
of  soda,  and  as  a  medicine.     It  is  found  native  in  some 

countries,  particularly  in  Persia  and  South  America 

frequently  as  an  eftiorejccnce  upon  new  walls. 

Nitrate  of  Soda.— 'this  salt  is  found  native  in  some 
parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is  called,  freni  its  s<iuare 
form,  cubic  nitre ;  it  is,  however,  verj  little  used. 

Muriate  of  Soda,  or  Sea  /Soft.— This  compound  is' 
found  in  immense  quantities  in  the  earth,  and  is  culled 
from  this  circumstance  rock  salt,  or  sal  gem.  Tho 
mines  of  Cheshire  and  Droitwich,  in  Knglund,  and 
those  in  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Spain,  and  many 
others,  afford  immense  quantities  of  this  compound. 
It  is  also  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  sea-water, 
both  siiontaneously  in  pits  formed  for  the  jiurjjose,  and 
in  large  iron  boiler^ ;  the  uncrjstallizable  fluid  is  called 
the  bittern ;  basket  salt  is  made  by  placing  the  salt, 
after  evaporation,  in  conical  baskets,  and  iiassing 
through  it  a  saturated  solution  of  salt,  which  dissolves 
and  carries  oft"  the  muriate  of  magnesia  or  lime.  Pure 
salt  should  not  become  moist  by  exposure  to  the  air ; 
it  decrepitates  when  heated:  it  is  employed  for  the 
preparation  of  muriatic  acid,  carbonate  of  soda,  muriate 
of  ammonia,  and  many  other  operations;  also  in  glaz- 
ing stone-ware,  pottery,  etc. ;  and  from  its  great  imii- 
septic  properties,  is  used  largely  for  the  preservation 
of  animal  food  ;  us  a  flux  also  in  metallurgy. 

Jiorate  if  Soda,  or  liorui. — This  fait  is  found  in 
Thibet  and  Persia,  deposited  from  suline  lakes;  it  is 
called  tincal,  and  is  imported  into  this  country,  where 
it  is  purified  by  solution— the  fatty  matter  with  which 
the  tincal  is  always  coated  being  i  ,'u,d,  and  the 
solution  evaporated  ond  crystallized  :  is  principal 
uses  arc  as  a  flux,  from  its  acting  vcj;,  powerfully 
upon  earthy  substances. 

Alkanet,  or  Anchuaa  (Ger.  Orkumt;  Vu.  Oste- 
tiny:  Fr.  Orvamllr ;  It.  Ai.cusa;  Sp.  Arcantta'),  aspc- 
cies  of  bugloss  (^Anchusa  linctoria,  Linn.).  It  has  been 
cultivated  in  England ;  but  is  found  of  the  finest  quality 
in  Siberia,  Spain,  and  more  particularly  in  the  south 
of  France,  in  the  vicinity  of  Montpellier.  The  roots 
of  the  plant  are  the  only  parts  that  arc  made  use  of. 
AVhcn  in  perfection,  they  ore  about  the  thickness  of 
the  finger,  having  a  thick  bark  of  a  deep  purplish  red 
color.  This,  when  sepaiated  from  the  whitish  woody 
pith.  Imparts  a  fine  deep  red  to  alcohol,  oils,  wax, 
and  all  unctuous  substances.  To  water  it  gives  only 
a  dull  brownish  hue.  It  is  principally  employed  to 
tint  wax,  pomatum,  and  unguents,  oils  employed  in 
the  dressing  of  mahogany,  rose-wood,  etc.  T  he  alka- 
net brouj;ht  from  Constantinople  yields  a  more  beau- 
tiful but  less  permanent  dye  than  that  of  France. — 
Lewis's  J/a/.  Mtd.;  Mauniem,  Ditlionnaire  dtt  J'ro- 
duvtionn. 

Alligation,  the  name  of  a  method  of  solving  all 
ipiestious  that  relate  to  the  mixture  of  one  ingn  dient 
with  another.  Though  writers  on  arithmetic  generally 
make  alligation  a  branch  of  that  science,  yet  us  it  is 
plainly  nothim;  more  than  an  application  of  the  com- 
mon properlics  of  numbers,  in  order '.  > 


a  few  qu.S- 
iv  Incss,  wo 
-vlence  of 
C.  into  me- 


tinns  that  occur  in  particular  bran. in  s  ol  I 
choose  rather  to  keep  it  distin'.t  Ir.ni  tbr 
arithmetic.  Alligation  is  gi  ii  rally  di'i; 
dial  and  altenmlr. 

AUiijation  Medial,  from  the  .  'ii 
the  simples  given,  discover.'.  Ih 
llule.  As  the  total  (|uaiitily  u>    )i 
To  their  price  or  value ; 
So  any  quantity  of  the  mixture, 
To  the  rate. 
ExampU.  A  grocer  mixes  30  pounds  of  currants,  at 


a..il  (,, 
-f  !he 
—iiipies, 


titles  of 
i.ixturc. 


cparation  of  acetic 
n  the  ]iroparation 
It  and  nu))>hate  of 
orless,  trnnsparent 
ed  to  the  air,  and 
Icr ;  it  lias  a  cold, 
ration  of  carbonate 
und  native  in  some 
1  Sonth  America — 
new  walls, 
nd  native  in  some 
ed,  fr^m  il»  siiuaro 
cry  little  used. 
This  conijiound  is 
earth,  and  is  culled 
or  sal  ti'm-  The 
in  Knglund,  and 
Spain,  and  many 
of  this  conjpound. 
lion  of  poa-water, 
Dr  the  purjjose,  and 
zahle  fluid  is  called 
i'  placing;  the  salt, 
(cts,  and  passing 
It,  which  dissolves 
sia  or  lime.  Pure 
iposure  to  the  air; 
cm]>loy'cd  fur  the 
iteoffioda,  muriate 
ions ;  aUo  in  (:1az- 
roni  its  great  iiiili- 
r  the  preservotion 
tallurgy. 

s  Fait  is  found  in 
puline  lakes;  it  is 
liis  country,  where 
matter  with  which 
(  .vu>  d,  and  the 
cd :  i.v  principal 
;  vei;,    powerfully 

•hinet ;  I)u.  0»te- 

A riinitt(i'),  aspe- 

nn.).     It  has  Ijeen 

the  finest  ((uality 

larly  in  the  touth 

illicr.     The  roots 

are  made  use  of. 

the  thickness  of 

deep  piir]>lish  red 

le  whitish  woody 

cuhol,  oils,  wax. 

Iter  it  gives  only 

ally  enijiloycd  to 

oils  employed  in 

etc.     The  alka- 

Ids  a  more  Ijcau- 

liat  of  France. — 

iutiuairt  tlta  J'ro- 

)d  of  Folviiig  all 
if  one  ingridicnt 
hmclic  generally 
nee,  yet  as  it  is 
tion  of  the  coni- 

1  V.l-  U  fitt  <lUi5- 

t)i  In  inesa,  wo 

tlie  ^^!ence  of 

lit .  'i;>i)  into  me- 

■  'I  (,..•■  titles  of 
^  it ixturc. 

llipiUtf, 


I  of  eurranta,  at 


' 


ALL 


87 


ALL 


id.  per  pound,  with  10  pounds  of  other  currants,  at  6d. 
per  pound :  What  is  the  value  of  1  pound  of  the  mix- 
ture?    Ant.iid. 

U).       d.  d. 

80  at  4  amounts  to  120 

10  at  6  "  60 


40 

If  40 


d. 
180 


180 

a. 

a. 


AUigntion  Alternate,  being  the  converse  of  alligation 
medial,  from  the  rates  of  the  simples,  and  rate  of  the 
mixture  given,  liuds  the  quantities  of  the  simples, 

SuUi.  I.  Place  the  rate  of  the  mixture  on  the  left 
side  of  a  brace,  as  the  root ;  and  on  tlie  right  side  of 
the  brace  set  the  rates  of  the  scvefal  simples,  under 
one  another,  as  the  branches.  II.  Link  or  alligate  the 
branches,  so  ,as  one  greater  and  another  less  than  the 
root  may  be  linked  or  yoked  together.  III.  Set  the 
dilferenco  lietween  the  root  ond  the  several  bram^hes 
right  against  their  respective  yoke-fellows.  These  al- 
ternate dilferenccs  are  the  quantities  required.  Note  1 . 
If  any  br.inch  happen  to  have  two  or  more  yokefel- 
lows, the  dilVerence  between  the  root  and  these  yoke-fel- 
lows mi^si  be  placed  riglit  against  the  said  branch,  one 
after  aiibtlmr,  and  added  into  one  sum.  2.  In  some 
questions  the  branches  may  bo  alligated  more  ways 
than  one ;  and  a  question  will  always  admit  of  so 
many  answers  as  there  uro  dilTerent  ways  of  linking 
the  branches. 

Allignlion  alternate  admits  of  three  varieties ;  viz.,  1. 
The  <|uestiun  may  bo  unlimited,  with  respect  both  to 
the  (|uantity  of  the  simples  and  that  of  the  mixture. 
2.  The  (juestion  may  be  limited  to  a  certain  quantity 
of  one  or  more  of  the  simples.  3.  The  cpiestion  may 
bo  limited  to  a  certain  quantity  of  the  mixture. 

Varulij  I.  When  the  question  is  unlimited,  with  re- 
spect both  to  the  quantity  of  the  simples  and  that  of 
the  mixture,  this  is  called  AlHi/dlinn  tSini/ile. 

Kjcumple.  A  grocer  would  mi.x  sugars  at  6(/.,  id,,  and 
10(/.  per  pound,  so  as  to  sell  the  mixture  or  compound 
at  8(i.  per  pound :  What  quantit  v  of  each  must  ho  take  ? 

lb. 


8 


(.  5  -X   2     12 
(  10  J/  8,1  I  4, 


Hero  the  rate  of  the  mixture  8  is  placed  on  the  left 
side  of  the  brace  as  the  rout ;  and  on  the  right  side  of 
the  same  brace  are  set  the  rates  of  the  several  siniples, 
viz.,  .'),  7,  10,  under  one  another,  as  the  branches ;  ac- 
cording to  Ki'ile  I,  The  branch  10  being  greater  than 
the  root,  is  alligated  or  linked  with  7  ami  T),  both  these 
being  less  than  the  root,  g6  directed  in  Kule  11.  The 
ditferi'iKC  between  the  rooi  8  ond  the  branch  5,  viz.,  H, 
is  set  right  against  this  branch's  yoke-fellow  10 ;  the 
ditference  between  8  and  7  is  likewise  set  right  against 
the  yoke-fellow  10;  and  the  difterence  Ijetween  8  and 
10,  viz.,  2,  is  set  right  against  the  two  yoke-fellows  7 
and  '>,  an  prescribed  liy  Kule  111.  As  the  branch  10 
has  two  dlll'erences  on  the  right,  viz.,  8  and  1,  they  are 
addeil ;  and  the  answer  to  the  qm^stion  is,  that  2  pounds 
at  iVI.,  2  pounils  at  7>/.,  and  t  pounds  at  lOi/.,  will  make 
the  mixture  required.  The  truth  and  reason  of  tlie 
rules  will  appear  l>y  considering  that  whatever  is  lost 
upon  any  one  branch  is  gained  upon  its  yoke-fellow. 
Thus,  In  the  above  example,  by  selling  4  pounds  of 
lOi/.  sii^ar  at  HJ.  per  p<"und,  there  is  M.  lost :  but  the 
like  sum  is  gained  upon  its  two  yoKO-fellows,  for  tiy 
selling  2  pounds  of  t>d,  sugar  at  8</:  per  pound,  there  is 
Cil.  tjnIniMl ;  and  by  selling  2  pounds  of  Id.  sugar  at  8(/. 
then'  is  id.  gained  ;  and  M.  und  2(/.  make  M.  Hence 
It  follows  that  the  rnte  of  the  mixture  must  always  \k 
mean  or  middle  with  respect  to  the  rates  of  the  simples ; 
that  is,  it  must  bo  less  than  the  greatest,  ami  greater 
than  the  least;  otherwise  a  solution  would  be  impossi- 
ble. And  the  price  of  the  total  quantity  mixed,  com- 
puted at  the  rate  of  the  mixture,  will  always  be  equal 


to  the  sum  of  the  prices  of  the  several  quantities  cast 
up  at  the  respective  rates  of  tlie  simples. 

Variety  II.  When  the  question  Is  limited  to  a  certain 
quantity  of  one  or  more  of  the  simples,  this  Is  called 
Alligation  Partial. 

If  the  quantity  of  one  of  the  simples  only  he  limited, 
alligate  the  branches,  and  takq  their  difrerencca,  as  If 
there  had  been  no  such  limitation ;  and  then  work  by 
the  following  proportion : 

As  the  diftbrence  right  against  the  rate  of  the  simple 
whose  quantity  Is  given. 

To  the  other  diflferences  respectively  ( 

So  the  quantity  given, 

To  the  several  quantitios  sought. 

Kxample.  A  distiller  would,  with  40  gallons  of  bran- 
dy at  Vii.  per  gallon,  mix  rum  at  7«.  per  gallon,  and 
gin  at  is.  per  gallon :  How  much  of  the  rum  and  gin 
must  he  take  to  sell  the  mixture  at  8(.  per  gallou  ? 
Cialluns. 


8 


12>s  1,4  6  40  of  brandy, ) 
7-^)4  4  32  of  rum,  \ 
i  y   4       4     82  of  gin.        ) 


Am. 


30 


j  3fi\  80 


80 


The  operation  gives  for  answer,  f*  gallons  of  brandy, 
4  of  rum,  and  4  of  gin.  Hut  the  question  limits  the 
quantity  of  brandy  to  40  gallons ;  tbercforu  say, 

If  6:  4  s  s40!82. 
The  quantity  of  gin,  by  the  operation,  boinf;  also  4,  the 
proportion  needs  not  bo  repeated. 

Variety  HI.  When  the  question  Is  limited  to  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  mixture,  this  is  called  Alligation 
Total. 

After  linking  the  branches,  and  taking  tlio  differ- 
ences, work  by  the  proportion  following! 
As  the  sum  of  the  dillbrencos, 
To  each  particular  difference ; 
So  the  given  total  of  the  mixture, 
To  the  respective  quantities  rei|iiircd. 
Exumple,  A  vintner  has  wine  at  8ir,  per  gallon,  and 
would  mix  it  with  water,  so  as  to  make  a  eompositiou 
of  144  gallons,  worth  'it.  (id,  per  gallon :  How  much 
wine,  and  bow  much  water,  must  hu  take  ? 
Oaltons. 

120  of  wine,    > 
_24  of  water,  p"*" 

I'M  total, 
120X80=1820 
24  X  0=      0 

Proof  144)1820(00 

As  80  :  80  ■.-.IH:  120 

As  80  :    0  :  ;  141 ;    24, 

There  being  here  only  two  simples,  and  the  total  of 

the  mixture  limited,  tho  question  admits  liut  »f  one 

answer. — K,  B, 

Allocation  denotes  tho  admitting  or  allowing  of 
un  article  of  an  account,  espeeiully  in  the  exchequer. 
Hence  Allocatione  I'aeiendn  is  a  writ  directed  to  the 
Lord  Treasurer,  or  Darons  of  the  Kxehccpier,  command- 
ing them  to  allow  an  accountant  such  sums  as  lie  has 
lawfully  expended  In  the  execution  of  his  oHlco. — 
E.  a 

AUowanoea,  Tares,  etc.  In  selling  goods,  or  in 
paying  duties  upon  them,  certain  deductions  are  made 
from  theii  weights,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the 
packages  in  which  they  are  Inclosed,  anri  which  are 
regulated  In  most  Instances  by  the  cu~tom  of  mer- 
chants, and  the  rules  lai<l  down  by  public  ufllccs. 
These  allowances,  as  they  are  termed,  arc  distin- 
guished tiy  the  epithets  Drnfl,  Tare,  Tret,  and  Cti'f. 

Drnfl  is  a  deduction  from  the  original  or  gross 
weight  of  goods,  and  is  snbstroeted  lieforc  the  tare  Is 
taken  otf.  Tare  is  an  allowan<'e  for  the  weight  of  tho 
bag,  l)OX,  cask,  or  otiicr  package,  In  widcti  goods  are 
weighed.  Heal  or  n/irti  tare  is  the  actual  weight  of  the 
package.  Ciittimary  tare  is,  as  Its  name  Implies,  an 
established  allowance  for  the  weight  of  tho  package, 
CoxiptUed  tare  Is  an  estimated  allowance  agreed  ujion 


ALL 


28 


ALM 


It  the  time.  Average  tare  U  when  a  few  pacfcxRei 
onl  V  among  sever*!  are  weighed,  their  mean  or  avBragi' 
Ul«on,  and  the  rest  tared  accordingly.  Iiuper4are  ia 
an  additional  allowance,  or  tare,  where  tlie  commodity 
or  package  exceeds  a  certain  weight.  When  tare  is 
allowed,  the  remainder  is  called  the  net  weight ;  hut  if 
tret  he  allor.ed,  it  is  called  the  mtlk  weight.  Tret  is  a 
dcduct-uu  of -4  pounds  from  every  104  pounds  of  sutlic 
weight.  This  allowance,  which  is  said  to  bo  for  dust 
or  sand,  or  ^or  the  waste  or  wear  of  the  commodity, 
was  formerly  niade  on  most  foreign  articles  sold  hy  the 
pound  avoirdupois ;  hut  it  is  now  nearly  discontinued 
by  merchants,  or  else  allowed  in  the  price.  It  is 
wholly  abolished  at  the  East  India  warehouses  in 
London;  and  neither  tret  nor  draft  is  allowed  at  the 
custom-house.  Cloff,  or  Clougk,  is  another  allowance 
that  is  nearly  obsolete.  It  is  stDled  in  arithmetical 
books  to  be  a  deduction  of  2  pounds  from  every  8cwt. 
of  the  tecond  nuUle,-  that  is,  the  remainder  after  tret 
is  subtracted;  but  merchants  at  present  know  cloff 
only  OS  a  small  deduction,  like  draft,  from  the  original 
weight,  and  this  only  from  two  or  three  articles.— Aff« 
Kblly's  Cambitt,  art.  Londo.v. 

Alloy,  or  Allay,  properly  signifies  a  proportion 
of  a  baser  metal  mixed  with  a  finer  one.  The  alloy 
of  c-old  is  estimated  by  carats,  that  of  silver  by  penny- 
weights. In  ditierent  nations  different  propurtlons  of 
alloy  are  used ;  whence  their  moneys  are  said  to  be  of 
different  degrees  of  fmenes.s  or  l)asene89,  and  are  valued 
accordingly  in  foreign  exchanges.  The  chief  reasons 
alleged  for  the  alloying  of  coin  are,  1 ,  the  mix  ture  of  the 
metals,  which,  when  smelted  from  ilie  mine,  are  not 
perfectly  pure ;  2,  the  saving  of  the  expense  it  must 
otherwise  cost  if  they  were  to  be  refined ;  8,  the  neces- 
sity of  rendering  them  harder,  by  mixing  some  parts 
of  other  metals  with  them,  to  prevent  the  diminution 
of  weight  by  wearing  in  passing  fram  hand  to  liand ; 
4,  the  melting  of  foreign  gold  or  coin  which  is  alloyed ; 
6,  the  charges  of  coinage,  which  must  be  made  good 
by  the  profit  arising  from  the  money  coined ;  6,  and 
lastly,  the  duty  belonging  to  the  sovereign,  on  account 
of  the  power  he  has  to  cau3C  money  to  be  coined  in  his 
dominions. — E.  B. 

AlmacUe,  a  kind  of  canoe  or  small  vessel,  al>out 
four  fathoms  long,  commonly  made  of  liark,  ana  us.'d 
by  the  negroes  of  Africa.  At  Calicut  the  same  name 
is  applied  to  a  kind  of  long  boats,  80  feet  in  length  and 
six  or  seven  in  breadth.  They  are  exceedingly  swift, 
and  are  otherwise  called  cathuri. — E.  H. 

Almanac,  a  book  or  table,  containing  a  calendar 
of  days  and  months,  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun, 
the  age  of  the  moon,  the  eclipses  of  both  luminaries, 
etc.    Authors  are  divided  with  regard  to  the  ety  neology 
of  the  word ;  some  deriving  it  from  the  Aribic  panicle 
of,  and  rmnach,  to  coutt;  some  from  almanach,  New- 1 
year's  gifts,  because  the  Arabian  astrologers  used  at  i 
the  beginning  of  the  year  to  mnl.e  presents  of  their 
ephemerides ;  and  others  from  th.-;  Teutonic  almaen 
achl.',    ..»' .   atiuns  en  all  the  months.     Dr.  Johnson 
deri.-     ',  v.-om  the  Arabic  particle  al,  and  the  Greek 
/iijv,   <  r!:onth.     But  the  most  simple  etymology  ap- 
pears i.  om  the  common  spelling ;  the  word  Iwing  com- 
posed of  two  Arabic  ones,  Al  Mnttack,  which  signify 
Me  Diary.     All  classes  of  thn  Arabs  are  commonly 
much  given  to  the  study  of  astronomy  and  astrology  ; 
'0  both  of  whi';h  they  are  inclined  by  their  l>elicf  in 
/ate,  and  by  their  pastoral  life,  which  affords  time  and 
opportunity  to  cultivate  them.     They  neither  sow, 
reap,  plaat,  nnr  undertake  any  cxpef'ition  or  busincH«, 
nilhout  previously  consulting  the  s'ars,  or,  in  other  I 
words,  tlieir  almanacs,  or  some  of  tiie  makers  uf  them,  j 
From  these  people,  by  their  vicinity  to  Europe,  this  I 
art,  no  less  useful  in  one  sense  than  trilling  and  ridicu- ' 
louB  in  another,  has  passed  over  to  us ;  and  those  astro-  ' 
Domical  compositions  have  still  every  where  not  only  i 
retained  t)i<'ir  old  Arabic  name,  but  wer?,  like  theirs,  { 
for  a  long  uhile,  and  still  are  among  many  European  I 


naliont,  Mtnpfm'it  vllh  •  great  nnmher  of  astro- 
logical rulia*  fur  liUnlUtg,  sowing,  bleeding,  purging, 
etc,,  duwil  l«i  thit  i^lUlIng  of  the  hair  nnd  jiaring  cf  the 
naiU,  i<«i!l()titw(ti!nii»  aptiear)  to  have  licen  thn  first 
in  Kurupu,  liowitvor,  whii  rcdcced  almanacs  i-iio  their 
presunt  furiti  atlil  lii«tliml,  gnvv  (he  characters  of  each 
jruar  anil  Miiilitll,  (iirnlnM  the  eilltises  ai'd  other  phases, 
caU'ulatuil  ttiM  iii'illimR  of  the  planrii,  etc.  His  first 
aliuanoi!  was  puMlaliKd  In  M?-!.  The  essential  part 
uf  an  alnraime  I*  tlix  calctidar  of  months  and  days, 
Miih  Ilia  rtsliiKif  attd  scllltigs  of  the  sun,  age  of  the 
moon,  ate,  Tu  thfm  nti<  added  lists  of  posts,  offices, 
dignities,  imhlii^  Insllliillfins,  wlili  many  other  articles, 
political  n»  w«ll  •«  tbcal,  and  differing  in  different 
countries, 

Ahimtuic,  SiKfilml,  This,  which  In  some  respects 
Is  a  natlvnal  aliitaiiac,  U  published  imder  the  sanction 
of  the  Itoard  iit  l/<iiif(llii(le,  and  Is  designed  chiefly  to 
facililttia  (he  m»«  i/f  Mayer's  J.unar  Tables,  by  super- 
seding Ilia  iMcrwity  ftftnaklng  calculations  to  dcterm- 
inn  the  lungitudti  af  *¥»,  It  commenced  with  the  year 
I7ti7,  and  \\m  «</ft  slitea  licen  continued  annnally,  but 
•wo  or  llirua  yt>«r»  III  advance.  The  late  Dr.  Maske- 
lyno  wa«  Iha  arliiinaf"!'  i>(  this  very  valmililo  publica- 
tion. It  U  new  pliltllKhcd  under  the  lininviliato  super- 
Inlendencii  of  (lip  wiwtary  in  (he  lioani.  Similar  t) 
this  alinsiiai!  I*  lli«  Vtnwh  publication  entitled  I'mnoia- 
iiinei'  iln  Trmt,  (llfccli'd  by  the  Jiurenu  dr  hmgilude, 
and  which  cuii|i)lMieiid  »<i  early  as  (he  year  iri<j8.  \t 
IterUn,  tliii  rtdeliratPK  lldde  for  about  50  yeaia  con- 
ducted thn  ii^enllftiu  aKtriiiKitnlcal  almanac,  Atlronomi- 
iihet  Jahrliiii'h,  HJilcli  Is  sllll  contln'i'-d.— lO.  It, 

The  Anierli'Nil  Kplii'iticri*  and  Naiitiial  Almanac  is 
a  valualdi)  work  fot  hnvlgatiirs.  The  act  establishing 
this  work  was  imtiM'd  by  Congress  in  1N4!i,  and  the 
preparalimi  uf  In*  flrnt  vtdiimn  was  commenced  in  the 
fall  of  ih<<  *m\t>  yi'ar.  The  work  was  put  under  tho 
supcrlnt«nd«Mi'*  iif  Ciiintnandcr  C.  H.  Davis,  of  tho 
navy,  v,ltli  |'f(>feii«if  llpnJAtnIn  I'clrce  as  consulting 
ustruMoiiicr,  llHing  In  the  smallness  of  the  first  ap- 
pruprialiona,  and  (he  greal  amount  of  pnliniinarj' 
ialiur,  Ili4  limt  viiliitiii',  for  1H65,  was  not  published 
until  \iit)'l\  diilcxHldi'li  lline  a  vuinme  has  been  issued 
each  year,  T'lin  vobiiiie  for  ICfiO  It  now  in  a  forw.ird 
state  uf  j(rep«*»tl(iii,  and  will  be  ready  alrout  .lanuary, 
WiT.  'I'he  primary  olrjerf  cf  :l"i  work  is  to  promote 
tho  interests  of  tominerce  i  atii!  for  this  reason  great 
pains  have  baon  lakeii  wild  those  problems  upon  which 
tho  6cli-i(r«  of  n«v)K«ll(r!l  d' 'peiids.  KspCi-iaily  is  this 
ihe  case  with  )hi'  (.nimr  t';phemerls;  anil  all  the  tests 
which  have  (*"(!  appll".!  show  (hat  this  labor  has  been 
rewarded  with  great  silccws,  1'rofessor  I'eiric's  Tables 
are  used  in  pr"parlii((  lids  eplienierls.  The  ephcmeris 
of  the  sun  is  prtipared  (turn  Hansen's  Tallies.  The 
nautical  part  of  (liii  work,  besides  the  foregoing,  con- 
tains the  ep|ieiM>tr!des  of  lllnsn  planets  most  cnmninnly 
used  with  lli«  moon  In  d''t<'rinlnlng  a  ship's  place  at 
sea;  also  the  appamil  places  nf  about  one  hundred 
fixed  stars.  All  (hii  piirt  df  the  work  is  referred  to 
tile  meridian  of  (ircmiwlchi  and  to  prevent  confusion 
in  its  use,  Ihu  arrangi'iniNl  cf  the  llrltlsh  Almanac  ia 
adopted.  The  aslroiliniihwl  |i»rt  Is  referred  to  the 
meridian  of  Wnthiniiloli,  i^\\i\  «uch  changes  in  the  or- 
dinury  forms  of  the  r;ihemerldes  have  been  adopted  as 
would  render  them  itHwf  prnilhal  In  the  daily  routine 
of  the  observatory,  The  ephemerides  of  tho  planets 
are  being  liati'd  npim  'let*  theories,  as  fast  ns  can  he 
doiift  consinifMlly  »llli  (he  demands  which  the  regular 
issues  of  the  almntfa''  make  upon  the  annual  appro- 
priations Iliad"  liy  Cotiure"  for  lis  support. 

The  Egyptians  lOMlpllled  (line  liy  instruments.  I,og 
calendars  wiira  ancjentty  In  nsi',  Almim-aght  is  of 
Saxon  origin,  III  ill"  iiflllsh  Museum  and  iiiilversi- 
lies  are  curioMS  •|i<H'iiiirii«  of  early  slnianais.  Michael 
N'usiriuiainus,  (|i«  i *liilirM(( d  aslrologer,  wrote  an  al- 
manac in  (he  slylaof  Mrifllii,  Iftilfl,— Dt  fhks.nov.  The 
moat  noted  early  aliimiiacs  <t(ra  i 


ALM 


29 


ALU 


John  Soracr's  Cilondur,  Oxfonl 1380 

One  In  Laniboth  palaco,  writi  fi  In 1460 

First  prlnti'd  one,  publlslio.l  at  llmln 1472 

First  iirlntcd  In  llngiand,  by  Rlchurd  I'ynaon..  1497 

Tyliaull's  l>ro(5n(>8tlc»llona 1633 

Lilly's  E|ilioincrl« 1IM4 

I'oor  Hobln"«  Alnianao  .   106i 

Lady's  Diary > 1706 

Moore's  AInianao 1713 

Spaaun  on  thn  Seasons 1735 

Oentliinvan's  Ulary 1741 

Naullral  Almanac  (natirially  Improved  In  1S34)  1707 
Foor  lUrhard's  Alr^anac  (Franklin^  I'hlladel- 

pbla) 1738 

British  Impurlul  Calendar 1809 

BrltUh  Almanac  i  ..id  Companion 1828 

American  Almu.sac,  lloston 1820 

Nanllcal  Almanac,  United  States 1866 

Of  Moore'S;  at  ono  perioil,  upward  of  500,000  copies 
were  anuiinlly  sold.  The  Stutioiiers'  company  claimed 
the  exclusive  ri>;lit  of  puMisliing,  until  1790,  in  virtue 
of  letters  patent  from  jamcs  I.,  granting  the  privilege 
to  tills  company,  and  the  two  universities.  The  stamp 
duty  on  ulinaiiacs  was  aboli!<hed  in  England,  IR.'Si. 

Almonds  (Gor.  MandAn;  Du.  Atnandelen ;  Fr. 
Amaiulea;  It.  Mtmdorli;  Sp.  AlmenUm;  I'ort.Ameiidu; 
Kuss.  Mindul;  Lat.  Amtj!iJ<d<e  amaiie,  dukes),  a  kind 
of  inciliciiiul  fruit,  cuntulned  in  a  hard  shell,  that  ia  iu- 
close.l  in  a  tough  sort  of  cotton  skin.  Tlie  tree  (^Aniyij- 
dalus  ciimiiiunii)  wliich  produces  this  fruit  neorly  re- 
sembles the  peach  both  in  leaves  and  blossoms;  it 
grows  sponiaiieously  only  in  warm  countries,  as  Spuiii, 
and  particularly  Barbary.  It  flowers  early  in  the 
spring,  and  produces  fruit  in  August.  Almonds  are  of 
two  sorts,  sweet  and  bitter.  They  are  not  distinguish- 
able from  eucli  other  but  by  the  taste  of  the  kernel  or 
fruit.  "  The  Volentia  almond  is  sweet,  large,  and  Hat- 
pointed  at  oup  extremity,  and  compressed  in  the  mid- 
dle. The  Italian  almonds  are  not  so  sweet,  smaller, 
and  less  depress''d  in  the  middle.  The  Jordan  almonds 
come  from  Malaga,  ana  are  the  best  sweet  almonds 
brought  to  England.  They  nro  longer.  Hotter,  less 
pointeil  at  one  end  and  less  round  at  the  other,  and 
liave  a  paler  cuticle  than  tiiose  wc  have  described. 
The  sweet  ulmonds  are  imported  in  mats,  casks,  and 
boxes ;  the  bitter,  wluch  come  chiefly  from  Mogadore, 
arrive  in  bo.'ies." — Tu<).mson'.s  IJUjieimilory. 

Aloes  (I'u.  .'he;  Er.  Aloes;  lier.  and  Lat.  Aloe; 
Kuss.  tiiibir;  Sii.  Alve;  Arab,  jyuci'iar),  a  bitter,  gum- 
my, resinous,  inspi.ssuted  juice,  obtained  from  the  leaves 
of  the  |ilant  of  the  same  name.  There  arc  four  sorts  of 
aloes  met  with  in  commerce  j  vii.,  Soculrine,  Hepatic, 
Ciibatliiie,  and  ('(ipe, 

1.  Socotriie — so  called  from  the  island  of  Socotra,  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  not  very  distant  fromt'ape  Gmr.ia- 
fui,  where  t'.ie  'dant  (^Aloe  ejuan  i),  of  which  thi.i  |ic- 
cies  is  the  produce,  grows  abundantly.  It  is  in  pieces 
of  a  reddish-brown  color,  glossy  us  if  varnished,  and  in 
some  degree  pellucid.  \\'hen  reduced  to  powder,  it  is 
of  a  briglil  golden  txilor.  Its  taste  is  extremely  bitter, 
and  it  has  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor,  not  unlike  that  of 
the  russet  apple  decaying.  It  softens  in  the  hand,  and 
is  adhesive,  yet  is  suihciently  pulverulent.  It  is  im- 
porte<l  by  way  of  Smyrna  and  Alexandria,  in  chests 
and  casks,  but  is  very  scarce  in  Englanil. 

2.  Hejiiilic. — Th'^  real  hepatic  aloe-,  sj  called  from 
its  liver  color,  is  believed  to  bo  the  produce  of  the, Uoc 
pcifuliata,  which  grows  in  Yemen,  in  Arabia,  from 
which  it  is  exported  to  Bombay,  whence  it  finds  its 
way  to  Europe.  It  is  duller  in  the  color,  bitterer,  and 
has  a  less  pleasant  aromu  than  the  Socotrinc  aloes,  fur 
which,  however,  it  is  somctiuies  substituted.  Ilarba- 
does  uloes,  which  is  often  passed  olf  for  the  hepatic,  is 
the  produce  of  the  Aloe  rulgnris.  It  is  brought  home 
in  calulia.slics,  or  large  gourd  shells,  containing  from 
CO  to  70  pounds.  It  is  duskier  in  its  hue  than  the 
Bombay,  or  real  hepatic  aloes,  and  the  taste  is  more 
nauseous,  and  intensely  bitter.  The  color  of  the  pow- 
der is  a  dull  olivo  yellow. 


8.  Cuballine,  or  Horse  Aloes,  aeems  to  bo  merely  th« 
coarsest  species  or  refuse  of  the  Barbadoes  aloes.  It 
is  used  only  in  veterinary  medicine ;  and  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  rank,  fetid  smell. 

4.  Cupe  Aloej  is  the  produce  of  the  Aloe  ipicala, 
which  is  found  in  great  aliundance  in  the  interior  of 
the  Cape  colony,  and  in  Melinda.  The  latter  furnishes 
the  greater  part  of  the  extract  sold  in  Europe  under  the 
name  of  8ocotrine  aloes.  The  odor  of  tho  Cape  aloes 
is  stronger  and  more  disagreeable  than  that  of  the  Soc- 
otrine ;  they  have  also  a  yellower  hue  on  tho  outside, 
are  less  glossy,  softer,  and  more  pliable  ;  tho  color  of 
tho  powder  is  more  like  that  of  gamboge  than  that  of 
tho  true  Socotrine  aloes. — Ai.n.slie's  MiUeria  Indica; 
Tiii).'H8t)N's  IJispeimitori/  and  Mutei'ia  Medico. 

Aloes-Tirood  (Gcr.  Aloeholz;  Du.  Aloehout,  Par- 
adyshoul;  Fr.  Hois  it  Aloes ;  It.  Legno  di  Aloe;  Up.  Aloe 
chino;  Lat.  lAgniiin Aloes;  Sans.  Aguru;  Malay,  Agila; 
Slam.  Kisna),  tho  produce  of  a  large  forest  tree,  to  be 
found  in  most  of  the  countries  between  China  and  In- 
dia, from  the  '-'Ith  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  equa- 
tor. It  seems  to  bo  the  result  of  a  diseased  action  con- 
lined  to  a  small  part  of  a  few  trees,  of  which  the  rest  of 
the  wood  is  wholly  valueless.  It  appears  to  be  more 
or  less  frequent  according  to  soil  and  climate,  and  from 
tho  same  caus(!s  to  differ  materially  in  quality.  It  is 
produced  both  in  the  greatest  quantity  and  perfection 
in  the  countries  and  islands  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Siam.  This  article  is  in  high  repute  for  fumi- 
gations, and  as  incense,  in  all  Hindoo,  Mohammedan, 
and  Catholic  countries.  It  formerly  brought  a  very 
high  price,  being  at  one  time  reckoned  nearly  as  valu- 
able as  gold.  It  is  now  comparatively  cheap,  though 
tho  finest  specimens  are  still  very  dear.  The  accounts 
of  tills  article  in  most  books,  even  of  good  authority, 
are  singularly  contradictory  and  inaccurate.  This  is 
more  surprising,  as  La  Luubere  has  distinctly  stated 
that  it  consisted  only  of  "  certaiits  endroits  corrumput 
dims  des  arbres  d'line  certaiiie  etpice.  Toule  arbrc  de 
cettc  espice  n'en  ((/ir*;  el  ceuj  qui  en  ont,  ne  les  ont  pas 
totts  en  ntime  eiidmil." — Jlog,:\iine  de  Hiam,  t.  i.  p.  45, 
I'iino  ed.  The  difliculty  of  flnding  the  trees  which 
happen  to  be  diseased,  and  of  getting  at  the  diseased 
portion,  has  given  rise  to  the  fables  that  have  been 
current  as  to  its  origin.  The  Intc  l)r.  lioxburgh  in- 
troduced the  tree  which  yields  this  production  into  the 
Botanical  Garden  at  Calcutta,  from  the  hills  to  the 
eastward  of  Sylhct,  and  described  it  under  tlic  name 
of  Aquilluria  Agtiloiha. 

Alpaca,  a  species  of  the  South  American  family  of 
iiuadrupcds  called  IJuina,  the  soft  hairy  wool  ■'"  which 
is  now  largely  employed  in  the  fabrication  •  ■  '  loths  of 
different  sorts.  'I'here  would  appear  to  bt  :  i  ,^e  spe- 
cies of  this  family,  the  Guanaco,  or  wild  Llama ;  the 
Alpaca,  which  was  domesticated  as  a  beast  of  burden 
by  the  ancient  I'eruvians,  and  hence  considered  as  the 
camel  of  the  New  World;  and  the  Vicuna,a  small  sjio- 
cies,  chiefly  valued  for  the  softness  of  its  fpe  wool. 
Some  coiv  ' '  -v  the  I'aco  a  fourth  species;  but  the  de- 
scriptioi.  ,.  travelers  arc  too  indeflnite  to  enable  ns  to 
decide  this  point.  The  fleece  of  th  '.  ilpaca  is  flnc,  long, 
and  shaggy ;  and  the  animal  exc. '  '^  much  in  size  tlie 
other  two. 

Alum  (Ger,  Alaun;  Du,  Alitin;  Fr,  Aliin;  It.  Al- 
luine ;  Sp.  Allumbre ;  Euss.  Kwasszi;  Lat.  Alumen; 
-Vrab.  iS'/i('4)i  a  salt  of  great  importance  in  the  arts, 
consisting  of  a  ternary  compound  of  aluminum,  or  pure 
argillaceous  earth,  potass,  and  sulphuric  acid.  Alum 
is  sometimes  found  native ;  but  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  that  which  is  met  with  in  commerce  is  artificially 
prepared.  The  liest  alum  is  the  Uoman,  or  that  w  hich 
Is  manufactured  near  Civila  Yeccliia,  in  the  Papal 
territory.  It  is  'n  irregular,  octahedral,  crystalline 
masses,  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  ami  is  opaque,  lie- 
ing  covered  on  the  surface  with  u  farinaceous  efllores- 
cencc.  The  Levant,  or  Uoch  alum,  is  in  fragments, 
about  tho  size  of  the  former,  but  in  which  tho  crystal- 


AMA 


80 


AMA 


M 


line  form  lu  more  obscure ;  it  Is  exferually  of  a  dirty 
ro»e-color,  und  intBmully  exhibits  the  same  tlnfje,  but 
clearer.  It  in  usually  ehlpped  for  Europe  from  Smyr- 
na ;  but  it  was  «nciently  made  at  Koccha,  or  JJdessa, 
In  Syria;  and  he.ice  its  name,  Roch  alum.  Euglish 
alum  Is  in  large,  Irregular,  semi-transparii.  ,  colorless 
masses,  having  a  glassy  fracture ;  not  efflorescent,  and 
considerably  harder  tliun  the  otiiers.  It  Is  very  infe- 
rior to  eithe'r  thu  Konian  or  Rocb  alum.  The  ])rinoipal 
use  of  alum  is  in  the  art  of  dyeing,  as  a  mordant  !"  r 
fixing  and  giving;  permanency  to  colors  which  otl  i 
wise  would  not  adliero  at  all,  ur  but  for  a  very  shot  t 
time ;  but  it  is  also  used  for  0  great  variety  i-t'  other 
purposoH.  Becknianu  has  shown  (/lulory  of  Inven- 
tion!, vol.  I.  niiiil'  Alum)  that  ^lic  ancients  were  un- 
acquainted with  ulum,  and  tliat  the  substance  which 
thoy  dosl«nBtc<l  n»  such  was  morolv  vitriolic  yarth.  It 
was  first  discover .1  hy  the  Oricninlu,  who  established 
alum  works  in  iSvi-'n  in  the  thiriecnth  or  fourteenth 
centurv.  The  oUieet  ntum  works  in  Europe  were  erect- 
ed obout  the  miiii:';  of  ibc  lifteinth  century,  i'oward 
the  conclusion  of  il.'  !' n;n  of  Queen  Klliabetli,  Sir 
Thomas  Chnl.-nof  en;  a  i^hed  th«  l\ri  alum  work  in 
England,  in  (b<i  vi,-ini;y  of  WhitJiv,  in  Yjrkihire. 
whore  the  nrim  inal  »orkn  "f  Uh  sjit  U.  ibct  :^dn»ry 
are  still  carried  on:  the  5bi(iiii''nt(ioi(it  . '  f."/Hi  VLii- 
by  in  1«41  amountfd  to  SiS7  tone.  11 .  •  >  U  alif.  i 
large  alum  work  at  Hurlett,  ncBrraisley.  tisti  (.ro.!;  . 
of  wl  ich  trny  bo  c-jtinaiiii  at  iNitit  I'iliO  tciia  !•  y  .ir. 
Alum  is  largely  maiiufatiured  ii!  ('|,ii,B,  rid  i  i  .1  .I'v 
exported  toal!  the "iiresten!  As',\  Joi'nmirici'.  in  i;  >;", 
35,842  piculs  (',:'  ?0  tons)  were  .'viiortfii  front  t  '■\'Uou. 

Amalgamatio!],  the (>pc>'&, ;  »  oi' makiDt; an  auia!- 
gain,  or  mixing  ineii  i  ry  with  aiiy  .-lutal.  For  the  com- 
bination of  one  metal  with  anuther.  it  i^i  gcnorully  »uf- 
ilcient  that  one  of  thcni  be  in  a  p^n'f  of  fluidity.  Mcr- 
ciivy  lieing  nlways  fluid,  is  Ibcn'^Tc  tapalile  (if  anul- 
,.-;.)nationwiti<  other  metals w'.;tiU  heat,  iron  except- 
ed ;  vieverthe'cfs,  heat  confiderublv  fucilitntes  the  o|>- 
cratic."  To  amalgamate  witliout  .'vMt  requires  notli- 
in,<;  n.i  n  'lian  rubbing  the  two  mi'  lis  together  in  .: 
ir.ortar;  'mi  the  metal  to  be  united  vith  the  nienury 
should  be  privloufilv  divided  into  very  thin  pla'cs  or 
grains.  \S  i:oi'  iioui,  is  us*d  (which  is  always  moxt  ef- 
fectual, and  witi:  >  :r;.f  nictt  Is  Indispensably  necessarj), 
the  n\orcurj-  shoii'.'  '  '  heated  till  it  licgin  to  snioko, 
and  the  grains  of  ir- .  i!  niade  red  hot  before  they  are 
thi'own  into  if.  If  '.',  '  ■>  gold  or  silver,  it  is  sufliciinf 
to  stir  the  thild  with  iii!  iron  rod  for  a  little  while,  and 
then  to  throw  it  into  u  vt's.scl  tilled  wiili  water.  This 
anialgan>  is  used  fur  giidinf:  or  silvering  en  copper, 
which  is  aJi.r-vard  expof.'d  to  a  degree  of  heat  sufti- 
cien:  ;o  pvmj -Tate  the  mercui'v.  Amalgamation  with 
leal  01  tin  is  etlci'.ed  by  pouring  an  equal  weight  of 
mercury  into  either  of  these  metals  in  n  str.to  of  fusion, 
and  st'rring  will;  nn  iron  rod.  Copper  anialgainaies 
with  gf^a'.  difficulty,  .md  iron  not  at  all. — E.  H. 

Ainaaon,  Ma;.anon,  OreUaua,  or  SoUasoea, 
the  chief  .-iver  of  ijiiuih  America,  and  the  largest  in 
the  world,  whether  t' carded  as  to  its  V(dume,  or  the 
extent  of  its  basin,  it  is  formed  liy  the  union  of  the 
Maranonani!  '.■  ovale;  the  former  rii;ing  in  l.ake  Lauri- 
co-.ha  (I'ei.j),  in  ''  t.  10  ,10'  .S.,  long.  71!^  10'  W. ;  and 
the  head  >tivani  !'  the  latter,  the  Apurimac,  origina- 
ting jbout  'at.  I'j"  t?.,  long.  7i°  W.  Uoth  rivers  have 
a  ^ccneral  (eiirse  at  first  northward;  the  Marinun,  for 
thi'  lirst  5011  miles  of  its  course.  Hows  N.N.W.,  and  at 
about  lat.  n  '  ti.  Iiends  eastward,  .ind  at  lat.  4°  40'  takes 
an  nhiiMst  duo  east  course,  und  afttrreceivingfhe  ilual 
'aga  from  flic  south  (where  it  is  about  5(H>yards  broadl 
It  pursi.es  a  course  of  4Bi  leagues,  and  joins  the  Ccayn) 
at  lat.  4'-  3.V  S.,  long.  71"  \v.  Here  the  stream!. . 
depth  sulli<ii'nt  to  float  the  largest  class  of  ships. 
Thim-eforlli  (he  Amaiton  iLiws  generally  east  to  the 
At'intic,  which  it  enters  nearlv  under  the  c<|uator,  and 
bctw'  in  li.n;,.  4M'''  and  50'^  W.,  it  'Rtiiary  widening  un- 
t.l  it  is  I'.O  I  Hlh  across.     Takii  ^  the  Apurimac  as  its 


source.  Its  direct  length  Is  estimated  at  1769  mileg,  and 
including  its  windings,  nearly  4000  miles;  for  great 
part  of  which  (viz.,  from  the  ocean  to  Pongo  de  Man- 
seriche,  long.  i>°  50'  W.)  it  Is  navigable  and  unintor. 
rupied  hy  any  rapid  or  cataract.  At  least  twenty  ao. 
hie  r'vc).',  navigable  to  near  their  sources,  pour  t'liir 
watRvi  Into  It,  besides  numerous  other  less  inipor;  mj 
streai.'s,  Chief  tributaries,  the  Napo,  I'uiumayo,  Ya- 
pura,  a. id  l!io  Negro,  from  tho  north;  the  Yavmi, 
Jutay,  .lurua,  Coary,  Turns,  Madeira,  Tapi^os,  and 
Xinga,  t'."«m  the  south.  Ity  tin;  Casiqu!  i  re,  a  branch 
of  tho  HIv.  Negro,  the  Amazon  has  n  dire  '  und  remarit- 
able  conir'ction  with  th..  Orincc  >>.  The  vniazon  and 
its  trlbu'dicB  afford  an  'minmsie  iidand  vigation, 
estimated  .,(  ;>n,000  miles;  u)'i!  (he  extent  of  iff  'isiu 
has  been  co.niuted  at  uiouf  '. i  >  millions  of  squaiti 
milci',  or  abon;  two  fifths  oi  ili;  whole  continent  of 
South  Ani.  vioa.  The  depth  <n  the  rivr  is  great;  In 
mid-curient  no  bottom  Is  found  w  it  i  "iO  (n:  I  'ms.  T'  j 
velocity  of  thi,'  current  is  pretty  niiiform,  nt  iIk  rata 
of  3i  miles  an  hf>n  Tides  ascend  this  river  fov  400 
n\ile»  from  the  Atlantic — as  far  as  Olddo:-,  wli  in  tiij 
I  Vmaion  Is  sllli  niore  than  a  mile  in  widi^—ancj  ncai 
I  tha  ftill  moon  the  rise  of  the  tide  occasion.:  a  fofinida- 
iilo  rush  of  water  iiilo  the  channel,  tonictimi!:  hrin,iriiig 
•;))  neveral  waves  from  10  to  16  feet  In  height.  This 
rihenome'iur.,  laUed  the  bore,  is  witnessed  on  u  smaller 
;».. alii  In  i'lu  Ganges,  and  in  some  European  rivers. 
I  i  l;e  upper  putt  of  the  river,  as  far  a.)  the  mouth  of  the 
i  "iov.in,  ,<hich  fo-m.s  the  boundarj-  line  between  I'razil 
and  1'  rn,  U  called  Maranon;  thenco  tu  the  moiUh  of 
the  Kill  Negro  it  is  called  Solimoes  or  i(<)llma«;  and 
from  the  Negro  to  its  mouth,  Amazon.  The  tro))i<al 
rains  swell  the  river  annually  to  40  and  50  feet  aliova 
its  ordinary  level.  The  Maranon  attains  its  groaiist 
height  in  January,  the  Sidimois  in  l''eliruar\-,  the  Am- 
azon in  the  middle  ef  March.  In  the  lower  part  of  Its 
course,  the  .Amas.^n  abonnds  with  Lslands,  and  in  its 
istnary  are  Marnjo  and  Caviana,  of  considorabl.i  ex- 
tent. Santiego  (Ecuador),  S.  lloija,  S.  iloaquim,  Ta- 
batin^'a,  Ollvcnza,  Matura,  Scrpa,  Santarem,  Mon- 
ta!e;cn!,  I'ara,  Arayatc,  and  Gurupa,  are  towns  on  Its 
thinks;  but,  with  trilling  exceptions,  the  whole  coun- 
try which  !'.  traverse.)  is  still  in  a  stalo  of  nature.  In 
IH48,  1  steamboat  made  a  passage  from  Para,  up  tho 
river  .is  far  a.i  tiio  Negro.  The  estuary  of  the  Amazon 
was  discwered  liy  Vin^nn  in  1500;  in  1.530,  Francis 
d'Orelloiu  sailed  down  it  from  the  Nape,  and  't  ob- 
tained its  name  of  Amazon  from  his  having  reported 
that  lie  bad  seen  armed  women  on  its  shores. — IIar- 
ftns'  Giairttter. 

Its  capacities  for  trade  and  commerce  are  inconcciv- 
ably  great.  Itu  industrial  future  is  the  most  dazzling; 
and  to  the  touch  of  steut'i,  settlement,  and  cultivation, 
this  ndling  stream  anl  its  inagnillccnt  water-shed 
would  start  up  i-ito  a  disp'ia\  of  industrial  lesults  that 
would  indita'c  the  i'.iliey  of  the  Amazon  as  ene  of  the 
must  enchanting  regions  on  the  face  of  the  eaith.  Kroni 
its  mountains  you  may  dig  silver,  iron,  coal,  copper, 
qiiickiiilver,  zinc,  and  tin  ;  from  tlie  sands  of  its  tribu- 
taries you  may  wash  irold,  diamonds,  and  precious 
stones;  from  Its  forests  you  may  gather  drugs  of  vir- 
tues the  most  rare,  spiccfi  of  aruinathe  most  exquisite 
jrunis  anil  resins  of  tho  most  vari.d  and  useful  proper- 
lies,  dyes  of  hues  the  most  brilliant,  with  cabinet  i'  i 
building  woods  cffhc  finest  palish  and  must  endun 
texture.  Its  climate  is  an  e\erlastin(r  .'.uniincr,  :•  ,.i 
lis  harvest  ),-^rcnnial.  1  translate  from  a  book  of  t  'v. 
in  these  countries,  by  Count  Ciistcli'^  .  ■'•■ , 
my  return  to  the  I'nifed  .Sfatfo),  an  r, 

apacities  of  some  of  the  southern  por  ui  ifi.3 

1.  water-shed : 
"The  productions  of  tho  country  arr  eji  ■  »Iy 
various.  The  sugar-cane,  of  which  the  ort  ■  i.-  ,  >.  ■- 
ercd  at  the  end  of  eight  munthj  from  the  timii  >  ".i.nDf- 
ing,  fumiB  the  chief  source  ot  wealth  of  the  proviiiC'. 
of  Ccrcadu. 


AMA 


81 


AMA 


tIv 


jviiii;.: 


"  Coflbe  is  cultivated  aUo  with  lucccss  In  this  prov- 
incu,  uiul  ill  that  of  Chii|uitua  yields  Its  fruit  two  years 
aftur  Imving  been  planted,  and  requires  scarcely  any 
atcentiou.  Cocoa,  recently  introduce^l  Into  theaa  two 
provinces,  ghea  its  fruit  ut  the  end  of  threo  or  four 
ycnrs  at  must.  The  tamarind,  wliich  thrives  in  the 
same  localities,  produces  its  harvest  In  live  years, 
(.'otton  gives  annual  crops ;  there  are  two  varieties — 
he  one  white,  the  other  yellow.  Tobacco  grows,  so 
t'  nicali,  without  cultivation,  in  the  provluce  of  Valle 
'i  \>n  le,  v'u'ro  it  forms  the  pr.ncipal  article  of  com- 
i'.rce.  Indi;{u,  of  which  there  are  three  cultivated 
kinds  and  one  w'ld,  is  eiinaliy  abundant.  Maize  yields 
at  the  end  of  three  munthw  all  the  year  round;  it  is 
also  cultivatixl  in  the  province  of  Oercodo.  The  caa- 
savii  produces  in  ei^ht  months  after  planting  ;  there 
arc  two  kinds  of  it— one  sweet,  and  the  other  bitter; 
I  :  tlrst  can  replace  the  potato,  and  even  bread;  the 
ti'.oond  is  only  i^oud  for  starch.  Tlicre  is  an  enormous 
amount  of  iiinds  or  virietivs  of  iiananas,  wlilch  produce 
in  tho  year  from  seed ;  th«y  are  specially  cultivated  in 
the  province  of  Cercado.  Two  i(!uds  of  rice— one  white, 
tho  other  colored — are  cultivated  in  the  two  provinces 
of  Cercado  and  Chiijuitos.  They  produce  every  live 
or  six  months;  they  say  it  is  found  wild  in  tho  region 
of  Chlquitoa. 

"The  gra|)e,  which  grows  well  every  where,  and 
especially  in  the  province  of  Cordilleras,  where  it  was 
cultivated  In  the  Missions  up  to  the  time  of  tho  Inde- 
pendence, is  nevertheless  made  no  article  of  prolit.  It 
will  some  day,  perhaps,  form  one  of  tlic  principal  sources 
of  wealth  of  this  country.  Wheat,  barley,  and  the 
potato  inifrht  bo  cultivated  with  advantage  intlio  prov- 
inces of  Chiquitos  and  Cordilleras ;  but  till  now  results 
have  been  obtained  only  in  that  of  Valle  Grande.  The 
cultivation  of  cocoa  has  commenced  in  tho  province  of 
Cercado,  and  it  is  also  found  in  a  wild  state,  as  well  as 
the  I'uruvian  baric,  on  tlio  mountains  of  Samaripata. 
As  we  Imvo  already  said,  fruits  abound  in  this  region. 
They  cultivate  there  principally  oranges,  lemons,  cit- 
rous, figs,  papaws,  pomegranates,  melons,  water-melons, 
ciiirimoyas  (wliich  the  liraziiians  caMj'ruto  Je  condii), 
pine-apples,  etc.  The  last  of  these  fruits  grow  wild, 
and  in  great  abundance,  in  tho  woods  of  Chiquitos. 
Wo  mot  it,  particularly  the  evening  of  our  arrival,  at 
Santa  Ana.  Its  taste  is  excellent ;  but  it  lea\  es  in 
the  moutli  such  a  burning  scrsation  tha':  I  bitterly  re- 
pented tniving  tasted  it.  They  cultiviito  in  sufKcieiit 
abundance,  in  tlie  province,  jalap,  Peruvian  hark,  sar- 
sapurilla,  vanilla,  rocou,  copahu,  ipecacuanlia,  caout- 
cliouc,  copal,  etc.  Woods  lor  dyr ;  'g,  coMm^t-making, 
and  building,  ab  "'n'  ,  and  the  people  of  tho  country 
collect  caref  .lly  u  multitude  of  gums,  roots,  niul  barks, 
to  which  they  attribute  medicinal  virtues  tho  nu  st  vn- 
rie<l.  In  many  points  in  the  departments,  and  espe- 
cially ill  the  provinces  of  Valle  Grande  and  Cordil- 
IcriH,  iron  is  found,  and  traces  of  quicksilver.  Gold 
is  fuinid  ill  the  province  of  Cercado,  near  the  village 
of  >Suii  Xavier.  The  Jesuits  wrought  mines  of  sil- 
ver in  the  mountains  of  Colcliis.  Don  Scbastiiiii  I'aii- 
cas,  while  Governor  of  Chionitos,  nuncunci'.l  t  the 
goveriiiiient  that  iliamoiub  '  v  >  'i'lo  water,  i  ail 
been  found  in  the  bitcainj  'i  .  ouv.'O-/',  of  ^unto 
Coruzon." 

The  '■■'isons  of  tl'  ...il  States  are,  of  all  *<i.  •■  ..'i 

people,  most  inlei-  ,1  in  the  free  navigation  ut  tlm 
Aiiiiuon.  We,  rs  i:  comparison  with  .>tli<'r  foreigners, 
woii^l  reap  the  lion  t.  share  uf  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  it.  Wc  ivould  fear  nc  competition.  Our 
gcogruplilcal  position,  the  winds  of  lieaveii,  and  the 
curreiii :  of  tho  ocean,  arc  our  po.o'iitial  auxiliarios. 
Tl  iM  -,  to  Miiury's  investigiitions  of  the  winds  and 
currents,  wc  [mow  ihat  u  chip  Uuug  into  tlie  sea  at  tho 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  will  lloat  close  by  Capo  Ilat- 
teras.  Wo  know  that  ships  sailing  from  tlie  mouth  of 
tho  Amai-on,  for  whatever  port  of  lliu  world,  are  forced 
to  our  very  doors  by  thu8i.;/i    .i)  uad  northeast  trado- 


winds ;  that  New  York  is  tho  half-way  house  hctweolt 
I'ara  and  £urope. 

The  present  limited  commerce  of  tha  Amazon  may 
be  Judged  of  by  a  statement  of  tho  exports  and  im- 
ports of  i'ara,  the  port  of  entry,  and  situated  most  ad- 
vantageously at  the  mouth  of  an  estuary  of  tho  Amazon. 

COHHEiun  or  Para  roa  IRfil. 


American. . . 
Enulish  .... 

Krencli 

I  PurtufTueso  . 
Hamburg.  • . 

llelglan 

Osiilsli 

Swodlsli.... 


N°-'  T....... 


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9 
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4,B74 
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tm 

8,<MM 
Ml) 
B'2II 
480 

4«n 


HI        l4,ii8H 


TkJu*  of 
Impoiti. 


$4'Jt>,4K4 

2Tb,IMJ0 

1"J,K3II 

2.S1,4I»T 

27,D1HI 

4,TDII 


♦  l,UU2,aTl 


Valua  of 

KiporU. 


S!1A,IHIU 
IS^Ii»» 
21M42 
181,000 
lU.'JUl 
U4.II0O 


*1,4.!4.S0t 


The  city  of  Santa  Maria  do  Belem  de  Grno  ParA, 
founded  by  Francisco  Caldnirn  do  ('ustollo  Uranco,  in 
the  year  1016,  is  situated  on  u  low  elbow  of  land  at  the 
junction  of  the  IlivcrGuamii  with  the  lti\er  I'ar&,  and 
at  a  distance  of  about  eighty  miles  fh>m  the  sen.  A 
ship  generally  requires  three  tides,  which  niii  with  a 
velocity  of  about  four  miles  to  the  hour,  to  reach  the 
sea  from  the  city.  The  harlior  is  a  very  fine  one ;  it 
is  made  by  the  long  island  of  On^as  in  front,  and  at 
two  miles  distant,  with  some  smaller  ones  farther  down 
the  river.  There  is  an  abundance  of  water,  and  ships 
of  any  size  may  lie  within  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
of  the  shore.  There  is  a  good  landing-jdace  for  boats 
and  lighters  at  tho  custom-house  wharf;  and  at  half- 
tide  at  the  stone  wharf,  some  <;ve  hundred  yards  above. 

Owing  to  the  miserable  policy  of  the  Brazilian  gov-  ■ 
eminent,  tho  free  commerce  of  the  Amazon  will  be  re- 
tarded until  Brazil  is  forced  to  do  justice  to  herself  and 
others. 

I'ho  Bolivian  government  are  pursuing  a  more  lib- 
eral policy,  and  have  issued  the  following  decree,  dated 
La  I'az,  27 /A  January  185.9 : 

"  Whereas,  1st,  tlie  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the 
republic,  inclosing  vast  territories  of  extraordinary  fer- 
tility, intersected  by  navigable  rivers  flowing  to  tho 
Amazon  and  to  the  La  Plata,  offers  the  most  natural 
channels  for  the  commerce,  popnlation,  and  civiliza- 
tion of  these  districts ; 

"  Wiiereas,  2d,  the  navigation  of  these  rivers  is  the 
moat  efficacious  and  certain  means  of  developing  tho 
riches  of  tliis  territory,  by  placing  it  in  communication 
with  tho  exterior,  and  applying  to  its  waters  the  fruit- 
ful principle  of  free  navigation,  as  useful  to  the  inter- 
eats  of  the  republic  as  to  those  of  the  world; 

"Whereas,  ild,  by  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations, 
confirmed  by  the  conventions  of  modem  Kiirope,  and 
upplied  in  tlio  New  World  to  the  navigation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Bolivia,  as  owner  cf  the  Pilconiavo,  of  tho 
triliiituriea  and  thv  greater  part  of  the  Madeira,  of  the 
left  shore  of  the  Iteiica  from  its  junction  with  the  Sa- 
rave  to  its  emptying  into  flie  Mamorf",  of  the  western 

j  bank  of  the  Paraguay  to  the  Marco  del  I ,  as  far  as 

1  -'C'^  51'  of  soutli  latitude,  and  of  tho  greater  part  and 
tlic  left  shore  of  the  Bcrmejo,  has  tho  riglit  to  navigate 
these  rivers  from  the  point  in  her  territory  in  wliich 
they  may  ou  susceptible  of  it  to  the  sea,  without  any 
power  I.eiiig  able  to  arrogate  to  itself  the  exclusive 
sovereignty  over  ♦'•«  Amazon  and  La  Plata ; 

"  Wliorcaa  Ith,  this  navigation  can  not  tie  eflTcrteU 
without  tiio  i)  ecssary  ports  are  aObrded  for  trade; 

■•  Therefore,  l>«  it  dccreeil : 

"  .'iRT.  1.  The  Bolivian  government  declares  frcR  to 
tho  lomnicrcc  and  mercantile  navigation  of  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  globe  the  waters  of  tho  naviitnlde  rivers 
which,  flowing  throu'th  tho  territory  of  this  nation, 
empty  into  the  Amazon  and  Paraguay. 

"Aht.  2.  The  following  are  declared  free  ports,  open 
to  the  traffic  and  navigation  if  ill  vcssela  of  commerce, 
whatever  may  be  their  tlag,  dtstination  or  tonnage ; 


AMB 


S8 


AME 


"  In  the  River  Mainori— Kzaltadon,  Trinidad,  wd 
Lorctu. 

"  In  tbo  Ucni — Kfnciiavuquo,  Muchauis,  and  Mag- 
dalena. 

"  III  llio  Pirttj-— Cuatro,  0|o». 

"  111  thii  C'lia|iarc — Coni  and  Chimort>,  tributaries  of 
the  Mamur^,  tlic  pointn  of  Aaunta,  Cuiii,  and  L'liinior^. 

"In  the  rivers  Mnpiri  and  Curuico,  tributaries  of  the 
BenI,  the  points  of  (iuaiiay  and  Coroii'o. 

"  III  the  I'ilcomayu — tlio  port  of  MaxriAos,  on  the 
east  coa.1t  of  the  Paraguay,  La  Uahia  Negra,  and  the 
pohit  of  Ilurlmn. 

"  In  the  lierinejo— the  point  situated  in  21°  30'  south 
latitude,  at  whicli  cmharlti'd,  in  IH4(i,  the  national  en- 
gineers Oiidarza  and  Mijia. 

"Aitr.  il.  The  vetisuls  of  war  of  friendly  nations  will 
also  be  permitted  to  visit  these  ports. 

"Aut.  4.  Tbo  government  of  Ilolivia,  availing  it- 
self of  the  unquestionable  rights  width  the  nation  has 
to  navigate  tiiese  rivers  as  far  as  the  Atlantic,  invites 
all  the  nations  of  the  earth  to  navigate  them,  and 
promises — 

"1st.  To  donate  in  the  Bolivian  territory,  for  the  pur- 
poses which  the  law  allown,  tracts  nf  lunil,  from  one 
league  to  twelve  leagues  firguure,  tn  the  individuals  or 
companies  who,  sailing  from  the  Atlantic,  shall  arrive 
at  any  one  of  the  points  declared  to  Iw  ports  of  entry, 
and  may  wish  to  found  near  them  agricultural  ur  In- 
dustrial establishments. 

"2d.  To  guarantee  the  reward  often  thousand  dol- 
lars ($10,000)  to  the  lirst  steamer  which,  through  the 
La  Plata  or  Amazon,  may  arrive  at  either  of  the  above- 
mentioned  points. 

"3d.  To  decree  fKo  the  river  exportation  of  the 
products  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  national  industry. 

"  4th.  In  due  time  there  will  be  established  and  reg- 
ulated at  the  above-mentioned  points,  ulicrc  it  may  be 
necessary,  custom-houses  for  the  loading  and  unloading 
of  merchandise,  the  government  seeing  that  the  charges 
for  the  use  of  these  custom-houses  may  be  as  moderate 
OS  possible. 

"5th.  This  decree  will  be  submitted  for  the  ex- 
amination and  approval  of  Congress  on  their  next 
meeting. 

"6th.  The  Minister  of  State,  In  the  office  of  foreign 
relations,  is  cliargeil  with  its  fullillment,  by  circulating 
it  and  communicating  it  to  all  whom  it  may  concern. 

"  Given  in  the  Palace  of  the  Supreme  (ioveriimcnt, 
in  the  place  of  Ayacuclio,  'iTtli  of  .lanuary,  ItloU, 
44th  of  independence,  and  tth  of  liberty. 

"MA.NUKi,  l.siiioiio  Uei^u. 

"If.\FABI.   HiSTII.Ll), 
"  Miiii/trr  nf  horivju  Uetatiims, 

"  A  certified  copy ;       Ajiaiio  Ai.vai:i;z, 

"  AV  (Ifficial  Mayor." 
—See  nEliNDDN's  ValUj/  of  the  Amiuon. 

Amber  I'dr.  IhriisUm;  Du.  Ilarmltin;  iJtt.  Ilcm- 
tleen,  ttui\;  it.  Aiiihrt  jiiiiiu:;  It.  Amiiril  ginllii ;  .Sp. 
Amliiir:  Huas.Janlun  Viil.  Jliirtzlyi ;  l.at.  iHucdiiuiii, 
JCteclrum),  a  brlltli-,  light,  hard  subslainc,  usually 
nearly  transparent,  sonietliiips  nearly  colorless,  but 
coni'nonly  \(llow,  or  even  dicp  brown.  It  has  con- 
siderable lustre.  SpecKic  gravity  l-Olifi.  It  is  found 
In  nodules  or  rounded  masses,  varying  from  the  size  of 
coarse  sand  to  that  of  a  man's  bond.  It  is  tasteless, 
without  smell,  except  when  pcjiindcd  or  heated,  when 
il  emits  a  fragri.nt  odor.  It  is  highly  electric.  Most 
ai'thors  assert  that  amber  is  bituminous;  but  Ur.  Thom- 
son stotes,  that  '•  it  is  undoubtedly  of  a  vegelabb'  ori- 
gin; and  though  il  differs  from  resins  in  some  of  its 
properties,  yet  it  ogrces  with  tbcni  in  so  many  others, 
tliat  it  may  without  inipropriiiy  he  referred  to  them." 
—Chemiilnj,  vol.  iv.  p.  147,  .'>tb  cd.  Pieces  of  umber 
occosionally  Inclose  parts  of  toads  ond  insects  in  their 
aubstance,  « liich  ore  beautifully  pn^served.  Il  is  prin- 
cipally found  on  the  shores  of  Poinorania  and  I'ollsli 
PruMia;  but  it  Is  sometimes  dug  out  of  the  earth  in 


Ducal  Pnisila.  It  Is  also  to  be  met  with  on  the  hnnka 
of  the  Klver  Ularotta,  In  Mlcily.  Sometimes  it  Is  found 
on  the  east  coast  of  lirltain,  and  In  gravel  pits  round 
l^ondon.  The  largest  mass  uf  amber  ever  found  was 
got  near  the  surface  of  (ho  ground  In  Lithuania.  It 
weighs  18  pounds,  and  is  preserved  in  the  royal  cabinet 
at  llerlln.  Most  of  the  amber  imported  Into  this  coun- 
try comes  from  the  llaltic,  but  a  small  quantity  comes 
from  MIcily.  Amber  was  in  very  high  estimation  among 
the  ancients,  but  is  now  comparatively  neglected. 
Ambergrla,  or  Ambergreaae  (.<  ter.  .1  mber ,-  Du. 

Amber;  Vr.  Anihirgru ;    \y.  Amiiruijnijia;  Sp.  yimftnr- 
grit;  Lat.  AtiUrii,  Amhra  griita),  a  solid,   opaque, 
generally  ash-colored,  fatty,  inflammable  substance, 
variegated  like  marble,  remarkably  light,  rngged  and 
uneven  in  its  surface,  and  has  a  fragrant  odor  when 
iieaied ;  it  does  nut  eflervc jco  with  adds,  melts  freely 
over  the  fire  into  a  kind  of  yellow  resin,  and  is  hard- 
ly soluble  In  spirit  of  wine.     It  Is  found  on  the  sea- 
coast,  or  floating  on  the  sea,  near  the  coasts  of  India, 
Africa,  and  llra>:ll,  usually  in  small  pieces,  but  some- 
times in  masses  of  ftO  or  100  pounds  weight.    "  Various 
opiuions  have  been  entertained  respecting  its  origin. 
:  lSoiuc  afllrmed  that  it  was  the  concrete  juice  uf  a  tree, 
I  others  thought  it  a  bitumen ;  but  it  is  now  considered 
as  pretty  well  established  that  It  is  u concretion  formed 
in  the  stomach  or  ir.testines  of  the  Pkyteter  macroirjih- 
I  aliu,  or  spermnccti   wlial.>." — Thomson's   Chemulry, 
Ambergris  Ought  to  be  chosen  in  large  pieces,  of  an 
I  agreeable  odor,  enti'cl;-  gray  on  the  outside,  and  gray 
with  little  black  spots  within.     The  purchaser  should 
i  Ik)  very  cautious,  us  this  article  is  easily  counterfeited 
I  with  gums  and  other  drugs. 

America.     Our  object  in  this  article  is  to  take  a 
!  coniprehensive  survey  of  the  Anirrican  continent  in  its 
■  physical,  moral,  and  general  relations.    In  attempting 
this,  we  do  nut  Intend  to  .,o  much  into  detail  u|'ou 
those  subjects  which  will  be  morn  fully  and  appropri- 
ately discussed  in  the  dijtiiut  article.^  assigned  in  this 
;  work  to  the  several  States  included  in  the  Western 
World  ;  but  wo  shall  dwr  II  at  some  length  upon  those 
i  features,  pcculiiiritles,  and  classes  of  facts  which  either 
:  lielong  to  it  as  a  whole,  or  can  be  most  advantageously 
I  considered  ur  described  when  all  its  parts  are  viewed 
I  in  connection  with  une  another.     Such  are  the  climate 
and  physical  structure  of  the  country,  the  geographical 
distrilmliun  of  its  cultivated  plants,  its  indigenous  pop- 
ulation, its  animal  tribes,  its  cumniercial  and  )iolilical 
capaliilitics,  and  its  means  of  progressive  imiirovenient, 
The  new  continent  may  be  styled  emphatically  "a 
land  of  promise."    'thf  prim nl  there  sinks  into  nothing 
{ in  itself,  and  derives  all  its  importance  from  the  germs 
.  it  contains  of  a  mighty  future.     The  change  must  not 
{  only  be  great,  but  rapid,  lieyond  all  which  the  past 
history  of  mankind  would  lead  us  to  expect.     ICven 
;  after  we  have  familiarized  our  minds  with  the  princi- 
ples u|)on  which  its  progress  depend*,  we  lind  It  dirti- 
cidt  to  reconcile  ourselves  to  (he  con.«cqueii(cs  that  in- 
I  evitably  result  from  then:.     lint  lime  will  do  ils  work  ; 
and  the  great-grandsons  of  lb'      now  in  existence  may 
live  to  see  the  New  World  coutaiii  a  greater  mass  of 
;  civili/ed  men  than  the  (IM,     Il  Is  this  ^rtatncss  in 
prospect  wblih  lends  an  interest  to  the  Western  Con- 
tiueiit  similar  to  that  ulilcli  the  I'.astern  ilcrives  from 
i  its  historical  recollectiuns.     The  same  eircunistaiiee  re- 
quires that  we  should  dwell  at  sunn*  length  on  the 
'  physical  structure  of  America,  and  on  those  liidi);e||iius 
;  iril)es  which,  in  the  course  of  three  centuries,  will  iw  '  ■ 
1  live  ill  poetry  and  tradition.     The  future  history  of  (he 
^    w  World  must  bo  read  by  us  in  the  conliguration  of 
i     surface,  the-  distribution  >  f  its  mniiiiti>lns  and  rivers, 
,  the  iiroduclioMs  ofits  loil.  ii«  y.atural  and  political  ca- 
pa>  ilities,  uc:,!  ill  the  character  rather  than  the  nuni- 
liers  of  its  iivilir.ed  inhabitants. 

The  continental  part  of  America  extends  from  the 
Tilth  degree  of  south  to  the  (1st  of  north  latitude,  its 
extreme  length,  from  the  Straits  of  Magellau  to  thoae 


AMK 


88 


AME 


iij< 


climate 

iKrapliical 

niius  pop- 

|ioIitical 

ivemt'iit. 

iilly  "a 

nolhiiiff 

ijiiist  not 
•  past 
ICvon 
priiici- 
it  ditti- 
that  in- 
work  ; 
jin'o  may 
Ilia's  of 
ilni'ss  in 
Til  (nil- 
i('«  from 
taiKi'  p'- 
III  ilie 
ilitfi'iioiig 
will  <» ' 
iry  of  tliu 
ration  of 
III  rivers, 
ilii'ttl  cA- 
lii-  num- 

rr(jni  the 
tutlo,  ita 
tu  thoM 


of  lii'hrlnK,  l>«>ni{  IO,5(Ml  Knitllih  mlUt.  Tho  iilands 
of  Tiurru  iltl  I"iuku  ruucli  uiiu  duKriiu  Iwyond  Itn  Miutli- 
«rn  extremity  into  (liu  Aiilarttiv  Ociiun;  and  Uroun- 
lanil,  wliiili  In citiiiiuuliid  liy  k"<'K<'«I>Ii*'I''i  witli  Aniurica, 
hai  iiiiiui  truuvd  tu  lliu  iHlli  di'Kriu  of  north  latitude, 
and  prutiulily  U  proluiiKod  niuili  further  lutu  tho  polar 
circle,  'lilt!  lain  dUiovvrlva  ut  Cnptalna  I'arry,  ICoim, 
and  Franklin  liuva  u\vmi  ua  inucli  inuro  oxait  l.tuan 
than  wii  furiiiurly  pomwnacd  of  ilm  norlhoni  ri.'Kluiii  of 
Aiiiiirica.  'I'liii  couat  of  lliii  iiialii  land  Ima  been  traced 
aliiii'iit  coiiipliiti'ly  friitii  llidirliiM'a  Htralta  to  Kox.'a 
Clutiiiicl  on  Uudaon'a  Hay,  and  la  found  to  run  In  a 
direction  vuat  uud  wiml,  in  an  unevuii  lino  near  tho 
parallel  of  7il".  Thu  Itouiida  of  continental  America 
may  tlierefuru  liu  coiialdi^reil  ua  nearly  duturnilned  on 
every  aiclii.  'Ihu  addilloiiul  ll)(lita  furnlahcd  by  Cap- 
tain I'arry'a  and  otlicr  renint  voyu^ea  render  it  cx- 
troinely  prolmblu  that  a  Kriinl  archipelago  of  Inlandn 
occupiea  all  the  apucu  lietweeu  the  northiirn  coaat  of 
the  cuiitiiieut  and  the  Nilili  parallel ;  and  there  la  oven 
■OHIO  rcaHon  for  IjeliuviiiK  that  the  country  known  liy 
tliu  iiaiiie  of  (jreenlttiid  la  traveraed  from  vast  tu  wcat 
by  uriiia  of  tliu  aeu,  llku  thv  rogluna  un  tlio  weal  aido  of 
Uallin'a  Hay. 

The  new  continent,  when  mmparcil  with  tho  old, 
enjoya  threu  inipurtant  udvantaKca.  KirKt,  It  la  free 
from  HiK'ii  vuat  thmerta  aa  cover  a  lar^e  part  of  tliu  sur- 
face of  Aula  and  Africa,  and  which  not  only  withdraw 
a  ({rettt  proportion  of  tl.u  aoil  from  tlin  nae  of  man,  but 
are  obatuclea  to  coniinunlcutliin  Imtwecn  the  aetlled  dia- 
tricta,  anil  Kunurutu  tliat  nxeeaalvu  heat  which  la  often 
iiijurioua  to  health,  and  alwaya  doatruclivu  tu  tndiiatry. 
Secondly,  no  part  of  ita  aoil  la  ao  far  from  the  ocean  aa 
the  central  ruKiuna  of  Aala  and  Africa.  Thirdly,  the 
interior  of  America  la  penetrated  by  mulcrtli'!  rivera, 
the  Misalaaippi,  Amu/.on,  and  I'lata,  xrcatly  aurpanainK 
thoao  of  tliu  old  continuiit  In  maKniluili',  and  still 
more  li  the  fucllltlea  they  prnaent  for  vnablinK  the  re- 
motest Inland  diatrlcta  to  eomtnunlcatu  with  the  sea. 

AccorUlni;  to  thu  |(coK>'0|>l>i''<>l  ayalcm  adopted  in 
the  Old  World,  America  uukIiI  to  be  considered  as  two 
distinct  contineiita,  connueted  liy  the  lathinua  of  Daricn, 
Its  two  Kteit  dlvlaiona  havu  evidently  more  of  a  defined 
and  separate  character  than  Africa  and  Aala,  or  than 
Asia  and  Kurupo ;  but  thouKli  this  arranKoinent  may 
b«  very  properly  adopted  for  the  purpoae  of  description, 
it  is  tuo  lato  now  to  think  of  aaal)(iilii((  aeparute  nainca 
to  rcgioiia  which  havu  ao  loiitf  been  known  by  a  com- 
mon appellation.  In  tiut  pliyalca;  arranxeinent  of  the 
parts  of  South  and  North  Amurlva  there  la  u  remark- 
able resemblancu.  Uutli  am  very  broad  In  the  nortli, 
and  Kftdually  contract  a*  they  proceed  southward,  till 
they  end,  thu  one  In  a  narrow  lathiiiua,  and  thu  other 
in  a  narrow  proniuntory.  Kavli  liaa  a  lofty  chain  of 
mountains  near  ita  weatern  loaat,  aljoiiiwIInK  in  vol- 
canoes, with  a  lower  rldK"  <">  thu  op|Hmii>'  aide,  desti- 
tute of  any  tract  of  internal  lire ;  and  eacli  has  one 
gn\at  central  plain  ducllnliiK  to  tho  ainth  and  the 
north,  and  watured  by  two  KiKaiitlu  atreaiiia,  tlio  Mia- 
aiaaippi  corraapondlii((  to  thu  I'lala,  and  the  .St,  Law- 
rence to  the  Aniu»Jii.  In  tluilr  climate,  vegntablo 
productions,  and  aiii  i.al  tu  uf,  the  two  rogioni  are 
very  diaalinllar. 

The  extent  of  the  American  cuntinont  and  tho  Isl- 
acda  connected  with  it  ta  aa  foilov   - 


North  America 

Huuth  America ,,, 

Itlenda 

Orceiilaiiil,  and  tlio  lalaii.'i'  t'uiiii"  !  wlih) 
!:  'Kiiurth  uf  lluiiKiu'a  Mraita,mayb«/- 
■^■>:      ted  at > 


■qaara  KnR.  MIIm. 
. . .    7.  loo.(»ai 
O.r.im.iKKl 
ItiO.OOO 


900,000 

Tho  American  Continent,  ther<-fnro,  with  Ita  depend- 
ent islanda,  la  fully  four  tlnii"  '  largo  ai  Kuropt,  about 
one  third  larger  than  Af  <ca,  ,o  almoat  one  half  loss 
than  Asia,  If  wo  inciudn  with  i  •  .<■?  Australia  and 
Polynesia.  I*  cotutllutuf  atwu'  ::.i  wnthi  of  the  dry 
C 


land  on  the  aurfaco  of  the  globe.  Of  the  contlnontal 
part  of  North  America,  a  considerable  portion  is  con- 
dciiiiied  tu  perpetual  sterility  Ijy  thu  rigor  of  the  cli- 
mate, as  wu  shall  explain  morn  fully  by-aud-by.  At 
preaent  it  is  iuliicieiit  to  state,  that  if  we  draw  a  line 
i'rum  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet,  in  latitudu  Ul",  on  the 
west  side,  to  thu  .Straita  of  llclllale  on  the  east,  so  as  to 
pnsa  through  Fort  Churchill,  on  Iludaon'a  Hay,  we 
shall  cut  oil'  a  space  rather  exceeding  one  million  and 
a  half  of  siiuaru  miles,  whicli  may  bo  considered  as  In- 
capable of  cultivation.  At  tho  south  extremity  of 
America,  a  small  tract,  extending  'JOU  miles  north  of 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  though  far  within  the  linilta 
of  the  teni|>erato  zone,  is  nearly  in  the  same  condition. 
Tliesu  and  the  sunimita  of  tliu  Andes  are  thu  only  parti 
of  tho  American  continent  which  are  rendered  Incapi^ 
blu  of  cultivation  by  tho  severity  of  the  climate. 

The  vast  chain  of  the  Andes  is  distinguished  by  aev- 
crul  pcculi'ir  features  from  all  other  niountaiiis  in  the 
world.  It  has  its  principal  direction  nearly  north  and 
south,  while  all  thu  great  ridges  of  the  old  cuntincnt 
run  from  cast  to  west ;  it  la  unparalleled  in  ita  prodig- 
ious length,  in  tlie  richiiesa  of  ita  mineral  treasures,  and 
in  thu  number  and  niaguitudu  of  its  volcanoes.  The 
'Vndes,  if  wo  connect  w  itii  tiiem  thu  Slexicaii  Cordillera 
and  the  Kocky  Mountains,  extend  from  the  Straita  of 
Miigcllaii  in  a  line  wliieli  niiiy  be  considered  as  ur.bro- 
kcn,  to  Point  Itrownluw  on  tho  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  in  the  latitudu  of  7U°,  over  a  spacu  equal  to 
IO,IHIO  miles  in  Iciigtii,  or  two-lifths  of  the  circumfer- 
oncu  of  tlio  gbdio.  Their  height,  which  attain  -  its 
maximum  witliiii  the  tropics,  deelinea  toward  botli 
Holes,  but  in  auch  a  manner  that,  with  a  f-^w  excep- 
tions, its  higher  summits  ascend  to  the  line  of  perpet- 
ual snow  from  one  extremity  to  th  other.  It  ma}' 
thus  lie  said  to  carry  the  temperaturo  of  the  pole  over 
tho  whole  length  of  t'  American  continent.  The 
chain  of  the  Andes  is  common  to  the  two  parts  of 
America,  and  is  in  fact  the  link  which  connects  thjin 
and  makes  them  one  ci>ntinent.  As  we  propose,  how- 
ever, to  descrilw  North  ami  South  America  sepurately, 
we  a'lall  reserve  the  details  for  another  part  of  ttiis 
article. 

South  America  h  a  peninsula  of  a  triangular  form. 
Its  greatest  length  I'miu  nortli  to  south  is  4560  miles; 
ita  greatest  breadt'<  il'JUO;  and  it  covers  an  ar<  a,  aa  al- 
ready mentioned,  of  (>,500,(H)0  aqu:  re  English  miles, 
about  three-fourths  of  which  lie  between  the  tropics, 
and  the  other  fourth  in  the  temperat>3  zone.  From  the 
configuration  of  its  surface,  tlie  peninsula  may  be  di- 
vided into  Ave  distinct  phyi^  .1  regions:  1.  The  low 
country  skirting  the  shores  of  the  racillc  Ocean,  from 
M  to  150  miles  in  breadth,  and  4000  in  length.  The 
two  extremities  of  this  territory  are  fertile,  the  middle 
n  sandy  desert.  2.  The  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  a  coun- 
try ccnsisting  of  extensive  plains  or  alfppes,  called 
Klanos,  either  destitute  of  wood  or  merely  dotted  with 
fees,  but  covered  with  a  very  higii  herbage  during  a 
purt  of  tlic  year.  During  thu  dry  season  the  heat  is 
intense  here,  and  the  parched  soil  opens  into  long  As- 
sures, in  which  lizards  and  serpents  lie  in  a  state  of 
torpor.  3.  The  basin  of  the  Amazon,  a  vast  plain, 
<  iiibruciiig  a  surface  of  more  tlian  two  millions  of 
squaro  miles,  possessing  a  rich  loii  and  a  liumid  di- 
inafc.  i  is  covered  almost  every  where  with  dense 
forests,  V  liich  harlior  innumerable  tribes  of  wild  ani- 
mals, ami  are  thinly  inhabited  by  f"  igcs,  who  live 
by  huntii  .;  and  Ashing.  4.  Tho  great  southern  plain, 
watered  by  the  Plata  and  the  numcrnus  streams  de- 
scending from  tho  c.'tem  summits  of  the  Cordilleras. 
Open  etfppef,  which  are  here  called  Pampas,  occupy 
tho  griiatir  proportion  of  this  region,  wliich  is  dry, 
and  in  son't-  parts  barrer ,  but  in  general  is  covered 
with  a  «('  111^  growth  of  weeds  and  tall  grass,  which 
feeds  p:  'ii/ions  herds  j'  i  n.  -  und  cattle,  and  affords 
shelter  0  a  few  wiH  »r;-  nls  !'i.  The  country  of  Bra- 
zil, Aiitx.ward  of  fit  yti-ii,.,i  and  Ais'.'uay,  presentio£; 


iT"*: 


AMB 


84 


AME 


■IttriMt*  rtifttB  «nd  volleyi,  thickly  covor»il  with  wood 
CD  Iha  lido  next  the  Atlantic,  ind  o|iunin(;  Into  tli'i.iici 
or  puiturei  In  tho  intcriur. 

Nine-tenlha  uf  North  America  lyln({  iindw  th''  »  u.- 
perato  xuiio,  tlio  cllninto  followt  a  ditl'ureot  li»  '  v  u 
what  i>  obicrved  in  the  itontliern  pcnlnmiln,  i  kI  'itv- 
Mnti  more  ttrllilnK  contra«ti  with  tha'  ' .  I'lf  lict 
known  part*  of  the  Old  World.  The  lon«  rlnrr<'^^  region 
now  denoniiiiatud  Central  America,  wljii  li  ■  'innoct*  the 
two  great  dlvlniona  of  tho  continent,  M.iuliin){  from 
Panama  to  Tehuantoiwc,  )\a»  in  Kcncral  a  very  hunii<l 
atmoipherv ;  hut,  for  a  tropliul  coinitry,  it  must  he  only 
moderately  hot,  at  every  |>art  of  It  i»  within  a  amall 
dtitanco  of  thu  nea.  At  Vera  Vu'  the  rains  fall  durlnu 
nine  monllift  of  the  year,  M<xicc>  is  hot,  niuist,  anil 
unhealthy  on  tho  low  coasts ;  !iut  two-thirds  of  Its  area, 
comprisini;  all  tho  populmi.i  clldtricts,  consist  of  tahle- 
Und, from  filKM)  to  WK)(l fcut  in  height.  In  conseiincnce 
of  this  sInKular  conllxu'"''""  "f  ''»  surface,  Mexico, 
tboUKh  chicHy  within  'li  ■  (orriil  lone,  enjoys  a  tem- 
perate anil  ci|uablo  cl.miip.  The  mean  heat  at  the 
capital,  which  is  74(K)  fi  <liovo  the  sea,  la  Oaf,  and 
the  dllTercnce  lietwcen  the  .  iinnest  and  coldest  months, 
which  oxceciU  IW"  at  Lo  idi  'i,  Is  here  only  about  12° ; 
but  tilt  atniuapher '  is  dcllilent  In  moisture,  and  the 
country  aull'cra  from  iliouKbt.  Hcyond  the  parallel  of 
24°  thu  western  ahorcs  are  hot  and  arid. 

In  tho  extensive  region  lyinn  lietwei'ii  the  parallels 
of  110°  and  f>0°,  which  comprehends  thri'i-fourths  of  the 
useful  aoil  of  North  America,  we  have  three  well-mark- 
ed varieties  of  climate,  thai  of  the  .  i  I  coast,  the  west 
coast,  and  tho  basin  of  the  Mississippi.  On  the  east 
coast,  from  Georgia  to  Lower  (Jans'a,  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  tho  year  Is  lower  than  i>i  Kurope  by  0°  ut 
the  latitude  of  40°,  and  l)y  12 i'  at  the  latitude  of  &()', 
according  to  Humboldt's  calculation.  In  the  next 
place,  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  much  greater 
than  in  Europe,  iVe  summer  being  much  hotter  and 
the  winter  much  colder.  At  Quebec  the  temperature 
of  the  warmest  month  exceeds  that  of  the  coldest  by 
no  less  than  Gu^"  of  Fahrenheit ;  while  at  I'aris,  which 
ii  nearly  under  the  same  latitude,  the  ditfercnce  is  only 
81°.  In  the  third  place,  the  climate  undergoes  a  more 
rapid  change  in  America  as  we  proceed  from  south  to 
north,  a  degree  of  latitude  in  the  middle  of  tho  temper- 
ate zone  producing  a  decrease  of  annual  temperature 
of  ri8°  in  Europe,  and  of  l'5i °  in  America.  The  com- 
parison is  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  America  when 
made  in  this  form ;  but  when  the  east  coast»  f  i  lie  two 
continents  are  compared,  the  case  Is  altered  :  ilio  Old 
World  is  found  to  have  no  superiority  over  tho  New, 
for  Pckin  haa  still  colder  winters  and  warmer  summers 
than  i'hiladelphia,  which  is  under  the  same  latitude. 
It  is  the  west  coasl  of  the  new  continent  which  ought 
to  exhibit  the  cliinato  of  Europe ;  and  from  tho  few 
facts  known,  we  liavu  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  quite 
aa  mild  and  ei|uable.  At  the  mouth  of  Columbia  lilv- 
er,  in  lutitide  OH  ',  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke  found 
the  rains  to  \>o  copious  and  frequent;  but  they  hail 
very  little  frost,  and  saw  no  ieo  even  in  the  depth  of 
winter.  From  obser\-ations  made  in  18'.'2-1,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  mean  heat  of  the  warmest  month  was 
about  62°,  of  the  coldest  about  ,S6°,  and  of  the  whole 
year  Sl°.  Kow  the  place  i:i  under  the  some  Ibtituilo 
with  Quebei',  where  the  snow  lies  live  months,  and  the 
mean  ten  uro  during  the  three  winter  months  is 

18°  below  '  ,,L'  freezing  point.  This  single  circumxtance 
marks  emphatically  the  contrast  in  tlie  climate  of  tho 
east  and  w  est  coaata  of  North  America.  Hut  the  mouth 
of  Columbia  liirer  is  also  under  tho  same  parallel  with 
Nantes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  where  snow  and  ice 
are  no  strangers  in  tho  cold  season  of  tho  year.  Wc 
have,  therefore,  good  grounds  to  conclude  that  tho 
west  coast  of  America,  ii  the  middle  latitudes,  has 
nearly  as  mild  and  equable  a  climate  as  the  west  coast 
of  El  ,r>pe.  The  clin.itc  of  tho  great  central  valley, 
or  baiin  of  tiio  Uissistippi,  biu  a  coniiderable  itffinity 


to  that  iif  the  oast  coast.  It  was  long  a  matter  nf  dis- 
pute In  what  tho  ilin'urencu  between  the  two  ciinsistt| 
liut  tbl'<  seems  at  last  to  have  been  clearly  settliil,  by 
'  II  I  01  iliigleal  registers  kept  at  the  military  posts 
II  '  <  itcil  States.  From  a  comparison  of  four  of 
ills  '  i(l«tura,  from  posts  near  the  centre  of  this  great 
v.ilKv  ,  with  oil  ITS  kept  on  tho  Atlantic  const  in  the 
same  latitudes,  It  appears  that  in  the  hottest  month 
the  tcniperaturo  is  from  5^  to  0"  hl)(hei,  and  In  the 
coldest  month  as  much  lower,  In  the  basin  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, than  on  the  coasts  of  New  England,  The 
proportion  of  fair  weather  to  cloudy  i,i  as  A  to  I  in  fa- 
Mir  nf  tho  east  coast.  Tho  climulo  of  the  interior, 
therefore,  exhibits  In  still  greater  excess  those  ex- 
tremes of  ten.|ieriit\<,  .isllngu^h  ihe  eastern 
I'luut  of  thin  iMUi  ,1011.  Ii'oin  th(  tvestc...  mil  frioii  tho 
shores  of  F:uropo,  The  fourth  region  of  extra-tiopical 
America  includes  tho  parts  beyond  Mount  St.  F.lias  on 
the  went  coast,  and,  in  tho  interior,  llic  plains  extend- 
ing from  thu  TiOth  parallel  to  thu  I'ldar  !4caa.  The  in- 
tensity of  tho  cohl  in  thia  tract  of  country  is  scarcely 
equaled  by  any  thing  that  Is  knimn  nniler  tho  same 
paralluls  in  Northern  Asia,  The  northernmost  spot 
in  America  where  grain  is  raisi  d  is  at  Lord  Selkirk's 
colony,  on  lied  Klver,  In  latitiule  5U°.  M'heat,  and 
uIko  maize,  which  requires  a  high  summer  heat,  ain 
cultivated  here,  Ilarley  would  certainly  grow  as  far 
north  as  Fort  Chippewayan,  in  latitude  M]',  where  tho 
heut  of  the  four  summer  niimlhs  was  found  liy  Captain 
Franklin  to  l>e  4'  higher  llian  at  F^dlnluirgh.  'Ilici'o 
is  even  reason  to  believe  that  both  this  species  of 
grain  and  potatoes  might  thrive  as  far  north  as  .Slave 
Lake,  since  tho  siiruco  lir  attains  thu  height  of  Till  feet 
tlircu  degrees  faithcr  north,  at  Fort  Franklin,  in  lati- 
tude 05".  These,  however,  were  low  and  sheltered 
tpots;  but  in  tliis  dreary  waste  generally  It  will  not 
be  found  practiiiiblc,  we  suspect,  to  carry  the  arts  of 
civilized  life  beyuml  the  (iuth  parallel ;  and  the  desira- 
ble country,  capable  of  supporting  a  ilen.se  population, 
and  meriting  tlio  name  of  temperate,  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  extend  beyond  the  Aoth  parallel.  At  IS6"  the 
snow  covers  the  ground  in  winter  to  the  depth  of  only 
two  feet,  but  small  lakes  continue  frozen  for  eight 
months.  I'hc  sea  is  open  only  for  a  few  weeks,  fogs 
darken  thi  urfacc,  and  tho  thermometer  in  February 
descended,  u\  one  instance,  to  vilnut  [>>i  .  ut  W"  beluw 
the  freezing  point,  .\t  Melville  Island,  under  the  7f>lh 
parallel,  such  Is  tin  t'rightful  rigor  of  the  climate,  that 
the  temperature  the  year  falln  1'  or  2°  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheii.t  scale.  It  is  n  peculiarity  in  tho 
climate  of  America,  that  beyond  the  parallel  of  f>0°  or 
52°,  it  seems  to  become  suddenly  severe  at  both  ex- 
tremities. At  the  one,  summer  disu|>pears  from  tho 
circle  of  tho  scasei.s;  at  the  other,  winter  is  armed 
with  double  terroi... 

In  no  single  circumstance  is  the  tup«riurity  of  Amer- 
ica over  the  Old  World  so  conspicuous  as  in  thi;  num- 
ber and  magnitude  of  its  navigable  rivers.  Tho  Ama- 
zon alone  dis'  liarge-  a  greater  quantity  nf  water  than 
the  eight  ii  Ipnl  rivrs  of  Asia,  the  Euphrates,  In- 
dus, GaiiL  by,  Leu  i.  Amour,  and  the  Yellow  Uiver 
and  Kii  '  >f  Ch  The  Mississippi,  with  its 
branibis,  ..ilm  i,  a  );  iter  amount  of  inland  naviga- 
tion tlian  111  thu  stream',  great  and  small,  which  irri- 
gate F^uro  11' ;  and  tho  I'lata,  in  this  respect,  may  prob- 
ably claim  a  superiority  over  the  collective  water  of 
Africa.  But  the  American  rivers  not  only  surpass 
tlioso  of  the  Old  Worl>'  in  length  and  volume  of  fluid, 
but  they  are  so  placed  us  to  penetrate  every  where  to 
the  heart  of  the  continent,  liy  tho  Amazon,  a  person 
living  at  tho  eastern  foot  of  the  Andes,  20(K)  niiles  of 
direct  distance  from  the  Atlantic,  may  convey  himself 
or  his  property  to  the  s^  <rcs  of  that  sea  in  forty-five 
days,  almost  without  effort,  by  conHding  his  bark  to 
the  gliding  current.  If  ho  wishes  to  return,  he  has 
but  to  spread  his  aails  to  tho  eastern  breeze,  which 
blows  perennially  against  the  stream.    Tho  naviga- 


AHE 


85 


AME 


itlor  of  dl>- 
VII  ciiiinliUi 

•ctilt'il,  \>y 
illtury  piiitt 
II  iif  four  uf 
uf  lliia  K'***' 
luimt  in  the 
KrHt  month 
,  Rn<l  In  lh« 
I  uf  thu  Ml»- 
{\anil.     'Iha 

5  lu  I  in  ra- 
the Interior, 
m  those  cx- 

Iho  I'aBli'rn 
■inil  fri.m  Iho 
xtra-tKipliol 
t  St.  I'.linn  uil 
luina  cxtiMul- 
'aa.  Thr  in- 
ry  la  ncurii'ly 
(ior  tho  iianio 
triimoat  f|iot 
.oril  Selliirli'a 

Wheat,  anil 
iner  heat,  am 
Y  grow  a«  fur 
i|%  where  tho 
id  hy  Captain 
iirnh.  'iliern 
ia  apceiea  of 
orth  a»  Slave 
ght  of  M  feet 
nlilin,  in  latU 
aiid  ahelterod 
lly  It  will  not 
ry  tho  aria  of 
lid  the  deaira- 
Lse  population, 
scarcely  ho 
At  t'.6"  the 

depth  of  only 

)zcn  for  ei^ht 

weeks,  toga 

in  Fuhruary 

or  UO"  helow 

iidcr  tho  'fith 

climate,  that 
below  the 

iliarltv  in  tho 

allcl  of  M)'  or 
at  both  ex- 

arA  from  tho 

Iter  is  armed 

jrity  of  Amer- 
iii  th':  niini- 
,    The  Ania- 
if  water  than 
luphratea,  In- 
Yellow  Kiver 
ippi,  with  Its 
iland  navina- 
11,  which  irri- 
cl,  may  prol)- 
tivc  water  of 
only  surpasa 
ilume  of  fluid, 
•cry  where  to 
izon,  a  perhon 
•im)  miles  of 
invcy  himself 

In  forty-fivo 
g  hia  hark  to 
etum,  ho  has 
breeze,  which 

The  naviga- 


llon  la  not  Interrupted  by  •  ilngle  cataract  or  rapid, 
fmnith"  Atlantic  luJanii,  in  west  lonKlluile  78",  where 
thi!  aurface  of  the  alrcam  ■•  only  UtO  feet  rIhivb  the 
level  nf  Its  eatuary  at  I'ara.  'I'lie  remnleat  and  leaat 
ac<'eaail>l(i  part  uf  North  America  ia  thu  groat  Interior 
plain  extending  from  the  Hocky  Mourilalna  to  the  Al- 
Inghanlim  and  the  lakes,  between  tho  parallels  of  10^ 
ami  f>0";  hut  the  Miaaiaaippi,  Misaourl,  and  St,  Law- 
rence, with  their  hraiiehns,  aro  »o  wonderfully  ranilllcd 
over  thia  region,  that  when  It  Is  lillod  with  civlllicd 
Inhahitanta,  two  centuries  hence,  tlioao  who  dwell  in 
III  Inmost  receaaea,  at  tho  falls  of  the  Mlaaouri,  fur  In- 
atancc,  17IK)  niiha  from  tho  Atlantic,  will  have  a  more 
eaay  communication  with  I  No  ocean  than  the  popula- 
tion of  the  interior  i)f  Spain  and  Hungary.  It  la  only 
neceaaary  to  cast  tho  eye  over  a  map  "f  South  Amer- 
ica, to  ai^e  that  all  the  most  sequestered  parta  of  the 
interior  are  visited  by  branches  of  tho  I'lata  and  the 
/'ma/.on.  These  streams,  having  their  courses  in  g>>n- 
eral  remurkably  level,  and  aeldom  interrupted  by  cat- 
nract^,  may  ho  considered,  without  a  figure,  as  a  vast 
aystein  of  natural  canals,  terminating  in  two  main 
trunks,  which  comni micate  with  the  ocean  at  the 
ei|uator  and  the  iiritli  ilegreo  of  aonth  latitude.  Since 
the  invention  of  steam  navlgallon,  rivers  are,  in  the 
truest  scnae  of  tho  term,  Nature's  highways,  especially 
for  in.  int  comniunitics,  where  the  people  ore  too  poor, 
and  ilvi  loo  widely  dispersed,  to  hear  the  expense  of 
conatrucling  roada.  There  la  little  risk  in  predicting 
that  in  two  or  three  ceiUurlea  tho  Mi»»isaippl,  the 
Ainn;!on,  and  the  I'lata  will  he  tho  scenes  of  an  itctlvo 
inland  commerce,  far  surpassing  in  niagnlltide  any 
thing  at  present  known  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
'I'lio  Mi^Hiasl|ipi  is  navigable  for  boats  from  the  sea 
to  .111  l°:ilU  of  Its  jirlncipal  branch,  the  Missouri,  17INI 
inllt.>.  Tom  the  Mexican  '  df  in  a  direct  line,  or  ll'j'M) 
by  t  trcain;  and  the  >\liolo  amount  of  boat  nav- 
Igatli.  'tforded  by  tho  syalein  of  rivers,  of  which  tho 
Mlaslssippi  is  the  main  'ruuk,  has  been  estimated  aa 
equal  to  (iVKK)  miles  in  length,  apreail  over  a  surface 
of  l,8WV"»i  ^-rinare  miles  I'erhaps  this  is  rather  hc- 
yond  tho  truih:  hut  let  m  call  Iho  niivlgation  3i),IK)(» 
miles,  iin'l  tho  following  tiiMo  will  exhibit  the  lengths, 
si/.o  of  til  luislns,  and  pr  iible  extent  of  the  naviga- 
ble waton  of  the  greater  i  ivcrs  of  America : 


Mississippi  to  source  of  Missouri 
8t.  I<«wrence  throuirh  thu  Inkea 

Orinoco  

Aumzon,  not  including  Aiiguay 
riata,  liichxUDK  Uruguay 


Uenfflb. 

MUea. 

4:iiai 

a.'IK) 
ISOO 
40(10 
'iV)0 


Aras  of 
Hull. 


The  Amazon  contains  inany  Islanda,  is  broad,  and 
in  tho  upper  part  so  deep,  that  on  one  occasion  Conda- 
mine  found  no  bottom  with  a  lino  103  toises  long.  At 
its  mouth,  two  days  before  and  ofter  tho  full  moon,  the 
phenomenon  called  a  Hore  occurs  in  a  very  formidable 
shape.  It  is  a  wave  of  water  rushing  from  the  sea, 
with  its  front  as  steep  aa  a  wall  and  as  high  as  a  house. 
Mo  small  vessel  can  "ncountcr  it  without  certain  de- 
Itructlon. 

The  estuaries  of  all  these  great  American  rivers 
open  to  Iho  eastward;  and  thus  Providence  aecms  to 
have  plainly  indicated  that  the  most  intimnto  com- 
mercial relations  of  the  inhabitants  of  America  should 
be  with  tho  western  shores  of  the  Old  World.  It 
ihould  at  tho  samo  time  bo  observed  that  the  position 
of  the  great  rivers  of  America  is  but  one  example  of  a 
physical  arrangement  which  is  common  to  tho  whole 
globe ;  for  it  is  remarkable  that,  in  tho  Old  World  as 
well  as  in  tho  Now,  no  river  of  tho  first  class  flows  to 
tho  westward.  Some,  ai  tho  Nile,  tho  Lena,  and  the 
Oliy,  flow  to  tho  north ;  others,  as  the  Indus  and  the 
rivers  of  Ava,  to  tho  south ;  but  the  largest,  as  the 
Wolga,  Ganges,  Great  Kiver  and  Yellow  River  of 
China,  tho  Euphrates,  and  the  Amour,  have  their 


courses  to  the  east  or  sontheait.  T>ils  arrangement  is 
not  accidental,  biit  depemU  most  probably  on  the  In- 
clination nf  the  primary  rocks,  which,  in  all  cases 
where  their  ilirtcl'n^  approai  lies  to  the  south  and 
north,  seem  to  have  their  steepest  allies  to  the  welt 
and  llio  longest  decllvillea  to  tho  east.  VVu  have  ex- 
amples in  the  Scandinavian  Alps,  the  niountaini  of 
liritaln,  the  (Ihauts  of  India,  thu  Andes,  and  t!ie 
Rocky  Mountains. 

North  America,  like  tho  Hnuthem  penlniulo,  natu- 
rally divides  itself  into  five  physical  regions:  1.  The 
table-land  of  A}oxico,  with  a  strip  of  low  country  on 
its  eastern  and  western  shores ;  'i.  Tho  plateau  lying 
between  tlin  Hocky  Mountains  and  the  I'acillc  Ocean, 
n  country  with  a  mild  anil  humid  atmosphere  as  far 
north  as  the  Tirith  parallel,  but  Inhospitable  and  barren 
beyond  this  lioundary ;  3,  The  great  o-ntral  valley  of 
the  MlaaissippI,  ricli  and  well  woodeil  on  the  cast  side, 
bare  but  not  unfertile  In  the  middle,  dry,  snndy,  and 
almost  a  desert  on  tho  west ;  4.  Tho  eastern  declivities 
of  the  Alleghany  Moiinfuins,  a  region  of  natural  for- 
ests, and  of  mixed  but  rather  poor  soil ;  h.  The  great 
northern  plain  beyond  the  6lltli  parallel,  four-lifths 
of  which  Is  a  bleak  and  bare  waste,  overspread  with 
inuumerablu  lakes,  and  rosenilding  Siberia  both  in  thr 
|>hyslcal  character  of  its  surface  and  tho  rigor  of  ila 
climalo. 

We  should  extend  this  article  to  an  unreasonable 
length  were  we  to  dcacribc  in  detail  the  discoveries  and 
sottlcinents  made  by  the  several  iialiona  of  Europe  in 
America.  Wo  ahull  therefore  conlino  ourselves  to  a 
very  brief  chronological  notice  of  the  more  Important 
events. 

1  t'.l.'i.  Tho  first  place  in  which  tho  SpaniariH  estab- 
lished '.heir  power  was  the  largo  island  of  Ilayti  or 
llispaniiiia,  which  was  inhabited  by  a  numerous  race 
of  Indians,  of  a  mild  and  gentle  character,  a  third  par* 
of  whom  are  said  to  have  perished  within  two  or  three 
years  after  tho  Spaniards  conquered  them.  — 1497. 
John  Cabot,  in  the  service  of  Henry  VII.  of  England, 
discovered  Newfoundland,  and  coasted  along  the  shores 
(  f  North  America  to  Florida.— 1500.  Cabral,  a  Portu- 
guese, visited  the  coast  of  Hrazil,  and  discovered  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon.  It  was  probably  colonized  be- 
fore 1516,  as  the  first  cargo  of  wood  was  sent  from  it  to 
Portugal  in  that  year. — 1508.  Vincent  PInzon  is  said 
to  have  entered  the  Kio  de  le  Plata.  It  was  in  the 
same  year  that  tho  Spaniards,  finding  the  aborigines 
too  weak  for  the  labor  of  tho  mines  in  Haytl,  first  im- 
ported negroes  from  Guinea,  and  thus  laid  the  founda> 
tion  of  a  traffic  which  continue!  to  this  day  to  di.igrace 
the  civilization  of  Europe.  — 1611.  Diego  Ct'i'!'.  bus 
conquered  the  island  of  Cuba  with  .SOO  soMieri',  >>< 
wlioin  he  did  not  lose  one. — 1513.  Balboa  cruised  !)>'> 
isthmus  of  Darien  with  290  men,  and  disc.'-ercd  *)ie 
South  Sea. — 1519.  Hernando  Cortes  sailed  iVosii  (  ii!  a 
with  11  ships  and  550  men,  and  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  which  had  been  discovered  in  the  previous 
year,  Tho  conquest  of  tho  empire  was  finished  in 
15'21  by  050  Spaniards,  assisted  by  a  vast  number  of 
tho  Indians  of  TIascala.— 1631.  Peru  invaded  by  Pi- 
zarro,  and  conquered  in  little  more  than  one  year,  with 
a  force  of  1000  men,— 1684.  James  Cartier,  a  French- 
man, discovers  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.- 1535.  Men- 
doza,  a  Spaniard,  with  2000  followers,  founds  Buenos 
Ayrea,  and  conquers  all  the  countrj',  aa  far  aa  Potosi, 
at  which  silver  mines  were  discovered  nine  years  after. 
—1537.  Cortes  discovers  California.— 1641.  Chili  con- 
quered ;  Santiago  founded ;  Orellana  sails  down  the 
Amazon  to  tho  Atlantic  from  the  sources  of  the  Rio 
Napo. — 1578.  New  Albion,  on  the  northwest  const  of 
America,  discovered  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. — 15«i;.  The 
Spaniards  found  St.  Thomas's  Island,  in  Guiana, — 
1687,  Davis's  Straits  and  Cumberland  Islands  discov- 
ored  by  John  Davia. — 1604.  De  Monts,  a  Frenchman, 
founded  the  first  settlement  in  Nova  Scotia,  then  called 
Acadie. — 1607.  Aftor  many  inoffcctaal  attempts  dur- 


AME 


80 


AME 


t  Uiwi  (wanly  }'«ar^,  tlio  Aral  |Miinan«nt  uill*- 
_  ttf  th>'  KiikUhIi  III  Niirlh  Aiiu'rica  wu  iiiolu  thii 
jratr.on  Ihu  liiiiiksof,laiia'»'»  Ulmr,  in  VlrKliilu.— lii'f*. 
gui'liet;  fuuniliiil  liy  tlii'  I'Vuiii  h,  »  ho  liail  liitcl  u  umall 
ucKli'Ltcil  wiloiiy  ill  I'mimla  ulii'O  1  j-li.— liill.  N«i»- 
fuuiiilluml  raluiiiiiiil  l>y  tbv  KiiK>l>l'  i  a  Dulcli  cuiuiiy 
eatalilliliii<l  at  lluilnuii't  HlviT.     Ni'W  Vorli  waa  fouiiil- 

rS  ad  III  uii  I.— iCiiH.  lumiii"'"''""'"*'"''"' '^*"'"'"'K"'»' 

of  lallluilv,  in  tlin  liay  wliiili  l"'or«  lil<  naimi.— Iii2'). 
Tlio  llr»t  Kn|{"*'i  ''"'<">>■  '''<lal>li»h'iil  In  Now  KnKlan  i 
at  riyiiioutli.  It  wan  In  Itiin  yuar  (liat  tlii^  llrat  lUKroi'ii 
wiTviniiiurtud  liitu  Vlr((lnia.  Tlwy  ^^^'re  lirouiilit  liy 
a  Dutuh  VHurl.— IKIA.  A  Kri'iuli  toluny  calalillnhi'il  In 
Guiana. — liiM.  Janiuira  coihiucn'd  l>y  Uiu  KnKli"li' 
Itltll,  Tliu  liutrh  caliinliti  uii  Iludaon'ii  Kivor  capitu- 
late to  lh«  F-nKlioli.— llUilS'  Tlio  llurruncors  lii>Kln  Ihrir 
depri'datiuna  on  Ihu  .S|ianliili  ciiluiijo — 1IM2.  William 
I'enn  oatabliahcH  a  culuny  In  I'l'iiiinylvania.  I.a  Salle 
takes  poaavaalunufLouiaiana  in  lli>'  nanicof  tlio  Kn'tich 
klnt;.— lllilH.  A  culuny  of  I'iriO  Scola  plunlcil  at  Darion, 
nnil  ruiniMl  in  Ihu  fulluwIuK  yuar,  in  lonRi'iiuoni.i'  of  th:' 
liilavrahlti  Jealouay  of  Ihu  ICn)(liah. —  I'l'l.'l.  (icorKin  cul- 
oniit'il  by  the  KuKlUh. — tTlii).  Cauaila,  and  all  the 
other  I'n'nc'h  auttlcmi'uti  lii  North  Aniorica,  conqucrud 
ty  the  Kn^liah. 

'  The  fidlowlnft  lalde,  Riven  by  Uumlioldt,  oxhiidia 
the  avcra){c  produce  ul  all  Iho  gold  and  ailvcr  niinia 
In  tli«  Now  World  about  IMua: 


j  Paranoid. 

Pun  aUfll.  1  Valaa  orbolh.| 

Mexico 

Markf. 

7,01111 
II.4IIU 

vi.-n-i 

W.OtHi 
iiU,WK) 

Marki. 

a,iws,.»io 
illl.mio 

'W.ilHI 
iSl.BSO 

Dalian. 

!a,IHIO,IMIO 
(l,'^40,IHMI 
•.',0«I1,(HI<) 
4,Sf>0,(N«t 
V,1»«»,IHN)   ' 
faiKI.IMMI 

CIdil 

L«  ruia 

Colomlila(N««  UnniMl*) 
Bnuill 

In  Kngll 

78,ill 
ih  money 

8,40O,»4O 

4II.NK),I)(NI 
ilN.TIMI.IMNI 

The  8paniah  mark,  In  which  the  quantity  la  ex- 
preaB<!d  In  tho  tirat  two  colunina,  la  valued  at  lloH.' 
dollaia  in  Kold,  and  at  U'4  dullara  in  silver.  Thia 
branch  of  industry  hua  lieen  ii^ured  iiioro  deeply  than 
any  other  during  the  late  wara.  The  great  exertiuna 
required  to  niainlain  the  nduoa  free  of  water,  the 
amouut  of  capital  neceaaairy  to  keep  them  working, 
and  the  facility  with  which  violent  haniU  could  lie 
laid  upon  their  proilucc,  all  rendereil  these  rslabliah- 
menta  extremely  liable  to  suifcrfrom  doniealic  convul- 
sions. Mr.  Ward  computes  that  In  the  l.'i  years  be- 
tween 1810  and  \H'2b,  the  annual  produce  of  the  Mu.xi- 
can  mines  did  not  exceed  10,00(i,UIM)  of  dollars,  or  about 
two-Jiflhi  of  their  average  annual  produce  during  the 
15  ycani  preceding.  lo  Brazil,  tliu  wa8hiiit.'a  have 
probably  experienced  no  interruption.  Uumlioldt 
compute!  tlie  whole  produce  of  the  American  ininea 
from  1-J02  to  1«03  to  be  5,70(1,1)00,000  dollars,  or 
i'1,'255,000,000,  of  which  only  H  per  c  .nl.  was  relaincd 
in  America,  and  6,446,000,0(H)  dollars  (4;i,ll)7,lMX),0(K)), 
or  W<i  per  cunt  was  remitted  lo  Europe. 

The  project  of  joining  the  Atlantic  and  ractflc 
Oceans  by  a  canal  carried  across  the  narrow  part  of 
the  American  continent,  baa  often  exuited  the  atten- 
tion of  alateamen  and  commercial  men.  This  cannl, 
if  executed  upon  a  scale  auflicient  lo  admit  vessels  of 
8oO  or  100  tons,  would  have  a  powerftil  influence  upon 
tlie  fate  of  America.  For  all  the  purpose's  of  commer- 
cial intercourse  it  would  bring  the  cast  and  west  sides 
of  the  continent  within  one-thi'-il  part  if  their  present 
distance  from  one  another,  and  would  lie  of  even  mora 
advantage  to  the  New  World  than  the  diainvury  of 
tho  passage  to  India  by  tho  Capo  has  been  to  tho  Old. 
It  baa  aUo  been  proposed  to  acToniplish  the  'inine  ob- 
ject by  a  boat  canal,  or  by  a  railroad,  and  four  dilfar- 
ent  routss  have  been  recommended.  A  digest  of  the 
surveys  and  explorations  connected  with  tlicac,  and  an 
estimate  of  their  comparative  merits,  has  been  pub- 
Ufhtd  in  Um  Jownal  o/tht  Gwgraphkal  Society  (vol. 


XX.  WA),  by  Captain  iiuroy,  K.N.     From  this  our 
matiriula  are  dcrised. 

1.  Ibe  lalhiiiua  of  Tehiianleper,  nl  Hit  weal  liingl- 
tudu.  Tim  dialaucii  from  aeu  lo  ain  in  a  alralidil  Una 
la  110  Kngliah  miles,  Ihu  aiirlam  baa  few  ^ri'at  in- 
ci|uuiltiea,  uiiil  tliu  lowcat  aiimiiiit  li'vid  la  uLoiii  700 
twt  uliovu  Ihu  ava.  The  cllinalu  la  aald  lo  lu  ralher 
belter  than  at  Ihu  paria  nf  the  iaihniun  I'uriliur  laat- 
ward,  and  lliuru  ia  a  acttlcd  popiilalion,  tliou^li  not 
very  nunieroua,  from  whiiui  lalior  iiiigbt  lie  uliliiiiii'd. 
I  In  tliu  other  hand,  there  la  no  port  at  eiilicr  cud  nf 
the  line,  (ho  rivers  aru  aniall,  ami  burred  at  ilicir 
niouiha  by  aaud-lianka,  and  Ihu  length  of  Ihu  rniilv, 
IIS  well  aa  the  eU'Vatiou  of  ila  auiiiuiit  li'\ul,  voiild 
render  thu  execution  of  a  railroad  or  a  canal  too  ix- 
pensivu  to  permit  Ibe  hopu  of  even  a  mudiiulc  ru- 
iiiuneration  for  lliu  outlay.  Tim  projcci,  Imnuvt  r,  liaa 
found  warm  support  in  lliu  I  iiiled  .Stales,  aa  il  would 
render  availaidu  liy  fur  Ihu  KJiortcat  iiiuriliniu  mule  to 
(.'alifornia.  A  survey  hua  Ihtii  made,  and  u  ceaaiou 
of  Iho  noccaaary  quantity  of  land  hua,  wu  liclie\e,  been 
ubiained. 

'i.  The  Nicaragua  mule,  at  11'  of  norlh  luliludc. 
The  llrat  portion  of  this  ia  Ihu  Itlver  Sun  J  nun,  »liich 
lli>»a  from  Ihn  Lake  of  Nicaragua,  ami,  al'ler  u  course 
of  HO  miles,  fulla  into  Ihu  Carililican  Kea.  1 1  la  nl'  con- 
aiduraliln  depth,  liut  Is  olialrucUd  by  rupida,  uiid  llio 
port  at  ila  mouth,  now  called  tircytown,  ia  only  iiipa- 
Ilia  of  recciviug  aniall  vcaaela.  The  lake  la  00  or  100 
milca  long,  ilo  or  lo  broad,  and  Mb  I'eet  alune  iiicun 
lido  level  ul  Cireylowu.  Ha  depth  varies  I'niiii  '.'  I'lilh- 
onia  lo  III,  but  null  b  of  it  lina  never  been  aoumlcd,  and 
recent  aurveyaahow  hliiillowa  al  Iwlb  enila,  I'mm  Ihia 
luku  lo  Ihe  I'ucillc  aixdillcrent  riiulcahuve  been  traced, 
and  aonic  of  them  surveyed.  Oiiii  llirouKh  the  Luke 
Managua  (which  ia  JM  feet  higher  Ihaii  Nicaragua 
Lake),  westward  lo  lliu  Uay  of  Fonaecn,  would  rciiiiire 
IM)  or  IIMI  miles  of  canal,  and  lliu  whole  length  of  in- 
land naviguliiin  from  (ircyloHii  would  exceed  'M) 
miles;  another  route  from  Ihe  same  lake  lo  Kealejo  ia 
10  miles  shorter;  and  a  third  to  Tamurindu  n  good 
deal  shorter  sMIl,  but  liolh  Iho  latter  want  ^ooil  ports 
at  their  termini  on  Ihu  rucilic.  A  fourth  route  goes 
direct  from  Ihe  southwest  side  of  Nicaragua  l.nke  to 
San  Juun  del  iSur;  it  ia  only  10  to  I'J  miles  in  length, 
Ijut  requires  a  tunnel  (fur  ships)  1  or  2  iiiilc.t  long,  und 
the  port  ul  its  mouth  is  mtv  smull.  A  Id'ili  niiia  from 
tho  same  lake  a  little  fartlier  east  lo  the  Hay  of  .Sali- 
nas, a  disluncc  of  15  miles,  half  of  which  i.s  l<y  the 
Uiver  Sapoa,  and  now  navigable  for  boats;  and  Iho 
summit  level  is  only  l.'IO  feet  ubo>e  the  lake,  and  twicu 
as  much  above  the  I'acilic.  It  is  believed  there  would 
lie  a  aullicieiil  supply  of  water  from  the  atrenm,  and 
Ihe  canal  would  further  have  the  advanlage  of  a  good 
port.  Captain  Kitzroy  accnis  to  think  this  one  of  the 
moat  proniiking  lines,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  carefully 
surveyed.  Of  the  sixth  proposed  route,  running  from 
thu  cast  end  of  the  laku  to  the  (iulf  of  Nico\a,  iiiji- 
ther  the  precise  length  nor  the  nature  of  the  inter- 
vening country  is  known.  Of  the  wlmle  district  laj)- 
lain  Fitzroy  says,  that  though  insullicienlly  explored, 
"cnougli  is  known  lo  dLscourage  any  attempt  lo  con- 
struct either  canal  or  railway,  unless  the  Sapoa  truck 
(the  fifth)  should  prove  to  be  a.a  eligible  aa  Dr.  Oersted 
Ix-dievcs,  Even  then  there  will  be  the  disadvaiilngcs 
of  so  inferior  a  harbor  as  that  of  Greytowii,  and  the 
difliculties  of  the  river,  which  must  bo  cleansed  from 
its  numerous  obstructions,  though  renewed  uiinuully 
by  tloods."  lie  considers  tho  climate  pealilenlial,  par- 
ticularly in  the  low  grounds  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
which  holds  its  course  amidst  forests,  swamps,  and 
mud  banks.  Mr.  Squier,  however,  in  his  work  on 
Nicaragua,  thinks  tho  climate  comparatively  good. 
In  reference  to  a  canal  there  is  a  physical  evil  not  to 
be  overlooked,  namely,  the  volcanic  eruptions  which 
shake  the  soil,  and  might  disturb  the  levuls ;  and  there 
i*  •  moral  one  sUll  more  serious  arising  from  the  fre- 


AME 


AMI 


id 


qnrnt  Infiitmtcllnni  Mrt  pollllcsl  nvoliillnna,  which 
niiiki'*  property  lii«uciin<,  ami  may  nmdiT nnKuicmcnla 
wllh  ilii'  Kipvi'rnini'rit  more  w»»tii  pnpiT.  Th«  Ultiir 
ovil  iipplli'it  li>  Ihii  wh»l«  Uthimia,  Imt  iiioro  a>p<'i'lal|y 
tu  till*  illKlrli't,  toiii'hirK  »•  It  ilnri  Ihn  Irrrldirlcn  of 
tliri'i'  Slati'a  (NlriiriiK<">i  <'i»l>  Kira,  and  Mua<|uttn) 
whli'li  nro  nftiin  nt  vnr  with  miii  nnulhiT. 

il.  Tlic  I'uniiiim  lrii<,  nt  711'  and  MO'  of  wi^at  lonKl- 
tiiilK.  'I'lin  I'xtri'niti  narriiwni-aa  of  tha  iKthinun  hen; 
ctlli'il  itlli'ntUm  to  It  na  an  ijli^lldn  )iolnt  for  vntaldl^ih- 
liijj  n  idninuinli'allon  liotwwn  thii  two  ai-an,  Iw-foni  any 
nthiT  liic'iillty  wan  thought  of.  Niiinnroui  axploruliona 
h»vo  hocn  madii ;  fonr  ronli'n  hnvo  iM-nn  pri'tty  oiirc- 
fully  unrvoyrd— tli()«n  of  l.oyd,  Morid,  (lari-lln,  and 
llu){l"'";  ond  alonit  lhi<  la.it  of  Iheno  a  rnllwny  haa 
liwn  Iti  o|M'nillon  ulnco  Ki'hrnnry,  IHSS,  It  coniini'nri<a 
on  tlio  Atlnnll(^  nt  l.lnion  or  Navy  liny,  fhmi  wlilrh  (ho 
dlri'i't  distiinop  to  i'annnin,  nn-orilln^to  Cnptnln  Kllz- 
roy,  In (i):l Ki-o^rnpliliiil)  IWJ  |;n){ll«li  mllc».  It  pnnspa 
hy  tiornonn,  and  la  oarrlcil  I'.'  nilli-a  over  olcvotlona 
of  mnrly  IIUO  fmt,  lhronf;h  n  tnnnid,  and  over  larjjo 
vlndoi'ln  and  hridf^nf,  tPnninatlii):;  a  llttto  westward 
of  I'ununm.  Thi-  port  of  Clm^fri-s  It  unlit  for  Inr^i' 
alil|  I.  I.imnn  iluy,  wlilih  It  liir^o,  and  haa  n  Kouil 
drilli  of  Hntor,  in  oxpuNod  to  atroiit;  nortli  »ln<la.  A 
hri'iikwnli'r,  to  prolort  It  from  theiic,  lia«  hccii  pro- 
poHiMl,  lint  U  Imprnctlcalilo  on  iiciount  of  the  vast  sum 
it  tvonlil  cost,  lint  Ciiptain  Kil/roy  thinka  that  a 
InrKi)  wi't  dock  or  hnsin  nd^lit  lio  oxravatcd  liotwecn 
Man/nnllla  Island  ami  lh<'  main  land,  at  thu  tcrminna 
of  till'  rallroiid,  and  mif;ht  wrvi'  a»  tlio  (lr»t  atop  to- 
ward nil  artilii'ial  Imrlinr,  tu  which  l.lnion  Hay  would 
bo  accessory  as  a  useful  roadstead.  "On  the  opposite 
const,  near  I'nnamn,  a  spacious  and  tolerably  sheltered 
anehornije,  with  access  to  works  carried  out  into  the 
»en,  mnv  bo  found  in  the  bay,  but  not  very  near  the 
city."  A  ship  cnnal  here,  whether  nt  the  clevntlon  of 
the  rnilrond  (!UM1  feet),  or  at  the  lower  level  proposed 
liy  (Jarella,  of  l')0  feet,  would  require  works  on  a  ^i- 
Kantlc  scale;  for  his  pbin  Inelmles  a  tunnel /u-  /lAi/w, 
lif)  feet  In  Interior  heiflht,  H7  feet  wide,  uuil  nearly 
three  miles  hniff,  with  about  33  locks.  Without  some 
better  security  than  can  now  be  obtained,  It  is  not 
prolialile  that  any  private  company  will  risk  the  cap- 
ital  necessary  for  tho  execution  of  such  works.  Morel, 
In  his  survey,  professea  to  hnvo  found  a  valley  or  tract 
of  low  ground  between  tho  Triiddnd,  n  brnnch  of  the 
Chniires,  nnd  the  f'nymito,  which  falls  Into  the  I'aeitic 
10  niih'S  west  of  Panama,  of  which  low  ground  the 
aunimit  level  is  only  40  feet  above  tho  sea.  This,  un- 
luckily, Is  contradicted  by  other  aiithorilies;  but  if 
such  ft  low  Runnuit  level  exist,  n  elmnnel  nnvinnble 
liy  the  larfjest  ships  mi(,'ht  possibly  ho  made  frcnn  sea 
to  sea  wilhou'  n  lock,  flie  portion  of  tho  railroad 
now  In  proi;ress  is  the  aouthcrn  half,  extending  from 
I'nuama  to  (iorjjonn,  and  wns  expected  to  be  tlnished 
in  IN."):l.  On  tho  north  lide,  tho  Kivor  Chajjrea  is  made 
uao  of  as  far  as  nnvlf^able. 

4.  The  Atrato  anil  ('npica  lino  commences  on  the 
Atlantic  side  in  the  (iulf  of  Dnrien,  at  77°  of  west  lon- 
gitude. It  has  not  been  surveyed,  but  the  nature  nnd 
form  of  the  pronnd  nro  well  known,  nnd  Its  suitable- 
ness for  a  ennnl  wns  pointed  out  by  Ilnmboldt  '10 years 
«Ko.  'I'ln'  route  extends  from  tho  inner  part  of  the 
(iulf  of  Karien  up  tho  River  Atrato,  thence  westward 
•lonK  its  branch,  tho  Xaipi,  nnd  through  .i  low  tract 
of  ground  to  tho  Ifiver  Cupica,  which  falls  into  the 
Pacllle.  Tho  whoh'  leiiijtb  of  tho  proposed  lino  is  es- 
timated nt  114  miles.  For  t  vo-thinU  of  this  distance, 
or  7(i  miles,  tho  rivers  arc  said  to  bo  navif;abIo  by 
ships,  for  111  miles  more  by  loaded  boats,  nnd  It  is  snp- 
po...ed  that  a  cn'vU  nil);ht  bo  cut  through  the  remain- 
ing 111  miles  without  nny  extraordinary  difficulty.  The 
proprietor  of  an  estate  on  d."  Naipifold  Mi.,  Watts, 
tho  llritish  vice-eonsnl  nt  r'arthngena,  that  he  wns  in 
tho  habit  of  crossing  to  the  Day  of  Cnpicn,  and  the  rise 
between  the  bay  ana  the  river  was  gradual.— £.  B. 


A  company  with  a  Ur){«  capital  wai  formtil  In  f.n- 
Kland,  within  a  few  yeart,  for  the  purpose  of  ronstrurt* 
lug  a  xhlp  canal  over  the  Inthmns ;  hut  according  to 
the  recent  Ileport  by  Lieutenant  Strain,  of  the  L'.H. 
Navy  (IKriri),  the  work  Is  almost  inipractlcablis  lie 
represents  the  summit  level  between  the  oceana  to  bf 
one  thousand  Instead  of  one  humlriid  and  lifty  foit, 
An  Kngllsh  expedition  ilnrtcd  from  the  Pacific  side  in 
December,  IH'i.'l,  and  returned  after  n  few  ilnys'  Inve*. 
tigntion  of  till'  route  before  suggeatcil,  and  found  It 
unfavorable  lor  any  canal  near  the  proposed  route. 
A  few  yenra  will  perhaps  develop  a  more  extended 
lerles  of  obscrvnthms  in  this  (juarter. 

Amethyst  (,<>crin.  Amnhyl ;  Kr.  Amrthyitr;  It. 
Amiitiata,  Sp.  Amrliiln;  l,at.  Amtthyiilun),  a  precloui 
stone,  of  which  there  nre  two  species  dilTering  wlilely 
In  <iuallty  and  value.     The  Orirnlal  nmrllit/tt  Is  a  gem 
of  the  most  perfect  violet  color,  and  of  extraordinary 
lirllliancy  ami  beauty.     It  Is  said  to  he  as  hard  ns  the 
sapphire  or  ruby,  with  which  It  also  corresponds  in  its 
form  and  spccillc  gravity  (»re  ,S.\i-riiiniu,  ditreririg  in 
color  merely.     It  has  tmen  mot  with  In  India,  P'Tftia, 
SInm,  and  other  countries;  but  It  Is  exceedingly  scarce. 
That  found  In  Imliu  is  snid  by  Pliny  to  liu  the  best. 
— I'l-iiiiiiiiiluni  ami l/ii/ati  tndirir  tenenl,  Nat.  Illst.  lib. 
xxxvll.  cap.  !t.     Mr.  Mnwo  saya  ho  had  rarely  seen  an 
Oriental  amethyot  olfered  for  sale,  unless  sinnll  and  In- 
ferior In  cidor.     Mr.  Hope,  the  author  of  Annthixiii.', 
had  In  his  cabinet  the  tinest  gem  of  this  sort  In  Kurope. 
Thlsex(|ui»lte  specimen  exceeds  an  Inch  in  its  '^renlest 
diameter;  in  daylight  it  exhibits  tho  most  beaiitlfid 
violet  color,  whllo  by  candlelight  It  Is  a  decided  blue. 
The  Occiilenliil  amethi/it  Is  merely  colored  crystal  or 
(jnartz.     "When  perfect.  Its  color  resembles  that  of 
tho  violet,  or  purple  grape;  but  It  not  unfrequcntly 
happens  that  the  tinge  Is  confined  to  one  port  of  the 
stone  only,  whllo  the  other  is  left  ulmo.st  colorless. 
When  It  possesses  a  richness,  clearness,  and  uniformity 
of  line,  it  Is  consUlered  a  gem  of  exquisite  beauty  ;  and 
as  it  occurs  of  considerable  lize,  it  li  suited  to  all  or- 
namental purposes.     In  specific  gravity  and  hardness 
It  bears  no  comparison  with  the  Oriental  amcthyi^t ; 
it  is  also  inferior  In  beauty  and  lustre;  though  I  hnve 
often  seen  tho  common  amethyst  otl'ereil  for  sale  ns 
Oriental,      llra/.ll,  Siberia,  and  Ceylon  produce  very 
fine  amethysts:    they   are  found  in  rolled  pieces  In 
the  alluvlnl  soil,  nnd  finely  crystallized  In  fissures  of 
rock.     From  the  first  of  these  localities,  they  have  late- 
ly  been  Imported  in  such  quantities  as  considerably  to 
(iiminl.ili  their  value ;  but  as  they  are  the,  only  colored 
stones,  except  gurnets,  that  aro  worn  with  mourning, 
they  still  retniii,  when  perfect,  a  distinguished  rnnk 
among  the  precious  gems.     Tho  present  price  of  Infe- 
rior light-C(dnied  stones.  In  thu  rough  slutc,  Is  nbout 
iOs.  per  pound,  while  those  of  good  ({ualily  sell  at  l(i». 
or  l'i».  per  ounce.     Ametliysits  calculatod  for  brooches 
or  seals  may  be  purchased  at  from  lt>s.  to  two  or  three 
guineas  each,  for  which,  ton  years  ago,  treble  that  sum 
would  have  been  given."— M.WVK  on  Dinmmds,  2d.  ed. 
Amianthus,  AsbestOB,  or  Mountain  Flajc, 
n  mineral  of  which  there  arc  several  varieties,  all  more 
or  less  fibrous,  fiexile,  and  clastic.     It  is  Inconsumable 
by  a  high  de^rrco  of  heat ;  and  In  antiquity  the  art  wns 
discovered  of  drawing  the  fibres  Into  threads,  and  then 
weaving  them  into  cloth.     Pliny  says  that  he  had  seen 
napkins  iiiado  of  this  substance,  which,  when  soiled, 
were  thrown  into  the  fire,  and  that  they  wore  better 
cleaned  by  this  moans  than  they  could  havo  been  by 
washing!      Ilencc  it  obtained  from  tho  Greeks  the 
name  of  A/tiai'To(  (undofiled).     Its  principal  use,  as 
stated  by  Pliny,  was  to  wrap  tho  bodies  of  the  dead 
previously  to  their  being  exposed  on  the  funeral  pile, 
that  the  ashes  of  tho  corpse  might  not  bo  mixed  with 
those  of  the  wood.     And  in  corroboration  of  this  state- 
ment we  may  mention,  that  in  1702,  a  skull,  some  cal- 
cined bones,  nnd  a  quantity  of  ashes,  were  found  at 
Rome,  in  a  cloth  of  amianthus  nine  Boman  palms  in 


ABIM 


89 


AMS 


lengti.  by  seTen  in  width.  Itt  emplo}'m«nt  In  tliU 
way  was,  fc-'wevor,  conflned  to  a  fuw  ut  tliti  vfiry  rich- 
.  It  families,  incombustibl«  cloth  boiiiK  vary  icarvu,  ami 
b.i.iging  an  enormously  high  priuu,  Jliiriim  invmlu, 
diji^^  ttxttt  propter  brevitalem,  Chm  Inmntum  nl, 
aquat  prttia  exctUentlum  margtirUarum, — I'MN,,  lliit, 
Nat.  lib.  six.  rap.  1.  Tlio  disuse  of  tliu  praiillt:H  uf 
cremation,  or  of  burning  the  dead,  eausud  Ilia  manu- 
facture of  amlanthine  cloth  to  liu  iiu{;l«iUiid,  Huvural 
modems  have,  however,  succeedud  In  making  It)  liiil. 
if  it  be  not  lost,  the  art  is  now  rarely  praiitliMid.— Fur 
further  particulars,  see  ItEEs'ii  Cj/cliijieilui, 

Ammoniac,  Sal.    See  Ai.kalikn. 

Ammonlaoum  (Fr.  Oomme  A iniiumimiui' i  It. 
Comma  Ammoniaco;  Sp.  Gkaim  Amnumiiwoi  l.ut.  Ant- 
mouMcumi  Arab.  Feihook),  a  coiicrute  runinoui*  JuIm 
obtained  from  a  plant  resembling  fuiinul,  fuiiiiil  In  lliu 
north  of  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  tlio  ICast  lllilliw,  ntc. 
Pliny  says  that  it  derived  its  name  from  its  liuliig  pro- 
duced  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temple  of  Jupitur  Ammiili, 
in  Atr.ca.— //i«.  Nat.  lib.  xii.  cup.  'i'i,  It  Ims  tt  faint 
but  not  ungrateful  smell ;  and  a  bitter,  naiisuouii,  swcttt 
taste.  The  fragments  are  yellow  on  llm  uutoidt)  ami 
white  within,  brittle,  and  break  with  H  vitn'iiuii  frae- 
tute;  their  specitic  gravity  is  1'207,  'I'iiu  lii'ht  ant- 
nioniacum  is  brought  from  Persia  by  [lorn  bay  and  Col' 
cutta,  packed  in  cased  and  chests,  It  is  in  largii  manik 
es,  composed  of  small  round  fragmonls  iir  tours  i  iir  In 
separate  dry  tears,  which  is  generally  cuiikldiirxd  n  lAnw 
of  its  goodness.  The  tears  should  be  whim  Inlurnally 
and  externally,  and  free  from  sueils  or  iilliur  fiirt'lun 
substances.  Hcjoct  that  which  Is  soft,  ditrk't'iiliircd, 
and  foul.  It  is  used  prlucipully  In  ilie  mutiTln  mudli'n, 
and  the  quantity  imported  is  but  snmll.— Kickk'n  I'h- 
clopedia;  Thomson's  JJuiienMnloi'i/. 

Ammunltioii, a  general  name  fur  all  warllki*  pro- 
visions, but  more  particidurly  powilur,  ball,  uli',  ~-  l'„  II, 

Amoy.  a  c'):nmercial  city  ami  scu-piiit  uf  CIiImu, 
province  of  Fo-K  CO,  on  an  island  uf  tlni  tamu  nuimi  in  n 
bay  of  the  China  Sea,  opposite  F^rmusu,  ami  ii'io  mil'"! 
E.N.E.  of  Canton.  Lat.  24°  10'  N, ;  lung,  JIM'  |;r  V„ 
Population,  2eo,OOiV  The  city  Is  sepuralud  from  the 
suburbs  or  outer  town  by  a  line  of  roi.ky  lillls,  com- 
manded  by  a  citadel  on  a  height,  and  furtllWil  Willi 
numerous  works  constructed  during  tliu  Itttu  wur.  'I'lic 
town  is  not  handsome  nor  clean,  but  lias  nmiiv  ruutiiy 
public  buildings,  well-supplied  shops,  ami  guuj  prlvatu 
houses.  Harbor  excellent ;  ships  can  llu  cIumi  Iii  (Iih 
quays,  or  in  a  deep  and  sheltured  cr'u'k.  Tlivre  U  n 
considerable  trade,  especially  with  l''orniuii«j  muiiii- 
facturcs  of  porcelain,  grass  cloths,  umbr'dlus,  paper, 
etc.,  which,  with  sugar-candy  and  ''unguii  It'it,  lui'ti- 
poec  its  principal  ex|)orts.  Imports  cumprlau  rkn,  Kug- 
ar,  camphor,  and  European  produce.  Aiiioy,  tli<<ll  tliu 
great  military  depiit  of  the  proviiu-.e,  was  takuil  nil  tlin 
2(ith  August,  1841,  by  the  English,  who  liuld  tliii  .'ur- 
ti'ied  island  of  Kolungsoo,  commamllng  lliu  t'nlmii'i' 
toihe  harbor,  until  the  final  payment  uf  iliu  rum  uf  six 
million  dollars  cxnrled  from  the  Cllineiu  guvurninclil 
by  the  treaty  of  Nankin. 

Amplitude,  in  Astronomy,  an  arch  of  lliu  hurUuti 
intercepted  between  the  east  or  west  puliit  and  lliuci'li- 
tre  of  the  sun  or  a  planet  at  its  rising  ur  M'lliii|{ ;  and 
which  therefore  is  said  to  ba  either  nurtli  and  sutitb, 
or  ortiee  and  iKcative, 

Magnetkal  Amplilmh,  the  diffbrcnt  rlidng  or  suiting 
of  the  sun  from  the  eist  ur  west  points  uf  llm  cumpHsu, 
It  is  found  by  observing  the  sun,  at  Ills  rising  anil  set- 
ting, by  an  amplitude  cunipass. — l''.,ll, 

Amsterdam,  the  principal  city  uf  Uulluiiil,  situ- 
ated on  the  Y,  an  ami  of  the  Zuyder  /.eii.  In  lat,  A2" 
22'  17"  N.,  long.  4°  6.1'  15  "  E.  From  IftHd  to  1750. 
Amsterdam  was,  perhaps,  the  first  cnmniiiri'lul  illy  uf 
Europe;  and  though  her  trade  has  uxperii>iiiiiiil  a  grcnl 
falling  off  since  the  last-meiitiunod  upuib,  It  N  sllll 
very  considerable.  In  I7HS  the  pupiilatluii  Is  naid  lu 
have  amounted  to  280,000;  In  1615  h  had  auvUhed  t« 


IHO,179 1  but  It*  Increase  In  the  interval  has  been  such, 
that  It  amounted  in  1840  to  210,077.  The  harbor  is 
spacious  and  the  water  deep ;  and  it  has  recently  been 
much  Improved  by  the  construction  of  docks,  two  of 
wlilull  are  already  completed,  and  a  tliird  in  a  very  ad- 
Viiiiuod  state.  Owing,  however,  to  a  bank  (the  Pam- 
plls)  wlierii  the  Y  Joins  the  Zuyder  Zee,  large  vessels 
going  ur  coming  by  that  sea  are  obliged  to  load  and 
unload  a  part  of  their  cargoes  in  the  roads.  Tlic  nav- 
igation uf  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  also,  by  reason  of  its  nu- 
merous shallows,  very  intricate  and  difficult ;  and  as 
filers  wore  no  hopes  of  remedying  this  defect,  it  became 
n«i:^:,sary  to  resort  to  other  means  for  improving  the 
access  to  Iho  port.  Of  the  various  plans  suggested  for 
tills  purpose,  the  preference  was  given  to  the  scheme 
fur  cutting  a  canal  capable  of  admitting  the  largest 
class  of  merchantmen,  from  the  north  side  of  the  port 
of  Amsterdam  to  Newdiep,  opposite  to  the  Tcxcl,  and 
a  little  tu  lliu  cHst  of  the  lielder.  This  canal  has  fully 
answered  the  vi^ns  of  the  projectors,  and  has  proved 
uf  signal  service  lu  Anisterda'ii,  by  enabling  large  ships 
lon^old  tlio  Pnnipus,  aswcU  .is  the  difficult  navigation 
uf  tliu  Zuyder  Zee,  wlierc  they  were  frequently  detained 
fur  tlircu  weeks,  and  to  get  to  ond  from  Newdiep  with- 
nut  nny  sort  of  risk  in  less  than  twcnt^'-four  hours. 
The  cnnnt  was  begun  in  1810,  and  completed  in  182&. 
It  lins  five  sluices  large  enough  to  admit  ships  of  the 
llmi  j  the  dues  and  charges  on  account  of  towing,  etc., 
being  ut  Iho  same  time  very  moderate.  At  Newdiep 
tlin  water  Is  deeper  than  in  any  other  port  on  tlie  coasi 
uf  Holland,  and  ehips  are  there  in  the  most  lavorable 
pusltlun  fur  getting  expeditiously  to  sea. — ,S'cr  Canals. 
The  Imports  principally  consist  of  sugar,  cofl'ce,  spices, 
Idbncco,  cotton,  tea,  indigo,  cochineal,  wine  and  brandy, 
wool,  grain  uf  all  sorts,  timber,  pitch  and  tar,  hemp 
and  flax,  irun,  hides,  linen,  cottun  and  woolen  stuffs, 
liiirdwnre,  ruck  salt,  tin  iilatos,  coul,  dried  fibh,  etc. 
Tliu  exports  consist  partly  of  the  produce  of  Holland, 
parity  nml  principally  of  the  produce  of  her  possessions 
III  the  Enst  and  SVcst  Indies,  and  other  tropical  coun- 
Irlen,  fliid  partly  of  commodities  brought  to  Amsterdam, 
AS  tu  a  cunvcnicnt  entrtjwt  from  ditlercnt  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. Of  the  first  class  arc  cheese  and  butter  (very  im- 
purfaiit  articles),  madder,  clover,  rape,  hemp,  and  lin- 
seeds, rape  and  linseed  oils,  Dutch  linen,  etc.  Geneva 
Is  prlmlpully  exported  from  Schiedam  and  liottcrdam; 
uak  biirk  and  rattle  principally  from  the  latter.  Of 
the  seeuiid  class  are  spices,  coffee,  and  sugar,  principal- 
ly fruni  Java,  but  partly  also  from  Sjurinam,  Brazil, 
and  Cuba;  indigo,  cuchincul,  cotton,  tea,  tobacco,  and 
nil  surfs  of  Eastern  and  culoiiial  products.  And  of  the 
llilid  dflsn,  nil  kinds  of  grain,  linens  from  Germany, 
timber,  and  uil  surfs  of  Baltic  pruduce;  Spanish,  (ier- 
inuii,  and  English  wouls;  French,  lihcnish,  and  llun- 
garl,iii  wines,  brandy,  etc.  The  trade  cf  Amsterdam 
iiiny,  Indeed,  lie  said  to  comprise  every  article  that  en- 
ters Into  the  cummcrce  of  Europe.  Her  merchants 
were  furtnerly  the  must  extensive  dealers  Im  bills  of  e.x- 
rhiinge,  nnd  tliuiigh  London  be  now,  in  this  respect, 
far  superior  to  Anistcrdam,  the  latter  still  enjoys  a  re- 
spei'lable  shore  of  this  business. 

The  Hank  uf  the  Keth'^rlsnds  was  cstalilished  at 
Amsterdam  in  1H14,  It  is  not,  like  the  old  Dunk  of 
Amslerdani,  whicli  ceased  in  I'lMi,  merely  a  Imnk  of 
ilepu^lls,  but  a  bank  of  deiiosit  and  circulation  furnied 
»n  fliu  niudel  uf  the  Hunk  of  England,  Its  capital, 
wlileli  originally  amounted  to  .'i,OilO,U()0  florins,  was 
duulded  in  IMJ'J.  It  has  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
Issuing  miles.  lis  original  charter,  which  was  liniiled 
tu  twenty-five  years,  was  prolonged  in  l».'i8  for  twen- 
ly-llvo  years  more.  About  300  or  350  large  ships  lie- 
luiig  tu  Amsfcrdain :  they  are  employed  in  the  East 
and  West  India  trai  s,  and  in  trading  to  the  Dallic, 
the  Mudllcrraiican,  etc.  There  is  comparatively  little 
cuasling  trade  at  Amstc:  dam.  the  cominunicatiun  with 
most  other  ports  in  the  vicinity  being  principally  kept 
up  by  canals,  and  that  with  1^'ricsland  by  regular 


AMS 


89 


AMS 


% 


packets.  The  total  imports  Into  Holland  in  1851  wero 
estimated  at  803,U98,'i!24  florins,  and  tlie  exports  at 
212,744,806.  The  United  Kingdom,  the  German  Cus- 
toms Union,  Belgium,  Java,  France,  and  liussia,  arc 
the  countries  with  which  she  carries  on  the  most  ex- 
tensive trade. 

Dutch  Commercial  Policy.— The  policy  of  Holland, 
civil,  religious,  and  commercial,  has  long  been  of  the 
most  liberal  and  enlightened  description  (seopoit) ;  and 
she  was  the  first  country  to  follow  the  example  set  in 
repealing  the  Navigation  Laws  in  1849.  The  Dutch 
law  on  this  subject  was  passed  in  1850.  Previously  to 
that  period  discriminating  duties  wero  imposed  on  most 
articles  imported  on  foreign  bottoms,  and  also  on  thoso 
imported  by  foreigners  inio  Java  and  her  other  cul"- 
nie».  Hut  these  preferences  no  longer  exist.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  extract  from  the  law  relative  to  these 
matters :  Diflerential  duties  arc  abolished  on  the  ves- 
sels of  those  States  which  "a.  I'lacc  the  Uutch  tlag 
on  the  same  footing  with  their  national  Mag  trading  to 
and  from  their  own  ports  (coasting  trade  and  fisheries 
excepted);  b.  Which  place  the  Dutch  Hag  on  the  same 
footing  with  their  national  flag  trading  to  and  from 
their  colonics,  if  they  possess  any ;  and,  c.  Which  do 
not  levy  u'hcr  differential  duties  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  produce  of  the  Netherland  colonies,  or  to  the 
prejudice  of  produce  imported  from  other  parts  of  the 
world,  from  Ncthxrland  ports,  than  those  which  are 
levied  in  fuvur  of  the  produce  of  their  own  colonies, 
when  imported  direct." 

The  fisheries  and  the  coasting  trade  of  Holland  and 
of  her  colonics  is  reserved  to  Dutch  ships.  But  it  h 
no  longer  necessary  that  the  latter  should  be  of  Dutch 
build.  Foreign  built  ships  have,  however,  to  pay,  on 
being  registered,  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  4  per  cent  over 
and  above  the  fee  charged  on  the  registration  of  Dutch- 
built  ships.  Several  important  reductions  were  at  the 
same  time  made  in  the  tariff  of  import  duties.  The 
navigation  i!  les  or  tolls  that  were  formerly  chorged 
on  vessels  or  goods  passing  through  Holland  by  the 
Kliiuo  and  the  Ysscl,  and  transit  duties  of  all  kinds, 
have  also  been  repealed.  And  though  it  may  be  said, 
and  truly,  that  these  wise  and  liberal  mea-.ures  will 
be  much  more  advantageous  to  the  Dntcli  than  to  any 
other  people,  still  they  are  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  all  commercial  nations,  and  especially  to  tho^se  who 
have  an  extensive  intercourse  with  them.  We  are  glad 
to  liave  to  state  that  this  liberal  policy  has  in  Holland, 
as  in  Kngland,  had  its  appropriate  reward.  Commerce 
has  been  largely  extended.  The  mercantile  marine  is 
in  a  highly  prosperous  state,  and  is  daily  receiving 
large  additions.  Many  Dutch  ships  have  latterly  been 
cliurtered  by  English  merchants. 

The  importations  into  the  United  States  from  Hol- 
land, in  the  year  1852-3,  were,  free  of  duty,  |U6,227; 
dutiable,  |1,60'J,'J43 ;  total,  ?"  ,025,170;  iii  American 
vessels,  f  1«2,«41 ;  foreign,  11,162,529.  Total  value  of 
imports  for  the  same  year  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
(K>N4,583;  Dutch  West  Indies   ji40U,l»'5. 

The  exports  of  domestic  produce  for  the  some  year 
were,  in  American  vessels,  18872,780 ;  in  foreign  vessels, 
11,110,913;  totol,  81,n83,723.     To  the  Dutch  Eost  lu- 
dies,  ^202,822;  to  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  J251,2u8. 
CoMPARATivK  Taulk  OF  KxronTS  OF  POHPSTir  I'ROnUCE  TO 

lloLi.ANn,  roll  THE  FISCAL  YeaH/I  kmii.nu  June  80.  ItiMt, 

ts.u 


Eipottl. 

Itnportf. 

Am«rlran  Ve«Mla.  1  PoreiKD  VsimU 

TolBl. 

JI5.4 

■UiiMl 

1,409,1^5 

l,ll)ii,62« 
SBO.MB 

l.(iJM7O|l,0.S3.Ti!.9 
2,2H!i.Tin!  f,tWB,l)7» 

In  1852  Great  Britain  imported  from  Hollaiul  221,669 
quarters  of  wheat,  ont?,  and  other  grain,  but  she  fre- 
quently supplies  more  coiisideralile  quanfities.  She 
also  sends  larf,o  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  (226,671 
c«  t.  of  the  former,  and  266,857  ditto  of  the  latter  in 
1850),  with,  in  1851,  56,461  head  of  catlls  and  165,865 


sheep ;  her  other  exports  are  bark  for  tanning,  flax  and 
hemp,  clover-seed,  madder,  geneva,  nutmegs,  etc.  En- 
gland also  ta)'  ja  considerable  quantities  of  Dutch  sugar 
and  coffee.  The  greater  portion,  however,  of  the  trade 
between  the  United  Kingdom  and  Holland  is  carried  on 
with  liotterdam,  which  is  much  more  conveniently  situ- 
ated for  such  intercourse  than  Amsterdam,  But  the  lat- 
ter continues  to  engross  by  far  the  larger  share  of  the 
commerce  with  the  flourishing  co  iny  of  Java  and  the 
other  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East;  and  is,  consequent- 
ly, the  principal  continental  mart  for  Eastern  produce. 

The  warehousing  tystem  has  been  long  established 
in  Amsterdam ;  and  all  goods,  whether  for  home  con- 
sumption or  transit,  may  be  deposited  in  bonded  ware- 
houses. Speaking  generally,  goods  can  only  be  kept 
in  bonded  warehouses  for  two  years ;  but  grain  of  all 
kinds  may  be  kept  for  an  unlimited  period.  The  ware- 
house rent  chargeable  per  month  on  a  quarter  of  wheat 
is,  on  an  upper  loft.  Id.  and  2-5ths ;  on  an  under  loft 
lid.  On  a  ton  (Engl.)  of  sugar  in  casks  the  charge  U 
Hd. ;  in  bags,  Gd, 

The  dock  and  its  adjacent  warehouses,  belonging  to 
the  Entrepit  General,  or  establishment  for  warehousing 
goods  imported  by  sea,  or  intended  to  be  re-exported  by 
sea  or  by  the  Rhine,  are  large  and  commodious.  The 
dock  has  water  to  flout  tin'  largest  ships,  and  the  dues 
and  other  charges  arc  exceedingly  moderate.  Mer- 
chants may  employ  their  own  men  or  those  of  the  dock 
in  loading  or  unloading ;  and  may  either  place  their 
property  in  separate  vaults  or  floors  of  which  they  keep 
the  kej',  or  intrust  it  to  the  care  of  the  dock  ofBcers. 

Dutch  Trading  ComjHiny. — A  large  proportion  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Holland  was  for  a  considerabio  period 
engrossed  by  the  large  trading  company  called  the 
Ncderlandsche  /lundelmaatschapp!/,  created  in  1824.  Its 
capital,  wliicli  consisted  originally  of  37  million  flor- 
ins, was  reduced  in  1824  to  24  million  florins ;  lut  as 
the  company  borrowed  10  million  florins  in  1835,  and 
13  millions  more  in  1837,  its  capital  consists  of  47  mill- 
ion florins.  At  first  it  extended  its  operation  to  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  to  the  East  Indies. 
But  it  has  latterly  very  much  contracted  the  scale  of 
its  operations;  and  having  lent  40  millions  of  its  cap- 
ital to  government,  it  is  now  merely  tho  agent  em- 
ployed by  the  latter  to  bring  home  and  sell  that  part 
of  the  produce  of  Java  which,  under  the  new  colonial 
system,  belongs  to  the  State,  ond  to  carry  on  the  trade 
with  Japan,  which,  however,  is  of  little  or  no  value, 
Tl>e  company  bus  no  sliii.s  of  its  own,  but  charters  those 
of  private  individuals.  Its  charges  on  importation 
are  limited  to  certain  fixed  rates,  .'ho  business  of  in- 
surance is  extensively  practiced  at  Amsterdam ;  the 
premiums  are  moderate,  and  the  security  unexception- 
able. The  high  duty  formerly  imposed  in  other  coun- 
tries on  policies  of  insurance  contributed  to  the  'ncrease 
of  this  business  in  Ilulhuid. 

Credit,  Discount,  f^c— Holland  is,  and  has  always 
been,  a  country  of  short  credits.  A  discount  is  usually 
given  for  prompt  payment,  at  the  rate  of  1  per  cent, 
for  six  weeks,  and  2  per  cent,  for  two  months;  but  the 
terms  of  credit  on  most  articles  and  the  discount  al- 
lowed for  ready  money,  havo  been  fixed  by  usage,  and 
are  regurdcd  as  essential  conditions  in  every  bargain. 
In  consequence  of  the  preference  giver,  in  Holland  to 
ready  money  transactions,  it  is  not  a  country  in  wliich 
adviiilurers  without  capital  have  much  chance  of  speed- 
ily making  a  fortune.  "  Kien,  en  eflct,  de  plus  facile 
que  de  s'etablir  a  Amsterdam;  mais  rien  de  plus  diffi- 
cile (/('  s'lj  sotttenir  sans  des  ip'andes  resources,  Dans 
cettc  vilb,  oil  rargent  alwiide,  on  on  le  prete  centre 
des  suretes  a  si  bon  niarch6,  il  eat  pourtant  impoasihle 
de  s'en  procurer  a.  credit ;  et  sans  argent  il  n'y  a  plus  de 
possibilite  d'y  travailler,  quo  de  trouver  (|uelqu'un  qui 
veuillc  de  se  charger  d'uii  papier  noiivcau  (|iii  tie  serolt 
pas  appuyc  d'un  credit  que  I'opinion,  la  protection,  on 
des  elfets  nii'ls  feroient  valoir  •!  la  bourse.  Les  Hol- 
loudois  Bulvent  Id-dcasus  des  maxinies  tr6s  austiirel, 


nn 


#■■ 


AMS 


40 


AMS 


mime  it  I'6gard  des  malsons  d'une  certain  considera- 
tion."— Encyclop^die  Mttkodique,  Commerce,  1. 11.  p.  660. 
But  this  auiterity  is  not  a  disadvantage,  but  the  re- 
verse. It  prevents  commerce  from  degenerating,  as  it 
has  too  often  done  in  other  places,  into  gambling  ad- 
ventures, and  places  It  on  a  comparatively  solid  foun- 
dation. And  it  should  be  mentioned  to  the  honor  of 
the  Dutch,  and  as  a  proof  of  the  excellence  of  this  sys- 
tem, that  notwithstanding  the  distress  and  loss  of  trade 
occasioned  by  the  Invasion  and  occupation  of  their 
country  by  the  French,  the  bankruptcies  in  1795  and 
subsequent  years  were  not,  comparatively,  so  numer- 
ous as  in  England  in  ordinary  seasons !  The  regula- 
tions in  the  Code  Napoleon  as  to  bankruptcy  are  en- 
forced In  Holland. 

It  has  long  been  the  practice  in  Holland  to  make, 
on  selling  articles,  considerc.blo  deductions  from  their 
weight,  particularly  from  those  of  large  bulk,  as  com- 
pared with  their  value.  These  tares  and  drafts,  as 
they  are  termed,  are  now  fixed  by  ancient  usage. 

Magnilude  of  the.  Comnmve  of  IlnUnml  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Century. — Causes  of  its  Pv  jperity  nml  JJerlinc, — 
We  bclibve  we  need  make  no  apology  for  embracing 
this  opportunity  to  lay  before  our  readers  the  follow- 
ing details  with  respect  to  the  commerce  and  commer- 
cial policy  of  Holland.  It  forms  one  of  the  most  in- 
structive topics  of  Investigation;  and  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  so  little  attention  should  liuve  been  paid 
to  it  in  this  country.  Previously  to  iln'  commence- 
ment of  the  long-continued  and  glorious  struggle  made 
by  the  Dutch  to  emancipate  themselves  from  the  blind 
and  brutal  despotism  of  Old  Spain,  they  had  a  consid- 
erable marine,  and  had  attained  to  distinction  by  their 
fisheries  and  commerce;  and  the  war,  instead  of  being 
injurious  to  the  trade  of  the  republic,  contributed  pow- 
erfully to  its  extension.  After  the  capture  of  Antwerp 
by  the  Spaniards,  ni  l.'iSo,  the  extensive  commerce  of 
which  it  had  liecn  the  centre  was  removed  to  the  ports 
of  Holland,  Jind  principally  to  Amsterdam,  wlilch  then 
attained  to  the  distinctkin  she  long  enjoyed,  of  the  lirst 
conmierclal  city  of  Kuropo. 

In  lt!02  the  Dutch  ICnst  India  Company  was  form- 
ed; and,  notwilhstaiiiling  the  pernicious  influence  of 
that  association,  the  Indian  trade  increaseil  rapidly  in 
magnitude  and  importance.  Ships  fitted  either  for 
commercial  or  warlike  purposes,  and  having  a  consid- 
erable number  of  soldiers  on  board,  were  sent  out  with- 
in a  few  yours  of  the  establishment  of  the  company. 
Ambuyna  and  the  Moluccas  were  fii-st  wrested  from 
the  Portuguese,  and  with  them  the  Dutch  obtained  the 
monopoly  of  the  spice  trade.  Factories  and  fortilica- 
tions  were  in  no  long  time  established,  from  liussonih, 
near  the  moutli  of  the  Tigris,  in  the  Persian  (iulf,  along 
the  coasts  and  islands  of  India  as  far  as  Jajmii.  Al- 
liances were  formed  with  several  of  the  Indian  princes ; 
and  In  many  parts,  particularly  on  the  coasts  of  Cey- 
lon, and  in  various  districts  of  Malabar  and  Coromaii- 
del,  they  were  thenisihes  the  sovereigns.  Uatavin, 
in  the  large  and  fertile  Island  of  Java,  the  greater  part 
of  which  had  lieen  conijuirr  d  by  the  Dutch,  fonned 
the  centre  of  their  Indian  commcree ;  and  though  un- 
healthy, its  port  was  exiellent,  and  it  was  admira- 
bly situated  for  commanding  the  trade  of  the  Kasteni 
Archipelago.  In  Hi.")!  they  planted  a  colony  at  the 
Capeoftiood  Hope,  which  had  been  strangely  neglect- 
ed by  the  Portuguese. 

Every  branch  of  commerce  was  vigorously  prose- 
cuted by  the  Dutch.  'I'heir  trade  with  the  llaltic  was, 
ho'S'Cver,  by  far  the  most  extensive  and  lucrative  of 
which  they  were  in  possession,  (.luicciarilini  mentions 
tha^  the  trade  with  Poland,  Denmark,  Prus.-ia,  etc., 
even  before  their  revolt,  was  so  very  great,  that  fleets 
of  8(K)  ships  arriveit  twice  a  year  at  Amsterdam  from 
Dant/.ic  and  Livonlu  only;  but  It  increased  prodig- 
iously during  the  latter  jinrt  of  the  sixteenth  ami  tin 
bcj;inning  of  the  sevonlcenth  centuries.      The  great 


population  of  H  Mood,  and  the  limited  •xtenl  and  un-  j  returns  for  them 


fruitful  nature  of  the  soil,  render  the  inhabitants  de- 
pendent on  foreigners  for  the  greater  part  of  their  sup- 
plies of  corn.  The  countries  round  the  Baltic  hove 
always  furnished  them  with  the  principal  part  of  those 
supplies ;  and  it  is  fh>m  them  that  they  liave  been  in 
tlic  habit  of  bringing  timber,  iron,  hemp  and  flax, 
pitch  and  tar,  tallow,  ashes,  and  other  bulky  articles 
required  in  the  building  of  their  houses  and  ships,  and 
in  various  manufactures.  Nothing,  however,  redounds 
so  much  to  the  credit  of  the  Dutch  as  the  policy  they 
have  invariably  followed  with  respect  to  the  trade  in 
com.  They  have  at  oil  times  hod  a  large  capital 
embarked  in  this  business.  The  variations  which  are 
perpetually  occurring  in  the  harvests  early  led  them 
to  engage  very  extensively  in  a  sort  of  speculative  com 
trade.  When  the  crops  happened  to  be  unusually 
productive,  and  prices  low,  they  bought  and  stored  up 
largo  quantities  of  grain,  in  the  expectation  of  profit- 
ing by  the  advance  that  was  sure  to  take  place  on  the 
occurrence  of  an  unfavorable  year.  Kepeated  eflbrts 
were  made,  in  periods  when  prices  were  rising,  to  pre- 
vail on  the  government  to  prohibit  exportation;  but 
they  steadily  refused  to  interfere.  In  consec|uenee  of 
this  enlightened  policy,  Holland  has  long  been  the 
most  important  European  entrepot  for  com;  and  her 
markets  have  on  all  occasions  been  fumlshed  with  the 
most  abundant  supplies.  Those  pcorcities  which  ore 
so  very  disastrous  in  countries  without  commerce,  or 
where  the  trade  In  corn  is  subjected  to  fetters  and  re- 
straints, have  not  only  been  totally  unknown  in  Hol- 
land, but  became  a  copious  source  of  wealth  to  her 
merchants,  who  then  obtained  a  ready  and  advanta- 
geous vent  for  the  supplies  accumulated  in  llieir  ware- 
houses. "Amsterdam,"  says  Sir  AValtei  lialcigh,  "is 
never  without  70(I,IX10  quarters  of  com,  none  of  it  of 
the  growth  of  Holland ;  and  a  dearth  of  only  one  year 
in  any  other  part  of  Europe  enriches  Holland  for  seven 
years.  In  the  course  of  a  year  and  a  half,  during  a 
scarcity  in  England,  there  were  carried  away  from  the 
ports  of  Southampton,  Bristol,  r.nd  Exeter  alune  near- 
ly XiOO.OOO ;  and  if  London  and  the  rest  of  England 
be  included,  there  must  have  been4:2,()00,(KMi  mere." — 
(ihserrations  ti'iirJuny  Trade  and  Commerce  with  the  IIoU 
londer,  Miscel.  Works,  vol.  ii.  The  verj'  well  iiiform- 
cil  auihor  of  the  Jtichesse  de  la  Holland'-,  publii>ii>d  in 
177H,  observes,  in  allusion  to  these  circumslunces, '  '  .'uo 
la  disetto  de  grains  regno  dans  les  quatre  parties  ilu 
monde;  vous  trouvorez  du  froinent,  du  Beit;li>,  et  d'au- 
tri's  grains  a  Amsterdam;  ib  n'y  manijiinil Jiimais." 

The  l!.ink  of  Amsterdam  w a.,  founded  in  liiiili.  The 
principal  object  of  this  establishment  was  to  olivlato 
the  Inconvenience  and  unccrtunty  arising  from  the 
circulation  of  the  ciiiiis  imported  intc  Amstenlum  from 
all  parts  of  llio  world.  Tlie  merchants  who  carried 
coin  or  'luliion  to  the  bunk  obtained  credit  for  an  equal 
va! '.i!  in  its  books:  this  was  called  bank  money;  and 
all  considerable  payments  were  efVected  by  wriii':g  it 
off  from  the  account  of  one  imlivldual  to  that  ',t  an- 
other. The  establishn.ent  continued  to  flourish  till 
the  invasion  of  the  Fniich  in  171*.").  Hetween  the 
years  I'i.Jl  and  1072,  when  the  territories  of  the  repub- 
lic were  Invailcd  by  the  French,  the  connnerceof  Ilol- 
land  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest  height.  Do 
Witt  estimates  its  increase  from  the  treaty  with  Spain, 
concluded  at  Mun-ter  in  1G43,  to  l(i(i!l,  at  fully  o  half. 
Ho  adiis,  that  during  the  war  with  Holland,  .'^paln  lost 
the  greater  part  (f  her  naval  power;  that  since  the 
peace,  the  Dutch  had  obtai'ied  Hiost  of  the  trade  to 
that  country,  w  liicli  had  lieen  previously  earrie<t  on  liy 
the  Hanseatie  merchants  ami  the  English ;  that  almost 
all  the  coasting  trade  of  Spain  was  carried  on  liy  Dutch 
shi|>plng;  that  Spain  had  even  been  forced  to  hire 
Dutch  ships  to  sail  to  her  American  possesyiims;  and 
that  so  gnat  was  the  expoitation  of  goods  from  Hol- 
land to  Spain,  that  all  the  merchandise  brought  from 
the  Sipanlsh  West  Indies  was  not  sulllcient  to  moke 


AMS 


41 


AMS 


At  this  period,  Indeed,  the  Dutch  engrossed,  not  hy 
means  of  any  artilicial  monopoly,  but  by  the  greater 
number  of  their  ships,  and  their  superior  skill  and 
economy  in  all  that  regarded  navigation,  almost  the 
■wholo  carrying  trade  of  Europe.  The  value  of  the 
goods  exported  from  France  in  Dutch  bottoms,  to- 
ward the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  exceeded 
40,000,000  livres;  and  the  commerce  of  England  with 
the  Low  Countries  was,  for  a  very  long  period,  almost 
entirely  carried  on  in  them. 

The  business  of  marine  insurance  was  lorgely  and 
successfully  prosecuted  at  Amsterdam ;  and  the  ordi- 
nances published  in  1651,  1663,  and  1&70,  contain  the 
most  judicious  regulations  for  the  settlement  of  such 
disputes  as  might  arise  in  conducting  this  difUcult  but 
highly  useful  business.  It  is  singular,  however,  not- 
withstanding the  sagacity  of  the  Dutch,  and  their  de- 
sire to  strengthen  industrious  habits,  that  they  should 
have  prohibited  insurance u]ion  live  s.  It  was  reserved 
for  England  to  show  the  advantages  that  might  be 
derived  from  this  beautiful  application  of  the  science 
of  probabilities. 

In  ICSIO,  Sir  William  Petty  estimated  the  shipping 
of  Europe  at  about  2,000,000  tons,  which  he  supposed 
to  be  distributed  as  follows:  viz.,  England,  500,000; 
France,  100,000;  Hamburg,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Dantzie,  2jl),000 ;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  250,000 ; 
that  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  amounting,  accord- 
ing to  him,  to  900,000  tons,  or  to  nearly  one  half  of  the 
whole  tonnage  of  Europe !  No  great  dcpendance  can, 
of  course,  be  placed  upon  those  estimates ;  but  the 
probability  is,  that,  had  they  been  more  accurate,  the 
preponderance  in  favor  of  Holland  would  have  been 
greater  than  it  appears  to  be ;  for  the  official  returns 
to  the  circulars  addressed  in  1701  by  the  commissioners 
of  customs  to  the  oHicers  at  the  diflTorent  ports  show 
that  the  whole  mercantile  navy  of  England  amounted 
at  that  i)Oiiod  to  only  201,222  tons,  carrying  27,100 
men. — .MAfi'iiERSOM'a  Annah  nf  Commerce, nnno  1701. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  concluded  that  during  the 
seventeenth  century  the  foreign  coninicri  c  and  naviga- 
tion of  Holland  was  greater  than  that  of  nil  Europe 
besicbs;  ami  yet  the  country  wbicli  was  the  seat  of 
this  /ast  commerce  had  no  native  produce  to  export, 
nor  even  a  piece  of  timber  (it  for  ship-buililing.  All 
had  been  the  fruit  of  industry,  economy,  and  a  fortu- 
nate combination  of  circumstances.  Holland  owed 
this  vast  conunerce  to  a  variety  of  causes :  partly  to 
her  peculiar  situation,  the  industry  and  economy  of 
her  inhabitants,  the  comparatively  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened system  of  civil  .is  well  as  of  commerclnl  policy 
adopted  by  the  republic ;  and  partly  also  to  the  wars 
and  disturbances  that  prevailed  in  most  European 
countries  in  the  sixteenth  ond  seventeenth  centuries, 
an<I  prevented  them  from  enmlating  the  successful 
corier  of  the  Dutch. 

Tlio  asiendency  of  Holland  as  a  commercial  state 
began  to  decline  from  about  the  commencement  of  last 
century.  After  the  war  terminated  by  the  treaty  o*' 
Aix-la-()hapelle,  the  attontion  of  the  government  of 
Holland  was  forcibly  attracted  to  tb''  .'^tate  of  the  ship- 
ping anil  foreign  commerce  of  the  republic.  The  dis- 
covery of  means  by  which  iheir  decline  might  bo  ar- 
rested, and  the  trade  of  the  republic,  if  possible,  re- 
stored to  its  ancii  nt  flourishing  condition,  became  a 
prominent  olijcct  in  the  speculations  of  every  one  who 
felt  iuterosled  in  the  public  welfare.  In  order  to  pro- 
cure the  most  lorrcct  information  on  the  suliject,  the 
sladtbolder,  William  U  .,  addressed  the  following  qne- 
ries  to  all  thi'  most  extensive  and  intelligent  merchtiits, 
desiring  them  to  favor  him  with  their  answers:  "1. 
What  is  the  aetu  1  state  of  trade  ?  And  if  the  same 
should  be  foun  .  •  be  diminished  and  fallen  to  decay, 
then,  2.  To  in<|uirc  liy  wlist  methods  the  same  may  \w 
supported  and  advanced,  or,  if  jiossible,  rest.ired  to  its 
former  lustn>,   repute,  and  dignity."     In  discussing 


into  an  examination,  as  well  of  tho  causei  which  had 
raised  the  commerce  of  Holland  to  tho  high  pitch  of 
prosperity  to  which  it  hud  ouc:u  attuh.ed,  ai  of  those 
which  had  occasioned  its  subsequent  deeline.  It  li 
stated  that,  though  not  of  tho  sanio  opinion  upon  all 
points,  they,  speaking  generally,  concurred  as  to  those 
tliat  wore  most  important.  AVhcn  their  answers  had 
been  obtained  and  compared  with  each  otliiT,  tho 
stndtholder  had  a  dissertation  prepared  from  them, 
and  other  authentic  sources,  on  tho  commerce  of  the 
republic,  to  which  proposals  were  sulijnined  for  its 
amendment.  Some  of  tho  principles  ailvuiKi'd  In  thli 
dissertation  apply  to  the  ease  of  lliilliind  oidy ;  but 
most  of  them  are  of  universal  applinitioii,  nnd  uie  not 
more  comprehensive  than  sound.  We  dnubt,  indeed, 
whether  the  benellts  resulting  from  religious  Icderution, 
political  liberty,  the  security  of  property,  and  the  free- 
dom of  industry,  have  ever  been  inori!  dearly  set  forth 
than  in  this  dissertation.  It  begins  by  an  enumera- 
tion of  tho  causes  wliicli  contrll)U('d  to  adNaiHc  tho 
commerce  of  the  republic  to  itfi  former  iniexampled 
prosperity :  these  the  aulbors  ilivide  into  lliree  clnKses, 
embracing  under  the  llr«t  those:  that  were  natural  and 
physical;  under  the  hcidiiiI,  those  they  denominated 
moral;  and  under  the.  third,  thoso  wlilch  they  con- 
sidered adventitious  anil  external. 

Tho  central  situation  of  the  country,  Us  command 
of  some  of  the  priTicipnl  inlets  to  the  (.'ontiiienl,  and 
tho  necessity  uniler  which  the  InhabltanlH  have  been 
placed,  in  conscipii  nie  of  tlu'  liMrn^incHS  of  ilie  soil  and 
its  liability  to  bo  overllowed,  to  exirt  all  tlu'ir  indus- 
try and  enterprise,  are  circunistani:iH  that  sii'in  to  bo 
in  a  great  degree  peculiar  in  llollaiid.  Kut  tliough 
there  can  bo  no  doubt  that  their  intluence  has  been 
very  considerable,  no  one  will  preteml  to  say  that  it 
is  to  be  compared  for  a  moment  with  the  infliiince  of 
those  free  institutions  which,  forluiiatily,  are  not  the 
exclusive  attributes  of  any  particular  eoinitry,  but  have 
flourished  in  I'lin  uicia,  Greece,  England,  and  America, 
as  well  as  in  Holland. 

Many  dis.sertalioiis  have  been  wrillen  (o  iK'count  for 
tho  decline  of  the  coinmi  ice  of  llnMaiid.  Hut,  if  wn 
mistake  not,  its  leailing  causes  may  be  chiswd  under 
two  prominent  heads;  viz.,  first,  the  natural  (.Towth  of 
commerce  and  imvigation  in  other  I'lUntriis;  and,  'cc 
ond,  the  weight  of  taxation  at  h(un  '.  During  the  pe- 
riod when  the  rc|iublic  rose  to  great  endueiice  as  a 
cnmmercial  Stale,  England,  Frnuce,  nnd  .S|.,"!ii,  dis- 
tracted by  civil  uiiil  religious  (IlKsinsions,  or  engrossed 
wholly  by  schemes  of  ft-;  vi  cimquest,  were  muibb  to 
apply  tlieir  mrgicsfie  the  ciiltivition  of  coiuniircc,  or 
to  withstand  the  competition  of  so  liulu.'drious  a  people 
as  the  Dutch.  They,  tlrerifori',  were  under  the  neces- 
sity of  allowing  the  grenlir  p"rt  of  their  foreign,  are! 
even  of  their  ce)astiiig  traele.  to  be  carrie'rl  on  In  Dutib 
bottoms,  ane!  unebr  the!  fuperlnlenele'ne'e  eif  l>ut(:h  fac- 
tors, lint  afteT  the  accsfion  of  I.ouis  XiV.  ;iiiel  tiio 
aseende'iicy  eef  Cremiwedl  lind  put  an  end  to  Internal 
cemunolions  in  Kram  i'  iiiid  Englanel,  tho  energies  of 
the'se  twei  great  nalieuis  eie'gan  (ei  be:  ilireili'ii  tei  pur- 
suits of  wliicli  the  Duteli  hael  hithe'rtei  e.njeiye'el  iilineist 
a  monojiedy.  It  was  not  fo  bo  Hii|'pose.i|  i\\n\  when 
trane|uillity  anel  a  re'gular  system  of  gove'riimiiii  lead 
been  eslablisbe'el  in  France  anel  Kiigbiu'l,  their  active 
anel  enterprising  inhabitants  weiuld  siit.mit  tei  si'c  one 
of  tlu!ir  most  valuable  brane'bi's  eif  iiidu«lry  in  tho 
hands  of  themfor  igiiers.  The'  Diitili  eeaseel  lei  be  tho 
carriers  of  Kurojie,  without  any  laulf  of  their  eiwn. 
Their  performaiie'c  of  that  funetiem  iii'e'essarily  firinin- 
ated  as  soon  as  otiier  iinlieins  lie'caini:  posse'sseil  of  a 
mercantile  nnirine,  anel  were,  olile  tei  do  for  llie'iiiselvcB 
what  had  previously  been  done  fur  them  by  their  neigh- 
bors. 

AVhatever,  therefore,  might  havn  been  thei  cemdltlon 

of  Hedland  in  .ither  res|iiilH,  tlie>  naliiral  aelviiiie'e  of 

rival  nations  must  iiii'vllably  have  ■ilri|i|ieel  lier  of  a 

these  eiucstions,  tho  merchants  were  obliged  to  enter  i  large  portion  of  the  commurce  she  once  possessed.   liut 


4»«*"?P 


AMS 


42 


AMS 


the  projrress  of  decline  seems  to  have  been  conilderobly 
accelurated,  or  ratlier,  perhaps,  the  cfforta  to  iirrest  it 
■were  rendered  inetfectual,  by  the  extremely  heavy  UiU 
atioii  to  which  she  was  cubject^'d,  occasioned  by  tile 
unavoidable  expenses  incurred  in  tlie  revojutloaary 
struggle  with  Spain,  and  the  subsequent  wars  with 
France  and  England.  The  necessities  of  '.ho  HtaUi 
led  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  corn,  on  llour  wIm-» 


Mm*  (or  tMnklflff  that  (!  e  Outch  were,  until  very  late- 
ly, tti«  Urnmil  eroitilurs  of  :iny  nation  in  i;urope.  It 
».i  lin|»M«ibl«,  Inilmwt.  to  fomi  any  accurate  estimate  of 
what  lb«  "Kill"  ««»ln«  ihem  by  foreigners  previously  to 
lliii  lain  tituui'h  war,  of  at  present,  may  amount  to ; 
but  lli«r«  *«ll  !«•  (Ml  doubt  that  at  the  former  period 
lh«  umi/ui't  tms  Immense,  and  that  it  is  still  very  con- 
tiiixrablv,     M,  \)iin*unkT  {IHctiinmnire  de  I'Economir 


it  was  ground  at  the  mill,  and  on  bread  when  it  coin*    /'ulitU/ut,  umi,  lib  Ji  J'iO)  slates  the  amount  of  capital 
from  the  oven;  on  butter,  and  (ish,  and  fruit;  on  In-    li-nt  by  tlic  liiitih  to  foreign  governments,  exclusive 


come  and  legacies;  the  sale  of  houses;  and,  in  short, 
aliiiost  every  a^ti^•lo  of  either  necessily  or  convenlenm. 
Sir  AVillioni  'J'em|)le  menlions  that  in  his  lime — and 
toxes  were  greatly  increased  afterward-  otic  lisli  sauce 
was  in  i.onmion  use,  which  directly  i)ttid  no  fewer  Ihun 
fliifi;,  ditl'erent  duties  of  excise ;  and  it  was  a  common 
saying  at  .Amsterdnnr,  that  cv^ry  dish  of  lish  brought 
to  tail'  i.is  pi:id  for  once  to  tho  lisheruieii,  and  tu 
time!'   ■>  tho  State. 

The  iir  1  iiicious  influence  of  this  httvy  tax-Mon  has 
been  alil_.  c't  forth  by  the  author  of  the  Uiiheue  ili-  In 
IloUauJf,  and  other  well-informed  writers :  und  it  )ia» 
also  been  very  for -ibly  pointed  out  in  Ihe  Difscrlatioii 
already  referred  to,  drawn  up  from  the  coiiiuiunicatlona 
of  the  Dutch  merchants.  "Upprcssive  taxes,"  it  is 
there  stated,  "must  ue  placed  ut  the  head  of  uU  Ihe 
causes  that  have  co-operated  to  the  prejuilice  and  di«. 
couragoment  of  trade ;  and  it  may  be  justly  Bai<l,  thai 
it  can  only  be  attriliutcd  to  them  that  the  trade  of  this 
country  has  been  diverted  out  of  its  clnnnu'l,  and  trans- 
ferred to  our  neighbors,  and  must  daily  be  still  muri' 
and  more  alienated  and  shut  out  from  us,  unless  tlie 
progress  thereof  be  stopped  by  some  ijuick  and  ellect- 
ual  remedy;  nor  is  it  ditticult  to  see,  from  these  coii- 
temp'ations  on  the  state  of  our  trade,  that  llie  eume 
will  be  ellected  by  no  other  means  than  a  ilimmutiuii 
of  all  duties.  In  former  times  this  was  reckoned  the 
only  trading  state  in  Kurope ;  and  foreigners  were  con- 
tent to  pay  the  taxes,  as  well  on  the  goods  they  brought 
hither  as  on  those  they  came  here  to  buy,  williout  ex- 
amining whether  they  could  evade  or  save  theni,  by 
fetching  the  goods  froin  the  places  where  tliey  were  |)ro- 
duccd,  and  carrying  others  to  the  places  where  they  were 
consumed :  in  short,  they  )>aid  us  our  tuxes  with  pleas- 
ure, without  any  further  inquiry.  But,  since  the  lua( 
century,  the  sjstcni  of  trade  is  altered  all  over  ICurojie  : 
foreign  nations,  seeing  the  wonderful  eti'ect  of  our  trad<', 
and  to  what  an  ciiiinencc  we  had  risen  only  by  nx  aiis 
thereof,  they  did  likewise  a|)ply  themselves  lo  it ;  and, 
to  save  our  duties,  sent  their  superfluous  products  be- 
aide  our  country,  to  the  places  where  they  are  most 
consumeil ;  and  in  return  for  the  same,  furnisherl  iheni- 
aelvcs  from  the  first  hands  with  what  they  wanted." 
But,  notwithstanding  this  authorit.itive  exposition  of 
the  |>ernicious  effects  resulting  from  the  excets  of  tax- 
ation, the  necessary  expenses  of  tho  .State  were  so  gr'ut 
as  to  render  it  imnosrible  to  make  any  sullicient  reduc- 
tions.    And,  with  the  exception  of  tho  truiisil  trade 


uf  tliii  UrK*i  siiiii*  lent  to  France  during  the  American 
WKf,  H(  ummlji-ihi'tr  millions  sterling.  According  to 
iIm  «mlior  vt  iIm'  HMtme  ih  h  IMlandt  (ii.  p.  292), 
the  sums  \imi  to  l'r»li(«  and  Kngiand  only,  previously 
lo  177H,  MtMouiilM)  Ici  l,WK).(ri)0  livres  touinois,  or  sixty 
tliillionii  nt^rliliK-  And  beside;*  these,  vest  sums  were 
lent  III  lirlVMte  indlvidunls  in  foreign  countries,  both 
reKularly  n»  loan*  at  interest  and  in  the  shape  of  goods 
Ailvttiicoil  Ht  lim«  eredlts.  8o  great  was  the  ditficvlty 
of  hudlMi;  (to  rtdvsMageoOs  Inveslmtiit  for  money  in 
Holland,  tlint  Hir  Vtllllam  Temple  mei.tions  that  the 
payiDBiii  of  any  port  of  Ihe  national  debt  was  looked 
upon  \>y  the  ircdliors  as  an  t\  il  of  the  lirs  t  magnitude. 
'■'Ih«y  rwWve  It,"  says  he,  "with  tears,  not  knowing 
how  III  tJi*|HHM  of  It  at  intorest  with  such  safety  and 
iiaii"." 

Amm^U,  tliH  Ktiliordlnato  causes  which  contributed  to 
the  di'iHim  (if  l»u»(l(  coniinerce,  or  which  have,  at  all 
eveiiti,  pfiivi'llliid  It"  gfowlli,  we  may  reckon  the  oir- 
ciimslNNi'ii  iif  lliK  iiiiiiinerce  with  India  having  been 
sulijiti'ti'il  (II  llie  trammels  of  monopoly,  liu  Witt  ex- 
prniiiuts  liU  linn  lotivlition  that  the  abolition  of  the 
ICant  Itiilla  Cimipany  would  have  added  very  greatly 
to  lliii  Irnilii  wllh  the  Kasi :  and  no  doubt  can  now  re- 
inaiii  ill  the  liiltiil  of  any  one  that  sucli  would  have 
been  lh«  I'AMf,  The  Inierference  of  tho  administration 
ill  regulal)iii{  llie  tnode  In  wliicli  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant liruiM'hes  iif  industry  should  be  curried  on, 
seems  nIimi  til  have  lieen  exceedingly  injurious.  Every 
proeitmliiig  wtlli  re»(i<"el  lo  Ihe  herring  lishcry,  for  ex- 
amjil'',  w««  ri'Klllatffd  by  the  orders  of  government, 
carried  illlo  vffei't  under  llie  inspection  of  oflicers  ap- 
puiiited  for  llial  pur|rfw.  Home  of  these  regulations 
were  «lH'i'eil)ii«ly  vexatious.  The  period  when  the 
llsln-ry  iiilullt  be«ln  was  fixed  at  five  minutes  past 
iHelvw  u'l'lo'lt  of  the  night  of  the  21fh  of  .lune!  and 
the  mtkoU't  and  pilot  of  every  vesael  leavhig  Holland 
for  till)  llshiiry  were  obliged  to  make  oath  that  they 
would  ri'»|H":l  IImi  regulation.  The  species  of  salt  to 
be  niHitii  uon  lit  III  curing  different  sorts  of  herrings  was 
also  liiwiil  liy  law;  and  there  were  endless  regulations 
with  f"o)ii»et  t«i  tlin  sl/.e  of  the  liarrjls,  the  number  and 
Ihiekiiewi  «if  dm  staves  of  which  they  were  lo  be  made; 
the  gutlillK anil  paeklnscf  fhe  herrings;  the  branding, 
of  the  bttrrol*,  He.,  I'lr, — /luliiire  den  I'tches,  ilr,,  daiu 
til  Mii't  ill.  fl/nrii,  loin.  I,  cli(i|i.  21.  Those  regulations 
were  iiitolidi'il  III  secure  lo  tl;e  Hollanders  that  pupe- 
riorliy  wdlili  (liey  had  "arly  attained  in  Ihe  lishcry. 


carried  on  through  the  Rhine  and  tho  Meuse,  which  i«  >  and  I'l  |iri<vi'ii(  the  reputation  of  their  herrings  from 


in  a  great  measure  independent  of  foreign  competl 
tion.  and  the  American  trade,  most  of  the  other  brunch 
cs  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Holland,  though  still  veiy 
considerable,  continue  in  a  comparatively  depreiaed 
state. 

In  consoquencn  principally  of  tho  oppressiveress  of 
taxation,  but  partly,  too,  of  the  excessive  uccumulo- 
tiou  of  capital  that  had  taken  jiluce  whyo  the  Dutch 
engrossed  the  carrying  trade  of  Europe,  profits  in  Ilol- 
land  were  reduced  toward  tho  middle  of  tho  seven- 
teenth c.iitury,  and  have  ever  since  continued  extreme- 
ly low.  I  liiscircuinstance  would  of  itself  huvitsapped 
tho  foundat  ions  of  her  coinmerciul  greatness.  1 1  er  cap- 
italists, w!io  could  hardly  exjicct  to  clear  more  than 
two  or  three  per  cent,  of  net  profit  hy  any  sort  of  un- 
iertaking  c  arried  on  at  home,  wro  tempted  to  vest 


liD'ilg  iiijiiri'd  by  llio  bad  faith  of  individuals.  But 
ihnlr  real  i-lfei't  «*b»  pfecisely  the  reverse  of  this.  By 
lylllK  U|i  Ihn  flslidfil  U)  A  system  of  routine,  tli';y  pre- 
vedloil  lliein  rfiiiii  tnaklng  any  improvements;  while 
the  fa<,')llly  of  lOMIilerfcltlng  the  public  n.arks  opened 
a  ini(i'li  wiitiir  door  to  fraud  than  would  have  been 
u|iit|,iiit  hail  g»veriiin«nt  wisely  declined  interfering  in 
Ihu  iiiall'T, 

III  di  •piM',  however,  of  the  East  Indiu  monopoly, 
uinl  the  r"glilallofis  now  described,  the  commercial 
policy  uf  Holland  has  bei.n  more  liberal  than  that  of 
any  olimr  nation,  And  in  consi'ipience,  a  coutitry  not 
mor«  UKtvtinIvs  lliaii  Wales,  and  naturally  not  more 
(ertila,  i4>tM|lMireil|  Indeed,  in  a  great  measure  from  tlie 
Mia,  tiM  Mfcuifiulafed  a  population  of  upward  of  two 
iiilllinns;  lias  malntalnel  wars  of  unexampled  dura- 


their  capital  in  other  countries,  and  to  speculato  ifi    lluii  witli  tlin  niimt  powerful  monarchies;  and,  beside 
loam  to  foreign  govenimOQU.     Xhera  are  the  bust  rua.  i  hyiun  uui  luiUimiMi  suuit  In  works  of  utility  and  uriiU' 


\ 


ANA  I 

ment  at  home,  has  been  enabled  to  lend  hundreds  of 
millions  to  foreiKiers, 

Duriuj,'  the  occupation  of  Holland  by  the  French, 
first  as  u  dependent  State,  and  subsequently  as  an  in- 
tegral part  uf  the  French  empire,  her  foreign  trade  was 
almost  ontiroly  destroyed.  Her  colonics  wore  succes- 
sively conquered  by  England;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
Io!s  of  her  trade,  she  was  burdened  with  fresh  taxes. 
But  such  was  the  \ast  accumulated  wealth  of  the 
Dutch,  their  prudence,  and  energy,  thot  the  infiuonco 
of  tlicae  ac'verse  circumstances  was  far  less  injurious 
than  could  have  been  imagined ;  and,  notwithstanding 
all  the  losses  she  had  sustained,  and  the  long  interrup- 
tion of  lii^r  commercial  pursuits,  Holland  continued,  at 
her  emancipation  from  the  }%kc  of  the  French  in  1814, 
to  bo  the  richest  country  in  Europe !  Java,  the  Slo- 
Iucc»s,  and  most  of  her  other  colonics  were  then  re- 
stored, and  she  is  now  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  largo  for- 
eign trade.  Her  connection  with  13el5;ium  was  an 
unfortunute  om  for  both  couTies.  The  union  was 
not  agreeable  to  cither  party,  and  was  injurious  to 
Holl'^  Belgium  was  an  agricultural  and  mar"- 

fac   '  M         'jntry;  and  '.vas  inclined,  in  imitation  of 
t!       .  to  lay  restrictions  on  the  importation  of 

most  sui'La  ^  raw  and  manufactured  produce.  A  pol- 
of  thi.-  sort  was  dire  tly  opposed  to  the  interests 
t'l-  ancient  jirnctioe  of  the  Dutch.  But  though 
thf  i.uties  pi  enter!  the  restrictive  system  from 
being  carried  to  the  extent  proposed  by  the  Belgians, 
they  were  unable  to  prevent  it  from  being  carried  to 
an  cxtKiit  tliat  materially  alVccted  the  trado  of  IIol- 
lund.  WUatcver,  therefore,  may  be  tlie  consequences 
as  to  Belifium,  there  can  be  little  do'.ibt  that  the  sep- 
aration of  (ilie  two  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of  tlic 
Netlierlunils  yfiU  redound  to  the  advantage  of  Holland, 
It  must  ever  ue  for  tlie  interest  of  England,  America, 
and  all  traiiirg  nations,  to  nmintain  the  independence 
of  a  State  by  whose  means  t'loir  productions  lind  a 
r"a<ly  access  to  th  ■  great  continental  nmrkets.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  thi't  the  Uiitch,  proliting  by  past  expe- 
rience, will  adopt  such  a  liberal  and  conciliatory  sys- 
tem toward  the  natives  of  Java  as  may  ci>al)le  them 
to  avail  themselves  to  the  full  of  the  various  resources 
of  tlMUt  noble  island,  ^md  if  they  do  fliis,  and  freely 
open  Hhi'ir  ports,  with  as  few  reairictions  as  possible, 
to  till*  4ivips  and  comn.oditics  of  all  countries,  Holland 
may  still  lie  the  centre  of  a  very  extensive  comn^erce, 
and  may  continue  to  preser.e  a  respectable  ploce 
among  merjoriitile  nations.  i'',\en  at  tliis  moment, 
after  all  tlie  vicissitudes  they  liave  undergone,  the 
Dutch  arc,  beyond  all  ij  lestion,  the  most  opulent  and 
industrious  of  European  nations.  And  tlicir  present 
no  less  than  their  former  state  shows  tliat  a  free  sys- 
tem of  government,  security,  and  the  absence  of  ro- 
striction.'j  on  industry,  can  overcome  aln>o?t  every  ob- 
st.i.le  "can  convert  the  stjn<''ig  pool  and  lake  into 
fat  meadows,  covee  ♦'!•)  barren  rock  with  v  rduro,  and 
make  the  desert  smi.e  with  llowers." 

ii.inuleta,  or  Chamui.  .a  n  nations  have  been 
fond  of  amulets,  Tlie  Egyptians  had  a  great  variety ; 
so  had  iIh"  Jews,  Clialdcans,  ;  nd  I'ersians,  Among 
the  Greek's,  they  were  mncli  use<l  in  exciting  or  con- 
quering tlie  passion  of  love.  They  were  also  in  esli- 
niatiou  among  the  Komans. — I'i.inv,  Ovio.  Among 
the  tlhristians  of  early  'iges,  amulets  were  made  of  the 
wood  of  the  true  cross,  about  A. p.  i('28.  They  have 
been  saiietioned  by  religion  and  astrology,  and  even 
in  modern  tiuRs  by  medical  and  other  sciences ;  wit- 
ness the  anodyne  necklace,  etc.  The  pope  and  Catho- 
li('  clergy  make  and  seU  amulets  and  charms  even  to 
this  day,— AsnK.     H.wn.N, 

Auam,  or  Aii-Uiun,  an  am  pirn  of  Soutlieastern 
Asia;  lietween  lal.  10  and  23'  N,,  and  long.  102°  and 
109 '  E. ;  coinprising  Cochin-China,  Tor.quin,  and  a 
port  of  Cainlioja.  .Surface  generally  fertile,  and  cii- 
mali  healthy,  liio  coasts  are  bold,  and  include  some 
of  ilic  best  burbors  in  the  world.    Products,  rice,  sugar, 


I  ANC 

cinn&mon,  pepper,  and  other  spicea ;  indigo,  dye-wooda, 
an  inferior  tea,  ivory,  and  the  precious  metals,  Thesa 
articles  form  the  principal  exports.  Imports  ar'-  n  an- 
ufacLured  silks,  porcelain,  line  teas,  and  drugs  from 
China,  opium  from  India,  cottons  from  Canton  and 
Singapore,  woolens  and  lire-arms  from  Europa.  The 
navy  is  largo ;  and  the  people  have  a  maritime  taste, 
excelling  most  Asiatics  in  ship-building. — Harper's 
Oazelteer, 

Auohor,  in  Naviffotion,  from  the  Greek  uyxvpa, 
which  Vossius  thinks  is  from  oyKTj,  a  cruok  or  hook,  an 
instrument  of  iron  or  other  heavy  material  used  for 
holding  ships  i.i  any  situation  in  which  they  may  Ixi 
require!  to  lie,  and  preventing  them  from  drifting  by 
the  winds  or  tides,  by  the  currents  of  rivers,  or  any 
other  cause.     This  is  done  by  the  anchor,  after  it  is 
let  down  from  the  ship  by  means  of  the  cable,  fixing 
itself  in  '  'he  ground,  and  there  holding  the  vessel 
fast.     The  anchor  is  thus  obviously  an  implement  of 
the  first  importance  in  navigation,  and  one  on  which 
too  much  attention  can  not  be  bestowed  in  its  manu- 
facture and  proper  construction,  seeing  that  on  it  de- 
pends entirely  the  safety  of  the  vessel  in  storms.    The 
invention  of  so  necessary  an  instrument  remounts,  as 
may  be  supposed,  to  the  remotest  antiquity.     The 
most  ancient  anchors  consisted  merely  of  large  stones, 
baskets  full  of  aiones,  sacks  filled  with  sand,  or  logs  of 
wood  loaded  with  load.     Of  this  kind  were  the  anchors 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  which,  according  to  Apollonius 
lihodius  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium,  were  formed  of 
stone ;  and  Athcnivus  states  that  they  were  sometimes 
made  of  wood.     These  sorts  of  anchors  retained  the 
vessel  moiely  by  their  inertia,  and  by  the  friction 
along  the  bottom.     Iron  was  afterward  introduced  for 
tlie  construction  of  anchors,  and  also  the  grand  im> 
provemeut  of  forming  thorn  with  teeth  or  flukes  to 
fasten  themselves  into  ilie  bottom;  whence  the  words 
oAivrff  and  denUs  are  frequently  taken  for  anchors  in 
tlio  Greek  and  Latin  poets.     The  invention  of  the 
teetli  is  ascribed  by  I'liny  to  the  Tuscans;  but  Pausa- 
iiias  gives  the  merit  to  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia,    Orig- 
inally there  was  only  one  fluke  or  tooth,  whence  an- 
chors were  called  iTepoaTO/ioi ;  but  shortly  afterward 
the  second  was  added,  according  to  Pliny,  by  Eupali- 
mus,  or,  according  to  Strabo,  by  Anacharsis,  the  Scyth- 
ian pliilosopher.     The  anchors  v.ith  two  teeth  were 
called  d)j(ptiio?.ni  or  a/ipiaTo/iot,  and  from  ancient  mon- 
uments appear  to  have  been  much  the  same  with  those 
used  in  our  days,  except  that  the  stock  is  wanting  in 
them  all.     Every  ship  ha('  several  anchors,  the  largest 
of  which,  corrcspon  ling  to  our  bower  or  sheet  anchor, 
was  never  used  but  in  extreme  danger,  and  was  hence 
peculiarly  termed  lepd  or  sacra ;  whence  the  [iroverb 
Kwrnm  'inchm-tim  solvere,  as  fly'ng  to  the  last  refuge. 

Weight. — Anchors  are  now  universa'ly  made  of 
wrought  iron,  excepting  in  Spain  and  some  parts  of 
the  South  Sea,  where  they  are  made  of  copp-r.  One 
essential  (juality  in  every  anchor  is  a  sufBcient  weight 
and  angle  oi"  arm  an<l  lluke  to  fix  itself  in  the  bottom ; 
and  this  has  been  determined  by  practice  for  dilTerent 
anchors,  and  for  vessels  of  dillercnt  sizes.  Largo  ves- 
sels have  several  anchors  of  different  sizes,  which  are 
stowed  in  different  parts  of  the  vessel.  These  are  dis- 
tinguished by  dillercnt  names;  viz,,  the  httt  boner  to 
the  starboard;  and  the  anwli  bower  to  the  port  cat- 
head, with  the  flukes  on  the  bill-board ;  the  sheet-anchor 
on  the  after  part  of  the  fore-channels,  on  the  starboard 
side ;  and  the  upare-anchor  on  the  port  side.  The  above 
anchors  are  of  the  same  size  anil  weight.  The  two  lat- 
ter are  only  lot  go  in  eases  of  danger,  when  tiio  vessel 
is  riding  in  a  heavy  gale.  In  men-of-war  they  are  al- 
ways kept  ready  tor  letting  go.  The  stream-anchor  is 
of  a  nmch  smaller  sizo  than  (ho  above,  used  only  for 
riding  in  rivers  or  moderate  streams.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally above  one-fourth  or  ouf-llftli  of  the  weight  of 
till!  others.  Lastly,  tlie  kedgc-anchor  is  still  sniallor, 
being  only  about  one-half  of  thn  stream-auuhor,  and  it 


-.-,*aiit*i«v'«««*ij«it'» 


ANC 


44 


ANC 


only  u«od  when  kedging  in  a  river.  Slilps  of  the  Urfjo 
class  carry  four  Inrgu  and  three  small  anchors,  anil  the 
•mallcst  class,  as  brigs,  cutters,  and  schooners,  three 
or  four. 

The  weight  of  anchors  for  different  vessels  is  allowed 
by  the  tonnage.  A  pretty  near  rulo  for  the  principal 
anchor  of  ordinary-sized  vessels  is  to  allow  for  the 
cwts.  ill  the  anchor  ono-twontieth  of  the  tonnage.  Thus 
a  vessel  of '100  tons  would  require  her  principal  anchor 
to  be  20  cwt.,  or  according  to  the  following  tables : 


::,0 

H 

220 

1  ' 

250 

1 

4 

280 

320 

380 

IS 

430 

ii^ 

480 

1. 

520 

\\ 

720 

i.-j. 

Form  ami  IHmetmom.—'Sesl  to  tlio  weight,  the  form 
of  the  anclior,  and  the  proper,  i  iiis  of  the  ui  llerent  parts, 
«( J  of  great  importance.  The  most  general  form,  and 
that  which  has  indeed  been  almost  universally  adopt- 
ed .11  over  the  world,  consists  oC  the  two  hooltcd  arms 
for  penctratiuf  and  fi:.in'-  tlioinscl.es  into  the  soil; 
the  long  bar  or  shank  for  attaching  th-;  cable ;  and  the 
,tO(k,  which  is  attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  shank, 
and  serves  to  direct  one  of  the  points  downward  into 
the  soil.  TI.0  weight  of  the  .-.jiclior,  then,  causes  the 
point  to  penetrate  more  or  less  according  to  the  soft- 
ness or  hardness  of  the  bottoir  ;  and  t'lO  action  of  the 
vessel  on  -nc  cable,  instead  of  loosening  the  anchor, 
tends  rather,  by  the  hooked  shape  of  the  anr^  ?,  to  fix 
these  deeper  and  lirm''r  into  the  soil  j  so  tlint  tho  ves- 
sel is  held  quite  fast,  unless  either  the  calilo  itself  gives 
way,  or  any  part  of  the  anchor,  or  the  anchor  is  dragged 
along  owing  to  the  looseness  of  the  soil.  The  cable 
draws  upward  by  the  extremity,  and  ti.rn«  tho  whole 
round  the  point  o.*'  the  fluke.  The  one  "nd  of  the  shank 
is  made  square,  to  receive  and  hold  the  stock  steadily 
in  its  place  without  turning.  To  keep  the  stock  ttl«i 
from  shifting  along  the  shank,  there  are  raised  on  it 
from  the  solid  iron,  or  welded  on  it,  two  square  tenor 
like  projections,  called  nuts.  The  lengtli  of  the  square 
of  the  shank  is  about  ono-sixth  of  the  whole  length  of 
the  shaft,  and  the  thickness  about  one-twentieth.  From 
the  end  of  this  stiiiiure  tlie  shank  incrca.ses  in  thickness, 
tapering  toward  the  extremity,  where  the  arms  are  at- 
tached :  in  all  this  part  it  is  cither  made  wholly  round, 
or  with  a  flat  on  opposite  sides,  or  polygonal.  The 
end  next  the  stock  is  called  the  amall  roumi.  Tho  oth- 
er extremity,  where  tho  arms  and  tho  shank  uni'.e,  is 
called  the  cromt,  p-d  the  point  of  the  angle  between 
tho  anns  and  the  .iiaiik  tho  throat.  Hero  the  thick- 
ness of  the  shank  is  from  i  j  ..■.  h  in  small  anchors,  to 
3  inches  in  large  ones,  greater  than  at  tho  small  round. 
A  distance  equal  to  that  Ijctween  the  throat  of  one  arm 
and  its  bill  is  marked  on  the  shank  from  tho  place 
where  it  joins  the  aims,  and  ie  called  the  trenil.     Near 


the  extromity  of  the  iquare  part  of  tho  shank  is  the 
hole  for  receiving  tho  shackle  for  the  cable,  which  is 
aliout  half  tho  tliickness  of  tho  small  round,  and  tho 
diameter  nearly  equal  to  tho  length  of  the  square.  The 
shackle  is  lapped  with  cordage  to  prc^'ent  the  cable 
from  chaling.  When  hempen  cables  are  used  in  the 
British  service,  one  length  of  bower  chain  cable,  called 
a  ganger,  is  bent  to  tlie  spare  anchor,  and  the  hempen 
cable  united  with  Admiral  Elliott's  shackle. 

The  arms  make  an  angle  of  about  66"  with  the  shank. 
They  aro  made  either  round  or  polygonal  like  the 
shank,  about  half  their  length.  The  remainder  of  the 
arm  consists  of  three  parts,  the  blaut;  the  palm,  and 
the  bill.  The  blade  is  merely  tho  continuation  of  the 
arm  iu  a  square  form.  The  palm  or  fluke  is  a  broad, 
flat,  triangular  plate,  fixed  on  the  inside  of  tho  blado, 
the  use  of  which  is,  by  exposing  a  broad  surface,  to 
take  a  firmer  hold  of  the  ground.  The  bill  is  the  ex- 
tremity of  tho  arm,  where  it  is  tapond  nearly  to  n 
point,  for  the  purpose  of  penetrating  incru  ri-adily  into 
tho  soil.  In  some  cases  tho  arm  is  made  quite  straight 
from  the  crown  to  the  bill ;  in  others,  and  particularly 
In  small  anchors,  tho  interior  half  is  made  with  the 
arch  of  a  circle.  Tho  whole  length  of  the  arm  is  iiea."- 
ly  half  the  length  of  ttio  round  part  of  the  shank.  It 
tapers  slightly  from  the  throat  to  tho  blade,  where  it 
U  about  tiio  same  thickness  with  the  small  round  of  tho 
shank.  I'lie  palm  is  about  one-third  of  this  in  thick- 
ness, and  tho  breadth  of  its  base  is  ncirly  equal  to  its 
length. 

The  alock  of  tho  anchor  is  made  of  oak,  consisting  of 
two  beams  embracing  the  square,  and  firmly  united 
by  iron  bolts  and  lioops.  The  length  of  the  stock  is 
rather  greater  than  that  of  tho  shank,  tho  thickness  in 
tho  middle  about  one-twelfth  of  its  length,  and  taper- 
ing to  aliout  tho  half  of  this  at  tho  extremities,  tho 
taper  being  all  on  tne  under  surface  next  the  arms,  and 
the  other  quite  straight.  Tho  taper  Is  not  quite  regu- 
lar. It  commences  at  about  half  the  breadth  of  the 
stock  from  the  shank,  and  continues  in  one  straight 
line  to  tho  extremiry.  The  beams  of  the  stock  are 
hooped  close  togetlicr  at  the  extremities,  but  gradual- 
ly open  toward  the  centre,  that,  in  case  of  the  wood 
shrinking,  tho  hoops  may  be  driven  farther  in.  Of 
late  years  the  stock  has  frequently  been  made  of 
wrought  iron,  the  same  as  the  onclior :  and  this  plan 
is  now  very  generally  followed  In  anchors  ufi  to  sixty 
cwt.  It  has  this  advantage,  that  the  slock  can  lie  at 
any  time  taken  out  and  laid  parallel  with  the  anchor, 
which  is  very  convenient  for  stowage.  The  iron  stork 
consists  merely  of  a  long  round  bar,  about  half  tho  di- 
ninctcr  of  tho  anchor  nt  the  square.  Instead  of  cm- 
bracing  the  anchor,  like  the  wood,  it  goes  through  ,1 
hole  in  the  square,  which  is  swelled  out  to  receive  it. 
It  has  a  Khoulder  in  the  middle,  which  rests  against 
the  square,  and  a  key  through  a  hole  in  tho  stock  on 
tho  other  side  keeps  it  fast.  When  the  f  tock  is  to  be 
taken  out  of  its  place,  tho  key  is  driven  out :  the  stock 
then  slides  through  the  hole  in  the  shank,  and  by 
means  of  a  bend  at  its  extremity,  it  is  laid  parallel 
with  the  fchank. 

Tho  operation  of  the  anchor  is  easily  understood. 
Being  let  down  by  meons  of  the  cable,  the  weight  of 
the  arms  throws  them  downward,  and  keeps  the  whole 
in  a  vert'cal  position  until  it  reaches  the  ground,  w  hero 
it  lights  upon  tho  crown:  and  then  falling  over,  tho 
position  of  tho  stock  ut  right  angles  to  the  arms,  and 
its  length  and  height,  together  with  the  weight  of  the 
cable,  are  sure  to  throw  it  with  one  of  the  arms  pcint- 
eil  into  thu  ground,  If  it  does  not  take  this  Hitualion  of 
itself.  This  eflect  Is  aided  by  tho  anchor  (tes<^ei;dlng 
quickly— and  hence  it  must  be  allowed  to  de_i>tnd  free- 
ly ;  for  which  purpose,  in  throicitig  or  cnrtwi;  tlie  an- 
chor, the  cable  is  arranged,  oiio  end  bein^  attached  to 
tho  and  jr  and  tho  cable  bitted  on  deck,  and  the  Inner 
end  rcmov  nl  below.  Kvery  thing  being  prepnred.  the 
la-shing  of  tho  anchor  is  cast  off,  and  the  men  stand 


\ 


(•stood, 
of 
j  whole 
J  where 
Icr,  tho 
,  and 
I  of  the 
Ipcint- 
lion  of 
i.ding 
III  frec- 


cil  to 
I  iimcr 
■i\.  the 
I  stand 


'{■ 


ANC  ♦ 

ready  to  let  go;  aud  when  this  word  is  given  by  the 
person  In  coniinaud,  the  fastenings  are  all  cast  oft',  and 
the  anchor,  falling  into  the  sea,  descends  with  rapidity. 
When  tliu  anchor,  again,  is  to  be  removed  from  its  sit- 
uation and  drawn  up  into  the  vessel,  the  operation  is 
termed  weiyhing;  which  requires  often  a  very  liuavy 
purchase-,  particularly  at  starting.  This  is  obtained 
by  means  of  tlie  windlass  or  capstan,  round  which  the 
cable  is  wound,  and  a  number  of  hands  applied  to  worlt 
It.  With  cables  which  are  too  large  to  be  wound 
round  a  windlass,  a  smaller  rope  or  chain  is  used, 
termed  a  messenger,  which,  licing  attached  to  the  ca- 
ble at  dillerent  points,  and  wound  round  the  capstan, 
serves  to  bring  tlie  cable  forward.  But  since  the  in- 
troduction of  chain  cables  this  contrivance  is  not  so 
much  required. 

When  the  anchoi'  is  brought  above  water,  a  tackle 
from  the  cat-head,  called  the  eat,  is  hoolicd  on  to  the 
shackle  of  the  anchor,  and  hoisted  up ;  the  cat-head 
stopper  is  tlivn  passed,  viz.,  one  end  of  it  is  fastened 
round  the  cat-head,  and  the  other  is  brought  through 
the  shackle  of  tho  anchor,  then  over  the  stoppcr-clcat, 
and  Is  belayed  round  a  timber  head ;  the  cat  is  then 
unhooked,  and  another  tackle,  called  tlie  llsh,  is  hook- 
ed on  just  within  the  flukes,  and  the  arms  are  hove  up 
so  as  to  lie  upon  the  gunnel,  or  bill-board ;  the  stock 
is  then  made  vertical  by  hauling  upon  another  tackle, 
called  the  stock-tackle,  in  which  position  the  anchor  is 
secured  by  the  utock-lashing  tor  sea.  In  the  event  of 
bad  weather,  and  before  commencing  a  long  voyage, 
the  cat-head  stopper  and  shank  painter  is  doubled- 

Muoring  Anchurg  are  those  which  are  lixed  in  cer- 
tain situations  in  harbors  or  roadsteads,  and  to  which 
any  of  the  vessels  freiiiienting  the  place  may  be  se- 
cured. As  these  are  no  way  limited  as  to  weight  like 
portable  ancliors,  they  often  consist  merely  of  a  largo 
block  of  stone,  with  an  inner  ring  llxed  in  the  niiddlu 
of  the  upper  side  ;  or  several  such  stones  maj'  be  fast- 
ened together  so  as  to  act  aa  one  mass.  Mooring  an- 
chors are  also  often  made  by  choosing  one  of  the  larg- 
est anchors  used  for  first-rate  ships,  weighing  80  cwt., 
and  by  bending  one  of  the  arms  close  down  upon  the 
shank,  to  prevent  it  catching  hawsers  w  hen  transport- 
ing ships,  nets  of  fishermen,  fouling,  etc.  These  an- 
chors are  lowered  down  into  the  water  with  a  very 
strong  iron  mooring  chain  fastened  to  the  ring,  to  w  hich 
the  shii)3  are  fastened :  they  are  usually  made  from 
such  as  are  damaged  in  one  of  the  flukes  or  arms.  A 
now  kind  of  mooring  anchor,  of  cast  iron,  was  deserilied 
by  Mr.  Ilemman,  of  Chatham,  to  the  .Socwli/  far  the 
Encouragment  nf  Artt,  etc.,  in  1809,  for  which  he  ob- 
tained a  siU'cr  medal  from  the  society. 

Floating  Anchor. — This  is  the  name  given  to  a  sort 
of  anchor  which  has  often  been  proposed,  but  never  re- 
duced to  practice,  for  preventing  a  vessel  from  drifting, 

TAIILF.  SlinWINO  the  estimated  NUtlEBIRAt.  VAIIES  Ol'  TUB 

ESSKNTiAi.  TO  A  (ioiii>  Ani'mou.— [Thls  Table  only  professes 
maticftl  acrunipy  or  precision.] 


\  ANC 

in  cases  where  the  great  depth  of  the  sea  precludes  th« 
use  of  the  cable  and  ordinary  anchor.  'J'lie  plan  sug- 
gested by  Ur.  I'ranklin  seems  tin.  most  rational.  This 
anchor  consisted  of  two  cross-bars,  secured  together  in 
tho  middle,  and  having  suil-cloth  fastened  to  tliem  in 
the  shape  of  a  parallelogram.  To  tlie  centre  of  these 
bars  the  cable  was  attaclied,  and,  being'thrown  over- 
board, It  was  thought  the  resistance  of  so  large  a  sur- 
face would  at  least  check  the  rapidity  of  tho  ship's 
motion. 

Tho  following  is  Mr.  Aylen's  plan  for  anchoring  in 
deep  water  out  of  soundings,  to  prevent  vea-sels  from 
drifting  in  a  calm  when  in  a  tide-way,  or  if  disabled  i 
Hoist  out  inunediately  one  of  the  boom  boats,  let  go 
the  kcdge  anchor,  and  veer  out  10  or  50  fathoms  over 
the  bow,  and  stop  it  to  the  ring  in  the  bow  and  stern 
of  tir.e  boat,  and  then  veer  out  from  tho  ship  from  70  to 
80  fathoms. 

Much  attention  has  l)cen  paid  of  late  to  the  improva> 
ment  of  the  manufacture  of  anchors,  and  several  speci- 
mens were  sent  by  tho  makers  to  the  Koyal  Exhibition 
in  1851.  A  committee,  consisting  of  tive  ship-owners  of 
London,  Liverpool,  and  tilasgow,  with  hve  nominated 
by  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  was  appointed  to  test 
tho  relative  merits  of  these.  After  trying,  on  the  parada 
ground  of  Sheemess  dock-yard,  on  the  beach  at  Garri- 
son point,  at  Blackstakcs  in  the  River  Mednay,  and 
at  tho  Nure,  those  that  wero  submitted  for  competition, 
viz..  Admiralty,  Aylen's  (a  moditied  Admiralty),  Iloni- 
ball  (or  Porter's),  Isaacs*  (United  Slates),  Leno.x's, 
Miti-heson's,  Rodgors',  and  Trotman's  (an  improved 
I'orter'.s),  they  reported  in  1858  that,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  results  of  all  the  trials  to  which  the  an- 
chors had  been  subjected,  they  thought  it  best  to  re- 
cord their  cpiniiins  in  the  following  tabulated  forms : 

Taiile  snowiNOTnr.  helativi!  li-.tieb  in  wnicn  the  seveual 
Ahciiobs  hi  and  with  keoauu  to  eauii  i*"  the  Propfeties 
kksf.>tiai.  to  a  uood  Ahciior;  tue  Na.ug8  ABnA^aEU  al- 

niAlJETleAI.LV. 


lihl 

u 

n 

ANXIIORS. 

h  J;   -s 

s 

1  §1 1 

;| 

tf- 

is 

a 

ItM 

&9 

1 

1 

■■"    1* 

T 

^       u. 

V 

Admiralty 

4 

6 

1 

4 

1 

'i 

2 

2 

Ayleii 

7 

4 

1 

t 

3 

4 

1 

2 

2 

R 

Ilonilwll   (oil 
I'nrtcr's)..! 

2 

3 

3 

4 

S 

1 

4 

3 

B 

a 

Isaacs 

1 

6 

4 

6 

1 

1 

4 

4 

n 

1 

I.enox 

1) 

3 

'i 

1 

<i 

8 

2 

1 

8 

2 

Mitclieson 

fuied'    1 
llm       '■ 
Iriftl.' 

U 

1 

3 

2 

3 

2 

4 

4 

;  Roilijers 

6    1    « 

1 

1 

2 

4 

9 

1 

1 

2 

[Trotinan 

_LU_ 

3 

3 

4 

1 

4 

8 

fi 

B 

SEVEEAT,  ANI^ironS  IN  EEllARI)  TO  THE    I'liOrERTI KB  fONBlDEIUtD 

to  slioir  approxiniatc  values  and  has  no  pretensions  to  mathe- 


I'lopollUinutu  vbllies  of  tho^^ 
(jlinlitiia ) 

Admiralty 

Aylin 

lluiiiball  (Porter's) 

Jsnars 

t.enoT 

.Mit'*h('Ron 

I("ilKi'rs , 

'I'rotiimn 


Totals. 


m 


15 


2  07 
VS!) 
2-3il 
203 
IM 

104 

2-22 


Si 

II 


SO 


16'IHI 


G-42 
9-10 
111-69 
{)■ 

O-M 
14-11) 

irtiia 

14-44 


* 
I 

9 

I 
ii 


10 


1S2 
1-S2 

•91 

■46 
1-30 

-91 
1-S2 

•91 


15 


■J -01 
2-01 

l■ri■^ 

■,VJ 
2-30 

2':m 

2 -.TO 
1-77 


IKl     j    M1-(HI      I      lOHKl      1      14-lHi 


•89 
•4,'i 
-07 
•S9 
•07 
•4ft 
•07 
•31 


rs 


1ft 


•05 
-05 
1-S'> 
1-S5 
111 
1-39 
•04 

r.'sft 


9  IKl 


i 
1 1 

C  A 

D 


lii 


10 


•05 
•05 

-5'.' 
•20 
•,S7 
•05 
•S7 
•52 


198 
1-98 

•65 

■55 
1^.H2 

•>8 
219 

•56 


•73 
•44 

■m 

•SI 
•73 
•62 
•73 
•44 


lS-17 
19  1)4 
19-94 

2()-tii 

21-M 

2-'-S0 
•23  •39 


5110  I  4-<.W  I     t«-(H)     I  5-IKI   1    159-97 


"I'he  following  is  a  recapitulation  of  the  order  in  I  getlier  with  their  relative  percentage  of  inferiority  or 
which  the  anchors  wero  ranked  by  tho  committee,  to- 1  superiority  to  the  Admiralty  anchor,  tho  value  of 


ANC 


46 


AND 


which,  M  given  in  tho  foregoing  Isbls  (18-17),  wu 
Ulcen  u  the  Btandard  or  unit : 

TlQtman 188  or  28  p«r  cont" 

Hodgom I**"''??      '•''• 

MllchoMn 1  -XO  or  ao      do. 

l^nox  118orl8      do. 

Uonlb«ll IWor  »      do. 

Ayli'n l-flOor  9      do. 

Admlrtllr 1'     the  atandird. 

'73  or  9T  per  cent  Inferior  to  Admiralty. 


Superior  to  Adml- 
nity  wicbor. 


Suppo.iing  both  the  fliiltea,  nnd  about  two  feet  of  Iho 
thanl(  and  crown  of  the  anchor  Is  gone  (Invariubiy  tlio 
place  where  all  anchors  brcaic),  the  wclglit  of  the  bro- 
ken part  would  bo  about  half  tho  weight  of  tho  origin- 
al, say 

Cwl 

Bower  anchor  tor  the  nuUngn  clam  T4  r wt,  half. 37 

Stream  anchor  and  ilock  fur  the  aboro  ablp 23 

Kodgo  and  stock  fur  do.      11 

To 

In  making  anchors  In  the  Royal  dock-yards  of  Great 
Britain,  tho  different  parU  arc  forged  by  tho  steam- 
hammers.  In  the  first  place,  large  slabs  or  pieces  arc 
made  about  five  feet  long,  and  three  of  them  put  to- 
gether, soundly  welded,  and  drawn  out  of  sufilcient 
kngth  for  tlio  shank ;  the  arms  and  palms  ore  for^pd 
nearly  in  the  same  way ;  the  palms  are  weldpil  on  to 
tho  arms,  and  then  tho  arms  welded  on  to  the  shank, 
and  the  shackle  is  riveted  dii  (o  tho  shank,  the  anchor 
then  being  complete. 

The  shank  for  an  an  ;hor  is  made  larger  at  tho  low- 
er end,  where  tho  arms  are  to  be  welded  to  It,  and  Is 
of  a  square  figure.  A  sort  of  rebate  or  scarf  is  here 
formed  on  each  side  of  the  square,  in  order  that  tho 
arms  may  apply  more  properly  for  wcldhig.  This 
scarf  is  rnade  in  tho  original  shupo  of  the  fagot,  nnd 
finished  by  cutting  away  some  of  the  metnl  with  cbistls 
while  it  is  hot,  and  using  sets  or  punchcii,  properly 
formed,  to  make  a  square  angle  to  the  shouMiT  cif  the 
scarf.  Thu  upper  end  of  the  shank  islikewisL'  wjuarc; 
and  tho  length  between  these  siiuare  parts  is  worked 
either  to  an  octagon  or  round,  tapering  regularly  from 
the  lower  to  the  upper  end.  Tlio  hole  to  receive  the 
ring  of  the  anchor  is  pierced  through  the  square  part 
at  tho  upper  end,  first  by  a  small  punch,  and  then  larg- 
er ones  are  used  till  it  is  sufiicicntly  enlarged.  The 
punch  is  mado  of  steel ;  and  when  it  is  observed  to 
change  color  by  tho  heat,  it  is  struck  on  tho  opposite 
end  to  drive  it  out,  and  is  instantly  dipped  in  water  to 
cool  it,  and  another  driven  In.  The  projecting  pieces 
or  nuts,  which  are  to  keep  the  stock  or  wooden  beam 
of  tho  anchor,  and  its  place  on  tho  shank,  aro  next 
welded  on.  To  do  this  the  shank  is  hcaceii,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  thick  bar  is  heated  in  another  forge :  tlie 
end  of  this  is  laid  across  the  shank,  and  tho  men  ham- 
mer it  down  to  weld  it  to  the  shank ;  then  the  piece  is 
cut  off  by  the  chisel,  and  another  piece  welded  on  the 
opposite  side. 

While  this  process  of  forging  the  shank  is  going  on, 
the  smiths  of  another  forge,  placed  as  near  a^  conven- 
ient to  the  former,  are  employed  in  making  Iho  crms, 
which  are  made  from  fagots  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  shank,  but  of  less  size  and  shorter,  they  are  made 
taper,  one  end  of  each  being  smaller  than  the  othoi ; 
tho  larger  ends  aro  made  square,  and  cut  down  with 
scarfs,  to  correspoml  with  those  at  the  lower  end  of  ihe 
shank.  The  miildle  parts  of  the  arms  arc  rounded, 
and  the  outer  cxtnnnities  aro  cut  away  as  much  us  the 
thickness  of  the  flukes  or  palms,  that  the  palms  may 
be  flush  with  tho  upper  sides  when  they  are  welded 
on.  The  flukes  am  gpnerall\  made  at  the  iron-forges 
in  tho  country,  by  tho  forge-hammer;  but  in  some 
yards  they  aro  made  by  fagoting  nnall  bars,  leaving 
a  long  one  for  a  handle.  The  next  liueinces  is  to  unite 
the  arms  to  the  end  of  the  shank;  and  in  doing  this 
particular  care  is  necessary,  as  the  t;(iodni,ss  of  the  an- 
chor is  untin  ly  <lependent  upon  its  l)eing  effectually 
performed.     In  so  largo  a  weld,  tho  outside  is  very 


liable  to  ho  welded,  and  mako  a  good  appearance,  while 
the  middle  part  Is  not  united.  To  guard  against  this, 
both  surfaces  of  the  scarfs  should  bo  rather  convex, 
that  thoy  may  be  certain  to  touch  In  the  midille  first. 
When  the  other  arm  is  welded,  the  anchor  is  complete, 
except  tho  ring,  which  is  made  from  several  small  bars 
welded  together  and  drawn  out  Into  a  round  rod,  then 
bent  to  a  circle,  put  through  Iho  hole  In  tho  shank,  and 
Its  ends  welded  together.  If  the  shank  or  other  part 
is  crooked,  it  is  sot  right  by  heating  it  In  the  crooked 
part  "ml  striking  it  over  tho  onvil,  or  by  tho  Hercules. 
Aft  .  1  !I  this  tho  whole  is  heated,  but  not  to  a  white 
heat,  and  tho  anchor  hammered  In  every  part,  to  finish 
and  mako  Its  surface  even.  This  Is  done  by  lighter 
hammers,  worked  by  both  hands,  but  not  swung  over 
th;)  head.  This  operation  renders  the  surface  of  the 
metal  hard  and  smooth ;  and  if  very  effectually  per- 
formed, tho  anchor  will  not  rust  materially  by  tho  ac- 
tion of  tho  sea-water. 

Tho  iron  from  which  anchors  are  made  ought  to  bo 
of  the  best  quality :  that  kind  of  it  which  is  called  rod 
short  will  not  boar  sufficient  hammering  to  weld  tho 
linrs ;  nnd  cold  short,  from  its  brittlencss,  is  not  to  be 
depended  upon  when  tho  anchor  is  in  use.  A  good  av- 
chor  should  be  formed  of  the  toughest  Iron  that  i  an  be 
procure<l.  The  most  extensive  establishment  fur  fal)ri- 
cnliiig  anchors,  etc.,  in  Kngland,  Is  that  at  Woolwich 
dock-yord,  where  tlic  liritish  Admiralty  anebors  aro 
made.  There  the  blowing  apparatus,  the  working  of 
tho  lift  and  tilt  hummers,  etc.,  is  nil  done  by  a  steam- 
engine  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  horse  power. — 
E.  It. 

To  steer  the  thip  to  her  Anchor,  is  to  steer  the  ship's 
head  toward  the  place  where  the  anchor  lies  when  they 
are  heaving  in  the  cable,  or  lying  in  a  strong  tide-way, 
that  Ihe  cable  may  thereby  enter  the  hawse  with  less 
resistance,  nnd  Ihe  ship  advance  toward  the  anchor 
with  greater  facillly.  Ships  often  prevent  collision  by 
attenljon  to  the  helm. 

Anohorage,  or  Anchoring  Oround.  Good 
anchoring  ground  should  neilber  be  loo  hard  nor  too 
soft ;  for,  In  the  first  case,  the  anchor  is  apt  not  to  take 
a  sufficient  hold,  and  In  tho  other  to  drag.  The  best 
bollom  is  a  stiff  clay,  and  next  to  it  a  firm  sand.  In 
a  rocky  bottom  tho  flukes  of  tho  anchor  are  sometiiiies 
torn  away,  and  hempen  cables  are  liable  to  chafe  and 
lie  cut  through.  It  is  also  essential  to  a  good  niichor- 
age  that  the  water  be  neither  too  deep  nor  too  .thallow. 
When  too  deep,  the  pull  of  the  cable,  being  nearly  per- 
pendicular, is  apt  to  jerk  the  a.ichor  out  of  Iho  ground ; 
and  when  too  shallow,  the  ship  is  exposed  to  tho  dan- 
ger, when  riding  in  a  storm,  of  striking  Iho  bottom. 
Where  a  ship  is  in  wate,  that  is  land-locked,  and  out 
of  the  tide,  the  nature  of  the  ground  is  of  comparative- 
ly little  imporl.ince. 

Anchovy  (Fr,  Anrhou;  It.  Acriughe;  l.uf.  £"11- 
craiiic(ilut),  a  small  fish  {Ctiipea  eticrasicolut,  Linn.), 
common  in  the  Mediterranean,  roscmliling  the  sprat. 
Those  brouglit  from  (jorgoiia,  in  the  Tuscan  Sen,  are 
eileemed  the  best.  They  should  be  '.'liosen  small,  fresh 
pickled,  white  outside  and  red  within.  Their  backs 
should  bo  round.  The  sardine,  a  fish  whicn  is  flatter 
and  larger  than  the  anchovy,  is  frequently  substituted 
for  it.  AlKuit  120,(Kh)  pounds  are  annually  entered  in 
Great  Britain  for  home  consumption. 

Anderson,  Adtun,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1092. 
lie  was  a  clerk  for  forty  years  in  the  South  Sea  Ilouso 
in  London,  w hero  he  puldished  a  large  work,  entitled 
Ifutoricnl  and  Chronologinil  DtJmiiun  of  the  Origin  of 
Commtrce,  containing  a  Ilistnn/  of  the  Great  Cum. m  trial 
Interests  of  the  British  Empire,  etc.,  which  is  \oluniln- 
ous  and  heavy  ;  but  ho  seems  to  have  an'iei|iatcd,  in 
some  of  his  speculntions,  the  opinions  of  later  times. 
It  was  first  pulilished  in  l"l!"2,  in  two  vols,  folio.  A 
third  edition  appeared  in  ITUT-U,  in  four  vols.  4lo,  the 
last  volume  lieing  an  appendix  and  continuation  by  the 
editor,  Mr.  Walton.     Anderson  died  in  17(;.">. 


AND 


47 


ANN 


nd  in  1092. 
Son  Ilouso 
rk,  entitled 
<?  (h-iffin  (if 
Com.mriuil 
is  voluiiiin- 

ipatcd,  In 
atoi'  tiinoB. 

folio.     A 
>Ih.  4to,  the 

tion  by  the 


Andsa,  The  Andca  tutm  •  mighty  mountain  chain 
runnlMK  ne«rly  tisrallnl  to  tlio  wtatcrn  coant  of  .Sorth 
Ainorli'U.  Tlw  euntral  rldKO  ■•xHndii  in  an  un''"  ;(l 
chain  from  th«  Kio  Atralo,  al  Ihn  lathtnii*  of  t\  .>.  , 
In  lut.  M"  N.,  lo  tha  Curdltltraa  of  Vllcanotu  andC'uii< 
In  lut.  IV  Ml'  H,,  whrrii  It  Mparatea  Into  wiiatcn.  ar  . 
eaat«rn  rlilK"*  (hat  Iticloiin  thn  <  rnnivo  and  idovated 
valley  of  |)u»aKUuduro,  and  uxlnolt  nonm  •ttipondoua 
peiika  that  alinoul  rival  lh«  altitude  of  tho  Hlmnlayait 
of  tliii  I'.aiit.  Aftvr  runnlnif  |iarullrl  to  each  other  to 
lat.  \'.)'  W  H,,  Ihity  a^aln  louWiicc,  and  nuMtltutu  oni^ 
central  uhali.  to  the  Ntrultit  of  MaKcllan,  in  Int.  5;)". 
Thu  Andi'K  of  Houth  Aninrica,  then,  havo  a  ranRO  of 
about  VM)  nilli't.  I'liu  liiont  wentern  of  the  two  longi- 
tudinal rid){«i*  riiMH  parallid  to  the  I'acllle,  and  is  called 
the  Curilillrni  of  the  (Joaul  i  the  uaatern  chain  is  Ron- 
•rally  ternn'il  the  t'linliUrr^i  of  tho  Interior,  and  its 
northern  prolongation  (,'iirilillrni  Heat,  Tho  valley  of 
UesaKUedcro  cxtendii  from  lut.  ir>  (>'  to  lat.  IV  8U'  8., 
with  a  varying  lircudth  of  nri  to  IXI  miles,  pronentlng  an 
area  of  lil,iHXl  iH|uurit  Keo^rap'  I  ndlns.  It  contains 
the  celebrated  l.uku  of  "  Mica,  th<i  cradle  of  i'eruvian 
civilization.  It  was  <  >  'lu  shores  of  this  lake  that 
Manco  (^apac,  the  llrsl  i,  was  miraculously  discov- 
ered by  the  l/ulchu,  thu  ancestors  of  the  Peruvians, 

"The  central  Andes  nrn  rich  beyond  conception  in 
all  the  metals,  lead  only  excepted.  One  of  the  most 
curious  ores  in  tliu  Ihiv  Is  of  llioso  mountains  is  thn 
poem,  a  compouml  of  cluy,  oxide  of  lr(m,  and  the  mu- 
riate of  silver  with  native  silver.  The  mines  of  Mex- 
ico and  I'eru,  so  Ioiik  the  objects  of  envy  and  admira- 
tion, far  from  IicImk  yet  exhausted,  promise,  under  a 
lil>eral  and  improved  system,  to  become  more  product- 
ive than  ever.  Hut  nature  has  blended  with  those 
hidden  treasures  the  active  elements  of  destruction. 
The  whole  chain  of  the  Andes  Is  subject  to  the  most 
terrilde  earthi|UHkes.  I'rom  (  olopaxl  to  thu  .South 
Sea  no  fewer  than  forty  volcanoes  are  constantly  burn- 
ing; some  of  them,  especially  the  lower  ones,  ejecting 
lava,  and  others  discliarKluK  the  muriate  of  ammonia, 
■corllied  bi««alt,  uiid  porphyry,  enormous  quantities  of 
water,  and  especially  »)'>)/'•,  or  clay  mixed  with  sul- 
phur and  carbonaceous  matter,  Kicrnnl  snow  invests 
their  sides,  and  forms  n  barrier  to  the  animul  and  veg- 
etable klnK'luiio-  Near  that  conllne  tho  torpor  of 
veKotalion  is  marked  liy  dreary  wastes." — l^tlinb.  Hi-- 
view,  vol.  XV.  p.  'illll. 

Anemometar  and  Anemoioope,  mnchincs  for 
meaaurini;  the  force  and  liidicatiii);  tho  course  of  the 
wind. 

Angelipa,  a  larKn  umbelliferous  plant,  with  hollow 
jointed  sti'lks,  of  which  there  are  bevernl  varieties.  It 
grows  wUd,  And  is  cultivated  in  moist  places  near  Lon- 
don, and  In  must  Kiiropeaii  countries  from  l.npland  to 
Spain.  Its  roots  are  thick,  llcsliy,  and  resinous;  have 
a  fragrant  aKreenble  smell,  ami  a  bitterihh  pungent 
tasta,  mixed  Hilli  a  pleasant  sweetness  kIowIii^  on  the 
lips  and  palate  for  n  Ioiik  lime  after  they  have  heen 
chewed.  To  presi^ve  them,  Ihey  must  lii!  thoroughly 
dried,  and  kept  In  a  well-alred  pincc.  The  other  parts 
of  the  plant  have  ihe  same  taste  and  (lavor  nsihc  roots, 
hut  in  an  Inferior  lii'Utuu.  The  leaves  and  seeds  do 
not  retain  their  virtue*  when  kept.  I  he  Lond(m  con- 
fectioners make  a  sweetmeat  of  the  lender  stems.  The 
faculty  U84";  to  direit  that  none  but  the  roots  of  Spun- 
ii'li  anfiellca  sheuld  lie  kept  by  the  drunKi'ts.  In 
Norway  the  roots  an-  sometiinas  use<l  as  bread,  and  in 
Iceland  the  stalks  ore  eaten  with  butler.  The  plant 
is  used  mostly  in  umfeetloiiery  and  the  materia  medlca. 
—  I.KWIs'i  Mill.  Mai;  Ukks's  ()/,-l(iiirilm,  ric. 

AngeU,  in  Cummfr-u-,  An  auKcl  was  nn  ancient 
gold  coin,  welnhiiiK  four  pennywelxhts,  nnd  was  v.a|. 
ued  at  <U.  «(/.  In  tha  raixn  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  lUs. 
in  tho  reign  of  Kllralteth,  IfifW.  Tho  angclot  was  an 
ancient  gold  coin,  value  half  an  angel,  struck  a',  I'uris 
when  that  capital  was  In  the  hands  of  the  English,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  1481.— Woou. 


.<^niae  8«ed  (Fr.  .Inu;  It.  ylnu«;  Lat.  AnUumi), 
a  raiall  seed  of  an  obl»ng  shape.  It  is  cultivated  In 
Uermany,  but  the  bc.L  comes  from  Alicaiit,  in  8paln. 
It  is  also  a  pr<HhK't  i  China,  whence  it  is  exported.  It 
should  be  chosen  fresh,  large,  plump,  newly  dried,  of 
a  ^ood  smell,  and  a  sweetish  aromatic  taste. 

Anker,  a  liquid  mcnsu.  i  at  Amsterdam.  It  con- 
tains aliout  1(1^  gallons  Kngliah  wine  measure. 

Annals  (^AnmiUt,  from  ntmut,  a  year),  a  term  com- 
munly  applied  to  a  concise  and  plain  kind  of  narrative 
of  historical  facts  dii(estod  in  thu  order  of  time,  each 
event  being  arranged  under  tho  particular  year  in 
which  it  happenc  ,.  Although  this  style  of  composi- 
tion dues  no  I  •"  'i'"  "xclude  tho  casual  observa- 
tions of  tnc  writer,  e,).<  les  or  formal  digressions  are 
incompatible  with  tho  brevity  characteristic  of  annals; 
wl.ilo  histury,  on  tho  other  hand,  comprises  not  only 
the  narrative  andcxposi  ion  of  facts,  but  also  the  writ- 
er's observati.."s  on  actions,  motives,  causes,  and  con- 
scquen  ,.'s  in  ,,  .lerul ;  thus  affording  ample  scope  for 
illustration  and  embellishment.  Annals  may  be  said 
to  constitute  tho  c;  nco  of  history,  since  they  are  tho 
elements  or  matorii '  >  of  which  it  Is  composed. 

Annealing,  by  tho  workmen  called  nmlintf,  is  a 
process  used  in  glass-making,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  inetuls.  In  glass-nmking  it  consists  in  plac- 
ing tho  buttles,  etc.,  whilo  hot,  in  a  kind  of  oven  or 
furnace,  wliere  they  are  sulfercd  to  cool  gro<lually. 
They  would  otherwise  bo  too  brittle  for  use.  The  dif- 
ference between  unanncalcd  and  annealed  glass,  with 
respect  to  brittleness,  is  very  remarkable.  When  nn 
unannealud  glass  vessel  is  broken,  it  often  flies  into  ,1 
small  powder,  with  a  violence  seemingly  very  nnjiro- 
portioned  to  tlw  r'-  ^e  it  has  received.  In  general  it 
is  in  greater  danger  pf  l)reoking  from  a  very  slij^-ht 
stroke  tlian  from  one  ol  some  considerable  force.  (Jno 
of  these  vessels  will  oiten  resist  the  effects  of  a  pistol- 
bullet  dropped  into  it  from  the  height  of  two  or  three 
feet ;  yet  a  grain  of  sand  fuir.ng  into  it  will  mako  it 
burst  into  small  fragments.  This  takes  place  some- 
times immediately  r-  'ropping  the  sand  into  it;  but 
often  tho  vessel  wi  '"..i  lor  several  minutes  after, 
seemingly  secure;  ai  .icn,  without  ony  new  injury, 
it  will  fly  to  pieces,  .i  '  ■'  vessel  be  very  thin  it  does 
not  break  in  this  mi.nnjr,  i.,;t  seems  to  possess  all  tho 
properties  of  anneal*     glass. 

The  same  plienomeim  are  still  mora  strikingly  ot  .. 
in  glass  drops  or  tears.  They  arc  globular  at  one  end, 
nnd  taper  to  a  small  tail  at  the  other.  They  are  tha 
drops  wliich  fall  from  the  melted  mass  of  glass  on  tho 
rods  on  which  the  bottles  are  made.  They  drop  into 
tlie  tul)S  of  water  v  "liili  are  used  in  tlio  work ;  the 
greater  part  of  then'  'nn  st  immediately  in  the  water. 
Wlien  those  that  remu  n  entire  are  examined,  they  dis- 
cover all  tho  propcrtl<'s  of  iinannealed  glass  in  tho 
highest  <legrec.  The-.  •■  .l\  bear  a  smart  stroke  on  tho 
■  hick  end  without  breaking;  but  if  the  small  tail  be 
broken,  they  shiver  into  small  powder  witli  a  loud  ex- 
plosion. They  oppcar  to  liurst  with  more  violence, 
and  tho  powder  is  smaller  in  an  cxhousted  receiver 
than  in  the  open  air.  'Vheu  they  are  onn  aled  they 
lose  these  properties. 

Glass  is  one  of  those  bodies  which  incrcose  in  bulk 
whcr.  passing  from  a  (luid  into  a  solid  state.  When 
it  is  allowed  to  crystallize  regularly,  the  particles  are 
so  arranged  that  it  has  a  hbrous  te.<  uro.  It  is  elastii?, 
and  susccptilde  of  long-continued  vi' rations ;  but  when 
a  mass  of  melted  glasi-  U  suiideniy  i  xposed  to  the  cold, 
the  surface  cryscallizes,  and  I'onns  a  solid  shell  round 
the  interior  tlui :  nail*.  This  prevents  them  I'rom  ex- 
panding \\'..  ■  ticcomo  solid.  They  t.'ierefore 
liave  not  t'.'  >  cunity  of  a  regular  crystallization, 
but  are  icinp  -.m  toguihcr  with  little  mutual  cohe- 
sion, tin  tho  conr  1.  they  press  outward  to  occupy* 
I  more  space,  but  an  ).  inced  by  the  external  crust. 
In  consequenci.  of  t,.i;  >  ffort  of  expansion  in  the  in- 
!  temal  parta,  the  tjrenfjr  number  of  glass  drops  burst 


ANN 


48 


ANN 


tapoollntt.  nil  ihote  which  rvmain  entire  are  ni  I  .-n 
uUrly  cr>>t«lli>c(l.  A  siimrt  atrokii  u|iiiii  Ihviii  ••'»{■ 
niuiiicuti'it  0  vibrutloii  to  tl/u  wlioli  .iuaji,  whi.  ia 
nearly  Bviiihroiiouii  in  o.ury  pp  .  ;  mill  lliortlWu  iho 
efl'ort  ut'  expaiiBiuu  has  litllu  mure  cDiict  than  if  tliv 
boilv  wcru  «l  .mt;  but  llio  miiull  tail  and  the  nurfucv 
only  art'  r  Kularly  cryatulli/cd.  If  thu  lull  bu  brukun, 
thin  coniniunicaiuM  a  vibration  alon^  thu  crystullized 
•urfai'u  uilliout  ri'uc'hing  thu  internal  parta.  Ily  thin 
they  aru  allowed  rumu  expajision  ;  and  uvercuniiuK  tliu 
cohe.Hiun  of  thu  thin  outer  abell,  they  burst  it,  aud  are 
dispersed  in  powder. 

In  an  unannealed  K'aaa  vcaael  the  samo  thing  (akca 
place,  Soinetiniea  tho  vibration  may  continue  for  a 
considerable  time  befuro  the  internal  parta  overcome 
tho  resistance.  If  the  vcaael  be  very  thin,  tho  re);ular 
crvatalliziition  exienda  through  tho  whole  thickueaa; 
ur  nl  Icaat  tho  <|uantity  of  compressed  mutter  in  tho 
middle  is  so  inconsiderable  ua  to  bu  iucapablu  of  burst- 
ing the  external  plate. 

jly  tho  process  of  annealing  the  glaaa  ia  )  ept  for 
■omu  'ime  In  a  atato  approaching  to  fluidity  ;  (he  hcul 
incieases  ih"  bulk  of  tluicryslalliieed  piirt.  ;.nd  renders 
it  so  soft,  that  tho  internal  parts  have  the  opportunity 
of  expanding  and  forming  u  regular  crystallization. 

M'tt. — In  tho  manufacluros  in  vhicli  tho  malleable 
metnls  are  employed,  annealing  ia  used  to  soften  a 
nielal  after  it  has  been  rendeied  hard  by  the  hummer; 
and  also  to  soften  coat  iron,  wliich  ia  rendered  very 
hard  and  brittle  by  rapid  cooling. 

In  the  nmniifucturu  of  stjcl  goods,  which  are  first 
formed  by  the  hammer,  and  rciiuire  to  be  filed  or  oth- 
erwise treated,  and  in  which  soilness  and  tlexibility 
are  essential  to  tho  change,  annealing  ia  absolutely 
necessary.  This  is  particularly  the  case  'ii  oinking 
tiles  and  scissors,  that  the  nietul  may  bo  !'li  ^^lii.  iont- 
ly  soft  for  cutting  the  Icctli,  and  for  J  liutii  off  tlioao 
parts  which  can  not  bo  ground.  Ai;  "<7i.!liiif,  i:i  not 
iesa  necessary  in  the  drawing  of  'v!;?.  .(i,  '.hi  r  roii, 
copper,  bras.s,  silver,  or  gild.  Ihc  <i>-.iiuiun  «C  ■iraw- 
ing  soon  gives  the  wire  a  de),rce  of  liar)iv"(s  'in. I  elas- 
ticity which,  if  not  removed  from  tiino  to  ti.i;'  by  an- 
nealing, would  prevent  thu  extension  of  tho  wire,  and 
render  it  extremely  brittle.  The  sainu  operation  iu 
also  necessary  in  rolling  or  flattening  those  metals 
which  are  in  a  cold  st.ite,  such  aa  brass,  silver,  gold, 
etc,  Tho  brazier  who  forms  vrgsela  of  copper  and 
brass  by  the  hammer,  can  work  upon  it  only  for  a  lit- 
tle time  before  he  is  obliged  to  anneal  it. 

The  methods  often  employed  for  annealing  iron  and 
atei'l  aro  very  injudicious,  and  materially  injure  the 
latter  when  it  is  used  for  making  cutting  instruments. 
After  they  have  lieen  formed  by  the  hammer,  they  are 
sometimes  piled  up  in  an  open  lire,  slowly  raised  to  red 
heat,  and  then  allowed  as  gradually  to  cool,  Dy  this 
method  the  aur.'ace  of  the  steel  w  ill  be  found  consider- 
aldy  scaled,  from  the  action  of  tho  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere, \Vhen  it  ia  remembered  that  stoel  consists 
of  iron  joined  to  carlKin,  it  will  bo  evident  that  the 
ateel  immediately  under  tho  scaly  oxido  will  be  de- 
prived of  its  carlM>n,  which  has  been  carried  olf  by  the 
attraction  of  the  oxygen ;  and,  in  consequence,  will 
lose  the  property  of  aoiuiring  that  degree  of  hardness 
necestary  to  a  cutting  instrument, 

Kntliing,  therefore,  can  bo  more  obvious  than  that 
steel  p.irlicularly  should  be  annealed  in  close  vessels, 
to  prevent  that  eft'ect.  For  Ihia  purpose  tho  goods 
■houM  bo  placed  in  a  trough  or  recess  made  of  lire- 
atone  or  fire-brick,  and  stratiliod  with  ashes  or  dean 
sauit,  and  finally  covered  with  a  thick  stratum  of  the 
same ;  hut  if  the  size  of  the  vessel  bo  small,  it  may 
have  a  cover  of  its  own  materiala.  This  oven  or  trough 
must  now  t>e  heated  by  the  fiamo  of  a  furnace  passing 
under  aid  round  it,  iul  tba  whole  is  of  a  red  beat.  It 
must  then  be  suffered  to  cool,  without  letting  in  the 
air,  'Ihc  goods  so  treated  will  be  much  softer  than  Siy 
the  other  method.    The  surface,  iustead  of  becoming 


scaled,  will  have  acqirireil  a  metallic  whitonesi,  from 
the  preseiicu  ul  a  small  i|iiuntily  of  carbonaceous  ii;.it. 
tor  contained  in  the  ashes  in  which  thry  were  ini  »,'i>- 
ded.  They  will  bceuniu  so  fiexiblu  also,  as  to  Jjoit 
them  to  benil  considerably  without  breaking,  which  U 
^  V  r}  fur  from  being  the  case  before  the  operutioii,  Th« 
fracture,  befuro  annealing,  will  be  smooth  and  short) 
butafdrwardit  will  borough,  exhibiting  bright  parts, 
of  a  crYstallino  appearance.  Wire,  enpeciully  that  of 
iron  and  stci  1,  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  way  when 
it  is  nnnealcd.  Tho  wire  used  fur  soniu  purposes  ra> 
qiilrca  to  be  soft,  and  is  sold  in  that  slate.  If  tho  wire, 
otter  tinishing,  when  it  ia  bright  and  clean,  were  to  lie 
annealed  in  contact  with  oxygen,  it  would  not  only 
lose  all  its  lustre  and  i>nioothiiesa,  but  much  of  its  ta> 
nacity.  The  j  r>'i  esa  above  mentioned  will  therefore  b« 
particularly  necessary  in  annealing  finished  wire,  ai 
well  as  ill  softening  it  from  timu  to  time  during  tha 
drawing. 

Copper  and  brass  suffer  much  less  than  iron  and 
ateel  from  annealing  in  the  open  air,  and  do  not  reiiuir* 
to  bo  heated  above  a  low  red  heat.  If,  however,  the 
lustre  ia  to  be  preserved,  a  close  vessel  would  b"  do. 
siralde.  The  latter  mctala,  after  annealing,  although 
much  discolored  by  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  may 
be  cleansed  by  imniersiim  in  a  hot  liquor  composed  of 
water  and  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid. 
A'ery  small  brass  or  cojiper  wire  is  frequently  annealed 
by  exposing  it  to  the  llame  of  hay  or  utraw.  In  cast> 
iiig  minute  pieces  of  pig-iron,  which  is  generally  done 
in  damp  sand,  the  metal  possesses  the  property  of  steel 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  assume,  by  the  rapid  cooling,  a 
degree  of  hardness  equal  to  hardened  steel ;  at  the 
same  time  that  the  articles  are  so  brittle  aa  to  break 
by  failing  on  thu  ground.  AVhen,  however,  these 
goods  are  treated  in  the  way  above  directed,  they  ac> 
quire  a  degree  of  softness  which  renders  them  ]>cnetra> 
bio  by  the  die,  and  at  tho  same  time  capable  of  bend- 
ing.  In  thi^state  they  uro  much  less  tenacioiia  tlian 
steel,  but  still  so  much  so  aa  to  have  been  sold  in  tho 
form  of  cutlery  for  steel. 

The  change  which  metals  undergo  by  annealing  is 
not  yet  thoroughly  understood.    Most  of  the  malleable 
metals  arc  susceptible  of  two  distinct  forms,  one  called 
the  cry.Htnlline  form,  which  they  assume  by  slow  cooU 
ing;  u,id  the  other  the  librous,  which  is  acquired  by 
hummering  or  rolling.     M'hen  this,  however,  is  car* 
ried  beyond  a  certain  point,  the  metal  becomes  so  hard 
that  it  ia  not  capable  of  being  bent  far  without  break- 
ing.    All  the  malleable  nielala  in  the  ingot  or  in  theif 
cast  state  arc  brittle,  and  exhibit  a  crystalline  fracture, 
Ily  hammering  or  rolling  they  become  moro  tenacious, 
and  break  with  difiiculty,  exhibiting  what  is  cuIIchI  a 
librona  fracture      At  the  same  time  they  become  stilfer 
and  more  elastic.     They  lose  the  latter  properties  by 
annealing,  but  become  more  malleable.     If  the  anneal* 
ing,  however,  be  long  continued,  the  malleability  di- 
minishes, and  they  again  have  a  crystalline  fracture. 
Zinc  by   wire-drawing  becomes   very    flexible,    and 
possesses  a  degree  of  tenacity  not  inferior  to  that  of 
copper;  lut  if  it  bo  kept  in  boiling  water  for  a  length 
of  time,  li  w  ill  resume  its  original  brittleness,  and  show 
a  crj'stallino  appearance  when  broken,     I'his  provei 
that  the  particles  of  nictuls  can  change  their  arrange- 
ment without  losing  Iheir  solid  form ;  which  is  still 
more  strongly  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  brass  wire 
loses  its  tenacity  by  exposure  to  the  ''unics  of  acids, 
and  oven  by  the  presence  of  a  damp  atmosphere.    Thii 
is  not  caused  by  the  moisture,  but  by  tho  action  of  air 
upon  the  moistened  surface.     The  manufacturer*  of 
common  pins  aro  obliged  to  keep  their  wire  in  a  dry 
atmosphere,  or  immersed  in  water.    If  the  wire  be  first 
moistened,  and  then  exposed  to  tho  air,  it  will  ataumo 
tlio  brittle  state  much  sooner.     In  this  condition  it 
breaks  with  a  crystalline  fracture,  similar  to  that  ex- 
hibited by  an  ingot.     M'hcn  a  steel-plate,  such  aa  a 
watch-apriug,  hu  been  once  tempered,  the  operation 


ANN 


40 


ANN 


wire 
cids, 
Thii 
>f  air 


I  first 
sumo 
)n  it 
t  ex- 

>tion 


of  limply  nilihlnn  It  lirlKht  wilt  render  it  lofl  and 
elaitiv.  TliB  «»mo  oli«n({i'  1»  hrouijlit  aliout  by  tllKhtly 
hammertiiK  it.  It,  liowuvur,  reuiiiiuii  itii  «la*ticttatn  l>y 
beint;  carefully  heated  till  It  livuoincii  uf  a  liluu  color. 
If  tlie  heat  lie  coiitiiiiieil  to  rediie.ia,  particularly  In  a 
cloie  venmil,  ll  liecoiiii'-  perfuctly  aunealiid.— h;.  II. 

AnuottO,  or  AniuttO  (l'"r.  Hocim;  (ler.  OrUan ; 
It.  Itrianii),  a  upwci™  of  rod  ilyu  funned  of  the  pulp  un- 
velopinit  the  aoude  of  thu  fiixa  Orettima,  a  plant  com- 
mon in  South  America,  and  the  hjut  and  West  Indies; 
but  dye  is  made,  at  least  to  any  extent,  only  In  the 
flrst.  It  Is  prupurvd  liy  inaceratinK  the  pods  in  lioil- 
iii^  water,  oxtractiiiK  the  seedn,  and  leaving;  the  pulp 
to  subside ;  the  tinlii  ticiiiK  xubacquontly  drawn  oft',  tlui 
reeidunm,  with  which  oil  is  sometimes  mixed  up,  is 
placed  In  shallow  vessels  and  gradually  dried  is  thi' 
•liudr.  It  is  of  two  sorts,  viz.  flug  or  ciike,  and  roll 
•nnotto.  The  tlrst,  which  is  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant article  In  a  cuiiimercial  point  of  view,  i«  furnisheil 
alniont  wholly  liy  Cayenne.  It  is  imported  in  B<}uare 
cakes,  wclftbing  2  or  :i  pounds  each,  wrapped  In  banana 
leaves.  W  lien  well  made,  It  Hliouid  bo  of  a  bright  yel- 
low color,  soft  to  the  touch,  nnd  uf  a  good  consistence. 
It  impartx  a  deep  lint  nut  durable  orange  color  to  silk 
and  cotton,  ami  is  ut.e(l  for  tiiat  purpose  by  tho  dyers. 
ItuU  niinottu  is  principally  brought  from  Urazii.  Thu 
rolls  are  snmll,  not  exceeding  2  or  !l  ounces  in  weight ; 
it  is  hard,  dry,  nnd  compact,  bruwniiih  on  tho  outside, 
and  of  a  beuiitiful  red  cidor  within.  Tho  latter  is  tho 
best  of  all  ingredients  fi>r  thu  coloring  of  cliccso  and 
butter,  and  is  now  exclusively  used  for  that  pur|iose  In 
all  (he  Uriiish  mid  in  some  of  the  Continental  dairies. 
In  (iluucestersliire  it  is  the  practice  tuali»w  an  ounce 
of  luinotto  to  a  cwt.  of  cheese ;  in  Cheshire,  8  dwts. 
are  reckoned  sulHcient  for  a  cheese  of  (M  pounds. 
When  genuine,  it  neillr'r  aft'ects  the  tnsin  nur  thu 
smell  of  cheese  or  butter.  Tho  .Hpanish  Americana 
mix  ainiotto  witli  their  chocolate,  to  which  it  giyes  a 
beautiful  tint. — (iiivv's  Supjilinnnt  ti>  lite  I'hnrmnco- 
jHiiiii;  Loiimin'.s  Enctio.  of  ,lyric»/<«rc,  mid  [irivste 
information. 

Aunuitles.  -v  >  annuity  is  a  periodical  income 
arisnig  fioin  pensions,  lands,  houses,  or  money  lent. 
When  the  possession  of  on  annuity  is  not  to  lie  entered 
upon  until  the  expiration  of  a  certain  (leriod,  it  is  called 
a  revrraiomii'i/,  or  ilrfirmi  iiniiiiity  ;  when  tlio  tiiuo  of 
possession  is  not  deferred,  the  luinuity  is  somctinios 
called  imnif</t(i(f ,  but  in  general  it  is  simply  termed  an 
annuity. 

Aunuiliet  iir  Pentioiu  were  first  granted  in  1.512, 
when  X,M  were  given  to  a  Indy  of  I  lie  court  for  services 
done;  and  i'lt  l;i.<.  b/.  for  the  maintenance  of  agontle- 
man,  l.'<liG.  The  sum  of  XI.'l  (i.<.  StI.  was  deemed  com- 
petent to  suiipiirt  a  gcntleiPiiTi  in  the  study  of  the  law, 
155 1.  An  Oct  was  passed  empowering  tho  government 
tw  borrow  one  million  sterling  upon  nn  nnnuity  of 
fourteen  per  cent.,  4  and  ti  William  and  Mnry,  lliUl-;). 
This  mode  of  borrowing  soon  afterward  liecnme  cen- 
cral  among  civilized  governments.  An  annuity  ol  .C\ 
per  annum,  arciimnlating  at  ten  per  cent.,  compound 
interest,  amounts  in  one  hundred  years  to  ^1H7,T90. — 
Hay  UN. 

Tho  doctrine  of  compound  interest  and  anmiities- 
ccrtain  is  too  simple  ever  to  have  oecupieil  much  of  the 
attention  of  mnthemalicians;  inquiries  into  the  values 
of  interests  clependent  upon  the  continiianco  or  the 
failure  of  human  life,  being  more  interesting  and  dilli- 
cult,  have  occupied  them  more,  but  yt  nut  so  much 
0!)  their  importance  would  seem  to  dema.id ;  the  dis- 
coveries both  in  pure  Mathematics  and  Physics,  espe- 
cially those  of  Newton,  which  ilietinguishcd  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  having  provided  them  with 
omple  employment  of  a  more  interesting  kind,  ever 
since  the  subjects  of  this  article  were  submitted  to 
calculation. 

When  annuities  arc  dependent  upon  the  existence 
of  a  life  or  lives  they  ore  called  Life  A  nnui^ies.     The 


valuM  of  nek  anmiUtet  art  calculated  li.r  means  nf 
tables  of  i.iurtality,  which  show,  out  uf  a  conslduraldu 
nuntlier  of  iiidivlduals  boru,  how  many  on  an  average 
have  llvtd  to  compliae  each  year  of  their  age,  and  con- 
seipiently  the  tTprcliitiim  of  life  for  each  particular  age : 
this,  combined  with  a  <  ertain  rate  uf  per  cent.,  will  re- 
duce the  calculatiuiis,  if  made  upon  a  sufHcicully  large 
•eale,  to  mathematical  certainty  (see  article*  Tablet  uf 


Miirlalil^   Itternl,  tiiul 
liithe  tear  IHONIIx'  ' 
granting  life  aunuli 
to  thu  Northampton 
BO  to  grant  them  t>ir  .' 
nation,  especially  on  yt 
the  time  by  adistin      '  ' 
Nono  were  grautei 
years  of  age.     Aft.  r  tli 
granted  to  all  |>ersoi  i  of 
In  March,  ISl'J,  Mr.  li 
inent  actuary,  with  itrope. 


htmrnnce). 

■h  government  coinmenced 

es  calculated  according 

'tillty,  and  continued 

a  groat  loss  tu  the 

;  1       '.as  was  sliuwn  at 

'tvr  ^.loahua  Milne,  Kb(|\ 

'ver.  en  lives  uader  :I5 

10  annultios  wcr* 

"I  years. 

appointed  goverik- 
a-..istuiii»  aiwl  access  to  thu 


reginters  of  tha  nominees  in  tontines,  and  others  on 
whose  lives  annuities  had  lieen  granted  by  government 
for  mure  than  a  hundred  years  before ;  in  which  regi»- 
ters  the  exact  ages  at  which  tho  onnuilunts  wore  nom- 
inated, and  at  which  tliey  died,  were  Mated.  IJpuu 
these  data  Mr.  Finlaison  made  atablcof  mortality  mure 
valuable  than  any  thing  of  tho  same  hliid  which  had 
yet  been  published,  an»rding  to  which  the  llritisli 
government  grant  nnnuitics  at  tho  present  time. 

Hy  Mr.  Fiiilaison's  tablo  It  was  found  that  the  llvos 
of  annuitants  wore  generally  hitler  (longer)  than  the 
general  average  of  thu  pujiulation,  as  intiired  livus 
generally  belong  to  the  lietter  classes.  This  suliject 
will  lie  more  fully  treated  in  Tables  nf  MurUililg,  Intev- 
est,  ami  Life  Iniiirancr. 

Calculations  arc  niailc,.  and  annuities  granted  by  the 
liritish  government  and  by  Life  Insurance  Companies, 
both  in  Kiirnpa  and  tlii.s  country,  upon  all  cunibina- 
tions  of  lives,  auclvaa  joint  lives,  survivorships  of  two 
nr  more  lives,  etc.,  etc.,  ftllbrding  a  perfectly  safe  and 
reliable  investment,  and  in  the  case  of  a  Mutual  Lifo 
OtHce,  one  of  very  great  odvantago  to  thu  annuitant. 

Tho  doctrine  of  annuities,  with  its  kindreil  science 
of  Life  Insurance,  Is  so  abstruse  that  few  writers  arc 
found  willing  to  devoto  their  time  and  attention  to  it 
unless  actuated  by  professional  motives  or  an  unusual 
taste  for  tho  subject ;  fortunately,  however,  its  treat- 
ment is  marked  by  nniform  and  eminent  talent  and 
ability,  so  thnt  nearly  all  thu  works  upon  this  subject 
contnitt  something  new  and  valuable.  The  standard 
authors  are,  David  .lones,  Jenkins  Jones,  Milne,  Mor- 
gan, Lubbock,  Sumuul  llro«vn,  U.  Daviea  Babbagc,  and 
Dr.  I'rice. 

Tlic  lives  on  which  annuities  depend  will  generally 
bo  somewhat  better  (by  which  we  here  mean,  will  at- 
tain to  greater  hmgevity)  than  the  general  average  of 
tho  population',  thougli  probaiily  not  nearly  so  much 
better  as  many  believe  them  to  be.  The  prevailing 
error  in  the  popular  estimate  on  this  subject  appears 
to  have  arisen  in  great  measure  from  comparing  the 
mortality  among  annuitants  and  assured  lives,  with 
that  represented  to  take  place  by  tablca  of  mortality 
erroneously  coiisidered  to  correspond  with  tho  general 
average  of  the  people ;  ivhiie,  from  being  constructed 
on  erroneous  principles,  and  from  insuflicicnt  <t<itii,  or 
else  being  derived  from  observations  made  where  tho 
mortality  was  and  is  much  greater  than  in  Britain,  tho 
mortality,  according  to  tlieso  tables,  was  consideralily 
grtater  than  that  which  actually  prevails  among  tho 
bulk  of  the  people  Ivere.  I'roofa  of*tliis  will  bo  found 
under  tho  article  /jiw  (f  Mortnlily. 

The  tables  on  the  following  page  show  the  cost  of 

an  annuity  of  *100,  and  the  amount  of  annuity  which 

a  deposit  of  ^1000  will  purchase  according  to  tho  life 

table  of  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  of  New 

!  York.     The  rates  charged  by  that  company  arc  found 

,  ill  the  columns  marked  live  per  cent. 


s^. 


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Aft. 

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rinfttCwt. 

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11 

88  88 

80  80 

88  80 

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ITTOTa 

1846  68 

1429  89 

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1417  78 

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1880  84 

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"Sdut  Xtrat.— That  the  Uvet  on  which  annuitiet 
d«p«nd  can  not  be  fo  veiy  idcct  or  so  much  better  than 
tha  common  average,  a*  hat  general)/  been  suppoeed, 
might  raatonably  be  expected  on  these  ground* :  1.  A« 
to  annuitant*.  TIm  live*  are  net  all  choeen  on  account 
of  their  pretnmed  'goodneti;  for  many  peraon*  who 
have  no  ocoaiion  to  provide  for  other*  who  may  tnr- 
Tive  them,  pnrchaae  annuitie*  on  their  own  live*,  only 
that  they  may  themaelve*  eqjoy  the  whole  beneflt  of 
the  purdia*e-moii*y,.both  prindpal  and  inteieet,  dur- 
ing their  Uve*.  iuoA  the  greatest  recommendation  of 
thMa  Uve*  *eem*  to  be,  that  they  ar*  generally  pm- 
dOBt  person*,  ef  temperate  and  legnlBrfaabila.  Many 
other  person*,  eqUtdally  f^malM,  tpendtbrifts,  and 
Ikithfol  aervant*,  eqjoy  annuitie*  bequeathed  to  (hem 
by  their  deceased  rdativei,  master*,  or  mittrestst,  as 
the  moat  digible  provision  for  their  ^tnre  comfort  and 
teeority  ftom  want;  and  there  seems  little  ground  to 
sappoes  them  to  be  better  live*  than  the  common  aver- 
age of  the  Mine  age  and  sex. 

"3.  In  such  case*  a*  tontine*,  where  moatof  the  live* 


are  selected  for  their  presumed  goodness,  the  best  crite> 
rion  probably  is,  hereditary  longevity  in  the  family  of 
the  nominee ;  but  partiality  for  their  own  friends  or 
kindred  often  ha*  considerable  influence  in  biasing 
the  judgment  of  those  who  select  them.  That  they 
will  generally  I>e  persons  of  good  constitutions  and 
regnlar  habits  when  selected,  is  all  that  is  likely  to  be 
obtained  under  these  circumstances ;  and  that  is  also 
the  case  with  the  average  of  th^  population  in  comfort- 
able  circumr'ances.  Whatewr  the  constitutions  and 
habits  of  annuitants  may  be,  the  annuities  held  by 
then,  during  their  own  lives,  by  protecting  tbem  from 
many  of  the  wants,  care*,  and  anxieties  which  the 
bulk  of  the  people  are  exposed  to,  no  doubt  contribute 
to  their  longevity.  But  where  powerful  motives  to 
raise  money  by  the  sale  of  an  annuity  on  a  person'* 
own  life  exist,  it  Is  extremely  difficult  to  prevent  him 
Oom  parting  with  it,  whatever  precautions  may  have 
l>een  taken  with  that  view;  aud  with  it  he  also  lose* 
that  help  to  longevity. 
"  8.  Insured  live*  are  also  generally  supposed  to  bo 


ANT 


«1 


AMT 


niaeh  better  tMi  <h»  u^nngt  of  the  popnlfttioiij  u  H  ii 
iacumbent  vpoB  the  intnnuiM  oflaei  to  be  caatioot  in 
(electing  them.  BntbadUvef,bjr  thefltUureof  whleh 
person*  interested  in  them  would  sustain  loss,  ere 
most  hktily  to  be  oBkred,  end  are  oontintMUy  oAred, 
for  insurance:  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  all 
the  caution  in  selection  wirich  the  offlees  in  general  can 
exercise,  is  necessary  to  keep  the  lives  insured  up  to 
the  average  goodness  of  the  bulk  of  the  papulation ; 
supposing  always  th^t  people  in  general  of  the  indus- 
trious classes  are  in  proeperons,  or  at  Icut  in  comfort- 
able drcnmstances.  When  that  is  not  the  case,  as  for 
some  yeare  previous  to  1830  there  is  reason  to  appre- 
hend it  was  not  in  this  country,  there  will  be  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  the  general  mortality,  which  will 
notsennibly  afltet  the  general  mass  of  persons  on  whose 
lives  annuities  and  reversions  or  assurances  depend."— 
E.  B. 

▲ntarotla  The  south  pole  is  so  called  because 
It  is  opposite  to  the  north  or  arctic  pole.  A  continent 
of  1700  milee  of  coast  from  east  to  west,  and  64  to  66 
degrees  south,  was  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean 
by  French  and  American  Exploring  Expeditions,  un- 
der D'UrvUle  and  Wiike.'.  respectively  on  the  same 
day,  Janosry  19, 1840;  a  coincidence  the  more  singu- 
lar, as  the  discoverers  were  at  a  distance  fh>m  each 
other  of  720  miles.  It  was  coasted  by  Captain  Wilkes 
for  1700  miles.  Mr.  Brisoow,  of  the  British  Xavy,  fell 
in  with  land,  which  he  coasted  for  800  miles,  in  lat.  67°, 
long.  60°,  in  the  year  1830. 

^wHiinrtny  (6er.  and  Du.  Spietglat ;  Fr.  i4ii(tnioine  ; 
It.  Antimonio;  Rnsa.  Aniimonia;  Lat.^*(imontiiin),  a 
metal  which,  when  pure,  is  of  grayi»h  white  color,  and 
lias  a  good  deal  of  brilliancy,  sliowing  a  radiated  frac- 
ture when  broken ;  it  is  converted  by  exposure  to  beat 
and  air  into  a  white  oxide,  which  sublimes  in  vapors. 
It  is  found  in  Saxony  and  the  Hartz ;  also  in  Cornwall, 
Spain,  France,  Mexico,  Siberia,  the  Eastern  Islands, 
and  HartalMin,  in  Pegu.  We  are  at  present  wholly 
supplied  with  this  metal  from  Singapore,  which  re- 
ceives it  ftom  Borneo :  it  is  imported  in  the  shape  of 
ore,  and  commonly  as  ballast.  It  is  alwut  as  hurd  as 
gold ;  its  specific  gravity  is  alraut  G-7 ;  it  is  easily  re- 
duced to  a  very  fine  powder ;  its  tenacity  is  such  that 
'  rod  of  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of 
supporting  ten  pounds  weight.  Antimony  is  used  in 
medicine,  and  in  the  composition  of  metal  types  for 
printing.  The  ores  of  antimony  are  soft,  and  vary  in 
color  flrom  light  lead  to  dark  lead  gray ;  their  specific 
gravity  varies  from  4-4  to  6'8 ;  they  possess  a  metallic 
lustre,  are  brittle,  and  occur  in  the  crjstallized  mas- 
sive forms.-7TuoMgO!i'8  CiUmif<«;y  and  private  inform- 
ation. Antimony  was  very  early  known,  and  applied 
by  the  ancients  to  various  purposes.  It  was  used  as 
paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  women's  eyes,  as  ap- 
pears from  2  ktHgi  ix.  80,  and  Jeremiah  iv,  SO,  and  in 
Eastern  countries  it  is  thus  used  to  this  day.  When 
mixed  with  lead,  it  makes  types  for  printing;  and  in 
physic  its  uses  are  so  various  that,  according  to  its 
preparation,  alone,  or  in  company  with  one  or  two  as- 
sociates, it  is  sufficient  to  answer  all  a  physician  de- 
sires in  an  apothecary's  shop. — Boylr. 

Antipodes,  in  Geogngpht/,  a  name  given  to  those 
inhabitants  of  the  globe  that  live  diametrically  opposite 
to  each  other.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  compounded 
of  iivri,  oi^totiU,  and  irovf,  afoot,  because  their  feet  are 
opposite  to  each  other.  Plato  is  regarded  as  the  flrst 
who  thought  it  possible  that  antipodes  existed,  and  is 
looked  upon  as  the  inventor  of  the  word.  As  this  phi- 
losopher apprehended  the  earth  to  be  spherical,  he  h&d 
.only  one  step  to  make  to  conclude  the  existence  of  the 
antipodes.  The  ancients  in  general  treated  this  opin- 
ion with  the  highest  contempt,  never  being  able  to  con- 
ceive how  men  and  trees  could  subsist  suspended  in  the 
air  with  their  feet  upward,  for  so  they  apprehended 
they  must  be  in  the  other  hemisphere.  They  never  re- 
flected that  these  terms  ypviard  and  downward  are 


merely  nlaUve,  and  signify  only  naarw  to,  at  Csrfher 
flpom,  the  oentre  of  the  earth,  *Jie  oomaion  centre  to 
which  all  heavy  bodies  gravitate.— E.  B.  ' 

AntWMp  (Flem.  AntutrptHf  Fr.  Aw)tn\  a  f*' 
mous  (brtifiad  dty  of  Belgium,  and  the  centre  of  it* 
foreign  trade  (capital  and  province  of  th*  same  noma) 
on  the  Scheldt,  60  miles  firom  the  sea,  and  distant  byi 
raUroad  37i  tolle*  tarn  Brussels,  82  firom  Ohesit,  100^ 
from  Cologne,  268^  from  Paris,  and  74  fVom  Ostsnd^ 
Lat.  of  cathedral,  61°  18'  2"  N. ;  leog.  4'  84'  2"  Bi' 
Population  90,000.  Its  port  was  greatly  fanproved' 
by  Kapoleon,  who  erected  two  large  basins ;  andi 
uhips  anchor  in  the  river  opposite  the  dty  in  tnm  US' 
to  40  feet  water  at  ebb-tide.  Chief  mannfaotnreai' 
silk  and  cotton  hosiery,  thread,  tape,  and  linen  cloths, 
calico-printing,  embroidery,  bleac^ng,  and  sngar  re- 
fining.  Ship-building  is  extensively  carried  on,  and 
the  diamond-cutters  of  this  city  are  celebrated.  The 
principal  imports  are  coflfise,  grain,  and  seeds,  raw 
sugar  and  woven  fabrics ;  exports  flax,  woven  goods, 
refined  sugar,  metals,  glass,  eic.  In  the  Ifith  century 
Antwerp  was  the  richest  and  mutt  commercial  city  in 
Europe,  and  contained  200,000  inhabitants.  In  1648, 
at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  it  was  stipulated  bj'  Spain 
and  Holland  that  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt  should 
be  shut  up— a  stipulation  which  was  observed  till  the 
occupation  o<  Belgium  by  the  French,  when  it  was 
abolished.  It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1676  and 
in  1686,  and  by  the  French  in  1792  and  1704.  It  was 
the  capital  of  the  department  Deux  Nethes,  under  the 
dominion  of  the  French,  to  whom  it  again  surrendered 
December  24, 1832.  It  is  the  birth-place  of  the  paint* 
ers  Teuiers,  Jordaens,  and  Vandyck,  the  geographer! 
Ortelius,  and  the  engraver  Edelinck.  In  180S,  the  im- 
provement  of  the  harlmr  was  begun,  and  extensive  new 
docks  and  warehouses  have  since  Ijeen  coostmcted. 
Ships  of  the  largest  burden  come  up  to  the  town,  and 
goods  destined  for  the  interior  are  forwarded  with  the 
greatest  facility  by  means  of  canals  and  railways.  Al- 
most ail  the  foreign  trade  of  Belgium  is  at  present  cen- 
tred in  Antwerp,  which  has  agidn  become  a  place  of 
much  commercial  importance.  There  is  regular  steam 
communication  between  Antwerp  and  l«ndon,  and 
Hull  and  Botterdam. 

Goods  may  be  warehoused  in  Antwerp  en  entrepA, 
at  the  rates  of  charge  specified  in  a  fixed  tariff.  The 
exports  chiefly  consist  of  flax,  cotton  and  linen  manu- 
factured goods,  refined  sngar,  glass,  zinc,  oak-bark, 
grain  and  f^erds,  lace,  etc.  Tlie  imports  consist  prin- 
cipally (f  cofiee,  sugar,  and  other  colonial  products, 
cotton  -.raffs  and  other  mannfactuied  goods,  com,  raw 
cotton,  leather,  timber,  tobacco,  wool,  rice,  dye-stufib, 
salt,  wines,  fVuits,  etc.  A  large  proportion  of  the  im- 
ports not  Iwing  intended  for  home  consumption,  but 
for  transit  to  other  countries,  their  amount  is  always 
much  greater  than  the  amount  of  the  exports.  Of 
the  total  value  of  the  articles  imported  into  Antwerp 
in  1889,  amounting  to  97,960,200  francs  (;C8,918,40e), 
those  supplied  by  England  were  worth  very  near 
30,000,000  francs;  ditto  by  Russia,  14,866,900  francs; 
ditto  hy  the  United  StaUs,  8,217,800  friincs;  ditto  by 
France,  7,630,200  francs,  etc.  The  principal  articles 
were  coffee,  worth  14,746,600  Arancs ;  grain  and  seeds, 
18,936,800 francs;  sngar,  11,480,800 francs;  woven  fab- 
rics, 11,339,100  francs;  raw  cotton,  6,226,200  francs; 
meUls,  4,872,300  francs,  etc.  The  total  value  of  the 
articles  exported  during  the  same  year  was  86,630,000 
francs  (£1 ,426,440),  whereof  those  sen  t  to  Engluid  were 
worth  14,349,100  francs;  ditto  to  Holland,  .6,777,600 
francs;  the  Harse  Towns,  4,820,200  francs. 

JfoMey,  Wti^U,  and  Meaiuret. — The  French  sys- 
tem of  moneys,  weights,  and  measures  has  been  adopt- 
ed in  Belgium,  Formerly  account*  were  kept  in 
florins,  worth  Ir.  8|(1.  sterling.  The  quintal  formerly 
in  use,  and  stiU  sometimes  referred  to,  =  103^  pounds 
avoirdupois.  In  1837  the  Commercial  Bank,  a  Joint- 
stock  association,  was  founded  in  Antwerp.    It  has  a 


ANY 


5B 


APf 


flUtari  of  SS,000,000  tnata  (X1,000,«)0),  divided  into 
St,(MO«haiM  oriOOO  flranei  aacb,  and  tranMeU  all  lorti 
of  banking  biuincM.  Hen  iIm  an  two  considerable 
inninnoe  eonpaniet.  Tlie  railway  tnm  Antwerp  to 
Bfueeli,  m  miles  in  length,  has  been  signally  suo 
eessfol,  and  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  both  dties, 
but  aspedally  to  Antwerp. 

CuitomA<mit  RegulatioHt.— Captain*  of  ships  arriv- 
lag  at  Aniweipi  or  any  of  the  Belgian  ports,  must 
make,  within  twenty-four  hours,  a  declaration  in  wriu 
ing  of  the  goods  of  which  their  cargo  consists,  specify- 
ing the  marks  and  numbers  of  the  bales,  parcels,  etc., 
Aeir  value,  according  to  the  current  price  at  the  time 
when  the  declaration  is  made,  the  name  of  the  ship  or 
vesael,  as  well  as  that  of  the  captaio,  and  of  the  coun- 
try to  which  she  belongs,  etc. 


Klae-tenths  of  the  eommarce  of  Belginm  carried  on 
by  sea  centres  in  Antwerp.  The  great  articles  of  ex- 
port are  con,  especially  wheat ;  flax ;  catUe,  sheep,  and 
pigs ;  cast  and  wrought  iron ;  muskets,  tbwlihg-pieces, 
and  small  arms ;  linen  and  woolen  tibrics ;  clover  and 
other  seeds ;  coal,  butter,  books,  etc.  The  total  value 
of  the  exports  of  articles  of  the  growth  and  manufac^ 
ture  of  Belgium  amounted,  in  1860,  to  268,647,000 
ftranes.  Of  thaee  the  exports  to  France  (principally 
by  land)  amounted  to  74,480,000  flranes ;  those  to  Great 
Britain  to  41,848,000;  the  other  great  importers  of 
Belgium  produce  being  the  German  Customs  Union, 
the  Netherlands,  and  the  United  States.  The  great  ar- 
ticles of  import  are  raw  cotton,  sugar,  cofhe,  and  other 
colonial  products ;  Indigo  and  all  sorts  of  dyewoods, 
spices,  wine,  rice,  ashes,  flsb,  oils,  etc.    We  sutjoin 


Am  AooODin  or  tux  Nvmub  a»d  ToHHAas  or  Vtsssu  cimaxu  at  Amwiar,  aho  at  iacu  or  th«  BnsiAH  Posts,  ix 

184^  18M,  1847,  1848,  and  1848. 


mm. 

IMI. 

IMI. 

l>4T.              1 

is«i. 

.MS.              1 

VmhIi. 

Toaa. 

V<..j>k. 

Tw. 

ViMk. 

T(W. 

VmhIi. 

Tm. 

V<aiU. 

Tou. 

Antwerp 

Oaiend          

1,»19 
624 
224 
111 

280,899 

IM,710 

ao,4S6 

i],B81 

2,208 
087 

les 

80 

S27,«80 
fiA,48« 
21,715 

2,897 

1,9(8 

MS 

198 

06 

323,675 
B8,4B4 
27,009 
2,241 

1,134 
407 
110 
89 

Is3i 

1,6B4 
444 
236 
91 

274,458 
48,918 
28,814 
4,207 

OhAnt  f Zelssete) 

Nieupoit 

Totsl 

2,878 

877,64« 

1),U1 

407,778 

2,794 

411,419  1 

1,740     1  272,664 

2,424 

866,867 

AnvUla,  Jean  Baptiato  Bowsnlgnon  &',  a 
French  geographer  of  the  highest  eminence,  and  per- 
haps unsurpassed  in  any  age.  This  celebrated  man 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  11th  of  July,  1697.  His  pas- 
sion for  geographical  research  displayed  itself  from  his 
eariiest  years.  At  the  age  of  twelve,  Ahilo  reading  the 
Latin  authors  at  college,  he  amused  himself  with  draw- 
ing maps  of  the  countries  which  they  described.  While 
he  was  thus  busily  employing  himself  one  day  iu  the 
class,  his  master  observed  and  was  about  to  punish 
him ;  but  upon  casting  hlL  eye  upon  the  performance, 
he  immediately  judged  him  to  be  rather  deserving  of 
encouragement.  D'Anville  from  this  time  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  geography,  particularly  that  of  'he 
ancient  world ;  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  began 
to  delint>ate  maps  which  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
most  eminent  geographers. — E.  B. 

Apeak,  in  Seamen'i  languagt,  signifies  perpendic- 
ular; thus  the  anchor  is  said  to  be  apeak  when  the 
stem  of  the  ship  is  brought  directly  over  It  by  drawing 
in  the  cable. 

Apotheoaxy.  In  the  United  States,  a  dispenser 
of  medicines.  In  England,  frequently  prescriptions  as 
well  as  medicines  are  (brnished. 

Apron,  in  Naval  ArckUtctttrt,  is  a  piece  of  nurred 
timber  llxed  behind  ihe  lower  part  of  the  stem  imme- 
diately above  the  foremost  end  of  the  keel.  Apron  is 
also  a  name  given  to  a  platform  or  flooring  of  plank 
raised  at  the  entrance  of  a  dock,  against  which  the  dock 
gates  are  shut.  Apron,  in  Guimery,  a  piece  of  lead 
which  caps  or  covers  the  vent  or  touch-hole  of  a  gun. 

Appellation,  the  name  by  which  any  thing  is 
known  or  distinguished  when  spoken  of.  Kothing  can 
be  more  foreign  to  the  original  meaning  of  many  words 
and  proper  names  than  their  pre.*eut  or  vulgar  appel- 
lations, frequently  owing  to  the  history  of  those  things 
being  forgotten,  or  an  ignorance  of  the  language  in 
which  they  were  expressed.  Who,  for  example,  would 
dream  that  the  legal  proclamation  called  "  O  yes,^ 
was  a  proclamation  commanding  the  talkers  to  become 
hearers,  being  the  French  word  Oj/tt,  listen,  retained 
in  our  courts  ever  since  the  law  pleadings  were  held 
in  French?  Or  would  any  person  suppose  that  the 
head-land  on  the  French  ctoast  near  Calais,  called  by 
seamen  Blackness,  has  been  so  entitled  from  its  French 
name  of  Blame  ifez,  or  the  White  Head4andt 

King  Henry  the  Eighth  having  taken  the  town  of 
Boulogne  in  France,  the  gates  of  which  he  brought  to 
Herdes,  in  Kent,  where  they  are  still  remaining,  the 
flatterers  of  that  reign  highly  magnified  this  action, 
which,  Porto  Bello  like,  became  a  popular  sulject  for 


signs ;  and  the  port  or  harbor  of  Boulogne,  called  Bou- 
It^e  Mouth,  was  accordingly  set  up  at  a  noted  inn  in 
Holbom.  The  name  of  the  inn  long  outliving  the  sign 
and  fame  of  the  conquest,  an  ignorant  painter,  employ- 
ed by  a  no  less  ignorant  landlord  to  paint  a  new  one, 
represented  it  by  a  bull  and  a  large  gaping  human 
mouth ;  answering  to  the  vulgar  pronunciation  of  bull 
and  mouth.  The  same  piece  of  history  gave  being  to 
the  bull  and  gate,  originally  meant  for  Boulogne  Gate, 
and  represented  by  an  embattled  gate  or  rntran,.  into 
a  fortified  town. 

The  barber's  pole  has  been  the  subject  of  many  con- 
jectures ;  some  conceiving  it  to  have  originated  fh>m 
the  word  pott  or  head,  with  several  other  conceits  as 
far-fetched  and  as  unmeaning;  but  the  true  intention 
of  that  partv-colorcd  staff  was  to  show  that  the  master 
of  the  sb'  'ced  surgery,  and  could  breathe  a  vein 

as  well  3  A  beard.    The  white  band  which  en- 

compass ..cafl'  was  meant  to  represent  the  fillet 

thus  ekgantly  twined  about  It. 

Nor  were  the  chegueri,  at  this  time  a  coinmon  sign 
of  a  pul>lic  house,  less  expressive — being  the  represent- 
ation of  a  kind  of  draught-  board  called  tablet,  and  show- 
ing that  there  that  game  might  lie  played.  From  their 
, color,  which  was  red,  and  the  similarity  to  a  lattice,  it 
was  corruptly  called  the  red  lettuce,  which  word  is  fre- 
quently used  by  ancient  writers  to  signify  an  ale-house. 

The  Spectator  has  explained  the  sign  of  the  Bellriat- 
age  Inn  plausibly  enough,  in  supposing  it  to  have  been 
originally  the  figure  of  a  beautiful  female  found  In  the 
woods,  called  in  French  la  belle  laurage.  But  another 
reason  has  since  been  assigned  for  that  appellation, 
namely,  that  the  inn  was  once  the  property  of  Lady 
Arabella  Savage,  and  familiarly  called  BeU  Sarage't 
Inn,  probably  represented,  as  at  present,  by  a  bell  and 
a  savage  or  wild  man,  which  was  a  rebus  for  her  name, 
rebuses  Iwing  much  in  fashion  In  the  sixteenth  centur}'. 

The  Mree  gilt  balU  so  commonly  hung  out  as  signs  at 
pawnbrokers'  shops,  by  the  vulgar  humorously  enough 
said  to  indicate  that  it  is  two  to  one  that  the  things 
pledged  are  never  redeemed,  were  in  reality  the  arms 
of  a  set  of  merchants  fVom  Lombardy,  who  were  the 
first  that  pnblidy  lent  money  on  pledges.  They  dwelt 
together  in  a  street,  from  them  named  Lombard  Street, 
in  London,  and  also  gave  their  name  to  another  at 
Paris.  Tlic  appellation  of  Lombard  was  formerly  all 
over  Europe  considered  as  synonymous  with  that  of 
usuror. 

At  the  institution  of  yeomen  of  the  guards,  they  used 
to  wait  at  table  on  all  great  solemnities,  and  were 
ranged  near  the  buflbt*.    This  procured  them  the  name 


APP 


» 


'ktto 


'  name, 
entur}'. 
signs  at 
enough 
I  things 
he  arms 
rere  the 
ly  dwelt 
1  Street, 
>ther  at 
lerly  all 
that  of 

icy  used 
id  were 
le  name 


of  Imfeiitri,  not  very  noUke  in  sound  to  the  Jocular 
appellation  of  btff-ealeri,  now  given  them ;  though 
probably  it  was  rather  the  voluntaf}-  misnomer  of  some 
wit'  than  an  accidental  corruption  wising  from  igno- 
rance of  the  French  language. 

The  opprobrious  title  of  bum  ban^fe,  so  constantly 
bestowed  on  the  sheriff's  officers,  is,  according  to  Judge 
Blackstone,  only  the  corruption  of  bound  baj/liffe,  every 
sheriff^  officer  being  obliged  to  enter  Into  bonds,  and 
to  give  seouiity  for  his  good  behavior,  previous  to  his 
appointment. 

A  conftoainer  seems  to  have  no  relation  to  the  occu- 
pation It  is  meant  to  express,  which  is  that  of  a  shoe- 
niulcer.  But  eordomer,  origiually  spelled  cordaunitr,  is 
the  French  word  for  that  trade ;  the  best  leather  used 
for  shoes  coming  originally  from  Cordova,  In  Spain. — 
E.O. 

▲pplea,  the  (hiit  of  the  Pjp^t  Mabu,  or  apple-tree. 
It  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  most  temperate 
climates.    An  immense  variety  and  quantity  of  excel- 
lent apples  are  raised  in  England,  partly  for  the  table, 
and  partly  for  manufacturing  into  cider.  Those  employ- 
ed for  the  latter  purpose  are  comparatively  harah  and 
austere.     The  principal  elder  counties  are  Hereford, 
Monmouth,  Gloucester,  Worcester,  Somerset,  and  Dev- 
on.    Mr,  Marshall  estimated  the  produce  of  the  first 
four  at  30,000  hogsheads  a  year,  of  which  Worcester  is 
supposed  to  supply  10,000;   but  it  is  now  probably 
much  greater.     Half  a  ho^^ead  of  cider  may  bo  ex- 
pected, in  ordinarily  fkvorable  seasons,  from  each  tree 
in  an  orchard  in  fidl  bearing.     The  number  of  trees 
on  an  acre  varies  from  10  to  40,  so  that  the  quantity 
of  cider  must  vary  In  the  same  proportion,  that  is,  from 
6  to  20  hogsheads.    The  produce  is,  however,  very  fluc- 
tuadng,  and  a  good  crop  seldom  occurs  above  once  in 
three  years. — Loudon's  Eucylopedia  of  Agriculture,  etc. 
Besides  the  immense  consumption  of  native  apples, 
the  English  inport,  for  the  talde,  large  supplies  of 
French  and  other  foreign  apples.    Owing,  however, 
to  the  duty,  previously  to  1842,  having  been  an  ad  va- 
lorem one  of  6  per  cent.,  we  are  unable  to  specify  the 
quantities  imported.     They  must,  however,  have  been 
very  considerable,  as  their  declared  value  amounted, 
in  1841,  to  £41,197  it.  lOd.     In  1842  the  duty  was  fixed 
at  6d.  per  bushel  on  raw,  and  2*.  per  bushel  on  dried 
apples.    At  an  average  >'f  i860  and  1851,  the  entries 
for  consumption  amounted  to  442,950  bushels.     The 
duties  in  England  were  reduced  in  the  course  of  the 
year  lt*53  to  ^i.  per  bushel  on  raw,  and  1(.  per  bushel 
on  dried  apples.    The  apples  produced  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  York  are  universally  admitted  to  be  the  finest 
of  any ;  but  dnless  selected  and  packed  with  cart,  they 
are  very  apt  to  spoil  before  reaching  England.     The 
exports  of  apples  from  the  United  States  during  the 
year  ending  the  80th  of  June,  1852,  amounted  to  18,411 
t>arrels,  valued  at  43,636  dollars.     Of  these  1808  bar- 
rels were  shipped  for  the  United  Kingdom.     In  the 
year  1854.6,  the  qusntity  exported  was  88,969  barrels, 
at  a  valje  of  1107,600. 

Apptalaer  (from  ad,  to,  and  pretium,  value),  one 
who  rates  or  sets  a  value  upon  goods,  etc.,  used  princi- 
pally iu  the  custom-house  to  designate  men  who  ap- 
praise goods  entered  for  duty. 

Apprentioe,  •  person  of  either  sex  bound  by  in- 
denture to  serve  some  particular  individual  or  com- 
pany of  individual*  for  a  specified  time,  in  order  to  be 
instructed  in  some  art,  science,  mystery,  or  trade. 

ApprsnttoasUp,  the  servitude  of  an  apprentice, 
or  the  duration  of  his  indenture. 

Seven  years  seem  anciently  to  have  been,  all  over 
Europe,  the  usual  term  established  fbr  the  diuration  of 
apprenticeships  in  the  greater  part  of  incorporated 
trades.  All  such  incorporations  were  anciently  called 
uttiveriUiet,  which  ln4«M  i*  the  proper  Latin  name  for 
any  incorporation  whatever.  The  university  of  smiths, 
the  university  of  tailors,  etc,  are  expressions  which  we 
commonly  meet  with  in  the  old  charters  of  anUent 


towns.  When  those  particular  inoorporationtwUeh  are 
now  peculiarly  called  uiueeriititt  were  fint  established, 
the  term  of  years  which  it  was  necessary  to  study  in  on 
der  to  obtain  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  appears  evU 
dently  tohave  been  copied  from  the  term  of  apprentice- 
ship in  common  trades.  Of  which  the  incorporations  wen 
much  more  ancient.  As  to  have  wrought  seven  yaara 
under  a  master  properly  qualified  was  necessary  in  on 
der  to  entitle  any  person  to  become  a  master,  and  to 
have  himself  ^jprentioes  in  a  common  trade;  so  to 
have  studied  seven  years  under  a  master  properly  quoli- 
fled  was  necessary  to  entitle  him  to  become  a  master, 
teacher,  or  doctor  (words  anciently  synonymous),  in 
the  liberal  arts,  and  to  have  scholars  or  apprenticet 
(words  lilnwise  originally  synonymous)  to  atudy  under 
him. 

Apprenticeships  were  altogether  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients. The  reciprocal  duties  of  master  and  apprentice 
make  a  considerable  article  in  every  modem  coda.  The 
Koinan  law  is  perfectly  silent  with  regard  to  them. 
There  is  bo  Greek  or  Latin  word  which  expresses  the 
idea  we  now  annex  to  the  word  apprentice— •  servant 
bound  to  work  at  a  particular  trade  for  the  benefit  of 
a  master  during  a  terra  of  years,  upon  condition  that 
the  master  shall  leach  him  that  trade. — E.C 
▲qua  FoitlS.  See  Acid  (Nitric). 
Aqua  Marina.  Ste  Bbrvl. 
Aqua  Vita  (Ger.  Aquavit;  Fr.  Eoh  da  vi$f  It 
Acqua  vile;  Sp.  Agua  de  vida;  Ross.  Wodha;  Lat. 
Aqua  vUa),  a  name  familiarly  applied  to  all  native 
distilled  spirits;  equivalent  to  the  eou  da  via,  or  bran- 
dy, of  the  French,  the  whiekf  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish, 
tlie  ;ea«K>  of  the  Dutch,  etc.  In  this  way  it  Is  used  in 
the  excise  laws  relating  to  the  distilleries. 

Aquadnot,  a  conduit  or  channel  for  the  convey- 
ance of  water.  It  is  derived  from  aqua,  water,  and 
ductui,  a  conduit  It  is  applied  more  particularly  to 
those  structures  of  masonry  which  have  been  erected 
for  the  conveyance  of  wat«r  across  valleys,  to  which, 
liowever,  we  would  rather  give  the  name  of  aqueduct 
bridges,  extending  the  term  aqueduct  to  the  whole 
conduit  or  channel  by  which  the  water  is  conveyed 
from  one  place  to  another.  The  conveyance  of  water 
for  the  supply  of  large  cities  has  in  all  ages  formed  a 
very  important  object  of  public  economy ;  and  aque- 
ducts of  various  kinds  have  been  in  use  for  this  pur- 
pose ilrom  the  earliest  times,  the  remains  of  which  have 
been  examined  by  travelers  in  diflerent  parts  of  the 
East.  Pococke  describes  a  work  of  this  kind  erected 
by  Solomon,  for  conveying  water  from  the  pools  and 
fountains  near  Bethlehem  to  Jerusalem.  "  The  aque- 
duct," he  says,  "  is  built  on  a  foundation  of  stone ;  the 
water  runs  in  round  earthen  pipes  alxnit  ten  inches 
diameter,  which  are  cased  with  two  stones,  hewn  out 
so  a*  to  fit  them,  and  they  are  covered  over  with  rough 
stones  well  cemented  together;  and  the  whole  is  so 
sunk  into  tlie  ground  on  the  sid*  of  the  hills,  that  in 
many  places  nothing  is  to  be  seen  of  it."  But  it  was 
in  the  luxurious  capital  of  Rome  that  the  i^slam  of 
aqueducts  was  brought  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and 
carried  to  an  extent  which  has  never  been  equaled 
even  in  modem  times,  and  has  justly  excited  admiral' 
tion  l)oth  from  the  number  and  magnificence  of  the 
works  themselves,  and  the  prodigious  quantities  of 
water  which  by  these  means  were  continnally  poured 
into  the  city.  These  aqueducts  extended,  some  of 
them  80,  40,  and  even  60  miles  ih>m  the  dty,  in  one 
continued  covered  channel  of  stone,  carried  by  areadei 
over  the  widest  and  deepest  valleys,  and  by  tunnel* 
running  in  many  parts  for  miles  through  mountain* 
and  through  the  solid  rock.  "  If  we  consider  attentive* 
ly,"  says  Pliny,  "  the  quantities  of  water  brought  into 
tt.c  city  for  the  use  of  the  public,  for  baths,  for  fish- 
ponds, for  private  houses,  for  artificial  lakes,  for  gar- 
dens in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city,  and  for  villas ; 
if  we  look  alto  at  he  works  which  have  been  construct- 
ed for  forming  a  i-egnlar  channel  for  the  waters— arch- 


AQU 


SA 


AQtJ 


M  MUfhd  up,  moMiUias  rtarat4  with  taniwb,  and  TaU 
Uft  ttlBd  up  to  ■  laval ;  It  nniit  b«  •cknowledead  tliat 
■  thtn  U  nothing  In  the  whol«  world  wore  wonderful." 
■i  '  Within  the  lut  century,  the  invention  and  improTe- 
aant  of  the  manafitoture  of  cait  iron  but  completely 
ehangad  the  mode  of  conducting  water  Intv  clt!'!f,  by 
the  introduction  of  cait-iron  pipes  Instead  of  -he  utone 
coaduita  of  farmer  timot.  Theee  pipea  cnn  now  be 
Ibrmad  of  almoet  any  dimeneiona,  and  united  together 
into  a  ooatinncd  aeries,  ao  closely  as  to  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  the  water,  even  ur.der  a  violent  prassure  aris- 
ing from  the  altitude  of  the  fountain-head.  They  ena- 
ble na,  therefore,  to  take  advantage  of  and  give  elAet 
to  that  grand  principle  in  hydrostatics,  that  the  fluid 
:abment  tenda  continually  to  a  level,  even  though  it  be 
conflned  in  the  smallest  or  most  complicated  system  of 
pipea ;  lo  that  however  low  it  be  carried  in  any  valley, 
or  to  whatever  distance,  still  it  will  rise  on  the  opposite 
tide  totheorlgnalaltitudaof  thefonntain-bead — a  prin- 
dpie  whieb  is  most  important,  indeed,  in  such  works, 
•eeiog  thft  by  it  we  ar«  not  restricted,  as  the  Romans 
were,  almost  to  a  perfect  level  in  the  line  of  the  con- 
duit. Wo  have  seen  that,  for  the  purpose  of  attaining 
this  leV«I,.or  very  gentle  declivity,  all  along  the  con- 
duit, they  were  jmder  the  necessity  of  raising  it  by  ar- 
cades continued  in  one  unbroken  aeries,  frequently  80 
or  40  miles  in  extent;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  often 
.|irol6ngiBg  the  length  of  the  track  by  a  clnniitous 
route,  turning  and  winding  for  miles  out  of  ita  course, 
tut  the  very  purpose  of  increasing  its  length. 

But  the  use  of  pipes  enables  us  to  diapenae  with 
these  long  arcadea,  all  raiaed  nearly  to  the  same  level 
With  the  Ibnntain-head ;  liecause  the  conduit  may  be 
varied  in  its  level  to  any  extent,  and  still  will  rise  at 
-last  to  its  oiiginal  altitude.  The  pipes,  thareibre,  are 
merely  laid  M  along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  with  a 
cover  of  two  or  three  ihet  of  soil  to  place  them  beyond 
tiM  reach  of  flroat  To  prevent,  however,  the  Arequent 
or  abrupt.altamationa  of  riae  and  fall,  any  audden  in- 
oqnalitica  in  the  ground  are  equalized  by  cuttings  and 
emtiankaients,  but  not  to  any  thing  like  the  extent 
that  wonld  be  required  to  raise  the  whole  to  a  level. 
This,  therefore,  forms  a  capital  improvement  in  tht 
method  of  conducting  water,  and  the  greatest,  indeed, 
wl^ch  baa  ever  been  made  in  this  important  branch  of 
practical  mechanics.  That  it  was  not  introduced  by 
the  Bomans,  is  not  to  be  ascribed,  as  many  have  done, 
to  their  ignorance  of  the  hydrostatic  principle  that  tho 
fluid  would  rise  to  a  level  in  the  opposite  branches  of 
the  same  tialn  of  pipes.  Professor  Leslie  has  shown 
that  they  were  well  acquainted  with  this  principle, 
and  has  moreover  obtained  firom  Italy  a  portion  of  a 
leaden  pipe,  supposed  to  have  been  nsed  in  the  baths 
of  Caracalla,  which  sets  this  matter  at  rest.  But  from 
the  low  state  of  the  arts  at  that  period,  they  were  un- 
able to  give  eflfcot  to  the  principle.  They  had  not  the 
meana  of  fkWoatiag  pipes  of  such  a  magnitude  as  would 
have  been  required  for  the  enormous  quantity  of  water 
consumed  in  Rome,  and  at  the  '-ame  time  of  strength 
•uiBcient  to  witlistand  tha  pressure  flrom  the  fountain- 
head.  Lead  waa  the  only  material  that  could  be  used 
by  them  for  the  purpose;  and  beside*  the  enormous 
thickness  tliat  so  weak  a  material  would  have  required, 
•ad  the  impracticability  of  their  forming  them,  and 
taiting  them  together  endwise,  they  were  too  well  ae- 
^aaintod  with  the  tendency  of  lead  to  render  the  water 
uiwholesome  by  its  poisonott*  impregnation.  The  use 
of  cast  iron  was  quite  unknown.  There  remained, 
therefore,  no  resource  bnt  in  the  aqueducts,  which, 
though  attended  no  doubt  with  vast  expense,  and  re- 
quiring great  enterprisa,  as  well  as  both  skill  and  pa- 
tteBce-,  www  yet  attaiaaiile  by  these  means,  and  formed 
whan  oempteted  a  simple  and  very  perfect  mode  of  ef- 
fMting  the  oljeot  Hence  arose  all  those  works  above 
deacrfbed  which  have  since  excited  such  astonishment. 
Now,,  however,  when  the  mannfactara  of  cast  iron  has 
baes  brought  to  such  perfection,  and  methods  contrived 


for  uniting  perfectly  together  all  the  pipes  Into  one  con- 
nected train,  this  improved  system  has  been  universally 
adopted. 

Crctom  Aqutduct. — The  Cretan  Aqueduct,  by  which 
the  city  of  New  York  is  supplied  with  water,  may  be 
regarded  a*  the  meet  magniHcent  work  of  the  kind  ex- 
ecuted in  modem  times.  It  was  commenced  in  1887, 
and  completed  in  1842,  at  an  expense  of  8,576,000  dol- 
lars, the  diatribution  pipes  costing  1,800,000  dollars 
additional.  Its  length  from  the  Croton  Lake  to  the  re- 
ceiving reservoir  is  88^  miles.  The  Croton  Lake,  which 
is  formed  by  the  Croton  Cteek,  a  small  stream  of  whole- 
some water  fslling  into  the  Hudson,  covrrs  400  acres, 
and  contains  a  body  of  water  of  about  600,000,000  gal- 
lons. To  the  valley  of  the  Harlem  River,  a  distance 
of  88  miles,  the  aqueduct  is  built  of  stone,  brick,  and 
cement,  arched  over  and  under,  6  feet  8  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom,  7  Iteet  8  inches  at  the  top,  and  8  feet  6 
inches  high ;  and  capable  of  discharging  60,000,000 
gallons  per  day.  It  is  carried  over  the  Ilarlem  valley 
in  iron  pipes  laid  upon  a  magniflccnt  bridge  1460  feet 
long,  constructed  of  archea  114  feet  above  high-water 
mark  at  Yorkville.  Theae  pipes  pass  into  the  receiv- 
ing reservoir,  which  is  1826  feet  long  and  886  feet  wide, 
covering  an  area  of  87  acres,  and  capable  of  containing 
160,000,000  gallons.  Hence,  to  the  distributing  reser- 
voir, a  distance  of  3f  miles,  the  water  is  conveyed  by 
a  double  lino  of  iron  pipes  8  feet  in  diameter.'  This 
second  reservoir  is  430  feet  square  and  44  feet  above  the 
streets,  with  a  capacity  of  20,000,000  galloiu— whence 
the  water  is  conveyed  through  the  city  by  about  170 
miles  of  pipe,  principally  from  6  to  12  inches  in  diam- 
eter. 

In  those  parts  of  British  India  where  the  fall  of  rain 
ia  scanty  and  uncertain,  recourse  is  had  to  artincial  ir- 
rigation, and  the  waters  of  many  of  the  rivers  of  the 
country  have  been  rendered  available  for  this  purpose 
by  means  of  public  works  constructed  by  the  govern- 
ment. Of  these  the  moat  important  ia  tho  Ganges 
Canal,  which  traverses  the  northwestern  provinces  of 
Bengal,  and  distributes  over  their  vast  area  nearly  the 
whole  volume  of  the  waters  of  the  Ganges.  The  canal 
begins  at  the  point  where  the  river  issues  from  the 
mountains  and  enters  the  plains  of  Bengal.  About  20 
miles  from  ita  source,  the  line  of  the  canal  crosses  the 
valley  of  the  Solani  River,  and  the  works  for  eflccting 
the  transit  are  designed  on  a  scale  worthy  of  the  un- 
dertaking. The  valley  is  between  two  and  three 
miles  in  width.  An  earthen  embankment  is  carried 
across,  raised  on  an  average  between  16  and  17  feet 
above  the  surrounding  country,  and  having  a  width 
of  860  hit  at  its  base,  and  290  feet  in  the  upper  part. 
This  embankment  forms  the  bed  of  the  canal,  which  is 
protected  by  banks  12  feet  in  depth  and  30  feet  wide 
at  the  top.  To  preserve  these  banks  (h>ni  the  cfTecta 
of  the  action  of  the  water,  lines  of  nia«onry  formed 
into  steps  extend  on  each  side  throughout  their  entire 
length.  The  Solani  River  is  crossed  by  an  aqueduct 
920  feet  long,  having  side  walls  8  feet  thick  and  12 
deep,  the  depth  of  tho  water  being  10  feet.  The  water 
of  the  canal  pasaea  through  two  aeparate  channels. 
That  of  the  River  Solani  flows  under  fifteen  arches, 
having  a  span  of  60  feet  each,  constructed  in  the  most 
subatantial  manner,  and  springing  fW>m  piers  resting 
on  blocks  of  masonry  sunk  into  the  bed  of  the  river. 

The  great  water-works  that  supply  the  city  of  Mar- 
seilles with  the  water  of  the  Durance,  by  a  canal 
about  60  milva  in  length,  are  among  the  boldest  under- 
takings of  the  kind  in  modem  times.  This  canal, 
begun  in  1880,  and  not  yet  completed  (1862),  has  al- 
ready cost  above  ^2,000,000  sterling.  It  ia  conveyed 
through  three  chains  of  limeatone  mountaina  by  forty- 
five  tunnels,  forming  an  aggregate  length  of  ej[  miles, 
and  across  numerous  valleys  by  aqueducts ;  the  lar- 
gest of  which,  the  Aqueduct  of  Roquefavor,  over  the 
ravin*  of  the  Rivet  Arc,  about  6  miles  fhim  Aix,  sur- 
passes in  size  and  altitude  the  aucient  Pont  du  Gard. 


AllA. 


U 


Ak^ 


Hix,  sur- 
tu  Gtrd. 


Tke  ImmanM  roluma  of  watar,  which  pauM  at  th« 
nt*  of  108,000  gallon!  per  minato,  la  oairttd  acroai  ai 
In  the  old  Boman  aqueduct*  by  a  channel  of  maaon- 
work.  The  height  of  thla  aqueduct  la  162  feet,  and 
Ita  length  1287.  The  number  of  cubic  yarda  of  ma- 
ionry  contained  in  it  ia  67,000 ;  the  total  coat  ha*  bean 
X161,394. 

Edmburgk  ITater-uanl*.— The  worka  undertaken  by 
the  Kdlnliurgh  Water  Company  in  1810  were  probably 
the  moat  complete  and  perfect  of  the  time.  They  were 
deaigned  by  Mr,  .Tardine,  the  then  engineer  of  the 
company,  and  carriea  out  under  hia  auperintendence 
in  a  atyla  quite  worthy  of  the  city,  and  offering,  both 
in  the  general  deatgn  and  in  all  the  delaila,  a  model 
of  propriety  and  akill  in  tbia  apeciea  of  hydraulic  archi- 
tecture. The  Crawley  springe  were  conducted  by  an 
aqueduct  into  a  covered  ciatem  at  a  point  about  7 
milea  diatant  from  Edinburgh,  and  a  aupply  flrom  the 
atream  called  the  Glencorae  Burn,  conveyed  by  an 
open-work  tunnel  from  about  a  mile  and  a  half  weat- 
ward.  Thla  tunnel  ia  in  aome  placea  upward  of  80 
feet  deep,  and  the  valley  through  which  it  paaaea,  con- 
aiating  entirely  of  gravel,  acta  aa  a  fliur  through  which 
the  water  descends  and  percolates,  all  solid  matter 
being  intercepted  in  its  passage  to  the  tunnel  from 
whence  it  is  delivered  into  the  cistern,  and  conveyed 
to  Edinburgh  by  a  chain  of  pipes  varying  from  20  to 
15  inches  of  interior  diameter,  without  being  expoaed 
to  the  light  of  day.  ITrom  the  numeroua  undulationa 
of  the  surface,  the  fall  of  the  pipe  ia  not  unifom). 
Abrupt  inequalities,  however,  were  removed  by  cutting 
and  embanking.  Toward  the  northern  termination 
of  the  line  the  pipe  ia  carried  through  a  tunnel  of 
2160  feet  in  length,  and  about  70  or  80  feet  under  the 
aurfltce  of  Heriot'a  Green,  In  croaaing  the  Grass  Mark- 
et it  forks  off  by  one  branch  to  a  reservoir  in  the  Cas- 
tle Hill,  and  by  another  about  120  feet  under  the 
raaervoir,  through  a  tunnel  740  feet  in  length,  cut 
through  the  rock  of  which  the  ridge  leading  to  the 
Caatle  ia  composed.  Branchea  were  laid  through  all 
the  principal  atreeta. 

The  pipea  are  in  lengtha  of  9^  fact  each,  and  were 
tested  before  being  laid  by  a  pressure  equal  to  a  vert- 
ical column  of  800  feet  of  water.  The  Joints  are  what 
are  termed  spigot  and  faucet.  Cocks  for  the  discharge 
of  air  accumulating  in  the  pipes  are  placed  at  the  sum- 
mits of  all  the  considerable  elevations;  and  in  the 
hollows  are  placed  sluice  cocks  for  the  purpose  of  run- 
ning off  sand  or  other  solid  matter  which  may  collect 
in  the  pipe.  It  ia  capable  of  delivering  268-56  cubic 
feet  of  water  per  minute  into  the  reservoir  at  the 
Castle  Hill. 

The  formation  of  the  Compensation  Reservoir  was 
undoubtedly  the  greatest  work  of  hydraulic  engineer- 
ing nf  its  day.  It  was  designed  and  completed  by 
Mr.  Jardine,  and,  with  the  then  limited  experience  of 
ooBtractora  and  workmen  in  the  construction  of  similar 
works,  ita  suocesaful  completion  does  great  honor  to 
the  genius  and  perseverance  of  the  engineer.  It  has 
been  twice  enlarged,  and  now  forms  an  artiflcial  lake 
extending  over  an  area  of  46  imperial  acres. — £,  B. 

Anuigocs,  a  apeciea  of  beada  made  of  rough  car- 
nelian.  They  are  of  variona  forma — as,  barrel,  bell, 
round,  etc — and  all  drilled.  The  barrel-shaped  kind, 
cut  from  the  best  stones,  are  from  two  to  three  Inches 
long,  and  should  be  chosen  aa  clear  as  possible,  whether 
red  or  white,  having  a  good  polish,  and  free  from  flawa. 
Th*  bell-ahaped  are  from  one  to  two  inches  long,  being 
in  all  respecta  inferior.  Conaiderable  qnantitiea  were 
formerly  imported  fVom  Bombay,  for  re-exportation  to 
Africa;  but  aince  tbe  abolition  of  the  atave-trade,  the 
importa  and  exporta  of  Arangoea  are  comparatively 
trifling. — Milrorm's  Oritnt.  Com. 

Arbitration,  a  term  derived  from  the  nomencla- 
ture of  the  Roman  law,  and  applied  to  an  arrangement 
for  taking  and  abiding  by  the  Judgment  of  a  aelected 
peraon  in  aome  disputed  matter,  instead  of  carrying  it 


to  the  eatabllahed  eoort*  of  Joatioa.    Arraagwnanti  for 
avoiding  the  delay  and  expenaa  of  litigation,  and  r»- 
ferring  a  diapnte  to  fHenda  or  neutral  peraona,  are  a 
natnriu  practice,  of  which  traces  may  be  found  In  any 
atate  of  aodaty ;  but  it  ia  to  the  Juatinian  Jnriaprudance 
that  we  owe  it  aa  a  ayatem  which  haa  found  ita  way  into 
the  practice  of  European  nationa  in  general,  and  ha* 
even  evaded  the  dialike  of  tbe  EnglUh  common  law- 
yera  to  the  civil  law.    The  eighth  section  of  the  fourth 
book  of  the  Pandects  ia  devoted  to  thia  aulject,  and 
may  be  conaulted  through  the  commentary  of  Heineo- 
ciua,  or  a  more  minute  critical  inquiry  by  Gorard 
Noodt,  in  hia  commentary  on  tbia  section  (Opera,  it. 
186).    Almoat  all  the  advantagea,  as  well  aa  (he  de-    . 
facta  of  the  ayatem  in  modem  practice,  aeem  to  have 
been  anticipated  by  the  Roman  Jurista.    Thus  it  i« 
shown  that  voluntarily  selected  Judges  can  only  prop- 
erly decide  queationa  which  the  partiea  thcmaelvea 
could  aettle  by  giving  and  taking,  and  that  they  ought 
;iot  to  be  authorized  to  deal  witii  criminal  inquirlea  or 
public  queationa ;  while,  by  excluding  mattera  of  per- 
aonal  atatua,  auch  aa  marriage  or  legitimacy,  the  Ro- 
man Juriata  anticipated  the  principle,  that  even  private 
queationa  which  may  affect  the  public  morala  or  policy 
can  not  be  thua  extnyjudicially  diapoaed  of.     They 
dwell  on  the  principal  advantage  of  the  ayatem  in  ex- 
cluding appeal  from  the  arbiter'a  deciaion  on  any  auch 
ground  aa  erroneoua  law,  or  falae  vlewa  of  the  influence 
of  well-inveatigated  facts.     But,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  discuss,  with  their  usual  scientific  subtlety,  the 
many  defects,  such  as  excess  of  authority,  neglect  of 
form,  and  partiality  in  receiving  pleadings  or  evidence, 
and  the  like,  by  which  arbitrations  become  vitiated ; 
and  thua  these  Jurists  at  once  suggest  what  is  ever  the 
defect  of  a  system  of  arbitration,  that  the  more  it  per- 
forms its  function  of  doing  Justice,  the  more  it  becomes 
what  the  establiabed  tribunals  of  the  country  ought  to 
be,  and  foaters  two  ayatema  of  Judicature  where  one 
ahould  be  aufficient.     Some  of  the  civiliana  make  a 
distinction  between  the  arbitrator,  the  name  technical- 
ly applicable  to  a  person  voluntarily  chosen  by  partiea 
to  decide  diaputea,  and  the  arbUer,  an  officer  to  whom 
the  pralor  remitted  queationa  of  fact  aa  to  a  jury.     In 
thla  aenae  arbiters  appear  to  have  been  employed  aa  a 
substitute  for  Jury  trial  in  some  of  the  old  provincial 
laws  of  France ;  and  hence,  perhaps,  it  comea  that,  by 
a  very  remarkable  proviaion  in  the  French  code  of 
commerce,  all  queationa  between  partners  touching  the 
partnerahip  muat  be  referred  to  arbitration.     In  the 
code  of  civil  procedure,  the  title  dt$  arbitragtt  is  treated 
so  fully  and  minutely,  aa  ver}'  forcibly  to  convey  the 
impreasion  of  a  separate  system  of  voluntary  Jurisdic- 
tion being  created  for  performing  what  ought  to  be  ac- 
complished by  the  ordinary  tribunids  in  a  well-regn. 
lated  Judicial  system. 

Arbitration,  in  the  //ito  of  England  (according  to 
Ulackstonc),  is  "where  the  parties,  injuring  and  in- 
jured, submit  all  matters  in  dispute,  concerning  any 
personal  chattels  or  personal  wrong,  to  the  judgment 
of  two  or  more  ariitratort,  who  are  to  decide  the  con- 
troversy ;  and  if  they  do  not  agree,  it  is  usual  to  add, 
that  another  peraon  be  called  in  as  umpire  (imperator), 
to  whose  sole  judgment  it  is  then  referred ;  or  frequent* 
ly  there  Is  only  one  arbitrator  originally  appointed." 
The  decision  must  be  in  writing  (unless  otherwise  ex- 
pressly provided  in  the  submission),  and  is  called  an 
award ;  and  thereby  the  question  is  as  fully  determ- 
ined, and  the  right  transferred  or  settled,  as  it  could 
have  been  by  the  agreement  of  the  parties  or  the  Judg- 
ment of  a  court  of  law  or  equity. 

There  were,  however,  many  inconveniences  attend- 
ing this  mode  of  proceeding ;  and  in  the  year  1698,  the 
legislature  accordingly  interfered,  and  passed  the  act 
9th  and  10th  WiU.  III.,  cap.  15,  which  enacted  that, 
"for  promoting  trade,  and  rendering  the  award*  of 
arbitrators  the  more  effectual  in  all  cases,  for  the  final 
determination  of  controversies  referred  to  them  by 


M 


▲BC 


•r  MMWI  or  tndu,  «r  «<tM  mtUun'  all  amkuM 
m4  otbm  tfMtrtaff  l«  «M  Miy  •hmntm^',  mUi,  «r 
oasml  Cl^  wkl«h  ttm  if  m  ailMr  nrntiy  bat  bjr 
pWMMl  MtiM  ff  Mil  in  •4iitty)  I*)*  •rUtraliea,  my 
agiM  a^tMrnAmiMtm  H  lb«ir  tail  to  tb«  Award 
•r  wnpinft  a'aiU' PMiHW  ahall  ba  mad*  a  ml*  pf  anjr 
of  tlia  iMtftt  af  ivwM,  asd  may  iMMrt  taali  agifamaiit 
la  (MriiiMMiaA  (  wMali  «MMm«at  bainc  prorad  by 
Um  aMarM  af  aaa  af  Um  witaatMw  tiiafato,  Um  wnrt 
dMU  maka  a  rata  liiat  Mali  afUtraiioa  or  amplfag* 
pamiaal  to  mmIi  mbmiifian  ibatt  b«  cooalailira  j  and 
aftar  awb  rala  nada,  tlw  {larliaa  diiobaylag  tba  award 
•ball  ba  liabla  la  ba  paaiahad.  aa  fcr  a  traumpt  of 
aowtf  ualaM  tnA  award  thail  ba  *at  aalda,  ai  pr». 
aaiad  by  aarra^laa  ar  lUidiM  maana  in  Iba  arbitralon 
or  wmfm,  la  ba  iwavad  an  aalii  to  Iba  aoort,  bafora  Um 
laat  day  af  Km  m»I  larm  aClar  lb*  award  ia  mad*. 

An  aMliaatfoa  Ibr  an  aWaabmanl  tot  not  parformlng 
an  award  aia/  ba  walilad  al  any  lima  tut  dafMU  ap- 
paariag  m  m*  Aaa  af  tba  award  ii*«l/}  for  tnoh  an 
award,  aftar  Ibat  !<■*«  miMbl  ba  pbadtd  in  bar  to  any 
aeliaa  braaabl  apoii  it.  illkai^  It  tan  not  b*«ti  aiM^ 
flw  iiiab  da4e>  aAor  taa  taa  v^  iha  n*at  term.  8ub- 
■riationa of  diapiiiaa  to  tAMn'.'o- -.  iff  b*  by  eoBMnt 
af  tba  partlat,  ar  witfe  ibt  4ti«r)K.»iik<n  "t  a  coart  of 
JaatUw  I  by  rala  st  lenn,  n  oidar  af  e  j'-doa,  wbcn  a 
aaata  i«  |iaadia&  aitiMf  !>/  ImmmI,  agnanMntln  writing, 
or  by  pama.  A  varbol  agraamanl,  bowarer,  to  abide 
by  an  award  aai  n«»  k,  mada  a  rai*  of  courL  Nor 
«aa  maltara  partly  tfiminal  ba  tabmittad  to  th«  de< 
aitioa  «f  an  arUtralar.  Aad  by  tba  13tb  and  ISib 
Viol,  <),  46, 1  It-it,  Um  pravitioMi  of  tb*  formtr  itat- 
nlat  at  to  amtralloM  u»  axlatidad  la  "  controvinict 
and  ditpulat,  §i»  wfciab  lb*  rtmady  it  by  appeal  to  a 
Coart  of  Qtntnl  or  <|aarl«r  flataioai  «f  tba  Ptace." 
LatUy,  altboMgii  Iba  Htliil  of  raal  property  can  act 
paf*  by  a  mart  award,  yat  if  a  parly  be  awarded  to 
convoy  land,  aad  raflif*,  ba  will  bt  liable  to  an  action, 
or  to  an  aUaabmant  nr  not  pttfanaing  tbe  award. 
Tha  afraamaiit  of  raflawiM*  mati  ba  aaprettad  witb 
graat  eara  and  aaoaraMr)  pravUiont  tboaid  be  Iniert- 
ad  UvUtg  powar  to  aiwar  party  lo  make  tba  tobmi*. 
tion  a  rwa  of  eoarl,  to  aaabla  tba  conn  to  refer  tbe 
matlar  back  to  Uta  lama  or  to  anotbar  arbitrator ;  and 
in  eata  of  Iba  daatb  of  ailhar  mirty  baibra  award,  for 
ila  mafclnf  and  dalivary  to  bia  rmrtttntotivet}  and 
afaw  aa  to  tba  eatia,  wbiw  ara  ataafly  diractad  to  bo  in 
tba  diaeratian  af  Iba  arbitrator  a*  to  tbota  of  tbe  refer- 
tn«a,andaatotbaaaaflba«aaaa  toaUda  tbe  event  of 
Iba  award  f  and  a  atrlaia  day  tboaid  be  appointed  on 
or  baibra  wblab  Iba  arbitrator  ia  to  maba  bia  award, 
wllb  a  powar  to  aaafc  arbitrator  to  aabMwe  tb*  time. 

Wban  arbitraton  bava  tba  pawar  «f  ebetiog  an  um- 
pirt,  tbay  may  tboet*  bim,  and  aall  ia  bia  ataiaiance 
at  teon  u  tbay  bagin  to  laha  tiia  aatdtei  into  oontld- 
oration  ( and  tma  ia  Iba  Mora  «aavani*nt  prastisa,  at  It 
taeura*  a  dacition  upon  a  tinala  iavtttlgatton  of  tbt 
totttrovarty,  Aa  to  lb.  award  t  it  matt  ba  ia  pami< 
aaca  M  Iba  tabmiitian,  m4  ambrata  all  tba  matton 
tabmlltad,  and  nat  axland  btyaod  it  ia  tb*  tutjeci. 
matter,  in  panoM,  In  lima,  ar  la  partiealar  ciroum- 
atanaatf  it  matt  ba  atrtain )  it  matt  make  a  dnal  end 
and  datarmiaalian  tl  all  maltort  oaotainad  in  tb* 
tubmittionf  it  nmt  U  mataal,  Ibat  ii,  it  matt  not 
ba  aniiraly  of  tbiagi  to  b*  parwrmad  hy  one  party, 
wtlboni  taak  tfcinft  baiuf  in  taliaAMtiaa  t4  tba  mat- 
tart  in  diUbnma*  ( and,  dHally.  it  matt  aol  be  anraaaon- 
abk,  illafal,  or  impaitil;la  to  ba  tlRieiaai«d.  Fonnai^ 
ly.  a  tabmittlan  to  arMlraliAi,  Utng  a  nMia  anthority, 
might  ba  rarofcad  at  a|iy  lima  bafort  raaentlon  by  an 
indranMnt  of  aa  bigfc  a  Mtim  aa  Ibat  \n  whlcb  the 
tabmiatlanwaaanalad,  Baln«w,brtbaEnglUiiLaw 
AmandaMM  Aat  (M  and  4tk  Will,  n.,  aapT 4n,  tbe 
•abflrtition  to  arUlralion  by  Xult  of  (ftmii,  or  Judgt's 
ori»r,  or  utkr  tf  NM  l'm$,  or  irlbart  be  an  i^nt' 
mmt  u>  Mab  M«  uAmMm  a  tMt  qfCowrt,  aan  not  be 


Irarohad  by  aqy  party  thereto,  witboat  leave  of  tha 
court  or  a  Jadge.  The  death,  however,  of  either  party 
balbra  award  it  a  revocation  of  tbe  authority,  unlem 
otherwite  provided  in  the  tubaUition ;  and  to  alto  te 
Iha  marriage  of  a  famal*  b*flM*  award ;  Iha  marriage 
operating  at  a  eivU  death  to  all  her  righto  at  a  fnmt 
till.  Under  thit  ttatuta  the  atUcdanca  of  wltaeitea, 
or  production  of  documente  before  the  arbitrator,  may 
ba  compelled  by  a  rule  of  court,  or  order  of  a  Judge,  on 
payment  of  expeatei  and  lott  of  time ;  and  the  arM> 
tratort  an  empowered  to  admlnitter  oatht  to  the  wi^ 
neee«t,  where  it  ia  to  agreed  or  ordered  by  the  rule  or 
order  of  reference.  Any  witaettee  failing  to  attend 
are  deemed  to  be  gnil^  of  contempt  of  court,  or  giving 
blao  evidence  guilty  of  perjury.  The  court  or  Judge 
may  alto,  in  the  catee  within  the  ttotute,  enlarge  the 
time  for  an  arbitrator  to  make  bit  award.— £.  B. 

^'*'*'**^tl.  the  principal  commercial  city  of  tha 
north  of  Ruttia,  in  lat.  64°  82'  8"  N.,  long.  40°  88'  B., 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dwiaa,  about  86  English  mllea 
above  where  it  Iklla  into  the  White  Sea.  Pop.  24,800. 
The  harbor  it  at  the  itland  of  Sollenbole,  about  a  mile 
tmm  the  town.  The  luu  at  the  month  of  tbe  Dwiaa 
baa  £rom  18  to  14|  feet  water;  to  that  ihipt  drawing 
more  than  thlt  depth  mutt  ba  partially  loaded  ontaida 
tha  bar  ttwa  lightert.  The  Dwina  bdng  a  navlgabla 
river,  travaning  a  great  extent  of  country,  and  coii> 
neeted  by  canala  with  the  Wolga  on  the  one  hand,  and 
tha  Neva  on  the  other.  Archangel  it  a  coniiderabla  n^ 
IrtpM.  It  wat  diacovered  in  1664,  by  the  famout  Rich, 
ird  Chancellor,  the  companion  of  Sir  Hugh  'Willouglk 
by  in  hit  voyage  of  ditooveiy :  and  from  that  period 
down  to  the  foundation  of  Petertburg  wat  tbe  only 
port  in  the  Ruttian  empire  tcceatible  to  foreigner*. 
Though  it  hat  lott  ill  ancient  importance,  it  ttUl  en- 
Joyt  a  pretty  ezteniive  commerce.  The  principal  ar- 
tidet  of  export  are  grain,  tallow,  flax,  hemp,  timber, 
linteed,  iron,  potaih,  matt,  tar,  etc.  Dealt  from  Arch- 
angel, and  Onega  in  the  vicinity  of  Archangel,  ara  con* 
tldered  tuperior  to  thote  &om  the  Baltic.  Hemp  not 
to  good  at  at  Riga,  but  proportionally  cheaper.  Tal- 
low la  alto  inferior.  Iron  tame  aa  at  Patertbuig,  tome- 
Umea  cheaper  ud  toiiietimet  dearer.  The  quality  of 
the  wheat  exported  flpom  Archangel  it  about  equal  to 
that  tnm  Petertburg.  The  importt,  which  are  not 
very  extantive,  coniitt  principally  of  tugar,  cofliM, 
tpioet,  tail,  woolent,  hardware,  etc.  The  trade  of 
Archangel  hat  latterly  been  declining.  It  ia  much 
influenced  by  the  demand  firom  the  more  toutherly 
parte  of  Europe,  and  etpecially  IVom  England,  for  com. 
When  a  britk  demand  i*  anticipated,  oate  are  brought 
in  larg*  quantltiei  trom  the  interior,  lometimet  even 
tnm  a  diitance  of  1600  milei,  in  covered  barkt  capa- 
ble of  holding  teveral  hundred  quarteri.  But  aa  there 
are  few  axtentlve  ettabliihmente  here,  the  tuppliet  ara 
tcanty,  except  when  a  large  demand  ia  expected  for 
tome  time  previoutly  to  the  leaton  for  bringing  them 
down.— Onvy'a  £uropia»  Commiret,  and  private  in- 
formation. 

MoHtgt,  Wtigbt,  and  Jftaturt*,  tame  at  at  Pbtsu- 
acno :  which  tee. 

ArahipclaSO,  called  by  the  Turki  Ah  dtgnix,  the 
White  Sea,  to  dittinguith  it  tnm  Cam  dtgnU,  tha 
BUck  Sea,  it  generally  applied  to  that  part  of  tba 
Hediterranaan  extending  from  European  Turkey  and 
Greece  on  the  wett,  to  Atia  Ifiaor  on  the  eatt,  and 
itratching  touthward  to  the  itland  of  Candia. 

Tha  name  Archipelago  wat  unknown  to  tbe  an- 
dente,  and  it  generally  tuppoted  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Klyaim  irrAayof,  by  which  name,  the  derivation  of 
which  it  uncertoin,  it  wat  known  to  the  Greekt.  Tha 
anciante  divided  it  into,  (1.)  ifsr*  Tkrucium,  the  north- 
ern part,  extending  touthward  to  the  northern  coatt 
of  Eubcea ;  (2.)  Jfor  Jfyrtoam,  the  toutbweatem  part, 
wathing  the  dioret  of  Attica  and  ArgoUt ;  (8.)  Jfora 
ttarimm,  tba  toutheattem  part,  extending  along  tba 


ooatto  of  Caria  and  Ionia. 


4., 


ABC 


»T 


ABO 


he  an- 
tionof 
ion  of 
Th« 
Borth- 

COMt 

pMt, 

J/or* 
ig  th* 


Tha  D«viK«tkm  of  thU  m*  U  nndtred  difloult  by 
tho  muy  UlaniU  and  foclu  with  which  il  abound*, 
and  by  tha  frMumt  ocourrmiea  of  audden  aqnall*,  ••■ 
p«viaUy  about  tna  aquinoseii  but  it  haa  a  great  num- 
ber of  aafa  and  oommodloua  gnlfi  and  bay*.  I)**ldei 
the  Cycladoa  and  Sporada*,  which  are  the  two  princi- 
pal groupa  of  waaller  Uland*,  it  contain*  Euboa,  S^ 
mo*,  Chioe,  Leabo*,  Leninoc,  Imbroa,  Samothraca,  etc. 
All  theaa  laland*  are  mountalnoua,  and  many  of  them 
are  of  Toleanto  fcrmatlon ;  while  other*  are  almoat  en- 
tirely oompoiad  of  pure  white  marble,  for  which  Faroe, 
one  of  the  CyoUde*,  in  particular,  la  ao  celebrated. 
The  Uiger  laland*  have  *am*  very  fertile  and  wall- 
watered  valley*  and  plain*.  Tha  principal  produo- 
tlon*  are  wheat,  wine,  oU,  maatic,  flga,  raiain*,  honey, 
wax,  cotton,  and  lUh.  The  inhabitant*  are  much  en- 
gAK«d  In  flihing,  and  tha  coral  and  apongo  flthery  are 
actively  proeacuted  among  the  Sporada*.  Manufto- 
tur«*  ar*  at  a  very  low  ebb,  almoat  the  only  branch 
carried  on  being  that  of  cotton-weaving.  The  climate 
U  mild  and  ealnbrioua;  the  haata  of  aumnwr  being 
temperad  by  the  lea-breezee,  while  the  winter*  am  la** 
*overe  than  on  the  neighboring  main-land.  Tha  man 
are  hardy,  well-built,  and  baudaome ;  and  tha  women 
are  noted  for  their  beauty.  Tho  island*  of  tha  Archi- 
pelago are  conaldered  to  belong  partly  to  Europe  and 
partly  to  A*ia.  At  praaent  the  Cyclade*  form  a  por- 
tion of  the  Greek  kingdom,  while  moat  of  th?  other 
Islands  are  subject  to  Turkey. 

The  name  Archipelago,  which  waa  primarily  given 
to  the  iEgean  Sea,  i*  now  applied  to  variou*  other  eeaa' 
which  contain  numerou*  island*,  aa  the  Eaetam  Archi- 
pelago, Caribbean  Archipelago,  etc 

JLrcibitt,  or  ArohiTsa,  a  chamber  or  apartment 
wherein  the  records,  charter*,  and  other  papera  and 
evidences,  of  a  atate,  houae,  or  community  are  pro- 
served,  to  be  consulted  occasionally.  Thua  we  aay 
the  archive*  of  a  college,  of  a  monastery,  etc 

Arotlo  Cirol0  la  a  lesser  circle  of  the  sphere, 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  23°  80'  distant  firom  the 
north  pole ;  ttma  whence  its  name.  This,  and  its  op- 
posite, tho  ohtarctic,  are  called  the  two  polar  circltB, 
and  may  bo  conceived  to  be  deacribed  by  the  motion 
of  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  round  the  poles  of  the  equa- 
tor, or  of  the  world. 

Arotio  Ocean,  that  portion  of  the  Xorth  Sea  wk  Vh 
extends  from  the  arctic  circle  (lat.  66°  80'  N.)  to  the 
north  pole.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  great  continents,  and  is  the  recipient  of  the  drain- 
age of  an  area  of  8,761,270  square  miles.  It  enters 
deeply,  in  the  form  of  gulfs,  bays,  etc..  Into  the  northern 
parts  of  the  cohtinenta  of  both  hemljpheres.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these  indentations  are  the  White  Sea,  in  Eu- 
rope ;  Sea  of  Kara,  Gulfs  of  Obe  and  Yenisee,  in  Si- 
beria ;  and  BafBn'a  J3ay,  in  Xorth  America.  It  is  united 
to  the  Pacific  by  Behring's  Strait,  and  to  the  Atlantic 
by  Davis'  Strait,  and  a  wide  *ea  extending  from  Green- 
land on  the  west  to  Norway  and  Lapland  on  the  east. 
This  portion  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  occupied  centrally 
by  Greenland,  and  on  the  east  is  the  extensive  group 
of  Spitzbergen,  the  small  Island  of  San  Mayen,  and 
Iceland.  West  of  Greenland,  and  divided  from  it  by 
Davis'  Strait  and  Baffin's  Bay,  are  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  islands  of  great  site,  which  have  been  but  Im- 
perfectly explored.  The  region  north  of  lat.  70°  ia  the 
most  dreary  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

The  shores  are  covered  with  eternal  snow*,  and  the 
(urface  of  the  aea,  when  ita  icy  covering  is  rent  aaun- 
der,  present*  a  series  of  hugo  floating  masses  in  per- 
petual motion,  and  whose  tremendon*  collision*  arb 
attended  with  the  most  appalling  sounds.  Dense  fogs, 
violent  storma,  and  endlesa  nights,  add  to  the  horror* 
of  the  icene.  In  the  region  of  Spitabargen  the  sun  is 
not  seen  for  several  montha  In  the  year,  and  the  ther- 
mometer rarely  rises  above  46°  Fahrenheit ;  while  there 
la  but  one  month  in  tha  year  (July)  in  which  snow 
doe*  not  fall.    The  only,  or  at  l«a«t  tha  greatest  da- 


gTM  of  light  tha  Inhabitant*  airiMr  during  thair  long 
winters,  or  fhim  tha  latter  and  of  Mptember  to  th*  b*> 
gUmIng  of  May,  I*  that  which  proaaada  from  the  boi^ 
rowed  luatra  of  tha  noon,  tha  *tan,  tha  aurora,  or  tha 
■now  blink.  Thi*  ooaaa  tnnu  avan  In  aummar,  aa4 
during  tha  atght  wintar  montha  a  oontlnuoua  body  «f 
ica  aatanda  over  lla  entire  *«rl***,  fllling  tha  area  o( 
th*  cirola  of  batwaan  (QUO  and  40(10  mile*  in  diamatar. 
Tha  loabarg*,  of  whieb  va«t  nambara  ar*  continually 
in  motion  wharavar  aa  opening  appaara,  vary  tiom  a 
ttw  yard*  to  mlla*  In  elreumfHano*,  and  rlH  to  him* 
drad*  of  fcat  In  haigbt.  Tha  ioa  In  the**  region*  ia 
very  tran*par*nt,  compaet,  and  remarkable  for  the  ▼*• 
rlety  and  beauty  of  ita  tinla.  Tha  water  I*  extremely 
pur*,  shalla  being  dl*lln«tly  vi*lbl*  at  a  depth  of  M 
bthom*.  Tha  pntsaura  of  tha  water  at  a  depth  of  1^ 
miles  baa  been  found  to  ha  IWOV  lb*,  on  a  square  lack 
of  surface. 

The  history  of  advantun  In  tha  Arctic  Sea*  preeent* 
a  striking  dliproportlon  batwaan  eflbrt  and  aohiava- 
mont.  All  that  human  daring  can  do  has  been  dona 
to  op«n  up  tha  myst«rl«*  of  thaee  dreary  region*.  Th* 
llrst  attempt  to  axplor*  tha  Polar  Haas  was  made  in 
IbliS,  by  Wllloughby  and  Cbancalh>r,  who  were  sent 
out  with  instruction*  to  aacartain  If  there  was  a  north- 
east passage,  or  if  they  could  reach  China  by  passing 
to  the  nortli  of  Europo  and  Aala.  Wllloughby  reach- 
ed Nova  2vmbla,  but  be  and  all  hi*  crew  w^ra  frocea 
to  death.  Chancellor  antartd  th*  White  Sea,  and  thua 
opened  a  communication  with  Uuisia.  Captain  Cook 
reached  ley  Capa  from  tha  I'acltio  in  1778.  In  1607 
Captain  Hudson  wa*  (ant  out  to  attempt  to  discover 
th*  nonbw**t  pa***ga,  and  reached  the  lat.  of  81°,  but 
wa*  und*r  tha  necaislty  of  putting  liack  on  account  of 
tha  ica.  In  177U  this  oxticriment  was  a^ain  tried  by 
an  aspaditlon  under  the  command  of  Captain  Phippa, 
who  advanced  about  a*  far  a*  Captain  Hudson  had 
previously  don*t  and  a  *lmlUr  attempt  was  made  in 
1818,  which  proved  equally  unfortunate,  under  Captain 
Bucban,  In  181H  Captain  Kos*  attempted  a  nurthweat 
p**«age,  and  p*i**d  through  Lancaitar  Sound.  In 
1810  Captain  Parry  raaohsd  long.  11U°  W.,  and  In 
1821-28  examined  tho  coait  to  tho  north  of  Uud*on'* 
Bay ;  in  1824  ho  reached  Prino*  Regent  Inlet.  In  1826 
Captain  Kranklhi  v/aa  aant  overland  to  explore  the 
north  coaat  <>f  '.inarlca,  to  the  west  of  Mackenzie'* 
River;  and  at  ,'im  time  Captain  Beecbey  waa  dia- 
patched  to  meet  hi:  ■  !n  8ahring'f<  Strait.  The  two  ex- 
pedition* approach.d  each  other  to  within  a  distance 
of  140  mile*,  but  returned  without  meeting.  In  1827 
Captain  Parrv  wa*  sent  out  to  peaetrata  as  far  as  poa- 
aible  in  tha  direction  of  tha  Pole  In  boat<  and  sledge*, 
over  the  lea,  and  he  reached  about  62°  40',  the  bigheat 
latitude  yet  attained.  In  182»-8fl  Captain  Roes  sailed 
up  Prince  l(«Kunt  Inlet,  aseortalned  that  there  ia  no 
communication  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  At- 
lantio  south  of  Uarrow'*  Strait,  The  expedition  *ent 
out  in  learob  of  the  long-de«lred  route  from  tho  Atlan- 
tio  to  the  Pacific,  through  the  Polar  Seas,  commanded 
by  Sir  John  Franklin,  miIImI  In  1846,  with  two  ship*, 
the  JCrihiu  ami  Ttmtr,  and  ha*  not  since  been  Beard 
of.  Several  exfiedltlons  have  been  dlspalchod  in  search 
of  the  missing  navigator  and  hi*  companions,  but  hith- 
erto without  *ucc**«.  On*  of  these  expeditions,  com- 
manded by  Captain  Kallat,  attained,  on  August  16, 
184»,  tho  lat.  of  71'  12'  N„  long.  170°  10'  W, ;  and  on 
the  lOth  discovered  an  almost  Inaccessible  Island  of 
granite,  rising  1400  feet  above  the  «*a,  beyond  which 
a  range  of  high  land  wa*  Men )  but  constant  snow- 
storms compelled  him  to  quit  th*  nnlghborhood  with- 
out doing  more,  to  prevent  hi*  being  hemmed  in  by 
the  pack-ice. 

The  long  ab«eno*  of  th*  aapodltlen  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Franklin,  and  tha  unsuccessful  eflbrt* 
mad*  from  Britain  to  asoertaln  the  fate  of  the  missing 
navlKaton,  induna<l  Lady  Franklin  to  appeal  to  Amur- 
I  ica  fur  aid  in  aaoking  fur  b«r  bntband  and  hi*  compan- 


11 


AKK 


i^ 


IMM.  H«r  appMl  WM  fMpowJtd  to  kv  H MWjr  Ofto. 
adL  H«  pHNbMf4  THMto,  whlob,  with  ik*  •eiMt*' 
■•■M  nd  aid  of  ik*  UalMd  HUIm  OsvtmmMil,  wtn 
■Mt  to  aMltt  ia  Ot€  March.  'Ilil*  mmMomI  Mt  of 
Mr.  Ortoaoll  b  wilhout  •  ^imwImiI.  It  wh  h  m- 
iMtaklnc  t^  a  prtvau  dtlMn  oTom  Muntry  to  Ntk 
Ml  aad  iMlara  to  tlMir  homoa,  tf  poiaibia,  tka  oMoart 
MdanwtortkaabaMttahlpaofanotkar.  Tka  Amai^ 
laan  taanhiaf  vaaaab  war*  plaaad  unilar  tka  aemmaad 
«r  Uaulaaanl  Da  Havan,  of  tka  Uirilad  Mtataa  ntvy. 
Tka  ll$t(m*,  tka  fomnoat  vaaaal  of  tka  AmarleMi  •%■ 
paditloa,  antatod  WalltDfton  Ckaanal  In  €omotmv  with 
tha  A-llanet,  tha  Ibramoat  vaaaal  of  all  tka  Brllhih  a». 
padltloiii,  on  tka  24ih  of  AuKuai.  11M|  and  wban,  at 
tka  ekiaa  of  tho  taaaon,  It  baeania  apparaat  that  no 
fkrikar  proxma  could  ba  made,  tha  Amarlvan  vaaiali, 
•Moal  ihe  iM  ofittam,  wera  at  tka  farlhnt  point  tkat 
waa  made  \>y  any  vewel  of  the  thraa  UrUUh  axpadU 
tlona  then  engagad  in  the  aaareb,  all  of  wklob  bad  baaii 
■aaiatad  bv  ataam  on  their  outward  vojraga,  whan  In 
•ad  while'  cnNning  Bafflo'a  Bay.  Tha  aspadltlant  of 
Soaa,  AniUn,  and  Penny  made  barbora.  Tha  Amaiw 
leaaa  were  atloat  tha  whole  of  a  long  arctio  winter,  at 
tka  merey  of  the  wtnd«,  the  eurrenta,  and  the  tea.  On 
tka  18th  of  September,  De  Haven  was  north  of  Capa 
Bowdltcb,  till!  moit  northern  point  aean  bv  Harry  In 
U19,  and  fluthar  north  within  Laacaatar  Hound  than 
kad  bean  attained  by  any  vaaaal  of  all  tka  exploring 
■ad  aearohing  aspedltlooa.  Hia  diaeovariaa  began  at 
Capa  Bowden,  on  the  17th  of  Saptembar)  by  tka  and 
af  tka  month  he  waa  at  76°  36'  M.  Hera  ha  law  hltb- 
arto  unknown  land  to  the  eaat,  and  tha  weet,  and  far 
to  the  north.  To  thia  naw-diaoovered  land  be  mky» 
tha  name  of  OninnBLt,  Land  ;  and  to  a  height  of  land 
■aan,  Mount  Franklin ;  and  named  tha  bodlaa  of  water 
Ifauiy  Channel,  etc.  The  fbllowing  aaaaon  thIa  coun- 
try waa  explored  by  paning  over  tha  lea  mueb  Airtbar 
waat,  b7  Captain  Penny  and  othara  of  tha  Britlah  narr, 
Tka  name  of  Un|MMBLi.  Lamu  haa  been  ungenarouaiy 
omitted  turn  tha  charta  of  ihia  ragion  publlibad  by  tha 
Britlah  Admiralty,  and  the  name  of  AUitrl  Lmulw^ 
pllaa  ita  place.— HAnrna'a  QauUttr,  Captain  Mr 
Bobart  M*Clure,  in  the  antnmn  of  1R60,  by  traveling 
over  toe,  connected  the  geography  of  the  watara  of  tha 
Fadllo  and  the  Atlantic  for  the  flret  time.  When  In 
1868  thia  newa  arrived  in  England,  lie  waa  balled,  very 
Jnatly,  aa  the  diacoverer  of  the  Nortbweat  Paaaage, 
But  DO  veaael  baa  ever  paaaed  through  tha  fVoian  atralti 
traveraad  by  VCIure.  The  pauage  diicovarad  by  him 
kaa  been  croaaed  on  the  ice  many  timea,  but  navar  by 
akip  or  boat  of  any  aorl. 

ifiy  81, 1868,  Dr.  Kane  itarted  on  bla  taeond  rm- 
age,  aad  being  longer  than  the  time  propoead,  tn» 
Arttie,  ander  Lientenant  Hartatein,  waa  aent  in  wareb 
«f  him.  Dr.  Kane  was  foond  at  tha  Danlab  wttla* 
Bwnta  on  hit  return  home,  having  loat  bla  vataala  and 
anlfered  great  bardahip,  but  wit''  }nt  meeting  any  aue- 
eeaa  in  his  efforta  or  making  Airt  er  dltcoveriei.  Mau- 
lanant  Hartatein  arrived,  with  Dr.  Kane,  Ootol)«r  It, 
1866.  It  ia  now  almoat  certain  that  the  remalna  found 
hy  Dr.  Rae  wen  tboae  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  party, 
and  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  propoaa  giving 
Mm  the  reward  of  £10,000  which  waa  oflbred. 

,ArgOv  in  A»tiq«ily,  the  ihip  celebrated  in  ancient 
poetry  aa  that  in  which  the  Argonauta  made  their 
aspeditlon  to  Colchia  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleene. 
Jaaen  having  happily  accompIUbed  bla  enterprlaa, 
eonaeemted  the  ahip  Argo  to  Poseidon  (Keptune),  or, 
•a  othera  aay.  to  Athena  (Minerva),  on  the  latbmut 
of  Corinth,  where,  they  add,  it  did  not  remain  long 
before  it  was  translated  into  heaven,  and  made  •  con- 
atellaUon.— E.  B. 

Arsol,  Arg>l>  or  Tutu-  (Oerm.  WHntMni 
Da.  WsniueH ;  Fr.  TVirfre;  It  Sp.  and  Port.  Tatiaroi 
Busa.  Whmui  kamen;  Lat.  T\uianui),  a  hard  eruat 
formed  on  the  aidea  of  the  veasela  in  which  wina  hat 
.  kept ;  It  ia  red  or  white  aeeordinj;  to  tha  eoler 


af  tha  wIna,  and  la  athaiwiaa  impnra.  On  being 
pnrMad,  U  la  tarmad  eraaai  or  erj/thO*  i/  tartar.  It 
aanatita  pHnHpally  of  Murtrau  of  potash.  While 
•rgal  la  pnfcrabla  to  red,  u  eaalalalng  lata  drossy  or 
aartby  MOtlor.  Tka  aiarka  of  good  argol  of  alihcr 
kind  are,  tia  being  tklak,  brittle,  bard,  brilliant,  and 
Httia  aarlky.  Tkat  brongbt  ftan  Bologna  is  rerkoaed 
tka  beat,  and  fatokaa  tka  kighast  price.  Argol  is  of 
eonaldarabla  nsa  among  dyara,  as  serving  to  dispose 
tha  atnth  to  take  tksir  colore  tka  batlar.  Pure  argol, 
or  enam  of  tartar.  Is  tntantlvelv  used  in  roedieine. 
It  baa  an  ntild  and  rather  unpleasant  taste.  It  Is 
vary  brittla,  and  easily  reduced  to  po«il<-r:  speelflo 
gravity,  I'M,  Tha  F.ngllsh  duty  on  argv),  of  M,  per 
ewt.,  was  repealed  In  1846.  In  1868  the  imparls  and 
enportt  of  argol  Into  Oraat  Britain  amounted  renpect. 
ively  to  l7,Mttf  and  8646  ewt.  The  price  of  arKol  In 
l.ondon.  In  Haptamber,  1868,  varied;  Bologna,  ftam 
1*1.  to  <Kt<,  }fM  owt.  I  Laghem,  46*.  to  66*.  per  ewt. ; 
NaolM,  Hlcily,  etc,,  88>.  to  89<. 

Aruteleeata  (Fr.  gfrpmairti  Oerm.  ScUan- 
gtrnwuruti  It.  Btrpmlttrini  Lat.  Ari$totothia  ttrvtn- 
Inrlii),  tha  dritd  root  of  Virginia  snake-root,  or  birth- 
wort  i  It  ia  email,  light,  and  bushy,  consisting  of  a 
number  of  flbraa  natlad  together,  sprung  fVcm  one 
oommon  haad,  of  a  brownish  color  on  the  ouulde,  and 
pala  or  yellow  within.  It  haa  an  aromatic  smell, 
eomatklng  Ilka  that  of  valerian,  but  more  agreeable ; 
and  a  warm,  liliterlsh.  pungent  taste,  very  much  re- 
aambling  eamtihor.--A'«(YcA9NP<Ma  Mrirop. 

AriUBMOO.  Where  ftrsi  invented  is  not  known, 
at  least  with  caftalnty.  It  wu  brought  from  Eg]-pi 
Into  (ireaea  by  Thales,  about  (100  n.c.  The  oldent 
treatise  N|ion  arithmetic  la  by  Euclid  (7tb,  8th,  and 
Mb  book*  of  bis  JCImmlt),  about  800  n.c.  The  sesa- 
gaslmal  arilbmatio  of  Ptolemy  was  used  a.d,  180. 
Ulophanttt*  of  Alexandria  was  the  author  of  thirteen 
boob*  of  arithmetical  uuestlons  (of  which  six  are  ex- 
tant) In  168,  Kotatlon  by  nine  digits  and  zero, 
known  at  laait  •*  aarly  aa  the  sixtk  century  in  llln- 
doslani  Introduced  tnm  thence  Into  Arabia  about 
SOOj  Into  Hpaln,  1060 1  into  England,  1268.  The  date 
In  Canton's  Mkmr  i/tht  Wt^,  Arabic  characters, 
I*  1480,  Arithmetic  of  decimals  Invented  in  1482. 
First  work  printe<l  In  England  on  arithmetic  (d*  Arte 
Munpulamtfi  was  by  Tonstall,  bishop  of  Durham, 
\Wl.  Tha  theory  M  dorimal  fraction*  was  perfected 
by  l,«rd  Kapler.  In  his  Rabdofogia,  in  1617.— IIaydk. 

Atk,  Woalri,  a  floating  veaael  built  by  the  pa- 
triarch Mvab,  for  tha  preservation  of  bis  family,  and 
tha  *av«ral  apaclw  of  animals,  during  the  Deluge. 
Tha  ark  ha*  aflbrded  several  point*  of  curiou*  inquiry 
ralating  to  It*  furm,  capacity,  matcrUls,  etc.  1'he 
wood  of  which  It  was  built  Is  called  in  the  Hebrew 
t»l^r  vimhI,  and  In  tha  Baptuaeint,  tjuart  timbtri. 
Soma  translate  tha  original  etdar,  others  pine,  others 
to»,  ate,  Pellallar  preAm  cedar,  on  account  of  Its  in- 
eormplibnilv  and  the  gnat  abundance  of  it  in  Asia. 
Fulltr  and  Dochart  contend  that  it  was  built  of  what 
tba  OrNki  tall  KVitaataa6f,  or  the  eypreu-trtt;  for, 
taking  away  lh«  terminatlun,  kupar  and  yopKer  A\!kt 
^vty  littla  in  (oond.  In  what  place  Noah  built  and 
rtniiibttd  his  ark  I*  no  Ism  a  matter  of  dispute ;  but 
the  most  general  opinion  is,  that  It  was  built  in 
Ohaldea,  In  the  territories  of  Babylon.  Its  dimen- 
sions, as  given  by  Moses,  are  800  cubits  in  length,  60 
In  bnadtn,  and  80  In  height.  Dr.  Arlmthnot  com- 
puta*  Iti  burdan  at  81,002  tons.  It  contained,  besides 
eight  iKtrson*  of  Moah's  family,  one  pair  of  aver;' 
species  iif  unclean  animals,  and  seven  pairs  of  every 
tpaoia*  of  clean  animals,  with  provision*  for  them  all 
during  tba  whol*  year,  Tha  intuparabla  dlfflvulties 
eonnactad  with  tha  ballaf  that  all  tha  axiiting  species 
of  animals  ware  provided  for  In  tha  ark,  are  obviated 
by  adn|ttlng  tha  suggestion  of  Bishop  StllllDgflcet, 
approved  by  Uaitbaw  Poole,  Pya  Smith,  Le  Clerc, 
HoaanimQllaf,  and  otban,  that  tho  Deluge  did  not 


ARK  t 

miMd  bayond  that  rtgltui  of  ih*  ••rth  than  Itibaliitad, 
•nd  that  only  tha  •nInisU  of  that  ru||lon  wara  pra- 

wrvad  111  the  Ark titt  Duuvut,  snU  Kirrw'i  JiMiii' 

al  CfcUtpeilia. 

■iTrktntM,  ona  of  tha  Wattarn  Unltad  Suiaa,  ti 
bounded  north  by  IlUaouri,  amat  by  Iha  MluUtlppi 
Rlvar,  MiMiratlag  ll  from  'rennitiea  and  Mlaalulp|tt, 
•outb  by  LoulaUna,  and  wait  by  tha  Indian  Tarrl- 
tery.  It  U  batweaa  88°  and  8ti°  8U'  N.  lat.,  and 
batwaan  8V<>  80'  and  W  80'  W.  long.,  and  Im- 
twaan  13°  SO'  and  17°  80'  W.  lung.,  Oom  Waih- 
ington.  It  it  S40  inilva  long  and  i'Vi  wld«,  contain- 
ing 64,600  square  mllet,  or  84,H00,IK)0  acrat.  The 
population  in  1880,  00,8(tH;  in  1840,  07,674 1  la  1860, 
300,030.  It  ia  divided  Into  61  counllat.  The  capiul 
Is  Uttle  Koc'it,  tituated  on  the  right  l>anli  of  Arkaniai 
river,  800  niiloa  from  it*  entraiicn  into  tlia  UiniMippi. 
The  other  prini'lpal  tuwna  are  llvleiia,  Columbia,  Van 
Buren,  Fort  Mmith,  Waihington,  Uataavtlla,  Fayalta- 
vitla,  Kl  Uorado,  etc. 

The  eaatern  part  of  tha  State,  for  the  diitance  of 
100  mile*  from  the  MletiMlppi,  ia  low,  and  iniivh  of  It 
la  lubject  to  be  overltuwed  at  certain  Maaona ;  but  thla 
hai  been  in  a  great  muaauro  obviated  by  an  extcneivu 
ambankmunt  or  kwt  along  the  Mlsniaaippi,  Arlonaaa, 
and  White  Rivera.  Tho  central  part  of  the  8tato  in 
uneven  and  broken,  and  in  the  weat  it  it  hilly  and 
mountainoua.  There  are  tome  extenalve  prairiea,  and 
tome  heavily  timhnrod  lunda.  On  tho  margin  of  tho 
rivera  the  aoil  ia  exceedingly  fertile.  The  Uxark 
Mountalna,  riaing  tomotlinat  to  the  helKht  of  from 
1000  to  2U00  foot,  Croat  itt  northwaat  part.  A  range 
of  hllla,  called  the  Black  Mouutaliu,  runt  between 
tha  Arkanaat  and  White  Itivera,  extending  wett  from 
near  White  River  to  the  weat  border  of  the  Slate.  A 
little  touthwett  of  tho  centre  of  the  State  are  boiling 
tpringa,  tho  temperature  of  which  at  timet  riaet  nearly 
to  the  boiling  point,  thougli  autfject  to  much  variation. 
Near  thcae  tpringt  are  ridgea  of  hilla,  which  rite  into 
elevated  peakt  known  at  the  I'otvau  and  Wathita 
Mountalna,  whote  higheat  elovatioiia  are  weat  of  the 
State  In  the  Indian  Territory.  Wild  animal*,  at  the 
deer,  elk,  bear  and  wolf;  and  wild  fowl*,  as  the  wild 
goote,  turkey,  and  quail,  arc  found  in  abundance.  Ita 
mineral  produotloni  aro  extensive,  consiatiug  of  Iron 
ore,  lead,  zinc,  and  copper,  gypauro,  coal,  and  talt. 
Tho  country  it  well  adapted  to  tho  raising  of  cattle. 

There  were  In  thit  8ute,  in  1860,  781,631  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  l,81(i,<i84  of  unimproved  land  in 
farm*;  cash  value  of  farma,  $1&,'2(16,'246;  value  of 
Implements  nnd  macMrerv,  |J,G01,2i)0. 

Liee  Stock. — Honi .«,  M,VM ;  asaes  and  mules, 
11,669;  milch  cowt,  <jU,161;  working  oxen,  84.280; 
other  cattle,  165,820;  sheep,  01,266;  twine,  88<i,727; 
value  of  live  itock,  $6,647,060. 

Agricultural  Producti,  etc.— Wheat,  199,689  bushels 
produced;  rye,  8,047;  Indian  corn,  8,808,939)  oat«, 
666,183;  barley,  177;  buckwheat,  176;  peaa  and 
beans,  285,7.38;  potatoes,  198,832;  sweet  potatoes, 
788,140;  rice,  63, 170  poundt ;  value  of  pro<luctt  of  tha 
orchard,  |40,141 ;  produce  of  market  gnrdent,  |17,160; 
poundt  of  butter  made,  1,864,239;  of  cheeto,  80,088; 
maple  sugar,  9,330  pounds;  molasses,  18  gallons; 
beeswax  and  honey,  192,338  pounds ;  wool,  182,606 
pounds  produced ;  cotton,  66,844 ;  flax,  12,291 ;  hemp, 
16  tons ;  silk  cocoons,  38  poundt ;  hops,  167 ;  tobacco, 
318,936 ;  hay  (tons  of),  8976 ;  clover  seed,  90  bushels ; 
other  Kraas  aeedt,  486;  flax  seed,  821 ;  and  the.-o  were 
made  :15  galk>n*  of  wine;  value  of  home-made  manu- 
fiuitures,  $638,217 ;  of  slaughtered  animals,  $1,162,918. 
In  the  eastern  part,  particularly  on  the  border*  of 
the  rivers,  the  climate  is  generally  moist  and  un- 
healthy, but  in  the  middle  and  western  parts  it  is 
lalubrious.  Itt  rivert  afford  great  faciUtiet  for  com- 
merce. The  Mitiiasippi  flowi  along  itt  eastern  border 
(br  tha  distance  of  nearly  400  miles.    Tho  Arkansas 


>  ABK 

in  a  sottthaastwardly  diraotlon ;  It  ■  broad  and  daap 
stream,  and  it  navigabia  for  staamboats  SOU  miles  to 
Little  Hock,  and  in  tha  spring  floods  860  miles  farther 
to  fori  UlbaM,  beyond  tha  waatam  liorder  of  tha  HIala. 
White  Kivar  riaa*  in  Usark  Mountalna,  flows  through 
a  fertila  and  healthy  country,  abounding  with  tpringt 
and  streams  of  pure  water,  and  allbrda  many  mill 
aaats.  It  flows  into  tha  Arkansas  Kiver,  and  la  UIK 
commonly  drcuitoua  in  itt  course.  Tho  Hi.  Krancit 
Kivar  rtsaa  la  Missouri,  and  flows  south  nearly  iiarallal 
to  tha  Missiuippi,  which  it  at  last  enters.  It  Is  boaW 
able  for  800  miles.  The  Washita  waters  IM  touthen, 
and  tho  Had  Rlvar,  a  m^atlo  tinam,  Itt  t«ulhwatt> 
am  part. 

Tha  internal  Improvamentt  are  In  embryo,  bat  whan 
carried  out  will  form  an  oxcellent  lyatam.  'Tha  rival* 
are  numaroua,  and  would  give  good  facllitiet  for  eom> 
merce,  but  for  the  rafts  of  sunken  wood  which  ol»- 
struct  nearly  all.  Congreti  hat  made  appropriation* 
fbr  tho  clearance  of  soma.  Including  the  Red  Rlvar, 
but  to  tush  u  limited  extant  as  not  to  remove  tha 
obatruotiona  entirely.  Tha  railroad  ayatem  need*  but 
development  to  give  proaperity  to  tha  State.  Congress 
has  granted  lands  to  all  tho  principal  roail*  in  progress ; 
one  of  which,  from  Memphh  to  I.lttio  Rock,  will  be 
Important  at  a  purt  of  the  trunk  line  to  California. 

Maimfactum. — There  wara  in  tha  State  in  1860, 
II  cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invetted  of  $10,600, 
employing  18  males  and  18  females,  producing  sheet- 
ings and  81,260  poundt  of  yam,  valued  at  $16,(>37 ; 
28  flouring  and  griit  milli,  67  saw  mills,  61  tanneriet, 
0  nowapapert,  inclnding  periodicals,  publiahcd.  Capi- 
tal invested  in  manufactures,  $824,066. 

ArkwtlBiit,  Blr  Rlohard,  famous  for  his  inven- 
tions in  cotton-spinning,  was  boro  at  I'reston,  in  Lan- 
cashire, in  1732,  of  parents  in  humble  circumstances. 
Ho  was  the  younKest  of  thirteen  children,  received  but 
a  very  indlfl'erent  education,  and  was  bred  to  the  trade 
of  a  barber.  Uut  tho  m  anguila  domi  could  not  re- 
proas  the  native  vigor  of  his  mind,  or  extinguish  the 
desire  he  felt  to  emerge  from  his  low  situation.  In  the 
year  1760  he  had  estsblished  himself  in  Bolton-lo-Moor, 
where  he  exchanged  tha  trade  of  a  barber  for  that  of 
an  itinerant  hair-merchant;  and  having  dis> .  vered  a 
valuable  chemical  process  for  dyeing  hair,  ho  was  in 
consequenco  enabled  to  amass  a  little  property.  It  it 
unfortunate  that  very  little  is  known  of  the  steps  by 
which  he  was  led  to  those  Inventions  that  raised  him 
to  distinction,  and  have  immortalized  his  name.  His 
residenco  in  a  district  wliero  a  considerable  mannfac- 
turn  of  linen  goods,  and  of  linen  and  cotton  mixed,  was 
carried  on,  must  have  given  him  ample  opportunities 
of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  various  processes  that 
were  in  use  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  and  of  the  at- 
tempts that  had  been  made  and  were  then  making  to 
Improve  them.  His  attention  was  thus  naturally  drawn 
to  this  peculiar  department ;  and,  while  ho  saw  reason 
to  conclude  that  it  was  likely  to  prove  tho  most  ad- 
vantageous in  which  he  could  engage,  be  had  aagadty 
and  good  fortune  to  invent  and  improve  those  extraorw 
dinary  machines  by  which,  unlike  most  Inventors,  he 
amassed  vast  wealth,  at  the  same  time  that  he  added 
prodigiously  to  the  demand  for  labor,  and  to  the  riches 
and  comfort  of  the  civilized  world. 

Tho  tpmntHjf-jenH}/,  Invented  in  1767  by  Hargravet, 
a  carpenter  at  Blackburn,  in  Lancashire,  gave  the 
means  of  spinning  twenty  or  thirty  threads  at  once 
with  no  moro  labor  than  had  previously  been  required 
to  spin  a  tingle  thread.  The  thread  spun  by  the  jenny 
could  not,  however,  be  uted,  except  at  weft,  be'iig  des- 
titute of  tho  flrmnett  or  hardnest  required  i'>  the  lon- 
gitudinal threadt  or  warp.  But  Mr.  Arkwright  lupplled 
thit  dellriency  by  the  invention  of  the  tpinnutff-fivme 
—^that  wonderful  piece  of  machinery,  which  spins  a 
vast  number  of  threads  of  any  degree  of  flnenesa  and 
hardness,  leaving  to  man  merely  to  feed  the  machine 


Biver,  which  gives  name  to  the  Slate,  flowi  through  it   with  cotton,  and  to  Join  the  thread*  when  they  happen 


60 


AHtt 


to  bfMk.  It  k  not  dMmdi  to  MiliwtMl  tk*  pitns!- 
■!•  w  wMak  IM«  mmMm  li  MMtMMtwi,  and  lb*  mod* 
•f  lu  (MMllMi.  It  BWiilrti  W  tm  pWn  •#  relltn, 
tWMa  by  mm-  of  auwliiaorr.  Tko  Imtor  rotlor  of 
Msh  fit  U  AiriDWOtl  or  lliilod  loagiliidinaUjr,  »n*  Iho 
appor  oM  U  ooTorod  wllh  loaibot,  la  ndw  iImm  I«Im 

•  koM  of  iIm  cotlon.  If  Ikon  won  only  mm  pair  of 
follon,  U  I*  oloor  tbat  •  cm«IIii(  of  eotioa,  |mim<I  Iio- 
twoMi  IkoM,  would  bo  drown  brwordby  tko  rovolullon 
of  tko  roUoro)  but  It  woold  Moroljr  nndorgo  ■  coruln 
doftoo  of  coMproMlo*  horn  tkoir  octloo.  No  Mionor, 
bewtvor,  ba*  Uio  oardlag,  or  rariff  •■  It  It  lochnlcolly 
lofMod,  bogna  lo  |NMt  lkron«k  tk«  Km  poir  of  rollon, 
Ikon  It  I*  rMolvttI  hy  Ik*  Mcond  |ialr,  wblch  aro  mado 
to  lovolto  wllk  (at  Ibo  com  aty  boj  Ikroa,  bur,  or  ttvc 
UaMo  Iko  voloell/  of  tko  ttrol  pair.  By  thli  admlrabl* 
aoBlilvaaoo,  Iko  roving  I*  drawn  jnt  Into  a  ihrwut  of 
Iko  doilrod  dogrot  of  Unuity,  a  twUl  lioing  gtvon  to  It 
by  Iko  adaptalloa  of  ibo  iplndlo  and  fly  of  Iko  oommon 
tax  whool  to  tho  macbloMy. 

Sutdi  It  Iko  priarlpit  on  whkk  Mr.  ArkwrlAht  «on- 
•iKclod  kit  bmout  tplaniniHhimt.  ItUobvlouttkat 
it  It  radically  dlllbrMi  fVnm  lh«  pravlout  imlbmlt  of 
■piaaiag  oltkor  by  tho  common  band  whotl  or  ilUtalT, 
or  by  Ibo  Jonny,  wblcb  It  only  n  modlflcaUon  of  Ihn 
coainran  wboil.  Spinning  by  rollaii  wat  an  tntirily 
•figlnat  Moat  and  it  It  diScnll  lo  dolormlno  whieb  It 
■ott  worlky  of  admlmlion— Ibn  gonlui  wblcb  ltd  lo  to 
gnat  a  diaeortry,  or  Ibo  contnmniato  tklll  and  addrott 
by  wkltk  II  waa  to  tpoodlly  ptrfKlmi  and  rtdutt>d  tu 
pradloa.  Mr.  ArkwrlRkt  tlattd  tbat  ba  accidenlally 
dtrivcd  tbt  lint  bint  of  bit  great  Inrontlon  from  MwbiK 
a  nd-hot  Iron  bar  viongalad  by  Iwing  mad*  to  patt  lie- 
twotn  ration ;  and  tboagk  tbcto  It  no  mocbaalcal  anal- 
ogy botwton  Ikal  oporatlon  and  bit  prootti  of  ipin- 
nlag,  It  I*  not  diflltult  to  Imaglna  tbat  by  nfltviing 
upon  It,  and  placing  Ibo  tuUcct  In  dlflbnnt  polntt  of 
ytow,  It  might  load  bim  to  bit  Invonllon.  Tbt  prodie 
om  of  Ibo  lUtcovtry  It  not  known ;  but  It  It  mott  prol>- 
aMo  that  tko  fcllcltout  idea  of  ipinnlng  by  rolltni  had 
ooeurrtd  to  kit  mind  at  oarly  at  llw  period  wh«n  Har- 
gnvM  waa  engaged  in  tbt  invonllon  of  tbt  Jvnny,  or 
almott  immediately  after.  Not  being  a  practical  me- 
cbauk,  Arkwrigbt  employed  a  perton  of  Ibo  name  of 
John  Kay,  a  watch-maker  at  Warrington,  to  whom  we 
tbail  afterward  have  to  refbr,  toaititt  bim  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  parit  of  hit  machine.  Having  made 
tome  progreot  toward  the  completion  of  bit  invenlioni, 
bo  appUad  lu  1767  to  Mr.  Atherton,  of  Liverpool,  for 
poeunlary  attlttanco  to  enable  him  to  carry  them  Into 
oflhct ;  bat  tbia  gentleman  declined  embarking  hit  prop- 
oity  in  what  appoarad  to  baiardout  a  t|)ecuUtion, 
tkougk  ka  it  tald  lo  have  tent  bim  tome  workmen  to 
attitt  la  Ibo  conttruction  of  bit  machine;  the  flnt 
model  of  which  wat  net  up  In  the  parior  of  the  boute 
baloaging  to  the  IVeo  grammar  lobMl  at  Prttton. 

Hit  invtntiona  being  at  length  brought  into  a  pntty 
advanced  ttale,  Arkwrigbt,  accompanied  by  Kay,  and 

•  Mr.  Smalley,  of  Pretton,  rcooved  to  Motilogbam  in 
1768,  in  order  to  avoid  the  at  u'-ke  of  Ibo  tamo  lawleea 
rabble  that  had  drivea  Uargravea  out  of  Lancathin. 
Hen  kit  oporatioM  wan  at  fim  greatlv  Altered  by  a 
want  of  oapitaL  Bat  Mr.  Stmit,  of  l>srl>y,  a  gende- 
maa  of  groat  nMcbanlcal  tUU,  and  largely  engaged  In 
tkattocUag  nutnufliotan,  having  teen  Aikwrigbt't  In- 
Toationi,  and  talitfled  hlmtelf  of  their  extraordinary 
valae,  Imnediatoly  entend,  coi\}olntly  with  bit  part- 
aor  Mr.  Need,  into  parlntfthip  with  bim.  The  oom- 
awad  of  tbo  aooettary  fknda  being  Ihnt  obtained,  Mr. 
Arkwrigbt  eroded  hit  ftnt  mill,  which  wat  drivea  bj- 
bortea,  at  Kotliagkam,  and  took  out  a  patent  Ibr  tpln- 
aing  by  roUcra,  in  1769.  But  u  the  mode  of  working 
Iko  BMiDkiaory  by  bone-power  wat  found  too  expent- 
Ito,  ko  bolU  a  tocood  tkotoiy,  on  a  mack  largar  icale, 
at  Cranferd,  la  Darbythira,  in  1771,  tho  maehinary  of 
wkkk  wat  tamed  by  a  wator-wheol,  after  the  manner 
of  the  fwMoa  tUk-mfll  erected  by  Sir  Thoniat  Lorobe, 


Having  made  levrral  ailillllnnal  dlirnvertrt  and  im> 
pnvamanit  in  lh«  proreMn  of  eardlng,  ruving,  and 
tplnaing,  he  look  out  a  tmh  patent  fbr  Ihu  Mbula  In 
177ft I  and  Ibut  completed  a  leriea  uf  aitihlnery  to 
variout  and  eomplleated,  yel  to  admlrabl)  cumlilnei), 
aad  well  adapted  lu  produce  the  Intendvil  i>ir»rt,  In  lla 
moel  perAN-t  (brm,  at  to  excite  the  aalonUhnirnt  end 
admiration  of  every  one  capable  of  apprevltllng  the  In- 
gonully  ilitplayeil  and  Ike  dHMcultlet  overniiiio.  _K.  H. 

Anuid*,  a  Hpanltb  tenn,  ilgnlfVIng  a  llrrl  of 
war.  The  armada  which  allempled  In  liivailc  Kn- 
gland  in  the  lime  of  Queen  Elliabelh  it  famoiit  la 
hittory. 

Ani«4  IfMllniUty.  The  ronfrderacv,  to  called, 
of  Ike  Norlbem  powere,  agalntt  Knglanii,  wat  com- 
menced by  the  Kmpnti  of  Kuttla  In  ITWi ;  liut  III 
ob|e«lt  were  dcfraled  in  1701.  The  prolciialun  waa 
nnvwed,  and  a  treaty  ratlHtd  In  order  In  ctute  their 
lligt  lo  be  rcapectrd  by  the  lirlllgerent  powi'ra,  De- 
cember 10,  IHOO.  The  princl]ile  that  iiuiilral  dtgt 
protect  neutral  lioltnmt  being  contrary  lo  the  marU 
time  tyitem  of  Kngland,  Iht  Itrltlth  calilnrt  reniun- 
•traled,  and  Nelian  and  I'arker  detlmycd  Ihe  fleet  ot 
Denmark  befon  Copenbagen,  April  1,  IHOt,  That 
power,  in  contequrnce,  wat  obll|ied  lo  tecrdc  (Vom  tho 
alliance,  and  acknowledge  the  claim  of  I'l  h'o.uI  to 
(be  empin  of  the  tea;  and  the  Armed  MeutreMty  wu 
toon  after  diMulved. — IIaydn. 

▲raw.      AVr  KlHK-AHM*. 

Arraok,  or  Rack  (Fr.  Amet  tSitiKi.  At.^ck, 
Knekl  l)u.  Amk,  Hu'^i  It.  Araeoi  tji,  A-nl  .■  Port. 
.4r<ir<)(  Kuit.  Amk),  a  tplHtuoui  liquor  nitm  .'  clund 
at  rilllbrent  placet  in  the  Kail. 

Amok  It  a  lemi  applied  In  mott  par'n  «f  India, 
and  tho  Indian  Itlandi,  to  denlgnatc  every  aort  of 
iplrituoui  llqnort;  a  clrcumalnncu  which  accnunti  for 
tho  dlocrepancy  In  the  •latrnirntt  at  lo  the  niatcrialt 
uard  in  making  It,  and  the  mode  of  lla  minnfaclun. 
The  arrack  of  Oca  and  Italavia  It  in  high  ci>llmallnn; 
thatof  Columlio  or  Ceylon  hat  lieen  tald  to  dc  Inferior 
to  tho  former;  but  Ibit  ItdnulitAiI.  Qoa  and  Colunitio 
arrack  la  Invariably  made  ftrom  the  vrgetabln  Juice, 
(ixfffy,  which  flowt  by  incltlon  fTnm  the  cocoa-nut  tree 
(A'licnt  NMct^ra).  After  the  Juice  It  frrnu'iilvd,  It  it 
diMllled  and  recllfled.  It  utually  yieldt  about  an 
tifhiA  part  of  pure  tpirit.  Batavia  or  Java  arrack  la 
obtained  by  dlilillalion  fVom  molattct  and  rice,  wllh 
only  a  tmall  admixture  of  toddy.  When  well  pre- 
pared, arrack  It  cictr  and  tranaparent ;  ((■'■orally, 
however.  It  it  tllftbtly  itraw-colored.  lit  flavor  il 
peculiar;  but  It  diffrra  contidorabty,  no  doubt  In  con' 
Mquenco  of  tho  variout  arliclct  of  which  It  U  prepared, 
and  Iha  unequal  care  taken  In  lit  manufavluro.  In 
England,  arrack  It  leldoni  uted  except  to  give  flavor 
to  punch ;  formerly  the  hnporti  were  quite  inconald- 
erable;  but  they  have  recently  been  a  koo<I  deal 
greater,  though,  at  they  are  mixed  up  In  lli«  ufllclat 
retumt  with  rum  ttom  India,  It  It  Impotiiblii  lo  nlala 
their  exact  amount.  Tbo  duty  on  rack  fh>m  a  Uritith 
potiettlon  it  8<.  id.  a  gallon,  and  on  that  IVom  a 
foreign  country,  16*.  per  gallon.  In  the  Eaat  iti  con- 
tnmption  it  immenic.  It  It  Ittued  to  the  tulilieit  In 
India  aa  part  of  the  ettablithed  ratloni;  and  it  la 
tupplled,  Inttead  of  rum,  to  the  loanten  of  (he  royal 
navy  employed  In  the  Indian  trit.  It  It  one  uf  tho 
principal  producit  of  Ceylon.  Itt  prime  cual  in  that 
iiland  rarlet  ftrom  M.  to  IM.  a  gallon  ;  and  largo 
quantlllaa  an  exported  to  India  and  cltewhere.  It  it 
told  In  Caylon  by  the  legger  of  160,  and  In  Java  by 
the  legger  of  ICO  gallont.  In  1841  the  exporit  fh>m 
Ihe  latter  amounted  to  <I672  leggen,  or  747,n20  gal- 
lone,  valued  at  286,818  florini.  BaUvIa  arrack  told 
in  bond  In  I/ondon,  in  September,  18S8,  at  fVom  1<.  6<I. 
to  St.  per  gallon. 

PnriaA-mrrack  It  a  phrata  ated  to  detlgnata  a  tplrit 
dkliUad  in  the  penlniula  of  India,  which  it  laid  to  ba 
often  rendered  unwholesome  by  an  admixture  otgmga 


pOMI 

nat 

wat 


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(hm 

onti 

fron 

loin 

In  I 

It 

trod 

tyl 

ofi 

In 

The 

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AST 


>ptrit 
gmga 


(CbiMMiw  mW^mX  and  •  tptalM  of  AMuro,  In  Ih*  vlaw 
•f  InoraMliitf  tin  lnliMil«*lln|  pnwur.  Iliil  II  U  mil 
olMr  wh«tli«r  Ilia  twm  parUh-arravk  Im  moaiil  to  In- 
pi/  Ihal  U  I"  DO  Infurior  •plrll,  ur  an  adulUraluU  com- 
puHUilt  TliU  ll<|iiur  U  •uniiitlinai  illttlUinl  fhtiii  vwdni- 
iiul  ItMy,  ut<\  MiiiMllaiM  frmn  a  mlxlurn  uf  i»KX»ty, 
watar,  and  lb*  Iwrlii  of  varlnui  ttuv.—Htt  Uimiunm'* 
Ori»»t'  ('"*•.  /  and  Mm.  1Uu«iiai.i.  ■ulnaiU  Kungim 
ikt  I'uftn-nul  '/Vw,  ii.  IH. 

Anow-root,  llia  pilh  or  •tart'h  of  tha  mot  Mn- 
ran/ii  nruHiliniu'Mi.  It  liaa  rmiilvrd  It*  cuinninn  nama 
fhini  U«  iHilnii  (uppuwiil  to  In  an  antliluta  tu  tlia  poli- 
odikI  arruwa  uf  Ilia  Indlant.  Tim  pnwiliir  U  prapanil 
ttom  mola  of  a  yott  old.  Il  U  ntkunad  a  v«r.y  whuU- 
•oin«,  nutrllloui  AmmI  i  It  I*  oftau  aduU«raliid,  wban 
In  III*  ilmpii,  with  tlia  ilarvh  or  dour  of  polatoaa.  1 1 
U  a  natlw  of  (iouth  Aniurlva  |  liiit  lian  Iravn  lunii  In- 
Iruiluead  Into  thn  Waal  Indian,  wliara  It  fiirmi  a  prat- 
ty  Inipurtaiil  articia  of  cultivation.  An  axi'iillont  kind 
uf  arrow-root,  If  It  may  ba  w  vallud,  la  iinw  prepai'i'<l 
In  India  from  tha  rout  of  thu  Cun-amii  an/uit^Mu. 
Tim  plant  la  abundant  on  tha  Malabar  I'ouat,  wlivm 
ttin  pimdtir  la  niadn  iu  nuvh  quaniitli'a  aa  lo  Ita  a 
conaUU'rabl*  ul||«ct  uf  traiUi.  Homo  uf  It  haa  U-vn 
broUKliI  to  KnKlauil.  Tha  Mm-ania  urimiliniicr.n  haa 
baan  oarrU>d  ft'oin  tha  Weat  Indlea  to  Cvylun,  whara 
It  thrtvita  exlramuly  wall,  and  wliunt  arrow-root  of  llio 
flnuat  (|iiallty  haa  baaii  maoufacturvd  from  It. — Ainn- 
lik'h  .U(it,  InJuiit, 

Arrowunltllt  Aaron,  an  aminunt  Keoicrnphar 
and  hvdruKrnpher,  born  at  Lindnn  In  1760.  llo  pul>- 
llahud,  In  IM17,  a  now  Uanaral  Atlaa,  ttu,  and  pro- 
ducad  a  )(■'<'•>'  numliar  uf  niapa  and  cbarta.  Ilia  map 
of  tlin  worlil  on  Haroalor'a  projactlon  la  much  uataam- 
«d.     Ila  diod  In  1M38. 

AtmusI  (from  Iho  Romaont  arthmal,  a  citadel), 
originally  dunutod  vxcluaivuly  a  nia||a7.ino  of  naval 
Ituroa  and  warlike  apparatua,  k'v'"K  probability  to 
thu  vtyniul»|{y  which  derlvva  tho  word  from  tin)  l^atln 
arjt  Hiirii'w,  a  naval  cltadol.  Now,  huwiivor,  tho  tartn 
la  appllud  to  a  rapuaitury  of  warliko  atorua,  wliothur 
fur  land  ur  aoa  aervlca.  Thu  naval  araanala  arc, 
howovpr,  atlll  tho  mom  nuniaruua,  and  will  bu  fuund 
deaertbcd  at  lunifth  under  thu  artlclo  DtHK-TAHDN. 

The  ifruat  araonal  of  Urltaln  (If  wu  oxcapl  tho 
Towor)  la  that  of  Woolwich,  whuru  all  warliku  atorca 
and  apparatua  aro  not  only  pruaarvud,  but  manufac- 
tured In  (ho  Iniiuonae  buildinKB  ilovotod  to  tho  pur^ 
noio.  At  Woolwich,  Duplford,  (!hathani,  Hliuurneaa, 
I'orlamouth,  and  Plymouth,  nra  thu  grvat  naval  ar- 
tenata.  In  France,  there  are  inililary  araonala  at 
I'aria,  StraabUrR,  Metx,  Lille,  etc. ;  and  live  groat 
maritime  araanala,  tho  chluf  of  which  aro  thoao  of 
Droat,  Toulon,  and  Kochofurt ;  next  to  thcin  L'Orlent 
and  Cherbourg.  There  are  alao  inferior  araanala  at 
Dunkirk,  Havre,  Saint  Servau,  Nantea,  Bordeaux, 
and  Uayonno.  The  other  principal  uaval  araenala  In 
Europe  are,  thoae  of  Uuaala,  ot  81. 1'oteraburg,  Cron- 
Itadt,  an<l  SolMutopol;  of  Holland,  at  Anvera,  Fluah- 
ing,  Ilulvootaluya,  and  thu  Tuxel ;  of  I'ruaaia,  at  Uant- 
xlg;  of  Hamburg;  of  Uonmark,  at  Copenhagen;  of 
Turkey,  at  Cunstantinopte ;  of  Itnly,  at  Genoa,  Villa- 
fhuica,  Mvomo,  .Spezzia,  Civita  Vvcchla,  Napica,  An- 
cona,  Venice,  and  Trioate ;  of  Spain,  at  Cadiz,  Cartha- 
gena,  and  liarcelona,  and  the  Urltiah  one  at  Ulbraltar; 
of  I'ortugnl,  at  Llalmn ;  of  Urltaln,  at  Malta  and  Cor- 
fu.—K.  U.  The  principal  naval  arsenaU  of  thu  United 
States  are  at  New  York,  Boaton,  and  Norfolk.  The 
military  araenala  of  the  United  States  are  at  Kennebec, 
Maine ;  Watertown,  MASsachuaotta ;  Watervllet,  New 
York;  New  York  city;  AlloKhany  and  Frankford, 
Pennsylvania;  Plkeavillo, Indiana ;  Washington,  Dis- 
trict of  Cjilumbla ;  Fort  Monroe,  Virginia ;  Augusta, 
Georgia;  St.  Louis, Mobile ;  Baton  Kougo,Ixiuiaiana; 
Mount  Vernon,  Alabama;  Detroit,  Michigan;  Fay- 
etteville.  North  Carolina ;  Cnarloaton,  South  Carolina ; 
Uttla  Itock,  Arkanaos ;  San  Antonio,  Te:u« ;  Ueniclf, 


RalUbmlai  af  tlraall,  at  Kio  Janeiro  and  Uokhii  oT 
U  I'laU,  at  lluvnna  Ayna  and  Monta  Vld«n ;  of  t'hill, 
at  Val|>arala<i|  and  of  Maxico,  al  VitfaCnia. 

AfMBlO  (.t)*""'  ArMnUi  Vt.  .IrMnfo;  II.  and 
Hp.  ArMuiroi  Hau.  lUUtel^lnki  I.al. /Iraffi^m),  Thl* 
nialal  haa  a  blulah  wblta  oulor  not  unllka  that  of 
ai«r>  and  a  good  daal  of  brilliancy.  Il  haa  no  aeiia> 
Ibia  smell  whila  eidd,  but  when  heatad  II  smita  a 
atroiiK  odor  of  garlln,  «hli'h  la  vary  vharactarlatle.  II 
la  thu  aoflml  nf  all  the  mntallle  iHidlaa,  and  au  briltia 
that  It  may  lie  aaally  radueetl  Iu  a  very  line  powdar  by 
trituration  In  a  niorlar.  Its  apacllle  gravity  la  A'7tl.— 
riliiM»<iM'»  Chimiili-y.  Metallic  araenic  la  nut  uaad 
In  tha  arts,  and  la  iint,  therafure,  axiractad  than  the 
ore,  exorpt  fur  the  purpiiaaa  uf  ox|Hirinisnt  or  eurloalty. 
The  araenlo  of  i-ominarcu  la  the  while  axlda,  or  ara^ 
iWiiiia  arid  of  chemlata.  It  In  a  white,  brittle,  compact 
aubalance,  of  a  s\u»y  appearance ;  la  Inodoroua ;  haa 
an  acrid  taste,  leaving  on  the  longae  a  tweatlsh  Im- 
proaalun;  and  la  highly  curroslvs.  In  Ita  malolllo 
state  araanlc  axerta  nn  action  on  the  animal  tyatam  | 
but  when  oxidlsi'd,  It  la  a  moat  virulent  pnlann.  The 
araanlu  of  the  ahnpa  is  aoinetimea  adultsraled  with 
white  aaiid,  rhatk,  or  gypaum  i  the  fk'aud  may  lie  de- 
tected by  heatliii(  a  small  portion  of  the  suatierted 
|iowder,  when  the  araenlo  la  dls'I,  tied,  leaving  the 
inipurltlaa.  If  there  In  any,  Iwblni..  Though  the  moat 
violent  of  all  the  mineral  )  olaona,  tha  while  oxide  of 
araanlc,  or  the  araenlo  ui  the  ahopa,  la  yet,  whan  judl- 
cloiialy  adiiiliilatered,  a  niedicinii  of  great  efllcaoy.  Il 
la  alan  used  for  % nrl.j-.''  purpoavi  In  the  aria.  It  la 
principally  Imported  IViim  (^a.tuny  and  lluhemla.— 
'riiiiMMON'N  Chemutryi  A.  T.  Tiiiimhiin'm  IHiptntatorj/, 

Antira,  a  term  ua«d  in  ancient  timaa  for  tho  melt- 
ing of  g<dd  or  silver,  either  to  refine  them  or  to  ex* 
amine  their  value.  Thu  method  of  doing  this  la 
explained  In  the  Black  Book  of  the  Exchequer,  as- 
cribed to  Gervalsa,  In  the  chapter  Jh  l)gii^  MiUtk 
Arj/»ntnrii,  being  in  thosr<  days  of  groat  uae,  on  ao- 
count  of  the  varloua  places  and  diAlBrent  manners  In 
whiob  the  king'a  money  was  paid.  Araura  is  alao 
used  for  the  loas  or  diminutiuii  uf  the  metal  In  tha 
trial.  In  this  sense  a  pound  was  said  tot  order* 
ilennrnui,  to  loao  ao  many  pennywelghta.  Araura  la 
llkewiae  used  fur  tho  dust  and  sweepings  of  alWer^ 
smiths,  and  others  who  work  In  silver  melted  down. 

Altvalan  Wella,  Mie  name  applied  to  artlflclal 
springs,  pruduoed  by  horing  a  small  hole  through 
strata  deatltute  of  water.  Into  lower  beds  In  which 
water  la  percolating  In  conalderablo  quantity.  On 
making  such  perforation,  the  water  often  riaea  forcibly 
to  the  aurface,  and  la  conveyed  to  a  convenient  re- 
ceptacle by  a  pipe  intro<luced  by  the  perfuratlun  Into 
the  strata  ail'onllng  the  water.  The  lirst  place  In 
Kurope  where  such  artlllclal  fountains  were  extensively 
formed  waa  In  the  French  province  of  Artois,  anciently 
\rttnum.  But  there  Is  reason  to  believe  that  the  art 
was  long  before  practiced  by  tho  Chinese,  who  are 
very  expert  In  tho  formation  of  such  wells.  They  ara 
extensively  used  In  the  Blllanese,  in  several  parts  of 
Germany,  and  have  aU  .  Iieen  for  several  years  em- 
ployed In  the  south  of  England,  on  the  coast  of  Lln- 
culnslilre,  and  more  lately  In  the  vicinity  of  London, 

An  artesian  well  was  sunk  at  Sheorncss  in  17H1,  to 
tho  depth  of  830  feet.— /'Ai/oaripAtca/  7VatM(ir(io«J,  1784. 
It  was  carried  through  a  thick  bed  of  London  cUiy,  and 
water,  which  rose  nearly  to  the  surface,  was  found  on 
reaching  the  subjacent  sand-beds.  Two  of  better 
construction  were  carried  to  the  samo  depth  through 
Hlmiiar  materials  at  Portsmouth  docks  in  1828  and 
1829.  Tho  soil  of  the  district  on  the  coast  of  Lincoln, 
liotwcen  Lowth  and  the  sea,  rests  on  a  thick  lied  of 
clay,  which  precludes  tho  possibility  of  springs ;  but 
by  penetrating  through  this,  water  was  found  In 
abundance  In  tho  chalk  on  which  the  clay  reposed; 
and  artesian  wells  there  now  afford  a  plentiful  supply 
of  thi*  necessary  element,  that  rises  with  auch  foroa. 


IST 


IB 


ART 


thraggb  the  pipes  M  to  have  obtained  tlie  loaal  name 
of  NovMetlU.  The  theory  of  artcBian  welli  if  founded 
on  the  fact  that  water  derived  «yom  a  higher  level  may 
percolate  through  cerUin  strata,  or  pais  in  leams 
between  them,  and  be  prevented  fh>m  reaching  the 
Mirface  by  the  auperpoiition  of  other  lieda  or  itrata 
impervioui  to  water.  In  luch  circumstance!  a  per- 
foration through  the  latter  allows  the  water,  by  hy- 
drostatic pnssure,  to  reach  the  surface;  and  it  will 
overflow,  or  even  gush  out,  with  a  force  proportional 
to  the  difficrence  of  level  of  the  dilfeient  parU  of  the 
water-bearing  strata,  especially  if  the  ftw  course  of 
the  subterranean  sheet  of  water  be  interrupted  by 
what  are  termed^huAf  in  the  strata,  or  the  occurrence 
of  veins  of  atony  bodies  intersecting  them.  Thus,  in 
tho  diagram  of  a  supposed  section  of  •  country,  let  P  P 


represent  a  thick  bed  of  plastic  clay,  ABC  strata 
affording  water,  alternating  with  strata  D£F,  imper- 
vious tn  water,  and  let  V  represent  a  vein  of  trap  rocic 
traveraing  theae  strata,  and  producing  a  thi/l  or  fault ; 
by  ainlting  the  pipea  abc  into  the  strata  ABC  re- 
spectively, we  shall  obtain  the  water  derived  from  the 
more  elevated  portions  of  these  strata  at  such  artesiaa 
fountains. 

Tho  same  prinuples  an  applicable  to  the  sinlclng 
of  common  wells.  It  has  sometimes  happened  that  a 
well  has  been  Inst  in  attempts  to  increase  its  flow  by 
•  deeper  excavation.  Thus,  if  the  bottom  of  the  well 
was  a  bed  of  clay  resting  on  sand,  a  perforation  made 
through  that  clay  has  occasionally  lost  all  the  water ; 
because  the  stratum  of  day  had  prevented  the  water 
llrom  escapinK  to  a  lower  level,  and  conducted  it  to- 
ward the  surface.  The  direction  of  the  strata,  as  well 
as  their  nature,  are  esaential  elements  for  the  eucceas- 
ful  formation  of  either  common  or  artesian  wells ; 
which  last  ard  of  great  consequence  in  champaign 
countries,  where  natural  springs  are  less  common. 

Artesian  wells  have  been  also  sunk  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  worm  water.  It  is  well  ascertained  that 
in  the  interior  of  our  earth  then  is  a  source  of  heat, 
which  may  be  reached  by  deep  artesian  perforations, 
so  as  to  bring  warm  water  to  the  surface.  Thus  Von 
Bruckmann,  of  WOrtemburg,  heated  a  paper  manufac- 
tory at  Hellbronn  by  water  from  a  deep  artesian  well ; 
and  by  the  same  means  prevented  the  freezing  of  the 
water  in  winter  round  the  wheels  of  mills.  In  the 
artesian  well  at  Rochelle,  at  the  depth  of  870  feet,  the 
water  has  a  temperetora  18°  higher  than  that  of  the 
atmosphere.  H.  Arago  was  tliie  chief  promoter  of 
the  arteaian  well  in  the  plain  of  Crenelle  at  Paris, 
wrhich,  at  the  depth  of  upward  of  1900  feet,  affbrda 
water  at  92°  Fahrenheit.  In  the  deepeat  artesian 
well  yet  made,  that  at  Kiaacngen,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  ia  alao  very  considerable. 

The  instrument  now  used  in  making  artesian  per- 
forations to  great  depths  is  not  the  old  machine  em- 
'  ployed  in  boring  for  coal,  etc.,  a  series  of  iron  rods 
screwed  together,  and  forced  down  by  repeated  bt^ws 
with  a  mallet.  That  was  a  costly  and  tedious  opera- 
tion :  a  Chinese  instrument  has  lately  been  introduced 
with  great  cflcct.  It  consists  of  a  heavy  bar  of 
cast  iron,  six  feet  long  and  four  inches  In  diameter, 
armed  at  its  lower  end  with  a  cutting  chisel,  sur- 
rounded by  a  cylindrical  chamber,  which,  by  means 
of  simple  valves,  receives  and  retains  the  abraded 
portions  of  tho  rock.  Tho  instrument  is  suspended 
by  a  rope  passing  over  a  wheel.  Aa  it  is  wrouglit  up 
and  down,  the  toi'sion  of  the  rope  gives  a  circular 


movement  to  the  bar  of  Iron,  sufficient  (n  vary  the 
position  of  tite  chisel  at  each  stroke  of  the  instrument; 
and  when  the  chamber  is  taW  of  the  debris  of  the 
rock,  it  is  drawn  up  and  discharged.  This  mode  of 
working  has  greatly  diminished  the  labor  and  cxpens* 
of  such  operations ;  and  is  applicable  to  many  pro- 
cesses in  mining,  blasting  In  quarries,  and  the  like. 

An  ingenious  tiorman  engineer,  M.  Bellow,  has  by 
a  similar  instrument  of  greater  size,  succeeded  in  ven> 
lilating  the  mines  at  SJaarbrOck,  by  perforations  18 
inches  in  diameter,  and  several  hundred  feet  in  depth. 
Tho  importance  of  artesian  wells  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  They  are  capable  of  rendering  dis- 
tricts now  scantily  supplied  with  or  destitute  of  pota- 
ble water,  convenient  domiciles  for  man ;  and  under 
an  enlightened  government  might  render  habitabla 
no  small  portions  of  the  arid  wastes  of 
Africa  and  Arabia.  In  the  latter,  re- 
cent observations  show  that  there  are 
abundant  subterranean  aourrcs  of  wa- 
ter, and  possibly  a  scries  of  artesian 
wells  might  diminish  the  perils  of  the 
passage  of  the  Great  Sahara. — E.  B. 
The  United  States  Government  has  re- 
cently authorized  a  series  of  experi- 
ments for  the  construction  of  a  number  of  artesian  wells 
on  the  plains  of  Western  Texas,  on  or  near  the  military 
and  emigrant  roads  leading  toward  New  Mexico  and 
California,  for  the  relief  of  emigrant  parties.  An  ex- 
pedition for  this  purpose  left  Texas  in  January,  1866, 
under  the  comnmnd  nf  Coptain  Pope,  United  States 
army,  and  had  not  completed  their  operations  in  De- 
cember, 1866.— iSfe  Hericat  db  Thi'RY,  Cimtidera- 
lionf  mr  la  cause  du  Jailliutment  dtt  £aur  de$  I'uilt- 
fork,  Paris,  1829;  Von  Bruckmams,  Vfher  Artesitche 
Jinmnm,  Ileilb.  1883 ;  M.  Arago,  Noticrt  Seintifiquei, 
Attnuaire  du  Bur.  dtt  Long,  pour  Anna  plui. 

Aztlfloer,  a  person  who  works  in  iron,  brass, 
woo<i,  etc. — such  as  smiths,  brasiers,  carpenters,  etc. 
The  Roman  artiflcers  had  their  peculiar  temples, 
where  they  assembled  and  chose  their  own  patron  to 
defend  llieir  causes;  and  they  were  exempted  iVom  all 
personal  services.  Taruntenua  Patcmus  reckons  82 
species  of  artiflcers,  and  Conatantine  86,  who  ei\)oyed 
this  privilege.  The  artiflcers  were  incorporated  into 
divers  coUegea  or  companies,  each  of  ^hicli  h^d  their 
tutelar  gods,  to  whom  they  offered  their  worship. 
Several  of  these,  when  they  quitted  their  profession, 
hung  up  their  tools,  as  votive  offerings  to  llieir  gods. 
Artificers  were  held  a  degree  below  mcrehnnts  and 
argenlarii,  or  money-changers,  and  their  cni|iluymcnt 
mora  sordid,  t^ome  deny  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  Roman  State  artificers  were  ranked  in  the  number 
of  citizens  ;  others,  who  assert  their  citizenebip,  allow 
that  they  were  lield  in  contempt,  as  being  unflt  for 
war,  and 'SO  poor  that  they  could  scarcely  pay  any 
taxes ;  for  which  reason  they  were  not  entered  among 
the  citizens  in  the  censor's  books;  the  design  of  the 
census  lieing  only  to  nee  what  number  of  persons  were 
yearly  fit  to  beat  arms  and  to  pay  faxes  toward  tho 
support  of  the  state.  It  may  be  added,  that  much  of 
the  artificers'  business  at  Home  was  done  by  slaves 
and  foreigners. 

Artificial  Hoiison,  a  contrivance  of  great  utility 
for  enabling  an  observer  to  determine  the  altitude  of 
a  heavenly  body,  or  of  a  terrestrial  object,  above  the 
horizon  of  any  place,  when  tho  sensible  horizon  is  ill 
defined.  The  surface  of  a  fluid  not  easily  disturbed 
liy  tho  air,  such  as  qricksllvcr,  or  some  viscid,  opaque 
fluid,  is  usually  employed  for  this  purpose,  as  tlicy 
will  adjust  themselves  to  a  plane  parallel  to  the  ra- 
tional horizon.  To  prevent  the  influence  of  winds  in 
the  open  air,  the  surface  is  usually  covered  by  a  plato 
of  ground-glass  with  parallel  surfaces.  In  fixed  observ- 
ations this  is  not  necessary ;  and  the  mercury  ia  con- 
tained in  an  oblong  trough  ;  for  loccmntivc  observo- 
tions,  a  cup  of  three  inches  in  diameter  is  tho  containing 


M. 


■pi: 


A8I 


Teasel.  But  at  carrying  about  mercnry  is  inconvenient, 
tome  have  employed  poUibed  metalllo  or  glaie  uiir- 
ror«,  at^uated  by  acrews  at  the  comera,  and  a  apii'it- 
level,  to  horizontiiUty ;  though  thia  ia  loaa  accurate 
than  the  fluid  surface.  The  surface  of  the  quicksilver, 
or  n  irror  so  a(y ustcd,  la  a  plane  touching  the  aurface 
of  the  earth  where  the  observation  ia  made,  and  parallel 
to  the  rational  horizon ;  therefore,  a  ray  of  light  pass- 
ing from  the  olject  to  the  surface  of  the  instrument, 
forms  an  angle  with  that  surface  equal  to  the  angular 
elevation  of  that  object  above  the  true  horizon  of  tne 
place,  when  it  is  corrected  for  parallax  and  refraction. 
— E.  B. 

Aa,  in  Antiquity,  a  weight,  conaisting  of  12  ouncea, 
being  thn  same  with  libra,  or  the  Roman  pound.  The 
word  is  (lurived  from  the  Ureek  &i(,  which,  in  the  Doric 
dialect,  ia  used  for  lit,  oi^t  1-  <!•  an  entire  tiling ;  or, 
according  to  others,  from  as,  because  made  pf  brass. 
It  was  also  the  name  of  a  Roman  coin,  which  was  of 
dilTcrent  weight  and  material  in  different  ages  of  the 
commonwealth.  Under  Numa  Pompilius,  according 
to  Eusobius,  the  Roman  money  was  either  of  wood, 
leather,  or  sheila.  In  the  time  of  TuUus  Ilostilius  it 
was  of  brass,  and  called  at  liira,  lUella,  or  pondo, 
because  actually  wcigliing  a  "nund,  or  12  ouncea. 
The  first  I'unic  war,  420  year '.  lat<T,  having  exhaust- 
ed the  trcaaury,  the  lu  was  rcuaced  to  two  ouncea. 
In  the  aticond  I'unic  war  it  was  again  reduced  to 
half  ita  weight,  viz.,  to  one  ounce.  And,  lastly,  liy 
the  Papirian  law  it  waa  still  further  reduced  to  the 
diminutive  weight  of  half  an  ounce ;  and  it  is  gener- 
ally thought  that  it  continued  the  same  during  the 
commonwealth,  and  even  to  the  reign  of  Veapoaian. 
Vhe  at,  therefore,  was  of  four  dilTcrent  weights  in  the 
commonwealth.  Ita  original  atamp  was  that  of  a 
sheep,  ox,  or  sow ;  but  from  the  time  of  the  emperors 
it  had  on  one  side  a  Janus  with  two  faces,  and  on  the 
reverse  the  rostrum  or  prow  of  a  ship,  .'.a  also  do- 
noted  any  integer  or  whole ;  whence  the  Knglish  word 
ace.  Thus  at  aignitied  the  whole  inhcrituuce ;  whence 
haret  ei  atte,  the  heir  to  the  whole  estate. 

AaafoBtida  (Ger.  TeufeUdnch;  Da.  Duiveltdreck ; 
Vt.Assa-fdida;  Sf.  Aia-fetida ;  hat.  Aaa-/atida ;  Per. 
UngtMzeh),  u  gum  resin,  consisting  of  the  inspissated 
juice  of  a  large  umbelliferous  plant,  the  Ftrula  asa- 
fastida.  It  is  produced  in  the  southern  provincea  of 
Persia,  and  in  the  territory  of  Sindo,  or  country  lying 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  It  is  exported  from  tlie 
Persian  Gulf  to  Bombay  and  Calcutta,  whence  it  ia 
sent  to  Europe.  It  has  a  nauseous,  somewhat  bitter, 
biting  taste,  and  an  excessively  strong,  fetid,  alli- 
aceous smell:  the  newer  it  ia,  it  possesses  its  amell 
and  other  peculiar  properties  in  the  greater  perfection. 
It  is  imported,  packed  in  irregular  masaca,  in  mate, 
casks,  and  cases ;  the  last  being,  in  general,  the  best. 
It  should  be  chosen  clean,  fresh,  strong-acentcd,  of  a 
pale  reddish  color,  variegated  with  a  number  of  fine, 
white  tcara :  when  broken,  it  sliould  somewhat  resem- 
ble marble  in  appearance ;  and,  after  being  exposed  to 
the  air,  should  turn  of  a  violet  red  color.  That  which 
is  soft,  black,  and  foul,  should  be  rejected.  The  pack- 
ages should  bo  carefully  examined,  and  ought  to  bo 
tight,  to  prevent  the  smell  from  iix]uring  any  other 
article.  Neither  the  imports  nor  the  quantities  cleared 
for  consumption  are  considerable,  though  the  latter 
are  probably  greater  than  might  have  been  expected, 
amounting  to  about  9000  lbs.  a  year.  The  duty  in 
England  ia  It.  a  cwt.  In  England  it  ia  used  only  in 
the  materia  medica.  In  France  it  is  uaed  both  In  that 
way,  and,  to  some  extent,  also  as  a  condiment.  It  is 
worth.  In  bond,  in  the  London  market,  from  26<.  to  i.'5 
per  cwt.— Mii.nuRN's  Orient.  Com. ;  Part.  Papert ;  and 
private  Information. 

Aah,  Common,  the  Fraxinut  exceltior  of  botanlata, 
a  forest  tree  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  U  is 
abundant  in  England,  and  ia  of  the  greatcat  utility. 
The  ash  is  of  vor^  rapid  growth ;  and,  unlike  most 


other  trees,  its  value  is  rather  increased  than  dimin- 
ished by  thia  circumatance.  Like  the  cheatnut,  tha 
wood  of  young  trees  is  most  esteemed.  It  grows  on  a 
great  variety  of  soils,  but  is  best  wliere  the  growth 
h>M  been  most  vigorous.  It  is  inferior  to  the  oak  In 
BtlflViess,  and  ia'niore  easily  split;  but  in  toughness 
and  elasticliy  It  is  far  superior  to  the  oak,  or  to  any 
other  apeclea  of  timber.  Henea  its  univeraal  employ* 
ment  in  ail  those  parts  of  machinery  which  liavs  to 
sustain  sudden  shocks,  such  as  the  circumference, 
teeth,  and  spokes  of  wheels,  ship-blocks,  etc.,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements;  in  tha 
latter,  indeed,  it  is  almost  exclusively  made  use  of. 
The  want  of  prolonged  durability  ia  its  greateat  dofoot  | 
and  it  is  too  flexible  to  Ihi  employed  in  building,  Tht 
wood  of  old  treea  ia  of  a  dark  brown  color,  aomellmes 
beautifully  figured ;  the  wood  of  young  treca  is  bruwn> 
ish  white,  with  a  shade  of  green.  The  texture  is  al- 
ternately compact  and  porous ;  where  tlie  growth  has 
been  vigorous,  the  compact  part  of  tiia  several  layers 
bears  a  great  proportion  to  the  spongy,  and  the  timber 
la  compuratlvoly  tough,  elaatlo,  and  durable.  It  has 
neither  taste  nor  smell,  and,  when  young,  is  diffleult 
to  work.  The  mountain  aali  (Pyrut  aucuparia)  it 
quite  a  dlflbrent  tree  from  the  common  aah,  and  itt 
timber  is  far  leas  valuable. — TueixtuLD'H  Principht 
(/  Carpentry ;  Timber  Trtet  and  t'ruitt,  in  Ubrary  (/ 
Lntertaining  Knowledge,  etc. 

Asbea(Fr.  V'edatte;  Ger,  Waidatehet  Du,  iVudaii 
Da.  Veedathe;  It.  Feccia  bruriata  i  Bp.Alumbredehrti 
Buss.  Weldaach ;  Lat.  Cineret  iu/ectorii),  the  roaiduuro, 
or  earthy  part,  of  any  substance  after  it  has  iieon 
burned.  In  commerce,  the  term  ia  applied  to  the  ashes 
cf  vegetable  aubstances;  from  which  aro  extracted  tha 
alkaline  suits  calied  potaah,  pearlash,  barilla,  kelp, 
etc. ;  whicli  aee, 

Asia.  Thia  division  o.  the  globe  is  dlstlnipiiihed 
by  its  vast  extent;  by  the  striking  ckaMCter  of  Ita 
interior  geography ;  above  all,  by  the  stupendous  rev- 
olutions of  which  it  Ima  been  the  scene;  and,  lastly, 
by  the  high  antiquity  of  its  civilizstiop,  of  which  wo 
can  still  Aiintly  trace  the  prociuus  r,)inalns,  Htretch- 
Ing  from  the  southern  hemisphere  into  the  nortliora 
regions  of  perpetual  winter,  it  comprltes  within  ita 
bounds  the  oppoaite  extremes  of  heat  and  vt/ld ;  all  tho 
varieties,  consequently,  of  the  animal  and  vugotablo 
tribes;  and  that  still  more  interesting  variety  which 
the  irresistible  law  of  climate  impressus  on  (he  human 
species.  The  aurface  of  Aaia,  towering  to  Its  height 
far  above  tho  reglona  of  perpetual  snow,  presents,  wlien 
superficially  examined,  a  confused  mass  of  lofty  mount- 
ains, diverging  into  an  endless  variety  of  inferior 
ridges,  apparently  without  plan  or  ayatom.  But  a 
more  attentive  aurvey  diacloacs,  amidst  the  bold  Ir- 
regidaritics  of  nature,  the  same  order  and  unity  of  de- 
sign in  the  structure  of  this  great  continent  as  in  all 
tlio  other  works  of  creation. 

Asia  was  the  earliest  abode  of  the  human  race  | 
and,  when  all  the  otiier  parts  of  tho  world  were  either 
uninhabited  or  sunk  In  barbarism,  it  waa  tho  seat  of 
great  empires,  and  of  flourishing  and  aplenilld  cities, 
of  commerce,  of  literature,  and  of  all  tho  arta  of  civil- 
ized life.  But  its  early  prosperity  was  blighted  hy 
tlie  ruthless  devastations  of  war ;  Its  populous  cities 
were  utterly  destroyed,  so  that  tho  spot  on  which 
many  of  them  stood  is  now  only  inarkini  by  niaaacs  of 
ruins ;  their  arts  and  literature  have  purixlied ;  and  in 
such  fragments  of  their  writing  as  still  survive,  the 
meaning  la  buried  under  tlio  almost  impenetrable  veil 
of  an  ancient  and  unknown  character.  In  touching 
on  the  various  topics  wliich  are  comprehended  under 
tho  designation  of  Asia,  it  must  bo  rememlicrcd  that 
in  the  following  article  we  are  to  confine  our  attention 
to  such  general  views  of  its  geography,  liialury,  insti- 
tutions, policy,  and  manners,  as  will  not  siiperaeds  a 
more  particular  description  of  its  various  states  under 
their  respective  designations. 


ASI 


M> 


Jk6l 


A«U  eontsioi  ■  larger  mm  than  any  of  the  other 
divblont  of  the  ffiobt,  vis.,  ineludtog  iU  iiUnd*, 
13,M0,000  square  geographical  mile*;  the  area  of 
America  being  1U,600,000,  that  of  Africa  8,650,000, 
aad  that  of  £un>pe  2,6«0,000. 

The  Islands  of  Asia  are :  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Xova 
Zcmbla,  consisting  of  two  large  islands,  and  New  Si- 
beria, consisting  of  three  islands  of  considerable  ex- 
tant discovered  in  the  course  of  this  century.  Along 
the  east  coast :  the  volcanic  group  of  the  Kuriles ;  the 
Japaoeia  Islands,  of  which  Nipon  is  the  principal; 
the  Lu-ku  group  to  the  south  of  Japan ;  the  large  islands 
of  Formosa  and  Hainan,  on  the  coast  of  China.  Sag- 
halia,  opposite  the  coast  of  Mantchuria,  was  long  be- 
lieved to  be  au  island,  but  is  a  peninsula  extending 
over  8  degrees  of  latitude,  and  connected  with  the 
continent  by  a  low,  narrow,  and  sandy  isthmus,  a  little 
to  the  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kiver  Amur.  In  the 
MOtheastand  south :  the  Fhilippines,  among  which  Lu- 
■on  and  Hagindanao  are  the  largest,  and  half  a  dozen 
otken  have  areas  surpassing  or  approncliing  those  of 
Cyprus  and  Candia ;  the  great  islands  of  Borneo,  Suma- 
tra, Java,  and  Celebes;  Uie  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands, 
among  wliich  Gilolo,  Coram,  Bnro,  and  Amboyna, 
between  Celebes  and  New  Guinea;  Nias,  Batu,  the 
two  Pora,  etc.,  on  the  west  coast,  and  Datum,  Linga, 
Banka,  and  Billiton,  on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra ;  and, 
finally,  the  Sunda  and  Banda  islands,  a  vast  latitu- 
dinal Archipelago,  extending  from  the  east  point  of 
Java  toward  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  and  composed 
of  myriads  of  islands,  among  which  the  principal  are  in 
•  direction  ft'om  west  to  east ;  Madura,  Bali,  Lambok, 
Sumbava,  Sandelbosh  or  Tshindana,  Florcs,  Timor 
(250  miles  long),  Timor  Laut,  and  Aru,  which  form  a 
bridge,  as  it  were,  between  Asia  and  Australia.  In 
the  Indian  Ocean :  the  Nicobar  and  Andama  Archi- 
pelagos, between  the  northwest  point  of  Sumatra  am) 
the  mouths  of  the  Irawaddy ;  the  large  island  of 
Ceylon ;  and,  on  both  sides  of  the  70th  meridian  east, 
Stretching  due  north  from  south  lat.  8°  nearly  as  far  as 
ti:e  latitude  of  Goa,  the  Archipelagos  of  the  Tshagos, 
Maldives,  and  Irftkkadives,  all  three  composed  of  myr- 
iads of  mostly  very  small  islands  of  coral  formation. 
In  the  Persian  Gulf:  Ormnzd,  Kishm,  and  Bahrein. 
In  the  Red  Sea:  Perim,  Arish  (erroneously  called 
Hamish),  Farsan,  and  Dhalak.  In  the  Mediterranean : 
Cyprus,  Ithodes,  Chios,  etc. 

The  surface  of  this  vast  continent  is  exceedingly 
Taried.  In  some  places  it  towers  in  stupendous  mount- 
ains, forming  four  great  chains,  with  subordinate 
branches,  of  different  names.  It  often  exhibits  vast 
plateaux  or  elevated  table-lands,  of  prodigious  er.tent; 
ill  other  points  it  stretches  in  plains  little  elevated 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean ;  while  in  certain  points 
it  presents  enormous  hollows  or  depressions  that  are 
lower  than  the  surface  of  the  Black  Sea.  Humboldt 
computes  the  superficies  of  all  Asia  at  1,346,000  geo- 
graphical square  leagues.  Of  this  a  large  proportion 
b  mountainous,  or  raised  in  elevated  plains.  The 
eminent  authority  estimates  these  as  follows : 

Iq. 


The  monntalnoui  psits  of  Araliii,  Belachlstan,  ori 
the  pUtcau  of  Kelst,  Ksndahar,  with  the  mount-S-  340,000 

ain  itdges  of  India ) 

The  mountainous  parts  of  China 64,400 

The  i^ateau  of  (ioU  or  Hha-nio 42,000 

The  plateau  of  Tlilbel  aiiil  Ladak,  between  the  Hlm-\    a,  nnn 

aUjraand  Kiien-lun  Mountains /    "'"" 

The  plateau  of  Persia ST.OOO 

The  Taurus  of  Asia  Minor,  Ararat,  and  the  Hindoo)    oi  itAn 

Kooab /   "'** 

Of  which  that  of  Ararat  alone  is 3,M0 

The  Caucasus,  from  Baku  to  iUiapa S,TDO 

Hie  Onral  and  Altai  groups 1,400 

The  northern  portion  of  Asia  consists  of  a  series  of 
plains  divided  by  mountains  of  small  elevation,  form- 
ing the  comparatively  low  land  of  Siberia,  intersected 
by  several  large  rivers,  and  occupied  often  by  extens- 
ive swamps.  This  region  is  estimated  at  about 
400,000  square  leagues.     The  central  part  of  Asia, 


still  iroperfbetly  known  to  Enropa,  wai  till  lately  con- 
ceived to  ba  one  vast  table-land,  of  irregular  form,  but- 
twmed  on  every  side  by  lofty  mountains ;  but  it  now 
appears,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  traversed  by  long 
mountain  chains. 

Asia  presents  to  the  eye  snch  a  compactness  of  con- 
formation, and  its  outlines  are  at  the  same  time  so 
diversified  by  deep  indentures  of  the  sea,  forming  gulfs 
and  peninsulas  of  every  shape  and  dimension,  that 
neither  Africa  can  be  called  more  compact,  nor  North 
America  more  diversified.  Every  prominent  feature  of 
this  vast  continent  is  on  a  gigantic  scale ;  and  the  ag' 
giegate  of  its  mountains  and  rivers,  its  low  plains  and 
its  elevated  plateaux,  surpasses  those  of  the  other  di- 
visions, not  only  in  magnitude,  but  also  by  its  con- 
trasting variety.*  Its  mere  steppe  rivers  approach 
the  size  of  the  Don  and  Dnieper ;  and  the  second  of  iti 
salt  lakes,  the  Aral,  is  still  larger,  by  6400  square  geo- 
graphical miles,  than  Lake  Superior,  the  largest  sheet 
of  water  in  America ;  while  the  combined  superficies 
of  all  the  American  lakes  would  not  suffice  to  cover 
the  area  of  the  Caspian.  Its  Indian  Archipelago 
forms  a  worid  by  itself,  with  which  the  West  Indian 
Islands  can  be  compared  neither  for  extent  nor  import- 
ance; its  mountains  rise  higher  into  the  regions  of 
eternal  tinow  than  the  fur-famed  Chimborazo ;  it  has 
its  deserts  of  burning  sand  and  of  firozen  swamps, 
alike  destructive  to  the  human  race.  Nowhere  is 
there  such  an  exuberance  of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
not  only  spread  over  the  whole  continent,  but  also 
displaying  itself  within  the  narrowest  limits,  as  the 
traveler  rapidly  descends  from  the  crest  of  the  Hima- 
laya into  the  plain  of  Bengal.  The  same  variety,  the 
same  contrasts,  appear  in  its  history.  Asia,  the  cradle 
of  mankind,  the  mother  of  religion,  the  nurse  of  civil- 
ization, where  arts  and  letters  were  cultivated  in  the 
remotest  times,  contains  within  her  inaccessible  mount- 
ain forests  numerous  descendants  of  her  primitive  in- 
haliitants,  who  still  continue  that  brutish  life  which 
their  forefathers  led  when  the  first  vine  was  planted, 
the  first  hieroglyphic  character  carved  In  the  rock. 

Of  the  domestic  animals,  the  elephant  claims  the 
|)re-eminence,  being  unequaled  by  any  other  animal 
for  the  purposes  of  draught.  This  animal  is  confined 
to  the  southern  countries  of  India,  where  the  climate 
is  hot,  being  seldom  seen  in  the  mountainous  tracts 
toward  the  north.  The  camel  is  used  for  domestic 
purposes  over  a  far  wider  extent  of  country  than  the 
elephant.  This  animal  is  of  two  species,  the  one  with 
two  humps,  and  the  common  camel  with  only  one 
hump.  The  latter  is  the  camel  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Per- 
sia, India,  and  Northern  Africa.  A  lighter  variety 
of  this  species  is  the  dromedary,  used  only  for  riding, 
and  differs  fh>m  the  camel  of  burden  as  the  racer  does 
from  the  draught-horse.  The  two-humped  camel  is 
the  Bactrian  species,  and  is  so  rare,  even  in  AVcslem 
Asia  and  India,  that  Captain  Lynch  states,  that  in  a 
caravan  of  5000  camels  there  were  not  above  eight  or 
ten  of  this  Bactrian  species.  In  Mongolia,  however, 
they  are  very  numerous.  The  dromedary  is  chiefly 
used  for  traveling,  and  its  valuable  quality  is  swift- 
ness, by  which.  Joined  to   its  capacity  of  enduring 


*  AocordluK  to  Berghaus,  then  are  10  rirera  in  America, 
and  lit  in  Asia,  the  buHia  of  each  of  wlilch  contains  upward 
of  lO.tSOO  Gcnnan,  or  108,000  geographical  iquan!  niUes.  The 
united  area  of  the  former,  the  first  of  which  Is  the  Amazon, 
and  the  last  the  Rio  Negro,  is  834,500  German,  or  0,102,000 
geographical  square  nitled ;  of  which  the  iiaetn  of  thu  Amazon 
oceoplcs  not  less  than  2,018,400.  Tlint  of  the  latter,  the  Obi 
standing  at  the  head  with  ti24,$00  geographical  square  miles, 
and  the  Tarim  being  the  last.  Is  803,788  Uerroan,  or  6,K2(l,000 
geographical  square  miles;  giving  a  difference  of  628.i!00  geo- 
graphical square  miles  in  fovor  of  Asia.  The  total  length  of 
the  10  American  riTeni,  windings  Included,  Is  76,010  geo. 
graplilcal  miles ;  that  of  the  Aalatio,  08,448  gcographliol  miles : 
dllhranee  in  fiivor  of  the  latter,  21,808  geographical  miles. 
Yet  tlie  system  of  the  Uon&oa  in  the  fcrmor  otanda  unequal- 
ed bjr  anjr  In  the  world.     ■_-    ^,,      ..      ,, 


A8I 


69 


ASI 


duniestic 

than  the 

one  with 

only  one 

Syria,  I'cr- 

cr  variety 

for  riding, 

racer  does 

vanicl  i( 

Western 

that  in  a 

eight  or 

however, 

is  diiefly 

is  swift- 

cndurlng 

America, 
ns  upward 
UcB.    The 

Amazon, 

6,1D2,000 
e  Amazon 
r,  the  Obi 
am  niileii, 

6,S20,000 
8,(IU(I  geo. 
length  of 
sOW  gi>a- 
cal  miles : 
cal  miles. 

unequal- 


hardship,  It  ia  qualifled  to  trarel  at  an  Incredible  rate 
for  many  successive  days.  In  all  the  low  conntrles, 
especially  in  the  dry  and  sandy  tracts,  such  as  Arabia, 
Syria,  etc,  the  comraoa  camel  is  employed.  The  two- 
humped  camel  is  a  native  of  the  high  countries  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  where  it 
is  still  chiefly  used.  So  large  a  portion  of  Asia  ia  oc- 
cupied by  vast  plains  and  wastes  of  sand,  that  its  in- 
terior interconrse  must  be  maintained  by  land  Journeys. 
But  without  the  aid  of  the  camel,  it  would-be  impos- 
sible to  traverse  extensive  deserts  destitute  both  of  food 
and  water ;  and  in  those  arid  countries  such  an  animal, 
which  has  been  truly  called  the  ship  of  the  desert,  Is 
the  most  valuable  gift  which  Providence  eould  bestow, 

AitmaU. — ^The  other  domestic  animals  of  South- 
em  and  Western  Asia  are  horses,  mules,  asses,  buf- 
(kloes,  black  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  etc.  ArabI*  may  be 
considered  the  native  country  of  the  horse,  in  which 
he  arrives  at  perfection,  and  combiner  all  the  most  es- 
timable qualities  of  symmetry,  form,  tineness  of  skin, 
fire,  docility  of  temper,  fleetness,  and  hardiness.  It  is 
chiefly  from  the  Arabian  breed  that  the  horses  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  have  been  Improved.  In  Persia  the 
horses  are  neither  so  graceful  nor  so  swift  as  those  of 
Arabia,  being  high,  with  long  legs,  spare  carcasses, 
and  large  heads ;  but  they  are  highly  prized  by  the 
inhabitants  for  their  extraordinary  capacity  of  endur- 
ing fatigue.  To  the  east  of  Persia,  at  Herat,  the 
breed  of  horses  is  fine:;  also  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus 
and  its  tributaries ;  and  in  the  higher  regions  of  Balk 
and  Bokhara  they  are  excellent  and  numerous,  and 
are  expr  ted  In  great  numbers  to  Hindostan.  The 
mule  and  the  ass,  all  over  India,  are  miserable  animals. 
The  mules  are  of  better  quality  in  the  Pui^aub,  on  tlie 
upper  course  of  the  Indus,  and  they  improve'  still 
more  farther  west.  In  tiio  countries  west  of  the  Indus, 
they  are  superior  to  those  in  Hindostan,  and  in  Persia 
there  is  a  still  flner  breed.  But  tire  mule  of  the  East 
is  inferior  to  that  of  Europe.  The  asS'  partakes  of  a 
similar  improvement  In  hi»  progress  westward,  and  is 
a  far  finer  animal  in  Western  Asia  than  in  Europe. 
In  Syria,  Palestine,  and  generally  in  Asia  Minor,  he 
is  distinguished  by  agility,  tire,  and  patience-of  Catigue. 
and  ranks  in  the  first  class  of  domestic  animals.  Buffa- 
loes are  found  in  the  hot  plains  of  Asia,  as  well  as  in 
the  mountainous  tracts ;  and  the  oxen  which  are  used 
in  the  plow  have  all  a  hump  on  their  backs.  The 
wealth  of  the  pastoral  tribes,  who  rove  al>out  in  the 
western  plains  of  Khorassan,  oiul  in  the  hilly  tracts  of 
Afghanistan,  consists  chiefiy  in-  sheep^  which  have  tails 
a  foot  broad,  and  composed  entirely  of  fat,  but  in  other 
respects  resemble  the  English  sheep,  being  better  and 
handsomer  than  those  of  India.  Goats  are  common 
all  over  Asia,  especially  in  the  mountains,  where  there 
are  some  breeds  with  curiously-twisted  horns;  and 
they  are  by  no  means  scarce  in  the  plains. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Asm.  onrV  in  the  high 
mountain  tracts,  a  difierent  ctass  jf  aiiiinal.i  is  to  be 
foundk  These  cold  regions  are  ntit  distinguished  by 
the  same  profusion  of  animal  lif^  as  tlie  tropical  coun- 
tries. The  beasts  of  the  forest  decrease  in  numbers, 
size,  and  fierceness ;  and  the  wolf,  the  licar,  the  glut- 
ton, and  the- wild  boar,  are  the  only  ferocious  animals 
which  thrive  in  these  northern  climates.  Ia  advanr- 
ing  on  the  desolate  plains  of  Siberia  to  about  the  60tii 
degree  of  north  latitude,  wo  find  the  i:M  AiW  taking 
etfecl  on  the  animal  as  on  the  vegetable  eatiou.  '^nd 
the  living  creatures,  as  well  as  the  plants  and  i.ces, 
stunted  in  their  full  proportions.  Beyond  this  limit  a 
diflcrent  order  of  animals  appears,  protected  against 
the  severity  of  the  climate  liy  n  tliick  covering  of  fur, 
which  is  sought  after  as  a  rh  li  article  of  dress  in  more 
opulent  countries.  These  animals  are  accordingly 
hunted  for  their  skins,  which  constitute  the  great  sta- 
ple article  of  trade  i»  Northern  Asia.  Va  th«  Arctic 
regions  the  bear  seems  to  form  the  only  exrcption  to 
tbo  diminished  grandeur  of  the  animal  oreatioq.  This 
E 


animal,'  nourished  in  tha  raglen*  of  VtHrthem  Atla, 
acquires  a  larger  size,  and  Ihr  greater  power  and  flereB> 
ness,  than  in  southern  climates.  The  domestic  anU 
mals  of  tha  northern  and  moantalnons  coantries  of 
AsU  are  of  a  less  ImposiDg  appearance,  and  not  nearly 
of  the  some  strength  as  those  In  the  lower  valley*  ol 
tha  south  and  west.  In  the  high  and  cold  plains  of 
Central  Asia  the  camel  is  no  longer  nsed  as  a  baaet  of 
burden,  nor  in  the  northern  part»  of  the  continent. 
Thibet  and  Central  Asia,  till  beyond  tha  Altai  Moant- 
ains,  are  inhabited  by  MongoUsh  and  Turkish  tribes, 
whose  wealth  consists  in  their  cattle,  which  not  only 
fUmisb  them  with  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  bat  art 
also  used  as  beaats  of  burden,  and  in  the  labors  of 
agriculture.  The  yak  af  Tartaiy,  or  the  bushy-tailed 
bull  of  Thibet,  seems  to  supply  the  place  of  the  camel 
in  these  mountainau*  countries.  This  animal  Is  about 
the  siie  of  a  small  bull,  af  great  strength,  and  is  reck- 
oirad  a  valuable  property  among  the  itinerant  hordes 
of  Tartars,  to  whom  it  a6R>rds  the  means  of  easy  con- 
veyance, of  clothing,  and  shelter  for  their  tents,  from 
the  prodigious  quantity  ef  long,  flowing,  glossy  hair  on 
its  tail,  and,  finally,  of  subsistence  from  its  milk  and 
fleslK  In  those  mountains  is  also  found  the  mask-dear, 
which  delights  in  the- mast  intense  celd,  and  of  which 
the  musk,  a  secretion  by  tlie  male,  affords  a  revenue 
to  the  government,  as  well  as  a  yaluable  article  af 
trade.  Here,  also,  on  the  highest  mdnntalns,  amidst 
ice  and  snow,  is  the  Cashmere  goat,  the  wool  of  which 
affords  the  materials  of  the  finest  shawls.  Wild  horse* 
are  seen  in  the  high  plains  of  Thibet ;  and  the  breed  of 
sheep,  a  peculiar  species  of  which  ia  indigenous  to  the 
climate,  is  of  great  value.  They  are  nourished  on  tha 
short  and  dry  herbage  of  these  exposed  plains,  and 
serve  for  subsistence  to  the  inhabitants,  as  well  as  for 
beasts  of  burden.  The  wild  and  extensive  plains  of 
Tartary  are  inhabited  by  pastoral  tribes,  who  depend 
in  like  manner  on  their  herds.  On  the  southern  bide 
of  the  Altai  Mountains  we  find  the  same  tribes  of 
wanderers,  most  of  them  the  scattered  remnants  of  the 
Tartar  nations  who  had-  formerly  so  deep  a  share  in 
the  great  revolutions  of  Asia,  All  these  tribes  subsist 
chiefly  by  pasturage.  Near  the  Ural  Mountains  some 
live  chiefly  by  hunting  or  ensnaring  the  elk  and  other 
wild  animals  for  their  fura.  Among  those  who  ara 
shepherds,  sheep  and  horned  cattle  are  fonnd ;  while 
the  hunting  tribes  have  scareoly  any  dome.ttic  animals. 
In  all  these  countries  the  wolf  and  the  bear  arc  known 
to  abound.  In  the  rigorous  climate  farther  to  the 
north,  where  the  cattle  are  stunted  in  size,  and  can 
scaroelr  subsist,  then'  place  is  supplied  by  the  reindeer, 
a  species  peculiar  to  a  rigorous  climate,  and  most  val- 
ualjle  for  all  domestic  purposes,  whether  for  draught 
or  for  subsistence.  During  part  of  the  year  the  in- 
habitants of  those  desolate  countries  subsist  upon  its 
flesh  or  milk ;  its  skin  furnishes  them  with  the  chief 
part  of  their  dress,  and  its  horns  with  such  domestic 
utensils  as  they  requis-e.  The  dog  is  also  trained  to 
draw  the  sledge, 

Bu-dt. — The  feathered  race  in  Asia  includes  al- 
most every  known  species.  In  the  southern  parts  are 
found  all  the  tropical  birds,  distinguished  l>y  beautiful 
plumuge,  and  some  of  them  uttering  sounds  that  have 
a  resemblance  to  the  human  voice.  Here  are  also 
I  found'  some  of  the  largest  and  rarest  birds — the  ostrich, 
the  cassowary,  and,  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the 
gypaetc,  one  of  which,  shot  by  a  British  officer,  i* 
stated  by  Bishop  Heber  to  have  measured  from  the 
extremity  of  one  wing  to  another  the  enormous  length 
of  14  feet.  The  other  birds  are  eagles,  kites,  vultures, 
magpies  in  the  higher  cdiintries,  hawks,  crows,  wild 
geese  and  ducks,  flamingo!:,  herons,  bustards,  florikens, 
rock  pigeons,  lapwings,  storks,  plovers,  snipes,. quails, 
partridges,  different  species  o(  fringiUiiltr,  and  almost 
all  the  other  small  birds  to  be  found  in  similar  climate*. 
In  Northern  Asia  the  feathered  creation  U  nearly  the 
same  a*  in  Europe. 


A8X 


M 


Afil 


Ar^  ttmwirw.— Arit,  notwilluUadlnK  ill*  wm 
by  which  11  ha*  been  dewlttad,  vu  tnm  an  earir  Pe- 
riod ths  MAt  of  comoMre*  and  of  wealth.  The  eait- 
•m  couDtriei  of  Hlndoetan  and  China  preceded  Enrope 
in  dviliMtlon  and  indiutfy,  and,  Independent  of  that 
divenlty  of  natnral  productione  which  if  the  founda- 
tion of  trade,  they  had  cultivated  many  arta  and  man- 
■aetnrea  which  were  unknown  in  the  WeiUm  World. 
Aaia,  accordingly,  abounded  in  many  preoiou*  oommod- 
Uiea  which  could  not  be  produced  by  the  ruder  indue- 
try  of  Europe.  Thus  China  had  itt  lilk  and  porcelain ; 
Undoetan  lu  mulini,  cotton,  preoioui  itonee,  <nd 
■romatics  of  all  lorts ;  coitus,  bdellium,  spikenard, 
ivory,  tortoise-shell,  pepper,  etc  These  were  in  gen- 
ual demaiul  throughout  Europe,  where  they  could  not 
ba  produced ;  and  they  were  procured  in  exchange 
chiefly  for  bullion,  which  then,  as  in  later  times,  was 
the  great  article  of  export  to  ^ndia,  also  for  woolen 
otoths,  wine,  brass,  lead  and  tin,  glass,  coral,  female 
llavec,  etc.,  all  which  commoditiea  met  with  a  ready 
lale  in  the  markets  of  Hindostan,  The  staple  com- 
modity of  China  waa  tilk  t  and  the  mode  of  producing 
this  esteemed  luxury  being  unknown  in  Europe,  it 
was  brought  in  large  quantities,  either  by  the  cara- 
vans or  by  the  annual  fleets,  to  Alexandria,  at  that 
time  the  great  commercial  mart  of  the  East,  and  was 
thence  sent  to  supply  the  demand  at  Borne,  where  it 
sold  at  one  time  for  iu  weight  in  gold ;  but,  owing  to 
tike  high  profit,  caravans  began  to  travel  so  regularly 
to  China,  that  the  supply  increased  with  the  demand, 
and  the  price  was  reduced.  Between  the  sixth  and 
the  seventh  centuries.  Eastern  Asia  was  robbed  of  this 
precious  monopoly  by  the  art  of  two  Persian  monks, 
who  contrived,  in  a  hollo^T  cane,  to  transport  the  eggs 
of  the  silk-worm  ih>m  China  to  Europe,  where  they 
were  batched  by  means  of  heat,  and  the  race  quickly 
propagated :  and  one  great  link  of  commerce  between 
China  and  Europe  was  in  this  manner  broken.  The 
trade  of  Asia  was  interrupted  by  the  irruption  of  the 
liarbsrians,  who  invaded  and  finally  subverted  the 
Boman  empire ;  but  the  moment  the  storm  was  past 
commerce  resumed  its  quiet  course.  Constantinople, 
the  eastern  capital  of  the  empire,  was  still  the  centre 
of  luxury  and  trade ;  as  were  also  such  parts  of  the 
Boman  territory  as  had  not  been  swept  by  barbarian 
invasion;. and  with  those  places  the  caravans  still 
traded,  shaping  their  course  as  they  best  could  to  avoid 
the  distractions  of  the  interior.  Farther  to  the  east, 
the  califs  who  reigned  at  Bagdad  encouraged  science, 
commerce,  and  the  arts;  and  the  extensive  country 
through  which  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  flowed 
was  the  scat  of  a  flourishing  commerce,  and  of  many 
opulent  cities.  Besides  Bokhara,  still  a  great  city. 
Balk,  Samarcand,  Cosh,  and  others  in  the  valley  of 
the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  numerous  splendiil  cities 
are  enumerated  which  are  scarcely  known  to  Euro- 
peans. To  the  east  of  the  great  range  of  moiiotains, 
which  takes  a  direction  ftom  the  main  Himalaya  ridge, 
the  country  of  Casligar  contained  Csshqar,  its  'apilal, 
and  Khoten,  which  were  both  large,  populous  and 
wealthy.  Those  countries  served  m  the  cc '  necting 
link  iMtween  India  and  Europe,  and  the  resting-place 
of  the  caravans,  which  there  collected  in  great  force, 
and  prepared  for  tbeir  jou/ney  to  China  across  the 
great  eastern  desert,  or  Tt  a  more  southerly  course, 
through  the  country  of  Thibet.  The  armies  of  Zinghis 
Khan  in  the  thirteenth,  and  of  Timerlane  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  centur>',  laid  waste  this  high- 
i]r  cultivated  and  flourishing  region.  But  those  con- 
qoerars  were  not  the  enemies  of  commerce,  and  the 
Mrplus  produce  of  India  still  reached  Europe,  though 
by  a  route  nodered  more  difficult  and  dangerous  from 
the  desolation  of  the  intervening  countries.  But  the 
•fliMt  produced  en  the  trade  of  Asia  in  the  East  by  the 
encroachments  of  barbarism,  and  by  the  disorders  in 
the  interior,  was  more  than  eonnterbalanoad  by  the 
growing  drilization  of  Europe.    About  the  beginning  j 


of  the  DMfteenth  century,  the  darkness  which  had  so 
long  eovered  the  Western  World  began  to  dispel,  and 
the  Italian  cities  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  others,  had  al- 
ready made  advanees  in  letters,  science,  and  commerce. 
The  costly  articles  of  Asia,  her  rich  stuflTs  and  precious 
aromatics,  were  now  required  to  answer  the  growing 
demands  of  laxnry  and  wealth ;  and  the  produce  itf 
India,  imported  into  Alexandria  through  the  Red  8ea, 
was  thence  brought  into  Italy  by  the  nobles  of  Venica 
and  'Genoa,  who  were  all  engaged  in  trade,  and  was 
diflbsed  in  smaller  qnantitiss  lUl  over  Europe.  The 
lulian  SUtas  wen  enriched  by  this  lucrative  traffic, 
which  only  ceased  with  the  discovery  of  the  maritime 
route  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  From  this 
period  the  trade  between  Asia  and  Europe  took  a  dif- 
ferent direction.  The  commodities  of  India  and  China 
were  transported  to  Europe  directly  by  sea ;  and  nei- 
ther Alexandria  nor  the  other  ports  of  the  Red  Sea  or 
of  Italy  were  any  longer  the  depositories  of  the  East- 
em  trade.  The  Portuguese,  always  distinguished  by 
their  ardor  for  maritime  discovery,  wei«  the  first  ad- 
venturen  in  the  Asiatic  seas.  In  the  course  of  tha 
sixteenth  century  the  English  and  Dutch  appeared  as 
their  competitors ;  and  with  the  growing  wealth  of 
those  countries  the  trade  to  the  East  rapidly  increased. 
The  commerce  of  Asia  may  therefore  be  distinguished 
into  the  following  branches :  1st.  The  inland  trade  of 
China,  Hindostan,  Burmah,  etc ,  with  Turkey,  the 
eastern  countries  of  Europe,  and  with  the  intervening 
countries  of  Persia,  Balk,  Bokhara,  and  the  regions 
of  the  Oxus;  also,  by  a  difTerent  route,  the  trade  with 
Russia  and  the  north  of  Asia.  2d.  The  maritime  trade, 
including  the  coasting  trade  and  the  trade  to  the  East- 
em  Archipelago,  and  the  great  trade  to  Europe  and 
America,  in  which,  fhim  the  progress  of  wealth  and 
luxury,  there  is  a  great  consumption  of  Asiatic  produce. 
C'aratam.—lht  inland  trade  is  carried  on  l)y  cara- 
vans, or  bodies  of-mcrchants,  who  travel  together  tor 
the  sake  of  security  through  those  parts  of  the  country 
which  are  disturl>ed  by  predatory  tribes.  It  is  only 
from  the  southern  countries  of  Asia,  such  as  Hindos- 
tan, China,  the  Burmese  countries,  Thibet,  and  the 
western  countries  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Bokhara, 
and  the  regions  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  that 
Europe  can  derive  any  supply  of  valuable  commodi- 
ties ;  and  all  this  trade,  tnm  whateverquarter  it  comes, 
mast  fiow  in  its  progress  to  Europe  through  the  coAn- 
tries  that  lie  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Caspian 
Sea ;  as  the  caravans  could  not,  without  inconvenience 
and  danger  from  wandering  tribes,  pass  to  the  north 
of  this  sea  or  the  Sea  of  Aral ;  and  accordingly,  though 
.-\n  annual  caravan  is  sent  hom  Astraean  to  Khyvah 
and  the  countries  on  the  Oxus,  the  chief  trade  with 
Russia  is  by  sea  to  the  port  of  Maogalshuck,  and  thence 
to  Khyvah  and  Bokhara.  The  Russians  have  atco  be- 
gun to  trade  with  Persia  from  the  Caucasian  province 
of  Georgia,  of  which  Tiflis,  the  capital,  has,  from  a 
wretched  collection  of  wooden  huts,  been  rapidly  im- 
proved, under  the  protecting  influence  of  a  European 
government,  into  a  respectable  and  wealthy  town,  tha 
fiiture  emporium,  as  may  be  anticipated,  of  this  grow- 
ing trade.  The  caravans  iVom  Constantinople  and 
Syria  proceed  through  Asia  Minor  and  the  northern  or 
southern  provinces  of  Persia,  according  as  their  ulterior 
route  is  through  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjaub  into 
Hindostan,  or  to  Thibet  and  China,  or  the  more  north- 
em  districts  of  Balk,  Bokhara,  and  the  country  of  the 
Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes.  Bokhara,  though  reduced  to 
desolation  by  Zinghis  Khan,  is  still  one  of  the  largest 
towiu  of  the  East,  its  population  being  estimated  by 
Bumes  at  160,000.  It  is  also  a  great  commercial 
mart ;  and  the  caravans  which  come  (h>m  the  West, 
passing  along  the  southern. shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
through  the  Persian  province  of  Astrabad,  a  most  lux- 
uriant and  fertile  country,  arrive  successively  at  Dal- 
froosh,  AshmfT,  Astrabad,  Mushed,  Serrakhs,  Merve, 
fomcriy  the  capital  of  the  Seyook  sovereigns,  but  now 


ASI 


67 


m 


inrronndad  by  dewrti,  and  at  Bokhara.    From  this 
great  cantre  of  commerce  they  proceed  northeaitward 
about  400  or  SOO  roilet  to  Khojend  and  Kokaun,  the 
former  a  largo  city,  lald  to  contain  80,000  houaea ;  and 
crosiing  the  Bolor  range  of  the  Himalaya  Mountalni, 
they  arrive  in  the  Mohammedan  E^atea  of  Kaihgar 
and  Yarkund,  600  miles  eatt  of  Kokaun,  pauing  some 
towns  on  the  way,  of  which  Ush  is  the  moat  Important, 
being  a  trading  and  populous  town.    Those  two  latter 
States  lie  within  the  precincta  of  the  Chinese  authority, 
where  the  most  exact  order  Is  enforced ;  and  they  are 
fertile,  rich,  and  well  cultivated.    The  town  of  Cash- 
gar  is  said  to  contain  20,000  houses,  and  to  be  throng- 
ed with  strangers  from  all  narts  of  Asia.     Yarkund  is 
also  wealthy  and  populous.     So  strict  a  police  is  main- 
tained by  the  Chinese  authority,  that,  according  to  the 
information  glrun  to  Fraier,  a  single  traveler  may 
traverse  the  whole  territory  as  safely  as  a  large  cara- 
van.    From  Kashgar  there  is  a  constant  intercourse 
through  Chinese  Tartary,  along  the  edge  of  the  great 
central  desert,  with  China,  though  we  know  little  of 
the  Intervening  countries  beyond  what  we  learn  from 
the  accounts  of  the  early  missionaries.     Besides  this 
eastern  trade,  and  the  trade  westward  along  the  south- 
em  shore  of  the  Caspian,  two  caravans,  consisting  of 
4000  or  6000  camels  each,  proceed  to  Astracan  by  Khy- 
vah,  reund  the  northern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
The  imports  from  Russia  Into  Bokhara  are,  iron, 
steel,  copper,  brass,  quicksilver,  vermilion,  coral,  hard- 
ware, plated  goods,  gold  and  silver  embroidery,  copper 
wire;  furs,  the  broadcloths  and  cotton  manufactured 
goods  of  Britain,  Germany,  and  France ;  refined  sugar, 
cochineal,  paper,  and  a  variety  of  rich  goods,  which, 
from  this  great  commercial  dipdt,  are  ditfused  far  and 
wide  over  Central  Asia.     Russia  receives  in  exchange 
black  lamb  skins,  certain  manufactures  of  cotto.i  and 
silk  imported  ttora  Persia,  antique  gems  and  coins, 
lapis  lazuli,  rubies,  and  turquoises,  which  are  received 
from  the  southern  country  of  Buducluha,  whero  there 
are  famous  mines  of  these  precious  stones.     From 
Cashgar,  Yarkund,  and  the  side  of  China,  Bokhara 
receives  large  quantities  of  tea,  the  great  modem  staple 
of  the  China  trade,  porcelain  and  China  ware,  and  the 
various  manufactures  of  China ;  and  in  return  sends 
turquoises,  coral,  sheep,  lamb,  and  fox  skins,  and  furs, 
etc.    From  Persia  shawls  are  imported,  and  woolen 
goods  from  Korman ;  silk  stuffs  from  the  cities  of  Yezd 
and  Ispahan ;  gold  and  silver  embroidery,  copper  waro, 
loaf,  candy,  and  raw  sugar;  Hamadan  leather;  and 
turquoises,  of  which  there  are  mines  in  Persia ;  and,.in 
return,  black  sheep  and  lamb  skins  aro  sent^  which  are 
in  great  request,  to  be  manufactured  into  black  caps ; 
camblet  made  of  camel's  hair,  coarse  colored  silk  hand- 
kerchiefs, lapis  lazuli.  Indigo  from  India,  cochineal, 
tobacco,  chintzes  from  ilasuiipatam,  and  cotton  manu- 
factures.    Slaves  form  a  staple  article  in  the  commerce 
of  Bokhara,  and  also  of  Khyvah.    These  are  made 
prisoners  by  the  disorderly  trilies  of  Asia,  the  Koords, 
Turkomans,  etc.,  in  the  course  of  the  wars  in  which 
they  are  constantly  engaged ;  and  they  are  carried  to 
the  great  slave  markets  of  Bokhara  and  Khyvah, 
where  they  are  exposed  for  sale  like  cattle.    The 
balance  of  trade  is  always  In  favor  of  Bokhara.    Hon- 
ey is  consequently  in  great  plenty,  and  can  not  be  im- 
ported with  a  profit  into  this  trading  city.    The  Rus- 
sian caravans,  as  they  journey  round  the  northern  shore 
of  tlie  Caspian  Sea,  are  frequently  attacked  by  the  Kir- 
geesh  and  Cossack  tril>es,  and  prisoners  are  carried  off 
and  sold  into  slavery.    Frasor  was  assured  that  the 
number  of  Persian  slaves  In  Khyvah  and  its  depend- 
encies exceeded  tlio  male  population  of  these  coun- 
tries, and  amounted  to  150,000 ;  and  that,  according  to 
inquiries  set  on  foot  by  the  Empress  Catherine,  there 
were  in  Bokhara  no  less  than  60,000  Russian  slaves. 

The  commeree  of  the  west  with  the  southern  coun- 
tries of  Asia— namely,  Kaubul  of  Afghanistan,  Cash- 
mere, and  India— passes  through  Persia  by  a  diflerent 


and  mote  southerly  rante,  namely,  by  Cashaa,  Taid, 
which  is  the  seat  of  rioh  silk  manufactures,  a  great 
entrep6t  of  oommeice,  and  a  convenlant  resting-plaea 
for  all  the  caravans,  both  from  the  Eut  and  other 
quarters ;  through  Furrah  and  Herat,  on  the  fkontiert 
of  Persia,  bmed  for  its  rich  manufactures  of  silk  ataflk, 
a  great  channel  of  communication  l>etween  the  Eaat 
and  the  West,  and  also  an  entrepot  of  all  the  richest 
productions  from  Kabul,  Cashmere,  and  India  on  the 
one  side,  and  from  Bokhara,  Persia,  Arabia,  Turkey, 
and  even  Europe,  on  the  other.  From  Herat  the  route 
continues  through  Furrah  and  across  the  River  Hel- 
mund  and  the  ranges  of  the  Paropamisan  Mountains, 
to  Candahar,  a  Journey  of  about  800  miles  {  tlienoe  to 
Kabul,  Peshawur,  and  the  countries  on  the  Indus,  and 
across  extensive  sandy  deserts  to  the  rich  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  whence  by  this  river  there  is  an  easy  acoesa 
to  Bengal  and  to  Central  India.  There  are  various 
other  routes  by  which  the  commerce  of  Asia,  concen* 
trated  within  the  comparatively  narrow  boundaries  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  Quif,  diverges  in  its 
progress  eastward  to  the  north,  as  well  as  to  the  south. 
From  Bokhara  there  is  a  mountainous  route  into  Little 
Thibet,  and  thence  through  Thibet  into  China ;  be> 
sides  other  mora  sequestered  and  difficult  roads,  through 
glens  and  mountains,  where  the  only  mode  of  transport 
is  on  the  backs  of  asses  and  mules. 

Perna.— Persia,  from  its  central  situation  between 
the  East  and  the  West,  is  not  only  a  great  entrepot  of 
trade,  but,  though  on  the  whole  rather  a  poor  country, 
it  still  contributes  some  valuable  productions  to  the 
commerce  of  the  East.  It  has  long  been  famed  for  ita 
abundant  produce  of  raw  silk,  of  cotton,  and  of  wool — 
that  of  the  province  of  Kerman  especially  being  so 
valuable  for  shawls  that  it  rivals  in  some  respects  that 
of  Cashmere;  of  fruits,  turquoises,  tobacco,  grain,  etc 
Almost  all  (he  principal  towns  of  Persia,  such  as  Ke- 
shan, Ispahan,  Yezd,  Tabreez,  Kerman,  Herat,  etc., 
excel  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  cottons,  woolens, 
fine  carpets,  etc. ;  Kerman  also  in  the  manufacture 
of  shawls ;  and  others  in  that  of  cutlery,  arms,  etc 
These  are  Its  chief  exports  to  other  countries,  in  ex> 
change  for  their  manufactures  or  produce.  To  India 
Persia  sends  raw  silk,  carpets,  Kerman  shawls,  dried 
fruits,  tobacco,  horses — in  which  there  is  considerable 
traffic,  swords,  etc.,  and  specie  to  make  up  the  deficient 
balance.  The  imports  from  India  are  cotton  goods,  as 
chintzes,  sent  from  Masulipatam  by  sea  to  Bushire, 
whence  they  reach  the  interior  of  Persia,  and  are 
thence  carried  eastward  into  Kabul  and  the  countries 
on  the  Indus ;  the  same  article  from  Moultan,  Luck- 
now,  Delhi,  etc. ;  some  muslins,  indigo,  spices,  sugar, 
and  sugar-candy,  in  large  quantities;  gold  and  silver 
stuffs  and  brocades  from  Benares;  precious  stones. 
Cashmere  shawls,  iron,  lead,  copper,  etc.  Many  of 
these  articles,  namely,  Caslimere  shawls,  spices,  indigo, 
muslins,  etc.,  are  carried  through  Asia  Minor  by  a 
long  land  carriage  to  their  final  destination  In  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  and  are  found,  with  the  lamb  skins  of 
the  no  less  distant  Bokhara,  in  the  bazars  of  Bagdad 
and  Constantinople.  To  those  countries  Persia  ex- 
ports also  every  article  of  her  own  rude  and  manufac- 
tured produce ;  coarse  fabrics,  Iwtb  of  silk  and  cotton, 
for  the  consumption  of  Asia  Minor;  and  many  heavy 
articles,  such  as  grain,  rice,  tobacco,  salt,  coffee,  cotton, 
etc. ;  besides  fine  silks,  brocades,  and  prints,  which  are 
exctianged  in  Turkey  for  European  goods  brought 
through  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  namely,  l>road 
and  narrow  cloths,  cossimeres,  cotton  goods,  chintzes, 
muslins,  veils,  silks,  satins,  French  brocades  and  em- 
broidered goods,  imitation  shawls,  cutlery  of  ail  sorts, 
glass,  etc.,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  gold  and 
silver  bullion.  Persia  imports  cofito  and  pearls  from 
Arabia,  in  exchange  for  wheat,  dried  fruits,  and  cloaks. 
The  mountainous  country  of  Afghanistan,  on  the  south- 
em  declivity  of  the  Himalaya  ridge,  and  the  country 
on  the  bead  streams  of  the  Indus,  export  to  India 


JOl  1 

boiMt  and  ponies  bred  In  Tartary,  ftir,  (hawli,  Moul- 
Un  ohintt,  madder,  atafiDtida,  tobacco,  and  driud  and 
Other  fruita,  such  ai  aJmonde  and  platachto  nuU.  The 
import*  from  India  are,  coarse  cotton  cloths,  worn  by 
the  common  people  of  this  country,  and  also  In  Tartary ; 
iBusUns  and  other  tine  manufactures,  silicen  cloth  and 
brocade,  indiijo  in  great  quantities,  ivory,  chalk,  bam- 
booe,  was,  tin,  sandal-wood,  almost  all  the  sugar  which 
b  used  in  the  country,  and  spices  from  the  Malabar 
coast,  through  Kurrachee  and  other  parts  of  Sinde, 
and  thence  to  Kabul  and  Candahar.  The  Indian 
cloths,  shawls,  cblntxes,  and  also  the  indigo,  are  ex- 
ported to  Bokhara,  from  which  are  imported  the  broad- 
cloths, cutlery,  and  hardware  of  Europe,  received  from 
the  Russians,  and  Anally  consumed  In  Kabul  and  the 
countries  of  the  Indus,  loaded  with  the  expenses  of  a 
land  journey  across  nearly  half  the  globe. 

China. — In  the  east,  China  has  from  the  earliest  times 
been  the  seat  of  wealth  and  of  an  extensive  trade. 
The  Chinese  have  been  always  noted  for  their  indus- 
trious habits,  and  the  country  has  from  time  immemo- 
rial abounded  in  the  most  valuable  produce  and  manu- 
factures. These  were  sent  westward  in  the  caravans 
to  Asia  Minor  and  into  Europe,  or  they  were  trans- 
ported by  sea  to  India,  and  carried  thence  by  the  Eu- 
ropean fleets  t )  the  Ked  Sea  The  same  commerce  is 
still  continued,  and  China  exports  Its  produce  of  wool- 
ens, silk,  and  satin ;  tea  in  small  boxes  of  thin  lead ; 
china;  porcelain,  raw  silk,  cochineal,  crystal,  gold 
dust,  golden  ingots,  and  silver  with  the  Chinese  stamp. 
These  are  sent  through  Chinese  Tartary  into  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Oxus,  and  also  to  Cashmere,  Kabul,  and 
the  countries  situated  on  the  southern  declivity  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  Regular  caravans  of  horses 
and  ponies — no  other  ovlmal  being  fit  to  travel  through 
those  mountainous  districts — set  out  from  Cashmere, 
and  from  Peshawar,  the  capital  of  the  Afghan  countrj' 
of  Kabul,  and  a  considerable  commercial  resort,  to 
make  their  way  through  Chinese  Tartary  with  goods 
imf)orted  from  India  and  Persia.  China  carries  on 
also  an  interior  trade  to  a  considerable  extent  with 
Russia,  by  the  frontier  town  of  Maimatchin,  in  ;t'hich 
European  goods  and  furs  are  received  in  exchange  for 
tea,  silk,  and  other  articles  of  Chinese  produce  and 
9ianufacture. 

Foreign  Commerce.  —  In  addition  to  her  internal 
trade,  Asia  maintains  an  extensive  intercourse  by  sea 
with  Euttipe,  America,  Egypt  and  the  Mediterrranean. 
A  great  trade  ia  also  carried  on  (rem  Ilindostan  and 
China  to  the  Asiatic  Archipelago,  and  the  trade  of  the 
Asiatic  islands  with  each  other  is  of  great  importance. 
It  appears  that  those  islands  were  at  a  very  early 
period  the  seat  of  commerce ;  and  the  learned  research- 
es of  Europeans  have  brought  to  light,  in  some  of  them, 
the  monuments  of  ancient  civilization.  Sumatra  was 
the  seat  of  the  Malay  empire,  Java  of  a  Hindoo  State; 
and  the  Celebes  were  inhabited  by  the  Bugis,  a  race 
of  expert  navigators  and  merchants.  The  productions 
of  these  islands,  and  of  the  Moluccas  and  Borneo, 
namely,  spices,  aromatics,  and  gold,  entered  into  the 
commerce  of  the  ancient  world,  and  were  imported  into 
Homo  through  Egypt.  In  later  times,  about  the  ninth 
century,  the  Asiatic  Archipelago  was  visited  by  the 
Arabs  and  the  Chinese,  while  the  adventurous  Malays 
frequented  the  coasts  of  Asia,  and  even  of  Africa,  and 
particularly  the  African  island  of  Madagascar.  AVhen 
these  islands  were  visited  by  Europeans,  about  the 
fifteenth  century,  Malacca,  Achecn,  and  Bantam  were 
the  great  marts  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  where  the 
rich  produce  of  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Moluccas, 
conveyed  in  the  small  trading  craft  of  the  countr}', 
was  exchanged  for  that  of  India  and  China.  The 
Portuguese  fixed  on  Goa,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  as  the 
capital  of  their  Eastern  settlements ;  and  they  after- 
ward selected  Malacca  as  a  central  station  for  protect- 
ing and  extending  their  intercourse  with  the  neighbor- 
ing nathmi.    The  Untch  chose  Bantam,  and  afterward 


I  ASI 

Balavta,  situated  midway  betwean  RIndostan  and 
China,  as  the  centre  of  their  commercial  settlements. 
The  situation  was  most  advantageous,  and  the  port 
was  soon  frequented  by  vessels  from  China  and  Ja- 
pan, Tunkin,  Malacca,  Cochin  Chbia,  and  the  Island  of 
Celebes.  But  the  great  and  flourishing  trade  of  Java 
was  crushed  under  the  colonial  monopoly  of  the  Dutch, 
and  under  what  Sir  Stamford  Raflles  terms  "  the  short- 
sighted tyranny  of  a  mercantile  administration."  The 
conquest  of  Java  by  the  British  in  1813  put  an  end  to 
this  thraldom,  and  the  great  trade  of  the  Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago began  to  centre  in  Batavia,  whioh  was  fast  ris- 
ing into  a  great  commercial  emporium ;  all  the  articles 
which  were  the  exclusive  produce  of  the  Eastern 
islands  being  collected  at  its  principal  ports  for  reex- 
portation to  India,  China,  and  Europe.  Since  Java 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  the  free  port  of  Singapore, 
established  by  the  British,  is  the  centre  of  a  great 
trade,  and  is  frequented  by  the  Chinese  in  their  junks, 
and  by  all  the  other  navigators  of  those  seas  with  the 
produce  of  their  respective  Islands.  The  Chinese  lake 
back  with  them  the  nests  of  a  certain  species  of  bird, 
which  are  esteemed  a  great  luxury  at  their  tables,  and 
sell.  It  is  said,  for  their  weight  in  silver;  bichc-de-mer 
or  tripang,  a  dried  sea-slug,  also  used  in  Chinese  dish- 
es ;  Malayan  camphor,  the  exclusive  produce  of  Su- 
matra and  Borneo ;  the  tin  of  Banca,  the  spices  of  the 
Moluccas,  opium,  indigo  imported  from  Htndostan; 
gold  and  silver,  the  first  collected  in  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
and  some  of  the  other  islands.  The  maritime  coun- 
try trade  of  the  Asiatic  islands  is  carried  on  chiefly  by 
the  Chinese  in  their  junks  and  brigs,  by  the  Arabs 
in  square-rigged  vessels,  and  by  the  Bugis,  the  inhab- 
itants of  Celebes,  who  are  all  bold  and  expert  navi- 
gators. 

Product*. — The  annual  fleet  of  Chinese  junks  ar- 
rives with  the  favorable  monsoon  among  these  islands, 
from  Canton,  Anioy,  and  other  provinces,  with  cargoes 
of  teas,  raw  silk,  silk,  piece  goods,  and  innumerable 
minor  articles,  for  the  use  of  the  Chinese,  who  are 
settled  in  great  numbers  here,  and  are  distinguished 
by  their  shrewd,  intelligent,  and  industrious  habits. 
The  Chinese  extend  their  voyages  to  Sumatra,  the 
Straits  of  Malacca,  and  eastward  as  far  as  the  Moluc- 
cas and  Timor,  collecting  edible  bird-nests,  b!che-de- 
mer,  and  other  articles  of  which  Java  is' the  great 
entrepot.  Java  is  also  a  great  d6p6t  of  European 
goods ;  and  the  people  lieing  rather  industrious  culti- 
vators of  their  fertile  island  than  mariners  or  traders, 
it  exports  rice,  a  variety  of  vetches,  salt,  oil,  tobacco, 
timber,  brass-wire,  and  its  own  cloths,  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  European,  Indian,  and  Chinese  goods, 
in  exchange  for  gold  dhst,  diamonds,  camphor,  benja- 
min, and  other  drugs;  edible  bird-nests,  biche-de-mer, 
rattans,  beeswax,  tortoise-shell,  and  dyeing  woods 
from  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  The  rice  and  other  pro- 
ductions of  Java  are  exchanged  for  spices  and  pungent 
oils  of  the  Moluccas,  and  for  the  tin  of  Banca.  The 
natives  of  Celelies  are  famed  for  the  manufacture  of  a 
particular  species  of  fine  cloths,  of  a  very  strong  tex- 
ture, which  arc  in  great  request,  and,  along  with  spices, 
wax,  and  sandal-wood,  are  exchanged  for  the  produce 
of  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Java,  whence  they  arc  ex- 
ported to  China.  The  Bugis  have  a  large  share  of  the 
carrying  trade  of  the  Asiatic  Archipelago ;  and  they 
bring  the  produce  of  the  Bloluccas,  and  of  Borneo  and 
Sumatra,  to  Java  and  the  other  islands,  and  receive 
in  exchange  tobacco,  rice,  and  salt,  from  Java,  besides 
opium,  iron,  steel,  European  chintzes,  and  broadcloths 
and  Indian  piece  goods,  with  which  they  return  cast- 
ward  during  the  southwest  monsoon.* 

The  eastern  countricsof  Asia,  viz.,  India  and  China, 
as  wo  have  already  state<l,  have  from  time  Immemorial 
been  famed  for  certain  manufactures,  such  as  silks, 
cambrics,  muslins,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  other  products 


*  BAtnis'  Hittory  qf  Java ;  Habsdim's  Sumatra. 


ASF 


M 


I  China, 
lemorial 
la  silks, 
Iroducts 


peculiar  to  the  cUmatt;  vU.,  iplcai,  preclouiaromatici, 
medicinal  herbi,  etc.  Theae  were  always  in  great 
demand  in  Europe,  while  the  produce  of  Europe  wai 
not  wanted  in  Ada.  From  the  rude  atate  of  induttry 
among  the  Western  nations,  they  had  nothing  to  offer 
In  exchange  for  the  finer  manufactures  of  India,  and 
still  less  cuuld  the  soil  of  Europe  yield  any  equivalent 
fur  the  more  genial  produce  of  Eastern  climes.  Hence 
the  great  article  of  export  In  those  times  from  Europe 
to  Asia  was  always  bullion,  the  instrument  of  exchange 
all  over  the  world.  Bullion  could  only  be  procured  by 
an  exportation  of  European  produce  or  manufactures 
at  such  low  prices  as  to  insure  a  salo ;  and  the  loss  on 
such  transactions  must  have  been  made  up  to  the  mer- 
chant by  the  high  price  of  Asiatic  goods.  The  ancient 
monopoly  of  silk  secured  to  Asia  a  favorable  balance 
of  tradt.  with  Europe,  bullion  being  the  only  article 
with  which  it  could  be  purchased.  Notwltlutandlng 
the  introduction  of  the  silk  manufacture  into  Europe 
about  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  the  commercial 
pre-eminence  of  Asia  still  continued,  and  bullion  was 
the  chief  article  of  export  to  the  East.  Throughout 
the  interior  of  Asia  this  superiority  remains  to  the 
present  day;  and  a  continual  stream  of  bullion  flovis 
from  the  Bosphorus  eastward,  through  Asia  Minor 
and  Persia,  into  Hlndostan,  and  is  finally  dispersed  in 
the  great  ocean  of  the  Chinese  currency.  Bullion  is 
also  the  principal  article  sent  from  Arabia  to  India  in 
oxcliange  for  Indian  goods. 

But  u  great  revolution  has  taken  place  in  the  trade 
between  Asia  and  Europe,  and  especially  with  Great 
Britain.     Europe  is  now  in  a  condition  to  offer  an 
equivalent  in  manufactures  for  the  produce  of  Asia ; 
goods  of  various  kinds  are  sent  in  exchange  for  those 
of  India;  and  from  Great  Britain  remittances  in  bullion 
have  nearly  ceased.     So  prodigiously  has  the  price  of 
goods  been  lowered  by  the  use  of  machinery,  that  the 
cotton  wool  of  India  is  no\t'  imported  Into  Britain,  and, 
after  being  manufactured,  is  re-exported  to  the  place 
of  its  growth,  and  sold  at  a  lower  price  than  the  same 
goods  from  the  loom  of  the  India  workman,  though  it 
is  loaded  with  the  expense  of  a  double  voyage  across 
half  the  globe.    The  goods  of  the  European  manufac- 
turers are  poured  into  Asia  through  all  its  sea-ports, 
and  reaching  the  iiiterinr  on  the  backs  of  mules  and 
asses,  often  after  a  Journey  of  sevral  thousand  miles 
over  deserts  and  mountains  covered  tvHh  perpetual 
snow,  they  are  sold  cheaper  than  the  same  articles  by 
the  native  workmen.     The  woolen  manufaclur"s  of 
Yorkshire,  the  cotton  goods  of  Manchester  and  Glasgow, 
French  cloths,,  and  German  linens,  are  dispersed  all 
over  India,  and  even  partially  in  China ;  they  are 
found  in  the  bazars  of  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and 
Cushgar,  and  are  carried  eastward  by  the  caravans 
into  the  wilds  of  Tartary.    The  natural  productions 
of  Asia,  namely,  spices,  rich  aromatics,  dyes,  and  other 
rare  luxuries  of  tropical  climates,  will  always  be  in 
demand  in  Europe ;  and  the  monopoly  of  tea  by  the 
Chinese  gives  them  the  command  of  the  European 
markets.     Tea  has  now  almost  become  one  of  the  nec- 
essaries of  life,  and  it  travels  for  a  market  across  half 
the  globe.     It  is  the  great  commercial  link  between 
Europe  and  China,  from  which,  like  the  precious  prod- 
uce of  silk  in  ancient  times,  it  can  only  be  procured. 
But  the  improved  industry  of  Europe  supplies,  as 
is  already  observed,  an  equivalent  in  woolen  and  cot- 
ton goods  for  this  highly-prized  luxury.    Since  the 
expiration  of  the  East  India  Company's  charter,  in 
1834,  the  trade  has  been  thrown  open  to  all  classes  of 
British  subjects,  and  their  merchants  can  now  freely 
trade  to  all  places  accessible  to  Europeans  to  the  east  of 
the  Straits  of  Malacca.    During  the  short  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  then,  the  increase  of  the  exports  and 
imports  has  fully  realized  the  expectations  held  out  by 
those  who  opposed  the  company's  monopoly. — E.  B, 
JSee  IIiNiiosTAN. 
Aapludtum,  Bitumen  Judaioum,  or  Jews- 


pitob,  is  a  light,  solid  bitumen,  of  a  dusky  color  on 
the  outside,  aud  a  deep  shining  black  within ;  of  very 
little  taste,  and  having  scarcely  any  smell  unless  heat- 
ed, whan  it  emits  a  strong  pitchy  odor.  It  is  found 
in  a  soft  or  liquid  state  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  aud  by  age  grows  dry  and  hard.  The  same  kind 
of  bitumen  is  met  with  likewise  in  the  earth  in  other 
places  of  the  world — in  China,  America,  and  in  some 
places  of  Europe;  as  the  Carpathian  UiUs,  Franca, 
Nsufchatel,  etc.— £.  B. 

Asplnwrall  (formerly  Colon),  a  town,  province  of 
Panama,  d^pot  Ismo,  New  Granada,  Central  America. 
Situated  on  Navy  Bay,  lat.  9°  21'  N.,  ion.  79°  69'  W., 
SO  miles  by  railroad  from  Panama.  It  is  built  on 
Manzanilla  Island,  which  is  connected  with  the  shore 
by  the  Panama  railroad.  Population,  8000.  The 
buildings,  200  in  number,  are  mostly  of  wood,  and  all 
recently  erected.  The  railroad  company  have  hand- 
some and  extensive  diputs,  warehouses,  machine-shops, 
etc.,  and  ample  wharfs  and  piers,  alongside  which 
steamers  and  vessels  lay,  and  the  harbor  has  safe  anch- 
orage. The  streets  are  graded,  and  many  of  them 
lined  with  shops  and  hotels,  affording  every  conven- 
ience for  travelers.  The  vicinity  of  the  place  Is  rath- 
er low  and  swampy,  making  it  somewhat  unhealthy 
for  strangers.  The  foreign  consuls,  who  formerly  re- 
sided at  Chagrcs,  distant  nine  miles,  now  reside  here. 
The  American  and  British  Mail  Steamers  regularly 
touch  k  ^rc.  There  Is  a  hospital  here,  and  a  light- 
house, built  at  the  expense  of  the  railroad  company. 
A  newspaper  is  published  tri-weekly.  By  a  govern- 
ment act,  it  is  necessary  to  date  all  papers  of  business 
made  here  Colon,  otherwise  they  have  no  legal  force 
in  the  local  courts. 

Aaaay,  Buay,  or  Bay,  In  MetaUurgg,  the  proof 
or  trial  of  the  gooilness,  purity,  value,  etc.,  of  metals 
and  metalline  substances.  lu  ancient  statutes  this  is 
called  touch,  and  those  who  bad  the  core  of  it  keeptri 
of  the  touch.— E.  B. 

AMaylnB,  taken  in  its  general  acceptation,  is  a 
chemical  process  by  which  any  ore,  or  other  metallic 
compound,  is  analyzed,  and  its  constituent  parts  de- 
termined. But  the  term  more  particularly  denotes  the 
peculiar  art  by  which  gold  and  silver  are  examined, 
and  their  qualities  ascertained,  in  relation  to .  their 
state  of  purity.  By  the  former  the  whole  contents  of 
the  substance  under  examination  are  separated  and 
collected ;  by  the  latter  it  is  only  necessary  in  practice 
to  find,  by  the  destruction  or  separatian  of  the  alloys, 
the  amount  of  pure  metal  contained  in  the  specimen 
operated  on,  so  that  a  value  may  be  given,  by  compu- 
tation, to  the  whole  mass.  To  this  specific  branch  w« 
purpose  to  contino  ourselves  in  the  following  observa- 
tions. 

The  art  of  assaying  the  precious  metals  must  be  es- 
teemed of  considerable  importance  in  many  points  of 
view,  but  more  especially  to  commercial  nations  trad- 
ing extensively  in  these  commodities.  For  although 
the  ultimate  destination  of  these  metals  be  their  con- 
version into  coin,  plate,  or  other  articles  of  use  and 
ornament,  still  there  are  vast  treasures  of  bullion  con- 
signed to  the  stores  of  different  countries  merely  as 
conmiodities,  as  convenient  representatives  of  value, 
or  in  security  for  nominal  wealth,  the  marketable  value 
of  which  is  determined  solely  by  the  skill  and  accu- 
racy of  tlio  assayer.  Every  one  having  experience  of 
such  matters  knows  that,  unlike  other  things  of  a  mer- 
cantile nature,  bullioivcan  not  be  valued  by  its  bulk, 
weight,  or  any  simple  external  characteristic,  but  by 
ascertaining  in  some  way  the  amount  of  fine  metal  con- 
tained in  a  given  quantity.  And  implicit  confidence 
being  placed  in  the  honesty,  accuracy,  and  fidelity  of 
the  assayer,  who,  by  examining  a  small  portion  only, 
gives  a  cortiflcatc  of  its  quality  upon  which  the  whole 
is  estimated,  merchants  are  enabled  to  buy  and  sell 
bullion  without  risk  of  loss,  and  with  the  most  perfect 
assurance  of  the  value  being  maintained.    By  moans 


JkSB 


70 


ASS 


«r  Mm  trt  •rwMrlt%  M  aftllMbl*  to  tmall  m  to  large 
tMuM,  w*  tlMt  prninu  a  Mftaln  «*AtpMrd  agalnit 
trim  in  Um  nMMMl!MI«iN  vf  l*l«l«  and  othar  artlclw  of 
^MimmI  m  ilMMMl*  «a»,  wblab  muit  b«  regarded  ai 
•f  awM  imptrumm  In  a  aowMtry  rkh  and  aflloani  like 
OfMl  IMlalKt  wk«M  g«M  and  illver  tinva  Iteconia  lo 
•MNMaii  aatoa*  iIni  «M«II»  ela^w  ai  aoarcelj  to  be 
aiMiwait  l«MMM*>  W«  aotiM  only  wieli  Ibat  the  lawi 
wbfab  piwvaU  in  fthrmt*  to  plata  were  more  gener- 
ally •»t«Hd«d  In  tb«lr  apiilleallM  to  tb«  manuractnre 
&li»m(Mf,  awl  atbirr  fmmuA  omamenta;  for  in  tkeie 
lbM»  tfta  pul«li«  bava  no  gnaranlaa  agalntt  fraud 
and  wMimf  ba^rewt  tba  «bara«tar  or  aiauranoe  of  the 


If  tlia  art  af  aaaayinit  b«  daamad  valuable  and  Im 
partant  aa  ramarda  bnlTlon  and  plate,  eacuring  a  cer^ 
tain  an4  r«liaM«  l«M  «f  val««,  aa  well  a*  a  •ufflciant 
abaali  n|wn  frandttlantdfaifni,  «o  can  not  %\m\y  quet- 
lian  ita  tmrn  ffmitt  lni|i«rtan«a  In  reference  tu  the 
MataUia  mummy  of  a  coanir/,  tb«  tundard  accuracy 
af  wbiab  afNfia  maierlall/  tb«  Intentau  of  all,  and  eo 
fcr  land*  (a  pttrnvit  tba  walfan  of  mankind.  What- 
WM  tbl*  Mandanl  b«,  ll  la  obvlom  the  value  of  all 
•MMft/  In  a»«baHga  mnet  ba  regulated  and  determ- 
WM  ^  ll,  wbatbar  In  land,  houMi,  oommoditlea,  or 
tka  wafia  af  labor )  and  If  wa  bad  no  reliance  on  the 
totagrUy  af  mu  ««in  aa  a  maaeare  of  Taloa,  we  could 
niuf  aa  mmtity  In  anr  property,  In  all  countrlea, 
tbarafow,  «laimM<(  a  «barac(«r  for  bonent}',  the  integ- 
ritx  af  tba  ftandard  ebonid  be  a  fandamtntal  principle. 
A»y  tba  allnbtaat  davlatian  from  It  will  initantly  be 
dlaaawrad,  fellawad  by  a  Iom  of  credit,  and  violent 
•natnallan*  in  tba  aacbange,  which  of  all  thinga  are 
OMMt  iMjarian*  t«  trading  totnmunitlee.  For  the  ex- 
aiiania  batwaan  ana  Mmntiy  and  another  la  not  de- 
tarmmad  \m  aain  nMif«ly  u  a  drenlating  medium,  but, 
to  nalily,  by  Iba  anaet  amount  of  fine  metal  contained 
In  Ifca  a<to|  and,  Ibarafora,  It  Is  necenaiy  to  know 
that  (ba  prapartlan  la  maintained  called  ikt  ttandard, 
wbkb,  In  attf  fald  anrwncy ,  comtiets  of  eleven-twelfths 
af  pnra  matal  and  anaHwalftb  of  alloy.  This  fact  can 
aniy  ba  aaaartainad  by  tba  procesa  of  assay.  But  when 
Mrtiana  aa^nira  a  abaraaiar  far  honesty  and  integrity, 
tba  annanay  wlU  ft«aly  eimtlala  all  over  the  world 
wilbont  auapiaian,  at  ila  rapntad  value,  and  the  eur- 
lanay  af  ana  ba  aaaily  eanvartad  Into  the  currency  of 
MMtnar,  Rnt  wa  stwnld  fall  l«  secure  this  great  ad- 
raniaga,  M»  impliait  aanManos,  without  the  assayer's 
ablll  and  aba«bf  liy  wbl«ti  tba  d««  proportions  of  metal 
wagnaraniaad,  and  any  daprsdatlon  detected. 

wa  naad  na«r  m  lonjiar  appnhend  any  of  those  ca- 
pilclana  and  dIabanaralM  changes  In  the  currency,  not 
wknawn  l«  a«r  blataiy  bafora  tba  reign  of  Elixabetb, 
wblab  anriebad  tba  monarch  at  the  expense  of  his  sub- 
Jaata,  aiaatad  twMan  and  violant  changes  In  (he  value 
tt  praparty,  and  aftan  spread  dismay  and  poverty 
$ma»§  all  auaiaa,  wKbani  any  clear  knowledge  of  the 
annaa.  That  palilada  and  sagaeioiM  quten,  of  whom 
Kngiand  la  Inady  plMid,  among  u(her  great  and  dura- 
Ma  marlia,  la  banaraMy  dlMlngnlabad  by  the  restora- 
tian  at  ma  tnrrmm  la  mtHly,  and  by  fixing  our  pres- 
ant  itandard  af  vawa.  mm  wbieb,  happily,  no  devia- 
tlan  aan  ba  noliHad  in  snaaeading  ages.  In  this  re- 
■iwat  sabmaa  and  bnawtadga,  If  not  alwaya  the  hand- 
HMldaaf  iaiagrity,  ara  tba  bast  gaaraa(eea  against  fHiud 
and  avil  dai%na(  and  wa  can  scarcely  believe  it  poa- 
•Ibbi,  In  (baa*  timm,  la  imKm  tnm  a  dishonorable  de- 
piaeialian  af  Iba  mtnmey,  wblla  anr  vagna  apprehen- 
aiani  Mmwt  la  inalanlly  diiaipatad  by  the  numerons 
ahaAa,  pnbHa  and  pi\vtu,  m  tba  parity  of  our  coin. 

TrM  f\f  tk»  />«.— Amon((  Ibasa  we  may  briefly  in- 
atawaa  Ilia  anaiafft  aaranony  called  the  Trial  of  the 
iys,  wbMIl,  to  llM  moat  Mblte  manner,  scrares  an 
toiparltol  anamtoallan  af  ina  aolnage,  and  a  verdict,  as 
pHbUa,  a<ita  lafal  «t  alandard  ptfflly.  In  no  other 
aamtry  fctva  wa  baan  able  to  disaover  an  Institution 
aaalagoaa  la  tbia,  wbiah,  alter  all  Intermediate  tesu 


have  been  tried  In  the  process  of  mannflkctore,  aflbrda 
an  ultimate  and  Jndtcions  appeal  fbr  the  public  satia- 
fkction.  And  it  may  be  added,  to  the  credit  of  the 
otflcers  of  the  Mint,  that,  whatever  may  happen  in  fti- 
ture  times,  amidst  the  sudden  and  hasty  revolutions 
in  public  afKiirs,  during  the  past,  we  are  unable  to  ad- 
duce any  instance  of  this  ordeal  being  passed  without 
honor  and  integrity ;  and  instead  of  the  allowance  or 
remedy  by  law  for  errors,  unavoidable  In  manufacture, 
being  taken  advantage  of,  as  a  protection  to  careless- 
ness, we  may  pronounce  that  the  coinage  has  always 
been  proved  to  be  as  nigh  to  the  legal  standard  as  la 
possible,  the  deviation  being  on  the  average  scarcely 
worth  notltication. 

The  Trial  of  Ihe  Pyx,  in  England,  takes  place  once  In 
about  every  three  years,  but  no  apncilied  period  is  fixed 
by  law.  It  Is  so  denominated  IVom  the  pyx,  or  chest, 
in  which  the  specimen  coins  are  deposited  in  the  Mint 
for  (tature  examination  ;  these  coins  being  supposed  a 
fair  representation  of  the  whole  money  coined  within 
a  certain  period.  Out  of  each  bag  of  coin,  whether 
gold  or  silver,  two  pieces  are  taken,  one  for  the  trial 
by  assay  within  the  Mint,  the  othe,  for  the  general 
pyx;  and  these  are  carefully  sealed  up  in  paper  by 
three  officers,  and  deposited  In  the  chest.  It  should 
be  remarked,  that  previously  to  the  issue  of  coin  to  the 
public,  a  minor  pyx  takes  place  within  the  Mint,  In- 
tended for  the  examination  of  the  coined  money  by 
appointed  oi&cers,  as  regards  both  weight  and  fineness, 
and  no  coin  is  permitted  to  be  delivered  before  it  has 
passed  this  necessary  ordeal. 

It  having  been  notified  to  the  government  that  a 
trial  of  the  pyx  is  called  for,  the  Lord  Chancellor 
issues  his  warrant  to  summon  a  Jury  of  goldsmiths, 
who,  on  the  appointed  day,  proceed  to  the  exchequer 
ofHce,  Whitehall,  and  there,  in  presence  of  several 
privy-counselors  and  the  officers  of  the  Mint,  receive 
the  solemn  charge  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  who  directs 
them  in  their  important  functions,  and  requests  tliem 
to  deliver  to  him  a  verdict  of  their  finding.  A  ploce 
of  gold  and  silver,  cut  fW)m  the  triaUplatfi  deposited 
In  the  Exchequer,  supposed  to  be  of  the  exact  legal 
standard,  are  delivered  to  the  foreman  of  the  Jury,  who 
is  required  to  declare  to  what  degree  the  coin  under 
examination  deviates  flrom  them.  Tbi^  being  done, 
the  Jury  proceed  to  Goldsmith's  Hall,  London,  where 
assaying  apparatus,  and  all  other  necessary  applian- 
ces, are  In  daily  use  for  the  trial  of  gold  and  silver 
plate  ;  and  sealed  packets  of  the  specimen  coins  being 
delivered  to  them  by  the  officers  of  the  Mint,  they  are 
first  tried  by  weight,  and  then  a  certain  number  are 
taken  tnm  the  whole  and  melted  Into  a  bar,  f^om  which 
the  assay  trials  are  subsequently  taken. 

The  verdict  of  the  Jur;*,  fbunded  on  the  results  of 
these  proceedings,  proving  favorable,  the  Master  of  the 
Mint  and  subordinate  officers  are  released  flrom  all 
further  responsibility,  while  the  country  receives,  by 
the  publicity  of  the  verdict,  an  attestation  of  the  stand- 
ard purity  of  the  coinage. 

In  times  of  comparative  Ignorance,  the  art  of  assay- 
ing was  esteemed  a  mystery,  and,  like  somo  other 
crafts,  the  practice  of  it  was  retained  in  few  hands. 
There  were  supposed  secrets  in  the  conduct  of  the  proc- 
esses, which  none  but  the  Initiated  were  permitted  to 
know ;  but  now  it  Is  admitted  that  those  secrets  are 
nothing  but  the  knowledge  acquired  by  long  experi- 
ence, amounting  in  reality  to  certain  allowances  or 
adjustments  in  the  results  of  the  operations.  The  un- 
certain tests  and  appliances  employed  in  ancient  times, 
which  affiirded  only  a  wide  approximation  to  truth, 
and  exposed  the  public  to  extortion  and  fraud,  have 
in  more  scientific  times  been  superseded  by  chemical 
processes  as  accurate  as  they  are  delicate  and  beautiful. 
The  exquisite  and  varied  laws  of  nature,  in  connection 
with  metals  and  their  transformations,  are  made  Instru- 
mental to  the  use  and  knowledge  of  mankind ;  and 
science,  so  calle<i,  enables  man  to  nicely  balance  and 


•n^j^'Wy 


# 


ASS 


Mttmtt*  th*  rut  trMtuni  ftmnd  In  th«  bowah  of  the 
MTth,  Mid  eonititute  lh«m  meanirM  of  yalut  mora  un- 
diMging  than  any  othar  product  of  natura.  Ai  idanca 
bai  prograaaed,  to  haa  the  art  of  aaaajring  improvad, 
whlla  In  modam  tlmaa  naw  flalda  hava  ba«n  opanad 
«p  for  ita  naa  and  appllottion.  Along  with  Ineraaaad 
aocuracy,  it  haa  beooma  mora  rarled  and  axtanilve  in 
ita  praotioa.  Tha  amount  of  tha  predoua  matali  hare 
not  only  ineraaaad  immeaaurably,  thereby  magnliying 
the  importanoe  of  the  art,  but  in  recent  tlmei  changea 
in  the  mode  of  reAnIng  or  separating  theae  metali  have 
eraated  a  new  branch  of  buainesa  little  practiced  in  for- 
mer aflea.  The  application  of  iulphuric  acid  to  lepa- 
rata  gold  from  silver,  and  silver  trom  gold,  by  which 
the  operation  Is  eflbeted  with  great  economy,  and 
nearly  all  tha  contents  recovered  at  comparatively 
little  coat,  haa  led  to  an  extensive  boiiness  in  partinff 
assays,  which  did  not  formerly  exist.  In  this  manner 
the  holder  of  bullion,  of  a  mixed  character,  haa  •  high 
er  value  put  upon  his  metal  by  reason  of  the  gold  or 
silver  contained  in  it ;  and  in  the  market  he  is  able  to 
realize  the  whole  value  by^issay,  less  tha  deduction 
made  to  cover  the  oharge  of  refining.  The  parting 
auty  Is  dllftrent  trom  the  simple  assay  in  this,  that  It 
declares  upon  tha  certificate  of  a  geld  assay  the  amount 
of  silver  combined  with  it,  and  of  a  silver  assay  tha 
number  of  gralna  of  Ana  gold  contained  in  each  pound. 
Tha  bullion  to  ba  valued  having  been  melted  into 
ingots  or  bars,  small  pieces  are  cut  fhtmeach  and  fold- 
ad  separately  in  slips  of  paper  with  a  corresponding 
mark  or  number  of  tha  bar,  so  aa  to  preserve  the  iden- 
tlAcation  of  the  assay  reports  with  the  bars.  On  these 
slips  of  paper  the  assayer  writes  his  report,  which  de- 
clares the  quality  of  the  gold  and  silver,  and  this  is  the 
certificate  upon  which  the  bullion  is  bought  and  sold  In 
the  market.  The  Bank  of  England,  however,  and  thu 
Mint,  in  order  to  guard  against  any  anrreptitioua 
change  or  (htnd,  require  the  assays  upon  which  they 
ncelve  bullion  to  be  cut  oflT  in  presence  of  appointed 
officers.  The  assayer  reports  gold  by  caraU,  and  silver 
by  pennyweights.  In  the  one  case  the  Troy  pound  Is 
divided  into  24  parts  or  carats,  and  British  standard 
being  U-12ths  fine  gold  and  l-12th  alloy,  the  carat 
will  thus  represent  10  dwts.  Troy,  the  standard  being 
therefore  32  carata  fine  and  2  carata  alloy.  In  the  oth- 
er the  Troy  pound  is  divided  Into  240  dwts.,  and  the 
standard  of  silver  being  332  dwts.  fine  and  18  dwU.  of 
alloy,  the  pennyweight  will  represent  tha  l-240tb  uf 
the  pound. 

Carats  are  subdivided  into  four  carat  grains,  b  60 
Troy  grains  each,  and  these  are  again  further  subdi- 
vided into  eighths  of  a  carat  grain,  =  7i  grains  Troy. 
The  lowest  tnde  report  of  gold  is  one-eighth  of  a  carat 
grain,  and  of  silver  half  a  pennyweight.  In  reporting 
gold,  the  practice  in  general  use  is  to  take  2  carata  a* 
the  representative  of  fine  gold  for  bullion  hetter  than 
standard,  and  24  cafata  for  bullion  wor<e  than  stand- 
ard. Thus  a  bar  reported  bttter  1  3},  or  one  carat, 
three  cnrat  grains,  and  three-quarters  of  a  grain,  is 
within  one-quarter  of  a  carat  grain  of  purity,  or  IS 
grains  Troy.  But  if  a  bar  were  found  to  contain  only 
one-half  of  fine  gold,  the  report  would  not  be  one  carat 
worse,  but  wont  12  carats,  or  12-24ths.  We  may  ob- 
serve, however,  that  this  complex  mode  of  enumeration, 
so  great  a  mystery  to  the  uninitiated,  will  probably  in 
a  few  years  be  entirely  superseded  by  the  decimal  sys- 
tem of  notation  in  general  use  on  the  continent.  Al- 
ready it  ia  partially  adopted  by  ossayers  in  England, 
who  are  now  required  to  append  the  decimal  report  to 
the  ordinary  one  on  the  certificate.  Instaad  of  carata 
•nd  penny  weigbta,  the  numeral  1000  will  represent  fine 
gold  and  silver,  and  any  deviation  in  purity  from  this 
will  be  expressed  by  •  decimal  iaataad  of  a  vulgar 
fraction. 

It  haa  been  already  remarkad  that  tha  lowaat  danom- 
{nation  of  tha  trade  report  is  Jth  of  a  carat  grain,  or  7i 
grains  Troy,  aa  Kspacta  gold,  and  half  a  pennyweight, 


or  19  gnlni,  as  raapaeta  silver )  bnt  practically  on  »• 
sayer  eon  arrive  at  a  much  nearer  approxlnialion  to 
the  truib.  As  In  the  Royal  Mint,  In  making  the  conw 
binatlon  for  standard  coin,  he  ran  report  to  a  single 
grain,  or  l-67<IOtb,  In  each  case ;  bnt  In  buying  and 
sailing  bttltlon  soma  proiaelion  to  the  purchaser  la 
deemed  naoeaaary  as  an  Indemnity  against  errors  and 
IrregnUr  mixture  of  the  alloy,  and  hence  arises  the 
alwva  latitude  In  tha  assay  ft!|inrt,  It  is  probabla. 
however,  that  tha  general  use  of  decimal  notation  win 
eventually  causa  a  more  accurate  report,  and  depriva 
the  bullion  dealer  of  a  share  of  that  advantage  which 
obviously  Is  greater  than  Is  necessary. 

An  ordinary  oaaay  r«|Mirt  of  gold  and  silver  cxpreoa- 
es  tha  variation  ttom  the  standard,  and  not  the  fine 
metal  contained  In  lt|  and  It  Is,  therefore,  marked  aa 
either  better  or  worta  than  standard.  The  standard  of 
gold  being  n  carata  Ana  and  S  alloy,  or  ll-12ths  Ana, 
an  ingot  of  gold  found  to  contain  only  31  carats  pure 
gold  would  lia  reported  toons  1  carat ;  If  It  contained 
381  carats.  It  would  then  be  R'ported  htUrr  1  carat,  8 
grains,  and  half  a  grain.  The  standard  of  stiver  being 
11 01.  Sdwta,  Ana,  and  18  dwts.  alloy,  an  Ingot  of  silver 
fooad  to  contain  only  11  oi,  of  An«  would  be  reported 
versa  3  dwts,,  but  If  it  contained  11  «*.  4),  the  report 
would  then  b«  btU*r  2}  dwis. 

Id  buying  or  selling,  the  bellrmtu  or  vorteneu  of 
(he  liar  is  added  or  deducted  from  the  gross  weight ; 
and  the  value  Is  computed  on  this,  the  standard  weight, 
at  the  market  price  of  the  day.  * 

When  the  assay  required  la  a  parting  assay,  or  an 
assay  of  gold  containing  sliver,  a  report  la  given  of  the 
weight  of  fine  silver  In  the  pound ;  and  when  the  silver 
exceeds  lA  dwt*.  par  pound,  all  above  that  is  usually 
added  to  the  value  of  the  gold,  that  being  an  allow- 
ance made  by  general  agreement  for  the  coat  of  sepa- 
ration or  refining.  So  llkawlsa  wUh  an  assay  of  silver 
holding  good.  The  report  declares  the  number  of 
grains  of  fine  gold  In  the  pound,  and  all  above  8  or  4 
grains  is  added  to  tha  computed  value  of  the  silver. 

In  these  dalleat*  operations  we  need  scarcely  Impren 
upon  the  reader  how  importniU  an  Instrument  an  accn- 
rate  balance  must  ba  In  securing  a  certain  and  unifonn 
reiult.  The  spaelman  taken  bv  an  assayer  Is  no  more 
than  13  or  16  gralna  of  the  mass,  and  If  12  grainc,  each 
grain  would  represent  an  ounctf,  or  l-480th.  In  the 
Koyal  Mint,  the  Ana  balanc<ni  In  ■!*•  are  sensible  to  the 
l-lOOUtbofagraln. 

Tha  prinelpla  of  ataayinfi  gold  and  silver  is  very 
simple  theoretically,  Imt  In  practice  great  experience 
is  necaMary  to  Insure  accnnicy ;  and  there  Is  no  branch 
of  business  which  demands  more  personal  and  undU 
vided  attention.  The  reaiilt  la  liable  to  the  Influence  of 
so  many  contlngandas,  that  no  assayer  who  regardi 
his  reputation  will  delegate  the  principal  processes  to 
one  not  equally  skilled  with  himself.  Besides  the  r«- 
•ult  aacurialnabia  by  weight,  there  are  allowances  and 
compensations  to  be  made  which  are  known  only  to 
an  experienced  assayer,  and  If  theae  were  disregarded, 
as  might  ba  the  case  with  the  mere  novice,  the  report 
would  be  wide  from  the  truth.— E.  D. 

Awiior,  a  person  appointed  to  assess  property, 
and  particularly  to  determine  the  value  of  propertjr 
for  taxation, 

AamatB,  In  Comm*r«i,  a  termed  used  to  designate 
the  stock  In  trade,  and  the  entire  property  of  all  sorts, 
belonging  to  a  merchant  or  to  a  trading  association. 
It  is  also  applied  to  goods  or  property  placed,  for  the 
discharge  of  some  particular  trust  or  obligation,  in  the 
hands  of  executors,  uaalgnccs,  ate. 

Aaatonto,  a  Spanish  word  signifying  a  contract. 
In  commercial  history,  It  means  the  contract  or  agree* 
ment  by  which  the  Spanish  government  ceded  first  to 
a  company  of  French,  and  afterward  (by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht)  to  a  company  of  English  merchants,  the 
right  to  import,  under  certain  conditions,  a  specified 
number  of  slaves  Into  tbe^Spanlsb  colonies.    For  full 


AM 


Tf 


AIT 


Mftknlm  witk  iwBMt  M  thl*  «mUmI,  iw  Iff.  Bmi' 
SmT*  valuabk  worii  M  tk«  Stov»4ra4«. 

lll^lf  ^  llM  BMM  givM  to  •JMMtlUr  I^mIm  M 

MMrmuiMrUwwd  dariqg  ibt  Aral  Pranih  Itovi4irtlwi. 
Th«  InlittanM  of  tb*  (jriUm,  oparatlng  riong  wllb  (Im 
oilMr  kltMKpU  to  nguUu  trad*,  form  •  piamtiMal 
feaUN  ia  Um  catemitow  bUlor}r  of  Um  tptxih.  'Hw 
thai«  b«nM  la  U  by  tbi  aiiigaatt  It  ai  tha  *aroa  tliua 
a  BMinsrabU  inttaac*.  for  tba  um  of  tb*  MwaowlK  and 
faanciar,  of  tb«  bopaiMtntH  «f  pn^aslt  f»r  cnatiag 
or  p^M^rbla  naaonal  waaltb  by  an  Umm  of  Mpar 
oMiaay,  not  Um  r«pr«aMta(iv*  of  avallabU  waaltbamt 
ruU  biuinaw  tranaactloM.  Tb*  flnt  UaiMiif  aMlfnaU 
waa  mad*  in  Um  Monrity  of  Um  foiftitad  aeulaiUttiflal 
praporty,  and  wai  adopted  at  a  prtlirabi*  alUraaUva 
to  (browbiK  (b*  forftitad  lauda  on  lb*  marfcat,  whUb 
U  wat  no  donbt  Judkloui^-  baUtvtd  tbat  to  larg*  an 
amemU  of  property  would  glut.  Tba  b«ld«r  of  tba 
aMlcnttt  migbt  ui*  toam  at  nionay,  or  claim  tb*  land 
wbiib  tb*y  roprotaottd.  A*  mor*  forftltum  ooMirrod, 
tba  it*a*  of  attignatt  wa*  InotsaMd.  But  It  toon 
cwwad  to  be  nMajinrtd  by  propaHy,  and  wa*  mUrgwl 
•coonUng  to  tb*  •xigenci**  of  tb*  rtvoluttonaiy  gov- 
animaBt.  Tb*  papar  n^ooav  fall  to  balf,  tban  to  a 
alxtb  part  *f  tb*  vain*  of  tba  Muna  danoMlnatlon  In 
til\-*r,  and  tlnUng  rapidly  tbrougb  lucoattlv*  grad** 
of  dmircat*,  lUver  b«ld  at  lait  tba  valua  of  lAO  tint** 
U*  d«nomlnaUon  in  paper.  In  Angiiat  of  1770,  II770 
MilHont  of  firanc*  wer*  tbu*  put  in  clreuUlion  i  and 
Tirtually  tb*  aiaignati  bacanM  wortblai*.  Tba  attaU 
lUimont  of  tba  maximum,  and  tb*  otbtr  tyrannical 
intaifbuuaai  wUb  trad*  by  wblcb  revolutionary  guv< 
aifimente  endeavor  to  (upport  credit,  bave  tbair  proper 
place,  along  witb  tb*  account  of  tba  condition  of  tba 
oonntiy  daring  tb*  depr*cUtion  of  tba  aiaignali,  un* 
d*r  tb*  h*ad  of  Framcic.— E.  B. 

hiirilTiTt.  a  pareon  appointed  by  oompetent  an- 
thority  to  do,  act,  or  traniact  torn*  buiineta,  or  CMr- 
daa  lome  parttaiiar  privilege  or  power,  for  or  on  ac- 
count of  tome  tpacifled  individual  or  indtvldual*.  A*> 
dgneet  may  be  created  by  deed,  or  ly  lawi  by  dead, 
wbere  tbe  leatee  of  a  farm  attign*  tbe  taoM  to  MMKbar  I 
by  law,  wbere  tbe  Uw  make*  an  aiaignee,  without  any 
appolntmeot  of  tlM  parton  entitled,  aa  an  aneculor  w 
aadgnee  in  Uw  |Ui  the  teeutor,  and  an  admlnitlrator 
io«nbitettata.  >  The  term  la  moat  commonly  applied 
to  tbe  offdal  ataigneet  appointed  to  manage  oaakrupt 
aetata*.— ifce  B  >^  ucpr 

AMl«Da»  Jit,  fc<«tginWan.  Atrtgn— ,  art  of 
A«i|n*nt  teclnical  uia  bi  Uw.  To  attign  la  l«  mak* 
over,  and  tb  i  larm  U  generally  uied  to  axpreta  a  tran*> 
Cartnse  by  writing,  in  oontradittinctlon  to  a  traniCnv 
anoa  by  rctnal  daliveiy.  In  England  tba  nauat  •!• 
piataian  ft  atiignment,  in  Scotland  It  U  aiaignalton. 
"tbt  pam  n  making  over  it  caUed  ntignertr,  mdgmr, 
i^eedmt,  tbe  recipient,  oMtt^iiM.  Tbi*  latt  farm  If  Of 
teporiaot  application  in  tba  Uw  of  baoknytcy  In  Xn- 
l^aiad  and  1  sUnd,  at  exploiting  partan*  of  two  «la**> 
«L  tbe  official  a»k^'i(neet  and  tbe  trade  a*tlgn*M,  to 
wbom  tboreaUxatiA  i  and  dittribution  of  tba  bankrupt 
aaUta  it  committed  — E.  B.    Sf  BAJiKKvrTC'r. 

JUMIM.      St4  T.KMAtt. 

An«Q0l«tiOB  (Amn  tbe  Latin  atioeiar*,  to  join  in 
feUowebip),  the  act  of  attociating  or  conitituting  a  to- 
dely  or  partaersiiip,  in  order  to  carry  on  torn*  tohemc 
or  botinett  witb  more  advantage,  Tb*.  raader  la  ra> 
flirred  to  tbe  Eae^clvptdia  Britanitiai,  article*  8<H;iK- 
niH  and  AoRAnoii,  la  refarenoe  to  tba  ieOuaaee  of 
aaaadatioa  upon  workiAen  and  empUyer*,  sad  at  a 
potttical  engine. 

JjMampttoii)  tba  capital  of  tb*  provUa*  of  Pam- 
g«i«,  fai  Bonili  America.  It  it  titualad  on  an  obtwa 
aagU  farqied  by  tbe  eattam  bank  of  tbe  Bivar  Para* 
gqay,  18  mile*  above  the  Junction  of  tbe  lint  month  of 
tbe  Pilpomayo,  and  48  above  tbat  of  tba  leaond.  It 
wa*  originally  a  pmall  fort,  but,  from  (ha  conveniene* 
U  ita  ^tutko^  in  a  few  >,e«rt  it  b^^samo  •  fiiy,  and  is 


IHt  waa  awatad  into  a  bitbopri*.  Tbe  atUaeeni  ter> 
ritoty  it  rirh  and  fartlU  In  a  high  dtttiee,  and  abonnda 
inagfaal  varieliyafiMta.  The  air  bi  temperate  and 
(Tlmala 


illMalaaalnbfioM  1  tb*  tree*  are  perpetually  green, 
I  la  tbe  neigbborbood  faed  numer* 


thai 

and  the  riab  paaturee  I  _ 

au*  floehi  *f  eattU.  Tba  eity'lt  inbabiUd  by  8pa»> 
iarda,  IndUnt,  and  Meetlaoet,  who  trade  In  bidet,  t^ 
baceo,  and  migtt.  Tbe  Paraguay  alTorda  a  channel 
of  eommnalcalkm  wllb  Buenoe  Ay  re* ;  but  tbe  pattag* 
It  long,  owing  to  the  rapid  flow  of  the  watert  of  tbat 
rivet  I  thic,  however.  It  eontiderably  obviated  try  tba 
favorable  wind*  wbleh  bUw  ftam  the  toulh  for  a  great 
part  of  tha  year.  PoMlatlon,  1S,000.  Long.  67'  87' 
W, ,  Ut.  16^  10'  »^i.  K  t 

Amiraao*.    4m  InavMacn. 

Aatmil,  a  tea  phraee,  uied  to  ilgnUy  any  tbing  al 

■M  dittance  behind  tbe  iblp  |  being  tbe  oppoeite  of 
Amiuo,  which  ilgnUlee  the  tpace  before  her. 

AtMamUtM,  a  date  of  mediclnet  uted  for  binding 
or  *antra4itTng  the  leveral  parti,  external  or  Internal, 
uf  tha  human  tvitem,  for  rettraUing  profbM  diatbarget, 
coaguUtUg  the  fluid*,  condeniing  and  ttrengibeoing 
tbe  tellda,  Tbe  pilnelpai  attringenti  arc  tbe  ninend 
acMa,  alum,  llma-wator,  chalk,  teveral  preparatib.-<i  of 
topper,  line,  bron,  etc.,  catechu,  kine,  oak-bark,  galli, 
andall  vegetabU  lulelticei  containing  tannin.— E.  B. 

AUtnucmj.  Tlie  earllnt  accounti  we  have  cf 
thl*  tdenc*  are  thoee  of  Babylon,  about  3284  ».o.— 
Blain.  Tb*  iludy  of  attronemy  wat  mucb  advanced' 
In  Chahlea  under  Mabonataur  i  it  wa*  known  to  tbe 
Chlnai*  about  UOO  n.c. )  tome  lay  many  centurle* 
befon.  Lunar  acUpiee  were  ob**nr*d  at  Babylon  witb 
•se**dlng  accuracy,  7S0  b.o.  Spherical  form  of  tba 
earth,  aiid  the  tma  cauee  of  lunar  iolipaet,  taugbt  by 
Tkalu,  840  B.C.  Further  dttcoverlet  by  P$lkagor<u, 
who  taught  tbe  dn<-trlAe  of  celetUal  motiont,  and  be- 
lieved in  tbe  pill  illty  of  habitable  worldi,  600  n.o. 
Uipparcluu  begin  tili  obi  irvatlont  at  Bbodei,  167  n.c. ; 
began  hU  new  cycle  of  tbe  moon  in  148;  and  made 
gnat  advaneet  In  (be  icience,  140  ».o.  The  precetiion 
of  tha  aqulnoxM  conflrmed,  and  the  placet  and  dii- 
tance*  of  the  pUnet*  dlicovend,  by  fiokvg,  a.u,  lao. 
After  tb*  tape*  of  nearly  laven  oealuriM,  during  wblcb 
time  •itronomy  wat  neglected,  it  waa  reeumed  by  tb* 
Arabe  aUwt  800)  and  wat  afteiward  brought  into 
Kurop*  by  tha  Moon  of  Barbery  and  iS'pain,  but  not 
Mwner  than  1201,  when  they  abo  introduoed  geography. 

A,Bk 

Um  AlabeMtne  taU*  •  were  (ompoMd ism 

CbuktllntniidlflMtrononvebout UOO 

Truer 


CiMki  8nt  and  In  Mtrononr  eSou 

dMtrta*  */ lb*  umtlMu  ef  Oil  piMieUir  iKMUei  N- 


vlvid  iff  Ueperalew 

kt  mImmmi  jmilir  Mil  ,    . 

Trae  ta»i  erm*  pliaitary  motrone,  bjr  Keplur, 
Ttlttnpit  aatf  ether  tattraaMoli  mad  In  Mtrmomy 


Tfet  lalMMMi  jnilly  MiTinaed  br  Tjcbo  Braha  ebvut..  lEM 
"■  lona,  by  Kaplsr 1«U 


•bout  . 


I  oTir  tba  min'i  diak  8nt  obacrred 


IMT 
IMl 


Tk«tnMtt«fVi  ,  

by  llerMf,  HevauibarH Itn 

tiaiM  4raw*  bit  UMrMlta  Uae,  eflar  Drat* iM 

Tb*  abamtlau  at  tb*  ll(hl  of  tba  «xad  itara  dltoovand 

iNtatviirMa *f ii«*ri!,".!.'.'!!!!!!!.'.','!!.'!!!!!'.!.'.".!!!  leca 

M*P  of  lb*  UMMi  i(Mialraat««  by  Ilevellai 16T0 

Meilen  af  Ikt  tun  reund  It*  e»n  uda  proved  by  UaUay  ItTa 

IMMcrerlM  of  Uttraana um 

Newien'i  IVtw^ifc  puUlabad,  and  tha  lyatem  aa  now 

laaBbtbMontrovemMyaatoMiabad igar 

Catafiaue  ef  tba  ttaie  made  by  ITeaMtaed lam 

HatalllM  ef  laMn,  etc.,  diacorarad  by  Ceaalni ITOt 

Abimtlon  ef  the  itara  eletrly  axplilnad  by  Dr.  Bradley  ITST 

(MeitMlniiioalMeeroaadbybOniniii 1T80 

Unaoi  lad  laMHta  diaaerared  by  Haraehel,  Manh  IS  1781 

IMrantaM  I'liniiL  peMlaked  by  L*  Place ITM 

CefN  dlMCvired  by  rieial,  Jinoary  1 isoi 

nilac.lirDr.  MbMHiMirehM..... 1801 

Juaa,  by  MMdtag,  8apMmber  1 1804 

VatUmiyUlben, , laoT 

l»e^p*.byL*V*mar i«m 

VMted  Kate*  aitrMonlcil  anedltlon  to  the  South 

W*W<»b*r%  uadar  Ueutment  OllU«,  laft  BalttmoM 

July  If 1M8 

Tha  diataaat  oTtb*  flxad  itan  it  tnppoeed  to  be  400,000 
tina*  graatav  Amn  ut  than  wa  aia  from  tba  lun,  tbat 
if  t«  My,  88  nlUlmu  of  miUioM  of  mUet ;  to  tbat  » ■. 


j  v., 
1  i 


A" 


/     \ 


■s<:  r 


>ut..  IfiM 

..  leu 

loniT 

IHT 
1«U 

errid 

im 
lata 

rend 

mo 
■•u*7  in« 

'  UM 

nov 

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...  IMS 

...  im. 

^ ...  1780 

Bh  IS  im 

.       ItM 

....  ISOl 
180t 
180« 

im 

IMt 
•ath 

IMO 
400,000 
fun,  that 
that  ft  ^ 


V  j 


m:os' 


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/laaiti  iif'tJir  SWfh  Athwth  Ot^on    by  f^utiU  Maury  l/.S.N^. 


¥ 


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r^V^ 


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lidu     lUHl 


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cannon-ball  would  take  near  nine  niilliona  of  yean  to 
reach  one  of  them,  supposing  there  were  notkiog  to  hin- 
der it  from  pursuing  its  course  thither.    As  light  takes 
about  eight  minutes  and  a  quarter  to  reach  us  from  the 
sun,  it  would  be  about  six  years  in  coming  from  one 
of  tJiose  stars ;  but  the  calculations  of  later  astrono- 
mers prove  some  stars  to  bo  so  distant,  that  their  light 
must  take  centuries  before  it  can  reach  us ;  and  that  ev- 
ery particle  of  light  which  enters  our  eyes  left  the  star 
it  comes  from  three  or  four  hundred  years  ago. — Haydn. 
AUantlO  Ocean  (_Allat>ticua  Oceaniu),  one  of  the 
five  great  hydrugraphical  divisions  of  the  globe,  occu- 
pies an  immense  valley,  and  extends  from  the  Arctic 
circle  on  the  north  to  the  Antartic  circle  on  the  south, 
bounded  west  by  the  coast  of  America  to  Cape  Horn, 
and  thence  by  a  line  continued  on  the  samo  meridian 
to  the  Antarctic  circle,  and  cast  by  the  shores  of  Europe 
and  Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thence  pro- 
longed on  the  meridian  of  Cape  Agulhas  till  it  meets 
the  Antartic  circle.      Its  extreme  breadth  is  about 
5000  miles,  and  its  area  is  computed  at  26,000,000 
square  miles.     It  is  naturally  divided  into  three  por- 
tions :  1st,  the  north ;  2d,  the  south;  and,  8d,  the  in- 
tertropical Atlantic.      The  North  Sea,  or  Gorman 
Ocean,  the  Caribbean   Sea,  and  the  Irish  Sea,  form 
portions  of  the  Atlantic;  but  the  Baltic  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, which  communicate  with  the  North  Sea  by 
narrow  channels,  are  properly  considered  separate  seas. 
The  principal  gulfs  of  the  Atlantic  are,  in  Europe,  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  or  Golfe  do  Gascogne ;  in  Africa,  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea ;  in  America,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.    The  chief  islands  are,  in 
Europe,  the  British  Isles  and  Iceland ;  in  Africa,  the 
Azores,  Madeira,  and  Canary  islands,  and  the  Arohi- 
pelago  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea;  in  America,  tbeAntilles, 
Newfoundland,  and  the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence.    The  Atlantic,  with  its  branches,  drains  nearly 
the  whole  of  Europe  west  of  the  basin  of  the  Volga ; 
all  North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico ;  and  the  whole  of  South 
America  east  of  the  Andes.     Its  chief  affluents  ore,  in 
Europe,  the  Rhino,  Loire,  and  Tagus ;  in  Africa,  the 
Senegal,  Niger,  and  Congo;  and  in  North  America, 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi ;  in  South  America, 
the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La  Plata.    The  bed  of  the 
Atlantic  is  very  unequal  in  elevation,  in  some  places 
rising  in  immense  sand  banks  to  within  a  few  fathoms 
of  the  surface,  and  in  others  sinking  to  great  depths. 
In  1853,  Lieutenant  Berryman,  of  the  United  States 
navy,  ran  a  line  of  deep  sea  soundings  from  the  ii'^igh- 
borhood  of  Newfoundland  to  Ireland,  to  test  the  prac- 
ticability of  finding  a  base  for  a  submarine  telegraph 
between  America  and  Europe.   Average  depth,  12,000 
f^et.    But  farther  south.  Lieutenant  Bcrrymun  made 
a  sounding  (lat.  62°  55'  N.,  17°  5«'  W.  long.)  8i),600 
feet  in  depth,  equal  to  a  little  over  7^  miles.     Tlie 
most  extensive  banks  are  those  of  Nev,  foundland,  the 
Dogger  Bank  in  the  German  Ocean,  and  the  Agulhas 
Bank  off  the  south  point  of  Africa,    The  miuimum 
depth  on  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland  is  CO  feet.     The 
Gennan  Ocean  varies  in  depth  from  CG  to  500  feet. 

"  From  the  top  of  Chiuiborazo  to  the  bottom  of  the 
Atlantic,  at  the  deepest  place  yet  reached  by  the  plum, 
met  in  the  North  Atlantic,  the  distance,  in  a  vertical 
line,  is  nine  miles.  In  its  entire  length,  the  basin  of 
this  sea  is  a  long  trough,  separating  the  Old  World 
from  the  New,  and  extending  probably  from  pole  to 
pole.  Could  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  bo  drawn  off, 
io  as  to  expose  to  view  this  great  sea-gash,  which  sep- 
arates continents,  and  extends  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
Antartic,  it  would  present  a  scone  the  most  rugged, 
grand,  and  imposing.  The  very  ribs  of  the  solid  earth, 
with  the  foundations  of  the  sea,  would  bo  brought  to 
light,  and  we  should  have  presented  to  us  at  one  view, 
in  the  empty  cradle  of  the  ocean,  '  a  thousand  fearful 
wrecks,'  with  that  dreadful  array  of  dead  men's  skulls, 
great  anchors,  heaps  of  pearl,  and  inestimable  stones. 


which,  in  the  poet's  eye,  lie  scattered  In  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  making  it  hideous  with  sights  of  ugly  death. 
There  is  at  the  bottom  of  this  sea,  between  Capo  llac* 
in  Newfoundland  and  Capo  Clear  In  Ireland,  a  m- 
markable  iteppe,  which  Is  now  known  ai  the  tele- 
graphic plateau.  A  company  Is  now  engaged  with 
the  project  of  a  submarine  telegraph  across  tlie  Atlan- 
tic. It  is  proposed  to  carry  the  wires  along  this  pla- 
teau from  the  eastern  shoros  of  Newfoundland  to  tha 
western  shores  of  Ireland.  Tlie  great-circle  distanoa 
between  these  two  shure-llne*  is  one  thousand  six 
hundred  miles,  and  the  lea  along  the  routu  is  prob- 
ably nowhere  more  than  two  thousand  fmt  de«p,"~ 
Maury's  Geography  of  the  Sea. 

One  attempt  has  been  made  to  lay  a  cable  from  Fort 
au  Basque,  Newfoundland,  to  Cape  North,  the  extreniest 
point  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  but  owing  to  continttwl 
storm  the  cables  had  to  be  parted,  and  it  was  given  up. 
Preparations  are  now  being  made  for  another  trial. 

The  trade-winds  blow  regularly  in  Ihii  iiitcrlrupical 
portion  of  the  Atlantic ;  beyond  these  limits  the  winda 
are  variable.  The  principal  currents  of  the  Atlantic 
are,  the  equatorial  current,  which  flows  from  the  coait 
of  Africa  to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  wilh  a  velocity  of  from 
30  to  70  miUs  a  day,  and  the  Gulf  Stream,  which, 
leaving  the  Gulf  of  Slexico,  flows  through  the  Strait 
of  Florida,  with  a  velocity  of  80  miles  a  day,  and  • 
temperature  of  86°  Fahrenheit,  and  extends  with  • 
gradually  decreasing  velocity  and  diminished  tempeN 
ature  to  the  Azores.  Ininienso  numliers  of  fish  are 
found  in  the  Atlantic,  and  herring  and  cod  fishing  ara 
important  brandies  of  industry  in  the  northern  portion. 
A  great  part  of  the  surface  of  tlie  Atlantic,  between 
lat.  1C°  and  46'  N.,  and  long.  85°  and  75"  W.,  Is  cov- 
ered with  a  species  of  weed  (_Fucut  Nalatu)  of  a  beau- 
tiful green  color,  from  which  circumstance  it  Is  called 
the  Sargazo  Sea — the  sea  of  duck-weed,  or  the  grassy 
sea.  In  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  North  and  South 
Atlantic,  navigation  is  impeded  by  Imnionie  icebergs, 
which  are  floated  from  the  polar  regions,  and  although 
these  are  generally  melted  before  reaching  the  fre(|uent- 
ed  parts  of  the  ocean,  they  have  occasionally  been  met 
with  as  far  south  as  lat.  40°  45'  in  the  North  Atlantic, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  tlie  Capo  of  Good  IIopu  in  tha 
South  Atlantic  Ocean.  For  extensive  information  on 
the  navigation  and  currents  of  the  Atlantic,  lee  Mau- 
ry's Wind  and  Current  Charts  of  the  AlUmtia  Ocean, 

Plate  I.,  from  JIauky's  Geography  of  the  Sea,  "  pre. 
sents  a  map  of  tbo  depths  of  the  ocean  according  to  re- 
cent soundings.  "It  relates  exclusively  to  the  bottom 
of  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  wiiicli  lies  north  of 
10°  south.  It  is  stippled  with  four  sliades ;  the  dark- 
est (that  which  h  nearest  the  shore-line)  shows  when 
the  water  is  less  than  6000  feet  deep ;  the  next,  where 
it  is  less  than  12,000  feet ;  the  third,  wliero  it  is  lost 
than  18,000 ;  and  the  fourth,  and  lightest,  whore  it  is  not  ^^ 
over  24,000  feet  deep.  The  blank  space  south  of  Novk*' 
Scotia  and  the  Grand  Banks  includes  a  district  within 
which  very  deep  water  has  been  reported,  but  from 
casts  of  the  dcep-sca  lead  which  upon  discussion  do  not 
appear  satisfactory.  The  deepest  part  of  the  North 
Atlantic  is  probably  fomewhero  between  tlio  llurmudat 
and  the  Grand  Banks,  but  how  deep  It  may  be  yet  re- 
mains for  the  cannon-ball  and  the  souiidlng-IIno  to 
deterraiue."— Maury. 

The  Atlantic,  according  to  Humboldt,  presents  all 
the  indications  of  a  valley,  as  If  a  flow  of  eddying  wa- 
ters had  been  directed  from  toward  the  northeast,  then 
toward  the  northwest,  and  back  again  to  tlis  northeast. 
The  paralleliam  of  the  coast  north  of  10°  south  lati- 
tude, the  projecting  and  receding  angles,  the  convoxU 
(y  of  Brazil  opposite  to  the  Gulf  of  (iuiiica,  that  of 
Africa  under  the  same  parallel  with  the  Gulf  of  tha 
Antilles,  all  favor  this  apparently  speculative  view,. 
In  this  Atlantic  valley,  as  is  almost  every  whore  the 
case  in  the  configuration  of  large  continental  masnet, 
coasts  deeply  indented  and  rich  in  islands  are  situated 


7 


ATL 


'J'4 


ATT 


oppoiite  to  those  posaeasinc  •  diflficnnt  character.  The  | 
depth  of  thiii  ocean  is  extremely  various ;  and  is  enor- 
mous, both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 
Thus,  Captain  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  K.N.,  in  lat.  O"*' 
N.  long.,  10°  Ci'  Vf.,  toundej  to  the  liepth  of  8066 
bthoms  =  18,390  feot ;  Captain  Burnett,  K.N.,  in  lat, 
41°  2'  N.  long.  44°  8'  W.,  sounded  to  the  depth  of  8700 
flithoms,  or  2-.',200  feet ;  Captain  Sir  James  Uoss,  K.N., 
in  1840,  to  2677  fathoms,  or  16,06'i  feet ;  and  afterward, 
in  lat.  88°  8'  S.,  long.  D°  1'  £.,  to  4600  fathoms,  or 
27,600  feet ;  and  Captain  H.  H.  Denham,  H.M.8.  Mtr. 
aU,  has  obtained  soundini^  at  the  vast  depth  of  7706 
fisthoms=46,236  feet,  or  nbout  8}  Englivh  miles.  This, 
which  is  tlie  deepest  souml :  \\g  ever  yet  taken,  occurred 
on  80th  October,  1862,  in  la(.  8«°  40'  8.,  long.  87°  6'  W. 
Two  American  captains  have  also  obtained  soundings 
•t  the  depth  of  8100  and  8600  fathoms. 

The  intertropical  part  of  the  Atlantic  is  under  the 
influonce  of  the  trade-winds,  which  frequently  extend 
to  the  3'2d  db,^ree  of  north  or  south  latitude.  The 
winds  lilow  almost  invariably  in  tho  same  direction, 
Anm  east  to  west,  occasionally  varying  a  few  points  to 
the  north  or  south,  on  tho  north  and  south  sides  of  tho 
equator.  A  region  of  calms,  varying  from  8  to  10  de- 
grees of  latitude,  according  to  the  season  of  tlio  year, 
separates  tho  t^ro  trade-winds.  It  is,  however,  daily 
agitated  by  a  squall,  which  begins  about  two  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  and  continues  about  an  hour.  This 
region  does  not  always  occupy  the  same  part,  but  its 
central  line  may  be  placed  about  the  6th  degree  of 
north  latitude.  In  some  tracts  the  influence  of  the 
trade-winds  extends  to  the  shores,  but  in  general  it 
does  not  come  within  200  miles  of  tli'^  coasts. 

The  current  of  this  ocean  first  kno  vn  to  mariners, 
is  called  the  equinoctial,  and  is  within  the  tropics,  es- 
pecially liowing  from  tho  coast  of  Senegal  to  the  Ca- 
ribbean Sea.  Its  direction  is  constantly  from  cast  to 
west,  with  a  mean  rapidity  of  9  or  10  miles  in  24  hours. 
This  current  is  attributed  to  the  impulse  which  is  given 
to  the  surface  of  the  sea  by  tho  trade-winds.  "  In  the 
channel,"  says  Humboldt,  "which  the  Atlantic  has 
dug  between  Guiana  and  Guinea  on  the  meridian  of 
20  or  28  degrees,  and  from  tho  8th  or  9th  to  the  2d  or 
8d  degrees  of  north  latitude,  where  the  trade-winds  are 
often  interrupted  liy  winds  blowing  from  the  south  or 
south-southwest,  the  equinoctial  current  is  more  incon- 
stant in  its  direction.  The  equinoctial  current  is  felt, 
though  feebly,  even  beyond  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  in 
the  26th  and  28lh  degrees  of  latitude.  In  the  vast 
basin  of  tho  Atlantic,  at  600  or  700  leagues  fhim  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  vessels  (h>m  Europe  bound  to  the  West 
Indies  And  their  sailing  accelerated  before  they  reach 
the  torrid  zone."  In  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  motion 
of  this  current  is  much  accelerated  by  the  action  of  an- 
other current.  The  Mozambique  current,  flowing  from 
.  north  to  south,  l>etween  Mn'lagascar  and  the  eastern 
'  coast  of  Africa,  bends  to  the  nurt  h  of  the  Lagullas  bank, 
round  the  southern  point  of  Africa,  and  advances  with 
much  violence  along  its  western  coast  beyond  the  equa- 
tor to  the  island  of  St.  Thomas.  It  gives  anorthwest- 
erly  direction  to  a  portion  of  the  waters  of  the  South 
Atlantic,  causing  them  to  strike  Cape  St.  Augustin, 
and  to  follow  the  shores  of  Guiana  beyond  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco,  the  Boca  del  Drago,  and  the  coast  of 
Paria.  The  coast  of  America  presenting  a  barrier  to 
the  equinoctial  current,  its  waters  are  driven  with  ve- 
locity thrc-jgh  the  strait  formed  by  Capo  Catoche  and 
Cape  St.  Antonio,  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and,  after 
following  the  bendings  of  the  coast,  force  their  way 
back  into  the  open  sea  north  of  the' Straits  of  Bahama, 
where  it  fonns  a  warm  rapid  current,  known  as  tho 
Qulf  Stream.  At  flrst  its  rapidity  is  sometimes  as 
great  as  five  miles  an  hour,  but  it  decreases  as  it  pro- 
oeeds  toward  the  north,  at  the  same  time  that  its 
breadth  increanes  and  its  waters  lierome  cool.  Between 
Cayo  Biscaino  and  the  bank  of  Ituhama  the  breadth  is 
only  16  leagues,  while  in  the  Intitude  of  28}  degrtes  it 


is  17 ;  and  In  the  parallel  of  Charleston,  opposite 
Cape  Henlbpen,  (him  (brty  to  flfty  leagues.  "The 
waters  of  the  Mexican  Gulf  forcibly  drawn  to  north- 
east preser^'e  their  warm  temperature  to  such  a  point, 
that  in  40  and  41  degrees  of  latitude  I  found  them 
at  22-5°  cent.  (=72'4''  Fahrenheit),  when  out  of  the 
current  the  heat  of  the  ocean  at  its  surface  waa 
scarcely  17-5°  ( = 68'6°  Fahrenheit).  In  the  parallel  of 
New  York  and  Oporto,  the  temperature  of  the  Uulf 
Stream  Is  consequently  equal  to  that  of  the  seas  of  the 
tropics  in  the  18th  degree  of  latitude ;  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  parallel  of  Porto  KIco  and  the  islands  of  Capo 
Verd."— IlUMnoLUT.  In  lat.  41°  26'  and  long.  67°, 
where  it  is  nearly  80  leagues  broad,  it  turns  suddenly 
to  the  east,  and  almost  touches  the  southern  edge  of 
tho  Great  Newfoundland  Bank,  from  whence  it  con- 
tinues its  course  east  and  cast-southeast  to  the  Azores. 
On  the  meridian  of  Corvo  and  Flores,  the  most  west- 
erly islands  of  the  Azores  group,  the  breadth  of  the 
current  is  180  leagues.  From  the  Azores  it  turns  to- 
ward the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  the  island  of  Madei- 
ra, and  the  Canary  group.  There  are  several  other 
minor  currents  in  the  vast  ocean,  as  the  branch  sent 
oft'  liy  the  Gulf  Stream  before  reaching  tlie  Vestcrn 
Azores,  w  hich  at  certain  i>casonBof  the  year  flows  toward 
Ireland  and  Norway.  The  experiments  o<°  Sir  Jamea 
Koss  and  Captain  Penham  show  that,  after  the  depth 
of  200  or  800  fathoms,  the  temperatnre  of  the  Atlantic 
waters  is  stationary  at  40°  Fahrenheit,  w  hatevrr  be  the 
temperature  at  tho  surface.  This  uniformity  uf  tem- 
perature in  the  waters  of  great  oceans  renders  tlicm 
the  means  of  mitigating  tho  extremes  of  tropical  and 
polar  regions. — E.  B.  See  Qvuf  Strka.m.  See  aUo 
Kennki.i.'h  Intettigntion  of  the  CurrenU  of  the  AtlaHtic 
Ocean;  HrMnoMiT's  Cotmot,  perianal  narrative ;  and 
M.\oky's  I'hi/tical  Oeogrnphy  of  the  Sea. 

Atlaa,  in  Literature,  a  collection  of  maps,  charts, 
or  other  tables ;  so  called  from  the  fabulous  king  of 
that  name,  who  is  sometimes  represented  as  supporting 
the  world  on  his  shoulders.  The  term  was  first  used 
in  this  sense  by  the  celebrated  geographer  Mercator,  in 
the  16th  century. 

Atmometer  (from  urito^,  rnpor,  and  /lerpov,  a 
meaiart),  an  instrument  contrived  by  Professor  Leslie 
for  measuring  thr  quantity  of  moisture  exhaled  from 
any  humid  surface  in  a  given  time.  It  consists  of  a 
verj'  thin  ball  of  porous  earthen-ware,  from  one  to  three 
inches  in  diameter,  having  a  small  neck  firmly  cement- 
ed to  a  long  and  rather  wide  tube  of  glass,  to  which  is 
adapted  a  brass  cap,  with  a  narrow  collar  of  leather  to 
fit  close.  Being  filled  with  distilled  or  pure  water,  the 
waste  and  descent  of  this  column  serves  to  indicate  the 
quantity  of  evaporation  from  the  cxtenial  surface  of 
the  ball.  The  tube  is  marked  downward,  through  its 
whole  length,  by  the  point  of  a  diamond,  w  itii  divisions 
across  it,  amounting  to  from  200  to  600,  each  of  which 
corresponds  to  a  ring  of  fluid,  that,  spread  over  the 
whole  exhaling  surface,  would  form  a  film  only  one 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  gradua- 
tion is  performed  1>y  previously  sealing  one  of  the  end* 
of  the  tube  with  v  ax,  and  introducing  successive  por- 
tions of  quicksilver,  to  mark  every  20,  60,  or  100  of 
those  divisions;  being  calculated  of  equal  bulk  to 
disks  of  water,  that  have  the  surface  of  the  ball  (ex- 
clusive of  tho  neck)  for  their  base,  and  so  many  thou- 
sand parts  of  an  inch  for  their  altitude. 

Alanosphcre,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  invisible 
elastic  medium  which  surrounds  the  globe  of  tho  earth 
to  an  unknown  height.  The  fluid  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed is  usually  known  by  the  name  of  air. 

Attachment,  In  Knglith  Imv,  is  a  process  ftrom  a 
court  of  record,  awarded  by  tho  Justices  at  their  discre- 
tion, on  a  bare  suggestion,  or  on  their  own  knowledge  | 
and  is  properly  grantable  In  eases  of  oontcmpt.  It  difl'ert 
from  arrest,  in  that  he  who  arrests  a  man  carries  him 
to  a  person  uf  liiglier  power  to  bo  forthwith  disposed  of; 
but  he  that  attaches  keeps  the  party  attached,  and  pre- 


r^ 


ATT 


n 


AUC 


first  used 


/terpov,  a 
essor  Leilie 
haled  from 
unsists  of  • 
one  to  three 
nly  cement- 
to  which  is 
leather  to 
water,  the 
ndicato  the 
surface  of 
through  its 
li  divisions 
h  of  which 
over  the 
only  one 
lis  );radua- 
if  the  ends 
ssive  por- 
or  100  of 
bulk  to 
ball  (ex- 
any  thou- 


1 


I  invisible 
J  the  earth 
lit  is  com- 

Iss  fVom  • 
Jirdiscre- 
lowlcdgo) 
lltdiffert 
rrles  him 
■josed  of; 
I  and  pre- 


tents  him  In  court  at  the  day  assif^ed,  as  appeani  by 
the  words  of  the  writ.  Another  dlH'erenco  Is,  that  ar- 
rest is  only  upon  the  body  of  a  man,  whereas  an  attach- 
ment is  ofton  upon  Ids  goods.  It  is  distinguished  from 
distress  in  not  extending  to  lands,  as  the  latter  docs; 
nor  does  a  distress  touch  the  body,  as  an  attachment 
does.  Kvery  court  of  record  has  power  to  flne  and  im- 
prison for  contempt  of  its  authority. — G.  B. 

AttMT,  or  Otto  of  Rosea,  a  well-known  perfume 
of  great  strength.  Is  an  essential  oil  prepared  in  several 
parts  of  Asia  and  in  Egypt  from  the  Roxt  motchnta  and 
Jioaa  Damucena.  It  is  xaid  that  1(MI,OUO  roses  yield 
but  IHO  gr.'.i.is  of  attar.  This  oil  is  at  lirst  of  a  palish 
green  color,  which  by  keeping  b«comes  darker,  and 
presents  various  tint)  of  green,  yellow,  and  red. 

Attomey-at-law  is  one  who  is  put  in  the  place, 
•tead,  or  Uir»  of  another  (attornaliu),  to  manage  or 
conduct  his  law  proceedings  or  affairs.  The  term  is 
used  in  England  to  denote  the  class  of  legal  practition- 
ers whose  functions  are  preparatory  to  tliose  of  the 
barrister  or  advocate. 

Auotlon,  a  well-known  mode  of  selling  property, 
in  open  compi  i  ition,  to  the  highest  offerer,  by  means 
of  an  agent  or  auiiixuoer.  When  the  property  is  of 
considerable  value,  a  pur^uu  is  sometimes  appointed  to 
superintend  the  sale,  who  is  denominated  Judge  of  the 
roup,  and  acts  as  an  arbiter  in  settling  any  disputes  that 
may  arise.  The  terms  of  the  sale  may  be  regulated 
at  the  will  of  the  o.xposer,  provided  they  are  distinctly 
announced  to  the  public  twforehand.  The  party  offer- 
ing the  highest  price  is  declared  the  purchaser.  When 
formal  Articles  of  sale  are  employed,  they  commonly 
regulate  how  much  each  offer  shall  exceed  tho  pre- 
vious one;  whether  the  oxposer  shall  bo  allowed  to 
make  an  offer,  or  to  withdraw  the  subject,  if  tho  high- 
est offer  does  not  amount  to  a  given  sum ;  and  some- 
times it  is  declared  that  an  installment  of  the  price 
ihall  be  payable  instantly,  or  that  security  shall  be 
found. within  a  stipulutod  period;  failing  which  the 
immediately  preceding  oflbrer  is  preferred.  Secret 
contrivances,  either  to  raise  or  depreciate  the  price,  are 
unlawful.  The  seller  must  not  attempt  to  practice 
any  imposition  on  tho  public;  neither  are  tho  bidders 
permitted  to  adopt  any  unfair  means  to  prevent  the 
natural  operation  of  free  competition.  Where  any 
such  thing  is  detected,  not  only  is  the  sale  vitiated, 
but  reparation  is  due  to  the  ii^ured  party.  For  ex. 
•mple,  the  secret  employment  by  tho  seller  of  a  friend 
to  raise  vhe  price  by  making  a  fictitious  offer  is  fraud- 
tilent,  and  entitles  the  highest  offeror,  on  detecting  it, 
to  repudiate  the  transaction,  or  (in  case  ho  has  been 
outbidden  by  such  fictitious  part}')  to  demand  the  prop- 
erty at  tlie  price  which  ho  fairly  bf)<ircd.  On  the  other 
hand,  tlie  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  public  to  act 
fairly  is  equally  stringent.  Accordingly,  if  two  or 
more  individuals  comliine  to  withhold  their  biddings 
that  one  of  their  number  may  purchase  cheaply  in  or- 
der to  divide  among  thorn  the  expected  profit,  or  if  a 
bidder  were  to  give  money  to  others  to  induce  them  to 
refrain  from  bidding,  tho  exposor  is  entitled  to  have 
the  sale  declared  void,  on  the  ground  that  such  a  se- 
cret conildnation  or  paction  obviously  deprived  him  of 
the  advantage  which  he  expected  from  that  competi- 
tion which  a  public  sale  is  intended  to  secure. — E.  U. 
Of  SaUi  at  Auction. — "  An  auctioneer  has  not  only 
possession  of  the  goods  which  lie  is  employed  to  sell,  but 
he  has  an  interest  coupled  with  that  possession.  He  has 
a  special  property  in  the  goo<ls,  and  a  lien  upon  them 
for  the  charges  of  the  sale,  and  his  commission,  and 
the  auction  duty.  He  may  sue  tho  buyer  for  the  pur- 
chase-money, and  if  he  gives  credit  to  the  vender,  and 
makes  delivery  without  payment,  it  is  at  his  own  risk. 
If  the  auctioneer  has  notice  that  the  prop  rty  he  is 
sliout  to  sell  does  not  Mong  to  his  principal,  and  he 
sells  notwithstanding  the  notice,  ho  will  be  held  re- 
sponsible to  the  owner  for  the  amount  of  the  sale.  So, 
if  the  auctioneer  does  not  disclose  the  name  of  his  prin- 


cipal ct  the  time  of  the  sale,  the  purchaser  is  entitled 
to  look  to  him  personally  for  the  completion  of  the 
contract,  and  for  damages  on  its  non-performanco, 

"  In  tho  sale  of  real  property  at  auction,  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  description  of  it  be  accurate,  or  the 
purchaser  will  not  be  hold  to  a  performance  of  tho  con- 
tract. But  if  the  description  bo  substantially  true, 
and  be  defective  or  inaccurate  in  a  slight  degree  only, 
the  purchaser  will  be  required  to  perform  tho  contract, 
if  the  sale  be  fair  and  the  title  good.  8omo  care  and 
diligence  must  bo  exacted  of  tho  purchaser.  If  every 
nice  and  critical  objection  be  adnii8i'lblo,and  sufHclent 
to  defeat  the  sale,  it  would  greatly  impair  the  efficacy 
and  value  of  public  judicial  sales ;  and,  therefore,  if 
tho  purchaser  gets  substantially  tho  thing  fur  which 
ho  bargained,  he  may  generally  be  held  to  abide  by 
the  purchase,  with  tho  allowance  of  some  deduction 
from  the  price,  by  way  of  compensation  for  any  small 
deficiency  in  value  by  reason  of  the  variation. 

"A  bidding  at  an  auction  may  be  retracted  before 
tho  hammer  is  down.  Every  bidding  is  nothing  mora 
than  an  offer  on  one  side,  which  is  not  binding  on  either 
side  until  it  is  assented  to,  and  that  assent  is  signilied, 
on  tho  part  of  the  seller,  by  knocking  down  the  ham- 
mer. 

"  If  the  owner  employs  puffers  to  bid  for  him  at  an 
auction,  it  has  been  held  to  be  a  fraud  upon  tho  real 
bidders.  He  must  not  enhance  tho  price  by  a  person 
privately  employed  by  him  lor  that  purpose.  It  would 
be  contrary  to  good  faith,  as  persons  resort  to  an  auc- 
tion under  a  confidence  that  the  articles  set  up  for  sale 
will  bo  disposed  of  to  the  highest  real  bidder.  A  se- 
cret puffer  employed  by  the  owner  is  not  fair  bidding, 
and  is  a  fraud  upon  the  public,  nor  can  the  owner  pri- 
vately bid  npon  his  own  goods;  or  secret  dealing  on 
the  part  of  the  seller  is  deemed  fraudulent.  If  he  be 
unwilling  that  his  goods  shall  bo  sold  at  an  under 
price,  he  may  order  them  to  be  set  up  at  his  own  price 
and  not  lower,  or  ho  may  previously  declare,  as  a  con- 
dition of  the  sale,  that  he  reserves  a  bid  for  himself." 
— Kknt's  Comm.,  vol.  ii.  Lect.  XXXIX. 

Auctioneer,  a  person  who  conducts  sales  by  auc- 
tion. It  is  his  duty  to  state  the  conditions  of  salo,  to 
declare  the  respective  biddings,  and  to  terminate  the 
sale  by  knocking  down  the  thing  sold  to  the  highest 
bidder.  An  auctioneer  is  held  to  be  lawfully  author- 
ized by  the  purchaser  to  sign  a  contract  for  him,  wheth- 
er it  be  for  lands  or  goods ;  and  his  writing  down  the 
name  of  the  highest  bidder  in  his  book  is  sufficient  to 
bind  any  other  person  for  whom  the  highest  bidder 
purchased,  even  though  such  person  be  present,  pro- 
vided he  do  not  object  before  entry.  An  auctioneer 
who  declines  to  disclose  the  name  of  his  principal  at 
the  time  of  salo  makes  himself  responsible.  But  if  he 
disclose  the  name  of  his  principal,  he  ceases  to  be  re- 
sponsible, eitherfor  the  soundness  of  or  title  to  the  thing 
sold,  unless  he  have  expressly  warranted  it  on  his  own' 
responsibility.  If  an  auctioneer  pay  over  the  produce 
of  a  sale  to  his  employer,  after  receiving  notice  that 
the  goods  were  not  the  property  of  sUch  employer,  the 
real  owner  of  the  goods  may  recover  the  amount  from 
the  auctioneer.  It  has  long  been  a  common  practice 
at  certain  auctions  (called  for  that  reason  mock  auc- 
tions) to  employ  pvffert  or  mock  bidders,  to  raise  the 
value  of  the  articles  sold  by  their  apparent  competi- 
tion, and  many  questions  have  grown  out  of  it.  It 
was  long  ago  decided  that  if  the  owner  of  an  estate 
put  up  to  salo  by  auction  employ  puffers  to  bid  for  him, 
it  is  a  fraud  on  the  real  bidder,  and  the  highest  bidder 
can  not  be  compelled  to  complete  his  contract. — 6  T, 
Rep.  p.  642.  But  it  would  seem  as  if  the  mere  em- 
ployment of  puffers  under  any  circumstances  were  now 
held  to  1)0  illegal.  "  The  inclination  of  the  courts  at 
the  present  time  is,  that  a  sale  by  auction  should  lie 
conducted  in  the  most  open  and  public  manner  possi- 
ble ;  that  there  should  be  no  reser\-c  on  the  part  of  the 
seller,  and  no  collusion  on  the  jiurt  of  the  buyers. 


AUD 


76 


AU8 


Puffing  U  illegal,  accnrdiiig  to  a  late  case,  even  though 
there  be  only  one  putter ;  and  it  was  then  decided  that 
the  recognized  practice  at  auctions,  of  employing  such 
persons  to  bid  upon  the  sale  of  horses,  could  not  be 
fustained." — Wuulkycii  on  Commtrciat  taw,  p.  262. 
A  party  bidding  at  an  auction  may  retract  his  ofl'er  at 
any  time  before  the  hammer  is  down.  Anotlier  clearly 
establisheu  principle  is,  that  verbal  declarations  by  an 
auctioneer  are  not  to  be  suffered  to  control  the  printed 
conditions  of  sale ;  and  these,  when  pasted  up  under 
the  box  of  the  auctioneer,  are  held  to  be  sutticicntly 
notified  to  purchasers.  Auctioneers,  like  all  other 
•gents,  should  carefully  observe  their  instructions. 
Should  those  who  employ  them  sustain  any  damage 
through  their  carelessness  or  Inattention,  they  will  be 
responsible.  They  must  also  answer  for  the  conse- 
quences, if  they  sell  the  property  intrusted  to  their 
care  for  less  than  the  price  set  upon  it  by  the  owners, 
or  in  a  way  contrary  to  order. 

Auditor,  in  Engliih  Law,  is  an  officer  who,  by 
examining  yearly  the  accounts  of  the  under  officers, 
makes  up  a  general  book,  which  shows  the  difference 
between  their  receipts  and  charges,  and  their  several 
allowances. — E.  B. 

Aunoel  Weight,  an  ancient  balance,  prohibited 
by  several  statutes,  on  account  of  tlio  deceits  jiracticed 
by  it.  It  consisted  of  scales  hanging  on  hooks,  fast- 
ened at  each  end  of  a  beam,  wiiich  were  lifted  up  by 
the  hand.  In  many  parts  of  England  auncel  weight 
signifies  meat  sold  by  the  band,  without  scales. — E.  B. 

Aureus,  the  standard  gold  coin  of  Home,  first  struck 
A.u.c.  54U ;  current  value  =  25  denarii,  or  100  sestertii, 
equivalent  to  Us.  i\d.  Forty  aurei  were  made  from 
•  pound  of  gold ;  but  their  value  was  gradually  dimin- 
ished, till,  under  Nero,  45  were  made  from  a  pound, 
and  under  Constantine,  72. — Hussey,  on  Aiicient 
Weighta  ami  Munet/. — E.  B. 

Australasia,  in  modem  Geography,  the^A  great 
division  of  the  eartk.'s  surface.  The  learned  and  intel- 
ligent President  du  Brosses  was  the  first  writer  who 
suggested  that  all-  the  lands  and  islands  in  the  Austral 
world  should  be  divided  into  throe  portions,  corre- 
iponding  with  tlie  three  great  oceans,  the  Indian  or 
Ethiopic,  the  Atlantic,  and  tlie  Pacific;  those  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  to  the  south  of  Asia  to  be  named 
Auatralatia ;  those  in  the  two  Pacifies,  from  the  multi- 
tude of  islands,  Polynesiu  (a  name  first  used,  we  lielicve, 
by  De  Barros) ;  and  those  in  the  Atlantic  to  the  south 
of  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Gooil  Hope,  Magellan- 
•tea.  The  lost,  however,  became  unnecessary,  as  soon 
as  it  was  ascertained  that  the  Terra  Auttralia  incognita 
bad  no  existence. 

The  two  divisions  of  Anslralasia  and  Polynesia  will 
be  found  to  comprehend,  with  sufficient  convenience, 
all  those  islands  that  can  not  with  propriety  be  referred 
to  any  of  the  four  continents  of  the  globe.  Nor  is  there 
any  difficulty  in  drawing  a  line  of  separation  between 
these  two  divisions  ;  though  it  is  not  quite  so  easy  to 
mark  the  distinct  boundary  between  the  Australasian 
and  the  Asiatic  islands,  where  they  melt  into  each  other, 
about  the  ec|uator,  at  the  northwest  extremity  of  Papua 
or  New  Guinea.  In  a  geographical  view,  tlie  small 
islands  of  Waygiou,  Salwatty,  Batanta,  Mysol,  and 
Timorlaut,  ought  strictly  to  belong  to  Australasia; 
but  peopled  as  they  are  by  Asiatics  of  the  Malay  tribe, 
and  under  the  influence  of  thu  Dutch  settlements,  it 
may  perhaps  be  more  proper,  in  a  moral  and  political 
point  of  view,  to  consider  thrni  as  belonging  to  the 
Asiatic  Islands ;  more  particularly  as  we  sliall  then 
have  all  the  Australasian  population,  witli  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, marked  with  more  or  less  of  I  lie  African  or 
Negro  character.  But,  in  fact,  all  geographical  divi- 
sions are  and  must  be,  to  a  certain  degree,  arbitrary. 

If,  then,  we  tnke  the  equator  aa  the  northern  bound- 
try  from  the  132°  to  the  176°  of  east  longitude;  con- 
tinue a  line  on  the  latter  meridian  to  the  o&th  parallel 
(bending  a  little  to  take  in  New  jScBland)  for  the  east- 


em  ;  another  line  along  the  same  parallel  to  the  66th 
degree  of  east  longitude  for  the  southern  ;  and  a  slant- 
ing line  to  the  point  on  the  equator  from  which  wo  set 
out,  so  aa  to  include  Kerguelen's  Land,  and  pass  on 
the  eastern  sides  of  Timorlaut,  Ceram,  Mysol,  and  Sal- 
watty, for  the  western  boundary  ;  those  lines  will  cir- 
cumscribe the  whole  of  the  Australasian  islands.  We 
have  included  the  uninhabited  islands  of  Kerguelcn 
and  St.  Paul  and  Amsterdam,  because  they  can  not 
properly  be  considered  as  African  islands,  tliough  ar> 
ranged,  we  believe,  under  that  division  by  Pinkerton  ; 
they  are  of  less  importance  to  geography  than  to 
geology. 

Australasia,  then,  may  be  subdivided  into  the  fol- 
lowing groups  and  islands :  1.  Australia,  or  New  Hol- 
land ;  2.  Van  Diemen's  Land,  or  Tasmania ;  3.  New 
Guinea,  and  the  Louisiade  Archipelago;  4.  New  Brit- 
ian.  New  Ireland,  and  neighboring  islands ;  6.  Solo- 
mon's Islands;  6.  New  Hebrides;  7.  New  Caledonia; 
8.  New  Zealand,  and  isles  to  the  southward ;  9,  Ker- 
guelen's Islands,  or  Islands  of  Desolation;  10.  St. 
Paul  and  Amsterdam;  11.  Numerous  reefs  and  islets 
of  coral  scattered  over  the  Australasian  Sea. 

The  first  attempt  to  ex]ilorc  New  Holland,  which, 
from  its  size,  may  be  considered  as  the  fifth  continent 
of  the  earth,  is  unquestionably  due  to  the  Dutch ;  for 
although  some  part  of  the  northern  coast  may  liave 
been  seen  by  the  early  navigators  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, there  is  no  direct  testimony  in  favor  of  sucli  a  dis- 
covery. There  are  two  charts  in  the  British  Museum 
which  belonged  to  the  Ilarleian  Collection ;  one  French, 
without  date,  which  was  probably  the  original ;  and 
the  other  English,  apparently  a  copy:  the  latter  is 
dedicated  to  the  King  of  England,  and  bears  date  1642. 
In  both  of  these  charts  is  marked  down  an  extensive 
tract  of  country  to  the  southward  of  the  Moluccas,  un- 
der the  name  of  Great  Jaea,  agreeing  more  nearly  with 
the  position  and  extent  of  New  Holland  than  any  other 
land.  The  form  given  to  the  northwest  part  of  the 
coast  in  these  charts  approaches  nearest  to  the  truth ; 
a  part,  indeed,  whicli  may  have  lieen  seen  by  those 
early  navigators  who  visited  tlie  Moluccas  long  before 
the  date  of  the  English  chart.  It  is  a  singular  coinci- 
dence in  geographical  nomenclature,  that,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  French  chart,  something  like  tJlolang  Jiaif 
should  be  designated  under  the  name  of  Co§te  ilea  Her- 
baiget.  The  Abbe  Prevost,  in  the  Ilittoire  (lenerale 
del  Vvyaget,  and  the  President  de  Brosses,  in  his  Hit- 
Imre  dea  A'arigaliona  aux  Terret  Auttralet,  are  not  very 
happy  in  advancing  a  claim  in  favor  of  Paulovicr  de 
Gonneville,  a  French  captain,  to  the  discovery  of  this 
Terra  Australia  in  1504.  It  was  the  coast  of  Mada- 
gascar npon  which  Gonneville  was  driven,  as  is  evi- 
dent b}'  their  own  accounts E.  B. 

Australia,  or  New  Holland,  th  .  largest  island 
on  the  glolie,  is  situated  in  the  southern  hemisphere; 
and,  as  described  in  the  preceding  article,  forms  the 
main  land  around  whicti  are  clustered  those  groups  of 
islands  which,  in  modern  geography,  constitute  tlio 
Jijth  great  division  of  the  earth's  surface.  Wilson 
Promontory,  its  most  southern  angle,  is  in  lat.  3U'  11' 
S.,  and  Cape  York,  its  northernmost  headland,  in  lat. 
10°  4il'  S.  Its  greatest  lireadfh  from  north  to  south  is 
thus  1708  geographical  miles,  or  1966  statute  miles. 
Cape  Byron,  the  eastern  limit,  is  in  long.  153'  87'  E., 
and  Cape  Inscription,  in  112°  55'  E.,  forms  its  western- 
most point;  making  the  extreme  length  of  the  island 
from  cast  to  west  about  2C03  British  miles,  liy  an  aver- 
age breadth  of  1200  miles — a  tract  of  land  well  entitled 
to  i>e  called  a  continent,  l>y  which  name  it  is  fre<|iient- 
ly  designated  by  geograpliers.  Its  superficies  approx- 
imates to  2,6'.)0,810  square  miles.  That  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  being  3,684,841  square  miles,  we  can 
form  some  idea  of  its  extent  liy  comparison. 

The  nomenclature  and  geographical  sulidivislnns  of 
this  island-continent  have  undergone  many  altcrationa 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  territory  has  become  colo- 


AVH 


n 


AUS 


linns  of 
Irationt 
■0  colo- 


iiind.  Beftre  iny  settlement  had  been  effected  by 
the  Uritiah  government  upon  its  shores,  the  entire 
island  was  designated  Xew  Holland,  not  only  by  the 
Dutch — flrom  whom  it  received  its  name — but  on  our 
own  charts  and  maps.  The  east  coast,  tlrst  discovered 
and  explored  by  Captain  Cook  In  1770,  was  named  by 
him  New  South  Wales.  The  middle  portion  of  the  north 
coast  bore  the  name  of  Arnhem  Land,  after  the  ship  of  its 
discoverer,  Zeachen,  In  1618.  The  west  and  southwest 
coasts  were  named  in  like  manner  by  their  discoverers, 
the  Dutch  navigators,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  De 
Witt's  Land,  Endraght's  Land,  Kdel's  Land,  Lecuwin's 
Land,  and  Nuyt's  Land.  That  of  Van  Diemen's  Land 
was  given  by  Tasman  to  what  he  supposed  was  the 
toulhorn  peninsula  of  New  Holland,  but  which  was 
afterward  discovered  by  Bass  to  be  an  island.  The 
colonists  have  been  anxious  to  name  It  after  its  dis- 
coverer, but  the  government  still  retain  the  first  title. 

Since  this  great  territory  has  become  the  undisputed 
possession  of  Britain,  other  names,  with  the  exception 
just  mentioned,  have,  according  to  the  law  of  nations, 
been  substituted  for  the  old  Dutch  titles.  New  South 
Wales  is  only  applied  now  to  about  one-half  the  east 
coast  territory.  Th  j  name  of  the  entire  island  also  is 
changed  from  New  Holland  to  the  more  appropriate 
designation  of  Australia,  by  which  it  is  now  universal- 
ly recognized  and  described.  The  subdivisions  South, 
North,  and  Western  Australia  would  be  equally  proper 
if  their  boundaries  were  deHiied  according  to  the  ordi- 
nary rules  of  geographical  dissection.  But  while  the 
first  section.  South  Australia,  is  only  the  middle  por- 
tion of  the  south  coast,  trending  inland  to  the  central 
region ;  and  the  second.  North  Ausiralia,  embraces  all 
to  the  north  of  New  South  Wales ;  the  third  section. 
Western  Australia,  nearly  bisects  the  island,  leaving 
a  small  tract  of  land  between  it  and  South  Australia 
with  no  name  at  all.  A  better  division  would  be  to 
draw  a  lino  right  across  from  east  to  west  in  lat.  26° 
S. ;  thus  bisecting  the  island  near  its  intertropical  par- 
allel ;  for  although  this  line  would  bo  3^  degrees  soutli 
of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  still  the  influence  of  the 
tropical  rains  and  winds  ascend  even  higher  than  this 
parallel.  At  all  events,  this  would  bo  sufficient  for  us 
to  designate  the  northern  section  Tropical  Australia, 
and  the  southern  Temperate  Australia.  Besides  these 
two  great  meteorological  divisions,  they  could  conven- 
iently be  subdivided  into  four  political  sections  by 
drawing  another  line  from  south  to  north  in  the  me- 
ridian of  133°  30'.  Each  of  these  sections  might  then 
bo  designated,  according  to  its  direction  from  the  cen- 
tre. Southwestern  and  Northwestcn'  Austrplia,  North- 
eastern and  Southeastern  Australia.  And  tliesc,  again, 
might  be  subdivided  into  provinces,  as  the  last-named 
section  includes  tiio  three  colonics  of  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  South  Australia.  This  arrangement 
would  tend  to  simplify  an  importantt section  of  geog- 
raphy which  at  present  is  very  muchfconfused. 

If,  for  the  better  elucidation  of  ourYubject,  we  sup- 
pose these  lines  and  boundaries  to  exist  on  the  map, 
tlio  northern  or  tropical  division  lias  little  to  do  with 
the  history  of  British  colonization  in  Australia.  It  is 
within  the  temperate  zone  thot  our  colonies  have  been 
planted  and  successfully  nurtured.  And  this  tract, 
again,  separated  by  the  meridian  line  suggested,  co<i- 
Hnes  to  a  still  smaller  compass  the  subject  of  our  de- 
scription. The  group  of  colonics  which  absorb  tlio  at- 
tention of  tho  statesman  and  merchant  in  that  far- 
off^  land  are  comprised  within  the  last-nnmc<l  section, 
Soutlieastern  Australia.  On  the  west  it  is  liounded 
by  a  lino  drawn  from  the  south  coast,  in  long.  132°  E., 
meeting  another  line  drawn  at  a  right  angle  from  the 
east  coast,  in  lat.  26°  S. ;  the  southern  and  eastern 
boundaries  living  formed  by  the  coast  line ;  wliich,  by 
following  the  sinuosities  of  the  gulfs  and  bays,  com- 
prehends a  sea-board  of  nearly  2000  miles.  Again,  if 
•  line  lie  traced  on  tho  map,  commencing  about  150 
miles  inland  from  tho  head  of  Gulf  St.  Vincent,  and 


continued  more  or  less  (within  half  a  degree)  the  Mmt 
distance  from  the  coast  until  It  reaches  the  northern 
boundary-line,  the  intermediate  space  will  give  a  fair 
average  of  the  extent  of  country  at  present  colonized, 
which  may  be  estimated  in  round  nunil>er8  at  1600 
miles  long  by  160  miles  broad,  or  226,000  square  miles ; 
or  nearly  three  times  the  superficies  of  England. 

From  a  letter  written  by  Mr.  Edward  Hammond 
Ilargraves  to  the  colonial  secretary,  dated  the  3d  April, 
1861,  we  learn  that  on  the  12th  of  February  previous 
he  had  discovered  the  existence  of  gold  among  the  al- 
luvium of  the  surface  rOcks  over  a  large  area  of  crown 
lands  within  the  settled  districts  of  the  colony;  which 
subsequently  turned  out  to  be  from  20  to  30  miles  be- 
yond the  town  of  Bathurst,  an  inland  town  125  miles 
from  Sydney.     He  was  led  to  prosecute  a  search  for 
the  precious  metal  in  that  locality,  from  the  similarity 
of  that  mountainous  section  of  New  South  M'alcs  to 
the  auriferous  regions  of  California,  where  he  had  suc- 
cessfully worked  as  a  gold-digger.     Governor  Fitzroy 
was  doubtful  of  the  discovery,  f^om  the  circumstance 
of  a  similar  statement  having  been  made  to  him  two 
years  before,  by  a  Mr.  Smith,  of  Berrima,  who  allowed 
the  matter  to  drop  on  the  governor's  refusing  to  pay 
him  a  large  fixed  sum  for  the  discovery.    At  the  same 
time.  Sir  Roderick  Impey  Murchison,  president  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  other  eminent  geol- 
ogists in  the  colony  and  in  England,  had  predicted 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Australian  mountain  ran- 
ges, from  their  presenting  similar  characters,  both 
geographically  and  geologically,  to  the  gold-bearing 
mountains  in  Russia.     Partly  from  these  representa- 
tions, and  partly  from  the  general  claims  of  the  colo- 
ny to  have  its  mineral  wealth  scientifically  investi- 
gated, the  government  had  just  recently  appointed 
Mr.  Samuel  Stutchbury  as  geological  surveyor ;  and 
that  gentleman  at  this  period  was  prosecuting  his  ste- 
reoti/md  researches  not  verj'  zealously  in  the  mountain 
ranges  at  a  short  distance  from  Mr.  Hargraves.     It  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  gold  had  been  found  in  its  na- 
tive state  from  time  to  time  some  twenty  years  pre- 
vious, by  a  Sci,toh  shepherd,  who  was  known  to  have 
sold  a  large  quantity  to  the  jewelers  in  Sydney ;  hav- 
ing kept  the  secret  so  long  from  a  fear,  as  he  stated, 
that,  if  any  one  dogged  him  to  the  spot,  they  might 
murder  him.     Notwithstanding  these  and  other  evi- 
dences which  need  not  bo  specified,  no  one  had  prose- 
cuted tho  search  systematically  before  Mr.  Hargraves, 
who  demonstrated  the  fact  publicly  and  withont  delay. 
To  him,  therefore,  is  due  all  the  honor  of  the  discovery. 
After  having  intimated  to  the  government  that  he 
was  satisfied  to  leave  to  their  liberal  coi.sidcration  any 
reward  or  remuneration  they  chose  to  offer  him  for  his 
discovc.y,  ho  posted  off  to  Bathurst,  and  announced  to 
the  astounded  inhabitants  that  they  were  living  with- 
in a  doy's  journey  of  tho  richest  gold  mines  in  the 
world.     Followed  by  a  number  of  tlie  enterprising  in- 
habitants, he  led  tho  way  to  Summer-hill  Creek,  and 
there,  in  a  romantic  vale,  surrounded  by  hills,  where 
this  streamlet  wound  its  course  round  a  picturesque 
lioint  of  land,  they  dug  tho  auriferous  earth  from  the 
adjacent  bank,  washed  it  in  the  stream,  and  found  that 
tlie  soil  was  mixed  with  grains  of  gold.      These  gold 
pioneers,  wlio  thronged  to  the  first  "diggings,"  re- 
minded of  the  resemblanco  between  their  country  and 
the  ricli  gold  mines  mentioned  in  Scripture,  called  this 
spot  the  Volley  of  Ophir. 

This  was  in  May,  1851,  and  it  became  the  signol  for 
the  colonists  in  other  parts  of  tho  territory  to  be  up 
and  doing.  "  Ascertaining  the  nature  and  description 
of  the  .ocks  occurring  in  tho  vicinity  of  the  gold  de- 
posits, tliey  immediately  set  to  work  in  their  own  lo- 
calities  to  search  for  the  hidden  treMurc,  instea<l  of 
flocking  with  the  multitude  to  tho  Bathurst  mountains, 
concluding  wisely  that  these  comprised  only  a  small 
section  of  the  great  mountain  chain  where  it  existed. 
Like  the  industrious  tenants  of  an  Australian  ant-hill 


AUS 


78 


AUS 


■oddtnly  rooNd,  tli«  wbolo  coinniunity  of  bqibmcn  be- 
Mms  aliva  among  the  rock>  and  valleys  of  the  oolony. 
Stock-whip)  and  ihepherd'!  crooki  were  thrown  aiide 
for  pickaxes  and  shovels,  with  which  these  adventu- 
rous men  might  be  seen  exploring  the  gold  regions,  and 
with  what  success  is  now  well  known  to  the  world." 
The  Turon  River,  Muckerwa  Creek,  Louisa  Creek,  Me- 
roo  Creek,  Frederick's  Valley,  Abercronibie  River,  and 
Araluen  Vale,  had  their  bidden  treasures  exhunted  by 
the  industrious  diggers ;  and  in  three  months  after  the 
workings  at  Bathurst  had  l)een  set  in  operation,  the 
newly-erected  province  of  Victoria,  within  seven  weeks 
fh>m  the  time  of  her  separation  from  Mew  South  M'ales, 
disclosed  her  treasures  at  Ballarat ;  and  before  the  close 
of  the  year,  the  Mount  Alexander  gold  region  gsvo  forth 
that  astounding  yield  of  the  precious  metal,  to  which  no 
racord  of  ancient  or  modem  times  can  furnish  a  paral- 
lel. The  result  of  the  latter  discovery  not  only  arrest- 
ad  the  departure  of  the  Victoria  colonists  who  were 
flocking  to  the  BathuAt  Mountains,  but  afterward  turn- 
ad  the  tide  of  adventurer)>  from  the  parent  colony  to  the 
greater  attractions  of  the  Mount  Alexander  (;old  fields, 
which  threatened  at  one  time  to  deoiniato  Iho  popula- 
ktions  of  Sydney  and  the  surrounding  townships. 

The  gold  was  not  merely  found  in  the  scales  or  grains 
which  at  first  came  from  the  stream-washings  at  Opbir, 
but  it  was  now  dug  np  in  large  masses,  varying  from 
several  ounces  to  many  pounds  in  weight,  which  were 
familiarly  called  "  nuggets"  by  the  diggers,  after  the 
Califomian  name  given  to  these /K/itVtu  or  nodules ;  and 
in  one  instance,  at  Louisa  Creek,  lOti  lli.  weight  of  puie 
gold  was  found  by  an  aboriginal  shepherd  imbedded  In 
the  quartz  matrix,  which  formed  one  solid  block  of  about 
8  cwt.  Neither  was  it  found  in  the  beginning  at  any 
great  depth  in  the  ground,  but  in  many  localities  lay 
scattered  among  the  surface  soil,  and  hung  to  the  roots 
of  trees  and  shrubs.  So  easily  and  plentifully  did  it 
oome  to  the  hands  of  the  gold-seekers,  that  it  bore  tbe 
aspect  (and  such  was  the  belief  of  many  of  the  less-in- 
formed diggers)  of  having  only  then  sprung  into  exist- 
ence from  the  earth,  or  having  recently  been  scattered 
over  the  land  by  some  mysterious  agency,  instead  of 
carrying  along  with  it  the  geological  fact  that  its  veins 
•n  coeval  with  the  primary  rocks.  It  was  also  dis- 
covered that  the  convicts  had  built  a  bridge  across  a 
small  stream  on  tbe  Bathurst  road  to  Carcoar,  above 
tbe  gold  formation,  and  that  they  had  unconsciously 
paved  tbe  road  with  bioken  fragments  of  the  gold  quartz 
veins.  Even  in  the  streets  of  Bathurst  and  Melbourne, 
small  particles  of  the  precious  metal  were  picked  up  by 
children  in  its  natural  bed ;  and  several  farmers  and 
gardeners  found  that  they  had  been  plowing,  digging, 
sowing,  and  planting  their  grain  and  trees  in  the  aurif- 
erous soil.  A  knowledge  of  these  facts  industriously 
circulated  by  tbe  colonial  press  throughout  a  commu- 
nity possessed  of  all  the  modem  facilities  of  informa- 
tion, and  keenly  alive  to  the  speculations  of  money- 
making,  could  not  but  fairly  upset  the  minds  of  the 
people.  Consequently,  a  guld  mania  seized  every  class 
of  colonists,  to  the  temporary  suspension  of  all  indus- 
trial pursuits. 

Then  followed  a  heterogeneous  scramble  for  the  cov- 
eted ore  throughout  tbe  length  and  breadth  of  the  land, 
which  spread  like  wildfire  to  the  neighboring  colonies 
of  South  Australia,  Van  Dieinen'3  Land,  and  New  Zea- 
land, threatening  to  depopulate  them  of  their  male 
adult  inhabitants.  Masons  and  bricklayer  left  unfin- 
ished buildings  in  the  towns;  shopmen  left  their  coun- 
ters, clerks  their  desks,  sailors  their  ships ;  and  arti- 
sans of  every  description  threw  up  their  employments, 
leaving  their  masters,  and  their  wives  and  families,  to 
take  care  of  themselves.  All  other  interests  were  al>- 
Borbed  in  the  search  for  gold ;  scarcely  any  other  sub- 
ject was  talked  of  or  thought  of;  and  the  mass  of  the 
people  ran  off  to  the  "  diggings,"  as  this  new  occupa- 
tion was  termed.  Nor  did  the  mania  confine  itself  to 
the  laboring  classes,  for  "  these  were  soon  followed  by 


responsible  tradesmen,  farmers,  captains  of  vessels,  ud 
not  a  few  of  the  superior  classes ;  some  unable  to  with- 
stand the  mania  and  the  force  of  the  stream,  or  because 
they  were  really  disposed  to  venture  time  and  money 
on  the  chance ;  and  others  because  they  were,  as  em- 
ployers of  labor,  left  in  the  lurch  and  bad  no  alterna- 
tive. Cottages  became  deserted,  houses  to  let,  busi- 
ness was  at  a  stand-still,  and  even  schools  wero  closed. 
In  soma  of  the  suburbs  not  a  man  was  left,  and  the  wo- 
men were  kno.wn,  for  self-protection,  to  forget  neighbors' 
Jars,  and  to  group  together  to  keep  bouse."  Tlic  ship* 
in  the  harlwr,  also,  were  in  a  groat  measure  deserted ; 
and  instances  were  known  wliero  not  only  Tarnicrs  and 
respectable  agriculturists  found  that  the  only  thing 
they  could  do,  seeing  that  the  ]  'ople  employed  by  them 
had  deserted,  was  to  leave  tbuir  farms  and  Join  their 
men  in  the  golden  scramble ;  "  hut  even  masters  of 
vessels,  foreseeing  the  impossibility  of  maintaining  any 
control  over  their  men  otberwitie,  agreed  to  make  up 
parties  among  them,  abandon  their  vessels,  and  proceed 
with  their  crows  to  the  gold  fields."  The  (owns  and 
their  environs  being  tbus  drained  of  their  laboring  pop- 
ulations, the  prices  of  provisions  rapidly  rose.  The 
common  necessaries  of  life  roacbed  famine  prices,  which 
fell  heavily  upon  those  depending  upon  salaries.  This, 
coupled  with  tbe  high  wages  demanded  by  domestic 
servants,  forced  the  upper  classes  of  society  to  dispense 
witli  their  services,  and  the  ladies  had  to  perform  tbe 
household  drudgery.  Clerks  and  others  under  govern- 
ment, and  in  public  and  private  offices,  finding  it  im- 
possible to  make  both  ends  meet,  throw  up  their  ap- 
pointments and  rushed  to  the  diggings,  and  even  the 
constabulary  foroe  wero  leaving  tbe  towns  unprotected. 
During  this  state  of  affairs  the  govemmeot  was  obliged 
to  raise  the  salaries  of  their  ofbcers,  in  order  to  main- 
tain a  sufncient  staff  for  the  public  service,  and  to  pre- 
serve the  public  peace,  wbicli  was  becoming  sadly  dis- 
turbed. The  banks  and  mercantile  firms  wero  obliged 
also  to  follow  their  example. 

Meanwhile,  tbe  governments  of  New  South  Wale* 
and  Victoria — the  two  gold  colonies — looked  with  ap- 
prclicnsion  upon  the  probable  result  of  this  gold-revo- 
lution among  a  pastoral  population  widely  scattered 
over  the  country,  a  portion  of  which  had  but  recently 
been  reclaimed  from  the  ranks  of  the  felon.  1'herefon, 
how  to  regulate  the  prosecution  of  this  new  pursuit  on 
crown  lands  became  a  matter  of  grave  consideration. 
The  crime  and  anarchy  which  had  prevailed  in  Cali- 
fornia upon  a  similar  discover}-  brought  the  worst  fears 
to  their  recollection.  Precautionary  measures  were 
promptly  taken,  and  all  the  available  military  force — 
wliicli  was  but  slender — was  called  into  requisition,  as- 
sisted by  tbe  mounted  police  to  maintain  order  and  au- 
thority at  the  localities  where  the  diggers  were  work- 
ing ;  for  at  some  places  communities  had  assembled,  aud 
erected  tents  with  the  rapidity  of  a  military  encamp- 
ment, in  larger  numbers  than  were  to  be  found  congre- 
gated within  the  ordinary  townships  scattered  over  the 
country.  A  proclamation  was  issued  asserting  the 
right  of  the  queen's  government  to  all  gold  or  precious 
metals  found  on  crown  lands;  and  that  every  person 
digging  therein  in  search  of  it,  or  any  individuals  trad- 
ing or  otherwise  profitably  employed  at  the  diggings, 
must  take  out  a  monthly  license  and  pay  tbe  sum  of 
30<.  This  measure  was  at  once  acceptable  to  the  peo- 
ple, and  gold  commissioners  were  appointed  to  see  that 
it  was  carried  into  effect.  Notwithstanding  the  ex- 
citement which  prevailed  at  the  first  blush  of  tbe  dis- 
covery, and  during  the  subsequent  discoveries  in  other 
localities,  which  drew  from  time  to  time  one  half  of  the 
adult  male  population  to  the  gold  fields,  to  tbe  honor 
of  the  people  of  Now  South  Wales  be  it  said,  that  no 
greater  amount  of  crime  existed  in  that  colony  during 
the  following  eighteen  months  than  the  usual  average. 
"Every  where,"  as  stated  in  the  dispatches  of  his  ex- 
cellency the  governor  general,  "  the  gold-diggers  were 
loyal,  orderly,  and  obedient  to  the  laws,"  and  thpv 


AUS 


79 


AVE 


res  were 
force — 
ition,  as. 
and  nu- 
work- 
l)Ied,aiid 
cncanip- 
congre* 
over  the 
ting  the 
precious 
persoD 
als  trad- 
Iggings, 
sum  of 
the  peo- 
sec  that 
the  ex> 
the  dis- 
other 
ilfofthe 
le  honor 
that  no 
'  during 
average, 
his  eX' 
ers  were 
ind  thpy 


eheorfuUy  paid  the  fee  of  one  shilling  per  diem  for  li- 
cense to  dig.  The  tamo  flattorliiK  testimony  can  not 
be  borne  to  Victoria,  where  a  Callfonilan  state  of  an- 
archy at  one  time  threatened  the  subversion  of  ail  law 
and  order;  the  consideration  of  which  will  bo  reserved 
for  our  remarks  on  that  colony.  At  the  close  of  18M, 
six  months'  experience  had  proved  the  most  satisfac- 
tory ri'sults  as  to  the  extent  and  richness  of  tlie  gold 
deposits.  In  New  Soulli  Wales,  upward  of  20,000  li- 
censes were  issued ;  and  the  export  sheetfroni  the  port 
of  Sydney  showed  that  142,076  ounces,  valued  at  up- 
ward of  half  a  million  sterling,  had  left  the  colony, 

Dy  this  time  also,  hundreds,  nayj  thousands,  had 
ascertained  that  they  were  morally  and  physically  un- 
fit fur  the  liard  labor  and  privations  to  be  encountered 
in  the  search  for  gold.  The  consequences  were,  that 
not  only  did  many  clerks,  shopmen,  and  artisans  come 
back  to  tlieir  former  occupations  in  the  towns,  but 
much  distress  was  felt  by  those  who  had  abandoned 
lui'rativo  employments,  which  were  shut  against  tlicni 
^n  their  return  ;  in  many  instances  impaired  in  health 
^um  exposure  to  the  rigorous  climate  of  the  gold  re- 
gions, which,  it  will  be  understood,  were  lirst  worked 
ill  the  winter  season  in  Australia.  The  beneficial  ef- 
fects which  accrued  from  this  reaction  in  favor  of  the 
industrial  pursuits,  was  the  supply  of  labor  to  be  had, 
although  at  exorbitant  wages,  for  securing  the  wool- 
crop  of  the  season.  Not  only  was  this  evil  result  an- 
ticipated, among  others,  at  the  beginning  of  the  gold 
discovery,  but  at  many  sheep  and  cattle  stations  in  tlio 
far  Interior,  the  herds  and  flocks  were  abandoned  by 
their  keepers,  and  at  that  period  nothing  short  of  utter 
ruin  to  the  pastoral  interests  of  tiie  colony  hovered  over 
the  slieep-farmers  and  graziers.  In  one  instance,  an 
enterprising  squatter  drove  2ti,000  sheep  into  one  flock, 
which  he  shepherded  with  four  trusty  shepherds  on 
horseback.  Mere,  as  in  other  matters,  the  gentlemen 
settlers  and  capitalists  in  the  colony  proved  themselves 
equal  to  the  oevosiuu  ;  and  much  consideration  is  due 
to  them  for  assisting  to  maintain  the  peace  and  pros- 
perity of  the  community,  by  their  untiring  energy  and 
support  given  to  the  government,  under  such  an  un- 
looked-for event.  And  where  at  first  the  squatters 
anticipated  a  ruinous  reduction  in  the  value  of  their 
stock,  the  demand  for  sheep  and  cattle  to  supply  the 
diggers  with  food  raised  the  prices  50  per  cent.,  while 
the  land-hold>!rs  found  new  purchasers  of  land  among 
the  judicious  and  fortunate  gold-diggerp.  So  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1851,  the  prospects  of  New  South 
Wule':,  on  all  sides,  were  most  cheering,  where  the  re- 
verse was  expected.  The  .population  had  increased 
to  li)7,168  persons.  The  value  of  the  imports  was 
£1,563,931,  and  the  exports  £1,796,912.  Thus  the 
average  of  the  former,  for  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  In  the  colony,  would  be  nt  the  rate  of  £8  per 
head,  and  of  the  latter  about  £9.  The  ordinary  rev- 
enue =  £277,728 ;  and  the  crown  revenue  £208,969 ;  the 
coin  In  the  colony  £560,766 ;  and  the  paper  currency 
£118,541.  The  wool  exported  =  15,269,3171b.,  valued 
at  £828,342;  the  tallow  86,460  cwt.,  vjiluc  £114,168; 
and  the  gold  144,120  oz.  17  dwt,  value  £468,336. 
Shipping  inwards  553  vessels,  of  153,002  tons,  having 
7955  men  on  board ;  and  the  shipping  outwards  563 
vessels  of  139,020  tons,  having  7988  men. 

From  the  circumstance  of  gold  mines  having  been 
hitherto  only  worked  by  barbarous  or  despotic  nations, 
who,  from  ignorance  or  policy,  shrouded  their  opera- 
tions in  mystery,  our  information  regarding  the  extent 
and  character  of  gold-bearing  rocks  throughout  the 
world  was  of  a  very  meagre  description.  Tlie  "great 
fact,"  therefore,  of  gold  regions  being  discovered,  and 
worked  within  territories  claimed  by  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  In  California  and  Australia,  is  not  only  an  event 
of  considerable  interest  in  the  history  of  the  world,  but 
has  proved  of  the  utmost  benefit  to  science  in  determ- 
ining this  important  qaestion  in  auriferous  geology. 
Not  only  was  the  gold  found  in  the  ordinary  quartz 


matrix,  but  the  reports  of  the  geological  surreyon  of 
Now  South  Wnles  have  shown  that  It  Is  found  in  gran- 
ite at  Araiiien  Creek ;  schistose  or  slaty  rocks  at  tha 
Turon ;  and  In  Frederick's  Valley  specimens  were  found 
of  a  ferruginous  rock,  beautifully  dotted  with  globulei 
of  gold.    It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  gold  li  the  most 
universally  distributed  of  metals  among  the  unstratl- 
fled  rocks,  although  found  In  greatest  abundance  in  the 
quartz  veins  which  intersect  these  rocks.     However, 
the  great  bulk  of  the  gold  found  in  Australia  has  not 
licen  extracted  from  its  matrices,  but  dug  out  of  the 
gold  alluvium  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  these 
rocks.     Hence  the  gold  mines  in  this  region  have  re- 
ceived the  familiar  name  of  "  diggings,"  firom  the  prac- 
tical-minded Americans  and  Australians.     What  are 
termed  the  "  gold  diggings,"  then,  are  spots  where  the 
miners  have  to  dig  pits  trom  10  to  15  feet  deep  before 
they  arrive  at  the  substratum  of  auriferous  soil  in  which 
the  particles  of  gold  are  found  loosely  imbedded.   This 
subsoil  is  generally  a  stiflf  blue  clay  mixed  with  sand 
and  gravel,  and  the  pure  metal  appears  in  scales  about 
the  size  and  shape  of  bran  or  sfaellings ;  and  in  rounded 
grains  and  lumps  varying  f^om  the  size  of  a  pin's  head 
to  the  form  and  dimensions  of  flints  as  they  occur  Id 
chalk,  a  specimen  of  which,  when  gilded,  gives  exact- 
ly the  appearance  presented  by  these  gold  nodules,  or, 
as  they  are  now  universally  called,  "  nuggets."    'fhia 
alluvium  is  collected  and  mixed  freely  with  water  in  a 
tub,  which  is  termed  "  puddling."    After  having  un- 
dergone two  or  three  washings,  the  residue  is  thrown 
into  a  cradle  or  wooden  trough,  with  "cleets"  or  ribs 
fastened  across  the  bottom,  and  a  sieve  at  the  head, 
which  prevents  large  stones  or  lumps  of  gold  fVom  past- 
ing through.     The  cradle  is  then  rocked  and  tilted  to 
and  fro,  while  water  is  poured  over  the  auriferous  sand 
or  gravel.    When  sufliciently  washed,  the  residue  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cradle  is  examined  carefully,  the 
large  pieces,  if  any,  picked  out,  and  the  scales  of  gold 
separated  from  any  foreign  substance  by  further  wash- 
ing in  a  tin  dish,  until  it  is  perfectly  clean ;  after  which  a 
magnet  is  passed  through  it  to  extract  small  particles  of 
iron-sand,  which  are  frer  lently  mingled  with  it.    Upon 
reaching  the  " washing-stulT,"  as  the  "diggers"  tei-m  the 
gold  alluvium,  they  sometimes  see  the  nuggets  dotting 
the  earth,  and  collected  into  heaps  or  "  pockets,"  which 
they  extract  easily  with  the  point  of  a  knife.    This 
pleasing  operation  to  the  fortunate  digger  is  called 
"  nuggeting,"    Again,  a  similar  process  is  followed  at 
some  localities  where  the  grains  of  gold  lie  on  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  technically  termed  "  forsicking."— 
E,  B,     See  Adklaide. 

Average,  a  term  used  in  maritime  commerce  to  sig- 
nify damages  or  expenses  resulting  ft-om  the  accidents 
of  navigation.  Average  is  cither  general  or  pailicu- 
lar.  General  average  arises  when  sacrilices  have  been 
advisedly  made,  or  expenditures  incurred,  with  a  view 
to  the  preservation  of  the  ship,  cargo,  and  freight  from 
the  cfTects  of  some  extraordinary  peril ;  and  it  implies 
a  subsequent  contribution  from  all  the  parties  con- 
cerned, in  order  to  make  good  the  loss  which  one  or 
more  of  them  may  thus  have  sustained.  Particular 
average  signifies  the  damage  or  partial  loss  happening 
to  the  ship,  goods,  or  freight,  in  consequence  of  some 
fortuitous  or  unavoidable  accident;  and  it  is  borne  by 
the  individual  owners  of  the  articles  damaged,  or  by 
their  insurers. 

It  may  be  here  remarked,  that  the  term  Average 
was  originally  used  to  signify  what  is  now  distin- 
guished as  General  Average,  Tho  expression  "  Par- 
ticular Average"  is  not  strictly  accurate,  as  it  does  not, 
ill  its  current  acceptation,  imply  the  idea  of  an  equal- 
king  contribution,  as  originally  signified  by  the  word 
Average,  It  has,  nevertheless,  been  generally  adopt- 
ed, and  is  now  fully  recognized  as  the  distinctive  ex- 
pression for  damage  or  partial  loss  falling  on  (onie  one 
of  the  individuals  interested  in  a  sea  adventure.  Av- 
erage Is  said  by  Cowcii  to  he  derived  from  tlie  Latin 


AYE 


to 


AVE 


wont  a^iraffUim,  (nm  tiM  v«rb  avtrmft,  te  tntf.  It* 
■appotai  it  to  hftv*  Inmr  lniriMlH««wt  titln  <.<<mtin«re«  l» 
•bow  the  praporllAii  to  Im  |Mtl4  fi/  •ttof)'  miin  ai-curilInK 
to  bii  goods  earrUd.  Ummn\m>,  m  lh«  o^\m1  hanil,  At- 
liTci  it  from  tli«  fiwnvb  Awtrir,  ur  tb«  (i«rmM  ftittn, 

•  port ;  it  IwiiiK  •  iwRtrllwilon  p»M  Utt  h«vtnf(  nooi» 
ttvuglu  tnfeig  to  port,— IH  Jur*  JUuHHnm,  lib,  )l.  cap. 
tU.  mcu  1, 

Ptitj/  Amrag*  contlM«4  «f  e«rt«in  fWl«tl  rbaffiM  tot 
pilotage*,  ligliu4iiiM,  ale,  wbt«b  w*r«  appofllnnert  ome- 
tbinl  to  th«  tbip  aii4  twwHMrd*  l«  (h«  eargo )  Mt  tiila 
i*  DOW  (uparacdad  hy  Iba  ngfmmmt  that  ilia  CrHght 
ptTable  for  ibii  cargo  nhall  iHiluibi  all  nw^  ««ip«n«*«; 
anil  tba  tarm  ha*,  ciWM«|M<intly,  \miiunm  «ibwl«l«. 

Altbough  nutbiiig  am  \m  umm  nlmplo  tbaii  the  fan- 
damantal  princlpla  urg«ii«ral  av«raK«^irblch  la,  that 
■  loaa  Incurred  by  on*  imrtx  for  llta  mUutiUgn  of  aav- 
aral  aball  Im  mada  good  In  iMui(al>l«  |*r«itM»r(lotia  i>y  all 
who  ar*  bauatttad  by  it—yat  IR<i  apptk'ailMl  of  tbia  prin- 
dpla  to  the  varM  and  (io>nplk'«t«4  «aa«'a  which  arlae 
in  tb*  eouna  of  mtrllima  ««mtH#r««  bn*  occaaioned 
man;-  diversitie*  of  u«aga  in  dilfar«ttt  nmntrlca,  and 
•van  in  tha  aama  country  at  Mlturmit  ptifiitiU.  With- 
out enlariug  nii  to  wi4«  a  liatd  a*  >ha  dlM'i*Ml<;n  of  tlie«« 
divanlti**  wjubl  opan  uf>,  w«  aball  Mtd«avnr  lo  preaent 

•  brief  •umnwry  of  tb*  W  dng  ;rrin«^|fl«»  «hlch  have 
bean  ettablUbad  in  (iraat  Hritain,  l«t  Haa((«  ur  bj  legal 
deciiioni,  in  conriai-'tion  wilb  Iba  UHljm^t. 

All  general  averttge  to****  m»v  tm  divld«d  Into  two 
principal  ciataea  t  1.  Hmr^flMt  of  part  of  lh«  cargo  and 
flight,  or  of  part  of  (bit  tbip,  Utt  i)w  g«in«<f«l  l>«neflt ; 
2.  kxlraoniinary  ejrfit.tuJilurtt,  InitHfrvd  with  the  aamc 
oljeci.  Under  tba  ltr»t  of  lUnm  itit»m»  w«  ahall  begin 
by  noticing  the  a<;ta  wbitli  involve  aarrllkea  otpnti  qf 
the  cargo  aHd/rtighl,  WIdwi  a  puift  of  the  cargo  u 
thrown  overboard  \orjMfimuui,  aa  It  I*  Irrmed)  lo  aave 
the  ibip  from  foundurlng  iti  a  *liiftn,  or  to  float  her 
when  itrHndcdior  to  fa<!ili(al«  b«r  AwoiMi  frotn  an  ene- 
my, the  lot*  of  tlia  good*  and  of  tb«  frcright  attached  to 
them  niuat  be  mada  good  l«y  fkv»»iiit  (jottirlbittlon.  In 
like  manner,  if  good*  Im  dama^  in  th«  ahip  liy  oncn- 
ing  the  bat^bea  In  ordar  to  ntUtl  a  j«tliM/n,  or  \ry  Ix-lng 
brought  upon  deck  for  that  jiMr|«ow,  (h«i  damage  forms 

•  general  average  charge,  Hut  If  |(ood*)«ttiaoned  have 
bMn  originally  atowad,  on  iltek,  no  f^ontrilmtlon  can  be 
demanded  for  them,  unlvM  tltwy  »t«  m  carrimi  accord- 
ing to  the  common  usage  ummurm  of  trade  on  the 
voyage  for  which  tbey  were  »Mt>pmi, 

If,  Instead  of  liehig  thrown  ov#rlaMtrd,  lh«  good*  arc 
put  into  boat*  or  llgbttfrs,  and  io«t  Of  damaged  l^efore 
reaching  the  shore,  such  los*  la  ri<Karrl«d  ««  a  virtual 
Jettison,  and  gives  a  claim  to  avt^a^^n  contrlliullon. 
The  same  rulii  appiia*  to  damago  0('<i<l'med  liy  the 
good*  being  put  asliora  on  nii«d<}y  grotin>t.  aa  may  aotnc- 
times  happen,  wtien  tiMre  is  no  Mimr  place  where  they 
can  be  landed.  Wut  wban  tba  gooda  have  l>e«n  con- 
veyed to  a  place  of  ordinary  safely,  tttny  itre  no  longer 
at  the  risk  of  the  gemrnl  in(«r«st )  and  ahould  they  be 
damaged  by  lire  or  utb«r  aecbbinta,  Ihn  Unm  mnat  be 
borne  by  the  iiuUMiuil  pro|«fi«t<»ra  or  (»y  (heir  inaurcra. 
The  loss  of  cum,  sal'.,  guano,  or  ftinillar  goMla,  arlaing 
from  their  lieing  pumped  up  of  baib<d  oot  with  (he  wa- 
ter in  (he  vessel,  can  not  M  r<!«(;v«r«d  iiy  avwMgo  con- 
tribution. If,  In  cona«<|u«it<'o  of  tlwra  Ming  no  other 
mean*  of  raising  money  at  a  forMgn  fiort,  a  part  of  the 
cargo  be  sold  for  the  imrpoao  of  re  pairing  io§iieti  or  do- 
fraying  expense*  which  »im  tlt«Aiw<lvm  at  (he  natnrc 
of  general  average,  the  U)»»  arising  frmn  tite  aate  givca 
a  claim  to  contribution,  Hut  If  (bn  ftnida  are  required 
for  the  pur^Hwe  of  rupairfng  parliculfir  average  losses 
on  the  ship,  or  of  dafraying  tbo  ordinary  exf^cnsea  of 
the  navigation,  tba  h>i>«  muat  Ui  initm  by  the  ship- 
owner. 

Tlie  damage  done  to  tha  t!»ri(»  l>y  m«en*  of  water 
thrown  down  (he  babL'lwt*  to  aatlngnlah  an  accidental 
flre,  c-  by  acnHlIng  the  ship  fur  that  Irtifpoae,  la  ex- 
cluded, iy  usage,  from  gaiwrat  •varagtf,    Thia  point 


a««m«  to  have  never  yet  been  settled  by  any  legal  de> 
cialon  {  and  the  usage  referred  to  la  considered  by  tev- 
eral  writer*  of  high  authority  to  bo  at  variance  with 
aound  principle.  It  la  sometimes  defended  on  the 
ground  that  the  damage  In  question  is  itamdarg  and 
inciilenlal,  and  not  primary  and  intmiional.  But  tbia 
reaaon  aeem*  somewhat  fanciful  for  the  purposes  of 
equity,  and  is,  bcaidea,  Inconaistent  with  the  analogy 
of  certain  other  cases,  where  an  opposite  principle  1* 
practically  recognized  ;  as,  for  Instance,  in  the  case  of 
gooda  incidentally  damaged  in  eS'ccling  a  Jettison  of 
other  gooda.  The  amount  of  compensation  (o  be  made 
for  goods  sacrllTced  by  general  average  acta  ia  determ- 
ined by  the  net  market  price  they  would  have  pro- 
duced on  arrival  at  the  port  of  deatination  had  they 
not  been  aacriflced ;  but  under  deduction  of  the  freight 
attaching  to  them  (which  is  made  good  to  the  ship- 
owners), and  of  the  charges  for  duties  and  landing  ex- 
penses which  are  aaved. 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  the  general  average  acts 
which  involve  aacriflces  of  part  of  the  Mp  vr  her  uuile- 
riali.  The  same  principles  which  regulate  the  case  of 
goods  thrown  overboard  apply  also  to  the  jettison  of 
the  ahip'a  chaina,  anchora,  hawaera,  spars,  boats,  or 
other  stores.  But  if  water-casks  are  stowed  on  deck, 
or  If  chains  and  hawsers  are  carried  on  deck  when  tlio 
vessel  Is  not  near  the  land,  so  as  to  render  it  necessary 
that  they  should  be  so  carried,  the  loss  arising  from 
the  jettison  of  these  articles  falls  on  the  ship-owner ; 
and  if  boats  are  jettisoned  in  consequence  of  their 
having  been  broken  adrift  from  their  fastenings  on 
deck  by  the  force  of  the  sea,  they  are  excluded  from 
general  average,  and  are  charged  to  particular  aver- 
age on  the  ship.  The  damage  done  to  the  ship  by 
cutting  holes  to  cfTcct  a  jettison  of  the  cargo,  or  to  pour 
down  water  to  extinguish  a  Are,  or  by  scuttling  her 
for  that  purpose,  is  allowed  as  a  general  average  charge. 
The  damage  arising  from  cutting  or  knocking  away  a 
portion  of  the  ship's  bulwarks  in  order  to  prevent  the 
deck  from  being  flooded  in  a  storm,  is  compensated  in 
the  same  manner.  AVhen  sails  or  masts  are  cut  away 
In  order  to  righten  a  ship  which  has  been  thrown  un 
her  l)eam-ends,  or  to  prevent  her  fium  driving  on  a 
lee  shore,  the  loss  la  made  good  by  average  contribu- 
tion ;  but  if  the  object  in  cutting  away  a  sail  or  spar  be 
merely  to  save  a  matt,  the  loss  is  not  made  good  in 
general  average. 

It  frequently  happens  that  masts  or  yards  are  sprung 
and  carried  away  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  are  left 
entangled  in  the  rigging,  or  hanging  over  the  ship's 
side  in  what  is  termed  "  a  state  of  wreck  ;"  in  these 
circumstances  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  them  away, 
with  the  sails  and  rigging  attached,  and  lo  throw  the 
whole  overboard,  otherwise  they  would  impede  the 
navigation,  ind  endanger  the  ship  and  cargo.  On  this 
ground  it  is  held  by  some  authorities  that  the  loss 
caused  by  the  act  of  cutting  them  away  should  be  made 
good  by  average  -jontribution.  But  this  act  is  the 
direct  consequence  of  the  previou.^  accident,  which 
places  these  articles  in  a  situation  where  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  save  them  without  imperiling  the  shi]),  cargo, 
and  lives.  It  would  not  be  reasonable  to  imperil  these 
for  such  a  purpose;  wliencc  it  follows  that  tlie  dis- 
placed articles  are  already  rirtualbj  irrecoverably  lost 
by  means  of  the  original  accident,  before  the  loss  U  act- 
ually consummated  by  cutting  them  away.  And  as 
the  general  interest  ought  not  to  be  endangered  for  the 
purpose  of  attempting  to  save  these  articles,  so  neither 
should  it  be  implicated  in  the  loss  resulting  from  the 
only  remaining  alternative  of  clearing  them  away. 
This  loss  is  accordingly  excluded,  by  the  usage  of  (his 
country,  from  average  contribution.  On  ti,e  same 
principle,  no  contribution  can  be  demanded  for  any  ar- 
ticles which  are  sacrificed  as  having  themselves  be- 
come, through  previous  accident,  the  immediate  cause 
of  danger  to  the  whole  interest. 

The  loss  of  sails  or  spars,  in  consequence  of  carr}-ing 


AYE 


81 


AVB 


carrjing 


•  pNu  of  eaayai  to  avoid  ■  l«»«hori,  or  to  oicape  from 
■a  «namy,  U  not  tbo  lulOoet  of  goneral  »varag«  In  thli 
country ;  nolthar  ii  the  damago  luffiired  by  tho  ihlp 
from  Mraming,  undar  any  inch  aztraordinary  pr«M  of 
tail.  Whan  aaohon  and  cablet  are  illppad  from  in 
ordar  to  woric  a  vaual  olTa  le«-ihor«,  or  to  avoid  oolli- 
ilon  with  aiiothar  iblp,  the  loaa  is  made  good  by  aver- 
age contribution ;  bat  if  the  cable  it  slipped  in  ordar 
that  the  vesiel  may  join  convoy,  or  beoauia  the  anchor 
haa  beoome  hoolted  to  some  o^ect  at  the  bottom  and 
ean  not  be  raised,  the  loss  is  borne  by  the  shipowner. 
When  sails,  ropes,  or  other  materials  are  out  op  and 
used  at  sea  for  tho  purpose  of  stopping  leaks  or  to  rig 
jurymasts,  or  when  the  common  benefit  requires  that 
they  should  be  applied  to  some  purpose  for  which  they 
were  not  originally  Intended,  the  loss  is  made  good  in 
fienoral  average.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  case  of 
bawsers,  cables,  anchors,  sails,  or  boats,  lost  or  dam- 
aged in  attempting  to  force  olT  a  stranded  vessel  from 
the  shore.  The  damage  sustained  in  defending  a  ship 
against  a  pirate  or  an  enemy  is  not  the  sulfject  of  gen- 
•ral  average ;  it  it  treated  as  particular  average  on 
the  ship. 

It  has  been  much  debated  by  writers  on  maritime 
law,  whether  the  voluntary  stranding  of  a  ship,  in  or- 
der to  prevent  her  from  foundering,  should  be  treated 
as  a  general  or  as  a  particular  average  lots.     In  the 
United  States  It  has  been  settled,  by  judicial  decision, 
that  the  lost  in  question  constitutes  a  general  average 
claim ;  but  the  opposite  doctrine  is  acted  upon  in  tho 
usage  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  point  has  never  been 
raised  Itefore  the  courts  of  law.     It  appears  to  us  that 
Iba  argument  greatly  preponderates  against  the  rule 
adopted  in  the  United  States,  and  in  favor  of  the  usage 
tatablithed  in  Great  Britain.    The  only  reason  for  re- 
garding this  loss  as  the  subject  of  general  average  it, 
that  it  originates  in  the  intentional  act  of  running  the 
ship  aground,  for  the  preservation,  as  far  as  possible, 
of  the  whole  interest  concerned.    But  it  can  seldom  be 
Icnown  beforehand  how  the  diflferent  interests  at  stake 
will  be  specially  aflhcted  by  the  act  in  question ;  wheth- 
er, for  instance,  the  damage  to  the  cargo  may  not  be 
more  serious  than  the  damage  to  the  ship,  or  vice  vtrta. 
Thus  no  particular  part  of  the  interest  can  be  said  to 
be  intentionally  sacriflced  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole ; 
the  intention,  indeed,  is  not  to  sacriAce  any  one  part,  but 
to  place  the  whole  Interest  in' a  situation  of  less  peril 
than  it  would  otherwise  have  been  in.    What  particu- 
lar damages  may  thereafter  ensue  to  either  ship  or  car- 
go will  depend,  in  each  case,  on  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances entirely  accidental  in  their  character,  and  there- 
fore in  no  proper  sense  the  subject  of  previous  inten- 
tion.   The  same  rule,  therefore,  which  excludes  from 
general  average  accidental  damages  in  all  other  cases 
ought  to  exclude  them  in  this  case  also.     Moreover, 
when  the  alternatives  are,  either  that  the  vessel  be  left 
to  founder,  or  that  she  be  run  ashore  with  a  chance  of 
preservation,  there  can  really  l>e  no  room  for  choice, 
or,  at  all  events,  the  elements  of  will  and  intention  are 
entirely  subordinate  in  the  part  they  must  play  under 
the  pressure  of  the  existing  circumstances ;  and  in  this 
view  the  stranding  Is  as  truly  inevitable  as  if  it  had 
been  caused  by  the  force  of  the  winds  and  waves  alone. 
But,  even  were  these  reasons  less  weighty  than  we 
hold  them  to  be,  a  serious  practical  objection  might  be 
urged  against  tho  doctrine  that  voluntary  stranding 
should  be  a  general  average  loss,  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  in  most  cases  bo  impossible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  damages  received   by  tho  ship  and  cargo 
prior  to  the  stranding,  and  those  sustained  after  or  in 
consequence  of  it.     It  is  needless  to  remark,  that  be- 
fore a  ship  can  be  in  such  imminent  danger  of  found- 
ering as  to  render  it  necessary  to  run  her  ashore,  she 
must  be  presumed  to  have  sustained  a  ver}'  considera- 
ble amount  of  damage ;  and  the  probability  is,  that  the 
cargo  alto  will  have  suffered  to  a  corresponding  ex- 
tent     .  p  to  this  point  these  damages  are  confessedly 
F 


ptirrteulor  artraga  |  and  ware  it  held  that  Iha  damaftt 
after  the  stranding  ware  the  tul^t  o( general  avstaft, 
It  would,  of  course,  ba  neeattary  to  distinguish  the  sep- 
arate damagai  that  belonged  to  each.  Ilul  In  avery 
case  these  diflkrent  damages  would  exist  In  varying 
proportions,  yet  always  so  Ineorporatad  together  that 
justice  could  never  have  a  more  parplasing  task  than 
that  of  diterimlnating  batwaen  than.  No  ganaral 
rule  could  be  applied  that  would  msai  the  widely  dlf> 
ferent  eirenmitaneas  of  aaeb  particular  cat*  |  and  tha 
arbitrary  method  of  aiUiistmsnt  that  would  alon*  ba 
poestbia  would  doubttosa  glva  risa  to  endless  dissatis- 
faction and  dispute.  On  tbt  ground  of  sxpadienoy, 
therefore,  as  well  as  on  that  of  principle,  tho  usage  now 
established  in  Qrsat  Britain  ought  to  be  maintained, 
notwithstanding  tha  bigb  antboritiaa  by  whom  tbs  op- 
posite haa  been  eountenanoed. 

The  aaiount  of  general  avsraga  loftason  tho  ship  it 
compensated  by  allowing  to  tbs  owners  the  cost  of^re* 
pairs,  or  of  new  materials  In  place  ot  those  sacriflced, 
sulfjeet  to  the  deduction  of  one-third  for  tba  dlffrrenco 
of  value  between  old  and  new ;  bat  no  deduction  Is 
made  from  the  cost  of  new  anchors,  and  only  one-sixth 
is  deducted  from  the  cost  of  new  ebain  cabMS,  If  the 
ship  ba  on  her  flrst  voyage  (which  la  bald  to  include 
the  homeward  as  well  •§  m»  outward  pusags),  tba  re- 
pairs and  new  materials  are  allowed  til  Aill. 

Kitraordinary  k'ipendtiurtt.-'Whtn  a  ship  Is  obliged 
to  put  into  a  port  of  refuge,  in  coasequenoe  of  damage 
received  In  the  course  of  tba  voyage,  tba  usage  In  Great 
Briuin  is  to  allow  as  general  average  all  the  charge* 
connected  with  the  entrance  of  tba  vestal  into  tba  port, 
and  with  tha  landing  and  wartbeosliig  of  the  cargo, 
when  this  Is  necessary  to  admit  of  the  ship  l>elng  re- 
paired. Thus  the  expanses  vt  pilotage  or  other  assist- 
ance into  the  port,  tlie  harbor  does  ami  similar  charges, 
the  coats  of  the  protest  tal>iin  by  tha  matter  and  crew, 
and  of  the  survsy  held  to  asiwrtain  woeiiwr  um  cargo 
requires  to  be  discharged,  together  with  the  charges 
for  landing  the  cargo  and  cwivsying  It  to  a  warthouse 
or  other  place  of  tabty,  are  all  made  good  at  general 
average.  The  eotts  of  repairing  tba  tbip  rre  charged 
to  general  average  only  in  to  far  at  lb*  repairs  may 
refer  to  damages  which  ar*  thsniselve*  tho  propor  sub- 
ject of  general  contribution,  if  the  damages  are  of 
the  nature  of  particular  average,  a*  It  mure  usually 
the  case,  they  are  charged  accordingly ;  or  if  they  pro- 
ceed from  "  wear  and  tear,"  they  are  stated  agalntt  the 
ship-owner. 

The  warehouse  rent  for  the  cargo  at  a  port  of  mfugo, 
and  any  expends  connected  with  it*  preservation, 
form  tpecial  chargei  agklnst  that  particular  interest, 
and  are  borne  by  the  proprietor*  of  the  goodt,  or  by 
their  Insurers.  When  goods  aro  Insured  "free  from 
particular  average,  unless  tlia  ship  Iw  stranded,"  It  Is 
necessary.  If  the  ship  has  nut  lieen  stranded,  to  distin- 
guish the  charges  for  wamhoute  rent  and  Are  insur- 
ance from  those  Incurred  in  connection  with  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  goods  from  tli«  ofTvcls  of  damage ;  tho 
underwriters  being  llublo  fur  the  furmor,  but  not  fur 
the  latter.  Tho  expenses  of  rcsltipplng  the  cargo,  and 
the  pilotage  or  other  charges  tmlwiird,  are  liome  by  the 
freight.  Ii  the  entire  cargo  can  not  be  taken  nn  board 
again,  from  tho  want,  at  the  port  of  refuge,  of  the  usual 
facilities  for  stowing  it,  the  loss  or  expanses  resulting 
from  the  exclusion  of  part  of  it  are  not  treated.  In  Great 
Britain,  as  the  subject  of  general  contribution.  The 
wages  and  provisions  of  the  tnast«r  and  crow  during 
the  period  of  detention  at  a  port  of  refuge  are  not  a<l- 
mitted  as  a  charge  against  general  average ;  It  being 
held  that  the  ship-ownrr  Is  Iwiurid  to  keep  a  competent 
crew  on  board  the  ship  from  the  commencement  to  the 
end  of  the  voyage  at  tils  own  expense, 

Tho  charges  for  agency  at  a  port  of  refuge  are 

brought  against  the  general  average,  even  though 

they  may  have  Ijeen  originally  mad*  in  tho  form  of 

;  leparate  charges  against  tba  tblp  and  cargo  raipect* 


AVE 


«t 


AVE 


Wdjr.  CommlukMis  on  mont.v  advaoMd,  attrillm* 
InUrMt  on  bottomry  and  rttpomltntut,  and  th*  Um  en 
•xchaoKei,  etc.,  are  ap|iortlou«d  relaUvdy  to  tha  groM 
•unit  (spanded  on  Iwiulf  of  tha  tavaral  intaratla  con> 


Tha  axpantat  Incnntd  In  gattlng  •  ttrandtd  iMp 
off  tha  ground,  tha  hlra  of  axtnt  handa  to  pump  a  iblp 
which  haa  apruog  •  leak,  and  tha  lumt  awarded  for 
Mlvaga  or  for  othar  tervlccs  rendered  to  tha  ihlp  and 
cargo  under  any  extraordinary  emergenciaf,  are  com> 
paniated  by  average  contribution.  But  thii  rule  ap- 
pile*  only  to  tho  aartraaMW  auielanoa  that  may  have 
been  obtained  j  the  crew  iielng  luund  to  do  their  ut> 
mott  in  tho  lervicn  of  the  Mp  on  all  occaiioni,  without 
uxtttt  remuneration  for  what  they  might  conaider  ex. 
traordinary  exerliona  on  tlieir  part.  Tha  coata  of  ra> 
claiming  the  ship  and  cargo  after  having  been  cap. 
tured,  are  allowed  a«  general  average  chargea ;  and 
although  ronton  to  an  enemy  is  prohibited  in  Great 
Britain  by  legal  enactment,  it  leemi  that  thi*  do«i 
not  apply  to  the  ooae  of  money  or  goods  given  up  by 
way  of  compoaitlon  to  piratea  for  the  lilieration  of  the 
(hip  and  cargo,  and  that  thit  would  alio  form  •  lub- 
Ject  of  average  contribution. 

When  the  ahip  and  cargo  arrive  at  the  port  o/  dot. 
tination,  it  ia  unneceisary,  in  ordinaiy  cawa,  to  dittin. 
guiah,  In  the  a<\juatment  of  the  ,(enoral  average,  lie- 
tween  the  losaes  which  have  ariaen  from  Mtcr\ficti,  anil 
thoae  which  have  reaulled  from  expendilurtt  fur  the  com. 
■ion  benefit.  But  if  the  xhip  and  cargo  ahould  bo  loat 
before  reaching  their  destination,  no  contribution  la  due 
fbr  thegooda  or  ahlp's  maleriali  which  may  have  been 
murffktd  at  a  former  stage  of  the  voyage,  the  ownara 
being  In  no  worse  position  than  their  coalvenlarart. 

Font  or  AY  AvtBAoa  BoxD. 


Wherea«  the ,  whereof  ■■  — —  Is 

having  on  board  a  cai|o  of  morchandlaa,  tailed  tnm  tlia 

port  of .  bound  for ,  and,  In  tlie  due  proteeu. 

tlon  of  her  tatd  rnj»ge, 

bj  which  meant  certain  lotaea  and  eipenaes  hava  Itaan 
Incurred,  and  other  eipenaaa  hereafter  ma^  be  Incurred, 
In  eonaeqneiiea  thereof,  obleh  (aeaording  to  tha  utate  of 
tbia  port)  oonatltnta  a  general  average,  to  be  apportluned 
on  the  aald  veatel,  her  carnlnga  aa  freight,  and  the  aargo 
on  board. 

Now  we,  the  aubtcrthara,  ownera,  ahlppert,  contlKnce>, 
agenta,  or  attnmajra  of  certain  eonalgnaaa  of  aald  veawt 
or  eargo,  do  hsrabjr,  for  ounHlres,  our  exeeulon,  and  ad- 
minlatratart,  aeverallf  and  raapectlvel^,  hut  not  Jointly, 
or  one  for  the  others,  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with 

■  ,  that  the  loaa  and  damage  albreaaid,  and 

other  Ineldcntal  expenaes  thereon,  aa  aliall  be  niaito  to 
appear  to  be  due  from  ua,  the  aubacrlbera  to  them  prea- 
ent>,  either  aa  owners,  ahlppera,  eonttgneca,  agenta,  or 
atlombjra  of  certain  eonalgneea  of  aald  veaael  or  eargo, 
•hall  be  paid  by  na  reapectlTelr,  necordlng  to  our  parte 
or  aharea  In  the  said  veawl,  her  eamlnga  aa  flight,  and 
her  aald  cargo,  aa  ahall  belong  or  be  ronalgnad  to  ua,  or 
aliall  belong  or  be  conalgned  to  any  person  or  i  craona 
with  whom  we  are  copartners,  agenta,  or  attornnjrii,  or  In 
anv  manner  concenied  therein ;  provided  audi  losaea  and 
expenaea  afonmentloned  be  Bt«ted  and  apportioned  by 
John  Robertaon  and  Itichnrd  Wllllama  Inauranee  bro- 
kers, In  accordance  with  the  eatahllahed  iiaage  and  laos 
of  this  State  In  ainillar  caae*.  And  for  the  true  perform- 
ance of  all  and  aingular  In  the  premiaei  we  do  acverally 
hereby  bind  ouraelvea,  and  our  reapectlre  heira,  exacu- 

tora,  and  admlnlatrators,  to  .:.  i  aald In  the 

penal  aum  of dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United 

Btatea. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  to  theee  presents  set  our 

hand,  In  the  city  of  New  York,  this dny  of  — — , 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 


—  IVreck  md  Salvage,  by  Martin,  18SS. 

The  contribution  for  general  average  losses  is  regu. 
lated  by  the  values  of  the  respective  interests  for  the 
benefit  of  which  they  were  incurred.  The  practical 
rale  adopted,  In  all  ordinar}'  catea,  is  to  estimate  tho 
•hip,  cargo,  and  tteiffht,  and  their  tut  voliiaa  to  thalr 


ownara,  in  lh«  data  In  which  tbay  arrtra  at  iha  port 
of  dasllnatloa,  6nI  kelmlkg  in  lk4H  wtlun  ik*  tasw 
wuuU  gaodfiir  nuirifU'U,  anii  lo  aiaaaa  the  contribution 
accordingly.  The  aaaaialty  for  thelndlng  the  amount 
of  companiAtloii  mwU  for  saarllleaa  In  the  valuatlona 
on  whioh  tha  oontribnllnn  la  ehargad,  arlaea  from  tha 
principle  that  all  lbs  parties  Interested  In  ths  adven- 
ture slwuld  bear  tha  ultimata  loss  In  exact  proportion 
to  their  raapaeliva  Inlerssta,  which  would  not  be  tha 
caaa  if  the  owners  of  the  arllclaa  sarrlHcsd  were  to  ra- 
cover  llmlr  full  value  wltbot't  Iielng  themselves  assest- 
sd  for  Ih  lose  lhara«M  in  Iha  sania  manner  as  their  co> 
adventurers, 

Tha  contributory  v.tliM  tA  the  th\p  Is  accordingly  her 
actual  value  lu  her  owner  in  lh«  state  In  which  aha  ar- 
rives, wlialher  damaged  of  otherwise.  Including  tha 
•um  mode  gao<l  In  Ilia  grnaral  average  for  any  saorl- 
lices  which  may  have  Uieu  made  of  port  of  the  ship  or 
her  inaterlalt. 

Tha  value  of  Iha  rargo  for  conlrlbullon  <•  Its  net 
market  valui  on  arrival,  after  deducllrg  th"  iihargea 
Incurred  for  freight,  duly,  and  landing  i>x.'(  <sea,  but 
withtut  deducting  Ilia  rnata  of  Insurance  or  commia. 
•Ion.  If  goods  be  damaged,  thay  contrliiut.:  .nly  ac- 
cording Ui  Ihalr  deteriorated  value  |  and  If  special 
charges  have  been  Incurred  on  the  cargo  at  a  port  of 
refuge  (as  fur  waretwuM  rent,  ate.),  the  amount  of  Iheie 
chargea  la  deducted,  The  sum  charged  lo  general 
average  fur  guiHls  •arrillce'l  !•  of  course  added  to  tho 
valuation.  All  gu<Hla  carried  In  tho  ship  for  the  pur- 
po>a  uf  traffic  must  >'«  Included  In  the  valuation  of  the 
cargo ;  but  Ilia  wi-aring  ipparel,  or  pcraonal  cftects, 
of  tha  passengers  and  crew  are  exempted  fttim  contrl. 
butlon. 

The  valua  of  ihe/fiii'ii  for  contribution  ia  the  sum 
racslved  by  Iha  sbl>  <•  ner  on  the  completion  of  the 
voyage  for  the  carrl*{i'  uf  l!i«  cargo,  after  deducting 
from  that  aum  the  wages  then  Ju«,  the  port  charges  at 
the  place  ul  dettlnatlon,  and  the  special  charges  agalnat 
the  freight  which  may  have  been  Inrnrrcd  at  a  port  of 
refuge,  consisting  of  tha  cosl«  of  rfshlpplng  the  cargo, 
and  of  outward  pilotage,  etc,  Tha  provisions  for  the 
voyage  are  not  ditducted,  as  thrse  are  held  lo  have 
formed  par;  ot  tha  original  value  of  the  ihip.  if  the 
(height  baa  lieen  paid  In  advance,  It  forms  ^art  of  tha 
value  of  Ilia  i/midt,  and,  cons««|uentty,  does  not  con. 
tributo  as  a  separata  interest.  It  has  lieen  decided 
that  when  •  vessel  baa  been  originally  chartered  for  a 
double  voyage,  tha  whutti  freight  <o  be  earned  under 
the  charl«r.parly  muet  contribute  at  lie  net  value, 
after  deductliig  ibe  wages  and  other  charges  which 
must  be  Incurred  In  enming  it.  The  cflM't  of  tlils  rule 
Is  to  render  tlwt  freight  attaching  lo  the  return  voyage, 
aa  well  as  that  aliacbing  l«  the  voyage  outward,  liable 
to  contribute  for  average  losses  arising  In  tli«  course 
of  the  outward  pasaiga)  a  result  the  equity  of  which 
ia  not  alwaya  y*ty  apparent. 

An  aiUustment  of  gennrii  average  made  at  any  for- 
eign port  where  tha  voyage  may  terminate.  If  proved 
to  bo  In  vonforatily  with  tho  law  and  usage  of  the  coun- 
tr}-  lo  which  such  foreign  port  belongs,  Is  binding  on 
all  the  partlca  Interested  as  coadventurera,  although 
iliey  niay  Ixi  sulijectaof  lireat  Britain,  and  although  the 
ailjuatiiieiii  may  tie  ina<le  on  prlnclptes  different  from 
thoHo  aaiictiuiiud  by  iiw  laws  or  usages  of  Britain.  The 
reason  fur  this  rule  It,  that  the  parlies  engaging  in  the 
adventure  are  held  lo  absent  l«  tha  known  maritime 
usage  according  U>  which  the  general  average  li  ad- 
Juaud  ( n  ihe  arrival  of  the  ihlp  and  gooda  at  tha  port 
of  deatiiiallon, 

Tha  sulijeet  of  general  average  Is  only  Incidentally 
connected  with  that  of  marine  Insurance,  being  itself 
a  diatinct  branch  uf  maritime  law.  But  tho  su^ect  of 
particular  average  arises  directly  out  of  tho  contract 
of  Insurance,  and  will  therefore  lie  Imat  considered  In 
connection  with  It.-K,  B,     Htt  IdsOKAXCK,  Mamikk. 

Hqj  /iirllier  inforniillcin  with  respect  to  the  subject 


AVO 


88 


BAH 


I  for  a 

undw 

valiw, 

irhich 
ill  Tula 
royago, 

,  liable 

oouTie 
ohkh 

,ny  for- 
provcd 
e  coun- 
llng  on 
thongh 
ugh the 
t  froni 
n.   The 

in  the 
aritlme 

liad- 
,h*port 

Icntallr 
•  itaeir 
^ect  of 

lontract 
end  in 

lAnlKK. 

leuliject 


of  average,  Ihe  reader  ii  referred  to  the  famoui  work 
of  M.  Valix,  Cumtnrntairt  ikr  rOnlimnauce  <U  ItMl, 
tome  II.  p.  U'-IUH,  tid.  1700 ;  to  Kmkuiuum,  TraiU  dtt 
AuurvMcu,  tome  I.  p.  60fM)74;  I'aiik  im  JiuuruHct, 
chap.  vll. ;  H.insiiAM.  on  Ituuranct,  IhioIi  I.  chap.  xli. 
feet.  7;  Stkvkm'h  A^nyon  Attragt;  Uknkckic  on  Me 
PriniHj)ltt  ijf  InJemnitj/  in  Itarine  lntura»ct;  Lord 
'Tb!itkhiib:«'h  oxcollent  work  on  the  Law  qfShippmg, 
part  III.  chap.  vUi.  etc. ;  Aii.Noiii.ii  on  Afarine  fiuur- 
once;  U\u.\  »n  Oeneral  Avtraijt ;  Kimr'a  C'oinmttUa- 
ria,  Loct.  XLVII. 

AvolrdupoU,  the  name  of  a  weight,  derived  fh)m 
the  Kriinch,  mm/'  ja  puite — to  have  wtiyht.  Iti  pound 
contaiiia  16  ounces,  in  Uiatlnctlon  to  the  pound  Troy, 
whU'h  has  only  1'^.  Thie  weight  it  need  for  grocerlea 
and  all  other  coinmodltiei,  except  the  precloui  metala, 
goniK,  and  mrdicinca.  The  pound  avoirdupola  con- 
talna  70tK)  graini  Troy,  and  ia  cqaal  to  86326  Paria 
graln<,<-E.  1).    iSee  WKioHTa  and  MicAiuuEa. 


ABlmath,  lu  Attromimf,  an  arc  of  the  horiion  ta> 
tcrcupteii  betwenn  the  nit'H'llan  of  the  place  anU  tiM 
vertical  circle  pauing  througli  the  centre  uf  the  olfject. 
Atimuth,  MuymlicM,  an  arc  of  the  horizon  inter- 
cepted between  the  vertical  circle  paaeing  through  the 
centre  of  any  heavenly  body  and  the  luagnetlual  m»- 
ridiin.  AumiUk  Vomfmu,  an  Inatrumenl  for  llnding 
either  the  uiagnetlcal  ailinuth  or  amplitude  of  a  Ikeav- 
enly  ol^ect.  Aximnlh  CircUt,  called  alao  (uimuthi  or 
virtiail  circUi,  are  great  circles  of  the  aphere  luleraect* 
ing  each  other  In  the  zenith  and  nadir,  and  cutting  the 
horizon  at  right  anglen.  Un  theao  are  reckoned  the 
height  of  the  atari  and  that  of  the  lun  when  not  In  the 
meridian.— E.  U. 

Asos*  Ships  {tnm  the  Spanlah  ruojue,  mtrcurj/), 
voaaela  which  carried  quickailvcr  to  the  Hpanleh  Weat 
Indloa,  In  order  to  extract  the  allverfrom  the  mlnet  of 
Mexico  and  I'eru.  They  carried  no  goods  escept  fbr 
the  king.— £.  B. 


r 


B. 


Bacon  and  Bwim.  The  former  Is  made  (Vnm  the 
llded  ai>d  lielly  of  the  pig,  and  the  luttcr  from  its  hind 
lega.  The  process  of  cuiing  may  lie  efl'ccted  inditTor- 
ently  by  the  employment  of  salt  or  sugar,  orl>oth;  but 
the  tlrit  is  by  fur  the  most  commonly  used.  After 
being  impregnated  with  salt  or  augar,  and  allowed  to 
remiiin  a  certain  time  In  the  aolutinn,  the  bacon  and 
hnma  nro  taken  out,  dried,  and  smoked.  In  tho  Stutca 
of  Uhlo,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Maryland,  etc., 
large  quuntitica  of  l>acun  are  put  up  yearly  for  do- 
mestic use  and  for  export.  The  counties  of  England 
most  celebrated  for  bacon  and  hams  ..re  York,  Hants, 
Derka,  and  Wilta.  Ireland  producea  great  quantities 
of  both ;  but  they  are  coanio,  not  ao  well  cured  as  the 
English,  and  much  lower  priced.  Of  the  Scotdi  coun- 
ties, Diimfrios,  Wigtown,  and  Kirkcudbright  are  cel- 
ebrated fur  tho  excellence  of  the'.*  bacon  and  hams,  ->f 
which  they  export  large  quantities,  principally  to  the 
Liverpool  and  I^ndun  markotn. — See  I'ouK  Tkadk. 

BaggagO,  in  Commrrcml  yarii/dtion,  tho  wearing 
apparel  and  other  arti'^les  destined  for  tho  sole  use  or 
accommodation  of  the  crews  and  passengers  of  ships. 

Bahamaa,  or  Luoayaa,  a  chain  of  islands  stretch- 
ing in  a  northwesterly  direction  from  the  north  coast 
of  St.  Domingo  to  that  of  East  Florida,  and  lying  l>c- 
twcen  lat.  21"  and  27°  80'  N.,  ond  :ong.  70""  30'  and 
70"  5'  W.  The  group  is  componed  of  alwut  twenty  in- 
habited islands,  and  an  innnense  number  of  islets  and 
rocks.  The  principal  islands  in  thia  group  .are  New 
Providonce,  containing  tho  capital,  Nassau ;  Harbor 
Island;  Abaco;  Eleuthorn ;  Hencaguo,  or  Inagua; 
Mayaguana ;  St.  Salvador ;  Andros  Island ;  Groat 
Dahuma;  Kugged 'stand ;  Rum  Cay ;  Exuma;  Long 
Island ;  Crooked  Island ;  Long  Car ;  Watling's  Isl- 
and ;  tho  Cuicos,  the  Turks,  and  the  Berry  Islands. 

Most  of  these  islands  aro  situated  on  those  remarka- 
ble flats  called  the  Great  and  Little  Bahama  Bunks,  and 
some  out  ofaoundings  in  *he  ocean.  The  Great  Bahama 
Bank  is  alwut  30o  miles  in  length  from  northwest  to 
southeast,  and  100  in  breadth ;  and  the  Little  Bahama 
la  almut  130  miles  long.  Tho  jslanda  have,  in  general, 
a  very  flat  appearance,  and  many  of  them  consist  nf 
mere  bleak  and  barren  rocks.  The  soil  in  those  that 
are  under  cultivation  is  thin,  nnd  generally  light  and 
sandy,  but  interspersed  with  occaaional  patches  of 
rich  mould.  The  substratum,  so  far  as  has  Iwen  ascer- 
tained, consists  of  calcareous  rocks,  composed  of  coral, 
shcUa,  madrepores,  and  marine  deposits  hardened  into 
solid  masses.  The  surface  stratum  is  a  combination  of 
debris  of  tho  rock,  cxuvio),  and  decayed  regotable 
matter.  Though  destitute  of  running  streams,  they 
possess  numerous  springs ;  and  by  digging  wells  down 
to  the  level  of  the  sea,  fresh  water  is  obtained.  The 
productions  of  tho  soil  comprehend  all  tho  varieties  of 


a  tropical  climate.  Prov.'alons— such  as  maiw,  yarns, 
sweet  potatoes,  etc. ;  and  fruits,  as  oranges,  lemons, 
pino-apples,  cocoa-nuts,  etc. — are  produced  in  abund' 
unce.  'i'here  are  also  several  species  of  valuable  trees ; 
as  muliogany,  fustic,  lignum  vitot,  cedars,  pines,  etc. 
Oxen,  sheep,  horses,  poultry,  and  a  great  variety  of 
live  stock  aro  reared ;  and  wild  hogs  and  ngoutis  ar« 
found  In  the  woods.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
birds,  and  tho  shores  and  creeks  nliound  in  turtle  and 
excellent  fish  of  various  kinds.  In  the  most  southerly 
islands  are  salt  ponds  of  great  value. — E.  B. 

Bahla,  or  Bt  Salvador,  a  large  city  (formerly  a 
capital)  of  Brazil,  contiguous  to  ('ape  St.  Antonio, 
which  forms  the  right  or  eastern  side  of  tho  entrance 
of  the  noble  bay  of 'Todos  os  Santos,  or  All-Saints,  170 
miles  southwest  of  Sergipo  del  Rey,  and  about  860  miles 
north-northeast  of  Rio  Janeiro.  Population  100,000, 
one-third  uf  whom  are  whites,  one-third  muluttocs,  and 
tho  rest  blacks.  According  to  the  ni)servatluns  of  M. 
Roussin,  the  light-house  on  the  Cape  Is  In  lat.  13°  0'  30" 
S.,  long.  88°  80'  \V.  Tho  opposite  side  of  the  entrance 
to  the  bay  is  formed  by  the  Island  of  Taporica,  distant 
from  Cape  St.  Antonio  about  2^  leagues.  But  a  bank 
along  the  shore  uf  the  island  narrows  tho  passage  for 
large  ships  to  about  two-thirds  this  distance.  Another 
bunl.  runs  south-southwest  from  Cape  St.  Antonio  al)OUt 
li  leaguca.  Withtn,  the  buy  expands  into  a  capacious 
basin,  having  several  islands  and  harbors,  the  depth 
of  water  vnrying  from  8  and  10  to  40  futhoms,  uff'ord. 
ing  ample  accommodation  and  secure  anchorage  for  the 
largest  fleets.  There  is  another  entrance  to  the  Imy, 
partly  exhibited  In  the  annexed  plun,  on  the  west  aide 
of  the  I.  land  of  Taporica  ;  but  it  iy  narrow,  intricate, 
and  at  iiH  mouth  has  not  more  tliun  six  feet  water. 
Several  rivers  have  their  omlKiiichui'e  in  the  bay,  which 
genoral'y  uccuaions  a  current  to  set  iicra  the  north  end 
of  the  island  by  Cape  St.  Antonio. 

Bit".  IMKMT  or  SuoAB  ExeoBTzn  raoM  Bauia  nnBino  rna 
\'SAa  I.S&C-'.'iT,  ooMrABED  wiTU  Tua  KxroBT  ron  tub 

■EAB  1858 -"60. 


Wlilthar  •xportfld. 


(Jliamu'l,  llrUUIi... 

Uroat  Brttnin 

Uerinany 

Ilnlland 

France 

Sweden  

Portugal 

Gibraltar 

(ienoa , 

Trieste  

United  States 

Klver  Platte 

Paolflo 

Africa 


Total,  lS6fl-M. 
Total,  18l«-'n6. 


11,023 
4,801t 
1,019 
40B 
484 
8,2.18 
T,8»9 
2,402 

i'"73 

1,401 

4 


:13,S8» 
.T>,316 


1811 

138 

10 

1 

1 

403 
180 

i 

2 

8 

1S4 


Vila 

SOS 


B«m. 


41,440 
70,414 
10,283 

1,TT5 
14,110 

1,707 
12,628 
21,813 

»,6!M) 

1,'«4 
13,144 

»,n»7 

1,683 
00 


203,284 
170,178 


Ton. 


10,I(KI 
8,100 
1,390 

ass 

],n2(l 

6,tB8 

8,154 

«B7 

(180 

1,840 

TiB 

16 

8 


80,651 
83,100 


WMt,  tttUtA  In  IM*.  br  ThoMu  <!•  Smm,  «nt 
Mfitala  gtiMnl  of  Bmiil,  ii  on*  of  Um  moot  Important 
WimwUI  cItWi  In  Anwriea. 

In  IDM,  Ih*  irailt  uf  Hulila  wm  very  axtwolri : 
■boat  60,000  tunt  duk*',  III,IM)0  Imri  (INI  poumla)  onl- 
ton;  10,000  (lOKi  (101)  poundi)  coAW;  with  hlilta,  to- 
Immco,  rice,  <ty«  Mid  fuwy  woodi,  bullion,  ttc.  Tho 
ia^rt*  eouUt  priBclpnUjr  of  eottoai  and  othar  mano- 


fbctnrad  (whIi,  ptovlaiont,  flcnr,  Mit,  ••lt-6ih,  io«|», 
wlnti,  ato. 

/'/<».— Tba  rahjolnad  wooil-cat  coavaya  a  claarar 
and  liatlar  Idaa  of  thli  calaliratail  t>a)r  than  cnnid  ba 
acqulrad  from  any  dcioriptlnn.  It  la  copltd,  wllhnat 
any  raduetlon,  from  a  ravlud  adillon  of  a  Portuipiua 
chart  puhlUhad  liv  Mr.  Ijiuria,  and  axklblta  tha  banka, 
aonadlnga,  au-horaga,  ate. 


r.l  .1  ) 


«■■ 
fc- 
»»■ 
♦»■ 
>!, 

airi 

Mfftrmea  to  Iht  flan.— A,  Cape,  llcht-bouM,  and  fort  of  M.  Anionloi  B,  Fort  do  Mar;  C,  Foit  St.  Phllipi  D,  Tapagtppe ; 
E,  Ida  do  Mar;  F,  Ida  do*  Fradoa;  O,  Fort  BeaumoBL    The  figurea  in  the  plan  are  the  wundlngB  In  hthoma. 


Balllffi,  or  Sherifb,  are  aald  to  be  of  Saxon  origin. 
London  had  ita  lAtre-me  prior  to  the  Conqueat,  and 
thia  officer  waa  generally  appointed  (br  countiea  in  En- 
gland in  1079.  SherilTa  were  appointed  in  Dublin, 
under  the  name  of  baUiffe,  In  1808 ;  and  the  name  waa 
changed  to  sheriflT,  1648.  There  are  atill  aome  places 
where  the  chief  roagiatrate  is  callnl  bail!  AT,  aa  the  high 
bailifT  of  Weatminster.  The  term  num-builiff  ia  a  cor- 
mptlon  of  bound'iMiiliif,  every  bailift'  being  obliged  to 
enter  into  bonds  of  security  for  his  good  belUvior. — 

BLACKarOKE. 

Balaohong,  an  article  consisting  of  pounded  or 
braised  flsh.  It  consists  principally  of  small  tish, 
with  prawns  and  shrimps.  Though  fetid  and  offena- 
ive  to  strangers,  this  substance,  used  aa  a  condiment 
to  rice,  ia  laiigely  consumed  in  all  the  countries  to  the 
•aat  of  Bengal,  Including  the  southern  provinces  of 
China,  and  tha  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 


Its  distribution  gives  rise  to  an  extensive  internal 
traffic. 

BalUlCS,  a  machine  for  ascertaining  the  weight 
of  substances.  There  are  several  Idnds  of  balances,  as 
the  common  balance  or  scales,  tlie  steelyard,  the  Dan- 
ish or  Swedish  balance,  the  Chinese  balance,  the  hy- 
drostatic balance,  etc.  Tlie  same  name  is  also  given 
to  certain  liinds  of  apparatus  for  measuring  or  compar- 
ing the  intensities  of  very  small  forces,  us  the  balance 
of  torsion,  the  electric  balance,  etc. — K.  I).  Jialauce, 
In  accounts,  is  the  term  used  to  express  the  difference 
between  the  debtor  and  creditor  sides  of  an  account. 

Balance  of  Trade,  in  Commerce,  is  the  term  com- 
monly used  to  express  the  difference  between  the  val- 
ue of  the  exports  ft-om  and  imports 'into  a  country. 
The  balance  is  said  to  be  favoralde  when  the  value  of 
the  exports  exceeds  that  of  the  imports,  and  unfavor- 
able when  the  value  of  the  imports  exceeds  that  of  tha 


BAL 


H 


BAl 


•sport*.  Aeconllnii  l<i  llif  <  nalom-hnuM  ratnmi,  th* 
nflti'iiU  valu*  of  Itw  u<|iuri»  rroiii  <ir«iit  llrluln,  *s- 
oluiivt  al  'iirnlgn  Dii'l  rnniiiwrrUl  nieri'han>IU«,  ilur- 
InK  Um  y»t  andlim  nU  f  Januacr,  IMX,  MnounUtl 
to  X10'i,lliO,M7 ;  mill  tli.  ifflcld  viUuo  of  tko  InipvrU 
durlnK  iho  y<i«r  li*il  Imreuoil  k)  i;a4, 177,U<'i ;  Imv- 
lugafttvoralilolNiluictiorXSTiNO-i.Uft.  Tb* stulnmant 
«f  »  fttvornItU  bitliini'*  wm  furinorly  rcKanlwl  an  mi  ul>- 
Jrcl  uf  lh«  itreti»'i  liii|mrUnf».  I'lui  pnidiiuii  iiirUU, 
In  cunM<4U«nc«  of  tlmtr  Mnn  uuA  u  niuiiay ,  wan  lung 
oonaldfrad  ai  thn  only  ml  wttllh  that  coulil  Im  pua- 
•uiMil  «Ub«r  by  Inillviiluida  or  natkunt.  Anil  »•  luun- 
U let  without  mine*  iHiuld  act  obtain  nupplla*  of  than 
DMlula  axcapt  In  axchantta  for  axportcd  proilULti,  It 
waa  I'unrliiiind  that  If  tha  value  of  tho  commudltlea 
•xporlfd  vxciwdad  Ihatof  thoaa  lm|Kirte<l,  the  lialaneo 
would  hava  to  Ik  paid  by  tha  iniixirtatlun  of  an  ci|ulv- 
alrnt  amount  uf  the  precluua  inetala ;  and  converaely. 
A  vary  larite  proportion  uf  the  realraiula  lin|M>aad  on 
the  frndoin  uf  I'ninineri'o  during  tlia  laat  two  rantu- 
rira  grew  nut  nf  thia  notion.  The  iinportanco  of  hav- 
ing a  favorable  balance  being  univeraally  admitted, 
•vary  alTort  waa  made  to  attain  it ;  and  nothing  aeemed 
■o  effactual  for  thia  purpoaa  aa  tha  devlaing  of  aKhemea 
lo  facilitate  exjiurtation,  and  to  hinder  the  iin|Mirtatlon 
of  alinoat  all  pruducta,  axcapt  gulil  and  ailver,  that 
wars  not  intended  fur  future  exportation.  Hut  the 
gradual  though  alow  growth  of  auundor  opininna  with 
rea|M!ct  to  the  nature  and  functliina  uf  money,  ahowed 
the  futility  of  a  ayatein  of  policy  having  auch  oltjecta 
In  view.  It  la  now  conceded  on  all  handa  that  gold 
•nd  ailver  are  nothing  but  cominMlltliia,  and  that  it 
la  In  no  raapect  neceaaary  to  interfere,  either  to  en- 
courage their  Importation  or  to  prevent  their  exporta- 
tion. The  truth  la,  iiowever,  that  tha  theory  uf  the 
b.ilance  of  trade  la  not  erroneoua  merely  from  the  (klae 
notiona  which  ita  advocates  entertained  with  rcapect 
to  money,  but  prnceeda  on  radically  miatiikcn  viewa 
aa  to  the  nature  of  commerce.  The  mmle  In  which 
the  Italance  la  naually  catlmated  ia,  indeed,  completely 
fallacioua.  Suppoaing,  however,  that  it  could  !«  cor- 
rectly aacertalnad,  It  would  b*  found,  in  oppoaltion  to 
the  common  opinion,  that  the  Importa  Into  every  com- 
mercial country  generally  exceed  the  exports;  and 
that  when  a  balance  la  formed,  It  la  only  In  certain 
eaaea,  and  thoae  of  rare  occurrence,  that  It  la  canceled 
by  a  bullion  payment. 

He  proper  buaineas  of  tha  wboleanle  merchant  con- 
•tits  In  carrying  the  various  products  of  the  difTerent 
countries  of  tho  world  from  the  places  where  their  val- 
ue Is  least  to  those  where  It  Is  greatest ;  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing.  In  distributing  them  according  to  the 
efTective  demand.  It  Is  clear,  however,  that  there 
could  be  no  motive  to  export  any  spooiea  of  produce, 
unless  that  which  It  waa  intended  to  import  in  its  stead 
were  of  greater  value.  When  an  Kngllsh  merchant 
commissions  a  quantity  of  Polish  wheat,  he  calculates 
on  Its  selling  for  ao  much  more  than  ita  price  in  I'u- 
land,  as  will  l>e  sufficient  to  pay  the  expense  of  fk'eight, 
insurance,  etc.,  and  to  yield,  besides,  tho  common  and 
ordinary  rate  of  profit  on  the  capital  employed.  If  the 
wheat  did  not  sell  for  this  much,  its  Importation  would 
obviously  bo  a  loss  to  the  Importer.  It  Is  plain,  then, 
that  no  merchant  ever  did  or  ever  will  export,  but  In 
the  view  of  Importing  something  more  voluulde  In  re- 
turn. And  ao  far  from  an  excess  of  exports  over  Im- 
ports lieing  any  criterion  of  an  advantageous  com- 
merce, it  is  directly  the  reverse ;  and  the  truth  Is,  not- 
withstanding all  that  has  lieen  said  nud  written  to  the 
contrary,  that  unless  the  value  of  the  importa  sxceed- 
ed  that  of  the  exports,  foreign  trade  could  not  be  car- 
ried on.  Were  this  not  the  case — that  Is,  were  tho 
value  of  the  exporta  alwaya  greater  than  the  value  of 
ihe  importa — merchanta  would  lose  on  every  transac- 
tion with  foreigners,  and  the  trade  with  them  would 
be  speedily  abandoned. 

lo  Engiaiid,  tho  rates  at  which  all  articles  of  export 


•nd  Import  ar*  oilelally  valued  were  Axed  ao  far  baek 
aa  IdUfl.  But  tha  vary  graat  altaratlon  that  haa  aine* 
taken  plara,  nut  oidy  In  tha  valua  uf  moiMv,  but  aiae 
In  the  coal  of  moat  part  of  tha  commodltlw  produced 
in  thia  and  othar  rauntrUa,  baa  randored  thU  oAlclal 
valuation,  lho«igh  valuable  aa  a  maana  uf  lUlarrainlng 
their  quantity,  uf  nu  uae  whatever  aa  a  critarlun  uf  tlia 
true  valua  uf  Ilia  axixirta  and  lm|H>fla.  In  order  to 
remedy  thia  defect,  an  aci-uuiit  uf  tho  iciWur  lUtUrtd 
value  of  the  exporta  ta  annually  pniMtrwl,  frun  the 
(Iccluratluiu  of  thu  marciuinta,  and  laid  Iwfure  I'arll^ 
mant :  thara  la,  bowevar,  no  auch  avrnunt  uf  the  Inw 
ports ;  and,  owing  to  the  dilHcultles  which  high  dullaa 
throw  In  tho  way,  It  la,  perlinpa,  Impoaallile  to  f^am* 
one  with  any  thing  like  avouracy.  It  haa  alao  boea 
alleged,  aiul  apparantly  with  aoma  pn>lMbility,  that 
merchanta  hava  not  unrrequentl>  lioaii  In  Ihe  habit  of 
exaggerating  tha  valua  of  arllcias  enlltird  to  draw- 
Itai'ka  on  exiMirtatiun;  liut  the  recent  extanaion  and 
improvement  of  tlm  warehoualng  ayalem,  and  Ihn  dinw 
inutloii  of  the  numlier  uf  drawbiicka,  muat  materially 
leaaen  whatever  fraud  or  inaccuracy  may  hava  ariaen 
trom  thia  aourca.  Most  artlclaa  ware  formerly  charged 
with  an  ad  mUortm  duty  of  Ida.  per  cent,  on  asporta> 
tlon,  ao  that,  If  any  thing,  their  value  waa  probably 
rather  under  than  overrateil ;  but  now  that  this  duty 
bus  lieen  reiwaletl  (A  and  6  Vict.  cap.  47,  |  40),  tha 
presumption  is  that  their  declared  value  comes  very 
near  tho  truth ;  at  laaat,  aufllclvnily  ao  for  all  practical 
purpoaef.  Now  the  declared  value  of  the  exporta  of 
(irnat  lirlUin  in  11141  waa  4:61,084,6211,  being  only 
altout  half  their  otHclal  valua,  and  n«uly  118,000,0(10 
under  the  ofHcial  valua  of  the  imports.  What  the  ax- 
ceaa  uf  the  latter  might  lie,  had  we  the  meana  of  com- 
paring tiielr  real  valua  with  that  of  the  ex|iorta.  It  ia  im- 
poaallile to  aay ;  but  there  can  lie  no  manner  of  donbt 
that,  generally  apeaking,  It  would  lie  very  conaideri^ 
ble.  The  valua  of  an  ex|iarte<l  commodity  la  esti- 
mated at  the  moment  of  its  being  sent  abroad,  aiul  bt- 
fort  it  Is  increased  l>y  the  expenso  Incurred  In  traito- 
(wrtlng  It  to  the  place  of  Its  destination ;  whareaa  tho 
value  of  tha  commodity  Imparted  in  ita  stead  la  esti- 
mated ttfltr  It  has  arrived  at  Its  destination,  and,  oon- 
aequently,  after  It  haa  been  enhanced  by  the  coat  at 
ftwight,  inaurance,  importer'a  proHts,  etc. 

In  the  United  States,  the  value  of  the  importa,  M 
asc«rt:'fned  by  the  custom-house  returns,  alwaya  ex- 
ceeds the  value  of  the  exports.  And  although  prac- 
tical politicians  havo  been  in  the  habit  of  considering 
the  excess  of  the  former  aa  a  certain  proof  of  a  disad- 
vantageous commerc*,  "  It  is  nevertheless  true,"  say* 
Mr.  Pitkin,  "that  the  real  gain  of  the  Unlud  State* 
has  been  nenrly  in  proporiiun  at  their  intportt  havt  ex- 
CMifcrf  Ikfir  tiporli." — Commtrrt  of  Ike  Unittd  Stattt, 
2ded.  p.  2H0.  The  great  excess  of  American  importa 
has  In  part  lieen  occasioned  by  the  Americans  gener- 
ally exporting  their  own  surplus  produce,  and,  conse- 
quently, receiving  tiom  foreigners  not  only  en  equiva- 
lent for  their  exports,  but  also  for  the  coat  of  convey- 
ing them  to  the  foreign  market.  '*  In  1811,"  says  the 
author  Just  quoted,  "dour  sold  in  America  for  niiM 
doilari  and  a  half  per  barrel,  and  In  Spain  for  Ji/ietn 
doUart.  The  value  of  the  cargo  of  a  vessel  carrying 
6000  barrel*  of  flour  would,  therefore,  l«  estimated  at 
the  period  of  Ita  ex|)ortation  at  47,500  dollars ;  but  a* 
this  fluur  would  aell,  when  carried  to  Spain,  for  76,000 
dollars,  the  American  merchant  would  be  entitled  to 
draw  on  his  agent  in  Spain  for  27,600  dollars  more  than 
the  flour  coat  in  America,  or  than  the  sum  for  which 
he  could  have  drawn  had  the  flour  lieen  exported  in  a 
vessel  belonging  to  a  S|>aniah  merchant.  But  tho 
transaction  would  not  end  here.  The  76,000  dolUn 
would  be  veated  in  some  species  of  Spanish  or  othar 
European  goods  flt  for  the  American  market ;  and  the 
freight,  insurance,  etc.,  on  account  of  the  return  car- 
go, would  probably  Increase  its  value  to  100,000  doU 
lari,  so  that,  in  all,  the  American  merchant  might 


i^Ai 


86 


*At 


have  Importjd  goodg  worth  52,800  dollars  more  than 
the  flour  originally  sent  to  Spain."  It  is  as  impossible 
to  deny  that  such  a  transaction  as  this  Is  advantageous, 
as  It  is  to  deny  that  its  advantage  consists  entirely  In 
the  excess  of  the  value  of  the  goods  imported  over  the 
value  of  those  exported.  And  it  is  equally  clear  that 
America  might  have  had  the  real  balance  of  payments 
111  her  faror,  though  such  transactions  as  the  above 
had  been  multiplied  to  any  conceivable  extent. 

The  argument  about  the  Iwlance  of  payment  is  one 
of  those  that  contradict  and  confute  themselves.  Had 
the  apparent  excess  of  exports  over  imports,  as  Indi- 
cated by  the  British  custom-house  books  for  the  last 
hundred  years,  been  always  paid  In  bullion,  as  the 
supporters  of  the  old  theory  contend  is  the  case, 
there  should  at  this  moment  be  about  450,000,000  or 
600,000,000  of  bullion  in  the  country,  instead  of 
60,000,000  or  60,000,000,  which  it  Is  supposed  to 
•mount  to!  Nor  is  this  all.  If  the  theory  of  the 
balance  be  good  for  any  thing — if  it  be  not  a  mere  Idle 
delusion — it  follows,  as  every  country  In  the  world, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  United  States,  has  its 
favorable  balance,  that  they  must  be  paid  by  an  annual 
importation  of  bullion  fWim  the  mines  corresponding 
to  their  aggregate  amount.  But  it  Is  certain  that  the 
entire  produce  of  the  mines,  though  it  were  Increased 
in  a  tenfold  proportioii,  would  be  insufficient  for  this 
purpose !  This  redvetio  ad  abmrdum  is  decisive  of  the 
degree  of  credit  that  should  be  attached  to  conclusions 
respecting  the  flourishinff  state  of  the  commerce  of  any 
country  drawn  fh)m  the  excess  of  the  exports  over  the 
imports !  Not  only,  therefore,  is  the  common  theory 
with  respect  to  the  balance  of  trade  erroneous,  but  the 
rery  reverse  of  that  theory  Is  true.  In  thejirat  place, 
the  value  of  the  commodities  imported  by  every  coun- 
try which  carries  on  an  advantageous  commerce  (and 
no  other  will  lie  prosecuted  for  any  considerable  period) 
invariably  exceeds  the  value  of  those  which  she  ex- 
ports. Unless  such  were  the  case,  there  would  plainly 
be  no  ftind  whence  the  merchants  and  others  cngnged 
in  foreign  trade  could  derive  either  a  protit  on  their 
capital,  or  a  return  for  their  outlay  and  trouble ;  and 
in  the  ncond  place,  whether  the  balance  of  debt  be  for 
or  against  a  country,  that  balance  will  neither  bo  paid 
nor  received  in  bullion,  unless  it  be  at  the  time  the 
commodity  by  the  exportation  or  importation  of  which 
the  account  may  bo  most  profitably  settled.  What- 
ever the  partisans  of  the  doctrine  as  to  the  balance 
may  say  about  money  being  a  preferable  product,  or 
marchimdisf  par  ercel/enee,  It  is  certain  it  will  never 
•ppenr  in  the  list  of  exports  and  imports,  while  there 
is  any  thing  else  with  which  to  carry  on  trade,  or 
cancel  debts,  that  will  yield  a  larger  profit,  or  occasion 
•  less  expense  to  the  debtors. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  mischief  which  the  ab- 
sard  notions  relative  to  the  balance  of  trade  have  occa- 
sioned in  almost  ererj'  commercial  country ;  in  Great 
Britain  they  have  lieen  particularly  injurious.  It  Is 
principally  to  the  prevalence  of  prejudices  to  which  they 
have  given  rise  that  the  restrictions  on  the  tr.ide  lie- 
tween  England  and  France  are  to  be  ascribed.  The 
great,  or  rather  the  only  argument  Insisted  upon  by 
those  who  prevailed  on  the  legislature,  in  the  reign  of 
William  and  Marj-,  to  declare  the  trade  with  France  a 
Huitance,  was  founded  on  the  statement  that  the  valne 
of  the  imports  from  that  kingdom  consideraldy  exceed- 
ed the  valne  of  the  commodities  Great  Britain  exported 
to  it.  The  balance  was  regarded  as  a  Iribule  paid  by  En- 
gland to  Franco ;  and  it  was  sagaciously  asked,  What 
had  wa  done,  that  we  should  be  obliged  to  pay  so  much 
money  to  our  natural  enemy  ?  It  never  occurred  to 
those  who  so  loudly  abused  the  French  trade,  that  no 
merchant  would  import  any  commodity  from  France, 
anless  it  brought  a  higher  price  in  the  country  than 
the  commodity  exported  to  pay  it ;  and  that  the  profit 
of  the  merchant,  or  the  national  gain,  would  lie  In 
•uet  proportion  to  this  excess  of  price.    The  veiy 


reas<m  assigned  by  these  persons  for  protithiting  the 
trade  affords  the  best  attainable  proof  of  its  having 
been  a  lucrative  one ;  nor  can  there  be  any  duubt  that 
an  unrestricted  flreedom  of  intercourse  between  the 
two  countries  would  still  'jo  of  the  greatest  service  to 
both.'-J.  R.  M. 

The  production  of  gold  in  the  United  States  since 
the  acquisition  of  California  has  been  such  as  to  stimu- 
late trade  throughout  the  country.  The  importations 
from  Europe  have  been  very  large,  more  than  com- 
mensurate with  the  export  trade.  Hence  gold  has 
been  required  to  the  extent  of  more  than  170  millions 
during  the  five  years  1861-1865  to  discharge  this  ac- 
cumulated debt  or  6n/nnc«  (^  trade.  This  is  demon- 
strated by  the  fallowing  official  table : 

Htatehkmt  xxiiniiTiNu  TUK  AuomiT  or  (Join  anu  BnLLioi* 

IMl*()nTXI)  into   AN1>  KXrOUTKO  >'BOM  THE  Uniteu  8tatxs 
ANNUALLY  rROU   1821   TO  1SB5  INCLtlSIVE;    AND  ALSO  TUK 

AMotiNT  or  Importation  oveb  Extoetation,  and  or  Ex- 
portation ovEa  Impobtation,  dcrinu  the  same  Yeaeb. 


y«rf 

•ndlnff 

COIN  AND  Bl'I.I.I0N.                                   | 

Elms  of  Im- 

KiMn  ef  Ex. 

portAlion  oTW 
IniporUlioa. 

StpJHI. 

InpoiM. 

KiporUd. 

portalion  ovtr 
KiporlUlm. 

1821 

:ji8.064,890 

$10,478,069 

Kl2,418,169 

1822 

l),Se»,84« 

10,810,180 

7,440,884 

1888 

6,097,896 

6,872,187 

1,275,091 

1824 

8,37»,8S6 

7,014,662 

$1,866,283 

1S26 

6,160,706 

8,932,034 

«,TS1,208 

182« 

6,880,966 

4,704,633 

2,176,483 

182T 

6,161,130 

8,014,88" 

136,260 

1828 

7,489,741 

8,248,476 

768,736 

1S29 

7,403,612 

4,924.1120 

2,479,692 

1830 

8,166,064 

2,178,773 

6,97T,191 

isai 

7,8(16,946 

9,014,931 

1,708,986 

1632 

6,907,604 

6,66«,S40 

261,164 

1883 

7,070,308 

2,011,701 

4,468,661 

1884 

17,911,082 

2,070,768 

16,834,874 

1836 

13,181,447 

0,477,n8 

6,668,672 

1830 

18,400,881 

4,824,330 

9,076,646 

1837 

10,616,414 

6,976,249 

4,640,166 

18SS 

17,747,116 

3,r)08,040 

14,230,070 

18S» 

6,696,176 

8,770,743 

8,181,607 

1840 

8,882,818 

8,417,014 

406,790 

1841 

4,988,683 

10,034,832 

5,Ot6.a:<<) 

1842 

4,087,016 

4,813,639 

72(i,Ci;3 

1S43' 

22,390,669 

1,620,791 

20,809,708 

1844 

t6,830,429 

6,464,814 

876,216 

1846 

4,070,242 

8,600,4(16 

4,N';o.-;6.'i 

1840 

3,777,733 

3,906,268 

127,6M 

1847 

24,121,289 

1,907,024 

22,214,206 

1848 

0,360,224 

16,841,610 

9,481,89? 

184D 

6,661,240 

6,404,048 

1,946,692 

1860 

4,628,792 

7,622,994 

2,894,202 

Lsei 

6,463,692 

29,472,762 

24,019,100 

1862 

6,606,1144 

42,074,186 

87,Iflfl,()Sl 

1868 

4,201,882 

27,488,876 

23,286,498 

18M 

6,768,687 

41,197,8vO 

S4,4iW,713 

i866 

«,6Ml,812 

&0,247,&43 

i-3i»,602,713 

62,6H7,6.'!1 

«28U,(Hi8,M4 

$112,301,646  1 

$2l3,80t>,T44 

*  Nine  monUis. 


t  12  months  ending  June  80. 


Bale,  a  pack,  or  certain  quantity  of  goods  or  mer- 
chandise ;  as  a  hale  of  silk,  cloth,  etc.  Halet  are  al- 
ways marked  and  numbered,  that  the  merchants  to 
whom  they  belong  may  know  them,  and  the  marks 
and  numliers  correspond  to  those  In  the  bills  of  lading, 
etc.  Selling  under  the  hale,  or  under  the  cord;  is  a 
term  used  In  France  and  other  countries  for  selling 
goods  wholesale,  without  sample  or  pattern,  and  un- 
opened. 

Balks,  large  pieces  of  timber. 

Ballaat  (l>u.  Ualtatt;  Fr.  Lett;  Ger.  Ballatt;  It. 
Savortu ;  Sp.  Ijaitre ;  8w.  BaUatt),  a  quantity  of  iron, 
stones,  sand,  gravel,  or  any  other  heavy  mnteriul  laid 
in  a  ship's  hold,  in  order  to  sink  her  deeper  in  the 
water,  and  to  render  her  capable  of  carrying  sail  with- 
out being  overset.  All  ships  clearing  outward,  hav- 
ing no  goods  on  board  other  than  the  personal  l)aggage 
of  the  passengers,  are  said  to  be  in  ballast.  The  quan- 
tity of  liallast  required  to  lit  ships  of  equal  burden  for 
a  voyage  Is  often  materially  different ;  the  proportion 
l>cing  always  less  or  more,  according  to  the  sharpness 
or  flatness  of  the  ship's  bottom,  called  by  seamen  the 
Jhor.  The  proper  ballasting  of  a  ship  deserves  pecul- 
iar attention,  for,  altbougfa  it  be  known  that  ships  In 


BAL 


87 


BAL 


general  will  not  carry  aufflcient  aail  till  thej  are  laden 
so  tliut  the  HurfHce  of  tlie  water  nearly  glances  on  the 
extreme  breadth  midships,  more  than  this  general 
knowledge  is  required.  If  the  ship  have  a  great 
weight  of  heavy  luilUst,  as  lead,  iron,  etc.,  in  the  liot- 
tom,  the  centre  of  gravity  will  Ijo  too  low  in  the  hold  ; 
this  no  doubt  will  enable  her  to  carry  a  preas  of  sail, 
but  it  will,  at  the  same  time,  make  iter  sail  heavily,  and 
roll  so  violently  as  to  run  the  riali  of  Iwing  dismast- 
ed. The  oltject  in  ballasting  a  ship  is,  therefore,  so  to 
dis|)08e  of  the  l)allttst  or  cargo,  that  she  may  be  duly 
poised,  and  maintain  a  proper  equilibrium  on  the  wa- 
ter, so  as  neither  to  lie  too  stiff  nor  too  cnmk,  qual- 
ities equally  pernicious.  If  too  stiff,  she  may  carry 
much  sail,  l)ut  her  velocity  will  not  bo  proportionally 
increased  ;  while  her  masts  are  endangered  by  sudden 
jerks  and  excessive  lultoring.  If  too  crank,  she  will 
lie  unfit  to  carry  sail  without  the  risk  of  oversetting. 

Stiffness  in  l)allaBting  is  occasioned  by  disposing  a 
too  great  quantity  of  heavy  ballast,  as  lead,  iron,  etc., 
in  the  bottom,  which  throws  the  centre  of  gravity  very 
near  the  keel ;  and  this  l)eing  the  centre  almut  which 
the  vibrations  are  made,  the  lower  it  is  placed,  the 
more  violent  is  the  rolling.  Crankncss,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  occasioned  by  having  too  little  ballast,  or  by 
disposing  the  ship's  lading  so  as  to  riiiso  the  centre  of 
gravity  ton  high :  this  also  endangers  the  masts  when 
it  blows  hard ;  for  when  they  cease  to  be  perpen- 
dicular, they  strain  on  the  shrouds  in  the  nature  of  a 
lever,  which  increases  as  the  sine  of  their  obliquity ; 
and  it  is  superfluous  to  add,  that  a  ship  that  loses  her 
masts  is  in  great  danger  of  l)eing  lost.  Hence  the  art 
of  ballasting  consists  in  placing  the  centre  of  gravity 
to  correspond  with  the  trim  and  shape  of  the  vessel,  so 
OS  to  lie  neitlier  too  high  nor  too  low ;  neither  too  fur 
forwanl,  nor  too  fur  uft ;  and  to  lade  the  ship  so  deep, 
tliat  the  surface  nf  the  water  may  nearly  rise  to  the 
extreme  breadth  midships :  she  will  then  curry  a  good 
quantity  of  sail,  incline  but  little,  and  ply  well  to 
windward. — .SVc  F.vi,coNKH's  Marine  Dictiunnry. 

The  mischievous  consequences  of  not  attending  to 
the  circumstances  now  mentioned  are  often  experi- 
enced by  ships  loading  barilla,  lirimst<me,  and  such 
heavy  articles,  on  the  coast  of  Sicily  and  Spain.  The 
habit  there  is  to  cut  large  quantities  of  brushwood  and 
fagots,  and  to  spread  tlieni  in  the  hold,  to  hinder  the 
cargo  from  sinking  the  centre  of  gravity  too  low,  and 
causing  the  ship  to  lultor  violently ;  but  it  very  fre- 
quently happens  that  the  pressure  of  the  cargo  on  this 
sort  of  dunnage  is  so  great  as  to  squeeze  it  into>a  much 
smaller  space  than  could  tt  first  have  been  supposed ; 
so  that  ships  after  getting  to  sea  are  sometimes  oliligcd 
to  return  to  port  to  unload  a  part  of  their  cargo,  to 
prevent  their  foundering.  In  such  cases,  firm  dun' 
nage,  such  as  ouk  staves,  should,  if  possible,  lie  always 
employed. — .S^e  Jackson's  Cinnmerce  of  MtdHerrane^ 
nil,  p.  I'2ft-ri8.  Ships  that  have  cargoes  of  light  goods 
on  lioard  require  a  quantity  of  ballast ;  increasing,  of 
course,  according  to  the  greater  lightness  of  the  goods. 

Balloon.  Oalien  of  Avignon  wrote  on  aerostation 
In  1765.  Dr.  Black  gave  the  hint  as  to  hydrogen  in 
1707.  A  liuiloon  was  constructed  in  France  by  MM. 
Montgnltler,  in  178R,  when  Rozier  and  the  Marquis 
d'Arlandcs  ascended  at  Paris.  PlliUro  Dcsrozicr  and 
M.  Unm.'iin  perished  in  an  attempted  voyage  ttom 
Boulogne  to  Kngland,  the  liallo^n  having  taken  fire, 
June  14,  1785.  At  the  battle  of  i"'eurus,  the  French 
made  iise  of  a  lialloon  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  army, 
knd  convey  the  oliscrvations  l>y  telegraph,  .June  17, 
1794.  Garnerin  ascended  in  a  lialloon  to  the  height 
of  4000  feet,  and  desceniicd  by  a  parachute,  Septemlier 
21,  IHO'i.  Gay-Lnssac  ascended  at  Paris  to  the  height 
of  28,000  feet,  Septemlier  0, 1804.  Madame  Dlanchard 
aacended  from  Tlvoli  at  night,  and  the  balloon,  lieing 
(nrroundc  I  liy  fire-works,  exploded,  and  she  was  pre- 
cipitated  to  the  ground  and  killed,  July  6,  1819,— 

HAVDiC. 


BidMun  (Qer.  BaUam;  Du.  IJaUemi  Fr.  Saumt/ 
It.  and  Sp.  HuUumo;  Lat.  Baltumuin).  Balsami  an 
vogetubln  Juices,  either  liquid,  or  which  spontaneously 
become  concrete,  consisting  of  a  substance  of  a  reslu- 
ous  nature,  combined  with  benzoic  acid,  or  which  are 
capable  of  affnniing  lienzoic  acid  by  lieing  heated 
alone,  or  with  water.  The  liquid  balsams  are  cupaiva, 
opobalaam,  balsam  of  Peru,  storux,  and  Tolu ;  the  con- 
crete arc  benzoin,  dragon's  blooil,  and  red  or  cuncreta 
storax. — Ube,  1.  Copuiea  ^Fr.  Haume  de  C'upuhut 
Ger.  Kopaiva  BaUam;  Sp.  Co/hij/i:),  obtained  from  a 
tree  {Coimiffra)  growing  in  South  America  and  the 
West  India  islands.  The  largest  quantity  is  furnish, 
ed  liy  the  province  of  Para,  in  Uruzil.  It  is  imported 
in  small  casks,  containing  from  1  to  1  ^  cwt.  Gcnulna, 
good  copaiva,  or  copaiba  balsam,  has  a  peculiar  but 
agreeable  odor,  and  a  bitterish,  hot,  nauseous  taste. 
It  is  clear  and  transparent ;  its  consistence  is  that  of 
oil ;  but  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  it  l)e> 
comes  solid,  dry,  and  brittle,  liko  resin. — TiioMaoM'n 
Vupenaalory. 

2,  OpdxUsam  (Fr.  BaUamier  de  la  Afecque ;  It.  Opa- 
bahanw;  Lat.  Baltamum  verum  album,  ^tlgyptincum  i 
Egypt.  Baleuan),  the  most  precious  of  all  the  balstmi, 
commonly  called  Ualm  of  Gilead.  It  is  the  produce 
of  a  tree  (.Imyi'U  Oileadeiitu),  indigenous  to  Arabia 
and  Abyssinia,  and  truiisplanted  at  an  early  |)eriod  to 
Judea.  It  is  obtained  liy  cutting  the  Imrk  with  an  axe 
at  the  time  that  the  juice  is  in  the  strongest  circulation. 
The  true  balsam  is  of  a  pule  yellowish  color,  clear  and 
transparent,  about  the  consistence  of  Venice  turpen- 
tine, of  a  strong,  penetrating,  agreeaiile,  aromatic 
smell,  and  a  slightly  bitterish  pungent  taste.  Uy  ago 
it  becomes  yellower,  browner,  and  thicker,  losing  by 
degrees,  like  volatile  oils,  some  of  its  finer  and  more 
subtile  parts.  It  is  rarely,  if  ever,  lirought  genuine 
into  this  country ;  dried  Canada  balsam  lieing  gener- 
ally substituted  for  It.  It  was  in  high  repute  among 
the  ancients,  but  is  now  principally  used  oa  a  cos- 
metic by  the  'Turkish  ladies. — Drs.  Ure  and  Thomson, 
The  Canada  l>alsam,  now  referred  to,  is  merely ^n«  fur- 
fitniiue.  It  is  the  produce  of  the  Pinu»  Baltamea,  and 
is  imported  in  casks,  each  containing  about  1  cwt.  It 
has  a  strong,  but  not  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  a  bittor- 
ish  taste ;  is  transparent,  whitish,  and  has  the  consist- 
ence of  copaiva  balsam. — >';<>e  Turpentink.  "  Szafra 
and  Bodcr  are  the  only  places  in  the  Hedjuz  where  the 
liulsam  of  Mecha,  or  Balcssun,  can  be  procured  in  a 
pure  state.  The  tree  from  which  it  is  collected  grows 
in  the  neighboring  m^juntains,  but  principally  upon 
Djeliel  Sobh,  and  is  culled,  by  the  Arabs,  Bcshcni.  I 
was  informed  that  it  is  ft-om  10  to  15  feet  high,  with  a 
smooth  trunk,  and  thin  burk.  In  the  middle  of  sum- 
mer, small  incisions  are  made  in  the  bark;  and  the 
juice,  which  Immediately  issues,  is  taken  off  with  tho 
thumb  nnil  and  put  into  a  vessel.  Tho  gum  ap|iears  to 
lie  of  two  kinds,  one  of  a  white,  and  tlio  other  of  a  yel- 
lowish while  color:  the  first  is  tho  most  esteemed,  I 
saw  here  some  of  the  latter  sort  in  a  small  sheep-skin, 
which  the  Bedouins  use  in  bringing  it  to  market :  it 
had  a  strong  turpentine  smell,  and  its  taste  was  bitter. 
The  people  of  SzafVa  usually  adulterate  it  with  seso- 
mum  oil  and  tar.  When  they  try  its  purity,  they  dip 
their  finger  into  it  and  then  set  it  on  tire ;  if  it  burn 
without  hurting  or  leaving  a  mark  on  the  finger,  they 
judge  it  to  be  of  good  quality ;  but  If  it  bum  the  finger 
as  soon  as  it  is  set  on  tire,  they  consider  it  to  lie  adul- 
terated. I  remember  to  huvo  read,  in  Brucc's  Trav- 
els, an  account  of  the  mode  of  trying  it,  by  letting  a 
drop  fall  into  a  cup  filled  with  water ;  the  good  lialsam 
falling  coagulated  to  the  bottom,  and  the  bad  dissolv- 
ing and  swimming  on  tho  surface.  I  tried  this  ex- 
periment, which  was  unknown  to  tho  people  hero,  and 
found  tho  drop  swim  upon  the  water ;  I  trtcd  also  their 
test  by  fire  upon  tho  finger  of  a  Bedouin,  who  had  to 
regret  his  temerity ;  I  tliercfore  regarded  the  balsam 
sold  here  as  adulterated ;  it  was  of  less  density  than 


BAL 


88 


BAL 


honey.  I  wished  to  purchase  aome ;  but  neither  my 
own  baggage  nor  any  of  the  shops  of  Szafhi  could  ftir- 
nlsh  any  thing  lilce  a  bottle  to  hold  it ;  the  whole  skin 
wai  too  dear.  The  Bedouins,  who  bring  it  here,  usu- 
ally demand  2  or  8  dollars  per  pound  for  it  when  quite 
pure ;  and  the  Szafra  Arabs  resell  it  to  the  hadjeys  of 
the  great  caravan  at  between  8  and  12  dollars  per  pound 
In  an  adulterated  state.  It  is  bought  up  principally 
by  Peraians."— Burckuardt's  Traveli  in  Arabia,  vol. 
U.  p.  128. 

8.  Balsam  o/Prru  (Fr.  Baume  de  Ptru ;  Ger.  Perw- 
vianiicker  Bidtam;  Sp.  Bakamo  de  Quinquina;  Lat. 
Balsamum  Peruvianum),  the  produce  of  a  tree  {Myroiy- 
lan  Peruiferum)  growing  in  the  warmest  parts  of  South 
America.  The  balsafh  procured  by  incisions  made  in 
the  tree  is  called  tcliiie  liquid  baltam;  that  which  is 
found  in  the  shops  is  obtained  by  Ixiiling  the  twigs  in 
water :  it  is  imported  in  jars,  each  containing  from  20 
to  40  pounds  weight.  It  has  a  fhigrant  aromatic  odor 
^inch  resembling  that  of  benzoin,  with  a  warm  bitter- 
kh  taste.  It  is  viscid,  of  a  deep  reddish-brown  color, 
and  of  the  consistence  of  honey. 

4.  Slorax  (Fr.  Siorax;  Ger.  Slryarbroom;  It.  Slo- 
raee;  Sp.  Azumbar;  Lat.  Stj/rax;  Arab.  Usitrul'),  the 
proauce  of  a  tree  (Sti/rax  affidnaW)  growing  in  the 
south  of  Europe  and  the  I.evant  Only  two  kinds  are 
found  in  the  shops :  storax  in  tears,  which  is  pure,  and 
Btorax  in  the  lump,  or  red  storax,  which  is  mixed  with 
sawdust  and  other  impurities.  Both  kinds  are  brought 
ftxim  the  Levant  in  ..^.ests  and  boxes.  Storax  has  a 
flragrant  odor,  and  a  pleasant,  sub-acidulous,  slightly 
pungent,  and  aron.  itic  taste :  it  is  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  and  brittle. — Thomson'^  Ditpentatorg. 

6.  Tolu,  BaUam  of(¥T.  Baume  de  Tolu;  Ger.  Tola- 
tanitcher  BaUam;  Sp.  Baltamo  de  Tolu).  The  tree 
which  j-ields  this  Inlsam  is  the  same  as  that  which 
yields  the  balsam  of  Peru,  it  being  merely  the  white 
balsam  of  Peru  hardened  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

6.  Benzoin,  or  Benjamin  (Fr.  Benzoin ;  Ger.  Benzoe ; 
Sp.  Bengui;  It.  Belzuino;  Lat.  Benzoinum;  Arab.  Li- 
ban;  Hind,  Luban;  Jav.  Menian;  Malay,  Camtnyan), 
li  an  article  of  much  greater  commercial  importance 
than  any  of  those  balsams  previously  mentioned.     It 
is  obtained  ftx)m  a  tree  (Sigrax  Benzoin)  cultivated  in 
Sumatra  and  Borneo,  but  particularly  the  former.   The 
idonts  produce  in  the  seventh  year.     Tho  balsam  is 
obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark,  when  it  ex- 
udes, and  is  scraped  off.     During  the  first  three  years 
the  balsam  is  of  a  clear  white  color,  after  which  it  be- 
comes brown.    Having  borne  10  or  12  years,  tho  tree 
is  cut  down,  a  very  inferior  article  being  obtained  by 
scraping  the  wood.     The  balsams  procured  in  these 
dilTerant  stages  ore  distinguished  in  commerce,  and 
differ  widely  in  value.    Benzoin  has  a  very  agreeable, 
fWgrant  odor,  but  hardly  any  taste.    It  is  imported  in 
large  masses,  packed  in  chests  and  casks.     It  should 
be  chosen  full  of  clear,  light-colored,  and  white  spots, 
having  the  appearance  of  white  marble  when  broken ; 
it  is  rarely,  however,  to  be  met  with  in  so  pure  a  state, 
but  the  nearer  the  approach  to  it  the  better.    The 
worst  sort  is  blackish,  and  full  of  impurities.— Mii^ 
burr's  Orient.  Com.,  and  private  information.     The 
price  of  Benzoin  in  bond  varied,  in  the  Ix>ndon  mark- 
et, in  February,  1848,  from  £3  to  no  less  than  X46  per 
cwt. !     Mr.  CrawfUrd  has  given  the  following  inter- 
esting and  authentic  details  with  respect  to  this  arti- 
cle ;  "  Benzoin,  or  fVankincense,  called  in  commercial 
language  Benjamin,  is  a  more  general  article  of  com- 
merce than  camphor,  though  its  production  be  confined 
to  the  same  islands.    Benzoin  is  divided  in  commerce, 
like  camphor,  into  three  torts  (head,  belly,  foot),  ac- 
cording to  quality,  the  comparative  value  of  which 
may  he  expressed  by  the  figures  105,  45, 18.    Benzoin 
is  valued  in  j>roportion  to  its  whiteness,  semi4rans- 
porency,  and  freedom  from  at*  ventitious  matters.    Ac- 
cording to  its  purity,  the  first  sort  may  be  bought  at 
the  *mg9ria  to  which  it  is  brought,  at  ttom  50  to  100  { 


dollars  per  picul  (188^  pounds),  the  second  ftnm  35  to 
46  dollars,  and  the  worst  from  8  to  20  dollars.  Ac- 
cording to  Linschoten,  benzoin,  in  hi3  time,  cost,  in 
the  market  of  Sunda  Calapa  or  Jacatra,  trom  19-05  to 
25-40  Spanish  dollars  the  picul.  By  Niebuhr's  account, 
the  worst  benzoin  of  the  IndUn  islands  is  more  esteem- 
ed by  the  Arabs  than  their  own  l>est  olibunuui,  or  fnink- 
incense.  In  the  London  market,  the  best  benzoin  it 
fourteen  times  more  valuable  than  (^ibauum,  and  evea 
the  worst  two  and  one  third  times  more  valuable. 
Benzoin  usually  sells  in  England  at  lOj.  per  pound. 
The  quantity  generally  imported  there  in  the  time  of 
the  monopoly  was  812  cwt.  The  principal  uso  of  thii 
commodity  is  as  incense,  and  it  is  equally  in  requiit 
in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  Catholics,  Moham- 
medans, Hindoos,  and  Chinese.  It  is  also  used  as  a 
luxury  by  the  great  in  fumigating  their  apartments, 
and  the  Japanese  chiefs  are  fond  of  smoking  it  with 
tobacco.  Its  general  use  among  nations  in  such  vari- 
ous states  of  civilization,  and  the  steady  demand  for  it 
in  all  ages,  declare  that  it  is  one  of  those  commodities 
the  taste  for  which  is  inherent  in  our  nature,  and  not 
the  result  of  a  parti-^ular  caprice  with  any  individual 
people,  as  in  the  caM  of  Malay  camphor  with  the  Chi- 
nese."— Indian  Archipelago,  vcl.  iii.  p.  418.  An  infe- 
rior description  of  benzoin,  the  produce  of  a  ditferent 
tree  fVom  the  Stj/rax  benzoin,  is  produced  in  Slam.  It 
is  comparatively  cheap  and  abundant. 

7.  Dragon's  blood  (Fr.  Sang-Vragon ;  Lat.  Sanguis 
Draconis ;  Arab.  DamuldHneain ;  Hind,  lleraduky),  the 
produce  of  a  large  species  of  rattan  {Calamus  Draco) 
growing  on  the  north  and  northeast  coast  of  Sumatra, 
and  in  some  parts  of  Borneo.  It  is  largely  exported 
to  China,  and  also  to  India  and  Europe.  It  is  either 
in  oval  drops,  wrapped  up  in  flag-leaves,  or  in  large  and 
generally  more  impure  masses  composed  of  smaller 
tears.  It  is  externally  and  internally  of  a  deep  dusky 
red  color,  and  when  powdered  it  should  become  of  a 
bright  crimson :  if  it  be  black,  it  is  worth  little.  When 
broken  and  held  up  against  a  strong  light,  it  is  some- 
what transparent,  and  it  has  little  or  no  smell  or  taste ; 
what  it  has  of  the  latter  is  resinous  and  astringent. 
Dragon's  blood  in  drops  is  much  preferable  to  that  in 
cakes,  the  latter  being  more  friable,  and  less  compact, 
resinous,  and  pure  than  the  fanner.  Being  a  very 
costly  article,  it  is  very  apt  to  be  adulterated.  Most 
of  its  alloys  dissolve  like  gums  in  water,  or  crackle  in 
the  fire  without  proving  infiammable,  whereas  the  gen- 
uine dragon's  Uood  readily  melts  and  catches  flame, 
and  is  scarcely  acted  on  by  watery  liquors.  It  sells 
in  the  market  of  Singapore  at  ttma  15  to  85  dollars  per 
picul,  acccrding  to  quality ;  but  the  Chines<)  have  the 
art  of  purii^'ing  and  refining  it,  when  it  sells  at  from 
60  to  100  dollars  per  picul. — Milbcrm's  Orient.  Com. ; 
Crawford's  East.  ArcAip.;  and  private  infomiption. 
The  price  of  dragon's  blood,  in  the  London  market, 
varied,  in  November,  1863,  fh>m  £b  to  ;ei5  per  cwt. 

Baltic  Sea.  The  denomination  of  the  Baltic,  ap- 
plied to  the  inland  sea  which  forms  the  subject  of  thia 
article,  is  first  found  In  the  work  entitled  Chomgraphia 
Scandinavia,  by  Adam  of  Bremen,  who  was  canon  of 
that  city  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  centniy.  The 
etymology  of  the  name  has  given  riue  to  many  conjeo« 
tures.  "The  Swedes  derive  it  from  the  Scandinavian 
word  baelt,  a  girdle,  because  of  its  peculiar  form ;  the 
Prussians  ttom  the  Sclavonian  or  Listtonian  word  bolt, 
white,  from  its  bein^  frozen  part  of  the  year,  or  from 
Battus,  one  of  their  kings ;  while  by  others  it  is  de- 
rived fk-om  Bakea,  the  name  of  on  island  mentioned  by 
Pytheas,  a  mereiiant  of  Marseilles,  who,  in  the  second 
or  third  century  before  the  Christian  era,  is  supposed 
to  have  sailed  as  far  north  as  this  sea.  In  the  coun- 
tries which  bound  it,  its  ancient  name  was  Variatzkoik 
More,  or  the  Sea  of  Variaghi ;  by  the  modem  Russiana 
It  is  called  Baltiskoi  Mori ;  and  by  the  Swedes,  Dane*, 
and  Germans,  the  iJist  Sea, 
Extent  of  the  Bailie.— The  Baltic  is  inclosed  by  Swe- 


BAL 


^ 


BAIi 


den,  RumU,  PniBsla,  Mecklenbnrg,  and  Denmark ; ' 
and  it  communicates  witli  tlie  Nortli  Sea  by  tlie  Ska- 
gcr-Rack,  Cattegat,  Sound,  and  Great  and  Little  Belts,  i 
From  SwinemQnde  in  the  south,  to  Tornea  in  the  north,  | 
it.i  length  is  770  geographical  miles ;   and  it*  width  , 
from  Karlscrona  to  Hemcl  is  not  less  than  180  miles,  i 
Its  whole  area,  including  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  is  about  j 
125,000  geographical  square  miles.     It  runs  tlrst  in  an 
easterly  direction  as  far  as  Memel,  a  distance  of  800 
miles,  and  then  northward  as  far  as  lat.  69°  'A'  N.,  a 
distance  of  350  miles,  at  which  point  it  separates  into 
two  great  gulfs.     One  of  these,  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
runs  nearly  due  east ;  the  other,  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
almost  north.     The  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  400  miles  in 
length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  120  miles,  but 
where  narrowest  it  does  not  exceed  40  miles.     The 
Archipulago  of  Aland  lies  at  its  entrance.    The  Gulf 
of  Finland  is  200  miles  in  length,  with  a  mean  breadth 
of  60  or  70  miles.     Numerous  rocky  islands  and  reefs, 
many  of  them  level  with  the  water,  render  the  lutviga- 
tlon  of  this  sea  extremely  dangerous. 

Depth  of  the  B^iUie.—the  greatest  depth  of  the 
Baltic  rarely  exceeds  100  fathoms.  On  tiia  western 
tide  it  is  not  more  than  15  fathoms ;  and,  in  general, 
only  firom  8  to  10  fathoms.  On  the  south  it  nowhere 
exceeds  60  fathoms.  The  Gulf  of  Finland  suddenly 
shallows  from  60  or  60  fathoms  to  5,  or  even  less.  The 
average  ^epth  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  not  greater 
than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  sea.  It  has  long  been  a 
generally  received  opinion  that  thu  waters  of  the  Bal- 
tic are  gradually  diminishing.  Celsius,  a  learned 
Swede,  w*  J  flourished  toward  tho  middle  of  last  cen- 
tury, advances  this  hypotliesis;  and,  from  observa- 
tions made  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  he  estimated 
the  diminution  at  45  inches  in  a  hundred  years.  This 
hypothesis  was  supported  by  Linnans,  who  founded 
on  it  a  theory  of  the  earth.  M.  Otto,  in  his  physical 
observations  on  this  sea,  has  suggested  another  theory 
to  account  for  its  apparent  decrease.  H.:  supposes 
that,  instead  of  really  subsiding,  it  may  be  only  shift- 
ing its  position,  and  gaining  in  one  quarter  what  it 
loses  in  another ;  and  this  he  ascrilies  to  the  large  and 
rapid  rivers,  which  carry  along  with  them  an  immense 
quantity  of  earth  and  sand,  by  which  the  beds  at  their 
mouths  are  raised,  and  their  banks  extend  toward  the 
sea.  The  views  of  Celsius  have  been  confirmed  by 
the  observations  of  Von  Buch,  who  also  discovered  at 
several  places  on  the  western  shores  of  Scandiiuvia, 
and  at  considerable  elevations,  deposits  of  sand  and 
mud  containing  numerous  marine  shells  of  species  still 
existing  in  the  neighboring  ocean.  Mr..Lyell  at  first 
entertained  doubt*  of  these  phenomena ;  but  on  subse- 
quent inspection  he  was  led  to  concur  in  the  opinion 
of  Von  Buch.  Mr.  Lyell  found  the  marks  which  were 
cut  In  the  rocks  at  water-line  some  years  previous  to 
his  visit  to  b«  actually  several  inches  alwve  the  level 
of  the  Baltic.  From  these  observations,  that  eminent 
geologist  concludes  that,  in  several  parts  of  Sweden,  a 
gradual  elevation  of  the  land  is  taking  place. — Lyrll's 
Principles  of  Geology.  The  groat  quantity  of  sand  and 
mud  carried  down  by  the  rivers  has  considerably  raised 
the  bottom  of  this  sea,  and  afTectijd  its  navigation,  so 
that  the  mouths  of  rivers  formerly  navigabli;  are  now 
inaccessilde. 

In  the  Baltic,  the  tides  are  scarcely,  if  at  all,  per- 
ceptible. There  are  sensible  tides  in  the  Skager-Kack ; 
but  these  begin  to  diminish  in  the  Cattegat,  and  are 
very  trifling  In  the  Sound  and  Bolts.  There  are,  how- 
ever, irregular  variations  in  the  level  of  the  waters  of 
the  Baltic  which  bear  some  resemblance  to  tides.  These 
elevations  generally  occur  in  autumn,  when  the  weath- 
er tbrea«;ns  rain ;  and  they  last  sometimes  a  few  days, 
sometimes  several  weeks.  The  maximum  rise  is  three 
feet  and  a  half,  and  the  low  shores  are  occasionally  in- 
nndated.  They  also  render  brackish  the  freih-water 
lakes  which  communicate  with  tho  sea.  In  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  the  subsidence  of  the  waters  ia  usually 


succeeded'by  north  winds ;  whereat,  near  Stockholm, 
these  winds  usually  follow  their  rise.  M.  Kruft,  for> 
merly  professor  of  experimental  philosophy  in  the  Im- 
perial Academy  of  Sciences  at  St.  I'ctersburg,  in  his 
treatise  on  the  inundations  of  the  Nova  at  the  autumnal 
equinox,  observes  that,  three  or  four  days  before  or 
after  the  full  or  new  moon,  a  violent  northwest  wind 
drives  the  waters  of  the  Northern  Ocean,  during  the 
influx  of  the  tide,  into  the  Baltic,  and  is  accompanied 
or  immediately  succeeded  by  a  south  wind  in  that  sea 
and  tho  Gulf  of  Finland.  By  Schultens,  a  learned 
Swede,  who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  physical 
geography  of  the  Baltic,  the  irregular  elevations  of 
this  sea  are  attributed  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
lie  liad  observed  that  when  tho  waters  wore  about  to 
rise  tho  barometer  fell,  and  that  when  they  were  about 
to  fall  it  rose.  Hence  he  inferred  tliat  the  unequal 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  different  portions  of  th* 
water  deranged  the  level  of  the  waters.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  greatent  md  the  least  rise  of  the  biu 
rometer  in  the  northern  purts  of  Europe  is  two  and  a 
lialf  inches,  which  answers  to  three  and  a  half  feet  of 
water,  or  the  difference  of  the  elevation  of  th.i  wateri 
at  their  extremes. 

Superior  and  inferior  Current*. — In  the  Sound  there 
are  superior  and  inferior  currents.  These  were  first 
observed  by  some  Englishmen,  who,  being  in  a  boat 
in  the  middle  of  the  channel,  found  that  they  drifted 
toward  the  Cattegat ;  but  having  let  down  a  loaded 
bucket  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  fathoms,  the  boat 
became  stationary;  and  when  the  bucket  was  sunk 
deeper,  the  boat  drifted  againut  the  superficial  current. 
The  general  currents  of  the  Baltic  are  strong,  and  evi- 
dently occasioned  by  the  vast  numl>er  of  rivers  and 
streams  that  pour  their  waters  into  it,  many  of  which, 
especially  toward  the  north,  rise  thrice  in  the  course 
of  the  year.  At  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Island 
of  Bomholm,  a  violent  agitation  of  the  waters,  or  kin<l 
of  whirlpool,  calletl  l>y  the  Swedes  mali-ijuem,  or  tha 
grinding-mill,  is  occasioned  by  the  current  rushing 
over  a  circular  cluster  of  sunken  rocks.  The  waves 
of  the  Baltic  are  short  and  broken,  in  consequence  of 
sudden  changes  of  wind,  irregular  depths,  and  strong 
currents. 

Sahnets. — The  waters  of  this  sea  are  not  nearly  so 
salt  as  those  of  the  ocean;  and  when  the  wind  blow* 
strong  fl-om  the  north  they  become  so  f^csh  us  to  be  fit 
for  drinking  or  cooking  meat.  The  degree  of  their 
BultnesB  varies  in  difl'erent  parts,  and  even  in  the  samo 

Sirts,  according  to  the  season  or  wind.  According  to 
prgman,  in  Ids  Phyncal  Gengraphg,  the  waters  near 
the  south  coast  of  Norway,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Ska- 
ger-Rack,  contain  from  one-tenth  to  nnc-seventh  part 
of  their  weight  of  salt ;  in  the  Cattegat,  one-twelfth ; 
in  the  Baltic,  one-sixteenth;  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Both- 
nia f^om  one-fortieth  to  ono-fiftieth.  The  southwest 
and  west  winds  augment  the  saltness,  liy  introducing 
the  waters  of  the  ocean.  In  the  summer  it  reqnirda 
300  tons  of  the  water  of  the  Gulf  of  UothnU  to  produce 
one  ton  of  suit,  but  in  the  winter  only  50  tons.  This 
difference  is  caused  by  congelation,  and  by  the  dimin- 
ished flow  of  fresh  water. 

Temperature. — There  is  great  difference  in  the  tem- 
perature in  difl'erent  parts  of  the  Baltic.  The  general 
temperature  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  in  July  is  f^ora  48° 
to  5U",  but  k  is  sometimes  heated  to  70° ;  the  medium 
of  the  thermometer  throughout  the  year  at  Tleoliorg  is 
29°,  and  at  Stockholm  42  4-5°.  Near  the  land  in  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  in 
the  month  of  July  was  observed  to  be  68°,  while  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  water  was  65° ;  and 
in  October  the  temperatures  of  lioth  were  respectively 
8!)°  and  46.  In  the  Sound,  the  temperature  of  the  at- 
mosphere in  the  month  of  August  was  70° ;  on  the 
Hurfuce  of  the  water,  68° ;  and  at  three  fathoms,  66°. 
On  the  10th  of  October,  1813,  Dr.  Thomson  found  the 
temperature  of  the  Sound  to  bs  64°.     The  Skager- 


ba£ 


90 


M£ 


Back  and  Golf  of  Norway  are  open  to  n»vIg«tlon  all 
the  winter,  whoroas  several  portions  of  the  Baltic  are 
covered  with  ice  in  a  very  moderate  degree  of  cold ; 
and  generally  the  bays  and  channels  are  encumbered 
with  ice  at  the  latter  end  of  December.  The  waters 
toward  the  heads  of  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland 
are  first  ftrozen ;  and  the  ice  being  conveyed  by  the 
currents  to  tlie  south,  the  masses  of  it  are  united  by 
the  increasing  cold  into  vast  fields,  which  become  sta- 
tionary on  the  west  toward  Stockholm,  and  in  the  east 
toward  the  islands  of  Dago;  and  (Kscl.  In  the  south- 
em  parts  of  the  sea  the  ice  begins  to  break  up  in  April, 
but  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland  often  continue 
closed  till  May.  The  rigor  of  the  climate  in  the  Bal- 
tic is  Bupimsed  to  be  considerably  diminished  by  the 
clearing  of  the  forests  and  the  progress  of  cultivation ; 
at  least  the  frosts  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  appear,  in  their  intensity  and  long  continu- 
ance, to  have  exceeded  those  of  the  severest  seasons  in 
more  recent  times. 

The  wir.da  are  extremely  variable  In  the  Baltic,  but 
they  blow  most  commonly  from  the  oast  in  the  apring, 
and  fh>m  the  west  in  autumn.  Calms  are  seldom  ex- 
perienced except  in  the  middle  of  summer, 

Fiiheriet. — There  is  historical  evidence  that  the  her- 
ring fishery  was  a  branch  of  national  industry  in  the 
Sound  as  early  as  the  year  1168 ;  and  in  138!>,  accord- 
ing to  Philip  de  Mezibres,  such  vast  shoals  of  herrings 
crowded  into  the  Sound,  that  40,000  boats,  with  from 
six  to  ten  men  each,  were  employed  hi  the  fishery,  be- 
tides 900  largo  vessels.  In  which  tho  herrings  were 
salted.  This  important  branch  of  industry,  however, 
no  longer  exists.  "  In  the  year  1238,  the  inhabitants 
of  Gotliia  (Sweden)  and  Friso  were  prevented,  by  their 
fear  of  the  Tartars,  from  sending,  as  usual,  their  ships 
to  the  herring  fishing  on  the  coast  of  England ;  and  as 
there  was  no  exportiition,  40  or  60  of  these  fish  were 
■old  for  a  shilling.— MAi-rnEw  Paris,  p.  896.  It  is 
whimsical  enough  that  the  orders  of  Mogul  Khan,  who 
reigned  on  the  borders  of  China,  should  have  lowered 
the  price  of  herrings  in  the  English  market." — Gib- 
box,  vo!.  xi.  p.  422.  Salmon  ascend  the  rivers  ftrom 
April  to  June,  according  as  they  arc  free  from  tee.  On 
the  south,  they  abound  most  in  the  Oder,  Vistula,  D&no, 
and  Narrowa ;  on  the  north,  in  the  Motola,  Dalecarlia, 
Ulea,  Kemi,  Tomea,  and  Keymen.  Salmon-trout  k 
taken  In  some  bays  of  the  Baltic.  In  the  middle  of 
the  River  KemI  Is  a  small  island  where  an  annual  sal- 
mon fair  is  held. 

Wholes  very  rarely  enter  the  Baltic.  The  common 
porpoise  is  the  only  one  of  tho  lesser  species  of  ceta- 
ceous animals  that  lives  habitually  in  this  sea;  and  at 
Mlddlcfahrt,  In  Funen,  Is  a  crmpany  which  i.'njoys  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  talking  it.  There  are  two  vari- 
eties of  the  common  seal,  which  are  hunted  for  their 
e\'.,  In  March  and  April,  \iy  the  peasants  of  the  Isle  of 
Gottland,  and  of  the  islands  In  the  GuU^  of  Bothnia 
and  Finland. 

The  trade  of  the  Baltic  is  of  great  extent  and  Im- 
portance. In  18.'>2,  17,563  ships  passed  up  and  down 
the  Sound,  of  which  8902  were  British  vessels.  The 
internal  trade  Is  also  very  considerable.  Tho  exports 
consist  of  the  various  productions  of  the  countries  on 
its  coasts,  and  Include  com,  timber,  pitch  and  tar, 
hemp,  flax,  tallow,  hides,  linseed,  bristles,  wool,  etc. 
Its  imports  are  colonial  products,  manufactured  goods, 
dry  stulTs,  wines,  salt,  coal,  etc.  The  most  important 
ports  are  St.  Petersburg,  Riga,  Kunlgsberg,  Dfinzig, 
Swinemiinde,  Labeck,  Copenhagen,  Karlscrona,  and 
Stockholm.  By  means  of  numerous  large  rivers  and 
canals  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  witli  the  in- 
terior.—E.  B.  See  Thomson's  TrarrU  in  Sireden; 
TabhM  dr  la  Her  Bnlligue,  par  Catteadj  nbleau 
da  Elats  IkmoU,  par  Catteac. 

Of  all  seas,  the  Baltic  Is  one  of  the  most  danger- 
ous to  shipping  and  harassing  to  crews.  Sudden  and 
fVequent  changes  of  the  vrind,  shallow  waters  off  shore, 


innumerable  shoals  and  insulated  rocks,  with  currentt 
divided  by  these  obstacles,  l)ranching  olf  in  different 
directions  to  be  divided  by  the  same  cause,  till,  meet- 
ing from  opposite  quarters,  the  waters  are  embroiled 
In  the  hurly-burly  of  a  sturdy  conflict;  these  are  al- 
most constant  causes  of  anxiety  to  the  mariner,  for 
the  navigation  Is  most  beset  with  such  impediment! 
precisely  in  those  parts  which  are  eminently  the  high- 
ways uf  commerce.  Ilcnco  the  proportion  of  mari- 
time casualties  Is  much  greater  In  the  case  of  vessels 
sailing  to  the  Baltic  ports  than  in  the  instance  of 
merchantmen  passing  between  Great  Britain  and 
America. 

Three  of  the  rivers  flow  Into  the  North  Sea ;  the 
Oder  flows  into  the  Baltic,  and  the  triido  of  all  tho 
four,  particularly  that  of  the  Veser,  is  increasing.  Of 
the  Jahde  the  world  has  heard  but  little  till  lately, 
when  it  was  made  known  that  Prussia  had  acquired 
a  port  on  it.  By  an  agreement  between  Oldenbi.rg 
and  Pmssia,  concluded  in  July,  18fJ3,  and  rutilicd  In 
December,  Prussia  purchased  of  Oldenburg  for  500,000 
thalers  (about  il80,000)  the  sovereignty  of  600  morgcna 
(about  3000  acres)  of  land  and  marshes,  in  order  that 
Prussia  might  have  a  sea-port  on  the  North  Sea,  to 
give  protection  to  her  trade.  Jahde,  or  rather  Fulirhuh, 
will  probably  hereafter  become  a  place  of  some  im- 
portance. It  Is  seated  on  a  large  and  tolerably  safe 
bay  between  the  Ems  and  the  Weser,  and  may  prol)a- 
bly,  in  the  hands  of  Prussia,  Increase  In  importance. 
At  present  It  possesses  little  except  coasting  tnide. 
The  Wcscr,  a  short  river,  with  all  Its  tributaries,  so 
far  as  navigable,  flows  through  the  territories  of  six 
different  Powers,  and,  as  their  territories  are  mixed 
and  mingled  the  sovereignty  through  which  it  flows 
changes  no  less  than  thirty-four  times.  Formerly 
every  sovereign  had  his  tolls,  and  at  every  change  of 
sovereignty  there  was  a  toll-house.  At  present  the 
tolls  are  reduced  to  one  sum,  and  tho  toll-houses, 
which  wore  22,  are  reduced  to  9.  Tho  toll  at  present, 
from  Bremen  to  Carlshafen,  is  nearly  a  third  of  the 
freight. — Die  DeuUchen  SIrihne,  u.  s.  w.  Vierte  abthei- 
lung  die  Weser,  Ems,  Jahde,  und  Oder:  Leipzig. — 
PorE's  Journal  of  Trade. 

Baltimore,  a  city,  p«rt  of  entry,  metropolis  of 
the  State,  and  capital  of  Baltimore  county,  Mary- 
land. The  third  city  in  extent  and  population  in 
the  United  States ;  situated  on  the  north  side  of  Pa- 
tapsco  River,  10  miles  from  Its  entrance  Into  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  200  miles  from  the  ocean  bv  ship 
channel.  In  89°  17'  23  '  N.  lat.,  and  76'  87'  30  "  W. 
long. 

It  Is  by  railroad  route  38  miles  from  Washington, 
98  from  PhUadelphla,  186  from  New  York,  590  fh)m 
Pittsburg,  and  690  northeast  firom  Charleston.  Popula- 
tion in  1790,  18,503;  1800,  26,614;  1810,  85,583;  1820, 
62,788;  1880,  80,625;  1840,  102,313;  1850,  169,054; 
1854,  with  environs,  200,000.  The  branch  of  the  Pa- 
tapsco  River,  around  which  the  city  Is  built,  is  about 
a  mile  and  three-quarters  long,  and  varies  from  one- 
eighth  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width,  having  its 
greatest  breadth  opposite  to  the  tract  called  Canton. 
It  affords  an  easy  access  to  the  city,  and  a  capacious, 
safe,  and  well-protected  harbor  of  a  depth  and  extent 
sufficient  to  float  ships  of  the  largest  claus,  and  to  af- 
ford ample  accommodation  for  at  least  two  thousand 
vessels.  Its  harbor  consists  of  an  inner  basin,  at  the 
whar^-es  of  which  vessels  drawing  ten  or  twelve  feet 
of  water  may  He,  and  an  outer  lay  lying  between  Fells 
Point  and  Canton  on  the  north  and  east,  and  Whet- 
stone Point  on  the  south,  with  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet  of  water.  Ships  of  heavy  burden  do  not  go  ii|> 
higher  than  the  Point.  From*the  fitcilities  ofl'ercd  by 
the  depth  of  the  water,  tho  Point  is  also  the  scat  of 
the  principal  ship-yards,  from  which  have  been  launch- 
ed some  of  the  finest  and  fleetest  vessels  of  the  Amer- 
ican marine,  which  are  especially  noted  far  beauty 
of  proportion  and  excellence  of  construction.     Tho 


I  Be 

Lz 


1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
18R:;  . . 
I  185T  . . 
I85S.. 
1869.. 


tS41. 
1842. 
1S41., 
1844.. 
1845.. 
1840.. 
184:.. 
1848.. 
1849.. 

laso. . 

1851., 
1852.. 
1853. . , 
1854. . , 
\B!A. . , 
,  1«S«... 
1»BT. . . 


..i 


BAL 


n 


BAL 


name  of  Baltimore  clipper  tt  synonymous  all  over  the 
world  with  all  that  is  beautiful  in  naval  architecture, 
and  perfect  in  the  requisites  of  a  stanch  and  well-ap- 
pointed ship. 

Etiimate  of  tha  Ti-atle  of  Baltimore. — In  presenting 
tlie  annexed  table  we  do  so  only  with  the  view  of  ag- 
gregating, as  nearly  as  possible,  the  results  which  are 
aproad  out  at  length  in  the  text  and  figures  of  our  an- 
nual statement.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible,  unless  an 
official  and  rigid  system  of  statistics  was  adopted,  to 
get  all  the  values  of  the  thousand  ramifled  and  differ- 
ing l)ranches  of  business  in  a  great  centre  of  trade  lilie 
Baltimore.  In  malting  up  this  estimate,  however,  the 
endeavor  has  been  to  approximate  to  the  true  value  as 
nearly  as  possible,  and  no  figures  have  been  sot  down 
without  the  concurrence  of  experienced  dealers  in  each 
specific  trade.  In  no  instance  has  an  over-estimate 
been  taken ;  in  some  it  is  quite  probable  that  an  in- 
crease might  Justly  have  Ijeen  made.  In  this  view 
the  table  may  have  a  value  ns  a  basis  upon  which  the 
whole  trade  of  the  city  may  he  estimated.— floft/inore 
Americnn,  January,  1863. 

Boots  Slid  Bhoc'S . .  ^,650,000  i  Iron $2,flOn,0«0 

nooks  and  psper .    8,000,000  I  I^esthor 1,800,000 

Coal 8,060,000  I  Live  stock 4,174,000 

Clothing 6,SOO,000  ^  Lumber l,80i>,(HXl 

Copper 2,000,000  i  Malarucs »0(),I100 

Cotton 2,828,000    Naval  atorcs  . . . .         25S,00li 


IifSPBonoKS  or  Wua^T  Ftotra  at  DAtTiiiora,  1841-83. 


ColTee 8,800,000 

I>rug^  painta,  etc.  1,600,000 

Dry  Koode 80,000,000 

Earthen-ware 1,000,000 

Fish 280,000 

Flour 6,260,000 

Grain 6,300,000 

Oiiano 1,000,000 

Hardware 6,000,000 


Oysters 4,0011,000 

Provisions 6,000,001) 

Plana  trade 82ii,000 

Salt 86,000 

Sugar 6,000,000 

T-ibacco  &  cigars  4,OSi),000 

Vosatila  built. . .  >  805,400 

Whisky 1,870,000 

Wool 376,000 


Total $108,000,000 

CouPAaATivi  RaoEirrs  or  Gbain  at  DALTiMoai,  ISS^'.^S. 


Grnfn. 

I8U. 

18S6.       1 185S.        1       I8H. 

ISM. 

nuiheli. 

Btuhell.        BiJlheU. 

Buabfli. 

Duiheli. 

Wheal. . 

.',523,559 

2,99S,6:19 

4,278,109 

.3,102,004 

2,716,781 

Com  . . . 

1,641,100 

3,998,178 

6,003,492 

4,208,61S 

4,046,746 

Oats. . . . 

1,004,000 

1,3S3,400 

1,600,000 

1,157,613 

1,116,194 

Ilye.... 

118,000 

260,000 

34^000 

161,40:' 

110,000 

Poaa  , . . 

7,000 

20,000 

16,000 

6,oon 

23,000 

Ueans  . . 

Total.. 

1,000 

1,400 

2,000 

2,000 

2,000 

8,a'il,669,S,ti46,4IT 

ll,(M3,70O 

8,«-.'8,48T 

8,013,0711 

IMPOBTATIOMS  or  Corr»  at  Baltimokc,  1866-'69. 


Imporh  from 

I8S6. 

lUT, 

IIU. 

Ulo 

Ban*. 
196,931 
16,487 
6,418 

193",V28 
6,711 
2,020 

194^1561 
10,W7 

7,3(14 

Other  ports 

Coastwise 

ToUl 

917,736 

201,466 

217,402 

V«ara. 


BsrrtU. 


1841.. 
1842.. 
1843.. 
1844.. 
1848.. 
1816. 
1847.. 
1848. 
1S4'J. 
1830. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
IS.'U. 
1S86. 
1863. 
18S7. 
1868. 


613,006 
644,801 
647,824 
480,476 
6C"1,032 
834,666 
048,787 
724,978 
76'.t,680 
883,777 
806,084 
1,288,91H) 
1,171,268 
830,480 
1)60,070 
082,029 
847,974 
898,487 


HslfBamli. 


81,716 
86,962 
26,415 
26,062 
20,220 
81,322 
27,839 
22,!183 
27,007 
20,080 
82,828 
86,368 
24,878 
16,680 
14,188 
]0,r73 
16,880 
16,000 


Tuut  to  BarrtU. 


628,974 
658,282 
660,481 
499,601 
676,748 
8.'>0,116 
960,466 
780,441 
764,619 
896,698 
912,408 
1,807,160 
1,188,704 
837,196 
967,789 
940,814 
866,014 
900,487 


iNsraonoNS  or  Mabtiaiid  and  Onio  Tobacco,  1841-'6 


Viin. 

InipMUooa. 

Stoeli  on  hand 
0«c«inbor  81 

Mar>:i.nd. 

Oblo. 

total. 

HhJi 

Ilhdi. 

Hhda. 

Hhdi. 

1841 

i9,!  SO 

7,692 

07,673 

10,000 

1842 

88,7-.3 

1 1,279 

48,038 

9,000 

1818 

29,017 

i,;,406 

43,082f 

12,864 

1814 

82,ls8 

16,8!;0 

47,608 

12,008 

1846 

S!>,S44 

26,710 

66,860 

16,848 

1840 

41,027 

•;8,302 

69,8S9 

82,410 

1817 

.13,726 

15,071 

4'',400 

28,467 

1848 

23,2.13 

9,846 

33,098 

8'2,-61 

1849 

80,965 

18,618 

44,688 

19,628 

1850 

27,(85 

13,!'65 

41,040 

10,617 

1861 

26,018 

10,791 

41,804 

17,699 

1852 

£9,570 

17,720 

47,290 

11,760 

18.W 

29,248 

17,947 

47,195 

0,779 

ISM 

20,048 

10,802 

86,41  > 

3,718 

18'  8 

88,470 

10,1:97 

88,5i;; 

4,278 

1860 

44,779 

0,610 

61,889 

4,094 

1887 

87,978 

7,680 

45,608 

4,101 

1,888 

46,140 

82,243 

07,383 

8,900 

Valub  or  FoaaiaH  Impobtb  amd  Kxpobts  at  toe  Distbiot 

or  IlALTIHOBX,  lSll-'58. 


Vun. 

Import*. 

Eiporta. 

V.ar.. 

186(1 

Import!. 
*0,417,I13 

Eiportf, 

1841 

$8,1119,101 

$4,a»7,fi33 

$.s,53O,070 

1842 

4,062,':60 

4,448,940     1861 

7,'.'43,9G8 

0,406,  ll'e 

1843 

3,6117,734 

4,740,042       S.V.' 

6,97S,021 

7,849,760 

1844 

4,261,883 

4,622,063 

.■53 

6,881,671 

0,(186,914 

1846 

8,3.'i«,670 

6,2bfl,'276 

4 

7,750,3^7 

11,800,010 

1840 

4,288,700 

fl,710,N>9 

'i 

7,772,6.11 

11,001,087 

1847 

4,140,743 

9,820,479 

1 

10,140,838 

13,'202,528 

1848 

6,24^894 

7,209,002 

IS.'.,   '1  ■3,(154,670 

11,4(3,810 

1849 

6,'i9l,666 

8,06:1,831 

185b  ,  T,008,980 

10,119,080 

Banks. — There  are  sixteen  banks  in  Baltimore, 
whose  condition  for  seven  years,  from  January,  1853, 
to  January,  1859,  inclusive,  is  shown  as  follows : 


January, 


1888  . 
1864. 
1865  . 
1860. 
1857  . 
IS.'H. 
1860. 


Capitol. 


$7,291,416 
7,693,880 
8,570,698 
0,00.5,934 
9,777,603 
10,100,348 
10,206,846 


$3,888,0.18 
2,960,533 
8,C!1S,708 
3,388,430 
8,3r6,fl43 
8,068,048 
2,972,344 


DopMlti, 


$0,021,707 
0,962,089 
6,868,623 
0,486,368 
7,766,860 
0,082,007 
7,880,634 


$14,291,221 
14,009,213 
14,279,r,fl3 
16,307,869 
18,704,9.M 
17,8(12,005 
17,960,316 


Spoei*. 


$2,00 1,010 

2,848,708 
8,484,946 
2,88),7fla 
2,998,876 
8,169,617 
8,717,199 


ExroBTS  or  Tobaooo  rBOM  Baltixobe,  1841-63. 


1841 

Hkdi. 

16,878 

1843 

17,719 

1843 

16,949 

1844 

17,137 

1846 

28,788 

1846 

24,074 

1847 

22,251 

1848 

12,708 

1849 

18,f,81 

18!50 

16,980 

1851 

la.wo 

1852 

2»,70T 

IS-W 

18,947 

1854 

16,676 

1856 

«:,009 

1866 

31,408 

1087 

V,.»1S 

188« 

16,780 

Hhdi. 

7,918 

10,874 

0,474 

11,878 

18,171 

8,104 

8,693 

7,938 

18,876 

7,810 

9,061 

11,858 

10,898 

7,368 

9,728 

]4,e28 

18,088 

17,988 


Hhda. 

6,169 
8,109 
7,311 
7,098 

10,944 
7,314 

10,409 
8,000 
8,786 

^<.'8» 

4,164 
5,004 
9,9,80 
6,486 
^761 
10,141 
4,104 


Antwtrp. 


Hhdi. 
008 
978 
324 
190 
667 
1860 
16.59 
131 
800 


471 

ia6 


Rmdon. 


602 
190 

238 

pio 

829 


269 


Hhdi. 
8,814 
4,083 
8,.''>66 
7,218 
7,188 
8,105 
8,047 
4,911 
9,668 
8,177 
8,826 
7,679 
6,880 

10,180 
7,8-'0 
4,919 
7,488 

10,986 


Trioito. 


Hhdi. 

1183 

1401 

S614 

903 

1878 

426 

180 


600 
1861 

840 
1619 

610 
802 
1218 
1140 


Bngland. 

"  HhS:  ~ 

120 


860 
600 
1936 
1820 
2815 
2778 
1116 
30(10 
4268 
2228 
4283 


Total  Biport. 
Hbdi. 
86,483 
43,768 
42,824 
41,910 
66,910 
61,880 
63,844 
20,032 
82,348 
44,468 
8.1,840 
81,773 
80,(:88 
41,340 
88,2;i 
86,or8 
4^7<8 
68,843 


BAM 


9» 


BAN 


koooawt  or  na  ImraonoH*  or  Wheat  Fioim,  Ihoum  Cobn  iUal,  Rtr  Umau,  amd  Toiuooo  at  BAunnoaa,  Doiini* 

iu<!ii  or  TiiK  (luuT  Yum  iNDiiia  wini  185;^. 


Vmt. 

■  rw. 

h4taC«N«l. 

«I»Hm1. 

TokMw. 

1840 

bbU. 
670,745 
8S0,11< 
06»,4I!« 
780,441 
704,519 
800,599 
019,408 
1,a07,ta6 

031 
1078 
934 
888 
428 
979 
020 
477 

UI<. 
93,040 
40,049 
10^84* 
00,996 
61,n9 
4i,*08 
98,017 
59,066 

1744 
1908 
1«29 
9061 
8309 
99M 
746 

bbU 
0618 
6401 

Ooot 

7610 
8007 
5419 
7064 
0440 

haV-bbU. 
94 

40 

loe 

9 
29 

Oh 
11 

AM.. 

60,611 

46,001 
41,1:38 
49,741 

1840 

1807. 

|g48 

1849 

1800 

1801 

1S59 

Bamboo  (Fr.  Bambou,  Bambouchh;  Ger.  Indian. 
itcherXohr;  It.  Bambu;  Hind.  Jiatm;  Malay,  BMhj 
Jav.  Prtng),  a  spaeies  of  cane,  the  llamhot  arundmacfa 
of  botanbta.  It  growa  every  whore  within  the  tropics, 
and  ia  of  the  greataat  utility :  strictly  apealcing,  it  Is  a 
gigantic  grass  with  a  ligneous  stem.  It  often  rises  to 
the  height  of  40  or  60  feet,  and  sometimes  to  even 
double  those  heights.  lilio  most  plants  long  and  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  it  diverges  into  many  varieties. 
Some  of  these  are  dwarltsh,  while  others,  instead  of 
being  hollow  canes,  are  solid.  The  baml)oo  is  of  rapid 
growth,  and  in  four  or  five  years  is  lit  for  many  uses, 
but  does  not  bear  fruit  or  grain  till  it  is  25  years  old, 
after  which  it  perishes.  The  f;rain  inal(es  tolerable 
bread.  The  young  but  gigantic  shoots,  as  they  spring 
from  the  earth,  make  a  tender  and  good  esculent  vege- 
table. The  mature  bamboo  is  employed  in  an  im- 
mense variety  of  ways — in  the'  construction  of  houses, 
bridges,  Iwats,  agricultural  implements,  etc.  Some 
varieties  gro»  to  such  a  size  as  to  be,  jn  the  largest 
part,  near  two  feet  in  circumference,  and  single  Icnees 
of  these  are  used  aa  pails  or  bucliets.  The  Chinese 
are  believed  to  fabricate  their  clieap  and  useftil  paper 
of  macerated  bamboo.  The  canes  used  in  Kurope  as 
walking-sticks  are  not  bamboos,  but  rattans — a  totally 
distinct  class  of  plants.  Bamboos  are  never  used  for 
that  purpoee. — Pritate  vrfantalitm. 

Banana  (J/iua  lapienluni),  an  herbaceous  plant,  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies.  Its  IVuit  is  produced  in 
large  clusters  weighing  many  pounds,  and  forms  a 
considerable  article  of  food  among  the  better  classes. 

Banrtanaa,  silk  handkerchiefs,  generally  red  spot- 
ted with  white.  They  were  formerly  manufactured 
only  in  the  East  Indies ;  but  they  are  now  manufac- 
tured of  ■  very  good  quality  at  Glasgow  and  other 
places. 

Bangkok,  or  Bankok,  the  capital  city  of  Siam, 
and  one  of  the  most  commercial  cities  in  Asia,  on  the 
Menam,  alnut  20  miles  above  its  mouth.  Lat.  18° 
68'  N.,  long.  100°  84'  E.  Population  from  60,000  to 
60,000  (?),  half  of  whom  are  Chinese.  It  stretches 
along  both  banka  of  the  river,  and  consists  of  three 
portions;  viz.,  the  palace  or  citadel,  on  an  island  in- 
closed by  walls,  and  comprising  the  residences  of  the 
sovereign  and  court,  with  many  temples  and  gardens ; 
the  city  proper ;  and  the  floating  town,  composed  of 
movable  bamboo  rafts,  each  bearing  rows  of  8  or  10 
honaes.  It  has  numarous  Buddhic  temples;  and  in 
the  palace  is  a  spacious  audience-hall.  The  more  solid 
buildings  are  of  brick ;  liut  the  majority  of  the  dwell- 
higs  are  of  wood,  mounted  on  posts.  Most  of  the  in- 
tercourse is  carried  on  by  water,  and  the  Menam  is 
navigable  to  the  city  for  vessels  of  250  tons.  Bang- 
kok ha*  manufacturer  >.f  tin  and  iron  wares,  and  leath- 
er. BxporU  compriM'  sugar  (from  10,000  to  12,0(10 
tons  yearly),  black  pepper  (4000  to  6000  tons),  tin,  card- 
amoma,  fine  woods,  ivory,  cotton,  rice,  hides,  horns, 
skins,  and  feathers.  Imports,  tea,  quicktilver,  raw 
and  manufactured  silks,  porcelain,  and  numerous  man- 
nfartured  articles  from  China;  camphor,  and  edililo 
birds'  nest*,  from  the  Asiatic  Archipelago;  and  I'.iiro- 
pean  and  Indian  piece  goods,  opium,  and  glass  »arcs, 
tnm  the  British  and  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East. 
The  country  around  is  flat,  but  conUins  rich  niinas  of 
Iron,  and  extensive  forests  of  teak.  The  most  fnvor- 
able  time  for  reaching  Bangkok,  in  sfaiiw  of  consider- 


able draught,  ia  about  the  lieginning  of  November, 
when  the  rains  are  Just  over,  and  the  season  is  cool 
and  healthful.  There  is  then  on  the  bar  of  the  river, 
at  low  water,  a  depth  of  SJ  fathoms.  In  the  spring 
and  summer  months  it  is  sometimes  as  low  as  two 
fathoms,  or  a  little  more,  and  the  capital  is  then  reach- 
ed with  some  difiiculty. 

Bank.— Banking.  Banks  are  establishments  in- 
tended to  serve  for  the  safe  custody  and  issue  of  moik- 
ey ;  for  facilitating  its  payment  by  one  individual  to 
another;  and  sometimes  fur  the  ucconimodation  of 
the  public  with  loans.  These  subjects  will  lie  consld. 
ere d  under  the  heads :  I.  General  Principles  of  Bank- 
ing; II.  Account  of  Bank  of  England;  III.  English 
Private  and  Provinchil  Banks;  IV.  Scotch  Banks; 
V.  Irkh  Banks;  VI.  Foreign  Banks;  VII.  Banking 
in  the  United  States;  VIII.  Savings  Banks. 

"The  first  established  was  in  Italy,  A.n.  808,  bythe 
Lomlmrd  .lews,  of  whorii  some  settled  in  I.ombard 
Street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still  reside.  The 
name  is  derived  from  6«nivi,  a  l)encb,  which  was  erect- 
ed in  the  market-place  for  the  exchange  of  money. 
The  mint  in  the  Tower  of  London  was  anciently  the 
depositor}'  for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  I.  laid 
Ills  hands  upon  the  monej',  and  destroyed  the  credit 
of  the  mint  in  1640.  The  traders  were  thus  driven  to 
some  other  place  of  security  for  their  gold,  which, 
when  kept  at  home,  their  apprentices  frequently  ab- 
sconded with  to  the  army.  In  1646,  therefore,' they 
consented  to  lodge  it  with  the  goldsmiths  in  I^mbard 
Street,  who  were  provided  with  strong  chests  for  their 
own  valuable  wares;  and  this  l)ecaiBe  the  origin  of 
banking  in  England."— Uaydk. 

A.D, 

Dank  of  Venice  formed , 1167 

Bank  of  Geneva 1 345 

Bank  of  BarcclonB 1401 

Bank  of  Genoa 1407 

Bank  of  Amsterdam 1807 

Bank  of  llambniv 1019 

Bank  of  Itotterdam 10.15 

Bank  of  Stockholm loss 

Bank  of  England 1004 

Bank  of  BcoUand ifl05 

Bank  of  Copenhagm 1736 

Bank  of  Berlin 17J6 

C'alsae  d'Kicompte,  France 177J 

Bank  of  Irclaad ifsi 

MassachuKtu  Bank,  Boston,  established 1784 

Bank  of  81.  Petersburg uso 

In  the  V'mA  Indies iTnj 

Branch  Banks  In  Orest  Britain 1828 

I.  Genkivii.  PniJccipi.Es  or  Bankino.— Banks  are 
commonly  divided  into  the  two  great  classes  of  banks 
o/deponi  and  bankt  o/iiiue.  This,  however,  appears 
at  first  sight  to  lie  rather  an  imperfect  classiflcution, 
inasmuch  as  almost  all  banks  of  deposit  urc  at  the 
same  time  bunks  of  issue,  and  almost  oil  liunks  of  Issue 
also  banks  of  deposit.  But  there  is  in  reality  no  am- 
I'iguity ;  for  by  lianks  of  deposit  are  meant  hanks  for 
the  custody  and  employment  of  the  money  deposited 
with  them  or  intrusted  to  their  care  by  their  custom- 
ers, or  by  the  public;  while  by  banks  of  issue  are 
meant  banks  which,  besides  employing  or  issuing  the 
mone}'  intrusted  to  them  '  others,  issue  money  of 
their  own,  or  notes  payabl'<  on  demand.  The  Bank 
of  England  is  principally  a  bank  of  issue ;  but  it,  a* 
well  as  the  other  banks  in  the  dllfeiwnt  parts  of  the 
empire  that  issue  notes,  is  aho  a  great  bank  of  deposit. 
The  private  banking  companies  of  London,  and  tho 


in  i 

the  1 
The 
are 


BAN 


•:>s 


BAN 


A.D. 

..  116T 
..  1345 
..  14))l 
..  1407 
..  IWt 
..  l«t» 

..  ions 

..  1688 
..  1894 

..  loss 
...  nse 

...  1T« 

...  m» 

. ..  1T83 

...  ns4 

...  IMd 

...  ITST 

. ..  isas 


Vtrioui  provincial  banks  that  do  not  Isnie  notes  of 
their  own,  are  strictly  banks  of  deposit.  Banking 
business  may  In  conducted  indifferently  by  individ- 
uals, by  private  compauies,  or  by  Joint-stock  compa- 
nies or  associations. 

l/HHtjf  anH  Funetiotu  nfBankt  nfDepotit. — Banks  of 
this  class  execute  all  that  is  properly  understood  by 
banking  business;  and  their  establishment  has  con- 
tributed in  no  ordinar}-  degree  to  give  security  and 
facility  to  commercial  transactlnns.  They  att'ord,  when 
properly  conducted,  safe  and  convenient  places  of  de- 
posit for  the  money  that  would  otherwise  have  to  be 
kept,  at  a  considerable  risk,  in  prirnlo  houses.     They 
also  prevent,  in  a  great  measure,  the  necessity  of  car- 
rying money  from  place  to  place  to  make  payments, 
and  enable  them  to  be  made  in  the  most  convenient 
•nd  least  expensive  manner.     A  merchant  or  trades- 
man in  Ix>ndon,  for  example,  wlio  employs  a  banker, 
keep.s  but  very  little  money  in  his  own  hands,  making 
all  bis  considerable  payments  by  drafts  or  checks  on 
his  banker;  and  lie  also  sends  the  various  checks, 
bills,  or  drafts  payable  to  himself  in  I.«ndon,  to  his 
bankers  Ijefore  the}'  become  due.     By  this  means  he 
saves  tiie  trouble  and  inconvenience  of  counting  sums 
of  money,  mid  avoids  the  losses  he  would  otherwise  be 
liable  to,  atid  would  no  doubt  occasionally  incur,  from 
receiving  coins  or  notes  not  genuine.     Perhaps,  how- 
ever, tlie  great  advantage  derived  by  the  merchant  or 
tradesman  ft-om  the  employment  of  a  banker,  consists 
in  its  relieving  him  from  all  trouble  with  respect  to 
the  presentation  for  payment  of  due-bills  and  drafts. 
The  moment  these  are  transferred  to  the  banker,  they 
are  at  his  risk.    And  if  he  either  neglect  to  present 
them  when  due,  or  to  have  them  (iroperly  noted  in  the 
event  of  their  not  being  paid,  he  is  responsilJe  for  the 
consequences.     "This  circumstance  alone  must  cause 
an  immense  saving  of  expense  to  a  mercantile  house 
in  the  course  of  a  year.     Let  us  suppose  that  a  mer- 
chant has  only  two  bills  due  each  day.    These  bills 
may  be  payable  in  distant  parts  of  the  town,  so  that 
it  may  take  a  clerk  half  a  day  to  present  them ;  and 
in  large  mercantile  establishments  it  would  take  up 
the  whole  time  of  one  or  two  clerks  to  present  the  Ait- 
bills  and  the  drafts.    The  salary  of  these  clerks  is, 
therefore,  saved  by  keeping  an  account  at  a  Iwnker's : 
besides  the  saving  of  expense,  't  is  also  reasonable  to 
BUpjKise  that  losses  upon  bills  would  soniCtinies  occur 
from  mistakes  or  oversights ;  from  miscalculation  as 
to  the  time  the  liiil  would  become  due ;  from  errors  in 
narking  it  up;  f^om  forgctfulness  to  present  it;  or 
ft'oin-  presenting  it  at  the  wrong  place.    In  these  cases 
the  indorsers  and  drawees  are  exonerated ;  and  if  the 
acceptor  do  not  pay  the  bill,  the  amount  is  lost.     In  a 
banking-house  such  mistakes  occur  sometimes,  though 
more  rarely ;  but  when  they  do  occur,  the  loss  falls 
upon  the  banker,  and  not  upon  his  customer." — GiL- 
UAUt's  Practical  Obtervations  on  Hanking. 

It  is  on  other  grounds  particularly  desirable  for  a 
merchant  or  tradesman  to  have  an  account  with  a 
banking-house.  He  can  refer  to  his  bankers  as  vouch- 
ers for  iiifl  resjiectaliility ;  and  in  the  event  of  his  wish- 
ing to  acquire  any  information  with  respect  to  the  cir- 
cumstances or  credit  of  any  one  with  whom  he  is  not 
acquainted,  his  bankers  render  him  all  the  assistance 
in  their  power.  In  this  respect  they  have  great  facil- 
ities, it  being  the  common  proctice  among  l)ankcrs  in 
London,  and  most  otiier  trading  towns,  to  communi- 
cate information  to  each  other  as  to  the  credit  and 
solvency  of  their  customers. 

In  Great  Britain,  to  provide  for  the  public  security, 
the  statute  7  &  8  Geo.  4,^c.  20,  §  49,  "for  the  punish- 
ment of  eml)ezzlement  committed  by  agents  intrusted 
with  property,"  enacts,  "That  if  any  money,  or  se- 
curity for  the  payment  of  money,  shall  l>e  intrusted  to 
any  banker,  merchant,  broker,  attorney,  or  other  agent, 
with  any  direction  m  writing  to  apply  such  money,  or 
tny  part  thereof,  or  the  proceeds,  or  any  port  of  the 


proceeds  of  such  security,  for  any  purpoM  tpeelfled  In 
such  direction,  and  he  shall.  In  violation  of  good  faith, 
and  contrary  to  the  purpose  so  specified,  in  any  wis* 
convert  to  hii  own  use  or  benefit  such  money,  securi- 
ty, or  proceeds,  or  any  part  thereof  respectively,  everr 
such  offender  shall  be  guiHy  of  a  misdemeanor,  and, 
being  convicted  thereof,  shall  be  liable,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  conrt,  to  be  transported  beyond  seas,  for 
any  *erm  not  exceeding  fourtiien  years,  nor  less  thon 
seven  years,  or  to  suffer  such  punishment  by  tine  or 
imprisonment,  or  l>y  lioth,  a*  the  court  shall  award  t 
and  If  any  chattel  or  valuable  security,  or  any  power 
of  attorney  for  the  sale  or  transfer  of  any  share  or  In- 
terest in  any  public  stock  or  ftind,  whether  of  this 
kingdom,  or  of  Great  Britain,  or  of  Ireland,  or  of  any 
foreign  State,  or  in  any  fund  of  any  body  corporate, 
company  or  society,  shall  be  Intrusted  to  any  hanker, 
merchant,  broker,  attorney,  or  other  agent,  for  tali 
custody,  or  for  any  special  purpose,  tHthout  any  authai^ 
ity  to  tell,  negotiate,  transfer,  or  pledge,  and  he  shall, 
in  violation  of  good  faith,  and  contrary  to  the  object 
or  purpose  for  which  such  chottel  or  security,  or  power 
of  attorney,  shall  have  been  intrusted  toliim,  sell,  ne- 
gotiate, transfer,  pledge,  or  in  any  manner  convert  to 
his  ov'ii  use  or  l>enefit  such  chattel  or  security,  or  the 
prDcee<1s  of  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  or  the  share 
or  interest  in  stock  or  ftind  to  whicli  such  power  of  ot- 
tomey  shall  relate,  or  any  part  thereof,  every  such 
offender  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  being 
convicted  thereof,  shall  be  I'able,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  court,  to  any  of  the  punishments  which  the  court 
may  award,  as  hereinbefore  last  mentioned." 

This  act  is  not  to  affect  trustees  and  mortgagees, 
nor  liunkers  receiving  money  due  upon  securities,  nor 
securities  upon  which  they  have  a  lien,  claim,  or 
demaiMl,  entitling  them  by  law  to  sell,  transfer,  or 
otherwise  dispose  of  them,  unless  such  sale,  transfer, 
or  other  disimsal  shall  extend  to  a  greater  number  or 
part  of  such  securities  or  effects  than  shall  be  requisite 
for  satisfying  sucli  lien,  claim,  etc. — §  50. 

Nothing  in  this  act  is  to  prevent,  impeach,  or  lessen 
any  remedy  at  law  or  in  ciiuity,  which  any  party  ag- 
grieved liy  any  such  offence  might  or  would  have  had 
had  it  not  l)een  passed.  No  banker,  merchant,  etc., 
shall  be  convicted  as  an  offender  against  this  act,  in 
respect  of  any  act  done  by  him,  if  he  shall  it  any 
time  previously  to  his  being  indicted  for  such  offense 
have  disclosed  such  act  on  oath,  in  consequence  of 
any  compulsory  process  of  any  court  of  law  or  equity, 
in  any  action  bond  Jidf  instituted  by  any  party  ag- 
grieved, or  if  he  shall  have  disclosed  the  same  in  any 
examination  or  deposition  before  any  commissioner  of 
l>ankrupt. — §  62.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  act 
the  members  of  the  firm  of  Strahan,  Paul,  and  Bates, 
banken,  London,  were  found  guilty,  and  on  the  27th 
of  Octoljer,  1856,  were  sentenced  to  transportation  for 
fourteen  years. 

The  Bank  of  England,  and  the  private  l>anking  com- 
panies of  I/>ndon,  as  well  ss  some  of  the  English  pro- 
vincial banks,  charge  no  commission  on  the  payments 
made  and  received  on  account  of  tliose  who  deal  with 
them.  And  until  the  recent  introduction  of  joint- 
stock  banks,  none  of  the  London  bankers,  except  in 
peculiar  cases,  allowed  interest  on  deposits ;  nor  is  it 
yet  allowed  by  the  great  majority  of  the  metropolitan 
private  Irankers.  It  is  also  either  stipub  red  or  dis- 
tinctly understood  that  a  person  employing  a  banker 
should,  besides  fumisliing  him  with  sufficient  funds  to 
pay  his  drafts,  liecp  an  average  balance  in  the  banker's 
hands,  var)'ing,  of  course,  according  to  the  amount  of 
business  done  on  his  account ;  that  is,  according  to  tlic 
numlier  of  his  checks  or  drafts  to  lie  paid,  and  tlie 
numlier  of  drafts  and  lillls  to  lie  received  for  him.  The 
bankers  then  calculate,  ns  well  as  they  can,  the  prob- 
able amount  of  cash  that  It  will  be  necessary  for  tiiem 
to  keep  in  their  coffers  to  meet  the  ordinary  demands 
of  their  customers,  and  employ  the  balance  in  dis- 


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04 


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counting  iiMroMtllt  UlU,  In  Itm  tmrfUmm  »f  •Mart* 
Um,  or  in  wm*  ollwr  iturt  uf  pnMuliU  iMlv«MIMr«t  no 
U»t  tlisir  prolltf  L'oniLit  of  Om  tMni  llM>y  r«(illK«  ttum 
iucli  part  of  tba  inonayi  Imltf*')  >ii  llioir  h«nil/>  «•  IIm/ 
G«n  Ventura  to  auiploy  lu  an  a4i'aHI«((MW«  way,  aftor 
deducting  tJia  variijua  expaMa*  »ll«ii4«nt  on  llw  man' 
agenieiit  of  their  ettaltlitbuuiMli*.  A  )miik  ii(  il«|i<i«lt 
would  never  lie  eetaliliaitad  If  it  lutil  Ut  tl«>u«nd  un  it* 
own  capital ;  it  niakee  lu)  prulit,  in  it*  trntmity  lA  iMnh, 
tilt  it  lieghu  to  employ  tite  capital  'if  (rtWa, 

The  director)  of  tba  iiank  of  Kui{l«n4  Ah  ikrt  alWw 
any  individual  to  ovnrdraw  bla  ai'^'iiunt.  'iliay  anawar 
drafts  to  the  full  extant  of  iba  fuiiila  daMwilMl  in  Itietr 
handa ;  but  thay  will  iwt  \my  »  dntit  if^tt  aN<'««d  their 
amount.  Private  bankara  are  mil  gMMrfally  mi  Msrupti* 
loiu;  moat  of  tbem  allow  mmtflutAii  IwllvMiial*  In 
whom  they  have  cunltdenca  to  uyurff  raw  tltalr  acnnintii, 
those  who  do  so  paying  iiilorust  at  llMt  rati  i/f  A  per 
cent,  on  whatever  Hum*  tboy  wvorilraw,  Tim  ixmse*- 
■ion  of  this  power  uf  overdrawing  U  iitim  a  great  nm- 
vanlence  to  merchants,  wbilu  it  U  rarely  iirrxlHdlve  <it 
lou  to  the  banker.  'I'lia  moiM.-y  wbitib  la  «v«<rilrawn  Is 
usually  replaced  within  a  sliurt  |wriii4 )  a#in«llin««,  In- 
deed, In  a  day  or  two.  'I'lw  dir««Mira  wf  ilia  tlank  u{ 
England  decline  granting  IbU  fat'ilily,  fr«m  a  disin- 
clination on  their  part  Ut  amm  liifii  iwH'wIJilon  In  a 
matter  of  this  sort  with  privat«  liankxra,  mtui  trunract 
this  kind  of  business  betlur,  prol/alily,  itian  It  ci/uld  lie 
done  by  a  great  establisbnieMt  Ilka  tlia  U»nk, 

Uauks  att'ord  great  fai.'ilitia«  U>  Ilia  pMlillc  In  lh«  ne- 
gotiation at  bllU  of  excbauga,  or  in  tb««  making  ut  pay- 
ments at  distant  places.  Many  ut  tb<«  Iwnking  com- 
panies established  In  different  dislrirta  hnva  a  direct 
intercourse  with  each  other,  and  tiMty  hava  all  corre- 
spondents in  iMuiun,  lleui.'e  an  in<livl<iiial  reKlitIng 
in  any  part  of  the  country,  wtw>  may  wish  l<i  make  a 
payment  in  any  other  port,  Imwevar  distant,  may  effect 
his  object  by  applying  tu  tba  Iwnk  naareH  Ui  him. 
Thus,  suppose  A.  of  IV-izanca  has  a  payment  Ui  make 
to  B.  of  Inverness  i  u>  transmit  IIm  mumy  l/y  lett«r 
would  be  hazardous ;  and  If  thara  want  frarti^mal  pads 
of  a  pound  in  the  sum,  it  would  hardly  \m  |>ra«tlc«l<le  i 
how  then  will  A.  manage  f  lla  wilt  iwy  tlta  *«im  to  a 
banker  in  Penzance,  and  Ills  cradittyr  In  lnvfrrn«>iis  will 
receive  it  from  a  banker  tbare,  't'l)«  iramiiw'lljin  Is  6»- 
trcn-^iy  simple ;  the  I'anzanca  Imnkor  «fil«f»  lii*  corra- 
apondent  in  London  t/t  pay  tu  tita  ('(/rrn«)a/fMbmt  n(  the 
Inverness  banker  the  nunt  in  utmnlUm  <m  acotrnt  of 
n.,  and  the  Inverness  banker,  Iwing  »4vimtd  in  course 
of  post  of  what  haa  been  inna,  |hivs  U,  A  small  com- 
mission charged  by  the  I'enxawa  wnkar,  ami  tile  post- 
ages, constitute  the  whole  eaiMmM,  'rit«re  is  no  risk 
whatever,  and  the  whole  amiir  U  tf«Miael«d  In  the 
most  commodious  and  cbea|>«st  mannor. 

By  far  the  largest  proportion  lurth  of  lb«  Inland  Hits 
In  circulation  In  the  country,  aixl  also  of  iIm  tirfeign 
bills  drawn  upon  Great  Kritain,  »r«  ma4«  payable  in 
London,  the  granJ  foius  to  wbiili  alt  llt«  pmunlnry 
transactions  of  the  empire  are  nlllmat^ly  immuht  Ui  I* 
adjusted.  And  in  order  still  fnrtlMir  Ui  awmimize  iIm 
use  of  money,  the  prinilwal  liankers  uf  Uu,  m«tr(/polls 
are  in  the  habit  of  tuiumu  a  tlarfc  muih  (i»y  to  the 
clearinghouse  in  I.cmUrd  Hiraat,  wim  caffl**  with 
him  the  various  bilU  intlui  |iu«niiMlon of  Itlii  htmmlhat 
are  drawn  upon  other  liankero ;  and  having  exchanged 
tbem  for  the  bills  ip  the  poswssWn of  ilum uitmtn  that 
are  drawn  upon  bU  constltuonls,  tlw  lattamm  oti  the 
one  side  or  the  other  is  pabl  in  niuiU  ut  Uutik  uf  Kn- 
gland  notes.  By  this  cuntrlvanc*  t!i«  Itankars  of  l^m- 
don  are  able  to  settle  tranaa<'tions  l»  Um  unUntl  ut  SbV- 
eral  millioDS  a  day,  by  Ilia  enipb<ym«int  of  mrt  more,  at 
an  averago,  than  fh.m  t,i()l>,(m  Ut  imi,m)  of  cash  or 
bank  notes. — See  Ci.KAHiiiii.Hiii/aK, 

In  consequence  of  tliese  and  olb«r  fafdlltlas  MirM 
by  the  intervention  of  bankers  for  Ilia  s«t|t«m«fll  of 
pecuniary  transactions,  tUf  iiioiMiy  rfifuifmi  U>  cowtiict 
the  basloeiw  of  au  e»uasiva  country  la  r«du«Mi  lo  a 


trifla  only,  compared  to  what  it  would  otherwise  be.  It 
Is  not,  Indeed,  possilde  to  fom>  any  very  accurate  uKti> 
male  of  the  total  saving  that  is  thus  eft'ected ;  but,  sup- 
posing tlut  60  or  60  millions  of  gold  and  silver  und 
bank-notes  are  at  present  required,  notwitlistandiug 
all  the  devices  that  liuve  been  resorted  to  for  euoiio- 
mking  money,  for  the  circulation  of  Urcut  llritaiii,  it 
may,  one  should  think,  bo  fairly  concluded  that  200 
millions  would,  at  tlio  very  least,  be  required  to  trans- 
act an  equal  extent  of  business  but  for  those  devices. 
If  this  statement  bo  nearly  accumte,  and  there  ara 
goo<l  grounds  fur  thinking  that  it  U  rather  under  than 
overrated,  it  strikingly  exhibit)  the  vast  importance 
of  banking  in  a  public  point  of  view.  By  Its  meana 
iiO  or  CO  millions  aro  rendered  capable  of  performing 
the  same  functions,  and  in  an  ii:flnitoly  more  commo- 
dious manner,  that  would  othcrwUe  have  required 
four  times  that  sum ;  and  supponiiig  that  '20  or  DO  mill- 
ions are  employed  by  the  iHinkcra  as  a  capiiul  in  their 
establishments,  no  less  than  120  or  130  millions  will 
lie  altogether  disengaged,  or  cease  to  be  employed  as 
an  Instrument  of  circulation,  and  made  available  for 
employment  in  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  com- 
merce. The  security  aiforded  by  a  bank  of  deposit  is 
a  matter  as  to  which  there  must  al'S'ays  bo  more  or 
less  of  doubt.  When,  indeed,  a  b&nking  company 
coiiAnes  itself  to  its  pro'icr  business,  and  does  not  em- 
biirk  in  speculations  of  unusual  hazard,  or  from  which 
its  funds  can  not  Iw  easily  withdrawn,  in  the  event  of 
a.iy  sudden  run  or  demand,  it  can  hardly  ever  fall  of 
lieing  in  a  situation  to  meet  its  engagements ;  wliile 
tlie  targe  private  fortunes  that  most  commonly  l)elong 
to  the  partners  afibitl  those  who  deal  with  it  an  addi- 
tional guarantee.  Much,  liowevcr,  do|)ends  on  the 
character  of  the  parties,  and  on  a  vuriety  of  circum- 
stances with  respect  to  which  tlie  public  cuii  never  lie 
correctly  informed ;  so  tliat  though  there  cun  lie  no 
doubt '  that  the  security  afforded  liy  many  private 
lianks  of  deposit  is  of  the  most  unquestionable  descrip- 
tion, this  may  not  be  the  case  with  others. 

All  joint-stock  banks,  or  banks  having  more  than  six 
partners,  whether  for  deposit  and  issue,  or  for  deposit 
merely,  aro  ordered,  by  the  act  8  und  4  Will,  i,  c«p. 
88,  to  send  quarterly  returns  of  the  number  and  names 
of  their  partners  to  the  stump-offlco.  But  Ibis  act  does 
iMit  apply  to  private  lianks,  or  banks  not  having  mora 
than  six  partiusrs,  though  we  see  nu  good  reason  why 
similar  returns  should  not,  and  several  why  they 
should,  lie  required  from  them  us  well  as  from  others. 
At  present  few  have  any  certain  knowledge  of  the 
partners  in  private  banks.  Individuals  often  appear 
in  the  names  of  firms  who  have  been  dead  for  many 
years ;  and  it  has  not  unfrequently  been  found  in  cases 
of  baokmptcy  that  parties  of  large  fortune,  who  wero 
supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  cooccni,  had  with- 
drawn long  previously.  All  uncertain  y  and  obscurity 
of  this  kind  might,  however,  be  easily  put  an  end  to 
liy  making  periodical  declarations  of  the  names  of  the 
partners ;  and  provided  this  were  dune,  and  the  names 
made  sufficiently  public,  we  doubt  whether  any  oilier 
step  should  be  taken  for  interfering  in  any  woy  with 
lianks  of  deposit.  There  is  in  this  res|iect  a  vide  dif- 
ference between  them  wid  bunks  of  issue.  It  is  the 
dnty  of  the  government  to  take  care  that  the  value  of 
the  currency  shall  be  as  invariable  fs,  poisibk ;  but  it 
has  never  licen  pretended  that  it  is  any  part  whatever 
of  its  duty  to  inquire  into  ilie  security  given  by  the 
Imrrowers  to  the  lenders  of  money,  any  more  t.han  into 
the  security  given  by  the  Inrrowers  to  the  tenders  of 
any  tiling  else.  G-ivcmment  very  property  obliges 
a  goldsmith  to  have  his  goods  stamped,  this  being  a 
security  to  the  public  that  they  shall  not  be  imposed 
on  In  buying  articles  of  the  quality  of  which  they  are 
generally  Ignorant;  but  It  does  not  require  that  the 
fiorsons  to  whom  the  goldsmith  sells  or  lends  his  goods 
should  give  him  a  guarantee  fur  their  payment.  This 
is  a  matter  as  to  which  indivMuals  are  fully  competent 


be  a  < 


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to  judge  for  themielvoa;  and  there  neither  li  nor  i  • 
lie  any  reawn  why  «  lender  or  depoiitor  of  bullion  or 
noteii  should  be  more  protected  than  a  lender  or  depoi- 
itor of  timber,  coal,  or  lugar.  Gold  being  the  iiand- 
ard  or  nieaiure  of  value,  government  is  bound  to  talte 
effectual  precautions  that  the  currency  shall  truly  cor- 
respond in  the  whulu  and  in  all  its  parts  with  that 
standard — that  every  pound  note  shall  be  worth  a  sov- 
ereign, an^l  that  tho  amount  and  value  of  the  aggregate 
notes  in  clicuiation  shall  vary  exactly  as  a  gold  cur- 
rency would  do  were  it  substituted  in  their  steiul.  But 
this  is  all  that  government  is  called  upon  to  do.  If 
A.  trust  a  su-.n  of  money  in  tlio  hands  of  B.,  it  is  their 
afl'air,  and  concerns  no  one  else.  Provided  the  money 
afloat  corrrdpond  with  the  standard,  it  is  of  no  import- 
ance. In  A  public  point  of  view,  into  whoso  lurnds  it 
may  comr.  The  baniiruptcy  of  a  deposit  banii,  lii(a 
that  of  a  private  gentleman  who  has  borrowed  largely, 
may  be  productive  of  much  loss  or  inconvenience  to  its 
creditors.  But  if  the  paper  in  circulation  be  equiva- 
lent to  gold,  such  iMnkruptcies  can  not  aO'ect  either 
the  quantity  or  valuQ  of  money,  and  are  therefore  inju- 
rious only  to  the  parties  concerned. 

iSubttitulion  of  Jfotet  fur  Cuint—Bankt  of  Itut — 
Mtant  by  which  the  Value  of  Notes  may  b^  irpt  on  a 
Leeel  with  t^it  Value  of  Ike  Vrtctout  MetaU. — Notwith- 
standing tho  precious  metals  are  in  many  respects  ad- 
mirably tittcd  to  serve  as  a  medium  of  exchange  (sit  art. 
MuNKV),  they  have  two  very  serious  drawbacks — their 
cost,  and  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  carrying  them 
iVom  place  to  place.  If  the  curre.icy  of  Great  ilritain 
consisted  only  of  gold,  it  would  amount  to  at  least  six- 
ty millions  of  sovereigns ;  and  the  expense  attending 
si'cli  a  currency,  allowing  only  i  per  cent,  for  wear 
3nd  tear  and  loss  of  coins,  could  not  be  reckoned  at  less 
than  £S,2bO,im  a  year.  The  weight  of  1000  sover- 
eigns exceeds  21  pounds  Troy ;  so  tliat,  were  there  no- 
thing but  coins  in  circulation,  the  conveyance  of  large 
sums  from  p'  tee  to  place  to  discharge  accounts  would 
be  a  very  lalwrious  process,  and  even  small  sums  could 
not  be  conveyed  without  considoralde  difliculty .  Hence 
it  Is  that  most  commercial  and  civilixed  nations  have 
f.kbricated  a  portion  of  their  money  of  less  costly  and 
heavy  matorUls,  and  resorted  to  various  devices  for 
economizing  the  use  of  coin.  Of  tho  substitutes  for  the 
latter  hitherto  suggested,  paper  is  in  all  respects  the 
most  eliglldc.  When  governments  are  sufficiently 
powerful  and  intelligent  to  enforce  the  obsckvance  of 
contracts,  individuals  possessed  of  written  pi  .  iaes 
from  others  that  they  will  pay  certain  sums  at  speci- 
iled  periods  Ijegin  to  assign  them  to  those  to  whom 
they  are  indebted ;  and  wlien  those  by  whom  such  ol>- 
ligations  arc  subscribed  are  persons  of  whose  solvency 
no  doulit  can  be  oniertained,  they  are  readily  accepted 
in  payment  of  the  debts  duo  by  one  individual  ts  an- 
other. But  wlien  the  circulation  of  obligations  or  bills 
in  tills  way  has  continued  for  a  while,  individuals  liegin 
to  perceive  that  they  may  derive  a  proflt  l>y  issuing 
them  in  such  a  form  as  to  <it  them  for  being  readily 
used  as  a  sulistitute  for  money  in  the  ordinary  trans- 
actions of  life.  Hence  the  origin  of  Ijank-notes,  or 
paper  money.  An  individual  in  wliose  wealth  and 
discretion  tho  public  have  contidenco  Ijeing  applied 
to  for  a  loan,  say  of  X5000,  grants  tho  applicant  his 
bill  or  note  pr.yablo  on  demand  for  that  sum,  on 
his  receivipg  adequate  security  for  its  repayment 
with  interest.  Now,  as  this  note  passes,  in  conse- 
quence of  tho  ronfldenco  placed  in  tlie  issuer,  cur- 
rently from  hand  to  hand  as  cash,  it  is  quite  as  useftil 
to  the  borrower  as  if  he  had  obtained  an  equivalent 
amount  of  gold ;  and  supposing  that  the  rate  of  inter- 
est is  4  |)er  cent.,  it  will  yield,  so  long  as  it  continues 
to  circulate,  a  revenue  tif  £200  a  year  to  the  issuer.  A 
sense  of  the  advantages  that  might,  in  this  way,  Ira 
derived  from  the  circulation  of  bills  or  notes,  led  to  the 
formation  of  banks  for  their  regular  issue.  Those  wlio 
issue  such  noies  coin,  as  it  were,  their  credit.     They 


derive  the  same  revenue  firom  th*  loan  of  their  written 
promises  to  pay  certaiu  sums  that  thty  would  d«riv« 
from  tlie  loan  of  the  sums  themsalvas  |  and  while  thay 
•hua  increase  their  own  income,  they  at  the  same  tint* 
contrlliute  to  increase  the  wealth  of  society.  Hssidoi 
being  Incomparably  oheaner,  bank-notes  are  also  In- 
comparably more  commoaious  than  a  nialallic  curmn- 
cy.  A  bank-note  fur  XIOOU  or  X10U,INK)  may  Iw  carried 
about  with  as  much  facility  as  a  single  sovereign.  It 
is  of  importance,  too,  to  observe,  that  Its  Ins*  or  d«- 
struction,  whether  liy  lire,  shipwreck,  or  otlinrwlM, 
would  be  of  no  greater  Importauca,  In  a  |iubllc  (mint  of 
view,  than  the  loss  cr  destruction  of  as  much  paper. 
No  doubt  it  might  be  a  serious  calamity  tu  the  lioldfr| 
but  to  whatever  extant  it  injured  lilm,  it  would  pro* 
portionally  benolit  the  Issuer,  whereas  (he  loss  of  coin  U 
an  injury  to  tlio  holder  without  l>elng  of  sitrvlcn  tu  un]r 
one  else ;  it  is,  in  fact,  so  much  alistractvd  from  tM 
wealth  of  the  community. 

To  obviate  the  endless  inconvenUinres  that  woald 
arise  fhim  the  circulation  of  coin*  of  every  weight  and 
degree  of  purity,  wore  tiiere  nu  restrictions  on  their  Is- 
sue, all  governments  have  forbidden  the  clriulallon  of 
coins  except  (hey  be  of  a  r'crtuln  s|tccilled  or  stntidurd 
weight  and  iineness.  And  the  recurrence  iit  similar  In- 
conveniences fktim  the  Issue  of  notes  for  varying  sums, 
and  payable  under  vuryitig  conUilions,  Ims  led,  In  all 
countries  in  whicli  paper  niunoy  Is  made  use  of,  to  the 
enacting  of  regulations  furliidding  the  Issue  uf  notes 
below  a  certain  amount,  and  laying  down  rules  fur 
their  payment.  In  England  at  tbia  moment  no  note 
payable  to  bearer  on  demand  can  lie  Issued  for  less 
tlun  flvo  pounds,  and  they  must  all  lie  puld  (he  mo- 
ment they  are  presented.  In  Hcotlnnd  and  Ireland 
the  minimum  value  of  liank-notos  Is  fixed  at  one  |Hiiind, 
the  regulations  as  to  payment  i)cing  the  same  as  In  Kn- 
gland.  In  order  to  preserve  mono|iiily  of  the  I^indon 
circulation  to  tho  Bank  of  Kngland,  no  notes  payable  to 
bearer  on  demand  are  allowed  to  l/o  Issued  liy  Individ- 
uals or  associations,  otiier  than  tho  Bank  of  Kngland, 
within  3ixty-fivo  miles  of  St,  Paul's.  But  lieyonri 
these  limits  mery  one  who  complies  with  the  nbovfl 
regulations  as  to  the  minimum  amount  of  notes,  and 
who  promises  to  pay  them  on  demand,  may,  on  pny^ 
ing  the  stamp-duty,  and  making  returns  of  the  issues 
to  the  stamp-office,  circulate  any  amount  ut  notes  he 
can  succeed  in  (retting  the  pulilic  to  take  off, 

But  tliough  the  condition  that  they  shall  lie  paid  on 
demand,  and  the  belief  that  this  cnndltlun  will  bo  com> 
plied  with,  be  necessary  to  sustain  the  value  uf  notes 
issued  by  private  parties  or  associations,  it  li  nut  nec- 
essary to  sustain  the  value  of  pn|icr  money,  properly 
aocalled,  orof  noteswhich  havelicen  vcMiXthjinllfiutrr, 
The  only  thing  required  to  sustain  the  value  of  tho  lat- 
ter description  of  currency  is,  (bat  It  siiould  lie  Issued 
in  limited  quantitiet.  Every  country  Ims  a  certain  Jium- 
ber  of  exchanges  to  make;  and  whether  tlicMi  are  pITect- 
od  by  the  employment  of  a  given  number  uf  coins  of  a 
particular  denomination,  or  by  the  employment  uf  (ha 
same  numlier  of  notes  uf  tho  same  denomination,  is,  In 
this  respect,  of  no  Importance  wh.  'ever.  Nutii  i  which 
have  been  made  legal  tender,  and  i.re  not  payable  on  de- 
mand, do  not  circulate  because  of  any  confidence  placed 
in  the  capacity  of  the  issuers  to  retire  (hem ;  neither 
do  they  circulate  because  they  are  of  (ho  same  real  val- 
ue as  the  commodities  for  which  they  are  exrliungnd ; 
but  they  circulate  because,  having  lieen  selected  to 
perform  the  functions  otmoney,  they  are,  as  such,  read- 
ily received  by  all  individuals  in  payment  of  their 
debts.  Notes  of  this  description  may  be  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  tickets  or  counters  to  be  used  in  computing  the 
value  of  property,  and  in  transferring  it  from  one  Indi- 
vidual to  another.  And  as  they  uro  nuwiite  afl'ected  by 
fluctuations  of  credit,  tlieir  value,  it  U  oiivluus,  must 
depend  entirely  on  the  quantity  of  them  In  circulation 
as  compared  with  the  payments  to  be  made  thruugli 
their  instrumentality,  or  the  business  they  have  to  pur- 


BAK 


BB 


ITAM 


fytm.  BynducingtlMiiapi'lrof'iatMlMlowtJMiu^ 
ply  ofooiiu  that  would  clrcuiMU  in  tteir  plan  wan  thajr 
withdrawn,  their  value  may  ba  raiaad  abeva  tha  valua 
of  gold ;  whilo,  l>y  lncr«a*iii({  them  to  a  graatar  axtaat, 
it  i«  proportionally  lowerad.  lianoa,  luppwing  it  wara 
ptaalbla  to  otitala  aay  tacurily,  othar  thaa  immadiala 
convartlldlity  into  tha  pfacloua  nataU,  that  notat  da- 
darad  to  ba  laKal  tandar  woubl  not  In  iHuad  In  excaaa, 
but  that  their  number  afloat  would  ba  lo  atljaated  aa  to 
preierve  their  value  a*  compared  with  (told  nearly  unt- 
forqi,  the  obligatloB  to  pay  them  on  demand  might  ba 
dlapenaed  with.  But  it  It  -leedleM  to  My  that  uo  auoh 
taourity  can  lie  obtained.  <  irever  the  power  to  iseue 
paper,  not  immediately  convertible,  haa  bean  conceded 
to  any  let  or  parton*,  it  haa  been  abuied )  or,  which  la 
the  aame  thing,  luch  paper  has  nniformly  been  over- 
liaued,  and  ita  value  depraoiated  ttom  axeeaa.  And  it 
la  DOW  admitted  on  all  handa  to  be  quite  Inditpensobla, 
for  the  prevention  of  injurloua  fluctuation*  in  the  val- 
ue of  money,  that  all  ootca  be  made  payable,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  holder,  in  an  unvarying  quantiiy  of 
gold  or  silver. 

But  though  such  ba  tha  law  In  this  and  most  other 
conntries,  it  is,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  operative  only  on 
tha  richest,  most  cautious,  and  respectable  bankers, 
and  1*  found  to  alTonl  no  real  security  against  the 
roguery  and  misconduct  of  others.  This  security  is, 
bowavar,  the  more  Indispensable,  seeing  that  the  baua 
of  notes  is,  of  all  businesses,  that  which  saems  to  bold 
out  the  greatest  prospect  of  success  to  the  schemes  of 
those  who  attempt  to  get  rich  by  preying  on  the  pub- 
lie.  The  circumstances  that  excite  the  public  confl- 
dance  in  the  first  instance,  and  that  afterward  keep  H 
up,  are  often  of  the  most  trcacheroue  dnseription.  The 
cost  of  engraving  and  Issuing  notes  Is  also  but  an  In- 
eoBsideraUe  Item,  compared  with  the  sums  for  which 
they  are  issued,  and  provided  they  be  got  into  any 
thing  like  extensive  oirculation,  they  become  at  once 
oonsUsrably  productive.  They  are  seldom  issued  ax- 
oept  on  the  deposit  of  bills  or  other  securities  yielding 
•  considerable  rate  of  Intareat ;  so  that  if  an  individual, 
or  aet  of  Individuals,  with  little  or  no  capital,  contrive, 
by  fair  appaarancas,  promises,  and  similar  devices,  to 
insinuate  himself  or  themselves  into  the  public  oonfl- 
dence,  and  can  maintain  £30^000,  £60,000,  orX100,000 
in  circulation,  he  or  they  aeoura  a  good  income  in  the 
mean  time ;  and  when  the  bubble  bursts,  and  the  Im- 
posture is  detected,  they  are  no  worse  off  than  when 
they  set  up  their  bank.  On  the  contrary,  the  presump- 
tion la  that  they  are  a  great  deal  better  off;  and  that 
they  have  token  care  to  provide,  at  the  cost  of  the  ered- 
nluus  and  deceived  public,  a  reserve  stxk  for  th'  <r  i- 
tore  maintenance.  Jlence,  seeing  the  facilities  for  com- 
mitting fraud  are  so  very  great,  the  propriety,  or  rather 
necessity,  of  providing  against  them. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  this  is  mere  hypothet- 
ical reasoning.  On  the  contrary,  as  every  body  knows, 
innumerable  instances  have  occurred  of  the  population 
of  extensive  districts  having  suffered  severely  firom  the 
insolvency  of  bankers  in  whom  they  placed  the  utmost 
confldence.  In  1798, 1814-16,  and  ia3&-26,  a  very  Urge 
proportion  of  the  British  banks  stopped  paymenU, 
and  produced  by  their  fall  an  extent  of  bankruptcy  and 
ruin  tliat  has  seldom  been  equaled  elsewhere.  But 
when  such  gigantic  disasters  had  already  happened, 
and  wen  on  the  eve  of  again  happening  in  1887-86,  It 
became  the  bounden  duty  of  government  to  hinder,  by 
every  means  in  its  power,  their  recurrence.  It  is  no 
•xoggeratlon  to  aflirm  that  England  has  sustained 
a  thousand  times  more  injury  from  the  circulation  of 
worthless  paper,  or  paper  issued  by  persons  without 
the  means  of  retiring  it,  than  from  the  issue  of  spuri- 
ous coin. 

It  has  Ijeen  supposed  that  the  objections  to  the  Issue 
of  notes  because  of  the  risk  of  non-payment  might  ba 
obriatad,  were  they  issued  only  by  associations  or 
Joint^tocfc  ooiups^.    But  there  it  no  real  found*. 


Man  Ibr  Mf  •■•b  suppoeltloii.  Than  mm  not.  In  fact, 
bo  a  g water  error  than  to  supp<is«  that  because  a  bank 
ha*  a  eonaldarabl*  nuinliar  ik  parlnsr*  It  will  nacess  ^ 
rily  be  either  rieb  or  wsll  managsd,  It  may  be  nslther 
tha  ons  nor  tha  otbar,  A  slfl|M  Indlrldual  may  poa- 
ssss  more  wealth  thin  •  nnmlwr  of  Indivldnala  assocla- 
tad  together  |  and  tha  vbtncaa  are  thai.  If  ha  engage  In 
l«nking  or  any  other  buslnrss.  It  will  ba  liattar  man- 
aged than  by  a  company,  Kndar  the  present  srslnm 
(and  It  can  not  lis  pr*v*til*<l  tindar  any  system),  the 
partners  In  jointiStork  Itanks,  as  In  othars,  may  lie  men 
0f  straw,  or  persons  wilhimt  nniiwrty,  and  uiialile  to 
fuMII  their  engagamants.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  a  s«- 
oura  and  well-sstablUha<1  |Ni|iar  eurnney  tluit  the  notea 
of  whkh  It  consist*  shiiuld  ba  uf  tli*  axiat  value  of  ihe 
gold  or  stiver  tliey  profea*  to  raprasant,  aad  that,  con- 
saquantly,  they  should  ba  paid  tha  moment  they  are 
presented.  But  It  U  not  anongli  to  iirilar  that  this  con. 
ditlen  shall  lie  nnlfiinnly  i'nm|illiid  with.  Much  onlor 
Is  obeyed  only  by  tb*  o|inlant,  |iruil«nt,  ami  conscien- 
tious banker,  ami  forms  llttto  itr  nu  t^hack  on  the  pro- 
easding*  of  those  of  a  contrary  rliara<'l«r,  It  la  the  lat- 
ter class,  however,  that  It  I*  sstiaclslly  neeassary  to 
look  after;  and  It  Is  nsadtess  lo  say  that  any  syslum 
that  pemilta  notes  lo  (w  Issiisd  wllbunt  let  or  hlndor- 
once  by  speculallva,  Ifrniirnnl,  iir  unprinHple<l  adven- 
turer*, mutt  lie  rsMmllally  vicious, 

It  has  sumellmss  Iwsn  rnnlend^d.  In  vindication  of 
the  )ilan  of  alUiwIng  any  Indlvhliral,  or  set  of  Individ- 
uals, how  lNinkm|)t  suavar  In  fiirluna  and  character,  lo 
issue  notes  wllhiiut  ehwk  or  llrnllatinn  of  anv  kind  other 
than  the  pnmilse  to  pay  tb«m  on  deffland,  that  they  are 
eesenllally|>r<iiur«/M/M'r/  llmt  tllelr  arc«titance  In  pay- 
ment is  optional  I  and  thai,  «*  tbay  m*v  lie  rejeeted  by 
every  one  who  ahhar  susiniiiI*  or  distliies  Ibem,  there 
is  no  room  or  ground  fur  iiil«rftirlng  with  their  Issue  I 
But  every  bodv  knows  thai,  whatevtf  note*  ma/  lie  In 
law,  they  ar*  In  most  (larts  of  IIm  country  jrrarlirnlh/ 
and  injnet  legal  Undrr,  Tha  Imlk  of  the  people  are 
totally  without  |iow«r  to  rtftisa  Ihrm,  The  currency 
of  many  exiantlve  diitriri*  i-nnslsls  in  Kreat  part  of 
country  note*,  and  turh  small  farmers  or  tradesmen  ns 
should  decline  taking  Ihitni  wiiiild  lie  exposed  to  the 
greatest  lnconv«Hieiic«s,  Kvery  on*  makes  use  of  or 
i*  a  dealer  in  money.  It  Is  not  employed  by  men  of 
business  only,  but  by  parstiti*  living  on  fixed  Incomes ; 
by  woman,  lalxirers,  mimirs  |  In  short,  liy  9rery  clstt 
of  individuals,  very  many  of  whom  are  necessarily, 
from  their  sliusilim  In  lint,  quit*  unable  lo  form  any 
estimsta  of  the  solidity  of  tha  difTerent  banks  whose 
paper  Is  In  clrculallun.  NHch  parlle*  are  uniformly 
severe  sufferers  liy  Ihe  fsilur*  of  lianks.  The  pa|ier 
that  comes  Into  thfir  hands  Is  a  |iart  nf  the  currency  nr 
money  of  the  country  |  and  It  Is  qiillo  as  much  tlio 
duty  of  goveninieiil  In  lake  nin«*i|Ks  thiit  this  paper 
shall  lie  truly  ami  nulMtantlally  wlist  it  (irofesses  to  lie, 
as  that  It  should  take  measure*  to  prevent  the  itsnc  of 
spurious  coins  or  the  nsa  offals*  or  daltclent  weights 
and  measures, 

Tha  fact  it,  ilist  Ihe  paper  eiirrancy  of  a  country 
can  not  lie  on  a  purfertly  sound  tinMng  until  Ihe  Issue 
of  notes,  whether  by  Joliit-stofk  lianks  or  private  In- 
dividuals, be  su|i|ir«tsad.  It  ha*  been  proposed,  to 
obviate  any  recurrenr*  of  Iho  widespread  ruin  that 
has  so  frequently  resulted  from  the  Imnkruptcy  of 
lianks  of  issue,  lo  rom|i*l  them  lo  give  security  for 
the  payment  of  tlielr  notes ;  and  Ihe  ndoptlon  of  such 
a  regulation  would,  no  doubl.  have  Iwen  a  vast  Im- 
provement on  the  late  system.  Hut  though  the  ex- 
acting of  security  would  have  nulerlally  mlligaled,  It 
would  not  have  eradlcoKd  lli»  vices  of  a  system  which 
allowed  banks  to  be  vstalilltlifld  «t  Ihn  pleasure  of  In- 
dividuals. A  paper  curreney  Is  not  In  a  sound  or 
wholesome  stale,  unbits,  |*t,  mean*  Im  taken  to  Insure 
that  each  particular  note  or  p»rKv\  of  such  currency 
be  paid  Immediately  on  demand ;  and  unless,  2d,  l/ie 
mhoU  cumnef  tarf  in  atrnmnt  and  tttlu*  ttaetly  ut  a 


BAN 


'lit  on  I.  ,,u|,o  u,  li..ll.po„ J  la  ,'":''•     'h"  l«»t  cou- 
/liiInK  the  i„„o  of  ,«w7tn  .1     ■"*'"''  """>  'O'  ion- 

f;"thl"  ,u.rpo.e,  urn    Sh'";''  'T '-f"""".! 
"  l»  ii>iiteii,li.,|  that  h..  Imii  ■     V"  *'"''  ''•  produced 
^ult  a.  .0  1.0  ,,ut  rarely  «-e,Sl      .7""?""'  '"  ''"«■ 

•"o  Hank  "f  ttflt  uT  '""  '"  '•"»■"  ^«n 
7"  carried  „„  to  a  lo*  '^^It?  ""!'"•  "■•''  '»Wrv 

""J  Puni«l,„,e„t«,  a.,,^„  '. r    "'"  '""lu-ne.vof  ca,,. 

to 'IH^cle  P..yn.e„u  ,n"  s^*^:"  "f  '*"  '^  "-a  iStuI^" 
noto».  "'•  ""'*  '"0  «u|)pretslon  of  ill 

tender,   ei -ry   whoro  .v      .       ^"K'"'"'  "otcs  lecul 
wnt.     The  u.,Ju,t  Ilablli  .o«  fif,',,"  1  ♦^'""t  in.„.,ve. 

«'  grB-t  dlfflculty  and  haz.nl  t  '""'"  "  »'t"«tlon 
provide  «  ,„,,p,,/„f  col,rn„d  ;„IM '"'^' '"'"«'"'  »«"  to 
0XKencies„„|y,\,^f„7jJ  ''•"»".  »ot  for  her  own 
nnd,  what  k  harder  still  Ii?  ""'  """ntrv  banks  • 

injure.1  by  any  [„Ucon  L  :f.  th""""' '""'  "• ''«  """p' v 
^fl'iohy  tlw  dUtrer",  w^  1 T"  "f  the  latter  .^ 
"%  bo  involi od     In  rn.  L  ""'>'  ""'Kl't  aceidcnt- 

to  render  „s,i„a„co  to  ?ho  l,a  kC     '/""  ''"  P"«" 
terests  i„  peri,„j,  „f  .liscr,^^, ''!"«  ""i.^^/^'mtile  in- 
The  countr,,  bank,  kept  bu   a  sT'if ''"^■.  •"'"i"i«hed. 
their  coflcrg.     Thev  Xr«  „i.    .     "  '"'''''^  of  coin  in 
8«»ter  or  le„  extent  o?""'  ^""'''^'"'  •"•'J*",  to  « 
whenever  any  ci:;.^^*«l^;~fntBecnri, 
■"'n-l  upon  them  f„r  coin   ,h„"?     to  occasion  a  dc- 
Pledged  thewholeora  JoVo;^''';V»f'"'«t«l>'  »oId  or 
the  notes  to  the  Bank  *,. VT       ?'  *''*''"  «tock,  carried 
Hed  the  s,.cie  to  ."hf  c    i""'=H2'"''  -'"'  «-«"-'' 
Picions  were  ontortainod  „fVh.       T'  *•""  """J'  »"»- 
•^nk.,  or  when  a  pSn^c  olln  .  ,"^"  °^  '^^  '^""'■trv 
of  their  notes,  a,  w«,  the  rnLf  fi"''"'^  ""«  holder, 
*hole  of  ,ho„;  retwated  n^^o,':   ."l'""  '«26,  the 
"I'l  700  or  800  condiZ  J!^    ""'  "■"''  "f  England 
"Peeie  of  that  ost^b    'h^enrwhr'  '"^"^  °«'  'bo 
*"t,  exposed  to  tho  rirof  7tnl        ""  ,"""•  "  '»  "vi- 
rtone  any  thin^  wroL      I?  „     "'^^t  *'""""  having 
from  abroad,  ,^t  the'^drai^'C^r  f'"  ':?'"  '^  ^'"-' 
that  nearly  exhausted  the  iwt.       I?""  "">  ''ountn-, 
-eed  her  to  issue  al^uu  m  llL'  :?IT  '"  '»25,  aid 
ne  currency  could  ..ot  be  i„  ,  "      1'  '"''  •^^  notes. 
;h«e  the  Hank  of  Cland  and  th^^'  'l'".'"'^'  'ff. 
credit,  were  placed  In  so  Iri.   '      ""I*""  ''"'  Public 
themakingof  Hank  of  Fn'T    r*  "  »'tuation.     But 
«"  Place.  oxceptTl"   Bank*''t'r!!'' '"«■"  '<»"•<''" 
protect  her  from  the  iSus  cl  """•  "^terially  to 
or  runs  among  the  hol.Sr.  ^f    ™"*<J"enccs  of  panics 

*i»e  Impaired  the  wcuriH..  '    '.  "'"'*""  to  us,  any 
Preciation.  wcunties  against  overi,ir.«  or  do- 

r  ir^d  syrroTtrrf  «■«*  ♦'«' —' 

vincial  paper,  ini^muef^" ''':  ''''P«'='«tion  of  p,o 
notes  from  a  distance  to  r^  .  "'''*'"«  "'  »««  "hk 
gold,  would  pr.ve„raL;^»,'"'^n^  ?*  "''"""^-'  ^«' 
<'%l.ndnot«fl.m  ^uuy^hr.T«Sj^SS 


w 


BAN 


■lo^daV  "  l^'!;;'"'  '«-"  hv  them  w..  .„  „„,, 

"vor  U  tho  luan.liff,?",,  ,"■''•     """«  '""  ""t,  how! 

"  f»  1«K«1  tcnrler,  ,.„d  "old       I  "'*.'"'  '"'l*'-  "ow  that 
«;''«re  the  excha.l^es  a^e '  ijuMr.'t"  '"!"«  ""'  '""^ 
"  f;'"'y  P«'t  of  the  e.nplr«  mtr,' H      '".'"•  of  money 
n  It!  and  Hi,,  |t  |,  ,,l«i,r  f"  ""."r    "•*"''  ""  't»  value 
''.V  tlH,  n.Bas.,ro  under  cnn  n    '".'">■  "'^K'*"  affected 
provincial  currenc' Id"" '''"'r/'""'     ^'orn-rly  the 
!'"'"  '-"loci  fVeque  ,;if  w„"'  T"  '!  ''"•"^'  "'iKht  b, 
;'o"Kht  «l.out  eiole  \v  :;„3r''''"''       ■'"Is  wa 
'ho  country  bunk,,  Kener,  llv  In  H     «  ""  ""■  P""  of 
'•««et,  but  always'lS    h.    L'?,,  ''"  ""'  '"•"">-.•  the 
prices;  or  by  th,.  Issues  of  T,  i      ."""""•  "f  »  ■'l*'.-  of 
i"  consequence  of  an     !,„  ,':";:""  "'  '^"ftl«."l  b-ing 
I'ror  more  rapidly  than    ho!^  '^''T' ''"™''''<' "oonl 
n  ether  .ase,  the  provl,    l '.        "'"  """""^'  '"'nks. 
'"ant  as  compaid  wli  wh .    '"'  •^""''""•y  beii.i  re.Iun ' 
"  "".......1  o,^  Its  is*  ."r  'n^*; ,  ,"/  """{".poli.,  ,^,„'-,"„"; 

•"•tcr  al  to  obscrye  "h "t  ,„  "  !  ?,"  f^"'"'""  '  '"'t  it  1, 
pected,  there  was  not  I ,  h,  h  '  ''■■  "•■'"'  *""  «"»- 
then,  for  „old.  u  1  l .  1^  'T',  ""^  •'■""""<'  "Pon 
'lanoy  of  the  crrrn  v  ""™''',  "''yious  that  a  rcdun" 
viatcd  byBCti;^,;  ,  ;„» '^^'-^t  that  can  not  be  oj. 
(as  hoarding  i,  out  of  .[         '"  ^"""""-^  ''"nks,  unless 

-na  it  abroad, Tnd    1    tXylr^  "  '■"  "'"'""^"'  " 
"'"J  cheaper  l-V  K«t.i„„  1 '  "fh       T  ''"  ''''"«  *^«"- 
notes,  or  bills  on  l.o,^  l*^""!  V^!"}  "«'"'  "^  *=»K'''n<l 
currency  may  take  plaTno  A,   I  h""''.'""""^'-^  "^  the 
and  its  occurrcco  can  „„t.ro    '         ."  '  """  ''•"■"•or'v  ! 
paper  wore  wholly  b„„|X,   /'"*'■•'■  «'•""  'houah 
"»  the  whole  cunin    tno   suri.'','*:;:'""''"'  '»  '""K 
and  as  I.,„don  Is  the  Ibcifs  Ih"^'    r'  '^"'^  ""'  '""^''o; 
foreign  cou..tries  are  ad  usred      A  !  *.^'''""«'"' ^'th 
no>y  made  show  that  It  ;,",*  id""    "l^  "atement, 
hat  it  can  take  ,.lace  more  readlU       f"''^  •"  '"PPO"* 
tent,  under  the  r'r<.,ent  smem  th  '  '^  '°  "  Kfo«ter  ex. 
respect  no  change  was  r^aTe   ,  '',«;I"""r>.r-     ^"  "'is 
ancient  security  against  ov7ri  '     ■*"''  "'hiie  the 

impaired,  the  arrl^nge,  cnL  7?'""  """  "'"intair.ed  ,„! 
stability  of  the  Dank  of  F  InT  T''"  "'"'«'•'"'  tho 
Proyed  the  Pecuniary  s'^'fj,""''-."""  consequently  im! 
If  any  doubt  cnnbi  „      ...      *"*'  country. 

"""  of  -this  HmeS'tr  ;  >beT'"  V"  ">«  "P"- 
to  Scotland.    Gold  L.  7  ^  removed  by  referrli.n. 

tlmt  country  fSoX'S?„r'"^"">'''«"'»he^^^^^^^^^^ 
pretends  to  say  that  prices  a retbl""  i  "2"  -^"^t  "o  one 
■n  Kngland,  or  that  he cZ  y*'.;'; '"  *'?'''"«'  than 
Scotch  currency  ig  ke„t  „IT    ^      'le|,reclated.    The 
check  of  gold  pa.yme'l^,''  ,  ^  f.'^Z  d '^''  "."'  '^  "- 
on  Lon.Io,. ,  and  lt  ig  „s  ^ffi"    '•[.'?'  l'™"""'  f"""  l-'Hs 
a»  It  w.,111,1  be  were  the  b„i  k!      t'      '"'''' '"  ""'s  way 
ofexchanging  notes  fogow""  "S^lTf^"' '"«  ''""'^ 
l«  It  to  bo  apprehended  that  ti.»    ,"  ""'""t  grounds,  then, 
of  England  notes  or  I  I  .on    1?.  "''"';',"  *»  S'^'"  K-nk 
"al  In  restraining  oeriss"^  i ''v"J'"   '"' '««'"  offect- 
than  in  Scotland?   Tl ,   kcr  win  •""™  "  ^""■'"» 
keep  beside  him  such  a  stock  If      ?'"'  "'"'"'  """* 
nmy  be  sufBclent  to  answc"  the  l""'^'""'  '"•"ion  «, 
for  their  payment      If  .1,       ,  •'*"">n'l»  of  the  public 

iion  in  his'cJe,:  were  onua;  t  "tV  *\'  '"""  ""'•""'- 
■n  circulation,  he  would  not  "it?/",'?  "^ '"»  «otes 
Pront;  butifhebeinrrnn^     '  u  ^  P'"'"'  ""ako  any 
".von  a  fifth  part  ^f'thrstrw-V"",'"'''''''"'"!.  0^ 
"cnt;  and  his  profit  consistgorti  ""■"'""''>■  ^«  "'<"- 
teregt  deriyedlVom  hig  nn?„.  •  ''^""'.<»'«oss  of  the  in- 
torcst  of  the  sum  he  i    obLve'dt^t" '"",""  "^•""«'  '"- 
ftrong-box,  and  tho  ex^,e  .fes  o^^**''  ">""""'  '"  '""^ 
h»hn.c.>t.     The  Bank  of  S.^d  T^tl^  ■""  '"*"''- 
wen,  keops  an  average  stock  nf'l;.     "'i'  ^^  «f*orward 
to  a  tWrd  of  her  lialdHties  '"  """*  ''"»'o°  eq»al 

no^r/TKiVe^X^arr  ? '- '-^^ 

^or  .  detlnlto  .urn  (in  ^Cd^Tw^  L' •'rti:» 


BAN 


08 


DAN 


Si,  «ml  In  RcotUmI  »nil  IwIihhI  not  Ibm  thun  t\),  lh»t 
It  thoulil  Imi  iiiivhIiIk  (•>  Ix'iirrr  nii  (li'iininil,  mid  that  It 
■huulil  bt'  pruiMTlv  iiliiiiiiMil.  l'roiiil«wiry  niili'n,  iIkiiikIi 
ImuoiI  l>y  iMiiknrii,  \f  ixit  |iiiyiil>lit  to  livuriir  mi  ili  iiiniiil, 
do  not  roiiiti  iiiidsr  tli«  dviKiiiiliiutluii  of  liiiiik-iiiiti'n; 
th«y  Are  nut,  Ilka  tliu  latlcr,  takun  «•  rimli  In  nil  »r- 
dtnitry  trniiaiivlloiiii ;  nor  nro  they,  llko  tlioni,  (imluii- 
•bU  by  niuro  delivery. 

The  eirciilntlon  of  iioica  for  lem  than  £6  wna  ru- 
■tralned  by  liiw  (ttiit.  15  (li'o.  11,  i\  M)  from  I'Hil  to 
1707.  In  IHOS,  It  wtti  cniiitud  by  Mat.  HH  timi,  0,  o. 
8H,  that  all  baiik-noti'D,  prunilwory  nuti'i,  or  uthor  ne- 
gotlabla  inatriinionia  fur  Ii'im  tliiin  'ilU.,  ahoiild  Iki  nbao- 
luttly  void!  a  iwnalty  of  from  2»»<.  to  I'li,  at  the  dl»- 
cratlon  of  the  Jiiallcca,  \»\nn  linponod  on  thoir  Itauora. 
It  WM  enacted  by  the  7  (ii'o.  4,  c.  II,  that  the  laauo  of 
all  liank-nntcn  or  prunilwory  notea  for  Icaa  than  Xft  by 
tho  liaiik  of  KiiKlund,  or  by  any  llcnnaud  Kngll'h  bank- 
■ra,  and  atamiied  on  tho  Dili  of  Foliriiary,  tM2)l,  or 
prevloualy  (after  which  iierlod  'uch  iiotra  worn  not 
Stamped),  ihould  terminate  on  the  (ith  of  April,  IM'21), 

By  the  9  (loo.  4,  e.  '211,  Kii)(liiih  bankora  nut  In  tho 
city  of  London,  or  within  throe  inlloa  then'of,  are  au- 
thorized to  iiiaua  promiMory  notea,  and  to  draw  and 
Isiuo  billit  of  oxchaiiKo,  on  uimtauiiKMl  papor,  for  any 
aum  of  •£&  or  upwanl,  axpre**ed  to  lie  payable  to  the 
bearer  on  demand,  or  to  order,  at  any  |><!riod  not  ex- 
ceeding 7  dayK  after  HiKht  (liiUt  may  alao  Iw  drawn  at 
any  period  nut  oxceediiiK  i\  daya  after  date),  ufHin 
obtaining  llconaoa,  coatini.;  £M,  to  that  etfect;  pro- 
vided iiui'h  bill*  of  oxohai  ,;u  lie  drawn  u|ion  banker* 
in  London,  Weatminater.  nr  Stiuthwark ;  or  pnividcd 
luch  bllla  lio  drawn  by  any  liankcr  or  bankera  at  tlio 
place  whero  he  or  they  nbull  lie  llccnaed  to  innuo  un- 
■tamped  notea  and  billa,  ii|ioii  himself  or  th«m.'<idvea, 
or  hia  or  their  co|iartner  or  ropartnern,  puyublo  at  any 
other  place  wliere  auch  lianker  or  liankera  »hall  lie 
licenaed  to  issue  such  notes  and  liills.  Bankers  hav- 
ing such  licenses  are  to  glvu  security,  by  IhhiiI,  that 
they  will  keep  a  true  account  of  all  promissory  notes 
and  bllla  ao  Issued,  and  account  for  the  duties  on  tliem 
at  the  rate  of  3i.  M.  for  every  X'lUO,  and  also  for  tho 
fractional  parts  of  £10U  of  tho  avorago  value  of  such 
notes  and  bills  In  circulation.  Persons  po't-dating 
unstuni)X!d  notea  or  bills  shall,  for  every  such  oAqiise, 
forfeit  XIOO. 

litj/al  Kffed  of  the  Payment  nf  Hnnk-w>te». — Sotos 
of  the  Dank  of  England  were  not,  proviimslv  tn  tlio 
act  8  &  4  Will.  4,  c.  Urt,  like  bills  of  cxcliaiii;o,  mere 
Mcurities,  or  documents  of  debt,  but  were  treated  as 
money  or  cash  in  the  ordinary  courxe  or  Irausactioii* 
of  business;  tho  receipts  glvi  n  iipun  their  payment 
being  alwoys  given  as  for  iiKiii*'y.  Nii«,  however, 
they  are  legal  tender,  every  whore  except  nl  the  Bank, 
for  all  sums  above  X6.  All  luite^  pay:iblo  to  bearer 
•re  assignable  by  delivery.  The  liiiliier  of  a  liank- 
note  is  primafmie entitled  to  its  prompt  payment,  and 
c«n  not  lie  aflectoil  liy  the  previous  fraud  of  any  for- 
mer holder  in  olituinluK  it,  unless  evidence  bo  given  to 
show  that  ho  was  jirivy  to  such  fruml.  Siu'li  pi  i  v  ity 
may,  however,  lie  inferred  fr<mi  the  i  ircuiiistances  of 
the  case.  To  use  tho  words  of  Lord  Tiiitenlen,  "  If  a 
person  take  a  bill,  note,  or  any  otlier  kind  of  security 
under  circumstances  whiih  uinjht  r.  exeile  mititirum  in 
the  mind  of  any  reosonablo  man  anpiaiiited  w  1th  tliv  i 
ordinary  affairs  of  life,  and  wliich  ought  to  put  him  on 
his  guard  to  make  llie  necessary  in(|uiries,  and  lio  du 
not,  then  he  loses  the  right  of  maintaining  ]ioasessi<iii 
of  the  instrument  agaiii5it  tho  lawful  owner,"— -GutW- 
htUl,  2ith  October,  1«2<;. 

Country  bank-notes  are  usually  received  as  cash. 
Dut'thougli  tnkeii  as  such,  if  they  be  presented  in  due 
time  and  not  paid,  they  do  not  amount  to  a  payment, 
and  the  deliverer  of  the  notes  is  still  lialile'to  the 
holder.  It  not  easy  to  detomiine  whot  is  a  due  or 
reasonable  t.  ne,  inasmuch  as  it  must  depen  I  in  a  great 
measure  on  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 


On  the  whole,  the  safrsl  rule  seema  In  lie  to  present 
ail  notes  or  drafts  |Hiyable  cm  deiiinnd,  If  reerlxed  In 
the  place  where  they  are  paynble,  on  the  day  oit  which 
lliey  are  received,  or  as  mhiii  after  as  |nisalbie.  When 
they  ha\e  to  be  transmitted  by  p<mt  fur  paniient,  no 
uiiiieccsKary  delay  sliuubl  lie  alhiwoil  to  Inlurvrne.— 
I'liiTTr's  I'otiinirrriiil  hii",  vol.  111.  p.  6110;  and  the 
iii-t.  I'liKiK  In  this  work. 

hiilixrliim brtirrrn  llmilt-niilrt  unit  Itillt nf  h'xihiimi*, 
—It  IS  common  with  thxse  who  object  to  any  restiic- 
lions  being  laid  on  the  lusno  of  bank-notes  to  rrpntseht 
Ilium  as  substantially  Identical  with  orillnary  liills  of 
exchange,  and  to  eiinlend  that  if  it  would  Ihi  impru- 
dent or  impracticable  to  Interfere  with  tliu  issue  of  the 
latter,  the  issue  of  the  fiirmer  should  also  be  left  to  the 
iliscretlon  of  the  parties.  Tho  eases,  liowover,  are  not 
parallel.  It  Is  true  that  bills  of  exchange  |M>rforni  in 
some  res|M<cls  tho  ftiiielloiis  of  miiiiey ;  and,  lieing 
transferred  fhnn  one  individual  to  another,  make  pay- 
ments much  In  tho  same  way  as  if  they  were  bunk 
notes.  But  though  them  are,  nodmilit,  certain  isdnts 
in  which  bills  of  exchange  and  bank-notes  closely  re- 
semble each  other,  them  aro  others,  and  those  too  of 
tho  greatest  lin|Hirtance,  In  which  there  Is  a  distinct 
and  material  difference  Imtween  them.  Bank-notes 
are  Issued  only  by  parties  licensed  for  the  pur|Hise,  or 
by  bunkers;  they  are  nnifornily  payable  on  demand, 
or  when  presented  ;  they  are  not  indorsed  by  the  bidder 
on  his  paying  them  uway ;  tho  party  receiving  has  no 
claim  on  the  party  fk'oni  whom  he  received  them  in  the 
event  of  the  fniliiro  of  the  issuers ;  and  every  one  is 
thus  encouraged,  reckoning  on  tho  facility  of  passing 
them  tn  others,  tn  accept  bank-notes,  "even  though 
he  should  doubt  the  nitiniato  solvency  of  the  issuers." 
— TiioKNTiiN  on  I'liper  Crrilil,  p.  172.  Bills,  on  the 
contrary,  may  lio  drawn  by  all  individuals;  they  arn 
mostly  all  made  payable  ut  some  distant  perioil ;  and 
tlioso  into  whose  hands  they  come.  If  they  be  not  In 
want  of  money,  prefer  retaining  tiiein  in  their  imsses- 
sion,  in  order  tliat  they  may  get  the  interest  accruing 
U|)on  them.  But  the  principal  distinction  between 
notes  and  bills  Is,  that  the  latter  nro  not  nssignalile  liy 
mere  delivery,  but  that  every  individual,  in  passing  a 
liill  to  another,  has  to  indorse  it,  and  by  lUiiiig  so  makes 
himself  resiKinsible  for  its  payment.  "  A  bill  circu- 
lates," says  Mr.  Tlmniton,  "in  consei|uenco  chiefly 
of  tho  conlldence  placed  by  each  receiver  of  it  in  the 
last  Indorsrr,  his  own  correspondent  in  trade;  whereas 
the  circulatiim  of  a  bank-note  is  owing  rather  to  the 
circumstiin<i\  of  the  name  of  the  issuer  lieing  so  well 
known  as  ''o  give  It  n  universal  credit." — V.  4(1.  No- 
tliiiig,  till  •n,  can  lie  more  Inaccurate  than  to  represent 
bills  anil  notes  In  tho  same  point  of  view.  If  A.  pay 
to  B.  £\Kt  in  satisfaction  of  a  debt,  there  is  an  end  of 
the  transaction ;  but  If  A.  pay  to  B.  a  bill  of  exchange 
for  £100,  the  transaction  Is  not  completed  ;  and.  In  tho 
event  nf  tho  bill  not  being  paid  by  the  |)erson  on  whom 
it  is  drawn,  B.  will  have  recourse  upon  A.  for  its  value. 
It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  a  groat  deal  more  considera- 
tion is  always  required,  and  may  be  fairly  presumed 
to  be  given,  before  any  one  accepts  a  bill  of  exchange 
in  payment,  than  lieforo  lie  accepts  a  bank-note.  Tho 
note  is  payable  on  tho  Instant,  without  deduction — tho 
bill  not  until  some  fkiture  |ieriod ;  the  note  may  bo 
passed  to  another  without  incurring  any  risk  or  respons- 
ibility, whereas  every  fresh  issuer  of  the  bill  makes 
himself  responsible  for  its  value.  Notes  form  the  cur- 
rency of  all  classes,  not  only  of  those  who  are,  but  nbo 
of  those  who  are  not  engaged  in  business,  ven>'  many 
of  whom  are,  as  already  seen,  without  tlic  )iow  er  to  re- 
fii'fe  them,  and  without  tlio  means  of  furniiiig  any  cor- 
rect conclusion  as  to  the  solvency  of  the  issuers.  Bills, 
on  tho  other  band,  pass  only,  with  very  few  exco|)- 
tions.  among  persons  engaged  in  business,  who,  being 
fiiily  aware  of  the  risk  they  run  in  taking  them,  reject 
such  as  they  appreliend  might  involve  them  in  loss. 
There  is  plainly,  therefore,  a  widu  and  obvious  diatinc- 


ILVN 


BAN 


lion  li/'twri'n  ttio  two  «p«rli<a  of  currency  i  »n(l  It  wmiM 
Iw  riilli'iilniM  III  nr^iiii  llmt  Iicciiiim  Mnvcriiinniit  U 
liiiiiml  Ici  Inli'rfi'ru  tn  ri'Koliiln  tliii  iiuiiifl  tit  the  unt,  tt 
llinliM  ulxi  ri't(uliiln  llin  Ihkiic  uf  til*  olliar. 

II.  Al  1  r)l  XT  Ol'  TIIK  llASK  IIK  KMiirANn, — ThU 
KTcnt  pnliiMlnhmunt,  whUli  Iim  Iihik  liurti  tho  |irlm'l|iitl 
bank  of  ili'iKixIt  anil  clrciiliitlnn,  not  In  Ihnt  rnunlrv 
only,  Ixit  in  l'luro|w,  wiw  roiinilcil  In  KIIM.  Itn  prlnil- 
piil  (irojcrtor  wim  Mr.  WlllUni  I'uturMin,  iinontiir|>rl»lnK 
«nil  Inlcllltti'iit  Si'oli'li  Kcnlli'Miun,  who  wuii  ufli^rwiinl 
•nKDKcil  in  Ihn  lll-fntril  colony  iit  l>nrlcn,  (iovcnt- 
nii'iit  lii'inK  lit  (III)  tliiiii  nini'h  illi<lrt:»»'il  for  want  of 
money,  (uirtly  from  tho  ilcfri'ln  ami  alniiu'ii  In  th«  iiyii- 
tvni  of  taxation,  ami  partly  from  tho  illlllcnity  of  Imr- 
rowlnf(,  liccuunit  of  tlic  iiu|i|M)i<i«t  Inntulillily  of  the  ri'vo- 
lutlimary  catalilliilimi'nt,  tho  liunk  xrcw  iint  of  it  loan 
orXI.'2lNMHN)for  tho  iinlillr  M^rvlco.  Thu  nulMcrllHin, 
Im'kIiIcii  rccolvln^  lii/lit  \»r  cent,  on  tho  iiuni  ailvancnil 
IM  IntcroHt,  anil  i'  IIHK)  a  year  nit  thn  nx|M'niin  of  munoKiv 
mcnt,  In  all  CIINI,iNM)a  yvar,  wem  inror|ioratc<l  Inl4j  • 
ioclcty  ilcniimlnatuil  tho  llni'emor  nii<l  I'limfmny  nf  ihr 
himk  itf  l-'mjUtnd.  Tho  charter  \*  ilatcd  tho  27th  of 
July,  lilUl.  It  ilcclare*,  anmuK  olhnr  thiiiK",  that  thoy 
ihall  "lio  capalilo  In  law  tu  purchaiic,  enjoy,  and  r«- 
tatn  to  thorn  ami  their  iiucce«nnrii,  any  nianor*,  laniln, 
rontn,  leiiomentH,  anil  |ioiiii<'iu<loni«  whalxiMtver;  anil  to 
pnrcliiiHe  ami  nci|ulru  all  mirtH  of  kooiIk  and  chattola 
whatKwver,  wlierulu  they  are  not  reKtnilncil  liy  act  of 
Purllainont;  and  alao  to  grant,  dcniiiie,  and  dia|>nm]  of 
tho  iiamo.  . 

"That  tho  mnnaKomont  and  government  of  tho  cor- 
poration lio  coniinltteil  to  the  Kovomor,  deputy  rov- 
emor,  and  twenty-four  ilirecton,  who  nhall  lio  ducted 
between  thn  2'ith  day  of  March  and  'iMx  day  of  April, 
oach  year,  IVom  amon)(  thn  nicuilicrn  of  the  coni|iany 
duly  i|ualllleil.  That  no  dividend  shall  at  any  time  lie 
mado  liy  the  nald  (,'nvernor  and  company-,  save  only 
out  of  the  intercut,  profit,  or  protluco  ari  mi^'  l\y  or  out 
of  tho  Halil  capital  atoek  or  fund.  <>r  '  v  such  ilsHlInK  aa 
I«  allowed  liy  net  of  I'arllam'"'  I'hoy  must l)0  nutu- 
ral-honi  niilijecta  of  ICnKland.  i  naturali/.rd  aulijecta ; 
they  nhall  have  in  their  "wn  name  and  for  thnir  own 
IIBO,  severally,  viz. ;  the  m,<  ■  rtmr  at  leant  X4IX)0,  tho 
deputy  ({ovefnor  £300o  iumI  cik  h  director  X2()00  of  tho 
capital  utock  of  the  luusi  corpuinitlon.  That  thirteen  or 
nioro  of  tho  Kald  ne>  •  -loni  a«d  director*  (of  which  tho 
Kovenior  or  di  put*  ,;  i  -rmir  mu»t  Iw  alwnya  one)  iihall 
couHtltuto  a  couri  of  .tircctors,  for  tho  inunaKcnient  of 
tho  airaln  of  the  .'iimpany,  and  for  the  Rppoln|nient  of 
all  a){ent.s  and  -"orvanta  which  may  lio  neceasary,  pay- 
\\\^  tlicn<  Hui  li  Kaliirlea  aa  they  may  conaldcr  rea»oii- 
ablo,  KNcry  elector  muitt  have  in  lila  own  name  and 
for  his  own  unr,  .iTjOO  or  mure  capital  atook,  and  can 
oidy  nlvii  ono  vote.  He  muat,  if  mcpilred  by  any 
menilier  pri-unt,  take  tho  oath  of  stock ;  or  the  dcela- 
raliun  nf  slcik.  In  cano  ho  lie  one  of  the  people  called 
Quakers.  Four  general  courts  to  lie  held  In  every 
year;  in  thu  months  of  iSvptomlior,  Dec.emlier,  April, 
and  .luly.  A  general  court  may  ba  summoned  at  any 
time,  u|K'ii  tlio  n'i|ulaitiou  of  nine  proprietors,  duly 
qualilieil  n*  clectorH.  Tho  majority  of  electors  ill  gen- 
eral courts  have  the  power  to  make  and  constitute  by- 
laws anil  ■Tilinances  for  tho  government  of  tho  corpora- 
tion, pro\  iiled  that  .such  liy-laws  and  ordinances  be  not 
repui;nant  to  thu  laws  of  the  klnf[dom,  and  bo  con- 
rtrnied  ami  approved,  accordluK  to  the  statutes  in  such 
case  nuido  and  provided."  The  corixiration  Is  pro- 
hiliited  from  cuKaKlnR  In  any  sort  of  commercial  un- 
dertaking other  than  dealiiiK  In  bills  of  exchange,  and 
in  (;olil  and  silver.  It  is  authorized  to  advance  numey 
upon  the  security  of  goods  or  morchandiso  pledged  to 
it ',  and  to  sell  by  public  auction  such  goods  as  are  not 
redeemed  within  a  specilled  time. 

It  was  also  enacted  in  the  same  year  in  which  tho 
Bank  was  ostablished,  by  stutnte  C  William  and  Mary, 
0.  2U,  that  the  Hank  "shall  not  deal  in  any  goods, 
wares,  or  merchandise  (except  bnllion),  or  purchase 


any  lands  or  r«vpnu»«  belonging  to  the  crown,  or  ad- 
vanie  or  hnd  to  their  nnijenties,  Iheir  heira  or  nutinlk. 
•om,  any  iiim  or  sunia  of  money  by  h  ay  of  limu  or  an- 
ticipation, or  any  part  or  |i.irts,  brani  li  or  liramhss, 
Aiml  or  funds  of  thn  revenue,  now  granted  or  liebing- 
Ing,  or  hrreafter  to  lie  granted  to  their  niajrslli's,  their 
heirs  and  succesrors,  other  than  siii  h  fund  or  funds, 
part  or  |iarta,  branch  or  branches  of  the  snid  revenue 
onl.v,  on  which  a  crrilil  of  lii:iu  I*  or  shall  be  granted 
liy  Parliament."  And  in  Itl'.l7  It  wiw  mailed  that  Ihe 
"common  capital  and  principal  stink,  and  aim  the 
real  fund  of  the  govenuir  and  cmnpauy,  or  any  proAt 
or  produce  to  bo  made  thereof,  or  arising  thereby,  shall 
lie  exempted  from  any  rates,  taxes,  assessments,  or 
im|xisltiuns  whatS(M>ver,  during  the  lontiiiuaiiceof  the 
Hank;  and  that  all  the  prollt,  bonetlt,  and  advantage, 
from  time  to  time  arising  out  of  tho  managrnient  of 
the  sahl  corporation,  shall  be  applied  to  the  uses  of  ill 
thn  members  of  the  said  corjiorathin  uf  the  (iovrrnor 
and  ('oni|Mny  uf  tho  Kopk  of  KiiglamI,  ratably  and 
in  pro|uirtloii  to  each  memlirr's  part,  ^hare,  and  inter- 
est in  the  coniniou  capital  and  principal  stock  of  the 
said  govenuir  and  company  hereiiy  established."  It 
was  further  enacted.  In  Ili|i7,  that  tho  forgery  of  the 
company's  seal,  or  of  any  sealed  bill  or  bank-note, 
should  bo  felony  without  benetll  nf  clergy,  iiinl  that 
tho  making  of  any  alleratlun  or  erasure  in  any  bill  or 
note  should  alsA  be  f«liin,y. 

In  llltM!,  during  the  great  recolnagc,  tho  Dank  was 
Involved  In  conslilerabin  dinicullies,  and  was  even 
coni|M>lled  to  aua|H'nd  |Hiyment  uf  her  notes,  which 
were  at  a  heavy  discount.  Owing,  however,  to  llie 
Judicious  conduct  of  the  directors,  and  the  assislanco 
uf  government,  the  Hank  got  over  the  crisis.  Hut  It 
was  ut  tho  samo  time  judged  e'C|iedlent,  In  order  to 
place  her  In  a  situation  tho  better  to  vvillistand  any 
adverse  circumstances  that  might  afti  >  >■  inl  occur,  to 
increase  her  capital  from  Xl,2(X),(XHi  lo  i:2,'i()l,171. 
In  I7<)H,  the  dirtictors  iimlcrtook  to  [my  off  and  cancel 
one  ndlliiin  and  a  half  of  Exelieijuer  bills  they  had 
circulated  two  years  before,  at  i\  l«'r  cent.,  with  the 
interest  on  them,  amounting  in  all  tn  .£1,775,02)4; 
which  Increased  tho  |iennancnt  debt  due  by  tho  )iulilic 
tn  the  Hank,  including  i.''UH).<HH)  then  advanced  in  con- 
sideration of  tho  renewal  of  the  charter,  to  XI),U7ri,028, 
for  which  they  were  allowed  (1  per  cent.  The  Hank 
capital  was  then  also  doulilcdor  inireascd  tn  i,' 1, 402,348. 
Hut  the  year  17U8  is  chiefl.v  menioraMe,  in  the  history 
of  tho  Hank,  for  the  act  that  was  then  passed,  which 
declared  that,  during  tho  continuance  of  the  corpura- 
tiun  of  tho  Hank  of  Kngland,  "It  should  not  bo  lawful 
for  any  lio<ly  politic,  erected  or  to  lie  erected,  other 
than  tlio  sniil  UoveruiT  ;,nrt  Company  of  the  Dank  of 
Kngland,  or  for  ni  ,»-r8on8  whatsoever,  united  or  to 
li«  united  in  covinants  or  partnership,  cxoeeding  the 
number  of  six  (Hr^ons,  in  that  part  of  (ireut  Hrltain 
called  England,  In  borrow,  owe,  or  take  up  any  sum 
or  sums  of  money  .  n  their  bills  or  notes  payable  on  de- 
mand, or  III  any  It  >s  time  than  six  months  from  the 
borrowing  thereof."  This  proviso,  which  has  had  so 
|K>werful  an  o|ieration  on  banking  in  England,  is  said 
to  have  been  elicited  liy  tho  Minc-advcnturo  Company 
having  commonccd  banking  business,  and  begun  to 
issue  notes. 

It  has  been  pretty  generally  imagined,  from  tho 
private  banking  companies  in  tho  metropolis  not  issu- 
ing nntes,  that  they  were  legally  incapacitated  from 
doing  so.  Hut  the  clause  in  the  act  of  17nH  which 
has  lieen  the  only  restriction  on  the  Is-oic  of  nines,  ap- 
plied generally  to  all  England,  and  hu  I  no  peculiar 
reference  to  Ix)ndon.  The  fact  that  banks  with  six  or 
fewer  partners  have  not  issued  notes  in  the  metro|iolls, 
as  well  as  in  tho  provinces,  is,  therefore,  ascribable 
either  to  their  lieing  aware  that  their  notes  would  ob- 
tain no  considerable  circulation  concurrently  with  those 
of  a  great  association  like  tho  Hank  of  England,  or  from 
thoir  believing  that  their  issue  would  not  be  protitable. 


BAN 


100 


BAN 


An  Acoocin:  or  tob  tucoiuiva  Bcmiwals  or  rat  CnABTXB,  or  toio  Cosditumw  nnim  wuicu  tuek  Rxmcwau  wxib 

JIAHK,  AMD  or  Tint  VaBIATIONB  IN  Till  AMOONI  AMD  InTXBCBT  Or  TUE  I":  lUIANKMT  D«I1T  UVK  UV  GOVEIINJIBMT  TO  'iHB 

Ba:<k,  Kxm,ciivii  ov  tok  I)«An  Wwoiit. 


R«n«wiil. 


ia»4. 


1607. 


170S. 


ms. 


1T42. 


1T64. 

I   1T81. 

ISOtt 


1S83, 


IMi 


CoodlUoOT  iiiidjr  which  Rm»«»U  w«r»  maila,  and  P«nnMniil  D«M  •ootncKd. 


Chmter  imuited  under  the  not  B  *  6  Will  C,  c.  20,  redeemaUe  upon  the  explmtlon  of  14 

month*'  notice  »tt«r  the  l»t  of  August,  170B,  upon  payment  by  tbe  pubUo  to  the  i:unk  of 

thu  demands  therein  npi'ciSed.  ».„«-.„  ,  jj      .,        ,.^, 

I'ndor  tlila  art  tlm  Uniili  advanced  to  the  pnbllo  X1,B00,000,  In  constdentlon  of  Ihclr 

recdrtng  an  annuity  of  i;i(IO,000  a  year,  vU.  8  per  cent  Interest,  and  £*0W>  for  maungu- 

Charter  conUnuod'by  tjie  S&  o'vi'lil  S,  c.  SO,  tlU  la  moathi'  DoUce  after  lat  of  August,  ITIO, 

^ider  this  act  the  Bank  took  np  and  added  to  their  stock  £1,001,171  Exchequer  bills 
and  talll(*9. 
Charter  continued  by  7  Anne,  o.  T,  till  U  montbs'  uotieo  after  Ist  of  August,  17S2,  on  pay- 
mont,  etc. 

Under  this  act  the  Bank  advanced  X400,000  to  govenunent  without  Interest ;  and  de- 
livered up  to  be  canceled  Xl,776,0iT  17«.  lOd.  libichequer  bills.  In  consldoratian  of  their 

iweiring  au  annuity  of  X10«,Ci01  ia«.,  being  at  the  mto  of  0  per  cent 

Charter  continued  by  12  Anne,  stat.  1,  c.  11,  till  12  mouths'  notiee  after  1st  August,  17 A  on 
payment,  etc. 

In  1710,  by  the  8  Geo.  1,  c  8,  Bank  advanced  to  government,  at  B  per  cent. 

And  by  the  same  act,  the  interest  on  the  Kxohequer  bUls  canceled  m  1708  was  reduced 
bom  6  to  6  per  cent 

In  1721,  by  8  Geo.  1,  c  21,  the  South  Sea  Company  were  authorized  to  sell  £200,0011 
government  annuities,  and  corponitions  purcli(it*ing  the  same  at  20  yt'ars'  purt^luti^e  were 
authorized  to  add  the  amount  to  their  capital  stock.    The  Bank  purchased  the  whole  of 

thofe  annuities  at  20  yean'  purchase 

B  per  cent,  interest  was  payable  on  this  sunt  to  rald^unuuer,  1727,  aud  thereafter, 
4  per  cent. 

At  different  timea  between  1727  and  1788,  both  Inclusive,  the  Bank  received  ftom  the 
public,  OH  account  of  nvrmanent  debt,  £8,276,027  17a  lOd.,  and  advanced  to  it  on  ac- 
count <'f  ditto,  i:3,000,(X)0:  difference 

Debt  due  by  the  public  In  i  T88 ...  

Charter  continued  by  10  Geo.  2,  c.  IS,  till  12  months'  notice  after  Ist  of  August,  1704,  on 
payment,  etc. 

Under  this  act  the  Bank  advanced  £'.,600,000  without  Interest,  which  being  added  to 
tho  orlghial  advance  of  £1,200,000,  and  tho  £400,000  advanced  In  1710,  beating  iiitorest 

at  6  per  cent.,  rcduci'd  tlii'  Interest  on  tho  whole  to  D  per  cent. 

In  174B,  under  authority  of  19  Geo.  2,  c.  fl.  tho  Bank  delivered  up  to  bo  cauccled 
£086,000  of  Exchequer  bilU,  in  consideration  of  an  annnity  of  £80,472,  being  at  the  rale 

of  8  per  cent 

In  1749,  tho  28  Geo.  2,  c  0,  reduced  thu  interest  on  the  4  iier  cent,  annuities  held  by 
the  Bank  to  3t  per  cent,  for  7  yean  from  the  25th  of  December,  17SU,  and  thereafter  to 
8  per  cent 
Charter  eontinued  by  4  Geo.  8,  c.  25,  till  12  months'  notiee  after  let  of  August,  1786,  on  pay- 
ment, at^ 

Under  this  act  tho  Bank  paid  into  the  Kxchcquer  £1 10,000  free  of  all  charge. 
Charter  continued  by  21  Geo.  8,  c.  60,  till  12  months'  notico  after  1  st  of  August,  1812,  on  pay- 
ment, etc. 

Under  this  act  the  Dank  advanced  £8,000,000  for  the  public  service,  for  S  years,  at  8 
per  cent. 
Charter  continued  by  40  Geo.  S,  c  23,  till  12  months'  notice  after  1st  of  August,  1S88,  on 
payment,  etc. 

Under  this  act  the  Bank  advanced  to  government  £8,000,000  for  0  yeara  without  inter- 
est;  but  in  piirsuancf  of  the  recommendation  of  thu  cumiuittee  of  1M)7,  the  advance  was 
continued  without  interei't  till  0  niuntiis  after  tho  signature  of  a  defluitlTe  treaty  of  peace. 
In  1S16,  tho  Bank,  under  authority  of  tho  act  66  Geo.  8,  c.  06,  advanced  at  3  per  cent, 

to  be  repaid  on  or  before  ist  of  August,  18'^ 

Charter  eontinued  by  8  &  4  Will.  4,  o.  08,  till  12  mof'hs'  notice  after  Ibt  of  August,  isefi, 
with  a  proviso  that  it  may  be  dissolved  on  12  months'  notice  after  1st  of  Augutt,  1815,  on 
payment,  etc. 

This  act  directs  that  In  ftiture  the  Bank  shall  dednet  £120,000  a  year  tmm  their  charge 
on  account  of  the  management  of  the  publio  debt,  and  that  a  fourth  part  of  thu  debt  due 

by  the  public  to  tho  Bank,  or  £3,071,700,  be  paid  off 

Permanent  advance  by  the  Bank  to  tijo  public,  bearing  interust  at  8  per  cent.,  inde- 
pendent of  the  advances  on  account  of  dead  weight,  etc 

Charter  eontinued  by  T  &  8  Vict  e.  U2,  till  12  months  after  the  1st  of  August,  1865,  on  pay- 
ment, elcL 

'This  act,  an  abstract  of  which  Is  given  In  a  lubseqnent  part  of  this  article,  exempts 
the  notes  of  tho  Bank  from  all  charge  on  account  of  stamp-dnty,  and  direct4<  that  In  fu- 
ture the  Bank  sliull  deduct  £180,00t)  a  year  fVoiu  the  charge  on  account  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  delit.  It  alao  separates  thu  banking  from  the  issuing  department  of 
the  establishment,  and  cflfccts  other  Important  chanKt'f. 


Ptrnisntnt  D«bt. 


£  «.  d. 

1,900,000    0    0 

8,17^04T  17  10 
2,000,(XX)    0    0 

4,000,000    0    0 


0,875,027  17  10 
276,027  17  10 


0,100,000    0    u 

1,600,000    0    0 
SS6,8U0    0    0 


8,000,000    0    0 


14,6S6,800    0    0 
8,671,700    0    0 


11,016,100    0    0 


The  charter  of  the  Bank  of  England,  when  first 
(granted,  wai  to  continue  for  eleven  ysan  certain,  or 
till  a  year's  notice  after  the  Ut  of  August,  1706.  The 
charter  was  further  prolonged  in  ICU7.  In  1708,  tho 
Bank  having  advanced  XlOOiOOO  for  the  public  service, 
n  ithout  interest,  the  exclusive  privileges  o'  tho  corpo- 
ration were  prolonged  till  1733;  and,  in  >  ^qucnce 
of  various  arrangements  made  at  different  i  ,nea,  the 
exclusive  privil^es  of  the  Bank  have  been  continued 
by  succeuive  renewals,  till  a  year's  notice  after  the  1st 
of  August,  1855.  For  further  details  as  to  this  sulject. 
see  the  Appendix  Np.  1  of  the  Report  «/i832  on  the  Re- 
mwal  of  the  Bank  Charter,  and  the  Acts  of  Parliament 
referred  to  in  it ;  see  also  PogrLETHWAtT's  History  o/" 
the  Revenue,  p.  801-310;  and  Faibmast  <m  the  Fundi, 
7thed.p.8&-88,«to. 


Tho  capital  of  the  Bank  on  which  dividends  are  paid 
has  never  exactly  coincided  with,  though  till  of  lain  it 
seldom  dilltered  very  materially  fhim,  the  permanent 
advance  by  tho  Bank  to  the  public.  Wu  haw  already 
seen  tliat  it  amounted,  in  1708,  to  X4,402,843.  Uctweea 
that  year  and  1727  it  was  increased  to  ne.r  £'J,UUO,000. 
In  174C  it  amounted  to  i;i0,780,000.  From  this  pe- 
riod it  underwent  no  change  till  1782,  when  it  was  in- 
creased 8  per  cent.,  or  to  jeU,642,tOO.  It  continuod 
statiofiary  at  this  sum  down  to  1816,  when  it  was  raised 
to  *14,56a,000  by  an  addition  of  26  per  cent,  from  the 
profits  of  tho  Bank,  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  56 
Geo.  8,  c.  06.  The  act  for  the  renewal  of  tho  charter 
In  1888,  tho  8  &  4  Will.  4,  c.  98,  directed  that  the  sum 
of  ^,671,700  of  the  debt  due  to  the  Bank  should  be  ro- 
p<id  by  the  publio,  gh-ing  the  directors  power,  if  they 


BAN 


lOl 


BAN 


0    0  ' 


r 

0 

I" 

0 

1    0 

0 

I  ore  paid 
■of  lain  it 
Irmttiieiit 
1  alreaJy 
luctweea 
1,000,000. 
1  this  pe- 
lt was  iii- 
loiitinuod 
las  raised 
I  from  tiie 
^0  act  &0 
J  cliartcr 
[  the  sum 
old  be  rc- 
Lr,  if  they 


thought  flf,  to  deduct  It  from  the  bank  capital.  But 
this  was  not  done,  the  sum  Ixiing  reinvested  in  a  goT- 
ernment  annuity,  terminable  In  1860.  The  Bank  of 
England  has  been  fhsqnently  aflbcted  by  panics  among 
the  holders  of  it3  notes.  In  1746,  the  alarm  occasion- 
ed by  the  advance  of  the  Highlanders,  under  the  Pre- 
tender, as  far  as  Derby,  led  to  a  run  upon  the  Bank ; 
and  in  order  to  gain  time  to  concert  measures  for  avert- 
ing the  run,  the  directors  adopted  the  device  of  paying 
in  shillings  and  sixpences !  But  they  derived  a  more 
effbctujl  relief  trom  the  retreat  of  the  Highlanders, 
and  from  a  resolution  agreed  to  at  a  meeting  of  the 
principal  merchants  and  traders  of  the  city,  and  very 
numerously  signed,  declaring  the  villingncss  of  the 
Rnbscrihcrs  to  receive  bank-notes  in  payment  of  any 
sum  that  might  bo  due  to  them,  and  pledging  them- 
seiftes  to  nse  their  utmost  endeavors  to  make  all  their 
payments  In  the  same  medium.  During  the  tremen- 
dous riots  in  June,  1780,  the  Bank  incurred  considera- 
ble danger.  Had  the  mob  attacked  the  establishment 
at  the  commencement  of  the  riots,  the  consequences 
might  have  proved  fatal.  Luckily,  however,  they  de- 
layed their  attack  till  time  had  been  aflbrded  for  pro- 
viding a  force  suiHciont  to  insure  its  safety.  Since  that 
period  a  considoraldo  mllitarj'  force  is  nightly  placed 
in  lite  interior  of  the  Bank,  os  a  protection  in  any  emer- 
gency that  may  occur.  In  the  latter  part  of  1792  and 
beginning  of  170B,  there  was,  in  consequence  of  a  pre- 
vious overissue  on  their  part,  a  general  run  on  most  of 
the  private  banks,  and  about  a  third  part  of  these  cs- 
tal)1ishments  were  forced  to  stop  payments.  This  led 
to  a  considernldc  demand  for  coin  from  the  Bank. 

The  year  1797  is,  however,  the  most  important  epoch 
in  the  recent  history  of  the  Bank.  Owing  partly  to 
events  connected  with  the  war  in  which  England  was 
engaged  —  to  loans  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany;  to 
bills  drawn  on  the  treasury  at  homo  by  the  British 
agents  abroad ;  nnd  partly  and  ciiiefiy,  perhaps,  to  the 
advances  most  unwillingly  made  by  the  Bank  to  gov- 
ernment, which  prevented  the  directors  from  having 
A  sufficient  control  over  their  issues — the  exchanges 
became  unfavorable  in  1705,  and  in  that  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  large  sums  in  specie  were  drawn  fVom 
the  Bank.  In  the  latter  end  of  179C  and  beginning 
of  1797,  considerable  apprehensions  wero  entertain- 
ed of  inv.ision,  and  rumors  were  propagated  of  de- 
scents having  been  actually  made  on  the  coast.  In 
consequence  of  the  fears  thot  wero  thus  excited,  nms 
were  made  on  the  provincial  I)ank8  in  different  parts 
of  the  country ;  and  some  of  them  having  failed,  tlic 
panic  became  general,  and  extended  itself  to  London. 
DeniaiMis  for  cash  poured  in  upon  the  Bank  fVom  nil 
quarters,  and  on  Saturday,  the  2Blh  of  Februarj%  1797, 
she  had  only  £1,272,(K)0  of  cash  and  bullion  in  her  cof- 
fers, with  every  prospect  of  a  violent  run  taking  place 
on  the  following  Monday.  In  this  emergency  an  order 
in  council  was  issued  on  Sunday  the  26th,  prohibiting 
the  directors  from  paying  tliclr  notes  in  cash  until  the 
sense  of  Parliament  had  been  taken  on  the  suijjcct ; 
and  after  Parliament  met,  and  the  measure  had  been 
much  discussed,  it  was  agreed  to  continue  the  restric- 
tion till  six  months  after  the  signature  of  a  definitive 
treaty  of  peace. 

As  soon  as  the  order  in  council  prohibiting  payments 
in  cash  appeared,  a  meeting  of  the  principal  liaukors, 
merchants,  traders,  etc.,  of  the  metropolis  was  held  at 
the  Mansion  House,  when  a  resolution  was  agreed  to, 
and  very  numerously  signed,  pledging,  as  had  been 
done  in  1745,  those  jireiont  to  accept,  and  to  use  every 
means  in  their  power  to  causo  bank-notes  to  ho  accept- 
ed as  cash  in  ail  transactions.  This  resolution  tended 
to  allay  the  a|)prchcnsions  that  the  restriction  had  ex 
cited.  Parliament  l)eing  sitting  at  the  time,  n  com- 
mittee was  immediately  appointed  to  examine  into  the 
affairs  of  the  Bank ;  and  their  report  put  to  rest  what- 
ever doulits  might  have  l)een  entertained  witli  respect 
to  t  e  solvency  of  the  establishment,  by  showing  that, 


at  the  moment  when  the  order  In  coancll  appeared, 
the  Bank  was  possessed  of  property  to  tlio  amount  of 
£16,618,690,  after  all  claims  upon  her  bad  been  de- 
ducted. 

Much  difftrence  of  opinion  has  existed  with  respect 
to  the  policy  of  the  restriction  in  1707 ;  but,  conitdci'. 
ing  the  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  It  took 
place,  its  expediency  seems  abundantly  obvious.  Tim 
run  did  not  originate  in  any  overissue  of  bank  pa- 
per, but  grew  entirely  out  of  political  causes.  Bo  lonj; 
as  the  alarms  of  invasion  continued,  It  was  clear  that 
no  bank  paper  immediately  convertible  info  gold  would 
remain  in  circulation.  And  as  the  Bank,  though  pot- 
sessed  of  ample  funds,  was  without  the  means  of  in- 
stantly retiring  her  notes,  she  might,  but  for  the  inter- 
ference of  government,  have  been  obliged  to  stop  pay- 
ment— an  event  which,  had  it  occurred,  must  have  pro- 
u'.'ccd  consequences  in  the  last  degree  fatal  to  the  pub- 
lic interests.  It  had  been  generally  supposed,  previouk- 
ly  to  the  passing  of  the  Bcstriction  Act,  that  bank- 
notes would  not  circulate  unless  they  were  immediate- 
ly convertible  into  cash ;  but  the  event  showed,  con. 
formably  to  principles  that  have  since  been  fUlly  ex- 
plained, that  this  was  not  really  the  case.  Though  the 
notes  of  the  Bank  of  England  wero  not,  at  the  passing 
of  tho  Restriction  Act,  publicly  declared  to  bo  legal 
tender,  they  were  rendered  so  in  prnctico  by  being  re- 
ceived ns  cash  in  nil  transactions  on  account  of  gov- 
er-'^ncnt,  and  of  the  vast  majority  of  individuals.  For 
the  first  thrco  years  of  the  restriction,  their  issues  were 
so  moderate  that  thoy  not  only  kept  on  a  par  with 
gold,  but  actually  bore  a  small  premium.  In  tho  lat- 
ter part  of  1800,  however,  their  quantity  was  so  nuicl' 
increased  that  they  fell  to  a  discount  of  8  per  cent,  f, 
compared  with  gold,  but  they  soon  after  rose  nearly  to 
par ;  and  it  was  not  until  1808  that  tho  (icciino  of  their 
value  excited  any  considerable  attention.  Early  in 
1810  they  were  at  a  discount  of  about  18J  per  cent, ; 
ond  this  extraordinary  fall  having  attracted  tho  atten- 
tion of  the  Legislature,  the  House  of  Commons  appoint- 
ed n  committee  to  inquire  into  the  circumstances  by 
which  it  had  been  occasioned.  Tlie  committee  exam- 
ined several  witnesses ;  and  in  their  report,  which  was 
drawn  np  with  considerable  ability,  tliey  justly  av- 
eribed  tho  fall  to  the  overissue  of  bank  paper,  and 
recommended  that  tho  Bank  should  be  obliged  to  re- 
sume cash  payments  within  two  years.  This  recom- 
mendation was  not,  however,  acted  upon ;  and  tho  val- 
ue of  bank  paper  continued  to  decline,  os  compared 
with  gold,  till  1814. 

At  the  period  when  the  restriction  on  cash  poyment.i 
took  pluce  in  1797,  it  is  supposed  th-\t  there  wcrv  ul)Out 
280  countrj-  banks  in  existence ;  but  so  rajjidlj'  were 
these  establishments  multiplied,  that  they  amounted  to 
above  900  in  1813.  Tlie  price  of  com,  Influenced  part- 
ly by  the  depreciation  of  the  cun-ency,  and  tlie  facility 
with  which  discounts  were  olilained,  but  far  more  by 
deficient  horr-ests  and  the  uni)roccdentcd  difiicuUits 
which  the  war  threw  in  the  way  of  imporlalion,  had 
risen  to  an  cxtraordinarj'  height  during  the  five  years 
ending  with  1813.  But  the  harvest  of  that  year  being 
unusually  productive,  and  tho  intercoiir.so  with  tho 
Continent  being  then  also  renewed,  prices,  iiilluonced 
by  both  circumstances,  sustained  a  very  licuvy  full  In 
the  latter  part  of  1818  and  the  beginning  of  1811 ;  and 
this  fail  having  ruined  a  considerable  number  of  farm- 
ers, and  produced  a  general  want  of  confidence,  such  a 
destruction  of  provincial  paper  took  place  as  has  rare- 
ly been  paralleled.  In  1814, 18i6,  and  1816,  no  fewer 
than  240  countrj-  banks  stopped  payment ;  and  eit/hty' 
nine  commissions  of  bankruptcy  were  issued  against 
these  establishments,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  commis- 
sion against  every  ten  and  a  half  of  the  total  number 
of  banks  existing  in  1813.  The  great  reduction  that 
had  been  thus  suddenly  and  violently  brought  about 
in  tho  quantity  of  country  liank  paper,  by  extending 
the  field  for  the  circulation  of  Bank  of  England  paper, 


BAN 


102 


VAN 


raised  its  value  in  1817  nearly  to  a  par  with  gold._  The 
return  to  cosh  payments  being  thus  facilitated,  it  was 
fixed,  in  1819,  by  the  act  69  Geo.  3,  c.  78,  commonly 
called  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Act,  that  they  should  take 
place  in  1823.  But  to  prevent  any  future  overissue, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  render  the  measure  as  little 
burdensome  as  possible,  it  was  enacted,  in  pursuance 
of  a  plan  suggested  by  the  late  Mr.  Ricardo,  tliat  tlie 
Bank  should  be  obliged,  during  tlie  interval  from  the 
passing  of  the  act  till  the  return  to  specie  payments,  to 
pay  her  notes,  if  required,  in  bars  of  standard  bullion 
of  not  less  than  sixty  ounces  weight.  This  plan  was 
not,  however,  acted  upon  during  the  period  allowed 
by  law ;  for,  a  large  amount  of  gold  having  been  accu- 
mulated at  the  Bank,  the  directors  preferred  recom- 
mencing specie  payments  on  the  Ist  of  ilay,  1821. — 
Sue  Table  for  an  account  of  the  price  of  bullion,  the 
depreciation  of  paper,  etc.,  from  1800  to  1821. 

A  great  diversity  of  opinion  has  been  entertained 
with  respect  to  the  policy  of  the  return  to  the  old 
standard  in  1819.  By  one  party  it  bos  been  represent- 
ed as  a  wise  and  politic  measure ;  they  contend  that 
Sir  Robert  Peel's  Act  not  only  put  an  end  to  those  fluc- 
tuations in  the  value  of  money,  which  had  previously 
been  pi-oductive  of  great  mischief,  and  gave  eflfect  to 
the  solemn  engagements  into  which  the  public  had  en- 
tered with  the  national  creditor,  but  that  it  did  this 
without  adding  any  thing  material  to  the  nUional 
burdens.  But  another,  and  also  a  very  numerous  par- 
ty, take  a  total  diflbrcnt  view  of  this  measure :  tliey 
contend  that  the  public  was  not  really  bound  to  return 
to  cash  payments  at  the  old  standard  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  war ;  that  the  return  has  very  greatly  en- 
hanced the  value  of  the  currency ;  and  that  this  en- 
hancement, by  adding  proportionally  to  the  fixed  bur- 
dens laid  on  the  industrious  classes,  has  been  most  iu 
jurious  to  their  interests.  It  will,  however,  be  found 
in  this,  as  in  most  cases  of  the  sort,  that  the  statements 
of  both  parties  are  exaggerated,  and  that  if,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  measure  lias  not  been  so  advantageous  as  its 
eulogists  represent,  neither,  on  the  other,  lias  it  been 
nearly  so  ii\{urious  as  its  enemies  would  have  us  be- 
lieve. 

In  discussing  this  question,  it  is  material  to  observe 
that  the  value  of  paper,  which  bad  been  in  1815  and 

1816  about  16}  per  cent,  below  that  of  gold,  rose  in 

1817  and  1818,  from  the  causes  already  mentioned, 
w^ithout  any  interference  whatever  on  the  part  of  gov- 
ernment, to  within  little  more  than  2i  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  gold ;  and  that  in  1819  the  depreciation  only 
amounted  to  H  per  cent. — See  Table.  It  is,  there- 
fore, futile  to  ascribe  to  the  act  of  1819,  as  is  often 
done,  the  whole  rise  that  has  taken  place  in  the  value 
of  the  currency  since  the  peace,  seeing  that  the  cur- 
rency had  been  for  tkree  years  previously  to  its  enact- 
ment from  12i  to  14^  per  cent  above  its  value  in  1815, 
and  from  21  to  23  per  cent,  above  its  value  in  1814 ! 
The  main  object  which  the  promoters  of  the  act  of 
1319  had  in  view  was  to  sustain  the  value  of  the  cur- 
rency at  the  point  to  which  it  had  recovered  itself 
without  legislative  interference.  This,  however,  could 
not  l>e  done  without  recurring  to  specie  payments ;  and 
the  dilference  of  4^  per  cent,  that  obtained  in  1819,  be- 
tween the  value  of  gold  and  paper,  was  not  deemed  suf- 
ficiently considerable  to  warrant  a  departure  from  the 
old  standard,  and  from  the  acts  engaging  to  restore  it. 

But  it  is  alleged  tliat  those  who  suppose  that  the  act 
of  1819  added  only  4  i  per  cent,  to  the  value  of  the  cur- 
rency mistake  altogether  the  effect  of  the  measure.  It 
is  admitted,  indeed,  that  paper  was  then  only  4J  per 
cent,  less  valuable  than  gold  ;  but  by  reverting  to  spe- 
cie payments,  an  unexpected  purchase  of  thirty  mUiions 
of  gold  was  made ;  and  it  is  aflirnicd  that  this  nov- 
el and  large  demand,  concurring  simultaneously  with 
the  contraction  of  paper  iu  several  of  tlie  Continental 
states,  and  with  a  falling  off  iu  the  supply  of  bullion 
ti'oni  the  mines,  had  the  effect  of  adding  very  greatly 


to  the  value  of  gold  itself,  and  consequently  to  that  of 
the  currency.  It  is  very  difficult,  or  ratlier,  perhaps, 
impossible,  to  determine  the  precise  degree  of  credit 
that  should  be  attached  to  this  statement ;  but,  while 
we  incline  to  think  that  it  is  well  founded  to  a  certain 
extent,  we  see  no  grounds  for  believing  that  it  is  so  to 
any  thing  like  the  extent  that  has  been  stated.  The 
gold  imported  into  Great  Britain,  to  enable  the  Bank 
to  resume  specie  payments,  was  not  taken  from  any 
particular  country  or  district,  but  was  drawn  from  the 
market  of  the  world ;  and  considering  the  vast  extent 
of  the  supply  whence  it  was  derived,  it  is  against  all 
reason  to  suppose  that  ite  value  could  lie  materially 
influenced  by  the  purchases.  We  doubt,  too,  whether 
the  contraction  of  the  paper  currency  of  some  of  the 
Continental  states,  and  the  substitution  of  specie  in  its 
stead,  was  not  more  than  balanced  by  the  cessaticc  of 
the  demand  for  specie  for  the  military  chcste  of  the 
different  armies,  by  the  stoppage  of  the  practice  of 
hoarding,  and  tho  greater  security  consequent  to  the 
return  of  peace.  And  with  respect  to  tho  falling  off'  in 
the  supplies  from  the  mines,  it  is  not  a  circumstance, 
supposing  it  to  have  had  a  considerable  influence,  that 
Parliament  could  take  into  account.  It  could  neither 
determine  the  extent  to  which  bullion  had  been  raised, 
nor  at  what  point  the  rise  would  stop,  nor  how  soon  it 
might  again  begin  to  decline.  The  diminution  in  the 
supply  of  bullion  bad  then  continued  for  too  short  a 
period,  and  ite  influence  on  tho  value  of  gold  was  much 
too  uncertain,  to  make  it  a  ground  for  interfering  in 
any  degree  with  tho  standard.  And  notwithstanding 
tlie  falling  olf  in  the  productiveness  of  the  American 
mines  still  continues,  tho  diminution  thence  arising 
has  been  since  more  than  compensated  by  the  extra- 
ordinary increase  that  has  taken  place  of  late  years  in 
the  produce  of  tlie  Russian  mines  and  washings. 

Tho  decline  in  the  price  of  most  articles  that  has 
taken  place  since  the  peace  has  been  often  referred  to 
as  a  conclusive  proof  of  the  great  enhancement  in  the 
value  of  bullion.  But  the  inference  is  by  no  means  so 
certain  as  has  beA  represented.  The  prices  of  com- 
modities are  as  much  aflected  by  changes  in  the  coil 
of  their  production  as  by  changes  in  the  quantity  of 
money  afloat.  Now,  there  is  not  one  of  the  great  ar- 
ticles of  commerce  the  cost  of  wliich  has  not  been  con- 
siderably nnluced,  or  which  has  not  been  supplied  from 
new  and  more  productive  sources  within  the  last  few 
years.  The  growth  of  corn,  for  example,  has  been  vast- 
ly extended  in  France,  Prussia,  and  generally  throu^li- 
out  tlie  Continent,  by  the  splitting  of  large  cxlatos, 
and  the  complete  subversion  of  the  feudal  system ;  and 
the  reduction  of  its  price  in  Kngland  has  been  wholly 
owing  to  the  astonishing  improvements  made  in  agri- 
culture, and  to  the  increase  of  imports  from  Ireland. 
Tho  fall  in  the  price  of  wool  is  satisfactorily  accounted 
for  by  the  introduction  and  rapid  niuitipiicatiun  of 
Merino  sheep  in  Germany,  where  they  seem  to  succeed 
even  better  than  in  Spain ;  and  by  the  large  and  rap- 
idly growing  imports  from  Australia,  wlicrc  little  more 
than  60  years  ago  thcro  was  not  a  single  sheep !  And 
a  very  large  portion,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  fall  in  the 
price  of  colonial  products,  is  admitted,  on  ail  handn,  to 
be  owing  to  tho  destruction  of  the  mono|>oly  system, 
and  tho  vast  extension  of  cultivation  in  Cuba,  Jira7.iI, 
Java,  Louisiana,  etc.  Although,  therefore,  wo  do  not 
deny  that  tho  falling  off'  in  tlie  supply  uf  bullion  from 
the  mines  must,  at  first,  liave  had  some  influence  over 
prices,  wc  hold  it  to  lie  the  greatest  imaginable  error 
to  ascribe  to  it  the  entire  fall  that  took  place  after  tlie 
peace.  Were  iU  effect  rated  at  from  6  to  10  per  cent., 
we  believe  it  would  bo  very  considerably  overstated. — 
See  PuKCious  Metali. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  are  disposed  to  approve 
of  the  conduct  of  those  who  framed  the  act  of  IN  19, 
That  it  added  somewhat  to  the  burdens  of  tho  indus- 
trious classes,  and  has  been  in  so  far  hostile  to  iiie  pub- 
lic interests,  it  weniu  impossible  to  doubt;  but  it  hu 


) 

BAN 


108 


BAN 


/ 


And 


)  approvo 
_,  of  1H19. 
|ho  imlus- 
3  liie  i)ut>- 
|jUt  it  llM 


...'  been  ao  in  any  thing  lilce  tlie  degree  wlilch  its  cne- 
rii  IS  represent.  Tlie  period,  too,  wlien  it  >vus  passed 
is  now  so  distant,  that  the  existing  engagements  among 
individuals  liave  almost  all  been  formed  with  reference 
to  the  altered  value  of  the  currency  ;  so  that  whatever 
ii\)ury  it  may  have  occasioned  in  the  first  instance  must 
be  neai'ly  gone  by.  To  modify  or  change  the  stand- 
ard at  this  late  period,  would  not  be  to  repair  injustice, 
but  to  commit  it  afresh.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  the 
circumstances  wore  considerably  different.  The  stand- 
ard had  been  really  abandoned  fur  the  previous  18 
years;  and  perhaps  wo  may  now  say  that  it  would 
have  been  better,  all  things  considered,  had  the  mint 
price  of  bullion  been  raised  in  1816  to  the  market  price. 
But  having  surmounted  all  the  dithculties  attendant 
upon  the  restoration  of  the  old  standard,  and  maintain- 
ed it  since  1821,  it  would  be  in  the  last  degree  impoli- 
tic to  subject  it  to  new  alterations.  Should  the  coun- 
try become,  at  any  future  period,  unable  to  make  good 
its  engagements,  it  will  better  consult  its  honor  and  its 
interest  by  fairly  compounding  with  its  creditors,  than 
by  endeavoring  to  slip  from  its  engagements  by  resort- 
ing to  the  underhand  and  dishonest  expedient  of  en- 
feebling the  standard. 

The  price  of  grain,  which  had  been  very  much  de- 
pressed In  18'>1  and  1822,  rallied  in  1823 ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance "onlributed,  along  with  others  peculiar  to 
that  perioti  . .  <  note  an  extraordinary  rage  for  spec 
ulation.     -.  ■  t  of  the  country  banks  being  in  con 

sequencr  >r  > ;:  ith  extended,  the  currency  became 
redundai  t  u  autumn  of  1824;  and  the  exchanges 
having  been  depressed,  a  drain  for  gold  began  to  oper- 
ate upon  the  Bank  of  England.  But  the  directors  of 
the  Bank  liaving  entered,  in  the  early  part  of  that  year, 
into  nn  engagement  witli  government  to  pay  off  such 
holders  of  4  per  cent,  stock  as  might  dissent  from  its 
conversion  into  a  Si  pei'  cent,  stock,  they  were  obliged 
to  advance  a  considerable  sum  on  this  account  after  the 
depression  of  the  exchange.  This  tended  to  counter- 
act the  effect  of  the  drain  on  the  Bank  for  gold ;  and, 
in  consequence,  the  London  currency  was  not  very  ma- 
terially diminislied  till  September,  1826.  AVhen,  how- 
ever, the  continued  demand  of  the  public  on  the  Bank 
for  gold  had  rendered  money  scarce  in  the  metropolis, 
the  pressure  speedily  extended  to  the  countrj'.  Such 
of  the  provincial  banks — and  they  wore  a  numerous 
class — as  had  been  originally  established  withQut  suf- 
ficient capital,  or  had  conducted  their  business  upon 
erroneous  principles,  began  to  give  way  the  moment 
they  experienced  an  increased  difHculty  of  obtaining 
pecuniary  accommodations  in  London.  Tlio  alarm, 
once  excited,  soon  became  general ;  and  confidence  and 
credit  were,  for  a  while,  almost  wholly  suspended.  In 
the  short  space  of  six  weeks,  above  70  banking  estalj- 
lisliments  were  destroyed,  notwithstanding  the  very 
large  advances  nuide  to  them  liy  the  Bank  of  England ; 
and  the  run  upon  the  Bank  for  cash  to  supply  the  ex- 
igencies of  the  country  banks  was  so  heavy,  that  slio 
was  well  nigh  drained  of  all  the  coin  in  her  coiFers,  and 
obliged,  as  already  remarked,  to  issue  about  a  million 
of  £1  and  £'1  notes. 

To  guard  against  a  recurrence  of  the  wide-spread 
mischief  and  ruin  produced  by  this  and  tlio  previous 
baukru])tcie8  of  the  country-  banks,  it  was  resolved,  in 
182U,  Willi  consent  of  the  Bank  of  England,  to  make  a 
change  in  the  law  of  1708  limiting  tlio  number  of  part- 
ners in  banking  cstablisliinents  to  six  only.  And  it 
was  accordingly  enacted  that  thenceforth  any  number 
of  portners  might  form  themselves  into  associations  to 
carry  on  the  business  of  banking,  including  the  issue 
of  notes,  any  where  not  within  tirty-Jiee  miles  of  Lon- 
don. The  directors  of  the  Bank  of  England  came,  nt 
the  same  time,  to  the  resolution  of  establishing  branch- 
es in  some  of  the  principal  towns ;  and  these  have  since 
been  established  in  Gloucester,  Manchester,  Birming- 
ham, Leeds,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  Exeter,  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  IIuU,  Norwich,  ate. 


Besides  attempting  to  lessen  the  flrequency  of  bank- 
ruptcy among  the  country  banks  by  repealing  the  law 
liniiting  the  number  of  partners,  it  was  further  re- 
solved, in  1826,  to  prohibit  the  issue  of  £1  notes.  The 
policy  and  effects  of  this  measure  gave  rise  to  much 
dispute.  It  seems  clear  that  it  went  far  to  shut  up 
one  of  the  most  convenient  channels  by  which  the  in- 
ferior class  of  country  bankers  contrived  .to  get  their 
notes  into  circulation,  and  must,  in  so  far,  have  done 
good.  But  there  were  many  other  channels  still  open 
to  them ;  and  to  imagine  that  this  measure  was  to  place 
the  provincial  currency  on  that  solid  basis  on  which 
it  should  be  placed  was  quite  visionary.  There  were 
no  notes  under  £5  in  circulation  in  1792 ;  and  yet  fully 
one  third  part  of  the  countrj-  banks  then  in  existence 
became  banknipt !  The  truth  is,  as  already  stated, 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  guard  against  loss  and  fVaud 
from  the  proceedings  of  the  country  bankers,  otherwise 
than  by  compelling  them  to  give  security  for  their  is- 
sues ;  and  as  security  may  as  easily  be  given  for  £1 
notes  as  for  those  of  £5,  ttxe  suppression  of  the  former 
docs  not  appear  to  be  essential.  No  doubt  can,  how- 
over,  be  entertained  that  the  representations  of  the 
extreme  injury  occasioned  by  the  withdrawal  of  £1 
notes  were  greatly  exaggerated ;  though  it  is,  at  the 
same  time,  obvious  that  the  means  of  the  bankers  to 
make  advances,  as  well  as  the  profit  derived  ft'om  mak- 
ing them,  must  both  have  been  diminished  by  the  sup- 
pression of  the  small  notes;  and  it  would  be  foolish  to 
deny  that  this  circumstance  must  have  occasioned  some 
loss  and  inconvenience  to  many  individuals.  These 
remarks  are  meant  to  apply  only  to  the  case  of  the 
country  banks.  The  extraordinary  extent  to  which 
the  forgerj-  of  the  £1  notes  of  the  Bank  of  England  was 
carried  affords  a  eufiicient  vindication  of  the  policy  of 
their  suppression.  But  the  comparatively  limited  cir- 
culation of  tho  country  banks,  and  perhaps  we  may 
add  the  greater  attention  paid  to  the  manner  in  which 
their  notes  were  engraved,  hindered  their  forgery  from 
becoming  injuriously  prevalent. 

Charter  of  1844.-^The  defects  inherent  in  the  old 
system  were  again  fully  developed  in  1836  and  1887. 
It  is  needless  now  to  enter  upon  any  investigation  of 
tho  circumstances  which  led  to  the  overtrading  of  these 
years ;  but  it  was  carried  to  a  great  extent  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States.  In  nothing,  however,  was 
this  more  strikingly  evinced  than  in  the  rapid  increase 
of  joint-stock  banks ;  tlieir  number,  which  in  1834-35 
had  amounted  in  England  and  Wales  to  S6,  having 
risen  in  1835-36  to  no  fewer  than  100 !  Many  of  these 
wero  banks  of  issue,  and  in  consequence  of  the  large  ■ 
additions  that  were  thus  suddenly  made  to  the  number 
of  notes  afloat,  and  still  more  to  tho  number  of  bills, 
checks,  and  other  substitutes  for  money,  the  currency 
became  redundant  and  the  exchange  depressed ;  and 
tho  deficient  har\'C8ts  of  1838  and  1839,  conspiring  with 
this  redundancy,  occasioned  a  further  fall  in  the  ex- 
change, and  a  severe  drain  upon  tho  Bank  of  England 
for  gold.  But  while  the  latter  was  narrowing  her  is- 
sues by  supplying  the  exporters  of  bullion  with  gold 
in  exchange  for  notes,  tho  country  banks  went  on  in- 
creasing tlieir  issues !  M'hat  the  former  did  by  con- 
tracting on  the  ono  hand,  the  latter  more  than  undid 
by  letting  out  on  the  other.  Tho  vacuum  created  by 
tho  withdrawal  of  Bank  of  England  paper  w^s  imme- 
diately filled  np,  and  made  to  overflow,  by  tho  issue  of 
a  more  than  equal  amount  of  provincial  paper ;  so  that 
had  it  not  been  for  the  rise  in  the  rate  of  interest,  and 
tho  other  repressive  measures  adopted  by  the  Bank, 
tho  probability  is  that  she  might  have  gone  on  paying 
away  bullion  for  notes  till  she  was  drained  of  her  last 
sixpence,  without  in  any  degree  affecting  the  ex- 
change ;  and  as  it  was,  the  bullion  in  her  coffers  in 
August,  1889,  was  reduced  to  £2,420,000,  so  that  the 
market  narrowly  escaped  a  tremendous  crisis. 

This  perilous  experience  having  again  forcibly  at- 
tracted the  public  attention  to  the  state  of  the  banking 


BAN 


104 


BAN 


t^gtCDi,  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  encouraged  to  attempt  ita 
improvement.  The  clause  in  the  act  8  &  4  WiU.  4,  c. 
98,  for  the  renewal  of  the  chirtor  in  ltJ33,  which  gave 
to  Parliament  power  to  reviae  or  cancel  it  )n  1846, 
•ffonled  a  legitimate  op'  r'unity  for  the  introduction 
of  the  newayatem.  ^i  owever  desirable,  the  total 
auppreaalon  of  the  isaue  c.'notuB  by  joint-atock  and  pri- 
vate banking  conipaniek  would  have  been  a  measure 
too  roach  oppose<l  to  popular  prejudices,  and  to  the  real 
or  supposed  interests  of  a  large  and  powerful  class,  to 
liave  had  any  chance  of  <  cing  carried )  and  there  also 
would  have  liecn  great,  iiiuugh  inferior,  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  the  plan  for  taking  security.  It  was,  in- 
deed, indispensable,  in  attempting  to  obviate  the  de- 
fects inherent  in  the  banking  system,  to  proceed  cau- 
tiously, to  respect,  in  as  far  as  possible,  existing  inter- 
ests, and  to  avoid  taking  any  step  that  might  excite 
the  fears  or  suspicions  of  the  public ;  the  grand  diffi- 
cnlty  being  to  reconcile  the  introduction  of  juch  a 
course  with  the  adoption  of  any  plan  that  woulil  oli- 
viate  in  any  considerable  degree  the  defects  complain- 
ed of.  Happily,  this  difllcult  prolilem  has  been  dex- 
terously and  satisfactorily  solved  by  Sir  RolMrt  Peel ; 
the  measures  he  introduced  and  carried  through  Par- 
liament in  1844  and  1846,  for  the  improvement  of  the 
banking  system,  having  been  so  skillfully  contrived  as 
to  provoke  little  opposition,  at  the  same  time  that  they 
effected  very  extensive  and,  as  we  think,  most  bcnell- 
cial  changes. 

The  measures  in  question  consist  of  the  act  7  &  S 
Vict.  c.  82,  which  refers  to  the  Hank  of  England  and 
the  English  country  banks ;  and  the  acts  8  &  9  Vict, 
c.  87,  88,  referring  to  the  Banks  of  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. The  principal  olject  of  these  statutes  has  been 
to  obviate  the  chances  of  overissue  and  of  sudden  fluc- 
tuations in  tiie  quantity  and  value  of  money,  by  limit- 
ing the  power  to  issue  notes  payable  on  demand,  and 
by  making  the  araonnt  of  such  notes  in  cirr.-'ation  var;- 
more  nearly  than  prviously  with  the  amuuDt  of  bull- 
ion in  the  possession  of  the  issuer:;.  Sir  Rolxjrt  Peel 
adopted,  in  dealing  with  the  Bonk  of  England,  the  pro- 
posal made  l>y  Mr.  Loyd,  in  1887,  for  eft'octing  a  com- 
plete separation  l^etween  the  issuing  and  banking  de- 
partments of  that  establishment.  And  while  the  di- 
rectors are  left  at  liberty  to  manage  the  Utter  at  dis- 
cretion, their  manageuient  of  the  fjrmer,  or  issue  de- 
partment, is  snijected  to  what  seems  to  be  a  well-de- 
vised system  of  restraint.  The  Hank  is  allowed  to  is- 
sue £14,000,000  of  noti'9  upon  securities  (of  which  the 
debt  of  £11,015,100  leut  by  her  to  government  is  a 
part) ;  and  whatever  paper  the  issue  department  may 
at  any  time  issue  over  and  alxtve  this  maximum 
amount  of  securities,  it  must  have  an  equal  amount  of 
coin  and  bullion  in  its  coffers.  A  clause  is  inserted  in 
the  net  allowing  the  Dank  to  increase  her  issue  upon 
aeonriti'  s  in  the  event  of  her  notes  being  used  instead 
of  those  of  any  or  all  of  the  i.'xisting  banks  of  issue. 
Hence  it  is  impractical^le  for  the  issue  department  to 
Increase  its  issues  without,  at  the  came  time,  propor- 
tionally increasing  its  stock  of  coin  ond  bullion ;  or  to 
diminish  the  latter  without  proportionally  diminishing 
the  amount  of  paper  supplied  to  the  public  and  the 
banking  department.  And,  therefore,  if  the  latter  is- 
sued the  whole  notes  assigned  to  it,  the  total  amount 
issned  Ijy  the  isaue  department  and  the  amount  in  cir- 
culation would  be  identical ;  and  it  might  under  such 
ciroumstances  be  truly  said  that,  in  so  far  as  the  (jur- 
renoy  consists  of  Bank  of  Englcnd  notes  payable  on  de- 
mand, it  varied  in  amount  and  value  as  it  would  do 
were  it  \^holly  metallic,  and,  consequently,  by  being 
M  closely  identified  with  the  standard,  realized  the 
bttm  idatlott  paper  currency. 

But,  though  the  currency  approaches  lo,  it  has  not 
arrived  at  this  degree  of  perfection.  The  public  does 
not  deal  alone  with  the  Issue,  but  also,  and  to  a  far 
greater  extent,  with  the  banking  department.  And 
tbla  latter  department  retained  such  a  portion  of  the 


notes  issued  to  It  by  the  former,  nndcr  the  2d  clause  ci 
the  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  82,  as  was  supposed  at  the  time  to 
be  sufficient  to  carr,  >n  its  business,  their  anioaiit  hav- 
ing since  varied  with  the  varying  demands  for  bullion, 
the  soles  and  purchases  nf  securities,  etc.  But  it  is  suf- 
ficient, in  illustration  of  what  is  now  atated,  to  observe 
that  during  the  week  ending  the  4th  of  November,  1848, 
notes  to  the  amou  it  of  £26,790,(ieO  had  been  issued  to 
the  public  and  thd  banking  department,  of  which  the 
latter  had  £8,242,076  in  its  coffers,  naking  the  sum  in 
the  hands  of  the  public  £18,664,086.  And  as  ii  is 
sometimes  supposed  that  the  bonlung  department 
might  issue  this  sum  o'  £8,242,676,  or  l!ic  spare  notes 
at  any  time  in  its  coiibrs,  in  the  discount  of  bills,  or 
any  other  way,  it  is  concluded  that  there  is  still  room 
for  some,  though  but  little,  derangement  of  the  curren- 
cy from  mistaken  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  l<ank ; 
and  this,  no  doubt,  may  be  sometimes  true,  at  least  to 
somb  extent.  But  it  is  idle  to  suppose  that  the  bank- 
ing department  could  carry  on  business  without  a  largo 
reserve  of  notes  or  of  coin.  This  department  may  have, 
owing  to  a  variety  of  circumstances,  to  meet  a  drain 
for  deposits ;  and  as  it  is  very  unsafe  to  trust  to  the 
sale  of  securities  in  periods  of  discredit,  a  very  consid- 
erable supply  of  notes  or  of  bullion,  or  of  both,  can 
never  be  advantageously  or  safely  dispensed  with. 

This  shows  the  little  weight  to  bo  attached  to  the 
statements  of  those  wl)o  contend  that  the  late  measuro 
has  laid  no  real  restraint  on  the  issues  of  the  Bp-ik,  be- 
cause, say  they,  she  has  a  large  reserve  of  unissued 
nites  which  she  might  legitimately  throw  on  tlie  mark- 
et. But  in  truth  and  reality  she  can  do  nothing  of 
the  sort.  A  r.'scrve  is  indispensable,  not  only  to  her 
safety,  but  to  her  ability  to  cany  on  banking  business ; 
and  it  is  at  present  (November,  1848)  sufficiently  nar- 
row. More  vigilance  and  caution  are  now  required  (in 
th''  part  of  the  bank  directors  than  formerly ;  for  oth- 
erwise the  banking  department  of  the  Bank  may  be 
reduced  to  the  greatest  difficulties,  without  its  being 
possible  for  it  to  obtain  any  assistance  from  the  issue 
department,  how  able  soever  the  latter  might  bo  to 
render  it.  This  was  strikingly  evinced  in  the  autumn 
of  1847 ;  and  nothing  but  the  exercise  of  a  proper  de- 
gree of  foresight  and  caution  can  prevent  its  recur- 
rence. No  gold  can  now  be  obtained  i^om  tlio  issue 
department  except  in  exchange  for  notes ;  nor  can  the 
latter  be  obtained  from  it  except  in  exchange  for  gold. 
Hence  it  is  no  longer,  as  formerly,  in  the  power  of  the 
Bank  to  create  paper  money  at  pleasure  to  supply  the 
place  of  cash  in  any  emergency  in  which  she  niny  bo 
involved :  and  instead  of  less  she  requires  to  <.ct  with 
more  circumspectiuu  under  the  new  system  than  under 
the  old. 

But  though  the  checJ  n  the  overissue  of  bank-notes 
be  thus  nearly  effectua  ppears  rather  singular  that 
no  check  should  be  esi .  ashed  on  the  issue  of  bank 
post-bills,  which  amounted  to  £1,048,603  on  the  4th 
November,  1848,  and  which  are  and  may  Ik  substituted 
for  notes.  No  doubt,  however,  were  the  Bank  (which 
is  hardly  to  be  imagined)  to  abuse  the  privilege  of  issu- 
ing post-liills,  by  mnking  advances  in  them  which  she 
could  not  linve  made  in  notes,  measures  would  lie  taken 
to  prevent  the  abuse;  and  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  it 
was  as  well  to  postpone  devising  means  for  the  preven- 
tion of  what  seems  so  unlikely  to  occur.  Weekly  re- 
turns are  now  published  of  the  issues  of  the  Bank,  and 
of  the  securities,  bullion,  etc.,  in  her  possession.  The 
sum  to  be  deducted  by  the  Bank  iVom  the  charge  on 
account  of  the  management  of  the  national  debt  is  in 
future  to  be  £180,000  instead  of  £)20,0tX)  a  vear.  as 
fixed  by  the  act  8  &  4  Will.  4,  c.  68.  The  charter  is 
to  bo  continued  till  twelve  months'  notice  after  the  1st 
of  August,  1855.  The  provisions  made  in  thin  act  for 
rt-dtrnitdng  the  country  circulatiun  were,  perhaps,  still 
more  important.  The  maximuin  future  issue  of  the 
joint-stock  and  other  banks  in  England  and  Wales 
was  limited  to  the  average  omotut  of  the  circulation 


BAN 


105 


BAN 


of  each  during  the  twelve  monthi  preceding  the  'J7th 
of  April,  18 14.  It  was  farther  enacted  that  no  neir  bank 
ihall  lie  catablishid  for  the  iuue  of  notes,  and  that  the 
names  of  the  partners  in  joint-stock  and  other  banks 
shall  bo  periodically  published.  The  rsf^nlations  in 
the  statutes  relating  to  banking  in  Scotland  und  Ireland 
are  nearly  similar.  The  maximum  amount  of  notes 
to  bo  issued  by  the  bonks  of  both  countries  is,  in  time 
to  come,  not  to  exceed  the  average  amount  which  each 
bank  had  in  circulation  during  the  twelve  months  end- 
ing the  1st  of  May,  1845.  Certain  returns,  including 
among  others  tho  amount^  gold  and  silver  coin  held 
by  tho  banks,  tho  names  or  tho  partners,  etc.,  arc  to  bo 
periodically  published,  Tho  small-note  currency  of 
Scotland  has  not  been  afTected  by  tho  measure. 

It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  these  regulations  in- 
terpose a  formidable  obstacle  to  overissue ;  and  thi^t, 
consequently  they  discourage  overtrading,  and  tend  to 
reduce  both  the  number  and  the  violence  of  those  com- 
mercial revulsions  and  changes  in  the  value  of  money, 
that  have  always  been,  and  must  necessarily  continue 
to  bo,  productive  of  the  greatest  mischief.  No  one  ever 
pretended  to  say  that  these  or  any  other  measures  which 
cruld  be  aJopled  with  respect  to  the  currency  would 
wholly  prevent  unsafe  speculation  and  overtrading. 
These  may  originate  in  an  endless  variety  of  circum- 
stances i  but  in  limes  past  the  tendency  to  speculation 
and  gambling,  when  once  set  on  foot,  was  in  most  ca- 
ses powerfully  stimulated  by  the  facility  which  bankf 
then  possessed  of  issuing  additional  quantities  of  paper ; 
and  of  that  facility  they  are  now  all  but  deprived.  It 
is,  perhaps,  true  that  the  fair  and  Icgitimbte  influence 
of  tho  acts  now  referred  to  may  be  in  some  degree 
countervailed  by  tho  circulation,  to  a  grcatfr  extent 
than  formerly,  of  bills  and  other  sorts  of  paper  not  pay- 
able on  demand,  but  at  short  dates ;  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  sooner  or  "later  tho  question  may  arise 
whether  any  regulations  should  bo  adopted  in  regard 
to  the  issue  of  such  paper.  In  so  far,  however,  as  re- 
spects the  issue  of  paper  money,  or  no;  ^s  payable  on 
demand,  the  regulations  in  the  act  of  1844  appear  to 
have  left  little  to  bo  desired.  No  doubt,  also,  numbers 
of  tho  private  and  other  banks  that  now  issue  notes  will 
from  time  to  time  wind  up  their  affairs ;  and  as  no  new 
banks  of  issue  can  be  established  in  their  stead,  the 
vacuum  caused  by  the  withdrawal  of  their  notes  will 
be  s!-.pp1ied  by  those  of  the  Bank  of  Knglsnd ;  so  that 
a  gradual  progress  will  be  made  toward  the  desirable 
consummation  of  having  only  one  bank  of  issue. 

It  is  sometimes  conten&ed,  by  those  opposed  to  tho 
policy  of  limiting  the  issues,  that  they  never  can  be  in 
excess  so  long  is  they  are  payable  on  demand,  SuL'h, 
however,  ii  not  the  case :  notes  payable,  and  really 
paid,  ca  demand,  can  not,  it  i.  true,  fall  below  the  value 
of  specie  in  the  country  in  which  they  are  issued;  but 
the  check  of  payment  in  specie  does  not,  in  fact,  begin 
to  operate  till  their  .verissue  has  depreciated  tho  value 
of  the  whole  currency,  gold  as  well  as  paper,  in  such 
country,  below  its  level  in  the  surrounding  countries, 
and  till,  consequently,  the  oxchanpe  bocomes  unfavor- 
able, and  it  is  of  advantage  to  export  gold.  Then,  of 
course,  the  overissue  is  stopped,  but  such  stoppage  is 
almost  always  accompanied  by  a  great  deal  of  public 
distress  and  inconvenience ;  while  it  I)y  no  means  nec- 
essarily follows  that  ony  considerable  portion  of  the 
loss  thence  arising  will  fall  on  those  banks  by  whose 
misconduct  or  overissuo  tho  ta\\  in  tho  exchange  and 
the  dc<n.)nd  for  bullion  may  have  been  occasioned. 

Tho  measures  adopted  in  1844,  though  they  deep- 
ly affected  many  powerful  private  interests,  were,  as 
already  stated,  passed  with  little  difHcult; ,  and  were 
very  generally  approved  of.  In  this  respect,  however, 
the  public  opinion  has,  to  some  extent,  changed ;  <ind 
the  net  of  1844  has  been  charged  with  having  aggra- 
vated the  pressure  experienced  by  tho  mercantile  world 
In  1847.  I!nt  wo  are  satisfied  that  there  is  no  real 
room  or  ground  for  any  such  imputation.    Tho  crisis 


of  1847  was  a  eonstqtience  partly  of  tho  railway  mania 
of  the  previous  year,  and  partly  of  the  failure  of  tho 
potato  crops  of  1846  and  1840.     Tlie  failure  in  the 
latter  year  deprived  fhlly  two-thirds  of  the  people  of 
Ireland,  and  a  considerable  portion,  also,  of  those  of 
Great  Britain,  of  their  accustomed  supplies  of  food. 
In  consequence  of  this  defijic  cy,  and  of  government 
having  come  forward  to  pro\  ide  the  means  for  its  re- 
lief, there  was  an  unprecedented  importation  of  all 
sorts  of  com ;  and  the  demand  for  bullion  for  exporta- 
tion to  meet  this  importation,  occurring  simultaneously 
with  a  vast  railway  expenditure,  pecuniary  uccommo- 
dations  were  obtained  with  the  greatest  ditiiculty,  and 
the  rate  of  i'ltercst  rose  to  an  extraordinary  height. 
Instead,  however,  of  being  increased  by  the  act  of 
1844,  it  is  abimdantly  certain  that  tho  operation  of  tho 
latter  contributed  to  alleviate  the  severity  of  the  crisis. 
Tho  restraints  it  imposed  on  the  issues  of  tho  country 
banks  had  hindered  them  from  embarking  to  any  great 
extent  in  railway  adventures,  so  that  they  were  b.tter 
able  to  assist  their  customers ;  and  it  also  prevented 
tho  Dank  of  England  from  attempting  to  meet  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  case,  otherwise  than  by  raising  the  rnto 
of  interest  and  restricting  her  issues.     And  besides 
being  the  natural  and  proper,  these  were,  in  fact,  tho 
only  means  by  which  tho  value  of  bullion  could  bo 
raised,  its  demand  for  foreign  remittance  checked,  and 
the  exchange  turned  in  favor  of  England.     A  great 
many  mercantile  houses  that  had  been  trading  upon 
very  insufficient  capitals,  or  which  had  previously  been 
virtually  insolvent,  were,  of  course,  swept  off  during 
the  crisis ;  and  the  alarm  that  was  thereby  ocasioned, 
though  for  tho  most  part  without  any  good  founda- 
tion, gave  rise  to  a  species  of  panic.      During  the 
prevalence  of  the  latter,  government  consented  (25th 
October,  1847)  to  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  act 
of  1844;   but  there  is  now,  we  believe,  little  dou'ui 
that  this  was  an  unwise  proceeding.     When  it  took 
place  tho  violence  of  the  crisis  had  abated.     The  drain 
for  gold  for  exportation  had  not  only  ceased,  but  had 
begun  to  react  j  and  the  probability  is,  that  in  a  very 
few  days  all  alarm  would  have  passed  off,  without  tho 
dangerous  precedent  which  was  set  by  the  interference 
of  ministers.     Hence,  in  our  view  of  the  matter,  tho 
expericnco  afforded  by  the  crisis  of  1847  tells  strongly 
in  favor  of  tho  act  of  1844.     But  for  Its  inflncnco,  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  Bank  would  have  atccmptcd 
to  meet  the  demand  for  bullion  without  raising  the  rate 
of  interest,  at  least  to  the  extent  to  which  slic  did 
raise  it:  and  if  so,  she  should  have  been  exposed  to 
the  imminent  risk  of  a  suspension  of  cash  payments. 
If.  therefore,  the  act  of  184-1  should  be  subjected  to 
any  modifications,  it  is  to  bo  hoped  that  they  may  bo 
such  as  may  tend  to  carry  out  and  strengthen  tho  prin- 
ciples on  which  it  is  founded. 

Previously  to  tho  late  changosi,  the  Dank  director* 
endeavored,  as  a  general  rule,  to  hnven«  much  com  and 
bullion  in  their  differs  us  might  together  amouni,  when 
He  exchange  tens  at  par,  to  a  third  part  of  the  Jianh'* 
liabilities,  including  dcjymtt  as  well  as  issues ;  so  tliat,  in 
the  event  *  tho  note?  afloat,  ond  the  public  and  pri- 
MLte  dcposiis  in  the  cofl'ers  of  the  Dank,  amounting  to 
£27,C  00,000  or  i;30,000,000,  they  did  not  consider  tlie  es- 
tablishment in  n  perfectly  satisfactory  state,  unless  she 
was,  generally  speaking,  possessed  of  about  j(;'.),000,000 
or  ilO,000,000  of  coin  and  bullion.  The  issues  of 
the  Bank  were  then  wholly  governed,  at  least  in  ordi- 
narj-  cases,  by  what  Mr.  Horsley  Palmer  expresively 
called  "  the  action  of  the  public ;"  that  is,  they  wore 
increased  during  a  favoinblc  exchange,  or  when  bullion 
was  scut  to  tho  Bank  to  be  exchanged  for  notes ;  and 
diminished  during  an  imfavorablo  exchange,  or  when 
notes  were  sent  to  the  bank  to  bo  paid.  But  the  vice 
of  tho  old  system  was  that  this  rule  was  not  strictly 
enforced,  and  that  the  directors  wore  every  now  and 
then  compelled  to  relax  it.  But  under  tho  present 
systca  such  relaxation  is  practicable  only  to  a  very 


BAN 


106 


BAN 


Hmtted  txtent,  and  can  be  but  Httl»  abuseo,  which  for- 
merly was  not  always  the  case.  It  is  frcquenUy  said 
that  ihe  value  of  money,  and  consequently  that  the 
price  of  all  sorts  of  property,  depends  on  tlw  flat  of  the 
Bank,  by  which  it  is  capriciously  ciovated  at  one  time 
and  depressed  at  another.  But  the  account  previous- 
ly given  of  the  moii)  in  which  the  issues  of  the  Banlt 

A_  1„«„.,,.^  n.  .rn.  Worm   RBrillHTIIS.  BUl.'.ION,  I!TO.,  Or  TUB  BANK  Of  ENQlAfll.  l-Ott  THE  FIKBT  WKKK  IN  KACH  MONTII,  AS 
A»  AOCOVNT  OF  TIIB  N^,  «f """"'"f.  5"^:^^;',  ™^,,„u  „,  ,,;«  AoT  T  AN..  «  V.CT.  f.  82,  TO  Tl.I  6t„  D^CEMUKa,  1846. 


are  regulated  completely  disproves  such  statefflenti| 
and  independently  of  this,  every  one  who  linows  that 
the  Banic  must  pay  her  notes  in  coin  when  presented, 
and  that  coin  may  1)0  at  all  times  obtained  from  the 
Mint  without  any  charge.  In  exchange  for  bullion, 
must  know  that  the  very  supposition  of  their  being 
true  involves  a  contradiction. 


rviiusuED  Wbkklt  in  the  "  Oaustte,"  raoM  the  i 


IBSUR  nKPARTMKNT. 


Week  ending. 


1844,  December  T. 
184B,  January     4. 

February    1. 

March         1. 

AprU  B. 

May  8. 

June  T. 

July  B. 

August       2. 

September  6. 

October      4. 

November  1. 

Poccml)er  6. 
1S4(S,  January     8. 

Fcbruaiy    T. 

March        7. 

AprU  i. 

May  2. 

Jnna  0. 

July  4. 

August       1. 

September  6, 

October      8. 

November  T. 

December  5, 


Netei. 


£ 
27,S17,()05 
28,087,(1.15 
28,232,4S5 
28,!>(>2,1()6 
29,05-2,146 
2(1,107,093 
20,782,000 
29,891,088 
20,190,700 
28,053,800 
28,385,070 
27,267,116 
20,540,480 
20,075,926 
20,098,020 
27,079,270 
27,181,080 
27,072,295 
28,326,000 
29,822,200 
29,292,820 
29,700,870 
29,3.VJ,7!I6 
28,2;i5,gS5 
28,209,106 


Goverontenl 
Debt. 


£ 
11,016,100 
11,016,100 
11,015,100 
11,016,100 
11,016,100 
11,015,100 
11,018,100 
11,016,100 
11,016,100 
11,016,100 

ii,oi5,i;io 

11,015,100 
11,015,100 
11,016,100 
11,016,100 
11,015,100 
11,015,100 
11,015,100 
ll.Ol.'i.lOO 
11,015,100 
11,016,100 
11,015,100 
11,016,100 
11,015,100 
11,015,100 


Otiwr 
Soeuritiet. 


■old. 


£ 
2,9S4,90O 
2,984,900 
2,981,900 
2,984,900 
2,084,900 
2,984,900' 
2,984,9IpO 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,934,000 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,000 
2,084,900 
2,934,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,981,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 
2,984,900 


i! 
12,228,894 
1 2,493,414 
12,548,406 
12,943,918 
13,200,548 
13,088,142 
13,005,716 
13,(61,932 
13,206,991 
12,98'.',S91 
12,614,730 
11,061,081 
10,992,631 
11,093,869 
11,140,210 
11,417,040 
11,460,446 
11,279,130 
12,192,710 
12,905,074 
12,864,018 
13,057,997 
12,032,794 
11,724,111 
11,70-2,047 


silver; 

i~ 

1,503,611 
1,693,611 
1,684,080 
2,00,8,187 
2,091,602 
a,078,963 
2,120,884 
2,140,008 
1,989,769 
1,970,709 
1,840,940 
1,005,434 
1,517,8-19 
1,682,056 
1,638,410 
1,00'2,230 
1,721,535 
1,7113,106 
2,132,290 
2,417,126 
2,437,702 
2,70-',873 
2,727,1X11 
2,511,774 
2,500,4.58 


Weekeiidl-.(. 

C>piliU. 

Reel. 

BANSINU  DBPA 
Depoeili. 

BT.MENT. 

Seven  I)ey«* 

and 
oUiei  BUIi. 

SecuTltiea. 

Notee. 

Cola. 

Fublie. 

Private. 

Publle. 

Other. 

1844,  Dec.  7 

i4,5ra,ooo 

3,110,009 

£ 
6,795,572 

£ 

8,422,809 

£ 
960,155 

13,540,019 

£ 
10,193,718 

£ 

8,286,  !ll5 

£ 

S27,4<W 

1846,  Jan.   4 

14,553,000 

8,127,278 

7,300,043 

8,037,320 

1,015,106 

13,539,720 

)1,426,91«1 

.8,418,125 

714,600 

Feb.   1 

14,553,000 

8,298,944 

2,852,124 

8,713,090 

l,0Si),005 

13,541,092 

8,662,751 

7,642.2i«i 

600,146 

Mar.  1 

14,563,000 

3,675,172 

^476,9$4 

10,823,799 

983,323 

13,474,370 

11,707.J(H) 

8.952,,'M5 

777,959 

April  6 

14,653,000 

3,530,219 

0,924,196 

10,446,960 

l,0fl.').189 

13,474,.370 

13,123,178 

'),262,'J,'>0 

7-22,057 

May  8 

K'553,000 

3,183,817 

2,7t?,011 

10,355,040 

1,139,288 

13,010,906 

9,857,0)0 

7,827,925 

641,159 

June  7 

14,.-i53,000 

8,186,091 

6,745,4,82 

10,504,024 

1,018,497 

13,334,398 

11,470,oi05 

9,382,6(15 

779,436 

July  6 

14,6o;'  <m 

3,164,433 

7,330,809 

10,041,440 

l,O4f),502 

13,884,206 

12,944,496 

9,279,785 

6-20,197 

Aug.  2 

14,553,000 

8,333,240 

3,215,303 

10,960,214 

1,072,260 

13,321,344 

11,403,603 

7,849,785 

603,861 

Sept  6 

14,553,000 

3,008,180 

6,474,705 

8,507,213 

1,021,689 

13,408,04:^ 

11,907,081 

8,2.')5,505 

473,5t)8 

Oct.   4 

14,553,000 

8,629,978 

8,703,497 

8,107,901 

1,088,100 

13,31.8,643 

15,18S,965 

7,O!;5,0l.'. 

P.p9,373 

Nov.  1 

14,663,000 

8,224,453 

4,487,088 

9,099,737 

1,106,406 

13,203,133 

13,429,813 

6,219,776 

0n,92T 

Dec.  0 

14,863,000 

3,209,894 

8,110,401 

9,022,019 

1,004,471 

13,201,803 

10,224,712 

5,946,840 

5-20,870 

1846,  Jan.   3 

14,6.53,000 

8264,000 

9,309,030 

8,360,465 

959,907 

13,201,072 

10,202,698 

0,418,610- 

605,547 

Feb.  T 

14,853,000 

3,462,787 

6,0M,4S8 

13,912,445 

903,083 

13,137,047 

22,908,001 

0,203,026 

037,026 

Mar.  7 

14,563,000 

8,787,708 

6,802,385 

17,828,778 

.398,170 

13,136,440 

22,118,937 

7,.57fl,026 

707,9G5 

April  4 

14,663,000 

8,799,808 

7,074,020 

10.763,047 

906,446 

13,1:10,440 

22,068,681 

7,310,415 

643,641 

May  2 

14,6u3,000 

3,890,540 

2,678,451 

16,780,350 

906,730 

IS     13,006 

17,901,148 

6,408,470 

661,418 

June  6 

14,653,000 

8,379,041 

5,763,512 

15,927,013 

862,008 

1.  .183,006 

18,321,641      8,408,180 

630.691 

July  4 

11,553,000 

8,424,178 

7,794,200 

14,402,400 

837,364 

12,987,142 

13,145,319  1  9,303,090 

6->.5,651 

Aug.  1 

14,553,000 

8,697,679 

8,793,610 

13,449,888 

9-13,423 

12,961,786 

14,063,267      8,7''1,S75 

610,283 

Sept.  5 

14,553,000 

8,804,479 

7,318,919 

8,657,100 

935,830 

12,961,735 

12,623,650     9,2o.,008 

512,967 

Oct.   S 

14. .553, 000 

8,880,985 

9,77fl,l!'5 

8,107,143 

930,793 

12,901,300 

15,0,36,776     8,809,  l.')0 

450,831 

Nov.  7 

11,553,000 

8,408,362 

5,428,733 

8,281,024 

1,013,010 

12,808,119 

12,153,009      7,204,020 

5-24,021 

Dec.  5 

14.65.B.000 

8,432.203 

8,612,488 

8,303,523  1      805.483 

12,807,417 

18,853,212      8,402,;)00 

7'i.'i,7n3 

Connection  with  remment  and  the  Public. — The 
Bank  of  Englaml  nducts  the  whole  banking  business 
of  the  British  government.  "  It  acts  not  only,"  says 
Dr.  Smith  "as  an  ordinary  bank,  but  as  a  groat  engine 
of  state.  It  receives  and  pays  the  greater  part  of  the 
annuities  which  aro  due  to  the  creditors  of  tlio  pnblic ; 
It  circulates  Exchequer  bills ;  and  it  advances  to  gov- 
ernment the  annual  amount  of  the  land  and  malt 
taxes,  which  are  frequently  not  paid  till  somo  years 
thereafter." 

Advances  by  Iht  Bank  in.  Discount!,  etc. — The  greater 
part  of  the  paper  of  the  Bank  has  generally  been  is- 
sued in  the  way  of  advances  or  loans  to  government, 
upon  security  of  certain  branches  of  tho  revenue,  and 
in  the  purchase  of  Exclieqacr  bills  and  bullion ;  but 
her  issues  through  the  medium  of  discounts  to  individu- 
als have,  notwithstanding,  been  at  all  times  consider- 
able, while  during  war,  and  in  periods  of  distress,  they 
hare  been  occasionally  very  great.  Generally  speak- 
ing, however,  tho  directors  do  not  think  it  advisable 


to  enter  into  competition  with  private  bankers  in  the 
transacting  of  ordinary  banking  business,  or  in  the 
discounting  of  mercantile  paper.  Mr.  llorsley  Palmer 
is  decidedly  of  opinion  that  all  banking  business,  apart 
from  the  issue  of  notes,  is  better  transacted  by  private 
baukers  than  by  public  bodies. — Min.  of  Evidence,  lie- 
jKirt  of  1832,  p.  37.  He  also  thinks  that  were  the 
Bank  to  come  fairly  into  competition  at  all  times 
with  tho  pri-.-tte  bankers  and  other  individuals  in  dis- 
counting, it  would  bo  very  apt  to  lead,  every  now  and 
then,  to  an  excess  of  the  currency,  and  a  fall  of  the 
exchange,  producing  fluctuations  that  could  not  fail  to 
be  injurious.  At  present,  therefore,  and  generally 
since  tho  peace,  the  rate  of  interest  charged  by  the 
Bank  for  loans  has  been  somewhat  above  the  market 
rate.  The  consequence  is,  that,  in  ordinary  periods, 
very  few  applications  are  made  to  her  for  discounts. 
But,  at  the  same  time,  every  one  who  has  any  reason- 
able security  to  offer,  knows  whero  they  may  always 
be  had ;  while  the  rate  of  interest  charged  by  the  Bank 


BAN 


toir 


BAN 


necessarily  formg  a  maximum  rate  which  no  other  es- 
tabliahnieat  cun  excood.  Whan,  howuvor,  any  cir- 
cumBUiices  occur  to  occoilon  a  pressure  in  the  money 
market,  or  a  difficulty  of  obtaininij-  accommodations  in 
the  usual  channels,  thd  market  rate  of  interest  imme- 
diately rises  to  the  ratu  fixed  by  the  Bank ;  and  on  such 
occasions  tho  pHvate  bankers,  i>rd  the  publ'.^  general- 
ly, resort  to  the  Bank  for  nid.  She  tlien  becomes,  as 
it  were,  a  bank  of  support;  und  has,  as  such,  on  many 
trying  occasions,  particularly  in  1798,  1815  and  18)6, 
1826-2G,  and  1888,  rendered  essential  service  to  public 
credit,  and  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the  countrj'. 
The  usual  limited  amount  of  tho  Bank's  discounts  does 
not,  therefore,  proceed,  as  has  been  absurdly  enough 
stated,  from  any  indisposition  on  the  part  of  tho  dl- 
re'"tor  '0  render  avcry  assistance  in  their  power  to  the 
commercial  classes,  but  is,  in  fact,  tlie  efl'ect  of  such 
dispositiuu.  They  consider,  and  we  l>elieva  justly, 
that,  exce;>t  under  peculiar  circumstances,  the  business 
of  discounting;  and  banking  is  best  conducted  by  private 
parties ;  and  that  by  abstaining  from  coming  into  com- 
petition with  them  they  are  better  able  to  act  as  a 
bank  of  supjiort  in  seasons  of  distress  and  dilBculty, 
This  is  not  to  neglect  tho  interests  of  the  mercantile 
classes,  but  to  promote  them  in  tho  best  and  most  effi- 
cient manner,  oven  though  it  should  uo  at  tho  expense 
of  the  Bank. 

At  tho  same  time,  however,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  interference  of  the  Bank  in  assisting  iho  commer- 
cial interest  is  a  matter  that  requires  tho  greatest  con- 
sideration, and  that  it  can  only  be  safely  undertaken 
under  very  peculiar  circumstances.  It  should  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  however  a  drain  for  gold  may 
originate,  the  factof  its  existence  is  of  itself  a  conclusive 
proof  that  gold  is  more  valuable  abroad  than  ut  home, 
and  consequently  that  the  currency  is  redundant,  and 
ought  to  be  diminished.  Under  uuch  circumstances,  it 
is  the  imperative  duty  of  the  directors,  in  order  to  pro- 
vide for  tho  safety  of  tho  Bank,  to  prevent  the  vacuum 
caused  by  tho  exchange  of  bullion  for  notes  from  being 
again  filled  up  by  the  issue  of  fresh  notes.  Thij  may 
be  done  in  various  ways ;  but  the  best  and  suiest  way 
is  by  raising  tho  rate  of  discount  so  as  to  lessen  the 
number  of  applicants  for  loans. — See  Post.  It  is  at 
such  periods,  however,  that  the  applications  for  assist- 
ance arc  the  most  urgent ;  and  it  is  exceedingly  diffl' 
cult  to  yield  to  them,  and  at  the  same  timo  to  enforce 
that  systematical  and  continuous  reduction  of  the  issues 
that  is  now  indispensable  to  reduce  the  currency  to  its 
proper  level,  and  to  restore  the  exchange  to  par.  Un- 
qu  stionably  tho  Bank  allowed  the  etock  of  bullion  in 
her  colters  to  be  reduced  in  1889  a  great  deal  too  low. 
And  though,  perhaps,  as  things  turned  out,  less  hard- 
ship was,  in  the  end,  inflicted  on  individuals  than  if  the 
directors  had  adhered  more  to  the  stern  path  of  duty, 
still  it  is  extremely  hazardous  to  trust  in  matters  of 
such  vast  importance  to  the  chapter  of  incidents ;  and 
we  incline  to  think  that  in  this,  as  in  most  other  r<ases, 
tlie  safest  plan,  or  the  systematic  reduction  of  the  issues 
whenever  tho  exchange  becomes  unfavorable,  is  that 
also  which,  speaking  generally,  is  most  advantageous 
to  uU  classes.  And  this,  as  already  seen,  is  now  all 
but  imperative  on  the  Bonk. 

In  1889,  end  wc  believe,  also,  on  a  previous  occa- 
sion, the  Bank  negotiated  credits  abroad,  and  endeav- 
ored to  restore  the  exchange  to  par  by  selling  bills  on 
the  Continent.  The  policy  of  this  device  gave  rise  to 
a  good  deal  of  discussion  .it  the  timo ;  but  in  the  par- 
ticular cases  it  appears  to  us  to  havo  been  most  Judi- 
cious; and  wo  incline,  also,  to  think  that  under  tho 
old  system  tho  some  course  might  and  should  have 
been  followed  on  various  occasions.  This  device  is 
now  less  necessary  ;  hut  we  may  still  easily  conceive 
occasions  when  it  might  bo  advantageous.  V/hat 
merchants  want  during  an  adverse  exchange  is  good 
foreign  bills,  it  being  only  in  default  of  such  that  they 
export  bullion ;  and  the  Bank,  by  supplying  them 


with  luuli  bills,  and  getting,  of  course,  her  notes  in  ex- 
change, is  able  to  diminish  her  issues  quite  as  cfiect- 
ually  as  if  her  notes  were  sent  In  for  bullion.  Another 
advantag-<  of  tbi.>  plan  is,  that  no  one  knows  when  it 
is  in  oi>eration,  and,  consequently,  that  it  goes  far  to  ' 
obviate  that  internal  discredit  and  alarm  that  are  apt 
to  ./O  produced  when  the  itock  of  bullion  in  tlie  Bank 
is  reduced  unusually  low.  In  fact,  had  'he  Bank  not 
acted,  in  part  at  least,  on  this  plan  in  Ib^U,  the  proba- 
bility Is  that  she  must  have  suspended  payments.  No 
doubt  the  Bank  would  be  exposed,  if  she  adopted  this 
plan,  to  the  contingency  of  losing  by  her  foreign  secu- 
rities in  tho  event  of  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities,  or 
of  the  occurrenco  of  any  event  by  which  their  value 
might  be  reduced.  These  events  may,  however,  be  in 
general  foreseen  and  provided  against;  and  if  the 
Bank's  investments  were  judiciously  made,  not  in  one 
only,  but  in  several  quarters,  the  risk  they  would  in- 
volve does  not  appear  to  be  at  all  equivalent  to  the  ad- 
vantage. Perhaps,  as  the  law  now  stands,  there  may 
be  legal  objections  to  the  Bank's  holding  foreign  se- 
curities ;  but  if  it  bo  expedient  that  she  should  do  so, 
tho  law  might  he  easily  altered.  Tho  amount  of  the 
discounts  of  private  paper  at  the  Bank  and  her  branch- 
es varies,  as  already  seen,  greatly  in  diircrent  periods; 
and  depends,  indeed,  wholly  on  contingent  and  acci- 
dental circumstances.  Thus,  on  tho  1st  of  Januar}-, 
1889,  the  bills  discounted  in  London  amounted  to  only 
i:89G,000,  whereas  on  the  3d  of  I^ecember  of  the  same 
year  they  amounted  to  £8,926,000.  The  annual  aver- 
age loss  by  bad  debts  on  the  discounts  of  tho  Bank 
of  England  in  London,  from  1791  to  1831,  both  inclu- 
sive, was;£81,698.— ^/)pencii2  to  Rep.  on  Bank  Charter, 
No.  CO. 

Advance*  to  Government. — These  iro  made  on  ac- 
count uf  the  produce  of  taxes  not  yet  received,  and  on 
the  security  of  tho  Exchequer  bills,  etc.  They  varied, 
from  179-2  down  to  1810,  f^om  about  £10,000,000  to 
about  £16,000,000.  During  tho  remainder  of  the  war, 
and  down  to  1)320,  they  were  a  good  deal  larger ;  but 
in  1819  provision  was  made  for  reducing  the  amount 
of  these  advances ;  and  they  do  not  at  present,  ex- 
cluding the  permanent  advance  on  account  of  the  dead 
weight,  exceed  a  fourth  part  of  their  amount  in  1820. 
They  are  represented  by  the  Exchequer  bills  and  dcll- 
cicncy  bills  in  the  hands  of  the  Bank. 

Balances  of  Public  Money. — In  point  of  fact,  however, 
a  very  large  part  of  these  advances  has  been  nominal 
only,  or  has  been  virtually  canceled  by  the  balances 
of  public  money  in  the  hands  of  the  Bank.  Thus,  from 
1806  to  1810,  both  inclusive,  the  averago  advances  to 
government  amounted  to  £14,492,970.  But  the  aver- 
age balance  of  public  money  in  possession  of  the  Bank 
during  the  same  period  amounted  to  about  £11,000,000 ; 
so  that  tho  real  advance  was  equal  only  to  tho  dlficr- 
cnce  between  these  two  sums,  or  to  about  £3,500,000. 
This  statement  completely  negatives,  as  Mr.  Tookc 
has  justly  stated,  the  supposition  so  commonly  enter- 
tained and  reasoned  upon  as  a  point  beyond  doubt,  that 
the  Bank  was  rendered,  by  the  restriction,  a  mere  en- 
gine in  the  hand  of  government  for  facilitating  its 
financial  operotions. — First  Letter  to  Lord  GrenvUle,  p. 
64.  Tho  Bank  being  enabled  to  employ  tho  greater 
part  of  the  balances  of  public  money  in  her  hands  as 
capital,  they  have  formed  one  of  tho  main  sources  of 
the  profit  she  has  derived  from  her  transactions  with 
the  public.  This  suljoct  was  brought  verj"  prominently 
forward  in  the  Second  Report  of  the  Committeo  of  the 
House  of  Commons  on  Public  Expenditure  in  1807, 
And  it  was  agreed  in  the  same  year  that  the  Bank 
should,  in  consideration  of  the  advantages  derived  from 
the  public  balances,  continue  the  loan  of  £3,000,000 
made  to  government  in  1800  for  6  years  without  in- 
terest, on  tho  same  terms,  till  6  months  after  tho  sig- 
nature of  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace.  In  181(i  this 
sum  was  finally  incorporated  with  tho  debt  duo  by  gov- 
ernment to  tho  Bank,  ai,  aa  interest  of  8  per  cent. 


•V 


fUJK 


108 


BAK 


\  t 


SfanaffemenI  ijfPuhUe  />*#,— l»r»irl«ii^  t«  Vm,  ltl« 
Daok  reculv«d  an  allawMiiw  on  lhl«  <H!CffMltt  thai  Ic, 
for  trouble  In  psylnff  ttM  dlvM«n4  .^MimiiMmHniy  ilM 
truuftr  of  itouk,  •«.,  of  i^Ml  IM,  u  mWWm.  In  t7M 
thli  allowwuM  wu  rtdiut4  to  <4A0  •  milllMt,  ttM  Hank 
being,  St  (be  lamt  tima,  aniitlMl  l«  •  nmtWumMe  nV- 
lowanea  for  her  trouUa  In  maalvlnf  nmttnmtUm*  on 
loant,  lottarlei,  alo.  Thin,  ItoWKfvf,  iH>mn\t  Um\(  tk- 
ftndtd  a«  a  very  improvMant  •rranrtniolit  <m  itio  (lart 
of  the  pnbllc,  waa  acqulaaiwd  in  <ill  ('•'M,  wh»n  Iho  a)- 
lowanoa  on  account  of  nianai^awnt  waa  r«<tN««<t  to 
£840  par  mitiiod  on  4lMit,im,im  ii(  ttm  tmUk,  <i«M, 
and  to  j;800  par  million  on  all  (bat  it  unfM'iUd  that 
amn,  exclu»iva  of  aonw  aapitraloi  aliifwamMK  (nr  annni- 
tlei,  etc.  Tbe  inipraaaion,  bowKVurr,  «raa  ulltl  «iil*r. 
talned  that  tba  dUlowaneM  for  iH«««K<fm«fit  nhrmM  tie 
ftartlier  reduced.  In  couii>u|us)i(!A,  (|m  luttHH  Wilt. 
4,  c.  08,  directed  that  JilW,i»H>  a  yii»T  ottAitld  Im  de- 
ducted from  their  aaioiMt|  and  ttia  lato  art,  Ihs  7  A 
8  Vict.  e.  as,  direcM  (bat  till*  4wlu«ti<m  itliall  Iw  In- 
oreaied  to  £lf)0,OUO.  Durtni{  (!•«  yxarandtM^  lh«  A(h  of 
January,  1846,  the  Uaiik  rvwivod  <»»,lll  Uu,  UKt.lot 
the  inanaf^ement  of  (ha  public!  Mil  and  annMltIra,  It 
■hould  1^  ol)8ervttd  that  tint  r«<|HW)iildlity  and  niip«iii«i 
incurred  by  the  Itaiik  in  nianaKiliK  lh«  tmlillr  dnift  are 
very  great.  The  teniptati/M.  Ui  ttm  iiimmiiminu  «t 
tnaii  in  tranaferring  atuck  fruni  nna  indivldnai  to  an- 
other, and  in  tbe  paynutut  of  th«  ii^UUimU,  In  wetl 
known;  and  notwitbataiidInK  tb«  nklllfnlly  (Utvlned 
■yitem  of  checka  ado|i(ii't  iiy  (Im  Hank  (nr  It*  prevpn- 
tlon,  she  haa  frequently  atutaiitad  v*ry  i(r«at  kmaea  by 
forgery  and  othcrwraa. 

In  1803  the  itank  laet,  thnmKb  «  frand  r(miml(l«<d 
by  ono  of  her  i>rin<'ipal  i««l)i"f«,  Mr,  Aii(l<'tt,  ;  -  lew 
tlian  X340,0<»()5  ami  th«  fi»ri{i(»l«»  «f  Vtitmti^^oy  /  • 
banker  coBt  her  a  ttiil  larKitr  •nni,  At  an  avnrnf^e  of 
the  ten  yean  ending  with  INiil,  (Im  If  Nk  Umt,  through 
forgeries  on  the  publis  funda,  4^<i,2«>t  a  yt,m  -Hffurrl 
on  Bank  Ckarter,  ApiMwl,,  p,  lHlt,  Tb«  (Mat  atima 
paid  by  tbe  pnblto  to  tbe  Uank  nn  aofwrnnt  (ff  (hn  loanii 
railed,  Excliequer  l>iiU  fundad,  trani^  «f  f4  fx-r  cent, 
atock,  etc.,  from  17U;J  tolnjO,  Iwtli  Inctwlod,  nnKrtinlcd 
to  £426,796  l<.  Uil.  —  ParUmntmMry  t'up*t,  No,  81, 
8e«a.  1822. 

Dtad  Weight — Beaidaa  tlia  tranaaefiMt*  atlttded  to, 
the  Bank  entered,  on  (b«  2<Hb  </f  Mar«h,  J»2S,  Into  an 
engagement  with  gov«nim«Ht  widt  rmtifnt  In  (h«  pnli- 
llc  pension!  and  annuitiea,  or,  aa  tltt^  bav«  twen  more 
commonly  termed,  tba  d^^ul  utlfflU,  AH\m  end  of  the 
irar,  the  naval  and  military  (xmal^nni,  anpf^nnnnnted 
allowances,  etc.,  amountiu]  to  abwii  j:ti,im.(tlKt  a  year. 
They  would,  of  course,  bav't  l«i«n  ^a'lnalty  lewt'tifd 
and  ul(inia(eiy  eidnguUlM*'!  Ity  tlfo  d««lh  of  the  par- 
ties. Bu(  It  waa  resolved  In  f'Ji  U*  a(<«wpt  to  uprond 
the  burden  eiiually  over  tlw  wlwdx  pi-ffwl  lit //rrig'/rr 
years,  during  wjloh  it  w»a  «ai'.'nlal«»t  (b«  anntiilles 
would  continue  to  daeraass,  'ti»  ^m-t  tblx  tinr|ioM,  It 
was  supposed  that,  upon  Kov«mm«nt  offwrlng  to  pay 
£2,800,000  a  year  for  fcrtyWIva  y««w,  ffatdtallsta  would 
be  found  who  would  undvrtaka  Ut  pas'  the  entire  an- 
nuities, according  to  a  gfiVtmUid  mmU  pmvlonsly  de- 
termined upon,  making  tin*  flrat  yaaf  a  payment  of 
£4,900,000,  and  gradually  daer«a«ln(;  f  he  payment*  un- 
til the  forty-ftfth  an4  laat  yi-w,  wImh  tlipy  wwo  to 
amount  to  only  £g0(),0<»(»,  Tl,i»  ««j»(i«alUon  waa  not, 
however,  realized.  No  capKslUta  w«»«  tonnd  willing 
to  enter  into  such  distant  anga^iwionta,  lint  In  im 
the  Bank  agreed,  on  amiltUm  iif  rm^inK  an  annuity 
of  £585,470  tor  fniy.fmr  ymn,  wrtnnMrndng  on  the 
6th  of  April,  IH23,  to  pay,  on  nmtmnt  «f  th«  pen»lan«, 
etc.,  at  different  ap<!ci(i<.<d  (<«fMa  t(*lw#«n  the  rears 
1828  and  1828,  both  bulnaiva,  Out  mm  «r  £19,099,41!). 
•~4  Ou.  4,  0.  S2. 

RaU  ofDUamnl^Th*  Banli  iUmtmM  ftH»at«  Mlla 
at  6  per  cent,  daring  naarly  ib«  wJwU  pwfcd  from  her 
estaliUshmsnt  (iU  mt,  wfeM  tbtnUwM  fsdtated  to 
iperosnt.  .  ;s<j,ii  ..•« 


Aa  Aoectmrf  i»  tira  Mimihoh  Rath  op  Tntcnnrf  ctimatt) 
NT  Tan  Bank  or  (tnuLANn,  in  Lonim)n,  rBom  IWM  to  IWB. 
f  fMi  Mf.    a,  ISh,  to  Aif.  10,  tIM,  ••  fonlim  Mlla     .    .    t    ft  rral. 
f tMa aw.  le, >M4, l« Jh.   ie,ieM,<ia  .    .    4S|W<«>I- 

fnmOd.    M,  I'M,  lo  Ju.   I «,  ms,  on  Inland  Mill.    .    .    6     |iurri.ol. 
riMiiM.    IS,  IHI,  la  Mlf   It.  ISM,  oironlnkUla     .    .    i     parrot 
frumjaa.    16,  lO'tl,  (tofuatonivniur  (lt«  baitkl    Ju.  .    .    <    ~ 
rnmjM.    I«,  KM,  In  July   ID,  Ul<l,  on  liilanii  blllt .     .     . 
tnm  Kmy    II,  IHt,  lo  Pab.  w,  1104,  an  fatelmi  bilb     .    , 
rrnm  *'       on  Foralgn  bilU,  nut  i>a}aliU  at  lliu  bank  . 

rii«i<rak.  •),  11(M,UijBna  9),  1110,  onfoialimkllla  .  . 
rrcan  Jnna  n,  lliu,  to  July  W,  lim,  on  (or.  tud  Inland  do. 
rrnlK  Jul;    M,  I1l«,  (o  April  90,  ITia,  on  lillli  anJnoUa. 

|yun  Ai'rilSO,  ITIt,  luOrl.   t1,  ITM,  on  Mil 

rrorn  Oci.  'jl,  irifl,  Id  Aug.  «3,  1799,  un  "  .... 
ffim  Auk  91,  rrj.  I..  Orl.  11,  I1J<,  on  Inland  bUli .  . 
rroai  Aii«.  U,  IT14,  to  UO.  U,  1141,  m  (oMlcn  bUJa  . 
frmllrl.    11,  It4!l,  to  llao.  II,  1144,  on  " 

rr^'i  llaa.   11,  1144.  to  May     I,  1 144,  on     ■*    (ltd.  lanu) 
rrcm  lla<!.   II,  1144,  to  Msjr     I,  1144,  on  Inland  bllla  . 
CrnM  Mar     I,  I14<,  lo  April   «,  1113,  on  hralini  bllla 
fronHia;     I,  I14S,  to  Jana  10,  isn,  onbUla    and    nolaa 

(94  daya  to  run)    4     par  cant 
from  June  W,  ISW,  to  Dr*.  19,  IWiR,  on  ••  4     par  pont 


I  p«ra__ 
i\  par  rant. 
4  par  rant 
4  par  rani. 
par  rani. 
par  rank 
par  rant. 
par  raoL 
par  eanl. 
par  rant, 
parratil 
par  raaL 
par  rant, 
par  rank 
par  rant. 


ffora  naa.   IS,  IWi,  to  Jul;    t,  1M1,  oo 
torn  July     '    '151,  to  July  SI,  I«36,  on 

rromjoly  1  .   V4,  loSapl.    I,  IHI14,  oa  " 

Tl'mtttl.     I,  l'<3«,  tojuly    14,  lUX,  on  " 

fromrrTi.    IS,  1  ".IS,  to  May   14,  IMO,  on  " 

rrotn  May    14,  IH19,  to  Juna  40.  IHal),  on  ** 

Frwti  Jiioa  90,  l.-tiW,  to  Aug.     I.IKIB,  on  " 

rrom  Anir.    I,  iKIt,  In  Jan.    9S,  IWO,  on  ~ 
rromJan.    U,  IMO,  luUal.    14,  1MI>,  oo  U  day  Mlla .     . 
fr-.m  ()rt.     15,  IMO,to  Juna     it,  IVj],  on  94  day  bltli.     • 

rromJima    8,  IMI,taApril   1,  IMi.oa  '■         .    . 

rrom  April    1,  1849,  to  Rapt    S,  11(44,  on  "          .    . 

from  Baft.    «,  IM4,  to  Mar.  IK,  1«4»,  on  bill 

rromSai,!.  t,  l.'l44,tuMar.  13,  1«44,  alinotaa  .  .  .  . 
rrom  .Mnr.  13,  lN4fi,  to  Urt  10,  l'44fi,  on  Inioimum  rata  . 
rfomOrt  14,  IMI>,  to  NoY.  •,li<4h,  ui^  " 
Krom  Nor.  «,  1«44,  lo  Auff.  II,  1N44,  on  •' 
Kn.m  Ank.  II,  1"J«,  to  Jan.  11,  ISJI,  on  " 
framJati.  14, 1841,to 'u.  91.  lUl.ili  ■' 
rrom  Jan.  91,  l»41,  to  April  H,  IS41,  on  " 
rrom  April  «,  1«4T,  lo  An|t.  »,  l«41,  on  " 
rroniAu,r.  6, 1U1,  to  Sapt  93,  1IM1,  on  " 
rrom«»|.l.  93,  mi,  I..  OrV  95,  l«47,  on  " 
rromOrt  94,  1*41,  to  Nov.  99,  1841.  on  " 
Prom  Nov.  99, 1841,  lo  Dar.  9,  1B41,  on  " 
rrrnn  Drr.  9,  l«4t,  to  Drr.  93,  1841,  on  " 
rram  l)oa.  93,  1841,  to  Jan.  91,  184«,  aa  " 
rrom  Jan.  91,  1848,  to  Juno  l«,  184",  on  " 
from  Jnna  IS,  11(8,  to  Nor,  9,  1848,  on  " 
rrom  Nor.  9,  l«4^  to  Nov.  99,  1849,  on  " 
rt'im  .\..r.  99,  1849,  lo  Her.  9«,  I'SO,  on  " 
rromlMr.  94,  I8M>,  tojan.  1, 18(9,  oo  " 
rrom  Jan.  1,  18&9,  to  April  99,  1^9,  on  " 
rrom  April  99,  1859,  lo  Jan.  «,  I8S8,  on  " 
rrom  Jan.  4, 1843,  to  Jan.  90, 1 943,  on  ■* 
Kr-im  Jan.  20,  1859,  to  Junr  9,  1"53,  on  *' 
i  rrom  Jnna  9,  1843,  to  Srpt  I,  l»>3,  on  " 
rromNapt  1, 1843,  loBapt  14. 1143,  on  " 
rrom  Kapl.  15, 18,13,  to  Sept  911,  lira,  on  " 
PromSapl.  99,  1843,  toHay  II,  IfCi,  oa  " 
rr..m  May  II,  l»S4,  •"  Aug.  8,  18S8,  on  " 
ffrm  Anj.  3,  l«S4,  lo  April  »,  I8J»,  on 
"a;      


h'TOTii  April 

Ff'.m  yftty     8,  l-SS,  U,  June  14,  1W5,  on 


,  IM'b,  lo  Hfty     3, 1068,  on 


rtim  Juno  14, 1M6,  tn  ri«|>t.    S,  1tl»,  on 

rrom  Seijt.  «,  l^'6,  to  Hcnt.  V^,  16fi6,  od 

Fffm  »»crl.  n,  IMS,  to  S«pt.  ^1,  !«B5,  of)  " 

!  rmtn  thpi.  i%  16U,  to  Oet.      4,  IM6,  on  " 

Fr*.m  Oct.  4,  lS55,toOct.    18, 18W,  on  " 

FrnmOft.  1H,  18U,  ODtttUybllb. 

ffom  Oflt.  18, 1W>,  on  9S  dsy  btlU . 


•  ptr  coBk 

4  |<er  cant. 
41^  p«r  cmH. 
I  p«r  cMi 
4  p«r  o«nt. 
ft  p«f  C«ttt. 
ft^i  \>tT  eoni. 
4  por  r«n|. 
i  p*r  ccol 
B  pur  cant. 
6     par  cMt 

4  par  CflBk 
f  ^  per  roDt. 
8  p«r  cent. 
9^  P«r  csDl. 
t  par  rant. 
8^1  par  renL 

5  per  rent. 
I)fi  par  cant. 
4  par  etnt. 
8  par  rtnt. 
8)6  par  oant 

6  per  root 
B  par  o«nt. 
1  par  cant 
6     per  p«l. 

*  parcml. 
4  per  caola 
tJfi  P«'  *«•• 
8  pareaot. 
^\i  percent. 
8  fT  cant 
3^  p«r  cant. 

3  per  cant. 

8  pur  cvnt. 
8  ^  par  foat. 

4  par  canta 
4ti,  percent. 
8  par  oant 
51^  percent. 
8  per  cent. 
4H  par  cent 
4  per  cent, 
a^  l>er  coot 
4  per  cent. 
4^  per  rerrt. 
ft  per  canl. 
5^  {ler  cent. 
t  per  cant. 
T     par  «anta 


When  the  currency  happens,  from  any  cause,  to  hecome 
retlundant,  its  contraction,  always  a  matter  of  some 
difficulty,  Is  to  be  effected  only  (if  she  hold  no  forcigpa 
ft^'curities)  by  the  Bale  of  btiUion  or  pubUc  securies  by 
the  Dank,  or  by  a  diminution  of  tho  ustial  discounts,  or 
iKrth.  But  were  tho  Hank  to  throw  any  considerable 
amonnt  of  puldic  securities  upon  the  market,  tho  clp- 
cnmstanco  would  bo  apt  to  excite  alarm;  and,  even 
though  it  did  not,  it  would  he  difficult  to  dispose  of  them 
without  a  heavy  loss.  Hence,  when  a  reduction  is  de- 
termined upon,  It  is  most  commonly  effected,  in  part  at 
least,  by  a  contraction  of  discounts ;  and  it  is  plain  that 
such  contraction  can  not  he  made  except  by  rejecting 
altof^ether  some  of  the  bills  sent  in  for  discount,  or, 
which  is  in  effect  the  same  thing,  by  shortening  their 
dates,  or  by  raising  tlic  rate  of  interest,  so  that  fewer 
may  be  sent  in.  Of  these  methods,  the  last  seems  to 
be  in  every  reflpect  the  most  expedient.  When  bills 
are  rejected  for  no  other  reason  than  that  the  currency 
may  be  contracted,  the  greatest  iijury  is  done  to  indi- 
viduals, who,  entertaining  no  doubt  of  getting  their 
usual  accommodation  fVom  the  Bank,  may  have  enter- 
ed  into  transactions  which  they  are  thus  deprived  of 
the  means  of  completing.  When  the  reduction  Is  made 
by  raising  the  rate  of  Interest,  it  principally  affects 
those  who  are  h^M  ahle  to  bear  it ;  at  the  same  time  that 
its  operation,  instead  of  being,  like  tho  rejection  of  biKs, 
arbitrary  and  capricious,  is  uniform  and  impartial.  It 
does,  tltereibro,  seem  that  the  Bank  should  seldom  or 


Thia 
ofth 
that 
the  J 
the  I 
"woul 
Ban 
the: 
with 


BAN 


199 


BAM 


iMTcr  throw  ou(  good  blUi  tlut  ibo  m«y  contract  hoi 
iMue* ;  but  that,  whet  *bo  hat  rewlveil  upon  luch  a 
maaiuro,  abo  BhoulU,  provijod  tlio  contrartiun  can  not 
b«  niado  by  tho  aalo  of  bullion  and  |iubllu  locuritloi, 
roiw  tho  rata  «f  diaoouut  lo  a*  to  luue*  the  duuaudi 
upon  her  fur  loanj. 

The  dividends  on  bank  stosk,  ttom  tha  ottablith- 
mont  of  tho  oompan/  to  tho  proient  timo,  havo  be«n  ai 
follows : 


iflttT" 

1TU8J 
1720f 

tailv-dny 1T80 

UlohMluuui 1T80 

L«dy-Uay 1781 

Micliiii'luias 1731 

Ijiay-ilay 1782 

Mirhselmai 1T81 

Lady-day 174T 

1753 

Mlchocliuiu 1701 

"         1T07 

"         1781 

lody-dttv 17<H 

"        ISOT 

•'        1898 

"        1888 


Divldnd. 


8  per  cent 

1) 

arlc<] 

fmmO  to 

6i 

jurcunt. 

0 

s* 

\&.i 

m 

r-K' 

B 

*i 

n 

B» 

0 

T 

10 

'  -■ 

8 

.■|'t. 

T 

-  Proviously  to  1769,  tho  Dank  of  England  issued  no 
notes  fur  loss  than  i)20.  Sho  began  to  isauo  £10  notes 
In  17&9;  £!>  notes  in  1703;  and  £1  and  £2  notes  in 
March,  17'J7.  The  issue  of  tho  latter  may  bo  said  to 
have  ceased  in  1821,  though  they  woro  again  issued  on 
tho  emergency  in  1825. 

Interest  o»  Deposits. — Tho  Bank  of  England  does  not 
allow,  cither  in  London  or  nt  her  braiK'bca,  any  inter- 
est on  deposits;  but  it  would  be  exceedingly  desirable 
if  sho  could  safely  mako  some  alteration  in  this  respect. 
The  want  of  the  power  readily  to  invest  small  sums 
productively,  and  at  tho  same  time  with  perfect  secu- 
rity, tends  to  weaken  tho  motives  to  savo  and  accumu- 
late. Nothing  has  contributed  more  to  dlliuse  a  spirit 
of  economy,  and  a  desire  to  save,  among  all  classes  of 
tho  population  of  Scotland,  than  tho  readiness  with 
which  deposits  of  small  sums  arc  received  by  banks  of 
undoubted  solidity  in  that  part  of  the  country,  and 
the  allowance  of  intercut  upon  them.  —  See  .S'JOTCii 
Daxks.  This  advantage  i»  now,  however,  in  sonic 
degree  secured  In  England,  not  only  by  tho  u.sticution 
of  savings  banks,  but  >'y  the  Joint-stock  banks  that 
have  been  o{.en«d  in  most  parts  of  tho  country,  Tlic 
receiving  of  deposits  is,  indeed,  an  essential  part  of  the 
proper  business  of  a  bank.  "  A  banker  is  a  dealer  in 
capital,  on  intormediato  party  between  the  borrower 
and  tho  lender.  He  borrows  of  ono  party  and  leiids  to 
another ;  and  the  difference  between  tho  terms  at  which 
he  borrows  Lnd  those  at  which  ho  lends  is  the  source 
of  his  profit.  By  this  means  he  draws  into  active  op- 
eration thoso  small  sums  of  money  which  were  pre- 
viously unproductive  in  tlio  hands  of  private  individu- 
als, and  at  the  same  timo  fyimishcs  accommodation  to 
another  class,  who  havo  occasion  for  additional  capital 
to  carry  on  their  commercial  transactions." — See  Gil- 
babt's  Practical  Obtervutions  on  Hanking,  p.  62. 

In  further  corroboration  of  what  has  now  been  stated, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  it  is  estimated  by  the  best 
authorities  that  tho  deposits  in  the  Scotch  banks  may 
amount  at  present  (184G)  to  about  £30,000,000,  of  which 
mora  than  a  half  consists  of  sums  of  from  jCIO  to  £200 ! 
This  is  a  most  satisfactory  proof  of  the  vast  importance 
of  the  system.  Perhaps  it  is  not  going  too  far  to  aflinn 
that  but  for  the  receiving  of  deposits  by  the  banks,  and 
the  allowing  of  interest  upon  them,  not  a  third  part  of 
tha  sums  under  £200,  and  not  a  half  of  those  above  it, 
would  ever  have  been  accumulated.  —  See  Scotch 
Banks.  We  are  not,  however,  able  to  say  whether 
the  Bank  of  England  could  offer  interest  on  deposits 
without  having  so  large  a  sum  forced  upon  her  as  might 
in  periods  of  distrust  seriously  endanger  her  stability.  | 


And  it  were  better  that  tho  system  should  continu*  M 
at  preiant,  than  that  any  risk  of  thU  s«rt  sbould  lie  In- 
curred, Since  1820,  the  private  (Isposlta  in  tho  hands 
of  tho  Bank  have  Ijecn  gr  jatly  augroKUted,  Their  In- 
crease  is  mainly  aaorl'  Ma  to  the  prscodluK  panic,  and 
the  loss  that  waa  tbon  ovt- asloned  by  the  failurt  of  pri- 
vate banks. 

.  ilethud  o/ conducting  Jliiilneu  -U  tht  lliink,—M\  ac- 
counts kept  at  the  Bank  with  Individuals  are  termed 
drawing  aceuunti  i  tlwse  wllb  whom  tlicy  are  opened 
being  entitled  to  draw  cliacks  U|Kin  them,  and  lo  send 
the  bills  and  draft*  In  their  favor  Ut  \m  proMinted  by 
the  Bank,  exactly  a*  If  tlioy  dealt  with  private  bank- 
ers. There  Is  no  flxad  luui  with  which  an  Imllvidual 
must  open  a  drawing  account!  "or  Is  there  any  flxed 
sum  which  the  Bank  requires  hlra  to  keep  at  his  credit 
to  indemnify  her  fur  liur  ''oublo  In  answering  his 
drafts,  etc,  tir.  Iloriloy  I'mniur  gavo  In  hi*  evidence, 
in  1882,  tho  following  slat  mient  as  t«i  tho  facllltlet 
granted  by  the  Bank  In  drk.:ing  accounts  since  1826 1 

1,  The  Bank  receives  dividends  by  power  of  atlornejr 
ttT  all  persons  having  drawing  accounts  at  the  Bank. 

2.  Dividend  warrants  are  received  at  tba  drawing  o& 
tice  for  ditto.  8.  lixchei|uer  bills  and  other  securities 
ore  received  for  '.',  'o ;  tluj !  .lis  exchanged,  the  Interest 
received,  ..(.d  the  iiouiit  carrhid  lo  their  respective  ac- 
counts, 4.  Checks  may  be  ilraw.i  for  £6  and  upward, 
instead  of  £10,  as  heretofore.  6.  Casli-lHixes  tak«n  in, 
contents  unknown,  fur  such  parties  at  kecii  accounts  at 
tho  Bank.  6.  Bank-noti's  are  paid  at  the  couulei-.  In- 
stead of  drawing  tickets  tot  tiMiil  on  the  pay  clerks,  as 
heretofore.  7.  Checks  on  city  banksrs  paid  In  by  tlireo 
o'clock  may  bo  drawn  for  livtweeu  four  and  Ave;  and 
those  paid  in  bufure  four  w  111  be  received  ami  jiasscd  to 
account  tha  samu  evening.  K,  Cbtcks  paid  In  after 
four  are  sent  out  at  nine  o'clock  tlie  fullowiiig  mondiig, 
received  and  patted  to  account,  and  may  lie  drawn  fur 
as  toon  at  received.  U,  Dividend  vtarruiit*  taken  in  at 
tha  drawing  ollice  until  live  In  tita  aftemiion.  Instead 
of  three  at  heretofore.  10  Credits  paid  In  lo  account 
are  received  without  the  bank-l>uok,  and  are  afterward 
entered  therein  without  the  party  claluiliig  them,  11. 
Bills  of  oxchauge  acceptad  payable  at  the  Dank  are 
payable  with  or  without  advice;  heretofore  with  ad- 
vice only.  12.  Notes  of  country  bankers  payable  In 
London  are  sent  out  the  same  day  for  payment.  18. 
Checks  are  given  out  In  books,  and  not  in  sheets  as 
heretofore. 

A  person  having  a  drawing  account  iniig  have  a  dis- 
couni  account ;  but  no  person  can  have  the  latter  with- 
out, at  tho  same  time,  having  tha  furniar.  When  a 
discount  account  hi  opemid,  tlia  signatures  of  the  par- 
ties ore  entered  In  a  book  kept  for  tha  |/ur|Ki«e,  and 
powers  of  attorney  are  granted,  empowering  the  per- 
sons named  In  them  lo  act  fur  their  principult,  Ho 
bill  of  exchange  drawn  in  tlio  country  Is  discounted  by 
the  Bank  tn  lyomlon  under  £20,  nor  London  twle  under 
£100,  nor  for  a  longer  date,  under  existing  rigulatloos, 
than  throe  montlis.  The  nuiiilwr  of  holiday*  formerly 
kept  at  the  Bank  has  rucenlly  been  reduced  abuut  a 
half.  In  tha  view,  a*  stated  by  tha  directors,  of  prevent- 
ing the  interruption  of  busliuiss.  There  are  no  holi- 
days In  tho  months  of  ftlorcb,  June,  September,  and 
December,  excepting  Christmas  |  £atlar  Monday  and 
Tuesday  are  no  iongci'  kept. 

We  subjoin  an  account  of  tlio  doy*  for  transferring 
stock,  and  when  tba  dividends  are  duo  at  tho  Bank 
of  England,  the  South  Sua  Uousa,  and  the  luitt  India 
House  t 


Transfer  Day$  at  tfie  DaHt.       DltMaulg  da* 
Bank  Stock,— Tueaday,  Weduesdty,  Tlmnday,* 


and  Friday 

.  Red,- 


S  per  ccnL  had Tuesday,  Wedntaday,  Thurs- 
day, and  Friday .,..•*.**.......*.,, 

per  cenL  1720.— Tuesday,  Wadnasday,  'Tburs-' 
day,  and  Friday ,,,,.,,,,,,. 

3  per  cent  Cona— Taatday,  Wadnasday,  Tburt- 
day,  and  Vridor •>•..•.• .■..•••., 


Aprils. 
'Oct  Id 


Jsn,  9. 
JiUylk 


BAN 


110 


BAN 


Loof.  Awmlly  to  Jm.,  IMO.— Tn«»d»r,  Wedna*- 
d«r,  ThaiwUjf,  •lid  Krlday ' 

New  at  v"  ■•""'•  Annuity.  —  Tucidny,  Wednw 
d»y,  ihii«d»y,  »nd  Fridiy 

Ntw  ft  IKT  toot  Annuity — Tneidcy,  WfdBewUy, 
Thunday,  *Bd  ITridsy 

Annulllu  for  lanai  of  7««n,  wina  pajrabU  on . . . 


IMirl4Mi4i  *m. 

April  ft. 

(K't.  lU. 


Ditla.  othanon 

Life  Annuity,  If  tnnaferrrd  betwean  January  B 


r>  and  (>rt«>K!r  0 

_ _  >tiri>eii  April  Band 

Taiji,  or  Wweon  *  )etaber  10  and  January  4  . , 


and  April  4,  or  Iwtwcwn  July  i 
Ufa  Annuity,  if  transfcrreil  bei 


.Jan.  B. 
'July& 

April  0, 
on.  10. 
,lan.  n. 
,luly  ft, 
.Ian.  ft. 
.lulyB. 
April  6. 
Oct.  10, 


At  (Aa  South  Sm  Bmm. 
South  B«i  Stock.— Monday,  Wcdncaday,  and  Fri-  j  Jan.  B. 

day (JulyB 

Spar  cent  Old  Annuity.— Monday,  Wednaeday,  (  April  B. 

awl  Friday (  Oct  10. 

B  per  cent  IJeir  Annuity.  — Tucaday,  Thumday,  i  j,„  ^ 

and  Batuiday tJulvB 

8  par  cant  ITS! Tuaaday  and  Tburaday )      ' 

At  tht  BaU  Ind<a  Hmt. 
IndU  Stock.— Tuaadny,  Tbunday,  and  Saturday 

lotareaton  IndU  bonda,  due 


Jan.  B. 

JulyB. 

Mnr.  at. 

Sept.  BO. 

Branch  Banlu  of  the  Bank  of  England.— "Vha  Bank 
of  England,  la  already  oliurvcd,  hai  within  th<-««  few 
years  eataliliahed  brancli  banks  at  several  of  tlie  most 
considerable  towns  throughout  the  country.  The  mode 
•nd  terms  of  conducting  business  at  these  establish- 
ments have  been  described  as  follows:  "The  branch 
bank  at  Swansea  (and  the  same  is  tme  of  those  estal)- 
lUhed  in  other  places)  is  to  lie  a  secure  place  of  deposit 
for  persona  having  occasion  to  make  use  of  a  bank  for 
thnt  purpose;  such  persons  are  said  to  have  drawing 
account!:  to  facilitate  to  the  mercantile  and  trading 
classes  the  obtaining  discounts  of  good  and  unexcep- 
tionable bills,  founded  upon  real  transactions,  two  ap- 
proved names  being  required  upon  every  bill  or  note 
discounted;  these  are  called  ditcount  accounti.  The 
applications  of  parties  who  desire  to  open  discount  ac- 
counts at  the  branch  are  forwarded  to  the  parent  estab- 
lishment for  approval,  and  an  answer  is  generally  re- 
ceived in  about  ten  days.  When  approved,  good  bills 
may  be  discounted  at  the  branch  without  reference  to 
London.  Bills  payable  at  Swansea,  London,  or  any 
other  place  where  a  branch  Is  eatablishiid,  are  discount- 
ed under  this  regulation.  The  dividends  on  any  of  the 
public  funds,  which  are  payable  at  the  Bank  of  En- 
gland, may  be  received  at  the  branch,  by  persons  who 
have  opened  '  drawing  accounts,'  after  signing  powers 
of  attorney  for  that  purpose,  which  the  branch  will  pro- 
euro  ttom  London,  No  charge  is  made  in  this  case, 
except  the  expense  of  the  power  of  attorney  and  the 
postages  incumd  In  transmitting  it.  Purehases  and 
sales  of  every  description  of  government  securities  aro 
effected  by  the  branch  at  a  charge  corresponding  to 
that  made  by  the  local  bankers  where  the  branch  is 
situated.  A  commission,  including  brokerage  in  Lon- 
don, and  all  expenses  of  postage,  is  charged  on  paying 
at  the  Bank  of  England  bills  accepted  by  persons  hav- 
ing drawing  accounts  at  Swansea,  such  bills  to  be  ad- 
vised by  the  branch ;  also  for  granting  letters  of  credit 
on  London,  or  on  the  other  branches.  The  branch 
grants  bills  on  London,  payable  at  seven  days'  date, 
without  acceptance,  for  sums  of  £10  and  upward.  Per- 
sons having  drawing  accounts  at  Swansea  may  order 
money  to  be  paid  at  the  Bonk  in  London  to  their  credit 
at  Swansea,  and  tict  vtrtd,  at  a  charge  of  6d.  in  lieii  of 
postage.  The  branch  may  be  called  upon  to  change 
any  notes  issued  and  ihted  at  Swansea ;  but  they  do 
not  change  the  notes  of  the  Bank  in  London,  nor  re- 
ceive them  in  payment,  unless  as  a  matter  of  courtesy 
where  the  parties  aro  known.  Bank  post-bills,  which 
are  accepted  and  due,  are  received  at  the  branch  flrom 
parties  having  drawing  accounts,  and  taken  to  account 
withont  any  charge  for  postage  {  but  unaccepted  bank 
poft-bUls,  which  must  b«  sent  to  London,  an  subjvct 


to  the  ehargt  at  pottaita,  and  tabsn  t«  ictfottni  wfiM 
due.  No  Intareat  Is  allnwad  on  d«|N>alls.  No  advance 
is  made  by  (h<i  lirani'h  U|Hm  any  drwrlplloii  of  landed 
or  iillivr  property,  nor  Is  »ny  account  alliiwed  to  Im 
overdrawn.  Tha  notas  ara  th«  same  as  thinM  lasued  by 
the  parviit  oatabllsbmsnt,  •xc«|it  imlng  dalad  Hwansea, 
and  maile  payaliU  tli«r«  anil  In  l.<mdun.  No  note  1^ 
sued  exceeds  the  sum  i4Mbi1i>,  and  nona  are  for  a  Issa 
amount  than  £6." 

Uank-niitu  to  be  Itgul  TtnHrr,  rremi  at  Iht  Hank  and 
Branch  llimi;~ytom  and  aflar  Ins  tat  of  .^ugust, 
189-1,  unless  and  until  I'arllament  shall  "therwiao  di- 
rect, a  tender  uf  i  note  ot'  null's  of  the  (iovemor  and 
Company  of  ilia  Hank  "f  England,  (xpressnd  to  be 
payable  In  Iwarer  on  d-ir.and,  aliall  lie  a  legal  tender 
to  tlio  <iiii«unt  expresaed  In  such  ii(Ha  or  notes,  and 
•hall  bo  takvn  lu  Ixi  valid  a*  a  t«n<<iir  to  auch  amount 
fur  nil  sums  abovu  Ah  iin  all  occai-luna  on  which  any 
tender  of  money  may  Imi  litgally  madf,  so  long  as  tha 
Jiank  of  Knitlaiiil  •fiall  iiiittlnM  to  imv  on  dumand 
their  salil  iiulos  in  lugal  coin  i  provldeil  always,  that 
no  such  nolo  or  nuUis  shall  Im  dnemad  a  legal  tender 
of  payment  by  tho  (i»v«rn»r  and  (,'oiii|iany  ot  the  Bank 
of  England,  i>r  any  liraneli  bank  uf  the  snlil  governor 
and  cuinpany ;  but  ihii  auld  govurnor  anil  company 
arc  not  to  li«i'om«  llabtii  ur  Ixi  reifulrcd  to  pay  aiiil  sat> 
isfy,  at  any  brani'li  bank  iit  llin  said  governor  and  ' 
company,  any  nodi  or  notes  ut  the  said  governor  and 
company  nut  made  i>|Hii'lally  payable  at  such  branch 
bank;  but  the  aald  ((uveriior  and  company  shall  be 
liable  to  pay  and  sallafy  at  the  Hank  uf  England  in 
London  all  iiutos  uf  lliii  said  guvernur  anil  company, 
or  of  any  branch  Ihereuf,— |  0, 

Ah  A(  WIRT  ur  tiik  /tt  knauk  M «skiit  Vnum  nr  llti.iioN  m 
KAiii  VitAB,  rwiH  WNI  Til  lv;|  (f4Kr,(i  Hum  urriniAL 
DoriNiiMTs)  1  or  Tiia  AVKDAun  Viiii  r  era  I'r.xi.  or  tiif 
Ci'Buuic:r,  wtTiUA^in)  nr  Twa  Maskitt  I'airr  nr  (Im.n  rnn 
TUK  sAHK  I'aaiuui  A»ii  ur  TUB  avaaAur.  Iiki'uoiatioh 
i>r.u  caKT, 


Ymr. 

Ar«fM«  PrUt  M 
IMiftlM. 

utiU  »>|M«/ 

.4  rtriif  •  li«pr«- 
•  lrllMi|»r(.tiil. 

■  M ,.  ir 

i  I,  d. 

1800 

S  IT  lot 

loM  n  0 

NIL 

ItMt 

4    B    U 

III  12    4 

8    T    8 

ifUft 

4    4    0 

M  14    1 

T    BIO 

1WI3 

4    0    0 

ftf  A  in 

3  18    1 

1804 

4    0    0 

IT   «10 

9  111    a 

1806 

4    0    0 

W    0  10 

3  la  1 

180« 

4    0    0 

•T   «  10 

9  18    S 

I80T 

4    0    0 

VT    «  10 

9  IS    1 

181*8 

4    0    0 

W    0  10 

9  18    1 

180» 

4    0    0 

W    «  10 

9  13    9 

1810 

4  10    0 

MIO    0 

18    0    « 

1811 

4    4* 

M    *    f 

T  1«  10 

I8I« 

4  IS   « 

T»    A    S 

9ft  14    » 

18IS 

B    t    0 

TT   't   0 

99  18    0 

1814 

B    4    0 

T4IT   « 

9S    9    S 

18IB 

4  11    • 

an  A  » 

1«  14    S 

18l« 

4IS   « 

««    B   « 

IB  14    S 

181T 

4    0    0 

W    «  10 

9  18    9 

1818 

4    0    0 

0T    «  10 

9  13    9 

I81D 

4    1    < 

vnt)  0 

4    9    0 

ISiW 

tlOlt 

•T  a  0 

9  19    0 

1811 

1  IT  ltf( 

KM    0   0 

Ml. 

Am  AccotmT  oir  tux  Pa/iMTS  or  Ttis  Haux  nr  V.nn^.kvo  m 
Till:  i  j:»B  rnoiau  Tlie  Wrn  ur  KriisrAav,  l«i«;  statiko 
THK  Dim  aimoN  i»  tiik  Mih  t  xittra  »a,it  nt  Tna  Uaxk, 
Ami  THH  Mouif'rjt  riiuM  wiiioii  'rtis  saiii  I'sonrs  iiavi 
AcrBuxii,— A'u.  1ft,  Afiimul,  to  lltpnrt. 


Interest  on  eAniliHireisI  Irflla , , , , , 

Inlereit  on  Ksebvi|uiir  Mils, , , , 

Annuity  fur  4fi  years  |tli«  dvad-walKht  se- 
en unt)  , 

Interest  on  eapllal  reratved  frmn  (tovenmiwil 
Allawaw«  rocnlVMl  fur  tHsiiaicnixnt  of  tha 

public  debt , , 

Interent  nu  luaiw  'in  iiiortKiitfKS , . , , , , 

Interest  on  atue k  In  tha  pMhlia  fHnds, ,,,,,,. 

Interest  on  prlvalo  limns 

I*ruAt  nn  liiilllun,  <'"iiiiula>li/n,  riiil,  reeelptii 
on  dlnciiintiiil  bllln  iiniMld,  nisnaKenient  uf 
tho  bualneaa  uf  Ilia  Itanki)  uf  Ireland,  of 
Saotland,  and  IWyal  llMlk  of  MiyHland,  and 
sundry  ll«ws,,,,,,.,,,,, ,.,.,,,,,.. 


i;lflo,ot)6 
904,100 

4B1,41A 
44B.MI9 

gBI.SOO 
«0,B84 
IB.flTB 
tM,»41 


T1,8BB 
iCl,C8»,lTa 


flnti 


1339, 

isaa,. 

1SS4, ! 
183^! 
1836, 
1837, 

1S38,J 
J 

1839,  J 
J 

ISM,  J 

•> 
1841,  J 

•I 
1S42,  Ji 

.         Ji 
1S43,J| 


BAN 


ni 


BAN 


Am  Arcomrt  or  all  niimiiit  riniii  »«■>■  bt  tiir  Haiiic  or  Kxai-ANi)  ahoxo  tiii  PHiii'iiir.TiiiM  or  Hanii  HmrK,  wurrnim 
nv  MiiNRY  I'ATMiNTa,  TUAMnrH  or  ft  i'«i>  Dknt.  Anni'ITim,  oh  otiii  hh  mr^  i  nukii  tiik  IUakii  or  llnNi;ii,  iNinitAiia  or 
DiviiiKiii,  ANK  Inihhaiiii  or  Cai'ITvil,  iirrwtiui  tiik  VAtii  or  Fkiihiaiiv,  ITUT,  and  IIIht  or  Maiiiii,  IH31,  m  aihiition  to 

Till  OMIINARV  AnnIAL  tllVIIIKMK  or  T  I'EII  ('KNT.  ON  TIIK  (UriTAI.  HTOXK  or  THAT  CollpullATION,  KJlltTINU  IN  ITUT,  IN- 
CLIIIIINII  TIIEItril  THE  WHOLE  DiVIIIENH  I'Alli  HINI  I  ,)t>NE,  IKIII,  ON  TIIKIH  INrltCAkEI>  CAI'ITALI  ETATINU  TUE  I'EUUIU  WHEN 
•  UI'll  DiKTBIIItlTIONN  WKHE  MAhR,  ANII  THE  AuilllBOATB  AMOI'NT  or.TllE  WllOLE. 


DakMiilnAliMi  Md  PwriMb  »l  DUIrlbutloa, 


In  June,  ITW  i  £10  iwr  rent.  bunuE  lu  t  pur  ninU.  ITDI,  un  i:il,lM<,4M), IeT 

Mex,  IWII I  jC6|wrniiil   >Utl<i,  in  New  ft  p«r  cmtA  dlllo , 

November,  \Hirl:  S'l  Ilia,  iht  cent.  iUit<i,  ditto,  ditto 

OclolMtr,  \mH:  Xn  per  rent,  illttu,  rub,  ditto 

(Ichibor,  IHin :  X'B  jwr  relit,  ditto,  ditto,  ditto 

October,  ISIM :  M  |ier  rent  ditto,  dlitu,  ditto. 
Kronf  Aurli,  180T,  lu  Oclobar, 

IS'ii,  Ixith  inrluiive 
From  AurtI,  WIS,  to  (>)tobor, 

low,  both  Inciuiiva 


Incrr«Hi  of  tllvliiendE «t  the rato uf  JiB p«r  cent  per  knnum,  on jeil,041,'tOfl, 

Ir,  It  jtmn 

liionMUMofdlvldond<ktther«l«ori;i  iiercent  perEnnuiii,onjtll,04il,4<)0, 

1»,  T  jroElE 

In  June,  I8i0 '. ..  Increniw  of  r«pitEl  Et  Vn  per  runt,  I* 

From  nclnb<-r,  1810,  to  Octo- 1      Dividend  nt  the  rate  of  iflU  per  cent,  iwr  Eunum  on  ilii,010,00n,  InrrcEEud 

CEidtEl,  IE,  Oi  yoErE 

blvldend  at  the  ntu  of  £S  per  cent  per  annum  un  jCtt,l)10,<100,  liicniEatid 

CEpltal,  is,  0  yuan 

AggrrgEto  ninoiint  of  tin-  whole 

Annual  dividend  payEblo  oi<  Hank  Etock  In  ITDT,  on  a  capital  of  £11,042,400  at  tiu  i  ate  of  XT  per  cent  jior 

annum 

Annual  dividend  payable  i>tnce  June,  IStO,  on  a  capital  uf  £14,668.^1011,  to  October,  1821,  Inclnalve,  at  the 

rate  of  £10  percent,  iwr  annum 

Annual  dividend  payable  from  April,  18211,  to  the  SUt  of  March,  183i,  both  Incluslvo,  on  a  capital  of 
£14,868,000  at  tli«  rate  of  £8  |)er  cent  per  annum 


brr,  1N22,  both  IneluElve 
From  April,  1828,  to  October,  I 
1881,  both  luduiive 


Amoiul, 
£T,Tl>i,24ir 
IW2,i20 
20l,0<l<i 
bN2,IV0 
682,120 
b82,12(l 

B,688,1IS2 

814,11118 

a,oio,iiu(i 

l,8()l,8U0 

2,o«ri,«ii2 


i:il,mH,(iTo 


£814,008 


£i,4.tn,noo 


£1,104,240 


'■\ 


Am  Aoooinn'  or  Tnii  NnrrB,  PoBX-niLi.a,  vtv.,  or  nia  Dank  or  ExoLAitn  in  CiiuxLATinN,  on  the  !8tii  or  FmntAiiY  in 
KAi  II  Year,  raoM  10118  to  1T92,  iioTii  iNOLunin,  ae  nkar  ab  tub  bamh  van  iik  MAnK  vr. 


S 
I  10 
3 
1 
9 
1 
1 


» 
0 
ft 

s 
> 

1 

3 

0 
0 


£1IIO.a«6 
204, 10» 

4M,416 
440.(>«a 

261  ,M« 
00,084 
16,016 
M,«41 


Vtar. 

1608 

«nUi  r«bruAry, 

£ 

l,221.'.iOO 

Yanr. 
1T22 

Mlh  fabmary. 

£ 

2,a«.,040 

Yaar. 
1740 

(JMh  KtiitUAjy. 

£ 

0,888.720 

Yur, 

1770 

<Wlh  rtbrury. 

£ 
6,207,210 

lOOtf 

T48.N60 

1T28 

8,610,110 

1T4T 

4,107,420 

1771 

0.S22,780 

ITOO 

U»H.'J40 

1T24 

8,282.880 

ITW 

8,804.060 

1772 

6.902,100 

ITOl 

208.S00 

1T2B 

8.784,480 

1740 

H,T8T,liO 

1778 

0,087,000 

1T04 

B20.TI10 

lT2a 

a.OTll.SfiO 

17.V) 

8,004,070 

1774 

T,ri60,780 

1T03 

083,  TOO 

1T2T 

8,8^8.180 

1761 

4,022,100 

1776 

0, !;;;■.  •'.10 

1T04 

0(11. 1100 

1T28 

4,6T4,li20 

I7f.4 

4.444,000 

1770 

8,090,T'.>0 

no6 

660.1)10 

1T2« 

4,162,600 

1763 

4,401,680 

1777 

8,T12,2aO 

ITOO 

01)0,H4O 

1180 

8,1H)8,280 

1764 

4,O02,kT0 

1778 

7,440,880 

ITOT 

OBO.SiiO 

1T8I 

4.461. T20 

nr* 

8.060,060 

1779 

0,012.010 

1T08 

04S,680 

ITIW 

4,261.000 

1760 

4.1(KI,TOO 

1780 

8,4 10,  TOO 

ITOO 

T»T,4T0 

1TB8 

4,886.1100 

1767 

6.810,180 

1781 

7,002,460 

ITIO 

U0I.6S0 

1T34 

4,20,i.OTO 

1768 

2o,r>ito 

1782 

8,028.880 

nil 

4TT,r)10 

1T85 

4,027.000 

1760 

^,^s<\,s|.l 

1783 

7,076.000 

1112 

T39,020 

nao 

4,B07.T.V) 

1700 

4.1IOtt,'.'!)0 

1784 

8,202,700 

1T13 

1,221.880 

1T8T 

6,216,010 

1701 

6,082..'I60 

1786 

6,928,000 

1TI4 

02a,ll4O 

nat 

4,700,280 

1702 

6.74I.O00 

1780 

7,681,00(1 

1T15 

DT2,iaO 

1180 

4,847,270 

170.1 

6,91)0,010 

1787 

8,829,840 

ITlO 

1,460,000 

1T40 

4.660,1180 

1704 

6.601, ilOO 

1788 

0,601,120 

mi 

•  2,068,160 

1T41 

4,841,840 

1706 

O.alO.OTO 

1780 

»,N07,210 

1T18 

2,T82,420 

1742 

4,471,610 

1700 

6,017,670 

1700 

10,040,640 

ITIO 

1,80T,010 

U43 

4,064.800 

1707 

6,610,090 

1701 

11,4110,200 

1120 

2,400,880 

1T44 

4,2M,flI0 

1708 

6,778,000 

1702 

11,807,880 

1T21 

2,244,280 

1746 

4,279,010 

1700 

6,707,190 

Kg  previously  pulilinlieil  tnliUi  of  the  circulation  of  tho  Dnnic  of  Kiiglninl  ixtcnds  further  bnck  tlinn  1777; 
me  are  indolitcil  to  the  Court  of  Dinotors  for  licinj;  ulilo  to  supply  tliiH  striking  ilefect,  and  to  exhibit  for  tho 
first  time  tbo  circulation  of  tho  Itank,  from  within  four  years  of  its  estnblisbmcnt  down  to  the  prcbcnt  day. 

Stateuciit  KxiiiiiiTiNa  TIIK  Town  anp  CotrNTBv  Cibcci.ation,  Pr.rosixs,  SEruniTiKO,  Hn.uoN,  etc.,  of  the  Bank  or 

EMOLAND,  on  tun  rNDESIIENTIONKI)  DATS  OF  TIIK  FOLLOU'INO  YF.AHS. 


DalM. 

NolM  In  CIrculalloe. 

Dapcalla. 

ToUl 
LiabUlllaa. 

BMailliaa. 

Bullion. 

Total  Aaatta. 

Balanra  of 
Aaaalii  ovar 
LlablllUaa. 

In  Loadoo. 

inlfaa 
Country, 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1332,  July        3  . . . . 

14,869,000 

2,784,000 

8.668,000 

26,661,000 

21,280.000 

0,016,000 

27.840,000 

2.188,000 

1883,  January  1  . . . . 

14,208,000 

2,T78,000 

12,T26,000 

20,801,0IHI 

21.047,(HIO 

10.020,000 

81,078.000 

2.172,000 

July        2  . . . . 

16,783,000 

8,1B!I,000 

12.830.000 

31,778.000 

22.088,000 

11,.'101,0(IO 

34,074,000 

2,200,000 

1S34,  January  7  . . . . 

14,198,000 

8,220,000 

io,a-iO,ooo 

87,811.000 

20.fl!l4.(KK) 

10.142,000 

r.o.s.".6.ooo 

2,5-.'6.0O(l 

July        1.... 

16,618,000 

8,171,000 

i6,aT3,ooo 

84,062,000 

27,411.000 

8.S,v6.000 

80.866.000 

2,204,000 

183^  January  fl 

18,860,000 

8,166,000 

17.804,000 

84.890,000 

so.oaa.ooo 

6,838,000 

87,771,000 

2,872.(K10 

July       7.... 

14,081,000 

3,829,000 

1T,T02,000 

r,6, 11 2,000 

31,446,000 

6,636,000 

37,1181,000 

2.809.000 

1830,  January  6 

18,818,000 

3,.')90,00O 

20,420,000 

87,143.000 

32,057,000 

7.007,000 

119,764,000 

2,011.000 

July       6  . . . . 

18,716,000 

8.6'.'^000 

10,810.000 

83.82«.flOO 

29. 897,000 

6,714.000 

SO.  11 1.000 

2,786,000 

1837,  January  3  . . . . 

13,023,000 

4.074,000 

lfl,OTS,000 

as,77s,floo 

82.447.000 

4,22I.0(H) 

80.068.000 

2.sfla,«oo 

July       4  . . . . 

18,149,000 

3.73,^,000 

10,267.000 

27,141,IK)0 

24,680,000 

6.677.000 

a(l.lOO.(KIO 

8.026,000 

1838,  January  2.... 

18.369,000 

8,723,000 

11,230,000 

28,822,000 

20,027,000 

9,0011.1  K 10 

.W.SliO.OOO 

2,614.000 

July       a . . . . 

14,690,000 

4.0.18,000 

9,1110.000 

27,030,000 

20,6110,000 

0,|ISO.O(IO 

,TO..'>70.000 

2.034,000 

1839,  January  1  . . . . 

13,461,000 

4,008,000 

11.32T,000 

28,860,000 

22,377,000 

0,0+SOOO 

31.4'.'6.(X)0 

2,609,006 

July        2  . . . . 

18,442,IK)0 

4,100,000 

7,480,000 

26,100,000 

24,001,000 

3,070.000 

2T.T8T,000 

2.037.000 

1840,  January  7  . . . . 

11,021,000 

3,026,000 

14,61  s,000 

80,066,000 

28.411.01)0 

4,7.08,0(10 

32,010,000 

2,s.H000 

July        7.... 

12,041,000 

8,071,000 

7,20.8,000 

28,906,000 

21.016,000 

4,810.000 

20,781.000 

2.>-2»,000 

1841,  January  B  . . . . 

11,000,000 

8,971,000 

8,4T!l.0OO 

24,100,000 

22,860,000 

4.003.000 

26.91 8.  (HK) 

2,818.000 

July       0.... 

12,867,000 

4,107,000 

14,T2S,0OO 

31,262,000 

28,947,000 

6.aiii.(Xio 

84,260,000 

8,014,000 

1S42,  Januaiy  4 

11,816,000 

4,304.000 

0,008,000 

26,187,000 

22,612,000 

B,0(V>.000 

28.114,000 

2,927,000 

July        2  . . . . 

18,261,000 

4,003,000 

8,070,000 

20,894,000 

21,002,000 

8,608.000 

20.6115,000 

2,701,000 

1843,  January  7  . . . . 

18,804,000 

^214,000 

16,634,000 

36,062,000 

26,706,000 

10,932,000 

37,038,(HIO 

2,680,000 

-■•  ''■..*. 


RAN 


lift 


BAW 


A  tortwi  nr  m  Arnuui  Awisanin  AHnt'irT  at  I>»>mimo«v  Niitm,  patajili  m  lluiin  dm  Dmiamd,  in  iixirLATinH 

III  Till  I'liinil  KmuKOU    IK  Till  MllMTII*  '•»  .lAKI'Aat    tHU  .IVLT.    IMmMfHIIUimM  TIIIHII  rllMtl.ATIill  UT  fill  IIamIII  OV 
Kl><ll.<l<»  ADO  lULANII,  4III>  NT  lltVAT*  \NI>  llllNT-niM  k   II  tHIIII  IN  Kmil.ANII,  H<'im.AIIU,  AND  IMMLAIIII,  TUumiM  WI1U 

nu  Uuiuuit  m  mi  Uauk  uv  »ulani>,  rwiM  Ha^Mnmu,  imt,  toJahuak,  Ism. 


IMM,  Rcpbiiiilicr 
IMM,  >f*nii*r)r  . 

.Inljr 

HUB,  JnaunTv  . 

.I.iljr  . 
IHM,  ,Ui \    . 

.Inly  ..'... 
IMT,  Jannarjr  . 

July 

IMA,  .Inn nary  . 

July 

liai,  JuiiiAry  , 

July 

ISIO,  Jtnukry  , 

July 

IMI,  .lAniiarv  . 

July  ..... 
lMII,J*nu>ry  . 

July 

1S4a,  Juiwry  . 


KMtof 
KitflMNl. 


J 

lo.fit  »,nno 

III.VM.hiK) 
IU,Ws.4llll 
|x,MT,n<"> 

IT.SM.Mil 
|H,M<,7H<> 

IH,Iltfi,ll(H> 

ll>,IT4,MK) 
|n,<l4'<,IMMI 

IM.Mi4,i«» 
|s,4U7,'Mm 
li,UIC>,U*IU 
17,«1|.0II0 

lii,Nn3,tni) 
K.nTn.ono 
iii,!io;i,(i<)i) 
lo.MH.noii 

IK,V>iS,UOI) 


fcllMU. 


ril>>l>       JalaMMk 

BtoAf.  BABk*. 


— 3 — 

(l,l«t,i>«T 

ii.tivi.iMn 

MtA4.IM 
(l,(lTC>,!'Htl 

II.  vi?.*:! 

I1,TIII.»!«» 

II.  Km. til 

l),'i*).4|H 
U,ilf.li.7vi 
».WI.I»b 
I,ftHll.l*» 
n,N4T.iiM 

a.iwc.ii;4 
d,n^'.ii.'<'it 
n.m.vvn 

h,47-i,l'<U 
MW.MI 
4,»41,s'iO 


— 3 — 

I.IIMMt 

i,ii*iii.a-« 
l,^a7,Bll 

I.KM.4«I 
tlJIUMNIN 

H.IITI.IM'i 
U,IMI.«M 

n.iiM,»ti 

li.TiUI.W 
4.tNW,ll«ll 
4.tMIII.IM» 
4.'MI.4IU 
U,V41,illl7 

3.in)7.iui 
;i,f»i7,;iiit 

8,4l™.H|« 
3,IMAII*T 
■J.IUHI.  Itl5 
V,H»!I.VII|) 


•i.llli.ltxU 

'i,i>h4.ni4 
i.siN.oin 

l,4l>l.'^40 
R4II,IH8 
U4)\.Ut 
•JTHVH 
VWI,71I» 

M.NUl 

«'i.;.Tii 

BT.Wt 
104  71T 


*<«ilUa4. 
Jolli|.aMl 

— i 

I.IU4,4!iA 
II.W)4,I»<!I 
D,l(W,'iatt 
II,I»M,SW 

g.iwvN.iiAa 
ii.fMi.nii) 
n.tiiii.iiM 

S.  14V.  UK  I 

i.it77.ft;t(i 

|l,ll<K>,'iM 

n.iii.Myi 

B.'.'44,ltllH 
S,llVk,7lll 

3,ii;ii,iy« 

B,lt4,W<.-. 
8,1K|.r«4 
«,nTii,ii7s 
ii,Tift,mii 

«,7Tu,HIM 


RMkW 

iMlMlii 


0,«T>t,lion 
4,ol7,niH) 
l»,ll;lM,.'ino 
H.nAk.MII 
I1,4»I.I7A 
II.4S4.IM<> 
li,i:'.it,mn) 
B,4NT,lftO 
ll.ll'll.ivill 
8,:il'J,iliNl 

B.W.'.Hftll 
D.nftl  ftift 

II,  lim.  i:ft 

U.VUA.hMI 
S.UTII.IIM) 

i),'iiii,yiiii 

i'^llf»^ll•.'n 

8.'Jll^,s7n 

li,H41t,T7n 
B,II«,»M 


InlMil. 

l*rlvM«  iiihI 

Julnl-abMh 

■ula. 

2 


i,nafl,MH 

1.184,7114 
^TiCi.liM 

l,^TO,^'.u 
!(,ii!l5,7n« 
I  'I4ii,li7il 
V.  14:1,11111 
l,UI.7il'J 
■i,'ilil.4'.'4 
l.tn(1.7ll"i 
».l>'.1l,i4fl 
li,ii7l,4:'J 
'i,7IA,IV46 
I.NTltltni 

'/,niiii,?ii4 

1,1)«S,I!7J 
1(,M5,I17T 
I,IW«,9HT 
I,0»»,A.|1 


TcIa)  Imimc 

III  IIm 

I'ultoil 

lUM^Mn. 


X 
IIA,I>I'A,'M4 
H7,'>fift.!  M 

ii1.:r.-».sni> 
87,M4,U<NI 
BT,  ITS,  1)80 
8t,77l",8M 
im.ilM.4fV4 
:i'<,r>4ii,i»h 
nii,i)i'.>,07'i 
U>i.»"l,i7fl 
M.74:i,iiiiT 
ii>.77ii,v(in 

.,..11111,4711 

aT.iKiii.l  ;7 
^^.«^7,l1■i 
iiri,iinii,KvT 

36,441,7^:1 

B.'I.IUiA.n  I 
IU»,iKi;i,;  -1 
B4,04I>,I<.J 


Am'Ovht  or  Tni  CiKirLATioN,  Dinxirt,  BfcDaiTiu,  Dillion,  and  Bi-Bricn  (uildiivi  nr  Capital)  op  tiir  Aukts  ovn 

Till  t,IAIIII.ITIIIH  nr  TUI  llANK  (IP  KniiI.ANII  AT  (Ull  At  MIIAB  TMUITO  A»  TIU  AuUOVin  UAJI  Ul  MAUI  l;l'>  Tim  I   MIIU1-MU(- 
TlnlUl  IJATU  IN  KAUI  l>r  Till  PULLIIWINII  YlAlU, 


DtlN. 

CImUailai. 

Dtpoalli, 

iMuiUaa. 

Bullli.1. 

RmI  ..r  lurrlai' 

l.l»l.lllllta. 

170S,  Frhniiir>  '» 

t 
11,9W(,»10 

t 

16,01  i|).J50 

4.nii).0Hn 

2.7'<ii,570 

AuKliat       81 

1TO4,  Kehnwry  2H 

w.mtt.MfO 

«.4-W.Nll( 

U.*«)(P,090 

6,322,010 

2,«--:  9,10 

10,T44,0«0 

7,9I'I.-1II 

14,524,r*0 

0,1N7,IIO 

2.1.,     s»0 

AUKuit     8(1 

in,«s6,TH0 

5.9:16,7 10 

12,44(1,400 

0,770,110 

2,ll',)4,(l80 

1T96,  Kebrimry  IW 

14.011,610 

B.97:I.II20 

10.91 1.:i4ll 

0,127,720 

2,liH.M0 

AuBiwt     81 

llt,9««,S00 

9.tM,lW0 

10,»N9,W0 

B.I11I1,!I80 

3,11111,1100 

IIM,  Fubniiiry  W 

10,7»,B«0 

6.70J.31MI 

17,189.940 

2,5:10,080 

3,247.590 

AuKiint     81 

(),M6,T90 

0,050,  :i20 

17,0'.'.\470 

2,I22.««0- 

3,2 15,  :i  10 

IW,  l'«bru»ry  SH 

e.DRTKO 

4,9111.680 

]0,h:i7,"6O 

1,090,170 

:i,:i.-.7.oio 

Aaguat     81 

1T»8,  Krtnmry  W 

11,114.120 

7.7(!ft.:iflO 

19,201,170 

4.lN!l.020 

3.471,320 

18,0115.9.10 

6,14s,tHI0 

10.7011,000 

5.SN.940 

3,39:1,710 

Aoguat     31 

12,190,810 

9, 3011,720 

17,849.040 

(1,:>W,100 

3.414,410 

IHB,  Febriury  IW 

12,(l(«,900 

8,131,M20 

l7,ouii,o:ii) 

7.rifl:i,9(io 

3,511,310 

Anoun     81 

ISflO,  Ffbnmry  iW 

18.8X9.400 

7,W2,240 

16,930,440 

7.(K)(>.790 

2,9!H>,490 

10,N44.4TO 

7,002,1190 

21,0'J4.II50 

fl.lM.'.'BO 

nmiMBO 

AngiMt     81 

lB.04T.18n 

8.885.1100 

22,13!<,4'W 

6,ltA460 

3,900.080 

1901,  Kabruary  28 

10,218,280 

10,745,940 

26.424.7:10 

4,040,120 

4.1(if>.730 

Ausuiit     81 

ISna,  KubniaryW 

i4.fieo.iio 

8,iii3,9:m 

22.209,570 

4,:::i».260 

8.9.%4.990 

IB,  198.980 

6,959,210 

«l.«B0.9iO 

4.152,060 

4,(I07,0«0 

AURUft     81 

1T,(WT.680 

9,739,140 

27,11:1.300 

a.  •ill  1,790 

4.1lW,870 

1808,  Fvbniiry  ti8 

1B,819,980 

8,060,240 

28.9I4.9U0 

il,7IO,7nO 

4,:i2l.490 

August     81 

1B.U«S,B!I0 

9,917,240 

20,91  \840 

8,5w.;,:'00 

4.710.770 

1904,  Kobrunrj-  W 

n,(iT7.9.-» 

8,870.930 

20,999,1170 

«.:i7i,iio 

4.01(1.450 

AoRuit     81 

1T,IB8,900 

9,71B,BS0 

26,920.090 

6.979.190 

4.1(30.460 

4800,  Fubruwy  U 

17,NI1,1T0 

12,0S3,0.'O 

29.0(ll,miU 

6,,VHa.9()0 

4.590,400 

Auguat     81 

lfl,8.V(,400 

14,04,9.0*) 

27,772,950 

7.024,600 

4,U0fl,>ii0 

1900,  February  S8 

IT.TSO.ISO 

9,9S0.7110 

20.5111,070 

6,997,100 

4.K0-,S50 

Aiigiiit     31 

21.02T.470 

9,0:W.8:)0 

211.47:1. 1(K( 

0,215.020 

5.024,320 

180T,  Fi!bru»ry«S 

lO.liBH.Osil 

ii,9'2«,nio 

27.4(W,4(10 

0,142,940 

4,771, .100 

Auiput     81 

1909,  FeEruiry  » 

19,679,8110 

11.799.200 

29.986,160 

6.494,360 

4,95:1,740 

18,1158,800 

11,061,900 

27,884,090 

7,1*6.470 

5,0^s,7.iO 

AiiKiiBt     81 

laOD,  F«bniary  99 

17,111,290 

18.(112,610 

29,'J44,090 

6,015,040 

5.i;i(i.230 

19,B42,9flO 

l),082,liOO 

29,ll'i,200 

4,499,700    . 

6.091,1100 

August     81 

1810,  Fobruaiy  !9 

19,674,190 

12,267,190 

83,.1BB,270 

8,652,480 

6,260,300 

«l,(llO,flOO 

12.457,310 

83,il7s,690 

8,fi01,410 

B,4o:i.iiso 

Aiiguil     81 

Mil,  Fabniary  «8 

24,"9fl,»90 

13.017.520 

40,973,770 

8,191,950 

5.754.110 

23.I)«0,«iO 

11,445,660 

87,12i,05l» 

8,860.940 

6.007,420 

AuguM     81 

28.290,980 

11.075.660 

87.(193.280 

8,243,800 

6,964.070 

181%  Fubruaiy  « 

28,409.  B«0 

11.696.200 

89.020,290 

2,993,190 

6,006,960 

Auguit     81 

1918,  Febniary  « 

i3,O20,HSO 

11.949.910 

89,176,120 

8,099,270 

6,8l'0,000 

43.210.980 

11,269,190 

87,080,960 

8,894,600 

6.  ,136. 340 

Auguat     11 

24.929.120 

11,169,780 

40,1(10,090 

2,712,270 

6.9ilO.60O 

1814,  Febniary  iH 

24.9111,090 

12,465,400 

41,999,910 

2,204.480 

fl,li87,>iOO 

Auguat     81 

1815,  FeSniaiy  88 

28,;i«9,290 

14,949.940 

49.346.900 

2,097,680 

7,225,410 

27,2«l.«BO 

11.702.250 

44.559.600 

1,036,910 

7,081,510 

•    Auguat     81 

27,249,670 

12,606.000 

44.954,190 

8,409,040 

8,819,660 

18M,  Febniuy  W 

27.0-18.620 

12,899.990 

4'i,4(ll/<10 

4,640,980 

9,039,680 

Auguit     81 

20.759,720 

ll,SB(l,38rt 

87,279,640 

7,502,7,90 

6,227,220 

1811,  Febniary  29 

27,897,900 

10,925,010 

84,279,080 

9,090.970 

5,786.090 

Angnst     80 

«).548,780 

9,094.690 

S2,OOB,080 

11.(169.200 

6.045,520 

ISia,  February  S8 

27,770,970 

7,997,660 

80,906.880 

10,066,400 

5,192,270 

AnguBt     81 

20.20'2,1S0 

T,9S7,780 

82,870,760 

6,869,160 

4,004,(140 

1819,  February  K 

25,126.700 

6,418,870 

81.466.000 

4,IU.620 

4,0119,550 

Auguat     81 

law,  February  W 

86,252,690 

6,804,160 

(1,740,600 

8,6.16,860 

8,779,(100 

98,494,110 

4,008,660 

26,197,490 

4,911,(160 

8,520,890 

Auguit     (1 

lMl,Feeruai7<W 

24,299,840 
«8,894,9M 

4,480,910 
B,6tt,8»0 

98.946.120 
««,T96,270 

8,211,060 
11,960,900 

8.830.960 
8,168,860 

Auguit     81 

20,210,800 

M18.4M 

16,476,940 

11,288,090 

S,e06,(»0 

BAN 


10 


BAIT 


-J 

11,007. IMl 

lll,IM4,3<l<l 
l«,«M.V4ll 
lll,HIII,ll«0 
II,7hT,MII 
H.TTW.KHI 
8,«34.»90 
!l,«U,6lll 
«.  104,11110 
lll.llW.OtO 
|il.4lW,7T0 
I0,M7.W0 
ll),«IN,IMO 

«,1II6,IIM 
•,7Uft,MIU 
8,171,000 
1I,1IW,4M) 
N,V|l,ii60 

«,'t3u,7ao 
n,wa,i5ii 

7,5I4,«00 
l<l,'iliA,00ll 

lO.Ni  1,1101) 

7.n«a,oi)0 
«.'^Hi>,(ifla 
«.  .■rifi,oiio 
7  ;m,niM 

n.'.'Ml.lKM) 
4  "77, (KM) 
I    'i4N,IN)0 

111.17 1.IMKI 
9,r4l),0lHI 
«,773,0O0 
i,4«l,000 
4,911,000 
4.iUt>,000 
4:130,000 
4,n4II,(I00 
6,lltl,000 
U,7'ill,000 

11,010,000 


l.lakOlltM. 


im, 

IMI, 
IM4, 
IH.'S, 
1»M, 
1817, 

in«, 
ino, 

llMO, 
1881, 
ISSJ, 
18IU, 
1834, 
183B, 
IS.W, 
1837, 
1H3S, 
1R30, 
1840, 
1841, 
184'i, 
|_1W,1, 
Am  A<t 


I'aknuu7  W  . 
Aiii(iimI  II  . 
Ft'hrunrjr  «<* . 
AiiKimt  BU . 
Ki'lHii*r]r  UN . 
Aiiftiat  81  . 
IVbniRrjf  'M  . 
Alifllat  81  . 
('•tinwrr  VD  . 
AiiipMl  81 . 
Fobniary  «8  . 
Aiiiiiiit  31 . 
t'likriMiT  «l> . 
AilNiiil  80 . 
Fi'hruarx  VH  . 
AiiKuit  81  . 
Ki'Sruwjr  1J7 . 
Aumiat  80. 
Ftibrimry  M . 
AiiKiiat  01  . 
Fi'liruarjr  W . 
Aiii^itdt  M . 
FHtiniary  M . 
.ViiKHHt  *iT . 
rt-l'niarjr  S5 . 
AtiKiiNt  M . 
I'l'bniary  14 . 
AuKiut  *M , 
Fi'hruary  ^8 . 
AiiKiiHt  80 . 
Fi'briial^  18  . 
AiiKiiat  W . 
Fflirinry  it . 
AiiKoat  tX . 
F«*tiniary  M . 
AiiKUtt  «7 . 
Ffbniiu'y  ib . 
AiiKuat  '.'B . 
Fi'bniary  18 . 
Aiirtuat  81 . 
Ft'liruu7  yi . 
AiiRuat  17 . 
F«hniiU7  W . 


J 

l«,Mi,IM 
17,4*4,7M 

]K-»i,'UO 
iu.'i:ii,t40 

1».73«,VM 
WMIM.IW 
il(>,7Ba,7«0 
lt,ll«fi.H40 
W,4«7,«10 
11l,Mtl,BII0 

ai.hvo.«io 
n,T47.«no 

ll.WtO.llA 

it.mi.Mo 

i».n;ii,hm 

l»,M7,8NO 
10,000,780 
1I.4M.70O 
10.000, 140 
tS,Bllfl,«80 

iN,iini.7io 
ii4,g«o,ooo 

l»,071,OOO 

i».ow,oeo 

l»,ilBi).IM)0 
19,1116,000 

lM,Bl»,aoo 

lH,llt«,IMM) 
IH,IHI,<)IN) 
1H.O|N,INIO 
IH.IOA.OIM 
1H,HN7,000 
H,97n,iiOO 
IB,4mK.INI0 

m.(iON,ooo 

17,11*1.000 
lO.MVt.lWO 
17,170,000 

lO.noo.ooA 

17,870,000 
10,01(1.000 
10.831.000 

io.iio.ono 


2 

4,aM,N« 
«.aw,44o 

7  ISl.KIII 
I  ••■il.lIBi) 
|ii,civ7,(IB(> 

M.I(In,7H(I 

«.4lii.Mn 
(.ttaft.iMO 
7,li)*.mi» 
H.mil,(MO 
N,iin'^,(iu« 

l).IIH.I40 
lO.lfll.M) 
u,n(M,u«o 
•  ,(IIIA  II7II 
lo,7fl».lbo 
ll.MO.ittU 
1I.118.M10 
D.OOU.UIO 
8.937,170 
10,17n,(III0 
11,4U,«00 
11,917,000 
13,087,000 
18.800,(100 
10,071, (KM) 

ia,7«6,(Kio 

14,(M4.(I00 
ll,n40,0lN) 
10,(MI7,000 
I0,(>4().(ll)0 
lO.WtB.IMW 

N.oM.nuo 
7.780,000 
6,488,000 
O.bM.UUO 
0,lM,fl)IO 
•,407.(KIO 
S,97&,000 
H.IUU.OOO 
8,090,000 
11,610,000 


1 

iB,»7s,ram 
ll,wo,»in 

18,819,780 
17,4«T,8TU 

iH,>i7i.oin 

1«,V<>4.68(> 
14,lini,3»() 
16,IOll,IKI0 
81.VIN.M0 
16,IMII.AB0 
18,Cii(I.MM 
18,199.1110 
«8  6'«1,17« 
18,900  ,IUW 
10,UIM,700 
14,««I.KI(I 
14,'204.8»(l 
14.nM6.0WO 
lO.llM.VNO 
18,906,000 
14,I)3II,4»0 
in,  410,000 
18.xAO,OIIO 
1II,140,(NI0 
lO.lH.dtM) 
17,i31,ilO0 
(4,H96,>I00 

IH.ni.ixai 

17,MH,(MM) 
1T.09-.(N)() 
17.197,01  M) 
16.307.0(10 
ll.OftVKMI 
11.(111,000 
11.74l,(»)0 
86,141,000 
1I,011.UIH> 
11.07n.(MI0 
1I.344,(MM) 
11,801,000 
11,114,000 
11,IM>.(MI0 
88.N)4,0(I0 


M.«7  1.940 
8.0J4.140 
8,l3(l,ni<l 
B,(I<I.(>10 
1,A47,1«U 
I,h8<t,(l80 
1,1*117,890 
l,»ail,«BO 
1,0;4,140 
1.974,440 

i,wa,i8o 

9,868,400 
1,740,710 
1,846.810 
1,704,960 
l,8;4.H9l) 
1,6«1.M0 
l,6ao,«8>l 
1,6I8,8«0 

i,7ad,K60 

1,637.760 
1,086,(100 
1,111,(100 

i,ia4,(i<«) 

'.',3(MI,()(IU 
l.Mll.OOO 
1,6(KI.(I00 

l,6lN,(ino 

l.'3(l.(MI0 
l,HH9,(mO 

!,97'*,(Ha 

i.(i'i'.',"»)»' 

1.741, («>■ 
1,077, (K«, 
B,(I91,(MI0 
l.K01,(HI0 
1,'.  OO.OH) 

i,8ra,o(Ki 

8,07»,(HIO 
8,(ltW.UM 
1,860,000 
1,871,000 


OCNT  or  TUB  NoTW  IN  (:lft<It'I.AT|l>!V   titf  T(1M  llANK  or  KniILANII,  AND  OK  TDK 
AND  WALU,  HCOTLANI),    ANI>  Illtl.ANII,  irill  IrVINII  A(.«o  TIIX  llttLION    IN 


oTiiitii  IIankb  or  Tnui:  in  Enqi.ind 
Till  llANK  or  Enuland. 


.    rawWMkaaii*^ 

Eimlaml. 

'■ 

IV.illanil. 

1                Iralaad. 

Total. 

Bnllloa  In 
Iba  Dank  of 

Hank  or 

Pri<raU 

JolnMok 

Cli.irUtrvtl, 
i*r(viil«,  aiiil 

Haakof 

P>l>aM  and 

Julnl-flock 

Uaiika. 

KoiUad. 

Uaiika. 

Ua«k>. 

Julnl.al.wh 
Banki. 

Inland. 

Knllaad. 

ji: 

X 

e 

£ 

£ 

X 

£ 

£ 

M.iuir,      mi 

17,970,000 

6.1HI7.(181 

8.418.810 

8. 18)  ,694 

3.(166.016 

1.9(16,672 

86.4+4.783 

6,011,000 

H  ,liuiu«ry,  1S41 

10,1U3.(NIO 

fi.47S,l89 

U,(I41,197 

3.070.076 

3.1(*),87B 

2.515,077 

33.606  013 

5.619,000 

1  April,          "     

ia,«74.o()() 

6,''S9,(16(» 

a,047,656 

l,67(l,l»() 

11.(174.115 

1.169,556 

lia.OI4.077 

7,006,OIM) 

18. Inly,          "    

10,90H,(NIO 

6.10(1.681 

2,9119, 1(16 

1,715,080 

1.S111.776 

1,6S(),1I87 

;«.ii03.118 

8.H88.WHI 

lBOclnb(^r,     "     

lO.BUI.OOO 

6.488,(MI 

8,064.639 

1,743.7116 

3,(41,15(1 

l.(Hll.7H4      !I5,843,U19 

ll,801,(KX) 

7  .laiiKiiry,  1843 

18,18il,(NM 

4,1141,815 

1.8aU.909 

1.770.8U8 

3.111,1160 

1,0911.041         ^  ■«"  168 

11,064,000 

1  April,         "     

l'.l,6»9,()IM) 

4,716,6(16 

1,861.1186 

1,467,0(14 

a,llN6  4<H) 

1,019,740  1    .  -,.■    .m 

11,410,000 

W.ldiv,           '•     

19,8(19,000 

4,400,098 

1.84(1,311 

I,(«l6.ai0 

3,(lHil,l()() 

1,081,115' 

■■■■      .,7114 

ll.K71,000 

14  ( Icl.ibor,     "     

19,014, 000 

4,711.109 

a.  130,001 

1.761.  .168 

3,131,675 

l,(lf>8,s4& 

:',■  .  ■.'.s.S'U 

I'.',  11*0, 000 

O.lmKiary,  1844 

18.964.000 

4,811.676 

U.in4,90« 

1.901.746 

3,4s:l,()B0 

1,301,180 

ll.'>.774,-.'6'.i 

14.03.8,000 

17  April,         •'     

11.839,ll()0 

,M96,i;i» 

D.76i,au7 

1,714,617 

3,6.'6,916 

1.867.416 

81I,5'*,1(14 

16884,000 

lOJulv,           "     

11,448,000 

4.014,179 

a,."40,ai6 

l.liflil,311 

8,44(1,700 

1.974,184 

37,730,811 

I5.486,0(HI 

11  (Vtiihcr,     "    

lt.01«.(IOO 

4.074,161 

8,n31„M8 

1.1187,6(16 

3.5'.I7,850 

2.466.1(U 

38,070,464 

14.S.ii,000 

4  January,  1845 

10.801,000 

4.419,464 

il,  06(1, 861 

8.169,460 

8,917,800 

8.0.  ■  .61 

87,930.317 

11.8(17,000 

20  April,          "    

11,078.000 

4,680,648 

8,;iO(i,148 

8,OOI.14<I 

4,oa6,4(KI 

3.(lMi.l31 

40,118,704 

16,1114,000 

19,luly,           "    

21.070.000 

4,478,079 

H,l.'>8,776 

8,B88.'.HI6 

a,.S(i(),47B 

l,'Wa.li67 

39, 6*1, 49-1 

10,174,000 

11  Oi-tnhop,     "    

ll.SW.OOO 

4.6&»,711 

a,aiui7 

8,428,074 

3.!107,Oiri 

2.'.'18,'.'06 

4O.Ol'1.0(13 

14.1188,000 

a.laiiniiry,  1846 

11.018,000 

4,606.818 

8.1(11.749 

3.886,409 

4,;i6l,200 

8,063,100 

31I.4!I7.340 

111,313.000 

IB  April.          "     

ll.ilo.ooo 

4.736.786 

H.a(ii.i8i 

8.096,317 

4.866.015 

8,181,1118 

aii.Dltt.rtlfl 

13,681,000 

18, Inly.           "    

11,184.000 

4,4I».6'<6 

a.ii.-i.rtiii 

3,390.060 

8.995.S76 

l,6U(l,fil(l 

UM,  869,766 

16,898,000 

10  OrtulxT.      "     

11,194.000 

4,666,748 

!l.'J(il.6H8 

3.6(16,156 

4,181,575 

3.060,1180 

40.040,046 

15,1183,000 

Llanunry,  1847 

10.638  000 

4,6-.>5.SB6 

3,138,311 

3,787.151 

4.111,l'.r 

.'i.an.i.iso 

3!>,B9i).741 

16,083,000 

17MHnli,        "    

•iO.(187.000 

4.641.548 

.1,147.M1 

aiWO.348 

3,s57,'<no 

1.816,930 

37.941.168 

1  l.ail.flfKt 

1  .laiinarv,  1S48 

17.914,090 

3.6;'8.lll7 

1,410,170 

3.841.317 

:i.OS8,7(K> 

1,107,410 

31,400,890 

11.401,260 

27,lanuar>-.  1819 

19,191,000 

a.0.M,797 

1,011, S19 

8.031,871 

1.717..Mf) 

1,1157,114 

a;i.l78,117 

I6,01.%.(NM) 

M  .laiKiarv,  1860 

10,141,000 

3,n>i.MiH 

1,080.4.57 

8.I11.S59 

l.lillO.sOO 

i,97ii,()i;4 

34.891.431 

10.8.'>S,1IOO 

'^B.laminrv,  1861 

20.806,0(10 

8.673, 199 

1.718,624 

8,251,486 

i.MiUtM 

1,1.10.501 

36,141,002 

14.(1(17. (KH) 

14,lanuary,  1861 

11.4sr>.(Hi0 

a,4m,4l6 

l,74a,»51 

8.188.B01 

1.4H4.C60 

2,196806 

:i5,(;86,716 

17,083,000 

ll.liimiarv,  1858 

14  Peocnilior,  "    

14.818.000 

8.771,528 

9.989,678 

8,611.710 

2.8;i6.100 

1,703.651 

40,911,467 

19.719.000 

11,1 12.000 

L8.8118,75S 

[8,1166.086 

4.112,787 

3,0.16.900 

8,8.'>7,!li7 

39.567.861 

16,414,000 

F..xi'F.Nai!s  or  tub  Hank  or  Enulamu  »o»  tiin  Yiab  ■miiino  IOtii  or  Kkhkvaiiy,  1831. 


Da. 

Xallonal  ilcbt  department 

.4161,143 
100.092 
09,106 

1                            la. 

£318.008  1 
89,187 
8,000 
40,000 

B,70a 

9s,ao9 

Ilank-notea 

Banking  dvpuUuent 

Ilont 

Kxpenaoa  at  eleven  branohea  ariilnK  IVom  the 

Expenm'»aHTOdlngtlieclrc(il«llonofXl,800,flOO 
(if  branch  Hank  of  England  notea,  at  cloven 
bninchei 

je)t)9,4oo 

£3SI>,400 

u 


BAN 


114 


BAN 


III.  EKOLisn  Private  asd  Pbovisciai.  Bawkb. 
— Beaides  charging  the  usoal  rate  of  Interest  on  bills 
discounted,  the  provincial  bankers  are  mostly  in  the 
hatit  of  charging  5».  or  ftt.  per  cent,  as  commission. 
They  also  charge  a  couimission  on  all  payments,  and 
derive  a  profit  from  charges  for  tUe  transmission  of 
money,  etc.  They  usually  allow  from  2  to  3  per  cent, 
oo  money  deposited ;  but  the  numerous  failures  that 
have  taken  place  among  them  have,  by  generating  a 
feeling  of  insecurity  in  the  minds  of  the  depositors, 
confined  this  branch  of  thoir  business  within  compara- 
tively narrow  limits.  When  their  customers  overdraw 
their  accounts,  they  are  charged  with  interest  at  the 
rate  of  5  per  cent.  Country  banks,  established  by  in- 
dividuals possessed  of  adequate  hinds,  and  managed 
with  duo  discretion,  are  productive  of  the  greatest 
service.  They  form  commodious  reservoirs,  where 
the  floating  a.id  unemployed  capital  of  the  surround- 
ing districts  is  collected,  and  from  which  it  is  again 
distributed,  by  way  of  loan,  to  those  who  will  employ 
it  to  the  best'  advantage.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  ut- 
most importance,  in  a  public  point  of  view,  that  these 
establishments  should  be  based  upon  solid  foundations. 
But  in  England,  unfortunately,  this,  till  recently,  has 
been  but  little  atten'ied  to;  and  the  destruction  of 
country  banks  has,  upon  three  diHercnt  occasions — in 
1792,  in  1814,  1815,  and  1816,  and  in  1825  and  1820— 
produced  an  extent  of  bankruptcy  and  misery  that  has 
never,  perhaps,  been  .  .lualed,  except  by  the  breaking 
np  of  the  Mississippi  scheme  in  France.  Government 
is  bound  to  interfere  to  hinder  such  disastrous  results, 
and  we  have  already  given  some  account  of  the  meas- 
ures adopted  in  this  view. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  number  of  com- 
missions of  bankruptcy  issued  against  country  bankers 
in  England  from  1809  to  188C,  both  inclusive : 


Vt.™. 

CommiBUiu. 

Ym». 

18Ut) 

4 

ISiU 

4 

1810 

20 

1821 

10 

1811 

4 

1822 

9 

18tS 

IT 

1823 

9 

1818 

8 

1824 

10 

18U 

27 

1826 

87 

1815 

25 

1826 

43 

1S16 

87 

18-27 

8 

181T 

3 

18.8 

a  * 

1618 

3 

1829 

S 

1819 

18 

1830 

14 

Exclusive  of  the  above,  many  banks  stopped  pay- 
ments, to  the  great  injury  of  their  creditors  and  the 
public,  that  afterward  resumed  them;  at  the  same 
time  that  the  aflTairs  of  some  bankrupt  concerns  were 
arranged  without  a  commission.  During  the  whole 
of  this  period  not  a  single  Scotch  bank  ;;ave  way. 

Besides  the  stomp  duties  payable  on  notes,  each  in- 
dividual or  company  issuing  them  must  take  out  a 
license,  renewable  annually,  which  costs  £S0.  This 
license  specifies  the  nan<es  and  places  of  abode  of  the 
body  corporate,  person  or  persons  in  the  firm  to  whom 
it  is  granted,  the  name  of  such  firm,  (he  place  where 
the  business  is  carried  on,  etc. ;  and  a  separate  license 
i>  to  be  taken  out  for  every  town  or  place  where  any 
notes  shall  be  issued  liy  or  on  account  of  any  banker, 
«tc.  Unless  the  license  granted  to  persons  in  part- 
jership  set  forth  the  names  and  places  of  aliode  of  all 
persons  concerned  in  the  partnership,  whether  their 
names  appear  on  the  notes  issued  by  them  or  not,  such 
license  shall  be  absolutely  void.--55  Oro.  3,  c.  184, 
a.  24,  For  the  regulations  as  to  the  Imuc  of  unstamp- 
ed notes,  see  ante,  p.  69.  The  issue  of  notes  for  Ions 
than  £5  was  prohibited  in  England,  as  previously 
shown,  from  1777  to  1797 ;  but  they  continued  to  he 
issued  from  the  latter  period  down  to  the  5th  of  April, 
1820,  when  their  further  issue  ceased,  in  consequence  of 
an  act  passed  in  1826,  This  act  did  not  extend  to  Scot- 
land  or  Ireland,  and  was  intended  to  give  grenwr  stabil- 
ity to  the  system  of  country  banking  in  England,  by 
•hutting  up  one  of  the  principal  cht:.nela  through  whicli 


the  inferior  class  of  bankers  had  been  In  the  habit  of 
getting  their  notes  into  circulation.  The  joint-stock 
banks  established  in  different  parts  of  England  and 
Waki,  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  7  Ueo.  4,  c. 
46,  authorizing  their  establishment,  consist  of  bodies 
of  partners,  varying  flrom  seven,  the  minimum,  to  any 
greater  number.  Each  partner  holds  one  or  more 
shares  of  the  company's  stock,  and  is  individually  lia- 
ble for  the  entire  debts  and  engagements  of  the  com- 
pany ;  so  that  a  person  holding  a  £50  or  £100  sltare  in 
a  joint-stock  bank  may,  in  the  event  of  its  becoming 
bankrupt,  be  called  upon  to  make  payment  of  as  many 
thousai.ds  of  po'mds !  They  are  uniformly  almost 
managed  by  boards  of  directors  appointed  by,  and  gen- 
erally responsibh  to,  the  body  of  shareholders.  The 
conditions  of  copartnery  vary  materially  in  different 
associations ;  but  the  above  are  distinguishing  features 
common  to  them  all.  The  shares  in  many  joint-stock 
banks  are  very  small,  few  being  above  XIOO,  the  great- 
er number  not  exceeding  £50,  while  many  are  only 
£26,  and  somo  not  more  than  £10,  and  even  £5 ! 
Generally,  too,  it  is  understood,  or  rather  it  is  dis- 
tinctly sot  forth  in  the  prospectus,  that  not  more  than 
five,  ten,  or  twenty  per  cent,  of  these  shares  is  to  be 
called  for ;  so  that  an  individual  who  has  ten  or  twenty 
shillings  to  spare  may  become  a  shareholder  in  a  bank. 
And  owing  to  a  practice,  or  rather  a  flagrant  abuse, 
introduced  into  the  management  of  various  banks,  by 
which  they  mukn  large  advances  or  discouiits  on  the 
credit  of  the  stock  held  l)y  the  shareholders,  not  a  few 
individuals  in  doubtful  or  even  des|)erate  circumstan- 
ces take  shares  In  them,  in  the  view  of  olitaining  loans, 
and  bolstering  up  their  credit !  Th^  orreat  danger  aris- 
ing from  such  banks  is  obvious ;  and  wore  one  of  tliom 
to  stop  payment,  it  is  plain,  even  though  the  claims  on 
it  should  be  ultimately  made  good,  that  they  could  be 
so  only  at  the  cost,  and  perhaps  ruin,  of  such  of  its 
proprietors  as  had  abstained  from  the  abusive  practices 
resorted  to  by  others.  It  may  well  excite  astonish- 
ment, that  any  one  who  can  really  afford  to  make  a 
bond  Jitle  purchase  of  shares  in  a  bank  should  be  fool- 
hardy enough  to  embark  in  such  concerns. 

No  doubt  a  joint-stock  bank,  if  it  possess  adequate 
capital,  and  be  discreetly  managed,  may  ati'oril  ample 
security  to  its  shareholders  ano  the  public.  But  th-!r« 
is  no  foundation  for  the  notion  that  because  a  Itaiik  has 
50  or  100  partners,  it  will  therefore  be  lictter  managed 
than  if  it  had  only  5  or  10,  On  the  contrary,  the  fair 
presumption  is  that  it  will  not  be  so  well  managed,  A 
few  wealthy  individuals  engaged  in  banking  or  any 
other  sort  of  business,  must,  if  they  would  protect 
themselves  from  ruin,  pay  unremitting  attention  to 
their  C'liicems,  and  act  in  a  discreet  and  cautious  man- 
ner. But  the  partners  and  maimgers  of  a  great  joint- 
stock  company  act  under  no  such  direct  and  pressing 
responsibility.  "  I  think,"  said  the  highest  authority 
on  such  subjects,  "that  joint-stock  banks  are  dctlcit^nt 
In  every  thing  requisite  for  the  conduct  of  banking 
business,  except  extended  resiwnslliility ;  the  banking 
Ifusiness  requires  peculiarly  persons  attentive  to  ail  its 
details,  constantly,  dally,  and  hourly  watchful  of  every 
transaction,  much  more  than  mercantile  or  trading  bus- 
inesses. It  also  requires  Immediate,  prompt  decisions, 
upon  circumstances  when  they  arise — in  many  cas<:s 
a  decision  that  does  not  admit  of  delay  for  consulta- 
tion ;  it  also  requires  a  discretion  to  I  e  exercised  with 
reference  to  the  special  circumstances  of  each  case. 
Joint-stock  banks  Iwing,  of  course,  obliged  to  act 
through  agents,  and  not  by  a  principal,  and  therefore 
under  the  restraint  of  general  rules,  can  not  lie  guided 
by  so  nice  a  reference  to  degrees  of  difference  in  the 
character  or  respnnsiliility  of  parties ;  nor  cnn  they  un- 
dertake to  regulate  the  assistance  to  lie  granted  to  con- 
cerns under  tcm|)orary  emiiarrassnient  by  so  accurate 
a  reference  to  the  circumstances,  favorable  or  unfavora- 
ble, of  each  case."— A'cWcncf  »/8.  J,  Lorn,  /.>7.,  br/nre 
the  Commillee  i/lHSion  the  Renewal uf  the  Bunk  Cha'rtn: 


Oft 
trac 


««rv, 

to  ma 

llcnl  I 

ent  uv 

for  Oio 

Iw  the 

would 

liy  mei 

Ills  lUI 

insun; 

tliroo  J 

The  pi 

joint-! 

TidUoll 

ble  to  t 

supply 

properl 

other. 

where  ( 

of  the  I 

offloe. 

oflhrsi 

deed, 


/ 


BAN 


tm 


BAN 


In  fact,  mora  than  nine-tenths  of  the  partners  in 
joint-stoclE  banlts  are  wholly  ignorant  of  banking  |>US' 
Iness,  and  have  nothing  better  to  trust  to  than  the  aup- 
posed  honesty  and  intelligence  of  the  directors ;  and, 
even  if  they  were  acquainted  witli  the  business,  the  re- 
sult would  lie  nearly  the  same,  as  it  would  not  be  pos- 
sible for  any  one,  by  a  mere  cursory  inspection  of  the 
bool(S  of  any  bank  (if  such  were  permitted),  to  form 
any  accurate  estimate  of  its  condition,  or  of  the  mode 
In  which  it  transacted  business.  And  hence  the  direct- 
ors in  these  establishments  are  practically  all  but  ab- 
solute. If  they  bo  worthy  of  the  confidence  placed  in 
them,  all  goes  on  smoothly ;  and  this  also  is  the  case 
when  they  are  most  unworthy,  till  they  have  involved 
the  concern  in  inextricable  difficulties  t  The  history 
of  the  Norwirh  Bunk,  of  the  Northern  and  Central 
•Bank,  the  Marylebone  Bank,  the  Manchester  Bank, 
and  a  host  of  others,  sufficiently  attests  the  truth  of 
what  has  now  Ijeen  stated.  The  responsibility  of  the 
directors  to  the  shareholders  has  not  been  found,  in 
any  of  these  instances  (and  it  is,  indeed,  ludicrous  to 
suppose  that  it  ever  should  be  otherwise),  to  have  been 
any  check  whatever  over  their  frauds  and  improvi^ 
dence.  The  whole  paid-up  capital  of  the  Manchester 
Bank,  amounting  to  about  £750,000,  had  been  wasted 
In  the  most  improvident  speculations,  and  additional 
dctts  iqcurred,  tiefore  the  great  body  of  the  sharehold- 
ers had  the  least  suspicion  that  the  company  was  oth 
erwiso  than  prosperous  I 

We  may  ol>8erve,  liy-the-way,  that  the  mischief  occa- 
sioned l)y  un  establishment  of  this  sort,  when  perverted 
from  its  proper  objects,  and  mismanaged,  is  not  to  lie  es- 
timated by  the  ruin  it  entails  on  its  partners,  and  proba- 
bly, also,  on  its  customers.  It  becomes,  in  fact,  a  public 
nuisance,  and  entails  privations  on  many  who  might 
lie  supposed  to  be  beyond  tlie  sphere  of  its  influence. 
Within  the  ten  years  ending  with  1842,  we  liclieve  it 
may  bo  moderately  estimated  that  about  £1,600,000  of 
banking  capital  was  wholly  dissipated  in  Manchester 
and  its  immediate  vicinity.  And  as  nine-tenths  of 
this  enormous  loss  was  occasioned  by  advances  made 
to  manufacturers  who  bad  little  or  no  capitjil  of  their 
own,  it  is  not  easy  to  imagine  what  *  ruinous  stimulus 
it  must  have  given  to  reckless  competition,  and  Iiow 
very  injurious  it  must  have  liecn  to  parties  trading  on 
their  own  capital.  Indeed,  i.o  inconsiderable  portion 
of  the  distress  in  Manchester,  in  1842  and  1848,  may  be 
traced  to  this  source. 

Remedial  Meatnret  that  should  be  adopted, — The  act 
of  1844,  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  82,  h<\t  successfully  obviated 
some  of  the  defects  formerly  existing  in  the  joint-stock 
and  private  banking  system,  especiolly  by  limiting  the 
extent  of  their  issues ;  but  in  other  respects  the  system 
is  still  open  to  serious  objections.  We  retain  the  re- 
marks made  u|ion  it  in  a  former  edition  of  M'Cuiloch's 
Z>iVi.  of  Commerce,  before  the  act  of  1844  wus  passed : 

"  VVc  tlo  nut,  however,  think  thtit  it  would  be  at  all  neces. 
Hsrv,  in  providing  for  a  secure  system  of  joint-stock  lunking, 
to  inoico  any  regulations  with  rettpect  to  many  of  the  points  no- 
ticed by  the  committee  as  to  which  the  law  Is  silent.  At  pres- 
ent uvcry  partner  in  a  Joint-stock  bank  is  liable  to  the  public 
for  the  whole  debts  of  the  firm ;  and  this  may  be  tnily  said  to 
he  the  saving  principle  of  the  system,  and  without  which  it 
would  he  an  unmixed  evil.  Nu  individual  should,  howc^'er, 
by  meri'ly  withdrawing  from  a  joint-stock  conceni,  get  rid  of 
his  liabilities  in  conntictiun  with  it  To  prevent  fhiud,  and  to 
Insun.'  due  caution,  thi'so  ought  to  continue  for  a  period  of 
three  years  at  least  afb't-  he  has  publicly  withdrawn  his  name. 
The  public,  too,  are  clcsriy  entitled  to  know  the  partners  in 
Joint-stuck  aMociations;  that  In,  to  be  informed  who  the  iiidi- 
viduali  are  with  whom  they  arc  dealing,  and  who  are  responsi- 
ble to  them.  But,  unluckily,  no  effective  means  are  taken  for 
supplying  tti'ti  necessary  infunnation,  or,  consequently,  of 
properly  discriuiiiiating  between  one  establishment  and  an- 
other, The  net  of  ISas  directed  that  an  account  of  the  places 
where  they  carry  on  business,  and  of  the  names  and  residences 
of  the  partners,  should  be  quarterly  transmitted  to  the  Mtamp- 
ofHce.  Hut  doubts  have  iMton  ontintalned  as  to  the  correctness 
of  these  leturus,  nml  comparatively  little  use  has  b<-en,  or,  in- 
deed, can  be  made  of  them.    The  accounts  of  the  names  and 


resldenoca  of  the  proprietora  are  not  published,  but  ara  aaeludad 
(Tom  Uie  public  eye  in  the  repositories  of  Somerset  Uousa  I  II 
is  true  that  these  lists  may  be  seen,  by  those  who  cboese  to  ap- 
ply at  the  office,  ibr  a  amalt  fee,  and  tliat  certified  coplas  maj 
he  procured  at  no  great  expense.  But  few  know  that  such  re- 
turns exist ;  and  fewer  still  have  the  opportunity,  or  think  of 
availing  themselves  of  tbem  aa  sources  of  Information.  To 
render  them  of  any  real  utility,  they  should  be  brought  under 
the  publlo  eye,  by  being  hung  up  in  the  ofHces  of  the  bonks  to 
which  they  refer,  and  periodically  published  In  the  newB|iap*ni 
of  the  placea  where  they  carry  on  business.  By  tbis  veana  tlia 
public  would  know  exactly  to  whom  they  had  to  look,  aur| 
would  act  accordingly.  They  would  not  bo  deceived,  us  this/ 
are  liable  to  be  at  present,  by  supposing  that,  because  a  bank 
has  a  number  of  partners,  some  of  them  miuit  be  opulent  aol 
trustworthy.  They  would  know  the  precise  state  of  tbe  fkoti 
and  If  it  were  seen,  fhim  the  quarterly  returns,  that  opulent 
and  Intelligent  Individuals  were  withdrawing  fkom  a  bank, 
every  one  would  be  put  o  i  his  guard,  and  would  naturally 
conclude  tliat  the  parties  ''Ad  very  sufbclent  reaaons  for  quit* 
ting  the  concern.  Thus  fur  publicity  may  be  made  eSectual, 
and  would  be  of  the  greatest  importance.  Neither  la  U  posalbls 
to  allege  a  single  plausible  objection  to  this  proposal.  It  Inter- 
fetes  in  no  degree,  nor  in  any  way,  with  the  proceedings  of 
the  parties:  all  that  it  does  is  to  declare  who  and  what  tbtf 
are ;  and  to  this  degree  of  publicity  no  honest  man  «iU  ol^ 
ject"  And  we  are  gkd  to  have  to  state  that  this  tr  now  efr 
thoted  )><  the  act  I  &  8  Vict.  c.  32,  {  21.— gee  ante,  p.  84 

"  III  we  have  great  doubts  whether  it  be  possible  to  carry 
publicity  farther  than  this.  The  committee  state  that '  the  law 
does  not  provide  fbr  any  publication  of  the  liabilities  and  a»> 
sets  of  these  banks,  nor  does  it  enforce  the  publication  of  anjr 
balance-sheet  to  the  proprietors  at  large ;'  and  it  lias  been  pro- 
posed to  compel  the  periodical  publication  of  a  atatement  of 
this  sort ;  but  it  is  very  questionable  whether  any  such  publi- 
cation would  not  be  a  great  deal  worse  than  useless.  It  ia  not 
proposed  that  commissioners  should  be  appointed  to  Inspect 
thi;  accounts  of  the  different  banks,  and  to  see  that  the  returns 
are  iccurate:  this  would  be  too  inquisitorial,  too  cumbrous, 
and  too  costly  a  plan  to  be  thought  of  for  a  moment  There 
would  be  nothing  for  it.  In  fact  but  to  trust  entirely  to  tiM 
Aonor  of  the  parties  I  Hence,  in  all  cases  In  which  a  dlseloaurs 
would  bo  really  useful,  the  publication  of  an  account  of  as- 
sets and  liabilities  would  afford  the  means  of  deceiving  tho 
public,  and  of  representing  a  bankrupt  concern  as  being  In  a 
prosperous  condition.  Supposing,  however,  that  the  parties 
were,  in  all  Instances,  perfectly  honest,  still  the  publication  of 
a  balance-sheet  would  be  good  for  nothing.  Every  one  knows 
how  sanguine  people  arc  In  relation  to  their  own  aflisin,  and 
that  debts  and  obligations  that  otlicr  parlies  would  baldly 
reckon  worth  any  thing  aru  estimated  by  them  aa  if  they  were 
HO  much  bullion.  But,  independently  of  this,  the  futility  of  the 
thing  is  obvious.  A  bank  with  a  capital  of  illOO.OOO  dis. 
counts  bills  and  other  obligations  to  tlie  extent,  iierbsps,  of 
i:3nO,000  or  £400,(HIO;  the  fact  that  it  has  discounted  tbem 
shows  that  It  believes  these  bills  and  obligations  to  be  good  i 
and  they  will,  consequently,  be  reckoned  among  its  aaseta. 
Hut  should  a  revulsion  take  place,  or  any  cirenmstance  occur 
to  shake  credit,  these  bills  may  not  be  worth  £100,000  s  and 
tliosn  who  have  dealt  with  the  bank,  on  the  hypotbesis  of  Its 
haviu);  capital  and  assets  more  than  enniigh  to  meet  all  its 
obligations,  may  find,  to  their  cost,  that  it  is  not  possessed  of 
a  single  shUllng,  but  is,  on  the  contrary,  some  iC200,000  or 
i:S00,U00  worse  than  nothing  I 

"The  committee  seem  to  think  that  some  regulation  should 
bo  enacted,  providing  that  a  certain  portion  of  Its  capital 
should  be  paid  up  before  a  bank  begins  businesa.  But  the 
better  way  would  be  to  pruhlhlt  all  advertising  of  nominal  cap- 
ital. This,  in  fact,  is  a  nu're  device  by  which  to  entrap  and 
delude  the  public.  A  bank  Is  announced  with  a  capital  of 
£1,000,000,  X3,IM)0,000,  or  i:3,000,Mm;  and  a  great  number  of 
people,  pi'riiaps  the  lusjority,  immediately  conclude  that  tliera 
can  bu  no  risk  in  dealing  witlr  an  eBtabliahmcnt  possessed  of 
so  groat  an  amount  of  property.  But  what  is  the  (act  1  Tho 
capital  advertised  Is  nominal  merely ;  not  more,  perhaps,  than 
a  tenth  or  a  flflh  part  of  it  has  been  received  into  tho  cofhra 
of  the  bank,  and  we  hare  nothing  better  than  the  statement 
of  the  bank  proprietors,  or  Uieir  agents,  that  they  will  pay 
up  tho  remainder,  if  necessary  s  of  which  aecessity  tbey  of 
course  are  to  be  the  only  Judges  1  Practically  this  la  neither 
more  nor  less  than  a  fraud  upon  the  public ;  it  is  a  contrivance 
for  making  £10,000  pass  in  the  public  estimation  ror£10fl,l)00, 
and  for  procuring  tlio  same  degree  of  credit  to  Its  holders. 
This,  however.  Is  not  all.  Whore  la  the  security  that,  if  a 
greater  amount  of  capital  were  really  required,  it  would  be 
forthcoming  r  The  notion  that  the  bulk  of  the  shareholderK  in 
many,  wo  are  pretty  sure, we  might  safely  say  most  of  the 
joint-stack  banks  now  In  exlsltnce,  could  pay  up  the  fUU 


BAN 


fit 


BAN 


inMOBt  of  their  BhuM,  U  too  Indlcrou  to  denrr*  notlca.  We 
Alight  u  well  call  upon  a  num  worth  Jt6  to  exUngutaih  •  debt 
ofiWM. 

"  There  can  be  no  doubt,  tberafore— unlea  It  be  meant  to 
afflnn  that  deoeptlon  and  iiiUacioiia  etatomenlaare  Indiapenaa- 
Me  to  the  succeie  of  Joint-etock  banklDg  sehoiaea— that  all  ad- 
Tertlsing  of  nominal  capltaU  ahoi  Jd  be  put  an  end  to ;  and  that 
no  auodatlon  Bhould  be  allowed  to  represent  IM  capital  aa  ex- 
ceeding the  Bum  actually  paid  up  by  the  propiieton.  But 
though  thia  would  obviate  one  lourM  of  fraud  and  deception, 
there  would  still  be  abundant  nieanaof  practicing  on  the  ere- 
doUty  of  the  public  at  tlie  disposal  of  parties  inclined  to  use 
tbem.  Admit  that  a  bank  baa  a  capital  of  i»M,UOO  actually 
ncelred  Uito  its  oofltira,  what  is  to  hinder  the  directors  from 
lending  out  the  whole  of  this  sum,  or  eten  more,  to  them- 
•elves  or  to  partneni  iu  tlie  bank  If  or,  supposing  them  not  to  do 
this,  who  can  tell  whether  the  entire  capital,  or  aome  considur- 
abie  part  of  it,  be  not  wholly  ingulCad  in  ruinous  speculations? 
It  hi  indeed  alleged,  and  truly  too,  tliat  this  could  not  happen 
with  any  'respectable'  bank;  that  'gentlemen  of  character' 
would  not  lend  themselves  to  such  trauaactlousl  Unluckily, 
however,  there  are  no  decisive  mark*  or  testa  by  which  the 
pnbUc  can,  »priori,  say  what  la  or  what  is  not  a  'napectable' 
bank,  or  who  la  or  la  not  a  'gentleman ^fchanoter;'  and  It  is 
not  a  Utile  haxardons  in  such  matters  to  indulge  in  speculative 
remarks.  Ilenee  it  Is  that  the  Marytebone  Bank,  the  Bank  of 
Manoheater,  and  indeed  all  banks,  are  held  to  be  respectable, 
that  is,  solvent,  till  the  event  prove  the  eontrary ;  and  that  all 
gentlemen  oonnected  with  banks  are  held  to  be  'men  of  char- 
acter,' pangona,  in  tun,  of  honor,  honesty,  and  intelligenee, 
till  their  fkaud  or  ignorance  ha*  involved  hundreds  or  tbou- 
sands  in  bankruptcy  and  ruin. 

"AVo  do  not  state  these  drcnrastanoca  In  order  to  raise  any 
prejudice  against  Joint-stock  banks  or  other  aasoeiations,  for 
fxy  'PPlT  equally  to  banks  with  one  or  a  email  number  of 
partners;  but  we  state  them  to  show  the  folly  of  placing  any 
reliance  on  statements  as  to  the  capital  of  any  bank,  or  the 
character  of  its  managers.  Such  statemcnta  may  be  either 
true  or  false ;  but,  as  the  public  can  not  tell  which,  they  are 
plidnly  good  for  nothing.  The  only  real  security  Is  to  be  found, 
if  it  exist  at  all,  in  the  names  of  the  partners  responsible  for  the 
delita  and  obligations  of  the  bank.  The  number  of  snch  part- 
ners is  a  very  inferior  cnnslderntion.  There  can  not,  in  truth, 
be  a  greater  enur  than  to  suppose  tluit  because  a  bank  has  a 
great  number  of  partners,  its  security  may  bo  safely  depended 
upon.  A  single  individual  worth  £100,000  is  an  incompanbly 
better  security  tlian  fifty  individuals  worth  X3000  each ;  and  a 
hundred  indtvidnain  worth  XlOOOwonId  hardly  be  any  security 
at  all,  at  least  for  a  snm  of  JCIO.OOO  or  £20,000.  A  private  bank 
with  fix  may  be  a  safer  place  of  deposit  than  a  Joint-stock  bank 
with  «<«  ftuiidred  partners.  Every  thing  depends  upon  tilt 
atailabU  iteeOth  of  those  responsible  for  the  debts  of  the  con- 
cern ;  and  hence  the  propriety  and  Jnslloe,  whether  the  Ann 
consist  of  one  or  of  many  partners,  of  pnbllcly  doclaiiug  HnJ 
specifying  their  names. 

"  We  are  decidedly  hostile  to  a  preposition  vre  have  heard 
mooted,  and  which  seems  to  be  countenanced  by  the  comintt- 
tee  on  Joint-stock  hanks,  for  obliging  all  banks  to  establish  a 
guanntee  itand  i  that  is,  for  obliKing  them  to  accumulate  a  jwr- 
tioH  c/  OuirpnJUa  as  a  reserve  stock.  Where  is  the  security 
that  such  reserve  would  Iw  aW-ays  deducted  tnm  preflts  ?  The 
truth  is,  that  banknipt  and  fraudulent  concerns,  and  none  else, 
would  gain  by  such  a'rpgulatlon;  inasmu^  n  it  would  ena- 
ble tbem,  by  appearing  to  lie  prosperous,  tin  in^tter  to  deceive 
the  puUie,  and  to  blind  them  to  the  real  state  of  their  affairs. 
It  I*  woiM  than  absurd  to  induce  the  public  to  depend  on 
guarantees  that  can  not  be  enforced,  and  which,  consequently, 
must  be  good  for  nothing.  The  knowledge  of  whom  the  part- 
nere  in  banks  really  consist,  and  tliclr  unlimited  responsibility, 
are  tlie  only  seonrities  that,  speaking  gcni-rally,  are  worth  a 
pinch  of  aniiff.  If  these  can  not  protect  thp  public  from  fraud 
or  loss,  notbln;;  else  will ;  and  the  question  will  come  to  be,  j 
not  whether  the  system  should  be  reformed,  but  whether  it 
should  ho  abated  as  an  Incurable  nuisance.  On  this  ground, 
also,  we  shonid  be  dlsposcU  to  dissent  from  nr,  •  ntlempt  to  pre- 
™nt,  by  legislative  enactment,  the  makips  vf  .«n»  upon  the 
credit  of  bank  stock.  We  do  not  question  tin  ndvantOBe  of 
such  a  regulation,  provided  It  were  honestly  carried  Into  effect 
But  it  U  useless  to  say  that,  whenever  the  parties  were  dis- 
posed to  defeat  such  a  regulation,  it  would  be  quite  inoper- 
ative. 

"  Some  of  the  Joint-stock  banks  have  an  extraordlnaiy  num- 
ber of  branches ;  and  the  multiplication  of  these  subordinate 
cstablishmcnta  all  over  the  countr)-  is  not  one  of  the  least  strik- 
ing features  of  the  system.  Neither  Is  it  very  <Ilfnc«lt  to  dis- 
cover why  banks  of  issue,  at  least,  are  so  very  anxious  about 
tha  formation  of  thsse  outworks.  They  are  bound,  It  seems,  I 
by  the  present  law,  to  pay  their  notes  on^  at  thtfarmt  atab- 1 


iM«Mn<;  so  that  by  latning  them  at  a  branch  bonk,  periupt 
«  hundred  mile*  dlMaut  fh>m  tha  head  hank,  the  cbanoe*  am 
ten  to  one  that  they  will  continue  fur  a  much  longer  period  in 
circulation,  and  that  they  will  consequently  bj  able  to  cany  on 
business  with  a  less  amount  of  capital  than  if  they  were,  a* 
they  ought  to  be,  obliged  to  pay  thehr  notes  at  the  branches  a« 
well  aa  at  the  principal  ofHse,  It  la  obvious,  Indeed,  that  tha 
eonvertibility  of  the  paper,  even  of  flrst-dass  banks,  Into  either 
eoah  or  Bank  of  England  notes,  is  at  present  oxoeedingly  im- 
peifect ;  and  that  vaiy  gieat  facilities  are  aflorded  for  getting 
the  worst  class  of  notes  into  clrealation,  and  for  keeping  them 
afloat  even  after  their  quality  may  be  suspected.  This  delect 
in  the  law  should  undoubtedly  be  amended,  by  obliging  all 
banks  that  issue  notes  to  pay  them  indlfllerently  at  any  of  their 
offlees.  But  w*  incline  to  think  that  Fartlament  might  go 
fvtherthan  thli;  and  that  itahoidd  enact  that  no  branch  bank 
be  established,  whether  for  the  Issue  of  note*  or  otherwhK,  be- 
yond a  oeitain  diatonce  (say  fifty  miles)  ftvm  the  head  office, 

"  Several  of  the  points  recapitulated  by  the  committee,  as  to 
which  the  law  Is  silent,  respect  the  rights  and  interests  of  tha 
partnen  In  Joint-stock  banks,  in  reUUon  to  each  other,  >nd 
not  as  between  them  and  the  public.  But  It  Is  always  a  very 
dlfflonlt  nutter  to  Interfore  to  dictale  the  footing  on  whleh 
parties  in  any  undertaking  should  stand  among  tliemsehrel, 
Much  should,  in  such  coses,  be  left  to  the  Judgment  of  the  par- 
ties; and  public  regulations,  if  enforced  at  all,  should  only  go 
topreveiit  obvious  and  acknowledged  abuse :  the  parties  may, 
In  most  cases,  be  safely  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The 
protection  of  the  public  Interest  Is  the  paramount  considera- 
tion ;  and  we  do  not  well  know  what  can  be  done  to  effect  this, 
in  the  case  at  least  of  such  banks  as  do  not  issue  notes,  other 
than  the  making  known  who  their  partnen  are. 

"  The  Joint-stock  banks  formed  hi  the  city  of  London  offern 
fkir  rate  of  interest  for  depoaits ;  and  if  they  go  on  successfully 
in  doing  this,  they  will  confer  no  slight  advauiage  on  the  com- 
munity, and  will  become,  aa  It  were,  so  many  savings'  bank* 
for  the  middle  classes,  and  for  the  rich  aa  well  as  the  poor. 
But  the  responsibilities  this  system  will  bring  along  with  It  are 
neither  few  nor  small.  A  bank  with  a  numerous  body  of  part- 
nen of  undoubted  wealth  and  Integrity,  that  should  give  2  per 
cent  interest  on  all  deposits  of  £10  and  upward,  how  short  so- 
ever the  period  for  whidi  the  deposit  might  remain  In  the  bank, 
would,  there  la  little  doubt,  speedily  have  ample  funds  at  It* 
disposal.  In  quiet  and  prosperous  times  the  system  would 
work  exceedingly  well ;  and  the  bank . .  '  *'t^  public  would  be 
vastly  well  pleased  with  each  other.  I>iib  h  .v.':  the  cycle  of 
prosperity  has  gone  by,  and  tlie  cycle  of  « '.\  "My  has  begun  j 
when  the  waters  are  out,  and  the  winds  begin  to  blow— it  is 
donbtfnl  whether  cither  the  bonk  or  it*  depoalton  may  feel 
quite  at  ease.  The  former  will  proliably  raise  the  rate  of  in- 
terest ;  but  it  hi  doubtful  whetlier  that  will  hare  the  wislied-for 
effect  Should  the  exchange  set  against  us,  and  tlie  Bank  of 
England  he  forced  to  narrow  her  Issues,  and  should  bankrupt- 
cy and  a  foellng  of  insec.irity  begin  to  prevail,  as  they  havo 
done  hitherto  on  all  similar  orca.sions,  a  run  for  deposits  may, 
and  most  probably  will,  be  made  upon  the  bank ;  and  In  snch 
n  case  her  situation,  however  well  she  may  have  been  man- 
aged, will  be  most  critical.  She  will  be  compelled  to  dispose 
of  or  pledge  securities  in  a  market  where  they  may  be  all  but 
unsalable ;  and  it  will  be  impossible  for  her  suddenly  to  pull 
tip  In  discounting,  without  exposing  herself  to  the  Imminent 
danger  of  extra  loss,  by  bringing  on  the  stoppage  of  those  who 
have  been  accustomed  to  trust  to  her  for  loans, 

"  It  win  be  said,  perlmps,  that  this  is  all  Imaginary,  and  that 
nothing  of  thn  sort  ever  occun  In  Scotland  I  But  It  would 
really  be  about  as  much  to  the  purpose  to  say  that  nothing  of 
the  sort  ever  occurs  in  Japan.  Ixindon  Is  the  pivot  on  which 
the  foreign  exchsnges  turn,  and  when  they  become  depressed 
many  of  the  London  depositors  win  do  what  the  Seotch  depos- 
itors never  so  much  as  dreamed  of;  that  Is,  they  will  demand 
their  deposits,  convert  them  Into  gold,  and  either  send  this 
/eld  abroad,  or  get  a  profit  from  those  who  will.  From  this 
source  of  annoyance  and  loss  the  Scotch  banks  are  perfectly 
free ;  and  this,  by  exhausting  the  resources  of  the  London 
luinks,  and  subjecting  the  weaker  ones  to  dlfllcultles,  occasion* 
discredit  and,  in  the  end,  nins  or  panics.  Nothing,  therefore, 
can  be  more  perfectly  futile  than  t.  »■  itand  t'mt  b<^rauso  this 
system  has  proved  profitable  for  li  -  ?>  ;i  >  banks,  it  will  also 
be  profitablo  for  the  txmdon  •  "■'  v..  .i  i  not  presume  to 
affirm  that  snch  will  not,  ar' 
But  It  would  be  rather  111, 
ceeds  remarkably  well  In 
snceeed  equally  well  }n  tlie 

"  The  Joint-stock  banks 
deavor  to  obviate  some  of  th 


■!.T.  i 


'  iif'. 


lay,  be  the  case, 
ause  wheat  snc- 
•  f'Mtui  Iter,  that  it  will 
ii  laoui   ,  ;r  1, 

U  \ttf  <l  not  already,  en- 
'■•""  •■  /stated,  by  declin- 
ing to  pay  Interest  on  deposits  uuleaa  they  lie  for  a  certiiin  time. 
or  by  sUpnlatlng  for  a  certain  notice  before  they  are  paid,  lint 
either  tha  0B«  condition  or  the  other  I*  nbrenlve  of  what  I* 


1 1 


B.4N 


117 


BAN 


meant  by  gr«nUng  Intei«i;t  on  drpodtu,  and  goea  fitr  to  make 
tlia  announceioenta  to  that  cflect  little  better  than  a  hoax  upon 
the  public.  All,  or  nearly  all,  the  existing  banks  are  banks  of 
deposit  In  this  aenae  of  the  vord ;  that  is,  they  give  interest 
on  depoalta  of  a  certain  amount,  provided  they  be  not  called 
for  till  after  the  lapse  of  an  agreod-on  period,  and  that  the  de- 
poaitora  give  them  no  iUrthcr  trouble.  But  it  i«  doubtftd 
wlictlicr  money  deposited  at  2  per  cent  under  aueh  cooditions, 
and  still  more  under  an  crKagcment  to  give  notice  of  demand, 
bo  as  well  laid  out  as  if  it  were  deposited  with  the  Bank  of  En- 
gland, or  any  other  bank  of  undoubted  aoUdity,  at  no  inter- 
est, but  payable  on  demand.  Moat  men  of  business  would,  un- 
doubtedly, prefer  the  latter.  Nobody,  indeed,  not  Miahing  *^ 
get  into  difficultlca,  would  bo  disposed  to  deal  with  any  bank 
that  required  notice  of  demand ;  and  it  is  questionable  wheth- 
er any  such  stipulation  should  be  sanctioned  try  law. 

"  The  committee  on  Joint-stock  banks  omitted  all  reference 
to  what  is  by  far  the  most  prominent  evil  iu  our  banking  sys- 
tem— we  mean  the  ])ower  conceded  to  ail  private  and  Joint- 
atock  Innka  and  companies,  whether  with  or  without  property 
or  character,  to  iasue  faper  money  or  notes  payable  on  demand, 
without  let  or  hindcranoe  of  any  sort  Thta  abuse  should  cer- 
tainly be  put  down ;"  and  we  have  already  seen  that  this  power 
can  now  bo  but  little  abused. 

"  RenpamariUtii  ougM  not,  in  ani/  e<ue,  to  be  limited.— We 
protest  against  tlie  proposal  for  allowing  the  partners  in  banks 
not  issuing  notes  to  limit  their  responsibility.  Such  a  measure 
would  be  good  for  nothing,  except  to  servo  as  a  premium  on 
every  species  of  tnui.  What  check  would  there  bo,  under 
such  a  system,  to  hinder  the  partners  of  a  bank  going  on  for  a 
series  of  years  dividing  large  profits,  when  perhaps  they  were 
really  incurring  a  loss,  until  every  farthing  oi  its  capital  and 
deposlu  was  absorbed  t  To  talk  of  subjecting  such  persona  to 
punishment  aa  fraudulent  bankrupts,  on  evidence  derived  fh>m 
their  books,  is  absurd;  for,  supposing  that  it  was  the  intention 
of  the  parties  to  delVaud,  they  might  easily  keep  their  hooka  so 
tliat  tliey  could  afford  no  information  that  was  not  Mse  or  mls- 
lomllng.  The  annexed  list  of  Joint-stock  banking  companies 
shows  that  there  is  no  disinclination  on  the  part  of  individuals 
to  engage  in  snchxoncems,  even  with  the  present  unlimltod 
responsibility.  And  the  w«y  in  which  some  of  them  are  con- 
dncted  proves  aufficieM^,  if  such  proof  were  wanted,  that  the 
serious  linbllltiea  incHtatd  by  the  partners  are  not  more  than 
enough  for  the  protedttgn  of  the  public  To  lessen  them  would 
be  an  act  of  gratuitom  folly.  If  we  are  to  Interfere,  lot  'hem 
be  increased,  not  diminished.  But  In  the  caw  of  banka  not 
Issuing  notes,  enough  is  done,  if  measures  bo  tftkon  to  prevent 
deception,  by  letting  the  public  know  tho  partners  In  them,  and 
making  sure  that  they  shall  have  no  means  of  evading  tho  re- 
sponsibility attaching  to  their  engagements  Tho  first  object 
may  be  secured  by  compelling  all  banking  aaaociattons  what- 
ever to  pubHsh  annually  a  liat  of  the  names  and  addrcssi-s  of 
their  partners,  with  the  amount  of  their  paid-up  ,:apital ;  and 
to  accomplUh  tho  latter  object,  wo  have  merely  to  abstain  from 
interference,  and  to  let  the  law  take  its  natural  course." 

An  AcooTOT  OF  Tim  NuMnra  op  Piuvatb  and  Joimt  Sto<:k 
BaxKB  IN  Knulani)  BBuisTEuitn  IK  KAcn  Ykae,  riiOM  1830 

TO  IS4'.',  IWTII  INI'LUaiVK. 


Ynr. 

Numtxr  at 

Numbtrof 

PrivRU  Bsoki. 

JohMotk  Banki. 

18W  to  IH'il 

(>21 



18'21  to  1822 

626 

ISn  to  1823 

64T 

IS-.'S  to  1824 

647 

1824  to  18-'S 

6M 

1826  to  ]82« 

664 

1926  to  182T 

186 

6 

1821  to  18-28 

464 

7 

1828  to  isai 

4«0 

11 

1820  to  1880 

48l> 

16 

1830  to  1  sat 

436 

It 

1831  to  1833 

424 

26 

1832  to  ISt3 

416 

86 

1833tol8S4 

416 

47 

1834  to  188S 

4U 

C5 

1836  to  1SS« 

407 

100 

18S«  to  1837 

861 

107 

1H3T  to  1838 

1141 

101 

1838  to  1889 

382 

108 

183U  to  1840 

881 

lis 

1840  to  1841 

821 

116 

1841  to  1841 

811 

118 

ay,  en- 

\  declln- 
■in  lime. 

Id.    ""' 
Iwhat  is 


Drawing  on  hnuion — The  net  8  &  4  Will.  4,  c.  88, 
repeals  the  regulation  in  the  7  Geo.  4,  c.  46,  prohibit. 
Ing  banlct  with  more  than  six  partnera  iVDm  drawin(( 
on  I^dndon  on  demand,  or  otherwiae,  for  numa  of  leaa 
than  .£50.  —  f  2.  For  statiatieg  of  EnKliah  joint^stock 
banlu,  tee  conclusion  of  Article  on  Bamkinu. 


IV.  Scotch  Banks. — The  act  of  1708,  preventing 
more  than  six  individnala  from  entering  into  a  partneN 
ship  for  carrying  on  the  bnMness  of  banking,  did  not 
extend  to  Scotland.  In  consequence  of  this  exemption, 
several  banking  companies,  with  numerous  bodies  of 
partners,  have  always  exUted  in  that  country. 

Jiank  of  Scutlani. — Tliis  institution  was  projected 
by  Mr.  John  Holland,  merchant,  of  Lonuon,  and  was 
established  by  act  of  the  Scotch  Parliament  (Will.  8, 
Par. .  1,  §  5)  in  1695,  by  the  name  of  the  Governor  and 
Con  ipany  of  the  Bank  of  Scotland.  Its  original  cap- 
u,.:  was  1,200,000  pounds  Scotch,  or  £100,000  sterling, 
distributed  in  shares  of  iOOO  pounds  Scotch,  or  £83  65. 
Sd,  sterling,  each.  Tho  act  exempted  the  capital  of 
the  bank  from  all  public  burdens,  and  gave  it  the  evL- 
clusive  privilege  of  banking  in  Scotland  for  twonty-one 
years.  The  objects  for  which  the  Bank  was  instituted, 
and  its  mode  of  management,  were  intended  to  be, 
and  have  been  in  most  respects,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Bank  of  England.  Tho  responsibility  of  tho  share- 
holders is  limited  to  the  amount  of  their  shares.  The 
capital  of  the  Bank  w  as  increased  to  £200,000  in  1744, 
and  was  enlarged  by  subsequent  acts  of  Parliament, 
the  last  of  which  (44  Geo.  8,  c.  23)  was  passed  in 
1804,  to  £1,500,000,  its  present  amount.  Of  this  sum, 
£1,000,000  has  been  paid  up.  The  lust-mentioned  act 
direriod  that  all  sums  relating  to  the  alTau-s  of  the 
Bunk  sliould  henceforth  bo  rated  in  sterling  money ; 
that  tho  former  mode  of  dividing  luink  stock  by  shares 
should  be  discontinued;  and  that  for  the  future  it 
should  l)e  transferred  in  any  sums  or  parcels.  On  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1707,  the  Bank  of  Scot- 
land undcrtooktherecoinagc,  and  effected  theexchange 
of  tho  currency  in  Scotland :  it  was  also  the  organ  of 
government  in  the  issue  of  the  new  silver  coinage  in 
1817.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  is  the  only  Scotch  bank 
constituted  by  act  of  Parliament.  It  l>egan  to  establish 
branches  in  1696,  and  issued  notes  for  £1  so  early  as 
1704.  The  bank  also  began,  at  a  very  early  perio<l,  to 
receive  deposits  on  interest,  and  to  grant  credit  on  cash 
accounts,  a  minute  of  the  directors  with  respect  to  the 
mode  of  keeping  the  latter  being  dated  so  far  back  as 
1729.  It  is,  therefore,  entitled  to  tho  credit  of  having 
introduced  and  set  on  foot  the  distinctive  principles  of 
the  Scotch  banking  system,  which,  whatever  may  be 
its  defects,  is  probably  superior  to  every  other  system 
hitherto  established.  Generally  speaking,  the  Bank 
of  Scotland  has  always  been  conducted  on  sound  and 
lilraral  principles ;  nor  can  there  be  a  doubt  that  it  has 
l>ecn  pnxluctive,  both  directly  and  as  an  example  to 
other  banking  establishments,  of  much  publir  utility 
and  advantage.  It  may  be  worth  mentioning,  that  the 
net  of  Will.  8,  establishing  the  Bank  of  Scotluud,  de- 
clared that  all  foreigners  who  became  partners  in  the 
l>ank  should,  by  doing  so,  become,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  naturalized  Scotchmen.  After  l)eing  fqr  s 
long  time  forgotten,  this  clause  was  taken  advantage 
of  in  1818,  when  several  aliens  acquired  property  in  the 
bank  in  order  to  secure  the  Ijeneftt  of  naturalization. 
But  after  being  suspended,  the  privilege  was  Unally 
canceled  in  1822.  We  subjoin  an  itfficial  abstract  of 
the  constitution  and  objects  of  the  Bank  of  Scotland, 
printed  for  the  use  of  tho  proprietors ;  the  terms  and 
mode  of  transacting  business  are,  of  course,  sometimes 
altered,  according  to  circumstances : 

I.  The  Ihuik  of  Scotland  la  a  public  national  aalablishment, 
erected  and  regulated  by  the  I^eglalature  alone ;  and  expresa- 
ly  aa  a  public  liank  In  thla  kingdom ;  for  the  benefit  of  thj 
nation,  and  for  the  advanftment  of  agrtcnlture,  commerre, 
and  manuhetares,  and  for  other  ol^ects  of  public  policy.  — 
•rm.  Tart.  1,  i  6 ;  14  OfW.  8,  c.  32 ;  24  Oeo.  8,  r.  8 ;  82  (Veo.  o, 
c.  26:  34  0«o.  8,  e.  1»;  44  Geo.  3,  c.  28.  II.  The  statutory 
raplti,:  Is  At  present  £1,600,000  sterling.  It  in  raised  by  vol- 
untary subacTiption,  and  haa  been  aubacrllied  for.  Xt,O0O,Q0O 
baa  been  called  for,  and  paid  in. — 44  dm.  8,  .-ap.  28.  UL 
Subscribers,  if  not  under  obligation  to  tho  Bank,  may,  at 
pleanire,  transfer  their  right.  If  under  obligation  to  the 
Bank,  the  obligation  must  1>e  prevloiudy  liquidated :  or  the 
pmoeeda  of  tba  sale,  at  a  price  to  the  aatiatactioB  of  the  dinct- 


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118 


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on,  miut  bo  >pplM  towkrd  lucli  liquidation.  Transfen 
lira  made  bjr  a  iihort  aMlgnmiiDt  and  acceptanro  tberaof,  buth 
iu  a  icKiator  appointed  for  tbat  purpose.  Tbo  iipcnsi!,  be- 
•Idea  the  goveruiuriit  Btamp,  U  11a.— H'tlL  I'arl.  1,  i  6.  IV. 
Baiik  of  .Scotland  stuck  may  be  acquired.  In  any  portloDS  by 
any  person,  community,  or  otber  lawful  party  wbalsoever ; 
without  selection,  e;iclusian,  or  limitation  of  numbera- 
Wm.  Pari.  1,  t  B;  44  Oto.  8,  r.  S3.  V.  Bank  ofScoUand  stock 
may  be  conveyed  by  will,  and,  if  specially  mentioned,  without 
expense  of  contlrmatlon.  It  can  not  be  arrested :  the  holder's 
•Ight  miy  be  adjudged.  Dividends  may  bo  arrested.  —  H'iU. 
Pari.  1,  i  0.  VI.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  is  a  public  corpora- 
tion by  act  of  rarllaincnt.  The  Bank's  transactions  arc  dis- 
tinct from  thoie  of  the  stockholders,  and  Ihelrs  from  tliuse 
of  the  Bank.— WflL  Pari.  1,  t  B.  VII.  The  establishment  Is 
expressly  debarred  from  any  other  business  than  that  of 
baaUiig.--H'iILI>ari.  l,iB.  VIII.  The  management  Is  vest- 
ed, by  statute,  in  a  governor,  deputy  governor,  twelve  ordi- 
nary, and  twelve  extraordinary  directum.  'I'hcy  are  chosen 
aniiuaily,  on  the  last  Tucsdny  of  March,  by  tho  stockhuldets 
baring  £'26l>  of  stock  or  upward.  Those  abovo  £i60  have  a 
vote  for  every  A'SSO,  to  f  BOOO,  or  twenty  votes.  No  penion 
can  have  mon'  than  twenty  votes.  Tho  gorcmor  must  hold 
at  least  £2000  of  stock ;  tho  deputy  governor  £1800 ;  and 
each  director  £T50.  They  swear  to  be  equal  to  all  persons, 
and  can  not  hold  any  inferior  o/Hce  in  tbo  Bank.—  Vill.  Pari 
1,  tS;  14  0*0.  3,  c.  02;  44  Oto.  8,  c.  Sa  IX.  The  executive 
part  U  conducted  by  a  trrasun'r,  secretary,  and  otiicr  public 
officers,  all  sworn.  Those  having  the  ofllclal  charge  of  rash 
And  duu  security.— H'fll.  Pari.  1,  i  B.  X.  Tho  bo.ird  of  di- 
rectors sits  'or  the  general  administration  of  the  Bank,  at  tho 
Banl^H  public  head  office  lu  Edlnbu'gh.  The  local  businciis 
of  that  district  Is  also  conducted  atthnt  ofllce.  For  the  local 
business  in  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  Bank  luu  its 
regular  public  offices  in  the  p: '.  r  Mpal  towns.  At  each  of  these 
offices  there  Is  the  bsnk  agent  or  eaihlor,  who  gives  duo  se- 
curity, and  conducts  the  Bank's  business  for  that  district  In 
the  manner  after  montloncc'.  There  is  alco  tho  Bank's  ac- 
countant for  that  office,  who  is  appointed  by  tho  directors — 
ITtO.  Pari.  1,  {  5.  XI.  Tho  Bank  takes  In  money,  at  all  its 
public  offleen,  on  deposit  reoclpts  or  promissory  notes,  or  on 
current  deposit  account.  At  tbo  head  office,  drafts  on  Lon- 
don, or  on  any  of  the  agencies,  arc  given ;  at  each  agency, 
drafts  on  London,  or  on  tho  head  office,  are  gi/cn.  All  tiu-tii' 
documents  are  on  the  Latxk'a  check  (and  sealed  trith  the  Dank'n 
seof).  They  bear.  In  »  crds,  to  be  "  For  the  Bank  of  Scot- 
land j"  or,  "  For  ilio  Governor  and  Coin))any  of  the  Bank  of 
Scotland."  The!.-  documents  are  signed,  if  at  Kdlnburgh,  by 
the  treaani«r,  and  countersigned  by  tho  principal  account- 
ant: if  at  en  agency,  they  must  b«  signed  by  the  Bank's 
agent  at  agent,  and  rouiifer«i|/n<d  by  the  llatWa  aeeountant 
for  tbat  agency;  otherwise  they  infer  no  obligation  on  the 
Bank,— &K)Mion  c^f  Court,  28tb  Feb.  lUi.  MI.  Bills  on 
London,  Edinburgh,  or  any  town  where  tho  lUink  has  its  offi- 
cial correspondents,  are  discounted  and  purchased  at  all  the 
Bank's  public  offices.  Tho  Bank's  ngentsjudgo,  in  ordinary 
cases,  of  the  bills  presented ;  so  that  parties  nnet  with  no  de- 
lay. The  Bank  does  not  sell,  at  any  of  its  otHcca,  the  bills 
which  it  baa  discounted  and  purchawd.  Its  iigents  can  not 
indoiio  its  bills,  unleaa  officially  to  tl;e  ttvasurcr.- iieeolufioii 
tif  Court,  mi  Feb.  ITSil.  XIII.  Covcmnient  stock  and  otb- 
ir  public  funds,  transferable  lu  London,  may  ho  purchased  or 
sold,  and  dividends  thereon  may  bo  received  through  the 
Bank.  XIV.  Tlie  Bank  gives  credit  on  c-isb  accounts  at  any 
of  in  uffieen,  on  bond,  with  security.  Tho  security  may  bo 
;v"soiial  co-obligants,  coi\|unctly  and  eeverallyi  or  Bank  of 
.'.lOtland  stock;  or  lioth;  or  such  other  security  as  may  bo 
li'fcially  agreed  on.  Applications  for  cash  accounts  e.re  given 
lo  to  the  office  where  the  cash  account  is  wanted,  and  muKt 
specify  the  credit  declred  and  the  security  proposed ;  and 
the  Individual  partners,  wheiu  copartneries  are  proposed. 
Cash  aceoukta  are  granted  by  the  directors  only,  and  are  not 
recalled  onleas  by  their  sperial  authority.  It  Is  understood 
that  these  credits  are  not  ufed  as  dead  loans,  to  prtkiuee  in- 
terest only.  In  the  fair  course  of  buslntsa,  the  advantage  of 
the  Bank  la  consultod  by  an  active  olnnlatlon  of  its  notes, 
and  by  frequent  repaymenta  to  It  in  a  way  leaat  affecting  that 
circulation.— /tewIuMon  ct.'  Courts  eth  Nov.,  IT'29,  and  SSd 
Feb. ,  1T89.  XV.  The  Bank's  divldsnd  of  proflta  baa  been  for 
some  eonalderable  period  six  per  cent,  per  annum,  on  its  ])ald- 
op  easital  of  £1 ,000,000  sterling.  The  dividends  are  v.aid 
regularly  twite  a  year,  withont  expense.  They  may  be  drawn 
(ither  at  tho  Bank's  head  office,  or  at  any  of  Its  other  office*, 
aa  most  agreeable  to  the  stoekbolder. 

Molt  of  the  other  Scotch  banks  are  conducted  on  tho 
uma  principlea  and  in  the  same  way  as  tho  Bunk  of 
Scotland,  ao  that  the  detaili  aa  to  its  managemont  will 


nearly  apply  to  hem  all.  The  Roi/al  Sank  of  Scotland 
waa  established  in  1727.  Its  ori|;inal  ca<)ital  of  X161,000 
has  liecn  increased  to  X2,000,OUO.  The  British  Linen 
Company  waa  incorporutcd  in  1716,  for  the  purpose,  as 
its  name  implies,  of  uudertaliing  the  manufacture  of 
linen.  But  the  views  in  which  it  originated  were 
speedily  abandoned;  and  it  became  a  banking  com- 
pany only.  Its  cajiital  amounts  to  X60C,000.  None 
of  the  other  banking  companies  established  in  Scutluiid 
arc  chartered  associations,  with  limited  rcsponsiliility ; 
the  partners  being  jointly  and  individually  lialile,  to 
tho  whole  extent  of  their  fortupes,  for  the  detits  of  the 
Arms.  Some  of  them,  such  as  the  National  Bank,  the 
Commercial  Banking  Company,  the  Dundee  Commer- 
cial Bank,  tho  Perth  Bonking  Company,  etc.,  have 
very  numerous  todies  of  partners.  Their  affairs  are 
uniformly  conducted  by  a  Board  of  Directors,  annual- 
ly chosen  by  tho  shareboldurs.  The  Bank  of  Scotland 
began,  as  ulrcady  stated,  to  issue  £\  notes  so  cirly  as 
1704 ;  and  their  issue  has  since  keen  continued  without 
iuterruptlon.  "  In  Scotlund,"  to  use  the  statement 
given  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  of  i82Con  tho  Promissory  Notes  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  ''the  issue  of  promissory  notes  payable  to 
the  bearer  on  demand,  for  a  sum  of  not  less  than  20«., 
has  been  at  all  times  permitted  l>y  law ;  nor  has  any  act 
been  passed  limiting  tho  |icr!od  for  which  such  issue 
shall  continue  legal  in  that  country.  In  Kiiyland,  tho 
issue  of  proniisori'  notes  for  a  less  sum  than  £f>  was 
prohibited  by  law  from  tho  year  1777  to  the  epoch  of 
tho  Bank  Restriction  in  1797.  It  has  been  permitted 
since  1707 ;  and  the  permission  will  cease,  us  tho  law 
at  present  stands,  in  April,  18'29." 

i'here  hiivo  been  comparatively  few  bankruptcies 
among  tho  Scotch  hanks.  In  1793  and  18'2,5,  when  so 
many  of  the  Knglish  provincial  Uuiks  were  swept  off, 
there  was  not  a  single  cstablishkHJIit  in  Scotlanu  that 
guve  way.  This  superior  stabilitj;  seems  to  bo  ascrili- 
able  partly  to  the  fonnation  of  so  many  banks  with 
numerous  bodies  of  partners,  whictt  tends  to  pre\  ent 
any  company  with  only  a  few  partners,  unless  f  licy  arc 
known  to  possess  considerable  fortunes,  from  getting 
paper  into  circulation ;  partly  to  the  less  risk  utlcud- 
ing  the  business  of  banking  in  Scotland ;  and  partly  to 
the  facility  afforded  by  the  law  of  Scotland  of  nttucl;- 
ing  a  debtor's  piipeiiy,  whether  it  consist  of  land  or 
movables,  and  making  it  available  to  the  payment  of 
his  debts. 

In  the  Report  already  quoted,  tho  lust-mentioned 
topic  is  tonciicd  upon  iis  follows:  'The  general  pro- 
visions of  tho  law  of  .Scotland  bearing  upon  this  sul)- 
jcct  nro  calculated  to  promote  the  solidity  of  lianking 
estuldishments,  by  affording  to  tho  creditor  great  fa- 
cilities of  ascertaining  the  [lecuniary  circumttnnccs  of 
individual  partners,  and  by  making  the  private  fortunes 
of  those  parties  available  for  tho  discharge  of  the  obli- 
gations of  the  bank  \silh  which  they  are  connected. 
There  is  no  limitation  upon  th*  number  of  partners  of 
which  a  banking  company  iii  flcotland  may  consist ; 
and,  excepting  in  the  case  of  the  Bunk  of  Scot  land  and 
tho  two  chartered  lianks,  which  have  very  considera- 
ble capitals,  the  partners  of  all  banking  companies  are 
bound  jointly  and  severally,  so  that  each  partner  Is 
liable,  to  tho  whole  extent  of  his  fortune,  (br  the  whole 
dciits  of  the  company.  A  creditor  in  Scotland  is  em- 
powered to  attach  the  real  and  heritable,  as  well  as  the 
personal  ntuto  of  his  debtor,  for  payment  of  personal 
debts,  among  which  may  Ims  classed  debts  due  by  bills 
And  proniUflury  notes ;  and  recourse  nay  be  had,  (or 
the  purpo,ie  of  procuring  payment,  to  each  description 
of  property  at  the  same  time.  Execution  is  not  con- 
lined  to  th:  real  property  of  a  debtor  merely  du.-iiig  his 
life,  but  pioceeds  with  equal  effect  upon  that  properly 
after  hin  dscense.  The  law  relating  to  the  estn'r)li.ih- 
nient  of  records  gives  ready  means  of  procuHiig  in- 
format'ion  with  respect  to  the  real  and  heritable  cKtnte 
of  which  any  person  in  Scotland  uiay  be  posfsssed. 


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tti 


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Ko  purchase  of  an  ent^de  in  that  country  !a  aecuro  un- 
til the  seizin  (that  is,  the  instrument  certifying  that 
actual  delivery  has  Iwen  ^i  t'en)  is  put  on  record,  nor  is 
any  moHgaift  effectual  until  the  deed  is  in  lilte  man- 
ner recorded.  In  the  case  of  conflicting  pecuniary 
claims  upon  real  property,  the  preference  is  not  regu- 
lated l>y  the  dute  of  the  transaction,  but  bi/  the  date  ofiit 
rtetrd.  These  records  are  accessililo  to  all  persons ; 
ond  tlius  the  public  can  with  eane  ascertain  the  clFcct- 
ive  means  whirh  a  banking  company  possesses  of  dis- 
charfjing  its  oMigations ;  and  the  partnerfi  in  that  com- 
p.'tny  are  «nal)le<l  to  determine,  with  tolerable  accuracy, 
thu  degree  of  ^islc  and  responsibility  to  which  the  pri- 
vate property  of  each  is  exposed." 

Vtpotitt. — As  was  previously  observed,  all  the  Scotch 
banlkS  receive  deposits  of  so  low  a  value  as  £10,  and 
aonii^iines  lower,  und  allow  interest  upon  them.  "The 
intaiest,"  says  the  committee,  "allowed  by  the  bank 
upon  depoiiits  varies,  fVoni  time  to  time,  according  to 
tlie  current  rate  of  interest  which  money  generally 
bears.  In  the  year  182(1  the  interest  allowed  u|X)n  de- 
posits was  4  per  cent.  '  (At  this  moment  [1846]  the 
interest  allowed  on  deposits  is  3  per  cent.)  "It  has 
been  calculated  that  the  aggregate  amount  of  the  sums 
deposited  witii  the  Scotch  Imnks  amounts  to  alout 
.^20,000,000  or  421,000.000."  (It  is  believed  to  be 
no'x  [184(iJ  littlj;  if  any  thing,  under  £28,000,000  or 
£80,000,000.)  "The  precise  accuracy  of  such  an  esti- 
mate can  not,  of  course,  be  relied  on.  The  witness 
by  wliom  it  was  made  thought  that  the  amount  of  de- 
posits could  not  Iw  less  than  £16,000,000,  nor  exceed 
£26,000,000,  and  took  an  intermediate  sum  as  the  prob- 
able amount.  Another  witness,  connected  for  many 
years  with  dilferont  banks  in  Scotland,  and  who  has 
had  experience  of  their  concerns  nt  Stirling,  Edin- 
burgh, Perth,  Alierdcen,  and  Ulasgow,  stated  that 
more  tlian  one  half  of  the  deposits  in  the  banks  with 
which  he  had  !>een  roiiuected  were  in  sums  from  £10 
to  £200.  Being  asked  what  cIobs  of  the  community  it 
is  that  makes  tlie  small  deposit!*,  he  said  the  laboring 
class ;  from  which  it  appear^  that  the  mode  of  conduct- 
ing this  branch  of  thu  banking  business  In  Scotland 
has  long  given  to  that  country  many  of  the  beneflts 
derival)le  ft-om  the  estal)lishment  of  savings  banks. 

The  system  of  cash  credits  has  Ijeen  very  vrell  dc- 
gcrilie<l  in  the  l'.eport  of  the  Lords'  Committee  of  1826 
on  Scotch  nnd  Irish  Uanking.  "There  is  also,"  say 
their  lordsliipa,  "  one  part  of  their  system,  which  is 
stated  by  all  the  witnesses  (and,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
committee,  very  justly  stated)  to  have  had  the  licst 
effecta  upon  the  people  of  Scotland,  and  particularly 
upon  the  middling  and  poorer  classes  of  society,  in  ]n>)- 
diicing  and  encouraging  habita  oi°  iVngulity  and  ik- 
dustry.  The  ptictice  referred  to  is  that  of  cash  cred- 
its. Any  person  who  applies  to  a  bank  for  a  cusli 
credit  is  called  U|K>n  to  produce  two  or  more  competent 
sureties,  who  are  jointly  bound ;  and,  after  a  full  in- 
quiry into  the  character  of  the  applicant,  the  nature 
of  his  business,  and  the  sufticiency  of  his  securities,  he 
is  allowed  to  open  a  credit,  and  to  draw  upon  the  bank 
for  the  whol«  nf  its  amount,  or  for  such  part  as  his 
daily  transactions  may  require.  To  the  crodit  of  the 
account  he  pays  in  ^uch  sums  as  he  may  not  have  oc- 
casion to  use,  und  interest  is  charged  or  credited  upon 
the  daily  lialance,  as  the  case  may  be.  From  the  fa- 
cility wliich  these  cash  credits  give  to  all  the  small 
transactions  of  the  country,  and  from  ti.,.  cpportuni- 
ties  wiiich  they  alTord  to  persons  who  liegin  business 
■srith  little  or  no  capital  but  their  character,  to  employ 
protitabiy  the  minutest  pru<Iucts  uf  tlieir  industry,  it 
can  not  l)e  douljted  that  the  most  important  advantages 
are  derived  to  the  whole  community.  Tlie  advantage 
to  the  bunks  who  give  these  cash  credits  arises  ttom 
the  call  which  they  continually  produce  for  the  issue 
of  their  paper,  and  from  the  opportunity  which  they 
nfTord  for  the  prulitahle  employment  of  part  of  their 
deposits.    The  bualu  are  indoed  so  senslkle  that,  in 


order  to  make  this  part  of  their  business  advantageoiu 
and  secure,  it  is  necessary  that  their  cash  credits  should, 
as  they  express  it,  bo  frequently  operated  upon,  that 
they  refuse  to  continue  them  unless  this  implied  con- 
dition be  fulfilled.  The  total  amount  of  their  cash 
credits  is  stated  by  one  witness  to  be  £5,000,000,  of 
which  the  average  amount  advanced  by  the  banks  may 
be  one-third." 

liecapilulation  nf  Scotch  Hanls.  Stpttmher  1,  1855.— 
The  following  return  shows  the  circulation  of  the 
Scotch  banks,  and  the  average  amount  of  coin  held 
during  the  four  weeks  ending  the  l.st  Septeml»r: 


NuMUdTUIaHnirortli 
ia  Lic«JU«. 

II 
II 

Hi 

Dank  of  Scotland 

£ 

300  WS 
lS3,imo 
4:kS')24 
3V4  oSO 
■.07,024 

415,000 
130,667 

70,133 

154,310 
33,451 
88,fl3« 
.t37,»38 
104,028 
72,921 
68,434 
38,650 
42,033 

£ 
875,134 
195,502 
405,731 
470,407 
336,288 

514,781 
105,773 

100,812 

198,604 
38,122 
as,684 
515,102 
156,023 
213,403 
72,018 
48,!!51 
60,403 

e 

170,814 

03,826 

208,735 

100,613 

80,104 

170,078 
52,048 

46,243 

00,1.54 
11,887 
18,471 

286,464 
82,016 

162,868 
211,659 
18,174 
24.77J 

Royal  Ksnlc  of  Scotland 

UritUb  LInon  Oompany 

Coinmcrclal  Hunk  of  Scotland 

National  Itank  of  ScutlBud. . . 

Union  ISsnk  of  Scotland  and 
Banking  Company  In  Alter- 
deen 

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Bank 
Aberdeen  Town  and  t'ountj* 

iisnking  Company 

North  of  Scotland   Banking 

l^nndee  Bunking  Company  . . 

Eastern  Bank  of  Scotland 

Wvstrrn  Hank  of  Scotland. . . 
Clyduadalc  Banking  Company 

City  of  (jlasgow  Bank 

(.'alcdonlun  Uanking  Company 

I'crth  Banking  Cnnijiany 

Ciuitral  Bank  of  Scotland. .. . 

V.  Inisii  Banks. — "  In  no  country,  perhaps,"  says 
Sir  Henry  Parnell,  "has  the  issuing  of  paper  money 
been  carried  to  such  an  injurious  excess  as  in  Ireland. 
A  national  bank  -was  established  in  1763,  with  similar 
privileges  to  those  of  the  Bank  of  England,  in  respect 
to  the  restriction  of  more  than  six  partners  in  a  bank ; 
and  the  injury  that  Ireland  has  sustained  from  the  re- 
peated failure  of  banks  may  be  mainly  attributed  to 
this  defective  regulation.  Had  the  trade  of  banking 
l)een  left  as  free  in  Ireland  as  it  is  in  Scotland,  the 
want  of  paper  money  that  would  have  arisen  with  the 
progress  of  trade  would,  in  all  probability,  have  been 
supplied  by  joint-stock  companies,  supported  with  large 
capitals,  and  governed  by  wise  and  elfectnal  rules. 

"  In  1797,  when  the  Bank  of  England  susf  ■  '.  d  its 
payments,  the  same  privilege  'h-us  extender  Ire- 
land ;  and  aflt^r  this  period  the  issues  of  the  Bunk  of 
Ireland  were  rapidly  increased.  In  1797,  the  amount 
of  the  notes  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland  in  circulation  was 
£621,917;  in  1810,  £2,266,471;  ond  in  1814,  £2,086,999. 
These  increased  issues  led  to  corresponding  increased 
issues  l.v  the  private  banks,  of  which  the  number  was 
50  in  the  year  1804.  The  consequence  of  this  increase 
of  paper  wi'«  ■•  ^Tfat  depreciation  of  It ;  the  price  of 
bullion  and  guineas  rose  to  10  per  i.ut.  above  the 
mint  price,  and  the  exchange  with  .mdon  became 
as  high  as  18  per  cent.,  the  par  l)eing  81.  This  un- 
favorable exchange  was  afterward  corrected,  not  by 
any  reduction  in  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland, 
but  by  the  depreciation  of  the  British  currency  in  the 
year  1810,  when  the  exchange  between  London  and 
Dublin  settled  again  at  about  par.     The  loss  that  Irc- 

i  Innd  has  sustained  by  the  failure  of  banks  may  be  de- 

i  scrilwd  in  a  few  words.  It  appears  by  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  Irish  Exclianges  in  1804,  that  there 
were  at  that  time  in  Ireland  50  registered  banks. 

{  Since  that  year  a  gri'at  many  more  have  liecn  cstal)- 
lished ;  but  the  vhole  hare  failed,  one  alter  the  other, 

!  involving  the  country  from  time  to  time  in  immense 
distress,  with  the  following  exceptions :  first,  a  few 
that  withdrew  from  business  ;  secondly,  four  banks  in 
I)ul>lin  ;  thirdly,  three  ut  Belfast;  and,  lastly,  one  at 
Mallow,    TheEc  eight  banks,  with  the  New  PtotIii- 


BAN 


199 


BAN 


cial  Bank,  »nd  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  are  the  oo\y 
banka  now  existing  in  Ireland. 

"  In  1821,  In  consequence  of  11  banks  having  failed 
nearly  attlic  same  time  in  'lo  preceding  year  >r  the 
routh  of  Iroliind,  government  succeeded  in  m.^Vin^  an 
arrangenent  with  the  Bank  of  Ireland  by  whi'  I-  joint- 
stock  companii>B  wore  allowed  to  be  establish)  I.  at  a 
distance  of  60  miV.'S  (Irish)  from  Dubiln,  and  thu  Hank 
was  permitted  to  Increase  iU  capit  I  ;C500,000.  The 
act  of  1  &  2  Geo.  4,  c.  72,  was  foui)  .u;(l  on  this  ni'ree- 
nient.  But  nuuisteni  having  omitted  to  repeal  li  this 
act  various  restrictions  on  the  trade  of  banking  'Jut 
had  Ijcen  impost"!  by  38  Geo.  2,  c.  H,  no  new  .  nm- 
piiny  was  formed.  In  1824  a  party  of  merchanis  of 
Belfast,  wishing  to  establls'i'  a  Joint-stock  company, 
p.(  itioi:ed  Parliament  for  the  repciil  of  this  act  of  f '■<:(>. 
k  KiX  :m  act  was  accurdingly  passed  in  that  session 
TXipeaiing  some  of  the  most  objectionable  resttictionn 
r.Ht  (tbr  3  Geo.  4,  c.  73).  In  consequence  of  thi^  act 
titi  Nortiiern  Back  of  Uel.ant  «aa  oi.ivorted  luto  a 
Ifliul-jU'ivc  company,  t^ilh  a  capita]  ui  i50&,00U,  and 
coCTiienoe*!  bnsinei'S  •v  '■!!?  jst  of  .Janu'  r^',  1825.  But 
thii  romu'iiin/i  ivstno'^iTi.  »(  ?"■  Geo.  !,  and  certain 
jirovisionB  i:i)ntain  ii"i  i'  *le  in'i'  »<t8  oC  I  &  2  Geo.  3, 
and  .1  Gfo.  4,  ul.i'Tuctsi'  !.»  c.rof,P:i  <  <  I'ibis  comply, 
and  tbty  fuimd  it  iiecesFury  lo  .pv',"  >^'  i:i>v'S)ini"?it  to 
removt,  fhcta ;  and  li  bil'  v« t  vi.:>nli,ii»' v  uitroduccd 
which  Aiiulii  'mo  reycal'i!  .nii 'I  •  otitio  \ lou.-  clause'? 
of  thi! .%  Geo  ?,  hill  it  noi  bciii  .j  i  Iton-d  iu  Ilic  com- 
mittee 08  to  lo»v«  w  voral  of  ■l.>'i"j  In  force.  Tn  1825 
!h<i  IVovincli)  "tinl.  «f  Ifiluu'l  commenced  b',;»lne«s, 
wi'.;;  a  capital  (.f  i2  OuO.iHK);  lU'd  tha  Bank  of  Ireland 
hrx  of  late  t"  tab!if;bed  litanchc;  ia  uU  the  principal 
tovi'ns  in  Ireland 

"The  liifims  that  havB  boon  sustained  in  Ireland  by 
abusing  the  )>'  ."<  r  of  issuing  [j:)per  have  been  so  great, 
that  much  mon,  in  necessary  'lO  hn  d«me,  by  way  of 
protecting  the  pvUv.:  from  future  loss,  than  tho  meas- 
ure proposed  iu  tl.'.  vnor  182G  by  I'urlianient  for  abol- 
ishing small  notes,  uni  the  raea8ur>  already  ad,ipted 
of  allowing  joint-stock  companies  to  be  cstabli.'^bed  in 
tW  intorior  of  the  country.  As  the  main  source  of  the 
.:  rS!  i-imMHU  in  tlio  interference  uf  tho  law  in  creatiriif 
1  v!^'':ioual  bank  with  exclusive  prkvilpgei<,  the  Arsl 
■i:,.  that  ought  to  be  taken  for  introducing  u  good  sys- 
tem into  Indond  is  the  getting  rid  uf  such  a  luuik, 
and  opening  the  trade  rf  banking  vn  Dublin.  The 
next  ;lK^asure  should  Ira  the  requiring  of  ench  liank  u> 
give  security  for  the  amount  of  paper  that  is  iiisaed ; 
for  aflor  the  ;>xperierce  of  the  ignorance  with  which 
the  Irish  i>anlu  have  conducted  their  business,  and  the 
derangement  of  the  natural  course  of  the  trade  by  the 
long  existence  of  the  Bank  of  Irt'Und,  it  would  be  uii- 
wiar)  to  calculate  upon  a  sound  system  of  banking 
speedily  uupplnntiiig  that  which  has  been  established. 
I'niirr  the  circumstances  in  which  Ireland  is  placed, 
nothing  would  so  much  contribute  to  liijr  rapid  im- 
p^J^'elnent  in  wealth  as  the  introdi'cing  of  thii  Scofch 
plan  of  cosh  credits  and  of  paying  ir.terest  on  depos- 
its. By  cash  credits  the  capital  which  now  exists 
\/onld  i)e  rendered  more  elBcient,  and  the  paying  of 

srcst  on  small  .leposits  would  lead  to  habits  of  econ- 
omy, and  to  the  more  rapid  accumulation  of  new  cap- 
ital. " — Obstrvationt  on  Paper  Monty,  eic,  by  Sir  II KNBY 
Jk>AR.'4ELl^  p.  171-177. 

Thu  capital  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  st  its  establish- 
r;ient  in  1793,  amounttid  to  £600,000,  but.  it  has  been 
iocretsi'd  at.  vai-ious  peri.<dp,  and  i.  ^ince  1S21, 
wnounted  to  X3,000,000.  The  Bank  <  .  md  draws 
on  London  at  10  days'  date.  She  P'"  \  'ants  cash 
credits,  nor  albws  any  interest  on  i..  .;,'....  She  dis- 
counts nt  the  rate  of  6  pur  cent.  In  18%  tho  cur- 
rency of  Ireland  was  assimilated  to  that  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. Previoi'fly  to  that  period  tho  currency  of  the 
foncer  waa  8t  "r  cent,  less  valuable  than  that  of  the 
latter. 

,gtwt>ty>iO<ntk  if  hiUmd,—'tU»  iioponant  eitAb- 


lishment  was,  as  alreadj'  stated,  founded  in  1825.    Its 
<iub8cril)ed  capital  consists  of  £2.000,000,  dtv]<)p(]  Into 
*0,000  shares  of  £100  each,  of  which  2.)  nev  tent.,  or 
£500,000,  has  l)een  paid  up.     Its  hea'i  ctHce  it  in  T  on- 
don ;  and  at  present  if  has  subordl'',<^;.<.  n.0iuo«  !u  Cork, 
Limerick,   Clonmel,    Londonderry.    I^ligo,    W  !x.fo;d, 
Waterford,  Belfast,  Galwa;',  Arms,;'.!,  »'.\i)    .• ,  Cole* 
roine,  Kilkenny,  Ballina,  Tralee,  Yiiii^h»0,  Knniskil- 
len,  Monaghau.  Banbridc'r,  and  Ballym«ni>.     Tr<<  >  Mi 
fire  have  been  iipened  si'u  <  1881.    '.' '     'ntlre  tv.  .•  uge- 
ment  of  '^e  osttblishmei  '.  is  vested  in  the  court  of  di- 
rectors in  Lrn'liii.     The  l<:i?ineBS  of  tlii-  'irunch  bauka 
is  conduct  «d,  I'ltler  tho  cojt<ol  of  the  u:  >id  oflice,  by 
the  manager',  it  iih  the  advice  cr.'  assistance  ui' two  or 
i])ore  gentl"<io:   ...'  respectability  in  the  district,  each 
'  tiulding  10  liltuit^i  III  the  bank.     The  butiiierii  consists 
I  of  discounting  billfi  -,  g-anting  cash  crt'di'..s  after  tho 
I  manner  of  the  S-^otch  l^iuls;  reci.,ing  deposits,  un 
wbl  h  interest,  '  i.ning  (icccriilis  to  •'ircumstiincea, 
I  in  illuwed ;  in  drawing  »';  1  giving  letti-rs  of  credit  <;a 
I  other  places  of  Ireland,  <;roat  i!rit>iin,  etc. ;  and  ' . 
I  other  details  incident  to  '.Hiking.     li  has  hi'\  several 
pretty  severe  runs  to  austiiiii.     In  the  courcf  «.'  a  sin- 
pli.-  week,  in  Octol>cr,  18'28,  aliout  Xl,(HiU.(lO0  in  gold 
I  was  uent  from  England  to  Ireland  on  account  of  the 
I  Provincial  Bank !     This  prompt  iind  ample  supply  ef- 
'  fectually  maintained  the  credit  of  the  establishment, 
'  and  did  raach  to  restore  contidenee. 

The  notes  of  the  Irovincial  iinnk  have  always  been 
payable  at  the  places  where  th?y  are  issued.  The 
Bonk  of  Ireland  began  to  estubli.'ih  branches  in  1625; 
but  the  notes  issued  l>y  her  hraiulies  were  not,  at  first, 
payable  except  at  thu  head  ofl<i'K  in  Dublin.  This 
distinction,  which  teuded  to  ;hiuwi(liu  principal  pres- 
sure of  runs  in  the  oountr)'  on  tli-;  '"rovincia!  Bank 
and  other  private  companies,  was  ulioiished  by  the 
act  9  Geo.  4.  Several  joint-stock  luinks  have  been 
established  in  Ireland  sinre  1826,  especially  in  1886. 
But  the  greatest  of  these,  tl.'e  Agricultural  and  Com- 
mercinl  Bank,  which  had  nee.rly  4090  partners  and  28 
b>'an':hcs,  was  in  no  long  time  obliged  to  suspend  pay- 
ments. Some  of  the  others  have  al«a  Iceii  abandoned. 
There  are  comparatively  few  private  bauke  in  Ireland. 
"  Not  many  years  ago  there  were  upward  of  six  hun- 
dred loan  societies  in  Ireland,  besides  privalc  pawn- 
bri.ikors,  who  abounded  in  every  town  throughout  the 
ki.qgdom.  Two  hundred  were  enrolled  under  6  &  7 
Will.  4,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  ware  under  the 
direction  of  the  Irish  Keproductive  Loan  Fund,  a  b<v 
clety  founded  in  18%  These  various  loan  associa>- 
tions  were  |>roductive  of  very  little  good  to  the  people, 
the  rates  of  interest  charged  to  their  customers  being 
n-sarly  Ruch  as  are  charged  at  ordinary  pawnbrokers' 
cstublJEhmtnts." — Lawoon  on  Banking. 

The  provisions  in  the  act  8  &  9  A'ict.  c.  37,  with  re. 
gard  to  banking  in  Ireland,  do  not  differ  materially 
fVom  those  in  the  preceding  act  reliitiug  to  Scotland. 
The  prohibition  that  formerly  existed  against  joint- 
stock  iianks  carrying  on  business  in  Dublin  or  any 
whet^  within  60  miles  thereof  Is  repealed ;  the  charter 
of  the  Bank  of  Ireland  is  prolonged  >'ill  January,  1855, 
when  it  may  be  dissolved  on  notice  ;  i"-  -s  o:  th^  Bank 
of  El  .gland  are  declared  not  to  lie  le^.n.  1,M'  '»r  in  Ir». 


land ;  and  notes  fi>r  less  than  20i. 

.\T7!miaX  AMOUNT   OF  BANK-NOTIS   I» 
SaVEBAI.    <;bAR'ICBXI>    I:ANKS    OF    U. 

HKLii  ntainu  the  roca  Weeks  div  ' 


.^iM^otiable. 
-.c.'«  or  Tn» 

1»    OF    CfUK 


Ifuns  Mil  TiU*. 


Bank  of  Ireland 

Provtnclal  Bank 

BelfkstUunli 

Northern  l»nk 

Clalrr  Bank 

National  Bank 

t'arrick-un-BuIr  National 

Book 

Clonmel  Nfltlnnal  Bank  . 


'.rr.Ctt 
K-   ■■  i 

f.il.llr 

i4,oai 


.'•tloB. 

Avffrmrt 
Cain  hald. 

« 

»6!I,8S6 
iOi.MO 

«."i.rsT 

■■>■       \ 

.■'.    ,1  > 

S, 

•((Ifl.ltW 
2S4,I34 
'i4«,17T 
Il3,nii9 
li!8,S«5 
C2.|,46T 

T,«SO 
18,176 

,.v,-!Atia;c!,..«;ii. 


BAN 


121 


BAN 


A  I-iOT  or  nn  Joiiit-«toox  Baickimo  CoHrAints  or  Iulamd  in  1846,  BrioirTiHO  tiik  Oath  or  nuii  Estauliuimkhi, 
Till  NvMKn  or  Toiim  Pabtkom,  nil  Ahovht  or  Tuxm  VAiii-t'i-  C'AriTAL,  tiik  Sitvatiojc  or  thrib  IIeaii  Urricxe,  ahd 
oTTUBin  Ubanciw,  wimH  Tim  uatb  aut,  witii  Till  riXKi>  Imub  or  TiioaB  authobi/.ku  to  isavB  Noteh. 


land. 
Lhun- 


tland. 
joint- 
r  any 
larter 
1«65, 
Banic 
n  Ire- 
ible. 

|r  Tn> 

Coin 


Bank*. 

WhM  MUblUiad. 

NumlMi  o( 
PwMni, 

Fald-un 
rayllal. 

Amuuiil  of  fllid 
l«u. 

llauk  of  Ireland' 

178B 

Dec,  1827 

June,  1826 

184S 

S4.;an.,  1836 

May,   1880 

May,  1880 

1  Jan.,  1826 

8<pt,  1826 

Bcpt, IRtS 

188S 

April,  1880 

268 

420 

87T 

ITD 
8B1 

480 

4^ 

iUI,UUU,VOU 
12^000 
260,000 
100,000 
460,000 

160^000 

600,000 

Nsw  Hharea, 

40,000 

200,060 

200,000 
Total. . . . 

i;a,7iw,428 

281,011 

No  IMUO. 

No  ItMue. 

781,767 

00,428 

24,084 

243,440 

027,007 

No  laaiie. 
811,070 

IlilM-'niUn  liftiik,  Dublin* 

London  and  l>iiblin  liunk* . .  •  • 

National  llauk  of  Ireland* 

**              »»             Clonmel* 

*'              "              U8rrlck-on.8ulr» 

Northern  Banking  Compunr,  Bulfiut* 

ProrlnoialUankoflreUndT 

Ulater  UanUng  Uompany,  Ilvl£iit» 

. .  i;«,llM,4M 

>  Head  Offlee,  Dublin  t  Dranchcs,  Armagh,  BalUnasloc,  Belfant,  Carlow,  (^Itinmcl,  Cork,  Droglu'da,  Dublin,  Dundalk,  Oal- 
vay,  Kilkenny,  I.imcrick,  Lonilondorry,  Longford,  Mountmolllok,  Now  Kois,  Nuwry,  8llgo,  Traleo,  Tullamoro,  Waterford, 
VeHtuort,  Wjxford,  and  Youghal. 

3  llrad  Offlre,  Ueiraat ;  Ilrtincliei,  Armagh,  Dallymona,  Ballymoney,  Coloraino,  Cookalown,  Dcrrv,  Duneannon,  Lame, 
Lvilcrkonny,  Magheraiult,  Honagfaan,  NewtownUmavady,  Newtownanls,  Portadown,  gtrabanc,  Tandragcc,  Dublin,  Nevry, 
•nd  Cutlebl-<ney. 

'  Head  ufflcc,  Dublin ;  Branch,  DrogfaadA. 

«  Head  OkSce,  London ;  Brauchea,  Dublin,  Dundalk,  Wieklow,  Hullingar,  Kella,  Fanonatown,  Garriok-on-Shannon,  Cw 
rickniacross,  Atliy,  and  KIntale. 

•  lioBd  OlBco,  Ltindon,  Hranohci,  Dublin,  Athlone,  BalHna,  BalllnaiOo*,  Boyip,  Catrlrk-on-Sulr,  Caahcl,  Cnatlcrcn,  Charie- 
Tillt',  Clonmol,  < -lonakilty,  Cork,  Dungarvan,  Knnls,  Eunlacortliy,  Funnoy,  (iaiway,  Kantiirk,  Kllkunny.  Klllnmey,  Kilniih, 
MIddli'tun,  Limerick,  Longford,  Loughrea,  Mallov,  Mltchelatown,  Muntu,  Noiiugli,  New  Koiw,  ICathkeale,  lios<uumiun,  Kos- 
«rua,  HklUwreen,  Tallow,  Tliurlcn,  TIpiKraTy,  Tralee,  Tuam,  Waterford,  Wcotport,  and  Wexford. 

•  Head  Office,  Belfast :  BninchcH,  Amia^th,  Ballymcna,  Colerainc,  Clones,  Canickfergua,  Downpt  trick,  Lonilondcrry,  Lnr- 
gan,  Llnbum,  Maghdrofelt,  and  NowtownllnuTady. 

'  Head  Office,  Loudon:  Branches,  Dublin,  Armagh,  Athlone,  Ilalllna,  Unllymena,  BaUyshannon,  Ilanbridgc,  Baadon, 
Belfast,  Carlow,  Caviii,  Clonmol,  Coloralne,  Cork,  Cootehlll,  Downputrlck,  l)r(';:hu(la,  Dundalk,  Duii^uunon,  liuugur^'an, 
Knnis,  Hnntacorthy,  Knnlsklllen,  Kemiov,  Uulway,  Kilkenny,  Kllnmli,  I.lmeiick,  l.ondondcrry,  MaUuw,  Mouagliuu,  Newry, 
Omagli,  I'araouBtuwn,  Bllgo,  8trabane,  BUbbereen,  Tralee,  Waterford,  Wexford,  and  Youghal. 

«  Dublin. 
.•  Head  Office,  Clonmel ;  Branches,  Atliy,  Carlow,  Carrlck-on-SuIr,  Nenagh,  Boscrea,  Thurlet,  Thomastown,  and  Tlpperary. 

<°  Head  Office,  Belfast:  Branches,  Armagh,  Antrim,  Ballymoney,  Hallymcna,  Banbridge,  Cootchill,  Cvol^stnwn,  Down- 
patrtck,  Eanbdcillen,  Londonderry,  Lurgan,  Monaghan,  Portadown,  and  Omagh. 


VI.  FoKEiON  Bankh. — ^To  attempt  givinf;  an}'  de-  ] 
tailed  account  of  the  principal  foreign  banks  would 
very  far  exceed  our  limits ;  we  shall,  therefore,  only 
notice  a  few  of  tho  more  celebrated. 

The  Bank  of  Venice  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
banking  estaklUhment  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  so 
early  as  1171,  and  subsisted  till  the  subversion  of  tho 
republic  in  1797.  It  was  essentially  a  deposit  bank, 
and  its  bills  bore  at  all  times  a  premium  or  affh  over 
the  current  money  of  tho  city. 

The  Bank  of  AtMerdam  was  established  in  1659. 
It  was  a  deposit  bank,  and  payments  were  made  by 
writing  off  sums  from  the  account  of  one  individual  to 
those  of  another.  Accor  :  ''ig  to  lio  principles  on  which 
the  bani:  w:  o  established,  it  should  have  had  at  all 
tlmos  l:i  Its  coflTcrs  bullion  equal  to  the  full  amount  of 
the  claims  upon  it.  But  tho  directors  privately  lent 
about  10,600,000  florins  to  the  States  of  Holland  and 
Friesland.  This  circumstance  transpired  when  the 
French  invaded  Holland,  and  caused  the  ruin  of  the 
bank. 

Tho  Bank  of  the  ffetherhndu  was  established  in  161  i. 
It  is  formed  on  the  model  of  ths  Bank  of  Kngland,  and 
has  the  exclusive  privilege  of  isE'ting  (lOt  -i.  The  orig- 
>nal  capital  of  b,Zii  ^('  fli  irs  was  donbi  4  in  18!;). 
The  king  ho!,;^  nn^  '.'  iithot'.i,;?  T!ic  affairs  of 
tho  bank  are  D">i»,,c  J  oy  a  pre8io>.„t,  serrctary,  and 
five  director  are  chosen  every  si>.   .".-"ths,  but 

,  ,  ;}•  be  in  ;.  ..ily  ra-electcd.  This  bunk  tii«connts 
bills  of  exv  Hugo  :vith  three  ri^po:>8ible  signatures;  it 
takes  couti^i'ialjons  on  stock,  and  sometimes  icnds  on 
bullion  at  ai'ch  a  rato  of  'nterest  and  to  such  <tn  oxteni 
as  may  be  agreed  upon.  It  occasionally,  also,  mak>.'j 
loans  on  inerchaDdise,  but  iierer  at  less  than  6  per 
cent.  Its  notes  vary  fVom  1000  florins  to  25  florins; 
that  is.  from  XS."  J  to  .<  i  i-12.  The  dividends  have  va- 
ried from  8  to  7  per  cent.  The  shares  are  each  lllOU 
florins.  The  responsibility  of  the  sha<%holders  is  lim- 
ited to  tho  amount  of  their  etock.  Its  original  charter, 
which  was  United  t"  ?'•  y  tte,  was  prolonged,  in  1838, 
for  25  years  more. 

Thu  Bank  of  II,     u:^  '.a  i'  ipo4t  bank,  and  its  af- 


fairs are  managed  according  to  a  system  that  insures 
the  fullest  publicity.  It  receives  no  dcponits  in  coin, 
but  only  in  bullion  of  a  certain  degree  of  liucncss.  It 
charges  itself  with  thu  bullion  at  the  rate  of  4-12  shil- 
Ungg  tho  mark,  and  issues  it  at  tho  rate  of  441  shil- 
lings, being  a  charge  of  four-ninths,  or  nearly  one-half 
per  cent.,  for  its  retention.  It  advances  money  on  jew- 
els to  three-fourths  of  their  value.  The  city  is  answer- 
able for  all  pledges  deposited  with  the  bank ;  they  may 
bo  sold  by  auction,  if  they  remain  1  year  and  6  weeks 
without  any  interest  being  paid.  If  the  value  bo  not 
claimed  within  three  years,  it  is  forfeited  to  the  poor. 
Tho  Bank  of  Hamburg  is  universally  admitted  to  be 
one  of  the  best  managed  in  £uropo. 

France. — The  ISank  tf  France  was  founded  in  1803. 
The  exclusive  privilege  of  issuing  notes  jiayablo  to 
bearer  was  granted  to  it  for  forty  years,  and  was  con- 
tinued, by  a  law  passed  in  1840  (confirmed  in  1852),  till 
18C7.  This  law  was  preceded  by  a  very  able  Report, 
drawn  up  by  M.  Oufauro,  In  which,  among  other  ques- 
tions, tho  policy  of  having  only  one  bank  of  issue  in 
Paris  is  examined,  and  decided  in  the  aflirmative.  The 
capital  of  tho  Bank  consisted  at  first  of  45,000,000  fr. ; 
but  it  was  subsequently  increased  to  00,000,000  fr.,  di- 
vided into  90,000  shares  or  actions  of  1000  fr.  each.  Of 
thrse  shares,  07,900  passed  into  the  hands  of  tho  pub> 
lie;  22,000,  having  been  purchased  up  by  the  bank  out 
of  tho  surplus  profits,  were  subj>equcntly  canceled; 
henci-  the  i.pital  of  the  bank  consists],  pvoviuusly  to 
tho  1.  .olutioii  of  1848,  of  07,900,000  fr.  (£2,710,000), 
exolu..vc  of  a  riscrve  fund  ot  *0,000,0(K)  fr.,  since  in- 
creased io  12,980  750  fr.  But  notwithstanding  tho 
laudable  skill  and  caution  with  which  her  afl'uirs  were 
conducted,  the  bank  could  not  avoid  suspending  pay- 
ment under  a  decree  of  the  Provisional  Uovcrnnient  of 
the  lOtli  Marct.,  1848,  to  which  and  to  the  city  of  Par- 
Is  she  had  to  make  large  advances.  To  gel  some  limit 
to  tho  abuses  that  might  have  taken  place  under  the 
suspeniii'in,  the  maximum  ':ircuiation  of  the  Bank  was 
fixed,  by  the  decree  now  referred  lo,  a:  S.'iO, 000,00?  ft'. ; 
while,  lu  the  'aw  of  supplying  a  currency  suifc'  to 
thb  smalior  clfss  of  payments,  nhi^  wits  pcrmitteu  to  re- 


BJOt 


m 


BAN 


duM  th«  dcnomln«tl«n  oTmU*  in  cbnhMm  tfom  000 
to  100  franca.  At  tb*  Miiw  ti*M,  or  toun  tfUf,  IIm  (I«- 
partmanul  l)»nki,  or  bookt  wbifb  b«4  Immi  MtoMlab*(l 
Id  (ome  of  the  prlnclnsl  pruvltKial  I«wn«,  w«r«  <!Oflt)o1< 
idatad  with  aiid  mad*  l>ran«lw»  of  llw  llanli  nf  Kraiien, 

Bank  qf  franoi.—Ki  •  lata  iii««tiNK  id  l\n  •tiara- 
holders  of  tbla  aitablUbmaiit,  ('uuiit  Ait  H»ruifiif.  th« 
governor,  read  t  ruport  of  IfM  0|Mr«(l<w«  ((f  IIm  imnk 
during  the  year  ltJ6M,  of  wlitcb  tb«  follMMioK  u»  th« 
prinsipal  point* : 

The  account  liegloa  by  ineiitlouiMK  <b«  «««e|Mt«na) 
•rrangemeiit  which  lookplac*  wltb  rotfard  Ui  itxi  liMida 
of  the  railway  cuinp«nl«i.  At  tb«  aiMl  wf  Wi"  o^lil  of 
those  bodies  liaving  to  iasuo  Iwrnts  lo  prwitire  a  capital 
of  216i  millions  of  fraiios,  appliad,  both  in  tlmlr  own 
interest  and  in  that  of  tlie  pulili<!  I'radit,  (dt  IImt  open' 
Ing  of  an  account  at  tlui  bank,  In  wrdar  ibM  (Imi/  tniKlit 
not  be  compelled  to  press  tb«  rxKuliation  of  thslr  •ocU' 
rities  in  the  market.  Tlia  cum  tlibis  fit  (|M«itl'rn  were 
the  Orleaiia,  Hediterraoeaii,  ^  >.sl«m,  Oauphloi,  Ar- 
dennes, Stra.ibouri;,  Suutlierii,  and  (itim¥»,  'tUi  <mnk 
having  acceded  tu  tills  re<|ii<t»l,  and  tbll<  Mr-ured  U) 
those  undertakings,  at  the  i!omii|*iic«in«n(  iif  WtH,  the 
resources  of  which  tbay  stood  iu  immi,  tlm  sale  of 
tlieir  bonds  commcucad,  Wtd  <H7,7M  wttH  dt«pos«id  of 
St  an  aversge  price  of  STOf,  Wo.,  (ir'NiifiniK  «  sum  of 
170,874,075r.  6Uu.  On  tli*  6tb  of  July  tli«>a  sUlt  re- 
mained  271,000  bonds  to  bo  M«i{otUl«d,  or  f/(l(l«r  more 
than  one-third  of  the  iwue  autburi4wl  fur  |«i;>N,  A  sub- 
acription  was  opsned  from  tlw  6(b  to  (b«  lOtb  of  July 
at  the  central  and  branch  baiikii,  and  iIm  nam\mt  *«lb- 
scribed  for  was  98li,t*87,  or  (br>!«  and  a  half  tlinrs  as 
many  as  remained  to  b«  Issiiad.  Tbo  ««K'^rn««s  of  <h« 
subscribers  to  pay  by  auliefpatbin  was  ««tf«ordlnar/. 
On  the  Slstof  August,  one  iiM.'iUb  b«f»rii  tb(<  mvanA  )n- 
aUlIment  was  due,  &2,7ia,0<iO  fraiiiM,  out  ilf  Vf,<m,(m, 
were  paid  in  j  and  on  (Ii«  Will  (>(  H«|rt<iwil/ef,  two 
months  l>efore  the  dsta  of  tli«  t««t  lostallriHinl,  brss  than 
14,000,000  francs  remained  uiipsld.  C'/r  ih«  rfi.<itl£*- 
tion  of  the  whole  capltui  th«  bank  bifl  Ui  takA  )>rnc««d- 
Ings  only  in  23  cases,  in  which  lbs  prbi«'lpal»  wero  ei- 
ther absent  or  had  died,  aii'l  repr«s«iitlNi(  UinHhut  not 
noro  than  233  Ijonds.  On  tlia  1st  lit  IhHmmtmf,  Udl, 
the  average  prico  of  the  bonds  of  i\m  «ff(tit  rmnpanies 
wa«  265f.  18c. ;  tbs  avoraij*  r»la  at  wnirh  itiey  were 
sold,  either  by  the  bank  direct  or  by  imlmtlMUm,  was 
274f.  60c.,  thus  realizing  to  tin-  »oiflp«Hl#s,  for  »tfr;//a6 
bonds,  a  plus  value  of  8,'.'99,7'«0f,  V)i',  't  bus  IIm  ngftl- 
cy  of  the  bank,  without  coniproiMlsliig  any  ui  t  l(.j  lin*f- 
ests  confided  to  it,  was  useful  hi  all  parties. 

The  document  then  goos  on  (o  giro  sn  a««oun(  of  Its 
ordinary  operations ; 

"  The  aliundanoe  of  spacfa  allownd  Ibn  (>aiiV  to  re- 
duce its  rate  of  dlicouot.    At  l\m  b«/(innfn|t(  of  iHtm 

-niam — 
WijitiU.fntt 

«<iT,M<iO«» 
irt«,«.(,09f; 
4M,«I2,0M) 

Mi,wi,oon 
mtjmfim 


th«  rata  waa  five  par  cent.,  but  waa  gradually,  bnd  at 
sucoessire  periods,  lowered  to  three  per  eent.,  at  which 
It  now  stands.  The  general  operations  of  the  cstab- 
llafament  bad,  in  18A7,  attained  the  enormous  sum  of 
n,Ofl<'>,000,0UO  francs.  In  1868  the  amount  was  less, 
bat  had  sDII  reached  the  toUl  of  6,218,900,000  (Vanes. 
—(iAUanMit'H  Meutnger. 

The  operations  of  the  liank  of  France  for  tho  post 
ten  years  show  a  vastly  augmented  commerce  throuKli- 
ont  the  emplri),  greater  activity  in  hor  manufacturing 
system,  and  enlarged  wealth  among  the  people.  The 
emperor  alludes  to  tills  in  tho  o|>eniiig  of  his  speech  of 
the  7th  February :  "  Franco  has,  as  you  are  awaro, 
daring  the  last  ilx  years,  aeen  her  welfare  siugincnt, 
her  riches  Increasr,"  etc.  So  far  as  these  changes  are 
Indicated  and  conflrmed  by  the  movements  of  tho  Bank 
of  Franca,  there  can  bo  no  doubt  of  renewed  prosperity 
tbroughoat  the  empire.  Tho  bank  was  allowed,  in 
IHOft-'t',  to  double  her  capital,  or  fi-om  01,250,000 
francs  to  182,500,000  francs.  Upon  this  capital,  equiv- 
alent to  |l!iri,n00,000,  the  bank  has  added  largely  to  ita 
individual  deposits  (say  26  per  cent.)  since  May,  1850. 
The  clrcnlatKm  Is  equivalent  to  |14C,0(:3,000,  and  tho 
specii;  on  hand  about  (104,000,000,  considerably  mora 
than  all  held  by  all  the  banks  in  the  UuiUd  States. 
In  order  to  show  this  progresaivo  movement,  wo  add  a 
condensed  view  oi'tlio  liabilities  and  assets  at  three  pe- 
riods, viz.  1  May,  IHbC  (before  the  new  capital  was  an- 
thorlsed) ;  February,  1858 ;  and  Ist  February,  1859 : 


l.labllltln. 

Majr,  ISU. 

ra\i.,  IMS. 

F.b.,  I«i8"n 

CsplUI 

Franfi. 
01,26  1,000 

O2d,m,ooo 

106,714,000 

»0,UOO,000 

10,080,000 

3i,606,0fl0 

1,066,173,000 

4';<,730,000 
108,816,000 

f>4,91 0,000 

100,1)00,000 

06,171,000 

250,340,000 

17,701,000 

1,056,173,000 

F/aoe*. 

OKvW.flOO 
91,260,iH)0 
672,701,000 
140,010,000 
78,036,000 
20,108,00., 
23,802,000 

FraiMi. 
91,260,000 
01,259,000 
T30,Sfl  1,000 
204,070,000 
06,894,000 
27,010,000 
16,122,000 

(;a|illal,  new 

(Mroiilittlon 

Drpoalls 

Hue  Treasury  — 

Reaerre  

M  laeellMncoua 

Total 

AmU. 

l^ommereUI  bills.. 
f.oa(i8  on  public) 

SccirlllnB / 

f/)snfl  on  ralKra/K 

Loan  to  State 

Stock  voaorrcd.... 
^penlfl  on  hand  . . . 

.Miacellaneous 

Total 

1,029,78^,000 

473,000,000 

81,805,0W 

02,V«),006 
60,000,000 
06,171,000 
2S2,SB3,000 
04,690,000 

1,'^88,603,000 

483,020,000 

89,728,000 

110,70,^,000 
46,000,000 
08,178,000 

524,'i71,00(l 

17,W,flOfl 

l,029,r5»,003 

l,28f ,  8!l,0mj 

rp  to  1857,  tho  smallest  denomination  of  notes  issued 
by  the  Bank  of  Franco  was  one  hundred  frai.cs.  In 
that  year  bills  of  fifty  I'rancs  were  authnrizcd.  Tho 
circulation  is  more  largely  in  1000  franc  bills  than  in 
any  other — a  marked  contrast  with  tho  condition  of 
bank  Issues  in  tlie  United  States.  The  circulation  in 
1860  was  of  tho  following  denominations : 


NolAtof 

MS  rraaa. 


72,000,000 
<g,.'!30,000 
«9, 174,000 
«0,l(«,000 
e«,069,000 
M,')03,000 
70,7(17,000 
72,744,000 
02,964,000 


NotMof 
SOOrrain. 

4ii.  ■'.O'lO 
6.,.,iS/i(X) 
M),WO,000 
84,008,000 
71,707,')OO 
79,221,000 
74,747,000 
71l,70«,000 


7i,0(KI,0()0 
42,422,000 
40,032,000 
00,781,000 
78,107,000 
e2,9S8,000 
76,803,000 
80,410,000 

Mi,nT,ooo 


409,120,000 
43I,0'.'2,II0C. 
4'<1,VJ-.',I'()0 
6S!l,<Hn,0(lO 
080,010,000 
&44,28'),<IO0 

ojn,!)7o,(ioo 

012,2,17,01)0 
012,832,000 


TABOT-iB  RTATWnrr  anowrao  w»  V.ninutu  tu  ttn  »*■■  o»  Fbanob  fbou  ISiO  lo  ISBO,  moirsivc 


Yiaa. 


1840 
1847 
1848 
1819 
18V) 
1861 
186j 

i«r>3 
I  DM 

1866 
18M 


Aistivit  vf 


),ta«,««i|4»<« 
Uitf>.m,m 

»,«4I,«»«J«*» 


Rajm. 

4,««o,om 

1t,tWl,0llO 

i2,'/r,o,oo« 

t»«,M7,00l> 

il)OfKI,WiO 


SUtm. 

FraoH. 

94,282,000 
109,000,000 
S48,(M,000 
429,970,000 
440,840,000 
480,400,000 
484,974,000 
119,482,000 
199,728,  "00 
100,000,000 


Tmal. 

Fraati. 

10t,llS2,i>00 
lfl»,6!X»,000 
2oO,  300,000 

4s:;,870,ooo 

468,820,0f)0 
609,720,000 
603,910,000 
823,080,000 
392,001,000 
I!l9,rxi(),(j00 
190,000,000 


iwr  Shaw.    I 
Fraaci. 

1?? 
76 
10* 
101 
105 
118 
164 
1V4 
200 
971 


igliQjl  friet 
fUWrt. 

eooii 
3:10 
WW 

24'. 

2060 
3108 
2960 
.1000 
3800 
40T5 


BAN 

ijAMLiTin  Ann  Rnocitcn  or  nn  Bark  or  Fsinci  fob 

HKPTUIIIU  AMD  UUTUIUB,  18IMI. 


i  issued 
|i:a.  In 
TIi« 
khan  in 
Ition  of 
\iio\i  in 


gtrr 


LUbUUta. 

(M.,  IIM. 

■•pi.,  IIM. 

rnm». 

Vraao. 

Capital  of  Ihi!  n«nk 

ei,8eu,ooi) 

01,260,000 

RemrvR  uf  t)in  Bank 

11),980,T6.) 

12,080,760 

Iht,  in  lAQilrd  prupurty 

4,00O,0W) 

4,000.000 

Itank-noli't  In  clraiilatlon 

6Sl,aTB,lMt 

548,602,200 

Do.  of  thi>  braiirh  bunki 

W,I20,7(M 

77,024,400 

Itank-notf  B  to  nrdnr 

4,ST8,2M 

4,428,624 

KacfilptH  ptiynbln  at  sight 

a,Ml,»3 

^0a8,888 

Truanury  account  current 

101,4ll,UT 

118,818,802 

auP'iry  accoHiUa  currunt 

Do.  with  Iho  lininch  banka. . . , 

119,6a5,T(U 

llKI,oa8,2tie 

ita,ST9,04r 

2^475,4(a 

DlvldcndR  )>Hynblo 

810,481 

1,141,906 

DiiaounlB  and  sundry  Interests 

11,MT,8I>B 

7,480,220 

Ue-dlscount  th«  last  six  montha 

l,(M9,Wa 

1,«29,9«3 

I*roli)ated  bills 

88,860 
«,TB8,M3 

15,869 
6,«74,12S 

Sundries 

Total 

1,003, 170,«M 

9»8,4'a,918 

ASMlS. 

Cash  In  hand 

TT,0«2,910 
89,4OT,0S« 

118,120,401 

Cash  In  tho  branch  banks 

122,676,000 

Commercial  bills  overdue 

00fi,«81 

2,111,194 

Ullla  discounted,  not  yet  due . . 

2TI,0fiS,4M 

221,808,498 

Do,  In  thu  branch  banks 

Jt3»,08S,60'i 

217,829,820 

Advanced  on  deponit  of  bullloa 

0,720,900 

1,749,400 

Do.  by  thu  brunch  banks 

8,T«,9TB 

«,S28,475 

Advanced  on  public  aecurltles . 

T«,02T,93< 

78,420,886 

Do,  by  tlic  branch  banks 

11,914,980 

11,876,100 

Advanced  on  railroad  mtcurittes 

88,000,000 

88,273,100 

Do,  by  the  braooh  banks 

17,211,100 

17,180,900 

Advanced  to  the  State  on  agree- 

ment ufJinieSO,  1S4S 

t»,000,000 

66,n()0,000 

Discount  of  Treasury  lionds. . , 

40,000,000 

40,000,000 

Government  stock  rvscrved  . . . 

12,980,761) 

12,1180,760 

Do,  disposabio 

62,100,046 

62,29^,796 

Hotel  and  furniture  of  Bank. . . 

4,000,000 

4,001>,000 

Landed    property    of    bisnch 

banks  

5,260,406 

4,908  807 

Expenses  of  management 

1,1S8,68J 

823,634 

Premium  on  gold  and  silver. . . 

2,128.694 

1,496,318 

Bundrlea 

84,661 

7^347 

Total 

1,002,170,644 

098,468,018  1 

Bsnka  have  also  been  established  in  Berlin,  Copen- 
baKun,  Vienna,  and  Peteraburg.  Those  who  wish  for 
detailed  information  with  respect  to  theso  establish- 
ments may  consult  the  4th  vol.  of  the  Cotiri  cTEcono- 
mie  Politique  of  M.  Storck,  which  contains  a  good  ac- 
count of  the  paper  money  of  tho  diflerent  Continentiil 
Btatca  down  to  1823.  We  also  refer  to  other  portions 
of  this  article ;  but  in  the  mean  time  we  lay  before  oni- 
readers  the  followiu^  details  with  re.^pect  to  the  Com- 
mercial Bank  of  Russia,  established  in  1818 : 

This  bank  receives  deposits  in  gold  and  silver,  for- 
eign as  well  OS  Russian  coin  and  in  bars  and  ingots. 
It  has  a  department  for  transferring  the  sums  deposit- 
ed with  it,  on  the  plan  of  tho  Hamburg  Bank.  It 
discounts  bills,  and  lends  money  on  deposits  of  mer- 
chandise of  Russian  produce  or  origin.  Its  capital  con- 
sists of  8,571,429  silver  rubles.  It  is  administered  by 
a  governor  and  four  directors,  appointed  by  govern- 
ment ;  and  font  directors,  elected  by  tho  commercial 
body  of  Petersburg,  The  property  in  the  bank  Is  pro- 
tected against  all  ta.xation,  sequestration,  or  attach- 
ment; and  it  is  enacted  that  subjects  of  countries  with 
which  Russia  may  be  at  war  shall  be  entitled  at  all 
times  to  receive  back  their  deposits  without  any  reser- 
vation. It  is  also  declare!  that  at  no  time  shall  the 
bank  bo  called  upon  '.at  i.:iy  part  of  its  capital  to  assist 
the  govcrniueut.  All  deposits  must  bo  made  for  6 
months  at  least,  and  be  repayable  at  or  before  that  pe- 
riod, and  not  be  less  than  500  ...  '  '  rubkn:  sums  so 
deposited  to  pay  i  per  cent.  Th"  - .  nosits,  if  in  bars, 
ingots,  or  foreign  specie,  arvi  u-'ii!  id  i;  Russian  sil- 
ver coin,  and  so  registered:  m  t'  '  atLotatiou  ;  and  if 
not  demanded  back  witnin  15  utiys  of  tho  expiration 
1 1  hs,  or  the  necessary  premium  paid  tor  the  pro- 
^.ongittK.  I,  the  owner  loses  tho  right  of  (.iaiming  his 
original  deposit,  and  must  take  Its  estimated  value  in 
Russian  silver  coin.  No  bill!)  rre  discounted  that  have 
less  than  8  days  or  mor»  ...a  •"  lonths  to  run.  Tho 
rate  of  discount  is  0  per  cent.  ''  I'ltuc^t  is  allowed 
on  money  deposited  In  the  banV  "•'  ■,>  notice  be  given 
that  it  will  lie  allow  1  to  lie  f  -  •  '-'.ar,  ond  3  months' 
notice  bo  given  of  th<>  intention  t'  drow  it  out,  when 


BAM 

H>  per  cent.  Interest  Is  allowed.  Tho  bank  has  hnnch- 
es  at  Archangel,  Moscow,  Odesaa,  Riga,  Ac. 

By  means  of  lla  capital  and  deposit*,  which  In  INilO 
amounted  together  to  ll)l,Wtl,H)IU  sliver  rubles,  th« 
bank  emctad  in  that  year  the  followlnK  operations  i 

lluttUf,    Cop, 

1.  Repaymenla  on  deposits  In  tnuisAr M,«<M),  101  46 

2.  Tranafan  from  on*  city  Ui  Miother IO,«tM,8IN  M 

!).  Drafts  pnrchased ,, , , ,    11,0112,(161  M 

4.  iiepaynieut  of  dcp<i<lt>  at  Intoreat. ,,..,..,  lll,Kn,77(  91 

6.  Discount  of  bills  of  exchange 17,1ITM1  T 

6.  Advances  nn  deponlbi  of  nierehandlie l,n4'l,M4  M 

7.  Advances  on  the  notes  of  oilier  iMIiks 660,1101  1( 

8.  Discount  ol  noUis  of  the  I^iinbard 1,928,671  it 

9.  Advanced  on  flxed  property  by  branch  at 

Kle« :...'. 1T4.0TO    SO 

The  net  profit  during  tho  same  year  amounted  to 
060,601  silver  rubles,  and  the  r«*frve  capital  uf  tho 
bank  was  then  also  1,379,071  sitvnr  rublc«,~^<c  Hup- 
pleinent  to  the  Journal  d«  St.  Pcttribourg  fur  1880,  p. 
87. 

'  Banh  of  Germany  .—The  BanV  Royal  of  Prussia  was 
founded  at  Berlin  lu  1766,  upon  the  tniHlel  of  that  of 
Hamburg.  So  It  existed  until  IHIA,  when  It  was  ro> 
organized  under  a  now  charter,  by  which  more  (fxten> 
sion  was  given  to  its  operations.  In  accordanco  with 
this  new  constitution,  which  has  bren  in  force  since  the 
1st  of  January,  1847,  the  issue  uf  notes  has  tieen  carried 
to  fifteen  millions  of  thalers  (the  thaler  er^iial  to  2«.  1  UfJ, 
sterling).  In  1860  this  issue  was  raised  to  ttvetity* 
one  millions  of  thaler*.  The  capital  of  the  b  ink  Is  tX- 
■vvjti  to  be  in  proportion  with  tho  notes  In  circulation, 
two-sixths  in  silver,  three-sixths  In  bill*  discounted, 
and  the  rest  in  loans  on  securl''!*,  The  bank-notes 
are  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  thalers  each,  Thu  shar* 
of  the  government  'i  "le  bank  amounts,  at  most,  to 
600,000  thalers.  1  ,•.•  shurehulders  are  entitled  %o  an 
annual  interest  of  S}  per  cent,  upon  the  eanltal,  and, 
after  deduction  of  tlin  sum  Bet,ap»rt  for  klir  lesnrvn  or 
rest,  which  is  not  to  exceed  30  per  cent,  of  fhn  capital, 
one  moiety  of  the  sur|i'i  >  profits  Is  apportioned  to  thftn 
in  addition,  and  the  otlier  goes  to  tho  treasury,  The 
bank  has  branches  in  a  great  number  of  (Htles,  a«  Brns- 
lau,  KOnigsber?.  I>iintzie,  Htettln,  Magdelm/g,  Mun< 
ster, Cologne,  Men  il,  Poson,  Htoipe,  Klberfnld, '1  revcs, 
Aix-la-Chapellt.',  Uusseldorf,  Coblenf  z,  MInden,  Krfurt, 
Frunkfort-sur-Oder,  Stralsund,  iuisilti,  I.ingnitz,  and 
Oppcln,  and  thus  forms  a  vast  network  of  financial  op* 
erations  through  all  the  kingdom. 

Tho  private  bank  of  the  n''lil('ase  of  Pomerania  was 
founded  at  Steltin,  in  1821,  by  an  association  of  noble 
proprietors,  with  a  capital  of  1,000,000  tlialera,  After 
tho  crisis  of  1830,  this  capital  was  carried  to  i,6i'l't,600 
thalers.  The  operations  of  this  bank  embrace  discount , 
loans  upon  lodgments  of  merchandise,  loans  upon  pulf- 
lilt  and  private  securities,  current  accounts,  and  d<i« 
posits  with  interest.  Fonncrly,  It  Issued  promissory 
notes  to  bearer ;  but  this  privilugu  was  withilrawn  from 
It  in  1835.  There  is  a  circulation  of  about  ninety  mlll- 
ionit  of  thalers  of  mortgaire  notes  In  Prussia  (tlivso  are, 
in  fact,  for  one  hundred  and  five  niillions).  They  hava 
been  issued,  at  dlflisrent  periods,  by  associations  of  pro- 
prieiiry  nobles  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and 
carry  interest  at  'i\  per  cent. 

TIf  V  itional  Bank  of  Vienna  was  founded  In  1816, 
to  ro-ei'Ublisb  order  in  the  financi  !  of  Austria,  and 
more  pnrftcularly  for  tho  repurchase  .,r  the  conversion 
01  the  p.  per  money  in  circulation,  llie  value  of  which 
was  become  almost  nominal.  'I'liu  il'lferent  crentliins 
of  shares  have  raised  its  capital  to  iljont  80,000,000 
florins.  Thl-j  capital  Is  divided  li'  •  '^^0,021  shares  of 
1600  fIorir«  each.  The  actual  operations  of  tha  bank 
are  discoui.i  ;  the  issue  of  ank-notes,  a  privilege  which 
it  enjoys  ■  tcluslvely  thronsrhoi  .'  tho  Austrian  empire  | 
loan.-)  t  ii<>u  deposits,  an  I  i  •  ;:..'tlKtlons  of  loans,  The 
bank  pr.ys  an  anr  ■'  Iciiteji,  ipf  0  per  cent,  upon  ih"^ 
ril.ii'.t'.e  capit.^1  unrl  o  ^i\1dend,  r.  -r  deduction  «<' 
t'l.  rei  <  vefunil.  >tj  r-'^;''"'!''' o' '  't«r,  extends  t.) 
:bu  year  1866.    i;  hM  :irat:'iic(  ..:     I'aj^ue,  UrUiin, 


ii£S^ ^-^— 


BAN  ^ 


114 


BAH 


Troppau,  Ogtn,  Ttnriwar,  Kiahaa,  Ltmbery,  Trd'at  <, 
Innapruck,  UorlU,  Line,  anil  Ilcnnitailt. 

'the  Uank  of  Extreonlluaiy  Cretlit  of  ". ,  ^i. '  .  i 
•onititutad  in  1(H6  by  Imixrisl  ilecn"  .r  tuitui  ti% 
ol^ct  to  devote  ■  part  of  the  iiiiiu  d'  <;  i .  o<l  for  the  rt  - 
demption  of  the  national  ticlit  to  th<'  pun  iiaMi  ol  cer- 
tain •baroa  In  railway  and  other  LLUniinua,  in  order 
to  luitain  uhTuI  undertaking*,  riuI  communicate  a 
greater  impulM  to  thorn. 

The  Loan  and  Exchange  Bank  of  navarlawaa found- 
ad  at  Mnnlcb,  In  1886,  by  eliarea,  uodor  the  turvvll- 
lance  and  control  of  the  goveromont.  It  li  privi- 
leged for  ninety-nlna  yuarv.  The  original  caplt^  wa« 
10,000,000  florin*,  with  liWty  of  tncrcaje  to  20,000,000. 
In  IH-Iti  thcru  wai  a  uuw  eiuiuion  of  aliarea  of  MM  Hur- 
Ina.  The  net  profiti  nro  iMvidcd  aa  fullowa :  Three  per 
cent,  aa  divided  to  tlio  «harcholden,  and,  of  the  eur- 
plua,  three-fourth'  '  (  xtru  dividend,  und  the  reuialn- 
Ing  fourth  carried  tu  •'  e  rcacrvv,  until  It  ahail  reach  to 
one-tenth  of  thciui  .  '•■  Tbrm-flftba  of  the  capital  aiy 
•mployedlnloauao'  mortgage.  The  other  operation* 
■re  diacounta,  'uai. '.  on  Mscuriliea  and  ingota ;  the  iaauo 
of  iMink-notcK  wbiu)  ninount  1*  limited  to  foui^touth* 
of  the  capital,  and  (hree-fourth*  of  it  to  bo  covered  by 
•  value  of  double  thu  aum  in  mortgage  credita,  or  in 
allver.    The  luink  liaa  a  lirancli  at  Augaburg. 

The  R(  il  Bauk  of  Bavaria,  lirat  catabliabcd  at  Ant- 
bach,  and  now  at  Niutsniberg  *•  one  of  the  oldett  e*- 
labliahment*  of  tue  kiud.  .'J  operationa  are  db- 
count*,  depoaiti,  loan*  upon  peraonal  and  other  aecuri- 
tlet.  The  government  i*  entitled  to  half  the  profit*. 
It  ba*  branchcK  nt  Anebacb  aid  Bamberg. 

The  Royal  Hank  of  llie  Conrt  of  Wurtemberg,  fbund- 
ed  in  1802  at  Stutgardt,  limiu  lu  operation*  to  di*- 
oounta  and  loan*. 

The  Bank  of  Leiptic  wa«  founded  in  1889,  under  the 
•uapicea  of  lh>)  government,  willi  a  capital  of  1,600,000 
thalera,  divided  into  du'  )»  of  200  Ihalen,  receiving  a 
per  cent,  intereet.  It*  operation*  are  depuaita,  loan*, 
and  diacounta.  It  ha*  the  right  of  iaauing  note*  of  20 
and  100  duller*  each,  of  which  the  two-lhird*  tbuuld  bo 
guaranteed  by  value*  to  the  amount  in  apecie  or  ingot*. 

There  exiata,  bcaidea,  at  Dre8d<ii,  a  loan  bauk,  wbic''' 
nakea  advance*  to  land  proprietura  and  farmcra  for  tbo 
payment  of  taxea,  tithea,  etc.  Lcipaic  ba*  al*o  an  in- 
Mi'tntlon  of  tbli  kind  under  the  oaine  nf  ■■  Union  of 
Credit  for  the  hereditary  Und*  of  the  o  on  nobiiit) . ' 


H  WM  In  agllatlon,  In  IMA,  to  timna  at  n«*Mn  • 

.(>  '  .t  I  mitral  eatablUbniinil,  to  anawar  the  pur|Mna  of  ii 
'•uiKing  (y*l«n  fur  tU  uvrlh  of  Oermany.  It 
jjropoard  to  rnduw  It  wl(h  an  airuniulalion  of  cap. 
i:  I*  to  the  extmit  of  rruin  /<0,(NIO,UOO  to  100,000,000 
tbalan.  lint  tkta  Klganlb'  prir|«ct  ba*  reaolvtd  llaolf 
Into  a  private  enterurlu,  caialtlliiliiKl  In  ihr  beginning 
of  18-17,  under  IIm  lllle  oi'IIik  t'r»vlil<inal  Hank  of  An- 
balt-Uu**au,  with  a  capital  of  2,MW,miO  ibalrra,  divided 
In  aharn  of  300  ibatunt.  Thia  nlabllahmmit  laaoei 
noto*  of  1,  6, 10, 20, 60,  too,  MM,  and  IIWO  ihalrr*  raoh. 
Ona-fuurtb  tba  value  of  the  liank^oto*  in  circalatloa 
abould  if.  i-ov-ii    '  _  ilvaltmt  anin  In  apeci*. 

The  l>  .U4  u«  .iunil<iirg  a*  fu  >d  In  )'il9.  Tha 
ailnlmuin  dvpmlt  of  a  wnmlier  drairlng  to  irficn  an  ao- 
count  la  too  mark*  bann/  In  bar  allver,  or  In  a  bill,  for 
the  aanie  aum,  utotn  of  the  m«nilier»of  Iho  hank,  which 
i*  then  tranaferrad  tnmt  Ilia  an^unt  of  the  latter  to  that 
of  tb*  furnwr.  Traiiafi-r*  i-an  not  laka  place  for  a  leat 
*uro  than  100  marka,  exiwpt  mmt  day*  iiefnre  Chriat- 
mai,  or  in  the  middi*  of  July.  Illllterlo,  for  each 
mark  of  Ana  *llv«r  of  Coliigna,  tlw  depoallor  wa*  ac- 
credited with  27|  marka  banco |  while,  In  withdrawing 
hi*  money  fur  a  aimlUr  >um,  he  wa*  dablird  with  ?7| 
marka  banco,  §i>  that  Ilia  ainiple  uaaga  of  the  optratlun 
brought  a  I'uat  of  U'20  |wr  cent,  A  new  regulation, 
which  ia  to  ronie  Into fone  nn  thn  I6lh  nt  Auguat,  1867, 
ini|)orl>  that  the  mark  of  Una  allvnr  nf  Cologne  aliall  ba 
crwlited  27j|  marka  lianco,  and  debited  at  a  aimilar  rate 
after  deduction  uf  1  per  mllla,  Indeprndrntty  of  thit 
*ort  of  butt'icaa,  tiiu  bank  lend*  up</n  Mpaniah  and 
American  dollar*,  and  aomatlina*  alao  on  cupper. 
TbeM  art!  lie  only  o|H!rallim*, 

The  a«aoclatlun  of  the  new  loan,  ralabllahrd  rqui.':/ 
at  llanii'urg,  in  INW,  tMnm-ottf  a  capital  of  100,000 
mark*  Ixtn'o, and  do«*  butlnrm  )triihlt>licd  to  the  bank, 
principally  loan*  on  Mn!urill«a,  public  fumla,  etc. 

There  liave  licen  iiuuirr(/ua  flnandal  enttrpriie*, 
lately  ttartcd  on  the  Coiilintnt  of  Kuro|H-,  al>M>rbing  • 
Iwavy  aui'iunt  uf  capital  bitlierin  available  for  other 
purpoee*.  I'lw  fullMwIng  Hal  of  new  bauka  in  (iermany 
repreutnt*  a  capital  uf  nearly  I  l/),llOO,0(M)  didlara,  which 
fori  but  a  auiati  part  ut  llin  amount  lately  inveatod 
by  (iomian  eapllaiUta  wItMn  Ibi  liordera  of  llieir  owa 
country.  The  alutret  of  all  the  lianka  n«ni(.'<l  hereafter 
oommanil  u  high  premium,  although  but  few  of  them 
have  bi'>      idBt'leut  Um«  lu  u|MiraliMi  to  pay  divideada. 


List  or  BAasa  EaTini.iaini>  n  Oiau^iir  aiain  It 


I        YmuT 


lees 

18(iO 

ins 

18M 

1865 
l>iW 
ISM 
ISM 
IliA 
ISCfi 
18U 

laM 

1SH 
ISO* 
18t5S 
1«S« 

N'* 
..sM 
18M 

law 
i«sa 


Na.aa. 


Loudea  Uwik, 

Braunachwelcrr  Bank, 

Bank  ftier  Handel  nnd  ladusirle, 

Weimaraebe  Honk, 

FmnkAirter  Bonk, 

Wli>ner  Cr.  Bonk, 

OeraerBonk,  ''  " 

Thneringiaehe  Bonk, 

Bank  Aier  Sued  DcutaoUand, 

Corlner  Bonk, 

Breiucr  Bonk, 

line.  Ijindea  Bank, 

Mitt>'l  Deutaebea  Cr.  laaUtnt, 

CriIU  AnaUlt, 

Creil.t  Inatttut, 

Uiaconto  (IneHachaft, 

ColmfK-OothalMbe  Cr.  OtiaeUaehaft, 

Cr.  und  Veriaicberuugi  GeeeHacbaft, 

IMvot  Bank. 

Norddeutaehe  Bonk, 

Veralna  Bank. 


riu: 


llfaaau, 

Bninaebsk, 

Itarmatadt 

Welroar, 

rrankfuiiMn-lba-Naia, 

Vlfnn*, 

Oera, 

gond«r*kau<  m, 

Uain  4*41, 

*■■•!        1«, 
1  I), 

irt, 

WHO, 

I 

<''ijoi», 

I/ub»c 

Magdebun;, 

llaiuburc, 

llarolnni. 


('wila, 
vitln, 


Ca^ul. 


4,(MO,(iOn  Ttmlera. 
s,liMi,nno  Thjili^ra. 

'.'H.non.min  OniMert, 

»,nW>,(l(iO 'It  •ten, 
iO,</<i(i,nno  (>uiidenb 
tO.imn.nno  Itnlllrra. 

»,«liO,miO '•  Imlira. 

l,min,imo  Thalen. 
l»,mift,00n  (Inilderc 

i.mm.niwThiiiii'o. 
«,mn,«w  rh.  ooid. 

l,aM,nilo  Oiillder*. 

a,MI0,(in0  Tbalera. 

a,<IWI,Omi  Thalera. 
in,Ui»,nilO  Thalera. 

B,m),im  Thalera. 
10AK»,M0  Tholon. 

ll,nan,000  Thulrra. 

l.flOO.WW  Tljalrra. 
ftl.mie.ann  Mana  Bee. 
fO.Wm.dWI  Marra  Bee. 


"  The  mania  for  eatabliahing  Credit  Mobllier*  in 
Germany  show*  no  *lgn*  of  *ub*iding.  To  tboae  of 
Vienna,  Frankfort,  Darmatadt,  Leipaic,  i>eeaau,  and 
other*,  of  which  the  *bare*  are  at  premium*  ranging 
from  10  to  90  per  cent,  there  are  now  two  addition* 
which  have  been  introduced  at  Berlin.  The  firat  con- 
siit"  of  aevcral  *econd-rate  merchants  and  banker*. 
The  other,  which  i*  doaignated  the  Society  of  Commer- 
cial Credit,  counta  among  ita  administrator*  (ome  of 
tb*  fint  mercantile  name*  in  Berlin.    The  capital  la 


flxod  at  IA,000,000  thaler*  (or  4;2,2&0,riCl0),  of  which 
the  directorn  tak«  7,r''<^l,U00  thaler*  at  par,  while  the 
renm'.nder  are  to  Imi  Mdd  at  a  premium,  which  1*  to  1)0 
carried  to  the  cr'  ^llt  of  the  company,  L'pon  a  *ub> 
»crlption  iNiIng  o\,  mA  Uit  a  (lortlnn  of  the  amount,  at 
10  per  cent,  iiremlum,  application*  were  acnt  in  to  the 
exUnt  of  140,1X10,000  ibalfr*.  The  engerneaa  to  obtain 
aharca  la  attributabln  tn  ihn  favt  of  the  company  haT< 
ing  at  il*  liead  cominerelal  men  who  bare  alwaya  been 
known  tu  b«  lucctMful,  Ilia  manager*  reserve  to  them- 


HAN 


lis 


BAN 


•rtvat  5  iwr  Mni.  out  of  tlHi  proAtP,  and  (ha  dlracton 
V  to  have  f>  pnr  cent,  betotv  «ny  (llntributlon  wliat- 
«V«r  It  iDsd*  to  tiM  ulianilialittira.     Tli«  iharM  are  of 


two  hundnd  (halcn  oa<h,  iiwl  an  alraadjr  In  grval 
ileniaml  at  17  |>er  cant,  premium." — Lomkm  TimttiAif 
l/iut,  IM&tt. 


UoTiMiNT*  or  TUi  iMiwiui.  Bamk  ot  AutTaiA,  rna  tub  Yiab*  l»M-18fi&. 
'iVniMMNpfu  nf  tJU  Am*  in  Fknim. 


'^'^ 

AJiftM*!  u  Km 

DrsfU. 

DlMMlH. 

AdTMVMua 
ItacurlllM. 

nilwmvt. 

ims 

1N54 
1sB6 

riofiM. 

UI.WIU.BJB 

M,SHa,tlBT 
l«,ttlT,NIB 
IU,IIM,MB 

tMI,UM,440 

itii.giiB.wn 

S'»,ii3l),l>*<l 
4l4,IN>4,tMII 

rIollM. 

ui,iJi,a<io 

l(i7,7Ml,fti)0 

in,7i«,«io 

VHi,UIMI,4IiO 

lOI   MI(I,U88 
!IIUt,(MII,«OH 

ll44,47lt,4«7 

fkirlM. 
ll':,'JllU 

Bu.eeo 

M,II7B 
a.',  HB 

U<|K»ltt. 

Allbotl«Mllf 
Ui  V<u. 

rlxiiixintlM 
Ui.     nuiMUl. 

■pwlt. 

ClHuUtiai. 

NolMUd  Hilliuf 
KirbMlg*  wi  hUMl. 

ABMllof 
llMUrlUM. 

ISM 
1H8S 

t'Joiliit. 

im.iiMu.aTD 
iai,7io,i»() 

)NI4,'JM,4IIB 

itss,nB,n« 

rloriuf. 
4!),'.'47,lWrt 

44,HHI,ll.l« 

4fi,..'u7,mii 

«),4tU,MB 

l»4.ll4»,'JBa 
1SK,1UW,«17 
a*«.4lll,U(K) 
87I,SlW,'i7B 

rlurliaa. 
3ll,ll'.M,min 

Bj,44;,iiai 
7ii,-^r^,'jiiii 

811,704,716 

riotloa. 

m.r.iw.iiiio 
4i,s(»,ati4 

8U,;ilU,(M)0 
lB<tMt,60« 

riotiu. 

»8,'J46,«» 
l«>,7a4,tMM 
IU,l(l<i,IIM 
8AUM,«S 

RnulU. 


TuMl  Amuinl  of 

toUl 

■aipliu  ol 
Rt<«pli. 

Ditldna. 

Amount  vf  tilt 
RjMrr*  rn«d. 

rfoHu. 

Ptwifli 
Faod. 

Viorliai 

rlgrlna 

ExpcBdltOMt. 

riDTiai 

riorlM, 

1851 

4,3B«,UU|l,«S8 

1,»84,a'2B,B2T 

1,883,61^,482 

Inl.U'AIMB 

70 

iu,ai)i,68s 

U<)7,II71 

1SS3 

!(,:i«,ll4'.',75'i 

l,'^73,tlHI,';U4 

l,85-2,U4ll,li3a 

l'2l),UKl,UUl 

83 

ll),U(>l.B88 

IU0,I>4U 

1S&4 

;i,'.Ki4.i4i,'.i:i7 

a,«8'.»,r>i7,i6i 

1,93U,TW,"07 

14I>,77A4B4 

Sfl 

10.301, ri88 

B«1.8(I7 

liisn 

n,;iP7,a:is,(W8 

l,8«V,10l,«t» 

1,aS«,»W,(l!<') 

17T,10.',4I(1 

7n     J 

ll),.)«l,688 

Wi.tm  ' 

VII.  liAiiKi.Na  IN  THE  Unitbu  Statiu, — Tho  bank- 
iDif  interest  of  the  United  Status  has  attalni«l  an  tniport- 
anca  In  tho  varied  coiicernii  ut  thin  wiiloly-extcudod 
country,  and  ia  ao  interwoveu  with  all  our  couiracrcial, 
manufacturini{  and  aKriuuluirul  purauits,  that  it  inuaC 
be  conceded  that  it  ia  u  |{>'eat  motive  power  in  our 
condition  of  national  proapcrity,  unrl  secondary  in  ita 
iniluauce  only  to  that  uf  the  Kovernmeut  itavlf.  And 
yet  there  uru  few  nuhjecta  {""a  practical  nature  on  which 
be  people  of  till  I  'lituil  States  have  go  wldi'ly  dillured 
'  opinion  as  upon  the  policy  of  banka  iiiul  the  snbati- 
lion  of  a  paper  currency,  based  even  upon  coin,  for 
one  purely  metallic.  On  ono  side,  the  zealous  friends 
>  •'  bmi^s  have  soinutinies  overrated  the  utility  of  paper 
,r('(lil  '.lid  nttii'iuted  to  it  a  creative  power  which 
even  golu  and  silver  do  not  posseaa;  on  the  otiicrside, 
''M'ir  opponuntK.  without  distinguiahing  between  tho 
<,!>ea  and  aliuw  >f  banks,  discerned,  in  these  useful 
and  almost  iIl<ll^t>ensublo  auxiliaries  to  commerce, 
manufartiiret  ami  agriculture,  nothing  hut  mlachief, 
and  regarded  them  aa  impeding  the  wealth  of  tho  na- 
tion, and  even  as  injurious  to  its  morals  as  well  as  dan- 
gerous to  lis  lilierties.  Ituth  parties,  perceiving  the 
glaring  errors  of  (heir  adversaries,  have  lieon  strength- 
ened in  their  owi'  opinions,  and  as  each  party  Ima  al- 
ternately come  into  power,  it  has  calablinhed  or  sub- 
verted, encouraged  <ir  rejected,  the  present  banking 
policy  of  tho  country.  A  comparison  of  tho  amounts 
of  bank  ca|iital  in  several  important  years,  from  1837 
to  IHuli,  will  exhiidt  tlie  fluctuations  which  have  taken 
place  during  the  lost  twenty  ycara ; 


Vmh. 

C>|>1UI. 

Buki. 

CirtKUIlcMl. 

18;)7 

*.'!I(I,77-/,(K>1 

788 

iiil4'.Msr>,8ii« 

184(1 

;iBs,  u-.',o»a 

(101 

HM!,!M;8,57a 

1813 

•.ii.^.M:i,948 

flftl 

M.Bda.ooa 

1810 

190,Slt4,309 

707 

l(*,r<ii,4'27 

ISMI 

an,iii7,2ii 

8^4 

13l.3(il|,K2a 

isni 

301,871' OTl 

1208 

1!(I4,C,81I,MT 

18IM 

347,4Vfa,W0 

1871 

177,157,413 

These  banks  had,  in  tho  corresponding  years,  specie  in 
their  vaults,  iW,  iJ3,  38^,  -12,  45,  59  and  (iO  luilllous  of 
dollars,  and  the  amount  of  specie  in  cirmUttUm  steadily 
Increased  from  35  to  191  millions,  in  addition  thereto, 
according  to  tho  most  reliablo  cstinmtes,  viz. : 


Ynn. 

1837 

DtpialU. 
$iy7,3»7,185 

Loam  ftnd  DiMoantj. 
$5JM  15.702 

1840 

7B,0Wt,867 

4«-J,8;i(),523 

1848 

B«,10S,fl'2S 

254,544,1137 

1840 

IIO,i>  18,070 

312.114.404 

18!M> 

ln3,BS6,B»R 

aM,2W,(y73 

18B4 

188,188,744 

007,287,423 

1898 

237,U&«,&81 

034,183,280 

It  must  l>c  borne  in  mind  that  the  two  laat  crises  In 
bank  affairs  occurnHl  In  tOc  years  1837  and  1HI2-43, 
,  and  their  circulutiou,  as  it  ap|>«ttra  above,  was  reduced 
>from  (U9,2(X),IM)U  to  |58,5«3,tH)8,  and  their  apecie  from 
$37,916,340  to  |33,61&,HU(I.     Tho  conaequence  was  ■ 
I  ruinous  fall  In  prices  of  property,  and  many  business 
I  men  found  It  iinpoaaiblo  to  comply  with  their  engage- 
ments, under  tho  sudden  contraction  of  bank  loans 
I  from  526  to  25-1  millions  of  dollani. 

The  history  of  all  our  Itank  pressures  and  panics  has 
been  tho  saniu  in  1825,  1837,  and  1843,  and  the  causes 
given  ill  two  simple  words — univtncU  trpamioit;  and 
nothing  but  gold  and  silver  possesses  the  cunser^'ativo 
power  to  regulate  the  stato  of  our  currency  or  check 
the  ruinous  InHation  to  which  our  banks  are  prone,  but 
for  this  check  on  their  issues.  All  other  kinds  of  prop- 
erty have  but  a  llctitioua  value,  which  in  pcrioda  of 
continued  prosperity  ia  enhanced  l>eyond  tho  limits 
of  reason  or  common  discretion.  At  snch  times  the 
banks  themselves  have  aided  tho  populiir  delusion  by 
stretching  their  utmost  spread  of  canvas  to  court  the 
favoring  breeze  ;  but  when  caught  aback,  are  the  most 
alarmed  at  the  perila  which  they  are  sure  to  encounter. 
Instead  of  becoming  auxiliary  to  others,  they  but  in- 
creased  tho  panic  and  aggravated  tb»  troubles,  which 
forr  i',htmight  have  prevented.  Exfi  iiue  has  shown 
that  the  contraction  whicli  succeeds  an  K.uiitomiptcd 
prosperity  is  more  disastrous  than  if  ih  .i.nmunity 
had  never  enjoyed  any  bank  exte>i  jidu  if  tho  effect 
of  these  <tuctuati(>n.i  was  confined  (u  ih  ■  speculators 
who  originated  thum,  there  would  be  little  to  excite 
public  anxiety  or  sympathy;  but  the  misfortune  ia, 
that  they  reach  the  iii<lustrial  clas.s('S  of  society,  and 
all  who  are  dependent  on  their  daily  labor  for  support. 
When  the  banks  fail  to  redeem  their  circulation,  tho 
laborer,  the  artisan  and  small  dealer,  who  earn  their 
ten  or  twenty  dollars  per  week,  are  despoiled  of  their 
hard  camiii^'s,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  among 
these  classes  of  society  there  should  exist  a  jealousy 
of  banks,  when  they  are  always  in  danger  of  receiv- 
ing ami  holding  bankrupt  notes;  since,  in  the  interior, 
most  of  them  are  unacquainted  with  tho  character  of 
the  currency  which  is  proffered  to  then\  in  payment. 

But  the  laborer  and  the  operative  not  only  suffer  by 
the  suspension  of  banks ;  thty  are  in  a  greater  or  lees 
<legrco  affected  by  bank  inllationa.  When  money  is 
abundant  in  what  ore  termcd^/rafperotM  times,  their  daU 
ly  wages  have  never  yet  kept  pace  with  tho  high  prices 
of  ])roduce  or  manufactures.  Nor  do  our  seamen  al- 
ways participate  in  tlio  advanced  rote  of  freights ;  bnt 
when  the  price  of  every  thing  about  us  is  enhanced, 


BAN 


1S6 


BAN 


w*  »t*  ardutonwl  to  wlhcra  to  th*  urn*  valattlon  of 
Ui*  w*gM  of  Ubur.  If  tli«  ■Uiitlaril  of  thiir  vitlu*  li 
riKhlly  nllmited  In  part  \iy  llio  coit  of  niiUtltuiice, 
Ihi  r»l«  ouahl,  Iti  Juitl''e,  tu  hn  iilvanrvil  whiTi  prlcr* 
•ra  lilt(h,  ••  well  M  to  nilurn  the  ml*  when  tli«  market 
I*  deprMMil ;  liut  iIih  Utter  courte  It  fn'quenlly  ailupU 
«d,  whIU  tbo  fumier  in  tubmltled  tu  wllli  uvlilciit  ro- 
luclanui. 

Hut  are  ths  banka  alrme  to  lilame  for  thru  fl(i>  lua- 
lion*  o(  •xpaniluni  Md  contraelloni }  Tu  a  certain 
•xlent  tbav  are,  but  aot  wholly  w;  they  ar«  hut  aux- 
lllarlM.  In  perlodt  of  pr.jniwrlt.v  they  have  on  hand 
•loney  to  loan,  and  dUpcime  It  freely  while  It  !•  In 
Iheir  power,  aa  It  U  their  duty  to  du,  In  onlor  to  iccuru 
gnid  dlvldendi  for  their  atoikhulder* ;  but  It  wan  thu 
•xreH  of  oanttdeiica  out  of  the  banks  which  tlrat  In- 
duced npecuUtlun,  and  the  expansion  of  Individual 
«redit  to  Ita  utniotl  tcntlon.  While  money  ii  redun- 
dant and  capital  unemployed,  Icniptallona  are  offered 
to  th«  adventuroua,  and  apaculatlon  liecoinea  rife  in 
itocka,  land<,  railroad*,  mine*,  and  the  countleaa  "fan- 
elei"  which  promlaa  auch  flatlerlnfc  reaulta  In  anch  a 
brief  period  of  time.  Nor  li  this  apeculutire  apirll 
conflnod  to  our  commercial  citlea;  It  pervades  the 
whole  country,  and  a  liclltioua  value  la  atlaclird  to 
•rery  thing  animate  and  Inanimate,  movable  or  fixed, 
nhlcb  possesses  any  value  at  all.  The  pm|ierty  thus 
enhanced  In  valuation,  without  any  reaiHinablo  causa, 
la  either  sold  to  soma  irresponaihlu  purchaser,  or  per- 
haps niorl((aged  as  s«<mrlty  for  some  other  speculation ; 
pay  day  comes  round,  the  sober  Bi>cond  thought  dis- 
closes the  infatuation,  and  the  dreamer  awakes  to  the 
appalling  perception  of  his  true  condition.  The  prop- 
arty  Is  tacrijictd ;  In  other  words,  it  is  sold  for  lis  specie 
value,  anil  ihs  speculator  is  ruine<l,  Involving  in  his 
fall  the  credaloos  Individuals  who  have  trualcd  in  his 
supposed  forecast  or  his  plausil>le  representations.  Ail 
olasses  of  the  community  feci  the  shock,  and  the  gen- 
•rat  outcry  Is  against  the  banka  as  the  origin  of  the 
mil;  but  is  it  an  evil ? 

It  must  be  acknowledged  by  all  that  an  uninter- 
mpted  course  of  prosiierity  caused  by  a  redundancy  of 
currancy,  and  the  consequent  supply  of  bank  facilities, 
would,  in  the  end,  be  prejudicial  to  the  true  and  per- 
manent welfare  of  the  countrj-.  We  have  had  expo- 
rienco  enough  during  our  intervals  of  success  to  note 
tba  cinsequencas  of  a  prosperous  career,  and  the  bene- 
fits have  ri«ver  been  equally  shared  l>y  the  community. 
Bold  and  reckless  speculators,  nionopollsls  in  every 
branch  of  trade,  wealthy  capitalists,  and  a  few  adven- 
turers, may  have  amassed  fortunes  in  soma  few  in- 
stances, but  ten  times  the  number  of  each  description 
have  been  mined ;  and  under  any  circumstances,  the 
great  mass  of  the  community,  the  laboring  classes, 
salarlc.1  ofHccrs,  annultanta  of  every  sort,  professional 
men,  medical,  legal,  and  clerical,  while  they  derive  lit- 
t'.u  iienfflt  from  the  golden  harvest,  are  inevitably 
doomed  to  suffer  their  full  proportion  of  the  losses 
which  ensue. 

The  moral  tone  of  society  Is  also  deteriorated  and 
corrupted  by  the  continuance  of  prosperity ;  luxury, 
with  ita  enervating  inflnence ;  extravagance,  with  tU 
lavish  expenditures,  undermine  the  foundation  of  our 
moral  strength,  economy,  and  integrity,  and  corrupt 
not  only  our  morals  but  our  legislation.  An  extrava- 
gant style  of  living  and  habits  of  personal  expenditure 
on  the  uamelesa  artificial  wants  and  luxuries  of  society, 
which  are  almost  inseparable  from  suddenly  acquired  or 
even  suppositive  wealth,  have  no  small  sliare  in  creating 
a  demand  for  money,  which  ultimaiely  leads  to  ruin  ; 
first,  by  a  loss  of  confidence  and  impaired  credit  j  next, 
temporary- sacrifices;  and, finally,  by  l>ankruptcy.  And 
It  Is  liotter  that  it  should  be  so,  for  the  occasional  sifting 
of  the  chaff  from  the  wheat  has  always  been  followed 
by  periods  of  well-regulated  trade,  reasonable  profits, 
and  that  degree  of  thrift  with  which  men  of  Integrity 
Md  substance  are  contented.   Trade  flows  on  In  its  nat- 


ural channals,  nslfher  Impeded  by  artificial  barrian 
nor  luipidlsd  by  the  force  of  ■peculation.  lUverses, 
than,  ant  the  surest  safeguards  against  approaching 
ruin,  and  banks  managed  by  conscientious  and  pru- 
dent directors  are  the  gri'at  coni>rrvali>es  nhUh  arrest 
the  proclivity  of  financial  pnitllKacy  to  nMllohai  de- 
struction. What  reason  Is  there,  then,  In  Ihs  popular 
outcry  in  the  dominant  party  against  lianks,  when  It 
Is  obvious  that  they  are  one  of  the  strongest  and  best 
pralectora  of  the  lulervsts  of  the  indualrial  classes? 
"  It  is  true  that  ths  bunks  ara  not  U'yond  lliu  reach 
of  adversity ;  like  other  business  corporations,  they 
may  liu  on  tbo  high  fidu  of  success,  anil  tempests  fVom 
distant  quarters  may  sink  thcni  beneath  the  wuttra, 
without  any  fault  of  their  own.  Channela  of  trade, 
now  full,  may  dry  up;  Important  dvparlnients  of  in- 
dustry may  In  broken  down  ;  the  cartli  may  not  yield 
Its  Increase  In  unpropillous  seasons;  wars  may  arrest 
or  reverse  the  great  currents  of  trade  ;  eniliargoes  aud 
non-lntercoursu  may  sweep  commerce  from  tliu  ocean ; 
and  when  thu  whole  country  Is  ovcrwhelined  with  em- 
barrassment by  events  so  great  and  controlling  In  the 
commerco  of  the  world.  It  can  not  lio  expected  that 
fbo  banks  should  escape." 

From  1KI3  to  ix&o,  there  was  at  first  a  diminution 
and  then  an  increase  of  capital,  but  Ihu  circulation 
steadily  advanced  each  aucccasive  year,  especially  in 
IHIH,  occasioned  by  the  large  nxfiortalion  of  brtad- 
atufiS  to  Kurope  tlio  preceding  year,  and  Ilia  return  of 
nearly  twenty-five  millions  of  apecin,  whirli  gave  to  all 
the  western  banka  thu  long-needed  relief.  During 
Iha  financial  year  ending  In  June,  ItMT,  our  exports 
amounted  la  (168,0(10,001),  of  which  flll8,(IIMI,0<H)  were 
in  breailstnn'ii,  and  |i.'>t,0OO,000  in  cotfun,  and  exceed- 
ed onr  imports  $12,000,000,  This  amount  of  export* 
was  larger  liy  I||40,(KKI,000  than  in  nny  preceding  year 
(excepting  iii  1M3I),  when  the  amount  was|ili;'>,(MKi,U(Hi), 
and  about  (30,000,000  more  than  In  ll<a6-':Ui  or  IN4I. 
The  amount  of  domaatic  exiiorta  has  never  been  ex- 
ceeded before  nor  since,  with  tha  exception  of  1X64, 
when  the  export  of  lireadatufis  was  nearly  $«)U,(MH),000, 
and  of  cotton  (94,(KN),O0O ;  the  whole  export  having 
lieen.  In  1847,  (16H,00O,fl0O,  as  alMive  staled,  and  In 
1864,  #274,000,000;  but  In  the  latter  year  Ihu  imports 
rxceeded  (he  exports  nearly  (fHI,000,000 ;  while  In 
1847  the  latter  were  fil2,0(Ht,(!oO  greater. 

We  have  staled  tbew  facts  merely  to  show  some  of 
the  causes  of  the  Huclualions  which  periodically  occur 
In  our  financial  diflicullles.  It  is  common  to  allriliutc 
thcsfl  difficulties  to  cxccaalve  Importatlona ;  but  this  is 
not  so.  A  tabular  alatcment  of  the  excess  of  imports 
over  exports  will  aid  ua  in  our  cxaniinalion  of  this 
subject.  Since  IKOO,  there  have  been  thirteen  years 
when  Ihe  exports  have  exceeded  the  amount  of  imports 
from  two  to  live  millions;  In  1H8!),  $41,000,000;  in 
1843,  (20,000,000;  and  in  1847,  (12,000,000. 


Vmh. 

ImpoiW. 

V(sn. 

ttam  at 
lin|>orU. 

1800 

21,1)00,000 

18:^8 

ltl,(NHI,OOU 

1M)I 

17,000.000 

1881 

22,iNMi,ono 

1!WS 

sn.000,000 

1832 

14,000,000 

1800 

'^s,ooo.ooo 

18SS 

i8,niHi,oflo 

180T 

311.000,000 

1834 

22,1X10,000 

18U8 

.'^B.OOO.OOO 

I8as 

'^N.000,000 

1810 

lu.noo.ooo 

1830 

(11,000,000 

1819 

ao.ooo.ono 

isnT 

28,IMMI,()II0 

1815 

61,000,000 

1840 

27,000,000 

ISH 

6«,  000,000 

18B0 

42,0(N),ll(IO 

1S19 

28,000,000 

1R68 

07,000,000 

18IB 

17,000,000 

18IM 

!«),000,0«0 

1820 

16,000,000 

In  the  intervening  years  the  excess  was  from  two  to 
ten  millions,  but  which  our  freight*  discharged  by  their 
earnings.  With  the  exception,  therefore,  of  183C,  none 
of  our  crises  can  with  Justice  bis  attributed  to  exctmve 
importatiom. 

We  do  not,  however,  assert  that  our  banks  are  in- 
culpable, nor  that  they  are  not  responsible  for  much 
of  the^mischlef  that  this  overtrading  and  speculative 


•pirit  has  uocas 

tradu  !■  proapei 

port,  Ihe  lianks 

•xtuud  their  loa 

»'"'/  can  Incri'a 

flueuca  of  publi 

•olliu  spirit  of  I 

*'"'»  spirit,  they 

*')leh  it  would 

Intending  It,  a,„ 

cation,  tSay  slin 

•chenies  and  ad 

•pIrIt  of  speculal 

•"extent  as  will 

banks  of  circulati 

larger  towns  wh 

wouM  confine  thi 

•re  eng«,{„j  |„  , 

•ceoiiiniodatloii   ( 

•onKoinr  ;  If  ||„.y 

"«'  ajiirlt  of  spec 

would  do  much  t< 

■wp  tbo  eqiiilll,, 

"lit  while  bank  cli 

towna  aa  well  as  U 

obtaliicil,  and  ofter 

"etora  destltulo  ol 

oflianks,  and  capo, 

eaaonllal  to  a  right 

them  will  Inoviiaf, 

and  probaf.ly  disasi 

Wo  have   In    th 

(1880)  almut  1400  I 

«;«l,<H)o,ooo,  and  a 

diacounted  paper  of 

and  tho  amount  of  l 

probably  near  (300  0 

of(!).1(,(H)0,000.    Nov 

ofcrodit  Is  affected  by 

0'.  •nd  a  depreciatioi 

equal  to  the  loss  of 

wa  allow  a  few  rockl 

tlie  right,  of  others, 

^«"ks,  scattarad  Hire 

financial  equilibrium 

«fly,  by  causing  need 

".  the  multipll.allon 

Ity;  soma  origlnatlni 

«pltal,  and  wish  to 

neighbor's  commercia 

wish  to  Invest  funds  ( 

•nother  class,  who  an 

»»  It  Is  called,  for  the 

J  """"''""«"''"•" 
oftheircharterodbank 
"ordid  motivo  is  to  si 

foisting  upon  it  notes  ( 
their  value,  to  purchttsi 
channels  at «  discount 
to  their  fate,  without  r 
banks  are  the  ofifspring 
and  aro  founded  upon 
'pccio  basis,  a  safety 
principle,  a  deposit  off 
Vsternofbankclrculat 
to  escape  the  ovlls  of  ou 
Y'     'ho  issues  of  our  I 
the  suto  of  our  foreign  « 
i»  flowing  out  of  the  cou 
;;»">'''«  in.    As  it  is  no 
wmincrcial  cities  curtsi 
"  '."O"  'uppliod  by  th( 
"vail  themselves  of  the 

•Bbstitntlon  of»,veako 
•are  comes,  ,|,e,o,„g„^ 

1>7  their  importunate  , 


BAN 


lt7 


BAN 


•pirit  hu  uocMluntil.  Whaii  tha  oourdi  of  our  famiRn 
(r*ilu  la  protptiruui,  snil  tff.ia  ii  iiul  In  itimtml  for  »x- 
port,  (liR  iMinlia  litve  b«iiii  (iid  tn  itronuly  tauiptnU  lo 
uKluii<ltliclr  luana,  by  tlmMtiinliiH  ImpuiiUy  with  which 
th«]r  can  IncrvaM  thulr  prollla,  while  Ihii  chaurlnK  in- 
AuKiica  of  public  pruiparll}'  hat  nlvon  a  k"'*'  ip'tng 
lu  thu  npirit  uf  entorprlw,  anil  by  alfiiritlnK  allniant  to 
thli  iplrlt,  tlwy  k'  ^o  I'  •  '*■'>'■<  ami  vlK<>r  uf  niUchliif 
whirh  It  woulii  nut  othurwlmt  attain.  Thiiii,  without 
Intriiiling  It,  anil  In  tha  nii<rn  puriiilt  of  llicir  own  vn- 
cation,  tbay  atlnniluta  tha  love  of  Kuln  In  all  aorti  of 
ichiinivi  anil  ailvnntiiraa.  Tlin  wilil  and  axtravaKanl 
iplrlt  of  apeculatlun  li  nnviir  fminil  In  prvvall  In  aiich 
an  n.xtpnt  as  will  lio  fouml  In  all  placva  whiTe  theru  arn 
lianka  of  circulation,  ami  eapcclully  In  thoao  citlea  anj 
larger  towna  whi^ru  banka  aro  nuinuroua.  If  banka 
woulil  conllnu  thiilnliacouiita  to  thu  puprr  of  thoao  who 
■r«  onKiiK<«l  in  a  regular  counu  of  businota,  and  rofuao 
•ccoinniddallon  lo  Iho  raah,  nilviMiluroua,  and  ovvr- 
lanKuInc  ;  if  Ihoy  woulil  restrain  their  i.iauca  uhrnovcr 
thd  spirit  of  apaculation  was  rlfn  and  rampant,  they 
would  do  much  to  preaervn  the  balanro  of  trade,  and 
keep  the  ei|uillbrluni  batwecn  imports  and  expurta, 
lint  while  bank  charters,  fur  small  capitals  in  country 
towns  as  well  as  larucr  onoa  for  cities,  can  he  so  easily 
obtained,  and  often  Intrusted  to  the  niannKcment  of  di- 
rectors destitute  of  tlie  knowledge  oven  of  the  theory 
of  banks,  and  capeclally  of  tlint  jtraitirnl  knoiileilge  so 
easontial  tu  a  rl^ht  nmnaKement,  tlie  course  puraued  by 
them  will  inevitably  bis  Injurious  lo  the  community, 
and  pr<dialdy  diaaatrous  to  thoai>  who  uwn  the  stock. 

Wo  have  In  thu  ITnited  .States  at  this  period 
(IH60)  about  1400  banks,  with  capitals  amounthif;  to 
t:)44,iMH),0(K),  and  a  circulation  of  (jl'^OUO.noo.  The 
discounted  paper  of  these  banks  is  almut  |ltj;M,0U0,(H)O, 
and  the  amount  of  bonds  and  stocks  held  In  Kurope  is 
prulml>ly  near  (UUO,000,UOO  more,  making  an  aK)(re((atc 
ofijl'.m,('MK),0(X).  Now  thu  value  of  this  Immenss  amount 
of  credit  Isalfectedby  the  condition  of  our  money  mark- 
et, and  a  depreciation  of  ten  per  cent,  of  its  amount  Is 
equal  to  the  loss  of  one  of  our  cotton  crops.  Should 
we  allow  a  few  reckless  adventurers  to  trespass  upon 
the  rights  of  others,  and  by  the  a)(«ncy  of  a  few  smuli 
banks,  scattered  throughout  thu  country,  disturb  our 
ilnanclal  equilibrium  and  depreciate  the  value  of  prop- 
erty, by  causing  needless  fluctuations  ?  Still,  howev- 
er, the  multiplication  Is  going  on  with  fearful  rapid- 
ity ;  some  urit(inating  with  parties  who  have  surplus 
capital,  and  wish  to  focllitato  their  own  and  their 
neighbor's  comnicn:ial  transactions ;  with  others,  who 
wish  to  invest  funds  for  the  sake  of  the  income ;  inrlth 
another  class,  who  are  solicitous  to  create  bank  capital, 
M  It  is  called,  for  the  supply  of  their  business  wantH, 
by  an  exchange  of  their  own  stock  notes  for  the  bills 
of  their  chartenul  banks;  and  last  of  all,  by  those  whose 
sordid  motive  is  to  speculate  on  the  community,  by 
foiating  upon  it  notes  of  circulation,  and  then  decrying 
their  value,  to  purchase  them  back  again  through  other 
channels  at  a  discount,  or  perhaps  ttnally  abandon  them 
to  their  fate,  without  redemption,  on  any  terms.  Our 
banks  arc  the  oflapring  of  twcnty-aevon  different  States, 
and  are  founded  upon  the  throe  dilferent  systems  of  a 
specie  basis,  a  safety  fund,  and  the  "  free  banking" 
principle,  a  deposit  of  fitocks  ;  but  until  some  uniform 
system  of  bank  circulation  is  adopted,  we  can  not  hope 
to  escape  the  evils  of  our  present  heterogeneous  curren- 
cy. The  issues  of  our  banks  ought  to  bo  regulated  by 
the  state  of  our  foreign  exchanges,  restricteil  when  gold 
is  flowing  out  of  thu  country,  and  expanded  when  it  is 
coming  In.  As  it  is  now,  however,  if  the  banks  in  our 
commercial  cities  curtail  their  circulation,  tlio  vacuum 
is  soon  luppliod  by  the  country  banks,  who  eagerly 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity,  and  thus  notliing 
is  gained,  but,  on  the  contrary,  much  is  lost  by  this 
sabstitution  of  a  weaker  currency ;  and  when  a  pres- 
snre  comes,  these  smaller  banks  add  fuel  to  the  flames, 
by  Ibeir  importunate  criea  for  ugUtanc«  and  indul- 


genca.  The  ellbrts  ofuur  lianka  un  tha  aea-hnard  can  pro- 
dure  but  little  perceptible  aD'act  In  contracting  Iha  cur> 
renoy,  If  the  great  mass  of  the  Intarlor  lianka  pnmlat  In 
Issuing  their  paper  aa  long  aa  they  have  iiintlilenrn  Ir 
their  cuatomers,  or  the  pulilln  are  willing  lu  reitilvn  ll, 
W«  therefore  need  »  restraining  or  an  overawing  pow- 
er, which  can  Ihi  axareiaed  fur  the  general  gixiil  |  and 
until  wo  have  thia,  the  currency  will  coiitlnuu  to  lia 
flurtuating,  both  in  quitntlly  and  quality. 

An  annual  report  on  the  condlliuu  uf  thu  banks 
throughout  the  l.'nlon  is  made  to  (.'uiign-aa  by  tb« 
Treasury  Uepartinenl.  The  reaoluliuii  uduplrd  In 
July,  1HU2,  under  whlcli  thrao  annual  repurta  am  made, 
calls  for  "suth  ktatemenls  and  returns  as  may  have 
liern  rom'^Mulcated  lo  the  l.<'glslatnres,  govurnors,  or 
other  olHci  rs  of  tha  several  Slates  ttilhiii  Ihr  i/mr,  and 
niodo  public,"  Tho  want  of  unifurmily  nf  dulea,  how- 
ever. Is  nut  the  only  doflriuncy  In  these  aiinuul  repurta ; 
there  is  nn  apecilUatiun  of  immeiliiitr  liahililin  iiii'l  </'• 
/irrril,  or  of  immtdialr  and  lU/errril  rrtouivrt — »  llliiiut 
a  knowledge  of  wblih  It  la  inipussllilc  lu  arrlvu  at  a 
true  knowledge  of  tho  cundlliun  uf  the  bunks.  It  will 
lie  furlunnto  fur  tbn  cuuutry  if  llila  auljeit  abuulil  ever 
attract  thu  attvution  uf  Cungreaa  and  the  Slule  l.egla- 
latures,  and  thry  shuuld  be  induced  to  unlln  in  sumo 
common  ayslem  uf  action,  by  whicli  ail  Ihu  hniika  in 
the  country  should  bn  required  lo  ninko  i|uiirterly  stato- 
nienls  of  their  alfiilrs  at  tho  mine  tjierijU  d  ihln,  at  lh» 
cliitr  nflhf  ilnij'i  buninftii,  and  upon  n  unil'iirin  nnil  sim- 
ple plan,  sn  that  nu  one  who  la  aci|uaiuted  with  an  or- 
dinary accunnt  current  could  fail  to  umleraluud  Ibem. 
Such,  however,  we  fenr,  will  never  take  ploce,  and  for 
the  present  wa  must  bo  content  with  the  Imperfect,  het- 
erogeneous, and  mystilicd  alalcmcnts  which  are  annu- 
ally furnished  to  Congress  in  Iho  vulundnuua  ducinneni* 
uf  the  Secretary  of  Iho  Treasury,  with  aueli  condenaed 
tables  as  the  arts  of  finance  and  divination  will  cnalilo 
him  to  make  out,  and  wo  must  abandon  the  idea  of 
atatlstical  exactness, 

INUO-IMIU,— Thu  number  of  State  hanks  in  1800  waa 
thirty-two,  having  authorized  capitals  of  |'i!l,5r>U,00<), 
but  it  was  not  all  paid  in  ;  and  it  has  lieen  stated  that 
the  capital  of  the  first  United  States  Hank,  chartered 
In  1701  ((110,000,000),  probably  exceeded  tho  paid  up 
capital  of  the  thirty-two  local  banks.  Of  these,  eight- 
een were  in  New  Kngland,  live  In  New  York,  two  each 
In  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  District  of  (,'olunibia  and 
South  Carolina,  and  one  in  Delaware,  Tlicre  are  no 
reliable  statements  of  the  amount  of  circulation  or 
api'cio  on  record  prioi  to  180H,  but  estimates  have  been 
published  by  the  Secretary  of  4he  Treasury,  in  1865, 
which  give  the  circulation  at  fllO.fiOO.OUO  in  IHiH),  and 
gradually  Increasing  to  |lt8,mKI,IN)0  in  1807,  while  tho  . 
8|iccio  in  the  country  y<M  estimated  at  (17,50U,0UO,  run- 
ning up  to  |l'20,UUO,000  during  tho  same  period ;  tho 
amount  in  tho  banks,  however.  Is  not  even  conjectured. 
In  1808  tho  Bank  of  the  Unltvil  Stales  had  $4,787,000 
in  circulation,  against  |15,;KM),0()0  in  specie  ;  and  tho 
Secretary  odds,  "  tho  policy  of  tho  banks  in  New  En- 
gland was  widely  ditTercnt,  They  pushed  their  issues 
to  the  very  limits  of  their  credit,  somo  of  them  issuing 
notes  for  even  fractional  parts  of  the  dollar,  Tho  re- 
sult was,  that  there  was.  In  1H08-9,  a  grand  explosion 
among  tlie  banks  in  Now  England,  by  which  most  of 
them  were  shattered,  and  some  of  them  totally  de- 
8troy6<l," 

The  first  return  of  specie  in  tho  banks  was  In  1811, 
when  tho  amount  was  $16,400,000  against  a  circulation 
of  28,000,000,  This  amount  must  have  been  mainly 
drawn  from  the  United  Slates  Bank,  whose  charter  ex- 
pired the  same  year ;  for  from  tho  time  of  tho  enilmr- 
go  in  1808  to  1811,  "when  our  produce  could  no  lon- 
ger be  exported,  all  who  had  any  engagements  to  meet 
in  foreign  countries — all  to  whom  remittances  abroad 
were  advantageous,  if  not  indispcnr^able — transmitted 
specie  as  tho  commodity  must  easily  ooncealuil  and 
transported.    Fr«m  this  time  the  amount  of  specie  di- 


BAN 


BAN 


minishcd;  tho  unsettled  state  of  oar  commercial  and 
political  rvgulatioua  with  for>:iKn  powers  during  tlio 
tbree  succeedint;  years  presented  a  new  accumulution ; 
and  soon  after  our  declaration  of  war  against  Ureat 
Britain,  in  Dili,  the  banks  throughout  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States,  which  had  for  some  time  been  paying 
specie  reluctantly  and  sparingly,  8us|>ended  altogether 
thtir  specie  payments." — South  Carolina  Hank  Heforl. 

In  1811  all  the  banks  in  tho  Union,  with  the  excep- 
tion  of  tli08e  in  New  England,  suspended  payment,  and 
the  confusion  and  depreciation  of  their  notes  assisted 
tho  plan  of  re-establishing  another  United  Statr^  Kank, 
which  was  finally  accomplished  in  181<>,  with  a  capital 
of  $35,000,000,  and  a  charter  of  twentj  gears'  duration. 
This  capital,  as  in  tho  former  bank,  was  paid  "  one- 
fourth  in  coin  and  three-fourths  in  stock,  which  the 
bank  might  sell  at  the  rate  of  $2,000,000  per  year." 
Though  its  affairs  were  mismanaged,  and  it  sustained 
some  heavy  losses  iu  the  first  years  after  its  establish- 
ment, it  was  afterward  conducted  with  great  »kill,  pru- 
dence, and  success.  It  established  branches  in  nearly 
every  State,  and  bought  and  sold  bills  of  exchange  be- 
tween all  parts  of  the  Union  to  an  immense  amount, 
because  the  low  rates  of  in  premiums  and  discomits 
gave  lo  it  almost  a  monopoly  of  this  branch  of  busi- 
ness. While  it  rendered  this  and  other  important  serv- 
ices to  commerce,  it  was  the  general  financial  agent 
of  the  govevnment  through  nearly  tho  whole  term  of 
its  existence,  and  transmitted  the  public  revenue  to 
whatever  points  it  was  wanted  with  equal  j>romptitudo 
and  certainty,  and  without  charge.  Its  charter  ex- 
piring in  1H3(),  it  was  then  dissolved,  after  inefTectual 
attempts  in  botli  houses  of  Congress,  during  two  terms, 
to  counteract  tlic  opposition  of  President  Jackson,  and 
to  renew  its  charter.  In  June,  1832,  tho  renewal  of  its 
charter  passed  tho  Senate  by  a  vote  of  28  to  20,  and  in 
July  following  the  House  of  Representatives  confirmed 
the  vote  by  107  to  86,  but  tho  president  vetoed  the  bill 
a  week  afterward.  The  same  corporation  afterward 
obtained  a  charter  from  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  but 
in  18-11  it  linally  suspended  vayracnt,  and  its  shares 
wore  sokl  during  that  year  at  $17J,  and  subsequently 
at  $9,  the  same  year.  After  the  fate  of  the  United 
States  Bank  was  decided,  in  1832,  the  number  of  local 
banks  was  greatly  multiplied,  and  rose  from  3o0  banks 
in  1830,  with  capitals  amounting  to  $145,000,000,  to 
bi-i  banks  iu  1838,  with  $817,000,000  capital.  So  great 
an  increase,  and  the  consequent  distention  of  tho  circu- 
lation, contributed,  with  the  excessive  importations  of 
the  four  preceding  years,  especially  in  183(!,  to  tho  gen- 
eral suspension  which  took  place  in  May,  1837.  At 
this  period  we  commenced  tliese  remarks,  and  we  will 
now  advert  to  some  of  the  local  diversities  in  banking ; 
for  which  purpose  wo  will  consider  tho  State  banks 
according  to  the  geographical  divisions  of  the  United 
States,  as  tiio  banks  in  each  of  the  five  divisions  have 
some  common  features  of  resemblance.  We  shall  then 
take  up  tlie  several  States  wht.re  there  is  a  material  dif- 
ference in  each  division. 

hew  llngland. — Banking  in  the  New  England  States 
has,  witli  the  exception  of  the  Southwestern  States,  been 
carried  on  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  any  other  por- 
tion of  tlie  Union.  Tho  first  attempt  at  banking  among 
the  colonies  in  New  England  was  in  the  years  1739-40, 
when  the  "  Lund  Hank"  was  established  by  about  eight 
hundred  suliacribers,  who  pledged  tlicir  real  estate  to 
tho  amount  of  their  respective  shares,  and,  after  the 
choice  of  ten  directors  and  a  treasurer,  agreed  to  issue 
£150,000  in  l)ills,  to  bo  circulated  as,  lawful  money, 
each  XI  note  being  equivalent  to  three  ounces  uf  sil- 
ver; but  it  wns  soon  after  dissolved  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  each  holder  of  tho  bills  was  entitled  to  a 
right  of  action  against  any  individual  partner  for  the 
amount,  with  interest.  The  first  legitimate  liank  iu 
Boston  was  instituted  in  1781,  the  second  in  1792,  the 
third  in  1803,  all  oi  which  are  now  in  existence ;  there 
were,  however,  four  otlier  baoka  in  Um  State  in  1800, 


one  of  whlcli  wa«  the  Essex  Bank,  in  Salem,  incorpo* 
rated  in  1799.  There  are  no  reliable  tables  of  the  ag- 
gregate condition  of  the  banks  prior  to  1836 ;  but  from 
various  sources  we  ascertain  that  the  (bllowing  tabular 
statements  of  tho  number  of  banks,  and  the  amount 
of  capital  at  the  periods  named,  are  nearly  correct,  in 
reference  to  New  England ; 


Biuki. 


180D 

4T 

1811 

«T 

181B 

ea 

1820 

il2 

1830 

172 

1888 

319 

18B0 

312 

18&« 

480 

C«piUl. 


$13,368,000 
12,207,3(14 
1»,0B3,0<I3 
19,802,1(»4 
86,207,869 
06,267,640 
00,209,166 

111,349,830 


The  annual  reports  of  tho  Treasury  for  1850  and  18S1 
present  the  following  compar^^tive  views  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  New  England  banks  on  the  1st  of  January  : 


186U.                                                     { 

sum. 

B«iilu. 

C>piUl. 

ClKuUUon. 

Bpecit. 

Maine 

82 

$8,008,000 

$2,262,704 
1,770,021 

$3!tO,231 
13D,12() 

No  IV  Iluntpshire 

23 

2,180,600 

VeiTOont 

24 

1,820,975 

2,322,902 

120,7(8 

Mfu  fiacliuactts  . 

119 

34,080,011 

16,700,086 

2,740,fl7 

Connecticut  . . . 

80 

8,928,204 

4,611,670 

676,060 

lihodo  Inlana . . 

01 

11,312,404 

2,826,649 

291,2;  5 

18M. 

.Muinu 

Oil 

*;>,913,870 

$6,317,760 

$1,132,010 

Mew  Ilampslilro 

36 

3,370,000 

8,021,679 

180,230 

Vermont 

33 

2,014,040 

4,704,43!) 

iss,i7a 

MAHsachiiHettt  . 

143 

40,060, 17.') 

26,020,472 

8,731.704 

Connecticut  . . . 

B3 

13,104,554 

10,224,441 

1,145,S:>7 

Itluwl)>  Islnnd  . , 

77 

15.!]17,429 

4.8r5,r)2o 

2.'')0,000 

Of  the  six  States  of  New  p^ngland,  Bhodu  Island  has 
the  greatest  amount  of  bank  capital  in  proportion  to  its 
population,  but  its  extensive  manufacturing  concerns 
require  it  all.  Vermont  has  the  smallest  capital,  but 
its  circulation  is  proportionately  the  largest,  as  the  pre- 
ceding tallies  exhibit. 

Prior  to  tho  commencement  of  tho  present  century, 
and  for  several  years  afterward,  tho  prosperous  condi- 
tion of  the  commerce  of  New  England  gave  on  impe- 
tus to  trade,  and  a  speculative  spirit  prevailed,  and 
large  invesmenis,  for  those  days,  were  made  ir  real  es- 
tate and  thu  construction  of  turnpikes.  Money,  in  1808, 
was  in  great  demand,  and  at  a  high  rate  of  interest, 
but  during  that  and  the  succeeding  year  a  great  revul- 
sion occurred ;  real  estate  and  all  other  descriptions  of  • 
property  depreciated,  and  several  banks  failed.  The 
Farmers'  E.xchange  Bunk  of  Hhodo  Island,  w  itii  a  cir- 
culation of  $660,000,  was  among  the  number,  and  the 
entire  amount  was  a  total  loss  to  tlie  bill-holders,  in 
February,  1809.  Tho  failuro  of  this  bank  caused  oth- 
ers to  fall,  ond  among  them,  tho  Farmers'  Hunk  of 
Gloucester,  the  Coos  Bunk  in  New  Hampshire,  and 
others  of  less  note.  No  shock  of  public  or  private  cred- 
it hud  taken  place,  since  1783,  wliich  so  alarmed  the 
people  of  New  England  as  did  these  failures. 

Massachusetts. — After  this  period  the  amount  of  bank 
capital  was  diminished  about  one  million  of  dollars,  al- 
though the  number  of  banks  wan,  in  1811,  tho  same  as 
that  of  1805,  being  forty-seven  in  both  of  those  years. 
In  1811  the  State  Bunk,  with  a  capital  of  three  -nillions, 
was  chartered  in  Boston,  and  the  Merchants'  Hank  in 
Salem,  both  of  which  were  subscribed  for  by  the  Join- 
inant  party  of  tho  day ;  ond  when  war  was  deelnred  In 
1812,  the  State  Bank  subscribed  $5(Kl,()00  toward  the 
first  war  loon  of  eleven  millions,  the  Merchants'  Hunk 
$20,000,  and  the  Providence  Banks  $80,000,  which  wag 
the  entire  sum  taken  by  tlic  banks  of  New  iMiglaiu;  of 
the  first  loan.  Of  the  second  loan  of  thirteen  miiiinns, 
in  December,  1812,  $9,230,000  wos  subscribed  for  l.y  tho 
banks  throughout  the  country',  and  $3,870,000  i,y  lull- 
vidii.ils  (  but  the  whole  amount  contributed  by  No  v  ]',•.. 
glunil  wao  only  .?2,311,5(X),  of  which  Boston  and  S;'lein 
furnished  $2,]"H,100.  During  the  war  i-f  1812-1'1,  all 
tho  bonks  in  New  Englond  maintoinc<'  specie  pay* 
ments,  wbUo  all  tbs  rest  in  the  Middle,  AVosteni,  and 


BAN 


129 


BAN 


Soathem  Sutei  raapendcd  payment.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  accumulation  of  specie  in  Kassachu- 
Mtts  in  1814 : 


Vi«tt. 

B»l>k.. 

OplKl. 

CireuUUoo. 

SpMli. 

1805 

16 

$;>,  460,000 

$1,653,824 

$»t7,98S 

1810 

15 

6,685,000 

2,098,40' 

1,347,722 

1814 

21 

11,050,000 

2,922,611 

6,946,642 

1815 

25 

11,462,000 

3,464,241 

2,740,611 

1820 

28 

10,600,000 

2,614,734 

1,280,852 

1826 

41 

14,685,000 

6,994,264 

1,088,986 

1830 

68 

1»,2»5,009 

6,124,090 

1,268,444 

1885 

10ft 

80.410,000 

9,430,35 

1,186,357 

As  all  the  banlcs  in  the  other  New  England  8tat«l 
were  founded  on  the  same  basis,  it  is  fairly  to  bo  infer- 
red that  they  were  all  well  fortitiod  with  spuvlu,'  but  w« 
can  not  find  any  speciflcations  of  their  condition  in  any 
authentic  shape.  We  give,  however,  a  coniparatlva 
view  from  1820  to  1837,  to  show  bow  rapidly  both  banks 
and  banking  capital  were  multiplied  during  tbis  brief 
period  of  seventeen  years:  showing  an  incroaso  be- 
tween 1820  and  1830  of  eighty  banks  and  115,386,076 
capital,  auJ  between  1830-'37,  of  one  hundred  and  six- 
ty-three banks  and  |38,660,828  capital  i 


BUM. 

18W. 

isao. 

mi. 

Buki. 

CnplUl. 

Baaki. 

CapiUl. 

Bula. 

caritor. 

Malue 

15 
10 

1 

J  9 

30 

8 

$1,654,900 

1,006,276 

44,965 

10,486,700 
2,982,026 
8,689,887 

18 
18 
10 

<e 

47 
18 

$2,050,000 

1,791,670. 

482,625' 

2r  ,820,000 
i),118,89V 
4,486,177 

98 
20 
188 
14 

81 

$6,636,000 
2,663,801) 
«,2!)0,000 

40,880,000 
9,100,581 
8,619,808 

New  lUmpshira 

Oonneeticnt 

'92      ■■ 

$19,862,194 

-  "m 

$36,197,869 

885 

$68,848,197 

In  the  suspansiori  of  specie  payments  in  1837,  all  the 
Now  England  banVs  concurred,  but  they  all  resumed 
in  1838 ;  and  in  tb?  suspension  of  1839,  only  three  banks 
in  Maine  (one  of  which  resumed)  suspended;  one  in 
New  Hampshire  partially,  and  sixty-three  in  Rhode 
Island,  twenty-one  of  which  immediately  resumed  pay- 
ment; the  remaining  banlu  in  the  other  five  States  all 
redeemed  their  bills. 

The  banks  of  New  England  were  originally  founded 
upon  the  only  true  principle  of  banking — a  full  paid  up 
capital  in  coin,  placed  under  the  management  of  discreet 
and  responsible  directors.  The  caution  which  charac- 
terized these  important  personages  in  those  early  days 
superseded  tlie  necessity  of  providing  against  the  cun- 
ning devices  which  modem  linanciering  has  discovered; 
and  banks  wore  regarded  as  the  depositories  of  surplus 
wealth,  concentrated  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  ac- 
commodating the  public  by  discounting  short  paper 
with  uniplc  security,  and  thereby  yielding  to  the  stock- 
holders a  satisfactory  remuneration  without  any  person- 
al exertion  or  care.  The  trade  of  our  country  was  then 
limited  in  its  extent ;  manufactures  were  carried  on  by 
ind'vidual  exertions  only,  and  disposed  of  within  the 
narrow  precincts  of  their  own  neighlwrhood.  The 
products  of  agricultun  \rero  exchanged  for  articles  of 
domestic  use,  and  our  commerce,  then  in  its  infancy, 
was  principally  employed  in  the  conveyance  of  our  do- 
mestic productions,  and  the  proceeds  of  our  fisheries,  to 
tlie  West  Indies,  South  America,  and  Europe,  and  re- 
turned homo  with  such  pioductions  of  tho.ie  countries 
as  were  required  for  consumption  or  use ;  an.l  for  such 
operations  bank  facilities  were  not  needed.  But  the 
unparalleled  increase  of  the  commerce  and  navigation 
of  Massachusetts,  Mafaie,  and  Rhode  Island,  as  well  as 
throughout  the  countr}-  at  largo,  soon  created  a  class 
of  traders  who  purchased  and  held  larger  stocks  of 
merchandise  for  their  business,  and  whose  transactions 
were  p^  litably  carried  on  between  the  mo  rhant  and 
the  agriculturist,  the  importer  and  the  consumer,  the 
exporter  otul  tlio  producer.  In  proportion  as  t'.  deand 
commerce  increased,  their  operations  called  into  tequi- 
sition  a  larger  amount  of  capital,  and  bank  facilities 
were  more  and  more  needed.  The  stringfit  regula- 
tions of  earlier  days  did  not  suii  the  wants  of  the  com- 
munity, and  new  banks  were  created  with  more  liberal 
views,  but  still  conducted  with  great  caution.  With 
every  decade  of  years,  the  banking  institutions  ba^'e 
always  kept  pace  witli  the  logiliniati!  wants  of  trade, 
and  sonwtimcs  transcended  Ibcm.  Tliey  have  now 
reached  u  point  where  it  is  desirable  that  they  should 
rest  a  while,  as  the  banks  in  Now  England  arc  more 
than  one-third  of  all  the  country  in  number,  and  but 
little  less  than  one-third  of  its  entire  bank  capital. 

It  is  now  upward  of  seventy  years  since  tlio  tirst 
bank  was  established  in  New  luifiland,  nnd  the  coun- 
try lias  passed  tlirougii  the  vurioud  viciasitudos  of  pros- 
perity and  adversity,  commercial  6eizurei  and  embar- 


goes, peace  and  war,  growing  oat  of  the  continental 
troublex  in  Europe ;  and  when,  after  the  general  poaco 
of  1815,  the  country  emerge  1  from  its  dark  cloud  of  de- 
spondency and  resumed  her  commercial  pursuits,  It 
was  with  a  buoyancy  which  astonished  the  world  with 
her  unprecedented  success.  Bince  that  period  we  liavu 
oeen  in  imminent  peril  of  war,  once  with  Kranue,  tliruo 
times  with  Great  Britain,  once  with  8paln,  and  engaged 
in  actual  hostilities  with  Mexico,  to  lay  nothing  of 
Austria  and  Peru,  which  wero  of  minor  importanco ; 
and  although  all  thes^  national  troubles  have,  with  but 
one  exception,  been  amicably  settled  without  an  ap- 
peal to  arms,  still  their  effects  havo  been  felt  In  our 
iinancial  circles,  producing  those  sudden  lluc'cutious 
which  operate  so  disastrously  upon  the  Inturutts  of 
trade.  Throughout  all  these  perilous  periods  the  Mew 
England  States  have  proudly  sustained  tlieir  banking 
system,  yielding  only  onrc  to  the  financial  crisis  of  18.17, 
which  prostrated  every  jniik  in  ihe  United  Status,  fur 
one  brief  year,  and  even  then  with  rcluctanre.  It  must 
then  be  conceded  that  a  system  which  has  been  sub- 
jected, for  so  long  a  period,  to  inch  various  vicissitudui 
and  severe  experience  and  trial,  must  possess  cleineiits 
of  vitality  and  strength  which  should  cntlilu  It  (o  the 
confidence  and  support  of  the  community,  liuwover  an- 
tiquated it  may  appear  to  be,  in  comparison  with  those 
subtle  theories  which  our  modern  financiers  so  sirciiu- 
ously  advocate. 

In  reviewing  the  bank  history  of  Now  England,  wo 
find  :nany  errors  and  omissions  which  have  from  tliiio 
to  time  been  corrected,  as  the  various  dovclupnienti  of 
bank  failures  were  scrutinized  by  successivu  Legisla- 
tures in  evcy  State.  The  very  first  charter  grunted  in 
Boston  was  unlimited  in  its  duration,  but  it  has  since 
been  restricted  by  consent,  and  expires  in  1870.  Hut 
the  greatest  error  was  in  relation  to  the  power  of  iimu- 
ing  notes.  An  overissue:  of  paper  Is  one  of  lliu  great- 
est niiscliicfs  cf  banks,  and  one  to  which  they  arc  must 
strongly  tempted  by  the  desire  of  increasing  their  prof- 
its; it  is  obviously  wise,  therefore,  to  impose  a  limit  un 
these  issues,  which  should  not  under  any  clrcunistancui 
Iw  transcended.  But  wo  find  that  when  tliu  flml  ciiar- 
ters  were  granted,  the  Legislatures,  being  nnfunrillur 
with  the  .stilject  of  banking,  and  learning  probably 
from  English  l)Ooks  that  the  Bank  of  England  consid- 
ered it  a  safe  rule  to  have  in  fts  vaults  one-third  as 
much  specie  as  it  had  notes  in  circulation,  they  con- 
ceived that  after  having  required  tho  wlio'.o  i'::pital 
stock  to  lie  piiiil  In  >4pocie,  they  wero  adopting  the  same 
rule  as  the  ilank  of  England,  by  limiting  the  aiiidiint 
of  circulation  to  three  times  the  amount  of  the  capital 
f'ock. 

This  provision  having  once  found  its  way  Into  iiomo 

of  the  early  char'ers,  it  was  copied  into  others  on  tlio 

'  presumption  that  it  hiid  lieen  tcetcd  by  cxpuriclico.     In 

-lOinu  of  the  Stutis  ibe  only  restriction  was  tliut  tho 

,  amount  of  their  loans  should  not  exceed  ttutiO  Uiuet 


BAN 


UQ 


BAN 


the  tmonnt  of  their  c«piul  stock,  or  that  their  iasnei 
diould  not  exceed  that  proportion ;  but  both  these  rc- 
strictloqs  are  merely  Lominal,  for  there  is  not  a  bank 
ill  Kew  England  whose  discounts  have  ever  amounted 
to  three  times  the  capital.  This  error,  however,  has 
been  remedied  Id  all  the  States  of  New  England,  first 
by  la^,  and  secondly  by  the  operation  of  the  Suffolk 
Bank  system,  which  exercises  a  constant  watchfulness 
over  the  Issues  of  every  bank,  and  not  one  can  venture 
spon  an  excessive  Issue  without  Immediate  exposure. 
The  laws  of  Massachusetts,  in  relation  to  circulation 
and  loans,  ate  as  perfect  as  legislation  can  make  them ; 
they  limit  the  circulation  to  25  per  cent,  beyond  the 
amount  of  the  capital  paid  In,  and  Impose  upon  the 
stockholders  an  individual  liability  to  the  amount  of 
their  stock,  for  the  redemption  of  the  bills  of  the  bank. 
The  loatis  are  limited  to  double  the  amount  of  the  cap- 
ital paid  in,  nor  can  they  be  extended  beyond  this 
amount,  however  large  or  permanent  the  deposits  may 
be.  Weekly  returns  from  the  banks  In  Boston,  and 
monthly  retiuns  from  all  others  in  the  State,  are  re- 
quired to  be  made  to  the  Secretary  of  State  on  the  first 
Monday  of  the  month,  showing  their  true  condition,  un- 
der a  penalty  of  $500  for  ever}'  omission ;  and,  Anally, 
three  commissioners  are  appointed,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
visit  every  bank  and  savings  bank  ' '  at  least  once  in 
every  two  years,  and  to  examine  every  new  bank,  and 
every  bank  whose  capital  has  been  Increased,  within  a 
year  after  they  go  into  operation,  or  after  the  stock 
shall  have  been  paid  in  respectively."  Maine,  Ver- 
mont, and  Connecticut  have  bank  commissioners  also, 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  proposed  now  "  Bank  of  Mutu- 
al Redemption,"  should  it  go  iuto  operation,  the  cur- 
rency of  New  England  will  be  tlic  safest  in  the  Union. 

There  liave  been  other  errors  in  banking  in  past 
times,  of  which  we  have  not  yet  token  notice.  The 
Legislatures  of  tlio  ditTiriMit  .Staies  liave  not  been  suffi- 
ciently curofiil  tu  discriminate  between  real  and  nom- 
inal capital;  and  while  the  stoi'kholdcrs  have  gone 
through  the  form  of  paying  up  tlif  stock  of  the  banks, 
it  has  been  too  often  nothing  but  form.  In  some  in- 
stances, stork  notes  have  constituted  the  chief  part  of 
the  capital ;  gol(*  has  buen  borrowed  from  other  banks 
for  the  purpose  >f  examination  on  pay  day,  and  then 
returned  to  its  r)B[htful  owners.  The  stocli  notes  wore 
the  next  day  disi  o'inted  by  the  new  bonk,  its  bills  paid 
out  therefor,  an  1  scattered  far  and  wide  for  the  pur- 
pose of  circulation.  Being  new,  curiosity  would  retain 
them  for  a  wbilr,  until  the  bank  could  gather  in  its  de- 
posits, and  these  would  enable  it  to  redeem  that  portion 
of  them  which  would  be  presented  for  specie  payment. 

Again,  thu  banks  have  been  too  numerous,  though 
the  capital  may  have  been  real,  and  this  part  of  the 
machinery  has  lieennot  only  more  expensive,  but  more 
easily  ilcranged.  In  consequence  of  the  cxced.iivu  com- 
petition induced  by  the  undue  multiplication  of  l>i>iikt>, 
ar'jf  and  schemes  have  been  resorted  to  for  tl.i  purpoBe 
of  ultftining  a  larger  share  of  circulation,  thereby  en- 
largini;  their  profits,  the  currency  greatly  distended, 
and  the  safety  of  the  banks  themselves  endangered. 
In  genersl  the  same  capital  will  be  safer,  as  well  as 
more  prollial)!'-,  If  cona'ntrated  in  one  bank,  than  if 
distributed  among  several  smaller  ones.  When  tlie 
number  of  banks  has  been  ."sufficiently  enlarged  to  se- 
cure to  the  public  the  benefit  of  competition,  it  appears 
to  be  as  unwise  to  multiply  them  any  farther  as  it 
would  be  to  make  any  unnecessary  addition  to  the 
nunil»er  of  our  colleges,  churclies,  or  any  othor  public 
institutions. 

The  only  innovations  which  have  been  attempted 
upon  the  banking  system  of  Sew  England  have  (wen  in- 
troduced in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut, 
by  the  passage  of  frc'c  banking  laws ;  but  the  experi- 
ment has  signally  failc<I,  and  the  laws  have  Iwcome 
almost  inoperative  The  charters  of  tlie  l>ank8  in 
Maine  expire  by  limitation  in  1867 ;  those  in  Uhode 
I^and  are  perpetual,  and  there,  oa  in  Maaiachuif  til, 


stockbolderi  are  individually  liable  for  the  redemption, 
of  the  circulation,  The  failures  which  have  occun«d 
have  been  numerous,  but  they  have  all  originated  either 
from  r  'leficlency  of  the  payment  of  the  original  capital, 
or  by .  alpable  mismanagement.  It  has  been  truly  re- 
marked by  a  keen  observer,  that  "  the  personal  charac- 
ter of  the  officers  and  stockholders  of  banks  Is  intimately 
blended  with  their  safety.  At  the  start,  good  intent 
tions  prevail  as  a  general  rule,  and  the  directors  pay 
striot  attention  to  business;  gradually,  however,  the 
management  passes  into  fewer  hands,  and  somelimea 
into  one  only.  Trade  in  money  has  its  peculiar  effects 
upon  character,  like  all  other  occupations  and  avoca- 
tions, from  which  effect  only  the  most  sterling  men 
escape.  Malpractice  will  grow  as  care  and  diligence 
slacken ;  so,  from  neglect  or  undue  anxiety  to  make 
money,  losses  occur.  This  is  the  general  feature  of  all 
barking;  much  of  the  safety  of  banks  lies  in  the  unre- 
mitting attention  of  directors  and  stockholders  to  the 
affairs  of  the  bank." 

The  truth  of  these  remarks  will  be  admitted  by  those 
who  were  conversant  with  the  circumstances  attending 
the  disasters  of  the  following  banks  in  Massachusetts : 
American,  Kilby,  Commonwealth,  Oriental,  Middling 
Interest,  Cochituate,  and  many  others  in  Boston ;  and 
theNcwburyport,  Wobum,  Roxbuty,  Chelsea,  Kahant, 
Dover,  and  others  in  the  country.  In  Maine — Kenne- 
bec, Castine,  Ilallowell  and  Augusta,  Wiscasset  and 
others.  In  Connecticut — Eastern,  Derby,  Eagle  of 
New  Haven,  Commercial  Bank  of  Tolland,  Bridgeport 
Manufacturing  Company,  and  others.  In  New  Hamp- 
shire— HillsboroandPiscataqua.  In  Vermont — Wind- 
sor, Barrington,  Agricultural,  Green  Mountain,  etc. 
In  Rhode  Island — Bnrrillville,  Eagle,  Franklin,  Mount 
Hope,  etc.  We  have  specified  these  banks  because 
they  are  the  most  prominent  and  the  most  recent,  and, 
witli  perhaps  some  few  exceptions,  owe  their  downfall 
to  one  of  the  two  causes  to  which  wo  have  alluded,  viz., 
fictitious  capital  or  palpable  mismanagement.  The 
art  of  successful  banking  is  in  itself  a  ecirnce,  not  ac- 
quired with  facility  or  mere  obscrvotion,  but  Iiy  labo- 
rious study  and  application  to  its  practical  details  and 
operations ;  and  when  we  investigate  the  origin,  foun- 
dation, and  career  of  the  various  banks  in  New  England, 
and  the  vicissitudes  and  political  changes  through 
which  they  have  passed  during  the  period  wliieb  we 
have  been  considering,  it  appears  raarvelDus  that  any 
of  the  earlier  banks  should  have  been  conducted  in 
safety  through  the  mysteries  and  pprplexiti<'.<  of  cur- 
rency in  its  frequent  cimtractions  and  expansions,  and 
of  exchange  'n  its  constant  fluctuations,  produced  by 
silent  operations  in  distant  markets,  and  imperceptibly, 
yet  Inevitably,  influencing  the  monetary  condition  of 
their  sphere  of  operations.  And  yet,  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  numln'r  of  banks  in  New  Knglaiid,  liow 
few  of  them  have  failed  ?  And  to  what  cause  can  we 
mure  probably  attribute  it  than  to  tho  excellence  of 
the  tt/tlem  under  which  they  are  constituted— o  tpec^ 
batuY 

Minnr.E  Statics.  New  Tori. — In  the  early  hii-'ory 
rf  banking  in  New  York,  since  IHOO,  politics  and  finance 
were  so  intermingled  that  the  question  of  granting  a 
bank  cliarter  was  n  matter  of  direct  issue  l)etwcen  the 
two  political  parties  of  the  day;  but  prior  to  that  pe- 
riod, in  the  efitablishmcnt  of  the  first  Imnks,  this  state 
of  partisan  excitement  did  not  exist,  but  in  lieu  of  it 
there  was  a  Jealousy  in  regard  to  the  incorporation  of 
moneyed  institutions ;  and  after  they  were  establish- 
ed, great  caution  was  nfju'red  to  avoid  the  perila 
which  their  opponents  had  predicted  would  inevitably 
ensue.  Fortunately,  however,  the  first  bank  establish- 
ed in  N«w  York  was  niana^'od  with  such  ability  and 
discretion  that  it  disarmed  all  opposition,  and  became 
F.n  important  auxiliary  to  tho  government  of  the 
I'niied  States,  by  a  loan  of  |ll(K),()00  at  five  per  cent., 
I  thereby  securing  in  its  early  career  great  popularity, 
i  0*  the  bonk  owed  no  favor  to  the  government,  and  had  - 


BAIT 


Ut 


BAN 


no  interested  motivea  in  loaning  the  money.  Tlie  or- 
ganization of  tills  banlc  (tlie  Banic  of  New  Yorit)  was, 
howevar,  an  association  for  banlcing  purposes,  rattier 
ttian  a  regular  banli.  It  commenced  business  in  1784 
(Its  first  application  for  a  charter  iiaving  been  unsuc- 
cessful) without  a  charter,  and  discounted  short  paper 
at  6  per  cent,  per  annum,  which  rate  was  advanced  to 
7  per  cent,  three  years  aifterward.  In  1791  a  charter 
was  granted,  the  act  of  Incorporation  having  l)een  drawn 
by  General  Alexander  Hamilton,  which  was  not  ma- 
terially altered  before  its  expiration.  Its  authorized 
capital  was  $1,000,000,  but  it  is  now  double  that  amount, 
and  its  annual  dividends  have  usually  been  8  to  10  per 
cent,  per  annum. 

The  next  banks  incorporated  were  the  Bank  of  Al- 
bany in  1792,  and  the  Bank  of  Columbia,  which  were 
chartered  without  any  other  opposition  than  that  of 
the  timid  portion  of  the  community,  who  had  not  for- 
gotten the  disastrous  losses  by  the  Continental  system 
of  paper  money. 

In  1799  the  Manhattan  Company  was  incorporated, 
with  an  unlimited  charter,  and  was  regarded  as  a  par- 
tisan triumph ;  and  from  this  period  all  projected  mon- 
eyed institutions  in  the  city  of  New  York  were  advoca- 
ted or  opposed  on  political  considerations  onlj-,  and 
thus  finance  and  politics  became  blended  in  the  con- 
test, which  continued  until  the  question  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie  Canal  diverted  the  gladiaturc  of 
zealous  politicians  to  this  new  area  of  eti'ife.  In  1801 
the  whole  number  of  bunks  in  the  St«t«  was  but  five, 
whose  authorized  capitals  were  $4,722,000.  In  I(«)3 
the  New  York  State  Bank  ot  Albany  was  chartered, 
and  in  1805  the  Merchants'  Bank  in  New  York,  having 
commenced  business,  however,  two  years  previous  to 
its  lieing  chartered.  Thero  were  then,  ii  1805,  but 
seven  banks  in  New  York  State,  the  aggregate  of 
whose  capitals  was  only  $5,430,000;  but  it  has  now 
300  banks,  having  a  capital  of  $9G,000,0'JO.  In  1810 
theMechanics'Uank  was  chartered ;  in  1811,  the  Union, 
and  the  Farmers  and  Mechanics'  in  Albany ;  in  1812, 
the  I'hoinix,  the  City,  and  the  Bank  of  America.  The 
projectors  of  tliis  latter  bank  originally  applied  for  a 
capital  of  six  millions  of  dollars,  to  supply  the  place 
of  the  United  States  Bank,  whoso  charter  Imd  so  re- 
cently expired,  and  offered  for  the  "barter  a  bonus  to 
the  State  of  $400,0 '0  unconditionally  :  $100,000  in  ten 
years,  and  $100,000  in  twenty  years,  if,  at  tlie  expira- 
tion of  those  terms,  there  should  be  no  additional 
banking  caijital  authorized  by  the  Assembly  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  They  further  oft'ercd  to  loan  the 
State  one  million  of  dollars,  at  5  per  cent.,  for  the 
construction  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  one  million  more 
at  li  per  cent.,  to  be  reloanod  to  farmers  and  others 
on  landed  security. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Manhattan  Company's  appli- 
cation for  n  chartei  in  1799,  all  the  arts  of  political  in- 
trigue were  brought  into  requisition,  but  after  a  pro- 
tracted and  violent  opposition  the  bill  was  hrully 
passed  as  petitioned  for;  but  a  sub'icqucnt  Legislature 
authorized  the  bank  to  rvducc  its  capital  to  two  mill- 
ions of  dollars,  and  at  the  same  time  reduced  its  bonus 
to  the  State  to  $100,000,  as  immediately  after  the  char- 
tor  was  granted  war  was  declared  against  Groat  Brit- 
ain, anf"  "with  it  came  the  long  series  of  commercial 
disasters  and  financial  troubles,  and  a  general  inter- 
rup'.ioii  of  our  foreign  trade."  In  1H14  the  banks  in 
New  York,  in  conse<iucnce  of  their  liberal  bonus  to  t!ic 
government,  and  their  excessive  issues  of  pnpiT  coi..  i-- 
qucnt  thereon,  suspended  speoii-  payments,  in  common 
with  all  the  other  hunka  in  the  Middle,  Western  and 
Southern  States.  Six  months  after  the  suspension, 
the  news  of  pence  was  received,  but  the  banks  did  not 
resimic  specie  payments ;  and  instead  of  contracting 
their  eireubtion,  they  increased  it,  and  were  encour- 
aged to  do  so  by  the  general  government,  who  contin- 
ued to  receive  their  inconvertible  paper  for  public  dues, 
until  February,  1817,  when  there  was  a  partial  resump- 


tion of  specie  payments,  and  the  second  United  States^ 
Bank  commenced  its  operations.  After  the  peace  in 
1815,  large  amounts  of  specie  were  annually  exported 
to  the  East  Indies  "ind  China,  and  the  premium  on  sil-' 
ver  was  from  15  to  19  per  cent.  The  United  States 
Bank  resorted  to  Jorced  importations  of  specie  to  sup- 
ply the  vacuum,  and  having  spent  $600,000  on  one  ex- 
periment, they  wisely  abandoned  the  scheme,  and  al- 
lowed trade  to  follow  its  natural  channels.  Between 
1812  and  January,  1818,  about  two  hundred  new  banks 
were  chartered  in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  which  dis- 
tended the  currency  to  its  utmost  point ;  but  a  day  of 
recl-oning  was  near  at  hand,  and  all  further  inflation 
was  at  an  end.  In  the  middle  of  1818  the  contraction 
commenced,  and  banks  and  individuals  were  swept 
away  in  one  promiscuous  mass  of  ruin.  The  disastrous 
effects  of  this  local  banking  mania  were  felt  until  the 
close  of  1820,  and  in  many  portions  of  the  country  for 
many  succeeding  years.  The  following  tabular  state- 
ment exhibits  the  banking  capital  of  New  York  during 
this  period  of  twentj-  years : 


Yean. 

Ban  la. 

Capital. 

1801 

6 

$4,720,000 

1806 

7 

6,430,000 

1811 

8 

T,R22,760 

18115 

20 

]8,94(),818 

1816 

27 

18,766,76« 

1820 

S3 

18,088,744 

but  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  amount 
of  cl-.culation  or  specie.  The  estimates  of  the  whole 
country  for  1815  were  208  banks,  f82,260,000  capital, 
$70,000,000  to  $110,000,000  circulation,  $15,500,000 
specie. 

When  the  suspension  of  specie  payments  took  p'.ace 
in  1814,  a  public  meeting  of  the  merchants  and  others 
interested  was  held,  and  they  promptly  sanctioned  the 
measure,  under  the  assurances  of  the  banks,  however, 
that  whenever  the  war  was  terminated  spc.-ie  pay- 
ments should  be  resumed.  Doubtless  this  was  the  in- 
tention of  the  banks,  as  they  commenced  the  curtail- 
ment of  their  loans  immediately  after  their  suspension ; 
but  wliei!  peace  took  place  the  redemption  of  this 
pledge  was  not  demanded  at  the  stipulated  time,  and 
the  banks,  regardless  of  all  moral  obligations,  and 
stimulated  by  the  prospect  of  large  jirofits  and  enor- 
mous dividends,  cxteiiiicd  their  circulation  to  an 
amount  unexampled  in  the  anna'"  of  folly,  luo 
"plenty  of  money,"  as  it  was  called,  was  so  profuse, 
that  the  bank  directors  were  fcarfid  that  they  could 
'  not  find  a  demand  for  all  tiiO  "money"  they  could  fali- 
j  ricft'o,  and  not  unfrequently  solicited  individuals  to 
iKicoir.  .'uiTowers,  under  promi'.es  of  indulgence  of  the 
mosi.  liberal  and  tempting  nature.  Every  city,  town, 
and  county  hud  lis  own  local  currency,  bearing  no 
equivalent  with,  or  fixed  proportion  to,  nuy  other;  and 
a  new  and  ..^tensive  class  of  b,nl<erd  appeared,  who 
still  T-cist,  and  have  evir  been  supported  at  the  ex- 
pense of  those  who  have  ij'on  defrauded  by  the  banks 
of  their  juit  right,  the  p<ir  mini'  of  their  notes. 

When  the  United  States  Bank  was  incorporated,  the 
city  banks  became  ulaniicd  for  their  safet}-,  and  made 
a  retrograde-  movement,  ,iiid,  by  a  reduction  of  their 
loans  iniinediately,  occasioned  great  f/»mmercial  dis- 
tress. T.iis  temporarily  ,jroduccd  a  redo'^ion  of  the 
currency,  and  the  directors  of  the  National  fsank  pro- 
posed to  the  State  banks  a  nsuniplion  of  specie  pay- 
ments on  the  21st  February,  1817,  and  the  city  banks, 
relying  upon  the  forbearance  which  had  boon  ext<!iid- 
ed  to  them  by  a  confiding  but  defrauded  community, 
who  for  two  years  and  a  half  had  been  paying  (1  per 
ceni,  per  annum  for  their  dcpreciawd  and  dishonored 
bank  bills,  assented  to  the  arrangement,  and  specie 
payments  were  nnminaVy  resumed  on  the  appointed 
day.  But  the  resumption  was  merely  nominal,  for 
silver,  both  foreign  and  American,  still  comiimndod  a 
premium  over  the  par  value  of  city  bank-notes,  and  dc 
preciation  may  rcsuU,  ns  well  from  the  forbearance  ol 


BAN 


182 


BAK 


creditors  in  danmnding  tlici.-  rigliU  as  from  the  refiaial 
ofbanlM  to  nice',  the!rcn««gBnient»j  ami  ihis  arranifh?- 
ment  was  not  a  real  resumption,  but  a.  inure  cliange  of 
one  species  of  inconvertible  paper  for  anotlier  of  lilte 
character.  As  soon,  liowover,  as  the  directors  of  the 
National  Bank  had  completed  their  arrangement  for 
elevating  this  ileprcciated  paper  to  the  standiird  of 
their  own  convertible  notes,  instead  of  reciowiiig  the 
experience  of  the  past,  or  acting  upon  the  general 
princii  le  that  circulation  could  not  be  extended  beyond 
a  certain  limit,  and  that,  when  this  point  wa«  reached, 
any  further  issues  would  occasion  depreciation,  and 
'.vith  the  full  k^iowledge  that  such  was  the  actual  sUto 
of  existing  aifairs,  they  nt  once  commenced  issuing 
their  own  ciroi'lation,  and  in  a  few  months  added  to 
the  cir  rency  an  amount  greater  than  that  which  had 
previously  Iwen  witlidrawn.  By  their  operations,  the 
currency  nominally  convertible  i.as  depreciated  below 
its  former  rate,  and  retrograded  instead  of  advanced 
toward  rcsloratior.  But  the  banic  finally  discovered 
its  error  when  ainiost  too  late,  and  sought  to  retrieve 
it  by  withdrawing  their  oirculation,  reducing  their 
loans,  and  curtailing  all  Iheir  other  transactions,  there- 
by causing  a  second  pressure  in  Octobt'r,  1S18,  which 
continued  for  Kiorc  than  a  year,  anf'.  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  many  years  longer.  II  the  lity  banks 
had  availed  themseh  ns  of  the  opportunity  of  curtailing 
their  operations  while  l!io  United  States  Bank  was  ex- 
tending, it  would  have  been  financial  wisdom ;  but  the 
same  cupidity  controlled  their  movements,  and  they 
were  also  crnipelled  to  contract  their  isaues,  loans,  and 
all  01  her  operations. 

The  banking  system  of  New  York  was  originally 
founded  on  the  universal  principle  of  a  specie  basi.n ; 
but  after  the  disasters  of  the  jieriod  which  wo  have 
just  been  reviewing,  fnianriers  and  political  economists 
were  impressed  wish  the  belief  tliat  there  was  some- 
thing defective  in  tbe  system;  that  some  reform  wns 
necessary  iii  regard  to  the  currency,  and  that  unless 
a  remedy  was  found,  the  whole  banking  fabric  would 
ultimately  be  overthrown.  The  lirst  innovation  which 
ivas  tried  commenced  in  Now  York  with  'lie  adoption 
of  tlie  "  safety  fund"  system  in  1829.  It  required  from 
each  l>ank  an  annuol  coutribntion  of  half  per  cent,  of 
its  capital  to  a  common  fund,  to  be  deposited  with  the 
State  Treasurer  os  a  '•  bank  fund,"  until  it  amounted 
to  .1  jier  cent,  oi  the  capital  of  each  bank,  and  was 
to  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  del'ts  of  any  bank 
which  might  become  insolvent  which  bad  contributed 
to  the  same  ;  and  in  case  the  fund  was  at  any  time  di- 
minished by  payment  therefrom,  the  banks  were  again 
required  tr  make  their  annual  contributions,  till  each 
had  in  deposit  the  .1  per  cent,  on  its  capital  stock.  For 
a  series  of  years  this  system  was  regarded  with  fa\or, 
but  tho  sudden  failure  of  10  Ijanks,  with  capitals  amount- 
ing to  $'2,o5y,000,  occasioned  uloss  of  $l,ilH,.')GO  fur  re- 
demption of  circulation,  and  81,010,371;  for  the  payr.icnt 
of  the  c.her  liabilities  of  the.«e  insolvent  banks.  At  the 
time  /f  the  failure,  the  fund  amounted  to  !ji  1 ,87C,073, 
and  the  balance  was  paid  by  a  (i  per  cent.  sto;k  au- 
thorized by  the  State,  tlie  redemption  of  which  stock 
was  provided  for  by  the  subseijuent  contributions  of 
the  banks  to  the  fund.  Under  this  same  law  of  1821), 
three  bank  commissioners  were  appointed,  with  large 
jiowers,  to  supervise  and  inspect  the  several  banks  of 
the  .State.  These  ollicers  were  at  fint  appointed,  one 
by  the  governor  and  Senate,  one  by  the  city  banks,  and 
one  by  the  country  banks ;  but  in  1837  the  power  of  ap- 
pointing the  whole  number  was  transferred  to  the  gov- 
ernor and  Senate,  which  placed  these  officers  "  within 
the  vortex  of  the  great  political  whirlpool  of  tho  State, 
and  (he  place  was  sought  foran<l  conferred  ujwn  parti- 
san aspirants,  without  due  regard,  in  all  cases,  to  their 
qualiftcations  to  discharge  the  delicate  trust  committed 
to  tluiii."  In  1843  the  Legislature  abolished  the  oflice, 
conferring  the  power  of  examiuiiig  the  banks  upon  the 
ronlroUer  of  the  State. 


After  nine  years  trial  of  tho  "  safety  fut\d"  icheme,' 
it  was  viitualty  nbaadoned,  and  ano.  her  e.Kperiment 
was  subatituted  in  1888,  by  the  passage  of  tlo  "free 
bank"  law.  By  this  system  "e-ery  individual  and  a«> 
sociatiott  was  authori/.ed  to  engage  in  tlie  business  of 
banking;  and  on  depositing  with  the  controller  tha 
stocks  of  the  United  States,  the  stocks  of  tny  State 
which  should  be  oi  be  mode  equn<  to  a  5  per  cent, 
stock,  or  such  stocks  and  bonds,  and  mortgagoe  to  the 
same  vnount  o.i  improved,  productiv<',  and  unincum- 
liered  real  estate,  worth  double  the  amount  secured  by 
tho  mortgage,  ovor  and  aliove  all  faaildiiigs  thereon, 
and  bearing  an  interest  thereon  of  6  pr  cent,  per  an* 
nuin,  tho  co.itroUer  was  required  to  deliver  to  such 
individual  o.-  asso.'riation  an  .:qu»l  amount  af  l<aiik- 
notes  for  circulation,  duly  numbered,  registered  and 
signed  at  hisoflicr."  So  sjiecilic  amount  was  required 
from  individual  banker!^  before  they  commenced  opera- 
tions, nor  were  the  stockliolders  liable  in  their  Individ' 
ual  capacity.  The  result  was,  that  in  the  abundant 
sup,  'y  of  stocks  of  ev^ry  description,  banks  were  'in- 
mediately  created  out  ot  the  cheapest  materials,  and 
bank-notes  were  furnished  to  the  community  with  tha 
most  generous  j>rofusion.  Tliix  extraordinary  expan- 
sion produced  the  usual  results,  inflation  of  prices,  ex- 
tension of  credits,  and  wildnei^s  of  speculation  ;  and  to 
aid  the  delusion,  the  bonds  of  the  M'estern  and  South- 
western States  were  freely  supplied.  But  the  crisis 
came  with  fearful  results ;  first  in  the  shape  of  non- 
pa)  nient  of  interest,  next  of  great  depreciation,  and, 
tlnally,  the  ropuaiation  of  the  State  bonds,  and  the 
consequent  failures  of  the  banks  which  owned  them. 
But  these  disasters  did  not  discourage  the  people  from 
a  persistence  in  the  scheme  oi  free  banking ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  Legislature  of  1840  preserved  the  .-ystem, 
i)y  excluding  the  stocks  of  other  States,  after  that  date, 
and  re<iuired  the  banks  to  deposit  the  stocks  of  Now 
York  and  the  United  States  only.  Although  the  sys- 
tem has  been  materiaUy  improved  by  legislative  en- 
actments since  It  was  lirst  estiblishcd  (and  almost  every 
year  furnislies  some  valuable  amendment  to  its  provi- 
sions and  restrictions),  and  is  now  regarded  w  ith  favor 
by  prominent  linanclers,  as  aftbrdiug  ai:.ple  security  to 
bill-holilors,  yet  even  on  this  point  there  may  linger 
some  d(jubts.  In  periods  of  prosperity  all  would  be 
well;  but  in  the  event  of  severe  pressure  and  a  panic, 
a  sudden  contraction  of  the  currency,  and  a  general 
withdrawal  of  all  rioating  capital,  the  free  banks  would 
find  it  ditiicult,  if  not  impossible,  to  convert  their 
stocks  :iiid  mortgages  into  tho  rcqul.'<ite  funds  to  carry 
on  their  redemption ;  and  the  failure  of  even  one  of 
them  would  be  disastrous  to  many.  In  coniirmation 
of  these  remarks,  we  have  only  to  recur  to  the  control- 
ler's pa.<t  reports,  and  a.scertain  what  the  results  of  tl.e 
fttili'res  of  some  of  these  free  banks  were,  and  we  find 
the  following,  among  others :  St.  Lawrence  Bank,  se- 
curities $81,277,  sold  for  127,232  60;  New  York  rank- 
ing Comiiany,  N.  Y.,  securities  |2fi,000,  sold  for  $4,370 ; 
Erie  County  Bank,  whose  mortgages  for  $1.'>,0(I0  on 
property  valued  at  $31,o00,  exclusive  of  buildings, 
wore  sold  for  $3,000 ;  State  Bank  of  Now  York,  Buffalo, 
$&,00<)  lllinnis  ti's,  sold  for  $812  50;  and  so  on  with 
tho  remaining  27  banks  in  his  report  of  1849.  To  il- 
lustrate the  rapid  progress  which  the  banking  interest 
liiiS  mad'!  within  the  last  twenty  years,  wc  add  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


Ya«n. 

Banb. 

L'splUI. 

ISOO 
1S64 

1(10 

l»s 

$8T,<0I.MO 
48,6m,70'.i 
80,IV!<!,ST0 

M,oon,«no 

Woekly  returns  of  the  condition  of  tho  banks  in  tho 
city  of  Now  York  were  lirst  n'.ade  in  Septeinlwr,  1849, 
and  in  October,  1853,  a  "  cb^aring-houso''  was  estab- 
lished fur  the  city  banks.  The  rutums  for  two  years, 
for  1863  to  1KJ5,  tliuw  an  aggregate  of  exchanges  of 
$1  l,87&,U9U,4i>0,  and  of  balancei  lettled  of  |GOO,273,82(>. 


I 


BAN 


188 


BAN 


Feitnti/lvania. — The  first  bank  which  was  Citahliah- 
ed  in  this  State  was  the  Banlc  of  North  Amurica,  which 
was  chartered  by  Congress  on  the  Blst  December,  1781, 
with  a  capital  not  to  exceed  ten  millions  of  dollars,  and 
without  any  limitation  of  duration.  The  <;harter  was 
confirmed  by  the  State  in  April,  1782,  and  it  com- 
menced Its  operations  upon  a  capital,  paid  !n,  of 
$1400,000,  and  as  the  country  was  deficient  in  notes  of 
circulation,  and  its  credit  stood  high,  it  was  enabled 
to  'xtend  its  issues  vastly  beyond  its  capital.  The  ex- 
tenulve  circulation  of  the  notes  of  the  bank,  occasioned 
by  the  disbursements  of  the  government,  which  was  a 
heavy  borrower,  emboldened  its  directors  (o  oveT«tep 
the  bounds  of  discretion.  The  channels  of  circulation 
soon  became  surcharged,  and  the  public,  beginning  to 
doubt  the  ability  of  the  bank  to  redeem  its  notes  on 
presentation,  they  were  returned  sc  rapidly  for  pay- 
ment, that  it  was  compelled  to  cull  upon  its  debtors 
for  payment  also.  This  reduction  uf  loans  occasioned 
a  general  pressure  for  money,  bankruptcies,  usLi-ious 
extortions,  the  disappearance  of  iipecio,  an<l  the  impos- 
sibility of  procuring  money  at  the  legal  rates  of  inter- 
est. Petitions  were  shortly  afterward  presented  to  the 
Lbgiulature  for  the  repeal  of  the  cuartor,  which  was 
(granted  m  the  13th  Septemlier,  1785 ;  but  the  bank  con- 
tinued its  business,  claiming  the  right  to  do  go  under 
the  clinrter  granted  by  Congress.  In  March,  1787, 
the  Legislature  revived  its  charter,  limiting  its  capital 
to  1,000,000,  of  which  only  J(8!iO,000  were  paid  in, 
and  1(9  duration  to  fourteen  years.  In  February,  1791, 
the  first  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  ciiartered, 
with  a  capital  of  110,000,000,  for  twenty  years,  and  on 
tlie  expiration  of  its  charter  in  1811,  it  was  wound  up. 
In  1793  the  Bank  of  Pennsylvania  was  chartered, 
witli  a  cajiital  of  |!2,000,00O,  for  twenty  years,  with 
f<>ur  liranches ;  in  March,  1804,  Uie  Philadelphia  Bank, 
with  a  capital  limited  to  *,2,0O0,000,  of  which  $1,800,(»00 
wire  paid  in,  «.nd  limited  to  1st  of  Jlay,  1814,  but 
afterward  extended  to  1824,  with  liberty  to  establish 
liTanclies,  and  four  of  wliich  were  established ;  in 
]Marcli,  1809,  the  farmers'  and  Slechanics'  Bank,  with 
a  caoital  iif  $l,2o0,000,  to  continue  till  'he  Ist  May, 
1824.  These  were  the  only  incorporated  institutions 
in  !811,  although  there  were  others  in  the  State,  such 
as  the  farmers'  Bank  of  Lancaster,  with  a  capital  of 
J300/  10,  egtal)lished  in  1810,  and  several  othurs  in 
the  citv  as  well  as  in  the  State.  The  following  circu- 
lation of  tile  three  chartered  banks  we  give : 


UlOtK 

ClnuUtloa. 
181). 

Circulktlou. 

Dank  of  1  VnT:sylv*ntn 

Pliiladclphia  IlaiUc 

y»niier>  and  MwlianlfJi"  Hank 

$1,426,203 
718,8011 
804,780 

$l,4(KI,8fi6 
«M,420 
(104,700 

In  March,  1810,  the  Legislature  enacted  a  law  to 
prohibit  unincorporated  associations  from  issuing  notes 
or  pursuing  any  of  the  operations  of  banks ;  i)ut  in  de- 
fiance of  its  provision":,  tiie  system  was  persevered  in, 
and  even  oomj-  ..ie.s  incorjjoruted  for  the  purpose  of 
ciM:  itructing  bridges  depn:  ted  from  the  spirit  of  their 
charters,  converted  themselves  into  banks,  and  issued 
notes  for  circuln'!on.  This  mania  for  banking  would 
soon  have  been  cliocked  by  the  return  of  the  notes  for 
payment,  had  i:  >t  the  war  of  1812  intervened,  and  the 
cessation  of  the  demand  for  specie  for  exportation  to 
India  and  China  removed  the  usual  check  at  that 
period  against  excessive  issues  of  bank  paper.  The 
apparent  success  of  the  Fanners'  Bank  of  Lancaster, 
which,  from  the  enormous  extent  of  its  issues,  was  en- 
abled to  divide  12  per  cent,  per  annum,  and  to  ac- 
commodate its  stockholders  with  loan.i  to  double  the 
amouul  if  their  ttock;  had  p  powerful  influence  on  the 
public  ndr.d.  During  the  session  of  1812''13,  a  bill 
was  passed  by  the  Legislature,  by  a  majority  of  one  in 
each  bran<:b,  to  incorporate  twenty-flve  us\r  banks, 
whose  aggregate  capitals  amounted  to  $i),6'2a,00O,  liut 
it  was  vetoed  by  Governor  Snyder,  and  returned  with 
bit  objections,  some  of  which  were,  that  "it  would,  by 


readiness  to  give  credit,  invite  to  rtsionary  specula- 
tions, divert  men  from  useful  pursuits,  damp  the  ardor 
of  industrious  enterprise,  and  consequently  demoralize 
the  community."  In  March,  >814,  the  subject  was 
renewed,  and  a  bill  wa^  pissed  incorporating  forty- 
one  banks,  with  capitals  amounting  to  upward  of 
117,000,000,  of  which  only  one-fifth  part  was  -.-equired 
to  be  paid  In.  Although  the  bill  passed  both  houses 
by  large  m^orities,  Governor  Snyder  returned  this 
bill  also,  witli  his  objections,  but  two-thirds  of  Iwth 
houses  voted  for  its  paasat;e  notwithstanding;  it  be- 
came a  law,  and  thirty-seven  banks  went  into  opera- 
tion under  its  sanction. 

The  immediate  commencement  of  a  number  of  these 
banks,  whoso  bona  fide  capital  was  little  more  than  the 
flnt  installment  required,  increased  the  amount  of  cir- 
culation, already  too  redundant,  and  the  depreciation 
of  tlie  currency  grew  worse  and  worse,  and  all  confi- 
dence in  its  convertibility  was  lost.  The  new  banks 
discounted  stock-notes  to  meet  t\\o  ri-maining  installments, 
and  hence  only  one-fifth  part  of  their  capitals  was  ever 
paid  in,  as  before  stated.  In  our  remarks  upon  the 
New  York  banks,  we  have  conmicnted  upon  the  move- 
ments and  operations  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
1817  and  1818,  and  their  influence  was,  of  course,  more 
severely  felt  in  the  central  point  of  its  negotiations, 
Philadelphia.  And  here  it  would  be  most  appropriate 
*o  glance  at  the  rise,  progress,  and  final  doom  of  the 
second  United  States  Bank ;  but  so  much  has  been 
written  on  the  subject,  and  its  historj-  is  so  familiar  to 
our  readers,  that  we  shall  add  no  further  remarks  to 
those  which  have  already  been  made  in  a  previous 
portion  of  this  review. 

In  1819,  15  of  the  37  banks  chartered  in  1814  failed, 
and  in  duo  time  were  officially  announced  as  "  dissolved, 
unlawful,  and  unincorporated,"  and  there  were  at  the 
same  time  22  banks  more  in  the  State  transacting  bus- 
iness without  charters.  In  1820  there  were  38  banks 
in  existence,  With  capitals  amounting  to  |14,G81,780, 
and  an  iudelinito  number  of  "freebooters."  '  It  is  an 
unpleasant  tusk  to  run  over  the  next  decade  of  years, 
from  1820  to  1830,  for  there  is  nothing  clieering  in  the 
review ;  througliout  almost  this  entire  period  there 
was  a  rapid  succession  of  untoward  event,',  leading  to 
embarrassments,  insolvency,  litigation,  dishonesty,  and 
mui'c  lagrant  crimes.  It  is  a  continuous  history  of 
bankruptcy  ihroughout  a  large  portion  of  the  coun- 
try, and  of  frauds  upon  the  community  witliout  any 
previous  parallel.  Banks  were  bribed  to  fail,  that  the 
stockholdcrr,  might  pay  .lieir  indebtedness  in  '.he  cur- 
rency of  the  same  uank,  after  it  had  reached  its  mini- 
mum  point  of  depreciation,  commonly  60  per  cent. 
"Mjney  mills"  wore  established  in  New  York,  Phila- 
..elphia,  and  other  places,  which  were  based  on  the 
system  of  the  celebrated  Malepar,  the  keeper  of  an 
oyster  cellar  in  New  York,  who  had  the  adndtness  to 
swindle  the  community  out  of  $500,000  by  his  notes  of 
circidatiou,  and  whose  motio  was,  "  Maiie  money,  ^on- 
estly  if  we  can,  but  rascally  if  we  must.''  In  1822  there 
was  a  prejsiiig  scarcity  of  money ;  in  1825  and  1820, 
coiivulsions  and  bankniptcies  among  the  banks;  in 
18'?7and  1828  among  the  banks  and  the  manufacturers 
iVjm  New  England  to  Georgia ;  but  in  1829  and  1830 
tue  gloom  which  had  settled  so  long  upon  the  country 
was  dispelled,  and  a  brighter  prospect  was  unfolded. 
For  the  first  ti.me  for  eight  years,  the  natural  course  of 
trade  liad  brought  a  balance  in  specie  of  eight  millions 
and  a  haifof  dollars  into  the  country,  and  to  Pennsylva- 
nia there  is  due  a  Urge  share  of  this  fortunate  result,  by 
her  effective  act  for  the  suppression  of  the  circulation  of 
small  not<is  within  the  l>orde;'s  uf  the  Stale.  Here  was 
an  illustration  of  the  principles  which  have  been  always 
iiiaintaiucd  by  the  ablest  financiers  of  our  country, 
•'  that  we  must  widen  the  basis  of  our  metallic  currency 
by  aholLvhing  the  use  of  small  notes,  so  as  to  allow  coin 
to  take  the  placs  of  them,  as  it  inevitably  would." 

Another  cause  of  this  influx  of  gold  in  li>30,  and  its 


BAN 

teiuporaiy  retention  in  this  country,  was  the  partial 
oesMtioii  of  thu  exportation  of  specie  to  India  and 
China,  occasiimed  by  tlio  substitution  of  bills  of  «x- 
change,  and  letlora  of  credit  on  London  for  the  imports 
from  those  countries.  On  a  review  of  tlio  tabular 
statements  of  the  capitals  of  the  banks  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, there  does  not  appear,  with  Jie  cxcr.ption  of  IdiV, 
when  the  41  banits  were  chartered,  anjTiixtraordinary 
aui;mentation  of  banking  capital. 


Vwn. 

a.„iu^ 

Capital. 

ISOI 

* 

$A,(N)(),INIO 

1S06 

a 

T.OOO.OlW 

1811 

4 

6,IS3,00O 

)81B 

4'i 

IS,06S,H00 

18!0 

3« 

14,681,780 

1S38 

26 

2a,T6(),ll33 

■       1W5 

M 

18,164,600 

1K50 

M 

1S,9«0,1160 

IsSfl 

6T 

21,«81,4«4 

BAN 

and  four  others  In  1814,  one  in  1816,  and  one  in  1816, 
the  agi^rcgate  capital  of  all  of  which  was  $18,800,000, 
of  which  only  |l8,506,5!)d  were  paid  in. 

The  annexed  tebular  statement,  derived  f^om  the 
Treasurer's  reports  and  estimates,  will  exli!l>it  the 
amount  of  banking  capital  in  the  State  for  the  last  Hfty 
years,  and  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  banking 
mania  of  other  Atlantic  cities. 

The  progress  of  bank  capital  In  Maryland  ha^  been 
less  than  in  other  Slates,  viz, : 


During  the  four  years  of  1832-1838,  the  specie  im- 
f  irts  exceeded  the  e.xporls  more  than  thirty-six  mill- 
ions of  dollars,  owing  to  a  combination  of  favorablo 
causes,  viz.,  high  prices  for  cotton,  an  increase  of 
English  credits,  foreign  indemnities  paid  in  gold,  in- 
creased production  of  our  Southern  gold  mines  and  the 
tilver  mines  of  Mexico,  loans  effected  in  Europe  by  thu 
United  States  Hank,  and  various  oilier  operations  in 

cks  and  bond.<!.  The  consequence  of  this  influx  of 
^  >id  was  an  increase  of  i.<sues  by  the  old  '>anks,  and 
the  cstabliabment  uf  new  ones.  Tliu  number  t>f  banks 
in  tlic  country  was  estiniuted  in  1830  at  ii'J!),  with  110 
millions  of  capital.     In  1837  there  were  78^^,  including 


Yun.     Banlu. 

Capllil. 

Vmn.  I  BmU. 

t'apilii. 

1708 

!|«()U,WIO 

1SB6 

21 

»S,2fl:l,B7B 

1801 

1,600.000 

1887 

2» 

10,438.665 

1605 

6,800,000 

1S40 

23 

10,6'.>0,404 

1811 

4,8: 6,:(yi 

1845 

22 

8,661,332 

1815 

IT 

7,882,004 

1850 

28 

8,704,711 

1S20 

14 

0,708,180 

ISfit 

80 

11,180,821 

isno 

13 

«,V!)«,4i)5 

Some  of  the  banks  fipecilied  in  the  preceding  schedule 
failed  in  1834,  such  as  the  BKiik  uf  Maryland,  Tarmera' 
liank  of  Maryland,  Elkton  lUnk,  Havre  du  Grace 
Dank,  Susquehanna  Bridge  and  Banking  Company, 
and  various  others;  but  the  loss  of  their  lapitals  was 
supplied  by  the  enlargement  of  others,  and  is  scarcely 
perceptible  in  the  above  returns.  As  .in  illustration 
of  the  vicissitudes  of  some  of  these  banks,  v,  e  select  at 
random  tho  history  of  the  Franklin  I>ank,  of  lialtimore, 
chartered  in  1810,  with  a  capital  of  |B00,000,  for  Hvo 
years,  and  of  which  ^416,(100  only  were  paid  in.  In 
1815  the  charter  was  extended  twenty  yeors,  and  in 
1821  ten  years  more,  but  a  tax  for  the  benrlit  of  tho 
school  fund  was  imposed,  of  twenty  cents  on  every 
hundred  dollnrs  of  its  stock.     In  18B4  the  charter  was 


branches,  and  a  capital  of  290  niillinns. 

In  183fi  the  Dank  of  Eiiglond  required  payment  i  extended  from  1845  to  1857,  and  in  183,')  the  l>ank  was 
from  tho  "American  houses"  in  Undon,whicli  was  re- j  authorized  to  double  its  stock,  making  its  capital 
soundedthroughoutourconmiercialcities,  and  shortly  I  ]Ji, 200,000;  l)ut  in  1840  it  was  discovered  that  its 
after  Congress  passed  "  tho  surplus  revenue"  bill,  and  ,  laaliicr  had  committed  large  frauds  on  the  bank,  and 


the  bank  credits,  whicli  represented  the  surplus  rev 
enue,  were  transferred  fron\  place  to  place  w  itl;out  any 
regard  to  tho  laws  uf  trade.  Thcconiijination  of  these 
circumstances  was  too  nuicK  for  the  banks,  and  thoy 
all  simultaneously  stopped  specie  payments  in  Slay, 


it  was  compelled  to  stop  payment  in  1841.  After  an 
examination  of  its  affairs,  tho  Legislature  authorized 
a  reduction  of  its  capital  to  $iiOI,595,  and  in  1853  it 
was  increased  again  to  1600,000.  The  adoption  of  tho 
new  Constitution  in  1861  imposed  upon  stockholders 


1837,  us  well  as  threu  of  the  leadUig  Aineri^an  banking  I  in  new  banks,  or  in  those  whoso  charters  might  lie  re- 
houses  in  London.  Tho  depreciation  of  ^ank-notcs  ,  lanved,  per.sonal  liability  for  tho  debts  oc  liabilities  of 
throughout  the  ci  .ntry  varied  from  12  to  25  per  cent.  [  such  banki.  to  the  extent  of  the  stock  held  Iiv  them 
The  banks  at  the  eastward  odopted  all  needful  nieas.  respectively.  In  1852  the  circulation  of  notes  under 
nres  to  secure  a  speedy  resumptit  -x  of  payments,  but ,  flve  dollars  was  prohibited  by  law.  under  similar  penal- 


in  the  west  and  south  an  oppos'te  policy  was  adopted, 
and  new  banks  were  created.  During  the  reeiduo  of 
1837  and  1838,  the  excess  of  ij.cciu  imports  over  ex- 
ports was  eighteen  millions  v' dollars,  of  which  a  part 
was  sent  by  the  liank  of  Euginnd  to  enable  the  Ameri- 
can banks  to  resume.  In  May,  '■'3li,  the  lianks  in 
Nfw  York  and  Nov,  Ei.^^and  resumed,  and  continued 
to  pay  specie.  In  August  following,  the  banks  of  Phil- 
adelphia [. .cfesaed  to  pay  specie;  and  in  January, 
1839,  there  was  a  mnai'n'i/ tesumption  throughout  the 
United  States.     In  Octi.ber,  1839,  the  Philadelphia 


ties  to  thofe  in  various  other  S  ates,  and  we  believe 
has  had  a  favorablo  influvince  in  creating  a  larger  cir- 
culaliun  of  coin. 

The  bunks  of  Maryland  all  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments in  1814  and  1837,  in  common  with  all  the  others 
in  the  Middle,  Western,  and  Southern  States;  and  it 
would  be  8u)>erfluoug  to  recapitulate  thu  circumstances 
attending  these  events,  as  they  have  already  lieen  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  pages.  The  same  causes  oc- 
casioned and  the  same  results  followed  in  both  periods. 


It  will  be  recollected  that  in  1814  the  New  England 
banks  suspended  a /Kiconrf  time;  resumed  in  January,  :  banks  did  not  suspend  payment,  and  this  produced 
1841 ;  suspended  a  third  time  4th  Februarj-  fyllotvinc,  great  jealousy  and  acerbity  of  feeling,  especiallv  In 
and  permoncrtly  resumed  in  Map-h,  1842.  !  Boltimoro.     In  A'iVm'  Hrguter,  in  1814,  wo  find'  tho 


ilan)land.--'X\\a  Qrst  bank  establishtl  in  this  State 
was  the  Bank  of  Maryland,  which  wa«  incorporated  :n 


following  remarhs :  "  If  money  («pccie)  be  the  evidence 
cf  commercial  prosperity,  Massuohusetts  was  never  half 


1790,  with  a  capital  of  $300,000.  Next  in  the  order  of  so  well  off  as  now'.  Some  years  ago,  when  the  trade 
^  auocession  was  the  Bank  of  Saltimorc,  incorporated  in  of  the  l!nitfd  States  naturally  TOUght  the  places  whero 
^*  1796,  with  a  capital  of  $1,200,000,  of  which  11,122,000  I  Ut  commodities  were  to  be  had,  one  of  the  Jialiinutre 
were  paid  in.  In  1803  the  Farmer^'Bank  ..f  Moryland,  j  banks  had  more  specie  than  all  the  bonks  in  Msssa- 
*sith  two  branches,  was  chartered,  with  a  capital  of  >  chusetta  combim-d;  nay,  probably  more  than  there 
H,000,000,  of  which  $712,746  wore  paid  in.     Next,  |  wa,  hi  tho  whole  State,  whether  in  possession  of  tha 

{'  hanks  or  of  individuain ;  and  so  it  will  bavo  agpin, 

:  whon  a  regular  and  honest  commerce  shall  si'ccied  the 

I  Hritiih  war  and  tMiem  tmMi/glinp."     Instead  of  the 

"  commercial  prosperity  of  Mussachnsetts"  being  ile- 

rived  from  "  Eastern  sn:ugKling,"  the  true  cause  n.sy 

:  be  found  in  the  followin;;  abstract  fnim  the  report  jf  a 

committee  of  the  .Seiintn  of  Pintisylvanla  in  1819 : 

"The  laws  of  the  Nt-w  En.'land  States  hud  lieen  so 

i  r^oruus  on  the  subjtot  of  baika,  which  w<ir«  lliible  (« 


CipiUJ. 

TOc  Uoton  HaeS  of  naltlmore t«  1804,  $'  OOO.Onn 

«60,n«o 
•XP,ngo 

600,1100 

mio,fl(ri 

60fl.(iiV) 
."ilO.OllO 
^"l.OOO 


The  Bank  of  Hnprnloirn 'n  1«0«, 

Tlie  Covimerciiil  and  ('"iinrwra' .i  1810, 

The  Farmtra'  a.id  HcrrtiRnts' In  ISiii, 

Tho  FmnXIf.i  Hank,  llaltlniori'  In  inifl. 

The  .Martnp  'Mnk,  Baltimore in  1810, 

Tlie  Elkton  Hunk,  MaryUnd in  1810, 

Tlif  'lunilKTland  llanit,  Allfi'liaiiy  ..  in  1812, 
Thi'  Varment'  Bank,  l.'uniberland  and 

"iVornester in  13'?, 

Th«i;ity  BaukofBaltlmoTb la  1813, 


200.'  "in 
150,000 


BAN 


18i 


BAN 


k  penaltf  of  12  per  cent,  per  annum  Ibr  tho  non-pa}->  i  wh«eher  that  i»  not  mora  than  counterbalanced  to  th« 
Wont  of  their  notes,  that  ni>  lUprecuilvm  iif  their  cur-  people  of  tho  State  by  the  lo8«  they  sustain  in  the  ilin- 
rency  took  place.  The  consequence  thereof  was,  that  \  count  upon  notes  passing  through  their  hands.  At 
the  dift'erciice  Iwtween  the  New  England  prices  of  the  prolits  to  the  owners  depend  entirely  upon  tno  du- 
-coinmuditics,  stocks  and  foreign  l)ills  of  exchange,  and  preciation  and  the  circulation  of  their  notes,  it  be- 
those  of  t'cnnsylvania,  was  equii'  to  the  extent  of  tho  i  comes  desirable  that  the  banks  should  Im  ostensibly 


depreciation  of  th.j  currency  of  the  latter,  and  as  our 
bank-notes  were  nt  that  time  redeemable  on  demand, 
the  most  profitable  remittance  which  could  )»  mado  to 
New  England  In  exchange  for  her  commodities  was 
■pecie ;  ond  this  demand  created  a  run  upon  the  banks 
-whicli  they  were  not  able  to  withstand.  The  situa- 
tlon  of  the  Southern  and  Western  jjunks  was  precisely 


located  ii.  places  diXiciilt  of  access,  so  that  no  one  will 
))«  dlsfiasud  to  apply  at  their  counters  (if  perchance 
they  should  have  otllces)  fur  the  specie  or  its  ecpiiva- 
Innt ;  and  tho  more  distant  and  out  of  the  way,  the 
greater  tho  discount  they  will  be>.r,  and  the  greater 
tho  accruing  profit.  And  to  extend  their  circulation, 
nothing  is  easier  than  to  uilopt  the  naiuo  und  general 


(imilur  to  that  of  our  own ;  all  had  overissued,  and  a  !  iippearancc  of  some  w  ell-known  liuiik,  in  good  credit, 
general  depreciation  had  ensued.  The  same  causes  |  keeping  tho  place  of  issue  as  much  in  tho  l>ackgrounci 
produced  the  same  eft'ects,  and  a  general  stoppage  of  :  as  iwssilile.  For  example,  locating  a  'Delaware  and 
payments  of  all  the  bunks  in  tho  United  States,  except  i  Hudson  Dank'  amidst  the  sands  and  pines  of  Ocean 
those  of  New  England,  took  place  in  Augusc  and  Sep-  {  County,  making  tho  title  very  prominent,  but  having 
temlwr,  1814.  The  New  England  demand,  it  is  true,  i\\a  place  quite  the  reverse,  so  that  tho  inexperienced 
was  Increased  l)y  two  causes,  viz. :  (Irst,  by  facilities  :  are  readily  induced  to  receive  the  notes."  These  banks 
In  fbreign  trade  through  neutral  vessels,  which  were !  are  entitled  to  three  days'  gmce  upon  any  application 
afforded  them  by  an  exemption  from  the  Idockade  of  |  fur  redemption,  and  of  course  they  have  ample  time 
tho  enemy  ;  and,  secondly,  by  a,  well-grounded  appro-  j  to  procure  tlio  specie  from  Wall  Street  whenever  they 
hension  that  the  .'^uthern  l>anks,  from  their  extensive  |  are  pressed.  In  1853  there  were  'i\  regular  banks 
emissions,  M'ould  necessarily  I)ecomoeml)arrns8ed.  Ccr- ,  in  Now  Jersey,  tho  aggregate  of  wlioso  ca|iitiil»  was 
tain  it  is.  however,  that  all  these  causes  comliincd  could  I  $1,080,816 — whoso  charters  expired  in  from  one  to 
tiot  have  produced  a  general  suspension  of  payment  |  twenty-one  years.  Besides  these,  there  wore  four- 
liad  our  banks  obtemeil  the  same  caution  ill  their  iaiues  as  \  tQen  "free  l)anks,"  tho  aggregate  of  whose  capitals 


that  which  characterized  the  banls  of  the  Eastern  States. 
Again,  in  Silts'  Register  of  18'21,  wo  find  tho  follow- 
ing remarks:  "That  country  whoso  money  currency 
Is  kept  at  the  highest  rate  n/rahic  will  have  tho  great- 
est advantage  in  trade  with  other  coimtries.  The 
hand  of  labor  is  not  injured  by  money  being  scarce  | 
no  interest  of  the  country  is  injured,  but  the  specula- 


was  $l,02ti,!)fiC,  and  circulation  ji72'2,895.  In  hi^  mes- 
sage of  185'2,  tJovernor  Fort  recommendeil  tlie  pro- 
hibitioo  of  the  issue  of  any  notes  under  five  dollars ; 
after  two  )'ears,  all  imder  ten  dollars,  and  in  a  few 
years  all  utuler  twenty  dollars,  und  then  proceeds: 
"  I  am  satisfied,  however,  that  fifty  dollars,  us  the 
minimum  tlenomination  of  bank  paiier,  should  be  our 


tor  and  monopolizer.  It  is  truo  that  the  scarcity  of  '  ultimate  aim.  If  we  excommunicate  all  small  notes, 
money  checks  im|iorts,  but  it  encourages  exports ;  it  j  whether  of  our  own  or  other  States,  specie  munt  nete?- 
is  not  so  important  i:i  what  tho  money  consists,  as  sarily  flow  in  to  supply  their  places.  The  smullness 
that  it  should  lie  at  as  high  a  rate  of  value  us  that  of  '  of  our  territory  presents  no  serious  objection ;  tho  con- 
Other  countries."  [  stunt  trade  with  the  large  cities  on  our  borders  would 
Neir  Jersey. — There  arc  two  other  States  in  our  8ut>-  i  supply  us  with  an  abundance  of  the  precious  metals, 
division  of  "Middle  States" — New  Jersey  and  Deitt- j  which  no  advcrie  policy  of  neighboriug  States  could 


ware — which  claim  our  attention  next. 
in  New  Jersey  was  as  follows  : 


The  increase 


V«AK 

Buika 

L'uplUl. 

ISDS 
1811 
18l!> 
ISil) 

'i 
3 
11 
U 

$1,000,00(1 

7S!),740 

2,l'il,9BS 

•2,130,1149 

possibly  prevent.  The  Stale  which  soonest  adapts  the 
use  iif  coin,  by  tho  e^pulsivn  of  paper  in  tho  smaller 
business  transactions,  iriil  diitsti-lp  all  others  in  the  per- 
manent proaptrily  of  every  other  branch  of  useful  iniliu- 
try.  Bank  oxidosioiis  and  individual  bmikniptciej 
t  would  then  lie  flf,  rare  as  ti.ey  are  now  frequent." 
j  Ho  further  adds,  "  tho  persistent  evasion  of  the  law 
From  and  after  this  period  banks  occasionally  fail-  i  Ijy  some  of  the  free  bunks  calls  for  prompt  and  efH. 
*d,  and  new  ones  created  to  take  their  places,  and  talw  ;  cient  action  on  the  part  of  the  Legislature.  They  arc 
ulur  statements  would  not  exhibit  the  annual  rise  and  of  no  aili  aiitage  to  the  business  community,  ami  add 
fall  of  the  moneyed  institutions.  In  our  ordinary  ■  nothintr  to  our  reputation  us  a  State.  I  would  rccom- 
"  Bank-note  Reporters"  there  may  he  found  the  names  mend  tliat  an  inquiry  be  Instituted  in  regard  to  tiiese 
of  olmut  tliirty  of  ttiese  bunks,  against  three  of  which  '  banks,  to  tho  end  that  such  as  do  not  con<iuct  .i  regu- 
the  word  "fraud"  appears,  and  among  these  is  the  [  lar  and  ftuna^V/e  banking  l.usinciis  be  dissolved.  Thi» 
"  Morris  Canal  and  Banking  Company"— a  concent ;  may  be  done  by  tho  Ijigislatuie,  under  the  provisioijs 
which  made  no  inconnideralde  commotion  in  Wall  of  the  17th  section  of  the  Kcnciul  Ijanking  act," 
Street  at  one  period.  Besides  these  failures,  there  is  ;  The  following  statement  shows  llio  practical  worfc- 
nothing  :»  pa'ticnlar  to  note,  until  18J16,  when  the  ing  of  tho  general  banking  law : 
Legislature  passed  a  law  privhibiting  tho  issue  of  small 
bills.  From  authentic  sources,  we  learn  that  the  New 
Jersey  banks  hud  in  circulation  '»(.')00,000  in  bills  of  de- 
nominations Iwlow  live  dollars,  and  an  equal  amount 
in  five  dollar  notes,  being  one-eighth  part  of  the  entire 
amount  of  small  bills  in  tircidation  in  the  I  nited  States, 
and  one-half  of  their  own  ;mission». 

In  1850,  a  general  banking  law  wis  passed  in  New  |      .Oelaicare.— In  the  State  of  Delaware  there  was  ont 
Jersey,  which,  like  those  adopted  in  otiier  States,  bus  :  bank  In  1801,  with  a  capital  of  1^110,000— Bank  of 
auliscqucntly 'leen  revised  and  amended.     "Tho  row    Delaware, 
banks  cstaltlished,  or  nt  least  m-xt  of  them,  instead  of 
being  legitimate  banks  of  disco\int  us  well  as  of  issue, 
are  simply  tt'inuj'actorirs  of  paper  money,  for  thi  liene- 
llt  of  their  owners  residing  in  other  States,  having  no 
affinities  here,  and  of  no  advantage  to  New  ,Iers»y,  ' 
save  in  the  amount  of  tax  on  their  capitals  tliat  may 
be  pv\id  into  the  State  Treasury ;  and  it  Is  t^uestionabla 


Vmn 

niwiii. 

C>J>il«l. 

1S41 

■26 

$3,S34,818 

IMIl 

25 

;>,  497,001 

l«fiO 

S4 

8,:i<A2RJ 

185i 

'^5 

4,01B,'!0() 

ISM 

a 

4,(X«>,S15 

ISM 

14  Free 

l,0«0,!)'ifi 

18B6 

"« 

e,B2«.n(ifl 

Ve.r». 

BmVi. 

r>piul. 

1815 

& 

$99S,9tlO 

18'20 

6 

074.1M)0 

IWT 

8 

818,020 

1849 

9 

'210,000 

ISfiO 

4,  with  3  brandies 

940.000 

IWkl 

0,  Willi  3  hrsnches 

BSO.OOO 

18M 

R,  with  a  hranchoi 

1,OBO,OOU 

UAV 


186 


BAN 


% 


Bankini;  ii  doiM  In  thl«  MnIm  mi  « ;iM>«t(  tiuli,  and  . 
Mt  l><-ltevo  Hut  Ihti  urily  Mlunn  trliicfi  l)«t«i  «Tcr  nc-  j 
eurred  In  it  w«r«  tlui  lUiik  uT  M>l(Wil,  In  l*i(V(,  iinil  th« 
b«urol  Hank.  In  Nxw  RH^Unil,  •*  wk  hat'*  (irgvl- ' 
ouiily  ttHt«t,  iboreiirK  fNfllMiMk*,  tfitliiafittaliiattHnint- ' 
tng  to  ^in.Mff.ft'W,  urwtikb  I7U  Utnhn  unA  $(a,m,000 
■re  In  Miutailiuwtta, 

Wkhtkiin  Htatki,  O/ih.'-Vw  flnt  iMinti  rliarlered 
In  Ohio  WM  in  IHO!),  i-all<.')i  (Imi  Miattii  y.npiirHnn  Com- 
puny,  with  a  iiapital  <>(  tVHI.im,  ll  wan  (H>t  a  rrgular 
bank,  but  "  ilt  main  )i4irjwM<  mnn  la  fa<'lllta<«  trade, 
then  lutTcrlnj;  unikr  Krual  lUnirt'imUm,"  'J1i«  Hank  of 
Marietta  wut  chartcri^d  in  |MW,  mm<i  utiliMfiiifnlly  th 
Bunkof  ('lilMl>?utli«,  th<;  fiirnwrnUUtUllltllllO,  Die  lat- 
ter witli  i)luo,iK)0< a|)ilat,  Olhxr iM«litt)ll(rtM were  loon 
after  incorporaieii,  ami  lb«  tnWuwUiu  Ma(imi«nl  ifaowa 
the  progress  uf  baukiiiK  iu  (Iw  HtalAi 


Vt«n. 

ti*Bk». 

o^-. 

VMM, 

I0,£»7.MI 

1806 

I 

Mou.ww 

1811 

t 

»b'l»,')UU 

i*4U 

«) 

1815 

11 

1,««4,TI9 

IMA 

« 

(,ui,8<rr 

1816 

kl 

t.o«i.»n 

l«M 

M 

T,I».WT 

18ltO 

W 

i,m,«u 

l«M 

40 

<,>M),«0 

IS86 

•a 

S.tllV^MM 

Of  the  bank)  chartarad  in  llilx  Htai«,  If)  tiara  ^en 
closed  under  varlou*  t'lr('ilin«la»»^«(»(i<di»a"it«r  or  ^aiit 
of  DiirrcM,  and  their  MIU  am  miM  at  M  li>  7f>  per  cent, 
discount,  and  aliout  m^  uf  ihvm  liaffi  falM,  and  their 
billt  are  reiJorlcd  .i»  vnirttiUiM,     1  •»«  brandies  <it  tlic  I 
second  Hank  uf  tlie  I'niled  Hi»Um  wirrfi  f*talilliihed  in  I 
Cincinnati  and  C'hiliU-otiit  tn  IMI7,  aiHl  Ihs  mal«  im- ' 
poied  a  tax  of  lAO.'iiK)  i,n  um'U  iirnni'h  In  1X1!) ;  but 
after  a  long  controveray  in  (Im  iD-.ti:"  it  waa  decided 
at  WaaliinKton  that  the  t«»  w«*  dl#f(«l,  and  (he  Htatn  ; 
gubmitted  to  (lie   dxcrea,      I*;   1H46  a  Wrtr  ayttem 
of  )>ankinif  waa  intrudiieoit  IntM  (b«  Mtale,  known  as  I 
the  "safety  fund  iiyst«m,"«u4  Mwlof  tlw  name  act,  an  ; 
"independent  bank  nysum,"    Tlw  ffrtwef  was  based  ' 
upon  the  New  York  nyiamn,  Iml  It  »«»  mora  perfect  •,  j 
it  created  a  Mtate  bank,  Mitiiltvi/teil  liitt;  alxnjt  forty  ' 
brunches,  under  tli«  »u|i«rv|ai«(ti  i)f  h  UmrA  of  ('ontnil, ' 
who  furnish  all  the  ituUm  ri'<|Mir«()  fur  rlrciilndrrri ;  and 
to  this  board  each  bran<  li  ii  nauirni  to  rontrKiute  10 ' 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  r»|uir«'!  (tir  (lirrulallftn,  either  | 
in  stocks  of  Hie  State  or  iifUm  I'tiUnt  Matfs,  or  the ! 
amount  in  numay  j  to  tw  ap|ilt<«)  by  i)i«  Imard,  In  case ' 
of  need,  to  the  r«deni|;tiuti  «f  Itw  mU»  of  tireulatlon  j 
of  any  one  of  the  l>raiicli«»  which  may  fall  to  radeem  ^ 
its  bills;  and  each  braiwh  U  rmfuiriid  io  contrlt/uta  in  ' 
the  ratio  of  the  circubtiou  Ui  which  H  is  imtllled,  to 
the  sum  necessary  for  tlw  r<i4*ntiptt»n  ii(  the  notes  of 
the  fallint;  bank,  to  lie  rf>nMinctNt«d  (rmn  the  Ksfety  [ 
fiind  an  soon  a«  the  «al«  of  tito  atocks  in  (be  hands  of  | 
the  board  of  «ontEol  c»b  im  tlflift<i<l     Whenever  a ! 
branch  fails,  all  its  vruimrtv,  notra  ami  assetn,  pass  | 
Int«  the  hands  of  tba  lUmrd  i4  Control,  who  appoint 
a  leccls  er  to  wlod  up  (fs  affair*,  atfi  dtclribnte  the 
proceeiUi  sraong  tlw  alockltohb^ra  after  all  the  debta  are  | 
paid,     or  tlie  42  braiii'hxs  tb«r<i  »tifi  tin*'  M  retnainlnK, 
whose  aKRreKOte  >!»|>it«|  |«  IH,<tHi,tat)i  four  liranchea 
have  bi con.u  insoivvut  and  ar'-  iIowhI,  a»<l  one  has '. 
withdrawn  and  i(*cw««  «  f)ri\'»i*  baoa.    The  strength 
lif  this  iustitutiod  lies  in  tito  oMiKallxii  '>f  each  l^ranch 
to  rcceivt  the  notes  of  tlnr  <ylb»r»  in  (Myinenl  «f  debts,  I 
and  with  a  safety  fund  af  I"  |Wf  cent,,  seramd  by  a  { 
deposit  uf  $)m,9l>i>,  U,  protect  lb«  clrc«la;lof!  In  the  ■ 
event  of  the  (aiiiire  of  any  Uiix  or  tw^fe  brancIlM ;  the 
constant  su^'ervlsiou  ofttm  KmfA  id  (Antral  over  all ' 
th«>r  Aiovvmeiitjj,  and  th«  ^—lUmii  «lf(1tance  of  .each 
other  »■>  protect  thainsalvus  from  loss  t;y  the  inlsman>  I 
agenient  of  others.     ••  II  ib#»«'  furninh  /•  XKarantee  of  ! 
the  circutalimi  lu  iwrfurt  a*  fun  lie  ^lA^^lred ;  <|uarterly  | 
statements  are  r«<)uire<)  from  ^ni\i  bank,  which  are ; 
rsgularly  pubiishati  by  lh«  \Hi\\Uit  of  .%«te,  and  tiie ' 
cominanlty  si  Ur(;<.'  tisvn  tlwi'ab)  a  fMll  kmrwiedge  of 
their  inie  condliufii  «i  d>>lrabl«  (niArvals.    I'nder  the 
old  syatttin,  Utnk  cowiuiaakwafa  ifw*  appointed  t«  tn-  \ 


amine  the  banks  periodically,  liut  the  Hoard  of  Control 
nuw  perform  those  duties.  Tlia  inde|iendvnt  banks 
are  twelve  in  number,  having  a  capital  of  (5NT,&00, 
one  of  them  having  become  insolvent,  and  two  others 
are  li<|uidating  their  concents.  These  banks  are  re- 
quired to  depusit  with  the  State  Treasurer  certilicate* 
of  stocks,  cither  of  the  State  of  Ohio  or  uf  the  I'liited 
States,  for  tlui  entire  amount  of  their  circulation,  wliich 
can  not  exceed  three  tinuis  the  amount  of  their  capital. 
These  banks  arc  unuually  examined  b}'  a  commission- 
er appointed  liy  the  auditor,  and  quarterly  returns  of 
'heir  condition  must  be  furnished  to  him,  und  ar.t  p.jb- 
1 .  lied  with  those  of  the  .State  Dank  brunches.  The 
lianks  are  all  rc(iuired  to  have  80  |ier  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  their  circulation  always  on  hand,  in  gold 
or  silver  coin,  or  its  equivalent  in  value,  one-half  at 
least  being  in  gold  or  silver;  "but  deposits  in  any 
bank  or  banker's  hands  of  ostalilisked  credit  in  the 
cities  of  New  York,  Itoston,  rhilailelphlu,  or  Uultimnre, 
subject  to  drufls  ut  siglit,  and  payalile  in  specie,  sliall 
be  deemed  eq\dvnleiit  to  gold  and  sliver."  Of  the 
banks  chartered  prior  to  1(145,  but  one  remains  iu  ex- 
istence, the  Ohio  Life  Insurance  and  Trust  t'ompony, 
whose  operations  are  managed  in  two  departments : 
the  "Trust  Ucpartmeui,"  and  the  "  Bankiii^r  i)o|>art- 
ment."  Its  capital  is  two  millions  of  dollars,  and  It  was 
chartered  in  181W,  and  ut  one  time  its  cinulatlun  waa 
nearly  one  million  of  dollars;  but  iu  1X42  tin  bank 
surrendered  the  right  to  issue  notes,  und  its  circula- 
tion has  oil  been  redeemed,  excepting  t4.1&0,  wliich 
have  never  licen  presented  for  payment,  und  a  large 
portion  of  whicii  probul)Iy  never  will  bo;  ne,  for  the 
past  seven  years,  lung  iiiliTvals  (in  one  instance,  near- 
ly eighteen  months;  iiuve  elupscd  without  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  single  liill,  und  that  for  only  live  <lolUrs.  In 
1H51,  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing  "free 
banking,"  and  under  its  provisions  13  bunks  were  es- 
talilished,  the  aggregate  of  whose  capitals  was  ^7ilt*,O50, 
and  a  circulation  was  created  of  4'7CU,i)U7.  At  one 
IK-riwI  this  was  nearly  one  million  ol' dollars  larger; 
but  in  consequence  uf  some  of  the  l>unk  plates  iiu\iiig 
been  stolen,  an  alarm  was  raised,  an  I  the  miles  of 
these  lianks  were  suddenly  presented  tor  reditinption. 
A  few  months  after  the  pussage  ol  t'u  free  bunk  law, 
the  new  Constitution  of  Ohio  waa  siibniitliHi  to  the 
pe<iple  and  was  adopted.  By  its  provisions,  tlie  (Jen- 
eral  Assemiily  were  no  longer  authorized  to  grunt  liunk- 
ing  powers  to  associations,  until  the  pe<ipl«  ratified 
any  act  passed  for  that  purpose,  and  approved  It  liy 
their  votes,  taken  at  the  next  genjral  election  after 
the  passage  of  such  iicts.  In  addition  to  this  fatal 
lilow  to  all  projected  bunks,  in  1862,  the  (ieneral  As- 
semlily  passed  the  notorious  "  tax  law,"  which,  under 
a  forced  construction,  levied  an  exorbitant  tax  upon 
all  the  banks,  and  which  for  a  time  threatened  de- 
struction to  every  moneyed  institution  In  the  Htate. 
Fortunately,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  Ntutei 
overruled  the  deciaiona  of  partisan  judges,  and  pro- 
nounced this  outrugeo'is  tax  vncontlitulionul .  From 
the  preceding,  it  appears  that  there  are  four  classes  of 
banks  in  Ohio,  andeacli  of  them  has  furnished  one  or 
more  instances  of  failure,  occasioned  more  by  inipru- 
deniie  and  mlsmanagcmcut  than  ft'om  any  defect  iu 
the  system  under  which  tbey  were  organized.  The 
experience  of  four  years  has  taught  the  people  of  Ohio 
somo  severe  lessons  in  regard  to  currency,  wliicti  lias 
been  cliiefly  supplied  to  them  by  the  banks  of  other 
States,  and  espeoialiy  liy  Indiana;  and  a  law  has  [uiss- 
ed  the  l.egislature,  which  is  nuw  before  tlieipenple  for 
adoption  nr  rejection,  during  the  present  month,  au- 
thorixing  "  the  incorporation  of  the  liank  of  Oliio  and 
other  banks,"  iu  oraor  to  furnish  addilliuui)  tiaiiking 
facilities  to  the  increased  trade  and  population  of  tliia 
prosjicrous  State.  We  are,  howevtr,  not  without  ap- 
prehension that  the  "  |iersoiuil  liability"  clause,  or  thir- 
ty-fifth section  uf  the  act,  will  render  it  inoperative, 
even  if  the  act  should  be  ratified  by  the  people. 


^AN 


I8T 


BAN 


law, 

tlia 

icn- 

l)aiik- 

llcd 

l.y 

after 

fuUl 

1*1  Ai- 


State. 
States 
pro- 

From 
ses  of 
one  or 
nipru- 
Tect  in 
The 
fOhio 

li  liaa 

other 
s  imub- 

l>le  for 
tb,  au- 
lio  an<l 
Kiikint; 

of  this 
nut  ap- 
thir- 

rative, 


Indiana.— Tfext  in  order  cornea  the  State  of  Indians, 
Yhii  State  was  admitted  into  the  IJnioii  in  'Hltt,  and 
In  1H20  it  had  two  banlta,  wboao  capi  'Ua  amounted  to 
t202,867.  lu  nSi  the  Sute  Ua"'  Indiana  wai  in- 
corporated, with  a  capital  of  Vi,i''  »'  >,  and  with  ton 
branches,  aubaequently  increased  tu  (!)i  len  in  num- 
ber. By  the  original  charter,  f  I  u,  00  wero  as- 
(igned  to  each  triu  'i,  but  they  wore  subsequontly 
authorized  to  increone  the  amount  to  ^250,000  each. 
The  branches  wore  mutually  liable  for  the  debts  of 
each  other,  liut  divided  their  own  prolits ;  each  aliare 
was  sulijcct  to  a  tax  of  I'H  <  unts  for  educotioual  pur- 
poses, ill  liuu  of  all  other  taxes ;  but  in  case  of  an  aii 
rulurem  system  of  taxation  in  the  State,  then  tlie  stnclc 
was  li:kble  the  same  as  other  capital,  not  exceeding, 
however,  1  jier  cent,  altogether.  No  note  under  Jive 
dolTurs  was  allowed  tj  be  isrued,  and  the  I.P){islature 
reserved  the  rl({ht  to  restrict  it  to  ten  dollurs  within 
tell  years.  The  ciipitul  of  any  branch  might  be  in- 
craased  by  and  with  the  assent  and  concurrence  of  f'e 
Ltgislaturo  and  the  directors  of  the  State  Bank.  'I  'ic 
directors  of  the  p,  it  bank  were  to  hav  charge  of 
the  plates  liank  paper  of  the  branches,  and  were 
empowered  i  'eliver  tu  them  an  amount  of  such  paper 
notexcevili  '  vice  the  amount  of  the  stock  subscribed 
for.  One  half  of  the  stock  was  subscribed  for  and 
onmd  l>y  the  State,  for  which  they  authorized  bonds 
to  bo  issued  to  the  amount  j{  $1,31)0,000,  at  6  per 
cent,,  to  ri':.1::<e  the  funds  to  pay  for  their  half  of  thu 
stock ;  the  remaining  half  was  to  be  subscribed  for, 
and  owned  liy  individuals  and  corporations.  The 
detits  uf  cucli  branch  were  limited  to  double  the  amount 
of  capital  paid  in,  exclusive  of  deposits.  In  January, 
183G,  an  amendment  was  passed  by  the  Legislature, 
and  the  discounts  were  allowed  to  be  extended  to 
twice  aiul  a  half  of  the  amount  of  the  capital  paid  in. 
In  1841,  the  branches  were  authorized  to  issue  notes 
of  a  less  denomination  than  Ave  dollars,  not  exceed- 
ing one  million  of  dollars,  on  tlio  payment  of  one  per 
cent,  for  the  privilege;  and  of  its  circulation,  about 
$8,800,000,  nearly  one-sixth  part  was  in  small  notes. 
After  tlie  resumption  of  sjwcie  payments  in  1838,  out 
uf  the  96!)  Iianks  then  in  existence,  B'13  wholly  sus- 
pended, and  U2  partially  so;  of  whicli  latter  numl>ar 
were  tlioso  nf  tlie  State  Bank  of  Indiana,  which  did 
not  again  resume  the  payment  of  specie  until  Octo- 
ber, 1841,  when  the  branches  held  $1,127,618  in  spe- 
cie, to  meet  a  circulation  of  $2,960,414,  and  deposits 
amounting  to  $317,890  only.  Since  that  period  the 
bank  has  maintained  its  credit  inviolate,  and  under 
able  management  successfully  efTecUHl  a  regular  ro- 
duction  of  its  suspended  debt,  whi'cli  had  rapidly  ac 
cumulated  during  the  indation  of  business  in  farmer 
years,  without  ruinous  sacrifices  to  the  debtors  of  the 
bank.  If  we  scrutinize  the  origin  of  this  baak,  we 
perceive  at  once  that  it  was  founded  on  false  principles, 
and  that  tlie  issue  of  the  State  liunds  for  $1,300,000, 
to  provide  for  the  payment  of  $800,000  of  stocks,  was 
a  viuliitioii  of  the  tirst  article  of  the  Constitution  nf 
tha  United  States,  which  proliibits  any  State  (him  i». 
suing  "liiils  of  credit."  "No  State  con  coin  money 
— no  State  (,not  even  Congress  itself)  can  inuke  any 
tl'iiig  a  tender  but  gold  and  silver — no  State  can  emit 
liills  of  credit."  In  direct  opposition  to  these  views, 
Indiana  issued  her  bonds  to  procure  bcr  quota  of  stock, 
and  for  upward  of  twenty  years  has  been  participating 
in  thu  profits  of  the  institution.  In  November,  1851, 
a  new  Constitution  went  into  o|)eration,  ami  :"  5I?,y, 
1852,  a  general  banking  luw  was  passed  under  its  pro- 
visions; it  is  called  "An  act  to  authorize  (mhI  regu- 
late the  business  of  banking,"  It  was  liberal  onougli 
in  its  details  to  suit  all  parties,  and  ninety-four  bunk.-. 
were  in  a  brief  puria<i  in  full  operation,  and  supplying 
.lil  the  nelghlxiring  States,  and  especially  Ohio,  witli 
c\  ery  variety  of  pictorial  bank-bills  which  tlie  art  of 
eni^rrivers  could  devise.  In  October  1?64,  tiioru  wero 
84  uf  these  banks  whose  bill*  could  be  found  in  any 


of  the  bank*  of  Cincinnati,  and  th«  r*tami  which  w«r« 
published  of  U7  of  tb«M  exhlldud  $7,426,0fi7  In  cir- 
culation, s'ld  their  autliori,(«d  capltnls  $H2,»(X),000. 
At  one  tiiite  tlie  circuUliuii  wn»  not  far  from  hIm 
iniliiuni  .>f  dolhtrs,  and  *•  the  wcurllles  do|i<i«lt«d  with 
tlie  auditor  (and  for  which  Imnli-noles  were  exchanged 
dollar  for  doUar)  miglit  Im  Indir  m  (>  pnr  cent.  Iionds, 
wortli  only  abou .  'jr>  per  cent,,  the  law  presented  strong 
templotiuns  tu  l>ank  u|ierat<irs,  "  A  Uuard  of  Uirecton 
was  Mut  a  nx'essary  ap|i«nilflg«  tu  u  luuk,  nor  wer« 
th«  stiickboldorN  required  to  Imi  citizens  of  the  Htate." 
The  riHiilt  was,  (hat  after  the  np|ir«sslvi'  tax  law  uf 
Ohio  liad  'iriven  banking  capital  from  tliat  State,  it 
was  ai  once  invested  in  the  "froo  hanks"  of  Indiana. 
'I  .<  ;  .  '!.'  '«  duly  warned  of  the  danger  of  thli 
scheme  uf  l~  King  In  the  fulluwlng  suggestions:  "  If 
it  not  obvious  that  a  imnksr  who  Issues  t4ni  times  the 
amount  «f  his  capitjil  In  ilrculatlon  dtws  so  for  specu- 
lative pur|iot  's  only  ?  Tlie  temptation  Is  great — for 
in  I  iriodk  uf  prosperity  be  can  make  30  to  $40,000  per 
ai  ..am  by  his  circulalloii ;  and  If  the  liank  fulls,  he  it 
only  liulile  for  $fiO,0(N),  ur  the  amount  of  Ids  stock ; 
and  ev  this  he  might  avoid  by  a  timely  transfer  of 
his  stoc:.  tu  irrcsifintiible  parties,  and  lliiis  avoid  per- 
sonal res|ioniiibility  altugnther.  Ilitl  liow  long  would 
it  require  tu  dispose  uf  llie  $500,'sM)  of  Indiana  6 
per  ccuU  bonds  ill  tlitt  New  Yurk  uiarkot  at  par  (at 
which  rate  they  luive  Imiuii  rectdved  by  the  .uiditor), 
ill  a  period  of  |sini'',  ur  uven  hi  u  severo  monetary  cri- 
sis; and  ii>.iaiiwhilQ,  what  would  bn  the  discount  m 
the  billAif  his  Imnk  if  dri vvu  into  li<(uldatloii  ?  I'ast 
experience  bus  taught  us  titat  the  cuiniiiunity  would 
sutt'er  a  loss  of  luunlj/'jli'ii ptr nenl ,  nflh'ir  nmiuni,  and 
we  niuintiii  I  that  that  Is  nut  kiKltlniutft  banking  which 
cx[ioii'  ^  .  comniunity  lu  such  a  contlngont  hazard." 
Suili  wuH  *lir  predieliiin  \n  iHfil ;  what  wis  the  result? 
Of  the  Ui  iice  banks  of  Indlitiia,  !>\  have  nuiprnikd, 
and  their  mils  are  selling  at  frum  2'<  to  75  |M'r  cent, 
discount  in  tlic  city  uf  Cincinnati.  The  cliarler  irf  the 
Statu  liuuk  uf  IndLtiia  expires  this  year,  but  the  I.«g- 
islature,  at  their  lust  session,  chartered  a  new  .Stnte 
Uuuk,  w<))'  a  capital  "f  $ii,00<»,O0ii,  tiaviiig  15  tu  20 
branchet  .  -  '  ':;  eocli  specified  district — the  new  bunk 
purchuslci-  .0  interest  uf  thu  Statu  in  tlii!  old  liank, 
and  the  c.:,ii. '?'  to  be  paid  in  liy  the  Isl  nf  January, 
1867. 

tUinuU  -Bank  legislation  In  Illinois  has  lircn  quite 
as  extruurdiuury  o"  in  any  uther  .Stns,  ' ,  •  "niun. 
This  .State  whs  ailinittt'il  into  tho  I'nimi  in  l)('cemlior, 
1818,  but  the  first  liank  won  i'>ttabllshr-d  wliilo  it  was 
under  territorial  guveniment,  in  181.1,  at  Nhawneetuwn, 
the  whole  territury  tbeii  cuntnining  liiit  lijOl)  iiitiub- 
ilants.  I:i  181G  it  was  regularly  iii''(n^>rutcd,  and, 
aided  by  ■  lo  ;;ovnnimvnt  dc|iusits,  it  flirqiilr«il  extens- 
ive credit,  nuying  s|iecie  for  its  liills  until  August, 
1821,  after  ilio  Kentucky  banks  had  stis|«iidcd;  It 
wuii  at  leii, :!  coMi|ieilcd  to  slop,  and  rcmubii'd  dor- 
mant until  I'cliruury,  WV>,  wliMi  the  Legislature  re- 
newed its  iliarter  until  1st  .ianiiury,  1857.  In  tho  fed- 
lowing  muiiib  its  capitiil,  originally  $)IOO,000,  was  in- 
creased to  SI, 400,000,  aii'l  siibscrllK'd  for  liy  the  Stnte ; 
and  their  lioii  N.  puyalil"  In  18(11  wer«  Issued  to  pro- 
vide the  funi:    .  <r  this  iiwreuiKt  of  capttol. 

The  Constitution,  in  1x18,  |iruhibit<rd  the  cstuldifih- 
ment  of  any  luw  liunks  except  a  Stafo  llnnk  and  its 
branches;  and  in  March,  I8I)(,  "thn  State  llnnk  of 
Illinois"  was  jncorporatcl  vi  Ith  « i^opltal <if  $  l.lHKl.OOO, 
foi'  25  ye:iM,  o:iu-half  to  •»  niibwrllied  for  by  individ- 
uals, and  tlio  'lulancc  by  ( In  Stutc,  whenever  the  (..egla^ 
luture  tbouglit  propvr.  Tliis  charti<r  was  re|iealcd  In 
1821,  ^^  no  effort  was  Made  to  carry  it  Into  operution, 
<  '  n  f  bank  was  chuftcred  in  lieu  of  it,  witii  s 
$500,000,  for  ten  yturs,  tu  be  owned  by  the 
.3  !  aii  •  uii;!v.gcd  liy  the  I/«glsbiture.  The  capital 
oonsl.'tc!  -  ',' •  iij^ie ftiriiiliiri' nnAhimk'iuite ptnti'D  imly; 
an<i  $;''■)  s  M.vr"  directed  t4)  l,u  Issued  and  loaned  on 
note.'  lor  (,  I'  year,  with  mutx^ii^u*  m  securities,  an4. 


BAM 


18A 


iiXtf 


not  •scMdlog  ilOOO  to  mcb  Indirldu^  I .  I'htM  notn 
wera  rectivabia  tot  Uxca  ar  '.  al.  dalx  iie  to  tba  H'ato 
or  On  baiik.  It  had  hardly  common  «;d  oparationt 
bafora  lU  biUii  fall  lo  76  par  cent. ;  shortly  after  to  6U 
par  cant.,  and  Anally  to  26  par  cant.,  when  they  eaaaad 
to  circulate  at  all.  The  mamUirit  of  thci  l/>^flatiire 
received  their  pay  In  the  depreciated  currency  at  the 
marliet  value,  and  on  one  occasion  received  (!)  per  iluy 
for  their  aarvicea,  which  the  State  was  conipelluil  lo 
redeem  at  par;  and  a  loan  of  9100,000  recplvcd  In 
thaw  notaa  at  par  waa  paid  out  at  fifty  cantt  on  the 
dollar. 

In  February,  1836,  a  new  bank  waa  Incorporated, 
with  a  capital  of  «1,6UO,000,  with  the  lilieity  to  In- 
creaae  it  to  $2,600,000— the  State  taking  (10U,0aUuf  the 
•tock;  but  In  March  increased  the  capiul  $2,000,000; 
tba  whole  of  which  the  State  subucribed  for.  The 
bonk  waj«  allowed  Jiftg  <lay>  for  the  redemption  of  ita 
bills,  and  wna  required  to  redeem  tho  910U,(XIO  loan 
alwve  referred  to.  The  career  of  thbi  uank  was  brief; 
It  was  shortly  compelled  to  suspend  payment,  and  in 
laii  <t  v:tr.t  into  liquidation.  A^ter  tlio  suspension 
of  specie  payments  in  1887,  the  State  was  without  any 
banks  until  1861,  when  a  general  banking  law  was 
passed,  similar  to  that  in  the  Stales  we  have  already 
dcscriltcd.  The  l>flnds  of  all  States  payinff  6  (ivr 
cent,  biterest,  llnited  States  stocks  and  Illinois  bonds 
at  80  per  cent,  were  received  by  the  auditor  in  ex- 
change for  thu  notes  of  circulation,  and  Ihc  l>ank  com- 
menced operations.  Theamount  uf  bank-notes  is  limit- 
ed to  the  amount  of  tho  bonds  in  the  hands  oftlie  aud- 
itor; but  the  denominations  are  optional,  eo  that  the 
lekole  circiilaiiun  may  bo  in  one  dollar  uulti  if  tlic  par- 
ties cIio»«e  to  require  them ;  >"\t  in  case  of  failure  to 
roduem  them,  thty  are  subjef ;  ta'.i)  per  cent,  diimagcs 
per  anmiin,  ten  days  haTim.;'  ilfti-id  after  spcclo  is 
dcmandc<l,  and  the  corj-  ■. -»  j  •>•,  IbRO  ticcomes  for- 
feited. Tlic  stockholdti ,■  'i  iiHlividually  liable  for 
all  the  debts  ond  liaLibi  •■  '  .'  ih-^  liuik,  and  provision 
israndofor  the  oUectionof  '.i.i  •,  '>;e,  ifwcnsion  should 
require,  llie  act  does  not  liirii.  'Seumountof  capital, 
excepting  that  it  shall  not  be  les.*  than  t»0,000for  each 
bank,  nor  the  length  of  time,  but  leaves  both  optional 
with  the  applicants,  who  may  designate  any  numlicr 
of  millions  for  any  number  of  yearn,  UHlimiltd  an<l^nT- 
peliial.  There  arc  now  fifty  luniks  iu  Illinois,  wliow 
capitals  amount  to  about  ^6,000,000,  and  thirteen  of 
uncertain  value,  ranging  from  10  to  76  per  cent,  dis- 
count. 

These  three  States — Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois — 
all  of  which  ore  usually  called  "  Western ;"  but  there 
are  three  more  designated  as  "Northwestern" — Michi- 
gan, Iowa,  and  Wisconsin — which  we  inclutle  in  the 
same  division.  Michigan  waa  admitted  iiilo  the  L'lilon 
of  the  States  in  January.  1887;  and  in  1838  there  were 
11  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  |1,4(M),000. 
During  that  year  many  nioru  were  created,  as  the  fol- 
lowing statement  will  nhow : 


tody  of  tha  •aeuHllxs  4<ipo>lt«d  fbr  tiM  ^ii'^VmioU  dfc 
culatlun. 

luiea — low*  waa  adnilllad  Into  ltl>  {'tit'  i<  In  IMt, 
bm  at  prtaani  this  Htala  Is  dmtllnia  i.i'  inv  inrorpora. 
led  banks.  'Iliara  I*  a  privata  bank,  rallaii  tha  Bllnera* 
Dank,  at  Dubuqua,  liut  Its  bills  ara  not  current,  nor 
even  salable  In  Clni'lnnatl, 

WuriMfhi  was  Hdniillxd  Into  tha  t'nion  In  1848. 
Tlia  first  bank  was  ratiifiliiihAd  In  Mllwsukle,  in  1861, 
with  a  capital  of  t'fth.mi,  In  \Hf,-l  tha  lyco  bunking 
law  was  a<lo|iiad,  similar  lo  IIi)m«  In  other  Stales,  re- 
•'•iving  all  Mala  slm'ks  {Mylng  0  per  rent,,  and  Hnt 
mortgage  railroail  bonds,  on  nmds  ut  their  own  Stated 
at  80  |wr  cent,  of  llii>lr  par  value,  but  not  exceeding 
ono-balf  of  tha  cost  of  tha  road  on  which  they  are  • 
lien,  nor  for  more  lliaii  ona-half  the  amount  of  tha  cir> 
culating  notes  diiliverrd,  A  tax  of  I)  percent,  wat 
iiii|Hised,  and  llin  |i<-rs(miil  llalilllly  of  tha  stM'kl'  iders, 
to  the  Binuunl  of  liioir  stuck, 


v-» —  "■ 

"ImU,' 

~T;«»H.r. 

ciniUllM.  " 

.iMiiwrir,  IsAI, ,, 

10 

*IM,inm 

*(>IU,(lU 

Inly,        IWM 

IK 

l.'i/io.nw 

Tsn.iiis 

.iHniisrx,  INMt, ,,,,,,, 

Tl 

l.tno.isK) 

nio.noo 

./■iiiisrr,  IKM 

m 

l,(>*!I.MIO 

t.lAfl.KU 

.Iiilv.        1<M 

H 

«,«M).iinn 

^,M».'lt> 

\tm. 

~BftBk«  and  BraaehM.'^ 

CjpluL 

rKlininry,  1S18 

43 

«ii,i»T.7ir. 

Janiisrv,     1g4t 

1, 000,01  •> 

Janimnr,    ISO) 

Lleceinbcr,  1*W 

44((,7i"0 

719,100 

UocrnilxT,  1*14 

SO^.tbO 

DMenibcr,  1S40 

8IB,«»T 

Decemlwr,  1N44 

n«.lST 

Januu-^-,     1848 

189.4BO 

January,     1849 

UT,«fiO 

Jsnimry,     ISBO 

E 

89t,SSO 

January,     18R4 

•1 

1,064,110 

January,     18M 

6 

1,100,060 

The  only  banks  which  are  now  In  existence  In  the 
Stat3  are  tha  Michigan  Insurance  Company,  the  Penin- 
sular Bonk,  and  Fanner,i'  and  Mechanics'  Rank,  all  of 
Detroit ;  the  Bank  of  Macomb  County,  and  Hunk  of 
Tecumseh  in  the  Interior.  "Free  bank  laws"  were 
adapted  by  this  State  in  1849,  and  personal  lial>illty  is 
aiao  imimsvd  u[i<jn  the  stockholders.  The  Treasurer  of 
the  State  has  tho  supervision  of  the  banks,  and  tho  cus- 


There  la  a  bank  cimtrnllar  by  law,  who  has  the 
suiiervlsion  of  the  hanks,  n-cclvea  the  socurllies,  and 
issues  tlia  not«s  Iherrfur,  Hills  under  tA,  of  foreign 
banks,  are  proliibllcd  from  ilrciilntlon. 

t)t>i>TliriiN  Hr.tTKs,  Krnliidy This  State  was  ad- 
mitted Into  the  I'nlon  In  .lime,  1  ,'|I2,  ami  tlie  Arst  bunk 
was  established  In  Wfl,  witli  a  capital  of  i|<16fi,(iOO,  in 
I.«xington,  under  tlie  covert  name  of  an  iiuurwtrr  cum- 
imni)  which  was  aulliorlx«d  lo  issue  notes,  payable  to 
liearer.  In  IH04 a  rcgulnr  bniik  was  Incorpornird,  under 
tho  name  of  "'I In-  llNiik  of  Ki^ntuiky,"  wilh  a  capital 
oftli'MK^IKN),  This  bank  rusiiendcd  payment  in  1814, 
but  resumed  It  In  IHIfi;  In  1817  forty  new  Imnks  were 
incorporated,  with  capilnls  ninountlng  lo  (ilO,(MM),000, 
and  hud  perinlMluM  to  redeem  their  notes  witli  iliv  bills 
of  Kentucky  lianks.  Instead  of  s|ieclo.  In  1818  tho 
State  was  inundali'd  wllh  the  paper  of  these  banks; 
large  loans  wi-ro  innde,  sfiecnlutlim  wns  rife,  alid  most 
of  the  bubbles  which  were  sot  afloat  collnpsed  within 
OHM  brief  year.  The  pressuro  beciimo  uiilverKul,  and 
for  "relief"  lh«  l.egl>lnhire  chartered  a  new  Imnk, 
"The  Commoiiweallh,"  wllh  a  capital  of  three  mill, 
ions,  pledging  the  public  fnith  f(;r  the  rcdcniption  of 
its  circulation;  and  a»  aectirlly  held  certain  lands, 
fouth  of  Tennessee  Itlvcr,  as  a  guarnnty.  If  a  creditor 
refused  lo  receive  this  paper  In  payment,  the  debtor 
was  aulborir.ed  lo  "replevy  Ihe  debt  for  the  space  of 
two  years."  The  p«|i«rof  liic  new  bank  fill  fiO  per 
fc.  t.,  and  cn-dllors  had  the  choice  of  the  puynient  of 
one-half  the  atnminl  of  Ihrlr  clnlms,  or  a  delay  of  two 
years  in  tli«  selllciiietil,  wll'i  alS  Ihe  hazard  of'ulllmate 
bankru|itcy,  and  •  t<rt«l  im;  The  conflict  of  the  two 
parties,  known  as  the  "  relief"  and  nntl-Telief,"  or  the 
"old  court"  and  "new  court,"  was  the  fiercest  which 
ever  agftuteil  lb«  Wale,  but  after  five  rears  struggle, 
the  "olil  court"  (tarty  IriMtnphcd,  the  rrplrvin  act  wu* 
repealed,  and  the  paiierof  the  rmnmonweiilth  Dunk 
was  suppressed,  and  uttlliiali'ty  destroyed  by  succcssivo 
aclM  of  the  |,<'gl»lBtiire,  In  1808  the  dominant  party 
determined  t»  supply  tlm  place  and  currency  of  tho 
two  branches  i»f  Ihe  f'niled  Stales  Hank,  at  I,exington 
and  i,<iuisvllle,  liy  Ihe  aslalillshment  of  State  banks ; 
and  in  18IM  lite  Hank  of  Krtrtiirky,  with  a  capital  of 
Ave  inilllims,  Ihft  Northern  Rank  of  Kentucky,  with 
three  inilllotia,  and  tlm  Hank  of  l,oiilsville,  with  Ave 
millions  of  dollar*,  were  ihartored,  and  are  now  in 
existence;  but  wboMi  aggregato  capllnis  arc  only 
|7,(jnO,000,  instead  of  the  thirteen  millions  granted. 
In  1837  all  these  banks  sii«|fendcd  payments  in  specie, 
but  resumed  again  In  I8IW,  and  the  i,e^lslaturc  char, 
tared  tliu  Sfmlhern  Dank  of  Kentucky.  Shortly  after- 
ward,  buwaver,  tlw  hitiki  susfiendcd  a  second  timo,' 


DAN 


180 


BAN 


and  th«  unlverail  prontritiun  of  trail*,  th«  Npudliitlon 
of  th«ir  l)piiils  \ty  sonin  of  (ho  8tiil*ii,  nnd  tho  unlvsrtnl 
d<rMiK«nu-iit  of  the  currency  •South  ami  Weal,  [>re- 
veuted  Iho  Htook  of  the  new  bank  (Vom  tieing  taken  up. 
The  trading  voniinuuity  wu  In  i  dcapurato  condition, 
yet  thov  stoKKered  on  undur  their  opprciaive  loud  of 
debt*;  >:iit  liy  the  Uberal  acrumniodutioni  and  inclnl- 
gencet  of  tliu  liaiika,  thoy  were  partially  roliovod,  uuiil 
1H4.1,  when  tho  preanure  (('"■lually  diminlithed,  uiil 
■hortly  ufterward  it  ceased  oltoKelher,  In  18-1'.:  the 
tbreo  buiikii  rnaunied  specie  payments,  nnd  from  a  cir- 
culation of  <>2,H()0,000  in  1H42,  gradually  extended  Iheir 
issuiss  until  IHAO,  whan  they  amounted  to  t(i,UMll,000. 
The  .Soullirrn  Hank  of  Kentucky  had  its  charter  amend- 
ed, and  In  IHbi  went  Into  operation  with  a  capital  of 
tl,3iM),IKlU.  Since  llien  charters  have  been  grunted  to 
tlie  Farmers'  Hank,  with •2,nOU,(NM) capital;  the  Com- 
mercial Hank,  wltli  $4UO,0()O;  the  Kentucky  Trust 
Company,  with  an  HN/iniiVct/ capital ;  and  the  New|x>rt 
Safety  Fund  Hank,  with  93(M),0(H)  capitul.  Both  of 
these  institutions  fulled  in  18M,  ami  their  notes  are 
now  selling  at  fiO  per  cent,  discount;  and  the  small 
notes  of  lliu  latter  bank  ut  DO  |ier  cent.  With  the  ex- 
.ceptiun  of  the  charters  of  these  two  lust  bunks,  tho 
legislution  of  Kentucky  Iius  lieen  of  a,  tlxcd  character, 
and  hiir  circulation  has  ever  liecn  eKiccmcd  in  the 
Wcat«rn  States  us  of  the  highest  character.  There 
are  now  31  bunks  and  lirunchos  in  the  State,  the  ag- 
gregate of  whose  capitals  Is  $11,7:UI,IUHI.  and  circu- 
lation uliiiiit  $13,.S()0n,()(M).  In  tho  scKsion  of  1864,  it 
was  pri>poH(>d  to  charter  six  new  banks,  with  capitals 
anixunting  to  $(1,100,000;  but  the  governor  having 
vetoed  one  of  the  Idils  of  Incorporation,  tho  bills  all 
failed  to  puss,  and  there  for'  tho  present  tho  matter 
rests. 

Trnnetsi  - . — In  1807  tho  Nnshvllle  Dnnk  wos  Incor- 
porated, Kith  »  capital  of  t. 1)0,000,  afterward  in- 
creasjMl  to  <i400,000,  and  after  one  or  two  suspensions 
It  wound  up  with  loss  to  nil  parties.  In  IHtl  tho 
Dunk  of  tho  .State  of  Tonnesseo  was  chartered,  with  a 
capitul  of  i)4(X),()00,  and  nine  other  banks,  with  capi- 
tals of  f20O,0(H)  to  i>400,000  each,  and  wero  permitted 
tu  lieciiinc  branches  of  the  Hank  of  Tennessee.  In 
181!)  the  Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  Hank  of  Nashville 
was  chartered,  with  a  capital  of  iJ400,000,  but  within 
a  year  It  was  insolvent.  In  18'20  tho  .State  Bunk  of 
Tennessee  was  established,  with  a  capital  of  ♦1,0(10,000, 
on  tho  Ijusis  of  funds  belonging  to  the  Slate.  This 
bank  loaned  money  to  Individuals,  In  sums  of  $500  tu 
anch,  on  twelve  months'  credit,  secured  l)y  a  mortgage. 
The  bunk  was  nol  rer/iiircH  to  hnre  any  tpecie,  but  was 
authorized  to  sell  lt',>!iO,000  0  |)or  cent.  State  stocks 
as  its  working  rnpital.  The  proceeds  of  the  Iliawusso 
lands,  and  suiim  other  securities,  were  pledged  for  tho 
redemption  of  the  circulation,  and  although  its  paper 
was  rejected  l)y  two  of  the  oldest  bunks  in  the  State, 
•nd  was  10  per  cent.  Iielow  pur,  yet  the  bunk  strug- 
gled on,  and  after  six  years  it  uttaincd  nn  avallalile 
capitul  of  i57.')|tXK)  out  of  tho  procei,  3  of  tho  pledged 
lands,  Tlu;  liank  was  limilly  wound  up  In  I8it2,  with 
oonslderulde  loss  to  the  Stute.  Tho  Union  Hank  was 
Incorporut.'d  In  1882,  with  a  capital  of  *«,0<H),000,  the 
Stato  owning  ono-third  of  the  stock;  in  1888  the 
Planters'  Hank  was  incoriiornted,  wifli  a  capital  of 
(i'2,000,0<)0;  and  in  1K3&  the  Farmers'  and  Merchants' 
Dunk  of  Mempliis,  with  $61)0,000  capital.  This  latter 
bank  for  a  short  time  enjoyed  h  high  credit,  lint  It  at- 
tempted to  do  too  much  lin>luess,  and  failed  in  conse- 
quence. In  1838  tho  RanK  (>f  Tennessee  was  incor- 
porated, with  a  capital  .>f  $8,'2'iO,97A,  all  owned  by  tho 
State,  its  nominal  capital  In-ing  $5,000,000.  Tho  State 
requisitions  on  this  l>ank  were  so  onerouo.  that  its  cap- 
iUl,  In  184<J,  was  reduced  to  92,600,000.  .Subsequently 
to  tho  charter  of  tho  Hunk  of  Tennessee,  In  1843,  the 
Bank  of  Kust  Tennessee,  capital  of  $800,000;  in  1848, 
th«  T.awrencebur,;  Hank,  capital  $100,000;  18.'52,  tho 
Citizens'  Hunk  of  Nwbville  and  Meini)bU,  capitul 


$200,000,  were  chartarml.  In  18S3  A  tnt  baftUag 
law  was  passed,  similar  In  Its  provisions  to  thoaa  w« 
hava  previously  descrilMwl,  but,  like  those  In  other 
States,  requiring  amendments.  Iiiitma  eight  or  tan 
banks  have  been  organised  under  It,  but  it  Is  not  very 
popular  in  the  State.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Irfigia- 
luture.  In  iHftU,  chartered  seven  stock  bunks,  with  a 
viow  of  supplying  the  vacuum  which  tho  winding  up 
of  the  Hui  of  I'ennessce  would  .xcasiun,  and  widch 
nson  recommended  in  1865.  Tlif  last 
'>anks  In  this  State  are  In  niMitlMir  40, 
>T,  uul  all  are  under  the  fcitpvrvijlon 


Govoni 
returii 
capitii 
of  a  Stai' 

there 
and  , 


It  little  to  say  of  Arkansas,  where 
Ainiiig  banks  to  claim  our  attention, 
nrc  to  A/iMi'Mi'/>//i,  where  tho  theme 
j    as       ti,  itton  crops  are  luxuriant.    There 

were      rn  inks  in  Arkuiisus,  tlin  Keul  Ks- 

tate  liaul.  link  of  tho  Slate  of  Arkansas. 

They  uro  I  ,  tii    hands  of  trustees  for  li<|ui:lution, 

and  are  Imlelited  to  tiie  State  about  $1,60(1,000,  and 
interest  to  an  equal  amount  for  Slate  bonils  loaned  to 
them,  and  still  unpaid.  This  Stute  was  adniittfd  Into 
the  Union  In  December,  1817,  and  it  hud  tlien  one 
bank,  with  a  capital  of  $100,000.  In  1820  this  cup- 
Uul  was  Increased  to  $000,000,  and  in  1811(1  it  had  but 
one  bunk,  capital  $U60,UU().  At  tliis  |)criod  there  wero 
no  bunks  in  Kcntiii  ky  or  Missiiuri,  only  one  In  Ten- 
nessee, two  in  Alabama,  nnd  four  in  Louisiana. 

Mmi»»ippi, — During  this  year  ttie  riuntcrs'  Hank 
of  Mississippi  was  cliurtcred,  with  a  capitul  of 
$a,000,0(M),  of  which  two-thirds  were  reserved  for  tho 
.State,  and  one-third  allotted  to  Individuals,  In  duly, 
1881,  tho  Stute  issued  $5(X),000  li  jier  cent,  bonds,  and 
in  March,  18(12,  $1,600,000  more,  for  her  proportion 
of  tile  stock.  These  lionds  were  sold  at  \n\  ))er  cent. 
niUanco,  and  yielded  to  tho  State  u  premium  of 
$250,000.  This  was  dc[)Ositcd  in  tho  bank  as  a  sink> 
iiig  fiind,  to  lie  increased  by  tho  dividoiids  on  the 
State's  stock  in  the  liank,  from  which  fund  the  inter- 
est on  tho  two  millions  of  lionds  was  to  bo  regularly 
puld.  The  bank  paid  10  per  cent,  dividends  up  to 
September,  1839,  when  tho  .State  stock  was  trans- 
ferred to  tho  Natchez  Itailroad  t'imipany.  Tho  sink- 
ing fund  was  then  $800,000  beyond  the  amount  re- 
quired to  pay  tho  interest  on  the  State  bonds.  In 
18.16  to  1839,  a  large  proimrtion  of  this  fund  was  lost, 
and  the  remnants  left  were  only  $60,000,  to  which 
about  an  equal  sum  baa  since  been  added  by  the  com- 
missioncra,  by  collections  from  the  assets  of  the  Plant- 
ers' Hunk,  in  18i)5,  tho  banking  capital  of  tlie  State 
umounteil  to  $12,000,000,  and  auch  was  the  prosper- 
ous condition  of  the  Stote,  that  it  was  proposed  to 
add  $10,000,000  mora  to  the  amount;  and  in  tho  ses- 
sion of  1886-'36  about  $17,000,000  In  bunks  and  rail- 
roads wero  chartered.  In  1887  there  wero  18  banks 
in  Mississippi,  tho  aggregate  capitals  of  whicli  wero 
$12,872,81.'i,  having  a  circulation  of  $5,073,425,  and 
loans  $24,351,414.  But  tho  end  was  not  yet.  In 
1838  the  Mississippi  Union  Bank  was  chartered,  with 
a  capital  of  $15.,500,000,  to  he  "raised  by  means  of  a 
loan,  to  bo  obtained  by  tho  directors  of  the  institu- 
tion." The  fjovernor  was  authorized  to  issnc  7500 
bonds  of  iJ2()o()  each,  interest  at  5  per  cent.,  and  pay- 
aide  in  12,  18,  and  24  years,  and  for  tho  poyment  of 
which  the  fnlth  of  tho  State  was  pledged.  Two  and 
a  half  pt>r  cent,  in  cash  was  required  of  individual  sub- 
scriptions, and  the  balance  aecured  by  mortgages  on 
real  estate.  In  June,  18.S8,  Governor  M'Nutt  exe- 
cuted and  delivered  to  the  bunk  2500  of  the  proposed 
bonds.  The  three  coinmlssioners  appointed  under  the 
charter  negotiated  these  bonds  with  Mr.  Hiddlo,  who 
paid  tho  commissioners  of  the  bank  $6,000,000  there- 
for, In  live  installments  of  ouo  million  each.  This  cen- 
tral t  was  guaranteed  by  tho  Pennsylvania  Bunk  of  the 
United  States,  on  behalf  of  Mr.  Biddle.  Upon  this 
sum  of  five  millions,  and  $8000  received  from  indi- 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


// 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporalion 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRHT 

WnSTIII,N.Y.  USM 

(716)  •73-4»03 


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HAS 


mitni  tatMeribon,  tht  tank  taMd  alt  IM  opnmtloiit, 
khd  the  dtpIOMbl*  Imm  of  whidk  we  (tall  thortljr 
Mite.  In  ISSBsnotlie^ieTleeof  bonds,  ftr  «  tiOiUar 
aiMomit,  WM  iaened  to  the  bank  for  ftiither  ^^acHtie 
caplx^;'  but  in  1840  the  gonmor  bmed  •  proelin»- 
tion,  iwning  the  eommtinitjr  ageinit  adTMOing  ihob- 
ey  on  the  hypothecation  of  then  bonds,  on  any  ttrmt 
net  aathorUtd  bg  the  ckatitr.  In  1841  the  go^-etnor 
eommanicated  to  the  Legidatore  that  thii  praolittia- 
Hon  had  prevented  an  ^gal  sale  of  these  bonds,  and 
with  it  the  following  Interesting  summai7  of  the  "  eon- 
dltion''afthe  Union  Bank:     ■ 

Sa4i*Bdeddeiit,<n«ii<( ,,......,.^$S,<m,000 

.    B«HieBd«dd.lit««in«»rf<..,....;.... J-HI'^ 

Besoonei, chiefly UnOMrftaNt......... ......    8,084,000 

Bpeds  oa  hand MM 

CtMulatlon $.0(4,000 

ITeariy  a  year  prarlons  to  this  date  the  bank  had 
become  hopelessly  insolvent.  The  governor's  proc- 
hunation  was  followed  shortly  after  by  his  atrodout 
triientt  of  "  rtpudiatim"  of  the  #S,000,000  of  the  bonds 
of  1888,  on  the  pretext  of  "  alleged  (hrad  and  illegal- 
ity," and  communicated  to  the  I.egtslatttre ;  to  which 
they  responded,  "that  the  State  of  Mississippi  will 
pay  her  Ixmds,  and  preiervt  htr/Mi  ineieiatt .'"  In 
the  whole  of  this  disastraos  transaction,  there  is  no-> 


thing  bnt  tHtgraet;  Oovemor  H'Nntt  was  the  flnt 
open,  avowed,  and  relentless  assassin  of  Americaa 
cMiUI  In  Europe,  and  the  "deep  damnation  of  its  tak- 
ing  off*  originated  a  (Ming  of  distrust  and  disqnl*. 
tnde  In  ihianolal  circles,  which  will  be  forgotten  only 
when  John  Law's  ifiuiitippi  scheme  has  been  sur- 
passed in  extravagance.  Well  and  truly  did  the  Sen- 
ator ftom  Uississippi  utter  that  unfergotten  sentence, 
"the  moral  sense  of  communities  and  of  mankind  will 
condemn  us,"  unless  a  tax  was  raised  for  the  payment 
of  these  bonds ;  and  it  may  be  safiely  asserted  that 
the  deepest  injury  ever  inflicted  upon  the  commercial 
and  financial  reputation  of  the  United  States  was  in 
this  reprobated  and  dishonest  act  of  "  hepvmatio;!.'' 
The  Planters'  Bank  bonds  were  not  nArt(%' repudi- 
ated, but  the  peoplA  of  the  State,  In  1862,  refused,  by 
a  majority  of  440o  votes,  to  authorice  a  tax  to  pay 
them,  and  redeem  "  the  plighted  faith  of  the  State." 
In  July,  1854,  the  amount  of  these  bonds,  with  inter- 
est, was  $8,618,061,  and  the  bonds  of  the  Union  Bank, 
ttir  f  6,000,000  and  interest,  iqay  be  added  thereto,  as 
the  cost  of  banks  to  the  State,  independent  of  the  in- 
dividual loss  that  can  be  superaddied  thereto.  The 
following  tabular  statement  ftimlshes  a  sufficient  warn- 
ing of  the  fhte  of  banks  which  are  bastd  upon  fictitious 
capital.    There  were  in  the  State  in 


Vwn. 

B»k.. 

C..1I-. 

Cif..bii^ 

SpMla. 

Loui. 

1880 
18ST 
1S40 
1848 
18G0 
1800 

1 

18 

'  IS 

IT 

1* 

1 

$060,600 
lC872,815 
00,870,408      -i^ 

9,M1,«I0 

£«)^ie6 

$840,1!I0 

6,078,426 

>^<v      1B,071,88» 

\t    ■•      i,B74,18» 

mm 

$77,000 

1,8«»,000 

887,000 

11,000 

■  *l,927,48li 
$4,861,414 
48,888,788 
18,848,481 

"  Unpaid  capital,  not  iroith  raporttng." 


louuiana.—'We  gladly  tnm  away  from  this  melan- 
choly review  of  past  disasten,  and  enter  upon  a  scene  of 
stUl'larger  operations  in  Louisiana.  The  State  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  in  1812,  but  there  was  a  bank  cap- 
ital in  the  Territory  in  1806,  of  $600,000,  which  in  I8I6 
was  hicnaaed  to  #1,<'%,800,  distributed  among  three 
banks ;  and  in  1820  four  banks,  with  #2,697,420. 
Here  an  no  reliable  returns  of  the  banks  between 
1820  and  1880;  but  as  the  Increase  of  their  number 
in  the  United  Statea  was  but  twenty-two,  and  of 
their  capital  only  eight  milliona,  we  take  Hr.  Oailatin^s  I 
report  of  four  lianks  In  1880,  as  the  actual  number  in  ' 
Lonisiana  at  that  period,  aa  "in  all  the  Western  and 
Southwestern  States  there  were,  in  1880,  only  eighteen 
banks,  with  capitals  amounting  to  $0,462,268.  By  the 
1st  of  January,  1837,  the  numlwr  of  banks  in  these 
States  was  increased  to  161,  including  branches,  with 


paid  up  capitals  of  the  amount  of  $88,699,974[,"  of 
which  Louisiana  had  16  banks,  with  81  bi:  iches,  and 
$86,708,466  caplUl,  $7,909,788  cireulation,  $11,487,431 
deposito,  $8,108,416  specie,  and  loans  $69,108,741, 
which  was  the  higheat  point  at  the  operations  of  the 
banks,  tfikt'  Rtgultr,  of  March,  1886,  gives  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  bank  capital  in  Louisiana  at  that  date : 


VMn. 

Cpttd. 

VMN. 

Cpltal 

181  i 
1816 
1880 
1830 

$761,000 
1,4(8,000 
8,807,480 
6,666,980 

1884 

1886 

isa( 

$88,864,786 
87,178,146 
60,000,000 

of  which  about  thirty-two  miUioDS  were  paid  in,  and 
thecircnlation  of  six  millions— lees  than  the  specie  in 
the  banks  to  redeem  it.  The  oiBcial  reports,  however, 
exhibit  a  more  correct  view  of  the  matter,  and  bma  it 
we  copy  the  following  table  : 


cii«»l«u«ir 
■f?;909?r88 
S,44S,78S 
1,087,BTT 
4,800,783 
8,068,867 


1887 

16 

1840 

16 

1848 

< 

1S46 

6 

1»0 

6 

TT 
si 

8$ 
88 

88 


C»ylul. 
$86,709,466 
41,711,814 
S0,*W,S40 
17,638,1110 
14,867,680 


Spwto. 


$3,108,416 
8,108,841 
4.461.088 
<,((6,W4 
6,97B,n» 


$69,108,741 
48,646,798 
80,480,848 
81,688,744 
18,602,04» 


« 


The  banks  hi  the  last  line,  bi  I860,  were 
LovMaoaBank V^V» 


Canal  and  Banking  Company. 

City  Bank 

Loulalsaa  RIale  Bank 

Mechaates'  aad  Tradera'  Bank. 
Union  Bank . 


8,163,760 
*04,400 
1,734,880 
l.TOS,860 
8,068,000 
Total $14,267,620 

Besides  these,  there  were  the  Citisens'  Bank  and 
Consolidation  Association,  with  liabilities  amounting 
to  $8,761,818,  and  assets,  $8,000,971.  In  1863  the 
new  consolidation  was  adopted,  and  theCitiiens'  Bank 
charter  was  restored  to  the  bank,  which  had  l)een  for- 
Mted  by  Its  continued  suspension.  The  charter  of  the 
City  Bank  expired  In  1868 :  that  of  the  Mechanics'  and 
lYaden'  atat  expired.  The  latter  reorganized  under 
the  general  tmnking  law.  The  pnviaions  of  the  firae 
banking  law  of  Louisiana  are  such  as  will  oompel  the 
banks  to  reuin  specie  to  the  amount  of  on»>tbiid.of 
their  llabiUtiea.    In  1864  tha  retdnu  wore, 


6Baoks. $l&,j!7o,48( 

SFrsebanks 2,688,776  ' 

I 

In  1866  there  were  nine  banks,  whose  capitals 
amounted  to  $16,702,600.  As  New  Orleans  is  the 
grand  entrepot  of  the  products  of  the  whole  Western 
country,  large  Iwnking  facilities  are  requisite  to  exp». 
dite  the  cotton,  sugar,  and  tobacco  shipped  annually 
from  this  great  commereial  mart,  and  to  supply  the  d» 
mands  of  the  planters  during  each  successive  season. 
For  many  yean  past  there  has  been  a  deficiency  of 
lianking  capital  In  New  Orleans,  in  cooiequetice  of  tha 
restrictive  Umlts  of  the  banking  policy  of  the  State  la 
relation  to  discounts,  as  the  supply  of  specie  in  th« 
banks  has  been  always  large  enough  to  justify  a  much 
hwgcr  funonnt  of  oironlation  than  has  ever  been  issued. 
Under  the  general  banking  law,  it  is  probable,  from  the 
general  appearances  of  things,  that  this  detlcienry  will 
no  longor  exist,  but,  on  the  oontnuy,  thii*  wiU.  b«A 


tondoncy  to  an  oppoeite  oxtromo. 


"i' 


t!  vtiMiijy- 


BANi 


Itlt 


VkX 


■wn. 
ncy  of 

oftlM 
Utein 
in  th« 
I  much 

am  the 
ywitt 


ArATBlBiT  WTitt  Bamsi  or'NEw  0*t.Kufi,'  Oor.  11,  ntf 


tOriTl  ll»TMIWiW.'-U*Bm»l— , 


'  Bank  of  LouWaiui. . .  ~ 
LoaWHUkStataBsU... 

OaaalBaok 

CttlMiu' Bank 

ItMbanIc**  and  Tiaden' 

VnlonBwik 

SouUMraBank 

.  Bank  of  N«<r  Oiiaani. . . 

Total 


i,m,ioo 

S,T4i,MS 
861.4W 

1S3,6W 
MM? 


♦T.»T8.B89 


s,ms,«t6 

«<M,8t6 
11«,«1 


"Tj£r 


♦ll,T41^T0 


1M,4M 


Bank  0*  LonWana 

LoaUana  fltata  Bank. . . 

"JaaalBank 

UUtaaai'Bauk 

'Meebanlra'  and  Tiaden' 

'Union  Bank 

'floolheni  Bank 

t  Bank  of  New  Odaana. . . 
Total 


ssxr 


1M»,IS0 
M(I,8W 

i^aiSiOw 
m,4eo 

IMJOl 
18S,4M 
SW,a69 


$«,aT4,»TB 


tt,»w,8in 

1,TM,M8 
S,ai8,8l6 
MU,U< 
1.0<M,188 
l,4M,tM 
6TB,«e 
IjMMM 


■nuafe. 

n>,m 
da«,ni 

TIM,1M 
TCfl4B 
44S!,41« 
158,410 
Igt.tW 


$l,n8,M0 


*  Vkee  bank*  under  tbe  geneial  law  i  tbe  otben  an  ehar- 
tetedbanki. 


Ahbama  WM  adaiitted  Into  th*  UnioB  la  1819;  Hif 
In  the  foUoiring  yaar  lb«n  wan  thra*  banka,  whoM 
oqjitab  ainoanttd  to  9469,119;  in  1880,  one  bank,  witii 
•tt&,608  cafMal )  and  we  give  below  the  tabular  atate* 
nenls  of  Ibwr  yewa,  to  exhibit  ita  bank  hiatory  daring 
the  ineBioMble  epoch  of  1886-^41    ' 

In:1848thabuikinKai|iitalwaaradaeedto41,600,000,; 
the  Bank  e(  Mobile  Mng  the  only  institntien  untU  1861. 
The  State  owned  twiMiftha  of  the  atook,  MOO^OOO,  for 
which  it  iaeued  ita  booda,  and  the  bank  p^  the  intef 
eatthaieoAi  Sinoetiian the  SouthemBankof Alabama,, 
oipital  $<iC0,00O)  Bank  of  Montgomeiy,  tlOO«000$ 
and  the  Nortlieni  Bank  of  Alubama,  ti(m,OOQ,  hare 
been  oiganiied.  In  1880  a  ft<M  banking  law  waa 
paiaed,  bnt  there  haa  l>ean  no  advantage  takan  of  i/U 
piivllegaa^  by  eetabliiliing  any  each  Inititntion  In  the 
State.  The  Bank  of  the  State  has  been  winding  up 
ita  affairs  ever  since  the  expiration  of  ita  dtartar^  and 
it  haa  Aimished  anotlier  illustration  of  the  principle 
that  there  should  be  no  interwoven  interesta  of  State 
and  bank,  or  of  politics  and  finance;  they  may  be  tor-* 
ttlalioe,  but  not  amjoiitt>  Tbe  executive  mcsaages 
have  folly  argued  tide  point,  and  there  Is  no  ocoaaion 
for  Airtlier  eommmt. 


Vnn. 


^ 


18M 
1840 
1841 
1841 


OaVttaL 


ijtet 

i4,8T»,i!» 
14,d4«,834 
8,(WT,7flO 


OtmMioa. 


*o,m,iOT 

T,2U,141 

1,TS8,04S 

H.8T1 


By«el». 


$l,Mt,4B4 

1,68>4>10 

«8B,1W 

28,204 


lS,tW,04T 


«8,1«,04T 

2,827,619 

980,428 

629,609 


DlMmati,' 


1 


$16,020,505 
24,188,594 
28,160,521 
2,948,929 


nth  the  State  of  Texas  we  shall  close  the  lemarka 
on  the  Southwestern  division  of  the  Southern  Statea, 
with  merely  stating  tlie  fact  that  there  is  one  bank  in 
the  State,  at  Galveston,  having  a  capital  of  $832,000. 
Tliis  Sute  was  admitted  hito  the  Union  in  1846,  and 
although  she  lias  cost  the  country  a  vast  amount  of 
money,  in  prolonged  debates  in  Congress,  in  the  wasted 
hours  of  the  excited  msases  of  the  people,  in  cities, 
towns,  and  villages,  nnd  the  exhaustion  of  all  the  in' 
tense  expletives  that  sappoaitive  patriotism  could  in- 
vent, yet  beyond  those  straws,  after  the  payment  of 
the  hard  money  of  the  contract,  we  believe  that  tho 
government  have  made  a  good  bargain,  and  that  her 
territory  may  in  our  favored  pathway  to  the  Pacilic. 
We  have  done  with  the  Southweatem  division,  when 
we  have  quoted  a  remark  of  Professor  Tucker,  twenty 
years  ago,  1886.  "The  banking  mania  has  prevailed 
in  the  Southwectem  Statea  beyond  any  other  in  tiw 
Union,  not  excepting  Xew  England,  bnt  in  consequence 
of  which,  with  the  most  proJUable  agricutturt  tn  (Ao 
Umted  States,  tbe  bank  circulation  has  been  the  most 
depreciated,  and  they  are  still  suffering  the  evils  of  a 
disordered  currency." 

Virgbua. — ^The  first  notice  of  any  bank  in  Virginia 
was  in  1805,  mentioned  in  Mr.  GaUatin's  report,  cap* 
itol  $1,000,000.  This  was  the  Bank  of  Virginis,  char- 
tered bi  1804,  and  which  expires  in  April,  1657;  its 
capital  has  been  enlarged  to  $2,650,000.  There  was, 
it  is  true,  a  l>ranch  of  tbe  first  Bank  of  the  United 
States  in  Norfolk ;  but  the  paper  of  this  bank  rarely 
found  its  way  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  where 
tbe  currency,  was  purely  metallic^  "  Tbe  desli  of  ev- 
ery agriculturist  in  Virginia  had  some  gold  or  silver  to 
spare,  if  he  was  a  prudent,  industrious  man ;  or  he  had 
something  like  money  to  spare  in  the  hands  of  his  mer- 
chant, who,  in  the  days  of  which  I  am  speaking,  acted 
OS  a  banker  to  his  prospering  customers.  The  currency 
being  specie,  was  widely  scattered  through  the  land,  and 
in  div^rsilied  hands,  so  tliat  its  concentration  at  any  par- 
ticular point  was  imiwssible ;  and  consequently  its  re- 
moval from  the  country  could  not  happen  to  any  great 
extent."  Tho  same  writer  proceeds :  "Ko  people  had 
more  cause  to  rejoice  than  the  people  of  Virginia;  but 
alas !  the  banks  cume,  and  all  things  l>eoame  changed. 
Like  the  Upas-tree,  they  have  withered  and  destroyed 
the  healthful  condition  of  the  country,  and  inflicted  oq 
the  people  political  and  pecuniary  disease  of  the  moat 
deadly  character." 


Such  was  the  tone  of  public  sentiment  in  theSontk-' 
em  States,  originating  with  the  establishment  of  the 
first  United  States  Bank,  and  eheriahed  by  Virginia 
until  the  expiration  of  Itt  charter  in  1811,  when, 
tkrongh  fear  that  its  sovereignty  would  not  be  repre> 
sented  at  the  Aineral  orgies,  ^Assembly,  in  January, 
1811,  passed  a  special  resolve,  "to  instract  their  sen- 
ators and  request  their  representatives  to  vote  against 
the  renewal  of  the  charter  at  tho  United  States  Bank" 
-^-«  puny  little  institution,  on  its  laat  legs,  with  an 
eidbaigo  behind  it,  and  a  war  before  its  last  expiring 
momenta.  Butinonobiief  year  the  mystery  was  ex- 
plained: Virgmia  wanted  a  bank  of  her  o-jm,  and  in 
February,  1812,  we  perceive  that  the  Farmer,*  Bank 
of  Virginia,  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000,  and  with  • 
right  to  isane  $6,000,000  of  circulation,  was  chartered ; 
and  with  the  Bank  of  VirginU  (in  which  the  Stata  waa 
interested  $300,000),  and  the  enlargement  of  capital  to 
the  old,  and  the  creation  of  new  banks,  it  certainly  was 
very  politic  that  the  State  should  wish  to  avoid  either 
the  rivalty  or  tbe  surveillance  of  a  natiovinl  institution. 
Three  other  banks  fbllowed  in  quick  viiRceiision,  with 
capitals  amounting  to  fbnr  millions  .iiore,  and  there 
was  no  flirther  outcry  against  (Mper  money  or  banks, 
because  the  "  Old  Dominion"  had  adopted  them.  The 
charters  of  the  two  first  banks  prohibited  the  issue  of 
notes  under  $6,  which  they  adhered  to,  until  it  was 
found  convenient  to  issue  $7,  $8,  and  $9  notes  to  sup- 
ply the  use  of  coin ;  and  thus  the  intent  of  the  law  was 
frustrated.  Our  usual  tabular  statement  furnishes  the 
readiest  mode  of  showing  the  banking  operations  of 
the  State  fVom  1820  to  1850: 


Von. 


i82?r 

18B0 
18ST 
1840 
1842 
1848 
1800 
18M 
1866 


BMlki. 


4 
4 
B 
6 
6 
6 
6 
16 
60 


Opitol. 


$5,212,192 
5,761,100 
6,731,200 
10,283,683 
10,803,862 
9,684,670 
9,731,870 
12,796,486 
18,734.800 


$7,699,000 
18,021,000 
15,«e6,«00 
16,170,000 
17,802,000 
18,168,000 
24,918,000 


CiTcuIatfoa 


$8,858,000 
9,107,000 
6,707,000 
7,740,000 
8,907,000 
8,044,000 

14,298,000 


With  the  exception  of  1887,  there  does  not  apiiear  to 
be  any  extravagant  banking ;  but  in  January  of  that 
year  the  proportion  of  loans  to  capital  was  larger  than 
that  of  any  other  State  in  the  Union — being  60  per  cent, 
aliove  the  average  rate  of  all  the  banks,  and  ita  circu- 
lation in  excess  by  a  larger  ratio,  214  to  91  average  pro- 
portion of  circulation  to  capitaL    In  1851  tlie  general 


-'^< 


wjffy 


lis 


BAN 


liiaUng  Uw  mil  paued,  and  m  tkb  chartend  baaki 
•spirt,  thay  have  b««i  iwialrKi  to  comply  with  the 
general  rule  of  aecnriag  their  cticulation  by  a  pledge 
of  pabHc  itocki.  The  Bauk  of  Vitginia  and  the  Farm, 
tn'  Bank  charter!  expire  in  1857 ;  bat  they  have  been 
wisely  renewed  upon  their  old  baaia,  "  aa  the  experi. 
ment  of '  independent  banking'  hai  not  fo  triniapkant- 
ly  vindicated  the  aoond  wisdom  of  the  principle  ai  to 
induce  the  poblio  to  sacrifice  a  system  which  has  opeN 
Bted,  in  the  main,  equally  to  the  advantage  of  the  State 
and  the  community.  There  is  certainly  nothing  in  the 
financial  condition  of  the  State  to  warrant  any  haxard. 
oos  experiments  with  its  monetary  relations." 

JVor<4  Corefino.— The  first  bank  incorporated  in  this 
Slats  was  the  Bimk  of  Cape  ITear,  in  1804,  with  a  cap. 
ital  of  $260,000,  located  at  Wilmington.  lu  charter 
has  been  extended,  sbd  its  capital  increased  by  vari- 
ona  enactments.  It  has  now  $2,000,000  of  capital,  of 
which  the  State  owns  f  688,100;  and  its  present  char- 
ter expires,  by  limitetion,  in  1880.  It  haa  seven 
branches.  The  Bank  of  tha  State  of  North  Carolina 
was  originally  incorponted  in  1888,  with  a  capital  of 
91,600,000.  It  to  now  92,000,000,  of  which  the  State 
owns  9600,000 ;  and  its  charter  expires  in  1860.  It  hss 
nine  branches.  In]<>84,tfaeMerohants'Bank,9.<WO,000 
capital ;  in  1847,  Commercial  Bank,  9800,000 ;  in  1849, 
Bank  of  FayetteviUe,  9800,000;  in  1860,  Bank  of 
Washington,  9400,000,  and  Bank  of  Wadesborough, 
9200,000  capitals,  were  severally  incorporated;  and 
the  whole  number  in  the  State  at  present  is  29  banks 
and  branches,  the  aggregate  of  whose  capital  is 
96,060,000.  In  one  of  the  late  rcporU  of  the  Bank  of 
North  Carolina  we  find  the  following  remark :  "  By 
snocessfiil  management,  this  iMink  has  obtained  a  posi- 
tion and  influence  which  scarcely  any  State  institution 
ever  possessed,  and  certainly  none  in  North  Carolina. 
After  passing  imw/iimi  through  the  crisis  of  1887,  un- 
der the  able  gnidrace  of  its  first  president,  Mr.  Cam- 
eron, it  rapidly  acquired  confidence  and  atrength,  and 
now  stands  pre-eminent  among  the  State  institutions 
of  our  land."  We  are  happy  to  add  that  there  are  no 
"free  bank"  laws  in  thto  State. 
.  Soulk  Carolma.— The  first  bank  established  in  this 
State  was  the  Bank  of  South  Carolina,  cfaartered  in 
1702,  with  a  capital  of  91,000,000.  In  the  appendix  to 
Mr.  Woodbury'a  report  of  tlie  banks  in  1887,  he  states 
tiie  South  Carolina  banks  aa  follows : 


Ym... 

TST 

1801 
180K 

Sada. 

C*fUal. 

1  Y«n. 

Buki. 

CflUl. 

1 
< 

1 

$d70,0U0 
8,000,000 

a^ooo.000 

1811 
1816 
18W 

4 
6 
5 

$3,47^0UO 
8,780,900 
4,47^000 

But  we  belleTtt  that  tlie  account  we  tabjoin  h  tha 
oonect  <MM  t 


v;». 

N«.. 

Baab. 

Captkl. 

ITM 
1801 
1810 
1810 
UU 

Bank  of  South  CiroUna..... 

»i,ooo,oao 

1,000,000 
1,000,000 
1,000,000 
l,m,867 

State  Bank  of  South  tiaraUna ... . 
UnionBaak 

Fbnton'  and  Mechanics'  Bank  . . 
Bank  of  tha  Stats  of  South  CaroUni 

Hsk 

Ing  an  aggiegate  uplUl,  In  ISiO,  o 

f 

»6,i!;a,S6T 

The  Bank  of  the  State  of  South  Carolina  was  a  pure- 
ly State  institution,  and  had  no  private  stockholders. 
It  was  orlginslly  founded  for  the  purpose  of  Aimishing 
temporary  aid  to  planters,  by  loans  of  92000  to  each, 
and  for  manj^  years  wss  a  mere  "loan  institntlon." 
In  1820  the  capital  of  this  bank  was  pledged  as  securi- 
ty for  the  redemption  of  the  bonds  of  the  Sute,  issued 
to  carry  ont  a  system  of  internal  improvements  recent- 


ly nndertakan.  The  consequence  was,  that  the  bank, 
was  immediately  converted  into  a  commercial  institu- 
tion, and  conducted  on  corresponding  principles.  In 
1888  it  waa  deemed  "  expedient  and  beneficial,  both  to 
the  citixens  and  to  the  State,  to  recharter  tha  bank 
until  1866,"  but  to  be  wound  up  in  1860.  It  has  now 
a  surplus  of  assets  over  its  Uabilitiea  of  over  two  mill- 
ions and  a  half  of  dollars,  and  the  last  of  their  bonds 
duo  in  London  to  payable  in  1868,  commonly  known 
as  the  "  fire  loan,"  and  is  little  short  of  9600,000k 

In  regard  to  this  bank  we  will  transcribe  some  ex- 
tracts ftom  Governor  Seabury's  messsge  to  the  Legtola- 
ture  in  1849,  which  we  commend  to  the  notice  of  some 
rabid  politicians  who  succeeded  in  hunting  down  tha 
United  States  Bank:  "The  Bank  of  the  State  ofSopth 
Carolina  is  a  dangerous  institution,  sntl-repubUcaa  in 
its  character  and  tendency,  and  the  evils  inevitably  aris- 
ing ftom  the  connection  between  a  moneyed  corporation 
and  the  State  increase  end  ramify  tlie  longer  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  former  are  extended.  The  polit- 
ical history  of  Sonth  Carolina  has  too  long  presented 
the  anomalous  spectacle  o^  its  constituted  authorities 
pertinaciously  upholdfaig  a  State  corporation,  lehik  il . 
denotiHced  ang  union  bettctm  a  lank  and  the  Federal gov- 
tmment.  I  also  desire.  In  thto  place,  to  express  my 
settled  conviction  that  the  Bank  ^f  the  State  was 
founded  on  a  false  and  pernicious  principle ;  that  to 
grant  to  the  members  of  a  community,  slmost  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  rural  pursuits,  unususl  facilities  for 
commanding  money,  to  to  inflict  upon  them  and  their 
posterity  an  unmitigated  evil." 

In  glancing  over  the  Treasury  Reports  for  1860  and 
1864,  we  notice  that  the  Bank  of  the  State  of  South 
Carolina  had  91,169,641  In  circnUtion  in  the  first- 
named  year,  and  in  the  second  91,664,661.  By  whst 
right  did  they  tosne  these  biUs  P  In  an  article  on  the 
currency  in  Umu\  Magazine,  in  1842,  by  Professor 
Tellkampf,  wo  find  the  following  remarks :  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  declares,  "  that  no  State 
shall  coin  money,  emit  bills  of  credit,  or  make  any 
thing  but  gold  and  silver  a  tender  In  payment  of 
debts."  It  to  a  known  and  settled  principle,  founded 
on  philosophy,  that  no  one  can  transihr  to  another  a 
right  which  be  does  not  himself  possess.    "  vhn 

jurU  in  Mum  tranrferre  polett,  quam  quod  <  r." 

Since  no  State  can  coin  money  at  emit  bi'  jdit 

(under  which  paper  money  is  included),  cai.  they 
mske  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  a  tender  for  the 
payment  of  debts?  No  State  has  a  riKht  to  make 
money,  no  matter  whether  gM  or  silver,  or  any  oth- 
er material ;  and  therefore  it  can  not  transfer  the  right 
to  l>anks  by  charter.  Wherefore,  these  charters  ars 
wholly  unconstitutionsl.  Congress  only  has  the  right, 
and  that  is  the  only  po«nr  which  csn  confer  it. 

Other  banks  have  been  subsequently  chartered  in 
South  Carolina,  as  follows: 

CaiilUI.  :<•'> 

In  1836,  Bank  orCbari-.«ton $8,1(10,800 

"  1888,  Southweitern  Itallr^  and  Banking 

Company 8(9,4M 

CoBUoetrlal  Bank,  ColnmUa 800,000 

BankofHambniK 000,000 

Merchanta'  Bank  of  Cberaw 400,000 

Tionk  of  Camden 871,000 

BankofOeon^ctown 200,000 

Farmers*  and  Exchange  Bank 990,(00 

Bank  of  Newbuny 800,000 

and  some  others,  numbering  altogether  20  banks  and 
branches,  having  an  aggregate  capital  of  916,600,000. 
The  annexed  tabular  statement  finishes  our  notice 
of  these  banks : 


¥«». 

Baata. 

CafHaL 

CtomlaUoa. 

Dapoatla. 

Sfaiia. 

Laaaa. 

'      ISiM  ' 

$7,988,818 

r.<88,7«7 

$4,011,210 

$2,600,42t 

$l«,Sia,BI9 

1887 

8,838,118 

7,i!lS,61« 

6,048,477 

1,884,788 

18,8fl9,R88 

184S 

11,472,981 

8,932,164 

1,743,000 

1,388,178 

18,890,038 

1848 

11,03«,1«0 

8,911,880 

2,883,188 

1,728,681 

14,181,718 

18W 

18,189,071 

8,741,780 

8,821,181 

1,711,901 

M,801,18T 

18E6 

1«,S0S,168 

«,7«9,82> 

1,871,096 

1,288,884 

18,149,098 

9A1V 


I4t 


BAN 


crodin 


l8a9,4M 
1800,000 
1600,000 

■400,000 

|8TT,IS«0 
|«00,000 
l9M,«00 

1800,000 

Inks  ud 
1600,000. 
Ir  aotice 


.  O*orgia,^\n  aMrnU,  th«  flnl  ImhIi  whlsh  ititiMM 
la  Mr.  yfooi\my'*  wjNMrl  to,  1h  Mill  oiw  tmnk,  oiv- 
tt«l  1910,000)  In  mS,  Iwo  iNtntu,  <wt>>t«l  (ittM,A«0| 
In  1816,  tbrea  ImnIm,  etpktal  |I,6M,W0|  In  18W,ftmr 
bank*,  wiU>  Ml  iMPtitM  wpttel  «(  #8,401,1101  and 


tho  following  tsbla  thowi  that  Georgia  hu  had  har  htt 
■hare  of  banking  bnaineM,  notwHhitanding  her  flr*> 
queat  complaiate  of  dependence  npon  CbarlesttM  ftos 
fuUtttee,  and  her  own  want  of  bank  capital.  Ther* 
ware  in  the  State,  in 


vmummT 

"ii,ni»,iiu' 


«1,SM,4S4 
1,948,689 
1,98&,4I8 
1,1)08,841 
l;n8,M8 
1,«n,0PB 
1,618,117 
1,084,466 


ey««i». 


$I,WM41 
1,800,818 
1,800,««4 
1,106,«T1 
1,104,186 
l,&4T,«>a 
1,676,818 
1,461,880 


t6,t«l,4T4 

10,091,116 

18,788,111 

^451,761 

6,640,131 

«,t68,lM 

18,66T,48» 

11,648,060 


Theie  ttatanMnt*  givo  »  vory  ltn|tflb«i  iiloa  of  the 
red  lUta  of  ItnanpUToMrattoiM  1h  (Itofgla.  For  iO' 
•tance.  In  tb«  nnart  of  11146,  th«  e«ntMt  Dank,  the 
property  of  the  Htat«,  wjtlvb  had  for  t«H  years  been 
winding  up  It*  oonRernp,  bad  III  eattitan  luoltided, 
#1,480,000,  and  tba  two  railroad  ««wp«nl«i,  eatiltala 
#6,604,000,  maUsff,  in  Uw  mfsgiM,  #8,174,000, 
which  ihoHld  ba  dMHslod  from  no  bauklag  oapital, 
aa  above  (tatad,  whoft  tbo  roturn  would  bo,  In  1849, 
flflaenbanka, 


Capital...,, 
Dep<Mit«, . , , 
OtnitlaUan . 


;;W.r' 


Umu, ,,„,,,,    t,Ml,T14 


.-JtTM 
»,«»,T4» 

The  banking  mmmnnity  «ro  Indolrtod  to  a  dlitltt' 
gniihed  repreaantatlva  Arnm  tieorgla  (th«  lato  tllchard 
Henry  Wilde)  for  the  intruduetliin  Mt«l  Ndoptlott  of  th« 
reaolution  In  CongreiR  by  wititili  W(t  havo  ouf  annual 
report*  on  the  bank*  of  tM  Unltod  Statoii  Imperii 
a*  these  report*  »r«,  tboy  llluatrht?  ttio  ImpoftauM)  of 
having  more  attention  iMRtowfd  upon  them,  oven  If 
their  preparation  *bo<tld  Ntiuiro  M  additional  buroau 
at  Waihington. 


Florida,— We  c.->nie  now  to  Florida,  the  lait  State  In 
the  Southern  diviaion,  and  which  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  In  184S.  Under  its  territorial  government.  It 
had,  in  1888,  five  banks,  with  an  aggregate  amount  of 
capital  of  #2,118,802,  #774,040  drouUtion,  #145,841 
specie,  #498,628  deposits,  and  #2,662,614  loan*.  These 
were  located  at  Pensacola,  Tallahassee,  Appalachicola, 
and  Magnolia,  but  they  are  all  broken  and  worthies*. 
A  law  waa  paased  in  1849  authorizing  a  bank  at  Talla- 
hassee, but ''.  e  lielieve  that  it  was  not  organized,  and 
we  know  of  no  regular  bank  in  the  State. 

iVJMoiiri.— This  State  was  adnatted  Into  the  Union 
In  1821.  There  was  one  bank  in  existence  prior  to 
this  date,  the  operations  of  which  were  disastrous,  but 
the  flrst  we  find  in  the  regular  reports  is  the  State  Bank 
of  Missouri,  at  St.  Louis,  with  one  branch,  in  1887,  and 
a  capital  of  #583,638,  circulation  #28,000,  and  specie 
#460,000.  This  is  now  the  only  bank  In  the  State, 
altliough  it  has  increased  the  number  of  its  branches 
to  meet  the  increasing  demand  for  banking  facilities. 
We  give  a  tabular  statement  of  its  operations,  during 
a  series  of  years,  fTom  1837  to  1856 : 


ill 

Wf  WW"wWff 

etmiiUhm. 

«0U8,UU0 

410,000 

D<|wiili. 

«819,000 

1,174,000 

epach. 

«466,000 

662,000 

LOUL 

$1,109,000 
1,077,000 

1848 

,I0O,IM4 

nifooo 

1,116,000 

1,160,000 

961,000 

184S 

'KS'^'i 

«,..*,000 

1,996,000 

1,468,000 

1,168,000 

1848 

,I<M,  6f 

«,ftOlt,000 

1,786,000 

1,427,000 

8,162,000 

1860 

«,riu4,floo 

1,877,000 

1,902,000 

8,266,000 

1866 

, 

,lltS.4M) 

«jg0ft,000 

1,881,000 

1,366,000 

4,800,000 

This  bank  I*  owned  by  tbo  itsto  to  the  extent  of 
#954,205,  and  the  balitnoe  Ity  Indivliiimlit,  and  its  ehar* 
ter  will  expire  In  FelifHWy.  IWI,  bavin^  lt««n  ex- 
tended to  that  d4ta  by  Aot  of  IMM,  A  eommlttee  on 
banks  formerly  raoominondod  •  mle  of  the  Mtate's  in- 
terest in  the  bank,  and  Ibo  ebarter  of  a  new  one  with 
#5,000,000  capital,  Tba  nonfilitullon  allow*  Imt  one 
bank  and  branches,  and,  of  eonrw,  without  III  attero' 
tlon  free  bank*  can  nut  bo  iHtroduiwd.  tt  will  lie  per* 
eeived  that  the  bank  ha*  olway*  had  on  band  a  large 
supply  of  apecia  fur  tba  radomptlon'of  Its  eiroulation, 
and  has  consequently  alwayii  enjoyetl  «  blub  f«puta> 
tlon.  It  has  malntainAd  ipoolo  payments  since  Us  In* 
corporation,  altbuugb  It*  PlreHlatlon  was  necessarily 
restricted,  wldle  mwiy  of  tbo  liank*  of  the  Kast  and 
West  were  under  suspension  dnrlnu  t  lie  years  1897-1840, 
We  trust  that  It  miiy  uontlnn*  o  fortress  of  ilrenjflh  to 
resist  the  encroachment  of  frug  Imnking  nrlneiples, 
which  are  now  pervading  sevsral  «f  the  States,  and 
(Umiah  an  enduring  Bvltl«n««  of  the  nroHt  and  leourlty 
of  banks  based  upon  a  apotiie  eApital, 

Co/i/orain.— We  are  not  owaro  of  any  Ineofporated 
banks  in  the  State  of  OaliftirnUi  and  It  only  remains 
for  us  to  speak  of  those  of  th«  Dlitrlet  of  Columbia. 
The  first  bank  establiabed  at  W«»hlngten  was  In  1792, 
with  a  capital  of  #600,000 1  In  W0»,  there  were  two 
banks,  #1,600,000)  In  W06,  Ibroo  Imnks,  #a,riM,000( 
in  1811,  four  bank*,  #8,WI,IH>B)  In  I81fl,  (en  lianks, 
#4,078,295  j  In  1820,  thirteen  Iwnks,  #A,I)!I6,|||(| oapllnis. 


Ymui. 


1887 
1841 
1844 


OssIm, 


jPstifKi; 


The  charters  of  all  these  banks  expired  some  year? 
since,  and  passed  into  the  hands  of  trnstees  for  the  l>en- 
eflt  of  the  stockholders.  The  Farmers  and  Mechanics' 
fill  nk,  Georgetown,  the  Bank  of  the  Metropolis,  Bank 
of  Washington,  and  Patriotic  Bank  of  Washington,  ar* 
of  the  above  class,  and  are  about  the  only  banks  whose- 
bills  are  current  on  any  terms,  and  they  are  looked 
upon  with  distrust  out  of  their  own  neighborhood. 

Conclutioni. — The  past  financial  history  of  the  United 
States  abounds  with  examples  and  warnings;  but  the 
misfortune  is,  that  they  are  apt  to  l>e  unheeded  and 
forgotten.  How  many  of  our  merchants  now  on  the 
stage  of  active  enterprise  have  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  past  history  of  commerce  in  our  oten 
vountry  during  the  present  century,  if,  indeed,  they  know 
that  which  rrilates  to  their  owi  business,  beyond  the 
last  twenty  years  ? 

How  few  statesmen  and  financiers  of  these  modem 
days  of  high  attainmento  are  familiar  with  the  finan- 
cial events  of  183(>-'42 !  Those  who  retain  a  fresh  re- 
membrance of  that  financial  crisis  will  ever  dread  a  re- 
currence, and  be  inspired  with  caution,  prudence,  and 
distrust.  But  the  race  of  these  "  conservatives"  is  fast 
passing  away,  and  the  counsels  of  the  few  remaining 
are  almost  derided.  Junior  partners,  or  successors, 
and  "  Young  America,"  fill  their  places,  and  now  take 
the  lead.  The  past  is  disregarded,  and  similar  errors 
will  probably  eventuate  in  similar  disasters. 

Our  iiinstrions  statesman,  Daniel  Webster,  who  has 
left  for  our  use  invaluable  lessons  of  political  wisdom, 
in  his  celebrated  speech  at  Trenton,  in  1844,  uttered 
these  words ;  "  We  are  well  instructed  by  experience ; 
but  let  us  not  be  lost  to  experience.  Lilt  not  all  the 
(ood,  all  tho  oomforta,  all  the  blestinga,  which  now  1 


IM 


nAa 


Mtm  to  yvoMMt  fcr  lit  ikMiM.  Iw  MdlkM,  niiHi, 
uui  dMirpyMl,  by  raimliNi  («(•  mmw  irliMi  w«  mmv 
MroM,  Tm  mM  Mm  M  m  iiH  «Mi»l»M«U  Mgli 
Ml  or  w«(«r.  timf  ItA  IbifNMlrMi,  (Mwiwd  wMi  ut 
flwgiMiii*  oftb*  nirflil  wr««t(«  «h4  fii(H«if  •Mwf  tiUM. 
Ut  w  nvaM  Ihrai,  l<«(llMfliM<«rMt4llwfiit«<««Mid 
tiM  MbnimM  m4  (H  llw  «•»•  tw  wM«  tmitMi,  uti 
lira  (IM  b«Mfc«n  »  «m4  iMMk/'' 
[  lu  l«N,  Mr,  MMI«,  At  rn«M«H(  «r<l«  taM«l 
ButM  llMik,  wm  nmwlM^  hf  •  (tointNtMtt  of  tl« 
poHM  of  RoprMiiMitiVM,  «f  wNi«b  Md  CnwtMlng, 
^]r<vTerk,wM«ilwlfiNn<    T««N«(«l'ili«tat«tfoM> 

toriM  ho  oBflWond  to  tlu  faHiiiiftotf  JMWifM^^ii  4  *'  'Hm* 

ffeBMIBflfaUf  MBbIl  HuA  ffsllMAJiM.  Miui  AtlWillHlilildi.  MM 
IMNKw  MM  (pWwvP'WHM  WHWrHWr  tFIOTv  CWH  nPV  Hw  (WWB^  I 

tort  mtil  wHM  vabuM*  Im^wwiiMiit  ii  fymi  irMek 
onppltoo  «wmlM4  ifiMl,  ttM«  to  ««  «iMm<Imi  to  <lMHt, 

MHIf  WwPvvMItM  pff   ifW^  Hffw    HW^  NNf   MRHIV  Cw  hM 

wlHHi*#  WN^Wn  W9WW  t^9  IfWfWraVrW  MIO  flMPVa  wlllVlffW  VI 

eonaonM,  Onm*tmkiU§mmmimutHMinti» 
ootebltobMt  toMitottoM  M  tk$  imUff,  toitot^  of  n- 
mtting  to  i<MMW  m4  <iiiawtaM  ii^imnUtt  Wluit 
to  wontod,  I  (Mflki  to  0W  biNMwi  If itoiN  to  tiito  I  Om. 
to  wfaton  Mm  bMto  «r«w  hmMHw  «hw«to<toN«  l^*  mM* 
M%  (to  MM  (fmMmiH,  mMt»  «itow  ««to  to  totor 
tko  pUon  of  (hom,  M  to  to«rMiiil>fy  WMrtd  ( wrf.  (M«ii4> 
I7,  to  MMx  to  (1m  m»>pifmMM  «f  ifttoto  Iw  ilM  tomlu 
10  \m»vy  •  fiOMlt)',  My  M  iumtti  of  l9  (jM  ««M., 
M  to  (bo  oMo  «f  M«  NMk  0/ tiw  yirttotf  Mtotoi*  Of  M 
por  Mirt,,  M  to  WHIM  of  dw  iPofMf  InhA*,  m  weaM 
4oi^vo  (bo  bMilM  «f  att  (gwytottea  to  to«w  (tM  tkk 
ofinMlvoRS)'," 

Hoarlx  •  «|HH(or  of  •  Mnlwf  Inw  «Uttii«4  tlMe  tlwM 
iMnorM  wMw  m«4«  bf  Itw  "  m>ii^ti4  Mtto«r«(  of  1>MI> 
■dolpbto,"  iH)4  (b«  VH)'  twiMpto*  ii««w«d  bf  Um  nte 
now  (bo  wtopto4  dofHW*  ef  hto  fewHW  ommmu,  We 
balbivo  (b«(  U  i«  n»w  8wwnii>'  »4iMtmi^,  to  ordtr 
to  carry  on  •HwuMfArfl/  Hw  mtoHAivs  l««tto«M  of  (Mt 
ooontry,  wo  nw|Nlro  »  Mii4«  «to<<to)  im4  mitfotwi  cun 
Mncy,  I(i«un4«Htobl«,Hliie,ttwt«M'itowl(k«(Hiiili- 
tog,  wMoh  b*«  «wmMii(o4  »  pr«mifl«M  «N|iM«  of  (Mo, 
ooBunoKM,  oM  KwiHifiMtori*  to  «H  efffltostf  (MWrnitAJ. 
ttoi,  miMi  poiMOM  to(vto*b>,  d  jif«4,  Mwl  <i««0ftoto«4  |«Hh. 
oiploo  t  tbo  4to«»v«r7i  itov»totwMiH(  iM  8fi|ill«MhtA  of 
wbiob,  to  (bo  fflM(  Mttitobto  M)4  adVMttoiHiM*  Mkn- 
mt,  (bouVI  bo  ibo  itmmg  «b^H  «<  tiMM  wtmh  enattAit 
amy  osanijr  to  A«  «PMttoll  0f  M«l«^tN««(  6f  tfW  M4m- 
oye4toa(tto(toM, 

Tbo  ooHr  MMiMtby  «f  ANr  pi<e^«  iMf«to*{  (Miilia 
wo*  a  blto4a4  pr*)i«4toof  tb«  MntrntH  «f  tMJf  «  e«n- 
«ny  diaoloM*  muf  HfMl  »¥fto  ««M  •iM«o«,  iit«Hft|i^ng 
(ton  miKilMowi  OMMiii  Wrt  iHtfWit«i«  to  (to)  «f  t<«m, 
bat  ratbar  toiwHw  tmtmmmtn,  wM«<l  »  to«tiMoM 
gmwth  baa  jgrnmrni,  ¥rmi»  witbwM  muHbtt  hova 
porpo(nita4,  tnt^im¥tft4  im4  fwufwtoMf  (bon- 
I  and  mllitom  of  Mkr»  (uw*  imn  miHtft^  to 
tbongbUsM  pTOAi*to»  \>y  BMfd*  «f  ilh««(«rX(  icfM  btiew 
notbbw  of  tbo  §rH  i\mmUi  ef  it»nUing,  m4  tuuMl 
tbair  pofwr  promtoo*  to  otdiet  (b«to  ffumii  tobliw  a 
wortbtoaa  wfiHon  to4tvbto«l  pfMtttoe  ftrf  «a  ttioally 
wortbtoaa  pHnt*4  iMHMkfloto.  Hut  wttat  «f  oti  (tMw 
tbtogi,  and  mimy  mora  wbi»b  Mf(!bt  !<«  ihMmI,  ih« 
gnat  avtaiwioA  of  trMi,  mnmpmii  Upim  (to)  lie 
cMoaod  bonktog  fii«fH(iM,  mrmlmimd  m  (twf  b«t« 
fimtrlf  boon,  baa  boon  bMMltotol  to  «ti  «tMi«««  to  (bo 
CHmen  and  msabiwlM  (MltoM  tbim  to  (toi  M«ftban(a, 
"  YoangAmo^ana,"  moil  of  to4««(ftoN««  utAtmpAAttg, 
and  enargotie  ebora«(#f»,  iwv«  toft  (tM  «MHfofM  of  (hMr 
ponntal  bomea,  »ed  ttf  tb8  «M  «f  tMHli  ««()itol  hata 
fomtd  tbo  fiiailUo*  bf  wbM)  tbof  m«t4«<M««#r(  (>Mmd' 
toM  fofaau  and  HRtiwidM  wf t4«  brt«  ««((H'ii(«d  fitttit 
aad  vtUagaa,  witbto  (bo  fVMfiNili*  «f  wtiktb  «li«y  horo 
aatobliabod  aabool*  aod  fbUfobM,  •ni«(«<l  w«rb-*ti«t« 
and  tootortoa,  m4  riMltoNi  MVHM  (twto  ItH)  tivUlM* 


Itol,  (kooonfert*,  and  wlluaiiionto  which  an  now. 
apniMl  oMr  oar  Wottoita  Stotoft  Tn«  it  to,  thai  tbU 
oxpaaaka  of  bank  fluaitlaa  ha*  eaat  Iti  dark  ihadbw 
*•  won  a*  It*  nnl^ht  In  many  •  city  and  town, 
(tomiattd*  hav*  botn  rrinod  b^  th*  r*cklaMn«**  or  tow 
proTtoaaaa  of  thoaa  who  boT*  mada  haato  to  bo  rich, 
and  wmaf  a  poaaoNor  of  an  ampto  (Wtana,  acqoirad  by 
a  Ufc-koig  Ubor,  ha*  goil*  down  to  hi*  grave  to  MtdnMa, 
•onow,  and  dapriTallon,  by  th«  Ttotont  axploaton  of 
tboao  toatrtol  voleanooa  which  pariodlcaUy  havo  icat« 
tOMI  bwntog  kva  and  a«b«i  over  the  golden  Tlita* 
n^b  •naeaUtlon  had  eM^arad  np, 

Bnt  the  qnoation  now  ariaei,  When  are  oar  experi. 
Monto  to  banking  to  ond?  Wo  hav*  tried  national 
tonka,  apaoto  bank*,  iaM]^^lnd  banki,  fireo  banks,  end 
bogn*  bank* ;  and  w*  bar*  a  ■nb-ttcarory  acheme,  and 
nnWld  traarara*  of  gold  In  CsKfbmb^  but  theaa  are 
tAoraljr  ohootto  nutorial*,  moring  to  apace  at  random- 
no  (ingto  mtad  direct*  their  movemienta,  and  the  re> 
*«h  will  probaUjr  be  "  confliilon  worse  confonndcd." 
Whora,  than,  are  wa  to  look'  for  saccbr  l>  We  can  dt»i 
eoror  bnt  on*  anrs  point,  and  that  i*  the  general  goir.. 
emmont,  who  alone  have  the  power  to  exerciao  a  salit^ 
tarjr  aMtnl  over  the  eafrenej'  of  otir  whole  countiy, 
throngh  tlio  agency  of  that  grand  regutotor  of  e^. 
change,  an  exchequer  aysteni,  aided,  a  need  be,  by 
(hat  pat  of  tbo  government,  the  plwant  lab-treasurjr 


rrom  (b*  followtog  table  of  the  number  of  banki, 
anoant  of  eapiul,  and  drcutotion,  it  Will  appear  that 
tho  nnmber  of  banks  ha*  doubled  In  a  period  of  niarty 
twenty  year* ;  while  the  capital  and  cbxmlation  have 
increaaod  only  about  80  per  cent,  to  the  aame  titne,' 
wMeh  ratto  to  not  equal  to  the  growth  or  toereaae  lit; 
wealth  of  tho  country. 

TiaAsuiT  nroBn 


y«M.  1 

B«U 

OqdUlrMI.. 

CUaiUUw. 

"~iS»~ 

7M 

^000.000 

(149,000,000 

ISW 

ma 

«J,0».000 

110,000,000 

im 

MO 

8rr,«oo,ooo 

;      180,000,000 

IMO 

001 

IMS,000,00O 

107,000,000 

1841 

TM 

818,000,000 

107,000,000 

IMI 

<M 

1*0,000,000 

88,000,000 

IMS 

«vl 

828,000,000 

«8, 000,000 

1M4 

m 

910,000,000 

W,000,000 

IMfi 

w 

«W,000,flOO 

80.000,000 

la? 

ISl 

u«,ooo,ooe 

100,000,000 

TI6 

808,000,000 

106,000,000 

IMS 

T61 

104,000,000 

128,000,000 

IMV 

1«B 

(07,000,000 

114,000,000 

i 

8i4 

817/10^000 

181,000,000 

879 

«81,000i00« 

W.000.000 

" 

•  •  < « 

•  <  •  * 

18M 

ItM 

801,<iiM)[oOO 

iM,'ooo,noo 

1800 

laor 

838,000,000 

187.000.000 

Our  task  is  ended,  when  we  have  acknowledged  the 
souroea  from  which  this  compilation  has  been  derived, . 
From  Condy  Raguet  and  Profesaor  Tucker's  works  on 
Banlu  and  Banking,  ttom  Kiltf  JtegUter,  the  Banker/ 
and  ll«nt'§  Uagntinti,  liberal  extracts  have  lieen  made, 
and  all  the  tabular  statements  have  l)een  derived  ei- 
ther tttm  the  Kankerf  ifagaime  or  the  reports  of  tba 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.    The  admirabTe  Index  to ' 
PcrioMral  Lilrraturf,  by  the  accomplished  librarian  of  ^ 
the  Boston  Athennum,  has  been  an  efScient  guide  to 
authorities  and  essays  which  might  otbcr^vise  have 
escaped  our  attention,  bM  ha*  fully  verified  the  motto 
on  his  title-page, 

"Qnl  Kit  nbl  sit  Kietitis,  habenti  est  proilmna.'^ 

Bank  </  the  United  Stalei.— The  old  Bank  of  tbt.^ 
United  States  was  incorporated  by  un  act  of  Congress,  ' 
approved  February,  1791.  By  the  lijiit«tion  of  tlie 
charter,  it  wa*  to  expire  on  (ho  4th  of  Afarch,  1811, 
This,  like  the  Banks  of  Kngland,  France,  and  Sweden, 
was  a  bank  of  deposit,  diMount,  and  circulation,  with 
a  capital  of  (10,000,000.  . 

Those  European  writera,  both  British  *nd  French,  | 
who  have  anU^ied  this  institution  as  being  purely 
coawMfcfad,  and  dtottogntohtd  firom  thoae  of  England 


BAM 


148 


BAM 


irks  on 
aiiitri' 
made, 
ed  eU 
oftha 
idezto 
rianof 
lideto 
I  have 

-1  lol 

of  tlM 

igteM, 
of  tbe 
,  18U. 
weden, 
.vrith 


and  Frann  by  not  being  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment, or  an  engine  of  tinancs,  can  not  hiivo  read  the 
charter,  the  preamble  to  which  Ijegiiu  thus :  "  Whore- 
aa  the  eatabliahinont  of  a  banli  will  lie  very  conducive 
to  the  conducting  of  the  national  linoncea,  will  tend  to 
give  facility  to  the  obtaining  of  luana  for  the  u«e  of  the 
government  In  sudden  emergencies,  and  will  be  pro- 
dactive  otamtidtrahle  udvantoffu  to  trade  and  industry 
in  general,"  etc.  Instead  of  being  a  merely  commer- 
cial establishment,  therefore,  it  was  essentially  and 
mainly  of  a  flnancUl  and  political  character,  and  it 
was  on  this  ground  that  its  constitutionality  was  de- 
fended ;  the  right  of  Congress  to  grant  such  a  charter 
being  claimed  mostly  upon  the  strength  of  that  clause 
of  the  Constitution  which  gives  to  Congress  the  power 
necessary  for  carrying  into  execution  the  powers  enu- 
merated, and  expressly  vested  in  that  body.  The  ori- 
gin of  this  establishment  was,  therefore,  similar  to  that 
of  the  Danl<  of  England,  and  the  resemblance  is  not  lim- 
ittd  to  the  general  purposes  of  its  institution,  for,  as  the 
Banic  of  England  originated  in  a  loan  to  tlie  British 
government,  so  the  act  by  which  the  old  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  chartered  provided  that  the  sums 
subscribed  liy  individuals  and  corporations  should  be 
payable  one-fourth  in  gold  and  silver  and  three-fourths 
in  the  public  debt  certiflcates.  The  President  of  the 
United  States  was  authorized  to  subscribe  for  two  mill- 
ions^ qf  the  stock  in  behalf  of  the  United  States.  The 
direetors,  being  twenty-five,  wore  chosen  by  the  stock- 
holders without  any  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
government  in  the  election ;  but  the  government  re- 
served the  right  of  inspecting  the  afluirs  of  the  Bank, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  Secretary'  of  the  Treasury  was 
authorized  to  demand  of  the  president  and  directors  a 
statement  of  its  concerns  as  often  as  ho  might  see  fit. 
The  corporation  was  authorized  to  establish  branches 
in  any  part  of  the  United  States.  The  only  restriction 
as  to  circulation  was,  that  the  amount  of  debts  due 
firom  the  corporation  by  bond,  bill,  note,  or  otherwise, 
besides  the  debts  due  for  deposits,  should  never  ex- 
ceed (10,000,000;  and  in  case  of  excess,  the  directors 
by  whose  agency  such  debt  should  be  incurred  were 
made  personally  answerable.  This  bank  went  into  op- 
eration, and  had  a  most  powerful  agency  in  establish- 
ing the  credit  of  the  govemmeat,  facilitating  Its  finan- 
cial operations,  and  promoting  the  interests  of  industry 
and  commerce.  Congress  having  refUsed  to  renew  the 
charter,  it  expired,  by  its  own  limitation,  in  1811.  But 
during  the  war  which  ensued  the  want  of  a  national 
bank  was  severely  felt,  not  only  as  an  agent  for  collect- 
ing the  revenues,  but  more  especially  for  transmitting 
funds  from  one  part  of  the  country-  to  another,  and  then 
it  might  have  been  a  useful  auxiliary  to  the  pablic 
credit  by  supplying  temporary  loans  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency. So  thoroughly  convinced  were  the  public  of 
the  necessity  of  such  an  institution,  that  the  members 
of  the  same  political  party  ttom  which  the  constitu- 
tional objections  had  been  made  to  the  old  Bank,  and 
which  had  refUsed  to  renew  i'»  charter,  passed  an  act  of 
Congress,  which  was  approved  by  the  President,  April 
10,  1816,  chartering  the  second  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  with  a  capital  of  (36,000,000,  upon  principles 
and  with  provisions  very  similar  to  those  contained  in 
the  former  charter.  For  this  charter  the  government 
demanded  and  received  a  bonus  of  (1,600,000  from  the 
stockholders.  The  government  became  a  stockholder 
in  the  same  proportion  as  in  the  former  bank,  taking 
one-fifth,  or  (7,000,000  of  the  stock.  The  direction  of 
the  institution  was  left  to  the  stockholders,  as  in  the 
old  bank,  except  that  the  government  reserved  the 
right  of  appointment  and  removal  at  pleasure,  by  the 
President,  of  five  directors  out  of  the  twenty-five,  the 
other  twenty  being  elected  by  the  stockholders.  The 
government  also  reserved  the  right  to  demand  a  state- 
ment of  the  concerns  of  the  institution  by  committees 
of  either  branch  of  the  Legislature.  One  quarter  of 
the  subacriptioo  to  the  stock  wae  payable  either  in 


gold  and  silver  or  United  States  etock,  at  the  eptioii 

of  subscriliers.  The  (7,000,000  to  be  subscribed  bf 
the  government  was  payable  either  in  gold  and  silver, 
or  public  stock,  at  an  interest  of  6  per  cent.,  at  the  op> 
tlon  of  the  government.  The  transactions  of  the  con 
lioration  were  limited  to  making  loons  and  trading  in 
the  precious  metals,  and  the  sale  of  such  goods  oc 
proceeds  of  such  lands  as  should  be  pledged. 

Branches  wore  established  in  various  parts  of  the 
Union.  No  other  similar  corporations  could  be  char^ 
tered  by  the  government,  except  bonks  in  the  District 
of  Columbia,  with  a  capital  not  exceeding  In  total 
(6,000,000,  during  the  period  for  which  the  chorteT 
was  granted,  namely,  to  the  Sd  of  March,  1886.  The 
bank  was  prohibited  from  purchasing  any  part  of  the 
public  debt,  taking  interest  over  6  per  cent.,  or  loan- 
ing to  the  government  over  (600,000,  or  to  any  State 
over  (60,000 ;  and  the  debts  of  the  bank  were  in  no 
case  to  exceed  the  amount  of  deposits  by  more  tbon 
(35,0O0,(HX).  And  in  case  of  refusing  specie  payment 
of  its  notes  or  deposits  in  specie,  the  bonk  was  made 
liable  to  pay  interest  at  the  rate  of  12  per  cent,  per  an- 
num. The  bank  was  also  obliged,  by  its  charter,  to 
glv^he  government  the  necessary  facilities  for  trans- 
ferring the  public  funds  ttom  place  to  place  witliin  the 
United  States  without  charging  commissions,  or  claint- 
ing  any  allowance  on  account  of  the  difference  of  ex- 
change, and  to  transact  all  the  business  of  commis- 
sioners of  loans  whenever  required  so  to  do.  The  bank 
was  prohibited  from  issuing  bills  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  (6. 

The  bank  commenced  operations  on  the  7th  of  April, 
1817 ;  and  soon  after  entered  into  a  compact  with  th^ 
State  banks  for  a  simultaneous  resumption  of  specie 
payments,  which  took  place  on  the  20th  February,  1817. 
Every  effort  was  made  to  push  its  paper  into  circu- 
lation. Its  discounts  were  increased  in  one  month 
from  (8,000,000  to  (20,000,000;  and  in  October,  nine 
months  after  going  into  operation,  they  had  increased 
to  (33,000,000.  Of  course,  with  this  immense  expan- 
sion, the  currency  depreciated ;  prices  of  every  thing 
ranged  high;  speculation,  especially  in  stocks,  was 
rife.  The  management  of  the  bank  was  very  bad; 
money  was  lent  on  the  stock  of  the  bank  to  its  par  val- 
ue, and  so  persons  of  no  means  became  stockholders — 
pledging  the  stock  for  the  loan  with  which  they  bought 
the  stock.  The  branches  which  had  been  mode  at  all 
points.  North,  East,  West,  and  South,  were  issuing 
notes,  limited  by  the  ability  to  make  thcin.  In  obe- 
dience to  a  fixed  law  of  action  and  reaction  being 
equal,  a  revulsion  soon  came,  and,  owing  to  the  mie- 
management  of  the  directors,  it  was  increased.  The 
branches  met  with  great  losses :  at  Baltimore,  for  in- 
stance, from  the  improper  conduct  of  the  officers,  it 
was  estimated  at  (1,671,221 ;  and  the  aggregate  losses 
of  the  parent  bank  np  to  the  6th  of  March,  1819,  ex- 
ceeded (3,600,000.  The  dividends  in  the  same  time 
amounted  to  (4,410,000;  of  this  sum  (l,848,i63  was 
received  for  interest  on  public  debt  held  by  the  bank, 
which  made  the  profits  on  the  banking  operations  less 
by  half  a  million  than  its  losses.  These  losses,  and 
the  fluctuations  caused  by  the  difliculties  of  the  bank 
in  the  currency  and  in  money  affairs  generally,  created 
a  strong  feeling  against  the  bank,  which  added  to  the 
party  who  held  that  the  bank  was  nnconstitutional  and 
inexpedient. 

In  the  sessions  of  1881-'82  the  bank  made  applica- 
tion to  Congress  for  e  renewal  of  the  charter;  and  a 
bill  was  passed  incorporating  anew  the  bank.  This 
was  vetoed  by  President  Jackson.  It  was  then  re- 
considered by  Congress,  but  failing  to  obtain  the  con- 
stitutional majority  of  two-thirds,  it  was  finally  re- 
jected, July,  1882. 

The  removal  of  the  government  deposits  fIrom  the 
Bank  of  the  United  SUtes  by  the  President,  Septem- 
ber 28, 1888;  the  adoption,  in  consequence,  by  Con- 
gress at  what  was  afkerward  called  the  "  deposit-bank 


BAN 


146 


BAN 


tftttm,'  M  •  muiw  of  Mfaly  keeping  the  pnUlo  mon- 
ey I  tin  niolutlon  of  the  Senate  that  the  removal  wai 
nneaUed  for,  and  the  reipomlbility  aiiumed  by  the 
Prwrident  finconitlliitional,  etc.,  introduced  by  Mr. 
Wabtlar,  and  paiMd  March  28,  1884 ;  the  paaaage  of 
the  act  of  June  88,  1886,  for  the  distribution  of  the 
nrplui  revenue  among  the  different  Statei  of  the 
Union ;  the  iuue  by  the  8eci«tary  of  the  Treaiury  of 
the  ftmoui  ipecie  circular  of  July  11,  1886)  the  in- 
corporation of  the  Bank  of  the  United  Statei  by  the 
Iii^ilature  of  P«nniylvanta  early  in  the  lame  year; 
the  derangement  in  the  currency  of  the  country,  which 
led,  in  May,  1887,  to  the  general  euapeneion  of  ipecie 
paymenta  by  the  banki ;  the  roinmption  of  ipecie  pay- 
ment* by  the  banks  in  the  lummer  of  1888,  with  the 
adoption  of  the  "  free-banking  lyiiem"  by  the  State  of 
KewTork,  and  several  others,  were  events  which  may 
be  regarded  as  being  intimately  connected  with  the 
supensioD  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.— E.  A. 

"When  It  was  Anally  settled  that  no  reoharter  of 
the  national  bank  was  to  be  obtained,  a  plan  was  pro- 
Jsotad  to  combine  the  advantages  of  the  long-estal>- 
lisfaad  oorreipondence,  name,  and  machinery  of  the 
former  bank,  by  incorporating  iti  stock  with  a#ew 
iattltation  nnder  the  name  of  "  Tho  Preiident,  Direct- 
ors, and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  Statei 
of  Pennsylvania,"  which  was  chartered  on  the  18th  of 
Febmary,  1886,  by  the  Legislature  of  that  Sute.  The 
tnasfor  of  the  funds  of  the  old  institution  was  made 
into  the  new  State  bank.  More  than  15  per  cent,  was 
restored  by  the  government  iieyond  its  subscription  at 
the  period  of  the  tiansfer,  and  8^  per  cent,  had  been 
paid  to  tlie  same  source  every  six  months  for  a  long 
course  of  years.  In  coniequence  of  the  advantagci  to 
be  derived  from  tlie  new  institution,  the  stockholders 
were  content  to  subscribe  anew  in  the  Dew  State  (>ank ; 
and  it  is  alleged  that  all  of  them  might,  at  this  junc- 
twe,  have  received  their  investments  l>ack,  not  only 
at  par,  Irat  with  a  large  advance.  This  tho  govern- 
ment actually  did,  and  no  power  was  ei^oyed  by  the 
government  that  was  not  sluucd  by  every  Individual. 
Indeed  it  was  alleged  by  Mr.  Nicholas  Biddle  (who 
kdd  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  State  bank, 
as  he  had  done  in  the  national  bank),  as  recently  as 
April,  1841,  that  the  State  institution  waa  prosperous 
down  to  the  end  of  Us  administration  in  March,  1880. 
The  downfall  of  the  State  institution,  however,  soon 
occurred,  bringing  disaster  upon  the  stockholders. 
From  March,  1888,  to  March,  1841,  the  stock  of  the 
State  bank  declined  fhim  116  to  17  per  cent.,  and  this 
loss  fell  in  considerable  part  npon  those  who  had  been 
the  original  stockholders  of  the  national  bank.  The 
stock  is  now  quoted  from  $1  to  #2  per  share.  The  new 
imtitntion  did  not  rest  npon  the  broad  fonndatkin  of 
national  aid,  and  of  course  had  not  the  confidence  pos- 
sessed by  the  national  bank."— Host's  Merck.  Mag. 

A  bill  for  establishing  a  Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United 
States  passed  the  House  of  llepreientatives,  August  6, 
1811;  vetoed  by  President  Tyler,  August  16.  Another 
bill  for  ■  Fiscal  Corporation  vetoed  September  9, 1841, 
followed  by  a  resignation  of  all  the  Cabinet,  except  Jfr. 
Webster,  which  ended  for  a  time  all  efforts  to  obtain 
under  any  name  a  new  national  l>auk. 

Cahada.— There  are  eight  banks  in  Canada  besides 
the  Bank  of  British  North  America,  which  has  iu  chief 
office  In  England,  and  spreads  its  branches  all  over 
British  America.  -  This  bank,  which  was  incorporated 
la  1840,  has  a  capital  of  £1,000,000  sterling.  Of  the 
eight  more  strictly  colonial  banks,  four  are  in  Lower 
and  four  in  Upper  Canada.  Tho  most  important  of 
these  is  the  Buk  of  Montreal,  with  a  present  capiul 
of  £1,600,000  currency.  The  three  other  banks  in 
Lower  Canada  are,  the  City  Bank  of  Montreal,  with  a 
capital  of  £800,000;  the  Banque  du  Penple  in  Mont- 
real, with  a  capital  of  £800,000;  and  the  Quebec 
Bank,  with  a  capital  of  £500,000.  The  banks  in  Up- 
per Canada  are,  the  Bank  of  Upper'  Canada,  Toronto, 


incorporated  1821,  with  a  present  capital  of  £1,000,000 ; 
the  Commercial  Bank  of  the  Midland  District,  Kings- 
ton, incorponted  1882,  capital  £1,000,000 ;  the  Gore 
Bank,  Hamilton,  incorporated  with  a  capital  of 
£100,000;  and  the  Niagara  District  Bank  at  St.  Cath- 
erines, with  a  capital  of  £600,000. 

Almost  all  of  these  institutions  have  branches  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  and  lisue  Dotes,  payable 
on  demand,  from  one  dollar  upward.  The  least  de- 
nomination of  tlie  notes  of  the  Bank  of  British  North 
America  is  four-dollar  notes,  representing  £1  colonisl 
currency.  The  greater  numlier  of  these  Institutions 
are  now  understood  to  be  paying  from  6  to  7  per  cent, 
per  annum  npoii  their  paid-up  stock ;  and  the  stock 
of  the  most  ineceaifbl  among  them  wai  lelling,  .In 
April,  1854,  at  from  10  to  25  per  cent  premium.  All 
accounts  are  kept  in  Canada  in  pounds,  shillings,  and 
pence,  provincial  currency.  The  present  one  pound 
of  provincial  currency  is  about  equal  to  16i.  4d.  ster- 
ling, or  four  dollars  United  States  currency.  The  En- 
glish sovereign  is  equal  to  24«.  id.  currency ;  the  shil- 
ling within  a  fraction  of  1<.  Sd. ;  and  the  half-crown 
about  8a.  lid.  colonial  currency.  The  bank  capital 
of  Canada  was  largely  increased  by  act  of  1854,  vii. ; 


Bank  of  Hontrral 

Hank  of  Upper  Ouisda . 
Oomni.  BaokofC'Miada 
City  Ilank,  Montreal . . . 

lianquo  du  Feuple 

Quebec  Bank 

Total 


Fom«r 
Cifltol. 


7 
1,000,000 

Boo,aoo 

000,000 
22B,U00 
100,000 
!80,000 


2,6T5,000 


AddMoa, 
IBt4. 


2 

000,000 
fi00,0«<v 
600,000 

1^ooo 

100,000 
W0,000 


1,9U,000 


C»ltol, 


£ 

1,600,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

800,000 

000,000 

600,000 


4,Mn,oao 


FniBirDLT  SociETiRS. — Friendly  Societies  are  as- 
sociations, mostly  in  England,  of  persons  chieiiy  in  the 
humbler  claasea  for  the  purpose  of  making  proviaion 
by  mutual  contrilmtion  againat  those  contingencies  in 
human  life,  the  occurrence  cf  which  can  be  calculated 
by  way  of  average.  The  principal  objects  contem- 
plated by  such  societies  are  tho  following:  the  insur- 
ing of  a  sum  of  money  to  he  paid  on  tlie  birth  of  a 
member's  child,  or  on  the  death  of  a  member  or  any 
of  his  family ;  the  maintenance  of  memliers  in  old  age 
and  widowhood ;  the  administration  of  relief  to  mem- 
ben  incapacitated  for  Ial>or  by  sickness  or  accident; 
and  the  endowment  of  members  or  their  nominees. 
Friendly  societies  are,  therefore,  associations  for  mu- 
tual aaaurance,  but  are  diatinguiahed  firom  assurance 
societies,  properly  so  called,  by  the  circumstance  that 
tlie  sums  of  money  which  they  insure  are  compara- 
tively small. 

Although  the  period  when  snch  societies  originated 
appears  to  be  nnlniown,  their  existence  in  ancient 
times  is  unquestionable.  They  were  numerous  in  En- 
gland among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  Avm  the  general 
want  of  learning  at  so  eariy  an  ag<t,  and  the  difficulty 
of  preserving  written  documents  even  of  the  hightit 
importance  relating  to  a  period  so  remote,  it  can  not 
he  expected  we  ihouid  now  possess  any  very  complete 
records  of  their  history  or  proceeding*.  Writers  of 
credit,  however,  have  mentioned  several  of  these  fhi- 
temi'ies  or  "guilds"  as  existing  both  before  and  sub- 
sequently to  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  their  rules, 
which  are  still  preserved,  are  highly  intereeting,  fIrom 
their  similarity  to  those  of  tho  friendly  societies  of  the 
present  day.  "  Theae  guilds  or  social  corporations," 
observes  an  excellent  writer,  "  seem,  on  the  whole,  to 
have  been  friendly  associations  made  for  mutual  aid 
and  contribution  to  meet  the  peciiliar  exigencies  which 
were  perpetually  arising  from  burials,  legal  exactions, 
penal  mulcts,  and  other  payments  and  compensations." 
— ^Tubner'b  Anglo-Saxoiu.  Some  of  them  had  for 
their  objects  the  bestowal  of  aniiual  charity,  the  pay- 
ment of  stipends  to  poor  persona,  the  entertainment  of 
poor  strangers  and  travelers,  and  various  other  woriu 
of  a  like  charitable  and  lienevolent  charooter.  i>m.'.:m' 


BAN 


147 


BAN 


Audb  flfM<  i;nil»d  SUUt*,  1867.-Th«  fcll 

owing  It 

flelal  rttnrni  in 

or  n«ar  January,  1857.— 

fhmihin- 

•  lummarjr  of  the  lUbllitlei  and  the  ntoureu  of  th« 

banks  of  each  SMta  in  lh«  Union, 

acoordlng  to  tha  of- 

1867. 

■Utol. 

tuHunu.                                                                             1 

Bwka. 

RnmIim. 

D>l«. 

CailUI. 

CInalaUoa. 

D<raH4. 

iisa" 

(Mm   ' 

LUWIMIa. 

Main* 

Til 
49 

..» 

Jan.,  186T 
Dm.,  1808 

»8,l«t,tui 

4,881,000 

«4,84l,«48 
T,6T7  689 

•1,994,781 
1068,803 

(i4S,aei 

(111,748 

New  IlMopslilra . 

VtrmoDt 

41 

,  , 

July,  18B8 

8,888,048 

8,»T0TM 

797.886 

7,848 

81T 

MutaehnMlli  . . 

in 

,, 

Oct.,    18B8 

58,6*8,800 

18,644,815 

18,487,16» 

4,807,101 

M1,BM 

KhodaliUnd  ... 

«8 

,, 

Dm.,  18M 
April,  1888 

lO^ITa.800 

6,61IJI0* 

8,141,«07 

1,470,W1 

te«,70> 

10 

1 

1S,«1S,8T1 

9,197,741 

4,090,885 

875,187 

911.468 

N«wY»rk 

810 

1 

Sept.,  188« 

18,891,801 

84,019,838 

06,907,970 

19,014,116 

8,707,888 

New  Jen«jr 

48 

,  , 

Jm.,  186T 

8,IHI,TT0 

1,T8»,8B8 

4  891,970 

l,4.'».8e8 

Tl 

,, 

Mot.,  18S« 

18,801,844 

17,M8,09« 

17,608,684 

4,115.616 

117,069 

I>elaw*n 

S 

8 

Ju.,   186T 

1,418,185 

1,894,0m 

808,414 

147,160 

HurUod 

81 

Jan.,  18eT 

1I,WT,1T8 

6,166,0.10 

9,6U,824 

l,69S,'i84 

679,701 

VlrglDta 

» 

88 

Jan.,   186T 

18,888,000 

11,186,817 

T,897,474 

7111.507 

98,186 

North  Cuollna. . 

11 

1< 

Jan.,   186T 

8,415,100 

8,801,181 

l,170,nM 

114,811 

8,046 

tenth  Ciiioliiia. . 

18 

a 

Jan.,   IWI 

14,887,841 

10,064.851 

1.601,718 

8.618,1181 

8,866,119 

Ctaoqila 

1» 

4 

Jan.,   1B6T 

16,418,800 

9,147,011 

8,180,5:» 

1,103,429 

871,044 

AUtam* 

4 

,  , 

Jan.,  185T 

1,117,800 

8,177,184 

1,418.169 

708,413 

6,000 

Loutilana 

9 

10 

Dm.,  1SS8 

11,78(1,400 

9,194,180 

18,478,719 

9a6,&U> 

*,107,6S8 

lIlalMlppI 

1 

,  , 

Jan.,  188T 

888,000 

600,846 

88,486 

e  •  >  • 

'*  •  •  • 

TanneuM 

SJ 

18 

Jan.,   1857 

8,461.411 

8,401,948 

4,875,848 

944,917 

961,141 

KMtnokr 

8 

IT 

Jan.,  186T 

10,608,806 

18,481,115 

4,473,378 

1,983,373 

60,000 

MUMurl 

8 

,, 

Deo.,  1884 

1,816,406 

£,780,880 

1,188,981 

111,981 

e  •  •  • 

IlUnoU 

41 

83 

is 

Oet,   18M 
0«t,    18M 

6,871,144 
4,U8,08J 

6,684,945 
4Tai,706 

1,001,899 
1,851,T4S 

110,488 
171,815 

157,981 
177,800 

iDdlaoa 

Ohio 

81 

, , 

Mot.,  18M 

6,741,411 

9,158,819 

1,643,410 

1,101,981 

891,768 

Mlohlgan 

4 

. . 

Dea,  1804 

e4i;489 

870,649 

1,847,968 

118,981 

51,140 

WiMonilD 

41 

, , 

Jan.,   18fiT 

1,905,000 

1,709,670 

8,886,681 

.      *• 

1,190,480 

NcbruU  Terrl-r 
Iktal  llablUtlM 

4 

.. 

Jan.,   185T 

106,000 

863,798 

116,191 

1,749 

.... 

li88 

IBS 

•87<l,8i)4,68li 

(114,778,811 

(180.851,851 

(5T,«74,U83 

(19,810,860 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Uaaiaohuiatti . . 
Rhode  Iilanil . . . 
Conneetlcut..... 

NaT  York 

New  Jeraejr .... 
Penneylvanla  .. 

Delaware 

Marrlanl 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 

Oeorgia 

Alabama 

liOaltlana 

MlHlHlppI 

Tenneaeee 

Kentuekjr , 

MlHonri 

lUlnols 

Indiana , 

Ohio 

Mlehlgan 

WlHontIn 

Nebraaka  Terri'jr 
Total  reaonreoB 


aiMvaou. 


(18,177,610 

8,844.431 

1,801,961 

101,181,701 

18,470,843 

18,611,149 

I0&,S91,499 

18,880,085 

61,187,134 

8,011,878 

11,198,664 

14,899,676 

11,880,511 

18,117,370 

10,640.101 

4,545.209 

81,100,216 

857,010 

10,893,890 

28,401.661 

4,111,791 

1,740,671 

7,089,091 

15,138,141 

1,906,603 

5,280,634 

418,097 


$<84,450,8S7 


(114,689 

iis'eso 

1,118,030 

*4,<»7<533 

681.773 

1,301,020 

83,070 

758,178 

8,184,004 

94,110 

S,!08,ST0 

l,24S,ng3 

141,201 

4,794,8S6 

519 

9,450,803 

789,120 

8,i20,'4t3 
1,694,857 
1,749,486 
688,889 
1,015,100 


«69,872,319 


B«alE>Uli. 


(138,251 

76,898 

185,168 

1,410,892 

47S,651 

453,181 

4,808,946 

224,711 

1,100,509 

180,000 

402,117 

871,868 

101,475 

431,278 

8,848,180 

78,148 

9,470,188 

11,418 

690,715 

446,007 

98,264 

62,832 

127,690 

810.145 

40,1)0 

160,315 

8,975 


(24,124.521 


Otiiar     ' 

iBVMlmMltf. 


(61,881 

70,l"88 
488,128 

188,2e4 
803,730 

1,045 

18.628 

484.481 

7,913 
0:)8,041 
684419 

1,261 
1,498,905 

i4,'l4!) 
868,914 


880,911 

487.8B7 

11,146 

1,892 

2.151 


$5,9^0,334 


Dim  by  otktr 

Buka. 

(1,158,270 

741,476 

1,141,104 

7,574,791 

1,166,811 

8,432,976 

.1,179,149 

1.287,104 

6,143,830 

6:10,614 

1,894,791 

1,406,111 

840,410 

1,180,038 

1,808,971 

465,801 

0,414,728 

257,606 

1,380,700 

4,116.480 

76,091 

8,968,450 

1,388,418 

1,749,668 

li\li41 

458,771 

110,804 


(05,84'J,2fl.'> 


NoUtofoUa/ 

~p75;5Tr 

180  604 

48,144 

6,848,879 

1,281,754 

867,319 
1,986,106 

710,071 

6,719,184 

40,080 

1,886,868 

1,509,089 

304,070 

639,497 
1,480,670 

604,187 

'26,618 

1,009,4(3 

840,969 

190,910 

433,717 

567,188 

1,199,843 

U),489 

701,161 

15,069 


$'J8,124,00<I 


Bp«eU  Fundi. 


(89,440 


146,148 
11,678,4!8 

1,6D8.6II4 

195,601 

9,168 

18,401 

1,378 

'81,918 


61,767 


19,197 
68,508 
B9,fl0T 
9,141 
78,121 
110 


$26,081,041 


lp«0l«. 

134.018 

108,868 

4,6(6,&71 

548,848 

1,000,408 
ll,898,m 

9a,n» 

6,973,188 
144,887 
8,511,641 
8,091,741 
1,164.198 
1,197,774 
1,701,108 
1,189,311 
fl,'IP'Ji 

■;  M» 

1,V        :      .,  / 

4,400,  :t<- 

1,116,18 

486,810 

1,420,076 

1,014,814 

91,761 

641,188 

180,325 


$,')8.849,83S 


Since  the  early  portion  of  this  article  was  prepared 
for  the  press,  important  events  have  ocenrrsd  both  in 
Europe  and  the  tjnited  States,  involving  tfte  stability 
of  the  banlcing  concerns  of  both  continents.  The  above 
tables  contain  the  latest  ofScial  returns  of  the  liabilities 
and  resources  of  the  banks  of  the  Union,'  and  may  be 
considered  as  a  fair  exhibit  of  the<:ondition  of  these  in> 
stitutions  in  the  seteral  States  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1857.  The  onfaTorable  condition  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  Union,  added  to  a  redundant  bank  circu- 
lation, led  to  a  large  export  of  specie  from  the  United 
States  daring  the  nine  months  ending  September,  1867. 
A  panic  followed  these  continuous  exports,  which  was 
accompanied  by  a  sudden  reduction  of  bank  loans  during 
the  months  of  Aognst  and  September  in  the  Atlantic 
cities,  producing  in  September  a  suspension  of  the  banks 
of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington,  and  other 
cities ;  and  in  October,  1857,  to  a  suspension  of  those  of 
the  dties  of  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  portions  of 
the  Union.  Those  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  In- 
diana, and  a  portion  of  those,  in  South  Carolina,  New 
Orleans,  Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  etc.,  and  one  in  New 
Tork  city,  being  the  exceptions.    On  the  14th  Decem- 


ber following,  a  lesumption  of  specie  payments  took 
place  througliout  New  York  and  New  England;  a 
measure  soon  after  adopted  by  those  of  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  other  States. 

The  suspension  of  specie  payments  in  the  United 
States  was  followed  by  the  failure  of  several  provincial 
banks  in  England  and  Scotland;  tind  by  an  order 
in  council  on  the  12th  November,  authorizing  the  tem- 
porary suspension  of  the  Bank  Charter  Act,  whereby 
the  bank  Was  authorized  to  enlarge  its  issues,  if  neces- 
sary, beyond  the  chartered  prescribed  limits.  This 
necessity  did  not,  however,  arise ;  bnt  the  announce- 
ment had  the  efhct  at  once  to  allay  the  panic  prevail- 
ing in  England  at  the  time.  The  rate  of  interest 
adopted  by  the  bank  was  raise''  to  10  per  cent,  tempo- 
rarily. In  Scotland,  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank,  and 
Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  suspended,  aiid  are  now  in 
process  of  liquidation.  The  Borough  Bank  of  Liver- 
pool also  failed,  together  with  nunterons  small  banks 
in  the  interior. — For  recent  discnssions  as  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  banking  and  the  currency,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred t(>  the  Amiters'  Magazine,  New  York,  1860-1868 ; 
London  Quarterly,  19hl-'!a, 


148 


BAK 


BAN 

llMi «( itfakr  fUlMMata,  fhowiag  ilu  oiMMtw  tl 
111*  tanlu  In  Um  prindpal  «l(iM,  U  Um  bMt  IwliB  of 
llM«oaiiMr«ls>n>or«MiilortlM«owMr)r|  Mdstw*- 
Ail  ttndjr  of  thU  morMBuit  bjr  bank  oAotn,  and  •  ng* 
uUtioa  «f  dJfoowiUi  tt«.,  •ooonllnsl/,  weidd  b*  Um 
bMt  mlkfiiMii  agaiiMt  itriagMiojr  In  tb*  MOMf  mark' 
•I,  oomnMroiai  diatiwi,  and  tba  otbtr  altaadaat  ovila 
or  dlMTdtrad  floMMat.  Wa  allada  partUalarljr  to  Iha 
Importano*  of  pabUitdag  tba  ntanu  of  tba  banlu  in 

OoMrABAnra  CoaDmos  o»  *■■  Ba>k8  m  ma  wtUMrnM  Kmm  At  mrraaawt  Puiona,  Jakvabt,  18U,  1807, 18S8, 

AM*  1858, 


Uw  aMtai  fcr  rnnmr  taaka,  batag  In  a  aaasan  local 
laatlMUMiB,  afa  aat  Mikitaat  to  tba  aaaaa  flMtnattoni, 
da  Ml  alwir  wltli  aaaatotaa  tin  eoana  of  uads,  and  do 
Ml  hataadlroal  InflaaaM  apon  tba  llnaneUl  condliioa 
of  tha  aoaatijr.  Wa  glva  tba  bank  nturni  Arom  tlia 
prtMlpal  aMRmaralal  oantni— Naw  York,  riiiUOal. 
pbU,  UooiMI,  Malllnon,  and  Naw  Orlaana— axblblting 
In  tba  attftgata  tba  loaiu,  ipacla,  circulation,  and  da- 
paalla  cftba  bankt  in  tboia  oltlai,  and  alto  tha  par. 
aantagaa  of  Ineraaaa  or  daoraaaa  in  tba  Hvaral  lima. 


Na«York... 
nilidalpbU. 


BattlBora . . . 
MiirOilniM, 
ToUI. 


[«»  Yorfc . 
PblUddpbla.. 

Boitoa 

IMUaort... 

MawOrlMM. 

Total... 


$1«,(14,080 
1<S88,888 

01,184,108 
l«,S00,8n 
18,189,189 


4,101,478 
1,018,118 
1,886,741 
8,588,008 


'tta: 


11,857,161 
51,918,900 
17,801,8110 

laiutTJiaa 

♦4i8,iH>,W 


e,887,687 

liWll^MO 

1,I«»,6I7 

10,078,518 

iWil78,180 


vi^uqm 


f,n«,448 
8J>l8,l81 


14,4W,«I4 
fJ8l»,4l»,T»» 


HiQki,m^mtu^ 


*c 


M^0IIO,«lt 
H;T44,8B« 
t8^TM,8« 
'-UIIS8a8 


8,478,148 
8,881,491 
I,8I'8,«78 
8;MB,109 
il7,87l,l5l 


ctnuUtlom 


IVSVOf 
5,411,161 
7,151,117 
8,890,848 
8,tf87,»7t> 
888,444,808 


$87,8M,8a4 
17,Tn,>H8 
15,910,187 
7,785,887 
14,889,480 


^14^,M^541 


t^T,889 

7,a8a,4ta 


I1,4M,1I8 
lil,t74,04» 

itit«,i)oa,ii» 


lf,NOi,noo 

98188(1,800 


|M,4oa,(N)o 

8,0(18,000 

fsa*4,ooo 

9,717,000 

18,««,000 

^1,800,000 


87,980,000 
8,741,000 
8,548,000 
1,971,000 
I',ti04,000 
.■KI),ltlfl,0<IO 


i8vy,kio,ooo 

17,049,008 

99,807,008 

7,088,000 

91,881,000 

>16l,684,000 


Wa  aae  from  thaaa  ttatamanta  that  tba  Inoraaia  ar 
danaaia  of  ipada  in  tbt  aavaral  eltia*  baa  baan  aa  Ui- 
Iowa: 


IM1(< 

im4.  "- 

Tonnw: — i 

iMfWMa 

Dt«rMW 

llMtMM 

pMmiw 

N««y«rk 

908 
51 
118 

ii 

80 

't 

18 

01 

14 

•  • 

PhUadalphta 

Boitoa 

Baltimera 

XavOriMM 

Tkking  the  aggragata  of  (ha  two  jraan,  bowarar, 
woaM  ihow  tba  graatait  Ineraaaa  of  tpacia  In  Maw  Tork 
city. 

Commoa  or  *■■  Baku  or.TBB  Crriaa  or  Haw  Yoaa, 
rnLAsaLmiA,  IJobtoii,  Bju/naoaa,  aid  Naw  UaiaAMi. 


Jaauary,  180S $904,106,000 

JaOB(ury,18&7 997,688,000 

April,      1888 118,lit^000 

Jiaaair,188» 981,878,000 

Jaaaarr.lSOO 99!Sao,ooo 

Jaanaiy,  1807 97,871,000 

Aflll,      1808 67,978,000 

Jaaaar7,180e 81,98«,000 

CiniMla. 

JanBarT,18e8 80,488,000 

JanBaqr,1807 88,445,000 

April,      1808 16,484,000 

JaluwrrilSSa 99,180,000 

DmmU*. 

Jannu7,18S« 130,410,800 

JuinM]r,1867 143,388,000 

April,      1868 160,104,000 

January,  1869 161,684,000 

'inQi^ng  %  wmmaiy  of  tha  Ineraaaa  and  daaraaaa  un* 
dor  each  bead,  we  bava : 


wCni 

pw(M. 

U 

tt 

"i 

#a 

t 

lii 

•• 

•' 

'» 

ii 

18 

is 

•• 

0 

T 

,, 

'  '  IM-tl 

MM.- 

i4KW,— 1 

11 

1! 

K 

H 

11 

]{ 

OiMOonU'..... 

Speda 

c£mlatloa.... 
Dtpoilti 

11 

■» 
10 

'8 

lii 
"e 

4 
M 

T 

•J 

Wa  ghra  tha  ftdlowing  exhibit,  abowlng  tba  aondl. 
Uon  of  tba  banka  of  tba  United  Stataa  for  a  8ariaa  af 
yeara.  Thaaa  ara  all  made  np  from  oAelal  aoaraaa, 
with  tba  aaoaptlon  of  tha  loana  and  (taioalta  In  Jami* 
•rjr,  1M9 


IMMrjr, 

tMi,: 

C^lttl. 

-   Vk,mM. 

\m.:.'..... 
laM 

I«T 

I«48 

I«4« 

1801 

I«B4 

I8B« 

U0« 

iwr 

liso 

tie* 

008 
•81 

iior 
IS 

1670 

$100,806,(M4 
15I,87&,»1 
170,771,001 
198,881,ft<8 
901,888,170 
917,807,608 
801,878,071 
8Sl,m,W8 
818,874,179 
870,884,088 
884,891,799 
808,868,700 

•814,119,499 
467,608,080 
et6,ll&701 
164,644,987 
844,478,881 
41il,7M,79* 
667,8»7,n9 
07^14^7S8 
684,188,180 
884,460^887 
588,611799 
010,000,000 

iMNwrr, 

L  *»"'•• 

GimlMloa. 

Dapodta. 

illllllilli 

iN,14i,TU 

97,916,840 

MgtiMoa 

M3MST60 
48,«7I048 
0*^410,188 
0*,844,04O 
09,814,088 
I8,»4»,888 
74,411,889 

f2S;K 

148,198,890 
08J)88,60S 
118,500,001 
106,185,901 
104,689,80* 
188,951,998 
19*^747  900 
914,778,891 
156,908,844 

i76,(18tt,»84 
117,881,185 
715,897,187 
06,168,698 
108,1S8,177 
198,1)07,741 
188,188,744 
190,400,841 
119,7ll6,<«l 
180,801,851 
18^llll,048 

TABta  MowiMO  vaa  Noaaaa  or  Bahki,  Capital,  flrioia, 
■to.,  IN  lAon  MAra,  BAoa  or  to  Jamcakt  1,  isso. 

hum,           (NMt>. 

c.rH.1. 

Rp..!.. 

(;imil>(i«.. 

Malaa 

N,  Haanifclra. 
Varaionr;.... 

WawYaflT... 
MMT^antr... 
rinaanfiiMio 

8'«:::::: 

B,  afColaaiMa. 

VMnto  

NahbCawllua. 
OMilhUrrilac, 

Oaercia 

Alabama 

Ilito«l« 

Indiana 

loira 

Kaniia.,.,,,,, 
Xaataakf 

MInnatirta 

Ill»r::::: 

Nabnwka 

(ibl« 

8* 
09 
41 

17« 
•9 
71 

lt» 

•0 
19 
10 
0 
M 

« 

7 
08 

40 
8 
1 

41 

18 
0 
1 
4 

10 
• 

00 

lfl« 

7,43l>,900 
0,041,000 
8,880,000 
•l,80*,000 
10,801,780 
1(US1,700 
IM^OOO 

Bw8t7,00O 
1,740,000 

1,180,000 

i4,*4e,ooe 

8,0«,000 
1<M8^ 

1,801,000 

418,000 

09^000 

11,881^000 

18,007,000 

''« 

U«^880 

7,000,000 

0,4141000 
10,478,800 

^ooSjooo 

S4«,flOO 

800,000 

900,000 
11,000,000 

180,000 

1,000,000 

19,800,000 

800,000 
9JtOO,000 

860,000 
8,900,000 

800,000 
4(000,000 
1,600,000 
8,500,000 
1,600,000 
9,000,000 

880,000 

100,000 

10^000 

0,000^000 

10,500,000 

Tm^ooo 

0,000 

OOlOOO 

1,000,000 

100,000 

9,000,000 
058,000 

0,000,000 
8,100,0(10 
8,700,000 

81,000^900 
8,400,000 
9,540,000 

96,800,000 
8,700,000 

18,000,000 

1,000,000 

4,700,000 

800,000 

11,000,000 
4,600,000 
7,600,000 
6,000^000 
4,000^000 
8,10^000 
8,848^000 
100,000 
90000 

18,600,000 
8,400,000 
1,000,000 
9,<000 
1,000,000 
1,100,000 
000,000 
8,400,000 
8^000^000 
4,IM^00O 

T«aBWN,..., 

iM,*t8>toe 

i^tasioo 

180,075,000 

BAN 


149 


BAN 


Vllt.  SAViKoa  nAHKt.— Hmm  bank!  wen  erigind- 
W  eiUblUhed  in  EngUnd  for  tha  receipt  of  imall  •ami ' 
iU|ioiiltid  by  th«  poorer  clui  of  peraoni,  and  for  their 
•ccumulttlun  at  compound  Intereet.  They  era  tliere 
manoced  by  indlvlduaU  who  derive  no  l)enefl(  what- 
ever mm  the  depoiiti.  AH  monoyi  paid  into  any 
SavingD  Bank  eitabllihed  ■coording  to  the  proviiioni 
of  the  aote  0  Qeo.  IV.,  o.  91,  and  7  A  8  Vict.,  c.  88,  are 
ordered  to  be  paid  into  the  Binki  of  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  vetted  in  bank  annuitiee  or  Exchequer  billi. 
The  interoit  payable  to  dopoiitore  ii  not  to  exceed  'id. 
per  cent,  per  dum,  or  £8  Ot,  lOd.  par  cent,  per  annum, 
no  depoiitor  can  contribute  mora  than  X80,  exoluiive 
of  compound  Interest,  to  a  Saving*  Bank  In  any  one 
vear ;  and  the  total  depoiiti  to  b«  received  ftam  any 
individual  are  not  to  exceed  XISO ;  and  whenever  the 
depoei(i,  and  compound  intereit  accruing  upon  them, 
itandtng  in  the  name  of  any  one  individual,  ihall 
amount  to  £200,  no  Intereet  ihall  be  payable  upon  luoh 
depoait  10  long  ai  It  ahall  amount  to  X200.    The  com- 


mliitoiien  for  tho  rednetion  of  the  nillonti  4«M  br\-e 
the  dlipoml  of  the  lumi  veited  In  the  publlo  fontb  on 
account  of  Saving!  Bank*. 

'1  hii  lyitem  began  In  1817 ;  and  on  the  SOth  of  Ko- 
vember,  IBM),  there  wai  due  to  depoiKorl,  hcladlng 
intereit  acerntng  on  depoilli,  481,!l08,tn.  It  fkrtber 
appeari  that  from  the  0th  of  Auguit,  181S,  down  to  the 
20th  of  November,  1842,  the  publio  paid  on  tocount  of 
Intereit  and  charges  on  the  lumi  due  to  Bavlngi  Bank* 
and  Kriendly  Socletiea  under  the  act  0  Qeo.  Iv,,  e.  m, 
i;i4,u/u,84t  2i.  6d.,  and  that  the  dtvidend  received 
during  the  lame  period  on  the  itock  and  other  public 
lecuritlei  in  which  thocomroiiiloneriforthe  reduction 
of  the  national  debt  Invested  the  laid  sums,  amounted 
to  .£12,089,781  8<.  M.,  leaving  a  balance  of  i:2,080,6&0 
14«.,  which  conicquently  may  be  laid  to  be  the  sum 
which  tho  system  has  cost  the  public— /'art.  Paper, 
No.  268,  Sess.  1813.  But  the  reduction  of  the  intereit 
on  deposits  In  1844  firom  2i(f.  to  2d.  per  oent.  per  diem, 
hu  In  a  great  measure  obviated  this  source  of  lost. 


NoMaaaoF  Bavihoo  Banks  in  raa  Umitid  KucanoM,  ahd  ot  AocounTS  TnaaaAT:  Amovkt  owiito  tITand  Rati  or 

iMTBaiST  PAID  TO  DRroSITOaS i    AMNIIAL  NDHBKa  AMD  AVISAOB  AmOUHS  Or  UlOairTS  ADD  rATMRMTS;    NOHBU  A«D 

AnoDNT  or  AmiviTiBe  obamtxi),  akd  Kxransis  or  MANAaiMBBT,  amd  Katb  pbb  Cbbt.  TilBBior,  na,  in  BAoa  or 

TBI  YBABS  BMDIMa  30TU  NoVBMBBB,  1861,  1806,  AKD  1866. 


roriiAUos, 

NanlnrorBulii. 

Nninb«r  of  Afleou/<t"  ..  jutlnlaf 
Op... 

Total  Amomlmitailto 
OofuHon 

1114. 

IIU. 

I8U. 

IM4. 

I'M. 

lUS. 

ISt4.        1       lau.        1       IMS 

EngUodandWalss.. 
Bcolland 

1T,OST,60» 

9,888,T4J 

0,062,886 

B0,T39 

486 

46 

61 

8 

400 

4T 

63 

9 

498 

46 

61 

8 

1,0TI>,92T 
118,601 
64,008 
18,371 

1,100,636 

138,888 

64,467 

18,»6« 

1,140,661 
119,381 
6T,<lfiO 
14,4ST 

X 

39,646,860 

l,03l,»|i» 

l,ft71>,490 

116(1,1180 

i               X 

8fl,ia4,9«8   80,T8^T89 

»,0I4,116      1,986,496 

1,616,126     1,710,180 

8TI,it66  1      888,476 

Inland...: 

Channel  Islands 

Tola! 

3T,469,4T& 

[b94_ 

091 

DOT 

I,II6B,«I8 

1,1)01,423 

1,881,860 

8^4U8,lt6   il4,18^6'i6  |84,T«A,tU  1 

Auul  Nambor  of  Rtaalpli 
floai  Uopodlon. 

Anoaal  Noaibor  of  Paymtnli  to' 
Dopoilton. 

Avoraga  Amoaal  o^  kaealpta  inm 
DopMllora. 

ISU. 

lUI. 

lUI. 

ia>4. 

lau. 

INS. 

1U4.         1         ISU. 

ISM.        1 

England  and  VTales. . 
gootland 

1,110,684 

316,669 

78,066 

T,T99 

1,418,068 

1,116,638 

211,993 

74,809 

T,895 

1,409,734 

l,228,iaT 

823,933 

84,882 

8,8T1 

1,648,763 

684,786 

141,789 

68,483 

4,fl26 

789,642 

BST,981 

148,986 

66,693 

4,46T 

708,066 

686,818 

147,407 

6',764 

4,779 

701,702 

i  S  -8 

8    Til 

6  11  11 

7  16    1 
6    4    9 

X     •.    d. 
6    T    8 
8    8    0 
6    0    9 
T  11  10 
6    9    S 

X    1.    If. 
6    4    9 
8    4    9 
6    0    1 
T    8  10 
6    0    1 

Inland 

Channel  Islands 

ToUl 

bj  Ika  CommlaaloBonJ.t 

total  Nmnbor. 

Total  Amouat. 

ISM. 

18U. 

ISM. 

ISM. 

IRIS.              tus. 

IBM. 

IMt.         1        IMS.         1 

England  and  Wales.. 
Boeiland 

9,305 

928 

1T9 

30 

6,413 

96B 

300 

31 

9,683 

1,018 

920 

21 

189,789 
16,268 

0,6" 
832 

164,803 

16,667 

8,830 

828 

X 

■  104,986 

16,866 

8,886 

028 

97,673 
6,102 
6,067 
1,010 

«T,012 
6,837 
7,666 
1,029 

101,883 
T,431 
7,684 
1,049 

Inland 

Channel  Islands 

ToUl 

10,882 

10,609 

10,843 

208,083 

i^V'" 

186,616 

111,840 

113,424 

■il»,»«» 

Rata  of  tataKil  paid  la  Dapoaiton. 

ATaraga  Amount  of  Paymaota  to 
Dapoaituii. 

Ap:.or.J  Rata  par  Ctat.  on  Ihi  Capital 
of  tho  Bank  for  tho  EtponM 

ISM. 

ISU. 

ISSI. 

ISM.             ISU. 

18<S. 

ISM.        1        ISU. 

isss. 

Seotlind 

X    t.     i. 
3  18    9 
9  1T    B 
9  IS    6 
8    0    0 

X.I.     d. 

3  18    9 
3  IT    9 
3  16    6 
8    0    0 

X   1.     d. 
3  18    9 
SIT    9 
3  16    6 
8    0   0 

t     •.    d. 

11    8    B 
4  16    0 
9    8    0 

11  IT  10 

X    1.   d. 

10  IS  11 
4  16    8 
8  10    B 

11  3    T 

X     «.    <t. 

11    6    1 
6  16    8 
8    8    4 

U  18    8 

•.    <f. 
6    T 

5  6 
8    9 

6  9 

1.    d. 
6    6 
6    9 
9    6 
6    6 

it 

T    8 
9    0 
6    4 

Inland 

Channel  Islands 

Total 

3  18    8*  1  1  18    8* 

3  18    8« 

10    1    6 

9  18    4 

10    1    8 

6    8» 

'    «    «• 

6    1^ 

*  Average. 


t  From  S6th  March,  1884,  to  30th  November  in  each  jrear. 


BMotntoxs  .AMD  LuniLiTiBa,  era,  or  na  lag' 
KESOURCESi       ',     0.' 

Bonds  and  mortgagee '  !'^' 

JBstimatedvalneofmortgsgepremtsee  $48,468,68$ 
8toek  Inveitmenta,  amount  invested 

Par  value  of  stoeke 17,818,700 

Fttlmsted  value  of  same 1T,029,343 

Blocks  upon  which  mooej  haa  bean 

loaned,  par  value Ifi^JUK 

Amount  loaned  thereon 

Am't  loaned  upon  penoral  seenrltte* -^  '."'''  ' 
Amount  Invested  In  nal  eatate  .....     il  .'.ml'  . 

Cash  on  deposit  in  banks ,  o'H'f'  i. 

Cosh  on  bond,  not  deposited  In  banka         '  v 
Amount  loaned  or  depostled,  not  In- 
eluded  under  the  above  heaiia....-  ili  '|9  %'. 

HIacellaneoua reaoiueea ■,■■•■■ «  >  ..  . 

Addforcenta ,. 

Total  resouieea 


itnmioRS  voB  SAvnioa  or  tn  Statb  or  Niw  Yob)^  Jakvast  1<  18<S6. 

LIABIUTIE&     i  /,; K  .1  ;S  , 

Amount  due  depositon. .■  m  ■  -  ...  ^i  4n  org 

■- «N661 


$30,334,686 
1T,S4»,800 


1,138,961 

91,046 

B4T,1«6 

8,38T,441 

884,TT0 

60,462 

17,190 

TO 


Miscellaneous  liabllltiee 

Excess  of  assets  over  llabUltleB . 
Add  for  cents 


S,4ST,62S 
46 

Total  Uabtlltlei (43,880,991 

Avnraglnii  to  eaeh  depositor $348  34 

The  number  of  open  aooounts  January  1, 
18S8,  was ....S0a,804 

Tbe  total  amount  deposited  during  the 
calendar  year  lS6Twa $34,880,443 

The  total  amount  withdrawn  dnilng  tha 
calendar  year  1867  was  36,641,683 

Tho  amount  received  for  Interest  during 
the  calendar  year  18(17  waa.... 9,648,616 

The  amount  placed  to  tbe  credit  of  de- 
positon for  the  same  period  was 2,070,861 


BAN 


IM 


BAN 


laakfopl  Wid  Wuaknptey.  Baakraoto,  In 
EnaUnd,  flni  Uw  MiMUid  Nfanliiig  tham,  15  Iltiirx 
VIII.  IMS.  Afftln,  a  of  KTlMbalh,  ISflOi  uaia,  1 
Jtwm  I.  1M)1|  stfatB,  1T06|  Mid  mort  rtcanll/.  It 
WM  d«tan  xi  by  th«  Kiag'i  Bancb  tlut  •  bankrupt 
najr  ba  anMlad  axaapt  In  going  and  coming  ftrom  any 
•xamlaallon  bafor*  Iba  oommlatlonari,  May  18,  1780, 
Tha  lord  aluuiMUor  CThnrlow)  rtfUiad  a  bankrupt  bla 
eartlflaata  baeanta  ba  bad  loat  flva  poundi  at  ona  tima 
bi  ganing,  July  17,  1788.  Enactad  that  mambari  of 
Iba  Houio  of  Conmoni  bacomlng  bankrupu,  and  not 
paying  tbalr  dabU  In  ftill,  aball  vaoata  thalr  aaaU,  ISlil. 
Tba  naw  bankrupt  bill,  eonatitatlng  a  naw  bankrupt 
eonrt,  pataad  Ootobar,  1881 — aiatutis  at  Largt. 


8taHilicii^Bmtkmftcf.—Sa  aiuntlon  baa  baan  paid 
to  tbia  (ubJaot  In  tba  Unllml  StaUa  until  tha  vaara 
1867,  18M,  wban,  br  individual  am>rti,  tha  raaufta  of 
falluraa  booaaa  wall  known.  Wa  extract  froni  tba 
annual  raport  of  Ifaaan.  D,  Douglaia  4  Co.,  of  N.  Y.  i 

"  With  ragard  to  tba  labia  annaxad,  wa  would  lay 
that  It  baa  baan  praparad  mora  to  anabia  marcbanta  to 
oompara  tba  oommarolal  dliaitara  of  18U  with  thota  of 
18fi7,  ao  aa  to  arriva  at  aema  daOnlta  concluiion  aa  to 
bow  far  tha  panic  bai  aspandad  Itaalf,  rathar  than  for 
mora  minutaly  analytical  purpoaaa.  In  our  latt  wa 
Includad  tha  numbar  of  aloraa,  with  the  number  of  falU 
urai,  tba  paroantaga  paid  by  thoaa  that  failed,  to  aa  to 
arrlra  at  tba  probabla  ultimata  lot*,  etc. 


■lAtianaa  or  r^iLvaaa  la  ran  UanaD  iTAiia  ahd  Dwnan  Paomoaa  roa  inn  Yiau  IMS. 


Naw  York  Ulty  (laeludlug  Uiooklya),  New  York 

Alkaay 

D««Ua 


iVer 


rey. 
UUaa. 

Balanaa  of  Uie  Btala 

Philadelphia,  reaaaylraBla. 
ntlakarfh 

BalaoeeortheBlate 

ObMlnaall,  Ohio 

Olerelaad 

Balaaee  oftbe  State 

tndlaoa. 


0;trolt,MleMnn 

Bataneeof  the  State 

CMaaio,  Illlnol 

Balaaea  of  the  State 

Dobaqae,Iowa 

Baianee  of  the  State 

Milwaukee,  WlMxniln 

Balaaea  of  the  State 

MlnaeeoteandTanltarlea 

Delaware  and  DIatilet  of  ColumbUi . 
Beelon,  Maeiaehnielte 

kelaaee  of  the  State 

Pnrhleoea,  BhodeUan^ 

Baianee  of  the  State 

Conneettout 


NewUaaipeUre 

Vermont 

New  Jereay 

New  Orleaaa,  I«nliUna . 

Baianee  of  the  State... 
Si  Loute,  If  iMOBri 

Balaoee  of  the  State... 
Baltimore,  Maryland . . . . 

Balaoee  of  the  Slate... 
LoalarMIe,  Kentneky . . . . 

Baianee  of  the  State. . . 
RlehmoDd,  Vlriinta 

Baianee  of  the  Slate... 

Gaoigla 

Aitaaaaa 


Mltriarippi. 


Texaa, 

North  CaroUna 

Cbaileelea,  Sooth  Carolina . 

Balance  of  tha  State 

FloiUa 


Total  United  Statea 

Toronto,  Canada  Wait 

Baianee  of  Canada  Weet 

Mootrael,  Canada  Beat 

Baianee  of  Canada  Eatt 

Mora  Seotla  and  New  Bruuawlck 

Total  United  Slatee  and  BriUdi  Pnrlneee. 


No.  •/ 
rillafM 
JallM. 

as 
n 

IS 

ti 

M 
14 

M 
44T 
(SO 

SR 
MS 

M 

to 

S20 

IDS 

84 

M 

IIT 

19S 

St 

1M 

ID 

101 

tt 

10 

168 

ISO 

BS 

4 

tl 

81 

TO 

6T 

R« 

M 

6 

49 

M 

B8 

41 

1« 

81 

SO 

SO 

81 

T 

It 

II 

40 

IS 

tS 

81 

14 

T 


No.  a( 


«5r 

IB 

lot 

IB 
IS 
11 


BUS 


4llt 
18 
St 
t 
IB 
11 
It 
It 

840 

lot 

M 

181 
61 
IT 

114 

m 

IT 

im 

8T 
SUB 
It 
»4 
11 

la; 

90 
4t 
188 
US 
IT 
18 
8« 
tt 
ST 
40 

to 

46 
18 
11 
M 

Tt 
91 
18 
tl 
15 

144 
Tl 
IT 
48 
tt 

103 
IS 
80 
10 
11 
t 


It 
111 

40 
18 


TbsT 


Avfnmouf  L.I*. 
Mlllhioluali 
r>llaN  !■  ini, 


tUT^WT 
88,048 
BH,88T 
11,886 
tT,4l8 
1^0t4 
t6,«6S 
M,IBO 
16,1X8 
11T,t»8 
41,1M 
10,101 

4o,toa 

10,488 
10,TI4 
II, TOO 
44,680 
10,14t 

ea,iTi 

18,000 
1«,4IT 
11,841 
10,01)0 
ll,Slt 
IT.OtS 
18,060 

101,006 
11,361 

180,400 
1A,100 
18,608 
18,06T 
18,1&T 
8,100 
18,1T0 

108,801 
4%100 

111,884 
14,981 
6A,1T6 
lT,t98 
88,841 
81,484 
M,0S8 
10,811 
18,108 
44,148 
18,48T 
40,466 
1T,800 
18,100 
18,88T 
1S,T41 
11,T08 
S6,T1B 

108,680 
]9,Mt 
84,880 
84,486 
01,600 


Avonat  ol  LU. 
lilllllMorMtk 
rallanlaltH. 

■ m^tr 

16,TU 
18,«tB 

lie 
11,600 
1T,8BT 
11,111 

lAtDS 
9I,T8B 
1T,T81 
10,<I8S 
M,888 
16,000 

T,8IT 

0,081 
88,811 
14,410 
4I,'.<T1 
18,811 
8I,TS8 
18,a«S 
14,9TB 
1T,TI» 
1^IT8 

8,010 
8S,9TB 
10,188 
11,(100 
11,0T1 
14,8T0 
10,601 
10,80)1 

t,t«8 
11,980 
TT,000 
18,800 
86,690 
11,000 
81,140 

6,888 
80,860 
11,000 
19,886 

8,960 
19,988 
48,600 
41,4T4 
18,180 
Us60B 
18,804 
18,880 
88,900 
11,900 
SS,T40 


T«4aJ  Ainaaal 

•(  LUblllllM 

lalHT. 


!S,Ofil 
6,189 
1T,T61 
88,036 
44,418 


tiaisiw,<MO 
sssono 

4,114,000 

1tl,000 

880,000 

488,000 

],80T,000 

686,000 

t,T88,a00 

BIPB4,aOO 

1,188,000 

1,188,000 

8,898,000 

tl  8,000 

1,S6T,000 

1,888,000 

1,614,000 

1,004,000 

tiBTAOOO 

l,T68,0UO 

T8^000 

1,838,000 


1,144,000 

1,TOB,000 

ltl,000 

41,010,000 

l,tll,000 

4,664,000 

100,000 

1,I10,0«0 

1,080,000 

918,000 

478,000 

1,141,000 

8,180,000 

144,000 

0,621,000 

488,000 

8,108,000 

T'2^a00 

TeT,000 

1,OOT,000 

T8I,000 

981,000 

926,000 

809,000 

190,000 

440,000 

711,000 

898,000 

I,1TI,000 

Ml,flOO 

800,000 

26^000 


|1«1,T60,000 
!,T14,000 
a,1Tl,000 
61X000 
1,MT,000 
1,8T6,000 


t»»,801,000 


TauTAauHial 

•fLIaaUIIUi 

la  lUe 

"TlT,TT8,4«i 

84^T08 

600,040 

Tl(,800 

84^oao 

408,600 
1T8,6T0 

4,810,810 

10,001,886 

«10,T41 

4,64T,8'f8 

1,840,688 

100,000 

1,ST1,838 

l,164,il84 

1,04T,014 

1,T8I,480 

8,600,884 

4,«T8,1I0 

816,066 

8,1»8,181 

814,476 

^,4.';^T88 

1,886,840 

ITT,  140 

4,1T8,91ft 

1,98T,T91 

8T4,000 

IT8,01S 

1,118,480 

048,061 

4U8,t6'2 

1T8,T10 

TT^SOO 

8,48^0O0 

841,900 

781,980 

800,000 

8,441,040 

620,090 

OM,4t2 

t82,000 

489,180 

1,188,800 

l,41^^'43 

T89,6nO 

9,fle8,T61 

1,068,000 

],B«T,01& 

\I0T4S1 

1,490,400 

6T8,180 

140,900 

141j440 


$96,749,661 

883,STt 

1,806,879 

1,110,040 

616,770 

1,011,844 

8100,187,671 


It  would  really,  therefore,  a*  It  appear*  to  nt,  ba  for 
tba  MiTantage  of  creditor*,  were  all  penal  proomding* 
againat  the  peraon*  of  boneet  debtor*  aboliihed.  The 
dependence  placed  on  tbeir  efficacy  1*  deteitAiI.  A 
tradaaman  ought  ratbar  to  trwt  to  bi*  own  prudanco 
and  aagaoity  to  kaep  out  of  aerapea,  than  to  the  law 
for  rednaa;  be  may  deal  upon  credit  with  thoae  whom 
be  know* ;  but  be  *bould  deal  for  randy  money  only 
witb  tboaa  of  wboM  drcanutaneas  and  charactara  Ita 


1*  either  ignorant  or  tuapielona.  By  bringing  penal 
atatuto*  to  bit  aid  he  ia  rendered  remlti  and  negligent. 
He  baa  the  only  effectual  meana  of  tecurlty  In  hit 
own  bandi,  and  it  teems  hiKhly  inexpedient  that  he 
tbottld  be  tought  to  neglect  them,  and  put  bit  trutt  in 
priton*. 

It  i*  pretty  evident  that  the  efficacy  of  Impriaon- 
ment  in  deterring  individual*  fVom  running  Into  debt 
hat  boen  greatly  overrated.    Intolveott  who  ore  bon- 


BAN 


161 


P«im1 
llgent. 
In  bit 
hatha 

uatln 

jrison- 
I  debt 
;«  hon- 


Mt  mutt  h«v*  iuAnid  f^om  mUk>rtun«,  or  bMU  dlMp- 
polntitl  In  the  hnp«»  Ihay  •nUrtalntJ  ot  iMing  •bit.,  in 
•IM  wajr  ur  olhar,  to  lituharKs  th«lr  il«b(i.  Th«  liar 
of  linpriMuiuwit  don  nut  K'v'l'y  Inrtuanco  luch  p«r- 
tooi;  fur  wban  Ihtjr  oonlruct  iluliU  th«y  hav6  no  doubt 
of  thtir  •bllity  to  pay  (h«ni.  And  tbouKb  the  imprleun- 
DMUt  of  tuna  jUh  Iniolvantt  were  abullihed,  It  would 
give  no  encouragement  to  the  practloei  of  tbote  who 
•ndeavor  to  raUa  money  by  falw  repreiontatlone ;  for 
theee  are  to  bo  regarded  ai  twindlere,  and  ought,  at 
Mcb,  to  be  lulfiected  to  ad«|uate  punlahmcnt.  At 
preeeni,  indeeil,  the  law  la  much  loo  indulgent  to  Ihia 
deecriptiun  of  penona.  Tradere  or  other*  who  en- 
deavor lo  obtain  goode  or  loana  of  money,  wbetbnr  by 
OonceallHg  or  mlirepreeenting  the  real  etate  of  their 
•flhlrt,  are,  In  fact,  about  the  very  worat  iiMiclet  of 
ehaata ;  and  the  tami'tatlon  to  reiort  to  luch  |iiactlce(, 
■ad  the  farlllty  with  \thlch  they  may  be  carried  intoef- 
bet,  ihould  make  *.hom,  when  detected,  b«  vlilteil  with 
•  proportionally  Im-i-eaeed  taverlty  of  punUhnient,  on 
the  principle  liild  down  by  Cicero,  that  «a  luitl  anmaJ- 
ttrtimla  itncalo  tmuiimi,  i/iu*  ilf0icUtiiH»  pracavtHinr. 

V;\iiu,  howevdr,  >he  law  of  England  hai  alway* 
given  ihu  creditor  an  unnoceuary  degree  of  |iower 
over  the  dubtor'e  person,  it  did  not,  till  very  recently, 
give  iuificient  power  over  hii  property.  In  thin  re- 
•pect,  Indeed,  it  waa  io  very  defective,  that  one  la 
■Imoet  loniptuu  to  think  It  had  been  intended  to  pro- 
mote the  practices  of  fraudulent  debtors.  The  property 
of  person*  subject  to  the  bankrupt  and  insolvent  laws 
was.  It  is  true,  nominally  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
Mslgnee*  or  tnutee*,  for  the  benellt  of  their  creditor* ; 
but  when  a  poreon  po**e*«ed  of  property,  but  not  sub- 
ject to  the  baaknipt  laws,  contracted  debt.  If  he  wont 
•broad,  or  lived  within  the  rule*  of  the  Kibg'*  llench 
or  the  Fleet,  or  remained  In  prison  without  petitioning 
for  relief,  ho  continued  most  probably  to  ei\)oy  the 
Income  arising  from  that  property  without  molestation. 

AOOOOMT  or  TUB  NCMBtS  or  IUmmuptoibi  oamttio  im 
lAcu  Ya4B,  rauH  1M7  tu  laM  imclusivc. 


Uvorpool 

Msnohciter  . . . 
IHmilDKhsm  . . 

Leeds  

Bristol 

Kxater 

Newcastle 

Total  country. . 
London 


Itkil 
104 
lt>S 
140 
IM 
«8 
52 


8B0 
800 

iflsr 


lOH 
UB 

na 

169 
6B 
DO 


UUil 
TflO 


10*18 


IMS.  I   law. 


80 
lliB 
04 
96 

BO 


BT4 


M 
10« 
TO 
6< 
88 
89 


4M 
411 


MT 


i»»r 


M 
69 
00 
00 
6< 
85 
99 


489 
4T8 


085 


79 
B8 

loo 

78 
40 
9T 


489 


sir 


/Vance,— In  June,  1888,  the  French  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  Insolvency  was  abrogated,  and  an  entirely 
new  law  was  promulgated,  which  now  form*  Book  III. 
of  the  "  Code  do  Commerce." 

Unittd  Slatet. — The  power  of  making  uniform  law* 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcy  in  the  United  States,  1*, 
by  the  Constitution,  conferred  upon  Congress,  and  was 
generally  undersUMMl  to  be  exclusively  vested  in  that 
body.  This  power  was  exercised  by  Congres*  in  1800, 
by  the  enactment,  of  a  bankrupt  law,  limited  to  five 
year*,  and  which  wa*  repealed  by  act  of  December  19, 
1808.— Kknt.  The  Congress  of  the  United  State*  leg- 
lelated  a  second  time  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcy,  by 
an  act,  pasted  In  August,  1841,  to  establish  a  uniform 
•ystem  throughout  the  Union,  which  took  effect  on  the 
!d  February,  1842,  but  was  repealed  March  8,  1843, 
The  repeal  of  thi*  act  *caroely  affected  any  existing 
Intereet*,  a*  alniott  every  debtor  had  haataned,  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  po**iblllty  of  it*  repeal,  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  it  voluntarily.  At  preaent  there  i*  not  any 
bankrupt  *yttem  under  the  general  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  eeveral  States  are  left  free  to 
Inatitute  their  own  bankrupt  system*,  under  certain 
limitation*.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Mew  York  had  de- 
clared the  bankrupt  act  of  Congre**  to  be  con*titutlun' 
al  (Justice  BroDton  diesenting),  but  the  U.  S.  District 
Court  of  MUfOuri  declared  it  to  lie  unoonititntional. 


BMrbado— ,  or  B»rb«dO«,  I*  one  of  Ih*  Welt 

India  Islands  belonging  to  (ireat  Britain,  and  tha  okU 
est  of  hur  tetllenienit  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Tha 
•xsct  dale  of  It*  dlti'overy  is  unknown,  but  It  wa* 
liruhaliiy  not  later  than  tliu  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
t'vntury.  The  I'orluguete  (re  tuprosad  to  have  bean 
tlio  llrst  Kuropoant  that  vialtcd  this  laland,  as  It  lay 
almost  directly  In  their  couraa  lo  and  from  llraall. 
They,  however,  had  not  rcganled  It  a*  holding  forth 
sulUclsnt  Inducements  for  colonising,  as  when  Ant 
visited  by  the  Knglish  In  lUOfi  It  was  destitute  of  !•• 
Iiabitauts,  and  covered  with  thick  forests.  The  lint 
Knglish  vessel  that  arrived  thora  "as  the  (Mm 
lilottom,  tha  craw  of  which  took  possi'salon  of  the 
island  in  the  name  of  King  .lanies,  by  orecllng  a  cro** 
upon  the  *pot  where  Jamestown  was  afterward  built, 
and  cutting  upon  tlie  bark  of  a  tree  that  stood  near, 
"James,  K.  of  K.  and  this  island" — James,  king  of 
England  and  this  island.  The  favorable  account* 
which  Sir  Wiillani  fourteen,  a  L«ndon  merchant, 
afterward  received  of  the  Island  fVom  one  of  his  ships 
that  had  touched  there,  induced  him  to  attempt  a  set- 
tlement. He  accordingly  tittod  out  two  large  vossal* 
under  the  protection  of  Lord  Ley,  afterward  Karl  of 
Marlborough,  who  had  otitained  a  grant  of  thi*  lilaad 
from  Jaine*  I.  Une  onI>  of  these  ships  arrived  at  ita 
destination  on  17th  February,  1U2&,  and  landed  40 
Knglish,  and  7  or  8  negroes,  who  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  town,  which,  in  honor  of  their  fovareign,  tbay 
called  Jamestown. 

Barbadoes  Is  the  moit  eastern  of  the  Caribbae  Islands, 
lying  78  miles  due  east  of  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent, 
between  lat.  18°  2'  and  18°  lu'  M.,  and  long.  6»°  W 
and  &9°  UU'  W.  It  presents  almost  the  form  of  an  Ir- 
ngular  triangle ;  It*  greatest  length,  In  a  direction 
north  by  west,  is  nearly  21  miles,  and  its  extrame 
breadth  ft'om  east  to  west  is  14^  mile*.  It*  circumfer- 
ence, excluding  the  sinuosities  of  the  bays,  is  66  mile*, 
and  it*  area  106,470  acre*,  or  about  100  *i|uara  mile*. 
In  sise,  and  in  some  measure  in  its  outline,  it  bean  • 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  Isle  of  Wight  It  i* 
almost  encircled  by  coral  reefli,  wliich  in  some  part* 
extend  seaward  for  nearly  three  mllo*,  and  prove  vet}' 
dangerous  to  navigation. 

'Ihe  chief  staple  article*  produced  in  Barbadoes  tor 
export  are  sugar,  arrow-root,  aloes,  and  cotton.  Tho 
following  table  gives  Ihe  value  of  tha  import*  and  ex- 
ports for  the  year*  1840,  1860,  and  1861 : 


\—n.  " 

1IU9 
1860 
1S6I 

Imporl*. 

ieBI,478 

784,868 

789.OTT 

■  Bipori.. 

—mliio 

881,684 
887,097 

Twaiff*. 
85,781 
90,881 
96,979 

Carlisle  Bay,  the  port  or  harbor  of  Barbadoes,  form* 
an  open  roadstead,  which  Is  much  exposed  to  the  wind 
when  blowing  flrom  tho  south  and  southwest.  It  is 
spacious,  and  capable  of  contair'ng  upward  of  600 
vessels  of  all  bIzcs.  It  aflbrdB,  however,  no  protection 
during  gale*;  and  at  *uch  times  vessels  at  anchor 
generally  prefer  putting  to  sea,  to  running  the  risk  of 
being  driven  ashore. — K.  B. 

BarOMlao,  or  Baoalao,  the  Spanish  name  for  cod. 

Barcelona,  the  capital  of  Catalonia,  and  the  prin- 
cipal town  of  .Spain  on  the  Mediterranean,  lat.  41°  22* 
68"  N.,  long.  2"  8'  11"  E.  It  is  a  strongly  fortified, 
well-built  city.  The  population  is  supposed  to  amount 
to  about  120,000.  Barcelona  is  eminently  distinguished 
in  the  history  of  tho  Middle  Ages  for  the  zeal,  skill,  and 
success  with  which  her  citizens  prosecuted  commercial 
adventures  at  •  very  early  period.  She  would  seem 
also  to  be  entitled  to  the  honor  of  havin}{  complied 
and  promulgated  the  famous  code  of  maritimo  law 
known  by  the  name  of  tho  Coniotato  del  Mare;  and 
the  earlieet  authentic  notices  of  the  practice  of  marine 
insurance  and  of  the  negotiation  of  bills  of  exchange 
are  to  be  found  in  her  annals.  Catalonia  has  continued, 
amidst  all  the  vicissitudes  it  has  undergone,  to  be  tiM 
most  industrious  of  the  Spanish  provinces.    Several 


BAB 


152 


BAH 


•xtenrive  mamrf'Mtnm  have  been  eiUbliibed  in  Bai^ 
eeIona,««peciaUy  of  cotton;  and  no  fewer  than  28iteam- 
•nginea  were  erected  in  Catalonia  in  1842,  tlie  greater 
nnmber  being  in  Barcelona.  Latterly,  however,  her 
txnmnerce,  owing  to  a  variety  of  caoiea,  bat  princi- 
pally to  oppreuive  restrictiona  on  the  importation  of 
fiiveign  goods,  the  emancipation  of  South  America, 
and  internal  diueniions,  has  very  much  declined. 

Iptportt.—tbe  principal  articles  of  import  are  raw 
cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  cocor,  and  other  colonial  prod- 
nets,  principally  from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico ;  Mlted 
fish,  hides,  and  horns ;  iron  and  hardware,  etc.  Most 
species  of  manufactured  goods  are  prohibited ;  but  it  is 
needless  to  add  that  they  are,  notwithstanding,  largely 
imported  into  this  as  into  most  other  parts  of  Spain, 
The  trade  with  the  colonies,  France,  and  tlio  coasting 
trade  is  pretty  active.  The  imports  trom  England  are 
not  very  considerable,  and  the  exports  little  or  nothing. 
In  1842,  no  fewer  than  8667  vessels  entered  the  port ; 
but  these  were  mostly  coasters  of  small  size,  the  bur- 
den of  thq  whole  being  only  189,117  tons. 

Hrpartt.—'Ihe  principal  exports  are  wrought  silks, 
aoap,  fire-ams,  paper,  hats,  laces,  ribbons,  steel,  etc. 
But  no  vessels,  except  a  few  that  take  on  board  manu- 
Ikctured  goods  (or  the  Spani^  West  Indies,  are  loaded 
here ;  and  even  this  trade  is  much  fallen  off.  Upward 
of  2000  hands  used  formerly  to  be  employe  d  in  the 
«ily  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes  for  the  colonies ;  but 
their  export  hss  now  nearly  ceased.  The  principal 
articles  of  native  produce  that  Catalonia  has  to  export 
are  most  conveniently  shipped  at  Villanova,  Tarra- 
gona, and  Salon.  They  consist  of  wine,  brandy,  nuts, 
almonds,  cork,  bark,  wool,  fruits,  etc.  Of  these,  Cuba 
takes  annually  about  12,000  pipes  of  wine,  worth  at  an 
average  £i  per  pipe,  and  alwut  8000  pipes  of  brandy, 
worth  £S  per  do. ;  Sonth  America,  16,000  pipes  of  wine, 
and  6000  do.  brandy ;  the  north  of  Europe,  2000  pipes 
of  wine,  and  2000  do.  brandy.  A  good  deal  of  brandy 
is  sent  to  Cadiz  and  Cetto ;  most  part  of  the  former 
finds  its  way  into  the  wine  vault*  of  Xeres ;  and  the 
latter,  being  conveyed  by  the  canal  of  Languedoc  to 
the  Garonne,  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  wines  of 
Bordeaux.  From  25,000  to  80,000  bags  of  nuts  are 
annually  sent  from  Tarragona  to  England.  Tarragona 
also  exports  about  12,000  bags  of  almonds.  The  ships 
belonging  to  the  port  carry  on  no  foreign  trodo  except 
to  the  Spanish  West  Indies;  they  are  few  in  number, 
and  are  daily  decreasing.  Those  engaged  in  the  coast- 
ing trade  are  usually  of  very  small  burden.  We  have 
derived  these  details  from  various  sources ;  but  princi- 
pally from  British  Consular  Setunu,  and  from  Inglu't 
Spain  m  1830,  vol.  ii.  p.  384-387,  and  862. 

Barilla  (Ou.  Soda;  Fr.  Saudt,  Sarille;  Get.  Soda, 
Barilla;  It.  Barriglia;  Port.  SMa,  SarriUta;  Buss. 
Sociatla;  Sp.  Banila ;  Arab.  Kalt),  carbonate  of  soda 
(see  Alkalies),  is  found  native  in  Hungary,  Egypt, 
and  many  other  countries.  It  is  largely  used  by 
bleachers,  manufacturers  of  hard  soaps,  glass-raakerf/, 
«1c.  The  barilla  of  commerce  consists  of  the  nsfaes  of 
several  marine  and  other  plants  growing  on  the  sea- 
•hore.  The  best,  or  Alicant  barilla,  is  prepared  from 
the  Saltola  loda,  which  is  very  extensively  cultivated 
for  this  purpose  in  the  huerta  of  Murcia,  and  other 
places  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Spain. — Towmsekd's 
Traveh  in  Spain,  vol.  iii.  p.  196.  The  plants  are  gath- 
ered in  Septemlier,  dried,  and  burned  In  fumares  heat- 
ed so  as  to  bring  the  aslies  into  a  state  of  imperfect 
fusion,  when  they  concrete  into  luud,  dry,  cellular 
masses  of  a  grayish  blue  color.  Sicily  and  Teneriffe 
produce  good  barilla,  but  inferior  to  that  of  Alicant 
and  Carthagena.  Kelp,  which  is  a  less  pure  alkali,  is 
formed  by  the  incineration  of  sea-weed.    Se»  Kelp. 

The  Saracens  established  in  Spain  seem  to  have  been 
the  first  who  introduced  the  manufacture  of  barilla  into 
Europe.  They  called  the  plants  enipldyed  in  its  prep- 
aration halt;  and  this,  with  the  Arabic  article  al  pre- 
fixed, has  given  rise  to  the  modern  chemical  term 


•Ikali.  Prime  quality  (n  barfll*  (*  l«  im  AUiinnfAOui 
by  its  strong  sroull  wlwrn  wlwitwd,  mtii  It*  Hn  wMtltti 
ojlor.  Particular  attouilvM  ihimM  tm  fmU  Ut  h«««  u 
little  small  or  dust  ««  poMilrfa,  'Ctw  H)«HMf««inr«  «f 
artificial  soda  itoiidf  /lelM,  mm  V»ty  fiHtiuiAvtfy 
carried  on,  occasionsd  an  »%imm4Umr)i  rtw1(M«  In  the 
import*  of  barilla,  tha  (|u«nfll/  niH*fH(i  tiHu  OfMt 
Britain  for  home  coiwumpiion  (n  IHM,  nmitimUtifi  to 
287,712  cwt.,  having  Imn  r«lH««t  Ih  1X0  •«  41, sm 
cwt.  Considsrabla  <)uaiitt(l«*  wu>4  fitfmnly  Ut  M  Im- 
ported ftwm  Tcnarirth,  bat  it  imw  »mm  j/rt«t'lB(tlly 
from  Alicant  in  Spain,  and  Wully,  t Iim»,  ut  Hiilrnn 
imported  Into  Great  llriul))  Ih  iMM,  )*m  vmtt  from 
Spain,  768  from  Italy  ((*Mly),  KW  frm  (h«  IJrtiltrd 
States,  and  none  from  Ilia  l'iinitrU>»,  'ttw  Auty  m 
barilla,  afier  being  redwud  In  imt  'tnm  Wt,  Iti  (U,  a 
ton,  wa»  wholly  rt'pealert  ipi  tHitt,  f»,i,  i<Vftl  t(ili» J(«1I- 
cious  measure  lius  nut  bad  ui  mwti  tiiltWHi'H  mpt  itie 
consumption  of  the  arti^'le  as  wms  «ij»|wl('fl,  (ti  iMM, 
the  imports  amounted  lo  )W>7  Umn,  »f  Hli,Uil  I'M,, 
none  of  which  was  re.a»j)url<wl,^/W,  f'njiff,  IdftO, 

Lark,  the  outer  rlni  of  fiinntn,  iUfftt  in  an  lm< 
mens«  variety  of  barltflliowi)  It)  mtHtUtMfi'u  (  Ut,  fimif 
mon,  Peruvian  barkjwk  l/»rl»,  nmffUnm,  •<(«,  th« 
term  "  bark"  Is,  bowuvar,  K'wrallf  tniiliiiiytd  i«  tn- 
press  either  Peruvian  bark  »r  mm  ImrU,  tmd  it  (• 
these  only  that  we  shall  liulliw  \n  Ihis  plM««/ 

1.  Peruvian  or  JtiuUif  ttiiii  (I'r,  Uiilm/tllti/l  /  flw, 
Kron-e'iina;  Du,  Chlnn-iiiiri i  H(»,  liuhiii,  (piiiiijiitnni  Ist 
Quinquina  Coiiex  I'enifiamii),  '}\wn  »f«  »»»♦'  (r|-l«fl- 
pal  species  of  this  Imrk  kii«w«  l»  vtmm¥fH.  wllkh 
have  been  elaborately  dBiitril*4  \ty  \U,  A,  T,  tmmmm, 
from  whose  account  the  fiillowtnu  ]mf\U\\UH  ma  m- 
lected.  Ths  first  spucles  U  (lio  frnln  \mf\t  (it  lfi«  shop*. 
It  is  the  pradure  of  tlis  lUmiiima  lmi>i/liliii,  dM  Is  the 
original  cinchona  of  Peru,  It  (»  mm  vwy  oc/(fce,  It 
is  imported  In  chest*  cover**!  with  •)*(«#,  fniM  CWIililtl' 
IngaboutaK) pounds,  well  |w  M,  (rtll  fimmHWf  m\%l!([ 
with  a  quiiiitliy  of  dust  and  iMmt  h4>itifimim<mi»  Mffit- 
ter.  It  consists  of  plui'es  N  iif  |0  Uli'tm  W((j,  wrtne  of 
them  being  scarcely  onu'ienih  nf  i»H  )m(I(  »l(l(lt,  singly 
and  doubly  quillud,  or  rulM  UtWHrA,  IIm<  ituUUgeMt' 
ally  being  in  sUe  f^uni  a  hwhh'h  «|hIII  lo  mi  ilH-h  and  a 
half.  It  is  luteriuilly  uf  a  iwHI4  fH¥ni  m  (innnnHm 
hue,  but  approalmati.'s,  iin  Mhu  NMfM«<nf<l,  to  the 
color  of  a  pale  orange,  Wlwi  in  mttixiHUf^  It  lids 
scarcely  any  o<lor,  but  duiintf  ttviim'tUih  Ihe  tiAot  Is 
sensible,  and  agrcnably  nrmmtU',  'I  Iw  »/(*i««  Is  l/ltler, 
but  not  unpkasunt,  ai^iditluMS,  *n4  Nn«lfri<,  'the  sec- 
ond sp/>cles,  or  rod  bark,  l»  ittitnUmii  tfimi  iiw  f'lni'/iniin 
obhmtfifolia,  growing  m  t\m  AittUm,  H  in  imfmtttA  In 
chests  containing  firnm  IMI  lo  tM  \HmtlAi>  fmb.  ft 
consists  of  variously  sliied  ))ioiw«,  mmi  nt  i)wm  fiat, 
but  some  partially  <|uilM  iff  fuiM,  'itSm  Inlofnai 
part  is  woody,  and  of  a  rust  fnA  »»\i)ri  H  ji/ts  a  WCdh 
pecnliar  odor,  and  It*  ImUi  Is  mui'h  tfH*  hUii^,  iiUt 
mora  austere  and  nau>w«ui,  tImN  llt*l  lit  llnf  trtlier 
barks.  Tlie  third  Bpiic|i»»,  or  y4Um  (i(*l1t  ht  tlw  shopd, 
is  obtained  trom  tbo  IHiuhnm  I'imllfillo,  ((fimfnK  In 
Quito  and  Santa  Vi.  It  I*  iummn^  In  vitfMn  cfwlaln' 
ing  from  00  to  liK)  pounds  vsuh.  ctmoMIlt^  lit  [Mi^ti  H 
or  10  Inches  long,  sotiw  <imIM,  l*»t  »lt«  ffCcatcr  part 
flat.  Th*  interior  Is  of  a  yumm  iniUir,  \mn<Attit,  to 
orange.  It  ha*  nearly  Ilia  »mw  uiUit  in  <\¥niiMm  as 
the  pale ;  the  taste  is  mora  Mtli/r  awl  !«<«#  Hntirr**,  find 
it  excites  no  astringent  fetl'MU  Hh«H  <'l«iutt«'il,  Th« 
goodness  decreases  when  llie  ((Jlitf  vttrl**  turn  lifnUftfi 
yellow  to  pale  yellow  |  wluin  ot  M  iUl\k  I'litiif,  Mwtwn 
red  and  yellow,  It  should  Iw  ruimluti,  H  U  IHmAU'in 
to  add,  that  iisrk  Is  una  of  llie  mimt  fnUmhlK  mwllcat 
remedies.  Tlie  IndUni  were  UNafnnaln)«<4  wlltt  It* 
uses,  which  seem  to  have  l»««B  I1r»t  mnimfftA  I*  Ih* 
Jesuits.  It  was  intruduceil  ImIm  Kunum  In  IMn,  Intt 
was  not  extensively  used  till  Oia  MHur  fmrt  lit  (h« 
seventeenth  eentury.  Aii'i/rdlntf  Ut  llnmlinMl,  IIm 
Jesuits'  l>arfc  annually  eK|iorii'il  friim  Ainfri/a  afnnfinlii 
to  (Irom  1S,000  to  14,000  qwlMala,    iff  itmm,  90U0  tn 


;.  ■><■■. 


BAR 


153 


BAA 


Amiahed  by  Santa  F4,  and  110  by  Loxa;  Peru  Air> 
niahing  <he  remainder,  which  is  ahipped  at  Callao, 
Gnayaquil,  etc. 

2.  Onle  Mark  (Fr.  Seorce  de  la  Chine ;  Ger,  Eicheiu 
rinde ;  It,  Corteceia  delta  Quercia ;  Lat.  'iuercm  cortex). 
The  bark  of  the  common  oak  la  a  powerifUl  astringent, 
and  ia  preferred  to  all  other  aubstancea  for  tanning  leath- 
er. The  bark  of  the  larch  is  now,  however,  naed  for 
the  same  purpoae.  Though  the  imiwrtation  ofoak  bark 
into  England  for  tanning  haa  somewhat  declined,  it  la 
sttll  very  considerable.  It  la  imposaible,  however,  to 
stale  its  exact  amount,  inasmuch  as  a  species  of  oak 
bark,  called  quercitron,  the  produce  of  the  Qiiercut 
tmctoria,  imported  fh>m  abroad,  and  used  to  give  a 
yellow  dye  to  ailk  and  wool,  is  mixed  up  in  the  cua- 
toni-houae  returns  with  bark  for  tanning.  The  latter, 
which  la  by  far  the  most  important,  is  brought  princi- 
pally from  Belgium  and  Holland,  Germany,  Italy  and 
Spain,  Norway  and  Australia.  Quercitron  is  found 
principally  in  the  United  States.  The  quality  of  bark 
differs — according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  tree,  the 
season  when  it  Is  barked,  etc. — so  much  that  its  price 
varies  from  £i  to  iElO  a  ton.  The  duty  on  bark  for 
tanning  and  dyeing,  which  previously  to  1842  was  8d. 
a  cwt.,  after  being  then  reduced  to  8d.,  was  repealed  in 
1846.  In  1852  the  imports  and  exports  of  Peruvian 
bark  were  respectively  18,207  and  10,092  c/t.  Dur- 
ing the  tame  year  was  imiwrted  403,980  cwt.  bark  for 
tho  use  of  tanners  and  dyers,  of  which  only  146  cwt. 
was  re-exported.  But  in  addition  to  tho  above  woro 
imported.  In  1852,  2516  tons  divl  divl,  and  18,871  tons 
valonla,  of  which  very  llttlo  was  re-exported.  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  tho  United  Stateu,  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Norway  {\imish  by  fitr  the  largest  portion  of  the 
imports  of  oak  bark.  Wo  are  lndcbte<l  for  the  dls- 
coverj-  and  application  of  the  useftil  properties  of  quer- 
citron to  Dr.  Bancroft.  The  doctor  obtained  a  patent 
for  his  Invention  in  1775 ;  but  tho  American  war  break- 
ing out  soon  after,  deprived  him  of  Its  advantages.  In 
consideration  of  this  circumstance.  Parliament  passed, 
in  1785,  an  act  (25  Geo.  3,  c.  38)  securing  to  him  the 
privileges  conveyed  by  hia  patent  for  14  years.  At 
the  expiration  of  the  latter  perio<l  the  House  of  Com- 
mons agreed  to  extend  the  doctor's  privilege  for  an 
additional  7  years,  but  the  House  of  Lords  rejected 
the  bill.  LIko  too  many  discoverers.  Dr.  Bancroft 
profited  but  little  by  his  Invention,  though  it  has  been 
of  great  use  to  tho  arts  and  manufactures  of  the  coun- 
trj-. — J.  R.  M.  Set  BAUcnomr  o»  Permanent  Colors, 
vol.  ii.  p.  112,  and  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the. 
Houie  ofComnwnt  on  Patents,  Appendix,  p.  175. 

Barley  (Fr.  Orge;  Ger.  GerHengraupen ;  DvL.Bgg; 
It,  Orzo ;  8p.  Cehada ;  Russ.  Fatichmea ;  Lat.  Ilordeum ; 
Arab.  Dhourra;  Hind.  Joir'),  a  8|)ecies  of  broad-corn 
{Ilordeum,  Linn.),  of  which  there  are  several  vnrletiea. 
It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  most  European  coun- 
trlea,  and  In  many  of  tho  temperate  districts  ot  Asia 
and  AfHca.  It  may  alao  Iw  raised  lictween  the  trop- 
ics ;  but  not  at  a  lower  elevation  than  ttoia  8000  to 
4000  feet,  and  then  it  is  not  worth  cultivating.  Large 
quantities  of  barley  have  been,  for  a  lengthened  period, 
raised  in  Great  Britain.  Recently,  however.  Its  culti- 
vation has  been  supposed,  though  probably  on  no  good 
grounds,  to  be  declining.  In  1766  Sir.  Charles  Smith 
estimated  the  number  of  barley  consumers  In  England 
and  Wales  at  789,000 ;  and  as  a  lorge  proportion  of  tho 
population  of  Wales,  Westmoreland,  and  Cumberland 
continue  to  subsist  chiefly  on  barley  bread,  we  are  In- 
clined to  think  that  this  estlnate  iiiay  not,  at  present, 
be  very  wide  of  the  mark.  But  the  principal  demand 
for  barley  In  Great  Britain  Is  for  conversion  Into  malt, 
to  be  used  In  the  manufacture  of  ale,  porter,  and  Brit- 
ish spirits ;  and  though  Its  consumption  In  thia  way 
has  not  certainly  increaMd  proportionally  to  the  In- 
crease of  wealth  and  population,  still  there  doea  not 
seem  to  be  any  ground  for  sup|/osing  that  it  haa  dl- 
minlahed.     Barley  is  alao  extensively  used  in  fatten- 


ing black  cattle,  kogs,  and  poultry.  It  now  generally 
foUowa  turnips,  and  ia  a  very  important  crop  In  the 
rotation  best  adapted  to  light  soils.  The  produce  va- 
ries, according  to  soil,  preparation,  season,  etc,  from 
about  20  to  00  or  70  bushels  an  aero.  The  most  usual 
crop  Is  from  28  to  86  or  88  bushels.  Barley  is  a  ten- 
der plant,  and  easily  hurt  in  any  stage  of  its  growth. 
It  is  more  hazardous  than  wheat,  and  is,  generally 
speaking,  raised  at  a  greater  cxixnse ;  so  that  its  cul- 
tivation should  not  be  attempted  except  when  tho  soil 
and  cllmato  are  favorable  for  its  growth. — For  further 
details  as  to  its  consumption  and  culture,  see  Smith's 
Tracts  on  the  Com  Trade,  2d  ed.  p.  182;  Brown  on 
Rural  Affairs,  vol.  11.  p,  42;  Louuon'b  Encgcl.  o/Ag- 
ricnllure,  etc. 

Barometer  and  Thermometer.  Torricelll,  a 
Florentine,  having  discovered  that  no  principle  of 
suction  existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump 
owing  to  nature's  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum,  imitated  tho 
action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  and  mado  the  first 
barometer  In  1643,  and  Descartes  explained  tho  phe- 
nomena. Wheel  barometers  were  contrived  in  1668 ; 
pendent  barometers  in  1695;  marine  in  1700,  The 
invention  of  tho  thermometer  is  ascribed  to  several 
Bclcntlfic  ricriions  all  about  the  same  time.  Invented 
by  Drebbt:  •  .  Alcmacr,  a.d.  1609. — Boeriiaavk.  In- 
vented by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609. — Fuloentio.  Invented 
by  Sanctorio  In  1010. — Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer was  invented  about  1726;  and  the  scale 
called  Reaumur's  soon  after,  1780.  'The  mode  of  con- 
struction, by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits,  waa 
invent'-d  some  years  subsequently. 

Barra,  or  Vara,  in  Commerce,  a  long  measure  used 
in  Portugal  and  aome  parta  of  Spain,  to  menanre  woolen 
and  linen  cloths  and  serges.  In  Valencia,  13  barras  = 
12  6-7  yards  English  measure ;  In  Castile,  7  barras  = 
6  4-7  yds. ;  and  in  Aragon,  8  barras  =  2  4-7  yds. — E.  B. 

Bairaoan,  in  Commerce,  a,  sort  of  stuflT  something 
like  camlet.  It  is  used  to  make  various  outer  gar- 
ments. The  cities  where  barracans  are  chiefly  made, 
in  France,  are  Valencicnnea,  Lisle,  Abbeville,  Amiens, 
and  Rouen. — E.  B. 

Bairatry,  in  Navigation,  is,  in  its  most  extensive 
sense,  any  frandulcnt  or  nnlawf\il  act  committed  by 
the  master  or  mariners  of  a  ship,  contran-  to  their  duty 
to  their  owners,  and  to  the  prejudioowthc  latter.  It 
oppears  to  bo  derived  from  tho  Italian  word  barratrare, 
to  cheat.  It  may  be  committed  by  running  away 
with  a  ship,  willfully  carrying  her  out  of  tho  course 
prescribed  by  the  owners,  delaying  or  defeating  the 
voyage,  deserting  convoy  without  leave,  sinking  or 
deserting  the  ship,  embezzling  tho  cargo,  smuggling, 
or  any  other  oflTenso  whereby  the  ship  or  cargo  may 
lie  subjected  to  arrest,  detention,  loss,  or  forfeiture. 
It  is  tho  practice  in  most  countries  to  Insure  against 
barratry.  Most  foreign  jurists  hold  that  It  compre- 
hends every  fault  which  the  master  and  crew  can 
commit,  whether  it  arise  from  fraud,  negligence,  un- 
skillfulness,  or  mere  Imprudence.  But  in  England  it 
is  ruled  that  no  act  of  the  master  or  crow  shall  be 
deemed  barratrj',  unless  it  proceed  from  a  criminal  or 
fraudulent  motive.  "  Barratry  can  only  be  committed 
by  the  master  and  mariners  by  some  act  contrary  to 
their  duty  in  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  the 
owners  of  the  ship.  It  is,  therefore,  an  offense  against 
them,  and  consequently  an  owner  himself  can  not  com- 
niit  barratry.  He  may,  by  his  froudulent  conduct, 
make  himself  liable  to  the  owner  of  the  goo<l8  on  iHMrd, 
but  not  for  barratrg.  Neither  can  barratrj-  be  com- 
mitted against  the  owner  with  his  consent;  for  though 
he  may  be  liable  for  ony  loss  or  damage  occasioned  by 
the  misconduct  of  tho  master  to  which  he  consents, 
yet  this  is  not  barratry.  Nothing  Is  more  clear  than 
•hat  a  man  can  never  set  up  as  a  crime  an  act  done  by 
his  own  direction  or  consent." — Marshall  on  /nsur- 
ance,  l)ook  i.  c.  12,  §6. 

MHienj  therefore,  tho  owner  of  a  ship  is  alao  the  mas- 


; . .? ;  ^M  ^>;i-Jiii«afc 


BAB 


1S4 


BAT 


t«r,  no  Mt  of  barratry  can  be  committad ;  for  no  man 
(an  commit  a  ftsud  against  himself.  It  is  a  maxim 
in  law,  that  tnnd  (ball  not  be  presumed,  but  must  be 
clearly  proved ;  and  it  is  a  rule  in  questions  of  insur- 
ance, that  he  who  charges  barratry  must  substantiate 
it  by  conclusive  evidence.  It  is  not  necessary,  to 
render  an  act  barratnxm,  that  it  should  be  committed 
with  a  criminal  intent  a>  lespects  the  owners,  in  order 
to  injure  thorn,  or  to  beneiit  the  captain  or  crew.  It 
may  even  be  committed  with  o  view  to  promote  the 
owner's  interests ;  for  an  illegal  act  done  without  the 
authority  or  privity  of  the  owners,  and  which  proves 
detrimental  to  them,  is  barratry,  whatever  be  the  mo- 
tives in  which  it  originated.  Lord  Ellenborough,  in 
an  able  judgment,  has  laid  it  down  as  clear  law,  "  that 
a  breach  of  duty  by  the  master  in  respect  of  his  own- 
ers, with  a  ft'audulcnt  or  criminal  intent,  or  ex  male- 
Jich,  is  barratry ;  that  it  makes  no  difference  whether 
this  act  (if  the  master  be  induced  by  motives  of  ad- 
vantage to  himself,  malice  to  the  owner,  or  a  dUregard 
oflhote  law  which  it  vxu  hi*  duty  to  dbey ;  and  that  it  is 
not  for  him  to  judge  or  suppose,  in  cases  not  intrust- 
ed to  his  discretion,  that  he  is  not  breaking  the  trust 
reposed  in  him,  when  he  endeavors  to  advance  the 
interests  of  his  owners  by  moons  which  the  law  for- 
bids, and  wiiich  his  owners  also  must  Iw  taken  to  have 
forbidden."  The  circumstance  of  the  owners  of  ships 
being  permitted  to  iusuro  against  the  barratry  of  tlie 
master  and  mariners  can  hardly  fail,  it  may  be  not 
vncliaritably  presumed,  of  rendering  them  less  scru- 
pulous in  their  inquiries  with  respect  to  their  charac- 
ter than  they  would  otherwiw  be.  Perhaps,  there- 
fore, it  might  be  expedient  to  prohibit  such  insur- 
ances, or  to  lay  some  restrictions  u|H>n  them.  They 
were,  indeed,  expressly  forbidden  by  the  Ordinance 
of  Rotterdam;  and  Lord  Manslleld,  whose  authority 
on  all  points  connected  with  the  law  of  insurance  is  so 
deser^-edly  high,  seems  to  have  tliougbt  that  it  would 
be  well  to  exclude  barratry-  entirely  from  policies,  and 
to  cease  "making  the  underwriter  become  tlie  insurer 
of  the  conduct  of  the  captain  whom  he  does  not  ap- 
point, and  can  not  dismiss,  to  the  owners  who  can  do 
either."  But  though  it  were  expedient  to  prevent  the 
owners  from  making  an  insurance  of  this  sort,  nothing 
can  be  more  reasonable  than  that  third  parties,  who 
freight  a  shippPr  put  goods  on  iward,  should  bo  al- 
lowed to  insure  against  such  a  copious  source  of  loss. 
For  a  further  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  the  arti- 
cle Mauikr  Ixsurakce;  and  Marshall  on  Innir- 
anct,  book  i.  c.  12,  §  6,  and  Park  on  Inmrance,  c.  6. 
Owners,  masters,  or  seamen,  who  willfully  cast  away, 
bum,  or  destroy  ships,  to  the  prejudice  of  freighters  or 
insurers,  incur  the  penalty  of  death. — .See  Seamen, 

Barrel,  a  cask  or  vessel  for  holding  liquids,  par- 
ticularly ale  and  beer.  Formerly  the  barrel  of  beer  in 
London  contained  only  32  ale  gallons  =  32^  Imperial 
gallons ;  but  it  was  enacted  by  4.1  Uco.  3,  c.  C9,  that 
86  gallons  of  beer  should  bo  taken  .u  be  a  barrel ;  and 
by  the  6  Geo.  4,  c.  68,  it  is  enacted,  that  whenever  any 
gallon  measure  is  mentioned  in  any  excise  law,  it 
shall  always  be  deemed  and  taken  to  Ije  a  standard 
imperial  gallon.  At  present,  therefore,  the  barrel 
contains  3C  imperial  gallons.  It  may  be  worth  while 
observing  that  the  Iwrrel  or  cask  is  exclusively  the 
produce  of  European  ingenuity;  and  that  no  such 
article  is  known  to  any  nation  of  Asia,  AfVica,  or 
America,  who  h.-    >>  not  derived  it  from  Europeans. 

Builoade,  in  Xaval  Architecture,  a  strong  wooden 
rail,  supported  by  stanchions,  extending  across  the 
foremost  part  of  the  quarter-deck  in  ships  of  war. 
The  vacant  spaces  between  the  stanchions  are  com- 
monly fllled  with  Tope-mats,  cork,  or  pieces  of  old 
cable;  and  the  upper  part,  which  contains  a  doulile 
rope-netting  above  the  rail,  is  stuffed  with  hammocks, 
to  prevent  the  execution  of  small-shot  in  time  of  ac- 
tion.—E.  B. 
Barwood,  a  red  dye  wood  brought  trom  AMca, 


particularly  tnm  Angola,  and  the  River  Gaboon,  The 
dark  red  which  is  commonly  seen  upon  British  ban- 
dana handkorchieiti  is  for  the  most  part  produced  by 
the  coloring  matter  of  barwood,  saddened  by  sulphate 
of  iron.— Bancroft  on  Colon.  The  imports  of  bar- 
wood  into  England,  in  1841,  amounted  to  2012  tons.  It 
brouglit,  in  January,  1848,  from  X8  to  £4  a  ton  (duty 
2«.  included)  in  the  London  market. 

Baaketa  (Fr,  CorbeiUe»i  Gor,  Kiriei  It,  Paniere; 
Sp.  Camufos,  Canattotf  Russ,  Koninii)  are  made,  as 
every  one  knows,  principally  of  the  interwoven  twigs 
of  willow,  osier,  birch,  etc,,  but  fk«quently  also  of 
rushes,  splinters  of  wood,  straw,  and  an  immense 
variety  of  other  materials.  Jbey  are  used  to  hold  all 
sorts  of  dry  goods,  and  are  constructed  of  every  vari- 
ety of  quality  and  shape. 

Baat,  for  straw  hats  or  bonnets. — See  Hats. 

Batavla,  a  city  of  the  island  of  Java,  the  capital 
of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  and  the 
principal  trading  port  of  the  Oriental  islands,  lat,  6° 
8'  S.,  long.  10G°  60'  £.,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  isl- 
and, at  the  mouth  of  the  Jaccatra  River,  on  an  extens- 
ive bay.  The  harlior  lies  between  the  main  land  and 
several  small  uninhabited  islands,  which,  during  the 
boisterous  or  no>°thwestern'  monsoon,  afford  sufficient 
shelter  and  good  anchorage.  Population  in  1842, 
63,8C0,  including  about  8000  Europeans ;  the  rest  are 
CL-inese,  Javanese,  Malays,  etc.  It  is  built  on  marshy 
ground,  and  intersected  by  canals  in  the  Dutch  style ; 
defended  by  a  citadel  and  several  batteries,  and  has 
a  considerable  garrison  and  marine  arsenal.  Mean 
temperature  of  year,  78°'d:  winter,  7S°'l;  summer, 
78°-6  Fahrenheit,  Temperature  at  mid-day,  80°  to 
90° ;  at  night,  70°  Falirenheit,  It  has  a  stadthouse, 
exchange,  hospital,  numerous  churches,  a  mosque,  a 
Chinese  and  two  orphan  hospitals,  several  Chinese 
tetpplcs,  a  largo  eluli-houso  tei  med  the  Ifarmonie,  and 
a  botanic  garden,  Batavia  was  formerly  so  very  in- 
salubrious, that  General  Daendela  was  anxious  to 
transfer  the  seat  of  government  to  Sourabaya;  but 
Ijeing  thwarted  in  this,  he  set  about  building  a  new 
town,  a  little  farther  inland,  on  the  heights  of  Welte- 
vreden,  whither  the  government  offices  were  immedi- 
ately removed.  Most  of  the  principal  merchants  have 
now  their  residences  in  the  new  town,  repairing  only 
to  the  old  city,  when  business  requires  it,  during  a 
portion  of  the  day.  In  consequence,  the  old  town  is 
at  present  principally  occupied  by  Chinese,  and  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  colonists,  several  of  its 
streets  having  been  deserted  and  demolished.  More 
recently,  however,  the  Baron  Capellen,  whose  enlight- 
ened administration  will  long  be  gratefHilly  remem- 
bered in  Java,  sensible  of  the  superior  advantages  of 
the  old  town  as  a  place  of  trade,  exerted  liimself  to 
prevent  its  further  decay,  by  removing  the  causes  of 
its  unheulthiness;  to  accomplish  whicli,  he  widened 
several  of  the  streets,  filled  up  some  of  the  canals,  and 
cleansed  others,  demolished  useless  fortifications,  etc, ; 
and  the  effect  of  these  judicious  measures  has  been, 
that  Batavia  is  now  as  healthy  as  any  other  town  of 
the  island.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  supreme  commission  of 
public  instruction  for  tiic  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  has 
a  school  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  publishes  a  news- 
paper. The  Jaccatra  is  navigable  by  vessels  of  40  . 
tons  two  miles  inland ;  ships  of  Arom  300  to  400  tons 
anchor  in  the  bay,  one  mile  and  a  half  from  shore, 
Batavia  is  the  great  commercial  emporium  of  the 
Asiatic  Archipelago,  and  aiisorbs  by  far  the  greatest 
proportion  of  the  trade  of  Java  »nd  Madura ;  the  an- 
nual exports  of  which  islands  amount  to  60,300,000 
florins  ($25,123,000),  and  the  imporU  to  80,000,000 
florins  (412,000,000),  Exports  consist  mostly  of  cof- 
fee, sugar,  pepper,  indigo,  hides,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
mace,  tin,  rice,  ratans,  and  arrack.  Chief  imports, 
linen  and  cotton  goods,  woolen  stuffs,  provisions, 
wines,  metallic  wares,  and  manufactured  articles  of 
all  kinds  from  Europe  and  America;  with  the  prod- 


BAT 


155 


HAT 


coloniei  in  the  world.  It  contaiiu,  including  M«dnM, 
an  area  nf  62,000  square  roilea,  with  a  population  of 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  10,000,000. 

TBI  Values  or  Tin  ExroBra  from  Java,  and  tuxib  Disti- 
HATioN,  in  1846, 1886,  AND  1836,  wiRX  AS  follows: 


CounlriM. 

IMt. 

183<. 

Netherlands 

Indian  Arolilpelago. 

Great  BrtUin 

China,  Macao,  etc. . . 

rioriiu. 

80,608,848 

fl,8!i«,548 

2,&«S,D87 

1,S8«,T0S 

1,826,140 

1,100,644 

61B,M1 

816,940 

Tll,808 

Plorint. 
27,889,688 
6,708,168 
189,603 
8,318,706 
1,344,146 

America  . . .' 

Hamburg 

1,009,&S» 
108,149 

Sweden 

263,069 

Other  places    

800,816 

18M. 


nets  of  the  Archipelago,  Cliina,  Siam,  Bengal,  Japan, 
•nd  the  West  Indies.  It  was  founded  by  the  Dutcti 
in  1619 ;  talien  by  the  English  in  1811,  and  occupied 
by  them  till  1816.  The  district  of  Batavia,  extend- 
ing along  the  north  shore  of  the  island,  is  flat  and 
not  so  fertile  as  the  other  provinces  of  Java.  The  res- 
idence of  the  governor  general  was  transferred  flrom 
Buitenzorg  to  Batavia  in  1847.  As  the  population 
has  increased  since,  it  may  at  present  be  estimated  at 
from  180,000  to  140,000,  independently  of  the  military, 
of  which  there  are  always  a  considerable  numlier. 
Among  the  principal  mercliants  are  Dutch,  English, 
Americans,  French,  and  Germans.  The  ishind  of  Java 
forms  the  most  important  portion  of  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions in  the  East,  and  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  finest 

OmoiAL  AooomiT  of  tue  Quantities  or  Tin  Pbimcipal  Abticlks  of  Pbodcoi  xzfobtid  fboji  Java  and  MADrSA  ih  Tm 

FOLLOWIKO  Y« 


Plorbf. 

6,618,626 

4,867,788 

840,098 

1,076,109 

49,989 

911,981 

68,884 

67,172 

060,735 


1880 
188S 

1340 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1816 


288,740 
466,871 

l,139,m 
061,467 
1,018,854 
1,018,102 
1,2,10,1136 
1,006,100 


Papp«r.  I      Indigo.      |    HIAmT 


TCuli 
0,061 
11,868 

9,911 
18,477 
10,441 
23,083 
19,494 
11,627 


Poontb. 

22,068 
686,763 

2,193,911 

1,827,886 
1,627,437 
1,800,129 
1,648,620 
1,653,869 


Pl«;«. 

80,240 
139,096 

110,494 
190,473 
167,677 
162,310 
160,224 
106,761 


ClOTSI. 


Pleub. 

808 

4,666 

63 
T,6Ca 
1,718 
2,027 
2,800 
9,934 


Nutmtgi. 


Pleulii 
1,804 
5,093 

8,600 
6,126 
6,129 
2,113 
8,181 
8,403 


Samr. 


PInila. 

108,640 

489,548 

1,024,408 

1,046,676 

884,686 

929,760 

1,008,632 


PInili. 
91,426 
40,836 

62,334 
48,840 
60,127 
46,706 
68,729 


1,466,428  j  78,687 


Riet. 


Ritain.  I   Hm«. 


COTMU. 

18,621 
26,677 

PICIllL 

080,009 
676,213 

884,167 

1,008,774 

785,276 

447,017 


Plcnli. 
6,090 
4,905 

28,032 
87,017 
86,594 
73,635 
78,600 
61,260 


Plenli. 

177 
1,606 

STO 
1,171 
1,432 

486 
2,300 


2,076 

6,261 
4,«73 
4,663 
6.862 
0,26S 
4,378 


Account  oi  tue  Quantities  and  Values  or  the  Puhcipal  Abtioles  expobtsd  rBOM  Java  and  Maduba  in  1386  Ann 

1845. 


Prfncipftl  ArtlelM. 


Arrnck 

Hides 

Indigo ■ 

CofTeo 

Popper  

Bice 

Spices,  Mace 

Cloves 

Nutmegs 

Siiintr 

Tobacco 

Tin 

All  other  articles  and  treasure. 


Totals. 


QoantUlM  •>port«d 

In  1886. 


Vain*  Qf  BxporU        QnftDtlU«i  •iportel      I  Tnlo*  of  SxporiB 


1,477  Icegers. 
109,008  pieces  and  816  plculsi 
407,708  pounds. 
498.073  plculs. 
7,000  plcnia. 
86,480  coyans. 
931  piculs. 
2,185  plculs. 
3,836  picuis. 
509,614  piculs. 
2,477  kodies. 
47,739  piculs. 


rlocini. 

116,005 

217,715 

1,122,882 

16,090,362 

125,085 

8,389,615 

896,268 

168,036 

1,711,600 

9,083,141 

769,860 

3,718,810 

7,867,833 


42,261,642 


4,378  leggers. 

106,761  pieces. 

1,613,869  pounds. 

1,000,190  piculs. 

11,527  piculs. 

447,017  plculs. 

830  piculs. 

9,284  piculs. 

8,408  piculs. 

1,456,428  plcnls. 

6,811  kodies. 

78,686  piculs. 


FtorlM. 

153,222 

220,649 

4,061,608 

20,123,798 

184,433 

2,682,101 

182,834 

201,046 

510,383 

20,850,200 

2,824,480 

4,044,518 

10,006,888 


66.895,168 


Bani  of  Batavia.  —  A  bank,  for  the  issue  of  notes 
and  other  banking  business,  was  established  at  Bata- 
via in  1827,  with  brandies  at  Samarang  and  Soura- 
baya ;  the  history  of  which  is  not  uninstructive.  The 
capital  of  the  bank,  consisting  of  2,000,000  florins,  di- 
vided into  4000  shares,  was  subscrilied  with  difficulty ; 
and  the  most  unfavorable  anticipations  were  enter- 
tained of  the  success  of  the  establishment.  No  soon- 
er, however,  had  the  bank  been  set  on  foot  than  she 
began  to  enjoy  a  large  share  of  prosperity.  The  rapid 
increase  of  cultivation  and  commerce  in  Java  led  to  a 
corresponding  demand  for  capital,  and  to  the  payment 
of  a  very  high  rate  of  interest  on  loans ;  and  as  the 
loons  made  liy  the  Imnk  consisted  of  bank-notes,  which 
cost  next  to  nothing,  the  profits  l)ecumo  quite  enor- 
mous ;  so  much  so  that  tlicy  amounted  in  1837  to  83 
per  cent.,  tlie  price  of  the  600  florins  share  of  bank 
stock  being  tlicn  also  1560  florins.  But  this  prosper- 
ity was  as  brief  as  it  was  signal.  The  ofler  of  an  ex- 
orbitant interest  had  tempted,  in  not  a  few  cases,  the 
bank  to  make  advances  oa  doubtful  security ;  and  in 
Java,  as  elsewhere,  issues  of  paper  payable  on  demand 
necessarily  stop,  the  moment  tlie  circulation  has  lieen 
fully  saturated  with  notes;  and  this  result  having 
been  attained  In  1838,  and  the  notes  issued  by  the 
bank  Iraing  lienceforth  returned  on  her  for  payment, 
she  speedily  l>ecamo  involved  in  the  greatest  diflicul- 
ties ;  many  of  those  who  depended  on  her  advances 
for  support  were  no  longer  able  to  meet  their  cngage- 
ntents ;  and  the  whole  Island  was  subjected  to  a  severe 
pecuniary  and  commercial  crisis :  in  fact,  but  for  the 
Intervention  of  the  government,  in  1810,  when  bank- 
notes were  made  legal  tender  for  a  llmite<?  period,  sh« 


must  Irnve  stopped  payments  I  This  intervention  has, 
however,  given  her  time  to  recover  from  the  difficul- 
ties into  which  she  had  been  precipitated ;  and  having 
again,  after  sustaining  a  very  heavy  loss,  resumed 
specie  payments,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  she  may  profit 
in  future  by  her  past  experience.  We  subjoin  divi- 
dends paid  by  the  Bank  of  Java  from  1829  to  1440, 
both  inclusive : 


1829 

Par  Oral. 
0 

1835   

Parent. 
SO 

1830 

1831 

12 

13 

1836 

1887        .   ,. 

83 

83 

18512 

18 

1838 

1S30 

26 

1883 

20 

27 

., 26 

1834 

1840 

9 

General  liemnrks  on  Java. — Tl\e  prtvions  statements 
show  that  the  produce  and  trade  of  Java  have  in- 
creased during  the  last  dozen  years  with  a  rapidity 
unknown  in  any  oilier  colony,  Cuba,  perhaps,  except- 
ed; and  if  the  ii^'^ources  and  capabilities  of  this  noble 
island  be  fHilIy  u<  "oluped,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say 
how  much  farther  her  traue  may  be  extended.  It 
would  far  exceeu  our  limits,  and,  even  were  this  not 
the  case,  it  would  involve  us  in  discussions  nowise 
suitable  for  this  work,  were  wo  to  enter  into  any  de- 
tailed examination  of  the  means  by  which  tlie  exten- 
sion of  culture  in  Java  has  been  brought  about.  We 
may,  however,  shortly  mention  that  the  produce  for 
exportation  is  principally  raised  on  account  of  govern- 
ment, partly  by  contributions  in  kind,  and  partly  and 
principally  by  contributions  of  compulsory  labor  ap- 
plied to  its  production.  And,  provided  tlieso  contri- 
butions be  nut  carried  to  an  excess,  we  incline  to  thinlc 
tliat  they  are  at  once  tlie  least  onerous  mode  in  wbioh 


.X 


BAT 


1^6 


BDE 


the  nttlrci  can  be  made  to  pay  their  taxei,  and  the 
moit  profitable  for  the  government.  It  is,  we  appre- 
hend, idie  to  suppose  that  industry,  if  left  to  itself, 
will  ever  become  flourishing  in  a  country  like  Java, 
where  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  are  so  few  and  so 
easily  satisfied,  or  where  the  climate  indisposes  to  ex- 
ertion. Xo  doubt  the  system  of  compulsory  labor  may 
be  easily  abused  and  converted  into  on  instrument  of 
the  most  grinding  oppression ;  but  so  long  as  it  is  man- 
aged with  discretion  and  good  sense,  we  are  disposed 
to  l>elieve,  from  all  we  can  learn,  that  it  is  preferable 
to  every  other  system  hitherto  devised  for  developing 
the  resources  of  tropical  countries. — For  some  remarks 
on  this  subject,  see  the  learned  and  able  Vittertatio 
Hutorico-Pvlilica,  on  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
by  Van  Linden,  published  in  1839,  p.  161-171. 

Very  great  public  improvements  have  also  been  al- 
ready effected,  and  are  still  in  progress  in  the  island. 
Among  others,  an  excellent  high  rood  has  been  con- 
structed through  its  whole  length,  from  Kantam,  on  its 
western,  toSourabaya  on  its  eastern  coast,  whence  cross- 
roads lead  to  all  the  principal  stations.  A  number  of 
forts  have,  also,  been  constructed  in  commanding  sit- 
uationg  in  the  interior,  the  principal  of  which,  at  Sn- 
rackarta,  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  a  regular 
and  strong  citadel.  It  is  said  to  be  the  intention  to 
transfer  the  seat  of  government  thither  (Vom  Batavla. 
These  forts  have  been  erected  principally  to  keep  the 
natjves  in  check,  and  to  prevent  those  outbreaks  that 
have  done  so  much  to  retard  the  prosperity  of  the  isl- 
and. Several  important  establishments  have  also  been 
recently  founded  along  the  southern  coast,  which  had 
previously  been  all  but  neglected. — See  Argout  tur 
Java,  Singapore,  etc. 

Rice  used  to  be  the  staple  product  of  Java ;  but  it 
is  now  far  surpassed  by  coflTee  and  sugar,  the  culture 
of  uoth  of  which  has  been  astonishingly  increased.  In 
proof  of  this  we  may  mention  that  the  exports  of  cof- 
fee, which  in  1890  amounted  to  288,740  piculs,  had 
increased  in  1846  to  1,000,190  piculs,  or  to  01,090 
tons;  while  the  exports  of  sugar,  which  in  1830 
amounted  to  108,640  piculs,  had  increased  in  1845  to 
1,456,428  piculs,  or  88,365  tons.  More  than  half  the 
trade  of  the  island  centres  in  Batavia.  Indigo  has 
also  become  an  important  product.  The  other  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export  are  tin  flrom  Banca,  tobacco, 
tea,  and  birds'  nests.  The  imports  comprise  cottons, 
woolens,  and  other  manufactured  goods ;  wines  and 
spirits,  with  iron,  hardware,  and  machinery ;  opium 
ft«m  the  Levant  and  from  Bengal ;  and  a  great  variety 
of  other  articles. 

Port  ReffiUatioiu. — The  following  is  the  substance 
of  the  port  regulations  of  Batavia :  1st.  The  command- 
er of  a  ship  arriving  in  the  roads  is  not  to  land  him- 
self, or  permit  any  of  his  crew  or  passengers  to  land, 
until  his  vessel  be  visited  by  a  boat  from  the  guard- 
ship.  2d.  The  master,  on  landing,  is  first  to  wait  on 
the  master  attendant,  and  afterward  report  himself  at 
the  police  office.  8d.  A  manifest  of  the  whole  cargo 
must  be  delivered  at  the  custom-house  within  24  hours 
of  the  ship's  arriving  in  the  roads.  4th.  The  master 
of  a  vessel  must  lodge  the  ship's  papers  with  the  mas- 
ter attendant  when  he  first  lands,  which  are  duly  de- 
livered up  to  him  when  he  receives  his  port  clearance 
from  the  same  authority.  5th.  No  goods  can  be  shipped 
or  landed  after  sunset,  under  a  penalty  of  600  florins, 
fith.  No  goods  can  be  shipped  on  Sunday  without  a 
special  permission  from  the  WMter  fiscal,  which,  how- 
ever, is  never  refuse  i  oh  application.  7th.  No  mus- 
kets or  ammunition  cnn  Ire  imported ;  but  the  prohi- 
bition does  not  extend  to  fowling-pieces  exceeding  100 
florins  value. 

Tariff.— KHcT  a  good  deal  of  negotiation,  it  has  been 
fixed  that  goods  imported  in  foreign  vessels  shall  pay 
an  nd  valorem  duty  of  26  per  cent.,  and  jinder  the  Neth- 
erlands flag  of  12i  per  cent. ;  that  is,  a  duty  upon  the 
wholesale  price  at  Batavia,  not  in  bond.    'The  export 


duty  on  coffee,  if  exported  on  a  foreign  bottom'  to  ft 
foreign  country,  is  5  florins  per  picul ;  if  on  a  foreign 
bottom  to  a  port  in  the  Netherlands,  4  florins ;  and  if 
on  a  Netherlands  bottom  to  a  Netherlands  port,  2  flor- 
ins. Sugar  exported  on  a  foreign  bottom  pays  2  flor> 
ins  per  picul ;  but  if  exported  on  a  Netherlands  bottom, 
1  florin.  Bice,  on  whatever  bottom  exported,  and  to 
whatever  country,  pays  a  duty  of  8  florins  per  coyang 
of  27  piculs.  Tin,  exported  in  a  foreign  ship  to  what- 
ever port,  4  florins  per  picul ;  and  by  a  Netherlands 
ship,  2  florins  per  picul.  The  trade  in  spices  is  mo- 
nopolized by  the  Netherlands  Trading  Company. 

Goods  are  received  in  entrepot  not  only  at  Batavia, 
but  at  the  ports  of  Samarang,  Sourabaya,  and  Anjier 
in  Java,  and  Khio  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  on  pay> 
ment  of  a  duty  of  1  per  cent,  levied  on  the  invoice 
value. 

Money. — Accounts  are  kept,  at  Batavia,  in  the  florin 
or  guilder,  divided  into  centimes,  or  100  ports,  repre- 
sented liy  a  copper  coinage  or  doits.  The  florin  is  a 
new  coin  made  expressly  for  India,  but  of  the  same 
value  as  the  florin  current  in  the  Netherlands.  It  is 
usually  estimated  at  the  rate  of  12  to  the  pound  ster- 
ling, but  the  correct  par  is  11  florins  68  cent,  per  pound. 
Doubloons,  and  the  cotaM' of  Continental  India,  are  re- 
ceivable at  the  custbm-house  at  a  fixed  tariff;  the 
Spanish  dollar,  for  example,  at  the  rate  of  100  for  260 
florins. 

Weight). — The  Chinese  weights  are  invariably  used 
in  commercUl  transactions  at  Batavia  and  through- 
out Java  and  the  other  Dutch  possessions  in  India. 
These  are  the  picul  and  the  cattle,  which  is  its  hun- 
dredth part.  The  picul  is  commonly  estimated  at  125 
Dutch,  or  188^  lbs.  avoirdupois,  but  at  Batavia  it  has 
been  long  ascertained  and  considered  to  be  equal  to 
136  lbs.  avoirdupois. — Hooendobp,  Coup  ifUiU  mr 
File  de  Java,  cap.  8,  etc. ;  Evidence  o/'Gillian  Mac- 
LAINE,  Etq.,  hefore  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House,  of 
Commons  on  the  Affairs  of  the  East  India  Company,  1831 ; 
Nederlandsche  Staats-Counmt,  18th  August,  1842,  and 
other  official  information. 

Batten,  a  name  in  common  use  for  a  scantling  of 
wood  2}  inches  thick  and  7  wide.  If  above  7  inches 
wide,  it  is  called  deal. 

Bay  (Saxon  byge,  an  angle),  an  arm  of  the  sea  ex- 
tending into  the  land.  It  is  smaller  than  a  gulf,  and 
larger  than  a  creek. 

Bayou,  bl'oo,  or  more  usually  bl'o,  a  term  con- 
fined chiefly  to  inlets  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  River, 
signif^'ing  properly  any  stream  which  is  derived  from 
some  other  stream,  or  from  a  lake ;  in  other  words, 
any  stream  which  is  not  fed  by  fountains.  The 
word  is  supposed  to  1>e  a  corruption  of  the  French 
hoyau,  a  "  gut"  or  "  channel" — a  derivation  which  is 
rendered  mor»  probable  by  the  prevalent  pronuncia- 
tion, bl'o.  Se^jtai  of  the  bayous  from  Lake  Pontchar- 
train,  near  New  Ciirleans,  end  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
are  very  important  channels  to  the  interior  country, 
and  afford  great  facilities  to  commercial  intercourse. 

Baxar,  a  term  used  in  the  East  to  designate  a 
market,  or  building,  in  which  various  articles  of  mer- 
chandise are  exposed  for  sale.  Bazars  arc  now  met 
with  in  moat  large  cities  of  Europe,  There  are  sev- 
eral in  Loii  Ion,  of  which  the  one  in  Soho  Square  is  the 
most  considerable. 

Bdellium  (Arab.  AJhtoon),  a  gum-resin,  semi- 
pellucid,  and  of  a  yellowish-brown  or  dark-brown  color 
according  to  its  age,  unctuous  to  the  touch,  but  briU 
tie ;  soon,  however,  softening  between  the  fingers ; 
in  appearance  it  is  not  unlike  myrrh,  of  a  bitterish 
taste,  and  moderately  strong  smell.  Two  kinds  have 
been  distinguished :  the  oj>ocalpamm  of  the  ancients, 
which  is  thick  like  wax,  and  the  common  dark  sort. 
It  is  found  in  Persia  and  Ara1)ia,  ))ut  principally  in  the 
latter ;  all  that  is  met  with  in  India  is  of  Arabic  origin. 
The  tree  which  produces  it  has  not  been  clearly  ascer- 
tained.— ^Aimslib's  Materia  Indica,  ■ 


BBA, 


lis? 


BEE 


B«aoh, « ibalving  trimi  of  mwI  or  fililnfile  wnshsd 
by  the  •«»  or  »  freiilk-WHtor  Uktt,  uml  llilerpnneti  Iw* 
tween  the  wutsr  uml  tiw  Untl,  UH  wlilyh  vi<Ketttttou 
growl.  Tlie  boDiib  of  (li«  w^m  U,  tfmmtMy  ati««k< 
ing,  Uttlo  mure  tbiiu  ihtt  itimtm  ImIwwh  IiIkIi  miiiI  luw 
water-mark ;  the  baauk  uf  H  Uks,  (bnt  li«lw«eii  the 
water  marks  of  tbs  hlKbatt  tttlit  \uwm  tifttiliar)'  level 
of  the  lake.  An  iiiianJ  urn  wtlltuMt  (iitt<,  nuuli  hi  the 
Mediterraneau,  boa  oonnmuly  wty  little  lieiti'h.  eii' 
cept  on  flat  coaati,  where  the  WHitiri  »f»  Hpt  In  fall  and 
rile  coniidentbly,  aauoriltUK  U»  (Its  \tt»V»Ulug  winda, 
— E.  A. 

Beaoona,  bi  Cammret  itn4  NufiffiUlm,  bublle 
marks  or  ilgmili  tu  ulvu  wurililltf  uf  ruokl,  iHuhIi, 
etc.  No  man  m  entitled  to  Mwt  It  IlKltUhuUie,  li««eon, 
etc.,  without  Iwing  emimwertid  by  luw.— iVf«  Uuuta. 
Beada  (Fr,  Uumr»»i  Uer,  UumtkfMMi  Oti.  V'lt' 
temiulert  ,■  It.  Curom  i  H\h  L'ommm),  itmitll  xluhulel  or 
balls  used  as  neoklacss,  itnd  mitde  uf  til)1<Bi'ent  iniite> 
lials ;  as  pearl,  steel,  nitiberi  f{Mrw(|  Mt»\,  dkttlttttda, 
crystal,  glass,  sto,  UonMit  (-.'ittbnIkH  ttN  btiadi  In 
rehearsing  their  Ave  Maria*  Hud  l'Mt«rutMteri.  Ulms 
beads  or  bugles  are  im|)ort«it  in  Utgs  i(yilHiitlel  Into 
India  and  Africa,  -^HM,UnH  llm>  bitvlntf  b«eH  ihlliped 
from  England  to  tbu  weiit  iiuitNt  of  the  Utter  In  iH41. 
Large  quantities  are  sent  fruitM^hiim  III  liidiii,  llii*  Hmu 
em  island^  etc.  The  ghtss  iHiitilii  neiK  fnitil  KilKlund 
are  nearly  |U  imported,  priiisiiiitlly  frtiHi  Veiik'e,  where 
they  are  very  largely  produued.  Titeir  fiult'ltuiHufMC.> 
ture  in  Great  Uritain  is  sitid  to  ba  it  MeMiMil|tl«Hi<e  of  the 
excise  regulations  as  to  the  HlAimfittiture  iif  itUw  |  but 
the  truth  is,  that  tb«  Venntiitn  mitiiHfiuitureM  eolaf 
them  better,  and  gtva  tlwm  ft  b«(t«r  Itlliill  (hittt  the 
English. 

Beam,  in  weaving,  » long  ililuk  wmNten  eyllnder, 
placed  lengthwise  on  tite  bitflk  liitrt  uf  (he  ItMin  uf  those 
who  work  with  a  shuttle.  'flMt  (lyllitder  »n  whiuh 
the  stu$  is  rolled  as  it  is  wwvwl  M  itlM  uiklled  the 
beam  or  nJkr,  mi.  is  plawd  en  tlti  tun  p»H  ef  the 
loom.— E.  B. 

Beam-oompsM,  »n  instruiniiMt  tioimliiiiti^  of  » 
square  wooden  or  brass  b^AMl,  with  nllillllg  lutkeii 
that  carry  steel  or  pencil  |willtti,  Jl«i«ini(iulltpasfles 
are  used  for  describing  larger  ulrulHH  thitn  eiin  euttven' 
iently  be  drawn  by  the  oonmMm  ii|ilM|li)Wl«ili 

Beama  of  a  SUp  are  thu  gruitt  ntitin  wnii'ttm' 
bers  which  hold  the  sides  of  thu  iihl|l  from  felliHtf  to- 
gether, and  also  sup|)ort  tb«  dtrnk  Mnd  tile  iirlupa.  the 
mabi  beam  is  next  the  nwin'IIUUtt,  Mid  fritm  it  they 
are  successively  reckoned  as  flrst,  ii#|iiiud,  ihirdi  Hfld 
so  on.  The  greatest  beam  of  nil  Is  fitUed  (lie  mmkip 
beam.  A  ship  is  said  to  ba  on  hi<  (mun-mik  *\wtt  the 
biclines  so  much  to  one  siilA  tUnt  her  bemtii  ii(i|ir<iauh 
to  a  vertical  position, — E,  It, 

Bean-ood,  a  small  llshlng  vsoMlf  iir  tiilot<lioat, 
common  in  Portugal,  It  Is  eittrpiHHly  kbHrji  forward, 
having  iti  stem  bent  above  Into  M  greitt  utirve  inward, 
plated  on  the  fore  side  with  iron,  unit  ftirttlled  with 
Lolu.  It  is  commonly  navigittsd  with  a  litrge  lateen 
•all.-E.B. 

Beaoa  (Kr.  Fiveii  Oer,  Unhmni  l(.  fimi  tluM. 
Boobii;  Sp.  J/abui  hat,  t'ltbm),  It  wttlUkllimn  veffettt* 
ble  of  the  pulse  s|)c"ies,  largely  iiuttlvitted  liiitll  III  gar* 
dens  and  lields.  lu  cultlvatb)ii  Is  iif  iiiumIi  lin|HirtMUi<e 
in  rural  economy,  inasmmii  as  U  bus  gime  far  to  iii« 
persedo  fallows  on  strong  loams  and  I'liiys. 

Bearing,  in  Naviyiuion,  an  ari'b  uf  tlw  htirUun  in* 
tercepted  between  the  nearest  niorldUn  itHd  eiiy  dli- 
tant  object,  either  discovered  by  tb«  «ye  Hlld  referred 
to  a  point  on  the  compass,  or  resulting  fruiii  the  «|iher* 
icttl  proportion;  as,  in  the  ||rs(  vitse,  "A(  four  I'.M. 
Cape  Spado,  in  the  Isle  of  Caiidlit,  bore  MOIltll  li,V  went 
by  the  compass."  In  tlis  ssoond,  (liA  liitlgltudel  mid 
latitudes  of  any  two  places  tieing  glvHMi  iiimI  I'lmae' 
quently  the  difference  of  latitude  and  longldidy  lie' 
tween  them,  the  bearing  of  uim  from  (he  other  Is 


rldkmal  difference  of  latitude  Is  to  the  difference  of 
longitude,  so  is  the  radius  to  the  tangent  of  the  bear- 
ing. 

htaring  is  also  the  situation  of  any  distant  object 
estimated  from  some  port  of  the  ship  according  to  her 
position.  An  object  so  discovered  must  be  either 
ahead,  astern,  abreatt,  on  the  bow,  or  on  the  quarter. 
If  the  ship  sails  with  a  side  wind,  it  alters  in  some 
measure  the  names  of  such  bearings,  since  a  distant 
object  on  the  lieam  Is  then  said  to  be  to  leeward  or  to 
windward;  on  the  lee  quarter  or  bow,  and  on  the 
weather  quarter  or  bow. — £.  B. 

Beatlnc  in  Navigation,  the  operation  of  making 
progress  at  sea  against  the  wind,  by  steering  in  a  zig- 
lag  course. — E.  U. 

Beaver,  or  Caator,  an  amphibious  qnadruped  of 
the  order  Itodentia,  with  a  thick  glossy  fur,  and  hori- 
zontally flattened  tail,  aboundbig  in  North  America 
and  Hlberla,  and  still  found  in  the  north  o(  Europe. 
It  formerly  appears  to  have  been  known  as  far  south 
na  the  Hhone  and  the  Danube ;  and  though  with  us 
now  extinct,  was  formerly  an  inhabitant  of  Great 
Britain.  The  fur  of  the  l)eaver  forms  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce.  Among  traders  the  skins  aro 
distinguished  into  three  kinds:  1.  The  fresh  beaver, 
which  Is  obtained  in  winter,  before  the  animal  has 
shed  any  of  Its  hulr,  and  consequently  that  is  most 
esteemed  by  furrirrs.  2.  The  dry  or  lean  beaver, 
which  Is  captured  in  summer,  when  the  animal  is 
moulting,  8.  The  fat  beaver,  which  differs  from  the 
fresh  only  In  having  acquired  additional  softness  and 
olllness  trom  Iwlng  worn  for  some  time  on  the  persons 
of  the  native  hunters.  This  is  the  kind  that  Is  chiefly 
Used  In  liat-maklng.  The  substance  called  cmtor  is 
found  in  pouches  in  the  inguinal  region  of  the  beaver. 
It  Is  regarded  as  a  powerful  antispasmodic. — E.  B. 

Beooh  {f'agiu  tylvatica'),  a  forest  tree  met  with  in 
England,  the  L'nited  States,  etc.  There  is  only  one 
species,  the  difference  in  the  wood  proceeding  from 
the  difference  of  soil  and  situation.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  beech  is  grown  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Utlcki.  It  ii  not  much  used  in  building,  as  it  soon 
rots  In  damp  places ;  but  it  is  used  as  piles  in  places 
where  It  is  constantly  wet.  It  is  manufactured  Into 
a  great  variety  of  tools,  for  which  its  great  hardness 
and  uniform  texture  render  it  superior  to  all  other 
sorts  of  wood ;  it  is  also  extensively  used  in  making 
furniture. 

Beeoh-maat,  the  &uit  or  nuts  of  the  beech-tree, 
tised  for  fattening  hogs,  deer,  and  other  animals.  It 
hae  sometimes  proved  a  useful  substitute  for  bread,  as 
experienced  at  Chios  during  a  memorable  siege. — E.  B, 
Baeob-oil,  an  oil  expressed  trom  the  mast  of  the 
lieech-tree.  It  id  common  in  Northern  Germany,  also 
In  I'lcardy,  and  in  other  parts  of  Franco,  instead  of 
butler)  but  It  Is  said  to  be  unwholesome. — E.  B. 

Beef  is  used  either  fresh  or  salted.  Formerly  it 
was  usual  for  most  families,  at  least  in  the  country,  to 
supply  themselves  with  a  stock  of  salt  l)eef  In  October 
or  November,  which  served  for  their  consumption  un- 
til the  ensuing  summer;  but  in  consequence  of  the  uni- 
versal establishment  of  markets  where  fresh  beef  may 
be  at  all  times  obtained,  the  practice  is  now  nearly  re- 
linquished, and  the  quantity  of  salted  beef  made  use 
of  as  compared  with  fresh  beef  is  quite  inconsidera- 
ble. Largo  supplies  of  salted  beef  are,  however,  pre- 
pared In  the  United  States  for  exportation  to  the  East 
and  West  Indies.  During  the  war,  large  supplies 
were  also  required  for  victualhig  the  novy.  The  ves- 
sels engaged  In  the  coasting  trade,  and  in  short  voy- 
ages, use  only  fresh  provisions.  The  English  have 
At  all  times  lieen  great  consumers  of  beef ;  and  at  thia 
moment  more  beef  is  used  in  London,  as  compared 
with  the  population,  than  any  where  else.  Previously 
to  1H42  the  Importation  into  England  of  fresh^iieef 
was  prohibited ;  and  salt  beef  from  a  foreign  country 


diacovered  by  the  following  MMlogy  I  A«  thtt  nie«  I  wm  ebarged  with  a  duty  of  12i.  a  cwt    But  in  that 


SKIS 


IM 


BSS 


ytu  the  dutUi  on  both  mhI*  wwa  fMo^Ml  fA  «#;  4M.  • 
cwt.,  ind  in  1840  (tuy  ww«  wlMdly  Cfj^^M,  l«  1«W 
the  Imports  of  »»lu4imi(  i»t»  i^m^  tmtniii  «nMrtittt«(l 
to  123,065  cwt„  »n4  ttum  ef  fr»«b  ImH'  i«  tmif  WK 
cwt.— iSm  Pbovinm)**. 

BMr.  All  AiMiUnt  Orwfc  wrf(«r«  «^««  in  mtgh- 
Ing  the  honor  of  th<i  dlMXN'W)'  A<  IwM'  (M  ((m  Kftytb 
tiant ;  but  from  tim  nirmmHuwg  iif  tut  nottte  t««hi|; 
taken  of  beer  <n  the  boolfn  ef  Mimn,  H  Uit»  imm  mhet 
raihly  concluded  th»t  »wh  •  Arink  «»:/  «Hlift«ir(i  to 
them  till  after  hie  dwth,  'fbl*.  tumff^tf,  in  miiluAf. 
The  vine  was  alofle  tiwItivNM  )N  I'^fjii  in  tium  (In- 
tricte  which  were  lieyo»4  tlw  W**!!  ((f  »>«f  (rtrtwda- 
tlonsi  and  the  quantity  i)t  wim  t»ii<*A  Mug  llmKrd 
was  reserved  for  tlw  riiub.  wbtl«  <b«  f(«»f#f  (4««M<a  had 
to  content  tbemsalve*  wttb  »  t4l«N^  rfffMb  fffetMrfed 
from  barley.  Herodotnii,  wlw  wr»t«  *(««t  480  few* 
B.C.,  is  perhap*  the  MrtUtut  writar  wtw  iifitM  »iif  put. 
ticulars  lagaintiffg  Kgypt,  Mfl4  Im  ^itcfllwd  tw«t  {^e- 
pared  from  barley  m  tlw  flfdiWH'  drt«k  «f  llw  l5«y|>- 
tlans  in  his  day,  Miny,  ArtiH*m,  tHntm,  (h«!  o<h««i, 
who  mention  that  (bis  imf  WM  kmmn  itf  thtt  name 
of  Zythos,  give  full  Amif\fiUm»  ttf  l<«  «(tfNll(t««  «md 
intoxicating  properties)  «»4  ltf«4<«flM  «v«M  «<Rr«n« 
that  soma  kind*  were  so  pNliil«l«i«  Hi  M  hti  mutftiiy 
inferior  to  wine,  Tba  fumriim  ttf  ttif  i,  (i,  Wilkin- 
son  relative  to  the  awi^  K|;ypliNNii  h«t«  lltmwn 
mnch  light  on  tbt*  auli^t,  »n4  n>wl4^  il  (M'^Mibt*  (hat 
beer  was  used  as  »  drink  l*y  fb«  WM^lit  K^)'t«(l«As 
neariy  as  early  aa  wine  ftaolf,  %m*^^im,  in  Mi*  nt- 
connt  of  the  retreat  of  tb«  im  tbM«WHi4  iiff«k*«  M» 
yean  B.C.,  mention*  Mat  (Iw  iflbN^fNtri*  >^  Afm«nis 
used  a  fsmienud  drink  mwie  ifim  imnkv,  MitAntm 
Siculus  state*,  that  the  nNlbm  f«f  (iMtNiM  pi-^ttA  a 
fermented  drink  from  Iwri^y,  *tytiHe  H  ji^hHSf  like 
the  Egyptian*,  Reef  w«*  4i*riflgMMh(^  «4M«Mk  (he 
Gnjeks  by  a  varisty  of  mrm»,  H  ^m  c#W*/l  ftivn^ 
KpiOtvot  (barley  wine),  fr«W  It*  vlfwtt*  Wftficrtl^dj  awl 
firom  the  materia)  emnloyed  in  it*  f//rmM<t««M<  in^a^ 
ociss,  and  probslily  m  oritur  Urwk  *fl»*'fi».  It  Is  ol»* 
tlnguished  by  the  nam*  of  l^ppfm,  iHtrnviiMt*  Ae- 
aeribes  two  kinds  of  be«r,  t»  m»>  t)f  whifii  im  «»♦««  (h« 
name  foflof,  and  to  the  otiw  niwit/ii )  Itut  (w  «!♦»«  no 
description  of  either  •ufflwI^Ht  U»  mHtti>:  H*  tii  flMht- 
gui*h  them  f^m  e*«b  iHiicr,  titifitj  b«  iiihiftnn  «s, 
were  made  from  barley,  »b4  *ftw(l#r  «»(«<**  ««w  m«^ 
nfactnred  in  Spain  and  llritain  ftom  niimn, 

Tacitu*  inform*  u*  tb*t  in  hi*  (im«  imf  wm  (tM 
common  drink  of  the  Ommtw,  Htui  ftmn  bin  imptt- 
fect  deecription  of  tN»  prwe**  whifh  (!«'>'  f«l('rt»e«1.  It 
is  not  unlikely,  or  ratlxf  (her*  ^hh  Iw  km  Aituiti,  tiiit 
they  were  acquainted  wlfll  tiMi  (Hrtlw*/!  «f  «(ttv«>f(l«f( 
bariey  into  malt,  Hl»y  i^Vfit  m  mmw  rt#t«lls  re- 
specting beer,  He  dlstiflgnisbwi  It  I*  iim  ftsme  «f 
eerevuia  or  eefnUin,  the  Si*!*"!!*!!**  fif  #blch  H  I* 
known  in  modern  l<»t(»  wori*", 

Thi*  beverage  doe*  iwt  »j»(»«W  (fl  hfW*  WrttMj  Into 
general  use  in  Urse«!e  or  it*ly  (  \mi  in  (iwmtmf  and 
Britain,  end  some  otMr  PoniJHl**,  H  i^ipmf*  Ui  have 
been  the  common  drink  of  lb«  IhI)*W«««(*  I«  lb«  time 
of  Tacitus,  and  proloitdy  iimn  itfdif^,  h  has  etm- 
tinned  in  these  countrie*  ever  sittccj  »«wl  (jt*«t  *(0*n- 
tHles  of  lieer  are  still  l»»»»f**tHfWl )«  ()»<tW/*«y,  (hfl 
Low  Countries,  and  Urit*fn,  W«  witflfl  <(«<rf«  nirttner- 
ons  passages  from  tlte  mrr»ti¥it»  W  fwcrtt  ifHUfUrn 
to  show  that  the  use  of  *  drink  pf*^M  tfiftn  barley 
Is  neariy  universal  over  the  mHtmn  mA  ifHimtiiiti 
parts  of  Europe  4n4  A*i»,  One  i/f »!(«  l#(*rt  ttt  ihene 
travelers,  M.  Hue,  tb»  ¥f»m>it  miMimHf*,  ttmatU 
that  the  drink  of  ,i»«  hrimf*  in  tblM  i#"«  toH  of 
eharp  drink  roede  with  farnmnU'li  imtiff,  ntltifiii  With 
the  addition  of  hop*,  WiwiA  b#  WJ-  ll)i<?  mt  tHftt." 

Porler  Is  a  strong  beer  «f  »  A»fii  I'uiiit  »nA  ptienMnr 
flavor,  and  Is  said  to  lie  ««  nswed,  sirttw  f^MK  lis  hav- 
ing taen  the  common  drink  of  »b*  pw««f»,  wt  from 
Harwood,  the  original  IWMfef  «f  rt(«'/lri«fc,  wwllm? 
tt  round  to  bi*  muMmm  by  8i«h,  wli«  *iiM)  (hey 


jhtiMhed  at  the  door*  called  out  "porter,"  maaidng 
thereby  not  the  drink,  but  themaelves,  its  porters  or 
carrier*.     Porter  was  originally  brewed  to  take  th« 
I  place  of  two  or  three  kinds  of  beer  which  used  to  be 
mixed  by  the  retailers  iti  the  mug  a*  they  drew  them 
from  the  taps )  and  a*  this  new  drink  had  the  test* 
'  of  all  three,  but  waa  brewed  at  once,  and  run  out  of 
i  one  tap,  it  saved  the  publican  trouble,  and  was  de- 
I  nominated  "  entire."    Hence,  as  the  sign  so  often  no> 
:  tlced  In  London,  such  a  brewer's  "entire." 
I      Havarian  Brer  Is  the  only  other  malt  liquor  which, 
'  from  the  peculiarities  attending  Its  fermentation,  re- 
'  quire*  n  special  notice.    The  Germans,  fVom  the  ear- 
liest historical  periods,  have  been  a  beer-drinking  na- 
tion, and  some  excellent  malt  liquors  are  made  In  that 
country.     The  "wcl*e  bier,"  the  truly  patriotic  bev- 
erage  of  Prussia,  Is  not  made  firom  barley  alone,  but 
from  1  part  barley  malt  and  6  parts  Vhcat  malt ;  but 
the  excessive  tendency  of  wheat  beers  to  sour  hat 
caused  potato  starch  to  be  substituted  for  the  wheat, 
and  tartaric  acid  to  give  the  admired  tartness.    The 
other  beers,  however,  more  especially  the  ones  now  to 
lie  noticed,  the  Bavarian  beers,  both  the  common  pot 
liecr  (schank-bier)  and  the  intoxicating  luscious  bock- 
lieer,  are  browed  flrom  barley  malt  alone. — See  Laoer 

BiKB. 

Ah  appear*  to  be  an  ancient  drink,  and  the  name 
Is  usually  given  to  strong  lieer  of  a  pale  color,  as  por- 
ter Is  to  that  of  a  dark  color.  The  varieties  of  ale  are 
Infinite,  but  wc  purpose  only  to  notice  the  peculiarity 
in  the  manufacture  of  English  ale,  Indian  ale,  English 
home-brewed  ale,  and  Scottish  ale. 

In  all  high-priced  English  ales  of  the  present  day, 
liritliancy  and  paleness  of  color,  with  as  little  excess 
of  sweetness  as  possililc,  are  tho  objects  to  be  attained 
l>y  the  lircwcr.  To  accomplish  these  ends,  nothing 
Imt  the  finest  pale  malt  must  be  used ;  and  to  secure 
sound-keeping  ale,  It  is  of  first  importance  that  the 
malt  shall  have  liecn  thoroughly  dried  on  the  kiln. 
If  prepared  from  what  is  technically  known  as  "slack- 
dried  malt,"that  Is,  malt  not  thoroughly  dried  for  fear 
of  coloring  It,  or  which  has  had  water  sprinkled  over 
It  while  still  warm  from  the  kiln,  the  wort  as  run 
from  the  mash-tun  will  be  found  acid,  and  will  tinge 
litmus  paper  of  a  much  deeper  red  than  ordinary  wort 
from  well  dried  malt,  and  the  ale  prepared  from  it 
will  not  keep  beyond  a  few  months.  It  is  necessary 
also  to  lie  careful  in  the  selection  of  the  hops  for  ale. 
Oood  sound  hop*  should  alone  be  used ;  many  brew- 
ers now  use  a  proportion  of  foreign  bops  along  with 
the  English  hop. 

/'n/n,  Indian,  or  Burton  Ale,  originally  intended  for 
exportation,  and  now  so  deservedly  in  high  repute  as 
'  among  our  most  esteemed  and  wholesome  lieveragos, 
i  requires  more  particular  treatment  in  its  manufacture. 
I  This  ate  can  only  lie  prepared  from  the  best  pale  malt 
and  the  Iwst  hops ;  and  the  chief  peculiarities  attend- 
ing its  manufacture  are,  that  U  requires  more  than 
double  the  usual  proportion  of  hops,  that  the  attenua- 
:  tlon  is  generally  carried  to  a  mnch  greater  extent,  and 
i  that  the  temperature  during  the  fermentation  should 
i  never  lie  allowed  to  exceed  05°  Fahrenheit.    That  a 
considerable  amount  of  sweetness  should  exist  in  com- 
mon ale  is  allowable,  and  Indeed  it  is  the  presence  of 
I  a  large  quantity  of  undecomposed  saccharine  extract 
which  gives  to  common  strong  ale  its  luscious  mild- 
I  ness.     It  is,  however,  the  presence  of  this  large  quan- 
'  tity  of  undecomposed  saccharine  extract  wliich  pre- 
I  vents  common  ale  from  being  used  as  a  diet  drink  by 
I  the  Invalid,  or  being  relished  in  a  warm  country ;  and 
I  it  Is  tho  circumstance  of  the  Indian  or  pale  ale  having 
I  its  fermentation  carried  so  much  farther,  and  its  sac- 
:  charlne  matter  reduced  in  quantity,  togeiher  with  its 
larger  proportion  of  bitter,  that  commends  it  so  much 
as  a  grateful  and  stimulant  stomachic  to  tlie  European 
resident  in  a  warm  climate,  and  to  tho  invalid. 
ffome-braeed  Ale,  a*  brewed  by  the  middle  classes 


;:^-; 


BEB 


159 


BEL 


for  fear 

over 
run 

tinge 

wort 
(Vom  it 
cessary 
Tor  ale. 

brew- 

with 

fled  for 
pute  as 
eragos, 
icture. 
le  malt 
attend- 
than 
ttenna- 
nt,  and 
ghoold 
That  a 
in  com- 
nce  of 
xtract 
8  mild- 
I qnan- 
*  pre- 
•Inlt  by 
y;  and 
having 
ts  aac- 
rtth  its 
much 
iropean 

I  claaie* 


In  Engtiind,  ii  uinally  made  in  quantltlea  of  3  barrela, 
i.  e.,  72  gallons.  For  this  purpose  a  quarter  of  malt, 
or  if  wished  to  be  extra  strong,  0  bushels  of  malt,  are 
talten,  with  12  lbs.  of  hops.  The  malt  being  crushed 
or  ground,  is  mashed  with  72  gallons  of  water,  at  the 
temperature  of  160°,  and  covered  up  for  three  hours, 
when  40  gallons  are  drawn  off;  and  into  this  the  12  lbs, 
of  hops  are  put,  and  left  to  Infuse.  Si.xty  gallons  of 
water,  at  the  temperature  of  170°,  are  then  added  to  the 
malt  In  the  mash-tub  and  well  mixed,  and,  after  stand- 
ing two  hours,  60  gallons  are  drawn  off.  The  wort 
from  these  two  mashes  Is  Intled  along  with  the  hops 
for  two  hours,  and  after  being  cooled  down  to  65°,  it  is 
strained  through  a  flannel  bag  into  the  fcrmenting-tub, 
where  it  is  mixed  with  1^  gallons  of  yeast,  and  left  to 
work  for  twenty-four  or  thirty-eix  hours.  It  is  then 
run  Into  barrels  to  cleanse,  a  few  gallons  being  reserved 
for  filling  up  the  casks  as  the  yeast  works  over.  Eight- 
een or  twenty  gallons  of  beer  are  obtained  from  the 
used  malt  by  making  a  third  mash  with  26  or  80  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  boiling  the  wort  thus  procured  with 
the  used  hops. 

ScoUM  Alt,  but  especially  the  Edinburgh  ale,  has 
been  long  celebrated,  but  as  an  ordinar)'  beverage  it 
is  much  more  luscious  and  beady  than  London  porter, 
English  ale,  or  pale  Indian  ale.  It  is  a  much  stronger 
drink  than  any  of  these,  the  home-brewed  English  ale 
approaching  nearest  to  it  in  this  respect ;  and  as  the 
attenuation  of  the  saccharine  extract  is  only  carried 
the  length  of  the  decomposition  of  two-thirds  of  its 
original  strength,  the  largo  quantity  of  undecomposcd 
saccharine  extract  renders  It  much  more  luscious  to 
the  taste,  and  milder  than  the  English  ales.  The  Scot- 
tish ales  are  brewed  of  various  strengths,  and  are  known 
in  the  market  by  their  price  per  hogshead,  and  are  hence 
commonly  mentioned  as  £7  ale,  JE6  ale,  etc. — E.  B. 
See  Alg  and  Brewiso. 

lUl-OHTATION  or  11(101,  Ai.E,  AND  PORTIB  IHTO  THE  UNITZI) 

Statis,  ACCouniNn  to  Tbkaiiury  Rkport  or  1865. 


Bnglud. 

Seotliuid. 

Gallwu. 

V>llHi. 

Gallon. 

V.l».. 

1844 

101,489 

$102,167 

19,286 

$18,843 

1S4S 

79,808 

78,720 

20,711 

21,294 

1846 

117,821 

110,897 

88,404 

89,881 

184T 

178,803 

110,298 

17,620 

10,662 

1848 

130,000 

101,171 

39,282 

21,538 

1849 

140,473 

lis,  283 

62,297 

80,083 

1160 

160,788 

120,987 

52,856 

41,790 

ISBl 

475,836 

189,010 

88,179 

86,786 

1853 

202,883 

186,904 

110,-88 

67,804 

185,1 

897,420 

284,347 

181,867 

77,414 

ISJM 

826,671 

424,876 

270,064 

128,007 

1856 

019,262 

569,900 

S4^016 

188,457 

Beet,  or  Beta,  a  well-known  genus  of  plants. 
The  common  beet.  Beta  vulgarit,  a  variety  of  the  red 
beet,  has  long  been  cultivated  as  a  food  for  cattle,  and 
is  also  used  for  the  table  as  a  pickle.  It  was  intro- 
duced for  this  purpose  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury flrom  Germany,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name 
of  mangel-tmnel. — See  Aoriculturb.  The  variety 
termed  white  beet  is  smaller  than  the  former,  and  has 
chiefly  been  cultivated  on  a  largo  scale  for  the  forma- 
tion of  sugar  ftom  its  root.  The  chemical  elements  of 
beet-root  sugar  are  expressed  rt/omica%  thus:  Cu,  H», 
0»  -|-  2H0,  or,  twelve  atoms  of  carbon,  nine  of  hydro- 
gen, nine  of  oxygen,  and  two  of  water.  The  largest 
extract  of  pure  sugar  fVom  beet-root  in  Belgium  was 
formerly  8  per  cent.,  but  is  now  6  per  cent.,  and 
is  capable  of  further  increase  by  improvement  in  the 
process  of  manufacture.  The  cultivation  of  beet-root 
was  especially  fostered  in  France  by  Napoleon,  whose 
policy  it  was  to  encouroge  every  thing  that  tended  to 
tender  the  Continent  independent  of  Britain,  then  in 
possession  of  the  chief  sugar  colonies.  It  Is  only  with- 
in a  comparatively  recent  period,  however,  that  the 
manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar  in  Europe  has  assumed 
any  degree  of  Importance,  the  total  quantity  produced 
In  1828  not  exceeding  7000  tons,  while  in  1661  it  was 
Mtimated  at  not  leas  than  180,000  tons.    We  aubjoin  a 


few  statistics  relative  to  the  Increasing  importanee  tif 
this  manufacture  from  Tie  Kconomiit  (Nos.  481  and 
482,  Nov.  29tb,  and  Doc.  26th,  IH&I).  The  quantity 
of  beet-root  sugar  annually  produced  in  France  is 
60,000  tons,  or  fully  one-hiilf  of  the  entire  consump- 
tion. Though  now  subject  to  a  higher  duty  than  colo- 
nial cane  sugar,  it  is  considered  probable  that  very 
shortly  it  will  exclude  foreign  sugar  from  the  French 
market  altogether.  The  production  of  beet-root  sugar 
In  Belgium  also  Is  rapidly  on  the  inciease,  the  quanti- 
ty produced  in  1860  being  7000  tons,  or  half  the  entire 
consumption  of  that  kingdom.  This  had  increased  in 
1851  to  10,000  tons,  while  of  foreign  cane  sugar  only 
4000  tons  were  imported.  In  Germany  it  has  made 
similar  progress.  In  1848  the  quantity  produced  was 
20,000  tons,  which  had  risen  in  1851  to  43,000,  with  a 
corresponding  decrease  in  the  imports  of  foreign  sugar. 
Of  85,000  tons  of  sugar  estimated  to  have  been  con- 
sumed in  Russia,  86,000  tons  were  beet-root  aiigar.  In 
Austria,  also,  the  production  of  this  article  increased 
ft'om  8000  tons  in  1848,  to  15,000  tons  In  1861,  while 
the  consumption,  of  cane  sugar  had  sunk  fhim  82,000 
to  25,000  tons.— E,  B. 

Bebrlng'e  Strait,  explored  by  a  Danish  navigator 
in  the  service  of  Russia,  whose  name  it  licars.  Behr- 
ing  thus  established  that  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from  each  oth- 
er about  thirty-nine  miles,  1728. 

Belfast,  a  maritime  town,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough,  the  capital  of  Ulster,  the  chief  mon- 
ufacturing  and  commercial  town  in  Irclimd,  and  since 
1850  the  county  town  of  Antrim.  It  i.i  mainly  com- 
prised in  tho  county  of  Antrim ;  but  the  large  suburb 
of  Builymacarrct,  separated  fl-om  tho  town  by  tho  Riv- 
er Lagan,  is  in  tlie  countv  of  Down.  Belfast  is  situated 
in  lat.  64°  BO'  8-6"  N.,  and  long.  6°  66'  58-7"  W.,  at 
the  month  of  the  River  Lagan,  which  flows  immediate- 
ly into  Belfast  Ixjugh  (Carrickfergus  Bay),  an  cstnary 
about  12  miles  in  length,  and  6  miles  broad.  The  town 
Is  built  upon  an  alluvial  deposit  and  land  reclaimed 
from  the  sea,  the  greater  portion  lieing  not  more  thiin 
six  feet  above  high-water  mark.  In  common  with  all 
places  so  situate,  it  is  exposed  to  occasional  inunda- 
tions, and  somewhat  to  the  visitations  of  epidemics ; 
but  independently  of  tho  lowncss  of  its  site,  Belfast  is 
in  otlier  respects  advantageously  placed,  and  generally 
by  no  means  unhealthful.  The  environs  of  the  town 
are  highly  agreeable  and  picturesque.  Belfast  has 
been  steadily  progressive  in  population  firom  an  early 
period.  In  1758  the  number  of  inhal)itants  was  8549 ; 
in  1782,  18,106;  in  1798,  18,820;  in  1821,  45,177;  in 
1831,  48,224;  in  1841,  75,308;  and  in  1851,  100,800. 
The  custom  duties  collected  at  the  port  in  1784 
amounted  to  £104,370,  and,  after  various  fluctuations, 
reached  £288,756  in  1834,  £339,989  in  1843,  and 
£877,829  in  1862.  The  great  increase  of  sliipping  fre- 
quenting the  port  appears  in  the  following  account  of 
the  number  and  tonnago  of  vessels  entered  inward  at 
various  periods : 


Ytan. 

No.  of 
Vamli. 

TonMlce. 

Yenrt. 

■no.  of 
VmhIi. 

Tonnagf. 

1780 
1796 
1806 
1816 

772 

801 

840 

1,184 

84,2S7 
D2,r>76 
09,535 
91,371 

18i5 
ISuO 
1848 
1861 

2,000 
2,730 
8,055 
6.010 

18!l,44l 
290,709 
445,087 
060,988 

The  chief  export  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  cross-chan- 
nel navigation;  but  a  considerable  direct  trade  also 
exists  with  the  United  States  and  Canada,  the  West 
Indies,  the  Mediterranean,  ond  the  Baltic.  Belfast  is 
the  centre  of  tlie  Irish  linen  manufacture,  to  the  culti- 
vation of  which  it  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  prosperity. 
In  1841  about  240,000  spindles  were  employed,  and  the 
increase  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been  so  rapid, 
that  about  510,000  spindles  are  now  in  operation.  The 
total  value  of  all  producte  of  the  linen  manui'acture  ex- 
ported abroad  in  the  ter.  months  ending  6th  November, 
1862,  was  £4,357,87''.,  against  £4,160,157  in  1851 ;  and 


^-^ 


B£L 


160 


BEE; 


Iha  export  of  Hnani  and  yunt,  eipecially  of  th«  latter, 
eontlnuea  on  tha  increaM.  In  1861,  6,060,ICU  pound* 
of  linen  yama  were  exported  ttom  Uolfaat;  and  in 
1868,  6,770,680  pounds.  The  harbor  of  Uulfait,  orig> 
inally  a  creek  of  the  Kiver  Lagnn,  has  been  niuub  im- 
proved of  late  yean,  and  now  allows  vessels  drawing 
eighteen  feet  of  water  to  reach  the  quayi  at  spring- 
Udes.— £.  B. 

Belgium.  Belgium  extends  fVom  lat.  49°  27'  to 
61<>  00'  N.,  and  ttom  long.  2°  84'  to  6°  4'  £.  On  the 
north  it  is  bounded  by  lloUand ;  east  by  Dutch  Lim> 
bourg  and  Luxembourg,  and  Bhenish  Prussia;  south 
by  France ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  North  Sea.  It  is 
somewhat  of  a  triangular  form,  of  which  the  longest 
side  is  that  adjoining  Francn,  being  860  miles  in  length. 
The  eastern  boundary  is  233  miles,  and  the  northern 
and  western  are  together  270  miles  in  length.  Its 
greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast  (IVom 
Ostend  to  Arlon)  is  &C  leagues  of  6000  metres,  or  174 
English  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  fVom  north  to 
south  is  105  miles.  It  has  an  area  of  2,046,608  hco- 
tares,  equal  to  7,278,068  English  acres,  or  1 1,873  square 
miles;  being  almut  one^^ighth  of  the  area  of  Great 
Britain.  This  country  is  divided  into  nine  provinces 
— Antwerp  in  the  north ;  West  and  £ust  l^luuilent  and 
Hainault  in  the  west ;  Namur  in  the  south ;  Luxem- 
bourg in  the  southeast;  Liige  and  Limbourg  in  the 
east ;  and  Brabant  in  the  centre, 

Commerciai  Auociation. — Belgium  possesses  a  great 
number  of  commercial  and  financial  associations.  In 
1861  there  were  no  fewer  than  101  legally  authorixed 
Joict-stock  companies  for  carrying  on  pul)lic  works  or 
enterprises,  having  a  united  capital  of  880,847,208 
francs.  Of  these  12  were  assurance  companies,  12 
private  banking  companies,  and  14  railway  companies. 
It  has  eight  commercial  exchanges,  under. the  direc- 
tion of  government;  namely,  iu  Antwerp,  Brussels, 
Ghent,  Bruges,  Ostend,  Mons,  Temionde,  and  I^u- 
vain.  In  1822  the  Qeneral  Society  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  National  Industry  was  formed  at  Brussels, 
under  a  royal  charter  for  27  years,  and  which  has  since 
been  extended  to  1876.  It  has  a  social  capital  of 
80,000,000  florins,  divided  into  60,000  shares  of  600 
florins,  l>earing  interest  at  6  per  cent.  The  admin- 
istrative body  consists  of  a  governor,  nominated  by  the 
king,  six  directors,  a  secretar}',  and  a  treasurer.  It 
discounts  bills,  receives  money  at  interest,  grants  loans 
and  advances  on  titles  and  other  deposits,  etc.  The 
national  bank,  instituted  by  charter  granted  in  1860, 
for  twenty-flve  years,  has  its  seat  at  Brussels,  and  has 
branches  in  all  the  provincial  capitals  and  several  oth- 
er towns.  Its  capital  is  26,000,000  ftuncs,  in  shares 
of  1000  francs  each.  It  pays  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent, 
tipon  the  shares,  and  one-third  at  least  of  the  profits, 
exceeding  6  per  cent.,  goes  to  form  a  sinking  fund. 
The  administration  consists  of  a  governor,  nominated 
by  the  king,  six  directors,  and  a  council  of  censors. 
The  banking  operations  are  superintended  by  a  govern- 
ment commissary ;  a  report  upon  its  state  is  presented 
to  the  government  every  month.  The  State  fkinds  are 
deposited  in  this  bank.  The  Bank  of  Belgium,  char- 
tered in  1835  for  twenty-five  years,  but  which  has  been 
extended  to  1876,  has  a  capital  of  30,000,000  tVancs. 
Its  seat  is  at  Brussels.  The  Bank  of  Flanders  is  estab- 
liiihed  in  Ghent.  Antwerp  is  the  principal  sea-port  of 
Belgium ;  it  has  a  good  harbor,  and  superior  commer- 
cial facilities.     PopuUtion,  in  1850,  420,000. 

The  weights  and  measures  of  Belgium  are  the  same 
■•  those  of  France.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins  are 
struck  at  the  royal  mint  in  Brussels.  The  gold  cams 
are  ten  and  twenty-five  (Vane  pieces;  the  silver  are  of 
the  value  of  \,  i,  1,  2,  and  2|  fhuici;  and  the  cop- 
per of  1,  2,  6,  and  10  centimes. 

Commerce.— la  1861  Belgium  posseased  149  trading 
ressels,  of  the  aggregate  burden  c/  80,677  tons.  Tlie 
value  of  the  import*  and  export*  for  the  yean  1849, 
18M.  and  1881.  wa*  at  CoBows^  „  . 


Vmh.- 


184V 
1W0 
1881 


U»»>iH«. 


li|i»tW, ' 


400,^411,000 
418,111,000 
41».6<Stt,!i85 


874,ntl,000 
411,  Wt,  000 
4AI.IT«,nM 


In  1861  the  import*  by  Belgic  vessels  were  valued  at 
44,702,007  francs;  by  foreign,  124,786,164  firancs;  and 
by  Und  and  rivers,  249,117,064  A-ancs.  Export* 
by  Belgto  vessels,  24,107,306  francs;  by  foreign, 
81,826,816  fnmcs ;  and  by  land  and  rivers,  296,741,081 
francs,  llie  laden  Belgic  vessels  entering  Were  40it, 
of  70,261  ton* ;  and  foreign  1691,  of  220,771  tons.  The 
laden  Belgic  vessels  leaving  were  861,  of  62,906  tons  | 
and  foreign,  1168,  of  161,814  tons.  Ilie  number  en- 
tering in  ballast  was  149,  of  17,484  tons :  1360  vessel* 
entered  the  port  of  Antwerp,  448  Ostend,  234  Ghent, 
and  101  Nieuport.  The  imports  are  principally  from 
Trance,  England,  Holland,  and  the  United  States; 
and  the  exports  principally  to  France,  Holland, 
Prussia,  and  England,  The  imports  are  divided  into 
three  classes :  those  for  direct  consumption  in  the 
country,  those  for  transit,  and  those  brought  into 
warehouse*  to  be  eithet  coniumed  in  the  country  on 
paying  the  duties,  or  exported.  Tha  value  of  good* 
imported  for  consumption,  and  of  the  productions  of 
the  country  exported,  wa*  for  tha  three  year*  abovt 
a*  follows : 


Yoan. 

Impcrtad. 

lt<p<»U. 

1S40 
1860 
1861 

rrtnci. 
SO«,TiI,000 
211,02!l,nflO 
218,086,070 

179,064,000 

iio,oaa,ooo 

200,1 2ft,6M 

These  are  divided  into  three  branches,  1.  Prtmurt* 
ntatiera,  articles  consumed  in  the  state  in  which  they 
are  found,  as  coals,  etc. ;  2,  Articles  of  food ;  and,  8. 
Manufactures.  The  imports  and  export*  of  1851,  *o 
divided,  give 


Impcri.. 

Sqwcli. 

PremUntmatlirtt 

Food 

Frua. 
98,008,110 
M,8«2,886 
40,060,076 

97,742,481 

20,£68.2S« 
7«,128,8«0 

ManniiwtureB 

The  value  of  the  goods  in  transit  for  the  yean  1660 
and  1861  was 

V»n. 

Ulraet. 

B/WanboiM. 

ISSO 
1861 

rtuta. 
176,D6a,000 
176,1M.«M 

PmncR. 
S8,T0«,fl00 
26,042,184 

Of  the  latter,  the  value  exported  l>y  Belgic  vessels  was 
7,046,655  francs;  by  foreign,  28,712,470;  and  by  land 
and  canals,  165,287,202  francs.  Although  there  is  a 
slight  decrease  in  1851  as  compared  with  1860,  in  com- 
paring 1850  with  1841  we  find  an  increase  of  259  per 
cent.  The  value  of  goods  in  warehouse  on  the  1st 
January,  1851,  was  26,626,000  fVancs;  entered  during 
that  year,  66,006,000;  taken  out  for  consumption, 
39,922,000;  for  export,  26,942;  and  26,480,000  were 
iu  bond  at  the  end  of  that  year. 

Under  the  rule  of  France,  Belgium,  like  tie  other 
parts  of  the  Continent,  had  suffered  severely  trora  the 
operation  of  the  conscription  laws,  which  bad  deprived 
the  country  of  those  active  laborers  who  were  necessary 
to  cultivate  the  fields.  Although  peace  could  not  re- 
store the  great  numbera  who  had  perished,yet  it  stopped 
the  further  prognss  of  the  evil  in  the  Netherlands,  by 
the  establishment  of  a  voluntary  enrollment  for  a  small 
regular  army,  and  of  a  militia,  whose  service  was  re- 
quired only  for  one  month  iu  the  year.  The  mines  felt 
the  benefit  of  this  regulation.  The  minerals  of  Bel- 
gium consist  of  coal,  iron,  and  calamine.  As  soon  as 
the  union  had  been  formed,  and  laboren  became  less 
scarce,  a  great  impetus  was  communicated  to  thii 
branch  of  industry ;  and  companies  were  formed,  who 
were  most  lilieraUy  repaid  by  the  profit  of  their  invest- 
ment* in  thi*  branch  of  industry,  which  was  augment- 
ed from  year  to  year  as  long  a*  Belgium  and  Holland 
constitntod  one  kingdom.    By  the  ezoitanent  com* 


BIL 


161 


BBL 


mnaieatod  to  minbig,  th*  provlncM  of  Utgt  aad  HaU 
nsnlt,  u4  a  part  of  Munur,  wan  grutljr  tnrlolMil  i 
and  a  oompany  fbrnwd  to  oxplort  the  mlnM  of  Lnxom- 
bourg  were  amply  rewarded  In  their  labon  and  their 
proAtf,  till  Interrupted  by  internal  commotloni.  The 
varioui  branchei  of  manufiioturing  Inddltry  received 
a  ilmllar  Impulae,  though  at  firit  they  were  checked 
by  the  peace.  The  continental  lyitem  of  Bonaparte 
had  given  a  factitious  encouragement  to  tome  article* 
of  manufacture,  which  ceaied  with  the  return  of  peace ; 
and,  till  the  formation  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, many  branches  were  depressed  by  the  rivalry 
of  foreign  goods  in  the  market*  to  which  they  had  ac- 
ceu.  But  as  soon  aa  the  Junction  was  completod,  a 
stimulus  was  given  to  the  manufacturers,  by  opening 
to  their  goods  the  market*  of  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  those  of  alt  countries  with  which  the  Hollanders 
bad  traded.  The  Iron  manufactures  of  Liege  advanced 
rapidly  in  prosperity ;  the  woolen  manufactures  of  Ver- 
viers  felt  most  powerfully  a  similar  impulsion;  and 
many  large  estabiishmeat*  were  formed  at  Ghent  and 
other  places,  where  cotton  goods  were  fabricated  which 
rivaled  those  of  England,  and  so  far  surpassed  those 
of  France  that  much  of  the  goods  was  sold  by  the  con- 
traband trade  in  that  kingdom.  The  opening  of  the 
Scheldt  was  the  necessary  effect  of  the  formation  of  the 
united  kingdom.  Merchants  from  various  countrie* 
formed  establishments  with  Urge  capitals  at  Antwerp ) 
its  docks  became  crowded  with  ships  from  all  countries ; 
Its  warehouses  were  loaded  with  colonial  and  other  prod- 
uce ;  and  It  advanced  rapidly  to  a  rivalry  with  Amster- 
dam, Rotterdam,  and  Hamburg  in  the  transit  trade  to 
the  interior  of  Germany. 


TIn  following  table  shows  the  anBaal  IneaaN  aad 
expenditure  fer  the  tvm  years  preceding  1861 : 


1844. 
1846. 
1846. 
184T. 
1848. 
1848. 
1860. 


M8,8io,aas 

U0,8eB,tOl 
114,««4,04S 
118,888,0(8 
l48,llT,8e« 
lt8,STl,49r 
18t,eTT,18T 


VrMM, 
1«^I8B,«T 

184,88»,84» 

m,nt;iT4 

I86,0«I,8M» 
ltt,Mr,0l» 

iis,Tan,to4 


The  number  of  works,  In  lUO,  for  the  prsparation  of 
Iron  was  861,  steel  I,  lead  8,  copper  20,  sine  19,  alum 
2,  glass  85 1  18,223  workmen  were  engaged,  and  thv 
value  of  the  produe*  was  61,261,4(7  franc*.  There  U 
a  decrease  of  87  per  cent,  on  the  average  of  the  three 
years  preceding  1848,  as  compared  with  the  three  sub- 
sequent, in  the  iron  manufacture.  During  the  former 
period  the  demand  for  Iron  was  great,  and  the  prices 
were  augmented  by  the  number  of  railways  eonstruel- 
ing  In  Belgium  and  other  countries. 

The  population  of  Belgium  In  1881  was  8,785,814 ; 
Inl840,4,078,lti2;  and  in  1860, 4,426,208;  distributtd 
asf>>Uowii 


IBM. 

ISW.             IS5*.       1 

Aiitwus>i> 

e<l,6!8 
608,916 
T4S,«T8 

6is,m 

870,080 
160,080 
1(0,T61 
9I8,T84 

87l,li>7 
(91,079 
646,064 
7T»,4(6 
(«1,T0I 
410,171 
1(0,90(1 
174,7111 
188,868 

4Mi,6fi6 
784,617 
(81,187 

7SMei> 

7US,740 
4(7,848 
ISBilfS 
l»i,B88 
974,078 

Unbsitt 

Went  KUiiden 

I':uit  Flendan 

lUtnault 

LIsge  

Namur 

Total ,.. 

8,785,814 

4,(»y^i6« 

4,4>^6,S02 

CouHtaoiAL  Statistios  of  Bautau  roa  tbi  Yba»  IBM. 


Coa&trtM. 


If  o.  ot 
VaiMla. 


Toiuaf*. 


Cargo. 


Nuaabar  of 
Man. 


Ko.  of 
Vaaaala. 


Toaaaga. 


Cargo. 


Huads 

8wedea  and  Norway 

Dtnmork 

Pruisia 

Mecklenburg 

Hanse  Towns 

Hanover  and  Oldenburg . 

Netlierlanda 

Oreat  BriUUn 

France 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sardinia 

Auitria 

Sicily 

United  States 

Argentina  Conrederatlon. 

Pern 

Uelglum 

Total,  year  1880 


5 

149 

(8 

108 

88 

M 

110 

176 

1040 

186 

8 

69 

9 

1 

10 

100 

8 

1 

419 


9679 


1,046 

96,876 

7,8.10 

94,614 

18,166 

19,646 

18,407 

91,166 

186,9(7 

18,778 

877 

8,699 

1,846 

186 

1,827 

74,898 

088 

1T9 

101,804 

691,704 


tuu. 

1,048 

t«,84« 

7,699 

94,876 

18,166 

11,199 

18,094 

11,070 

186,874 

16,885 

877 

8,960 

1,840 

185 

1,S97 

T4,76T 

(98 

1T9 

71,164 


09 

1,164 

443 

978 

785 

687 

703 

1,068 

11,709 

1,997 

80 

865 

111 

11 

10} 

1,876 

80 

8 

8,049 


485,856 


27,573 


8 

140 
68 

108 

89 

60 

107 

197 

1080 

181 

8 

66 

• 

9 

11 

104 

8 

1 

_428_ 

2697 


1,8(7 
96,980 

7,815 
94,479 
10,175 
18,000 
19,185 
98,480 
190,68( 

1,0(» 

1,978 

T(,584 

798 

179 

108,684 


I    684,497 


Taaa. 

976 

B,26( 

4,070 

4,400 

1,689 

4,117 

6,007 

18,095 

69,209 

11,908 

223 

4,773 

1,449 

098 

1,746 

92,678 

9 

48,927 
1MI,09S 


79 

1,926 

461 

971 

820 

690 

664 

1,920 

ll,n8 

1,96S 

SO 

888 

107 

81 

120 

1,090 

84 

10 

6,081 


I    27,u;f. 


I  weta 


There  are  nineteen  chambers  of  commerce  and  man- 
ufacture establibhed  in  the  principal  towns,  the  mem- 
bers uf  which  are  nominated  by  tlie  king  from  a  triple 
list  of  candidates  presented  to  him  by  the  chambers. 
The  meinliers  of  earh  vary  in  number  from  nine  to 
twenty-one,  one-third  going  out  annually. 

AUtratioru  and  Miiijicaliom  in  the  Tariff,  Tonnagt 
Vutiei,  and  Port  Regulation!  of  Belgium,  hg  Adi  of  the 
12th  dag  of  April,  and  the  30th  dag  of  March,  1855.— A 
law  of  the  21st  July,  1844,  article  6,  authorizes  the 
government  to  provide,  by  royal  order,  the  necessary 
measures  for  admitting  the  products  of  Asia,  AfHca, 
and  America,  imported  direct  Into  Belgium  under  the 
flag  of  the  countries  of  production,  or  of  the  countries 
whence  imported,  on  the  same  terms  as  if  Imported 
under  the  Belgian  flag,  provided  Belgian  Wssels  are 
placed  in  such  countries  on  an  equality  with  the  na- 
tional flag.  By  royal  order  of  the  12th  July,  1864, 
this  law  Is  made  applicable  to  Mexieen  vessels  and 
products.  The  law  of  8th  June,  1868j  provides  that 
the  government  is  empowered  to  allow  vessels  proceed- 
ing firom  transatlantio  countries,  or  from  «  port  beyond 
L 


the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  to  touch  at  an  Intermediate 
port,  whether  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  orders  nr 
carrying  on  eemmerelal  transactions  by  discharging 
or  receiving  cargoes.  This  law,  being  of  limited  durn- 
tion,  is  continued  in  force  until  the  Slat  day  of  March, 
1866,  by  the  law  of  80th  March,  1866.*  The  law  of 
the  11th  of  June,  1863,  authorizes  the  government  to 
admit,  free  of  duty,  machines,  new  or  improved  ma- 
chinery imported  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  new 
branches  of  industry  or  perfecting  those  already  esteb- 
lished,  or  for  agric<)ltnnl  purposes ;  also,  steam-vessels 
constructed  on  a  new  principle  or  improved  plan,  or 
such  as  could  be  regarded  as  models.  This  law  is  con- 
tinued in  force  to  the  24th  day  of  May,  185fi,  by  law  of 
4th  June,  1866. 

*  This  lav  suspends  the  prsetleal  operatfen  of  the  Tth  ar- 
ticle of  the  treaty  of  November  10, 1845,  between  the  United 
Slates  and  Belgium,  which  rutrtct*  the  equality  of  flogs  In 
Belgian  ports  to  direct  Importations  from  porta  In  the  United 
States.  Under  Its  opemtlon  the  flag  of  the  United  States  Is 
equalized  with  the  Belgian,  whether  the  vessel  proceeds  ftoit 
a  port  in  tha  Vnited  State*  or  not 


Ti«rr  UhmmMi*  I  oa>i. 


V  .%L  lain  r.  t  ltai»-JutiiH 


Ihr  building,  B  oMUnwtru  or  untfw  In  irWHh  fW iMtMl.o ,,, 

Amair,  l&i  w>t  Uquon  vttnrr  klMli 

lBbunli,MrkM«olUn ;iiV.li 

lab*«tiMi,fMorM<M«totb«lM««<iUli«,  pwlMMHM,. ,....,,., , 

TMi»JWMtn • ■ .#.... ...... ...I  •«..§.... 

CoflM,  ROB  eounliy  of  f  nducliaa  dlnct  i 

hi  ntttooal  TMMtait  v«r  MO  yiHui4> ....>..,......... 

bUgnlcnnmta.pM'noiMiuiida ......A.............. 

From  other  piMM  I 

]■  nallsBAk ▼MMlit  ptfMOpoandi ...•....«.««*.........*......*..... 

la  fcntcn TMMla,  per  IM pmoAi .......>>........>...... 

OiaMnon  aiKl  «■*•!*  Il|na: 

orohlaa,  per  MOpoandi ^ 

Of  CoyhmMd  other  piMM,  per  tWp«Mdf 

PoiMi4povl  ■■hoM •*• **t*»*«*f  umitttttt  titiiti*tti  I  * 

nu  la  hulk,  ud  other  vegetiMa  AluoeaU  MtallMrviM  tmOMtMU,  fttUt  fiMntt 

Home  Md  hone-apo  of  oxen,  eowi,  ete. , 

Cotton,  new *'"'v .»»•». ,,»»»»#»««*»»»»*»»#i.i.,*«» 

UidWMdMaummloaneduiddr^,  p«rlWppVBd«. 

dipping* 

Copper  oWt ,».•»..»*«#»»»».»#««»«#»«. I, *..« 

lpla*a,aotepecl*UrenuDwroted , ,.,„.,,„„, 

Tin,  emde 

Oingcr ..«.. 


Tar • • ,,,»,tiititi>t>ittnnii*t,f 

runecd.  Imported  diract  from  Rlgo,  from  til  Aug,  la  tat  April.  vpMi  |ft«f  of  orlgtn 

Fat,  tallow,  and  lard,  perlMpoundi 

Oil,  of  palm,  eoeoa,  Touloaeuna,  per  ISO  pounde ,, ,... 

Indigo ..,,.,.,,,.,......,,... >.>...,. 

Honejr,  per  no  poonde 

MarWe,  In  Moeki  and  rough 

Lead  on  and  old  lawl ....■■ 


Herring!,  other  than  m  dry  alt  and  pMhMLMrlMO...,, 

Codflih,  ptakled  or  In  drjr  laH,  per  tun  oriU  la  MO  kHofrawMM . 

BtoekflibiperMOponndi 

Pepper  and  plmaato,  per  no  pounde , 

Quenltron  berk 

Wee,  not  hulled,  or  paddy,  dlreet  from  eounlfle*  of  pndMtlM  I 

In  national  reeeeli,  per  WO  pounde 

In  fcwlgn  TiWeli,  par  MO  panada 

From  etaewheni 

In  national  Teeeela,  per  WO  pounde 


In  foreln  Tiaeila,  par  WO  poundi . 
Blet,  hulled,  mm  the  counttTof  produatlon,  or  from  tiannHaMIe  cotMlilee  i 

In  national  Teeeela,  perWOpounda , 

In  forelga  teeeela,  porWOpounda 

From  eleewherei 

In  national  maeela,  par  no  pounda >.............,..,... 

In  foreign TCieela,  perWDpounda 

SaKpatre,  enidc,  per  iM  pounde , 

8«ap,Iiaid,  pernOpounda ,...,...,.,....,,.,.....,.,,,,.... 

Simp  and  molaeaea  of  even  kind,  per  SiO  pound*......,.....,..,,. 

Tobaeeo— Havana,  F«rta  Ueo,  Columbia,  ani  OrinoM,  dlmat  f»Mi  tmiMltaalla 
coontrleai 

In  national  Taaaele,  per  WO  poundi ,...,....,...>.,...,........,..,,,. 

In  foreign  Tcaeele,  per  ttO  pound* .,,., 

From  eleewberei 

In  national  Tcaaala,  par  WO  pound* ..,...,................<............ 

In  foreign  veaaeU,  perWOponndi 

Tobacco— StDomlnga,  or  Weit  India*,  direct  from  tiMMailMll*  (OunMeii 

In  national  reaaela,  per  WO  pound* 

In  foreign  Timili,  per  WO  pound* .............................. 

Fromelanrbere: 

In  national  reaeel*,  perWOpoond* 

In  foreign  veaael*,  per  WO  pouad* 

Other  klad*  of  tolmeco,  of  eouniHe*  out  of  Ean|«,  dlrtet  fttm  touhUy  of  pndiwtioa, 
or  tranmtlantlo  aooatri**  t 

In  natianal  veaeeia,  per  no  pamda. ............................ ........... 

In  foreign  Tciaela,  per  WO  pound*,,. ................................ ....... 

Fnmeliewheres 

In  national  TCeeele,  per  no  peonll..... 

In  foreign  veaeda,  perMOponada.... 

Tea,  parWOponnja 


:'gi»rr 


ii3 


ltd 

*n 
in 

«M 

."♦ 
Int. 

^* 

Ffaa. 

Fn*. 

0001 
Fre*. 
Fre*. 

I M  per  emt. 


Free. 

I W  per  cent 

ad  Talomn. 

Fr*« 

f^ 

M 

Freo. 

Free. 
Fre*. 

1  M 

««« 

Free. 

dS 
60 

84 

04 

1  80 
!«• 

1  » 

%» 

«I 

«T» 

ISM 


9  74 

too 
1  n 

%  19 


1  M 
Sl( 

*0« 
1  w 

It  10 


i.fn.*t'»^WJ^..» 


AaHl  11,  IMM. 
War.  •0,l«ee. 


Mot.  so,  1S64. 


Mar.  80,  186b 


•  WIthIa  the  year  ending 


SaftemI 
I,  Oualc 


iher  SO,  tlDSk  change*  Mid  modMaoltaii*  ba««  Im»ii  made  In  the  general  cnitoma  tarlffii  of 


Mexico,  New  Oranada,  Peru,  Oualemala,  Ion  Haivador,  (ia*l*  Maa,  Turkcr,  llell^tfm,  llollaad,  PDrtugal,  England  and  her 
dependendea,  and  France ;  but  Inaamucb  a*  tbcw  lorUb,  liiu*  modMod  or  CMllged,  will  appear  in  delaU  In  the  aniwer  to  the 
naolotlcn  of  the  Houae  of  RepreeentatlTC*  of  Deeembf  r  14,  tlH,  now  in  cotifM  of  preparation  at  the  8tate  Department,  the 
eiiangaa  In  the  tedtt  of  Belgium,  HoUaad,  Portogal,  nefimid*,  and  N«wfo)iiidhind,  afx  alone  giren  in  the  pment  report  in 
tabular  form;  aad  thoae  In  tb*  taiiflk  of  Bngtaad  WMl  Fna**  by  *b*tiMt«<f  Ik*  act*  aad  dea«**of  thegovcnment*  ofthoaa 
eountrlea  re^ieetlTCly. 
t  'Wherever  the  term  "naUonat  TeauU"  oeenn,  It  i*  to  b*  nndmlaod  u  applleaU*  to  nwela  of  the  United  State*. 


IMH,  a  well-known  initramcnt,  rankod  \>y  niMi* 
dans  among  the  miuical  initmment*  of  porciiation. 
Bells  were  a*ad  among  the  Jew*,  Qnak*,  Roman 
Catholic*,  and  beathens.  The  reiponi**  of  tba  Do. 
domean  oracle  were  in  part  convejred  bjr  ImU*.— SntA. 
BO.  The  monument  of  Ponenna  waa  dooor«t*4  b)' 
pinnacle*,  each  lurmennted  hy  tell*.— PLur.  lain- 
daeed  by  Panlinni,  bliboii  «f  Nob*  is  CwpifMy 


•bout  A.».  4M>.  Flnt  known  In  France  in  660.  The 
•rmy  of  Clothalr  it.,  king  of  France,  wai  frightened 
froia  tlM  ti«g«  of  Sen*  by  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of 
M.  Stephen's  cbarch.  The  second  Excerption  of  the 
Knglisb  King  E((b«rt  commands  every  priest,  at  the 
proiMr  boar*,  to  sa«nd  the  hells  of  his  chnrch.  Bells 
won  used  in  church**  by  order  of  Pope  John  IX.,  ai  a 
rft^WWf  bf  rinfkf  tiMm,  agmmH  (Aimder  and  ligklmmf^ 
■A 


BEN 


t€i 


BKN 


■bout  9M,  FInl  rn  <t  In  KngUn4  by  Torktytfl,  rhun- 
mllnr  o<  EagUnd,  iindMr  Rdmund  I.  HIa  •ncrcMor 
Improvad  th«  InvaMion,  Mil  ciutMl  tha  llrirt  tunable 
■at  to  lia  put  op  at  CrayUnd  Abbey,  MO.— Htowb, 

OfMt  Bell  (f  m.  Pmir>,  w«l(hi 8,400  lb*. 

OrMi  Tom  of  LtaMoln,  mfcha *,»*  " 

Omt  Tom  of  Oiford,  walflM 11,000  " 

Bell  of  th*  Pdauo,  FlonDoc,  welghi. .    IT.OOO  *■ 

M.fMM'a.slIlama.wclghi I«,a0ft  •• 

UraM  Ball  tl  ErAirth,  wrigha M,tt4  " 

8t  iTU'a  Ball,  Meaaow,  valgba iaT,8M  " 

Oall  of  Iha  KramUn,  walgha Ma,TIS  " 

Th*  l«it  U  the  great  nnsuapendad  IwH,  the  wonder  of 
traveleri.  Iti  metal  alone  ii  valued,  at  a  very  Iot 
ealculation,  at  466,606  itarllng.  In  Ita  fiialon  great 
quantitlee  of  gold  and  allver  were  thrown  in  at  votive 
ofleringi  l>}'  the  people. — IIayiin. 

B«U-in«tal,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  Uinally  In 
the  proportion  of  HO  parte  of  copper  to  90  parti  of  tin. 
Zinc  generally  entera  Into  tha  eompotition  of  amall 
■hrill  Ixlla.  liy  analyai*  Dr.  Thompaon  foumi  an  En> 
gilah  liclWmetal  to  conaiit  of  800  parta  of  copper,  101 
tin,  66  line,  and  43  lead.  The  thickneaa  of  a  bell'a 
•dge  Is  uauully  l-16th  of  the  diameter,  and  Ita  height 
la  twelve  timci  its  thickness.  The  bi'll-foundcra  have 
a  diapason,  or  acnlo,  wherewith  they  meaauro  the  size, 
thicknest,  weight,  and  tone  of  their  liclls. — E.  B. 

Bandinc,  in  Nautical  language,  the  tying  of  tw« 
ropei  or  caViea  together ;  thus,  to  bend  lh»  eablt,  is  to 
make  it  fait  to  the  ring  of  tha  anchor;  tobendlheml, 
to  make  it  faat  to  the  yard. 

Bends,  In  a  ahip,  more  generally  called  walet,  are 
the  thickeit  and  stoutest  planks  in  her  aide,  on  which 
men  tot  their  feet  when  climbing  up.  They  form  the 
chief  atrength  of  a  ship'a  sides,  and  have  the  beams, 
kneet,  and  foot-hoolu  bolted  to  them. 

Bengal,  the  largest  and  moet  important  division  of 
HIndoatan,  altuate  toward  its  eoatem  extremity,  and 
containing  Calcutta,  the  seat  of  the  Britiah  govern- 
ment In  India,  Excluding  the  posaesslons  of  the  na- 
tive priooet,  over  which  the  Britiah  government  mere- 
ly exereliei  political  supremacy,  and  excluding  also 
the  Punjab  aud  the  Agra,  or  northweatern  provincea, 
which  are  administered  by  functionaries  having  the 
powers  and  authority  of  lieutenant  governors,  the  tract 
eirbraced  within  the  presidency  of  Bengal  lies  between 
10°  and  28°  N.  lat.,  and  between  M'  and  99°  E.  long. 
Its  most  northern  extremity  Is  situate  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Assam,  and  its  moet  to'ithem  point  lies  on  the 
coast  of  Tenaaserlm.  The  district  of  Mirzapore,  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  tha  lieutenant  governor  of  Agra, 
forma  the  extreme  boundary  on  tb^  'vest,  and  the  fron- 
tier of  Slum  constitutes  its  most  eastern  lii)nit.  The 
longest  line  which  could  be  drawn  with  extremities  ly- 
ing within  the  limits  of  the  presidency,  is  that  in  a  di- 
rection from  southeast  to  northwest,  from  the  Pak  Chan 
River,  in  Tenaaserlm,  to  the  northwestern  angle  of  the 
district  of  Sarun,  where  the  River  Gunduck  issues  from 
the  mountains  of  Nepaul,  in  lat.  27°  26',  h>ng.  88°  65', 
and  would  measure  about  1560  miles  in  length.  A 
considerable  part  of  this  line  would,  however,  Ue  across 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Tha  longest  lino  that  could  be 
drawn  without  crossing  the  buy  is  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  flrom  the  boundary  of  Assam  to  that  of  the 
British  district  of  Palamow,  a  distance  of  about  870 
miles.  The  extreme  breadth  of  tha  presidency,  meas- 
ured at  right  angles  to  this  last-stated  line,  is  about  465 
miles,  bearing  from  southeast  to  northwest,  fi-om  the 
mouth  of  the  Hooghly  to  the  exit  of  the  Gunduck  from 
the  mountains  of  Nepaul.  Tho  area  of  the  presidency, 
as  thus  defined,  amounts  to  226, 103  tquaret  railei. 

Bengal,  especially  as  it  approitchca  the  sea,  may  be 
designated  a  level  country.  Even  In. Its  northern 
IVontier,  it  is  reached  only  on  one  point  by  any  of  the 
branchea  that  diverge  from  the  Himalayas.  A  spur 
ttom  the  great  culminating  range  bounds  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  Assam;  and  thence  taking  a 
toutherly  direction  through  the  native  States  of  Mun- 


neepnre  and  Independent  TIpperah,  (brma  tlra  eattam 
ftmntler  ofthe  British  diatrlct  of  ChitUgong.  Contin- 
ning  fVom  thia  |iolnt  ita  aoutherly  course,  It  atrelelMa, 
under  the  name  of  the  Yoomadoung  Mountains,  throagh 
the  province  of  Arraoan  to  III  aouthemmott  point  at 
Cape  Ntgraia,  forming  the  weatem  boundary  of  tha 
valley  of  the  Irrawaddy.  ThIa  apur  where  it  touehea 
upon  Aaaam  attilna  an  elevation  of  14,640  feet  alnva 
the  level  of  the  aea,  and  there  Itt  tumuiit  It  covered 
with  perennial  mow. 

The  soli  of  to  extensive  a  province  Yariee,  of  eoartt, 
In  Its  character  and  fertility  with  the  physical  pacul- 
larltlea  of  tho  country.  In  the  level  tract  interlaced 
by  the  Ganges  anil  Brahmapootra,  with  their  numer- 
ons  branches  and  trlbntarlea,  the  soil  Is  alluvUl,  itt 
basis  iMing  compoaed  of  sand,  on  which  are  annual- 
ly deposited,  by  the  retiring  waters,  clay,  ealcareo<it 
matter,  and  other  fertllliing  subttancet.  In  the  tractt 
which  lie  beyond  the  reach  of  bmndation,  It  it  marked 
by  dlffierent  degrees  of  productiveness,  from  the  dry  and 
arid  rocks  of  the  southwestern  fW)ntier  overrun  with 
brushwood,  to  the  hills  of  Chlttugong  and  Tenatserlm 
clothed  with  migulllrent  forests.  Taken  aa  a  whole, 
however,  tho  soil  of  Bengal,  enriched  aa  it  la  by  the 
combined  influence  at  flerce  suna  and  deluging  rains, 
may  be  tald  to  be  characterized  by  an  amazing  fertil- 
ity. Itt  productiona  are  those  both  of  the  tropical  and 
the  temperate  climates.  Of  the  grains  which  contrib- 
ute to  the  sulislstenco  of  man,  rice  is  of  the  first  import- 
ance :  it  is  the  great  staple  of  Bengal  agriculture,  is 
particularty  luxuriant  within  the  tract  of  inundation, 
and  thrives  in  all  the  southern  districts.  It  is  sown 
after  the  first  sliowers  at  the  end  of  March  down  to  the 
setting  in  uf  the  rainy  season,  and  occupies  a  period 
ranging  (according  to  its  variety,  of  which  there  are 
three  principal  denominations)  from  three  to  Ave 
months  to  ripen.  The  early  crop  is  sown  broadcatt ; 
the  later  crop,  after  the  seed  has  attained  the  height 
of  a  few  inches,  is  planted  with  the  hand  in  rowii  at  tha 
distance  of  alwut  a  foot  asunder.  The  rice  harvest  it 
succeeded  by  the  cold-weather  crops,  which  are  sown 
in  autumn  and  reaped  in  spring.  The}-  consist  chiefly 
of  retches,  gram,  barley,  peas,  mustard,  etc.  Millet 
and  other  small  grains,  sown  at  the  Iwginning  of  the 
rains  and  reaped  at  the  end,  constitute  the  food  of  the 
poorer  classes,  and,  bearing  a  very  low  price,  are  of  inw 
portance.  Maize  is  less  cultivated  in  Bengal  than  in 
those  countries  where  the  climate  it  more  suitable, 
having  no  preference  above  millet  to  compensate  for 
the  greater  labor  required  for  its  culture.  Potatoes 
have  lately  lieen  introduced  into  Bengal,  and  have 
succeeded  well.  They  are  suited  to  the  climate ;  and 
the  smallpotato  is  little  inferior  to  that  raised  in  En- 
gland. Esculent  plants  are  found  In  Bengal  In  great 
abundance  and  variety.  The  different  species  of  the 
cucumber  are  much  more  numerous  than  in  Europe, 
and  whole  fields  are  covered  with  them.  Tho  water- 
melon is  of  incredible  size ;  and  its  stalk,  leaves,  and 
blossoms  form  a  finely  variegated  matting,  with  which 
most  of  the  cottages  In  tha  villages  are  entirely  covered. 

The  universal  and  vast  consumption  of  vegetable 
oils  which  takes  place  in  Bengal  is  supplied  by  the  ex- 
tensive cultivation  of  mustard,  linseed,  sesamum,  and 
palma-christi,  in  addition  to  the  produce  obtained  from 
the  cocoa-nut.  The  sesamum  comes  to  maturity  during 
the  rains,  or  soon  after  them,  the  others  during  the  cold 
season.  Among  the  most  important  of  the  commercial 
crops  are  tobacco,  sugar,  the  opium  poppy,  indigo,  cot- 
ton, and  silk,  most  of  which  require  land  solely  appro- 
priated to  their  peculiar  culture ;  of  late  years  coffee 
has  been  succeesfVilly  cultivated.  Tobacco,  which  was 
unknown  In  India  l)efore  the  discovery  of  America,  it 
now  produced  every  where.  The  sugar-cane  has  flour- 
ished in  Bengal  from  the  remotest  times;  there  la 
scarcely  a  district  in  which  ita  cultivation  is  not  pur- 
sued with  success,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  ita 
production,  except  the  demand  for  it.    It  is  cheaply 


■X, 


BEN 


IM 


BEN 


•nd  fhif(«Uy  manuracturwi  i  and  m  it  now  anUiN  th*  | 
British  market  on  wiual  tarnu  with  Wnt  Iiiilia  auKitr, 
It  fwint  Ml  liiiportaiit  artlcU  uf  export.  The  iiiuniifac- 
tsr^  of  Indigo  «pp«ar<  to  have  bean  known  and  prac- 
tlcaa  In  Utngal  trom  an  tarty  ptrind  j  and  (Voin  tha 
Kaat  Eumpa  waa  luppllad  with  thia  dye  until  tlia  iu- 

Cirlor  piwluva  of  America  engroaaed  the  niarketa. 
uropaan  akill  has,  however,  auceaotled  in  reviving 
this  liranch  ot  trade  in  Uengal,  and  the  indigo  now  ex- 
ported from  this  preiideni'y  amounts  to  fiva-sixtha  of 
tha  supply  olAalned  fW>m  ibn  whole  world,  Cotton  is 
ralaad  In  abundance,  but  the  produce  soarcety  exoeeda 
tha  eensamption  ;  and  the  demand  of  the  Uritish  and 
China  markets  for  the  cotton  wool  of  India  ia  almoat 
wholly  supplied  ttom  the  western  side  of  the  country. 
Silk  is  an  ancient  product  of  India;  the  ailkwonn,  it  Is 
said,  being  originally  introduced  from  China.  Former- 
ly tha  raw  material  waa  brought  drum  India  to  Ureece 
and  Italy,  whence  Kurope  was  chiefly  supplied.  Den- 
gti  still  carries  on  a  trade  in  this  valuable  article; 
and  although  the  quality  is  scarcely  equal  to  the  finest 
Italian  silk,  the  annunl  export  from  Calcutta  exceed* 
In  value  half  a  million  sterling.  A  coarse  species  of 
allk  la  procured  from  the  wild  silkworm,  w  hich  is  found 
In  the  countries  bordering  on  Bengal,  and  in  several 
districts  included  within  it.  It  is  renilered  usefiil  In 
tha  fabrication  of  infirior  silks,  thongh  liearing  no  com- 
parison to  the  produce  of  the  domestioated  insect.  The 
cultivation  of  the  poppy  ia  entirely  regulated  and  con- 
trollad  liy  the  government.  Annual  contracts  are  mad« 
with  tha  farmers  to  sow  certain  quantities  of  land  with 
tha  plant,  and  to  deliver  the  produce  to  the  government 
In  tha  form  of  opium  at  a  flxed  price.  The  sowings 
commence  In  Novenilier,  and  the  crop  arrives  at  ma- 
turity Ijy  the  end  of  Fcliruary.  The  revenue  realixed 
by  the  government  from  the  sale  of  opium  produced  in 
Be.igal  alone  amounts  to  between  two  and  three  mill- 
kma  sterling  per  annum, 

Tha  orchard  is  a  great  object  of  cultivation  with  the 
paaaant  In  Bengal ;  and  it  attaches  him  to  his  native 
soil,  flrom  the  almost  siiperstltious  predilection  whicli 
ha  liebi  for  the  trees  planted  by  his  ancestor.  The  sea- 
font,  however,  from  the  long  continuance  of  the  rains, 
which  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  aummer,  are  not 
narileularly  fa%-orable  for  liringing  flruit  to  maturity ; 
yat  the  orange,  lime,  shaddock,  citron,  tamarind,  and 
ether  Aruita,  may  be  reckoned  among  the  productions 
of  Bei^al,  Orchards  of  mango,  a  tree  thriving  with 
little  oare,  and  yielding  a  fr^ait  esteemed  one  of  tlie  best 
among  those  of  India,  divcnlfy  the  plains,  In,size  and 
foliage  this  tree  resemblu)  ttia  .Spanish  chestnut ;  its 
fruit  la  extremely  delicio'is,  and  is  said  to  surpass  in 
flavor  tha  largo  yellow  pouch  of  Venice.  Another 
fralt  tree  is  the  cocoa-nut,  voluable  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  nut,  from  which  a  superior  oil  it  large- 
ly extracted,  but  in  consideration  also  of  its  timber, 
which  Is  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  construction  of  water- 
pipaa  and  other  useftil  purposes.  Even  the  husk  which 
envelops  the  fruit  furnithea  a  fibre  from  which  the  beat 
cordage  Is  manufaetured.  The  mullierry  is  extensive- 
ly plulted  In  contideratinu  of  its  leaves,  which  iifTord 
the  food  of  the  silkworm.  Assam  abounds  with  tho 
genuine  tea  plant ;  and  the  l««sia  thriven  in  various 
localities,  especially  in  the  hillv  'list!  -stt.  Iti  produce 
it  aaculent  and  nutritious,  ani<  its  ers  yield  an  in- 
toxlf^atlng  spirit.  From  its  w«de  ia  pressed  an  all 
which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  fubst!'  'or  'jutter, 
There  are  also  valuable  forest  tr«..  a,  nv.iirjiv  ''  ulch  may  ' 
be  noticed  the  teak,  equal  to  tho  .)«k  t  i'  _.  'pos^  .if  ' 
thlp-bnilding,  the  sal,  and  the  banyan.  T'h  t  i^  h/.JO  ' 
the  bamboo,  which,  being  hollow,  light,  iwd  .scooij,  la 
tervicaable  in  supplying  the  pea.isnt  Viith  ,Ht(  rials 
for  hit  buildings,  as  well  as  for  the  nianubcture  of 
baaketa,  matt,  and  other  articles  of  like  character,  to 
which,  when  split,  its  flexilde  flbre  is  well  adapted. 

Minerali. — From  the  alluvial  character  of  the  great- 
•r  portion  of  the  soil  of  Bengal,  no  great  amount  of 


mineral  wealth  is  to  U  aipactad.  In  the  hilly  traatt, 
huwaver,  both  In  tha  ••stem  and  wealam  parts  of  tlia 
country,  two  of  the  nuMt  useful  yrmlucta  which  tha 
mineral  kingdom  ran  lioast,  coal  and  iron  om,  sxiat  In 
abundance,  tioid,  in  tha  form  of  dost,  ia  found  in  a 
few  placaa,  but  nut  in  (|uantities  tuMotent  to  encourage 
to  any  extent  the  search  for  it, 

Manii/hrtiirf  ami  (\«MMrcs.— Cotton  place  goods 
form  tha  staple  manufacture  of  Bengal;  though  tlia 
use  of  Indian  fabrics  of  this  description  in  Kurops  has 
almost  entirety  ceased,  wliile  even  In  India  thf  ilomand 
for  them  has  been  in  a  great  degree  anperanded  by  tha 
cheaper  gooda  of  Ureat  Britain,  The  district  4if  Dacca, 
la  tlM  eastern  quarter  of  Bengal,  has  long  been  flinied 
for  the  manutiicturt  of  plain  muslins,  distinguished  by 
various  namoa  according  to  the  Hneness  and  the  closa- 
nast  of  their  texture,  as  well  as  fur  rioweiad,  striped,  or 
checkerad  muslins  of  the  most  beautiful  and  axquislta 
flilirics,  Heveral  kinds  more  closely  woven  ara  nianu- 
fuctured  on  tha  western  side  of  the  delta  of  the  Uanget ; 
but  those  of  a  more  rigid  texture  do  not  seem  to  be  lim- 
ited to  particular  districts:  coarse  turbana  and  hand- 
kurcbicfa  ara  alao  made  In  almoat  every  province.  Un- 
der the  general  appellation  of  calicoca  ara  Included 
varioua  spsoiea  of  cloth  which  ara  atlll  distinguished 
liy  their  Indian  drsignationt.  Moorshadabad  and  its 
■eighlmrhood  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  silk  manufacture. 

The  internal  trade  of  Beugul  consists  chiefly  in  the 
exportation  from  Ihu  grain  districts  of  corn  and  rice  in 
I'Xi'hungo  for  salt.  The  supply  uf  this  article  In  Iten- 
gal  is  provided  partly  by  manufacture  con  lucted  on 
account  of  the  govrmincut,  partly  l)y  importation,  and 
to  a  small  extent  by  private  manufacture  under  a  sys- 
tem of  excise.  The  duty  on  all  imported  salt  is  at  the 
rate  of  Ave  shillings  on  82  pounds,  or  aliout  three  far- 
thinga  per  pound  |  and  the  same  rate  of  duty  ia  levied 
on  the  home  manufacture  '>f  tha  article,  the  prima  cost 
of  which  amounts  to  «)>riiit  ana  farthing  par  pound. 
The  wholesale  pricn  ol  >  it  at  Calcutta  may  tlierefore 
lie  estimated  at  one  r  wiy  thn  pound.  Its  supply  is  no 
longer  a  monopolv  -,  for  thitiijh  the  manufacture  and 
sale  have  not  b<.ou  rellnquuhed  l)y  the  government, 
yet  the  public  participate  in  its  provision,  under  a 
combined  system  of  cuatoma  and  excise.  The  net  rev- 
enue derived  from  salt  by  the  govenimiint  within  the 
presidency  of  Bengal  exceeds  a  million  and  a  half 
sterling  per  annum. 

Salt  is  a  very  ancient  source  of  revenue  in  the  East ; 
but  a  feeling  againat  its  manufacture  lieing  carried  on 
by  the  govemmeot  haa  been  for  some  time  on  the  in- 
crease. During  the  parliamentary  session  of  18&R,  a 
clause  waa  proposed  to  be  inserted  in  the  India  bill, 
then  in  its  progrett  through  Pailiaroent,  forbidding  the 
manufacture  after  the  1st  May,  18&6 ;  and  though  op- 
posed by  the  ministry,  it  was  in  tha  House  of  Com- 
mons carried.  By  the  House  of  I^rda  it  was,  howev- 
er, rejected,  it  being  dc  ■  "d  unsafe  thus  suddenly  to 
diminish  tlie  resources  oi  !/\dia  by  so  large  an  amount 
as  that  of  the  revenue  produced  by  the  trade  as  at  prec 
cnt  conducted.  The  facilities  aftbrded  for  tlie  Intro 
duction  of  English  salt  have  for  several  years  past 
caused  a  great  increase  of  the  imported  article,  the 
quantity  received  in  Calcutta  in  the  oflicial  year 
1850-51  being  double  tliat  of  previous  years. 

The  internal  trade  of  Bengal  is  greatly  aided  by  the 
navigable  communications  which  intersect  the  country 
in  every  direction.  The  boats  used  in  this  navigation 
vary  in  fom:  and  constmction,  being  each  adapted  to 
the  natu'u  of  the  rivers  which  they  generally  traverse. 
Steam  navigation  has  liecn  introduced  u|)on  the  tianges 
with  suct.'ess .;  avi  the  Macadamized  trunk  road  from 
Calcutta  :r,  Delhi  has  afforded  facility  of  communica- 
tion with  the  capital  to  various  parts  of  the  presidency ; 
bat  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  the  rivers  and  roads  of  Bengal  will  alike  be- 
come subsidiary  to  the  great  arteries  of  communica- 
tion which,  in  the  form  of  railways,  are  now  com- 


165 


UKR 


■MfiHng  t«  IntofMrt  Ik*  eounlry.  Hm  lln*  Arom  CaU 
tutta  to  Hur4wan  li  •dvaneliiK  niplilly  lo  ronipUtlm  | 
fruM  IhU  polat  II  will  U  ««lliiu*il  In  a  northerly  <U- 
rw.'tion  to  lUJmnhaJ,  oa  th«  (lanittt,  whanrn  It  will 
tuvuna  Iba  hurt  of  th*  prnltlanvy  In  a  nurthw«urly 
illncllon  lo  Allahabad. 

Uangal  oarrlai  on  an  axlantlva  commarc*  with  Hrlt> 
ain.  Tha  an  porta  conalat  chlatly  ut  all  tha  aUpla  aril- 
olat  o/  Iha  cuunlry— aiich  aa  eollon,  ailh,  lUffar,  rum, 
and  Indira.  Tha  Import*  ara  malala  of  all  aorta, 
wruughl  and  iinwrougbl ;  wuolan  and  cotton  manufac- 
luraa  of  varlotia  kind*,  wlilr'i  can  !«  aani  from  llrllain 
and  aoM  ehaapar  tJia  '  'i.a 
■aina  daaurlptloi-  II  >id 

allver  liulUun ;     "  r\ 

ufaotura.  »f     .    >v« 

andUiaro        itaa<  t  ilandt 
ara  ehilly  .  "lun' 
<otlf>n  plM    .    o< 


ma  manufaeturaa  of  tha 
i.llury  aloraa ;  gold  and 
rtlcltiof  iirliUh  man- 
ia carried  un  to  China 
.  '  tha  CMt.    Tha  axporta 
r  dtpeiro,  (funpowdar,  cotton,  and 
B. 


Y(«  ilfal,  Bajr  oi  a  portion  of  tha  Indian  Ocaan  of 
Ih'  1  I  ufa  trlaMKla,  havliiK  on  lla  waalam  alda  tho 
I  >  .1  ilangal,  and  on  tha  aaal  the  coaal  of  Arrai^an, 
I'l  II,  ai<l  the  Malayan  peninsula.  Ita  two  alden,  from 
Uangal  lo  OeyUn  .  n  the  weal,  and  lo  Junkaeylon  on 
ihe  eaat,  mny  l<e  eailmsted  at  1 1'iO  milea  In  lonKth,  and 
lh<)  whole  la  comprehended  within  the  latitudea  of  H' 
and  SO"  N.  At  Ihn  tiotlom  of  Ihe  Imy  Ihe  breadth  from 
ChittagonR  In  Ualarora  la  not  above  2&0  milea ;  and  at 
Ita  mouth,  ft-om  Cape  Comorln  lo  Ihe  Malayan  penln- 
aula,  Iha  breadth  may  b«  eatlmaltid  at  12UU  milea.  The 
weatein  and  eaalem  roaata  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  form 
a  aingular  contraat  in  all  the  poinia  moat  eaaentiul  In  a 
n.ivigator.  On  the  weatern  coaat  there  are  no  harbora 
for  large  ihlp«,  while  on  tho  eaateni  coaat  there  are 
many  txcellenl  harbora,  auch  aa  Arracan,  Cheduba, 
Negrala,  and  Hyriam,  in  Tegu ;  a  harbor  near  Marta- 
ban,  Tavay  River,  and  KIng'a  laland ;  and  aeveral  har- 
liori  In  the  Mergul  Archipelago,  beeidea  Junkaoylon, 
Telebone,  and  I'ula  I<ada.  Off  the  weal  coaat  of  Coro- 
mandel  there  are  no  aoundinga  aliout  thirty  milea  fh>m 
Ihe  ahore,  while  the  caat  couat  haa  aoundinga  two  dc- 
greca  from  It.  Coroiniimlel  prescnta  un  open  country ! 
It  la  parched  with  drought  from  winda  blowing  over 
tultry  oanda ;  the  mouiha  of  ita  rlvera  are  ahallow  from 
bare  of  sand,  and  It  la  often  vlaited  by  dangeroua  gales. 
The  eaat  coaat,  on  tha  other  hand,  la  covered  with 
wood.  The  climate  ia  alwaya  temperate ;  the  rivera 
are  deep  and  muddy ;  and  the  weather  ia  generally 
oalm.  The  monaoona  blow  over  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
though  It  ia  remarkalile  that  here,  ua  in  many  parts  of 
India,  atrong  winda  are  found  blowing  dirertly  from 
the  sea,  while  at  some  distance  from  the  Inn  I  it  is  a 
dead  calm.  Thus  in  Bengal  there  are  slroii„.  norther- 
ly winda,  while  at  sea  calma  prevail  until  May  and 
June;  and  on  the  Malabar  coaat  the  southwest  mon- 
soon doea  not  comm  e  blowing  till  tho  lH-);inning  of 
tii<'  ''aaon,  white  on  ahore  there  are  atrong  wcat- 

«rl}      ..ua  about  and  after  tha  time  of  the  vernal  equi- 
nox.—E.  B. 

Bargamot,  •  species  of  citron,  Citriu  limetta,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  orange  and  lemon  by  having  wing- 
teaa  leaf-atalka.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Muth  of  Europe, 
and  is  produced  abundantly  in  tho  nelgUtorhund  of 
Nice.  The  fruit  has  a  delicious  taste  and  sm«ll,  and 
Its  essential  oil  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  pfrfuiup.  The 
essence  of  bergamot  is  also  called  eunzia  di  fcdro.  It 
la  extracted  fVom  the  yellow  rind  of  the  frii  i  by  fit- 
ting it  In  small  pieces,  and  express! 'k  tho  oil,  or  by 
distilling  It  ftvra  water.  One  hundrxK)  bergmimta  of 
NIca  yield,  by  expression,  2^  ounces  of  oil. 

B4rgiimot  is  also  tho  denomination  of  a  coarse 
tapestry,  manufactured  with  flocka  of  silk,  wool,  cot- 
ton, hemp,  cow's  or  goat's  hair,  and  supposed  to  be  in- 
vented at  Bergamo,  in  Italy. 

Bargen,  the  first  commercial  city  Of  Norway,  situ- 
ated at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  bav,  in  lat  60°  24'  K., 
long.  6°  20'  E.    FopnlaUon  26,000.    The  bay  is  in- 


rloeed  cm  til  aldSff  by  rugged  racks  an>l  Islands ;  Iha 
watrr  in  daap ;  bat,  ««li<<  >"  the  nnmlm  and  InUlr*' 
oy  of  II.  paiaagea,  iha  a.  ..a»  ii  Iba  lomi  ia  atlandad 
at  all  lliii(-<  wiih  a  good  deal  of  dlMcitilv.  '"»l  uliuold 
never  he  atlemptnl  wlihnnt  a  pilot.  Codnah,  i<alr'< 
or  dried,  la  thapriii>i|>i<l  unlcleofaiiport:  when  ilrtud, 
It  ia  railed  atock-llab.  iid  g<>«a  chlaMy  •«  Italy  and 
Holland.  The  flaher)  la  the  prinolpal  itnpbi) mant | 
and  ciinaidarable  quanlitlea  of  Hah  ami  mhar  prodncU 
are  alao  brought  hither  for  axporlallon  rrum  tha  nrara 
northerly  parte  of  the  kingdom.  At  an  average,  from 
■i6,()0U,IN)U  lo  IM),0<IO,(KM  Iba.  aallrd  and  dried  Hsh  ara 
annually  exported,  llarrln,';a,  whale-oil,  aklna,  bonea, 
la',  iobalfra,  eir,,  are  alio  largely  ex|Hirtuil.  Tha  ex. 
porta  of  tlnilHir  from  Hergrn  are  Inconalilvrabla,  and 
none  has  latterly  gone  to  Kngland.  Norway  limber 
ia  not  ao  largo  aa  that  brouglil  from  I'ruaaian  porta, 
nor  ao  free  from  knola ;  but,  being  of  alower  growth. 
It  Is  mora  compact,  ami  less  liable  to  Ml.  The  planks 
are  either  red  or  while  flr  or  pine  i  the  red  wood  Is 
produced  ftani  the  Hcotch  llr ;  the  while  wood,  which 
is  Inferior  In  |:rica  and  esllmalion,  is  the  produce  «(  (ha 
•pruce  llr ;  each  tree  yields  three  plea's  of  limber  «f 
II  or  Vi  feet  in  length,  and  ia  70  or  MO  years  of  age 
licfore  it  arrivea  at  |ierficllon.  Tlio  pianka or  deala of 
llergon  are,  however,  a  good  deal  inferior  lo  those  of 
Clirialiana.  The  iniporta  into  Bergen  principally 
consiat  of  grain  from  the  Baltic;  and  sail,  hardware, 
toflce,  augar,etc.,from  Kngland. — For  iloney;  Wtifkli, 
and  Mtamrtt,  aee  CiiHiaTlAN,\,  where  there  are  fur> 
Iher  detalla  aa  lo  the  trade  and  navigation  of  Norway. 

Berlin  D«ora«,  a  memorable  interdict  against  the 
commerce  of  England.  It  dudared  the  llrillsh  ialandt 
to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  Kngllshnien  found 
In  countries  occupied  by  French  troops  were  to  be 
treated  as  prisoners  of  war ;  the  wliole  world.  In  fact, 
was  to  cease  from  any  communlcalion  with  Great 
Britain.  Issued  by  Bonaparte  from  the  court  of  Ihe 
Prussian  king,  shortly  after  the  luitlle  of  Jena  (which 
for  the  time  decided  the  fate  of  Prussia),  Nov.  21, 1806. 

BamradlW,  or  IEk>m«n'  Zslea,  were  discovered 
by  Joao  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard,  in  1327 ;  but  were  not 
inhabited  until  1600,  when  Sir  George  Somen  was 
cast  away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  a  statute 
O  James  I.,  1012.  Among  the  exiles  fh>m  England, 
during  Ihe  civil  war,  was  Waliei*lhc  poet,  who  wrote, 
while  resident  hero,  a  poetical  description  of  the  islands. 
There  waa  an  awful  hurricane  hero,  Oct.  01,  1780,  and 
another,  liy  which  a  third  of  the  bouaea  was  deatroyed, 
and  all  the  shipping  driven  ashore,  July  20,  1818. 

Berriaa  {Uacca),  the  fruits  or  seeds  of  many  differ, 
ant  species  of  planta.  The  berries  quoted  in  London 
price-currents  are  bay,  juniper,  Turkey  and  Persian, 
1.  Bny-4rmV»  (Fr.  Baia  de  Lnurier ;  Ger.  lA>rbterm ;  It. 
Baceki  diJMuro;  Sp.  Bagat),  tlie  fruit  of  the  Imutui 
nobilia.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
but  is  cultivated  in  England,  and  is  not  uncommon  in 
tlieir  gardens.  The  berry  is  of  an  oval  shape,  fleshy, 
and  of  a  dark  purple  color,  almost  black;  it  hat  • 
sweet  fragrant  odor,  and  an  aromatic  astringcDt  taste. 
Bar-lierrles,  and  (he  oil  obtained  by  boiling  them  in 
water,  are  imported  from  Italy  and  Spain. — Thom- 
son's Diipmalory. 

2.  Juniper  Berrift  (Fr.  Gtnevricr;  Du.  Srrenboomf 
It.  (iinepro ;  Sp.  Kmbro),  the  fruit  of  the  common  juni- 
per (Jtiniperus  communU).  They  are  round,  of  a  lilack 
purple  color,  and  require  two  years  to  ripen.  They 
liave  a  moderately  strong,  not  disagreeable,  but  peculiar 
smell,  and  a  warm  pungent,  sweetish  taste,  which,  if 
they  be  long  chewed,  or  previously  well  bruised,  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  considerable  bitterness.  They  are  found 
in  England  :  but  moat  of  those  mode  use  of  there  ara 
imported  ftom  Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy.  They 
should  be  chosen  fresh,  not  much  shriveled,  and  frea 
from  mouldlness,  which  they  ara  apt  lo  contract  in 
keeping.  On  diotillation  with  water,  they  yield  • 
volatile  eHential  oil,  very  subtle  and  pungent,  and  Ik 


BEB 


16< 


BBSS 


•mell  in«atly  nMmbliog  the  barrin.  Tha  peenlUr 
Uavor  and  diuretic  qualitiea  of  Geoava  depend  princi- 
pally  on  the  preaenck!  of  thia  oil.  £n|;liah  gin  is  said 
to  Iw,  for  the  most  part,  flavored  with  oil  of  turpentino. 
— Lewis's  Mat.  Med. ,-  Thomsom's  Dupetuatoty. 

3.  Twkry  Ytllow  Berria,  the  unripe  fruit  of  the 
Xkamiuu  in/ecioriut  of  Linnicus.  They  are  used  as  a 
dye  drug  in  preparing  a  lively  but  very  fugitive  yel- 
low, for  topical  application  in  calico-printing.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  them  are  exported  from  Saloni- 
ca,  to  which  tliey  are  brought  ftrom  Thesaaly  and  Alba- 
nia. An  inferior  sort  ia  produced  in  France. — Ban- 
CKUPT  Off  Colort.  Price  in  the  London  market,  Sep- 
tember, 1853,  34s.  to  40s.  per  cwt. 

4.  Penitm  t'ellow  Berria  are  said  by  the  merchants 
to  be  of  the  same  species  as  the  Turlccy  yellow  berries. 
The  colors  whicli  they  yield  are  more  lively  and  lasting. 
Ther  are  high-priced,  fetching  fkom  BOi.  to  llOi.  a  cwt. 

Betyl,  called  by  the  Jewelers  Aquamarine.  This 
stoue  was  suspected  by  I'liny  to  be  a  variety  of  the 
emerald;  a  coi|jecture  which  modem  mineralogists 
have  completely  confirmed.  The  term  emerald  is  ap- 
plied to  that  particular  variety  which  presents  its 
own  peculiar  color,  or  emerald  green  ,•  while  that  of 
ber}i  is  given  indiscriminately  to  all  the  other  varie- 
tiea;  aa  the  sea  green,  pale  blue,  golden  yellow,  and 
Golorlesa.  Pliny  says  that  the  beryl  is  found  in  India, 
and  rarely  elaewhere ;  but  besides  India,  it  ia  found  in 
Peru  and  Brazil ;  at  Kantea  and  Limoges,  in  France ; 
in  the  Wicklow  Blountains,  in  Ireland  ;  in  the  district 
of  Cairngorm,  in  Scotland ;  and  in  various  other  places. 
— Pliny,  Uitl.  A'at.  lib,  xxxvii.  cap.  6 ;  £itcj/c.  Brit. 
new  edition. 

Those  only  which  are  of  good  color  and  sufficient 
depth  are  manufactured;  they  have  a  pretty,  lively 
eifect,  if  in  good  proportion  and  well  polished.  Large 
stones,  from  one  to  three  and  four  ounces,  are  not  un- 
common, but  from  their  bulk  are  only  in  request  as 
•paciniens  for  the  cabinet ;  smaller  stones,  suitable  for 
necklaces,  may  be  bought  at  low  prices,  ivitliiu  the 
teach  of  every  description  of  purchasers. —  ii&WB  on 
Diamotuh,  etc,  2d  edition. 

Bcwint,  or  BSBsnt,  a  coin  of  pure  gold,  struck  at 
Byzantium  in  the  time  of  the  Christian  emperors ;  and 
henoe  the  gold  offered  by  the  king  at  the  altar  is  called 
betant  or  bitaut.  It  seems  to  have  been  current  in  En- 
gland from  the  tenth  century  till  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  Ita  value  is  not  precisely  ascertained,  but  it  is 
1   nerally  estimated  at  9t.  Hd.  sterling. 

B«tel-leaf  (Hind.  Fan;  Malay,  Sireh;  Javan. 
Suro),  the  leaf  alluded  to  in  the  following  article.  It 
is  the  produce  of  a  species  of  pepper  vine  (Piper  belle), 
and  somewhat  resembles  the  ivy  leaf.  In  their  fresh 
state,  betel  leaves  form  an  important  article  of  Eastern 
traiBc,  Iwing  every  where  used  in  the  preparation  of 
betel.  The  Piper  betle  is  a  acandent  plui.t,  and  poles 
are  placed  in  the  ground,  round  which  it  twines  itself. 
In  consequence  of  the  great  consumption  of  its  leaves, 
it  is  extensively  cultivated  tbrongbout  tropical  Asia. 
It  grows  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  rich  soils  close  to 
the  equator,  and  is  raised  with  more  difficulty  the 
farther  we  recede  iVom  it. — Ettcyc.  Brilaimica,  new  edi- 
tion, article  Betel;  Crawfuiiu's  Indian  Arthipelago, 
Tol.  i.  p.  403. 

B«t«l-nut,  or  Ar«o«  (Sans,  and  Hind.  Simprif 
Malay,  Pinottg;  .Javan.  Jambi),  the  f^it  of  the  Areea 
ealtrku,  a  c!ender  and  graceful  palm,  rising  to  the 
height  of  about  80  or  40  feet;  it  produces  fruit  at  the 
age  of  five  or  six  years,  and  continues  bearing  till  ita 
25th  or  aoth  year.  The  fruit,  which  ia  the  only  part 
of  the  palm  that  is  made  use  of,  ia  eaten  both  in  ita 
nnripe  and  in  its  mature  state.  When  ripe,  it  is  of  the 
size  of  a  amall  egg,  and  of  an  orange  color ;  the  exte- 
rior part  consists  of  a  soft,  spongy,  fibrous  matter,  in- 
closing a  nucleus  resembling  a  nutmeg  in  shape,  inter- 
nal structure,  and  color,  but  usually  larger,  and  alwaya 
harder.    A  single  tree  produces,  according  to  its  situ- 


ation, age,  culture,  ate,,  trm  WOUtim  ttM»,  TfMy 
areoljeels  of  great  ImportawM  In  ttm  fstH,  (»mitla 
the  principal  ingredient  of  •  mHUtmnA  •«  tuihunai 
uae  aa  a  maaticatory  in  all  Citntm  iut4  ^^up^fll^  AM», 
The  other  ingredtento  are  tba  \^llf^4^l^n  tmU4  p^pptt 
(which  see),  in  which  the  ar<«^^«-«Mt  ia  4l'f«|«|M'4 )  »  mU 
Chdnam  (wblflh  see);  and  gxiwrsll/,  t»H  MU  ittwafn, 
a  little  caleohtt  or  terrajaputiiia,— /«'<'#  <!*'f WW',  The 
whole  compound  is  called  lidtl,  wM  i«  uMid  i«  «ti  «». 
tent  of  which  it  is  difflvult  tor  »  VMnnifHH  Ui  tmm  • 
Just  idea.  All  individuals,  wlibimt  »n)»pi\im  «f  »ffi 
or  sex,  begin  at  an  early  perM  UmuvuHmi  \Ui'miitUn 
to  betel.  They  are  uncaasingi/  l»l«*ltf«(lftf(  H,  ««i^ 
derive  •  gratiflcaltou  froiu  i(«  u*«  ih»t  fUfM^frrs  c«n 
neither  understand  nor  espUin,  U  f«M#«»  \\t¥  t»' 
liva,  gives  a  bright  hue  to  lb*  Itp*,  (Wd,  \»  nmUMi  tit 
time,  renders  the  teeth  quite  bliK^^k,  l(  U  mM  Ui  (tlojMfl 
nausea,  excite  appetite,  and  streNuitwH  thu  momm'h. 
Ilesidcs  being  used  as  an  arltela  dftunWjf,  it  i»  n  Mtii 
of  ceremonial  which  regulatas  lit*  iHWtmHtm  «t  Ihe 
more  polished  classiia  of  IImi  K«»<,  W/mih  unf  ^fttm 
of  consideration  visits  ailutlwir,  ttftft  (b*  Arm  tutUit- 
tions,  betel  is  presented  i  to  vinU  It,  m>  (b«  tilu  btti, 
would  be  considered  neglcil,  and  Its  ft^nMm  %im6  h« 
Judged  an  alTront  on  the  ulhar,  Nw  »mii  iif  MefUif 
rank  addresses  a  digniUed  fnitlvMual  wfllM/Ml  ilt«r  ptf- 
Tious  precaution  ol  cbuH  iiig  lMit«l  (  iww  ptHipUf  M'ldoffl 
meet  without  exchanging  it  f  and  U  is  Hi^ujfii  Hlt»»i 
on  tho  ceremonious  iiiterviaws  iif  pnliHn  HiMmutitt, 
The  areca-nut  is,  in  consaquance,  «h  mUif  lit  iixtf  ««- 
tensive  trade.  The  couHtria*  whifti  fMl[  H  tn««ii 
largely  for  exportion  ar«,  MaUbsr,  t'¥f\im,  «M  «tt- 
niatra.  Of  the  extent  of  this  Ir«i1«<  mmm  miiUm  tnty 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  i\w  \m\mm*  itf  pffen  Itilo 
Calcutu  in  IH41-18i'/  ainuuMUd  Iw  Mi,m»  tutt,  (naiinds, 
or  1066  tons,  and  those  iiili)  i'sHC/H  tH  tm,  Iff  Mi' 
ish  ships  only,  amounted  to  1(1,^)1  ^|^^IHU,  m  iUrt  tmt, 
iiotwithatanding  Bengal  and  ^nM^wmiMn*  ac* I'tdttt- 
tries  in  which  areca  ia  larguly  [ifm\w¥Ar=-Hfii  Ihf  nrll- 
cfe  Betri,  in  tho  new  adliiuw  uf  ttm  Kui'i/h,  IMlamlin i 
Bell's  Reviiw  nf  ih»  fMtrwU  (.'imiwi'i'i'  (//  flinydti 
CnAWFUBu'a  Mfan  A  reiiptlapi),  V(/),  i,  p,  JW,  vol, 
li.  p.  414  ;  Climeet  i'ulindur  Hn4  llrultl'i', 

Bay  rout,  Bvirout,  or  lirirttt  Ou  fniii/), «  ftrf  DArd 
sea-port,  and  the  niuat  fUmrUMnn  "imHmAnA  iimn  ot 
Syria  in  proportion  to  its  »\im,  fm'tm^iii'  lit  Attn,  m  a 
bay  of  the  Medilerranuan,  b7  mHf*  wnni-ilittiU^itnit  tit 
Damascus,  of  which  »liy  it  Is  (ha)(Wt,  mili  ft  roll^a  miilh 
of  Cape  Beyrout,  whUh  f»  tl)  l«»,  »»"  WC  ft,,  hiig,  96" 
26' E.  Population  MtinmUd  at  I V""''  UimMl\»»t» 
about  8  miles  In  circumfaraiM*!,  imhitU-  ot  tthiih  are 
suburbs  equaling  t.'iu  town  tii  immi,  U  has  mrmt 
large  and  well  su|i|>lied  hmntfUf  HlfffU  iinttim,  but 
clean,  it  being  pkiiiifully  furiileMttHh  Kfitltigsj  am) 
it  is  said  to  have  durivi'l  ifs  iiiri^Ui»\  imtlm  ttum  the 
Phu'niclan deity,  Baul  llmilh,  "  \i)tA  ut  wHl*,"  Alfrtig 
the  shore  are  some  remains  itf  aii«))|Hll/,  mtnytMvy^ 
mosaic  pavements,  coluwMS,  #»(d  a  i\iW  wall,  Thn 
harbor,  protected  by  a  mol*,  )•  »'U\ii¥([  imiy  tin  miM 
boats;  but  in  the  bay  \m\m\A  H  •hf|/*  may  uni-hitt  In 
from  6  to  II  fathoms,  'lb"  Umn  \im  mn*  tnatnifac. 
tore;  of  silk  stuffs,  and  gold  m\A  uSUm  (bfci«l.  J'rln* 
cipal  exports,  silk,  galls,  iM»d4«r,  y,»mii,  wlttc,  anit  oil*  j 
Imports,  muslins,  cottons,  tin,  \mrA¥i»t¥.  /hrtdi.,  ami 
nianul'actures  of  western  Vmiu^,  \u  m\,  tiKS  jliliis, 
nil  -ily  Turkish,  Arab,  and  'if«*)t,  ai$gr><((ai(i  bMKlcti 
38,4 11  tons,  entered  tlie  port  t»(()l  I'Mnum  Ui  Ihf  t/ilriB 
of  jE66,74() ;' and  naariv  ilia  sania  tiM«»(*r  iU»t¥i\  otit 
with  cargoes  worth  iib,  I  m.  \mi\l\¥*  imWMt  Ufv tout 
was  bombarded  and  (afceii  \iy  ^^w  KHjrfj.b  In  /M«. 

Bnoar  (Arab,  h'miuji  |M»d,  Mif^n&iihi  Vnn. 
Padt  hr  Kanit),  a  concretion  (UHllA  («  thu  utimiMch  of 
an  animal  of  the  gust  kind  |  It  liM  »  Mnimih  glossy 
surface,  and  is  of  a  dark  groen  itf  iiUnit  MlUif  i  ill*  word 
bezoar,  however,  baa  lately  (Mian  »'»(*H<j#d  |«  all  (be 
concretions  found  in  animals  j  swb  as  tl/»i  fn,//  bnmii; 
found  in  the  aiowacb  a<  tln<  w)14  tmnf  In  IMIa)  tha 


BIB 


167 


ttL 


m  • 


tvvfiM  itMoar,  foaod  in  the  gall-bladder  of  tira  ox,  eom- 
mon  in  Nepaul ;  and  the  camel  bnoar,  found  in  the 
gall-bladder  of  the  camel :  this  last  is  maoh  prized  as 
a  yellow  paint  by  the  Hindoos.  The  flnett  bezoar  is 
brought  to  India  flvm  Borneo  and  the  sea-ports  of  the 
Persian  Gulf;  the  Persian  article  is  particularly  sought 
after,  and  is  said  to  be  procured  from  animals  of  the 
goat  kind,  Cfapra  Gazella.  Many  extraordinary  virtues 
were  formerly  ascribed  to  this  substance,  but  wlthoot 
any  sufficient  reason. — Ainsme's  Materia  Indica, 

Bible.  The  tirst  translation  from  the  Hebrew  into 
the  Greek  was  made  by  seventy-two  interpreters,  by 
order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphns ;  it  Is  thcnoe  called  the 
Septuaglnt  version,  and  was  completed  in  seventy-two 
days,  at  Alexandria,  277  B.C.— Josepuus.  It  was 
commenced  28i  B.C. — Lbnolrt.  In  288. — Blaib. 
The  Jewish  Sanliodrim  consisted  of  seventy  or  seven- 
ty-two members,  and  hence  probably  the  seventy  or 
seventy-two  translators  of  Josephus. — Hewlett.  -  The 
seventy-two  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells,  and  each 
pair  translated  the  whole ;  and  on  subsequent  compari- 
son, it  was  found  that  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary 
by  a  word  or  a  letter iTuhtin  ilAKTVii. 

Ancient  cnpia  of  the  Jiihle. — The  oldest  version  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  belonging  to  the  Chris- 
tians is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  written  in  the 
fbu'th  or  firth  century,  and  published  in  1587.  Tho 
next  in  ago  is  the  Alexandriuo  MS,,  in  the  British 
Museum,  presented  by  the  Greek  patriarch  to  Charles 
I.,  and  said  to  have  been  copied  nearly  about  the  same 
time.  The  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures 
existed  at  Toledo,  about  A.  o.  1000 ;  and  the  copy  of 
Ben  Asher,  of  Jerusalem,  was  made  about  1100, — 
Havd.s. 

Bishop$'  Bible. — Bishop  Alley  prepared  tho  Penta- 
teuch; Bishops  Davis  and  Sandys,  the  Historical 
Books ;  Bishop  Bentham,  the  Psalms,  etc. ;  Bishop 
Home,  the  Prophets;  Bishop  Griiidal,  the  Minor  Proph- 
ets ;  Bishops  Parkburst  and  llarlow,  the  Apocrypha ; 
Bishop  Cox,  the  Gospels  and  Acts ;  and  Archbishop 
Parker,  the  remainder.     Printed  a.d.  1658. 

DintioH  of  the  Bible. — The  Bible  was  divided  into 
twenty-two  books  by  tho  Jews,  the  number  of  letters 
in  the  alphabet.  The  Christians  divic<ed  the  Bible 
Into  thirty-nino  books.  Tho  Hebrew  division  into 
chapters  was  made  by  the  Rabbi  Nathan  about  1445. 
Our  Bible  was  divided  into  chapters,  and  a  part  into 
verses,  by  Archbishop  I.angton,  who  died  in  1228 ;  and 
this  division  was  perfected  by  Robert  Stephens,  about 
1634. 

/editions  of  the  Bible. — The  Vulgate  edition,  In  T.atin, 
was  made  by  St.  Jerome  a.d.  406,  and  is  that  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Catholic  Church  to  be  authentic : 
it  was  first  printed  by  Guttenberg  at  Maycnce,  1450- 
1455. — See  Books.  The  first  perfect  edition  in  En- 
glish was  finished,  as  appears  tiom  the  colophon,  by 
Tindal  and  Coverdale,  October  4, 1636.  A  revision  of 
this  edition  was  made,  l6.18-'39.  This  last  was  or- 
dered to  be  read  in  churches,  1649.  In  1004,  at  the 
conference  at  Hampton  court,  a  new  translation  was 
resolved  upon,  which  was  executed  1(j07-16U  ,  by  order 
of  King  James  I.,  and  is  that  now  generally  used  in 
Great  Britain.  J.  Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  one  of  the  first 
books  printed  in  North  America,  at  Cambridge,  lf!64. 
The  Bible  was  first  printed  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  in 
1704.  Permitted  by  tho  Pope  to  bo  translated  into 
the  language  of  the  Catholic  States,  1769.  The  Bible 
was  printed  in 


SlwnUh UTS 

Oernian Vin 

Engttali 1534 

Freaeh 153S 

Bwedlili 1541 

Pantsh 1B6I) 

Dutch IBflO 

Kaiwlan 1B8I 

Iluiwsrisn 1589 

Polish 1896 

llodtm  Greek 1638 


IndUn  (Mass.) 1664 

Turkish 1666 

Irish 1686 

rortiig  leso 1748 

Muiks ms 

Italltn 1T"« 

Ilcngslee 1601 

Tartar 1818 

KersUn 1816 

African 1816 

Chinese 1820 


Editions  of  the  Old  and  Mew  Testament,  separatalj^ 
appeaired  in  ssreral  Instances  at  earlier  dates,  partica> 
larly  in  European  languages,  llie  Polyglot  Dible, 
edited  by  Walton,  bi||iop  of  Chester,  in  the  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Persic, 
Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  1667.— Wood's  Faiti, 
ftron.— Haydh. 

Bight  (Dutch  bogt,  participle  othoogen,  to  bend),  a 
bend  in  the  sea-coast,  Ibrnring  nn  open  bay;  also  a 
ronnd  of  a  rope  or  cable  when  coiled. 

BllbkO,  a  city  and  principal  port  of  the  north  of 
Spain,  capital  of  tho  province  of  Vixvaya  (Biscay),  on 
the  Nervion,  8  miles  from  its  mouth  at  Portugalcte,  and 
28  miles  north  of  Vltoria,  hit.  48°  14'  8 "  N..  long. 
2°  56'  6"  W.  Population  11,900.  It  is  inclosed  by 
lofty  mountains,  and  is  well  built.  Principal  manu- 
factures, hardware,  anchors,  leather,  paper,  hats,  to- 
bacco, and  earthen-waro ;  tliere  are  large  rope-walk, 
and  docks  for  building  merchant  vessels,  with  iron  and 
coppermines  in  tho  vicinity.  Exports  comprise  wool, 
iron,  fish,  and  fruits.  Principal  imports,  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  and  colonial  produce.  Bilbao  was  found- 
ed in  1800;  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century  it  became 
the  seat  of  the  famous  consulado,  originally  established 
at  Burgos,  and  having  the  highest  authority  in  Spain 
as  a  commercial  tribunal.  It  was  the  scene  of  frequent 
contests  in  the  late  Carlist  wars,  and  Zumalacarregui 
received  his  death  wound  here,  June  10,  1835. 

BUg6  of  a  ship,  the  bottom  of  lier  floor,  or  the 
bieadth  of  the  part  she  rests  on  when  aground.  Bilge- 
water  is  that  which  lodges  on  her  floor  below  tho  level 
of  the  well  of  the  pump ;  and  bilge-pumpi,  or  burr- 
pumps,  are  those  that  carry  off  the  bilge-water.  A 
ship  is  said  to  be  bilged  when  her  bilge  is  broken  in 
and  she  springs  a  leak. 

Bilge,  the  greatest  circumference  of  a  cask. 

Bill,  in  Nautical  Language,  the  point  of  the  fluke 
of  an  anchor. 

BUI,  in  English  Law,  a  declaration  in  writing,  ex- 
pressing either  some  wrong  the  complainant  has  suf- 
fered from  the  defendant,  or  a  fault  committed  by  the 
person  complained  of  against  some  law  or  statute.  In 
Scottish  lav,  every  summary  application,  by  way  of 
petition  to  the  Court  of  Session,  is  called  a  bill. 

Bill,  in  Commerce,  has  been  usually  defined  a  writing 
in  which  one  man  is  bound  to  another  to  pay  a  sum  of 
money,  on  a  day  that  is  future,  or  presently  on  demand, 
according  to  the  agreement  of  the  parties  at  the  time 
when  it  is  drawn ;  and  on  which,  in  the  event  of  fail- 
ure, execution  may  be  summarily  done  to  enforce  pay- 
ment.— E.  B. 

Bills  of  ZSzchange.  AVithout  entering  into  any 
investigation  regarding  the  origin  of  bills  of  excliange, 
which  has  been  assigned  by  diffbrcnt  writers  to  dif- 
ferent countries  and  causes,  we  may  say  that  it  is  now 
the  most  generally  adopted  opinion  that  they  originated 
in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  in  Italy,  at  the 
public  fairs,  which  received  a  marked  importance  in 
commerce,  throujr'i  the  Crusades.  The  money-chang- 
ers transacted  their  principal  business  at  the  public 
fairs  in  tho  principal  cities,  and  bills  or  orders  for  the 
payment  of  money  nt  a  distant  place  were  at  first 
drawn  only  from  one  fair  to  another,  and  were  called 
cambia  regularia.  But  when  commerce  increased, 
through  the  Ilanseatic  League,  and  extended  to  places 
where  no  public  fairs  were  held,  Idlls  of  exchange  were 
also  drawn  upon  such  other  places,  and  these  bills 
were  called  cambia  irrtgularia. 

The  oldest  copy  of  a  formal  bill  of  exchange  known 
at  present  is  one  dated  at  Milan  on  the  9th  of  March, 
1826,  and  runs  in  the  original  as  follows : 

"  Pagate  per  questa  prima  litera  [lettera']  a  di  TX. 
Ottobre  nLuca  de  Goto  Lib.  XtV.  Sono  per  la  valuta 
qui  da  Mateo  Reno,  al  tempo  il  pagate  e  ponete  a  mio 
conto  e  R.  che  Chritlo  ri  guarde  Bonromeo  de  Bonromti 
de  Milano  IX.  de'  Marm,  1325."—"  Pay  for  this  first 
bill  of  exchange,  on  the  9th  of  October,  to  Luca  de 


VSL 


166 


BIL 


Ooio  XLV.  LirNt ;  thty  are  for  viiaa  nceived  hsn 
fiiom  Maico  Keno ;  at  tbe  time  of  maturity  pay  the 
Mm*  and  paw  it  to  my  account,  and  thanking  yon, 
may  Christ  protect  you,  Bonrameo  de  Bonromei  of 
Milan,  the  9tfa  of  March,  1826.'* 

In  England,  reference  was  made,  in  the  atatute  of 
5  Rich.  II.  ch.  2,  to  the  drawing  of  foreign  bills,  which 
waa  in  the  }  ^ar  1881.  The  legal  propertiei  of  blUi  in 
England  are  derived  firom  the  custom  of  merchants, 
but  promissory  notes  are  said  to  derive  their  properties 
from  the  act  of  Parliament  of  the  8d  and  4th  Anne,  c.  9, 
which  puts  them  on  the  same  footing  with  inland  bills. 
In  the  United  States,  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory 
notes  are  recognized  in  law  as  negotiable  instruments, 
with  all  the  properties  usually  attached  to  them  by  the 
custom  of  merchants.  The  statute  laws  in  many 
States  especially  provide  for  their  negotiability ;  but 
in  States  where  this  is  not  the  case,  the  same  custom- 
ary properties  would  be  held  to  attach  to  them, 

Name  and  D^fbution. — A  bill  of  exchange,  in  commi  n 
speech  CHlled  a  draft,  is  an  open  letter  of  request,  ad- 
dressed by  one  person  to  a  second,  desiring  him  to  pay 
a  sum  of  money  to  a  third,  or  to  any  other  to  whom 
that  third  person  shall  order  it  to  be  paid;  or  it  may 
be  made  payable  to  bearer.     For  instance : 

"  BoUon,  Id  January,  1862. 
"  Exchange/or  $1000. 

"  Sizty  dayt  after  tight  qfthit  till  (if  exchange,  pay  lo 
the  order  ofOeorge  Green,  One  Thomaiid  Dollar!,  value 
nctived,  and  place  the  tame  lo  account,  at  advited  bg 
"CuAULEs  White. 

"To  Mr.  jACoii  Bnowir,  AV»  york." 

Partiet. — The  person  who  writes  the  request  is  called 
the  drainer,  and  he  to  whom  it  is  addressed  is  called 
the  drateee  i  and  if  he  agrees  or  consents  to  pay  the 
money  signified  in  the  bill,  he  is  said  to  acoept  it,  and 
is  then  called  the  acceptor.  Tbe  third  person,  to  whom 
the  money  is  payable,  is  called  the  payee.  In  the 
above  instance,  Charles  White  is  called  the  drawer, 
Jacob  Brown  the  draieee,  and  after  he  has  consented  or 
accepted  to  pay  it,  the  tttceptor,  and  George  Green  is 
called  the  payee.  If  it  is  made  payable  tq  him  or 
order,  or  to  the  order  of  him,  as  above,  and  he  then 
assigns  it  to  another  person,  to  wUom  the  money  is  to 
be  paid,  by  writing  his  name  on  the  back  of  the  bill 
(which  is  called  indorsing  the  bill,  and  the  act  itself 
an  indorsement),  he  is  then  called  an  indorter.  The 
person  to  whom  he  orders  the  money  to  be  paid  is 
called  the  indortee  or  holder,  and  if  this  one  again  as- 
signs the  bill  to  another  person,  the  latter  is  called  the 
indorsee  or  bolder,  and  the  other  the  second  indorser ; 
and  every  ether  person  who  successively  puts  his 
name  on  the  back  of  the  bill  is  called  an  indorser,  and 
the  person  to  whom  it  is  last  delivered  is  called  the 
holder. 

If  in  the  almve-cited  instance  George  Green  should 
write  on  the  back  of  the  bill,  "  Pay  to  tbe  order  of 
William  Baker,"  signing  his  name  beneath,  "George 
Green,"  tlie  latter  would  be  called  an  indorser,  and 
William  Baker  would  be  called  indorse^  or  holder ; 
and  if  Baker,  again,  should  sign  his  name  under  that 
of  Green,  and  order  the  contents  of  tlie  bill  to  be  paid 
to  sometwdy  else.  Baker  would  bo  called  an  indorser, 
and  the  person  designated  by  him  tlie  indorsee  or 
holder,  and  so  on. 

Slant  Indortemmti. — It  is  very  common  for  parties 
to  sign  simply  their  names  on  the  back  of  the  bill, 
without  designating  to  whom  the  contents  shall  be 
paid.  This  is  called  a  "blank  indorsement,"  and 
whosoever  holds  the  bill  may  write  above  the  signa- 
ture that  it  is  payable  to  his  order,  for  instanr  ,  if 
George  Green,  the  origii|al  payee  in  the  above  specified 
bill,  had  simply  writteit  his  name  nn  the  back  of  it, 
and  had  delivered  it  to  William  Baker,  and  Baker 
again  bad  simply  put  his  name  on  the  back  under  that 
of  Green,  and  bad  delivered  the  bill  to  one  J.  Brown, 
tha  latter  would  b«  the  holder,  and  might  write  over 


tha  signatiin  of  Orvan,  *'  Pay  to  tha  ordsr  of  WilUaas 
Baker,"  and  over  the  signature  of  Baker,  "  Pay  to  tha 
order  of  J.  Brown."  Although  these  blank  indonw- 
menta  are  very  common.  It  would  be  desirable,  and  it 
is  highly  to  be  recommended,  that  each  indorser  should 
write  in  full  over  his  name  the  place  of  bis  residence, 
the  date,  and  the  name  of  his  indorsee ;  that  is,  the 
name  of  the  person  to  whom  he  assigns  the  bill.  Thus, 
in  the  above  instance,  if  George  Green  resided  in  New 
York,  he  should  write  on  tbe  back,  over  his  signa- 
ture: 

"A«w  Yoti,  Jamiary  8d,  1862. 

"  Pay  to  the  order  of  William  Baker, 

"Georoe  Gkken." 
And  in  a  similar  way  the  successive  indoraers  should 
do.  This  way  of  indorsing  has  twoadvantnges.  Intha 
first  place,  if  the  bill  should  be  lost  or  stolon,  with  a 
blank  indorsement  on  it,  any  person  who  finds  or  holds 
it  might  fill  up  the  blank  in  his  own  name,  and  de- 
mand payment ;  whereas,  if  it  were  indorsed  in  full, 
the  finder  or  bolder  would  have  to  forge  the  name  of 
the  indorsee  before  he  could  get  payment.  In  the 
second  place,  if  the  bill  should  be  protested  for  non- 
acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  holder  would  know 
at  once  the  places  of  residence  of  the  different  indorsets, 
and  be  able  to  give  them  due  notice  without  delay. 

Formt. — When  bills  of  exchange  are  drawn  on  a 
place  at  a  distance,  and  in  a  foreign  country,  it  Is 
customary  to  give  a  set  of  three  bills  of  the  same  tenor, 
that  they  may  be  sent  separately  by  different  mails, 
so  that  in  case  one  should  be  lost,  one  of  the  others 
might  reach  the  person  concerned  safely.  One  of  tha 
common  forms  of  a  bill  of  this  kind  would  be  sabstan- 
tially  as  follows : 

"Boston,  July  ls(,  1862. 
"  Exchange/or  jtlOOO. 

"  Sixty  dayt  after  tight  [or  after  date,  or  at  tight,  or 
on  demand],  pay  thit  my  first  bill  of  exchange  (tecond 
and  third  of  the  tame  tenor  and  date  not  paid)  to  the  order 
of  Mr. ,  One  Thousand  Poundt  Sterling,  ralue  re- 
ceived, and  place  the  tame  to  my  account,  at  adcited  by 

"  Paul  Joxes. 

"To  Messrs.  Okkss  A  Ca,  Xontfon." 

The  second  bill  of  the  same  set  would  be  in  evety 
respect  tbe  same  with  the  first,  except  that  it  would 
read,  "Pay  this  my  tecond  bill  of  exchange,  first  and 
third,  etc.,  not  paid." 

And  the  third  bill  would  run,  "  Pay  this  my  third 
bill  of  exchange,  first  and  second,  etc.,  not  paid." 

foreign  and  Inland  Billt. — Bills  of  exchange  are 
divided  intoybreiV^  bills  of  exchange  and  in/and  bills 
of  exchange,  because  the  rights  of  proceeding  and 
remedies  thereon  are  not  uniformly  governed  by  the 
same  rules  and  regulations.  A  bill  of  exchange  is 
called  a  foreign  bill  when  it  is  drawn  in  one  state  or 
country  upon  a  person  residing  in  a  foreign  state  or 
country :  ns,  for  instance,  when  drawn  by  a  person  in 
one  of  tlie  United  States  of  America  upon  a  person 
resident  in  England,  and  payable  by  the  latter.  And 
it  is  called  an  inland  bill  (or  a  domestic  bill)  when  both 
the  drawer  and  drawee  reside  in  the  same  state  or 
country ;  for  instance,  when  the  bill  is  drawn  in  Boston 
upon  a  person  residing  in  Salem,  both  places  being  in 
the  State  of  Massachusetts.  The  differcn  t  States  of  the 
United  States  are  considered  as  foreign  to  each  other, 
so  ihat  a  bill  drawn  in  Massachusetts  upon  a  person  in 
New.York  is  considered  a  foreign  bill.  In  like  manner, 
a  bill  drawn  in  England  upon  Scotland  or  Ireland  is 
considered  a  foreign  bill. — Maboncy  t>.  Ashlin,  2  Bahi, 
&  Adolpb.  K.  478,  482. 

The  Form, — A  bill  is  not  confined  to  any  set  form  of 
words,  and  it  is  not  essential  that  the  very  language 
of  the  formulary  which  has  been  given  above  should 
be  used.  It  is  only  requisite  that  it  be  in  writing,  and 
contain  an  order  or  direction  by  one  person  to  another 
person  tu  pay  money  to  a  third  person,  absolutely  and 


BIL 


169 


BI& 


In  every 
,  it  would 
,  fust  and 

my  third 
)aid." 
Iiange  are 
ihmd  bilU 
ding  and 
led  by  the 
change  ii 
■tate  or 
state  or 
person  in 
a  person 
ter.     And 
hen  both 
slate  or 
in  Boston 
IS  being  iu 
ates  of  the 
ach  other, 
person  in 
e  manner, 
Ireland  is 
ln,2BaVn, 

let  form  of 
^  language 
)ve  should 
riting,  and 
to  another 
lately  and 


•t  all  evantt.  The  writing  may  be  in  pencil,  aa  well  as 
in  inlc,  nor  is  it  necessary  that  the  whole  instrument  be 
in  writing ;  the  general  formulary  is  generally  printed, 
but  the  signatures  must  be  in  writing.  If  a  person 
should  order  another  person  to  deliver  a  particular  sum 
of  money  to  A.  B.,  or  to  be  accountable  or  responsible 
for  a  particular  sum  of  money  to  A.  B.,  it  would  con- 
stitute a  bill  of  exchange.  So  if  the  expression  should 
be  "  Please  to  pay,"  or  "  I  request  you  to  pay  or  de- 
liver," '.t  would  be  a  good  bill,  because  these  expres- 
sions are  mere  words  of  politeness,  in  the  place  of  an 
absolute  order.  But  if  the  language  used  necessarily 
or  naturally  imports  a  request  as  a  favor,  and  not  as  a 
matter  of  right,  it  would  not  be  a^good  bill.  So  it  has 
been  held  in  England  that  a  note  addressed  by  A  tj  B 
in  these  words :  "  Mr.  liittle,  please  to  let  the  bearer 
have  £7,  and  place  it  to  my  account,  and  you  will 
much  oblige  your  humble  servant,  J.  Slackford,"  was 
not  a  bill  of  exchange. — Little  v.  Slackford,  1  Mood, 
and  M.  171.  However,  whera  the  language  used  is 
susceptible  of, two  interpretations,  the  true  rule  seems 
to  be,  that  the  mere  drawing  of  a  bill  is  deemed  to  be 
the  demand  of  a  right,  and  not  the  asking  of  a  favor, 
and  to  deem  it  a  favor  only  when  the  language  used 
repels,  in  an  unequivocal  manner,  the  notion  that  it  is 
claimed  as  a  right. — Stoky  on  Bills  nf  Exchange,  §  38. 
If  the  word  "  at,"  instead  of  "  to,"  should  bo  put  before 
the  name  of  ti|e  drawee';  «iff.,"  Two  months  after  date 
pay  to  the  oMor  of  J.  J.  £'S,  value  received,  T.  S. 
At  Messrs.  John  Morson  &  Co.,"  it  might  be  held  a 
bill  of  exchange  (Shuttleworth  ti.  Stevens,  1  Camp. 
407),  or  a  promissory  note,  at  the  election  of  the  holder. 
So  in  a  case  where  the  instrument  was  as  follows : 
*'  May  20,  1813.  Two  months  after  date  pay  to  me  or 
my  order  the  sum  of  £30.  W.  S.  Payable  at  No.  1, 
Wilmot  Street,  opposite  the  Lamb,  Bethnal  Green, 
London,"  and  was  accepted  by  the  person  residing  at 
that  place,  it  was  held  to  be  a  bill  of  exchange. — Gray 
V.  Wilmer,  8  Taunt.  739.  The  rule  is,  that,  where  an 
instrument  is  so  framed  as  to  admit  of  reasonable  doubt 
whether  it  was  intended  for  a  bill  or  a  note,  the  holder 
is  at  liberty  to  treat  it  either  as  a  bill  or  as  a  note, 
as  against  the  maker. 

It  docs  not  seem  necessary  that  the  whole  of  the  bill 
be  written  on  one  and  the  same  side  of  a  paper,  or  on 
one  and  the  same  paper ;  it  may  be  written  in  part  on 
one  paper,  and  in  part  on  another  separate  and  de- 
tached paper,  provided  the  writing  on  each  be  done  at 
one  and  the  same  time,  and  both  parts  be  intended  to 
form  one  entire  contract. — Story  on  tiUh  of  Exchange.^ 
§  iM,  and  note  1.  If  there  should  be  no  room  left  for 
indorsements,  a  paper  might  be  affixed  to  the  original 
bill  for  this  purpose,  but  it  would  require  proof  of  the 
fact  that  this  paper  formed  a  part  of  the  bill.  It  often 
happens  that  there  are  but  two  parties  to  a  bill,  which 
is  tlie  case  when  the  drawer  makes  the  bill  payable  to 
his  own  order ;  and  when  he  then  indorses  it,  the  in- 
dorsee becomes  in  fact  the  payee.  And  if  no  drawee 
should  be  named,  but  the  bill  be  made  payable  at  a 
particular  place,  and  the  person  living  at  that  place 
should  accept  it,  bo  would  be  held  answerable  as  ac- 
ceptor. 

Negotiability. — In  order  to  make  a  bill  negotiable,  it 
must  bo  made  payable  to  the  payee  and  to  hia  order  or 
atiigm,  or  to  bearer.  The  common  form,  as  stated  be- 
fore, is  "to  the  order.of  A.  B.,"  or  "to  A.  B.  or  order," 
or  "to  iMarer."  It  would  be  advisable  to  adopt  the 
form,  "to  A.  B.  or  his  order."  If  no  expression  be 
used  which  gives  to  the  payee  the  power  of  transfer, 
it  is  novertheluss  a  bill.  If  the  payee  of  a  negotiable 
bill  indorse  it  in  blank,  it  is  transferable  by  mere  de- 
livery, in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  were  payable  to 
bearer.      If  tbo  name  of  the  payee  be  left  in  blank ; 

e.g.,"  Pay  to or  order" — any  holder  may  insert 

his  name,  and  then  indorse  it ;  the  efl°ect  would  be  tlie 
s.'uno  as  if  it  were  made  payable  to  bearer.  So,  also, 
if  tbo  name  of  the  payee  is  fictitious,  and  the  bill  he 


indorsed  in  the  name  of  this  flctitions  person,  a  holder 
who  was  ignorant  of  this  fact  when  he  took  it  may  ro> 
gord  it  as  a  bill  payable  to  bearer,  and  may  sue  tlN 
drawer,  and  also  the  acceptor,  if  the  latter  knew  that 
the  name  of  the  payee  was  fictitious.  The  wordl 
"value  received",  are  generally  inserted  in  a  bill,  but 
it  is  not  necessary,  for  the  law  in  cases  of  negotialds 
instruments  of  this  kind  presumes  it. 

Several  Vrameet. — A  bill  addressed  to  "  A,  or  in  his 
absence  to  B,"  is  valid,  and  will,  if  accepted  by  either, 
bind  him.  If  a  bill  is  intended  to  be  accepted  by  two 
persons,  it  should  be  addressed  to  both ;  otherwise,  al- 
though accepted  liy  both,  it  will  bind  only  the  person 
to  whom  it  is  addressed  as  acceptor.  If  a  bill  is  drawn 
upon  A,  B,  and  C,  it  may  be  accepted  by  A  and  B 
only,  and  it  will  bind  them. — Stoby  on  Hills  of  Ex- 
change,  §  68.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  it  is  not 
unfrequent  to  put,  liesides  the  name  of  the  principal 
drawee,  the  name  of  another  person,  to  whom  applica- 
tion may  bo  mode  for  acceptance  or  payment,  if  the 
first-named  drawee  should  be  absent  or  refuse  pay- 
ment ;  which  is  generally  done  in  this  form :  "  In  case 

of  need,  apply  to  Mr. at "  (in  French,  "An 

Ijesoin,  chcz  M. ,  a ;"  in  German,  "  Im  Noth- 

fall  bei  Ilerm ,  in ").     The  holder  of  the  bill 

is  obliged  to  follow  the  direction,  if  the  first  drawee 
should  be  absent  or  refuse.  Although  it  is  common 
to  use  the  words,  at  the  end  of  the  bill,  "  and  put  it  to 
my  account,"  or  "to  your  account,"  or  "and  put  it 
to  the  account  of  A.  B.,"  or  "  put  it  to  account  as  per 
advice,"  or  "as  advised  by,"  these  words  are  not  es- 
sential, but  are  used  only  as  a  matter  of  convenience. 
If  the  drawer  should  be  indebted  to  the  drawee,  he 
would  say,  "and  put  it  to  my  account;"  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  drawee  should  be  indebted  to  the 
drawer,  he  would  say,  "and  put  it  to  your  account;" 
and  if  the  bill  were  drawn  on  account  of  a  third  per- 
son, he  would  say,  "  and  put  it  to  the  account  of  A.  B." 
If  the  bill  concludes  with  the  words  "  as  per  advice," 
then  the  drawee  is  not  obliged  to  accept  or  pay,  with- 
out receiving  further  directions  or  advice,  and  if  he 
do  so,  he  does  it  at  his  own  peril.  If  the  bill  conclude 
with  the  words,  "without  advice,"  or  "with  or  with- 
out advice,"  th'n  the  drowee  may  accept  or  pay  with- 
out being  further  instructed  by  the  drawer.  But  the 
words  may  be  altogether  omitted  without  impairing 
the  validity  of  the  bill.  We  may  generally  state,  that 
all  persons  who  are  legally  capable  of  entering  into 
any  other  contract  are  capable  of  bjcoming  parties  to 
a  bill ;  or,  in  other  words,  all  persons  of  full  age  and 
sound  mind,  both  males  and  females,  may  draw,  hold, 
indorse,  and  accept  bills. 

Partners. — In  regard  to  partners,  the  signature  of 
the  firm  must  be  put  to  the  bill,  either  in  case  of  in- 
dorsement, drawing,  or  accepting;  and  each  partner 
has  complete  authority  to  use  it;  and  when  so  used, 
the  bill  is  deemed  to  be  on  partnership  account,  unless 
it  appear  on  the  face  of  the  bill,  or  it  can  bo  proved 
that  the  party  taking  it  hud  full  knowledge  that  the  bill 
was  drawn,  indorsed,  or  accepted,  not  for  partnership, 
but  individual  purposes. 

Agents. — Agents,  if  empowered  for  the  purpose,  ei- 
ther expressly  or  tacitly,  may  bind  their  principals  to 
the  full  extent  that  their  principals  might  do  for  them- 
selves, provided  that  they  do  not  exceed  the  scope  of 
their  authority.  But  if  agents  would  bind  their  prin- 
cipals, they  must  draw,  indorse,  or  accept  the  bills  in 
the  name  "of  their  principals,  and  not  in  their  own 
name.  The  most  proper  way  of  doing  this  is  in  the 
following  form,  supposing  A.  Green  to  bo  the  princi- 
pal, and  B.  White,  the  agent : 
"  A.  Green, 
by  B.  White,  his  Agent." 

A  number  of  other  forms  may  be  used ;  caro  should 
be  taken,  however,  by  ti  J  agent,  if  he  means  to  ex- 
empt himself  from  personal  responsibility,  to  use  clear 
ami  explkit  words  to  show  that  intention,  and  to  ex- 


BIL 


170 


BIL 


pnii  on  the  contract  the  quality  in  which  he  acts ; 
otberwiae  he  doos  not  bind  the  party  who  employs 
him,  but  binds  himself.  A  great  many  lawsuits  have 
■risen  in  consequence  of  an  indistinct  and  looee  way 
of  stating  the  quality  in  which  a  person  signs  a  bill, 
and  different  decisions  in  different  States  have  been 
the  consequence.  It  is  understood  in  all  theee  cases 
that  the  agent  haa  sufficient  authority  fVom  bis  prin- 
cipal to  draw  or  accept  bills,  or  nial(e  note*.  If  the 
agent,  however,  haa  no  authority,  then  the  agent  him- 
self is  liable  on  the  instrument. — 8fe  liallou  v.  Talbot, 
16  Mass.  461 ;  Rossiter  r.  Itossiter,  8  Wend.  494. 

Payment  in  iloneg. — A  bill  of  exchangu  must  be  for 
the  payment  uf  money,  but  it  matters  not  what  denom- 
ination the  money  specified  has,  whether  it  is  called 
dollars,  fVancs,  pounds  -sterling,  Maro  Banco,  or  any 
other  currency,  because  the  value  of  each  kind  can  be 
ascertained.     In  England  negotiable  paper  must  bo 
for  the  payment  of  money  in  specie,  and  not  in  bank- 
notea,  and  it  may  bo  said  that  the  same  rule  obtains 
generally  in  the  United  States  of  America,  although 
there  are  some  cases  in  some  States  which  have  ex- 
tended this  rule. — Kent's  Comm.,  Lect.  XLIV.,  p.  45, 
46,    Hence  an  order  to  pay  money  ' '  in  good  East  India 
bonds,  "or  to  pay  "in  cash  or  Bank  of  England  notes," 
or  "in  foreign  bills,"  or  "in  goodx,"  is  not  a  negotia- 
ble bill.     In  New  York  it  has  been  held  that  a  note 
payable  "in  York  State  bills  or  specie"  was  a  nego- 
tiable paper. — Keith  v.  Jones,  0  Johns.  K  120.     So 
also  a  note  "payable  in  bank-notes  current  in  the  city 
of  New  York;"  and  the  court  remarked  that  it  would 
have  been  a  note  under  the  statute  if  payable  in  bank- 
notes generally. — Judah  e.  Harris,  19  Johns.  R.  144. 
But  a  note  payable  "  in  Pennsylvania  paper  currency, 
or  New  York,  to  be  current  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvo- 
nia  or  the  State  of  New  York,"  was  held  in  New  York 
not  to  be  a  note  for  the  payment  of  money,  within  the 
statute,  because  the  court  say  that  they  may  take  no- 
tice, ofBcially,  of  their  own  bank  paper  being  regarded 
as  cash,  but  not  of  the  value  of  the  paper  currency  of 
other  States. — Lciber  v.  Goodrich,  6  Cowen,  186.     A 
note  made  payable  in  New  York  in  Canada  money,  is 
not  a  negotiable  promissory  note  within  the  statute. 
— Thompson  r.  Sloan,  23  Wendell,  71.     In  Pennsyl- 
vania it  was  held  that  a  note  payalde  to  A.  B.  or  or- 
der "  in  bank-notes  of  the  chartered  banl>«  of  Pennsyl- 
vania" was  not  a  negotiable  note.  —  U'Cormick  v. 
Trotter,  10  Serg.  and  Rawlc,  94.     In  New  York  it  was  j 
held  that  a  check,  drawn  in  that  State,  upon  a  bank  j 
in  Mississippi,  payable  in  current  notes,  is  not  nego- ; 
tiable.— Little  v.  The  Phccnix  Bank.  7  Hill's  it.  859.  I 
A  note  pural>le  to  the  Iwarer  ingooda  is  not  negotiable.  , 
— Clark  r.  King,  'i  Mass.  624.     Nor  a  note  payable  in  ; 
"  foreign  l>ills." — .lones  v.  Fales,  4  Mass.  245.     It  is  I 
not  necessary  that  the  sum  parable  should  be  expressed  ! 
in  words ;  it  is  sufficient  if  it  be  in  figures.     But  it  is  I 
neccssart-  that  the  order  be  for  a  specific  amount.     A  I 
bill  or  note  for  a  given  sum,  "and  for  whatever  else  ' 
may  be  due  to  the  payee,"  is  not,  even  between  the 
original  parties,  a  bill  or  note. — Batley  on  Bill*,  p. 
12.     So  an  order  for  "  (1000,  or  what  might  be  due 
after  deducting  all  advances  and  expenses,"  is  not  ne- 
gotiulilc. — Ciiehman  t>.  Haynes,  20  Pick.  132, 

J'ayable  abtolutely. — A  bill  must  also  be  payable  alv 
solutely  and  at  all  events,  and  the  payment  must  not 
be  made  to  depend  on  any  uncertainty  or  contingency, 
or  it  will  not  be  considered  a  ))ill  of  exchange.     Thus 
a  bill  drawn  payable  "  provided  tlie  terms  mentioned 
in  certain  letters  shall  be  complied  with ;"  or  "  out  of 
rents;"  or  "on  the  sale  of  produce  when  sold;"  or, 
"when  the  drawer  shall  come  of  age;"  or  "at  thirty 
days  after  the  ship  A.  shall  arrive  at  B. ;"  "or  when 
the  drawer  shall  marry ;"  or  "  when  freight  becomes 
due;"  or  "if  the  money  be  not  paid  at  a  certain  day  | 
by  a  third  party;"  or  "^provided  a  certain  act  is  done  , 
or  not  done;"  or  "on  the  balance  of  account  lietween  i 
the  parties ;"  or  "  provided,  at  the  maturity  of  the  bill,  I 


I  am  living;"  or  "when  certain  carriages  are  sold  by 
payee ;"  in  all  these  and  similar  cases  the  instrument 
is  not  considered  a  bill  of  exchange.— Baylkv  on  Bilh, 
p,  14-17,  and  Story  on  Bill;  §  46,  But  where  pay- 
ment only  seemingly  depends  upon  a  contingency,  but 
in  reality  is  certain  and  at  all  events,  although  the 
particular  time  when  it  will  arrive  is  uncertain,  it  will 
be  a  good  bill  of  exchange  in  law ;  e,  ff.,  a  bill  payable 
at  the  death  of  the  drawer  or  of  another  person,  or  at 
a  fixed  time  afterward.  A  note  payable  "  provided 
the  ship  Mary  arrives,"  etc.,  "  ft*e  firom  capture  and 
condemnation,"  is  not  negotiable. — Coolidge  v.  Bug- 
gies, 16  Mass.  867. 

Accfptam.t. — The  person  who  receives  a  bill  or  note 
thereby  contracts  with  every  other  party  to  the  bill  or 
note  who  would  be  entitled  to  bring  an  action  on  pay- 
ing it,  to  present  it  in  proper  time  to  the  drawee  for 
acceptance  when  acceptance  is  necessary,  and  to  the 
acceptor  for  payment  when  the  bill  shall  have  arrived 
at  its  maturity  and  l)e  payable ;  to  allow  no  extra  time 
for  payment  to  the  acceptor;  and  to  give  notice  in  a 
reasonable  time,  and  without  delay,  to  every  such  per- 
son, of  a  failure  in  procuring  a  proper  acceptance  or 
payment.  Any  default  or  neglect  in  any  of  these  re- 
spects will  discharge  every  such  person  from  responsi- 
bility on  account  of  a  non-acceptance  or  non-payment; 
and  will  make  it  operate  generally  as  a  satisfaction  of 
any  debt,  demand,  or  value  for  which  it  was  given. — 
Ghkenleaf  on  Kridence,  vol.  ii.  §  175;  Wallace  ». 
M'Connell,  IS  Peters's  K.  186;  Story  on  Bill;  §  227. 

When  NectitttTy. — If  a  bill  is  payable  at  sight,  or  in 
BO  many  days  after  sight  or  after  demand,  or  upon  any 
other  contingency,  or  after  a  certain  event,  a  present- 
ment of  the  bill  to  the  drawee  for  acceptance  must  be 
mode,  in  order  to  fix  the  perloil  of  payment.  But  if 
the  bill  is  payable  on  demand,  cir  payulile  at  a  certain 
numlier  of  days  after  date,  or  after  any  other  certain 
event,  it  need  not  be  presented  merely  for  acceptance, 
but  only  for  payment ;  but  if  it  be  presented  for  ac- 
ceptance, and  acceptance  be  refused,  the  holder  must 
give  notice  of  the  dishonor,  in  the  same  manner  as  if 
the  bill  were  paynlde  at  sight  or  after  sight. — Story 
on  Bill;  §  112,  227,  228.  It  is,  however,  usual  and 
advisable  to  present  a  bill  drawn  payable  a  certain 
number  of  days  after  date,  for  acceptance. 

By  vhom  to  be  prttented. — The  presentment  for  ac- 
ceptance must  be  made  by  the  holder  or  his  agent.  If 
the  bill  is  presented  by  one  not  authorized  to  hold  the 
bill,  the  drawee  may  not  be  bound  to  accept  it ;  but  if 
he  does  accept  !t,  it  is  available  to  the  holder.  A  pre- 
sentment by  any  person  in  possession  of  a  bill  or  note 
bonajide  is  suiGcient,  and  no  letter  of  attorney  or  oth- 
er writing  from  the  proprietor  of  the  bill  or  note  is 
necessary  to  give  an  authority  to  another  person  to 
make  a  presentment. — Freeman  v.  Bovnton,  7  Mass. 
R.  483;  Bank  of  Utica  r.  Smith,  18  Johns.  R.  230. 
And  a  person's  having  a  bill  or  note  in  his  possession 
on  the  day  and  at  the  place  of  payment  is  presumptive 
evidence  of  authority  to  demand  payment. — Agncw  v. 
Bank  of  Gettysburg,  2  Har.  and  Gill,  478. 

To  vhom  to  be  pretenled. — The  bill  must  be  presented 
to  the  drawee,  or  bis  authorized  agent.  If  it  is  drawn 
on  partners,  a  presentment  to  one  of  them  is  sufficient ; 
but  if  drawn  on  several  persons  not  partners,  it  has 
been  said  that  it  should  be  presented  to  each ;  and  if 
one  of  the  drawees  should  refuse  to  accept,  tlie  holder 
would  not  lie  bound  to  take  the  acceptance  of  the  oth- 
ers a'  >ne.— Stoby  on  Bill;  §  229.  The  death,  I)ank- 
ruptcy,  insolvency,  or  absconding  of  the  drawee  will 
not  absolve  or  excuse  the  holder  from  presenting  the 
bill.  If  he  is  dead,  it  should  be  presented  to  his  per- 
sonal representatives,  his  executor  or  administrator,  if 
any  there  lie,  and  if  not,  at  his  last  domicile ;  and  if 
he  has  absconded,  it  should  be  presented  at  his  last 
domicile  or  place  of  business.— Ciiittt  and  Hdlmr 
on  BitU,  p.  279,  280;  Groton  r.  Dalheim,  6  Greenl. 
476,     If  the  holder,  upon  presentment,  should  ascer* 


BIL 


171 


an 


tain  that  tha  drawas  U  »  m»TfM  wom»n,  er  *  pttmn  I 
under  age,  or  otberwiM   i|ui»|Ml(ltt  ttf  iimitriMtltlKi  '>»  I" 
not  bound  to  take  tlialr  41  uspUnWi  liu(  m»y  tre«l  the 
bill  as  dishonored,— Chcttv  on  JlUh,  «h.  7.  |)i  ttlO, 

Time  t/  PivMnlmeHl.^^A*  ratfurdit  (Im  tiin«  wllhln 
whlcli  a  bill  outflit  to  ba  i)rawMi«4  for  itiii'«t)(atii'i!,  no 
definite  rule  can  be  laid  tlitwil,  Wild  tliM  law  dm)'*  oiiI)' 
tliat  it  muat  be  preasnted  wifltltt  h  r)iaiiimMlile  tlmni 
but  what  this  reaaonabla  tinifl  lit,  dt«|Htiiil«  upnii  tlic 
peculiar  circumatancea  of  »m<h  mi»,  It  (b«t  haldor 
keeps  a  l>ill,  payable  at  altfht,  <if  \my»\iU  A  eertaln 
number  of  days  after  aitfbt,  Itl  bla  tiWH  (HiKiwiiMlmt  tut 
an  unreaauiiable  time,  lie  niakaa  lira  bill  bit)  uwn,  and 
loses  his  right  of  claim  upon  tbu  drawitr  ami  lititufM'ri!, 
But  if  the  bill  (wlietber  it  lia  furxlKM  ur  diiini<iill(9  is 
kept  in  circulutiun,  and  uut  lold  Ity  m\y  mm  UiiMpt  nn 
unreasonable  time,  no  parliuular  tiiiiii  t'Aii  \m  Hfii<lt(nt<d 
in  which  it  ought  to  be  praaanted.  it  l«i  litit  tieceiaHr}' 
to  send  a  bill,  payable  uft>>r  aitfbt,  by  tlw  itiMUt  illrevt 
route  to  the  place  wlmis  :,  U  payabla.  wh«H  It  Is  thn 
Gomuiou  course  of  trade  |o  aemt  »H(dl  IdllN  \iy  Mil  llidl* 
rect  route.  Thus,  where  »  bill  of  vhvUmitD  wait  ilrait'n 
in  Havana  u|M>n  London,  payable  at  aJKly  tiayi*  aflef 
sight,  it  was  hold  that  the  htddur  nm\  nut  fmiid  It  dl* 
rectly  to  London,  but  mlgbt  a«)ld  it  ti)  lltH  IJhltnd 
States  for  sulo,  auch  being  tjio  (lOtMIMHII  t'olirne  iltUiiAe, 
— Walliice  ('.  Agry,  i  Maaun,  3IHt,  H«,  wllffe  »  bill 
was  drawn  at  New  Orleaua  on  LIvBrpiad,  it  W»«  bgld 
that  it  niiglit  Vie  sent  to  New  Viirk  lirnl  fur  aab',  that 
being  the  usual  oourae  of  ImKiMfaa.^lbdttill  (».  Ilrtffod, 

0  Martin,  32C.  Hut  if  the  boldur  nf  »  furitktl  bill  I'tUty 
It  to  the  place  where  it  is  nayubU,  ItH  tillfjitt  t<l  |tr«s«tlt 
it  for  acceptance  without  ilBfay,^^l''«rMitlMl«lt  i',  l/«»l», 

1  M'Cord,  322.  Uut  if  a  bill,  payaliju  nfttif  aJKlii.  is 
negotiated,  and  thus  sent  to  dilffrMMl  \i\m'm  Mnfa  It 
is  presented  fur  acceptance,  the  uimria  liavn  llMid  tills 
delay  allowable.— Goupy  v,  KarttMII,  7  TttUltt.  lOU) 
Gow'an  v.  Jackson,  20  Johns,  IL  )7tl<  A  pKNotititiMit 
for  acceptance  or  a  demand  ut  payimMlt  itlUfit  ulsu  bii 
made  at  a  proper  time.  No  draweti  la  rtiitllirtlil  lit  act' 
cept  a  bill  on  any  day  wbiuh  ia  at^t  »\mH,  by  laws  ut 
observances,  or  usages  of  the  vmintry  or  plHi<e,  tut  ftM 
llgions  or  other  purposes,  and  wbU'li  ia  m^  (tecltied  a 
day  for  tlio  transaction  iif  ae4mlar  bU)tilt)iiii«,  iucll  as 
Sunday,  Fast,orTbankagiving'day,  Ills  VmmU  itfiluly, 
or  any  other  general  holiday,  Uut  uf  Nmw  {''.ttftlallil, 
Christmas  and  New.year'a  day  »r«  ttlai)  isiinvrMy  te^ 
garded  aa  holidays.  Tlie  atatutea  of  aovBral  Hbtifn  jiidut 
out  tlie  days,  which  may  be  foMtid  nmkt  the  slatulo 
laws  appended.  And  in  all  uaaea  tim  urt<a«n(Hiti|it  lltusi 
be  made  at  a  recuoiMble  hour  of  tlM<  day,  If  mmitt  at 
the  place  of  business,  it  must  ba  nia*la  withllt  tilt*  tislial 
business  hours,  or,  at  fartliusl,  wbila  niimm  |it<f«ult  Is 
there  who  has  authority  to  rBouive  and  aMKWtif  Ibtt  pfiu 
Bcntment.  If  made  at  t|io  dwulllng-lMiuau  of  I  liit  drnwen. 
it  may  i)e  made  at  any  aeaaunalibi  Itulir,  wliU«  |j|«  fattl< 
ily  is  up.— CiiiTTV  and  HuuHK  mi  flUll,  p,  464,  lllb 
cd. ;  Story  on  Hills,  §  280, 

Place  iif  J'reienlmeiil.—M  to  iUe  firiijiei'  nliii'ii  mUett 
presentment  for  acceptance  ahunid  liM  madt",  Ibe  jSHtt^ 
eral  rule  is,  that  it  is  tlie  town  or  imilliMl|MilUy  tif  lbs 
domicile  of  the  drawee,  without  any  rsgard  to  ll.a  Mtiif 
drawn  piiyaliie  genuraiiy,  or  iiayalila  ut  M  imrtlBidai' 
spccilicd  place.— CiiiTTV  and  lltH.MH  im  llUh,  (»,  BOft, 
666,  9th  ed. ;  St(Hiy  on  Jlilla,  f  W/i,  If  Him  ijfawea 
dwells  in  one  place,  and  haa  bla  plat'ti  of  bilKiliess  lit 
another,  whotlier  it  be  in  tha  aama  t<iWM  of  ill  Mliolltcf 
town,  tlie  bill  may  bo  presented  for  ati(i»m«ii('«  at  eU 
ther  place  at  the  option  of  tlia  boldar,  If  (lift  bill  la 
addressed  to  the  drawee  at  a  pla«a  wh»rti  ba  iiev«r 
lived,  or  if  he  haa  removed  to  anitlbxr  plaif,  fbii  |)f8« 
sentmcnt  should  Ite  at  the  plane  of  bla  ai'liial  diitiibille, 
if  by  diligent  inquiries  it  van  lie  aauarlHlMcd  |  and  If  It 
can  not  l)e  ascertained,  or  if  the  drawau  liaa  HbM'iilidod, 
the  Idll  may  lie  treateil  aa  di»lmiiurad,'^'=-l'MITIV  ami 
H01.MK  on  mill,  p,  fln4,  056,  t)ib  «d.  Il  bait  b*im 
held  that  if  the  drawee  or  niakar  uf  H  little  liaa  ittttvetl 


out  of  the  State  of  his  former  residence,  either  into  • 
foreign  oountry  or  into  anotlier  State,  a  presentment  to 
tiliii  Is  not  neceaaary. — Magruder  v.  Uank  of  Waahing- 
ton,  9  Wheat.  K.  698 ;  Bavley  o»  Billt,  p.  198,  190. 
If,  however,  an  alisent  drawee  has  a  known  agent  In 
the  same  place,  the  bill  should  be  presented  to  the 
agent.— Stury  oh  hill;  §  2!)fi.  Or  if  he  have  still  a 
place  of  business  there,  it  should  bo  presented  there, 
hut  If  ho  have  neither,  then  it  should  bo  presented  at 
bis  last  place  of  abode,  if  it  can  be  ascertained,  and  the 
bill  hi  to  lie  considered  as  dishonored.  In  the  case  of 
the  drawee's  liankruptcy,  it  is  not  necessary  to  present 
»  liill  for  acceptance  to  the  assignees  of  his  estate,  be- 
cause accepting  bills  forms  no  part  of  their  duty. 

Foreign  law. — As  the  English  law  agrees,  in  al- 
most every  particular,  with  that  in  the  United  States, 
wo  shall  here  point  out  only  the  princi|>ul  and  essen- 
tial rules  which  prevail  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
among  tha  different  nations,  in  regard  to  bills  of  ex- 
change and  promissory  notes.  The  most  important 
nations  are  the  French  and  the  German.  The  French 
Commercial  Code  on  bills  and  notes  has  been  adopted 
In  a  numljer  of  other  countries,  viz.  Belgium,  Modeiia, 
Sardinia,  Lucca,  Poland,  Greece,  Geneva,  Hayti,  Ioni- 
an Islands,  Turkey  and  Wallachia,  the  Papal  States, 
Luxemburg,  Tessin,  and  Wallis,  with  but  slight  vari- 
ations here  and  there ;  so  that  when  we  speak  of  the 
French  law.  It  will  equally  apply  to  all  those  coun- 
tries. A  new  and  uniform  code  of  laws  regarding  bills 
uf  exchange  and  promissory  notes  has  been  introduced, 
since  1849,  throughout  Germany  (with  the  exception 
uf  the  Binall  States  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemlmrg, 
the  Duchy  of  Limburg,  and  the  principality  of  Lich- 
tenatein),  so  that  when  we  apeak  of  the  German  law, 
It  will  apuly  to  every  one  of  the  thirty-eight  States  of 
Germany  (exLepting  the  above-named  three),  includ- 
ing the  whole  of  Austria  and  her  crown-lands,  and 
the  whole  of  Prussia,  Wurtemb^rg,  Bavaria,  Hanover, 
(taxony,  Brunswick,  Baden,  etc.,  containing  more  than 
sixty  millions  of  ]>eople,  and  the  important  commercial 
cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
Lutieok,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Trieste,  Brunswick, 
Ntuttgart,  etc.  There  exist  yet  distinct  codes  on  liilla 
and  notes  In  Russia,  Holland,  Copenhagen,  Spain, 
Portugal,  at  Basle,  and  St.  Gnllen,  which  we  '^  »\X 
notice  where  they  essentially  difier  from  other  codes. 
Tlie  law  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  in  regard  to  legal 
remedies  on  bills  and  notes,  ia  more  stringent  than  in 
regard  to  other  civil  contracts,  in  so  fur  as  it  allows 
{lersiinal  imprisonment  for  a  breach  of  such  a  commer- 
cial engagement,  be  it  aa  drawer,  acceptor,  or  indorser ; 
whereas  no  personal  arrest  and  imprisonment  can  be 
bad  against  a  debtor  for  an  ordinary  debt.  When  we 
Use  the  exprepsion,  that  a  party  is  liable  according  to 
the  taws  of  bills  uf  exchange,  it  must  be  understood, 
idao,  to  mean  that  these  extreme  legal  remedies  of 
I'uerciun  may  be  applied  to  hiiv  The  time  of  im- 
prlsunment  differs  in  different  States,  and  varies  ac- 
t'urdinu  to  the  amount  of  indebtedness.  The  French 
law  allows  personal  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one 
voat.  If  the  debt  docs  not  exceed  50  francs ;  two  years 
if  the  delit  docs  not  exceed  1000  francs ;  three  yiars 
fur  a  bill  of  from  1000  to  3000  fVoncaj  and  four  years 
for  a  debt  of  from  8000  to  5000  francs ;  and  Ave  years 
for  any  sum  lieyond  this.  But  persons  of  the  age  of 
seventy  are  entirely  exempted  from  arrest,  and  parties 
to  promissory  notes  {billets  a  ordre),  if  not  merchants, 
except  the  notes  were  given  on  account  of  some  mer- 
cantile transaction,  traffic,  exchange,  banking,  or  bro- 
kerage, are  also  free  from  personal  arrest  in  France. 
In  Austria  the  imprisonnipnt  for  a  debt  on  bills  can  not 
exceed  one  year,  in  Prussia  five  years ;  other  German 
Hlates  differ  In  regard  to  time,  but  they  are  generally 
less  rigorous  than  the  French  law,  and  exempt  from 
arrest,  besidps  persons  of  the  age  of  seventy,  various 
utbersf  for  instance,  relations  by  blood  or  otherwise, 
military  persons,  public  officers,  etc.     The  creditor. 


mi, 


m 


BIL 


howaver,  h««  to  hanr  rtw  mnmn<m  itf  hnntA  (et  the 
delitor,  iind  if  ha  m^ein  )i,  imi*UUt  (iH  li,  IIm  d«M«r 
U  roUnaeit  and  eMt  nut  I**  wrffttlM  ilK»ini 

Ktquiiiitt  of  HilU  Iff  limihmu'i^k  Mil  nf  «*e1i*ng« 
tt  culled  in  Vfm\^  Mlf*  lU  flump  i  iN  llltlMft,  /i^^rm 
(/i  cambioi  in  (jsrmiin,  utuM,  itt  i/fxtif/imM'  iffrhtt  (■ 
Prawn  Hill,  to  ditliNgMiil)  1)  mm  *  ((CirtrtlMW »  mrte, 
which  is  oallad  »  l»r/  Hill,  Imilrmf  *'>cW),— i<J« 
I'nnNissMHV  NoTli!*,  Thu  liiit^Ntiftl  f>'i|Hl*ll«i  nf  a 
bill  of  exchang*  in  HHtmmy  HffViHi  i)-.  l.tliAtthn 
word  "  lilll  of  ii»ch»ng«"  Oi'H'M)  tm  «rtH«(*(Cd  In  »he 
inrtruinent,  or,  if  writt«tt  Ih  H  U»4{M  liM^tM^t,  (he 
expresiion  aorrvupowtlNy  U}  t(/  t,  tM  «|M<<-lfl«>(HI<ni 
of  the  lum  of  mMmy,  %  tlw  HNNM  «f  <M  (WMMi  or 
firm  to  whom  of  tu  wImma  wr4«r  if  N  p(t|'«lil«,  4,  The 
•tatement  of  tba  lilM*  wf  \m}HWM  \  »tiA  1hl«  CNn  he 
roiule  only  on  •  d*y  vorMln,  «^  «)i;lli  («^  ¥Mii,  «<«!,),  nr 
at  a  ccrUiin  tinis  wfter  •itfltf ,  »r  «i  «  <>f'(«)«i  dfiy  «fter 
date,  or  at  »  csrtwin  fttir  I  W<  ««• ):  /)/  thl  ii)f(nntiire  nf 
the  drawer,  liy  bin  mnw  iif  (tHH.-  ft,  'ftltf  Kinhimnt  nt 
the  place  and  dxte  of  muntll  HllA  fmt  *U¥tt  Hm\  when 
it  wa*  drawn,  7,  TImi  mmf  Mftlui  pffli^m  tit  flrri  w 
whom  it  i«  drawn  Ohimw),  H,  th*  nfrnfini^Ubt:  ut 
the  place  of  |)ayin«))t  j  if  H"  t4«Mi«t  tit  ttwrnUitied,  the 
place  of  (be  drawee  i»  M  bo  MIUh  N*  fbc  I/Imm  <if  pay- 
ment and  the  duniiriia  of  (be  itfHWtmj  'th«  Mil  mu'iit 
be  for  (ho  payment  of  A  »»m  nf  HWWJt,  aWl  «fft  for 
goods  or  Htale  lUiuka  j  mir  fmi  H  M  m«Mb<  MCahte  with 
intereai,  or  wiib  any  w;(li»i<»H  ((•((♦(■Im^  ««  l(.  th« 
Code  of  the  Kingdom  of  Urn  t#f«  Mcilb'a  «llo(tK  alao 
payment  in  gouda,  'Ilia  Mil*  of  K««'bMMf(<>  fntyalile  to 
bearer  (n«  porlttw)lUa  B«t  wdNliMtililf,  ¥\m't\n  (}gf. 
many  or  Prance,  Tlw  l^feiM  b  l»W  ( -I  fl,  I KO  fC'inlfci 
that  bills  of  eKchwtge  shall  l»  4f»»H  ffim  tiM  Mace  im 
another  plaise ;  that  (Imy  sbwil  \m  liHlut,  HUA  (hat  (hey 
specify :  1.  The  anm  |u  \m  pai4;  !!,  tb*  «»(««  of  (he 
person  who  is  to  pay  \\w  m»w,  «.  'ttm  (i(n«  wA^n, 
and  the  place  where,  (!»«  fwytfl^Ht  )#  («  \m  (rtad*.  4. 
The  value  furnished,  whsHtwr  Ih  ftum***  lo  (tierchan- 
dise,  in  acconnt,  or  in  «ty  (rtlw  (M((«(«'f,  'fbe*  are 
drawn  to  the  order  of  H  f  birfl  wfum,  iifUttUt  titift  lit 
the  drawer  himself,  if  tiwy  m  4WWN  Ih  ««(«,  1 ,  2«  8, 
etc.,  it  must  lie  so  e)(|)rMw4, 

In  Oermany,  avtry  \mt»m>  wiui  (■««  lawfrtlly  Wnd 
himself  by  a  contract  H»*y  bw/»W*'  a  pHfty  («  a  l,||t  of 
exchange.  The  age  of  tmjimtf  i»,  Iw/^^tcr;  different 
in  different  States  i  i»  J'rH«»ia  If  CWWWCMCM  With  (he 
completion  of  the  (weMly^'Wrlb  fHilf  llf  HgK  i  III  Aus- 
tria, Bavaria,  Saifony,  na4<<»,  WM'I  In  (Imm  Ma(es  on 
(he  Khine  where  (be  l/fsfw-b  f'ivil  fUDk  pffintit,  It 
commences  wi(b  (be  (wen»y.-iif»f  yc*f  iif  «i«,  and  (he 
same  is  (ha  case  in  Vr»Hm  'mt4  'iHVlM'i'.  ih  ftardlnia, 
only  merchants  can  draw  ifllawl  (rtll*,  Irtit  nay  body 
may  draw  foreign  bills,  'JM  M««#la«  U^^  eacludes 
only  women  who  do  not  >-»rry  im  Htmmffee.  The 
Cods  of  (he  Kingdixn  of  t  Its  Thm  Nbilb"*  »>*cl«des  »<im- 
en  in  general.  Tl(e  Ci^^  nf  t'lumitmi'll  Mnktn  (he 
capabilKy  of  licropning  a  \mH)/  III  »  I/Ill  Iif  #«change 
general,  but  conOnea  it  on\y  Ut  bllla  nf  **^h«ftge, 
and  does  not  include  immUmify  iMrfi"*,  the  ^atrlsh 
Code  of  Commerce  of  IWfQ,  $  i^i,  UfDMn  »«  nthft  per- 
sons than  mertliants  the  right  iif  urn  imi'inHiM  parties 
to  bills  of  eKchanga,  Imt  only  )H  f****  wllffti  (hey  hate 
drawn  or  accepted  bills  oii  «(■»•»««»  nf  k  liiffi-Hntnn 
(ransacdon.  I'arma  atwi  'fHnnHliy  lifHtH  iiht*  tii  iner- 
chan{e  (he  right  of  imfimmu  i«)'(f''«  l«  Mils.  'I'he 
Code  of  liasle  of  l«W,  $  ft'4,  Wfltifi'ii  (baC  H  pMsmi's 
name  be  entered  in  (b*  lioob  nf  niffinlriiiii  ntHin,  (ailed 
(he  iKwk  of  Hangioim;  m\Mi  is  («  mtmy  eltles  kept 
el(her  at  (he  exebanga  or  >b«  ci(t'--ll»M.  '  tlw  law  of 
Basle  requires  the  sum  (Wy»bb'  l«  I**  «fa(*4  id  toilers, 
and  not  merely  in  (lg»re#i  llw  l«»s  nf  Mfissia  and 
Copenhagen  require  tba  »»m  Ul  \m  MtkifA  t«o(b  Ift  let- 
Urs  and  in  figures)  aM  Iba  law  cf  M.  Oallen  pro- 
vides (ha(  any  erasure  or  al»*ralb*(( »/  »b»i  wiik,  or  any 
other  requisite  \mn  of  lb"  1*111,  mitluf*  (Iw  Mil  toid, 
■cd  entitles  the  drawail  to  r#fu««  i»<(^NI#ht,     tif  (he 


law  of  Copenhasm,  the  bills  payable  to  bearer  (lettra 
nUporteur)  are  allowed,  but  not  by  the  law  of  Germany 
or  France, 

Ry  the  French  law  (A  rf.  121))  a  bill  of  exchange  may 
he  drawn  payable  at  eight,  or  at  one  or  more  days,  or 
months,  or  usances,  after  sight  or  after  da(e ;  or  on  • 
day  fixed,  or  at  or  during  a  fair  (rn/>iVe);  and  {Art. 
tA2)  the  usance  Is  thirty  days,  which  run  from  the  day 
after  the  date  of  the  bill;  and  (Art.  18U)a  bill  payable 
nt  the  fiilr  is  at  maturity  on  the  evening  preceding  the 
day  fixed  for  the  termination  of  (he  fair,  or  the  day 
after  the  fair,  if  it  continue  only  one  day.  The  (jcr- 
man  law  {Art.  4,  Mo.  4)  does  not  now  allow  bills  drawn 
In  Uermany  on  a  foreign  couniry,  or  inland  bills,  to  be 
drawn  at  usance  (a  luo,  nwztu  imo,  doppio  tuo,  i.  c.  at 
•Ingle,  half,  or  double  usance),  or  a  piactrt,  "  on  de- 
mond"  (with  the  exception  of  Austria,  which  allows 
the  la((er).  If  foreign  bills  arc  drawn  upon  any  Ger- 
man H(a(e  at  a  usance,  (ho  (ime  of  maturity  (f'rA<unce, 
nmnilrma)  is  to  lie  determined  liy  the  foreign  law,  viz. 
that  of  the  place  where  (he  bill  is  drawn,  which  law 
also  de(ormipes  whether  the  umncc  is  counted  from  the 
day  ot  presentation,  or  (Vom  the  day  of  drawing.  The 
German  law  does  not  admit  either  of  fixing  the  time 
by  the  happening  of  certain  events,  or  by  certain 
perlmis  of  time,  as  "on  Kaster,"  etc.  The  law  in 
Tnrltcy  does  not  admit  uwince  {Art.  87),  differing  in 
this  rcsjiect  fVom  the  French  law.  The  law  of  Nor- 
way (of  1842)  provides  {Art.  1)  that  liills  shall  not  be 
drawn  lieyond  the  time  of  six  months,  or,  if  payable 
out  of  Kurope,  not  beyond  one  year.  The  law  of 
Copenhagen  appoints  still  shorter  periods. 

Iniluntment,  —  In  Germany,  the  law  in  regard  to 
Indorsement  {indonament,  endouo,  giro)  Is,  that  (he 
payee  can  (ransfer  a  bill  of  exchange  upon  another 
person  by  indorsing  it  either  in  blank  or  in  fiill,  and 
(he  indorsee  will  have  the  same  rights  ugulnst  all 
other  antecedent  parties  as  the  indoreer;  and  the  payee 
may  Indorse,  and  the  bill  is  negotiable,  although  the 
drawer  did  not  make  It  payable  to  order.  If  the  draw- 
er does  not  wish  to  make  It  negotiable,  he  must  insert 
(he  words  "not  to  order"  {nicht  an  ordre),  or  some- 
thing similar.  The  mere  striking  out  of  the  word 
"order"  In  the  printed  formula,  and  adding  (he  word 
"self"  (o  (he  name  of  (ho  payee,  will  not  operate  as 
forbidding  the  negotiabilKy.  The  blank  indorsement 
mus(  lie  put  on  the  back  of  the  bill,  or  of  a  copy  uf  it, 
or  on  a  piece  of  paper,  commonly  called  "rider" 
(nlimije),  connected  with,  and  Joined  to  the  liill  or  copy, 
Kvery  holder  may  fill  up  the  blank  indorsement,  or 
may  also  indorse  it  farther  in  blank,  and  it  answerable 
(o  all  subsequent  holders,  unless  he  adds  (he  words 
"wKhout  guaranty"  (oA/ie  geiDuhrleiilung,  uhne  obl'go) 
or  some  similar  expression,  which  corresponds  to  our 
"without  recourse."  If  the  words  "not  (o  order" 
(niclil  an  ordre),  or  a  similar  expression,  arc  added  (o 
an  lndorsctnen(,  and  (he  bill  Is  yet  indorsed  or  handed 
over  (o  other  ptirsons,  (hcsc  subsequent  holders  can 
have  no  recourse  against  such  an  indorser.  But  if 
the  words  in  procura,  "  for  collecting"  {ziir  einkatsi- 
rung),  arc  added  to  an  indorsement,  (hen  such  an  in- 
dorsement does  not  transfer  the  property  in  the  bill, 
tint  empowers  such  indorsee  to  indorse  it  further  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  also  to  have  the  bill  protested, 
and  to  give  notice  to  his  an(ecedcnt  indorscr,  and  (o 
commence  legal  procoedtngs  for  non-payment.  The 
laws  of  Copenhagen  (l)i  i,  nark),  Holland,  Russia,  and 
.Sweden,  also  allow  liotik  indorsements.  But  the 
French  law  rculres  (.1  1S7  of  the  Code)  that,  in 
order  to  pass  a  valid  ti.ie  to  a  bill,  the  indorsement 
should  be  dated,  and  the  name  of  the  indnrsco  and  the 
value  should  lie  stated,  and  if  further  negotialiility  be 
Intended,  (he  words  "(o  order"  should  bi3  added.  A 
blank  indorsement  Is  held  to  be  a  mere  "prueura  in- 
dorsement," i.  «.  for  the  purpose  of  collecting.  The 
Hpanlsh  law,  which  also  prevails  in  Mexico  and  South 
America,  hold*  the  blaiik  indorsement  of  no  effect. 


BJL 


178 


BIL 


regard  to 
that  the 
II  another 
fViU,  and 
;ulnst  oU 
the  payee 
lough  the 
the  ilraw- 
,u«t  insert 
or  some- 
thc  word 
the  word 
Iperatc  as 
lornement 
ipy  uf  it, 
"ridor" 
ll  or  copy. 
;ment,  or 
iswcrable 
je  words 
ln«  M'go) 
Ids  to  our 
|o  order" 
added  to 
r  handed 
jdcrs  can 
But  if 
einkatil- 
'\\  an  in- 
the  bill, 
Irther  for 
Irotested, 
r,  and  to 
»it.     The 
issia,  and 
But  the 
that,  in 
trsement 
and  the 
lliility  be 
Ided.     A 
;«ro  in- 

IK-  "^^^ 
hd  South 
|o  effect. 


The  French  and  Russian  laws  punish  the  antedating 
of  an  indorsement  lilce  forgery.  Uut  the  Spanish  aad 
Dutch  laws  regard  it  as  forgery  only  when  it  is  done 
for  an  evil  purpose.  The  law  of  Portugal  requires  the 
date  to  a  l)lank  Indorsement,  The  French  law,  and 
all  the  countries  following  the  same,  the  Kussiun  law, 
and  that  of  St.  Uallen,  hold  only  bills  made  payable 
to  order  as  negotiable  and  transferable.  The  Spauitih 
law  (of  Bilbao)  requires  the  indorsement  on  the  back 
of  the  instrument.  The  Sardinian  law  regards  the 
clause  "without  recourse,"  "without  obligo,"  as  not 
written  at  all;  and  if  the  drawer  should  add  these 
words  to  his  name,  the  instrument  is  not  regarded  as  a 
bill.  The  law  in  Germany  is  (/Irt.  16),  when  a  bill 
has  been  indorsed  after  the  lapse  of  time  accorded  to 
protesting  fur  non-payment,  that  the  indorsee  acquires 
the  rights  springing  from  the  acceptance  against  the 
drawee,  and  the  right  of  recourse  against  those  who 
indorsed  it  after  the  lapse  of  this  period.  But  if  the 
bill  has  been  protested  for  non-payment  before  the  in- 
dorsement is  made,  then  the  indorsee  has  only  the 
rights  which  his  indorser  has  against  the  acceptor,  the 
drawer,  and  the  tndorsers  up  to  the  time  of  protest. 
Nor  is  such  an  indorser  after  protest,  in  such  a  ease, 
liable  according  to  the  laws  on  bills,  but  only  accord- 
ing to  the  common  law.  The  KuHslan  law  makes  a 
like  distinction.  The  Dutch  and  Portuguese  laws  re- 
gard an  indorsement  after  maturity  only  as  a  cession 
of  rights.  Th^  Sardinian  law  regards  it  only  as  an 
indorsement  for  pr.icuration.  The  French  law  is  not 
decided  on  this  point,  and  the  courts  regard  such  an  in- 
dorsement generally  as  admissible,  but  sometimes  as  a 
full  and  good  indorsement,  and  then  again  only  as  one 
for  procuration,  i.  «.  power  of  attorney.  In  Italy  it  is 
regarded  as  a  procura  indorsement,  t.  e.  as  a  power  of 
attorney. 

Pitsenlation/or  Acctplance. — The  German  law  (.Irt. 
18)  provides  that  the  holder  of  a  bill  is  entitled  to  pre- 
sent the  bill  for  acceptance  at  once,  and,  if  not  ac- 
cepted, to  have  it  protested  for  non-acceptance.  But 
bills  payable  at  fairs  (vitM-vetchttl,  cmnbin  rtgularia 
vel  feriarum)  can  be  presented  only  at  the  time  fixed 
by  the  law  for  presentation.  The  mere  possession  of 
a  bill  entitles  a  person  to  present  it,  and  to  have  it 
protested,  in  case  of  dishonor.  But  {Art.  19)  the 
holder  of  a  bill,  payable  at  sight,  or  a  certain  time 
after  sight,  must  present  it  at  least  within  two  years 
fh>m  the  date  of  its  being  drawn ;  and  if  a  period  of 
presentation  has  been  prescribed  either  by  drawer  or 
indorser,  the  bill  mnst  be  presented  within  that  period, 
or  the  holder  will  lose  his  right  of  recourse  against 
drawer  and  indorser  as  debtors  on  account  of  the  bill. 
The  law  of  Russia  fixes  the  time  within  which  bills 
at  sight  or  after  sight  must  lie  presented  at  one  ycur, 
unless  the  drawer  lias  prescribed  a  period ;  but  in  case 
of  neglect  to  present  the  bill,  it  will  still  bo  good  as 
evidence  of  indebtedness  for  the  ordinary  period  l>e- 
yond  which  debts  become  outlawed.  The  laws  of 
other  countries  fix  the  time  of  presentation  for  accept- 
ance or  payment  according  to  the  distance  from  the 
place  of  drawing  to  the  place  of  payment.  The  French 
law  {All.  160)  requires  that  the  holder  of  a  l>ill  of  ex- 
change, drawn  from  the  Continent  and  the  European 
islands,  and  payable  in  the  European  possessions  of 
France,  whether  at  sight,  or  at  one  or  more  days, 
months,  or  usances  after  sight,  must  demand  pay- 
ment, or  acceptance,  within  six  months  from  its  date, 
under  the  penalty  of  losing  his  remedy  against  the  in- 
dorsers,  and  even  against  the  drawitr,  if  tlic  latter  had 
made  provision  for  the  payment  of  the  bill  in  the  hands 
of  the  drawee.  A  delay  of  eight  months  is  allowed 
for  the  presentment  of  a  bill  drawn  from  the  ports  of 
the  Levant,  and  northern  coast  of  Africa,  on  the  Eu- 
ropean possessions  of  France,  and,  reciprocally,  from 
the  Continent  and  European  islands  on  the  French  es- 
tablishments in  the  I.evant,  and  northern  coast  of  Af- 
rica.   A  year  is  allowed  for  the  presentment  of  bills 


drawn  on  the  western  coast  of  AfVioa,  as  ftir  as,  and 
including,  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope.  A  year  is  als« 
allowed  for  the  presentment  of  bills  of  exchangu  drawn 
fh>m  the  American  continent  and  West  India  islands 
on  the  European  possessions  of  France,  and,  recipro- 
cally, from  the  European  continent  and  islands  on  the 
French  possessions  or  establishments  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  on  the  American  continent,  and  West 
India  Islands.  Two  years  is  allowed  for  the  present- 
ment of  bills  of  exchange  drawn  from  the  East  Indian 
continent  and  islands  on  the  European  possessions  of 
France,  and,  reciprocally,  from  the  European  conti- 
nent and  islands  on  the  French  possessions  or  establish- 
ments on  the  East  Indian  continent  and  isiauda.  The 
delays  alwve  mentioned,  of  eight  months,  one  year, 
and  two  years,  are  allowed  to  bo  doubled  in  time  of 
maritime  war.  If  the  drawer  has  not  made  provision 
for  payment  with  the  drawee,  the  former  will  be  hold 
liable,  although  a  protest  has  been  made  after  the  time 
fixed  by  law. 

Of  .icnpttmct. — The  law  of  Germany  (.Irt.  21)  re- 
quires that  acceptance  of  a  bill  shall  be  made  in  writ- 
ing on  the  bill  itself;  and  if  the  drawee  writes  but  his 
name  or  that  of  the  linn  on  the  face  of  the  bill,  it  is 
considered  an  absolute  acceptance,  and  every  declara- 
tion written  on  the  bill  and  signed  is  taken  as  an  al)- 
solute  acceptance,  unless  the  drawee  expressly  stitut 
in  it  that  be  will  not  accept,  or  will  accept  only  r<a  cer- 
tain conditions.  The  acceptance,  once  made,  can  not  lie 
taken  back.  The  French  law  {Art.  Vii)  requiras  that 
the  acceptance  of  a  bill  of  exchange  must  be  ->igned ; 
it  is  expressed  l>y  the  word  "  accepted"  (at  epti) ;  it  is 
dated,  if  the  bill  be  at  one  or  more  days  or  months 
after  sight.  And  in  the  latter  case,  the  want  of  a  date 
to  the  acceptance  renders  the  bill  payalile  at  the  term 
specilied  in  it,  counting  from  the  date  when  it  was 
drawn.  The  same  rule  prevails  in  those  countries 
which  have  formed  their  laws  on  bills  after  the  French 
law,  which  countries  have  lieen  specified  before;  it 
also  obtains  by  the  law  of  Copenhagen.  By  the  Span- 
ish law,  such  a  bill  runs  from  the  day  on  which  it 
might  have  been  presented,  according  to  the  ordinary 
course  of  the  post.  The  French  law  (.Irt.  124)  enacts 
that  the  acceptance  can  not  be  conditional,  but  it  may 
1)0  limited  in  regard  to  the  sum  accepted.  But  in  this 
case  the  holder  is  bound  to  have  the  liill  protested  for 
the  deficiency.  And  {Art.  1'2&)  a  bill  of  exchange  must 
lie  accepted  on  its  presentment,  or,  at  the  latest,  with- 
in twenty-four  hours  afterward.  After  the  twenty- 
four  hours  have  elapsed,  if  it  be  not  returned,  accept- 
ed or  not  accepted,  he  who  has  retained  it  is  liable  in 
damages  to  the  bolder.  The  German  law  {Art.  20) 
provides,  that  if  a  drawee  refuses  acceptance,  or  re- 
fuses to  date  his  acceptance,  the  holder  must  have  the 
bill  protested  within  tlie  period  prescribed  for  present- 
ing a  bill  (i.  e.  two  years  from  date  or  the  time  pre- 
scrilied  by  drawer  or  indorser),  or  he  will  lose  his  legal 
claim  against  indorser  and  drawer.  The  day  of  pro- 
test is,  in  (hat  case,  taken  for  the  day  of  presentation. 
If  no  protest  has  Iwen  taken,  and  the  acceptor  has 
omitted  to  date  his  acceptance,  the  maturity  of  the 
liill  is  counted  from  the  last  day  of  the  pcrio<i  within 
wlilcli  it  ouglit  to  have  been  iircsentcd.  The  law  of 
Portugal  and  Russia  and  St.  Gallon  makes  it  generally 
obligatory,  and  the  law  of  Holland  makes  it  obligatory 
only  upon  the  holder,  who  presents  the  bill  for  accept- 
ance, to  have  the  liill  protested,  absolutely  and  with- 
out delay.  The  Spanish  law  (Law  of  Bilbao,  chap, 
13,  §  35,  which  also  prevails  in  Mexico  and  South 
America)  provides  that  the  dr.-'wee  who  gets  the  bill 
into  ills  hands  with  the  consent  of  the  holder,  and  lot« 
the  day  of  presentation  pass  by  without  returning  it, 
is  obliged  to  pay,  that  is,  it  is  deemed  a  silent  accept- 
ance ;  and  if  the  acceptance  is  made  in  writing,  it  is 
required  (Bilbao,  chap.  13,  §  33)  that,  besides  the  niinie 
of  the  drawee,  also  tlio  word  "  accepted"  lie  added. 
Tito  law  of  Bilbao  (chap.  13,  §  32)  has  yet  the  peculiar 


sn. 


174 


BIL 


pTOTiilon,  that,  when  bins  at  light  an  accepted,  only 
one-half  of  the  name  of  the  flrm  need  be  algned.  Vy 
the  French  and  Portogneae  lawa,  a  similar  word  with 
"accepted"  may  be  substituted;  but  it  is  a  mooted 
question  whether  the  word  vu,  "seen,"  Is  sufficient. 
The  laws  of  Copenhajg^n  and  Portugal  also  allow,  like 
the  Vreneh  and  Qerman  laws,  the  acceptance  for  a 
smaller  sum  than  the  face  of  the  bill  states,  and  oblige 
the  holder  to  have  the  bill  protested  for  the  rest,  but 
consider  all  other  conditions  as  not  written.  The 
Russian  law  also  requires  the  holder,  in  such  a  ease, 
to  have  the  bill  protested,  or  he  will  lose  his  right  of 
recourse  against  the  other  parties.  In  Germany,  the 
law  requires  the  drawee  to  declare  at  once,  without 
delay,  whether  he  will  accept  or  not.  But  the  law  of 
France,  and  of  those  countries  which  hnvc  been  named 
lieforo  as  having  followed  the  French  law,  allows  the 
drawee  twenty-four  hours'  time,  as  stated  Iwforc.  The 
law  of  Copenhagen  also  allows  twenty-four  hours  for 
consideration,  and  requires  the  protest  only  on  the 
next  day  following.  The  law  of  Tcssin  allows  three 
days  for  consideration,  and  the  lK\f  of  Russia  granta 
time,  for  taking  protest  and  sending  it,  till  to  the  seo- 
Ond  post. 

Procetdingi  vpo»  Non-acetptimce.—Whm  acceptance 
has  been  refused,  nr  when  the  acceptance  is  qnallfled, 
or  for  a  smaller  sum  than  stated  in  the  bill,  the  law  in 
Germany  (Art.  25)  obliges  the  indorsers  and  drawer, 
upon  receiving  the  protest  for  non-acceptance,  to  givt 
sufficient  security  that  payment  of  the  whole  sum,  t,c 
of  so  mnch  as  has  not  Ytetn  accepted,  shall  be  made  on 
the  day  the  bill  falls  due  for  payment,  together  with 
the  amount  of  cost.  The  sum  may  likewise  lie  depos- 
ited in  some  court  of  justice,  or  other  authorized  insti- 
tution. (_Aii.  28.)  The  deposited  security  is  restored 
if  the  bill  should  afterward  lie  fully  accepted,  or  if  the 
holder  or  other  person  who  takes  recourse  does  not 
commence  a  suit  within  a  year  from  the  maturity  of 
the  bill,  or  if  the  bill  has  been  paid.  The  French  law 
is  the  same  with  that  In  Germany.  But  the  law 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  like  the  English 
akid  American  law,  allows  immediate  recourse  against 
drawer  and  indorsers  for  payment  if  the  bill  has  not 
been  accepted.  The  law  of  Portugal  follows  the  French 
law,  but  gives  the  holder  also  the  right  to  demand 
from  the  drawer  that  he  assign  and  hand  over  to  him 
all  his  claims  against  the  drawee,  and  all  the  papers 
relating  thereto.  The  German  law  ftirther  provides, 
that  when  the  bill  has  been  accepted,  and  the  acceptor 
Mops  payment  or  goes  into  bankruptcy,  or  if  an  exe- 
cution against  the  property  of  the  acceptor  has  not 
been  satisfied,  or  his  person  has  been  arrested  for  non- 
payment— in  all  thew  cases,  the  holder  of  a  bill  may 
demand  security,  if  the  acceptor  has  not  given  securi- 
ty, and  a  protest  has  been  taken  in  consequence.  The 
French  law  (Art.  163)  goes  yet  farther,  and  provides 
that,  if  the  acceptor  fails  before  the  day  of  payment, 
the  bill  may  be  considered  as  due,  and  recourse  may 
be  had  for  payment  against  the  drawer  and  indorsers ; 


and  that  If  the  drawer  of  a  promissory  note,  or  the  8», 
oeptor  of  a  bill,  or  the  drawer  of  a  non-accepted  bill, 
shall  (kll,  the  other  persons  liable  on  the  instrunenta 
shall  b«  obliged  to  give  security  (Uw  of  %th  May, 
1888). 

Time  </i\i)m«iil.— The  following  days  hare  bean 
iixed  by  law  at  the  principal  cities :  In  Brunswick  It 
is  law  that  no  protest  for  non-acceptance  can  be  bad 
on  a  bill  drawn  on  the  Brunswick  fair  before  Monday 
In  the  flrst  week  of  the  fair,  and  the  day  of  payment 
of  these  bills  is  the  Wednesday  in  the  flrst  week  of  the 
fair.  In  Frankfort-on-the-Haine  It  has  been  enacted 
that  bills  which  are  drawn  payable  at  a  fair,  without 
specifying  the  week  of  the  fair,  must  be  paid  or  pro- 
tested on  Tuesday  of  the  third  week,  i.  «.  on  the  last 
day  of  the  fair.  In  Austria,  in  the  countries  where 
the  general  civil  code  prevails,  such  bills  fall  due.  If 
the  fair  last  but  one  day,  on  this  day ;  if  it  last  sev- 
eral days,  but  not  more  than  eight,  on  the  day  before 
the  legal  termination  of  the  fair ;  and  If  the  fair  last 
longer  than  a  week,  on  the  third  day  before  the  legal 
termination  of  the  fhir.  In  Hungary  such  hills  fill! 
due,  if  the  markets  last  but  one  day,  on  this  day ;  if 
they  last  from  two  to  eight  days,  on  the  last  day  of 
the  market ;  if  the  markets  last  longer  than  eight  days, 
on  Wednesday  of  the  second  week.  In  Leipsic  bills 
that  are  drawn  payable  at  the  Michaelmas  fair  full  due 
on  the  Thursday  after  the  fair  has  been  opened  by  the 
ringing  of  the  bell,  and  bills  payable  at  the  New-year'a 
fair  Aill  due  on  the  12th  of  January,  and  if  this  should 
fall  on  Sunday,  then  on  the  next  following  day.  Ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  bills  drawn 
payable  at  the  fairs  fall  due  on  the  last  day  of  the  fair. 
The  law  of  France  (Art.  180)  provides  that  a  bill  drawn 
at  sight  is  payable  on  its  presentment,  and  (Art.  181) 
that  the  maturity  of  a  bill,  at  or  after  a  certain  time 
after  sight,  is  determined  by  the  date  of  the  accept- 
ance, or  by  that  of  the  protest  for  non-acceptance. 
(Art.  182.)  The  usance  is  thirty  days,  which  run  fW>m 
the  day  after  the  date  of  the  bill.  The  months  are  ac- 
cording to  the  regulation  of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 
(Art.  188.)  A  bill  payable  at  the  fair  (en/oirt)  is  at  ma- 
turity on  the  evening  preceding  the  day  fixed  for  the 
closure  of  the  fair,  or  the  day  of  the  fair  if  it  continue 
only  one  day.  The  law  of  Copenhagen  counts  the  day 
when  the  liill  Is  dated,  and  grants  to  the  acceptor  eight 
days  of  grace,  and  to  the  holder  ten  days  of  grace  (called 
in  Italian  ,7tbrni(Hruipcftn).  The  law  of  Russia  (§66)  al- 
lows on  bills  at  or  after  sight  three  days  of  grace,  and  on 
other  bills  ten  days  of  grace,  and  the  same  on  promis- 
sory notes.  The  law  of  St.  Gallen  allows  six  days  of 
grace  on  bills  and  promissory  notes.  The  German 
law  (Art.  88)  enacts  that  the  holder  muif  not  refuse  an 
offered  part-payment,  even  though  the  bill  has  been 
accepted  for  the  whole  sum.  The  French  law  (Art. 
166)  states  that  the  payments  made  on  account,  as  part 
of  the  nmount  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  operate  in  dis- 
charge of  the  drawer  and  indorsers.  The  holder  is 
bound  to  have  the  bill  protested  for  the  balance. 


FORMS  OF  FOREIGN  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE. 

Frrmcr. 
LOle,  fe  28  -SepeemJre,  1866.  Bon  pour  £158  9  Sterling!. 

Au  vingl-emq  JMcembre  proehain,  il  vout  plaim  payer  par  ct  mandat  li  Pordre  de  nout-memet  la  tomme  de  cent 
tinqaant^Jaat  livrtt  sleriingi  9  shellingi  taleur  en  nonp-maaet  et  quepaueres  tuirant  taeit  de 

A  Mesiieun . ,.. ~     ~~     "  [ 


alondret,  lu,  t-:     ;     t -i;    li'' 

Gp.rmah. 

iVSr»8«y,  den  28  October,  1866. 

Zaei  monate  nach  data  zahlen  tie  gegun  die$en  Prima  Wechid  an  die  Ordrt  de*  Uerm 

Ein  Uundert  Vj^nd  Sterling  den  Werth  erhalten.     Sie  hringtn  tolche  aufRechnung  lata  Bericht  von 

Uei^^en  ^_^__^_^^^_^___^.^..„^.^.^_^.^^^^^^__^.^_^.» 
Londtmi 


Pro  ;eiOO  Sterling. 


/ 


BIL 


171 

DOTOH. 


BIL 


Grmim,itn\itNotembtr,\9M.  ^.w.n.-  ,.•.•)■..«•*,.!  f."      '    Toor  X69  17  « 

7VMf  maanitn  nii  liato  gtUer*  VEd  tt  ttfalM  «Mr  <fezni  o«itm  ^vrMM  tfiWiSrtr/'  ds  immia  nie$  beiaald  zyudt 

aan  dt  ardn  van  d»  Htemn ntgm  (J-  ryfiig  Vonden  zertntien  icMlingtH  zetpenctt  tier- 

ling,  dt  waardt  in  rtktning  VICd  iM»  IM  op  rtkemng  met  qftonder  advyt  van 


At*  MtM  AerNM. 


t$  London,  -n,-!  "-.j  ,  .i  .  ;>  •  ^\1  'v^  im-  t.M-.,  *■•.    . 

-    •' '-      iTALua,    ■■i-i.i  .- .      .;.:ii  .••■ 
iMomo,  It  35  Settembrt,  1866. 

i4  7're  meti  (<n<a  pn^oM  per  quula  prima  dt  Cambio  (una  Mi  toka)  aW  ordint 

tomma  di  Lire  cinque  cento  iterlint  valuta  cambiala,  epontH  in  eonto  M.  S.  mcoado  Famito  Addio 

Al. ' 

Londra.  i, .;   ,    ;  ,  ,     ■ 

Spanish  .t  \ .  *. 

Mfalaga,  dWde  StO"  dt  18M.  '  Am  XMO. 

A  novenia  diat  fecha  tt  lerriran  V  mondar  pagar  par  ttia  primera  dt  eamhio  A  la  orden  dt  lot  S^ 

J'rtt  denial  i«6ro»  EtterUnai  *n  oro  oplala  valor  recibido  de  dkot  S^  qut< 

valor  en  cuenta  itgun  aviio  de 

A  to»i8« 


Londrt*. 

£  600  Etierlintu. 

A  Senenta  dial  de  vitta  prtcizoi  pagari  K_ 


FoRTuonnB. 


Lisbon,  aoiBde  Petembro  de  1856. 
.  por  etta  noua  unica  via  de  Ijttra  Stgura, 


inot  oa  a  no^M  Ordem  a  quantia  acima  de  Seii  Centos  Z.iV.'oi  Eiterlinai  valor  de  not  rtctbido  em  Faiendat,  qu4 

pauera  em  Comla  legundo  o  aviio  de 

Ao  Sen'  , 

Londra. 

SWIDICH. 
Bjomeberg,  den  28  September,  1866.  For  XSter.  100. 
A'ittio   bagar   ^ter   data   behagade  U.   il.  emol   denna  prima    Wexel  (tecundo  obetaid)  betala   till   Uerr 
tUe  ordrei  JCltAundra  Fund  Sterling  torn  ilallei  i  ratning  enligt  avit. 

nermr 


London. 

Damish. 

Kjobenhavn,  9  December,  1866. 

Tre  maaneder  efler  data  behager  de  at  hetale  denne  Prima  Vexel,  lecunda  iHe,  lit  //err 

eller  ordre  med  Fire  Tutinde  Higibank  DaUr,  Valutta  modtaget  og  itiUet  i  Ittgning  [ftlge  advii. 

fferftt __^ 


mat  4000. 


London. 

Proeeedingi  upon  Iht  yon-pagmeni  of  Bills. — In  order 
to  entitle  the  holder  to  redreaa,  it  i>  reqnired  of  him, 
in  Qermany,  ttiat  lie  present  the  bill  for  payment,  and 
that  he  have  the  bill  duly  protested.  The  protest  may 
be  made  on  the  day  of  payment,  but  it  mutt  be  made, 
at  latest,  on  the  second  secular  day  after  the  day  of 
payment.  The  presentation  of  the  bill  for  payment 
may  likewise  be  made  within  this  period  of  two  days, 
and  the  holder  would  not  lose  his  rights,  even  if  he 
had  waited  with  the  presentation  to  the  last  day  of 
protest,  and  the  drawee  were  yet  solvent  on  the  day 
the  bill  fell  due.  But  a  protest  before  the  day  of  ma- 
turity i»  not  good,  although  payment  would  not  have 
been  made  on  the  day  of  maturity.  The  law  of  Basle, 
St  Gallon ,  Zurich,  Kussia,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  re- 
quires that  the  bill  be  protested  on  the  day  of  maturi- 
ty, and  up  to  a  certain  hour  of  that  day  (the  latter  pro- 
vision is  not  law  in  Portugal).  The  law  of  France 
(Art.  162)  and  Holland  (§  179),  however,  requires  pro- 
test on  the  day  after  the  day  of  maturity  {lendemain) ; 
and  if  this  day  be  a  legal  holiday,  the  protest  is  made 
on  the  following  day.  If  a  bill  is  made  payable  at  a 
place  ditferent  fVom  the  domicile  of  the  acceptor,  and 
a  person  there  is  specified,  the  German  law  requires 
that  it  must  be  presented  to  such  person ;  and  if  no 
person  be  specified,  it  must  be  presented  to  the  ac- 
ceptor at  the  place  specined ;  and,  In  case  of  non-pay- 
ment, it  must  be  protested  there.  If  the  proper  pro- 
test is  neglected  the  holder  loses  his  recourse,  not  only 
against  the  drawer  and  indorsers,  but  also  against  the 
acceptor.  But  in  no  other  case  is  the  acceptor  dis- 
charged fi-om  hia  liability  by  the  German  law. 

Notes  and  Bills  loit  or  detti-ogtd. — If  a  promissory 


not*  or  bill  of  exchange  has  been  lost  or  destroyed,  tlM 
holder  must,  nevertheless,  make  demand  of  payment 
at  its  maturity,  and,  in  case  of  non-payment,  give  due 
notice  to  the' antecedent  parties.  Bnt  whether  the 
promisor  or  acceptor  and  Indorsers  can  be  compelled 
to  make  payment,  without  a  delivery  or  production 
of  the  note  or  bill,  is  u  question  on  which  the  authori- 
ties in  America  differ.  In  England  it  has  been  held 
that  the  holder  can  not  recover  in  a  court  of  law,  but 
only  in  a  court  of  equity,  on  a  negotiable  note  or  bill 
lost  or  destroyed.  A  distinction  is  had  between  negotia- 
ble and  non-negotiable  instruments,  or  those  which  have 
been  specially  indorsed,  so  that  no  person  but  the  holder, 
who  sues,  could  have  acquired  a  right  to  sue  thereon. 
In  the  latter  oases,  the  note  or  bill  may  Iw  recovered 
at  law.  And  in  an  action  oii  a  lost  note,  where  the 
evidence  docs  not  prove  nfflrmatively  that  it  is  nego- 
tiable, the  presumption  in  New  York  is  held  to  be  that 
it  is  not  negotiable,  and  the  plaintiff  is  therefore  en- 
titled in  such  case  to  recover.  If  a  bill  or  note  trans- 
ferable by  delivery  lie  lost,  the  loser  should  give  im- 
mediate notice  thereof  to  the  drawee,  or  persons  who 
are  to  pay  it ;  and  if  such  persons  afterward  pay  it  to 
a  person  who  has  not  taken  it  6ona  fide,  or  paid  value 
for  it,  they  will  lie  responsible  to  the  loser.  If  the 
note  or  bill  lost  is  negotiable  and  transferable  when 
lost,  it  has  been  held  in  some  States  that  a  suit  at  law 
is  maintainalilo  against  the  maker,  in  others  that  it  is 
not;  and,  agnin,  in  others  it  has  l)een  held  that  the  hold- 
er may  recover  at  law,  provided  ho  executes  a  prop- 
er instrument  of  indemnity.  It  was  held  In  Massa- 
chusetts that,  where  a  note  has  been  stolen  from 
the  payee,  he  may  itill  prove  his  demand  against  the 


BIL 


171 


BIL 


m*k«r,  and  enrorca  payraant ;  th«  court  In  luch  etM 

{iraaciibing  tha  bond  to  be  Klvan  to  Iha  makar.  Hut 
r  a  bill  or  note  b«  deitroyed  by  Art  or  oiiiar  acaldaut, 
an  action'  may  b«  brought  thereon  for  ra«ov«ry.— 
Baylky  on  Jiillt, 

forged  liulrumenli.—Wben  the  lii^ature   of  tha 

,  drawer  of  a  llll  of  exchange  ia  furled,  and  tha  bill  !• 

accepted  by  the  drawee,  the  latter  will  Imi  ImhiiuI  to 

Sty  the  same  to  a  bona  fide  holder ;  and  if  be  luM  paid 
,  ha  can  aot  recover  buck  the  money  from  the  \mt»w\ 
to  whom  he  paid  It,  although  ba  can  luH  ncover  It 
back  from  the  reputed  drawer,  The  aama  duetrina 
applies  to  an  acceptor  tuprapnAut,  a*  to  tha  signatures 
of  the  parti(<s  for  whose  honor  he  accepts,  Itut  If  tlir 
signature  of  the  payee,  or  of  any  other  liidorser,  Im 
forged,  and  even  if  the  drawer  is  ut  the  aama  tlmn 
payee  and  indorser,  and  his  signature  Im  forged,  In 
these  cases  the  acceptor  Is  not  bound  to  know  Ibair 
signatures,  and  if  the  indorsement  under  which  the 
holder  claims  Is  forged,  the  acceptor  Is  not  Iwund  to 
pay  the  bill ;  and  If  he  does,  the  real  owner  U  enllikid 
to  rocover  tlie  amount  from  him  and  the  boMer,  If  a 
person  not  a  party  to  a  bill  pays  it  for  the  arc«|ilor,  or 
Indorser,  whose  name  Is  forged,  he  may  recover  liHck 
the  money  from  tbo  person  to  whom  bu  paid  it,  If  b« 
gives  notice  thereof  ou  the  same  day  to  tha  buktar. 
But  If  he  does  not  discover  it  or  give  notice  until  tha 
next  day,  then  he  Is  not  entitled  to  recover  hack  the 
money  from  the  holder.  But  If  an  indorser  pays  tha 
bill  under  a  forged  indorsement  of  the  luinia  of  a  prior 
Indorser,  or  of  the  drawer,  he  can  not  recover  bock  tha 
money  ft'om  any  subsequent  indorsee  to  whom  ho  paid 
it,  because  his  indorsement  admits  the  genuineness  of 
the  antecedent  Indomements  and  that  of  the  drawvr, 
— Story  on  Billi,  §  451.  In  cases  of  promissory  nolcii, 
if  the  signature  of  the  payee,  or  other  Inibirser,  under 
whom  the  actual  holder  claims,  is  forged,  and  the 
maker  pays  the  note,  such  payment  to  the  bolder  will 
be  null  and  void,  and  be  will  be  entitled  to  recover 
bock  the  money  from  the  bolder.  So,  If  the  |Niye« 
SLOuld  pay  tbo  note  to  the  holder  under  a  siibsei|ui>nl 
fc'ged  Indorsement,  he  may  likewise  recover  back  the 
fjiount.  But  if  a  subsequent  indorser  should  pay  llie 
amount  to  the  holder,  where  the  signature  of  the  maker 
or  of  a  prior  Indorser  is  forged,  be  could  not  recover  it 
back,  because  every  indorser  warrants  the  genuin«n«Mt 
of  the  signatures  of  the  antecedent  parties,  both  of  tlm 
indorsers  and  maker. — Stt  Stoky  on  Nolt$,  f  !iM7, 
Therefore,  before  the  maker  or  an  indorser  pays  ■  tiota, 
he  should  be  satisfted  that  the  signature  of  tha  payee 
or  other  Indorser  under  whom  the  actual  bolder  cUiins 
Is  a  genuine  signature,  for  if  it  be  a  forgery,  the  pay- 
ment would  be  a  nullity. 

Jktmagf*  to  be  Kecovered. — When  the  holder  of  •  bill 
of  exchange  bos  complied  with  all  the  requisitions  of 
the  law,  upon  the  dishonor  of  a  bill,  either  for  noii'aC' 
ceptance  or  uon-payment,  he  Is  entitled  to  uu  imUM- 
dlate  recourse  against  the  drawer,  acceptor,  and  Ih> 
dorsers  or  guarantors,  and  to  a  full  relmbursemeut  of 
all  the  damages  sustained  l)y  hlni.  These  diffaretit 
parties  are  liable  according  to  the  law  of  the  placa 
where  they  entered  into  their  respective  contra<i«; 
namely,  the  drawer  according  to  the  law  of  the  place 
where  the  bill  is  drawn ;  the  acceptor  according  Ui  the 
law  of  the  place  of  acceptance ;  and  the  indoners  and 
guarantors  according  to  the  kw  of  the  place  where  the 
indorsements  and  guaranties  were  made.  The  accept- 
or, upon  non-payment  of  the  bill,  ia  ordinarily  liabli 
to  the  holder  only  for  the  principal  sum,  and  the  «)[- 
penses  of  the  protest,  and  Interest  thereon  from  tltd 
time  of  the  maturity  of  the  bill,  and  lie  is  not  Siubbi 
for  re-exchange.  But  if  the  acceptor  has  expressly 
or  impliedly  agreed  with  the  drawer,  or  with  any  in- 
dorser, for  a  valuable  consideration,  to  pay  tli«  bill  at 
ita  maturity,  and  ha^  failed  so  to  do,  and  the  drawer 
or  indoner  has  been  compelled  to  take  up  the  bill,  and 
pagr  damage*  and  otiier  ezpensei,  ba  nu^  parlw^  bo 


I  IUbl«  In  iIm  dfawtr  or  Indorser  for  all  such  damage! 
,  and  axpvnsas,— /Vm  Mtomv  on  JlilU,  §  SU8,  and  Hay- 
I  l.KY  iM  JtiU;  p,  tm,     Tha  drawer  and  indorsars  of 
:  bills  of  exchange  are  liable  to  Iha  holder  for  the  prin> 
(,'i|«il  sum,  ami  InlarasI,  and  the  damages  and  axpensei 
'  incurred  by  tha  dishonitr.     Ttio  Interest  Is  due  accord- 
ing l«  IIm  legal  rata  allowed  at  the  place  where  the 
bill  Is  tmyal/le;  and  the  expcnsea  are  the  ordinary 
I  «o*t  i/f  prrilnst  and  other  incidental  expenditures,  sucli 
I  a*  iHMlage.  commission,  and  brokerage,  If  tha  party 
I  haa  Imwh  abllgad  tfl>  pay  the  holder,  In  consaquenue  of 
I  Iba  a<:rep<or'»  refusal.     The  damages,  In  the  absents 
i  "f  any  |Nnltlve  rule,  which,  however,  exists  In  nearly 
I  all  the  Hiatal  of  Iha  I'nion,  are  ascertained  by  the  ruts 
',  lit  re-axchangn  lietwecn  the  cnuiilry  whcro  the  bill  la 
I  accepted  and  the  country  where  the  bill  It  drawn.  In 
case  of  Ills  drawer ;  and  hotwcen  the  former  .ind  tlio 
I  emntry  wkrro  tha  bill  I*  Indorsed,  In  the  case  uf  the 
I  Indorser,     If  tha  bill  has  lieen  in  part  paid  by  the  ac- 
I  caplor,  damages  and  Interest  are  to  be  deducted  in  pro- 
j  |Nirtl»n,     By  re-«xcbange  Is  meant  the  amount  for 
I  which  a  bill  can  ba  purchased  in  the  country  whera 
,  llw  a<!C«|it«nco  Is  made,  drawn  upon  tbo  drawer  or  in- 
dorser In  the  country  where  ho  resits,  which  will 
givn  tliA  luikler  of  tbo  bill  pretested  a  sum  equal  to 
tlia  amount  of  that  bill  at  the  time  when  It  ought  to 
liava  lieen  pabi,  together  with  bis  necessary  expenses 
and  Intarest.    Tbo  full  indemnity  of  tlie  bolder,  bonce, 
rnqnlras  him  to  draw  tat  such  an  amount  as  will  inako 
gou<l  Iba  facn  of  the  bill,  together  with  interest  from 
the  lima  it  <rt)ght  to  have  licen  paid,  and  the  necessary 
charges  of  protest,  postage,  and  broker's  commission, 
and  tbn  current  ralo  of  exchange  at  the  place  where 
Iha  bill  was  to  h«  demanded  or  payable,  or  tbo  place 
wbern  It  was  drawn  or  negotiated.     Tbo  law  does  not 
requlf)  an  actual  ro-drawlng,  but  it  gives  the  bolder 
Iba  right  to  recover  what  would  be  the  Drito  of  an- 
other new  bill,  with  interest,  and  the  ncccssTy  cx- 
|i«Hs««,  including  the  amount,  or  price,  of  the  -<>-ex- 
cbanga.     Hut  the  Indorser  of  a  bill  is  not  enti.1  il  to 
recover  of  tbo  drawer  the  damages  Incurred  oy  the 
non-Ncceptanca  of  tbo  bill,  unless  he  hat.  paid  theiu,  or 
is  liable  In  puy  them  — li  Krnt's  Comm.,  Lect.  XLIV. 

BiMJt   (IK    KXI'II,\!«)K    DKAWX    IS    THE     UnITKII 

HTAttw,— In  order  to  avoid  the  difficulty  of  ascertain- 
ing what  Is  tha  true  rata  of  exchange,  most  of  the 
Htalas  of  Ilia  Itnlon  have  provided  by  a  statute  a  cer- 
tain llxad  sum.  In  the  place  of  damages  and  ro-ex- 
cluinga,  Tha  law  In  tha  different  States,  in  this  re- 
spect, is  a*  follows  i 

4/iu»«,— The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  negoti- 
at«d  in  Maine,  payable  In  other  States,  and  returned 
under  |mfl«st,  are  as  follows  (R,  8. 510):  1,  New  Hamj)- 
shirf,  Vertnont,  Massachusetts,  Bhode  Island,  Cnn- 
ni-cticut,  New  York,  3  per  cent,  2.  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvanbi,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  District  of 
(.'otumlila,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  6  per  cent.  8. 
NurtbCarulina,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Mis- 
tisslppl,  Missouri,  Ohio,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Wisconsin, 
I)  |ier  cent.  The  damages  on  foreign  bills  of  exchange 
ruturmid  under  protest  ore  10  per  cent. 

Null  lliHnpthin.,—^0  statute  In  force  in  this  State 
albiwiiig  damages  on  foralgn  or  domestic  bills  return- 
ed under  protest. 

l-'erwx/frf,— There  Is  no  statute  In  this  State  In  refer- 
«nc«  to  damages  on  protested  foreign  or  domestic  bills 
ofexclwnge, 

Mmmwhumi, — The  damages  on  bills  of  exclnnge 
nogoliited  In  Massachusetts,  payalde  in  other  .States, 
and  r«(tum«d  under  protest,  arc  as  follows:  1.  IIIIIh 
INiyable  In  M^lne,  New  llunipsbire,  Vermont,  Kliode 
loland,  ('nnnecticut,  or  New  York,  2  per  cent.  2, 
Bills  payable  In  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
or  iJclaware,  8  per  cent,  8,  Bills  payalde  in  Virginia, 
District  of  Columbia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
«r  ile«r||U,  4  per  cent.    4.  Bill*  payable  elsewhere 


BIL 


177 


BIL 


I  negotl- 

eturned 

r  lUmp- 

|d,  t;on- 

,  Pciin- 

Strict  of 
lent.  8. 
llUinoi'i 

an,  Mi«- 

Isconsiii, 
xchBnge 

lis  Stute 
I  return- 

lin  refcr- 
^tic  bills 

sclianRe 
States, 
1  1.  llillH 
KUode 
fent.  2. 
Wyland, 
hrftinia, 
Earolina, 
Isewhere 


within  Um  Cnltad  SUtn  or  Um  TerrilorlM,  5  par  cant. 
5.  BUU  A>r  on*  hundrad  doUwi  or  mora,  payalila  at 
any  plaoa  in  BLuaachuaatta  not  within  aavanty-flva 
mUaa  uf  tha  placa  wbare  drawn,  1  par  cant.  t'unigH 
BUU.— I.  UllU  payabia,  raturnad  undar  proteit,  Layond 
tha  llmlta  of  the  Unltiod  Htatai  (axeaptInK  places  in 
Africa  beyond  the  Cape  of  Uood  Hnpa,  and  places  in 
Asia  and  the  islands  tberauf)  shall  pay  th«  current  rate 
of  axcbanxe  wlien  dua,  and  6  per  cent,  oilditlonal.  8. 
Biila  payable  at  any  place  in  Africa  lieyond  the  Capa 
of  Uood  Hope,  or  any  place  in  Asia  or  the  islands  there- 
of, shall  pay  dannKes,  !iU  par  cent. 

Miide  JMlmui.—'l'be  damaffea  on  bills  of  exchanKe, 
payalJe  in  other  States,  and  returned  under  protest, 
•re  uniformly  6  par  cent.  The  damages  on/«ni^ 
mif  iij'iucchmig»  returned  undpr  protest  are  10  pur  cent. 

Ctmnretiiiit. — The  dania^os  on  lillls  of  exchange  ne- 
gotiated in  Conn'-cticut,  payable  in  other  Stales,  and 
returned  under  protest,  are  as  follows:  1.  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Ithode  Island, 
New  Yorii  (Interior),  New  Jersey,  I'eunsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  District  of  Columbia,  8  per 
cent.  i.  New  York  city,  2  per  cent.  8.  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  GeorKia,  and  Ohio,  6  per  cent. 
4.  All  tlie  other  Statea  and  Territories,  8  per  cent. 
There  is  no  statute  In  force  In  Connecticut  in  reference 
to  damages  on  foreign  bills  of  exrhange. 

A'ao  York. — The  damages  on  bilis  of  exchange  ne- 
gotiated in  thh)  State  and  payable  in  other  States,  and 
returned  under  protest  for  non-acceptance  or  non-pay- 
maut,  are  as  follows :  1.  Maine,  N<iw  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Khode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
Jersey,  I'ennsylvauia,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
District  of  Columbia,  and  Ohio,  8  per  cent.  2.  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee, 
6  per  cent.  8.  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Mich- 
igan, Texas,  Wisconsin,  10  per  cent.  The  damages  on 
foreign  bills,  returned  under  protest,  are  10  per  ctnt. 

Aevf  Jmtg. — There  Is  no  statute  in  force  in  refer- 
ence to  damages  on  protested  bills  of  exchange,  either 
foreign  or  domestic. 

Pemun/tvania. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange 
negotiated  in  this  State,  payable  in  other  States,  and 
returned  under  protest,  are  as  follows:  1.  Upper  and 
Lower  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Oregon,  10  per 
cent.  "i.  All  other  Statts,  6  per  cent.  The  damages 
on  foreign  bills  returned  under  protest  are  as  follows 
(May  13,  1860):  1.  Payable  in  China,  India,  or  other 
parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  or  islands  in  tlie  Facltic  Ocean, 
20  per  cent.  2.  Mexico,  Spanish  Main,  West  Indies, 
or  other  Atlantic  islands,  east  coast  of  South  America, 
Great  lirituin,  or  other  parts  of  Europe,  10  per  c^ nt  8. 
AVest  coast  of  South  America,  16  per  cent.  4.  All  other 
parts  of  the  world,  10  [ler  cent. 

Delaware. — There  is  no  statute  in  force  in  reference 
to  damages  on  domestic  bills.  The  damages  upon 
bills  of  exchange  drawn  upon  any  person  in  England 
or  other  parts  of  Europe,  or  beyond  the  seas,  and  re- 
turned under  protest,  are  20  per  cent. 

Mart/land. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  ne- 
gotiated in  Maryland,  payable  in  other  States,  and  re- 
turned under  protest,  are  uniformly  8  per  cent.  The 
claimant  is  entitled  to  receive  a  sum  sulflcieut  to  bay 
another  bill  of  the  same  tenor,  and  8  per  c«:it.  dam- 
ages on  the  value  of  the  principal  sum  mentioned  in 
the  bill,  and  interest  from  the  time  of  protest,  and  costs. 
Practice  includes  the  District  of  Columbia  in  this  law 
of  damages  (Act  of  Assembly,  1786,  c.  88),  but  it  is 
questionable  whether  the  District  be  within  the  law, 
which  provides  only  for  states,  /'orei^.^  JlilU. — The 
damages  on  these,  returned  iiiidor  protest,  are  16  per 
cent.  The  claimant  is  to  receive  a  sum  sufficient  to 
buy  another  bill  of  samo  '.enor,  and  ir>  per  cent,  dam- 
ages on  the  value  of  the  principal  sum  mentioned  in 
the  bill,  and  interest  from  the  time  of  protest,  and 
costa. 

H 


Vtrfima Damagaa  on  bills  of  exchange  nagatiatad 

In  Virginia,  payable  in  other  States,  and  retumad  UB- 
der  protest,  ara  uniformly  8  par  cant.  Tha  damagaa 
on  for*ig»  hiUt  nftxcKango  returned  under  protest  are 
uniformly  10  per  cent. 

Nirrtk  rnnWian.— The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange 
negotiated  In  this  State,  payable  In  other  States,  and 
returned  under  protest,  are  unifonnly  8  |ier  cent.  Tha 
damagaa  on  Jhrtign  btUt  of  rxikmig*  returned  undar 
protest  are  as  follows :  1.  Ullls  payable  in  any  part  of 
North  America,  except  tha  northweat  coast  and  the 
West  Indies,  10  per  cent  2.  Ullls  payable  on  Madei- 
ra, tha  Canaries,  the  Aaoras,  Cape  de  Verd  Islanda, 
Europe,  and  South  America,  16  par  cent.  8.  Ullla 
payable  elsewhere,  20  per  cent. 

HiMiK  Carolina. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange 
negotiated  in  South  Carolina,  payable  in  other  States, 
and  protested  for  non-payment,  are  uniformly  10  par 
cent.,  together  with  costs'  of  protest.  A  bill  drawn  In 
South  Carolina,  payalile  in  another  State,  Is  deemed  a 
foreign  bill,  and  damages  may  be  claimed,  although 
such  bill  lie  not  actually  returned  after  protest.  /'oi>. 
eign  BilU.—'Vhe  damage^  on  foreign  bills  of  excha«ga 
negotiated  in  South  Carolina,  are  :  1.  On  bills  em  any 
part  of  North  America  other  than  the  United  States, 
and  on  the  West  Indies,  12i  per  cent.  8«  On  bills 
drawn  on  any  other  part  of  the  world,  1&  par  cent. 

(>'soi7ia.— The  damages  on  bills  of  excaaage  nego- 
tiated in  Ueorgia,  payalile  in  other  Slates,  and  retnru- 
ed  under  protest,  are  uniformly  6  per  ceat.  The  dan>< 
ages  on  foreign  bilh  of  exchange  rstWlMti  «nder  proteat 
arp  10  |ier  cent. 

/KoAuma.— The  damages  on  bUla  af  exchange  nego- 
tiated in  Alabama,  payable  in  ether  States,  and  re- 
turned under  protest,  are  unifonnly  16  per  rent.  Bills 
payable  within  the  State  of  .\labaiaa,  6  per  cent.  The 
damages  on  foreign  bill*  of  txthange  returned  uixier 
protest  are  20  per  cent. 

Arkantaa. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  drawn 
o-  negotiated  in  Arkaiisas,  expressed  to  be  for  value 
received,  and  protested  for  non-aeceftance,  or  fbr  non- 
pagment  after  non-acceftance,  are  as  followi<  (R.  S. 
1848,0.25):  1.  If  payalile  wl.bin  the  State,  2  percent. 

2.  If  payable  in  Alaliama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
Tennessee,  Kentacky,  Ohir,  Indiana,  Illinois,  or  Mis- 
souri, or  at  any  point  on  ihe  Ohio  Klver,  4  per  cent. 

3.  If  payable  in  any  other  State  or  Territory,  6  per 
cent.  4.  If  payable  within  either  of  the  United  States, 
and  protested  for  non-payment,  afirr  noceptance,  6  per 
cent.  6.  The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange,  expressed 
for  value  received,  and  payable  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  10  per  cent. 

California. — Ity  an  act  passed  April  16,  1860,  tha 
damages  on  protested  bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  ne- 
gotiated in  California  were  lixed  as  follows:  1.  If 
drawn  upon  any  person  or  persons  citst  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
16  per  cent.  2.  If  drawn  upon  any  i)er8on*or  persons 
in  Europe,  or  in  any  foreign  country,  JO  p<!r  cent.  By 
an  act  passed  March  II),  1850,  the  r  te  of  Interest  on 
n?oney  loaned  in  California  was  fix  .4  at  10  per  cent, 
per  annum,  where  there  is  no  sf.:cial  contract;  but 
"  parties  may  agree  in  writinp  fo'  the  payment  of  any 
rate  of  interest  whatever  on  mo'iey  due,  or  to  become 
due,  on  any  contract.  Any  jud'  ment  rendered  on  •uch 
contract ''shall  conform  thereto  and  shall  bear  the  in- 
terest agreed  upon  by  the  parties." 

Florida.— I^M  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  nego- 
tiated in  Florida,  payable  in  other  States,  and  returned 
under  protest  for  non-payment,  are  uniformly  6  per 
cent.    Damages  onybrei^  biUi  of  exchange,  6  per  cent. 

Jllinoit. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  nego- 
tiated in  Illinois,  payable  in  other  States  or  Territories, 
and  returned  under  protest  for  non-payment,  are  uni- 
formly (by  act  of  Mar;h,  1846)  5  per  cent.  Damages 
oa  foreign  bUU,  10  per  cent. 

/nduma.— The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  ncgoti* 


BIL 


ITS 


BIL 


$kti  !•  IndUmi,  paytbl*  In  otiMr  BlatM,  and  ntnrncd 
■ailtr  itroiMt  for  nun-tMymeiit,  ura  unlforml)'  &  par 
tank    Ttw  itamixti  onyit-rian  hilU  »n  10  par  cant. 

/oiM. — Tka  lUnuKst  uii  tiUl*  uf  cxchanKa  uagotiataH 
In  Iowa,  payabla  in  iilhsr  HUtn,  and  |iraUal«<l  for  non- 
paXBrnl,  ara  uniformly  6  par  mnt.  Nu  itatuta  aaUta 
t»  to  dainaKaa  onjbnign  bttU  nftxcharngt. 

A'rntnrily.— Ttiqra  la  no  itatuta  in  forea  upon  tha 
nlijcct  uf  damaitaa  on  althcr  doniaatic  or  foraign  UUl 
of  axcliunKa, 

Jjmisiitmi. — ThatlamaKMon  bllla  of  axchanga  nago- 
tlalad  In  Louialana,  (layitlili!  in  other  Htatoa,  are  uni- 
formly 6  par  c«nt.  The  ilaiuaKva  on  /nrrign  bUU  </ 
tachungf,  TOtumed  undrr  protaal,  ara  uniformly  (itaU 
uia  of  1H8M)  lu  per  cent. 

Uitkigan. — The  damagaa  on  lilIU  of  exchanga  na- 
gotlatad  In  Michigan,  payable  In  othar  Htatei,  and  r»- 
turned  under  prutent,  am  uniformly  8  per  cent. ;  and 
tha  daroageii  on/imij/n  biltt  ura  alao  S  per  cent. 

Mitiuippi. — 'l'h«  damagpn  on  lillli  of  exchanga  ne- 
gotiated in  MiMiai<i|i|il,  iwyalile  In  other  8tatat,  and 
returned  under  |irot«it,  are  uniformly  b  per  cent.  The 
damage!  on/umyn  bilU  are  lU  per  cent. 

Hutouri. — The  >Umage«  ou  hilli  of  exchange  nag»- 
tinted  In  MI»ouri,  payalilo  in  other  8tale*,  and  re- 
tnm«<l  under  proteiit,  are  uniformly  10  per  cent.  On 
billa  payable  within  the  State,  4  per  cent.  On/brtigii 
bill;  20  per  rent. 

(Mio.— The  damtigea  on  blllii  of  exchange  negotiated 
la  Ohio,  payalde  in  other  States,  and  relume<l  under 
proteet,  are  uniformly  (by  act  of  February  16,  IHai)  6 
par  cent.     On  fortign  bill;  12  per  cent. 

Tnnuttt. — The  damages  on  bllli  of  exchange  nego- 
tiated In  Tennessee,  payable  in  other  States,  and  pro- 
tatted  for  mill-payment,  are  8  per  cent.  Tha  damages 
(mformg»  bUU  protesteil,  are:  1.  If  drawn  upon  any 
person  out  of  the  United  States,  and  in  North  Ameri- 
ca, Imrdcring  upon  the  (iulf  of  Mexico,  or  In  nny  part 
of  the  West  India  Islands,  16  |irr  cent.  2.  If  payable 
In  any  other  part  of  the  world,  20  per  cent. 

Tiatiu. — There  is  no  statute  in  force  in  reference  to 
damages  on  either  domestic  or  foreign  bills  of  ex- 
change. 

If ucoiwiit. — The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  drawn 
or  Indorsed  In  Wis(  onsin,  payalile  in  either  of  the  States 
adjoining  that  Stale,  and  protested  for  non-acceptance 
or  non-payment,  arc  b  |ier  cent.  If  drawn  upon  a  per- 
son, or  liody  politic  or  corporate,  within  either  of  the 
United  States,  and  not  adjoining  to  that  State,  the 
damages  are  10  per  cent.  The  damages  on  bills  of  ex- 
changa drawn  or  indorsed  in  Wisconsin,  payable  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  I'nitcd  States,  and  protested  for 
iioiMiceep(aH(%  or  mm-pagmenl,  are  (K.  S.  1849,  p.  263) 
6  per  cent.,  together  with  the  current  rate  of  exchange 
at  the  time  of  demand. 

Baa  Maiiiuil  J'or  Nataritt  I'iMic,  by  B.  Roklkbb, 
Now  York;  Story  on  JtiU*  j  Ciiitt  r  on  Bi//<,-  Kbmt'r 
Commtnlaimti  and  for  late  decisions  in  the  United 
States  Courts,  refer  to  the  Ilankert'  JUagazinr,  pnb- 
lished  in  New  York. 

Bill  of  Health,  a  certificate  or  instrument  signed 
by  consuls  or  utiicr  proper  authorities,  delivered  to  the 
masters  of  ships  at  tlie  time  of  their  clearing  out  from 
all  porta  or  places  suspected  of  being  particularly  suli- 
Ject  to  infectious  diso^le^s,  certifying  the  slate  of 
health  at  the  time  that  such  ship  sailed.  A  than  bill 
imports  that  at  the  time  that  the  ship  sailed  no  infec- 
tioua  disorder  was  known  to  exist.  A  lunpected  bill, 
commonly  called  a  touched  patent  or  bill,  imports  that 
there  were  rumors  of  an  infectious  disorder,  but  that  It 
had  not  actually  appeared.  A  foul  bill,  or  the  absence 
of  clean  bills,  imports  that  the  place  was  infected  when 
the  vessel  sailed. — See  Qvaraiitinb, 

Bill  of  Iiading,  is  a  formal  receipt  subscribed  by 
the  master  of  a  ship  in  his  capacity  of  carrier,  ac- 
knowledging that  he  has  received  the  goods  specified 
in  It  on  board  his  ship,  and  binding  himself  (under  cer- 


tain aaoapllona)  to  dalWar  tham,  in  Iha  Uka  gaod  ordar 
aa  raealvsd,  at  the  place  and  to  tha  indivklual  namnd 
In  tha  bill,  or  hla  asalgna,  on  hU  or  their  paying  bini  Iha 
stipalated  ftalght,  ate.  When  goods  ara  sent  by  a  ship 
hirad  by  a  charter-party,  tha  bills  of  lading  are  detlv- 
srad  by  tha  moalar  to  tha  merchant  by  whom  the  ship 
is  cbartarsd  |  but  when  they  ara  tent  by  a  general  ekip— 
that  Is,  by  a  ship  not  hired  by  charter-party,  but  am- 
ployed  aa  a  general  carrier — each  Individual  who  sends 
gowls  on  board  reoalves  a  bill  of  ir.iling  for  the  saina. 
In  all  cases,  therefore,  the  bill  of  ladlrg  is  tka  evideno* 
of  and  title  to  the  goods  shipped.  Tha  liability  of  a 
carrier,  at  common  law,  to  deliver  the  goods  intrusted 
to  hla  care.  Is  canceled  only  by  "  Iha  act  of  Ood  and 
tha  king's  enemies."  But  to  limit  this  responsibility, 
tha  following  exception  Is  now  Invariably  almost  In- 
troduced Into  the  clause  In  bills  of  lading  binding  the 
master  to  the  delivery  of  the  goods  i  "  TKe  act  nf  (>W, 
the  hny'i  enemies,  fire,  and  all  and  erery  other  dangeri 
and  nccidenti  iff  Ike  teat,  rieeri,  iimi  iKtrigniiim,  of  vkal' 
tter  nature  and  kind  toerer,  trctplej."  Bills  of  lading 
are  not.  In  general,  imniadialely  given  by  the  mailer 
on  receiving  Ihe  goods.  The  usual  practice  Is  fur  tho 
niaater  or  his  deputy  to  give  a  common  receipt  fbr  tha 
goods,  which  is  delivered  up  on  receiving  the  bill  of 
lading.  The  latter  should  always  lia  raquliad  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  tha  goods  are  received  on  board. 
Three  sets  of  all  bills  of  lading  ara  made  out :  one  uf 
these  ahould  be  remitted  by  tho  llrst  post  to  the  person 
to  whom  the  goods  ara  consigned,  a  second  being  sent 
to  him  by  the  ship ;  the  third  Is  retained  by  the  ship- 
per of  the  goods.  The  master  ought  always  to  retain 
copies  of  the  bills  of  lading  for  his  government. 

Trantfer  of  BUU  if  lading Bills  of  lading  ara 

I  transferable  either  by  blank  or  special  Indorsement, 
like  bills  of  exchange.  And  whatever  may  be  tha 
character  of  tho  person  to  whom  the  gnodt  are  con- 
signed, whether  ho  lie  a  buyer,  or  merely  Ihe  factor, 
agent,  or  broker  of  the  consigner,  the  b)ma  fide  holder 
of  a  bill  of  lading  indorsed  liy  the  consignee  is  entitled 
to  tho  goods,  and  may  claim  Ihem  from  the  master  If 
he  can  prove  that  be  has  purchased  the  bill  lor  »  good 
amiideration ;  but  unless  he  can  do  this,  he  la  not  en- 
titled to  the  goods. — Holt,  Lok  ofShi/^ng,  2d  ed.  p. 
868. 

Delicerg  under  BUI  of  l/xding. — It  being  nsnal  to  sign 
and  deliver  three  bills  of  lading,  It  is  possible  that  there 
j  may  be  conflicting  demands  upon  tho  captain  by  the 
I  diflbrent  holders.  Nothing,  however,  ia,  in  auch  a  case, 
required  of  him,  except  that  he  act  wilh  gowl  faith,  and 
to  the  best  of  his  Judgment ;  and  that  he  make  deliv- 
ery of  the  goods  to  the  person  who  first  demands  them 
of  him,  upon  presentment  of  the  bill  of  lading,  provided 
the  dreumlancet  he  nt4  tuck  at  to  jutlify  a  lutpicum 
of  his  having  unfairly  got  pnaseasion  of  it.  If  hn  act 
dilfeiently,  he  Is  answerable,  according  to  the  pccul- 
iarllies  of  the  case,  to  the  person  injured  by  his  negli- 
gence ;  the  bill  of  lading  being  not  only  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  merchant  to  him,  as  his  carrier  or  servant, 
but  his  own  especial  agreement  to  deliver  according  to 
its  conditions.  Where  several  bills  of  lading  of  a  dif- 
ferent import  hate  been  si){iicil,  no  regard  is  to  be  paid 
to  the  time  when  they  were  lirst  signed  by  the  master ; 
but  the  person  who  firrt  gets  legal  possession  of  one  of 
them  from  the  owner  or  shipper,  has  a  right  to  the 
consignment ;  and  where  such  Mils  of  lading,  though 
different  upon  the  face  of  them,  arc  constructively  thi; 
same,  and  the  master  has  acted  bmia  Jide,  a  'Iclivcry 
according  to  such  legal  title  will  dldcharge  him  from 
all.— Holt,  p.  876  and  877. 

Bill  of  Bait,  a  contract  under  seal,  by  which  an 
individual  conveys  or  passes  away  the  right  and  inter- 
est he  has  in  the  goods  or  chattels  named  In  the  bill. 
The  property  of  ships  is  transferred  by  bill  of  sale. 

Bill  of  Sigbt.  In  England,  when  a  merchant  It 
ignorant  of  the  real  quantities  or  qualities  of  any  goodii 
assigned  to  him,  to  that  be  i*  uoabl*  to  make  a  perfect 


179 


BIB 


Ivhleh  an 
ml  inter- 
(the  bill, 
r  gale, 
l-chant  la 

ny  goodn 
I  perfect 


Mtrjr  of  Ihrni,  bt  roof t  toqiaalnt  (h*  wlWior  or  con- 
IroiUr  of  tbo  rlrcunutanc* ;  ami  (hay  ar<'  millioitxt, 
upon  tbo  linportar  ur  hli  a^ant  inakInK  «ittli  that  ha 
can  not,  for  want  of  ftill  liifornallun,  iimIxi  a  i^rfnct 
entry,  to  receive  an  entry  by  hUt  nfugki  r.-r  i  i  park- 
a(ui,  by  the  lieet  ilanoription  which  can  )>«  :  .'ii,  ami 
lo  icrani  warrant  that  the  eaine  may  Im  lamb'a  ami  ex- 
•rainetl  by  the  Importer  In  praeance  of  the  ofllcera  |  and 
within  Ibree  <layt  after  any  gooda  ehall  have  lieen  to 
Undeil,  the  Importer  ihall  make  a  |>erftct  entry,  and 
ahall  either  pay  down  the  dutira,  or  ihall  duly  ware- 
houM  the  eanie.— S  A  4  WiU.  4,  c.  ft'i,  |  'U.  In  de- 
fault of  perfiict  entry  within  three  day*,  anoh  kooiI* 
are  to  be  taken  to  the  kln^'a  wareboueo !  ami  if  llio  Im- 
port<'r  •hall  not  within  one  month  make  a  perfect  en- 
try, and  pay  the  dutiea  thereon,  or  on  luch  parte  aa 
can  lie  euterail  fur  home  uie,  to|(ether  with  charirea  if 
movloK  and  warehouae  rant,  euoh  gooda  aball  bo  >ol ' 
for  payment  of  the  dutiea.— |  26. 

BlU  of  Stora  la  a  llcenia  granted  by  the  coelom- 
buune  to  nii^riihanti,  to  carry  inch  etunta  and  provlelont 
aa  are  neivMary  for  a  voyage,  free  of  duty. 

¥llHw^^  Invented  by  the  Oench,  by  whom, 
and  iiy  the  Uemianii,  Dutch,  and  Italian*,  th<<y  were 
brought  Into  geniiral  vogue  throughout  Kurope. — Nimv. 
Uiel.  The  French  axrilM  their  invention  to  ilenriquo 
Uevigne,  an  artlat.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about 
1671.  Slata  billiard-tablet  wara  inlroduced  In  Kn- 
(land  In  1837. 

BlUlncat*^'  *  market  for  flih,  contiguoua  to  the 
ctiitoin-bouie  in  London.  It  la  held  every  lawful  day, 
and  was  tatabliabed  In  )6<ID,  Kvery  peraon  buying 
flail  in  Ullllngagato  market  may  aoll  the  aamo  in  any 
other  market-place  or  placei  within  the  city  of  London 
or  ala«whero,  Iiy  retail,  with  this  condition,  that  none 
but  Aihmongcri  be  permitted  to  sell  In  llxed  shops  or 
houses.  Mu  peraon  or  persona  shall  purcbaaa  at  Bil- 
lingsgate any  quantity  of  fish,  to  be  divided  by  lota  or 
In  shares  among  any  flsbniongers  or  other  persons.  In 
order  to  be  afterward  put  to  sale  by  retail  or  otherwise ; 
nor  shall  any  flahmonger  engross  or  buy  in  tho  said 
market  any  quantity  of  fish,  l>ut  what  ahall  lio  for  his 
own  salo  or  use,  under  tho  (wnalty  of  AW.  No  peraon 
la  to  have  in  his  possession,  or  ex|>ose  to  sale,  any 
spawn  of  lisb,  or  flsh  unslzable,  or  out  of  season. — 3(1 
6'<M.  0.  118.  The  minimum  size  of  the  lobsters  to  be 
told  at  Uilllngsgate  Is  flzed  by  statute.— Mre  Lohstrh. 

Previouily  to  1842  no  flsh  of  foreign  taking  or  cur- 
ing, or  In  foreign  vessels,  could  be  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom,  except  turbots  and  lobsters,  stock- 
flsh,  live  eels,  anchovies,  sturgeon,  botargo,  and  ca- 
viare. But  the  importation  of  all  sorts  of  flah  was 
tlien  permitted  on  payment  of  duties,  which  were  Anal- 
ly repealed  In  1H63.  At  present,  thorofore,  tho  trade 
ill  Itsh  is  quite  free, — For  some  further  remarks  with 
respect  to  this  aulijcct,  ite  Fiaii. 

Blnaole,  or  Binnacle  (formerly  Sittade,  from  the 
Freiicli  habitaelr),  a  wooden  case  or  box  in  which  the 
compasses  arc  kept  on  board  a  ship,  with  lights  to  show 
the  compass  at  night. 

Blroh(Fr.  liouUau;  Vu.Btrke;  Germ.  Sirke  i  It. 
HcIiMi  I  Lat.  IMttUi ;  Pol.  Brzoza ;  Russ.  Berrza ;  Sp. 
Abedul,  Betulla),  a  forest  tree  met  with  every  where  in 
tho  north  of  Europe.  It  is  applied  to  various  purposes. 
In  Lapland,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  the  long  twigs  of 
tho  birch  are  woven  Into  mats  and  twisted  into  ropes ; 
the  outer  bark  forms  an  almost  incorruptible  covering 
for  Jiouses;  and  the  inner  bark  is  used,  in  periods  of 
scarcity,  as  a  substitute  for  bread,  Kusaia  leather  is 
pmparcU  by  means  of  the  empyreumatic  oil  of  the 
birch.  It  Is  an  excellent  wood  for  tho  turner,  being 
light,  compact,  and  easily  worked.  Its  durability  is 
not  very  great.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  tho  niunufuc- 
turo  of  herring  barrels. 

Blrd-llme  (Uerm,  VogeiUm;  Fr,  Glu;  It.  Pania ; 
8p.  Liga  I  Kuss.  I'lilichei  Ktei)  exudes  spontaneously 
fln>m  certain  plants,  and  it  obtained  artificially  fh>m 


tha  middin  hark  nf  the  hnily.  Its  eeler  Is  gTMnlsh, 
its  flavor  tpour,  and  it  is  gluey,  ahlnlng,  and  Ipnarinua, 
The  natural  la  more  adhealvn  than  the  artiflolal  bird- 
lime.     TrioMani'a  Chtmutry. 

Blrda'  IVaata  (< li-rm,  ImUnniirk*  Viigrlnntrr  1  Ihi. 
InilituiiUihf  i'lmrlnritjn i  Kr.  S'uh  dr  Tunkin  ;  II.  .Vi'JI 
Ji  T.iHchmo;  np.  AW(V  rfa  In  i'HiiM;  Javan.  Su$u  i 
Malay,  Sarungkumnif),  the  neata  of  a  apecln  nf  swallow 
pocnilar  to  the  Indliin  iaianda  (llirunilo  urultHln),  very 
much  eateemeil  In  China,  In  ahape  this  neat  rearni- 
btea  that  of  other  swallows ;  It  la  fumird  of  a  viacid 
auliatanre ;  and  In  external  apiwarance,  aa  well  aa  con- 
slat«m'e,'ia  not  unlike  fliiroua,  ill-poncurted  iainglaaa. 
Kaculent  neata  are  principally  ftmmi  in  .lava.  In  eav- 
erna  that  are  moat  fVe(|uonlly,  though  not  alwaya,  ait- 
uated  on  tha  aea-cuaat.  Many  cunHI>  ling  slatenicnis 
have  been  made  aa  to  the  substance  I'f  neata ;  some  con- 
tending that  they  are  formed  nf  aea-fhiim  or  other  ma- 
rine |irnducta,  andntliers  that  they  am  elalnirated  IVom 
the  food  of  the  bird,  etc.  Hut  iheae  arc  points  aa  to 
which  nothing  satisfactory  li  known. 

We  Imrrow  from  Mr,  ("rawfuni's  valuable  work  on 
tho  t'.iulfrn  Arrkipfliigo  (vol.  Hi,  p,  4H2-IB7)  the  fol- 
lowing authentic  nnd  curious  details  aa  lo  (he  traffic 
in  this  singular  production :  "  The  lieat  neata  are  those 
obtained  In  deep  damp  caves,  and  such  as  arc  taken 
beforn  tho  blrda  have  laid  their  eggi.  The  coarsest 
ara  those  obiained  after  the  young  are  fledged.  The 
finest  nests  are  tho  whitest,  that  la,  thnao  taken  bribro 
tho  neat  haa  been  rendered  impure  by  tlio  food  and 
fitre$  of  the  young  lilrds.  They  are  taken  twice  a  year, 
and.  If  regularly  collected,  and  no  unusual  ii\]ury  lie 
offered  to  the  caverns,  will  produce  very  equally,  tho 
quantity  lieing  very  little,  If  at  alt,  Improved  by  tho 
cavea  being  left  altogether  unmolested  for  a  year  nr 
two.  Some  of  tho  caverns  are  extremely  difficult  of 
access,  and  tho  nests  can  only  lie  collected  by  perxons 
accustomed  from  their  youth  to  the  ofllce.  The  moat 
remarkable  nnd  productive  cavee  in  Java,  of  which  I 
superintended  a  moiety  of  the  callection  for  several 
years,  are  those  of  Kamny-hnhing,  In  the  province  of 
liiiijlrn,  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Island.  Here  the 
caves  are  only  to  be  approached  by  a  perpendicular 
descent  of  many  hundred  A'ct,  by  ladders  of  bamlioo 
and  ratan,  over  a  sea  rolling  violently  against  the 
rocks.  When  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  i;*  attained,  the 
perilous  ofllce  of  taking  tho  nests  must  often  be  per- 
formed by  torch-light,  by  penetrating  Into  recesses  of 
tlin  rock,  where  the  slightest  trip  would  be  inatantly 
fatal  to  tho  adventurers,  who  see  nothing  lielow  them 
but  the  turbulent  surf  making  Its  way  into  tho  chasms 
of  the  rock, 

"The  only  preparation  which  tho  birds'  nests  un- 
dergo is  that  of  simple  drying,  without  direct  exposure 
to  the  sun,  after  which  they  arc  packed  In  small  lioxvs, 
usually  of  Imlf  a  picul.  They  arc  assorted  for  the 
Chinese  market  Into  three  kinds,  according  to  their 
qualities,  distinguished  into  fimt  or  beat,  itcvnri,  and 
Ihiril  qualities.  Caverns  that  aro  regularly  managed 
will  afford,  in  100  parts,  AS'S  parts  of  those  of  the  first 
quality,  86  parts  of  those  of  the  second,  11 '7  parts  of 
those  of  the  third.  The  common  prices  for  birds'  ne.its 
at  Canton  arc,  for  tlio  first  sort,  no  less  than  iJ&OO 
Spanish  dollars  tho  picul,  or  X&  ISs.  iid.  per  pound ; 
fur  the  second,  2800  Spnnlali  dollars  per  picul ;  and  for 
the  thirti,  IfKM)  Spanish  dollars.  From  these  prices  it 
is  Bufllciently  evident  that  the  birds'  nests  are  no  more 
than  an  article  of  expensive  luxurj-,  Tiicy  arc  con- 
sumed only  by  the  great ;  and,  indeed,  tho  best  part  is 
sent  to  the  cajiltal  for  the  consumption  of  the  court, 
Tlie  sensual  Chinese  use  them,  under  the  imagination 
that  (hey  ore  powerfully  stimulating  and  tonic  ;  but  it 
is  probable  that  their  most  valuaiile  quality  is  tlieir 
being  perfectly  harmless.  The  people  of  Japan,  who 
so  much  resemble  the  Chinese  in  many  of  their  haiiits, 
have  no  taste  for  the  edible  nests ;  and  how  the  latter 
acquired  a  taite  for  this  foreign  commodity  is  no  less 


BIB 


180 


nn 


singuUr  than  their  ptrievering  in  it.  Among  the 
Western  nationi  there  is  nothing  panllul  to  it,  unleH 
we  except  the  wtiinuivil  estimation  in  which  the  l(o- 
mans  held  some  articles  of  luxury,  remarkable  for  their 
scarcity  rather  than  for  any  qualities  asorilied  to  them." 

Hr.  Crawfurd  estimates  the  whole  quantity  of  birds' 
nests  exported  from  the  Archipelago  iit  '^42,000  pounds, 
worth X284,2iM).  "The  value,"  he  observes,  "of  this 
immense  property  to  the  country  which  produces  it 
rests  upon  the  capricious  wants  of  a  single  people.  It 
is  claimed  as  the  exclusive  property  of  the  sovereign, 
and  every  where  forms  a  valuably  branch  of  his  in- 
come, or  of  the  revenue  of  the  State.  This  value,  how> 
ever,  is  of  conrse  not  equal,  and  depends  upon  th«  sit- 
uation and  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  cav- 
erns in  which  the  nests  are  found.  Being  often  In  re- 
mote and  sequestered  situations,  in  a  country  so  law- 
less, a  property  so  valuable  and  exposed  is  subject  to 
the  perpetual  depredation  of  freebooters,  and  it  not  un- 
f^equently  happens  that  an  attadi  upon  it  is  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  warfare  committed  by  one  petty 
State  against  another.  In  such  situations,  the  expense 
of  aflbrding  them  proteotion  is  so  heavy,  that  they 
are  necessarily  of  little  value.  In  situations  when  the 
caverns  are  difficult  of  access  to  strangers,  and  where 
there  reigns  enough  of  order  and  tranquillity  to  secure 
them  from  internal  depredation,  and  to  admit  of  the 
nests  being  obtained  without  other  expense  than  the 
simple  labor  of  collecting  them,  the  value  of  the  prop- 
erty is  very  great.  The  caverns  of  Kartmg-boUmg,  in 
Java,  are  of  this  description.  These  annually  alibrd 
6810  pounds  of  nests,  which  are  worth,  at  the  Bata- 
via  prices  of  8000,  2500,  and  1200  Spanish  dollars  the 
picul,  for  the  respective  kinds,  nearly  139,000  Spanish 
dollars ;  and  the  whole  expense  of  collecting,  curing, 
•n>1  packing,  amounts  to  no  more  than  11  per  cent,  on 
this  amount.  The  price  of  birds'  nests  is  of  course  a 
monopoly  f  rice,  the  quantity  produced  being  by  nature 
limited,  an.l  incapable  of  augmentation.  The  value 
of  the  labor  expended  in  bringing  birds'  nests  to  mark 
et  is  but  a  .  rifling  portion  of  their  price,  which  consists 
of  the  highest  sum  that  the  luxurious  Chinese  will  af- 
ford to  pay  for  them,  and  which  is  a  tax  paid  by  that 
nation  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Indian  islands.  There 
is,  perhaps,  no  production  upon  which  human  industry 
is  exerted,  of  which  the  cost  of  production  bears  so 
•mall  a  proportion  to  the  market  price." — See  also  the 
valuable  work  of  Count  Houendobp,  Coup  iflKU  lur 
F  lie  de  Java,  p.  291. 

Bixmiligtuun,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  bor- 
ongh,  one  of  the  principal  manufacturing  towns  of 
England,  near  its  centre,  county  and  17  miles  north- 
west of  Warwick,  100  miles  northwest  of  London,  and 
78^  miles  southeast  of  Liverpool.  Area  of  borough, 
which  includes  the  adjacent  townships,  Aston,  Edgbas- 
ton,  etc.,  2660  acres.  Population  in  1600,  4000;  in 
1801,60,822;  in  1841,182,922;  in  1851,  282,841.  The 
town,  on  the  River  Kea,  occupies  the  eastern  declivity  of 
throe  undulating  hills,  and  from  the  southeast  presents 
to  view  a  mass  of  red  brick  houses,  interspersed  with 
several  lofty  church  spires,  and  a  vast  number  of  tall 
chimneys  belonging  to  its  factories.  Birmingham  ex- 
isted in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  A.u.  872 ;  but  its  import- 
ance OS  a  manufacturing  town  commenced  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.  Birmingham  was  besieged  and  taken 
by  Pfiuce  Rupert  in  1643.  The  great  works  of  Soho 
were  established  by  the  illustrious  engineer,  Matthew 
Boulton,  In  1764.  The  Birmingham  canal  was  origin- 
ated by  act  of  Parliament,  1768.  Memorable  riots 
commenced  here,  July  14,  1791,  on  some  persons  com- 
memorating the  French  Revolution.  The  theatre  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  August  17, 1792.  More  commotions, 
November,  1800.  The  theatre  again  luimed  in  1817  ; 
and  again,  January  7,  1620.  Birmingham  political 
union  formed,  1881 ;  dissolved  itself.  May  10,  1834. 
Town  Hall  built,  1833.  Birmingham  and  Liverpool 
railway  opened  m  the  Qrand  Junction,  July  4, 1887. 


Umdra  and  Wmingtmu  WuMwi/  «MMd  lt«  «ntlr* 
length,  SapiaiuUr  17,  iltUH,  «ir)t«li)«llll(<«l  rl«t,  firing 
of  housas  and  other  uutr«3««  mtiUlHttit  hy  tha  Chart- 
ists, July  16,  WW,  (j«rn  KiMhaNK*  «ti«n«il,  Octobar 
27,  l»47.  Uiming^m  tm»  m«4«  hum  rapid  pmgresf 
in  manuAicturing  Mwtry  within  th*  t>f«««til  cantury, 
Its  manufaoturaa  cum^fUm  rimmUntitf  d«a«r)ptlon  of 
iron  sudsiaal  good*,  Unm  wi4  Irim  fetiHilInK,  saddlery, 
llreHirmx,  cutlery,  guM,  rilvm,  piitUii,  htmiM,  trnnoiu, 
audjapsiiiiud  warts  i  |iNMi«rwmMh«  mmnI*,  toys,  jewel- 
ry, electrupiattfd  gouiln,  imHtmn,  stwUMtil,  fltu,  tools, 
sUamxingluKs,  ami  all  kind*  n  mm-hmxty, 

BlMBjr,  UlifOHVr,  UuUti  d*  U»untKn«,  AijuUa^ 
nieut  timus), »  VMt  Iwy  »f  HHWfymtd  \iy  the  Atlanlid, 
and  extending  batwawn  timmuM  Irland  mi  the  west 
coast  of  I'ranu),  and  V»\m  OH¥ntA  m  lli«  north  coast 
of  Apain,  It  ruvsivss  tim  w«i«rs  of  ib«  Loire,  Cha- 
rente,  Uironda,  anil  Adwiir,  lis  ^iSmSptX  jioris  are, 
L'Urient,  Nanus,  l,»  Hi>«'liti||*,  UmMlMi,  nordeaun, 
and  Bayonna,  in  ynnm,  V»*»»^¥t,  (l«fl  Maliasllan, 
Bilbao,  liaiitandar,  old  mum,  It*  npiAtt,  VMM  U\- 
ands,  Bullu  IsU,  Wt,  and  OUfMH,  im  lli«  «««tt  of  franca, 
lu  norib  and  u>u(l)  8u«*t«  «>*«  htild  tttd  nAy  \  but  on 
the  east,  from  lh«  uwMtb  »f  iktt  Ulrttttd*  to  <b«  Aitour, 
tha  ooast  is  donipaswi  of  Mit4  dowHs,  ind  lnt«rrtipt«d 
by  numerous  lagooits,  'I'lM  d^iHb  tarl««  from  iio  hih- 
oms  on  tha  west  coast  »f  l^r«H«w,  M  MO  faihomi  on  ih« 
north  r  Hpain.  Ii»vig«fl«m  li«  w««h  Imiwded  by  tha 
heavy  „«as  produced  by  llix  mnUtinl  winds,  and  by  a 
current  (Hinneft)  wliliih  ««)«  Ut  from  (ha  Atlantic,  and 
sweeping  round  tha  iiortlt  »'o«#t  of  %/iln,  runs  north 
and  norihwssc  along  IIm*  wwI  w«M  ulftunm,  and  ««• 
ters  the  Irish  CliannsL 

Bi«nuUi(U«r,  Wiim(hi  Ihi,  tUmulh.  n»rg$tttni 
Fr.  JJitmulhi  It,  HimullDi  H^,  fUmiilh,  /'Mm  hffiti 
Russ,  Wumuti  Lat,  llmntlium),  «  tOflal  of  a  reddish 
white  color,  and  aliuust  d**KlHt«  of  last*  and  smell. 
It  is  sofur  than  oopimri  •!»  ^fiwlflc  «ratl»y  li  ftM8. 
When  banimarsd  laulloHsly,  ||«  dxnsll y  li  «onsldor«lrly 
increased  (  It  brsaks,  liimtivdr,  *I»»h  »(r«»i|i  imartly  by 
a  hammer,  and,  iionuu\mM\y,  is  not  niallMhlo,  neither 
can  it  be  drawn  out  into  Hif«i  \  It  mMli  at  ih«  ttmiier- 
ature  of  476",— TiioiHWinV  ffipmtufr^,  lllsmnth  Is 
used  in  the  conipositiiw  of  |i«w(*f,  In  ih*  fal/rlcatlon 
of  printers'  typos,  and  in  vnrUmn  other  m«lalllc  mix- 
tures. With  an  equal  tfcltfltt  of  luad,  It  forms  »  MU 
liant  wblta  alloy,  niuol)  Iwrdor  tban  l«d,  and  mora 
malleable  than  blinmlb,  Utim^h  not  doi'lll« )  and  If 
the  proportion  of  iuad  I*  lHHri<«»#'d.  It  )•  rondwed  sllll 
more  nialleabla,  Might  fmfU  itf  Msttinih,  flr«  of  lead, 
and  three  of  tin,  eonstituta  thw  fnsthl«<  niflai,  somotlmes 
called  Newton's,  from  its  dlsdovcfw,  which  meltn  at 
the  beat  of  lioiling  wainr,  »Md  nmy  {i¥  fused  ov«r  a  can- 
dle in  a  piece  of  stilfimiwr  wlib/iol  iNimlnn  "<*<  pafer, 
Powtorars'  solder  is  fornicd  of  mm  tiart  of  bismuth, 
with  live  of  lead,  and  thrva  of  tin,  It  fofmi  the  basla 
of  a  sympatbatlo  iMlt.—llnK.. 

Bltuman  (tierni,  JutUmm'h  i  Jin,  Jndm/vm  i  It. 
Affalio ,  8p,  A^M*"  I  I'nn,  AmHmin  i  tlnm,  AitfliU  i  Lat, 
Atphalium  Mumtn  Judiikim),  'IM»  ttm  Incltides  a 
consiilerabic  rauga  of  tnll«inmMhl«  wincral  sulMtanres, 
burning  with  tliu  flauis  In  th«  ojicn  air,  'I  bey  differ  In 
consistency,  from  a  tliiit  iluld  (»  a  solid )  Irtil  the  solids 
are  for  the  most  part  IhmwflNhU  al  a  moderate  heat, 
They  are:  1,  A'<i/;/iM«/  a  (tii«,wW»*,  thin,  fragrant,  color- 
less  oil,  which  issue*  liut  of  whil«,y«<ll(W,  or  hla«k  Havs 
in  Persia  and  Media.  This  Isblgbl)' Inflammable.  Near 
tha  village  of  Aml«no,  in  Ilia  Wal«  of  I'/irma,  (here  •«- 
isu  a  spring  whieli  yisjds  Ibis  sulwlanm  in  tufflclent 
quantity  to  illuminata  lb«  o|(y  of  (lenoa,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  employed,  With  (Wlain  WMlabln  oils, 
naphtha  is  said  to  form  *  good  varnish,  a,  Pelrnkum 
is  much  thicker  than  Mapbtlia,  rese«(Mln«  In  oonslst- 
enca  common  tar.  It  has  »  strong  dls«(»re#al<le  odor, 
and  a  blackish  or  reddish  brown  color,  ftnrlnK  emt' 
bustion,  it  emits  a  thick  bla^'lt  ionob#,  and  leave*  a  lit- 
tle reaidus  In  tha  form  «r  hkMdt  mniI.  It  la  M«ra  ■twud* 


BLA 


181 


BLA 


•nt  than  the  firBt-mentioned  variety,  from  which  U  doet 
not  uem  to  diflbr,  except  in  being  more  inapitsated.  It 
is  found  in  varioua  countries,  and  is  especiaiiy  abund- 
ant in  the  Binnan  empire,  where  it  is  met  with  alwve 
Prome,  within  aliout  two  miles  of  the  Irrawaddi.  The 
gross  annual  produce  of  the  wells  in  this  place  has  been 
estimated  at  about  80,000,000  lbs.,  worth  on  the  spot 
about  Is.  Sd.  a  cwt. ;  and  the  supply  might,  if  a  mark- 
et could  be  found,  be  indefinitely  increased.  It  is  used 
as  a  lamp  oil,  and,  when  mingled  with  earth  or  ashes, 
as  fuel  and  in  the  paying  of  boats. — Gtographkai  Die- 
tiottaiy,  i.  877.  In  the  United  States  it  is  found 
abundantly  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  New  York,  where 
it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Sentca  or  Geneite  oil.  It 
is  also  obtained  from  wells  in  the  island  of  Zante. 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  he  had  seen  these  wells  (lib. 
i-r.  c.  195)  j  and  the  description  he  has  given  of  them, 
and  of  the  mode  of  obtaining  the  petroleum,  corre- 
sponds in  all  respects  with  the  accounts  of  the  best 
modem  travelers.  The  average  annual  produce  of  the 
Zante  springs  is  about  100  barrels.  —  Ciiandlrk's 
Tixtvdtin  Grace,  4to  ed.  p.  801;  HollaiA's  Travtk 
m  Greece,  4to  ed.  p.  18.  Petroleum  is  particularly 
abundant  in  Pojrsia.  "  When  taken  from  the  pit,  it  is 
a  thick  liquid  resembling  pitch.  The  bottoms  of  most 
vessels  which  navigate  tlie  Euphrates  and  Tigris  are 
covered  with  it,  and  it  is  also  used  in  lampsins  tead 
of  oil  by  the  natives.  The  most  productive  fountains 
are  those  of  Kerkook,  Mendali,  and  Badku.  The  wells 
in  the  neighliorhood  of  the  latter  seem  to  he  quite  in- 
exhaustible, being  no  sooner  emptied  than  they  again 
begin  to  All.  Some  of  them  have  been  found  to  yield 
from  1000  to  1600  lbs.  a  day !"— Kinnibr's  Persian 
Entire,  p.  39  and  859.  8.  Maltha,  or  Sea-wca,  is  a 
solid  whitish  substance,  not  unlike  tallow.  It  melts 
when  heated,  and  in  cooling  assumes  the  consistence 
of  white  cerate.  This  is  most  probably  the  bitwnen 
candidum  of  Pliny. — Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxv.  c.  16.  It  is 
not  used  as  pitch ;  but  it  affords  a  better  light  than 
petroleum,  and  emits  a  less  disagreeable  smell.  It  is 
found  on  the  surface  of  the  Baikal  Lake  in  Siberia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Bucktiari  in  Persia,  and  in 
some  otiier  places.  4.  Elattic  Bitumen  yields  easily  to 
pressure ;  is  flexible  and  elastic.  It  emits  a  strong  bi- 
tuminous odor,  and  is  about  the  weight  of  water.  On 
exposure  to  the  air  it  hardens,  and  loses  its  elasticity. 
It  takes  up  the  traces  of  crayons  in  the  same  manner 
•s  caoutchouc  or  Indian  rubber,  whence  it  has  obtain- 
ed the  name  of  miiteral  caoutchouc.  It  has  hitherto 
been  found  only  in  the  lead  mines  of  Derbyshire.  6. 
Contact  Bitumen,  or  Anphaltum,  is  of  a  shining  black 
color,  solid,  and  brittle,  with  a  conchoidal  fracture. 
Its  speciflc  gravity  varies  from  1  to  1-6.  Like  the  for- 
mer varieties,  it  burns  freely,  and  leaves  but^ittle  re- 
siduum. It  is  found  in  India,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  in  France,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  large  de- 
posits in  sandstone  in  Albania;  but  nowhere  so  largely 
as  in  the  island  of  Trinidad,  where  it  forms  a  lake  three 
miles  in  circumference,  and  of  a  thlcknesa  unknown. 
A  gentle  heat  renders  it  ductile,  and,  when  mixed  with 
grease  or  common  pitch,  it  is  used  for  paying  the  bot- 
toms of  ships,  and  is  said  to  protect  them  from  the  te- 
redo of  the  West  Indian  seas.  The  ancients  employed 
bitumen  in  the  construction  of  their  buildings.  The 
bricks  of  which  the  walla  of  Babylon  were  built  were, 
it  is  said  (H&RODOTUg,  lib.  i.  §  179),  cemented  with 
hot  bitumen,  which  gave  tliem  unusual  «olidity. 

Blacking  (Ger.  Schuluchumrze,  Wicluei  Fr.  A^oiV 
(lie  curdonnier') ;  It.  Nero  da  Uffner  te  $ca>j)e ;  Sp.  Negro 
de  zapatot).  A  factitious  article,  prepared  in  various 
ways,  used  in  the  blacking  of  boots  and  shoes.  The 
principal  ingredients  in  its  manufacture  are  oil,  vine- 
gar, and  various  sorts  of  blacking  matter.  It  is  in 
very  extensive  demand.  Soma  of  the  establishments 
for  its  manufacture,  espKially  those  in  tha  metropolis, 
are  on  a  larp^o  scale ;  an'  it  is  in  such  only  that  it  can 
be  cheaply  and  advantogeo.'sly  produced.    One  of  the 


principal,  or  rather  we  may  say  the  principal  outlay 
in  establishing  a  blacking  business,  consists  in  adver- 
tising. Indeed,  any  individual  or  set  of  individuals, 
provided  they  supply  a  reasonably  good  article,  may, 
by  continuous  advertising  and  pufting,  attain  to  the 
highest  eminence  in  the  "  blacking  line." 

Blaok-lead,  Plumbago,  or  Wad  (Du.  Potlooii 
Fr.  Mine  de  Plomb  noi'r,  ptomb  de  mine,  Potelot ;  Qer. 
Potttolh,  Beiubley ;  It.  Niniera  dipiombo,  Piombaggine, 
Cortxolo ;  Lat.  Plumbago ;  8p.  Piedra  mineral  deplomo), 
a  mineral  of  a  dark  steel  gray  color,  and  a  metallic 
lustre ;  it  is  soft,  has  a  greasy  feel,  and  leaves  a  dark- 
colored  line  when  drawn  along  paper. 

This  mineral  is  found  only  in  a  statv  of  purity  in 
Borrowdale,  in  Cumberland,  the  mines  in  which  have 
been  wrought  since  the  days  of  Elizabeth.  The  lead 
is  not  found  in  veins  but  in  detached  pieces,  or  in  what 
are  called  tops  or  bellies,  so  that  the  supply  is  very  ir- 
regular, the  miners  being  frequently  en'ployed  for  a 
lengthened  period  in  seeking  at  random  for  tho  lead. 
Its  quality  aino  differs  very  widely.  The  best  is  that 
which  is  lightest,  and  the  trace  of  which  on  paper  is 
easily  and  completely  removed  by  the  application  of 
India  rubber.  The  mine  used  only  to  be  opened  at  in- 
tervals, but  for  a  considerable  number  of  years  past  it 
has  been  constantly  open.  The  supply,  however,  has 
been  extremely  scanty,  and  mostly  also  very  inferior. 
This  lead  is  now  almost  wholly  employed  in  making 
pencils :  an  inferior  variety  from  Spain  and  Ceylon 
being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles,  the  polish- 
ing of  cast-iron  utensils,  the  diminishing  of  friction, 
and  other  purposes  to  which  genuine  black-lead  was 
formerly  applied. 

Black-leadPenoila  (Du.  Potlootpem\en;  Fr.  Crag, 
ons  noirt ;  Ger.  Blegstijle ;  It.  Lapit  nero ;  Port.  Lapit 
negro;  Buss.  ATaronascAu ;  Sp.  i.apfz  w^-o) are  formed 
of  black-lead,  encircled  with  cedar.  Ti  ere  is  hardly, 
perhaps,  any  thing  in  which  the  tempta  tion  to  substi- 
tutn  a  spiuious  for  a  genuine  article  is  greater,  or  in 
which,  consequent!}',  the  purchaser  is  more  liable  to 
be  deceived,  than  black-lead  pencils.  This  is  occasion- 
ed by  the  vast  difference  between  tha  cost  of  genuine 
Cuml>erland  lead  and  of  the  other  articles  that  are  or 
may  be  substituted  for  it.  Pencils  are  usually  de- 
scribed as  follows :  first  quality,  or  drawing  pencils ; 
second  quality,  or  prepared  pencils ;  third  quality,  or 
composition  pencils.  1.  Pencils  of  the^r<(  quality  are, 
when  genuine,  made  of  pure  CumlierUnd  lead,  and 
cost,  in  the  year  1848,  SO:  per  lb.,  or  £168  per  cwt. 
From  18  to  20  dozen  such  pencils  an.  produced  from  a 
pound  of  this  lead.  These  pencils  are  usually  made 
by  sawing  the  lead  into  the  pieces  inserted  in  the 
cedar.  Sometimes,  however,  the  lead  is  in  parts  gritty 
and  defective,  so  tliat  a  pencil  of  this  kind  may,  in  fact, 
be  very  inferior.  To  obviate  this  defect,  some  makers 
prepare  the  lead,  to  free  it  from  the  grit  or  earthy  parti- 
cles ;  and,  provided  no  antimony  or  other  alloy  t>e  mixed 
up  with  the  prepared  lead,  the  pencils  produced  from  it 
are  most  to  be  depended  on.  2.  Pencils  of  the  tecond 
quality  are  manufactured  out  of  the  sawings  or  dust 
of  pure  lead,  with  the  dust  of  tlie  small  pieces  picked 
up  by  poor  people  from  the  rubbish  thrown  out  of  the 
mine,  mixed  or  alloyed  with  a  greater  or  less  qtuntity 
of  antimony.  The  goodness  of  this  pencil  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  proportion  in  which  the  pure  lead  ex- 
ceeds the  antimony.  But  as  the  cost  of  the  former 
may  be  taken  at  £100  a  owt.,  and  that  of  the  latter  at 
only  2C».,  there  is  an  all  but  irresistible  temptation  to 
increase  the  proportion  of  the  latter  beyond  due  bounds. 
This  sort  of  composition  produces  about  16  or  16  doaen 
pencils  to  the  pound ;  their  price  varying  according  to 
the  purity  of  tha  lead.  8.  Th^  third  quality  of  pencil 
is  made  by  using  Mexican  or  Spanish  load  dust,  costing 
46>.  or  60s.  a  cwt.,  with  antimony  costing  about  26t. 
per  cwt.  It  produces  about  14  or  15  dozen  pencils  to 
the  lb.,  which  may  be  sold  at  from  2«.  6d.  to  12<.  per 
gross,  aocording  to  the  cost  of  the  articles  employed 


BLA 


182 


BLE 


and  the  care  taken  in  mixing  them.  Tliia  aort  of  pen- 
cil may  talce  a  linn  point,  and  raaite  a  tine  strolte,  but 
iti  trace  will  not  oblitoratn  un  being  rubbed  witli  India 
i-ubber.  Tlie  easy  and  complete  obliteration  of  the 
stroke  ia,  in  fact,  the  Itest  and  perhaps  only  test  of  a 
pencil  being  of  pure  Cumberland  lead. — Pricate  infor- 
mtitioii. 
Black  Sea,  or  Xhudne  S«a  (I'ontiu  Etunnua  of 

tliu  ancients),  is  a  large  inland  sea,  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Runielia,  Bulgaria,  and  Bessarabia ;  on  the 
north  by  Russian  Tartary ;  on  the  east  by  Mingitilia, 
Circassia,  and  Georgia ;  and  on  the  south  by  Anatolia. 
It  is  entered  from  the  Mediterranean  through  the  chan- 
nel of  the  Dardanelles,  anciently  the  Iltilapont,  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  or  Propontu,  and  the  channel  of  Constan- 
tinople or  Thraciun  Botporu$ ;  and  it  is  connected  with 
the  ISea  of  Azof,  or  Palut  MaoiU,  by  the  strait  between 
the  Crimea  and  the  Isle  of  Taman,  anciently  the  Cm- 
merian  Hotporm,  and  known  by  the  various  modem 
names  of  the  Strait  of  Kertch,  of  Yenikale,  and  of 
Taman. 

Till  within  less  than  half  a  century,  the  extent  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  position  of  several  of  its  principal 
ca|)es,  gulfs,  and  ports,  were  very  imperfectly  ascer- 
tained. But  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  French 
Bevolution,  tho  National  Institute  sent  M.  Beauchamp 
to  examine  this  sea,  and  especially  its  sonthum  shores. 
In  this  enterprise  he  was  much  impeded  by  the  jealousy 
of  the  Turks :  nevertheless,  he  ascertained  that  Cape 
Kerempe,  Carambis,  was  placed  in  tho  charts  too  far 
to  the  south ;  that  the  Gulf  of  Sansr-.;?.,  Amitenui  Siniu, 
was  deeper  than  it  is  commonly  rr  presented ;  and  that 
Trcbizond,  the  Tarabazan  of  the  1  irks,  anciently  Tra- 
peau,  was  five  or  six  leagues  farther  to  the  west  than 
it  appeared  in  the  charts.  But  recent  travelers  have 
discovered  that  even  tho  Parisian  charts  are  inaccurate. 
According  to  Dr.  Clarke,  the  Isle  of  Serpents,  the 
Ulan-Adassi  of  the  Turks,  the  Fidonisi  of  the  modern 
Greeks,  and  ancient  Lfuce,  lies  fifteen  minutes,  and 
the  port  of  Odrassii  twenty-seven  minutes,  too  far  to- 
ward the  north  (Clarke's  Traceh,  i.  668) ;  and  Mr. 
Macgill  ascertained,  from  two  observations  of  his  own, 
compared  with  those  of  some  captains  who  had  navi- 
gated this  sea,  that  in  the  Fionch  charts  even  Cape  Ke- 
rempe is  set  down  fifteen  miles  too  far  north,  while 
Cape  Aria  or  Saritch  or  Careza,  Kriu-Metopon,  in  the 
Crimea,  is  placed  twenty-two  miles  too  far  south.  This, 
of  course,  makes  a  diflerence  in  the  width  of  the  sea 
at  this  place  of  thirty-seven  miles. — Macoill's  TVoih 
</«,  i.  195. 

According  to  the  best  authorities,  which  Mr.  Arrow- 
smith  has  followed  in  his  maps  of  this  sea,  it  lies  be- 
tween 41  and  46^  degrees  of  north  latitude  (the  bottom 
of  the  Bay  of  Sansoun  penetrating  nearly  to  the  40th 
degree,  and  Cape  Kerempe  stretching  out  nearly  to  the 
42d),  and  between  28  and  41^  degrees  of  east  longi- 
tude from  Greenwich.  This  will  give  for  its  extreme 
breadth,  from  Cape  Baba,  in  Anatolia,  to  Odessa,  about 
880  miles,  and  for  its  extreme  length,  from  the  coast 
of  Rumelia  to  the  mouth  of  the  Phasis,  700  miles.  The 
Black  Sea,  however,  may  be  considered  as  divided  into 
two  parts,  by  Cape  Aria  on  the  south  of  the  Crimea,  and 
Cape  Kerempe  on  the  coast  of  Paphlagonia ;  the  for- 
mer lying  in  about  44i,  and  the  latter  in  about  42  de- 
grees of  north  latitude.  Both  these  capes  being  high 
land,  vessels  sailing  between  them  can  discover  the 
coast  on  either  side.  The  circumfeienoe  of  the  Block 
Sea  is  about  3800  miles. 

'Russian  statistical  reports  arc  so  little  to  be  relied 
upon,  that  it  is  difiicult  to  give  any  very  accurate  re- 
turns of  the  general  trade  of  the  Ul.ack  Sea.  Within 
the  last  twenty  years  a  total  change  has  been  eflected 
in  the  aspect  of  its  commerce.  This  is  chiefly  to  be 
atttribnted  to  the  existence  of  the  British  market. 
When  importations  of  com  into  England  were  freed 
from  fiscal  influences,  the  vast  and  fertile  ■^laios  of 
lOBthem  Russia,  and  tho  rich  valley  of  the  Danube, 


supplied  the  ever-increasing  demand;  and  thereqnire- 
ments  of  Great  Britain,  however  they  may  increase, 
will  be  met  by  enormously  elastic  powers  of  produc- 
tion. The  prohibitive  policy  of  Russia  exercises,  how- 
ever, a  most  ii\1urious  influence  upon  foreign  trade,  and 
combines  to  render  the  expense  of  flight  upon  the 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  higher  than  upon  any  other 
eastern  sea-board.  In  consequence  of  the  more  liberal 
commercial  policy  of  Turkey  and  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities, the  exports  of  Rumelia,  Moldavia,  and  Wal- 
lachia,  are  increasing  far  more  rapidly  than  those  of 
the  Russian  provinces,  while  tho  grain  is  more  highly 
esteemed  in  the  English  market.  The  total  amount 
of  wheat  received  by  Great  Britain  In  18&2  from  the 
Russian  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  was  789,760  quarters, 
in  374  vesseli.  The  total  amount  shipped  from  Ru- 
melia and  the  Danubian  principalities  was  112,050 
quarters,  in  92  vessels.  The  general  exports  of  the 
principalities  have  been  gradually  increasing.  In 
1849  the  total  value  of  the  imports  amounted  to 
i;80g,240;  in  1850,  i:898,715;  and  in  1851,  £896,895. 
The  total  value  of  tho  exports  in  1849  was  £1,1 13,272 ; 
in  1850  ikwas  X839,:i2;  and  in  1851,  £1,274,525.  As 
the  com  trade  to  the  British  dominions  is  the  mainly 
important  branch  of  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea,  those 
statistics  connected  with  it  which  are  derived  from  the 
English  oflicial  reports  contain  all  that  is  most  impor- 
tant. Apart  from  this  no  very  remarkable  features  in 
the  local  trade  have  been  recently  developed,  nor,  if 
there  were,  ure  there  any  authentic  reports  of  its  ex- 
tent. 

The  principal  articles  of  commerce  afforded  by  the 
countries  on  the  Black  Sea  are,  wheat,  rice,  tobacco, 
hides,  tallow,  hare-skins,  honey,  wax,  iron,  and  yellow 
grains  for  dyeing  from  Rumelia  and  Bulgaria,  by  the 
ports  of  Varna  and  Bourgas.  The  same  articles,  with 
the  addition  of  wool,  butter,  hemp,  masts,  ship-timber, 
and  pitch,  are  exported  from  Moldavia  and  AVallachia, 
by  Ibraila  and  Galatz,  on  the  Danube.  From  Bessa- 
rabia by  Ovidopol,  and  fitim  the  province  of  Cherson 
by  Odessa,  Akermann,  and  Cherson,  come  com,  oak 
timber,  hides,  tallow,  tar,  shagreen,  wax,  honey,  hemp, 
sail-cloth,  and  wool ;  from  the  Crimea,  by  the  ports  of 
Actiar,  Kosloff;  and  Caffa,  com,  wool,  wax,  honey, 
dried  and  salted  hides,  doer-skins,  morocco  leather, 
sheep-skins,  salted  and  dried  flsb,  potash,  felt,  caviare, 
wine,  silk,  and  saltpetre;  fh>m  the  countries  on  the 
Sea  of  Azof,  by  the  ports  of  Taganrog,  Berdianski,  and 
Mariapol,  iron  (of  which  Constantinople  and  Smyma 
require  about  60,000  quintals  each),  dried  fish,  caviare, 
butter,  hides,  tallow,  wheat,  timber,  furs,  sail-cloth, 
cordage,  hemp,  linens,  wuz,  and  wool ;  from  Anatolia, 
by  the  ports  of  Erekli,  Amasreh,  Ineboli,  Sinope,  and 
Uniah,  hides,  dried  fruits,  linens,  linen  thread,  wax, 
honey,  hemp,  copper,  and  ship-timber ;  from  the  coast 
of  Roum  and  Sansoun  the  same  articles ;  from  tho 
I'ountrios  of  the  Laziens  and  Gurions,  principally  by 
Trcbizond,  all  the  above  articles,  except  ship-timber; 
and  from  Mingrelia,  and  the  country  of  the  Abasses, 
principally  by  Saui^uk  and  Anapa,  slaves,  timber, 
box-wood,  wool,  silk,  furs,  butter,  hides,  wax,  and 
honoy.  The  trade  to  these  coasts  is  entirely  carried 
on  by  a  few  Greeks  of  Constantinople,  and  is  vory  in- 
signilicant.—  ".  B. 

Blaok  (French  Blanc)  literally  signlflea  white. 
Blannu,  or  Bhnca,  was  a  kind  of  white  or  silver  mon- 
ey, of  base  alloy,  coined  by  Heniy  V.  in  those  parts  of 
Franco  which  were  then  subject  to  l^ngland.  It  was 
valued  at  Sd.  sterling.  Blank  also  denotes  a  small 
copper  coin,  formerly  ourront  in  France,  at  the  rate  of 
five  deniers  Tonmois £.  B. 

Bleaohing  is  the  art  of  depriving  cotton,  linen, 
silk,  wool,  wax,  etc.,  of  their  coloring  matter,  and  ren- 
dering them  aa  whita  aa  possible.  The  word  is  proba- 
bly derived  from  the  French  term  bUmekimatt,  which 
signifies  the  process  otremUring  whit*. 

This  art  waa  known  early  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and 


BLO 


188 


BLO 


Cherson 
;orn,  oak 
)y,  hemp, 
ports  of 
honey, 
leather, 
caviare, 
on  the 
nski,  and 
Smyrna 
caviare, 
lil-cloth, 
natoUa, 
ope,  and 
d,  was, 
he  coast 
TPm  tho 
ally  by 
[■timber ; 
basses, 
timber, 
|ax,  and 
carried 
Ivory  in- 
white. 
|er  mon- 
parts  of 
It  was 
small 
I  rate  of 

k,  linen, 

|tnd  ren- 

I  proba- 

,  which 

|i«,  anA 


India.  Known  tn  ancient  Gaul. — Plixt.  In  tho 
last  century  an  improved  chemical  system  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced  it  into  England  and 
Scotland  in  17G8.  There  are  now  immense  bleach- 
fields  in  both  countries,  particularly  in  Lancashire,  and 
in  tho  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  and  Renfrew,  also  in 
the  vale  of  the  Leven,  in  Dumbarton.  Tho  chemical 
process  of  Berthollet  was  introduced  in  1796. — BlanchV 
meni  dea  Toilet. 

Blockade,  in  war,  the  shutting  up  of  Any  place  or 
port  by  a  naval  or  military  force,  so  as  to  cut  off  all 
communication  with  those  who  are  without  the  hostile 
line.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  part  of  the  law  of  nations 
which,  in  practice,  presents  so  many  perplexing  ques- 
tions r.s  that  which  concerns  the  respective  rights  of 
neutral  and  belligerent  states.  No  dclinite  line  of  dis- 
tinction has  yet  been  drawn  between  the  privileges  of 
war  and  peace ;  and  the  consequence  has  been,  that, 
in  all  the  wars  which  have  been  waged  In  Europe,  the 
general  tranquillity  of  tho  world  has  been  endanger- 
ed by  the  jarring  of  th'ese  two  different  interests.  It 
has  commonly  happened,  too,  that  all  tbcse  Important 
questions  have  been  agitated  during  a  season  of  war ; 
when  the  passions  of  the  contending  parties  wore 
keenly  engaged  in  the  dispute ;  when  principles  were 
already  subverted ;  and  when  the  minds  of  men,  ex- 
asperated by  the  glaring  infraction  of  acknowledged 
rights,  were  not  in  a  state  to  agree  on  any  system  of 
general  equity  by  which  to  regulate  and  refonn  the 
erring  policy  of  states.  In  these  circumstances,  many 
points  of  international  law,  which  appear  to  rest  on 
the  most  obvious  prinrvles,  and  which  are  very  clearly 
settled  in  the  writings  of  civilians,  have,  nevertheless, 
been  the  occasion  in  practice  of  no  small  controversy, 
and  have  frequently  involved  nations  in  all  the  miseries 
of  protracted  war.  This  has  been  in  some  measure 
manifested  in  the  case  of  the  Rightt  of  Blockade,  re- 
specting which,  though  no  difference  of  opinion  has 
ever  prevailed  among  speculative  writers,  a  controversy 
arose  during  tho  late  contests  in  Europe,  which,  along 
with  other  points,  ultimately  involved  Great  Britain 
in  a  war  with  the  neutral  powers.  We  propose,  in  the 
course  of  the  subsequent  observations,  to  state,  1st.  The 
general  principles  from  which  the  most  approved 
writers  have  dedui-ed  the  rights  of  blockade  ;  and,  2d. 
To  give  a  short  account  of  tho  difierences  which  took 
place  between  the  neutral  and  the  belligerent  states 
respecting  the  extent  of  those  rights. 

In  regulating  tho  respective  privileges  of  the  neutral 
and  the  belligerent,  it  has  generally  been  hold  as  a 
fundamental  principle,  by  writers  on  the  law  of  na- 
tions, that  those  rights  from  the  exercise  of  which 
less  benefit  would  accrue  to  one  party  than  detriment 
to  the  other  should  be  abandoned ;  and  in  all  cases 
where  the  rights  of  war  happen  to  come  into  collision, 
the  application  of  this  rule  will  decide  which  of  the 
two  parties  must  yield  to  the  convenience  of  the  other. 
Thus  tho  neutral  state  is  debarred  from  carrying  on 
any  trade  with  either  of  the  belligerents  in  warlike 
stores.  Tho  general  right  to  a  free  trade  is  modified, 
in  this  particular  instance,  by  the  paramount  rights  of 
the  belligerent.  To  refrain  for  a  time  from  trading 
with  an  individual  state  in  warlike  stores  can  at  most 
only  Impose  a  trifling  inconvenience  on  the  neutral 
power,  while  the  continuance  of  such  a  trade  might 
terminate  in  the  destruction  of  the  belligerent.  The 
detriment  occasioned  to  the  one  party  by  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  trade,  is,  in  this  manner,  Infinitely  greats 
er  than  the  loss  suffered  by  the  other  from  its  aban- 
donment. Warlike  stores,  and  whatever  else  i>ears  a 
direct  reference  to  war,  are  accordingly  proscribed  as 
nnlawful  articles  of  trade,  and  made  liable  to  seizure 
by  either  of  the  belligerents.  To  this  inconvenience 
the  neutral  is  exposed,  to  avoid  the  greater  inconven- 
ience and  damage  which  might  fall  on  the  belligerent 
by  tho  liconsiiig  of  such  a  trade.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  neutral  sute  enjoys  the  most  unlimited  freedom  of 


trade  In  all  other  articles  with  either  of  the  powers  nt 
war;  and  though,  by  means  of  this  beneficial  inter- 
course, they  may  be  both  furnished  with  the  means 
of  carrying  on  a  protracted  contest,  this  is  a  contingent 
and  incidental  consequence  of  the  trade,  which,  in  its 
character,  is  substantially  pacific,  and  which  is  attend- 
ed with  such  great  and  immediate  advantages,  that 
they  could  not,  with  any  regard  to  equity,  be  sacri- 
ficed to  the  remote  convenience  of  the  belligerent. 

Applying  these  principles  to  a  i<icge  or  to  a  blockade, 
it  Is  evident  that  the  belligerent  who  had  an  expensive 
scheme  of  hostile  operations  of  either  kind  in  depend- 
ence would  bo  far  more  seriously  injured  by  its  inter- 
ruption than  the  neutral  would  be  benefited  l>y  a  fred 
intercourse  with  tho  blockaded  place.  On  this  ground, 
therefore,  a  belligerent  who  has  formed  a  siege  or  a 
blockade  has  an  indisputable  right  to  debar  the  neu- 
tral from  all  intercourse  with  those  who  are  included 
within  his  lines;  and  any  attempt  to  penetrate  the 
blockade  for  the  purposes  of  trade  sull'  cts  those  who 
attempt  it  to  destruction,  and  their  pru|iorties  to  con- 
fiscation. Tho  very  existence,  indeed,  of  o  siege  or  a 
blockade,  as  a  lawful  act  of  hostility,  implies  the  right 
of  enforcing  It  by  an  indiscriminate  exclusion  of  all 
who  seek  access  to  the  besieged. 

jliut  although  this  view  of  the  nature  of  a  blockade, 
and  of  the  rights  attaching  to  it,  is  clearly  laid  down 
by  all  writers  on  the  lav/  of  nations,  and  although  it 
has  been  acknowledged  in  practice  by  all  civilized 
states,  a  question  was  agitated  in  the  late  wars  of 
Europe,  between  the  neutral  and  the  belligerent  pow- 
ers, as  to  the  degree  of  restraint  necessary  to  constitute 
a  blockade,  and,  of  course,  to  entitle  the  blockading 
party  to  all  the  rights  consequent  upon  this  scheme 
of  operations ;  and  it  is  this  dispute  which  was,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  occasion  of  a  general  war  with  the 
neutral  powers. 

The  success  which  attended  the  naval  operations  of 
Great  Britain  during  the  war  with  Franco  naturally 
suggested  to  her  rulers  the  possibility  of  extending  this 
species  of  annoyance,  and  of  converting  .the  all-power- 
ful navy  which  they  possessed  into  an  instrument  of 
active  hostility.  With  this  view,  instead  of  conHning 
Its  efforts  to  the  mere  watching  of  the  enemy's  already 
ruined  trade,  it  was  resolved  to  give  greater  scope  to 
such  en  Immens'b  engine  of  maritime  power,  by  plac- 
ing under  blockade  the  enemy's  ports,  the  mouths  of 
navigable  rivers,  and  even  extensive  tracts  of  his 
coast.  Proclamations  to  this  effect  were  accordingly 
issued ;  and  the  neutral  trader  was  duly  warned  ot(, 
and  prohibited,  under  the  peril  of  detention,  from  all 
intercourse  with  the  interiUcted  coast.  But  the  legal- 
ity of  these  blockades  by  proclamation  being  disputed 
both  by  the  neutral  powers  and  by  the  enemy,  their 
execution  was  resisted  by  a  counter  decree,  which,  on 
the  plea  of  retaliation,  placed  under  blockade  the  whole 
island  of  Great  Britain,  and  sul)jected  all  neutral  ves- 
sels to  detention  and  capture  which  should  have  been 
found  touching  at  any  of  Its  ports.  On  the  same  plea 
of  retaliation,  several  decrees  or  orders  in  council  were 
issued  by  Britain,  ordaining  that  no  neutral  vessel 
should  have  any  intercourse  with  France  and  her  de- 
ptndencies,  except  such  vessel  should  first  touch  at  a 
British  port,  where,  in  some  cases,  the  cargo  was  to  be 
landed,  and  was  to  pay  certain  duties  to  the  British 
government.  From  this  period  the  maxims  of  equity 
and  the  rules  of  international  law  were  set  aside,  and 
the  ocean  became  a  scene  of  proscription  and  pillage. 
All  this  anarchy  having  originated  in  a  disagreement 
respecting  the  nature  and  extent  of  a  blockade,  U  be- 
come* of  Importance  to  bung  back  the  question  to  its 
true  elements,  and  to  fix  tiie  principles  by  which  alone 
it  should  be  settled. 

The  object  of  a  blockade  is  to  reduce  the  Inhabitants 
of  the  blockaded  town  to  such  straits  that  they  shall 
be  forced  to  surrender  to  the  discretion  of  their  enemies 
In  order  to  preserve  their  livts ;  and  hence  the  legality 


BLO 


184 


BOA 


«f  eveiy  blockade,  except  wHh  •  view  to  capture,  hat 
been  queitioned.  But  without  entering  into  this  que«- 
tion,  it  eecmi  obvioui  that,  i^  order  to  conititute  the 
blockade  of  a  town,  either  with  a  view  to  capture  or 
to  temporary  annoyance,  the  line  by  which  it  i(  lur- 
rounded  >bould  be  so  complete  as  entirely  to  obstruct 
all  access  into  the  place.  When  a  place  is  blockade<l 
with  a  view  to  capture,  the  task  of  maintaining  a  real 
blockade  may  safely  be  left  to  the  blockading  party. 
But  when  a  port  is  blockaded  with  a  view  to  mere 
maritime  annoyance,  the  case  is  widely  difierent ;  be- 
cause, in  these  circumstances,  the  belligerent  will 
equally  attain  his  end  by  maintaining  the  mere  show 
of  a  blockade,  while  ha  is  In  possession  of  all  its  sub- 
stantial rights.  He  may,  to  save  himself  expense  and 
trouble,  relax  the  blockade  of  his  enemy's  ports,  while 
he  enforces  the  exclusion  of  all  neutrals  as  rigorously 
as  if  he  were  maintaining  an  effectual  blockade ;  and, 
in  this  case,  his  proclamations,  while  thoy  are  issued 
ostensibly  for  the  blockade  of  the  enemy's  ports,  would, 
in  reality,  amount  to  edicts  for  the  supprAsion  of  the 
neutral  trade.  The  urgent,  immediate  and  obvious 
interests  of  the  neutral  would  here  be  sacriiiced  to  the 
remote,  and  in  many  cases  imaginary,  convenience  of 
the  belligerent.  An  edict  might  be  issued  for  the 
blockade  of  the  enemy's  ports,  or  of  extensive  tracts  of 
his  coast,  round  which  uo  hostile  lino  could  ever  be 
drawn  so  as  to  constitute  a  real  blockade;  and  the 
whole  trade  of  the  neutral  with  those  interdicted  parts 
of  the  enemy's  territoiy  would  be  immediately  annihi- 
lated at  the  arbitrary  mandate  of  one  of  the  belligerents. 
Instead  of  being  carried  on  as  a  matter  of  right,  instead 
of  being  regarded  as  a  common  benefit  to  the  (■ivilizcd 
world,  and  on  this  account  as  proper  to  be  cherished 
and  encouraged,  the  neutral  trade  would,  under  such  a 
system,  be  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  a  tolerated  evil, 
existing  only  by  the  sufferance  of  those  who  imagined 
they  had  an  interest  in  obstructing  and  in  crushing  it. 
The  law  of  nations  is  not  a  partial  system,  modeled  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  one  party.  It  is  a  system  of 
general  equity,  and  its  edicts  are  founded  on  a  compre- 
hensive view  bf  what  is  for  the  common  welfare  and 
protection.  In  this  view,  then,  the  consequences  to 
the  neutral  of  those  extensive  and  nominal  blockades 
are  sufficient  to  constitute  them  illegal.  The  damage 
to  the  neutral  is  infinitely  greater  than  the  benefit  to 
the  belligerent.  The  rights  of  blockade,  and  the  lim- 
itation of  those  rights,  must  stand  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  justice  and  of  public  law ;  and  their  extension 
beyond  this  equitabie  principle  must  terminate  in  uni- 
versal confusion  and  anarchy. 

In  opposition  to  these  arguments  In  favof  of  the 
neutral  powers,  it  has  been  urged  that  the  new  system 
of  naval  annoyance,  introduced  by  Great  Britain  in 
180<i,  was  legal  according  to  the  strictest  construction 
of  the  law  of  blockade,  because  the  proclamations  for 
interrupting  all  intercourse  between  the  difiierent  parts 
of  the  French  coast  were  not  issued  until  it  was  ascer- 
tained, by  the  most  particular  inquiries,  that  Great 
Britain  possessed  an  effectual  naval  force  to  blockade 
the  enemy's  coast  from  Brest  harbor  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Elba,  It  is  solely  upon  this  principle  that  the 
ministers  of  that  country  maintained  the  legality  of 
those  block' .des ;  and  any  breach  in  the  line  of  block- 
ade, they  admitted,  would  be  sufficient  to  constitute 
them  illegal.  Such,  then,  is  the  state  of  this  import- 
ant controversy,  which  seems  to  resolve  itself  Into  a 
mere  question  of  fact,  namely,  whether  the  blockading 
power  has  actually  carried  into  effect  the  blockade,  of 
which  notice  by  proclamation  has  been  given  to  the 
neutral  powers. 

At  the  conrlusiiMi  of  the  last  treaty  between  Great 
Britain  and  America,  no  settlement  of  these  disputed 
questions  took  place.  The  main  war  between  the  Eu- 
rapaan  belligerents,  out  of  which  the  American  dispute 
h^d  incidentally  sprung,  l«iiig  at  an  end,  the  contro- 
Ttngr  nspecting  rights  whiob  could  only.be  exercised 


in  a  state  of  war  had  lost  all  practical  importance.  It 
had  Income  a  mere  question  of  abstract  right,  the  d«> 
cision  of  which  was  wisely  adjourned  by  the  powers  at 
war,  and  not  suflfered  to  clog  the  work  of  a  general 
peace.  It  is  likely,  however,  that  on  the  breaking 
out  of  any  new  war,  this  and  other  questions  of  a  like 
nature  would  recur,  and  on  this  account  It  might  be  of 
importance  to  the  future  pcaco  of  the  world  if  these 
questions  could  be  settled  according  to  some  acknowl- 
edged rule  of  equity  or  policy,  and  that  without  delav. 
— K.  B. 

Blubber  (Germ.  T^ran,  fucJUran ;  Da.Tkraan;  It. 
Olio  di  pesce ;  Sp.  Uraua,  A  ceite  de  peicado ;  Russ.  Salo 
Korteannoe,  Woncan;  Lat.  Oleum  pitcinutn),  the  fat  of 
whales  and  other  large  sea-animals,  of  which  train-oil 
is  made.  The  blubber  is  the  adtpt  of  the  animal :  it 
lies  under  the  skin,  and  over  the  muscular  flesh ;  It  it 
about  six  Inches  in  thickness,  but  about  the  under  lip 
it  id  two  or  three  feet  thick.  "The  whole  quantity  yield- 
ed by  one  of  these  animals  ordinarily  amounts  to  40  or 
50,  but  sometimes  to  80  or  mort  hundred  weight.  For- 
merly train-oil  was  manufactured  from  the  blubber  in 
the  iieas  round  Spitzbergen,  and  other  places  where 
whales  were  caught ;  but  the  practice  is  now  to  bring 
the  blubber  home  in  casks,  and  to  prepare  the  oil  aft- 
erward. 

Board  of  Trad*.  Cromwell  seemt  to  have  given 
the  first  notions  of  a  board  of  trade.  In  1656  he  ap- 
pointed his  son  Richard,  with  many  lords  of  his  coun- 
cil, Judges  and  gentlemen,  and  about  twenty  merchant* 
of  London.  York,  Newcastle,  Yarmouth,  Dover,  etc., 
to  meet  and  consider  by  what  means  the  trade  and  nav- 
igation of  the  republic  might  be  best  promoted. — 
Thomas's  Nota  of  the  SolU.  Charles  II.,  on  his  res- 
toration, established  a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a 
control  over  the  whole  commerce  of  the  nation,  1660 ; 
he  afterward  instituted  a  board  of  trade  and  planta- 
tions, which  was  remodeled  by  William  III.  This 
board  of  superinspectlon  was  abolished  in  1782 ;  and  a 
new  council  for  the  affairs  of  trade,  on  its  present  plan, 
was  appointed  September  2, 1786. — Haydn.  In  many 
cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  a  voluntary 
Soard  of  Trade  is  established  by  the  merchants  of  such 
cities — in  some  instances  termed  a  "  Chamber  qf  Com- 
merce." Such  associations  ore  productive  of  incalcula- 
ble benefit  to  the  commercial  ibteretts  at  large. 

We  are  indebted  for  the  following  elaborate  sketch 
of  the  origin  and  progress  of  Boards  of  Trade  to  Mr, 
Sabine,  secretary  of  the  Boston  Bunrd  of  Tiade,  taken 
from  the  annual  Report  of  that  body,  January,  1859 : 

The  Britieh  Board  of  7Wi<J«.— The  Board  of  Trade 
of  England  has  ever  been  a  department  of  the  govern- 
ment. It  was  created  by  Charlet  the  First  in  1636, 
when  the  regulation  of  commercial  affairs  was  allowed 
to  be  .:  Toyal  prerogative,  in  the  exercise  of  which  Par- 
liament could  not  of  right  Interfere. 

Commerce  in  Qaten  Elizabeth't  Time.— Commerce  \a 
now  so  very  free  that  its  condition  in  the  time  of  Eliz- 
abeth and  the  Stuarts  teemt  hardly  credible.  The 
former,  of  her  mere  pleasure,  granted  patents  in  mo- 
nopoly to  companies  or  individuals  for  dealing  Iii  al- 
most every  known  commodity.  Thus,  currants,  salt, 
iron,  powder,  cords,  skins,  oil,  cloth,  vinegar,  shin 
bones  of  cattle,  coal,  steel,  brushes,  bottles,  pots,  salt- 
petre, lead,  glass,  paper,  starch,  tin,  sulphur,  fish, 
could  be  purchased  only  of  the  several  patentees  or 
their  assignees ;  and  these  monopolists  were  so  exorbi- 
tant in  their  demand^  that  prices  rose  two,  three,  and 
five  hundred,  and  in  some  cases  one  thousand  per 
cent.  It  need  not  be  said  that  this  policy  was  opposed 
to  the  extension  of  commerce.  Elizabeth  saw  her  er- 
ror, and  partially  retraced  her  steps  j  and  the  House 
of  Commons,  abject  even  to  meanness,  addressed  her 
in  terms  due  only  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Her  suc- 
cessor, yielding  to  the  clamors  of  the  people,  annulled 
many  of  the  patents  which  she  had  neglected  to  cancel ; 
but  fome  itUI  remtdned,  by  rirtne  of  which  nearly  th« 


SOA 


185 


port  .t  thai,  omi  wj  r      '  •'"*''''*  «'  "l^rt  «««« Im.  fu,„.  'rpr?"''."'""  "'  ">«•  merchaVU  ind  m.'„T' 
contrary  to  the  Utmrtk^aM,   I '  *«'»''«<1  modopolle,   ""■'';'«''t*  a.  Englishmen.  ""  '"*»''on  of 

afsi^tS?"'"'  "■"     '■*"""'•'-'"-■"-■■ 

«' t.  to  retain  tliair  U.,^1  VliA    *'  •"■  •«"«»  of  th« I  iim    "  .— •'  -"•  "<"■  lor toe r 

«^in ;  for  Charla,  th.  f  l«?  '  "T  *' "^'"'"""i  !•  cer-   r.^   ,  «?'  "  President  of  thi,  Bo«r,i         ''?  "™en>- 
n>oney,r9.or"dtotha  ''^t'."  H  '«  «H«f  J  ,.7,; ^"\»f  Sh-fte'l'ury.  who  fou^l  the  ^r'  ""  «""' 

That  Board  w..„L/  *'"  ^«""«".  "C  «««"<!  «?T«  .      i""  '^"'''d.  PO'^iWy  owes  th^  V     ^"  """''■  «"'"  'hat 

*M  reconstruotr,  b^l'l'""'*'''''*  »)»•««(  ef/o.nl   »"  '  "."  "'  ^'«'""  the  Second  otno.l  """"'."'""'  «? 
tector  placed  hi. :i„tlL,d'!!l "'!'>'  «'""  «'«  "I'o     '''';'" ''"'h  hemispheres       ""'  "'""'"'''"  "  "i"^"/ 

~» iS  ".~t ':? "  "•  wi.  I  i' : »:  vi*  •"■'  "««to."  mi,?!."!'"",  •'""• '" 
..p.r..„„dr;i'S,*'°',:'.''': ''»*••  K tt/r "":"»■". " ". w'mi, ';  •••'«" 

were  soon  united      "ri w!i    ^*  •"  (twetlisr  l  but  ll..,  («„     ,  ,""  ."'rone,  had  defined  with  .ml    ?       "*  ^^'"ry 


•n  end,  the  Boa  d  .en  '1  7.^ '',''•*  "(('"•t  .l«l.«t«i'<  at   fc'f'"  ""^^  '''-l  •'een  established  at  Am^T"  ""^ 


BOA 

Board  (/  Tnd*  >m4  PlnitMlmUr=^fiim  iIm  «nlv«rt- 
•lly  w:knowMi;«4  »\A\Hy  itf  WfltUw  it  #«*  lo  \i»  pre- 
lumsd  tbat  hit  Himri-^itUtut  (til  (/C  tthl(rlt  w«  liava 
ipoken— would  h»»'«  *w»MH«n4«'4  IIm  >«4|(cet  of  (hat 
■ge  and  of  our  own,  fiut,  M  iti  ttm  (i»f»  ut  the  flto- 
■ru,  it  wa*  iueAk'lout  for  g«wl,  «h4  |Mrt««(  tut  mitclilef 
ovary  wb«ra, 

John  I^lui,  •  h¥»ril«  M  tiM  ¥fMK»  «M(I  tttlh«Ung, 
and  with  soma  at^riemm  hi  fxvfi^tHfy  UH(ttt  flhaflaa- 
hury,  wa*  tl)«  Arst  lwf4  WHl)«(»#l«rt«f  «f  wssldant ; 
but,  in  declining  h»Mt  »h>i  ikviHfd  ifi  phllnMlililcal 
inquiriaa,  lia  retirad  wUtmUt  if»¥iht(  th«  lm|i^eM  of  hli 
taltnta  upon  il«  rvmr^f, 

Witli  tbe  »iKl)t  I«r4*  mmmit^mm*  of  if»a«  and 
plantatione,  (Ita  govarH'^M  nf  tim  auUrtlUit  itete  n- 
i]uired  to  kaa|i  ui>  «  emufHtii  i^tffKtpdttitlteti;  and, 
that  avary  tbiiig  duna  Iw  AiiUfUt  »iwiti4  im  known  in 
England,  tlui  jowriml*  a(  (Im  4i^mit  ««1«mI«I  eounetia 
and  aMeniblN,  mU  tiM  Wt^tMNt*  «f  tiM  eoll«c(or«  of 
tbe  customs,  wara  ur4«r*4 1«  Im  (fMMHlttMt,  aa  well  oa 
•very  othar  kind  of  iHformstfMi  nmmiin  io  ofdniont 
on  Amarican  affalra,  TbM*  (Im  iiitntti  ii<  'tti<h  and 
Plantation*,  poorly  ««  (My  wt>fti  mm«limei  obeyed, 
accumulaud  in  iMr  #r»iliivc»i,  fn  (Iw  t)itifm  nt  elffbty 
year*,  no  las«  than  two  tllfytf#»H<1  fhfe«  hundred  folio 
volumea  of  raprM  w»4  9tb«f  (IwtfMMrnt*  of  a  aimllar 
nature. 

Unpopular  H«imrH,=kH*l  llw  f*»J((««tlon  of  Mr. 
Locke,  tlie  (irat  I«<r4  «4/nMnl«ti<««wr  *««  natMlly  a  peer 
of  the  realm  I  i'Ut  lia  i«»4  M*  /(*HMiW'Ui«*— ufflolally  con- 
iidared— ware  lirtla  al*»  (!(/*«  (i  •)i»  «Md  apl**  upon  or- 
ery  man  in  Naw  Kn^iftixl  wlm  'ivHcd  »  ahlp  of  Iniitt  a 
Hula  mill  to  work  wuul,  «n4  i»r«  Ut  \m  loailicd  liy  every 
one  who  Iwljavea  (bat  ikt«i«^*fwH  HH  \mmi\  to  liicreaac 
human  iiiduatry  and  Ut  ^1i»WiUl  tMfMMn  l/rothcrhood. 
No  matur  w|io  ratlrad  nt  *\w  tUni^Mi  (hi!  condition 
of  tbe  people  of  tlw  S»mm¥fml  »»ii  n)«nnra<!(nring 
colooiea  waa  navar  a«»en(l«tl*  mtmiUitmaii  from  the 
first  to  tbe  last,  TM  inU>mft1ll'i«  lit  the  Hoard  in 
aome  form  w»s  ewn*(«n(  «n4  imiuMUttUi,  liy  refns- 
Ing  grants  of  land  U>  immmn  »f  Itm  Mghftl  character 
in  America,  wIm  daeigH^4  Ut  ittfm  MtnpaniM  and  to 
effect  exUnsiva  mt-UmmH )  \tf  4tM'0Mritf()n{$  or  pre- 
venting eniigratbw  i  l*y  r»'#lr««(»*jj  the  «««  at  paper 
money,  though  coin  WM  of  mm»*W  retnltied  to  Kn- 
gland  to  p»y  for  tlia  mmvttmUifiHt  »«(<■<*  KinM  \m  pro- 
cured lawfully  n»wb#ra  cla*)  I*  r«f««lttg  «««cnt  to 
bills  of  the  colonial  lt*mmhmt  'iWM  *fttf  framed  or 
revised  by  tlte  wimut  nn4  l<Mt(  Mttii  In  American  his- 
tory ;  l>y  denying  plftc*  •h4  uMitm  Ut  «o)onlal  talents ; 
by  destroying  tifa  mmt  tH«nt)f«  bf»tt(hn  tit  colonial 
commerce,  the  0o«r4  «if«H»i«4,  >)tt«tl/(  (he  Ktiflh  and 
the  South;  and  KpiM^ii,  mmtft'MwtA  Virginia  and 
Puritan,  republican  1H»!mMm>ti»  mn,  tm  the  aamo 
field  to  break  (!)»  yok*  tif  mUmM  fM«a)«Ke.  In  a 
word,  there  is  hardly  «  Wfttng  in  (M  Unu  and  atirrinK 
array  of  grievancas  in  (b*«  ^ftit■il^f»^itm  of  independence 
<br  whicli  tlie  Board  Is  nnt  f^UBsmilAti,  )/«th  in  th«  In- 
ception and  In  tl>e  i^mmntmiUm, 

Abolitm  nfihn  fimit'ti,=fn  tmti,  H  htttgmt  at  laat 
aa  odious  in  lingl»o4  fti  (»  Am<-:fkH  (  (ind  in  17(tO  Mr. 
Burke,  in  «  full  bon#,  »Hnt  «  i/Hfjf  iHlmated  debate, 
carried  »  vo»»,  by  •  mtimity  itt  itigw,  tut  It*  entire  al»- 
olilion,  and  tba  triHWWr  flf  lt«  Im4tl«iin  1«  tlie  privy 
council  j  but  (ha  msr^MUt,  Mtniim  Miif  tot  reform, 
were  dissatisfied  witfc  (I4«  i»(f«m«  IM«MI«re,  and  it  waa 
revived  and  continiwd,  fx  ttM  ^(1pl«  m  which  it 
rested  it  would  seem  tbllt  tl)#f«  b«4  imeu  (Hi  eonslder- 
able  change ;  for  (Jjan,  m  gv^r  iittfttff,  Hn  power*  were 
derived  f^om  tba  roy»|  l)ffHi)f»lUii  father  than  from 
Btatnie.  Mr,  Durka,  In  I4«  timt-ii  im  the  occasion,  as- 
failed  it  In  »lffM>s(  evurjf  fufm  uf  tuptutuAt,  In  hia  view. 
It  was  of  no  servlaa  i»  (b«  mmnttr,  and  ita  ^^reaiest  l>en- 
eflt  was  to  eight  mtmlmt  ftf  rufitumnt,  to  whom  it 
aiTordcd  a  salary  of  4t^W,  ut4  tmmimkf  to  mature 
arlaimto4oHb(atlMiWM(M»f«tffM«p«((alM<.  Inid* 
icim(orlt»i»»eAfily,U«»i^Mami  "Ybeperpetoal 


tm 


virtual  adjournment,  and  the  unbroken  tltting  vaeatioa 
of  the  Board  of  Trade."  So  of  its  uaolessiicas  in  legis- 
lation ha  as  bitterly  said :  "  Wo  want  no  instruction 
from  it  or  from  any  other  Board;  and  God  forbid  that 
we  should  give  (he  least  attention  to  their  reports." 

Vibbon,  tht  llitlorian. — Gibbon,  tbe  historian,  was 
one  of  the  lords  commissioners,  and  vouches  for  the 
){eneral  accuracy  of  Mr.  Burke's  representationa,  and 
allows  of  himself,  personally,  that  ho  remained  for 
weeks  at  a  time  in  his  study  undisturbed  by  the  cares 
of  omdal  business;  and  it  appears  that  a  part  of  his 
Hecline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  Umpire  was  written  while 
he  was  in  office.  In  fact,  from  tbe  evidence  within 
our  reach,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  Board  of 
Trade  of  England  thus  far,  and  in  all  its  clmngea  of 
name  and  functions,  had  been  more  serviceable  to  the 
world  of  Icttara  than  to  the  wr  'Id  of  traffic ;  and  that 
It  is  to  be  rcmemliered  with  complacency  principally 
because  it  ministered  somctliiiig  to  the  pecuniary  wants 
of  Evelyn,  of  Locke,  and  of  Gibbon  while  pursuing  the 
Inquiries  to  which  they  mainly  devoted  tlieir  lives. 
True,  Georgia  and  Nova  Scotia  owe  their  origin  to  the 
Board  ot  Trade  and  Plantations ;  but  though  to  found 
(hose  colonica  coat  England  quite  five  millions  of  dol- 
iara,  njithor  made  scnaible  progress  until  the  lords 
commissionors  ceased  to  Interfere,  to  plan,  and  to 
manage. 

Hoard  nftht  prtitnl  Ztoy.— Having  rapidly  noticed 
the  course  of  the  Board  while  subject  to  the  control  of 
the  king  and  his  ministers,  and  while  the  celel  rated 
Act  of  Navigation  was  enforced  against  all  foriign 
countries  and  against  tbe  American  colonies,  wo  pass 
to  spcnk  of  it  ill  our  own  day,  and  under  tbe  change  of 
policy  wiiieh  has  resulted  in  (he  adoption  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  free  trade.  As  now  constKutcd,  the  president 
of  tiic  Hoard  is  a  minister  of  the  crown,  and  no  person 
concerned  in  commerce  can  lie  a  member.  For  the  last 
forty  years  Its  afTalrs  liave  been  directed  by  men  of 
eminent  talents.  Its  authority  is  derived  entirely  from 
statute  law.  The  care  of  the  mercantile  marine,  once 
intrusted  to  the  admiralty,  has  been  transferred  to  it, 
and  in  thia  department,  except  in  matters  of  revenue, 
its  superintendence  Is  wcU-nigh  supreme.  Among  its 
other  duties  are,  to  advise  the  colonial  secretary  upon 
questions  alTccting  colonial  commerce ;  to  confer  with 
(lie  lords  of  the  treasury  upon  measures  relating  to 
customs  and  excise ;  to  communicate  with  the  foreign 
aecretaries  upon  the  formation  of  commercial  treaties; 
to  supervise  orders  in  council ;  to  report  upon  dock  and 
railway  bills ;  to  exercise  partial  control  in  the  various 
liranchea  of  indus(ry  and  over  chartered  companies ;  to 
prepare  monthly  statements  of  exports  and  imports,  of 
sliipping,  and  the  like.     Such  are  the  outlines. 

In  a  very  recent  debate  in  Parliament  it  was  ar- 
raigned for  alleged  misuse  of  its  functions  in  several 
specified  instances ;  and  an  inquiry  into  its  constitution 
wa*  demanded  on  the  ground  that  the  duties  imposed 
upon  It  are  too  numerous,  too  various,  and  too  cnnipll- 
ca(ad  (o  bo  eificiently  and  satisfactorily  discharged. 
The  attack  was  without  results.  Some  of  the  oldest 
and  ablest  member*  of  tbe  Hou*c  of  Commons  rose  in 
its  defense,  and  1(*  asaalland  were  refused  even  tbo 
courtesy  of  a  committed. 

Keser^'ing  our  expresalon  of  asaent  to  its  policy  iti 
the  direction  of  free  trade  a*  applicable  to  tbe  present 
condition  of  the  United  States,  or  while  the  use  of  cap- 
ital and  the  wages  of  labor  shall  continue  essentially 
dearer  than  in  England,  we  may  commend  ita  course 
In  moat  other  ri-<!pects  with  little  qualification.  Thus 
premising,  we  pr(  oeed  to  mention  in  as  much  detail  as 
our  limits  will  allow  the  radical  changes  and  tho  com- 
prehensive reforms  which  tho  Board  of  Trade  has  been 
the  prlm-lpal  instrument  in  effecting  in  cor  lercial  and 
maiitiii-'j  law  within  forty  years. 

Petii  'HI  in  18120.— In  18i;0  everj-  leading  mercantile 
house  h>  Ixindon,  in  a  petition  to  I'arlianient,  expressed 
the  opii-ioQ  that  tbe  repeal  of  the  protective  rtgultuim 


BOA 


m 


BOA 


of  commerce  woold  be  for  the  public  advtntige.  Such 
A  sentiment,  deliberately  uttered,  and  suatained  by 
reaBon>,  by  some  of  the  best  informed  and  moat  ex- 
tensive merchants  in  the  world,  bad  great  inriuence ; 
•nd  several  measures  to  lessen  the  existing  restrictions 
were  at  once  devised  and  introduced  by  the  proper 
kninister. 

Jfi:  llmkiuon,  the  Champion  of  Free  Trade. — In  1823 
Mr.  HuskiMon,  by  a  partial  change  in  the  administra- 
tion, was  plucud  at  the  head  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
His  essay  on  the  currency ;  his  speeches  in  opposition 
to  the  views  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
in  the  debates  upon  the  question  of  resuming  specie 
payments  during  the  suspension  by  the  Bank  of  En- 
gland of  nearly  a  qucrter  of  a  century ;  the  wisdom  be 
had  displayed  in  the  agitations  on  the  vexed  measure 
of  the  corn-laws,  in  discussing  which  members  of  Par- 
liament of  moderate  views  incurred  the  fury  of  the  suf- 
fering masses  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  hate  of  the 
powerful  land-owners  on  the  other;  and  his  masterly 
exposition  of  the  complicated  subject  of  the  national 
revenues  anU  expenditures,  had  conllrmed  to  him  the 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  flnanciera  as  well 
as  one  of  the  most  profound  statesmen  of  the  age.  Ho 
became  at  once  the  champion  of  free  trade,  because  of 
his  belief  in  its  principles  to  give  an  impulse  to  the  in- 
dustry and  to  the  intellect  of  his  own  country,  and  be- 
cause it  \\'as  the  chosen  and  constant  rule  of  his  life  to 
look  upon  man  every  where  as  a  brother.  He  pursued 
the  plan  of  removing  the  century-hallowed  restrictions 
CD  commercial  freedom  calmly  and  considerately,  yet 
with  an  energy  which  excited  the  admiration  of  the 
liberal,  and  afforded  occasion  for  the  most  malevolent 
accusations  on  the  part  of  his  opponents.  As  president 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  he  •vindicated  himsi^lf  in  the 
House  of  Commons  for  the  last  time  in  1827,  on  a  mo- 
tion for  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  distresses  of 
the  shipping  interest  of  the  kingdom.  Navigation  was 
fearfully  depressed,  and  in  au  otiensive  tone  the  em- 
barrassments of  the  ship-owners  were  attributed  to 
him.  The  attack  was  made  after  "a  long  and  threat- 
ening note  of  preparation ;"  but,  in  the  opinion  of  his 
friends,  ho  overthrew  his  accusers,  "  not  only  by  the 
most  convincing  reasoning,  but  by  the  clearest  arith- 
metical proofs."  Time  will  test  the  wisdom  of  some 
of  Mr.  Husklsson's  measures ;  but  beyond  all  doubt  he 
accomplished  great  good  to  England  and  to  the  world ; 
and  it  is  lit  that  our  records  contain  n  'ribute  to  the 
memory  of  the  illustrious  man,  who  represented  Liver- 
pool in  Parliament,  and  who,  whetlier  in  otHce  or  out, 
and  whether  praised  or  persecuted,  retained  the  confi- 
dence of  the  merchants  of  that  city  to  the  last  hour  of 
his  life. 

Labors  since  1845. — In  concluding  our  notlcr,  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  of  England,  we  have  barely  time  to  re- 
fer to  its  most  considerable  labors  since  about  the  year 
1845.  And  first  it  advised  the  revision  of  the  tariff; 
the  repeal  of  the  duty  on  four  hundred  and  twenty  ar- 
ticles of  import;  the  reduction  of  the  duty  on  all  raw 
materials;  the  oonversion  of  prohibitory  duties  into 
protective,  and  the  diminution  of  protective  duties. 
It  has  entirely  abolished  the  navigation  laws,  which, 
existing  from  the  day  of  Cromwell,  were  deemed  the 
bulwark  of  the  kingdom.  It  has  consolidated  fifty 
statutes  relating  to  ships  and  to  kindred  interests.  It 
has  been  instrumental  in  adjusting,  in  a  satisfactory 
way,  the  measurement  of  tonnage;  it  has  introduced 
an  examination  of  masters  and  mates  with  great  suc- 
cess ;  it  has  established  shipping  offices  in  order  to  pro- 
tect seamen  against  their  tempters,  who  are  the  same 
in  every  port  and  country ;  it  has  arranged  a  system 
of  money  orders,  by  which  the  sailor,  on  receiving  hi» 
wages,  may  transmit  certainly  and  safely  what  he  wills 
to  his  family  ;*  It  has  instituted  savings  banks  for  sea- 
faring men,  and  induced  them  to  deposit  con8ideral>Ie 


sums ;  it  takes  charge  of  the  wages  and  effects  of  de> 
ceased  mariners  for  distribution  to  the  nearest  rela- 
tives ;*  it  has  issued,  at  great  expense  and  labor,  elab- 
orate instructions  to  consuls,  for  guidance  in  allmatteri 
of  difficulty ;  it  has  extended  the  principle  of  salvage, 
so  as  to  Include  reward  for  the  saving  of  human  life ; 
it  has  insured  the  survey  of  passenger  steamers,  and 
adopted  a  rigid  mode  of  inquiry  into  the  misconduct  of 
sbip-maitin.  It  has  regulated  claims  for  salvage  by 
vessels  of  the  navy,  and  the  manner  of  volunteering 
into  such  vessels  from  the  merchant  service ;  and  mod- 
ified the  laws  which  compelled  ship-owners  to  take  ap- 
prentices. It  has  improved  the  life-boat  establish- 
ments on  the  British  coasts ;  revised  tlie  whole  subject 
of  pilotage  in  the  port  of  London,  to  the  saving  of  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  annually :  devised  a  plan  of 
registry  and  title  to  ships  which  is  at  once  simple  and 
safe ;  and  receiving  from  Trinity  House  the  manage- 
ment of  light-houses,  it  has  remitted  light-duties  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  three  quarters  of  a  million  of 
dollars  yearly.  Such  are  some  of  the  recent  services 
of  the  Board  to  commerce  and  to  humanity, 

Boardt  of  Trade  in  the  United  Stalet. — It  remains  to 
speak  of  the  United  States.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  year  1858,  as  fnr  as  we  were  able  to  ascertain,  thero 
were  ten  Chambers  of  Commerce  and  twenty  Boards 
of  Trade  between  Portland  and  San  Francisco.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  all  those  are  mere  voluntary 
associations  of  men  of  business,  without  political  pow- 
er or  patronage,  but  generally  with  limited  charter 
privileges,  and  sustained  by  self-imposed  assessmonta 
and  contributions. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  ofKeto  Yoyh  is  by  far  the 
oldest.  It  was  organized  in  1768,  for  the  purpose  of 
"  promoting  and  encouraging  commerce,  supporting 
industry,  adjusting  disputes  relative  to  trade  and  nav- 
igation, and  procuring  such  laws  and  regulations  as 
may  be  found  necessar}'  for  the  benefit  of  trade  in  gen- 
eral," Two  years  after,  its  founders  obtained  a  royal 
charter.  At  this  juncture  the  merchants  of  Boston 
would  have  been  refused  a  similar  favor ;  for  such  had 
been  and  was  their  resistance  to  the  laws  of  navigation 
and  trade  that  they  were  deemed  objects  of  punishment, 
and  ships  and  soldiers  had  been  sent  to  awe  tbcm  into 
submission;  troops  had  been  quartered  in  tlie  very 
room  which  they  used  as  an  Exchange ;  their  vessels 
and  merchandise  had  been  seized;  and  they  were  pros- 
ecuted in  the  Admiralty  Court  to  recover  ruinous  fines 
and  penalties. 

Quite  a  different  state  of  things  existed  in  New 
York,  Isaac  Low,  an  early  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  who,  at  first  a  Whig,  and  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  fell  oft,  lost  his  estate  by 
confiscation,  and  died  in  banishment;  and  several 
morv  of  the  original  members  closed  their  days  in  ex- 
ile, in  consequence  of  their  disaffection  to  the  popular 
cause. 

In  1784  the  Chamber  was  continued  »  corporation, 
with  enlarged  privileges,  by  an  act  of  the  Legislature, 
Strangely  enough,  for  nearly  eighty  years,  and  until 
within  a  few  months,  it  was  homeless,  and  depended 
upon  accidental  accommodation.  It  met  first,  proba- 
bly, in  a  tavern ;  next,  as  required  by  charter,  in  the 
"great  room"  of  the  "Exchange"  in  Broad  Street; 
early  in  the  present  century,  where  it  best  could ;  and 
from  1885  to  June,  1858,  in  an  apartment  of  the  Mer- 
chants' Bank,  Though  until  quite  lately  without  a 
library,  and  a  secretary  devoted  exclusively  to  its 
service,  and  though  it  has  published  no  reports  of  its 
proceedings,  the  Chamber  has  still  acted  with  energ}' 
upon  the  important  questions  in  its  province  which 
have  arisen  firom  time  to  time;  and,  as  it  has  borne 
and  yet  bears  upon  its  list  of  members  some  of  the 
most  honored  names  that  adorn  the  commercial  annals 
of  New  York  and  of  our  common  country,  its  influence 


•  Tb«  luia  thus  traoimltted  in  ISM  was  about  tT00,00O. 


•  The  amount  of  these  distributions  in  18H  was  $1I»>,000, 


BOA 


188 


BOA 


In  Ih*  Icgblttlon  of  tb*  State  and  ot  the  nation  bai 
li«en  in  accordance  wUb  ita  high  reapoctabUit.v. 

Babmotv.— In  th«  hiatoiy  of  tha  Baltimore  Board 
of  Trade  there  are  incidents  Bomewhat  alnguUr.  The 
flrat  election  of  offlceri  wai  on  the  'iOth  of  Febnur}r, 
1831,  when  Robert  Oilmer  wai  choKn  preiident,  and 
William  Coolce  Mcretary.  Mr.  Gilmer  died  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  William  Patterson,  the  senior  vice- 
president,  was  elected  to  flU  his  place,  but  declined ; 
and  choice  was  made  of  the  junior  vice,  William  Lor- 
man,  who  continued  InofHce  until  January,  18U0,  when 
the  Board  ceased  to  exitt.  The  number  of  members 
at  the  organization  in  1831  was  sixty-four,  of  whom 
eight  survive ;  namely,  F.  W.  Drune,  Joseph  King, 
Jun.,  Isaac  Tyson,  Jun.,  Thlllp  K.  Thomas,  J.  W. 
Patterson,  James  Brundige,  Israel  Mankin,  and  Will- 
iam Cook,  the  first  and  only  secretary.  Thf  se  gentle- 
men, mmarks  our  informant,  "are  in  affluence,  and 
possess  the  respect  of  tliu  entire  community." 

In  February,  1836,  the  Board  was  revived :  Utnty 
Thompson  was  cbosec  president,  and  his  son,  Samuel 
T.  Thompson,  secretary.  The  former  survived  but 
little  more  than  a  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  James 
Wilson,  who  served  fh>m  1887  until  March,  1843,  when 
there  was  a  second  disbanding.  Tha  latter  continued 
in  service  the  whole  time,  and  the  Board,  without 
rooms  of  their  own,  met  at  his  private  office. 

After  another  interval  of  six  years,  and  in  October, 
1849,  the  present  Board  was  organized,  under  circum- 
stances which  promised  permrnenoo  and  success.  John 
C.  Brune,  iha  first  president,  and  George  U.  Porter, 
the  first  secretary,  have  been  annually  re-elected,  and 
are  now  in  olBce.  The  Board  liave  apartmenta  of  their 
own,  which  are  open  to  the  members. 

It  is  not  in  our  power  to  enumerate  the  many  useful 
measures  which  have  been  proposed  and  matured  dur- 
ing the  last  ten  years ;  but  of  this  we  are  certain,  that 
the  Baltimore  Board  of  Trade— if  without  other  claims 
to  honorable  mention — deserves  the  gratitude  of  the 
country  for  opening  the  new  channel  in  the  Patapsco, 
by  which  ships  of  the  largest  draft  car  approach  the 
city  in  safety,  and  for  establishing  a  floating-school,  in 
which  boys  are  taught  practical  seamanship,  and  train- 
ed to  habits  of  thrift  and  sobriety  almost  free  of  charge, 

PkUadelphia On  the  16lh  of  October,  1888,  there 

was  a  meeting  of  merchants  of  Philadelphia,  "To  take 
Into  consideration  the  Topriety  of  farming  an  associ- 
ation by  means  of  which  the  commercial  and  trading 
community  may  be  enabled  to  act  with  united  effort  on 
•II  aubjeeis  relating  to  their  interests"— wbich  resulted 
in  •  resolution  to  form  a  Board  of  Trade,  and  the  elec- 
tion of  twenty-four  directors.  On  the  22d  of  the  same 
month,  Thomas  P.  Cope  was  unanimously  elected  pres- 
ident, two  hundred  and  twenty  merchante  voting;  and 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1834,  a  constitution  waa  adopted, 
which  has  never  been  essentially  changed.  J.  H. 
Wright  was  the  first  secretary  of  the  directors,  and, 
aa  we  suppose,  acted  in  that  capacity  for  the  Board. 
An  act  of  incorporation  was  obtained  in  1888,  which 
•nthorizes  the  Board  to  appoint  annually  two  of  the 
seven  port  wardens  of  Philadelphia. 

In  the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  there  have 
been  but  three  changes  in  the  presiding,  and  only  four 
in  the  recording  officer.  Mr.  Cope  remained  president 
until  hii  decease  in  18M ;  Thomas  P.  Hooper,  his  sue. 
cesser,  resigned  at  the  close  of  18S7,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Samuel  C.  Morton,  who  is  still  in  office.  Mr.  Wright 
was  secretary  from  1884  to  1838 ;  C.  Q.  Childs  from 
the  last-named  ^ear  to  1863 ;  F.  W.  Grayson  from  1863 
to  1868 ;  and  was  followed  by  Lorin  Blodget,  the  pres- 
ent secretary.  It  may  be  inferred,  from  the  small 
salary  atteched  to  the  office  for  several  years,  that  the 
duties  were  occasional  and  inconsiderable  until  quite 
lately. 

The  first  movement  of  the  Fblladelpbia  Board— not 
nnlike  our  own— was  to  increase  facilities  jn  transpor- 
tation.   In  1888,  and  before  thejr  organization  was 


completed,  they  sent  delegates  to  a  Convention  called 
for  the  purrose  of  devising  a  plan  for  uniting  the  canals 
of  Pennsylvania  with  those  of  Ohio,  and  by  the  publi- 
cation and  distribution  of  tha  proceedings  of  that  body, 
and  by  continued  action  on  the  general  subject  of  con- 
stmcting  canals  and  railroads,  rendered  efficient  serv- 
ice in  opening  the  existing  means  of  communication 
with  the  West. 

Since  that  time  the  efforts  of  the  Board  to  promote 
the  commercial  interests  of  Philadelphia  and  of  the 
country  have  been  constant,  earnest,  and  eH'eclive. 
Investigations  into  the  causes  of  delay  in  thi  carriage 
of  goods  inland,  always  difficult  and  vexatious,  have 
been  made  at  intervals  for  years,  and  occasionally  by 
special  agents.  Congress  has  been  solicited  by  me- 
morials for  additional  light-bouses  and  buoys ;  for  • 
survey  and  chart  of  the  l3elawai«  Bay  and  Kiver;  for 
change  in  the  postal  laws ;  for  a  new  custom-house  and 
a  dry-dock ;  for  the  erection  of  piers  at  Delaware  City ; 
for  Uie  establiihnicnt  of  the  warehouse  system ;  for  a 
sleaiii  line  to  Brazil;  for  aid  to  revi,-e  steam  commu- 
nication with  F.urope.  The  President  has  been  asked 
to  interpose,  by  negotiation  or  otherwise,  to  revive 
American  ship-steam  communication  with  Europe  un- 
der national  auspices.  The  Legislature  of  Pennsyl- 
vania has  been  addressed  on  the  subject  of  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  insolvent  laws;  on  the  inspection  of  tobac- 
co i  for  aid  to  the  city  ice  and  tew  boaU;  for  revision 
of  the  usury  laws;  for  the  suppression  of  Insurance 
companies  of  doubtful  management  or  pecuniary  abil- 
ity ;  for  the  repeal  of  the  tax  levied  by  the  Slate  on 
merchandise  transported  over  the  Pennsylvania  Cen- 
tral Railroad. 

Such  are  some  of  the  matters  which  have  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Board,  more  or  less  of  a  public  na- 
ture ;  while  those  of  local  importance  are  far  too  nu- 
merous to  bo  mentioned  here.  Since  the  year  1864 
our  own  co-operation  has  been  sometimes  asked  In 
measures  which  are  of  national  interest,  and  we  recall 
no  case  in  which  it  was  refused. 

Like  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  Phil- 
adelphia Board  of  Trade  had  no  home  until  June,  1868, 
when  two  largo  rooms,  with  an  office,  were  fitted  up 
for  their  accommodation  on  the  second  floor  of  a  new 
iron  building  opposite  the  Mayor's  office  and  Inde- 
pendence Hall,  Chestnut  Street.  At  first  the  meetings 
were  held  in  •'  Wade's  Hotel"  and  the  "  Merchant's 
Coffee  House,"  and  after  1834  in  some  apartment  of 
the"F.xchange." 

We  are  glad  to  add  that  the  Board  Is  In  a  prosperoiu 
condition,  and  has  a  considerable  fUnd  invested  in 
Stete  and  other  sound  stocks. 

Botton  Mercantile  Orgtinizatiom. — About  the  year 
1806  an  association  called  the  "  Boston  Importing  Com- 
■pany"  was  formed,  with  the  design  of  regulating  the 
trade  with  London  and  Livorpool  in  a  way  best  to  suit 
tha  importers.  Three  or  four  first-class  ships  were 
purchased  and  kept  employed.  Tha  war  of  1812  put 
an  end  to  our  intercourse  with  England,  and  the  Com- 
pany closed  their  affairs.  One  of  the  ships  was  de- 
tained by  France,  but  was  released  to  bring  home  Mr. 
Armstrong,  the  American  minister. 

A  second  association  was  organized  after  the  peace 
of  1816,  by  the  namo  of  the  "New  England  So.iety  for 
the  Promotion  of  Manufactures  and  Mechanic  Arte." 
which  still  reteins  ite  corporate  existence.  Semi-an- 
nual public  sales  of  domestic  goods  were  made  ^nder 
the  auspices  of  this  society  for  several  years,  'inri  with 
success.  These  sales  attracted  buyers  from  different 
parte  of  the  country,  and  were  of  essential  bcjeflt  to 
Boston. 

Chafnbtr  of  Cammirce. — On  the  llth  of  January, 
1886,  at  a  meeting  of  "  Merchants  and  Traders"  at  the 
Old  Council  Room,  Court  Square,  Thomas  B.  Wales 
presiding,  and  George  W.  Gordon  acting  as  clerk, 
Stephen  Fairbanks  stated  that,  at  a  previous  meeting, 
at  wbxcb  he  presided,  •  committee,  of  which  Thomai 


BOA 


189 


BOA 


year 
;Com- 
ng  th« 
|to  suit 
were 
|12  pat 
I  Com- 
|as  do- 
iMr. 


hnarj-, 
|at  the 

t^ales 
I  dork, 
leting, 
pomai 


B.  Curti*  wai  chairman,  wa*  appointed  to  eoniltler  the 
•spedlenoy  of  forming  a  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and 
that  the  persona  then  pretent  had  met  to  aet  definitely 
on  the  subject.  A  constitution  and  a  code  of  by-laws 
were  reported,  and  referred  to  a  committee,  of  which 
Heniy  Lee  was  chairmau ;  and  on  the  18(h  of  that 
month  were  adopted,  and  the  organization  completed 
by  the  choice  of  William  Sturgis  for  president,  of 
Thomas  B.  Wales,  Robert  O.  Shaw,  and  David  Hon- 
shaw  fbr  vice-preaidentn,  and  of  forty-eight  directors. 
The  number  of  membcij  appears  to  have  been  two 
hundred  and  twenty-four.  The  government  of  the 
Chamber  soon  after  elected  the  late  George  M.  Thach- 
er  secretary,  and  James  C.  Wild  treasurer. 

The  presidents .  who  ibllowed  Mr.  Sturgis  wore 
Thomas  B.  Wales,  Nathan  Appleton,  and  Abbott  Iaw- 
rence.  The  successore  of  the  flrst  vlc»-preildenta  were 
Francis  J.  Oliver,  Charles  Henshaw,  William  Apple- 
ton,  Jchn  Bryant,  and  Amos  Lawrence.  The  changes 
in  the  Board  of  iJirectors  were  too  numerous  to  lie  re- 
lated here.  Mr.  Thacher  was  the  only  secretary ;  and 
when,  in  1830,  Mr.  Wild  resigned,  he  was  cboeen 
treasurer.  In  this  mention  of  the  principal  ofHcen 
of  the  Chamber  we  pronounce  names  that  will  never 
disappear  from  the  annals  of  the  humane  and  literary 
inslitutlonc.  of  Massachusetts — names  widely  known 
and  widely  blessed. 

(7oniin*V/rer.-~The  standing  committees  of  the  Cham- 
ber were  twdi— of  Inquiry  and  of  Reference.  The  only 
case  which  seems  to  have  occupied  the  time  of  the  for- 
mer related  to  inoney  transactions  l>etween  several 
members  and  certain  brokers.  Eleven  oases  were  be- 
fore the  lutter,  and  a  part  of  them  wore  somewhat 
carious. 

Diaolniion.—On  the  flrst  of  February,  \Wi,  the 
Chamber  voted,  "  That  a  meeting  of  the  president  and 
directors  be  called  for  the  purpose  of  taking  measures, 
If  any  can  be  devised,  to  infuse  more  vigor  Into  the  op- 
erations of  the  association,  that  It  may  bo  more  useful 
to  the  mercantile  community;  and  if,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  officers,  no  such  measures  can  be  taken,  then  to 
consider  the  expediency  of  dissolving  the  association." 

That  vote  was  taken  op  by  the  government  on  the 
6th  of  April  following,  and  indefinitely  postponed,  A 
year  passed  of  less  "  vigor"  than  ever  before.  The  last 
baaincss  transacted  by  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce was  on  the  14th  of  March,  1843,  when  the  »ec- 
retary  submitted  %  communication  from  Canada  on  the 
subject  of  a  railroad  in  the  direction  of  that  colony. 

Boston. — The  act  which  incorporates  James  M.  Bee- 
be,  Sila&  Potter,  and  James  C.  Converse,  and  their  as- 
sociates and  successors,  by  the  name  o^  the  Boston 
Board  of  Trade,  for  the  purpose  of  promotin(j  the  trade 
and  colianerce  of  this  city  and  vicinity — which  forbids 
us,  in  our  corporate  capacity,  to  traffic  in  merchandise 
of  any  description,  and  which  allows  us  to  hold  prop- 
erty to  the  amount  of  one  thousand  dollars — waa  ap- 
proved on  the  29th  of  April,  1851. 

Government  Board  of  Trade. — Wo  do  not  accuse  the 
government  of  the  United  States  of  willful  neglect  of 
tho  commercial  Interests  of  the  country ;  but,  with  all 
deference,  we  do  say  that,  as  now  constituted,  the 
Treasury  department  can  not  devote  to  these  interests 
either  the  time  or  the  attention  which  they  impera- 
tively demand.  We  commenced  our  career  as  a  nation 
with  half  thb  ports  of  Europe  shut  against  our  unknown 
flag,  with  but  two  hundnd  thousand  tons  of  naviga- 
tion, and  with  exports  of  only  twenty  millions  of  dol- 
lars ;  and  the  care  of  out  commerce,  rapid  as  was  Its 
growth,  was  an  easy  duty  uuiii  after  the  lapse  of  a 
generation.  But  now,  when  we  own  Ave  millions  of 
tons  of  shipping,  and  send  off  annually  surplus  products 
of  the  soil,  tho  sea,  and  of  the  shop  and  the  mill,  worth 
two  hnndred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars ;  when  our 
territories,  and  population,  and  means  of  transportation 
inland  have  multiplied  In  the  ratio  of  ships  and  ex- 
ports, we  may  ventitre  to  remark  ths^  the  fiscal  opera- 


lions  of  that  department,  in  which  there  has  h««n  a 
eorrespondi-  icreaaa,  require  the  attention  of  lit  of- 
ficers, wituout  any  concern  whatever  In  navigation  ' 
and  trade  save  in  matters  of  revenue;  and  that,  of 
consequence.  It  has  become  the  duty  of  our  statesmen 
to  form  another  department,  which  shall  relieve  the 
Treasury,  and  possess,  as  closely  as  the  nature  of  our 
institutions  will  allow,  the  powers  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  of  England.  And,  in  the  most  respectful  tone, 
wa  will  add  that  the  merchants  and  ship-owners  of  the 
United  States  have  a  right  to  a«k  that  the  government 
assume  and  besr  much  of  the  labor  and  expense  which, 
under  existing  circumstances,  looal  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce and  Boards  of  Trade  are  obliged  to  incur  in  or- 
der to  be  useful  In  their  respective  sections  of  country ; 
and  Ibr  the  very  conclusive  reason  that  many  of  the 
(juestiont  which  these  aswciations  are  required  to  en- 
tertain ■!«,  either  Incidentally  or  directly,  national  in 
their  character.  It  Is  not  Just,  we  think,  that  mer- 
chants, who  are  borne  down  by  the  cares  of  private 
buainesa,  should  be  compelled,  as  they  are,  to  devote 
the  time  which  they  need  for  rest  or  recreation  to  con- 
cerns which,  though  of  interest  to  thorn  profenlonally, 
affect  still  more  tho  humanity  of  the  age  and  the  com- 
■neree  of  the  world. 

But  while  we  suggest  r  new  department  In  the  gov- 
ernment, with  the  powers  indicated,  we  would  not  dis- 
pense with  local  Chambers  and  Boards,  since  these 
and  similar  associations  are  necessary  tu  ascertain  and 
remove  evils  In  trade  with  which  a  national  Board 
could  hardly  he  expected  to  Interfere ;  necessary  to  de- 
vise ways  for  safe,  speedy,  and  cheap  transportation 
inland ;  to  produce  uniformity  in  commercial  customs 
and  charges  of  factorage;  and  to  form  and  to  concen- 
trate commercial  opinion.  Nay,  more ;  Just  one  quar- 
ter part  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence were  bred  merchants  or  ship-masters,  and  men  of 
these  classes,  retained  in  Congress  after  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  helped  materially  to  shape  the  pol- 
icy of  the  country ;  but  as  neither  are  hardly  repre- 
sented in  the  public  councils  now,  the  abolition  of  these 
Chamber*  and  Boards  would  deprive  them  of  thoir 
principal  remaining  power  in  legislation.  For  this 
reason  alone,  then,  we  would  not  only  maintain  exist- 
ing organizations — under  whatever  name — but  would 
earnestly  recommend  the  formation  of  others. 

Boat,  a  small  open  vessel,  propelled  on  the  water 
by  oars  or  sails.  The  construction,  machinery,  and 
oven  the  names  of  boats,  are  very  different,  according 
to  f"*  various  purposes  for  which  they  ai«  intended 
and  t.ie  (ervicea  on  which  they  are  to  be  employed. 
Thus  they  are  occasionally  slight  or  strung,  sharp  or 
flat-bottomed,  open  or  decked,  plain  or  ornamented; 
as  they  may  be  designed  for  swiftness  or  burden,  for 
deep  or  shallow  water,  foi'  sailing  in  a  harbor  or  at  sea, 
apd  for  convenience  or  pleasure.  The  largest  boat 
that  usually  accompanies  a  ship  is  the  long-boat,  which 
is  generally  furnished  with  a  mast  and  sails.  Long- 
boats fitted  for  men-of-war  are  occasionally  decked, 
armed,  and  equipped  for  cruising  short  distances 
against  merchant  sliips  of  the  enemy,  or  smugglers,  for 
impressing  seamen,  and  other  services.  The  barges, 
which  are  next  in  order,  are  longer,  slighter,  ^nd  nar- 
rower. They  are  employed  to  carry  the  principal  sea- 
officers,  as  admirals  and  captains  of  ships  of  war,  and 
are  unfit  for  the  open  sea.  Pinitacti  exactly  resem- 
ble barges,  but  are  somewhat  smaller,  and  have  never 
more  than  eight  oars ;  whereas  a  bargo  properly  never 
rows  less  than  ten.  The  cutters  of  a  ship  are  broader, 
deeper,  and  chorter  than  the  barges  and  pinnaces; 
they  are  fitter  for  sailing,  and  are  commonly  employed 
in  carrying  stores,  provisions,  passengers,  and  tl^e  like, 
to  and  ftom  theship.  In  the  structure  of  this  sort  of 
boat  the  lower  edge  of  ever}'  plank  In  the  side  over- 
lays the  upper  edge  of  the  plank  below,  which  is  called 
by  ship-wright«  clinker-build.  Yaielt  are  somewhat 
less  than  cutters,  nearly  of  the  same  form,  and  used  for 


BOA 


190 


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•Imllw  MrTl«N.  Tiny  tra  gcn«r«ll/  rawtd  with  liji 
oan.  Th*  •bove  boata  mora  iiarticuUrly  btUmg  U< 
men-of-wu'.  Merchant  voiwiU  abova  IM  toni  bara  at 
laast  two,  a  long-boat  and  yawl.  Mtrcbaat  •blp*  am- 
ployad  In  the  Medilerrantan  find  It  mora  eonvauiant  to 
naa  •  lamcit,  which  ii  longar,  Hattar  In  tba  bottom,  and 
bsttar  adapted  avary  way  to  tha  barbora  vf  that  •«•, 
than  a  long-boat.  A  whnrf  U  a  light,  tfiarp  boat, 
uaad  In  a  river  or  harbor  for  carrying  paaaangiira  from 
placa  to  place.  Puitli  are  a  urt  of  oblong,  Hat-lwt- 
tomad  boata,  nearly  raiembUag  floating  etagM.  Tb«y 
are  umJ  by  abip-wrlgbta  and  caulkan,  for  breaming, 
caulking,  or  repairing  a  ahip'a  bottom.  I(  <•  alto  tba 
name  for  the  amallcit  boat  of  yacbte,  etc,  <•«»«  la 
a  very  flat,  broad  boat,  uaed  by  merchant  thipa  among 
tha  Caribbee  Itlanda,  to  bring  bogabaada  of  augar  off 
from  the  aea-beach  to  the  ablpplng  anchored  lu  tlia 
roada.  k felucca  la  a  atrong  paaaaga-boat  uaad  \u  tba 
Ifedltarnuiean,  and  propelled  with  can  and  lataan 
aalla.  thepiivgut  of  the  Southern  and  Eatlam  aaaa  U 
a  kind  of  canoe  made  of  the  trunk  of  a  Irea  boilowad 
out  It  la  generally  worked  with  paddlaa,  but  aoroa- 
tlmaa  it  la  decked  and  fnmlahad  with  aaila  and  an  out- 
rigger. The  proa,  ao  much  uaed  by  pirataa  in  tba 
Eaatem  Archipelago,  la  sharp  at  both  anda,  in  erdar  lo 
•ail  either  way.  Ita  lee  aide  la  rounded,  but  tba  waatb- 
er  aide  la  flat,  and  provided  with  an  outrigger  to  aacure 
ita  alability.— E.  B.  The  Invention  of  boata  waa  ao 
early,  and  their  uae  so  general,  the  art  can  not  l*a  tramd 
to  any  age  or  country.  Flat-bottoniad  boata  were  mado 
In  England  in  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror  t  tba  flat-lut- 
tomed  boat  waa  again  brought  into  uae  liy  Uarfcar,  a 
Dutchman,  about  1690.  The  life-boat  waa  Ant  aug- 
gested  at  South  Shields;  and  one  waa  built  by  Mr, 
Greathaad,  the  inventor,  and  waa  drat  put  to  a«a,  Jan- 
uary 80,  1790.— Hatum. 

Boatawain,  the  officer  In  a  ship  who  bu  tba  charge 
of  the  boata,  sails,  rigging,  colors,  anchore,  cabica,  aixl 
cordage.  It  ia  also  the  duty  of  this  officer  to  auuimon 
the  crew  to  their  duty ;  to  aasiat  with  Ids  niat4M  in  lint 
neoeaaary  business  of  the  ahip ;  and  to  relieve  lb«  wal4'b 
whan  Ita  time  expires.  Ho  haa  a  mato  >lio  baa  tlie 
charge  of  the  long-boat,  for  aetting  forth  anchura,  wulgli- 
ing  or  fetching  home  an  anchor,  warping,  towing,  or 
mooring. 

BobMn,  a  amall  cylinder  of  wood,  with  a  llttia  bor* 
der  or  bead  at  each  end,  and  bored  through  to  r«««iv» 
an  Iron  pivot.  It  ia  used  in  spinning,  to  wind  thread, 
wonted,  hair,  cotton,  silk,  gold,  and  silver, 

BobUnc,  among  fishennen,  a  method  of  catching 
eela,  diffiirent  from  sniggling.  To  bob  for  e«ls,  a  nom- 
ber  of  large  lobr  are  well  scoured,  and  a  twitted  ailk 
thread  la  run  through  them  from  end  to  end  with  a 
needle  :  they  are  then  tied  fast  with  tha  two  anda  of 
the  ailk  thread,  that  they  may  bang  in  ao  many  bonkt ; 
after  which  the  whole  maaa  ia  attached  to  a  atrong 
cord,  with  a  plummet  fixed  a  little  above  tha  womia  to 
sink  the  bait,  and  the  cord  ia  made  Cut  to  •  atrong 
pole.  This  apparatus  is  thrown  into  muddy  watar; 
the  eela  tng  lustily  at  the  bait ;  the  ropa  Is  than  to  be 
drawn  in  gently,  and  the  eels  are  brought  ashore, 

Boga,  commonly  the  remains  of  fiillan  far«at«,  eoV' 
•red  with  peat  and  loose  soil.  Moving  boga  are  allpa 
of  land  carried  to  lower  levels  by  accumulated  waiar. 
Of  recent  acta,  one  relating  to  Ireland  for  their  drain- 
age, paased  March,  1830.  The  bog  land  of  Ireland  boa 
been  estimated  at  8.000,000  acres ;  that  of  8cotUn4  at 
opward  of  2,000,000;  and  that  of  England  M  naar 
1,000,000  of  acres.  In  January,  1849,  Mr.  Ueea  Boaca 
took  out  a  patent  for  certain  valuable  product*  from 
Irish  peat. — Household  Wordi,  So.  41. 

Bobea,  a  species  of  tea.    See  Tea. 

Bon,  a  friable  earthy  substance,  a  spacfaa  of  tba 
ioap-stone  family.  Specific  gravity  1-4  to  2,  It  It 
(bund  in  the  island  of  Lemnos,  whence  it  ia  aomattma* 
called  liemnian  earth ;  and  In  Armenia,  Italy,  fraiica, 
Sileala,  various  porta  of  South  AiuetiM,  «t«.    Arm- 


nian  and  French  bolaa  were  at  one  time  not  uncommon 
in  Ibis  country,  Iwlng  uaud  in  the  materia  modlca ;  but 
tliay  are  now  cntlruly,  or  almost  entirely,  iliscarded. 
In  India,  bowavar,  Armenian  bole  still  cuiitinuet  to  b« 
in  aalanslva  ilamand.  It  ia  brought  to  Uuiiibay  (h>ia 
tba  I'artlan  Uulf.  It  la  aoft,  feela  greasy  tu  the  touch, 
adheres  atrongly  to  tha  tongue,  and  U  very  frangible  i 
It  It  generally  of  a  yellowlah  brown  color;  though 
aotnetime*  It  la  teen  of  a  fine  fleah  rod,  which  ia  tba 
variety  liald  In  tba  bigheat  eatimation.  Home  aavaga 
uatlona,  such  aa  the  Uttoma«|uea,  described  by  U. 
Ilumlwldt,  are  In  the  habit  of  allaying  the  pains  of 
hanger  lif  eating  luiiet.  The  Javanese,  wlicn  they 
with  to  iMirome  thin,  eat  cakes,  called  ianitnuifHi,  niada 
of  b«l«,— I.rwik's  Mulrria  Mnlicai  Tuumijon'h  Chtm- 
Uifji I  Aiim.n.'n  Mtitrria  Jndiea. 

Bolivia.  This  name  was  given  In  1821)  to  a  new 
H*at«  or  Hepublic  In  South  America,  fomieil  from  tha 
|irwvlni-es  ik  rpper  I'eru,  which  formerly  constituted 
|iart  of  tlM  vice-royaify  of  Huenos  Ayres,  uml  wcrt 
well  known  by  the  names  of  (^hurcns,  I'otosl,  Lu  I'ai, 
('iMiialwMil'a,  and  Santa  Crux  ilo  la  Niorrn.  These 
provinces,  on  teeurlng  their  ind«|iendeDcc,  noon  after 
tha  battle  nf  Ayaeucbo,  Olfa  UucemlMr,  1621,  found  It 
nacaaaary  to  come  to  a  detennination  as  to  tlieir  futura 
pulilleal  ttat4'  and  institutions ;  and  theroforo  it  became 
a  quntlion  with  the  Inhabitants  of  Upper  I'uru  wheth- 
er they  should  continue  their  former  connection  with 
tha  lluenot  Ayrean  or  Argentine  provinces,  attach 
tli«nit«lv«s  to  tlifl  republic  of  I'eru,  or  form  their  c^un- 
Iry  into  a  M'|iarnto  nnd  indeiHindent  re|iuljlic.  But 
tlia  eaistlng  government  of  Ducnus  Ayres  having  with 
«<|ual  Judgnwnt  and  generosity  divested  itself  of  the 
vlalin  wlilrh  It  hod  on  the  provinces  of  I'pper  Teru, 
tlie  Inhabitants  of  the  latter  were  left  at  perfect  liberty 
to  d«cl<l«  on  the  future  political  govcmuicut  of  their 
country.  Deputies  from  all  the  provinces  were  in 
conM«|U«nce  nominated;  and  having  asxcmbled  In 
CbU(|iiisaca,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  in  August, 
1826,  the  result  of  their  delll>erations  was,  that  the 
provinces  of  l'p|ier  I'eru  should  in  future  constitute  a 
i«|)arate  and  Independent  nation.  This  assemlily,  con> 
linuing  its  sessions.  Issued  n  dcclaraticFi  of  national 
ind«|i«nd«ncc  i  and,  In  the  exulieranco  of  tlieir  grati- 
tuite  to  (teneral  Uolivar  for  the  important  influence  he 
bad  exercised  in  areomplisbinK  tho  lilicration  of  their 
cmintry,  they  determined  on  giving  tho  name  of  Bo- 
livia to  tlio  whole  country. 

liolivia  extends  from  9°  30'  to  26°  40'  of  S.  lat.,  and 
from  W  to  71'  of  W.  long,  from  Loudon,  and  it  is 
lioitndcd  nn  the  north  by  Peru  and  Braxil,  on  the  east 
by  llrastil  and  Taraguay,  on  tho  south  by  the  Argen. 
liiM  provlnres  nnd  Chili,  and  on  the  west  by  the  I'ucillo 
Ihuiink  :.«ru.  It  has  been  divided  by  the  constiU 
uiml  Congress  of  Holivln  into  six  departments,  viz., 
I'otosi,  ('bu(|uisaca.  La  I'ax,  .Santa  Cruz,  Cochabara- 
l«,  and  Oriiro;  and  these  have  been  subdivided  into 
provinces  and  cnntons.  Thus  cnth  department  in- 
cludes In  Ita  Juris<lictlon  certain  provinces  of  the  an- 
cient regime,  TJio  department  of  Potosi  contains  Ata- 
cama,  LIpi'Z,  Potosi,  I'orco,  Chayanto,  and  Chicas; 
CliM(|uisa<'a  eonuins  Charcas  or  Cbuquisacu,  Cinti, 
Yamparaes,  .ind  Tomina;  Lb  Paz,  the  provinces  of  La 
I'a*,  Patajes,  .Sicjsica,  Chulumani,  Omasuyos,  Larcco- 
Ja,  and  Apolobamba ;  Santa  Cruz,  the  provinces  of 
^nU  Cruz,  Mojos,  Chlquitos,  Vallegrandc,  Pampas, 
and  llaures ;  C'".!;''>«nil.o  mntains  Cm'habambo,  Sa- 
ealia,  Ta»  *<!«rl,  Arqiie,  Paica,  C  isso,  and  Misque  ;  and 
lb«  de'  trtmrnt  of  Oruro,  the  p-  ovinces  of  Poriu,  Oruro, 
and  .arangas, 

Tl  «  only  pro<luctions  hitherto  I'-imished  by  Bolivia 
0*  an  li'les  of  commerce  have  been  thj  precious  nictuls, 
wb*  /I  were  exchanged  for  various  articles  of  luxury 
and  necessity.  Tho  rndc  and  simple  fabrics  manufac- 
tured hy  the  Peruvian  Indians  are  usually  appropri- 
alad  to  their  own  domestic  uses ;  while  the  valuable 
vegatabia  {iroducllons,  and  the  herds  of  cattle  and 


BOL 


191 


BOM 


Bolivia 
Inictals, 
lluxury 
anufac- 
Iproprl- 
Ittluftblo 
Itlo  ani 


mulct,  which  are  reared  in  the  et»i.m  parti  of  th«  re- 
piiliUr,  have  hllhurto  acarcrly  been  ■utilclont  fur  the 
aupplyuf  iho  inhuliitautiiof  thoKu  populuua  mlnlnti  illa- 
tricla  that  ara  prln«i|>aUy  il«|ieii(lent  on  them  for  iub- 
•Istvnva.  C'ui'ua  to  the  value  of  t'iOU,0OU  in  annually 
•xiKirted  from  La  I'ai  to  other  parta  of  Bolivia  and 
I'vru. 

Uefore  the  Revolution,  a  very  extonalvo  trafllo  waa 
malnluined  lirtwcen  the  upper  provincea  of  I'eru  and 
the  provinccn  uf  the  Kio  do  la  Plata,  fur  •upplIcK  uf 
cdttle  and  mule/i.  Tlieae  were  roared  in  great  num- 
lien  in  all  the  intoriur  Ar|{entino  provinces,  expreaaly 
for  the  use  of  Ihuso  countries,  and  were  drat  sent  by 
oiisy  journeys  to  the  luxuriant  [taaturea  of  Salta  and 
Jujuy,  whom  they  were  carefully  fed  and  tended  dur- 
liiK  the  winter,  provioua  to  their  being  conveyed  to 
(heir  llnul  ilestinution  In  Uollvia  and  I'eru.  8unio  idea 
may  lie  funned  iif  the  extent  uf  this  truffle  by  staliiiK, 
that  licsidos  all  those  funiixhed  by  the  other  Argentine 
provinces,  the  province  of  Sulla  alone  supplied  annu- 
ally to  I'pper  and  Lower  I'eru  from  00,UOO  to  80,000 
mules,  on  all  of  which  they  realized  considerable  prof- 
its, the  prices  being  proportioned  to  the  distance  to 
which  they  wore  conveyed.  The  war  of  Independence, 
which  has  so  greatly  desolated  the  northern  provinces 
of  the  Kio  de  la  I'lata,  and  the  diminished  working  of 
the  niinoB  of  Iloliviu,  nave  almost  annihilated  this  lu- 
crntivo  tratliv ;  but  it  may  be  expected  to  revive  with 
incroiising  vigor  on  their  again  resuming  their  former 
huliits  uf  tranquillity,  and  livcnniing  stimulated  to  in- 
crcnscd  exertion,  liy  '.he  accession  of  laliorious  and  in- 
telligent Eurupeana,  and  by  the  s^  uad  of  education 
and  intelligenie. 

Ky  tlie  route  of  Cordova,  Tucuman,  and  Salta,  the 
provinces  of  I'pjier  Peru  or  Bolivia  formerly  received 
tlicir  supplies  of  articles  of  commerce  from  Europe, 
which  wore  landed  afUuenoa  Ayres;  and  liy  the  same 
channel  they  likewise  ol)t4iincd  large  supplies  of  i'lrba 
or  Paraguay  tea,  to  the  great  amount,  it  is  afflrmed, 
of  100, MM)  arrobat,  or  about  2,600,000  pounds  annually, 
which  had  been  previously  conveyed  by  water  from 
Purnguay  to  Buenos  Ayres,  and  from  thence  by  wag- 
ons and  mules  to  Jujuy  and  Bolivia;  thus  enhancing 
its  value  by  a  circuitous  and  expensive  land-carriage 
of  from  2000  to  3000  miles,  while,  liy  a  more  improved 
system  of  conveyance,  it  might  Iw  sent  by  the  rivers 
Vermejo  and  I'ilcuinuyo  Into  the  heart  of  Bolivia,  at  n 
vast  saving  of  troulile  and  expense.  The  large  amount 
of  goods  sent  from  Buenos  Ayres  liy  wagons  to  Jujuy 
tended  greatly  to  enrich  the  varinus  pruvinccs  through 
which  they  passed,  giving  employment  to  numbers  of 
the  luhabitants ;  and  Jujuy,  which  formed  the  most 
distant  point  that  could  be  reached  by  wagoits  or  car- 
riages, became  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
forming  tho  entrtp'A  of  the  commerce  of  Peru  and  the 
Argentine  |irovinces.  From  this  place  tho  various  ar- 
ticles of  commerce  were  convoyed  on  mules  to  their 
ulterior  destination. 

Tho  now  order  of  affairs  consequent  on  the  Revolu- 
tion bus  necessarily  produced  important  changes  in 
this  brunch  of  commerce,  and  Bolivia  has  in  a  great 
measure  ceased  to  receive  her  supplies  of  foreign  com- 
modities by  this  expensive  route.  Commerce,  where 
unrestricted,  always  tinds  out  the  shortest  and  least 
expensive  channels  for  tho  introduction  of  its  com- 
modities. Tho  trade  is  now  in  a  (treat  degree  divert- 
ed to  tho  ports  of  the  Pacitic,  called  the  Puertoa  Inter- 
medios.  Tacna  and  Arcquipa,  with  their  respective 
ports,  have  now  liecome  the  principal  channels  through 
which  Bolivia  niceives  the  produce  and  manufactures 
of  other  countries.  How  far  tho  Bolivian  government 
has  succeeded  in  making  Cobija  or  Puerto  la  tiar  of 
that  exclusive  commercial  importance  which  it  con- 
templated, remains  yet  to  be  ascertained.  Nature 
presents  great  obstacles  to  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking, which  is  certainly  a  most  praiseworthy  one ; 
while  all  the  rest  of  the  coast,  in  which  are  situated 


the  Puertoa  Intermedins,  forms  part  uf  the  republio 
of  Peru,  to  which,  therefore,  they  must  nacuatarily  pay 
transit  duties,  A  new  and  very  important  channel 
of  ciimmunicalion  fur  commercu  will  be  optnad  ti«- 
tween  llolivia  and  the  Atlantic,  whenever  commercial 
enterprise  and  increasing  ':ivllization  shall  have  es- 
tablished steam  navigation  on  the  Kio  do  la  Plata  and 
Its  tributary  streams,  the  Vomiejo  and  Pilcomayo,  and 
from  the  mouth  of  tho  Amazon  to  its  distant  tributa- 
ries, the  Beni  and  the  Mamori. 

By  a  decree  uf  tho  republican  government  of  Peru, 
dated  22d  Keliruary,  IMItl,  the  following  Judicioua  reg- 
ulations have  been  established  for  settling  tho  com- 
mercial relations  of  that  state  with  the  repulilic  of 
Bolivia!  1,  The  productions  of  the  territory  of  the  Bo- 
livian repulilic,  Introduced  into  Peru  for  its  consump- 
tion, shall  be  tuliject  to  an  Import  duty  of  \  |K-r  cent, 
on  their  valuation.  2.  Those  productions  uf  Bulivia 
which  only  pass  through  the  territory  of  I'eru  for  em- 
liarkation  from  its  ports,  shall  only  be  subjected  to  • 
transit  duty  of  2  |icr  cent,  8.  Silver  and  gold,  either 
coined  or  otherwise,  introduced  from  Bolivia  into  Peru, 
shall  be  exempted  from  any  duties,  4.  All  foreign 
articles  of  commerce  passing  through  tho  territory  of 
Peru,  and  destined  for  Bolivia,  shall  only  be  suliject- 
ed  to  the  payment  of  2  per  cent,  ad  vnli>rtm ;  and  the 
decree  of  22d  January,  1880,  which  Imposed  transit 
duties  of  from  16  to  46  per  cent,  on  such  commodities, 
has  lieen  repealed. 

Silver,  however,  has  hitherto  been  the  staple  metal- 
lic production  of  Bolivia,  and  has  given  to  it  that  celeb- 
rity which  it  has  lung  possessed.  In  the  rich  mountain 
of  Potosi  alone,  fhim  the  year  1646  to  tho  year  1800, 
no  lest  than  9828,060, 600  were  coined ;  and  if  to  this 
bo  added  the  amount  of  the  preceding  years,  not  in- 
*  eluded,  and  that  obtained  in  a  clandestine  manner, 
$1,017,001,018  baa  been  obtained  in  the  space  of  22S 
years.— E.  B. 

Bomb  (jJo/i/Joc,  a  loud  noise),  in  military  affairs,  a 
largo  shell  of  cast  iron,  with  a  vent  to  receive  a  f\isee, 
which  is  made  of  wood.  Tho  shell  being  tilled  with 
gunpowder,  tho  fusee  Is  driven  into  the  vent  within 
an  inch  of  the  head,  and  fastened  with  a  cement  made 
of  quick-lime,  ashes,  brick-dust,  and  steel-filings,  work- 
ed together  in  a  glutinous  water ;  or  of  four  parts  of 
pitch,  two  of  colophony,  one  of  turpentine,  and  one  of 
wax.  This  tulio  is  flilcd  with  a  combustilile  mutter 
made  of  two  ounces  of  nitre,  one  of  sulphur,  and  three 
of  gunpowder-dust,  well  rammed.  To  preserve  the 
fusee,  it  is  pitched  over,  bnt  uncased  when  the  bomb 
is  put  into  the  mortar,  and  covered  with  gunpowder- 
dust,  which,  taking  Are  by  '.he  flash  of  the  powder  in 
the  chamber  of  tho  mortar,  bums  all  the  time  the  bomb 
is  in  the  air;  and  when  the  composition  in  the  fusee  is 
spent,  it  fires  the  powder  in  the  bomb,  which  bursta 
with  great  violence  and  commits  dreadful  devastation. 

Bombs  may  be  used  without  mortars,  as  was  done 
by  the  Venetians  ut  Candio,  when  the  Turks  bad  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  ditch.  Bombs  were  roiled 
down  upon  them  along  a  plank  with  ledges  set  sloping 
toward  their  works.  Bombs  did  not  come  into  com- 
mon use  before  the  year  168-1,  and  then  only  In  the 
Dutch  and  Spanish  armies.  One  Maltbus,  an  English 
engineer,  is  said  to  have  first  carried  them  into  France, 
whcro  they  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Colliuurc. — E.  B, 

Bombay  (Portug,  Suon-Ha/iia,  "good  harlior"), 
a  city,  sea-port,  and  capital  of  tho  presidency,  is  sit- 
uated on  a  narrow  neck  of  land  at  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  the  island  of  Bombay,  separated  from  the 
main  land  by  an  arm  of  the  sea,  forming,  with  the 
contiguous  islands  of  Colaliah,  Salsette,  Butcher's  Isl- 
and, and  Caranjah,  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  India, 
Lat,  18°  6C'  N.,  long.  72°  63'  E.  In  1716  the  popula- 
tion was  18,000;  in  1816,  IRl.SuO;  and,  according  to 
the  liombai/  Calendar,  in  184.'),  236,000.  Of  these  two- 
thirds  are  Ilindocit,  20,000  Parsees,  and  the  rest  Mus- 
sulmans, Jews,  and  Christians ;  with  a  great  variet  ' 


BOM 


IM 


BOM 


•f  fluctiistlnff  fopuUtlon,  chtodjr  Mllori  Md  imUrt. 
It  coDtUu  of  till  fort  or  old  town,  1  mil*  In  UnKlh 
by  4  nlla  m  l>ra«<lth,  In  which  lbs  Kurop«*n  inhalilt- 
•aU  Mid  moat  of  lh«  I'tntt  mercliitnU  nald*;  uid  Iha 
MW  town,  itlMjut  I  mill)  dUtant  northward,  Inhaliltad 
by  the  Illudoofi  and  Mohammadan  native  population, 
bayond  which  luliiirb  ara  many  ilatachad  vlllaa  anci 
btingalowa,  UlunKlng  to  Guropaan  ami  other  raaU 
danta.  Iloinliay  Inland  waa  cadad  'ly  Iha  I'nrtUKuaaa 
to  the  KnKll"l>  in  1001,  aa  tha  dowar  of  Qminn  Cath- 
■rina,  witk  of  (.'harlaa  II.,  and  waa  takrn  |Hiaaeaaliin 
of  in  loot;  ao  that  it  haa  Iwan  In  their  oi'cuputionahout 
IHU  yrara,  liainff  liy  fur  tha  uldeat  of  their  p4>aa*aelona 
In  the  Kaat.  In  16(H)  It  waa  tranaferred  by  tha  crown 
lo  the  Kaat  India  Company  by  lettera-patant.  In  tn» 
and  common  aacca((*,  on  payment  of  the  annual  rent 
of  XiO,  Hut  by  the  preaent  charter  It  haa  reverted  to 
the  crown,  with  the  raat  of  the  conipany'a  aaaota,  lieinx 
beld  by  the  company  In  truat  merely.  On  Ita  ueaaion 
to  the  crown  of  Kngland,  In  1601,  Ita  p<ipulation  did 
not  exceed  I5,0U0;  but  at  preaent  It  haa  upward  of 
ilSO.OOO  InhabitanU.  Tha  fort  atanda  uii  the  aoulh- 
Hatem  extremity  of  the  laland,  on  a  narrow  neck  of 
land,  immediately  over  the  harbor.  The  fortltlcationa 
•r*  extenaive,  and  on  the  aea^lde  very  atrong. 

Bombay  haa  a  lively  appearance  from  the  aea;  but 
•a  a  city  It  la  Ki^'tly  inferior  to  Calcutta  or  Madraa. 
Tb*  hounea  within  the  walla  are  built  of  wood,  and 
covered  with  tiloa.  I'rinclpul  edlllcea  In  the  fort  are 
the  court>huuae,  aecretariata,  and  oiher  Rovemment 
officca,  cuatom-tiouie,  town-lvall,  caatle,  mint,  cathe- 
dral of  Mt.  Thomaa,  8t.  Andrew'a  Hcotch  church,  Eu- 
ropean hoapital,  etc.  In  the  centre  of  the  fort  la  an 
IrroKular  o|ien  apace  called  the  "  Green ;"  and  outaido 
of  tha  maaaive  fortltlcationa  la  the  eaptanade.  In  Iho 
new  town  are  Elphinatone  college.  Sir  J.  ilejeabhuy'a 
hoapltal,  the  Dyculla  church  and  club,  the  houae  of 
correction,  theatre,  and  the  great  Hindoo  temple  of 
ifomba  7>m.  On  the  aouthweat  the  fort  ia  connected 
by  Colabba  cauaeway  with  the  laland  of  t^olaliba,  on 
which  are  the  llght-houae,  ubaervatory,  lunatic  aay- 
lum,  aome  mercantile  buildlnga,  and  a  atone  pier.  The 
government-houae  la  at  Parell,  0  milea  north  of  the 
fort.  There  are  two  banka— the  Bank  of  Boqibay  and 
the  Commercial  Hank  of  Indie.  'Ilie  property  of  the 
laland  balonga  principally  to  the  Paraeea,  who  are  the 
chief  merchanta  and  moneyed  men.  The  harixir  of 
Bombay  la  one  of  tlie  Iwat  in  India,  and  afforda  good 
anchorage  for  ahips  of  the  largeat  burden.  On  it  are 
alao  excellent  building  and  other  docka  for  ahipa  of 
the  flrat  claaa.  Next  to  Calcutta  and  Canton,  Bom- 
bay la  the  principal  commorciol  emporium  in  the  Goat, 
and  fbr  many  yeara  ita  trade  haa  lieen  uniformly  in- 
creaaing.  In  1837  a  ateam  navigation  waa  commenced 
between  Bombay  and  Suez ;  three  ateainera  wore  at 
flrat  employed,  which  the  war  in  1848  increased  to  8 ; 
and  a  regular  monthly  paaaage  ia  now  made  from  Lon- 
don to  India,  under  the  arrangenienta  of  the  (Oriental 
Steam  Navigation  Company.  lUtmbny  Island,  on  which 
tb*  city  ia  built,  la  8  miles  in  length,  and  3  milea  in 
breadth,  and  ia  formed  of  two  raagea  of  green-atone, 
connected  in  the  middle  by  aand-aiune  atrata.  Th«  in- 
tarlor  lies  low,  and  wai  at  one  time  liable  to  be  floo<lr 
•d  by  the  tide,  but  an  embankment  wa8  erected  to  keop 
out  the  sea. 

Bombay  Harbor  ia  one  of  the  aafest  and  moat  coni- 
modioua  in  India,  It  is  Inunded  on  the  west  and 
north  by  the  island  of  Colabuh,  or  Old  WoniuirH  isl- 
and, Bombay  Island,  and  the  island  »(  Salsette.  The 
flnt  two  are  separated  only  liy  a  narrow  creek  furda- 
ble  at  low  water,  and  Bombay  Island  was  joined  u> 
Saliette  by  a  causeway  constructed  in  1805.  On  the 
eaM  side  of  the  barlwr,  between  it  and  tlie  muin  land, 
la  Bntcber'a  laland,  distant  ulmut  4  miles  from  Bom- 
bay; and  immediately  behind  ButcherV  Inland  la  tliu 
famoaa  laland  of  Elephanta.  About  3  mU^  aouth  fVom 
Batciur'a  laland  lathe  Uland  of  Canmjali.  m  the  weai- 


em  aid*  of  whiflh,  n*xt  th«  harbor,  ti  an  •xt*nalv« 
ahual.  flouthweat  ttttm  Caranjah,  diatani  alwul  6 
niilna,  ia  Tull  I'nint;  lietwaan  which  and  ('olaluih,  or 
Old  Woman's  Uland,  la  tha  entrance  to  tha  harlmf. 
There  la  a  llgbt-bouaa  on  Iha  aontharn  extremity  of 
(^lalwh  laland,  alevalad  about  IM)  that  aliova  tha  level 
of  Iha  aea,  which  In  clear  weather  may  lie  seen  at  lh« 
diatane*  of  7  leagnea,  Tha  point  on  which  th*  light* 
houae  atanda  ia  aurroundad  on  all  aidaa  liy  an  extena- 
ive reef  of  rncka  divided  Into  pronga :  of  these,  th* 
moat  dangeroua  la  the  prong  stretching  aouthweat 
alwut  8  milea  from  the  light-hnuae,  and  forming  th* 
northern  boundary  of  tlie  enlrance  Into  the  harbor. 
The  reef,  atratching  weat-northwcat  ftam  Tull  Point 
almut  3i  milea,  forma  the  aiiuthern  lioundary  of  ili* 
entrance ;  the  breadth  of  the  channel  between  them  Imv 
iiig  aliout  8  milea,  with  a  depth  of  ttom  7  to  8  fathomo. 
In  going  Into  the  harlior,  it  Is  necesaary  to  clear  a  sunk- 
en rock,  lying  almoet  due  east  from  the  light-houae, 
at  alwut  It  mile  distant;  and  alao  a  bank,  called  th* 
mlddlu-ground,  lying  nearly  op|ioalte  to  and  about  14 
tiiile  from  the  Miuthern  extremity  of  the  towu. — Stt 
Nit'lloLaoN  ami  WATN<iN'a  iVna  iff  HimAny  Harbor. 

IMtehi. — Bomliay  ia  the  only  port  of  conaequence  In 
Britlah  India  in  which  tha  riaa  and  fall  of  the  tide  ar* 
ao  Gonaidorabl*  aa  to  admit  of  the  formation  of  extena- 
ive wet  dooka.  At  or<llnury  apring-tidea  tha  rise  li 
about  14  feet,  but  occasionully  as  high  us  17  feet.  Th* 
capacious  docka  conatrucled  liy  the  Kast  India  (yom- 
pany  are  their  pro|H>rty,  and  are  for  the  moat  purt  un- 
der the  direction  of  t'aracoa,  who,  excepting  the  Chi- 
luae,  are  the  moat  induatrioua  and  intpiligent  peopi* 
if  the  pjiat.  Merchant  vcancia  of  the  largeat  claaa,  or 
from  1900  to  140U  tons  burden,  for  tha  cotton  trade  to 
China,  have  been  built  in  these  docka.  Frigates  and 
line-of-battle  ships  have  also.lieen  occasionally  con- 
structed in  them,  sometimea  under  the  exclusive  di- 
rection of  Paraee  artilicers.  Tlio  timlier  having  to  li* 
brought  from  a  great  distance,  ships  built  at  Boinbny 
are  very  costly ;  but  being,  contrary  to  the  practice  In 
other  parts  of  India,  entirely  conatructed  of  teali,  tboy 
are  the  moat  durable  vaaaela  in  the  world,  requiring 
little  repair,  and  often  running  M  or  00  yeura,  Biing 
for  the  moat  part  built  by  natives,  wttlwut  any  vary 
atrlct  application  of  the  mica  of  the  art,  tboy  are  com- 
monly, though  not  alwaya,  heavy  auilerH. 

Commerce,  etc. — The  «mall  and  aterile  Island  of  Bum- 
liay  alTbrda  no  produce  for  exportation ;  Indeed,  hard- 
ly a  week'a  consumption  uf  com  for  ita  inhabltanta. 
Nor  does  the  whole  presidency  of  Bombay,  although 
comprising  about  180,000  square  mile«^  and  trom 
8,000,000  to  9,0OO,O(H)  inhabtlunts,  with  x  not  revenu* 
in  184«  '49  of  *2,  km, 000,  yield,  with  th.  exception  of 
cotton,  rice,  ami  coffee,  any  of  the  gmi«t  colonial  sta- 
ples, such  as  sugar  and  Indigo;  u  circumstance  which 
may,  per^iiips.  lie  ascribed  to  the  Impolitio  restraliiti 
u|Min  the  cniploymciit  of  British  aettlera  and  capital 
tliiit  wen-  l"iii;  imimHcd  by  law,  and  acted  upon  with 
peculiar  rlK<>r  in  this  and  the  sister  presidency  of  Ma- 
draa, ill  <'(mtradi!itlnction  to  the  greater  latitudn  af- 
forded in  licngai.  Kuiiibay  is  also  much  less  favora- 
lily  situated,  in  respect  of  internal  communications, 
than  Calcutta.  The  Uangcs  and  its  tributary  streams 
intersect  the  richest  provimrs  of  India,  and  give  Cal- 
cutta u  vast  command  of  inland  navigation;  whereas 
uil  the  inland  trade  iil  liomltay  has  to  lie  curried  on  liy 
means  of  roads  that  are  aeliloin  available  for  carriages, 
and  which  can  lie  used  only  by  pack-liuUiicks  and 
camels.  The  transit  duties,  by  which  the  inland  trade 
was  grievously  oppressed,  have  been  aliolishcd ;  and 
if  this  judicious  measure  lie  fnllnwed  up  by  the  forma- 
tion of  lines  of  railways  to  i\\-  principal  markets  in  thi 
interior,  a  great  increase  of  the  trade  of  the  town  and 
improvement  of  the  presidency  may  lie  expected. 

The  principal  trade  of  Bomliay  is  carried  on  with 
China,  Great  Britain,  the  countries  on  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  gulfs,  Calcutta,  Cutch  and  Scinde,  the  Mala- 


IIOU 


198 


BOO 


with 
|an  and 
I  Mala- 


bar coa«t,  r<)ri'lKn  Kiiroiw,  i>tc.  Tha  Imporia  tram 
China  ciiiitiiit  i»'lii''l;mlly  of  mw  allk,  •iiKur,  ami  suKur- 
oan«ly,  allli  i>Iim-u  f{mHU,  trimMuro,  rU*.  'I'li0  |trliii'l|Mil 
artW'lct  <>'  KXiMirt  lu  I'liliia  are,  raw  cutloii,  ii|iliiiii 
(IN.lllM)  lipatii),  |irlncl|iull,v  Ociiii  Mulwa,  nluirki'  film 
an<l  lUh  inuwn,  Mmlal-wcMid,  |iiiurlii,  utr.  Tliu  ux|H>rti 
to  China  IwIiik  much  Kr«itttir  (liai>  iho  lni|H>rtii,  tliu  rv- 
turni  fur  ti'vcrul  venm  |iait  huvn  lit'iii  iiiudo  to  a  larKo 
cxtnnt  ill  lillU  on  l^milon,  unil  mi  llm  Iinlluu  Kuvtiru- 
nienti,  ilriiwn  li,v  lliu  nuirilinnlii  In  China.  i 

Tho  Iriiitu  with  the  I'liltnl  KinKiluni  han  hcuu  nku- 
larl,v  hurfanliiK  xiniw  thu  uliolitlmi urilix reatrli'tlvutyi- 
tani.  rhi3i'lili'l'iirlii'li'iiorini|Mirt  fruniUrvat  Dritainaru,  • 
cottun  uiiil  wiHih'ii  ntiiirn,  (.ottuii  yaru,  liardwiu'i',  cii|>- 
pcr,  Iruiiuiiil  luiiil,  t(la*",  u|i|>arul,  fur,  •lulloiiury,  wiiiii, 
•to.     'i'lio  |irlni'l|Hil  nrtliU'D  of  vxport  to  Urituin  are,  [ 
raw  rnttiin,  raw  iillk  fVum  China  ami  IVrHlu,  Ivory, 
popper,  ami  tpliea,  pluco  ki»hU,  colfvu  fVuni  tliu  liiil 
Haa,  ami  wool.     The  ex|M>rt  of  tliu  lunl-inuiilUinttl  arti- ! 
olo  hurgaiii'il  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  the  i|Uiintity 
ihlppeil  for  Knifland  in   IMIIil^'iM  IjuIii);  only  (ll),'.ltl  | 
llm,;   whcrvaa  liio  uhlpmaiita  fur  KiiKlaiid  liilM4l^'ll 
amouutcd  to  :VI^H,UftA  Ilia.     Ilut  It  liiia  hIiicu  cuntliiiiiid  I 
naarly  nlatlonary.     At  pri'*«nt  the  prlni'ipal  aupply  of 
the  artivlu  U  drawn  nroni  (^utvh  and  Sclndo,  and  from  i 
Marwur,  na  (iiuurut;  hut  active  ineamirua  Imvo  liuvn  j 
taken  hy  Kuvurnmcnt  for  linprovhiK  tliu  llurkt  in  tliu 
piwtural  roiiiitry  of  the  Dutcaii,  nu  that  a  further  and  [ 
very  ronnldi'tuble  liicreaao  of  this  new  luul  Important ' 
trade  may  l>e  antlclpateik  ' 

Bombay  Presidenoy,  the  most  westerly  and ' 
the  amallcst  of  the  three  presiduneles  of  Ilrltisli  India,  ! 
mostly  between  lat.  M  and  21'  N.,  and  loutf.  'i'  ami 
70'  IC,  having  northwest  and  north  the  (luleowar's 
dominions,  east  thu  territories  of  Indoro  and  the  Nl- ' 
zaiii,  south  (loa,  Mysore,  and  thu  Madras  presidency,  ' 
and  west  the  Indian  Ocean.  Area,  with  Scinde  and 
8atturii,  I2U,WI&  ■(|iiuru  miles,  t'opulatiun  10,48,'i,U17,  | 
and  Is  ('om|iosed  of  tlio  following  sulidlvisioiu:  llom- 
hay  Islanil,  I'oonuh,  Ahjnednu)()(ur,  C'aiidelsh,  Dhar- 
war,  Siiutli  .IsKhiredars,  iSouth  Coiiraii,  North  (juncan, 
Surnt,  etc.,  Uaroach,  Ahmcdabad,  Kaira,  Buttara,  etc. 
The  Western  (ihauts  separate  the  western  or  nioritim" 
from  the  eastern  diatrlcts,  which  latter  form  »  part 
the  Kreat  table-tnnd  of  tho  Ueucan.  In  tlio  north  vhr 
mountaiim  lielonK  to  the  .Saut|iO(ira  and  other  r>.nKes 
connected  w  itii  the  VIndhyun  chain,  rriiiciiwl  t'rs, 
the  Nerbndda,  Tapteo,  Mliye,  and  Salieniuillt  •  i.iinK 
Into  the  (iulf  of  Cuniliay.  Above  the  Uhuui  -.  tkiti  riv- 
ers are  tributary  to  the  GoUnvory  luid  Kistuah.  Cli- 
mate for  the  most  part  less  hot  and  more  luNiithy  than 
in  the  other  presidencies,  a  i^reut  part  iil  tlie  country 
behi);  under  tho  intluencoof  tho  scii-l>reeios.  Uicoaml 
cotton  are  the  principal  articles  of  culture,  und  tho  cot- 
ton of  this  presidency  is  decidedly  Hii|wrior  to  that  of 
the  othera.  H  ime  tuguT  and  indlKo  am  niised  in  Cau- 
delsh,  Ophi'ii  is  nowhere  cultivated,  and  other  ^reat 
stap'ca  of  Indian  produce  are  only  produced  in  small 
n  juntities ;  but  in  return,  tho  carilainnins,  |Hi|\|ier,  and 
teak,  ox|iorted  from  India,  are  almost  exclusively  tho 
growth  of  this  rc){lou.  The  itorthcrii  districts  are  fa- 
mous for  their  great  variety  of  fniiis;  cocou  palms 
cover  a  verj'  lar)te  oxtent  of  sandy  land  In  tho  Con- 
can,  etc, ;  wool  has  lately  been  e.\|i<irtcd  iir  consider- 
able quantities  frnin  llombay;  and  great  exertions 
have  been  made  to  introduce  the  culturu  of  silk.  Tho 
cattln  of  Giijorat  are  a  larnc  and  line  breed.  West  of 
the  Uhuuts,  the  ox  and  bulTalo  are  almost  the  only  do- 
mestic animals.  The  whole  presidency  in  assessed  un- 
der the  native  village  system  of  India,  except  tho  dis- 
tricts of  Surat  nnd  Kaira,  where  tho  ryttlirttrry  system 
is  in  force.  In  tho  capital  of  each  coUecturato  is  the 
seat  of  a  British  collector  and  a  judge,  subordinato  to 
the  central  court  of  Dombay,  A  few  years  ago  the 
army  comprised  about  H0,000  men  and  officers,  of  whom 
6260  were  Kuro|ieans.  Tlio  whole  of  tho  Indian  marine 
li  attached  to  this  presidency.  In  the  south  there  are 
N 


many  native  and  Uoman  (,'athollc  and  Kestarlan  ChrU- 
Hans,  Thi'  I'arsvi'a  are  now  almost  coullned  to  thia 
partuf  Aala.  Uevonuc,  |H  111,  21, riO:l,3Trt  rupees.  Tliara 
are  in  llie  pniaideiicy  un  Kngliali  epiacopal  blahoprio 
with  21  clergy,  a  Saolliah  kirk,  and  Uoman  (.'athnlio 
ostubliahnieiita,  which  riuuivu  govsriuuunt  aid.  El- 
(Jiiuatone  college  was  founiled  In  18117,  aiMl  there  ara 
120  aclioula  for  the  native  llindoua.  In  which  from  HOO 
tu  IHMI  boys  ri'celvu  education,  Iwsldes  usarly  2IMM)  na- 
tive village  schools.  Iloinbay  was  th<  earliest  posses- 
sion of  the  llritlah  In  the  Kast,  It  was  ce<lcd  liy  tha 
Moguls  to  the  I'ortuguuae  In  lUlO,  and  it  caino  Into 
thu  iKisaussloti  of  thu  Kiigliah  In  llilI2  as  a  part  of  th« 
dowry  of  thu  Infuuta  of  I'ortugal,  on  her  marriage  with 
CharU's  II. ;  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  thu  terri- 
tory hits  been  aci|ulred  between  IMUI  and  IttlH.— >$•< 
iNhl.l, 

Bombasine,  a  kind  of  silk  stufr,  origlually  manu- 
factured at  Milan,  and  thence  sent  Into  France  and 
other  Gouiitrlcs.  Now,  however,  it  la  manufactured 
in  largo  i|uunlities  and  of  a  good  quality  in  Cireat 
UrltuIn  ua  null  as  on  the  Continent. 

Bomb-veaael,  ur  Bomb-ketoh,  a  small  ship  of 
unusual  strength,  eniployeil  for  tluowlng  lienibi  Into 
a  fortress ;  aiilil  to  have  lieeii  Invented  by  M.  Ituyneau, 
and  lirst  used  at  the  bouibardiiuint  of  Algiers.  Till 
then  It  liail  liceii  judged  bnpractlcable  tu  liouibard  % 
pliiiHt  from  the  sua. — V,.  II. 

Bond,  in  /.(!»',  is  a  deed  whereby  tho  party  obllgas 
hiiuself,  his  axeculors,  or  admiulstrators  (,and,  if  tha 
deed  so  express  it,  his  heirs  also),  to  pay  a  certain 
sum  to  another  at  a  day  appointed.  If  this  lio  all,  tha 
iHiml  is  called  u  siuiplu  one  (nimpltx  obligaliu).  But 
there  is  geuerully  a  condition  added,  that,  if  the  obligor 
does  some  particular  ad,  thu  ubllgatlun  shall  be  void, 
or  else  shajl  reiniiin  in  full  force ;  as,  payment  uf  rent, 
liorforinanca  uf  covenants  h>  a  deed,  ur  repayment  of  a 
prinuipal  sum  uf  money  borruwed  uf  tho  obligee,  with 
interest:  wIm.  b  special  sum  is  usually  one-half  of  the 
penul  '■Miu  ,|  lied  in  tho  bond.  In  case  this  condl- 
ti'  not  pcrj'urmed,  the  bond  bccumcs  forfeited,  or 

lute  at  law,  and  charges  the  obligor  while  living, 
Mid,  after  his  death,  his  personal  representatives,  and 
liiH  heirs  if  the  heirs  bo  named  in  the  bond.  In  cas« 
..  .1  failure  to  ])erfurm  the  condition  of  the  bond,  the 
'Miiligee  can  recuver  uiily  his  principal,  interest,  and 
expenses ;  if  tho  bond  were  givou  tu  secure  tho  pay- 
ment gf  money,  or  if  it  were  given  to  secure  thu  p«r^ 
foruianco  of  a  covenant,  he  can  recover  oulj-  reasonable 
damages  for  the  breach. — E.  A. 

Boiiea  of  cattle  and  other  animals  are  extensively 
used  in  the  arts,  in  forming  handles  for  knives,  and 
various  other  purposes ;  but  of  late  yeara  they  have 
been  of  must  importance  in  agriculture.  Wliio  >^U|- 
phiyed  in  tho  latter,  they  are,  in  most  instance  nod 

or  reduced  to  powder,  and  arc  commonly  us>  as  ma- 
nure for  turnip!*,  Iieing  in  general  drilled  in  » ith  th« 
seed,  though  suinetlines,  also,  they  arc  8owi<  broad- 
cast, and  with  other  crops.  The  quaniity  use  varias 
from  alwut  25  Imshcls  otdtitt  to  about  lU  bushrcls  targt 
an  acre.  Their  effect  is  said  to  be  considerably  In- 
c  reused  when  tiKy  have  undergone  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation.. They  woro  lirst  used  in  England  on  a 
large  scale  as  u  manure  iu  Lincolnshire;  and  there 
can  lio  no  doubt  that  their  extensive  employment  in 
that  county  has  been  one  of  tho  chief  causes  of  its  rapid 
improvement,  und  of  the  high  state  of  cultivation  to 
which  it  has  attained.  Bone-dust  is  now,  however, 
very  largely  used,  and  its  intluence  in  increasing  the 
crops  of  corn  and  turnips,  and  consequently,  also,  the 
supplies  of  butcher's  nicul  und  farm  manure,  has  boon 
quite  extraordinary. 

Book-keeping,  (.ho  art  of  keeping  tho  accounts 
and  books  of  a  merchant.  Book-keeping  by  double 
entry  means  that  mode  or  system  in  which  every  en- 
try is  double,  that  is,  has  both  a  debtor  and  a  creditor. 
It  U  called  also  the  Italian  method,  because  it  wm 


<^>mo 


194 


uoo 


iint  praetloed  In  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  towns  in 
Italy,  wiiera  trade  was  conducted  on  an  extenslre 
scale  at  a  much  earlier  date  than  in  England,  France, 
or  other  parta  of  Europe.  This  method,  however  fa- 
miliar to  merchants  and  book-keepers,  seems  intricate 
to  almost  ail  who  hare  not  practiced  it ;  nor  is  the  dry- 
ness and  difficulty  of  the  task  much  lessened  by  the 
printed  worics  on  the  subject,  which,  having  been  com- 
piled more  by  teachers  than  by  practical  merchants, 
contain  a  number  of  obsolete  rules  and  unneceasarj' 
details.  To  discuss  this  subject  ftally  would  require 
more  space  than  could  bo  appropriated  in  this  work. 
We  therefore  refer  our  readers  to  the  reliable  volumes 
of  Mr.  Marsh  (published  by  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York) 
and  other  writers. 

Books  (Gcr.  BUdter;  Du.  Boektn;  Da.  BSgtri  Sw. 
Backer;  Fr.  Lioret;  It.  Libri;  Sp.  Librot;  Port.  /,i- 
trot ;  Rnss.  A'nii^' ;  Pol.  Ktiaiki,  Kaugi ;  Lat.  LUn), 
written  or  printed  treatises  on  any  branch  of  science, 
art,  or  literature,  composed  in  the  view  of  Instructing, 
amusing,  or  persuading  the  render.  Ancient  bookn 
were  originally  Iwardh,  or  the  inner  bark  of  trues ;  and 
bark  Is  still  used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins, 
for  which  latter  parchment  was  substituted.  Papy- 
rus, an  Egyptian  plant,  was  adopted  in  that  country. 
Books  whose  leaves  were  vellum  were  invented  by 
Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  aliout  198  B.C.,  at  which 
time  txioks  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The  MSS.  in 
Herculuneum  consist  of  papyrus,  rolled  and  charred, 
and  matted  together  by  the  Arc,  and  »ro  about  nine 
inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three  inelics  in  diameter, 
each  i)eing  a  separate  treatise.  The  Pentateuch  of 
Hoses,  and  the  history  of  Job,  are  the  most  ancient  in 
the  world;  and  in  profane  literature,  the  poems  of 
Homer,  though  the  names  of  others  still  more  ancient 
are  preserved.— Haydx.  h 

Prieet  cf  Booh. — Jerome  states  that  he  had  miued 
himself  by  buying  a  copy  of  the  works  of  Origen.  A 
large  estate  was  given  for  one  on  cosmography,  bj'  Al- 
fted,  about  a.d.  872,  The  Raman  de  la  Hose  was  sold 
for  above  £30;  and  a  Homily  was  exchanged  for  '200 
sheep  and  five  quarters  of  wheat;  and  they  usually 
fetched  double  or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They 
sold  at  prices  varying  from  XIO  to  £40  each,  in  1400. 
In  our  own  times,  the  value  of  some  volumes  is  very 
great.  A  copy  of  Macklin's  Bible,  ornamented  by  Mr. 
Tomkins,  has  been  declared  worth  500  guineas. — Bdt- 
LER.  A  yet  more  superb  copy  is  at  present  insured 
to  a  London  office  for  £8000. — Timet.  II  Dtearnermie 
of  Boccacio,  edition  of  1471,  was  bought  at  the  \i\x\ir 
of  Roxburgh's  sale  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  for 
£2260,  June  17,  1812.— Phillips.  A  copy  of  the 
"  Hazarin  Bible,"  being  the  first  edition  and  first  book 
ever  printed  (by  Gutteml)erg  at  Mentz,  in  14,55),  was 
sold  at  auction  in  London,  in  April,  1846,  for  £600.  This 
copy,  the  only  one  known  to  exist  except  19  In  public 
libraries,  is  now  In  a  private  librarj'  in  New  York. — Id. 

Printed  Books. — The  first  printed  liooks  wei*  trifling 
hymns  and  psalters,  and,  being  printed  only  on  one 
side,  the  leaves  were  pasted  back  to  back.  The  first 
]>rintlng  was,  as  a  Ixwk,  the  Book  of  Psalms,  by  Faust 
and  Schneffer,  his  son-in-law,  Aug.  14,  1457.  Several 
works  were  printed  many  years  before ;  but  as  the  in- 
ventors kept  the  secret  to  themselves,  they  sold  their 
first  printed  works  as  manuscripts.  This  gave  rise  to  ! 
an  ad\entuTe  that  brought  calamity  on  Faust.  He  j 
began  in  1450  an  edition  of  the  Bibie,  which  was  fin- 
ished in  1460.  The  second  printed  was  Cirero  tie  Offi- 
eiU,  1466.— Blair.  The  first  liook  printed  in  England 
was  The  Game  and  PUiyofthe  Chrsse,  by  Caxton,  1474. 
The  first  in  Dublin  was  the  Uturgy,  in  1560.  The 
first  classical  work  printed  in  Russia  was  Com.  Nepotit 
Vila,  in  1782,  Lucian's  Dialogues  was  the  first  dreek 
book  printed  in  America  (at  Philadelphia),  1780. 
Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were  all  destroyed 
^a  England  as  being  infected  with  magic,  6  Edw.  VI. 
1662.— Stowk's  Chronkltt.  Accordingto  PETTianEW 


(flft/i).  Btftn.X,  tba  «Mt  \tmM  ^t^UA  i»)l»»  ntor«»»l« 
types  was  th*  Will  Klbln,  iiftHM  (»y  iiMn  <!«(«««♦. 
Iwrg  at  Mayanca,  uboul  \m,  H  ¥/»n  It)  tnit  folio 
volumes  I  and  •oamwlliiiil  WM  ,1m  ^iirtiinitnnhtp,  both 
in  type.  Ink,  paptf,  uivi  uruiit^urtf,  llmt  M  (idfi  ifHti'«i\y 
been  surpiuiiuid  •iiiue,  TM  nitfim^iiiinK  fiUUinm  for  300 
years  were  much  ilifitrfur,  'thU  ^UUm  M  f)Nll«<t  the 
itamrin  Bibtt,  as  •  copy  WM  (trH  <lHHtt^  («  »)(«  lllifary 
of  Cardinal  Masariii,  (iiily  W  PitfiU^  titti  n<rw  known 
to  exist,  nil  but  oiui  being  iHlm^l^U>  lilitHttfi  111  fytirope. 
Specimens  of  the  lilm'k  limit,  (i»1ll(««1  *((((  Miftfureii 
wooden  blocks.  Instead  of  ly|i«,  uru  ()«w  ♦(if  y  fmu,  i)t 
the Biblia  Pau}mium,  duMtiill  »i»l»  ¥ii>y,  «t)jf  «w«  cfrfdes 
exist,  one  of  which  butniigs  Ut  n  clldpicii  lit  Hunt  Viirh, 

Copijrii/hl  Is  the  right  whM»  ttm  «M((M(«  III  trimks  or 
treatises  claim  to  Ilia  auuMvH  pfi^tiUil(ll «(  |Wliitltlg, 
puhllsbiiig,  and  selling  IJitim, 

Books  are  divided  into  I'liutm,  mvittAUiit  In  lh«  tnodo 
in  which  the  sheets  of  tlia  \mimf  im  wfiixh  ihtiy  «fo 
printed  or  wrillun  are  ful<1«4 1  nn„/ilh,  MiUcn  thif  »tttiet 
is  folded  Into  two  hiavus  t  i/imi'lii,  wlum  MiM  Into/zwc  / 
oi-inro,  when  tnUlud  Into  W//A//  ilimiMmii,  when  the 
sheet  Is  folded  Into  lunlirn,  uUi,  Ui  «H«l(lll|;  Ides*  clas- 
siflcations,  no  uttonlMi  Is  \iM  \ii  llw  iit»i>  <*f  (he  sheet. 

Progress  and  present  Minis  ijf  Ih*  him  lU  In  Ihii  t'njty- 
right  of  ltoiihs.—\t  \\m  Smm  iUm\iUiA  WiMlthef,  ttl  Nfl- 
tlqulty,  an  uuthur  li«il;tiiy  «i(/^lM«(f«(  f)((ht  (»  it  work, 
orwiiother,  liilving  wica  |mbll*hM)  fl^liftfmld  fcMraln 
others  from  copying  it  Hn4  mWUiys  I'li^iUm,  Yii-  Inclhie 
to  think  that  hu  coujil,  '('(w  m\Mii  nnU  iit  I'mAtn  of 
W(irks  is  often  referred  Ui  til  im  |f|((»«lM|  lltid  1(1  Wicli 
a  wuy  as  warrants  the  iiifur«i|i'«  thm  tiwy  Wdfe  pftv 
ductivu  to  the  uutlior,  whidti  imM  «<«.  huVe  beeo  the 
case  had  every  oiui  Iimii  imfmilUui  («  fim  iliem  at 
pfousure,  Tereneu,  in  una  of  III*  \Aiif»  (Prul,  tit  Ku- 
ntivh.  I,  20),  »»ys,  h'libiilum,  iimm  tiutm  iiiiiifi  siimui, 
poiiquam  adilss  ememiiil i  Imt  wtlff  ntftiiM  the  tnagts. 
trates  have  liought  it,  li»4  (I  iiwii  fr*«  ♦«  nnfty  one  to 
copy  It  ?  It  wouM  liava  immt  »iHtiUkf,  Uuiivii,  had  It 
Iwcn  otherwise.  Of  all  ilia  s|i«i'l«s  iif  jifuperty  n  man 
can  possess,  the  fruits  of  |||«  iiii/m)nI  klmfn  nvmn  to  he 
most  peeuliuriy  his  own,  Alfi  lliiUluU  It  way,  we 
think,  be  sliown  timt  imny  m^imn  (iicrtttvetilences 
would  result  from  giving  iIim  unmn  HimiUile  awl  hi- 
termlnabie  property  ovar  iiUm*  ♦lint  (*  «f*M(  over  ma- 
terial objects,  thuM  UmimvunUtii'fo  I'lmM  (mrdly  have 
been  perceived  in  aiitlifiilt)',  If  wIM  ttimi )«  fif>s«rv«d 
that  In  antiquity  a  copyright  wM  (if  (iilicd  less  vnluo 
than  In  mo<lern  tliiies,  lli/<tk«  «w)d  I  licH  wily  be  mul- 
tiplied l)y  copying  tlium  wild  »lw  \ifiii  mui  If  any  one 
chose  privately  to  copy  a  woili,  lit  Ui  imy  l(  of  anntlier, 
it  must  have  Ijeeii  very  dilH"i|lt  in  Mtl/h'f  him  |  Nt 
when  printing  had  \m»  (iitfodiiiwl,  iliif  ur^niet  cheap- 
ness of  books  licit  only  buMmM  iim  i\*wtuui  for  them 
in  far  greater  pfi)|M>rtbm,  «ii4  I'Mimiupniif  rendered 
copyrights  mora  valiiabla,  Irtit  •(  nlm  nttoriUil  tile 
means  of  proveiitlnglhulr  plriwy,  MtHnu  in  iiiit.  n  de- 
vice liy  which  a  few  cj»)i|ii»  itf»  tmnk  imil  lieiilitalned  at 
a  cheap  rate,  It  Is  firinimlivH  ii(  ihrntpnunn  imh  when 
it  is  employed  upon  a  largn  umtu,  nt  ntlwn  n  rmislder- 
ablo  Impression  Is  to  Im  llirowii  iilt,  And  in-iivf,  after 
Its  Invention,  piracy  mmM  Imrdly  («  ((rtiiitiHtfld  In  se- 
crot:  the  pirated  iiook  hmi  iu  M  titimttUl  io  market; 
the  fraud  was  thus  sura  to  \m  *rt«i'(*id,  atid  the  offend- 
ing party  might  lie  prosci'iilu/t  uttii  |iiiiilstiM(, 

For  a  consldaralilu  tliiiii  nfw  iUu  (iivKtidon  oT  print- 
Ing,  no  i|ue«tlons  sauni  t4i  hitvo  <K*MfC*d  with  f«s|iect 
to  copyrights.  Tills  was  m'nimUiiwli  Uy  td»  MUiy  ndop- 
tion  of  'he  liconsing  sysluiii,  tiitvumiifnin  mm  |ier- 
cclved  '  vast  ImiiortaiK'e  of  ||m  iKtWPfflll  «<(lgltie  Ihnt 
had  been  ., .ought  into  Ilia  (laid  |  Miid  lUry  «<iideav(rrod 
to  avail  themselvus  of  its  eiiii|'|<l«s  liv  liilWdlclliig  the 
publication  of  all  works  ikH  firuvUiunty  licensed  liv  su- 
tliority.  During lliaioiil)Hu«it<iiMd'lhls>f Mem, piracy 
was  eA'ectually  preveiltad,  't1m  \iimmUi'it  twidH  ft  H 
Chas,  II,  c.  If),  and  tlia  ftnviim*  iwi*  add  (icoelamatlons 
to  the  same  elfsct,  (iruhihit«4  tiM  |rff  Ming  of  any  liook 


BOO 


196 


BOO 


n  of  print- 
tti  ffl«|ieot 
nt\y  ni\op- 
I  «(«(ti  iier- 
nxltio  Hint 

lt«tliiK  tlio 
Mil  l>y  aii- 
««•,  |'lr«<'y 

flitmiitloni 
ntif  lioolc 


'  wlthont  consent  of  the  owner,  as  well  ■■  without  a  li- 
cense. In  1694  the  licensing  act  flnnlly  expired,  and 
the  press  then  became  really  ftree.  Instead,  however, 
of  the  summary  methods  for  obtaining  redress  for  any 
Invasion  of  their  property  enjoyed  by  them  under  the 
licensing  acts,  authors  were  now  left  to  defend  their 
rights  at  common  law;  and  as  no  author  or  bookseller 
could  procure  any  redress  for  a  piracy  at  common  law, 
except  in  so  far  as  he  could  prove  damage,  property  in 
books  was  vi.rtually  annihilated;  it  being  in  most 
cases  impossible  to  prove  the  sale  of  one  printed  copy 
out  of  a  hundred.  Under  these  circr  mstances,  appli- 
cations were  made  to  Parliament  for  an  act  to  protect 
literary  property,  by  granting  some  speedy  and  effectu- 
al method  of  preventing  the  sale  of  spurious  copies.  In 
consequence,  the  statute  8  Anne,  c,  19,  was  passed,  se- 
curing to  authors  and  their  assignees  tlie  exclusive 
right  of  printing  their  books  for  14  years  certain,  from 
the  day  of  publication,  witii  a  contingent  14  years,  pro- 
vided the  author  were  alive  at  the  expiration  of  the 
first  term.  Persons  printing  books  protected  by  this 
act,  without  the  consent  of  the  authors  or  their  as- 
signees, were  to  forfeit  the  pirated  copies,  and  Id.  for 
every  sheet  of  the  same.  Such  books  as  were  not  en- 
tered at  Stationers'  Hall  were  excluded  from  the  bene- 
fit of  this  act. 

Every  one  most  be  satisfied  that  14  years'  exclusive 
possession  is  for  too  short  a  period  to  indemnify  the 
author  of  a  work,  the  composition  of  which  has  re- 
quired any  considerable  amount  of  labor  and  research ; 
though  28  years  is  perhaps,  all  things  considered,  not 
a  very  improper  period.  But  the  grand  defect  of  the 
statute  of  Anne  consisted  in  its  making  the  right  to 
the  exclusive  possession  for  28  years  contingent  on  the 
fact  of  a  person  having  lived  a  day  moro  or  less  than 
14  years  after  the  publication  of  his  work.  This  was 
making  the  enjoyment  of  an  important  right  depend- 
ent on  a  more  accidental  circumstance  over  which  man 
has  no  control.  Could  any  thing  be  moro  oppressive 
and  unjust  than  to  hinder  an  author  from  liequeathing 
that  property  to  his  widow  and  children  that  would 
have  belonged  to  himself  luid  he  been  alive  ?  Nothing, 
Indeed,  as  it  appears  to  us,  can  bo  more  obvious  than 
the  justice  of  extending  all  copyrights  to  the  same  pe- 
riod, whether  the  authors  be  dead  or  not. 

In  the  United  States,  the  jurisdiction  of  this  subject 
is  vested  in  the  Federal  government  by  the  Constitu- 
tion (art,  1,  sec.  8),  which  declares  that  Congress  shall 
have  power  "  to  promote  the  progress  of  science  and 
useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited  times,  to  authors 
and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries." 

By  tiie  acts  of  Congress,  Miiy  81,  1790  (c.  15),  and 
April  29,  1802  (c,  36),  the  nuthora  of  maps,  charts, 
books,  engravings,  etchings,  etc.,  being  citizens  of  tlie 
United  States,  cr  resident  therein,  are  entitled  to  the 
exclusive  riglit  of  publishing  for  14  years,  and,  if  the 
author  be  living  at  the  end  of  that  period,  for  an  addi- 
tional term  of  14  years. 

The  English  law  does  not  distinguish  between  resi- 
dents and  non-residents,  aliens,  like  the  American  law. 

A  copyright  may  exist  in  a  translation,  or  in  part 
of  a  work  (as  in  notes  or  additional  matter) ;  but  a  bona 
fde  abridgment  of  a  book  is  not  considered  in  En- 
gland and  the  United  States  a  violation  of  the  original 
copyright.  So  a  person  may  use  a  fair  quotation,  if 
by  application  ho  makes  it  part  of  his  own  work ;  but 
can  not  take  the  whole,  or  large  part,  under  pretense 
of  quotation.  If  an  encyclopedia  or  review  copies  so 
much  of  a  Iwok  ae  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  it,  it  be- 
comes liable  to  an  action  for  a  violation  of  the  law. 
An  encyclopedia  is  not  allowed  by  its  transcripts  to 
sweep  up  all  modem  works.  In  Uermany  abridg- 
ments are  not  protected  as  in  the  United  States. 

The  great  practical  difliculty  in  ii\terpreting  the 
copyright  acts  is  in  distinguishing  between  an  orig- 
inal work  and  a  copy  made. 


Evmptan  Copi/rii/kt  Ijtws. — The  present  Utts  respect- 
ing the  duration  of  copyright  in  the  various  Enropeiui 
nations  aro  as  follows :  In  our  own  country  the  copy- 
right lasts  forty-two  years  absolutely,  for  the  author's 
life,  and  seven  years  after  bis  doath.  in  Greece  and 
in  Sardinia  it  lasts  only  fifteen  years  from  the  date  of 
publication.  In  the  Roman  states  it  extends  to  twelve 
years  after  the  author's  death.  In  Russia  it  lasts  for 
twenty-flve  }'ear3  after  the  author's  death,  and  for  ten 
years  more  if  a  new  edition  has  been  published  in  the 
last  five  yei>rs :.  the  first  term.  In  Belgium  and  Swe- 
den it  lastL'  twenty  years  after  the  author's  death,  with 
a  provision,  in  Sweden,  that,  should  the  representative 
of  the  author  neglect  to  continne  the  publieation,  the 
copyright  falls  to  the  state.  In  France  it  lasts  for  the 
benefit  of  children  or  widow  (that  is,  to  the  widow  if 
she  be,  whpt  ia  called  in  France,  en  communauU  de  bietu, 
a  peculiar  arrangement  in  French  marriage  settlements, 
which  establishes  between  husband  and  wife  a  perfect 
community  in  eacli  other's  property)  thirty  years  after 
the  author's  death,  but  to  other  representatives  only 
ten  years.  In  Spain  it  lasts  fifty  years,  reckoning  firom 
the  author's  death.  In  Austria,  Bavaria,  Portugal, 
Prussia,  Saxony,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
WOrtemberg,  and  the  states  of  the  Germanic  Confed- 
eration, it  lasts  thirty  j'ears  from  the  author's  death, 
to  all  his  heirs  and  assigns  without  distinction ;  and 
in  Denmark,  till  so  recently  as  1858,  it  lasted  an  in- 
definite period,  provided  the  work  was  kept  in  print ; 
now,  however,  it  is  restricted  to  a  period  of  thirty  years 
after  the  author's  death,  with  a  provision  that  repub- 
lication by  others  is  permitted  when  five  }-ears  have 
elapsed  in  which  a  work  has  been  out  of  print.  In  the 
United  States  copyright  lasts  for  twenty-eight  years, 
and  an  extension  of  fourteen  j'ears  is  granted  to  the 
author  if  he  lives,  or  to  his  widow,  children,  and  grand- 
children. With  regard  to  lectures,  sermons,  etc.,  the 
law  of  France  appears  to  be,  that  professors  and  preach- 
ers have  the  sole  right  of  reproducing  their  lectures 
and  sermons  in  print ;  but  that  advocates  and  political 
speakers,  while  they  alone  have  the  right  to  publish 
their  speeches  in  a  collective  or  separate  form,  can  not 
prevent  their  being  published  in  the  journals  of  the 
time  as  news.  The  general  inference  is,  that  all  coun- 
tries appear,  by  their  various  restrictions  in  time,  to 
consider  that  'here  is  no  in<lefeasil)le  or  perpetual  right 
of  property  in  the  productions  of  the  brain. 

JCiijiedKncy  of  limiting  Coirgrights  to  a  reaionable 
Term.— It  is  argued  by  many  that  copyrights  should 
be  made  perpetual ;  that,  were  this  done,  men  of  talent 
and  learning  would  .'  ^  vote  themselves  much  more  read- 
ily than  at  present  to  the  composition  of  works  requir- 
ing great  labor ;  inasmuch  as  tlie  copyright  of  such 
works,  were  it  perjietual,  would  be  an  adequate  pro- 
vision for  a  family.  But  we  doubt  much  whether 
these  anticipations  would  be  realized.  Most  books  or 
manuscripts  arc  purchased  by  the  booksellers,  or  pub- 
lishcd  upon  the  presumption  that  there  will  immediate- 
ly be  a  conoiderablc  demand  for  them ;  and  we  appre- 
hend that  when  copyrights  are  secured  for  42  years 
certain,  very  little  more  would  be  given  for  them  were 
they  made  perpetual.  Wlien  an  annuity,  or  the  rent 
or  profit  arising  out  of  any  fixed  and  tangible  property, 
with  respect  to  which  there  can  be  no  risk,  is  sold,  if 
the  number  of  years  for  which  it  is  to  continue  l)e  con- 
siderable, the  price  which  it  is  worth,  and  which  it 
fetches,  docs  not  diflfcr  materially  from  what  it  would 
liring  were  it  peri)etual.  But  the  copyright  of  un  un- 
published work  is,  of  all  descriptions  of  property  in 
-Ahich  to  speculate,  the  most  hazardous,  and  tlie 
chances  of  reaping  contingent  advantages  from  it,  at 
the  disUnce  of  42  years,  would  be  worth  very  little 
indeed. 

Perhaps  the  period  of  28  years  has  been  advanta- 
geously extended  to  42 ;  but  we  are  satisfied  that  more 
injury  than  benefit  would  result  to  literature  l)y  ex- 
tending  it  beyond  this  term.     In  France,  copyriglits 


BOO 


196 


BOH 


continue  for  20  years  after  the  death  of  the  author.  In 
most  of  the  German  SUtes  they  are  perpetual ;  this, 
however,  until  very  recently,  hardly  indemnilied  the 
authors  for  the  ease  with  which  spurious  copies  might 
be  obtained  from  other  States.  But  by  a  late  resolu- 
tion of  tho  Diet,  a  copyright  secured  in  one  State  is 
good  in  all. 

International  Copyrightt. — The  establishment  of  an 
international  copyright  system,  that  should  enable  the 
authors  of  one  country  to  secure  the  copyright  of 
their  works  in  other  countries,  has  of  late  excited  a 
good  deal  of  attention.  We  doubt,  however,  whether 
the  advantages  that  would  result  from  such  a  system, 
were  it  established,  would  be  so  great  an  many  seem 
to  suppose.  No  doubt  it  would  be  advantageous  for 
the  authors  of  popular  worlcs  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  for  example,  to  be  able  to  secure  a 
copjTight  in  both  countries  ;  but  the  real  question  is, 
would  the  interests  of  literature  and  of  tho  public  be 
promoted  by  such  arrangement  ?  Now  we  incline  to 
thinli  that  this  question  must  be  answered  in  the  neg- 
ative. The  single  market  of  either  Great  Britain  or 
the  United  States  is  quite  large  enough  to  secure  a 
sale  for  really  good  works  sufficient  to  afford  ample  en- 
couragement to  their  authors ;  and  such  being  the  case, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  on  what  ground  the  republication 
at  It  cheap  rate  in  the  one  country  of  books  originally 
published  in  the  other  should  be  prevented.  Indeed, 
such  prevention  would  appear,  by  obstructing  the  cir- 
culation of  knowledge  and  of  amusement,  to  be  inju- 
rious to  Iwth.  It  has,  it  is  true,  been  alleged  that  if 
we  had  a  copyright  system  in  common  with  England, 
English  and  American  books  might  he  published  at  a 
less  price,  inasmuch  as  the  extension  of  the  market 
would  secur*  them  a  larger  sale.  But  though  this  re- 
sult might,  we  doubt  much  whether  it  really  wnuld, 
happen.  We  apprehend  that  then,  as  liow,  authors 
and  publishers  would  impose  such  prices  on  their 
works  as  they  supposed  would  realize  the  largest 
amount  of  profit,  and  that  if  they  thought  a  high  price 
more  likely  to  do  this  than  a  low  one,  it  would  be  pre- 
ferred. The  extensive  reprinting  of  cheap  editions  of 
French  works  that  has  for  a  lengthened  period  been 
carried  on  at  Brussels  has  certainly  been  disadvan- 
tageous to  the  literati  of  France.  Still,  however,  the 
market  of  that  kingdom  seems  to  be  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive to  insure  the  unlimited  production  of  works 
displaying  the  greatest  talent,  research,  and  industry  ; 
and  it  is  plain  that  if  the  production  of  valuable  works 
be  not  checked  in  Franco  liy  their  being  reprinted 
abroad,  the  injury  done  to  French  men  of  letters  re- 
dounds to  the  advantage  of  every  foreigner  who  has 
occasion  to  look  into  or  consult  their  works.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  copyrights  l>eing  in- 
vaded by  pirates  at  home,  and  by  the  clandestine  im- 
portation of  liooks  printed  abroad ;  but  farther  than 
this  we  should  not  go.  AVe  are  well  convinced  that  it 
is  for  the  advantage  of  the  public  and  of  literature  that 
nations  should  have  full  lil>erty  to  repuljlish  each  otli- 
er's  works  in  such  t'orms  and  at  such  times  and  prices 
as  they  may  think  fit. 

The  real  evil  with  which  our  literature  has  to  con- 
tend originates  in  the  barefaced  piracy  carried  on  at 
home,  and  not  in  the  proceedings  of  foreigners.  The 
latter  may,  perhaps,  interfere  a  little  with  the  sole  of 
native  works,  by  supplying  the  public  with  foreign  in- 
stead of  home  editions  ;  but  the  proceedings  of  the  in- 
digenous pirates  are  ten  times  more  mischievous.  They 
consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  knaves  and  drudges,  with- 
out talent  or  learning  of  any  sort,  save  only  that  of 
transmuting  and  adulterating  the  labors  of  others,  and 
disguising  their  own  rascality.  Such  persons  fasten 
like  leeches  on  any  new  work  of  talent,  research,  and 
industry ; '  they  forthwith  announce  some  system,  com- 
pilation, or  abridgment  of  tho  same  sort,  every  idea 
and  statement  in  which  ii  stolen;  and  then  publish 
their  spuriont  rubbish  at  a  low  price,  advertise  it  at 


being  decidedly  the  best  work  on  the  suuject,  and  find 
numbers  of  newspaper  writers  ready  to  puff  off  and 
eulogize  their  disinterested  and  meritorious  labors! 
It  is  difficult,  we  admit,  to  deal  with  such  a  nuisance, 
and  it  can  not,  perhaps,  be  abated  by  legislation.  But 
while  we  regret  tho  fact,  there  can  not,  we  believe,  be 
a  question  that  courts  and  juries  have  for  a  lengthened 
period  inclined  too  much  to  a  lenient  interpretation  of 
the  law  as  to  piracy;  and  that  literary  plunderers, 
whose  robberies  are  but  little  disguised,  too  often  es- 
cape with  impunity. 

By  the  following  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  foreign 
trade  in  books  and  maps  is  limited.  The  imports  are 
from  England  and  Frunce  principally,  and  also  a  few 
from  Germany. 

DoHESTio  ExroBTS  ntoH  THK  UniTZD  States,  pou  tox  Yeaxs 
lEMDINO  JUMK  30TU,  1S6S,  1854,  1866. 


IBU.       1       ISM. 

isw. 

Books  and  Mapa 

Paper  and  Stationery 

$142,004 
122,212 

$1S;,3B6 
191,»1S 

$207,218 
186,087 

luFOBTs  or  Papzb  asd  Books  imto  tub  Ijniteo  Statis, 
roB  TUB  Ybabs  ENniHo  Jcme  30th,  1858, 18W,  1865. 

IU3. 

18M. 

18U. 

I'aper  and  Stationery. . . . 
Books  and  printed  matter 

$002,668 
728,221 

$T56,82<» 
1)17,044 

$708,122 
798,431 

Boom  (Dutch  boom,  a  beam),  in  naval  language, 
a  long  spar  for  spreading  out  the  clew  or  comer  of  par- 
ticular sails;  as  the  jib-boom,  studding-sail  boom, 
main  boom,  square-sail  l)oom,  etc.  Boom  denotes 
also  a  strong  chain  or  cable  stretched  across  the  mouth 
of  a  river  or  harbor,  with  spars  lashed  to  it,  to  prevent 
thp  entrance  of  an  enemy's  ships. — E.  B. 

Booming,  among  sailors,  denotes  the  application 
of  a  boom  to  the  sails,  in  ordci  to  accelerate  the  speed 
of  the  ship. — E.  B. 

Boota  and  Shoes,  the  external  covering  for  the 
legs  and  feet,  too  well  known  to  require  any  descrip- 
tion. Boots  are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the 
Carians,  and  were  mado  of  iron,  brass,  or  leather ;  of 
the  last  material,  some  time  after  their  invention,  boots 
were  known  to  the  Greeks,  for  Homer  mentions  them 
about  907  n.c. — For  an  account  of  the  value  of  the 
boots  and  shoes  annually  produced,  see  Leather,  and 
for  the  duties  on  those  imported  see  Tariff. 

Borax,  or  Tlnoal  (Arab.  Burak;  Pers.  Tunkar), 
one  of  the  salts  of  soda.  It  is  white,  transparent,  rath- 
er greasy  in  its  ftracture ;  its  taste  is  styptic,  and  it  con- 
verts sirup  of  violets  to  a  green.  It  readily  dissolves 
in  hot  water,  and  swells  and  bubbles  in  the  lire.  It  is 
of  great  use  as  a  flux  for  metals.— Thomson's  C/iemis- 
try.  This  salt  is  found  in  a  crystallized  state  at  tho 
bottom  of  certain  lakes  in  Thibet,  and  in  various  local- 
ities in  Persia,  China,  South  America,  and  Europe. 
Formerly,  however,  the  demand  of  Europe  was  almost 
wholly  supplied  from  the  East,  and  especially  by  im- 
portations fVom  Thibet,  where  the  salt  is  comparative- 
ly abundant.  Crude  l)orax,  when  imported,  is  culled 
tincal,  l>eing  enveloped  in  a  fatty  matter,  from  which  it 
4  has  to  be  separated  by  a  process  that  was  long  known 
only  to  the  Venetians  and  Dutch.  Large  quantities 
arc  supplied  from  the  famous  lagoons  near  Monte  Cor- 
bole,  In  Tuscany.  These  lagoons,  which  occupy  a 
large  extent  of  surface,  consist  of  an  infinite  number 
of  low  volcanoes,  and  springs  in  a  furious  state  of 
ebullition;  the  ground,  which  shakes  and  bums  be- 
neath the  feet,  is  covered  with  crystallizations  of  sul- 
phur and  other  minerals ;  the  whole  scene  presenting 
a  striking  picture  of  the  roost  tremendous  energy  and 
sterility.  Tho  vapors  that  are  constantly  bursting 
forth  from  the  boiling  lagoons  being  found  to  contain 
lx>racic  acid,  it  occurred  to  a  most  ingenious  person,  a 
M.  Larderel,  to  construct  pans  through  which  the 
vapors  being  made  to  pas*  impregnate  the  water  in 
them  with  the  acid.  The  pans  are  kept  boiling  by 
the  heat  of  the  lagoons ;  and  the  water  being  evapora- 
ted, the  acid  is  deposited  in  ciyttals.    In  cooMquenco 


BOB 


197 


BOS 


Tunlar), 
rent,  rath- 
»nd  it  con- 
ilissolvea 
Ire.     It  is 
's  Cliemi*- 
ate  at  the 
ious  local- 
1  Europe, 
ras  almost 
^ly  by  im- 
nparativc- 
I,  is  called 
n  which  it 
iig  known 
[quantities 
jlonto  Cer- 
occupy  a 
;c  number 
Is  state  of 
bums  lic- 
)n8  of  sul- 
)re8enting 
lergy  and 
,  bursting 
to  contain 
person,  a 
fhich  the 
•water  in 
)0iling  by 
r  evapora- 
^iiequenco 


of  this  dlscoyery,  the  lagoons,  firom  being  altogether  I 
-worthless,  have  h-^^me  most  valuable.  From  10,000 
to  12,000  pounds  '12  ounces  each)  of  acid  were,  a  few 
years  ago,  daily  produced ;  and  this  vast  supply,  and 
the  facility  with  which  borax  may  be  obtained  from 
the  acid,  has  occasioned  a  great  reduction  in  its  price, 
and  enabled  it  to  be  much  more  extensively  employed 
than  before. — See  Dr.  Bowbino's  Report  on  Tmcany. 

Bordeaux,  a  large  and  opalent  commercial  city  of 
France,  on  the  Garonne,  about  75  miles  from  its  mouth, 
lat.  44°  60'  26"  N.,  long.  0°  84'  W.  Population  in  1861, 
130,927.  The  commerce  of  Bordeaux  is  very  extens- 
ive. Tho  Garonne  is  a  noble  river,  with  depth  of 
water  sufflciont  to  eiiabie  large  ships  to  come  up  to  the 
city,  laying  open,  in  conjunction  with  tho  Dordogne 
and  their  tributary  streams,  a  large  extent  of  country. 
The  commerce  of  Bordeaux  is  greatly  promoted  by  the 
famous  canal  of  Languedoc,  which  communicates  with 
tho  Mediterranean.  By  its  means  Bordeaux  is  enabled 
to  furnish  the  south  of  France  with  colonial  products 
at  nearly  as  cheap  a  rate  as  Marseilles.  Wines,  bran- 
dies, and  fruits  Are  the  staple  articles  of  export;  but 
the  merchants  apply  themselves  more  particularly  to 
the  wine  trade.  Most  part  of  their  other  business  is 
confined  to  dealing  on  commission ;  but  this  they  con- 
duct almost  invariably  on  their  own  account.  The 
reason  they  assign  for  this  is,  that  the  difficulties  at- 
tending the  purchase,  raclting,  lining,  and  proper  care 
of  wines,  so  as  to  render  th^.  *  ■  exportation,  are 
so  very  great,  as  to  make  i .  ipossible  to  con- 

duct the  business  on  any  thi'   ,       ■      >  ordinar}'  terms 
so  as  to  satisfy  their  empl  '  ulonial  products, 

cotton,  dye-stuffs,  pepper,  iiide»,  tobacco,  rice,  form 
the  principal  articles  of  importation. — See  p.  726,  etc. 

Borneo,  or,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  Brun6,  an 
island  forming  part  of  the  great  East  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, and,  next  to  New  Holland,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  species  of  continent,  the  largest  in  the  known 
world.  It  reaches  from  about  7°  N.  to  4°  S.  lat,  and 
from  109°  to  118°  E.  long.  lu  length  may  be  esti- 
mated at  760  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  at  600,  and  its 
average  breadth  at  350.  Its  area  has  been  calculated 
by  Baron  Melville,  of  Cambee,  ot  12,745  geog.aphical 
square  leagues.  It  exhibits  the  usual  insular  structure, 
a  mass  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  centre,  sloping  grad- 
ually down  to  level  and  alluvial  tracts  along  the  sea- 
shore. It  is  in  every  part  intersected  by  fine  rivers, 
many  of  them  navigable  to  a  considerable  distance 
fhjm  the  sea.  Tho  interior  of  Borneo  is  covered  with 
immense  forests,  filled  with  wild  animals,  particularly 
orang-outangs,  A  great  part  of  the  coast  is  marshy, 
so  that  it  is  in  portions  only  that  it  displays  tjie  exu- 
berance of  tropical  fertility.  Of  all  the  East  Indian 
islands,  Borneo  ranks  lowest  as  to  civilization  and  im- 
provement, Kothing,  perhaps,  has  tended  so  power- 
fully to  check  its  progress  as  the  solid  and  unbroken 
form  of  its  coasts,  destitute  of  those  large  bays  or  in- 
land seas  which  have  always  proved  the  nursery  of 
commerce. 

Tho  commerce  of  Borneo,  though  not  equal  to  its 
extent  and  natural  capacities,  is  by  no  means  incon- 
siderable. Gold  is  its  principal  export.  Mr.  Milburn 
estimates  the  annual  quantity  exported  at  200  piculs, 
or  26,000  lbs.  avoirdupois,  which  would  coin  into  up- 
ward of  900,000  guineas.  Like  some  other  commi>di- 
ties,  it  is  divided,  by  a  grotesque  scale,  into  three 
kinds,  called  the  head,  the  belly,  and  the  feet;  the 
first  being  the  best,  and  the  two  others  gradually  di- 
minishing in  value.  Camphor  is  exported  to  tho  ex- 
tent of  thirty  piculs  (3990  lbs.),  all  to  China,  where  it 
is  more  esteemed  than  that  of  Sumatra.  The  singular 
Chinese  luxuries  of  bkht-it-mtr,  or  sea-alug,  and  edi- 
blu  birdsnests,  are  found  in  Borneo,  as  over  all  tho 
Indian  Archipelago.  Pepper  to  a  considerable  amount, 
canes  and  ratani  of  various  descriptions,-  sago,  and  a 
little  tin,  complete  the  list  of  esportt.  The  chief  im- 
port ii  opium. 


Boston,  city,  capital  of  MasMclinsetts,  and  me- 
tropolis of  Kow  England,  the  second  commercial  city, 
and  the  fourth  in  population  in  tUe  United  States  of 
America,  is  mostly  bituated  on  a  peninsula,  3  miles 
long,  and  a  little  more  than  1  mile  broad,  at  the  head 
of  Massachusetts  Bay.  Tho  harbor  extends  from  Point 
Alderton  to  Medford,  a  distance  of  14  miles ;  is  8  miles 
in  width,  and  covers  an  area  of  76  square  miles.  It 
has  a  depth  of  water  sufficient  for  600  vessels  of  the 
largest  class  to  ride  at  anchor  in  safety.  The  entrance 
is  barely  sufficient  for  two  ships  of  a  large  doss  to  sail 
abreast,  and  is  defended  by  three  fortresses,  two  of 
which,  situated  on  George's  and  Castle  islands,  are  on 
the  largest  scale,  and  constructed  with  all  the  impiove- 
ments  of  modem  science ;  the  third,  or  the  citadel,  on 
Governor's  Island,  is  still  incomplete,  but,  when  fin- 
ished, the  defenses  may  be  considered  impregnable. 

The  territory  now  covered  by  the  city  was,  in  1630, 
a  peninsula,  connected  with  the  main  land  by  a  narrow 
isthmus :  this  tract  contained  600  acres — it  was  called 
Shawmut  or  Trimountain,  and  derived  its  name  from 
its  springs,  and  three  lofty  hills.  The  cpot  was  un- 
doubtedly selected  for  its  security  from  tho  inroads  of 
the  Indians,  and  its  facilities  for  trade.  Before  the 
Revolutionary  War,  Boston  became  tho  most  commer- 
cial town  in  the  colonies.  The  narrow  limits  of  the 
peninsula  have  long  since  been  found  insufficient  for 
the  growth  of  the  population,  and  her  extended  com- 
merce. Dorchuster  Point,  containing  600  acres,  was 
first  annexed,  then  Noddle's  Island,  comprising  COO 
acres  more,  and  several  hundred  acres  have  been  re- 
claimed from  tho  sea;  but  so  rapid  has  been  the  in- 
crease of  population,  that  the  number  of  inhabitants  of 
the  subuibs  within  a  few  miles  of  the  city  limits  near- 
ly equals  the  city  proper,  Boston  lies  in  42°  21'  27" 
N.  lat.,  71°  3'  80"  W,  long.,  from  Greenwich,  England. 
It  is  105  miles  south-sou'hwest  tiom  Portland,  Alainc ; 
216  miles  from  New  York,  via  Stonington,  236  via  Now 
Haven  and  Springfleld ;  313  Philadelphia ;  411  Balti- 
more ;  449  Washington ;  990  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina ;  and  1838  from  New  Orleans.  The  population  in 
1790  was  18,033;  in  1800,  24,937;  in  1810,  33,250;  in 
1820,43,298;  in  1830, 61,391;  in  1840, 93,883 ;  in  1850, 
138,788 ;  and  in  1854,  178,000. 

Boston  has  overstepped  her  sea-girt  isles,  and  at- 
tached herself  to  the  main  land  by  one  wide,  enlarged 
avenue,  tho  Neck,  paved,  and  planted  with  trees ;  by 
one  granite  structure,  the  Westem  avenue,  a  mile  and 
a  half  in  length,  0  bridges,  8  railroads,  and  3  ferries; 
8  railroads  branch  into  16,  and  10  avenues  divide  into 
30,  within  tho  first  9  miles  from  the  Exchange.  The 
city  exhibits  a  picturesque  and  beautiful  appearance 
when  approached  from  the  sea;  and  in  surveying  its 
several  partu,  tho  visitor  finds  much  to  admire.  Ben- 
con  Hill,  on  which  the  State  House  stands,  is  HO  feet 
above  high-water  mark ;  it  was  originally  30  feet  high- 
er. Fort  Hill,  on  the  east  side,  fronting  the  harbor, 
is  80  feet,  and  Copp's  Hill,  in  the  north  part,  is  50  feet 
above  high  water.  On  this  hill  the  British  had  a  bat- 
tery in  1776,  from  which,  during  the  memorable  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill,  they  bombarded  and  bnrned  Charles- 
town.  Mount  Washington,  or  Dorchester  Heights,  is 
180  feet  above  tho  sea. 

The  largo  quantity  of  merchandise  offering  for  Cali- 
fornia has  given  employment  to  a  largo  number  of 
clipper  ships,  at  a  higher  rate  than  has  been  current 
for  years  past.  Small  and  medium  vessels  have  also 
been  more  sought  after.  A  larger  number  of  vessels 
left  Boston  for  California  and  Australia  in  1858,  than 
in  any  previous  year  since  1863,  The  clearances  have 
been  as  follows : 


isu. 

I8t«. 

llUi. 

18U. 

IBM. 

ISiS. 

8llll> 

I>»rk« 

iwr» 

Schoonors .... 

101 

e 
« 

61 
T 

'i 

62 
8 

48 
6 

"i 

80 
2 

60 
6 

1 
1 

Total 

149 

69 

61 

64 

4T 

6T 

BOS 


199 


BOS 


MATXimiT  nmiBiniia  nn  Ncmbie  um  ToiniA«s  or  Avibkiu)  aiid  yoaaioH  Vimils,  amd  or  VusEts  ii>  the  ooabt- 
IMO  Tbadi,  wnicn  chtxsid  ihto  and  OLua;>a>  ntOH  thi  Oktbiot  or  BoaToa  and  CuA]i:.ii>TOWH  ddbino  xuc 

riBOAL  YlAU  1348-1860,  XHDINa  uTTin  80, 


Ym 

M4lai 
JuulO. 

ronlfn. 

COML 

•Tiwi.. 

Knto/^. 

ciund. 

BntUMl. 

OlflWtd. 

■itond. 

Clasrad. 

Ni>.o( 
TMHit. 

Tom. 

No.  of 
VHMla. 

Tom. 

No  of 

(MUll. 

Tom. 

No.  of 
ToMOli. 

Tom. 

No.  of 
VoomU. 

T-n«. 

No.  of 
VoMb. 

Toat. 

1848 

lien 

^(09,21)7 

1012 

S29,SO. 

1H30 

163.875 

1828 

164,019 

1628 

846,  W8 

3110 

'61^4,780 

1849 

976 

248,095 

882 

914,146 

2O0S 

208,020 

2034 

196,185 

1429 

824,184 

2980 

680,078 

1860 

1028 

260,640 

904 

216,801 

1908 

218,296 

2199 

208,776 

1423 

820,n7 

8171 

602,600 

1851 

044 

236,939 

8C1 

207,944 

2042 

275,817 

2016 

288.828 

1628 

814..  .-9 

2843 

618,408 

1853 

90S 

257,844 

848 

224,784 

1899 

360,'>38 

1896 

286,845 

8b70' 

727.^71 

2818* 

671,877 

1868 

900 

287,969 

1246 

265,513 

2089 

294,621 

2112 

814,689 

231 0* 

620,232 

21I18' 

629,46} 

1854 

991 

820,638 

t)»0 

284,63' 

2083 

833,249 

2064 

829,088 

2I108* 

6,S3,9S9 

8047* 

ftW,»47 

1865 

1073 

878,826 

1033 

853,5»7 

2071 

834,298 

1911 

334,288 

1076 

491,489 

2941 

663,198 

1866 

1068 

851,628 

1030 

337,183 

2033 

827,863 

S039 

810,104 

1604 

886,631 

2773 

702,821 

*  In  theie  jeau  the  numlMr  of  veirelt  arriving  and  departing,  but  which  did  not  enter  and  dear,  are  Included  in  thv 
•tatement.    In  the  other  yean  only  such  as  entered  and  cleared  are  given. 

VALim  or  Iktobts  imo,  ahs  Expobts  rBOH,  thb  Distbiot  or  Boston  Ain>  C'nABUsTowir  to  jronsioH  pobts  roB 

TUB  BLBVEN  rIBOAI.  VXABI  BMUINO  JVHB  30,  1S66. 


DomoMIc  Ooodi. 

roNlgn  Qoodi. 

Dome,  Mc  and  fonlpi  Bipom. 

fonigOi  Importi 

T«u» 

ToUI  Valoo. 

Ofwhichwan 
Oold  and  Sllvsr. 

ToUl  Viluo. 

Of  which  wert 
Oold  and  Sllvrr. 

ToUl  Valuo. 

Of  which  w«r« 
Gold  and  Sllvar 

ToUI  Valot. 

1846 

1817 

$>t.669,696 

7,872,992 

8,1(9.933 

6,714.5!I0 

6,953,628 

8.269,646 

11,110,010 

15,203,208 

16,408,841 

22,970,460 

24,673,577 

$56,674 

80,018 

191,100 

83,697 

170,847 

805,926 

8,970,028 

8,7.10,939 

4,080,487 

12,(i22,6'.l8 

11,860,302 

$2,208,436 
1,843,999 
4,064,879 
1,977,483 
2,188,124 
2,228,608 
2,278,502 
2,891,480 
3,848,678 
3,671,201 
3,312,076 

$104,241 
344,4;i3 

2,869.787 
144,999 

•    888,021 
459.930 
236,718 
267,610 
837,968 
266,470 
149,721 

$8,968,081 
9,716,991 
12,204,812 
8,692,073 
9,141,062 
10,498,163 
13,388,513 
18.094,683 
19,761,916 
20,041,661 
27,986.668 

$460,815 

874,471 

2,560,867 

178,603 

659,468 
1,265, 8,t5 
4,206,743 
4,004,649 
6,268,460 
12,279,068 
12,010,083 

$22,616,117 
86.628,968 
27,182,808 
28,841,145 
28,669,788 
80,608,417 
81,958,192 
89,800,fl9 
45,988,646 
48,260,279 
41,061,088 

IgtS 

1849 

1850 

1851 

1862 ;. 

1S88 

1854 

1865 

1856 

India  Trade  of  Boston, — ^Tbis  important  branch  of 
business  has  attained  in  Boston  at  the  present  time  a 
magnitude  little  thought  of  by  the  early  founders  of 
this  trade.  Salem  was  the  p-oneer  in  many  branches 
of  the  India  trade,  and  for  many  years  a  great  mart 
for  the  sale  of  teas,  spices,  dj-e-stuffs,  drugs,  colTee,  etc. 
Ships  and  brigs  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
and  fifty  tons  burden  were  at  thaf  time  the  class  and 
fits  of  the  vessels  employed.  The  '  ourse  of  trade,  and 
the  saperior  advantages  of  Boston  and  New  Yoric  as 
central  markets,  have  diverted  this  business  very  much 
:  ita  its  ancient  seat  Quite  a  number  of  Salem  hovses 
ha^  '  still  an  extensive  interest  in  the  East  India  uad 
Pacific  business,  but  their  vessels  are,  for  the  most  part, 
fitted  from  and  arrive  at  Boston  or  New  York.  The 
East  India  and  Paciflc  trade  oi  the  United  States  em- 
ploys, in  all  its  various  brandies,  at  tlie  present  time 
some  six  hundred  ships  and  barks.  Must  of  these  ves- 
sels— at  least  two-thirds  of  tlicm — aro  owned  in  Boston 
and  New  York,  and  many  of  tho  remaining  third  at 
ports  east  of  Boston,  in  Massachusetts  and  Maine.  To 
show  the  extent  of  the  Boston  trade  with  India,  we 
would  state  that  one  hundred  and  nine  ships  were,  in 
January,  1857,  expected  at  this  port  from  Calcutta 
alone  previous  to  August  1,  1857. 

The  sole  of  tho  h(ia^y  and  bulky  kinds  of  East  India 
goods  at  Boston  has  greatly  increased  within  a  few 
years,  in  consequence  of  tho  enorinous  growth  of  the 
manufactures  and  general  tra>Ie  of  the  commonwealth, 
Thf  annual  sale  at  the  present  time  in  Boston  of  the 
principal  articles  of  East  India  produce  would  much 
surprise  any  one  not  acquainted  with  the  extent  and 
rapid  growth  of  this  important  branch  of  our  business. 
One  would  hardly  believe  that  we  received  at  this  port 
nearly  as  many  bushels  of  licseed  as  of  Indian  com ; 
yet  for  several  years  past  such  has  been  '-e  fact.— 
BotUm  Hoard  qf  Trade  iieport,  1857,  p.  U 

Mediterranean  Trade. — Among  the  variou  branches 
of  commerce  which  have  contributed  to  augment  the 
wealth  and  extend  tta  fame  of  Boston,  none  deserve 
mention  more  than  the  Mediterranean  and  fruit  trade. 
At  rarions  ports  of  Malaga,  Palermo,  Messina,  Mar- 
seilles, Genoa,  Leghorn,  Trieste,  etc.,  the  merchants  of 
Boston  eiyoy  a  large  portion  of  tho  American  trade ; 
and  at  some  of  tho  alrave-named  places  the  trade  moy 
be  said  to  be  entirely  controUed  by  the  ciliea  of  New 


York  and  Boston,  tho  other  commercial  cities  of  tha 
United  States  having  but  an  occasional  vessel  nrriving 
at  their  ports  from  these  placrj.  It  is  woU  known  that 
Boston  has  nearly  the  entire  control  of  the  American 
trade  with  Turkey  .hroui;h  that  country's  principal 
port  of  Smyrna, — Rislon  Board  of  Tiade  Report. 

Direct  Trade  vith  BAlish  Promncts. — The  treaty  be- 
..veen  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  concluded 
.ue  5th  of  .Tune,  1854,  known  as  the  "Reciprocity 
Treaty,"  was  intended  to  regulate  a  direct  reciprocal 
freo  trade  between  the  British  North  American  prov- 
inces and  tho  United  States  iu  certain  designated  arti- 
cles of  their  respective  growth  and  production.  Thii 
purpose  is  clearly  stated  in  the  preamble  of  the  treaty, 
and  in  the  act  of  Congress  carrj-ing  it  into  efi^ect. 

On  an  application,  therefore,  for  the  free  admission 
of  certain  products  of  the  British  North  American 
Provinces,  imported  into  tho  United  States  fro  n  Ha- 
vana and  London,  the  Treasury  Department  decided 
that  they  could  not  be  so  admitted ;  and  that  the  arti- 
cles, if  of  tho  growth  and  production  of  the  North 
American  British  Provinces,  aiitl  designated  as  free  in 
the  treaty,  would  be  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  free 
entry  only  when  imported  directly  from  those  prov- 
inces into  the  United  States, 

BTATBMKNT  EXniBITINO    TmS    DKOLABF.Il        Al-im    OF    MXB- 
rHANniBX  TBAN'SPOBTKII    IN  UoKD  TO  (  ANAUA  FIIOM  TUB 

Distbiot  oi'  Hobton  and  Chablebtowm,  ddbiho  thb 
tbnYbabs  endimo  June  30,  1866, 


1847 $21,716 

184S 24..148 

1S4B 83.140 

1850 151.817 

1851 694,709 


18152..  , $1,966,172 

1868 4947,484 

1864 6,178,911 

1866 4,!I70,4I>3 

1886 4,787,386 


This  table  fully  illustrates  the  operation  of  the  Re- 
ciprocity Treaty  aiiJ  other  treaties  with  Great  Britain 
in  reference  to  Canada. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  mention  here  that 
tho  "  Clearing-house"  for  the  banks  in  Boston,  which 
was  organized  January  15,  1856,  is  in  full  operation, 
and  perfectly  successful.  The  business  began  March 
29,  1856,  and  the  transactions  from  that  date  to  the 
Slst  December,  inclusive,  amount  to  $1,129,704,619, 
being  a  monthly  average  of  $126,532,724.  With  tha 
commencement  of  the  Clearing-house  all  the  bank 
ledger  accounts  of  dally  transactions  with  each  other 
were  merged  into  one  Clearing-house  acwaat,— Ibid, 


Nuj 


IK 
ISI 
18] 


sacn 
16,4 


y 


BOi^ 


fStxttum  ■rniBimia  mi  Nmnm 
nnsED  iMTo  Tim  IHWfuef  or  tj 
TBI  FiioAt  YiAii  Mtmnn  Hvnt  Sir, 


UK  BOT 

0f  AMMiAAn  iint  Fraaim  YMfni,  wrm  ra«B  ToimAsa  Aim  Cnwi,  wmcar 

M  AtrO  UMAUJiWOtril,  Aim  TBI  COVNTBIIS  FBOH  WHUtOB  IQIT  AUITIU,  DIIWII« 


tnm 

,_    M  mi»ym> 

la- •  ■ 

roMl(a  VaiHli.            1 

ToUL                      1 

nHnwH. 

fe*..  ■■ 

F(wnb«r. 

Tana. 

Crawl. 

NnaUt.  1 

Tmu. 

Crawl. 

'ktuHi.  on  ttia  tM*  «n4  Vsrili  B«m, 

"^f 

""T,l(ifl 

, 

1» 

t,i(i8 

'     195   ' 

Bwaden  and  Norirty .>.i>iii>. 

■ 

t\m 

lOB 

9 

989 

97 

9 

4^994 

182 

BwwUib  WMt  Il)4U« ,,, 

m 

10 

a  ■•• 

•  ••• 

•  ••• 

9 

189 

10   ' 

OkniihWaMIndiM  ,,,,,,,,,.,.... 

Jf4 

M 

*••• 

•  ••• 

•  ••• 

8 

774 

98 

lUmburg >  >  >  •  >  1  >  1  >  >  1  >  f  I  >  1 1 

SO 

■  ■  *• 

■  ■  a  • 

•  •■• 

1 

741 

20 

Ufemen tf  >i><ii>iiiit>i>i 

10 

•  •  ■  • 

1 

218 

10 

Hollud 

i 

IS 

1,(M« 

w 

6 

1,999 

71 

1> 

8,844 

128 

Dutch  WutlndtM.,,, ,,.„,,„,,. 
Dutch  OuUna. , , .,,,.,..  t ... . 

vSi 

18 

88 

8 

1,814 

60 

10 
10 

1867 
2,090 

I 

Dutch  E»rt  India* .,„,..,.,,, 

e,MI9 

ns 

■  •  •  • 

•  <  >  * 

•  •  •• 

19 

6,626 

228 

Bolgium .,..,,„..,., 

4 

«.1»» 

TS 

*  •  *  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  *  ■  • 

« 

2,195 

78 

EogUnd 

^'iS 

1,18T 

60 

<8,9fl8 

1,499 

100 

120,877 

S,60B 

Scotland 

1 

SI 

19 

10,616 

976 

S3 

12,867 

829 

Gibraltar 

^ 

19 

a  a  •  • 

*  •  ■  * 

•  •  •  • 

9 

464 

19 

Malta .,..,..,... 

« 

15 

, 

9 

424 

15 

Canada .............i. ,..>.. 

Other  Uritiib  North  AnwviMR  Vm, 

M*.» 

mx 

l',004 

1 
1766 

190 
918,101 

« 

9,842 

1 
1026 

120 

260,062 

10,935 

BritlthWaat  Indian..:,.,, 

BriUah  Pomalon*  in  AWm 

»t 

mi 

974 

29 

6,5.->4 

211 

€0 

18,730 

485 

iti 

4>it 

ICl 

9 

^649 

21 

16 

^160 

179 

Other  port*  In  AMa»,,,,,  „,,„.., 

i« 

i^m 

in 

1 

163 

10 

18 

8,148 

188 

liritlahEaadndiaf .,,. .„,.. 

8ft 

0611(1 

1,760 

1 

683 

16 

86 

56,209 

1,765 

Fnnce  on  th*  ittlantla.. ,,.,.,,.., , 

18T» 

DO 

9 

3!'4 

17 

6 

2,273 

73 

France  on  the  Medllarranaan. .,,,,, 

1 

8,149 

89 

1 

326 

10 

9 

3487 

09 

French  North  Amarloan  )«a«wMl«nfi, 

840 

11 

18 

9,096 

118 

15 

2,836 

129 

SpKin  on  the  AtUntle,  ,,„,,,,,.„ , 

T 

tl,fi«8 

104 

, 

7 

8,688 

104 

Bpain  on  the  M'  dltAtrMKitn....,,.. 
Philippine  Itianda ,,..,........,.., 

mi 

108 

8 

9,138 

71 

18 

6,610 

179 

HUM 

90T 

*  •  •  • 

<  •  •  • 

16 

12,966 

267 

Cuba , ...,„,,.,.., 

m 

43,148 

1,OTO 

11 

2,410 

88 

193 

48,497 

1,768 

Porto  Htco, .,„,,„,, ,,.,„,,„,,, 
Azorea  ,...<, 

6 

Wifl 

48 

8 

447 

20 

9 

1,877 

68 

M 

«,ll!ll 

88 

4 

720 

38 

19 

8.401 

126 

Sardinia >.....(#.... 

9 

16fl 

86 

2 

S94 

28 

4 

2,465 

63 

Tnacany .■•,,..,•,.......,, 

1 

m 

10 

4 

1,468 

49 

6 

2,081 

65 

Two  Biclllea ..>...,......... 

48 

i0,«se 

618 

7 

1,680 

68 

69 

18,671 

666 

Auatria .......,.•...., 

S 

914 

80 

•      •• 

•  *  t  • 

•  •  •  > 

8 

924 

80 

Ionian  Bepublia, ,,,,,, ,,,,,.,,,,., 

mi 

1 

188 

0 

1 

138 

6 

Oreece ■•.,,.,,,...>..>...>, 

•"< 

i«nT 

•  •  •  • 

1 

189 

9 

1 

189 

9 

Turkey  In  Europa,,,,... .,,,,,,,., 

88 

.... 

•  •  •  • 

8 

1,207 

98 

Turkey  In  Aala,.,,,. ..(.,.,,,,,,,. 

M 

8,flir 

801 

1 

482 

18 

27 

0,129 

814 

Haytl , , 

m 

8V,fT4 

91T 

1« 

2,661 

113 

143 

28,426 

1,099 

San  Domingo  .,,..,,,.>...,,..,,., 

{ 

'm 

8 

1 

110 

7 

2 

807 

16 

Mexleo ,,..,.,,,......., 

k 

DM 

» 

,*•■ 

•  •  t  • 

■  •  >  * 

2 

699 

10 

Central  Bepublls ..,,„.,..... 

R 

Ml 

M 

,,,, 

*■>■ 

•  ••• 

8 

661 

28 

Braill ,,„,,.,,., 

A 

'^i 

63 

8 

I3« 

86 

9 

2,224 

88 

Uruguay,  or  Clipjatliie  ItdpubMe  , , , 

J 

11 

•  •  ■• 

•  *  * « 

>  •  ■  • 

1 

281 

11 

nuenoBAyrea,orArgenttimit«BHlilii> 

19 

«,»« 

189 

•  •  •• 

.... 

•  *.. 

16 

6,898 

189 

Chill .,.,.,,...,...., 

18 

8,fl0« 

SflS 

9 

1,101 

84 

17 

9,827 

809 

l-eru .,..,,...,.,,., 

i 

8811 

13 

1 

783 

23 

S 

1,122 

86 

China .,...„.,., 

Total,  18B8, ,,„,,,, ,,,,„, 

%m 

71 

.... 



8 

2,C45 

71 

MM' 

111,430 

1906 

8L'7,(i39 

l'!,6S9 

281'6 

066,4i2 

23,126 

Total,  18BT,, ..,,...,..,.,, 

Mt« 

«»t,tS4 

19,480 

1963 

317,066 

12,641 

3012 

714,521 

26,077 

Total,  18M ,, 

\(m 

8M,riM 

.... 

i(»3 

827,639 

.... 

4030 

682,166 

.... 

NvMBiB  AND  Ci,AM  Of  VitaaRM  Dffii/r  IN  MMnAam»iim» 

Vt  TBI  Y«AB  BHDUa  JUKB  811, 1^1(8,  miMMUkU  WWtt  I85fl 
AMD  1867. 


DlillMi. 

i 

f 

' 

1 
;; 

It 

V 

n 

T 
9 
» 

1 

3. 

VtAil 

Nowhuryport,,,, 

Glouceater 

Salem 

Boverly 

Marblehead . , , , , 
DoBton 

8 

'i 

as 
'b 
'i 

81 
B« 

84 

■i 

4 

r 

40 

1 
I 

4 

10 

•i 

'f 

ir 

4T 

80 

T 
9 
4 

-w 

40 
8 
1 
4 

m 

1 

4 

§ 

1 
1 

110 

MM  09 
06  86 
897  TO 
S<,!ld  20 
(78  89 
639  79 
1,120  13 

'mt  41 

91  49 
468  59 

Plymouth , 

FallKlver 

New  Bedford. , . . 

Barnstable 

KdRartown  ..... 
Nnntuckct 

Total,  185S.. 
Total,  1867., 
Total,  1865,, 

m,m  41 

()r>,4ll  SO 
80,884  83 

NtmniB  o»  VBaaBLR  BDIM  IK  TH8  nmrnfor  ttt  floWOH  in 
TUB  YgiBs  mnivq  Jutii  SO,  ISfifl,  («fif,  AJtlt  1889, 


Yaan. 

8U|ia 
Baru. 

Biiga. 

wWBHWfi/ 

Ttdal, 

TMititga. 

18.'.« 
1S67 
1S^8 

68 
88 
23 

9 
B 
1 

,1 

i 

i 

51 

m 

''59,444  ■ 

40.014 

iii,9;5 

Fmt  Botton, »  part  of  th«  city,  IShifllblk  tounty,  Mii§> 
BBchuistt).  Population  in  \»W,  19,811 1  hii4  In  1864, 
15,000. 


Botany  Bay.  A  buy  of  the  Paciflo  Ocean,  on  tho 
^BBt  coa,it  of  Australia,  New  South  Wales,  county  of 
Cumberland,  five  milea  soath  of  Sydney,  about  &n 
miles  in  length  ai.d  breadth.  Lat.  84°  S.,  long.  161° 
15'  £.  It  was  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in  1770^ 
ond  derived  its  name  from  the  variety  of  new  plants 
then  observed  on  its  shores.  It  became  an  Englisll 
pennl  colony  in  1787.  On  its  coast  is  a  column  erect* 
ed  in  1826  to  the  memory  cf  the  French  navigator,  La 
Perouse. — See  Syumbt. 

Botargo,  called  in  Provence  Bouarguet,  a  sausage 
made  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Blade 
Sen,  of  the  roe  of  the  mullet.  The  best  cornea  flrom 
Tunis  and  Alexandria. 

Bottles  (Fr.  Bouteillet;  Ger.  SouteiUen;  It.  SotigUe, 
Fiaichii  Russ.  JiuliMi;  Sp.  SoteUoti),  glass  ves'^sls  for 
holding  liquids,  too  ""U  known  to  reqiUre  any  descrip. 
tion.  They  are  mauu^actured  in  considerable  quanti* 
ties.  The  imur  .'ta  of  l>ottle  glass  into  the  United  State* 
average  about  (140,000  annually.  Tha  imports  of  all 
other  descriptions  of  glass  amount  to  about  $2,200,000 
yearly,  and  are  very  constant.  About  one-fourth  of 
this  consists  of  window  glass.  The  principal  placet 
of  manufacture  of  bottle  glass  in  the  United  States 
are  Pittsburgh,  Penitsylvania,  and  East  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. — For  further  details,  «ee  Glass. 

Iloldei,  of  gloss,  were  first  made  in  England  abont 
1658.  The  art  of  making  glass  bottles  and  drinking- 
glasses  vas  known  to  the  Romans  at  least  before  79 
A.u,,  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have  bean 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii.    A  bottle  wliiob  coaa. 


SOT 


iOO 


BQT 


toined  two  bogvlMid*  '#M  hUtWH,  W«  m  U/U,  M  Leith,  | 
in  ScbtUnd,  in  i/munry,  mi^n, 

Bottom,  tw  NtrmtlUt  Imiimyt^  S»  «  f«mlU«r  ex- 
presslou  fur  »  ubipi  M  )»  (Im  JyhfMM  /o  t/Hp  ffooM  in 
foreign  bottom,— Kf  li, 

Bottomiy, «  iiMrtiiflM  imum  \if  tttil«1i  k  itilp 
(or  bottom)  ia  lij.jMtiMWWfM  l«  i>¥mnif  tut  inmey  Un- 
rowed  for  tlio  |iuriXM«4  iif  fwf  ifi>)i»Ki>, ««(!«  th«  condi- 
tion that,  if  tita  4)fp  »rrf»'*i  M  tlf<f  fy(«ft  (rf  (1«iillns(lon, 
the  borrower  |)«rwilMtl>,  lut  Wfll  M  th«  ittrlfi,  nlmll  tx 
liable  for  tba  ro|i«^iR«»t  luf  Oim  Mmh,  (<«f^(h(>r  with  mich 
preniiiim  tlisr«uu  «#  >»*y  bsVM  lw«<M  M^^m-d  on ;  but 
that,  if  tits  «biii  Iw  hit,  tm  kniift  fiil/itt  i(Mt«  no  claim 
■gktntt  tba  Iwrrowar,  i»tlb«^  (yf  lb«  rum  itdrMiced  or 
for  the  pramiun),  In  iimiMiintlUm  iifthit  rlitk  ibu«  In- 
clined by  the  luitdfir,  Hn>  \)fi'Ulim)l  (#btcb  In  nomctlmes 
Utmei  mariliiiw  iiileftil)  N  H'uMf  b)«1( ;  It  tnnj  range 
from  10  to  'ib  per  c«Hl.i  "f"  «»*<«  (W/fc,  A^cnrdlnK  to  the 
nature  of  the  nsk,  ur  tlw  4irti(<«)( >'  (y<  (/fVimrinff  thfl  nec- 
essary funds,  'i'be  ffu\\^^^  mny  tm  i«Mf;»d  as  well  as 
tha  sidp,  and,  if  nm«»»tif^,  Kw  mnii «(.«(,  When  mon- 
ey is  borrowed  o»  tUn  »>'>'Ufit)r  (ff  ih«  mffiO,  H  Is  said  to 
.  be  taken  up  at  ret^ '  mUtllM,  H  iPflH  iiUifli  seetrn  to  hare 
been  introdu^eii  fruw  llw  cir*H«l»t#rt<>«  (it  the  borrower 
•ngogiug  to  mnii'ii/F  (ur  fM  ffp«)'t#l«>f«(  of  the  loan  on 
the  arrival  of  (be  gMwi«>  UlU  Ihimull  (h«  terms  are 
distinctive,  tberu  in  m  im»nti  ti  Ml^fl'Mv  In  the  nature 
of  bottoniry  and  r<'»)<«»<1<'«lbt  ««(♦*/■(«,  and  l>oih  arc 
regulaUid  by  the  wme  pOH«ii.b"i  lit  IhHtUhili-  law.  In- 
deed, tluj  co«tr»i-t  of  fMp<«M>((lW  (»  «(/*  iw!l(l«fn  or  nev- 
er entered  into  uaNw  Ut  (^yl^HIMtkyM  wllb  that  of  bot- 
tomry. 

A  botiomry  eonlrite^  mny  t«  anfitUm  ttat  In  any  form 
wbbsb  siifficieiitly  s\wyi»  Am  m)4UUttin  ngtetd  on  I*- 
tween  the  two  partbis  j  tmt-  H  in  HMMtty  »tnmtt  up  In 
the  form  of  » Itoiui,  1'im  lUxmniflH  tflUst  sIkjw,  cither 
by  expi-ees  tiirws,  or  ffum  Un  i^tiffii  lem/r,  that  the 
risk  of  loss  is  lutmneii  by  (tw* TfWfW;  (his  bein«  the 
consideratb)n  fur  wbb-'b  tik<  Mull  pmniUlti  Is  conceded. 
Tte  lender  way  transfer  '  <iim(\  iif  Indorsation,  In 
the  same  manner  «»  »  bill  In  f,.  IlittlKti  ut  tdll  of  lading, 
and  the  right  to  rwwv^r  il«  t «>h«  imMian  Invested  In 
the  indorsees. 

According  to  tJw  lnw  at  V.HtAmAf  »  ixAUmrj  con- 
tract remains  in  fore*  m  ]mtii  >h  (!*«  sldp  exists  in  the. 
form  of  a  thijt,  wh«t«V>'r  Hmmiil  i.*  4aiiiiiiiif  she  may 
have  sui«4ine4,  t!i»»)ii«jHWI!l*'.-  ((«'  "cMlntfuellTO  to- 
tal loss,"  whidiis  rwa/gMI/*/!  t(*  murm  iHimtance  when 
tlie  ship  is  damaged  fu  ewb  itlt  fitittlii  that  she  Is  not 
worth  repairing,  is  ftut  »MiwgHi/*<rt  Ul  tefntfnte  to  I/ot- 
torory,  and  will  sot  al/wdv*  0l#  (ww*et  fiom  his  ob- 
ligation! but  if  the  »hit>  ^M  Uiiiit^tm  tha  hottrmet  Is 
frfead  from  all  liability  utiiUtf  tw  UiHimtf  contract ; 
and  the  lender  is  H/*te»rt(b<i|  (/*  f*wi*(>  atry  rfiaro  of 
the  proceeds  of  sui'b  of  fl»«  »;*((/»  Mnim  (it  materials  as 
may  have  been  tsvsd  tfum  l\m  WW'd.  Utmty  od- 
Toncsd  on  bottuni^  l#  W4  Ji«M«)  f«  ^,ttgl«nd,  for  gen- 
oral  average  losses. 

If  the  ship  should  lievkti  (rmtl  lh«  fltjrUgn  tot  which 
the  funds  were  sjlveiiwrf,  tm  HllfimiilHil  UiM  Will  not 
4iscfaarge  tlw  ubligatb'N  »f  I(m»  fmfimot  under  ihe  Ixjt- 
tomry  conirwit,  W  ftm  iiumiii  tM  J*v«eert  at  all  on 
her  intended  vojTigis,  the  NlAf  k  wH  etitlded  to  re- 
cover the  Iwttomry  ftrmiium  in  nAAUUm  (o  his  advance, 
but  only  the  ordinary  rate  «f  (HfcteH  dit  the  tempora- 
ry toan.  As  rtw  tmUmn  pfmtiUM  is  presumed  In 
eve-y  case  to  nover  «l»e  fitkti  itiilitri'ti  by  (lie  Ifnder, 
be  is  not  entitled  tu  tbwge  IIm*  Uittiii^tff  with  the  pre- 
mium which  he  may  |.»»y  ft<r  itrnttiini-n  iit  (he  sum  ad- 
vanced  in  additiuij  t«  fb»l  iiiJfitdaiM  l«  (he  l»ofl<l. 

The  contract  «<  )ioiUiiim  mtm  Ui  have  atlsen  from 
the  custom  of  perwittlHg  m  IIIHM*f  Itt «  ship,  when  In 
•  foreign  country,  to  |/l«^g»  tttn  mp  in  order  to  raise 
money  for  repairs,  or«th#f  *«if*ttv1J*(«ry  e*peiidltHres 
rendered  necessary  i»«  !(*«  «>Hfw*  i4  (he  toyage.  f'lr- 
cumstances  often  erite  in  wldoh,  *l(htrrtt-  (be  exer<  im^ 
of  this  power  en  tb«  port  (^|h#  Mi«i«f,  H  wtmM  be  iin> 


possible  to  provide  means  for  accomplishing  tho  voy* 
age ;  and  It  Is  better  that  the  master  should  have  au- 
thority to  burden  the  ship,  and,  if  necessary,  the  freight 
and  cargo  also,  In  security  for  the  money  which  has  be- 
come requisite,  than  that  the  adventure  should  bo  de- 
fetitcd  by  inability  to  proceed.  But  the  right  of  the 
master  to  pledge  tho  ship  or  goods  must  always  be  cre- 
ated by  necessity ;  if  exercised  wlihout  necessity  the 
contract  will  be  void.  Accordingly,  the  master  of  • 
Ilrltish  ship  has  no  power  to  grant  a  bottoniry  bond  at 
a  British  port,  or  at  any  foreign  port  where  ho  might 
hive  been  able  to  ralso  funds  on  tho  personal  credit  of 
the  shlpH>wncrs.  Mcither  has  bo  any  power  to  pledge 
tlio  ship  or  goods  for  private  debts  of  his  own ;  but  only 
fur  such  supplies  as  are  ludispensable  for  the  purposei 
of  the  voyage. 

Tho  bottomry  lender  must  use  reasonable  diligence 
to  aKertain  that  a  real  necessity  exists  for  the  loan ;  but 
he  is  not  bound  to  see  to  the  a^'pMcation  of  the  money 
advanced.  If  tlio  lender  have  originally  advanced  tha 
funds  on  the  personal  credit  of  the  master  or  owners, 
or  on  any  othior  security  than  that  cf  bottoriry,  he  is 
not  entitled  at  a  sulisequunt  period  to  convert  bis  claim 
into  a  bottomry  obligation;  and  although  the  master 
should  grant  him  such  obligation,  it  would  not  bind  the 
owners.  In  evmy  case  a  bond  procured  by  compulsion 
would  be  void. 

The  power  of  tho  master  to  pledge  the  cargo  depends 
upon  thcrn  being  some  reasonable  prospect  of  beneflt 
to  it  by  bis  so  doing.  Ho  has  no  such  power  except 
in  virtue  of  circumstances  which  may  oblige  him  to 
assume  tho  character  of  agtntfor  the  cargo,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  any  other  party  authorized  to  act  on  its  be- 
half. Under  ordinary  circumstances  he  is  not  at  lib- 
erty to  pledge  the  cargo  for  repairs  to  tho  ship.  If, 
indeed,  the  goods  be  of  a  perishable  nature,  and  if  it 
bo  impossible  to  get  the  siiip  repaired  in  sutTicient  time 
to  obviate  serious  loss  on  them  by  delay  without  In- 
cluding them  under  the  bottomry  contract,  he  has  pow- 
er to  do  so ;  because  it  may  faiviy  bo  assumed,  in  the 
cose  supposed,  that  the  cargo  will  be  benefited  by  this 
procedure.  But  if  tb  .!re  bo  time  to  communicato  with 
the  proprietors  of  tho  cargo,  it  is  his  duty  to  give  them 
notice  before  resorting  t3  this  course.  The  general 
principle  is,  that  the  ma!>ter  must  act  fur  the  cargo, 
with  a  reasonable  view  to  the  iutercsts  of  its  pioprie- 
tors,  under  the  whole  circumstances  of  the  case.  When 
ho  does  this  bis  proceedings  will  be  sustained ;  but 
should  ho  manifestly  prejudice  the  intorests  of  tho  car- 
go by  including  it  under  bottomry  for  the  mere  pur- 
pose of  relieving  I  he  ship,  or  of  earning  the  freight,  the 
owners  of  the  cargo  will  noi.  bo  bound  by  tho  bottoniry 
contract.  Any  buttoniry  or  rospondentia  bond  may 
be  good  in  part,  or  liad  in  par  according  as  the  mas- 
ter may  have  acted  icUhin  or  beyond  tho  scope  of  his  le- 
gitimato  authority  in  granting  it.  If  two  or  more  bot 
tomry  bonds  have  been  granted  at  dill'crcnt  stages  of 
tho  voyage,  and  the  value  of  tho  property  bo  inEufli- 
cient  to  discharge  them  all,  tho  last-dated  bond  has  tha 
priority  of  payment,  as  having  furnished  the  means  of 
preserving  tho  ship,  and  thoreby  preventing  tho  total 
loss  of  tho  security  for  the  previous  bonds. 

In  a  recent  case  in  the  English  Admiralty  Court 
(the  Cynthia,  2U  L.  7,  64),  it  was  decided  that  a  bond 
granted  by  a  British  consul  over  a  British  ship,  the 
master  of  which  had  been  murdered  in  a  mutiny  by 
the  crew,  was  valid,  although  tho  new  master,  appoint- 
ed by  the  consul,  had  not  l>ccn  required  to  sign  it. 

When  the  sum  due  under  a  bottomry  bond  over  ship, 
freight,  and  cargo,  is  not  paid  at  the  stipulated  time, 
proceedings  may  bo  taken  by  the  bond-bolder  for  re- 
covery of  tho  ftvight,  and  for  tho  sale  of  tho  ship ;  and 
should  the  proceeds  of  tliese  be  insufficient  to  discharge 
tho  claim,  a  judicial  sale  of  tho  cargo  may  be  resorted 
to.  As  a  general  rule,  the  value  of  the  ship  and  Alight 
must  be  exhausted  before  recourao  can  be  taken  against 
the  cargo. 


BOU 


201 


BOW 


Court 
bond 
ip,  the 
iny  by 
ppoint- 
it. 

CT  ship, 
d  time, 
for  re- 
ond 
icbargo 
csorted 
freight 
against 


The  bottomry  premium  must  bo  ultimately  paid  by 
the  parties  for  whona  especial  Iwneflt  the  advances  were 
obtaiaed,  as  ascortnired  on  the  final  adjustment  of  the 
average  expenditures  at  the  port  of  destination. 

For  further  information  on  this  sabj^t-t  tli-j  reader  Is 
reforred  to  the  cases  uf  the  Qratitudlno.  2  Kob.  A.  R. 
240,  272 ;  the  Lochiel,  3  Kob.  84 ;  the  Alexander,  \  Rob. 
846 ;  to  Soares  v.  Rahn,  8  E.  F.  Moore ;  Uobson  v.  Ly- 
all,  8  Jurist  060 ;  and  especially  to  the  cases  of  the  Lord 
-Cochran",  8  Jurist  714,  and  of  Jucobsen  v.  KcLihardi,, 
U2  Scottish  Jurist  809.  See  also  M/usiiall  on  I<uui- 
ance,  liook  2 ;  Pakk  on  Jntumnce,  c.  21 ;  Aknoulo  ou 
Inmrauce;  iMrd  Tbnterden  on  the  Law  (^Merchant 
Ships,  part  2,  c.  C— E.  li. 

Bougainville,  Count  Loula  Antonls  M.,  a 
otrcumnavigator  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  bom  at 
Paris,  1720.  Uu  flrst  studied  law,  and  was  afterward 
a  distinguished  soldier,  diplomatist,  scholar,  and  navi- 
gator, and  remu."kau.j  In  each  for  his  enorgy  of  char- 
acter. Ho  fought  in  Canada,  imder  Montcalm,  where 
lie  was  wounded,  In  1768.  On  the  death  of  his  superior 
and  friend,  he  returned  to  France,  and  sei'ved  with  dis- 
tinction In  Germany,  In  1761.  On  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  ho  entered  the  French  navj-,  and  led  the  expe- 
dition Intended  to  form  a  settlement  in  the  Falkland 
Islands,  for  which  he  sailed  in  1763  The  prior  claim 
of  the  Spanish  government  to  these  islands  compelled 
bim  to  surrender  them,  and  ho  returned  to  France,  the 
govemmsnt  of  ^rblcb  commissioned  him  to  carry  the 
surrender  into  execution,  on  receiving  from  the  Span- 
ish government  remuneration  for  his  expenses.  Hav- 
ing accomplished  this,  be  set  sail  on  his  voyage  of  cir- 
oumnavigation,  and  having  enriched  geograpblcdl  sci- 
ence by  a  number  of  new  discoveries,  he  returned  to 
France  in  March,  1760.  During  the  American  war, 
he  was  again  In  service,  from  which,  however,  ho  whol- 
ly retired  in  1700,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
scientillc  research. 

'  Boulogne-Bltf-mer  (GesmHacuni),  a  fortified  sea- 
port town  of  France,  capital  of  arrondissemenl,  depart- 
ment I'as  de  Calais,  on  the  English  Channel,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lianne,  and  on  the  lloulogno  and  Amiens 
Railroad,  140  miles  from  Paris,  and  112  from  London, 
and  19  southwest  from  Calais.  Lat.  (of  the  column) 
60°  44'  32"  N..  long.  1°  36'  16"  E.  Population,  1853, 
81,000,  of  whom  a' great  number  are  English  residents. 
It  Is  divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  towns.  The 
first,  on  a  hill  whence  the  English  coast  is  distinctly 
visible,  is  well,  though  irregularly  built,  and  has  two 
squares  ornamented  with  fountains,  a  feudal  citadel, 
and  rampart»,  a  modem  cathedral,  an  episcopal  palace, 
a  town  ball,  and  a  bouse  in  which  Le  Sage,  the  author 
of  Git  Ulas,  lived  and  died.  Tlie  Lower,  or  new  town, 
stretching  frciu  the  Upper  town  to  the  sea,  is  newly 
and  regularly  built,  and  more  populous.  It  has  fine 
public  baths,  with  ball  and  concert  rooms,  a  commer- 
cial college,  a  theatre,  a  museum,  including  a  library 
of  23,000  volumes,  a  hospital,  custom-house,  and  bar- 
racks. Boulogne  has  also  an  English  library  and 
reading-room,  six  English  churches,  several  exrelUnt 
hotels,  a  great  number  of  boarding-schools  (botli  I'rencli 
and  English),  a  school  of  navigation,  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, societies  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  arts; 
manufactories  of  coarse  woolens,  sail-cloth,  cordage, 
bottle-glass,  and  earthen-ware.  In  its  vicinity  arc  im- 
portant marble  quarries.  Its  fisheries  are  very  extens- 
ive, and  furnish  the  chief  supply  of  fish  for.  t!io  Pnris 
markets ;  but  the  town  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  pros- 
perity to  its  English  residents,  who,  since  the  peace, 
have  resorted  thither  in  great  numbers,  particularly 
during  the  summer.  Steamers  make  the  passage  to 
Folkstono  in  two  hours,  and  to  London  in  about  twelve 
hours ;  and  the  number  of  passengers  who  disembark 
here  annually  exceeds  60,000.  The  port  is  not  very 
easy  of  access,  being  formed  by  two  wooden  piers 
stretching  out  only  to  low-water  mark,  but  the  tide 
rises  upward  of  10  feet,  and  ships  find  pretty  good  acdi- 


orago  about  half  a  mile  from  the  harbor.  It  was  on 
tlie  heights  of  Uoulogne  that  the  Emperor  Caligula, 
A.D.  40,  encamped  an  army  of  100,000  men  for  thi 
fruitless  pur])Ose  of  Invading  liritain,  and  bore  also,  in 
1804,  nearly  18  centuries  later,  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
assembled  an  army  of  180,000  men,  and  a  ttotilla  of 
2400  transports,  with  the  same  design.  The  f'nlonnt 
Napolione,  a  column  164  feet  high,  nearly  one  mile  from 
the  town,  commemorates  the  latte-  .utile  at'empt. 

HountieB.  T  .ey  \.ere  flrst  granted  on  the  export- 
ation of  Oritlsh  commodities — a  new  principle  intto- 
duced  into  '.ommerce  by  the  British  Parliament.  The 
first  bounties  granted  on  com  were  in  1688.  First 
ligdlly  granted  in  England  for  raising  naval  stores  In 
America,  1703.  Bounties  have  been  granted  by  Great 
Britain  on  sail-cloth,  linen,  and  other  goods,  and  by 
this  countr}'  on  fisheries. — See  FisiinniEs.  Element) 
of  Commerce.  Bounties  on  production  are  most  com- 
monly given  In  the  view  of  encouraging  the  establish- 
ment of  some  new  branch  of  industry ;  or  they  nre  in- 
tended to  foster  and  extend  a  branch  that  is  believed 
to  bo  of  paramount  importance.  In  neither  case, 
however.  Is  their  utility  very  obvious.  In  all  old  set- 
tled and  wealthy  countries,  numbers  of  individuals  are 
olways  reddy  to  embark  In  every  now  undertaking,  if 
it  promise  to  bo  really  advantageous,  without  any 
stimulus  from  government ;  and  if  a  branch  of  indus- 
try already  established  be  really  important  and  suita- 
ble for  the  country,  it  will  assuredly  be  prosecuted  to 
tho  neceasory  extent,  without  any  encouragement  other 
than  tho  natural  demand  for  its  produce. 

However  iiyurious  to  the  state.  It  has  been  pretty 
generally  supposed  that  bounties  on  exportation  are 
advantageous  to  tnose  who  produce  and  export  the  ar- 
ticles on  which  they  are  paid.  But  the  fact  is  not  so. 
A  trade  that  can  not  be  carried  on  'without  tho  aid  of  a 
bounty  must  be  a  naturally  disadvantageous  one. 
Hence,  by  granting  it,  Individuals  are  tempted  to  en- 
gage or  continue  in  businesses  which  are  necessarily 
very  insecure,  and  are  rarely  capable  of  b3ing  rendered 
lucrative ;  at  the  same  time  thot  they  are  prevented,  by 
trusting  to  the  bounty,  from  making  those  exertions 
they  naturally  would  have  made  bad  the;-  been  obliged 
to  dep  jnd  entirely  on  superior  skill  and  industry  for  the 
sale  of  their  produce.  The  history  of  all  businesses 
carried  on  by  the  aid  of  bounties  proves  that  they  are 
hardly  less  disadvantageous  to  those  engaged  in  them 
than  to  the  public. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  a  self-taught  American 
mathematician,  born  in  1773,  of  bumble  parents,  at 
Salem,  in  Massachusetts.  Ho  was  bred  to  his  father's 
business  as  a  cooper,  and  afterward  was  apprenticed  to 
a  ship-chandler.  His  taste  for  mathematics  early  de- 
veloped itself;  and  be  acquired  Latin  that  be  might 
study  Newton's  i'nncipia.  In  1796  ho  sailed  as  super- 
cargo, in  which  capacity  he  made  four  long  voyages ; 
and,  being  an  excellent  nuvigator,  be  afterward  com- 
manded a  vessel,  instructing  his  crews  in  taking  lunar 
and  other  observations.  He  edited  three  editions  of  ' 
Hamilton  Moore's  Navigation.  In  1804  he  became 
actuary  to  a  Boston  insurance  company ;  and  in  the 
midst  of  bis  active  and  useftil  career  publiuhed  a  trans- 
lation of  tho  Mkaniqne  Celeste  of  Laplace,  with  anno- 
t.-.tions ;  n  work  which  will  better  prove  the  great  ac- 
quirements of  this  self-taught  philosopher  than  any  la- 
bored panegyric.  He  died  in  1838,  at  Boston.  A 
statue  of  this  distinguished  mathematician  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery, 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

Bo^rline,  a  rope  leading  forward  from  tho  leech 
(side  border)  of  a  square  sail,  to  keep  it  tightly  out. 
When  a  vessel  is  sailing  close-hauled  she  is  then  said 
to  be  sailing  on  a  bowline  ov  on  a  taut  bawline.  Bowline 
bridles  are  the  spans  of  cord  by  which  the  bowline  is 
fastened  to  tho  leech. — E.  B. 

Bowsprit,  or  Boltspilt,  a  large  spar  which  pro- 
jects over  the  stem  of  a  ship,  resting  slopewise  on  the 


BOX 


mt 


BBA 


h«ad  of  tha  m*ln  itMii,  and  btvliig  iU  lorer  end  fait- 
•nad  to  tin  partnon  of  tbt  foramut,  aiid  I.  rthor  tup- 
ported  by  the  foreatay.  It  earrie*  the  sprlt-a.il,  tprit- 
top-aail,  and  Jaok-ataifT;  and  Ita  length  1:  oaiuliy  the 
tame  aa  that  of  the  foremaat.— £.  U. 

Box-Iwul,  in  tfavigatiiM,  to  bring  a  ahip,  whan 
doae-hauled,  round  upun  the  other  tack,  ivhea  ahe  re- 
(Vcaea  to  ttay  and  there  ia  not  roam  to  wear. — £,  B. 

Boxing  tha  Compua,  denotea  the  rehearaing 
tha  pointa  in  their  proper  order. — £.  B. 

Box-wood  (tiem.  BucMxuimi  Du.  Palm/umt; 
fr.  Jiuiti  It.  Oiuio,  Bono,  Bouelo),  tha  wood  of  the 
box-tree  {Uuxut  temptnirtiu),  growing  wild  from  Mas- 
aachusetts  to  Florida.  A  \ary  common  name  in  the 
United  Statea  it  dogwood,  though  lioth  n&mes  are 
naad,  Thia  tree  waa  greatly  admired  by  the  undent 
Bomant,  and  hat  been  much  cultivated  in  modem 
times,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  ia  faah- 
loned  into  dilferent  forms.  Box  is  a  very  valuable 
wood.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  close-grained,  very 
bard,  and  heavy ;  It  cuts  better  thaa  any  other  wood, 
ia  susceptible  uf  a  very  fine  polish,  and  ia  very  dura- 
ble. In  consequence,  it  is  much  used  by  turners,  and 
mathematical  and  musical  instrument  makers.  It  is 
too  heavy  for  furniture.  It  is  the  ot»/y  wood  used  by 
the  engravers  of  wood-cuts  for  books ;  and  provided 
due  care  be  exercised,  tha  number  of  impressions  that 
may  be  taken  frvm  a  box-wood  cut  is  very  great.  In 
France,  box-wood  is  extensively  used  for  combs,  knife- 
handles,  and  button  moulds;  and  sometimes,  it  has 
been  said,  as  a  anbatitute  for  hopa  in  the  manufaciure 
of  beer.  The  value  of  the  box-wood  sent  from  Spain 
to  Paris  is  -sported  to  amount  to  about  10,000  francs 
a  year.  In  1816,  tlie  box-trees  cat  down  on  Box-hill, 
near  Dorking,  in  Surrey,  England,  produced  upward 
Of  £10,000. 

BnoaletSi  They  were  early  worn  and  prized 
among  the  ancients ;  we  read  of  them  in  almost  all  no- 
tions !  tboso  that  were  called  armilla  were  usually  dis- 
triboted  as  rewards  for  valor  among  tlie  Boman  lo- 
giona. — Nottv.  Diet.  Those  of  pearls  and  gold  were 
worn  by  the  Boman  ladies;  and  armleta  arc  female 
ornaments  lo  the  present  day. — Haydn. 

Bnidibrd,  a  parliamentary  borough,  market,  and 
parish  of  England,  county  of  York,  West  Biding,  on 
an  affluent  of  the  Aire,  and  branch  of  the  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  canal,  8  miles  west  of  Leeds,  on  tha  Leeds 
Bailroad.  Area  of  parish,  34,146  acres.  Population 
in  1851, 149,543.  Population  of  the  borough,  103,778. 
Area  of  parliamentary  borough,  comprising  the  town- 
ships of  Bradford,  Hanningham,  Bowling,  and  Horton, 
6590  acres.  The  town,  built  entirely  of  stone,  has  streets 
mostly  narrow,  but  well  paved  and  lighted.  Bradfortl 
is  now  the  principal  scat  of  the  worsted  yarn  and  stuff 
manufactures  in  England,  and  the  great  mart  for  the 
long  wools  used  in  these  fabrics.  In  1888  it  bad  141! 
worsted,  9  woolen,  and  2  cotton  mills,  employing 
together  11,676  hands.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
in  the  town  upward  of  1500  power  looms,  each  produc- 
ing three  to  fonr  piac<4  per  week.    Ita  rapid  advance  I 


is  plainly  attributable  to  its  central  position  in  the 
great  manufacturing  district  of  Yorkshire,  and  to  tha 
abundance  of  coal  and  iron  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  > 
The  Leeds  and  Liverpool  canal  conneeta  it  with  botii 
the  Iriah  and  North  Sena. 

Bmn,  tha  thin  akina  or  husks  of  com,  particularly 
-^'heat,  ground,  and  separated  from  tho  com  by  a  sieve 
ir  bolter. 

Brandy  Oerm.  Bnmltweini  Do.  Bnmdewgni  Ft. 
£nu  dt  vie,  Brandtvini  It.  Aguartentti  Sp,  Aguanli'' 
tntt;  Voti.  AguunUnta I  Buss.  Winot  Lat.  Vinutnadut- 
turn),  a  spirituous  and  Inflammable  liquor,  obtained 
by  distillation  from  wine  and  the  husks  of  grapes.  It 
is  prepared  in  moat  of  tho  wine  countries  uf  Europe  {, 
but  the  auperiority  of  French  brandy  ia  universally 
admitted.  Tho  latter  Is  principally  distilled  at  Boi^ 
deaux,  Koohelle,  Cognac,  the  Isle  de  Bh6,  Orleans, 
Nantes,  and  in  Foitou,  Touraine,  and  Ai\Jou.  That 
of  Cognac  is  in  the  highest  estimation.  Wines  of  all 
descriptions,  but  chiefly  those  that  are  strong  and  harsli 
(jxmmi),  arc  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brandy.  The 
superior  vintages,  and  those  t'.  t  have  most  flavor,  are 
said  to  make  the  worst  brandy.  It  is  naturally  clear 
and  colorless.  The  different  shades  of  color  which  it 
has  in  commerce  arise  partly  from  the  casks  in  which 
it  is  kept,  but  chiefly  from  the  bumed  sugar,  sandere 
wood,  and  other  coloring  matter  intentionally  added  to 
it  by  the  dealers.  It  is  said  that  tha  bumed  sugar  gives 
mellowness  to  the  flavor  of  the  liquor,  and  raiiders  it 
more  palatable.  The  art  of  distillation  is  believed  to 
have  been  first  discovered  by  the  Arabians.  From  a 
passage  in  tho  Tetlamcnium  Nofiumum  of  the  famona 
Raymond  LuUy,  wlio  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  can" 
tury,  it  would  appear  that  the  production  of  brandy 
and  alcohol  fh>m  wine  was  familiar  to  hia  contempo- 
raries.— P.  2,  edit.  Argtnt.  1671.  But  the  practice  doea 
not  appear  to  have  been  introduced  into  France  till 
1313. — Le  Grand  d^Auui  Vie  prici  de  Franfoii,  tome 
ill.  p.  64.  Yi'^  "n  flrst  introduced,  brandy  or  bumed 
wine  (vinum  ttdua  ^.m)  appears  to  have  been  used  prin- 
cipally  as  an  antiseptic  and  restorative  medicine ;  and 
tb  most  extravagant  panegyrics  were  bestowed  on  ita 
virtues.  It  was  described  as  a  sovereign  re.medy  in 
almost  all  tho  disorders  of  the  human  frame ;  it  waa 
commended  for  its  efficacy  in  comforting  tho  ipoEsory 
and  strengthening  the  reasoning  powers;  it  was  ex- 
tolled, in  short,  as  the  elixir  of  life,  and  an  infallible 
preservative  of  youth  and  beauty. — Hendkksom's  Uii- 
tory  of  Wine,  p.  24.  Dr.  Henderson  says  that  the  ex- 
perience of  later  times  has  shown  how  little  the  eulogy 
was  merited ;  but  in  this  he  is  contradicted  by  Burke, 
who  maintains,  with  equal  eloquence  and  ingenuity, 
that  "  tho  altmbic  has  bean  a  vast  benefit  and  blessing." 
— Tlumghtsand  OetaUaon  Scarcity,\).  41.  Brandy  form 
cd,  for  a  lengthened  period,  a  prominent  article  in  the 
exports  of  France — few  ships  Siiiling  from  Bordeaux, 
Bochellc,  or  Nuntes,  without  taking  a  certain  quantity 
of  it  on  board ;  but  of  late  years  there  has  boon  an  ex- 
traordinary falling  off  in  the  exports  of  brandy  as  well 
aa  of  wine.    We  auljoin 


A>  Aooonn  or  nn  QuAmma  Ain>  TAtun  ori 

JHO  WITU  1839,  TO  TU 

m  BoAxmr  xxvobtkd  nton  Fxtnoi 
a  t'HiiaD  KiiiuuoM  amd  to  all  Cob 

Dusrao  XAcn  of  tus  10  YcAsa  emd- 
wrsixB. 

Tun. 

QauUty. 

Vsliu. 

goutitr. 

V>Iu>. 

1880 

LUru. 
9,028,140 
«,9a«.71> 
13,669,446 
10,867,076 
7,829  366 
•,612,690 
7,179,644 
^gfl6,286 
7,410,610 
6,284,289 

Frtme*. 
8,164,071 
6,430,000 
12,208,000 
0,230,760 
6,064,966 
6,226,120 
6,939,123 
4,783,241 
6,002,618 
4,187,431 

tUru. 

17,91B,8S« 
14,182,783 
88,787,732 
22,039,926 
16,146,280 
18,468,224 
19,»VI1,B06 
18,833,909 
20,609,714 
16,418,668 

FrMtt. 

16,837,280 
11,960,000 
20,732,024 
18,708,180 
13,712,700 
14,987,888 
10,262,104 
14,928,811 
16,668,437 
12,398,600 

1881 

1882 

1838 

1884 

1886 

1806 

1887 

1U8 , 

19«" 

TotaU 

80,468,676 

67,877,216 

187,886,960 

166,686,618 

Avenge  of  ten  yearn 

8,046,ie7i 

6,787,721 1 

18,788,696 

16,868,661 1 

Avenge  of  tho  10  yeara  In  Imperial  gallons 

i,ni,i66  ■ 

■     4,i2i746 

C--6  7, 
C-  -0  Z 

sc-t-z 

8  C-f-Z 

DRA 


208 


BEA. 


Th«  export  t»1ub  of  bmndy  from  F.-fp*  ?o  tlit 
Uoitad  Utatca  in  tho  year  UbH  wu  1U,6(U,UUU  frauct; 
wines,  'Ja,'l02,(X)U  franct. 

iMTOIITATIOIf  or  IlKANDT  I^^TT)  THIC  UMITaD  RTATU,  THIANBT 

HaninT,  laiSfli 


YMrtii4lil|J«MM. 

6.\U,. 

V.l...  ' 

1844 

Tt«,610 
1,(M1,UU 

0B4,41T 
1,870,111 
'2,Utt4,Uil 
4,14ft,S(H 
3,108,788 
i),75l,mO 
B,S.HUM 
8,lb2,S0<l 
1,0-M,4til 

«IIO«,«ia 
810,400 

u3ii,tini 
iiBi.oas 

1,180,080 
1.847,614 
S,06»,OUT 
8,1!8,S7V 
1,TM,T'W 
S,!tBl,«l8 

9,2eo,aM 

-,1.0,803 

lH4fi 

11*10 

1«T 

1948 

1S40 

1S60 

1181 

isna 

ISftB 

1864 

1SB8 

BnuiS,  nu  Klloy  of  copper  unil  zir.c.  Tliii  name, 
however,  has  not  been  oxclusivuly  a./pliod  to  tlie  alloy 
of  thcao  motals ;  for  the  gun-mot  1,  whicli  has  been 
alao  called  brau,  is  an  alloy  of  cop|>er  with  tin.  Tho 
same  alloy,  with  moro  tin,  is  used  In  machinery,  and 
is  prefurrvd  to  tho  alloy  of  copper  and  xino  on  account 
of  its  greater  hardness.  It  appears  from  tho  analysis 
of  tho  brass  j(  tho  oncienti  that  it  was  an  alloy  of  cop- 
per and  tin.  A  small  portion  of  tin  gives  to  copper 
great  hardness,  and  renders  it  capable  of  beArluc;  much 
greater  resistance.  A  larger  portion  of  tin  gives  in- 
creased hardness,  but  is  less  Httud  to  boar  a  straining 
resistance,  on  account  of  its  brittleness.  Its  elasticity 
is  very  great,  which  lits  it  for  bells.  In  this  state  it  is 
called  bcU-metal ;  and  with  a  still  greater  proportion 
of  tin  it  forms  an  alloy  employed  for  the  mirrors  of  rc- 
ilectlng  telescopes.  The  alloy  of  copper  with  tin  is 
easily  distinguished  from  that  with  zinc,  from  tho 
agreeable  color  of  the  latter,  which  varies  with  tho 
proportions  of  the  metals.  Pinchbeck  has  the  least 
proportion  of  zinc.  Common  brass  has  moro  zinc,  and 
tho  gold-colored  alloy  called  prince's  metal  contains  a 
still  gnsater  proportion  of  zinc.  An  alloy  of  copper 
with  a  very  largo  proportion  of  kiinc  is  used  for  tho  com- 
mon white  metal  buttons. 

Jiram-color  is  prepared  by  braziers  and  eolormen  to 
imitate  brass.  Thero  aro  two  kinds,  the  red  brass  or 
bronze,  and  the  yellow  or  gilt  brass.  The  latter  is  mado 
only  of  copper-fllings,  the  smallest  and  brightest  that 
can  bo  found ;  with  the  former  it  is  usual  to  mix  some 
red  ochre,  finely  pulverized. 

Tho  various  alloys  of  copper  with  tin  and  zinc  form- 
ing the  dilTeront  kinds  of  brass,  aro  to  be  considered 
OS  chemical  compounds,  and,  of  coursu,  governed  by 
the  same  laws  of  defmito  proportions  which  ob'ain  in 
the  moro  conspicuous  compounds.  On  these  princi- 
ples, which  can  not  I>e  doubted,  we  have  an  imerring 
rule  for  uniting  these  and  other  metals  in  tho  best  pro- 
portions, the  weights  of  their  atoms  being  previously 
known.  Tho  weight  of  tho  atom  of  copper  being  8,  tin 
7-35,  and  zinc  4,  the  following  tAbles  exhibit  tlie  pro- 
portions of  the  various  alloys,  exprccsed  in  atoms,  and 
their  proportions  by  weight,  the  third  column  pointing 
out  the  color  and  character  of  tho  resulting  compound. 
C,  Z,  and  T  aro  to  represent  the  atonu  of  the  metals 
respectively. 

Compounds  or  Znio  wrru  Comn.  , 


Atoml. 


C+Z 

C-f9Z 

C+3Z 

c-t-oz 

c+oz 

3(H-Z 
»C-fZ 


by  Jvalgb?       Charxtor  ud  Color  of  Uie  Compound!. 


2  tot 
Itol 
8  to  8 

lto2 

3  to  6 
lto8 

4tol 

etoi 


The  bust  proportions  for  common 
bnuts. 

Tba  alloy  called  prince's  metal,  of 
a  bcuitlftil  gold  color. 

Of  a  paler  yeUov,  very  little  malle- 
able. 

StUI  lighter  In  color,  and  not  malle- 
able. 

Yellowish-white  and  britUc. 

Very  brittle,  nearly  white. 

A  very  malleable  brass,  used  In 
watch-work. 

An  alloy  mui.h  hanler  than  copper, 
and  Inclining  to  M  color. 


Conroimna  or  Tin  with  Corm. 


PruiturUtNM 
by  Wtljlit. 


T+C 

8  T+C 
4  T+C 

T-)-3  0 
T-(-8C 
T-HC 
T-f60 

T-Heo 

T+TCJ 

T-H40 

T-J-OC 


11  to  13 

lltoA 
ll>o4 

11  to  3 

11  to  14 
11  (oM 
Uto48 
11  to  80 
11  to  T» 

11  to  84 
11  to  08 

11  to  108 


CbarMUr  tad  Color  of  lb*  C«ap«aadl, 


I  A  wry  brittle  and  rather  wUte 
{     alloy. 

BItll  morn  brilllo  and  more  white. 

Very  white,  tiat'd  for  specuVims. 

iUoarsu-Kralned,  aud  too  brittle  Ibr 
any  piirpoae. 
A  yellowish  alloy,  vuy  bard  aud 
sonoroiii. 
Mll-nietal. 
I  A  yxy  bard  alloy,  used  for  some 
(     culinary  veaiwli. 
Hoftor,  but  not  malleable. 

)8tlil  lucreaat'd  In  aoftnoaa,  and  of  a 
yellower  color. 
I  Uaud  lur  lomo  purposes  In  machln- 
I     cry. 
An  alloy  used  for  cannon. 
(Moro  common  for  cannon  and  roa- 
-j    chlnur}-,   aiid  uiwd  for  bronze 
\    Ntntiiea. 


nitherto  the  proportions  of  theso  alloys  havo  le- 
pended  upon  tho  practice  of  workmen,  guided  by  nu- 
merous trials;  but  what  confirms  tho  law  of  dof.nite 
proportions,  is  tho  necessity  of  adhering  to  fixed  pro- 
portions, ascertained  by  trial.  By  attending  to  the 
proportions  pointed  out  above,  the  most  striking  and 
pri-cr  compounds  will  lie  jiroduced,  without  tho  trou- 
ble of  trial.  Any  Intermediate  proporH"!)!!  will,  doubt- 
less, be  marked  by  defective  color  '.tte^  ar  crys,,alU- 
zation,  or  imperfect  malleability. 

iVltbough  tho  most  direct  way  of  forming  theso  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  brass  is  by  immediately  combining  the 
metals  together,  one  of  them,  which  is  most  properly 
called  brass,  was  manufactured  long  before  zinc,  one 
of  its  component  parts,  was  known  in  its  metallic  form. 
The  oro  of  the  latter  metal  was  cemented  with  sheets 
of  copper,  charcoal  being  present;  and  the  zinc  was 
united  with  the  copper  witliout  bccoinin;;  visiblo  in  a 
distinct  form.  The  same  method  is  still  practiced  for 
making  brasd. — E.  U. 

Brass  was  known  among  all  tho  early  nations. — 
UsHEn.  The  British,  from  tho  remotest  period,  were 
acquainted  with  its  use. — AViiittakkr.  When  I.ucius 
Mummius  burned  Corinth  to  the  ground,  146  n.c.  the 
riches  ho  found  were  immense,  and  during  tho  confla- 
gration, it  ia  said,  all  tho  metals  in  tho  city  melted, 
and,  running  together,  formed  tho  valualile  composition 
dcscril)ed  as  CoritUhian  broM.  This,  however,  may 
well  bo  doubt'jfi,  for  the  Corinthian  artists  had  long 
before  obt:uned  g.*eat  credit  for  their  method  of  combin- 
''ng  gold  ana  silver  with  copper;  and  the  .Syriao  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  says  that  Ilirnm  niadu  tho  vessels 
for  Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass.  Articles 
made  of  this  brilliant  composition,  though  in  them- 
selves trivial  and  insignificant,  were  yet  highly  valued. 
— Ui;  FnEssNor. 

Brasil,  an  extensive  empire  of  Sonth  America,  oe- 
cnpying  a  large  proportion  of  the  eastern  and  central 
part  of  that  country,  extending  between  Int.  4°  28'  N. 
and  82"  45' S.,  and  long.  34°  65' and  C5"20'W.  Length 
from  north  to  south,  about  2C:iO  miles ;  greatest  breadth, 
2640  miles.  Its  internal  boundaries  come  in  contact 
with  all  the  different  states  and  territories  of  South 
America,  with  tho  exception  of  Chili  and  Patagonia, 
while  the  Atlantic  Ocean  washes  its  shores  from  its 
northeast  to  its  southern  limits. 

Brazil  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  do  Cabral,  a  For- 
tnguese,  who  was  tlriven  upon  its  coasts  by  a  tempest 
in  1600.  Ho  called  it  the  land  of  tho  Holy  Cross ; 
but  it  was  subsequently  called  Brazil,  on  account  of  its 
red  wood,  and  was  careftilly  explored  by  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci about  1604.  Tho  gold  mines  were  first  opened  ia 
1684 ;  and  the  diamond  mines  were  discovered  in  1730. 
The  French  having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807,  tho 
royal  family  and  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil.  A  rev- 
olution took  place  here  in  1821.  Brazil  was  erected  into 
an  empire,  wheu  Don  Pedro  assumed  the  title  of  em- 
peror, Nov.  18, 1825.   He  abdicated  the  throne  of  Fort> 


/ 


w.i.i'JWk.J'i'.i  J.i< 


BBA 


104 


DBA 


ngal,  May  2,  1f)M ;  and  that  of  llraail,  in  fiivnr  at  bU  |  Mntf  rltar  anrl  Mntnr,  ami  rrfronlivd  liy  thn  ua-lircez* 
infant  >on,  now  (1H&&)  rinperor,  A|irU  7,  iNItl,  and  r«-  from  Ih*  na*!.  At  Itio  Janviro  tho  annual  nii'un  of 
turned  tol'ortugal, where  a  dvll  waranaiwd.— IIaviisi,  j  NlimnMi'*  Ihcrniomnii^r  U  77".  Th»  ulinri't  of  th« 
The  cmplr*  ia  divided  Into  ID  provincci,  M  iiUua(«il '  xaet  vuaal  art  K*nerally  luw-lyhiK,  (h»  Kruuiid  rl>ing 
•long  tho  ahorei  of  Ibo  ocean,  and  four  In  Ilia  iutorlvr,  vraduallx  lielilnil  Inio  the  inuuntain  ri-Klon,  «  hit li  runa 
the  relallvu  |>opulatioii  of  which  la  axklhltcd  In  lb*  ,  paralliil  to  the  ifiail.  Thn  harliom  arv  f(ciivrall,v  k<>o>1i 
following  table,  drawn  up  according  to  thu  mual  recant    parllrMlarly  tho»'  nf  Ulo  ile  Janeiro  and  DaliU.     Tha 


tnd  accurate  autborltiua. 


ProviiM«i. 


UariUm*  /YovinrM. 

Pitro •  •  • 

MuntiiUaiu 

ItMihy 

( 'vnm 

Hio  (Irandu  do  Morte  .... 

I'antlbA 

I'urimmliiicu 

AlHgoas  

Hrrvlpo  ilol  Key 

Uahla 

Knplrito  ><aTi(o 

Kin  (In.lanclro 

SanloPmili 

Huiila  (.'atarlna 

Haulo  IViIro  do  Mul 

intrWur  I'nMnett. 

AmftBonaii 

Ulniu  (ii'raea 

Mutto  Uruwo 

Uuyaz 

ToUl 


BjimmMIIm- 


IH.IWU 
1(M,CM 
M.DTH 
KN.WW 
M,VM 
IIKI.IKMI 
V\«i» 

m,*u 

1T8.IIM 

31.744 

IIH.TM 

TN),0(M 
II1II.4A0 
1Mb,  HIM 
■M)JM 


a.UNI.fuii) 


Uti.mm 

wmi.i»M 

m,m»t 

iiMi.iiiin 

IIII.UIM 

'M'.'iUlt 
em  'WA 

>-tin,«un 
«>«,nrw 
po.iaM 

MU.IUU 

VM.aim 

MM.UUM 

iwi.iaw 


{Mitiulatlim  of  llrixll  i otniiniit  of  Kuri>|it'ann,  *  lillci  liorn 
n  Ihn  rniintry,  who  u,\\  iIumimIvi'I  llra/llluii«;  Mu> 
lalt'iot,  Mainaluco<'«,  or  ofTniirinK*  of  »  hllm  and  iiatlv* 
Indlaim;  Nrgrorn;  Mi'iil|y.<H'ii, ur/aniliHU.  nilxiil'iialea 
iMlMirn  NrgrrH*  iiml  Indian*;  and  th(<  Aliorl),'lni'ii,  or 
.<mprt<an  Indian*.  Tlip  alavo  impulailon  foniialn  of 
.NrMriM-a  and  mlxfd  lirerda.  ni'thu  Aliorlgincn,  a  por- 
lloti  are  In  •  rlvlllzcd  rondlllon.  »lio  arc  niWi'd  CalK)- 
•'t<M»|  Ihn  re<l  itn  In  a  ravage  i>n<l  uiiruilainiod  atato. 
iU'tirm  forrala  fnrnlah  alnimt  evvry  vuriuly  of  uaeful 
.iiidiintami^tal  llnil<  r.  marc  than  liK)»|ii.L'li'auf  pnlma, 
Ii>KWmmI,  lnah«Kan,i ,  IWaaill,  and  nuiiiiruua  ollitr  ilyo- 
wmmU,  with  aa'aafraa,  aar»a)'arilla,  iiuiaiiianhu,  and 
a  grt at  varlnly  of  other  druga.  (  vcoa,  tuoutcliouo, 
and  manioc,  are  Indlgenoua  prcu'ucti. 
I'lipi/  iif  It  lilnpal.-h,  lialfil  ffhrnani  "H,  IH.'>/4.  nililr'Urd 
liy  Mr,  Mnryiin,  llril'mh  l'nn$ul  I  lliihiu,  In  ike  Ann/ 
qf  t 'tttrnuitnit  rrtatirf  tn  Ih  reporinl  existfwe  nf  .Va- 
lr»lf  nf  Hoila  in  the  ntiyUiorkiiml  uf  the  Hirer  man 
f'rnitri*'o, 

"t  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  tho  receipt  of 
ymir  l«r'Ulil|i'a  diapatch  of  .lanuary  7  la&t,  inatrurtliig 
m*  1 1  report,  aftir  a  careful  in(|uirx-,  on  the  local!- 

hia 


Thu  aiirfaco  of  Ilrazil  la  nlwut  equally  dividMl  inlu 
uplands  and  lowland*,  or  valleya.    Two  paralM  inounl- 

ain  ranges  travorao  tho  country  from  north  tu  aouth,  tlaa  In  wlilch  nitrnle  of  toda  hna  liccn  found  in 
forming  elevated  ridgca  of  tahle-land  —  thu  gn-atcat  prcivinca,  ila  aiatn  of  purity,  thn  coat  of  extracting  and 
height  of  tho  central  range  being  from  OOIK)  tu  7<«X)  tv»t,  raAnIng  It,  and  the  ex|ien»e  of  trnnaport  to  a  aliipplng 
Several  minor  ranges  intersect  the  country,  imloaing  (lurt,  In  reply  I  lieg  to  stiitc,  that  ever  since  the  nicn> 
tracts,  some  of  which  aro  elevated,  and  others  luw-ly.  llun  inada  In  my  Commcrrlul  Iteport  for  the  year  IM.'iO 
ing  plains.  Tho  northern  part  of  Drazil  omaiala  of  tit*  of  lh«  dlM-ovrry  of  this  Important  manure  In  tliin  |)rov- 
greater  part  of  the  vast  plain  through  whlib  lliiwa  Ihn  Inco  I  linvo  received  undonhted  Inrnrmatiou  nf  Its  ex- 
River  Amazon  and  Iih  tributaries,  and  varying  In  width  latenra  In  aeveral  other  localitiea,  and  In  conaifiuciwe 
from  050  to  H(H)  miles.  Tho  rivera,  lakiia,  and  wat«r  loat  no  time  In  renewing  my  cxcrliona,  with  the  assiat- 
courses  are  ao  numerous  as  completely  to  inluraect  IbIa  j  an<'«  iil  a  few  frienda  having  connections  In  tho  IntcrU 
great  plain,  lliu  soil  of  which  is  deep  and  soft,  and  cov-  { ur,  In  ribtnin  every  Information  poasiljle  thereon,  Tho 
ered  for  the  most  pari  with  dense  forests.  Moutlwast  i  Infiirinatlon  received  from  several  districts  Is  audi  ns 
of  this  is  another  plain.  The  principal  rivers  In  this  |  i)>  aallsfy  my  moat  sanguino  expectations,  especially 
direction  aro  the  Tocantins,  Araguay,  I'aranablba,  Han  i  In  IIm  iiortheaat  of  thia  province,  in  the  neighborhood 
Francisco,  Uelmonte,  Doce,  I'aralba  do  Hul,  and  lllu  :  uf  thn  KIter  Han  Francitco,  at  a  place  called  '  Salitro.' 
Grande  do  Sul,  all  of  large  size,  but  nf  ililHcult  navi- '  In  lli«  words  of  a  most  distingulahcd  and  talented  na- 
gstion,  in  consequence  of  rapids,  etc.  The  lublu-land  I  llva  nf  the  town  erf  .lonzriro,  through  a  valley  of  aix- 
on  the  west  is  separated  from  the  Andes  of  liulivla  by  i««n  tn  twenty  leagues  long,  one  niiias  of  nitrate  of  soda 
a  large  and  extensive  plain,  traversed  by  tuoa«  rivers  '  i«  found— In  anmo  places  on  the  surface,  at  others  a  few 


which  join  to  form  the  Madeira;  tho  elevation  of  this 
plain  is  (nm  1200  to  1600  feet.  Un  the  l>anka  of  tbit 
Iriuana,  and  westward  to  the  north  branch  of  tliu  H«rra 
Pareeis,  extends  a  sandy  and  nearly  barren  d«a«rt, 
called  Campos  dot  Parecls.  From  seven  lakes  (Heta 
Lagoas)  on  this  table-land  rises  the  Itiver  Paraguay, 


ftiet  nndnr)  and  contains  suflicient  manuro  for  [ir- 
tatinn  for  years  to  come.  On  the  opposite  side  of  .he 
alMfVe-named  river,  near  tho  town  of  Pilao-Arcnd-, 
AtlHir  deposits  exist  in  equal  quantities.  Tho  prnject- 
<hI  JIhIiIm  llallroad  to  the  town  of  Joazeiro  must  pass 
tliroiigh  the  Drst'named  district ;  but  those  niagninrciit 


wrbich  flows  southward  through  a  swampy  country, ;  datmsit*  will  only  liecome  available  when  thut  railroad 
and  then  through  tho  great  plain  of  Paraguay  tu  Join  rnaclies  the  Han  Francisco.  In  the  interest  of  the  cuni- 
the  Parana.  Tlie  latter  has  a  course  of  1000  miles,  and  (mny  and  nf  commerce  it  is  ardently  to  l>e  desired  tlint 
receives  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Paranabilia,  Hapucaby,  its  wurks  should  lie  commenced  and  prosecuted  with 
Pardo,  etc.  Several  small  streams  How  in  a  southeast  I  vignr,  a*  the  dislanco  is  only  UO  miles  from  this  city." 
direction  into  the  Atlantic.  The  Uruguay  Hows  south  '  The  prndiice  of  the  country  exported  consisted  of, 
through  another  table-land  of  smaller  dimensions  to  »il1i!e,  l,>ll'l,Z13  bags;  hides,  U7,Wf>;  sugar,  7824 
the  plain  of  the  Missiones.  The  principal  lakes  »n  |  casrs ;  rum,  mfl  pipes ;  rice,  8229  bags ;  horns,  2.'i(i,9'l9 ; 
Patos,  an  enlargement  of  the  Rio  Grande,  aud  l/ak«  |  Inbncro,  'itf,7M<  roll<:  rp'e-wocd,  86,647  pieces  ;  linlf- 
Hirim.  Many  otherBoflesssizcaniinlbewoatempruv-  tanned  hides,  12,744;  tapioca,  17,787  barrels,  etc.  The 
inces.  The  climate  of  the  Amazon  valley  is  of  a  lrop>  I  Import*  from  the  ITnlted  States,  in  1861,  amounted  in 
ical  nature ;  only  tho  dry  and  rainy  seaaun*  are  nut  I  valun  tn  $.1,7'>'l,409,  consisting  mostly  of  Hour  nnd 
very  distinctly  marked.  The  night*  aro  cloudliiMi  >  ultter  prnvialuns,  and  cotton  manufactures;  tlic  ex- 
but  in  the  morning  clouds  accumulate  and  umllnuH  till '  ports  bt  the  same  period  amounted  to  |!10,6I7,3G0, 


the  afternoon,  when  thunder  end  lightning,  with  tor 
rents  of  rain,  prevail  for  two  houra,  and  all  again  l« 
clear.  The  climate  of  Central  and  West  Ilrazil  is  mora 
varied,  the  heat  in  the  dry  aeason  being  exceasiva. 


fflMlly  In  coffee,  sugar,  and  hides. 

(Jiimmtrce  rifJJrazil. — From  the  report  of  tho  Mlnis- 
itt  lit  Finance,  read  in  the  Chamlwr  of  Deputies  on 
the  loth  May,  we  gather  the  following  particulars  of 


while  frosty  nighta  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  win- 1  the  lmp';rts  into,  and  exports  from,  the  empire  of  Dra- 
ter;  rain  in  some  situations  Is  of  rare  occurranca.  Tlia  I  zll,  for  the  years  1864-'b6.  The  commerce  of  Brazil 
oUmate  in  the  valley  of  the  southeast  coast  ia,  nutwllb-  \  with  foreign  nations,  during  the  year  18&4-'55,  em- 
tUnding  ita  low  Utitude,  aa  genial  a«  that  of  It«lx,  |  ployed  t^fib  ships  orresaels,  measuriDg  1,667,016  tons. 


BIIA 


205 


nuA 


Intcri- 

I'ho 

Buch  as 

■ilally 

irliood 

lalltrc.' 

tCll  110- 
uf  Bix- 

of  smla 

:»  a  faW 

Itr. 

of  he 

irojcct- 
3t  pnsa 
lificciit 
ailroad 
le  com- 
•d  that 
■A  with 
r  city." 
itcd  of, 
7824 
r)«,919) 
hnlf- 
Tho 
itcd  in 
ur  mid 
llic  ex- 
17,300, 

iMlnis- 
Itics  on 
Pars  of 
of  nra- 
I  Brazil 
em- 
16  tons. 


Tho  ruxciiiin  of  tite  laat  three  y«ari  amounted  to— 
1H62-'6;I,  •l«.l'".<''''*i  lH4;t-'ai,|17,i41),H(Xi;  18.Vl-'5ft, 
|17.TI>7,UM).   Total,  &II,2UU,aU.    Avira((>'.  |17,7  111,  inJ, 


On  the  fllit  of  Dccomlier,  IH6A,  the  cxterlnr  ptihlle 
<lol>t  amouiitud  to  i:.i,<W),lKH).  Tht  pauWa  Intvrior 
fuiiiloil  debt,  |l!:H,l)ll'.),tillO. 


I'MDlrlM. 

liayr: 

lUl-'M 

Uunt. 

-i»A4-'»ir 

Ml  fW 
11  (IT 

Tiia 

BTil 
41>T 
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14A 
1113 
0(«l 
a'4A 
081 
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O'Tt 

KfVwu. 

♦  lU.Mt.MD" 

4,0N«,llll 

ll,l)01l,«44 

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a.ONT.BTI) 

ll.t).SI,4lia 

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|4U.'M.        KM-'U. 

!Sii'.i      "iiiU 
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iiHiif>       naiiH 

4116            Bill 

«■«        7-;rr 
4  vn        4  ai 

1  7>l           B<I7 
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osn        1  ;u 

iils           1I7T 
B6J1           l'7l) 
U  III           O'U 
l"lt\           117 
it'i;4           1'7'i 

O'lb        out) 

(In*ftt  llrlUln  mid  hvr  |niiimhIoiii 

4,liMU,lr*7 
8,IXlb,«(lrt 
»,'JlU,UUd 
«,44.',«:.3 

Ssf.,TftJ 
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bA4.iii:i 

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bm.'mo 

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(1x1 
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OTH 
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1  iittiiii  Htiiti'ii 

I'nrtiiifAl  liiiil  licr  uuiisoMlonN 

Uio  (I*  U  Platft 

Clflll 

HwtMk'ii  bikI  Niirway 

Di'iiiimili 

Tiirliiiy 

Ke-oiiiurt>tlim 

Tiital 

1^:1.040, 1T4 

HlbU.MIfWB 

1 

A  derrco  of  the  gorommont  of  Drazil,  under  date  of 
January  10th,  1865,  exDin|its  furclKiicrH  from  pcrniltn 
of  rciiidcnM',  and  pcrmitu  them  to  travi;!  in  tlio  iiituriur 
of  tho  eniplrn  with  nuch  paanports  as  thoy  may  havo 
hroiiKht  with  tliom,  and,  for  thu  want  of  such,  with  tlio 
pumport  of  their  respective  iiiiiilHtors,  consuls,  or  vice- 
consuls,  tho  same  licaring  the  vita  of  tho  Urazllian  au- 
thorities. 

[Tnnalutlnn.] 

Art.  1.  I'emilts  of  resldcnoe  are  abDlliheil,  and  fonsl|;ncrs 
eonilnfr  to  tho  rmplre  are  oxemptcil  fnim  tho  samo. 

Art.  'i.  At  nvery  police  oltlou  a  book  Hlmll  Im  kept  for  tho 
roglntratlou  of  forflgneni  entering  or  litavlng  thu  empire. 

^Irf.  X  On  the  ooeasloii  of  the  pulla^  visit  foreigners  shall 
state  tltelr  nsntt-s,  condition,  tho  place  of  tlieir  nativity,  pro. 
fcMsIon,  the  object  for  coming  hero  when  they  arrived,  and 
where  they  Intend  to  reside.  In  thoKo  plnrcs  where  no  police 
▼Istt  Is  made,  the  aforcsAld  decliimtion  Hhall  he  made  before 
the  chief  of  iwUce,  delegate,  or  sub-delegate  within  twenty-four 
liouni  after  landing,  uniler  iicnalty  of  Ironi  $10  to  $60  line,  Im- 
powMl  by  tlie  coniiwtent  authority. 

AH,  4  The  declaration  alluded  to  In  the  foregoing  article 
doc!*  not  cxonenite  captains  and  inoHterH  of  merchant  vessels 
ftvi\\\  the  oMiKittion  leipotMMl  upon  theui  by  the  twenty-fillh  ar- 
ticle of  reguliition  No.  120,  of  January  illst,  1»I2,  to  declare.  In 
a  statement  signed  by  th'.'m,  the  numlKT,  name,  employnient, 
occupation,  and  place  of  nativity  of  the  passengers  they  bring 
with  them,  with  or  without  passporta 

w4r(.  B.  The  declaration  ol  the  foreigner  and  of  tho  muter  or 
captain  of  the  vessel  shall  be  iinntediiitely  truuHmitted  to  the 
bureau  of  police  by  tho  vlalllug  olBcer  or  the  authority  who  re- 
ceives them. 

Art.  6.  Tho  visiting  olHcer,  the  chief  of  police,  or  the  dele- 
gato  or  siib-delegato  to  whom  the  foreigner  presents  hlniKcIf, 
shall  examine  his  passpoii,  and  the  same  Udiig  found  In  due 
form.  It  shall  be  returned  to  him  visaed,  dated,  and  sl(^ed. 

Art.  T.  if  there  should  bo  any  doubt  as  to  the  legality  of  tho 
passport,  or  tho  foreigner  come  without  one,  the  chief  of  police, 
tho  delegate,  or  sub-delegate  shall  penult  him  tu  land  If  tho.o 
Is  no  reason  for  nuspectlng  him  to  be  a  criminal ;  but  If  he 
should  be  snspIclou^  and  have  no  certificate  to  present  In  his 
IWvor  from  his  minister,  or.  In  the  absence  thereof,  from  his 
respective  consul  or  vice-consul,  the  chief  of  police,  the  dele- 
gate or  sub-delegate  shall  comp(d  tho  vessel  which  brought 
him  to  take  him  buck,  reporting  tho  circumstance  to  tho  gov- 
ernment ut  the  capital,  and  to  the  presldont  in  the  provlucea 

A  rt.  8.  To  enable  a  foreigner  to  travc  I  from  one  province 
to  another,  or  in  the  Interior  of  the  same,  tho  passport  with 
which  he  arrived  In  tho  ompiro  will  be  suffleient,  provided  it 
lieara  the  vim  of  the  competent  authority  with  this  clause, 
"  For  tho  province  of ."  The  vina  must  bo  dated,  sign- 
ed, paid  for,  and  renewed  every  time  the  foreigner  leaves  one 
province  for  another. 

Art.  9.  Hut  if  the  forelKner  shoidd  happen  to  havo  come 
without  a  passport,  or  have  lost  tho  one  ho  brought  with  him 
to  the  empire,  the  pasxport  of  tho  minister,  or,  in  the  absence 
thereof,  that  of  his  rcs|>cctlve  consul  or  vice-consul,  with  the 
visa  of  the  Urazllian  authorities,  as  set  fortli  in  the  preceding 
article,  shall  answer  the  same  purpose. 

Art  10,  A  foreigner  who  has  resided  in  the  empire  for  two 
years,  Iwlng  in  possession  of  an  establishment,  and  conduct- 
ed himself  well,  or  being  married  to  a  Draiilian,  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  travel  Ihiely  like  a  Uraclliau,  after  having  obtained 


frrtm  tho  chief  of  police  a  rertiflcate  of  1 1 1  liur  of  said  conditions, 
thirf  rertlHcate  Is  revokablo  lu  easo  of  a  change  of  circum- 
stances. 

Art.  11.  In  caso  of  therti  tjcing  no  diploniatio  or  consular 
agent,  or  tho  funiKuer  Im  a  refugee  or  enilgrnnt,  or  not  coma 
under  the  provU'  mh  of  the  preceding  aitlelc,  tlie  passport 
Hhull  bu  Issued  by  iJie  chief  of  police,  the  delegate,  or  sub-del- 
•  h'ate,  thu  same  being  always  free  of  •  liargu  for  the  emigrant 
or  the  poor. 

Art.  1'i.  The  mlidaters  if  state,  or  tho  chief  clerks  of  the 
several  departments  at  the  neat  of  goveniiueut,  tho  presidents 
or  their  eecrctarlcs  In  tho  capitals  of  the  provinces,  tiin  chief 
of  iKillce,  tho  delegate  or  nub-delegate,  at  thu  place  of  lumllng 
or  of  departure,  shall  bo  empowered  to  grant  the  pasHjf  >tt  or 
the  visa  referred  tu  in  tlui  preceding  articles.  The  power»  inn, 
ferred  by  this  decree  upon  thu  chief  of  police,  thu  del.  giito 
and  sub-delegate,  ari?  not  concurrent,  hut  shall  bu  exercUed  by 
the  delegate  in  placcH  where  no  chief  of  police  resides,  or  by 
tho  sub-delegate  when-  no  chief  of  police  or  delegate  exists. 

Art.  10.  In  couhlileratlon  of  tho  foregoing  articles,  the  po, 
spectlvo  portions  of  the  articles  in  regulation  No.  I'^O,  of  Jan. 
uary  Slst,  which  referred  to  penults  of  residence,  and  to  poss. 
ports  for  fon-ignoni  traveling  in  tho  interior  of  titu  empire, 
arc  hereby  aboll^'hed. 

BraEll-nuU,  or  Chest'  uta  of  Brasll,  tho  fruit 

of  tlie  ,lu^  m  (Hii'tlidllilui  exceUii),  a  mi^estic  tree  grow- 
ing to  tlio  helgiit  of  ono  huildre(l  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet,  abounding  on  tho  banks  of  tlio  tiriiioco, 
and  in  tho  iiurtliurn  |>art3  uf  llrazil.  The  nut.s  aro  tri- 
angular, having  a  cuneirurm  appearance,  with  sutures 
at  each  of  tho  angles;  the  shell  is  rough  and  hard,  and 
of  a  brownish  usli  color.  Tho  kernel  resembles  that  of 
an  almond,  but  is  larger,  and  tastes  inuru  like  a  com- 
mon hazel-nut ;  it  contains  a  great  dea  i  »f  oil,  that  may 
bo  obtained  by  expression  or  otherwise.  Those  nuts 
do  not  grow  separately  or  in  clusters,  but  are  contain- 
ed, to  the  number  of  from  liftecu  to  lifty  or  more,  in 
great  ligneous  pericarps  or  outer  shclLs,  generally  of 
the  size  of  a  child's  head.  This  outer  khell  is  very  hard 
and  strong,  so  that  it  is  rather  ditlicult  to  get  at  tho 
nuts,  V,  iiich  arc  closely  packed  in  cells  inside.  Tho  na- 
tives are  particularly  fund  of  this  fruit,  and  celobrato 
the  harvest  of  tho  juvia  with  rejoicings ;  it  is  also  very 
mucli  esteemed  in  Europe.  Tho  nuta  exported  to 
England  and  tlio  European  continent  aro  chiefly  fh>m 
I'ara,  and  form  nn  article  of  considerable  commercial 
importance. — Ilf-MBoLur's  rertoaal  Narrative,  vol.  v. 
p.  538,  English  trnnslation, 

BrasU-wood  (Fr.  Dois  de  Bresil;  Ger.  Brasilien- 
holz;  Du.  lirasUunhout ;  It.  Leyno  del  liranle,  Verzino; 
Sp.  Madera  del  llnsil ;  Tort.  Pao  JirtuiC).  1 1  has  been 
commonly  supposed  that  this  wood  derived  its  name 
from  the  country  in  which  it  is  principally  produced ; 
but  Dr.  Bancroft  has  conclusively  shown  that  woods 
yielding  a  red  dye  were  called  Brazil-woods  long  pre- 
viously to  tho  discovery  of  America ;  and  that  the  ear- 
ly voyagers  gave  the  name  of  Brazil  to  that  part  of 
that  continent  to  which  it  is  still  applied  from  their 
having  ascertained  that  it  aboaoded  in  such  wood*.— 


f   I 


BBE 


Me 


BRK 


fl««  (hu  Irarnfil  luiJ  •xcelloiil  work,  PMItunphu  nfCnU 
art,  vol.  11.  |i.  Jlltf-a'.M,  It  U  roiinci  In  llio  Kr'at^t 
tbundiinctt,  *n(l  la  uf  th«  iMtt  quality,  In  lit*  prorlnc« 
of  romaniliuru,  whore  It  ii  c«Jlii<l  I'ao  dt  niiitka,  or 
Quecn'a  wtwd ;  but  It  U  kUo  found  In  many  othar  parti 
of  lb«  We»tem  baniliphcrc.  I'Ko  trca  Is  larifs,  rrook- 
(d,  anil  knotty;  Ih*  kavai  are  of  a  beautiful  r«il,  and 
•xhalu  an  aKreuibIa  odor.  Ita  Ixitanlcal  name  U  C'o- 
•u/yWntu  llratiltlo,  but  it  li  rallnil  by  thu  natlvva  Mrij>- 
Uanaa.  NotwIthitaodlnK  Ita  a|<|>areMl  bulk,  the  bark  la 
•o  thick,  that  a  trca  an  '  K<'  x  a  man'i  liody  with  tha 
bark  will  not  Ui  lo  thit  <  ^  iho  hg  whim  pvulvil,  When 
cut  into  chiut,  It  loiei  the  |j|la  rulur  It  before  had,  Mid 
bacomoa  ri'il,  and  whan  chewcit  kaa  a  aweal  taila.  It 
I*  uied  for  vnrioui  ))urpo«i-)i  liy  calilnat-makon,  and  ad- 
mila  of  a  Ix-audfiil  vamUii,  but  ita  principal  uio  U  in 
dyainK  red;  and  though  tlio  color  ti  liable  to  decay, 
yat,  l>y  mixing  with  It  alum  anil  tartar,  It  ia  eoaily 
made  |ximianciit,  There  is  also  made  of  it,  by  means 
of  acids,  n  sort  of  llqnid  lake  or  carmino  for  painting  In 
inlnlaturo.  llrazil-woud  has  been  for  many  yean  past 
A  royal  monopoly  ;  its  exportation,  except  on  account 
of  guvemmcnl,  Muk  prohlbltcil  under  the  severest  pen- 
altiua.  Owing  to  the  improvident  manner  in  which  It 
boa  baen  cut  down  by  the  guvernment  agents,  it  li  now 
rarely  found  within  several  leagues  of  the  coast.  In- 
deed, we  ore  assured  that  many  of  the  planters  have 
privately  cut  down  the  trees  on  their  estates,  and  used 
the  timber  its  tire-wood,  that  they  might  not  expose 
themselves  to  annoyance  fh>m  the  arbitrary  and  vexa- 
tious proeceilings  of  these  funrii»naries.  The  quantity 
of  lirazil-wood  imported  Into  Great  Britain  ia  but  in- 
considerable. Its  price  in  the  London  market,  exclu- 
sive of  the  duty  (it.  per  ton),  varies  for  the  first  qual- 
ity fVom  £60  to  £K0  per  ton, — Dr.  DANCRorr  in  luc. 
cit.  Kwijclup.  Mtttvj).  Mothm  Tnirtltr,  vol.  xxix.  p. 
67  ;  Maute  But's,  vol.  v.  p.  &2fi,  English  edition,  etc. 

Bread,  the  principal  article  in  the  food  of  most  civ- 
ilized nations,  consists  of  a  paste  or  dough  formed  of 
the  liuur  or  mval  of  ditlbrcut  sorts  of  grain  mixed  with 
water,  and  baked.  When  stale  dough  or  yeast  is  add- 
ed to  Iho  fresh  dough,  to  make  It  swell,  it  is  said  to  be 
/earewcii^  when  nothing  of  this  sort  1*  added,  it  la  said 
to  be  unlratrntd, 

llulurical  Hhetrh  of  Srtad.— The  President  de  Go- 
guet  ha«  endeavored,  with  his  usual  sagacity  and  learn- 
ing, to  tracfy  the  successive  steps  l>y  which  it  Is  prol>- 
ablo  men  were  led  to  discover  the  art  of  making  bread 
(Origin  of  Liac$,  etc.  vol.  i.  p.  95-106,  English  trans- 
lation) ;  but  nothing  positive  is  known  on  the  sutjoct. 
It  is  certain,  however,  from  the  statements  in  the  sa- 
cred writings,  that  the  ose  of  unlcaviaed  bread  was 
common  in  the  days  of  Abraham  (^'en,  xvlil.'8);  and 
that  leavened  bread  was  used  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
for  he  proliibits  eating  the  Tascha'  lamb  with  such 
broad.— AJ»rf.  xil.  16.  The  Greeks  a  Brmed  that  Pan 
had  instructed  them  in  the  art  of  making  l^riad;  bnt 
they  no  doubt  were  indebted  for  this  art,  as  well  as  for 
their  kncwledge  of  agriculture,  to  the  Egyptians  and 
Phoenidans,  who  had  early  settled  in  their  country. 
The  method  of  grinding  com  by  hand-mills  was  prac- 
ticed \k  Egv'pt  and  Greece  fhjm  a  very  remote  epoch ; 
but  for  a  lengthened  period  the  Romans  had  no  other 
method  of  making  flour  than  by  beating  roasted  com 
in  mortars.  The  Macedonian  war  helped  to  make  the 
Romans  acquainted  with  the  arts  and  refinements  of 
Greece ;  and  Pliny  mentions  titat  public  bakers  were 
then  for  the  first  time  established  In  Rome.— //u<.  Nat. 
lib.  xviii.,  c.  11.  The  conquests  of  the  Romans  dif- 
fused, among  many  other  useful  discoveries,  a  knowl- 
•dge  of  the  art  of  preparing  bread,  as  practiced  in  Rome, 
throDgh  the  whole  south  of  Europe.  The  use  of  yeast 
in  the  raising  of  bread  seems,  however,  from  a  passage 
of  Pliny  Olb.  xviii.  c.  7),  to  have  been  practiced  by  the 
Gennani  and  Gaols  before  it  was  practiced  by  the  Ro- 
mans; the  latter,  like  the  Greeks,  having  leavened 
-thalr  blMd  by  IntMiaiziiig  the  (reah  dough  with  that 


whirh  had  baroma  slala.  Tha  Roman  practice  seami 
lu  have  auparsailad  that  which  wi>  ,  revluualy  In  use  In 
Kranr«  and  Hpain ;  fur  tha  art  of  raising  bread  by  an 
admixture  uf  yeast  was  not  practlc«d  in  France  In  mad- 
am timea  till  toward  the  and  of  tha  seventeenth  centu- 
ry. It  deserves  to  lie  manlioncd  that,  though  tha  bn>a>l 
made  In  this  way  was  decidedly  superior  lo  that  pre- 
viously in  use,  it  was  declared  liy  the  faculty  of  medi- 
cine In  Paris  lu  be  prejudicial  lo  health ;  and  tha  uaa 
<Y  yeast  was  pruhildted  under  the  severest  penaltla*. 
Lui'kily,  however,  the  taste  of  the  pulilic  concurring 
wilh  tlie  interest  of  the  bakera,  proved  too  powerAil  fur 
these  ibsurd  regulations,  which  gradually  fell  Into  dls- 
usa ;  and  yeast  has  long  l>ocn  almost  every  where  used 
in  praferi'nco  to  any  thing  else  In  the  manufacture  of 
bread,  to  the  whuleiomeness  and  exoellaucu  of  which 
It  baa  not  a  little  contributed. 

The  species  of  bread  In  common  use  in  a  country  de- 
pends partly  on  the  taslo  of  the  Inhabitants,  but  more 
on  thu  sort  of  grain  sullal>io  for  its  suil.  But  the  su- 
IMBrlorily  of  wheat  to  ail  other  farinaceous  plH.ils  In  tha 
manufacture  of  bread  Is  so  very  great,  tliat,  w  berever  It 
Is  easily  and  succcsafully  cultivated,  whcaten  bread  la 
used,  to  Iho  nearly  total  exclusion  of  most  othara. 
Where,  however,  the  soil  or  climate  is  less  favorable 
to  ita  growth,  rye,  oats,  etc,  are  used  in  its  stead.  A 
very  great  change  for  tha  better  has,  In  this  respect, 
tuken  place  in  Great  Britain  within  the  last  century. 
It  is  mentioned  liy  Harrison,  lu  his  deserlpliun  of  En- 
gland (n.  KM),  that  In  the  rolgii  of  Henry  VIII.  the 
gentry  had  wheat  sulHcient  for  their  own  tables,  but 
that  their  hotutkM  and  poor  nclghbon  were  usually 
obliged  to  content  themselves  with  rye,  ba>l>'y,  and 
oats.  It  appeare  from  the  household  book  uf  Sir  Ed- 
ward Coke  that,  in  1696,  r}'e  bread  and  oatmeal  fomi- 
ed  a  considerable  ])art  of  the  diet  of  servanis,  even  In 
groat  families.  In  the  southern  counties.  Barley  bread 
is  stated  in  the  grant  of  a  monopoly  by  Charles  I.,  In 
IdiO,  to  bo  the  usual  food  of  the  ordinary  sort  of  peo- 
ple.—iSir  F.  SI.  Ei>EN  on  Me  Poor,  vol.  I.  p.  5(11.  At 
the  Revolution,  the  wheat  produced  in  England  and 
Wales  was  estimated  by  Mr.  King  and  Dr.  Uavcnaut 
to  amount  to  1,760,000  quarters.— Davknant's  fVorlct, 
vol.  11.  p.  217,  Mr.  Charles  Smith,  the  very  well  in- 
foraied  author  of  the  Tracts  on  the  Corn  Trade,  origin- 
ally published  in  1758,  states  that  in  his  lime  wheat 
had  become  much  more  generall}'  the  food  of  the  com- 
mon people  than  It  bad  lieen  in  1689 ;  but  ho  adds  (2d 
e<l.  p.  183,  Lond.  17Cfl)  that,  notwithstanding  this  in- 
crease, some  very  intelligent  inquirera  were  of  opinion 
that  even  then  not  more  than  half  the  people  of  En- 
gland fed  on  wheat,  Mr.  Smith's  own  estimate,  which 
is  very  carefully  drawn  up,  is  a  little  higher ;  for,  tak- 
ing the  population  of  England  and  Wales,  in  1760,  at 
6,000,000,  he  supposed  that  8,750,000  were  consumers 
of  wheat;  739,000  of  barley ;  888,000  of  rye  und  62a,000 
of  oats.  Mr.  Smith  further  supposed  that  they  individ- 
ually consumed,  tlu  first  class,  1  quarter  of  wheal ;  the 
second,  1  quarter  and  8  bushels  of  barley ;  the  third,  1 
quarter  and  1  bushel  of  rye ;  and  the  fourth,  2  quarters 
and  7  bushels  of  oats. 

About  the  middle  of  last  century,  hardly  any  wheat 
was  used  in  the  northern  counties  of  England.  In 
Cumberland,  the  principal  families  used  only  a  small 
quantity  about  Christmas.  The  crust  of  the  gooxe  pie, 
with  which  almost  every  table  in  the  county  is  then 
supplied,  was,  at  the  period  referred  to,  alinont  uniform- 
ly made  of  barley  meal. — Eden  on  the  Poor,  vol.  i.  p. 
664. 

Every  one  knows  how  inapplicable  these  statements 
are  to  the  condition  of  the  people  of  England  at  the 
present  timo.  Whoalen  broad  is  now  universally  made 
use  of  in  towns  and  villages,  and  almost  every  where 
in  the  country.  Barley  Is  no  longer  used,  except  in 
the  distilleries  and  in  brewing ;  oats  are  employed  only 
In  the  feeding  of  horses ;  and  the  consumption  of  rye 
bread  is  comparatively  inconsiderable.    The  product 


B.I 

nov 


BRE 


t07 


HUE 


ot  tha  whMt  erop*  haa  btun,  at  the  r«ry  Uatt,  f  vodnt. 
|ifc</  •iuca  t7tH).  Anil  If  to  tlili  liiiiuaiiu  IncrniiM  In 
Ilia  lupiily  ot  whiwt  w«  aclil  ilm  ttill  nioro  oxtraordln- 
•ry  InrrfMii  In  Iha  lupply  ol  liiiti'.huni'  inaat  (» « fiiyic/r 
CAni.i:),  lb*  fart  of  a  vary  >iKn«l  Iniprovsmiint  hav- 
ing takun  |iliic*  in  Um  conillllua  of  tbu  po|iulatliin,  In 
mpcot  uf  fooit,  will  bo  ulivloim. 

Uut  gntt,  ai  hai  Iwon  the  ImpniTamant  In  tho  condi- 
tion of  thn  paopleof  EnKUuililni»i  1760,  It  It  Imt  trlHInK 
conipariMl  to  tha  luiproveinant  that  haa  taken  placo  •Incit 
tha  aaino  purioil  In  tlio  conillliun  of  tho  paoplo  of  Ht'ol- 
lanil.  At  thu  niiddle  of  lant  runtury,  Hcotoli  aKrlrulturn 
wat  in  tliu  niont  dopruHuil  itala ;  ^he  tanant*  w<'re  dniitU 
tntv  allka  of  capital  und  iklil ;  grtrn  cropa  wnm  nlmont 
wholly  unknown  ;  and  tho  quantity  of  wheat  that  wai 
ralaad  wat  i|uita  inuonalduraldo.  A  Held  uf  viKht  acn't 
■own  with  thla  K^aln,  in  Iha  vicinity  of  Edlnburf{h,  In 
1T27,  wai  rackoneil  lo  Krout  a  curioally  that  it  excited 
thaattontlun  of  tha  whole  nuighliurhitoil. — KonKnTaiix's 
Rural  Rfcnllrclum;  p.  3(17,  Uut  even  io  late  aa  the 
American  war,  tho  wheat  ralaoil  in  the  Lothiana  and 
Bcrwickalilro  did  not  exceed  n  third  part  of  what  la 
now  grown  in  tliem ;  ami  Inkini;  the  whole  country  at 
•n  avera^,  it  will  be  a  niodurate  eatiinato  to  aay  that 
tho  cultivation  of  wheat  haa  increaaed  in  a  ttt\/bld  pro- 
portion tinea  17HU.  At  that  purlod  no  wheatan  bruad 
waa  to  be  niut  with  In  the  country  placoa  and  villuf{c' 
of  Scotland,  oat  taktt  and  bitrley  biinmtekt  being  uni- 
Tsraally  made  vto  of,  Dut  at  preaont  thu  caao  la  wide- 
ly dilKirent,  llio  upper  and  alao  tho  iniilillo  and  low- 
tr  claraet  In  towna  and  villaKoa  uae  only  wheatun  bread, 
and  ovan  In  farni-huuaoa  It  it  very  extcnaivuly  con- 
aumud.  There  it  at  thla  uionient  hardly  a  villagu  to  be 
met  with,  however  limited  Ita  extent,  that  haa  not  a 
public  baiter.  In  many  parta  of  Kngland  It  it  tho  cua- 
toni  fur  private  familiea  to  bake  their  own  bread.  Tliia 
It  particularly  the  caaa  In  Kent,  and  In  luuio  parta  of 
Lancuahlre.  In  ltH>4  there  wot  not  a  aInKlo  public  baker 
In  Manchcater,  and  their  number  ia  ttiil  very  linUted. 

Tha  word  broad  it  lomotimoa  uted  for  all  the  nccos- 
lariei  of  human  life,  cipocinlly  In  the  Horipturoa. 
(.'IdnK-NdunKt  the  aucceaaor  uf  Folii,  la  reputed  to  have 
been  the  flrat  who  taught  men  (the  Chineae)  the  art  of 
huabaudry,  and  tlio  method  uf  nrnkinji  broad  from 
wheat,  and  wine  ttom  rice,  1U98  k.k:. — L'nieertal  llia- 
iory.  Daking  uf  bread  waa  known  In  thu  patriarchal 
agea;  aee  Kjrodut,  xll.  16.  Itaklng  broad  became  a 
profeiaion  at  Home,  170  B,o.  During  tho  aicge  of 
Faria  by  Henry  IV,,  owing  to  tho  famine  which  then 
raged,  broad,  which  bad  been  nold,  wliilu  any  remained, 
for  a  crown  a  pound,  wot  at  laat  niiide  from  tho  Itonca 
of  the  cbamel-liouae  of  the  Holy  Iniiocentt,  a,d.  1691. 
— lIiSNAtri.T.  In  the  timo  of  James  I.  tho  uiual  bread 
of  the  po«r  waa  roado  of  barley ;  and  now  In  Iceland, 
cod-fltb,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made  Into  bread ;  and 
tha  poor  uae  potato-bread  in  many  parta  of  Ireland. 
Earth  has  been  catun  m  bread  In  gome  parts  of  the 
world :  near  Moacow  ia  a  portion  of  land  whoso  clay 
will  ferment  when  mixed  with  flour.  8ome  of  the  In- 
diana of  the  Southwett  cat  a  white  earth  with  talt ;  and 
the  Indiana  of  theOronokoeat  awbito  imctuout  earth. 
— Grkki  ;  Phillips. 

Brtail-making.—BnaA  It  a  mott  Important  and  gen- 
erally uied  article  of  food,  and  its  proper  preparation 
it  a  matter  of  the  first  importance.  In  New  York  It  ia 
chiefly  compoied  of  wheat  flour,  although  rye  and  In. 
dlan  meal  enter  somewhat  into  the  composition  of  some 
■pedes.     100  parta  of  wheat  flour  consist  of 

Starch ftS  parts. 

Uluten J4     •• 

Bugar [',]',    6     n 

Vegetable  Albumen a     '• 

Of  these  dlfTorent  constituents,  tho  t^lnten  is  that 
which  gives  to  it  the  univeriutl  preference  it  cnjoyt  over 
all  other  articles  for  bread-making.  In  oats,  barley, 
and  rye,  the  amount  of  gluten  Is  small.  As  iu  name 
imp«rta,  it  glvet  to  tha  flour,  when  raized  with  water, 


In  the  form  of  dnugh,  lit  i/IhImihh  or  adhaalve  proper- 
ly I  and  hi'nco,  allhuiigh  wheal  rimir  <'aii  raally  l»i  om- 
varted  Into  a  plaatir  patto  with  wafer,  yet  it  in  found 
exoeHlluuly  dllllndl  or  inip«>aiblu  li>  make  an  adbealvu 
'l>ii»;h  witli  rye  or  oat  meal  fluur  withuut  tlie  addltlan 
It  a  pcirllun  of  wheat  finur. 

1  b<'  i|u  illly  of  wheat  Hour  la  gn-atly  Improved  by 
thnu'  or  four  inontba'  age,  and  It  uiakea  a  miieli  atrongar 
liiiuil  after  thla  period  than  before.  If,  however.  It  It 
kept  liM)  lung,  It  la  not  only  liable  to  fvrmnntutlun,  but 
lonea  Iu  part  Its  glullmiua  property.  It  la  tli«  cuatoin 
with  bakera,  who  K'Idoiii  uao  fluur  lieforu  It  la  of  thu 
ago  inilleatad,  to  mix  tliut  uf  threu  or  four  nionthn'  age 
with  that  which  it  one  or  two  yoart  old;  beyond  thit 
period  it  can  not  be  well  kept  without  rapeelal  earn; 
anil,  Indeed,  ao  great  la  thu  demanil,  that  It  la  seldom 
pormltti'il  lo  III  eumulatu  fur  a  longer  time, 

Moat  of  tliu  liread  uied  in  New  York  \iij'rnn< ,  nl  or 
raised  bread,  whieh  In  Induced  b}'  adding  to  the  duugh 
a  portion  of  leaven,  or  yiaat,  which  quickly  dlttuaen  It- 
self throiigli  tha  whole  maaa,  and  causes  It  tu  IVrmenl, 
Thla  ferinentntlon,  which,  although  dally  ol)BOr\<<', 
Is  far  from  being  to  well  undoratood  aa  at  first  ti^'.t 
might  ho  Buppuasd,  evolvea  a  quantity  uf  fixed  air  Into 
tho  duugh,  which  the  gluten  of  thu  flour,  by  ita  tenac- 
ity, cauaea  to  bo  retained  In  tho  little  eella  seen  in  tha 
raiaed  dough  before  l>aklng,  or  in  the  bn ml  un  It  comes 
Into  tho  conauinur'a  hands.  Flour  ia  nnw  avid  which 
contains  tartaric  acid  nnd  saleratua,  i>i  ^kIu,  in  a  dry 
statu,  AVIien  water  la  milled  to  tbiK,  it  <  iiusea  an  evo- 
lution of  thu  cnrbonle.  aeid  gua  contained  in  tlie  aoda, 
or  potaah,  anil  thu  bread  la  suddenly  raiaed  without 
thu  proceaa  of  femicntation, 

Tho  method  of  making  bread  in  large  bakeries  is  to 
idfl  B  quantity  of  flour  Into  a  kneailing-trough.  Into 
which  is  thrown  a  quai\llty  of  hot  water  In  which  salt 
hua  been  dissolved.  Into  this  mixture  yeant  ia  east 
In  the  centre,  and  workeil  witli  a  portiun  uf  the  sur- 
rounding mass,  which  ia  made  of  the  consistence  of  a 
stiff  batter.  Tho  surface  Is  covered  with  n  little  loose 
flour,  and  tho  whole  Is  left  in  a  state  of  repuse  until  it 
begins  to  manifest  decide<l  signs  of  "working,"  when 
It  is  kneaded  Into  duugh. 

This  dough  Is  sprinkled  with  a  littlu  flour,  covered 
witli  a  warm  woolen  cloth,  and  left  fur  nn  hour  and  a 
half,  when  It  Is  subjected  to  n  second  but  less  general 
kneading,  cut  in  pieces,  weighed,  and  shaped  Into  the 
form  it  is  intandod  to  assume  In  the  loaf,  and  set  aside 
for  some  time  in  a  warm  place.  When  r<  >  'or  tho 
oven,  tho  loaves  are  placed  in  it,  bukod,  n"i'  :■■  .ed 
in  the  form  of  bread,  Tho  loaf  Increases  ton  ^  .  .  ..-vico 
tho  slzo  which  it  had  in  the  form  of  dough,  but  lotea 
somewhat  in  weight  in  tho  process  of  baking. 

In  most  European  countries  the  weight  c  f  tho  loaf  ia 
regulated  by  law,  the  assize  being  attnr'ed  with  strict 
regulations  and  penalties ;  but  in  this  <  uuntry  the  sulv 
Joct  of  quantity  and  quality,  as  a  ger  rral  rule,  has  been 
loft  for  tho  baker  and  his  custcme  i  s  to  roguluto  between 
themselves,  it  being  considered  that  competition  would 
probal'ly  regulate  this  matter  ns  advantageously  for 
tho  consumiT  as  it  could  \m  done  liy  strict  legal  enact- 
ments. This  is  the  more  advisaldo,  because  thu  l>akcr 
has  it  in  his  power  to  Increase  the  weight  of  his  loaf 
by  adulterations,  which  are  difllcult  to  detect,  without 
adding  to  its  nutritious  properties.  As  it  is,  he  is  frco 
to  select  the  mixture  of  flour  which  Is  best  suitud  to  tha 
wants  and  tastes  of  his  customers, 

Ihoro  is  a  great  difference  in  the  aliilify  of  various 
kinds  of  flour  to  make  a  given  quantify  uf  l)rcad,  A 
portion  of  this  dllftrence  consists  in  the  capacity  of  the 
flour  to  absorb  and  rotoin  water,  which  is  not  only 
used  to  moisten  the  flour,  but  absolutely  enters  into 
tho  composition  of  tho  bread.  Notwithstanding  a 
largo  portion  of  tho  water  used  In  making  dough  Is  ex- 
pelled by  the  heat  of  the  oven  in  baking,  yet  a  suffi- 
ciency is  retained  to  increase  tho  weight  of  the  bread 
largely  over  the  solid  uaterlola  uted  in  making  it. 


BBE 


808 


Bum 


'Wlien  the  broad  is  ireighed  immedlatoly  after  bak- 
ing, It  is  found  that  for  evarj- 100  pouuda  of  flour  about 
188  pounds  of  bread  are  made.  This  will  diminish, 
bv  keeping,  four  or  five  pounds,  but  even  when  stale 
Uis  mucli  above  the  weight  of  the  Hour  actually  lued. 
As  a  general  rule,  fifteen  pounds  of  flour  and  ten  pounds 
of  water  will  make  twenty  pounds  of  bread,  bo  that 
one-fourth  ofeuth  Itxifo/bread  comittu  i^water  chemk- 
aUy  combined  and  aolidijied. 

Each  baker  has  his  own  standard  for  the  size  and 
weight  of  his  Idaves,  as  well  as  his  particular  method 
of  making  bread.  As  a  general  rule,  the  sixpenny 
loaf  weighs  from  one  pound  two  ounces  to  one  pound 
six  ounces,  and  larger  loaves  bear  a  like  proportion  uf 
weight  to  price.  Those  whose  custom  is  among  the 
more  fashionable  classes  use  a  higher-priced  quality 
of  flour,  and  make  a  smaller  loaf,  while  those  who  sup- 
ply the  laboring  class  of  the  community  use  a  good  but 
less  liigli-priced  flour,  and  furnish  their  customers  with 
a  large  loaf.  Many  of  the  shops  contain  American, 
French,  and  German  loaves,  while  large  nun.bera  of 
establishuicnts  coniino  themselves  to  the  ouo  or  the 
other  of  these  species.  The  chief  ditrercnoe  between 
t]io  American  and  French  bread  consists  in  the  larger 
quantity  of  yeast  used  in  the  latter,  and  its  greater 
porosity,  or  waut  of  closeness.  The  Gorman  bread  is 
more  den«o  than  either  of  these,  and  contains,  in  addi- 
tion to  wheat  flour,  a  small  admixt-<re  of  rye  flour, 
which  gives  to  it  a  slightly  sweetish  taste,  much  rel- 
ished by  those  accustomed  to  its  use. 

The  amount  of  bread  consumed  every  where  is  very 
great.  According  to  M.  Ilusson,  tL^  X'arisian  a'les 
about  one  pound  each  day,  or  three  hundred  and  six- 
ty pouuds  each  year.  The  Londoner  consumes  in  the 
same  time  about  three  hundred  pounds ;  and  the  Now 
Yorker  about  two  hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  The 
reason  of  this  great  disparity  in  the  consumption  of 
bread  in  these  three  great  cities  is  easily  seen  in  the 
larger  quantity  of  meat  and  vegetables  used  in  lue  one 
than  in  the  other.  The  Londoner  consumes  more  meat 
than  the  Parisian,  and  cousequently  less  bread,  while 
the  amount  both  of  meat  and  vegetables  used  by  the 
New  Yorker  exceeds  that  of  the  Londoner;  and  his 
consumption  of  bread  is  proportionably  diminished. 
This,  however,  is  subject,  in  every  countiy,  to  great 
rariations ;  but  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  the  fam- 
ily the;  uses  much  meat  consumes  but  little  bread; 
and  that  which  consumes  but  little  meat  requires  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  amount  of  bread. 
'  Bread-fruit  The  bread-fruit  is  a  large,  globu- 
lar lieny,  of  a  pale-green  color,  about  the  size  of  a 
child's  head,  marked  on  tlie  surface  with  irregular  six- 
sided  depressions,  and  containing  a  white  and  some- 
what fibrous  pulp,  which,  when  ripe,  becomes  Juicy 
and  yellow.  The  tree  that  produces  it  (^Artocarpiu  in- 
cita)  grows  wild  in  Otaheite  and  other  islands  of  the 
South  Seas,  is  about  40  feet  high,  with  large  spreading 
branches,  and  has  largo,  bright  green  leaves,  deeply 
divided  into  seven  or  nine  spear-shaped  lobei.  We 
are  informed,  in  Captain  Cook's  firt*  Voyage  round 
the  World,  that  the  eatable  part  of  this  fruit  lies  be- 
tween the  skin  and  the  core,  and  that  it  it  as  white  as 
snow,  and  somewhat  of  the  consistence  of  new  bread. 
When  gathered,  it  is  generally  nsed  immediately ;  if 
it  be  kept  more  than  24  hours,  it  becomes  hard  and 
choky.  The  inhabitants  of  the  South  Sea  islands 
prepare  it  as  food  jy  dividing  the  fruit  into  three  or 
four  parts,  and  roasting  it  in  hot  embers.  Its  taste  is  in- 
sipid, with  a  flight  tartness,  somewhat  resembling  that 
of  the  crumb  of  wheaten  bread  mixed  with  Jerusalem 
artichoke.  Of  this  fruit,  the  Otaheitans  make  various 
messes  by  mixing  it  with  water,  or  the  milk  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  then  beating  it  to  a  paste  with  a  stone  pestle,  and 
afterward  mingling  with  it  ripe  plantains,  bananas,  or 
a  sour  paste,  made  from  the  bread-fruit  itself,  callad  ma- 
Air.  It  continues  in  season  eight  months,  and  so  great 
ia  ita  nttUty  in  the  ialond  of  Otaheita,  "  tfiat,"  obtervM 


Captain  Cook,  « if  In  tl)u««  i^ru  wltnw  It  U  not  ition* 
Unoously  produeed,  •  iii»w  ^)^l^H^  UtH  *♦<«  tmii  Iti  bis 
whole  lifetime,  iia  will  a*  miltiifWiy  (uUtU  Mn  duty  to 
his  own  and  to  future  ufiwrMmii  «*  iIm  tiallvn  «f  our 
leal  temperate  ulintalu  mt  *(»  li/  \iUhiUiK  in  lh«  eolj 
of  winter,  and  reaping  iu  (li«  nmm^r'n  tmi,  n«  often 
as  those  seasons  ruluiH  i  mv»i»  I^,  (»fl(if  Im  liait  |iroeured 
bread  for  his  present  homivUnUi,  tlf  nUiiuM  Mmveft  the 
surplus  into  money,  uud  hy  H  im  (lit  hU  ihlldnn." 
Not  only  does  this  Irne  »Mp|ily  fmifl,  tmi  Holliltig,  and 
numerous  other  eunvmiimm*  lit  Wn,  t((«  l«(i«f  bark, 
which  is  white,  and  m>niim4  til  «  iinuiiha  Mtleg  of 
flbrcs,  is  formed  into  »  kUlii  uf  uUiHl,  'thn  wood  Is 
soft,  smooth,  and  of  a  yeltHHUIt  vuUit,  und  t«  Mi«d  for 
the  building  of  buata  »uil  Umiiw',  In  «lu|«t«r  part 
♦ha  tree  is  wounded,  »  uUnUuim  wUhy  Jitico  issues, 
which,  when  boiled  with  imu»rUiH  iM,  k  diiifdoyed  for 
making  biril-llmu,  and  as  » (WHtnitt  tut  MUtin  up  cratks 
in  such  veasuU  us  are  UituiiM  In  tuM  walrr,  Memo 
parts  of  the  Uonvrs  mivvu  H»  timinf,  miii  llie  Icates  are 
used  for  wrapping  up  tuiiii,  milt  iiliift  (iiiriinwi.  As 
the  climato  of  lliu  Huutli  M*'*  M»ni\li  i»  wwnldefed  not 
very  dilfcrent  from  thai  uf  Urn  Went  I««1Im,  tt  wat., 
about  4i  years  ago,  tbuHtfItt  »i*/t)r»l»l«  IhH  r<mie  of  the 
trees  should  be  trunsfurred,  tu  n  uriminu  »(«(«,  to  the 
Kngllsh  islands  there,  Uin  (HdjH.ty'*  (if(|(i,  ||i«  //(mn- 
In,  Bailed,  in  j;«7,  for  this  (iMf)***',  to  IIih  timilh  Hent, 
under  the  command  uf  l,tuMluiiN)t(,  n(li'm»ta  Admiral 
Bligh,  Hut  a  fatal  iimtiii)'  )if  Km"  t<f"i¥  «i  that  time 
prevented  the  accuni|ilis)MMuMI  »(  tUilt  imnmiiknt  de- 
sign.  The  coniniaiidur  uf  l(w  vhihwI,  htime^st,  re- 
turned in  safety  to  bU  miiHty,  unii  »  mmti  expedi- 
tion, under  thu  saiiw  pursoM,  »h4  ft)t »)(«  nHMe  jmr pose, 
was  fitted  out  in  thu  year  J7WI,  Ho  mhed  In  safety 
at  Otaheite;  and,  aft^r  km  tttimnfn  tmn  Knaland  o. 
about  18  mouths,  landed  Ui  •imimif*  ^hU  hImiM  862 
bread-fruit  trees  iu  a  living  »ta(«,  havtiitf  Ml  many 
others  at  diftcrent  plaeus  ill  Ills  lm«MiiH  (lilldcc  from 
Jamaica  thc«o  tmes  mm  tntllormifwl  Ui  uilicr  Ixlaiids ; 
but  tho  Negroes  having  a  gwHcml  «nd  ((/flu-t-nialdlsliod 
predilection  fur  Ilia  plaulain,  llw<  iitmUttiiH  Is  not 
much  relislied  by  litem,  WInin*,  tumviff.  It  has  not 
been  generally  IntrodHUBd  «»  Nil  nrliclo  M  food,  )t  Is 
used  a»  a  delicacy  I  and,  ^iivlhvr  MnvUi^vii  n»  bread, 
or  in  the  form  of  pudillng,  tl  is  *«Hi>W«f*(1  fatgldy  pal- 
atable by  the  Kuropuan  i»ilml/llaHU,'^fc,  A, 

Brcadatuffs.  Nu«i  in  ijni  mtm  imU,  that  of 
breadstulfs  and  provl.l«n»  i»  Iha  nmi  Impmiant  In 
our  foreign  export  trofle,  and  uf  fitt  tttWH  Imporlnitce 
in  its  general  bearings  upi/il  nmm^tii;  mui  amniitita 
yearly  to  about  one.j(/>ti  of  lUit  total  nnpuriii  from  the 
United  Sutes,  As  »ill  uppuHt  frimi  Itm  laid*  below, 
the  exporu  are  increasing  Vdfv  i/»{M)r,  iiatln^^  quad- 
rupled from  1H44  to  Mi,  U  I*  pnrimhk  tliat  ilila 
Increase  will  contlBim,  '^4  Uw  tmrin  mimm  un  now 
operating  to  enlarge  Ilia  4aiHiin4  ttiNiluya  Inii.ased 
the  e:;ports  fur  the  past. 

Great  Ilrifain  bus  always  li««ii  ||m  ((«rt  tMomer  for 
tho  surplus  breudstnlti.  ut  lliu  UnilKit  MiAtM,  To  mmt 
other  countries  w!.lih  laku  l>r«ail«lnlfs  uf  im,  nut  ship, 
ments  of  flour  liave  been  iioMiparMltv<'lv  uniform,  v«heih- 
er  tho  crop  was  largo  or  sina!!  (  Inil  to  llrlllsli  piitln  (he 
shipmonu  have  variaa  wllli  Ilia  i|Manltly  we  have 
had  to  spare,  allliougli  avuragiiiK  in<«ii«'  liaif  ilio  total 
clearances  of  all  foreign  pcf l«,  llraxlf  ami  lii«  West 
Indies  aru  regular  cnatouiera  (ut  uut  lUmt,  M  lliey  pur- 
chase about  the  saniH  iinanllly  ^vpty  yfnt,  »mf,  after 
Great  Ilriuin,  lake  IM  largast  iinanllly  In  a  s«rlns  of 
years;  but  a  largo  porlbm  uf  imt  •liijintMila  uf  grain 
(with  wheat  and  eofn)  go  to  Itflltali  |if>fts,  Thus,  uf 
I8,6n3,161  bushels  of  wlivat  ultlpfiwl  In  all  putU  from 
July  1,  1849,  I..  Jnnaim,  mti,  HMi,M  were  sent 
to  Great  Urilain  |  and  uf  M,7H'/,MI  UuuMn  corn  ex- 
ported to  all  poru  witliin  Urn  imnm  iM<rl«wl,  flfl,(i«fl,li()l 
bushels  had  tlie  sanui  deslinaliAli,  Wo  «nn«)i  a  tabu- 
lar staUment  shuwin-f  i|i«  unpitrU,  Ar«m  all  porta  of 
Um  Unit-4  btatoa  to  ail  hniif»  ptHii,  tt  wtMA,  wbMt 


'**''*>T?#" 


BBS 


109 


BBE 


flour  and  Indian  corn,  both  in  qoratity  and  ralue, 
from  1849  to  1866  inclusivo,  with  a  compariion  of  the 
quantity  ofoach  sent  to  Great  Kritaia.  Th«  total*  are 
all  taken  from  official  document*,  and  may  be  relied 
upon  as  authentic,  although  it  mnit  be  noted  that  of 
many  direct  clearances  to  Great  Britain  for  orders 
there  are  sometimes  considerable  quantities  directed 
from  thence  to  Continental  porta.  The  "  famine"  of 
1847  led  to  lar)^  shipments  of  bioadstuffs,  and  to  the 
inauguration  of  free  trude  in  England,  and  wo  com- 
menca,  therefore,  with  1848-'49,  when  the  business  had 
become  settled  under  this  system.  The  periods  noted 
are  for  the  fiscal  years  ending  June  30 : 

Ezrovrs  pioh  tub  United  Statiss,  or  Whkat,  Whkat  Flods, 
Ann  Ihuiam  Cuiui,  ritoii  1849  to  1855,  iiOTn  iMCkuaiTi, 


Aitkin 


ISO. 
Wheat,  bushels. 
Flour,  barrels . . 
Corn,  bushels . . 

ISM. 

Wheal,  bushels. 
Flour,  iMrrels  . . 
Uom,  bushels  . . 

itsi. 
WLuat,  bushels. 
Flour,  barrels . . 
t'o;n,  btishols . . 

lUt. 
Wheat,  bushels. 
Flour,  barrels . , 
Oom,  bushels  , . 

I8M. 
Wfaeitt,  bushels. 
Flour,  barrels.. 
Com,  bushels  . . 

IIU. 
Wheat,  bushels. 
Flour,  iMtTels  . , 
Com,  bushels . . 

I9U. 
Wheat,  bushels. 
Flour,  barrels  . . 
Com,  bushels  . . 


To  OrMi 
BriUin. 


Uuaillly. 

i,o;a,780 

»5U,81S 
12,896,242 

810,P2« 

870.TTI 

B,»B7,206 

692,683 
1,004,783 
2,700,829 

2,049,657 
1,63-2,094 
1,894,700 

3,672,248 
1,388,005 
1,063,840 

0,0.58,003 
2,(>V!0,121 
S,U05,SS0 

396,215 

189,712 

5,V85,2»t 


Taall 


QuanUlt. 

1,6'27,6J4 

2,10S,013 

13,267,309 

008,061 
1,r>$6,443 
6,605,092 

1,026,763 

2,2112.336 
8,426,811 

2,694,540 
2,79il,339 
2,627,075 

8,890,141 
2,920,018 
2,274,909 

8,036,666 
4,02t'.376 
7,768,810 

798,884 
1,204,640 
T,807,6S6 


ValiM. 


« 

1,766,848 

11,280,682 

7,966,369 

648,746 
7,079,670 
3,892,191) 

1,026,781 

10,624,381 

1,701,549 

2,665,209 

11,869,143 

1,540, 2!» 

4.354,403 

14,783,394 

1,874,077 

12,420,172 

21,701,444 

6,074,2n 

1,329,246 
10,896,908 
6,961,671 


The  ordinary  siiipmcnts  in  former  years  have  not  in- 
cluded any  thing  direct  for  France.  In  the  first  year 
named  above  (1849)  there  were  no  exports  of  floui'  to 
French  ports,  r.nd  only  108  bushels  of  wheat ;  in  1862 
the  total  includes  2700  barrels  of  flour,  and  in  1853 
only  8784  barreU;  but  in  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1854,  there  were  shipped  direct  to  France  1,041,086 
bushels  of  wheat,  728,27i>  barrels  of  flour,  ar  1  r^-iOO 
bushels  of  Indian  com.  In  the  following  fiscal  year 
(l8u4-'55)  the  shipments  of  flour  to  the  same  purts  had 
dwindled  down  to  8557  barrels,  and  there  was  no  ship- 
ment of  wheat,  but  the  exports  of  corn  increased  to 
312,740  bushels.  Daring  the  year  1855,  the  partial 
failure  j(  the  crops  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  led  to 
large  direct  shipments,  and  the  total  exports  to  France 
for  1855-'56,  not  yet  offlciaily  compiled,  have  been 
larger  than  ever  before  recorded  to  the  same  ports.  As 
soon  as  the  threshing  of  ..heat  commenced  in  the  west 
and  north  of  France  in  1855,  its  bad  quality  and  light 
weight  created  a  general  panic,  and  prices  continued 
to  advance  up  to  the  first  of  January.  The  abundance 
caused  by  the  large  receipts  from  this  country,  Spain, 
and  othor  sources  of  supply,  caused  a  downward  tend- 
ency in  prices  throughout  January,  185(i,  and  every 
thing  was  promising  fbr  the  next  harvest  until  the  in- 
undations in  May,  These  checked  the  decline  without 
wholly  arresting  it;  but  as  the  harvest  approached, 
the  hopes  of  an  average  crop  became  less  sanguine, 
and  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  tl>c  supply  will 
bo  deficient  firom  five  to  ten  million  hectolitres,  that 
is,  from  fourteen  to  twenty-eight  millions  of  bushels. 
The  quantity  of  amble  land  in  France  is  act  down  at 
56,810,000  acres,  of  which  fciurteen  million  hectares, 
or  34,580,000  acres,  arc  devoted  to  the  culture  of  grain. 
The  average  annual  product  is  495,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  maize,  and  meslin,  of  which  about 
one-fourth  arc  uats,  and  two-fifths,  or  198,000,000  bush- 
el*, ar«  wheat.  With  on  averago  cr6p,  fnuice  bu 
O 


heretofor*  been  able  not  only  to  supply  her  wants,  but 
to  furnish  about  5,500,000'bushels  of  wheat  (or  its 
equivalent  in  flour)  for  the  consumption  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. It  is  evident  that  this  export  trade  must  be  cut 
ofl'  or  greatly  reduced  during  the  current  year,  as  the 
crop  in  France  is  below  the  wants  of  her  own  people. 
Indeed  the  total  exports  to  Great  Britain  from  all  the 
French  ports  for  the  year  1856  amounted  to  an  equiva> 
lent  of  only  880,000  bushels,  and  this  was  all  furei^^i 
produce,  shipped  from  bond. 

STATlaiaNT  BXBIDITIHO  IIIB  AOanCaATB  VALmt  or  BttlAH- 

•TVrrs  Aim  i'aovisfoiia  (zroBTan  Anmuau.t  raou  the 

UMTBD  8TATBB,  raoM  >BI  VlAB  1821  TO  JVNB  80,  18.8, 

Bora  iHOLUsiva 


YCSM. 


AaioMDt. 


1821.. 
1822. . 
1828.. 
1824.. 
1826., 
1826. , 
1827.. 
1828. 
1829.. 
1830.. 
1831., 
1832. . 
1838., 
1834.. 
1835., 
1836. 
1887., 
1838.. 
I8S9., 
1840.. 


$12^1,901 
13,886,856 
13,767,847 
16,069,484 
11,634,449 
11,303,496 
11,685,666 
11,461,144 
18,131,868 
12,076,480 
17,688,227 
12,424,703 
14,20!l,128 
11,624,024 
12,009,39'.' 
10,614,130 
9,688,  S."® 
9,6.S6,6'>0 
14,147,779 
19,067,686 


Vmh. 


1841.. 
1849. . 
1843'. 

1844t. 
1846.. 
1846.. 
1847.. 
1848.. 
1849. . 
1860.. 
IS-M.. 
1862.. 
I8,'53.. 
S54.. 
1S68.. 
1856.. 
18.'S7.. 
1868.. 


$17,196,102 
16,002,876 
1.1,204,12.1 
.7,070,188 
16,743,4'.. 
87,701,121 
68,701,921 
87,472,761 
38,156,607 
26,061,87:1 
21,998,661 
«6,e67,027 
82,fl86,82-.' 
06,941,328 
88,89.'>,84S 
77,187,801 
74,6117,85' 
60,683,285 


ToUl $923,373,894 


•  9  monthSrto  June  80:  t  11  months,  to  June  80. 

In  Great  Britain  the  crop  this  year  is  very  good ; 
l)Ut  it  is  never  suflicient  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
people.  The  total  imports  of  breadstuff's  into  the 
United  Kingdom  for  tire  last  three  years  (reckoning 
flour,  etc.,  at  its  equivalent  in  grain)  are  as  follows; 

Ynn.  ■r-'l  to  Biuhal>  VTtsat. 

18i3 84,41l),632 

1864 «:i,2«7,240 

1855 60,2'27,608 

The  high  prices  have  contributed  to  reduce  the  Im- 
ports into  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  last  two 
years  to  the  lowest  possible  point;  but  the  first  six 
months  of  the  current  year  the  total  imports  amounted 
to  1,8.'>9,000  quarters,  showing  an  increase  of  161,000 
quarters,  or  1,248,000  bushels,  and  must  continue  at 
about  this  rate  throughout  tlie  remainder  of  the  year. 
Even  with  a  good  harvest,  the  kingdom  must  need  at 
least  40,000,000  bushels  of  grain,  or  its  equivalent  in 
flcur,  for  its  own  consumption.  Of  this  amount  Russia 
— Northern  and  Southern  ports — whose  supplies  wei-o 
out  ofl*  during  the  war,  can  now  furnish  10,000,000 
bushels;  Prussia,  whose  harvest  is  this  year  bclotv 
tho  average,  10,000,000  bushels;  all  other  countries 
.O.ilOO.niH)  bushels;  leaving  15,000,000  to  come  from  the 
United  States.  If  prices  rule  at  a  comparatively  low- 
rate,  the  consumption  will  lie  increased,  and  the  quota 
from  this  country  may  reach  20  or  25  millions  of  bush- 
els. Spain  and  Portugal  have  hitherto  exported  to  both 
Franco  and  England,  tiio  shipments  to  the  latter  last 
year  I>cing  upward  of  4,000,000  bushels. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  productiop  of 
the  United  St-^tes.  The  total  arable  land  under  actual 
cultivation  is  given  in  the  Census  of  1850  at  113,0.32,611 
acres,  of  whicli  51,700,000  acres  were  producing  bread- 
stuffk.  The  following  was  the  total  production  of  grain 
as  given  in  the  Census  returns  for  1840  and  1850 : 


AttlelM. 

1S40. 

IS50. 

Wheat 

Ujro 

Buibala. 

84.S.'3.272 

18„'H6,66T 

1-28,071,341 

877,631,876 

4,161,604 

7,201,743 

Biuhals. 

100.48^944 

14.188,818 

146.584,179 

692,071,101 

6.167,016 

8,966,912 

Oals 

Uuckwheat 

Total 

616,626,302 

867,463,967 

BBE 


310 


BRE 


A  Urge  amoaiit  of  arable  land  has  been  bronght  under 
eolttvaUon  iince  1860,  and  those  moit  convenant  with 
the  West  think  that  the  product  of  wheat  hai  increased 
60  per  cent  since  the  date  last  given,  while  other  grain 
has  increased  20  to  26  per  cent.  The  total  yield  of  wheat 
being  computed  at  160,000,000  bushels,  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  export  demand  can  be  filled  without  cre> 
ating  any  extraordinary  excitement  throughout  the 
country.  Last  year  the  fanners  anticipated  such  high 
rates,  that  many  of  them  refused  to  sell  in  time,  and 
thus  were  obliged  to  dispose  of  their  stock  far  below  the 
avcrago  price.  This  year  the  enrly  sales  promised  to  be 
the  best,  but  there  appears  to  be  a  limit  below  which 
foreign  orders  will  rapidly  diminish  any  home  ac- 
cumulation. At  present  good  white  v.heat  is  worth 
here  about  $1  CO,  and  good  red  about  $1  50.  We 
scarcely  expect  to  see  a  decline  of  20  cents  from  these 
rates  during  the  current  season,  but  within  that  range 
an  active  foreign  business  may  be  expected.  The 
prospects  for  Indian  com  can  not  be  given  until  nearer 
the  close  of  the  harvest.  Flour  will  fluctuate  more 
than  wheat  in  price ;  sales  have  been  made  to  arrive 
In  England  at  a  price  which  would  net  here  alraut  |5 
for  a  standard  superfine,  but  this  is  generally  thought 
to  be  an  inside  price.  We  have  compiled  from  the 
official  records  a  statement  of  the  average  export  price 
in  flour  since  183ti.  The  highest  price,  since  1800,  was 
f  14  75  per  barrel,  at  which  all  the  shipments  averaged 
in  the  year  1817.  The  lowest  was  $4  25,  which  was  the 
•rerage  of  1852.  The  following  is  the  average  of  the 
total  shipments  to  all  ports  in  each  year  for  the  last 
twenty,  years.  The  price  in  1654-'&5  was  enhanced 
materially  by  the  demand  arising  for  export  to  Europe 
during  the  war  with  Russia.  At  intervals  of  that  pe- 
riod first  brands  produced  over  $13  in  the  New  York 
market,  and  common  shipping  flour  over  $10  per  bar- 
rel.— See  Cbmsds  Reiwrt,  United  States. 

YSAXLT  ATIOAOl  PiMOB  Or  TUX  EXPOBTS  Or  'WllEAT  Fl.OCK 

rxoM  TUB  United  Statu  to  Fobeigm  Posts,  rBou  1836  to 
1666. 


The  periods  before  noted  are  the  government  fiscal 
years,  ending  June  80.  The  average  of  1856  is  not 
yet  made  up,  but  will  be  considerably  below  that  of 
1865.  If  any  think  we  have  overestimated,  in  the 
following  table,  the  present  production  of  wheat  in  this 
countr}-,  we  have  only  to  remind  them  that  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  grain  for  export  received  but  little  stimulus 
until  the  repeal  of  the  British  com  laws ;  and  since  that 
time  we  have  added  the  States  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  and 
Michigan  to  our  wheat-producing  States,  and  by  means 
of  railroads  made  them  equal  competitors  with  the  At- 
lantic States.— iSee  Art.  Wheat. 

Pboddctiom  or  Wheat,  Rtx,  add  iNmAM  Cobh  im  mi 
UxiTBn  States,  in  isno. 


Y..™. 

rrl». 

Vmii. 

Fiioa. 

Von. 

Prif». 

Y..n, 

Prlc 

1886 

«7  60 

1841 

$e!JO 

1846 

$618 

1861 

$4  77 

1837 

10  26 

18« 

600 

1847 

6(16 

1862 

424 

I83S 

960 

1843 

4r>o 

1848 

6  22 

1863 

660 

1838 

6  76 

18M 

4  75 

1849 

6  86 

IS-M 

7  88 

1840 

6  87 

1846 

4  61 

1860 

600 

1865 

1010 

SUtM  ud  TaRitcriM. 

WhMt. 

Rjra. 

iDdln  Con. 

BuhaU. 

Miuhali. 

Bubili. 

Maine 

too  269 

10i,916 
183,117 

1  760066 

New  Hampshire. 

186,668 

1,673,670 

Vermont 

636,966 

170,288 

2,082,396 

MassachuBetts... 

81,211 

481,021 

2,346,400 

Rhode  Island  . . . 

49 

26,409 

680,201 

Connecticut 

41,762 

600,893 

1,986,048 

New  York 

18,121,408 

4,148,182 

17,868,400 

New  Jersey 

1,601,190 

1,266,678 

8,769,704 

Pennsjrirania . . . 

16,867,691 

4,806,160 

19,836,214 

Delaware 

482,611 

8,066 

3,146.642 

Maryland 

4,404,680 

226,014 

11,104,631 

District  of  Col. .. 

17,070 

6,609 

66,280 

VliBlnia 

11,232,616 

468,930 

86,264,819 

North  Carolina. . 

2,180,102 

229.663 

27,941,(»1 

South  Carolina. . 

1,066,277 

43,790 

16,271,464 

Oeoisia 

Florida 

1,088,634 

63,760 

80,080,099 

1,027 

1,162 

1.906  809 

Alabama 

294,044 

17,261 

28,764,048 

Mississippi 

187,990 

9,606 

22,446,662 

Louisiana 

41T 

476 

10,266,373 

Texas  

41,689 

8,108 

6,926,611 

Arkansas 

199,639 

8,047 

8,808,!)80 

Tennessee 

1,619,381 

89,168 

62,270,223 

Kentucky 

2,140,822 

416,073 

68,676,501 

Ohio 

14,487,861 

426,718 

69,0'8,6f6 

Michigan 

4,926,889 

106,871 

6,641,420 

Indiana 

6,214,468 

78,79« 

62,964,363 

Illinois 

9,414,676 

83,864 

67,646,984 

MisMiuri 

2,981,669 

44,268 

86,214,637 

1,630,681 

19,916 

8,666,79!) 

Wisconsin 

4,286,181 

81,263 

I,988,!i7!i 

CalUbnila 

17,328 

■  <  •  • 

W,?,"!' 

Minnesota  Ter. . . 

1,401 

128 

r.,-  ■■  ) 

Oregon  Terrltoiy 

811,493 

106 

."MB    1 

Utah  Territory . . 

lOT.TOJ 

SIO 

9,.. 

New  Mexico.... 
Total 

196,616 



866,411 

100.603.899 

14.188,639 

6»'2,826,61'J 

A«  Account  or  tub  Extobts  or  Floub  and  Wueat,  Indian  Coen  and  Indian  Cobn  Meal,  Rtb,  Ship  Bbbad,  rro.,  raoH 
TUB  IInited  States,  ddkino  the  Ykab  bndino  SOth  June,  1847,  known  as  tub  '•  Faminb  Yxa»"  in  Ibblanu,  SFEcirx- 

inO  TUB  COUNTBIBS  to  WUIOU  THE  SAHE  WEBB  SENT,  AND  THE  QUANTITIES  SENT  TO  EACH. 


TO  AMERICA. 


Flour,  tiarrels 

Wheat,  buiheis 

Indian  coin,  bushels  . 
Com  meal,  barrels . . . 

Rye  meal,  barrels 

Rye,  oats,  ete. 

Ship  bread,  bairels. . . 
Ship  bread,  kegs 


Briliah  Nofth 
ABMrieu  ColooiM. 


272,290 

019,068 

119,616 

89,930 

27,401 

$24,312 

20,rj.l6 

2-20 


WMt  laillM. 


483,671 

16,106 

698, 029 

176,418 

8,480 

$118,385 

64,788 

13,267 


Soatli  Amarica. 


828,987 

'8,964 
2,760 
101 
$2,291 
1,711 
7,48T 


North  Amarica 
yanarally. 


66,993 
200 

28,928 

10,364 

180 

$18,699 

21,218 
673 


Aitlelii. 


Flour,  barrels 

Wheat,  bi(shels 

Indian  com,  bnibels  . 
Com  moal,  barrels . . . 
Rye  meal,  barrels . . . , 

Rye,  oats,  etc 

Ship  bread,  banreb. . , 
Ship  bread,  kegs . . . . , 


Groat  Britaia. 


2,144,681 

2,078,663 

7,627,586 

426,070 

4.080 

$866,322 

34,  TIM 

6,647 


Iralaad. 


842,498 

466,911 

7,908,039 

287,013 

2,362 

$66,680 

11,994 

666 


Pruco. 


612,641 

749,242 

7,248 

4,401 

3,006 

$60,697 

3,771 

16 


Spala  aod 
Portusal. 


1812 
4892 


Othar  pari!  of 
Europa. 


113,429 

170,491 

22,203 

606 

8,332 

$762,081 

1,728 

648 


TO  OTIIKIl  roUNTRIES. 


Altlelai. 


Flour,  barrels 

Wheat,  bushels 

Indian  com,  bushels  . , 
Cora  meal,  barrels , . . , 

Rye  meal,  barrels 

be,  oats,  etc. 

Snip  bread,  barrels. . , , 

Skip  bread,  kegs , 

Total  value. 


A«Ii 
gananiUy. 


8,674 

1,362 

176 

77 

$4,°l»6 

3,166 

163 


Africa 
f-narally. 


ad,800 

24^474 
486 

$2!868 
6,609 
1,482 


South  Saai  a 
PulSe. 


764 


$181 

1,768 

100 


ToUl  to  all 
Paru. 


4,382,496 

4,899,981 

16,326,050 

948,060 

48,093 

160,980  I 
81,082  i 


Total  Valua  of 
Fitporta. 

$'ji,i:iX-;; 

«.'.i4»,it5i) 

«.i»i  ■■■■'■■ 
'I'm--" 

v«,2wi 


ter  I 


BRE 


211 


BRE 


\,  rsoH 
,  BrEcm- 


l;iit. -;' 
li*<).S5') 


Breaken,  a  name  given  to  thoie  billows  that  break 
violently  over  rocks  lying  below  the  surface  of  the  sea. 
— E.  B. 

Breakwater  is  any  obstruction  of  wood,  stone,  or 
other  material,  as  a  boom  or  raft  of  wood,  sunken  ves- 
sels, etc.,  placed  before  the  entrance  of  a  port  or  harbor, 
or  any  pnjectlon  firom  the  land  into  the  sea,  as  a  pier, 
mole,  or  Jetty,  so  placed  as  to  break  the  force  of  the 
waves,  and  prevent  their  action  on  ships  and  vessels 
Ij-ing  at  anchor  within  tnem.  Thus  the  piers  of  the 
ancient  Piraeus  and  of  Rhodes ;  the  moles  of  Naples, 
Genoa,  and  Castellamaro ;  the  piers  of  Ramsgate,  Mar- 
gate, Folkstone,  Howth,  and  the  wooden  dike  de 
Kichclieu,  thrown  across  the  port  of  Rochelle,  may  all 
be  denominated  SreakwaUn.  In  French  it  Is  some- 
times called  Battre  diEau. ;  a  name  which  appears  to 
have  been  applied  to  tho  mole  at  Tangier,  a  work  com- 
menced in  1663,  under  the  direction  of  Lord  Tivlot, 
Sir  J.  Lawson,  and  Sir  Hugh  Cholmley,  and  finished, 
or  rather  discontinued,  in  1676,  after  having  cost  En- 
gland the  sum  of  £243,897  6i.  iid.  The  term  Break- 
looter,  however,  has  of  late  years  been  considered  as 
more  peculiarly  appropriate  to  large  insulated  dikes 
of  stone,  whether  of  regular  masonry  or  sunk  promis- 
cuously in  rough  masses,  so  placed  as  to  form  an  arti- 
ficial island  across  the  mouth  of  an  open  roadstead, 
and  thereby,  from  obstructing  and  breaking  the  waves 
of  the  sea,  to  convert  a  dangerous  anchorage  into  a 
safe  and  commodious  harbor  for  the  reception  of  ships 
of  war  or  raercha'ntmen. 

Of  this  description  of  dike  for  creating  an  artificial 
harlrar  on  a  grand  scale,  fit  fbr  the  reception  of  ships 
of  war  of  the  largest  class,  there  are  remarkable  exam- 
ples in  the  breakwaters  of  Cherbourg,  Plymouth,  Port- 
land, Delaware,  etc.  The  first  stone  of  the  breakwa- 
ter at  Plymouth  was  lowered  in  tho  presence  of  mul- 
titudes of  the  people,  August  12,  1812.  It  was  de- 
signed to  break  the  swell  at  Plymouth,  and  stretches 
6280  feet  across  the  Sound ;  it  is  860  feet  in  breadth 
at  the  imttoiii,  and  more  than  30  at  the  top,  and  con- 
sumed 3,666,000  tons  of  granite  blocks,  fl-om  one  to 
five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841 ;  and  cost  a  million 
and  s  half  sterling.  The  architect  was  Kcnnie. — See 
Art.  CiiERBouKo  and  Delaware  Breakwaters. 

Breeohea.  Among  the  Greeks  this  garment  indi- 
cated slavery.  It  was  worn  by  the  Dacians,  Parthians, 
and  other  Northern  nations ;  and  in  Italy,  it  is  said,  it 
was  worn  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Ciesar.  In  the 
reign  of  Honorius,  about  a.d.  894,  tho  braccari,  or 
breeches-makers,  were  expelled  from  Rome ;  but  soon 
afterward  the  use  of  breeches  was  adopted  in  other 
countries,  ami  at  length  it  became  general. — IIaydn. 

Bremen,  one  of  the  free  Hanseatic  cities,  on  the 
Weser,  about  50  miles  from  its  mouth,  lat.  53°  4J'  N., 
long.  8°  48' 3"  E.  Population  in  1849, 63,478.  lU  sit- 
uation renders  Bremen  the  principal  emporium  of 
Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hesse,  and  other  countries  trav- 
ersed by  tho  Weser.  The  charges  on  the  buying, 
selling,  and  shipping  of  goods  arc  very  moderate.  The 
principal  German  exports  are,  woolen  goods,  linens, 
grain,  oak  bnrk,  glass,  smalts,  hides,  rape-seed,  beef 
and  pork,  rags,  wool,  wine,  etc.  The  wheat  and  bar- 
ley shipped  here  are  mostly  inferior ;  but  the  oats  are 
useful  common  feed;  beans  are  good.  The  linens 
arc  mostly  the  same  as  those  from  Hamburg.  The 
imports  consist  of  tobacco  (of  which  large  quantities 
are  re-exported),  coflee,  sugar,  and  other  colonial  prod- 
ucts ;  whale-oil,  iron,  rice,  hides,  wines,  raw  cotton, 
cotton  stuffs  and  yam,  earthen-ware,  brandy,  tar,  tea, 
dye-woods,  timber,  hemp,  etc. 

Bremen  has  long  been  and  coniinues  to  Ik,  the 
most  important  entrepdt  on  the  Continent  for  the  sale 
of  tobacco.  In  1861,  about  6000  hands  were  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  of  which  the  export  was 
estimated  at  236,000  boxes  of  1000  each ;  but  an  in- 
crease of  the  duly  on  cigars  imported  into  the  German 
Customs  Union  subsequently  gave  tho  trade  a  check. 


Entrance  to  Bremen. — The  entrance  to  tlie  Wcsef 
lies  between  the  Melluni  and  other  sands  on  the  south- 
western, and  the  Teglers  Plaat,  etc.  on  the  northeasts 
em  side.  Its  course  from  Bremerlehe  to  Its  mouth 
is  nearly  southeast  and  northwest.  It  is  buoyed 
throughout.  Tho  buoys  on  the  right  or  starboard  side, 
when  entering,  being  black  and  marked  with  letters, 
while  those  on  tho  left  or  larboard  are  -.vhite  and  num- 
bered. The  first  or  outer  black  buoy  has  a  gilt  key 
upon  it,  and  ;'s,  therefore,  called  the  echliuiel,  or  key 
buoy ;  it  lies  i  i  lOi  fathoms,  bearing  northeast  6  miles 
from  Wri>,:;;"i  Dog  light.  This  is  an  intermitting  light, 
having  replaced,  in  1860,  the  old  coal-fire  beacon  on 
the  island  of  Wrangeroog,  opposite  to  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  East  Friesland.  It  is,  according  to  the 
most  authentic  statements,  in  lat.  63°  47i'  K.,  long.  7° 
61'  66"  E. ;  is  elevated  63^  feet  above  high-water  mark, 
being  alternately  visible  and  invisible  for  the  space  of 
a  minute.  A  light-vessel  is  moored  in  tho  fair-way  of 
the  Weser,  between  the  black  buoys  E  and  F,  and  the 
white  buoys  2  and  3.  She  has  two  masts;  during  the 
day  a  red  flag,  with  a  white  cross  upon  it,  is  kept  flying 
at  tho  main-mast;  and  at  night  she  exhibits  7  lantern 
lights,  28  feet  above  deck.  This  vessel  is  on  no  ac- 
count to  leave  her  station,  unless  compelled  by  the  ice. 
Largo  vessels  do  not  now  generally  ascend  farther 
than  Bremerlehe,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  about 
38  miles  below  Bremen,  where  a  new  and  spacious 
harbor,  called  "  Bremer  Haven,"  has  been  constructed. 
But  vessels  not  drawing  more  than  7  feet  water  come 
up  to  town ;  and  those  drawing  from  13  to  14  feet  may 
come  up  to  Vcgesack,  about  13  miles  from  Bremen. 
The  latter  had,  in  1849,  a  papulation  of  3638,  and 
Bremer  Haven  of  8618, — Sec  the  Sailing  Dirfctionijbr 
the  Korth  Sea,  published  by  Mr,  Norrie, 
AccousT  OF  TiiK  AiisrvALs  or  Suirs  at  BRSiim  in  18S0  and 

1S81,  SI'ECIKYISO  TIIK  OoDNTBIFS  FBOM  W1IBN0«  TDEX 
CAME,  ANI>  THE  NUMUKBS  A^D  TONNAGE  OK  THOSE  FROM 
EAOII, 


Coontriw, 

ISM. 

lUI.  '             1 

Vanali. 

Tom. 

VmhIi. 

Tml 

Ureat  Britain 

Denmark 

381 

84 

44 

161 

1113 

6« 

IBl 

128 

61 

13 

1» 

8 

13 

14 

20 

4ll,)!8T 
!.C>31 
5,049 
8,S13 

12,160 
T,4T8 
9,068 

02,049 

13,140 
4,810 
8,61B 
1,801 
2,4S6 
2,873 
6,400 

402 

107 

61 

217 

180 

125 

1T2 

181 

67 

17 

21 

6 

11 

60 

34 

62,481 

8,270 

0,003 

14,864 

10,462 

15,661 

10,000 

04,714 

12,246 

8,3»8 

3,868 

942 

1,869 

9,006 

7,678 

Holland 

Sweden  and  Norway 

United  States 

(juba 

Hayli 

Venesuela, 

Brazils 

Other  places 

Breslau,  a  city  of  Prussia,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Silesia,  and  of  the  circle  of  same  name,  on  the  Oder, 
at  the'  influx  of  the  Ohlau,  and  on  the  railroad  from 
Berlin  to  Vienna,  409  feet  above  the  Baltic,  190  miles 
southeast  of  Berlin.  Lat.  (of  observatory)  51°  6'  67" 
N.,  long.  17°  2'  33"  E.  Population  of  the  circle  in 
1819,  1,174,676 ;  of  the  city,  112,194,  of  whom  nearly 
iliree-fourths  are  Protestants.  It  is  the  greatest  empo- 
rium for  tho  linens  of  Silesia,  for  which  it  has  four  an- 
nual fairs  of  eight  days  each,  and  tho  greatest  mart  for 
wool  in  Germany.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  wool- 
en, cotton,  and  silk  fa'«rics,  lace,  needles,  plate,  jewel- 
r^',  earthcn-warc,  colors,  soap,  alum,  starch,  snuff,  and 
sealing-wax ;  and  an  extensive  trade  in  mining  produce, 
timber,  flax,  hemp,  madder,  com,  and  oxen,  from  the 
southern  Russian  provinces,  and  In  Hungarian  wines 
and  other  merchandise.  It  has  an  active  trade  on  tho 
Oder,  and  communicates  by  railroad  with  Berlin  and 
Frankfort  on  the  north,  Dresden  on  the  west,  Cracow 
and  Warsaw  on  the  east,  and  Vienna  in  the  south.  It 
was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  French,  January  7, 
1807,  and  its  fortress,  then  partly  destroyed,  has  since 
been  entirely  razed. 

Brewing  is  the  art  of  preparing  on  exhilarating  or 


BRI 


•I# 


Bin 


intoxtcttlng  beverage  by  meiuis  of  •  prooett  of  kr- 
mentation ;  but  at  the  preaeut  day  the  term  ia  uaually 
limited  to  the  manufitcture  of  ililferent  kinda  of  beer, 
from  infiislosB  of  malt  or  of  graini.  In  all  uountrieg, 
savage  ami  civilized,  one  kind  or  other  of  exhilarating 
or  intoxiutiug  drink  is  prepared.  In  the  warmer  re- 
gions of  the  globe  the  juice  of  various  palm>trees  is 
extracted,  and,  when  fermented,  forms  the  favorite 
beverage.  Over  all  the  warmer  regions  of  South 
America,  and  in  Mexico,  the  universal  drink  is  Pulque, 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  American  aloe  ^Agavt  Amer- 
ieaHa).  Guaiapo,  a  favorite  drink  with  the  Megn> 
races  is  the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugar-cane ;  and 
when  the  sugar-cane  is  not  in  season,  these  races  pre- 
pare fermented  drinks  ft'ora  honey  and  from  rice.  In 
many  Northern  countries,  and  even  occasionally  in 
the  highlands  of  Scotland,  the  juices  of  the  birch, 
maple,  or  ash,  are  fermented,  and  form  a  p«latabli3 
drink.  Kuumij,  the  intoxicating  beverage  of  the 
Mongols  and  the  Tartars,  is  the  fermented  milk  of 
the  mare.  In  countries  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
vine,  wine  is  the  usual  beverage.  The  Peruvians  and 
many  other  Indians  prepare  their  favorite  intoxicating 
drink,  chicha,  from  maize.  The  Arabians,  Abyssini- 
ans,  and  several  tribes  in  Africa,  prepare  their  fer- 
mented drink,  bouta,  from  the  flour  or  bread  made  from 
tee  (Pua  Abt/mnioa) ;  but  the  durrha  or  millet  (jSof^ 
ghum  vulgare),  and  even  barley  itself,  are  occasionally 
substituted  for  the  teff  to  prepare  the  muddy,  sour  louta. 
Ttie  universal  Russian  beverage,  kvau  or  guau,  a 
sharp,  acid,  muddy  liquid,  almost  the  same  in  taste 
and  ap])earance  as  "  bousa,"  is  made  by  mixin:;  rye 
bread  or  rye  flour,  or  sometimes  barley  flour,  with 
water,  and  fbrmenting  it.  Tlie  well-known  national 
Gcmtan  drink,  the  weut  bier,  is  prepared  from  a  fer- 
mented infusion  of  wheat  ma't  with  only  a  sixth  part 
of  barley  mall.  But  over  almost  all  the  civilized 
vurlil,  the  fermented  infusion  of  barley  malt,  seasoned 
or  not  with  hops  or  otiier  bitters,  when  it  takes  the 
name  of  beer,  is  the  favorite  beverage. — E.  B. 

Bribe.  The  giving  or  oflering  a  recompense  or  re- 
ward to  any  person  to  induce  him  to  neglect  his  duty. 

Bricks  and  Tiles,  well-knowu  articles  used  in 
the  building  and  covering  of  liouses.  They  are  made 
of  baked  ciny  and  sand. 

Fire-bricks. — A  mode  has  been  invented  intended 
to  do  away  witli  manual  labor  in  the  manufacture  of 
fire-briclis  made  from  ground  clay,  by  passing  it  di- 
rectly from  the  grinding-niill  to  the  machine,  where  it 
il  made  into  bricks  ready  for  the  kiln,  instead  of  add- 
ing water  and  making  it  into  a  paste  according  to  the 
present  process,  'llie  invention  consists  of  a  combina- 
tion of  hydraulic  machinery,  for  compressing  clay  in  a 
pulverized  state  into  bricks,  md  for  changing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  moulds  in  which  the  clay  is  compressed,  so 
that  they  may  till  and  discharge  themselves  after  com- 
pression. After  the  clay  is  formed  into  bricks  the 
sides  and  end  of  the  mould  recede,  and  leave  them 
free,  without  any  forcing,  which  eOTectually  prevents 
all  llabilitv  t..  frpcturc  or  damage.  A  machine  with 
two  n^ouiu.  v.i!    iroduce  from  2000  to  4000  per  day. 

Bridge  -  -o  early  and  general,  and  the  expedi- 
iits  for  t;i> ;  V  ..onstruction  so  various,  their  origin  can 
not  bo  traced ;  they  were  fust  of  wood.  The  ancient 
bridges  in  China  are  of  great  magnitudes,  and  were 
built  of  stone.  Abydos  is  famous  for  the  bridge  of 
boats  which  Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont.  Tra- 
jan's maguiticeHt  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  4770 
feet  in  length,  was  built  in  a.d.  103.  The  Devil's 
bridge,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  so  called  from  its  frightful 
situation,  was  built  resting  on  two  high  rocks,  so  that 
it  could  scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and 
many  fabulous  stories  were  invented  to  account  for  it. 
At  ghaffhausen  an  extraordinary  bridge  was  built 
over  the  Rhine,  which  is  there  400  feet  wide:  there 
was  a  pier  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  dou>)tful 
wteHiar  the  bridge  r«sted  upon  it ;  a- man  of- the  ligbt- 


I  est  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  bini,  7et  wag- 
ons heavily  laden  passed  over  without  danger.  This 
bridge  was  destrcyed  by  the  French  in  1790.  Suspen- 
sion bridge  at  Niagara  Falls  completed  July  29,  1848. 
The  ancieirt  bridges  in  England  were  of  wood,  and 
were  fortified  with  planks  and 'merlined ;  the  lii-st 
brides  cf  stone  was  built  at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  a.d. 
1067.  Westminster  bridge,  then  the  finest  erected  in 
these  realms,  and  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world, 
except  in  China,  was  completed  in  twelve  years,  175U. 
The  other  London  bridges  arc  Elaekfriars,  completed 
1770;  London  (rebuilt),  1881;  Southwark,  of  iron, 
1819.  The  first  iron  bridge,  on  a  large  scale,  wai 
erected  over  the  Severn,  in  Shropshire,  177!>.  The 
finest  chain  suspension  bridge  Is  that  of  the  Menal 
Strait,  completed  in  1826.  Hungerford  suspension 
bridge,  184('.— H  avbn. 

Bridgewater  Canal,  the  first  gr^at  work  of  the 
kind  in  Kngland,  was  bcgua  by  the  Duke  of  Bridge- 
water,  styled  the  father  of  canal  navigation  in  that 
country,  in  1768.  Mr.  Brindley  was  the  architect.  The 
canal  commences  at  Wcrsley,  seven  miles  from  Man- 
chester ;  and  at  Barton  bridge  is  an  aqueduct  which, 
fur  upward  of  800  yards,  convoys  the  canal  across  the 
navigable  River  Irweli :  the  canal  is  29  miles  long. 

Srixnstone.     See  Solphur. 

Bristles  (B'r.  Soiesf  Ger.  Borttm;  Dn.  Jiorstehf 
It.  SeluUj  Sp.  Cerd<u,  Setaa;  ?ol.  Szeteciny;  Kuss. 
ScUlichetina ;  Lat.  Setce),  the  strong  glossy  hairs  grow- 
ing on  the  back  of  the  hog  and  the  wild  boar. 

Bristol,  a  city,  sea-port,  and  county  of  England,  sit- 
uated chiefly  in  Gloucestershire,  and  partly  in  f^omcr- 
setshire,  on  the  Avon,  at  if  s  confluence  with  the  Frome, 
and  8  miles  southeast  of  its  embouchure  in  the  Bris- 
tol Channel,  11^  miles  northwest  of  Bath,  38}  miles 
south-southwest  of  Gloucester,  and  \1S^  miles  west  of 
London,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Great  West- 
cm  Railroad.  Lat.  of  cathedral,  51°  2T'  M.,  long.  2° 
3G'  W.  Area  of  border,  including  the  distance  added 
bv  the  municipal  act,  9870  acres.  Population  in  1801, 
30,914;  in  1841, 123,188;  and  in  1861,  187,328.  Bris- 
tol extends  over  several  hills  and  intermediate  valleys, 
It  long  ranked  as  the  second  commercial  emporium  of 
Kngiand,  but  its  progress  has  not  kept  pace  with  that 
of  other  ports  more  advantageously  placed  as  outlets 
of  great  manufacturing  districts.  It  has,  however, 
large  iron  and  brnss  founderies ;  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and 
glass  works ;  chemical  and  color  works ;  sugar  refin- 
eries and  distilleries;  and  coni.id>;iable  manufactures 
of  pins,  shot,  china,  earthen-wares,  soap,  leather,  tobac- 
co, cottons,  hats,  and  floor-cloths,  with  extensive  estab- 
lishments for  ship-building;  and  in  its  vicin'ty  are 
large  brick  and  coal  works.  The  Avon  at  Bristol, 
though  narrow,  is  deep  enough  for  large  ships,  and  ear- 
ly in  the  present  century  its  course  was  turned  for  some 
distance  at  a  cost  of  .£700,000,  and  its  own  channel  now 
forms  a  harl>or  furnished  with  locks  and  quays  6000 
feet  in  length.  Ships  of  large  burden  and  flrst-rate 
steamers  load  and  discharge  cargo  at  Kingruad,  in  the 
mouth  of  this  river.  The  city  retains  a  large  share  of 
the  West  India  trade.  Imports  consisting  chiefly  of 
sugar,  molasses,  rum,  coffee,  tobacco,  with  wool,  tur- 
pentine, hemp,  timbe/,  wine,  and  brandy,  from  North 
and  South  America,  the  Baltic,  and  France.  Bristol 
communicates  by  railroad  with  Birmingham  and  Exe- 
ter, with  the  Thames,  etc.,  by  the  Kcnnet  and  Avon 
canal.  It  was  the  first  port  in  Britain  whence  regular 
steam  communication  with  the  United  States  was  es- 
tablished. It  has  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  several 
mercantile  corporate  li  dies ;  and  it  lately  had  six 
banking  companies.  lu  1848  it  was  made  a  fVee  port 
The  city  is  divided  into  fen  wards,  and  governed  by  a 
mayor,  sixteen  aldermen,  and  forty-eight  councilors. 
Its  corporation  has  juris iiction  on  the  Avon  tvom  four 
miles  above  the  city  doi-  n  to  the  sea,  and  along  the 
channel  to  Clevedon ;  alio  the  right  to  license  pilots 
for  numerous  ports  on  th3  Bristol  Channel.    Markets 


Bm 


918 


BRU 


daily,  that  on  Tbnnity  A*r  v»ttl«.  fAt'ii  tor  ttMUM, 
U-ut)ier,  etc,  Marrb  Ut  Mid  l^lil)iint)«r  Irt,  t^ptitif 
Asiizei  fur  civil  mhm*,  <4H»r(«r  w»f.ii,»»,  Khnrlft't  «iid 
oilier  eourU  are  lield  h«ri>.  Itrlftttil  li«ili<lti|ii  to  OllfUm 
and  BedniineUir  poor-law  imioii.  UnAif  llthty  VIII, 
it  wan  m^e  a  biahap'i  Ma,  Ulaly  uiill««l  with  that  of 
Glouoeater.  It  Miida  twu  munilHiril  U)  Ih8  lloUM  of 
Cowmoai.  It  was  a  lartilied  vtly  a*  wrly  M  (b«  MIti 
century.  In  NarwaH  time*  it  ItiMl  «  Mutlii  built  by 
tlic  Earl  of  Gloucaetfir,  aoii  uf  ilonry  I,  III  IHJII  ItM'M 
the  icen*  of  a  violent  riot,  4i'riMK  wbiith  ill  KplMo- 
pai  palace  and  inaiiy  ull»er  iHtildinKi*  wofi  (l«Mroy«d. 
Among  iu  diatlngui«ll«4  nati  v«m  hi«^  (m  notloMl  ttohu- 
Uan  Crliot,  ChMterUin,  SAMtlloy,  «h1  Um  Mjulptof  Hal- 
ley.  Brittol  confer*  tli4  ti'la  ef  M«rflHi«  ««  (Im  Hei>- 
vey  fuinily.  Tba  ecenery  lit  tJM  Vltiinlty,  iwpootally  at 
Hotwell  Saline  Spring,  i«  «iMiiMidln){ly  b«IUtlftll. 

Biriitol  OIiaiuMi,  an  arm  of  llta  Alt«iit)«,  «itt«r> 
Ing  betwuun  >St.  A  nii'e  ll««i|  Wi  (tw  fmrlh  and  LiMd'e 
End  on  tlie  aoutli,  extending  int'i  lb«  MWtiiWMt  part 
of  Ureal  Britain,  lietwasn  Ut,  M'  wtd  t)l«  Mf  H.^  «tid 
long.  S°  nnd  6°  ito'  W„  iMiindad  norllivAfil  by  Mouth 
Walce,  and  eouthward  tiy  the  iinglUh  mmtiett  of  Oom- 
ertet,  Devon,  and  (JoriiwaU.  A(  (In  ^mttvni  vKtmitilty 
it  terminatee  in  tlie  eUHary  of  Ihe  Nxviifn.  iHifitdM  itbicii 
river  it  recoivea  tlie  Parrat,  Taw,  TorridK^,  Taff,  Hnd 
Towy.  Sahdy  island,  wllb  it*  ll|{ll(.biiUM.  lit  In  the 
mouth  of  the  oh«imel,  and  tbn  town*  et  iiffMombe, 
Comlw-Martin,  '.Vattllut,  Mwitiine*,  KItlwtlly,  »Md  T«n* 
by,  are  on  its  coaels.  It  ooiitaili*  Mtlfof4  HitVMI,  C/*r' 
marthen  Bay,  wd  Swanaea  Hay  OR  til*  north,  8n<t  B«f  n> 
eialile,  Porlock,  and  Bridgewaler  llsy  pn  llii  *«nth,  Its 
tiiies  tiotf  rapidly  upward,  and,  niNftiinij  with  (bs  diif' 
rrnts  of  lb'^  Severn,  oaim  tba  pbeAMn«n«A  fi«U«d  the 
bore. 

Britain.    Se«  Grrat  Hritain, 

Brooada  (8paniiih  broeadti),  a  etuffef  goM,  lilv«f, 
or  sillc,  riised  and  enricliod  with  MMWltni,  titWitifit,  and 
otlrer  ornamentn.  Fomitrly  thu  wsrd  *i|i$nlA(<d  eiily  a 
stuiT  woven  all  of  gold,  buth  tn  tl,8  wifp  and  In  lh« 
woof,  or  all  of  ailver,  or  of  both  <lili(*d  |  ai  pWMnt  all 
■tblfs  which  ar*  raiaed  and  enrifiiM'd  wUh  l!ow«n  or 
other  figure*  ar*  called  brOfwI^Sr  Tho  trad*  in  thia 
article  was  carriid  an  by  thx  V*niitlan«H«ANi»Hl«M>N, 
Its  m&uufactura  wa*  eitabllshud  wt'b  \iiai  »UWJ«M  at 
Lyon*  in  1767. 

Brokantg*,  the  eommiMton  or  pwtwntuffii  piild  to 
broker*  on  tlie  *ale  or  puri^basn  of  lillll,  fundt,  geoda, 

etc.— .?«'  I'ACTORJiaE, 

Brokers.  Tho*c  both  of  monpy  nnd  mer«ban<liae 
were  known  early  in  England.  'I'hulf  d)n)ltnt$*  Wotn 
regulated  by  law,  and  it  was  "nmt^d  that  iSwy  >Mm\A 
be  licensed  before  transatiting  bnstnwf.  M  &  II  Will, 
ill.  l(>9&-'96.  Tba  doalings  of  «toiik'broKiir*  werti  retf^- 
ulated  by  art  6  Geo.  I,  17||i,  and  lU  iira,  l\.  iim, 
Some  deri^'e  th*  word  brokw  from  lb*  Vnw\i  liftAtff 
"  to  grind ;"  other*  from  brmnptler,  "  tK  (<»vll  of  big' 
gle ;"  and  other*,  again,  from  a  ttadar  broli«n,  ond  that 
from  the  Saxon  frroo,  ■'  misfortune," 

A  broker  is  an  agent  or  intermodiala  p«r*«n  appolni' 
•d  fez  traatacting  *peeial  busines*  on  wtmnnt  of  itii< 
other,  but  ditforing  semewliat  from  an  ordlnafy  helot 
in  functions  aud  rHponsibilltv ,  ( If  Ihio  hUmi  imtit  DM 
var'uus  description*  sserfli*ing  empltiymmt  without 
the  smaliest  analogy,  though  K.\\  are  liriHigtil  undi#r  ih>> 
general  name  of  brokers ;  and  of  tli*««i  tiMi  prlntilpat  «r« 
exchange  brokers,  whose  provlni't)  t»  to  «#<i»<f((»ln  th« 
rates  and  relation  of  exchange  iKitwenn  mnnttlitat 
stock-brokers,  who  negotiate  trJitsai'Cioiis  in  tbfi  public 
funds;  insurance  brokers, who etfunt  lnsnr*nii(>a  on  IIvpk 
or  property ,  and  pawnbrokers,  wlin  adVAiU'i'  mimcy  on 
goods,  on  conditioii  of  lieing  allnwwl  lo  sfill  th*  f$ooda, 
if  the  sum  advanced  Is  not  repaid  with  inliirt<«l,  wllhltt 
a  limited  tim*.— /Sm  Aukvt,  Udiinancij,  and  fiAI.K, 

Separating  pawnlirokers  and  lho««  d|i«l*n  in  old 
wares  wlio  are  called  brokers,  a*  iMlh  diaiinnl  from  the 
alass  to  whom  the  larm  in  iU  broader  awtptAltoil  llp< 


plies,  the  broker  is  an  agent  for  both  parties,  the  buyer 
and  the  seller;  and  for  the  general  principlea  of  Juris- 
prudence applicable  to  bis  position,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  word  Aqent.  It  is  a  marked  peculiarity, 
however,  of  the  broker  as  an  agent,  thai  his  quality  of 
agency  la  not  only  palpable  in  the  face  of  the  transac- 
tion, but  he  is  agent  for  both  parties,  and  therefore 
those  subtle  niceties  of  law  which  arise  out  of  the  agent 
acting  as  principal  can  not  apply  to  this  class  of  agen- 
cies. The  function  of  the  broker  is,  indeed,  a  very  sim- 
ple one,  and  easily  separates  itself  from  the  usual  in- 
tricacies of  the  law  of  sale  and  of  agency.  It  la  hi* 
proper  function  to  lind  buyers  and  sellers,  and  to  bring 
them  together  that  they  may  transact  with  each  other. 
Hence  the  rise  of  such  a  class  in  any  department  of 
business  is  an  Indication  of  its  great  increase.  I  n  small 
towns,  and  in  narrow  and  peculiar  departments  of  busi- 
ness, the  buyers  and  the  sellers  know  each  other,  and 
noed-not  be  at  tiie  expense  of  employing  a  third  party. 
Uut  where  both  bodies  are  numerous,  and  the  iiidivid- 
«al  members  of  each  find  enough  to  occupy  their  atten- 
tion in  the  production  of  their  commodity,  or  its  pui^ 
chaae  and  distribution,  there  is  economy  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  distinct  class  who  bring  the  buyer  and 
the  seller  together.  The  late  enlargement  of  the  rail- 
way aystem  has  created  a  peculiar  and  extensive  sys- 
tem of  brokerage  transactions. — E.  B. 

Brokers  are  divided  into  difl^rent  cloasea,  as  bill  or 
exchange  brokers,  stock-brokers,  ship  and  insurance 
brokers,  pawnbrokers,  and  brokers,  simply  so  called, 
or  thoae  who  sell  or  appraise  household  furniture  dis- 
trained for  rent.  Exclusive,  too,  of  the  classes  now 
mentioned,  the  brokers  who  negotiate  sales  of  produce 
between  diflierent  merchants  usually  confine  themselves 
to  some  one  department  or  lino  of  business,  and  by  at- 
tending to  It  exclusively  they  acquire  a  more  intimate 
knowledge  of  its  \-arious  details,  and  of  the  credit  of 
those  engaged  in  it,  than  could  be  looked  for  on  the 
part  of  a  general  merchant,  and  are  consequently  able, 
for  the  most  part,  to  buy  on  cheaper  and  to  sell  on  dear- 
er terms  than  those  less  tkmiliar  with  the  business.  It 
Is  to  these  circumstances — to  a  sense  of  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  firom  using  their  intervention  in  the  trans- 
action of  business — that  the  extensive  employment  of 
brokers  in  all  largo  commercial  cities  is  wholly  to  be 
ascrllied. 

Bronia  (Ger.  Siakgut,  StShnelM;  Dn.  StOlgoed; 
It,  llromo ;  Bp.  Metal  ih  Canones;  Lot.  Mtiallttm  lor- 
mrntomm),  "  a  mixed  metal,  consisting  chiefly  of  cop- 
per, with  a  small  proportion  of  tin,  n)id  sometimes  oth- 
er metals.  It  is  used  for  casting  statues,  cannon,  bells, 
and  other  articles,  in  aU  of  which  the  proportions  of 
the  Ingredients  vary." — UnE.  Bronze  was  known  to 
the  anc'rwia,  some  of  whoso  statues,  vessels,  and  vari- 
ous Othti  arlirles,  made  of  bronze  are  in  the  Kritish 
Miiaenm.  The  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  1699, 
Iti  the  Place  Vendome  at  Paris  (demolished  August  10, 
17(12),  was  the  most  colossal  ever  made;  it  contained 
60,060  pounds'  weiglit  of  bronze.  Bronze  is  two  part* 
brass  and  one  copper,  a  .  :'ie  Greeks  added  one  df. 
leenth  of  lead  and  silver. 

Brooma  (Ger.  Beten;  Fr,  Balait;  It.  Scope,  ''a- 
mtfj  Hp.  Ktcnbat;  Huss.  Mtllit)  an  principally  iiinue 
of  birch  or  heath.  Vast  quantities  are  manufactured 
in  Nouthwark  for  the  supply  of  the  London  mai^et. 

■mgaa  (Flem.  lirugge),  a  fortified  city  of  Belgium, 
catiitnl  of  the  province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  Bnis- 
m»,  Ghent,  and  Ostend  railroad,  76  miiea  from  Brus- 
sels and  14  fVom  Ostend,  and  at  the  junction  of  the 
canala  from  Ghent  to  Ostend,  and  to  Sluls.  Lat.  (of 
f  h«  halle  spire)  51°  12'  80 "  N.,  long.  3°  18'  44"  E.  Pop- 
ulatlnn,  50,273.  Bruges  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
defended  by  an  old  citadel ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing commercial  cities  in  the  .Jngdom.  It  owes  Ita 
name  (0  the  number  of  its  bridges  (upward  of  fifty), 
which  cross  Its  canals,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  man^ 
fln«  Gothic  buildings  which  it  contain*.    Chief  iitdaa* 


mni 


m 


BUC 


ouiiupkM  Hwr*  (l«#H  »  »i«th  t'M>(  mC  (iHt  r«in«l«  popula- 
tion i  m»nv(»eturi-»  sf  liHfii,  «««(l«n  AtKl  cotton  hb- 
riui,  cu)'il«i{>i,  (uIm'^'U,  .>m4  mm^:  \UilHn  \i»»  immer- 
ou*  <li»(UU'riii«,  \if*'iiit^r\i'»^  itiWtV'fi,  9ft--mut\m,  lugsr 
»uil  wilt  r«fin8r)«»,  WkMI  ti\n^mA\ti\iiu,  fUiU,  Its  (look* 
sr«  c«p»lj|»  u(mni»\\mn  m>i'  ^iumtiA  ^i»fn**,  and  »« 
aurrounM  wUb  »u»<-'Mwi  tt4rch<fi««#:>  I'llnclpal  ex- 
port*, l»M  »IHJ  o'hu*  IM«MWfi»«<H(i<tl  ho»d«,  grain,  and 
caitla.  Ihii'oim,  wm'I,  «<<<IMI,  'I^ki^mnI*^  *ln«,  and 
colouisl  prii« iM'ti*,  \it»^»  MM  fiitiiittiy  t)i«  capital 
and  r«ai<l«)*f''>  of  fllf  ''hmh(#  (4  if}»'iiUil»\  In  th«  lf]'r. 
te«utb  coMtur)  •  m»ii  mm  MffllA  INUfii  ftifriniKrclal  cltiis 
tn  tbu  wurH,  »w4  l\w  nifl^Dt  iHifrpu  <  f  tht  itanneatic 
Lcagun;  H  »»«  bwij  (''iw/ttM'd  fo*  lh«  frxcellence  of  lu 
wookn  t-'lolb^  wh4  \<imoifU»i  it  l^tj^ti  l«  dtcllne  At  the 
eiul  of  tba  (tUim^U  '^  <>!■»•/,•,  MlUtn  the  rctif^loua  peree- 
culions  of  I'liUlp  If,  "i.f;mi  Hti  ilM>it»»lii  tn  Mek  ref- 
uuciii  lCi){|{l»i>4f  (f'iii'foi''Ml)|;tl(('(^«od, 'tiikeof  Unr- 
guudy,  Mrfi  (HsUfMl'^J  !)»«  ("-ftf  (rf  (J*«  (l(il'l«Ii  1  !cBr<>. 
Clmrltt*  II,  UvKtl  Ml  I^H.  '  4  (^uritl((  hi*  e;«ih]  froiii  L»- 
glaiid, 

puriio»i!»,  sunk  m  liimiiim «*«>'•  •*!*»<  f *''ni.'iiii;4  or  i>ol- 
isliing  eurfww^,  tua,  Ulii^ninf  i^mMi*  I  •■  .v^<1«  .if 
siuitll  bioidM  «f  (»«)!((<"*  (;»^  )«!m,  (tc«tWi  .*.  M?  'lid 
bj-  a  liguturui  simJ  t(lt»li»i»ti>rf  «(w*  I*  >*(  *iih  l*!''-  "' 
cement ;  ;|U) «  W0(i»d*»  *!!«•}>  ,1>\tUsii  ••;  (i^^wd  ,i  ild  jji'iii'-i 

with  boles  for  iM  p»r^*!W,  4  fstfr'i  ^ai  «j»-taii  e.i  :.. 
l8.to  for  sov«r»l  !JMpr./v*«w>(*  v.i  liif  ^tfiwtfiisttt.'i  o' 
bnisbei.  Of  th«>-  ■  tlw  (-((i^f  ^>i(iiif«  iviinjjia  it,  ^ re,». 
ing  tlie  k)iot|£4  «•'»>  'f  *(»'*  ('H«d'-  foii!  «(-(>(;.;.r(!,ipifd 
gruuvee  In  tb«  6(4<»4}  i  ji>r  «hi':)*  Kitif  iiisj  Ipo  furllier 
siieured  by  b«iBg  SfrvuMl  *Jflt  u  fc'fif^  'jf  (ncta),  oi  a 
v«wUn  |H»lbtt,  ^w<»i|  bft**!***  «A  f;(*i»f((l(j'  made  by 
-ijiii'liiig  ())»  fjaif  w  l/fWf}<i,  .<»*4  Wirt(jli(«  It  Ihroiigl: 
iU  hoU*  l»  tb"-  stwk  l>y  IHC**'  ■  <  n  thread  or  wire 
vttleb  i«  i^l)gftg''4  Ih  ti)f>  foy,  M/'l  M^^ii'i!*  lo  ieruro  it; 
ttfwr  wi  .-ii  tiM  Iristki^  »»*  »■»«  «^H( .  Urtwhes  vary 
in  thelt  .'(  ■ .  for»),  w«4  WM(«nAl«  M  ''  i>«tructlon,  ac- 
cording (t)  I -^  'wvierfti  tt('i«i  tw  ^thi^b  (h-'t-  are  aopllrd, 
Siiver-<>OkUi.<  -sf*  WVf  SflirffW*  «w»  a'sw'ri!  6r'>/«*  for 
scrubbioe  »|ik  -•(,  ,'')!/j<»;f,  ">  \>fHii»,itfvMm»  to  filldlng. 
Id  iHHua  x-put«tm<  'i-'-  l'i»»((*'»»  W  «t(/*f  ftbroBn  plant  \» 
converted  l»t#  •  (t*,  '  -f  l^rtMll^  for  (Minllne  and  «lml. 
lar  purpown,  hv  frHUr., ■  Jbf  H%lmmf  iif  Mating  and 
then  binding  it  ui»4y  »■■<*¥»  tim  p«rf  «6  tf«»le<i. 

BllMMlfi  Or-  lln>>  (If Hi, »  (■ii)'  tri't'tnUA  Kurope, 
capital  of  t|»e  fci»grf«)(l  >(  'M^um  mA  lA  the  province 
ofUraltaiit,  OH  the  fiutmii, HWi  ni'  iUn  iM^ian  railroad, 
88  ir.'Aan  fro;.i  '^xfftHd,  ^t  fmn  i4l(t#pr(r,  ii  from  Obent, 
71  fi;>»:>  I4af.  »?  frwii  IMf.  (4»  from  Coloffne,  160 
ft»m  I'«if!»,  «h4  ^7?  frwH  (itmyil,  }/«*.  (id  obetrvHto- 
ry)  50°  61  II"  »..  5«H(J,  *■'  W  ilf  if,,  l'«pt(lallon  In 
1845,  m,mi  \n  \m;  mjm  AllifUde  «f  obnervs- 
tory,  iW)  feet,  CUmnU^  f#ti*(**f*<^,  fctltfid,  a>sd  very 
variabla,  but  |«i»l'4*j,  Mm»«  (^trtperat'ire  of  year, 
49°-6  i  winter,  8«^i  »w«;itw»f,  #>♦'  J'ltlifewlj-lt.  ft  It  the 
moat  inipon»i)(  lu'ity  mi  lb#  ti^iltiifhttMi  «lid  the  chief  iw-at 
of  public  inatrwititiPi  miii  UdHftfti  tiie  rctldfrico  of  the 
cour(»,  the  saui.  'im  l^«J!>l#li*(!  «f>«e«i(ille«,  court*  of 
appeal,  and  fiuto^'*'  at  umtDU'fi'f^  JlrtiMele  la  re- 
in>«rkabU  for  tfl4<  .  'Xlwr  mh4  fUiini'ni  of  lt«  ancient 
buib'lng*)  Md,  ffom  thfj  «l«its»H<«  trf  it*  new  qnsrtera, 
it.  rank*  «ro»Hg  ttw  (i>l*<'»  rtiW  «f  fcttfot'e.  It  li  the 
sei't  nt  tifs  ^'rioci|)»t  i^»i^,  iMfl  i4  (!(«  Mily  mint  of  the 
kingdom,  vnd  |)»4  «  :w¥,l>iiii  *i«ttk  n^d  many  wealthy 
•lid  ubariul'ie  UtHHulUma  i  if  i*  Mif>  of  the  great  cen- 
tre* o|  Relgian  indHXry,  itii4  H  )»  nflll  eelebtated  for 
iu  !««;%  c«n«l4ef«*l  the  tinM  W  fh«  «»rtd  j  lt.i  o**wi 
chief  in*aiif4i.<Kr8<  ire  t-( *)»'«  l));'h«, ((#r^a«k,  «ilk  .tnd 
eottini  ribbone,  g^ld  tiH4  liiUi'f  fhtkiAiintj  ^  hat»,  paper, 
mncbiqar/,  )aw«lry,  ttfcJ  >Ni«th«"t««l)eiiil  and  mmical  in- 
ttiuuwBt*.  H  toil*  «lw  iAinbiithMet*)*  (tn  eoach-build- 
tkt  v>d  oithiwi-imkihii,  W«(>.'^"K/t^>««  orf  chemical 
products,  io«p,  fwrwIslA,  dM  (^  .  (i«l,  atxl  axtenidve 
fii«w  i«A«ariMi  whI  bR))»«ri««/    U  b««  ttM>ii>  extcaaiva 


'ypOfC'phical  and  lithographic  eatabltshmenta,  which 
are  cbioHy  employed  iu  reprinta  of  works  published  ia 
France.  Tho  com  v.erce  of  Brussels  is  facilitated  by  a 
canal  wiaich  ocnneci*  it  with  Antwerp,  and  admits  ves- 
sels ef  SOO  iciMi  burden,  by  excellent  roads  and  by  rail- 
way*, whiUi  radiate  from  it  in  every  direction.  Brus- 
sels I*  ■  Very  ancient  city  ;  It  ia  believed  to  have  bcea 
founded  in  t  le  seventh  century ;  it  was  fortiliea  in  the 
■ 'cventh  ct!itur}',  ami  w.is  tho  residence  of  the  Dukes 
■•'  Brabant,  and  afterward  of  the  Srnmiah  aiii>  Vuntrlan 
governors  g<  nnrai  of  the  Nclherlanda :  its  fui  \i cations 
were  dianiaiiiled  by  Joacpli  II.  !>  was,  iiMder  tha 
t'roncb  enipi  :,  capital  of  the  dxpftiidincies  of  tl "  '^yle ; 
previous  to  1)^.:'',  it  was  one  li  {he.  najiilals  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Kutbeilaivds,  and  altonintc'y  with  the  7Ia|.'ue, 
the  seat  of  thocour'  >indofthutn;it:..'l>'^'neral:  it  is  the 
birth-place  ot  Ihr  |ihyslcians  Yibilius  and  Van  IleV- 
mont,  and  vne  of  the  two  paintere  Cba  npatgnr. 

Bubbles,  a  .^iimlliar  name  applied  ge)^.-.il]y  t-n 
fraudulent  or  unitiba.a'  ;lal  commerci,il  pvojeiti,  v  liitH 
Ik'iI  out  ho|)cs  of  rnpiU  gain,  for  the  purpose  ^ !  enri'  >.- 
int  *!■«  projectors  Kt  the  expense  of  sanguine  andig!'.- 
n.«'  adventurers!  aiul  particularly  'jscd  to  <(..aignJiR 
Ibuic  prqjects  tho  ivnia  for  which  are  raiseii  by  the 
«»)')  of  shares  'j'  iuli.sci'iption  to  a  transferable  atock. 

ht  <Mnsr<;Q..'i:i:t'  of  tlio  miatihief  produced  by  tho  gam- 
.■Hut;  in  tral;^fl'.'8ble  shares  of  bubble  companies  at  the 
txiu  m  the  8outh  Sea  project,  1719  and  1720,  the  stat. 
C'  Oeo.  I.  i:  \8,  inciting  that  several  undertaking.-)  or 
proji'clstr.vl  been  contrived  and  practiced,  which  "nmn- 
I  iff  f  lly  t<.'!>ded  to  the  cc.-imon  grievance,  prejudice,  and 
I  InconMMiicnco  of  great  numbers  of  his  mi^esty's  sub  ■ 
I  ject*  in  their  trsdo  and  commerce,"  and  deecrlbini;, 
I  among  other 'practicea  of  the  time,  the  ordinary  mo^k< 
of  raising  monc)  by  ahpres  and  aubacrlptions  to  a  pro- 
tcni!cd  trunsl'erablc  stock,  enacted  that  'he  undurtnli- 
I  Ings  and  attempts  ;o  described,  and  public  subscrip- 
I  ttuns,  assignments,  and  transfers  for  furthering  them, 
I  and  particularly  the  raising  or  pretending  to  raise 
transfcrilib!  slocks  without  authority  ot  charter  or  act 
of  ?arl!ftn<cnt,  should  'je  deemed  illegal  and  void,  and 
prohibited  them  under  cnvere  penalties.     Some  decis- 
ions linilte,  '.he  operation  of,  and  finally  tho  stat.  6 
tii!0.  IV,  c.  91,  ollogclher  repealed  these  enactments  and 
prohlbiiluns,    The  projectors  of  bubbles,  therefore,  are 
now  punishable  only  when  they  can  be  deemed  guilty 
of  friiuds  .»  coni[dracies  at  common  law;  and  there  is 
no  other  checii  on  the  adventurers  than  the  loss  and 
troul'lcaome  llaiilliiie*  undur  the  law  of  partnership,  in 
wiileh  participation  i;i  these  projects  often  involves  them. 
BucouwM  (from  the  French  ftouruvier),  in  its  pri- 
mary senae,  denotes  one  who  dries  and  smokes  flesh 
t<r  6sh  aftiir  the  manner  of  the  Indians.    The  name 
wa*  particularly  given  to  the  first  French  settlera  iu 
tho  inland  of  St.  Domingo  or  Haytl,  whose  principal 
empUyment  con*iat<M]  in  bunting  bull*  or  wild  bodrs. 
In  nrdpr  to  sell  their  hides  and  ivih.     The  name  has 
also  been  applied  to  those  famous  piratical  adventurers, 
chiefly  Knglihh  and  Trench,  who  joined  together  to 
cumn)it  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America. 

The  Buccanteri  of  fit.  Domingo.-  -The  Spaniards  had 
not  long  been  in  possession  of  the  West  Indies  and  of 
the  continent  of  America,  when  other  nntions,  especial- 
ly thii  Kngli^h  and  thi  French,  began  to  seek  estsl>- 
llahmeiits  there.    But  though  the  Spaniards  were  u'l 
able  to  people  such  extensive  coimtries  themselyea 
they  wore  resolved  that  no  others  should  do  it  for  tbeii- 
and  thurefore  waged  a  cruel  war  on  all  those  of  ai 
natioi.  wlio  attempted  to  settle  in   .        '  *': 
1  or  CtrlLlwe  Islands.    The  French, :    '    - 
.'  4  last  lucky  cnongh  to  acquire  soice  !      i^is  ""■ 
.■>o  island  of  St. Christopher's ;  but  by  the  '..a    thci- 
bejan  to  *ub*lde  into  •  regular  form  of  ;,ov3)   ^v.-i ', 
tha  Spaniard*  found  means  to  dislodge  them.     X  \y< 
this  the  wretched  fugitives,  considering  at  how  ,v    ».'■  < 
dUtance  they  were  from  their  mother  country,  and  bo\^ 
iM«r  to  tbs  isUnd  of  Hltpaniol*  or  St,  Domingo,  ('» 


th( 


BUC 


81S 


BUC 


northern  parts  of  which  were  then  uninhabited,  and 
full  of  awins  and  black  cattle,  immediately  resolved  to 
take  possession  of  that  country,  in  conjunction  with 
several  other  adventurers  uf  their  own  and  the  English 
nation ;  especially  as  the  Dutch,  who  now  began  to 
api>>ar  in  these  seas,  promised  to  supply  them  plenti- 
fuily  .<'ith  all  kinds  of  necessaries  they  might  require, 
In  >7X>l4-r.ngR  for  the  hides  and  tallow  they  should  pro- 
oi.w  I.'   'anting. 

Th/:t '  ■  w  setters  obtained  the  name  otbuccaneen, 
tton  t!-'  ,  custom  oi  bucanning  their  beef  and  pork  in 
<  nUt  I'j  keep  it  for  sale  or  for  their  own  consumption. 
But  some  of  tliem  soon  grew  tired  of  this  new  way  of 
life,  aiul  took  to  planting ;  while  many  more  chose  to 
turn  pirat<^!<,  trusting  to  find  among  those  who  remain- 
ed on  short',  a  quick  sale  for  all  the  plunder  they  (wuld 
maV;e  a',  sea.  This  new  body  of  adventurers  were 
<.  s'.leilyW  'looteri,  from  their  making  free  prey  or  booty 
oj  whatever  came  In  their  wny. 

The  colony  now  began  to  thrivn  at  a  great  rate,  by 
the.  cheap  and  easy  manner  in  which  the  freebooters 
acqiiirsKl  the  greatest  riches,  and  the  profusion  with 
wliicli  ihey  distributed  them  among  their  old  compan- 
ions, tuo  buccaneers  and  planters,  for  the  merest  trifles. 
This  brought  numbers  of  settlers  from  France  in  qual- 
ity of  indentured  servants,  though  they  toiled  rather 
like  slaves  than  servants  during  the  three  years  for 
which  they  generally  bound  themselves.  One  of  these 
men  presuming  to,  represent  to  Ms  master,  who  always 
fixed  upon  Sunday  for  sending  him  with  skins  to  the 
port,  that  God  had  forbidden  such  a  practice  when  he 
had  declared  that  "  six  days  shalt  thou  labor,  and  on 
the  seventh  day  shalt  thou  rest,"  the  brutish  buccaneer 
replied,  "And  I  say  to  thee,  six  days  shalt  thou  kill 
bulls,  and  strip  them  of  their  skins,  and  on  the  seventh 
day  shalt  thou  carry  their  hides  to  the  sea-shores ;"  and 
this  command  was  followed  by  blows.  Thus  the  colo- 
ny consisted  of  four  classes — buccaneers,  freebooters, 
planters,  and  indentured  servants,  who  generally  re- 
mained with  the  buccaneers  or  planters.  And  these 
four  orders  composed  what  they  now  began  to  call  the 
iody  ofadcenturen,  who  lived  together  in  perfect  har- 
mony, under  a  kind  of  democracy ;  every  freeman  hav- 
ing a  despotic  authority  over  his  own  family,  and  ev- 
ery captain  being  sovereign  in  his  ship,  though  linble 
to  be  discarded  at  the  discretion  of  the  rrew. 

The  planters  had  settled  chiefly  in  the  little  island 
of  Tortuga,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Hispaniola ;  but 
Bonn  afterward  .some  of  them  having  gone  to  the  great 
island  to  hunt  with  the  buccaneers,  tbr  rest  w-  ro  siir 
prised  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  :\ll.  ven  those  wao  had 
surrendered  at  discretion  in  ',jpes  of  mercy,  were  put 
to  the  sword  or  hanged.  The  next  care  of  the  Span- 
iards was  to  r'd  the  great  island  of  the  buccaneers ;  and 
for  this  p  irpoio  they  assembled  a  body  of  five  hundred 
lanc(vni  •;,  who,  by  theiv  seldom  going  fewer  than  fifty 
in  a  company,  obtained  from  their  enemies  the  name 
of  the  Fiftit».  But  before  detailing  the  particulars  of 
this  attack  we  shall  endeavor  to  give  some  account  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  whom  it  was 
proposed  to  extirpate. 

The  buccaneers  lived'ln  little  hut '  ;uil'  >'■■  <-•  ^'^  spoi.' 
of  cleared  ground,  just  large  enough  to  '  f  >  '  u.;ir  skins 
on,  and  contain  their  bncanniug  h<'v  These  spots 

they  called  6oucaM,ai.  .  .he  huts  I  I  velt  in  q;oup<u, 
a  word  which  they  borrowed  fro'  >  tho  Lipaniards,  ai  d 
the  Spaniards  from  the  natives.  c')iough  these  ajoupas 
lay  open  on  all  sides,  they  were  very  agreeable  to  the 
hardy  inhabitants  in  a  climate  where  a  free  circulation 
v\.  air  is  so  desirable.  As  the  buccaneers  had  nd'  ;cr 
wives  nor  children,  ''iey  associated  by  pairs,  and  mu- 
ttully  rendered  en  other  all  thr  services  . .  master 
could  reasonably  expect  fhjm  a  servant,  living  togeth- 
er in  so  perfect  a  communtly  that  the  survivor  always 
■uccecded  his  deceased  partner.  This  kind  of  union  or 
fellowshl]'  they  called  i'ematdole<-  (Insailortpi;''  and 
each  other  nt:ife(o<  (sailor),  whence  iaderiviw'   ;;    jstom 


of  giving,  at  least  In  some  parts  of  the  French  Antilles, 
the  name  mattlolage  (sallorage)  to  any  kind  of  society 
formed  by  private  persons  for  their  mutual  advantage. 
They  behaved  to  each  other  with  the  greatest  justice 
and  openness  of  heart ;  it  was  considered  as  a  crime  to 
keep  any  thing  under  lock  and  key ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  least  pilfering  was  unpardonable,  and  pun- 
ished with  expulsion  from  the  comniunily.  And,  in- 
deed, there  could  be  no  great  temptation  to  steal,  see- 
ing it  was  reckoned  a  point  of  honor  never  to  refuse  a 
neighbor  what  he  wanted ;  and  where  there  Wus  so  lit- 
tle property,  it  was  impossible  there  should  be  many 
disputes.  If  any  such  happened,  the  common  friends 
of  the  parties  at  variance  Interposed,  and  soon  put  an 
end  to  the  dlflbreiice. 

As  to  laws,  the  buccaneers  acknowledged  none  but 
an  odd  jumble  of  conventions  made  between  them- 
selves, which,  however,  they  regarded  as  the  sovereign 
rule.  They  silenced  all  objections  by  coolly  answer- 
ing that  It  was  not  the  custom  of  the  coast;  and 
grounded  their  right  of  acting  in  this  manner  on  their 
baptism  under  the  tropic,  which  freed  them,  in  their 
opinion,  from  all  obligations  antecedent  to  that  marine 
ceremony.  The  governor  of  Tortuga,  when  that  isl- 
and was  again  settled,  though  appointed  by  the  French 
court,  had  very  little  authority  over  them ;  and  they 
contented  themselves  with  rendering  him  fW)m  time  to 
time  some  slight  homage.  They  had  In  a  manner  en- 
tirely shaken  oflf  the  yoke  of  religion,  and  thought  they 
did  a  great  deal  in  not  wholly  foigetting  the  God  of 
their  fathers.  We  are  surprised  to  meet  with  nations 
among  whom  it  is  a  difHcult  matter  to  discover  any 
trace  of  a  religious  worship;  and  yet  it  is  certain  that, 
had  the  buccaneers  of  St.  Domingo  been  perpetuated  on 
the  same  footing  on  which  tlioy  subsisted  at  the  time 
we  are  speaking  of,  the  third  or  fourth  generation  of 
them  would  have  possessed  as  little  religion  as  the  Caf- 
fres  and  Hottentots  of  Africa,  o.-  the  Cannibals  of  the 
South  Sea  islands. 

Such  were  the  buccaneers  of  St.  Domingo,  and  such 
was  their  situation  when  the  Spaniards  undertook  to 
extirpate  them.  And  at  first  the  assailants  met  with 
great  success ;  for  as  the  buccaneers  hunted  separately, 
every  ono  attended  by  his  servants,  they  were  easily 
surprised.  Hence  the  Spaniards  killed  numbers,  and 
took  many  more,  whom  they  condemned  to  a  most  cru- 
el slavery.  But  whenever  the  buccaneers  had  time  to 
put  themselves  Into  a  state  of  defense,  they  fought  like 
lions,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  a  nation  from 
whom  they  were  sure  to  receive  no  quarter ;  and  by 
this  means  they  often  escaped ;  nay,  there  are  many 
instances  of  single  men  fighting  their  wny  through 
numbers.  These  dangers,  however,  and  the  success 
of  the  Spaniards  in  discovering  their  boucans,  where 
they  used  to  surprise  and  cut  the  throats  of  the  bucca- 
neers and  their  scr\-ants  in  their  sleep,  engaged  them  to 
cohabit  in  greater  numbers,  and  even  to  act  olTensivc- 
ly,  in  hopes  that  by  so  doing  they  might  at  last  Induce 
the  Spnnlards  to  let  tliem  live  in  peace.  But  the 
fnry  vi'.-'i  which  they  behaved  whenever  they  met  any 
Spaulki't. '  served  only  to  make  their  enemies  more  In- 
( ;'it  on  their  destruction ;  and  assistance  coming  to 
L.  ':  jiarties,  the  whole  island  was  turned  into  a  slaugh- 
ter-hou' '  .--nd  so  much  blood  spilled  on  both  sides,  that 
many  i.1b«,-,  on  account  of  the  <•— nage  of  which  they 
had  been  the  scenes,  were  (  scribed  as  the  hill  of  the 
uinssacre,  tli?,  plain  of  the  »■  issacre,  the  valley  of  thu 
massacre,  and  so  forth. 

At  length  the  Spi  niarda  grew  tired  ol'  this  mode  of 
proceeding,  and  hal  recourse  to  their  old  method  of 
surprise,  which,  against  enemies  of  more  courage  than 
vigilance,  was  likely  to  succeed  better.  This  placed 
the  buccaneers  under  the  necessity  of  never  hunting  ex- 
cept In  large  parties,  and  fixing  their  boucans  in  the 
little  islands  on  the  coast,  where  they  retired  every 
evening;  an  expedient  which  succeeded  very  well, 
and  the  boucans,  by  being  mo-c  fixed,  soon  acquired 


..d^< 


V£_ 


^uc 


flf 


BUO 


th«  air  and  coniUtcncy  of  little  towns.  Whan  the 
buccaneers  bad  once  established  themselves,  as  hero 
related,  each  boucan  sent  out  scouts  evei^  moroing  to 
the  highest  part  of  the  Island,  in  order  to  reconnoitre 
the  coast,  and  see  if  any  Spanish  parties  wore  abroad. 
If  no  enemy  appeared,  thoy  appointed  a  place  and  hour 
of  rendezvous  in  the  evening,  and  were  never  absent  if 
not  killed  or  made  prisoners.  When,  thei«fore,  any 
(Die  of  the  company  was  missing,  it  was  not  lawful  for 
(he  rest  to  hunt  again  till  they  had  got  intelligence  of 
liim  if  taken,  or  avenged  bis  death  if  killed.  Things 
rontlnued  in  this  situation  for  a  long  time,  till  the 
.Spaniards  made  a  general  hunt  over  the  whole  island, 
and,  by  destroying  the  game,  forced  the  buccaneers  to 
butake  themselves  to  another  course  of  life.  Some  of 
them  turned  planters,  and  thus  increased  the  French 
settlements  on  the  coast,  or  formed  others ;  while  the 
ri'st,  not  relishing  so  confined  and  regular  a  life,  enter- 
ed among  the  freebooters,  who  thereby  became  a  very 
powerful  body  France,  which  had  hitherto  disclaim- 
ed for  her  sul^ects  these  ruffians,  whose  successes  were 
only  temporary,  acknowledged  them,  hon  -  vcr,  as  soon 
as  the/  formed  themselves  into  seltlcmen  ',  and  took 
proper  measures  for  their  government  and  defense. 

Buccaneen,  Iht  Piratet, — Before  the  English  had  ef- 
fected any  settlement  In  Jamaica,  and  the  French  in 
St.  Domingo,  some  pirates  of  both  nations,  who  were 
nfterward  so  much  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Suc- 
(oneert,  had  driven  the  Spaniards  out  of  the  small  isl- 
and of  Tortuga ;  and,  fortifying  themselves  tliore,  had 
with  an  amoxing  intrepidity  made  excursions  against 
the  common  enemy.  They  formed  themselves  into 
small  companies  consisting  of  fifty,  a  hundred,  or  a 
hundred  and  flfty  men  each.  A  boat,  of  greater  or 
smaller  size,  was  their  only  armament.  Here  thoy 
were  exposed  night  and  day  to  all  the  inclemencies  of 
tho  weather,  having  scarce  room  enough  to  lie  down. 
A  love  of  absolute  independence  rendered  them  averse 
from  those  mutual  restraints  which  the  members  of 
society  impose  upon  themselves  for  tho  common  good ; 
and  as  the  authority  they  had  conferred  on  their  cap- 
tain was  confined  to  his  f;iving  orders  In  battle,  they 
lived  in  the  greatest  confusion.  Like  the  savages, 
having  no  apprehension  of  want,  nor  any  care  to  pro- 
terve  the  necessaries  of  life,  they  were  constantly  ex- 
posed to  the  severest  extremities  of  hunger  and  thirst ; 
but  deriving  fron  their  very  distresses  a  courage  su- 
perior to  every  danger,  the  sight  of  a  ship  transported 
them  to  a  degree  bordering  on  frenzy.  They  never 
deliberated  on  the  attack,  but  it  was  their  custom  to 
board  the  ship  as  soon  as  possible.  The  smallness  of 
their  vessels,  and  tho  skill  they  showed  in  the  man- 
agemrnt  of  them,  screened  them  from  the  fire  of  the 
Iwger  class  of  ships ;  and  they  presented  only  tlie  fore 
pari  of  their  little  vessels  filled  with  fusileers,  who 
fired  at.  the  port-holes  with  so  much  exactness  that  it 
entirely  confounded  tlie  most  experienced  gunners. 
As  soon  ns  tbey  threw  out  the  grappling,  tho  largest 
vessels  soliK  ni  ticflfiefl  them. 

In  casci  ofextrentre  iictesiiitylhey  attacked  tho  peo- 
ple of  eve  y  nation,  but  fell  upon  liie  Spaniards  at  all 
times.  They  thought  that  the  cruelties  which  the  lat- 
ter had  exercised  on  the  inhabitjints  of  the  Kew  World 
justified  the  implacable  aversion  they  bad  sworn 
against  them.  Bat  this  was  heightened  by  the  mor- 
tification they  felt  in  seeing  themselves  debarred  from 
the  privileges  of  hunting  and  fishing,  which  they  con- 
sidered OS  natural  rights.  'I'hcir  principles  ot  justice 
and  religion  in  nc  degree  interfered  with  their  preda- 
atory  habits ;  for  whenever  they  embarked  on  any  ex- 
pedition, they  used  to  pray  to  Heaven  for  the  success 
of  it;  and  they  never  came  back  f^om  plundering 
without  returning  thanks  to  God  for  their  victory. 

The  ships  which  sailed  ttom  Europe  to  America  sel- 
dom tempted  their  avidity,  since  the  merchandise  which 
thsse  contained  could  not  have  been  easily  sold,  nor 
Indeed  very  profitable  to  those  barbarians.    They  al- 


ways waited  fbr  them  on  their  return,  when  they  wen 
certain  they  were  laden  with  gold,  silver,  jewels,  and 
all  the  valuable  productions  uf  the  New  World.  If 
they  met  with  a  single  ship,  they  never  failed  to  attack 
her.  As  to  the  fieets,  they  followed  thom  till  tliey 
sailed  out  of  the  Uulf  of  Uahama  ;  and  as  soon  as  any 
one  of  the  vessels  was  separated  by  accident  from  th* 
rest,  k  was  taken.  The  SpanUrds,  who  tremliled  at 
the  approach  of  the  buccaneers,  whom  they  called  dev- 
ils, immediately  surrendered.  Quarter  was  granted 
if  the  cargo  proved  to  be  a  rich  one ;  if  not,  all  the 
prisoners  were  thrown  Into  the  sea. 

The  buccaneers,  when  they  had  got  a  considerable 
booty,  at  first  held  their  rendezvous  at  the  island  of 
Tortuga,  in  order  to  divide  tho  spoil ;  but  afterward 
the  French  went  to  St.  Domingo,  and  the  English  to 
Jamaica.  Each  person,  holding  up  his  hand,  solemn- 
ly protested  that  he  bad  secreted  nothing  of  what  ha 
had  taken.  If  any  one  among  them  was  convicted 
of  perjury,  a  case  which  seldom  happened,  he  was  left, 
as  soon  as  an  opportunity  oifcrcd,  upon  some  desert 
island,  as  a  traitor  unworthy  to  live  in  society.  Such 
of  their  number  as  htd  been  maimed  in  any  of  their 
expeditions  were  first  provided  for.  If  they  had  lost 
a  hand,  an  arm,  a  leg,  or  a  foot,  they  received  twenty- 
six  pounds ;  while  an  eye,  a  finger,  or  a  toe,  lost  in 
fight,  was  valued  only  at  half  this  sum.  The  wound- 
ed were  allowed  half  a  crown  per  day  for  two  months, 
to  enable  them  to  have  their  wounds  taken  care  of; 
and  if  they  had  not  mocvy  ci.ough  to  answer  these 
several  demands,  the  whole  company  were  obliged  to 
engage  in  some  flresh  exp-^dilion,  and  to  continue  it  till 
they  had  acquired  a  sufficient  stock  to  ".nable  them  to 
satisfy  these  honorable  contracts.  The  remainder  of 
the  booty  was  then  divided  into  us  many  shares  as 
there  were  buccaneers.  The  commander  cou!d  only 
lay  claim  to  a  single  share ;  but  they  complimented 
him  with  two  or  three,  in  proportion  as  he  had  acquit- 
ted himself  to  their  satisfaction.  Favor  never  had  any 
influence  in  the  division  of  the  booty,  for  every  share 
was  determined  l>y  lot.  Th?  must  rigid  justice  was 
extended  even  to  tho  dead.  His  share  was  given  to 
the  man  who  was  known  to  l>o  his  companiou  when 
alive,  and  therefore  accounted  bis  heir.  If  the  person 
who  had  been  killed  had  no  intimate,  his  [ortion  was 
sent  to  his  relations  when  they  were  known ;  and  if 
there  were  no  friends  or  relations,  it  was  distributed 
in  charity  to  the  poor,  and  to  the  churchci<,  which  con- 
sented to  ofTer  up  prayers  for  the  person  in  whote  name 
these  benefactions  were  given. 

Among  the  buccaneers  who  signalizeu  thempelves 
in  this  new  species  of  freebooting,  Montbar,  a  gentle- 
man of  Languedoc,  particularly  diiitinguished  himself. 
Having  by  chance,  in  bis  infancy,  met  with  a  circum- 
stantial account  of  the  cruelties  practiced  in  the  con- 
quest of  the  Kew  World,  ho  conceived  an  aversion, 
which  he  carried  to  a  degree  of  frenzj',  against  that 
nation  which  had  committed  sueh  enormities.  Ttie 
enthusiasm  which  this  spirit  of  humunily  worked  him 
up  to  merged  in  a  ferocity  still  more  cruel  than  that 
nf  tho  religious  fanaticism  to  which  so  many  vielims 
had  been  sacrificed.  The  manes  i  ^  these  unhappy  suf- 
ferers seemed  to  route  him,  and  cull  for  vengeance. 
He  had  heard  some  account  of  the  buccaneers,  who 
were  said  to  bo  the  most  inveterate  enemies  to  the 
Spanish  name ;  and  he  therefore  embarked,  with  some 
others,  on  board  a  ship  in  order  to  join  them. 

His  savage  disposition,  as  well  as  that  of  the  oth- 
er buccaneers  who  attended  him,  having  obliged  the 
Spaniards  to  confine  themselves  within  their  settle- 
ments, tho  fHebooters  resolved  to  attack  them  there. 
This  n«-  method  of  carrying  on  the  war  required  supe- 
rior fo'  n ;  and  their  associations  In  consequence  be- 
came more  numerous.  The  first  considerable  one  was 
thatfonr  td  by  L'Olonois,  who  derived  his  name  from  the 
•and8ofUlone8,theplaoeofhi4 birth.  From  theabject 
state  of  a  bondsman,  he  had  gradually  raised  himself  to 


^'.^mf 


BUG 


•lY 


BUG 


fclvet 
entle- 
mst'lf. 
rcum- 

con- 
rsion, 

that 

The 
i  him 

that 

L-tilTlS 

y  Buf- 

:ance. 

,  yibo 

the 

some 

oth- 
1(1  the 

IhiU- 
Ihere. 
Isupe- 
Tie  i)c- 
wus 
■mtha 
Ihject 
lelfto 


the  command  of  two  nanoei,  with  twenty-two  men ;  and 
with  tliene  ho  wai  au  auccemful  ai<  to  tako  a  8punlih 
ft'lgatfl  on  the  coaat  of  Oulia,  He  then  repaired  to  I'ort- 
•u-l*rinco,  in  which  were  four  ahipa,  titted  out  pur- 
poaely  to  sail  in  pursuit  of  him ;  but  ho  took  them, 
and  throw  all  tlie  crews  into  the  •««  except  one  nwn, 
whom  ho  saved  in  order  to  send  him  with  a  letter  to 
the  governor  of  tho  Havana,  acquuintinx  him  with 
what  ho  had  done,  and  ossurin);  him  tlutt  he  would 
treat  in  tlic  sumo  maimer  all  tho  Upaniarda  who  should 
full  into  his  iiundb,  not  excepting  the  governor  hlm- 
iclf,  if  ho  worn  fortunate  enough  to  take  him.  After 
tliia  expedition  ho  ran  his  canoes  and  prize  ships 
aground,  and  sailed  with  bis  frigate  only  to  the  island 
of  Tortuga. 

Uut  wlillo  they  were  idly  dissipating  tho  spoils 
which  they  had  made  on  tho  coast  of  Venezuela,  Mor- 
gan, the  most  renowned  of  tho  English  buccaneers, 
soiled  from  Jamaica  to  attack  Porto  Ucllo.  His  plan 
of  operations  was  so  well  contrived  that  ho  surprised 
and  took  tho  city  without  opposition.  The  conquest 
of  Panama  was  an  object  of  much  greater  importance. 
To  Bocuro  this,  Morgan  thoi'  '{ht  it  necessary  to  sail  in 
the  latitudes  of  Costa  liica,  in  order  to  procure  some 
guides  in  tho  island  of  St.  Catharines,  where  tho  Span- 
iards conlincd  their  malefactors.  This  place  was  no 
strongly  fortilied  that  it  might  have  held  out  for  ten 
years  against  a  considerable  army.  But  notwithstand- 
ing this,  tho  governor,  on  tho  thrst  appearance  of  tho 
pirates,  sent  privately  to  concert  measures  how  he 
might  surrender  himself  witliout  incurring  the  impu- 
tation of  cowardice;  an<l  the  result  of  this  consultation 
was,  that  Morgan  in  the  night-time  was  to  attack  a 
fort  at  some  distance,  while  tho  governor  was  to  sally 
out  of  tho  citadel  to  defend  a  post  of  so  much  conse- 
quence, and  that  tho  assailants  should  then  attack  him 
in  tho  rear  and  take  him  prisoner,  which  would  occa- 
sion an  immediato  surrender  of  the  place.  It  was 
agreed  that  a  smart  firing  should  be  kept  up  on  both 
sides,  without  doing  mischief  to  either.  ThU  farce 
was  admirably  carried  on.  The  Spaniards,  without 
being  exposed  to  any  danger,  appeared  to  have  done 
their  duty ;  and  the  buccaneers,  after  having  totally 
demolished  tho  fortifications,  and  put  on  board  their 
vessels  a  prodigious  quantity  of  warlike  ammunition, 
which  tlioy  found  at  St.  Catharines,  steered  their  course 
toward  the  liivcr  Chagres,  the  only  channel  whereby 
they  could  arrive  at  the  place  which  was  the  object  of 
their  wishes. 

Morgan  left  bis  vessels  at  anchor,  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  men  to  guard  them,  and  sailed  up  the  river 
in  his  sloops  for  thirty-three  miles,  till  be  camo  to  Cru- 
ces,  where  it  ceases  to  bo  navigable ;  and  he  then  pro- 
ceeded by  land  to  Panama,  which  wai  only  five  leagues 
distant.  Upon  a  large  and  extensive  plain  which 
stretched  out  before  the  city,  he  met  with  a  consider- 
able body  of  troops,  whom  ho  put  to  flight  with  the 
greatest  case,  and  entered  the  city,  which  was  now 
abandoned.  Here  were  fr>und  prodigious  treasures 
concealed  in  the  wells  and  caves ;  some  valuable  com- 
modities were  also  taken  in  tho  boats  which  were  left 
aground  at  low  water ;  and  in  tho  neighboring  forests 
were  likewise  found  several  rich  deposits.  Having 
burned  tho  city,  they  set  sail  with  <  grift  .mmber  of 
prisoners,  who  were  ranBomed  a  few  days  afterward, 
and  arrived  at  tho  mouth  of  the  Chagres  with  a  prodig- 
ious booty. 

In  1603  an  expedition  of  the  greatest  con  .  ,  e 
was  formed  by  Van  Horn,  a  native  of  Oste,  <  - .  ,  j,o 
had  served  all  his  life  among  the  Frond'  >.  in 
intrepidity  prevented  his  tolerating  tk'*  lossi  ^.n  of 
cowaidice  aroo"  "  V  ■■-■■  who  associated  with  him.  In 
theheatofan  -{.m.^  jnt  be  went  about  his  ship,  ob- 
iifirved  hii  men  in  euc(  jssion,  and  immediately  killed 
those  who  shrunk  at  the  sudden  report  of  a  pirlcl,  gun, 
or  c^fiiton.  This  extraordinary  dlsciplin"  endered 
him  the  terror  of  the  coward  and  the  id  •  of  lU^  ^  rive. 


In  other  respects  he  readily  shared  ftith  the  men  of 
ipirit  and  bravery  the  immense  riches  which  were  ao- 
qiuired  in  the  course  of  his  marauding  ixpeditioDi. 
V'hen  he  went  upon  such  expeditions,  he  generally 
sailed  in  his  frigate,  which  was  his  own  property.  But 
h's  designs  requiring  greater  numbers  to  carry  them 
into  exr'Ution,  he  called  to  Us  nnsi'ttanco  Urammont, 
Godfrey,  and  jouqui,  three  Frenchmen  distingulsliad 
by  (heir  exploits,  and  I.awronce  do  Uralf,  a  i>utch- 
mnn,  who  had  signalized  himself  still  more  than  they. 
Twelve  hundred  buccaneers  joined  themselves  to  these 
oomniandera,  and  sailed  in  six  vessels  for  Vera  Cruc. 

The  darkness  of  the  night  favored  their  landing, 
which  was  eflectcd  about  three  leagues  from  the  place, 
where  they  arrived  without  being  discovered,  Tho 
governor,  the  fort,  the  barracks,  and  tho  jiosts  of  the 
greatest  ccnsequence,  every  thing,  in  short,  which 
could  occasion  any  resistance,  were  taken  by  the  break 
of  day.  All  the  citizens,  men,  women,  and  children, 
were  shut  up  in  the  churches,  whither  they  had  Aod 
for  shelter.  At  the  door  of  each  church  were  placed 
barrels  of  gunpowder  to  blow  up  the  building;  and  a 
buccaneer,  with  a  lighted  match,  was  to  set  firo  to  it 
upon  the  least  appearance  of  an  insurrection. 

While  the  city  was  kept  in  this  stale  of  terror,  It 
was  easily  pillaged ;  and  after  tho  buccaneers  bad  car- 
ried otT  whatever  was  most  valuable,  they  made  a  pro- 
posal to  the  citizens  who  were  kept  prisoners  in  tho 
churches  to  ransom  their  lives  and  liberties  by  a  con- 
tribution of  £487,600.  This  unfortunate  people,  who 
had  neither  eaten  nor  dmnken  for  three  days,  cheerfully 
accepted  the  terms  which  were  oft'ered  them.  Half  of 
tho  money  waa  paid  the  same  day,  and  tho  other  part 
was  expected  from  the  interior  of  the  country,  when 
there  appi  arcd  on  an  eminence  a  considvrablo  bod v  of 
troops  advancing,  and  near  the  port  t  fleet  of  seve.:teea 
ships  from  Europe.  At  the  sight  u'  this  ammment, 
the  buccaneers,  without  any  marks  u  prise,  retired 
quietly,  with  fifteen  hundred  bUvcb  they  had  seized, 
as  a  trifling  indemntflcation  for  the  rest  of  the  money 
they  expected,  the  settling  of  which  they  nferred  to  « 
more  favorable  opportunity.  Their  retreat  was  equal- 
ly daring.  Tljey  boldly  sailed  tbrou^i.  the  midi>t  of 
the  Spanish  fleet,  which  let  them  pass  without  firing  » 
jingle  gun,  and,  in  fact,  seemed  afrnid  of  being  attacked 
and  beaten.  The  Spaniards  wuiild  i.ot  probably  have 
escaped  bo  easily  if  the  vessels  of  the  pirates  had  not 
been  laden  with  silver,  or  if  the  Spanish  fleet  had  been 
freighted  with  any  other  effects  but  such  merchiuiUiie 
ai  waa  little  valued  by  these  daring  freebooters. 

A  year  had  scarcely  elapsed  since  their  return  from 
Misxico,  when,  on  a  sudden,  they  were  all  ;  'ud  with 
a  passion  for  going  to  plunder  Porn.  It  is  probable 
that  the  hopes  of  finding  greater  treasures  upon  a  se« 
little  frequented  than  on  one  long  exposed  to  piracies 
of  this  kind,  was  the  cause  of  this  expedition  ;  but  it 
is  somewhat  remarkable  that  both  the  English  and 
French,  and  the  associations  of  these  two  nations,  had 
projected  this  plan  at  the  same  time,  without  any  com> 
munication,  iui.  rcourse,  or  design  of  acting  in  concert 
with  each  othei.  About  four  thousand  men  were  em- 
ployed in  this  expedition.  Some  of  them  proceeded 
by  Terra  Firma,  others  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
to  the  place  wbict-  firmed  the  olject  of  their  wishes; 
and  if  the  intrepidity  of  these  barbarians  had  been  di- 
rected, under  the  inflrmne  of  a  skillful  commander,  tA 
a  single  end,  it  is  i  .  .j.i  i  that  they  would  havo  do- 
prived  tho  Spaniards  i ''  this  important  colony.  P<'t 
their  natural  character  <  esented  an  invincible  obsta- 
I 'i  to  so  rare  a  union ;  ibr  they  always  formed  them- 
SLlvea  into  several  distinci,  bodies,  .lometimcs  even  t't 
fi'i"  in  number  as  ten  or  twelve,  who  acted  together,  or 
rooarated,  as  whim  or  caprica  dictated.  Groginsr, 
Lecuyor,  Picard,  and  Lo  ?;>ge  r-ere  the  most  distin* 
guished  officers  among  >'>■.  French;  Duvid  Sammi, 
Peter  Wihicr,  and  Towh  •    among  the  Fi'iOi"' 

Such  of  these  adven  .;i'c.'s  as  had  got  iuio  iae  Sonth 


BITO 


111 


WTO 


8m  by  the  Stnitlii  of  nari«n  mIm4  Mpon  ih*  lint  vm.  | 
•el  whicli  thny  fouiiit  upon  lli«  «Mjt ;  iiui  Iholr  (MO-  { 
ciatsi,  who  hail  aiilled  In  th«lr  own  vcmhU,  w«ni  not 
much  butler  provided.  Wosli,  baw«T«r,  u  thay  w«n, 
they  levitrn!  tlinei  beat  the  aquadront  whli-b  wara  tU 
tad  out  aKainit  them,  But  that*  vietoriaa  wan  pi^ 
ndiclal  to  them,  by  Interrupting  tlwlr  n«vl(»(i«n  ' 
•nd  when  there  were  no  mora  ihipa  lo  lie  taken,  lb.; 
were  continually  obliged  to  make  dewenli  u|>oii  il  > 
coasia  to  got  proTliloni,  or  to  go  by  land  In  orOt  i  l< 
plunder  thoie  cities  where  tha  booty  had  bean  i  I'l.riii. 
They  •uccriilvely  attacked  Meppa,  I' u«bla'N«av<i,l.i!«n, 
Raalcjo,  I'uebU-VlrJo,  Chlrlquiu,  l^ipanw,  I  Granada, 
Vlllia,  NIeoy,  Tcooanteca,  Mucmeluiia,  Cblloivea,  New 
Segovia,  and  Ouayaqull,  tba  moat  conalderabUof  all 
theae  placei. 

Many  of  these  places  wera  taken  \iy  surprlMi,  ami 
most  of  tlicm  deserted  by  their  lnhal>ilanla,  wbo  fl«d 
at  the  ai)(ht  of  the  enemy.  Aa  soon  aa  t'le  buwamHir* 
took  a  town,  it  was  directly  set  Ml  lire  unUsa  ■  anm 
proportioned  to  its  value  was  \r  '.■'  in  save  II.  Tb« 
priaoiicra  taken  in  battle  wara  nia»t»"  «l  without  mer- 
cy if  tboy  were  not  ranaomcd  b;*  ti  -  overnor  or  umui 
of  the  inhabitants;  while  gold,  p;ai'U,  or  prscloiM 
atones,  were  the  only  things  wki^uo  offer  tlia  pay> 
ment  of  their  ransom.  Sllve  be'rig  loo  common,  and 
too  weighty  for  Its  current  .alur,  would  liava  IxMrn 
troublesonio  to  them.  The  chances  uf  fortuiio,  wliiih 
seldom  leave  Ruilt  unpunished,  or  adversity  without 
a  compeniiation  for  its  su'*'>ring,  atoned  fur  Ibe  L'Tiinas 
committed  in  the  conquest  of  the  New  World  I  Ni4  tba 
Indians  were  amply  avenged  on  the  Hpaniaru>' 

While  such  piracies  were  being  omitnltlad  on  the 
Southern  Ocean,  the  Northern  waa  tbrealeiiM  with 
the  same  by  Grammont.  He  was  •  native  >if  i'aiis, 
by  birth  a  gentleman,  and  bad  distingulfhed  bimscif 
in  a  military  capacity  in  Europe ;  but  his  passion  for 
wine,  gaming,  and  women,  bad  obliged  liini  lu  Join 
the  pirates.  KevcrtbelcsF,  lu'  was  affable,  pulUf',  gen- 
erous, and  eloquent ;  endued  wilb  a  sound  ju<l|,'nt  "nt, 
•nd  a  person  of  approved  valor ;  qualitie '  wbieh  ifi'>-'i 
made  him  be  considered  as  the  chief  of  tba  Kraticb  buc- 
caneers. As  soon  as  it  was  known  Ibat  ba  bad  taken 
np  arms,  he  was  Immediately  Joined  by  a  number  of 
brave  men.  The  governor  of  St.  Domingo,  wbo  bad 
at  length  prevailed  upon  liis  master  to  approraof  tba 
project,  equally  wise  and  Just,  of  fixing  tba  pirates  In 
aome  place,  and  inducing  tbem  to  become  cullivalors, 
was  desirous  of  preventing  the  concerted  expadilkin. 
and  forbade  it  in  the  king's  name.  But  tiramimmi, 
wbo  had  a  greater  share  of  sense  than  bis  asooeialt^ii, 
was  not  on  that  account  inclined  to  comply,  and  >«t«m- 
ly  replied,  "  How  can  Louis  disapprove  of  •  d«*l(^  b* 
is  unacquainted  with,  and  which  has  Ixen  planned  only 
a  few  days  ago  ?"  This  an»  wer  highly  pleoaad  all  the 
buccaneers,  wbo  directly  eml>arke(l  in  lAHft  to  alticb 
Campeachy. 

They  landed  without  opposition.  But  at  soma  dis- 
tance from  tie  coast  incy  were  attacked  Ity  eight  hun- 
dred Spaniards,  who  uers  beaten  and  pursued  Ui  tha 
town,  wbieb  both  partiei  entered  peli-nielt  togtithf.r. 
The  cannon  they  found  thern  were  Immedlataly  I«vi)lii4 
against  the  citadel ;  but  as  these  bad  very  litlU  affect, 
they  were  contriving  some  stratagem  to  enablo  tb«m 
to  become  masters  of  the  place,  wbeu  intelligani'a  was 
brought  that  it  had  been  abandoned.  Tbara  raMoliMd 
in  it  only  a  gunnc.  .  Englishman,  and  an  oAUer  of 
signal  courage,  wl  j  chose  rather  to  ex|ios«  himself  lu 
the  greatest  e:(tTf  inities  than  basely  to  Hv  frum  tha 
plaue  with  the  rest.  The  commander  o(  the  i>u»:aii«ars 
received  him  with  marks  of  distinction,  g«tierou*ly  re- 
leased him,  gave  him  up  all  bis  effects,  and,  b««id«s, 
complimented  him  with  some  valuable  presents  i  su«h 
influence  have  courage  and  fidelity  even  on  tba  minds 
of  those  who  systematically  violate  all  tlK»  rigbta  of 
society. 

In  1697,  tf,  live  bundrad  bn>.  :»men  wart  bi4qc«d  to 


join  a  amtadron  of  seven  ships  which  salted  from  Kn- 
rupi  unisr  the  eomniniiil  uf  one  I'ointia,  tu  attack  the 
fanir/tts  dly  of  Carthageua.  This  was  the  nioit  dlHI- 
attlt  antrfT'i*  wiileb  enuld  b«  attempted  In  the  New 
Wr>    '  ,i>    I !'->i  of  the  port,  the  strength  of  the 

pi  I*   ,  i>        '<<  ,  'nn  of  the  climate,  were  so  many 

'  .  "t<  >*•  wk  /  ,  ild  bav*  seemed  insurmountable  to 
iiiy  bill  such  MMii  as  the  'juccaneers.  But  every  ob- 
•lacle  yielded  to  their  valor  and  good  fortune ;  the 
dly  waa  taken,  and  booty  gained  to  the  amount  of 
4I,7A0,0<I0.  Their  rapacinns  romniander,  however, 
deprived  Ihem  of  the  advantages  resulting  A-om  their 
success.  He  scru^iled  not,  as  soon  as  they  set  sail,  to 
offer  AMUI  tor  the  share  of  those  who  had  lieen  tlio 
cblaf  inslraments  In  procurinr  him  s"  onsiderable  a 
spoil. 

Tba  tiuecaneers,  exn'iicrutrd  at  this  tuatmcni,  •(>• 
solved  Immedlatel;-  to  board  the  vcKsel  called  the  Serp- 
Irt,  where  I'olntis  himself  waii,  and  were  with  great 
diffically  prevrliied  from  assassinating  him.  They 
than  ict  sail  for  t'arthagena,  where  they  amply  repal<l 
Ihamialvaa  for  the  losses  they  bad  sustained  through 
tba  avarice  of  their  late  commander. 

At  langth,  after  amassing  all  they  could,  these  ad- 
vanlmwrs  sat  sail,  when  unfortunately  tliry  met  with  a 
Heat  of  Untch  and  English  ships,  then  in  alliance  with 
Hpain,  fteveral  of  Ihe  pirates  wore  either  taken  or 
sunk,  with  the  cargoes  they  had  on  board ;  and  the 
rest  escaped  to  St.  Uomingo. 

Much  was  the  last  memorable  event  In  the  lirslory 
of  the  hurcanerrs.  The  separation  of  the  English  iiiiil 
French,  when  the  war  on  account  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  divided  the  two  nations;  the  success  of  the 
inaaiM  employed  to  promr  le  the  cultivation  of  land 
among  t'lelr  colonies,  by  the  assistance  of  these  enter- 
prising men;  the  prudence  evinced  In  selecting  the 
most  dlsllngulshed  among  them,  and  intrusting  them 
wilb  tlvll  and  military  iniploymcnts;  and  the  protcc- 
llon  afforded  to  the  Spanish  settlements,  which  till 
then  bad  been  a  general  object  of  plunder ;  all  these 
Hretimslances,  and  various  others,  besides  the  impossi- 
l/llity  of  supplying  the  place  of  these  remarkable  men, 
who  were  continually  dropping  off,  concurred  to  put 
an  end  lo  a  society  as  extraordinary  as  any  that  ever 
existed.  Wllhont  any  regular  system,  without  laws, 
without  snl>'"llnali  .1,  and  even  without  on^-  fixed 
revetiiie,  they  lieramo  Ihe  astonishment  o\  the  ogc  in 
which  they  lived,  aa  thcv  will  be  also  of  postnritv. — 
v.,  II, 

AuOklOi^  The  weii  ^  of  buckles  commenced  in 
trui  reign  of  Charles  II.,  hut  people  of  inferior  rank, 
and  such  as  affected  plainness  in  their  garb,  wore 
strings  In  their  shoes  some  years  after  that  period : 
thes<!  last  were,  however,  ridiculed  for  their  siiigalari- 
iy  In  using  tbem.  Buckl''^  continue  to  be  used  in 
court  dress,  and  by  persoii.>  of  rank  in  most  countries 
of  Kuitme. 

BtlokwiMat  (Fr.  SU  Satrattn,  Eli  not'r;  Germ. 

I  llurhientm,  J/eidtiom ;  It.  firatui  flamcfno,  Fat/gina, 

j  h'rmnn  1   tip.  Trigo  .V  ractn-,  Trigo  negro ;  Pol.  To- 

\larra,  tlrykn,  I'ohw      ■  Bub».  Orttaclia;  Let.  Fagopg- 

1  rum)  Is  prinHpa''  tivatcl  in  order  that  it  may  le 

cut  when  yoiin^  ''eer    ind  employed  as  fodder 

i  (i)T  callle;  when  «.  .•>^eil  to     pen,  the  grain  is  usually 

'  kmptoyed  to  feed  »>l:,eons  aim  poultrj-.     When  ripe,  it 

is  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  the  seeds  bearing  a  great  re- 

•emblanca  Ui  lierch-mast :  it  will  grow  on  the  poorest 

•oils,     II  Is  cultivated  In  almost  every  part  of  the  tem> 

p«r»l«  and  arctic  >  llmates  "f  the  civilized  world  for 

'  tba  farinaceous  allnimen  of  its  seeds,  which,  when  prap- 

:  erly  eooked,  affords  a  delicious  article  of  food  to  a  large 

portion  (;f  tbe  human  race.     It  also  serves  as  excel- 

Milt  fodder  to  milch  cows,  and  the  straw,  when  cut 

grean  and  converted  Into  hay,  as  well  aa  Uie  ripened 

seeds,  are  fed  to  cattle,  poultry,  aiid  swine.     It  Is  be- 

I  liarad  lo  l>a  a  native  of  Central  Asia,  as  it  is  supposed 

i  to  bava  been  flrst  brought  to  Europe  in  the  early  port 


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of  the  twelfth  century,  at  the  time  of  the  Crunaderi  for 
the  raravery  uf  HyrU  fruin  the  dumlniuii  »f  the  Hera- 
oeiu  ;  while  otiiera  contcml  that  it  wai  intru<luced  into 
b|uiln  by  the  Moor*,  four  hundre<l  years  before,  lliia 
grain  .iiipcam  not  to  have  been  much  cultivated  in  thla 
country  [iriur  to  the  lu»t  century,  aa  it  i«  nut  often  inen- 
liuucd  liy  writer*  on  America  previoim  tn  that  )>eriud, 
II<diu,  in  hill  Hiittory  of  Pennaylvania  (Nieu  Hwedo- 
land),  puliliahed  ut  8tockholni  in  1702,  mention*  it 
smuhK'  the  production*  of  that  province  ;  and  Kalm, 
the  iiwediaii  naturulial,  who  viaitod  thi*  country  in 
1748-''il>,  >|)ouks  of  it  a*  growing  in  Pennsylvania,  Now 
Jersey,  and  New  Vorli ;  and  several  American  writer* 
on  agricultural  subject*  have  treated  of  it  since.  The 
cultivation  of  hucicwhiHl,  in  one  or  »thcr  of  It*  spocic*, 
1*  principally  conHned  to  Great  llrlt..:in,  Krance,  Switz- 
erland, Italy,  Nethorlandi,  liermuny,  Hwedon,  fin*- 
■la,  (;hinii,  Tartury,  .lupnn,  Algeria,  Canadr.,  and  the 
middln  and  northern  portion*  of  the  United  Ntatca.  In 
thI*  coui>''v,  from  thirty  to  forty-live  bushels  per  aero 
may  be  cu.isidered  ua  an  averngo  yield  in  favoralilu 
■eason*  anil  situations,  Imt  sixty  or  more  bushels  arc 
not  unfrcqiicntly  produced.  This  grain  heretofore  has 
never  entered  into  our  foreign  commerce.  According  to 
tlie  census  rutuma  of  1840,  the  annual  quantity  raised 
In  the  United  States  waa  7,291,743  bushels ;  nnd  of 
18o0,  H,95(i,UlU  bushola.— C'eiuu<  Jieport.  >S'ee  Uukad- 
■TUKKS. 

The  followiiif;  table  shows  the  product  of  barley  in 
the  year  1840,  and  of  buclcwlieat  in  1840  and  1860,ln 
each  State,  according  to  the  census  returns : 


SlaUi  Md  T«rlloriM. 

Bailey. 

nuckii 

h»t. 

n». 

IIUO. 

IB&O. 

Biuhila. 

Biuliela. 

Biuhali. 

Alabama 

7,092 

es 

am 

ArksDMiiH 

700 

88 

175 

'  .>llfuml» 

.... 

1  olumbla,  IV  irlct  of. . 

2M 

27" 

BTS 

C.innectlput 

88,751 

303,043 

229,2117 

Ueluwaro... 

6,2«0 

11,299 

8,016 

Klortdtt 

80 

, 

65 

Ocorgla 

12,979 

141 

2611 

Illinois 

83,251 

57,884 
49,019 

184,504 
149,740 

Indiana 

28,016 

7:8 
17,491 

0,212 
8,109 

6t.Mb 

6.',bl0 

10,OS7 

3 

104,523 

a65,'l01 

Maine 

Maryland 

ii,6!ii 

73,006 

103,071 

MaHHacbuBctIs 

106,31 

87,000 

106,896 

Michigan 

127,80j 

113,593 
01 

472  917 

Mlssisslnpl 

Missouri 

1,064 

1,121 

9,801 

15,318 

23.041 

New  Hampshire 

121,S99 

106,108 

06,205 

Now  Jersey 

12,601 

2,520,008 

3,574 

8.'i0,117 

2,287,885 

15,391 

878,9i>4 

8,18.3,065 

10,704 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

212,44" 

209,8!ia 

06,490 

033,139 

2,113,742 

2,979 

038,060 

2,193,092 

1,245 

Rhode  Island 

8auth  (JarDllna 

3,907 

72 

283 

Tennessee 

4,809 

17,118 

228,416 

243,822 

10,064 

19,427 

69 

209,819 

214,898 

79,878 

615 

Bi,7Rl 

Virginia 

87,430 

Wlucoiisln 

11,002 

Minnesota  Territory  . . 

New  Mcxlcci  Territory. 

.... 

100 

Oregon  Territory 

Utah  Territory 

Total 

.... 

833 

4,101  ,BM 

7,291.748 

8,1'60,91« 

Buenoa  Ayres,  the  largest  and  most  important 
province  of  the  Argentino  Confederation,  is  Iwunded 
on  the  north  liy  the  Parana,  which  separates  it  from  the 
province  of  Entro  Rios ;  and  by  the  provinces  of  Santa 
F6,  San  Luis,  and  Uondoza  j  on  tlie  east  by  tho  At- 
lantic ;  on  the  south  by  the  Rio  Negro,  which  separates 
It  from  Patagonia;  and  on  the  west  by  the  country  of 
the  Indians,  which  e.\tcnds  westward  to  the  Andes. 
The  area  of  the  province  is  estimated  by  Sir  Woodbine 
Parish  at  about  200,000  square  miles,  being  little  less 
than  that  of  France.  Its  seo-lmard  along  the  Uio  de  1» 
Plata  and  the  ocean  Is  upward  of  600  miles  in  length. 
Since  U25  no  censiu  of  the  population  baa  been  token. 


At  that  date  it  was  found  to  amount  tn  188,000.  Pii' 
ish  estimates  the  present  population  at  820,(MM),  of  whiiti 
number  120,000  beh>ng  to  the  city  of  Ilucnus  .Vyres. 
liy  M'Cann,  another  authority,  the  entire  |>opul/illon 
of  the  province  i*  computed  ut  200,000,  This  siiiuU 
increase  over  tlie  results  of  tho  census  of  1826  is  attrib- 
uted l>y  him  to  the  civil  wars,  to  the  prohibition  of  llie 
slave-trade,  and  other  causes. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  country,  as  \lewed  from 
the  sea,  is  eminently  uninteresting.  From  the  mouth 
of  the  Plata  to  the  llahia  lllanca  tho  sea-line  presents 
an  iinliroken  series  of  sand-dunes,  varied  here  and  there 
with  low  ridges  of  rock.  From  this  latter  point  to  the 
I'atugonian  frontier  tho  as|)ect  of  the  const  is  loss  ino- 
notoniius,  though  equally  destitute  cf  life  or  interest. 
Though  lliienoa  Ayres  I*  the  only  ]irovince  ut'  the  Ar- 
gentino Confederation  that  Iwrder*  upon  the  fea,  and 
though  all  the  exports  and  Imports  of  tho  country  pass 
through  It,  It  possesses  only  two  harbors,  one  of  which 
(that  of  tlie  city  of  Duenos  Ayres)  Is  extremely  bad ;  the 
other  (that  of  Uelgrano,  near  the  souther:!  extremity 
of  tho  province),  thougli  possessing  greui  natural  ad- 
vantages, is  by  no  means  adequately  appreciated.  It 
might  bo  turned  to  good  account  as  a  starting-point 
fur  vessels  engaged  in  trado  with  the  South  American 
states  that  liorder  iiiHin  tlin  I'acllic,  but  the  ditlicult 
and  sometime*  dangerous  navigation  of  the  adjoining 
seas  counterbalanies  in  the  ineun  time  the  other  :i(l- 
vantagea  which  It  oilers.  Tho  Interior  of  tho  country, 
except  where  it  is  intersected  by  tho  low  inoiintuln 
ranges  of  tho  Ventana  and  Vuulcun  in  Its  soutlicm  ])or- 
tlons,  and  the  spurs  of  the  Andes  In  the  west,  in  one 
vast  plain,  of  which  by  far  the  larger  part  I*  laid  out  In 
etlnnciiu,  or  cuttle  farms,  though  the  soil  Is  In  itself 
well  adapted  for  producing  ull  tho  European  I'croulia. 
Agricultural  pursuits,  however,  are  hy  no  means  In 
favor  with  the  natives,  who  can  not  bring  themselves 
tn  engage  In  any  pursuit  that  can  not  lie  prosecuted  nn 
horseback.  "  Kvery  man,  woman,  and  child  In  the 
country  rides,"  say*  Parish.  "  One  might  fancy  one's 
self  In  the  land  of  centaurs,  amid  a  population  half-men 
hulf-liorse*.  Kvon  beggars  ride  on  horseback."  .Some 
of  tlio  cnttlc-furms  are  of  immense  extcfit;  one  in  par- 
ticular is  mentioned  by  traveler*  as  comprising  mora 
than  (too  *quare  miles  of  land,  and  yielding  an  enor- 
mous revenue  to  the  proprietor.  Some  of  the  largest 
of  them  belong  to  Krltlsh  setttlers,  and  are  worked  by 
British  servants.  The  cattle  wore  fonnerly  hunted 
down  and  killed  merely  for  the  sake  of  their  hide*  and 
tongue*,  while  the  carcasses  were  abandoned  to  bcnsts 
and  lilrds  of  prey.  They  are  now  slaughtered  in  abat- 
toirs, where  every  part  of  the  aniinul  Is  made  availa- 
ble. The  beef  Is  suited  for  exportation  ;  the  tuUow  la 
boiled  down,  and  now  forms  an  important  item  in  the 
farmer's  revenue;  and  tho  trade  in  hides  is  stead  iy 
increasing.  Ilocf  and  an  infusion  of  tho  native  tea  are 
the  stapl:  food  of  tho  natives.  Uy  the  care  of  a  ti  w 
Uritish  colonists,  sheep  have  of  lute  years  been  extens- 
ively reared,  ond  their  wool  Is  annually  increuslisg  in 
value.  Till  recently  they  were  reputed  so  valueless 
that  their  carcasses  were  used  ns  fuel  for  kilns,  etc.  A 
decree  of  government  ordained  that  no  live  sheep  should 
Iw  employed  for  this  purpose.  Tho  numlier  of  cattla 
In  tho  province  is  estimated  at  12,000,000 ;  of  sheep, 
about  the  half  of  that  numblr.  The  total  value  of  ex- 
ports fl-om  Kuenos  Ayres  In  1849,  was  £2,537,821;  in 
1850,  X'1.98.S,u1!);  and  in  1851,  i:2,12G,705.  In  this 
latter  veur  the  value  of  the  jerked  lieef  exported  waa 
i.172,749;  of  hides,  Xl,80O,670;  of  tallow,  £217,690; 
of  wool,  £190,060.  The  other  exports  consisted  chief- 
ly of  hulr,  horns,  bones,  skins,  and  feathers.  The  vuliic 
of  imports  Into  Duenos  Ayres  may  be  stated  upproxi, 
mately,  for  the  year  185"l,  at  £2,110,000;  of  which 
Grout  Britain  contributes  £900,000 ;  France,  £500,000; 
northern  Europe,  £170,000;  Giliraltar,  Spain,  and  the 
Mediterranean,  £120,000 ;  the  United  States,  £200,000; 
Brazil  and  othor  countries,  £220,000.    Of  the  corcaU 


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grown  in  nuenot  AyrM,  Uut  iiuHit  Importaat  li  mail*, 
which  !■  Iuill|;riuiiia  to  Ihti  luuiilry,  H'h«<tt  tlirlvtfl 
KvU  in  tho  aouthim  (wrta  uf  th«  pnivlnoo,  liut  Um  In- 
habitants ritruly  k^uw  wor*  than  enoUKh  to  iupi'ly 
their  own  nccMtitiM.  In  tb*  (vtnt  uf  a  (urplua,  It  i* 
cuninionlv  (ix|Mirta<l  to  BraaQ,  l<'lax  antl  ii«in|i  arc 
cultivutisd  with  iUDcaii*,  The  vina,  tig,  oranuc,  anil 
olivo,  have  been  Inlrviluciid  ft-um  the  UlU  World,  and 
art  found  to  auit  the  cUinate  adirlratly ;  but  the  mont 
valuaiile  uf  Kuropoan  fruita  ia  the  peavh,  A  cunai'ler- 
•Ue  fruit  truda  la  carried  on  in  coaatiiitf  veaaela,  by 
marcluuita  for  llio  moat  piirt  Italian  or  French.  The 
geographical  poaltion  of  Buonoa  Ayrrs  ia  auch  a«  to 
enable  It  completely  to  control  tho  forvlicn  commercial 
relatlona  of  the  entire  coulbduralioii  i.T  which  it  forma 
a  part.  The  excluairo  iipliu)'  wlilrli  It  liaa  always 
puraued  on  thia  point  haa  often  involved  it  in  aeriou* 
quartvla,  not  only  witli  niouy  of  the  S<mth  American 
atatca  and  tlie  other  provlncoa  of  the  Argontlfte  Con- 
federation, but  witli  Unt(li>nd  and  t'ranie.  8lnco  the 
expulfiion  of  (ienerdl  Ruaaa,  llie  navitiation  of  the  I'a- 
rana  and  I'ruguuy  haa  been  thrown  open,  and  other 
meaaurea  have  been  taken  to  place  UitJi  the  province 
and  city  of  Duonoa  Ayrea  on  a  level  with  the  other 
provincca  of  tho  confederation,  lluenoa  Ayrea  hua 
publlahcd  a  proteat  agalnat  any  auch  meaaure,  and  the 
diapute  is  atill  unsettled.  The  only  other  towni  in 
ibo  province  of  any  importance,  iMaidea  the  capital, 
are  San  Nicolaa,  which  ia  aituated  on  the  I'anina,  about 
200  milea  northwest  of  lluuiius  Ayrea,  and  coiitniua  a 
population  of  about  10,000;  San  Pedro,  also  on  the 
rarann,  about  160  milea  from  the  capital  in  the  aanie 
direction,  with  a  population  of  1000;  Chascamas,  on 
the  ahorca  of  a  cognominal  lake,  once  a  place  of  con- 
aidcrable  Importance,  but  seriously  injured  by  the  long 
continuance  of  the  civil  wars;  and  Uelgrano,  which, 
from  ila  position,  bids  fair  to  bncoiue  the  rival  of  the 
capital  itself. 

Buenoa  Ayrea,  thu  capital  uf  the  Ari^'cntlne  Con- 
fedet.itiou  nnd  of  tho  province  of  Buenos  Ayrea,  is  sit- 
uated on  the  right  bunk  of  the  eatuury  of  the  Plata, 
In  Ut.  SI"  89'  S.,  long.  M"  18'  W.  The  river  is  at 
thii:  point  so  wide,  that  it  is  <|uitn  im{ioasible  witli  the 
naked  eye  to  dfttioguiah  the  opposite  liunk ;  and  at  the 
Bun<e  time  ao  shallow,  that  ships  drawing  16  or  16  feet 
of  water  must  anchor  seven  or  night  miles  from  the 
city.  Small  craft  generally  anchor  in  what  are  called 
the  inner  reads,  nl>rea8t  of  tho  city.  As  the  deptl>  '>r 
watur  is  never  suSlcient  to  admit  of  their  coming  to 
shore,  passengers  and  goods  are  landed  by  means  of 
large-wheeled  carts,  wliich  are  either  drawn  or  prshed 
by  thi;  requisite  number  of  horses.  Tho  town  of  Bue- 
nos Ay  res  is  situated  in  a  vast  plain  ext<>ndlng  west- 
ward to  the  Andes.  The  level  uniformity  of  its  out- 
line is  only  broken  by  the  apures  of  the  various  churches. 
The  stranger,  on  landing,  la  struck  with  the  regularity 
of  the  streets,  which  are  quite  Htruigbt,  and  Intersect 
each  other  at  distances  ofl50  yards,  forming  squares  like 
those  of  a  chesfUioard,  with  the  cleanly  appcoranco  of 
the  bouses,  and  the  general  air  of  independence  that 
distinguishes  the  inhul>itants.  The  only  puMio  build- 
ings that  have  any  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty 

are  the  churches,  which  were  built  for  the  most  part :  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  specilicd  in  the 
by  tlio  Jesuits.  The  houses  have  never  more  than  two  |  subjoined  table, — Ste  Plata  Rivkr. 
stories,  and  commonly  only  one,  the  rooms  of  which  Previously  to  1886  no  wool  wns  exported  from  Due- 
open  into  each  other,  >nd  till  lately  were  chiefly  sup-  nos  Ayres.  Rut  in  ths*.  year  merinn  and  Soxnn  slicop 
plied  with  furniture  of  a  very  inferior  description  fhnn  |  were  introduced  j  and  notwithstanding  the  constant 
the  United  Statcx.  A  chimney  was  u  thing  unknown,  !  recurrence  of  disturbances,  they  have  succeeded  Try 
M  the  old  SpaDiHh  btazero  alone  was  employed  In  !  markably  well,  ns  is  obvious  ft-om  the  following 

AccocxT  or  ma  ExroRra  or  Wool  i-boh  Bckhos  Aran  ron  rivs  Ykaos,  ntDtno  wim  1801. 


heating  the  dump  and  whItv-waahMl  rnoms,  A  great 
thange  has,  hownvir,  taken  place  In  Ihi'x'  rcstireti 
within  the  last  hw  years.  The  fiimlttr<>  la  now  lup- 
plieil  ft'om  t^uropa,  tha  walla  are  papered,  K'nies  and 
chimneys  have  cum*  Into  flishloa,  and  Kngllah  coal  is 
bumetl  at  a  hiwet  prioe  than  It  brinif'  In  the  Ixindon 
market,  I'b***  comforts  are  all  the  more  valuable,  as 
tho  climate  of  lluenos  Ayrea  it  on*  of  th*  most  humid 
and  changeable  in  the  world.  As  the  ayati  in  of  pollcs 
is  still  somewhat  of  the  rudest,  the  lnhal>iliinta  aro 
oldi^'  d  to  guard  Ihrmstdves  and  their  pruperty  by 
mvaiia  of  the  iron  railinga  with  which  tlirt  iimttet  the 
windows  of  the  kousts.  Kven  this,  hoHe\<'r,  Is  not 
always  found  to  be  an  rflii  lent  guard  againHt  the  dex- 
terity of  thieves.  Though  thu  city  is  built  within  M 
yards  of  tlie  largest  river  in  the  world,  the  suppli** 
uf  fresh  water  are  both  scanty  and  expensive.  There 
arc  no  public  reservoirs  or  foui.tains,  and  the  wells  of 
the  city  yield  only  a  brnckirh  and  diaagreeabln  water. 
By  the  w  oalthior  claasea  tanks  aro  lonstruilud,  in  which 
a  aulBeiencv  of  rain-water  for  domestic  purposes  is  col- 
lected from  th*  roof  of  the  hous*,  Tha  common  people 
are  obliged  to  purchase  water  trnm  th*  water-i^arrier*. 
As  it  Is  derived  Oom  th*  river.  It  I*  commonly  muddy, 
and  must  stand  for  twenty-four  hours  till  the  sediment 
sinUs  tu  tlui  bottom.  It  is  then  found  to  lie  excellent. 
The  street  .s  of  th*  city  are  now  tolerably  pa>ed  with 
granile.  Many  of  them,  however,  are  still  unpaved; 
and  these  in  wet  weather  can  hardly  be  traversed  by  a 
mounted  horseman,  and  are  utterly  Impassable  by  n 
person  on  foot.  Floriculture  Is  a  favorite  pursuit; 
and  muiiy  iCnglish  and  {Scotch  gardenora  have  nurse- 
ries in  the  neighborhood  of  the  town, — E,  II. 

Tho  Plata  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  the  world, 
traversing  a  vast  extent  of  cpuntry,  of  which  it  is  tho 
great  outlet.  Unluckily,  however,  its  estuary,  though 
broad,  is  in  most  parts  ahalluw,  being  also  encuinlicred 
with  sand  banks,  and  Infested  with  sudden  gusts  of 
wind  called ^(im^wiiM.  Us  niivlgatlon  is  consr(|iiently 
attended  with  a  good  deal  of  difficulty,  and  ships  bound 
for  Buenos  Ayres  generally  take  pilots  on  Itoard, 
There  is  no  harbor,  nnd  vessels  drawing  10  or  17  feet 
of  water  anchor  In  the  outer  ronds,  called  the  Amar- 
ratfiro,  7  or  8  miles  ft-oni  shore,  loading  and  unload- 
ing by  means  o(  lighters.  This,  too,  is  an  operation 
by  no  means  ft«c  from  danger,  lioata  being  sometimes 
swamped  in  crossing  the  bar  lietwecn  tho  outer  and  In- 
ner roads.  From  tlic  want  of  a  pier,  and  the  shallow- 
ness of  the  water  on  the  beach,  even  the  boats  are  not 
able  to  come  close  to  the  shore,  but  are  met  at  a  little 
distance  from  it  by  a  rude  sort  of  ox-carts,  into  which 
they  deposit  their  goods  at  no  little  risk,  and  some- 
times much  loss.  These  unfavorable  circumstances, 
which  might,  however,  bo  mnlerlally  improved  by  a 
little  exertion  and  outlay  on  tho  part  of  the  govern- 
ment, operate  as  a  heavy  drawback  on  tho  trade  of  tha 
city,  and  tend  proportionally  to  augment  that  of  Mon- 
tevideo, which  Is  more  easily  accessible.  But  not- 
withstanding the  competition  of  the  latter,  Buenos 
Ayres  is  still  tho  principal  outlet  for  the  produce  of 
the  vast  countries  traversed  by  the  Plata,  and  espe- 
cially for  the  provinces  situated  (m  its  right  bank. 


Ymm. 

■mUwI. 

riaua. 

VtUti  SMIM. 

0mm. 

Bstriunt 

SundrtM. 

Tout 

rnadi 

Poudi. 

Powidi. 

P«ia4« 

Paudt 

Pond! 

Putlndf, 

1862 

i,8'<9,6n0 

».9nT,760 

.'.,6S1).(I(»0 

M«,UOO 

1,8U,I47 

1)1,  lua 

in,w.wn 

1851 

M3,91« 

8M,«14 

ll.82T,KSO 

8(»,P42 

880,878 

ins.noo 

1H,08«,U74 

tSM 

1,86!),100 

3,o(ie.iin 

B,8!1.SM 

MT,4M 

T68,4i20 

171,839 

13,843,38(1 

1»40 

8,imi,448 

l.eM,798 

10,»M.K8 

S90.41S 

M6.S40 

1<8,»M 

17,4!'^6(» 

1St8 

8,TS4.M1 

t,OU,01S 

T,(Ke,«)e 

170,130 

*8,SB> 

I>,14« 

18,880,811 

BITF 


121 


Bin 


Corn,  whlrh  tnt  ft  vonuMxrililr  period  wa*  not  pro- 
taavi  In  •uflli'i«nt  i|iMntily  tut  homa  eoniiimpllon,  hii 
Ultarly  liHuinii  mi  mowlMul  «rtirl«  uf  •x|)nrt.  Moat 
part  ol'the  Jcrkcil  licur,  ami  iiiiiulKiri  of  niiilrii,  «ru  ex- 
poftoil  to  the  iUviiim  mid  lir»ll.  1IM»«,  tallow, 
•kin*,  IwnKii,  and  horna,  impmstally  III*  Ant,  are  laaillnK 
Mtlclmi  of  axporl  Sir  Wuodbint  I'arliih  eatliiiaiM  the 
total  amount  of  tti*  linporta  Into  the  I'lata  at  al>out 
i-J,llU,Ul)U,  ufwhleh  ahoul  on*  half  may  In  for  Uaino* 
Ayroa.  The  valua  of  llrtllnh  <xport»  to  tha  lattar,  in 
18AI,  amounted  to  X''tftN,l|-;u,  eottoni  beiiiK  by  much 
th«  moat  important  article,  and  next  to  it  ailki,  lln- 
•na,  and  wixilena,  with  cutlnry,  hunlware,  etc.  Kranni 
tuppliei  allka,  wtnoi  (of  whirii  the  impurta  hare  large- 
ly Incrouacd),  Jowi-lry,  perfuniory,  etc.  The  impurta 
(torn  the  llnited  Hta'tea  conaiat  rhieHy  of  unlilaochvl 
elotha,  aplrlta,  aoap,  aperm  candloa,  dried  and  aalted 
provlalona,  tolwcco,  Airniture,  and  daala.  Oermaay 
aenda  woolen  and  linen  clolha,  nnd  Kbeniah  cnttoiw ; 
the  NBtlieriand^,  flre-urmn,  aworda,  etc. ;  Holland,  Gut- 
ter, chevac,  Weatphalla  hama,  et«.  Itui  Baltic  furniah- 
«•  Iruii,  runlaife,  canraa,  pitch,  doala,  etc.  The  tlodi- 
tarraneun  trad]  la  prinrlpully  in  Hicilian  and  Hpaniah 
pro<lu<'u,  particularly  cheap  winea,  lirandiaa,  olive  oil, 
macaroni,  dried  frutia,  and  pepper.  Mpaniah  f(ooda 
are  in  little  dciniuid,  tlioU){ii  aoine  aergea,  handkur- 
ohiefa,  and  ribbona,  aowinK  ailk,  and  aalt,  ar«  import- 
ed. The  annual  importation  of  Spaniah  and  Sicilian 
winna  (a  from  10,09(>ta  Vi,WKi  pipe*,  Iwsldcs  about  1000 
pi|>ca  of  brandy.  The  j/rrba  mitt,  of  Paraguay  tea, 
formerly  an  Import  article  of  eome  conacquence,  haa 
been  nourly  auperacded,  even  in  lluetma  Ayrea,  by 
genuine  tea.  The  trade  with  ('hili  and  Teru  la  inslff- 
nilcaiit.  The  marketa  an  well  aupplied  with  butch- 
er'a  meat  nnd  Hah.  Poultry,  vp^ctablea,  and  fhiit  nre 
generally  dear.  All  the  butter  nned  is  imported.  (We 
have  derived  thcao  dotuila  principally  from  the  excel- 
lent work  of  Sir  Woo<lbina  I'uriah  on  lluanoa  Ayrca, 
2d  edition,  p.  IM0-y69,) 

hrrt  Oiatyn — The  Argentine  government  haa  iio- 
tltlcd  that,  1.  From  the  lat  of  January,  1MI7,  national 
veascla  aalliiig  for  ports  beyond  Hca  8hnll  pay  B  dollara 
per  ton ;  2.  Forrifjn  vcssela  shall  pay  4  dollura  per  tot;, 
except  those  which.  In  virtue  of  existing  trcatiia,  nre 
assimilated  to  national  vessula ;  8,  Foreign  veaacU  shall 
pay,  fbr  the  visit  of  the  health  officer  i'>  dollars,  and 
the  same  amount  for  the  bill  of  health ;  4.  Foreign  vos- 
•ela  belonging  to  nations  having  no  consul,  and  whoso 
roll  is  made  out  by  the  captain  of  the  port,  nhall  pay 
40  dollars  for  It;  A. The  duties  fixed  by  the  preceding 
articles  shall  bo  paid  one  half  on  the  entrance  of  the 
vcBsel,  and  the  other  half  on  her  departure ;  0.  National 
and  foreign  vessels,  which  do  not  leave  nor  receive  car- 
goes, shall  pay  one  half  of  the  duties  hero  catabliahed ; 
7,  Ket  this  decnc  be  cominuriic/itcd  and  publisliod  in 
the  official  rcgiators. 

Buff  (tier.  Biifel,  Bilffefhilute i  Fr.  BuJIe,  Pern  de 
hufflu,  <•(  Penax  p(u$hi  en  biifflea;  It.  Bvfalo,  Onojo  di 
bt^alo),  a  sort  of  leather  prepared  from  the  siiin  of  the 
buffalo,  dressed  with  oil,  a<ter  the  manner  of  chamois. 
Tlie  skin  of  elks,  oxen,  and  other  like  animals,  when 
prepaii-d  after  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  buffalo. 
Is  likowlso  called  buff.  It  is  used  in  making  sword- 
belts  and  other  articles,  where  great  thickness  and  firm- 
ness are  required. 

BuflUo,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  F.rio  coun- 
ty, New  York,  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  Buffalo 
Creek  into  Lake  Erie;  it  is  at  the  northeastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake,  and  near  the  commencement  of  its 
outlet,  Niagara  River.  Lat. 42°  53'  N.,  and  78°  68'  W. 
long,  from  Greenwich,  Kngluiid ;  iOK  miles  west  from 
Albany,  891  northwest  from  New  York,  183  east  from 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  327  from  Detroit,  and  3tO  IVom  Wiish- 
in^on.  Population  in  1810,  1608;  1820,  2095;  1830, 
8868;  18.10,18,213;  1845,29,778;  1860,42,261;  nnd  In 
1854,  with  the  addition  of  Black  Rock,  annexed  to  it  in 
1868, 75,000. 


The  city  of  Duflklo  oceuplet  •  ▼*I7'  Important  and 
eommaniling  position  at  the  western  terniinu*  of  ili« 
Erie  Canal  ami  the  central  line  of  railrooil  from  Alban  « 
nnd  Hoalon,  and  aho  the  northern  termination  uf  lli't 
Krte  and  other  railroads,  and  has  cumniuiiii  uliou  wiih 
I  lie  principal  cities  of  the  Western  Hiatea,  and  also  with 
Western  Hanada.  It  is  the  eastern  port  of  transhi|>- 
nwnt  of  tha  great  lakes  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and 
Nuperior.  Its  commerce  is  Immense,  employing  a  vast 
number  of  steamcn,  brigs,  and  sloops,  which  convey 
from  the  several  lake  ports  a  large  amount  of  prod- 
uce, which  from  hone*  is  transported  tu  eastern  mark- 
ets by  canal  and  railroad.  The  ground  on  whicli  the 
city  la  built  riaes  gradually  from  Huffaio  Creek  on  the 
south,  and  within  a  short  distance  firom  the  lake  on  th* 
west  it  liecoinss  an  extend*.',  plain  M  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  Lake  Krie,  From  this  elevation  is  obtained  a 
picturesque  view  of  the  Canadian  shore,  Niagara  Illv- 
er,  and  the  lake.  The  streets  are  hroad  nnd  straight, 
crossing  each  other  mostly  at  right  angle*.  Main  Street 
is  100  ftael  In  breadth,  and  extend*  for  a  distanc*  of 
ftiiir  miles,  and  is  built  very  compactly  with  atores, 
holela,  and  expensive  private  dwellings.  The  hnuati 
generally  are  constructed  with  neatnos*  and  taste. 

Till  mannfkcture*  of  Uuftlilo  are  very  extensive,  con- 
sisting of  engine  and  boiler  (hctoriea,  tarnaces,  car- 
work,  (bunderies,oto.  Th*  capital  employed  In  1850  was 
|ll,04f1,348 ;  value  of  manufactured  articlea,  |I<,674,I>88 ; 
and  sine*  that  time  b*lh  th*  capital  employed  aiwi 
valua  of  products  have  been  largely  Increased.  In 
18M)  there  were  six  steam  flouring  mills,  nianufactur> 
Ing  during  the  year  210,2116  barrels  of  flour. 

in  the  "Annual  heviaw  of  the  Commerco  nnd 
Trade  of  Buffalo,"  published  January,  1859,  are  tiie 
following  facta : 

PopuUtlon  of  tlio  city 100,1100 

Value  of  real  esUte $«»,4«,580 

Value  of  penonal  property «,06T,TiO 

$30,614,000 

Cspttal  of  the  banks '.{,720,700 

ABgrcgalo  receipts  nf  all  Kralns,  Including  flour 

reduced  tn  whsnr,  buahela S8,1tD,%S 

Ursnd  total  cf  r«p<,rled  aalso,  lneludlu|  flour 

reduced  to  trlieat,  buahela ]  l,01l,&00 

Nuuitier  of  eiitrancca  nnd  clcsroncea  uf  veaaels 

Into  and  from  the  port 8.III9 

Value  of  laks  vaaseU  owntd  In  the  city $8,4t8,aO<l 

Katlmated  value  of  property  which  arrived  by 

rail  from  the  Weit 20,000,000 

Katlmated  value  of  property  by  railroad  from 

the  East 48,000,^00 

Average  value  of  property  received  by  lake,...      41,144,065 

Average  value  of  property  arrived  by  eaool...,  _  83,089,901) 

Total  value  of  property $U9,ibi3,9T0 

"  It  Is  understood  that  over  fifty  new  canbl  steamers 
are  now  tn  process  of  constmction,  and  we  can  not 
doubt  that  a  new  era  has  opened  In  the  htstoiy  of  the 
canals  destined  to  work  out  Important  changes." — liie« 
Lakk  Thade.  • 

Bugle-hom,  a  small  brass  Instrument  used  in  th* 
hunting-field,  und  in  cavalry  regiment.-.  The  compass 
of  the  bugle  is  now  extended  by  finger-keys. 

Buglns,  small  glasi!  beads  of  diffeivnt  colors.  They 
are  in  considcralilo  demand  in  Africa,  to  which  they 
nre  mostly  exported. 

BuhljOniamcntal  wood-work,  inlnid  with  mothcr- 
of-penrl,  brass,  etc.  The  namo  i3  derived  from  the  in- 
von  tor. 

Builder,  in  tho  general  sense  of  the  term,  and  un- 
dcrtuker  of  works  of  building.  With  reference  to  the 
operations  of  civil  architecture  pnrticulnrly,  the  builder 
Htnnds  liotwocn  the  proprietor  nnd  architect  on  the  oiio 
hand,  and  the  artisan,  merchant,  and  manufacturer  on 
the  other:  he  engages  to  the  first  to  carry  a  certain 
proposed  work  into  execution,  as  he  may  bo  directed 
by  the  second,  and  saves  to  both  of  them  the  trouble 
and  responsibility  of  procuring  materials  and  employ- 
ing workmen. 

The  builder's  emolument  arises  tmm  an  impro-i-ed 
price,  or  charge*  bearing  an  advance  on  th*  prim*  cost, 


BUI 


BtJll 


to  remun«r«t«  bim  for  thj  use  of  bis  capltd  in  materi- 
als, work-shops,  plans,  and  labor,  and  his  own  personal 
application  and  risk.  A  builder  has  the  power  also  of 
deriving  an  advantage  ttom  the  division  of  labor  hy 
employing  artisans  in  those  operations  only  which  balv 
it  enai>s  them  to  ex*:ute  with  the  greatest  facility. 

The  L  Milder  contracts  to  do  certain  specified  works  for 
a  certain  total  sum  of  money,  the  amount  of  which  he 
determines  by  a  previous  estimate,  or  to  do  proscribed 
operations  at  so  much  for  a  certain  fixed  quantity  of 
every  sort  involved,  per  yard,  per  rod,  per  foot,  and  so 
on,  the  amount  to  be  ascertained,  when  they  are  com- 
pleted, by  measurement;  or  he  executes  works  accord- 
ing to  instructions  or  specifications,  leaving  the  charges 
to  be  determined  according  to  the  usual  and  accustom- 
ed rates,  on  the  quantities  ascertained  by  admeasure- 
ment. In  the  two  former  ctses  be  is  said  to  work  by 
contract,  and  in  the  last  by  measure  and  value.  For 
Jobbing,  in  repairs  apd  alterations,  a  day  account  is 
kept;  that  is,  &  record  of  the  time  workmen  are  em- 
ployed, and  of  the  materials  used,  in  performing  certain 
operations.  This  is  made  out  with  an  advance  of  so 
much  per  (cnt.  on  th^  prime  cost,  or  wages  of  the  work- 
men and  selling  prices  of  the  unwrought  materials,  for 
the  builder's  profit  or  remuneration,  as  before  stated. 

A  builder  should  be  theoretically  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  construction,  and  practically  conver- 
sant with  the  details  of  all  the  mechanic  arts  used  in 
building ;  as  well  to  be  enabled  to  carry  on  his  business 
with  advantage  to  his  own  interest  as  to  the  proper  ex- 
ecution of  the  works  he  may  undertake.  He  should  be 
qualified  to  ascertain  with  the  utmost  minuteness,  from 
the  drawings  of  a  design,  and  the  specification  of  the 
manner  in  which,  and  matter  of  vhich,  it  is  to  be  car- 
ried into  execution,  the  quantity  of  labor  and  materials 
of  every  kind  and  description,  and  tho  exact  value  of 
them  all.  In  this  is  involved  the  necessity  of  being 
well  acquainted  with  the  market  prices  of  raw  and 
manufactured  articles  to  a  verj'  great  extent,  and  a  ma- 
tured judgment  o'  tho  quantity  of  labor  required,  or 
how  much  time  a  vorkman  will  take  to  produce  a  cer- 
tain result.  These  thingt,  however,  i>;hich  involve  tlio 
making  of  estimates  on  which  to  make  contracts,  in  tho 
practice  of  this  court.-y  arc  generally  referred  to  a  sur- 
veyer  or  measurer,  because  of  the  general  ignorance 
and  incompetence  of  builders,  or  because  of  the  greater 
aptitude  of  the  latter,  in  consequence  of  their  attention 
being  solely  occupied  by  sutli  things. — K.  B. 

Building.  The  first  structures  were  of  wood  and 
clay,  then  of  rough  stone,  and,  in  the  end,  tho  art  ad- 
vanced to  polished  marble.  Building  with  stone  was 
practiced  early  among  tho  Tyrians;  and  as  ornaments 
and  taste  arr-rse,  every  nation  pursued  a  ditfercnt  sys- 
tem. The  art  of  building  with  stone  may  bo  referred 
in  England  to  Benedict  or  Bcnet,  a  monk,  about  A.u. 
(i70.  The  first4)ridgo  of  this  material  in  England  was 
at  Bow,  in  1087.  Building  with  brick  was  introduced 
by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces.  Alfred  encour- 
aged it  in  England  in  886.  Brick-building  was  gen- 
erally introduced  !■/  th?  Karl  of  Arundel,  about  16U8, 
London  being  then  almost  built  of  wood.  The  increase 
of  building  in  London  was  prohibited  within  tlirco 
miles  of  the  city  gates  by  Elizal>eth,  who  ordered  that 
one  family  only  should  dwell  in  ono  house,  1680. 

Bnlle-heada  are  partitions  made  athwart  a  ship 
with  boards,  by  which  ono  part  is  divided  from  the  otli- 
e.°;  as  the  great  cabin,  gun-room,  bread-room,  etc. — 
E.  B. 

Bvlk  of  a  Ship,  the  whole  space  iu  the  hold  for 
the  stowage  of  goods. 

Bullet*.  Those  of  stone  were  in  nse,  a.d.  IfiH ; 
and  ircn  ones  are  first  mentioned  in  the  l-'adera,  16r>0. 
Leaden  bullets  weru  made  before  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth centur}',  and  continue  to  be  those  in  use  in  all 
nations  for  musketry.  The  cannon-ball  in  some  East- 
am  countries  is  still  of  stone  instead 'of  iron. — AsiiK, 

Bullion,  uncoined  gold  or  sUvor  iu  the  ii.4ss,   The 


precious  matalt  »n  M  ((•ll«4  MiKf  mhfh  smelted  and 
not  perftti'tly  r«flni4,  ut  wlwH  raltMsd  atid  melled  down 
ir.  bars  or  ingots,  »t  Iu  «Hy  form  MliiwltMd,  as  In  plat*. 
— E.  B. 

■om-boafe,  »  MH«U  lw«t  UmA  t«  sell  rsgetables, 
«tc„  to  ships  lying  M  •  dtHftHtW  ffcrttt  nhtim. 

Butik  is »  «f«r4  msmI,  In  (h«  (ittlisd  tliatos,  to  ilg. 
nify  »  UK~>  •»  c»bl»  uf  Uu»rA»  ttit «  M,  Thus,  in  iha 
army,  (lis  suldinr's  Iwlb  is  «»ll«(l  his  bi«nk. 

Bust,  tits  Ntlddln  \mH  »t  «<«tity  «r  ih«  rrindpal 
square  sails,  as  t\m  HiNitiSNil.  fMCMil,  «<«,  >  if  one  of 
them  be  suDnwiHid  Ut  tm  4UUm  ttito  four  tqual  parit 
from  one  side  to  lltn  ollwr,  llt«  itte  middle  divisions, 
wliicb  com(irsh«Hii  IntiftiC  Dm  snII,  form  ifa«  llmiis  of 
the  bunt,-  V,  A. 

Buntliif,  »  )hln  vmim  ttluif,  «f  wlilch  the  ctlor; 
and  signals  of  »  M\i  itr»  ummWy  fumnl. 

Buoy,  •  uUttut  t:M{it)/  VHtU,  ut  H  Mvtti  of  worn!  or 
cork  fastened  by  a  ni\m  Ut  mt  niii'twf,  and  floaling  on 
the  watvr  tu  sImiw  wlmtti  llif  uunhutfn  ttluafrd,  Buoys 
are  of  various  liiiiilsi  ««  I'im'lwm,  In  the  furm  of  a 
const  nun-buoDt,  hIiIijIi  «w«>il  in  llio  nilddl«,  and  taper 
to  a  point  at  «»ii|)  mii\  fM'tmayii,  tniply  casks  em- 
ployed lo  buoy  up  lliM  vnIiIm  in  I  wlty  anchorage.  Bnovs 
are  also  us«4  to  initif*(«  lltM  (iM;  li</n  </f  rocks  and  shoals, 
or  to  mark  a  t'IntnHoli 

The  IfJiJiuoy,  of  HJlirlt  (lll-f*  df*  tarlmis  kinds,  is 
used  to  throw  omrlMwrii  U)  (ifMcrvs  a  person  from 
drowning.  Tim  Itinil  mw  vunimmif  tiwd  In  the  navy 
consists  of  two  ImiIIuh'  finni^f  vnimU  tiinnecled  togeth- 
er, between  Hitlfh  timi>  is  llkcil  «  liotlow  pole,  with  a 
port-lira  fixuii  lo  lis  lop,  'I  his  Hpparatits,  which  is 
properly  balUstoil,  it  »li»t)Mtiimi  mi  as  to  lio  ready  for 
use  at  a  muinvnt's  n*tti«'H|  Mnil  It  Is  so  conlrlved  that 
by  thn  act  of  lutlinff  It  off  lini  \iitti't\tii  Is  iKfilfcd ;  thus 
enabling  the  |i«r>on  in  (tin  WMl«r  iu  dlMern  the  buoy 
in  tlio  durkust  nitfl)!. 

Bur4*n  ur  BiirtiMH  (H»nim  hinUn  ur  hyrihen),  a 
fixed  quaniiiy  "ifwHy  (((niniwltly  Uit  Ifansll. 

Burdan  of  »  9bip,  ils  tmtM»,  ut  ifaa  number  of 
tons  it  will  nnrty.—Mmi  T»»K!»/«(i«i 

Burgundy,    Hm  Wink, 

Burgimdy  Viteb,  a  tt»\»,  lli«  \itm\vm9  of  the  /'tniM 
Ahiet,  or  t,\,t»ia  fir,  it  is  olffMlnM  \if  making  incis- 
ions iu  lliu  bark  down  fo  liio  wvod,  whence  it  flaws 
thickly  and  liiH|{uiilly,  intntf«tl«t*<ly  loncrefing  Into 
flakes  timt  ailliL,-ii  lirtnly  to  fli«)  frc«(  These,  being 
taken  off,  aru  mvllud  in  iioilln^  WNt«r,  and  sfralnod 
through  coarse  olutlw,  it  is  ut  a  close  consistence, 
rather  Mft,  Ims  a  tuMUMifumn  color,  and  a  not  un- 
pleasant smell  I  it  is  fury  a4tin<sl««,  The  greatest 
quantity  is  culltwlt'd  in  Him  n«<lKltliorliMod  of  Neiifcha- 
tcl,  from  wltunt*  It  is  broHgiit  naclicil  In  casks,  A  fic- 
titious sort  is  nmit«  in  V.Htthna,  und  found  In  tho  shopr 
under  th«  tliin  of  'immim  llnrgondy  plfchi  It  may  bo 
dlstinguidiud  liy  lis  frii»lillll!^,  »«nt  of  viscidity,  and 
of  the  odor  whii'li  n\mim'\>'t\*i>»  lli«  genuine  <iort. 

A  speclDs  of  llnrKMn'ty  t/ltclt  t<At(<les  spuntaneoutly 
'roni  the  Norwav  snruoo  ht,  'llils,  whli  li  tmdergoes 
no  preparation,  Is  Ino  niln  m  tliiii  ut  fhu  old  London 
I'harmacopaias,  It  is  intporKid  in  lh«  form  of  tears 
or  small  inussos,  pavkutl  in  mtnim,  csch  confalning  from 
1  to  'i  cwt.  It  f>'t4.'hK»  alMinl  liaif  lli«  ptlce  nr  that  which 
is  etrainod, — <iH*»'»  Hujiiilrmtnl  tv  tht  I'hitrmacopahu, 
Thomson's  ItUjitmiilnrfi, 

BunuMll,  or  Btrmfth,  iIm  llHrmes«  empire,  or 
klngdcni  of  Ava,  a  tiMf  of  i'Mrtlicr  India,  and  former- 
ly the  most  ■aliinslv*'  and  powfriui  In  that  peninsul.i; 
but  sinco  Ilia  W4r  of  llni  llnrnifiNt  nlth  llic  llriiish,  in 
\W»-'l6,  its  t«rritoiiss  tmvti  Uw»  comprliicd  wllliln  lat. 
10°  and  '.17"  N,,  and  long,  IffI"  «ind  liD"  V..,  having  on 
the  west  Aracan  and  Mnnipoor,  on  flie  north  the  Na- 
gas  territory  and  llppur  As««(n,  on.fhn  east  the  Chi- 
neso  provini'u  of  ynn-nan,  lint  Inilciiendent  Laos  coun- 
try, and  tliB  Itritluli  \mi'  'oc*  of  Msifslian  (from  which 
last  It  is  soparalvd  \iv  liio  Ma<ln«<n  ut  Than-lweng  Kiv- 
or),  and  on  tliu  loull)  ttio  (inlf  of  tiartaban,  a  portion 


BUB 


ns 


BUS 


tire,  or 
former- 
ilniuVi; 
tUti,  In 
hln  Int. 
vlng  on 
llio  Nr- 
ho  Chl- 
)» toun- 
vhkh 
ng  Klv- 
portion 


of  tho  Bay  of  Bengal.  Estimated  area,  200,000  tqiiare 
miles;  population  from  two  to  three  millions.  It  is 
composed  of  the  kingdoms  of  Burmah,  Pegu,  and  Pong, 
with  portions  of  tho  countries  inhabited  by  the  Khyen, 
and  the  Sbang  countries,  and  the  Kubo  valley  {Muni- 
poor),  reannexed  to  it  by  treaty  with  the  British  in 
1831 ;  it  is  inclosed  on  most  sides  by  mountain  ranges, 
in  elevation  from  2000  to  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  its 
central  part  consisting  of  the  basin  of  the  Irrawaddi. 
Lagoons  are  numerous  in  low  beds  of  the  south,  and  in 
the  centre,  a  little  )iorth  of  Ava,  is  a  lake  thirty  miles 
in  length  by  ten  miles  across.  The  country  is  reckon- 
ed salubrious.  From  May  till  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber is  the  rainy  season.  From  September  till  March 
tho  weather  is  delightful,  the  temperature ,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding 75° ;  in  April  and  May  the  heat  becomes  very 
great,  but  is  soon  mitigated  by  the  commencement  of 
rain.  Annual  fall  of  rain  160  to  200  inches.  The  soil 
is  of  ver}'  high  fertility ;  but  except  near  the  towns 
most  of  it  lies  waste,  or  is  only  irregularly  tilled ;  and 
agriculture  is  generally  in  the  most  backward  condi- 
tion. Rice  is  the  chief  crop,  especially  in  the  south ; 
pulses,  Indian  millet,  and  maize  are  raised  in  the  north, 
and  sesamum  is  universally  cultivated  for  cattle.  Other 
products  are,  cotton  of  short  staple,  indij$o  (though  this 
product  is  so  badly  managed  as  to  be  unfit  for  export), 
yams,  sweet  ptLdtoes,  tobacco,  capsicums  in  great  quan- 
tities, gourds,  oil-plants,  bananas,  and  other  fruits,  betel 
nut  and  leaf,  sugar-cane,  onions,  garlic,  and  in  the  north 
a  kind  of  tea.  Teek,  of  a  quality  inferior  to  that  of 
both  Malabar  and  Java,  oak,  and  other  valuable  woods, 
abound  on  the  mountain  ranges,  and  palm  and  bamboo 
are  also  plentiful.  Oxen,  buffaloes,  and  goats  are  the 
principal  domestic  anim.tls  used  for  draft,  and  tho  ele- 
phant is  domesticated  for  the  same  purpose ;  a  good 
breed  of  horses  is  also  reared.  Mineral  products  are 
numerous  and  valuable.  The  gold  and  silver  obtain- 
ed in  the  empire  has  been  estimated  in  value  at  up- 
ward of  .£200,000,  and  the  produce  of  petroleum  in  pits, 
along  tho  Irrawaddi,  to  8,000,000  lbs.  annually.  Fine 
marble,  serpen^'.ne,  amber,  sapphires,  and  other  gemr, 
iron,  copper,  tin,  lend,  antimony,  sulphur,  nitre,  and 
coal,  are  also  found.  In  physical  form  the  Burmese 
are  more  allied  to  tho  Mongolians  of  Kastern  Asia  than 
to  the  Hindoos.  Their  figure  is  short,  squat,  rlust, 
and  fleshy,  face  lozenge-shaped,  cheek-bones  large,  and 
eyes  obliquely  placed.  They  excel  in  boat-building, 
and  they  cast  bells,  work  in  gold  and  silver,  and  dye 
silk  and  other  fabrics,  weave  silk  and  cotton  goods,  and 
manufacture  lacquered  wares,  paper,  coarse  earthen- 
wares, and  some  other  articles  in  a  respectable  manner ; 
but  most  of  their  manufactured  goods  in  ordinary  use 
are  imported  from  foreign  countries.  €hina  sends  silks, 
porcelain,  copper,  carpets,  metals,  drugs,  tea,  etc.,  in 
return  for  raw  cotton,  feathers,  ivorj",  birds'  nests, 
horns,  gums,  and  some  British  manufactures;  this  in- 
tercourse being  chiefly  conducted  at  a  largo  annual  fair 
at  Bhamo.  From  the  Shan  tribes  c  Burmese  obtain 
their  best  sword-blades,  with  lac,  wax,  varnish,  in  re- 
turn for  salt  and  dried  fish ;  other  articles  are  mostly 
imported  by  sea  from  British  India  and  tho  Asiatic 
Archipelago,  and  consist  of  British  cotton  goods,  arera 
and  cocoa-nuts,  tobacco,  iron,  hardwares,  copper,  lead, 
and  other  minerals,  opium,  sugar,  s|ririts,  English  glas!>, 
earthen-wares,  fire-arms,  and  gunpowder,  ihd  manufac- 
tures of  the  Burmese  in  the  two  last  articles  being  of 
tho  most  wretched  description.  Public  revenue  is  de- 
rived from  a  tithe  of  the  profit  of  cultivation,  duties 
of  10  per  cent,  on  imports,  and  d  per  cent,  on  exports, 
and  on  petroleum  collected,  a  royal  monopoly  of  mar- 
ble, amber,  and  the  precious  metals,  and  gems  above  a 
ccrtHin  size,  a  poll  tax  on  the  unsettled  tribes,  etc. ; 
and  the  whole  fiscal  system  is  "  replete  with  uncertain- 
ty, rapacity,  and  violence."  The  Burmese  empire  is 
divided  into  seven  provinces.  Ava  and  Monchobo 
have  altrmately  been  constituted  the  capital  of  the  em- 
pire.   The  other  principal  towns  are,  Amarapure,  Sa- 


kaing,  Rangoon,  Bassain,  Martaban,  Setang,  Tanngo, 
Prome,  Patango,  Yandabo,  and  Bhamo.  In  1823  tho 
Burmese,  by  encroaching  on  the  East  India  Company's 
territories,  brought  on  a  war  with  the  British,  which 
lasted  during  the  years  1824-'26,  and  terminated  in 
their  defeat  and  the  cession  of  several  territories  to 
the  English. 

Bumlng-glaaa  and  Concave  Mirron.  Their 
power  was  not  unknown  to  Archimedes,  but  the  pow- 
ers of  these  instruments  are  rendert '  wonderful  by  the 
modem  improvements  of  Settalla ;  of  Tchimhausen, 
1680 ;  of  BufTon,  1747 ;  and  of  Parker  and  others  more 
recently.  The  following  are  experiments  of  the  fusion 
of  substances  made  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens,  or  burning 
mirror  r 

Siiiifaiu<i/iiM<l.  WiiiH.  Timt. 

Pure  gold 20  grains      4  sucuiida. 

Silver 20  grains      S  seconds. 

Copper 83  grains    20  spronds. 

Plalina 10  grains     3  sccunds. 

Cast  iron 10  gcains     S  suconda. 

Steel 10  grains    12  Bucondd. 

A  topaz 8  grains    45Hccund8. 

An  emerald 2  grains    25  seconds. 

A  cryntal  pebble T  grains     (I  seconds. 

Flint 10  grains    8()  seconds. 

Cornelian 10  grains    76  seconds. 

Pumlcc-Btono 10  grains    24  seconds. 

Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously;  water  boils 
immediately ;  bones  are  calrined ;  and  things  not  ca- 
pable of  melting  at  once  become  red  hot  like  iron. 

Bushlre  or  Abushire,  a  sea-port  town  of  Persia, 
in  the  province  of  Furs,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  tho 
Persian  Gulf,  lut.  29°  N.,  long.  60°  50'  E.  Population 
uncertain,  but  estimated  by  Major  Wilson  at  from 
15,000  to  20,000.  Bushire  is  situated  at  tho  northern 
extremity  of  a  sandy  peninsula,  to  the  north  and  cast 
of  which  is  the  bay.  There  is  a  convenient  anchor- 
age for  largo  ships  duo  west  from  the  town,  three  or 
four  miles  distant,  in  from  25  to  28  feet  of  water ;  but 
ships  of  800  tons  burden  or  thereby  lie  in  the  inner 
roads,  to  the  north,  about  six  miles  from  shore ;  tho 
anchorage  is  pretty  good ;  but  during  violent  north- 
westerly gales  they  are  sometimes  obliged  to  cut  their 
cables,  ond  bear  up  for  Karak,  a  small  island  about  15 
leagues  west-northwest  of  Bushire.  Tho  water  imme- 
diately to  the  east  of  the  town  is  deep,  but  tho  passage 
to  it  is  obstructed  by  a  bar,  which  can  not  be  passed  by 
vessels  drawing  more  than  eight  or  nine  feet  of  .va- 
tcr,  except  at  spring-tides,  when  there  is  a  rise  of  from 
eight  to  ten  feet.  The  variation  in  1811  was  4°  43' 
"W.—C/iart  o/the  Persian  Gulf,  by  Captain  Hitchii:, 
etc.  The  climate  here,  as  'n  all  the  other  port3  of  tho 
Persian  Gulf,  is.  txtremely  hot,  particularly  June,  Jnly, 
and  August.  Tho  unhealthy  season  N  in  the  fall  of 
tho  year. 

Bubs,  a  small  sen-vessel,  u?cd  by  the  English  and 
the  Dutch  in  the  herring  fishery,  commonly  from  60  to 
fiO  tons  burden,  and  sometimes  more.  A  buss  bus  lno 
small  sheds  or  cabins ;  one  at  the  prow,  and  the  other 
at  the  stern :  •  iiit  at  tho  prow  serves  for  a  kitchen. 

BusBoraL,  or  BaBrah,  a  city  of  Arabia,  on  the 

western  bank  of  r.e  Shat-el-Arob  (the  name  given  to 

the  river  formed  by  the  junction  of  tlie  Tigris  and  the 

Euphrates),  above  70  mile^  from  its  mouth,  lat.  .00° 

30'  N.,  long.  '!7°  32'  E.      Population  about  00,000, 

consisting  of  .Vrubs,  Turks,  Persians,  Armenians,  Jews, 

etc.     The  houses  and  streets  are   mean  and   litthy. 

!  There  is  a  vast  area  within  the  walls,  ociupicd  princl- 

;  pally  by  gardens  and  plantations  of  date-t'-ers,  and  in- 

j  tersected  by  canals,  on  which  are  numerous  small  craft. 

!      The  bar" at  the  mouth  of  tho  Shnt-ol-Aral>  bas  only 

'  about  twelve  feet  of  water,  but  the  channel  within  is 

deep,  so  that  ships  of  500  tons  burden,  i)rovided  they 

;  cross  tho  bar  at  the  spring.,  may  without  difHculty 

'  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  the  city  :  and  both  its  grand 

'  Irfanihes  may  be  navigated  to  a  greet  distance  by 

smaller  vessels.    Bnssorah  is  the  principal  inlet  on  tho 

east,  through  which  Indian  and  other  Eas'om  products 

!  find  their  way  into  tho  Turkish  empire.    Its  commerce 


BUT 


SH 


;t^, '*-,:->-■ -^ 


BUT 


ii,  therefore,  eren  at  present,  pretty  considerable ;  and 
were  the  rich  and  extenaive  countries  traversed  by  the 
Tigris  .ind  the  Euphrates  occupied  by  a  civilized  and 
industrious  people,  it  would  be  very  great.  Its  im- 
ports from  India  and  Europe  are  similar  to  those  at 
Busbire.  From  Persia  it  imports  shawls,  pearls  from 
Bahrein,  etc.,  and  coffee  ft-om  Mocha.  At  an  average, 
six  or  eif;ht  British  ships  arrive  in  the  course  of  the 
year  from  India ;  but  the  principal  part  of  the  trade  is 
carried  on  in  Arabian  bottoms,  the  merchants  of  Mus- 
cat being  the  owners  of  some  of  the  finest  ships  that 
are  to  be  met  with  in  the  Indian  seas.  Its  exports  are 
principal!}-  bullion,  pearls,  dates,  copper,  raw  silk, 
horses,  gall-nuts,  and  drugs.  Captain  Hamilton  men- 
tions that  in  the  early  part  of  lust  century  the  exports 
of  dates  from  Bussorah  exceeded  10,000  tons  a  year. — 
A'no  Account  of  the  East  Indies,  vol.  i.  p.  78.  The 
commerco  with  the  interior  is  conducted  by  means  of 
caravans  to  Aleppo  and  Bagdad ;  but  it  might  be  car- 
ried on  to  much  more  advantage  by  means  of  steam- 
boats. It  was  at  one  time  proposed  to  forward  mails 
from  India  by  steam  by  the  Slmt-el-Arab  and  the  Eu- 
phrates to  Bir,  thence  by  land  to  Soanderoon,  and  again 
by  steam  to  the  Gibraltar  and  England ;  but  this  proj- 
ect was  verj'  wisely  given  up  in  favor  of  the  route  by 
the  Red  Sea. 

Money. — ^^VU  sorts  of  coins  circulate  here,  but  their 
values  are  constantly  fluctuating.  Accounts  are  kept 
in  mamoodis  of  10  danims,  or  100  floose ;  100  mamoodis 
make  a  toman,  which  may  bo  valued  at  about  15  sicca 
rupees,  or  36«.  sterling. 

Wiights  and  Meiuure*. — Gold  and  silver  arc  weighed 
by  the  chcki  of  100  miscals,  or  7200  English  grains. 

The  commercial  weights  arc  the  mound  atteree,  the 
maund  sofy  or  sesse,  and  the  oke  of  Bagdad.  1  vakia 
=19  01.  avoirdupois;  2t  vakia8=l  oke  of  Bagdud= 
47^  oz.  avoirdupois;  1  maund  atteree =28  llis.  8  oz. 
avoirdupois ;  1  maund  sofy =20  lbs.  i  oz.  avoirdupois ; 
1  cutra  of  indigo =138  lbs.  15  oz.  avoirdupoU. 

These  ore  the  weights  used  by  the  Europeans  settled 


of  richer  taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  batter  made  fW>m 
cows'  milk. — Munoo  Park.  The  various  circum- 
stances attending  the  introduction  and  use  of  butter  In 
antiquity  have  been  investigated  by  Beckmann  with 
great  learning  and  industr}'.  The  conclusion  at  which 
he  arrives  is,  "that  butt(  was  not  used  either  by  the 
Greeks  or  Komans  in  cooaing  or  the  preparation  of 
food,  nor  was  it  brought  upon  their  tables  by  way  of 
dessert,  as  is  every  where  customary  at  present.  We 
never  tind  it  mentioned  by  Galen  and  other*  as  a  food, 
though  they  have  spoken  of  it  as  applicable  to  other 
purposes.  No  notice  is  taken  of  it  by  Apicus ;  nor  is 
there  any  tiding  said  of  it  in  that  respect  by  the  an* 
thors  who  treat  of  agriculture,  though  they  have  given 
us  very  particular  information  with  respect  to  milk, 
cheese,  and  oil.  This,  as  has  been  remarked  by  uthcra, 
may  be  easily  accounted  for  by  the  ancients  having 
accustomed  themselves  to  the  use  of  good  oil ;  and  in 
the  like  manner,  butter  is  very  little  employed  at  pres- 
ent in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  !iouthem  part* 
of  Franco." — Uittory  of  Invtntktu,  vol.  ii.  p.  418,  En- 
glish edition. 

Beckmann  has  further  shown  that  the  little  butter 
that  was  used  by  the  ancients  was  in  an  oily  or  liquid 
state ;  and  such  is  its  usual  state  in  all  hot  countries. 
It  is  rather  singular  that  Beckmann  does  not  allude 
to  the  consumption  of  butter  by  the  Arabs,  by  whom 
it  has  been  very  extensively  used  from  a  remote  period. 

"Arab  cookery  is  extremely  Jriant,  more  so  than 
even  the  Italian ;  but  no  oil  is  used  for  culinory  pur- 
poses, except  in  frying  flsh.  Butter  is  their  universal 
sauce,,  and  of  it  the  consumption  is  immense ;  their 
vegetable  dishes  float  in  butter;  with  it  they  work 
their  adjotie  (paste  made  of  dates)  into  a  proper  consist- 
ency ;  dried  com,  or  bread  crumbs,  boiled  in  butter,  is 
a  common  breakfast  with  ail  classes ;  and  in  the  des- 
sert, ti!j  kemnuii/es  arc  prepared  for  use  in  the  some 
manner.  In  short,  butter  forms  an  indispensable  part 
of  the  diet  of  the  Arab;  and,  besides  the  various  forms 
in  which  it  is  taken  with  other  articles,  it  is  a  comnion 


at  Bussorah ;  thoi'c  used  by  the  Arabians  differ  a  little  |)ractice  with  Inith  Bedouins  and  townspeople  to  swiil- 
from  the  above,  ami  frequently  also  among  themselves  low  a  coffee-cupful  of  butter  every  morning ;  the  for- 
— a  circumstance  to  wliich  the  merchant  must  pay  par-  \  mer,  and  the  lower  orders  of  tlie  latter,  adding  another 
ticular  attention.  liulf  cup,  wliich — to  the  disgust  of  strangers — they  snuff 

The  long  measures  are  the  Alepix)  yard  for  silks  mid  |  up  their  nostrils !     Arab  butter  is  made  from  the  milk 
woolens=2  feet  2'4  inches ;  the  llaililod  ditto  for  cot-    of  sheep  and  goats,  that  of  camels  not  being  used  for 


ton  and  linens=2  feet  1-2  inches;  the  Bagdad  ditto 
for  all  purposes =2  feet  7-6  inches. 

For  further  details  as  to  the  commerce  of  Bussorah, 
see  KiNSKv's  Memoir  on  the  Persian  Kmpire,  p.  283; 
Kkli.v's  Oriental  Mttroloyy;  Tiiokst'>s'3  Kast Ind'um 
Calculator,  p.  42-J.  Niebuhr  has  given  a  plan  of  Bus- 
sorah, Voyage  en  Arahie,  tome  ii.  p.  170. 

Butchers.  Among  the  liomans  there  were  three 
classes :  the  Simrii  provided  hogs ;  the  H-mrii  oxen ; 
and  the  Lanit,  whase  office  was  to  kill.  The  butchers' 
trade  is  verj-  ancient  in  Jjiglaiid;  so  is  their  company 
in  rx>ndon,  although  it  was  not  incorporated  until  the 
second  year  of  James  I.,  1604. — Arnials  of  London, 

Butlerage.    See  Phisaoe. 

Butt,  a  vessel  or  measure  for  wine,  containing  two 
liosshciula,  or  120  wine  gallonp. 

Butter  and  Cbe«ae  (Da.  Smiln-;  Du.  Eater;  Fr. 
Ileurre;  Genu.  Jtutter;  It.  Ilur.o.  Hutiro;  \jt.i.  Buly- 
rum;  Pol.  Maslo;  Port.  Munteiga ;  Russ,  Masslo  Ko- 
nnce ;  Sp.  Manleca ;  Sw.  Sntur).  Butter  is  known  as 
n  tat,  unctuous,  and,  in  temp>^rati'  climates,  a  pretty 
linn  su1>Btan'<<>.  obtained  from  milk,  or  ratlier  from 


that  purpose.  The  home  cupply  is  not  nearly  sufficient 
for  the  consumption,  and  butter  consequently  form* 
an  important  article  of  importation."  —  (JtuijraphlcaX 
JHctiunary,  article  Anilin. 

Considerable  (|uaiititics  of  butter  are  made  in  Ir». 
land,  and  it  forms  a  prominent  article  in  the  exports 
of  that  country  :  generally  it  is  very  inferior  to  that  of 
Uritain;  but  this  is  a  consequence  rather  of  the  want 
of  cleanliness  and  attention  than  of  any  inferiority  in 
the  milk.  Some  of  the  best  Irish  butter  brought  to 
I-ondon,  af-.er  being  washed  and  repacked,  is  sold  as 
Dorsetshire  and  '.'ambridge  butter.  Tlic  salt  liutter 
of  Holland  io  superior  to  .hat  of  every  other  loantrv ; 
large  quantities  of  it  are  annually  exported.  It  furmi 
about  tno-thirds  of  all  the  foreign  butter  imported 
l)y  England,  the  rest  being  lirought  from  Germany, 
Denmark,  etc.  The  production  and  eonsuinptinn  of 
butter  in  Greot  Britain  is  very  great.  The  consump. 
tiun  ill  the  English  metropolis  may,  it  is  believe<),  be 
averaged  at  about  eight  pounds  a  year  lor  each  indi- 
vidual ;  and  supposing  this  estimate  to  lie  nearly  accu- 
rate, and  the  population  to  amount  to  2,300,000,  the  to- 


cream,  by  th«'  i^'ioess  of  churning.  AccorJing  to  some  •  tal  annual  consumption  would,  on  this  hypothesis,  lie 
writers,  it  was  lute  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  :  18,400,000  lbs.,  or  8214  tons;  but  to  this  may  lie  added 
of  butter,  and  by  the  cnrly  Romans  it  w.i8  used  only  1  3000  tons  for  the  butter  required  fo;  the  victualing  of 
nsamedlcine — never  as  food.  ThoChristiiuisofl'^iypt  i  ships  and  other  purpows;  inuking  the  total  coiisump- 
biimed  butter  in  their  !am[)C  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third  tion,  in  round  numbers,  11,200  tons,  or  25,088,000  11  »., 
centurj-.  In  JfiTo,  there  fell  in  Ireland,  during  the  which  at  lOJ.  per  pound  would  be  worth  i.'l,045,3.^.'* 
winter  tune,  v.  tliick  yellow  dew,  which  had  all  the  |  The  census  uf  1840  iurnishts  us  no  statistics  from 
medicinal  properties  of  butter.  In  Africa,  vegetable  .  which  we  can  accurately  determine  the  quantity  uf 
butter  is  made  fron.  tbe  firuit  of  the  »h«a-tiee,  and  is  i  butter  and  cheese  then  produced,     The  vi^ue  of  both 


BUT 


225 


BUT 


ia  given  under  the  haading  of  "  value  of  the  products 
of  the  dairy"  at  the  sum  of  |8S,787,008.  It  is  pre- 
sumed that  the  marshals  made  their  returns  in  accord- 
ance with  the  prices  governing  in  their  respective  dis- 
tricts, which  would  differ  so  widely  as  to  render  any 
assumed  average  a  more  conjecture.  New  York  is  far 
in  advance  uf  any  other  State  in  the  productiveness  of 
Its  dairies.  They  yield  one-fourth  of  all  the  butter, 
and  nearly  one-half  the  cheese  produced  in  the  Union, 
Pennsylvania,  which  malios  40,000,000  pounds  of  but- 
ter, is  less  prolilic  in  cheese  than  several  smaller  States. 
In  this  latter  article  Ohio  is  before  all  other  competi- 
tors, except  New  York.        ' 

C'etuiu  Report,  1850. — The  following  table  shows  the 


amount  of  dairy  products  exported  fh)m  the  United 

Stntcs  for  several 

years: 

V.UI. 

BuUet. 

OhMM. 

V«Im. 

PonniU. 

rounill. 

« 

184P-'21 

188&-'81 

l,0Ult,(«4 

7(H1,431 

190,287 

1,:28,1!18 

1,131,817 

264, 766 

18*>.'41 

8,786,908 

1,748,471 

604,816 

1841-'4! 

ii,066,18S  • 

2,466,607 

386,186 

lS42-'43 

!l,4f.8,li4T 

8,440,144 

608,988 

1843-'44 

3,261, nB2 

7,348,146 

768.829 

1844-'48 

8,687,489 

7,941,187 

878,866 

1846-'4« 

8,436,040 

8,076,800 

1,063,087 

1846-'« 

4,214,483 

15,073,600 

1,741,770 

184T-'48 

2,751,086 

12,(ll3,8(r) 

1,301,668 

184a-'49 

8,406,242 

17,4'I3,682 

1,064,167 

1849-'50 

3,870,178 

18,020,817 

1,216,468 

18Ba-'61 

8,»g4,&42 

10,361,18i) 

1.124,662 

PaoDUOT  or  Doitee  anu  Cueebe  in  the  sbvebal  States  in  1S60,  and  Vai.lt!  of  Daiby  Pnoiiuirrs  m  1S40. 

Dairy  Product*. 


Stfttw  and  Terriloriai. 


Butter. 


L 


Ch«M«. 


Total,  1881). 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

CaUfomla 

Columbia,  DiBUIctof.. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida : 

Ocorgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland .  ■ 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Mlssisaippi 

Missaiiri 

New  Hampshire 

New  .Jersey 

New  York 

North  Ciirolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

Bouth  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Vli^nia 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota  Territory . . . 
New  Mexico  Territory. 

Oivgon  Terlitory 

Utah  Territory 

Total 


Pouodi. 

4,008,811 

1,864,239 

705 

14,872 

6,498,119 

1,066,308 

371,498 

4,640,669 

12,626,643 

12,881,635 

2,171,183 

9,947,.523 

033,069 

9,243,811 

8,806,160 

8,071,870 

7,065,878 

4,ai6,234 

7,834,369 

6,977,086 

0,137,210 

79,706,094 

4,146,290 

84,449,379 

80,878,418 

895,670 

2,0P1,R50 

8,139,685 

2,844,000 

12,187,980 

11,030,369 

3,633,750 

1,100 

111 

211,464 

83,809 


8 13,  "46,306 


Poundj. 

81,412 

30,088 

150 

1,500 

6,363.'J77 

8,187 

18,016 

46,970 

1,278,226 

624,661 

200,840 

218,054 

1,957 

2,484,454 

8  075 

7,083,142 

1,011.-102 

21,191 

203,672 

8,106,668 

366,758 

40,741,413 

05,021 

20,810,54!!; 

2,505,034 

316,503 

4,070 

177,681 

96,299 

8,720,834 

43C,29ii 

400,233 

36,980 
80,998 


Poundi. 

4,040,228 

1,834,327 

S5C 

16,372 

11,801,390 

1,053,498 

339,513 

4,037,535 

13,801,768 

13,.%06,099 

2,381,028 

10,101,477 

os5,oi;o 

11,073,266 

3,310,185 

15,169,512 

8,077,370 

4,d67,425 

8,037,981 

10,173,619 

9,862,960 

129,507,507 

4,242,211 

6;>,268,921 

42,3S.1,!62 

1,312,173 

2,0S6,820 

8.317,266 

2,140,199 

20,S.')S,314 

11,5M,C51 

4,034,083 

1,100 

6,959 

243,444 

114,307 


205,200 
50,206 

.'),566 

1,, 176, 534 

113,828 

23,094 

005,172 

428,175 

742,269 

23,609 

931,863 

1,53,069 

1,400,902 

457,466 

2,373,299 

301,062 

359,635 

100,432 

1,088,543 

1,328,082 

10,496,021 

674,349 

1,848,369 

,3,187,292 

223,229 

677,810 

472,141 

2,008',737 

1,430,488 

35,677 


105,535,804 


413,831,2110 


$33,7"6,808 


Milch  Cows. — Under  the  general  term  of  "neat  cat- 
tle" were  embraced  in  tlie  siy  th  census  of  the  United 
States  the  three  descriptions  of  animnlst  dcsign.itcd  in 
that  of  1850  as  milch  cows,  working  oxen,  and  other 
cattle.  The  aggregate  of  the  three  clussci,  in  1840, 
was  14,971,581!;  in  1850,  18,355,287.  The  increase, 
therefore,  between  the  two  pcrLJs  was  i?,3S3,70l,  or 
about  20  per  cent.  They  appear  to  be  distributed  quite 
equally  over  the  Union.  The  amount  of  butt'  r  pro- 
duced gives  an  average  of  something  over  49  pounds 
to  each  niilcli  cow.  The  average  production  of  clieesc 
to  each  cow  is  16|  pounds.  As  with  horses,  the  same 
allowance  must  be  made,  on  account  of  the  omission  of 
cowd,  except  in  connection  with  agriculture.  Tlie  only 
schedules  in  whicli  the  live  stock  of  the  country  could 
ha  enumerated  were  those  used  for  olitaining  the  ugri- 
cultural  products  of  farms.  From  the  fact  that  the 
scliedulos  for  eniimcriiting  agricultura'  pro<luction8  and 
live  stock  were  not  used  in  cities,  their  live  stock  was 
necessarily  omitted.  The  value  of  the  l)utter  pro- 
duced in  the  United  .States  in  1850  was  estimated  at 
$50,135,000 :  and  cheese,  $5,276,000.— C'»tw«4  RejMrt, 
1850. 

Buttcmtlt-tree  (Juglani  calhartka).  Tliis  species 
of  walnut  is  known  in  the  United  .States  nndcr  differ- 
ent denominations.  In  Massnchusetts,  New  iluinp- 
shire,  and  Vermont,  it  bears  the  name  of  oil-uul;  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Marylan  ,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio,  it  is  generally  knc  .it  by  that  of  white  walnut; 
in  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and 


the  mountainous  districts  of  the  upper  psrts  of  (he 
Carolinas,  it  is  culled  buttirnut.  The  lust  of  these 
names  we  liave  adopted,  because  it  is  most  generally 
used.  This  tree  is  found  in  the  Canadas,  in  all  of  the 
New  England  States,  New  Yon.,  ^'.'w  .Jersey,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri, 
and  in  the  bottoms  wliich  border  on  the  Oliio.  It 
flourishes  most  abundantly  in  t  cold,  unproductive 
soil,  interspersed  with  large  rocks,  and  ot<  the  steep, 
elevated  l)ttnks  of  rivers.  From  its  want  of  solidity, 
and  from  the  difficulty  o' procuring  pieces  of  consider- 
able length,  the  timber  of  the  butt^-rnut  is  seldom  used 
in  the  construction  of  liouscs.  As  it  long  resists  the 
effects  of  lieat  and  of  moisture,  ii  is  esteemed  for  the 
posts  and  rails  of  rural  fence.  J"or  com  shovals  and 
wooden  dishes,  it  ia  preferred  to  the  re<t  (lowering  ma- 
ple, because  it  is  lighter  and  less  liabl'j  to  split.  In 
Vermont  it  is  used  for  the  panels  of  coaches  and  chaises ; 
the  workmen  find  it  excoUontly  adapted  to  this  object, 
not  only  from  its  lightness,  but  because  it  is  not  liable 
to  split,  and  receives  paint  in  a  superior  manner.— - 
Bkown's  iSi/lva  Antfricnna 

Button- wood,  or  Sycamore-tree.  In  iho  At- 
lantic States  this  tree  is  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  bul'nn-teood,  and  someti.ncs  in  Virginia  by  that  of 
water-beech.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  the 
States  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  it  is  most  frequent- 
ly known  by  the  n.inie  of  sycamore,  and  by  some  per- 
sons plane-tree.  The  Frencl'.  of  Canada  and  of  Upper 
Louisiana,  give  it  the  name  of  coUon-4ree.    The  wood, 


BUT 


226 


CAiJ 


in  seasoning,  becomes  of  a  dull  red ;  its  grain  is  fine 
and  eiose,  and  !t  is  susceptible  of  a  brighter  polish 
than  the  wMd  of  the  beech,  to  which  it  bears  some 
resemblance.  Its  concentric  circles  are  divided  into 
numerous  sections,  by  line  medullary  rnys  extending 
ftrom  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  When  a  trunk 
is  sawn  in  a  direction  parallel  to  these  rays,  they  aj)- 
pear  larger  than  when  it  is  cut  parallel  to  the  concen- 
tric circles.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  division 
should  lie  n^ade  in  the  intermediate  directiun,  so  that 
the  spots  may  Ijc  of  a  proper  size  and  at  equal  distances, 
which  gives  an  elegant  surface  to  the  wood.  Cabinet- 
makers seldom  make  use  of  this  woo<l,  on  account  of 
its  liabilii,  to  warp,  except  for  ))pdsteac'.<,  which  re- 
tain tlie  color  of  the  wood,  and  are  coated  with  varnish. 
This  w'Mid  speedily  decays  when  exposed  to  ihc  at- 
mosphere, liptice  it  is  only  proper  for  work  that  is  shel- 
tered from  *lie  weather;  when  thoroughly  seasoned,  it 
may  be  uscl'uUv  ei-  ployed  in  the  inlerior  of  houses  for 
joists,  and  for  I'juthing  the  frame.  It  never  is  used 
In  naval  arc!...  tturo. — Buown's  Sillra  Amfricntui. 

ButtOUS  (1  Ui  KnnopeH ;  I'V.  IJvUtin  ;  Gcr.  Knojt/e ; 
It.  Hnttoni;  l!u-<  J'offowizii ,  Sp.  Jinlcnea)  are  well- 
kuown  articles,  serving  to  fa.'ten  clothes,  etc.  They 
are  manufactured  of  an  endless  variety  of  materials 
and  forms.  Buttons  were  of  eaily  manufacture  iii  ICn- 
gland  ;  thoco  covered  with  cloth  were  prohibited  by  a 
statute,  thereliy  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  met- 
al buttons,  8  Geo.  I.,  1721.  The  manufacture  owes 
nothing  to  encouragement  from  any  quarter  of  late 
years. 

Buttress,  a  kind  of  abutment  built  archwise,  or  a 
mass  of  stone  -jr  brick,  nerving  to  support  the  side  of  a 


building  or  wall  externally,  when  very  high  or  loaded 
with  a  heavy  .^uperatructurc.  Buttresses  arc  chielly 
used  against  the  angles  of  8t(  aples  and  on  the  outsidfl 
of  such  buildings  us  have  heavy  roofs,  which  would  be 
apt  to  thrust  nut  the  walls  if  unsupported  in  tliis  man- 
ner. They  are  sometimes  placed  for  a  support  and 
abutment  against  the  feet  of  arches  tliat  are  turned 
across  great  halls  in  old  palaces,  abbey.s,  etc.  t'lyntg 
buttrfiitct  mv  su.^li  as  are  carried  acro.>s  by  an  arch  from 
one  wall  to  another. 

Byron,  John,  was  thj  second  son  of  ^\'illiam,  lord 
Byron ;  bom  November  8,  1723.  He  w  ent  out  with 
Lord  Anson,  in  the  ll'ri/,t";',  about  174U,  and  was  w  lock- 
ed on  tl>e  coast  of  South  America.  An  Indian  chief- 
tain eon\eye(l  him  and  his  comj'aiiiona,  after  thirteen 
months  of  dreadful  sutferings  and  privations,  to  the 
island  of  Chiloe,  from  whence  they  made  their  way 
northward,  and  were  kindly  treated  ty  thj  .Sjiuniards 
(though  they  were  at  war  with  England),  in  conse- 
quence of  the  chivalrous  conduct  of  Lord  Ansontoward 
some  Spanish  ladies  whom  he  liaci  tnliin  prisoners. 
This  wreck,  and  the  si,  "crings  'hrough  ,-hich  they 
jmssed,  form  the  subject  of  "ii/nn's  ymrnlii  ,"  which 
was  published  in  1745.  He  was  coni;tuntly  employed 
by  the  British  government,  both  in  war  and  jjence, 
and,  among  other  public  services,  he  destroye<l  the 
French  squadron,  then  lying  in  Chaleur  Hay.  In 
command  of  two  ships,  he  made  a  voyage  to  the  South 
Sea  in  17(i ! ;  was  appointed  superior  of  the  West  India 
fleet  in  177H,  and  soon  after  created  vice-admiral  of 
tlie  white.  He  dietl  in  London,  April  10,  178fi,  enjoy- 
ing to  the  last  a  well-cumed  reputation.  The  poet, 
Lord  George  Gordon  Byron,  was  bis  grandson. 


c. 


Cabbage,  a  biennial  plant  (Brassica,  Linn.),  of 
which  tliere  are  many  varieties.  It  is  too  well  known 
to  require  any  particular  description ;  it  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  United  States.  Sour-crout,  or  more 
properly  miter-kraut,  is  a  very  favorite  dish  in  Ger- 
many; it  consists  of  a  fermented  mess  of  salted  cab- 
bage. 

Cabin,  an  apartment  in  a  ship  for  officers  and  pas- 
sengers. In  large  ships  there  are  several  cal  ins,  the 
principal  of  v  hich  is  occupied  by  the  coninianiler.  In 
amall  vessels  there  is  only  one  cabin,  which  is  in  the 
Mem.  The  bed-places  in  ships  are  also  called  cabins; 
or,  more  commonly,  berths,  litiih  is  used,  likewise, 
for  the  room  where  a  number  of  uieu  mess  and  reside. 
— E.A. 

Cables  are  strong  ropes  or  chains,  principally  used 
in  the  anchoring  or  mooring  of  ships.  Itiipe  cables  are 
principally  manufactured  of  hemp;  but  in  the  East 
they  are  more  frequently  made  of  cnir,  or  the  fibrous 
part  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  in  some  places,  particularly 
un  the  lied  Sea,  of  tne  coating  of  the  branches  of  the 
date-tree.  Hemp  caliles  are  formed  of  three  principal 
strands,  every  strand  of  three  ropes,  and  each  rope  of 
three  twists.  The  twists  have  more  or  fewer  threads, 
according  to  the  gieater  or  less  thickness  of  the  cable. 
All  vessels  have  ready  for  service  three  cables,  which 
"re  usually  designated  the  slieet  cable,  (he  best  bower 
caMe,  and  the  small  bower  cable ;  but  besides  these, 
most  ships  have  some  spare  cables.  The  ordinary 
JaifCth  of  a  cable  is  from  100  to  120  fathoms. 

Iron  Caliles. — The  application  of  strong  iron  chains 
or  cables  in  the  purposes  of  navigation  is  a  late  and  an 
important  discovery  by  Captain  damuol  Brown,  Brit- 
ish navy.  It  is  singular,  indeed,  tliat  this  application 
should  not  have  been  made  at  a  much  earlier  period. 
On  rocky  bottoms,  or  where  coral  is  abundant,  a  hemp- 
en cable  speedily  chafes,  and  is  often  quite  destroyed 
in  a  few  months,  or  perhaps  days.  M.  Bougainville, 
tko  Fronch  navigator,  in  his  voyage  uf  discovery,  lost 
air  cachors  iii  the  space  of  nine  days,  end  narrowly 


:  escaped  shipwreck — n  result,  snys  that  able  seaman, 
which  would  not  have  happened,  "  si  iimis  eussions  iii 
j  munis  ihs  ijiielqucs  clia'me.i  defer.  C'esI  une  precauliun 
que  lie  iloinntjamiiis  uuUier  tous  les  nariyoteurs  (LsliiKS 
ilde pureils  vnymjcs." — Voyage  auluur  du  Jfimde,  p.  207, 
4to  cd.  The  work  from  whicli  this  extract  is  taken 
was  jHiblished  in  1771 ;  and  jet  it  was  not  till  nearly 
Jortt/  years  after  tliat  any  attempt  was  made  jiracti- 
eally  to  profit  by  so  judicious  a  suggestion.  Tlic  dif- 
ficulties in  tlie  way  of  importing  hemp  from  1808  to 
1814,  and  its  consequent  high  price,  gave  the  first 
great  stimulus  to  the  manufacture  of  iron  cables.  Iron 
caliles  are  constructed  in  different  ways  (see  J:'nri/clo- 
pedia  ^retr( pulitnna'):,  but  they  are  uniformly  tested  by 
a  machine,  which  strains  them  by  a  force  greater  (liaii 
the  absolute  strength  of  (he  hempen  ctlilo  they  are 
intended  to  replace.  By  this  means  the  risk  of  acci- 
dent from  defective  links  is  effectually  obviated;  and 
there  aie  exceedingly  few  instances  in  «bi(l>  an  iron 
cable  has  brckcn  at  eea.  Their  great  weight  also  ion- 
tributes  to  their  strength,  inasinui  h  a.s  the  impulse  of 
the  ship  is  checked  befo.e  the  cable  is  limught  nearly 
to  a  straight  line,  or  that  llic  strain  approaches  to  a 
maximum.  Bolts  and  shackles  arc  jiruvided  at  every 
fathom  or  two  fathoms,  by  striking  out  which  the  ship 
may,  if  necessary,  be  detached  from  her  anchors  with 
less  difficulty  than  a  hempen  cable  can  be  cut.  Ever 
in  their  most  defective  form,  iron  cables  are  a  great 
deal  stronger  than  those  of  hemp ;  and  as  to  durabil- 
ity, no  sort  of  comparison  can  be  mnJe.  No  wonder, 
therefore,  that  they  should  be  rapidly  superseding  the 
latter ;  which  are  now  almost  wholly  laid  aside  in  tho 
navy,  and  to  a  great  extent  also  in  the  merchant  serv- 
ice. The  sited  anchor  ceible  is  the  greatest  coble  lie- 
longing  to  a  ship.  The  stream  cable  is  a  hawser  or 
rope  used  to  moor  the  ship  In  a  river  or  haven  shelter- 
ed from  the  wind  and  sea. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  the  celebrated  navigator  and 
re-discovercr  of  the  American  continent  (the  continent 
of  North  America  had  been  seen,  and  even  repeatedly 


0AB 


227 


CAB 


seaman, 

isslous  tU 

rkaulivn 

(Lslinis 

p.  20", 
taken 
nearly 
_  yiracti- 
Thc  dif- 
1S08  to 
llic  liist 
c9.   Iron 
t'ncyelo- 
isti'd  by 
jttr  than 
thty  are 
of  acci- 
■d;  and 
an  iron 
also  lun- 
iiilsc  of 
nearly 
■lies  to  a 
at  every 
the  ship 
lors  with 
Ever 
a  preat 
duraliil- 
wondcr, 
■ding  tlio 
Ide  in  tlm 
lant  Bcrv- 
:al)le  lii- 
lawscr  or 
shelter- 

lator  and 
lontinunt 
[poatcdly 


visited  about  ftva  oanturlot  \u(m»  by  lllfl  Iwlatidots), 
was  the  son  of  John  Vn\mi,  a  VttfistlitH  lfl«rcti«nt  resi- 
dent in  England,  ttn4  wa»  horn  Ahotit  tlia  jrear  1477. 
Although  long  tba  outtlPHt  ut  mm\\  dltitilltd,  It  Is  now 
certain  that  England  waa  (lift  |*Ia«W  etf  tila  tiatlvlty.  In 
an  ancient  oolleotlun  ot  voyAtffA  And  (favets  by  Klch- 
ard  Eden,  a  learned  wrltHr  Anil  mnknipnrary  of  Sebas- 
tian, the  author,  in  A  nmrginAl  nult*,  aavs,  "  Mobostiun 
Caboto  tould  me,  tliAt  Im  WAi*  tj«r»«  In  Ur^stowe  (Bris- 
tol), and  that  »(  ilU  ^uAri-  uul(t  lis  WAS  carried  ivlth 
his  father  to  Vjinfaa,  anil  m>  fsflimwl  agayiiB  into  En- 
gland wltli  Ills  f«:hpr  Afffif  MrtAyiin  y«rtf»,  wheroby  he 
was  tliought  to  hiivfl  lisi?n  liern  in  ymke  "^Decades 
of  the  jVeio  Worlil,  fol,  'iB6,  i(  aIm  AJipeftr*  that  he 
returned,  while  still  yoHOff  (pr*«^  iliflitm),  to  England, 
and  remained  tb  i  till  Iw  gfsw  (((t  lo  nianllnod.  The 
brilliant  <<:  .covorles  jf  (.'flUimlnw  Imvlng  awakened  a 
spirit  of  enterprise  thr»ii({lMH(t  (Iw  itnll^lltcned  nationi 
of  Europe,  iloiiry  VII,  (if  l',njilMH(i  WAS  not  slow  In 
perceiving  the  adviintA«Ba  !<)  Iw  ({slned  Ujf  promoting 
adventure  in  the  now  CAreur  (,))nnfi1  tt(i  to  human  am- 
bition. Tho  all-impiirtAMt  awI  wtyroislllfj  otjuot  was 
to  discover  a  ronf-  'o  IndlAl  And  Att  «Ji|i«dtUon  In  a 
nortliweht  jrly  '  -,  06twiwlb;v  in  rsaolt  what  was 

called  Cuf'  8>'  iind  (rf  M|ilt!)*,  w,(fi  jtfnrjpcted  by 

Sebastian  C«..  •.  ttsd  «Mt  nndsr  tlie  auBplces  of 
tlio  English  (f.  varnmani,  'J'Ija  rtr«'  pAlwit,  which  boars 
date  Marcl>  1406  (HVMKM,  AV("'*W(,  Vol,  Jid,  p.  BPft), 
wa^  given  u  '  (Jabot  Ann  U  lliriitt  ((oni»,  l^wis, 
Seliastian,  anit  ....iiclw^,  Th»<  imlPIHmt  Were  empow- 
ered to  set  up  ebe  roysl  hAuntti',  and  ocuupy  and  pos- 
sess all  tl'.';  "  newly-found"  l»nd»  In  tito  name  of  tlie 
kins,  wlio  rcoirvfld  a  (tfUl  of  tllH  prorth,  It  Wgp  also 
stipulated  (hiL  tlie  tfrissuU  slwnld  fulMm  (« llrlsfol,  and 
that  che  privil.yi:  of  «K.elusWM  ftmiirt  And  Irafllo  should 
belong  to  the  poteutan*.  /jUlnniijIi  (lie  pAtent  was 
eonlerred  on  Joiiu  Cabot  and  lll^  ((irfif  soils,  lliefo  can 
be  no  doubt,  even  if  tlio  f»t|i.ir  did  AUt'iiinpA'ty  Ilia  ex- 
poditioti,  tliiit  ilssiiiiiss  w»«><n(|;tily«tviHg  Iti  the  gen- 
ius of  Sehastian. 

It  is  now  undoubted  tliat  fo  |i|abtt»tf«n  aliilw  belongs 
the  ^lory  of  the  re-disenvery  of  fti«  Irfm  jlrma  u(  the 
AVustern  Wopld.  Tlio  Bi(|wdUti)fl,  I'oiislsllnjr  of  the 
ship  commaiidud  by  N«bA>ttiiiiii  »«<l  (hreo  or  four 
smaller  vismIs  iiaiM  from  llfliiP.  in  llin  ticijlnniMg 
of  May,  11117;  mv"'  an  auiieiit  Itfl  lid  mAnusfrlpt  re- 
cords the  fact  tlnKt  "in  llit)  tiar  I  MiT,  (hi)  ',i(lh  ,lune, 
on  St.  John's  day,  was  N'uwIiHtndlttiid  found,  liy  Urls- 
tol  men,  ill  a  sjiip  ciM-'A  the  Afullini',"  I  Ift  f  lo  autlior- 
ity  of  IVter  Martyr,  w  i.utrn  Ilia',  Itdvf  ipilitlng  the 
norili,  whiire  ho  reaclieil  UifHnds  slfU^sov- ii  and  a 
half,  Cabot  proceeded  along  (lin  MtiAsf  n'llc  coiitinrnl, 
to  a  laiitiHle  corruBpoiiding  proliAbly  wllli  tliatof  the 
Straits  of  fiibraltar.  Induud,  hu  in  uM  'o  liavf  «ono 
80  far  southward,  "  ut  l.'ubiiin  llti>ulAHt  A  licVA  lonxl- 
tudiuo  gradiium  pone  parum  liAbnxrif,"    A  failure  of 

provLiioiis  at  tliis  poii'l  coiiipellud  liiin  to  dc'l-t  from  ' 
fui  her  pursi'it,  and  che  UKpadliioH  fetlrfnfil  lo  En- 
gland. Tho  second  patent  U  t\nt  !  lid  I'Mbcimry,  HOB, 
and  gives  nulbori'-  lo  ".lohn  KAbuMo,  oi-  hlfi  de|iu- 
ties,"  to  take  at  pleasure  eiit  Eligljiill  st|l)rt,  Auil  "  (bem 
convey  and  lede  to  tho  loiida  ai.'d  i«l»f«  iif  lali-  fniiiid." 
Shortly  after  the  date  of  this  imlunl,  ilidlH  ( !ab»l  died  ; 
and  it  i.s  said  that  his  suns,  !,oMis  and  Haui'his,  WenI  to 
settle  in  Italy.  Sebastian,  howovdr,  did  mil  nimuilon 
the  enterprise  in  which  ha  Imd  mnliArkud ;  And  a  sec- 
ond voyngo  was  /ealoHsly  uiiderlAkKtl  tindfr  ills  siiper- 
intenden'C.  A  ship  equippad  At  Ihti  kind's  cdpcnse, 
along  with  four  snirJi  vaejaU;  tallnd  doin  l(fl.«(ol  hi 
the  sprJiig  of  the  year  14tl«,  TIln  ri'»((lt  of  flie  espe- 
ilition  is  unfortunately  wrapt  III  nilll'l'  iibs;  (ifily,  (lo- 
iiiani  alone  furnishes  u»  with  what  Hlrty  be  n  cofrect 
account.  According  to  this  imtlMif,  '  'Abet  "  dlfcrled 
his  course  liy  tli.i  tracUi  of  islHlldn,  llp|iiiH  (lis  ('Ape  of 
Labrador,  at  Ivlil.  digruesj  AlflflliyngH  illAl,  In  thr 
moncthe  of  July,  tbora  was  nueh  fwnld,  and  liprtjies  i.f 
ise.  that  he  durst  passe  no  furttlMf  J  »Ut),  thai  Ihs  dayos 


were  very  longe,  and  In  mancr  without  nyght,  and  tho 
nyghtea  very  clear,  Certayno  it  is,  that  at  the  Ix. 
degrees,  the  longest  day  is  of  xviii.  hourcs.  But  con- 
syderynge  tho  coulde,  and  the  straungenesi  of  tlis 
unknowen  laudc,  ho  turned  his  course  from  thcnsn  to 
tho  west,  folowyngo  tho  coast  of  tho  lande  of  Uacenlaos 
unto  the  xxxviii.  degrees,  from  'whcnso  ho  returned  to 
Englandc." — Eken's  Decades,  fol.  818.  The  rcsuUn  of 
this  second  voyage  were  not  sufficiently  important  to 
induce  Henry  to  equip  another  expedition.  We  have 
good  authority  for  believing,  however,  that  Cabot,  in. 
1409,  "  with  no  extraordinary  preparations  sett  forth 
from  Bristoll,  and  made  create  discoveries." — Skyeu'.s 
Memoirs  of  JirisUil.  But  tho  narrative  of  Cabot's  life 
for  tho  fifteen  years  subsequent  to  tho  departure  of  his 
second  expedition  is  meagre  and  unsatisfactor)'.  One 
cirou-nstanuo  de8er\'e3  notice,  that  during  that  period 
Amer!go  Vespucci,  in  company  with  Hojcda,  crossed 
tho  Atlantic  for  ti.e  jirst  time,  while  Sobaatian  was 
prosecuting  h''  tliird  voyage. 

After  tho  death  of  Henry  VIZ.,  upon  tho  invitation 
of  Ferdinand,  Sebastian  Cabot  went  to  Spain;  and 
Vespui  ,1,  who  held  the  ofHco  of  pilot-m^or,  having 
died,  ho  was  appointed  his  successor.  He  was  soon 
employed,  in  a  general  revision  of  maps  and  charts  : 
and  his  public  and  private  character  endeared  him  to 
most  of  the  learned  and  good  men  in  Spain.  The  dcatli 
of  Ferdinand  put  an  end  to  an  expedition  then  in  con- 
templation. The  ignoble  commencement  of  tho  reign 
of  Charles  V.  frustroted  all  further  hopes  of  its  prose- 
cution ;  and  Cabot  returned  to  England,  where,  under 
Henry  VIII.,  ho  got  honorable  employment,  and  per- 
formed another  westwardly  voyage  in  1617,  which, 
however,  proved  unsuccessful.  In  1618  we  find  Cabot 
In  Spain,  and  again  reinstated  in  the  appointment  of 
pilot-major.  The  dispute  between  .Spain  and  Portugal 
in  regard  to  their  respective  rights  to  tho  Moluccas 
having  been  decided  at  the  Congress  of  Badtyos,  in 
1521  in  favor  of  Spain,  a  company  was  formed  at  Se- 
ville to  open  a  commercial  intercourse  with  those 
Islanils ;  and  '^abot,  with  tho  title  of  captain  general, 
after  many  delays,  set  .jail  with  a  fleet  in  April,  1526. 
The  squadron  was  ill  assorted,  and  a  mutiny  broke  out : 
in  consequence  of  which  be  diverted  his  course  from 
the  Moluccas  to  the  mouth  of  tho  Kio  do  la  Plata,  up 
which  ho  penetrated  about  tlyee  hundred  ond  fifty 
leagues.  Ho  erected  a  fort  at  St.  Salvador,  and  after- 
ward tailing  up  the  Parana,  ho  built  other  two  forts, 
lie  subsequently  entered  tha  Paraguay,  where  he  was 
drawn  into  a  sanguinary  contest  with  tlio  natives. 
From  the  report  then  made  by  hiui  to  Charles  V.,  it  is 
jitobablo,  had  he  been  suiiplied  wi Ji  mciins  and  ammu- 
nition, he  would  havo  made  tho  coiiqnest  of  Peru, 
wlilch  Piy.arro  afterward  accomplished  with  his  own 
private  resources.  After  tarrying  in  the  hopes  of  re- 
ceiving supplies,  Cabot  was  forced  to  return  to  Spain, 
whc'o  ho  resumed  bis  functions  of  pilot-major. 

He  finally  settled  in  England,  where  ho  appears  to 
have  exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the  raari- 
tlino  concerns  of  the  country,  and  enjoyed  a  pension  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  inerks.  It  was  then  that  ho  dis- 
closed to  Edward  VI.  his  discovery  of  the  phenomenon 
of  the  variation  of  tho  needle;  a  discovery  for  which 
alone  his  name  deserves  to  be  immortalized.  It  was 
also  at  hi5  instigation  that  the  important  expedition 
Was  undertaken  wliich  resulted  in  the  opening  of  the 
trade  with  Russia ;  and  in  tho  charter  of  the  company 
of  merchant  adventurers  ho  was  nominated  govemior 
for  life,  as  "the  chiefest  setter  forth"  of  tho  onterprise. 
Cabot  lived  to  a  ■.■cry  advanced  age,  and  died  about 
1557,  probably  in  London  ;  but  neither  (he  date  of  his 
(teath  nor  the  jilacc  of  his  intenf.eiit  is  properly  authen- 
ticated. Sebastian  Cabot  may  he  justly  regarded  as 
ono  of  the  most  illustrious  navigators  the  world  has 
ever  seei;,  and  the  world  owes  him  a  debt  ."f  llnpcri^h- 
^'ble  gratitude.  "Ho  ended,"  siiys  the  luitlior  of  the 
memoir  which  has  rescued  so  much  of  his  life  from 


GAG 


228 


CAD 


olmmiiy,  "M  m4*4,  u  Iw  hud  l^cgun,  hli  canor  In 
tlw  wrvifis  itf  M4  H4ti¥i'  tiitMfjr  I  Infuilng  Into  lisr 
umtiua  »  apirU  wf  Mfy  I'MffptiiVt  a  high  niorsl  tone, 
•uil  •  ajf»Uim  uf  miUi  hut  mflf]t)(>l«  ditdpline,  of 
wbivb  tlio  r«*wll«  Wffi*  mH  Uma  »tlnt  to  coniplcuouily 
di«pl«>'i>i4.  Vimlly,  l«#  U  m<«m  to  »(Mn  n«w  sourcei  of 
comnrnrea,  uf  whi^l)  >Im  iiiHiUiMe  May  be  (littlnctly 
tr»c8d  on  yf  iifumtH  Kfmiii-M  uiui  trroxtsrlty,"— E. 
B.  Sie  Jhimif  i^Mmlim  Cilitiilf  villi  a  llefiew  f/the 
Uiilory  (/  ilm'ilimn  iHMWH-t/,  iUmlriilid  by  documenti 
/rum  (he  //i///i,  nimi'tHl  itlihlwinl,  ttiri,.  Ixiiidon,  18D1. 

OuilU),  ur  Oeaan,  Htf  nUiittmitt  jntpBtmX  hum  the 
(«e4»  uf  Mm*  'I'litulifimia  i"iiiKi,  Wb«(i  the  bruiMil  wcdi 
are  fl»yor«4  wUb  ((m  tyhUndfHin  runillii,  mixed  with 
«  Utti«  mgnf,  timy  ftttm  ltl«  Ngf«e«bi«  cbnfeotlon  well 
.known  uwkr  Hw  imiim  t4/lnii-i//tt(f, 

C4dte,  tbo  (/rifW'iMi  mimmM  ellr  and  nea-port 
of  Spain,  on  )M  (w»t/i#*#j«h(  «■(«(«<(  «m'lhe  rocky  and 
oleva««4  sxffWM-ty  ,^  4  ii,tff<ii*f  J(rw  pfniniula,  or 
tongue  of  |«M>'  '•  ;  ■  >Ul^  tfiHIl  riw  JcIh  de  Udii,  norlh- 
uorthwBst  )»l)«>  I  ■'  ,WM(I/«1  (((ihin,  (l  H  nurroiimlcd 
on  alt  fi4'i»,  fii^pt  ttlf  miHlUi  itlftf  it  Utitn  the  lnn<l, 
by  tbo  W»,  #i( ;  i^  VBffr  ntfiiimh  fiitiiiud  I'ojnilntion 
in  U37,  W,f '/.).  I'f  :4  #>ttl  |/ttjf(  Awi  ha*,  at  a  distance, 
»  vr/>  »tf»»,j;.t  i/.ttntfHmi^,  'tit»  t(/#cr  («■  lluht-bouae 
off)!.  t^»b#iKi»n  M«(4#  Wl  riw  #(.i«f«rrt  tide  of  the  city, 
b(*('^  v/zlJi;;;- 1«  T«(iW,  (M  (*».  «fi  ■  fll'  7"  N.,  long. 

6*  Ji,  •  W,  U  U  «  W*(«t  Krt<»fdnMiti»  object  to  vcii. 
set  ^^,  ,4fMnis  frmii  »h*  Alkutu.  the  HkM,  which 
if  17iJ  ;>aiH.  biif'i  ••(  {(mm  ItriiVwiuy,  revolves  once  a 
minute,  *n4 i'l  utimf  imf  I."  kan  more  than  aix 

lewgueg  off, 

Bay  Iff  Ciidii,-^t\w  mi»tm  ti)  thla  noble  b««ln  lies 
between  tile  f^jt y  #h4  »I(#  !//*«  atwt  (rrinnoiitory  of  Kottt, 
bearing  MurfbwKKl  U)f  iHitfUf  /IWartt  aborit  I'l  lca«uc. 
Tlw  bay  is  of  v«fy  fefjii  ('♦lent,  affording,  In  niort 
places,  gou4  nmUttntUi',  'flw  |«rf(  in  on  the  cant-im 
side  of  the  4ty,  wimff  M  IWiif  <rf  wmnldcrable  dimen- 
sions has  iiem  finmffttftiA  (  UM  lUif  WsK-r  1»  not  enfll- 
eiently  (Jeep  U)  HiUtW  kfilti  ♦c*s«ls  to  npijroach  ncanT 
than  within  »la»Ht  Utrnti^imfMn  of  a  tnlf ,  whdro  thi>y 
anchor  in  front  6  U)  7  dtliuith';  the  tnkK  called  the 
Cocbinos,  the  l'M«r(-#s,  «l«1  tim  Olaniatitp,  llo  to  th« 
north  cf  the  nity,  in  fim  mtHlli'i'  to  fhi'  !.«>- ;  the  (IrBt 
two  at  aboHt  tUfHe'lifliln  iif  H  tliih  liMiWt,  and  the  Dia- 
mante at  ratlMir  iw/f*  timn  ii  in'U-  (fi'in  tli^  city.  Vc»- 
sels  may  en'er  Mwutt^  Htn  ('iinim  nH  the  hi'iniante ; 
but  none,  eiM'ept  i|)//<i«  imt  (itmitiH  lltnro  (linn  IS  feet 
water,  »n4  wnl)  m-nmittU'd  «i(h  (he  channffl,  ouRhf  to 
attempt  entering  l(«t»MM  <hi»  <'(whino»  nn<l  I'liercaa 
and  the  lity,  Tlw  t«#»;  (/f ,«(,  .M.'f^y*,  m  (b'.'  opposite 
side  of  the  bay,  is  fmiHm  fm  Mug  (he  rf'pi'.t  «f  the 


within  the  Inner  bay  in  the  famous  arsenal  of  the  Car- 
acas, the  town  of  San  Curios,  the  canal  of  Trocudcro, 
etc.  At  spring-tides  the  water  in  the  buy  risen  10  or 
11  feet,  but  at  neups  the  rise  dues  not  exceed  G  feet. — 
For  furtlier  particulars  see  the  excellent  Chml  n/  the 
JJay  0/ C'tidU,  4y  Tokino;  SI.VLiiAM'a  Naral  Gazetteer; 
and  Pubi>y'b  Huiliny  Vireclioru/or  the  Hay  iifBlscny,  tic. 
Cfldlr.  Is  a  very  ancient  city,  having  been  foundeil  by 
the  Fhrenlclans  about  1200  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  The  temple  which  tliey  erected  in  it  in  honor  of 
Hercules  was  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated  in  aniiquity. — 
SainU  Croix,  ilet  Anciennes  Culoniet,  p.  14  ;  J'ump.  Mela, 
lib.  ill,  cup.  6.  Its  excellent  port,  and  Its  situation,  fa- 
vorable alike  for  commerce  and  security,  have  made  it, 
whether  possessed  Iiy  Carthaginians,  liomans,  Moors, 
or  Christians,  and  under  every  vicissitude,  a  place  of 
considerable  commercial  and  political  importance.  It 
haa  long  been  one  of  the  principal  stations  of  the  Span- 
ish naval  force, 

Repml  by  Mr.  Brackinhury,  Britith  Conml  nt  Cadiz,  on 
the  TraJt  o/lhat  Port  during  the  Year  lSt\'. 

The  number  of  Dritish  vessels  that  entered  the  Port 
of  Cadiz  during  the  year  1860  was  366,  K'iiig  ill  more 
than  in  the  prtceding  year,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  06,297  tuns  and  8679  men. 

ISI  arrlTeil  from  England,  with  cargoes  amounting  In  vnliio 
to  *S7,7T8 1  73  arrived  from  England  in  ballsat ;  47  fioin  olli. 
er  countries,  with  cargoes  amounting  in  valno  to  jC74.430;  Bn 
from  otiier  countries  In  balliut;  187  Uritlsh  vcssiiU  Railed 
from  Cadiz  for  England,  with  cargoes  in  value  aiiinuntlng  to 
£034,880:  <!3  sailed  In  ballaat  for  England ;  74  vltli  catRocn 
for  other  countries,  In  value  amounting  to  £b[\iO(S;  84  in 
ballast  for  other  countries. 

2S,430  tons  of  coal  were  imported  from  England  in 
Dritish  and  foreign  vessels. 

Kxportntion  consisted  chiefly  of  sherry  wine  and  salt, 

64,016  butts  of  the  former  were  shipped  during  the 
year,  being  an  increase  of  11,227  butts  as  compared 
with  1856;  and  93,168  tons  of  salt  were  shipped,  being 
26,508  less  than  in  1855. 

The  610  Spanish  vessels,  whoso  aggregate  tonnage 
i-i  110,607  tons.  Imported  chiefly  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco, 
mahogany,  and  spices  from  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Xia- 
nllla.  Iron  hoops,  yarn,  linen,  woolen  and  manufac- 
tured goods,  and  drugs  from  Kngland.  There  are  20 
Spanish  steam  vesjicls,  principally  cmployeil  in  the  con- 
veyance of  passengers  and  merchandise  from  Cadiz  to 
Markeillos,  touching  at  all  the  intermediate  ports.  The 
66  American  vessels  imported  stores  and  tobacco,  and 
exported  salt,  wine,  cork,  and  liquorice.  The  Dutch, 
Delgian,  .Swedish,  Norwegian,  Danish,  and  Prnssiuii 
vessels  imported  cliiefly  coals  from  England,  and  cjr . 


wines  uf  Xerm,  'ftm  uuiff  im,  itf  ♦)(«*  iit  ('nA\  i  Tiroj)- 1  ported  salt,  wine,  cork,  and  liquorice.  The  Russia  , 
erly  so  called,  U  mpamitA  ffm  (he  innet  bay  |,v  ihi  '  Hanoverian,  and  Ilansc  Town  vessels  Imported  chiefly 
promontory  having  »<  fM#'*(»«!t((lt.t' the  emoti.)  of  Mata-  'rlmljer  and  deals,  and  exported  salt,  wine,  .ind  dry 
gorda,  wbU'h  »p)>r'wll««  within  jbmil  three.(,„a/!<;rs  ,  fruit.  The  calculations  of  the  imports  and  exports 
of  a  mile  of  the  I'uaiHk*  M*f  1«,  iitl  (h*  Isla  lie  I^on.  j  hove  been  made  at  five  dollars  to  the  pound  sterling. 

Statuwit  or  TMi  HimiHHt,  f#^^ ,.((*,  Ciirwii,  Ann  VAtints  of  TUB  C'Aauowi  orViflsrLs,  nai.oNawa  to  vabioob  Natiomb, 
WHU  ti  tirtlfHkti  ANii  ( r.KACKii  At  tiik  I'OBT  or  <.'Am7.  in  1 S46  a:<d  l&W. 


'    '  



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tntl. 

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£30.010 

307 

61,li!2 

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£847,247 

*/''"£''--ii'i7'"---- 

t 

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16,070 

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7,na4 

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is.oio 

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471,881 

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22.1,517 

f^*>wttiitttittiit 

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^     Awaiif^  i}j,  d.i  

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Tb*  co»M»er«i#l  ifmtmm  i4  CuVvt.  has  hmg  Iten  |  commercial  intercourse  Iietween  Spain  and  the  Spanish 
on  tiM  WMM,    Al  tm  \,{m  tt  *».,  the  jreat  fucua  of  I  coionies,  and  from  1720  to  1766  it  enjoyed  a  monopoly 


CAE 


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lunopoly 


of  the  truffle  with  Spanish  America.  Its  prosperity 
began  to  decline  whun  the  trado  of  St.  Domingo,  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  and  the  other  islands  was  opened  up  to  the 
greater  porta  of  Spain,  and  decayed  almost  entirely  in 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  when  the  colo- 
nics achieved  their  Independence.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Spanish  covemment  in  1828  to  restore  its 
former  greatness,  by  making  it  a  f^ee  warehousing 
port;  but  this  valuable  privilege  was  withdrawn  in 
1832,  and  commerce  relapsed  into  its  former  depressed 
condition.  By  far  the  greatest  obstacle  in  (ho  way  of 
its  firture  prosperity  is  the  oppressive  commercial  re- 
strictions imposed  by  government  on  all  imports — a 
policy  which  throws  "three-fourths  of  the  trado  of  Spain 
into  the  hands  of  contrabandlstas.  The  principal  manu- 
factures of  Cadiz  are,  soap,  glass,  coarse  woolen,  cot- 
ton, and  siilt  stutfs,  and  hats.  There  are  also  some 
sugar  refineries  and  tanneries.  A  considerable  stimu- 
lus to  industrv  is  given  by  the  Socicdatl  economica  ik 
Amitfos  del  pais,  which  introduced  the  cochiiieiil  plant, 
and  grants  medals  for  improvements  in  mauiifacturcs. 
— E.  B. 

Caen,  the  capital  of  the  nrrondisscmcnt  of  the  sumo 
name,  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  in  France.  It 
stands  in  an  extensive  valley,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ornc,  at  the  influx  of  the  Odon,  9  miles  from  the  En- 
glish Channel,  and  122  west  of  Paris,  l.at.  49°  11'  12" 
N.)  long.  0"  21'  38 '  W.  The  town  h  handsome  and 
well  built ;  the  etreets  are  generally  wide,  straight, 
and  cloun ;  and  the  houses,  being  built  of  freestone, 
have  a  very  good  appearance.  Population  (1851), 
40,  .569  ;  while  that  of  the  aiTondissenicnt  amounted  to 
139,922.  The  commerce  and  manufactures  of  Caen 
are  considerable.  It  export.s  corn,  wine,  brandy,  fruit, 
cattle,  stones,  hardware,  etc.  Its  manufactures  con- 
sist chiefly  of  laces,  caps,  table-linen,  cotton  fal)ric3, 
earthen-ware,  cutlery,  etc. ;  it  has  also  breweries,  dye- 
works,  and  ship-liuilding  yards.  Several  large  fairs 
arc  annually  held  here.  At  high  water,  vessels  of  150 
or  IGO  tons  can  come  up  to  the  town,  and  a  canal  to 
connect  it  with  the  sea  is  in  course  of  construction, 
which  will  render  it  accessible  to  large  vessels. — E.  B. 

Cafflla,  ft  kind  of  caravan  or  company  of  merchants. 
It  difiers,  however,  from  a  caravan,  at  least  in  Persia ; 
for  the  caflila  properly  belongs  to  some  sovereign,  or 
to  some  powerful  company  in  Kurojie ;  whereas  a  cara- 
van is  a  company  of  particular  merchants,  each  trading; 
upon  his  own  account.  Caflilas  also  cross  some  parts 
of  the  deserts  of  Africa,  particularly  that  of  Sahara. — 
E.  B. 

Cagliarl,  the  capital  of  .Sardinia,  on  the  northeast 
shore  of  a  spacious  bay  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island, 
lat.  39°  12'  13"  N.,  long.  9"  7'  44'  E.  Populatien  in 
1850,  3  >,000  ?  The  city  stands  on  a  rising  ground,  and 
has  ai;  imposing  effect  from  the  sea.  The  public 
buildings  and  churches  arc  numerous,  and  some  cf 
them  splendid  ;  but  the  streets  are,  for  the  most  part, 
narrow,  steep,  and  filthy.  The  Gulf  of  Cagliari  ex- 
tends from  Pula  on  the  west,  to  Capo  Carbonara  on  the 
east,  a  distance  of  about  24  miles  across,  and  about  12 
in  depth,  with  good  anchorage  every  -\hero  after  fret- 
ting into  soundings.  A  mole  projects  from  the  I'ra- 
tique  office,  ■••nd  ships  usually  lie  abou ^  1  mile  south- 
west by  south  from  it,  in  6  or  8  fathoms  water,  on  an 
excellent  bottom  of  mud.  There  is  a  verj-  convenient 
pier  harbor  at  the  south  angle  of  the  tower  wall,  capa- 
ble of  containing  14  or  16  vessels  of  a  tolerable  size, 
besides  small  craft.  Altogether,  Cagliari  is  one  of  the 
Itest  and  safest  ports  in  the  Mediterraneau. — See  Sar- 
dinia. 

Cairo,  the  modem  capital  of  Egypt,  occapiei  the 
natural  centre  of  the  country,  situate  on  the  east  liank 
6f  the  Nile,  12  miles  above  the  apex  of  its  delta,  112 
miles  southeast  of  Alexandria,  and  75  miles  west  fWini 
Suez.  N.  lat.  30°  2'  4" ;  E.  long.  31°  15'  .3C".  It  is 
built  partly  on  the  plain  and  partly  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  rocky  range  of  Hokattem,  on  a  spur  of  which 


stands  the  citadel,  in  a  most  advantageous  position  to 
command  the  town.  Cairo  occupies  a  site  of  almut  7 
miles  in  circumference,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
strongly  built  and  fortified  with  lofty  towers.  The 
prospect  firom  the  ramparts  of  the  citadel  is  one  uf 
great  magnificence  and  beauty.  The  commerce  uf 
Cairo,  although  still  depressed,  is  considerable.  Being 
the  rendezvous  of  one  of  the  great  caravans  to  Mecca, 
it  is  the  central  mart  In  which  the  slaves,  gum,  and 
gold  dust  of  the  interior,  and  the  oils  and  flannels  of 
the  nortli  of  Africa,  with  the  European  merchandise 
from  Alexandria,  art  exchanged  for  the  coffee,  per- 
fumes,  spices,  aud  shawls  of  Arabia  and  India.  As 
the  residence  of  the  learned  and  wealthy  of  Egypt,  it 
afl'ords  a  market  for  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
surrounding  districts ;  and  in  addition  to  the  making 
of  arms,  already  extensive,  it  contains  manufactories 
of  sal-ummoniac,  saltiietre,  coarse  gunpowder,  glass 
lamps,  and  linen  cloths.  From  the  central  situation 
of  Cairo,  and  its  proximity  to  the  hot  sandy  deserts,  its 
temperature  is  much  higher  than  near  tiio  coast ;  but 
the  diseases  which  Infest  it,  such  as  the  plague,  oph- 
thalmia, and  malignant  fevers,  seem  to  originate  in 
its  "  stifled  filth,"  and  other  local  causes  which  advanc- 
ing civilization  will  greatly  remove,  rather  than  in  the 
unhoalthincss  of  its  situation.  Population  estimated 
at  al)0ut  2(X),000,  comprising  aljout  121,000  Moham- 
medans, 60,000  Copts,  4000  Jews,  and  the  rest  Franks, 
Greeks,  and  .\rmenians. — E.  B. 

Cajeput  Oil,  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the 
leaves  of  the  cajeput-ti'ee  (^MeMeuca  J.eucadenilnm, 
Linn.).  The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  native  term 
car/u-puti,  that  is,  white-wood  oil ;  because  the  bark  of 
the  tree  which  yields  it  has  a  whitish  appearance,  like 
our  birch.  This  tree  is  common  in  Amboyna  and 
other  Eastern  islands.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion fVom  the  dried  leaves  of  the  smaller  of  two  varie- 
ties. It  is  prepared  in  great  quantities  in  Banda,  and 
sent  to  Holland  in  copper  flasks.  It  is  of  a  green  col- 
or, very  limpid,  liglitcr  than  water,  of  a  strong  smell 
reseml)ling  camphor,  and  a  strong  pungent  taste.  It 
burns  entirely  away  without  leaving  any  residuum. 
It  is  often  adulterated  with  other  essential  oils,  colored 
with  resin  of  milfoil.  In  the  genuine  oil,  the  green 
color  depends  on  the  presence  of  co|)per;  for,  when 
rectified,  it  is  colorless. — TiioMsqx'a  Dispensatory. 

Calalsar  Skin  (Fr.  y'c(iV.J7r« ;  Ger.  (.VnMwcrJ-;  It. 
Vaor,  Vaji) ;  Uiiss.  jijelka ;  Sp.  Gris  jKqiifno),  the  Si- 
lierian  squirrel  skin,  of  various  colors,  used  in  making 
muffs,  tippets,  and  trimmings  for  clothes. 

Calabash  (Spanish  calithnza).  in  Coim.ierce,  a  kind 
of  vessel  formed  of  tho  dried  shell  of  tlie  cucurhita,  or 
gourd  plant.  It  is  used  for  containing  liquors  or 
gums,  as  pitch,  rosin,  and  tho  like. 

Calamander  'Wood,  a  beautiful  species  of  tim- 
ber lirought  from  Ceylon,  It  is  so  hard  that  common 
edge-tools  can  not  work  it,  so  that  it  muut  tie  rasixnt 
and  almost  ground  into  shape.  It  is  singularly  rc- 
mirkal)ie  for  llio  variety  and  admixture  of  colors.  The 
most  prevailing  is  a  fine  chocolate,  now  deo])enin):!  al- 
most into  absolute  black,  now  fading  into  a  medium 
iwtween  fawn  and  cream  cohjrs.  It  arrests  the  eye 
from  the  rich  beauty  of  the  intermingled  tints,  not 
from  any  undue  sliowiness.  It  takes  a  vcty  Mgh 
polish;  and  is  wrought  into  chaii..,  and  particularly 
into  t-aldes.  Sir  Kol)ert,  Brownrigg,  late  governor  of 
Ceylon,  had  the  doors  of  the  dining-room  of  his  seat  in 
Monmouthshire  made  of  c.'\lamander.  It  is  scarce  in 
Ceylon,  and  is  not  regularly  imported.  In  a  few  in- 
staukcs,  it  has  been  imported  liy  private  gentlemen,  re- 
turning from  the  colony,  for  their  own  use.  It  is  liy 
far  the  most  lieautiful  of  all  the  fancy  woods.  The 
nearer  it  is  taken  from  tho  root  of  the  tree,  the  finer  it 
is. — Mii.iii'iin's  Orient.  Com.;  Library  of  Entfriaining 
Knmr/edf/r,  V^egetalde  Sulistances,  p.  179. 

Caloedony.  Tlie  distinction  lietween  this  sub- 
stance  and  agate  rests  upon  very  arbitrary  grounds. 


GAI» 


230 


CAL 


Ag«ta  ftvquently  presanU  a  yariety  of  color*,  and  a 
niultipUolty  of  beautiful  deliueatiuna.  Calccduny  U 
generally  of  one  uniform  color,  of  a  light  brown,  and 
sumetimei  nearly  whlto.  It  occurs  iu  irregular  mass- 
en,  forming  groteaqua  cavities  in  the  trap  rucks,  par- 
ticularly in  Iceland  and  the  Fanw  Isles,  from  the  for- 
mer of  which  thoro  are  specimuus  in  the  Siuseum  of 
Edinburgh  of  a  very  large  size.  These  stalactites  ap- 
pear always  to  have  proceeded  from  the  npper  part  of 
the  cavity,  which  is  sometimes  lllled  to  the  very  sum- 
mit witli  solid  matter.  Calcedony  is  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  cups  and  plates,  and  other  articles  of  taste, 
of  which  tho  most  splendid  specimens  are  imported 
from  India.  The  labor  which  has  been  Ixisfowed  in 
the  manufacture  of  these  articles,  and  the  perfection 
with  which  it  has  been  accomplished,  is  a  mutter  of 
Kurprise  to  uU  who  examine  them.  There  iiru  some 
of  them  as  thin  and  as  delicate  as  china,  Tho  flncst 
stones  arc  of  course  selected  fur  this  purpose.  They 
are  generally  dear  and  almost  transparent,  still  main- 
taining tho  warm  brown  color  which  churacterixes  tho 
litonc.  They  often  have  the  appearance  of  having 
liecn  hammered,  so  shaded  and  undulated  is  tho  us])ect 
of  tho  mass ;  and  to  add  to  their  l>eauty,  the  tine  den- 
dritic Mocha  stones  are  often  selected.  We  .ire  in  ig- 
norance oven  of  the  locality  where  those  beautiful  ol>- 
jects  are  manufactured,  whetiier  in  Japan  or  China ; 
l)Ut  they  generally  come  from  India,  whom,  we  lieliove, 
they  are  found  among  tho  most  prei  inus  treasures  in 
tlie  reiwsitorics  of  the  nalmbs  aud  princes  of  the  £a«t. 
— E.B. 

Caloutta,  tlie  principal  city  of  the  province  of  Don- 
gal,  tho  capital  of  the  liritish  dominions  in  India,  and, 
with  tho  exception,  perhaps,  of  Canton,  the  greatest 
emporium  to  the  eastward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Its  citadel  is  in  lat.  22"  84'  49"  N.,  long.  88"  27'  IC  E. 
It  id  alx)ut  100  miles  from  the  sea,  licing  situated  on 
the  custurn  Iwuik  of  the  western  brancli  of  tlic  (iuiiguu, 
denominated  by  Europeans  the  Hooghly  lUvor,  whicli 
ii  the  only  urm  of  fhe  Ganges  navigable  to  any  coii- 
Bidcrablc  distance  by  large  ships.  At  high  water  tlio 
river  opposite  to  the  town  is  about  a  mile  in  lireudth; 
l>ut  during  the  ebb  the  side  opiwsite  to  (^a)i  utta  ex- 
puses  a  long  rauge  of  dry  sand  )>nnl(S.  Owing  to  tho 
lengtli  and  intricacy  of  tho  navigation  from  tho  sea, 
it  can  not  bo  undertaken  without  u  pilot ;  so  tliat,  even 
if  it  dill  not  exceed  our  limits,  it  would  be  useless  to 
attempt  any  description  of  it  iu  this  place. — See  JJoui/hli/ 
River. 

In  1717  Calcutta  was  only  a  petty  village;  but  it 
subsequently  increased  very  rapidly,  and  was  sui>- 
posed,  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  to  havo 
600,000  or  700,000  inhaliitants.  This,  however,  was  a 
gross  exaggeration.  A  census  ^f  the  population,  taken 
in  May,  1860,  by  order  of  the  chief  magistrate,  gives 
the  following  results : 

Europeans C,233 

Eurasians  (tho  progeny  of  European  fathers  and 

native  mothen) 4,016 

Am.'riFftns 893 

Chinese S4T 

Armenians in,^i4'2 

Hindoos 274,336 

Moluunmcdtns 110,918 

Total 413,18* 

The  occupations  of  these  various  classes  are  nearly 
what  might  Iw  expected  in  the  luxurious  capital  of  a 
great  empire,  and  in  eo  great  nn  emporium  of  mari- 
time commerce.  Public  officers,  lawyers,  physicians, 
merchants,  and  their  families,  make  up  the  bulk  of 
the  British  inhabitants.  The  natives  and  foreigners 
of  respectability  are  mostly  engaged  in  trade,  or  live 
upon  their  property ;  and  the  lower  classes  arc  princi- 
pally compowd  of  retail  dealers,  me<  !ianics,  and  serv- 
ants. A  great  part,  however,  of  what  rauy  l)e  fairly 
lonsidered  the  population  of  Calcutta,  consisting  of 
lalwrers,  mechanics,  and  persons  engaged  in  trade, 
reside  at  ui^sht  iu  the  suburbs,  or  neighboring  villa- 


ges, coming  into  town  early  In  the  morning  to  their 
respective  employments.  These  were  estimated,  in 
18U7,  on  tolerably  good  data,  at  177,000.  The  small 
number  of  English  resident  in  'Julcuttu  (where,  how- 
ever, they  are  far  more  numerous  tlian  \n  any  other 
part  of  India)  may  well  excite  surprise.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  the  cessation  of  the  East  India  Compuny'i 
monopoly,  and  of  the  prohibition  of  European  resort 
to  India,  would  occasion  an  influx  of  Ilritixli  settlers 
aud  capital.  But  this  anticipation  has  not  been  real- 
ized. Scarcely  a  single  Englisli  agriculturist,  with 
capital  sufficient  to  cultlvato  100  acres  of  luud,  has 
established  himr  ,'  in  India,  and  there  hn>i  been  no 
immigration  of  art;^ns.  And  this,  after  all,  is  only 
what  might  have  been  expected — tho  country  being 
too  fully  occupied,  the  burdens  on  the  land  too  heavy, 
and  tho  wages  of  labor  for  too  low,  to  admit  of  any 
thing  like  nn  extensive  immigration.  The  Eurasians, 
the  progeny  of  white  father.s  and  native  niolhers,  aro 
mostly  employed  as  clerks  In  tho  government  offices 
and  mercantile  establishments,  and  are  said  to  be  an 
industrious  and  useful  class. — Bengal  and  Agra  (latet- 
teer.  Tho  town,  excluding  suburbs,  extends  about  4^ 
miles  along  tho  bank  of  the  rlvir,  with  an  average 
breadth  inland  of  l\  mile.  Fort  AVilliam,  the  cita- 
del, lies  on  the  same  side  of  the  river,  a  Mttlo  lower 
down.  It  is  a  strong,  regular  fortification;  but  so 
extensive  tlmt  it  would  re<iuiro  a  garrison  of  10,Q00 
men  for  its  olVcctual  defense.  Calcutta  possesses  great 
natural  advantages  for  inland  navigation,  all  sorts  of 
foreign  produce  being  transported  with  great  facility 
on  the  Gauges  and  its  snljsidiary  streams  to  the  north- 
western ({uurters  of  Hindustan,  over  a  distance  of  at 
least  1000  miles,  while  tho  productions  of  the  interior 
are  received  liy  the  same  easy  channels. 

The  principal  merchants  and  traders  consist  of  Brit- 
ish ami  other  Eurojieanu,  Portuguese  bom  in  India, 
Armenians,  Jews,  Persians  from  tho  coast  of  tlie  Per- 
sian Gulf,  cunimouly  called  Parsees,  Moguls,  Muhum<- 
niedans  of  Hiiidostuii,  and  Hindoos;  the  latter  usu- 
ally either  of  the  Urahminical  or  mercantile  castes, 
and  natives  of  Ilengid.  The  native  Portuguese  and 
Armenian  merchants  have  of  late  greatly  declined  in 
wealtli  and  importance.  On  tho  other  hand,  the  Per- 
sian merchants  have  increased  in  numbers  and  wealth, 
several  of  them  being  worth  X260,000  aterlirg.  The 
large  fortunes  of  the  Hindoo  merchants  have  been 
much  broken  down  of  lato  years  by  litigation  in  tho 
courts,  and  naturally  through  the  law  of  equal  copar- 
cenary among  brothers.  To  counterbalance  this,  there 
has  been,  since  tho  opening  of  the  free  tnule  in  1814, 
n  vast  augmentation  of  the  nnmlier  )f  inferior  mer- 
chants, worth  from  £20,000  to  i;50,000  steriing.  There 
are  but  few  llimloo  merchants  at  present  whose  wealth 
exceeds  X200,000  sterling. 

The  British  merchants  form  a  most  respectable 
class,  and  contribute  essuntially  to  tho  prosperity  of 
the  settlement.  Many  of  them  are  possessed  of  large 
fortunes,  and  live  in  a  style  of  suitable  splendor.  The 
Armenians  an  tho  most  numerous  body  of  fureigu 
merchants  in  Calcutta.  They  trade  extensively  to  all 
parts  of  the  East,  are  uncommonly  diligent  and  atten- 
tive to  business,  and  aro  considered  to  liuve  a  mora 
minute  intelligenco  from  foreign  ports  than  any  otl-.er 
iHHly  of  merchants.  The  native  bankers,  agents,  and 
money- dealers,  aro  numcroiu.  Though  formerly  tim- 
orous, the  Hindoo  now  adventures  in  almost  every 
species  of  mercantile  specuiations ;  and  goods  belong- 
ing to  native  merchants,  to  the  amount  of  several  mil- 
lions sterling,  are  generally  lying  for  sale  in  tlic  waro- 
houscs  of  Calcuttji,  The  native  merchants  of  an  infe- 
rior class  engross  nearly  the  whole  of  the  retail  trade 
of  Calcutta,  under  the  titles  of  Banians,  Sircars,  and 
other  appellations.  In  the  transactions  of  usury,  tb>;sc 
men  arc  watchful  and  ocute  beyond  even  thosu  en- 
gaged in  similar  pursuits  in  the  West, 

The  English  society  iu  Calcutta  is  of  the  best  de- 


CAL 


281 


CAL 


Kriptlon,  and  numeroug  fc'tei  Are  g\rm  during  th« 
cold  seuaon,  which  Inrts  (him  September  to  April,  on 
a  aplondid  acale,  by  the  governor  general  and  otl;<tr 
public  fanetionariee,  lU  well  ai  by  private  Individuala. 
There  ii  a  tlieatra,  chiefly  supported  by  ^matrur  per- 
former*; and  publlo  concert*  are  given,  alao  aupported 
by  amateur  talent.  The  uauul  mode  of  vialting  is  in 
palanquins,  but  many  of  the  British  have  carriages 
adapted  to  the  climate;  and  the  breed  of  ho  ~"8  hav- 
ing licon  greatly  improved,  it  Is  the  universal  ,jracticG 
to  drive  out  between  sunset  and  dinner.  It  is  only 
during  the  cold  suoson  that  it  is  poasible  to  venture 


abroad  In  the  beat  of  the  day,  which,  in  the  reat  o^ 
the  year,  ta  devoted  to  rc|ioM.  The  hot  reason  liegini 
ill  April.  Every  day  the  heat  increases  until  the  mid- 
dle of  .Tune,  v  hen  the  iK>rio<lical  rains  begin,  which 
last  <'l  Augui't,  Thn  weatlior  then  being  extremely 
cl>  <  more  oppressive  and  more  iiuhealthy  than  lie- 
(OT*.  ?  '..e  mean  temperature  is  nl  mt  06°  in  January, 
«B°  in  "  -I  nary,  80"  in  March,  85^  in  April  and  May, 
HS'  in  J  unu,  81"  in  July,  82°  in  August  and  September, 
70'  in  October,  74"  In  November,  oiul  rr°  iu  Uocem- 
lier.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  during  six  yeara,  conv- 
moncing  with  1880,  averaged  slxty-four  inchoa. — E.  B. 


COIUIIBCIAL  WllUllTS  AN->  MEABCBES  tir  INIIU,  WITH  TIIKlIt  EQUIVALENTS   IN   EhOUSU  AVOIBIICPOIS,  0B:IUAL  FACTOBTi 

MAIXIAS,  AMU  UollUAT  WeIUUTH. 


C«aiwwUI  Me— iwiitto. 


Achcen  baliar  of  200  cuttlea 

Achi't;ii  i^iinclm  of  10  nelly 

Anjfn  an  raiuly  of  20  niRiinda 

llritiivlu  pecul  of  100  oattioa 

Ik'iii'oolL-n  baliar 

Hcngiil  fKctory  mauiid 

llonKHl  bar.ur  iiiniind 

Itoiubay  cniuiy  of  20  maiinds ..,...,, 

ItiiHKoinli  iimund  of  70  vakias 

lliisKorati  iiiaiind  of  '24  valcloa 

('lUicilt  niaiind  of  100  pools 

i'hina  iMiCitl  of  KK)  catties 

Cochin  camly  of  20  luatmds 

(tuinbrouii  bazar  candy 

Goa  randy  of  30  maululH 

tlonkccyluii  baliaf  of  S  cHpina 

Madras  candy  of  20  maunds 

Malacca  batiar  of  It  pucuU 

Mocha  babar  of  15  frazils 

Muscat  IHisMm-lionKe  niaund \. 

Mysore  candy  of  7  uioratia 

lVf;u  candy  of  160  vis 

I'cnang  pi'inil  of  10*)  catties 

Sural  niaund  of  40  seers 

Hurat  l^ucca  inaund 

Tullh'herry  candy  of  20  maunds 


ATolniipolfc 


Lbl. 

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4« 

Calcutta  is  the  great  emporium  of  India.  By  means 
of  the  Ganges  and  its  triliutary  streams,  it  has  an 
uninterrupted  water  communication  with  the  wliole 
of  the  lower  provinces  of  Bengal,  and  also  witli  tlio 
fertile  territory  suliject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lieu- 
tenant govcnior  oi'  Agro.  Being  thus  advantageously 
situated  for  commerce,  it  trades  extensively  with  al- 
most every  country  in  the  world,  and  numbers  of  ves- 
sels of  every  form  ond  description  are  constontly 
arriving  in  or  departing  from  the  river,  which,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town,  presents  the  busiest  scene  imag- 
inable. Numerous  dock-yards  have  also  been  estab- 
Mshed,  in  which  are  built  vessels  of  great  imrdcn  and 
of  admirable  construction.  Indigo,  sugar,  cotton, 
rice,  opium,  siU^  and  saltpetre,  are  (he  staple  com- 
modities of  export.  Those  of  import  are,  British  cut- 
ton  goods,  salt,  copper,  iron,  and  h>\rdware^ 

Tlie  commerce  of  Calcutta  has  for  a  long  period  of 
^eara  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  a  bank,  called  the 
Bank  of  Bengal,  established  by  government  authority 
and  carried  on  imder  government  inspection.  Various 
acts  have  nt  difToront  periods  been  pussed  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  India  for  its  regulation ;  the  lost  bears  date 
the  IHtli  of  March,  1839,  and  took  effect  from  tlio  Ist 
of  May  following.  By  this  all  previous  charters  and 
acts,  except  so  far  as  continued  by  the  new  act,  were 
canceled  and  rcpealel ;  the  capital  stock,  previously 
fixed  at  75  lacs  of  rupees,  was  increased  by  one  half, 
the  nature  of  the  transactions  in  which  the  bank  might 
eni;age  was  prcxci'bed,  and  the  conditions  and  liinitu^ 
tious  under  which  its  l)U8iiic»8  was  to  be  conducted 
were  laid  down.  The  8tocl>.  is  livided  into  shares  of 
4000  rupees,  or  quarter  shares  of  1000  rupees  curb ; 
and  a  portion  is,  and  always  has  been,  held  by  govern- 
ment. 

i'i7()fa(;rc..— Tho  navigation  of  the  River  Hooghiy, 
from  the  Sand  Heads  to  Calcutta,  a  distance  of  aiiont 
180  miles,  is  naturally  dangerous  and  intricate;  but 
reuilered  comparatively  safe  liy  a  skillful  and  excel- 
lent, thongh  costly,  pilot  eatablishmeut. 


All  foreign  vessels  pay  the  sinm  pilotage  as  those 
under  British  colors.  By  brotiru  pilot.igc  is  meant 
tlie  proportion  of  full  pilotage  uetween  the  diflerent 
stages  or  places  of  anchorage.  All  ships  the  property 
of  foreigners,  as  well  Asiatic  as  European,  are  suliject 
to  the  cl^a^go  termed  "lead  money;"  it  being  indis- 
ptnaoiiJy  necessary  that  the  pilnt  should  have  with  him 
a  leadsman  in  whom  be  can  ci    '  I'l. 

Detention  money,  aWthe  rato  i  4i.  per  diem,  from 
British  and  foreign  vessels,  ii  '  i,>'<i-cd  by  persons  of 
the  pilot  service  kept  on  boan'  alu^,^  .i  anchor  by  de* 
sire  of  the  commander  or  ownc 

In  tho  river  before  Calcutta,  and  in  other  parts,  there 
are  cliaiu  moorings,  of  which  tho  charges  are  as  foU 
low: 


Dnrden  of  flSlpa, 

April  to  OetobT, 
T  Muuthi. 

November  to  March, 

6  Month*. 

DOO  tun»  Biul  upwurtl. 
VndvT  500  toiu 

10«.  pur  ditiin 
\4».  i>ei    Ucm 

12«.  piT  lUuiii 
10«.  |KT  di«ra 

Hire  of  the  chain-moorings  a,  Diamond  Ilarlior,  £1 
per  diem.  Tlie  lowest  charge  to  a  ship  requiring  the 
accommodation  of  the  chain  m  T'ngs  at  cither  of  tho 
places  above  mentioned  :a  fur  len  days;  and  using 
them  longer,  a  further  charge  is  made  at  tho  estali- 
lished  rote  per  diem  for  every  day  exceeding  ten.  The 
charge  for  transporting  a  ship  from  her  moorings  into 
any  of  .lie  docks  at  Kiddcrpore,  Ilowrab,  or  Sulkes, 
or  trom  any  of  the  docks  to  hot  ■■  orings,  is  fixed  ... 
60  rupee);  and  no  higher  chargi  for  »uch  service  is 
authorized.  Besides  pilotage,  ever}'  ship  is  cbargoo- 
ble  with  the  hire  of  a  row-boat  to  accompany  lier; 
viz. :  fir  a  boat  of  the  first  claps,  24a. ;  of  the  second 
class,  18». ;  .-.r.d  of  the  third  class,  14».  Oi'  lato  years 
a  light-house  has  been  erected  pt  Kedgeree,  .'or  which 
tho  charge  on  British  or  American  fla,"'.i  is  at  the  rote 
of  3d.  per  ton  per  annum.  Sliips  proceeding  to  Cal- 
I  cutta  must  land  u  i  •<  '  .  lur  at  the  powder  inaga- 
[  zine  at  Moya|>ore  .ge  is  at  the  rate  of  Hi, 

per  ton  for  each  m  ''"'ii  whole  pilot  estubliali- 

I  ment,  and  the  catii  oi  luo  aii  .~<Tniion  of  the  Huogbly, 


%  # 


CAL 


S89 


CAL 


li  under  the  management  of  KoTemnunt,  aii4  ia  (UrMI> 
•dbyamarlDeiKMK"'     Ub  a  niaatar  alUndaat  and  bar* 

bor-iiianter. 

The  Marine  lloard  at  Calcutta  bava  LmuwI  '\u  fol- 
lowing reiulutiuua  with  mpovt  to  piivlaKi-     ic,  i 

1.  t'uiiiiuanilvniar«n>f|uvit«d,  |>riorlo<|ultiliialli*lr  vniwla, 
on  ftrrlvAl  off  CUcutta,  (o  liU  up  and  ui-U/x,  (/r  liauM  tif  Im 
lUod  lip  and  certified,  a  funu  of.csrOllcalii  idiuwina  llw  arlU' 
al  leglitered  tonnage,  the  drauglil  uf  *  txr,  »tti  »liattticr  llw 
TeucI  baa  or  haa  not  been  lUKVi'd  by  a  atfauuir  any  pert  uf 
the  wa/,  or  haa  or  ban  not  had  the  uu.'  o(  a  roir-l»>al|  uliiili 
form  wilt  be  furniiihc<l  to  the  pll»t,  III  order  tu  tbi'  MIU  'it  i|ii. 
Teaac'i  being  correctly  nia<le  out.  'I.  C'omniaiiduni  an  further 
roqueated,  aa  early  after  thi'lr  arrival  a<  puwlbfe,  bt  N'Hlfy  In 
writing  to  the  inaatcr  attendant  tlin  name  and  rraldonm  <>f 
till'  nfiirrncc  for  the  payment  uf  lilii  veMi-r»  bllla.  On  tlui 
receipt  liy  the  niaett-r  attendant  of  the  above  t'frtirtrali*,  and 
written  reference  for  payment,  a  eliigle  bill  wUI  Im  pntpared, 
including  Inward  pilotage,  llgbt-lioanu  duly,  Muy»p»r«  mafa- 
aino  duty,  and  row-boat  hire  (If  aii>),  wbUii,  tiigotlurr  with 
the  certlAcate,  will  be  forwarded  tu  liie  niariiw  iwynuMt^r,  liir 
collection  within  fifteen  dayn  of  tbo  arrival  uf  (be  viMtl,  aiwl 
hn^Hnr  im  It  the  name  and  reaidene*)  of  tiMt  |Hirty  rpUtm<*i  Ui 
for  paymeui,  which  eommandera  are  reiiumU'd  to  ftiruiiih  b> 
tile  raaitcr  attendant,  in  writing,  aa  early  alter  llulr arrival  a» 
practicable,  that  o.'!<cer  will  more  readily  lie  enabb'd  l<i  |ireiirn' 
It  By  thli  arrangemeut,  ■.!!  *.!;c  "liargee  caiiiiiui<'d  wlo,  '.Iw 
Teaaei,  up  to  her  arrival  off  <  'aJeutta,  will  lie  eujiiudbid  In  im« 
bill,  inil4^ail  of;  aa  hitherto,  Ixdng  made  up  in  wpanila  liilU, 
4,  In  the  event  of  vcuela docking,  ur  Ulng  lrau>|i«n<'d  at  llwi 
desire  of  the  commander.  It  Id  re<iiu-«ted  that  a  LUfttflralif  may 
be  given  by  the  commanding  ulttcer  of  llw  uiKralbin  iMvitig 
been  performed.  In  order  to  iu  areoni|>anylug  tlie  Mil  wlwrn  pre- 
tented  for  payment  to  tho  referee.  B  The  praclbw  iil  rhnrit 
Ing  for  hauling  try  the  chain-moorliige,  fur  tlii-ir  monthly  liire, 
and  for  hauling  fram  the  moorings,  lii  sejwrate  IdlU,  UdiM'//n. 
tinned,  and  henceforward  one  bill  will  be  pre|ain.'4,  IwiiulInK 
the  charge  for  iiaiiling  to  die  moorings,  tliat  Uir  ue«upytnt( 
them,  and  that  for  hauling  troax  tlu-iu  t  and  rj>niniaiider»  Htn 
requested  to  give,  or  cause  their  cuminandlnif  uffiiurrs  tu  kIvc, 
to  the  nmster  attendant,  or  the  harbor'nrs»t4'r,  e^'rllfieir'.  .  ^it't. 
date  of  hauling  to  and  from  tiie  moorings,  whlth  i-Atrtit.^Hi''^  :^•^ 
before,  will  a^^company  tho  bill  wlieii  presi'iifed  f'f  ])n\ititi.f, 
Tho  hire  ofthe  moorings  will  lie  charged  fur  tlM,'',  <*  **<)). 
tho  vessel  la  hauled  thereto,  without  leferenoa  to  t'  '  \f..H'M  '■! 
the  day;  and  in  like  manner,  no  charge  wi'J  h'  '".-yt  fur  f>.';. 
day  on  which  she  hauls  fVom  her  mo<  <1iigs,  l«u- '  >h>'  \>M-  ^jt  i<  ^ 
dayslie  may  <iuit  tliem.  The  charges  tuiiceeted  mOi  ft,r.  rU*  .'a* 
moorings  will  thus  be  embodied  In  one  bill,  and  lie  dtse|i>i  *V'  '•  In 
one  payment,  Instead  of  tliree  or  iiiur",  aeeiirding  Iu  IIhi  iiuni' 
her  of  munths  tl^e  vessel  occupied  the  moorings,  0,  TIm  nyfApm 
of  chui^ng  outward  pilotage  on  aa  estlmali'd  dniuglit  uf  tea. 
ter,  with  an  addition  of  lOpcrcMit.,  siiliJectt/isiijui^JiMentafler 
the  vesHd  has  sailed,  and  efrhargiiig  a  certain  nuiolM^'/f  days 
fbr  a  row-boat,  subject  to  a  like  aiDustment,  is  aliulisli'^d  (  and 
in  future  the  outward  pilotage  and  charge  (urruw-liuat  birn  im 
outwanl-bound  vessels  will  be  as  follows ;  Wlien  the  veMel  Is 
finally  laden,  the  commander  is  to  give  nutlce  ltii're</f  t^i  IImi 
master  attendant,  wlien  the  draught  uf  wab'r  is  tu  Im  aaerr' 
talned  and  certified  by  tho  commander  or  cuuituattdifig  ufttrer 
on  the  part  of  tho  TcsacI,  and  l>y  tiui  luuijur-iiuiater  un  tlie 
part  of  the  government ;  subject,  in  ease  of  disi'Ut'^,  Ui  \h» 
decision  of  tho  master  attendant.  On  n'o^ipt  uf  llui  eertlA- 
cate,  tlie  master  attendant  h  ill  cause  a  bill  Ui  Iw  nuubi  wit  tut 
the  regular  amount  of  pHotage,  and  fur  tlui  ruw-liuat  litre,  v. 
cording  to  an  average  rate,  witli  reference  to  the  •)»!  uf  llw 
reseets  and  the  season  of  the  year,  fixed  by  a  marine  cuniinldee 
which  lately  sat  at  the  Bankahaii,  tite  majority  of  which  was 
composed  of  menibere  of  houses  of  agency  and  eomHianders 
of  ships.  Tho  liill  and  certificate  will  b«  pres'/'iled  in  diui 
course  for  paj-m^nt  7.  As,  howevi'r.  it  fre<|uenlly  hspiwns 
that  vessels  are  taking  in  cargo  or  filling  llulr  wnler  up  In  lli/i 
last  day  of  their  departure,  or  tlist  from  uther  causes  (tie  tdlts 
fbr  the  chiln-moorings  and  outward  pilutage  can  nut  tie  nitute 
out  till  the  eve  of  departure,  owners,  si<t  iits,  and  rz/niniat'deni 
are  in  such  cases  partlciilsriy  reqiusUd,  with  a  vkw  Iu  dis- 
patch, to  cause  an  individual  to  attend  at  the  Itsnksliall,  and 
expedite  the  transmission  of  tiie  liill  and  eerttfi/rata  t/i  Uio 
board  for  registry,  and  to  the  jiay-ofnce  for  roilM'tiufl  t  at  «a«h 
of  which  offices  they  may  in  such  cases  dejN-»d  uin/n  tile  ttvtfi 
ready  and  special  attention.  8,  In  the  event  uf  «  vc»»l  \m- 
Ing  lugged  any  part  of  the  way  down  liy  stisui,  ur  nut  tiav- 
ing  the  use  of  a  row-boat,  commanders  sre  t/i  otitain  fri»n  tlie 
pilot  of  Kedgeree  a  certificate  to  that  efliiet,  whie'i  tlwy  »h>/nM 
Ibrward  by  the  Dak  to  their  agents.  '>n  rereijif  ttiereuf, 
agents  are  requested  to  malu.  uut  e.  Mil  sgsini,!  tlie  tiuti"ralil/< 
comiiany  Tor  the  quarter  deduction  from  tha  |iU«ta|fa  allowed 


'!"*  It  itMini,  or  for  the  rnw-boat  hire  paid,  as  tha  eaa* 
I  a'nl  In  for.ard  it,  tugi'tber  with  tin'  Trtlfioate,  to 
I  iS  ,«•  buerd  for  audit  and  payment.  •.  In  cases  where 
'  v««««|  leavea  Cale'itla  avoweilly  Intended  tu  fill  up  cargo  al 
lie  place  bc'-iw,  the  pilotage  » III  be  charged  al  tli,'  draught 
•<  Thleh  she  learra  (^aleulta.  In  like  manner,  llinugh  at  the 
rvdiHiMi  amnunt,  as  If  she  had  proceeded  to  sea;  and,  with 
reepret  te  the  siibaeipient  pilotage  charge,  IVoni  the  place  at 
whkb  \h»  vessel  Itkes  In  the  additional  cargo  to  sea,  owiiera 
ur  aarnls  of  vesselx  will  be  requireti  to  Airnlah  a  siieclul  guar- 
ante*  In  pay  Ihi'  amnunt  chargeable  according  to  a  certltUata 
uf  the  draiiKlit  nf  water,  to  be  signed  by  tlie  eoinnisnder,  or 
fuminandliiK  "(Ilcer  and  pilot.  10.  Blx  sets  of  moorings  at 
Dtamund  lisrlHir  having  been  fitted  especially  to  enable  vessela 
arrtving  In  distress  fWrni  loss  of  anchors  and  caWis  to  be  rcnd- 
lly  miMrtud,  the  charge  will  be  I'o.'s  Its.  BO  for  mooring  niid  im- 
ninnring,  and  the  dally  liire  tlio  same  as  fur  tlie  moorings  at 
i  'aleiitla.  Tlie  inuurings  will,  of  course,  bo  available  to  vca- 
aels  nid  In  distress  fyoni  loss  of  ancliors  and  cables;  but  the 
harlmr-maetrr  will  be  Instmctcd  at  ail  times  to  keep  two  seta 
VM'ant  during  the  southwest  monsoon,  to  meet  casualties. 

'Hiero  are  Mvcral  dry  docks  at  Culcuttn,  in  which 
vnasela  of  nny  size  may  li«  built  or  repaired.     Ships 
\  Iniilt  at  Citlciittii  nru  of  Inrerior  durability  to  those 
e»m»trH(teil  at  Ilonibay,  in  consequence  of  the  tVnmc- 
worli  U'Ing  nlwnrs  of  the  inferior  woods  of  the  coun- 
try ;   and  tlio  ptniiks,  slicntliinK,   upper  works,  and 
darks,  otone  of  teak ;  which  last  is  furnished  ultnost 
entirely  from  IVku.     In  1848,  tho  numlMtr  of  register- 
ed ships  lielonglniK  to  the  port  of  Calcutta  was  134,  of 
tlin  liurden  (»f  43,6(ii)  tons;  IwinR  at  an  average  of 
almilt  330  tons  for  each.     The  largest  class  of  vessels 
earry  nearly  "fiO  tons;  hut  ships  drawing  so  much  wa- 
\  lir  aro  unfit  for  tho  aavigation  of  tho  Ilooghly.     Not 
iMlng  atile  to  load  at  C'ulculta,  they  are  oliliged  to  ro- 
I  celvB  pirt  of  their  cargo  at  Diamond  llurlior,  aliout 
'  Ihlrly-foiir  miles  farther  down  tho  river.     The  most 
;  iim\ etilent-sl>:ed  ship  for  trade  between  Calcutta,  and 
Kiifoj*,  and  ..merica,  Is  from  400  to  500  t<in». 

hiilirt,  tir. — The  export  and  import  duties  and  draw- 
•«efc»  are  regulated  by  an  ordinance  of  tlio  year  1830, 
Mfvlsed  In  1845,  rtnd  are  tho  same  for  every  port  un- 
der the  goveniment  of  Ucngnl ;  or,  as  it  is  technically 
railed,  the  Presidency  of  Fort  William  and  British  In- 
dia generfltty. 

The  following  Is  an  act  of  the  Indmn  government, 
which  took  effect  from  the  i!5th  Slorch,  1848,  uiid  which 
alxillshed  all  duties  on  goods  curried  coustwise  in  tho 
company's  territories. 

I.  II  is  hereby  enacted,  that  trma  and  after  the  26th  day  of 
Manh,  IMft,  all  goods  imiiorted  on  foreign  bottoms  by  sea  into 
any  port  of  (he  fresidencles  of  Fort  >Villlam,  In  Ilcngal, 
^ort  Ht.  Oeorge,  or  Iiomba> ,  shall  be  charged  only  with  tho 
•amo  rates  of  duty  as  such  goods  would  nnw  by  law  be 
eharged  with  if  inch  goods  were  imported  into  any  of  tho 
•aid  pTTts  on  Ilritiih  bottoms,  any  tiling  In  any  act  of  tha 
<;oanell  of  India  contained  to  (he  contrary  notwithstanding. 

II.  And  It  la  hereby  enacted,  that  from  and  alter  the  said 
day,  all  goods  exported  on  foreign  bottoms  by  sea,  from  any 
p>/rt  nf  the  said  prfn  ^itucies,  sliail  he  charged  only  with  thx 
same  rMf*  of  duty  us  such  goods  would  now  by  law  be  charged 
with  If  such  goods  were  exported  fVom  any  of  the  xald  ports 
un  Hrlllsh  bottoms,  any  thing  in  any  act  of  tiie  Council  of 
India  eonlained  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

III,  And  It  Is  hereby  enacted,  that  flom  and  after  the  said 
day,  no  duly  shall  be  charged  on  any  goods  lawfully  carried 
from  any  puH  in  the  territories  subject  to  the  guvenimcnt  of 
the  Kast  Indi  Company,  to  any  other  port  in  the  said  tend- 
Inrltm,  any  thing  in  any  act  of  the  Council  of  India  contained 
to  the  enntrary  notwittiptanding. 

IV,  rrovlded  always,  that  nothing  In  this  Act  contained 
shall  apply  to  the  articles  of  salt  or  opium. 

Mfhatuk  A Rales  of  duty  to  bo  charged  on  goods  import- 
ed by  sea  into  any  pnh  of  tho  rresideneies  of  lort  Will- 
lam,  in  Bengal,  IVjmbay,  or  Fort  St  Oeorge. 

nnliinn  and  coin Free. 

IIT-eions  stones  and  pearls Free. 

Orain  and  pnlse Free. 

Horses  and  other  living  animals Free. 

Ice Free. 

(;osi.  ruke,  bricks,  chalk,  and  stones Free. 

Ilouk '.  prtnti'd  In  tho  United  Kingdom,  or  in  any  llrit- 
Isb  posieseloo, ..,.. Free. 


Sugar  at 
Kingdi 

Sngar  a 
Plaw. 

Grain  an 

Indigo , . 


OAL 


283 


CAL 


Free. 

,  Free. 

,  Free. 

,  Free. 

,  Free. 

.  Free. 

,"...  Freo. 


Fonlirn  bonki n  per  cent. 

IlKrlnu  Rtonis,  the  produce  or  niftnufac- 
tiire  of  ttie  I'lilted  Kingdom,  or  of  iiny 
llrltuh  |ioucmIi»i S  per  eenb 

M>rlna  itorci,  the  produce  or  manulkc- 
tiiro  of  nny  other  place  or  country tO  per  cent. 

Hetalu,  wrought  or  unwrouKht.  the  nrnd- 
tico  or  manufacturi^  of  tho  i'nltod  King, 
dom,  or  any  Hrltliih  potwoaainn 0  per  cent 

Metala,  wrought  or  unwrought,  thi'  pro- 
duction or  manufacture  of  any  'her 
plaio Ill  ptreenk 

WoolcnM,  the  produce  or  manufacture  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  or  any  Urttlah 

W}oiucsfllon 0  per  cent, 
oolona,  the  produce  of  any  othiii  place 

or  country 10  per  cent. 

Cotton  and  allk  piece  goods,  and  all 
maiiufacturea  of  cotton  or  allk,  except 
thread,  twist,  and  yarn,  or  of  cotton, 
or  sltk  mixed  with  anv  other  material, 
the  proiluce  of  the  tnlted  Kingdom, 

or  of  any  lliitlsh  iHiaacmlon 5  per  cent 

Ditto,  the  produce  of  other  placea If)  jicr  cent 

Uplum iilma.  petaoorof  80 

tolaa. 
Porter,  ale,  hecr.  elder,  and  other  fer- 
mented Uquora 6  per  cent 

Salt ]{».  H-i  per  md.  of 

NO  tolaa  per  aecr. 

Alum 10  jier  cent 

Camphor 10  jicr  cent 

Caaaia 10  per  cent 

Clovei 10  |H!r  cent 

Conine 71  pi'r  cent 

Coral 10  per  cent 

Nutnioga  an<l  mac« Ill  jicr  cent 

repiK'r 10  per  cent 

Ratana 7|  percent. 

Tea 10  |ier  cent. 

Vcnnlllon 10  per  cent 

Wines  and  llquora 1  rup.  per  Imp.  gal. 

Spirits 1  rup.  8  annas,  per 

imp.  gal. 
And  the  duty  on  spirits  shall  bo  ratably 
Inrreiised  iiH  tho  strength  exceeds  Lon- 
doit  proof,  and  when  Imported  In  bot- 
tles, Hva  qtinrt  Ixittlffl  shall  be  deemed 
equnl  to  the  Iniperliil  pillon. 
All  manufactured  uitlelcti  not  includt-d  In 

the  above  en  utnerntion  5  per  cent 

All  other  articles  not  included  In  tho 
above  enumeration ui  per  cent 

And  when  the  duty  Is  declorcd  to  bo  ad  valorfm.  It  shall  be 
levied  on  the  market  value  without  deduction  ;  and  If  the  col- 
lector of  custoniB  shall  see  naMim  to  doubt  whether  tho  goods 
come  IVom  the  eoiuitry  from  m  liu-Ii  they  are  declared  to  couio 
by  tho  Importer,  It  nhall  be  liiu  ful  for  tlie  collector  of  euBtoma 
to  call  on  the  importer  to  furnish  evidence  as  to  tho  place  of 
manufacture  or  production,  and  if  such  ovideneo  shall  uot 
satisfy  tho  said  collector  of  tho  tnith  of  the  declaration,  the 
RoodH  shall  be  charged  with  the  highei't  rates  of  duly,  nutject 
always  to  an  appeal  to  tho  Hoard  of  Customs,  Halt  and  opium. 

And  upon  the  re-export  by  sea  of  goods  Imported,  exeepting 
opiimi  and  salt,  provided  the  re-export  be  made  within  two 
years  of  the  date  of  Import  as  per  cnstom-houMe  register,  and 
the  goods  bo  Idcntlfled  to  the  satisfaction  of  tlu^  collector  of 
customs,  there  shall  be  retained  one-eighth  of  the  aAiouut  of 
duty  levied,  and  tho  remainder  shall  Iw  n-pald  as  drawback. 
And  if  goods  bo  re-exported  in  the  sani.-  ship  without  being 
landed  (always  excepting  opium  and  saU,  in  re(.'ard  to  which 
the  special  rules  in  /brco  shall  continue  to  apply),  thet«  shall 
be  no  import  duty  levied  thet«ou. 

Scltedule  £.— Rates  of  duty  to  bo  charged  upon  goods  export- 
ed by  sea  from  any  port  or  place  in  tho  Ptt'sidenoy  of  Fort 
William,  in  Bengal 

Bullion  and  coin Freo. 

l*rccioua  stones  and  pearls Frtso. 

Books  printed  In  India Free. 

Horses  and  living  animals Free, 

Opium  purchased  at  govommont  sales  In 
<-'nlcutta Froo. 

Cotton  wool  exported  to  Europe,  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America,  or  any  British 
possession  in  America Free. 

Cotton  wool  exported  to  places  other  than 
the  above As.  8  per  md  of  80 

„  ,  tolas  to  the  setr. 

Sugar  and  mm  exported  to  the  I'nited 
Kingdom,  or  to  any  British  possession.  Free. 

Sngar  and  rum  exiwrted  to  any  otlior 

„P'»"^'-- •, 3  per  cent 

Gi»ln  and  pulse  of  all  sorts 1  anna  per  bag. 

I""*" Ita.  3  per  ni<L  of  80 

tolod  to  tho  seer. 


I.ac-dye  and  ahellac 4  per  oent 

Bilk  ra<r,  niaturi Si  an.  per  seer  of  N 

lulu*. 

8llk,  Ilengal,  wound Dan.  per  seer  of  89 

tolas. 

Tobacco 4  as.  p<'r  maund.   . 

All  country  articles  not  enumerated  or 

named  above ^  per  cent 

When  the  duty  Is  declared  to  be  a<l  valorem,  the  sama  shall 
be  I'lvlcd  on  tho  nuirket  value  of  th(«  urilcle  lit  the  place  of  v 
export,  without  dedui  li'ii.  Hhito  thi'  l»t  of  April,  H;iT,  credit 
has  uot  b4-eu  given,  i"  r  drawback  allowed,  of  uny  Inland 
customs  or  laud-frunu>  i-  duty  paid  at  any  custoni-houso  or 
chokce  of  thn.luniri  I'l'mitler  Hue,  or  <  Meuares,  except  only 
upon  the  article  ot  <  .Jtlon  wool,  .  i  byruwuuas  taken 

out  at  tho  custom-house  of  the  we  ''irps,  and  proved 

to  have  Imen  destined  for  export  Mussed  out  of 

thoso  pruvinees. 

Tho  policy  of  clmrfjing  ilutlc  \pnt  wl  articles 

seoma  very  questloimblo.     '•'•'"  ''Weully  iiiuier 

which  Inillii  labors,   in  it  >  -loint  of  view, 

consists  |irlnclpiilly  in  If  r  In  .bltit  '  ■-.h  equivn- 

Iciils  fur  forei^'ii  iiiiportetl  guo  is,  ;■.  <'<  ttio  noc- 

esaiiry  puynii'iitH  nbrouil;  unci,  wi  the  case, 

It  U  certainly  not  it  littlu  coiitrai.  .   i.    iny  tlutica 

on  oxportn.  Tho  most  obvious  considerations  of  cc- 
peilloiiey  anil  common  «en«o  wouM  8UgK<!"'  "■"'  "'ey 
shoulil  Ih!  allowed  to  bo  oxportcil  duty  free.  Thoro 
can  bo  no  doubt  that  tho  stimulus  this  would  giMi  to 
their  production  would,  by  increasing  tho  puldir  wealth, 
inllnltcly  more  than  componsato  tho  government  for 
tho  los.s  of  tho  iiK'unsideraldo  sum  produced  by  the  du- 
ties with  which  they  aro  charj^cd. 

Tmde  nf  Cidcuila.  Krjmrlii. — Durhi);  the  last  forty 
years  the  trade  of  Calcutta  has  experienccii  sonio  very 
strikln);  vlclseltudct.  Previously  to  tho  o|>eninK  of 
tho  trade  in  1814-'15,  cotton  piece  ^oods  formed  tho 
principal  article  of  export  from  India;  tho  value  of 
these  cx|)ortcd  from  Calcutta,  at  an  nvcraRO  of  tho 
live  years  from  181 1-'15  to  ]«1«-'19,  bciiiK  (at  ii.  per 
sicca  ru|ice)  Xl,2(iO,7;i(i  a  year.  The  extreme  chca|v 
ness  of  lalHtr  in  India,  and  tho  excellence  to  which 
tho  natives  had  loii);  attiilncd  In  several  dcpartinenta 
of  tho  manufacture,  would,  it  ml^ht  have  been  8U|>- 
jiosed,  have  Hufllccd  to  jilaco  this  Important  depart- 
ment Ix^vond  the  reach  of  foreign  ci>inpctltl»ii.  Uiit 
tho  wondurful  ^:onius  and  tho  admiriihlo  8kill  of  tho 
Euroi)can  machinists,  and  their  Immenso  capital,  liavo 
far  more  than  countervailed  tho  apparently  insupera- 
ble drawback  of  high  wages,  and  tho  exijcnse  of  bring- 
ing the  raw  material  of  tho  manufacture  from  America, 
and  even  India  itself;  and  have  enabled  Knglisli  man- 
ufacturerg  to  hear  ilown  all  opposition,  and  to  triumph 
over  tho  cheaper  labor,  contiguous  material,  and  tra- 
ditional art  of  tho  Hindoos.  Tho  inip<yts  of  UritUh 
cottons  and  twist  into  India  have  increased  sinco 
181'1~T5  with  a  rapidity  unexampled  in  the  annals  of 
commerce,  and  the  native  iminiil'uclure  has  sustained 
a  shock  from  which  it  Is  not  very  likely  it  will  oveir 
recover.  Tho  influence  of  those  circumstances  on  tha 
trade  in  piece  goods  has  been  very  striking.  During 
tho  year  1851-'62,  tho  value  of  those  exported  firom 
Bengal  was  no  more  than  .£02,352,  being  only  about 
on  twentieth  part  of  what  it  amounted  to  twenty-six 
or  twenty-cight  years  previously. 

It  does  not,  however,  njtpcar  to  be  very  diflicuU  to 
account  for  these  variations.  Formerly  the  export  of 
bullion  to  India,  though  influenced  by  other  causes, 
was  mainly  occasioned  by  the  difllculty  under  which 
mi.rchants  were  placed  of  providing  articles  of  merchan- 
dise suitable  for  the  Indian  markets  sufficient  to  bal- 
ance the  imports.  The  astonishing  increase  of  British 
exports  of  cotton  goods  and  yarn  to  India  has,  how- 
ever, gone  far  to  obviate  this  difficulty;  in  truth,  tho 
fair  presumption  seems  to  ho,  that  in  future  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  will  bo  reversed,  and  that  the 
dllticulty  of  procuring  return  cargoes  of  produce  suita- 
ble for  a  market  will,  In  ordinary  years,  bo  found  to 
bo  tho  principal  obstacle  to  the  extension  of  tho  trade 
with  Hindostau  as  well  as  with  China.    There  seenu 


H 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


UilM    |U 
2.0 


lU 


14.0 


il.8 


1 

^                                                                                      *  //                                                                                      ^1 

V 

■'I 

Hioliographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STMET 

WnSTH.N.Y.  MSSO 

(716)  S72-4S03 


^>^ 


K^ 


f 

^ 


■Jl 


& 


OAL 


284 


OAL 


to  b«  no  limit  othar  than  the  necaMlty  of  ftarntehlng 
•qnlvslenta  In  their  itcad,  to  the  indefinite  sale  of  our 
product*  in  the  East ;  and  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  India 
Is  concerned,  the  facilities  for  famishing  such  equiva- 
lenti  will,  most  likely,  Im  gradually  increased.  The 
■oU  and  climate  of  Bengal  seem  to  be  peculiarly  well 
luited  to  the  production  of  grain,  sugar,  indigo,  opium, 
silk,  cotton,  saltpetre,  and  a  host  of  other  articles. 
And  as  the  inhabitanta  are  not  deficient  In  industry, 
nor  In  the  desire  to  improve  their  condition,  It  would 
seem  that  there  wants  only  a  reduction  of  the  lan'I- 
tax,  which  is  so  heavy  as  to  paralyze  all  their  ener- 
gies, to  enable  them  to  increase  their  articles  of  export 
to  an  indefinite  extent,  and  to  render  their  country 
comparatively  flourishing  and  prosperous. 

In  the  year  18&3,  the  great  articles  of  export  firom 
Calcutta  were  opium,  indigo,  sugar,  raw  silk  and  ^Uk 
piece  goods,  saltpetre,  rice,  hidcii,  cotton  and  cotton 
piece  goods,  gunny  bag*  and  gunny  cloth,  nun,  >itc. 
We  subjoin 

An  AocouKT  or  trk  QoAimmB  Ain>  Valuxb  or  mm  NAfmn 
PaopvcB  AND  TBBAauai  BxroBTB)  raoii  Ualodtta  ucaraa 
Tna  Oftioial  Ybab  1861-62. 


Meicliulhe. 

mi-Jti. 

Qnullly. 

V.ta.. 

Opium Chestik 

82,906 

8,13,77314 

Indigo iMliuimda. 

1,77,604} 

1,82,16,636 

giKor " 

16,16,826 
7,09,600} 
80,91,563 
1,494 

1,51,88,518 

41,00,908 

86,88,136 

879 

Saltpetre " 

Wee " 

Paddy » 

Wheal " 

2,87,258 

8,28,616 

(Jrtm " 

1,01,640 
66,080 

l,0^694 

gs,272 

DhoU  and  peas...            •< 

Oats                  .               ** 

40,614} 
260 

44,168 
260 

Uailejr •' 

Dran " 

1,170 

877 

Itaircotton " 

4,96,890 

49,68,768 

ItawsUk " 

20,858} 

77,86,384 

Cotton  piece  goods  1     m.„. 

(country) (     neoea. 

Silk  piece  goods . .             " 

46,962 
N6C,127 

62,862 
27,47,663 

Mixed  piece  good*            " 

1,26,819 

2,73,486 

Country  woolen* .            *' 

8,603 

76,720 

Arrow-root IndlanmdsL 

79} 

2,118 

Borax  and  Uncal..             " 

12,767} 

1,82,794 

OastoroU " 

50,086} 

5,00,853 

Canvas Bolts. 

1,620 

9,707 
40,067 

CIgan Indlanmda 

Elephants' teeth  ..            " 

8} 

494 

ChoD " 

1,008} 
82,678 

14,123 
1,15,690 

Ginger " 

Qunnybaga Noa. 

1,44,66,498 

16,68,846 

Gunny  cloth Pieces. 

4M849 

17,86,424 

Hemp  twine Indian  mda 

11,854} 

1,04,779 

Hemp " 

8,810} 

10,682 

Hides  of  sorts Nos. 

88,62,65i 

87,62,171 

Horn  tips iDdtanmda 

4,397} 

29,567 

Juto »* 

T,2S,707 

12,881} 

18,10,808 
6,60,707 
8.87,084 

UcDye .-...            " 

„   (Shell •• 

J-^Soed « 

•^   (stick » 

43,140 

634} 

2,087 

589} 

S,38» 

Unseed « 

14,26,821} 

62^061 

MoIsBses " 

9,060} 

6,613 

Uunjeet " 

694} 
6,48,891 

1,786 
10,96,776 

Kustardaeed.....            « 

UustardoU " 

8,827 

62,969 

I*utchuck " 

8,406} 

69,135 

Pr0TMonsandUu4            '* 

1,62,098 

Hum  (Bengal)....      OaUons. 

8,98,766} 

i;i9;927 

Bafflower Indianmds. 

28,128} 

6,90,208 

Sal  ammoniac  ....            '■ 

286} 

8,243 

Soap " 

(,421 

14,610 

Tallow •• 

9,364 

91,489 

Teetaeed « 

60,096} 

1,20,101 

Teel^edoU '< 

266 

1,792 

Tobaceoleaf. " 

18,803 

47,720 

Tnrmerie "■ 

80,688} 

1,58,871 

AU  other  ezporta..           •• 

Total  exporia— Company** 

6,44,727 

rupees 

10,4t).66.641 

Goods  le^xpotted 

84,OT,8«6 

Treasute  exported 

19,46,809 

11,04,09,706 

Specie  exported  by  B.  I.  C 

jmpany 

6,82,000 

The  export  trade  of  Calcutta  would  be  much  in- 
ereased  If  facilities  were  created  for  Internal  oommerce, 
•■pedally  in  building  railroads  and  Improving  the  wa- 
tMT  eommnnioatioM  with  th*  intarior.  Somathing  hu 


been  done  in  the  way  of  building  good  tnmpike  road* 
and  in  locating  railroads,  and  farther  Improvements 
may  be  anticipated.  The  present  mode  of  communi- 
cation l>ctween  Howra,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
river,  and  the  metropolis,  Is  by  ferry ;  but  Howra  ha* 
been  selected  as  the  locality  for  the  terminus  of  the 
East  India  railway ;  and  upon  the  opening  of  the  first 
section,  which  Is  now  complete,  greater  facilities  will 
bo  required,  as  well  of  access  from  Howra,  as  of  egress 
from  the  city  In  the  same  direction. 

Opium. — The  trade  in  opium  ha*  rapidly  grown  in 
magnitude  and  Importance.  At  an  average  of  the 
years  1830-'81  and  1831-82,  the  exports  fl-om  Calcutta 
were  7278  chests,  worth  xi,121,660;  whereas  during 
the  year  1851-'62  the  exports  had  increased  to  82,806 
chests,  worth  ^CS,  187, 781.  China  is  not  the  principal 
merely,  but  almost  the  only  market  for  opium,  so  that 
the  trade  between  Calcutta  and  her  is  now  second  only 
to  that  between  the  former  ond  England.  It  is  true 
that  largo  quantities  of  opium  are  shipped  for  Singa- 
pore and  other  intermediate  ports,  but  China  is  its  ul- 
timate destination.  Subjoined  is  a  statement  of  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  opium  shipped  i^om  Calcut- 
ta In  1840-'41  and  1851-'62. 


CluiKIa 

1M(I->41. 

"■  \«i\-^iir    - 

Uunlil/. 

VUu«. 

quuuiy. 

.     v^«,. 

China 

6,863 

8»"SU45 

27,921 

PjinoM, 

2;71,84,6S9 

Singapore... 

10,822 

70,06,688 

8,916 

87,96,960 

Penang 

640 

*'Si'?i9 

HI 

.      3,77,040 

IlaUvIa 

65 

32,078 

60 

60,850 

Pegu 

79 

49,130 

21 

19,766 

Ehiewhere... 
Total.... 

2 

1,390 

17,866 

1,18,90,818 

8.2,806 

8,18,77,814 

Previously  to  the  year  1815,  the  exports  of  indigo 
firom  Calcutta  were  comparatively  trifling.  But  about 
that  period  Euro;  <ins  began  to  engage  in  the  busi- 
ness ;  and  the  culture  of  the  plant  was,  in  consequence, 
BO  much  extended,  and  the  preparation  of  the  dmg  so 
much  improved,  that  it  has  been  for  a  lengthened  pe- 
riod an  article  of  primary  commercial  importance.  Of 
late  years,  however,  tho  growth  of  indigo  appears  to 
have  been  nearly  stationary,  the  shipments  in  1880- 
'81  and  1831-'32  being  about  equal  to  those  in  1840-'41 
and  1861-'62.  This  stationary  state  of  the  trade  hag 
l)eon  ascribed  partly  to  the  influence  of  the  importa- 
tions from  Java,  where  indigo  is  now  very  extensively 
raised,  and  partly  to  tho  alleged  decrease  in  the  use 
of  blue  cloth.  IVunce  is,  next  to  England,  the  great 
market  for  indigo. 

STATIOfSRT  or  THl  QtrAWTITT  AKB  VAitni  or  Tn«  IiiDiao 
suirpni  raoii  CALOcrrA  » 1840-'41,  amd  1851-62. 


1840-Ml. 

lui-'n. 

quuiMjr. 

VaIm. 

Q«-«t„ 

T.JM. 

Great  Britain.. 

France 

North  America, 
itrabla,  ete, . . . 

Bombay 

Bremen 

Elsewhere 

rixVj  Mdi. 
84,206 

206} 
78} 

1,66,81,074 

40,86,266 

9,46,868 

9,64,414 

1,27,499 

41,266 

15,776 

lAdUu  Hik. 

80,679 

24,791 

8,761 

6,887 

207 

1,6871 

1,27°!842T 

89,68,163 

6,97,297 

6,81,194 

22,796 

2,78,901 

Total 

1,16,263} 

2,27,11,602 

1,lt,004} 

1,82,16,686 

Being  In  lbs.. 

8,601,567} 

V,i^m 

In  1835,  the  British  duty  on  East  India  sugar,  which 
had  previously  been  comparatively  high,  was  reduced 
to  the  same  amount  as  that  on  West  India  sugar;  and 
that  circumstance,  i  jd  the  contlnL.-l  high  price  of 
sugar,  did  not  fail  to  give  a  powerfVlI  stimulus  to  its 
culture  in  and  exportation  from  India.  On  the  whole, 
however,  great  as  was  tho  increase  in  the  exports  of 
sugar  between  1830  and  1840,  it  has  since  receded. 
And  now  that  the  sugar  trade  is  placed  on  a  proper  foot- 
ing by  the  abolition  in  Great  Britain  of  the  discrim- 
inating duties  on  fbrelgn  sngars,  the  Importation* 
from  India  will,  perhaps,  bo  Still  farther  reduced. 
Subjoined  is  a  statement  of  the  quantity  and  value 
of  the  sugar  shipped  from  Calcutta  in  1840-'41  and 
1861-'62. 


OAI» 


M 


CAL> 


CmnMn. 

1840- 

41. 

IWI-'tL                               1 

qnwUlj. 

V>lu>. 

Qwutllj. 

V>Iu. 

Great  Britain 

lodUu  lUonda.                     Bumm. 

17,17,200                   l,BO,(o,86S 

48,181                        8,40,6<S 

MTU                         B7,170 

261                            9,068 

1,284^                          0,663 

240[                          1,804 

sMik    -  ;■  z      i    ».W3 
8,08«l       .     r       ;     10,887 

Indlu  Munda 
1^00,4«7f 
80,618 
2,000 
200 

•d 

10,418 
676t 
7,016 

l,42°Krii»8 

«,i7:86e 

24,867 

1,600  • 

.  68,714 

T,41T 

6,286 

00,221 
6,768 

71,181 

AnbUn  ud  Penian  Oolii 

Hadrai 

Ceylon 

Pecu 

ahldtTea 

New  Holland 

Kliewbere 

Totel 

17,81  TOii 

1,04,68,8(18 

16,16,824 

1,61,88,616 

Being  In  pounda 

146,676,031^ 

183,118,674 

The  exports  of  eotton  from  Calcutta  continue  tta- 
tionary ;  the  expectations  that  It  would  be  improTod 
in  its  quality  by  ^ater  attention  being  given  to  its 
culture  and  preparation  have  not  l)een  realized.  The 
exports  of  saltpetre  from  India  have  not,  as  many  an* 
ticipated,  been  affbcted  by  the  competition  of  nitrate 
of  soda  from  South  America.  In  1830-'ai,  the  exports 
from  Calcutta  were  424,729  factory  maunds,  whereas 
in  1851-'62  they  amounted  to  709,600  Indian  maunds. 
The  exports  of  rice  fh»m  Bengal  fluctuate  very  great- 
ly. This  is  not  caused  so  much  by  variations  in  the 
crops  of  the  country  as  by  variations  in  those  of  other 
countries ;  for  when  a  scarcity  occurs  in  most  parts  of 
continental  Asia,  or  in  any  of  its  islands,  recourse  is 
almost  invariably  had  to  Bengal  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency; and  the  demands  thence  arising  have  been 
sometimes  enormous.  In  1831-'82,  for  example,  the 
exports  of  rice  from  Calcutta  to  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandol  amounted  to  only  16,646  maunds,  whereas  in 

1833-'34  they  amoupted  to  1,252,066  maunds Helix's 

Comparathe  Kieui  q/'1883-'33  and  1833-'34,  p.  41.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  while  Bengal  h  sMpping  im- 
mense supplies  of  rice  and  other  grain  to  distant  parts. 


a  largo  part  of  her  own  population  is  frequently  In  a 
state  of  great  want  and  suffering.  Ireland  is  not, 
therefore,  the  only  country  in  which  the  most  abject 
poverty  and  wretchedness  on  the  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  found  combined  with  great  fertility  of  soil 
and  a  large  exportation  of  food.  Besides  the  articles 
of  native  Indian  produce  exported  flrom  Calcutta,  she 
re-exports  pretty  considerable  quantities  of  various 
articles  brought  from  other  parts.  The  value  of  the 
British  cotton  goods  re-exported  amounts  to  aliout 
£200,000  a  year.  They  are  principally  bartered  with 
the  Burmese  for  silver.  The  conveyance  of  the  latter 
out  of  the  Burmese  dominions  is  strictly  prohibited! 
but  in  Burma,  as  in  England  and  elsewhere,  the  inge- 
nuity of  the  smuggler  is  too  much  for  the  vigilance  of 
the  government,  and  the  trade  Is  carried  on  without 
much  difficulty.  The  great  articles  of  import  into  Cal- 
cutta are,  cotton  manufactures  and  cotton  twist ;  bul- 
lion; copper,  with  spelter,  tin,  lead,  iron,  and  other 
metals;  woOlens;  wines  and  spirits;  ale  and  beer; 
haberdashery,  millinery,  etc. ;  coffee ;  hardware  and 
cutlery ;  spices ;  coal ;  coral,  glass,  and  bottles ;  plate, 
Jewelry,  watches,  etc. ;  IwolLs  and  stationery ;  tea,  etc. 


BiATsmNT  or  thb  Qitahtitt  and  Valub  of  tui  TOmciPAL  Abticles  of  Mxbcuahdisi  imfobtid  into  Caloctta  dcbikq 

TUB  Yeass  1861-'62. 


IMDIGO 

-'69. 


2,78,061 
.82.16.686 

wr,  which 
I  reduced 
gar;  and 

price  of 
lus  to  its 
be  whole, 
Kports  of 

receded, 
oper  foot- 

discrim- 
ortations 

reduced. 

id  value 

■'41  and 


MirchMldiM. 


Alnm Indian  maunds. 

Beads  and  false  pearls — 

Books  and  pamphlets *- 

Cloves — 

Coffee — 

Coala — 

Coral Sa.  wL 

Cocoanut  shells,  eta ••, — 

Oloaa-ware,  etc , ,  — 

Haberdashery,  millinery,  and  appiuel. . , — 

Hardware  and  cutlery , — 

<8labandtlle Indian  maunds. 

Copper  {Sheet  and  nail — 

J  <01d... — 

"a     Spelter — 

I"  Tln-blook — 

S     Iron 1 — 

Stool — 

l.Ironniangcry,  maehlnei^,  and  anchon — 

Pepper,  black — 

'^  C  PJeoes. 

White  cotton J  Yards. 

(  Dozens. 

iPleees. 
Yards. 
Dozens. 
S  Pieces. 
Metres. 
Yards. 

Bait  (duty  paid) .,, Indian  mannds. 

Sugars  and  cheiools — 

Stationery  and  cards — 

Ale  and  porter — 

Twist  and  yam ,  Lbs, 

Wines _ 

Woolens — 

All  other  articles — 


Total  merchandise  by  private  trader*  . 

Ireuure  by  private  traders 

Private  trade,  grand  total 


18tl-'M. 


<i».ttl,. 

■ ~V.bu>.  - 

RniMM. 

14,266 

^,689 

•  ••• 

2,28,038 

•  •  .• 

2,86,148 

8,238 

78,069 

10,50H 

1,88,760 

7,67,704 

8,82,249 

8,06,208* 

1,82,164 

8,78,441 

t  .  *• 

2,83,774 

13,04,440 

6,08,07V 

02,8201 

21,40,489 

25,4Mt 

8,77,868 

2,816 

78,100 

66,071 

4,06,686 

24.480 
4,42,888 

6,87,600 

18,78,646 

4,887 

87,877 

•  •  •  • 

14.13,034 

69,347» 

4,08,140 

86,89,768  ) 

80,35,45US 

7,364() 

2,61,06,167 

11,68,702 
86.128 
SO,396J 

66,48,083 

18,806   ) 

8,fl0,622t  J 

B06O 

6,78,193 

81,74,870 

81,74,870 

•  .■• 

1,62,718 

■  ••• 

4,60,477 

•  ••• 

6,72,004 

1,76,86,865 

07,08,346 

.... 

11,34,089 

•  >.. 

18,27,883 

80,46,814 

.... 

6.76.14.760 

.... 

«3,4»,6S,184 

0,24,77,084 


*  In  addition  to  tl-.'s,  the  rcglitered  amount  of  specie  Imported  by  the  Honorable  Company  Is  as  Ibllovs: 
186a-'Bl=CompuVsvesselss=S7,47,U0  I        lSSl-'61=C9mpany>Teasels= 1,94,653. 


CAL 


S86 


OAIi 


AiimA''>T  ViNw  Af  Trm  RxTiniN*t.  OflMMimr'ii  or  BxNnAL. 


C«uliiM  or  StatM. 


Qnwt  Britain 

Fnnee 

North  Ameriim 

MMbuCoart 

Ceylon 

Htldtve*  and  LaeeadWea 

Malabar  ooart 

Arabian  and  Fetilan  OuUk 

Slngapora 

Penang  and  Malaeea 

China 

New  Holland 

Java  and  Sumatra 

Pegu 

Hanritlui 

Bourbon  

Cape  and  Bt  Uolena 

Hamburg 

Cadia 

Amirterdam 

Trieate 

G«noa ( 

Other  places 

Total,  Company'!  rupeea. , 


>l«Min»<lw, ' 

»,M,nit 

»,IW,«BU 

0,114,1111(1 
81),  (Ml 

1,(10,  Wil 
1T,TD,8«0 

T.IIO.Iloa 
14,W,41I1 

0,19,090 
10,00,840 

iii,oa,tU)5 
uT.inii 

0,S4,M»I 
!ltl,!l«8 
I0,0ft4 
lin,0T6 

t,4U.OI4 

i,i8,wa 

1,00S 

8b',nM 

00,0011 


JffWMttPt. 

Ul,TOM 

•i,fi,im> 

1H,OH,00» 
1,II0,UW 

S,47,8W 

1,N0,7tn 

10,16,081 

1,84.0111 

8ii,u,nii« 

10,4M 
V,4I»T 

CM.uoa 

1,0 1  •008 

T,8H,»n6 

86,  WU 


aiTTir 


'otoT 
d.M.MI.S'^O 

iii,0{i,mi 

1  AVI, 748 

tlT,ll';,8til 
I.Od.UOO 
l,80,!«l!< 

tl,!t8,lS0 
<I,(I0,D!J7 

8(M'4.40'i 

7,47,aoo 

1,06,18,'^44 

19,!<'i,707 

IIV.04tt 

8,He,OtlO 

8,144,010 

7,58,008 

71,696 

1,4»,0I4 

l,18,l)«a 

1,608 

B6',RM 

110,008 

^,94,77,084 


lhnhu4lM.' 


4,78,liO,l« 

4a,0T,4Sl 

70,84, '^i4 

l'A6«,090 

1,C0,«40 

00,08:t 

29,71,601 

1!«,61,B07 

44,04,187 

6,44, 7t>9 

8,S2,17,«7 

8,10,644 

08,971 

14,48,888 

16,96,197 

0,00,806 

9,08,685 

9,9T,D60 


88.008 

4,91,888 

8.00, 'i78 

10,84, 08,8ti7 


78,058 

4,78,08.188 

48,07,481 

70.84,924 

1,47,994 

14.00,814 

67,100 

9,07,840 

.... 

80,882 

20,71,601 

12,61,607 

640 

44,04,077 

7,148 

6,61,007 

*  •  >• 

8,22,17,277 

•  .  .  • 

8,10,544 

.... 

0S,071 

16,90,1X4 

80,40,057 

60,870 

16,61,007 

* .'. . 

0,00,806 

9,600 

2,71,(185 

9,97,060 

.... 

83,'(W8 

.... 

4,21,888 

.... 

2,fl0,i78 

19,46,809 

11,04,(19,700 

STATnasKT  ExniDiTtKO  TUX  PaorouTioM  ny  tkk  rxTMNAi.  r(iMiKK(U'ii  or  Bkohal  ENJUtiiu  UY  EACH  CoDMTBY  AXii  Btatc 

IlllBINM  THK  Vkaiw  1H6(W'61  ANIi  1»61-'62. 


CooBdlM. 


United  Kingdom 

France  

Hamburg 

Altona 

Cadis 

Guam 

Trieate 

Oibraltar 

Lisbon 

Amsterdam 

Rotterdam 

Antwerp 

Qenoa 


AtU. 

Coromandel  Coast 

Ceylon 

Malabar  Coast 

Maldlvea  and  Laceadives 
Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs 

China 

Singapore 

Penang  and  Malacca  . . 

Java  and  Sumatra 

New  Holland 

Pegu 

New  Zealand 

Sandwich  Islands 

Manilla 


Jfrkm. 

Mauritius 

Bourbon 

Cape  and  St.  Helena  , 
Cape  Terd  Islands  . . , 


North  America... 
South  America. . . 
Trinidad 


latO-il, 


Vsliu. 


gUMCi. 

4,01,12,788 
10,80,081 
6,68,088 

1,B0J60 


66,800 


1,17,801 


li,10,6«,2«i- 

17,79,047 

67,404 

18,00,016 

1,67,470 
11,86,760 
00,89,861 
84,77,780 

0,40,094 
43,748 

8,86,104 

0,72,841 

"liseo 

90.041 
1,08,99,018 

0,70,603 

4,60,466 

70,441 

99.098 


13,90,667 
8,89,171 


8.89,171 


7,0.^  89,010 


P<r  (^int. 


004 
9  4 
OS 

oil 


01 

(ii 


m 

01 
il7 

o-i 

IT 
an 

41) 
Ofl 
01 

11 


ID 
on 

01 


TT 
14 


100 


imi-'ti. 


0,61,687890 
18,0,1,881 
1,4U,014 

1,'|8,V«6 


87,484 
1,00( 


86,000 


0,08,80,077 

17,82,801 

1,00,000 

91,98,180 

1,80,999 

9,(KI,»'J7 

1,06,18,244 

80,04,409 

7,47,200 

80,040 

19,82,707 

8,80,(190 

1,091 

t,tifitt,ni 

A,84,0tA 

7,(i8,V0» 

71,690 

89,900 

17,42,(104 

19,91,748 
9,780 


l'«r  Ont. 


7fl'B 
IB 
0'9 

O'l 


-mr 

9'fl 
O'S 
9'8 
OH 
10 
1I'4 
U'8 
08 

l''4 
10 


KipiirtTrSd.. 


UM-'X. 


Vslit.. 


ITT 

I'O 
«'8 
(,■1 


TT 


TT 


ino 


4,08,74,200 

40  88,969 

1,86,418 

18,000 

'i6,'4DO 

1,50,200 

90,789 


60,081 


6,40,88,064 

16,18,029 

'0,77,086 

80,28,087 

70,460 

in.77.OB' 

8,(i4,59,9or 

»s,47,'»l," 

4,88,9N. 

1,00,784 

1,42,403 

92,00,^11 


P«r  Cent. 


40-0 
44 
0-9 


0-9 


01 
01 


4,M;I4,270 

12,88,701 
4,07,004 
1,46,917 


'  18,07,082 

68,08,669 
48.280 
94,107 


61-0 

1-4 
1« 
8-7 
-1.1 


'4 
0-9 
01 
91 


42-8 

1-2 
0-4 
01 


1'7 


64,06,0110  I       6-0 
l»,79,S(),81i6  I   100 


RupMfl. 

4,78,118,188 
48,07,481 
9,27,950 


70,678 

84,559 

4,91,888 


6,86,00,602 

14,00,014 

2,07,840 

29,71,601 

00,632 

12,6i,5«7 

8,22,17,277 

44,04,077 

6,61,907 

68.971 

8,10,644 

80,40,057 


4,64,91,117 

10,61,087 
0,00,866 
2,74,088 


26,99,617 

76,84,224 
71,643 
88,608 


77,89,870 


11,04,09,700 


43.4 
4-3 
0^ 


01 


0-1 
0-1 
04 


484 

1-3 
0-2 
2« 
01 
1-1 
99  •I 
4^ 

on 

01 
0-3 
2-7 


421 

1'5 
0-0 
0-9 


2-8 


0-9 
01 


7-0 


100 


Exroan  or  Wkrai  rnnM  (.'ai/ictta.    In  iNtiiAN  Madiii>«. 


FIsM.. 


lui-'U, 

ISM' 

4^800 
440 
98,060 
87,828 
10,219 

iam 

C,>)4« 

4<t,eM 


IIM-'t4. 


18S4-'U. 


Hsy  1,  I8U,  (o 


ManriUus 

Bourbon 

Ceylon 

MadraaCoaM , 

Singapore 

Penang 

BaUvla 

Pegu 

The  Cape 

New  Holland  and  Auatnllan  port*. 

Groat  Britain 

Notth  America 

Other  port* 

Total 


TBP^ 


04.020 

60,000 

1,400 

86,060 

47,140 

16,09« 

«,0flO 

8,701 

9,000 

4,447 

»,0«0 

'490 


110.000 
60,800 

2,810 

118,106 

88,070 

16,824 

8,480 
62,193 

8,744 

9,184 
94,013 

■'400 


78,040 

05,800 

100 

S,6«S 
88,401 

0,248 
16,974 

4.202 

8,730 

66,228 

478,821 

2,080 
81,286 


(69,814 


494,078 


084,178 


01 


01 
0-1 
0-* 
43-6 

IS 
0-8 
2-6 
01 
M 
«9^ 
4-0 
0« 
01 
O'S 
i1 


421 

1-6 
0-6 
0-8 


2-3 


01 


T-O 
100 


W6,to 
II,  liW. 


21 

|S0 

isa 


CAL 


m 


CAL 


AooouKT  or  TBI  NoMUZB  or  Suin  amb  TimB  ToHXAoa  wniou  armzD  Caloutta  in  1861-52,  DiSTntariraiica  THOd 
wiiiuii  inououT  BiiiTiaii  Ihpoktb  rnoM  tiiubk  wuicii  ubouqut  Fookiun  Iui-obtb,  add  tuk  Plaoiu  wuknux  tuit  uamx. 


United  Kingdom 

Foreign  Knrope 

Bointejr  and  IfsUbU'  Cout 

Umdru  and  Coromandel  Cout 

Madru  and  8u«B 

Rangoon,  Akyati,  and  Honlmein  . . , 

China  and  Singapore 

Singapore,  Malacca,  and  Ponang . . , 

Mauritius 

HuKat,  Judda,  and  Alcppeo 

Cape 

Ceylon,  Maldlvei,  and  Laceadlrei, . 

Australia 

Sumatra 

British  veaa  J  from  North  America, 

British  vessels  from  West  Indies . . . 

Total  British  Imports. 


BrllUh  Im|Kim. 


VhmIi. 


270 
1 

84 
69 
13 
(SO 


8S 

SO 

8 

SO 

2S 

4 

1 

4 


049 


Toaosgs. 


164,7116 
flW 
S0,S91 
10,097 
13,020 
S0,01S 
S4,674 

9,469 
18,764 
10,446 

S,126 

1,916 
11,140 

1,241 
686 

2,360 


812,696 


Foreign  Europe 

North  America  (United  autes) 

Madras 'and  Coromandel  Coast 

China  and  Singapore 

Boutbon 

Cape 

Muscat,  Judda,  and  Aleppee 

Penang,  Malacca,  and  Singapore. . . 

Mauritius 

Bombay  and  Malabar  Coast 

United  Kingdom 

Australia 

Aden 

Total  foreign  imports 

Add  total  British  ImporU 

Total  British  and  foreign  imports. 


PorvlgD 


InnMiffto. 


88 
120 


1 
11 
1 
6 
1 

IS 
1 
1 


287 
040 


886 


Tonnf . 


11,020 
69,416 

997 

960 
11,166 

266 
0,216 

301 
1,969 

886 
0,667 

898 

T87 


112,967 
312,690 


4W,D68 


Total  customs  duty  collected  at  Calcutta  In  1851-'52, 
jE1,169,G85.  We  arc  indebted  for  these  details  to  Wil- 
kinson's excellent  Account  of  (A<  6'<»n»ieroe  of  Bengal 
In  1850-'51  and  1851-'52. 

The  number  of  vessels  which  arrived  at  Calcutta 
during  the  year  ISM,  and  their  aggregate  tonnage, 
were  as  follows : 


British  ships 441 

lips. 
Amoiican  snips 96 


French  ships 108 


Arabian  ships 17 

Dutch  Hhipa 8 

Hamburg  ships 6 

Swedish  ships 6 

Sardinian  ships 8 

Belgian  ships S 

DanUli  ships 8 

I*ru8sian  sblpa 1 

686 
Aggregate  tonnage  about 430,000  tons. 

This  gives  an  increase  of  vessels  over  that  of  the  pre- 
vious year  of  49,  and  of  tonnage  of  49,281  tons. — Ben- 
gal Harkaru,  March  21, 1865 

FaUurca  at  Calcutta. — Dui.iig  the  three  years  ending 
with  1833  some  of  the  principal  mercantile  establisli- 
monts  in  this  city  failed  for  immense  sums.  To  exam- 
ine minutely  into  the  origin  of  these  disasters  would 
lead  us  into  inquiries  foreign  to  the  olgect  of  this  woric, 
and  with  respect  to  which  it  would  bo  difficult  to  get 
accurate  information.  Wo  believe,  however,  that  the 
main  source  of  the  evil  was  tho  combiu  ition,  by  most 
of  tlie  principal  houses,  of  the  business  of  merchants 
with  that  of  banlters.  Their  credit  l)eing  high,  at  the 
end  of  tlio  war  large  sums  wera  deposited  in  their  hands, 
for  which  they  engaged  to  pay  a  high  rate  of  interest. 
But  instead  of  employing  these  deposits,  as  baiilicrs  in 
England  would  have  done,  in  the  discount  of  bills  at 
short  dates,  or  in  the  purchase  of  government  securi- 
ties readily  convertible  into  mt>ney,  they  employed 
them,  probably  because  they  could  with  difficulty  dis- 
pose of  them  otherwise,  in  all  manner  of  mercantile 
speculations;  advancing  very  large  sums  to  the  indigo 
planters,  exporting  goods  to  Europe,  cither  directly  on 
their  own  account,  or  inuirectly  by  lending  to  those  who 
did,  becoming  owners  of  Indian  shipping,  etc.  Mosi 
of  those  speculations  turned  out  exceedingly  ill.  The 
production  of  indigo  was  so  much  increased,  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  large  capitals  turned  to  the  busi- 
ness, and  partly  of  the  high  prices  in  England,  that 
"  fine  blue  violet,"  which  had  brought  in  the  London 
market,  at  an  average  of  the  three  years  ending  with 
1827,  from  lis.  lOd.  to  13a.  id.  per  lb.,  fell,  at  an  aver- 
age of  the  three  years  ending  with  1882,  to  from  6t. 
Bd.  to  C>,  4(1.  per  lb.,  and  other  sorts  in  proportion. 
At  these  prices  tho  production  would  not  pay;  and 
very  heavy  losses  were  sustained  and  much  capital 
sunk  by  the  planters  and  those  who  had  supplied  them 
with  funds  to  extend  their  undertakings.  The  invest- 
ments la  Indian  shipping  turned  out  even  worse  than 
thote  in  the  indigo  plantations,  the  shipping  of  En- 
gland having  nearly  driven  that  of  India  oat  of  the 


field.  The  embarrassment  occasioned  by  this  locking 
up  of  thoir  capital,  and  by  the  ruinous  nature  of  the  ad- 
ventures in  which  they  were  embarked,  liegan  to  man- 
ifest itself  simultaneously  with  the  scarcity  of  money 
occasioned  by  the  drains  on  account  of  the  Burmese 
war.  The  great  mercantile  houses  began  then  to  find 
that  they  were  entangled  in  difficulties  from  which  they 
were  wholly  unable  to  extricate  themselves.  After 
struggling  on,  some  for  a  longer  and  some  for  a  shorter 
period,  most  of  them  subsequently  failed,  the  greater 
number  for  very  large  sums. 

But,  however  distressing  in  the  mean  time,  the  em> 
barrassnient  and  want  of  confidence  arising  from  the 
failures  alluded  to  wore  not  of  long  continuance,  and 
have  in  the  end  been  advantageous.  It  is  of  the  ut- 
most consequence  that  the  vicious  combination  of  the 
business  of  a  merchant  with  that  of  a  banker  should  be 
put  an  end  to.  It  is  singular,  indeed,  that  individual* 
should  be  found  willing  to  intrust  large  sums  in  the 
liands  of  those  who  they  are  aware  are  employing  them 
in  the  most  hazardous  adventures.  The  higher  tho  in- 
terest promised  l)y  such  persons,  the  greater  ought  to 
be  the  caution  of  the  public  in  dealing  with  them. 

Internal  Tramrit  Duties. — A  very  great  improvement 
has  liecn  cfiected  in  the  domestic  economy  of  Brit- 
ish India  by  the  abolition  of  the  duties  on  the  trans- 
it of  goods  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another. 
This  important  measure  was  preceded,  and,  we  Iwlieve, 
principally  brought  about,  by  the  publication  of  an 
elaborate  and  valuable  report  on  the  inland  customs  of 
Bengal,  by  Mr.  Trevelyan  (now  Sir  Charles,  K.  C.  B.), 
then  one  of  the  secretaries  to  the  Indian  government, 
and  now  Secretary  to  the  Treasury.  These  duties  had 
existed  in  India  from  a  very  remote  period ;  and,  by 
obstructing  the  intercourse  iMtween  its  different  dis- 
tricts, wore  singularly  pernicious.  After  the  East  In- 
dia Company  began  to  acqidre  a  footing  in  India,  they 
availed  themselves  of  a  favorable  opportunity  to  pro- 
cure an  exemption  from  the  transit  duties  in  favor  of 
their  own  trade ;  "  the  goods  which  they  imported  be- 
ing allowed  to  pass  into  the  interior,  and  those  which 
they  purchased  for  exportation  in  the  interior  being  al- 
lowed to  pass  to  tlio  sea,  without  either  stoppage  or  du- 
ties."—Mill's  India,  8vo  ed.  vol.  iii.  p.  289.  They 
were,  however,  not  long  permitted  to  monopolize  thi« 
privilege.  Immediately  after  the  victories  of  Clive 
had  raised  the  company  to  the  situation  of  a  great  ter- 
ritorial power,  their  servants  engaged  largely  in  the 
inland  trade,  and  endeavored,  partly  by  fraud  and  part- 
ly by  force,  to  extend  to  their  own  goods  the  exemp- 
tion from  transit  duties  established  in  favor  of  those 
belonging  to  the  company.  P>cr;-  reader  of  Indian 
history  is  aware  of  the  multiplied  abuses  and  disturb- 
ances that  grew  out  of  this  attempt  of  tlie  company'i 
servants  to  release  themselves  from  duties  and  charge! 
that  pressed  with  grinding  severity  on  the  natives,  and, 
by  consequence,  to  engross  (for  such  was  their  object) 
the  whole  internal  trade  of  the  country.  The  company 
endeavored  to  obviate  the  evi)  by  itriotly  forbidding 


CAL 


888 


CAL 


their  MTranU  tnm  engaging  In  Intcnal  traffle ;  bat 
It*  orden  to  thia  effect  were  long  cither  totally  dtsre- 
garded,  or  bot  veiy  imperfectly  obeyed.  At  length,  in 
1788,  Lord  Comwallls  adopted  the  decisive  and  judi> 
clous  measure  of  abolishing  the  duties.  They  were, 
however,  again  renewed  In  1801,  The  exclusion  of 
Englishmen  from  all  participation  in  the  interior  traffic 
of  the  country  having  been  gradually  carried  into  com- 
plete effect  for  a  lengthened  period,  they  were  leas  alivo 
than  they  would  otiierwise  have  beon  to  the  it^iu-ioua 
influence  of  the  duties,  so  that  their  re-establishment 
met  with  comparatively  little  opposition.  In  1810  a 
new  tariff  was  introduced,  by  which  the  duties  "  were 
fHghtfully  augmented ;"  and  they  continued  from  that 
epoch  down  to  their  recent  abolition  seriously  to  ob- 
struct all  sorts  of  internal  traffi'^,  and  to  oppose  the 
most  fbrmidabla  obstacle  to  the  improTemeat  of  the 
country. 

Had  the  Inland  transit  dntiea  been  produotive  of  a 
Iarg«  amount  of  revenue,  that  would  have  been  some 
Mt«ff  against  the  enormous  evils  of  which  they  have 
been  productive.  But  such  has  not  beon  the  catn.  The 
expenses  of  collection,  and  the  interruption  of  commu- 
nication, were  so  rery  great  that  the  net  produce  of  the 
inland  transit  duties  was  quite  insignificant ;  so  much 
10,  that,  according  to  Trevelyan,  It  did  not  exceed,  in 
the  extensive  province  of  IJengal,  the  miserable  pit- 
tance of  .£27,600  a  ytn.—ltqtort,  p.  148.  We  see  no 
reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this  statement;  and, 
assuming  it  to  be  comet,  wo  are  warranted  in  affirm- 
ing that  there  is  not  another  instance  to  bo  found  in  the 
history  of  taxation  of  a  tax  so  ittiitftil  of  mischievous 
result*  and  so  barren  of  revenue. 

Tbten  Dutie: — ^These  were  charged  on  the  principal 
article*  of  consumption  in  33  of  the  chief  towns  of  Ben- 
gal. They  were  in  many  rerpects  similar  to  the  oclrou 
hi  France;  and,  though  not  nearly  so  it^urious  as  the 
internal  transit  duties,  were  productive  of  much  incon- 
venience. We  are  glad,  however,  to  have  to  state  that 
they,  as  well  as  the  transit  duties,  have  recently  been 
abolished ;  and  that  the  internal  trade  of  Bengal  is  now 
a*  flree,  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  statutory  regulations  can 
make  it,  as  the  internal  trade  of  England. 

This  article  has  been  compiled  from  various  authori- 
ties, including  MiLnoRN's  Oriental  Commtrce  ;  Bkll's 
Comparative  Vino  of  the  eiettmal  Commtrce  of  Btttgid, 
with  the  Continuation  by  Wilkixson  for  the  years 
from  1828-'29  to  1841-'42 ;  The  Bengal  and  Agra  Guide 
and  Gazetteer  for  1841  and  1842 ;  Parliamentary  Puptrs 
relating  to  the  Financet  of  India,  i:  itf  Me  Trade  of  /mlia 
and  China,  1880-1848;  and  private  communications. 

Caledonian  Oanal,  from  the  Korth  Sea  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  By  means  of  this  magnificent  canal 
the  nautical  intercourse  between  the  western  ports  of 
Great  Britain,  and  those  also  of  Ireland,  and  the  North 
Bea  and  Baltic,  is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and 
in  others  1000  miles.  A  snm  exceeding  a  million  ster- 
ling was  granted  by  Parliament  from  time  to  time ; 
and  this  safe  navigation  for  ships  of  nearly  every  ton- 
nage was  completed  and  opened  in  1822. — Havon. 

Calendar.  The  Roman  calendar,  which  hts  in 
great  part  been  adopted  by  almost  all  nations,  was  in- 
troduced by  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  ten 
months,  comprising  804  days,  A,i>.  738  B.C.  The  year 
of  Romnlu*  wa*  of  fifty  days  less  duration  than  the  lu- 
nar year,  and  of  sixty-one  less  than  the  solar  year,  and 
its  commencement  did  not,  of  course,  correspond  with 
any  fixed  season.  Nnma  Pompilius,  713  B.C.,  correct- 
ed this  calendar  by  adding  two  months ;  and  Julius 
Ciesar,  desirous  to  make  it  more  correct,  fixed  the  so- 
lar year  as  being  365  days  and  six  hours,  46  B.C.  This 
almost  perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Ju- 
lian style,  and  prevailed  generally  throughout  the 
Christian  world  till  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
The  calendar  of  Julius  Casar  was  defective  in  this  par- 
ticular, that  the  solar  year  consisted  of  865  days  five 
hpor*  and  forty-nine  p^notes,  and  not  of  S6S  day*  and 


six honrs.  ThIsdim!renee,atthetlmeofGregoryXni., 
had  amounted  to  ten  entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox 
fulling  on  the  llth  instead  of  the  21st  of  March.  To 
obviate  this  error,  Gregory  ordained,  in  1582,  that  that 
year  should  consist  of  8C5  days  only ;  and,  to  prevent 
further  irregalarity,  it  was  determined  that  a  year  be- 
ginning a  centurj-  should  not  b«  bissextile,  with  the 
exception  of  that  beginning  each  fourth  century ;  thua 
1700  and  1800  have  not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900 
be  so ;  but  the  year  2000  will  be  a  leap-year.  In  thi* 
manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  400  years,  because 
the  lapse  of  eleven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  abont 
that  period.  The  year  of  the  calendar  is  thus  made  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  correspond  with  the  true  solar 
year;  and  future  errors  ..i  .'  ronology  are  avoided.— 
Haydn.     See  Almanac. 

The  Gregorian  colendar  was  introduced  into  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  part  of  Italy,  the  same  day  as  at  Rome. 
In  France  it  was  received  in  the  same  year  in  the  month 
of  December,  and  by  the  Catholic  states  of  Gcmmny 
the  year  following.  In  the  Protestant  states  of  Ger- 
niary  the  Julian  calendar  was  adhered  to  till  the  year 
1700,  when  it  was  decreed  by  the  Diet  of  Katisbon  that 
the  new  style  and  the  Gregorian  correction  of  the  in- 
tercalation should  bo  adopted.  Instead,  however,  of 
employing  tlie  golden  numbers  and  epacts  for  the  de- 
termination of  Easter  and  the  movable  feasts,  it  was 
resolved  that  the  equinox  and  the  paschal  moon  should 
be  found  by  astronomical  computation  from  the  Ku- 
dolphino  tables.  But  this  method,  though  at  first  view 
it  may  appear  more  accurate,  was  soon  found  to  be 
attended  with  numerous  inconveniences,  and  was  at 
length,  in  1774,  abandoned  at  the  insinnce  of  Frederick 
II.,  king  of  Prussia.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden  the  re- 
formed calendar  was  received  about  the  same  time  as 
in  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany.  Russia  still  ad- 
heres to  the  Julian  reckoning. 

In  Great  Britain  the  alteration  of  the  style  was  for 
a  long  time  successfully  opposed  by  popular  prcgudicei 
The  inconvenience,  however,  of  using  a  different  date 
from  that  employed  by  the  greater  part  of  Europe  in 
matters  ot  history  and  chronology  began  to  be  general- 
ly felt;  and  ot  length,  in  1751,  an  act  of  Parliament 
was  passed  for  the  adoption  of  the  new  stylo  in  all  pub- 
lic and  legal  transactions.  The  difference  of  the  two 
stylcsj  which  then  amounted  to  eleven  days,  was  re- 
moved by  ordering  the  day  following  the  2d  of  Septem- 
ber, of  the  year  1752,  to  be  accounted  the  llth  of  that 
month ;  and  in  order  to  preserve  uniformity  in  future, 
the  Gregorian  rule  of  intercalation  respecting  the  secu- 
lar years  was  adopted.  At  the  same  time,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  legal  year  was  changed  frum  the  26th 
of  April  to  the  first  of  January.  In  Scotland  the  new 
style  was  adopted  from  the  beginning  of  1600,  accord- 
ing to  an  act  of  the  Privy  Council  in  December,  1599. 
This  fuct  is  of  importance  with  reference  to  the  date  of 
legal  deeds  executed  in  Scotland  between  that  period 
and  1751,  when  the  change  was  effected  in  England, 
With  respect  to  the  movable  feasts,  Easter  is  determ- 
ined by  the  rule  laid  down  by  the  Council  of  Nice ;  but 
instead  of  employing  the  new  moons  and  epacts,  the 
golden  numbers  are  prefixed  to  the  days  of  the  /)ilt 
moons.  In  those  years  in  which  the  line  of  epacts  is 
changed  in  the  Gregorian  calendar,  the  golden  num- 
bers are  removed  to  diffiircnt  days,  and  of  course  a  new 
table  is  required  whenever  the  solar  or  lunar  equation 
occurs.  The  golden  numbers  have  been  placed  so  that 
Easter  may  fall  on  the  same  day  as  in  the  Gregorian 
calendar.  The  calendar  of  the  Church  of  England  is 
therefore,  fl-om  centnrj'  to  century,  the  same  in  form  as 
the  old'  Roman  calendar,  excepting  that  the  golden 
numbers  indicate  the  fUU  .noons  instead  of  the  new 
moons. — E.  B. 

Calender,  a  mechanical  engine  employed  by  cloth- 
lappers  for  dressing  and  finishing  cloths  and  stnflfe  of 
vaiions  descriptions  and  fabrics,  before  exposure  to 
tale,  or  deliveiy  to  purchasers.    It  is  also  used  by  cal- 


CAL 


t89 


CAt 


)'s,  was  ro- 
of Soptcm- 
4th  of  that 
'  in  Riture, 

Ig  tho  8CCU- 

thc  com- 
,m  the  25th 
id  the  new 
10,  accord- 
ibcr,  1599. 
the  date  of 
;hat  period 
England, 
is  detcrm- 
Nice;  but 
!pactB,  tho 
if  tho  full 
\{  cpacts  is 
Idcn  num- 
Jurse  a  new 
Ir  equation 
Iced  so  that 
I  Gregorian 
Rngland  is 
[inform  as 
Ihe  golden 
If  the  new 

I  by  cloth- 

,  stuffs  of 

Icposnro  to 

ed  by  cal- 


ico-printer*, In  order  to  extend  and  smooth  tba  lur' 
face  of  their  cloths  after  they  have  been  bleouhed,  and 
bofuro  they  aro  subjected  to  the  operations  of  the  prinu 
intf-tabio  or  copper-plat*  press.    British  musllas  are 
folded  generally  to  a  yard  in  length,  with  a  sniall  al- 
lowance for  extra  maasuru ;  and  as  the  folding  is  al- 
ternately flrom  right  to  left,  every  part  can  be  instantr 
ly  examined  upon  s  table  or  counter,  every  fold  i»\im\f 
Ing  as  easily  m  the  leaves  of  a  book  in  its  uncut  st«t«, 
The  piece,  when  folded,  is  reduced  by  douliling  It  lani- 
gitudinaliy  to  about  nineteen  inches,  and  it  is  tlian  (oW 
ed  across  to  the  breadth  of  about  thirteen  inches.    An 
ordinary-sized  trunk,  89  X 19  inches,  thus  conUins  threa 
layers  of  pieces,  in  which  package  goods  for  axporta- 
Uon  to  the  colonies  are  generally  packed,  the  trunk 
there  forming  an  article  of  merchaudi«o  as  mucli  in  gei>.- 
eral  demand  as  the  muslins  which  it  contains.     £veH 
the  Indian  ornaments  of  gilt  silver  threads  which  were 
at  first  woven  into  one  end  of  each  piece,  although  they 
did  not  exceed  tho  value  of  twopence  each,  have  been 
either  greatly  curtailed  or  totally  given  up  upon  prin- 
ciples of  economy.     Even  the  cost  of  this  trivial  orna- 
ment has  been  computed  to  have  amounted  annually  in 
Oksgow  and  Paisley  to  about  £30,000.     PullicaU  and 
other  handkerchiefs  are  most  commonly  folded  up  (n 
dozens.    For  the  African  and  some  other  foreign  troiiss, 
pieces  containing  only  eight  liandkerchiefs  aro  prefurr 
red.     These  are  still  ifaiitations  of  Indian  precedents, 
confined  to  markets  whore  competition  continues  to  cki- 
ist,  not  only  with  the  British  company,  but  with  Amer- 
icans and  others  trading  to  India.     A  species  uf  pale 
orange-colored  India  handkerchiefs,  distinguitlied  by 
the  name  of  Madras,  being  in  extensive  reputation  in 
the  Caraccas  and  other  Spanish  settlements  in  South 
America  at  the  period  of  tlie  capture  of  Trinidad,  in 
1795,  patterns  were  procured  by  some  Britisli  trarieis, 
who  ordered  very  largo  quantities  to  ho  manufactured 
in  Scotland  of  tlie  same  quality  and  appearance.    With 
such  effect  were  these  imitated  in  texture,  in  dye,  in 
finishing,  and  even  in  the  packages,  that  soma  hun- 
dreds of  pieces  sent  to  London  for  exportation  were  acL- 
ually  seir.ed  at  the  custom-houso  as  India  goods,  eitiier 
illegally  imported,  or  stolen  from  some  of  tho  Compa^ 
ny's  ships  in  the  river.     A  scrutiny,  however,  clearly 
ascertained  that  these  goods  were  not  Indian,  but  Brit- 
ish, and  that  no  trespass  eitlicr  against  tho  privileges 
or  the  property  of  the  company  had  l>een  even  attempts 
ed.     The  goods  were  of  course  released,  and  permitted 
to  proceed  to  their  destination,  where,  after  examina^ 
tion  and  trial,  it  was  found  totally  unnecessary  longer 
to  conceal  their  real  origin ;  and  a  very  exfensivo  trailii, 
through  direct  channels,  has  since  lieen  carried  on  for 
similar  goods,— E.  B. 

OallOO  (Ger,  Kattuni  Da.  Kaloen;  Dan.  Kattun,- 
8w.  Cattuni  Fr.  Colon,  i'oih  de  Coton;  It.  Tela  Jiatih 
bagina,  Tela  dipuUa-;  Sp.  Tela  de  Atgodon;  Port.  Pami 
de  Algodao;  Kuss.  W^oikaf  Pol.  Batoelnika),  doth 
made  of  cotton )  so  callod  from  Calicut,  on  the  Iktaiabar 
coast,  whence  it  was  first  imported.  .  In  England  all 
white  or  unprlnted  cotton  cloths  aro  denominated  cali- 
coes ;  but  in  the  United  States  this  term  is  applied  to 
those  only  that  aro  printed. 

Calico  Printing. — ^This  art,  though  apparently  one  of 
the  most  difBoult,  hag  been  practiced  from  a  very  re- 
mote era.  Herodotus  mentions  (lib.  1,  §  203)  that  a 
nation  on  tho  shores  of  the  Caspian  wore  in  the  haliit 
of  painting  the  figures  of  animals  on  their  clothes  with 
a  color  formed  from  the  leaves  of  trees  bruised  and 
soaked  in  water ;  and  he  adds  that  this  color  was  not 
elTaceablo,  and  waa  as  durable  as  the  clothes  them- 
selves. It  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  the  colors  could 
have  l)een  so  permanent,  had  not  those  using  them  been 
acquainted  with  the  mo  of  mordants.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  passage  in  Pliny  (Hiit.  Nat.  lib.  xxxv.  §  11), 
which,  though  in  some  respocta  obscure,  shows  that  tlie 
ancient  Egyptians  were  fully  acquainted  with  tho  prin- 
dple  of  ciUico  printing,     "  They  paint,"  says  be,  "  the 


tlatMn,  fM  with  ftftnfs,  but  with  dmga  (lorhftKAm 
Hutliiiumi'ltliiii  tifMt  hut*  no  eotor.  Thin  being  dona, 
tttoy  iHIMtorw  tium  Itl  a  tMtful  of  boiling  dye,  and 
|«»vu  Uumi  tMr«  f»f  »  UUU  l  whan  they  take  them  out 
tUfjf  m»  ((sJhM  »rf  *»t1ou»  colon.  It" Is  extraordina- 
ry, (MoIm^  Mmt  thtftn  ttt  mtU  me  color  In  the  vat  (unut 
in  ivHimn  nttiH'),  timi  »  vnnety  of  colors  should  be  pr^ 
dwiwt  \tf  (h«  i^m\im  at  ihe  drogs."  Pliny  further 
•t»(«*  W»(  tim  fuiimt  WKr«  so  adhesiva  that  they  could 
MMt  M  wfMllMt  ml  I  Mtid  that  clothes  were  the  strongor 
fur  I'MiHii  l\)fi4i  A  ntwtlar  )>toce«s  is  known  to  har« 
imn  MUm»i  In  IndiA  ffum  (he  earliest  times.  Tho 
ti|)i>mi<i»(  m»i  nm<\l»t)if»i  intenttons  of  modem  ages 
Unvit  iMinH  )tM  (<AtM  of  t«tt  Improvements  in  this  in> 
tstinUiHH  m>  i  itfrtWiifltl  Aft  I  tint  the  passage  now  quoted 
shnws  rtftllMciJy  ilwt  «e  huve,  in  this  instance,  been 
only  fmrtmUt^  »mi  intptuiring  processes  practiced  in 
tiia  tmmtfH  n»i\nnUf, 

OnUfefHtS/  th«  «««ie  "  Cnllfiimia"  is  found  in 
(lie  hUHify  t4 (Iw  ((((MltMWt  of  Maxloo  by  Ilnmal  Diaa, 
»  mm^mUm  l^  CufUft,  But  there  It  is  only  appliai 
In  H  linn,  Af«*f»(IKl  H  ««s  given  to  the  vhole  coUfUrg 
nurth  ij/Umi  Imy,  lift  origin  is  uncertain,  Some 
IsAiwa  itWH  ltiMr(«<l  ih«  thttlioft  that  it  ought  to  b« 
dsFivcd  front  ilw  (/«(Ih  "  V(iti4a/bmaT}'  (n  hot  oven), 
an/1  thttt  \i  »»»  ^tcil  io  llie  rotky  pcnlntiula  because 
ilia  ))r«t  4i«'»VPfcfi  PHm+Pd  there  much  from  the  heat. 
iioma  tH\wi  l\>'f\il{i\<mn  of  the  tlnmo  (.'olifoniin  A-om 
tlw  l(»»(ll  nm  \m  (umu\  in  Ciavlgero's  hlftory  of  Mex- 
Uo,  \n  \m»fff)k\i\i  first,  Clavlgero  mBkos  tho  remark 
tl)»t  t!«rMi( »««  *  m  fond  of  ««ch  1/atin  words.  Prob» 
My  H  i*  It  PDi-Wpthitt  iif!h*  m4giml  luiUim  nnme.    BOr 

eau'w  U  vtm  fiir  n  ii<ni(  lime  Rttt>P<"o<l  that  it  was  a 
|«rg«  Mimii,  lltin  (Imt  ttllttiy  ftmall  Islands  belongeU  to 
it,  EiJMIH  t'SHcrt  ilw  I'mililty  "Im  Ctilifiirnlnfi"  (tho  Cal- 
ifurilisii),  Ow  Iwilrtml  and  thirty  years  after  Cortcz, 
after  His  tH(»Ml«  of  ilm  '*7«nleeth  century,  some  gc- 
«Bf»pllM>'j*  wDwl  (twso  sltpposed  Cflliforninn  islands 
"Mw  Qnmliniln"  i%\tt^  Cfiflrtes'  Islnndu),  in  honor  to 
(.'Imrlus  If,,  fcillj}  of  SpdiH,  who  intended  to  conquer 
the  hIwIa, 

Wll»t  W»  H»W  e»t(  "  t't^ef  Cnl\firrn'm"  was  called 
by  llw  gw»gf»|()«*f«  of  iM  slAteenlh  century  "Qum- 
ra,"  from  A  (iMjiUOst'rt  fill*  kittgdom  of  this  mime.  The 
nortlMBW  iWflOf  lllW  MfttS  I'plier  Colifornia  nnd  of  oiir 
(L>r«gi»l  'hmUWf  yim  ttAhll  (iri7«)  by  Sir  Fmncis 
\)m%a  '•  N)im  AViimif"  Wiil  this  name  was  pretty  gen- 
erally a^'ltlfrt  \if  i\m  VMfttpem  geographers,  except 
lliu  6|»#ni»ll,     U  W«»  «*(*fla«(<  «t  last  over  the  whole 


of  Ofu^m  »ii4  t'miw'  t'dlilW  (ila, 

Tlw  B»WS  '•  (ippff  Gnty^ifitia  Ot  New  California" 
(CaKfOTMift  MWV»5  apfimu  into  existence  when  tho 
J>»»<;(8«.'»H  fflfs^ifmsfl**,  SlHctt  1769,  made  settlements 
U)  tiM)  mnh  f-f  »)«*  «14  C«1ifoHiiaft  Peninsula.  They 
cal|s4  "  Viiljfimiin  Miem"  ihe  whole  Pacific  slope,  as 
far  mrih  w  H  l*(i«m»  fcttowti  to  them, 

Hini;ij  i><l{t,  Hi4*  rttti*'  of  th«f  so-called  Florida  treaty, 
(Imi  iiortllMFM  IWHIldrttiCB  (if  WeW  California  were  fixed 

at  the  iM  lU^iif^tt  u(  HlUuAe.  aod  then  soon  the  more 
northcFH  JiftFl  \m^m  lO  \m  C«Ji«d  the  "  Oregon  Cmmtrg." 

JH\m»  im  WliljIICJit  «H(1  eessiott  of  the  province  to 
the  U»((*4  i^t»0ii  (sfHM  1»4?J,  the  wrtithern  boundaries 
wera  rt»«l  «t  ^P  m'  of  Idt, 

We  mw  gPHWflHy  P«ll  ihe  eoontry  only  "  Califor. 
nia."  By  ^M^f»\i\mH  U  Is  Botnetlmes  called  "  Conrt- 
nenlnl  ail(/itnii<i,"  in  CWtitCdSt  to  the  Californinn  penin- 
Buh.—Fmiii  llhliifiml  Nukam  the  Ancient  and  Modern 
h'amt  with  vhlnh  tflM  lltf^im,  Cimntries,  Territories, 
and  Mlalm  iihmj)  lh»  OmtlH  ij/lhe  North  American  Union 
have  batn  iMgniliPli^  III/  h  Oj  Kflttt,. 

Califwtti*  U  \mmmA  oti  (he  north  hy  Oregon,  on 
the  e»«t  tiy  fish  «h4  Ssw  M«*I(o,  and  on  the  west 
by  tlM9  Vm\^  (IcedH.  Tits  Ctrtistilution  of  tho  State 
thus  4««(ijf}M«  ifi)  JJifil(<*,  Cottitnenclng  at  the  point 
of  i»M)F8«BHwi  »»f  Httt  iit\  dpgteo  of  north  latitude,  with 
tlis  Ijiath  ^^ffn  t)(  totlfsilllrto  «*st  from  Greenwich, 
and  mmUiii  <wt«(h  mi  (ho  line  of  mM  laoih  degree  or 


CAL 


840 


CAL 


wtit  longltuda  notil  It  lotenecta  the  80th  degn*  of 
north  latitude ;  thence  running  in  •  atraight  line  in  • 
•outhaatterly  direction  to  the  lUver  Colorado,  at  a 
point  where  it  InterMctt  the  S&th  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude ;  thence  down  the  middle  or  the  channel  of  laid 
river  to  the  boundary  line  between  the  ITtaited  Slatei 
•nd  Mexico,  a*  establiibed  by  the  treaty  of  May  DO, 
1M8 ;  thence  running  weit  and  along  lald  boundary 
line  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  extending  thereon  three 
SnglUh  milee;  thenoe  running  in  a  noitliweeterly  di- 
recUon,  and  following  the  direction  of  th(^  I'aciHc  cooit 
to  the  42d  degree  of  north  latitude ;  thonce  on  a  line 
of  Mid  42d  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  place  of  be- 
ginning. Alio  all  the  ialandt,  barbora,  and  baya  along 
and  adjacent  to  the  Paciflc  coi^t.  Area,  188,082  iquare 
milea.  Population  in  1802  iNumbvIM),  16,862,  ton- 
iliting  of  10,662  converted  Indiana,  and  1800  of  other 
clanea ;  in  1813  the  population  waa  eatlmatod  by 
Forbei  to  be  38,026.  Emigranta  from  the  United 
Statea  began  to  enter  the  country  before  1836,  and  ao 
nnmeroua  had  become  the  acttlera  that  when  the  war 
commenced  with  Mexico,  Colonel  Fremont  bad  little 
difficulty  in  raiaing  a  regiment  of  600  men.  At  the 
cloie  of  the  war,  the  population,  excluaiva  of  Indiana, 
amounted  to  about  12,000. 

The  number  of  wild  Indiana  acattored  through  the 
monntaina  ia  unknown,  but  ia  very  conaiderable.  The 
native  Califomiana  ate,  like  the  Moxicana  and  South 
Americana,  chiefly  of  Spaniah  doacvnt,  but  generally 
with  a  very  large  mixture  of  Indian  blood,  ao  that  in 
complexion  and  featurea  they  are  of  all  ahadea  and  de- 
greea,  f>om  the  pure  Indian  to  the  pure  Caaliiian. 

The  population  of  the  State,  according  to  the  cenaua 
of  the  United  SUtea  in  1850,  waa  02,669;  and  by  the 
State  cenaua  in  1862,  261,486. 

The  aeat  of  government  ia  at  Sacramento  City,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  juat  below  the  en- 
trance of  the  American  Fork.  The  principal  placea  are 
San  Francisco,  Stockton,  Monterey,  Santa  Barbara, 
San  Diego,  Humboldt,  etc. 

Surface. — The  greater  part  of  the  State  ia  billy  or 
mountainoua.  The  moat  prominent  range  of  mount- 
oina  ia  the  Sierra  Nevada,  lying  nearly  parallel  with 
the  coaat,  and  from  100  to  200  milca  distant.  On  the 
weatem  alopo  of  this  range  are  the  principal  gold  minea, 
extending  400  or  600  miles  in  length,  and  60  or  60  in 
width.  Tbij  alope  of  the  Sierra  is  broken  by  the  nu- 
merous tributaries  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
into  deep  gorges  and  ravines,  and  the  aurface  of  the 
region  is  extremely  mgged  and  uneven.  West  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  range  of  mountains,  the  great  valley  of 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  apreads  600  miles  in 
length,  and  60  or  60  in  width.  This  is  very  level, 
contains  but  little  timber,  and  though  fertile  in  some 
portiona,  ia  extensively  covered  with  an  arid  unpro- 
ductive aoil  back  from  the  atreams,  and  by  immense 
tnle  or  bulrush  marshes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers. 
The  annual  freshets  in  thia  valley  occur  in  the  winter 
and  spring,  and  the  atreama  are  often  at  their  maxi- 
mum hoight  aa  late  aa  June,  In  conaequence  of  the 
melting  anowa  of  the  Sierra.  Thia  great  valley  is 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  cooat  range  of  hills  and 
mountains,  which  rise  In  some  parte  to  the  height  of 
8000  feet  and  upward,  and  lie  from  80  to  60  milca 
back  from  the  coast.  These  hills  are  interspersed 
with  numerous  valleys,  soma  of  them  of  great  beauty 
and  fertility. 

SoU  and  ProducHom. — The  best  agricultnral  lands 
•re  found  in  the  great  baaina  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin,  and  these  vallcya  in  spring  and  nummer 
are  covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation  of  various 
grataea,  wild  oats,  etc.  The  hilb  are  generally  cov- 
ered with  wild  oata,  and  furnish  excellent  paaturage, 
though  for  the  moat  part  too  dry  for  cultivation. 
Farther  north,  the  valley  of  the  Mendocino  or  Eel  Bir- 
•r  ia  repreaented  by  recent  explorers  as  well  adapted 
to  agricultnre.   The  lands  in  the  vioinity  of  Humboldt 


harbor  are  also  said  to  be  verv  twttt*,  and  In  eonN* 
quence  of  occasional  ahowers  Inrwugh  the  dry  Maaon, 
they  aUnd  in  no  need  of  tr^gation,  wlilvh,  thnujuh  not 
eaaential  to  the  aucceaa  of  most  erops  in  ullwr  paria  of 
the  country,  is,  navsrihelssa,  oocisloimlly  deilrabla. 

The  grape  flouriahea  all  ever  ths  lti«l«,  and  win* 
has  long  been  manufaclurud  at  I<us  Angelos  aiiit  other 
placea.  The  varioiia  vegetables  and  fruit*  uf  the  Urn- 
perate  lone  flourish  flnsly,  and  In  the  Miuthnrn  oottn« 
ties  many  tropical  produetloua  may  lie  aurriiBsAilly 
cultivated.  California  seems  by  nature  |i««ullarly 
adapted  for  graxing )  but,  under  •  judicious  eulllva- 
tion,  ita  agricultural  reaourcfs  are  veiy  gniai. 

There  wore  in  this  Stale  In  IHAO,  6i,mi  attroi  of 
land  improved,  and  8,881,671  of  unimprovnd  tatii!  In 
farma;  caah  value  of  farma,  $8,874,(H1,  and  the  valiM 
of  implements  and  machinery  |IOU,4Mil(  live  altHik— 
boraea,  21,719;  aasei  and  mules,  IMW;  nilMl  «vw», 
4280;  working  oxen,  47HO I  other  catll*,!IAn,6IW|  alieep, 
17,674;  swine,  2776;  valur  nf  live  stock,  |lt,ltAI,OM), 

Agricullural  /Vorfi/c/s,— Wheat,  17,»M  buabels  (  In. 
dian  com,  12,280  huaholsj  barley,  |)7J3  ImahKla;  p«ai 
and  beana,  2202  liuaheU;  potatoes,  USIU3  buahvla  |  sweet 
potatoea,  1000  busbeli)  value  of  produvis  uf  the  or* 
chards,  917,700 ;  produce  of  market  gardrna,  f7A,27A ) 
pounds  of  bntter  made,  700;  of  rh««s«,  iOO;  pounds 
of  wool  produced,  6620;  of  iobacvn,  lOIKI;  hay,  tons 
of,  2088;  and  were  made  68,066  galloua  of  wine ;  vaitt* 
of  home-made  manufactures,  $7000;  of  slaughtered  an* 
imals,  $100,178.  The  Sislu  tenaua  of  \HM  shows  an 
increase  of  improved  lands  to  110,7411  lorva;  ofllv* 
atock  — horaoa,  04,778;  mules,  lfl,67»<(  miUh  cows, 
104,339;  beef  cattle,  816,802;  working  oxon,  !n),06At 
agricultural  producta— wheat,  271,768  busbelai  hiillan 
com,  62,682  buahela ;  oaU,  100,407  bushels;  potatoes, 
1,398,170  buahcIa;  barley,  2,078,784  bushels. 

The  State,  as  a  whole,  can  not  be  desi'ribsit  as  well 
timbered.  The  plains  and  valleya  are,  III  lh«  main, 
dcatitute  of  foroata,  though  in  many  of  llieiit  ia  an  «*• 
tenaive  growth  of  acattered  oska,  AniunK  the  coast 
range  of  mountaina  are  many  forest*  uf  rcit-wuNl,  a 
apeciea  of  cedar,  growing  to  an  Iwiiienae  iklxi>,  and  fur* 
niahing  an  extremely  durable  material  fur  bulldiniK, 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  and  AHiung  lbs  snowy 
mountaina,  are  forests  of  gigantic  pines,  iirs,  c«dars, 
and  other  valuable  forest  trees,  ranging  from  100  to 
200  feet  in  height,  and  from  6  to  16  feet  In  diamster. 
In  the  central  part  of  the  valley  uf  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin,  near  the  Junction  of  these  rivers  with  ilM 
Bay  of  Suisun,  is  an  extensive  tract  of  low,  ttiartb  land 
called  the  'lAilarea,  or  Tula  lands,  from  tba  liilt  or  liul* 
rush  with  which  they  are  thickly  covered.  Ihrao 
lands  are  estimated  to  cover  an  arta  of  at  l«a«t  (I(NI,0«0 
acres,  and  are  drained  by  a  net-work  of  slough*  wlili'h 
generally  aflbrd  navigable  cbaiinela  from  two  to  six 
fathoma  In  depth.  Should  theao  lands  lie  reclaimed, 
their  <ino  alluvial  soil  will  doubtless  prove  well  adap!t 
cd  to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  coast  rang*  of  mount- 
aina, and  the  valleya  of  the  SHcramento  and  Han  So^ 
quiu,  abound  in  deer,  elk,  antelopsa,  and  other  wild 
game,  and  tho  plaina  are  traversed  by  iniiiittiisn  hitrds 
of  wild  horses.  The  formidable  grlxxly  Iwar  U  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Stale.  Tii«  catCl*  uf  tlio 
country  are  fine,  and  are  owned  by  the  native  (!alifof* 
nians  often  in  lierda  of  many  thousands.  'I'liess  w«ra 
formerly  killed  in  great  numbers  tor  Iheir  hide*  and 
tallow,  which  constituted  the  principal  «K|torl»  of  tba 
country,  and  the  chief  source  of  wealth  to  the  lnhabit> 
ants. 

J/mu.— Silver,  lead,  ooppor,  platinum,  and  other 
mines,  have  been  discovered  In  ('California  (though  not 
yet  worked),  but  the  great  miners)  waaltb  of  the  Stala 
consists  in  its  mines  of  quicksilver  and  gold,  partUttt' 
larly  the  latter.  The  quieksUvtr  mine  of  New  Mmt- 
den,  discovered  in  1846,  18  miles  south  of  Han  Jost,  it 
probably  the  richest  in  the  world,  and,  If  properly 
worked,  would  yield  a  million  of  doUan  a  yaar.  Oeld 


CAL. 


i41 


OAL 


lit  M  wall 

III*  tnitin, 
In  III  sif 

,  mill  fur* 
liullillng. 
b»  inowy 
c«dtn, 
.    100  to 

i\ttMt»f. 

•unto  iitit 
with  tiM 
ifib  (■nil 
er  but- 

TIlfM 

(MKI,tK)0 
bn  wiiluh 
;o  to  lU 
ii'Ultmil) 
illwiip!' 
ifmeiin*- 
H*ii  Jo** 
liitr  wild 
iMi  b«rdi 
In  found 
•  ef  III* 
Callfof 

]ldM  Nnd 
II  of  lb* 
InbaMU 

^4  otbtr 
jiugli  not 
|h«  8t«i* 
Iputloti- 
>  Aim*' 
ioit,  <• 

^    Gold 


U  Ubanilly  icattanKl  otm  a  l*rg«  portion  of  iha  Stat*. 
From  it*  Hrat  dlioover^-,  in  Fabruary,  1848,  to  tb«  pre*- 
ent  lime,  new  dvpotit*  havo  b<«n  •ucccuivi-ly  opcnstl 
in  viriuu*  liireetiuni,  and  the  wliole  extant  and  rich- 
IMU  of  tbo  minas  itiil  remain*  a  matter  to  b«  developed 
horaaflar.  The  llrat  gold  diK'overed  na*  on  the  Amer- 
ican Fork,  abou(  60  miio*  eaat  of  Sutter'*  Fort  (now 
Sacramento  City).  About  tbrae  month*  afterward  it 
liagan  to  b»  ftiiind  on  tbo  Yuba  and  Featitar  river*  to 
the  northward,  and  on  the  Coaumne*  to  the  eouth- 
ward.  Subaequently  it  waa  diecovered  on  all  the 
principal  eutern  tributario*  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin,  and,  atiii  later,  oxteiiiive  depoaita  have 
been  opened  amuiig  the  coaat  range  of  mountain*  in 
the  nurthoni  part  of  the  Sutu,  particularly  on  the 
Trinity  and  Klamath,  and  their  tributariaa. 

Total  produetlan  of  the  mlnea  to  Janu- 
ary 1,  ltl5i (14O,tBl,108 

Product  of  1861 SI,t»9,MS 

Product  of  1888 M.000,000 

$8«0,6ilU,ll01 

There  were  in  1863,  108  quartz  mill*,  with  a  capital 
•f  (5,87 1,405,  and  other  mining  operation*  employing 
capital  of  18,026,042. 

PttUiim  of  Ike  Ootd. — Tlie  gold  i*  found  under  two 
principal  forma ;  interspersed  in  irregular  veins  tlirougli 
beds  of  quartz  rock ;  In  grains  and  irregular  water-worn 
lumps  of  all  sizes,  mingled  with  the  bed*  of  drift  or 
gravel,  which  cover  the  face  of  the  country,  but  most 
abundantly  In  the  bottoms  of  tho  mountain  ravines. 
Tlkese  grains  and  lumps  were  once  parts  of  veins  trav- 
ersing quartz  rock,  and  have  lieen  dislodged  from  tlieir 
original  inatrLx  and  reduced  to  the  form  in  which  we 
now  behold  them  by  those  aqueous  and  elemental 
agencies  which  have  every  wher*  disintegrated  and 
broken  down  the  surface  rock*,  and  of  their  ruins 
formed  the  present  sand  and  gravel  beds  that  cover 
the  fiica  of  the  earth.  Their  origin,  or  rather  the  ori- 
gin of  the  forms  in  which  we  see  them,  was  the  same 
as  that  of  ail  our  sand  and  gravels.  They  are,  in  fact, 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  golden  pebbles— metallic 
gravel  and  sand.  The  idea  so  prevalent  that  tlia  gold 
has  been  thrown  out  from  volcanoes  in  a  melteil  state, 
it  entirely  unscientlflc  and  erroneous.  The  gold  re- 
gion is  not  volcanic,  and  ail  search  for  the  "  blow- 
holes," or  "fountains,"  from  which  the  gold  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  thrown  must  always  bo,  as  it 
heretofore  has  lieen,  entirely  frnitloss.  In  general, 
tho  loose  gold  i*  found  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  parent  veins  of  which  it  once  formed  a  part;  or, 
at  least,  at  no  great  distance  down  the  slopes  of  the 
valleys  and  ravine*  which  have  in  process  of  time  been 
excavated  l)y  the  elements. 

Tho  vein  gold  found  m  i^ant  in  the  quartz  rocks 
occurs  in  various  parts  of  the  mines,  but  chiefly  in  tlie 
southern  districts — in  tho  neighborhood  of  the  Cosum- 
no,  Moquelumne,  Tuolumne,  and  Mariposa  rivers,  and 
elsewhere.  The  working  of  these  veins  require*  ma- 
chinery, and  ha*  not  yet  been  fairly  tested.  Some 
(rials  have  been  made  with  flattering  success. 

Ilia  scale  and  lump  gold  is  found  most  abundantly 
in  the  bottoms  of  ravines,  and  in  the  banks  and  l)eds  of 
the  rivers,  particularly  In  the  bars  of  sand  and  gravel 
thrown  up  In  the  streams  by  tlie  rush  of  the  mountain 
torrents.  The  gravel  bed  containing  the  gold  lies 
generally  not  over  two  or  three  feet  Ijeiow  the  surface ; 
but  occasionally  it  is  covered  to  the  depth  of  10,  20, 
and  even  50  feet.  Most  of  the  gold  hitherto  obtained 
has  been  taken  from  such  localities.  The  banks  and 
bed*  of  tlie  rivers  yield  most  abundantly  at  the  lowest 
stage  of  water  in  the  autumn  nnd  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer. The  side  "  gulches,"  nr  ravines,  are  usnnlly  des- 
titute of  water  in  the  dry  season,  and  hence  the  ex- 
plorations in  them  are  denominated  "  drj-  diggings," 
and  are  conducted  most  successfully  during  the  winter, 
spring,  aiid  early  part  of  summer,  particularly  the  two 
Utte»        r 


It  la  Impoasibl*  to  aay  which  portion  of  the  miaaa  la 
th*  ricbeat.  All  part*  of  them  have  yielded  immenae 
quantltias  of  gold,  ^ha  aoutbem  nilaat  have  tamed 
out  the  grtateat  number  of  large  lumps,  and  more  of 
tbo  coanM  or  lump  gold  i*  generally  foond  In  that  re- 
gion. But  for  tbia  very  reaaon,  perhap*,  digging  in 
them  i*  *omawhat  more  precarioua  and  lottery-like 
than  eisawhera.  In  the  nortiMm  minaa  the  chance*  of 
Hnding  Urge  specimana  may  be  leas,  but  the  proapeot 
of  making  fair  daily  wages  baa  been  considered  rather 
moru  «;ci'tain  there  than  in  the  southern  mine*.  Tlie 
recently-discovered  deposits  in  tlio  coast  range  on  the 
Klamath  and  Trinity,  and  their  aflluanta,  are  reported 
to  lie  unusually  rich,  and  many  hare  baatened  to  give 
them  a  trial. 

The  implement*  needed  for  procuring  the  aUavlal  or 
looso  gold  are  picks,  shovels,  and  washer*,  llie  wa*h> 
er*  are  either  eimpie  pan*  or  wooden  bowl*,  or  ma- 
chine*, generally  in  the  form  of  a  cradle,  and  hence 
called  craiUu  or  nok*rt.  The*a  are  sometimes  more 
expensively  constructed,  and  fumUhed  with  ceil*  for 
quicknilver;  by  mean*  oif  which  tho  gold  may  be  more 
completely  and  economically  extracted. 

It  is  well  known  that  comparatively  but  a  email 
portion  of  the  product*  of  the  mine*  i*  entered  at  tho 
San  Francisco  cu*tom-hou*e.  Large  mm*  are  token 
by  pa**enger*  leaving  the  country  among  their  bag- 
gage. An  immense  amonnt  has  also  been  taken  out 
overland,  by  the  Sonoranlans  and  other  Mexican* 
who  have  returned  fh>m  the  mines  to  their  homes.  It 
may  lie  estimated,  therefore,  that  not  much  less  than 
Ihiee  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  dollars  have 
been  dug  from  the  gold  region  of  California  since  it* 
discovery. — II.  G. 

For  later  California  sUtisties,  see  artides  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Gold. 

Oalilbniia,  Oulf  ot,  an  arm  of  the  Paciflo  Ocean, 
separating  tho  peninsula  of  Lower  California  fh>m  the 
main  lund.  It  lies  between  lat.  23°  and  82°  N.,  and 
long.  107°  and  114°  W. ;  and  is  about  700  miles  in 
length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  40  to  150  miles. 
Its  western  shores  are  generally  high  and  rocky,  with 
few  places  of  shelter ;  its  eastern  shores  are  lower  and 
less  rocky.  It  contains  numerous  islands,  and  at  its 
northern  extremity  receives  the  river*  Colorado  and 
Gila. 

Calk,  to  drive  a  quantity  oi'  i.^i.um  Into  the  *eamt 
of  planks,  to  prevent  the  entrai.  ./'  hi  water.  After 
tho  oakum  is  driven  in,  it  is  covered  -rtth  melted  pitch 
or  resin,  to  preserve  it  from  the  actio.)  of  the  water. 

Callao,  a  fortilied  town  of  Peru,  department,  and  six 
miles  west  of  Lima,  of  which  it  Is  the  port,  on  the  Pa- 
cific, in  lat.  12°  S.,  long.  77°  18'  7"  W.  Population 
perhaps  20,000.  It  is  generally  well  built ;  it*  castle, 
formerly  very  strong,  has  lately  been  dismantled,  and 
is  now  used  for  a  custom-house.  Its  roadstead,  shel- 
tered by  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo,  is  the  best  on  the 
Peruvian  coast.  It  has  a  convenient  quay,  and  com- 
municates with  Lima  by  a  good  carriage  road,  along 
wliich  omnibuses  now  run  dally.  Customs  revenue, 
about  $1,000,000.  Exports  consist  chiefly  of  bullion, 
specie,  copper,  cotton,  bark,  and  hides.  In  1841,  498 
vessels,  aggregate  burden  101,084  tons,  entered;  and 
404  vessels,  burden  119,944  tons,  cleared  ont  of  the  port. 
In  1740  the  old  town  of  Callao  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.  In  1820,  the  Earl  of  Dundonald  (then 
Lord  Cochrane)  gallantly  cut  out  the  Esmeralda,  a 
large  Spanish  ship  of  war,  fVom  under  the  guns  of  the 
fort. — See  Lima. 

Cklma,  Region  o£  In  tho  Atlantic  Ocean,  be- 
tween the  Tropic  jf  Cancer  and  latitude  29°  north,  and 
an  the  confines  of  the  trade-winds,  between  4°  and  10° 
north  latitude,  calms  of  long  duration  prevail ;  and 
hence  these  tracts  are  called  the  calm  latitudes,  or  the 
nffion  nfealnu.  In  the  latter  tract,  particularly,  these 
perpetual  calms  are  accompanied  by  a  snfibcating  heat, 
by  thundar-atorm*  and  flood*  of  rain,  so  tlukt  it  is  ton** 


OAL 


I4t 


CAM 


I  oklltd  lb*  Katnf  Sta.  TiM  oaly  windt  tb«t  oc- 
MT  art  luddin  iquaJU  of  ihort  tIatatioB  and  (xtanl. 
la  tb*M  calm*  lb«  provlilont  m  corrupted,  lb*  deck 
•Mm*  op«D,  and  Ui*  (Ugnant  air  brtad*  dlMaM. 
Wb«a  a  Alp  U  In  Ibit  poiilloa,  if  tb«  currvnt  aeti  In 
••ward  ro«kt,  and  the  Ma  U  too  deep  to  ca«t  anchor, 
bw  dntnutton  It  aluoat  IntvluUe.  In  tbe  Mrditer- 
ranaan,  wbar*  than  ai«  no  tidu,  diad  ealmi  an  more 
aommoii  than  in  Iba  open  ocean ;  but  they  are  often 
thepicMget of  approacklng itonnt. — £.  A. 

OaloOMl,  a  pwparatlcc  of  marcory,  much  wed  in 
OMdlcine. 

OalOlio,  tbe  principle  or  matter  of  beat,  or  tbe 
iimple  element  of  heat. 

Oambrio,  or  Cambrlok  (Oer.  Kammirtuchi  Du. 
KammrykidoA;  ft.  Camtniy  JIalutt;  It.  Ciimbrajai 
Sp.  Cnmbrai ;  Port.  Camiraia ;  Kusi.  Kamtrluif),  a  epe- 
olea  of  very  fine  white  linen,  flrit  made  at  Cembray, 
In  French  Klundrn,  whence  it  derivei  ite  eppellHtion. 
Cambrice  were  lint  worn  In  Kngland,  an<l  accounted 
a  great  luxury  in  dren,  22  Elizabeth,  l&NO. — Stowe. 
Tbe  ImportatiiDn  of  tbem  wai  reatrlcted  in  174S ;  and 
wat  totully  prohibited  by  aUtuU  of  82  Oeo.  II.,  1758. 
Readmitted  in  1780,  but  afterward  tgtin  prohibited : 
the  importation  of  cambrica  ii  now  allowed  in  tireat 
Britain.— Uaydn. 

Oaincl  (Fr.  Ckaiiteau ;  It.  and  Sp.  Camelo ;  Ger. 
Kumttlt  Arab.  Vjimel;  IM.  Vumeliu;  (ireeli  Kn/ii/Xof), 
la  Indlgenooa  to  Arabia,  and  we  only  mention  it  in  thin 
place  on  aocount  of  Ita  extreme  importance  in  tba  com- 
OMroe  of  the  Eaat. 

The  camel  la  one  of  the  moat  uaeful  of  tbe  anlmala 
over  which  tbe  inbabitanta  of  Aabi  and  Africa  have  ac- 
quired dominion.  Theae  continenta  are  interaeeled  by 
vaat  tracta  of  burning  aand,  tbe  aeatt  of  deaolation  and 
drought,  ao  ta,  apparently,  to  exclude  the  poaailiiiity 
of  any  intercoune  taking  place  between  the  cuuntriea 
that  they  aeparato.  "  But  aa  the  ocean,  which  ap- 
paara  at  flrat  viaw  to  be  placed  aa  an  inauperable  bar- 
rier between  differant  regiona  of  the  earth,  baa  been 
rendered  by  navigation  aubaervlent  to  their  mutual  in- 
tercoune; ao,  by  meana  of  tbe  camel,  which  tbe  Ara- 
Uaaa  emphatically  call  the  Hhip  of  the  Ittttrt,  the  moat 
dreary  waatea  are  traveraed,  and  the  nationa  which 
they  diajoln  are  enabled  to  trade  with  one  another. 
Thoae  painful  journevH,  impracticable  by  any  otiier  an- 
imal, the  camel  performa  with  astonUbing  diapatcb. 
Under  heavy  burdena  of  600,  700,  and  800  pounda' 
weight,  they  can  continue  their  march  during  a  long 
period  of  time,  with  little  food  or  rcat,  and  aoinetimea 
without  tasting  water  for  eight  or  nine  daya.  By  the 
wiae  econor-y  of  Providence,  the  camel  seema  (armed 
on  purpoae  to  be  the  beaat  uf  burden  in  thoae  regiona 
where  he  la  placed,  and  where  hia  aervice  la  mo«t  want- 
ad.  In  all  the  diatricta  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where 
deaerta  are  moat  frequent  and  extenaive,  the  camel 
abounda.  Thia  it  hia  proper  atation,  and  beyond  thia 
the  aphere  of  bU  activity  doea  not  extend  f..r.  He 
dreada  alike  the  exceaaea  of  heat  and  cold,  >  il  doea 
not  agree  even  with  the  mild  climate  of  our  ta.<iperate 
mne."— Robkrtson'h  Ancitnt  India. 

The  first  trade  in  Indian  commodities  of  which  we 
have  any  account  (Ueneaia  xxxvli.  26)  was  carried  on 
by  camels ;  and  they  atill  continue  to  be  the  medium 
employed  in  the  conveyance  of  merchanta  and  mc«- 
chandiae  throDghont  Turkey,  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Birbary,  and  many  contiguous  countries.  Tlie 
marchaiita  astembla  in  considerable  numbers,  forming 
themselves  into  an  association,  or  rararon  (we  Cara- 
VAii),  for  their  mutual  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  robbers,  and  the  dangers  incident  to  a  journey 
through  such  rude  and  inhospitable  countries.  Theae 
caravans  are  often  very  large,  and  usually  consist  of 
more  camels  than  men.  The  capacity  of  the  camel  to  j 
endnre  fatigue,  and  the  small  supply  of  provisions  that 
he  requires,  U  almost  incredible.  "  His  ordinary  bur-  j 
dan,"  says  Volney,  "is  750  pounds;  his  food  what- 1 


I  svar  Is  given  him— straw,  thistles,  the  stones  of  dataa, 
liaana,  barley,  etc.  With  a  pound  of  food  a  day,  and 
aa  much  water,  he  wilt  travel  for  weeka.  In  the  Jour- 
nay  from  Cairo  to  Sues,  which  U  40  or  40  houra,  they 
neither  eat  nor  drink ;  but  theae  long  fkata.  If  often  r«- 
peated,  wear  them  out.  Their  uaual  rata  uf  traveling 
is  very  alow,  hardly  above  two  milea  an  hour  :  It  la  In 
vain  to  urge  them;  they  will  not  quicken  their  pace; 
but  if  allowed  aoroe  abort  rent,  they  will  travel  15  or 
18  hours  a  day."— IV^nje  tn  .SjriV.  The  Arabians  ra> 
gard  the  camel  aa  a  sacred  animal,  the  gift  of  Heaven, 
without  whose  aid  they  could  neither  tul>al*t,  nor  trade, 
nor  travel.  Ita  milk  la  their  ordinary  food ;  they  also 
eat  Its  flesh,  especially  that  of  tbe  young  camel,  which 
they  reckon  excellent;  Ita  hair,  which  la  renewed  ev- 
ery year,  is  partly  manufactured  into  stuffn  for  their 
clothes  and  fumilure,  and  partly  lent  abroad  as  a  valu- 
able article  of  morcbandlno ;  and  even  its  faces  nerve 
tbcm  for  fuel.  Itlrnned  with  their  camels,  the  AraLa 
want  nothing,  anil  fcnr  nothing.  In  a  single  day  they 
can  traveae  40  or  50  milea  of  tbe  deaert,  and  interpoaa 
ita  trackleta  sands  aa  an  Impenetrable  rampart  between 
them  and  their  foes.  (See  tba  admirable  deacriptlon 
of  the  camel,  in  Bvffo.n.)  But,  liowever  uaeful  to  the 
inbabitanta  of  parched,  sandy  deserts,  it  may  be  worth 
while,  perhapa,  to  observe,  that  the  camel  la  of  very 
little  aervice  elaewhore.  He  can  not  walk  100  yards 
in  wet  or  alippery  ground  without  atumlillng.  He  is 
totally  unknown  in  all  hilly  or  woody  countries;  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  may  l>e  aald  to  lie  aa  great  a  atran> 
ger  In  the  Eaatem  Islauda,  Japan,  the  aouthem  parts  of 
China,  the  whole  country  lying  lietween  China  and  In- 
dia, and  all  the  southern  parts  of  the  latter,  including 
Bengal,  OS  he  id  In  Europe.  In  all  those  vast  countries 
tlw  ox  is  the  most  useful  of  the  lower  animals.  It  Is 
used  for  draught  (for  which  tbe  camel  is  totally  untit), 
in  the  cart  and  plow,  in  tbe  carrying  of  burdens,  in 
treading  corn,  in  tlie  oil-press,  etc.,' and  llnally  as  food. 

In  18A6,  Congress,  In  accordance  with  a  recommenda- 
tion of  the  .Secretary  of  War,  granted  an  appropriation 
for  the  purpoae  of  importing  and  introducing  the  cam- 
el into  the  United  Stalea,  to  be  uaed  principally  on  the 
prairiea  and  deaerta  of  tlie  Weat— the  Statoa  of  Texas 
and  New  Mexico  enpecially.  To  carry  out  thia  plan, 
an  expedition,  under  Major  Wayne,  of  the  United  Statea 
Artillery,  and  Lieutenant  Porter,  United  .Slates  Navy, 
visited  the  Mediterranean,  and  purchaso<l  a  numlier  of 
camels  and  dromedaries,  and  conveyed  them  to  Texas. 
A  second  expedition  has  junt  started,  aa  the  plan  prom- 
ises to  succeed,  and  the  plan  will  be  tested  on  a  larger 
scale.  Emigrants  have  aufTered  much  In  their  trains 
for  the  want  of  a  burden  animal  that  could  do  without 
water  for  a  lung  time,  and  a  great  numlier  of  animals 
are  annually  lost  on  the  plains  with  tbirat. 

There  are  now  thirty-two  caniela,  old  and  young,  tn 
the  State  of  Texas,  in  charge  of  ofHcera  of  the  army, 
and  forty  more  on  their  way  to  thin  country.  With 
the  natural  increase,  the  experiment  will  thus  be  com- 
menced with  nearly  a  hundred  of  these  "  ahlps  of  the 
desert."  The  War  Department  has  the  highest  ex- 
pectationa  of  their  availability  for  the  inland  travel  on 
aouthem  portiona  of  this  continent,  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  of  the  justification  of  his  hopes.  The  routa 
to  the  Pacific  oflTers  better  forage  for  these  hardy  ani- 
mals than  they  find  in  tiieir  own  deserts ;  and  as  to 
climate,  the  Tartars  use  tbem  on  the  steppes  of  Asia, 
in  regions  as  inhospitable  as  can  be  found  on  the  Cali- 
fornia route,  except  in  mid-winter,  when  travel  may 
be  suspended.  A  correspondent  of  the  (Inkttti.n  Xetct 
Btates  that  tbe  Indiana  have  never  yet  bad  a  sight  of 
theae  strange  animals,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  such  ungainly  creatures  will  cause,  fur  a 
neason  at  least,  such  terror  to  the  red  man  as  to  prove 
a  protection  for  caravans.  Tlie  Indiana  may  get  over 
this;  but,  unless  the  horses  of  the  prairies  difier  from 
their  Asiatic  couaina,  they  will  require  long  training 
to  learn  to  like  the  aapect  of  the  camel.    The  Tartars 


CAlf 


fl4S 


CAM 


who  vlalt  ChtnaM  hontUr  towni  mil  markctt  throw 
every  thliiK  into  vonftiilon.  llorMi  flInKi  and  l>ounil, 
•ml  lin«k  their  halten  to  cic-epe  *  rrekture  to  whirh 
Ihry  will  not  Ket  •cGuMomed.  We  happened  once  to 
■ee  a  couple  of  camali  driven  throiixh  a  country  vll- 
laKOi  and  never  were  horaei  and  mulei  Innpirited  with 
more  ridicuioua  fIrlKht  than  the  farmers'  naga  were  at 
till*  ungainly  apparition. 

Cwnal,  a  machine,  of  Dutch  Invention,  for  ralilng 
large  ibip*  lo  far  above  the  water-line  ai  to  enable 
them  to  pau  over  the  obitructlon  of  a  liar  or  ihallow. 
It  conaiatcd  of  two  large  boxei,  or  half  ahlpe,  which 
were  applied  to  each  aide  of  the  hull  of  a  large  veiael, 
and  from  which  a  numlwr  of  cablea  ware  paaaed  under 
tlia  keel,  unit  attached  to  horlaontal  windlaasea  on  the 
deck  of  either  half  of  the  camel.  When  the  machine 
wai  to  b«  uaed,  water  wai  allowed  to  enter,  ao  aa  to 
•ink  the  two  parts  of  the  machine  to  the  requlalte 
depth ;  the  ropea  ware  then  caat  looae,  and  large  beams 
were  placed  horiaontally  through  the  port-holes  of  the 
ship,  with  their  ends  resting  on  the  camel  on  each  aide. 
When  the  ropes  were  made  faiil,  and  the  ship  properly 
secured,  the  water  was  pum|)ed  out  of  the  camel,  which 
then  rose  and  Imm  up  the  siiip  along  with  It.  By  this 
contrivance,  Kaat  Indiumen  dniwlng  16  feet  could  lie 
made  to  draw  only  11  feet;  and  ships  of  war  carrying 
DO  or  100  guns  were  enabled  to  pass  the  sand  lianiis  of 
the  Zuyder  Zee. — liKCKMAN.t's  IIUl.  cff  Inttntunu,  vol. 
111.  p.  888.  This  machine  la  also  available  for  raising 
sunken  vessel*. — K.  U. 

Camel'a  Hair  (Garm.  Kamttlkaari  Fr.  PoU  de 
ehameau,  I/tine  de  chtvroni  It.  J'elo  di  camello;  8p. 
I'flo  A  hna  ih  ciimetlo).  The  hair  of  the  camel  im- 
ported Into  this  country  Is  principally  used  In  the  man- 
ufacture of  line  pencils  for  drawing  and  painting.  In 
the  Kast,  however,  it  Is  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce, nnd  Is  extensively  used  in  the  arts.  It  serves 
for  the  fabrication  of  the  tents  and  carpets  of  the  Arabs, 
and  for  their  wearing  apparel.  Cloth  Is  also  manu- 
factured of  It  In  Persia  and  other  places.  The  moat 
esteemed  hair  comes  fhim  Persia,  divided  Into  three 
qualities — black,  red,  and  gray.  The  black  la  the 
deareat,  and  the  gray  only  worth  half  the  red.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  camel's  liuir  are  exported  from 
Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  Alexandria.  It  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  particularly  by  the  French. 
— Rkks'  Cyclopedia,  art.  Camki.us. 

Camella,  a  very  ornamental  genus  of  plants,  na- 
tives of  China  and  Japan,  lielonging  to  the  natural  or- 
der Tem^romincfos.  Many  varieties  of  this  plant  are 
grown  in  England  and  Belgium,  sometimes  in  tha  optn 
air,  but  more  generally  in  hot-houses.  Thci^'i  I'lually 
cultivated  in  pots,  they  are  found  to  thrive  licst  in  open 
soil  in  a  glass-house  artiflclully  heated. 

Cameo,  a  peculiar  kind  of  onyx  ;  also  a  stone,  nn 
which  are  found  various  ligures  or  representations  of 
landscapes,  a  kind  of  liuwi  nntnra,  exhibiting  pictures 
without  painting.  It  is  of  these  camaieuz  that  Pliny 
Is  understood  to  speak  when  he  says  of  the  manifold 
pictures  of  gems,  and  the  party-colored  spots  of  precious 
stones,  (I'emmnnim  pictura  tnm  multiplex  hpidumque  tnm 
diteolnret  maculm.  Camco  Is  also  frequently  applied  to 
any  kind  of  gem  on  which  figures  are  sculptured,  ei- 
ther indentedly  or  In  relievo.  The  shell  of  large  uni- 
valves Is  now  much  used  for  making  cameos,  the  suli- 
ject  Iwing  wrought  on  the  outer  or  white  layer  of  the 
shell,  and  the  pink  or  brown  under  one  serving  for  the 
ground.  Camco  ie  also  uaed  for  a  painting  of  only  one 
color,  whore  the  lights  and  shadows  are  of  gold, 
wrought  on  a  golden  or  azure  ground.  When  the 
grouud  is  yellow  the  French  call  it  eirage ;  when  gray, 
griuaiie.  This  kind  of  work  is  chiefly  uaed  to  repre- 
sent basso  relievos.  The  Greeks  called  such  works 
liovoxpuiiaTa. — E.  B. 

Camera  Luoida.  Invented  by  Dr.  Hook,  about 
1674. — Wood's  Ath.  Ox.  Also  an  Instrument  Invent- 
ed by  Dr,  WoUaaton,  in  1807. 


Camera  Obaonra  G'  *•  i""^  f'lmmher\  in  Opiift, 

a  machine  or  apparatus  reprrnenting  an  artlAclal  eye, 
by  which  the  Images  of  external  objects,  recalved 
through  a  ilouble  convex  glass,  are  exhibited  distinct- 
ly, antl  In  their  native  colors,  on  a  white  matter  placed 
within  the  machine,  In  the  focus  of  the  glass.  The 
<vim«ra  iAtcura  affords  very  diverting  spectacles,  by 
repreaantlng  images  perfectly  like  Ihrlr  objects,  whlla 
at  the  same  time  It  exhibits  all  their  motions.  By 
means  of  this  instrument,  a  person  unacquainted  with 
designing  may  delineate  objects  with  the  greateat  ac- 
curacy ,—K,  B.  The  eamtra  oitcum,  or  dark  chamber, 
waa  invented.  It  Is  believed,  by  the  celebrate<l  Hogar 
Bacon,  in  1S07 ;  it  waa  improved  by  Baptista  Porta, 
the  writer  on  natural  magic,  about  16011. — MonKni, 
8ir  Isaac  Xewloii  remodeled  It.  By  the  recent  inven- 
tioiv  of  M.  Duguerre,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  arc 
rendered  permanent :  the  last  was  pnxluced  In  18SI), — 
IlAriix, 

Camlet,  or  Camblet  (Gcr.  and  Du.  Kamelot;  Fr, 
Cametoli  It,  Ciambellolfo f  8p.  Cameltite;  Ruaa.  Kam- 
liil),  a  plain  stuff,  manufactured  on  a  loom,  with  two 
treadles,  as  linens  are.  There  are  camlets  of  various 
colors  and  aorta ;  anme  wholly  of  goata'  hair ;  others 
In  which  the  warp  is  of  hair,  and  lh»  woof  half  hair 
and  half  silk ;  others,  again,  In  which  both  the  warp 
and  the  woof  aru  of  wool ;  and,  lastly,  some  of  which 
the  warp  Is  of  wool  and  the  woof  of  thread :  some  are 
striped,  some  watered,  and  some  figured.  The  true 
Oriental  camlet  Is  made  of  the  hair  of  a  sort  of  goat 
ftrequent  alwut  Angora,  and  which  constitutes  the  richea 
of  that  city,  (^anilots  are  now  made  in  Europe.  Writ- 
ers of  the  Middle  Ago  mention  stuff's  of  camel's  hair, 
under  the  denominations  of  cnmeletnm  anrl  rnrnetinum, 
whence  proliably  the  term ;  but  these  arc  represented 
as  coarse  and  rough,  and  seem  to  have  lieen  chiefly 
used  among  the  monks  by  way  of  murtlflcation,  as  the 
hair  shirt  of  later  times. 

Camomile,  or  more  properly  Chamomile,  the 
flowers  of  the  Anihemii  nobilit.  The  flowers  have  a 
white  ray  with  a  central  yellow  disk,  and  an  aromatic 
bitter  taste  and  powerful  odor.  The  InhiHion  of  the 
flowers  is,  when  cold,  a  useful  stimulant,  bitter  or  tonic ; 
the  inf^islon  taken  warm,  however,  acts  as  an  emetic. 
The  virtues  reside  In  a  volatile  oil,  and  in  a  bitter  prin- 
ciple, which  may  lie  separated  fWim  one  another. 

Camphor  or  Camphlre  (Ger.  Kamp/tr;  Du. 
Kamfer;  Fr.  Camphre;  It.  Can/ttra;  Sp.  Atmtifor; 
Rusa.  Kamfora ;  Lnt.  Camphom ;  Arab,  and  Pers.  Kd- 
fcur;  Mai.  Kaafur),  There  are  two  descriptions  of 
this  valuable  article,  which  must  not  lie  confounded. 
1,  Campkin-  of  Commerce,  which  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  timber  of  a  species  of  laurel  (_lMirus  camphora) 
found  in  tha  forests  of  Fokien,  In  China,  near  the  city 
of  CMIiohew,  and  in  certain  localities  in  Japan.  Most 
of  tli«  camphor  Imported  into  Europe  Is  fVom  China; 
but  a  small  quantity,  considered  of  superior  quality, 
comes  firom  Japan  by  way  of  Batavla.  The  exports 
f^om  Canton  may  be  estimated  nt  about  3000  piculs, 
or  400,000  lbs. ;  and  if  to  this  we  add  the  exports  from 
Batavla  of  Japan  camphor,  amounting  to  about  600 
piculs,  the  total  annual  exports  will  be  about  466,000 
lbs.  It  is  packed  in  chests,  drums,  and  casks;  and 
is  in  small,  granular,  friable  masses,  of  a  dirt}-  white 
or  grayish  color,  very  much  resemlding  half-reflned 
sugar.  When  pure,  the  camplior  of  commerce  has  a 
strong,  peculiar,  fragrant,  penetrating  o<lor,  and  a  bit- 
ter, pungent,  aromatic  taste.  It  Is  in  reality  a  con- 
crete essential  oil.  Camphor,  when  reflned,  is  in  thin 
hollow  cakes,  beautifully  white,  and,  if  exposed  to  the 
air,  totally  evaporates.  Great  care  is,  therefore,  req- 
uisite in  packing  camphor  to  prevent  serious  loss.  2. 
Camphor,  .\f(Uay,  commonly  called,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  last,  camphor  of  Baros,  from  the  port  of  Su- 
matra, where  It  is  mostly  shipped.  It  is  a  product  of 
the  Dryoibalanopt  camphora,  a  forest  tree  confined  to 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Malay  peninsula.     It  la 


0AM 


t44 


CAN 


(band  In  conrrvU  miuM  In  tb«  Ammm  of  tlM  wewl : 
tbtn  ira,  howtvar,  but  vary  fiw  trtu  Iknl  affonl  li  i 
■nil  thoM  Ihnl  do,  only  In  inull  quanlltlaa.  ThU  up*. 
elM  of  cMnphor  It  mar*  ft«4[r«nt,  and  laaa  liltkig  and 
punKanI,  than  that  ylvldad  l>y  tba  laural,  and  U  In  hlxh 
rapiilii  anioMK  tbo  I'hiiiaaa,  by  whoni  It  la  aliiHwt  whol- 
ly cunaumrd,  Tbara  l»  an  Ininiaiiaa  (ll>|>ailty  In  tha 
priraa  uf  Iha  two  upacloa  In  C'hliMj  tba  llnaat  Cblnfia 
e«m|ihor  lialnx  •oniatiiuaa  quoted  at  t'M  par  ptciil, 
^blla  tbvUalay  camphor  In  quotad  at  4illO  par  valty, 
jiMktng  Iba  prica  of  tb«  latter  lUU  timm  K<^atvr  than 
that  U  th»  former  I  Mubty  uanipbnr  la  wholly  un- 
known In  tbia  country  aa  an  aitlcla  of  Irada. 

OamplMr  OH  (Ualay,  .l/i«^'),  a  fraKrant  aaaan> 
tial  oil,  obtained  In  larKa  quantltlea  by  haatlny  tha 
wood  of  tba  />ryiil>aliiHnpt  ntmpki.ra.  It  la  nearly  aa 
cheap  aa  aplrita  of  turjirntiiir,  but  la  not  liekl  in  any 
Mteem  by  tha  (.'hliicM,  It  inlxht,  |iprhapa,  ba  prollt* 
•My  lin|Nirted  a*  a  subiitltutfl  for  Kiilriln  uf  tiir]inntlna 
lu  tba  arte,  and  for  nicdlcinul  purjvwra,  \Va  may  add, 
that  the  timlwr  of  the  Dryahalmnpi  f  impkimt  la  not 
infirior  to  any  produced  in  tho  cnuntrlea  where  It 
growa,  for  tha  purpoaca  <if  hnuno  and  ahip  liulldlnK. — 
Private  information,  and  CnAwriini>'»  ImUan  Arcki- 
pfl'igo. 

Cam-wood,  a  rnl  dyawoo<l,  flrat  bmu)(ht  to  Eu- 
rope from  Africa  by  thn  I'ortUKuena,  It  la  principally 
obtained  from  tho  vicinity  of  filerra  liaone.  'Ilia  cul- 
orlnff  nuttvr  which  It  atl'orda  dllTera  but  liltlo  from 
that  of  ordinary  Nlcarat(ua  wood,  elthor  In  quality  or 
quantity ;  and  it  may  be  employed  with  ainillar  mor- 
dant!.—IUncroft  <m  CoUm. 

GwnmHu  Thia  axtenalva  tract  of  country,  and 
moat  important  colony  of  Kn^land,  may  be  deiicrllied 
H  ft  ({Teat  lielt  of  territorr  ntrctchin);  from  tho  centre 
of  North  America  to  tho  >hi>rca  of  I.,ubrador,  and  iVum 
the  watera  which  flow  into  the  Northern  <  )cean  to  tho 
parallel  of  Pennsylvania,  in  tha  l.'nited  Stutoa.  Ita 
extent  from  eaat  to  weat  ia  computed  nt  about  1400 
milea,  and  from  north  to  aouth  at  fVom  'Hn  to  400  mUaa. 
Ita  preclao  KeoR'opli'cal  limlta  ara  liotwecn  tlie  paral- 
lela  of  41'  71'  and  60^  N.  Int.,  and  l)atwe«n  the  me- 
ridian of  67"  50'  and  117°  W.  Ionic.  Canada,  lylnR 
diagonally  along  the  frontier  of  the  United  Statea, 
fhnu  northeaat  to  aouthweat,  and  poaaeaainx  an  inland 
navigation  along  ita  enlira  Imrder,  in  a  anriea  of  lakea 
and  rivera  unrivaled  for  extent  and  grandour,  boa,  ea- 
pecially  of  late  yean,  been  making  anch  rapid  prog- 
reaa,  that  It  promicea  aonn  to  liecomc,  in  conjunction 
with  Ita  slater  Uritish  provinces,  n  jiower  uf  llrst-clasa 
importance,  commercially  and  politically.  Tho  entire 
aurfiice  of  the  present  territory  of  Canada,  exclualvo 
of  ita  great  waters,  haa  been  e'atimatcd  at  106,000,000 
•cfca,  or  between  two  and  three  tiniea  the  size  of  Cireat 
Britain  and  Ireland.  This  country,  formerly  divided 
into  two  provinces  known  aa  I'ppor  and  I^wer  Cana- 
da, was  in  1N41,  by  an  act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament, 
conatituted  one  province,  with  one  i.«glslature.  Al- 
though now  united,  however,  for  legislative  and  other 
purposes,  tha  country  will  most  probably  continue  to 
be  viewed  and  spoken  of  under  its  formerly  recognized 
diviaiona  of  Uppvr  and  Ixiwer  Canada. 

Canada  may  he  said  to  comprise  one  vast  valley, 
throagh  which  the  great  Kiver  Ht.  I^wrence  takes  its 
course,  issuing  fhim  Ijuke  .Su|ierior  and  flowing  suo- 
ecssivi-ly  through  Lakes  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario, 
until  it  fulls  into  the  ocean  after  a  course  of  2000  miles. 
This  immensa  valley  is  on  each  side  encompassed  by 
different  mountain  ranges,  sometimes  nearly  approach- 
ing the  water,  and  at  other  times  receding  into  the  in- 
terior, and  thus  forming  extensive  plains,  for  the  most 
part  alluvial,  and  suitable  *or  nearly  every  dcacriptlon 
of  produce.  The  high  tuhlc-land  along  the  northern 
boundary  of  this  valley  acpnrates  the  streams  which 
take  their  rise  within  it  and  flow  Into  its  basin  ttmn 
those  that  take  their  rise  In  the  almost  unknown  ter- 
ritory beyond,  and  which  fall  into  Hudson'a  Bay.  The 


high  land  along  the  aoalhern  lioandary  of  the  valley 
•aparalea  the  streams  whlub  flow  northward  Into  Ita 
liasin  ttvm  Ihoaa  llwt  have  ihvir  course  aouthward  to- 
ward the  Atlantic  anil  Mlsalsilppl.  Comnieiu'lng  at 
tin  northern  ahura  of  tha  Ht.  I^wranoa,  toward  tha 
niuuik  uf  that  river,  whara  Iha  width  Is  00  mllaa,  wo 
lliid  one  uf  tha  walla  of  thia  vast  valley  which  eunalU 
tiiica  Canada  riaing  bolilly  In  niountainons  form,  ch)Sa 
to  tha  river,  and  continuing  llius  to  fonn  its  ruggnl 
liank  fur  upward  of  lOii  nillca.  One  of  tha  moat  ra- 
niarkublo  of  the  heighia  of  this  noriham  bank  la  Cu|'« 
Toumieut,  overhanging  the  very  brink  of  the  river, 
and  aomawliut  preparing  t  lie  voyagar  for  tha  still  bold- 
er and  mora  magnlUcent  grandeur  of  Cape  Diamond, 
the  (ilbraltar  of  Aniarlca,  which  rises  to  a  height  uf 
400  foet,  and  la  crowned  by  the  illudel  of  (juebac. 

The  city  of  (Jueliec,  hero  clinging  around  the  rocky 
steepa  of  ('a|>e  Diamond,  and  overlooking  ona  of  the 
moat  magnltlccnt  harlMira  In  Iha  world,  ji  situate  on 
llie  northern  liaiik  of  Iha  Ht.  Lawrence,  and  about  400 
miles  fhiin  the  mouth  of  that  river,  Tba  view  fh>m 
the  citadel  presents  on  every  aldo  a  country  with  feat- 
ures of  peculiar  and  striking  grandeur.  Immediately 
opimslte  Quelieo  the  81.  Lawrence  contracts  to  about 
half  n  mile  In  width,  with  bold  rocky  banks  on  ailhnr 
side.  The  northern  or  (.'ape  Diamond  aide,  lieing  much 
tho  bolder  uf  tha  two,  commands  a  view  of  the  wide 
stretch  of  tallo-lund  extending  lieyond  the  southern 
liank,  the  vaat  plaina  presenting  for  leaguea  upon 
leagues  their  dark  muaaes  of  forest,  with  houses  and 
cultivated  llclds  inlers|iersod,  until  the  distant  mount- 
iiliu  of  tho  >Stttl«a  of  Maine  and  Vermont  bound  tho 
view.  The  northern  shore  presents  a  wilder  and  more 
rugged  nxpect,  Krnm  the  heights  of  Cape  Diamond 
the  ii|iectator  surveys  bidd  rangca  of  hills  fringin)(  llio 
nortiiorn  hurixon,  and  furroing  the  liuundarisa  uf  almost 
unexplored  territories  beyond. 

About  HO  miles  below  Quebec  Is  Cape  Tourment,  to 
which,  in  our  upward  progreaa,  we  had  traced  the 
rocky  nortliem  bank  of  tha  river.  Here  tha  ridge, 
taking  a  direction  weat-southwest,  terminatea  on  the 
River  Ottawa,  about  120  miles  above  its  eonfluenca 
with  tho  hit.  Lawrence,  thus  extending  westward  from 
('a|i«  Tounnent  along  the  course  of  the  Ht.  Lawrence 
aliout  800  miles.  The  tract  uf  country  lying  between 
this  ridge  and  the  Ht.  I^jiwrenco,  which  may  Iw  esti- 
mated at  trom  ID  to  SOnillis  in  breadth,  ia  beautiftilly 
picturesque,  well  watered,  level,  and  fertile.  Thia 
portion  of  Canada,  stretching  along  tha  northern  ahnre 
of  the  river,  fruni  below  Queliec  upward  to  Montreal, 
a.4liatance  of  about  200  miles,  and  thence  along  the 
lianka  of  the  beautiful  Ottawa,  may  be  considered,  es- 
pecially toward  its  upper  and  western  extremity,  one 
of  tho  choiceat  parts  of  the  country. 

Tho  territory  lying  beyond  this  ridge  is  intersected 
l>y  another  and  higher  range  of  mountains,  which  nins 
into  the  interior  in  »  northwest  direction,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  almut  200  miles  (Vnm  the  uther,  and  forms  the 
water-shed  between  the  tribntury  streams  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  those  that  full  Into  Hudson'a  Bay.  This 
territory  may  be  said  to  be  only  one  great  wilderness 
uf  forest,  whose  sulitudea  are  aa  yet  unexplored,  and 
only  occasionally  tracked  by  wandering  huntera. 

Glancing  at  the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 

a  ridge  commences  nearly  100  miles  below  Quebec, 

which,  passing  upward  In  a  southwest  direction,  o|>- 

poslte  that  city,  at  •  distance  of  80  miles  from  the 

river,  crosses  the  boundary  line  between  Canada  and 

tba  United  States,  and  Anally  slopes  down  to  the  lilvor 

Hudson.     Beyond  this  ridge,  at  about  the  distance  of 

50  miles,  is  anotlier  and  a  higher  one,  which  commence* 

at  ('ape  Kozitsrc,  the  bold  headland  at  the  mouth  of 

I  the  St.  Lawrence,  and,  nnining  for  about  400  miles  In 

I  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  river  and  with  the 

;  other  chain,  terminates  upon  tho  eaatem  branch  of  the 

I  River  Connecticut.     Thia  forms  tho  dividing  ridge  be- 

I  twecn  the  tributary  streoma  of  tha  St.  I<awrenoe  and 


OAW 


t«a 


CAN 


Umm  wbUli  lUw  tMMMl  «Im  AllMrtIa  Omm,  mkI  h|». 
•r*l«t  •  partlun  M  1,'Mwla  from  Ihn  Urrltnrr  of  th« 
UiilMd  MaUi,  Tht  (•mrrat  nHanHrr  of  ihn'countrjr 
■liiiill  Iklf  Mtttk  tM*  W  lh«  rivtr,  from  (;«|ia  KoiUm 
Hp«r»r4,  u  wllkin  aiiawl  100  mlU*  of  (Jualwc,  whtrt 
Um  liMtr  rl'lifi  MmmciiMa,  It  mnitwhiit  niRKi-'l  ami 
maanlalnoiit ,  Inii  than  ar«  many  fartlla  purla  noar 
tha  rivar  wlil<  b  art  iHipaloua  and  wall  culiWaied.  On 
tlia  aoMlli  aItU  of  Ihla  main  rlil||a,  iliiwn  to  iha  abora* 
of  UaipA  an<l  (,'hattur  Ha/,  tha  nmntry  la  mountain- 
Mua,  Itut  intara|Mna4  with  laval  and  fiirtlU  a|>()la,  aoma 
of  whiah  ara  iindar  aultlvatlon,  aaiiorUII)-  alnnx  (he 
aoaat,  whar*  Iha  InhaMUnia  art  prlnelpally  daptnilant 
on  tha  flaharlaa,  Tha  rountrr  fur  100  nillca  ImIuw 
Qiiabaa,  and  aslamllng  la  tha  HIvar  (Ihaudlira,  a  faw 
mllaa  alwva  thai  alli',  liaa  mu«h  of  (ha  brukan  and 
billy  oharaaMr  whUb  It  baa  farthar  down  (bo  rivor, 
but  with  aatanrfva  Iraala  af  axMllant  land.  Thla  piir- 
tl<in,  M  wall  aa  fbr  a  lllataiini  nf  almra  100  inlica  fnr- 
Ihar  down  alonK  tha  lianka  of  (ha  rivar,  (4  a  aurcaaaion 
of  aattlamania,  Ratwaan  t|ii«liaa  and  tha  lowrr  rldf(« 
of  niaiintaiii-land  alr*a<ly  niKnllnnnil,  (ha  country  pre- 
•villa  a  fartlla  plain,  lirnbtn  Uy  a  Aw  Inaiilalad  hllla 
onvarad  wllb  Iraaa  lo  tb^ir  iiiinmlla.  It  la  wall  aat- 
ttoil,  and  a  i<<Hi>ld«ralda  portion  of  tha  land  cultlvatad. 
Tha  country  alwva  (^iialxif,  alimit  tha  aouth  aide  of  tlio 
Nt.  Lawrama,  to  tli«  Wnt  4A"  of  N.  lat.  (which  la  tha 
■outharn  lioiimUry  nf  i^twar  Oannda),  may  lia  charac- 
tnrlud  aa  una  axtaiialva  and  fartlla  plain,  In  parta 
auraiiiiMy  iirokan  and  iindiiUllnK.  Much  of  It  la  cov- 
arad  with  impliloiia  and  urna|Niroua  tattlamenta.  Ai 
It  tiaa  ronllKUoui  lo  Ihii  l7nlta<l  Htalaa,  and  amdracca 
aoiiia  nf  tha  prinitlpal  imlnia  of  cnfflmunleatlon  botwton 
(lia  two  tarrilorlaa,  It  U  at  praaeiit,  and  lilda  fair  tocoii- 
lliiiia  to  ha,  tha  miiat  lluurlililnK  portion  of  ihla  lower 
dlvialoiinf  (Canada. 

Tha  r|(y  and  Uland  of  Mnntraal,  iltaalad  In  Lower 
Canada,  and  lininadUtoly  Imlow  the  ronfluonce  of  tho 
Ittvar  (JItawa  with  tha  Ht,  l,awrani-e,  may  lie  aaid  lo 
form  tha  «hiaf  nonnaclhiff  link  l>at»aan  the  lower  and 
upper  provlni'aa,  Uclnx  aliout  IMO  mitea  above  Quo. 
bao,  and  QualMO  liaInK  Itaelf  almnt  400  milea  up  the 
rivar,  Montraal  U  thiia  iltiiatad  nearly  000  mllta  in  the 
Interior  of  Uanada, 
Statimrnt  laHiamNA  Tna  diHiirra  caoti  rna  I'liiTiin 

DTlkTaa  TO,  AMII  Tlia  iMfONTa  INtft  TIIR  I  NITKIi  Htatib 
r«uM,t'*a*luaNlinmiaaMNlT«iin  t'oaanaainNa  in  Noaxil 
AHaain*,  va(/M<IVI.«  I,  l«AI,  To.liJNaWi,  IxM, 


Tbeaa  baa  alaa  bMii  abarRad  asalnat  the  Canaolldatad 

Pnnd,  for  wurka  which  hava  proved  unpniduiilvp,  ur 
which  hava  been  tranifurred  to  the  iiiuiiUlpalitlea, 
|l,9H1,oaO|  and  there  now  tlunda  at  tho  civdil  of  the 
HlnkloK  Fund  for  the  Imperial  lA>an  $i,^b•i,IH»^  mak> 
lii|(  a  loUl  fbr  publls  work*  of  |i'J8,4O0.U07. 

rika  Indlreet  debt  of  the  Province  appeara  to  lie  i  ., 

Hallwajr* t**.fM|<)M    '   i 

Muatalpal  loan  fund •.OBT.TH   '   < 

■uaditaa I,ldv,aa4    *^ 

Of  the  riiilwsy  debt,  the  advance  to  the  Great  Weat< 
am  Railroad  (#1,810,500)  can  alone  be  regarded  ai  iia> 
cure,  leaving  unaacurtd  $17,484,608,  for  which  the 
Provlnca  may  hava  ultlmal«ly  to  provide — meantime 
advancing  tha  intereat.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
Indirect  Provincial  dobt  haa  mainly  arlten  from  loana 
contracted  by  munlclpalltlai  under  the  ('onaolldalad' 
Municipal  I^an  Fund  Act.  The  amount  nn  Blat  De- 
cember, IHftH,  waa :  Upper  Canada,  •7,'20l,T0'i  I  Lower 
Canada,  $1,708,000. 

AaaraAoi  or  thb  Drbt  or  via  raoviaoa  or  Oanaiia  oa 

AIM'nUNT  or  I'lnvlNOIAL  WoiKB  (RXOLVaiVB  Or  LoAMa), 
vaoH  iml  TO  ISM. 


Ittlaeaaty. 

iMTrr.TTTTT 

INM 

I»4» 

IHAO 

Ilftl 

IRBJ 

IM» 

|l«4.. 

I8I» 

ISM 

lani 

IMS 


Vm>  M^IHf 


(l,ltM,nit7  lliJii«,ni« 

T,4n4,nal  l»,i4n,M9 

IA,«M,l4t  «4,n«fl,^M) 

ift,a)i<i,Mi  iT,>«(i*,<iiii 

«(,n4,«>I  W,iiW,i)4? 

l»,fiM,lia  tM,3«9,4S' 

)|),tn,V(»>  !ll,IIOI,7'i7 

Ti)T,l6t,tWJi6i,»«a,i>iu 


Imponi  Into 
1MI 


I'ull 

i 

(l,llll,»S 

T,NW,7IS 
R,'iST,n«l 

11,310,421 

2!l,l/4,2!!0 
l^S<HI,BI« 


.H,t)(KI,B4T 


MONTHM  ATWUflif  Of  UANaniaii  Oamm,  wmi  a  OAnrAi. 
Of  AMVf  «l«,noii,(ioo. 


AuRuatll 
»«|it,  SU,, 

oA,n.,, 

Nov,  to,, 
l)a«,  01 . , 


T* 


iii'A'i  111,1*1*1 

ll»,llftl,«4ll 
M,(W'/^ 

ii,iit;iiN 

lflT46,Tt» 


ifrl:     I  tiifiiliiilMi.  I    n»|M»li«. 

«,m,nio 
<f,i»4,n<ii 
■i,l«MTn 


f/<u,4afl 


1IT;«3T 


I||il,fil0,l«! 
10,T77,I1NI 
)1,M>T,'/«n 
10,TII,Nia 
»,SII*i486 


fH,(l<6,l>94 
X.WI.OtB 
H,8ST,ST8 
S,t41,«64 
T,4Sfi,lW 
H,I3T,484 


Tha  dirtct  puUls  debt  of  Canada  In  1N68  wat 
|24,4SO,07ft|  which  baa  baan  created  nlmoat  wlioily  for 
(ha  great  oanat*  and  othtr  worka  af  national  Improve- 
ment, Tha  axpandltur*  upon  thew  worka  Is  shown 
by  tba  atatemanl  of  aaaela  and  llabllitlat  of  the  Prov- 
inta,  OB  Slit  L>a<!amt*«r,  18<M,  to  bavo  been ; 


Wslkuiil  and  at,  Uwrento  ranala $14,15S,1M 

Other  aanala l,TM,t4« 

llartter*  an4  llebt^eatea  . . , . , 1,8I7,<>0T 

Roaila  and  hrMgea l,*lo,l6T 

NUaella«e«ui,,  „,,„,,  „,,„;, 1,8M,B4n 

T«tal,,,,„„ $il,itS,U24 


aiarilnf 

ntb«nlur*fl  la 

Eoiiua. 

l|i';iiie,H47 

I2,M>I,I«I 
1V,MI,I01 
1V,7M,(Mfl 
14,8411,7110 
14,»'2«,N'JT 
I^0SS,I4T 
1I»,II«0,«IM 
14,04a,TM 
14,SM,T44 
l«,itsT,Mil 


t!i,1lt4,flH'i 
<,44«,<i8a 

S,M  7,871 
8,Hii«.l74 
«,f8T,<>20 
D,57l>,«M 
8,BM4,fi07 

B,8m,«4a 

»,8sn,Tll8 
«,786,iwa 


18,TS6,»M_|_?,t8a,B«9 


Total. 

1ft,0(l7,'.'-  . 

15,4118,4 

l«,S4«,(tM 

1S04I,874 

17,807,847 

18,M4,77B 

18,480.  lit 

I7,4IN7«7 

17,S4'.',548 

l8,RI0,'iU 

81,4T0,tM 


Tha  ralna  of  the  goods  enumerated  In  the  Reciproc- 
ity Treaty  —  being  the  growth  and  produce  of  the 
United  States,  and  Imported  Into  Canada  during  tha 
years  1867  and  1868— waa  as  follows: 

1887 »S,(I4J,n44 

IBOS _M!>4s«i» 

L/rcreaae l|J,u;T,4W 


CoMrABAtiTi  f>TAT«a««T  or  Tm  nn  RaTBMua  Ann  Rx< 
raNuiTOBi  or  tiic  CoxaoiiDATiD  Fcmd  or  Canada  voa 
TUB  Ybabb  18&(  and  1867. 


Ouatoma 

Exclae 

Territorial 

Bank  Impoata 

Bavanua  from  publlo  worka 

MllltIa  flnea,  ato 

Ftnee  and  forfalliirea,  lncludln() 

aeixaree / 

Caaoal  revenue 

Uwfaenind.    12Vlcc.68&t4.. 
Oancrai  I'eat.o(llce 


$4,1  in,*!! 

88, 1 '.".I 
102,886 
88,570 

zo7,oai 

45 

8II,«09 

27,CIS0 


Total. 


BwiaDiTvaa. 


Intereat  on  public  I'jbt 

CIvtl  government 

Admlnlatratlon  of  Justice 

Provlnolal  penitentiary 

l.eglalatlon 

Kdncalinn 

Hoapltala  and  eharitiee 

Oeoiofleal  aurvajr 

Mllltta  and  enrolled  force 

I.lght-houias  and  coaat  aervioe . . . 

KmlaratloD 

PansTona 

Public  inatltiitlona 

Ocean  and  river  aleam  navlaatlon. 

IMllee 

Mlaeellaoeona  printlnf 

Fublle  Worka  and  bulTdtnga 

Indian  annultlea 

gink  log  Aind 

Agrieiiiture 

Romoval  of  seat  of  government, . . 

Mlaeellaneoua 

Poat-offloe  eervleea  <br  18M  A  1857 
ToUl 


$4,1154,887 


laiT. 


107,1-87 
188,'.l'i 
7B,S78 
138,611 
108 

9,m 

18I,«87 
88,i76 
14S"»8 


-inir 


*<,«iyiw 


TSC 


$0«0,8?i5' 

224,122 

4B7,017 

66,7r8 

468,778 

890,(ifl« 

186,027 

21,928 

144,480 

111,978 

80,635 

89,881 

33,289 

1IW,i»9 

1S,»8S 

8,888 

871,151 

85,020 

948,894 

7I,8!2 

88,881 

838,708 


$I,I24,1M 
834,051 
008,207 

40,880 
506,784 
440,(187 
183,880 

2«,3SA 
1M,14* 
lB4,Kn7 

15,888 

48,801 

87,748 
S1I1,78I> 

83,278 

11,807 
198,180 

8^4■i0 
S01,rioo 

00,<i72 
8,888 

47,178 
978,040 


$4,208,858   $4,709,800 


GAN 


US 


CAN 


Sdiuait  ftrATOiBrr  of  tbi  Valdb  or 

bnoBn  iHTo  Canada,  ahd  t»  AiioiniT  or  Ovtt  aouronn  Tdnaoic,  rat 

TUB  YlAB  1867. 

tep«<i. 

T«l*l  Valu. 

raOH  WNAV  COUNTftV  IMPOkTIB- 

Animiit 

BnUili. 

|rillihC«l«l«. 

Unlud 

BIsM. 

CouolriM. 

Duly. 

NoiUi  Amaru* 

WM  lo4l«. 

PoXing  •pMlflo  duty 

At  to  iMr  MDt 

$6,688,203 
KM>,614 

11,874,871 

2i;0,169 

2,728,846 

12,401,904 

$417,812 

l-iO,74S 

12,067,848 

176,2tl7 

2,180,611 

1,746,21* 

$317,406 

846 

21,098 

9,'929 
343,112 

»t2,608 

i,'3U 
2,008 

$4,361,300 

460,636 

4,61l,::86 

109,211 

644,070 

10,'.68,2-20 

$309,&;3 
1S,!84 
374,691 
4,600 
4V,012 
67,447 

$l,ii4/,7g4 

118,181 

2,631,864 

14,609 

At  16  p«r  oent 

At  6  nar  cent 

At  S|f  jflr  wut. 

FiMgooda 

Ttolid 

$39,430,6:8 

$U,1»tf,026 

$761,888 

$2<!,S22 

*9ii,224,«()0 

$80>s210 

$3,926,061 

COMrABATITB  STATBJnHT  BBOWIHS  TDK  OBOSS  VaLVII  AHD  DOTIH  Or  AbTICLICS  Or  BBITIC  11  AHD  rOBBIQH  MMOUAMDIBB 
BMTBBVn  rOB  C'OMBVMPTION  IM  llAMAUA  DDBIMO  TUB  YRABB  1888,  1886,  AND  1S6T. 


IIM. 

lUI. 

1811. 

VnllK. 

Unly. 

Viili».                   Duly. 

Vulna.          1         Duty. 

$6,029,103 

17,22i'),'2g4 
2,.'>81,1.S6 
10,355,636 

«l,30il,46U 

2,162,635 
63,779 

$7,543,640       $l,6il5,',ll0 
200,800     1          K.t.97J 

$'),6ne,2'8 

610,014 
17,874,871 
3,ii|'.ui06 
1?,407,904 

$l,a4?,7S4 

118,131 

2,081,864 

82,180 

AlSOmrcent 

At  Vik  and  16  per  cent 

90,90.>,e32 
2,876,639 
11,991,766 

1,843,642 
7^467 

At  5  and  24  iwr  cant 

Frae  goods 

Total 

$3ii,0j6,l6^ 

$3,&^6,78J 

$43,684,387 

»4,f)0S,8S2 

$39,431 1,693 

$3,9';6,oei 

GABRYr^O  TRADE  AND  IxAVIOATION  OF  THE  PROVINCIAL  CANALS  OF  CANADA.  ,  ..,  . 

SvHMAmT  Statbmkict  or  tiii  ItUBiNBHB  or  Tua  Wkllakd,  Bt.  LAWBKNfiBf  Chamolt,  ani>  nvauNOTON  Canals^  Pt.  Oitb'b 
AMD  8t.  Ann'b  Looks,  bhowinu  tue  total  Quantity  ok  baoii  DKiiOKimoM  or  I'aorxBxv  pasai^io  Tunouaii  ami>  ok 

THB  aAHB,  AHD  TI»  AMOUNT  Or  TOLLB  COLLBUTBD  DUBINU  THE  VeaB  ISM. 


AlticlM. 

Wallud  Cnnal. 

St.  Liiwr«ti«« 
Cuiil. 

Chftmbly  Canal 
andSI.Oiir'iLock. 

Burllnsloa  Bay 
Canal. 

81.  Ami  Lock. 

Tom.       I      Tollt. 

Tom.     I    Tolli. 

Tom.      I    Toll!. 

Ton.. 

Tolln. 

TOHI. 

Tolli. 

Veusli  of  all  khida 

l,148,t:)4 

17,23i 

8011,987 

247 

^49^ 

389,834 

1,109 

$.'3,077 

028 

82,719 

62 

1,011 

120,661 

414 

690,031 
31,962 

S27,843 
1,587 
3,634 

120,8*6 
2,647 

$7,503 

2,07S 

12,100 

T48 

82,861 

818 

16^,064 

2,423 

8!',759 

44 

227 

18,117 

1,227 

«l77e 
42 
6966 
2 
23 
1T6S 
92 

14.',410 

46 

1S3 

17,080 

13 

$I12S 

iic3 

7 

71 

4047 

10 

170,956 

11,614 

133,381 

285 

946 

2,185 

101 

$2211 

16 

1611 

14 

4i 

ins 

t1 

lYodiieo  of  the  forent 

Purm  Btoek 

Vegetable  food 

Other  BffrtcuUurel  products. 

Statbubiit  Bnowmo  tob  Numbbb,  National  CnAr.Aona,  and  ToNHAor.  (coHPurxn  ritoM  aoobcoatb  Ndhkeb  or  TBirg 

MADB  DDBINO  TUB  SB.\aOH  Or  NaTIOATIOH)  Of  VBSBBI4I  WHICH  PASBEU  ON  AND  TllBOVUil  TUB  NVxi.LANII,  ST.  i.AWRXNCK. 
VUABULT,  AHD  IIUBLINOTON  IIaT  C'ANALB,  ST.  ODB'B  AND  8T.  AHN'b  I.O0K8,  DITBINO  TUB  YBAB  1867,  AHD  Till!  AUODNT 

or  Tolls  oollbotbd  tdebbon. 


.  i,-.  W'.i  -v-^ 

From  C-anadlaD 

to  Canadian 

Porta. 

Pn>m  Canadian 

tu  Amarican 

Porta. 

to  Canadian 
Pom. 

Prom  Aniariean 

to  American 

PorU. 

Total. 

Amount 

ofToll. 

on  Vtiaala. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

Ton*. 

No. 

Ton.. 

No.    ;     Tom. 

No. 

Ton.. 

«AH«»IAII  tMaUlM  AHD  It^AMBM. 

Wellaiid         

1,639 

6,967 

639 

349 

2,611 

224,954 

616,369 

81,703 

76,400 

163,101 

624 
273 
618 

137 
284 

01,426 
24,18:1 
44,246 
12,720 
21,284 

TSl 
2S6 
624 
135 

102,575 
24,286 
48,279 
41,340 

3,044 
7,5i8 
1,881 
621 
2,796 

418,984 
664,814 
121,228 
138,469 
174,445 

$7,5:  .■< 
7,'.8i 
1,331 
1,024 
2,580 

Chambljrand  StOur'a  Lock . 

8t  Ann'aLock 

Total  Canadian  venela 

AHaaicaa  vaaaau  AMD  aTlAMlaa. 
Wetland 

12,105 

l,lU2,)il7 

1030 

103,8:B 

1826 

216,480 

1^866 

1,612,970 

$19,414 

183 
3 
8 

19,442 
120 
221 

600 
169 
363 
71 
27 

02,361 
13,301 
18,229 
S,941 
1,266 

617 
101 

373 

'« 

S4,94> 
ll,(>8ii 
18,056 

i,266 

1786 
14 
6 

622,716 
€8,1 
331 

8,196 

347 
750 

7; 

64 

720,460 

26,187 

36,836 

8,941 

2,610 

$16,082 
811 
441 

104 
311 

gt.  Lawrence 

Chambly  and  St.  Our'a  Lock. 

St.  Ann's  Lock 

Total  American  vessels 

Total  Canadian  and  Atner'n , 

194 

11,783   1239 

134,077 

1178 

125,338 

1806 

623,726  1  4,417 

MI-.',II24  1  $10,973 

12,2i(0 

l,122,400'  3176  1  327,060 

301)3 

341,818 

1800 

623,726  |ill,28a 

2,316,894  1  $30,387 

Serenl  thriving  towns  are  groiving  up  rapidlj:  along 
the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario,  the  chief  of  which  are, 
Kingston,  at  the  foot  of  the  lake ;  Toronto,  80  miles 
fram  the  head ;  and  Hamilton,  at  the  extreme  bead. 
Toronto,  which  is  very  finely  situated,  spreading  over 
■  wide  and  gently  rising  platenu,  and  In  a  protected 
part  of  the  lake  shore,  is  the  largest  city  of  Upper 
Canada. 

The  quantity  of  tobacco  produced  In  Canada  In  1852 
amounted  to  1,253,128  pounds;  of  this  7G4,47(i  pounds 
were  the  produce  of  Upper  Canada.  The  pro<lnce  in 
tobacco  of  the  two  counties  of  Kent  and  Essex  alone, 
situated  in  the  southwestern  point  of  Canada,  amount- 
ed in  1662  to  700,800  pounds. 

Tkt  Recipivc^  Treat;:. — The  Act  making  appropria- 
tions for  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  government  for 
the  current  year  contains  the  annexed  sections,  reduc- 
ing certain  fees  now  exacted  under  the  Reciprocity  Act : 

Sbo.  S.  Ani  b»  it  further  enaeted.  That  the  salary  provided 
by  the  third  lectlnn  of  "An  Act  to  reRiilate  the  Diplomatic 
and  Consular  Systems  of  the  United  States,"  approved  Au- 
gnsl  18, 1886,  as  compenaatfon  for  the  ooDsul-gensnl  of  Brit- 


ish North  America,  as  by  schedule  n,  shall  bo  In  full  of  all 
compensation  allowed  to  that  officer ;  and  all  fen  received  by 
any  vice-consul  or  commercial  agont  in  Ilrltisli  North  Ainnr 
lea  exceeding  the  amount  allowed  by  tbe  I'reaident  as  com- 
pensation for  his  services,  and  all  fees  received  by  ualJ  ccn- 
sul-general,  shall  be  accounted  for  by  such  oflloera  respect- 
ively to  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States, 

Sbo.  8.  And  be  it  further  tnacUd,  That  the  fee  for  certify- 
ing Invoices,  and  for  certifying  the  place  of  growth  or  pro- 
duction of  goods  made  duty  free  by  the  Reciprocity  Treaty, 
to  be  charged  by  the  coniul-general  for  the  Uritlth  North 
American  Provinces  and  subordlnato  consular  offlceia  or 
Agents  In  said  Provinces,  shall  he  fifty  cents  for  sucti  certifi- 
cate, ar.  1  no  more.  And  no  auch  certificate  of  the  growth  or 
production  shnll  be  required  for  goods  not  exceeding  In  valne 
the  sum  of  two  hundred  dollsro. 

One  elfect  of  the  Canadian  Rnciprocitr  Treat*  has 
licen  to  give  business  to  thn  leading  railroads  of  New 
York  and  Massachusetts,  and  lo  rednce  tlie  Import  nnil 
export  trade  of  Queliec ;  thus  licnofiting  the  towns  of 
Canada  West,  while  those  on  the  St.  {..nwrence  are  lic- 
coming  less  and  less  the  points  of  transhipment.  Tims 
the  exports  of  Quebec  in  two  years  have  deolinod 


■t  Lock. 

Toll.. 

1 

$2211 

\ 

16 

1 

1611 

"> 

14 

s 

4; 

•i 

los 

1 

It 

CAN 


«47 


CAN 


one-third,  and  the  importi  in  the  Mme  retle;  while  at 
Toronto  the  exports  liave  nearly  doubled,  and  the  im- 
porta  have  increased  twenty  per  cent,  between  the 
yeara  18A3  and  1866.  The  exports  and  imports  of  the 
leading  towns  for  the  yean  1868, 1864,  and  1866  are  as 
follows: 


IHPOaTAVIOM.                                                            1 

lUI. 

iat4. 

i;i,764,320 

8,816,062 

1,B62,7U6 

lau. 

<^eb«! 

Montrrjil 

Toronto 

i;i,14l,S.lS 
3,881,540 

i,iun,(jsu 

jC78«,n(16 
8,<I6A,061 
1,401.454 

BSFOBT«.                                                                  1 

Quoboc 

Montreal 

Toronto 

X2,243,453 

1,883,728 

2ai,4'.)0 

i;2,611,767 
t.72,614 
278,040 

jC1,558,702 
475,650 
404,106 

BUTIU  COUMTBO.                                                        1 

Quebeo 

Montreal 

Toronto 

44»,lUli 
100,083 

iil78,13S 
478,608 
172,576 

SiSS 

The  Canadian  £  is  equal  to  four  dollars  United  States 
currency ;  the  shillinK  beinf;  equal  to  twenty  cents. 
Formerly,  all  the  importations  into  Canada  were  made 
via  Quebec,  but  the  opening  of  the  Atlantic  and  St, 
Lawrence  Railroad,  between  Portland  and  Montreal, 
has  developed  a  largo  and  increasing  im|>ort  and  ex- 
port trade  with  Montreal  direct.  At  the  same  t!<ne, 
the  Reciprocity  Treaty  is  the  means  of  facilitati  i'^,  I  y 
a  periu<l  of  lifteen  to  twenty  days,  the  delivery  of  g.>,>d9 
at  Toronto  via  New  York,  in  lieu  of  Quebec.  The  ex- 
port trade  of  the  latter  is  mainly  products  of  the  forest, 
groin,  etc. 

Exports  or  Canada  roa  Tin  Ykab  1855. 

Produce  of  the  forest £2,856,265 

Produce  of  the  mines 27,880 

Produce  of  the  bc4 66,000 

Value  of  sliips  built 620.000 

VegcUble  food 1,W6.0I14 

Animals  und  their  produce 842,081 

Manufactures,  produce,  etc 525,006 

Total «i,0ao,325 

The  reduced  business  of  Queliec  is  farther  shown  in 
the  comparative  number  of  arrivals  and  tonnage  at 
that  port  far  the  tirst  ten  months  of  1864  and  1866. 


Animals  of  all  kinds. 

Freah,  smoked,  and  salted 
meats. 

Cotton-wool. 

Seeds  and  vegetables. 

Undrled  ftults. 

Dried  fruits. 

Flih  of  all  kinds. 

Products  of  flsh,  and  of  all  oth- 
er creatures  living  In  the 
water. 

Poidtry. 

HIdeii,  fUrs,  sklna,  or  tails,  un- 
dressed. 

Stone  or  marble  In  Its  crude 
or  unwrought  state. 

SIttte. 

Butter.  - .  ^ ,    , 

ChecBo.        ,.,  ,  , 

Tallow. 

Urd. 

Horns. 


AnIvBli. 

VMseli. 

Tom. 

18W  (to  l)ct.  22) 

1S6B         "          

1276 
6(16 

56:),631 
841,1101 

The  value  of  exports  from  the  United  States  to 
Canada  for  the  liscal  year  18&2'-'6Swas(i7,820,000,  ex- 
ceeding those  to  any  c-ountry,  except  Urcat  Britain, 
France,  and  the  Hanse  Towns.  Since  then  the  trade 
with  Canada  has  been  increasing  rapidly,  and  nssum- 
ing  each  year  n  greater  importance  to  us. 

Reciprocitti  Trtaly  betuieen  the  United  Statei  and  (Ireal 
BrilaiH. — This  treaty  was  concluded  and  signed  by  the 
respective  ministers  of  the  two  governments  on  the  6th 
of  June,  1854.     The  following  is  a  tynopHa  of  it : 

Art,  1.  It  is  agreed  that  United  states  fishermen  shall 
have  the  privilege  of  taking  tisli  on  the  sea^coasls  and 
shores,  in  tlie  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Canada,  Now 
Brunswick,  Nova  bcotia.  Prince  E«lward's  Island,  and 
the  adjacent  islands,  without  being  restricted  to  any 
distance  from  the  shoro;  with  permission  to  land  on 
these  coasts  and  islands  for  the  purpose  of  drying  their 
nets  and  curing  their  tish,  provided  they  do  not  inter- 
fere with  any  prior  right  of  British  fishermen.  It  is 
understoo<l  that  this  includes  only  sea-fish — shrll-fish, 
salmon,  and  shod  fisheries,  and  all  river  fisheries,  are 
reserved  exclusively  for  British  fishermen. 

Art,  i.  It  is  ugreed  that  British  fishermen  shall  have 
similar  privileges  to  take  fish  on  the  .lea-ooasts  and 
shores  of  the  United  States  north  of  the  SCth  parallel 
of  latitude. 

Art.  3.  It  is  agnod  that  the  articles  enumerated  in 
the  following  schedule,  Iwing  the  growth  and  product  of 
the  aforesaid  British  colonies,  or  of  the  United  States, 
(ball  be  admitted  into  each  country  fkee  of  duty  i 
Orsin  and  breadftutb  of  all  |  Manures. 
.  lUiidli  I  Ores  of  metals  of  all  kinds. 


CoaL  HJ, 

Pitch,  tor,  turpenUna.        &, 
Ashes.  , 

Timber  and  Lumber  of  all 

kIndH — round,  b^ed,  and 

sawed,  unnunufaetured  In 

whole  or  In  part. 
Fire-wood,  plants,  shrubs,  and 

trees. 
Pelts. 

Wool.  r-yjbLH  U-iWf 

1  Ish-oll. 

Rioe. 

Broom-cam  and  bark. 

Ojpaum.  ground  or  un^Tonnd. 

llewn,  or  wrought,  or  un- 
wrought burr  or  grind- 
stones. 

Uve-BtuHli. 

Flax,  hemp,  and  tow,  unman- 
ufactured. 

Unmanufactured  tobacco. 

R»g».  J 


Art.  4.  It  Is  agreed  that  the  citizens  and  inhabitant* 
of  the  United  States  shall  have  the  right  to  navigate 
the  River  St.  Lawrence  and  the  canals  in  Canada  used 
us  a  means  of  communicating  between  the  Urcat  I^kes 
and  tho  Atlantic  Ocean,  with  their  vessels,  boats,  and 
crafts,  as  fully  and  f^ly  as  the  snbjertii  of  her  Britan- 
nic majesty,  subject  only  to  the  saihe  tolls  and  other  as- 
sessments as  are  now  exacted  of  British  subjects. 

A  rt,  6.  It  is  agreed  that  British  subjects  shall  have 
the  right  to  navigate  Lake  Michigan  on  the  same  terms, 
as  long  as  the  Canada  canals  and  St.  Lawrence  River 
are  open. 

Art.  6.  It  is  agreed  that  no  export  duty  shall  be 
levied  on  lumber  or  timber  cut  on  that  portion  of  the 
State  of  Maine  watered  by  the  River  St.  John  and  its 
tributaries,  and  floated  down  that  river  and  shipped 
to  the  United  States  fVom  the  province  of  New  Bruna- 
wick. 

The  effect  of  this  treoty,  especially  of  Art.  3,  has 
lieen  to  give  a  great  impetus  to  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  the  British  possessions,  especially 
Canada.  This  treaty  has  been  and  will  be  of  great 
advantage  to  both  countries,  promoting  intercourse  and 
extending  commercial  relations. 

Canal,  Canals.  A  canal  is  an  artificial  channel, 
filled  with  water  kept  at  tho  desired  level  by  means  of 
locks  or  sluices,  forming  a  communication  between  two 
or  more  places. 

AneieM  Canals. — The  comparative  cheapness  and  fa- 
cility with  which  goods  may  bo  conveyed  by  sea,  or  by 
means  of  navigable  rivers,  seem  to  have  suggested  at 
a  very  early  period  tho  formation  of  caimls.  The  best- 
authenticated  accounts  of  ancient  Kgjiit  represent  tliat 
countrj'  as  intersected  by  canals  conveying  the  waters 
of  the  Nile  to  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  country-, 
partly  for  tho  purpose  of  irrigation,  and  partly  for  that 
of  internal  navigation.  The  efforts  made  by  the  old 
Egyptian  monarchs,  and  by  the  Ptolemies,  to  construct 
a  canal  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile,  nre  well 
known,  and  evince  the  higli  sense  which  they  enter- 
tained of  tlic  importance  of  this  species  of  communica- 
tion.— Ameiliion,  Comm.  des  Egyplicm,  p.  76.  Greece 
was  too  small  a  territory,  too  much  intersected  by  arms 
of  the  sea,  and  subdivided  into  too  many  independent 
states,  to  afford  much  scope  for  inland  navigation.  At- 
tempts were,  however,  made  to  cut  a  canal  across  tho 
Isthmus  of  Corinth ;  but  they  did  not  succeed.  The 
Romans  did  not  distinguish  themselves  in  canal  navi- 
gation. Tlieir  aqueducts,  the  stupendous  ruins  of 
which  attest  the  wealth  and  power  of  tltcir  foundern, 
were  intended  to  furnish  supplies  of  water  to  some  ad- 
joining city,  and  not  for  the  conveyance  of  vessels  or 
produce. 

Ckineie  Canalt.—Xn  China,  canals,  partly  for  irriga- 
tion and  partly  for  navigation,  have  existed  from  a  veri- 
early  period.  The  most  celebrated  among  them  is  the 
Imperial  or  Grand  Canal,  commencing  at  Uang-tcbou, 
near  the  mouth  of  tho  Tching-tang-chiang  river,  in 
about  lat.  80°  22'  N.,  long.  110°  45'  £. ;  it  then  stretch- 


CAN 


248 


CAN 


M  north,  and,  crouing  the  great  riven  Tuig-ti^KiMig 
and  Hoang-ho,  tonninates  at  Ling-ting,  on  tiie  Ea-lio 
Biver,  in  about  lat.  87°  K.,  long.  116°  £.  The  direct 
distance  between  the  extreme  limita  of  the  canal  It 
about  612  milea,  but,  including  its  bends,  it  it  above 
(150  milet  In  length ;  and  as  the  £u-ho,  which  ia  a  nav< 
Igablc  river,  nultes  with  the  Pei-ho,  also  navigable,  an 
internal  water  communication  is  thus  establitbed  be- 
tween Hang-tchou  and  Pekin  across  1U°  of  latitndo. 
But,  apart  from  its  magnitude  and  utility,  the  Grand 
Canal  does  not  rank  high  at  a  work  of  art.  A  vast 
nmount  of  labor  has,  however,  been  expended  upon  it ; 
for  though  it  mostly  passes  through  a  flat  country,  and 
winds  about  to  preserve  its  level,  its  bed  is  In  parts  cut 
down  to  a  great  depth,  while  in  other  parts  it  is  carried 
over  extensive  hollows,  and  even  lakes  and  morasses, 
on  vast  mounds  of  earth  and  stone.  The  sluices,  which 
preserve  its  waters  at  the  necessary  level,  are  all  of  very 
simple  construction,  being  merely  intended  to  elevate 
or  depress  the  height  ut  the  water  by  a  few  inches ;  as, 
excepting  these,  tiiera  is  not  a  tingle  lock  or  interrup- 
tion to  the  navigation  throughout  the  whole  length  of 
the  canal.  It  it  seldom  more  than  Ave  or  six  feet  in 
depth,  and  in  dry  seasons  is  sometimes  considerably 
less.  The  vessels  by  which  it  is  navigated  are  some- 
times rowed,  and  sometimet  dr^ged  by  men,  so  that 
the  navigation  is  for  the  most  part  slow.  The  canal  is 
flrequent^'  faced  with  atone.  The  construction  of  this 
great  work  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Tartara,  but  the 
Chinese  allege  that  it  was  merely  repaired  and  reno- 
vated by  the  latter,  and  that  it  had  been  completed  in 
the  remotest  period  of  their  history. — Barrow'b  Clii- 
na,  p.  335,  etc, )  La  Lamue,  Canatuc  dt  Natigalum,  p. 
629,  etc. 

Iluliau  CanaU ^The  Italians  were  the  first  people  in 

modem  Europe  that  attempted  to  plan  and  execute  ca- 
nals. They  were  principally,  however,  undertaken  for 
the  purpose  of  irrigation;  andtheworluoftbts  sort  ex- 
ecuted in  the  Milanese  and  other  parts  of  Lombordy,  in 
the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries,  are  still 
regarded  as  models,  and  excite  the  warm  admiration 
of  every  one  capable  of  appreciating  them.  In  1271, 
the  Navilio  Grande,  or  canal  leading  from  Milan  to 
Abbiate  Grasso  and  the  Tesino,  was  rendered  naviga- 
ble.— YuDNo'g  Travth  m  France,  etc.  vol.  ii.  p.  170. 

J)utch  Cunalt. — No  country  in  Europe  contains,  in 
proportion  to  its  size,  so  many  navigable  canals  as  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  particularly  the  prov- 
ince of  Holland.  The  construction  of  these  canals  com- 
menced as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  when,  owing 
to  its  central  and  convenient  situation,  Flanders  began 
to  be  the  ftUrtpit  of  commerce  between  the  north  and 
south  of  Europe.  Their  number  has  since  been  aston- 
ishingly increased.  "  Holland,"  says  Mr.  Phillips,  in 
his  liitton/  o/ Inland  Natigativn,  "is  intersected  with 
innumerable  cunals.  They  may  be  compared  in  num- 
ber and  size  to  our  public  roads  end  highways ;  and  as 
the  latter  with  nt  are  continually  full  of  vehicles  and 
horsemen  goin^  .rom  and  to  the  different  cities,  towns, 
and  villages,  so,  on  the  former,  the  Hollanders  in  their 
boats  and  pleasure  barges,  their  treckschuyts,  and  ves- 
sels of  burden,  are  continually  journeying  and  convey- 
ing commodities  for  consumption  or  exportation  from 
the  interior  of  tlie  country  to  tlie  grent  cities  and  riv- 
ers. An  inhabitant  of  Kotterdam  may,  by  means  of 
these  canals,  breakfast  at  Delft  or  the  Hague,  dine  at 
Leyden,  and  sup  at  Amsterdam,  or  return  home  again 
before  night.  By  them,  also,  a  most  prodigious  in- 
land trade  is  carried  on  between  Holland  and  every 
part  of  France,  Flanders,  and  Germany.  When  the 
canals  arc  frozen  over,  they  travel  on  them  with  skates, 
and  perform  long  journeys  in  a  very  short  time,  while 
heavy  burdens  are  conveyed  in  carts  and  skdgts,  whicli 
are  then  as  much  used  on  the  canals  as  on  our  streets. 
The  yearly  profits  produced  by  these  canals  are  almost 
beyond  belief;  but  It  has  l)een  incontestal>ly  proved  that 
they  amount  to  more  than  il260,(K)0  fur  about  400  milet 


of  inland  navigation,  which  it  4626  per  mile,  the  tquai* 
surfooe  of  which  mile  does  not  exceed  two  acres  of 
ground ;  a  proHt  so  amazing,  that  it  is  no  wonder  other 
nationt  ahould  imitate  what  has  been  found  so  advaiV' 
tageottt.  The  canals  of  Holland  are  generally  60  feet 
wide  and  6  deep,  and  nre  carefully  kept  clean ;  the  mud, 
as  manure,  is  very  profitable.  The  canals  being  gen> 
erally  level,  but  few  locks  are  required.  From  Rotter- 
dam to  Delft,  the  Hague,  and  Leyden,  the  canal  it 
quite  level,  but  is  sometimes  aiTected  by  strong  winds. 
For  the  most  part,  the  canals  are  elevated  above  the 
fields  or  the  country,  to  enable  them  to  carry  off  the 
water,  which  in  winter  inundatat  the  land.  To  drain 
the  water  (h>m  Delftland,  a  pnn'ince  not  more  than 
60  miles  long,  they  employ  200  wind-mills  in  spring- 
time to  raise  it  into  tlie  canals.  All  the  canals  of  Hol- 
land are  bordered  with  dnms  or  banks  of  immensa 
thickness,  and  on  these  depends  the  security  of  th* 
country  from  inundation ;  of  course,  it  is  of  great  mo- 
ment to  keep  them  in  the  best  repair;  to  effect  which 
there  is  a  kind  of  militia,  and  in  every  village  is  a 
magazine  of  proper  stores,  and  men  whose  business  it 
it  to  convey  stones  and  rubbish  in  carts  to  any  dam- 
aged place.  When  a  certain  bell  rings,  or  the  waters 
are  at  a  fixed  height,  every  man  repairs  to  his  post. 
To  every  house  or  family  there  ia  assigned  a  certain 
part  of  the  l>ank,  in  the  repMr  of  which  they  are  to  as- 
sist. When  a  breach  is  apprehended,  they  cuver  tha 
banks  all  over  with  cloth  and  stones," 

Canal  from  A  mtltrdam  to  Nii'vdiip,  near  the  Htlder.—r 
The  object  of  this  canal,  which  is  the  greatest  work  of  its 
kind  in  Holland,  and  probably  in  the  world,  is  to  afford 
a  safe  and  easy  passage  for  large  vessels  IVom  Amster- 
dam to  the  German  Ocean.  This  city  has  40  feet  of  wa- 
ter in  the  road  in  front  of  its  port ;  but  the  pampas  or  bar 
at  the  junction  of  the  Y  with  the  Zuyder  Zee,  7  miles  be- 
low, has  only  a  depth  of  10  feet ;  and  hence  all  ships  of 
any  considerable  burden  entering  or  leaving  the  port 
must  unload  and  load  part  of  their  cargoes  without  the 
bar.  As  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  every  where  full  of  shallows, 
all  ordinary  means  of  improving  the  access  to  Amster- 
dam were  necessarily  ineffectual;  and  the  resolution 
was,  therefore,  at  length  adopted  of  cutting  a  canal  from 
the  city  to  the  Helder,  the  most  northern  point  of  the 
province  of  Holland,  The  distance  between  these  ex- 
treme points  is  41  English  miles,  but  the  length  of  the 
canal  is  aliout  50}.  The  breadth  at  the  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter i8l24i  English  feet  (120  Khineland  feet);  the  breadth 
at  bottom,  36  feet ;  the  depth,  20  feet  9  inches.  Like  the 
Dutch  canals  generally,  its  level  is  that  of  the  highest 
tides,  and  it  receives  its  supply  of  water  fyom  the  sea> 
The  only  locks  it  requires  are  two  tide-locks  at  the  ex- 
tremities; but  there  are^  besides,  two  sluices,  with 
flood-gates  in  the  intermediate  space.  It  is  crossed 
by  about  18  draw-bridges.  The  locks  and  sluices  ore 
double— that  is,  thire  are  two  in  the  breadth  of  the  ca- 
nal ;  and  their  construction  and  workmanship  are  said 
to  be  excellent  They  are  built  of  brick,  for  economy ; 
but  bands  of  limestone  are  interposed  at  intervals,  and 
these  project  about  an  inch  beyond  the  brick  to  protect 
it  from  abrasion  by  tha  sides  of  vessels.  There  it  • 
broad  towing-path  on  each  side,  and  the  canal  is  wide 
enough  to  admit  of  two  frigates  pasting.  The  Una 
which  tlie  canal  follows  may  be  easily  traced  on  a  map 
of  IlolUnd.  From  the  Y,  at  Amsterdam,  it  proceeds 
north  to  Purmerend;  thence  west  to  Alkmaar  l,akeS 
again  north  by  Alkmaar  to  a  point  within  2  miles  of 
the  coast,  near  Petten ;  whence  it  runs  nearly  parallel  to 
the  coast,  till  it  joins  tha  tea  a  little  to  the  eaxt  of  the 
Helder,  at  the  flna  harbor  of  Kiewdiep,  formed  within 
the  last  30  years.  At  the  latter  place  there  is  a  pow-* 
en'ul  steam-engine  for  supplying  the  canal  with  water 
during  neap-tides,  and  other  purposes.  The  time  spent 
in  towing  vesxels  ft-om  Niewdiep  to  Amsterdam  is  18 
hours.  The  Helder  is  the  only  spot  on  the  shores  of 
Holland  that  has  deep  water;  and  it  owes  this  advant* 
aga  to  its  b«ing  oppotite  to  the  Texel,  which  by  contraat- 


C- 


S41> 


OAir 


on  a  map 
proccedt 
uir  I^k«i 
mileii  of 
parallel  to 
,»t  of  the 
ed  within 
!■  a  pow- 
ith  water 
inie  xpent 
dam  is  18 
Bhore*  of 
■  advant* 
contTa«t- 


Ing  the  communication  lietwieK  the  German  Ocean  and 
the  Zuyder  Zee  to  a  breadth  of  about  a  mile,  produce! 
a  current  which  scoun  and  deepeni  tiie  channel.  Im- 
mediately oppoaite  tho  Heldar  thfere  are  100  feet  water 
at  high  Udea,  and  at  the  Bhallowest  part  of  the  bar  to 
the  weatward  there  are  '11  feet.  In  the  same  way,  the 
artillcial  mound  which  runs  into  the  Y  opposite  Am> 
(terdain,  by  contracting  the  water>way  to  about  lUUU 
feet,  keeps  a  depth  of  4U  feet  in  the  port  (at  high  water), 
while  above  and  iwlww  there  are  only  10  or  18.  Tlie 
canal  was  begun  in  1819,  and  linished  in  18S6.  The 
cost  was  estimated  at  10,000,000  or  12,000,000  florins,  or 
about  £l,0i>O,00U  sterling.  If  we  compute  the  magni- 
tude of  tliis  canal  by  the  cubic  contents  of  its  bed,  it  is 
the  greatest,  we  believe,  in  the  world,  unless  some  of 
the  Chinese  canals  be  exceptions.  The  volume  of  wa- 
ter Which  it  contains,  or  the  pritme  tie  nmplumge,  is 
twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  New  York  and  Erie  Canal, 
or  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  and  two  and  a  half  times  as 
great  a*  that  of  the  artilicial  part  of  the  Caledonian 
Cojiol.  In  consequence,  however,  of  the  facility  with 
which  the  Dutch  canal  was  dug,  and  of  the  evenness 
of  the  ground  through  which  it  passes,  the  difficulties 
with  which  the  engineer  had  to  contend  in  making  it 
were  trifling  compared  to  those  which  had  to  be  over- 
come in  constructing  the  canals  now  mentioned.  We 
have  not  learned  what  returns  this  canal  yields ;  most 
probably  it  is  not,  at  least  in  a  direct  point  of  view,  a 
profltable  concern.  Even  in  Holland,  notwithstanding 
the  lowness  of  interest,  it  would  require  tolls  to  tho 
•mount  of  jC40,000  a  year  to  cover  interest  and  ex- 
penses; and  so  large  a  sum  can  hardly,  we  should 
think,  be  raised  by  the  verj'  moderate  tolls  laid  on  the 
ships  passing  through  it. — iSee  Amsteriiam.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  only  consideration  to  be  attended 
to  in  estimating  the  value  of  a  work  of  this  sort.  Its 
influence  in  promoting  the  trade  of  Amsterdam,  and, 
indeed,  of  Holland,  may  far  more  than  compensate  for 
its  cost.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  the  imposition  of  op- 
pressive tolls  would  have  etfectually  counteractc<l  this 
advantage;  that  is,  they  would  have  defeated  the  very 
ol>ject  for  which  the  canal  was  constructed. 

JJanish  Canah, — The  Holstein  Canal,  in  Denmark, 
is  of  very  considerable  importance.  It  joins  the  Itiver 
Eyder  with  Kiel  Bay,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Hol- 
stein, forming  a  navigable  communication  lietween  the 
North  Sea,  a  little  to  the  north  of  Heligoland,  and  the 
Baltic ;  enabling  vessels  to  pass  from  the  one  to  the 
other  by  a  short  cut  of  about  lOO  miles,  instead  of  the 
lengthened  and  difiioult  voyage  round  Jutland,  and 
through  the  Cattegat  and  the  Sound.  The  Eyder  is 
navigable  for  vessels  not  drawing  more  than  D  feet  of 
water,  from  Tonningen,  near  its  nviuth,  to  Kendsburg, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  canal,  which  communicates 
with  the  Baltic  at  Holtenau,  about  8  miles  north  of 
Kiel.  The  canal  is  about  26  English  miles  in  length, 
including  about  6  miles  uf  what  is  principally  river 
navigation.  Tho  excavated  portion  is  96  feet  wide  at 
top,  51  feel  6  inches  at  bottom,  and  9  feet  6  inches  deep 
(Englifih  measure).  Its  highest  elevation  above  the 
level  of  the  soa  is  24  feet  4  inches ;  to  which  height 
vessels  are  raised  and  let  down  by  G  locks  or  sluices. 
It  is  navigable  by  vessels  of  120  tons  burden,  or  more, 
provided  they  are  constructed  in  that  view.  The  to- 
tal cost  of  the  canal  was  about  je60O,O0O,  It  was  open- 
ed in  1785,  and  has  so  far  realized  the  views  of  its  pro- 
jectors, aa  lo  enable  coasting  vessels  from  the  Danish 
islands  in  the  Baltic  and  the  east  coast  of  Holstein, 
•Jutland,  etc.,  to  proceed  to  Hamburg,  Holland,  En- 
gland, etc.,  in  less  time,  and  with  much  less  risk,  than, 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  navigation,  they  could  have 
cleared  the  point  of  the  8kaw ;  and  conversely  with 
aliipa  from  the  west.  The  smaller  class  of  foreign  ves- 
sels, particularly  those  under  the  Dutch  and  Hanse- 
atic  flags,  navigating  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  have 
largely  availed  themselves  of  the  facilities  afforded  by 
this  canal.    About  8000  vessels  pas*  annually  through 


the  canal.  Thti  It  a  sufficient  evMenee  of  Its  utlltty. 
It  would,  however,  lie  much  mora  frequented,  were  it 
not  for  the  diflicult  navigation  of  the  Eydor  jfrom  the 
sea  to  Rendsbnrg.  The  dues  are  moderate. — CoxE'a 
Travelt  m  tlw  JVoilh  of  Kurvpe,  6th  edition,  vol.  v.  p. 
289,  where  there  is  a  plan  of  tho  canal ;  Cattkau,  To' 
bUau  da  ktaU  JJaHuii,  tome  ii.  p.  8UO-3U4;  and  pri- 
vate information. 

Sieedish  CanaU.—The  formation  of  an  internal  navi- 
gation connecting  the  Cattegat  and  the  Baltic  lus  long 
engaged  the  attention,  and  occupied  the  eflbrts,  of  the 
people  and  government  of  Sweden.  Various  motive! 
conspired  to  make  them  embark  in  this  arduous  un- 
dertaking. The  Sound  and  other  channels  to  the  Bal- 
tic iteing  commanded  by  the  Danes,  they  were  able, 
when  at  war  with  the  Swedes,  greatly  to  annoy  the 
latter,  by  cutting  off  all  communication  by  sea  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  provinces  of  the  klngw 
doro.  And  hence,  in  the  view,  partly  of  obviating 
i  this  annoyance,  and  partly  of  facilitating  the  convey. 
'  anee  of  iron,  timber,  and  nther  bulky  products,  from 
I  the  interior  to  the  coast,  it  was  determined  to  attempt 
i  forming  an  internal  navigation,  by  means  of  the  Kiver 
I  tiotha,  and  the  I^kos  Wener,  Wetter,  etc.,  from  6ot- 
;  tenburg  to  .Soderko-ping,  on  the  Baltic.  The  tirst  and 
most  difficult  part  of  this  enterprise  was  the  perfecting 
of  the  communication  from  Gottenburg  to  the  Lake 
Wener.  The  Gotha,  which  flows  from  the  latter  to  the 
former,  is  navigable,  through  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  its  course,  for  vessels  of  considerable  burden ;  but, 
besides  others  less  difficult  to  overcome,  the  navigation 
at  the  point  called  TriiUhoitta  is  interrupted  by  a  series 
of  cataracts  about  112  feet  in  height.  Owing  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  river,  the  stubborn  red  granite  rocka 
over  which  it  flows,  and  the  perpendicular  banks  by 
which  it  is  bounded,  the  attempt  to  cut  a  lateral  canal, 
and  still  more  to  render  it  directly  navigable,  present- 
ed the  most  formidable  obstacles.  But  undismayed  by 
these,  on  which  it  is,  indeed,  most  probable  he  had  not 
suflicicntly  reflected,  Polhem,  a  native  engineer,  un- 
dertook, about  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  Hercu- 
lean task  of  constructing  locks  in  the  channel  of  the 
river,  and  rendering  it  navigable.  Whether,  however,  it 
were  owing  to  the  ull  but  insuperable  olistaclcs  opposed 
to  such  a  plan,  to  tho  defective  execution,  or  deflcient 
strength  of  the  works,  they  were  wholly  swept  away, 
after  lieing  considerably  advanced,  and  after  vast  sums 
had  been  expended  u])on  them.  From  this  period, 
down  to  1798,  the  undertaking  was  abandoned ;  but  in 
that  year  the  plan  was  proposed,  which  should  have 
liecn  adopted  at  first,  of  cutting  a  lateral  canal  through 
the  solid  rock,  aliout  H  mile  from  the  river.  This 
new  enterprise  was  begun  under  the  auspices  of  a  com- 
pany incorporated  for  the  purpose  in  1794,  and  wa! 
successfully  completed  in  1800.  The  canal  is  about 
3  miles  in  length,  and  has  about  6^  feet  water.— -Cat. 
TKAii,  Tableau  de  la  Merlialtiijiie,  tome  ii.  II.  77;  OliDV, 
in  his  Kantpean  Cimmeree,  p.  806,  and  Balbi,  Abrti/i 
de  la  Geoffraphie,  p.  886,  say  that  the  depth  of  water  is 
10  feet.  It  has  8  sluices,  and  admits  vessels  of  above 
100  tons.  In  one  part  it  is  cut  through  the  solid  rock 
to  the  depth  of  72  feet.  The  expense  was  a  good  deal 
less  tlian  might  have  lioen  expected,  being  only  about 
i:80,000.  The  Ijike  Wener,  the  navigation  of  which 
was  thus  opened  with  Gottenburg,  is  very  large,  deep, 
and  encircled  by  sonic  of  the  richest  of  the  Swedish 
provinces,  which  now  possess  the  inestimable  advant- 
age of  a  convcfilent  and  ready  outlet  for  thoir  pro<lucts. 
As  soon  as  the  Trdllhastta  canal  had  been  completed, 
there  could  be  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  practicabili- 
ty of  extending  the  navigation  to  Soderkneping.  In 
fVirtherance  of  this  object,  the  Lake  Wcncr  wns  joined 
to  the  Lake  Wetter  by  the  Gotha  Canal,  whi<li  admits 
vessels  of  the  same  size  as  that  of  TrfiUhastta ;  and  the 
prolongation  of  the  navigation  to  tho  Baltic  from  the 
Wetter,  partly  by  two  canals  of  equal  magnitude  with 
the  al)ove,  and  partly  by  lakes,  has  since  (Men  cow* 


CAN 


150 


CAN 


plated.  The  tntitt  vnderteking  ii  ealM  the  Goth* 
Navigation,  and  dcaerrtdly  ranlu  among  tlie  very  Unit 
of  the  liind  in  Kumpe.  Becidet  the  above,  the  uanal 
of  Arboga  unites  the  Lalte  Hielmar  to  the  iMkti  MtM> 
lar ;  and,  since  1819,  a  canal  has  keen  conslruuted  from 
the  latter  to  the  Baltic  at  BOdcrtelge.  The  uanal  of 
StKcmsholm,  so  called  from  its  lusslng  near  the  castle 
of  that  name,  has  effected  a  navlRulile  communication 
between  the  province  of  Ualecarlia  and  1h«  I^ka  Mae- 
lar,  etc. — For  further  details,  see,  liesldes  the  aulhorl- 
ties  already  referred  to,  Coxk'h  TrmrU  in  lh»  Sortk  of 
EnnjK,  5th  ed.  vol.  iv.  p.  26ft-2*l6,  and  vol.  v,  |i, 
H-66;  Thomson's  Travtli  m  Hiredrn,  p.  85,  etc. 

Frmch  Canalt. — The  first  canal  executed  In  France 
was  that  of  Briare,  84^  English  miles  in  length,  Intend- 
ed to  form  a  communication  l)etween  the  Heine  and  the 
Loire.  It  was  commenced  in  lUOA,  iu  thu  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  and  was  completed  in  lA4i,  under  Ills  sue. 
cesser,  Louis  XIII.  The  canal  ot  Orleans,  whi<^li  joins 
the  above,  was  commenced  in  1076.  But  the  most 
stupendous  undertaking  of  this  sort  that  has  been  exe- 
cuted in  France,  or  indeed  on  the  continent.  Is  the  ca- 
nal of  Langurdoc.  It  was  projected  under  Francis  L  ; 
but  was  begun  and  completed  in  the  reign  of  ].ouls 
XIV.  It  reaches  flrom  Narbonne  to  Toulouse  j  and 
was  intended  to  form  a  safe  and  speedy  means  of  coni- 
nuuication  between  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  is  64  French  leagues  in  length,  and  <l 
het  deep;  and  has  in  all  114  locks  and  sluices.  In 
its  highest  part  it  is  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
In  some  places  it  is  conveyed,  by  bridges  of  great 
length  and  strength,  over  large  rivers.  It  cost  upward 
of  £1,300,000;  and  reflects  infinite  credit  on  the  engi- 
neer, Kiquet,  by  whom  it  was  planned  and  executed, 
Besides  this  great  work,  France  possesses  several  mag- 
nificent canals,  such  as  that  of  the  Centre,  connecting 
the  ljo\n  with  the  Saone ;  of  St.  Quentin,  Joining  the 
Scheldt  nnd  the  Somme;  of  Besanfon,  Joining  the 
Saone,  and  consequently  the  Khono,  to  the  Hhlne ;  of 
Burgundy,  Joining  the  Rhone  to  the  Seine,  etc.  Home 
of  these  are  of  very  considerable  magnitude.  The  ca- 
nal of  tlie  Centre  is  about  72  Fjiglish  miles  in  length. 
It  was  completed  in  1791,  at  an  expense  of  oliuut 
11,000,000  francs.  Its  summit  level  is  aliout  340  Aiot 
above  the  level  of  the  Loire  at  Digoin ;  the  breadth  at 
the  water's  edge  is  about  48  feet,  and  at  liottom  80  feet ; 
depth  of  water,  6^  feet ;  number  of  locks,  HI,  Thu 
canal  nf  St.  Quentin,  28  English  miles  in  length,  was 
completed  in  1810.  The  canal  Joining  the  Klione  to 
the  Khiiio  is  the  most  extensive  of  any.  It  stretches 
from  the  Saone,  a  little  above  St.  Joan  de  I/>sne,  liy 
Qple,  Besanvon,  and  Mulhouse,  to  Straslmrg,  wherti 
it  joins  the  Khinc — a  distance  of  al)out  '200  English 
miles.  From  Dole  to  Vogeaucourt,  near  Montliillard, 
the  canal  is  principally  excavated  in  the  l>ed  of  thu 
Doulw.  It  is  not  quite  finished.  The  canal  of  Bur- 
gundy will,  when  completed,  be  about  '242  kilometres, 
or  150  English  miles,  in  length ;  but  at  present  it  Is 
only  navigable  to  the  distance  of  about  00  kilometres, 
In  addition  to  tlicse,  a  great  many  other  canals  have 
been  finished,  while  several  are  in  progress,  and  oth- 
ers projected.  There  is  an  excellent  account  of  the 
French  canals,  in  the  llulvin  de  la  Navigation  lnl»' 
rietire  de  la  t'mnce,  by  M.  Uutens,  In  2  vols,  4to,  and 
to  it  we  beg  to  refer  the  reader  for  further  dotalts,  lie 
will  find,  at  the  end  of  the  second  volume,  a  very  lieau- 
tlAil  map  of  the  rivers  and  canals  of  France.  The  rail- 
roads now  in  the  course  of  constmotlon  tft  France  have, 
how<  ver,  checked  the  progress  of  canals.  We  may  oli- 
serve,  too,  that  the  state  of  the  law  in  France  Is  very 
nnfavorable  to  the  undertaking  and  success  of  all  great 
public  works;  and  we  are  inclined  to  attribute  the 
comparative  fewness  of  canals  in  France,  nnd  the  ru. 
cent  period  at  which  most  of  them  have  been  construct- 
ed, to  its  influence.  In  that  country,  canals,  docks, 
and  Bucli  like  works,  are  mostly  carried  on  at  the  nx- 
pMM  and  for  behoof  of  government,  under  the  control 


of  Hs  «f(ntl.  No  Mope  has  been  given  to  the  enterprise 
of  Individuals  or  associations,  llefnre  either  a  road  or 
a  canal  oan  be  eonstniotcd,  plans  and  estimates  must 
be  mads  out  and  laid  liefore  the  Minister  of  the  Inte- 
rior, by  whom  they  are  referred  to  the  prefect  of  the 
department,  and  (hen  to  the  Hureau  det  Ponti  et  de$ 
Vhauuti  I  and  supposing  the  project  to  be  approved  by 
these,  and  the  other  functionaries  consulted  with  re- 
spect to  it,  the  work  must  after  ail  be  carried  on  under 
the  superintendence  of  some  public  officer.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  preposterous  system,  very  few  works  of 
this  description  have  l>een  undertsken  as  private  spec- 
ulations. And  while  not  a  few  of  those  begun  by  gov- 
ernment remain  unfinished  and  comparatively  useless, 
those  that  are  completed  have,  as  was  to  be  Expected, 
rarely  proved  profitable.  There  are  some  good  re- 
marks on  this  FUbJect  In  the  useful  work  of  M.  Dnpin, 
on  the  hWou  Cimmtrrialrt  of  (ireat  Britain. 

I'ruuiim  Cnnalt. — The  Prussian  states  are  traversed 
liy  the  great  navlgaldo  rivers  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and 
the  Vistula;  the  first  having  its  embouchure  in  the 
North  Sea,  and  the  others  In  the  Baltic.  The  forma- 
tion of  an  Internal  navigation,  that  should  Join  these 
great  wrtlri'-wagi,  excited  the  attention  of  government 
nt  n  distant  period ;  and  this  oliject  has  been  success- 
Ailly  Nccompllshed,  partly  by  the  aid  of  the  secondary 
rivers  falling  into  the  alio^o,  and  partly  l>y  canals. 
In  iOA'A  the  cannl  of  Muhlrose  was  nndertaken,  unit- 
ing the  Oder  nnd  the  Spree ;  the  latter  being  u  nnviga- 
ble  river  falling  Into  the  Havel,  also  a  navigable  riv- 
er joining  the  Elbe  near  Havelburg.  But  the  naviga- 
tion fl^om  the  Oder  to  the  Elbe  i)y  this  channel  was  dif- 
ficult, nnd  liable  to  frequent  interruption ;  and  to  ob- 
viate these  drferls,  Frederick  the  Great  constructed, 
toward  tlio  middle  of  Inst  century,  the  Finnow  Canal, 
stretching  from  the  Oder,  at  Oderburg,  to  tlie  Havel, 
near  Lieiienwalde ;  the  communication  is  thence  con- 
tinued by  the  latter  and  a  c\ialn  of  lakes  to  I'laucn; 
from  which  point  u  canal  has  lieen  opened.  Joining  the 
Kllie  near  Magdeburg.  The  Elbe  being  In  this  way 
connected  with  the  Oder  by  a  comparatively  easy  nav- 
igution,  the  latter  has  lieen  united  to  the  Vistula,  part- 
ly l>y  the  Diver  Netze,  and  partly  by  a  canal  joining 
that  river  to  the  llrahc,  which  falls  into  the  Vistula 
near  llroinlierg.  A  vast  Inland  navigation  has  thus 
lieeii  completed,  l)arks  passing  (Veely  through  the  whole 
extent  of  the  country  from  Hamburg  to  bantzic;  af- 
fording the  means  of  siilpiiing  the  products  of  the  inte- 
rior, and  of  importing  those  of  foreign  countries,  either 
by  the  NoHh  Sea  or  the  llultic,  as  may  be  found  most 
udvantagemis.— CArrK.w,  Tableau  de  la  JUer  Ballique, 
tome  II.  p.  11-18. 

Hunian  (MiuiUi.—Vm  inland  navigation  of  Rnssia  is 
of  vast  extent,  and  very  considerable  importance.  By 
means  partly  of  rivers,  and  partly  of  canals,  St'.  Peters- 
liurg  Is  connected  with  the  Caspian  Sea.  Goods  are 
conveyed  from  the  Inttcr  to  the  capital,  a  distance  of 
74114  miles,  without  reshlpment. 

Hnmrian  C'antilt. — A  grand  canal,  which  was  for  a 
teiigtlienf-il  period  in  progress  In  Bavaria,  was  com- 
pleted In  1840,  and  promises  to  become  of  great  public 
utility,  It  extends  from  Uietfurth,  on  the  AllmCihl,  a 
liavlgalde  affluent  of  the  Danube,  to  Bamlierg,  on  the 
Mayn,  a  distance  of  28^  German,  or  about  112  English 
miles.  It  Is  on  a  lorge  scale,  and  has  cost  aliove 
£\,(Ktn,mm,  This  magnificent  undertaking,  which  car- 
ries an  inland  navigation  through  the  centre  of  Europe, 
nnd  raatUrs  the  project  of  Charlemagne  for  uniting  the 
Black  Sea  with  the  German  Ocean,  is  conducted  by  a 
joint-stock  company,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Bava- 
rian gnvemment.  But  the  navigation  of  the  Mayn 
and  the  Dsnulie  requires  to  bo  considerably  improved 
liefore  (his  grand  channel  of  communication  acquires 
nil  the  ImiMirtsnce  which,  most  probably,  it  is  des- 
tined tn  obtain. 

A  iitlriiin  (!/mati. — The  Austrian  empire  is  traversed 
i  in  it*  whole  esttnt  bf  the  Danube;  but  the  advant- 


CAN 


titt 


CAN 


I  was  fnr  a 
Iwafl  com- 
ical pulilic 
Ikltmuhl,  a 
Irp,  on  the 
ISEnglUh 
|(>8t  above 
vhich  car- 
|»f  Europe, 
iiitin);  the 
Icted  by  a 
Ithe  Bava- 
Tlhe  Mayn 
I  improved 
acquires 
lit  is  dc6- 

|traver«ed 
advant- 


age! that  might  result  to  the  foreign  trade  of  the  em- 
pire firom  so  great  a  command  of  river  navigatiqn  have 
been  materially  abridged  by  the  Jealousy  of  the  Turlu, 
who  command  the  embouchure  of  the  river,  and  by 
the  difficulties  that  are  in  some  places  incident  to  its 
navigation.  Two  pretty  extensive  canals  have  been 
constructed  in  Hungary.  That  callud  tho  Uegu  Ca- 
nal is  73  English  miles  in  length :  it  stretches  from 
Fascet  tlirough  the  Bannat,  by  Temeswur  to  Bccslccrelt, 
whence  vessels  puss  by  the  liega  into  tho  Thciss,  a  lit- 
tle abovo  its  Junction  with  the  Danube.  Tho  other 
Hungarian  canal  is  called  after  tho  Emperor  Francis. 
It  stretches  from  tho  Danube  by  Zaml^or  to  the  Theiss, 
which  it  Joins  near  Foldvar,  being  6'i  English  miles 
in  length ;  its  elevation,  where  highest,  does  not  ox- 
cecd  27  feet.  Besides  tile  alrave,  the  canal  of  Vienna 
establishes  a  communication  between  that  city  and 
Neustadt.  It  is  said  to  be  tho  intention  to  continue 
this  canal  to  Trieste ;  but  however  desirable,  wo  doubt 
much  whether  this  be  prncticablo.  A  railroad  has 
been  made  from  Munchausen,  on  the  Daunlxi,  to  Bud- 
weiss,  on  the  Moldau,  a  navigable  rivor  that  fulls  into 
the  Elbe,  which  promises  to  be  a  highly  useful  com- 
munication.—  Bbiuht'8  Travels  in  Jlmigaiy,  p.  246; 
Balhi,  Abregide  la  tiiograithie,  p.  216. 

Spanuh  CVinab. — Nowhere  are  canals  more  neces- 
■ary,  both  for  the  purposes  of  navigation  and  irriga- 
tioB,  than  in  Spain ;  but  tho  nature  of  tho  soil,  and  tho 
poverty  and  ignorance  of  the  government,  as  well  as 
of  the  people,  oppose  formidable  obstacles  to  their  con- 
struction. During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  a  com- 
pany of  Dutch  contractors  offered  to  render  the  Man- 
fanares  navigable  from  Madrid  to  tho  Tagus,  and  tho 
latter  from  that  point  to  Lisbon,  provided  they  were 
allowed  to  levy  a  duty  for  a  certain  number  of  yoars 
on  the  goods  conveyed  by  this  channel.  Tho  Council 
of  Castile  tooli  this  proposal  into  their  serious  consid- 
eration, and,  after  maturely  weighing  it,  pronounced  tlio 
singular  decision,  "That  if  it  had  pleased  God  that 
these  two  rivers  should  have  l)oen  navigable,  he  would 
not  have  wanted  human  assistance  to  have  made  them 
such ;  but  that,  as  he  has  not  done  it,  it  is  plain  he  did 
not  tliinli  it  proper  that  it  should  be  done.  To  attempt 
it,  therefore,  would  be  to  violate  the  decrees  of  his 
providence,  and  to  mend  tho  imperfections  which  he 
designedly  left  in  bis  works!" — Clakke'-s  IMtera  on 
ike  Spanuh  Aation,  p.  284.  But  such  undertakings 
are  no  longer  looked  upon  as  sinful ;  and  many  have 
been  projected  since  the  accession  of  the  Bourbon  dy- 
nasty, though  few  have  been  perfected.  The  canal  of 
the  Ebro,  l>egun  under  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  is  the 
most  important  of  the  Spanish  canals  ;  but  it  is  only 
partially  completed,  and  during  dry  seasons  it  suffers 
from  want  of  water.  It  runs  parallel  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ebro,  from  Tudela,  in  Navarre,  to  below  Sara- 
gossa ;  tho  intention  being  to  carry  it  to  Sastago,  where 
it  is  to  unite  with  the  Ebro.  Tlie  canal  of  Castile  is 
intended  to  lay  open  the  country  between  the  Douro 
and  Keynoaa,  and  to  facilitate  the  conveyance  of  grain 
fk'om  tlie  interior  to  Santandcr  and  Bilbao.  It  passes 
by  Vallodolid,  Palencia,  and  Aguilur  del  Campos ;  a 
•mall  part  has  been  executed,  and  is  now  in  operation. 
A  company  has  also  undertaken,  what  the  Dutch  con- 
tractors formerly  offered,  to  render  the  Tagus  naviga- 
ble from  Aranjuez  to  Lisbon — the  free  navigation  of 
the  river  having  been  stipulated  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  A  project  for  deepening  the  Guadalquiver 
and  some  otjiers  are  also  on  foot. — (Jeographicul  IHc. 
tionary,  ii.  710. 

British  C'inaU, — Owing  partly  to  the  rise  of  extensive 
manufactures  and  commerce  in  Great  Britain,  but 
more,  perliaps,  to  the  insular  situation  of  the  country, 
no  part  of  which  is  very  distant  from  the  sea,  or  from 
a  navigable  river,  no  attempt  was  made  in  England 
to  construct  canals  till  a  comparatively  recent  period. 
The  efforts  pf  those  who  first  began  to  improve  the 
means  of  interual  uuvigution  were  limited  to  attempts 


;  to  deepen  the  beds  of  rivers,  and  to  render  them  better 
I  fitted  for  the  conveyance  of  vessels.     So  early  as  168S, 
a  project  was  formed  for  rendering  the  Avon  navigable 
!  from  the  Severn,  near  Tewkesbury,  through  the  coun- 
j  ties  of  Warwick,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester,  "that 
I  the  towns  and  country  might  be  better  supplied  with 
I  wood,  iron,  pit-coal,  and  other  commodities."     This 
:  scheme  was  approved  by  the  principal  noliility  and 
I  lund-owners  in  tho  adjoining  counties ;  but  tho  civil 
I  war  having  broken  out  soon  after,  the  project  was 
abandoned,  and  docs  not  seem  to  have  liecn  revived. 
After  the  restoration,  and  during  tho  earlier  part  of 
last  century,  various  acts  were  at  different  times  ol>- 
tained  for  cheapening  and  improving  rivor  navigation. 
For  the  most  part,  however,  these  attempts  were  not 
very  successful.     The  current  of  the  rivers  gradually 
changed  tho  form  of  their  channels ;  the  dikes  and 
otlier  artificial  constructions  wcro  upt  to  be  destroyed 
by  inundations ;  alluvial  sand  bunks  were  formed  be- 
low tho  weirs;   in  summer  the  channels  wore  fre- 
quently too  dry  to  admit  of  being  navigated,  whilo  at 
other  periods  tho  current  was  so  strong  as  to  render  it 
quite  impossible  to  ascend  the  river,  which  at  all 
I  times,  indeed,  was  a  laborious  and  expensive  under- 
taking.    These  difficulties  in  tho  way  of  rivor  naviga- 
tion seem  to  have  suggested  tho  expediency  of  aban- 
doning tho  channels  of  most  rivers,  and  of  digging 
parallel  to  them  artificial  channels,  in  which  tho  water 
might  be  kept  at  the  proper  level  by  means  of  locks. 
Tho  act  passed  by  Parliament  in  1765  for  improving 
the  navigation  of  Sankey  Brook,  on  the  Mersey,  gave 
rise  to  a  lateral  canal  of  this  description,  about  11^ 
miles  in  length,  which  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as 
the  earliest  effort  of  the  sort  in  England.     But  before 
this  canal  had  been  completed,  tho  celebrated  Duke  of 
Bridgewater,  and  his  equally  celebrated  engineer,  tho 
self-instructed  James  Brindley,  had  conceived  a  plan 
of  Inland  navigation  inde|>endent  altogether  of  natural 
channels,  and  intended  to  afford  the  greatest  facilities 
to  commerce,  by  carrying  canals  across  rivers  and 
through  mountains,  wherever  it  was   practicable  to 
construct  them.     The  duke  was  proprietor  of  a  lurga 
estate  at  Worsley,  7  miles  from  Manchester,  in  wliich 
wore  some  very  rich  coal-mines  that  had  hitherto 
lieen  in  great  measure  useless,  owing  to  the  cent  of 
carrying  coal  to  market.     Being  desirous  of  turning 
his  mines  to  some  account,  it  occurred  to  his  grace 
that  his  purpose  would  bo  best  accomplished  by  cut- 
ting a  canal  from  Worsley  to  Manchester.     Mr.  Brind- 
ley, having  been  consulted,  declared  that  the  scheme 
was  practicable;  and  an  act  having  been  obtained, 
the  work  was  immediately  commenced.     "  The  prin- 
ciple," says  Mr.  Phillips,  "laid  down  at  the  com- 
mencement of  tills  business  reflects  as  much  honor  on 
the  noble  undertaker  as  it  docs  upon  his  engineer.     It 
{ was  resolved  that  the  canal  should  be  perfect  in  its 
kind ;  and  that,  in  order  to  preserve  the  level  of  the 
I  water,  it  should  bo  free  from  the  usual  obstruction  of 
locks.     But  in  accomplishing  this  end  many  difficul- 
I  ties  were  deemed  insurmountable.     It  was  necessary 
i  that  the  canal  should  be  carried  over  rivers,  and  many 
j  large  and  deep  valleys,  wliere  it  was  evident  that  such 
stupendous  mounds  of  earth  must  be  raised  as  would 
:  scarcely,  it  was  thought  by  numl)ers,  be  completed  by 
i  the  labor  of  ages ;  and,  above  all,  it  was  not  known 
from  what  source  so  large  a  supply  of  water  could  be 
I  drawn,  even  on  this  improved  plan,  as  would  supply 
the  navigation.     But  Mr.  Brindley,  with  a  strength 
I  of  mind  peculiar  to  himself,  and  being  possessed  of 
:  the  confidence  of  his  great  patron,  contrived  such  ad- 
i  miruble  machines,  and  took  such  methods  to  facilitate 
'■  the  progress  of  the  work,  that  the  world  soon  began 
:  to  wonder  how  it  could  be  thought  so  difficult. 
I      The  success  that  attended  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater's 
canal  stimulated  public-spirited  individuals  in  other 
districts  ta  undertake  similar  works.     Mr.  Brindley 
I  had  early  formed  the  magnificent  scheme  of  joining 


CAN 


>8t 


CAN 


the  gntt  porta  of  London,  Liverpool,  Briitolt'ind  < 
Hull,  l>y  s  lyBtem  at  internal  navigation ;  and  though  ' 
he  died  in  1779,  at  the  early  age  of  66,  he  had  the  latis- 
faction  to  iee  hi*  grand  project  in  a  fair  way  of  lieing 
realized.     The  Trent  and  Hertey,  or,  ai  it  hai  lieen 
more  coDinMmly  termed,  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  (HI  ^ 
miles  in  length,  wai  begun  in  1706,  and  completed  in  j 
1777.     A  wuter  communication  between   Hull  and  ' 
Liverpool  was  thui  completed;  and  by  meant  of  the  j 
StaflTordshiro  and  Worccatemhiro  Canal,  which  Joins 
the  Grand  Trunk  near  Haywood  in  the  former,  and  ; 
the  8evcrn  near  Stourport  in  the  latter,  the  same  means  | 
of  communication  was  extended  to  Bristol.     During 
the  time  that  tiie  Grand  Trunk  Canal  was  being  made,  { 
•  cunni  was  undertaken  from  Liverpool  to  l^ceds,  180 
miles  in  length ;   another  from  Biriuingham  to  the  ' 
Staffordshire   and  Worcestershire  Canul,   Joining   it 
near  Wolverhampton ;  and  one  from  liirminghum  to 
Fazely,  and  thence  to  Coventry.     By  canals  subse- 
quently undertaken,  a  communication  was  formed  be- 
tween the  Grand  Trunk  Canul  and  Oxford,  and  conse- 
quently with  London,  completing  Brindley's  magniti- 
cent  scheme.     In  1792  the  Grand  Junction  Canul  was 
begun,  which  runs  in  a  pretty  straight  line  from  Brent- 
ford, on  the  Thames,  a  little  almve  the  metropolis,  to 
Itraunston,  in  Northamptonshire,  where  it  unites  with  j 
the  Oxford  and  other  central  canals.     It  is  about  90  i 
miles  in  length.     There  is  also  a  direct  water  commu-  ' 
nicatlon,  by  means  of  the  River  Lea  navigation,  the  I 
Cambridge  Junction  Canal,  etc.,  between  London  and  i 
the  Wash.     In  addition  to  these,  an  immense  number  | 
uf  other  canals,  some  of  them  of  great  magnitude  and 
importance,  have  lieen  constructed  in  dift°cront  parts  { 
of  the  country  ;  so  that  a  command  of  internal  naviga- 
tion has  been  obtained,  unparalleled  in  any  European 
country,  with  the  exception  of  Holland.  j 

In  Scotland,  the  great  canal  to  Join  the  Forth  and  ; 
Clyde  was  begun  in  1768,  but  it  was  suspended  in  1777, 
and  was  not  resumed  till  after  the  close  of  the  Ameri-  : 
can  war.     It  was  finally  completed  in  1790.     Its  total 
length,  including  the  collateral  cat*  to  Glasgow  and 
the  Monkland  Canal,  is  89i  miles.     Where  highest,  it 
is  160  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     It  is  on  a  liir-  ; 
ger  scale  than  any  of  the  English  canuls.     Its  medium  ' 
width  at  the  surface  is  66,  and  at  the  Iwttom  27  feet.  ; 
Originally  it  was  about  8  feet  6  inches  deep ;  but  with- 
in these  few  years  its  banks  have  lieen  raised,  so  that ' 
the  depth  of  water  is  now  about  10  feet.     It  has  in 
oil  89  locks.     In  completing  this  canal  many  serious 
difficultie*  had  to  bo  encountered.     These,  however,  ^ 
were  all  successfully  overcome ;  and  though  unprofit- 
able for  a  while,  it  has  for  many  years  past  yielded  a 
handsome  return  to  its  proprietors,  the  dividend  hav- 
ing latterly  been  abont  20  per  ceift.  on  the  original 
stock.     Swift  bfiats  on  the  plan  of  those  snlisequcnt- 
ly  deacrilied  were  established  on  this  canal  in  1833. — 
Hit  Clelanu's    Statittict  of  (ilwgntp,   p.    170,  etc. 
The  Union  Canal  Joins  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  | 
near  Falkirk,  and  stretches  thence  to  Edinburgh,  be-  ; 
ing  31^  miles  in  length.     It  Is  40  feet  wide  at  the  top,  \ 
20  at  the  bottom,  and  6  deep.     It  was  completed  in  i 
1822.     But  it  appears  to  have  been  an  extremely  ill-  ' 
advised  undertaking ;  so  much  so  that  its  proprietors  ! 
have  sold  it,  at  a  heavy  loss,  to  the  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  Railway  Company,  who  employ  it  in  the  con-  ! 
veyance  of  coal  and  other  heavy  goods.     A  canal  in-  | 
tended  to  form  a  communication  between  Glasgow,  | 
Paisley,  and  Ardroisan,  was  commenced  in  1807 ;  hnt  j 
only  that  portion  connecting  Glasgow  with  Paisley  I 
and  ihe  village  of  Johnstoun  has  hitherto  been  finish-  \ 
ed.     This  part  is  about  12  miles  long ;  the  canal  being  | 
30  feet  broad  at  top,  18  at  liottom,  and  4i  deep.     It  i 
was  here  that  the  experiments  were  originally  made  i 
on  quick  traveling  by  canals,  which  are  said  to  have  j 
demonstrated  that  it  was  practicable  to  impel  a  pro|ier-  | 
ly-constructed  lioat,  carrying  pavaengers  and  gtwds, 
•long  •  oanal  at  the  rata  ^  9  or  10  miles  an  hour,  with- 


ont  injury  to  the  banks !  The  Crinan  Canal  acroM 
the  poninsultt  of  Kintyre,  admitting  vessels  of  160  tout 
burden.  Is  0  miles  in  length,  and  12  feet  in  depth.  The 
Caledonian  Canal  is  the  greatest  undertaking  of  the 
sort  attempted  in  the  empire.  It  stretches  southwett 
and  northeast  across  the  Island  firom  a  (Hiint  near  Iii> 
vernesa  to  another  near  Fort  William.  It  is  chiefljr 
formed  by  Loch  Ness,  Loch  Olch,  and  lA>ch  Lochy, 
The  total  length  of  the  canal,  Including  the  hikes,  U 
60i  mile* ;  but  the  excavated  part  is  only  ul'out  28 
miles.  At  the  summit  it  is  96^  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Western  Ocean.  It  Is  mostly  constructed  upon  % 
grand  scale,  Iwing  intended  to  be  20  Oeet  deep,  60  feet 
wide  at  bottom,  and  122  at  top ;  the  locks  are  20  feet 
deep,  172  long,  and  40  broad  |  and  had  It  been  wholly 
executed  as  was  originally  Intended,  fVigates  of  88 
guns,  and  merchant  ships  of  1000  tons  burden,  might 
have  passed  through  it.  It  was  opened  in  1822,  being 
executed  entirely  at  the  expense  of  government,  from 
the  designs  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Thoma* 
Telford,  Esq.  The  entire  cost  amounted,  exclusive 
of  interest,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1868,  to£l, 847,780.  It 
would  npiieur,  however,  to  have  been  projected  with* 
ont  due  consideration,  and  hus  lieen  a  most  unprofitable 
speculation.  The  revenue  of  the  canal  amounted,  in 
1862-'58,  to  only  f  5889,  whereas  the  expenditure  dur. 
ing  the  same  year  amounted  to  £7420 !  But  this  is 
not  all.  Owing  to  a  wish  to  lessen  the  expense,  and 
to  hasten  the  opening  of  the  canal,  parts  of  it  were 
not  excavated  to  their  proper  depth,  while  others  were 
executed  in  a  hurried  and  insufHcient  manner.  Hence 
the  canal  does  not  really  admit  vessels  of  above  260  or 
800  tons  burden ;  and  previously  to  steam-tugs  being 
provided  on  the  lakes,  they  were  frequently  delayed  In 
making  their  passage  across  for  a  lengthened  period. 
During  1887  and  1838  the  works  sustained  considerable 
damage ;  and  the  reader  need  not  be  surprised  to  hear 
that  it  was  gravely  debated  whether  it  would  not  be 
lietter  entirely  to  break  up  and  abandon  the  canal  I 
There  was  naturally,  however,  an  extreme  disinclina- 
tion  to  destroy  a  W3rk  which,  how  inexpedient  soever 
originally,  has  been  executed  at  an  enormous  expense  | 
and  various  schemes  have  been  suggested  for  relieving 
the  public  from  the  expense  of  keeping  it  up  without 
involving  its  destruction.  Among  others,  it  has  been 
proposed  to  assign  it  to  a  Joint-stock  company,  on  their 
agreeing  to  complete  the  works  and  keep  them  in  n- 
pair ;  and  an  act  authorizing  such  transfer  was  passed 
in  1840.  But  hitherto  it  has  not  been  found  possible 
to  dispose  of  the  canal  in  this  way ;  and  Parliament 
has  since  voted  large  sums  for  the  partial  repair  of  the 
works,  which,  though  a  good  deal  improved,  will  every 
now  and  then  require  firesh  outlays.  8onie  other  ca> 
nals  have  been  projecteil  and  completed  in  different 
parts  of  .Scotland.  Of  these  the  Monkland  Canal,  for 
the  supply  of  Glasgow  with  coal,  has  been  the  most 
successAil. 

Irish  Canalt. — Various  canals  have  lieen  undertaken 
in  Ireland,  of  which  the  Grand  Canal  and  the  Royal 
Canal  are  the  principal.  The  Grand  Canal  was  be- 
gun in  1766,  by  a  body  of  subscribers ;  but  they  could 
not  hayc  completed  the  work  without  very  large  ad- 
vances from  government.  The  canal  commences  at 
Dublin,  and  stretches  in  a  westerly  direction,  inclining 
a  little  to  the  south,  to  the  Shannon,  with  which  it 
unites  near  Banngher,  a  distance  of  86  statute  miles, 
and  thence  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  to  Bullinasloe, 
14  miles.  But,  exclosive  of  the  main  trunk,  there  ia 
a  branch  to  Athy,  where  it  Joins  the  Barrow,  a  distance 
of  about  27  miles ;  and  there  are  branches  to  Pnrtar- 
lington,  Moiint<Mel1ick,  and  some  other  places.  The 
total  length  of  the  canal,  with  its  various  liranches,  is 
alwut  164  Englinh  miles.  Its  summit  elevation  Is  two 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  at  Duldin.  It 
is  40  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  from  24  to  20  fV^et  at 
Imttom,  has  six  feet  water,  and  cost  in  all  above 
ie!t,00O,000. 


CAN 


268 


GAIT 


I  most 


18  be- 

could 

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lining 

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lortar- 

Tli« 

lea,  ia 

Is  two 

It 

let  at 


Atntriean  CatuUi. — ^Tlin  Statns  of  the  Union  are  di>- 
tlnguislicd  tiy  tite  spirit  witli  wliicli  tlioy  have  under- 
talien,  and  tlie  pareavcrance  they  have  displayed  in  ex- 
ecuting, tlie  most  magnificent  plans  for  improving  and 
extending  intarnal  navigation.  Tlie  following  is  a  de- 
scription of  the  principal  canals  in  tlio  United  States : 

HAiNR.— Cumberland  and  Oxford  Canal.  Tliis  nav- 
igation, partly  natural  and  partly  ardllcial,  extends 
■bout  64)  miles  from  Portland,  Maine,  to  Sobago  Lalie. 
The  head  of  the  canal  is  at  the  end  of  Long  Pood,  which 
is  10  miles  in  length. 

Nkw  Yuiik. — This  State  has  the  most  extended  and 
important  system  of  canals,  connecting  the  navigation 
of  the  Hudson  lUver  with  that  of  the  great  Lalieg,  and 
Lake  Chainplain,  Delaware,  and  Alleghany  liivers, 
Cliamploin  Canal  is  63^  miles  in  length,  40  feet  wide 
at  the  surface,  28  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  i  feet  in  depth, 
and  connects  Albany,  on  the  Hudson  Kivor,  with  While- 
hall  on  I>alvo  Champlain. 

/mporlimt  Connection  of  Nem  York  Cimalt. — The  Lat- 
eral Canal,  connecting  the  canals  of  New  Yorli  State 
with  the  head  waters  of  the  Alleghany  Kiver,  has  Just 
been  tininhud  to  its  terminus  at  Olean,  on  that  river, 
in  Cattaraugus  county.  New  York.  From  thenco  it  ex- 
tends to  tlie  Ucnesee  Canal,  on  the  Genesee  lUver,  in 
Alleghany  county,  New  York,  which  runs  north  to 
Rochester,  where  it  commands  the  trade  of  Lake  Onla. 
rio,  and,  connecting  with  the  Erie  Canal,  leads  to  ButTa' 
lo  and  Albany.  The  connection  of  Pittsburg  and  Roch' 
ester,  by  tliis  route,  depends  on  the  navigation  of  the 
Alleghany  Itiver.  The  whole  distance  to  Olean,  HO 
miles,  is  said  to  be  navigable,  and  for  200  miles  above 
Pittsburg  it'is  navigable  for  small  steamboats.  The 
consummation  of  this  work  will  be  of  vital  importance 
to  the  people  of  the  Alleghany  Valley,  and  i»  large 
share  of  the  rapidly  increasing  trade  of  that  section  wUI 
find  its  way  to  this  city  over  the  Pennsylvania  Bail 
road.  The  distance  from  Pittsburg  to  Philadelphia  is 
863  miles,  and  from  Olean  to  New^York,  by  the  New 
York  and  Krie  Railroad,  is  396  miles. 

Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  built  by  a  private  com- 
pany. It  is  33  miles  in  length,  32  feet  wide  at  the  sur- 
face, 20  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet  deep.  It  con- 
nects the  Hudson  at  Rondout  with  the  Delaware  River, 
and  connects  with  the  Lackawaxen  Canal,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  principal  trade  of  this  canal  is  in  coal,  as 
it  extends  l)y  its  connections  into  the  coal  region  of 
Pennsylvanio. 

Nkw  Jeksky. — Morris  Canal  is  102  milca  long,  32 
feet  wide  at  the  surface,  and  18  feet  at  the  bottom,  and 
4  feet  deep.  It  extends  from  Jursny  City,  on  the  Ilud- 
sun,  to  Euston,  Pennsylvania,  where  it  connects  with 
the  Lehigh  Canal,  Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. — Schuylkill  Canal  or  Navigation. 
It  Is  108  miles  in  length,  is  3C  feet  wide  at  the  surface, 
24  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet  deep.  It  extends  from 
Philadelphia  to  Reading,  and  from  thence  to  Mount 
Carbon,  where  it  has  connections  with  the  anthracite 
coal  mines. 

The  Pennsylvania  Canal  is  formed  of  several  divi- 
sions :  ^t  is  to  connect  Columbia  with  Pittsburg,  on  the 
Ohio;  but  its  middle  division  over  the  Alleghany 
Mnimtains,  from  Hullidaysburg,  on  the  eastern  side,  to 
Johnstown,  on  the  western  side,  is  a  division  of  railroad. 
Its  total  length,  including  37  miles  of  railroad,  is  316 
uiilcs. 

The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  had  it  been  com- 
pleted, would  have  been  a  great  and  useful  work.  It 
begins  at  the  tide-water  of  the  Potomac  River,  above 
Georgetown,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  is  intend- 
ed to  terminate  at  Pittsburg,  in  Pennsylvania,  a  dis- 
tance of  341^  miles.  Its  dimensions  are  nearly  iden- 
tical witli  tlioso  of  the  new  Erie  Canal ;  its  breadth  at 
the  surface  being  from  CO  to  8U  feet,  60  feet  at  the  bot- 
tom, with  A  depth  of  water  varying  from  0  to  7  feet, 
Several  tnnnels  occur  in  the  line,  wliich  crosses  tlie  Al- 
leghany ridge.   The  cost  of  this  work  vas  estimated  at 


|3tl,m,00A,  whM)  mm  ^#  M  NMtiM'rilN-d  paHli-  by  in(il> 
viduals,  and  \im\f  Ujf  Urn  iitliUlii  m«tm  Mid  the  States 
of  Mary  |«Hd  »lt4  p¥m»yiv»llitt,  This  wmrl  now  term- 
inatus  at  UmUmfiiHit,  MttfUui,  utitl  there  is  but  • 
slight  \mU»MUHf  »<  U»  (n/¥f  imtig  t-ompleted. 

Ohw,--TM  prt«*ll»»l  fmti  in  this  State  is  froH, 
PortsniOHth,  tm  (Im  Um,  Ut  til«V«lMidi  o<i  Lake  Erie : 

lM,iNoi4^ilw  mm\  ffttm  (ihkigo,  oti  Lake  Michi- 
gan, to  I'atm,  mt  (h«  Mmit  Mvtif,  k  ofihe  <irat  import* 
anca  to  t\tn  tm4»  ef  Hih  IH»Ui, 

ImiiAWA,^?)))*  imMik  «nd  1»«mI«w1  Canal,  now 
tho  Buia  prop*ir(^  >l(Hm  VaiUld  Ma«>s,  has  been  under 
(ha  direciiuii  nf  Hm  'ffrntimn  ihtmHMttii  the  past  two 
years.  Tli»  l<i((s,  \iy  Aifmlim  Bf  tfc*  (1»p«rtment,  were 
reduced  uiiUrlMU,  mtii  )lw  F«<('«if«i<t  tat  itic  past  two  years 
|;BV8  been  tii)m)Ml»d  ift  ttm  fc(F/tif  tjf  the  locks  and  en- 
largem«nt  (t(  Hm  t-mmi,  ilHpnmitittil  of  the  bridges, 
etc. 

A'rw  0»Hitlr^]Uiii4>'»  elf)**'*  of  f^mai^  tfaotigh  infe- 
rior, magniiMd*',  »  mmi  hm  imtt  tomed  connecting 
tlia  iiudsuH  v/Mt  I<«Im*  Kti»,  This  work  is  869  miles 
ill  length,  (Im*  fim  mmiI  M\  aUmn  itiA  entire  line  being 
mi  fast,  It  w»»  minmiif  'ill  f««t  wide  at  the  surface, 
28  fest  at  the  Mttmt,  MHil  4  hH  ikep,  Hut  these  di- 
mensions buJMg  dmmU  (fmit  ilw  f»tM)r  increasing  traf- 
tie  and  im|»«F(HH»«  ut  l\m  I'mmi,  i«  be  far  too  limited, 
an  act  w»s  m^mi  Ui  ^nt^n  iifufUUtti'  tot  Its  enlarge- 
ment, Vnm  this  W't  iiu  Vttmi  ii«s  been  increased, 
so  as  to  Iw  70  fl>9t,  HidM  m  <h«  miftlUet  42  feet  at  the 
bottom,  »ii4  7  fwi  ill  fif iilhi  Hie  lueks  being  of  corre- 
sponding dimsntiimie,  '( h»  wijjiiwl  *08t  of  the  canal 
was  |B,i»27,4n(Ji  ^^4  Hlf  fiiH  (if  »h«  eolafgement  has 
been  about  $8.v,<«»»l,W*".  W  llfHtif  ihrcn  times  its  first 
cost.  'Ilia  i',m  t'mm\  k  »h«  \tfOpm*  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  »Hd  )»  nm  wf'ilw  «tf(ii«»t  and  most  Import- 
ant  works  of  U»  kind  Ut  »h«  wwhl,  notwithstanding 
the  contr»ii(4ii4  iM.#h*  m  *hi«4i  It  *«»  wlginallv  con- 
struoted,  it  \m*  mmniU'Wif  f cHrt«d  ih«  ptedlctlons  of 
its  projeciof,  \)»  WJM  «'lfH(«t(,  h«*hig  been  of  singu- 
lar advanlagu,  ill»fiHMicjM/i«l«f >i«*,(o  the  Slate  of 
New  York  a«)4  Ihn  P'h(w«  fffhetniif,  This  work  was 
llrst  suggeslmd  »«  MfJy  (tutfts  **«f  J«lfi,  (>y  a  memorial 
from  the  Cjiy  of  ^«w  \tifk  h  ih«  lifgisktiiW.  An 
artificial  t.'«M#«l  (rum  Hm  lt»i\fiim  lo  Luke  tth  had,  in 
fact,  been  mid<ir  f^mikmitm  hy  ettiitiefit  citliiens  of 

the  State  for  »  (miHwy  Ui'filfP,  A»  PHtIf  MS  1724,  Cart- 
walladcrColdPH,  0mi  SHfVfytff  ^uef»\(itthe  provliico 
of  New  York,  4*'*«rilw(1  (Im*  »«m1«  hh  practicable  to 
Lakes  Chsmplttjn  »»M}  WhISCW,  tJHflOg  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  \m\)mmii^  fifmt^U  a  mtitk  w««  made  evident. 
After  that  iiuriwd,  Ot'Hcftfl  HftshiHelow  made  a  tour 
to  the  interior  of  N«W  VHrfc,  ««(*  ma  westwardly  to 
Pittsburg,  and  »t  thitt  mrif  Huf  urmi  ttie  eotmedlon 
of  the  Oliio  witi)  (t|«  wntm  itflile  ('((tsftpeske.  Pres- 
ident Jeltersuii  luuh  »  deep  i(l(«*fcs{  it*  (lie  same  subject, 
and  said,  "tbers  hOI  l*»tWHJ»Mifi(*  be(*eeti  the  Hud- 
son and  PoloMlwu  H(vw«  fof  th«  ffsidde  of  the  com- 
merce of  all  the  mmtlfif  wcsiwufvt  ef  L«ke  Erie."— ««« 
Hunt's  ihnhmlif  Miiffjllkf,  Hfiilpmiiett  1860,  p.  262. 
He  urged  the  imnHrHPHmi  titu  c«««l  ttim  the  Ohio  to 
the  ChcsuneiikB,  »s  limm  Ut  AkitllllAth  than  New 
York  by  58«  miles  i  mii\  Hl»t  H»vi($«(i«m  tlltmigh  New 
York  would  bM  cisstid  Wi»>if«J  iflutdlis  of  Die  tear ; 
"whereas  the  ch»lMI^)  Ut  fhc  t!h*««J)P«(i«  leads  ifirect- 
ly  Into  a  warmer  tliw»»*,  w  ihw  ♦cfscls  may  pass 
the  whole  winter,  6Hl(jwf  eiily  Ut  shwtt  delays."— /Ai'rf. 
The  importanos  of  »d'li»jg  ffM-llilies  tut  eommiinication 
with  the  weslfirn  pttrts  n(  HfW  t«*f1t «««  also  «rged  hr 
Governor  CllMlon.in  l7<'»  «l)4  iMittf  0«««tal  Schuy- 
ler; Surveyor  gtffl^Fs)  Km  W(((,  ill  18<W)  atid  at  ev- 
ery meeting  of  Hue  [y^ujelsmfc  ft«m  (h«  lime  of  the 
adoption  of  tlie  C'onsiffnfjfW, »)(«  !!«(d««t  WHs  sttongly 
urged  upon  tb«  mHmivfHiiDi:  tit  (fi«  tttpmbers.  In 
March,  1810,  a  joint  r«s»»lHl?WI  WdJt  iiatoduced  for  the 
appointment  of  (jnvKfiM'Hf  >iUiff\»,  «(ep((M)  Van  Bcns- 
seiaer.  Da  Wi«  Cli»|#H,  I'«t«f  Jl,  Vmiff,  atid  others, 


CAN 


SS4  CAN 


M  commiMliHwn  for  txploring  tha  ronta  for  inland 
ntvigdion  ftrom  tli*  Hudaon  to  Lake*  Ontario  and 
Erio ;  and  $8000  appropriated  for  expenm  of  lurveya. 
A  tbrougli  canal  was  tlien  conatderad  ai  tliB  acma  of 
iiuman  •wlshea,  m  far  ai  communication  witli  the  Far 
Wttt  was  concerned.  Railroad)  were  not  dreamed  of 
tlian,  nor,  in  fact,  until  tiro  yean  1R20  and  1826. 

The  conimiuluncra  naid  in  1812:  "Viewing  the  ex- 
tent and  firtUity  of  the  roontry  with  which  thii  canai 
ii  to  open  a  communication,  it  ii  not  extravagant  to 
lupposc  that,  when  eettlcd,  ita  produce  will  equal  tlie 
pretent  export  of  the  United  Slates."  (The  foreign 
exports  of  that  year  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
$88,000,000,  and  four  years  before  were  $108,000,000). 
And  they  add,  "  Will  it  appear  tmprolxlile  that  twen- 
ty yean  henco  (1882)  the  canal  should  annually  bring 
down  250,000  tons?" 

The  prophecy  of  the  commissioners  was  more  than 
fullilied.  In  twenty  years  after  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  Canal,  there  came  to  tide-water  on  that  canal 
1,107,000  tons,  valned  at  mora  than  $46,000,000;  and 
tha  tolls  amounted  to  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 
On  the  26tli  of  October,  1825,  eight  yean  and  four 
months  from  the  time  of  its  commencement,  thu  Erie 
Canal  was  completed.  The  original  profile  of  the  Krie 
Canal,  published  In  1826,  shows  83  locks,  and  a  rise  and 
fall  equal  to  087  feet.  These  were  Anally  reduced  to  71 
locks,  and  a  rise  and  fall  of  040  feet. 

In  1828,  an  act  was  passed  to  connect  the  Cayuga 
and  Seneca  Canal  with  Cayuga  Ijike.  In  1829  the 
construction  of  tha  (Chenango  Canal  was  authorize<l, 
and  surveys  ordered  of  a  route  from  the  Erio  Canal  to 
the  Alleghany  River ;  2.  For  the  Biuck  River  Canal ; 
8.  For  a  canal  from  Otsego  Lako  to  the  Erio  Canal. 

In  Jul}',  1886,  the  Canal  Board  resolved  that  the 
Erie  Canal  be  enlarged,  so  as  to  gi\e  G  feet  depth  and 
60  feet  width  of  water  on  the  surface,  and  that  the  locks 
be  lOo  feet  long  and  16  feet  wide  in  tlic  clear.  It  was 
finally  decided  to  make  the  locks  110  feet  long  and  18 
feet  wide. 

Previous  to  this  time,  in  addition  to  tha  Erie  and 
Cbamplain  Canals,  the  following  had  been  authorized : 
1.  The  Oivego  Canal;  from  tha  Ki<e  Canal  at 
BjrncuH  to  I^e  Ontario,  thiit]r-«lght  miles, 

finished  in  1838,  *t  a  coit  of tMBi^BT 

1.  The  Cayuipi  nnd  l^neca  Canal,  connecting  the 
Cayuga  and  Seneca  Lakes  with  the  Erie  Canal 
at  Montezuma,  twenty-three  miles,  finished  In 

ISH),  at  a  cost  of 287,000 

8.  The  Chemung  Canal,  connecting  the  Chemung 
River  at  Elmlrs  with  the  head  of  Heneca  Lake ; 
length  In  all,  thirty-nine  milea;  finished  InltSS, 

at  a  cost  of. $010,000 

4.  Crooked  Lake  Canal,  eight  miles,  flnlahed  In 

18SS $120,000 

fi.  The  Chenango  Canal,  from  the  8uaquehanna 
Blver  at  Uhignamton  lo  the  Krie  Canal  at  L'tlca, 

nbiety-aix  milea,  finished  In  1337 $2,417,000 

Canai.  Toi.i.s  op  tiik  Kkie  *si>  CiiAMn.AiN  Canals, 


Y«an. 


Two 
1821 
1SS2 
1823 
1834 
1826 
1826 
1827 


18S0 
1831 
1882 
1833 
1834 
1886 
18S« 


MiIm.    I 


Tolb. 


04 
94 
116 
160 

260 
883 
863 
SOS 
r>03 
868 
863 
363 
863 
863 
803 
863 
868 


(6.244 

23,nill 

60,446 

126,132 

2(I4,M6 

4»2,664 

677,466 

776,919 

727,650 

707,883 

943,646 

1,081,714 

1,086,612 

1,200,136 

1,179,744 

1,376,821 

1,440,639 


$12,297,929 


fbamiilala  fmal. 


Mlln. 


24 
40 
61 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 


Tolii. 


$1,886 
3,626 
26,966 
46.214 
73,616 
64,636 
83,341 
107,767 
87,171 
8»,(IK8 
102,886 
110,191 
132,639 
11^211 
116,181 
I16,4i.'> 


Total  Tclk. 


96,244 

24,888 

64,072 

163,100 

atO,761 

no,  280 

762,003 

860,260 

836,407 

796,064 

1,032,600 

1,194,610 

1,196,804 

1,422,6(16 

1,204,966 

1,4»1,«&2 

1,686,()66 


$1,290,(184  $18,604,018 


A  further  enlargement  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  of 
the  Genesee  Valley  and  Black  River  Canals,  was  au- 
thorized by  the  law  of  July  10,  1851.  This  Act,  al- 
though declared  unconstitutional,  was  subsequently 
owfinned.— 18««  Nbw  York  and  Hooioii  Hivbk. 


CAi>Ai.a  i»  Tim  t'DiTsn  ■t4T*»— 1VM, 


Miiim. 

Cumliar'd  and  Oxford 

gongo  Klver  Impr. . , . 

.Vns  HttmptMr*. 

Bow  Falls 

Ilookiet  Falls 

Amoikeag  Falls 

Hevell'a  Falls 

MMdlesax 

VtrmmU, 
White  River  Falls . . . 

Hollow's  Falls 

Wateniueeobf 

IUumc\«tetti. 

Middlesex 

Pawtuckel 

Blackstone 

Hampshire 

Montague  Falls 

South  lladley  FalU  . . 

AAotfs  triant. 

Blaokatono 

CimntMnU, 

Enfield  Falla 

Hat  X'ofk, 

Kris 

Champlaln  Jtincliuu. . 
Watenbid  Junction  . . 

Oswego 

Cayuga  and  Seneca  . . 

t^rooked  \jtka 

Chemung 

Chemung  Feeder  . . . 

Chenango 

Quneseu  Vatloy 

l>anvi]lti  llranch .... 

illnck  Uiver 

Illack  HIver  Feeder  . 
Delaware  and  Hudson 
Harlnem  (not  uaed)  . 
('n)ton  Aqueduct. . . . 

Oneida 

\tw  Jeraey. 
Delaware  and  Itarilan 

Morris 

Salem 

Arnnmltunia. 
Delawani  li    iaion  . . . 

Kaatcm  Division 

8uaquehanna  Ulrlalon 

Juniata 

West  liranch 

North  Branch 

Western  Division .... 

Frsnklln 

Erin  and  Beaver 

French  Creek  Feeder. 

Lackawaxcn 

Bald  Kagle 

Tide-water 

Concatoga 

Codonis 

Schuylkill 


I  ktllM. 


206 
80 


•6 
•2 
■4 

27- 

m 

46' 
22- 

a- 

2' 


66 

864' 

64' 
2' 

88' 

21- 
8' 

80' 

16' 

97' 
106 -6 

11- 

77 'B 

10 

83 
3 

40 


42' 
101' 

4' 

69-7 

44 '6 

89' 
127-6 

76 

78' 
106' 

22' 
136' 

27' 

22' 

26 

46 

18 

11' 


Caasli, 


nlun 

l4ibl«b  Navlcalhm , , . 

M9uart, 
Chssaussks  and  IM., 

Varyland. 
I'bsaapssks  and  Olthi 
clieaopsaka  and  Usl»- 
wora , ,,,,,, 

vuvtm. 

Ahissndria ,, 

lames  Klvsr  and  Ksi)- 

awba , 

Dlamal  Hwsmp , , 

llranshes. ,,,,,,,,,,, 
North  OmlitM, 

Weldon 

Club  Foot 

Ulsmsl  Hwsnip. ,,,... 

South  amdlna, 
Hsnisa  ,,,.,,,,,,..,, 
Wlnvasr  ,,,,,,,,,,,, 
teluaa  •.,.,,,. I , I .. I 

Drahi's ,, 

I^oriek 

I.ockhort's , 

Wularaa ,,•> , 

CaUwbs 

Otoniia, 

Savannah , 

llrunawluk ..,., 

Alaimiui. 

Muai-la  Hliosl 

Iluutavllla ,,,, 

I^ouMana, 

Orleana  Hank ,,, 

(Jarundi'lel  .,,,,,,,,, 

Ilaralaria 

Lake  Vent , . , . , 

KitUUflni. 
lA>ulavllle  aud^rortl'd 
Kinlueky  HIver  lutur 
IJckIng        ••        •> 
Oreen  "        " 

llorran  "        •' 

latntii, 
IlllnoU  and  Nlshlgau 

InMana, 
Waboah  and  Kris, , , , 
Wlillawater ,,,, 

Ohio. 

Ohio  and  Kri* ,,,,,,, 
Koneavllla  Draneb, . , , 
Columbus  "  , , , , 
[.sneaster       "     , , . , 

Hocking  VsUsy 

Walliondlng  Ifrsneli, , 
Eastport  '• 

Drealen  " 

Miami  and  nranelira, 
Miami  Estcnalan,  •!<', 
Waboah  and  F.riit , , , , 
Muskingum  Impr,,,,, 
Bandy  and  Hesvi*? , , , , 


wsr 

iff 
41- 

14' 

IM- 

7'* 

144' 

II' 

It' 

It' 
I'B 


M' 
7* 
«'« 

I'D 

1' 

S-T 

4' 
7'« 

!«' 
]«■ 

Dft'T 
)«' 

4'« 

4' 

«S' 

8' 

<'« 
KM' 
1)4' 
IIIU' 
IW 

100' 

IWI'T 


14' 
1(1' 
»• 
Afl' 
tA' 
4' 
2' 

N7'7 
KW' 
VI' 
HI' 
N6' 


COnrABATIVK  I'OST   or  CANALS, 


I    WIm, 


Of  New  York 

Of  Fennaylvanla 

Of  New  Jersey 

Of  Maryland  and  Delaware. 

Of  Virginia 

or  Ohio 

Oflndlana 

(Jflllbioia 

Of  Canada 


618 
64« 
144 
204i 
147 
646 
070 
102 
8«t 


>wJgW«,~ 

*»4.n!r 

26, 100 
4I,H(I« 
62,800 
»4,IA0 
16,600 
M,VW 
N4,M« 
IBO.WIO 

Recapitulation  of  canala  (including  ilack'Walsr  iia* 
vigatlon)  in  each  State  in  1K&4. 

raitat«; 

"I'l 
147 

vm 

18 
021 
VM 


autw. 


Alabama 

Connecticut . . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

I-oulalana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Hasaachusetts  . 

Michigan 

Miaataslppl . . . . 


MlJoiif 
Cuak. 


61 
61 
14 

"Vs 

100 
S67 


486 
101 
60 
184 
100 


MiiMuuri , 

New  Ilampuhirs  ,,, 
New  Jersey, ,,,,,,, 

New  York. ,. 

North  Csrulins ,,,. 

Ohio ,, 

fennaylvanls,,,,.! 
Khode  Island,,,,,, 
South  (Jarullua  ,,,, 

Tenneaaea,,,, 

Texaa, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Vermont ,,,,, 

Virginia ,.,,, 

Wisconsin ,,,, 

ToUl 


M 


IW 


"^ST 


CAN 


MS 


CAN 


T* 
n't 
III 
I'  , 

111 

4'   , 

«' 
111' 

noil 

!«• 

4-11 

4' 

«B' 
»' 

till 

llW 

114' 
1  IWf 

IW 


IMT'T 


ilOT' 

14' 

1(1' 
»• 

M' 

lift' 
4' 
II' 
W'T 

ttW' 
VI' 
Kl' 
Ml- 


IWilM 
4I,»<HI 

\M,m 

ID.HWI 

l)il,VM 

I  il4,»M 

|tlll>,tNW 


Htn  Its' 


It 

ViO 

ID 

Ml 

VM 

"m 


Caiudian  Cono/t.— The  Drltlih  government  h«(  ex- 
panded •  very  large  auin  upon  the  Ridetu  Klver  and 
Uanal,  stretching  from  Kingston,  on  Lake  Ontario,  to 
Bytown,  on  the  Ottawa,  or  Grand  River,  an  affluent 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  But  this  worit  was  undertalten 
as  much  in  the  view  of  improving  the  military  defenses 
of  Canada  as  of  protecting  its  commerce,  though  In  the 
latter  respect  it  has  lieen  of  considerable  utility.  The 
British  government  has  also  conntructed  the  Welland 
Ganal,  uniting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  tho  navigation 
between  which  by  tho  river  Is  interrupted  by  tho  Kails 
of  Niagara.  This  canal  has  become  a  wclUfrequented 
commerciiil  channel,  and  Is  every  day  rising  In  import- 
ance. Tiie  public  works  of  Canada  have  already  at- 
tained some  degreo  of  celebrity,  both  in  America  and 
England.  "  There  is  no  country,"  observes  Mr.  I.  D. 
Andrews,  in  his  report  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
"  which  possesses  canals  of  the  magnitude  und  import- 
ance of  those  in  Canada."  The  Krie  Canui,  which  is 
the  rival  American  water  route  for  carrying  tho  prod- 
uco  of  tho  great  Western  wheat-growing  countries  to 
tho  Atlantic  sco-board,  is  capable  only  of  transporting 
barges  of  7&  tons  bnnlen ;  whereas  the  canals  of  Can- 
ada are  on  a  scale  to  allow  of  ocean-going  vessels  of 
from  860  to  5(H)  tons,  and  carrying  4000  barrels  of  flour, 
to  proceed  througli  them,  and  thus  accomplish  an  in- 
land navigation  into  the  heart  of  tho  continent  for  a 
distance  of  1&87  miles  from  tide  water  at  Qnelwc.  Tho 
public  productive  works  of  Canada,  consisting  of  ca- 
nals, light-houses,  etc.,  yielded  a  net  revenue  in  1851  of 
i:58,738,  Tho  work  yielding  tho  largest  amount  of 
revenue  was  the  Welland  Canal,  extending  ttom  tho 
head  of  Lake  Ontario  to  tho  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  thus 
overcoming  the  interruption  to  navigation  caused  by 
tlie  Kalis  of  Niagara.  The  length  of  tho  main  trunk 
of  tills  cunal  Is  '28  miles,  and  of  a  feeder  branch,  from 
the  (Jrand  Klver  to  the  main  trunk,  21  miles.  Its 
width  at  bottom  Is  85  feet,  at  top  71  feet,  and  the  depth 
is  to  feet,  llie  dimensions  of  the  locks  are  fh>m  150 
to  200  feet  in  length,  the  width  from  26i  to  45  feet,  and 
the  depth  on  metre  01  foet.  Tho  amount  of  lockage  is 
346  feet,  and  the  number  of  locks  27.  This  canal  is 
also  important  as  affording  an  unlimited  supply  of 
water-power  to  numbers  of  mills  and  factories  on  Its 
banks.  The  St.  Lawrence  Canals,  connecting  I.ake 
Ontario  with  tho  River  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal,  ex- 
tend in  all  to  40i  miles,  having  27  locks,  and  an  amount 
of  lockage  of  '204i  feet.  The  whole  of  these  have  the 
dimensions  of  their  locks  ns  large  as  those  of  the  Wel- 
land Canal,  and  have  all  9  feet  of  water  in  these  locks. 
The  Lachinc  Cannl,  cutting  through  the  island  of 
Montreal,  is  8  miles  in  length  and  10  fpet  deep.  It  is 
now  In  contemplation  to  construct  another  important 
canal,  connecting  I^e  Champlain  with  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  thus  afford  a  more  desirable  route  for  tho 
trade  l)etween  the  Hudson  River  and  Canada  and  tho 
Western  States. 

Incretued  Speed  nf  Traveling  by  Canah. — Groat,  how- 
ever, as  have  l>een  the  Svh-antages  derived  from  the 
formation  of  canals,  their  progress  has  been  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  checked  by  tb3  formation  of  Rail- 
roads (which  see).  We  believe,  however,  that  canals 
will  always  be  preferred  for  the  conveyance  of  coal  and 
other  bulky  and  heavy  products;  and  even  passen- 
gers are  now  conveyed  along  them  with  a  rapidity 
that  would  previously  have  been  supposed  impossi- 
ble. This  new  system  was  introduced  on  the  Paisli^y 
and  Glasgow  Canal,  by  Mr.  Houston,  in  June,  1831. 
Tho  results  are  described  in  the  following  statements, 
to  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  call  the  reader's  atten- 
tion. 

Mr.  Thomas  Grahame,  civil  engineer,  in  his  "  Letter 
to  Canal  Proprietors  and  Traders,"  says,  "  The  experi- 


ments of  great  velocity  have  lieen  tried  and  proved  on 
Ike  narroKiArt,  ihallowetl,  und  moit  curved  canal  in  See4- 
land,  viz.,  the  Ardrossan  or  Paisley  Canal,  connecting 
the  city  of  Glasgow  with  the  town  of  Paisley  and  vil- 
lage of  Johnstonn,  a  distance  of  12  miles."  The  result 
has  disproved  every  previous  theory  as  to  difficulty  and 
expense  of  attaining  great  velocity  on  canals,  and  aa 
to  the  danger  or  damage  to  their  banks  by  great  veloo 
Ity  In  moving  vessels  along  them.  "Tlie  ordmaty 
tpeed  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  on  the  Ardros- 
san Canal  has,  for  nearly  two  years,  been/rvm  i>m«  to 
ten  milea  n»  hour;  and,  although  thert  art  fourteen  jour- 
neya  along  the  canal  per  daif  at  thii  rapH  tpeed,  itt  banki 
hace  luntamed  no  injury.  The  boats  are  70  feet  in  length, 
nliout  6  feet  6  Inches  broad,  and,  but  for  the  extreme 
narrowness  of  the  canul,  might  be  made  broader.  They 
carry  easily  from  70  to  80  passengers ;  and,  when  re- 
quired, can  and  have  carried  upward  of  110  passen- 
gers. The  entire  cost  of  a  boat  and  fittings  up  is  about 
£Vi5.  The  hulls  are  formed  of  light  Iron  plates  and 
ribs,  and  the  covering  is  of  wood  and  light  oiled  cloth. 
They  are  more  airy,  light,  and  comfortable  than  any 
coach.  They  permit  tho  passengers  to  move  about 
from  tho  outer  to  the  Inner  cabin,  and  the  fares  per 
milo  arc  one  penny  in  Iha  Jirri,  and  Ihree/tirlhiiigt  in  the 
lecond  cabin.  Tho  passengers  are  all  carried  under 
cover,  having  tho  privilege  also  of  an  uncovered  space. 
These  boats  are  drawn  l)y  two  horses  (the  prices  of 
which  may  bo  from  £60  to  £60  per  pair),  in  stages  of 
four  miles  in  length,  which  are  dono  in  fVom  2'2  to  2S 
minutes,  Including  stoppages  to  let  out  and  take  In 
passengers,  each  set  of  horses  doing  thrco  or  four 
stages  alternately  each  day.  In  fact,  tho  boats  are 
drawn  through  this  narrow  and  shallow  canal  at  a  ve- 
locity which  many  celebrated  engineers  had  demon- 
ilrated,  and  uhich  the  public  believed,  to  be  impuMibl*. 
Tho  entire  amount  of  the  whole  expenses  of  attendants 
and  horses,  and  of  running  one  of  these  boats  four  trips 
of  12  miles  each  (the  length  of  tho  canal),  or  48  miles 
daily,  including  interest  on  tho  capital,  and  20  per  cent, 
laid  aside  annually  for  replacement  of  the  boats,  or  loss 
on  tho  capital  therein  vested,  and  a  considerablo  sura 
laid  aside  for  accidents  and  replacement  of  the  horses, 
is  .£700  some  odd  shillings ;  or,  taking  the  number  of 
working  days  to  lio  31*2  annually,  gometliing  under 
£'i  'is.  4(/.  per  day,  or  alwut  IIJ.  per  mile.  The  actual 
cost  of  carrying  80  to  100  persons  a  distance  of  30  miles 
(the  length  of  the  Liverpool  Railway),  ot  a  velocity  of 
nearly  10  miles  an  hour,  on  the  Paisley  Canal,  one  of 
tho  most  curved,  narrow,  and  shallow  in  Britain,  is 
therefore  just  £1  7«.  6d.  sterling.  Such  are  tho  facts, 
and,  incredible  ns  they  may  appear,  they  are  facts 
which  no  one  who  inquires  can  possibly  doubt.  Boats 
on  this  principle  have  since  been  established  on  a  great 
many  British  canals,  and  on  tho  Grand  and  Royal  Ca- 
nals in  Ireland. 

Prafilt  of  Canalt. — It  Is  a  well-known  fact  thot  ca- 
nals, at  an  average,  and  allowing  for  the  length  of  time 
that  must  elapse  from  tho  first  outlay  nf  capital  before 
they  yield  any  return,  are  not  very  productive.    When, 
indeed,  they  connect  places  that  have  an  extensive  In- 
tercourse, and  when  no  very  extraordinary  ditHcnItles 
have  to  be  surmounted  in  their  construction,  they  most 
commonly  yield  very  largo  profits;   but,  generally 
speaking,  this  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case ;  and,  on 
the  whole,  they  seem  to  havo  been  more  l)eneHcial  to 
the  public  than  to  their  projectors. 
I      Canary  Islands.    They  lie  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  lietween  the  parallefs  of  lat.  27°  40'  and  29°  80' 
!  N.,  and  the  meridians  of  long.  18°  80'  and  18°  20'  W. 
j  The  names  of  the  seven  principal  islands,  their  respect- 
I  ive  area  in  English  square  miles,  and  their  population 
I  in  1*836,  ore  given  in  the  following  table : 


3' 


Tantrib. 

Qrud  CMiiuy. 

Pnlmn. 

rn«rt«T«ntnr>. 

Gomtra. 

Htorre. 

Ams,  sq.  miles.... 
Popiitntlnn 

87T-T 
8^0<W 

76S-3 
68,000 

TIB  5 
83,000 

823-6 
17,400 

83«'l 
18.800 

169 -T 
11,700 

83 -a 

4400 

CAN 


SA6 


CAN 


•  Vuerta^'vntur*  Hot  ncanit  to  Ih*  AMoan  oout,  tba 
Interval  tMingUtwMnM  and  tfUmil**.  BaaiiUa  tbeaa, 
tliara  ani  inany  UlaU,  ino>l  of  wbicb  ara  unlnhabltetl. 
The  K'*l>*  diacaw  matia  Ita  appearaiioe  at  Iha  Canarlaa 
In  Itf&O,  and  daatroyed  iioarly  the  whula  crop,  Pra- 
vloualy  the  total  aaiaual  pruduie  woi  aatimatcd  at 
■bout  40,UOU  pipca,  of  which  '2,'t,WU  pipei  wore  pro- 
duced ill  Tcuerlire.  Uatwveii  HOUO  and  VOM)  pipoa  ware 
axported.  The  priva  per  pipe  ou  Iwurd  ranged  from 
£»  to  JtiO.  Soma  of  tlie  wliia  la  dlatillud  into  good 
brandy.  Sumach  for  the  taunera,  cunury-Ked,  and  a 
little  Max,  are  grown.  The  giirden*  produce,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  vegetablea  of  Kngliali  gardena,  pumpkina, 
gourda,  yania  (taro),  garlic,  red  pepper,  and  the  caator- 
oll  plant.  Tha  fruit  trees  are  badly  managed,  so  that 
the  fruit  la  generally  inferior.  Here  are  found  bruits 
ft«ni  every  quarter  of  the  glolw,  including  orunges, 
flga,  banunus,  dates,  plne-apploa,  |M>niegraiiatos,  pa- 
paws,  guavas,  custard  apples,  and  prickly  pears  (the 
fruit  of  the  cactus).  There  are  no  cocoa-nut  trees  or 
braod-fruit  trees,  oa  Humboldt  reports.  A  little  oil  is 
obtained  from  the  olive  in  Cimnd  Canary.  The  oguvo 
la  abundant,  and  supplies  a  material  for  ropes,  glrtha, 
•t«.  The  leaves  of  the  date  pulin  are  made  into  hats 
and  baskets.  A  good  deal  of  orchilln  lichen  is  gath- 
ered fur  exportation ;  and  the  ice-plant  is  cultivated 
for  barilla.  The  sugar  manufacture,  once  so  largely 
carried  on,  has  fallen  Iwfure  the  American  and  West 
Indian  trade;  the  only  two  existing  mills  are  on 
J'alma.  Wine  having  been  for  some  time  so  little  re- 
munerative, other  things  have  received  attention,  the 
chief  of  which  is  the  covbincol  insect,  which  feeds  on 
the  common  cactus  ((ipuiilia  tumi),  and  is  now  largely 
produced  on  all  the  islandx,  land  formerly  occupied  by 
grain  and  vines  being  devoted  to  its  cultivation.  The 
insect  lias  not  l>ccn  long  Introduced,  but  the  cultiva- 
tion bas  rapidly  extended.  In  184V,  800,000  pounds 
were  exported,  principally  to  France  and  England. 
Since  that  year  the  exports  have  much  increased;  tho 
price  paid  to  tho  Canary  exporter  is  alwnt  a  dollar  por 
pound.  Tho  silkworm  is  reared  to  a  small  extent, 
chiefly  on  Palma.  Raw  silk  is  exported,  and  some  is 
manufactured  on  the  spot  into  stockings,  rilibons,  oto. 
Some  linen  and  woolen  stuff's  of  a  coarso  kind  are  mado 
for  home  consumption,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  cloth- 
ing in  use  is  of  British  manufacture.  The  island  goats 
(a  peculiar  and  esteemed  breed)  furnish  milk,  from 
which  butler  and  cheese  are  made.  Hhcop,  of  a  small 
coarsc-wooled  breed,  are  numerous.  Horses  an('.  cat- 
tle are  scarce;  domestic  fowls  and  rabbits  are  plenti- 
ful. Asses  and  mules  are  much  used.  A  fishery  on 
the  African  coast,  at  present  engaging  from  40  to  60 
vessels,  and  giving  employment  to  many  persons,  has 
existed  sines  an  early  period.  It  was  deemed  of  such 
importance,  that  the  home  (rovemment  lately  sent  out 
a  commissioner  to  report  on  it  with  a  view  to  its  im- 
provement. The  flsh  taken  is  principally  bream.  It 
is  salted,  and  largely  consumed  at  the  Canaries.  There 
is  an  extensive  intercourse  by  means  of  txiats  and  bmall 
sailing  vessels  among  the  different  islands.  In  this  way 
wine,  raw  silk,  cochineal,  liarilla,  and  dried  fruits  are 
taken  to  the  places  of  ex|iort;  and  grain  is  conveyed 
from  those  islands  where  it  is  abundant  to  those  where 
the  supply  is  dcticient.  The  principal  foreign  trade  is 
with  England,  the  chief  exports  lieing  wine,  cochineal, 
barilla,  and  orchilla.  The  imports  consist  of  iron,  met- 
al goods,  glass,  crockery,  leather,  silk,  cotton,  and  wool- 
en manufactures.  There  is  also  a  considerable  trade 
with  the  United  States,  and  tho  countries  bordering 
the  Mediterranean.  With  Hamburg  and  France  an 
exchange  of  commodities  takes  place.  The  ships  em- 
ployed in  this  commerce  are  foreign,  chiefly  British, 
but  tlic  islanders  send  a  few  vessels  of  their  own  with 
brandy,  coarse  earthen-wnre,  and  silk  goods  to  the 
Spanish  West  Indies,  bringing  back  cigars,  sugar,  cof- 
fee, mm,  cocao  (the  material  of  chocolate),  and  u  few 
other  articlei.    Suta  Cmc,  Orotava,  and  Los  FftbqM, 


ara  tha  only  porta  angaged  in  foreign  trade  i  nearly  200 
vaasels  enter  these  porU  in  the  course  of  a  year.  In 
1H61  the  porte  were  practically  made  nwe— tha  anibll 
duty  of  tt.  per  cent,  only  being  now  levied  upon  Ini- 
liorted  goods,  with  tlia  exceptliin  of  tobacco,  which 
pays  bd.  per  pound,  and  cigars,  which  pay  lOrf,  per 
pound.  A  Hpanish  steamer  from  Cadia  inakss  two 
voyagea  to  (ianta  Crua  every  month.  Tha  Hpunish 
government  packet,  on  her  outward  voyage  to  Ha- 
vana, touches  at  8anta  Crua  unco  a  month;  and  Die 
same  port  la  visited  monthly  by  tha  English  mull 
steamers  to  Brazil  and  the  African  coast,  loth  on 
their  outward  and  homeward  voyages. 

Tentrijfi,  the  largest  island  of  the  group,  lies  between 
Canary  and  Uomera.  It  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  00 
miles  in  length,  with  an  extreme  breadth  of  80  inilcs. 
Not  more  than  one-seventh  is  cultivalile.  A  chain  of 
mountains  traverses  the  island  in  the  direction  of  its 
greatest  length,  and  in  the  middle  of  tho  broadest  part 
risea  the  celoliruted  peak  locally  known  as  tho  I'ico  de 
Teyde,  which,  with  its  supports  and  spurs,  occupies 
neatly  two-thirds  of  the  who'.i  island.  It  has  a  douMe 
tup;  the  highest,  £i  I'lion,  Is  13,180  feet  above  tho 
sea;  the  second,  Cliuhorra,  connected  with  tho  first  by 
n  short  and  narrow  ridge,  has  a  height  of  1)880  feet. 
They  are  Iwth  orillci-s  in  the  same  grand  dome  uf 
trachyte.  Neither  reaches  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
Tlicro  is,  however,  a  natural  cavern,  1 1,000  feet  alove 
the  sea,  where  snow  is  preserved  all  the  year.  8iiow 
remains  about  four  months  on  tho  upper  part  of  the 
peak. — E,  B, 

There  are  sovoral  species  ot  nopal  (la  Tunera  lilvtilrf), 
Indian  flg  (Catlui  lunu),  short  leaf  with  numerous 
thorns,  which  serves  only  for  coloring  sugar,  fruit,  and 
wafers;  and^  'J'lineraamiiilta,  w  ithlarge,yellaw,sweRt 
fruit,  and  round  green  leaves.  The  Tunera  Unnrn  is 
best  adapted  for  the  culture  of  cochineal ;  but  it  is  in- 
convenient on  account  of  its  numerous  thorns,  I  astly, 
there  is  an  American  species,  with  very  sul't  thoriit, 
which  is  likewise  available  for  cochineal  culture. 

The  following  table  sliows  the  increu^i^d  product 
and  exportetion  of  cochineal  from  the  Canaries: 


Yetn.  Ptittoda, 

l.S,51 7i 

188a lis 

1S.TS 1,000 

1S34 1,7M 

1836 4,M1 

1830 n,otw 

1H8I T,W1 

1R!W 2,1,112 

1889 27,««1 

1H40 ««,B21 

1S41 00,«19 


Vvtn.  Poanda, 

1849 «»,1IA 

1843 74,1164 

1844 S8,l«t4 

Man I«8,t08 

1846 Sat,OGO 

1847 aii6,m 

1848 tabfiati 

1849 44»,.6T 

1860 782,670 

1H6I »68,ln« 

1862 806,164 


Thus,  in  the  year  1853,  tho  exportation  would  prob- 
ably amount  to  1,300,(K)0  |iounds ;  and  the  value  of 
this,  since  tho  increased  prico  consequent  on  tho  fail- 
ure of  crops  in  Honduras,  would  be  £225,000, 

Candle  (Gcr,  Lichler,  Kerzen;  Uu,  Kaaritn;  ¥r. 
ChiiiMlej  It,  Cundelle;  Sp,  and  Port,  I  Was;  Kuss, 
Sirjetichi;  Lot,  Catidela),  a  taper  of  tallow,  wax,  or 
spermaceti,  the  wick  of  which  is  commonly  of  several 
threads  of  cotton  spun  and  twisted  together.  The  Ko- 
man  candles  wero  composed  of  strings  surrounded  lir 
wax  or  dipped  in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood,  fultcd, 
were  used  for  light  among  the  lower  classes  in  England 
iiljout  A,t>,  1800,  At  this  lime  wax  candles  were  lit- 
tle used,  and  esteemed  a  luxury,  and  dipped  candles 
usually  burned.  Tho  Wax  Chondlers'  Company,  of 
London,  was  incorporated  1484.  Mould  candles  arc 
said  to  1)0  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Brez,  of  Paris. 
Spermaceti  candles  are  of  modem  manufacture.  1  lio 
Chinese  candles  are  made  from  the  berries  of  the  Ci,n- 
dlebury-myrtle,  and  they  universally  bum  this  wnx, 
which  is  fragrant,  and  yields  a  lirlght  light, — Hayhn, 

Dr,  lire  givga  the  following  tabic,  as  containing  tlic 
result  of  certain  experiments  he  bad  made,  in  order  to 
determine  the  relative  intensity  of  the  light,  and  tho 
durotiou  of  diffoxent  aorta  of  taUow  cM>dlw : 


CAN 


267 


CAN 


NamWi  U  •  totmi. 

luiU. 

Utalu. 

Coaniaplliili  p<f 
Hovr,  lu  UrMu. 

PropsrlluB  uf 
Ll(lil. 

M 

got 
set 

un*  AruMMl. 
ft '7 

B  lira.    1)  iiiln. 
4    "   M    •• 

m 

6T1 

lU'i 
IBU 

i:i 

lOdlppad 

Dmnulcl 

<    "   Bl     " 

MM 

1119 

'"! 

A'd 

amould 

t    "     «i  " 

1100 

IIMI 

14 

46 

BO 

4inaiild 

»   "  M    " 

1T8I 

INO 

auj 

su 

l« 

Argtnd  oil  tikin* 

Bll 

as  4 

luo 

"A  Scotch  mutchkin,"  •«)•«  Dr.  Vn,  "or  ith  of  » 
gallon  of  good  soul  oil,  woigha  (1010  gr.,  or  IS  1-10  oi. 
avolrdu|)oiii,  nnd  taata  in  a  briglit  Argimd  lump  U 
houri  41  niiniitca.  The  weight  of  oil  It  contuniua  p«r 
hour  ia  oi|ual  to  four  timoa  tho  weight  of  tallow  In  can- 
dlea  eight  to  tho  pound,  and  throe  timea  and  a  quarter 
tho  weight  of  tallow  In  candlea  nix  to  the  pound.  But 
Ita  light  lictng  eciual  to  that  of  6  of  tho  latter  candlea. 
It  appeara  from  the  nbova  talilo,  that  2  poiinda  weight 
of  oil,  value  <)>/.,  In  an  Arguml,  are  equivalent  in  il- 
luminating power  to  B  pounda  of  tallow  cnndica,  which 
coat  al)out  2«.  The  larger  tho  flame  in  the  aliovo  can- 
dlea, the  greater  tho  economy  of  light." 

Until  of  lute  yeara,  candlea  were  aolely  manufac- 
tured trom  l)eoi4wa!i,  spomiacvti,  or  tallow.  Tho  ap- 
plication (if  scientific  rhomical  reaoarch,  however,  to 
thia  brunch  uf  art,  coupled  with  the  withdrawal  of  the 
voxatlona  exciao  aupcrvision,  which  prcvcnta  linprove- 
monta  In  every  trade  which  comua  under  ita  Influence, 
haa  ao  improved  tho  matcriula  uaed,  aa  well  aa  tho 
manufacture  Itaelf,  that  all  the  heat  cundlea  aro  now 
made  from  the  pure  aolid  and  cryatullizal)le  roargaric 
and  atoaric  uclda.  Thoao  aro  freed  from  the  fluid  oleic 
acid,  and  from  glycerin,  which  exiat  in  combination 
with  them  in  ordinary  tallow,  aa  woll  aa  from  other 
anologoua  aubatuncoa,  aa  from  parafHne  (a  carbo-hy- 
drogcnoua  aubatunce  roaembling  apermncoti,  prepared 
ft'om  tar  and  peat),  tho  atenric  and  margaric  acida  of 
tho  cocoa-nut  oil  and  the  pulm  oU  (£V(ii«  guinetnsia), 
bcaldea  the  old  anbatancea  apermacoti,  and  wax,  both 
vcgetalile  and  animal. 

The  diacovery  by  the  celebrated  French  chcmlat 
Chovreul,  that  fata  were  compoaed  of  three  highly  in- 
flammable botllca,  atearic  and  margaric  acida  (aollda), 
and  oleic  acid  (a  liquid),  coml)ined  with  a  comparts 
tively  uninflammable  body,  glycerin,  has  led  to  the 
creation  of  tho  great  new  manufacture  of  atearic  and 
compoaite  candlea;  the  importance  and  growth  of 
which  will  lie  underatood  when  wo  atate,  that  while  In 
1833  the  new  caiidlca  were  unknown  In  England,  and 
the  quantity  manufactured  In  France  amounted  to 
only  twenty-five  tona  annually,  a  aingle  London  houao 
(that  of  E.  Price  and  Co.)  manufactured  last  winter 
(1854)  more  than  that  quantity  of  atearic  and  compo- 
aite candlea  daily,  and  employa  In  thta  business  abovo 
900  hands,  and  a  capital  of  nearly  three-qunrtera  of  a 
million.  The  old  proceaa  for  making  atearic  acid  may 
be  thus  described :  Tallow  la  boiled  up  with  thin  cream 
of  lime,  which  cauaes  the  fat  acida  by  superior  affinity 
to  foraake  their  glycerin  and  combine  with  the  lime, 
the  glycerin  dissolving  in  the  water;  thia  combina- 
tion la  then  broken  by  moans  of  sulphuric  acid,  which, 
seizing  on  the  lime,  seta  ttea  the  fat  acida ;  these  aro 
then  aeparated  (the  liquid  fVom  tho  aolid)  by  means 
of  preasure.  This  process  of  making  fut  acids  ia  called 
"  lime  saponification."  The  hard  matter  remaining  in 
tho  prcaa  ia  stearic,  or  a  mixture  of  stearic  and  mar- 
garic acids,  and  the  candlea  made  f^om  it  arc  called 
stearin,  or  more  properly  stearic  candles. 

In  1840,  it  was  discovered  in  England  that  by  com- 
bining stearic  acid  with  the  solid  matter,  or  stearin 
obtained  by  prcaaure  tiom  cocoa-nut  oil,  good  candles 
not  requiring  snniHng  might  be  made  at  a  consideral)ly 
less  cost  than  stearic  ca^idlea.  These  were  called  by 
the  Inventor  "composite."  The  trade  in  these  com- 
posite candles  is  now  very  great.  Since  1840,  numer- 
ous great  improvements  have  been  invented,  which 
have  reanlted  in  the  present  manufacture  of  candles 
baTing  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  old  itaiwic,  wUle 


they  are  sold  at  prices  little  exce«<ling  that  of  talluw 
candlea.  The  preaont  Improved  proceaa  ia  thia  :  Palm 
oil  or  other  fatty  matter  ia  exposed  at  a  high  tempera^ 
tura  to  the  action  of  concentrated  aulphurlu  add,  which 
changca  It  into  a  mixture  of  fat  acida  of  a  very  dork 
color,  with  a  high  melting  point;  thia  ia  then  diatllled 
In  an  atmosphere  of  ateum.  Tlio  distilled  material  la 
either  uaed  for  making  tlie  cheaper  deacrlptiona  of  com- 
poaite cundlea,  or  ia  aubjuctcd  to  liydruuilc  proaaura, 
firat  at  the  toniiieruturo  of  the  air,  and  then  ut  a  high 
heat;  the  reault  uf  praaauro  being  tho  mutcriul  uaed 
for  making  what  are  known  aa  "Uelmont  aperm,"  cor< 
rcaponding  with  atearic  cundlea. 

A  great  Improvement  hua  licen  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wicka ;  instead  of  tlio  common  twiated  wick, 
a  wick  ia  now  uaed  plaited  by  muchinory,  The  new 
wick,  together  with  an  improved  proceaa  of  preparing 
stearin,  are  uaed  In  the  manufacture  of  the  Star  cau- 
dles, which  are  burned  in  largo  quantities  in  the  United 
States. 

Wax  candles  do  not  appear  to  have  participated  In 
the  improvements  which  have  attended  tho  manufao- 
ture  of  tho  improved  ateuric  or  composito  candlea,  and 
they  appear  to  be  atill  chiefly  manufactured  by  band. 
They  are  made  of  a  cotton  or  flaxen  wick,  allghtly 
twiated,  and  covered  with  white  or  ycUow  wax.  Of 
thcae  there  are  s<!vcral  kinds ;  some  of  a  conical  figure, 
used  to  illuminate  churches,  and  In  kcligious  proces- 
sions, funeral  ccremunics,  etc. ;  others  of  a  cylindrical 

form,  used  on  ordinary  occasions E.  B. 

Sale  or  A  mtion  by  Inch  of  Candle,  Is  when  a  small 
piece  of  candle  being  lighted,  tho  by-atandcrs  are  al- 
lowed to  bid  for  the  merchandise  that  is  selling ;  but 
the  moment  the  candle  is  out,  tho  commodity  is  ad- 
judged to  tho  lust  lildder. 

Candy,  or  Sugar  Candy,  a  preparation  of  sugar 
made  by  melting  and  crystulilziug  it  six  or  seven 
times,  to  render  it  bard  and  transparent.  Candying  is 
the  method  of  preserving  fruits,  etc.,  in  subatunce,  by 
boiling  them  in  sugar. 

Canella  Alba  (Fr.  Canelle  blanche;  Ger.  Wewtr 
Zimmtt;  It.  Canella  bianca;  Sp.  Canella  blanea;  Lat. 
Canella  alba),  the  Inner  bark  of  the  Canella  alba,  a  tree 
growing  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  exported  packed  in 
casks  and  cases,  In  long  pieces,  some  rolled  in  quills 
and  others  flat ;  the  quilled  sort  ia  considerably  thicker 
than  cinnamon,  and  the  flat  nearly  one-fourth  of  on 
inch  in  thickness.  Tho  quilled  pieces  are  yellow  on 
both  aides ;  the  flat  pieces  aro  yellow  on  the  outside 
and  pale  brown  within.  The  odor  of  both  kinds,  when 
iVesh  broken,  is  aromatic,  something  like  a  mixture  of 
cloves  and  cinnamon;  and  tho  taste  slightly  bitter,, 
and  extremely  warm  and  pungent. 
Canea.  See  Bamboo,  Ritans. 
Cannon,  Cannons  (Du.  Kanonen;  Fr.  Canone; 
Ger.  Kanonen;  It.  Cannoni;  Pol.  Ihdala;  Port.  Cankoet; 
Buss.  Puschki;  Sp.  Canones;  Sw.  Kanon),  a  kind  of  long 
hollow  engines  for  throwing  iron,  lead,  or  stone  balls 
by  the  force  of  gunpowder,  commonly  made  of  iron, 
but  frequently  also  of  a  mixture  of  copper,  tin,  and 
brass.  They  are  either  cast  hollow,  or  solid  and  then 
bored ;  those  mode  in  the  latter  way  being  very  supe- 
rior. Brass  cannons,  or  cannons  made  of  mixed  metal, 
are  said  not  to  be  so  well  calculated  for  hard  service, 
or  quick  and  continued  firing,  as  those  made  of  iron. 
Tho  proportions  of  the  ingredients  used  in  making  the 
former  do  not  differ  materially  in  different  countries, 
though  they  rarely  coincide.  To  240  pounds  of  metal 
fl{  for  cssthig,  is  commonly  put  68  pounds  of  copper, 


CAN 


m 


CAN 


M  poundii  of  liruf,  and  13  poundi  of  tin.  To  4200 
{xiundt  uf  nict«l  lit  fur  t'ulInK,  '!>•  (iarmani  put 
16(47  a-'ll  pouiicU  of  copiwr,  ■JU't  \\.U  |ioundt  of  brut, 
wd  U07  Utk-ll  pouuda  of  tin.  tltlian,  iiK»i»i  >■■•  M> 
pound*  uf  cop|wr,  tt  pouiuU  of  brmia,  and  U  pounda  of 
tin  I  and  olhara,  lOU  |x)Uiula  of  cupjiar,  lU  pounda  of 
braaa,  and  16  pounda  uf  tin. 

It  aaaiiia  to  liii  the  K^nural  opinion  that  I'annon  wtro 
flrat  mmla  uaa  of  In  llliUI  ur  IWM;  liul  Don  Antonio  da 
Capniuny  hai  prwlucud  aoin«  atatcniant*  wliUli  rondor 
It  ainioitt  cvrtaln  that  nuniu  aort  of  urtillury  wua  uivd 
by  tlio  Moon  In  Hpaln  to  anrly  ua  KH'i. — (tutsliuHti 
Critinu,  p,  IHl,  «tc.  Cunnoni  wars  cvrtainly  mod  liy 
the  EnKllah  In  11M7  at  tho  aieKa  of  Culaia,  and  i>y  thu 
Vanatlana  at  C'hIoKKia  in  KMil,  and  in  tliair  wan  with 
tha  Uanoaaa  in  187U  and  18H0.  Tlio  Turka  i-inploytd 
tham  at  the  aleKea  of  Conatantlnopio,  in  iau4  and  1  l&a. 
Whan  lint  introduced,  they  waro  for  tho  moat  p;trt 
Yary  heavy  and  unwieldy,  and  throw  lialla  of  an  cnor- 
moua  aire;  they  were,  howpwr,  owing  to  thoir  fro- 
quently  liuntlnK,  about  aa  dnnKuruua  to  thoao  ualiiK 
them  aa  to  their  opponent*.  There  la  a  valuable  arti- 
cle on  the  conatructlun  and  hiatory  of  cannona  In  Rkkh' 
CgdnpriVut;  but  It  waa  publii4hc<l  previouaiy  to  the  a]>- 
IMarance  of  Capmany'a  work  rufvrrcd  to  above. 

Tho  larKoat  known  place  of  urdnunco  la  uf  braia,  coat 
In  Irfdia  in  KJ8S.  At  Ehronbrcitatoln  Ciiatio,  one  uf 
the  atrontfcHt  furta  In  (icrinuiiy,  up|>oalto  Cobluntz,  on 
Ibe  Khine,  in  a  prwIlKluua  cuniiun  cltthteon  feet  and  n 
half  lung,  afout  and  a  half  In  diainctor  in  the  boro,  and 
thrco  feet  fuur  Inches  in  the  breech.  Tho  ball  made 
for  It  WflKhs  IHO  pounda,  and  ita  charge  of  powder  !)l 
pounda.  The  iiiarriptlon  on  it  aliowa  that  It  waa  made 
by  one  Himon  In  1629.  In  Dover  C'aatle  la  a  braaa  gun 
called  Queen  Elizalioth'a  pockct-platui,  which  waa  pre- 
tented  to  her  by  the  States  of  Ilulland:  thia  piece  la 
24  feet  lung,  and  Is  beautifully  omanionted,  having  on 
It  tliu  anus  of  the  stalea,  and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  im- 
porting thus, 

**  Charge  mo  well,  and  npongo  mo  clean, 
I'll  llirow  a  linil  to  (alala  Or«cn." 
Some  line  specimen*  are  to  be  seen  In  tho  Tower.     A 
leathern  cannon  was  tired  three  times  In  the  King's 
Park,  Edinburgh,  October  28,  1788.— PiiiLLirs. 

The  precise  date  of  the  llrat  oast-iron  guns  la  not 
known,  but  it  has  been  asserted  by  (ieneral  llaguenin, 
that  a  piece  of  this  description  at  Ilois-Ie-Uuc  bears  the 
date  1411.  Some  doubt,  however,  has  been  expressed 
on  thio  Htibject ;  and  It  has  lie  en  thought  more  proba- 
ble, with  reference  to  the  Invcntltm  of  high  smelting 
Airnaccs,  to  suppose  this  date  1611.  In  IMO  Kalpli 
Page  cast  eight  iron  guns  at  Kackstadt ;  and  In  1647 
the  use  of  such  artillery  began  to  liecome  general,  and 
was  for  nearly  a  century  exclusively  adopted  in  some 
countries.  In  France  cast-iron  gun*  were  not  manu- 
factured liofore  1600;  but  so  evident  were  the  advant- 
ages to  lie  gained  by  their  use,  both  as  regards  the  qual- 
ities of  the  guns  and  their  mo<lerate  cost,  that  they 
were  speedily  adopted  In  most  countries ;  founderies  for 
iron  guns  having  been  established  In  Silesia  In  1470, 
in  Germany  In  1677,  In  Saxony  In  1604,  in  the  Hartz 
In  1C26,  ann  in  S>.<)den  in  1640;  onofoundery  alone,  in 
the  latter  oouni  '  having  lieen  said  to  have  supplied 
for  some  time  firo.    '00  to  600  cannona  annually. 

All  these  plec2i» .  .  :nn  'ce  Tinre  cast  hollow  until 
1729,  when  a  .horkon..  i«.fiiig  nriHi-iiiic  was  establish- 
ed at  Lyons,  .'.d,  a't;-  inie  XtI\\»  mule  In  I7d4,  M. 
Marltz  abandoned  i'viUr  i  ci  lOug  ..  Sfmsburg  In 
1744-'46,  and  ailor.tc.;  thi  boring  machiu     — E.  i> 

CanO«,  or  CmsMl,  iUe  verm  genemlly  need  to 
designate  the  tniall  vessti  i  which  uncivilized  people, 
living  near  the  water,  use.  In  the  East  Indies  there 
Is  a  kind  of  lioat  known  by  this  name,  sometimes  from 
40  to  60  feet  long,  and  6  or  6  broad.  The  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  generally  impel  their  canoM  with  paddles, 
which  have  a  very  large  Wade  and  are  managed  i)er- 
pendicnlarly.     The  canoes  of  Canada  are  of  the  most 


firagila  taxtur*,  and  of  au  lltti*  weight,  that  In  pasting 
from  one  rivsr  to  anullur,  lh«  biiatinvn  carry  tiii^m  ua 
their  hnada  acniaa  their  (lurtagea,  'I'hay  are  niuatly 
covered  with  liark,  thu  piacea  uf  which  are  tawad  to- 
gather  with  a  kind  uf  grata.  Thia  bark  la  gaiiarally 
not  more  than  a  quarter  uf  an  Inch  in  thlckneti ;  yd, 
in  thei*  frail  vuttalt,  tha  liullana  and  Canadians  do 
nut  hesitate  to  <leaci'iid  vary  daiigaruua  rapidt,  Tha 
Eaqulniaux  are  exceedingly  dexturuua  in  the  nianaga- 
munt  uf  their  caiuwa.  Thcte  cuntiti  uf  a  light,  wuudan 
fran:e,  cuvi'red  with  taal-aklna,  aawed  tuguthar  with 
ainuwt.  The  tklna  /tre  nut  unly  extended  Miiiid  tlia 
liottum  and  tides,  but  likewise  over  the  top,  furniiiiga 
cuniplete  deck,  and  having  unly  una  opening  tu  admit 
the  Indian  to  hit  aeat.  Tu  thia  hule  a  Hat  huop,  rising 
about  fuur  Inches,  la  fitted,  tu  which  Is  faalvned  the 
aurrouudliig  tkln.  The  puddle  It  about  10  fcut  lung, 
light,  and  Hat  at  each  end.  In  the  Kti|ulinaux  lan- 
guage, the  canoe  it  called  a  kniiik,  ur  imiii't  kuiil,  to  dit- 
tlngulnh  It  fk'oni  umirul,  the  irnmon'i  bmil,  which  latter 
I  it  a  largo  boat  fur  tranii|iurting  the  wuincn  with  their 
familica  and  |iotaetaioiit.  The  (ircenlamlura  and  Kl- 
'pilmaux  ute  the  tame  kind  uf  canoes,  and  It  it  atluu- 
iHhing,  when  we  cuntider  their  Intlgnilicaut  conttruc- 
tlon,  at  what  a  dittanco  from  the  roglun*  they  cum- 
niunly  ildiabit,  theae  |ieuple,  et|ieclally  the  furnier,  uio 
found  in  them.  In  the  Itlundt  uf  the  Soutli  Sen,  tho 
nativca  have  a  double  canoe,  united  by  a  atiung  plat- 
form, serving  In  thia  way  aa  one  vcaiol.  Such  a  canoe 
It  capable  uf  carrying  a  number  uf  |K'rBuns,  and  a  cun- 
tiderab)u  lading,  ('uptuin  Cwik  gives  ut  a  lung  ac- 
cuunt  uf  the  dilTerent  kindi  ut  canoes  used  in  Ulahelte. 
— E.  A. 

Canoe  Blroh  (/Ittulu  fapi/mrea).  Ily  the  French 
Canadians  JloiiUau  Jllime,  white  birch,  and  Jloulenu  I'l 
Vimnt,  '■  iniHi  birch:  it  is  known  to  the  American  also 
h\  .••  ,e  denominations,  and  •umetlniua  by  tluit  uf 
;  I'lr  biirh.  Tho  heart  ur  |H)r<Vct  wtHid  of  thia  tree, 
when  t'r>t  laiil  open,  is  uf  a  reddish  hue,  and  the  tap 
Is  perfci  Ily  while.  It  has  a  line  glossy  grain,  with  a 
considerable  tli.ire  of  strength ;  that  it  Is  but  littlo 
employed  la  attributed  partly  to  its  speedy  decay  when 
exposed  to  tho  succession  of  dryness  and  moisture,  and 
partly  to  the  exitlnnco,  in  the  countries  which  pro<luca 
it,  of  several  s|H>clet  of  wood,  which  are  far  preferable 
fur  tho  uses  uf  the  carpenter  and  the  wheelwright.  It 
is  sometimes  employed  by  cnbinot-iuakers  for  tables 
which  are  stained  in  iinltatioii  of  mahogany.  But  the 
must  impiirtant  purpoi-o  fur  which  it  is  employed,  and 
one  in  which  it  Is  replaced  by  the  bark  of  no  other 
tree,  is  the  construction  of  canoes.  To  procure  proper 
pieces,  the  largest  and  smoothest  trunks  are  selected : 
in  the  spring  two  circular  incUlona  nt-i!  made  several 
feet  apart,  and  two  longitudinal  ur  n|  <     ite  sliles 

of  t'ln  tree;  after  which,  by  ini.\.  i.  ■!.,;  i  a-ojden 
wci.j  .,  tho  bark  is  easily  detached  1  .■  n'  ri  n  ,  'irt 
usually  ten  or  twelve  feet  Ion'  .■■  "t  i-  ■  m.b 
Inches  broad.     Great  use  la  mii  cur.       by 

the  Indians  and  by  the  French  Canadians  in  their  long 
journeys  into  the  interior  of  the  country ;  they  are  very 
light,  and  arc  easily  transported  on  tho  shoulders  (Vom 
one  lake  or  river  to  another,  which  is  called  the poitafft, 
A  canoe  calculated  fur  four  persons,  with  their  bag- 
gage, weighs  fVom  forty  to  ilfty  pounds :  some  of  them 
are  made  to  carry  fifteen  passengers.  Such  are  tho  or- 
dinary uses  of  the  bark  and  of  the  n  nod  of  this  tree. — 
Unows'a  .'•'y/ro  Americana, 

Cantharldea,  or  Bpaniah  Fly  (Fr.  Caniharidet, 

Miiuchm  itKtpagne;  Qcr.  SpanUche  Fliegen;  It.  6'im- 
tnrelle;  Lat.  Caiilharit;  Wat*.  UUchpanikit  muchi;  Sp. 
CanlariJai).  This  Insect  Is  found  uu  a  variety  of 
shrubs  In  Spain,  Italy,  Franfc,  etc.  Those  used  In 
England  are  imiiorted  partly  from  Sicilj',  but  princi- 
pally (Vom  Astracan,  packed  in  casks  and  small  chests : 
the  most  esteemed  como  from  St.  Petersburg.  Tho 
best  are  of  a  lively  fircsh  color,  a  small  si/.e,  and  not 
mouldy.    They  are  (yequently  adulterated  with  tha 


lantharidet, 
It.  t'lin- 
ImucAi;  Sp. 
Ivarioty  of 
Lse  used  in 
Ibiit  princl- 
liaU  chests : 
[urg.  Tho 
B,  and  not 
with  th« 


OAlf  H 

UM'ifUka  ritlti  liiit  IhU  la  ilUtlnKulsh*l>l<'   ly  Ol 
tutm,  wliliilt  U  wiunraf  Ihun  (li«  ennthitris,  *ii<l  l>v 
liliivk  fiMl.     It  limy  In  pfiiparly  ilrUil  u\il  prutaiu.i 
(yum  llitt  tir,  llwy  iniiy  U  knfit  (nt  «  vary  lonif  pcriiid. 
— Tli»Mwi«'»  IHtpntuUnfi/.     Thar*  worn  fnur  naw  v». 
riatlns  iif  iianlharlilaa  fruin  ImlU  ahnwn  at  Iha  t.oniton 
Enlill'llliiionNAI, 
I      Oaiiton.  "iM  iif  Iha  tfraalaat  ampnrluma  In  tha  ¥.n<, 
raiikliiK,  M  «  iHirl  iif  trail*,  allhar  li*fiir*,  or  ImniadU 
>ilHly  aflvr,  I'alnulta.  In  tha  prnvlnna  uf  (jiianlonK,  In 
Cliliu     Iwlr  :    |iri  rloualy  to  IKIlt,  iha  only  plnct  In 
that  ••    ,  ir*   '  Ian  liy  •uthiirlly  lo  Kuriiiwan  trailara  i 
li*   '  'ly    >',,  Inn,  UK' 14  K.     ('anion  cInniU  un 

.1  '  II  lif  '  /Iha  I'akln  Klvar,  whit'h  flows  fhim 
tl.  I  I'  lark'  I  «  navltfitlila  alraam  of  imn  miles  to 
lbl>  l<y,  whaf"  It  Is  ralliiif  liruaitnr  than  Ih*  Thames 
»«  '  il'in  lirlilKit  I  fiillliiu,  iiflnr  ail  Hilillllonal  nmrH 
0.  il*s,  liilii  III*  Bnullmrn  sa*  uf  China,     Neiir  lis 

luni  I  'ii'i  with  IIm  a*«,  It  I*  « alkiil  liy  forvlKiiem  lloora 
Tigris.  Tho  (own  U  siirriHinilml  hy  n  Ihli-k  wnll,  part- 
ly of  slnna  anil  |Mrllv  lirli'k.  ami  la  iIIvIiIpiI  Into  two 
purls  l>v  iinolhnr  wnIi  running  east  and  west,  Tho 
m>i>  lain  division  Is  I'alind  Ihn  old,  and  th«  southrrn 
th«  now  I'lty,  In  llin  old  rlly  Is  tli*  Mnntchoii  or 
Turtur  uKniirul,  with  his  Karrlson  of  Manlchou  trmips. 
Thi'  liiiiitiiiiant  uiivnrnor  or  Cooynen's  oftlro  Is  niso  in 
Ihu  old  I'lty,  lint  Ihn  uiisntnut  and  hoppo  (principal 
eustoiiia  nlHcar}  rasld*  In  titn  nnw  rlly,  not  far  from 
tlio  rivur. 

All  fiirulKii  I'ominiirni  Is  rondnrl«d  In  thn  antilhwost 
(uliurli,  wliurii  Ihn  fiiridtfn  fnnlorli's  arn  sllunted)  and 
whiidi,  with  III*  olliar  sulinrlia.  Is  pmlialdy  not  less 
|uipiiluiis  llinn  III*  <dly  Itsidf,  Thn  resldniK'n  of  Kuro- 
p«nns  Is  I'imlinml  lo  n  very  small  spare,  on  Ihn  tmnka 
of  tho  rlvnri  whii'h  mlijhl,  however,  Im  as  pleasnnt  »• 
u  crowded  iii«ri^iMitll<i  (iliii'ii  I'lin  well  lie,  wrni  It  not  fur 
th«  gruttt  iiiiiiilwr  of  sinnll  lUerlllnii  Iwalt  whirh  covi>r 
till)  fii'a  of  Ihu  rivtir,  The  iMHipIn  who  orcnpy  thp 
UrKer  porlloil  of  III***  IhmIs  nr«  siilil  to  hiive  rnmo 
orli{liiiiily  from  tha  Miiith)  and  lieUiK  n  furel^n  and 
despised  rai'a,  w*rH  not,  at  Urst,  nllowed  to  dwell  on 
shnrn  !  Iiut  must  of  thn  illsllncllons  Imtween  them  and 
Ihu  rest  of  the  puople  lliivn  lieen  nliulUhed,  Although 
Cuiiton  is  sltiiiilnd  iimirly  In  the  sntne  pnrullid  of 
lutlttidi'  us  I'uli'iiltH,  lliurn  Is  N  i-onslderiildn  dinpronco 
111  tlii'lr  liiiii|H<raluru|  the  former  lielnit  niuvh  the 
ctnilust.  and  r«i|iilrlni{  Urns  ilMrliiK  the  winter  months. 
The  streets  nr«  y»ty  niirrnw,  imved  with  little  round 
•tunes,  niid  (liiKKud  I'Insii  to  the  sides  of  the  houses. 
Thu  front  of  every  hnils*  Is  it  'liop,  and  those  of  par- 
ticular struots  iiru  litlil  nut  for  i'mi  supply  of  slrnnfters, 
Chiuii  Htreut  is  uji|iroprlat«d  '  Kuroiieans)  nnd  hero 
tha  produelluiis  of  nimnst  nv«rv  pitrt  uf  the  viol's  "^n 
to  li«  found,  I  In*  uf  the  shuv-keeiiers  Is  always  to  lie 
fii'i.  dllluK  on  the  I'ountcr,  .«rlllnK  with  n  cnmelV 
hair  lirush,  ori'itleiilntlliu  with  his  swampnn,  on  which 
Instrument  a  rhllies*  will  |ierfnrm  operittliins  In  num- 
liers  with  us  murli  celnrlly  as  I  ho  must  expert  Kuro- 
peun  urithintttli'iuii,  This  part  iff  Canton  tieiuK  much 
froipiented  liy  llin  s««iM"ii,  every  artifice  Is  used  by 
the  (.'hiiiesa  retailers  ii-  allriU't  their  allenllim;  each 
of  them  huvhiK  an  KiiKltsh  .iam«  Uit  himself  painted 
on  the  outside  uf  his  shop,  Iwslileit  n  numlier  uf  iidver- 
tlaement*  I'omiiosad  for  ih»m  i  v  the  sailors  In  their 
own  iieculiur  idhim,  The  iill^r.  It  n.ny  l,e  supposed, 
ura  often  du|)iid  liy  th«lr  ChitK  .  friends,  who  have,  in 
h'enerul,  picked  up  »  f'-t,  mn  phrusi'.,  l.y  which  the 
•ouinen  ara  Induced  u,  M»t  \Mt  shnps;  Imt  tliev  suit 
carh  other  exlruin*|_v  well,  as  tha  Chinese  dealers 
possess  an  lm|i«rlurli«lila  i-nttimnnd  of  Icniiier.  Inuitk 
hcurtlly  ut  their  Jokes  wllhuut  nnderstandlntr  them, 
and  humor  tha  leitiiien  in  nil  their  sallies.  Hlil;^  uoK 
nscond  tho  river  as  fur  as  Wham|ioa,  aliout  \r->  miles 
below  (Jniitgn,  loodliiK  and  uiiluadlnK  I'y  menns  of 
nutlvo  bouta. 

The  Chlnaaa,  eonaliknid  as  Iraderi,  «r«  imlnently 
active,  peneverlng,  snd  lnt«lllg«nt.     Thtjr  are,  In 


I  CAN 

fact,  al'iuhl  'immefelal  people ;  nml  the  notl*>ii  thiit 
was  one*  very  ^mtflXij  enteruliied  cif  Ihsir  liclni; 
pei'ulliirly  charnctertted  l>  J  ■iilfmj.I  of  cnmmen-e 
and  nf  •iranuers  is  *•  utterly  u..l<m\\ih  ■  '-  uiiy  notk)n 
can  imuiMv  Ih>.     Business  tii  trhii>-<.ii        '   ''nntun 

with  K'asi     llspalch;  and  n<  where  in  th nd  may 

carifovH  lie  nnld  mid  liiiiiKht,  |,,iiile<l  uml  uiilouiled,  with 
more  buslnoss-likn  H|M<f  d  mid  sctlvity.  Provisions  and 
refreshments  of  all  sorts  iiru  iilMindunt  in  Cantnii,  nnd 
in  Ksnerul,  of  an  excellent  i|iLility  ;  iuh  Is  the  prii''  >  - 
orldlant.  Kvery  description  uf  them,  dead  and  nil  'r, 
la  sold  by  welKl't.  It  Is  a  curious  fact  that  the  i  hi- 
noso  muke  no  use  of  milk,  ellbir  In  its  liquid  xUle.  wr 
in  tho  shape  of  cunls,  butter,  ur  cheese.  Aiimhik  the 
delicacies  of  a  Chinese  market  nri>  tu  be  nci'n  linrM- 
flesh,  doKS,  cuts,  hawks,  and  owls.  Thu  <  >mrilry  is 
well  supplied  with  fish  ttnm  the  numerous  cmmls  nnd 
rivers  by  which  it  is  Intersected. 

f'urtii/n  hacl'Ttit.  IbciHi  extend  for  a  ciinsldernhle 
way  alouK  the  bunks  of  Iho  river,  iwt  tho  dIstnni'T  of 
olMiut  KHI  yurils.  They  aro  named,  uy  the  <'hln«ae, 
/mnffn,  and  resemble  louK  courts,  or  rlusi>s,  v  'linut  n 
thorouKhfure,  which  ({cncriilly  contain  ft)ur  or  h  m  sepu- 
rnlo  houses.  They  nrebiitlt  una bruud  i|iiiiy.  n  I  Mitvc 
n  puriidu  in  front.  This  prmnenudu  Is  ruilid  in  ml  is 
fjeneriilly  called  ItetjtDnih nlin  Walk;  and  here  i  Kn- 
ropean  merchants,  cuminunders,  nndoHlcersof  ili.  hips 
meet  after  dinner  and  enjoy  tho  cool  of  tho  «vcti  ing. 
Tho  Kn^lish  hon^,  or  fuctory,  far  surpasses  tde  ot^ "rs 
In  eloKanre  and  extent.  This,  with  the  American  .  nd 
Dutch  honifs,  nro  the  only  ones  that  keep  their  natim  il 
fliiKs  llyiuK.  The  neighlKirhood  uf  tho  fuctorles  is  I'  - 
ciipicd  with  wurohuuses  fur  the  rccuptiun  of  Kuro|iciii 
Ko<ids,  orof  C'bincso  iiroductions,  until  they  aro  ship)>oil 
In  Wtl,  durInK  n  dreadful  contlaKratlon  that  took  pluoc 
At  Canton,  thn  llritish  fuctorlea  und  abuvo  1II,(MH)  hnusep 
were  destroyed;  on  which  occoslon  tho  Vlnst  Indiu  Com- 
pany's loss  was  estimated  nt  i.'K0O,00()  itorllnt;,  three- 
fifths  In  woolens. 

For  the  space  of  four  or  five  miles  opposite  to  Can- 
ton tho  river  resembles  an  extensive  floating  city,  con- 
slstinf;  of  lioikts  and  vessels  ran)(ed  parallel  to  each 
other,  leaving  a  narrow  passage  for  others  to  pass  nnd 
repass.  In  thoso  tho  owners  reside  with  their  fiiiiillles, 
the  latter  rarely  vi»ltln|f  tho  shore.  All  tho  business 
at  Canton  with  Euru|>eans  Is  transacted  in  a  jurKon  of 
tho  Kn^iish  lunKuuKe.  Tho  sounds  of  such  letters  as 
li,  I>,  U,  and  X  are  unknown  in  China.  Instead  of 
these  they  substitute  some  other  letter,  such  as  I.  fur 
R,  which  occasions  a  Chinese  dealer  in  rice  to  offer  for 
sale  in  English  a  rather  unmurkctublo  commodity. 
Tho  nunio  innndnrin  is  unknown  among  the  Chinese, 
the  word  used  by  them  to  denote  n  person  in  authority 
being  quan.  Mandarin  Is  a  I'ortugueso  word  derived 
from  the  vorb  mandiir,  to  command. — Hamii.to.i's 
Halt  liiilin  dazellier ;  MitBunN'»  Orient.  Commerce! 
Com/mnion  In  Ani/lo-Chinete  Cnlendnr,  etc. 

The  trade  <if  C/'anton  is  retrograding,  while  that  of 
Shanghai  is  increasing ;  and  indeed  It  Is  not  unlikely 
that  the  latter  will  In  time  supplant  Canton  in  tho  Eu- 
ropean trade,  as  It  enjoys  tho  additional  advantage  of 
being  nearer  tho  tea  districts.  Canton  was  no  doubt 
Hxed  upon  by  the  Chinese  government  for  tho  Euro- 
pean trade,  ai  being  the  moat  distant  f^om  tho  capital, 
Pokln. 

Formerly  only  a  limited  number  of  merchants,  called 
the  hung  or  security  merchants,  were  allowed  to  trade 
with  foreigners.  They  were  commonly  men  of  large 
property,  and  were  famed  for  integrity  In  their  trani>- 
actlons.  All  foreign  cargoes  passed  through  the  hands 
of  these  merchants,  and  by  them  also  the  return  car- 
goes were  fiimishcd.  They  became  security  for  tho 
payment  of  duties,  and  it  was  treason  for  any  other 
merchant  to  engage  in  the  trade  with  foreigners.  This 
severe  law,  however,  has  recently  been  abolished,  and 
foreigners  may  now  deal  with  any  merchant  they  think 
fit  to  employ. 


CAN 


260 


CAN 


The  Engluh  TVeatg  leM  China.— Tha  following  is  tlie 
synopsis  of  the  treaty  effected  by  Lord  Elgin  witit  Clii- 
na,  ss  put  fortli  by  tlie  Britisli  Foreign  Office.  It  was 
signed  at  Tien-tsin,  June  26,  1858 : 

Art  1.  Coiiflrms  the  Treaty  of  Nankin  of  1843,  and  abro- 
gatea  tba  Bupplementarjr  Treaty  and  General  Kegulationa  of 
Trade. 

Art,  2.  ProTldea  for  tlie  appointment  of  embaiaadora,  mln- 
iaters,  or  other  diplomatic  agenti  on  the  part  of  pltber  coun- 
try at  the  courts  of  Pekln  and  St,  Jamea. 

Art.  3.  L'ontalna  proTlaloni  for  the  permanent  establish- 
ment of  a  Britiah  minister,  hia  family  and  suite,  at  PcUn, 
and  the  forms  to  be  ohscrred  In  bla  communications  with  the 
Imperial  [^Temment. 

Arti.  Hakea  arrangements  for  the  traTellng  and  the  trana- 
minion  of  the  carreagpndence  of  the  miniater,  and  the  employ- 
ment by  bim  of  apeclal  couriers. 

Art  5.  The  Emperor  of  China  ccnsentii  to  nominate  one  of 
the  Secretaries  of  State  or  some  high  offlcor  to  transact  buel- 
neas  with  the  British  minister,  cither  personally  or  in  writing, 
on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality. 

Art  6.  The  same  prlrllegea  are  to  be  granted  to  the  Chi- 
nese minister  In  London. 

Art  7.  Conaula  may  be  appointed  In  China,  and  may  reaidc 
In  any  of  the  open  porta,  and  their  official  rank  and  position 
aa  regards  the  Chinese  local  tuthoritiea  is  determined. 

ilrt.  8.  The  Christian  rell^on,  as  professed  by  Trotcstants 
or  Roman  Catholics,  to  be  tolerated,  and  Its  professors  pro- 
.   teeted. 

Art  0.  Britiah  subjects  to  travel  for  pleasure  or  trade  Into 
all  parts  of  the  interior,  with  passports  from  their  consuls, 
countersigned  by  the  local  autboritlea.  The  regnlatlons  aa 
regarda  theae  passports  are  determined.  The  provisions  of 
the  article  not  to  be  applied  to  ships*  crews,  for  the  due  re- 
straint of  whom  regulations  are  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  consul 
and  local  authorities  No  pass  to  be  given  to  Mankin,  or 
eltles  In  the  handa  of  the  rcbela 

Art  10.  British  merchant  ships  are  to  be  allowed  to  trade 
up  the  Great  River  (Yang-tae),  but  in  the  preacnt  diaturbed 
state  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Valley  no  port  is  to  be  opened 
for  trade  with  the  exception  of  Chin  Kiang,  which  is  to  bo 
opened  in  a  year  from  the  signature  of  the  treaty.  When 
pckco  is  restored,  British  vessels  are  to  be  admitted  to  trade 
at  such  ports  as  far  as  Hankow,  r  •>.  ixceedlng  three  In  num- 
ber, as  the  British  minister,  after  consulting  with  the  Chinese 
Secretary  of  SUte,  shall  determine. 

Art.  11.  In  addition  to  the  present  ports.  Now  Chwang, 
Tang-Chow,  Tai-wan  (Formosa),  Chow-Chow  (Swatow),  and 
Kiuug-Cbow  (Ilsinan),  are  to  be  opened,  a:id  the  right  of 
residence  and  tiolding  landed  pniperty  Is  conivded. 

Art  12.  British  subjects  are  to  make  agreements  for  land- 
ed property  at  the  rates  prevailing  among  the  people. 

Art  13.  No  reatrlctlons  to  be  placed  on  the  employment  by 
British  subjects  of  Chinese  suljjirts  in  any  lawful  capacity. 

Art.  14.  The  hire  of  boats  for  transport  of  goods  or  paiscn- 
giirs  to  be  settled  between  the  parties  theroaelvea,  without  the 
Interference  of  the  Chinese  government.  Tha  number  of  the 
boats  not  to  be  limited,  and  no  monopoly  allowed.  If  any 
smuggling  takes  pUee,  the  offender  to  be  punished  according 
to  law. 

Art.  16.  All  questions  In  regard  to  rights  of  property  or 
person  between  British  subjects  to  be  subject  to  the  Jurisdic- 
tion of  the  British  authorities. 

Art  10.  Chinese  subJecU  guilty  of  any  criminal  act  toward 
British  subjects  to  be  arrested,  and  puulsliud  by  the  Chinese 
authorities  according  to  the  law  of  China  j  British  subjects 
committing  any  crime  In  China  to  lie  trie-'  and  punished  by 
the  consul  or  other  public  fbnctionary  according  to  the  laws 
of  Great  Britain. 

Art  IT.  Determines  the  mode  of  procedure  In  the  naltorof 
comphilnta  on  the  side  ciUier  of  British  or  Chinese  subjects. 

Art.  18.  I'lovides  for  the  protection  of  the  persona  and 
property  of  British  subjects. 

Art  19.  If  any  BrllUih  merchant  vessel  In  Chinese  waters 
IS  plundered  by  robbers  or  pirates,  the  Chinese  aulhorilies 
are  to  use  every  endeavor  to  capture  and  punisli  tho  offenders, 
and  to  recover  the  stolen  property. 

Art  20.  Wrecked  or  stranded  vessels,  or  vessels  under 
stress  of  westher,  are  to  be  afforded  relief  and  security  In 
any  Cblneae  port,  and  the  crews  are  to  bo  furnished  by  the 
Chinese,  if  necessary,  with  tho  means  of  eonveyanco  to  the 
nearest  consuUr  station. 

Art.  81.  Chinese  erimlnala  taking  refhgo  In  Dong  Kong, 
or  on  board  of  Britiah  ships,  shall,  upon  the  reqnlslUon  of  the 
Cblneae  autlioritiea,  be  given  up ;  the  same  also  If  taking  ref- 
uge In  the  honaea  or  on  board  Uia  tsimIs  of  BiiUsli  nibJecU 
'  the  open  pert«-  > 


Art  23.  The  Chinese  authorities  to  do  their  ntmoat  to  ar- 
reat  Cblneae  suhjoets  falling  to  dtacliargo  their  debts  to  Oril> 
lab  aubjects,  or  fraudulently  ahaconding,  and  to  enforce  re- 
covery of  tha  debts  The  Britiah  autboritlea  to  do  likewise 
as  regards  Britiah  subjects  Indebted  to  Chinese. 

Art  is.  Debts  Incurred  by  Cblneae  at  Hong  Kong  must 
be  recovered  in  tho  courta  of  Justice  on  the  spot.  If  the  debt- 
or should  abscond,  and  should  possess  real  or  personal  prop- 
erty In  the  Chinese  territory,  the  Chinese  authorities.  In  con- 
cert with  the  British  consul,  are  to  see  Justice  dono  between  t 
the  parties. 

Art.  24.  British  subjects  shall  pay,  on  all  merchandise  im- 
ported or  exported,  the  duties  prescribed  by  the  tariff,  but  in 
no  case  shall  they  pay  other  or  higher  duties  than  the  aub'ects 
of  other  foreign  nations  pay. 

Art  26.  Import  duties  to  be  conaldered  payable  ou  tlie 
landing  of  tho  goods,  and  duties  of  export  on  the  shipment  of 
the  aame. 

A  rt  20.  Tlie  tariff  fixed  by  Article  10  of  the  Treaty  of  Nan- 
kin to  be  revised  by  a  commlsalon  of  British  and  Chinese  of- 
ficers, to  meet  at  Shanghai,  so  that  the  retiscd  tariff  may 
come  Into  operation  Immediately  after  tha  ratification  of  the 
treaty. 

Art  27.  Either  contracting  party  may  dumand  a  farther 
revision  of  the  tariff  and  of  Uie  commercial  articles  of  tiie 
treaty  at  the  period  often  years;  but  six  montlis'  notice  must 
bo  given,  or  tlio  tariff  is  to  remain  in  force  for  ten  years  more, 
and  so  at  tho  end  of  each  bucccsbIvo  ten  years. 

Art  !8.  It  is  agreed  that,  witUn  four  months  of  the  signa- 
ture of  the  treaty,  the  Chinese  collector  of  duties  at  ports  al- 
ready opened  and  hereafter  to  be  opened  to  British  trade  shall 
be  obliged,  on  application  of  tho  consul,  to  declare  the  amount 
of  duties  Icviabio  on  produce  between  the  place  of  productiou 
and  tlie  port  of  slilpincnt,  and  upon  imports  between  the  con- 
sular port  in  question  and  the  Inland  markets  named  by  the 
consul ;  and  a  notification  thereof  shall  be  published  In  Kn- 
glish  and  Chineae.  British  subjects  may,  however,  clear  their 
goods  of  all  transit  dutk-a  by  payment  ofa  single  charge ;  the 
amount  of  the  charge  to  be  calculated  as  near  oa  possible  at 
the  rate  of  2i  per  cent  ad  mlorent  duty,  and.it  is  to  be  lixed 
for  each  article  at  the  conference  to  be  held  at  Shanghai, 

Tho  payment  of  transit  dues  by  commutation  la  In  no  way 
to  affect  tho  tariff  duties  on  Imports  or  exports,  which  will 
continue  to  be  levied  separately  and  In  full. 

Art.  29.  Regulates  the  amount  of  tonnage  dues.  British 
merchant  vessels  of  more  than  160  tons  burden  to  pay  at  the 
rate  of  four  mace  per  ton ;  If  of  160  tons  and  under,  at  the 
rate  of  one  mace  per  ton. 

Vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  or  clearing  for  Hong 
Kong  from  any  of  the  open  jiorta,  shall  be  cutitled  to  a  spc- 
ci.ll  ceriiAcatc,  exeinptlug  them  from  ail  farther  payment  of 
tonnage  dues  In  any  open  port  of  China,  for  a  period  of  four 
montha  from  the  date  of  her  port  clearance. 

Aii.  SO.  The  master  of  any  British  merchant  vessel  may, 
within  48  hours  after  his  arrival,  but  not  later,  depart  with- 
out breaking  bulk.  In  which  case  lie  will  not  lie  subject  to  pay 
tonnage  dues.  No  other  fees  or  charges,  upon  entry  or  de- 
parture, shall  be  levied. 

Art.  SI.  No  tonnage  dues  to  bo  paid  on  passenger-boats,  or 
boats  conveying  baggage,  letters,  articles  of  provision,  or  oth- 
er artlcler  "lot  smiject  to  duty.  All  cargo  boats,  however,  con- 
veying m>  rdiaiidlse  subject  to  duty  shall  pay  tonnage  dues 
once  in  ^ix  months,  at  the  rate  of  four  mace  per  register  ton. 
Art  JS.  The  eonsula  and  suiierlntendcnta  of  cuatoms  to 
conault  together  respecting  the  erection  of  buoys  and  light- 
ships as  nccaaion  may  demand. 

Art.  S3.  Unties  to  bo  paid  to  the  authorized  Chinese  bank- 
ers either  in  sycee  or  In  foreign  money,  according  to  the  assay 
made  at  Canton,  July  13, 1843. 

Art  34.  Sets  of  standard  weights  and  measnrcs  to  be  de- 
livered by  the  superintendent  of  customs  to  the  consul  at  each 
port,  to  secure  uniformity. 

Art.  86.  Britiah  merchant  vessels  to  be  at  liberty  to  engage 
pilots  to  take  them  Into  any  of  tho  open  porU,  aud  to  convey 
them  out  after  they  have  discharged  all  legal  dues  and  duties. 
Art  30.  The  superintendent  of  costoms  shall  depute  one  or 
more  customs"  officers  to  guard  a  Britiah  merchant  ship  on 
arriving  off  one  of  the  open  porta.  They  ahall  stay  either  In 
a  boat  of  their  own  or  on  board  ship  i  their  food  and  exiicnses 
shall  bo  supplied  from  the  custom-house,  and  they  sliail  be 
entitled  to  no  fees  from  the  master  or  consignee. 

Art.  87.  Ships"  papers,  bills  of  lading,  etc.,  to  be  lodged  In 
the  hands  of  tlie  consul  24  hours  after  arrival,  and  full  par- 
ticulars of  the  vessel  to  be  reported  to  tho  superintendent  of 
customs  within  a  farther  period  of  24  hours ;  omission  to  com- 
ply  with  this  rule  within  48  hours  punishable  by  a  fine  of  60 
Uels  for  each  day's  delay.  The  total  amount  of  penalty  not 
tn  evMwd  900  taels.    The  master  nsponatble  for  tho  correct- 


CAN 


S61 


CAN 


lo  b<3  do- 
ll at  (uU 


nfl«  nf  the  nanlfMt;  a  Mie  manifeat  ral^eeto  the  maater  (o 
a  fine  of  600  tiieli ;  bnt  he  will  be  allowed  to  correct  any  mti- 
take  within  24  houra  wlthont  Incurring  a  penalty. 

Art  88.  If  the  loutcr  ihall  begin  to  dlHharge  any  gooda 
without  the  permit  from  the  anperlntendent  of  ouatoma  he 
■hall  bo  fined  BOO  taela,  and  the  gooda  dlubarged  ahall  be 
confiacated  wholly. 

Art.  SO.  Drltlah  merclianta  mnst  apply  to  the  aiiperintend- 
ent  of  cuatoma  for  a  apeclal  permit  to  land  or  ahip  cargo.    Car- 
*  go  landed  or  ahlpped  without  auch  permit  will  be  liable  to 
conflacatton. 

Art.  40.  No  tranahlpment  ftnm  one  Teaael  to  another  can 
bo  made  without  apeclal  permlialon,  under  pain  of  conflaca- 
tion  of  th^ooda  tranahipped. 

Art.  41.  Tho  Bupcrlntendent  of  cnatoma  ahall  give  a  port 
clearance  when  all  duca  and  dutlea  have  been  paid,  and  the 
consul  shall  then  return  the  ship's  papers. 

Art.  42.  If  the  British  merchant  can  not  agree  with  the 
Chinese  ofhcer  In  fixing  a  value  on  gooda  aubject  to  (i(l  valo- 
rem duty,  each  party  ahall  call  In  two  or  three  merchants, 
and  the  higheat  price  at  which  any  of  the  merchanta  would 
purchase  them  shall  he  assumed  to  be  tho  value  of  the  gooda. 

Art.  43.  Provides  that  duties  ahall  be  charged  upon  tho  net 
weight  of  each  article,  making  a  deduction  for  the  tare  weight 
of  congee,  etc,  and  regulates  the  manner  in  which  the  tare 
on  any  article,  auch  as  tea,  shall  be  fixed.  The  British  mer- 
chant may  appeal  to  his  consul  within  24  houro. 

Art.  44.  Upon  ail  damaged  gooda  a  fair  reduction  of  duty 
ahall  be  allowed,  proportionate  to  their  deterioi^tlnn.  If  any 
diaputes  arlae,  they  shall  he  settled  in  the  manner  pointed 
out  in^the  clause  of  this  treaty  having  reference  !x>  articles 
which  pay  duty  ad  valorem. 

Art.  45.  British  merchanta  who  have  Impoited  merchandise 
In* .  ».i  open  port  and  paid  duty  may  reimport  their  goods, 
under  certain  regulations,  without  payment  of  any  additional 
duty. 

British  merchanta  desiring  to  re-export  duty-paid  imports 
to  a  foreign  country  to  be  entitled,  under  similar  regulations, 
to  a  drawback  certificate,  which  is  to  be  a  valid  tender  in  pay- 
ment of  customs*  duties. 

Foreign  gmin  brought  into  a  Chinese  port  in  n  BrltUh  ship. 
If  no  part  haa  been  landed,  may  be  re-exported  without  hln- 
deranco. 

Art.  46.  The  Chlneao  anthoritlea  at  tho  ports  to  adopt  the 
meana  they  may  Judge  most  proper  to  prevent  the  revenues 
aufTcring  from  fraud  or  smuggling. 

Art.  4T.  British  merchant  vessels  not  to  resort  to  other 
than  the  ports  declared  open ;  not  unlawfully  to  enter  ports, 
or  to  carry  on  clandestine  trade  along  the  coast*  Vessels 
violating  this  provision  to  be,  with  their  cargoes,  subject  to 
eonfiacatien  by  the  Chinese  government 

A  rt.  43.  If  a  British  merchant  vessel  bo  concerned  In  smug- 
gling, the  goods  to  be  subject  tu  confiscation  by  tho  Calnese 
authorities,  and  the  ahip  may  be  prohibited  from  trading  fur- 
ther, and  sent  away  aa  soon  aa  her  accounta  ahall  have  been 
adjusted. 

Art.  49.  All  penalties  or  confiscations  under  tho  treaty  to 
belong  and  be  appropriated  to  the  public  service  of  the  Chl- 
neae  government 

Art.  60.  All  official  communications  addreaaed  by  British 
diplomatic  or  consular  agents  to  the  Chinese  authorities  are 
henceforth  to  be  written  In  English.  For  the  present  they 
will  bo  accompanied  by  a  Chinese  veraion ;  hut  it  is  undcr- 
Btood  that  in  caao  of  there  being  any  difTorence  of  meaning 
between  the  Kngllsh  and  Chinese  text,  the  English  govern- 
ment will  hold  tho  sense  expressed  in  the  English  text  to  be 
the  correct  aenae.  Thia  provision  is  to  apply  to  the  present 
treaty,  the  Chinese  text  of  which  haa  been  carefully  corrected 
by  the  English  original. 

Art.  Bl.  The  character  "I"  ("barbarian")  not  to  bo  applied 
to  the  British  government  or  to  British  su^ccts  In  any  Chi- 
nese official  document  Issued  by  the  Chinese  authorities. 

Art.  B2.  British  shipa  of  war  coming  for  no  hostile  purpose, 
or  being  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  pirates,  to  bo  at  liberty  to 
Tialt  all  tho  Chlneso  ports,  and  to  receive  every  facility  for 
procuring  necessaries,  or,  if  required,  for  making  repairs. 
Tho  commanders  of  auch  ahlps  to  hold  intercourse  with  tho 
Chlneso  authoi  Itlea  on  terms  of  equality  and  courtesy. 

Art.  B3.  Tho  contracting  partlea  agree  to  concert  measures 
for  the  suppression  of  piracy, 

AC.  54.  Confirms  all  advontagca  secured  to  the  British 
government  by  previoua  reatica,  and  atipulatea  that  the  Brit- 
ish  government  ahall  p  irtlclpate  in  any  ndvantagea  which 
may  be  granted  by  the  J.mperor  of  China  lo  any  other  nation. 

Art.  5S.  Tho  conditbna  afTectlng  indemnity  for  eipenses 
Incurred,  and  loss  suati  ined  In  tho  matter  of  tho  Canton  ques- 
tion, to  be  included  lp  a  separate  article,  which  shall  be  in  ev- 
ery respect  of  equal   alldlty  with  other  articles  of  tho  treaty. 


Artnt.  Katlfleatlena  to  be  exchanged  within  a  year  after 
the  day  of  algnatnre. 

Separate  article  provide*  that  a  smn  of  2,000,000  taela,  on 
account  of  the  losses  sustained  by  British  subjects,  through 
the  mlsoondDct  of  Chlneso  authorities  at  Canton,  and  a  fur- 
ther sum  of  2,000,000  taels,  on  account  of  tho  ezpensea  of  the 
war,  ahall  be  paid  to  the  British  representative  in  China  by 
the  authorltiea  of  the  Kwangtung  province. 

The  arrangements  for  effecting  theae  paymenta  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  Britlah  repreacntatlve,  in  concert  with  the 
Chinese  authorltiea  at  Kwang  Tung. 

The  British  forces  are  not  to  be  withdrawn  from  Cantoa 
antll  the  above  amounts  are  diacharged  In  full. 

Tho  heads  of  tho  new  treaty  with  Chitia  were  re- 
ceived in  li^ngiand  willi  general  satisfaction.  The  com- 
mercial stipulations  appear  such  as,  supposing  them  to 
be  maintained  with  good  faith,  will  provo  consistent 
with  the  most  extended  trade.  The  present  tariff  is 
very  moderate,  and  the  stipulation  that  the  internal 
transit  dues,  which  have  lately  been  levied  capricious- 
ly, may  be  commuted  liy  the  importers  on  direct  pay- 
ment of  2i  per  cent,  ad  vo/orem,  is  calculated  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  any  new  or  unexpected  obstructions 
to  the  demand  for  our  mantifuctui-e s.  It  would  have 
been  better,  perhaps,  if  these  payments  had  been  spe- 
cific instead  of  ad  valorem,  but  that  is  a  point  on  which 
we  could  hardly  dictate. 

Treaty  between  the  United  Stalet  of  A  merica  and  the 
Chineie  Empire.  —  Preamble, — Tho  preamble  declares 
that  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  the  Emper- 
or of  China,  being  desirous  of  renewing  the  obligations 
of  friendship  between  the  two  countries,  and  of  estab- 
lishing fixed  rules  for  regulating  the  intercour.ie  of 
their  citizens,  havo  named,  on  the  one  side,  'NVilliam 
I).  Keed,  plenipotentiary  of  the  United  States,  and  on 
the  other,  Kwoiling  and  Hwashana,  imperial  commis- 
sioners, and  that  said  ministers  have  agreed  upon  the 
following  articles : 

Art.  1.  Tlicre  ahall  bo  permanent  pence  between  tho  Unit- 
ed Statea  of  America  on  the  one  part,  and  the  Chinese  empire 
on  the  other,  and  between  their  people  respectively.  They 
shall  not  insult  or  oppress  each  other  for  trifling  causes;  and 
if  any  other  nation  should  have  differences  with  the  Chinese 
empire,  or  act  injuriously  toward  them,  the  United  States 
will  exert  their  good  oifices  to  bring  about  an  amicable  ad- 
justment of  such  differences. 

A  rt.  2.  To  perfect  Ihe  friendship,  it  la  agreed  that  upon  its 
ratification,  thia  treaty  ahall  be  kept  for  safe  preservation  In 
the  following  manner:  The  original  treaty,  as  ratified  by  tho 
President  and  Senate  of  tho  United  States,  shall  bo  deposited 
at  Fekin,  In  custody  of  the  Privy  Council ;  as  ratified  by  the 
Emperor  of  China,  it  shall  be  deposited  at  Washington,  in 
custody  of  tho  Secretary  of  State. 

Art.  8.  In  order  that  tho  people  of  the  two  countries  may 
know  and  obey  the  provisions  of  tho  treaty,  the  United  States 
agree,  upon  its  ratification  by  tho  President  and  Senate,  to 
publish  and  proclaim  the  same  through  the  Journals  in  which 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  are  published  and  proclaimed  : 
and  tho  Emperor,  on  his  part,  agrees  to  direct  its  publication 
at  the  Capital  of  the  empire,  and  by  the  governors  of  the  prov- 
inces. 

Art.  4.  In  order  to  perpetuate  their  friendship,  tho  minister 
of  representative  of  the  United  States  In  China  shall  have  the 
right  to  corrcsirond  on  terms  of  equality  and  in  the  form  of 
mutual  communication  with  the  Privy  Council  at  the  Capital, 
or  with  the  governors-general  of  two  Kwangs;  and  when- 
ever he  desires  to  communicate  with  tlie  Privy  Council,  he 
may  send  his  communication  through  eltlier  of  the  governors 
or  by  the  general  post,  os  he  may  prefer.  His  letters  may  be 
sealed,  and  the  seal  shall  bo  respected  i  and  his  letters,  when 
received,  shall  be  considered  and  acknowledged  promptly  and 
respectfully. 

Art.  5.  The  minister  of  tho_ United  Statea,  whenever  he  has 
important  business  making  It'necessary,  may  visit  and  sojourn 
at  the  Capital,  and  confer  with  members  of  tho  Privy  Conncll, 
or  ,vlth  other  officers  who  shall  bo  deputed  for  that  purpose. 
Such  visits  shall  not  exceed  one  In  each  year,  nor  shall  they 
be  attended  with  any  unnecessary  delay.  He  may  go  by  land 
or  by  way  of  tho  mouth  of  tho  Peilio,  but  he  shall  not  bring 
any  ships  of  war  of  the  United  Stotea  into  that  river.  He 
ahall  inform  tlic  government  of  bis  arrival  In  the  river,  that 
they  may  provide  boats  for  his  service.  Such  vislta  shall  not 
be  made  on  trivial  occasions  or  for  triflingreasona  The  Board 
of  Rights  will  give  all  neceaaary  directions  for  hla  accommo- 


i 


CAN 


262 


CAN 


dkUon,  ud  «U1  proTida  him  %  fanUlied  rNtdenets  bat  ha 
nhall  d*tnj  hti  om  expcDMi,  and  bli  lolta  ihall  not  axnad 
tweaty  iMnoni  In  all,  azeliialTa  of  UUoaaa  Mnraota — Dona  of 
whom  ahall  ha  angaged  in  trade. 

Art.  t.  If  the  £uip«ror  of  China  •ball  bareaftar  enter  into 
anjr  treatj  angagemaota  permitting  the  repreaentativea  of  anjr 
other  nation  to  reiide  permanentij  at  the  Capital,  then  the 
ropreaenUtlre  of  the  United  SUtea  ahall,  without  any  farther 
i<«gotiatlon  or  diaeuaaian,  have  the  aame  privilege. 

Art  7.  The  auparlor  authoritiea  of  the  United  Statea  and 
China,  in  eorrespondlng  together,  ahall  do  io  in  terma  of 
oqoalltjr  and  In  the  form  of  mutual  communication.  The 
conaula,  and  the  loeal  oflicera,  civil  and  miiltaty,  in  corre- 
•ponding  together,  ahall  iikcwiio  employ  the  atyle  and  form 
of  mutual  communication.  When  iuferior  offloera  of  one  rov- 
ernment  addreaa  aupcrior  offlcera  of  the  other,  thoj  •hall  ilo 
■0  In  the  atjrie  and  form  of  memorial.  IMvate  individuals, 
l:t  addreertog  lup^rior  ofBeera,  ahall  employ  the  atyie  of  iwtl- 
tL:n.  In  no  caw  ahall  uny  terma  or  ityle  be  aulfcrod  which 
iliail  Iw  oflMuive  or  diareipectful  to  either  party.  And  It  la 
agreed  that  no  prcaent,  under  any  pretext  oi  form  whatever, 
•hall  ever  be  demanded  of  the  United  Statea  b/  China,  or  of 
China  by  the  United  Statea. 

Art.  8.  All  penional  Interconrae  and  interview*  between 
the  miniater  of  the  Untied  Statea  and  the  offlcon  of  the  Chi- 
nene  empire  •ball  be  held  at  the  official  realdencca  of  thoao 
ofHcera,  or  at  the  temporary  realdonce  of  the  miniater  of  the 
United  Slatee,  nor  ahall  any  pretext  or  cxcuaca  be  urged  for 
'  declining  eucb  Interviewa  All  Intercouree  upon  current  mat- 
tera  sball  bo  done  by  correapondenco. 

Art.  9.  Whenever  ahlpa  of  war  of  the  United  Statea,  In 
cmiaing  upon  the  coaat  for  the  protection  of  the  commerce 
of  their  country,  ahall  arrive  at  any  of  the  porta  of  China,  the 
oommandera  of  aaid  ahlpa,  and  the  anperior  local  authoritiea 
of  the  government,  abail  hold  Interconrae  together  in  terma 
of  equality  and  eourteay ;  and  the  aaid  iliips  of  war  ahall  en- 
Joy  all  auitable  facllttiea  on  the  part  of  the  Chineao  govern- 
ment for  the  purehaae  of  provlaions,  procuring  water,  and 
making  neceaaary  repaira.  And  In  caao  merchant  vesaela 
tball  be  wrecked  and  plundered,  or  captured  and  pillaged  by 
plntea,  the  national  veiaela  of  the  United  Statea  may  puraue 
the  piratea,  and  ■hall  deliver  tliera,  if  taken,  to  the  Chincae 
government  for  trial  and  puniahment  according  to  the  Chi- 
neao lawa. 

Art  10.  The  government  of  the  United  States  may  appoint 
conaula  or  other  officers,  for  tlie  protection  of  trade  at  each 
cf  the  ports  opened  to  commerce,  who  ahall  be  duly  rocog- 
nixed  aa  auch  by  the  oflicera  of  tho  L'blni'ao  government,  and 
•hall  hold  official  intercourse  and  correspondence  with  them, 
either  penonally  or  In  writing,  upon  terma  of  equality,  and 
in  the  style  of  mutual  communication.  If  disrespectfully 
treated  or  aggrieved  in  any  way  by  the  local  autlloritle^  uld 
officera  shall  have  right  to  make  rcprescntatlona  of  the  same 
to  the  superior  officers  of  the  Chinese  government,  who  shall 
see  that  full  Inquiry  and  strict  Justice  be  had  In  the  premises. 
The  conaula  ahall  avoid  all  acta  of  unneceaaary  ofTenae  to  or 
colliaion  with  tho  officers  and  people  of  China.  Upon  the  ar- 
rival of  any  consul,  the  minister  of  the  United  States  shall 
give  notice  of  the  ssmo  to  the  government,  in  order  that  be 
may  bo  properly  rvcognUcd. 

Art.  11.  All  citixons  of  tho  United  States  in  China,  peace- 
ably attending  to  their  own  affairs,  belnt;  placed  on  a  com- 
mon footing  of  amity  and  good-will  wllli  the  subjects  of  Chi- 
na, ahall  receive  and  enjoy  for  thcuiselvcs  and  their  proprr^y 
the  protection  of  tho  local  authorities,  n  ho  shall  defend  thiui 
from  insult  and  injury  of  any  aort  on  the  part  of  the  Chlncne 
If  their  dwelllnga  or  property  be  threatened  or  attacked  by 
mobs,  incendiaries,  or  other  violent  and  lawless  persons,  the 
local  officer,  on  requisition  of  the  consul,  will  immediately 
dispatch  a  military  force  to  disperse  tho  rioters,  and  will  ap- 
prehend the  guilty  individuals.  Subjects  of  China  who  may 
be  guilty  of  such  violence  ahall  be  punished  according  to  tho 
law  of  China,  and  citixena  of  tho  United  Statea  who  may  In- 
jure the  persona  or  property  of  tho  subjects  of  China  shall 
bo  punished  by  the  consuls  of  tho  United  Slates,  aceordliig  to 
tho  law  of  their  own  country.  Arrests  for  such  injuries  may 
be  made  by  either  party. 

Art.  12.  Citizens  of  the  United  States  residing  or  sojourn- 
ing at  any  of  the  porta  open  to  foreign  commerce  ahall  enjoy 
all  proper  accommodation  in  obtaining  hour's  and  placca  of 
huainesa,  or  In  hiring  sites  on  which  to  consvruct  bouses  and 
places  of  business,  and  also  hospitab,  churches,  and  ceme- 
teries. The  partica  iPtcrested  shall  fix  the  rent  by  mutual 
agreement,  and  the  local  authorities  ahall  not  Interfere,  but 
all  legal  feea  for  neceaaary  papera  shall  be  paid.  The  mor- 
chanta  shall  not  uiircaaonably  loalat  on  particular  spots,  and 
the  cemeteries  shall  be  protected  from  desecration  by  the  an 
tlt!)fiti^  of  cUoa.    A^  pUcea  wbero  sblpa  are  permitted  lu 


coma,  the  oltixeoa  of  the  United  Stales,  merchants,  seamen, 
and  others  sojourning  there,  may  pass  and  repass  in  tho  im- 
mediate neighborhood,  but  they  shall  not  go  into  the  country 
or  neighboring  villagea,  or  to  the  public  marts  fur  the  pur- 
poae  of  dlspoaing  of  goods  unlawfully  and  defrauding  the  rev- 
enue. 

Art  13.  If  any  vessel  of  the  United  States  shall  be  wrecked 
or  stranded  on  the  coaat  of  China,  and  ho  subject  to  pluuder 
or  other  damage,  the  proper  officers  of  the  govenimout,  on 
receiving  information  of  the  fact,  will  immediately  adopt  • 
meaaures  for  their  relief  and  aecurlty,  and  the  poraons  on 
board  ahall  receive  friendly  treatment,  and  bo  enabled  at 
once  to  repair  to  the  moat  convenient  uf  tho  free  porta,  and 
shall  enjoy  all  facilities  for  obtaining  supplies  of  urovlslona 
and  water.  If  any  merchant  veaaei  of  tho  Unitea  States  in 
Chinese  watera  shall  be  plundered  by  robbers  or  pirates,  the 
Chinese  local  authoritiea,  civil  and  military,  on  receiving  In- 
formation thereof,  will  arrest  the  said  rokbora  and  pirates, 
and  punish  them  according  to  law,  and  will  cause  all  tho 
property  which  can  be  recovered  to  be  placed  In  tho  hands 
of  the  nearest  consul,  or  other  officer  of  tho  United  States,  to 
lie  by  him  restored  to  the  true  owner.  If  it  should  happen 
that  the  robbers  should  not  bo  apprehended,  tho  Chinese  gov- 
emment  will  not  make  Indemnity  for  tho  goods  lost.  Ilut  if 
It  bo  proven  that  the  local  authorities  were  In  coliusloii  with 
the  robbers  or  pirates,  then  proper  representations  of  that 
fact  shall  be  made  to  the  auperlor  authorities,  in  order  that 
they  may  memorialize  the  throne,  and  the  guilty  officers  sball 
be  punialied  and  their  property  conflscatod. 

Art.  14.  The  citixons  of  ibe  United  States  are  permitted 
to  frequent  the  porta  of  Canton,  Cbow-Chow,  or  Swatow,  In 
Kwangtung ;  Araoy,  Foo-chow,  Taiwan  In  Formosa,  in  the 
province  of  Fuh-klen ;  X'ingpo,  in  tho  province  of  Cheh- 
kieng;  and  Shanghai,  in  Klaug-Su;  and  ani/  oilier  ports  that 
may  be  opened  to  the  commerce  o/  other  rutiotie,  and  to  reside 
with  their  faniilica  and  trado  there,  and  to  proceed  at  pleas- 
ure with  tkclr  vessels  and  merchandise  to  and  from  any  for- 
eign p<.'t,  and  cither  of  the  aaid  ports  to  any  other  of  tlicm. 
But  said  vesaclii  shall  not  carry  on  a  clandcatlno  and  fraudu- 
lent tradu  with  other  ports,  or  along  tho  coast.  Any  vessel 
under  the  American  flag  which  almll  violate  this  provUion 
shall  be  seized,  and  with  her  cargo  shall  bo  subject  to  conAs- 
catlon  to  tho  Chinese  government;  and  any  citizen  of  tho 
United  Statea  who  shall  trade  In  contraband  articles  of  mer- 
chandise, in  violation  of  thla  provision,  sball  bo  dealt  with 
hy  tho  Chinese  authorities,  and  shall  not  be  entitled  to  tho 
countenance  or  protection  of  the  govenuucnt  of  the  United 
Statea.  And  the  United  States  shall  take  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  American  flag  from  being  thus  abused. 

A  rt.  16.  Tho  citixena  of  tho  United  Statea  may  export  from, 
and  Import  to,  any  of  the  designated  i>ort«  which  are  oimi  to 
commerce,  all  merchandise  which  Is  not  prohibited— tho  tar- 
iff of  duties  to  be  paid  by  them  being  the  same  as  that  agreed 
to  hy  the  treaty  of  Wang-hla,  except  as  the  same  may  bo 
niodlfled  hy  treaties  with  others  nations.  But  it  l.>  agreed 
that  they  shall  In  no  case  be  subject  to  other  or  higher  duties 
than  are  or  shall  be  required  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

Art.  10.  Tonnage  duties  sball  be  paid  upon  merchant  ves- 
sels nt  tlie  rate  of  four  maee  [forty  cents]  per  ton,  if  said  ves- 
sel IMJ  over  150  tons  burden ;  and  one  mace  per  ton  If  they  oro 
of  tho  burden  of  IBO  tuns  or  under,  according  to  the  amount 
of  her  tonnage  as  specifled  in  her  register  lodged  witli  tliu 
consul.  And  If  any  vessel  which,  having  anchored  at  ono  of 
tho  aaid  ports,  and  there  paid  tonnogo  duty,  sliall  have  occa- 
eion  to  go  to  any  other  of  the  aaid  ports  to  complete  the  dls- 
|)0sal  of  her  cargo,  tho  consul  shall  report  tho  same  to  tiio 
commissioner  of  customs,  who,  on  the  departure  of  said  ves- 
ael,  will  note  In  tho  port  clearance  that  the  tonnage  duties 
have  been  paid,  and  report  the  same  to  tho  other  custom- 
houses; and  on  entering  another  port,  the  said  vessel  will 
only  pay  duty  there  on  her  cargo,  but  shall  uo',  bo  suhject  to 
tonnage  duty  a  second  time.  And  the  government  shall  tuko 
measures  for  erecting  light-houses,  placing  buoys,  etc.,  Iho 
expense  to  be  defrayed  out  of  tho  tonnogo  dues. 

Art  17.  CItixens  of  tho  United  States,  for  their  vessels 
bound  In,  ahall  be  allowed  to  engage  pilots,  who  will  tuko 
aaid  vessels  into  port;  and  when  the  lawful  duties  havo  been 
paid,  they  may  engage  pilots  to  leave  port  It  shall  also  be 
lawful  for  them  to  hire  at  pleasure  servants,  compradori,  lin- 
guists, and  writers,  and  passage  or  cargo  boats,  aud  to  em- 
ploy laborers,  seamen,  and  persons  for  whatever  necessary 
service  for  a  rcaaonablo  compensation,  to  bo  agreed  on  by  the 
partiea 

Art  13.  Whenever  merchant  vcaaels  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  entered  port,  the  superintendent  of  customs  will, 
if  ho  see  fit,  appoint  cuitoni-bouso  officers  to  guard  the  said 
vessels,  who  may  live  on  board  tho  ships  or  in  tliclr  own  boats 
at  their  Gonvoulence.    Mutiuccra  ou  boani  Amertcou  vcsscla 


CAN 


26S 


CAN 


■hill  be  apprehended  by  the  local  ofRcen,  and  delivered  to 
tlie  coniulB  for  punUbment,  If  Cblnose  criminal!  aball  take 
tefugo  on  board  American  veuela,  tbey  shall  not  be  harbored, 
butiball  bo  delivered  up  to  the  offlcors  of  Justice  upon  proper 
demand  being  made ;  and  In  cases  of  violence  between  seamen 
and  Chinese  subjects  the  local  officers  shall  enforce  order  and 
do  Justice. 

Art.  10.  Whenever  any  merchant  vessel  of  the  United  States 
shall  cast  anchor  at  any  of  the  said  ports,  tlie  supercargo, 
master,  or  consignee  shall,  within  43  hours,  deposit  the  ship's 
papers  in  the  hands  of  the  consul,  or  other  United  States  agent, 
who  will  cauae  to  be  communicated  to  the  superintendent  of 
customs  a  true  report  of  the  name  and  tonnage  of  said  vessel, 
the  names  of  hkjr  crew,  and  the  nature  of  her  cargo,  wblcli 
being  done,  the  superintendent  will  give  a  permit  for  the  dis- 
charge of  her  cargo ;  and  the  master,  superc;:.rgo,  or  consignee, 
If  be  proceed  to  diacliarge  the  cargo  witliout  such  permit,  shall 
Incur  a  fine  of  $500,  and  the  goods  so  discharged  without  per- 
mit shall  be  subject  to  forfeiture  to  the  Chinese  government 
But  if  the  master  of  any  vessel  In  port  desire  to  discharge  a 
part  only  of  the  cargo.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  him  to  do  so,  pay- 
ing duties  on  such  part  only,  and  to  proceed  with  tlie  remain- 
der to  any  other  ports;  or.  If  tlie  master  so  desire,  ho  may, 
within  4S  boura  after  the  arrival  of  the  vessel,  decide  to  de- 
part without  breaking  bulk.  In  case  of  the  absence  of  tlic 
consul  or  agent  of  his  own  government,  he  shall  apply  to  the 
consul  of  some  friendly  power,  or  directly  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  customs. 

Art.  20,  The  superintendent  of  eustomo,  on  application 
made  through  the  consul,  will  appoint  suitable  officers,  who 
shall  procc'^d,  in  presence  of  the  cnptain,  supercargo,  or  con- 
signee, to  ti.ake  a  just  and  fair  examination  of  all  goods  being 
discharged  or  laden  on  board  any  vessel  of  the  United  States. 
If  disputes  arise  as  to  the  value  of  goods  subject  to  an  od  tu- 
iorem  duty,  and  the  same  can  not  be  satisfactorily  arranged 
by  the  parties,  the  question  may  within  24  hours,  and  not 
afterward,  be  referred  to  the  consul  to  a^iut  with  the  super- 
intendent of  customs. 

Art.  21,  Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  may  have 
Imported  merchandise  and  paid  the  duties  upon  It,  and  may 
wish  to  re-«rporf  the  same  to  another  part,  shall  bo  entitled  to 
make  application  through  the  consul  to  the  superintendent 
of  customs,  who  shall  make  examination  to  ascertain  whether 
the  duties  liave  been  paid  according  to  tlio  r<?port,  and  whetli- 
cr  the  goods  remain  with  their  marks  unchanged,  and  shall 
make  a  memorandum,  In  the  port  clearance,  of  the  goods,  and 
the  amount  of  duties  paid  on  the  same,  and  delivered  to  the 
merchant,  and  shall  also  certify  the  facta  to  the  officers  of 
custoraa  of  the  other  port;  all  which  being  done,  on  the  arriv- 
al In  port  of  tlio  vessel  In  which  the  goods  are  laden,  and  ev- 
ery thing  being  found,  on  examination,  there  to  correspond, 
she  will  be  permitted  to  bread  the  hulk  and  land  the  sold 
goods  without  being  subject  to  the  payment  of  any  additional 
duty  thereon.  But  if,  on  such  examination,  the  superintend- 
ent of  customs  shall  detect  any  fraud  on  the  revenue  of  the 
case,  then  tlio  goods  shall  be  subject  to  forfeiture  and  centls- 
catlon  to  the  Cliinese  government  Gialn  and  rice  may  bo 
re-exported  without  hlnderance. 

Art.  22.  The  tonnage  duty  on  vonsels  belonging  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  paid  on  their  being  admitted  to 
entry.  Duties  of  Import  shall  be  paid  on  the  discbarge  of  the 
goods,  and  duties  of  export  on  the  landing  of  the  same.  When 
all  such  duties  shall  have  been  paid,  and  not  before,  the  su- 
perintendent of  customs  shall  give  a  port  clearance,  and  the 
consul  shall  return  the  ship's  papers,  and  she  may  proceed 
on  her  voyage.  The  duties  shall  be  paid  to  the  shroffs  au- 
tliorizcd  by  the  Chinese  government  to  receive  tlie  samo  In 
Its  behalf.  Duties  payatie  by  merchants  of  the  United  States 
sliail  bo  leccired  eillicr  in  sycee  silver  or  In  foreign  money,  at 
the  rate  of  exchange  of  the  day.  Cousuls  shall  be  held  re- 
sponsible  if  they  permit  vessels  to  go  without  paying  the  le- 
gal duties, 

A  rt.  2S.  When  goods  on  board  any  merchant  vessel  of  the 
United  States  in  port  are  to  l>e  transhipped  to  another  vessel, 
application  shall  be  made  to  the  consul,  who  shall  certify  the 
occasion  thereof  to  the  superintendent  o(  customs,  who  may 
appoint  officers  to  examine  into  the  facts,  and  permit  the 
trunshipmcnt  And  If anygoodsbotranshipped withoutstich 
application  and  permit,  they  shall  bo  subject  to  confiscation 
to  the  Chinese  government 

Art.  24,  Kor  dcbta  due  from  subjecta  of  China  tj  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  the  latter  may  seek  redress  In  law,  and 
on  suitable  representation  being  made  to  the  ChincHi'  aiiihor- 
IticB,  through  the  consul,  they  will  cause  due  examination  in 
the  premises,  and  take  all  proper  steps  to  compel  satisfaction. 
If  citizens  of  the  United  States  be  indebted  to  subjects  of  Chi- 
na, the  latter  may  seek  redress  in  the  same  way  through  the 
consul.    But  the  ChlueBo  gover.'meut  will  not  hold  Itwlf  re- 


sponsible for  any  debts  due  from  subjects  of  China  to  elttzeni 
of  the  United  States,  nor  will  the  United  States  be  responsible 
for  any  debts  of  its  citizens  to  subjects  of  China. 

Art.  25.  It  shall  bo  lawful  for  the  officers  and  citizen!  of 
the  United  Slates  to  employ  scholars  and  people  of  any  part 
of  China  to  teach  any  of  the  languages  of  tlie  empire,  and  to 
assist  In  literary  labors ;  and  the  persons  so  employed  shall 
not,  for  that  cause,  be  subject  to  any  Injury  on  the  part  of 
tho  government  or  of  Individuals ;  and  It  shall  In  like  man- 
ner be  lawful  for  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  purahaaa 
all  manner  of  books  In  China. 

Art.  20.  Kclations  of  peace  and  amity  between  the  United 
States  and  China  being  eatablUhed  by  this  treaty,  and  the 
vessels  of  the  United  Statei  being  admitted  to  trade  freely  to 
and  from  the  ports  of  China  open  to  foreign  commerce.  It  Is 
further  agreed  tlint  in  case  at  any  time  hereafter  China  should 
be  at  war  with  any  foreign  nation  whatever,  and  for  that 
cause  should  exclude  such  nation  from  entering  her  porta,  still 
the  vessels  of  the  United  States  shall  not  the  less  continue  to 
pursue  their  commerce  In  freedom  and  security,  and  to  trans- 
poi-t  goods  to  and  from  tlie  ports  of  the  belligerent  parties,  full 
respect  being  paid  to  the  neutrality  of  the  Hog  of  the  United 
States ;  provided  that  the  said  flag  shall  not  protect  vessel! 
engaged  In  the  transportation  of  officers  and  soldiers  In  the 
enemy's  service ;  nor  shall  said  flag  be  fraudulently  used  to 
enable  the  enemy's  ships,  with  thtir  cargoes,  to  enter  the 
ports  of  China ;  but  all  such  vesBeis  so  offending  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  forfeiture  and  confiscation  by  the  Ciilneae  government. 

Art.  27.  All  questions  in  regard  to  rights,  whether  of  prop- 
erty or  person,  arising  between  citizens  of  the  United  States 
In  China  shall  be  subject  to  tlic  Jurisdiction  and  regulated  by 
the  authorities  of  their  own  government ;  and  all  controver- 
sies occnning  In  China  between  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  subjects  of  any  other  government  shall  be  regulated  b> 
the  treaties  existing  between  tiie  United  States  and  such  gov- 
ernment rospcctiveiy,  without  interference  on  the  part  of  China. 

Art.  in.  If  citizens  of  the  United  States  have  special  occa- 
sion to  address  any  communication  to  the  Chinese  local  offi- 
cers of  the  government,  they  shall  submit  the  same  to  their 
consul  or  other  officer,  to  determine  If  the  language  be  proper 
and  respectful,  and  the  matter  just  and  right.  In  which  event 
he  ahall  transmit  the  same  to  the  appropiiate  authorities  for 
their  consideration  and  action  in  the  premises.  In  like  man- 
ner. If  subjects  of  China  have  occasion  to  address  the  consul 
of  the  United  States,  they  shall  submit  tho  communication  to 
ttio  local  authorities  of  their  own  government,  to  determine 
if  tho  language  be  respectful  and  proper,  and  the  matter  Just 
and  right,  in  which  case  tho  said  authorities  will  transmit 
the  ■'inie  to  tho  consul,  or  other  officer,  for  his  consideration 
and  action  In  tho  premises.  And  if  controvcrEles  arise  be- 
tween citizens  of  the  United  States  and  subjects  of  China 
which  can  not  be  amicably  settled  otherwise,  tlie  same  shall 
be  examined  and  decided  conformably  to  Justice  and  equity, 
by  the  public  officers  of  the  two  nations  acting  In  conjunction. 
And  the  extortion  of  nil  illegal  fees  is  prohibited. 

Art  29.  The  principles  of  the  Christian  religion,  as  pro- 
fessed by  Protestants  and  lioman  Catholics,  are  recognized 
as  teaching  men  to  do  good,  aud  to  do  to  others  as  they  would 
have  othera  do  unto  them.  Hereafter,  therefore,  those  per- 
sons who  may  bo  quietly  and  peaceably  teaching  these  doc- 
trines shall  not  be  persecuted ;  and  any  person  who  may  teach 
these  principles  shall  not,  on  that  accouut,  bo  Interfered  with 
or  molested  In  any  way. 

Art  80.  Tiie  contracting  parties  agree,  that  If  the  Ta-tsing 
empire  should  grant  to  any  nation,  or  to  any  citizen  of  foreign 
nations,  any  rights  or  privileges  connected  with  commerce, 
navigation,  or  politics,  sucli  rights  and  privlirgcs  shall  enuiB 
to  the  merchants  and  citizens  of  the  United  States  also. 

This  treaty  shall  bo  ratified  by  tho  I'resldcnt  and  Senate 
of  the  United  States  within  one  year  or  sooner  from  the  date 
thereof,  and  by  the  Sovereign  of  tho  Ta-tsIng  empire  forth- 
with. And  ratifications  shall  bo  exchanged  wltMn  one  year 
from  the  date  of  Its  signature. 

Dated  at  TIen-tsin,  Juno  18, 1S69. 

(Signed)  Wu.  D.  Heed,  United  States  Commissioner. 

nw""rNi,  }  ^'''""'^  Commissioners. 

Ewoptan  Tradt  at  Canton. — As  soon  as  B  vessel  ar- 
rives among  the  islands  which  front  tha  entrance  to 
tho  Canton  liivcr,  she  is  generally  boarded  by  a  pilot, 
who  condacts  her  into  Macao  or  Hong  Kong  roads. 
The  pilots'  names  are  rcgistorcd  at  the  Keun-min-foo's 
offlco  near  Mu  ,ao ;  and  for  a  license  to  act  the  sum  of 
$600  is  paid.  The  person  wlio  takes  out  tho  license 
sometimes  linows  nothing  about  ships  or  the  river,  but 
employs  iishermen  to  do  the  duty.    On  the  vessel's 


i 


CAN 


S04 


CAN 


arrival  In  the  roads,  the  pilot  goes  on  there  to  report 
her  at  the  oiBce  of  the  keun-min-foo,  who,  when  ho 
haa  received  answers  to  his  inquiries,  gives  a  permit 
for  her  to  pass  through  *.ho  nogue,  nnil  orders  a  rivor 
pilot  on  liourd.  This  pilot  seldom  rciwirs  on  lioard  the 
vessel  ticfore  24  hours  have  elupsed.  When  arrived, 
the  vessel  proceeds  through  the  Bogue,  and  up  the  Can- 
ton River  toWhanipoa. 

Every  ship  that  enters  the  port  requires  the  service 
of  a  linguist  and  comprador  before  she  can  commence 
unloading.  The  master  used  to  be  required  to  give  a 
written  declaration,  in  duplipate,  solemnly  affirming 
that  the  ship  has  brought  no  opium.  All  the  trade 
with  foreigners  used  to  be  conflned  to  the  hung  or  se- 
curity merchant*;  but  this  restriction  has  recently 
been  almlished ;  and  foreigners  may  now  deal  with  any 
merchant  or  other  party  they  think  lit  to  employ.  The 
linguists  are  government  interpreters,  who  procure  per- 
mits for  delivering  and  taking  iu  cargo,  transact  all 
the  custom-house  business,  and  keep  accounts  of  the 
duties.  All  the  minor  charges  of  the  government, 
also,  are  paid  by  tliem ;  in  consideration  of  which  thoy 
receive  a  fee  of  aliout  $173  previously  to  the  vessel's 
departure.  When  a  vessel  wishes  to  discharge  or  re- 
ceive cargo,  the  linguist  is  Informed  a  day  or  two  pre- 
viously what  kind  of  goods  are  to  bo  received  or  dis- 
charged, and  in  what  quantities.  He  then  applies  fur 
a  permit,  which  being  issued,  the  lighters  or  chop- 
Iwats  proceed  to  Whampoa,  where  they  usually  arrive 
on  the  evening  of  the  second  or  morning  of  the  third 
day.  For  a  single  l>oat  the  linguist  used  to  receive  a 
fee  of  $23 ;  but  if  a  permit  Ije  obtained  for  from  two  to 
six  boats  at  a  time,  the  fee  for  each  bont  was  only  11 
taels  2  mace  6  cand.,  or  about  #10}. 

When  the  goods  are  ready  to  be  landed  from  or  sent 
to  the  ship,  the  hoppo  (principal  custom-house  offi- 
cer) sends  u  domestic,  a  writer,  and  a  ^lice  runner ) 
the  hong  merchant  who  has  secured  the  ship  sends  u 
domestic,  called  a  court-going  man  (one  who  attends 
at  the  public  offices  on  ordinary  occasions  In  Iwlialf  uf 
his  master);  and  the  linguist  sends  an  accountant  and 
interpreter  to  attend  at  the  examination  of  the  goods. 
The  hong  merchants  used  to  be  held  responsible  by 
government  for  all  duties,  whether  on  imports  or  ex- 
ports In  foreign  vessels;  and  therefore,  when  goods 
were  purchased,  it  was  customary  for  the  parties,  lio- 
fbre  fixing  the  price,  t6  anango  lietwoen  themsclvos 
who  was  actually  to  pay  the  duties.  Of  an  Import 
cargo,  each  chop-boat,  according  to  rule,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  rigidl.v  enforced,  should  contain — of  wool- 
ens, camlets,  and  long-ells,  140  balci ;  tin,  SOU  bars ; 
leaj,  IHM  pigs ;  Bombay  cotton,  65  l>alos ;  Kengal  cot- 
ton, 80  bales;  betel-nut,  pepper,  etc.,  iKXl  piculs. 

Of  export  goods,  a  chop-lioat  should  take — of  tea, 
600  chests;  of  other  sorts  of  goods,  500  piculs.  If  more 
than  this,  the  hong  merchant  gives  to  the  chop-U)at, 
for  each  additional  picul,  $C}.  In  calculating  the 
duties  on  export  goods,  90  catties  are  considered  100, 
The  woolens,  long-ells,  and  camlets,  are  measured  by 
the  chang  of  10  covids,  without  any  deduction ;  and 
single  articles  are  numiiered. 

If,  after  entering  the  port,  any  persons  tranship 
goocls,  it  is  considered  tliat  the  one  ship  sold  them  U> 
the  other ;  and  in  that  case  the  same  duty  has  to  Ui 
paid  08  if  the  goods  were  brought  up  to  Canton  I'rii- 
visions  are  not  included  In  this  regulation.  Shlfm' 
boais  are  not  allowed  to  carry  up  or  down  any  thing 
chargealite  with  duty,  (iold,  silver,  copjK^r,  anil  Iron 
ore  prohibited  to  be  exported ;  a  few  culinary  utensils 
are  the  only  exceptions.  When  it  is  desired  tu  ex|>urt 
treasure,  the  hong  merchant  must  mako  an  estlmato 
of  the  value  of  the  import  and  export  cargoes,  ar.d 
whatever  lialance  there  may  be  in  favor  of  the  ship 
may  then  lie  shipped  off  as  treonuro.  If  mora  cargo 
be  sent  to  a  ship  than  she  can  take' on  iioard,  anil  the 
wishes  it  to  lie  shipped  on  Iward  another,  it  must  Iw 
dona  within  3  days  aft«r  aunooiuiing  tUa  good*  a^  Um 


ciutoin-hnnsa,  and  a  hong  merobant  must  state  it  to 
govnmmont ;  If  granted,  a  himg  merchant  and  linguist 
are  ordered  to  go  to  Whampoa  and  take  an  account 
of  such  goods  ;  all  which,  with  the  exiwnso  of  lioats, 
runners,  etc,  ut  Whnnipoa,  costs  40  or  50  dollars. — 
(.'uniimnloH  In  Aniilo-Chiiimr  Calemlar,  p.  B9-101.  . 

J/imy  J/i>rcAan(i>.— i'revlousiy  to  the  commencement 
of  the  now  system.  It  had  liecn  the  invarlnbie  practice, 
enforced  by  law,  that  all  foreign  vessels  arriving  in 
the  (wrt  should  otnpluy,  .'?s  broker  or  agent,  a  hong  or 
security  merchant,  who  became,  by  doing  so,  resimnsi- 
Ide  to  the  guvernutunt  for  the  duties.  These  mer- 
chants, who  were  imt  few  In  numl>er,  were  the  only 
Indlviduuls  in  tliu  empire  legally  authorized  to  trade 
with  fiirulgncrs,  n  privilege  for  which  they  had  to  pay 
vwy  largely,  Dut  after  an  arrangement  had  been 
mode  with  any  particular  hong  merchant  for  securing 
a  ship,  licr  captain  or  supercargo  miglit  dcul  with  any 
other  liiitig  merchant,  or  even  with  any  outside  mcr- 
cliaiit  (ur  inurchaiit  not  bolimging  to  the  hong)  ho 
pleatod,  The  peculiar  duty  of  the  hong  merchant  was 
tu  pay  the  duties  on  both  the  Inward  and  outward  car- 
goes; and  hniii'd  arose  tlio  practice  of  foreigners  buy- 
ing all  gimiln  for  ox)iort  duty  paid,  and  selling  »ll  the 
/(nods  iiniiiglit  with  tliom  free  of  duty,  the  duties  l)eing. 
In  iHith  cases,  paid  by  the  hong  merchants  who  had 
secured  the  ship ;  and  hence,  also,  the  ignorance  of 
most  foreigners  as  to  the  amount  of  the  duties.  But 
now  that  the  privilege  of  tlie  hong  merchants  has  lieen 
abullshcil,  the  duties  will  have  to  be  paid  to  the  Chi- 
lieso  authorities  by  the  parties  Importing  and  export- 
ing, In  tlin  sami  way  as  In  this  country. 

J'uri  ('Imrfftii  nn'  lixnd  under  the  new  treaty  at  five 
inaco  |i«r  ruglst^ir  tun,  in  full  of  all  charges ;  so  that 
the  complex  system  that  previously  obtained  for  charg- 
ing thoMi  duties  is  now,  in  so  far  at  least  as  British 
ships  are  concemotl,  at  an  end.  Vessels  im|mrting  rice 
or  other  grain  Into  any  of  the  five  ports  open  to  British 
vessels,  are  liable  to  no  charges  whatever;  but  if  they 
lake  away  an  export  cargo,  they  then  have  to  pay  the 
duties  on  such  cargo  agreeably  to  the  tariff,  and  one 
iniiiiity  ut  tlio  tonnage  duos,  or  2)  mace  per  ton. 

The  whold  numlier  of  vessels  arriving  at  Canton  In 
IM54  was  (12(1,  with  the  tonnage  of  154,157.  Of  this 
numlxir,  I!I7  were  Ilrlllsh,  06  American,  28  Dutch,  21 
Hp.inlsli,  II  Danish,  and  18  renivian.  The  latter,  we 
Imuglliv,  are  all  engaged  In  kidnapping,  a  system  which 
cundvtnns  hundreds  of  Chinese  to  a  speedy  death  among 
the  guanu  Islands  of  Callara.  These  vessels  brought 
ill  the  same  year  gooils  to  the  value  of  £795,255,  con- 
slitiitiiig  (/'anion  u  gmid,  Imt  not  a  first-rate  customer 
to  Kiiriipn,  Uf  cotton  gomis  our  mercliants  purchased 
l|2,70<l,4',!6 1  of  rice,  $flOn,000  worth  ;  and  every  tiling 
else  In  liillnlteslinal  quantity.  Fish-maws,  bechc-de- 
mcr,  cloves,  shark-lliis,  snndal-wood,  liquors,  appear 
tu  meet  with  the  readiest  sule  In  the  great  sea-port  of 
China.  The  exports  make  a  little  better  appearance ; 
but  still  they  nre  far  from  large.  The  tea  trade  has 
liuwn  to  Hhangllal,  the  value  exported  fnim  Canton 
Ix'liig  In  IN54  only  1^1,0*27,562,  liut  a  fraction  of  the 
ftX|Kirt  at  the  northern  |Hirt.  .Silk  is  sold  to  tlic  value  of 
alsiut  tt,l  10,'KIO,  and  curiosities  make  up  the  remain- 
der, llaiiilioo  niid  rattan  ware,  bono  and  ivory  toys, 
(^hlna  dishes  and  lacquered  ware,  mothcr-of-|iearl  and 
inarble  slabs,  preserves  and  ilnigs,  sugar-caiidy  and 
pitchers,  all  testify  to  the  Ingenuity  of  the  Chinese, 
and  the  boundless  npiilcnce  of  certain  classes  in  Europe 
and  America,  The  whole  amounts  only  to  Xl,445,.308 
a  year,  and  tiiU  endures  an  exorbitant  weight  of  tax- 
tttiim, 

Tho  tonnagd  paid  'ly  British  ships  alone  amounted 
tu  Xli7,WI4,  Of  !..>iirly  10  |)cr  cent,  ml  valorem  upon 
the  wIkiIo  nmveinent  of  llrltlsh  trade  in  that  )x)rt.  The 
customs  dues  of  (Calcutta,  heavy  as  wc  believe  them 
to  lie,  arc  a  trlfln  when  compared  to  those  of  Canton, 
which  average  very  nearly  17  rupees  a  ton. — /long 
KiMD  UvumitmU  (joMtU*. 


CAN 


S8S 


CAN 


Foreign  Jtferchanit, — These  conalst  of  BrltiAh.  Amer- 
ican, French,  Dutch,  Danish,  8we<ll8h,  Spanish,  and 
Fortugnese,  witit  Parsee  and  Indian  Muhammedan 
British  sulijects.  The  Americans,  French,  and  Dutch 
have  each  consular  agents  recognized  hy  the  imperial 
government.  The  same  privileges  have  lieen,  or  are 
to  be,  conceded  to  all  foreigners  that  have  been  grant- 
ed to  the  English. 
Batks  or  CoMuiBsioN  IN  China,  AoitKKn  croN  in  Nonainxs, 

1881,  AMD  BKVISED  BY  tllK  ClIAilllEB  OV  COHHEROI,  MABCU, 

1888. 

1,  On  all  sales  of  opium,  cotton,  cochineal, 
camphor  baroos,  birds'  ne8t^  dUmonds, 
and  other  precious  stones,  pearls,  ships, 
houses 8  per  cent 

9.  On  sslcif  of  all  other  goods Spcrcont. 

8.  On  returns.  If  In  goods Si  percent. 

4.  (mretums,  if  in  trconirc,  bullion,  or  bills.  1  per  cent. 

B,  Uii  purchases,  not  being  returns  for  goods 
sold: 

lat  Of  rav  silk 8  per  cent, 

2d.  Of  manufactured  silk 6  per  cent 

8d.  Of  all  other  goods 6  per  cent 

0.  On  inspecting  teas,  whether  fur  returns  or 

othiTvlae,  un  a<lditional  cliarge  of i  per  cent 

T.  On  sale,  uurcliasc,  or  shipnicut  of  bullion..  1  per  cent 

6.  On  drawing,  sale,  or  ncgotlatiun  of  blll.i 
when  not  Involving  responsibility  an 
drawer  or  iudorser t  per  cent 

0.  On  drawing,  sale,  or  negotiating  of  bi'.is 
when  guaranteed  by  the  agent  its  drawer 
»r  indorser,  and  not  covered  by  adequate 
acmirity H  per  cent 

10.  On  purchasing  bills,  orcfTccting  roiuittanco 

by  bills,  of  the  agent  or  otherwise 1  per  cent 

11.  On  negotiating  luuns  or  rcspondoutia 2  per  cent 

13.  On  guaranteeing  bills,  bonds,  or  other  en- 

gagements   2i  per  cent 

lOw  On  guaranteeing  sales  when  especially  re- 

Siuircd  without  including  responsibility 
br  remittances 2iper  cent 

14.  On  gnaranteeing  both  sales  and  remittance 

of  proceeds 1  per  cent 

15.  On  bills  of  exchange,  returned  protested..  1  per  cent 

16.  On  letters  of  credit  for  mercantile  purposes  2)  per  cent 

17.  On  all  advances  of  money  for  purposes  of 

trade,  whether  the  goods  are  consigned 
to  the  agent  or  not,  and  where  a  commis- 
'  sion  of  6  per  cent  is  not  charged 2^  per  cent 

18.  On  ordering  goods  or  superintending  the 

fUltitluient  of  contracts,  where  no  other 
cumuilsslon  Is  derived 2i  per  cent 

19.  On  all  goods,  treasure,  etc.,  consigned,  and 

alterward  withdrawn  or  sent  to  auction, 
and  for  goods  consigned  for  additional 
delivery  to  othcra ^  commission. 

SO.  On  procuring  freight,  or  advertising  as 
agents,  or  owners,  or  commanders,  on  the 
amount  of  freight  whether  the  same 
passes  througli  the  hands  of  the  agent  or 
not 6  per  cent 

£1.  On  receiving  inward  freight 1  per  cent. 

22.  On  ships'  disbursements 2 J  per  cent. 

23.  On  chartering  ships  for  other  parties 2i  per  cent 

24.  On  efTccHng  insurance,  or  writing  'orders 

for  insurance 4-  per  cent 

26.  Settling  insurance  losses,  total  or  partial, 

and  on  procuring  return  of  premium  ...  1  per  cent 
SO,  Debts,  where  a  process  at  law  or  arbitra- 
tion is  necessary,  2i  per  cent ;  and  if  re- 
covered    6  per  cent. 

27.  Collecting  bouse  rent 2i  per  cent 

28.  Acting  for  the  cstat4>s  of  persons  deceased, 

as  executors  or  admlnlstratorH 6  per  cent 

20.  The  management  of  the  estates  of  others, 

on  the  amount  received 2}  percent 

20.  All  cash  receipts,  not  serving  for  tlie  pur- 
chase of  goods,  and  not  otherwise  speci- 
fied above 1  per  cent 

81.  Shroffing 2  per  mil. 

82.  Transhipping  goods 1  per  cent 

83.  All  advances  not  punctually  linnidated,  the 

agent  to  have  the  option  of  charging  a 
second  commission,  as  upon  a  fresh  ad- 
vance, provided  the  charge  does  not  occur 
twice  in  the  same  year 1  percent 

84.  At  the  option  of  the  agent,  on  tho  amount 

debited  or  credited  within  tho  year,  In- 
oludinglntero8t,and  excepting  only  items 
on  which  a  commission  of  6  per  cent  has 

been  cliarged 1  per  cent 

?l.B.— This  charge  not  to  be  applied  to  paying  over  a  bal- 
ance duo  on  an  account  made  up  to  a  particular  period,  unless 
where  such  balance  Is  withdrawn  without  reasonable  notice. 

Opium,  which  is  by  far  the  most  profitable  of  all  the 
articles  imported  into  China,  is  excluded  bom  the 


offlcial  account  of  imports,  which  comprises  those  at* 
tides  only  that  are  legally  admiasible.  Althou)^, 
however,  it  be  nominally  excluded,  opium  is  openly, 
systematically,  and  easily  introduced ;  the  trade  in  it 
lieing,  in  fact,  as  safe  and  as  regular  as  that  in  any 
other  commodity,  while  it  is  incomparably  more  ox- 
tensive.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  that  have  some- 
times been  made  to  effect  its  exclusion,  the  importl 
have  continued  rapidly  to  increase.  In  1816-'17  they 
amounted  to  only  3210  chests,  whereas  in  18'2m'30  they 
had  increased  to  about  14,000  chests ;  and  they  art 
now  estimated  at  aliont  64,000  chests,  worth  about 
1:38,000,000.  So  rapid  an  increase  in  the  production 
and  consumption  of  a  drug  is,  perhaps,  unparalleled  in 
the  history  of  commerce.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  its  importation  will  shortly  receive  n  check;  for 
it  is  believed  that  the  Chinese,  aware  at  last  of  tho  im- 
potency  of  tho  attempts  to  prevent  its  introduction, 
are  about  to  legalize  its  importation  and  culture  in  tba 
empire.  And  as  the  soil  in  many  parts  of  China  is  un- 
derstood to  be  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  poppy, 
there  can  be  little  doul>t  that  its  cultivation  will  be 
rapidly  extended.  Should  this  expectation  be  realized, 
it  will  produce  a  very  important  change  in  tho  trade 
of  China.  On  the  whole,  however,  we  incline  to  think 
that  tho  change  will  be  beneficial.  It  will  go  far  to 
restore  the  balance  between  the  imports  and  exports 
without  draining  China  of  her  bullion ;  and  it  will  en- 
able her  to  purchase  larger  quantities  of  the  manufac- 
tures and  other  products  of  this  and  other  countries. 
The  change  in  question,  supposing  it  to  be  realized, 
will,  however,  seriously  affect  India,  which  furnishes 
almost  all  the  opium  sent  to  China,  and  tho  culture 
and  sale  of  which,  besides  affording  employment  and 
subsistence  to  a  large  population,  yields  a  net  revenue 
to  the  East  India  Company  of  considerably  more  than 
^3,000,000  a  year! 

Shanghai  is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Kiang-Su,  at  a  considerable  distance  from  tho 
sea,  on  tho  Kiver  Woo-Sung,  in  about  lut.  31°  10'  N., 
long.  1'20°  60'  E.  The  river,  which  may  be  navigated 
by  large  ships  for  a  considerable  distance  above  the 
town,  crosses  the  grand  canal,  and,  consequently,  mokes 
Shanghai  nn  intrepijt  for  all  tho  vapt  and  fertile  coun- 
tries traversed  by  tho  canal  and  by  the  great  rivers 
with  which  it  is  connected ;  and  hence  the  present  im- 
portance of  tills  ein|)orium,  as  evinced  by  the  extent 
of  our  trade  with  it  in  1848 ;  and  hence,  also,  tho  in- 
finitely greater  importance  to  which  its  commerce  will 
licrcafter  most  prol)ably  attain. 


Expoaxs  OF  Tea  fkom 

C'UINA. 

Black  Tu. 

Oreen  Tea. 

Told. 

To  Great  Uritain,  lft48-'49. 
To  Great  Hrltain,  lS49-',')0. 
To  (ireat  llrituin,  1860-61. 
ToUniterl  Static  IWl-S'!. 

Pounda. 
38,763,600 
45.848,900 
5,'),0!10,S0O 
13,301,61.1 

Pounda. 
8,479,200 
8,120,4110 
8,060,000 
20,9fl.%9]S 

Pounda. 
47,242,700 
53,509,800 
03,763,400 
34,827,428 

From  this  statement  it  will  l>e  seen  that  the  anionnt 
of  tlio  exports  of  Idnck  ten  to  Great  Britain  is  increas- 
ing very  fast,  at  the  rate  of  20  per  cent,  per  annum ; 
and  was  in  1850-'51  seven  times  as  great  as  tho  ex- 
ports of  green  tea ;  while  tho  exports  of  black  tea  to 
the  United  States  were  only  two-thirds  the  exports  of 

green  tea. 

ExTOnTR  OP  Tea  prom  China. 


Year  ending  Jane. 

United  StMee. 

Orent  Britain. 

1864 

Pounda. 

27.807,000 
81,616,000 
40,240,000 

P,)und8. 
77,217,000 
80,600,000 
01,03t',(W0 

ISM 

I860 

Trade  with  the  Indian  Islands,  etc.— in  his  evidence 
before  the  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
Mr.  Crawfurd  gave  tho  following  details  with  respect 
to  tho  native  foreign  trade  with  China : 

"  The  principal  part  of  the  junk  or  shipping  trade  Is  carried 
on  by  tho  four  contiguous  provinces  of  llsnton,  Foklen,  Che- 
klang,  and  Klannan.  No  foreign  trade  is  permitted  with  the 
Uland  of  Formosa;  and  I  have  no  means  of  describing  the  ex- 


CAN 


266 


CAN 


tent  of  the  tnfflo  which  may  bo  eondimleil  between  China,  Co- 
rea,  and  the  Loechew  lilanUi.  The  fullowlng  are  the  coun- 
tiioi  with  wlilch  China  carriea  on  a  trade  In  Junlu:  viz.,  Ja- 
pan, the  Philippines,  tlio  8oo-loo  Itdandit,  Celebes,  the  Moluc- 
cas, Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra,  Singapore,  Khio,  the  past  coast 
of  the  Ualajran  iienlnBUla,  Slam,  Cochin  Clilna,  Cambodia,  and 
Tonquln;  and  these  may,  in  all,  employ  about  'i2^  junks. 
The  ports  of  China  at  which  this  trade  Is  conducted  are.  Can- 
ton, Tchao-tchoou,  Nomhong,  llocitchcon,  Suhcng,  Kong- 
moon,  Changilni,  and  Hainan,  In  tho  province  of  Canton ; 
Amoy  and  Chlnchow,  In  the  province  of  Fokien  ;  Nlugpo  and 
Blang-hai,  in  tho  province  of  Choklang;  and  Soutchcou,  In 
tho  province  of  Kiannan.  Tlio  above  estimate  docs  not  In- 
clude a  great  number  of  small  Junks  belonging  to  the  island 
of  Hainan,  which  carry  on  trade  with  Tonquln,  Cochin  China, 
Cambodia,  Slam,  and  Slnga|wro.  Those  for  Slam  amount 
yearly  to  about  60,  and  for  tho  Cochin  Chinese  dominions  to 
about  42 :  these  alone  would  bring  the  total  number  of  ves- 
sels carrying  on  a  direct  trade  between  China  and  foreign 
countries  to  SOT.  The  trade  with  Japan  la  confined  to  tho 
port  of  Nlngpo,  in  Clicklang,  and  expressly  limited  to  10  ves- 
lels;  but  as  the  distance  from  Nangasukl  Is  a  voyage  of  no 
more  than  four  days,  it  Is  ])erformed  twice  a  yf*ar.  With  the 
exception  of  this  branch  of  trade,  the  foreign  lntcr..ounie  of  the 
two  provinces,  Chekiang  and  Kiannan,  which  are  famous  for 
tlie  production  of  raw  silk,  teas,  and  nankeens.  Is  confined  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  Tonquln,  Cochin  China,  Cambodia,  and 
Slam ;  and  none  of  this  class  of  vessels,  that  I  am  aware  of, 
have  ever  found  their  way  to  the  western  parts  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  The  number  of  these  trading  with  Slam  Is  24, 
all  of  considerable  size ;  those  trading  witli  the  Cochin  Chi- 
nese dominions,  10,  also  of  considerable  slae ;  and  those  trad- 
ing with  tho  l'lilllpplnes,5;  making  in  all  4fi,  of  which  tho  av- 
erage bunion  does  not  fall  short  of  1T,000  tons.  Besides  the 
Jimks  now  described,  there  Is  another  numerous  class,  which 
may  he  denominated  tho  colonial  shipping  of  the  Chincs>\ 
Wherever  the  Chinoso  are  settled  In  any  numbers.  Junks  of 
this  description  are  to  bo  found ;  such  as  In  Java,  Sumatra, 
the  Straits  of  Malacca,  etc;  but  the  largest  commerce  of  this 
description  Is  conducted  fh)m  tho  Cochin  Chinese  dominions, 
GBpecially  from  Siam,  where  the  number  was  estimated  to  mo 
at  200.  Several  J  links  of  this  description  trom  the  loiter  coun- 
try come  annually  to  Singapore,  of  which  tho  burden  Is  not 
less  than  from  SOO  to  400  tons.  Tho  Junks  which  trado  be- 
tween China  nnd  the  adjacent  countries  aro  some  of  them 
owned  and  built  in  China;  but  a  considerable  number  also  In 
the  latter  countries,  particularly  In  Slam  and  Cwhln  China. 
Of  those  carrying  on  the  Siamese  trade,  Indeed,  no  less  than 
61  out  of  the  89,  of  considerable  size,  were  represented  to  mo 
as  being  built  and  owned  In  Slam.  Tlic  smalljuuks,  however, 
carrying  on  tho  trade  of  Hainan,  aro  all  built  and  owned  In 
China.  The  Junks,  whether  colonial  or  trading  direct  with 
China,  vary  in  burden  from  2000ploul8  to  16,000,  or  carry  dead 
weight  from  120  to  900  tons.  Of  those  of  the  last  size  I  havo 
only  seen  three  or  four,  and  these  were  at  Slam,  and  the  same 
which  were  commonly  employed  In  carrying  a  mission  and  a 
tribute  yearly  from  Slam  to  Canton.  Of  the  wholo  of  the  largo 
claj*s  of  Junks,  I  should  think  tho  average  burden  will  not  1)c 
overrated  at  SOO  tons  each,  which  would  make  the  total  ton- 
nage cm))loycd  in  the  native  foreign  trade  of  ('hina  lietween 
60,OOOaDd  "0,000  tons,  exclusive  of  tho  smalljunks  of  Hainan, 
which,  estimated  at  ISO  tons  each,  would  make  hi  all  about 
80,000  tons. 

"  The  Junks  built  In  China  are  usually  constructed  of  fir 
and  other  inferior  wooils.  When  they  arrive  In  Cambodia, 
Btain,  and  the  Malayan  Ishinds,  they  commonly  fumUh  them- 
selves with  masts,  rudders,  and  wooden  anchors,  of  the  supe- 
rior timber  of  these  countries.  Tho  Junks  built  In  Slam  arc  a 
superior  class  of  vessels,  the  planks  and  upper  works  being  In- 
variably teak.  Tho  cost  of  ship-building  Is  highest  at  the  port 
of  Amoy,  in  Fokien,  and  lowest  In  Slam.  At  these  phiees,  and 
at  Chang-llm,  in  Canton,  the  cost  of  a  Junk  of  8000  plculs,  or 
476  tons  burden,  was  stated  to  rae,  by  several  commandera  of 
Junks,  to  !«  as  follows;  at  Slam,  $7400;  Chang-llm,  $16,000; 
Amoy,  $21,000.  A  Junk  of  tlio  size  Just  named  has  commonly 
a  crew  of  90  hands,  consisting  of  tho  following  officers,  besides 
the  crew !  a  commander,  a  pilot,  an  accountant,  a  captain  of 
tho  helm,  a  captain  of  the  anchor,  and  a  captain  of  the  hold. 
The  commander  receives  no  pay,  but  has  the  advantage  of  tlie 
cabin  accommodation  for  passengers,  ntckoned  on  tho  voyage 
between  Canton  and  Singapore  worth  160  Spanish  dollars.  He 
Is  also  tho  agent  of  the  owners,  nnd  receives  a  commission, 
commonly  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  jmifitu  of  such  share  of  the 
adventure,  generally  a  very  considerable  one,  In  which  they 
art  ooncemed.  The  pilot  receives  for  tho  voyage  $200  of  wages, 
and  60  plculs  affreight  out  and  homo.  TKe  helmsman  luis  16 
pleuls  of  IVtlght  uMil  no  wages.  Tho  captalus  of  the  anchor 
Multbe  bold  have  0  plculs  of  fipclght  each ;  and  the  seamen  7 


plculs  each.  None  of  these  have  any  wages.  The  offlcers  and 
seamen  of  tlio  colonial  Junks  an  differently  rewoniud,  In  a 
Siamese  Junk,  for  example,  trading  lietweon  tho  Siamese  cap- 
ital and  Singapore,  of  0000  plculs  burden,  tho  commander  and 
pilot  had  each  $100  for  the  voyage,  with  12  picnis  of  freight 
apiece.  The  accountant  and  helmsman  had  half  of  this  allow- 
ance, and  each  seaman  had  $13,  with  6  plculs  of  freight.  In 
construction  and  outfit,  Chinese  Junks  aro  clumsy  and  awk- 
waid  in  the  extreme.  Tho  Chinese  aro  quite  unacquainted 
with  navigation,  saving  tho  knowledge  of  the  compasH ;  not- 
withstanding this,  OS  their  pilots  aro  expert,  their  voyages 
short,  and  as  they  hardly  ever  sail  except  at  the  height  of  the 
monsoons,  when  a  fiiU*  and  steady  7  or  S  knots'  breeze  carries 
them  directly  ftom  port  to  port,  tho  sea  risk  Is  very  small. 
During  13  yean'  acquaintance  with  this  branch  uf  trade,  I 
can  recollect  hearing  of  but  four  shipwrecks ;  and  In  all  these 
Instances  tho  crews  were  saved.  The  construction  and  rigging 
of  a  Chinese  Junk  may  bo  looked  upon  as  her  proixi  i.gl5tr>-, 
and  they  are  a  very  effectual  one ;  for  the  least  deviation  fhnii 
them  would  subject  her  at  once  to  foreign  chai'geH  nnd  foreign 
duties,  and  to  all  kinds  of  suspicion.  Tho  colonial  Junks, 
'whieli  aro  of  a  more  cuniniodlous  form  and  outfit,  if  visiting 
China,  aro  subjected  to  the  samo  duties  as  foreign  vesselik 
Junks  built  in  Siam,  or  any  other  adjacent  countr}-,  if  con- 
structed and  fitted  out  after  the  customary  model,  are  admit- 
ted to  trade  to  China  upon  the  same  terms  as  those  built  and 
owned  In  tho  country.  If  any  port  of  tho  crew  consist  of  Si- 
amese, Cochin  Chinese,  or  other  forelgncra,  the  latter  are  ad- 
mitted only  at  tho  port  of  Canton;  and  If  found  In  any  other 
part  of  China,  would  bo  seized  and  taken  up  by  tho  police  ex- 
actly In  tho  same  manner  as  If  they  were  Kuropeons.  Tho 
native  trade  of  China  conducted  with  foreign  countries  is  not 
a  clondcstlne  commerce,  unacknowledged  by  tho  Chinese  laws, 
but  has  In  every  case  at  least  tho  express  sanction  of  the  vice- 
roy or  governor  of  tho  pvovincc,  who,  on  petition,  decldts  tho 
number  of  JunUs  that  shall  be  allowed  to  engage  In  It,  and 
even  enumerates  tho  articles  which  It  shall  bo  legal  to  export 
and  Import.  At  every  port,  also,  wliero  such  a  forel^i  troda 
Is  sanctioned,  there  la  a  hong  or  Ijody  of  security  uiorchants, 
as  at  Canton ;  a  fact  which  shows  clearly  enough  that  this  In- 
stitution Is  parcel  of  tho  lows  or  customs  of  CIdna,  and  not  a 
peculiar  restroint  imposed  upon  tho  Intercourse  with  Kuro- 
jieans.  The  Chinese  Junks  properly  constructed  jiay  no  ineas- 
urenient  duty,  and  no  cumshaw  or  present;  duties,  however, 
are  paid  upon  goods  exported  and  imported,  which  seem  to 
dijfer  at  the  different  provinces.  They  are  highest  at  Amoy, 
and  lowest  In  the  Island  of  Hainan.  The  Chinese  traders  of 
Slam  Informed  me  that  they  carried  on  tho  folrcat  and  easiest 
trade,  subject  to  the  fewest  restrictions,  In  the  ports  of  Nlngpo 
and  Slong-hal,  In  Chekiang,  and  Soutchcou,  In  Kiannan.  Great 
dexterity  seems  every  where  to  bo  exercised  by  tho  Chinese  In 
evading  the  duties.  One  practice,  which  Is  very  ofien  follow- 
ed, win  afford  a  good  example  of  tills.  Tho  coasting-trade  of 
China  Is  nearly  ftve  fVom  all  duties  and  other  Imposts.  Tho 
merchant  takes  advantage  ofthls;  and,  intending  in  reality  to 
proceed  to  Siam  or  Cochin  China,  for  example,  clears  a  Junk 
out  for  tho  Island  of  Hainan,  and  thus  avoids  the  payment  of 
dutlea  When  she  returns  she  will  lie  four  or  five  doya  off  tho 
mouth  of  the  iwrt,  until  a  regular  bargain  bo  made  with  the 
custom-houBO  offieera  fur  the  reduction  of  duties.  The  threat 
held  out  In  such  coses  Is  to  proceed  to  another  [lort,  and  thus 
deprive  tho  public  oiHcers  of  their  customary  jwrqulsltes.  I 
was  assured  of  tho  frequency  ofthls  practice  by  Chinese  mer- 
chants of  Cochin  China,  as  well  as  by  several  comnianders  of 
Junks  at  Singapore.  From  the  last-named  persons  I  had  an- 
other fact  of  some  consequence,  as  connected  with  the  ChlneBe 
trade ;  viz.,  that  a  good  many  of  the  Junks  carrying  on  trade 
with  foreign  ports  to  the  westward  of  China  often  proceeded 
on  voyages  to  the  northward  in  the  samo  scison.  In  this 
manner  they  stated  that  about  20  -.onslderalile  Junks,  besides 
a  great  many  small  ones,  proceeded  annually  fVoin  4;unton  to 
Souchong,  one  of  the  capitals  of  Kiannan,  and  in  wealth  and 
commorco  tho  rival  of  Caiiton.  whore  they  sold  about  20<)  chests 
of  opium  at  an  advance  of  bO  per  cent,  beyond  tho  (.'onton 
prices.  Another  place  where  tho  Ci..  tonjunks,  to  the  number 
of  five  or  six,  repair  annually.  Is  Chinchew,  In  the  province  of 
Canton,  wlthia  the  Gulf  of  I'echelcy,  or  Yellow  Sea,  and  as 
farii.rth  as  the  U7tli  degree  of  latitude." — AjiJMuiix,  Hqxnt 
0/1830,  p.  298. 

A  Chinese  ship  or  junk  is  seldom  the  property  of  one 
individual.  Suuictinies  40,  5U,  or  even  100  ditfcrent 
merchants  purchase  a  vessel,  and  divide  her  into  as 
many  different  eompartments  ns  tlicrc  are  partner.^,  so 
tliiit  each  knows  his  own  particular  part  of  tlie  ship, 
which  ho  is  at  liberty  to  lit  up  and  secure  us  he  pleases. 
Tho  hulk-heads,  liy  wliich  tlicsc  divisions  are  formed, 
consist  of  stout  planks,  so  woU  caulked  us  to  be  com- 


CAN 


267 


CAP 


pletely  water-tight.  A  ship  thus  formed  may  strike 
on  a  rock,  and  jot  sustain  no  serious  injury ;  a  leak 
springlug  in  one  division  uf  tlie  liold  will  not  bo  at- 
tended witli  any  damage  to  articles  placed  in  auotlier; 
and,  from  licr  tinnncss,  she  is  qualified  to  resist  a  more 
than  ordinary  shock,  A  consldcrablo  loss  of  stowage 
is,  of  course,  sustained ;  but  the  Chinese  exports  gen- 
erally contain  a  considerable  value  in  small  bulk.  It 
is  only  the  very  largest  class  of  Junks  that  have  so 
many  owners ;  but  even  in  the  smallest  class  the  num- 
ber is  very  considerable.— &e  China, 

Canvas  (Jr.  Toile  a  voile ;  Gcr.  SeyeUuch ;  It.  Cune- 
vuzzo,  Lonu;  Ituss.  I'uruasiioe  jiololiw,  J'arumiia;  Sp. 
Imiih),  unbleaclied  cloth  of  hemp  or  flax,  chie8y  used 
for  sails  for  shipping. 

Caoutohouo.  "This  substance,  which  has  been 
Improperly  termed  elastic  gum,  and  vulgarly,  from  its 
common  application  to  rub  out  pencil  nun-ks  on  paper, 
Iiulid  rubliei;  is  obtained  from  the  milky  juice  of  difler- 
eut  plants  in  hot  countries.  The  chief  of  tlieso  arc  the 
JtUropha  einaiica,  and  I'rcvuUi  eUutica,  The  juico  is 
applied  in  successive  coatings  on  a  mould  of  clay,  and 
dried  !>}■  tlie  lire  or  in  tlie  s\in;  and  when  of  a  sutTi- 
cient  thickness,  the  mould  is  crushed  and  the  pieces 
shaken  out.  Acids  separate  the  caoutchouc  from  the 
thinner  part  of  tlie  juice  at  once,  by  coagulating  it. 
The  juice  \,>f  old  plants  yields  nearly  two-thirds  of  its 
weiglit;  that  of  younger  plants  less.  Its  color,  when 
frcsli,  i^,  yellowish-white,  but  it  grows  darker  liy  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  Tlio  elasticity  of  this  substance  is 
its  most  renuirkablo  property;  when  warmed,  as  lij- 
immerxion  in  lu>t  water,  slips  of  it  may  be  drawn  out 
to  7  or  8  times  their  original  length,  and  will  return  to 
their  former  dimensions  nearly.  Cold  renders  it  stiff 
and  rigiil,  l)Ut  warmth  restores  its  original  elasticity. 
Kxpuscd  to  the  (ire,  it  softens,  swells  up,  and  burns 
witli  a  bright  flame.  In  Cayenne  it  is  used  to  give 
light  as  a  caudle." — Umi'a  JMcl.    See.  Indi.v  liuiiuiui. 

Caoutchouc  has  become  an  article  of  very  considera- 
ble importance.  1M.  do  la  Condaniino,  who  was  one 
of  tlio  first  to  communicate  authentic  information  with 
respect  to  it,  mentions  that,  owing  to  its  being  imper- 
vious to  water,  it  was  made  into  boots  by  the  Indians. 
—  ]'vi/age  <le  la  Itiriere  dea  Amazonea,  p.  7G.  It  is  now 
employed  in  a  similar  woy  here.  Means  have,  within 
these  few  years,  been  discovered  of  reducing  it  to  a 
state  of  solution ;  and  when  tliin  filaments  of  it  are 
spread  over  cloth  or  any  other  substance,  it  is  rendered 
impervious  alike  to  air  uiul  water.  Air-cushions  and 
pillows  are  maiiufnctUicil  in  tliis  way ;  as  are  water- 
proof cloaks,  now  in  very  extensive  demand,  hats, 
bouts,  shoes,  etc.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  braces  and  other  articles  which  it  is 
desirable  should  iwsscss  considerable  elasticity;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  will  be  employed  still 
more  extensively,  and  in  n  still  greater  variety  of  ways. 

The  great  variety  of  purposes  to  which  its  elasticity 
and  iiii|)erviousncss  to  water  and  to  air  have  occasion- 
ed its  application  are  too  numerous  and  familiar  to 
be  particularized  in  this  place.  The  extent  of  its  em- 
ployment in  Uritain  in  the  several  brandies  of  manu- 
facture is  sliown  by  the  quantity  of  caoutchouc  import- 
ed, wliich,  for  the  year  ending  January  5, 1854,  amount- 
ed to  17,i}26  cwt.  The  total  quantity  ex|)ortcd  from 
Para  alone,  in  1852,  was  3'2,8()0  cwt.,  and  UC,1()5  pairs 
of  slices.  The  filature  of  caoutchouc,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  elastic  fabrics,  such  as  cloth,  cord,  tape,  braces, 
etc.,  is  an  important  and  increasing  branch  of  our  na- 
tional industry.  Tliis  o|)eration  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  various  patents,  all  modifications  more  or 
less  jicrfect  of  our  general  principle,  namely,  that  of 
reducing  it  to  threads  by  means  ( f  steel  edges  acting 
either  on  the  bottle  caoutchouc  compressed  in  a  mould, 
on  the  solid  cake,  or  by  cutting  it  when  stretched  on  a 
mandrel  of  wood,  which  is  set  in  rapid  revolution.  In 
this  operation  water  is  allowed  to  trickle  over  the  cut- 
ting blodea  iu  order  to  prevent  the  cohesiou  that  would 


otlusrwlsa  iinp4«  \Mt  \mi\tf¥<>*,  J«  this  nrnnnflr 
tliread  of  ftOdO  y(#r<l»  t«  »  \)iim»\  #ci(jht  is  produced. 
I'rovious  to  its  ttm\i\i)iimmi  in  (Iw  mmuhciutti  of  tex- 
tile fulirics,  it  is  )M;»wei>»r»  Ui  CMidrt  tlw  (lifc/id  inelas- 
tic, which  is  ertwlu/j  hv  ViUiAum  *'  tls'itly  on  reels 
and  allowing  it  Iu  mm\H  ill  IImI  ((iiiilllion  imlil  near- 
ly dci)rivc<i  of  iu  «(»«»(( j|y=#|ii((l  Is  nftPtward  re- 
stored ijy  uxjMisiiig  H  |«  Mw  WtiwH  (ff  H  healed  sinootli- 
ing-irou.  hlM".'l»  »>«  t>Mmi\»w»  Mil  frohi  the  solid 
cuke,  and  may  likjuwivix  \m  u\iin\iwi\  uf  Htiy  si/e,  and 
of  extreme  U-mUy,  by  6(/fl'lw1ili(|S  »  si'tllliort  In  naphtha 
uiMju  cloth  previously  ui/l"l,  mriMillK  it  off  when  dry. 
Tlie  use  of  rullds,  witll  «  ((JWK  lit  ihiiU  »itnl1arly  pre- 
pared and  eu|)erillij»)W<4  im  >tin  VrtfllislK'il  sKfface'of  the 
first,  may  also  hu  umiiUipfti  ill  tilin  lipetMiau.—K.  H. 

Cap.  The  ItoiMiills  \ttiHi  fiif  HlHll)'  Huea  without 
regular  covering  fur  Hm  Iw-nd,  mii«1  iwim  (Tie  heads  of 
all  the  ancient  stalMus  »f>i)it»f  imfv,  UlK  Ht  (me  period 
the  cap  was  »  symlw/l  ut  litiCfiy,  Hil(t  ttdcil  the  Ilomans 
Rave  it  to  tlieir  sImvI'II  H  I'Ii'IHM  Hwm  to  freedom. 
The  cup  was  soMi'-'f )lll«s  liwrt  UK  It  mafk  (it  Infamy ) 
in  Italy  tlie  Jews  wefu  4i<>lillMllililll<(1  iijf  M  J'tllow  cap, 
and  in  France  tliosc  mIm  Iiii4  Wfli  tiKlilifllfils  were  for- 
ever after  obliged  (M  Wmf  »  (jlWH  I'ttp,  The  general 
use  of  caps  and  Iwts  is  frfwwl  («  (lie  fmt  1  itfl ;  the 
first  seen  in  these  ()#>•»»  I'f  (ll«  *llfM  (icillg  at  the  entry 
of  Charks  VII,  i|it«  lUmfl),  friKII  #(ll<  ll  (line  (hey  took 
tlie  place  of  chaptfoMS  Uf  milh,  A  R((l((l(e  Was"  pass- 
ed that  none  sImjmW  wll  itiijf  Imf  rtl/iy+e  2(T(/.  (40  cents) 
nor  cap  above  -Jia,  Htl,  (lilj  mn\^),  ft  Wmif  Vll.,  1489.— 
IIavdn. 

Cape  QattorMi  fl  Iiij|(4Iaiii1,  %(<H\i  ( arolina.  Lat. 
35"  liV  12"  K.,  loMg,.  W  'Mf  H''  W,  'tUe  light-house 
was  built  in  J7««  of  hftmit  «»H4-R((rtl«;  The  light  is 
Jij-ed,  elcvaU'd  U2  ffH  nimv  tll«  «■»,  Odd  Is  visible 
for  a  dislance  of  17  nsHlii-Kl  flli)*'fi:  Very  dangcroas 
shoals  exUnd  off  from  Ihiil  jH/ilK  W  (iKlKical  mifcs. 

Cape  Haytton,  fttmmjf  Viip(  l''mutfitU,  and  Capt 

Ilemy,  a  sca-iwit  lowil  Ui  iW  is)l*(l(l  of  llnyli,  on  its 
north  coast,  SO  Ml)l«9  IWflll  «f  Vttti  m  I'rlnoe.  Lat. 
l'J°  40'  N.,  h)|)g,  m"  H'  W,  J'(^lll«(itrti  probably 
from  12,000  to  l<),00«,  VmUiUiSf  (o  ''re  llaytian 
revolution  it  was  »  Umtl^mm  m'f,  flfld  it  slill  has 
some  fine  buildings,  wi((»  ft  mum  »tii\  (olerably  de- 
fended  liarlior,  »n4  »  P»liiii4#f#l4«  tmdej  chiefly  with 
tlio  United  iJtot^s,  Ofisflt  M{»\it,  Vimtif  and  Ger- 
many. 

Caps  Henl^SH,  l^Amfkiif  »  tiCfKllattd  on  the 
south  side  of  the  in\mw»  K>  IMnMittie  Utlf,  Lat.  88° 
40'  30"  N.,  hnis,  In"  i'  ii"  W,  'Hie  light-house 
shows  afjed  wliife  lig()(i  |i)<i»#(«t  170  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  is  visilde  fiif  »  4is(illiw  n(  l^J  (idtKlfal  miles. 

Cape  Henry,  Vugiiiin,  a  hfHdimti  on  the  south 

side  of  the  entruiice  (fl  lyitHwaki^  Htlf,  Lat.  80°  65' 
30"  N.,  long.  70"  0'  ir  W,  'Ml«  ligJlt-Jlolise,  built  in 
17H1,  is  the  leadidg  m»rk  fiif  Vl<s<^e^s  Iwilhd  into  Ches- 
apeake Kay.  H  tliows  ttjhfif  ttjiifo  light  eletated  120 
feet  aljove  the  6t»,  #h4  W  *i»i(4«  ftit  A  iltstSnce  of  18 
nautical  miles. 

Cape  of  OopA  Sspe,  m  fw()orifltii  colony  of 
Great  lirilain,  oc<  upyjiig  (fifi  wdidi  pun  of  (he  penin- 
sula of  Africa,  I)c(»wm  IM:  W  if  fl(l4  8-4°  61'  S.,  and 
long.  17°  10'  «ii4  i7"  S\f  IV.-i  hiimiM  on  the  south 
and  cast  by  the  Jil4i'lll  (hvHli,  md  oii  (he  west  by  (he 
Atlantic  Ocean,  oil  (hn  limtU  itj/  (Jw  fOOIiltles  of  the 
Namaquas,  Oriqoas,  mm4  liOwf  HuiMiot  tribes,  and 
on  llie  northeast  liy  |)ii(isil  KdfrHfill;  Le(:gth,  west 
to  cast  (Cape  peMlllsiilA  {ii  K»'i,«)»«(M*fl«  Hiver),  650 
miles  :  average  hrnmUh,  iM  lllika,  AteH,  estimated 
at  110,000  square  niiliui*,  l'(»J»H)«(it.l|  in  iRtft,  201,486, 
mostly  Africans,  |)Mt»-ll,  mutVfii,  Hitii  «  small  number 
of  Hottentots.  'l)w  mmtHy  is  fiiWieit  of  «  scries  of 
territories  rising  in  »niwi!«iv«  sIKfjcs  ffoln  south  to 
north,  liays,  llu|(.n»,  I'ttblc,  Vltiim  ((he  West  part  of 
wliich  forms  Simon's  li^ji),  S(,  ^l(»s(l«(l,  Wossel,  Plet- 
tenberg,  and  Alg«»,    UUvmiH  HfH  HIIHierotis  but  rapid, 

mostly  dry  in  »\mtmf,  »»A  m6(,  ivf  KttyigHUon )  tb« 


CAP 


968 


CAP 


chief  are,  on  th«  eait  Md  south  coait,  Kclikimnm, 
Qreat  Fith,  Diiahmsn,  Sunday,  Camtooa,  and  Hrecde  ; 
on  the  weat,  Berg  and  Klephant  or  Oliphant ;  and  on 
the  north,  several  small  streams  tributary  to  the 
Orange.  The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy,  bat  very 
dr}' ;  rains  irregular,  often  falling  in  torrents  on  the 
coast,  but  rare  in  the  plains  of  the  interior.  8now  falls 
only  in  the  mountains,  and  is  not  jiermanent,  even  on 
the  most  elevated.  December  and  January  are  the 
warmest,  and  June  and  July  the  coldest  months.  Blean 
temperature  at  Cape  Town — In  summer,  SS^'S ;  In  win- 
ter, TC-O  Fahrenheit.  The  greater  number  of  diseases 
are  unknown  at  the  Capo  ;  the  most  common  are  con- 
snmption  and  apoplexy.  Few  of  the  inhabitants  at- 
tain an  advanced  age.  Soil  fertile  where  sufilciuntly 
watered,  but  the  general  appearance  of  the  country  is 
sterile  and  monotonous.  The  arid  steppes  or  Karooi 
of  the  interior  are  destitute  of  trees,  and  covered  with 
an  ephemeral  vcgcta'ion,  only  after  heavy  rains.  The 
flora  of  the  colony  is  of  a  peculiar  character,  comprising 
1200  species,  which,  however,  are  more  remarkable  fur 
the  variety  and  beauty  of  their  flowers  than  for  their 
uses.  The  most  valuable  is  the  aloe,  the  produce  of 
which  has  been  exported  in  one  year  to  the  amount  of 
912,000;  a  species  of  soda,  found  in  the  Karoo,  is  em- 
ployed by  the  inhabitants  in  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
and  candles  are  made  from  the  cover.ng  of  the  wax- 
berry.  European  grains,  and  the  fruits  of  temperate 
and  tropical  regions,  hare  been  successfully  introduced. 
Com  is  raised  more  than  requisite  for  consumption, 
and  tho  cultivation  of  the  vino  is  an  important  source 
of  wealth  ;  a  good  white  wine  is  produced  in  the  inte- 
rior, but  only  tho  small  vineyard  at  the  foot  of  Table 
Mountain  produces  the  celebrated  liqueur  called  Coii- 
ttantia.  Cattle-rearing  is  the  chief  branch  of  rural 
industry ;  and  tho  introduction  of  the  Merino  sheep 
has  rendered  the  rural  trade  of  the  colony  important. 
The  value  of  produce  of  the  colony  exported  H  1840 
amounted  to  X359,517.  The  coasts  abound  with  mack- 
erel and  herrings,  and  in  1842  the  whale  and  seal  fish- 
ery employed  144  boats.  Some  of  tho  wild  animals 
of  Africa  are  still  met  with,  but  the  larger  species  de- 
crease in  proportion  as  colonization  extends,  llic  lion, 
hyena,  buffalo,  hippopotamus,  and  zebra,  aro  occasion- 
ally seen  ;  the  rhinoceros  is  rare,  and  the  elephant  is 
driven  beyond  the  boundary.  The  ostrich  and  eagle 
are  found  in  tho  mountains,  and  snakes  aro  numerous. 
The  commerce  of  the  colony  is  extensive ;  the  ports 
are  Ca|ie  Town  and  Simon's  Town  in  the  west,  and  fort 
Elizabeth  in  the  cast.  Total  value  of  exports  in  1844, 
£350,735,  of  which  £240,217  were  to  tho  United  King- 
dom. ImporU  same  year,  £1,123,061.  In  1845,  35 
ships  (3713  tons)  und  S07  men  bolonged  to  the  colony ; 
and  in  1847,  791  ships  (209,420  tons)  entered,  and  7HJ 
ships  (205,618  tons)  cleared  from  its  ports.  The  colo- 
ny consists  of  an  east  and  a  west  province,  and  these 
are  divided  into  14  districts;  viz..  Cape  Division  and 
dtellenbosch  in  the  southwest ;  Zwcllcndam,  George, 
Uitenhage,  and  Albany,  on  tho  south  '»)ast ;  Clanwill- 
iam  on  the  northwest ;  Worcester  and  Beaufort,  Graaf 
Beynet,  and  Somerset  In  the  interior ;  Colcsberg  on  the 
northeast ;  Cradock  and  Victoria  on  the  east.  Tho 
capitals  have  the  same  names  as  the  districts,  except 
Graham's  Town,  which  is  the  capital  of  Albany,  and 
Fredericksburg,  of  Victoria  district.  Stcllcnbosch  is 
the  chief  wine,  and  Zwellcndam  the  principal  corn- 
growing  district ;  the  others  aro  mostly  appropriated 
to  grazing.  Govcmmc  it  is  administered  b}'  a  Parlia- 
ment, composed  of  tho  governor,  legislative  Council 
of  16  members,  and  a  House  of  Assembly  of  40  mem- 
berg,  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years.  {Salary  of  gov- 
tmor  and  armmander-in-chief,  f.WOO.)  Tho  Dutch 
(bunded  a  colony  at  the  Capo  in  1G48,  which  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1795.— Aee  Caps  Towx. 

Tho  iHjcrs  or  farmers  of  the  Cape' colony,  descend- 
ants of  the  original  Dutch  settlers,  have  lost  much  of 
thair  ancestral  indot^-y  and  cleanliness ;  they  aro  aflbc- 


tionato  In  their  Aimily  relations,  and  strict  In  ruligloM 
observances,  but  prejudiced  and  llliterulu.  Kdui'Nilim 
has  Iwen  long  neglected  in  the  colony;  llin  iiiil,v  iiislU 
tutlons  of  Importance  were,  till  lately,  Ihe  Hiiuih  \M- 
can  college,  and  tho  South  African  Institution  at  Capit 
Town ;  but  a  comprehensive  system,  entbracliiK  pri- 
mar}'  and  classical  schools,  was  instituted  liy  lh<i  kuv> 
emment  in  1889.  In  many  of  the  illatricts  are  mission- 
ary schools  supported  by  dllTerent  I'roteslaiit  sui'lellcs. 
In  1842  there  were  40  public  and  102  private  niiliiHilf, 
attended  by  2700  children.  The  colonial  grants  In  lh« 
same  year  were,  for  educatlonil  pur()UMa,  £lMK/|,  ami 
for  religious  purposes,  distril)uted  among  tliu  diftbri'tlt 
sects,  £10,481.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  IHIIIt,  Tha 
English  language  is  ulunu  used  in  the  courts  of  law, 
but  the  Dutch  is  also  taught  In  tho  government  schools, 
The  money  in  use  is  exclusively  Uritish;  and  Dutvh 
weights  and  measures  are  nearly  superseded  by  tiM 
English.  Tho  peace  of  the  colony  Is  freipiently  Intai'' 
ruptcd  by  incursions  of  tho  Kaffera,  and  other  savagt 
tribes  on  the  frontier. 

Capen  (Fr.  Cnpretj  Germ.  Kajmemi  Du.  K»p- 
ptrs;  It.  Capjiari;  8p.  Alcfipamu i  ttunt,  Sammtiti 
Lat.  Cajiparit),  the  pickled  buds  of  tho  IMppiirli  tjilnii- 
aa,  a  low  shrub,  generally  growing  out  of  tliu  jiilnta  vl 
old  walls  and  the  Assures  of  tocka,  in  moat  of  (Im  warm 
parts  of  Europe.  Capers  aro  imported  from  different 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  the  best  ttoiu  I'uulon,  in 
France.  Some  small  salt  capers  come  from  Minorca, 
and  a  few  flat  ones  from  the  neighliorhood  of  l.yuna. 
In  1862,  117,007  poiuids  of  capurs  were  retained  for 
consumption. 

Cape  Town,  the  capital  of  the  Brltlah  territory 
in  South  Africa,  at  tho  bottom  of  Table  Hay,  about  H 
miles  north  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  un  the 
western  side  of  the  territory  to  which  it  gives  its  nainit  | 
lat.  33°  65'  50"  S.,  long.  18°  21'  E.  The  town  was 
founded  by  the  Dutch  in  1060;  and  remained,  w(th 
the  territory  subject  to  It,  in  their  posaeaainn  (ill  It 
was  taken  by  the  British  in  1706,  It  waa  reotornd  (0 
the  Dutch  by  tho  treaty  of  Amiens;  but  being  again 
captured  by  the  British  in  1800,  it  was  Anally  cudud 
to  them  in  1815.  The  streets  are  laid  out  iu  atraliflit 
lines,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles ;  many  of 
them  being  watered  by  canals,  and  planted  on  oach 
side  with  oaks.  The  population  in  IH42  »mom\Ui(\, 
according  to  the  statement  in  tho  Cajie  Almamn;  to 
22,543,  of  whom  about  a  third  were  blacks.  The  town 
is  defended  by  a  castle  of  considerable  strength.  Ta* 
bio  Bay  is  capable  of  containing  any  number  of  alilns) 
but  it  is  exposed  to  the  westerly  winds,  which,  durlri|( 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  throw  in  • 
heavy  swell,  that  has  been  productive  of  nmny  dis- 
tressing accidents.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  great  draw- 
back upon  Cape  Town,  which  in  all  other  rospAL'ta  It 
most  admirably  fitted  for  a  commercial  atatiuii,  At 
the  proper  season,  however,  or  during  the  |irevAlutlM 
of  the  easterly  monsoon.  Table  Bay  la  perfectly  anfe  | 
while  the  cheapness  and  abundance  of  provialona,  ths 
healthiness  of  the  climate,  and,  alwvo  ail,  Its  ponllliin, 
render  It  a  peculiarly  desirable  resting-place  for  ahlpn 
bound  to  or  from  India,  China,  Australia,  eti.', 

The  plan  of  Table  Bay  on  tho  op|>oalt(t  page  la  taki^n 
fh>m  the  survey  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Ilupii,  ii)(if(!iit4iil 
by  Lieutenant  Vidal  and  others,  under  the  direction  of 
Captain  Owen. 

Port  Inttrucliotu. — Art.  1.  On  the  arrival  of  iner- 
chant  vessels  in  Table  Bay,  a  proper  lierth  will  Im 
pointed  out  to  the  masters  thereof  by  tho  port  captain 
when  he  boards  them ;  and  no  master  of  a  meri^lmnt 
vessel  shall  shift  his  birth  without  peruilaaion  from  tlio 
port  captain,  unless  In  case  of  extronio  eniergeiify, 
when  he  must  report  his  having  done  su  as  early  M 
possible  at  the  port-office. 

Art.  2.  Should  it  be  tho  intention  of  a  maati-r  of  A 
vessel  to  discharge  or  receive  on  Itoard  any  conafder- 
ablo  (quantity  of  merchandise,  a  berth  will  U)  |wlnt«d 


CAP 


260 


CAP 


1(6  It  tttkon 
■rBctian  *)t 


lnaU'r  of  A 
I  jiointo*} 


.„)»    I, 

-.  \l 
I  .„  < 
•,  ,  <>„ 


»      e!=-Tv.*(ii 


— W^ 


It  H  •  V«'J',  ^ 


,.?■„.,.( 
■■>\ 

•.■•'■■iHfl 
II  .11  ill» 

ii'i'i:  f^il 
i-    ., 
II 

■II    !•'■>    I 

II 
,•1       U.4« 


PLAN  OP  lABlK  DAT.      BY  ItKOTiaANT  VIDAl,  B.  TS.—Sce  p.  268. 


lUfermuo  to  the  Plan.— A,  ItKht-house,  Aimishcd  with  double  l\gh{f.  Thcjr  may  be  tfn  elcarly  off  deck  at  16  miloa'  dia- 
Uncc ;  but  tliry  do  not  appear  double  till  within  6  or  7  luilcs  to  tliu  westward  ;  from  the  northward  only  one  light  is  seen. 
II,  Lion's  Uuni|i.  (',  Tublo  Mountain.  l>,  Devil's  I'eak,  In  lat.  33°  67'  'i':  £,  Kobhiu  Island.  F,  Salt  liivcr.  The  Bgatta 
denote  the  souiidinKS  in  fathoms. 


out  to  him  an  closo  to  the  jetty,  or  other  landing-place, 
as  the  safety  of  the  vessel  and  other  circumstances  will 
admit.  And  the  master  will  then  moor  with  two  bow- 
«r  anchors,  witli  an  open  hawse  to  the  north-northeast, 
taking  especial  care,  in  so  mooring,  not  to  overlay  the 
■nchors  of  ai^  other  ship,  or  in  any  way  to  give  the 
VeMol  near  him  a  foul  hoTth.  Ships  and  vessels  touch- 
ing in  Table  Bay  for  water  and  refreshments  alone 
ntay  ride  at  single  anchor  in  the  outer  anchorage ;  but 
in  tills  case  it  is  particularly  recommended  to  veer  out 
80  or  90  fathoms,  if  they  ride  by  a  chain  cable,  as  the 
liability  of  starting  or  fouling  the  anchor,  or  breaking 
the  chain,  will  thereby  be  greatly  lessened;  and  if 
riding  by  a  rope  or  coir  cable,  to  run  out  a  stream  or 
good  kedge,  to  steady  the  ship ;  and  in  both  cases  the 
•ther  bower  anchor  should  be  kept  in  perfect  readiness 
to  let  go.  When  the  vessel  is  properly  moored  with 
bower  anchors,  or  well  secured  with  a  l>ower  and  stream 
anchor,  and  with  good  cables,  buoys,  and  buoy-ropes, 
tlM  BiMtar  will  then  tak«  the  exact  place  of  the  ship 


I  by  the  I)earing8  of  two  landmarks,  and  the  depth  of 
the  water ;  and  should  accident  occur,  by  which  the 
vessel  may  drift  from  this  situation,  or  lose  her  an- 

:  chors,  a  good  bearing  and  depth  of  water  must  be  taken 
at  the  lime,  and  the  same  must  be  notified  in  writing 

I  to  the  port  captain.  It  is  particularly  recommended 
that  vessels  bo  kept  as  snug  as  possible,  to  counteract 
the  eUtcts  of  the  periodical  wiudts,  which  at  times  blow 
with  considerable  violence. 

I      The  district  subject  to  Cape  Town  is  of  very  great 

j  extent,  and  contains  every  variety  of  soil,  from  the 

I  richest  level  land  to  the  wildest  mountain,  and  tracts 
destitute  of  even  the  appearance  of  vegetation.    The 

!  climate  fluctuates  between  the  two  extremes  of  rain 
and  drought.  On  the  whole,  its  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages seem  to  be  pretty  equally  balanced ;  and 
the  prospects  which  it  holds  out  to  the  industrious 
emigrant,  if  not  very  alluring,  are  certainly  not  dis- 
couraging. 
PcjpH/aftm.— According  to  the  official  tetums,  the 


CAP 


270 


CAP 


population  of  (he  Capa  Colony  In  1847  conaistod  of 
107,UU6. 

Proilun. — Large  quantltioi  of  corn  of  a  very  good 
deicryitlon  are  pnxluctiU  In  (ho  linmcdla(a  neighbor- 
hood of  Capo  Town,  and  In  o(h«r  purt>  of  (ho  colony ; 
but  agricuhuro  It  oripplyl  by  the  Uu(cb  law  of  auc- 
ceuioii,  which,  by  dividing  a  man's  jiropcrly  equally 
among  hia  children,  hinclora  (ho  accumuladon  of  capi- 
tal in  niaaaca,  and  tho  formation  of  proper  farming  ca- 
taliliahnionta, — Tiiumson'h  J'ravtU  in  Southern  A/iiia, 

p.  an. 

The  Maurltiui  and  Rio  Janeiro  are  (ho  principal 
niarke(a  for  (ho  corn  of  the  Cape.  The  exporta  of  wool 
havo  incrcaacd  very  rapidly  wllhin  (he  laat  ten  ycara, 
and  It  now  (otmi  by  far  (ho  moat  impor(ant  arduli^ 
lent  fn>m  the  colony.  The  native  breed  of  alieep  ii) 
very  inferior;  its  deece  la  worth  nn(hing,  and  It  la  re- 
markable only  for  the  aizo  of  tho  tail,  which  aometimea 
weighs  20  lbs. !  Hut  flnt-woolcd  iSpaninh  nierinoa, 
Saxon  and  English  sheep,  succeed  rcinarkaMywcll, 
and  (heir  wool  l'c(chcs  a  high  price.  Tho  oaa(ern  dis- 
trict of  Albany  Is  especially  sullablo  for  aheop. 

Large  quaudties  of  wine,  and  of  what  Is  called 
branily,  arc  produced  at  the  Cape ;  but,  with  (ho  ex- 
ccptiun  of  Cons(antia,  they  are  very  inferior.  The 
eftect  of  allowing  the  Importation  of  Capo  wines  Into 
tho  United  Kingdom  at  a  comparatively  low  duty 
is,  not  to  occasion  their  direct  conaumptlon,  but  (o 
cauae  them  to  be  employed  aa  a  convenient  meana  of 
adulterating  others ;  so  (hat,  besides  being  injurlona 
to  the  revenue,  such  reduction  of  du(y  promo(cs  fraud- 


ulent pracUcei,  and  detracts  from  the  comforts  of  the 
public. 

Considerable  (|uantltles  of  hides,  akins,  and  horn* 
are  exported.  They  are  principally  brought  from  Al- 
gua  Hoy,  on  (hu  eus(ern  side  of  (he  colony ;  and  tho 
(rado  hna  incrcancd  very  fast  during  the  last  six  or 
seven  years.  Aloea  lire  an  Important  product;  and 
horsea,  liutler,  beef,  ivory,  argol,  and  varioua  other 
articles,  are  among  the  exporta.  The  la((i'r  alio  In- 
clude dried  lii«li,  whale  and  aeal  oil,  e(c.,  tho  Capo  flah- 
erics  being  of  conalderablo  value. 

The  Imports  nt  tli :  Capo  consist  of  woolens,  cottons, 
hardware,  earthen-ware,  furniture,  haberda  dicry,  soap, 
)>apcr,  books,  and  portions  of  mnsi  articles  used  in  (hia 
coun(ry.  Piece  goods  and  (eak  (imber  are  impor(ed 
from  India,  tea  IVom  Chiua,  sugar  Oom  India,  the 
Blaurltiua,  etc. 

Trade. — Tho  trade  bot>v(>rn  tho  colonla(s  and  (ho  In- 
dependen(  nadves  Is  sulijccled  (o  various  rcs(raints,  of 
which  It  la  not  olwnys  very  easy  to  discover  llic  poI- 
icy.  Tho  sale  of  gunpuv  dcr  and  tirc-arn:n  to  (hu  na- 
dves has  been  prohibl(cd :  a  reguladon  which  might 
have  lieun  a  judicious  one,  had  (hey  not  been  able  to 
obtaii-  them  from  any  one  elae.  The  Amcricniis  liave, 
howoer,  traded  with  the  eaatcm  coaat,  ami  have  lib- 
erally supplied  tho  nadves  wi(h  these  and  various 
o(her  ardrlea;  so  (ha(  by  keeping  up  (he  reguladun  In 
question,  (ho  Kngliiih  exclude  (heniBelvea  from  partlcl- 
padng  in  what  might  be  an  advantageous  (rude  Uut 
since  (hey  have  taken  poKxeBiiion  of  Na(al,  thia  Inter- 
course nioy  perhaps  have  been  e(opped. 


ACCOUKT  OV  TUC  QUAHTITlIa  AMI)  VaLCU  OF  TIIK  HTAPLK  ARTICLES,  TnX  PaoliCrR  OF  TUI  C'OLOMY  Or  'lUK  CaI'K  OF  QOOD 
IIOI'K,  >L\I'<)BTKI>  IN  THE  YEAB  ENIIINU  IStU  JA>UABV,  IS47. 


AlticlM. 


Aloes  

Argol 

Beef  and  Pork 

U«mc  (whale) 

llu(ter 

Uuidlea 

Com  and  meal — vis. ! 

Hurley 

Beans  and  peas . 

Uran 

Flour  

Oata 

Wheat 

Feathers  (i>a(ricli), . . . 

Fisli  (cured) 

Fruits  (dried) 

I'Viiita  (green) 


roundi. 


C'aaka. 
Founda. 


Mi)lda 
Poundfl. 

Miilds. 
Founda. 


ttMllllllM. 


218,7nn 

OO.OOU 

4,80« 

8,861 

81.706 

1!6,M() 

2,800 

049 

r68,105 

76U,4n.S 

008 

840 

1,827 

l,G»-2,0a6 

isn.sis 

A,  600 


V.laa. 


X       f.  i. 

i,\m  I)  0 

Olio  0  0 

18,484  0  0 

204  0  0 

B,S07  0  0 

040  0  0 

1,802  0  0 

1,008  0  0 

1,432  0  0 

7,918  0  0 

400  n  0 

242  0  I) 

7,01)6  0  0 

7,li21  0  0 

8,8»8  0  0 

00  0  0 


Artlrlx. 


liidea  (horse  and  ox) . . 

llornH 

Huraca 

Ivory 

Muli'H 

OIl-vU. :  WliBle 

Skins— vl«.:  tlalf 

Goat 

8eal 

Sheep  ... 
.'<plrl(s— Tic. :  Urandy. 

Tiilloir 

Wax 

Wine— via. : 

C'onstantia . 

Ordinary  , . 

Wool 


Num. 


Poimlp. 

Nuu], 
CtallouH. 

Num. 


Oall.ina. 
I'uunda. 


Gnllona, 
Pounds. 


qa«-UUt-. 


6  ,'  ; 

83  .  W) 

40fl 

£8,842 

18 

4,f:84 

120 

230,104 

4(i0 

240,040 

4.047 

147,071 

2,843 

8,(104 

BOS,  708 

8,271,128 


V«llM. 


X 

82,777 

(,'.'44 

•.7.028 

0,1172 

21!. 

211 

2d 

22,040 

188 

0,703 

003 

2,401 

1'^ 


0  0 
0  0 

0  n 

0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 

00 

0  0 

0  0 

00 
0  0 


2,014   0  n 

87.'-68  18  « 
17S,))I1     0  0 


other  Artlclea . . . 
Total  . 


jl'300.20i)  18  0 
32,480    0  0 


i:80S,776  13  6 


— X — n. 

228,810    0  0 

471  13  6 

170,289    0  0 


Of  the  above,  the  value  of  the  exporta  from  Capo  Town  waa. 

Plttn,  exported  (torn  himou*a  Town 

Ditto,  exported  from  Port  KUzabetb* 


£SnS,T7S  13  6 


*  Port  Elizabeth,  on  the  east  aide  of  Algaa  Hay,  la  rapidly  riKing  In  comniereiul  Importance;  and  fWim  the  greater  fertility 
of  (he  country  in  tta  vicinity,  Ita  exports  will  probably,  in  no  very  lengthened  period,  exceed  those  from  the  Cnpe. 

A  SoiiiABY  ViBW  or  TUB TnAnB  asu  Navigation  or  the  Colony  in  the  Ykab  kndino  Btii  jANiAny,  1847. 


Tola)  Ravfnua  col- 

VimU iDwud. 

VmmIi  OQtward. 

Total  Cnttoma 

lected  by  Ihv  Cualunu, 

ToUl  Valua  o( 

Total  Valoa  o( 

Duliu. 

includlnl!  P«i, 
Wharfago,  ate. 

liiiI>oru 

Kxpurts, 

No. 

Tooaag*. 

No. 

Toanagt. 

X       •.    4. 

X          f.    d. 

X            1.     d. 

X           t.     d. 

Cape  Town 

300 

138,880 

874 

131,708 

74,163  12    8 

80,087     1     7 

614,687    0    4 

310,000    0    0 

Coaatwlse 

181 

21,884 

100 

27,7f" 

Simon'a  Town. , 

33 

12,772 

31 

12,300 

428  10  10 

1,046    4    0 

4,r.2il  IB    fl 

00,000    0    0 

Specie  commia. 

470    3    0 
S(H)    0    0 
Specie. 

Coastwise 

0 

063 

8 

1,401 

Fort  Elliabeth. 

70 

1»,8«8 

62 

16,828 

18,489    T  it 

18,774  it)    a 

203,848    0    0 

172,0t'4    0    0 

Coaatwlw 

Total  Colony... 

IW 

10,107 

112 

16,001 

008 

171,022 

467 

100,1180 

08,081    0    6 

100,768    4    0 

1,128,001  10  10 

480,!!M    8    « 

Coaatwiae 

Grand  Total... 

080 

37,004 

810 

4r>,232 

704 

200,426 

782 

200,018 

03,081    6    0 

100,708    4    V 

1,128,001  16  10 

480,364    8    6 

By  an  act  poaaed  hy  the  colonial  goremmiint  of  (he  Cape  of  I  therein,  being  original  packagca  as  Imported,  to  be  ahlppcd 
Good  Hope,  It  la  provide,!,  "That  it  shall  lie  lawful  f<ir  the  prop-  (h;c  from  customs  duty  as  stores  for  the  use  of  any  vessel,  not 
er  offlcera  of  customs  to  deliver,  from  any  of  the  bonded  ware-  |  being  then  on  any  voyage  from  any  one  port  to  any  other 
houef  In  tiiti  colony,  any  arttolea  whatever  duly  worehooaed  i  port  of  (his  colony ;  such  doUvery  and  ahipmont  ahall  be  un- 


ValiM.         1 

I 

1.4. 

.-," 

(1  u 

,•-'14 

0  0 

■,<C.'S 

0  II 

Virt'j 

0  0 

■2i:> 

0  (1 

'ill 

II  0 

ii.i 

II  0 

,Mll 

0  0 

188 

u  u 

,711" 

0  (1 

('>r>!i 

0  0 

,41)  1 

0  0 

r^ 

0(1 

.014 

n  n 

.^.'►s  1!1  0 

■till 

0  0 

.■•IK)  13  0 

,4,S6 

ou 

.T7t.  13  C 

184T. 


)    0 

d. 

0 

1    s 

1     0 
cic. 

c 

0 

0 

0 

8 

6 

8 

A 

CAP 


m 


CAP 


Blilppcd 
leRBCl,  not 
Iftny  other 
Ul  be  un- 


drr  mirh  m\n  and  rrmiUIInn*  u  tlio  collector  of  ciiatonia 
■hall  (limit  \  and  any  •noli  artlolea  ihliiiwd  ai  itorfa  contrary 
to  aiicli  rnli'H  and  r<Knlalloiu  ahall  hv  forfilli'd,  and  uliall  \k 
dealt  with  111  tho  aiiniu  nntniicraM  la  provldcil  In  the  ordinance 
No,  (I  of  I'lb,!,  In  reaiwct  <i(  gooda  forltltcd,  or  llublo  tu  for- 
ftiltnrc,  fur  bnachca  of  thu  cnatonia  lawa," 

lly  an  act  |ianao<l  Jnno  8th,  18<j6,  It  la  furthor  provided, 
"That  the  following  irtlclea  ahall  be  oxonipt  from  tho  pay- 
ment of  wlmrtliKU  and  cranago  dntlea,  upon  Iwlng  landed  or 
■hippeil  In  Table  Uay  or  Hlinon'a  llay  ruapccllvely— that  la  to 
to  aay,  all  anr]diia  atorca  or  provlaloiia  for  tho  iiao  of  whaling 
Teamlai  all  whalebone,  whalo-heud  matter,  and  whale  or  flah 
oil,  latnled  or  alilpped  from  or  on  board  of  whaling  veaaola,  or 
from  or  on  iHianl  of  any  other  veaael  conveying  anch  whale- 
bone,  whale-head  matter,  or  oil,  from  or  to  any  whaling  vca- 
arl;  provided,  that  anch  whalelKine,  whale-head  matter,  bo 
Iiot  cn'ercd  for  colonial  conanmptlon,** 

Cape  Verd,  tho  moat  wcatom  cape  of  Africn,  In 
tho  AtliiiitlL'  Occiin,  iHawpvn  tho  rlvora  Suiiogul  ami 
Gninldu.  l-at,  14'"  411'  N.,  luni,',  17°  84'  W.  Its  iiiiino 
ia  (lorivcil  from  n  Kionp  of  enunnoua  liaubali-trcea  which 
crowns  its  ■iiinniit. 

Cape  Verd  lalanda  nro  ailnntod  831)  miloa  west 
of  tlie  Vi\\K,  Uitwcen  litt.  14°  46'  nnd  17'  13'  N.,  and 
lon^;.  2i '  If)'  and  '."B"  25'  W.  The  ArchipclnKo  consists 
of  the  following  ton  Islnnds:  Sal,  Hoavintu,  Mnyo,  ,Siin- 
tlngo  (St,  Jaincs),  tho  liirgost,  Korgo,  Itravn,  Griiiidp, 
nnnibo,  St,  Nleoliin,  anil  iSt,  hii/.in,  und  four  islets, 
Brunco,  Rmo,  .St,  VlccntB,  nnd  St,  Antiio,  Area  esti- 
tnatod  at  ItWO  sqiia,-o  inilos.  Pupulntion  in  1851), 
80,7BH.  Tho  white  popniatlon,  In  the  whole  Archipel- 
Bgo  is  to  the  colored  ns  1  to  '21).  The  surface  of  tho 
Islands  is  in  general  niunntalnous,  and  some  of  their 
poai(s  have  a  consldonOile  elevation.  Tin  volcano  of 
Fogo  is  91&7  feet  in  height.  The  soil  is  extremely 
VariiuiH,  but  mostly  fertile;  the  nlisenco  of  trees  and 
the  srnrcity  of  water  are  the  causes  of  frequent  and  se- 
vere distress.  Climate  very  hot,  lint  tempered  by  the 
8en-brcci!cs ;  mean  temperature  of  May  ami  August, 
70''!),  April  to  September  7U\  during  tho  other  months 
66'^  Fahrenheit;  the  mornings  and  evenings  aro  cool, 
and  dews  abundant.  (Jhief  vegetalilo  products,  .naizo, 
rice,  und  French  beans.  Coffee,  introduced  in  ITlio, 
has  completely  succeeded ;  the  cotton  shriili  is  indige- 
nous ;  indigo  grows  wild,  and  tobacco  Is  cultivated  in 
some  of  the  islands;  little  sugar  Is  grown,  nnd  wine 
of  inferior  quality ;  tropical  fruits  are  abundant. — A'cc 
PoRTi:«.M.. 

Capital,  in  political  economy,  Is  that  portion  of  tho 
produce  of  industry  existing  In  n  country  which  may 
be  made  directly  available,  either  for  tho  support  of 
human  existence  or  the  facilitating  of  production.  Itut 
in  commerce,  and  as  applied  to  individuals,  capital  is 
understood  to  mean  the  sum  of  money  which  a  mer- 
chant, banlter,  or  trader,  adventures  in  any  undertak- 
ing, or  which  he  contributes  to  tlio  common  stock  of  a 
partnership.  It  signilies  likewise  the  fund  of  a  trad- 
ing company  or  corporation ;  in  w  nich  sense  the  word 
sloH-  is  generally  added  to  it.  Thus  we  say  the  capi- 
lal  itork  of  the  bank,  etc.  The  profit  derived  from  any 
undertaking  is  estimated  by  the  mie  which  It  bears  to 
the  capital  that  was  cinphiycd. 

A  desire  to  accumulate  some  portior  of  the  produce 
of  Industry  being  natural  to  maiihind,  and  nearly  uni- 
versal, the  growth  of  capital  may  be  expected  wher- 
ever tho  means  of  accumulation  exist ;  or,  in  other 
words,  wherever  men  aro  not  obliged  to  consume  the 
whole  products  of  their  labor  in  their  own  subsistence. 
From  tlio  moment  at  which  a  man  produces  more  than 
he  consumes,  lie  is  creating  a  capital ;  and  the  accu- 
mulated surplus  of  production  over  the  consumption 
of  a  whole  community  is  the  capital  of  a  country.— 
Knight's  Cyelojwdia.  Public  credit  and  puldio  or- 
der are  essentially  bound  up  with  each  8ther,  and  with 
tho  maintenance  of  general  prosperity.  An  Infringe- 
ment of  cither,  or  both,  is  the  first  and  surest  signal  of 
derangement  in  commerce,  and  lessened  employment, 
At  the  present  moment,  when  tho  state  of  Europe  fur- 
nishes  to  many  sad  examples  of  the  misery  and  ruin 


which  have  reaultcd  to  the  commercial  and  working 
clasaei,  it  la  of  the  greatek.t  importance  that  we  shuuid 
form  a  Just  estimate  of  the  coiisequcncei  which  would 
result,  ill  this  country,  to  tho  various  clasacs  of  society 
from  any  important  intorrupliun  of  that  peace  anil  order 
for  which  it  has  lieen  generally  so  much  dIatingulKlied ; 
and  under  which,  In  cumparinon  witli  tliusu  countrioa 
which  have  been  exposed  to  continual  outbreaks,  it 
bus  risen  to  so  much  social  and  general  prosperity, 

CapOO,  It  sort  of  cotton,  so  short  and  line,  that  It 
can  not  be  spun.  It  is  used  in  the  Kust  Indies  tullna 
palanquins,  to  nniko  licds,  mattresses,  etc, 

Caprloom,  Troplo  of,  a  lesser  circle  of  the 
sphere,  whicli  is  parallel  to  the  equinocliul  and  at  211° 
no'  distance  from  It  southward,  passing  through  the 
liegiiining  of  Capricorn. 

Capaloum.    >S'cc  TKri-Kn. 

Capatan,  or  Capatem,  a  strong  massive  column 
of  timber,  formed  like  a  truncated  cone,  and  having  its 
upper  extremity  iiioried  w  Ith  a  number  of  holes  to  re- 
ceive tho  bars  or  levers.  It  Is  let  perpendicularly 
down  through  the  decks  of  n  ship,  and  is  fixed  in  such 
1  manner  that  the  men,  by  turning  it  boriiontally  with 
their  bars,  may  jicrforin  any  work  wiiicli  requires  an 
extraordinory  olfort. 

Considerable  Improvements  have  of  lute  years  been 
niudo  In  Phillips'  capstans,  which  In  their  original  form 
nro  not  now  nuich  uscil  In  her  majesty's  service.  A 
port  of  Phillips'  plan,  however,  Is  retniiicd,  that,  iiamo- 
ly,  of  connecting  tlie  upiicr  and  lower  capstan  together. 
A  French  plan  was  recently  devised,  in  which,  instead 
of  tho  wheel,  an  iron  flungo  is  fitted  to  take  the  three 
cables  (the  one  above  and  tho  other  lielow  tho  class,  or 
rate,  for  ships),  and  by  this  means  a  messenger  Is  not 
required.  Messengers  nro  generally  of  cliulii;  but 
rope  ones  are  also  supplied  to  each  ship,  in  cuso  the 
chain  ones  sliould  become  defective.  Tlio  chain-mcs- 
;  senger  is  made  w  ith  a  largo  link  and  a  small  one.  llils 
I  latter  tho  pikes  of  the  wheel  eiter  as  the  wheel  rc- 
j  volves.  This  messenger  Is  passed  half  round  tho  cap. 
stun,  taken  forward  round  tho  rollers  in  tho  liow,  and 
tho  two  parts  of  the,  messenger  shackled  together. 
Kope-messenp  ers  are  passed  three  times  round  the  cap- 
stun,  nnd  with  an  eyo  nt  each  end  lashed  together. 
Tho  rope-me88eiig''rs  in  all  ships  are  cut  from  live  to 
eight  fathoms  longc  than  the  distance  lictwccn  tho 
cupstan  and  the  bow,  In  order  tlint  tho  men  may  hold 
on  when  tho  cubic  Is  hove  in,  Nippers,  made  of  rope, 
from  four  to  live  fi.,hoins  long  are  used  to  attach  the 
cables  to  tho  messenger.  These  nro  taken  ofVwhcn  the 
cablo  is  hove  in,  and  come  aft  to  tiie  chain  locker  (or, 
if  tho  cable  Is  iiempcn,  to  the  hatchway  near  the  tier). 

A  patent  has  lately  been  taken  out  by  >lri  Thonms 
Hrown,  of  I.<niilon,  ir  wliicli  various  improvements  are 
introduced.  The  pnicipal  of  these  are  illustrated  in 
the  following  wood-cr's.  Tho  numbers  1  und  2  repre- 
sent tlie  plan  and  cle  atioii  of  tlic  capstan  flangi ,  for 
working  various  size  .s  of  cliain  cable ;  3  and  4  an  tho 
plan  and  elevation  ,f  tho  deck-piiw  stopper,  to  lie  u.'cd 
for  checking  the  cable  when  bringing  the  ship  to,  and 
for  riding  by  whin  xt  anclior;  5  and  6  are  the  plan  and 
elevation  of  tlie  c''.')iring  guide. 

Tho  annexed  v  ood-cut  represents  Mr.  Aylen's  mode 


y- 


•V 


CAP 


278 


CAR 


of  anchorinR  a  ship  during  a  calm,  when  out  of  vound- 
ingt,  to  prevent  her  itrtftiui;  when  a  strong  current  ia 
running  againat  her. 

8up|Kning  a  Hhip  nf  from  600  lo  GOO  tona  in  a  calm, 
with  the  current  running  three  ImutH  aguiniit  lier,  anil 
out  of  Hounilingn;  let  gu  the  keilge  nnchur,  having 
previously  secured  two  pieces  of  cunviis  to  it  as  per  fig- 
ure, No.  1  and  2;  veer  out  40  to  JJO  rutlionis  uf  B  to  -i 
inch  hawser  i  then  lower  the  quarter  Iwat  or  cutter, 
and  atop  the  aliove  hawser  to  the  ring  in  the  Imw  and 
atom  of  the  boat ;  then  voor  from  the  ship  70  to  HO 
fathoms  on  the  hnwser,  l>etween  the  lioat  and  ship; 
put  on  A  snatch-block  to  traverse,  with  one  or  two  pigs 
of  ballast,  to  he  used  according  to  the  atrength  of  the 
current. 

Supposing  that  the  current  at  from  40  to  60  fathoms 
deep  is  running  in  a  different  direction  from  that  of 
the  surface — as  has  Ijeen  flrequcntly  observed  in  clear 
water  at  sea — it  is  plain  that  a  great  strain  is  taken  off 
the  anchor  by  using  the  lioat,  inasniuoli  as  the  whole 
strain  would  lie  on  the  hawser  b  e,  tlic  greater  part  uf 
whicli  is  borne  l)y  hawser  a  A;  that  if  tlie  ship  rodo 
immediate  at  b,  the  whole  of  the  strain  being  at  b  r, 
would  naturally  require  a  greater  weight  to  hold  her; 
in  fact,  a  liowcr  anchor  witli  (K)  futtioms  of  calilu  would 
not  Ije  sufficient,  Itcsidcs  the  difliculty  of  again  recov- 
ering the  anchor. 

If  the  surface  and  deep  current  should  happen  to  rtn 
in  the  same  direction,  the  ship  would  nut  then  separate 
from  the  boat ;  all  would  drift  together.  This  plun  for 
anchoring,  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose,  will  an- 
swer near  the  equator,  or  at  any  place  at  a  distance 
from  the  main  land,  but  it  is  not  intended  for  a  tide 
way.— E.  B. 

Captain  (Fr.eapttatM;  It.  capt^a>io,lJrom  the  Latin 


caput),  liirraliy  a  hsad,  nr  chief  otHcar  | 
but  the  trrm  l>UH>d  In  iMrtlniUr  luilc. 
note  nil  iiHIier  holding  a  ii'r.utii  rank  In 
the  army  iir  the  navy.      In  Ihn  army, 
■  captain  Is  the  ofllcvr  who  loninianili 
•  troop  of  cavalry,  or  a  cuinpiiiiy  of 
Infantry,  or  of  artlllury.     Ills  full  pay 
in  ilrilisli  cavalry  reKlmrnls  Is   1 1«, 
7'/.   a  day;  *n  the   infantry   lU.   ~,it. 
CaptaliH  In  the  l.lfn  and  FiMit  fiuanls 
rank  with  the  cnhinels  of  other  regi- 
ments, and  their  full  pay  U  \!u.  a  day. 
t'(///iii»    (.fiienil,  the   ciiiiiinandiT-ln- 
chief  of  an  uriiiy,  iir  of  tlin  inililia. 
t'li/itiiin  l.ir>iliHiinl  U  an  oDIier  »ho, 
with  the  riiiik  iif  captain,  but  the  pay 
of  lleutiiiiaiil,  coiiinianda  a  tnH)p  or 
cumpiiny  In  the  name  and  place  of 
soniu  iilher  person.     Tlius  the  ciilmiel 
of  a  I'c'giiiiciit  lii'iiig  usually  captain  of 
the  llrst  company,  that  cnni|iany  is 
coninianded  by  his  deputy  under  the 
title  of  ciiptain   lioutenunt.    Cn/.tuiH 
i<fa  thip  iif'fvr,  the  ofllcer  who  com- 
mands a  ship  of  the  line  or  a  frigate. 
(llHcers  who  oonimand  smaller  vessels 
are  called  coinnianclers.     In  Khi|is  of 
the  line  a  commander  is  also  ap|Kilnted 
with  the  captain ;  the  former  Iih  thero* 
fore  second  captain.     'I'lie  charge  of 
a  ca|>talii  in  tlie  navy  ia  very  cuniprc- 
lionsive,  inaaniuch  as  he  Is  not  only 
answerable  for  any  bad  conduct  in  the 
military  goveruiiient,  navigation,  and 
equipment  of  the  ship  ho  coninmnds, 
b<it  also  for  any  neglect  of  duly  or 
mlsnianagement  on  tlie  part  of  his  in- 
ferior olllcers,  whose  several  cliargcs 
hoisapiiolnted  to  superintend  and  reg- 
ulate.     Cni>lmn  r/'ii  vurrhuni  thip,  he 
who  has  the   direction  of  the   ship, 
crew,  lading,  etc. 
Caraoaa,  or  Caracoas,  the  capital  city  of  Vene- 
zuela, 8outh  America,  department   and  piiivince  of 
I  Caracas,  Int.  10'  aO'  18"  N.,  long.  07°  4'  46'  W.,  on  a 
'  declivity  2(*K0  feet  in  elevation,  and  l(i  miles  south- 
southeast  of  La  Uuayra,  Its  )M>rt,  on  the  Caribbean  >Sca. 
Population  csllmateil  from  :I6,00U  to  60,000.    It  is  reg- 
'  ularly  built,  well  supgilied  with  water,  and  has  a  healthy 
I  climate.      Mc.in  teiniivraturo  of  June  72",  February 
,  CM" '2  Fahrenheit.      I'rincipal  buildings,  a  catliedral, 
the  fine  church  of  Alta  (iracla,  and  three  hmpitiils. 
]  ICxports  from  La  (iuayra  consist  princii>ally  of  cacao, 
cotton,  indigo,  tobacco,  coffee,  hides,  and  live  cattle. 
Hy  the  earthquake  of  1H12,  12,000  jiersons  perislied) 
since  which  time  most  of  its  houses  have  been  con- 
structed of  sun-dried  bricks.     It  is  tho  seat  of  a  uni- 
versity, and  tlio  residence  of  the  principal  merchants, 
I  on  whose  account  tho  trade  of  La  (iuayra  is  conducted. 
It  is  the  birlli-plaoe  of  llolivar.     The  province  lies  be- 
[  twecn  lat.  T'Sti'  and  10"  20  N.,  and  long.  06"  80'  and  GH" 
.  W.    Area,  2H42  square  leagues.     Population,  242,HX8, 
Surface  (wrtly  mountainous  and  partly  flat ;  the  former 
I  toward  the  sea-coatt,    "here  several  deep  Indentation* 
occur,  and  form  good  harliors ;  the  latter  in  tiio  inte- 
rior, and  on  the  south,  where  the  country  stretches  out 
into  vast  plains.     It  produces  the  best  cucao,  and  all 
tropical  fruita  are  grown  in  perfection.     It  is  divided 
into  1(>  cantons. 

Carat,  tho  wcif;ht  which  expresses  the  degree  of 
fineness  of  gold.  The  word  is  lUso  written  carract, 
'  corral,  karract,  and  knrral.  Its  origin  is  contested ; 
,  but  the  moat  probable  opinion  is  that  of  Kennet,  who 
'  derives  it  trom  carecta,  a  term  which  anciently  denoted 
.  any  weight,  and  came  afterward  to  be  appropriated  to 
that  V  nich  expresses  the  fineness  of  gold  and  tho  gray- 
'  ity  of  diamonda.    Carat*  ar»,  not  raal  datarmiiiato 


CAR 


978 


OAR 


wtlghti,  lull  only  tin««litiir)',  Tli*  wIkiId  m»'»,  »lial< 
•var  Im  Ilia  wuIkIiI,  I*  iimi'wlf  nl  In  iw  illt  IiImI  IiiU) 
twanty-fuiir  I'ltrala  I  uiiil  n*  iiiKiiy  i»i  iily-("»t\h  parU 
M  It  I'uiilKlna  iif  |iur«  hiiI'I,  It  la  citllfil  //•'  </<«  niMH 
rami;  nr  1)  iniiiij/ iiinitt  Jim  ,  'lliiia,  kiI  iifaliihlMn 
curvta  la  it  iiilxlura,  iif  ttlilili  nlKliti'iMi  (oirla  i<r«  |iur* 
K»lil,  mill  lliu  iilliur  alu  iif  iMfurliir  iimiIiiI,  Ciiml  la  alao 
It  I'lirliiiii  wvImIiI  wIiIi  Ii  uolilaiiilllia  unil  Janplnra  ua« 
fur  wi'IkIiIiik  iiriii'liiua  aliiiiua  miil  (wnrla,  liillilaaviiM 
III!'  wiiril  la  ail|i|iiia«il  liy  aiiiiiii  In  Iwi  ili<rlvi<il  fruin  tlia 
(Iri'i'k  MimTiuv,»  fruit  wliii  li  III  Litllii  la  cnlli'il  tllit/mi, 
tliii  iiiriili  hrin,  uaili  of  wlilili  iiiiiy  wi<l)ili  nlxiv*  four 
Kruliia  iif  Mrliuiil  I  ami  Iniiiiii  llm  LhIIii  »/7ii/uii  Iiu  Ihkiii 
iiai'il  fur  lliii  wvlulil  '•(  riiiir  Kmliia.  Tlila  mriil  wi'JKlia 
fuiir  Kculiia ;  liill  llivy  «ra  aiiiii«llrii«a  IlKlilnr  tlimi  llifl 
yraiiia  of  iitjivr  wuli^lila,  Kiull  iif  llmaii  Krillna  la  «iil>- 
divliluil  lulu  t,  1, 1,  |IL,  nil.  Ma  Witiiiiira  ainl  Mk.«n- 
UltKI.  ■  K.  II, 

Oaravaii)  an  orKaiiUiMl  i'itiii|iany  nf  mnnliniita,  nr 
pilt(rliua,  iir  ImiIIi,  wliuiiaaiH  lain  lii||i<llM>r  In  many  |inrta 
of  Aalii  mill  Afrlia,  Unit  liixy  may  Iravnt  wllli  Kr<*»t<'r 
■ei'iirlly  tlirout(l>  tlin  iliw>rla  ami  nlhrr  |ilHi:iia  liirt<at«(l 
with  rulilM>ra|  iir  wliurn  llm  riHiil  la  iialiinilly  (Imiikit* 
oiia,  Tliu  woril  la  ilorUml  fmiii  llm  l'i<raiaii  itrnin,  or 
cai'i'iin,  a  Irmlur  ut  iluulur,  Hii.tw'a  TiiirrU  in  ihr  l,t- 
vuiil,  |>.  !),  Ill)  I'll, 

Kv.'ry  t'liraviiii  la  iiiiil»r  llm  I'lmiiimtiil  iif  a  dilef  or 
lilfit("irtirfiii.biiilii),  hIiii  liiia  fri>i|i|i'iilly  lit  Ilia  iIIkikwhI 
•iirli  a  nuiiilaT  of  iriHiiM  or  foniia  ita  la  i|i<iiiiii<il  anlll- 
cluiit  fur  Ita  lU-fuiiM,  VVIiiiii  ll  la  tirnillialil*,  llii'y  i>n- 
cuni|i  iii'iir  wvlla  or  riviilula,  aiiil  oliatirva  n  rcKiilar 
iliacliilliiu,  (!aiiH'la  urn  iia»i|  »»  a  innana  of  rniiviiy' 
aiii'u,  nIniiMl  iiiilforiiily,  In  iimfi'miicn  lo  lli«  lioraa  or 
•ny  ullii'r  iinliiiul,  uii  an'onnt  of  llmlr  woniUnfiil  pa- 
tiomn  uf  fitll|{ui<,  ualliiK  llllli',  iinil  au  lalalliiK  tlirim  nr 
four  iliiya  nr  iiiiirii  wlllioiil  wnlnr,  Tlinra  am  K«i>o'al- 
ly  inoru  I'miii'la  In  a  iiiravan  lliiiM  lllnn,  - Hrr  Camki,. 

Tim  coiiiiiitirrlal  liilariniiran  of  Kiialnrn  mill  African 
niillniia  hua  Immii  |irinvl|iiilly  vurrlt'il  nn,  from  Ilia  rc- 
miitvat  iKirltxl,  by  miiaiia  of  I'lintvaiia,  llurlntf  nnllq- 
ulty,  lliH  iirwliirla  of  liiilla  anil  I'lillia  WHfii  cunviiyml 
citlier  from  Suuit  to  llliliioi'iiliira,  or  fruin  tlliaaorati, 
near  Ilia  lii'uil  of  Ilia  I'uralan  (liilf,  liv  lh«  Kn|iliriilaa, 
to  llaliyluii,  mill  llM<m  u  liy  I'almyra,  (ii  llm  Hyrliin  ilua- 
ert,  to  iliu  piirta  of  I'lin'iililii,  on  llm  Mnillt'urriim'riu ; 
wlieru  ihi'y  wiiru  narlmntC'il  Cor  llm  C.iirniHian  pruiluc- 
itoiia  In  ili'iniiilil  In  llm  Kiial,  HniiiHlnma,  linwovor, 
cariivHiia  w^t  out  illrvully  friiin  (Ililiiii,  iiml,  or(Ui|iyliiK 
alKiut  'itti)  iluya  In  tliu  Joiirniiy,  iirrlvml  on  llm  al'inrca 
of  the  Ixivuni,  aftnr  lravi>r»lnK  llm  wlioln  (ixli>nt  of 
Aal<i.— (iiiiiiiiN,  vol,  \ II,  |i,  UII,  'I'lm  fiirmnllon  of  cant- 
vana  la,  In  furl,  tho  only  way  In  wlilili  It  liaa dvtir  licen 
iwaiilile  lo  nirry  on  any  rutialiltiraliki  Inlnriial  coin- 
morcM  Willi  A»l«  or  Afrira,  'I'lm  Kovernnmnta  Hint 
lutve  Kniwn  up  In  tlio»n  I'onllnnnla  linvs  auldom  liuon 
itlilis  ami  Molilonittr  Inili'ml  linvn  limy  nttcinplcil,  lo 
reniirr  truvelliiK  iirai'lli'iililii  or  aiifii  for  liiillvliluala. 
Tho  wumlerlnK  trllma  iif  Aralia  liiivv  alwaya  Infcatoil 
the  imiiiiMiau  iluaorta  liy  hIiIi'Ii  limy  am  Inleraodfiil ; 
and  tliow  only  who  iira  aiillli'Icinlly  |Hiw«rful  to  protect 
tlioniai-lvoa,  or  aulllnlniilly  ridi  lo  iiuri'liaM  an  nxemp- 
tlon  from  llm  prvdulory  altiiika  of  llmH'  frmlxiottira,  can 
expect  to  paaa  throuuli  l«rrltnrl«a  aiilijnil  to  their  In- 
curalona,  without  ImIiik  iiii|Hn«id  I41  tlm  riak  uf  roMicry 
and  miiriler. 

Hlnco  the  eatsldlahmaiit  of  llm  Mnlmminedan  fiillh, 
rellKlouH  niotlvea,  coiwplrliiK  with  llioafl  of  n  loaa  ex- 
alted chariulcr,  Imvo Idiidi'il  to nti)(limiit the Intorcourae 
between  dWerunt  parU  of  tlia  VMtUifn  world, 

Tho  numeroiia  canmla  of  uacli  iraravan  aro  loaded 
with  those  coinniodllliia  of  nvury  countrv  which  are 
of  eaaleat  carrluuu  and  ri'iidU-at  aalu,  Tho  holy  dly 
U  crowded  durliiK  the  miinlli  of  tMialhaJjaiCorrcapond- 
ing  to  tho  latter  part  of  Jiiiiti  and  Ihn  liexliinliiK  of 
July,  not  only  with  /.Hiiloiia  dovotwa,  Imt  with  opu- 
lent nierclmnta.  A  fair  or  iiiiirkm  la  liidd  In  Mecca 
•nd  iu  vlsiait/  OB  tlM  twutvn  Uayi  (b«t  IIm  pilgrim* 


art  allnwed  to  remain  In  lliitt  city,  which  uaad  to  li« 
oim  uf  iliK  iH'at  fn'i|iii>nl«d  In  the  wurM,  and  1  niitliiuea 
tu  liii  writ  altrii'lail.  "  h'W  pLtirlnia,"  aiiya  Iturck- 
lurilt,  "exci'pl  IliK  niuiiillcanla,  arrive  without  lirlnK- 
InR  aoiiiu  priMliicllona  of  their  rua|H't  llvu  countrlua  for 
'al«  i  and  Ihia  rainurk  la  applliulile  ua  kiiII  tnlhc  niar- 
I'hanta,  witti  whom  cnniiiierclttl  puraulla  an-  the  main 
nliject,  *a  to  Ihoau  who  am  actiuti<il  liy  rollKlniia  icul  | 
I'lir,  to  III*  latter,  the  priillla  ilorlvrd  friim  ai'llluK  a  few 
nrtlclea  at  Mecca  dlmlnith,  In  aniiiH  ileKriw,  llm  hcitvy 
iix|iena«a  of  tliu  Journey.  Tim  MnKKri-liyna  (|illKrimi 
from  Muro<'i'u and  the  north  cimat  of  Afrl<'ii>  lirliiK  Ihrlr 
red  lionneta  and  woolen  lUiiika;  tho  Kiirnpciin  Turki, 
aliiira  mid  allp|H'ra,  liurdwiirc,  I'mlirolduri'd  atiiD'a,  aweat- 
niiiata,  amber,  trhikela  of  Kuro|><>nn  niaiuifucturc,  knit 
allk  purtea,  etc. ;  tho  Turka  of  Anatolia  liriiiK  cur|i«ta, 
allka,  and  AnKora  nhuwia;  I'm  rurainna,  I 'iixliinara 
ahiiwla  and  lar^e  "ilk  hunilkcn  hicfa;  tliii  \l^(h*n», 
toolh-lirualica,  called  Mcaiiiink  Kallary,  iiiniln  of  the 
a|Hiiiuy  iMnixha  of  a  tree  ki-owImk  in  Itnkliiirii,  tmida  of 
a  yellow  aoa|>-alone,  and  plain  eiuirao  ihawla  manufac- 
tured In  their  own  cnunlry  ;  Ihu  Indiana,  tliu  numer- 
nua  producllnn'*  of  their  rich  aiidextonalve  rcKiiin  ;  the 
|M'oplii  of  Yuiiiun,  anakra  for  tliu  roraiiin  pi|iea,  aaiidala 
and  varloua  other  wurka  in  leather;  and  llie  Africiini 
lirliiK  Turioua  urticlen  udupled  tu  the  alav  o-triiiln.  The 
pIlKrima  aro,  linwovor,  often  diaappulnted  in  their  ox- 
(ipctatlona  of  Kuin  ;  want  of  money  makea  Ihum  haatily 
aell  llmlr  lilllu  iidventurca  ut  the  public  aueliuna,  and 
often  uldlKoa  tlioni  to  accept  very  low  piicua."— 7'iiiii)i« 
m  Araliia,  vnl,  Ii.  p.  '21. 

The  two  princl|uil  cumvuna  which  yearly  rondeivou* 
nt  Mecca  aro  tliuao  of  Uainuacua  and  I'liiro.  Tho  lint 
iaconi|K>aednf  pili^rliiia  from  KurupeaiidWealern  Aala; 
the  ai'coiid  of  Mnhiiniinedana  from  all  parta  of  Africa. 
The  Syrian  caravan  la  nuld  by  Uurckliurdt  tu  iio  very 
well ret(uluted.  It  ia nlwaya aicompanled  by  the pucha 
of  Uaniaacua,  or  one  of  his  priiu'i|iul  olllcera,  who  K'voi 
Ihu  aignal  for  eiiciiiiipInK  and  aturtinx  by  llrin)(  a  niu»- 
kot.  On  tho  route,  a  troop  of  liomoinon  rido  In  the 
front,  and  another  In  tho  rear  to  brinK  up  the  atrag- 
glera.  Tho  dilTerent  purtlea  of  piltsrima,  diatiiiKUiahed 
by  their  provincea  or  towna,  kuep  doae  together.  At 
nlxht  turcliea  are  lighted,  and  the  dally  diiitunco  It 
uaually  |M!rfornied  between  threo  o'clwk  in  tho  after- 
noon and  an  hour  or  two  aftur  iunrlao  on  tho  fullowlng 
day.  The  Uedouina  or  Arabs,  who  carry  proviaioni 
for  tho  troo|Hi,  travel  by  day  only,  and  Iu  advance  of 
tho  caravana ;  tho  encampment  of  which  thoy  paaa  la 
tho  inuniiiiKi  and  aro  overtaken  In  turn  and  puaaed  by 
the  caravan  on  the  fuUuwluK  ninlit,  at  their  own  rest- 
liiK-place.  The  Journey  with  Ihcao  Uedouina  ia  leas 
fallKuInK  than  with  tho"  Kfeat  body  of  tho  caravon,  aa 
a  regular  ninht's  rest  ia  obtained  ;  but  their  bad  char- 
acter deters  moat  pil|/;riin9  from  Joining  them. 

At  every  watcrinK-place  on  the  route  is  a  small  castle 
and  a  largo  tank,  ut  which  tlio  camels  water.  The 
castlea  aro  garrlauncd  by  a  few  persons,  who  remain 
the  whole  year  to  guard  tho  jirovisions  deposited  there. 
It  la  at  these  wiitorlng-pluccs,  which  belong  to  tho  Ue- 
douina, that  tho  aholkhs  of  tho  tribe  meet  tho  caravan, 
and  receive  the  accustomed  tribute  for  allowing  it  to 
pass.  Water  is  plentiful  on  tho  route;  the  stationi 
are  nowhere  more  distant  than  11  or  12  hours'  march; 
and  In  winter  [inola  of  raiii-watorare  frequently  found. 
Those  pilgrims  who  can  travel  with  a  litter,  or  on  coin- 
modioua  camel-saddles,  may  sleep  at  night,  and  per- 
form tho  Journoy  with  little  Inconvenience ;  but  of  those 
whom  poverty,  or  the  desire  of  speedily  aci(uiring  a 
largo  sum  of  money,  induces  to  follow  the  caravan  on 
fiHit,  or  to  hire  Ihcmsolvcs  as  servants,  many  dio  on  the 
road  from  futlguo.— 7'ra«/»  i»  Arabia,  vol.  11.  p.  8-0. 
The  caravan  which  sets  out  from  Colro  for  Mecca  is 
not  generally  so  large  as  that  of  Damascus ;  and  its 
route  along  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  ia  more  danger- 
ous and  fatiguing.  Hut  many  of  the  African  end 
EgyptUn  merchauts  and  pilgrims  sail  from  Suez,  Cos- 


CAR 


274 


CAR 


aeir,  and  othei  ports  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea,  for  Djidda,  whence  the  journey  to  Mecca  is  short 
and  easy.  The  Persian  caravan  for  Mecca  sets  out 
from  Bagdad ;  but  many  of  the  Persian  pilgrims  are 
now  in  the  habit  of  embarldng  at  Bussorah,  and  com- 
ing to  Djidda  by  sea.  Caravans  from  Bagdad  and 
Bussorah  proceed  to  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  Diarbeltcr, 
laden  with  all  sorts  of  Indian,  Araliian,  and  Persian 
commodities ;  and  large  quantities  of  European  goods, 
principally  of  English  cottons,  imported  at  Bussorah, 
are  now  distributed  throughout  all  the  eastern  parts 
of  the  Turkish  empire  by  the  same  means.  The  inter- 
course carried  on  in  this  way  is,  indeed,  every  day  be- 
coming of  more  importance. 

The  commerce  carried  on  by  caravans  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Africa  is  widely  extended,  and  of  considerable 
yalue.  Besides  the  groat  caravan  which  proceeds  fVom 
Nubia  to  Cairo,  and  is  joined  by  Mohammedan  pil- 
grims from  every  part  of  Africa,  there  are  caravans 
which  have  no  object  but  commerce,  which  set  out  from 
Fez,  Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  other  states  on  the 
84a-coast,  and  penetrate  far  into  the  interior.  Some 
of  them  take  as  many  as  50  days  to  reach  the  place  of 
their  destination ;  and  as  their  rate  of  traveling  may 
be  estimated  at  about  18  miles  a  day  at  an  average,  the 
extent  of  their  journeys  may  easily  be  computed.  As 
both  the  time  of  their  outset  and  their  route  is  known, 
they  arc  met  by  the  people  of  the  countries  through 
which  they  travel,  who  trade  with  them.  Indian  goods 
of  every  kind  form  a  considerable  article  in  this  traffic ; 
in  exchange  for  wliich  the  chief  commodity  the  inlial)- 
itants  have  to  give  is  slaves.  Three  distinct  caravans 
are  employed  in  bringing  slaves  and  other  commo<li- 
ties  from  Central  AfWca  to  Cairo.  One  of  them  comoa 
direct  from  Mourzouk,  the  capital  of  Fezzan,  ocross 
the  L  byan  desert ;  another  (W)m  Scnaar ;  .ind  the  thinl 
trom  DarfUr.  They  do  not  arrive  at  stated  periods, 
but  i.fter  a  greater  or  less  interval,  according  to  the 
succi  «  they  have  bad  in  procuring  slaves,  ivory,  golil 
dust,  drugs,  and  such  other  articles  as  are  fitted  for  the 
Egyptian  markets.  The  Mourzouk  caravan  is  said  to 
be  under  the  best  regulations.  It  is  generally  about 
60  days  on  its  passage ;  and  seldom  consists  of  less 
than  100,  or  of  more  than  800,  travelers.  The  cara- 
vans from  Senear  and  Darfur  used  formerly  to  lie  vcrj- 
irrtgular,  and  were  sometimes  not  seen  in  Egypt  for 
two  or  three  years  together;  lint  since  the  occupation 
of  the  former  by  the  troops  of  Mohammed  All,  the  in- 
tercourse between  it  and  Egypt  has  become  compar- 
atively frequent  and  regular.  The  numlier  of  slaves 
imported  into  Egypt  by  these  caravans  is  said  to 
•mount  at  present  to  aliout  10,000  a  year.  The  de- 
parture of  a  caravan  from  Darfur  is  looked  upon  as  a 
most  important  event ;  it  engages  for  a  while  the  at- 
tention of  the  whole  country,  and  even  forms  a  kind 
of  era. — Browne's  Travels  m  Africa,  2d  ed.  p.  78.  A 
caravan  from  Darftir  is  considered  large  if  it  lias  2000 
camels  and  1000  slaves.  Many  of  the  Moorish  pilgrims 
to  Mecca  cross  tlie  sea  fh)m  Souakin  and  Massoiiah  to 
the  opposite  coast  of  Aral)ia,  and  then  travel  liy  land 
to  Mecca;  and  Burckhardt  states,  that  of  all  the  poor 
pilgrims  who  arrive  in  the  Iledjaz,  none  bear  a  more 
vespectalile  character  for  industry  than  those  from  Cen- 
tral Africa. 

Caravans  are  distinguished  into  heary  and  llr/hl. 
Camels  loaded  with  from  500  to  750  His.  form  a  heavy 
caravan ;  light  caravans  being  the  term  applied  to  des- 
ignate those  formed  of  camels  under  a  more  moderate 
load,  or  perhaps  only  holf  loaded.  'I'lie  mean  daily 
rate  at  which  heavy  caravans  travel  is  al)out  1^^  miles, 
and  that  of  light  caravans  22  miles. 

The  safety  of  a  caravan  depends  materially  on  the 
conduct  of  the  raravnn-hachi,  or  leailer.  Nl«bnhr  says, 
that  when  the  latter  is  intelligent  and  lioncat,  and  the 
traveler  understands  the  language,  and  is  accustom- 
ed to  the  Oriental  method  of  traveling,  an  excursion 
through  the  desert  ii  rarely  either  disagreeable  or  dan> 


gerous.  But  it  Is  not  unusual  for  the  Turkish  pachas 
to  realize  considerable  sums  by  selling  the  privilege  of 
conducting  caravans ;  and  it  is  generally  believed  in 
the  East  that  leaders  so  appointed,  in  order  to  indem- 
nify themselves,  not  unfrcquently  arrnngo  with  the 
Arabian  sheikhs  as  to  the  attack  of  the  caravans,  and 
shnro  with  thorn  in  the  booty.  At  all  events,  a  leader 
who  has  paid  a  large  sum  for  the  situation,  even  if  lie 
should  be  honest,  must  impose  proportionally  heavy 
charges  on  the  association.  Hence  the  l)cst  way  in 
traveling  with  caravans  is,  to  attach  one'j  self  to  ono 
conducted  by  an  active  and  exiicrienced  mercliant,  who 
has  a  considerable  property  embarked  in  the  expedi- 
tion. With  ordinary  precaution,  the  danger  is  then 
verj-  trifling.  It  would  bo  easy,  indeed,  were  there 
any  thing  like  proper  arrangements  made  by  govern- 
ment, to  render  traveling  l)y  caravans,  at  least  on  all 
the  great  routes,  abundantly  secure. — Nikuliih,  Vvi/age 
tn  Arable,  tome  ii.  p.  194,  ed.  Amst.  1780. 

No  particular  formalities  are  required  in  the  forma- 

!  tion  of  a  caravan.  Those  that  start  ut  fixed  periods 
are  mostly  under  the  control  of  government,  by  whom 
the  leaders  are  appointetl.  But,  generally  speaking, 
any  dealer  is  at  lilierty  to  form  a  company  and  make 
one.  The  individual  in  whose  name  it  is  raised  is  con- 
sidered 1.9  the  leader,  or  carartin-bachi,  unless  ho  ap- 
point some  one  else  in  his  place.  AVhcn  a  numlier  of 
merchants  associate  together  in  the  design,  they  elect 
a  chief,  and  appoint  officers  to  decide  whatever  contro- 
versies may  arise  during  the  journey.— For  further  do- 
tails  with  resjwct  to  caravans,  sec  the  Mudti-n  Part  of 
the  I'ltivirtal  llhtoig,  vol.  xiv.  p.  214-248;  RonwiT- 
son's  Disquisition  on  Ancimt  India,  Ifotc  5-1;  Rkks' 
Cyclopedia,  art.  Cnraran,  most  of  which  is  copied  from 
Robertson,  though  without  a  single  word  of  acknowl- 
edgment; BL'ncKll.\nuT's  Trarels  in  Arabia,  vol.  ii. 
passim;  UnQiin,VRT  on  Turkey  and  its  Resources,  p. 
137,  161,  etc. 

Caravanaerai,  a  large  public  building  or  inn  ap- 
propriated for  the  reception  and  lodgment  of  the  cara- 
\  ans.  Though  serving  in  lieu  of  inns,  there  is  this 
radical  difference  between  them — that,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  traveler  finds  nothing  in  a  caravanserai  for  the 
use  either  of  himself  or  his  cattle.  He  nmst  carry  all 
his  provisions  and  necessaries  with  him.     They  are 

I  chiefly  built  in  dry,  barren,  desert  places ;  and  are 
mostl)'  furnished  with  wafer  brought  from  a  great  dis- 
tance and  at  a  vast  expense.  A  well  of  water  is,  in- 
deed, indispensable  to  a  caravanserai.  Caravanserais 
are  also  numerous  In  cities ;  where  ihey  serve  not  only 

!  as  inns,  Imt  as  .«liops,  warehouses,  and  even  exchanges. 
Caravray-seed  (Er.  Can-i,  Cumin  desjm's;  Gcr. 
Keummel,  Urudkiivimel ;  It.  Cm'X'i),  a  small  seed,  of 
an  o)>long  ond  slender  figure,  pointed  at  both  ends,  and 
thickest  in  the  middle.  It  is  the  produce  of  n  biennial 
plant  (fiimm  enntt),  with  n  toper  root  like  a  parsnip, 
but  much  smaller.  It  should  be  chosen  large,  new,  of 
a  good  color,  not  dusty,  and  of  a  strong  agreeable  smell. 
It  is  principally  used  l)y  confectioners.     The  stem 

!  rises  from  two  to  three  feet  in  height,  and  produces 
numerous  umbels   of  small  whitish  or  reddish  flow- 

j  ers ;  and  each  flower  is  succeeded  by  two  single-srcdcd 
capsules,  which  arc  the  caraway-seeds  of  commerce. 
These  have  a  strong  peculiar  odor,  with  an  aromatic 
bitter  taste,  and  yield,  on  distillation,  almut  4  per  cent, 
of  a  volatile  oil,  on  which  their  properties  depend. 

Carboy,  a  large  glol)uIar  bottle  of  green  glass,  pro- 
tected by  wicker-work ;  used  chiefly  for  holding  acids 
and  highly  corrosive  liquids.  The  average  capacity 
of  these  imtllcs  is  12  gallons. 

Carbuncle  (f!er.  A'ar/imW;  Tr.  Kscnrbnidie ;  It. 
Caroimchio;  Hp.  Cnrbunrufo ;  l.at.  CarbumtilHs),  a  pre- 
cious stone  of  the  ruby  kind,  of  a  very  rich  glowing 
blood-red  color,  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients. — 
See  Rrnv. 

Card  (Fr,  Cnrdes ;  Ger.  Kardatschen,  Karden,  Woll- 
Iraizatf  It.  Cardi/  Ruts.  BardU;  Sp.  Cartftu),  an  in 


CAR 


276 


CAR 


strnment,  or  comb,  for  arranging  or  sorting  Iho  halri 
of  wool,  cotton,  etc.  Cards  are  either  fantcncd  to  a  flat 
piece  of  wood,  and  wrought  by  the  hand ;  or  to  a  cyl- 
inder, wrought  by  machinery. — See  Playiso  Cahds. 

CarcUunonU  (Fr.  Cariltmiomes ;  Gcr.  Kanlnmom; 
It.  Cardamomi;  Sfi.  Kartlamomot ;  Hind.  Cujaratiela- 
cAi),  seed  capsules  produced  by  a  plant,  of  wliicli  there 
are  different  species  growing  in  India,  Cochin  China, 
Siam,  and  Ceylon.  The  capsules  are  gathered  as  they 
ripen;  and  when  dried  in  tlie  sun,  arc  fit  for  sale.  The 
small  capsules,  or  lesser  cardamoms,  are  produced  Iiy 
a  particular  species  of  the  plant,  and  arc  the  most  ral- 
ual)le.  Tliey  should  be  chosen  full,  plump,  and  diffi- 
cult to  bo  broltcn ;  of  a  bright  yellow  color ;  a  piercing 
smell ;  with  an  acrid,  bitterish,  tliough  not  very  un- 
pleasant taste ;  and  particular  euro  should  bo  talcen 
that  they  are  properly  dried.  They  are  reckoned  to 
keep  licst  in  a  body,  ai»:l  are  therefore  packed  in  large 
chests,  well  jointed,  pitched  at  the  seams,  and  other- 
wise properly  secured,  as  the  least  damp  greatly  re- 
dnccs  their  value.  The  best  cardamoms  are  brought 
from  the  Malabar  coast.  The}'  arc  produced  in  tlie 
recesses  of  the  mountains  by  felling  trees,  and  after- 
ward burning  them ;  for  wherever  the  ashes  fall  in  the 
openings  or  fissures  of  the  rocks,  the  cardamom  plant 
naturally  springs  up.  In  Soonda  Balagat,  and  other 
places  whore  cardamoms  are  ])lanted,  the  fruit  or  ber- 
ry is  very  inferior  to  that  produced  in  the  way  now 
mentioned.  Tho  Malabar  cardamom  is  described  as  a 
species  of  bulbous  plant,  growing  3  or  4  feet  high. 
Tho  growers  are  obliged  to  sell  all  their  produce  to  the 
ogents  of  government  at  i)rices  fixed  by  the  latter, 
varying  from  550  to  700  rupees  tho  candy  of  COO  lbs. 
avoirdupois;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  contractor  often 
puts  an  enhanced  value  on  the  coins  with  wliich  he  pays 
tlio  mountaineers ;  or  makes  tliem  take  in  exchange 
tobacco,  clotlis,  salt,  oil,  bctcl-nut,  and  such  necessary 
articles,  at  prices  wliicli  are  frequently,  no  doubt,  es- 
timated above  their  proper  level.  Such  a  system 
ought  assuredly  to  t)C  put  un  immediate  end  to.  Not 
more  than  one  hundredth  part  of  the  cardamoms  raised 
in  SInlabar  arc  used  in  tlio  country.  They  are  sent  in 
large  (piantities  to  the  ports  on  tho  Kcd  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  to  Sind,  up  the  Indus,  to  Bengal,  Bom- 
bay, etc.  Tliey  form  a  universal  ingredient  in  cur- 
ries, piliaus,  etc.  The  market  price,  at  the  places  of 
exportation  on  the  Malabar  coast,  varies  from  800  to 
1200  rupees  tlio  candy. — Mii.uuhn's  Orient.  Comtnerce, 
and  the  valualilc  evidence  of  T.  II.  Babcr,  Ksq.,  before 
Parliament,  1830. 

Cardiual  Points,  in  Cosmom-aphy,  are  the  four 
intersections  of  the  horizon  witli  the  meridian  and  the 
prime  vertical  circle,  or  North  and  South,  East  and 
West.  Tiie  cardinal  points,  therefore,  coincide  with 
the  four  cardinal  rogioi-s  of  the  heavens,  and  arc  90° 
distant  from  each  otiier.  Tiie  intermediate  points  are 
called  collatinil  jwinlf. 

Cards,  or  Playing  Cards  (Du.  Kaart'^^n,  Speel- 
larJen  ;  Vr.  Curies  iijoutr;  Our.  Karlen,  Spiel  Karlen  ; 
It.  Carte  da  ijiunco ;  IJuss.  A'rtrtM;  Sp.  Carrnj,  AVk/jci; 
Sw.  Kort),  munufnctured  of  pieces  of  puste-board,  hav- 
ing various  devices,  and  arranged  in  packs,  gonerBlIy 
of  52  pieces  in  a  pack  and  used  for  playing  numerous 
games. — See  Pi.Avisti  Cakds. 

Careening  (^Frcnch  t'aire  iMattre  carener"),  heav- 
ing a  vessel  <lown  on  one  side,  liy  applying  a  strong 
l)Urchaso  to  llie  masts,  so  that  the  vessel  may  be  clear- 
ed from  anyjillh  that  adheres  to  it  by  breaming,  A 
half  careen  takes  place  when  it  Is  not  possible  to  come 
at  tlie  bottom  of  the  ship ,  so  that  only  half  of  It  can 
bo  careened. 

Caribbean  Sea,  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
lying  between  tlu^  coasts  of  Central  and  South  America 
and  tlie  Islands  of  Cuba,  Ilaytl,  Porto  Riro,  and  the 
Leeward  and  Wiiu Ward  Islands. 

Carlbbee  IslaiA-la,  in  its  more  extended  sense,  Is 
applied  to  the  whole  b.''tho  West  Indies;  but  strictly 


It  only  comprehends  that  cluster  of  islands  stretching 
from  Porto  Rico  to  tho  coast  of  South  America,  and 
known  as  the  Leeward  and  Windward  Islands. 

Carline,  or  Caroline,  a  sllvercoln  currant  at  Ha- 
pics,  worth  about  Ad.  sterling. 

Carlines,  or  Carlings,  In  a  ship,  two  pieces  of 
timber  ranging  fore  and  uft  from  one  beam  to  another 
directly  over  the  keel.  On  these  rest  tho  ledges  to 
which  the  planks  of  the  deck  aro  fixed.  Carline  knees 
are  timbers  lying  athwart  tho  ship,  from  the  sides  to 
the  hatchway,  and  serving  to  sustain  the  deck. 

Carmine  (Ger.  Kannin;  Du,  Karmgn;  Fr.  Car- 
mine; It.  Carminiu;  Lat.  Cunninmm'),  a  powder  of  a 
very  beautiful  red  color,  bordering  upon  purple,  and 
used  l>y  painters  in  miniature.  It  is  a  species  otlake, 
and  is  formed  of  finely  pulverized  cochineal.  It  is  very 
high  priced, 

Camelian,    See  Agatk, 

Carpet,  Carpets  (Ger,  Teppiche ;  Du,  Tapylen, 
Vlner-tapyttn I  Fr,  Tapit;  It,  Tappeli ;  Sp,  Alfombrcu, 
Alcatifm,  Tapeles;  Uuss,  Kouru,Killmi),  Is supimsed  to 
be  derived  from  Cairo  (whence  also  the  French  Cairam, 
a  Turkey  carpet),  and  from  the  Latin  tapes,  tajxistrj', 
corresponding  to  the  Italliiu  caipetta  and  the  Dutch 
karpet.  It  is  legitimately  applied  to  an  article  of  man- 
tifacturo  used  for  covering  the  floors  of  chambers  or 
spreading  on  the  ground,  althou.i;h,  while  It  was  a 
novelty  In  Europe,  tables  also  were  covered  with  It, 
Carpets  and  rugs  were  manufactured  at  a  very  remote 
period  in  Kgypt,  India,  and  Clilna ;  but  those  of  Per- 
sia and  Turkey  are  the  most  celebrated.  They  were 
originally  used  for  sitting  and  reclining  upon,  as  may 
still  1)C  observed  in  Eastern  countries,  where  they  con- 
stitutc  tho  entire  furniture  of  tho  |ieop'e.  In  Egypt 
they  were  first  applied  to  religious  pi  rposes  by  the 
priests  of  Ileliopolis,  and  were  olso  usee'  to  garnish  the 
palaces  of  the  Pharaohs.  It  was  al$io  a  custom  of  an- 
tiquity to  place  them  under  tlie  couches  of  guests  at 
liauqucts.  Sardinian  carpets  arc  mer  tioned  liy  Plato, 
tho  comic  poet,  as  being  disposed  In  this  manner — "  be- 
neath the  ivory  feet  of  purple-cushioned  couches." 
The  cirpets  of  tlie  Homeric  Age  were  generally  white 
or  plain  cloths ;  liut  they  were  also  sometimes  produced 
with  various  colors  and  embroidered  designs.  -At  the 
supper  of  Iphicrates,  purple  carpets  were  spread  on  the 
floor ;  and  ut  the  magnificent  lianquct  of  Ptolemy  Phil- 
adelphus  (an  account  of  which  Is  given  liy  Callixenus 
of  Rhodes)  we  learn  that  underneath  200  golden  couches 
"were  strewed  purple  carpets  of  tho  finest  wool,  with 
the  carpet  pattern  on  both  sides ;  and  there  were  hand- 
somely embroidered  rugs,  very  lieautlfully  claliorated 
with  figures.  Besides  this,"  he  adds,  "thin  Persian 
cloths  covered  all  tho  centre  space  where  tho  guests 
walked,  having  most  accurate  representations  of  oni- 
inals  embroidered  on  them." — Alhenteua,  v.  2C.  The 
Babylonians,  who  were  very  skillful  In  weaving  cloths 
of  divers  colors  (Pi.iN  v,  viii.  48),  delineated  upon  their 
carpets  entire  groups  of  human  figures,  togetlicr  with 
such  faliulous  animals  as  the  dragon,  tlie  sphinx,  and 
the  griffin.  These  were  numbered  among  the  luxuries 
of  lleliogabalus.  On  the  tomli  of  Cyrus  was  spread  a 
purple  Baliylonlan  rariict,  and  another  covered  the  bed 
whereon  his  body  was  placed. — AitRi  am,  vI.  29.  Those 
carpets  were  exjiorted  in  considerable  quantities  to 
Greece  and  T'.omc,  wliere  they  were  higlily  esteemed. 
Carthage  was  also  noted  liy  Hernilppus,  Afitlphanes, 
and  others,  for  Its  magnificent  carpets. 

"  Carpets  were  In  use,  at  least  In  some  kind,  as  early 
as  tlio  days  of  Amos,  about  800  n.c. — Amos,  ii.  8. 
Carpets  were  spread  on  the  ground,  on  whicli  persons 
sat  who  dwelt  in  tents ;  but  when  first  used  In  houses, 
even  in  tlie  East,  we  have  no  record.  In  the  twelfth 
century  carpets  were  articles  of  luxury ;  and  In  En- 
gland, it  is  mentioned  as  an  instance  of  Becket's  splen- 
did style  of  living,  that  his  sumptuous  apartments 
were  every  day  In  winter  strewn  w  itii  clean  straw  or 
hav ;  about  a,d,  1100,     The  manufacture  of  woolen 


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276 


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carpets  was  introduced  into  France  from  Persia,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.,  between  1589  mid  1610.  Some 
artisans  wlio  hud  quitted  France  in  disgust  went  to 
England,  and  establlBhed  the  carpet  manufacture  about 
17S0.  There,  as  with  most  nations,  Persian  and  Tur- 
key carpets,  especially  the  former,  are  most  prized. 
The  famous  Axmlnster,  Wilton,  and  Kidderminster 
manufacture  is  the  growth  of  tlio  last  hundred  years. 
The  manufacture  of  Kidderminster  and  Brussels  car- 
pets has  much  advanced  within  fifteen  years,  at  Low- 
ell, Massachusetts,  and  Thomsonville,  Connecticut," — 
Haydn, 

Sir  J.  Gardiner  Wilkinson  gives  us  an  account  of 
an  ancient  carpet-rug  of  Egyptian  manufacture,  "  This 
rug,"  he  tells  us,  "  is  made,  like  many  cloths  of  the 
present  day,  with  woolen  threads  on  linen  strings.  In 
the  centre  is  the  figure  of  a  boy  in  white,  with  a  goose 
above,  the  hieroglyphic  of  a  'child,'  upon  a  green 
ground,  around  which  is  a  border  composed  of  red  and 
blue  lines,"  etc. — Manners  and  Cxutoms  of  the  Ancient 
Kgyptiaru,  vol.  ill.  p.  U\-2.  Ho  further  informs  us 
that  there  are  in  the  Turin  Museum  some  specimens 
of  worked  worsted  upon  linen,  "  in  which  the  linen 
threads  of  the  weft  had  been  picked  out,  and  colored 
worsted  sewed  ou  the  warp."  In  these  two  examples 
we  have  evidence  of  the  existence,  at  a  very  curly 
time,  of  a  system  of  tapestry-weaving.  The  ancient 
carpet  manufacture  of  the  Asiatic  countries  may  re- 
solve itself  under  the  appellation  of  needle-work.  Uf 
this,  the  present  process  of  curiiet-weaving  in  I'ersiu 
and  Turkey,  and  the  tapes!  'y  manufacture  of  France, 
may  be  considered  as  flttin/_,  examples.  The  tapestr}-, 
as  is  well  known,  consists  of  woolen  or  other  threads 
sewed  on  the  strings  of  the  warp  by  means  of  small 
shuttle-needles.  The  Persian  carpet  is  formed  by 
knotting  into  the  warp  tuft  after  tuft  of  woolen  yarn, 
over  each  row  of  which  a  woof  shot  is  passed,  the  fin- 
gers being  here  employed  instead  of  the  shuttle-needles, 
as  the  fal>ric  is  of  a  coarser  description.  In  both  meth- 
ods the  principle  is  the  same.  Both  are  formed  in 
looms  of  ver^  simple  construction,  the  warp  threads 
are  arranged  in  parallel  order,  whether  upright  or  hor- 
izontal, and  the  fal)ric  and  pattern  are  produced  by 
colored  threads,  hand-wrought  upon  the  warp.  This 
may  be  designated  the  hand-wrought  or  needle-work 
method,  which  only  makes  one  stitch  or  loop  at  a  time, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  machine-wrought  process, 
the  result  of  mechanical  appliances,  whereby  a  thou- 
sand stitches  are  effected  at  once.  Herein  lies  the 
essential  difference  between  the  ancient  and  modem, 
the  simple  and  complex  carpet  manufacture. 

Persia. — In  Persia  thpre  are  entire  tribes  and  fiim- 
ilies  whose  only  occupation  is  that  of  carpet-weaving. 
These  dispose  of  their  productions  at  the  bazars  to 
native  merchants,  who  remove  them  to  Smyrna  or 
Constantinople,  where  they  meet  with  European  pur- 
chasers. Tlia  trade  in  reail  Persian  carpets  is,  howev- 
er, very  limited,  owing  to  their  small  size.  They  arc 
seldom  larger  than  hearth-rugs,  long  and  narrow. 
Very  many  of  them,  moreover,  are  considerably  tur- 
nished  by  exposure  in  bazars,  if  they  have  not  indeed 
been  already  used.  To  render  them  more  salable  they 
are  cleaned.  This  is  done  by  cropping  the  surface, 
which  in  some  cases  is  shaved  quite  close  to  the  knot ; 
hence  a  great  proportion  of  those  brought  to  this  coun- 
try have  not  their  original  richness  and  depth  of  pile. 
Felted  carpets  oTnurmudi  are  also  made  in  Persia,  but 
do  not  constitute  an  export  commmlity.  Sir  Henry 
Bethune,  late  Persian  embassador,  had  in  his  posses- 
sion a  very  singular  specimen  of  this  felt  carpeting,  in 
which  colored  tufts  of  worsted  had  been  inserted  dur- 
ing the  process  of  manufacture,  producing  a  regular 
pattern  when  finished. 

Turkty. — ^The  greater  part  of  those  Turkey  carpets 
imported  into  Western  Europe  are  manufactured  at 
Usbok  or  Ouchak,  in  the  province  of  Aidin,  about  six 
days'  joainey  firom  Smyrna,  and  rugs  priacipalty  at 


Kulah  or  Koula,  an  adjacent  village.  In  the  provinces 
of  Iloodavendigniar,  Adnuu,  and  Nish,  numerous 
households  are  employed  in  their  production,  as  also 
in  the  districts  of  Bozah,  the  city  of  Aleppo,  and  the 
villages  of  Trebizond.  Here  and  there,  throughout 
Caranmnia,  such  carpets  are  also  made.  The  'Turco- 
mans of  Tripoli,  the  women  of  Candia,  and  the  peas- 
antry of  Tunis  and  Algiers,  are  likewise  engaged  in 
their  fabrication.  In  none  of  these  places,  however, 
does  any  large  manufactory  exist ;  the  carpets  arc  the 
work  of  families  and  households.  These  cai'|iets  are 
woven  in  one  piece,  and  there  is  this  notable  i>e<.  'iliari. 
ty  in  their  manufacture,  that  the  same  pattern  is  never 
again  exactly  reproduced ;  nu  two  carpets  are  quite 
alike.  The  pattenis  are  very  remarkable,  and  their 
origin  is  unknown  even  to  Mussulmans,  The  Turkey 
carpet  pattern  represents  inlaid  jeweled  work,  which 
accords  with  Eastern  tales  of  jewels  and  diamonds. 
If  this  were  rightly  understood,  it  would  prevent  such 
speculations  as  those  of  Mr.  Redgrave  in  his  Great  Ex- 
hibition Report  on  Design,  wliere  he  remarks,  that 
"  the  Turkish  car])cts  are  generally  designed  with  a 
fat  border  of  flowers  of  the  natural  size,  and  with  a 
centre  of  larger  forms  conventionalized  in  some  cases 
even  to  the  extent  of  obscuring  the  forms — a  fault  to 
be  avoided."  This  is  doubtless  a  very  ingenious  mode 
of  accounting  for  the  curious  fonns  of  a  Turkey  car- 
pet ;  but  these,  however  fantastic,  are  never  obscured, 
nor  are  there  any  flowers,  flat  or  otherwise,  in  the  bor- 
ders (ir  elsewhere.  The  great  beauty  of  tliesc  carpets 
lies  in  the  equal  balance  of  color,  of  dull  neutral  shades, 
somewhat  sombre  in  effect. 

India, — Generally  throughout  British  India  the 
carpet  manufacture  is  carried  on.  At  Benares  and 
Moorshedcbad  are  produced  velvet  carpets  witli  gold 
embroidery,  A  very  eluliorate  carpet,  sent  from  Cash- 
mere to  the  Great  Exhibition  by  Maharajah  Goolab 
Singh,  was  composed  entirely  of  silk,  and  excited 
great  admiration.  In  evcrj'  square  foot  of  this  carpet, 
we  are  informed,  there  were  at  least  ]0,0(5o  tics  or 
knots.  Silk  embroidered  hookah  car|)cts  are  made  at 
Lahore,  Mooltan,  Khyrpoor,  Tanjoro,  and  Bengal; 
cotton  carpets,  or  salrunjeet  at  Rungpore,  Agra,  and 
Sasserum ;  printed  cotton  carpets  at  Ahmedul)ud ; 
printed  floor-cloth  at  Mooltan.  Woolen  carpets  are 
far  more  extensively  manufactured ;  some  of  which 
come  from  Ellore,  Mirzapore,  and  Goruckpore ;  but  the 
principal  manufacture  rs  at  Masulipatam,  292  miles 
north  from  Madras.  There  the  capital  and  enterprise 
of  Great  Britain  have  lent  their  aid  to  the  rather  tardy 
movements  of  the  natives,  and  this  article  is  now  in 
general  demand.  Of  late  years  linen  warp  has  b«cn 
introduced  instead  of  cotton,  and  the  faiiric  is  thereby 
much  improved,  Tlio  designs  of  the  Indian  carpets 
have  more  regulority  than  those  of  Turkey,  and  the 
colors  are  mostly  warm  negatives,  enlivened  with  liril- 
liant  hues  interspersed.  For  the  introduction  of  Masul- 
ipatam  carpets,  us  of  many  otiiers,  the  English  are  in- 
debted to  the  firm  of  Watson,  Bell,  &  Co.,  whose  In- 
dian connection  is  the  sole  means  of  obtaining  these 
beautiful  fabrics.— E.  B. 

Tlie  total  value  uf  I'ersian,  Turkey,  and  Indian  car- 
pets imported  into  England  may  be  computed  at  about 
£20,000  per  annum. 

Oriental  carpets  were  first  introduced  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors ;  and  at  a  later  date  the  Venetians  ini]>orted 
them  into  Italy,  and  s\ipplied  Western  Europe  with 
this  luxurious  manufacture.  We  have  frequent  men- 
tion of  them  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  their  cost- 
liness and  magnificence  arc  celebrated  in  the  illumin- 
ated jMiges  of  fubllnux  and  romances.  They  were 
spread  in  tlie  prcsence-chamlicrs  of  royalty,  before  the 
high  altars  of  cha[)els  and  cathedrals,  in  the  bowers  of 
"ladyes  faire,"  and  on  the  summer  grass.  Many  ar- 
ticles of  f\imiturc  were  also  covered  with  them — beds, 
couches,  tables,  and  regal  faldestols ;  but  here  it  be- 
comes difficult  to  diitinguUh  between  carpet  and  tap- 


CAR 


277 


CAR 


mn  cur- 
at about 

ipaln  liy 
iportcd 
pe  with 
nt  mcn- 
dr  cost- 
illumin- 
jy  were 
iforc  the 
iwcrs  of 
lany  ar- 
1 — Ijeds, 
re  It  be- 
ind  tap- 


estry, both  beinf;  used  promiscnously.  Tapestry  of 
Duldekino  or  Baldnchlno  (from  Italdak,  altcient  name 
of  Ilagdad),  was  a  carpet  Inwrought  with  gold  and 
silver  threads.  Such  were  carried  on  poles,  and  up- 
lifted as  n  canopy  c  vet  the  host,  and  over  great  per- 
sonages in  procession.  The  troubadours  had  carpets 
of  gold  embroidery  which  they  laid  upon  the  grass 
beneath  them.  Hearth-rUgs  and  throne  carpets,  gor- 
geously emblazoned  with  heraldic  cent|re-pleces,  were 
the  handiwork  of  high-bom  dames  during  the  romance 
period.  To  some  of  these  were  attached  fHnges,  but 
such  were  more  usually  composed  of  the  fag-ends  of 
the  warp,  like  those  of  Persia,  India,  and  Turkey.  A 
black  velvet  carpet,  "  fringed  with  silver  and  gold, 
and  lined  with  taffeta,"  is  enumerated  in  the  inven- 
tory of  Archbishop  Parke's  household  fUmiture  in 
1577.  Kushes  were  strewn  on  the  floor  of  Queen  Ma- 
ry's presence-chamber,  and  that  of  Elizabeth  had  the 
additional  covering  of  a  Turkey  carpet.  Long  prior 
to  this,  however.  Eastern  carpets  had  been  introduced. 
In  tlie  reign  of  Edward  VI.  wo  read  that  before  com- 
munion-hibles  were  placed 

"  Carpets  full  gay, 
Ttiat  wrought  were  In  the  Orient" 

Checkered  matting  appears  to  have  been  very  gener- 
ally used  about  the  fifteenth  century.  The  same  ar- 
ticle is  produced  in  many  parts  of  Asia  from  the  grassy 
fibres  of  the  ,ratan.  A  superior  description  is  now 
made  from  c6coa-nut  fibre  and  Manillan  flax.  In 
Lydgate's  metrical  life  of  St.  Edmund  (MS.  Harl.  No. 
2278)  is  a  representation  of  tha  room  wherein  that 
saint  was  born;  t'.e  floor  is  covered  with  checkered 
matting,  and  a  fringed  hearth-mg  of  Gothic  design  is 
before  the  fire-place.  Carpets  composed  entirely  of 
leather  strips  interlaced  together  may  bo  seen  in  our 
antiquarian  museums.  A  sample  of  this  description 
was  lately  prepared  for  the  inspection  of  the  now  houses 
of  Parliament,  and  offered  as  a  covering  for  their  halls 
and  passages,  but  was  rejected. 

France.— In  tlie  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the  carpet  mun- 
nfacturo  appears  to  have  been  introduced  from  Persia 
Into  France.  Colbert,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV., 
established  the  it'-.^nufactory  at  Bcaurais  in  1604, 
which  is  now  ;ii  tlio  hands  of  the  French  government, 
and  produces  very  artistic  specimens.  A  variety  of 
those,  "in  Turkish,  Pertivlan,  and  Chinese  styles," 
was  exhibited  in  London  In  1851.  The  national  man- 
nfactoiy  of  Gobelins,  which  likewise  sent  its  beautiful 
carpets  and  tapestry  to  the  great  exhibition,  was  estab- 
lished shortly  after  that  of  Beauvais.  It  was  pur- 
chased In  1677  l)y  Colbert  from  the  Gobelin  family, 
whose  progenitors,  a  century  ago  (Gilles  and  Jean 
Gol]elin),  brought  their  art,  as  was  supposed,  from 
Flanders.  An  attempt  was  made,  In  the  time  of  Hen- 
ry VIII.,  by  William  Sheldon,  to  start  this  manufac- 
ture in  England  ;  but  under  the  patronage  of  James  I. 
it  was  more  successfully  established,  with  the  super- 
intendence of  Sir  Francis  Crane,  at  Mortlako,  In  Sur- 
rey, whore  both  carpets  and  tapestry  were,  produced. 
Toward  this  object  the  sum  of  £2676  sterling  was  con- 
tributed by  its  royal  patron,  and  French  weavers  were 
brought  over  to  assist.  But  it  docs  not  appear  that 
any  thing  considerable  was  effected  until  after  the  rev- 
ocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1085,  when  artisans 
of  every  trade  fled  to  England,  among  whom  were 
tapestry  and  carjiet  weavers,  who  settled  in  various 
parts.  About  the  year  1750,  Mr.  Moore  was  awanfed 
a  premium  by  the  Society  of  Arts  for  the  Iwst  imita- 
tion Turkey  carpets ;  and  Parisot  conducted  an  estab- 
lishment for  their  manufacture  at  Paddlngton,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Cumlierland.  Subse- 
quently, carpets  were  wrought  on  the  same  principle 
at  Axminster,  In  Devonshire,  whence  the  name ;  and 
afterward  at  Wilton,  where  they  are  still  manufac- 
t'jrod.  The  l)oard  of  trustees  for  the  encouragement 
of  arts  and  manufactures  in  Scotland  ofl'ered  prizes  for 
the  best  Persian  and  Turkey  carpets.    About  ninety 


years  previously  they  had  been  made  in  the  vicinity 
of  Holy  rood  Palace.  These  expensive  and  magnifi- 
cent carpets  are  now  made  in  matiy  parts  of  Europe, 
but  more  particularly  at  the  Gobelins  raonufactory,  at 
Aubusson  and  FcUitin,  in  the  department  of  Creuse, 
at  the  manufacture  royal  de  tapis  de  toumai  in  Bel- 
gium, and  at  Devcntcr  in  the  Netherlands.  They  are 
also  made  in  London  and  Kidderminster. 

Hitherto  wo  have  been  treating  of  the  simple  hand- 
wrought  or  needle-work  process,  which  implies  great 
expense  and  waste  of  time  and  labor,  and  is  therefore 
not  calculated  to  supply  a  general  demand.  The  ma- 
chine-wrought fabric  now  claims  our  attention ;  and 
first  in  order,  the  common  lugrain,  Kidderminster,  or 
Scotch  carpet,  which  is  made  in  many  parts  of  Scot- 
land, the  north  of  England,  and  In  the  United  States. 
This  consists  of  worsted  warp  traversed  by  woolen 
weft,  and  is  woven  in  pieces  about  a  yard  wide.  It  Is 
composed  of  two  distinct  webs  interlaced  together  at 
one  operation,  and  is  therefore  a  doiilile  or  two-ply  car- 
pet, similar  on  cither  side.  In  tbi  irtiolo  only  two 
colors  can  with  propriety  be  introduced,  as  otherwise 
it  has  a  striped  or  mixed  apiwarance.  A  pure  or  plain 
color  can  only  be  obtained  where  the  weft  traverses 
the  warp  of  the  same  color.  Suppose  a  crimson  figure 
on  a  maroon  ground ;  the  one  web  is  maroon,  the  other 
is  crimson,  and  the  pattern  is  produced  by  these  inter- 
secting and  decussating  eacli  other  at  points  predeterm- 
ined ;  thus  wliat  Is  crimson  on  one  side  is  maroon  on 
the  other,  and  vice  versa.  ■  One  beam  contains  the  warp 
of  both  plies,  arranged  In  two  tiers,  which  is  passed 
through  the  mails  or  metallic  eyes  of  the  harness — two 
threads  through  each  eye — and  thence  through  the 
reed.  The  harness  draws  up  certain  warp  threads,  to 
admit  of  the  pa.ssage  of  the  shuttle  with  the  weft,  the 
pattern  depending  upon  such  warp  threads  as  are  so 
drawn  up.  This  was  formerlv  cftectcd  by  means  of 
n  revolving  barrel,  whose  surface  was  studded  with 
pins,  which  by  rotation  acted  uixin  the  warp  threads. 
These  studs  being  arranged  so  as  to  produce  one  pat- 
tern, a  separate  barrel,  or  a  new  arrangement  of  the 
studs,  was  requisite  for  every  other  pattern.  But  this 
machine  is  now  superseded  l)y  the  more  efficient  Jac- 
qnard  apparatus,  wliich  produces  the  pattern  by  means 
of  an  endless  chain  of  perforated  cards  working  against 
parallel  rows  of  needles.  This  double  fabric  is  also 
made  in  France,  and  sprigs  of  divers  colors  inserted. 
A  detailed  account  of  this  process,  with  elaborate  dia- 
grams, Is  given  by  M.  Koland  do  la  Platiire,  in  the 
A'nci/clnpi'die  ifithodiiiue.  An  improvement  upon  the 
Kidderminster  carpet  is  the  triple  or  three-ply  fabric, 
the  Invention  of  Mr.  Thomas  Morton,  of  Kilmarnock. 
This  is  composed  of  three  distinct  webs,  which,  by  in- 
terchanging their  threads,  produce  the  pattern  on  both 
sides.  A  variety  of  color  is  thus  obtained,  and  the 
texture  is  of  great  thickness  and  durability.  Figured 
Venetian  carpeting  Is  of  similar  description  ;  here  the 
woof  is  completely  covered  by  a  heavy  l)ody  of  warp. 
Dutch  carpeting  Is  much  Inferior  in  quality,  and  was 
originally  made  of  cow-hair,  but  now  of  the  coarsest 
wool.  Neither  fabric  has  great  capabilities  of  design ; 
simple  diced  patterns  are  wrought  In  the  Venetian, 
stripes  and  checkers  \n  the  Dutch. 

"Tlie  Brussels  carpet  Is  a  very  superior  texture.  It 
is  composed  of  worsted  and  linen,  and  has  a  rich  cord- 
ed appearance.  The  figures  are  raised  entirely  from 
the  warp,  by  inserting  a  series  of  wires  between  the 
linen  foundation  and  the  superficial  yarn.  These  wires 
arc  afterward  withdrawn,  leaving  a  looped  surface. 
In  this  manufacture  there  is  a  great  waste  of  material, 
and  the  colors  are  usually  limited  to  five.  Each  color 
has  its  continuous  lnyer  of  thread,  running  from  end 
to  end  of  the  web,  which  rises  to  the  surface  at  inter- 
vals  indlcatrd  by  tho  design,  and  then  sinks  into  the 
body  of  tho  fabric.  Thus  there  arc  five  layers  or  cov- 
ers, only  a  fifth  part  of  which  is  visible;  and  owing  to 
tho  irregularity  of  their  ascent  to  tha  surface,  they  can 


CAB 


278 


OAR 


not  be  plaoed  upon  one  beam,  but  e«cb  thread  t«  wound 
on  a  separate  bobbin,  trith  a  weight  attached  to  give  ■ 
proper  tension.  Brussels  carpets  were  llrat  Introduced 
Into  Wilton  about  a  century  ago,  from  Tourpal,  In 
Belgium.  Kidderminster  is  now  tlio  chief  seat  of  this 
manufacture,  where  upward  of  2000  looms  are  in  oper- 
ation. 

Moquette  or  Wilton  carpets  are  woven  in  the  same 
manner,  and  diffisr  only  in  this,  that  the  loops  are  cut 
open  into  an  elastic  velvet  pile.  To  eflTect  this,  the 
wires  are  not  circular  as  in  the  Brussels  fabric,  but  flat, 
and  furnished  with  a  groove  in  the  upper  edge,  whore- 
in  the  sharp  point  of  a  knife  is  inserted  and  drawn 
across  the  yarn,  cutting  the  pile.  These  carpets,  be- 
sides being  manufactured  in  many  parts  of  England 
and  Scotland,  are  also  made  in  France. 

A  great  improvement  in  carpet-making,  which  orig- 
inated in  Scotland,  was  patented  by  Mr.  James  Tern- 
pleton,  of  Glasgow.  It  is  on  the  chenille  principle,  and 
consists  of  a  process  of  double  weaving.  First  a  thin 
striped  fabric  is  made ;  and  this,  when  cut  up,  is  again 
woven  into  a  denser  fabric  for  carpets,  rugs,  and  table- 
covers. 

Patent  wool  mosaic  is  anotlier  novelty.  This  man- 
ufacture was  introduced  into  England  from  Uermnny. 
It  is  produced  by  cementing  with  caoutchouc  a  close 
velvet  pile  on  a  plain  cloth.  Messrs.  John  Crossl-jy 
&  Sons,  of  Halifax,  have  brought  out  soma  admira- 
ble specimens  of  this  mosaic-work  in  carpets,  rugs,  and 
hangings  for  walls ;  but  as  yet  this  method  has  been 


moro  «xt«nslvity  applied  to  the  manufJacture  of  small 
articles.  A  very  cheap  doicription  of  carpet  is  now 
mode  near  Manchester.  It  Is  first  woven  in  plain  col- 
ors by  steam  power,  under  Selviur's  patent,  by  Bright 
&  Co,  It  is  then  printed  with  colored  blocks  by  ma> 
chltiory  patented  by  Uurch  &  Co.  This  article  has  a 
lari{e  ux\H>tt  sale.  The  carpet  manufacture  U  rapidly 
incrousliiK  In  Great  Britain.  Upward  of  fiOOO  looms,  it 
is  computed,  are  now  in  operation  upon  every  descrip- 
tion. 

The  production  of  carpets  Is  carried  on  extensively  in 
the  L'liltud  Mtates,  especially  In  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
NInnd,  (/'oniiecticut.  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  in 
riiiladolplila,  In  Massachusetts  alone,  in  1850,  tlio 
cupllul  Invested  In  this  branch  of  business  amounted  to 
t'i,m,m>,  iind  the  annual  product  about  $1,400,000, 
111  which  litUO  iieriotis  were  employed.  In  the  State  of 
New  York,  In  1Mb,  the  number  of  carpet  manufactories 
was  If),  employing  IMftO  persons  i  capital  invested  in 
real  estate,  (12115,2701  In  tools  and  machinery,  $3U4,200; 
value  of  raw  materials  used  annually,  $9!Vi,700;  value 
of  niunuraittured  articles  annually,  2,079,700.  In  Thil- 
adolphiu  the  annual  value  of  carpets  produced  is,  in 
ingrains,  12,51)2,000,  and  in  ro^  carpeting  $504,000. 
(Sou  C'initu ijf  Sew  York,  and  I'hitnilelphia and  iU  Man- 
HfiKturtt,  lOAfl,)  Our  manufacture  of  carpets  is  in- 
creasing,  and  will  probably  equal  the  demand  when 
the  production  of  wool  shall  supply  the  wants  of  our 
ninnufactureri,  Of  the  Imports  Into  this  country  fully 
nliiu-tonths  cuuie  from  Oroat  Britain. 


Imports  or  Ckynrtt  irro  TM  I'nitir)  Ktatm. 


na. 

t»M, 

'iM/k 

"i  <.'.*," 

11)57.                    ISM. 

Valiin. 

Valua. 

■Tsnrr" 

Vol,... 

Viilua                 Value. 

Wilton,  Saxon^f  and  AubusBon 

Bniuels,  Turker,  and  treble  Ingrmlned  . . 

$94,871 
W3,487 
14'i,SIT 
2^,404 

I,&IH,|II7- 

lu^a;ll) 

<W7,II8T 

«l,0i7,7O7 
lT«,R"n 

«1,Oill,ltlO 
293,122 

$1,784,196 

007,004 

Ul,M2,flOO 

Not  speciBed 

ToUl 

$l,2l7,a71» 

ni'Viuyia 

#i,wtd,f>ir 

iHfWi;.\M 

$2,1HI,21I0_ 

$l,r>4-',800 

Tlie  dotjr  on  carpets  and  carpeting,  and  cirpet-bags  and  ui|.c|ulh  liii|Kirtitil  liila  the  United  States  Is  30  per  ccut  ad 
noloron.    On  straw  matting,  wonted  carpet-bags,  aud  carpet  kludhig,  'iH  i/vt  vent. 


The  quantities  imported  were,  in  1853,  1,048,433 
yards;  in  1854,  2,853,620  yards;  in  1855,  1,492,053 
yards;  in  1856,  2,000,586  yards;  in  1857,  1,714,093 
yards  (excluding  those  "  not  speciRed").  Of  those  im- 
ported, the  Brussels  and  Turkey  carpets  form  more 
than  two-thirds  in  quantity  and  value. 

Carriages.  The  invention  of  them  is  usertbod  to 
Eriotboniua  of  Athens,  who  produced  the  flrsl  chariot 
about  1486  B.C.  Carriages  were  known  in  Franco  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  a.d.  1547 ;  but  they  were  of 
very  rude  construction,  and  rare.  They  seem  to  liavo 
been  known  in  England  in  1553,  but  not  the  art  of 
making  them.  Close  carriages  of  good  workmanship 
began  to  be  used  by  persons  of  the  highest  quality  a^ 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Henry  IV.  bad 
one,  but  without  straps  or  springs.  Their  construction 
was  vaiious:  they  were  first  made  in  England  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  were  then  called  whirlicotes. 
The  Duke  of  Buckingiuni,  in  1G19,  drove  six  horses; 
and  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove 
eight  They  wero  first  let  for  hire  in  Paris  in  1050, 
at  the  Hotel  Fiacre ;  and  hence  their  name. — IlArUN, 
Pre' alums  at  the  World's  Fair  held  in  London  were 
given  to  the  makers  of  carriages  in  the  United  States, 
OS  they  were  superior  in  lightness  and  strength,  with 
an  equal  finish. 

We  learn  that  the  most  primitive  specimeiu  of  vebU 
oles  were  two-wheeled.  In  Roman  antiquities  we  And 
descriptions  of  their  elaborate  finuh  and  elegant  deco- 
rations. In  Mosaic  history  the  chario*.  and  wagon  are 
both  spoken  of  (see  Genetit),  but  no  light  is  thrown  upon 
their  construction.  It  is  to  be  inferred  they  were  not 
in  general  use,  as  mention  is  made  that  "  Joseph  rode 
in  the  second  chariot  of  Pharaoh,"  as  a  mark  of  pecul- 
iar dignity ;  muci>  is  also  mentioned  about  chariots  lie- 
ittg  itsad,  and  they  are  represented  in  rude  «iif  ravin|(f 


I  as  volildoi  of  two  wheels.  There  is  an  exception  to 
this  rule.  In  one  of  the  English  libraries  is  an  illu- 
ininated  Saxon  MS.,  supposed  to  bo  the  work  of  Cied- 
na,  which  lllustratos  the  meeting  of  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
and  is  a  peculiarly  conrtriictcd  vehicle,  looking  for  oil 
tlio  world  like  a  gigantic  frumo-work  inclosing  a  liam- 
iiiock,  moving  on  four  wheels  of  equal  size.  Ilcro  wo 
first  littvo  tho  original  fom  wheeled  vehicle.  Again, 
wo  find  a  representation  in  fresco,  by  "Sir  William 
Gell,"  fi'otn  the  excavation  of  Pompeii,  of  a  wine  cart 
of  neat  and  Ingenious  construction,  with  an  open  arch, 
for  its  wheels  to  turn  more  easily  under  it  This  ve- 
hicle had  also  four  wheels. 

Italy,  Franco,  Spain,  and  Germany  all  co.itend  for 
tue  honor  of  the  flrsl  Introduction  of  carriages ;  ami  in 
tlie  early  records  uf  tho  thirteenth  century  wo  find  that 
"  Charles  of  Aiijou  entered  Naples,  Ids  queen  riding  in 
a  chantta  elegantly  decorated  with  velvet  and  golden 
lilies."  Tills  voliiclu  was  represented  as  two-whcclcd, 
drawn  by  two  horses,  on  one  of  which  tlio  driver  rode. 
While  Italy  and  France  thus  claimed  the  honor  of  the 
first  Introduction  of  carriages,  England  was  not  behind- 
hand. 

In  the  llxtconth  century  carriages  Increased  In  num- 
ber and  richness,  (jermany  Jieing  foremost  in  display- 
ing tbcni,  so  much  so  that  in  1588  an  edict  was  issued 
by  tho  Dukeuf  Brunswick  forbidding  his  vassals  to  ride 
in  carriages.  In  which  ho  says,  "That  tho  useful  disci- 
pline and  skill  In  riding  have  been  almost  lost ;  and 
that  tho  principal  cause  of  this  is,  that  cur  vassals, 
servants,  and  klnsmcri,  without  distinction,  young  and 
old,  have  ilared  tu  give  themselves  up  to  indolence, 
and  to  ridiiiy  in  cuachei." 

The  first  couch  made  fn  England  was  in  1555,  made 
fur  tho  ICorl  of  itutland,  by  Walter  Rippon ;  and  in  15G4 
tilt  sania  maker  tuode  «n«  for  Queen  Mar^.    The  Earl 


..Wl-i« 


CAB 


279 


CAB 


itend  for 
an>l  ill 
finil  that 
riding  in 
d  golden 
wheeled, 
v-er  rode, 
or  of  tlic 
;  belli  nJ- 

in  num- 
display- 
IS  issued 
la  to  rido 
'ul  disci- 
)St;  and 
viissals, 
lung  and 
(dolcnce, 

I  made 
linlJCl 
I'hi!  Earl 


of  Arundel  brought  one  firom  Oernuitij>  In  1680.  In 
160&,  about  the  time  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  coachei 
iucreased  so  much  as  to  be  troublesome.  Could  the  In- 
habitants of  three  and  a  half  centuries  ago  have  looked 
forward  to  the  present  day,  would  tliey  not  have  been 
astonished  to  behold  the  almost  countless  stream  of  ve- 
hicles which  throng  the  gay  thoroughfares  of  London, 
Paris,  and  Vienna,  or  of  our  great  metropolitan  thor- 
oughfare in  New  Yorl( — Broadway.  It  is  over  three 
centuries  since  wheeled  vehicles  came  into  general  use. 
Kiiglaud  has  improved  but  little  during  the  last  centu- 
ry in  stylo  and  construction,  though  she  may  manufac- 
ture tlio  most  substantial  ones  ;  but  for  beauty  of  fin- 
ish and  elegance,  Franco,  Germany,  and  America  take 
the  leud. 

Previous  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  American  Rev- 
olution there  were  to  be  found,  now  and  then,  among 
the  wealthy  English  families,  and  in  fact  amor.g  the 
American  loyalists  residing  in  Boston,  those  cumbrous 
carriages  adorned  witli  family  crests  on  the  panels, 
which  characterize  luxury  and  ease,  and  whose  liver- 
ied und  otHcious  menials  were  objects  of  abhorrence 
to  the  plain  American  citizen.  The  "Adamses"  and 
"  (Juincys"  kept  carriages,  but  they  were  plain,  mod- 
r.st  afl'uiia  compared  with  the  Knglisli  velilcles.  In 
Virginia  were  a  few  which  were  brought  out  by  colo- 
nists from  England,  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  close 
of  the  Kevoliition  that  tliey  became  general  in  use. 
Even  then  they  were  confined  to  the  wealthy  classes 
of  the  people.  Two-wheel  vehicles,  called  chaises,  and 
by  some  the  gig,  came  into  use,  and  continued  until  a 
few  years  since.  The  prevailing  color  of  these  gigs 
was,  in  old  time,  a  bright  yellow,  or  light  sky-blue, 
ornamented  with  heavy  silver  platings.  In  New  York 
there  is  not  one  of  them  to  be  found,  and  wo  know  of 
only  two,  which  belonged  to  the  estate  of  Paniel  Wads- 
worth,  deceased,  and  which,  wo  believe,  are  still  kept 
at  his  old  residence  in  Hartford,  Connecticut,  owned 
by  Wm.  U.  Imlay,  whose  death  was  recorded  a  few 
days  since. 

The  first  carriage  said  to  be  built  in  America  was 
made  in  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  by  a  man  named 
White,  for  a  private  gentleman  in  Boston,  in  1805.  It 
was  copied  from  an  English  chariot,  though  made  much 
ligliter,  and  was  a  credit  to  its  maker.  It  was,  liow- 
over,  found  that,  from  tlio  difficulty  of  procuring  mate- 
rial, and  high  wages,  it  was  expedient  and  cheaper  to 
order  them  from  England  and  France,  Wagon-making, 
however,  was  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and  with  suc- 
cess, in  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia. 

The  principal  places  where  carriages  are  manufac- 
tured are  New  York  city,  Middletown,  and  Watertown ; 
also  Albany,  Troy,  and  L'tica,  in  New  York  State; 
Now  Ilavenand  Bridgeport^  in  Connecticut ;  Concord, 
in  New  Hampshire;  Worcester,  in  Massachusetts ;  and 
Newark,  in  New  Jersey. 

Now  York  and  Troy  are  celebrated  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  omnibuses,  stage-coaches,  and  railroad  cars ; 
tliddlotown,  Watertown,  Utica,  in  New  Y'ork  State, 
and  Newark,  in  New  Jersey,  for  buggies  and  light  wag- 
ons; Concord,  in  New  Hampshire,  for  its  celobrated 
Concord  wagons  and  stages;  while  New  Haven  and 
Bridgeport,  in  Connecticut,  are  celebrated  for  their  el- 
egant private  carriages  and  public  hacks.  Worcester, 
in  Massachusetts,  comes  last,  though  not  the  least,  in 
its  manufacture  of  buggies  and  coaches. 

New  Haven,  in  Connecticut,  has  the  largest  number 
of  carriage  manufactories  In  the  Union,  or  perhaps  in 
the  world.  It  has  thirty  factories  doing  carriage  work, 
which  employ  from  1200  to  1400  men.  These  turn  out 
annually  about  600  coaches  and  hacks,  at  an  average 
of  $700  each,  making  (1420,000 ;  and  1300  buggies  and 
other  light  carriages,  ut  an  average  of  $100  each,  mak- 
ing $i;iO,000— the  whole  total  amounting  to  $660,000, 
or  over  half  a  million  of  dollars. 

Next  to  New  Haven  comes  Bridgeport,  with  twelve 
large  factories,  employ  tng  some  400  men,  besides  a 


large  axle  and  spring  and  several  coach-lamp  factories, 
which  employ  about  150  more.  Middletown,  Utica, 
and  Watertown,  in  New  York,  with  Newark,  in  New 
Jersey,  have,  in  the  aggregate,  about  forty  establish- 
ments, employing  over  1600  men,  and  turning  out  in 
the  course  of  the  year  2000  buggies — employing  a  capU 
tul  of  $668,000.  Troy  has  three  largo  monufactories, 
and  turns  out  annually  some  200  coaelics,  at  $500  each, 
which  would  be  $100,000 ;  800  btagcs  and  omnibuses, 
at  an  average  of  $800  each,  $240,000 ;  60  railroad  cars, 
first-class,  at  $2500,  $150,000 ;  and  40  second-class,  at 
$800,  $32,000— making  a  total  aggregate  of  $522,000. 
Utica  manufactures  about  800  carriages  a  year,  amount- 
ing to  $80,000  or  $100,000,  and  employing  from  160  to 
200  men.  New  Y'urk  city  has  some  40  factories,  small 
and  large,  employing  not  less  than  800  or  900  men. 
The  number  of  omnibuses  made  in  New  York  re  an- 
num is  estimated  at  about  500,  which,  at  $800  each, 
amount  to  $400,000;  buggies,  grocers'  wagons,  and 
carts  about  2000,  costing  |200,000  more.— A'isio  York 
Evening  Post, 

Caniera  are  persons  undertaking  for  hire  to  carry 
goods  from  one  pljice  to  another.  Proprietors  of  carts 
and  wagons,  masters  and  owners  of  ships,  hoymen, 
lightermen,  bargemen,  ferrymen,  etc.,  are  denominated 
common  carriers.  The  master  of  a  stnge-coach  who 
only  carries  passengers  Jbr  hire  is  not  liable  for  goods; 
but  if  he  undertake  to  carry  goods  and  passengers,  then 
he  is  liable  for  both  as  a  common  carrier.  The  post- 
master-general is  not  a  carrier  in  the  common  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  nor  is  he  subjected  to  his  liabilities. 

Duties  and  Liabilities  of  Carriers, — Carriers  are  bound 
to  receive  and  carTy  the  goods  of  all  persons  for  a  rea- 
sonable hire  or  reward ;  to  take  proper  care  of  them  in 
their  passage;  to  deliver  them  safely,  and  in  tli'<  same 
condition  as  when  they  were  received  (excepting  only 
such  losses  as  may  arise  from  the  act  of  Ood) ;  or,  in 
default  thereof,  to  make  compensation  to  the  owner  for 
whatever  loss  or  damage  the  goods  may  have  received 
while  in  their  custody,  that  might  have  been  prevent- 
ed. Hence  a  carrier  is  liable  though  he  be  robbed  of 
the  goods,  or  they  be  taken  from  him  by  irresistible 
force ;  and  though  this  may  seem  a  hnrd  rule,  yet  it  is 
the  only  one  that  could  be  safely  adu  >  od ;  for  if  a  car- 
rier were  not  liable  for  losses  unless  ii  nuld  be  shown 
that  he  had  conducted  himself  disho  Hly  or  negli- 
gently, a  door  would  be  opened  for  c  >  'v  species  of 
fraud  and  collusion,  inasmuch  as  it  woui  lie  impossi- 
ble, in  most  cases,  to  ascertain  whether  th<  (acts  were 
such  as  tlie  carrier  represented.  On  the  same  principle 
a  carrier  has  been  held  accountable  for  goods  accident- 
ally consumed  by  fire  while  in  bis  warehouse.  In  de- 
livering the  opinion  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  on  a 
case  of  this  sort.  Lord  Mansfield  said :  "  A  carrier,  by 
the  nature  of  his  contract,  obliges  himself  to  use  all  due 
care  and  diligence,  and  is  answerable  for  any  neglect. 
But  there  is  something  more  imposed  upon  him  by  cus- 
tom, that  is,  by  the  common  law.  A  common  carrie)' 
is  m  the  nature  of  an  insurer.  All  the  cases  show  him 
to  be  so.  This  makes  liim  liable  for  every  thing  ex- 
cept the  act  of  God  and  the  king's  enemies ;  that  is, 
even  (oTinevitahle  accidents,  with  those  exceptions.  The 
question  then  is.  What  is  the  acto/Godt  I  consider  it 
to  be  laid  down  in  opposition  to  the  act  of  man ;  such 
as  lightning,  storms,  tempests,  and  the  like,  which 
could  not  happen  by  any  human  intervention.  To  pre- 
vent litigation  and  collusion,  the  law  presumes  negli- 
gence, except  in  those  circumstances.  An  armed  fores, 
though  ever  so  great  and  irresistible,  does  not  excuse ; 
the  reason  is,  for  fear  it  may  give  room  for  collusion, 
which  can  never  happen  with  respect  to  the  act  of  God. 
Wo  all,  therefore,  are  of  opinion  that  there  should  be 
judgment  for  the  plaintiff. "—rortpoivj  v.  Pittard,  1  T. 
R.  27.  It  is  felony  if  a  carrier  open  a  parcel  and  take 
goods  out  of  it  with  intent  to  steal  them ;  and  it  has  been 
decided  that  if  goods  be  delivered  to  a  carrier  to  be  car- 
ried to  a  specified  place,  and  he  carry  them  to  a  diflerent 


CAB 


S80 


CAS 


jiUce,  and  diipoae  of  them  for  hia  own  profit,  he  ia 
guilty  uf  felony ;  Imt  the  embezzlement  of  good*  by  a 
carrier  without  u  felonioua  talcing  merely  exposea  to  a 
civil  action. 

A  carrier  Is  alwaya,  unleaa  there  be  an  esprcaa 
agreement  to  the  contrary,  entitled  to  a  reward  for  hia 
care  and  trouble.  In  aome  cases  hia  reward  ia  regu- 
lated by  the  I^gialaturc,  and  in  othcra  by  a  apecial 
stipulation  between  the  parties ;  but  though  there  be 
no  legislative  provision  or  express  agreement,  he  can 
not  claim  more  than  a  rtasotiable  compensation. 

Cummeneement  and  Terminaiion  ofLiiibility. — A  car- 
rier's liability  commences  from  the  time  the  goods  are 
actually  delivered  to  him  in  the  character  of  carrier. 
A  delivery  to  a  carrier's  servant  la  a  delivery  to  him- 
self, and  he  will  be  responsible.  The  delivery  of 
goods  at  an  inn  yard  or  warehouse,  at  which  other 
oorricra  put  up,  is  not  a  delivery  so  as  to  charge  a 
carrier,  unless  a  special  notice  bo  given  him  of  their 
having  been  so  delivered,  or  some  previous  intimation 
to  that  effect. 

"  In  New  York  it  was  held  that  placing  goods  on 
the  wharf  without  notice  to  the  coqaignee  is  not  i  de- 
livery to  the  consignee,  so  as  to  discharge  the  carrier, 
even  though  there  was  a  usage  to  deliver  goods  in 
that  manner.  The  carrier  must  not  leave  or  alundon 
the  goods  on  the  wharf,  oven  though  there  Iw  an  ina- 
bility or  refusal  of  the  consignee  to  receive  them." — 
Keht's  Commentaries. 

A  carrier's  liability  ceases  when  ho  veats  the  prop- 
erty committed  to  hia  charge  in  the  handa  of  the  con- 
signee or  his  agents,  by  actual  delivery  ;  or  when  the 
property  is  resumed  by  the  consigner,  in  pursuance  of 
his  right  of  stopping  it  in  Irantilu.  It  is  in  all  cases 
the  duty  of  the  carrier  to  <leUver  the  goods.  The  leav- 
ing goods  at  an  inn  is  not  a  sufficient  delivery.  The 
rule  in  auch  caaea,  in  deciding  upon  the  carrier's  lia- 
bility, is  to  consider  whether  any  thing  remain*  to  be 
done  by  the  carrier,  as  such ;  and  if  nothing  rcmaiup 
to  be  done,  his  liability  ceases,  and  conversely. 

A  carrier  has  a  lien  upon  goods  for  his  hire.  Even 
if  the  goods  bo  stolen,  the  rightful  owner  is  not  to 
have  them  without  paying  the  carriage. 

For  further  details  as  to  this  aubject,  »fe  Jkrem y  on 
the  Law  of  Carriers,  passim ;  CiiiTxy's  Commercial 
Lam,  vol.  ill.  p.  8Ci>-386;  Burns'  Juttice  of  the  Peace, 
title  Carriers;  and  Kent's  Cmimentarics,  Lcct.  XL. 
I'here  are  some  excellent  observations  with  respect  to 
it  in  .Sir  William  Jones's  ICssag  on  the  Laic  of  Bail- 
ments. — For  an  account  of  the  regulations  as  to  the 
conveyance  of  ]>a8sengcrs  in  stage-coaches  in  England, 
tee  irCuLLocu'^  IHctionary, 

Cuxot  {Dttucus  carola,  Linn.),  a  biennial  plant,  a 
native  of  Britain.  Though  long  known  as  a  garden 
plant,  its  introduction  into  agriculture  has  been  com- 
paratively recent.  The  uses  of  the  carrot  in  domestic 
economy  are  well  known. 

Cart,  a  carriage  with  two  wheels,  drawn  common- 
ly by  horses,  and  used  to  carry  heavy  goods,  etc.  The 
word  seems  formed  from  the  French  charrelle,  or  the 
Latin  carrtta,  a  diminutive  of  carrut.  Carts  of  War, 
a  peculiar  kind  of  artillery  anciently  in  use  among  the 
Scotch.  In  an  act  of  Parliament,  passed  in  1466,  they 
are  thus  described :  "  It  is  thought  speidfuU,  that  tli'e 
king  mty  requeist  to  certain  of  the  great  biirrous  of 
the  land  that  are  of  ony  myght,  to  mak  carts  of  weir, 
and  in  ilk  cart  twa  gunnis,  and  ilk  ane  to  have  twa 
Chalmers,  with  *he  remnant  of  the  graith  that  effeirs 
thereto,  and  an  cunnand  man  to  shute  thame."  By 
another  act  passed  in  1471,  the  prelates  and  barons  are 
commanded  to  provide  such  carts  of  war  against  their 
old  enemies  the  English.— E.  B. 

Cartagena  ^Carthago  Nova,  or  "  New  Carthage," 
it  having  been  a  principal  colony  of  the  Canhaginians), 
a  celebrated  city  and  sea-port,  and  the  chief  naval  ar- 
senal of  Spain,  on  a  noble  bay  of  t'ne  Mediterranean, 
province,  and  27  miles  south-southeast  of  M|ircia.  Lat. 


87°  M'  6 '  N.,  long.  0"  5«'  Bfl'  W.  Popniatlon  27,727 ; 
in  178A  it  contained  00,000  inhal>itants.  It  occupies 
the  declivity  of  a  hill,  and  a  amall  jdain  extending  to  tho 
harbor,  which  is  one  of  the  liest  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  protected  from  all  winds  ^y  snrrounding  hcighta, 
and  by  an  island  on  the  south,  which,  as  well  aa  tho 
city,  is  strongly  fortified.  The  city,  though  dull,  dilap- 
idated, and  unhealthy,  owing  toan  adjacent  swiiiiip,  has 
some  good  streets  and  houses,  numerous  churches  and 
convents,  a  marine  scliool,  large  royal  hospital,  found- 
ling hospital,  town-halland  custom-house,  observatory, 
theatre,  circus,  etc.  In  its  western  division,  an  arsenal, 
docks  for  building  men-of-war,  and  a  biti/ne  for  galley- 
slaves.  Its  port  communicates  with  tlie  8egura  Kiver, 
by  the  Lorca  Canal.  Its  nianufut'tures  of  cordage  and 
canvas,  with  trade  in  barilla  and  agricultural  produce, 
have  decayed,  but  it  still  has  a  valuable  tunny  fishery, 
and  a  glass  factory  recently  established  by  an  English 
house ;  and  in  1848,  14  new  smelting  works  hud  been 
set  up  here.  The  mines  of  Cartagena,  originally 
wrought  by  the  Carthaginians,  were  rc-diaoovered  a 
few  years  ago ;  and  in  1889  the  new  mine  of  Lu  Carmen 
was  opened  successfully  by  a  joint-stock  company. 
Since  then,  drainages  and  mining  have  proceeded  vig- 
orously. Cartagena  was  taken  by  Scipio  n.c.  208,  at 
which  period  Livy  states  that  it  was  one  of  the  richest 
cities  in  the  world.  It  was  ruined  by  tho  Goths; 
and  its  modem  importance'  dates  only  fVom  the  time 
of  I'hilipH. 

Cartagena,  or  Carttaagena,  a  strongly  foriified 
city  and  sea-port  of  New  (Iranadn,  South  America,  of 
which  republic  it  is  the  chief  naval  arsenal,  capital  of 
tho  province,  on  a  sandv  |ieninsula  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Lat.  of  tho  dome'  10°  25'  86  "  N.,  long.  75°  84' 
W.  Population  10,000,  nine-tenths  of  whom  are  a 
mixed  black  race.  It  is  well  laid  out,  and  built  mostly 
of  stone.  It  has  a  massive  citadel,  several  churches, 
a  college  with  about  200  pupils,  various  scminariea, 
and  two  hospitals.  The  temperature  is  very  high,  from 
80"  to  80°  Fahrenheit,  but  the  air  dry  aiid  heulthy. 
jts  excellent  port  is  defended  by  two  forts,  and  is  the 
only  harbor  on  tho  north  coast  of  New  Granada  adapt- 
ed for  repairing  vessels.  Cartagena  is  the  principal 
depot  for  the  produce  of  the  provinces  watered  by  the 
Cauca  and  Mugdalena  Rivers,  and  is  connected  with 
the  Magdalcna  by  a  canal.  It  exports  sugar,  cotton, 
colfee,  tobacco,  hides,  specie,  bullion,  etc.  Under  tho 
Spaniards,  this  city  was  the  seat  of  a  captain  general, 
and  of  one  of  the  three  tribunals  of  the  Inqtiisilion  in 
America.  It  was  the  first  town  that  proclaimed  inde- 
pendence, and  in  1815  endured  a  most  vigorous  siege, 
and  was  subdued  only  by  famine.  Population  of  the 
province,  10,S,788, 

Cartridge,  in  the  military  art  a  case  of  pasteboard 
or  parchment,  holding  the  exact  charge  of  a  fire-arm. 
The  cartridges  for  muskets,  carabines,  and  jiistols, 
contain  l)oth  the  powder  and  ball.  Those  made  for 
cannon  and  mortars  are  cases  of  pasteboard  or  tin, 
sometimea  of  wood ;  and  simple  flannel  liaga  have 
been  found  convenient  in  practice.  Caiiridgt-hor,  a 
case  of  wood  or  turned  iron,  covered  with  leather,  with 
cells  for  holding  a  dozen  or  more  cartridges.  It  is  worn 
upon  a  belt  thrown  over  tho  left  shoulder,  and  hangs 
a  little  below  the  pocket-hole  on  the  right  side. — E.  li. 

Carving.  We  have  Scriptural  authority  fur  its 
early  introduction. — See  Exodus  xxxi.  Tho  art  of 
carving  is  first  mentioned  in  profane  history  772  n.c, 
and  is  referred  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  first  in  wood, 
next  in  stone,  and  afterward  in  marble  and  brass, 
Dipcenus  nnd  Scyllia  were  eminent  carvers  and  sculp- 
tors, ando|K'ncdaachoolof  statuary,  508  B.C. — Pliny. 
See  article  Woon.  Carvers  of  meat  were  called  by 
the  Greeks  iirribitarts,  as  mentioned  by  Homer. — 
Haydn. 

Caae,  in  Viiming,  a  large,  flat,  o>  'ong  frame  or 
box.  |ilaced  aslope,  and  divided  into  ii  imerous  little 
square  compartments,  each  containing  v  number  of 


CAS 


281 


c\n 


kime  or 
|8  little 
Ibolr  of 


typea  of  tho  aamo  kind,  whence  the  componltor  takes 
the  particular  letters  he  requires  In  composing  his 
matter. 

Case-hardening,  the  process  of  converting;  the 
snpiTlicies  or  outer  jinrt  of  iron  into  steel.  Tliis  is 
efTuctcd  by  placing  tlio  article  in  a  Imx  witli  some  an- 
imal or  vegetable  charcoal,  and  exposing  it  to  n  red 
heat.  It  differs  only  from  tho  making  of  steel  In  the 
shoVtcr  duration  of  the  process.  Iron  tools,  etc.,  when 
thus  treated,  cumliine  tho  toughness  of  Iron  with  tho 
hardness  of  steel. 

Cash,  in  Commerce,  means  the  coin,  Imnk  Mils, 
drafts,  bonds,  and  all  immediately  negotiable  paper  in 
an  individual's  possession, 

Oaah  Aooount,  In  llooiA-eeping,  an  account  to 
which  nothing  liut  cash  Is  carried  on  tho  one  hand, 
and  from  which  all  tlie  disliurscmcnts  of  tho  concern 
are  drawn  on  tho  other.  The  l)alance  Is  the  cash  in 
hand.  When  tho  credit  side  more  than  balances  tho 
doliit  or  disbursement  side,  the  account  Is  suld  to  be 
m  ciuh;  when  the  contrary,  to  be  out  of  cash.  Cash 
account,  In  Banking,  is  tho  name  given  to  the  account 
of  the  advances  made  l)y  a  l)ankcr  in  Scotland  to  an 
individual  who  has  given  security  for  their  repayment. 

Caabe^ir-nUtS  (Ger.  .1  kajunUsae,  iVenliiidische  A  na- 
karden;  Du.  Catsjoenoolen ;  Fr.  Noii  if  acajou;  It. 
Acaju;  Sp.  Nueces  iracaiu;  Port.  Kozes  d'acrijii'),  tho 
produce  of  the  Anarcurdmm  occidentate.  They  are  ex- 
ternally of  a  gVayish  or  brownish  color,  of  the  shape 
of  a  kidney,  somewhat  convex  on  the  one  side,  and 
depressed  on  tho  other.  The  shell  Is  very  hard ;  and 
the  kernel,  which  Is  sweet  and  of  a  very  line  flavor,  is 
covered  witli  a  thin  film.  Between  this  and  the  shell 
is  lodged  a  thick,  blackish,  infiammalilo  oil,  of  such  n 
caustic  nature  in  the  fresh  nuts,  that  if  tho  lips  chance 
to  touch  it,  blisters  immediately  follow.  Tho  kernels 
are  used  In  cooking,  and  in  tho  preparation  of  choco- 
late. 

Caabler,  a  cash-keeper ;  he  who  receives  and  pays 
the  debts  of  a  society.  In  tho  generality  of  founda- 
tions the  cashier  is  called  treasurer.  In  a  banking 
institution  the  cashier  is  tho  officer  who  superintends 
the  books,  payments,  and  receipts  of  the  liank.  He 
also  signs  or  countersigns  the  notes,  and  superintends 
all  the  transactions  under  the  order  of  the  directors. 

Cashmere,  a  kingdom  in  Northern  India,  so  callcl 
from  its  principal  division,  the  celebrated  valley  of 
that  name,  and  comprehending  within  its  limits  the  va- 
rious territories  which  constitute  the  dominions  of  Gho- 
lab  Singh.  Its  l)oundar!c3  arc,  the  Karakorum  Mount- 
ains on  the  north  ;  Tliiliet  on  tlie  cast ;  the  British  pos- 
sessions of  Spiti,  Lahoul,  and  the  Punjaub  on  the  south ; 
and  tho  Iluzarch  country  on  the  west.  It  extends  from 
Int.  32='  17'  to  lat.  86°,  and  from  long.  73°  20'  to  'ong. 
79°  -10' ;  its  extreme  length  from  east  to  west  bei'ig  850 
miles,  and  its  brcadtli  al)Out  270.  Area  alwut  i,'6,000 
square  miles,  Tlie  population  has  been  estimated  at 
750,000.  Within  its  limits  are  included  tho  valley  of 
Cashmere,  and  the  provinces  of  .i>-moo,  Ladahk,  Bultl 
or  Iskardoh,  Chamlia,  and  some  others.  Cashmorc  has 
been  long  famed  for  the  manufacture  of  shawls,  which 
are  distributed  all  over  northern  and  western  Asia, 
and  are  exported  In  great  quantities  to  Europe.  These 
shawls  owe  their  peculiar  beauty  and  tine  texture  to 
the  wool  which  is  brought  from  Thibet,  lying  at  a  dis- 
tance of  a  month's  journey  to  the  northeast.  Tlio  wool 
forms  the  inner  coat  with  which  the  goat  is  covered, 
and  the  breed  is  peculiar  to  Thil)et ;  all  attempts  to  in- 
troduce it  into  India  or  Persia  having  invariably  failed. 
The  wool,  which  is  originally  of  a  dark  gray  color,  is 
bleached  in  Cashmere  l)y  a  preparation  of  rice  flour. 
The  process  of  manufacture  is  very  slow,  not  more 
than  one  inch  being  added  to  the  finest  shawls  in  the 
course  of  a  day.  It  Is  estimated  that  aliout  16,000 
looms  were  at  one  time  employed  in  this  manufacture ; 
but  of  late  years  the  demand  has  declined,  owing  to 
the  decay  of  the  Persian  and  Ottoman  empires,  and 


the  desolation  «n4  poveflj'  of  i\\>>  1f,»n{etn  cmintrlcs. 
When  Cushmeru  w«»  \n\m\m}/  In  Af«(f/(((i«tnn,  n  great 
portion  of  thu  pi|bii»^  ^uvistiHw  #«<(  psdctpd  In  shawls. 
The  yarn  !uto  which  fhd  ^iiii\  U  l>)i((«  Is  dyed  with 
various  ci)|f)r»,  and,  aftuf  ^HiillH  l»«tt>rtj  tlic  piece  Is 
onco  waslicd,  and  th"  hiifftttf,  (t(  titled  li  dlsplnvpd  a 
^ uricty  of  figures  imd  ciilofK,  (,i  nllmUl>i\  in  the  ifiawls 
in  so  dexterous  a  mmilff  tlwf  il  is  llrttdlv  possible  to 
discover  tliu  junction,  TIm*  \iriin  i/Hfitu  In  pKrportlon 
to  the  quality.  A  nm-inn  lif  wri(jhg-1irt(«r  Is  also 
made  in  rashniere,  wlli<ll  U  Mfjllft  ((titled  tlirongh- 
out  tho  KuKt,  u:ii|  w»»  tiifimrtjf  (t  ^ml  tlUkh  of  Itafllc ) 
as  were  also  its  |iM'))H«f»i()  *«f»<,  i-lUh'tjf,  and  sugar. 
A  wino  rusenililiiig  >|i*(1«ir«  U  imimtiitHitui],  and  a 
spirituima  liquor  (a  rt)s)ilM  f(i,m  iUc  «(■«(*.  Tho 
internal  inturiiiuriiu  wC  M|k  I'imiltfjr  Is  (lllffly  rnnin- 
taiued  liy  means  of  f))»'  (M(IH»'t(M(S  Mrcifffls  Vhich  in- 
tersect it,  and  wlijiii  ntv  mi^iSMfii  JH  1(rtfg  and  nar- 
row floats  nu)Vi.'(J  jiy  piidilt"*.'-  Kj  ti; 

Cashmere  BtwwtiD,    'flw  di^ftici  fft.m  whence 

come  these  costly  ii))i*w|i*  )s  rtwsi  (•jliM  tin  beltig  "the 
happy  valley,  ai)d  a  |Wfrt4('*  ill  ((ftt*l((n1  s(rring." 
Tho  true  C'ashnwifB  t-hftnU  IHII  (/«  fflrtllllfrtctured  of 
no  other  wool  Itlttll  tllilt  (if  '(lllllff.  Tlll-I-  Were  first 
brought  to  Knglund  ill  (lililfj  Idlf  ttlPJ'  WpVn  well  Imi- 
tated by  tlie  spinning  »«  \ir)ll\fl>ftii  Ktld  file  looms  of 
Hudderslield.  Sliiiwls  fnf  iUmmmh^i  (if  thi'  Tlilbetlnn 
wool,  cost  150  rupees  nm-%  rtllKllt  (lie  fent  1«.')0.— 
Bkknikh. 

Caspian  099,  tlie  -Vflfii  Hyfi'iiMlm  wf  tll«  ancients, 
derives  its  iianie  (mm  file  ('m\h\,  «  \f\\m  ♦fho  settled 
on  its  shores.  AllMlllg  Ki"  Mficli(«(s  j»  Is  fcffown  un- 
der a  variety  of  names ;  by  \\w  tllll!i:i.lll<i  It  Is  called 

tlio  Sea  of  AstracBii,  and  liy  i\w  'flirts  Jfrthri-dhong. 

It  Is  situated  between  m"  ftft'  dlld  4?"  2y  ^.  Int.,  and 
46°  15'  and  55"  10'  J'),  |(Mlg..,  U  lllc  Jdfjjcid  ilrland  lake 
In  the  world,  and  ll«8  no  (dlUcf  Ui  ((if  (Heart.  It  Is 
surrounded  by  the  liHSt.)fi))  ^i}immtm\<>  tit  Astracan 
and  Orenberg,  the  t'aH»»B)»|(  miMfi^ni  Persia,  and 
Tartaryi  its  greali^st  (eilglll  in  utfdilt  7li«  miles,  and 
its  greatest  breadth  dtiKiit  il»)  (ftilii  Crtsf  »(( 1»est  •  gen- 
erally, however,  only  half  l\mi  lifCKiIld,  lltlrt  where 
narrowest  not  nuiretlmil  1*1  IIIJIcs  ncWss,  Its  esti- 
mated area  is  from  lill.OOH  (o  iWJW  fiiHUin  miles. 
There  are  no  tides  in  thi«  feij,  tl/tf  ttfc  tlictc  rtrtt  regu- 
lar currents ;  but  tlie  lijgli  wfitits  « lliih  nciKslimally 
blow  over  its  large  surtane  inilj*  ((/Hsidcfalde  and  Ir-- 
regular  agitations  in  it«  nmUm<i,  'dw  ttieurt  depth  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  is  from  ('Ki  ft)  (KK)  fpcf,  tlilii  in  somft 
places  Is  found  to  lie  >ffm  fs^f  j  l^lt  its  *(itcrs  are 
every  where  very  shalluw  (leur  Jllf  clllrt'C,  P«)ie(  Islly  to- 
ward the  west.  VbpsuU  rtmwfllg  'i  (If  Id  fi^et  -ttatet 
are  thus  cuin|x>lled  t«  illiiiy»'l  fyf  (finii  lllp  shote,  ex- 
cepting near  llakou  and  nmm  wtwc  pKffs  iif  f lie  lake. 
Navigation  is,  in  genenil,  dnilgefdlis,  itwiti^  Hi  the  fre- 
quency and  violence  of  tlie  e#et  tifiA  »(<s*  *illds;  and 
the  contracted  space  forces  tlie  miigtiUif  ill  (real  nlioiit 
in  order  to  avoid  tluf  mnii  liKllkl*  (■(Hlcpdled  (ie.it  its 
shores.  Tho  waters  of  (Iks  Cffiipjftii  J((it(<  «  slight- 
ly bitter  taste,  coinmuili/n|t«'4  liy  ftw  Hllfihflm  which 
abounds  in  the  surrouiMlillg  (finiflfti^is,  Hlld  is  curried 
Into  it  by  tlie  streams  which  It  weifcs  j  trtH  tliey  nre 
not  so  suit  as  those  of  the  iintmn,  III  I'tifiswillf  Irte  wf  the 
great  volume  of  water  poilfed  \nifi  U  \if  ihc  Vdjga  and 
its  other  triiiuturies.  Uor»us<hi|M(tfefllSc»(il1«hl(  ahmg 
the  shores  and  near  the  iiKdiflls  ii(  (lie  rt»*ts.— R.  H. 
Cassia.    There  are  (onr  sfiei'lei*  of  i-nssirt  ih  fha 

market;  viz.,  Cassia  f-if/nen,  Of  HimlH  llnfk i  Cassia 
Fistula;  Cimia  liuds;  and  /'««/«  /iniwtl, 

i.  Cojsia  l.iyiua,  or  Cassia  llitrh  {.Vt,  ('d.mi  fief. 
Cassia;  Port.  Cassia  leuhmitj  Awli,  M^lfplrehi  llltHl. 
Tiij;  Malay,  Kaijii4egi),  (lie  imfk  lif  «  (K*  (hlHriU 
Cassia,  l,inn.)  growing  in  Hmmifit,  (ilDWO,  »((«  Mala- 
bar coast,  Philippine  Islands,  e((...  j  till!  (•Iliefli-  Irt  (he 
provinces  of  (Juantoiig  and  Kiiiijsf,  Ui  t'llillfii  which 
furnish  the  greatest  part  of  (Ije  catsfit  »iM  *if(l  lit  the 
markets.    The  tree  grows  U>  tbs  Iwiglit  of  60  of  M 


■ii 

m 


CAS 


282 


CAS 


t 


fNt,  wllh  l«rgo,  •iiroutlhiK,  horizontal  branchei.  The 
burk  rv.Hcinlilct  thut  uf  ciiiiiuiiiuii  in  u|>p«araiice,  (inell, 
and  taatv,  uiul  ia  very  uftvii  suliatituted  fur  it ;  but  it 
may  lio  n^ulily  distiiiguiahcil ;  it  is  tliii'lier  in  aub- 
itanue,  leas  iiuiilud,  brvuiia  aliurtur,  uiul  ia  nioro  |iun- 
gent.  It  ahoulil  Ihi  clinat'ii  in  thin  piocca;  tho  bvat 
being  that  whicli  a|iprouclic'B  npurcat  to  cinnamon  in 
Havor :  tintt  which  ia  anmll  and  brultun  abould  bo  re- 
jected. A  ({0<h)  deal  of  tho  casaia  in  the  Indian  nuirli- 
ots  ia  lirought  from  Uorneo,  Sumatra,  and  Ccylun. 
Malabar  caaaia  ia  thicker  and  darker-colored  than  thut 
of  China,  and  more  aubject  to  foul  packing ;  each  bun- 
dle aliould  lie  itepurutcly  inapectcd. — Ainhlie'k  Miite- 
na  Jinlica,  Miluium'h  Orient.  Cum.,  tic.     See  Cm- 

NAMOM. 

2.  t'lutia  Huds,  tho  dried  fruit  or  berry  of  tho  ti'co 
Qmui-ub  Cii/uiu)  which  yiclda  tho  bark  dcacrilied  hi  tho 
previoua  article.  They  bear  aomo  resemblance  to  a 
clove,  but  are  amallor,  and,  when  frcah,  iiavo  a  rich 
cinnamon  flavor.  They  aliould  bo  clioacn  round,  freah, 
and  free  from  atalk  and  dirt.  riiNaiu  biida  are  the 
produce  of  China. — Miliii.iim's  Urient.  Com.  i  Ani/lo- 
Chinue  Kulenilar;  uud  I'arl.  J'ajxr,  So.  21)7,  8«gB. 
1U43. 

3.  Castia  Fittula  (Fr.  Cane;  Ger,  Rhonkcuie;  It. 
I'oljM  </i  cassia ;  Lat.  Ciiuior  pul/M ;  Arab.  Khyar  ehe- 
ber)  is  a  tree  which  growa  in  the  Eaat  and  Weat  In- 
dioa,  and  Kgypt  (jUauiu  falula,  Linn.).  Tho  fruit  ia 
a  woody,  durk-brown  pod,  about  the  thickneas  of  the 
thumb,  and  nearly  two  feet  in  length.  It  ia  exported 
principally  from  the  M'eat  Indies,  packed  in  caaka  and 
caava ;  but  a  auperior  kind  ia  brought  from  tho  Kuat 
Indies,  and  is  caaily  distinguished  by  ita  ainaller  aniooth 
pod,  and  by  the  greater  blackness  of  the  pulp, 

Castanet  (Spanish  Ctttlantla,  or  rather  Castaiiueln, 
probably  from  CatlaAa,  a,  chestnut),  an  inatrunient 
much  uaed  by  the  Spaniards  and  Moors  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  their  dances  and  guitars.  It  is  composed 
of  two  aiiiall  pieces  of  ebony,  or  other  well-dried  hard 
wood,  sha|)ed  like  spoons,  which  Lro  placed  together 
with  the  concavities  inward,  fastened  by  a  string  to 
the  thumb,  and  beat  w  itli  the  :  liddlo  linger,  ao  as  to 
produce  a  rattling  sound.  This  instrument  is  very 
similar  to  the  ancient  civlalum,  which  appears  to  have 
consisted,  in  its  original  form,  of  two  pieces  of  reed, 
which  made  a  clattering  noise  when  shaken  with  the 
hand.— E.  B. 

Caatiug,  t'  i  running  of  liquid  metal  into  a  mould 
prepared  for  that  purpose.  Catttnt/  in  Hand  or  fJarlh, 
is  the  running  of  metals  between  two  Oaiues  or  moulds 
illlcd  with  sand  or  earth,  in  w  hich  tho  figure  that  the 
metal  is  to  take  has  been  impressed  rn  creux,  by  means 
of  the  pattern.  CaUin;/,  among  sculptors,  implies  the 
taking  of  casta  and  impresaions  of  ligurea,  busts,  med- 
als, leaves,  or  tho  like.  The  method  of  taking  casts 
of  figures  and  busts  is  most  generally  by  tho  use  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  that  ia,  alabaster  calcined  by  a  gentle 
beat.  The  advantage  of  using  this  substance  in  pref- 
erence to  others  is,  that  notwithstanding  a  slight  cal- 
cination reduces  it  to  a  pnlverized  state,  it  liecomes 
again  a  tenacious  and  cohering  body  by  lieing  moist- 
ened with  water,  and  afterward  suffered  to  dry.  l)y 
this  means  either  a  concave  or  a  convex  figure  may  be 
given  by  a  proper  mould  or  ino<lel  to  it  when  wet,  and 
retained  by  the  hardness  it  acquires  w  hen  dry ;  and, 
from  these  qualities,  it  is  fitted  for  the  double  purpose 
of  making  casts,  and  niouUls  for  forming  casts.  The 
particular  manner  of  making  costs  depends  on  the  form 
of  the  subject  to  be  taken.  Where  there  are  no  pro- 
jecting parts  it  is  very  simple  and  easy,  as  likewise 
where  there  are  such  as  form  only  a  right  or  any  great- 
er angle  with  the  principal  surface  of  the  Im'ly ;  but 
where  parts  project  in  lesser  angles,  or  form  a  curve 
inclined  toward  the  principal  surface  of  tlio  body,  the 
work  is  more  difHcult E.  B. 

Castor  (Fr.  Cailoreum ;  Ger.  Knttureunt;  It.  Ciia. 
taro;  Sp.  C<ulor$o),  tha  produce  of  the  beaver.   In  the 


inguinal  region  of  this  animal  ar*  foumi  four  liagt,  o 
large  and  a  small  one  on  each  sidei  in  Ihu  two  litr|{i> 
ones  there  is  contained  a  aof'liah,  gruyf»li-y«lluMr,  ur 
light-brown  siibstuncF,  which,  on  txpoiure  tu  tlio  air, 
becomes  dry  and  brittle,  and  of  a  bruwii  culur.  TiiU 
is  castor.  It  has  a  heavy  but  aomawbuc  Nrimiutlv  aiMdl, 
not  unlike  niuak ;  and  a  lillter,  nauaeuus,  and  auliHiirlil 
taate.  Tho  best  comes  from  Uusila ;  but  uf  Ul<i  yvara 
it  has  lieen  very  scarce ;  and  uU  that  Is  uuw  found  In 
the  aliopa  ia  the  produce  of  Canada,  The  guiHlnima  iif 
cuator  is  determined  by  ila  sciiaililu  qualifies  |  lliat 
which  ia  l)lack  is  insipid,  inodorous,  oily,  anil  unfit  fnr 
use.  Castor  ia  said  to  be  souiellniea  cuuiitiirfi>lliid  liy 
a  mixture  of  some  gummy  and  reainuua  •uiiataiii'iiit  | 
but  the  fVaud  is  easily  detected  by  c(iiii|iarlliK  lint 
smell  and  taste  witli  those  of  real  castor — Tiiumihin'h 
l>i»petuuton/. 

Castor-Oil  (Fr,  JIuile  tlu  Uicini  Ger.  Uiiiiiuiuihli 
It,  lllio  lit  Kicino ;  Sp.  Jticimoel)  is  ubtaincd  from  thii 
seeds  of  the  Iticiiiut  mmmuiiit,  ur  I'altim  Clirisli,  atl  all' 
nual  plant  found  in  most  tropical  cuunlriis,  and  In 
Greece,  tho  soutii  of  Spain,  etc,  Tho  oil  is  si'jiaratftl 
n-oin  the  seeds  cither  by  boiling  them  in  water,  ur  by 
subjecting  them  to  the  action  of  the  presja.  It  U  suiil 
that  though  the  largest  quantify  uf  uU  may  b«  pro- 
cured by  the  first  method,  it  is  less  sweet,  and  UiuRi 
apt  to  become  rancid,  than  that  procured  by  (tNpr«»- 
sion,  which,  in  consequence,  l<;  the  process  iiuw  liiusl 
commonly  followed.  Good  expressed  cusfur-ull  Ik 
nearly  inodorous  and  insipid ;  but  the  beat  liiavca  • 
alight  sensation  of  acrimony  in  the  throat  uflvr  it  U 
swallowed.  It  is  thicker  and  heavier  than  lint  fat  ult», 
being  viscid,  transparent,  and  colorless,  or  uf  a  \/iiry 
pule  straw  color.  That  which  is  olitained  by  bulling 
the  secda  hua  a  brownish  hue;  and  both  kimU,  wliitii 
they  become  rancid,  thicken,  deepen  in  culur  tu  a  rviU 
dish-brown,  and  acquire  a  hut,  nauaeuus  lustu,  It  In 
very  extensively  employed  in  the  materia  lucdii'it  as 
a  cathartic. — Tiio.mson's  iJitjieiitutury, 

Culture  and  Manujiuiure  n/Ciuloi-uil. — Kuullitirn  Il- 
linois is  the  source  whence  all  tho  castor  livans  arit 
bruught  that  are  sold  or  manufactured  In  tit,  LuuU. 
The  ground  is  prepared  as  fur  uther  crops,  and  wllfli 
there  is  no  longer  any  danger  from  the  spriiiK  frusta 
tho  seeds  nro  planted  in  hills  and  rows,  much  ill  tlltl 
manner  of  planting  Indian  corn,  with  Iha  exifplliiti 
that  th^^re  is  but  one  seed  put  into  each  lilll,  ami  llmt 
at  every  fourth  row  a  apace  is  left  sufficiently  wliht  to 
admit  of  the  passage  of  a  team  for  the  pur|iuso  uf  gatlt- 
cring  the  crop.  Unlike  the  cereal  griiiis,  lliu  ri-iniu 
bears  at  the  same  time  flowers  and  fruit,  and  lliu  *«• 
verity  of  our  climate,  which  renders  it  in  this  lalllud* 
an  annual  plant,  destroys  its  vitality  while  yut  tlucked 
with  bloom.  The  ripening  commences  in  Augusl,  and 
the  crop  is  gathered  at  intervals  from  this  duto  Ulilfl 
the  plants  are  destroyed  Ijy  frost. 

The  yield,  uf  course,  varies  with  tlio  quality  of  tllD 
soil  and  the  care  of  the  culture.  Tweuty-liv  buslHtl* 
fWim  an  acre  of  ground  is  considered  a  very  large  vrup, 
and  is  but  seldom  obtained.  From  sixteen  lu  Iwi'lily 
bushels  per  acre  is  a  veiy  fair  yield  in  a  season  not 
marked  by  drought  or  other  unfavoralile  fealuru, 

The  primitive  mode  uf  making  castor-uil  ww;i  by 
putting  the  (bruised)  beans  in  a  bag,  and  placing  Iha 
same  in  a  kettle  of  water,  and  as  thr  iicuiis  wuro  b'.iU 
ed  tho  oil  came  19  the  surface  and  was  skimmed  uit, 
Subsequently  there  were  adopted  the  sck'W  and  ■fVHr 
presses,  and  other  devices  for  pressing  ')iu  lioaiis,  <tud 
many  mills  sprang  up  throughout  tb<:  liuulhern  part  uf 
Illinois,  some  of  which  remain  in  use  unlit  this  lillia. 
The  beans  are  first  kiln-dried,  and  thn  pressed  with- 
out frrinding,  the  oil  thus  obtained  l>«ing  culled  *'  cold 
pressed,"  to  distinguish  it  iVom  the  bulled  uil  (that 
obtained  by  boiling  tho  beans  in  water). 

About  ten  years  ago,  tho  St,  I^uls  nianufaclureri 
commenced  using  tho  ordinary  hydraulic  press,  In* 
creasing  the  yield  from  the  raw  material,  and  wurk- 


CAT 


S88 


CAT 


Ing  (lie  beam  with  grvutcr  rapidity  and  oconomy. 
About  twu  yt'iirH  nini'u  tliero  waa  introduced  a  now 
promi,  wliicli  has  brought  tlio  buuinvitii  to  a  gruator 
ttato  of  ixtrfuctlon,  [>y  iucrvuain|{  tho  product  uf  oil 
from  tiiu  Iwiiu  UTJ  |iur  cunt,  uvor  tliu  ordinary  hydrau- 
lic proHH,  and  Hucuring  other  advantages  lu  the  ucun- 
oniy  'i(  labor  and  fuel.  One  of  thcHu  pruvBca  will  work 
1&U,OOU  liusliuU  0*'  beauu  pur  annum,  producing  ae 
much  an  'l(X),OOU  gallons  of  oil.  It  is  said  that  una  of 
theso  presses  wurlcud  on  castor-oil,  iu  couuectioa  witli 
others  on  Unseed  oil,  furnialius  sullieiont  combustible 
refuse  from  the  lastur  buan  tu  supply  fuel  fur  the 
works ;  and  iu  tiiis  way  tlie  fuel  from  the  bean  is  of 
lullieient  value  t«  pay  all  the  o.x|Kin»cs  of  manufactur- 
lug  the  oil.  The  ap.uuiit  saved  in  Latuurottu's  estal>- 
lislimont  by  burning  the  al)Ove  refuse,  when  in  full 
operation,  is  aliuut  tifty  dollars  per  week.  After  the 
oil  h  pressed  from  tl;u  beans,  it  is  clarilicd  by  boiling 
in  large  kettles  with  a  siiuill  ixirtiun  uf  water,  and 
when  perfectly  clear  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  is  then 
drawn  otf  into  barrels  ready  for  market.  During  tliu 
months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  IHAl,  there 
were  manufactured  thirty-two  tliousand  gallons  of 
castur-oil  at  this  establishment  alone.  The  manufac- 
ture of  the  oil,  which,  in  1850,  was  largely  curried  on 
In  Illinois,  la  now  mostly  ellbctod  in  the  city  of  St. 
Louis. 


KM. 

IStl. 

IBS9. 

1M3. 

t;rup  ill  buslitls 

Fiict()rl4!H  ill  Ht.  I^iiis, , 
Ksriorii's  In  Illinois . . . 
Hsrn'ls  n'oil  made  ... 
i>>ltiiviileMt  ill  KBlions  . 

■itM.omt 
i 

ft.ooo 

•')0(),UUU 

1UU,U00 

<i 

T 

T.noo 

366,UU0 

UU,V(MI 

i 

n 

Cii.OtHl 

i! 

.1 

4.201) 

141,000 

The  estimated  crop  of  beans  for  185-1  abs  but  10,000 
bushels,  licing  almost  a  total  failure ;  arising  from  tho 
excessive  drought  that  prevailed  during  tlie  summer 
over  that  part  of  tho  country.  Tlie  niunlicr  of  mills 
In  ojU'ratlon  in  ISbi  was  only  Ave,  and  those  only  cm- 
ployed  part  of  tho  time.  These  statements  exhibit  a 
gradual  decline  in  the  amount  of  oil  produced,  which 
arises  partly  from  tho  decreased  crops,  and  partly, 
probably,  from  a  limitation  in  the  demand.  Tlic  price 
of  oil  in  lH52-'53  was  ns  low  as  CO  to  80  cents  per  gal- 
lon, and  Is  at  present  aliont  $t  25  by  the  barrel,  which, 
with  the  short  crop  of  the  past,  year,  will  probalily 
prove  an  Inducement  to  the  farmers  tu  again  turn  their 
attention  to  raising  tho  beans.  It  has  been  stated  tliat 
castor-oil  had  been  used  on  one  of  tlio  Western  rail- 
roads for  oiling  tho  axles  of  ears,  and  probably  also  on 
the  locomotives.  Since  the  rise  in  the  price  of  wliale 
nil,  tho  attention  of  machinists  has  liccn  tunud  to 
various  substitutes,  and  it  is  proliable  that  the  n 
drying  iiiiality  of  the  castor-oil:  when  pure,  will  ren- 
der It  very  valuable  for  luliricatlng  piir|x)8'es,  if  it  can 
bo  produced  at  a  sufflciently  low  price. —  linerican 
Joui-nnl  (if  rhnrmary,  1865. 

Catechu (Fr.  CucAow.-Ger.  A'lucAM.-IIind.  Cut,  Gam. 
Ur),  a  lirown  astringent  substance,  formerly  known  by 
the  name  of  Tei-ra  JiiiMnicn,  because  sup|ioscd  to  be  a 
kind  uf  earth.  It  Is,  however,  a  vegetable  substance 
obtained  from  two  plants ;  viz.  tho  .\fimoaa,  or  more 
correotly  the  Acacia  catecltu,  and  the  Vncaria gamhir. 
The  flrs't  of  these  is  a  tree  from  20  to  30  feet  high, 
found  In  abundance  in  many  of  the  forests  of  India, 
from  16°  of  lot.  up  to  30".  The  places  most  rcmark- 
.able  for  Its  prodaction  are  the  Uurmese  territories  ;  a 
large  province  r  n  the  Malabar  coast  called  the  Concan ; 
and  the  forestf  skirting  the  northern  part  of  li:'-.gal, 
under  tho  hii.s  which  divide  it  from  Nepaul.  The 
catechu  is  olitidned  from  this  tree  by  the  simple  process 
of  liolling  tho  heart  of  the  wood  for  a  few  hours,  when 
It  assumes  the  look  and  consistency  of  tar.  Tho  sub- 
ataiico  hardens  by  cooling ;  is  formed  into  small  balls 
or  squares ;  and  being  dried  In  the  sun,  is  flt  fur  the 
market.  Johnson,  In  his  "  Chemistry  of  Common  Life," 
»ays,  "  In  the  most  relaxing  climates  of  the  East  this 
itrongly  astringent  aubstance  acta  beneficially  upon 


tue  ayatem."  Perron,  tho  truvolor,  atatea  that  be  pre> 
aerved  his  health  during  a  long  and  dilllcult  voyag« 
by  th3  '  iiitual  usu  of  botul,  while  his  companions,  who 
did  ,    ^  mSo  it,  died,  mostly  of  dysentery. 

Cat-head,  a  strung  timber  projecting  frum  either 
Ihiw  uf  a  ship,  to  which  the  anchor  is  raised  and  le- 
cured. 

Cat's  Eye,  a  mineral  of  a  beautiful  appearance, 
brought  frum  (Joylon.  Its  colors  are  gray,  green, 
brown,  red,  of  various  shades.  Its  Intornal  lustru  U 
shilling,  its  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal,  and  it  la 
translucent,  Fro^ii  u  |ieeuiiur  play  of  light,  arising 
from  white  fibres  interspersed,  it  has  derived  its  name. 
The  French  cull  t'.  j  appearance  chatayunt.  It  scratch- 
es quartz,  is  easily  broken,  and  resists  the  blow-pi|)e. 
It  is  set  by  tho  Jiiwclers  as  a  precious  stone. 

Cat  Skins.  Tho  skin  ur  fur  of  tho  cat  la  used  for 
a  variety  of  pur|ioses,  but  is  principally  dyed  and  sold 
as  false  aulilo.  U  ap|>ears  from  uvidonco  taken  befuro 
u  late  Conmiittee  of  tho  Iluuso  of  Commons,  tliat  it  is 
u  common  practice  in  London  to  decoy  tho  animal  and 
kill  it  for  thu  sako  of  its  skin.  Tho  fur  of  tho  wild- 
cut  is,  however,  far  moro  valuable  than  that  of  tho 
domestic  cut.  Tho  wild-cat  skins  imported  into  Kii- 
ropo  arc  brought  almost  wholly  from  the  turrltoriea  of 
thu  Hudson's  llay  Company.  Tho  animal  from  which 
they  are  taken  is  u  good  du3il  larger  than  tho  Fnglish 
wild-cat,  and  is  sometimes  called  tho  loup  aercier,  or 
Canadian  lynx. 

Cattle,  a  collectivo  term  applied  to  designate  all 
those  i|uadrui)eds  that  aro  used  either  as  food  for  man 
or  in  tilling  tho  ground.  Uy  ncut  or  ItorneJ  cuttle  is 
meant  tho  two  species  included  under  tho  names  of  the 
ox  (/w.4)  and  tho  bulTalo  (bubuluii) ;  but  as  tlio  latter 
is  principally  conlined  to  Asiatic  countries,  it  is  the 
former  only  that  wo  have  here  in  view.  Tlio  raising; 
and  feeding  of  cattle,  and  tho  preparation  of  tlio  vari- 
ous products  which  they  yield,  have  formed,  in  all 
countries  emerged  from  tho  savage  state,  an  important 
branch  of  industry.  It  would  bo  quite  inconsistent 
with  the  olijccts  and  limits  of  this  work  tu  enter  into 
any  details  w  ith  respect  to  tho  dilTorcnt  breeds  of  cuttle 
raised  in  this  or  other  countries.  They  aro  exceedingly 
various.  In  (ircat  Itritain  and  iu  tliis  country  they 
have  been  vastly  improved,  both  in  the  weight  of  car- 
cass, the  quality  of  tlio  beef,  and  the  abundance  of  tho 
milk,  by  the  extraordinary  attention  that  has  been 
given  tu  tlie  selection  and  crossing  of  tlio  best  breeds, 
according  to  tho  clyccts  in  view.  This  sort  of  im- 
provement began  about  the  middle  of  hist  century,  or 
rather  later,  and  wac  excited  and  very  much  forwarded 
by  tho  skill  and  enterprise  of  two  individuals — Mr. 
liakewell,  of  DislJoy ;  and  Mr.  Culley,  of  Northum- 
berland, England.  Tho  success  by  which  their  elforta 
were  attended  roused  a  spirit  of  emulation  in  others ; 
and  tho  rapid  growth  of  commerce  and  manufactures 
since  17G0  having  occasioned  a  corresponding  incrousa 
in  the  demand  for  butcher's  moat,  improved  systems 
of  breeding,  and  improved  breeds,  havo  been  very 
generally  introduced.  Ilut  the  improvement  in  tho 
sizu  and  condition  of  cattle  has  not  been  alone  owing 
to  tho  circunistunccs  now  mentioned.  Much  of  it  la 
certainly  to  bo  ascribed  to  the  greot  improvement  that 
has  been  made  in  their  feeding.  The  introduction  and 
universal  extension  of  tho  turnip  a.  i  clover  cul  iva- 
tiou  has  had,  in  this  respect,  a  most  astonishing  influ- 
ence, and  has  wonderfully  increased  the  food  of  cattle, 
and  consequently  the  supply  of  butcher's  meat. 

Among  the  various  races  of  cattle  existing  among 
us,  where  strict  regard  is  paid  to  breeding  with  a  defin- 
ite object  in  view,  a  preference  is  given  to  the  Dur- 
hams  or  short  horns,  the  Ilcrefords,  the  Ayrshiros,  and 
the  Devous.  The  Durhams,  from  their  rapid  growth, 
early  matur't}',  and  capability  of  taking  on  fat,  ore 
adapted  only  for  high  keeping,  or  to  the  richest  pas- 
tures of  tho  Middle  and  Northern  States,  and  those  if 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  other  parts  of  the  ^V«st.    Th« 


CAU 


284 


CED 


mtlei,  wh»n  Jailicioimly  crossed  with  the  other  breeds, 
or  with  the  cominon  cows  of  the  country,  often  hegct 
the  liest  of  milkers,  nnd  fur  this  purpose  they  have 
been  esi>ecially  reconiinvnded.  The  Hercfords,  on  the 
contrary,  ft-oni  their  preullnr  organlzntlon,  nro  lietter 
adapted  for  poor  or  Indifferent  pastures,  and  regions 
■uhjert  to  continued  driiUKht ;  aiul  for  this  reason  thi^'V 
*re  well  suited  for  California,  New  Mcxirn,  Texas, 
■nd  other  parts  of  the  Month.  The  oxen  of  this  hreed 
■re  goo<l  In  the  yoke,  ami  the  cows,  when  properly  fed, 
give  an  abundance  of  nillk  The  Ayrshlrcs  are  best 
suited  for  u  cool,  mountainous  region,  or  a  cold,  rigor- 
ous climate.  They  succeed  well  in  Massachusetts, 
New  Itanipshlro,  nnd  Vermont,  and  are  highly  prized 
for  their  tameness,  doclla  tempers,  and  rich  milk. 
The  Devons,  (Vom  their  hardihood,  comparatively  small 
eUe,  nnd  peculiar  structure,  ap|>ear  to  be  adapted  to 
almost  every  climate,  and  to  all  kinds  of  pnsturngc. 
From  their  stoutness,  good  tempers,  honest/,  and  qu  ick- 
ncss  of  action,  they  make  the  best  teams,  and  in  this 
Kspect  their  chief  excellency  consi  >»,  Thecnwsmakc 
fair  milkers,  nnd  their  Hcsh  very  gi)  'beef.  Theyalao 
possess  givat  aptitude  to  take  on  fai. — •Src  AnATToiR, 

Cktdicillg,  or  Cauklng,  the  driving  of  oakum  or 
old  rope  nntwisted  Into  the  seams  between  the  planks 
in  a  siilp's  deck  or  sides,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
water  or  leakage.  The  seams  arc  then  covered  with 
melted  pitch  or  rosin,  to  keep  the  oakum  from  rotting. 

Cavendlali,  Thomaa,  was  the  son  of  a  gentleman 
of  goo<l  estate  in  Suffolk,  Kngland,  but  having  im- 
poverished himself  by  early  extravagances,  with  n 
view  to  retrieve  his  affairs  ho  fitted  out  thr-o  vessels 
for  a  predatory  expedition  against  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
can colonics,  for  which  he  sailed  in  .luly,  158o.  After 
ravaging  the  western  coasts,  and  taking  n  Spanish  ves- 
sel richly  ladened,  he  sailed  across  the  South  Sea,  and 
returned  to  England  by  way  of  the  Cajie  of  tiood  Hope, 
in  Scptcmlier,  1588,  having  circumnavigated  the  globe 
in  a  sliorter  time  than  any  preceding  adventurer.  The 
grc'U  wealth  which  he  acquired  from  this  undertaking 
prompted  him  to  engage  in  another  voyage,  on  which 
he  embarked  In  August,  1&91.  Tempestuous  weather, 
sickness,  and  other  causes  contributed  to  render  this 
scheme  unfortunate ;  and  Cavendish  himself  died  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil  on  his  pnss.igo  home,  In  1693, 

Caviar  (Kr.  Cminr,  Cnrial ;  (Jer.  A'mi'nr;  It.  Cari- 
ario,  Cnritile;  Sp.  Cavinrin;  Russ.  Ikrti;  Lat.  Cnviari- 
um),  a  sniMtancc  prepared  In  Russia,  considtlng  of  the 
salted  roes  of  large  Ush.  The  liest,  which  is  made  of 
the  roc  of  the  sturgeon,  appears  to  consist  entirely  of 
the  eggs,  and  does  hot  easily  l)ecome  fetid.  It  Is 
packed  In  small  casks  or  kegs,  the  Inferior  sort  licing 
in  the  form  of  dry  cakes.  Caviar  Is  highly  esteemed 
in  linssla,  and  considerable  quantities  are  exported  to 
other  countries.  It  is  prlnci))nlly  made  of  the  too  of 
the  sturgeon  caught  in  the  Wolga,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Astrachan,  as  many  as  80,(H)0  barrels  of  caviar  hav- 
ing been  exported  from  that  city  in  a  single  season. — 
See  Ceog.  Diet.  art.  AsTitAntAS. 

Cayenne,  a  sea-port  town,  and  the  capital  of  French 
Guiana,  on  the  west  point  of  the  Island  of  same  name, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Cayenne  or  Oyaque  River,  in  the 
Atlantic.  Lat.  4°  66'  5"  N.,  long.  52"  80'  W.  Popu- 
lation 6000.  It  is  built  mostly  of  woo<i,  and  consists 
of  an  old  town,  with  the  government-house  and  Jesuits' 
college,  and  the  new  town,  with  wide  and  clean  streets, 
large  warehouses,  and  good  residences,  lietween  which 
two  divisions  is  a  large  open  space  planted  with  orange- 
trees.  Harbor  shallow :  it  has  two  quayr,  and  is  pro- 
tected by  a  fort  and  several  batteries.  Cayenne  is  the 
feat  of  a  court  of  assize,  and  the  centre  of  all  the  trad 
of  French  Guiana.  Exports  to  France  amount  t  ■ 
6,000,000 flrancs,  and  imports  thence  to  5,000,000 ffancs. 
The  Island  of  Cayenne,  in  the  Atlantic,  separated  fror. 
the  continent  of  South  America  by  u  narrow  Cuannel, 
is  80  miles  in  circumference ;  chief  products,  sugar, 
•olton,  coffee,  and  iniits.    Poptdation  (er.dusive  of 


the  town  of  Cayenne)  flOnO.  First  settled  by  the  French 
in  1025,  but  they  left  it  in  Iti54.  It  was  afterward 
successively  In  the  hands  nf  the  Knglisli,  Krcnih,  and 
iMitrb.  These  last  were  ox|K'lli'd  l)y  the  French  in 
11177.  Cayenne  was  taken  liy  tlin  Ilrilinh,  .January  VI, 
IHOit,  but  WHS  restored  to  the  French  at  the  pence  In 
1811.  In  this  settlement  is  produced  tlie  aijuirum 
Imcrnfum,  or  Cayenne  jKippcr,  so  esteemed  In  Eurupo, 

—  IIaVI)!«. 

Cayenne  Pepper  Is  preparetl  from  several  vario- 
ties  of  capsicum,  a  genus  of  soUnaceous  plnnts  nhich 
pr<M|ucc  a  liculiy-ccdored  fhilt.  'I'his  fruit  iontain«  an 
extremely  pungent  principle,  that  exists  In  greatest 
activity  In  the  seed.  The  capsicum  from  which  the 
Cayenne  is  procured  Is  a  native  of  the  Fast  Indies  and 
America.  Tlie  princiiwl  Indian  species  is  C./i-iilcmuf, 
and  the  American  6'.  imimtim.  The  capsicum  enters 
largely  into  the  seasoning  of  fuo<l  and  the  preparjitlun 
of  pickles;  and  is  also  used  in  medicine,  lioth  intern- 
ally and  externally.  The  pods  may  bo  preserved  In 
vinegar,  or  in  a  dry  state  in  salt.  The  strongest  viiri- 
ety  of  Cayenne  popjier  comes  from  the  West  Indies, 
and  Is  prejiared  from  the  aijuicvm  baccatum  (bird  jiep- 
per). 

Cedar  (Germ.  Xedf;  Du.  Cedcr;  Fr.  Cci/rc;  It. 
nnd  Sp.  C'edro;  Russ.  Krdr;  I.at.  Cidrti»).  The  Cedar 
of  Lebanon,  or  great  cedar  (I'iniit  leilriif),  is  famous 
in  Scripture :  It  is  a  tall,  niigestic-looking  tree.  "  De- 
hold,"  says  the  Inspired  writer,  "the  Assyrian  was  a 
cedar  in  Lebanon  willi  fair  branches,  and  with  a  shad- 
owing shroud,  and  of  a  high  stature ;  and  iila  top  was 
among  the  thick  boughs.  Ills  height  was  exalted 
above  all  the  trees  nf  (he  field,  and  his  boughs  were 
nndtiplled,  and  his  branches  became  long.  The  fir- 
trees  were  not  like  his  boughs,  and  the  chcslnut-lrccs 
were  not  like  his  branches,  nor  any  tree  in  the  garden 
of  God  was  like  unto  him  in  beauty." — J-:zeHel,  xxxi. 
.1,  6,  8.  The  cedar  grows  to  a  very  great  size.  Tho 
timber  is  resinous,  has  a  peculiar  and  powerful  odor,  a 
slightly  bitter  taste,  a  rich  yellowish  brown  color,  and 
is  not  subject  to  the  worm.  Its  duruliiiity  is  vcrj- 
great ;  and  It  was  on  this  account  (propttr  alt  riiilalem, 
Vitruvlus,  lib.  ii.  §  9)  employed  in  the  conslrnction  of 
teuiplus  and  other  pulilic  buildings,  in  the  forniulion 
of  the  statues  of  tho  gods,  and  as  tablets  for  w  riling 
upon.  In  tho  time  of  Vilruvlus,  cedars  were  princi- 
pally produced  in  Crete,  Africa,  and  some  parts  of 
Syria. — Loc.  cil.  Very  few  arc  now  found  on  I.clia- 
non ;  but  some  of  those  that  still  remain  arc  of  im- 
incnsc  bulk,  and  In  the  highest  prescr\'ation.  Cedar 
exceeds  the  oak  in  toughness,  but  is  very  inferior  to 
it  in  strength  and  stiffness.  Some  very  fine  cedars 
have  been  produced  in  England. 

There  are  several  other  kinds  of  timber  that  ara 
u  - ../  called  cedar :  thus  a  species  of  cypress  is  called 
white  cedar  in  America ;  and  the  cedar  used  by  tho  Jap- 
anese for  building  bridges,  ships,  houses,  etc.,  is  a  kind 
of  cypress,  which  Thunberg  describes  as  a  bcauiiful 
wood,  that  lasts  long  without  decay.  The  Jimijiinu 
oiycednit  is  a  native  of  Spain,  the  south  of  France,  nnd 
the  lAivant;  it  is  usually  called  the  browu-berried  cedar. 
Tho  Bermudian  cedar  (Jiiiiineriis  Jitrmudiana),  a  na- 
tive of  tho  Bermuda  and  Bahama  islands,  Is  another 
species  that  produces  valualile  timber  for  many  pur- 
poses ;  such  as  internal  joiners'  work,  furniture,  and 
the  like.  The  red  cedar,  so  well  known  from  its  being' 
used  In  making  black-lead  pencils,  is  produced  by  tho 
Virginia"  -"''ni-  (  '""inerua  Virginiand),  a  native  of 
Xoith  America,  the  M  est  India  islands,  and  Japan, 
fhe  tree  seldom  cxcce  is  45  feet  in  height.  The  wood 
is  very  durable,  and,  lik^  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  is  not 
attacked  by  worms.  It  ib  employed  in  various  ways, 
but  principally  in  the  manuiacturu  of  drawers,  ward- 
robes, etc.,  and  as  a  cover  to  pencils.  The  internal 
wood  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  has  a  very  strong  odor. 
It  is  of  a  nearly  uniform  texture,  brittle,  and  light.— 
See  Trelioolu's  Principlet  of  Carpentry, 


GEM 


285 


CEN 


Camanta.     Tho  ■uli.itunec"'  used  Tur  priHlucliii;  cu- 
hciiluii  lititntTii  (Hft'iTi'iit  muturiuU  aru  wry  \urluuii. 
They  uru  iiiuiUy,  liuwuvcr,  luft,  ur  oiini-lluUI,  anil 
hariliMi  ill  tliu  I'uiirso  iif  tliiiu.     'I'liu  iiuinliur  t'liiployeil 
it  very  grfut.     Wu  laii  niuiilluu  only  a  fuw,     Tlio 
Joint!  of  iruii  pipi'f)  aiul  tlio  lluiigi^a  ol'  iitoiiui-oni;inot 
•ro  coiii('iiI(mI  witli  a  iiiixturu  cuiiiposod  u(  nuliibur  uiiil 
inuriuti)  of  iiiiiiiiuniu,  tugutlicr  witit  a  latga  ({uuntity 
of  iruii  clilppiii){ii.     Tim  putty  of  gluziurH  ia  a  luixturo 
of  iinacvil  oil  anil  puwdurud  ciiullt.     I'luater  of  I'aria, 
driud  l>y  licat,  and  ndxud  >vitli  water,  or  with  ruaiu 
and  wax,  ia  uacd  for  uuitiii|{  piccua  of  niarblu,     A  cc-  j 
nienl  conipoHcd  of  brlcl<-du>t  and  main,  or  pitch,  ia 
ompluyi'd  by  turnura,  and  aoniu  otliur  niochauics,  to 
oonlinu  tlio  niutariul  on  which  tlicy  aro  woridng.   Coni- 
moii  puliit,  iiiailu  of  whltc-lcad  aii<l  oil,  ia  uacd  to  ce- 
ment China  ware.     Ho  alao  aro  reainoua  siibatancca, 
audi  aa  niustic  and  ahullac,  or  iaiuKluaa  dUaoIvvd  in 
proof-apirit  ur  water.     Tliu  poatu  of  booli-bindora  and 
paper-hangera  la  mado  by  liollliig  flour.     Itlce-gluo  ia 
made  by  boiling;  ground  rico  in  aoft  water  to  thu  con- 
alatenie  of  a  thin  Jelly.     Wafers  aro  mado  of  Hour, 
iaiiiKlaaa,  yeaat,  and  white  of  cgga,  dried  in  thin  luyora 
upon  tin  platea,  and  cut  by  a  ciruular  iiiatruiiicnt. 
They  are  colored  liy  red-lead,  etc.   Scaling-wux  ia  coni- 
poaoil  of  aliollau  and  roain,  and  is  coniinonly  colored 
with  veriuilioo.     Common  gluo  is  moxtiy  employed 
for  uniting  wovd,  aud  aiinilar  porous  aubstancea.     It 
doca  not  unawer  for  aurfacoa  not  porous,  audi  us  those 
of  inotala,  and  ia  not  durable  if  exposed  to  water.    Tho 
cements  mostly  used  in  building  aro  composed  of  lime 
and  aand.     Lime  is  procured  by  turning  substances 
in  which  it  exists  in  combinaiHU  with  carbonic  acid, 
such  as  limestone,  niarblea,  ciiali  ,  and  shells.    Uy  tliia 
proccas,  tlio  curbouic  acid  ia  driven  off,  and  quiclilimo 
ia  obtained.    Tlio  qiilcldimo  ia  aluked  by  inixturu  with 
water,  after  which  it  swells  and  cracks,  becomes  hot, 
and  assumes  tho  form  of  a  white  and  impalpable  pow- 
der.    Tills  is  a  hydrate  of  lime,  and  contains  about 
three  parts  of  linio  to  one  of  water.     When  intended 
for  mortar,  it  should  immediately  bo  mixed  with  sand, 
and  uaud  without  delay,  before  it  imbibes  carbonic 
acid  anew  from  the  atmuapliero.     Tho  linio  adiiores  to 
and  unites  tliu  particles  of  sand.     Coments  thus  mado 
increase  in  strength  and  solidity  for  an  indoflnito  pe- 
riod.    Fresh  sand,  wholly  ailicious  and  sharp,  is  tho 
beat.     That  taken  from  the  sea-shoro  is  unlit  for  mak- 
ing mortar,  as  the  salt  Is  apt  to  delUpicfco  and  weaken 
the  mortar.     Tho  amount  of  sand  is  always  greater 
than  that  of  tho  limo.    From  two  to  four  parts  of  sand 
aro  used,  according  to  tho  quality  of  tho  lima  aud  tho 
labor  bestowed  on  it.    Water  cements,  called  also  lio- 
tmm  cemenlt,  harden  under  water,  and  consolidate  al- 
most immediately  ou  being  mixed.     Common  mortar 
dissolves  or  crumbles  oway  if  laid  under  water  before 
it  has  had  tinio  to  harden ;  but  certain  rocks,  which 
have  ail  argillaceous  as  well  as  a  silicious  cliaractor, 
communicato  to  lime  or  mortar  tho  property  of  harden- 
ing in  a  very  few  minutes,  both  in  and  out  of  water. 
The  ancient  Romans,  in  making  their  water  cements, 
employed  a  peculiar  earth,  obtained  at  tho  town  of 
Futcoli.    This  they  called /)i(?ris  Puleolamia.    It  is  tho 
same  as  is  now  called  Puzzolana,  and  is  evidently  of 
volcuniu  origin.     Thu  Dutch,  in  their  great  aquatic 
structures,  havo  mostly  employed  a  substance  denomi- 
nated larnu,  teiT(u,  or  Irass,  found  near  Andernach,  in 
tho  Vicinity  of  the  Rhine.     It  is  said  to  be  a  kind  of 
decomposed  basalt,  but  resembles  puzzolana.     It  is 
very  durable  in  water,  but  inferior  to  the  other  kinds 
in  tho  open  air.     Baked  clay  and  tho  common  green- 
stone alTord  tho  basis  of  very  tolerable  water  cements, 
when  mixed  with  lime.     Some  of  the  ores  of  manga- 
nese may  lie  used  for  tho  same  purpose.     Some  lime- 
stones calcined,  and  mixed  with  sand  and  water,  also 
afibrd  water  cemonts,  usually  in  consequence  of  con- 
taining some  argillaceous  earth.    Some  cements,  of 
great  hardness  and  permanency,  have  been  obtained 


from  mixtures  Into  which  animal  and  vegetable  tub< 
alancet  enter,  suili  as  oil,  iiiilk,  niuclUgu,  etc.  Tb« 
name  otmnllha  or  tmutic  ia  given  tliem,  'I'hey  are  not 
much  useil.  The  principal  niauufucturiiig  plncea  of 
cement  In  tho  TnitiMl  States  are  in  tlin  Statu  of  Now 
York,  along  tho  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal. 

Canaua  ia  now  ali.ioat  solely  uaud  to  deuoto  lliat 
onumeratiuu  of  thu  peoplu  inadu  at  inturvula  in  iii<ml 
Kuropuan  countries,  and  in  ilritain  ducunnlally,  I'hu 
term  hud  its  origin  in  itomo,  where  a  group  of  the 
many  functions  performed  by  the  higli  olllcur  called 
censor  received  thu  iiamu  of  cnuut.  An  enumeration 
of  tho  people  waa  only  ono  of  them,  but  they  went 
cliietly  of  a  atutlaticai  character.  They  woro  especially 
directed  to  llacai  objucta ;  and  it  docs  not  appear  that 
the  onumeralioii  of  tiio  people  was  then  duunied  of 
value  as  a  auurcu  of  statistical  knowledge  which  iniKht 
intlueiicu  morals  and  Icgisiatiou.  It  was  conni'ctud 
with  tho  Servian  constitution,  wlilch  apportioned  the 
rights  and  duties  of  citizens  to  tho  amount  of  jiruperty, 
dividing  them  into  iiix  classes,  which  were  subdivided 
into  centuries  by  a  mixed  ratio  of  wealtii  and  numbers, 
Tlio  Roman  census  must  liuvo  been  minute  and  full. 
It  indicated  nut  only  the  number  and  respective  ciasaoi 
of  nil  free  persons,  but  their  domestic  position  as  hut- 
buuda  and  wives,  fathers  and  mothers,  and  sons  and 
daughters.  Tho  slaves  aud  frecdiiicn  were  indicated 
in  connection  with  tho  possessions  of  the  bu»d  of  the 
house,  and  landed  property  was  analyzed  into  several 
classes,  according  to  Its  character  and  produce.  The 
important  practical  eifect  of  tiio  census  caused  it  to  be 
conducted  at  intervals  generally  so  frequent  as  every 
liftli  year.  It  was  followed  by  a  sacrilice  of  purlllca- 
tion  or  lustration,  whence  tho  term  of  live  years  came 
to  ho  denoted  a  lustrum. 

While  tho  word  census  was  thus  applied  to  the  tax- 
ation of  tho  Middle  Ages,  it  will  readily  be  understood 
that  in  its  modern  sense  it  received  no  practical  appli- 
cation, since  neither  taxation  nor  tho  aiyustment  of 
social  rank  required  a  numbering  of  the  people ;  and 
tlie  statistic  or  economic  ends  of  such  a  process  were 
as  little  known  as  they  had  been  to  the  Romans.  Un- 
der tho  despotic  governments  of  tho  Continent,  liuw- 
ever,  tho  tendency  to  central  organization  for  purposes 
of  administration  and  police  prepared  the  way  for  sta- 
tistical inquiries  into  the  numbers  of  tho  Inhabitant* 
of  pprticular  areas  whenever  there  should  occur  an 
occasion  for  enumerating  them.  Jt  was  in  Britain, 
with  its  abstinent  government  and  unrestrained  peo- 
ple, that  tlio  want  of  population  statistics  bccaitio  most 
flagrantly  conspicuous.  It  is  diflicult  at  present  to 
realize  tho  idea  that,  long  after  Adam  Smith's  day,  the 
number  of  tho  inhabitants  of  the  Uritish  empire  could 
only  bo  guessed  at,  as  tho  popuiouaness  of  China  is  at 
tho  preaent  day ;  and,  as  in  all  matters  of  statistics, 
which  havo  their  own  simple  solution  through  spccitlo 
inquiry,  tho  guesses  about  the  population  of  the  empire 
wore  not  only  vague  but  extravagantly  contradictory. 
During  the  eighteenth  century,  the  most  trust-worthy 
geographers  were  generally  those  who  did  not  venture 
on  an  estimate  of  the  population  even  in  those  Euro- 
pean states  which  had  the  best  means  of  enumeration 
at  their  command. 

The  first  eflbrt  to  take  a  census  of  tho  population  of 
Great  Britain  was  mado  in  1801 ;  it  did  not  then  ex- 
tend to  Ireland.  The  success  which  attended  this  and 
tho  two  succeeding  elTorts  was  mainly  owing  to  the 
zeal  and  ability  of  Mr.  lilckman,  the  assistant  clerk 
of  tho  House  of  Commons.  AVhere  there  is  an  organ- 
ization like  that  in  many  of  the  Earopcan  states  for 
preserving  a  constant  official  record  of  all  tho  fluctua- 
tions of  the  population,  not  only  in  their  absolute 
numbers  throughout  a  whole  territory  but  in  the  rela- 
tive numbers  in  its  respective  porta  as  they  may  be 
affected  by  fluctuations,  systematic  arrangements  are 
thus  prepared  not  only  for  obtaining  a  general  census 
at  any  cue  moment,  but  for  cbecliiug  its  accixracy  and 


CEN 


28fl 


TEN 


cliMlfylnK  lu  rlcmcnln.  Hut  lo  i1(>al  At  nnra  with  tho 
raw  iimtcrUI  In  (h«  wlf-KovuriKMl  llrltlih  cmiilrn,  re- 
qulml  (;r«at  iiiKmiiily  (lul  MKX'ily,  A  ccniun,  to  Ihi 
•iTuratn,  iniiit  )i«  likon  on  a  unlAirni  lydein,  antl  muit 
bo  taken  •Imultanraualy. 

Thu  t'nuincratlnni  of  IHil  and  tKSt  In  Kiigland  wrro 
much  fscllitntrd  hy  the  iinirnrni  ■}'>tcm  of  rpffUtratlun 
of  liirlha,  mnrrlnKCf,  and  deaths,  cutaLliahod  In  IN.in, 
whli'h  not  only  afTordud  tho  mcani  of  rhockloK  "■" 
ar<'»«cy  of  thn  n>turn«,  Imt  |irovidrd  a  prompt  and 
•kllli'd  niachincr}'  ucrolonird  to  atatliitlral  work.  Far 
more  dependence  could  now  ho  plai'cd  on  the  dincretlon 
and  Bkill  of  tho  offlcera  to  whom  tho  local  diitlen  were 
committed  ;  and  the  retuma  were  niado  more  ininulc 
and  complete.  Scotland  and  Irelaml  are  pcrhapa  tho 
only  lonaidurahle  coiinlrica  In  Chrintian  Kuropo  wlicro 
there  is  no  uniform  tyttcm  of  reKi"tratlon,  In  8cot- 
l«n«  It  wa»  neceiaar}-  to  adopt  tlio  iliimay  method  of 
enipluylng  the  pariah  achoolnmntcra  to  perform  the 
local  duty  In  tho  country  dlatrlcla.  In  Ireland  thu 
flmt  attempt  at  n  general  cenAua  waa  niado  In  1H11, 
bnt  It  was  decidedly  unsucccMful,  It  Han  repealed  In 
1821,  hut  went  no  further  than  a  bare  enumeration  of 
doubtful  accuracy.  Tho  censui  Ihoro  taken  In  1831 
W4S  aubjcct  to  correction  In  IHIII,  to  make  It  tho  bauls 
of  the  new  system  of  national  education.  In  tho  two 
subsei|uent  enumerations  Iho  aid  of  tho  admirable  con- 
(laluilary  force,  and  tho  use  of  an  ordnance  survey, 
nearly  complete  In  1811,  have  gone  far  to  supply  the 
want  of  permanent  local  statistical  machinery.  The 
census  of  1861  was  laken  on  the  Hist  day  of  March,  the 
previously -distributed  schedules  being  then  collected. 

Population  arii  Nihhkb  or  iNiiAKiTAMn  to  ths  ^i||  asb 
Milk  ok  vauiols  Amluica.n  a.nd  Kcroi-k.ui  Coinikiiui. 


C«IBlf(«. 

r<>|>iilsu<»' 

UMWIy. 

<1I,IVI,87« 
l,'<4J,i(16 

7,noi,9i» 

«,04U,H60 
0,(1(16,0(10 
2,IUt),4IKI 

fio,.iir.,;60 
.'M.M4,4'''« 
86,783,170 
10,','V  1,888 
li7,476,':7l 
10.331, 187 

i4,iio,'iie 

lf..60(l,0<K) 
4,ajb,U07 
4.4'20,2II2 
8,478,768 
S,«d7,«S8 
li,«M),6M 
li,ll'J!i,740 
(o.S.'WO 

71.0 

6'3I 

7  37 

intiT 

119     1 

B'fiU 

'^8 '44 

141  SS 

17!!-74 

llo-J1Ht 

ii2&'lll 

181  -Si 

78 -OS 

7U'06 

16sa 

D8S'00 

rnu 
aiOBi 
lulus 

100 -(8 
66-70 

mxlro 

BrasU 

l^ni 

AuHtrla 

Kngland 

Great  Ilrlluin  and  Ireland 

I*ruisla 

Spain 

Portupil 

Holland 

Denmark 

Greece 

The  I'nittd  Statu. — ^Thero  have  lieen  seven  enumir- 
ationa  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States,  the  \i«- 
riods  and  aggregate  results  of  which  are  as  follows : 

(Vniiis  of  1700 8,ll«i.«S7 

Census  of  IKOO B,(M]6,(«B 

Census  of  1810 7,!{3II,8I4 

Census  o(  1820 0,iaK,ial 

Census  of  IVjO 12,'i«fl.0t'O 

Census  of  1840 17,IH!»,JR« 

i      CensusoflSCO 28,lfll,»"« 

At  the  close  of  1857,  tVe  total  population  of  the 
United  States,  upon  the  fiupposition  that  it*  average 
ratio  of  increase  has  been  maintained,  or  nearly  so, 
may  bo  stated  in  round  numbers  at  'JS.OfWjOOO. 

The  present  population  of  the  Tnion  may  be  MJd  to 
consist  of,  Jirst,  the  number  who  were  in  the  oiiintry 
on  the  formation  of  tho  government  In  178(>,  and  thi-ir 
descendants ;  srrond,  of  those  who  have  ronic  in'o  the 
country  sincu  that  period  by  immigration,  and  their 
dcicendanta  (of  this  class  much  will  be  said  under  the 
head  of  Nativities) ;  thii-d,  of  those  who  have  been 
brought  in  by  annexation,  as  in  Louisiana,  Florida, 
Kew  Mexico,  etc.,  and  their  descendants.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  of  the  last  claw,  that  Louisiana,  when 
purchased, 'had  77,000  inhabitantf    including  63,000 


■laves;  Florida  about  lO.iMiO;  ralifornta  and  Kew 
Mr.tlco  about  (10,IM)0;  and  (hat  Texas  and  Oraguo 
only  brought  back  Into  the  Cniun  cilixeus  who  had 
emigrated  thither  but  a  slmrt  time  before.  The  num* 
lier  of  Indians  (taxed)  dcimestlcatcd  and  absorbed  In 
llie  population  can  nut  lie  ascertained.  Thu  colonial 
population  was  swelleil,  in  ITliA,  by  the  extension  of 
thu  Imundary  lo  tho  BlIssliKippi,  and  the  Introduction 
of  KIMH)  French  residents  of  the  territory  lucdrpurnted. 

Cent,  a  contracliim  of  the  I.atin  ifulum,  n  hundred, 
is  used  in  commerce  to  denote  u  certain  rule  by  thu 
hundred ;  thus  ID  per  iTUt.  profit  or  Id  per  cent,  luti 
upon  tho  sale  of  any  inerchandiKU  implies  that  the  seller 
bus  gained  or  liiit  (IIO  on  every  |1U0  of  tlin  price  at 
which  he  bought  that  merihandise.  The  rate  is  term- 
ed frritnlnijf.—Srf  Diii.i.AU. 

Cent  Is  aloii  the  name  of  a  copper  coin  of  the  I'nlted 
Slat>?B,  equal  to  tho  hiindrcdth  part  of  a  didlar,  or 
rather  more  than  a  halft)cnny  Kngllsh  nmuey.  Tho 
copper  coinage  of  the  I'nlted  Slates  lo  the  end  of 
\m\  amounted  In  f  l,Sin,Un7.  Vie  have  of  that  pon- 
deroui  currency  about  IMIO  tmi  of  'JdOO  pounds  avoir* 
dupois.  This  circulation  Is  almost  entirely  confined  to 
tho  Northern  and  Middle  States,  as  it  Is  rejected  by  tho 
South  and  West,  According  to  the  laws  establishing 
tho  Mint  of  the  United  States,  "of  the  copper  coins, 
the  weight  of  the  cent  shall  be  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  grains,  and  the  weight  of  Iho  half  cent  elghly- 
four  grains;  and  the  cent  iiholl  be  considered  of  tho 
value  of  one  hundredth  part  of  a  dollar,  and  the  half 
cent  of  (he  value  of  one  tw  o-hundredth  part  of  a  dollar. 
Copper  bullion  shall  be  purchased  for  the  Mint,  from 
time  lo  time,  by  tho  treasurer,  under  instructions  from 
the  director ;  the  cost  shall  be  paid  from  tho  fund  here- 
inafter provided  for ;  and  tho  copper  bullion  shall  bo 
of  good  quality,  and  in  tho  form  of  planchcts  fit  for 
passing  at  once  Into  the  hands  of  the  chief  coiner.  Tho 
copper  planchels  shall  be  delivered,  from  time  to  time, 
by  the  treasurer  to  the  chief  coiner,  to  lio  by  him  coined  j 
and  all  such  copper  shall  be  returned  to  the  treasurer 
by  Ihechief  coiner,  weight  forwelght,  w  ithout  ullowanco 
for  waste.  It  lihall  be  tho  duty  of  the  treasurer  of  tho 
Mint  to  deliver  the  copper  coins,  in  exchange  for  their 
legal  cqulvolent  In  other  money,  to  any  person  who 
shall  apply  for  them :  ProridrJ,  That  tho  sum  asked  for 
be  not  less  than  n  certain  amount,  to  bo  determined  by 
tho  dircclur.  ami  that  it  be  not  so  great  as  In  his  Judg- 
ment to  IntcrlVrcwith  tho  capacity  of  the  Mint  lo  sup- 
ply other  applicants.  Tho  copper  coins  may,  at  tho 
discretion  of  ilie  director,  be  delivered  in  any  of  tho 
principal  cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States,  at  tho 
cost  cl  the  Mint  for  transportati'Mi.  The  money  re- 
ceived by  the  trea-iiirer  in  excbango  for  copper  coins 
>1iall  form  a  fund  in  his  hands.  ■^  hich  shall  bo  used  to 
purchase  i-oppcr  planchcts,  ami  lo  pay  the  expense  of 
tranK[>ortation  of  copper  coins;  and  if  there  be  a  sur- 
piw,  the  same  shall  be  appropriated  to  defray  the  con- 
tingent expcnhcs  of  the  Mint.  No  copper  coins  or 
pici'i «  whatfoc^ver,  except  cents  and  half  cents,  shall 
pass  current  as  money,  or  shall  bo  poid,  or  ofTercd  to 
be  paid,  or  received  in  payment  for  any  debt,  demand, 
claim,  matter,  ur  thing  whatsoever;  and  all  copper 
coins  or  pieces,  except  the  cents  and  holf  cents,  which 
shall  lie  ]iaid,  or  o(H'r<;d  lo  be  paid,  or  received  in  pay- 
ment, contrary  to  the  prohibition  aforesaid,  shall  be 
forfeited,  and  cverj-  icrson  by  whom  any  of  them  shall 
have  been  so  paid,  or  oflercd  to  lie  paid,  or  received  in 
payment,  shall  also  forfeit  the  sum  of  ten  dollars,  and 
the  said  forfeiture  and  penally  shall  and  moy  be  recov- 
ered, with  costs  of  suit,  for  the  benefit  of  ony  person  or 
persons  by  whom  information  of  the  incurring  thereof 
shall  have  been  given. ' — Sfe  Coins,  Coinaoe. 

According  to  the  aci.s  of  Congress  prior  to  1850,  tho 
gold  and  silver  coins  of  tho  United  States  were  legal 
tender  to  any  extent,  but  by  the  law  of  185.1,  authoriz- 
ing tho  debased  silver  coin»,  the  lotter  arc  receivable  in 
•moll  sums  only.    Cupper  coins  are  not  by  statuto  le- 


CRR 


m 


CEY 


of  tlio 

for  their 

ion  who 

»kpU  for 

iliu'il  hy 

Juilg- 

lo  mil>- 

at  tho 

of  llio 

nt  tho 

lov  rc- 

.'oini 

used  to 

eneu  of 

a  sur- 

ho  con- 

oliiB  or 

ihall 

red  to 

cmand, 

copper 

which 

n  pny- 

hall  be 

III  ithaU 

ivtd  in 

rs.  nnd 

rccov- 

noD  or 

ihcrcof 

!50,  tho 
legal 
thorU- 
ablc  in 
;uto  le- 


Kul  ti-ni1«r  in  my  «iiiihiiii.     Vtrnnml  •iiKK''"tliiii*  In  i 
I'linKrwiia  liiiv*  Imivii  rxixiitly  iiind"  In  rciliiin  llin  wiiJifht 
of  ilui  <'ii|ii>i<r  ■'"Ilia,  I. Ill  ihiiii  fur  wllhnnt  i-lft'ci. 

Ocraai  CrMSM  (l>*l.  i''r';  cnmi,  i(ri<»ii«»  which 
prmliic*  ii  >  liri'ifl  mriKi  tiich  M  whual,  ry«,  barley, 
u*la,  iiiiii/'i,  rl<»,  mid  nillli'l. 

Oatt«,  4  I'liinmiirciiil  mid  furllllcd  ncii.iHirt  town  of 
Kriiiii'K,  ib'purliiixiit  of  lU'rHiitl,  ia|illiil  nf  tho  innlnii, 
■t  llin  hi<ad  of  lliH  rallroiid  rnnii  llmiii nlri',  Ixiwi'i-ii 
Ihn  Mitdllnrrmit'iin  mid  lli'i  lnuiniii  »f  Thnii,  17  iiillcii 
Miulhwi'it  of  Moiilpidljnr,  l.iil.  of  llKhldiiiiiiH<,  111"  T\' 
-(N"  N.,  luiiK.  !l"  ir  Ml"  K,  I'opiilMlloii  111,11111.  It  In 
A  forlriva  uf  ihn  llril  cUu,  ilpfi'iidnd  by  it  cludvl ;  prln- 
cl|iiil  udllli'i'D,  I  'liiiri  li  of  HI.  l,oiila,  piilillii  bnlhn,  urnl  li- 
brary, llii  harbor  !•  niiai'loiia  mid  wo'iirr,  from  lit  to 
lU  fi'Bl  hi  di'ptli,  fiiriiiiul  by  Iko  plcru  with  »  brc'iikwn- 
t»r  in  front,  dufundod  by  lt»ii  furl*,  oim  on  tllbiT  pier. 
A  bnmil  uinl  d»«p  i  anal,  bordi'i'i'd  hIiIi  i|iinyii  and  wnrc- 
houum,  conniii'la  lliu  port  ttllh  llin  laKixm  orThiiii  and 
thii  I'Hiial  du  Midi,  and  wIMi  caiiiiU  h'adlnK  lo  the 
Klioiia,  liy  whb'h  iimaiii  ('"((ii  haa  nit  pxti'nsltti  trnfllc 
with  Ihii  Intiirior,  Iniporla  loinprlan  Mfnlcnrlo  wlim 
from  Npalii,  for  inUhiK  with  Krem  li  wlnca  for  thn  Kn- 
kIMi  and  othur  inarkida.  It  haa  a  larKo  palnbllnhnirnl 
whvrii  la  nmnufactnrud  aiilidialnof  aoda,  maKHi'aln,  nnd 
polauli,  from  ana-walKr,  I  lin  xaporlii  conilat  of  about 
ilii.iNH)  tuna  of  wliin,  ami  KMHi  dlllo  of  brandy  nnnnnlly, 
with  alniooda,  Miinl|Hdll«r  viirdlutia,  anit  fnlm  ndjiirciit 
•alt-worki,  iai>l  alrnpa,  lii|iiora,  aonp,  perfiiinery,  mul 
Klnaa-warca,  tho  prodinla  of  lla  own  fmlorlia.  fntlo 
ii  tho  antMp/it  for  an  iiat''na|vn  roaatlnK-tradx,  and  poa- 
uatca  inucli  foriilt(ii  i'oniiiinri'i<,  It  hna  ahlp-biilldInK 
vardi,  and  an  aillm  iiyalnr  and  anchovy  llabcry,  and 
ii  tliii  rcaidnncii  of  vnrbma  rnropcmi  conanta.  It  la 
wholly  of  iiiodurn  orluln,  liavliiK  Iwcn  foniidcd  by  Louis 
XIV.  at  llio  liaaa  of  thii  ancient  .Ifon*  f<eiliiii  (whence 
iti  naiiiu).     HtnmnlHiaU  lo  MnraclHi-a  dally, 

Oaylon,  an  laland  In  thn  Indian  'bcaii,  altiinted  at 
tho  MMilhurn  HXtreinlty  of  th«  t'oroninndcl  coaat,  from 
wlih'h  It  la  Boparabul  by  Ihn  lliilf  „t  Mnniinr.  It  lies 
between  lat,  ft"  ftl'  and  »'  fiO'  N,,  and  loii((,  "!»'  W)'  and 
>*'.'"  Ill'  K.  lla  IciiKlJi  la  Vlt  llillea,  and  lla  ifreni 
breadth  U'>  nillea.  It  la  of  an  ovnl  form,  po< 
north  and  aoutli;  lla  brondoi  imrt  iHduK  nt  H%  .  „tii. 
orii  axtruinily,  wliurii  niaii  la  to  i>n  found  the  i«i'  at  masa 

of  iti  MtiU  liiiiila.     It  la  illalnnt  froni  ('np»  <  ,>i in, 

the  ioutlierunioat  point  of  the  Indian  pMilMaMla,  utmnt 
17ii  uiilea,  Thu  moat  liiiporlnnl  cnllWaMiM  in  Ihiat  of 
coiri'c,  H  branch  of  liidiiatry  which,  alnc*  Ihn  yaar  IHII, 
haa  aiaunicd  a  jioillinii  of  Ktfiil  ni"l  (niwliig  promi- 
nence, (.'ortli*  waa  an  arllcjo  of  xnwih  ami  export 
from  (!eylon  an  far  back  aa  thn  linn  nf  Iho  I'ortUKUoac, 
but  like  tho  vinnamon  It  urnw  wOd  wllho)il  nny  nt- 
toinpl  at  cultivation,  I'ntchi'a  of  ||  wrro  to  W  neeii 
around  tho  Kandian  vIIUk"'  In  wild  Inxnrliince,  and 
till!  berry  Katliorcd  befuro  tl|M  ,  and  Impcrfcdly  cured, 
•ebioni  poiiHaied  niilcli  llavor,  and  wna  llKlitly  calci-in- 
ed  aa  an  artblo  of  Knropenn  coiiinicrce.  ( 'olTeo  ciiltivn- 
tlon  on  thu  Woat  Indian  plnn  wna  Ural  romincnccd  by 
Sir  K.  Karnea,  the  tlien  «Hvnrnor  of  ('nylon.  In  WZ4, 
who  hoped  by  hi*  uxamplii  lo  IntriHlnco  cofTop-plantlng 
by  Kuropean*  Into  the  lalund. 

Tlie  Corut  HMcj/lc/i,  or  coi  uimut  palm,  la  a  native  of 
tho  iiland,  and  may  jually  be  conaldered  the  moat  val- 
uablu  of  itt  treea,  It  ((rows  In  vaat  iiiimlmra  along  the 
entire  vca-conat  of  tha  wcat  'ind  aonlli  aldea  of  Iho  lal- 
and, and  furnlahea  alinoal  nil  thnt  a  Hlnglinleao  vil- 
lager ru<|ulroi,  Ita  fruit,  whm  grofln,  aiippllea  food 
and  drink  ;  when  ripe,  U  ylulda  oil,  lla  aap  givea  him 
toddy  and  nrruck.  'I'lm  llbroua  eaaillg  of  tho  fruit, 
when  wovun,  iiiakua  him  ropc«,  nola,  nnd  matting. 
Thu  nut-iheiia  form  drinklng-vnaada,  apoona,  etc.  The 
plaited  leavea  aervo  aa  ptatca  and  diahea,  and  na  thatch 
for  Ilia  cottage.  The  dried  llower-alalks  nrn  used  na 
torchet,  the  large  laaf-atalka  aa  gnrdim  fencea.  The 
trunk  of  tho  trea  aawn  up  la  aniployad  for  every  poaai- 
ble  purpoie,  from  knifa-haiitllM  t<i  iloor-poala  j  hoUow- 


eilout,  It  forma  aliko  nciumcor  ncolTln.  There  nrefour 
kinda  of  thla  palm ;  the coiiiiikiii,  llic  king  i  iicoii-niil, tho 
liwnrf, and  the  Mnldivn anrlii.  'llio rulinyru  nnd  .\reca 
palma  grow  bixurlanlly  nnd  Hbundanlly,  the  former  in 
tho  northern,  the  latter  In  the  weatcrn  nnd  centint  dia- 
tricta.  'I'be  one  ia  valuulile  chielly  fur  Ita  timber,  of 
which  large  ipinntilica  are  exported  to  the  liiillun 
conala;  the  other  aiipplliit  the  lielcl-niil.  In  >iii  h  com- 
m<in  nae  among  nnllvea  of  the  I'.aatcrii  Impb  a  aa  n  iinia- 
tlcalory.  The  export  trade  in  tbia  Inller  to  India  und 
Knalerii  porta  la  very  coiinlderuldc,nmoiinlliig  in  auiiio 
yenra  lo  i  12,1X10,  Next  In  importance  lo  tho  cocon-nut 
palm  niniing  the  Indlgenoua  prodnda  of  Ceylon  la  Iho 
clnnumon-plnnt,  yielding  the  well-kiumn  aplcu  of  that 
name,— .Vi-n  ('inn. \ MUM.  The  friill!<  Indlgenoua  to  Cey- 
Inn  nre  few  and  Inalgiilllcnnt.  (^thera  of  more  vnluo 
have  been  introduced  with  auii  e«a  from  vnrloiia  tropical 
anilcxlrn-troplculcoiiiilrlcn;  nnidngthcaenrc  the  citron, 
ornnge,  lime,  ahndihick,  baiinnn,  |iomegninute,  ciialard 
apple,  gunva,  grope,  rnmbnlnm,  nlHunlor-penr,  etc. 

Priirl  fit/iri-;/, — Although  thu  once  fnr-fiimod  nnil  lu- 
crntivi!  pi'url  llahcry  of  llila  ialuiid  hna  cciiaeil  aliice  the 
yenr  1NII7,  It  will  bo  well  to  give  in  tliia  place  u  pnaHlng 
notice  of  the  pcarl-oyater,  eapecliilly  na  a  aurvcy  of  tho 
"banki"  or  bcvla  oil"  Arlpo,  ninde  in  l>*t>i,  hdlda  out 
priunlae  uf  n  good  IlKhIng  nt  no  diHlniit  dale.  Thu 
bniika  on  wlilcb  tbcae  nyalcra  nre  iiaiinlly  found  llo 
off  the  iKirtlicrn  part  of  the  west  ciuiNt  of  Ceylon,  nt  a 
dUtnncc  of  fnini  1(1  to  20  inilca  from  the  ahore.  They 
oxtenil  for  mnny  nilica  north  nnd  south,  varying  con- 
aldornbly  in  their  aizo  and  producliveneja.  Tho  oya- 
ter  arrives  at  niatnrily  l»  Ita  aevenlh  yenr ;  tho  penrl 
within  ia  then  of  full  growth,  nnd  if  the  lUh  be  not  then 
taken  up.  It  will  shorlly  die,  and  the  penrl  be  lo»t,  Thn 
Ushery,  which  U  in  the  hands  of  th(!  locul  government, 
look  plnce  in  the  inonlli  of  Mnrch,  when  the  wnlerwua 
perfectly  cnlm.  nnd  nio.st  fnvnruldo  for  the  work  of  thu 
divers.  It  wna  formerly  rented  to  iintKe  speculatorx, 
who  paid  a  certain  sum  for  tlie  privilege  of  fishing  with 
n  llxid  number  of  divers  during  n  given  period.  In 
1711"  .iiid  Ihn  following  year,  tlie  rental  of  tho  fishery 
ieall«o.(l  X'I'2.1,!»H2  nnd  ,l'll'.',7H0  re.«pcctivcly,  .Siiico 
that  time  tho  government  huve  llshecl  on  tliiir  own  nc- 
coiint,  selling  tho  produce  of  each  boot  by  nuctiim  on 
tho  bench  before  tiio  llsh  cnuld  bo  exninined.  This 
mode,  however,  hnd  not  proved  so  lucrutlvn  as  the  ,dd 
method;  the  unnunl  returns  never  having  cxci cded 
£K",()no,  nnd  frcciucntly  fulling  ns  low  ns  trj.ttiO;  in 
somo  cnscs,  indeed,  nniounting  lo  but  a  IV«  hundred 
pounds  sterling.  Various  causes  Imve  been  assigned 
for  tho  failure  of  thcso  llsheriea.  It  nia_\ ,  however,  bo 
properly  attributed  to  tho  mismnnagement  of  ;iii  in- 
spector of  the  penrl  banks,  who  in  lM:l(i  took  charge 
of  them,  nnd,  from  neglecting  to  aitciid  to  llie  inalruc- 
tiona  given  liiin  by  his  predecessors,  caused  the  wrong 
lieda  to  be  flslicd.  Tlie  result  whs  »  '•  '"idcto  failure 
of  the  lisherj' ;   the  oysli  rs  which  i    I  have  been 

brought  up  were  left  t"  iMc;  young  inls  were  di»turl>- 
ed,  and  from  that  tlnio  this  large  sour<c  of  revenue  has 
been  lost  to  the  island.  A  survey  of  the  pearl  banks 
made  in  March,  IH.Ml,  induce  1  tho  loc  !  government  to 
look  for  a  fishery  of  somo  cMcnt  in  l^jo  or  tho  follow- 
ing year  — E.  U. 

However,  the  ponrl  fishery  of  Ceylon  continues  to 
engross  a  large  shnrc  of  public  attention.  Tho  iinport- 
aiiec  of  any  discovery  which  would  eiinblo  ns  to  \  ro- 
Bcrvo  nnd  fish  the  mature  oysters  is  (ividnnt  fiom  tho 
statement  mndo  by  Captain  Stuart,  tlmf  fio-ii  tho  fifth 
to  tho  sixth  j-ear  tho  pearl-oyster  doubl. ^  '.u  'ue,  and 
again  doubles  should  ho  survive  thu  seventh  yt  nr,  Tho 
pearl-oyster,  though  called  tho  mother-of-pearl  shell, 
and  though  Its  interior  surface  is  l>cautifully  lined  with 
tho  pearly  secretion,  is  valueless  as  "  mother-of-pearl." 
The  Iiitest  intelligence  from  tho  scone  of  tho  fisheries 
is  ns  follows ; 

\7tli  Sale. — 206,000  oysters  brought  on  shore  on  the 
7th  (by  42  boats)  were  sold  at  rates  vorying  from  15  to 


OEY 


288 


CHA 


18  rnpoes  per  1000,  and  ])roducud  .£316.  Total  roccipU 
£9930.— Overland  Colombo  Obtervtr,  April  16th,  1866. 

The  trade  of  Cej'lon  hiu  been  greatly  augmented 
Binco  the  opening  of  the  cinnamon  trade  and  the  com- 
moncouicnt  of  coflcc  planting.  In  1832  the  iniporta 
amounted  to  X3&1,22'2 ;  the  exports  to  i;iC3,5«7.  In 
1842  the  imports  and  exports  amounted  to  XU22,447 
and  ;C421,413  respectively.  In  1862  those  amounts 
were  Xl,000,474  and  £!)48,400.  The  largest  increase 
in  expoitcd  produce  has  been  in  cofiio,  which  from 
17,287  cwls.  in  1831  grew  to  77,476  cwts.  in  1841,  and 
to  287,910  cwts.  in  1861.  In  1864  the  crops  of  native 
and  plantation  kinds  arc  expected  to  amount  to  600,000 
cwts.  The  cinnamon  trade  of  Ceylon  forms  a  remark- 
able exception  to  the  rule  that  by  the  removal  of  fiscal 
restrictions  the  consumption  of  articles  will  bo  in- 
creased. Cinnamon  is  now  exported  from  Ceylon  duty 
free,  yet  the  annual  demand  for  the  spico  is  found  to  bo 
no  greater  than  when  burdened  with  an  export  duty 
of  3<.  the  lb.  When  the  island  was  transferred  from 
the  adraiuisti.ition  of  the  East  India  Company  to  that 
of  the  crown  in  18U2,  the  government  entered  into  a 
contract  with  the  company  by  which  the  latter  acquired 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  exporting  cinnamon  from  the 
colony.  It  was  agreed  that  the  Ceylon  government 
should  deliverannually  400,000  pounds  of  cinnamon, for 
which  the  company  was  to  grant  a  credit  of  XCU,000, 
makiug  the  price  of  the  cinnamon  Za.  per  pound.  lu 
1814  the  company  agreed  to  allow  to  the  Cej-lon  govern- 
ment a  sum  of  £200,000  sterling;  for  surplus  profits  on 
their  sales  of  cinnamon ;  and  to  give  in  future  X101,U<M) 
sterling  annually,  instead  of  .£00,000,  for  a  supply  of 
400,000  pounds  of  that  commodity.  This  contract  was 
entered  into  for  seven  jeurs,  and  it  does  not  appear  that 
during  this  period  the  stipulated  quantity  of  cinnamon 
was  ever  delivered.  In  1821  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  exporting  cinnamon  was  given  up  by  the  company ; 
and  in  1833  the  government  abandoned  their  monopo- 
ly of  the  trade,  throwing  it  open  to  the  pullic,  but  levy- 
ing a  duty  of  Ss.  per  pound  on  its  exportation. 

In  1835  an  inferior  or  third  sort  was  allowed  to  be 
shipped  on  payment  of  2«.  the  pound.  Two  years  later, 
the  duty  on  the  best  sorts  was  lowered  to  '!».  Ixi. ;  and 
in  1813  the  duty  on  nil  kinds  was  fixed  at  I«.  It  was 
since  reduced  to  id, ;  and  in  1863  the  article  was  de- 
clared duty  free.  These  periodical  reductions  of  duty 
were  in  all  cases  followed  by  heavy  shipments  of  the 
(pice ;  the  sole  effect  of  which  has  been  to  overstock 
the  Kuropean  markets,  and  reduce  its  price  beyond  the 
reduction  of  duty.  The  annual  Kuropean  consump- 
tion is  at  the  present  time  precisely  what  it  was  fifty 
years  ago;  thus  proving  that  articles  of  mero  luxury 
are  not  afll'Cted  by  the  luws  which  govern  the  consump- 
tion of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Uf  the  exports,  four- 
fifths  are  to  Great  Britain ;  of  the  imports,  ono-third  is 
from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  remainder  chiefiy 
from  India.  The  imported  goods  from  Great  Britain 
consist  of  cotton  manufacture,  glass-ware,  hardware, 
milliner}-,  hosiery,  metals,  tools,  beer,  w  incs,  etc. ;  those 
from  India  are  mainly  rice  and  coarso  cotton  cloth. 
The  exports  to  Europe  being  larger  than  the  imports 
thence,  the  balance  of  value  is  drawn  for  by  bills  of 
exchange,  a  part  of  which  are  negotiated  in  India  to 
pay  for  rice,  the  rest  for  rupees  sent  down  to  Ceylon  to 
pay  the  Malabar  coolies  on  the  cutfeo  estates,  who  car- 
ry three-fourths  of  their  earnings  out  of  the  island. 
Tho  trade  of  Ceylon  is  carried  on  by  upward  of  twenty 
European  firms,  and  eight  or  nine  native  houses ;  tho 
latter  confining  their  transactions  to  British  India. 
Besides  these,  there  are  nearly  a  dozen  European  es- 
tate agents  in  Kandy,  and  a  great  number  of  small  na- 
tive dealers,  called  ''  Chitters,"in  connection  with  Mad- 
ras and  Bombay  firms.  There  are  no  export  duties, 
and  the  duty  on  imports  is  6  per  cent,  on  the  declare<l 
value,  with  some  few  exceptions,  such  as  arms,  wines, 
spirits,  and  grain.  In  1862  tha  nvenu«  derived  from 
cnttomi  dutiea  wa« X121,861.        ,, ,^^.    , 


The  coasting  and  Indian  trade  is  carried  on  by  cofin- 
tr}--built  brigs  and  dlwmie;  a  craft  peculiar  to  Ceylon. 
Of  the  former  there  ar  j  6U,  of  317C  tons  in  the  aggre- 
gate, and  660  dhomies,  of  a  tonnage  equal  to  24,270 
tons,  Iwlonging  to  the  island.  The  value  of  the  for- 
mer is  £6  per  ton,  and  of  tho  latter  £1  per  ton.  In  1886 
the  custom-house  shipping  entries  gave  1881  vessels  in- 
ward, and  1200  outward ;  in  1862  they  gave  3140  in- 
ward, and  3074  outward.  The  banking  business  of  the 
island  is  conducted  by  branches  of  the  Oriental  Bank 
Corporation  of  London,  and  the  Mercantile  Bank  of 
Bombay,  in  Colombo  and  Kandy,  Tho  former  estab- 
lishment possesses  tho  privilege  of  issuing  notes  of  10*. 
and  upward. — E.  B. 

Chaff  Tho  husk  or  withered  calyx  of  grasses,  and 
more  especially  of  the  bread  corns.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  straw  or  hay  cut  into  very  short  lengths,  and 
used  for  mixing  with  com,  roots,  or  other  food  for 
horses  or  cattle.  This  kind  of  chatf,  in  greater  lengths, 
is  also  used  for  mixing  with  mortar  on  some  parts  of 
the  Continent,  more  particularly  in  Germany  and  Kus- 
sia ;  and  it  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  hair  in  making 
plaster  for  rooms.  Both  stubble  and  cut  hay  were 
used  by  tho  ancient  Egyptians  in  making  bricks. 

Chain,  in  ASurrej/iiig,  a  measure  of  length,  composed 
of  J.  certain  number  of. links  made  of  iron  wire,  serving 
to  take  the  distance  between  two  or  more  places.  Gun- 
ter's  chain  contains  100  such  links,  each  measuring 
7  92-lUO  inches,  consequently  equal  to  tiC  feet,  or  four 
)>olcs. 

Chaldron,  a  dry  English  measure  of  86  coal  bush- 
els; 21  chaldrons  make  a  score.  The  coal  bushel  is 
1'.)^  inches  wide  from  the  outside,  and  8  inches  deep. 
It  contains  2217-6  cubic  inches;  but  when  heaped, 
281&-6,  making  the  chaldron  68-6&  cubic  feet.  There 
are  12  sacks  of  coal  in  a  chaldron ;  and  if  6  chaldrons 
be  putchased  at  the  same  time,  the  seller  must  deliver 
03  sacks :  the  3  sacks  additional  are  called  the  ingrain. 
But  coals  are  now  sold  in  London  ond  almost  every 
where  else  by  the  ton  of  20  cwt.  avoirdupois.  The 
Newcastle  chaldron  of  coals  is  63  cwt.,  and  is  exactly 
double  tlic  London  chaldron. 

Chaleura,  Bay  o£  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, in  North  America,  Lat,  48°  N.,  long.  66°  W. 
Length  from  east  to  west  about  DO  miles ;  breadth  va- 
ries from  12  to  20  miles.  It  separates  Canada  East 
from  New  Brunswick,  and  at  its  western  extremity  re- 
ceives the  Itistigouche  liiver.  Tills  bay  possesses  great 
advantages  for  the  prosecution  of  the  fisheries.  The 
entire  bay  may  be  considered  one  great  harbor,  as 
throughout  its  entire  breadth  and  extent  there  is  not  a 
single  rock,  reef,  or  shoal.  During  tlie  summer  it  lit- 
erally swarms  with  fish  of  every  description  known  on 
tho  shores  oi'  this  portion  of  America ;  and  its  ancient 
name  of  "  Kvketaun  AemuacAt" — the  sea  of  fish — well 
denotes  its  character. 

Chalk  (from  calj-\  in  Latin  called  creia,  a  species 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  found  abundantly  in  Britain, 
France,  Norway,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  isl- 
and of  Candia  is  said  to  have  received  its  ancient  name 
of  Crtta  from  the  quantity  of  chalk  found  there.  Chalk 
is  used  as  an  anti-acid  ;  and  from  tho  readiness  with 
which  it  imbibes  liquids,  it  is  much  employed  as  an  ab- 
sorbent. When  powdered  and  freed  from  gritty  parti- 
cles by  washing,  it  forms  the  substance  called  whiten' 
in<j,  or  Spanish  white,  used  to  polish  metalline  utensils 
ami  gloss.  It  is  prepared  as  follows :  mix  chalk  that 
lias  been  w  ell  triturated  with  a  large  quantity  of  w  ater, 
'low  the  silicious  and  ferruginous  particles  to  subside, 
a..d  then  decant  tho  supernatant  lluid  into  a  very  fine 
sieve  or  linen  bag,  where  tlio  whitening  will  bo  depos- 
ited.—//facjt  ChM,  a  mineral  used  by  artists  for  draw- 
ing. It  is  a  variety  of  bituminous  shale,  the  ichitte- 
gniphique  of  Ilaiiy. — French  Chalk,  steatite  or  soap- 
stone,  a  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesia  and  alumina.  It 
occurs  of  several  colon,  as  white,  brown,  green,  etc. ; 
and  if  nsed  in  tiie  preparation  of  crayons,  the  manil- 


CHA 


CHA 


fteture  of  porcelain,  for  poliihtng  marble,  and  ai  tha 
bails  of  certain  cosmetic  powders. — KtJ  Chalk  is  an  In^ 
durated  clayey  ochre  used  for  similar  purposes.  It  is 
rtddle,  or  ear^y  day-ironstone  of  tlie  mineralogist — 
E.B. 

Cluunb«r  of  Assiiranoe,  in  Franco,  denotes  a 
society  of  merchants  and  otiiers  for  carrying  on  the 
business  of  insurance;  but  in  Holland  it  signifies  a 
'eourt  of  jnatice,  where  causes  relating  to  osanranoas  are 
trl<d. 

Chamber  of  Commerce.  An  assembly  of  mer- 
chants and  traders,  where  affairs  relating  to  trade  are 
treated  of.  There  are  several  establishments  of  this 
sort  in  moat  of  the  chief  cities. — Ute  Uo.(ni>  op  TnAnr. 

Chamomile  XUowers.  The  flowor-hcads  of  the 
AnIhemU  nobitit,  or  common  chamomile.  Thoy  aru 
nsed  in  medicine  in  consequence  of  their  bitter  extract, 
which  is  strengthening,  and  of  their  essential  oil,  which 
is  aromatic  and  stimulant. 

Champagne,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  and  cele- 
brated of  the  French  wines.  An  ofilclul  report,  made 
by  the  directors  of  the  indirect  taxes  for  the  depart- 
ment of  Mame,  furnishes  the  following  information  as 
to  the  trade  In  champagne  iMtween  the  1st  of  April, 
1846,  and  the  Ist  of  April,  1847.  The  produce  Is  dis- 
tributed among  the  arrondlascments  of  Chalons,  Eper- 
nay,  and  Rheims.  On  the  1st  of  April  lost  there  were 
in  the  cellars  of  the  wholesale  dealers  18,816,867  bot- 
tles of  this  wine ;  viz.  at  Chalons,  4,401,237  bottles ;  at 
Epemuy,  5,710,75,3;  and  at  Rheims,  8,500,977.  The 
number  of  bottles  sold  and  delivered  between  the  Ist 
of  April,  1846,  and  the  1st  of  April,  1847,  were,  at  Cha- 
lons, 2,497,355;  at  Epemay,  2,187,563;  at  Rhoima, 
4,090,677;  making  a  total  of  8,775,485  bottles.  These 
quantities  were  thus  distributed : 


PUea. 

Togo 
Abroad. 

To  othtr 
DapoU 

WiUiui  lln 
Dopol. 

From  Chalons 

From  Enernay 

From  Klicima 

Total 

BoHlu. 
I,n74,'214 

8ao,o«!i 

2,831,038 

Boltlei. 

75il,17B 

880,425 

1,215,760 

BuHlai. 
0«;),006 
904,405 
43.773 

4,711,915 

!t,3&5,!t0« 

l,7il7,8W 

Champlain  Lake  lies  between  the  States  of  New 
Tork  and  Vermont.  It  extends  from  Whitehall,  New 
York,  to  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude  102  miles, 
and  thence  about  24  miles  to  .St.  John's,  in  Canada,  to 
which  point  it  Is  navigable,  making  its  whole  length 
126  miles.  Its  breadth  is  from  one-fourth  of  a  mile  to 
13  miles ;  but,  including  the  expanse  which  contains 
its  large  islands,  It  is  15  miles  wide.  Its  broadest  part, 
anobstruclcd  by  islands,  is  opposite  Burlington,  Ver- 
mont. Its  chief  islands  are  North  Hero,  South  Hero, 
and  La  Mottc,  which,  with  some  smaller  Lilands,  and 
the  peninsula  nf  Alburg,  constitute  Grand  Isle  county, 
Vermont.  This  lake  was  discovered  by  Samuel  Cbam- 
p'atn,  a  French  nobleman,  in  1609.  It  was  the  theatre 
or  many  important  military  operations,  in  the  French, 
Revolutionary,  and  the  war  of  1812.  The  scenery 
along  its  shores  Is  highly  picturesque,  and  rendered 
grand  by  the  lofty  mountains  at  a  little  distance  from 
it  on  both  sides.  It  forms  an  important  medium  of 
commerce,  and  is  navigated  by  steamboats,  and  by 
many  sloops,  generally  from  80  to  100  tons  burden. 
It  receives  a  number  of  considerable  rivers.  Its  outlet 
is  Sorelle  or  Richelieu  River,  the  navigation  of  which 
has  been  improved  by  the  works  of  the  Chambly  Canul 
(Canada),  so  as  to  atford  an  ciiay  communication  fur 
largo  vessels  with  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  The  Cham- 
plain  Canal,  64  miles  loni;,  connects  it  with  the  Hudson 
River  on  the  south,  and  cost  #1,079,872.  It  abounds 
with  Ash,  among  which  are  salmon,  hike  shad,  pike,  and 
other  lish.  It  is  generally  frozen  entirely  over,  and  la 
passed  on  the  Ice,  in  winter.  The  broad  lake  closes  in 
January  or  February,  and  opens  early  In  March.  The 
narrow  parts  continue  frozen  cimsiderably  longer.  It 
has  three  light-houses  on  its  coasts.  It  comprises  the 
ooUwtioa  distrioU  of  Burlington  and  Champlain.   Ag- 


gregate  tonnage  in  1868,  1,461,749.  Tha  aggregate 
shipping  in  1851  measured  197,600  tons,  and  employed 
11,860  men.  The  commerce  of  the  lake  la  the  sama  - 
year  amounted  to  $26,390,895;  and  the  enrolled  ton- 
nige  was,  of  steam,  4157  tons,  and  8983  tons  of  sailing 
vessels. 

Chanks,  or  Chank  Sheila,  common  conch  shell* , 
(  Volttta  pfTum),  are  flshed  up  by  divers  in  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar,  on  the  coast  opposite  Jafltoapatam,  in  Ceylon, 
in  about  two  fathoms  water;  and  at  Travancore, Tuti- 
coreen,  and  other  places.  Large  fossil  beds  of  chanka 
hivo  also  been  found.  They  are  of  a  spiral  form,  and 
constitute  a  considerable  article  of  trade  in  India,  where 
they  are  in  extensive  demand  all  over  the  country, 
Tliey  are  sawn  into  narrow  rings  or  bracelets,  and  are 
worn  as  ornaments  on  the  arms,  legs,  fingers,  etc.,  by 
the  Hindoo  women;  many  of  them  are  also  buried 
with  the  bodies  of  opulent  and  distinguished  persons. 
I'hose  which,  from  being  taken  with  the  lish,  ai«  called 
gre<n  ihantu,  are  most  in  demnnJ.  The  white  chank, 
which  is  the  shell  thrown  upon  the  beach  by  strong 
tides,  having  lost  its  gloss  and  consistency ,  is  not  worth 
the  freight  up  to  Calcutta.  The  value  of  the  green 
chunk  doiiends  upon  its  size.  A  chank  opening  to  the 
right,  called  in  Calcutta  the  right-handed  chunk,  is  so 
highly  prized  as  sometimes  to  sell  for  400  or  500,  or 
even  1000  rupees.— B klip's  Commerce  of  Bengal,  and 
private  communications. 

The  fishery  of  chanks  used  to  be  monopolized  by 
government,  who  formerly  let  the  banks  for  from  £8000 
to  £4000  a  year.  But  of  late  years  the  fishery,  partly 
from  the  poaching  of  the  fishermen  of  the  contiguous 
coasts,  and  partly  from  a  decrease  in  the  supply  of 
chanks,  declined  so  that  the  rental  of  the  banks  feU  oft' 
to  from  £800  to  £400  a  year.  And  thbi  smaller  sum 
was  not  paid,  as  formerly,  for  a  license  to  dive  for  live 
chanks,  but  for  permission  to  dig  up  the  dead  shells 
along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  Under  these 
circumstances  government  have  wisely  abandoned  the 
chank  monopoly,  which,  without  being  of  any  value  in 
a  financial  point  of  view,  obatmcted  the  employment 
of  the  Inhabitants  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf, — See  the 
valuable  Report  of  Sir  J.  £.  Tknment,  p.  65,  otPapirt 
on  Ceylon,  presented  to  Parliament  in  1848. 

Charcoal  (Fr.  Chwbm  de  boit ;  Ger.  JReine  KMe ; 
It.  Carbone  di  legna ;  Sp.  Carbon  de  lena ;  Lat.  Carbo 
liffiif),  a  sort  of  artificbl  coal,  consisting  of  wood  burn- 
ed with  as  little  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  air  as 
possible.  "  It  was  customary  among  the  ancients  to 
char  the  outside  of  those  stakes  which  were  to  be  driv- 
en into  the  ground  or  placed  in  water,  in  order  to  pro- 
serve  t!  1  wood  from  spoiling.  New-made  charco,:l, 
by  being  rolled  up  in  clothes  which  have  contracted  u 
disagreeable  odor,  etiectually  destroys  it.  When  boil- 
ed with  ment  beginning  to  pntrefy,  it  takes  uway  the 
bad  taint ;  it  is,  perhaps,  the  best  tooth-powder  known. 
When  putrid  water  at  sen  is  mixed  with  about  one-ninth 
of  its  weight  of  charcoal  powder,  it  is  rendered  quite 
fresh;  and  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  charcoal  will 
ser>'e,  if  the  precaution  be  taken  to  add  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid  previously  to  the  water.  If  the  water  casks 
be  charred  before  they  are  filled  with  water,  the  liquor 
remains  good  in  them  for  years ;  this  precaution  ought 
always  to  be  taken  for  long  sea  voyages.  The  sime 
precaution,  when  attended  to  for  wine-casks,  will  bo 
found  very  much  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wine." 
— Thomson's  Chemintry.  Common  charcoal  intended 
merely  for  fuel  is  prepared  by  cutting  pieces  of  wnnd 
from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter  into  lengths  of  from 
one  to  three  feet,  forming  them  into  a  conical  pile,  nnd 
covering  them  with  turf  or  clay ;  leaving  two  or  thntc 
small  holes  close  to  the  ground  for  lighting  the  wood, 
and  boring  through  the  turf  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
cone,  a  few  other  small  holes  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke. 
The  pile  being  lighted  at  the  several  holes  along  the 
bottom,  continues  burning  with  a  slow  smouldering 
flame  for  •  week  or  two,  and  ia  allowed  to  cool  befon 


CWA 


me 


GHA^ 


tkt  tnif  ii  removed.  In  the  case  of  very  high  «indi, 
tta  bolM  to  the  windward  are  stopped,  to  pieveitt 
eombuitioD  ft«m  going  on  with  too  great  rapidity. 
Charcoal  obtained  by  diitilling  be«cIi>wood,  log-wood, 
wUIow,  and  other  wooda  which  are  fVee  from  reain,  is 
called  cylinder  charcoal.  The  charcoal  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  is  now  always  so  pre- 
pared. 

Charga  d'Aflbdraa.  The  third  or  lowest  class  of 
foreign  ministers,  according  to  the  regtilations  adopted 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

Cbariota.  The  invention  of  chariots  and  the  man- 
ner of  harnessing  horses  to  draw  them,  is  ascribed  to 
EricbthoniuH  of  Athens,  1480  B.C.  Chariot-racing  was 
one  of  the  exercises  of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the 
Ethiopian  officer,  mentioned  in  Atti  vii.  27,  28, 31,  was, 
it  is  supfiosed,  something  in  the  form  of  our  modem 
chaise  with  fonr  wheels.  Caesar  relates  that  Cassibe- 
lanus,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces,  retained  no 
fewer  than  4000  war  chariots.  Those  of  the  ancients 
were  like  the  modem  phaetons,  and  drawn  by  one  horse. 
— Hayon. 

Gharleaton,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of 
Charicston  district.  South  Carolina.  It  is  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  State,  and  the  twelfth  city  in  population  in 
the  United  Slates.  Situated  in  »-i°  46'  88"  N.  lat., 
and  79°  65'  88 "  W.  long,  from  Greenwich,  England ; 
2°  5(i'  8"  W.  long,  from  Washington ;  124  miles  south- 
southeast  from  Columbia;  110  miles  from  Savannah, 
Georgia ;  165  miles  from  Wilmington,  North  Carolina ; 
M7  miles  from  Washington ;  687  miles  from  Baltimore; 
684  miles  from  Philadelphia;  773  miles  from  New 
York,  and  989  miles  from  Boston.  The  population  in 
1730  was  16,859;  in  1800,  18,712;  in  1810,  24,711;  in 
1820,  34,780;  in  1830,  30,289;  in  1840,  29,261 ;  and  in 
1860,  42,986 ;  to  which  may  be  properly  added  the  In- 
habitants of  the  Neck,  north  of  the  eity,  but  lying 
without  the  charter  limits,  which  contains  about  16,000 
inhabitants.  Charleston  is  on  a  peninsula,  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers,  which 
unite  immediately  below  the  city,  aad  form  a  spacious 
and  convenient  harbor,  communicating  with  the  ocean 
at  Sullivan's  Island,  seven  miles  southeast  of  the  city. 
The  city  is  defended  by  Fort  Pinckney,  two  miles  ht- 
low,  and  Fort  Johnson,  four  miles ;  and  by  Fort  Moul- 
trie on  Sullivan's  Island.  The  city  is  'divided  into 
eight  wards,  and  is  built  on  ground  but  slightly  ele- 
vated, being  only  about  nine  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
harbor  at  high  tides.  It  extends  from  Battery  Point 
on  the  south  to  the  city  limits  on  the  north,  a  distance 
of  three  miles,  and  at  an  average  width  of  one  and  a 
quarter  mile.  Ueetiiig  Street,  the  principal  street,  is 
sixty  feet  wide,  and  extends  for  a  diiitance  of  three 
miles  nearly  in  a  direct  line  north ;  the  cross-streets 
run  nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  and  at  right  angles 
to  Meeting  Street,  and  extend  from  east  to  wrst,  and 
from  Ashley  to  Cooper  Rivers.  The  houses  built  with- 
in a  few  years  are  of  brick ;  none  are  now  alinwed  In 
be  construcl«d  but  of  this  material  or  of  stone.  The 
wooden  houMs  are  generally  kept  well  painted,  and 
moat  of  them  have  piazzas  extending  to  the  roof,  taste- 
ftally  arranged  with  vines  and  creepers.  Those  in  the 
snburbs  arc  surrouaded  by  gardens,  planted  with  or- 
ange, peacli.  and  other  ornamental  and  useful  trees, 
and  a  profusion  of  vines  aad  shrubbery. 

Charleston  is  a  great  matt  (or  cotton,  rice,  and  to- 
bacco ;  and  rice  especially,  as  it  is  the  heart  of  the  rice- 
growing  region,  forms  the  great  staple,  of  which  it  ex- 
ports 126,000  tierces  annually.     There  is  a  line  of  i 
steamers  with  New  Yolk  weekly,  a  line  with  Haltimorc  i 
and  Philadelphia,  and  also  with  Ilavaua  and  Culia.  I 
Tonnageoftheportinl852,42,658tons.  'Hie light^house  I 
at  the  entrance  of  Charleston  harbor  is  on  Light-house  j 
laland,  and  weat  of  the  siiip  channel.    Lat.  82«  41'  64" 
N.,  long.  79°  82'  30"  W.  from  Greenwioh.    The  tower  la 
103  feet  high,  shows  a  Kvolving  light  ele.vatad  125  feet 
•lasva  the  suifltos  of  tha  aaa,  and  is  viaibla  for  •  distanaa 


of  16(  nautical  miles.  There  Is  also  a  beacon,  which 
with  the  light  is  used  as  a  range  to  cross  the  main  bar, 
and  two  others,  the  Morris  Island  and  Sullivan's  Isl- 
and beacons.  By  its  being  the  port  of  an  extenslva 
system  of  railroads,  il  drains  supplies  from  a  wide  rangt 
of  territory- ;  besides  almost  the  entire  Slate  of  South 
Carolina,  it  comprises  a  large  portion  of  North  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  and  of  East  Tennessee.  Charleston  was 
first  settled  in  1680.  At  the  close  of  the  year  177B  the 
city  was  captured  by  the  British,  who  held  it  until  tha 
following  Blay. 
CoarAKATivK  HTATSinKT  or  t'oi<roH,  OxAiic,  I.ivi  Stock, 

■TO  ,  BaOCOHT  to  UnABLMTON  BT  TUS  MOVTU  CaBOLIMA 

Kailkoau,  raoH  1844  to  ISISS,  inuLusiva. 


VMn. 

Ciiltoa. 

Ploar. 

Orsio. 

Natal 
Stont. 

Mar- 
thaaiUM. 

stMk. . 

BalM. 

BArraU. 

Bubali. 

Barnli. 

SalM. 

1S44 

1se,«S9 

.... 

.... 

184B 

1«7,6ST 

. . . 

.... 

.... 

1846 

186,271 

12,148 

2,369 

48 

.... 

1847 

134,302 

ll),0t3 

338,843 

8,189 

«... 

1848 

274,364 

16,417 

203,486 

6,753 

.... 

1849 

8S»,»96 

1,607 

66,904 

13,919 

10,632 

0.249 

1860 

i!8t,9»5 

126 

16,616 

9,083 

8,008 

a.s.'iO 

1861 

•I  7,690 

8/0 

647 

4,108 

12,310 

4,179 

1833 

364,731) 

2,633 

15,662 

4,316 

15,227 

4,8»4 

1863 

840,865 

13,819 

109,091 

8,092 

15,863 

8,029 

18S4 

851,867 

62,651 

18^63• 

31,642 

11,109 

12,066 

18M 

M),65t 

80,463 

8t7,66i 

23,098 

9,835 

12,()-J1 

ISM 

.186,34') 

81,809 

456,994 

I6,ll7n 

8,085 

1 1,709 

1851 

251,860 

146,970 

717,274 

18,  :8! 

11,427 

9,214 

1358 

4i8,45i 

144,069 

282,367 

17,418 

9,605 

12,001 

SuMHABT  or  ExroBTS  or  CoTTO:f  AND  or  RioB,  AMD  or  TUB 

TOTAL    VaLDI    or  ALL    KxrOBTB    TO   rORBIOM   t'OD.NTBIBS 
TBOH   TUB  I'ORT  Or  C'lIAKLXSTOM  nOBINn  TUB  YBAB  1863. 


wmh««iport«d. 


CoUoo. 


Kuasta 

Sweden  and  Norway , 

Denmark 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Holland 

England 

8eotlar>d 

Ireland 

British  Weat  Iliilieii.. 
Franco  on  the  Atlan  Uf 
Spain  on  lite  Medit'n, 

Belgium 

Cuba 

Sardinia 

Brazil 

Umguajr 

Hoiico , 

Porto  Rico , 

Canarjr  iKlaiids ...... 

Spain 

Africa 

Anstris 


ti9i,fl2:t 

148,533 

liV96 

236,207 

12,281,863 

176,027 


2,753,066 
901,287 
48,500 

4J,'050 


493,921 
114,024 


Total {$l8,0«t,263 


aire. 


$4,398 

2.',  166 
06,871 
I0,6'i3 

8S,6S4 
43 

8^421 
04,847 


301,137 

2d^633 
"432 


Totel  gipcrtt. 


.'il296,186 

148,633 

43,666 

141,952 

531,091 

2.'>3,0t8 

12,607,584 

177,663 

11645 

41,271 

8,8TO,fl22 

l,0&9,6«6 

48,600 

431,281 

40,641 

33,473 

11,363 

1,600 

38,032 

650 

602,877 

4,264 

114,024 


«6(l6,!i22  |«19,!l.fl,l>86 


FOBIiaif  COUUBBOB  or  C'nABLBSTON,  1S60-'&S. 


Ymh. 


liWO.... 
1851.... 
185-> . . . . 
1853.... 
lf«t  ... 
\>M>.... 
IS86.... 
1857.... 
1863.... 
Total.. 


No.  orVamk 
•agmvad (n 
tta  Trada. 


266 
307 
243 
273 
824 
396 
312 
281 
326 


UuUakla 

Valna 

at  Importa. 


$.',104,1191 
2,320,.')S7 
1,802,998 
1,7()6,«86 
1,4^%  250 
1,873,701 
1,984,206 
2,113,947 
912,S2S 


2620        {1I16,»1»,996  H2»4,240 


Dollaa. 


)Ktf>,744 
6.>8,240 
440,529 
422,869 
88t,87a 
6'ifl,'i44 
467,825 
527,3.30 
aiN),Rn3 


Average  aniuunl  of  wiports  for  iaat  8  yoan. 


$13,il'.  8,786 
11,977,283 
li'.,88?,563 
12,697,(101 
12,'?45,716 
14,494,  S63 
10,777,1143 
1.^,790,782 
1!',3il,685 
»nin,M)2,427 

*  l6,iiV4,053 


Port.— Charleston  harbor  is  spacious  and  convenient ; 
but  the  entrance  to  it  is  incommoded  by  a  range  of 
sand  banks,  stretching  from  Sullivan's  Island  on  the 
north  to  Folly  Island  on  the  south,  about  'l\  leagues. 
There  are  several  channels  through  these  banks,  but 
only  three,  the  middle  or  direct  channel,  the  ship  chan- 
nel, and  I..awford  channel,  between  the  latter  and  the 
main  land,  that  ought  to  be  attempted  by  ships  of  con- 
siderable burden.  The  entrance  to  the  ship  channel  is 
in  lat.  82°  40'.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  shallowest 
partofthe  b|U'atobb-tid«  is  12  feet,  and  at  flood-tide  f^om 


CHA 


S91 


CHA 


2l,U(>b 


renient ; 
ange  of 
on  the 
leaipies, 
itka,  but 
ip  chin- 
and  the 
I  of  con- 
annel  !• 
allowett 
ide  from 


17  to  18  feet ;  while  the  depth  In  the  middle  channel 
at  low  water  does  not  exceed  0  feet,  and  in  Lawford 
channel  it  does  not  exceed  10  or  11  feet.  A  light-houae 
haa  br  ~ "  "rected  on  the  aouth  point  of  Light-house  Isl- 
and, b»ar^ng  from  the  middle  of  the  bar  of  the  ship 
channel  northwest  by  west  half  west.  It  is  80  feet 
high,  having  a  revolving  light,  alternately  brilliant 
and  obscure,  the  period  of  ob^icuration  being  double 
that  of  brillianqj- ;  but  on  approaching  the  light,  the 
latter  gains  upon  the  former,  and  within  1}  league  it  is 
never  wholly  dark.  The  light  may  be  seen  in  fine 
weather  at  from  8  to  4  league*  off  After  getting  into 
the  channel,  which  is  marked  by  the  breakers  and  buoys 
on  each  side,  the  proper  course  for  a  ship  to  steer  is  to 
brin^;  the  light-house  to  bear  northwest  by  west,  and 
ttanil  direi:t  for  It  till  you  get  within  the  banks,  when 
the  course  is  north  by  west.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  further  details  on  these  points,  as  all  ships 
entering  Charleston  harbor  are  bound,  provided  they 
are  hailed  by  a  licensed  pilot  off  the  bar,  to  pay  him 
full  pilotage  fees,  whether  they  accept  his  services  or 
not.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  they  are  always  ac- 
cepted ;  for  the  shifting  of  the  sands,  the  influence  of 
the  tides,  etc.,  render  the  entrance  so  diflicuit  to  those 
not  perfectly  familiar  with  it,  that  even  the  packet 
(hips  that  sail  regularly  to  and  from  New  York  uni- 
formly heave  to  without  the  bar  for  a  pilot. — See  Plm 
ef  Charleston  Harbor,  reduced  from  the  original  survey 
of  Sfujor  Hj  Bache. 

Ships  usually  moir  alongside  quays  or  wharfs,  where 
they  are  in  perfi. .,      *•    . , 

Shipping  Cit.  _;(-.  '  ;•<■  :harges  of  a  public  nature 
paid  by  ships  ep  r  -  '  ^  port  diflbr  but  little  in 
amount  on  a  nat  loreign  ship.     On  a  vessel 

supposed  to  be  of  cHHi  ions  burden,  entering,  unloading, 
taking  on  board  a  mixed  cargo  and  clearing  out,  they 
would  be  as  under : 

I  CI: 

Fee  on  entry  at  the  custom-house i  60  or 

Surveyor's  fee  on  ■  foreign  ship 6  00  " 

Sunreyoi's  tee  on  a  native  ship 3  00  " 

Harbor-master's  fee 2  00  " 

Portwsrden's  survey,  when  required 10  00  " 

Fees,  on  clearance  at  the  cUHtom-liousc, )  ■  ka  i- 

ofanutlvcshlp J  "*' 

Ditto,  ofsforrlKnshlp 2  TO  " 

Pilotage  Inward  and  outward,  supposing  t  pu)  no  t. 

the  shit  to  draw  U  feet  of  water |  °"  "™ 

'tVharfage  per  diem 1  00  " 

The  difference  in  the  fees  on  the  clearance  at  the 
custom-house  of  a  native  and  a  foreign  ahip  is  owing 
to  tlie  former  being  obliged  to  give  certain  bonds  which 
are  not  required  of  the  latter. 

The  greater  or  smaller  tonnage  of  the  ship  makes  no 
difference  on  any  of  the  almve  charges  except  that  of 
pilotage,  whicii  is  in  proportion  to  her  draught  of  water, 
and  is  the  same  whether  for  a  foreign  or  a  native  ship. 

Ratt$  of  CommiaiUm. — The  rates  of  commission  or 
factorage  usually  charged  and  allowed  nt  Charleston 
on  transacting  different  sorts  of  business,  are  as  fol> 
lows,  viz. : 

For  selling  domestic  produce,  i\  per  cent. 

For  selling  foreign  merchandise,  5  per  cent. 

For  guaranteeing  cither  of  these  sales,  '2^  per  cent, 
additional  is  commonly  allowed. 

For  purchasing  with  funds  in  hand,  or  drawing  do- 
mestic bills  for  reimbursement,  2j  per  cent. 

For  purchasing  goods  and  drawing  foreign  bills  for 
roiml)ur8cment,  6  per  cent,  is  charged. 

For  the  sale  of  real  or  personal  estate  the  regular 
charge  is  5  per  cent. ;  but  where  the  property  to  Iks 
sold  is  of  any  considerable  value,  the  parties  in  general 
enter  into  an  agreement  I>ernrehand,  and  a  much  lower 
rate  of  commission  is  allowed. — <{>'ee  South  Cahoi.ina. 

Chart,  or  Sea-ohart,  a  hydrographical  map,  or 
a  projection  of  some  part  of  the  earth's  suiterticies  in 
jiano,  for  the  use  of  navigators.  Charts  differ  verj- 
considerably  from  geographical  or  land-maps,  which 
are  of  no  use  in  navigation.    Nor  are  sea-charts  all  of 


t  : 

rf. 

U  11 

u 

1     1 

4i 

on 

fj 

d    s 

H 

i  -i 

8» 

ouiu 

oil 

6t 

10  13 

«i 

0    4 

8t 

the  aamo  kind ;  some  being  what  are  called  plane  charts, 
otherr.  Mercator  charts,  and  others  globular  charts. 
Plane  Chart  is  a  representation  of  some  part  of  the  su- 
perfloies  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  in  which  the  merid- 
ians are  supposed  parallel  to  each  other,  the  parallel* 
of  latitude  at  equal  distances,  and  consequently  the  de- 
grees of  latitude  and  longitude  every  where  equal  to 
each  other.  Mercator's  Chart  is  that  where  the  me- 
ridians are  straiglit  lines,  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
equidistant ;  the  parallels  also  straight  lines,  and  par- 
allel to  each  other;  but  the  distance  between  them  in- 
creasing fkvm  the  equinoctial  toward  either  pole,  in  the 
ratio  of  the  secant  of  the  latitude  to  the  radius.  Globn- 
lar  Chart,  a,  meridional  projection,  in  which  the  distance 
of  the  eye  from  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  upon  which 
the  projection  is  made,  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the 
sine  of  the  angle  45°.  This  projection  comes  the  near- 
est of  all  to  the  nature  of  the  globe,  because  the  merid- 
ians are  placed  at  equal  distances ;  the  parallels  also 
are  nearly  equidistant,  and  consequently  the  several 
parts  of  the  earth  have  their  proper  proportion  of  mag- 
nitude, distance,  and  situation,  nearly  the  same  indeed 
as  on  the  globe  itself.  Uydrographic  Charts,  sheets  of 
large  paper  on  which  several  parts  of  the  land  and  sea 
are  described,  with  their  respective  coasts,  harbors, 
sounds,  flats,  rocks,  shelves,  sands,  etc.,  together  with 
the  longitude  and  latitude  of  each  place,  and  the  points 
of  the  compass.  Selenographic  Charts  represent  the 
spots,  appearances,  and  maculn;  of  the  moon.  Topo- 
graphic  Charts,  draughts  of  small  parts  of  the  earth,  or 
of  particular  places.  Anaximandcr,  of  Miletus,  was  the 
inventor  of  geographical  and  celestial  charts,  about  760 
B.C.  Modern  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by 
Bartholomew  Columbus,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  his 
brother's  theory  respecting  a  Western  Continent,  1489. 
Mereator's  chart,  in  which  the  world  is  taken  as  a  plane, 
was  drawn  ld.5G. — E.  B. 

Chaiter-party,  the  name  given  to  a  contract  in 
writing  between  tiio  owner  or  master  of  a  ship  and  the 
freighter,  by  whicli  the  former  hires  or  lets  the  ship,  or 
I  a  part  cf  the  ship,  under  certain  specified  conditions, 
j  for  the  conveyance  of  the  goods  of  the  freighter  to  some 
I  particular  place  or  places.    Generally,  however,  a  char- 
ter-party isacontract  for  the  use  ofthe  whole  ship:  it  is 
;  in  commercial  law  what  an  indenture  is  at  common  . 
;  law. — See  Affkkightment. 

i  No  precise  form  of  words,  or  set  of  stipulations,  is 
,  requisite  in  a  charter-party.  The  forms  subjoined  to 
this  article  are  those  most  commonly  in  use ;  but  these 
may,  and,  indeed,  in  many  cases  must,  be  varied,  to 
suit  the  views  and  intentions  of  the  parties.  A  char- 
ter-party is  generally  under  seal;  but  sometimes  a 
printed  or  written  instrument  is  signed  by  the  parties, 
called  a  memorandum  nf  a  charter-party ;  and  this,  if  a 
formal  charter-parly  l>e  not  afterword  executed,  is  bind- 
ing. The  stamp  in  cither  case  is  the  same.  Charter- 
parties,  wlien  ships  are  let  or  hired  at  the  place  of  the 
owners'  residence,  are  generally  executed  by  them,  or 
some  of  them ;  but  when  the  ship  is  in  a  foreign  port, 
it  must  necessarily  be  executed  by  the  master,  and  the 
merchant  or  his  agent,  unless  the  owners  hove  an  agent 
in  such  port,  having  proper  authority  to  act  for  theni 
in  such  matters.  A  charter-party  mode  by  the  master 
in  his  name,  when  he  is  in  a  fbreign  pert  in  the  osual 
course  of  the  ship's  employment,  aiKl  therefore  under 
circumstances  which  do  not  oflbrd  evidence  of  fraud ; 
or  when  it  is  made  by  hhn  at  home,  under  circum- 
stances which  afford  evMenee  of  the  expressed  or  im- 
plied assent  of  the  owners,  is  binding  upon  the  letter. 
But  according  to  the  law  of  England,  no  direct  action 
con  be  maintained  upon  the  instrument  itself  against 
the  owners,  nntesa  it  be  signed  and-  sealed  by  them,  or 
unless  they  aathorize  'he  master  (nr  agent,  as  the  cose 
maybe)  te  enter  into  the  contract,  and  unless  it  be  di^ 
tinctly  expressed  in  the  charter-party  that  lie  acta 
only  as  agent.  AVhen  a  ship  is  chartered  by  several 
owners  to  several  penons,  the  charter-party  should  be 


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•sacated  by  «tch,  or  they  will  not  b«  lUble  to  an  action 
for  noa-perforniaDce.  But  if  the  ohartor-party  be  not 
•zpnucd  to  be  uiade  between  the  parliet,  but  run* 
tbu«:  "This  charter-party  iudeoted,  wltnewetb,  that 
C,  master  of  the  skip  \V.,  with  consent  of  A.  and  D., 
the  owners  thereof,  lets  the  ship  to  frei^kt  lo  E,  and 
Jf."  and  the  instrument  contains  cot  enunts  by  E.  and 
t.  to  and  with  A.  and  B. ;  in  tufs  cose  A,  and  D.  may 
bring  an  action  upon  the  covei  >  .1  expressed  to  bt 
niada  with  them;  but  unless  t).  leal  the  deed,  tbay 
can  not  be  sued  upon  it.  This,  therefore,  is  »  very 
proper  form.  The  genecal  rule  of  law  adopted  tu  (be 
construction  of  this,  as  of  other  mercantile  iustrunents, 
is,  that  the  interpretation  should  be  liberal,  agreeable 
to  the  real  intention  of  the  partic-  and  oonfornialile  to 
the  usage  of  trade  in  general,  and  of  the  particular 
trade  to  which  the  contract  relates.  The  charter-par- 
ty usually  expresses  the  burden  of  the  ship  |  and  by 
the  famous  French  Ordinance  of  1G81,  it  is  required  to 
do  so.  According  to  Molloy  (book  11.  c.  4,  §  8),  If  a 
ship  bo  freighted  by  the  ton,  and  found  of  less  burden 
than  expresse'I,  the  payment  shall  be  only  for  the  real  | 
burden ;  and  if  a  ship  be  freighted  for  200  tons,  or  Iktrt- 
about,  tho  addition  of  (hereabout  (sayH  the  same  au- 
thor) is  commonly  reduced  tojive  tons,  more  or  less ;  but 
it  is  now  usual  to  say  so  many  tons  "  register  measure- 
ment." The  usual  covenant  that  the  ship  shall  be  sea- 
worthy, and  in  a  condition  to  carry  the  good*,  bind* 
the  owners  to  prepare  and  complete  every  thing  to 
commence  and  fulAll  the  voyage.  But  though  I  lie  char- 
ter-party contained  no  such  covenant,  tho  owner  of  the 
veaael  would  be,  at  common  law,  bound,  as  a  carritr, 
to  take  care  that  the  ship  should  be  lit  to  perform  the 
voyage ;  and  even  though  lie  should  give  notice,  limit* 
ing  his  responsibility  from  losses  occasioned  to  any  car- 
go put  on  board  his  veesel,  unless  such  loss  should  arise 
from  want  of  ordinary  care,  etc.,  ho  would  be  liable  U 
bis  ship  were  not  seo-w  orthy. — See  Sea-woutiiv . 

In  aJl  maritime  transactions  expedition  is  of  the  ut- 
most consequence ;  for  even  by  a  Hhort  delay  the  ob- 
ject or  season  of  a  voyage  may  be  lost ;  and  therefore, 
if  either  party  be  not  ready  by  the  time  appoinl4N'  '  r 
the  loading  of  tho  ship,  the  oth>  r  may  seek  another  ship 
or  cargo,  and  bring  an  action  to  recover  the  dariisges  be 
has  sustained.  The  manner  in  which  the  owner  is  tu 
lade  the  cargo  1.4,  for  the  most  part,  regulated  by  tho 
custom  and  usage  of  the  place  where  hu  is  to  lade  il, 
unless  there  be  any  exprcsa  stipulation  in  the  charlor- 
party  with  respect  to  it.  Generally,  however,  the  own- 
•r  is  bound  to  arrange  the  dilTef  itt  articles  of  the  car- 
go in  the  most  proper  manner,  amJ  to  take  the  greatest 
care  of  them.  If  a  cask  Im  aooidentally  slaved  in  let- 
ting it  down  into  tho  hold  of  the  ^liip,  the  luastar  must 
antwer  for  the  loss.  If  the  owner  covenants  to  load  a 
fnli  and  complete  cargo,  the  master  must  lake  aa  much 
on  board  as  he  can  do  with  safety,  and  without  inj>iry 
to  the  vessel.  The  master  must  not  take  on  board  any 
contraband  gocds,  whereby  the  ship  or  cargo  may  be 
liable  to  forfeiture  and  detention  ;  nor  must  he  take  on  | 
board  any  false  or  I'olorablo  papers;  but  hu  nmst  take 
and  keep  on  board  all  the  pnpcrs  and  documents  re- 
quired for  the  protection  and  manifestation  of  the  ship 
and  cargo  by  the  law  of  the  countries  from  and  to  whiili 
lb*  ship  is  bound,  by  the  law  of  nations  in  general,  or 
by  any  treaties  (jetween  particular  states.  If  the  nian- 
ter  receive  goods  at  the  quay  or  beach,  or  send  bin  IjosI 
for  them,  his  responsibillly  commences  with  the  mtijU 
in  the  port  of  London.  With  respects  to  goods  intend- 
ed to  be  sent  coastwise,  it  has  been  held  that  the  chief 
responsibility  of  the  whartinger  ceases  by  the  delivery  ] 
of  them  to  the  mate  of  the  vessel  upon  the  tehar/.  A*  1 
soon  as  he  receives  tho  goods,  the  master  must  provide , 
adequate  means  for  their  protection  and  security ;  for 
even  if  tho  crew  be  'iverpowered  by  a  superior  force,  { 
and  tlu)  goods  taken  while  the  ship  is  in  a  port  or  river  | 
within  tha  country',  the  master  and  owneta  are  llabia  I 
tot  tbs  Imi,  thouj^  they  may  have  committed  neitbei'  i 


fraud  IM7  fault.  This  may  seam  a  harsh  rule ;  but  it  1* 
necessary,  to  put  down  utleropt*  at  collusive  or  fraud- 
ulent I'unibiuutluni,  The  master  must,  according  to 
tb*  terms  ut  tlia  charter-party,  commence  the  voyag* 
without  dalitXi  •*  *<Mi>  •*  'ba  weather  la  favorable,  but 
not  otburwisii. 

Hometliuvs  It  is  eovsnantvii  and  agreed  upon  between 
the  parties  that  a  specllled  nunilier  of  days  shall  b« 
allowed  for  bading  and  unloading,  and  that  it  shall  b« 
lawful  for  the  freighter  to  detain  tho  vessel  a  further 
spaciUcd  tiuio,  uii  payment  of  a  daily  sum  as  demur- 
rage.~,Sni  Dkmoiiiiaiik,  If  the  vessel  be  detained 
beyond  both  ptrWds,  the  f../ighter  Is  liable  tc  an  action 
on  llui  contract.  Tho  rat*  of  demurrage  mentioned  in 
the  cbarl«r-|iarly  will,  in  general,  be  the  measure  of 
tho  damages  t«  b«  paid ;  but  it  la  not  the  absolute  or 
necassary  iiHrasura ;  more  or  less  may  be  payable,  as 
Justico  may  mqulre,  regard  being  had  to  the  expen*« 
and  hwi  incurrud  by  the  owner.  When  the  time  ia 
thua  expremly  ascerlaiiied  and  llmittd  by  the  terms  of 
the  cotilrai't,  the  frt'lgbter  Is  liable  to  an  action  for 
liaiiiagt^s  if  ti's  thing  be  not  done  within  the  time,  dU 
lliimyh  Ikil  man  titt  be  aliribuUiUe  lo  ang  fault  or  vtnit- 
mm  un  HU  paiii  fur  h«  has  eiigaaed  that  it  shall  ba 
tlunii. — Altliirrr  on  lie  Law  i\f  Hktpping,  part  ill.  c.  1. 
If  iJiorv  bas  been  any  undertaking  or  warranty  to  tail 
with  convoy,  tfae  vvsiiel  must  repair  In  the  place  of 
renduxvuul  for  that  purpose ;  and  if  the  master  neglect 
lu  ptocwd  witli  convoy,  he  will  be  answerable  for  all 
lusae*  that  may  arise  from  the  want  of  It.  The  ow  n- 
urs  ut  iiiuntiir  should  sail  with  the  ship  for  the  place  of 
her  deiitinalloti  with  til  due  diligence,  and  by  the  urual 
or  shortest  course,  unless  In  cases  of  convoy,  which  the 
iiiastar  must  follow  as  far  as  possible.  Sometimes  the 
course  la  p<>lnl«<l  out  In  the  charter-party.  A  dtmatvm 
from  tlia  usual  course  m'ly  be  Justl-ied  for  the  purpose 
of  repairs,  ur  for  avuldliig  an  enemy  or  the  perils  of  the 
seas,  a*  well  a*  by  ll'n  sickness  of  the  master  or  niur- 
liiers,  and  thn  Mutiny  of  the  crew.  By  an  exception 
In  the  cliartvr-parf  V,  not  to  lie  liable  for  injuries  arising 
from  tlw  VX  of  (iod  and  the  king's  enemies,  the  owner 
or  mauler  Is  not  responsible  for  any  injury  arising  from 
the  sea  ur  tli«  winds,  unless  It  was  in  bis  power  to  pre- 
vent It,  or  it  was  ociasl'iniul  by  his  imprudence  or  gross 
neglect,  "The  question,"  said  I.«rd  Mansflcld,  in  an 
action  brought  by  ihi<  East  India  Company,  "is, 
whether  the  owiiitrs  are  lo  pay  for  the  damage  occa- 
sioned by  th«  storm,  the  act  of  God;  and  this  must  be 
delermint'd  by  the  Itilt'iiliun  of  llie  partim  and  the  na- 
ture of  tho  ciintract.  It  is  a  charter  of  freight.  The 
owners  let  lliifir  ships  to  hire,  and  there  ne'er  was  an 
idea  that  they  insure  the  cargd  against  the  perils  of  llio 
sea.  What  are  the  oliiigalions  of  the  owners  which 
arisa  out  of  th*  fair  construrtion  of  the  charter-party? 
Why,  that  they  shall  l»  IImIiI*  for  damages  incurred 
liy  tlielr  own  fault  or  llial  of  their  servants,  a?  from 
defecl*  In  tiie  ship,  or  improper  stowage,  etc.  If  they 
were  liable  for  damages  occasi'  by  slorma,  they 
would  iH'i'iinie  Itisiiri'rs,"  The  i  a  of  Lords  con- 
llnneil  ibis  dci.'trinn  by  ileclding  «...'Oth  of  May,  1788) 
that  lh«  owner  is  nut  liable  to  make  satisfaction  for 
daniago  lioni!  tu  goods  by  storm.  Tho  charterer  of  a 
sliip  may  Udn  it  cither  with  his  own  goods,  or,  if  he 
have  nut  suRicient,  may  take  In  the  goods  of  other  per- 
sons, or  (If  not  prevented  by  a  clause  to  that  cHect  in 
the  •  barter-party)  h«  may  wholly  underlet  the  ship  to 
aiiolhur,-  -  For  further  details,  see  Aiirot  on  the  Imvi 
iif  Nliiiiping,  part  ill,  c.  !  j  C'liiTrr's  C'lmmercial  Ixiw, 
vol,  ill,  c.  It,  etc  ;  and  the  articles  Bili.  of  Lading, 
FiiKiiiiiT,  and  MAsTtH. 

/'(/t7/w  ijf  V/iiirlrr-partiei. — The  following  is  one  of 
the  must  usual  forms  of  a  charter-party : 

Thlsdisrtsr-iNirty,  Indimtcd,  tnsde,  etc,  between  A.  D.,cte., 
rosrinsr,  master, snd  owner  nftlie  Knodshlporrcseol,  called, 
etc.,  now  rlditiK  at  anchor,  ute.,  of  tint  Imrdeii  ol  200  tonii,  or 
thsrssbuut,  of  ib«  uiin  part,  siid  U.  I),  of,  etc.,  roerohsnl,  of 
tb*  other  part,  wltussaeth,  that  the  said  A.  B.,  for  tlio  consid- 


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(ration  b«reln*ll«r  mentioned,  httb  gnntad,  and  to  freight 
letten,  and  by  tben  prewnta  doth  grant,  and  to  freight  let, 
unto  the  lald  C.  D.,  hia  oxccutori,  admlniitratora,  and  aa- 
algni,  the  whole  tonnage  of  the  hold,  item-iheeti,  and  half- 
d«ck  of  the  Mid  ihlp  or  veHSl,  called,  etc.,  from  the  port  of 
London,  to,  etc.,  in  a  voyage  to  be  made  by  the  aaid  A.  B. 
with  the  laM  ahlp,  in  manner  hereinafter  mentioned,  (that  hi 
to  aay,)  to  lall  with  the  firat  fair  wind  and  weather  that  ihall 
happen  after,  etc.,  next,  from  the  port  of  liondnn  with  the 
goods  and  raiTchandlie  of  the  aaid  0.  D.,  hU  factora  or  a>- 
aigns,  on  board,  to,  etc.,  aforesaid  (the  act  of  God,  the  klng'a 
enemlca,  fire,  and  all  and  every  other  dangera  and  accident* 
of  the  aeaa,  river*,  and  navigation,  of  whatever  nature  and 
kind,  in  ao  far  *a  ahlps  are  liable  thereto,  during  the  aaid 
voyage,  alway*  excepted),  and  there  unlade  and  make  die- 
charge  of  the  aaid  gooda  and  mercbandlaca;  and  alao  ahall 
there  take  into  and  on  board  the  aaid  ahlp  again  the  good* 
and  merchandlae*  of  the  aaid  G.  D.,  hla  factora  or  aaalgna, 
and  ahall  then  return  to  the  port  of  London  with,  the  aaid 
fooda.  In  the  apace  of,  etc,  limited  for  t^e  end  of  the  aaid  voy- 
age. In  conaldaratlon  whereof,  the  aJtd  C,  D.,  for  himaelf, 
bli  exocutora,  and  admlnlftrator*,  doth  covenant,  promiao, 
and  grant,  to  and  with  the  aaid  A.  II.,  hia  executor*,  admin- 
istrators, or  aaaigna,  by  these  proscuta,  that  the  aaid  C  D., 
hU  executors,. administrators,  factors,  or  assigns,  shall  and 
will  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the  said  A. 
B.,  his  executor*,  administrators,  or  assigns,  for  the  fhilght 
of  the  aaid  ship  and  goods,  the  eiim  of,  etc.  (or  ao  much  per 
Ion),  within  twenty-one  days  after  the  said  ship  arrived,  and 
good*  rotut.-ied,  and  discharged  at  the  port  of  London  afore- 
said, for  the  end  of  the  said  voyage ;  and  also  shall  and  will 
pay  for  doraurrase  (If  any  ahull  be  by  default  of  liim,  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  fttctors  or  assigns)  the  sum  of,  etc.,  per  day, 
daily,  aud  every  day,  n  the  same  shall  grow  due.  And  the 
nid  A.  D.,  for  himself,  hi*  executors  and  administrators,  doth 
rovenant,  promlie,  and  grant,  to  and  with  the  said  C  l>.,  bis 
executors,  admlnlatrators,  and  assigns,  by  those  presents,  that 
the  said  ship  or  vessel  shall  be  ready  at  the  port  of  I^ondon 
to  take  In  goods  by  the  said  C.  D.,  on  or  before,  etc..  next  com- 
Ini;.  And  the  saldC.  D.,  for  himself,  his,  etc,  doth  covenant 
and  promise,  within  ten  days  afU>r  the  said  ablporveaael  shall 
be  thus  ready,  to  imve  his  goods  oi,  board  the  said  ship,  to 
proceed  on  in  the  snld  voyage ;  and  also,  on  arrival  of  tho  said 
skip  at,  etc.,  within,  etc.,  days  to  have  his  goods  ready  to  put 
on  board  the  said  i-hip,  to  return  on  the  said  voyage.  And 
the  said  A.  P.,  for  himself,  his  executors  and  administrators, 
doth  further  covenant  and  grant,  to  and  with  tho  said  C.  I)., 
his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  that  the  sa'i  ship 
or  vessel  now  is,  and  at  all  times  during  the  voyage  shall  be, 
to  tho  licst  endea\  ors  of  him,  the  ssid  A.  II. ,  his  executor*  and 
admlnlstratora,  and  at  his  and  their  own  proper  cost*  and 
charges.  In  all  thinga  made  and  kept  stiff,  staunch,  atrong, 
well-appareled,  fumlahed,  and  pr(.,'Ided,  aa  well  with  men 
and'  mariners  siifliclent  and  able  to  sail,  guide,  and  govern 
the  said  ship,  as  with  all  manner  of  rigging,  boats,  tackle, 
and  apparel,  firmUun>,  provision,  and  appurtenanceji.  fitting 
and  necessary  for  tu.^  said  men  and  marlncn,  and  for  the  said 
ahlp  during  the  voyage  aforcaald.    In  witneas,  etc 

Tho  great  v&rict}-  of  circumstances  under  which  dif- 
ferent vo}°agea  arc  niaJo  produce  a,  corresponding  di- 
versity in  cluirtor-parlies.  Tlio  charter-party  of  which 
the  following  is  a  copy  aflurds  a  good  example  of  the 
more  complex  !:pccie8  of  these  instruL.  cnti. 

It  is  this  day  mutually  agreed  between  Mr.  T.  B.  Rann, 
owuer  of  the  good  ship  or  vckkoI  called  tho  Mermaid,  WlUUm 
Ilunnlker,  master,  cf  the  I'uv  iirenient  of  4Vi  tons,  or  there- 
about, now  la  tho  Bivcr  Thames,  and  Mr.  David  Thomson, 
of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Thomson,  Passraorc,  &  Tlmnuon,  of 
.Mauritius,  merchants,  that  the  said  ship,  being  tight,  rtaunch, 
and  strong,  and  every  way  fitted  for  the  voy.igt,  sholl,  with 
all  convenient  speed,  sail  and  proceed  to  Calcutta,  with  leave 
lu  take  convicts  out  to  Kcv  South  Wales,  and  from  thence 
troops,  mercliandlse,  or  passengers,  to  the  afore-mentlonod 
|iort  of  Calcutta,  with  leave  to  touch  at  Madras  on  her  way 
tlilther,  if  required  on  owncr'a  account,  or  so  near  thereunto 
as  she  may  safely  get,  und  there  lood,  from  the  factora  of  the 
said  merchants  at  (,'alculla,  a  ftill  and  complete  cargo  office, 
or  any  other  lawful  goods  which  tho  charterer  engages  to  ship, 
and  proeeed  with  the  samsto  I>>rt  Louis,  In  the  Isle  of  France, 
and  deliver  tho  some  fiite  of  freight ;  afterward  load  there 
a  flill  and  complete  cargo  of  sugar  In  bags,  or  other  lawful 
merchandlae  of  as  favorable  tonnage,  which  Uie  charterer  en- 
gages to  ahlp,  not  ixcecdlng  what  she  can  reasonably  stow 
snd  carry  over  and  above  her  tackle,  apparel,  provisions,  and 
fitrnltnre  i  and,  being  ao  loaded,  ahall  therawllb  proceed  to 
Uxidon,  or  (o  near  tlwreunlo  as  she  may  aafUy  get,  and  de- 


liver the  aame  on  being  paid  flielght,  vtr.,  for  such  quantity 
of  sugar  equal  to  the  actual  quantity  of  rice,  or  other  good*, 
that  may  be  ablpped  at  Calcutta,  at  the  rate  of  £5  12s.  Od  per 
ton  of  !0  cwt  net,  ahlpped  there ;  and  ahonid  the  veaael  de- 
liver more  net  angar  In  the  port  of  London  than  th*  quantity 
of  rice,  or  other  gooda,  actually  ahlpped  In  Calcutta,  th*  own- 
era  to  be  paid  on  the  oxoea*  at  the  regular  current  imta  of 
freight  for  sugar  which  other  vessels,  loading  at  the  same 
time  at  Fort  Loula,  receive;  the  tonnage  of  the  rice,  »hcat, 
or  grain,  to  be  reckoned  at  20  cwt  net  pc'  on ;  that  of  other 
goods  at  the  usual  measurement  (the  act  of  God,  the  king** 
enemies,  fire,  and  all  and  every  other  danger*  and  accident* 
of  the  seas,  riven,  and  navigation,  of  whatover  nature  and 
kind  soever,  during  the  aaid  voyage,  alway*  excepted).  Th« 
freight  to  be  paid  on  unloading  and  right  delivery  of  the  car- 
go, as  is  customary  in  the  port  of  London.  Ninety  running 
daya  are  to  bo  allowed  the  said  merchant  (if  the  aliip  is  not 
sooner  lilapatched)  for  loading  the  ship  at  Calcutta,  discharg- 
ing the  cargo  at  Port  Louis,  and  loading  the  "sr^o  there  t  the 
said  lay  days  to  commence  on  the  vessel  being  ready  to  re- 
ceive cargo,  the  mailer  giving  notloe  In  writing  of  the  aame 
at  CMcutta,  and  to  continue  during  the  loading  there ;  and 
from  the  time  of  her  arrival  at  Fort  Louis,  and  being  ready 
to  discharge,  till  the  final  loading  at  that  port,  and  to  be  dis- 
charged in  the  port  of  Ixndon  with  all  possible  dispatch ;  and 
'20  daya  on  demurrage  over  and  above  the  said  laying  day^ 
at  X12  per  day.  Penalty  for  non-performance  of  this  agree- 
ment, £4000.  The  cargo  to  be  brought  to  and  taken  firom 
alongside  at  the  expense  and  risk  of  the  merehants.  The 
necessary  cash  for  the  disbursements  of  the  vessel  at  Calcutta, 
not  exceeding  £BbO,  to  be  advanced  by  tho  charteroi's  agent*; 
they  taking  tho  master's  draft*  on  the  owner  for  the  same  at 
tho  regular  current  rate  of  exchange,  and  at  three  months' 
'Ight;  and  if  the  said  bills  be  not  regularly  accepted  and  paid 
when  due,  the  same  to  bo  deducted  flnm  tho  freight  payabia 
by  this  charter-party.  The  vessel  to  be  disbursed  at  Port 
I.culs  by  the  chartering  agents;  sum  not  to  exceed  £300,  frea 
uf  commission ;  and  the  amount  to  be  deducted  ttom  the 
freight  at  the  Hnal  settlement  at  the  port  of  London.  Captain 
not  to  ship  goods  without  consent  In  the  event  of  the  ship 
heing  prevented,  by  damsge  or  any  other  cause,  reaching  tha 
.Mauritius  on  or  before  the  Ijt  day  of  .Januarj',  184.1,  the  thar- 
terer  or  his  agents  shall  be  at  liberty  to  employ  the  vessel  for 
one  or  two  voyages  to  Calcutta,  at  the  rate  of  £2  per  ton  of 
rice,  or  otiier  goods,  delivered  at  Mauritius.  Fifty  running 
days,  to  load  and  discharge,  to  be  allowed  on  each  \t>yage ,  It 
bemg  understood  that  the  charterer  or  liU  agents  shall  load 
thu  ship,  as  before  agreed,  cither  at  tho  end  of  the  first  or 
second  voyage,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  freight  on  the  Inter- 
mediate voyages  (if  any)  to  be  paid  on  delivery  of  the  caip>. 
In  cash,  or  by  bills  on  London  at  usance,  at  the  option  of  the 
master.  The  vessel  to  be  addressed,  both  at  Calcutta  and 
Isle  of  France,  to  the  agenta  of  the  charterer.  In  witness 
whereof,  the  said  parties  have  hereunto  set  their  hands  and 
seals,  at  London,  the  2d  day  of  December,  1641. 
Signed,  sealed,  and  dollv-)  Tiios.  B.  Ramk,  (l.s.) 

ered,  In  the  presence  of  j  "     ~ 

(Signed)    E.  FoncvTH. 


V.  Thomson,      (l.r.) 


Chase.  In  nautical  language,  pursuit;  also  the 
vessel  pursued. 

Chaaer.  The  vessel  pursuing;  also  guns  at  the 
heacf  and  stcru  for  firing  when  in  chase. 

Chay,  or  Choy  Root,  tho  routs  of  a  small  biennial, 
rarely  triennial,  plant,  growing  spontaneously  in  light, 
drj-,  Bandy  ground  near  tho  sea ;  and  extensively  cul- 
tivated, especially  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  Tho 
cultivated  roots  are  very  slender,  and  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  length,  with  %  few  latcr«l  filiroa;  but  tho  wild 
are  shorter,  and  supposed  to  yield  one-fourth  part  more 
of  coloring  mnttci  -  nd  ot  a  better  quality.  Tho  roots 
are  employed  to  dye  'lie  durable  reds  for  which  the  In- 
dian  cotton  ya-n  and  chintzes  have  been  long  famous, 
and  which  can  only  be  equaled  by  tho  Turkey  red. 

Chay  root  forms  a  considerable  article  of  export 
from  Ceylon.  Only  a  particular  set  of  people  arc  al- 
lowed to  dig  it.  It  used  to  be  all  bought  up  by  gov- 
ernment, who  paid  the  diggers  a  lixcd  price  of  75  or 
KO  rix-dollars  a  cttr.,ly,  and  sold  it  for  exportation  at 
about  176  rix-dollars. — Bert<ii..ah.i'»  Ctylon,  p.  270. 

This  root  has  been  imported  into  Europe,  but  with 
no  success.  Dr.  Bancroft  suspect*  it  may  be  {inured 
iiy  the  long  voyage  ;  bi<t  he  adds,  that  it  can  produce 
no  effect  which  may  not  bo  more  cheaply  produced 
from  madder.     It  ia  a  very  bulky  article,  and  ia  con- 


CHE 


394 


ens 


-Ptr. 


Mqaoitty  burdened  with  a  very  heavy  iVelghL 
maiMitf  Color;  vol.  ii.  p.  282-303. 

CShaoka,  Cheques,  or  Drafta,  are  orders  ad- 
dreued  to  aonie  person,  generally  a  banktr,  directing 
him  to  pay  the  sum  specilled  in  the  check  to  the  person 
named  in  it,  or  liearer,  on  demand. 

In  poir  t  oi  form,  checks  nearly  resemble  bills  of  ex- 
change. They  are  assignable  by  delivery  only ;  and 
are  payable  instantly  on  presentment,  without  any 
days  of  grace  being  allowed.  But  by  the  custom  of 
some  places,  u  banker  has  until  five  of  the  afternoon 
of  the  day  on  wliich  a  check  is  presented  for  payment, 
to  return  it;  so  that  where  a  check  was  relumed  l>efore 
five,  with  a  memorandum  of  "  canceled  by  mistake" 
written  nnder  it,  it  was  held  a  refusal  to  pay.  If  a 
cheek  upon  a  banker  bo  lodged  witli  another  banker, 
a  presentment  by  the  latter  at  the  clearing-house  is 
sufficient.  Checks  are  usually  taken  conditionally  as 
cash ;  M  unless  an  express  stipulation  lie  made  to  tlie 
contrary,  if  they  be  pres«ntc<i  in  due  time  and  not  paid, 
they  are  not  a  payment.  It  is  difficult  to  define  what 
is  the  due  or  reasonable  time  within  which  checks, 
notes,  or  bills  should  be  presented.  A  man,  as  Lord 
Ellenborob^h  has  observed,  is  not  obliged  to  neglect 
all  other  business  that  he  nir.y  immediately  present 
them :  nevertheless,  it  is  the  safest  plan  to  present 
them  without  any  avoidable  delay ;  and  if  received  in 
the  place  where  payable,  they  had  better  be  presented 
that  day,  or  next  at  farthest.  If  a  check  be  not  pre- 
sented within  a  reasonable  time,  the  party  on  whom 
it  is  drawn  will  be  justified  in  refusing  to  pay  it;  and 
the  holder  will  lose  his  recourse  upon  the  drawer. — 
Ciiirrr  on  Cammertial  law,  vol.  iii.  p.  691 ;  Wool- 
BYCH  on  Commercial  Law.    See  BlLM  or  Exchamok. 

Cheeee  (Uerm.  KHm  ;  Du.  Kata ;  Fr.  Frontage  ; 
It.  Formaggio,  Cicio;  Sp.  Qmio;  Rubs.  Sur;  l.ut. 
Cateut),  The  curd  of  milk  compressed  into  solid 
masses  of  different  sizes  and  shapes;  and,  whdn  in- 
tended for  keeping,  salted  and  dried,  and  sometimes 
colored  and  fiavore'*  It  is  almost  always  made  from 
the  milk  of  cows,  occasionally  from  that  of  ewes, 
and  sometimes,  thoui  j  very  rarely,  from  the  milk  of 
goats.  The  following  are  the  principal  British 
cheeses:  Brickbat,  formed  of  new  milk  and  cream, 
chiefly  in  Wiltshire,  in  the  autumn,  and  sold  in  little 
square  pieces  about  the  sixe  of  brickbats.  CheMiu; 
round  thick  cheeses,  weighii,^  about  160  or  200  lbs., 
with  a  spongy  appearance,  and  the  eyes  or  vesicles 
filled  with  a  rich  oil.  Cheshire,  large,  round,  thick 
cheeses,  commonly  weighing  from  100  to  200  pounds 
each  ;  solid,  homogeneous,  and  dry  and  friable  rather 
than  viscid.  They  are  made  from  the  whole  of  the 
milk  and  cream ;  the  morning's  milk  being  mixed 
with  that  of  the  preceding  evening  previously  warmed. 
Derbythire  is  a  small,  white,  rich  cheese.  Dunlcp, 
originally  made  in  Ayrshire,  but  now  general  through- 
out Scotland,  is  large,  round,  while,  buttery,  an<l 
weighs  from  80  to  60  pounds.  This  and  the  Derby- 
shire cheese  are  very  much  alike  in  form,  color,  and 
flavor.  Gloucetter,  large,  round,  and  mild;  buttery 
rather  than  friable.  There  are  two  kinds,  the  single 
and  double  Gloucester ;  the  single  is  made  of  the  milk 
deprived  of  about  half  the  cream,  und  the  double  of 
the  milk  with  the  whole  of  the  cream.  O'reen  or  Sage 
cheese  may  be  made  of  any  of  the  other  kinds,  by  mix- 
ing the  mUk  before  it  has  curdled  with  a  decoction  of 
sage  leaves,  among  which  some  put  a  few  flowers  of 
marigold  and  leaves  of  parsley.  In  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  the  leai'es  or  seeds  of  lovage  arc  added  to  the 
sage,  which  communicate  a  very  strong  flavor.  I.in- 
C4l>ukin  is  made  of  new  milk  and  cream;  It  is  quite 
soft,  not  above  two  inches  thick,  and  will  not  keep 
more  than  two  or  three  months.  Norfolk,  the  weight 
is  generally  fh>m  8C  to  60  pounds ;  the  curd  is  dyed 
yellow  with  amotto  or  salfh)n ;  and  though  not  a  rich 
chesse,  it  is  considered  a  good  keeper.  Snji  or  Slip-coal 
it  a  small,  soft,  rich  cheese,  which  might  almost  be 


mistaken  for  butler,  if  it  were  not  whlte^  and  which 
must  be  eaten  in  a  week  or  two  after  making,  Stilton, 
so  named  from  the  town  in  Huntingdonshire  where  it 
was  first  brought  into  notice,  but  which  is  made  prin- 
cipally in  Leicestershire.  It  is  solid,  rich,  buttery, 
and  white ;  and,  unlike  all  the  other  cheeses  which 
have  been  mentioned,  it  Is  twice  as  high  as  it  is  broad. 
It  is  mnch  Improved  by  keeping,  and  is  seldom  used 
before  it  is  two  years  old.  It  is  the  dearest  of  all  En- 
glish cheeses,  the  price  being  generally  to  that  of  Ches- 
ter as  2  to  1,  or  2  to  U.  In  order  to  induce  premature 
decay,  and  the  consequent  appearance  of  sgs  in  these 
cheeses,  it  is  said  the  makers  sometimes  bury  them  in 
masses  of  fermenting  straw.  Colltnham,  sc  iiumed 
fVom  a  town  in  Cambridgeshire :  it  differs  chiefly  from 
the  cream  cliecse  of  Stilton  in  being  fiat,  broader,  and 
superiorly  flavored.  The  flavor  is  said  to  be  owing  to 
the  rich  grasses  which  grow  on  the  funs.  Suffolk,  or 
tkim-miU,  is  round  and  thin,  weighing  from  25  to  80 
pounds  each,  and  is  the  best-keeping  cheese  made  in 
England.  WillMrt  resembles  the  Cheshire;  but  is 
poorer,  and  of  inferior  flavor.  It  is  apt  to  become 
scurfy,  to  prevent  which  it  is  generally  coated  over 
with  red  paint.  Yorithire,  or  Cream  Chee$e,  is  the  sama 
as  the  slip-coat  cheese,  already  mentioned. 

European  Che(ne$. — Tlie  most  remark  able  >of  thesa 
are  the  following :  PaimenaH  is  chiefly  made  at  i'arma 
and  other  places  in  Lumbardy,  of  the  curd  of  skimmed 
milk  hardened  by  heat.  Its  flavor  is  said  to  be  owing 
to  the  rich  pastures  of  that  part  of  Italy,  where  all 
plants,  from  the  greater  quantity  of  briglit  sunsliine 
than  ill  Britain,  have  doubtless  their  aromatic  proper- 
ties greatly  increased.  Swiu  ckeete  is  of  various  kinds ; 
but  the  chief  sorts  are  the  Uruyere  or  Jura  cheese,  and 
Schabziegcr  or  green  cheese  ;  the  last  is  flavored  with 
the  seeds  and  leaves  of  the  melilot  {ilelilotit  officinaliM). 
O'emian  cheeta  are  of  diHerent  kinds ;  but  none  are 
celebrated,  unless  we  except  that  of  Westphalia,  which 
is  made  up  into  round  balls  or  short  cylinders,  under 
a  pound  weight  each.  The  pecu^'.ar  flavor  which  this 
cheese  acquires  anses  f^om  the  curd  being  allowed  to 
become  putrid  iicfore  it  is  compressed.  In  Holland 
very  good  cheese  is  made,  particularly  the  Edam  and 
Gouda  cheeses :  the  former  is  very  salt,  and  Iieeps  well 
at  sea.  In  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  and  even  in 
the  interior  of  Poland  and  Kussia,  there  are  imitations 
of  English  cliecse  made ;  but  what  may  lie  called  the 
indigenous  cheese  of  the  Russian  empire  is  nothing 
more  than  salted  curd  put  into  a  bag  and  powerfully 
pressed,  and  taken  to  market  as  soon  as  it  is  made,  in 
the  same  manner  as  liuttcr  is.  In  some  places,  iiist<;ad 
of  a  press,  I  lie  whey  is  forced  out  of  the  curd  by  putting 
it  into  a  long  cloth  midway  between  Iho  two  ends, 
while  a  person  at  each  '  4  twists  the  cloth  in  an  op- 
posite direction,  and  ti..<  wrings  out  llio  hey.  In 
some  miserable  Russian  villages  the  curd  is  exposed 
for  sale  in  small  lumps,  retaining  the  marks  of  1..3  fin- 
gers, which  shows  that  no  other  pressure  lias  been  em- 
ployed than  what  can  lie  given  with  the  hand.  In 
France  the  Roquefort  cheese  is  the  most  esteemed,  and 
next  that  of  Neufchatel.  The  former  somculiat  re- 
sembles Stilton,  but  is  much  inferior;  and  the  latter  is 
a  cream  cheese,  seldom  exceeding  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
in  weight. — Set  Johxbton's  Lectures  on  Chenutlry. 

Cheese,  in  the  United  States,  except  for  local  con- 
sumption, is  manufactured  principally  in  New  York 
and  Ohio.  The  New  York  Orange  county  cheese, 
when  new,  is  equal  to  any  of  the  mild  cheeses;  but  it 
does  not  acquire  by  age  that  richness  of  flavor  that 
English  cheese  does.  The  Ohio  cheese  is  produced  at 
a  very  low  price,  and  is  taking  a  rank  among  the  im- 
portant products  of  that  agpicultural  State.  'I'he  prai- 
ries of  the  West,  affbrding  wild  grasses  of  great  nutri- 
ment and  fine  flavor,  are  exceedingly  well  adapted  for 
the  production  of  cheese  of  gcod  quality,  and  at  a  price 
that  excludes  foreign  cheesa  from  the  market,  except 
for  epicurean  tastes. 


CHE 

Expom  or  Cuini  vimu  the  Unitxii  HTATXb. 


80A 


eHE 


V..r.„di,.,J.n.aO.       1      *;^"." 

To  olliar 

PlrKM. 

TaUl. 

1883 

Piwuk. 
«,0a8,U8B 
D,B2:,884 
8,4IM3T 

$584,184 

Pouii. 

7«,UU7 
1,691,110 
1,420,037 
$15tf,8S0 

Pound!. 

3,7«3,U8i 
7,003,1174 
4.840  .sum 
tSll,0S4 

1854 

iMrOBTO  or  CUEI8K  IMTO  THIS   UNITED  ST\1K9. 

Vm' «i<lln|r 'i-nn  90 

P«.iidi. 

Vl.l,... 

ISCitt    

874,041) 
S«».416 

$TU.fv.'S 
08,151 
140,tl(iD 

ISM 

185S 

1,&20,042 

Fully  one-hair  of  thcM  imports  came  from  inuco. 
— See  BiJTTKR. 

Cberaiatry  and  DintiUlng.  Introduced  into  Eu- 
rope liy  the  Spanish  Moors  libout  a.d.  1160;  they  had 
learned  them  from  the  African  Moors,  and  these  from 
the  Ei^yp''  ns.  In  Egypt  tlicy  had,  in  very  early 
aRea,  extracted  salts  from  their  bases,  separated  oils, 
and  prepared  vinegar  and  wine;  and  cmbnlinin)^  was 
a  kind  of  chemical  process.    '1  hs  Chlnesfl  also  claim  an 


early  acquaintance  with  chemistry ;  but  the  futliers  of 
true  chemical  philosophy  were.  Bacon,  Boyle,  Ilooke, 
Mayow,  Newton,  etc.    tlie  modern  character  of  chein-   abundantly  in  ntoii  \mfH  ti/i  (f«*  WMllwH)  ^^ti^If f les  of 


which  dupon*  >l>lt  §((*,  It  \i  «W«jwcl,  flns-BrBlned, 
and  brilliant,  «Hft  »<4  lldtdc  M  1>»fp  *»h*n  perf«clly 
seasoned,  It  U  it%WwU>\f  «>w(il»ye<l  l>y  ciiliinet- 
mabera  for  e^tfv  »w^\tin  tif  fHH(jl(*f»,  flWd  when  chosen 
u<ar  the  r*nM>mitH  iif  th«  ffiittli  It  tUah  nialKi^any 
In  beauty.  'IhU  >im>i{  it  nmt^fniif  (.referred  to  the 
black  walnrit,  wluw)  Aim  fmnpUnim  with  time  be- 
comes nearly  Uimik,  On  !>  U»nit'>  of  the  Ohl6  It  la  em- 
ployed in  ship-lfHiMfHKf,  «n4  (h«  I'r^flt'b  of  Illinois  use 
It  fur  the  fiilloKS  t)f  wim>U,^htHi¥rfitt'ii  f^ylra  Amer. 

OlM»»M»lf«  SUV  mm\miA),  is  IflO  IT  es  long, 
and  from  7  to  >«»  \mm,  i(H4  ((*ll*Ml(V  9  fathoms  deep, 
being  tlis  largest  \my  Ih  [\w  Vn\ifi\  Siaies,  Its  en- 
trance is  wtiully  \n  i\w  Wftt**  i(f  V jf^ldia,  Iwtween  Cape 
Charles  on  tM  mi^U  M)A  )'«)«  Hf>ilty  on  the  south, 
which  are  about  M  m  \h  mim  »^uft^  tint  the  bay 
lie;  mostly  in  MwrytHflfi,  ilivMiH^  (h«  M«i«  into  two 
parU,  calM  Mms  K»'i»#ffl  WmI  i\v'  ^Vm»#H»  Shore.  It 
has  several  mmmfAum<>  \i»'lSm<>,  mA  N  safe  and  easy 
navigation.  It  nrnvn*  thf  ¥A\^f»  of  (he  Potomac, 
Kappobannoc,  und  immn  mi'tn,  ith\i-ii  ore  all  large 
and  n»vig»bl«)  hIsm  nf  (Im  <iii»nwh»Mn  and  York 
rivers, 

ObMtowt  (f^nifuf  emUmif),  «  fofwt  tt*«  growing 


istry  was  fcmud  under  Beeohor  and  Stahl,  who  per- 
ceived the  connection  of  the  atmoephcre  and  the  gases 
with  the  production  of  phenomena.  Bergman  and 
Scheelo  were  cvatemporury  with  Priestley  hi  England, 
and  I^volsier  in  France;  then  followed  Thomson,  Davy, 
and  other  distinguished  men. — Hayum. 

Cherbotirg,  a  commercial  and  fortlDed  seu-port 
town  of  Ki'ance,  and  nearly  opposite  tho  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  16  miles  east-south- 
east of  Cape  la  Hague.  Latitude  of  Fort  Koyul.  49° 
40'  3"  N.,  longitude  1°  85'  W.  Population,  22,400. 
Its  cUmiite  i«  remarkably  mild.  Its  naval  docks 
arc  cut  out  of  solid  rock;  and  it  h>is  a  commercial 
harlior  lined  with  stone  quays.  Its  roadstead,  de- 
fended by  several  large  forts  and  batteries,  is  now 
one  of  the  best  in  the  Channel,  being  slieltered  by  a 
digw,  or  breakwater,  411  yards  in  length  (or  consider- 
ably more  than  twice  !a  long  as  the  Plymouth  break- 
water), liegun  under  I.ouis  XVI.,  and  completed  iu 
1810.  Cherbourg  has  a  nuritime  tribunal,  a  national 
Maderaic  society,  commercial  college,  naval  school, 
and  museums ;  sugar  and  soda  reflnerics,  and  tanner- 
ies ;  and  an  active  trade  iu  eggs,  cattle,  lard,  butter, 
wine,  and  other  pro<luce,  exported  to  England  aud  the 
Chunuel  Islands.  It  was  the  last  place  in  Normandy 
resigned  by  the  English.  Charles  X.  eraliarked  here 
with  his  family,  on  <iuitting  France,  August  IC,  18S0. 
The  first  French  transatlantic  steamer  arrived  at  New 
York  f">m  Cherbourg,  8tfe  July,  1847. 

ChOiTlSS.  They  were  brought  fi-om  Pontus,  to 
LucuUus,  to  Borne,  about  TO  n.c.  Apricots  from  Epi- 
rus ;  peaches  from  Persia ;  the  finest  pluns  from 
Damascus  and  Armenia;  pears  and  figs  from  Greece 
and  Egypt;  citrons  from  Media;  and  pomcgranaies 
from  Curtbdge,  ll-l-B.c.  The  cherry-tree  wus  lirst 
planted  in  Britain,  it  is  said,  about  a.i>,  100.  Fine 
kinds  were  brought  from  Flanders,  and  planted  iu 
Kent,  and  with  such  success  that  an  orchard  of  thirty- 
two  acres  pro<luce<l  in  one  year  £1000,  a.d.  Ifi40. 

Cherry-tree   {Cenuiu    yirginiana).      The  wild- 


Europe.  It  is  UmgAivi4,  jsrm--  Ui  m  itntttense  sIm, 
and  is  very  onwH)#»t«»l>  'MM*  Mimi  f«  l(«H  and  com- 
pact;  wlwnyowng, ItislwiKl  iiHdfl^siMej  but  when 
old,  it  Is  brittle,  »»4  uft^ti  »Ti*i)'V,  Tlie  chestnut  con- 
tains oidy  »  very  »hihU  imi\miim  #f  s«p-^*ood ;  and 
hence  the  wood  of  yoHf)^  ♦ft**  i»  fmiHii  to  he  superior 
to  even  the  oak  iit  '^trMitifi  H  U  rt(*Wf«l  whether 
the  roof  o''  WestmiMstsf  ilttfl  Utt  nf  imk  irt  ehestnnt,  the 
two  woods  being,  w)l«H  «M,  Viftf  i)lt(<  cKch  other,  and 
having  been  formfiriy  mi4  nAnmi  iHd)lte«'«nt1y  In  the 
construction  of  b»)ii4ii)g<<,  A  ^mA  (l««l  of  chestnut 
has  been  planted  in  VM^mA  withltt  (li«  last  thirty 
years.— Tlii!»(li)l»l»';i  I'rimiiplni  tifLWhpx'.-y. 

Cbeetnut  (lUulamn  S'tah),  Tli«  A«t«cl««t(  fheH- 
nut  does  not  venture  )>»ym»4  th«  44th  d^gtee  of  In  •'. 
tuda.  It  is  found  ill  Sew  H»HiJ/«l(it«,  hctiteen  the  48d 
and  44ai  degrees  (  but  *wM  U  «lw  wvertty  of  the  wiff 
ter,  that  it  is  less  tmmvm  fb»«  IH  t'wttwttlcMl,  Kew 
I  Jersey,  and  Pen»»y|v»Hl»..  H  W  IB*  Wosi  tniilllpilled 
in  the  mountainous  «li<itnfl<l  trf*  lh«  VMuWmfi  «nd  of 
Georgia,  and  abaundf  i»  i\w  G»m\mf\MiA  Mountains 
and  in  East  Ten»>e»8ua.  'f'lm  lmi^m<>a  iit  (h/i  sufnmer 
and  the  mildness  of  tlta  wiHtW  ill  IfwN!  t*glo««  are  fa- 
vorable u>  tlie  cbestnul  I  Dm  Cfi^e  itf  the  «rti«trt,  also, 
is  perfectly  adapted  to  w  tf/'f  wllifrb  pfektii  the  sides  of 
mountains,  or  tlieir  Uim^AiHl^  vMliHf,  #hpfe  the  soil 
in  general  is  gravelly,  tlwilffh  rfwf*  PHtrtigh  (n  sustain 
its  perfect  developiDSHt-  IM*  »  Hfmfj^f  \ti  Vet mont, 
the  SUte  of  Maine,  and  ft  (if»»t  imH  S(  >*«♦?  tork,  to 
the  maritime  parts  of  Virgi»i#,  to  tlw  (JwoliHiJS,  Geor- 
gia, the  Fbridas,  \4»m»\»m,  itfid  m  ftif  an  the  tnouih 
of  the  Ohio.  TM  Aweri*#H  (•(«'«(««»  «rt««ti»nes  at- 
tains the  height  of  70  or  W>  M,  with  h  cir'ettwferencB 
of  15  or  16  feat.  Tits  wood  U  ^itfimg,  cldsKCj  and  capa- 
ble ofenduring  tlie  swoumim  »rf'  dcj'Ht'W  am  molsinte. 
Us  durability  remlfira  )(  Bii|i«(.j»))t'  <-(dMalrl«  (at  posts, 
which  should  be  nmd<:  of  trerit  l<i;«  IIims  ten  Inches  in 
diameter,  and  charred  Mmi>  iiwf  «f«  Wt  («  tlte  earth. 
It  is  also  used  for  rails,  miA  in  kiA  <#  Ii4«f  mote  ihao 
fifty  years.    For  sbingMs  this  ¥im4 1#  »Hf#>ciof  to  any 


cherry  tree  is  one  of  the  largest  productions  of  the  |  kind  of  oak,  though  It  hm  til*  iHUHf  Mffi  of  wacplng. 
American  forest.  In  tlie  Atlantic  as  well  as  the  West-  i  It  is  not  extensively  uae4  for  »t»Vtf»,  N(«d  it*  pores, 
em  Suites,  this  tree  is  known  only  by  tiie  name  which  !  like  those  of  the  red^afc,  ftm  M  o(WH,  ihiti  i(  Is  proper 
we  have  adapted.  It  is  more  or  less  abundant  as  the  only  for  dry  wares.  'I^a  fh<><»tflM(  i*  iidic  estetftned 
■oil  and  climate  arc  more  ur  less  favorable  to  its  growth,  |for  fuel,  niid  is  not  WH<-'b  US«d  j  it  I*  ntli<d  with  air, 


to  wliicb  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  seasons, 
and  of  dryness  and  humidity  in  the  soil,  am  alike  uii- 
propitious.  It  abounds  in  Illinois,  in  New  York,  and  in 
Upper  Canada ;  but  it  !'>  nowhere  more  profusely  mul- 
tiplied nor  more  fully  developed  than  beyond  the 
mOQDtsins  In  the  States  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Ten- 
necjaa.    The  perfect  wood  is  9f  •  dull,  light  red  tint, 


and  snaps  when  it  burfis,     'f\m  (*»l  is  «*(!ell««t,— 
Bhownu's  Hi/livt  limnii'nHB, 
Ohestnnts  (Fr.  uliiUmami  (ig¥,  Hmttmktti  t«. 

Catiagnt;  8p.  C<(»'a«iw),  tl«»frH)tof  tiMt  (•(«'«l««t--<r««. 
I'l  some  paru  of  Europe  they  ftfd  ffWJ»*H(l>  ined  ts  • 
substitute  tor  bread,  <«Md  form  ft  lftf)(«  j,K'(}>wrlion  of 
th«  food  of  the  Mm\i\^m»,    "Mt  ii  (Mfikularl/  the 


■N, 


CHE 


SM 


CHI 


CUM  In  tb*  Limouiin,  in  Coril<-a,  and  of  several  di>- 
(riete  of  Spain  and  Itidy.  Tlia  .-iliuliiUintt  of  the  Li- 
mouain  are  (aid  to  prepare  thoDi  ii>  a  peculiar  niamier, 
which  deprlTea  them  uf  their  HstruiKeut  and  bitter 
propertlei,  Cheatnuta  liiiportedTrjni  8pain  and  Italy 
arc  Itequently  kiln-dried,  to  prevent  their  germina- 
tion on  the  paatage.  In  thia  country  they  uf  princi- 
pally lerVed  up  roatted  at  dcsMrte. 

CiMtWwrt,  or  Tsohatwert,  a  meaiure  oi  com  In 
Kuaaia,  equal  to  677  Imperial  busheli;  hence  100 
chetwerta  •  73'12  Imperial  quartara.        ^ 

CllioacOk  city  and  capiul  of  Cook  county,  and  the 
moat  commercial  place  in  lUinoi*,  204  milea  north- 
uortheMt  from  Springfleld  and  717  from  Waabington. 
The  city  VIS  laid  out  iu  1880,  and  lot*  first  sold  in  1881. 
PopuUtion  in  1840,  4470;  in  1860,  29,964;  In  1H62, 
88,784 ;  and  in  1864,  66,000.  It  U  beautifully  situated 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Michigan  Central  and  Southern 
Railroad,  on  level  ground,  elevated  about  tive  iVet 
above  the  lake,  which  secures  It  from  ordinary  floods, 
and  extends  on  both  sides  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  between  the  Junction  of  Us  north  and  south 
branches,  and  distant  1)  mile  from  its  entrance  into 
Lake  Uicbigan.  The  harbor  has  a  depth  of  fkom 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet  of  water,  which  maliea  it  a  com- 
mudiou*  and  safe  haven;  and  It  has  be«n  much  im- 
proved artlHcially  by  the  construction  of  piers  wbkh 
extend  on  each  tide  of  the  entrance  of  the  river  for 
some  distance  into  the  lake,  to  prevent  th*  acoumola- 
tion  of  Band  upon  the  bar.  The  light-house  is  on  the 
south  side  of  the  harbor,  and  shows  a  fixrd  light  on  a 
tower  40  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  lake ;  and  there 
is  a  beacon  on  tlio  end  of  the  pier.  Numerous  steam- 
bos  s  and  vessels  ply  between  this  place  and  Buffalo, 
and  the  various  intermediate  places  on  the  upper  lakes. 
West  of  the  city,  toward  the  West  Plains  road,  is  a 
-  fertile  prairie,  which,  for  the  tlrsl  three  or  four  miles, 
is  elevated  and  dry.  Along  the  north  branch  of  the 
Chicago  and  the  lake  shore  are  extensive  bodies  of  fine 
timber.  White  pine  lumber  is  obtained  from  the  re- 
gions about  Green  Bay  and  Grand  Kiver,  in  Michigan, 
and  across  the  lake  from  St.  Joseph's  Kiver.  The  .  ity 
is  a  great  shipping  point  for  an  immense  and  fertile 
region.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  Caaal,  which  is 
60  feet  wide  at  the  top,  6  feet  deep,  and  107  miles  in 
length,  including  6  miles  of  river  navigation,  through 
which  is  brought  a  largo  amount  of  produce  from  the 
south  and  southwest ;  and  the  railroads  radiating  flrom 
Chicago,  add  to  the  vast  accumulalion  which  is  here 
shipped  for  the  Atlantic  sea-board.  There  are  10  steam- 
ers, 80  propellers,  and  190  barks,  brigs,  scboooera,  and 
sloops,  engaged  in  the  Chicago  trade.  In  1836  the 
value  of  the  exports  was  $1000;  in  1840,  t228,636;  in 
1845,  tl,M8,619;  and  in  1862,  (12,000,000.  The  as- 
sessed valoe  of  real  and  personal  estate  in  1853  was 
(16,841,881.  There  are  twelve  trunk  railroads  now 
constructed  and  in  process  of  construction,  all  centre- 
ing at  Chicago,  and  measuring  in  the  aggregate  2486 
miles.  Of  this  amount,  1726  mile*  will  lie  within  the 
State  of  Illinois,  and  the  remainder  in  Indiana,  Michi- 
gan, and  Wisconsin.  Besides  these  trunk  roads,  there 
are  several  hundred  miles  of  branches,  all  centreing 
toward  Chicago.  The  trunk  and  branch  roads  reach 
the  Mississippi  River  at  ten  diflferent  points  from  Ga- 
lena aouth  to  Cairo.  Chicago  is  supplied  with  the 
purest  of  water  fkt>m  the  lake,  is  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  most  extensive  coal  fields  to  be  found  in 
Illinois,  and  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  produce  of  one 
of  the  richest  agricultural  sections  of  the  Union. — Set 
Lakes,  comsMree  ^. 

The  lumber  trade  of  Chicago  is  immense.     During 
the  year  1855  over  Ikret  htmdrtd  mUlioiu  of  feet  were 
received  here.    The  following  tatile  will  show  the  re- 
'«ipu  for  the  past  six  years : 
Tmk.  W—tnttttti.    Tmik  T— in— int. 

imo ieo,3M,TT9     IS^S i02,IOt,0|l8 

MKl 1(n,«e6,4»T     IBM «2Mil*,0OI> 

UM 141,810,(32     UM 8()Mn,0H 


FLoua  AKD  Oaua  aaoaiTan  at  Uhicaiio  nm  nn  Vaiia 
1864-'BB. 


aiUtlM. 


Flour,  reduced  to  bushels  of  wheat 

Wheal,  bushsls 

t;om„l)«sliels 

Oats,  buihels 

Kye,  bushels 

Uarle^,  bushels 

Total 

1964 

Inarcaae  bi  ISfiS 


I»4.    ~ 

mfih 

B,OTO,Mn 

T.4TS44II 

4,IM,II« 

86,«U0 

_  (iio.iwn 

i6;57 


isr 


l*.4«,lliM 

ll,MW,»«t 

(MMV 

IIW, 


-iBMimsiTOiT 


The  total  value  of  articles  of  commerce  rsceivsd  at 
Chicago  In  1865  was  nearly  two  hundrad  nillioti*  of 
dollars ;  vis. ; 


By  lake 

By  canal 

By  rallnods 

ToUl  value. . 


iB.porti. 


^6;m,Tirt  *i 

T,4n,T<»  BO 
88,M1,S»T  «0 


tlUI,M4,llfi  II 


"k»>i.Hi. 


"WMWW 

H«,»19,l«tl>T 
ttll4,IIH,tll«V6 


Chicago  has  growr.  .nore  rapidly  up  lo  this  lime  than 
any  city  in  the  world.  In  1828,  ll^)or  Long  and  party 
maide  a  Journey  to  examine  th*  sources  of  tli*  HI,  l't> 
ter's  River,  etc. ;  and  in  bis  account  of  tba  espvUitloR 
writes  as  follows  of  Chicago  i 

"The  village  presents  no  cheering  proepeet,  as,  not* 
withstanding  its  antiquity,  it  consist*  of  but  few  huM. 
inhabited  by  a  miserable  race  of  men,  scarcely  annu 
to  th*  Indians  flrom  whom  they  are  descended.  Their 
log  or  bark  house*  are  low,  filthy,  and  disgusting,  dll> 
playing  not  the  least  trace  of  comfort.  Chicago  is,  p«r> 
haps,  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  In  the  Indliin  eouil- 
try ;  its  nsnie,  derived  fiom  th*  PotawatomI  Ungaaga, 
signifies  either  a  skunk  or  a  wild  onion ;  and  rjther  of 
these  significations  has  occasionally  liean  glvrn  for  it. 
A  fort  is  said  to  have  formerly  existed  there,  M>-nlloii 
is  made  of  the  place  as  having  been  visilid  in  Iil71  by 
Vet,.-  who  found  'Chicagou'  to  be  the  resldeiii'a  of  • 
powerfu.  ';hlef  of  the  Miamis.  The  numlwr  uf  trallt 
centering  all  at  this  spot,  and  their  appar«ni  anilqui* 
ty,  indicate  that  thia  was  probably  for  a  lung  perlMi 
the  site  of  a  large  Indian  village.  A.i  a  place  of  busU 
ncss,  it  offers  no  indneement  to  th*  s*ttl«rt  ("f  th* 
whole  annual  amount  of  th*  trad*  of  ;>!s  is!;s  iiii  not 
exceed  the  cargo  of  five  or  six  schoonsr*,  *v«n  at  tha 
time  when  the  garrison  received  it  supplle*  from  Mack* 
inaw.  It  is  not  impossible  that  at  some  diklant  day, 
when  the  banks  of  the  Illinois  shall  have  bai'ii  cov«r«a 
with  a  dense  population,  and  when  Ibe  low  pralriel 
which  extend  between  that  river  and  VoH  'Vayn* 
shall  have  acquired  a  population  proportional*  lo  lh( 
produce  which  they  can  yi(ld,  Chicago  may  bscoina 
one  of  the  point*  in  the  direct  line  of  comniuniiallon 
between  the  northern  lakes  and  the  Missis(lp|il,  Kut 
even  the  intercourse  which  wilt  lie  carried  on  tbrougll 
this  communication  will,  w*  think,  at  all  tlm«*  lie  • 
limited  one;  the  dangers  attending  the  navigation  of 
the  lake,  and  the  scarcity  of  harbors  along  the  tlinr*. 
must  ever  prove  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  Ini^ri'sse  of 
the  commercial  importance  of  Chicago.  The  extent 
of  the  sand  banks  which  are  formed  on  the  eailcrn  anil 
southern  shores  by  the  prevailing  north  and  norlhwest> 
erly  winds,  will  likewise  prevent  any  important  work* 
from  being  undertaken  to  improve  the  port  of  Chlcsgo," 

It  is  estimsted  that  the  city  now  (1867)  conlslnl 
100,000  inhabitants,  and  does  a  larger  trade  in  prapof> 
tion  to  its  size  than  any  city  in  the  Union,  What  iMit* 
ter  illustration  can  be  given  of  the  rapid  gyowth  of  Ilia 
West  at  this  place  ? 

The  population  for  the  years  between  1860  snd  IMO 
(the  last  four  years  being  estimated)  is  as  fellows  i 


V««n.  PopalattM. 

18B1 3a,()«0 

\ibt 40,000 

1863 48,000 

1854 M,n00 

lats. 1..  6u,ooo 


¥••>•.  PwalstlM, 

IfM t!l,IMil 

IMiT IW,MIO 

18B8 ,,  lt»,IIOO 

I8M 149,eW 

18(0 1TI,(M 


CHI 


SOT 


CHa 


IIMO 

It 

low 

1.000 


Th*  (bllowing  iitt  •mbraeei  th«  trunk  road*  aotually 
compltted  and  in  oparation,  with  tlieir  branch  and  ex- 
toniion  linei,  centring  in  Chicago : 

Hlln. 

Chlugo  tnil  Mllwtnkta 8n 

Ractmtnd  MInlMlppI HA 

Chleuo,  8L  I'aul,  and  f  ond  du  Lae Ill 

UtlwaukU  and  MlalMtppI,  WeKern  Ulvlilon liB 

Oalenaand  Clit»Ko  (Tnion 131 

Foi  Rlrar  Valley BS 

.       Wlnoonaln  Central 0 

DeloU  Branch tO 

UeloU  and  UadiMn IT 

Mineral  Point IT 

Galena  (Fulton)  Air  Line ISA 

(/hlcago,  Iowa,  and  Nebraaka IS 

Chicago,  liurllngtan,  and  (julnoy SIO 

nurllngton  and  MlHourl BO 

Northeni  Croat 100 

Hannibal  and  81.  Joieph 80 

Cbloaaoand  Rock  lalknd 181 

Mliilntppl  and  Mluourl,  .at  Ulvliion 58 

"  "         ad        "        13 

Peoria  and  Bureau  Vallor 4T 

I'eoria  and  Oquawka 143 

Rlilcago,  Alton,  and  St  Louis ?83 

lllinori  Central T04 

I'lttiburgh,  Vort  Wayne,  and  Chicago 113 

Michigan  Houtheni  and  Northern  Indiana 1141 

vUnclnnull,  Peru,  and  Chicago 48 

Michigan  Central !82 

Nc«r  Albany  and  Salciu ~8t 

11  trunk  and  IT  branch  and  eztenilou  llnea BOTH 

Tailing  the  portions  of  the  above  lines  which  lie  in 
llio  Htate  of  Illinois,  and  nddin;;  the  length  of  tlio  dif- 
ft<runt  roads  completed  in  the  central  portions  of  ttio 
State,  we  And  that  Illinois  now  contains  ttao  Ihoiitaml 
lei'tn  hundred  and  tiity-ont  miles  of  completed  railtcay. 
Five  years  ago  there  wereonly  nlnety-flre  miles.  These 
facts  show  a  most  gratifying  progress,  of  which  every 
citizen  of  Illinois  may  well  be  proud. 

OKNIBAL   SUHUART  OT  BAILBOAUS. 

Total  numlKr  of  nil  lea  uf  railway  centring  In 

Chicago  February  10, 1851 40 

Total  number  of  miles  now  completed  and  In 

operation 8,0T6 

Increase  In  latO OlS 

Total  number  to  be  completed  In  from  five  to 

Fight  years 0,029 

Total  number  of  miles  of  railway  In  the  Btate  of 

lllinola  now  In  operation S.TOI 

tiicrease  In  18,'» 

(Only  C8  miles  wore  completod  five  yeini  ago.) 
Increase  In  the  Btate  In  fiTo  ycara  (over  BOO  miles 

per  year) 1,060 

Total   earnings  of  all  the  railways  centring  In 

Chicago  for  the  jear  la.'W $1T.84!1,!41 

(Five  years  ago  they  were  only  $40,000.) 

Increase  In  live  yean 17,803,241 

Increase  of  1850  over  1BS6 4,045,041 

Tu||l  number  of  traitis  arriving  and  de^o-'^ug 

Smj  (midwinter),  104;  adding  16  per  cent  as 

soon  as  navigation  opens 110 

Population  of  Chicago  In  1851 '88,733 

"  "  ,)an.  1,18'>i,  eatlmata(ln 

June,  1886,  ltwaaS3,609) 110,000 

Total  receipts  of  grain  In  Chicago  for  the  year 

1866 huahcU    20,487,063 

Total  reeelpta  of  grain  for  the  year  1860  (incrcaae 

In  Vi'A  over  10  per  cent.) bushcla    £4,074,824 

gliipnients  ni' grain  from  the  port  of  Chicago  for 

Iho  year  IHMl bushels    11,633.221 

Com  received  in  XXtH bushels    21,8S8,308 

Wheat    "  "         "       biuhels      9,391,306 

Number  of  hngs  alive  and  dressed  received  In 

Chicago  for  1S5.VB* 808,6M 

Number  shippod  alivo  and  dressed 170,881 

Averaging  tiie  weight  at  only  200  lbs.  and  the 

price  at  $6  per  hundred,  the  value  of  the  hogs 

reeclved  would  be $3,885,880 

Number  of  barrels  of  beef  packed  In  1860 83,068 

Keeelpts  of  lumber  at  the  port  of  Chicago  for  the 

year  I8a< feet  486,073,000 

llecelpts  of  lead  for  tht  year  1S66 lbs.      9,B2T,000 

Nnw  laid  up  In  the  port  of  Chicago,  steamers  and 

sail  vessels 148 

Tulal  number  of  vessels  arriving  in  Chicago  for 

the  year  1866 T,02S 

Total  tonnngn  nf  vessels  arriving  in  this  port  for 

the  year  1886 : .      1,648,879 

Anionnt  of  Imports  received  at  the  Chicago  cus- 

tom.house  on  foreign  goods  for  t)ie  year  1S66, ,  $162,994 
Uanltal  Invested  In  manufacture*  during  the  year 

1*66— showing  an  Increase  of  $1,464,400  over 

IWO $7,783,400 


Number  of  hands  employed— showing  an  Inercass 
over  1886  of  1833 10,671 

Value  of  raanufartiircd  articles,  showing  in  In. 
ereaao  of  $4,483,671 $16,618,000 

Amount  Invested  during  the  year  1366  In  Im- 
provements, stores,  dwellings,  hotels,  ^t.e $6,706,000 

Number  of  passengers  carried  west  by  four  prin- 
cipal railways  leading  ont  of  Chlcag'-     839,666 

Total  number  of  passengera  moved  on  all  the 
roads  centring  In  Ciiicago 8,880,000 

The  above  facts  and  figures  will  be  roga.  .ad  with 
special  satisfaction  by  the  people  of  the  Northwest 
generally.  They  show  •  healthy,  but  rapid  and  most 
astonishing  progress.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
history  of  the  civilized  world  can  furnish  •  parallel  to 
tho  vigorous  growth  and  rapid  development  of  tha 
country  which  has  Chicago  for  Us  commercial  me- 
tropolis. When  it  is  remembered  that  twenty  years 
ago  it  was  not  an  Incorporated  city,  and  less  than  • 
quarter  of  a  century  since  the  Indians  stil'  had  posses- 
sion of  the  largest  portion  of  (his  magnilU  ont  country, 
these  facts,  stubborn  and  incontestable  th  'Ugh  they  lie, 
seem  more  liite  the  dreams  of  some  vagrant  imagina- 
tion than  sober  matters  of  reality,  which  scores  of  men 
still  among  us  havo  themselves  seen  and  realized. 

Twenty  years  ago  Ciiicago  was  an  insignificant  town 
at  t'tio  southern  end  of  Lake  Ml'blijan,  im'-orting  near- 
ly all  its  produce  from  We'.ern  vw  Yora  and  Xorth- 
crn  Ohio.  Lust  year  it  shipped  .il,ri8;),221  bushels  of 
grain,  and  tiio  total  receipts  were  over  twenty-four  and 
a  half  niillions.  Six  years,  ago  she  liad  only  a  single 
railroad  some  twenty  miles  long  entering  tho  city ;  now 
there  are  3C70  miles  completed  and  in  operation,  and 
the  earnings  o(  those  lines  for  the  last  year  amount  to 
the  enormous  sum  of  917,848,242.  The  increase  of 
earnings  during  the  year  186G  is  over  four  millions  of 
dollars.  More  than  a  hundred  trains  of  cars  arrivo 
and  depart  daily.  Tho  trade  in  lumber  exceeds  by  far 
that  of  any  other  city  in  tho  world,  amounting  to 
4oG,(i73,1GU  feet.  Ten  years  ago  the  manufactures 
were  In  their  infancy,  and  wore  scarcely  worthy  of  com- 
mendation. In  18&U  tlio  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$7,759,400,  and  the  value  of  manufactured  articles  to 
more  ihan  ffleen  milliont  and  a  halfofdoUari.  Six  years 
ago  Chicago  was  reproached  as  being  a  city  of  wooden 
shanties  ;  last  year  she  Invested  in  magnificent  stores, 
many  of  them  with  superb  marble  and  iron  fronts, 
elegant  ,nalatial  residences  and  other  Improvements, 
$5,705,6'.it.  And  wonderful  as  has  been  tho  progres* 
o'  the  ritv,  it  has  not  benn  able  to  keep  pace  with 
'the  improvements  of  tho  country  by  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded. 

Tho  statistics  of  tho  movement  of  population  west- 
ward show  tliat  people  enough  found  their  hornet  west 
of  Chicago  during  the  year  1857  to  form  two  entire 
States.  Nor  is  this  a  movement  of  mere  human  bona 
and  muscle ;  it  is  a  concentration  upon  the  rich  roiling 
prairies  and  amid  the  beautiful  groves  o'  a  vast  host 
of  active,  vigorous,  intelligent  men,  who  plant  schools 
and  churches  wherever  they  settle,  and  bring  with 
them  all  the  elements  of  an  enterprising  Christian 
civilization — a  deep,  controlling,  ever-abiding  rever- 
ence for  liberty  and  for  law.  They  are  laying  tho 
foundations  for  an  empire  of  whose  wealth,  intelli- 
gence, and  power,  tho  sun  in  all  his  course  has  never 
seen  tho  equal.  Ero  tho  next  quarter  of  a  century 
shall  have  rolled  away,  the  beautiful  valleys  of  tha 
Upper  Missouri,  the  Yellow  Stone,  the  Flat  to,  and  tha 
Kansas,  ay,  and  even  that  of  the  Ked  River  of  tha 
North,  will  all  havo  been  settled,  and  this  ever-deepen- 
ing current  of  emigration  will  meet  an  equally  resist- 
less stream  from  the  Pacifio  coast,  and  roll  back  in 
mingling  eddies  from  the  summits  of  the  lEocky  Mount- 
ains, Fourteen  States  aa  large  as  Ohio,  hot  on  an 
average  more  wealthy  and  populous,  will  have  grown 
up  on  the  magnificent  country  between  the  lakes  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  how  many  will  repose  upon 
the  "Pacific  slope"  we  daro  not  attempt  to  predict. 


cm 


909 


cm 


OhlOOry,  or  Snoooiy,  lh«  wIM  rndirr,  ur  Cirhn. 
I  fnlfbui  ol  Liimmiu,  TbU|tliiiit  ii  fuuml  KruvviiiK 
wild  on  calcireout  tvila  In  KiikUiuI,  and  In  rauit  uuuii- 
triM  of  Kurope.  In  Ui  natural  ilatu  (he  uteni  titt» 
from  ona  to  thrro  fuvt  high,  hut  when  culllvatod  it 
aboota  to  tho  height  of  flvo  or  ilx  r««t.  Tho  root,  which 
rans  d«ep  into  Iha  ground,  !•  whita,  fleihy,  and  ylolda 
■  milky  Juiur.  In  Uoriiiany,  the  Nethiirlanda,  and 
Franco,  chicory  haa  long  b<ion  oxtvntivuly  cultivated 
for  the  laka  of  ita  root,  which  ii  uaed  at  a  lubatitiitc 
for  celfeo.  When  prepared  on  a  large  icale,  the  roots 
are  partial!  dried,  andaoldto  tho  manufacturera  of  t h* 
•rllcle,  who  wa»h  them,  cut  them  In  pieces,  kiln-dry 
them,  and  grind  thorn  between  tiuted  mllen  Into  •  pow- 
der, which  is  packed  up  in  papers  containing  from  two 
ounces  to  three  or  four  pounds.  The  powder  has  a 
striking  rosemblancfl  to  dark  ground  coflur,  and  a 
strong  o\lor  of  liquorice.  It  is  largely  usud  in  i'rus- 
sia,  Urunswick,  and  other  parts  of  Merniany ;  but  as 
it  wants  the  essential  oil  and  the  rich  aromatic  flavor 
of  coflbe,  it  has  little  in  common  with  the  latter  except 
ita  color,  and  has  nothing  to  recommend  it  except  its 
cheapness.  Chicory  la  now  grown  In  Wrstchestor  coun- 
ty. New  Vork. 

Ohlll.  The  republic  of  Chili  occupies  that  long 
■trip  of  land  which  lies  on  the  southwestern  side  of 
South  America,  extending  ttom  24°  to  bS^'  All'  8.  lat. ; 
and  firom  69''  to  72^  \V.  long.  It  l«  lionnded  west  by 
the  I'aeitic  Ocean,  and  east  by  the  Andes,  by  which  It 
is  separated  from  the  Argentine  Cnnfedcration.  On 
the  north,  Ohili  is  separated  from  Holivia  by  the  extens- 
ive desert  of  Atacama;  and  it  extends  southwiird  to 
thii  extreme  limits  of  that  Archlptdugo  which  embraces 
•II  the  islands  lietween  Chllofi  and  tlie  Straits  of  Magel- 
iaii.  Reckoning  its  length  from  the  desert  of  Atacama 
to  Cape  Horn,  it  comprehends  SU  degrees  of  latitude. 
Its  average  breadth  is  only  lAO,  and  where  greatest 
not  more  than  'HO  geographical  miles.  The  superlicinl 
area  of  Chili  is  computed  at  2t8,<.l25  English  square 
miles,  which  is  almut  8195  miles  more  extensive  than 
that  of  France  and  Utdgium  together.  Except  where 
the  Andes  are  intersected  by  ravines,  which  frequent- 
ly change  into  vales  or  plains  lit  for  cultivation,  these 
mountains,  with  their  parallel  raiige.4  and  spurs,  occu- 
py a  great  part  of  its  area.  (South  of  the  Cuesta  de 
Chacabuco  there  are  extensive  plains,  broken  only  by 
•  few  ridges  of  hills ;  but  the  highlands  are  almost 
continuous  flrom  north  to  south  along  the  coast  of  the 
Faeilio. 

Chili  is  rich  in  almost  every  class  of  metals ;  hut 
the  silver  mines  of  lute  years  liavo  3'ielded  enormous 
quantities  of  ore.  The  metals  at  present  discovered 
are  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  cobalt,  tine, 
nickel,  bismuth,  iron,  mulybdenuin,  and  quicksilver; 
but  the  only  ores  which  are  worked  are  gold,  silver, 
capper,  ami  occ:uioauily  quicksilver.  The  latter  will 
now  be  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  low  price  of 
mercury,  caused  by  the  quantity  produced  in  Califor- 
nia. Tho  metals  are  found  in  all  the  scries  of  rocks  lie- 
tween granite  and  trachyte,  in  veins  which  generally 
run  from  north  and  northwest  to  south  und  southeast ; 
in  some  places,  however,  their  course  is  irregular, 
or  they  extend  east  and  west  The  auriferous  veins 
run  nearly  parallel  to  the  grain  or  imperfect  cleav- 
age of  the  surrounding  granite  rocks.  Uold  is  fnund 
most  abundantly  in  tho  beds  of  detritus,  derived  fVom 
the  degradation  of  tlie  npper  portion  of  the  rocks. 
Copper  ores,  containing  a  small  quantity  of  gold,  are 
generally  nssociated  with  micaceous  specular  iron.  In 
the  bills  of  Altruc,  about  four  leagues  fkom  Kuncagua, 
in  tiie  proviuce  of  Santiago,  are  the  only  gold  mines 
worked  with  any  spirit,  excepting  soma  new  mines 
near  Copiapo,  and  they  are  remarkable  for  the  variety 
of  minerals  mixed  with  the  gold,  such  as  galena, 
lilende,  copper  .ind  iron  pyrites,  and  paroxyd  of  iron. 
The  substances  are  found  disHeminatadin  qaartx  veins, 
running  nearly  .north  aiid  sontb,    Nsu  lUapvl  h« 


I  some  verj'  poor  gold  mines,  in  the  beds  of  the  gypseous 
I  formation,  in  altered  feldiipathic  clay-state,  wlili'h  sU 
Icrnate  with  purple  tiorjihyritic  congluincrate. 

Until  1HU2,  the  only  sliver  mines  In  Chili  wsra  thosa 
of  Dehesa,  San  FrancUcii,  San  L,orrniu,  .Si'uia  and  San 
I'eilru  Nolusuo,  in  the  province  of  Niintiugo,  and  Ar- 
queros  mineral  district,  almut  17  leagues  (Wini  l.'oquini- 
lio;  but  tliciu-  mines  now  pro<lucc  very  little  silver, 
and  are  nuarl.v  aliiiiKbuied  for  the  rich  sliver  mines  in 
tho  province  of  Atacama,  m-or  to  Copiapo.  Within 
u  circuit  of  ill  leagues  from  l'opla|io,  there  ara  19  siU 
vor  mineral  diatriclH;  the  richest  are  CbaAarcitloand 
Tres  I'untus.  In  ( 'hafiarolIKi  the  upper  part  of  tha 
mines  produces  nalivn  iiilvcr,  iudid,  and  bromid,  as- 
sociated with  rhioriil  of  silver  and  carlioiiate  »f  lend. 
In  tho  "Colorado"  mine  of  ChaOarclllo,  embollte  with 
native  silver  l»  occasionally  found.  lu  tho  mine  of 
>San  Antonio,  in  tho  same  district,  Is  found  bismuthic 
silver  on',  i'<;nl>ined  with  native  sliver,  copper,  and 
arsenic.  As  the  mines  l)Cconui  deeper,  tho  silver  ores 
are  changing  principally  into  what  the  natives  call 
"  motalcs  frios"  (cold  ores);  these  contain  diiferent 
pro|ioilions  of  untlmonv.  sulphur,  and  one  sort  a  little 
arsenic.  Tho  <l.irk-reil  -liver  ore  Is  a  pyrargerite,  con- 
taining sulpliiiret  of  sUvrr  and  antimony,  with  soniu- 
tinies  a  littlu  arscn'c.  The  gray  ore  contains  silver, 
ameulc,  and  antin\ony.  0(  tbeso  two  sorts  upward  of 
5000  tons  were  exported  to  England  during  18S2,  as 
the  natives  arc  unable  to  extract  the  silver  by  the 
usual  plan  of  umalganiution  adopted  with  the  other 
ores.  Tho  export  of  tho  "  mctalcs  frios"  to  England 
will  In  u  great  measure  cease,  as  un  English  ustabllslw 
mcnt  is  forming  at  CaMero,  the  port  of  ('opiapo,  to 
treat  them  on  an  improved  plun.  Some  of  the  mine* 
In  Chuflarclllo  yield  nearly  pure  silver;  the  most  pro- 
ductive aro  In  the  hands  of  four  or  live  largo  capitalists, 
The  ground  near  somo  of  the  richest  mines  is  s(m)o- 
times  sold  at  enormous  prices,  tiio  price  lielng  In  some 
regulated  by  tho  probability  of  the  rich  veins  of  metal 
running  into  it.  In  Copiapo  a  regular  traffic  is  car- 
ried on  in  buying  and  selling  "  burraa"  (a  24th  part) 
in  dilfcrent  mines. 

A  railroad  runs  from  Caldora  to  Copiapo,  a  distance 
of  51  miles,  which  is  to  be  continued  on  to  Chanarcillo, 
aliout  50  miles  from  the  city  ;  und  a  tram-road  is  pro- 
jected to  the  rich  mineral  district  of  Tres  I'untas  (8400 
feet  at>ovo  the  sea),  which,  when  complctcf',  will  ena- 
IiIb  the  miners  to  send  down  tho  poor  silver  ores  which 
they  now  throw  away.  Tho  comnierco  of  Chili  ha* 
vastly  increased  slnco  tho  time  when  tho  country  lay 
torpid  under  tho  yoke  of  Spain.  As  soon  as  it  ha4^ 
covered  from  the  unsettled  condition  caused  by  the 
revolution,  liusiness  of  all  kinds  acquired  now  energy, 
and  tlio  trade,  fVvcd  from  its  oppressive  refilrictiona, 
extended  to  the  larger  (wrts  of  the  rnited  States  and 
Europe.  A  few  years  were  sufflclent  to  sliow  a  largo 
increase  in  its  export  and  import  trade,  and  Valparaiso 
soon  became  a  flourishing  port. 

The  precious  nictiils  aro  tlic  mait  valuable  exports 
fttim  Chili.  While  obtaining  annually  fVom  her  mines 
metal  to  thoamount  of  i.' 1, 500, 000,  she  exported  in  the 
year  1851  gold  to  the  viduo  of  X'59,950,  silver  to  thn 
value  of  X709,467.  and  copper  to  tho  value  of  £4U,lim. 
Flour,  V  heat,  barley,  and  biscuits  flguro  largely  in  her 
exports,  but  wltli  consideraldo  variations  in  amount. 
In  1850  there  were  shipped  more  than  68,OtM).000  lbs.  of 
flour:  in  1851,  44,000.000;  and  In  18,'!2  only  41,000,000. 
Above  02,000  quarters  of  wheat  were  exported  in  1850 ; 
In  1851  the  quantity  was  26,470;  and  in  1852,  55,570 
<|uartcrs.  In  barley,  however,  there  has  been  a  con- 
siderable increase.  From  3",7.'H)  quarters  in  1850,  it 
rose  to  90,100  quarters  in  1862.  The  increased  export 
of  wheat  and  flour  in  1850  arises  from  tho  extensive 
shipuient.s  made  in  that  year  to  California. 

In  the  latter  half  of  1852  the  exports  of  wool  amount- 
ed in  value  to  £92,31)0,  pulse  to  je2n,81i8,  coal  to  XI 3,970, 
bide*  mnl  skine  to  X37U2,  guano  to  A'05fl2,  and  charqoi 


cm 


309 


cm 


or  jerked  hpof  to  XWWHt.  Aihhiik  the  minor  artlvl.  ■  of 
•xport  urn  IIk".  tlricil  iifarln-n,  wuliiutit,  (.'«}'(!I\iib  [»•{>■ 
p*r,  wine,  lirundy,  Ihhick,  horn*,  hooh,  Isathor,  hum, 
rut,  rhi'i'Di',  hutler,  ruK^  and  timlwr. 

in  return  fen' her  vurltiu*  expurtu  Chill  roceivon  ttom  j 
KnKtuiiil  I'citton  K'xxI'i  '''<""  l''runi'c  sllka  ind  vurioui  | 
■rtli'leii  of  luxury,  and  frnm  other  coiiiitrieii  ii  vurlety 
of  uf tli'U'H  for  dunicAtiu  uie.  ( 'bill  liiijt  r(!ci|iro<'al  trcuU 
l«a  i>r  roninieri'o  with  Aunlrin,  llruxil,  llelKiuni,  lire- 
men,  Hunllulu,  Ucnmark,  France,  (Irent  Hrlutn,  I'ruii- 
aln,  Hwedeii,  Norway,  Tuscunr,  Ilainburf{>  I-ulicok, 
<Jldenl>urK,  the  l'iiitc(l  State*,  I'eru,  I'icunilor,  and  tho 
Sundwirh  laUndn.  Her  commercial  rclatlona  uro  moat 
axti-nnive  with  Great  Ilrltaiu  uml  the  llritiKh  ciilonii'i, 
the  liniHirts  Into  Chili  amounting  In  lH&2lo  XI,16li,(U3, 
and  the  e.x|iort>  to  £1,01)8,772.  Next  In  Importuiirn  U 
tlie  trade  with  France,  tho  United  Statca  and  Culifur- 
nia.  With  tho  other  rnpuhlica  of  South  America  har 
commercial  trnioacliona,  which  wero  once  conaldor*- 
bio,  a|>|>ear  to  bu  on  tiic  decline. 

In  IH.'il  aovornl  important  re>ilrlctiflna  were  removed 
from  tho  vuntoniK  ciHle  of  Cliili,  which  had  l.'cn  only 
partially  modiliod  in  WM.  The  e  v  |)ortHtlon  of  nation. 
■t  pniduco  waa  then  declared  free  in  principle,  l.ut  a 
ainall  iluty  wna  to  ho  niaintainod  for  n  nhort  tiinn  upon 
a  very  few  articleK.  All  iin|>ortH,  witli  tho  oxii'plion 
of  Iron,  atcci,  zinc,  cotton,  mercury,  coul,  iittricultural 
toolt,  H'lruical  instrument!),  und  luiokn,  aro  lialdr  to  u 
moderate  duty.  Jewelry  payn  'i  per  cent,  i  hnr'cs, 
niiilex,  and  dried  fruit,  (!  |)er  cant. ;  nhoca,  linen 
hluA'n,  furniture,  iind  article*  u«eil  only  liy  the  wcjilthy, 
lU)  per  cent.  The  duty  on  whito  wiue  is  reduced 
to  10  reals  per  dozen,  and  on  red  to  8  reals.  Teas  pay 
ti  reals  the  |)ound.  (irain  of  nil  kinds  ia  auhject  to  a 
movalilc  tariff.  As  lon){  as  the  prico  In  the  home 
market  doei  not  exceed  lli.«.  Hi/,  the  faiieRtt  of  150  llis., 
foreign  f;rain  pays  nn  import  duty  of  12  reals  tho  fu- 
ncgu ;  but  if  the  price  rises  to  20  sliiilinf$s,  the  duty 
fulls  to  H  reals,  and  If  it  exceeds  26  shillings  tho  import 
duly  ceases  allop;«ther. 

Agricultural  knowledge  and  science  progress  slowly 
— a  want  of  discretion  in  selecting  for  purchase  from 
Kiirope  the  niacldnery  liest  calculated  for  tho  soil  and 
rlimnte  has  caused  failures  in  many  of  the  experi- 
ments, und  consequent  triumph  to  tho.se  who  still  ad- 
vocate the  crude  and  primitive  mode  of  tillage.  Chili 
Is  now  chiefly  dependent  on  I'eru  for  iho  export  of 
wheat  und  flour,  that  to  California  (now  self-supplied) 
being  extinct,  and  to  .Vustraila  nearly  so.  The  mining 
Interest  continues  to  employ  a  largo  amount  of  capital 
and  lal>or,  but  there  has  been  a  marke<i  fulling  off  In 
the  produce  of  tho  silver  mines  during  tiie  lust  two 
years ;  while,  on  tho  other  hand,  the  cKlaldishiuent  of 
smelting  furnaces  on  a  lurge  scale  nt  Co(|ninilio  hni 
led  to  an  immense  export  of  copper  regulux.  An  ex- 
tensive and  unprecedented  tij;hliic>s  in  the  money 
market,  a  ricochet  from  that  at  home,  has  r-iiuscd  much 
anxiety  among  the  merchants  ut  Valparaiso.  No  fail- 
ores,  however,  of  any  conseciuence  have  tnkcn  place 
among  Hritish  llrms,  ond  I*.  Is  hoped  that,  with  caulU.ii 
and  prudence,  they  will  weather  the  storm. — Extract 
f.oma  Dupalch  dnied  Dreemher  SO,  \H!il ,  from  the  Hon- 
nrahlr  Cnplain  Harri.',  lltr  ifnjrtty'a  Chirgfiie  Ajffairu 
in  Chili,  to  the  hart  of  CUirentlon,  refpecling  llit  t'ommir- 
d'll  and  Agricultural  Condition  of  that  Comitry. 

In  liquid  ncasure  the  English  quart  Is  equal  to 
1-022  Spanish  cnurtillo,  and  the  Imperial  gallon  to 
4'089  cuartillos.  Gold  is  bought  by  the  custcUano  or 
marco.  Its  relative  tineness  is  cxpresse<l  by  qulUatcs 
or  carats,  four  graiios  or  grains  making  one  quillate. 
The  weight  of  the  marco  Is  equal  to  4800  Spanish  grains, 
or  to  7  07..  7  dwt.  and  22  gr.  Knglish  Troy  weight. 
The  standard  flneness  of  gold  is  21  quiUates,  Tho 
relative  flneness  of  silver  Is  expressed  liy  dineros,  the 
dlnero  lieing  equal  to  24  granoa ;  and  the  standard 
flneness  of  that  metal  is  10  dineros  and  20  grunos.  Tho 
dd  gold  coin*  are  the  ounce,  equal  to  17  dollars  2  reals, 


4111 1)«.  iterltng  money  ;  the  half  ounce,  tquul  to  H  doU 
litrs  6  reals,  XI  1 1<.  tW.  |  tho  quarter  ounce,  equal  to 
4  dollars  2^  reaiii,  I7<.  M. ;  und  the  esciidito,  equal  to 
2  dollars  l\  real,  8<.  '\il.  Among  the  silver  coins,  b*- 
slilas  thu  real,  wliixin  value  I*  titi,,  there  are  now  pieces 
roprosenting  various  values,  expressed  in  eentavoa, 
u  copjKir  coin,  of  which  one  hundred  make  a  dollar. 
Tlieru  are  silver  (lieies  of  ft,  I0,  and  20  centuvos.  One 
of  M  eentavoa  la  cquul  to  half  a  dollar,  or  'it,  English 
money.  The  new  gold  and  silver  roira  contain  nine- 
t>  nths  of  pure  metal,  and  one-tenth  of  alloy.  The 
copper  coins  are  quite  pure,  containing  no  alloy.  Their 
names,  value,  and  weight  may  be  most  conveniently 
represented  by  uieaut  ol  tho  following  table: 


Dold  Condor, 
(iiilil  Uoblon. 
(liild  l<^udo . 
Hllvcr  I'oso  , 


t  I.  i. 

=a  0  0 

c:  1  0  0 

=0  8  0 

=0  4  0 

Hiivt'r  HmlloiMMi =:  0  9  0 

HllviT  golnto ■  "     ' 

Hllvrr  Dt'clnio 

Hllvcr  Volnlaiio  .... 

<.'ii|>|H'r  Ccntavo U  0  OiH 

i.'uVV^v  Modio  ccnluru  ....       U  0  OH 


l{««al«1i       Frcnrll 
(IriiHM.      OmmmM. 
IIO^  MO  or  m-IISH 


=  0  0  I  I 
=  004* 

=iO  0  a| 


16i-770 

aiioa  ' 

K(HI'Ttl8  ' 

io()-iBa ' 
fiowe  ' 

•ib  ftOK  • 

iooaoT 
loo'iba 


7-«7« 

i;uTi 

IJ-BOO 

h 

2  MO 

HM 
10 

5 


The  communication  between  tho  sevorul  towns  of 
Cblli  i«  now  greatly  facilitutcd  liy  rouds,  rullwaya, 
und  sl<  ni-vessels.  Tho  excellent  road  fironi  Suntiugo 
to  Valpuruiso  WHS  constructed  at  a  great  cost  by  Gen- 
eral O'lllggins,  -when  I'residcnt  of  tho  ri'publio.  A 
road,  generally  kept  in  good  repair,  connects  tho 
towns  of  Ataeuniii  and  Concepcion.  liy  far  tho  most 
pleasant  for  the  traveler  is  that  by  which  Santiago 
and  Tulcu  arc  united.  A  railroad  has  been  already 
estulilishcd  between  Copla|H>  and  Culdera  ;  and  in  1852 
the  President,  M.  Montt,  laid  the  flrst  stone  on  Ihs 
lino  (about  'JO  miles  iu  length)  between  Sintiago  and 
Vulpuruiso,  and  it  is  now  rnpldly  advancing  to  com- 
pletion. When  linishcd  it  will  be  the  most  oxtensive 
work  of  the  kind  in  South  America.  I*roposals  for 
railways  from  Serena  to  the  sea,  from  Coplupo  to  Tree 
I'untas,  und  from  Concepcion  to  Talcahuano,  have 
also  been  laid  livforc  Congress,  A  line  of  electric 
I  telegraph  has  ulso  been  cstaljlisiied  between  Valparaiso 
I  and  Santiago. 

I'ho  revenue  of  Chili  is  in  u  very  prosperous  condi- 
tion, exhibiting  a  su  'us  of  receipts  over  expenditure 
I  iu  tlio  returns  off  .^rul  years.  In  1845  the  revenue 
,  amounted  to  £1,^83,109  18*.,  leaving,  after  the  neces- 
Hury  outlay,  a  surplus  of  £410,216.  In  1819  the  reve- 
nue, including  tho  surplus  from  1848,  was  £1,352,210. 
The  nirplus  of  1849  was  £57,048,  which,  together  with 
tho  receipts  of  1851,  amounting  to  £886,381  8k.,  were 
entirely  swallowed  up  dui  iig  the  revolution  of  the 
latter  your.  With  tho  rcsiurution  of  peace  in  1862, 
tiie  revenue  rose  to  £l,09ti,09ti,  which,  with  the  sum 
of  £24,000  paid  by  I'eru  us  interest  for  its  debt,  gives 
an  increase  of  £2i)'l,714  I'lu.  over  tho  income  of  the 
preceding  year. 

Taole  or  Rm'KMni  roa  1B6>. 

CiiHtoms X6(18,(K>T  14  0       . 

Governincnt  nionupulti'S 156,672  10  0 

Licenses n.1^S  12  0 

HUnippaper 1»,S87    70 

Tltlios lOB.SSS    20 

Mint 1M20    60 

Post-offlco 14,0€6  14  0 

Pen),. 12,882  16  0 

Auction-houses, 1,212  14  0 

Cataslro 19,724  10  0       , 

AlcaUala 89.537  It  0 

i:i,l2U,WU    0  0 

Tho  catastro  is  »  duty  of  5  per  cent,  levied  upon 
the  sale  of  lands.  Tho  alcahala  is  a  duty  of  4  per 
cent,  on  the  sale  and  exchange  of  immovable  property, 
and  of  2  per  cent,  on  the  sale  of  mines.  Peaje  con- 
sists of  tolls  und  ))ontagcs,  and  is  levied  on  cattle, 
mules,  vehicles,  etc E.  I). 

In  1886,  the  exclusive  right  of  steam  navigation 
between  the  ports  of  the  republic  was  granted  to  a 


cm 


800 


cm 


ion|Mliy,  which  fommi-notd  Ita  npuralton'  In  IHIO.  Oiim  whirh  hy  triivf linK  >'  >•"««  th«  Irthmm  thn  Purtfls 

AtlinlUr|>rivll»Kcwiii»flKrwiirilrxt«iiil<'<l  tothnMme  It  rrurhitil  In  alioiil  fiiiir  huiirt,  *iiil  llio  rciniilniliT  of 

oomiNiny  l>y  the  )("V«rnniiiiitii  of  l'«ru,  Kcuitilor,  mul  ttiKjournry  contliiui'il  In  •(vmii-vrMrlii.     'Iliu  vuyitg* 

New  (ininitiU.     Th<  t'ommuiilcitlim  lH>twm<n  KngUnil  fnini  KiiuUnd  lo  (^tilll  l>y  thli  rnutn  u(.'i-ii)ilc>  itlinut 

■nd  thill  U  m»lnt»liiMl  liy  w»y  of  llw  Mhniuii  i«f  •'•n-  forty  or  llfty  lUyn ;  whllo  llm  voy»ue  from  tlia  t'ulUd 

tma.     .Stnuiiien  mII  UtwMn  KnRUn<l  Mid  ('haKn'i  Htatn  to  (I1III  rc(|uiru  alioiit  thirty  ilnyi. 


tOKnau'i  or  mii  l/iirTu>  Htatu  with  Chili,  rnnii  iHToiira  1 

1814,  TO  Ji'l.t  1 

(i^lll<«  «>4llliwl<'^ 

liU. 

TMllMlMj 

l8ltB 

ll>r«rtt 

Wk«n<iflliani>H 

Jmtft 

r,.f.i«». 

_   ItoWMi. 

"   'trntlfO. 

f>uL 

KifoHt',!. 

liii|ion«4 

Imi.iIm 

«M1,4M 

IM.IKai 

T.'ioJ 

liMi 

m.mt 

•84I*4M 

l,441,4M 

S1I1I.U49 

60,1110 

161,774 

«,7«8 

INT 

1.040,74» 

MI.SMI 

l,701,t(ll 

IHI.OVS 

10,781 

1 6.  Ml 

11,M4 

.... 

IRM 

i.niu.vln 

I,1ll».4t4 

«.«W,40t 

'81. M3 

, . .  • 

830.808 

1»,838 

18W 

8M,IIM 

(WO.TIH 

1,411, IIU 

•llrt.llH 

I6a.8ri0 

ii.ntu 

.... 

isati 

TuUl... 

•is.Tm 

t'JIi.MM 
♦4,a'i4,48.j 

I.MA.IU 

»«,lJ6H,lit7" 

lsi,fl((B 

1.609 

11.187 

»l,4'i4,7l7 

«iM.»n 

«H7V.8U4 

~?7.8t» 

U8I 

*Mn,«io 

«ni8.Ml 

|l.lMM.15ft 

»413,;B8 

fii.sei 

$01,004 

11,146 

.... 

I8.li 

M'l.Bin 

0II,T4U 

i.ni,ii» 

fiO4,013 

100.701 

87.488 

8,106 

I8:u 

TUII.IM 

71ill,H()lt 

i,4fla,ii4« 

084,110 

.... 

97.nr« 

RBIKI 

IMM 

T!4,4i)T 

7(ll,U4tl 

1,470,  »M 

787,401) 

Ml 

886. 6H1 

8.6611 

tUi 

IH« 

^•*«,!>«» 

3Afi,«IM 

l>4I.H>vt 

l)17,0»0 

,  ,  ,  , 

416,160 

0,1180 

iMB 

tWV,NII« 

:»M*1 

(•I17.ttl7 

HII,49T 

•  •  • 

•;fl.i,ii80 

t.,s37 

hi 

I«ST.         . 

\,im,w.> 

aufi.440 

1.4117,7119 

l,18i),IM 

1.680 

660,1117 

0,044 

ISW 

I.IMT.ATi 

3M«M 

l.!l7a.M4 

V4i.a«& 

Ml.l«ll 

».i:t> 

ih:i9 

i,:wT  ua 

t'(7.41il 

1.794.M.1 

1. 180.1141 

. . 

134.008 

8,883 

141 

IHIO 

Tol»I,.. 

l,.1T.',.'M 

Jft«,MB 

1.71S.HW 

l.Alll.^4n(l 

4N(I,680 

$i,"06S,l,»4 

7,414 

«M,MI,TVi 

«4,tnv,ol9 

lia.tio.RiB 

«.8,0U4,103 

4i'.'4,iiai 

903 

IMI 

t>M«.4IU 

»itaa.A7N 

tl,l01,9M 

91,180,080 

$848, 4M 

6,901 

901 

IXti 

i.no.Mi 

i)uii,7as 

i,(iav,ti7d 

831,1189 

$800 

S'.M.IO 

7,091 

094 

iNin* 

MU.K1.1 

17»,iwn 

l,04(>,4flS 

887,B6fl 

.... 

118.080 

6,878 

.   .   .   , 

ItlUt 

86(1.  I4B 

V4fl.Mll 

1.10ft.l«l 

7WI,370 

■  f  • , 

186,817 

7,147 

l8Wt 

l,M7.*<i<> 

BOO.N01 

l.M»t,l»l 

1,11»,6<H) 

•  •  .  • 

00,IM 

«,V73 

IMtt 

I.IM'J.IIHl 

iiw.tsi 

l,7«N,h70 

l,17B,90O 

,  •  ■  • 

iii,gi« 

8,049 

1.461 

ism 

1.461,UI7 

Jio.vna 

1,071,010 

1,710,1106 

* .  ,• 

70.111 

7,186 

1.077 

iMit 

l.T08.«W> 

WftM-Kl 

1.9-i4,Blt 

1,8I0,4B1 

1  •  . . 

10,6(18 

10,406 

300 

IMUt 

l,m,4l>7 

194. 041 

1,017,100 

1,817,718 

, .  ■  • 

170,4<ll 

j.'.,im« 

I,UI>1 

ISMt 

TotiJ. . . 

i,w7,iaa 

«6,ft>« 

l,41'i,71l 

l,71l«,877 

.... 

1 19.06T 

41,1711 

VB,3S3 

$l'i,lili,»ST 

iri,486,ll4 

tir>,!iBU,OBl 

«I1,7I  1,649 

$8UU 

$1,118,761 

117,408 

31,314 

ISSlt 

$i.«os,Rn 

«2f)ll,4iH 

JI,80^30B 

«l,7a4.74< 

$.1,000 

774 

48,140 

41,867 

ll»n 

9.(m,»M 

8lifl,'2»7 

i,amM!Ui 

I.UO.'.IOO 

n.iBo 

01,711) 

11,380 

13,401 

IWiBt 

«,1B7,8<0 

100.117 

1.320,487 

l.llt.'JBl 

30,000 

11,818 

18,488 

88.1IOB 

ISft4t 

1. Mi,  330 

S.'.(»,I»V1I 

I.IOU.IAU 

s,;'.u'.Mi)7 

0,670 

11,8116 

11,371 

11,408 

ISBBt 

»,w4,iiai 

4a'i,n'M 

8,4OT,»7 

&,6lN8'.ia 

13,10< 

11,708 

11.007 

10,109 

l8Mt 

t.MI.8r4 

ST(i.ami 

1.807,743 

1.407,819 

10,1100 

.... 

11,477 

4,778 

*  0  roonthi  to  June  SO. 

ChllUea  (Hind,  (7<u  Afurriilge;  ,Taran.  Ijombok; 
Malay  Cliahai),  the  po<l«  or  fruit  of  tlin  Capnrum  nn- 
finiOK,  or  (iulnea  pepper.  This  la  one  of  the  hardirst 
and  rooit  productive  ))lant8  found  In  tropirnl  climatps ; 
(growing  luxuriantly  in  nlniont  nil  dry  noiln,  however 
indifferent.  In  the  wild  atate  the  po<la  are  amall,  and 
ao  pungent  and  nrrid  aa  to  lilUter  the  lonKuc ;  Imt 
when  raiaed  on  rich  aoila,  they  are  large  and  rompitra- 
tlvely  mild.  The  plant  la  aniil  to  lie  n  native  of  iKith 
Indiea.  It  la  very  extenalvely  cultivated  ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  aalt,  it  ia  fur  more  extenKlvcly  used 
than  any  other  condiment.  In  tropical  countricn,  the 
poda  are  fycquently  made  uae  of  when  unrl|)p  and 
green ;  when  ripe,  they  become  of  a  deep  red  color ;  ' 
and  in  that  atate  they  are  exported  dry  and  entire,  or 
reduced  to  powder.— .s'«  ('avknnk  Pkppkii.  | 

China.  The  contcrminoua  empires  of  Riisaia  nnd  ' 
China  occupy  between  them  about  one-flfth  part  of  the 
habitable  globe,  in  pretty  nearly  equal  portions;  liut 
the  popaUtion  of  the  latter  ia  about  four  timea  greater 
than  that  of  the  former,  even  after  Including  Its  recent 
annexation  of  Poland.  We  can  easily  truce  the  Imund- 
ariea  and  mark  the  extreme  limits  of  these  two  great 
empires,  by  parallela  of  latitude  and  meridional  linea  of 
longitude ;  but  when  we  come  to  reduce  them  to  square 
miles,  or  apeak  of  their  contents  in  acres,  the  mind  is 
bewildered  by  the  magnitude  of  llio  numl><>r8  required 
to  expresa  them,  and  forma  but  an  indiatinct  idea  of 
their  Buperflcial  extent. 

No  country  In  the  world  la  better  adapted,  ttom  situ- 
ation,  climate,  and  products,  for  extenalve  commerce, 
than  China ;  yet  no  civilized  country  has  prt.fltcd  leaa 
by  these  advantages.  The  happy  distribution  of  Ita 
Dumerona  rivers,  aided  by  artificial  canals,  alTorda  an 
•liDoit  nnintemipted  water  communication  firora  tb« 


t  I  year  to  June  80. 

northern  lo  the  southern,  and  from  the  western  to  the 
eastern  extremities  of  this  grand  empire;  uud  thus  a 
facility  ia  given  fur  the  Intcrchungc  of  the  products  uf 
one  province  with  those  of  another,  unknown  in  any 
other  country,  and  unequiiled  even  in  (jreat  liritain. 
The  multitudea  of  barges  of  illtfercnt  aurts  und  sixoi, 
which  vary  in  their  construction  on  almost  every  riv- 
er, are  incredible.  The  Cliinesc  arc  rarely  to  Im;  trust- 
ed where  numliers  are  concerned ;  but  they  are  prob- 
ably not  fur  amiss  in  stating  that  the  numlicr  of  im- 
perial barges  employed  in  the  grand  canal  and  ita 
lateral  branches,  for  tlio  purpose  of  collecting  and  dis- 
tributing among  liie  public  granaries  the  rice  and 
grain  paid  in  kind  m  taxea,  amounts  to  lU.UOO,  or, 
aa  they  express  it,  where  they  mean  to  be  correct,  to 
9999.  A  vast  number  of  vessels  are  also  employed  in 
conveyiiiif  the  copper  currency  from  place  to  place, 
wherever  it  may  bo  wanted;  othera  in  collecting  the 
lilka,  cottons,  uud  varioua  articles  of  taxes,  paid  in 
kind,  and  depositing  them  In  the  public  magazines; 
and  the  aalt  barges  alone  are  probably  not  Ic.is  iiumcr- 
oua  than  those  which  carry  grain.  It  was  calculated 
that  the  dcp<'>t  of  salt  accumulated  ut  TUn-siiig  for  the 
uae  of  the  capital  und  the  northern  provinces  was  suffi- 
cient for  a  year's  consumption  for  thirty  millions  of  peo- 
ple. This  was  all  brought  up  in  the  coiinw  of  the 
Bummer,  from  the  seu-coast  of  Tche-kiang  and  I'okieu, 
in  sea-going  vessels.  Cakes  of  coal-dust  and  turf,  for 
fUel,  and  c&kes  made  up  of  various  ingredients  for  gar- 
den manure,  cn>pluy  a  multitude  of  barges;  and  when 
to  these  are  added  the  varioua  kinds  of  vessels  em- 
ployed In  general  commerce,  in  the  convcyun<e  of  paa- 
aengcra,  and  in  the  lialierlea  of  the  interior,  we  may  b« 
sure  that  tho  number  of  persona  who  constantly  reaid* 
upon  the  water  amounts  to  many  millions. 


Vcftr  ■ 

Osfidi. 

IMI.. 

INK. 

Ittt. 

I8M. 

It«6 

KM, 

1817.. 

IiMh 

\»t».. 

1880.,, 

Tulal 


1841. 

I84i. 

1NI3'..: 

18l4t... 

l84Bt, . . 

<840t... 

li4Jt,,. 

I818t... 

184i.t... 

I8li0t.... 

ToUI. 

1861 f... 

I8v:t,.. 

18' »t... 
lMi4f.,,, 
I8f)6t..., 
I860t..., 


CHI 


801 


CHI 


(!aMWM'«  ur  IHI  I'Ditin  Urttrm  »itii  riiiNA,  mm  Oc-mnB  1,  IR'in,  m  .liir  I,  IKM 


Mr  m 


INI.. 
INK.. 
I«M. . 
MM.. 

IMT.. 


I«'W,, 
ItOII.. 


TuUl. 


18.11 

imit 

KIM 

IHIM 

IHIIO 

W.4 

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iNmt 

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1140 

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lit4Bt.... 
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6..'liit.lTI 
h.MoMn 
V.MHI.III4 

a,iMi4,Kiri 
l,4iil,Kn'i 

l,llftt,1«4 

T4'J.I»0 

«liA,T44.IMI 

II.WI-Ml 
l.WMlM'J 
l.^lti.lM 
I, "III.  Ml 
l.'MK.IMI 
1,1114.401 

wio,r«i 
i.nin.tioi 

l.liUII,IKII 
I.IK|||,IIINI 

li'/.riii.wa 
ti,«mi,i«i« 

I.444,MIT 
VJIMM 
I.TM.IMI 
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1,11111,141 
l,N;i';,ftH4 
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l,)ltllt,IH«t 
l,1l<l,4'M 

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Imfartt 

tl.lll,ll>l 

ll,MI.4'<li 
ft.ni  ^.Mi-j 
T.Mm.im 
l,4n.ix(i 
a.iiii.iNii 

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J,N1N,I4I 

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ri,n44,tiuT 
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B,litT,lsT 
T,llJ4.ilfl 

M.iNin.nuT 

4,1<I4,M0 
II.OTN.MIO 
fl.lHD.t/O 

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ii,o4H.iiia 

10,4M,4II0 


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'  »il..1!»l.4st" 
ft.uTn.um 
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4,4IUI,<«M 
4,ft'<ii,niA 
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1,89I,«M 
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sn,noo 


I  Kiilllow  inil  H|M«I* 


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"i88.1*> 


6,400 


M 
4,060 


TMiii«r*  I  'I 

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11.11411 
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tt,4Tll 

o,n«ii 

lt,fl«T 
4,IIM 
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0,6«4 
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ll,5ii| 


i)ua,a8'i 

$488 


JT.IOT 


6,061 

•,806 
11,1  IIS 
T,ll)4 
6,661 
8,T»I 
T,0I4 
6,41» 
0,860 


6tl,U76 

4,NT6 

7.'.iBe 

lll,M'i 
16,036 
17,477 
13,607 
l'i,IUi4 
17,160 
11,740 
I7,«i0 


(■i,6MU,64S 

9147,476 

10,748 

480.  B44 

ir6,688 

674,189 


'im 

108,174 

i,'o(io 
t 


im),080 

46,117 
67,-2a4 
66,041 
e8,C68 
101,660 
M>,438 


1164 


10,118 
31,Ii(l7 
24,K(« 
18,M7 
16,108 
10,467 


*  U  iiiuiillia  liiiliiiiuSIO, 

All  UiTtiun  cnminari'ii  )•  »yi>t»mnt\i<nny  itlnrniiriiKPd, 
Thn  exUMit,  rurtlllly,  anil  vurlniy  iif  llifir  noil  hiiiI  dU 
nialK,  liu|i|illy  •ilimliiil  IwIwikiii  tlin  ii)ilri<iiicii  of  licnt 
mill  I'olil,  iHirlKkliiK  iif  III"  hiIviimInic"  of  IhiIIi,  wlthniit 
«xp«rli'nrliiK  thn  liii'imv«iili>Mi'«'ii  nf  I'llhir,  milifily  thn 
Chlni'iie  wllli  lliu  |iriNliii'lliiiiii  iif  iilliiml  nil  Ihti  win'lil 
l>cilileii,  wliullicr  lu  nilnUli'r  lo  llm  iici'CMillipf),  (tin 
conifoiiii,  ur  iliii  liixiirli'i  tif  llii'lr  iiiimi'riMin  tmiitilii. 
tion;  mill  li-iiva  IliU  Kmut  i>iii|iln<,  nit  n  niillon,  nlninnt 
tndv|ienili'iit(if  foriilKii  •ii|i|illuii  tlirmiKli  thi<  nicilliini  nf 
coiimi«r('«.  KatUrtml,  or  •fli<<'llnu  to  Im  rnitlnfldl,  with 
the  prodiKiil  liounly  of  iiiitiir«,  Jcuhiilii  of  ntrntiKiTn.  iinil 
Koveniuil  liy  a  Krailutlim  iir«riillr»ry  ili'«|i<rt»,  tho  Clil- 
nean  [ouff  i'oiiililer«(|  U  an  a  favor  lii'<ttiwril  on  for* 
ailfiwn  to  ii|Hm  any  of  tlinlr  |)(irl«  fiir  thn  liilcrchanKo 
of  runiinuilUlM.  Tho  rnvKliiin  ilpflvi-il  ffdlil  thU  llltiit- 
e<l  intercnunut  waa  iif  lllllii  or  IMi  lm|Hirtmir(i  nt  llio 
chief  teat  of  K<ivi''l>i<>'illt> 
A  very  ('xi«iiaive.|ii|i>riiniiriHi  la  i-arrlcil  on  liy  them 

with  Japun,  tli«  rhlll|i|ilni<  Ulaiiila,  .liivn,  Hnmntra, 
Timor,  (ielulo,  anil  tliu  Krmit  lulniiil  of  llortif-o,  In  all 

of  whirh  ara  fouiiit  mulllluil'<«  of  I'hlni'M',  living  In 

haliita  of  poarvfiil  liiiliintry,  In  the  mlilnl  nf  the  nioro 

iille  anil  loaa  rivilliiuil  tiatlVKa,  riiilillliilM)(  thfi  I'nnrt^ma 

of  trndi',  t'uUivalliiK  tl>a  Krimnit,  unit  mfriMiit(  nil 

the  vurloiia  liruni'h«a  of  Ilia  tnxihniili'al  iirt»i  In  no 

plai'fi,  howovur,  varying  In  tlio  nmnllioil  ilc«rpn  their 

original  cliariu'ler.     Hut  tlimiKh  thn  I'liliieKR  nprenil 

theniaelvca  over  evory  part  of  thn  Anhilli',  nnil  Into 

many  uf  the  I'olynnalnii  Itlanila,  tliftin  neeina  to  lie  no 

reciprocity  of  rumniurca  liy  tlio  Vdnaeln  of  thiian  coiin- 

triaa  viaitInK  tha  |inru  of  t'hinii,  cucnptliiff  aonie  ten 

or  twelve  Juiilu  that  annually  vlall  Ilia  aolithflrn  porta    hunilred  tona  M-oiild  pay  from  (4000  to  f  500O,  and  a 

of  Fokion  from  Japan,  anil  iwrlmtM  aa  tnnny  from    shipofnthouaand  not  nliovc  double  that  anm. 

Cochin  China.     "From  ('atltiin,"  aaya  t.iird  Mai'art-        kermue. — To  ascertain   exactly  or  even  npproxi- 

ney,  "to  Ten-ohou-fim,  at  tha  I'tllrani'B  of  thn  Oiilf  of    mntely  the  revenue  of  the  Chinese  Empire  i.s  almost 

I'e-tche'lce  (to  aay  nothlliK  of  thn  foiinlry  wllhin  the    impo»«il)lo.     In  1.W7,  TriKuult,  a  French  niis.sionnry, 


year  ti>  Juno  80. 

them  ca|>ablp  of  admitting  the  largest  Kuropcan  shipa, 
and  all  of  them  safe  and  snfflciently  deep  for  tho  vra- 
aela  of  the  country.  Kvery  creek  or  haven  has  a  low  n 
or  city  u|ion  it;  the  inhahitants,  who  abound  beyond 
credibility,  are  mostly  of  a  trafflckinR  mercantile  cast, 
and  a  great  part  of  thom,  from  their  necessary  employ- 
ment in  thn  llshery,  which  supplies  them  with  a  prin- 
cipal article  of  their  subsistence,  are  accustomed  tu  the 
sea,  and  the  management  of  shipping."  From  Java 
alone  they  import  birds'  nests  to  the  value  of  hall'  u 
million  dollars  annually  ;  the  sea-slug  r  biche-dc-mcr 
(Jiohlhurin),  from  the  coast  of  New  1;,  '.n,.;  Timor, 
and  adjoining  islands,  to  a  xtill  greatei  '  .i'  u  ,  sharks 
Una  ft'om  the  same  quarter;  copper  fn.iii  apnn,  ond 
tin  from  Bantam;  peiijier,  arecu-nut,  spices  of  lUtVer- 
etit  hinda,  ebony,  sandal-wooil,  red-wood  for  dyeing, 
tiirtolsc-ahell,  (learl-shell,  coral,  campnor,  wax,  and  a 
variety  of  articles,  generally  pro'liiocd  or  collected  by 
their  own  countrymen  resident  in  tho  Islands  of  the 
East. 

Tho  Chinese  levy  no  specific  duties  on  the  orticlea 
lin|)orted,  nor  ad  valorem  duties  on  the  cargoes;  tho 
i>iily  im|iost  1.1  on  the  ship  it.ielf,  and  is  estimated  by  a 
rule  as  absurd  us  it  la  partial  and  unequal.  They 
measure  tho  length  from  the  centre  of  the  foremost  to 
tho  centre  of  the  mizcn-mast,  and  tho  breadth  is  taken 
cidso  abaft  the  mainmast.  The  length  Is  then  multi- 
plied by  the  breadth,  and  tho  product,  divided  by  ten, 
gives  tho  measurement  of  tho  ship.  All  ships,  accord- 
ing to  this  measurement,  are  classed  under  first,  sec- 
ond, or  third  rates;  all  other  vessiln,  however  small, 
are  classed  as  third-rates.     By  this  rule  a  ship  of  n 


Gulf  itself).  Is  an  extent  of  cuaat  of  tinar  two  thousand 
uilw,  ludanUd  wltti  Uiuuuwnhl*  iuirbor*,  tnnny  of 


i''m 


stated  it  at  20,000,000  taels— the  tael  being  equal  to 
about  &>.  6d.  Engliah,  or  ^1  25  United  iStates  currency. 


era 


808 


cm 


In  16JS6,  Nleuhoff  eaUmated  it  at  108,000,0nO  taela. 
Twelve  yean  later,  Magelhoens  reckoned  it  at  about 
£4,000,000  sterling.  In  1731,  it  was  calculated  to 
have  risen  to  .£10,000,00*)  or  X14,000,000  sterling.  To- 
wnrd  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  given 
by  Sir  'ieorge  Staunton  nt  XC6,0OO,0CO ;  of  which  sum, 
however,  little  more  than  a  fifth  >t.is  transmitted  to 
Pekin.  According  to  the  Chinese  constitution  each 
province  is  obliged  to  support  itself,  and  to  transmit 
•  certain  surplusage  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Em- 
peror and  his  court.  The  manner  in  which  the  items 
of  the  revenue  are  divided  are  thus  stilted  by  De 
Gulgnes,  the  last  authority  on  this  subject : 

Tuli. 

Income  In  money UT,BilT,000 

Kqiwl  revenue  In  kind  from  grain 27.907,U<H) 

Tax  on  the  necond  crop  in  tlio  soiitliem  (jrovlncflB.  iil,60fl,noo 

(label,  coal,  transit  duties 6,479,400 

Customs  «t  Canton 8(H),ii00 

Revenue  from  silk,  porrolaln,  etc 7,(Hlo,0()0 

Taxes,  licences,  tonnage  duties 4,<iOIX00U 

Total S»r7l3i400 

Till  within  n  ffew  years  ago.  Canton  waa  the  principal 
mart  for  foreign  commerce,  and  wus  in  fact  the  only 
port  open  to  foreigners.  In  virtue  of  the  treaties, 
however,  concluded  at  the  termination  of  the  wor  with 
England,  four  additional  ports  have  been  thrown  open, 
viz.,  Shanghai,  Ningpo,  Foo-chow,  and  Amoy.  Under 
the  respective  heads  of  those  articles  wiU  be  found  de- 
tailed accounts  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  are  respectively  situated.  The 
foreign  commerce  of  China,  as  more  fully  detailed  be- 
low, may  be  roughly  estimated  at  Iwtween  '20  and  25 
millions  sterling.  This,  however,  bears  a  very  small 
proportion  to  the  inland  trade.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  there  is  a  greater  amount  of  tonnage  belonging  to 
the  Chinese  than  t6  all  the  other  nations  of  the  world 
combined  ;  and  flrom  the  length  and  numlierof  the  ca- 
nals, and  the  myriads  of  Iwnts  necessary  for  carrying 
on  the  enormous  i.iland  trade  of  the  empire,  it  is  \>t- 
lieved  that  this  statement  is  not  very  wide  of  the  truth. 

The  mode  of  conducting  tlie  trade  is  fully  described 
in  the  Chinae  Commercial  Ouide,  where  the  forms  of 
custom-house  blanks  are  given  both  in  English  and 
Chinese.  The  foreigners  themselves  employ  clerks 
called  linguislt  to  transact  their  busineas,  and  these 
linguists  act  also  in  many  transactions  as  brokers. 
Every  Chinese  who  intends  to  engage  in  trade  in  tills 
capacity,  or  us  a  trader,  previously  leanis  to  speak 
Knglisli  by  studying  manuscript  vocabularies  in  which 
the  English  sounds  of  words  and  phrases  are  written 
underneath  in  the  Chinese  character,  the  student  ol>- 
taining  the  assistance  of  more  advanced  scholars  to 
correct  his  pronunciation.  The  idioms  of  the  English 
learned  in  this  viva  race  manner  are  4:hietly  Chinese, 
which  explains  the  inverte<l  arrangement  of  sentences 
in  the  Canton  English,  as  this  jargon  is  called,  and  the 
utter  disregard  paid  to  gender,  number,  person,  time, 
and  other  proprieties  considered  of  importance  in  moat 
langur^ges.  The  wb^'*!  trade  is  conducted  in  this  mea- 
gre gibberish,  which  the  natives,  however.  sup|>osa  to 
lie  as  copious  and  correct  as  foreigners  themselves 
speak,  but  which  hardly  serves  even  the  common  pur- 
poses cf  trade  and  household  need,  much  less  enables 
the  two  parties  to  exchange  ideas  up(m  recondite  suli- 
Jects.  Much  of  the  misunderstanding  and  tronlili' 
e:tperieDced  in  tUily  intercourse  with  the  Chinese  i» 
doubtless  owing  to  this  imiwrfect  medium,  for  they 
seldom  take  the  trouble  to  ascertain  if  their  idea  of 
what  is  told  them  h  tlie  correct  one ;  and  mutual  vex- 
ation and  ill-will  arise,  when  one  party  finds  his  onlers 
to  have  been  heedlessly  perfonned,  and  the  other  that 
his  ertbrts  to  please  have  only  earned  maledictious  In- 
stead of  commendation.  These  petty  annoyances  have 
also  had  more  serious  results  in  strengthening  the 
national  dislikes,  and  still  farther  separating  those 
who  origiiully  intended,  perhaps,  to  endure  each  "ther 
only  so  long  as  they  could  moke  gain  thereby. 


Canton 

Amoy 

Ningpo 

Foo^chow 

Shanghai 


The  total  amount  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the 
five  towns  now  open  to  foreign  commerce  ia  given  iu 
the  subjoined  table  for  1846 : 

Imports  In  vessels  of  nil  natlonii . ,  £n,048,U4> 
Exports  in  vcsHcIs  of  all  nations  ,     6.6*^2,7*^6 

Impons  in  llritish  vessels 147,404 

KxporU  In  UrllMli  vesseU 1  M,7S1 

Imports 1 8,000 

Kxports 1S.O0O 

Imports 100.000 

Bxports 85,000 

Imports I,M3,980 

Exports 1,347,0ES 

The  contraband  trade  in  opium  Is  estimated  to 
amount  to  upward  of  40,000  chests,  at  a  sale  price  of 
nearly  ilu, 000,000  sterling,  which  with  the  pearls,  gold 
and  silver  ware,  precious  stones,  and  otiier  aiticlca 
smuggled,  will  swell  the  total  of  the  foreign  trade  to 
about  .€21,000,000  sterling  anniuilly,  exclusive  of  the 
Russian  trade  at  Kiakhta. '  The  consumption  of  tea  in 
England  is  about  60,000,000  of  pounds  annually ;  iu 
the  United  States  it  is  about  20,000,000;  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, 2,000,000;  in  Russia,  5,000,000;  in  Germany, 
3,000,000;  in  Now  South  Wales,  4,000,000;  in  Spain 
and  France,  3,000,000.  The  augrrgate  consumption  of 
tea  in  China  itself  has  been  estimated,  though  not  on 
very  good  authority,  at  about  700,000,000  of  pounds. 
The  prospects  of  tlio  rapid  extension  of  the  foreign 
trade  with  China  arc*  not  very  promising,  except  in  a 
few  articles.  The  raw  produce  flimishcd  from  that 
country'  is  very  trifling,  silk  and  alum  being  tlie  chief, 
and  there  is  in  th<<  mean  time  Uttle  prospect  of  any 
great  increase  in  the  exportation  of  her  manufactuved 
articles,  except  tea  and  silk  goods.  Tlie  opium  trade 
has  been  for  many  years  between  three  and  four  mil- 
lions sterling  in  excess  of  the  rL,  "lar  exchange  of  com- 
modities, and  the  drainage  of  the  country  for  thi<  bal- 
ance will  probably  go  on  as  long  as  the  taste  for  thia 
poniicious  narcotic  continues,  or  there  is  any  specie  to 
pay  for  it.  To  legalize  the  opium  trade  would  moke 
no  material  difference  in  the  exportation  of  specie,  as 
long  ns  the  liulanoo  of  imports  so  greatly  exceeds  the 
exports.  England  may  make  every  effort  to  su|i|ily 
China  with  her  manufactures,  but  so  long  as  the  Chi- 
nese furnish  so  little  that  she  wants  beyond  a  supply 
of  tea,  it  is  difticult  to  perceive  with  what  they  are  to 
pay  for  all  the  cottons  and  woolens  they  may  be  ex- 
pected to  buy. 

The  Chinese  appear  to  have  no  regular  established 
system  of  credit  among  themselves,  and  the  only  cir- 
culating medium  in  tho  shape  of  coin  is  a  small  piece 
of  base  metal  (copper,  tin,  or  lead  mixed),  of  the  value 
of  tho  one-thousandth  |iart  of  six  shillings  and  eight- 
|)enca,  of  little  more  intrinsic  value,  in  fact,  tlinn  s 
cowrie-shell,  which  the  Chinese,  as  well  as  the  Ilindua, 
would  seer',  once  to  have  used ;  aa  the  same  character 
in  their  language  which  signifies  n  uliell  signifies  also 
money  and  wealth,  and  it  enters  into  the  composition 
of  characters  which  represent  buying,  teUim),  paijitiij,  etc. 
Silver  in  sniuU  ingots  is  usetl  in  commerce,  but  they 
have  10  determinate  value,  the  price  fluctuating  with 
tho  demand,  as  in  otiicr  article"  of  commerce.  The 
high  rate  of  interest  operates  as  a  discouragement  to 
mercantile  speculations,  and  the  rigor  of  corpora!  pun- 
ishment is  a<lded,  with  the  view,  as  it  would  np|iear, 
of  deterring  the  most  hardy  s|)ecnlator.  The  law  says, 
"whoever  shall  lend  either  money  or  goods,  slinll  only 
receive^  three  parts  in  tho  hundred  per  month,"  and 
that  "  how  much  soever  may  be  suffered  to  accumu- 
late, the  capital  shall  remain  the  same."  It  is  lent 
from  month  to  month,  and  if  the  lender  sliouUI  com- 
plain of  the  interest  not  being  punctually  paid,  tho 
liorruwer  is  suliject  to  the  punishment  of  ten  stripes  of 
the  bamboo  the  first  month,  twenty  the  second,  and 
BO  on.  The  legal  rate  of  interest,  however,  Is  seidom 
paid,  and  in  large  transactions  among  buslDcss  men  it 
Is  from  li  to  15  per  cent,  fer  annum.  The  borrower 
makes  a  special  agreement  with  the  lender  for  a  rate 
of  interest  varying  between  these  two  atuna. 


era 


808 


CHI 


On  tht  20th  August,  1848,  a  tiretty  of  peace  was 
ligned  before  Nankin,  on  board  of  the  Cornmiltis,  by 
Sir  Ilenry  I'ottinger  on  the  part  of  tireat  Britain,  and 
by  K«-ying,  Klepoo,  and  Niu-lcicn,  on  the  part  of  the 
Emperor  of  China,  The  most  important  provisions  of 
the  treaty  were,  lasting  peace  and  friendship  between 
the  two  empires ;  China  to  pay  twenty-one  millions  of 
dollars  during  that  and  tho  throe  succeeding  years; 
the  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-chow,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai,  to  be  thrown  open  to  foreign  trade;  con- 
sular otHcers  to  bo  appointed  by  foreign  powers  to  re- 
tide  at  these  places;  regular  and  just  tarilTs  of  import 
and  export  uiul  inland  transit  dues  to  be  established 
•nd  publislied ;  the  island  of  Uong  Kong  to  be  ceded 
in  perpetuity  to  her  Uritannic  majesty,  her  heirs,  and 
■ucccssors ;  and  correspondence  to  be  conducted  on 
terms  of  perfect  ^qualir^  between  the  officers  of  both 
governments.  To  this  important  treaty  tlie  emperor 
signiliod  his  assent  on  the  8th  of  September,  and  on 
the  31st  fit  December  it  was  ratitied  by  the  British 
governwcnt.  In  June,  1843,  the  ralilications  were  ex- 
clmngud  at  Uong  Kong,  wliich  was  then  talcen  possos- 
liuu  of  by  proclamation,  and  the  functionaries  of  gov- 
ernment appointed. 

The  announcement  of  the  treaty  of  Xankin  excited 
considerable  sensation  in  ICurope  and  America,  chiefly 
in  the  commercial  circles;  and  agents  were  sent  to 
China  from  tho  governments  of  Belgium,  IloUund, 
Prussia,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  most  of  tlicm  hud 
interviews  with  Kc-ying  ut  Canton  before  lie  returned 
to  court.  France  and  the  United  States  of  America 
sent  embassadors  extraordinary  to  tho  court  of  I'ekin, 
but  neither  of  them  went  farther  than  Canton.  Ke- 
ying having  been  reappointed  commissioner  for  the 
purpose,  a  treaty  was  signed  lietwcen  China  and  the 
United  States,  embodying  all  the  im|H)rtant  stipula- 
tions of  tho  treaties  and  commercial  regulations  agreed 
to  with  England,  and  providing  further  for  the  erection 
of  hospitals,  ihapels,  and  cemeteries  at  tho  live  ports ; 
fur  permission  to  ships  of  war  to  visit  any  part  of  the 
coasts  of  China ;  and  for  the  extension  nf  these  privi- 
leges to  all  nations.  The  ratilicatlons  of  this  treaty 
A'ere  exchanged  on  31st  December,  1843.  The  French 
euiboHsudor  having  also  arrived  at  Canton,  and  entered 
into  negotiation  with  Ke-ying,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
between  them  at  Whampoa  on  the  basis  of  that  of  the 
United  States. 

,>Their  naval  architecture  wears  the  stamp  of  great 
antiquity,  and  is  exceedingly  grotesque.  They  have, 
in  fact,  made  little  progress  in  maritime  navigation, 
from  the  inveterate  dislike  of  tho  (lovernment  to  all 
foreign  intercourse,  and  to  all  innovation.  The  very 
same  kind  of  vessels  as  those  described  by  Marco  Polo 
at  the  port  nearest  to  Pekin,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
were  found  without  variation  liy  I^ord  Macartney,  five 
hundred  years  afterward,  and  accurate  to  tb>'  Ilaliuu's 
description,  even  to  the  numl)cr  of  compartnicnlM  into 
which  tho  hold  of  each  vessel  was  divided.  They  had 
anchors  of  wood,  and  ro|)cs  and  sails  of  bamboo.  The 
boats  ami  barges  for  internal  commerce  and  communi- 
cntion  are  very  varied,  generally  commodious,  espe- 
cially the  ptt,isage-boats  on  the  grand  canal,  and  all  of 
them  suited  to  the  depth  and  velocity  of  tlic  stream, 
and  tho  width  of  the  locks  and  flood-gates  of  the  re- 
spective canals  and  rivers  which  they  are  intended  to 
navigate.  These  vessels  are  so  numerous  as  almost  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  land-carriage ;  and  the  moat 
common  and  convenient  mode  of  traveling  in  China  is 
in  barges,  which  are  generally  provided  with  cabins 
for  sleeping,  and  a  kitchen  and  utensils  for  cooking 
victuals.  Their  military  navy  is  unworthy  of  the 
name.  It  consists  of  a  tjotllla,  whose  principal  occu- 
pation is  that  of  conveying  soldiers  where  they  may 
be  wanted,  and  looking  after  pirates  and  smugglers. 
An  English  frigate  would  beat  the  whole  naval  force 
of  China.— Qrozier,  Du  IIalub,  Uarbow,  Dk  Ui'iu- 
.NK8,  etc. 


The  principal  articles  of  export  tram  China  are  tea 
and  raw  silk ;  and  of  these  the  following  quantities 
have  been  exported  during  the  ten  years  ending  Ist 
July,  1868: 

Tea  r.xcoRTEn  rnoM  Cuina  to  the  UsixEn  Kinokom. 


VMr  andiDK  iuiw.  Poundi> 

1H61 04,«<U,000 

185'.> 66,187,000 

lesa 72,9<i6,ooo 

IS,'** 17,417,000 

1SKS..... SC,6O:),00O 

ISCO 01,036,000 


YMr  andiiis  Jnnt.  PonBdi. 

1844 60,618,000 

^MB bli,670,l!liO 

lg46 67,684,01)0 

184T 63,se!>.000 

18413 47,6114,800 

1S40 47,'i4'i,0tK) 

1860 63,U6t,U00 

Thus,  in  the  last  seven  years,  tho  quantity  of  tea 
shipped  from  China  to  the  United  Kingdom  has  be- 
come nearly  doubled,  and,  even  compared  with  1852,  Is 
nearly  one  half  more.  But,  as  wo  have  already  Inti- 
mated, it  is  as  important  a  question,  as  regards  the 
exchanges  with  China,  what  f'r,,gress  has  liecn  made 
in  tlie  shipments  to  the  Uniteil  States.  These  have 
been  as  follows : 

Tea  EXiwitTSn  mOM  Ciiika  to  the  t'NiTEn  States. 
Vtai  •ndioK  Jun«.  Poandi. 

18411 18,07!i.000 

1850 81,767,000 


YMir  ending  Jun*.        PoiindJ. 

186-". 40,1)74,000 

181hl 27,8«7,000 

1866 31,616,000 

I860 40,i!4a,000 


1S61 !8,70n,()0n 

iai>'i a4,3iU,ooo 

From  these  t<  >  tables  it  appears  that  since  1849,  only 
seven  years  ii,,i>,  the  quantity  of  tea  exported  from 
China  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States 
has  increased  from  63,314,001)  lbs.  to  131,280,000  lbs. 
Since  1832  the  increase  has  been  from  99,471,000  U)s. 
to  181,282,000  lbs.  Then  as  to  silk :  the  entire  ex- 
ports from  China  to  the  United  Kingdom,  eleven  years 
ago,  amounted  only  to  10,727  bales.  In  the  year  end- 
ing June,  1848,  there  were  17,229  bales,  since  which 
time,  particularly  during  the  last  four  years,  they 
have  very  rapidly  increased.  The  following  tablo 
shows  the  export  in  each  year : 

Sii.KS  ExronTEii  to  the  Vniteu  KiNonou  from  China. 


Year  endinif  June  80.  Balei. 

1849 17,'iti8 

lb60 10,134 

1851 W,I43 

1862 23,040 


Year  endinff  June  80.  Bales. 

18.'i3 25,571 

1864 01,U4S 

1S85 61,480 

1860 56,439 


IxixiitTs  or  Silks  into  the  United  States. 


Year  ending 
June  80.     I 


1868.. 
1^(64.. 
1.S&6.. 


Plfte 

(loods. 


7-.!i.l43 
1,W1,'),B10 

i,a;'2,!i65 


Sewing 
silk. 


8,497 
2.863 
1U,730 


lOrabrold. 

erlee. 


48n,<'60 

174,BW1 

0,104 


Raw, 


S47,467 
T4S,4B7 
46fi,770 


Olhen. 


7.805 

20,420 

1,016 


Statement  or  Cuinese  Paksenoers  and  Tonnauk  to  Cal- 
ifornia, 


Yean. 

Veenli. 

Tonnage. 

PaeMngen. 

1840 

IS 
24 
8,'. 
84 
64 
62 
87 

3,700 
7,708 
11,700 
43,144 
26,535 
28,021 
16,627 

323 

+47 

2,710 

18,434 

4,;iic 

16,063 
8,212 

1860 

1861 

1S62 

1863 

1884 

U55 

Totsl. . . . 

207 

ia6,,'i36 

44,611 

Statement  op  EMionATioN  op  Chinese  to  tiikiu  own  Cobn- 

Tnv,  ANI>  TONNAOE  EMPLOVEI), 

V<»ele.  Tonnage.  Pawengere.^ 


1861. 
1862. 
1863. 

.S.M. 
1858. 


Total.... 


110 
120 

89 
113 

02 


61,241 
T2,6'.i6 
63,340 
85,008 
78,098 


336,977 


261 
2,066 
4,406 

2,380 
3,328 


12.4!l« 


I  China  Porcelain.  Thismanufacture  is  first  men- 
I  tloHud  in  history  in  1331 :  it  was  introduced  into  En- 
,  gland  in  t(|e  sixteenth  century.  Porcelain  was  made 
[  at  Dresden  In  1700;  fine  ware  in  Englimd,  at  Chelsea, 
j  1732;  at  Bow  in  1758;  in  v.tIous  other  parts  of  En- 
'  gland,  aliout  1760;  and  by  the  ingcniong  Josiah  Wedg- 
i  wood,  who  much  improved  the  British  manufacture,  in 

Stafl'ordshire,  1762  e(Mf. — IIavdn.  See  Porcklain. 
Cblna-ioot  (Ger.  Chiiniu'urztl ;  Du.  Chinaworttlf 

Fr.  Hquint,  £fjKtne;  Sp.  Hau  China,  Cocohntca;  Arab, 


CHI 


804 


CHR 


JUvinm*),  the  root  of  •  species  of  dimber  (Aiiba  Chi- 
na, Linn.).  It  comes  ttom  the  West  Indies,  as  veil  as 
from  China ;  but  that  from  the  latter  is  best.  It  is  ob- 
long and  thicl(-jointed,  full  of  irregular  knots,  of  a  red- 
dish-brown color  on  the  outside,  and  a  pale  rod  within ; 
while  new,  it  will  snap  short,  and  look  glittering  with- 
in ;  if  old,  the  dust  flies  from  it  when  broken,  and  it  is 
light  and  kecky.  It  should  be  chosen  large,  sound, 
heavy,  and  of  a  pale  red  color  internally.  It  is  of  no 
value  if  the  worm  be  in  it. — Milbubn's  OriaUal  Com- 
mtrei. 

Chint%or  CblntS  (Fr.  Tndiennet;  Ger.  Zilze;  It. 
Jmdiane ;  Kuss.  Siz ;  Sp.  Chites,  Zanua),  a  peculiar  pat- 
tern upon  printed  calicoes,  in  which  flowers  and  other 
devices  are  printed  in  tivo  or  six  different  colors,  upon 
white  and  colored  grounds.  A  good  chintz  pattern  in 
tut  colors  is  one  of  the  most  surprising  and  diflicult 
eflbrts  of  the  art.  It  was  lirst  manufactured  in  the  East 
Indies,  but  is  now  largely  manufactured  in  Europe, 
particularly  in  Great  Britain. — See  Calico. 

Chocolate  (Uu.  Chocohde;  Fr.  Chocolat;  Germ. 
Schokolaie;  It.  Cioccolatai  Voti.  Chocolate f  Russ.ii^cAo- 
iolad  i  Sp.  Chocolate),  a  kind  of  cake  or  confection,  pre- 
pared principally  from  the  cacao-nut.  The  nuts  arc 
first  roasted  like  coffee ;  and  Iwing  reduced  to  powder 
and  mixeti  with  water,  the  paste  is  put  into  tin  moulds 
of  the  desired  shape,  in  which  it  speedily  hardens,  ije- 
ing,  when  taken  out  and  wrapped  in  paper,  fit  for  the 
market.  Besides  cacao,  the  Spanish  use  vanilla,  sugar, 
maize,  etc.,  in  the  preparation  of  chocolate.  Choco- 
late was  first  introduced  into  Europe  from  Mexico  al>out 
A,D.  Ib'iO,  It  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses 
soon  after  their  establishment  in  1050. — Taller. 

"  Alike  easy  to  convey  and  employ  as  an  aliment,  it 
contains  a  large  quantity  of  nutritive  and  stimulating 
particles  in  a  small  compass.  It  has  been  said  with 
truth  that,  in  Africa,  rice,  gum,  and  ihea  butter,  assist 
man  in  crossing  the  deserts.  In  the  Xew  World,  choc- 
olate and  the  flour  of  maize  have  rendered  accessible  to 
him  the  table-lands  of  the  Andes,  and  vast  uninhabit- 
ed forests." — Uuuboldt's  Pemmal  Narrative,  voL  iv. 
p.  234,  Engl,  transl. 

Cblistiaiia,  the  capital  of  Norway,  situated  at  the 
bottom  of  a  fiord  or  gulf,  in  the  province  of  Agger- 
huus;  in  lat.  59°  6di'  N.,  long.  10°  48)' £.  Popula- 
tion in  1845,  26,141.  Christiana  is  atjout  60  miles 
tnm  the  open  sea :  the  gulf  is  in  some  places  very 
narrow,  and  its  navigation  somewhat  difficult ;  but  it 
is  sufficiently  deep  for  the  largest  vesseln,  having  6  or 
7  fathoms  water  close  to  the  quay.  It  is  compulsory 
on  all  ships  to  take  a  pilot  on  board  at  the  mouth  of 
the  bay.  The  trade  of  the  town  is  considerable.  The 
principal  exports  are  timber  and  deals,  which  are  large- 
ly imported  into  England  ;  gloss,  particularly  bottles ; 
iron  and  nails,  tones,  smalts,  oak  bark,  etc.  Salted 
and  pickled  fish,  one  of  the  staple  product "  of  Norway, 
is  principally  exported  from  Bergen.  deals  of 

Christiana  have  always  been  in  the  highest  estima- 
tion— a  conscqucnco  of  the  excellence  of  the  timber, 
and  of  the  caro  with  which  the  sap-wood  and  other  de- 
fective parts  are  cut  away ;  and  not,  as  Mr.  Coxe  seems 
to  have  supposed,  uf  the  skillful  sawing  of  the  plank. 
The  saw-mills  were  formerly  licensed  to  cut  a  certain 
quantity  only,  and  the  proprietors  were  bound  to  make 
oath  that  it  was  not  exceeded. — Coxe'h  TrateU  m  (Ae 
Sorih  of  Europe,  &th  edition,  vol.  iv.  p.  2".  This  ab- 
surd regulation  no  longer  exists.  There  ai  -  far  fewer 
restrictions  on  industry  and  commerce  ii;  -Nurway  than 
in  Sweden.  In  the  fomwr,  manufactured  goods  are 
admitted  on  moderate  dnties,  and  are  very,  generally 
made  use  of.  The  principal  articles  of  import  are  co- 
lonial produce ;  iron  and  hardware ;  machinery ;  wool- 
en, linen,  and  cotton  goods ;  coals,  butter,  wine,  bran- 
ny, etc. ;  com  is  sometimes  extensively  imported. 

CuMonu  ReguUuiunt. — Within  i\  hours  after  a  ves- 
iel  has  got  to  her  moorings,  the  master  should  deliver 
to  the  GoUeetor  his  genual  r^ort  at  t«  ship  and  caiigo, 


or  present  the  requisite  documents  fbr  having  inch  re- . 
port  made  out  with  the  assistance  of  a  ship-broker, 
whose  services  masters  of  foreign  vessels  can  not  en- 
tirely dispenie  with.  On  making  this  general  report, 
the  measuring  bill  is  to  be  exhibited,  and  payment  of 
the  tonnage  and  other  dues  inward  is  to  be  mads.  If 
the  sliip  have  not  lieen  previously  measured  in  Norway, 
and  is,  consequently,  not  provided  with  a  Norwe(;inn 
measuring  biU,  she  is  to  be  measured,  to  ascertain  her 
burden  in  Norwegian  commereial  lasts,  for  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  tonnage  duty.  The  general  report  h  liv- 
ing been  made,  the  custom-house  officers  in  charge  of 
the  vessel  are  furnished  with  the  books  for  delivery, 
and  the  discliarge  of  the  cargo  commences  under  thi  !r 
inspection  ;  and  the  consignees  may  make  their  spei  ial 
reports  under  their  responsibility  and  signature.  If 
they  are  without  precise  information  as  to  the  ccn- 
tents  of  any  or  all  of  the  packages  or  bales  to  th>  ir 
address,  these  bales  or  packages  may,  at  their  requcrl, 
be  opfned  in  the  presence  of  the  officers  before  report 
is  made.  If  a  consignee  omits  availing  himsMf  of  this 
permission,  his  pretending  thereafter  that  more  or  otli- 
er  goods  than  he  had  ordered  or  been  advised  of  have 
been  sent  to  his  address,  will  not  be  attended  to.  In 
the  reports  or  entries  is  to  l>e  stated  whether  it  is  intciiil- 
ed  to  pay  the  duties  forthwith,  whether  the  goods  arc 
intended  for  exportation,  or  whether  they  are  to  he 
landed.  Prior  to  commencing  loading  outward,  the 
master  is  to  give  verbal  notice  of  his  intention  at  the 
custom-house.  If  he  have  no  Norwegian  measuring 
bill,  the  vessel  is  to  be  measured.  This  being  done, 
the  shipper  or  shippers  of  the  outward-bound  cargo  are 
each  of  them  to  make  their  special  entries  as  to  the 
quality,  weight,  and  measure  of  the  goods  they  mean 
to  load,  A  copy  of  such  entries  is  to  be  deposited  at 
the  custom-house,  and  the  loading  commences  under 
the  control  of  the  officers.  This  applies  to  all  mixed 
cargoes;  but  if  the  outward-bound  cargo  consist  ex- 
clusively of  wood,  the  shipper  or  shippers  are  only  to 
notify  that  they  intend  loading  yir-.'i.  \\\'.\xo\A  specify- 
ing quantity,  measure,  etc.,  as  tl.a  ., :;'rt  duty  on 
wood  is  charged  according  to  the  bui  ''  "  jf  the  vessel. 
When  the  master  clears  outward,  he  produces  the  prop- 
er documents  for  showing  the  borden  of  his  vessel,  and 
to  what  port  she  belongs,  and  he  is  then,  on  proper  ap- 
plication being  made,  provided  with  a  pilot,  who  takes 
his  vessel  to  sea. 

Warehouting.  —  In  Norway  goods  brought  from 
abroad  may  Ije  bonded  or  warehoused,  with  a  view  to 
theirbeing  again  exported  at  some  future  period.  Goods 
entered  for  home  consumption  may  also  bo  bonded  for  a 
certain  period,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  pavment  of  the 
duties.  The  former  is  called  "  Iratuit  ojiag ;"  that  is, 
depositing  or  warehousing  goo<ls  for  exportation,  sub- 
ject to  transit  duties  only.  The  latter  is  called  "  cred- 
it opiag;"  that  is,  warehousing  or  bonding  on  credit. 

Tramit  Oplag. — Under  this  system  goods  from  abroad 
may  be  warehoused  for  exportation  free  of  import  duty, 
paying  on  exportation  a  transit  duty,  which  in  most 
cases  is  1-lOth  of  what  they  would  pay  if  entered  for 
home  consumption.  If  the  goods  are  deposited  iu  the 
custom-house  warehouses,  they  lie  free  of  rent  or  dues 
during  14  days,  and  if  in  private  warehouses,  under 
the  key  and  seal  of  the  customs,  during  six  months. 
If  they  remain  long,  viz.,  beyond  14  days  in  the  one, 
and  beyond  six  months  in  the  other  case,  they  pay 
rent  or  duos  equal  to  i  of  the  transit  duty  per  month, 
which,  aftc>  the  Ippso  of  three  months,  as  regards  goods 
in  the  custom-house  warehoasf^<,  i!>  i.  creased  to  i  of 
the  transit  duty  per  month. 

CredU  Oplag. — This  syst  in  ni5';wi  n^i.'  goods  im- 
ported from  abroad  to  be  ,'  i(i;il  'a  !!i  '.v  icr's  or  im- 
porter's own  warehouses,  -.v  t  :''i'  own  i'lck,  free  of 
duty,  for  a  given  time,  on  hi  looi^'ing  i<  he  customs, 
every  three  months,  how  m>  .  !  Ins  ..id,  otherwise 
consumed,  orexported,  and  the.!  {.ay  mgttie  duty  on  such 
•moniit  f  the  cui tom-hotue  officers,  who  are  bound  quar- 


CHB 


805 


CHR 


tarly  to  cxamino  the  goods,  convincing  themselves  by 
ocul«r  demonstration  tliat  no  more  is  missing  than 
the  quantity  reported  to  liave  Ijecn  taken  away.  This 
credit  on  the  duties  in  no  case  to  exceed  two  years 
from  tlio  time  the  goods  were  imported. 

By  way  of  security  for  payment  of  the  duties  on 
which  the  credit  is  granted,  government  reserve  to 
themselves,  1.  Priority  of  mortgage  on  all  the  goods  in 
question.  2.  Friority,  or  flrst  right,  in  the  property, 
goods,  and  effects  of  every  description  belonging  to  the 
trader  availing  himself  of  this  credit,  in  as  far  as  sucu 
property  is  not  previously  legally  mortgaged.  3.  Lib- 
erty for  tlie  custom-house  officers,  when  and  as  often  as 
they  shall  deem  it  expedient,  between  the  stated  quar- 
terly inspections,  to  look  over  the  stock  on  hand,  with  a 
view  of  ascertaining  whether  there  remains  sufficient 
value  for  the  duties ;  and  if  they  see  reason  to  doubt 
this,  full  right,  in  default  of  other  satisfactory  security 
being  oft'erod,  to  seize  the  stock,  and  to  sell  the  whole, 
or  as  much  as  shall  cover  tlie  duties.  4.  In  case  of 
death  or  failure  of  the  party,  an  equal  riglit  to  sell  fortli> 
with  the  whole  of  his  stock  at  public  auction,  and  to 
retain  as  much  of  the  proceeds  as  shall  cover  the  du- 
ties ;  and  in  case  of  deficiency,  an  established  claim  for 
the  remainder  on  the  estate  of  tlio  deceased  or  bank- 
rupt, as  tlie  case  may  be.  In  charging  the  duties  no 
allowance  is  made  for  waste  or  damage  in  the  ware- 
houses. The  \yarehonse  rent  charged  on  goods  bonded 
under  the  transit  system,  in  the  custom-ho"se  ware- 
houses, is  as  follows : 

On  a  qunrlcr  of  wheat  for  the  flrnt  3  )  /,    n.ix^a  _».  ~..>v 

months ("    ONSoB  per  month 

Afterwnnl 0    ri076         " 

On  a  ton  of  raw  su^Tir  for  tho  first  It )  „  ii.«oci  ™.  ™™.i, 

inontlw : I"  n-S381  per  month 

Aftemard 1  11'0"06        " 

Money,  Weights,  and  Meaauret. — In  Norway  there 
are  no  gold  coins.  Tho  principal  silver  coin,  called  a 
species  dollar,  is  divided  into  120  skillings.  There  are 
also  half  species,  or  GO  skilling  pieces ;  l-5th  species, 
or  24  skilling  pieces ;  l-15th  species,  or  8  skilling  pieces ; 
and  what  is  denominated  skillemynt,  or  small  change 
— that  is,  4  and  2  skilling  pieces.  The  species  dollar 
contains  3'M-bS  English  grains  of  pure  silver,  and  is 
consequently  worth  4<.Ci(<.sterling,  tlie  par  of  exchange 
being  four  species  dollars  42  6-17  skillings=;ei.  All 
Norway  coins,  except  the  small  change,  are  alloyed 
with  l-7th  copper,  so  that  tho  Bpocics  dollar  weighs 
448-38  English  grains,  and  its  divisions  in  proportion. 
Small  change  coins  are  alloyed  with  three  times  their 
weight  of  copper.  There  are  one  and  two  skilling 
pieces  of  copper. 

Weights  and  Measures,  same  as  at  Cofeniiaobn  ; 
which  see. 

Shipping  Charges.— T\ia  various  charges  of  a  public 
nature  payable  by  a  ship  of  about  300  tons  burden,  en- 
tering tho  port  of  Christiana  with  a  mixed  cargo  on 
board,  unloading  there,  taking  on  board  another  cargo, 
and  clearing  out,  are  as  follows : 

1.  Charges  /nimrrf— PilotaRe  ttom  Fardfr,  at  tho 
mouth  uf  Christiana  llajr,  where  all  ahlpa  must 

take  a  pilot  on  board 2    3    2 

Dill  of  hcaltli,  asBumlnf;  that  the  crew,  Including 

tho  master,  eonflats  of  14  pcreons 0  IT    9 

Tomiage  duos  and  light  money 0  16    9 

Brokers'  fees 1    5    4 


i;i4    2  U 

t.  Charge*  Outaard.—VWathga 0    9  2 

Ca«tlodnes 0    1  T 

Muster-roll  of  crow 10ft 

Pale  or  stake  money 0    3 

HcaMurlng  bill 2    4  5 

Charity  chest 0    1  7 

Tonnage  dues  and  light  money 10  11  1 

Higholm  light 0    0  9 

Pilotage  to  Farder 1  jj  h 


Uroken'  fees . 


1  IS  11 


til<i    6  11 

Jf.  A.— There  Is  no  difference  between  the  charges  on  native 

ship*  In  Norwegian  porU  and  privileged  foreign  ships,  that 

la,  Che  ahtpt  of  countries  having  rMlprodty  tnatlet  with  Nor- 


way ;  nor  In  the  duties  on  goods  imparted  by  native  ships  and 
such  privileged  foreign  eliipd.  Great  Britain  Is  a  privileged 
country. 

The  shipping  of  Norway  has  declined  considerably 
of  late  years ;  a  proof,  if  any  such  were  wanting,  of  the 
groundlessness  of  the  clamors  kept  up  in  Great  tiritaia 
as  to  the  supposed  pernicious  influence  of  reciprocity 
treaties  on  shipping. 

Banking. — There  are  no  private  banking  establish- 
nu  nts  in  Norway ;  but  there  is  a  public  bank,  iiaving 
<'8  principal  office  at  Drontheim,  with  branches  at 
Christiana,  Bergen,  and  Christiansand.  It  was  es- 
tablished l>y  a  compulsory  assessment  in  1816,  Its 
capital  consists  of  2,000,000  species  dollars,  in  transler- 
able  shares,  divided  among  those  who  were  forced  to 
contribute  to  its  formation.  These  shares  are  now  at 
a  premium  of  80  per  cent.  Its  managers  are  appoint- 
ed by,  and  are  accountable  to,  tho  Storthing  or  Nor- 
wegian Parliament.  It  issues  notes  for  100,  60,  10, 
and  so  low  as  1  species  dollar.  These  notes  should  be 
payable  in  specie  on  demand ;  but  they  arc  at  a  dis- 
count of  35  per  cent.,  and  are  paid  by  the  bank  at  that 
rate.  It  discounts  bills  at  twoand  three  monthsdate  at6 
per  cent,  per  annum ;  advances  money  on  mortgage  at  4 
per  cent. ;  and  transacts  the  ordinary  banking  business 
of  individuals.     It  does  not  allow  interest  on  deposits. 

Credit. — Goods  are  sold  partly  for  reudy  money,  and 
partly  on  credit,  but  principally  tho  former. 

Commission,  etc. — ^I'he  number  of  brokers  in  Chris- 
tiana is  limited  to  four.  Commission  on  the  sale  of 
goods,  2  per  cent.,  or,  del  credere  included,  3  per  cent. 
Brokerage  is  fixed  by  law  at  5-6ths  per  cent.,  which, 
in  practice,  is  paid  by  tho  sellers. 

Insurance. — All  houses  situated  in  Norwegian  mark- 
et towns  must  be  insured  in  the  General  Insurance 
Company  at  Christiana,  which  is  guaranteed  by  the 
state.  The  premium  is  moderate,  being,  on  buildings 
situated  in  towns,  ^tli,  and  on  those  situated  in  the 
country,  Jth  per  cent.  Sometimes,  however,  when  very 
destructive  fires  occur,  it  is  raised. 

Provisions,  etc. — Christiana  is  not  a  favorable  place 
for  careening  and  repairing  ships ;  but  supplies  of  beef, 
bread,  water,  and  other  sea-stores,  may  be  had  as  cheap 
ur  cheaper  than  in  any  other  port  of  Norway ;  but  its 
distance  from  the  sea  is  too  great  to  allow  of  its  being 
visited  by  ships  desirous  merely  of  victualing.— ^We 
have  derived  these  details  from  various  sources,  but 
principally  from  Consular  Kcturns. 

Timber. — A  standard  Christiana  deal  is  11  feet  long, 
1^  inch  thick,  and  9  inches  broad ;  and  51-2  such  deals 
make  a  load.  Freight  of  deals  from  Norway  to  En- 
gland is  calculated  at  the  rate  of  single  deals,  the  stand- 
aril  measure  of  which  for  Christiana  and  all  the  south- 
ern ports  of  Norway,  except  Dram  (a  small  town  on 
the  Drammen,  about  20  miles  southwest  of  Christiana), 
is  11  feet  long  and  1^  in  thickness,  A  single  deal  from 
Dram  is  reckoned  10  feet  long  and  1^  inch  thick. 

Battens. — Tliree  battens  make  2  deals,  retaining  their 
own  length  and  thickness.  Half  deals  are  only  count- 
ed as  deal  ends,  if  they  run  under  C  feet ;  but  if  they 
run  0  or  7  feet  long,  then  two  half  deals  are  counted  a 
deal,  retaining  their  own  thickness. 

Ends  of  Deals. — Four  ends  of  deals,  although  6  feet 
long,  make  but  a  deal  11  feet  long,  retaining  their 
thickness;  but  as  vho  freighters  of  ships  seldom  wish 
to  have  this  assortment,  which  commonly  run  from 
8  to  6  feet,  and  are  taken  on  board  as  stowage,  con- 
sequently for  the  advantage  of  tho  ship  and  not  the 
freighter,  the  ship  ought  to  bear  tho  burden. 

Ends  of  Jiattens,  called  Lanuick  Palings. — No  lea* 
than  six  ought  to  bo  counted  a  single  deal,  11  feet  long 
and  1^  inch  thick. 

Pale-boards,  when  they  have  their  proper  length,  are 
7  feet  loiig ;  three  pale-boards  are  counted  a  single  deal. 

Slaves  for  hogsheads  take  up  much  room ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  mote  ttutu  t«n  can  not  be  computed  k 
single  deal. 


CHR 


8U0 


CIN 


^'  Obrlatopher  (St.),  or  St  Kltt'a,  on«  of  the  lirlt- 
tth  AVciit  Iiiiliu  isluiids,  Lcewurd  group.  Lnt,  (fort 
Smith)  17°  17'  7"  N.,  long.  60°  42'  2"  W.,  4)!  iiillci 
wett-Dorthwcst  from  Antigua.  Length,  northweat  to 
Mutheiut,  20  miles,  breadth  5  miles,  except  at  Ita 
toDthe»<tem  extremit;-,  where  a  narrow  tongue  ot  land 
extends  toward  the  island  of  Nevis.  Area,  <W  »}UBr« 
milea.  Population  in  1848,  23,127,  of  whom  about 
8uOO  are  whites.  The  island  is  an  irregular  oblong, 
traversed  in  the  centre  from  north  to  south  l)y  a  mount- 
ain ridge  of  volcanic  origin,  in  the  middle  of  which 
rises  the  perpendicular  craggy  summit  of  Ht.  Misery, 
elevation  3711  feet,  and  overhanging  (ho  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano;  from  this  central  ridge  the  land 
gradually  and  uniformly  slopes  to  the  sea,  every  por- 
tion of  which  is  a  rich  fertile  soii,  and  highly  culti- 
vated ;  pasture  and  woodlands  ascending  almost  to  the 
mountaiu  summits.  Four  rivers  water  this  country, 
and  in  the  northeast  there  are  several  salt  ponds,  pro- 
ducing abimdance  of  salt.  Soil  composed  of  loam, 
clay,  and  volcanic  ashes,  in  some  places  with  a  deptli 
of  75  feet,  resting  on  gravel.  Urimstone-hill  consists 
of  granite,  limestone,  and  primary  schists.  Hulphur 
is  found  in  the  central  range,  and  some  indication  of 
silver  ore.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthy ;  mean  an- 
nual temperature  of  coast  80°,  but  the  mornings  and 
evenings  are  cooled  by  sea-breezes.  The  coldest  month 
is  February,  the  warmest  August.  Prevailing  winils, 
northeast  and  southeast;  rains  frequent,  but  not  In 
excess ;  hurricanes  occur  occasionally,  and  a  terrldc 
and  fatal  one  nearly  destroyed  the  island  in  1722,  The 
scenerj',  especially  the  vale  of  liasseterre,  is  rich  and 
beautiful.  The  soil  is  particularly  adapted  for  sugar 
plantations.  Chief  towns,  Basseterre,  the  capital,  anil 
Sandy  Point.  Besides  th>>  parish  churches,  there  are 
throe  Methodist  congregations,  and  several  schools. 
This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  14!i.1,  and 
was  then  densely  peopled  by  Caribs.  In  1625  it  was 
simultaneously  taken  possession  of  by  colonies  of  Kn- 
glish  and  French,  and  divided  into  upper  and  lowitr 
portions.  From  that  period  it  became  the  scene  of 
frequent  and  bloody  contests  between  the  two  nations, 
till  at  last  it  wn;^  iinally  ceded  to  the  Hrjtiith  in  1789. 

Chronometer  (Grecli  xpo^'Kt  >»»',  and  fierpov, 
meamre),  a  watch  of  peculiar  construction,  and  great 
perfection  of  worlcmanship,  used  for  delemiining  geo- 
graphical longitudes,  or  other  purposes  where  time 
must  be  measured  with  extreme  accuracy.  The  chro- 
nometer differs  from  the  ordinary  watch  in  the  princi- 
ple of  its  escapement,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the 
balance  is  entirely  free  from  the  wheels  during  the 
greater  part  of  its  vil)ratian ;  and  also  in  having  the 
balance  compensated  for  variations  of  temperature. 
Marine  chronometers  generally  beat  half  seconds,  and 
are  hung  in  gimluils,  in  boxes  ainut  six  or  eight  inches 
square.  The  pocket  chronometer  docs  not  differ  in 
appearance  from  the  ordinary  watch,  excepting  that 
it  is  generally  a  little  larger.  Chronometers  are  uf 
ir;itnense  utility  in  navigation ;  and  ships  going  on 
n,  'jint  voyages  arc  usually  furnished  with  several,  for 
tiie  purpose  of  checking  one  another,  and  also  to  guard 
against  the  effects  of  accidental  derangement  in  any 
single  one.  The  accuracy  with  wbicli  some  of  the  bel- 
ter sort  of  chronometers  have  txien  found  to  perform  is 
truly  astonisiiing  ;  the  erroi'  in  a  two  months'  voyage 
not  exceeding  two  or  three  seconds. — fite  Dbnt  on  the 
Conttmction  and  Management  of  Chr/morMteri. 

Chmuun,  the  name  given  in  India  to  lime.  The 
best,  ob'.aincd  by  the  calcination  of  shells,  Is  employed 
in  the  mastication  of  bet':l  (wnich  see),  to  prevent, 
it  is  said,  its  injuring  the  stomach. 

Cider  or  Cyder,  a  vinous  liquor  made  from  the 
expressed  and  fermented  juice  of  the  apple.  In  Kn- 
gland,  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Hereford  are  noted 
as  the  cider  counties ;  but  good  cider  is  also  produced 
in  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Monmoulh,  W')rcaster, 
Dorset,  Somerset,  and  Cornwall.   Korwaudy  lutf  ttw^ 


been  known  for  the  oxcclli-nce  of  Its  cider;  and  con- 
sldernlile  quantities  arc  manufactured  in  other  districts 
of  France,  and  also  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  in  North 
America. 

In  F.tigland  the  manufacturo  of  cider  io  almost  en- 
tirety in  the  bands  of  the  common  farmer  so  that  little 
or  nulfilng  has  lieen  done  cither  to  improve  the  machin- 
ery or  bring  science  to  bear  on  the  processes  which  are 
followed,  llence  much  of  the  cider  is  of  inferior  qual- 
ity, nn<!  much  waste  ensues  in  the  manufacture.  The 
applets  for  elder  should  only  be  gathered  when  fully 
ripe,  as  it  Is  only  then  that  they  contain  their  fi:ll  pro- 
portion of  swicliarlnv  matter.  As  the  apples  are  gath- 
ered they  are  laid  In  licaps,  and  are  allowed  to  lie  thus 
from  10  to  no  days.  In  order  1o  became  fully  ripe  or 
mellow.  They  are  then  t-iirown  lnt"  a  stone  trough, 
round  which  a  heavy  circular  stone  is  turned  by  means 
of  one  or  two  horses,  \Vhen  the  apples  era  thoroughly 
ground,  the  pulp  Is  carried  in  pails  to  the  screw-press 
and  poured  into  s<|naro  pieces  of  hair-cloth,  the  edges 
of  tin;  liair-i'loth  lieing  so  folded  over  the  pulp  ns  to 
prevent  any  escaping.  The  pulp  Is  then  suljeclcd  to 
pressure,  when  the  Juice  escapes,  leaving  a  solid  cake. 
The  Juice  Is  now  transferred  to  casks,  w  here  it  rapidly 
undt'rgocs  a  process  of  fes-mcntalior,  without  requiring 
any  addition ;  und  in  three  or  four  days  the  process  is 
compleUtd,  when  It  ii  drawn  of)'  Inlo  casks.  The  best 
cider  is  almost  always  that  in  which  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation has  been  most  slowly  cond;<cted.  M'hcn 
the  fernietilatloii  has  been  rapid  the  cidc/  is  apt  to  run 
to  acidity. 

Ill  Franco  tdveriil  manufacturers  of  cider  have  lately 
employed  impruvod  apparatus  for  mashing  their  ap- 
ph>»,  Komcwiint  similar  to  that  used  for  mashing  the 
itei^t-rool  In  the  manufacture  of  sugar;  and  have  also 
given  s]H>cla)  ntl<-nlian  to  the  management  of  the  proc- 
ess uf  fermentation.  The  quality  of  the  cider  is  siiid 
to  have  been  thereby  greatly  improved.  The  cnke 
after  its  first  pressure  is  sometimes  broken  up  viih 
wat(!r,  and  siilijectFd  to  a  second  pressure,  and  the 
Julcn  It  then  yiidds  fumlshcs,  on  fermentation,  an  in- 
ferior elder,  which  must  lie  socn  used,  as  it  will  not 
keep.  Cider  is  not  lit  to  be  drunk  till  aliout  three 
months  after  It  Is  made,  Goo<l  cider  yieldn  about  6 
|wr  cunt.  »!'  alcohol  on  distillation,  end  thuf>  contains 
iiearl;'  the  same  amount  of  alcohol  as  the  ordinary  bit- 
ter Indian  ales ;  but  the  Inferior  kinds  do  not  contain 
above  half  that  proportion.  Cider  appears  to  be  a  re- 
freshing and  healthful  drink;  and  the  natives  of  the 
cuunti'HS  in  which  It  forms  the  ordinary  drink  arc  rc- 
iiiurlie<l  to  lie  nearly  exempt  fro.n  stone  and  from 
gravel  fomplslnts, — E,  H, 

ClSlira,    Mee  TdUAcio, 

Oinclnnati,  the  metropolis  of  Ohio,  capital  of 
Ilanilllot*  county,  and  the  largest  and  most  coninier- 
clal  place  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  It  Is  sit- 
uated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  45&  U'.iles 
below  I'ittsliurg,  and  VAH  miles  obove  New  Orleans, 
and  MVi  miles  from  Washington,  It  io  the  largest 
city  iif  the  Mississippi  Valley  north  of  New  Orleans, 
and  the  fifth  In  popiilntlon  in  the  United  Stales.  I'op- 
ulatiim  hi  IWH),  750;  in  1810,  2640;  in  1830,  24,8;!1 ; 
In  IHIO,  4(!,3!«;  In  18I&,  66,000;  in  1850,  n6,4i(8;  in 
1868,  \m,M\.  The  suburbs  have  26,000  inhabitants 
odditionar 

This  city  Is  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  a  valley, 
alKiut  twelve  miles  in  circumference,  surrounded  liy  a 
series  uf  hills,  which  rise  to  the  height  of  300  feet  liy 
gciitin  and  •  arylng  slopes,  and  are  partly  covrreil  with 
the  native  lorest  trees.  From  the  summit  of  these  hills 
Is  prest-titei*  a  lieauliful  and  picturesque  view  of  tlie 
city  and  valley.  It  is  built  on  two  table  lands,  thc 
oiie  elevated  from  40  to  60  feet  above  the  ochcr.  Low- 
water  mark  n  the  river,  wliich  is  108  feet  lielow  the 
I  up(icr  part  uf  the  city,  is  432  feet  above  tide-water  at 
'  Albany,  and  IBB  feet  below  the  level  of  Lake  Erie. 
I  Covington  an.1  Mswport,  opyuslte,  In  Kentucky,  and 


CIN 


807 


fitsf 


o  valley, 
dcd  liy  a 
10  feet  hy 
rr(Ml  with 
licse  hills 
iw  of  the 
ands,  tlx' 
Low- 
)elow  the 
water  at 
iko  Erie, 
icky,  and 


Fulton  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Mill  Creek  township 
on  the  north,  aro  but  juburl/s  of  Cincinnati,  and  if 
added  to  the  above  population  would  extend  it  to 
185,000.  The  shore  of  the  Ohio  nt  the  landing  is  sub- 
stantially paved  to  low-water  mark,  and  is  supplied 
with  floating  wharves,  adapted  to  the  great  rise  and 
fal!  of  the  river,  which  renders  the  landing  and  ship- 
ping of  goods  at  all  times  convenient. 

The  C>hio  River  at  Cincinnati  is  1800  feet,  or  about 
one-third  of  a  mile  wide,  and  its  mean  annual  range 
from  low  to  high  water  is  about  50  feet ;  the  extreme 
range  may  bo  about.  10  feet  more.  The  greatest  de- 
pressirrus  are  generally  in  August,  September,  and 
October,  and  tf.e  neatest  rise  in  December,  March, 
May.  and  June,  ihe  upward  navigation  is  in  winter 
very  rarely  Buspe:'ded  by  floating  ice,  and  in  some  win- 
ten  not  at  all.  Its  current  at  its  mean  height  is  about 
three  miles  an  hour ;  vhen  higher  or  rising,  it  is  more ; 
and  when  very  low,  it  does  not  exceed  two  miles 


The  commercial  returns  for  the  year  1856  show 
that  Cincinnati  has  participated  in  the  general  pros- 
perity of  the  West.  The  total  value  of  principal  im- 
ports  for  the  year  ending  September  1,  1850,  was 
175,295,000,  against  107,501,000  the  previous  year; 
and  of  exports  $50,744,000,  against  |38,777,000  the 
previous  year,  showing  an  increase  in  the  value  of  im- 
ports of  $7,794,000,  and  in  the  value  of  our  exports 
(11,967,000:  these  figures  do  not  represent  the  total 
value  of  import^  and  exports  at  Cincinnati.  To  the 
value  of  the  imports  10  per  cent,  may  be  added,  and  to 
the  exports  25  per  cent,,  to  embrace  those  articles  not 
included  in  them.   The  figures  then  would  stand  thus : 

Value  of  imparts $.S2,82B,000 

Value  of  exports 68,480,000 

No  record  being  kept  of  imports  by  the  Cincinnati  cus- 
tom-house officers,  except  those  which  come  under  cus- 
tom-house bond,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  at  its  own 
expense,  keeps  a  record  of  the  imports  and  exports. 


IlirORTB  IKTO  CUiniNNATI  VOB  FlTC  YEABS,  COUHENCIIIO  SKFTSIIBIB  1st,  and  Enm>-a  ACOrST  SlST,  BAOil  Yeab. 


Apples Bnrrelr. 

Beef " 

Uarley Bushels. 

Beans. . .« " 

Butl«i Bam^la. 

Butter FirUaa  and  kegs. 

Coiti Bushels. 

CheeM .^ . .  Boxes. 

Cotton Bales. 

<:otlee Backs, 

Fliur Barrci& 

Hogs Head. 

Lard Barrels. 

Lard Kegs. 

2><olB8>e8 Barrels. 

Pork  and  Bacon  . . .  Ilogshoadgi 
Pork  and  Bacon  . . .  Tioicos. 
Fork  and  Bacon  . . .  Barrels. 

Pork  iu  bulk Pounds. 

Potatoes Barrels. 

Rye BuHhcIs, 

Sugar Hogsheads. 

Sugar Barrels. 

Wheat Bushels. 

Whisky Barrels. 


leto-'ti 


16,S84 

1,101 

111,267 

.  81,08T 

8,269 

11,043 

489,  lUS 

205,444 

T,lfl8 

n,in 

482,172 

111,484 

80,889 

81,087 

«1,490 

0,277 

1,183 

81,696 

14,961 

10,049 

44,808 

29,803 

18,634 

888,660 

244,040 


ISil-'69. 


71,882 

1,009 

89,994 

14,137 

10,203 

18,720 

668,788 

241,758 

12,770 

96,782 

611,042 

160,684 

8fl,Ot7 

82,283 

98,132 

10,333 

1,987 

22,601 

17,417 

20,739 

68,318 

89,824 

16,237 

877,037 

272,78S 


18ti->53. 


19,846 

1,118 

225,844 

20,439 

16,434 

11,831 

723,884 

212,836 

16,860 

109,188 

449,089 

420,604 

61,744 

26,169 

116,112 

16,261 

3,660 

89,617 

«7,2(«) 

16,688 

88,070 

44,299 

24,(XM 

343,649 

280,317 


81,477 

16,971 

1,841 

1,766 

280,636 

204,224 

21,332 

17,173 

10,842 

10,188 

11,692 

7,183 

746,466 

846,e7» 

216,892 

183,379 

22,613 

16.107 

91,426 

114,118 

427,464 

842,772 

626,273 

406,360 

76,094 

63,664 

19,782 

14,881 

86,480 

60,287 

12,164 

6,041 

2,736 

6,770 

89,887 

88,366 

27,986 

19.19T 

86,244 

29,282 

29,692 

63,164 

64,461 

46,963 

26,441 

19,466 

408,084 

487,412 

286,348 

272,165 

In  the  above  table  the  number  of  hogs  does  not  include  those  driven  Into  the  city  or  by  private  conveyance. 


V.ll.TIB  OF  XnE  PBINnVAI   ExPOKTS  FBOM  TUB  POET  OF  CIN- 
CINNATI FOB  THE  Yeabs  ENDINO  AtlUC'ST  8Ut,  1S64-'66. 


Artlnlei 


Alcohol 

Beet',  Barrel  . . . 
B?cf,  Tierces  . . . 

Butter 

Com 

Cheese 

Candles 

Cattle 

Cotton 

Flour  ..". 

Lard 

Ijird-oil 

Pork  and  Bacon  , 

Sugar 

WhlAy 

Othc:'  articles . . . . 
Total. . . 


$.528,838 

202,216 

287,609 

808,636 

00,081 

887,701 

1,067,861 

719,960 

440,924 

l,0'.>4,fli)9 

l,lfc,t.07 

1,807,860 

6,304,(181 

2,010,784 

2,922,612 

20,484.998 


»a8,777,894 


$311,047 

261,694 

122,386 

624,040 

89,426 

464,116 

1,064,476 

602,100 

664,186 

2,096,501 

1,468,00(1 

1,228,728 

8,873,816 

1,986,366 

1,960,896 

27,890,216 


S;  16,432,780 


— HonT's  Merchantt'  Magazine,    Set  Oma 

Cinnabar  (Germ.  Zinnober;  Du.  Cinaber,  Vermili- 
oen;  Fr.  Chmnbre;  It.  Cfinabro;  Sp.  Cii^'brio;  Euss. 
Kinmtar;  Lat.  Cinnnbriiim). 

A'a^n'e  Cinnabar— a  mineral  substance,  red,  heavy, 
and  brilliant.  It  is  found  in  various  places,  chiefly  in 
quicksilver  mines,  being  one  of  the  ores  of  that  metal. 
The  cinnabar  of  tho  Philippine  Islands  is  said  to  bo  of 
the  highest  color;  but  that  of  Almaden,  in  Spain,  is 
the  richest.  Tho  best  native  cinnabar  is  of  a  high 
color,  brilliant,  and  free  from  earthy  or  stony  matter. 

Arti/iivtl  CinnaJnc— "  When  two  parts  of  mercury 
and  one  of  sulphur  are  triturated  together  in  a  mortar, 
the  mercury  gradually  disappeors,  and  the  whole  as- 
sumes the  form  of  a  black  powder,  formerly  called 
Ethiopt  mitunJ.    When  this  mineral  is  heated  i«d  hot, 


it  sublimes;  and  if  a  proper  vessel  be  placed  to  receive 
it,  a  cako  is  obtained  of  a  fine  red  color.  This  cake 
was  formerly  called  cinnabar ;  and,  when  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder,  is  well  known  in  commerce  imder  the 
name  of  vefmition," — Thomson's  Chemistry, 

Cinnamon  (Uu.  Kaneel;  Fr.  Canntlle;  Ger.  Zim- 
met,  Kanehlf  It.  Canella;  Lat.  Cinnaniomutn,  Caneltaf 
Port.  Canella;  >Sp.  Canela;  Pers.  and  Hind.  !><■:  inie; 
Arab.  Daraini;  Malay  Kainanu;  Greek  ;  .  ;<ov), 
tho  bark  of  tht  cinnamon-ticc  {Ijounu  cinnaui„ir.on),  a 
native  of  Ceylon,  where  it  grows  in  great  abundance. 
Cochin  China,  and  perhaps  of  some  other  countries. 
It  is  brought  home  in  bogs  nr  bales  weighing  92J^ 
lbs.  each ;  and,  in  stowing  it,  black  pepper  is  mixed 
with  the  bales  to  prcservn  the  cinnamon.  The  best 
cinnamon  i^  '^in  and  rather  pliable ;  it  ought  to  be 
about  tlu  .ujt.ince  of  royal  paper,  or  somewhat 
thicker ;  is  of  a  IIkIi  t  yellow  color,  at  i  i^roaching  nearly 
to  that  of  Venetian  gold;  it  is  sni' '  ii  and  shining; 
fractures  splintery  ;  has  an  agreeable,  ^varm,  aromatic 
flavor,  and  a  mild,  sweetish  taste ;  when  chewed,  the 
pieces  become  soft,  and  seem  to  melt  in  the  mouth ;  ft 
is  not  so  pungent  but  that  it  may  be  bonis  on  tho 
tongue  without  pain,  and  is  not  succeeded  by  any 
after  taste.  Whatever  is  hard,  thick  as  a  half-crown 
piece,  dark-colored  or  brown,  or  so  hot  that  it  can  not 
bo  borne,  should  be  rejected.  Particular  care  shouh'. 
be  taken  that  it  be  not  false  packod,  or  mixed  with 
cinnamon  of  an  inferior  sort.  —  Milburn's  Oriental 
Commerce;  Maksha'.i.'s  £M<iy. 

Tho  cinnamon  of  Cochin  China  grows  in  the  dry 
sandy  districts  lying  northwest  of  the  town  of  Faifoe, 
between  the  ISth  and  ICth  degrees  of  north  latitude. 


cm 


808 


CIV 


It  U  pnferred  in  China  to  tbo  cinnamon  of  Cnylon. 
The  annual  imports  Into  Canton  and  other  ports  vary 
ftani  250,000  to  800,000  Iba.  There  are  no  fewer  than  tcii 
varietica  of  this  spci  :ic^  in  the  uiarliet  It  is  not  cured, 
like  that  of  Cv.vloii,  >iy  freeing  it  friii.'  the  epidermis.— 
Okawfikii's  Kmbaaiii  to  Siam,  etc.,  p.  476, 

Cinnamon  Muiuipoly. — Down  to  1833,  the  cultivation 
of  cinnamon  iu  Ci^yloii  wrt  restricted  to  a  few  gardens 
In  the  neighborhood  ■'!  Colombo,  tho  prod>i'  tion  and 
sale  of  the  article  b(M:g  wholly  monopoUz  \  t>y  gov- 
ernment. Upon  the  transference  of  the  islund  from 
the  East  India  Coniputiy  to  the  king's  government,  tbo 
former  agreed  to  pay  XGO,000  a  year  fur  400,000  lbs. 
or  4842^  b.ilcs  of  cinnaihun;  it  being  stipulated  that 
If  the  quantity  collected  exceeded  this  amount  the  tur- 
plut  tru.4  'ii  Oe  burned!  Uut  this  agreement  was  after- 
word broVcii  (If;  and  the  cinnamon  was  sent  to  En- 
gland by  .i;ci  vniment,  an<)  sojil  on  its  account  at  quar- 
terly mIm.  Ifho  net  revenue  derived  from  the  cinna- 
mon niori'jiuly,  in  1831,  is  asld  to  hn\e  amounted  to 
i;i27.9<31,  .%.  tho  monopoly  could  not  lie  o  furccd, 
excctit  ly  co';;!.iii.<5  the  colt.iii'  of  cinnamon  lo  "rtain 
districts,  it  i,-:ti;8r''.'i!;i' It'd  (■>  iln  ;!'0(!i  opprcs- i>'0  In- 
te-ierences  witli  tin  n^'Ut  'V  .  ni  :Mm«1p.  to  t;ic  cre- 
ation of  numbei less  iii'aginjry  >  r  ;.  j*,  fciu'  tho  multi- 
plication of  pmtishraei.Ui.  faim  ';,  a  !f«v;  ■'  iwlwck 
upon  the  prosperity  of  tha  island.  I'l  h-V)..  oi  tiieae 
di?sdvanta).;vii  ied  at  Iciiifih  lo  tic  iiboUuon  vi  ihe 
monopoly  syiilem  in  i)NUi,  when  '"iigVii. '  ..  ai-iii  to  K^ 
amenable  to  Ihe  .hs'^-..  uf  ij>lio!iiii-.<f,  •v'.t!  jut  iniprov 
•  ing,  ti!5  worst  psrf.  \if  'hf.  ii.itch  p.>:J  v,  and  rcstiirtil 
to  the  n.-itUcs  their  il.,!"  tij  tultivate  cinnomon  any- 
where and  ;.  any  nay  lb.;-  think  fit. 

Cinqixb  Poria  v.*.  e.  tlic  [ive  porta),  flvc  havens 
on  the  Doutliccstern  cuR..ii  («f  England,  opposite  France, 
and  thus  colled  Ijy  way  of  c-mmeuce,  on  accouat  of 
their  importance  as  snr -;.  uarils  against  invasion.  These 
comprise  Hastings,  Roiiiii^y,  Hythc,  Linger,  aiid  Snnd- 
-■Tich ;  to  which  «ero  aftc;  w  ird  added  tho  two  ancient 
?  >Tvn»  rt(  Wincbelsea  and  K  i  <■.  These  place  i  were  nii- 
\,\!  ntly  dwni^d  of  so  mucli  importance  in  I'ne  defense 
c(  the  kin(;cium  against  invasion,  that  they  vi>coi\ed 
royai  t;isnts  uf  uarticuiar  privileges,  on  condition  of 
proviilii;  -■  during'!  war  a  certain  number  of  ships  ivt 
their  o.^ .  -■■  pensc.  Thoy  arc  governed  by  a  ward-n 
with  the  1.)  i,f  Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinquo  I'orls, 
and  cncli  ).>.-:i'.  the  privilege  formerly  of  returning  to 
I'arUament  uvo  members  under  ..he  title  of  Karons  of 
the  Cinquu  i'orts;  but  since  1831  this  privilege  has 
lieen  confined  lo  Hr>stlng»,  Dover,  and  Sandwicli.  AVe 
*r,  'old  by  Camden  that  William  the  Conqueror  ap- 
pti7.!ed  the  first  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports;  but  their 
charters  are  traced  to  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confess- 
or. The  salary  of  tho  LonI  Waplen  is  .{SOOO  a  yccr. 
E.  B.-r-AV*  CuiTiv'it  Cvmmeri-iai Ijxtv, 

OironmnaviBatora.  Among  tho  greatest  «-id 
most  da)iug  os'  huniau  enterprises  was  the  circuninKV- 
igation  of  the  earth  at  ihe  period  wiien  it  was  lirst  at- 
tempted, .\,i>.  1519.  Tho  first  ship  that  sailed  round 
the  etirth,  an  J  hence  deteimincd  its  being  ,;lobulrr, 
wr  Msgcilan's,  or  Magclhoen's;  he  waf.  a  native  of 
Portufi't,  iu  the  service  of  8pa!n,  and  by  keeping  a 
vestt.  >  course  he  returned  to  the  same  place  h3  had 
ret  out  trom  iu  1519.  Tho  voyage  was  completed  in 
tliree  years  and  twenty-nine  days;  but  Magellan  was 
killed  on  his  homeward  passage,  at  the  Philippines,  in 
1621,— 13UT1.S.H..  The  following  arc  the  most  renown- 
ed of  this  illustrious  class  of  men :  their  vovf-"g  were 
undertaken  at  tbo  dates  affixed  to  their  i.  —Btt 

Mavioavors. 

M«fel'»n,  a  Poriaguc««,  the  fint  who  «nt».    ■    ...  "• 

FbCifii;  Ocean VSVi 

Oroalva,  g  Bpwiish  navigator ...!!."."! 1^3T 

Avalndl,  a  f<panUrd 1537 

Mnndana,  a  Hpanii'vl Kjjt 

RrFrandtsDnike,  :i  »;  English .'  !'".'  IB/T 

J     Cmndlsb,  M«  ant .  M'/ags ,  lugo 

1«  Main,  a  Dutchman ,„,',.'.,..  ita 


Quiros,  aSimnUrd leu 

Tv^man,  iJiitch ;  lU4'i 

Cowley,  nritUh 1088 

Uanip.'jr,  an  Kngllflhnian ,  Tr'-'.i 

Cooke,  an  KtigllKhnmn - .  J"  ..^ 

rilppfrton,  IMtlsh 1719 

<(of(K«weln,  Iiulch .     .  IT';! 

AiiBun  (sflcniunl  Lord).., 1M(> 

Byrou  (gmntlAitlier  uf  Ixjrd  llyroii) lT'^j 

WalllB,  UritUl Jim' 

C'arteiBt,  an  Kiigllfhman 1 JM 

Cook,  tho  illiislriaus  raiituln \Wi 

On  the  death  of  Cupiol'i  l^ook,  hln  '  :ijit  voyage  v  ;.4 

co:iilriicd  by  King ..  lUO 

Jlou(,'«inTlllp,  Fr  ich 1i7t) 

J'ottlocko,  Itrltliii 'V8H 

WllkcB,  American t  :1T 

rTrvllli-,  Krend. 1^31 

Sotc'.il  voyages  luv.-  ti"en  since  uniiu.laken,  and, 
amoui;  .Hher  nation.'^,  I.,  |!;o  liussians. — IIavun. 

Cities,  The  word  -i'l)  lias  been  in  use  in  ICnglan' 
only  since  tho  Conquest,  iit  vbd?!  time  even  London 
was  culled  Liniionburgh.  m  Ihe  > ..j  ital  of  Scotland  ii 
still  c.illf!  ydiiiburgh.  Isu  English  cit.'.s  weio  verj* 
inconsiderable  in  the  twelfth rcniii.y.  C;ii<>n  were  (irt.l 
Incorporated  a.d.  1079.  The  ini.iifjti(  i  of  cities  li.is 
aided  aiucii  in  introducing  reguliir  gov>  ruuients.  )«> 
lice,  mannrrj,  and  arts. — Iioni':ni>  >N. 

Cltrou  (lier.  Succadei  Da.  iSiiHai;  It.  Cm/ettidi 
II  i.  7  •  Sp.  .Ic'iVron  verde;  Kr.  Cilronat  tvrdj,  an  agree- 
i.l>1r.  f  I  uit,  resembling  a  lemon  in  color,  snull,  and  taste. 
Tlio  pii-.nipal  diflcrencc  lies  in  the  juice  uf  the  citron 
being  somewhat  less  acid,  and  tho  ycl!r/W  rind  being 
somewhat  hotter,  and  accompanied  with  a  considera- 
ble bittcrn.ss.— Lewis'  Mat.  Med.  It  ia  imported, 
prcser\'ed  and  candied,  from  Madeira,  i.C  tho  finett 
quality. 

Civet  (Germ.  Zibethj  Du.  Ciret;  Kr,  rieelle;  It. 
j(ibtl!i> ;  Sp,  A  Ijalia),  a  perfume  taken  fi  uni  the  civet 
cat:  it  is  oft'snsive  unless  cxtvemcly  diluted,  und  then, 
in  coml-inatioii  with  other  perfumes,  it  adde  to  their 
energy.  It  is  brought  from  the  Urazils,  Guinea,  and 
llio  interior  of  Africa. 

Civita  Vecohia,  a  fortified  sea-port  tow  n  of  tho 
papal  doininions,  on  the  Mediterranean,  lat.  12°  4'  38" 
N.,  long.  ir  44' 52"E.  Population  7000.  Tho  port 
<i!  Civita  Vccchia  is  artificial,  and  Is  formed  uy  three 
largo  moles.  Two  of  them  projecting  from  the  main 
land,  inclined  ono  to  tho  north  and  tho  other  to  the 
south,  form  tho  sides  of  the  harbor;  while  a  third  mole, 
ur  br;ak'Aater,  constructed  opposite  to  the  gap  be- 
tween the  other  two,  serves  to  protect  the  harbor  from 
tho  heavj  sea  that  would  otherwise  be  thrown  in  by 
tho  wostf  rly  goles.  A  light-house,  having  the  lantern 
elevated  seventy-four  feet  liuovc  the  level  of  the  sea,  is 
erected  on  tho  southern  extremity  of  the  outward  mole; 
the  drst^incc  from  its  extremities  to  the  extremities  of 
tho  laterU  mol'>s,  on  which  there  are  towers,  being  about 
ninety  fathoms.  Vessels  :nay  enter  either  by  Ihe  south 
or  north  end  of  tho  outer  mole,  but  the  southern  chan- 
nel ii  the  deepest,  having  from  eight  to  sl.^  and  four 
f»tbon:a.  Ships  may  anchor  within  the  port,  in  from 
si.Kteen  to  nighteen  feet  of  water;  or  between  it  and 
tho  outer  mole,  where  tho  water  is  deeper.  Within  the 
port  there  L  a  dock  tnd  an  arsenal.— P/ar  1/  Cieita 
Vecfhia. 

Importi  and  AVrpor?*.- Though  the  weolt'  nd  popii- 
lation  of  th  •  country  round  Civita  Vecolii'.  ■'!  ,:miii 
fallen  off  in  modern  timei»  compared  w't!  i  ■•»')',  it 
still  contiTiUcs  to  bo  the  entrepot  of  Rome,  -rosse* 

almost  the  entire  trade  of  the  papal  do   ..  ii  tha 

side  of  the  Mediterranean.     The  inipo  ...t  prin- 

cipally of  cotton,  woolen,  silk, »     .  .  lii;  coffee, 

.lugar,  cocoa,  aud  other  coionial  >  11..!  ,.<(  and  salt- 
ed fish,  wines,  jewelry,  glass  ■  I'sv.'t  -\  ware,  etc. 
Tbo  exports  consist  of  staves  .■:■.  •'r^,.r,  corn,  coal, 
wood,  cheese,  potash,  pumit(.-sto>^  .  1'  m,  from  "V^Xh, 
in  the  vicinity,  and  other  ariit;  i.  • ,.  >  Nitnl  value 
of  the  imports  may  be  reclionea  .  ;,  iron  .  000  to 
£700,000,  and  it  may  be  fairly  presume/  .0  real 

value  of  the  exports  ia  not  much  infer  '  '  *eillei 


1626 
lU4'i 
1683 

r.« 

1710 
1T';1 
IVU' 

,  IV-: 
.  y;«( 
.  nwj 

.  1783 


nd  [lopii- 
"1  .lui'n 
i  ■■y.'y,  it 

,  KSSt'S 

.1  th3 
.jt  prin- 
s;  coffeo, 
and  aalt- 
ivarc,  etc. 
corn,  coal, 
rom  Tolh, 
itiil  value 
.  000  to 
tO  real 
>      laillea 


CLA 


80^ 


CfyK 


and  Ocnon  have  thu  largest  share  of  the  foreign  trade 
ot  Uivita  Vcccliia,  and  next  to  tlicm,  Kngland. 

Duties. — Civita  Vccchia  is  a  free  port ;  that  is,  a  port 
Into  which  produce  may  ho  imported,  and  cither  con- 
■unicd  or  re-exported,  free  of  duty. 

Qum-antine  rpgulations  are  strictly  enforced,  no  vcs- 
iel  with  a  foul  hill  of  healtlf  being  permitted  to  enter 
any  of  the  papal  ports. — Annunire  Ju  Commerce  Man- 
Hm-,  torn.  ii.  p.  806,  etc. 

Claret,  onu  of  tho  fcest  French  wines.  It  is  de- 
rived fro.n  tho  Latin  Clarettim,  from  Clarere,  to  bo 
clear. — tiee  the  articles  Bordeaii-X  and  Wine. 

ClarifioatiOD,  the  act  of  clearing ;  particularly  thn 
rltfaring  or  lining  of  liquids  fron,  feculent  matter  by  tho 
sf^paratlon  of  the  insoluble  particles.  This  is  perform- 
ed by  depuration,  filtration,  or  coagulation.  The  sub- 
stances usually  employed  for  clarifying  liquors  arc 
tlio  albumen  of  eggs,  blood,  and  isinglass.  Tho  firit 
two  are  used  fur  such  liquors  as  are  clarified  while 
boiling  hot;  the  last  for  those  which  are  clarified  in 
tho  cold  state,  as  wines,  etc.  The  whites  of  eggs  are 
beaten  up  into  a  froth  and  mixed  willi  tlio  liquor, 
when  tliey  unite  with  and  entangle  tiio  impure  mat- 
teiB  that  float  in  it,  and,  presently  coagulating  by 
tho  lieat,  carry  these  impurities  up  to  tho  surface  in 
the  form  of  scum.  Hlood  operates  in  the  same  manner. 
Isinglass  is  mucli  employed  for  lining  wines.  For  tills 
purpose,  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  may  be  tiirown 
into  tho  ca9l{,or  the  isinglass  may  bo  jircviously  dis-  j 
solved  and  boiled  down  to  a  slimy  consistence.  It  is  ; 
then  mixed  with  tho  liquor  l>y  rolling  the  cask  about; ! 
after  whieli  it  is  allowed  to  settle.  | 

Clearing,  among  London  bankers,  is  a  method  adopt- 
ed for  exchanging  tiio  drafts  on  each  other's  houses, 
and  settling  ttie  difTerences.  Thus,  at  half-past  three 
o'clock,  a  clerk  from  each  bank  attends  at  tho  clearing- 
house, where  he  brings  all  the  drafts  on  tho  other  bank- 
ers which  have  l)een  paid  into  his  house  that  day,  and 
deposits  them  in  their  proper  drawers  (a  drawer  being 
allotted  to  each  banker) ;  he  then  credits  their  accounts 
separately  with  the  articles  which  they  have  against 
him,  as  found  in  tho  drawer.  Ualnnces  are  then  struck 
from  all  the  accounts,  and  tho  claims  transferred  from 
one  to  another,  until  they  are  so  wound  up  and  can- 
celed that  each  clerk  has  only  to  settle  with  two  or 
three  others,  and  their  balances  arc  immediately  paid. 

Clearing-house,  the  place  where  the  operation 
termed  clearing  is  carried  on.  The  London  cleariiig- 
hou.ic  was  established  some  years  since,  for  tho  conveu- 
ienco  of  bankers  and  joint-stock  bank.':  in  tho  metrop- 
olis by  facilitating  thi  transfer,  1.  ,jidaLiun,urexchangc 
of  bank  check'  .mi  bills.  This  object  is  fully  acconi- 
plishod  by  each  party,  or  some  one  reprcaeiiting  it, 
meeting  at  a  fixed  place,  at  a  fixed  hour  per  day,  to 
deliver  checks  on  each  other,  and  receiving  in  return 
checks  on  themselves,  or  casii  to  balance.  It  follows, 
necessarily,  that  the  payments  and  receipts  daily  must 
exactly  counterbalance  each  other.  Tho  utility  of 
this  arrangement,  its  economy  of  tiino  and  labor,  und 
avoidance  of  risk,  may  be  estimated  fVom  thu  fait  that 
the  annual  clearings  for  o""  year  ClP.'i',))  au.ou  'oj  to 
JEfl54,0O0,O00 sterling  oro-  US,',  '■■' Q'n  eachliis  ness 
day.  Intheycurl810,  tli>  1  u^e  p;i,  m;  nls  ui  clear- 
ings were  |>4,700, 000  <•   ■  '     en  an  average. 


Tlie  New  York  >.)«<trini{-h(**(«*  #«»  established  in 
1863,  and  «  mmituim  mipii'ii  Id  fteplember  of  timt 
year,  wlieii  Miy4wuiif  (Iw  imnk<<  ut  (he  city  were  ri|.- 
lescnted  and  \menmf>  mmn^mn,  Oberailons  were  lom- 
inented  lbs  •cwii4  »««(*  fw  ilaUmt,  1868,  and  have 
been  carried  «H  r«i{Ml»f1^  CVCC  «!«(■«, 

Tho  hour  hr  nmkmti  ¥mSmim  ut  iho  clearing- 
house  U  10  u'^^nvV.  4,w,,  <ti\im  «M  (he  tdecks  or  bills 
of  eacli  bank  Me  MU^mi  !(/  m  tlctlt,  and  distributed 
by  the  ma»9(jBr  Uf  lli»  »«>si«l«Hl  («  (ho  elcfk  or  repre- 
sentative of  tlifl  hmU  fi'i>\Wi'{\<is\f,  At  1  o'clock  I'.M., 
tho  debtor  b»Hks  jwj'  to  (ll(*  imm^ff  (lie  balanccB 
against  tliam,  eUhff  ill  mill  itf  ill  (fdiik  certifloates— 
(he  latler  (^jirsMllfJH^f  mti  ««(!  Used  only  by  and 
among  the  btjHks,  U)  iViM  tile  l!»ffiing  of  specie  to 
and  from  tlw  nkufililS^twiim,  M  (h«  name  hour  the 
creditor  b«|i|(8  m-vhn  ffimi  tJifi  (««(i«g«r,  at  (he  same 
jdace,  tho  respwKyn  Mhiuv^  lUuHn  (hetn.  Tho  man- 
ager rccciven  #  sslrtfj-  i)(  IfmHI,  md  (ins  two  clerks 
under  him.  Tfm  wsjiMC**  itf  Ins  (■((■afing-houso  are 
borno  by  «  t»x  upiin  flw  I'Uf  titillU»  «lio  are  members, 
now  fifly-llireu  Ul  »H..  Ulinkit  (wvllig  n  cflpilal  less 
than  |5iW,0«0  |»/»y  fM(((  mitli  Hlilimih;  less  than 
|l,000,i).')0  pay  1>-i(lH,  »)i4  tium  <**er  i»i,iKm,000  pay 
iiWO  each,  ailJlMKtlj', 

TRAsBkennsntUffUH  fim  ^'im  I'l.fMl^n-lliwBK^raml  im 
VMUtiKurt-moiT,  nriiiWKf  islliii  in  iliKtIint  1,  1S!S6. 


1809, , 


\m/. 


Octobti', 
Niiveinlwr, 
Decenibur, 
January, 

Ki'bruury,  ■■?  . . 

Murcli,  »  . 

April,  ''  .. 

M»y,  »  .. 

June,  »>  .', 

,)iiiy,  »»  ;,; 

August,  II  , . 

BeptcmWi  "  ■; 

Tot*l.,, 

October,  l!!(>4. 

Noveiiiher,  -  . 

Uccejuber,  *'  , , 

,)aiiuiiry,  16'i<i, 

I'Vbniai-y,  ''  . 

Murcli,  »  . 

April,  »•'  . 

M«y,  »  ,. 

J  ma*,  II  . 

July,  '>  ', 

August,  »  , 

Urpteuiber,    "  , 
Tot#)-, 


!m,m\-^i  (f 

4lxiMiMli«U 
4tiiAiit.:mii 

«f-(i'M4lt«» 
+i|i,('4«j(l(»4« 

»5.-,||J'i,(!«?  ,/f, 

44i,m:ltlfi  (;( 

mmMi  iH 


.tl(i,H:i«,276  26 
24.216,666  68 
37,611,806  47 
28,106,400  96 
2,1,204,241  75 
!ri,0S!),OS611 
24.484.428  40 
20.^,'il,988SO 
i/l,163,9910ri 
26.549,709  M 
«».fi01,44«S8 
211,722,465  47 

.1t2t<7,4l  1,493  69 

!)r:'4,r/r4,949  04 
22,240,«tl6  87 
23.«28,M;>  70 
2H,ItJ9,l(>8ll9 
2(M:07,744  42 
94.I,';4,OT1  12 
24. 14-4. 099  62 
iti,M»,M8  94 
•211,769,646  97 
27,300,618  8.1 
2».4-26,106  80 
84.746,618 116 
>2»»,0»4,788  14J 


Tho  following  t»l))i8  «f)/l»S  fh«i  lifietKtiMIs  of  the 
clearing-house  at  Hnw  Ynfk  i^JHW  ft«  CrtllKrtencement : 


Y«M  •u4iv^ 

1 

OcUilwf  ),  16f(> 1 

"           l»W..., 
"          JSM . . , . 
"          1867..,, 

"             ItK*!*..., 

■;;; 

t't^ini  ^ifiikhgt'. 

fiHlnneet. 

$297,411,493 
2S9,e^4,7:i8 
»»(,714,4S9 
(t(:6,S13,n01 
314,238,908 

l'i39. 

,<r  |i>la 

.^ll);.n(U. 

Bsnk-iioUj. 

Per  I  cr/l. 

.laituary 

Februaiy  

March 

April 

CSli,7fi2,40O 
76,104,700 
76,879,200 
8^8S9,^00 
60,687,600 
67,413,900 
83,80,1,200 
87,  MO.BO^ 
74,i!87,700 
87,478,200 
81,729,200 
70,888,800 

£6,b48,600 
4,9tiO,20rt 
6,621,600 
6,886,000 
r  •V'.6,000 
l),000,000 
6,284,800 
6,164,901) 
5,129,800 
.\706,800 
4.793,100 
4,766.000 

i;7-«7a 

6613 
7-408 
6-800 
6  ■884 
7-606 
7-493 
7-087 
6-910 
6-624 
6-866 
6-718 

Mty ;,. 

.1.  :  ■ 

A'J|<ust 

Hcptember  .... 

October 

Novuinbcr 

llMjcmber 

Total.,.. 

i  .'54,401  ,<"^ 

.  J(,',376,60(9 

£6-944 

The  Philudelplifif  (cJa»f}Hg.-||(i((ij<<  cviyttweyiced  business 
March  2^1,  lu.iS,  Tfw  uifinfiim  faf  (lie  tear  (to  Dec. 
81)  were  ♦6();i,7i»?,29«,  mi  mniim  imui  *4-i,773,t28. 

l'!io  Boston  c|eiiri»g--llim'!l<  #«#  (yfganlr.cd  in  that 
city  8u'pf"nil)er  2i5,  4.(».-  I«A/),  »ml  «rtrt(i(fnced  busi- 
iiesf  .Man-li  29,  4,11,  J«ft(j,.  All  «(!»  builks  in  (he  city 
(thirty-live  in  MW»lb»v|-)  nf^  imimlfil  »i(h  (he  institu- 
tion, reprcsi-itioo  •  c#j,j(((t((f|!f<f.(*Wi,(,(|ft,  Tfioexecii 
tivo  coininil  e  fufttj.-.^  »f  fintt  ^MKlcrtlcti,  all  of  wiiit-h 
arcpresidei)  ■  of  buiifcf .  tlw*  («f«1 'iiiiisacdoTis  from 
its  c',mmenceiji?nf  U)  Sp'VWiifl  <1"(llj  JS.Ofi,  artiminted 
to  :,'l,060,390,«)l,  fiix  MwllUHfi*'  ikiik  in  the  de- 
pof  itory  liaiik  for  fll*  imi^lti  lifimH  lit  coltl  from  the 
several  banks  eummm  ^UU  (tic  «S«rt(-ifl(iirti. 

Cleveland,  fit^.  mH  itf  fiiitfi  hM  th«  eapKal  of 
Cuyahoga  county,  OhU),  tm  Hlf  mnh  piinfB  of  Lake 
Krie.  l,ut.  41' il^'W,,  |i»flg..K|"4f' W.  the  population 
in  170U  consisted  of  ww  (Sw/J!',  i  Jrt  iWf)  (tbwit  500  in- 
habitants  j  1«  1880,  !(««( i«  UM,  im^  h  1«10,  6071 ; 


CLO 


810 


CLO 


in  1860,  17,084;  >nd  io  1861,  about  25,000;  and  with 
the  addition  of  Oliio  City,  7000  more,  making  a  total 
of  32,000.  Cluvclaiid  is  tlie  emporium  of  Nortlieni 
Oliio,  and,  next  lu  Cincinnati,  the  moat  Important  town 
in  tlie  Stale ;  poMvucsacommauding  situation  on  Lalte 
Eric,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  Itiver,  and  the 
northern  torniinaliou  of  the  Ohio  Canal,  by  wlitcli  it 
is  connected  with  the  Ohio  River,  and  by  railroad  to 
New  Yorlt,  to  Duflalo,  to  Philadelphia  via  Pittsburg, 
to  Cincinnati,  to  Chicago.  It  is  180  miles  northwest 
from  Pittsburg,  146  northeast  from  Columbus,  200  by 
water  from  Uuffalo,  ISO  from  Detroit,  and  859  from 
Washington.  The  value  of  im|)orts  In  1861  amount- 
ed to  (22,804,169;  exports  same  year  amounted  to 
f  12,026,497.  The  licensed  and  enrolled  tonnage  of 
Uie  district  for  1861  was  30,070  tons ;  11,356  steam,  and 
24,016  sail.  The  harbor  of  Cleveland  is  formed  by  the 
mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  River,  and  improved  by  a  pier 
on  each  side,  extending  425  yards  into  the  lake,  200  feet 
apart,  and  faced  with  substantial  stone  masonry.  Cleve- 
land has  a  ready  coniniunicati  n  with  New  York  tin 
railroad  and  tho  Erie  Canal,  wii. .  Philadelphia  by  rail- 
road and  canal,  with  Cincinnati  l>y  railroad,  and  with 
the  Ohio  River  by  the  Ohio  Canal,  and  It  exports  much 
bythowayofthcWcllandCanaltoCanodn. — AVpOiiio. 

Clock,  Clocks  (Oer.  I'/iren,  diour  f'hren,  M'iaii- 
dunrhei  Va.  Uuren,  ['unoerteii,  lloroliKjinn ;  Fr.  Ilor- 
loget;  It.  (.In'tnggi,  Oriuoii;  Sp.  Jielojm ;  Kuss.  Tsi'hatii), 
a  kind  of  machine  put  in  motion  by  a  gravitating 
l>ody,  and  so  constructed  as  to  divide,  measure,  and 
indicate  tho  successive  portions  of  time  with  very 
great  accuracy.  Most  clocks  mark  the  hour  by  strik- 
i:!g  or  chiming.  It  is  a  highly  useful  instrument,  and 
is  extensively  employed  for  domestic  and  philosophical 
purposes.  Clocks  are  made  of  an  cmlless  variety  of 
materials  and  models,  so  as  to  suit  the  difTcrcnt  uses 
to  which  they  are  to  be  applied,  and  tho  different  tastes 
of  their  purchasers.  The  Gcmmna,  Dutch,  and  Amer- 
icans are  particularly  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  the 
manufacture  of  clocks ;  while  tho  Kngliiih,  French,  and 
Uenevese,  especially  the  former,  have  curried  the  art 
of  making  metallic  clocks,  so  us  to  kce|>  time  with  the 
greatest  precision,  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The 
history  of  the  invention,  introduction,  and  successive 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  clocks,  has  been 
carefully  invcHtigatcd  t)y  some  very  learned  and  in- 
dustrious antiquaries  (aee  Bkckm.xnn's  Hist,  oflnven- 
tiotu,  vol.  i.  p.  419-462,  English  cd. ;  and  Rees'  Cy- 
clopedia); but,  notwithstanding  these  researches,  the 
subject  is  still  involved  in  con8i<lerable  obscurity.  It 
seems,  however,  that  the  iiiiddio  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury moy  be  regarded  as  the  epoch  when  clock  h,  !\aving 
weights  suspended  us  a  moving  power  and  a  regula- 
tor began  to  bo  introduced.  The  period  when,  and 
tlie  individual  l)y  whom,  the  pfndulum  was  first  ap- 
plied to  clwk-work,  have  Iicen  flulijccts  of  much  con- 
tention. Unlilco  und  Iluygens  have  disputed  the 
honiir  (if  Ihp  discovery.  "But  whoever  may  have 
been  the  inventor,  it  is  certain  that  tho  invention  never 
6ouriBhed  till  it  came  into  the  hands  of  Iluygens,  who 
insists  that  if  ever  Galileo  thought  of  such  a  thing, 
he  never  brought  it  to  any  degree  of  perfertlon.  Tho 
first  pendulum  clock  made  in  England  was  in  the  year 
1662,  by  one  Fromantel,  a  Dutchman."— IIdtton's 
Math.  IHctumary. 

The  origin  of  clock-work  is  involved  in  great  ob- 
scurity. Notwithstanding  the  statements  by  many 
writers  that  clockn,  horiilmjin,  were  in  use  so  early  as 
the  ninth  century,  and  tliat  they  were  then  invented 
by  an  archdeacon  of  Verona,  nomed  Facificus,  there 
appears  to  lie  no  clear  evidence  that  they  were  na- 
chines  at  all  resembling  those  which  have  been  use 
for  the  last  five  or  six  centuries.  But  it  is  certain 
that  for  that  period  at  least  clocks  have  been  n^  >de 
depending  on  the  action  of  a  weight  on  .1  train  of 
wheels,  as  distinguished  from  the  wator-cloeks,  cli-p- 
tytha,  wblcU  art  well  known  to  have  bien  uiied  many 


centuries  before.  We  will  refer  lb*  raedar  who  il 
curious  about  It  to  the  articles  on  clocks,  *t«,,  In 
tho  Unci/cloiitdia  lirilaimictt  and  llw  various  work* 
there  citeil.  We  will  only  add  to  the  lilfurtiiMiim 
there  given,  that  it  appears  fruni  a  couiiuuiilcatluii  ut 
Captain  Smith  to  tho  Antiquarian  tiucliity  in  INAI, 
that  there  is  still  a  clock  in  existence  ut  Uiivur  (JastU 
bearing  the  date  1348,  earlier  by  thirty  years  lliail  IJMt 
of  tho  clocU  made  by  De  Vlck  fur  the  |iulut'«  of  llw  Km* 
peror  Charles  V.,  which  has  generally  buuii  iUiur\\m\ 
us  the  earliest  clock  of  which  the  actual  roii>trili.'tliiii 
is  known.  Mr.  Denison  also,  in  bis  UuJitiu  iiliiry  Tri  ui- 
ue  OH  Clocks  (of  whicli  we  have  largely  avslieil  our- 
selves  throughout  this  artlchi,  and  also  uf  various  \m- 
pcrs  liy  him  in  the  Cainbrldgo  l'liil»supliical  Traiisae- 
tions,  und  the  Journal  of  llie  Society  of  Arts),  menllimn 
a  clock  in  Peterborough  Cathedrul,  still  in  use  »«  to 
the  striking  part,  of  which  tho  cunslruction  Is  itiiirf 
like  that  uf  the  Dover  Castle  cluck  than  tliat  uf  U* 
Vick  ;  and  Lord  Chief  Justice  Coke  tells  us  that  a  <iu<-'k 
was  set  up  in  Westminster  Hall  in  the  tblrtiieMtk  cttii' 
tury  out  of  a  fine  levied  on  one  of  his  pr«d«!ci<ssurs  in 
that  seat,  from  which,  perhaps,  the  appropriate  liisi'rl|t- 
tion  Diicite  jutliliam  moniti  was  cuiii«it  uu  lu  the  suit* 
dial  on  a  bouso  now  facing  tlie  hall. 

The  clock  called  the  clepsydra,  or  water'UliH'k,  Wlf 
introduced  at  Rome  158  B.C.  by  Hciplo  Naslua,  Tuiitlwd 
wheels  were  .iiipllcd  to  them  liy  Cleslblus,  uliui4t  UO 
D.c.  Suld  to  iiave  %ecn  found  by  Cissar  on  flivadlliK 
Britain,  65  ii.c.  The  only  cluck  supposed  to  lie  lltdti 
in  tho  world  ■va,"  sent  by  Pope  Paul  I.  to  I'epiii,  killK 
of  France,  A.i>.  7)30.  Pacificus,  arcbdeucuii  uf  V»runa, 
invented  one  in  the  ninth  century.  Originally  III* 
«  heels  were  three  feet  iu  diunieler.  The  earliest  i.'utn' 
pictc  clock  of  whicli  there  It  any  ccrlain  roi'ori]  WM« 
made  by  a  Saracen  mechanic,  in  tin)  Ihirtt'vntti  iieB- 
tury. 

Tho  srapciucnt,  ascril:  i  to  Oerbcrt,  A.n, . , , . , , ,  1000 

A  clock  oomtriirti'd  )>y  Ricliard,  sliliut  at  Mt,  Al>.sii's, 

about , ,,,,  IIIM 

A  striking  clock  in  ^Vi  >tinliistcr , , , , ,  Vm 

A  porfec  t  <iiie  niudc  at  I'uriH  by  Virk lomi,,,,  lltfO 

'I he  tirfit  ]H>rtah1e  c>ne  iiiude .,.,,,,,,,,,,,,  ItiSO 

In  Knalaiid  no  clock  went  ncc uratelv  h'furr  Ihal  »>l  up 

at  mnipton  Court  (maker'd  inlliiiff,  N.  O.) 1040 

Kichard  Ilarrts  («ho  ereited  a  clock  In  tli»  churrli  (it 

St  raul's,  Coveiil  (.'iiidtnj  and  the  yonngir  IlitUUii 

conetnicted  the  penduhnii , ,  >  >  1041 

Christian  Iluygens  contcrled  tliiii  dlwnvcry,  sn4  msda 

his  pendulum  clock  lonie  time  ijrevloUHly  to. . . , . . ,  .  I'lr'H 
Froumntel,  a  Dutchman,  impruved  the  uciraiiluiu,  abuH*  .( 'X' 
IlepcatliiK  clocks  and  Kalrheii  Invented  uy(i«rl»ir,al>'j|a  jilTO 
The  dead  beat,  and  horlsontul  escxiieiueiils,  lij  Un\i»l«, 

oLout , , (TOO 

The  sul>seqnent  improvements  were  the  spiral  liakn«« 
spring  suggested,  and  the  d'.iplcx  scaiwinent  invmilell 
by  Dr.  Ilooke ;  pivot  holes  jeweled  by  Fucio ;  Ihn  de- 
tached scapement  invented  by  Hudge,  and  iniliroVAd 
by  Bertlioud,  Arnold, Eamshaw, and  ouicrs,— iMrd*. 

Clocks  ini)iorted  into  the  United  Stal«s  pay  ii  duly 
of  30  per  cent. ;  watches,  JO  per  cent.  Of  cluck*,  the 
value  imported  in  the  fiscal  year  1864 -'65  wes|l«y,MH( 
watches,  #3,051,187. 

Olive-oil  is  most  onimonly  uHed  in  lubrlcatlnji 
clock  machinery  and  j , eventing  too  great  war.  Wf, 
believe,  however,  that  animni  oil  is  lietU-r  than  «t'y 
of  the  vegetable  oils,  as  some  uf  llicni  are  too  tliln, 
while  others  soon  get  thicl.  and  viscid.  For  luirrt 
clocks  and  comnjon  house  clocks,  good  »|«'rni  ull  Is  (In* 
enough,  and  is  proliably  the  best.  Vnr  liner  work  III* 
oil  requires  some  pnrillcnflon.  Even  euninion  n««t'il- 
foot  oil  may  be  made  extremely  film  and  <  leur  by  lh< 
following  method:  mix  it  with  about  tin  >e  i|ii«n> 
tity  of  water,  and  shake  it  in  a  largo  bottle,  nut  f'  I. 
until  it  becomes  like  a  white  soup;  then  /cl  ii  '<  > 
till  fine  oil  appears  at  the  top,  v.blch  0isv  be  sblii  u,''J 
off;  It  will  Uke  several  months  ImfuTu  It  hat  all  "'i 
arated  into  water  at  the  bottom,  dirt  In  the  mid4l«,  ••  'i 
fine  oil  at  the  top.  And  it  shuuhl  not  l>a  dune  In  i  ' 
weather,  becauM  heat  makei  some  oil  come  out «» litti 


CLO 


811 


CLY 


,t,,f 

1«00 

»U*$t 

19M 

}Mi 

t»tt* 

l^ffO 

IMO 

Hup 

,, , , . 

IMO 

bof 

men 

m\ 

ii»d« 

i«f,ti 

tlwM' 

..w 

lliOkl 

)BTa 

ham, 

ITiid 

which  in  roll!  would  rpiiiaiii  umonK  the  dirty  oil  in  the  I 
midillu,  mill  ill  L'lilii  weitthur.tliut  lino  oil  uf  hut  wonth- 
er  will  liei'iiinn  iiiiiiidy.     'i'hero  aru  vurious  VKgetahlo  i 
oil*  aoi'l  at   liiiil-iiliu|i«  as  uil  for  watchea,  including  ' 
•onio  Tor  wliicli  a,  prize  uiedul  wui  awurdud  in  the  Kx-  j 
hiliition,  liiit  nut  l<y  any  uf  tlio  mechanical  juries ;  wc  | 
havn  iiu  iiil'urinutiun  aa  to  tlic  text  wliich  waa  applied  , 
to  it,  anil  iiune  Imt  actual  u»e  fur  a  coniiidurablo  time 
wniilii  li«  of  imiili  value.      We  iiave  heard  of  6  )wr 
cent,  ill  puwiT  licini;  Haved  in  a  manufavtury  l>y  the 
UKo  of  Hpcrni  inntcaii  uf  .sweet  uil  to  amall  aplndlea  re- 
quiring cunatiint  tulirieatiun, — E.  li. 

ClOBe-'hauled ;  that  ia,  the  tai'ka  cloae  down,  the 
slieeta  lift,  the  yurda  liruRod  aharp  up,  and  the  liow- 
linea  liiiuled,  the  whip  mal<iiiK  her  progrcsa  ub  near  the 
direction  of  the  wind  Aa  alie  can. 

Cloth.  lioth  woolen  and  linen  cloth  were  known 
In  very  early  tiniea.  Coarao  wuolena  wore  introduced 
into  Kn^land  A.ii.  1191 ;  and  aevenly  funiiliea  of  cloth- 
worknrH  from  the  Netlierlanda  aettled  in  Kn^laiiil  I'y 
Kilward  III. 'a  invitation,  and  tiie  art  uf  weuvinK  waa 
thcreliy  introduced,  11)111. — Kvmkb'h  /•With.  Woulena 
were  llrat  in.tde  at  Kendal  in  13!)0.  Medlcya  were  maii- 
ufacliired  1U14.  The  line  KiiKliah  liruad-clutha  were  yet 
sent  to  llulliind  to  lie  dyed,  lUu-l.  Dyed  and  dreaaud  in 
KiiKiiuid  liy  one  llrewer,  from  the  l.uw  Countriea,  1007. 
The  manufacture  waa  discounigcd  in  Ireland  and  that 
of  linen  couolenuiiceil,  at  the  requcat  of  both  Houses  uf 
Parliament, , 1 0'.t8. — IIayun,     Ute  Wool.. 

Clover  (<ier.  Kite;  Du.  KUwer;  Fr.  Trefile,  Jm- 
trrae.  It.  TriftH/lio ;  Sp.  Ti-ebol;  Husa.  Trilislnikj  Lat. 
Trif  iltwn),  a  very  important  species  of  grass.  Some 
of  tiio  species  in  cultivation  are  annual,  others  biennial 
or  triennial,  and  other)  perennial.  The  seed  used  fur- 
merly  to  lie  principally  imported  from  Holland ;  but 
that  whicii  ia  raiaed  in  England  is  now  said  to  be  of  a 
BupiTior  quality.  (Culture  for  aeed  ia,  lirwover,  very 
IiriMiirioua,  and  of  uncertain  profit.  For  crops  of  hay 
niid  ^raaa  seeds  (including  clover)  raised  in  the  United 
St.itus,  »ee  art.  Uav. 

Cloves  (Ger.  Niii^ein,  Gewurznelken ;  Du.  Kruid- 
n'lf/flen;  Fr.  Clous  tlf  giri'jk,  (liroflrf;  It.  C/iiovi  di  i/n- 
ri>}hna,  (larofunt,  liarvffvli;  Sp.  C'Idi'oa  de  rtpeciit,  C7a- 
viUnt,  KusB.  Iliiofdikn;  Arab.  Kerenfiil;  Malay,  Chan- 
ker),  the  fruit,  or  rather  cup  of  the  unopened  liowerN 
of  the  clove-tree,  or  Cdri/op/ii/ltiu  iirotmitirus.  Tho 
clove-tree  ia  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  where  it  was 
originally  found ;  but  planta  have  aincc  been  carried 
to  Cayenne  and  other  places,  where  they  succeed  tol- 
erably well.  Cloves  are  shaped  like  a  nail,  whence 
tho  name,  from  the  French  Jou,  nail.  They  are  Im- 
ported from  the  Dutch  aettlenienta ;  the  beat  in  chests, 
and  an  inferior  kind  in  bags.  The  beat  variety  of  the 
Amlioyna  cloves  ia  smaller  and  lilackcr  than  the  other 
varieties,  very  scarce,  and,  as  a  mark  of  pre-eminence, 
is  termed  the  royal  clove.  Good  cloves  have  a  strong, 
fragrant,  aromatic  odor;  and  a  liot,  acrid,  aromatic 
taste,  wliicli  ia  very  iiermanent.  Tin  v  ehould  lie  chosen 
large  aired  perfect  in  all  parts;  the  color  should  lie  a 
dark  lirown,  almoat  approaching  to  black ;  and,  when 
handled,  should  leave  an  oily  moisture  upon  thu  fin- 
gers. Good  cloves  are  sometimes  adulterated  by  mix- 
ing them  with  tliose  from  which  oil  has  lieen  drawn ; 
but  these  are  yi<  ke'  .^  '.n  the  rest,  and  of  a  paler  col- 
or; and  whenever  tliey  look  shriveled,  having  lost  t'le 
knob  at  the  top,  and  are  light  and  broken,  with  but  lit- 
tle smell  or  taste,  they  ahoul'l  be  rejected.  As  cloves 
readily  absorb  moisture,  ^  t  uncommon,  when  a 

quantity  is  ordered,  to  ..    •■,;  •.  -".n  beside  a  vesael  of 
water,  by  which  moanx  a  \:i  imii'crabT]  addition  is  mai'o 
to  their  w^eight. — TirvMSo!   ■  LHsy  ^n^  tory ;  1Sii,nvii^'s 
■ental  Commerce, 

'oliry  ofilv.  Jhtlch  tu  to  the  Tradf  ;;.  Cloves. — From 
th  :  expulsion  of  the  English  from  Ainboyua,  in  1623, 
the  Dutch  have,  a  few  short  intorvala  only  excepted, 
enjoyed  tho  exclusive  'w  sa'^asion  of  the  Moluccas,  or 
Clove  Islsada.    Ir '.aei        daotM  to  Ute  clove  trade, 


they  have  cxhililte<l  a  degree  of  short-sighted  rapacity, 
which  hiia  lieen,  wo  lielicvc,  seldom  equaled  even  In 
the  annals  of  monopoly.  Their  object  has  not  lieen  to 
encourage  the  growth  and  trado  of  cloves,  but  to  con- 
line  liotli  withhi  the  narrowest  limits.  They  have  pre- 
ferred deriving  a  large  prolit  from  u  stunted  and  petty 
trade  to  a  moderate  prolit  from  n  trade  that  might 
have  afforded  eniplnymont  for  n  very  large  amount  of 
capital ;  and  to  prevent  their  narrow  and  selfish  proj- 
ects from  being  counteracted  by  the  operationa  of  tho 
natives,  they  have  subjected  them  to  the  moat  revolt- 
ing tyranny,  "  That  they  miglit,"  saya  Mr.  Crawfurd, 
"  regulate  and  control  production  and  price  Just  as  they 
thought  proper,  tho  clove-trees  were  extirpated  every 
where  but  In  AmlMiynu,  the  seat  of  their  power ;  and 
the  surrounding  princes  were  brllied  by  annual  sti- 
pends to  league  with  them  for  the  destnicfion  of  their 
sulijects'  property  and  lilrth-right.  Tliia  plan  waa  be- 
gun uliout  the  year  lliHi.  The  contracts  are  still  In 
furce,  and  an  annual  fleet  vlaita  the  aurrnunding  ial- 
Biids  tc  suppress  the  growth  of  cloves,  whicli  in  their 
native  country,  spring  up  with  a  luxuriance  which 
these  nieaaurcs  of  Satanic  rigor,  and  of  sacrilege  to- 
ward bountiful  nature,  can  scarce  repreaa.  Ily  the 
plan  on  which  the  clove  trade  ia  now  conducted — a 
plan  carried  into  effect  through  so  much  iniquity  and 
liloudshcd — tho  country  of  apices  ia  rendered  a  petty 
farm,  of  which  the  natural  owners  are  reduced  to  the 
worst  condition  of  predial  slavery ;  and  the  great  mo- 
nopolizer and  opprcsisor  ia  that  government,  whose 
duty  it  should  have  lieen  to  Inaure  freedom  and  afford 
protection.  Human  ingenuity  could  hardly  deviae  a 
l>lan  more  destructive  of  Industry,  more  hostile  to  the 
growtli  of  public  wealth,  or  injurious  to  mor  ils,  than 
this  ayatem  framed  in  a  barbarous  age ;  and  it  reflectB 
disgrace  upon  the  diameter  of  n  civilized  people  ft> 
persevere  in  it.  It  1?  curious  ti  remark  how  the  mo- 
nopolizers, in  carrying  tho  details  of  this  system  iuto 
cftcct,  at  once  imp  >  iipon  the  natives  and  deceive 
themselves.  The  nominal  ]irice  paid  to  the  natives  it 
actually  above  the  natural  prico  of  the  commodity,  but 
tliey  are  cheated  in  the  details.  The  cuifiv  i.oi  brings 
his  produce  to  tho  public  storoa,  where  it  ia  subjected 
nt  once  to  a  deduction  o/  one-fifth  for  payment  of  the  sal- 
aries of  tho  civil  and  military  officers.  The  price  of  tho 
remainder  is  fiyi-d  at  the  rate  of  9-0  Spanish  duilara  the 
picul ;  but  beini-n  iiiyment  is  made,  another  deduction 
of  one-fifth  ianiailo;  one-halfofwhich  ia  for  tbe  chiefs  or 
riijas,  and  the  other  for  the  nati<-e  riders,  who  are  ovcr- 
fii-ora  of  the  forced  culture.  Tiiu  real  price,  therefore, 
paid  to  tho  grower  ia  8  Spanish  dollars  per  picul,  or 
3id.  per  pound  avoirdupois,  instead  of  11  52-100  Span- 
ish dollars  per  picul,  or  4>  f.  which  ia  pretended  to  he 
given.  When  cloves  have  been  sold  on  the  spot,  the 
price  usually  exacted  has  been  about  64  Spanish  dol- 
lars the  picul,  or  eight  times  the  price  paid  to  the  cul- 
tivator. The  average  price  in  Holland,  previously  to 
tho  war  of  the  French  Kevulutlon,  may  be  taken  at  lu. 
per  pound,  or  177  78-100  Spanish  dollars  per  picul.  be 
ing  2122  per  cent,  advance  on  the  real  cost  of  the  com- 
modity in  the  place  of  its  growth.  When  brought  di- 
rect to  England,  they  have  cost  at  an  average  8«.  8d. 
the  pound,  making  ira  6-1-100  Spanish  dollars  per  pic- 
ul, an  advance  on  tho  natural  export  price  of  12S8  per 
'•e\\t."—Fwitem  Archipelaffo,  vol.  ill.  p.  888-390. 

Oil  of  Cloves  ia  procured  from  cloves  by  distillation, 
W'lnn  new,  it  ia  of  a  pale  reddish  brown  color,  which 
>  .c.iKies  darker  by  age.  It  is  extremely  hot  and  fiery, 
am'  iinks  in  water.  The  kind  generally  imported  from 
Infii.>  contains  nearly  half  its  w  i^ht  of  an  insipid  ex- 
pressed oil,  which  is  discovered  by  dropping  a  little 
into  spirits  of ',-ine;  and  on  shuking  it,  tho  genuine 
oil  mixes  with  Ihe  spirit,  and  too  insipid  separating, 
the  frain'i  ',s  discovered. — Mil    iv.s. 

C'jie,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important 
river>  in  Scotland,  It  takes  its  rise  from  numerons 
striMrn-i  flowing  ttonx  the  -fountain  range  in  the  soatb- 


COA 


nt 


COA 


trn  part  »f  l^nArkrlilm  hikI  lionleni  orniimfriviiahini; 
thochlefimiiiinllKiif  which iintthii  l^wlhrn,  I^Hdhllln, 
Qii<<rni<l>Hry  Hill,  miicI  HwlKcr  I<uw,  with  cUivution  ap- 
proachinK  iUWU  feet.  Ilii  luiine  In  thtiiUKh  rlrli  and 
fertile  valleya  to  (iUiKow.  Kruiu  thl»  city  it  expandn 
Into  a  river  navlxitble  for  iihl|M  of  8(X)  to  100  toii< .  ■<;  I 
fIdWi  northwBht,  dividing  tlio  ouiinty  of  Kenl'K  v  1 1 
the  wrat,  fn>iii  Dumbarton  on  the  northriiai'  i  eii'lng 
the  triliuUries  of  the  Kelvin,  Cart,  and  1  '  i.  Aitxr 
pa<«inK  Dumbarton,  it  openn  up  into  n  nolilu  e.n  i  jry  four 
miles  in  width,  nprvailin);  northward  into  I.uoh  Louft, 
■nd  toulhwanl  into  the  Mrth  of  Olydi',  v  <ili  the  itlands 
of  Uuto  and  ('umltraea,  nituated  at  tht  lijouth  oftheentu- 
•ry.  Here  the  Clyde  expands  into  i\  jirlh  avi^rafflnR 
•bout  S'i  miles  in  width,  and  at  Ihu  distance  of -IH  miles 
becomes  identilled  with  the  North  (  hnnncl.  The  length 
of  the  river  from  its  source  to  (iloKKow,  including  wind- 
ings, ia  about  1t>  miles.  From  Glangow  to  the  south 
point  of  llute  Island  sbont  4O  miles.  In  the  Clyde 
was  launched  the  first  stcanilioat  convtructcd  in  Kritain, 
1812.  Clydeiclult  is  thu  ilistri'  t  forniin);  Iho  valley  of 
the  Clyde,  and  is  celebrati'd  fur  Its  orchards,  cuai  and 
iron  mines,  and  horses. 

Ooaohes,  vehicles  for  r  .imodious  travolintr.  They 
havo  somulinies  two,  i.iiii  -  ,'iptinies  four  wheels.  The 
iKxIy  of  tlio  coach  is  genei  illv  suppeniU'il,  by  means  of 
spring,  upon  the  (Vrime-hort  to  which  tho  wheels  arc 
attached.  They  ar  usially  drawn  by  hors<'s,  but  re- 
cently have  lieen  in  pelled  by  steam.  Tho  forms  and 
varieties  of  coaches  uru  almost  innumeral)le. 

Jluloriral  Xotic. — Hecl(maun  has  investigated  tho 
early  history  of  co'M'heswithhis  usual  care  and  learning. 
t  is  certain  that  a  species  of  coaches  i<  *  iiseil  at  llomn ; 
but  whether  they  were  hung  on  springs,  like  those  now 
made  use  of,  is  not  certiiin.  After  tlio  subversion  of 
tho  Roman  power,  horseback  was  aim  >st  the  only  mode 
of  traveling.  About  the  end  of  the  jifteenth  century, 
however,  covered  carriages  began  to  \>o  employed  by 
persons  of  distinction  on  great  occasions.  In  IS.'iO, 
there  were  at  I'aris  only  three  coailus ;  uno  of  which 
belonged  to  the  luec  i. ;  another  to  the  <  ricliratcd  Diana 
of  Poitiers ;  and  tho  third  to  a  corpulent,  unwieldy  no- 
bleman, licno  de  Lnval,  lord  of  1'  is-Daupbiii.  Coach- 
es were  seen  for  thu  first  time  in  Spain  in  1610.  They 
began  to  b«  used  in  England  about  15H0;  ami  woro  in 
common  use  among  the  nobility  in  tho  beginning  of  tho 
seventeenth  cvntuiy. -fjh'ilort/  of  Inventiont,  vol,  i.  p. 
Ill,  127,  English  translation. 

According  to  Hayi>n'8  Dictionary  of  I>atet,  the  coach 
ia  of  Frencli  invention.  I'ndcr  Francis  I.,  who  was  n 
contemporary- with  Henry  VIII.,  there  wcrobrf  t'v,>  In 
Paris,  one  of  which  belonged  to  tho  queen,  un  Ihi' 
other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  if  Henry  II. 
There  were  but  three  in  Paris  in  1.^)50;  ond  Henrj'  IV. 
had  one,  but  without  straps  or  springs.  Tho  first 
courtier  .>  iio  set  up  this  equipage  was  John  de  Laval 
de  Uois-Dauphin,  wb  )  could  not  travel  otherwise  un 
account  of  his  enommus  bulk.  Previously  to  the  use 
of  coaches  the  kings  of  France  traveled  on  horseback, 
the  princesses  were  carried  in  litters,  and  ladies  rode 
behind  their  M^uircs.  The  first  coach  seen  in  F.ngland 
was  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  about  155.3. — Pkiehti.ky'h 
Lecture.  They  wrcre  introduced  much  earlier. — A.v- 
Diu;w8'  IliitoryofOrtut  Britain.  They  were  introduced 
by  Fitz-Allen,  <  arl  of  Arundel,  in  1580.— Stowk.  And 
in  some  years  afterward  thu  art  of  making  them. — An- 
PEBSon'h  Ilittory  of  C'onmurce.  A  bill  was  brought 
into  Parliament  to  prevent  the  effeminacy  of  men  rid- 
ing in  coacht       '  Sliz.  1601. — Hayhn. 

Stage-coach  Traveling  hy. — Owing  to  the  improve- 
ment in  the  breed  of  horses  and  the  bi'ilding  of  cartia- 
ges,  but  abovt<  all,  to  the  extraordinary  improvements 
that  were  effected  within  the  last  half  century  in  the  lay- 
ing out,  construction,  and  keeping  of  roads,  the  ordi- 
nary rate  of  traveling  by  stage-coaches,  previously  to 
their  all  but  total  ixtinction  by  railways,  was  seldom 
ander  9  or  10  miles  on  hour,  stoppages  indjided,  and 


on  some  roads  was  as  much  as  11  or  12.  The  stagoa 
having  Iwen  shortened,  this  speed  was  not  found  to  Ihi 
maleriully  mora  U\Jurious  to  llio  horses  than  lh>'  slower 
rate  at  which  they  previously  traveled.     The  surfiien 

'  of  the  roails  being  perfectly  smootli,  and  moKt  •liiirp 

ri  ',  <    I   pid  duscents  having  been  got  rid  of,  triivi  I- 

i\f,  ai  this  rate  was  comparatively  safe  ;  ami  ll 

w  ts    '  iiriaing,  considering  tho  numlier  of  coaches,  how 

.  r<  w  a  cldents  O'  curred.     Tliey  wero  occasioned,  for  tho 

I  most  part,  by  thu  misconduct  of  the  drivers ;  and  prin- 
cipally by  their  endeavoring  to  make  up  by  iiUTcavcd 
speed  for  lluio  lust  at  stoppages,  or  by  their  aftemplliig 
to  pass  each  other.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  adil  tbiit, 
since  the  opening  of  railways  between  all  the  prln(l|ial 
places  of  the    country,  traveling  by  stage-ciiaclie.t  in 

'  Knglund  no  longer  exists.  "'  "cpt  in  a  few  remole  dis- 

]  tricis,  ond  hits  I' iw  !■    ■  :.  .ost  a  n'""er  of  hl»lnry. 

'      Co«l(I'u.  .NV< i'»< ■ -i/m ;  Fr.  i'harbnn  ar  trrrr .  tier. 

^  ^lein};oHrni  It.  Carboni  fimtili!  Lut.  I.ilhimthnur; 
Port.  Carvoea  tie  trrm^  on  (/<■  »f*tra ;  Kunm.  I  '/"{j,  A'ri- 
mntnoe  i  Sp.  Cttrbotii'g  tie  tifrra,  (*arb' neji  ftf  pittlrti; 
Swod.  •Slinkdl).  This  higlily  Importunt  eonilmstlblo 
mineriil  is  divided  by  mlneriiiogists  into  the  three  great 
fumilies  of  black  coal,  uninfljinimiilile  coul,  iinii  brown 
conl ;  cacli  of  these  being  again  divided  into  many  sub- 
ordinate s|)ecics. 

It  is  cimtenilod,  with  much  seemingtruth.  tbut  coals, 
although  they  are  not  mentioned  by  tlu'  liunuins  in 
their  notices  of  llritain,  were  yet  in  use  by  the  ancient 

I  Ilrilons.— Hn.\MiT.  They  wero  first  discovered  nt 
NewcastliMipon-Tyno  in  12111;  some  siiy  earlier,  nnd 

'  others  in  12ilU.  Seu-coiil  wus  prohibited  from  lieing 
used  in  and  near  London,  as  being  "  pn>judlciiil  to  hu- 
man lienllb;"  nnd  even  smiths  were  obligeil  to  burn 
wood,  1278. — ,Sri>  'k.  Coals  wore  first  made  un  arti- 
cle of  trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,  4  Uich.  II., 

I  lUMI.— Uymkum  Fmtrra. 

This  mineriil  »iil  Iw  ciinsid^rcd  under  tho  general 
heads  of— I.  Origin  of  Coal;  II.  Coul  Statistics  of 
(ireat  llritain;  111.  Areis  of  Coal-beds  in  the  World, 
and  aComparison  of  theirKxtent ;  IV.  Compurisiin  of 
the  Coal  Trade  of  tho  I'nitcd  (itates  anil  F.uropc;  V. 
Statistics  of  tho  Coal  Trade  in  tho  I'nited  States. 

I.  Ortgin  iif  ('mil.  I'lienomena  of  Comhuetion,  etc. — 
(.'■ml  iH'ds,  or  strata,  lie  among  those  of  gravel,  sand, 
■balk,  day,  etc.,  which  form  great  part  of  the  present 
surface  of  tlv  earth,  and  !.avo  liecn  evidently  nccumu- 

I  lated  iluring  remote  ogcs  by  the  agency  of  "moving 
water" — similar  to  ih  cumulations  now  in  process  of 
formation  at  tho  months  of  all  great  rivers,  and  in  tho 
bottot  IS  of  lakes  ai''  neas.  When  tiicse  strata  had.  by 
Ion;.;  contact  and  ]n\  -sure,  been  soliililled  into  a  rocky 
crust  to  the  earth,  tliis  crust,  by  sulisequent  coiivul- 

!  sions  of  nature,  of  wliich  innumerable  other  proofs  re- 

I  main,  has  been  in  various  |iarts  broken  and  fieaved  up 
above  tho  level  of  tho  sea,  so  as  to  form  the  greater 
part  of  our  dry  or  )  '.Mtable  land ;  in  Bonio  places  .  n- 
[Hsaring  as  lofty  nuuintains,   in    others  as  extended 

I  plains.  In  many  situations,  the  friirturc  of  the  .  ru.st 
exhiliita  the  edges  of  tho  v  irious  distinct  strata  found 
in  a  piven  thickness  o"  it.  When  the  fracture  has  the 
form  of  o  precii  '•  ous  clilT,  these  edges  nppeor  one  above 

\  another,  lik^  edges  ii'  piled  planks  or  books  :  but 

often  also    h  c  met      ith  in  horizontal  succession 

along  (I  pli  >ie  eil^    s  of  n  pile  of  books  laid  down 

upon  a  table;  or  they  in  <y  bo  sven  surnmndlng  hills 
of  granite,  ivnich  protruilu  through  them,     Ciml,  and 

I  other  preciouj  minerals,  were  first  discovered  at  the 

I  fractures  of  the  strata  above  described,  and  by  the  con- 

!  tinued  digging  of  tho  strata  or  veins  the  vast  cxcava- 

I  tions  called  mines  have  lien  gradually  formed.  When 
it  was  at  last  discovered  that  tho  minerol  strata  occur 

[  every  where  In  nearly  the  some  order  or  succession,  so 
that  the  exposure  of  a  (lortlon  of  one  stratum  is  a  good 
indicatioR  of  the  other  strata  being  near,  the  opera- 
tions of  the  miner  became  of  much  surer  result,  and 

i  expensive  boring  through  superior  strata  might  be 


lioth 

•taiK 

othei 

whe 

hydr 

oitlie 

when 

used 

reniai 

c.l' 

ed,  I 

pure  ( 

ncss. 


COA 


818 


COA 


prudently  iindertnkiin,  even  wl\i<rn  no  •poclmen  of  th«  I  ((redient  dllatr*  l)efor«  liumlnff,  ■mi  In  llm  net  pro* 
dimlrod  but  invrc  deeply  burlod  aul'itkneo  had  }'ot  bevii  '  duccn  t\w  iiiorR  bulky  iniMiiulnscon<o  r.idlrd  llnnip. 
■ocn.  \'iintiiet  ofCiinl. — Tliorc  in  a  curious  chiilii  cirilnkf 

Beforo  Iho  discovery  of  c'Mkl  mines,  or  till!  iiivontinn  whlcli  rouiu'et  living;  wooti  wltli  dead  i"\\.  Klret, 
of  chimp  mciiiin  of  worktuK  tlidoi,  wond  wnn  K<!<>«r»lly  tliuru  li  /mi/,  contl'lliiR  of  vHrloim  kliidit  n'  iilnntn  end 
UHuil  un  fuel ;  nnil  In  iniiny  couiitri(-K  where  the  arlit  mesa,  iuibedilud  unil  pri>iiii«d  toffpthi-r  liild  i  m»*\  and 
httvo  not  miuh  llourlaliod,  It  cnnllntifi  to  Iw  |iriiu-l-  expoaoil  tothe  maloii  of  jilr  or  w»ter,  or  both,  nnd  per- 
piilly  empldvcd  »»  such.  (!oiil,  however,  for  many  Imps  liejit,  for  unnunilmred  centnrl^a.  'Uini  thrre  Is 
puriMinea,  iiiiawcrs  mui'h  hotter  thnn  wood  ;  and,  In  tignUt,  tV^rnji^d  in  nenrly  tho  annin  wiiy  from  trunka  of 
fii't,  tho  two,  although  in  apiioiirunou  so  dilTerunt,  aro  ■  trooa,  and  uci'uninluted  in  layers  of  vint  tbiokneaa  In 
In  thi'lr  ultimate  coni|ioaitIon  Very  nearly  allied.   'I'hoy    (lerniuiiy  and  other  paria  of  Kumpe ;  It  hna  not  hltli- 


botli  have  for  their  liuais  or  eliief  luKredlent  tho  auli 
•tanec  eulleil  by  tho  clieniiata  «ii'6u»,  and  for  their  chief 
other  ingredient  tho  aubatanco  calle<l  liyilfofitii,  which, 
when  separated,  ixista  in  the  'orni  ol  air  or  jfas.  The 
hydrogen  la  caaily  driven  ii\*iiy  or  voiutlll/.ed  from 


erto  been  much  uaod  na  fuel,  liiit  thnro  ara  Indlcationa 
that  It  will  to  bo  ere  lonK-  Nixt  eomea  jW,  which  ap- 
poura  to  bo  n  poeullur  variety  of  vegetable  matter 
l)rou)tht  nlinoat  to  a  bltumlnona  atuto.  Then  we  havo 
cannet  ami,  wliirh  not  only  yielda  tho  (teat  and  moat 


cither  coal  or  wood,  by  hcatint;  In  n  elew  plaeo;  and  ,  abundant  gaa  for  atrcet-linhtlntf,  but  hiis  often  aueh  n 
wlion  it  la  cnUj^hC  and  preaerved,  it  furma  the  gus  now  i  hardneaa,  blaekneas,  and  pollah,  na  to  enulih'  it  to  he 
uied  to  ll);ht  uur  atreota  and  public  liulldlntj.s.  What !  worked  up  Into  very  lioautifniomanirnl-s.  One  |H'cnliar 
remuina  of  eoul,  after  beioK  ao  treated,  la  tho  substance  kind  of  eunnel  coal,  called  the  liroekinridKe  coal,  waa 
c.l'  i\  coir  :  anil  whut  roniaina  of  woo(l,  shnllarly  treat-    lately  discovered  in  Kentucky,  from  which  n  burning 


ed,  is  the  aul>atance  called  ehnmml — both  being  nearly 
pure  carbon,  but  dltVerintf  ua  to  the  states  of  compact- 
ness. TIda  kindred  nature  of  coal  and  wood  does  not 
surprise  when  tho  fact  i^  known  that  much  of  our  coal 


oil  has  been  manufactured,  which  by  experiment  has 
proved  quite  oqnal  to  spenn  whale  oil.  If  n«t  sn|)crlor, 
and  can  be  uianufactured  I'orone-hulf  tho  cost  of  ajicrm 
oil.     Tho  I'nited  States  government  have  under  con- 


is  really  transformed  wood ;  nuiuy  caul  ndnea  l>elng  :  sidorntion  a  contract  to  uan  it  In  the  light-houae  ays- 
ovldently  tho  reiuainsof  antediluvian  forests,  swept  to- !  tem.  Next  is  tho  cikini/,  or  common  liitunilnoua  coal, 
gothor  in  the  course  of  tho  terrestrial  cliangca  alluded  '  which  combines  so  nuiny  useftil  quiUities  for  house- 
to,  and  aiierward.iiolidilled  to  the  state  now  aeon.  In  hold  purposes.  Somewhat  ditrerent  from  tliia  Is  the 
theso  mines  tho  B|iecles  of  tho  plants  or  trec.4  which  '  .4/nif/^Vi/ cw// of  tho  nddljind  countiesofKngland,  which 
formed  them  arc  atiil  quite  evident  in  abumlant  spool- '.  Is  obtained  in  very  long  pieces,  and  hns  less  Idtumin- 
uious,  mixed  often  witli  tiie  remnants  of  tho  animals  oua  or  caking  <|uallty.  A  still  ioaa  gaseous  coal  la  that 
which  inhabited  tlio  earth  at  the  aame  time.  The  o.x-  which,  fnun  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  now  found  to  \m 
tonaive  peat.4U0Hsea  now  existing  on  tho  surface  of  the  I  admirably  adapted,  is  culleil  ttfnm  rnal;  it  ia  obtained 
earth  consist  cliieliy  of  vegetable  reniiuns  at  an  early  chiefly  from  Wales,  and  Inirns  with  intense  heat,  ond 
stagr  i>r  the  kind  of  chango  which  teruiiuatea  in  thi!  ]  littlo  tiamo  or  anmke.  Last  on  the  list  ia  nnlhrarite, 
formation  '  f  coal.  '•  so  nearly  without  gaa  aa  to  consist  almost  entirely  of 

A  ■nil.'''   nco  which,  like  iimI  or  wood,  cheaply  an- '  carlion;    ita  intense  heat  and  freedom  from  sulphur 
swers  th        '|H)ao  of  producing  great  heat  anil  light  ia    render  it  invulualdo  for  iron-smolting  and  other  man- 


called  fue,  mI  tho  phenomenon  of  tliat  production  ia 
called  comhuBiion.  Now  moiiern  discovery  has  ascer- 
tained that,  ill  I'vory  instance,  camlmatiou  ia  merely 
an  ap|iear<ini'<  ^v  ni.li  accompM  lies  tho  mutual  action, 
when  very  intense,  ^f  two  siilistance*  in  tho  act  of 
forming  an  imiinato  or  chcmi 
act  ia  less  eni  ■    .lie,  the  heat  ' 


ufacturing  proceaaea. 

Tho  two  great  purposes  which  combustion  serves  to 

man  am  to  give  light  and  iieat.    Hy  the  former  he  nniy 

be  s.iid  to  lengthen  considerably  tho  duration  of  his 

natural  existence ;  for  ho  converts  tho  dismal  and  al- 

I  union.     Whore  that !  most  useless  night  into  wlmt,  for  many  ends,  serves 

■duied  is  less  intense,    him  as  well  us  day  ;  and  l>y  tho  latter,  liesides  con- 


and  there  is  m.  light.  Thus,  «  iior  and  sulphuric  acid,  verting  winter  into  any  climate  which  ho  desires,  ho 
when  mixing,  prolines  great  hi.it,  but  no  light.  Wa-  is  enabled  to  effect  moat  important  mutations  in  many 
ternnd  quick-lime  prmluce  still  greater  heat;  sufHcicnt,  '  of  tho  sulistanees  which  nature  olfers  for  his  use;  and, 
it  is  known,  to  set  lire  to  a  ship  in  which  the  mixture  \  aiuco  tho  invention  of  the  steam-engine,  ho  makes  heat 
unfortunately  occurs.  It  Is  on  oecurreneo  of  tho  same  '  perform  a  great  proportion  of  the  work  of  society, 
kind  when  heat  Is  evolved  from  an  acid  dissolving  a  '  From  theso  considerations  may  be  perceived  the  i'.i- 
metttl;  and  it  Is  slill  of  tho  same  kind  when  a  muAsof  !  portanco  of  having  lire  at  command;  and,  as  thechoi. 


co;il  or  wood  in  a  liro-gratc  is,  with  the  appearance  of 
comlmstion,  undergoing  solution  in  tho  oxygen  of  tho 
utmoaphero.  In  this  lust  case,  however,  the  tempera- 
ture of  tho  fiiol  is,  by  tho  very  intense  action,  raised  so 
much  that  the  fuel  becomes  incandescent  or  luminous ; 
an  appearance  assumed  by  overy  aulistancc,  whether 
burning  or  not — of  a  atone,  for  instance,  or  piece  of 
metal — when  heated  beyond  tlio  tem|>erature  indicated 
by  800^  of  Faiirenbcit's  thermometer.  The  inforior 
degrees  of  such  ineandeseeii'T  .iro  called  red  hunt,  tho 
superior  degrees  icAiVe  heat.  The  reason  why  any 
strongly  heated  body  throws  out  light,  wo  can  not 
yet  explain.  When  a  quantity  of  woml  or  coal  has 
been  burned  to  ash  in  a  conflned  t>ortion  of  air,  tho 
whole  of  the  fuel,  vanished  from  view,  ia  held  in  solu- 
tion liy  the  air,  as  salt  is  held  in  water,  and  is  again 
recoverable  by  the  art  of  tho  chemist.  The  phenom- 
enon of  common  lire,  or  combustion,  then,  is  merely 
the  fuel  lieing  chemically  dissolved  in  tho  air  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  tho  fuel  has  nothing  volatile  in  it,  as 
is  true  of  pure  carbon,  and  nearly  true  of  coke  and  char- 
coal, it  burns  with  tho  apixiaranco  of  red-hot  stones ; 
but  if  there  bo  an  ingredient,  as  hydrogen,  which,  on 
being  heated,  readily  assumes  the  form  of  uir,  that  in- 


est  means  of  commanding  lire,  of  having  abundance  of 
coal. 

il.  Cml  in  drenf  lirilain. — As  respects  the  fliir  jdy 
of  coal,  (ircat  Ilritain  is  aingulurly  favored,  a  lu;ga 
portion  of  the  siirfuco  of  tho  country  having  under  it 
continuous  and  tliick  lieds  of  this  valuuliie' mineral — 
vttatly  inoro  precious  tlmn  would  havo  lieeii  mines  of 
tlie  precious  metals,  liko  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico; 
for  coal,  since  it  has  lieen  upplied  to  tlic  steam-engine, 
ia  really  hoarded  jjower,  applicaldo  to  almost  overy 
l)urpose  which  liuniun  labor  directed  by  ingenuity  cun 
accomplish.  It  is  the  possession  of  her  coal  mines 
which  has  rendered  Great  Ilritain,  in  relation  to  the 
whole  world,  what  a  city  is  to  tho  rural  district  whicli 
surrounds  it — tlie  producer  and  'ispenser  of  the  va- 
rious products  of  art  and  industry.  Culling  her  coal 
mines  tlio  coal-cellars  of  the  great  city,  thero  is  in 
them  a  supply  wliich,  at  the  present  rate  of  expondi- 
ture,  will  lust  for  2000  years  at  least ;  and,  therefore,  a 
provision  which,  as  coming  improvements  in  tho  arts 
of  life  will  naturally  effect  economy  of  fuel,  or  substitu- 
tion of  other  means  to  effect  similar  purposes,  may  bo 
regarded  as  inexhaustible. 

The  kinds  or  differences  of  coal  depend  on  their 


COA 


814 


COA 


eoni|«r*llv«  pm|iortlonii  uf  carbon  ami  hyilroftan,  and 
of  rarth/  liii|iuritUii  (uUlly  liuimilmatllilK.  Whila 
aoiiic  >|N<('U'ii  of  t'oal  coiituiii  nearly  a  tlilrcl  of  thoir 
waiKht  (if  liyilrotfen,  otiii'm  hiivu  nut  a  Itfliiitli  part. 
The  runner  k'nda  am  lUiniiiK  rnal,  pleaainK  In  (wrlnr 
flroa,  and  tit  for  Ilia  manufacliirt)  ut  gik».  Tha  utlior 
kiDila— tuMio  of  tlia>  WvUti  alono  eiwl,  fur  inntanco— 
will  only  liuni  wlicii  In  larKo  h«a|m,  or  when  lulxail 
with  niura  luHainiiiable  cuiu :  thuy  havn  nu  Aania. 
Whan  rianiliiK  rual  la  liunieil  whom  u  ■ulllcieiiry  "t 
oxyK*«i  >'an  nut  |M»a  throuKh  or  enter  uliuvo  tlia  lire, 
to  vuinlilue  with  uud  runtuuie  tha  liyilroKen  ua  I'aat  aa 
k  rini'H,  II  cliuimi  aniulii)  ii  Klven  out,  cunsiiitlnK  of  liy- 
tlruK<'ii  mill  carliun  vuniliiiu"!  in  the  prii|Minti>na  which 
form  a  pilrliy  xiibatuni'u.  'I'lio  Widali  coal  ubovu  men. 
tinned  (Mil  iiH  little  kIvo  out  ainoko  ui  lluine,  and  hence 
la  now  iiincli  uted  In  (treat  brewvrlva,  and  In  the  iteain 
cnKlno  furimvea  iif  town*,  where  anioko  Is  a  aerlous 
nuiaancn.  Tliu  foliated  or  cubital  eoal,  and  (lata  coal, 
•ro  chivHy  uaed  na  fuel  in  prltale  hiiuiica;  the  cukiUK 
I'uala,  fur  smithy  furKca ;  the  alatu  cool,  froth  ita  ke«|>- 
int(  o|ien,  anawera !  eat  fur  (tivliiK  Kreut  heala  in  a  wind 
fnmat'o,  ua  in  iliallllalion  on  a  lurKU  aculc ;  and  )(lanre 
coal,  found  In  HtafTordsliire,  la  uavil  fur  dryiiiK  K'ala 
and  malt.  The  coula  uf  Huuth  Wolea  contain  leaa 
volatile  mutter  than  either  the  Kngliah  or  llio  Hcutch ; 
and  hence,  when  employed  In  aniclting  the  ore,  pro- 
duce a  KTcater  quantity  of  Iron.  It  la  aup|ioacd  that 
three  parta  of  g^<o^\  Newcaatio  coal  are  equivalent,  ua 
fuel,  to  four  parts  of  good  Scotch  cuil. 

ContiHitption  I'fCuot.  Sumbir  ij'  I'rrtntu  engagtii  in 
the  Trade.  Kiinply  i J' Coal.  —  The  ^rvat  rcp«»iturica 
of  coal  In  KiiKluud  ura  in  Nurtbuinliurlund  and  Dur- 
ham, whence  l/undun  and  most  piirta  of  the  loiith  of 
KiiKhind  are  at  present  supplied;  In  Cumberland, 
whence  larf;e  qunntitlea  of  c<ml  are  ox|iorted  to  Ire- 
land ;  and  in  Staifordsblro,  Uerbyabini,  Lancashire, 
Yorkshire,  Lricestershlro,  Warwickshire,  Suuth  Wales, 
etc,  lu  Scotland,  coal  is  found  In  the  Lothions,  I^ii- 
■rkahiro,  Kcnfrowshlro,  Ayrshire,  und  other  counties. 
In  Indaiid,  coal  is  both  deliciunt  in  quantity  and  info- 
trior  in  quality  to  that  of  (jreatUrituin ;  and  turf  fonns 
the  Kreat  article  of  fuel. 

Tlie  Importance  of  coal  ua  a  necessary  of  life,  and 
the  decree  in  which  an|icrlority  in  arts  and  manufac- 
tures are  dc|icndent  U[ion  obtaining  supplioa  of  it  at 
a  cheap  rate,  has  naturally  attracted  a  K"'><I  dual  of  at- 
tention to  the  question  aa  to  the  period  when  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  coal  mines  may  be  anticipated.  Hut 
the  inveali);iitians  hitherto  made  ns  to  the  niaKnltudo 
and  thickncHs  uf  the  dilferent  cnal-lieds,  and  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  may  be  wrought,  are  too  vaguo  and 
unsatisfactory  to  ulforil  grounds  for  forming  any  thing 
like  a  tolerably  near  approximation  to  ii  solution  of 
this  question.  Dut  such  us  they  arc,  they  are  sutH- 
clent  to  show  that  nang  miluriet  must  elapse  before 
posterity  can  feel  any  serious  dillicultles  from  a  dimin- 
ished supply  of  coal.  According  to  un  cstlmato  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  Taylor,  an  intelligent  coal  engineer,  In 
IKJU,  the  1  'lal-liclds  of  Durham  and  Norlhumlwrland 
are  lulequato  to  furnish  the  present  annual  supply  fur 
a  very  long  period.  We  subjoin  Mr.  Taylor's  estimate. 
EmMATz  or  the  Kxtknt  amii  raomcc  or  tuk  Dubuaji 

AMU  N0BTUCHIIII1L\NU   COAI.-rilU.UB. 

_  luiritm.  Aa.  MUm. 

From  Oouth  Bhlcld«  soulliward  lo  Cattle  Edi'n,  21 
■niks;  thence  westward  to  West  Auckland,  B9 
mill'" !  nnrlheasl  from  Wot  Auckland  to  fAtrlig- 
haiii,  S-l  niilcK ;  and  llieu  tu  Kliioldi,  'fi  miles ;  be- 
ing an  cxtcut  or  area  of 594 

From  Shields  northward  ^2^  mlltw,  by  an  avora^ 

breadth  of  j>  miles 243 

—  88T 
Portion  MMfottd, 

In  Dnrbam,  onTyne,  my St 

oa  Wear 40 

TO 
b N«rtbiunberltnd, njr  u  mllea  by  a ,..-....    'id 

^»  no  ;■.;.';  ■   :.-■..•  "!;  4i:-c      '^i;.  -.j  ■:'.  Wi 


Cillmallnr  tha  workahia  rnal  •tnla  at  an  aT<         Tut. 

ersfpi  thlrknsM  uf  W  fi'iil,  the  ciintants  of  one 

■r.iiare  mile  will  Ihi  I'i.ilVO.iHKI  tuns,  snd  of 

TU'i  squsn'  nilli'< (»,0«»,4IW,nOO 

Imdurl  one-thlnl  iwrl  for  Ions  liy  •iiisll  rosi,  In- 

liircuplloHs  by  dikes,  and  ulhrr  liilemiptliimi  9,(iva.l«i.iNIU 
llaniallidsr «,ll4ll,ll'iO,INKI 

This  ronialnder  l>  adeqiialii  In  supjily  ths  |irt"i'iit  viiid 
fmai  Newraalls,  ^iindorUnil,  llarllrjr,  llljrili,  luid  Hlnrkluu, 
of  il.lXNI.nnil  liiiin,  fur  a  iH'rImI  of  IliT  yi'sra 

II  will  bu  iiihli'rsliiod  tiiat  llils  ('•tiniule  of  Iho  quantity  uf 
cnal  In  Durham  slid  Nurthunilicrlsiid  rsii  niily  ho  an  ii|ipnii- 
Imatlon,  espi'rliiliy  •<  Ihi'  vuiilliKMlarn  cusi  dlilrlrl  of  liiirlisiii 
In  yet  almost  wholly  iiiioplnri'd;  liiitlheattimiit  la  made,  In 
the  hiipe  of  uUsryluK  your  lord>hl|M  that  ni>  siiprrlii'iiKlon 
lu-ed  Im'  uiit«!rUluflil  of  this  valuable  mlueral  hftliiK  i!xhauiiti<<l 
for  itiAiiy  fiiliiro  K'^urratluna 

Thore  In  abo  a  roiulil.!rNblu  oAlent  ofroal-fldd  lu  the  north- 
em  and  auiilliwiu'tiTii  dlKtrirts  of  Nortlitiinbiirlaiid,  hut  ths 
fiin-going  roniiirlNci  llist  whlrh  Is  coiitlniioius  and  lu  >Kt  milt* 
able  and  avnlliiblo  for  exfiortatluu.  It  Ic,  liowevor,  to  Ih<  oIi- 
•orviMl  Ihst  tho  >hl|ini«nts  uf  rosi  from  Hie  |H>rt<  nii'iitlniicd 
by  Mr.  Taylor  liiw  liceii  largely  InrrosMtd  diirliiK  the  last 
doaen  years;  m  that,  siipihhiIiik  IIio  t-alliiiAto  tu  Im  lu  othtir 
nifpocta  aeciinile,  It  mnst  now  be  modlHcd  accordingly. — 
LortU'  ItejKirl,  [sttt,  |i.  I'ii, 

Dr.  Ilucklnnd,  the  celebrated  geologist,  rnnstdera 
Mr.  Taylor's  cstiinalc  ns  greully  exaggerated;  but  In 
Ilia  examination  beforn  Iho  cuminittce  of  the  House  of 
Commons  In  IH'211,  he  (|Uoted  with  approbation  n  pas- 
sage of  llakcwell's  (.ntioiiy,  In  which  It  Is  slated  that 
the  coul-bc<ls  in  South  Wules  wer«  aluno  siiincient  to 
supply  the  then  demand  uf  ICiiglanit  for  coal  fur  '2U00 
years.     The  jumsage  Is  us  follow  s : 

"  Kortunutcly  wo  have  in  Huuth  Wales,  adjoining 
to  the  ItristuI  Channel,  un  ulniost  exhuiistless  supply 
of  coul  and  Inin-stonc,  which  are  yet  ncuity  unwrought, 
Itliiis  lii-cn  staled  that  thiscoiil-lleld  extends  over  about 
r200  aqiiarc  miles ;  nnd  that  there  are  28  beds  of  wurk- 
ubla  cuni,  the  total  average  tliickiirss  of  which  is  !I5 
feet ;  and  the  quantity  contained  in  cui  h  acre  Is  1I)(I,I)IH) 
tons,  or  tl6,(K)0,IX)0  Ions  per  square  mile.  If  from  this 
we  (leduct  one  half  for  wuste,  nnd  for  the  minor  extent 
of  the  upper  beds,  wo  shall  have  a  clciir  su|<ply  of  coul 
cquul  to  ]I2,IK)U,II00  tons  per  sipiure  mile.  Now  If  we 
admit  that  5,U00,(NI0  tons  from  the  Nnrthiimlicrliind 
and  Diirbum  mines  Is  equal  to  nearly  uiie-third  of  the 
total  consumption  of  coul  In  Kiigland,  euch  square  mile 
of  the  Welsh  coal-Held  would  yield  coal  for  two  years' 
conauinptlon ;  and  as  there  are  from  11X10  to  I'iOd  sqiinro 
miles  in  this  coal-fleld,  it  would  supply  Knglund  with 
ftiel  for  '2000  years,  uflor  all  the  English  coul  iniiics 
are  worked  out!" 

Uut  8ti|ipoBing  this  supply  to  lust  only  lOflO  years, 
that  carries  us  so  fur  Into  futurity,  that  it  ap|ieurs  to 
bo  quite  idle  either  tu  prohibit  or  impose  heavy  duties 
on  tbo  cx]Mirtjitlon  of  coal,  on  the  ground  of  Its  accel- 
erating the  exhaustion  of  tbo  miiios. 

PrnjUi  vfCoul  Atining,  (\'al  Owtitrt'  Monopoly,  etc. 
— Instead  of  the  business  of  coal  mining  being,  gener- 
ally s|M.>aking,  an  advantageous  one.  It  is  distinctly  the 
rovcrso.  >Sometimps,  no  doubt,  largo  fortunes  huvo 
lioen  ninilo  by  individuuls  nnd  associations  engaged  In 
this  business ;  but  these  arc  rare  Instances.  The  <ipen- 
Ingof  a  mine  is  avery  expensive  and  huiturdons  opera- 
tion, and  of  very  uncertain  result.  Collieries  are  ex- 
posed to  an  inflnltc  number  of  accidents,  against  which 
no  caution  can  guard.  The  chancns  of  explosion  have. 
It  is  true,  been  a  good  deal  lessened  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  lamp;  and  some  iiiinca 
are  now  wrought  that,  but  for  the  invention  of  this 
admirable  Instrument,  mnst  have  l>ccn  entirely  aban- 
doned. Out  liesides  explosions,  which  arc  still  every 
DOW  and  then  occurring,  ttom  the  rurelessiie!<8  of  the 
workmen,  and  other  contingencies,  mines  arc  very  lia- 
ble to  bo  destroy^  by  crtfpt,  or  by  the  sinking  of  the 
roof,  nnd  by  drowning,  or  the  Irruption  of  wuter  from 
old  workings,  through  flssuret  which  cnii  nut  bo  seen, 
and  consequently  can  not  bo  guurdcd  ugiilnst.  So 
great,  indeed,  is  the  hazard  attending  this  sort  of 


Turkey.'.'.'"""" 

«rill.li  West  Indl^, 

iLnltt.d«t«|„,.  North  ; 

TlmquantltUaof. 
^?|^"»vlgatloH  Into 


004 


81J 


OOA 


property,  Ihtt  It  ha*  imvur  Iwcn  iwhIIiU  In  tftfct  uii 
lliiuraiiva  4111  »  cuitl-wurk  vgitlrial  llro,  wiitar,  ur  iliy 
•tlwr  ut'i'l>li>iil, 

I'im/  I'lwlt.—h  U  wllwOdl  llwt  nut  lent  (hiin  for- 
ty iiillliiiii  luim  uf  rtiaU  tr*  mliMxl  annuMy  rmni  tli« 
vnriuiit  mliwa  In  tlm  IJnIlml  KIiikiI"iii.  or  llit'ni 
thit  ntvuUir  |i«rt  U  ullluir  umhI  In  llm  Irnintdlulii  hxIkIi- 
iMirluiual  iif  llw  Mtliwa,  or  imnt  dy  InUnil  nnrlKiitlun  or 
Uiiil  I'urrlitKu  10  lUnWranl  (iitrla  of  Ihn  kingdom.  In 
INi'J,  l'i,70U,77l  ion*  of  I'lmli),  ilniliim,  iind  culm  woru 
ihl|i|Miil  from  (lortu  In  dm  I'nlloil  KlnK<loiii|  of  tlieao. 
9,(W,!>n  ton*  wurii  Minlisoiwlwlwi  lo  utiwr  portii  of  thi' 
klnu'lom  I  IwliiK,  nonlit  N,Nor>,UIM  tunn,  vliidvm  111,370 
tuna,  culm  tMtfW  lon»,  TIm  (|U«ntllk'<  of  iimla,  iln- 
(l«r»,  anil  uulm  ahliijiiiil  iuMMtwlM  from  iho  illlTuront 
port*  oftlw  l/'nItaU  Klnutluin  In  IM6I  Mid  \hM,  weror 

kaallM*, 

I'urtamoutli ,•<■.•>>•.. 

Hrlitnl 

(>lauM*(«r 1 .  1 1 . 1 

i;*rdltt 

Ni<»|Mrt  ,.,, ,, 

MWXIMS ■■•tiioiii 

I.Uiirllir , 

Mllfofd 

Cluatar ,,,,,, 

I.K<ir|K>ol inn.t 

l'ri'>li>n iio.ii 

FIt'dtWiHHl nfttf 

iMtwuiur  ....,,**,•*>*! to 
WlillolMvin  ,,,.,,,,,,,,,,, 

Worklnftuii 

Muryimrt ,,,,,.,, 

(;»rli»lH ,,, 

Nl'HI'Mtl* 

Bhiiild* ,..,.,,., 

Nuiiili'rlitnii , ,  ,,,,,,,,,,,i>,, 
Htiirklo 

llHrtl(.'}HII>| (t>*(>tr,t« 

tialiubiiruUiifc  , .  >  > ,  I  •  •  1 1 .  > . 

Hull , 

OiiiiIh 

Olliiir  |iurl< ,,, 

•i'ffL***. 

Wih ,,,,,, 

ll*rri>w*ti>iiiiiii'M ,t 

( IraiiHniiiuuUi  ,,.,...1.1,). 

Allii* ,,, 

Klrki'Dldr ...,,. 

(llaauDw mitt,, 

IrvliHi .,,,.,,,.,.,,,,. 

Ayr , 

Olhi'r  pi>rt< ,,,..,,,, 

1C»M  ,,,,,,, tttttttt 

Tiil«l , 


IMl. 

IMt 

6\m 

Tom. 

«,au 

\.tM 

l.nnn 

W>,ti(lll 

HH.HOl 

Itol.noS 

*ivu*a 

4ri|,4(i| 

4/il,77n 

tiM.IMT 

n7MM 

VIV.Mil 

tlt,78r> 

M.Mll 

M.IW 

101,1144 

WV.771I 

iin.ont 

1or>,i>84 

4tl.i»rT 

87,I>IS 

H.HtM 

V,840 

MIU7 

4.N8« 

ni),!iM 

nvtm 

li»,703 

Nfl.nu 

iriii.ii7'i 

sno.on 

iMha 

l7,Hfil 

1,0)17,  111 

9,nr),«t57 

VU.a'iR 

IOS,l7i 

1,«MMltO 

i,ii7H,nii 

»<v*.Mt 

BM.NIII 

\,m.s«m 

i,Mo,N7a 

i>.r.77 

7,0(« 

w,7iin 

lO.IIB 

IV4.IIIHI 

M.OHO 

4,VIii 

ll,U84 

ii.mii 

o.niM 

M.iiri» 

M.r^i) 

fl.rrJl 

il.l>48 

SII,OIA 

14.9(10 

07,oiilV 

!»li,t>OI 

*l.»(/ll 

NI.OIM) 

SM.Ititf 

8M,K47 

Vi,t<m 

77,«SS 

400 

«,091 

4T« 

in 

N.llil.Mll 

(l,(KHi,f,77 

In  18S2  th»  »%\mi»  from  tlia  t/nlted  KliiKdom  to 
forclttn  countrloa,  Inihidliitf  llrllUli  Mtllcmontn,  wcro 
u  follow*:  C'oKJ*  (VI<l»,Wi  Ion*,  of  tli«  value  of 
£\:»lfii\\\  ifjiidur*  \m,»W  loH»,  of  thd  vaino  of 
£m,m-i\  culm  1H72  ton*,  of  tlm  vnliin  of  im\',  total, 
8,0IU,1'J1  ton*,  of  tlm  daijlttrfil  valua  of  i;i,872,lll. 

The  prlncliml  f»tu\\nn  lounlrli-*  to  wlilcli  conU,  cin- 
der*, and  culm  wara  anportwl  from  tlm  United  Kliig- 
dom  In  IHfil  and  1H6J,  war.,  dm  follow lii((i 


r<iv»MM, 


Ra**l* , 

Duninirk ..,>>,,#•>,,, 

I'rutal* >  ■  >  >  •  f  •  •  >  1 1 

IlanKwtiu  Tuwn* ..,,,,. 

Ilollmd ,,,, 

Vranca ■  i  ,.<>.,,, , 

8p>lii  and  Canariat, ,,,,,,,,,, 

Itoly ..,,,,,,, 

Tu  Aoy ...,,,,,,,..,,,, 

BrleliliK».tIn<lli>«,,,, 

HrltUh  Went  Indlc*  , , , , , 

llnlua  Htai,*,  Niirtli  Ani«rli<« , 


qawillIlM  l!i|,orM.       1 

lut. 

IMJ. 

"TTw, 

Tmt. 

•/ih.wi 

l«H,n4i 

!wr..ir.» 

»ia,a8ii 

'iln.Aoa 

914.518 

iMH.oaft 

llfA4»9 

IflV.VM 

147.540 

tfn.mm 

(W8.?81 

iiii,!ir« 

903.871 

Wl,V\9 

171,807 

tto.inn 

7«,7M2 

M,7IW 

M.Bn4 

M,t4T 

»0,44» 

Sil.MO 

139,'^8B 

The  quantltia*  of  coal  liroHxIit  rnattwiae  and  by  In- 
land  navlgatluii  liib>  tlia  (atrt  of  Mndrni  war*  i 


Vi*l» 


I8BI. 

IdOi. 


CatttvlM. 


»,VM)Mt 


fftlMN'l  M*W*ii. 
ii'/«  and  t>*M 
_      <'»frl*((*, 

"'       Tom. 
Vri4,491 
4I4,I)IT 


Tent. 
8,4M0,M8 
«,74B.846 


Ciwi  Traih  t/Ortal  Hriiain.—K  recant  parllamanl- 
ary  paper  ihow*  that  there  am  no  fewer  than  '21(0, IHM) 
(wrtouii  employed  In  the  rual  mine*  of  llreat  llritaln. 
A  innrkcul  iuiproveinent  Im*  taken  place  in  the  man- 
nor*  *n<l  extent  of  knowleilK«  of  thi*  uieful  body  of 
worker*,  and  It  la  gratlfylnK  to  learn  tliat  in  the  Wak*. 
Held  and  Mathlay  Ulatrict  a  coml>lnntlon  of  the  men 
ha*  lieon  niitde  for  the  purpoea  of  ralalnit  fundi  for  ln> 
vcilinont  In  coal  mine*  and  other  aafa  ventures,  the 
prorcoil*  of  which  ura  to  provide  for  lickneaB  ami  auch 
111  her  Ilia,  tu  which  thia  clua*  of  men  are  more  iiald* 
than  ■oma  uthnra.  The  neceaaity  uf  moan*  of  rnllcf  in 
caaa  of  alckneaa  ur  violent  death  la  abowii  by  tlie  fol- 
lowinit  IlKurea  1  In  IH61,  the  number  of  Uvea  loat  waa 
!)H4  I  in  lM6'i,  OHO ;  In  181)11,  U&7 ;  in  IHM,  1043 ;  In  1H66, 
Dfill;  In  IHfttl,  lO'iT;  In  Mbl,  1110.  Haven  tbaua«u4 
and  eighty  Uvea  loat  In  aeven  yoara. 

HTATiarioa  or  llBiTian  Coal  Mixia. 


DUlrUl. 

No,  of 
^rnlll.llM. 

To..,.f- 
CmI  rolMd. 

Oiirlmm  mid  NorthuiiiberUnd 

968 

•1» 

374 

1»4 

1« 

14 

BII8 

am 

81 
fib 

09 
S9A 

49n 

TO 

M'.'.om 

8,S7.'),44() 

8,fll7,  I4i 

8M.><,iiOo 

■oi'H,7rio 

T,iM,n»ft 

«,8«n,fsoo 

7rio,Mn 

75ll,IHlO 
l,'J'2B,ll<X) 
1,148,  ftflO 
7,I8ABM 
8,911,473 

12(1,080 

Dflrbyililro  and  NottlnfflmmRhlre. . . . 
WkrwlekHhlra    

f^taffordihlre  and  Worceitcwhlro .... 

Olouoeatemhlro,  Hoiuormtahlrc,  and  > 

I)uTon»!Hro / 

North  Walei 

Hoiith  Walei 

TotiiI,l«l58 

9Wft 

(1B,:!04,7»7 

TliouKh  these  duties  are  now  abolished,  tlio  coal 
trade  Is  still  in  some  places  burdened  wltii  heavy  local 
duties.  Tliiis  a  duty  of  it.  Id,  \tcr  ton  U  cbafKeablo 
upon  all  coal  lirouKlit  into  tiio  port  of  Loudon.  l)y 
act  Int  and '2d  WiiUani  IV.,  cap.  7U,  several  upjircsslve 
acts  ys'nTa  repealed,  and  tint  duties  ]Hiyal>lo  to  tlie  cur- 
poration  of  the  city  of  London  were  coniniutcd  fur  a 
duty  of  1*.  Id.  per  ton ;  and  by  8tli  and  Otli  Vict.,  cap. 
101,  a  like  duty  was  imposed  on  coal  lirou^ht  into  Lon- 
don by  railway,  canal,  or  other  inland  carriage.  Of 
this  duty  M.  |icr  ton  Is  carried  to  the  London  Uridgo 
Approaches  Fund,  for  eO'ecting  street  iniproveinents 
in  the  metropolis ;  4(1.  |)cr  tun  is  the  property  of  tlio 
corporation  of  tlio  city  of  London,  and  after  defraying 
certain  cliarges  is  carried  to  the  general  account  of  the 
corporation;  li/.  per  ton  is  payable  to  her  majesty's 
commissioners  of  works,  to  be  applied  liy  them  in  ef- 
fecting public  improvements  in  the  metropolis,  bu- 
tliorizcd  by  several  acts  of  Parliament.  Tlie  produce 
of  these  duties,  with  the  drawbacks  allowed  upon  coal 
exported,  was,  in  185'2, 


8d.  pi^r  tun  to  fith  Jan- 
uary, 1863 

4d.  per  ton  to  8l»t  l>c- 
rember,  1859 

Id.  jicr  ton  to  8Ut  lie- 

cembcr,  1902 

Total 


Unm  Diny. 


£128,067 
82,040 
16.  BOO 


Dranbuk. 


£10,003 
6,040 
1,202 


£201, H67  I  £10,400 


N»i  Diitr. 


£113,6!>0 
67,601 
14,203 


i;i80,44« 


In  1861  the  gross  amount  of  duty  was,  on  sea-borne 
coal,  £175,840;  on  coal  brought  laudwise,  X12,161. 
The  id.  per  ton  duty,  in  1851,  amounted  to  .£54,104, 
of  which  i;215  were  salaries  in  relation  to  collection ; 
£8009  drawback  allowed  upon  coal  exported ;  X7607 
retiring  allowances  paid  to  deputy  sea-coal  meters  and 
others,  u])on  the  abolition  of  their  offices  in  conse* 
quence  of  act  1st  and  2d  Will.  IV.,  cap.  70,  and  which 
had  gradually  decreased  from  £16,8'20  in  1886;  and 
£20,000  an  annual  charge  for  making  a  new  street  ia 
the  lino  of  Canon  Street,  and  other  improvementa. 
The  attention  of  government  is  at  present  directed  to 
these  unjust  local  imposts,  by  which  our  home  trade 
la  uunocesiarily  buidened,  and  the  merchant  andahip- 


^;V>* 


\ 


OOA 


816 


COA 


owner  madt  to  pay  for  improvcincnts  which  ought 
properly  to  be  charged  against  the  landlords  or  inliiilj- 
itanta;  and  it  is  expected  that  they  will  speedily  be 
aboliehed.— E.  B. 

MI.  AretL:  of  CoM>eda  in  the  World,  and  a  Compnr- 
im:  vf  their  Extent. — From  the  eluborote  woric,  "  Sta- 
tistics of  Coal,"  by  R.  C.  Taylor,  we  cxtratt  »  <'zm- 
parison  of  the  proportionate  areas  of  coil,  land  in  Eu- 
rope and  America : 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  magnitude 
of  the  principal  coal-producing  countries,  and  tlieir 
respective  arras  of  coal  Inml,  together  with  the  propor- 
tions which  they  severally  bear  to  cnch  other.  Those 
of  France  and  Spain  are  considerably  loss  than  the  act- 
ual amount.  Coal  occurs  in  almost  every  principal 
subdivision  of  Spain,  but.  we  have  only  included  the 
Asturius  region. 


Hence,  as  regards  Eurojwan  countries,  Great  Brit> 
ain  tolics  the  first  rank;  Belgium,  a»  regards  territo- 
rial proportion,  occupies  the  second  rank,  although  In 
relative  coal  area  she  is  the  least  of  the  four.  Penn- 
sylvania, in  respect  to  territorial  proportion,  Is  higher 
than  any  of  these,  l)eing  relatively  oi  e-tliird ;  Imt  in 
absolute  area  of  conl  formation,  the  lour  eastern  colo- 
nies of  British  America  united  exceed  them  nil,  being 
larger  than  that  of  Great  Britain,  Frimcc,  Belgium, 
and  Spain  conjoined.  This  table  is  not  pfrietly  p(\r- 
fect,  since  we  possess  the  areas  of  tlie  concessions 
only  in  France;  and  in  Spain,  only  of  the  single 
coal  region  of  Asturias,  We  a(1d  tlie  conl  areas  of 
Prussia  and  Austria,  but  can  not  state  the  propor- 
tions of  coal  formation  therein.  The  American  area 
Of  coal  is  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  whole  amount  in 
our  table. 


C[.Ure  Aren  of  cnch 
Countrv. 


\roft  pf 
Ciiil  Landt. 


rrfl{ioitiou  of  Coal 

lo  tb«ir  whole 

Areas. 


Proportlona,  Rala- 

llve  rarti  of  1000, 

of  Coal  Areat. 


Great  IMtain 

Spi.in  (.\stnrias  region) 

I'nincc  (.irea  of  fi.^ed  concession)  In  1845 

llclgium  conceded  lands 

rennsytvania.  United  States 

Ili-itinh  l>rovinecs,  North  America 

IVrsian  dominions 

AuHlrian  lYovinces  containing  coal  or  lignite  . 

United  State.^ 

Twelve  piliiclpul  cua'.>prodncing  t*tatcs 

TotaL 


Square 

r.'o, 

1T7, 
203, 

11, 

43, 

81, 

107, 

160, 

2,280, 

M5. 


Milet. 

,290 
,i8l 
,7.10 

,oia 

.<I60 
,118 
,!13T 
(KH) 
000 
283 


Btiiutra  llUei. 

ll.S8'J 

3,408 

1,719 

613 

16,437 

18,000 


1.30,132 


1-10 

1-6  J 

l-lld 

1-23 

1-3 

l-4t 


LIT 
1.4 


64 

IS 

s 

8 

84 
98 


724 


184,073 


1000 


We  assume  these,  in  round  nnniberi",  as  correct ;  and  , 
hcic  wc  perceive  at  a  glnnoc  tlio  vast  resources  of  the  ] 
United  States  in  tlieir  coal-producing  regions,  wlien  , 
compared  witli  Europe.  It  must  be  recollected,  too,  ] 
that  several  of  our  States  have  not  had  geological  sur- ; 
veys ;  and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  otlier  States  | 
than  those  enumerated  wore  found  hereafter  to  pos- 
sess coal  in  abundant  quantities. 

The  who!.'"  "oal  region  of  Europe  is  liy  Mr.  Taylor 
shown  to  lie  o  ly  50,941  square  miles,  Ijeing  sonuuhitt 
lets  than  that  vj '  the  li'f»/en»  Stiles  of  Illinois  and  fndi- 
ani ;  while  England  has  only  S139  miles,  and  Ireland 
37i0  miles,  the  i  ggregnte  being  wimewliat  less  than 
that  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  But  Great  Britain  produces 
annually  upward  of  34,000,000  toas  of  coal ;  while  that 
of  Pennsylvania  is  about  10,000,000  tons. 

IV.  Compirism  ofitie  Coal  Trade  of  the  Ciiiled  States 
and  F.urtpr. — The  consumption  of  coal  in  Euroiv  and 
the  United  States  was  estimated  as  follows  in  1815, 
showing  also  the  square  miles  of  coal  formation,  the 
relative  ])ronortions,  and  the  value  iu  dullars : 


Countriaa. 

Btinare 
itllea. 

FndurUon, 
IMt. 

timT' 

Value. 

GrCBt  Britain 

nelgitim 

United  BtatcB.... 

11,869 

618 

133,182 

1.719 

undefined. 

undefined. 

TlHU. 

31.6IKI,00ft 
4,'.' 30, 000 
4,4011,000 
4.141,000 

a,6oo,ooo 

0.5D,000 

■042 
■101 

•089 
•«'i4 
•070 
014 

$4.'i.73S.00rt 

7.fl'*!P.0OO 
0.(160,000 
7,t,a.",0fl0 
4,122,000 
JOO.COO 

Pniasian  i<Utea  . . 
\ustriau  Sti'is.. 

Tout 

40.1(10,0001   1-000 

*"2.(i(!2,l:0(l 

The  quantities  of  coal  imported  into  ihe  United 
Stales  from  England  and  the  British  provinces  were, 
in  1850,  180,439  tons;  and  in  the  year  18.53,  231,508 
tons.  From  a  letter  of  Mr.  E.  K.  Collins,  we  learn 
that  the  Collins  line  of  steam  vessels  had  used  the 
Cnmlierland  coul,  but  had  relinquished  it,  and  after- 
ward tried  the  anthracite,  which  vns  used  for  three 
years.  In  Januarj-,  1854,  they  thought  of  using  the 
Cumberland  coal  again. 

Mr.  Cunard  states  that  for  his  line  they  use  the 
Welsh  coals  on  the  voyage  from  Liverpool,  and  the 
Cumberland  coal  on  the  return  trips. 

"We  have  In  the  United  t<tate«  more  iron  ere  and  more 
eoal,  with  the  ubuaI  finz.os,  in  convenient  conneption  and  of 
cheaper  acerits,  liian  all  the  other  civilize,*  nations  of  the 
world,  and  have  the  neceitwry  capital,  skill,  and  labor  to  pro- 


duce nil  the  Iron  and  steel,  and  manufaetnres  of  iron  -Mid 
steel,  required  for  our  coni^uinption,  or  that  may  bo  required 
for  our  consumption,  fur  centuries  to  come,  and  also  to  ensble 
Urt  to  supply  the  markets  of  otiier  countries  in  fair  competition 
with  the  iron  and  steel  of  other  nations.  Our  production  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,  M-as  greater 
in  proportion  to  population  in  1860  than  it  was  in  1840,  and 
tliat  it  was  greater  In  lSti5  tlian  it  was  in  1860,  giving  us  the 
riglit  to  assume  tiiat,  influencr.l  l)y  tlie  same  causes,  it  will  ho 
greater  in  ISflO  than  it  now  is,  and  in  time  will  he  sunk-lent 
ftir  our  own  consumption,  and  tlien  give  us  a  surplus  for  ex- 
port. Hut  taking  into  consideration  our  present  population 
and  accumulated  capital,  M-itii  the  amount  of  capital  annually 
drawn  fVom  other  countries  in  the  course  of  emigration,  and 
the  great  cost  of  carriage  to  the  Interior  of  our  country,  with 
ttio  lato  iinpruvemcnts  in  tlie  modes  of  production  and  nianu- 
fucturo  of  iron  and  steel,  it  would  not  he  rash  to  expect  a  fuU 
supply  for  our  own  consumption  lietwecn  this  and  the  n>tums 
of  the  census  of  1870."_t/'«f<(!d  Stette%  Treamnj  Rejiort,  1*^*(5. 

Tlie  question  of  duty  on  coal  nttracls  considerable 
attention,  and  it  is  well  to  understand  certain  facts 
■whicli  have  a  direct  bearing  ujion  its  decision. 

In  the  year  1815,  when  the  (luty  on  foreign  coal  was 
$3  GO,  the  price  in  NcAv  York  was  $23  the  chaldron  of 
36  liushels. 

From  18iC  to  1823  the  duty  was  $1  80,  and  the  over- 
age price  was  $11. 

From  1824  to  1834  the  (July  was  $2  16,  ond  the  aver- 
age price  was  f  14. 

In  1842  tlie  duty  was  $1  75  per  ton,  and  the  market 
price  was  $7  IG;  and  in  1844,  with  a  duty  of  $1,  llie 
price  w"js  $5  58.  In  the  year  184ti  tlic  duty  was  al- 
tered to  an  Tjd  vidorim  one  of  ,30  per  cent.,  or  aliout  45 
cents  per  ton,  and  the  market  jirice  since  has  ranjjed 
from  $C  50  to  |7  60. 

V.  Staliflirs  of  the  Coid  Trade  if  the  I'nited  Slates, 
Pennsylvania  is  rich  in  its  conl  product.  Tliis  arti- 
cle is  one  of  the  great  sources  of  wealth  to  tliat  Slate, 
and  its  i-uportance  may  lie  seen  from  Ihe  single  fact 
that  aliout  G.OOO.OOO  tons  are  carried  over  or  tiirough  the 
various  railro&ds  and  cnnnis  of  that  State  eastwardly. 
We  refer  only  to  tlie  anthracite  region,  wliiih  min?3 
seem  to  lie  inexiiaustiblc,  and  we  leave  out  of  view 
the  immense  production  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
The  latter  portion  of  the  State  owes  its  growth  mainly 
to  its  coul-tieds, '.;.  conjunction  with  its  iron  and  glass 
manufactures. 

The  maximum  c  ipabilities  of  the  transportation 


COA 


317 


COA 


I  market 
$1,  tho 
was  al- 

ul)Out  45 
ranjjei 

(J  Stalti. 
riiis  arti- 
at  Slate, 
igle  fact 

iigli  tho 
twnrrtly. 
ill  initios 

of  view 

iylvBllill. 

.1  mainly 
mil  k1««» 

[lortatlon 


companies  may  be  set  down  at  7,000,000  tons  per  year, 
witU  their  present  forces ;  viz. : 

Tom. 

tchigh  (Coniil)  Navfgotlon  Company 1  ,SOO,000 

ecbuylkill  (Canal)  Navigation  Company 1,000,000 

Roadlng  Kailroad 4,000,000 

Delaware  and  liiidsvu  Canal I,u00.000 


Total 1,600,000 

If  we  may  judge  by  the  iacrease  of  the  last  two  or 
three  years,  the  quantity  of  coal  required  liy  the  al)ove 
conveyances  will  bo  7,500,000  tons  fur  the  coining  year, 
and  between  eight  and  nine  millions  for  the  year  1860. 
We  have  received  trcm  London  the  special  Report  of 
Professor  Wilson  on  the  New  York  Industrial  Exhibi- 
tion, in  which  document  we  And  a  variety  of  useful  in- 
formation in  reference  to  the  manufactures,  mineral.", 
mining,  and  metallurgy  of  the  United  States.  His  r(  - 
marl(s  on  the  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  zinc  products  and 
manufactures  will  be  a  valuable  addition  to  tho  in- 
^formation  already  in  possession,  and  will  be  accepta- 
ble as  well  to  the  legislator  as  to  tho  manufacturer  and 
merchant. 

Virginia  talce.i  the  lead  among  the  Eastern  (or  At- 
lantic) States  as  tlio  owner  of  coal-tields,  and  is,  in 
fact,  one  of  the  prominent  States  of  the  whole  Union 
as  the  possessor  of  this  valuable  mineral. 

Ark.i  of  the  bkverat.  States  wiiintE  Coal  is  founp,  and 
TUE  Coal  Arp.a  of  each,  ani>  the  PttoronxioN  of  Coai.. 


St»t«.              1        Ant. 

Coal  AWM. 

PronortlonofCoRl. 

Alabama  ........ 

0  corgia 

Tcnnt'ssoo 

Kcntncky 

VliTfinla 

Maryland 

Ohio 

Indiana 

einara  HIIm. 
6«,SJ5 
68,-.'00 
44,120 
89,015 
64,000 
10,829 
8S,S60 
B4,N00 
69,1.10 
43,960 
60,520 
60,SS4 

Sqnara  Mllai. 

3,400 

160 

4,300 

13,500 

21,195 

660 

11,900 

7,700 

44,000 

15,  ■137 

6,000 

6,000 

1-14 
1-3S6 

1-10 

1-8 

1-3 

1-20 

1-8 

1-6 

8-4 

1-3 

1-20 

1-10 

Illinois 

ronnsylvauia. . . . 

Midiignn 

Mlssonrt 

1           Total 

565,293 

13;),132 

Niiarly  Jth 

North  Carolina  is  reputed  to  hold  about  as  much 
coal  land  as  Georgia.  lowi  is  one  of  the  riclicst  coal 
States,  and  has  a  cool  area  almost  equal  to  Ohio. 

From  tliis  valualilc  rcferencc-tuble  it  will  he  sien 
that  Illinois  takes  the  lead,  having  within  her  own 
borders  one-third  of  the  entire  coal  region  of  the  United 
States.  Ne.xt  in  importance  is  Pennsylvania,  produc- 
ing both  anthracite  and  bituminous  cools.  Of  these 
immense  fields  Professor  Wilson  says : 

"  These  comprise  the  threu  anthracite  coal-fields  of 
Eastern  PcnuEylvania,  known  as  the  Southern  Scliu}  I- 
kill,  the  Middle  of  Shamokin,  and  the  Northern  or 
Wyoming,  and  the  Frostburg  or  Cumberland  coal-lield 
(semi-bituminous),  in  tho  State  of  Maryland.  Besides 
these  beds,  a  small  outlying  bed  exists  in  Peiuisylvu- 
nia  of  SLini-bituniinous  coals,  known  as  the  liroadtop, 
which,  however,  owing  to  its  ins-'lated  position,  lieing 
without  any  means  of  access,  is  only  available  for  local 
purpo.sfs  j  and  some  deposits  of  considerable  area  in 
Virginia,  whose  importance  i.s  being  daily  recogni/.cd, 
and  whose  produce  is  gradually  finding  its  way  into 
the  markets.  The  demand  at  present,  however,  is 
confined  chiclly  to  gas-niuking  purposes. 

"Of  the  three  anthracite  beds  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Southern  is,  both  by  situation  and  magnitude,  the  most 
important,  and  furnislies  a  large  proiiortioii  of  the  en- 
tire supply.  It  presents  grcit  facilities  of  acces.H, 
which  have  been  made  advantageous  use  of  liy  two 
Canal  Companies,  the  Lehigh  and  the  Siliiiylkiil,  ami 
by  the  Reariiiig  Uuilroad,  which  peiietrati!  fur  mto  the 
interior,  and  form  the  groat  outlets  for  it.s  luoduce. 
Other  railways  are  now  in  progress,  wliieh  will  not 
only  afford  additiimul  facilities  of  transfer  to  the  At- 
lantic cities,  but  al.so  open  acor.iniunication  to  tho  lat- 
ter, and  through  them  to  tho  Western  markets."' 

The  third  in  importance  is  Ohio,  having  nearly  one- 
third  of  it*  area  in  coal.   The  returns  as  tv  producUoa 


are  not  copious ;  but  Charles  Lyell,  who  made  critical 
inquiries  on  the  subject,  reported  the  followiug  as  the 
yield  for  1851-' 52: 


Builisli.         1          Tmi.          1 

Western  Pennsylvania 

Virginia 

Eostera  Ohio 

Total 

36,000,000 
15,000,000 
16,000,000 

1,170,000 
500,000 
636,000 

66,000,000         2,206,000     | 

At  the  Exhibition  were  produce,',  samples  of  coal 
from  Valley  Falls,  Rhode  Island,  but  the  product  is  of 
inferior  quality. 

Of  the  Virginia  coal,  twelve  miles  west  of  Richmond, 
and  extending  fifty  miles,  the  seams  are  800  feet  in 
thickness,  being  the  deepest  mines  known  in  Ameri- 
ca. In  Uelgium  some  of  the  mines  are  known  to  l>o 
fi-om  1140  to  1476  feet  in  depth.  In  England,  1000  to 
1794  feet — with  an  average  in  Lancashire  of  730  feet. 

DiSTAMOES  OF  THE  OJIIEF  COAL  DISTRICTS  OF  PeMMSVLVANIA 
ANI>  MaBTLANU  FBOll  TlIIE-WATEB. 
OiTOMiNotis  Coal.  MUm. 

Farranilsville  to  Havre  do  Grace 202 

Allcglmiiy  Coal  Mines     to  Havre  dc  Grace . .  196  to  200 

CiinilM^rland,  Maryland,  to  (rporgetown 199 

Cumberland,  Marj'land,  ■    —  -■• 
Dauphin  and  .Siisq.  Co. 

ASTHBACITH  COAL. 

Del.  and  Hudson  Co. 
Pine  Grove 
Lyicens'  Valley  Co. 
Bear  Mountain  Co. 
Lehigh  Room  Run 


to  Baltinioni 189 

to  Havre  de  Ont'ie 93 

to  Rondout 125 

to  Havre  do  Grace 120 

to  I'avro  de  (rracc 116^ 

to  Havre  dc  Grace Ill 

toUilBtol 110 

P.  Grove  by  Minersvillo  to  Philadelphia 110 

Stony  Creek  Coal  Kstate  to  Huvrc  dc  Grace ItH) 

Minoravillo  to  Port  Richmond 93 

PottsvUle  to  Port  Uicbmund l)6f 

I.MPORTED  Coal. — The  only  countries  from  which 
coal  ever  finds  its  way  into  the  United  States  are  Groat 
Britain  and  British  America,  and  tho  contributions 
from  them  appear  to  be  annually  diminishing.  For  a 
time  there  was  an  increasing  foreign  importatioii ;  viz., 
from  22,123  tons  in  1821,  to  181,551  tons  in  1839.  By 
the  operation  of  tho  American  tariir  this  advance  was 
not  only  checked,  but  a  retrograde  movement  wos  pro- 
duced, so  a.s  in  1813  to  amount  to  only  41,103  tonji,  by 
the  United  States  returns.  By  the  last  annual  return, 
that  for  1847,  the  entry  of  foreign  coals,  whether  from 
Europe  or  from  British  America,  was  118,021  tons;  of 
which  from  12,000  to  1 5,000  tons  were  re-exported  for  the 
service  of  tlie  English  steamships.  In  1850,  180,439 
tons  were  imported  into  the  United  States ;  in  1853, 
231,508  tons ;  showing  an  increase. 

Incre.vsei)  PiionucTioN  m-  Coal.  Anthracite  Coo!. 
— The  production  of  anthacite  may  be  said  to  bo  en- 
tirely confined  to  Pennsylvania,  which  possesses  a  nu- 
merous and  interesting  group  of  coal '  aslns  of  various 
sizes  and  character. 

Our  returns  siiow  that  tlio  consumption  of  anthra- 
cite, in  other  words,  the  coal  trade,  commenced  with 
3C5  tons  in  tho  year  1820 ;  that  the  production  re  ehed 
48,017  tons  in  1827;  that  it  had  increuscd  to  881,020 
tens  in  18,'IT,  and  advanced  to  i!, 000,000  of  tons  in  1847, 
without  including  much  that  is  consumed  on  tho  spot, 
in  the  mining  district.'!,  or  interior  of  (he  country. 

The  increased  production,  therefore,  was,  in  the  fir.st 
ton  yenrj,  viz.,  from  1827  to  1837,  17i)5  per  cent.;  in 
the  second  ten  years,  viz.,  from  ]8.')7  to  1817,  210  per 
cent. ;  and  in  the  twenty  years  prcvioicj  to  1848,  that 
is,  from  1827  to  1847,  filOO"  per  cent. 

We  introduce  another  view  of  tho  subject,  which  ex- 
hibits this  accelerated  increase  in  the  consumption  of 
anthracite,  perhaps,  with  yet  greater  iier.«|ii(uity.  The 
amount  whicli  was  periodically  forwanled  lo  iiuirket, 
exclusive  of  the  consumption  in  or  near  the  places  of 
production,  and  which  has  not  been  estimated,  is  as 
follows : 

Aggregate  In  the  21  yean,  from  1820  to  1940,       Tom. 
inclusive 6.R47,179 

In  tliu  succeeding  7  years,  to  1847,  InclUBlvo. .  12,371,061 
Total 19,21!).13B 

From  1347  to  1863,  Inclusive 23.»41.3IW 

Total 4S,oaO,4»l 


X 


COA 


81* 


COA 


We  add  th«  atatistics  from  the  variooa  regions  for 
the  year  1865. 


SCHUVLMILL  RbSION. 

ISI54.       1       IBS!. 

Inertue.  j  D<erMM.( 

Bv  rmilrosd 

Tom.     t     Tom; 
9S7,864'2,218,294 
907,354  1,106,263 
02,462       16,019 

Tons. 
226,438 
197,909 

16,019 

Tom. 

Hncgrove 

Xotal 

2,967,670  H.3U6. 037 

438,306 

17,660 
9,063 

124,616 
8,158 

10,»V7 
68,035 
62,617 

28,"060 

LtHiAii  RiaioN, 

Lehigli  Canal 

LehlKh Valley  Railroad 

Wtomimo  REaioif. 
Del.  and  lludsaii  fo.  . 
PennsylvanUk  CJoal  (Jo. 

N.  nranch  Canal 

White  Haven  Railroad 
Western  Bailroad.... 

1,207,186 

440,944 
41>6,648 
492,689 

39,282 
138,966 

63,606 

1,224,842 
9,063 

606,460 
507,803 
604,030 
60,209 
187.000 
116,117 

Anthracite 

iDcreaso  of  anthra-  ( 
cUolnl868 j 

6,831,834;6,617,6«9 
....     |5,S31,81S 

716,888 
28,060 

28,060 

686,736 

686,736 

.... 

Showing  an  increase  of  anthracito  coal  in  1855  of 
686,735  tons,  against  734,690  tons  last  year. 

An  Official  State.veht  of  the  Amocmt  of  Coal  sbnt  to 
Market  from  the  Leiiioh  Reuio.v,  from  tub  commencp.. 

MKNT  OF  TUK  TRADE  TO  THE  ClOHF.  OF  TUK  YEAS  1856. 


Y<>n. 

1820. 
1821. . 
1822. 
1823. 
1824. 


Tom. 

806 

1,073 

2,441 

6,823 

9,641 

1825 28,896 

1826 31,280 

1827 82,074 

1S28 30,232 

1829 26.110 

1830 41?r.'S0 

1831 40,906 

1832 76,000 

1833 12.%0flO 

1834 106.244 

1836 131,260 

1836 140,522 

183T 226.037 

1888 214,211 

BUuminous  Coal. — Wc  have  given,  in  the  first  part 
of  this  article,  data  by  wliich  tlie  appto.xiiiiatc  increase 
of  tliis  description  of  fuel  can  l)C  deterniined,  and  give 
here  all  tha  statistics  that  can  be  collected. 


Yean.  Tmi. 

1839 222.042 

1,840 226.691 

1841 14'-',S07 

1842 271,013 

1S4S 207,126 

1844 876,363 

1S46 430,088 

1S46 622,61S 

1847 64.').5(B 

1848 6'<n.197 

1349 80O.0S8 

1860 722,«S1 

iS-M 98».264 

18.'>2 1,113,843 

1S63 1,fl80.r)60 

1S64 1,24f,,8l5 

1W)6 1,274.083 

18S6 1,367.620 


SKHI-ANTHKACrtB  OX  BiTVMIMOUI.                                            | 

19M. 

ISM. 

Inrreue. 

litenut, 

Torn. 

Tom. 

Tom. 

Toi... 

Lykens' Valley  Co.. 

67,600 

00.721 

9.221 

Short  Mountain  Co, 

6'l,00il 

5fl.ono 

600 

Dauphin  <■■. 

63,000 

1.000 

02,001) 

CunibtTlnnd  Jlt'^^ioii 

64<.299 

664,304 

1I),IHI6 

Foreign  coal 

Total 

26->,S06 

287.408 

34,M:t 
60,209 

1.071,064 

1,069.933 

OJ.OIKt 

Decrease  in  l.'«i6.. . 

i,*>9,»;'.3 

OO.'JOO 

1.731          ....       1     .... 

l,7::i 

The  increase  of  semi-anthracite  or  bituminous  coal 
in  1854,  including  foreign,  over  the  previous  year,  was 
218,167  tons.  This  year  (1855)  there  is  a  decrease  of 
i731  tons,  making  the  total  increase  of  all  kinds  in  1855 
C8t,001  tons,  against  n5-i,H.07  tons  in  1854. 

Almost  as  interesting  as  the  statistics  of  the  areas 
and  production  of  the  coal  countries,  is  the  considera- 
tion of  the  means  of  traiiup'^  rtation  and  the  facilities 
nec<lcd  to  give  us  fuel  in  abundance  and  at  a  low  price. 
It  is  of  great  importance  'o  the  consumer,  and  an  ex- 
tract from  a  private  letter  will  lie  of  interest,  throwing 
some  light  on  the  ways  and  means,  the  cost  and  cou- 
tingeneif-'  in  the  transit  to  market: 

"  Ily  I «  lal,  besides  the  diitanco  and  cost  of  the  stnic- 
ture,  there  are  so  many  contingencies,  arising  from  too 
much  or  too  little  water,  as  to  weaken  the  depondcnco ; 
ami  on  the  railroads,  the  grades  and  the  adantation  to 
the  busini  «<  arc  alone  the  objects  by  which  the  price 
car,  l>e  rcfculated.  If  the  grades  be  level  or  descending, 
the  capacity  of  the  engine  is  not  only  increased,  liut 
the  expense  i^  f"  much  reduced  as  to  determine  its 
value,  and  it  is  only  upon  a  road  so  graded  anil  so  con- 
ittact«d  M  ($  esdure  the  burden  that  the  price  can  be 


fixed  or  defined.  On  the  down-hill  grade  the  momen' 
tum  keeps  up  the  speed,  and  relieves  the  engine,  while 
on  the  up-hill  grade  the  speed  is  depressed,  the  power 
is  reduced,  the  strain  < '  'ncreased,  and  the  expense  ang- 
mented. 

"  On  the  Beading  Railroad,  in  operation  since  1841, 
these  facts  are  so  illustrated  and  defined  as  to  establish 
their  existence  beyond  a  question.  On  the  stem  as 
upon  the  laterals,  the  descent  is  from  22  feet  to  a  mile 
to  a  level  of  36,000  feet,  and  as  the  maximum  is  but 
four  miles  in  length,  the  balance  descends  to  the  level 
without  the  slightest  rise  to  interfere  with  the  speed. 
On  this  descent  and  over  the  level,  a  single  engine  can 
take  as  many  cars  loaded  as  it  can  bring  empty  to  the 
place  of  starting.  This  difference,  from  the  weight  of 
the  descending  and  ascending  trains,  is  ascertained  to 
be  equal  to  two  and  three-quarters  engines,  or  176  per 
cent,  more  than  on  the  downward  grade— consequent- 
ly a  reversion  of  ;he  trade  ;  or  upon  a  road  where  the. 
grade  is  equal  to  twenty-two  feet  to  the  mile  against 
the  trade,  the  expense  for  engines,  fuel,  and  wages, 
would  be  more  for  the  same  distance  than  the  profits 
derived  from  the  coal  in  market. 

"  Hut  as  these  are  the  questions  for  railroad-makers, 
we  will  next  consider  the  extent  of  the  trade,  and  ar- 
rive atourolgect  by  the  expenditure  made  to  accommo- 
date it.  On  the  Lehigh,  we  have  an  expenditure  on 
the  part  of  the  I.ehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Company 
of  $8,441,405,  and  on  the  part  of  some  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen companies  passing  over  their  works  about  five 
millions  more,  making  together  $13,441,405.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  company  in  18i0  until  the 
close  of  the  season  in  1855,  the  production  of  the  re- 
gion is  12,278,01'i— equ:il  to  ,')fi.S,725  tons  per  annum. 
l?i;t  if  we  take  the  amount  sent  to  market  during  the 
year  just  closed,  1,274,086  tons,  and  admit  a  clear  profit 
of  75  cents  per  ton,  which  it  did  not  give  to  the  sever- 
al parties  concerned,  the  income  would  be  less  than  7 
per  cent,  on  the  money  expended.  In  the  region  it  is 
also  imderstood  the  mining  operations  are  above  water- 
level,  and  that  until  recently  they  were  condiicted  on 
the  jirinciple  of  n  quarry,  and  that  the  expenses,  to- 
getlier  with  the  transit,  prevented  a  dividend  to  the 
stockholders  until  the  outside  operators  came  in  to  their 
relief. 

"On  the  I.ackawana,  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Company,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  Company,  with 
capitals  amounting  to  $11,626,761,  brought  to  market 
during  18.')5, 1,092,000  tons,  and  during  the  period  they 
have  been  in  existence  the  average  is  equal  to  332,000 
tons  per  annum.  The  i)roduction  of  1855,  at  75  cents 
per  ton  clear  profit,  gives,  however,  but  7  per  cent. 

"  On  the  Schuylkill,  the  operations  are  more  extens- 
ive, and  the  expenditure,  including  the 

Ii>a(::i  g  Koilroi d,  cost $18,464,114  il4 

SrhuvlkiU  Canal  cost 10.860,4,'>1  41 

496  miles  ijitcral  Roads  to  the  Collieries.  _4,00«,IKK)  00 

Total |!t3,314.6i16  (16 

Besides  this  expenditure  for  reaching  the  trade,  there 
i.s  a  population  depending  upon  it  of  60,717  in  1850, 
which  is  divided  into  10,!I27  families  and  10,670  houses. 
In  the  region  tiiere  are  also  300  stationary  engines, 
equal  to  10,000  horse  power,  used  in  mining.  In  1856, 
'  the  production  was  3,318,340  t_.ns,  and  during  the  ex- 
istence of  the  works  (the  Navigation  Company  thirty- 
four  years,  and  the  Reading  fifteen  years"),  the  product 
has  been  28,508,041  tons,  equal  to  838,495  tens  per  an- 
num. At  75  cents  on  the  product  of  the  year  just 
closed,  clear  profit,  the  percntnge  on  $'16,631,510,  in- 
cluding the  improvements  tt  the  mines,  would  be  be- 
tween 7  and  8  per  cent. 

"  Altogether  the  cost  for  improving  and  reaching 
the  three  region.?  in  operation,  Including  tiie  eastern 
division  of  the  I'eimsylvania  works,  is  $62,272,898.  Tho 
product  during  1855  amouute<l  to  5,262,1H9  tons,  which, 
at  75  cents  profit,  would  bo  equal  to  7^  per  cent,  profit.' 
—See  article!  Inos  and  ITsited  States. 


COA 


819 


COA 


Ooaating-trade,  the  trade  or  interconne  carried 
on  hy  sea  between  two  or  more  ports  or  places  of  the 
same  country.  It  has  been  customary  in  most  coun- 
tries to  exclude  foreigners  from  all  participation  in  the 
coasting-trade.  This  policy  began  in  England  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  (5  Eliz.  c.  5),  or  perhaps  at  a  more 
remote  era  ;  and  it  was  perfected  by  the  acts  of  naviga- 
tion passed  in  1U51  and  ItiUU.  This  policy  is  now  entire- 
ly alirogated  in  Ur«at  Britain. — See  Uueat  Britain. 

0/  VesstU  which  mni/  engai/ii  in  t/te  JJomeslic  Trade  of 
the  United SttUet. — Vessels  of  twenty  tons  and  upward, 
enrolled,  and  having  a  license  in  force,  and  vessels  of 
less  than  twenty  tons,  not  enrolled,  but  having  a  li- 
cense in  force,  and  no  others,  shall  be  deemed  vessels 
of  the  United  States,  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  ves- 
sels employed  in  tiie  coasting-trade  and  fisheries. 
Every  vessel  of  twenty  tons  or  upward  (other  tlian 
such  as  are  registered)  trading  lictween  district  and 
district,  or  between  dillerent  places  in  tlie  same  district, 
or  carrying  on  tho  fishery,  without  being  enrolled  and 
licensed,  or  if  of  less  tlian  twenty  tons,  and  not  less 
than  five  tons,  without  a  license,  if  laden  with  goods 
the  growth  or  manufacture  of  the  United  States  only 
(distilled  spirits  only  excepted),  shall  pay  tho  same 
fees  and  tonnage  in  every  port  at  which  she  may  ar- 
rive as  are  payable  by  vessels  not  belonging  to  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States ;  and  if  she  have  on  hoard 
any  articles  of  forcij^  growth  or  manufacture,  or  dis- 
tilled spirits,  other  than  sea-stores,  she,  together  with 
her  tackle,  a])parol,  and  furniture,  and  lading,  found 
on  board,  shall  he  forfeited.  But  if  such  vessel  be  nt 
sea  at  the  expiration  uf  the  time  for  which  the  license 
was  given,  and  tlie  master  shall  swear  that  such  was 
the  case,  and  shall  also,  witliin  forty-eight  houis  after 
his  arrival,  deliver  to  the  loUector  of  the  district  in 
which  he  shall  Itrst  arrive  tlie  license  which  shall  liave 
expired,  she  shall  not  be  forfeited,  nor  shall  bo  liable  to 
pay  sucli  ft'i's  and  tonnage.  No  goods  shall  bo  imported, 
under  penaltyof  forfeiture  thereof,  from  one  to  another 
port  of  the  I  nitcd  .States,  in  n  vessel  U'longing  wholly, 
or  in  part,  to  a  subject  of  any  foreign  i)Owcr;  Init  such 
vessel  may  sail  from  one  to  another  such  ports,  carry- 
ing such  goods  only  us  were  imported  in  Iht  from  some 
foreign  port,  and  w  hicb  shall  not  have  been  unladen. 

0/  the  ICnriAlmcnt  and  Liixme  nf  Viasch. — Tlic  like 
(|ualili('ations  and  requisites  are  necessary  fi  r  the  en- 
rollment as  for  the  registry  and  record  of  vessels, 
and  tlie  same  duties  are  in-.posed  on,  and  authority 
given  to,  all  officers  rcspectivel;',  in  relation  to  sucli 
enrollments,  and  the  same  proceedings  shall  be  liac' 
in  similar  cases  ti7uching  such  cnrollnii'Ul.s ;  and  ve^i- 
ac's  so  enrolled,  with  their  masters  c^r  owners,  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  rciiuLites  as  are  iu  these  re- 
fpecls  provided  for  registered  vessels,  i'lie  reiord  of 
such  enrollment  shall  lie  made,  and  an  abstr  ct  or  copy 
thereof  granted,  as  nearly  as  may  Ije,  in  tiu'  i»n\\  di- 
rected by  law.  Eorolled  and  licensed  vessels  may  be 
re(;istered  ujion  tho  registry  lieiiig  given  up ;  and  reg- 
istered \.^ssels  iii.ay  be  enrolled,  upon  surrendering  up 
the  enrollment  and  license.  And  when  any  vessel 
shall  bo  in  any  other  district  tlian  that  to  wliich  she 
belongs,  the  collector,  on  application  of  the  master,  and 
on  his  making  oath  that,  to  th.;  best  of  his  kiiowled;;'!' 
and  belief,  tlie  property  remains  as  expressed  in  tin.' 
register  or  enrollment,  proposed  to  l)0  given  up,  and 
upon  his  giving  the  bonds  re<iiiircd  for  granting  regis- 
ter, sliall  make  such  e.xcliangrs ;  and  such  collector 
shall  transmit  the  register  or  enrollment  given  up  to 
the  register  of  the  treasury.  The  register  or  envoll- 
mont  ami  license  granted  in  lien  thereof,  shall,  within 
tun  days  after  the  arrival  of  the  vessel  within  the  dis- 
trict to  which  she  Ixdongs,  lie  delivered  up  to  tho  col- 
lector of  such  district,  and  be  by  him  canceled.  And 
if  tho  master  sliall  negh  to  deliver  sii'  h  register  or 
enrollment  and  license  .iihin  the  time  Lipccilied,  he 
shall  forfeit  one  hundred  dollars.  In  order  to  the  li- 
rcnsing  of  any  vessel  for  carrying  on  tho  coasting-trade 


■■it  flshcrica,  the  husband,  together  ivlth  tho  master, 
■vith  one  or  more  sureties,  to  tho  satisfaction  of  the 
collector,  shall  become  bound  to  pay  to  the  United 
States,  if  she  be  of  the  burden  of  five  tons  and  less  than 
twenty  tons,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars ;  and  if 
twenty  tons,  and  not  exceeding  thirty  tons,  the  sum 
of  two  hundred  dollars ;  and  if  above  thirty  tons,  and 
not,  exceeding  sixty  tons,  the  sum  of  five  hundri'd  dol- 
lars ;  and  if  above  sixty  tons,  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars,  in  case  it  shall  appear,  witliin  two  years  from 
the  date  of  the  bond,  that  she  has  been  employed  in 
any  trade  whereby  the  revenue  of  tho  Unite<l  States 
has  been  defrauded,  during  the  time  her  license  re- 
mained in  force ;  and  tho  master  of  such  vessel  shall 
also  swear  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  such  license  shall  not  bo  used  for  any  other 
vessel,  or  any  other  emplyment,  than  that  for  which  it 
is  specially  granted,  or  in  any  trade  whereby  the  reve- 
nue may  be  defrauded ;  and  if  such  vessel  be  less  than 
twenty  tons  burden,  her  husband  shall  swear  that  she 
is  wholly  the  property  of  a  citizen  or  citizens  of  the 
United  States ;  whereupon  the  collector  of  the  district 
wliereto  such  vessel  may  belong  (the  duty  of  six  cents 
per  ton  being  first  paid)  shall  grant  a  license,  in  tho 
form  directed  by  law,  for  carrying  on  the  coasting- 
trade,  wlialc  lisliery,  cod  fishery,  or  mackerel  fishery. 
A  steam-vessel,  intended  to  be  employed  only  in  a  river 
or  bay  of  the  United  States,  owned  wholly  or  in  part 
by  an  alien,  resident  within  the  United  .States,  shall 
be  enrolled  and  liceii^ud  es  if  she  belonged  to  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  except  that  no  oath  shall  be  re- 
ipiircd  tliat  she  belongs  to  a  citizen  or  citizens  of  the 
United  Stati's.  The  owner  of  such  steani-vcssel,  upon 
application  for  eiirollinent  or  license,  shall  give  bond  to 
the  collector  of  the  district,  to  and  for  tlie  use  of  tho 
United  Stotes,  in  the  penaltj  of  one  thousand  dollars, 
with  sutficient  surety,  conditioned  tliat  slic  shall  not  bo 
cmployxj  in  other  waters  than  the  rivers  uiul  bays  of 
tho  United  States.  When  the  master  of  any  licensed 
vessel,  ferry-boats  exce]itccl,  shall  be  changed,  tho 
new  master,  or,  in  case  of  his  absence,  ,in  ovner,  shall 
report  such  clinngc  to  the  collector  residing  at  the  port 
where  the  same  may  iiai'i>cn,  if  (!.crc  be  on'",  otherwise 
to  the  collector  residing  a'  any  port  where  such  vessel 
may  next  arrive,  who,  upon  ine  oath  of  such  new  mas- 
ter, or  in  case  of  his  absence,  jf  an  oiviicr,  t  liat  he  is  a 
ttitizen  of  the  United  States,  .md  that  !■'>•  riiall  not, 
while  such  license  continues  in  force,  be  iinploycrt  in 
any  manner  whereby  the  revenue  may  be  defraudcil, 
shall  indorse  such  change  on  the  liceuu*,  w  ith  the  name 
of  the  new  master:  and  when  «i,.  Vnngc  shall  so  hap- 
pen, and  shall  not  Ic  reportej,  and  the  in;lorscment  so 
made,  such  vesse'i,  found  carrying  on  the  coaMing-trade 
or  fisheries,  shall  be  subject  to  lay  the  -ainc  fees  and 
tonnage  as  a  vessel  of  the  United  Stni.'s  having  a  rcg- 
later,  and  the  new  master  shall  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum 
of  ten  dollars.  IJcfo'c  any  vcisse' ,  of  the  burden  of  five 
tons,  and  less  than  tneiity  tons,  .  liall  be  licensed,  tho 
same  admeasurement  shall  be  mad,  and  the  same 
provisions  observed  relative  ihcrefo,  us  are  to  Ije  oli- 
servod  in  case  of  admeasuring  vessels  to  be  registered ; 
but  in  all  cases  where  such  vessel,  or  any  other  licensed 
ccssel,  shall  have  been  mice  admeasure  I,  it  shall  not  be 
iii'ci'ssary  to  measure  h.-r  anew  for  the  piir|,ose  of  ob- 
t.'iiiiing  another  cnroUinent  or  license,  excejil  she  shall 
IwiM'  undergone  some  alteration  as  to  her  burden  sub- 
scipicnt  to  the  time  of  her  former  license.  Every 
licensed  vessel  shall  hav  '  her  name,  uiul  the  port  to 
which  she  belongs,  painted  on  her  stern,  ns  is  directed 
for  rcgisterc'1  v"ssels,  and  if  found  without  such  paint- 
ing, the  owner  shall  jiay  twenty  dollars.  No  collector 
shall  grant  to  any  vessel,  whose  enrollment  or  license 
for  I'arrying  on  the  coasting-trade  has  expired,  a  new 
enrollment  or  license,  befon?  the  master  shall  have  ren- 
dered n  true  account  of  the  nnmber  of  .seanun,  and  the 
time!  they  have  severally  been  employed  on  board  such 
vessel  during  the  continuance  of  the  expired  license. 


w-.?.  :i 


COA 


COA 


and  shall  havo  paid  to  tho  collector  tWMity  mit«  |)«r 
inoiilli,  for  every  montli  such  M.'imcii  liavo  been  i»' 
severally  employed,  wlilch  sum  the  iimHter  may  detain 
from  the  wages  of  such  seamen.  If  the  mustier  shall 
render  &  false  account  of  the  number  of  men,  iind  Ihe 
length  of  time  (hey  bav<:  severally  been  employed,  he 
shall  forfeit  and  pay  one  huiulr>.'d  dollars.  Any  bout, 
■loop,  or  other  vessel  of  the  I'niteil  Slates,  navi)(a(iMK 
the  waters  on  our  northern,  northeastern,  and  norlU- 
-westeni  frontiers,  otherwise  than  by  cea,  shall  Ije  en- 
rolled and  licensed  in  such  form  as  may  bo  prescriljud 
by  the  Secretary  of  tlie  Treasury ;  which  enrollment 
and  license  shall  authorize  any  such  boat,  sloop,  or 
other  vessel,  to  be  employed  either  in  the  cuaslinK  or 
foreign  trade ;  and  no  cnrtilicatc  of  reyiotry  slinll  bti  re- 
quired for  vessels  t-o  employed  on  said  I'routiers  :  Pro- 
vu!  J,  That  such  boat,  sloop,  or  vessel,  tlmll  lie,  in 
STory  ot!>.r  respect,  liable  to  the  rules,  re{;ulutioiis, 
•od  pi  r.,iltie!>,  now  in  force,  relating  to  registered  ves. 
•eU  uii  uur  northern,  northeastern,  and  northwestern 
frontiers,     l.nut nftlie  I'liUed  Kilaltt. 

TON.4AUK  EUPLOTEU  IN  TUE  CuABTIMU-TBADB  OF  THE  I'.   H, 

Y*«n.                             Tdonnn.  ;  Y«An.  Tmilisfl*' 
I    ,^j^ 8T».I»1« 

18,17 OfKt.KWI 

1838 1,041.106 

18.«l l,IMt,t»l 

1840 I,l1(l,av4 

1841 l,l»7,U<17 

1842 1,04«,"M 

1843 t,07<l,1W' 

1844 1,lA»,al4 

1840 I,l!i0,«l"t 

ISM 1,2H(),N70 

1847 l,4W.(a» 

1S48 i,a2o,eM) 

184» 1,780,410 

1850 I,7K),7L'D 

18.')1 1,8.H»1T 

ISft'i %i-m,l»l 

18M  8,184.2M 

1864 «,«a,UOI» 

1866 2,4B1,I«H 

1«)« 2,211,(»rfi 


1816 4S6,0ll6 

;816 47»,a'i) 

181T 4Sl,46r 

1818 .  ro3,l40 

1819 62a,8B« 

1820 M9,0S0 

5821 569,43.') 

1822 573,080 

1828 6<J6,4lr8 

1824 Ii8ll,2l!» 

1828 687,273 

1826 (W«,420 

1827 732,087 

1828 7S8,«22 

1829 608,868 

1030 610,1178 

1831 63»,723 

1882 649,027 

1883 T44,l»8 

1834 783,018 

1835 792,301 


From  thi.s  table  wc  see  that  our  coa»ting-trode  hn» 
increa-ied  12  per  cent,  on  an  average  fur  forty  yi'ar», 
and  has  doubled  in  the  past  ten  years- -from  IWl.'!  I.i 
185.^.  The  total  tonnage  has  increased  from  1!),'),'Kirt 
tons  in  181,')  to  2,491, lOX  tona  In  IW.'),  giving  un  in- 
crease  of  10  per  cent,  per  ,innum ;  nbov.  ing  that  we  lia>'« 
at  this  time  a  larger  tonnage  than  any  other  n.ition. 

"  The  coasting-traJ'  of  the  United  States  hai ,  ',  uni 
the  beginning,  liecn  strictly  rescr\ed  for  vessels  built 
within  tho  I'nited  .States,  and  owned  by  citizens  of  the 
I'nited  States,  to  the  cxclusijn  of  forelgn-bnilt  and 
foreign-owned  vessels.  The  American  tonnage  en- 
gaged in  foreign  trade  and  in  the  coasting-trade  has 


switrnd  •  Urgfl  and  eMclcnt  body  of  skillful  officers 
and  snIIoiw,  ut  all  time  .  ready  for  the  defense  of  <,dr 
<  iliiw  Mid  .vast,  for  repelling  aggression  on  our  com- 
merce, and  for  manninK  our  ships  of  Mar.  In  the 
priiteetion  given  to  >iiir  shipping  interest,  for  the  pi<r- 
IHjiH'  uf  having  at  all  times  the  power  to  repel  foreign 
aggre'sluii,  and  protect  our  coast  and  trade,  there  ap- 
(M-am  lo  have  b«en  but  littlo  division  of  sentiment, 
from  till!  earliest  lime  to  the  presoii*  while  the  yearly 
inernoM  of  our  toin:*ge  proves  the  wisdom  of  our  laws 
in  thill  partieular.  We  have  no  dtitu  to  ascertain  the 
wiuual  number  of  pcrscns,  or  the  annual  to:i3  of  freigiit 
carried,  in  our  loustiiig-trade,  nor  the  value  thereol. 
Km'Ii  person  muat  make  I  it  own  estimate  of  the  ton- 
iiugu  t'Mtployed,  and  the  averagv^  number  of  trips  the 
v«H«l»  can  make,  eonibined  with  the  facts  tliut  capital 
consUntiy  tends  to  that  iiusiiu  ss,  and  the  growth  of 
uur  unrolled  abd  licensed  tonnage  keeps  puce  witli  uur 
liiervAsing  population  and  weullb.  Tho  amount  of 
«'iiH><inK>tonnage.  and  the  annual  number  of  tons  of 
freight  transport!. .  on  oer  railroads,  with  an  estimate 
uf  that  carried  by  other  nodes  of  Iran:  ier,  exhibit  the 
inogliitudii  uf  the  means  re(|uired  fur  our  internal 
Iradi'."- -  / ',  M,  'J'riiuury  llfjirri,  December,  1856. 

COMt  Lltl0.  '1  lie  following  statement  of  tlic  river 
nu\  igatiiin  and  siioro  line  of  the  United  Slates  was  |ire- 
pured  by  C'ohinel  Abert,  of  the  Topographical  Eiigin- 
eerx,  at  the  request  of  the  Treasury  Department,  Dc- 
ci'tnlivr  Till,  IMlu.  It  lias  since  been  completed  to  date. 
The  head  of  tide-water  is  assumed  as  tlie  limit  uf  .steam 
imvigatlvn,  as  Impelling  falls  or  rapids  are  encountered 
at  timt  point,  above  which  many  riverH  are  adapted  to 
steam  navigation,  but  to  what  extent  is  nut  suflicicntly 
known.  The  shore  line  of  rivers  to  head  of  iide-watcr, 
front 

JMsine  to  Tom,  Is 10,501  mller 

Itlii'm  of 'IVwis 1,210     •' 

1,'iwer  tllMilwil|i|>l,  Islsnila  and  hsyoue 8,,t72     " 

Imx-r  JMlMliisliipl  and  trllHitsrles 2,736     " 

ItlK  Kliirli.  Vst'Ki,  anil  lift)  ous 1,190     " 

llixl  Jllvtr  Hi»l  trtl;:itririeii 4,924     " 

Aik»fi«i«  Illversiiil  Irlliuliirle^ Il,2.'i0     " 

Mfitiiiiri  Hirer  «ii<1  trtliiitsrlen T,8S0     " 

oliui  lllvi  r  anil  triliiitarles 7,U42     ■' 

Tii'al 47,866     " 

Aul  rlrun  un  tlui  radflc— i^MTsmento 600 

Han  .loaiinln ...  000 

Oregon 400 

Unipqaa 69 

1_J10 

Total  river  shorn  line  In  the  I'lillcd  Htateii  In 

ti<.'>4,  InrliiilInK  ImpIIi  bankn 49,06.'i  niilca. 

Mhuni  line  of  fiortheni  Inkef,  ineltidlng  bays, 

ciunilK,  iinil  lAlsiids  (Ainerlrnn) 8,620     " 

Tolsl  river  snil  1«ke  nhore  liiio 52,  i.'W     " 

A  caliiilallon  made  at  the  ofTice  of  the  Coast  Sur^-ejr 
In  l»<.'<fl  gives  for  the  total  main  shoreline  of  the  United 


been  American  built,  nnd  has  bod  the  absolute  pro- 
tection of  our  laws,  and  the  licensed  tonnage  absolute '  Mtates  Cflxrlnslvr  of  liay,  ."ounds,  islands,  etc.)  I'",(i09 
protection,  in  the  carrjing-trade  on  our  coast,  and  In  statute  miles,  iTall  of  tlie.«e  be  followed,  and  the  .•iv- 
cur  own  waters.  Tho  protection  given  to  our  foreign-  ers  "niereil  lo  the  li('a<l  of  tide-water,  the  total  shore 
commercial  and  toourcoasting-comiiicrcial  marine  has  ,  line  will  be  swelled  to  8'1,<J<!<J  miles. 

eiioiu:  LiNB  or  tuk  I'niTrn  Mtatm  in  Htatiti'.  MitM. 


Couts. 

MalD  8hi>r>r 

iDcludius 

Bft)  t,  SounUi, 

«lc. 

Ploportfon 

of«Mli  I'art 

ofl'oftft  to 

ToUl. 

Iflanda. 

RivaHl,. 

Ilaxl  ,t 

TKIa. 

Atlantte  coast 

Pacific  coast. 

Uulf  coast... 

Tolsl,... 

HUM. 
O.'^l 
2,281 
8,467 
12,609 

Car  CmI. 
6441 
ISflO 

27-50 

loit-wi 

Hllai. 

6:i:''< 

7»'.' 

2217 

924V 

P«ll, 

(18-44 

7-fi« 

23-97 

liill'lll) 

Hllaa. 

O.I'M 

712 

.'I.SW 

■  lUlil 

11.41 

T«(i 


«;6 
bjuiio 


Mllaa, 


II.IW6 
U.WMt 


IIM 

i'alTT 
IIIIOI 

1117 

28  8;' 
IWHKI 


n.>#«n  I.lna 
III  ,<Uf  of 
Tm  MM.,. 

I'cjntinanU) 
flhciM,  l.ili*-  uf 
Slalaa  North 

uf  VlrgisU. 

CaollnaiiUI 

Sliora  I.Ui«,  »f 
Slalw  South 
of  MaryUlxl. 

Mllas. 
■/«■■» 
1405 
1048 

MUaa. 
DOT 

Mllaa. 
1250 

1704 

61  e: 

907 

coao 

Tlus  main  shore  lino  of  the  Atlantic,  including  bays, 
etc.,  is  twice  that  of  the  Ijiilf,  three  times  that  of  tho 
Pacifie.  and  more  than  e(|ual  to  that  of  the  I'acillc  and 
Gnlf  wniliined.  The  .Southern  States  have  three  tlinci 
A*  much  soii-(oast  as  the  Northern. 

Europe,  in  extent  of  shore  line,  >s  more  favored  than 
any  other  portion  of  the  earth,  and  North  America  next; 
the  tbrnier  having,  according  to  Guyot,  puly  IM  nillc-a, 
•Dd  Uic  latter  22H  miles  of  surfr^co  to  one  mile  of  coast 
ttbe  United  States  having  241) ;  while  S<:ut))  Atontlca 
■M  S?6,  Africa  623,  and  Asia  469  mllec. 


Tho  fullowlng  table  furnishes  three  measurements: 

1.  Tiif  I'oniri  tint,  I,  e.  scs-rimst,  liays.  islsnds, 

ell",,  -.f  the  Atlantlr  enssi 12,,169  miles. 

Tlin  lUffSl'i  besil  I'f  tide,  W/i  iiA.;/-M O.W*     " 

Kiif  llietllllfnf  Menlr.j.  Ilie  r..««t  lllielf. ...  5,714      " 

//•MKlliof  rlreral'i  lieml  (if  tide i),84«     " 

2,  t'iKift  tint,  tMiwive  i\f  li^ai  dn  and  ripen  lo 

lieodoftlilc-  fcrllio  Allnnllc 6,017  " 

"       (dilf B.BBl  " 

8.  C'utut  lint,  txrluatrr  uf  hoy*,  iaiaiuit,  etc., 

«l«.,cxcetrtMa«uchu9etuU*>-Atlaallc.  2,108  " 

aulf....  1,7»<  " 


COA 


821 


COA 


Tni  Results  or  MEABcr.i:.MENTs  or  Coast  and  Suobk  Limb  or  mi  United  States  as  kiquishd  ut  nn  SupcBiNTBMDBirr 
or  Tim  C'ENHim  iIukeau  ntosi  tub  Coast  Scbvey  or  July  12, 1861,  aiu:  as  ruLLous,  in  Statute  Miles: 


,'i  miles. 


mciitf : 


SlaUi. 

shun  LliM,  iD- 
cluillnic  Bmyt, 
Iilaud<,andaU 
IniguUrlUM. 

Short  Ltat, 

CoDUD«DtLin«i 

vli. :  Short 
Liii«,*xceptbl> 

lUmatta. 

Maine 

a,48S 
40 

660 

820 
202 
U80 
CM 
118 

609 

784 

41 

622 

246 
240 
60 
800 
106 

411 

S78 

18 

£36 

46 
104 
none. 
120 
S3 

S3 

Mcasureuionta  taken  on  best  maps  of  tbo  Coast  ttui-vey  Ar- 
chives. 

Measured  on  Uroonlcaf 's  map  of  Maine,  as  correc*.  o!  possible, 
but  the  great  ln«f;ularitics  of  coast  prevent  a  C'>rrcct  result 

Measured  on  UarrlKain's  map  of  N.  H.,  gener^iUv  correct  as 
compared  with  Smith's  map. 

Measured  on  Itonicu's  map  of  Mass.,  generally  correct  as  c«m- 
pared  with  Smith's  map. 

Measured  on  Smitli's  and  Mitchell's  maps.                "'  ■'     •  ■    ' 

Measured  on  Coast  Survey  otr shore  charts. 

Measured  on  Coast  Survey  off  slioro  charts. 

Measured  on  Coast  .Purvey  off  shore  charts. 

Measured  -jn  F.  Lucas's  map  of  Md.,  Chcs.  Bay,  and  C.  S. 
Sketches  and  Charts. 

Measured  -in  F.  Lucas's  map  of  Md.,  Chcs,  Bay,  and  C.  8. 
J'ketciics  and  Charts. 

From  northeast  boundary  to  State  line  between  Md.  and  Va. 
Measured  o.  T.  Lucas's  map  of  Md,  and  C.  S.  maps. 
Measured  on  Brazier's  map  of  N.  C,  and  compared  with 

8m"  's. 
Measured  on  Smith's  map,  and  compared  with  Mitchell's. 
Measured  on  Smith's  map,  and  compared  witli  ilitcheH's. 
Measured  on  map  of  Topographical  Engiuccrs. 
From  State  lino  between  Md.  and  Vo.  to  S.  extremity  of  Florida. 

Measured  on  map  of  Topographical  Engineers. 
Measured  on  Smith's  map,  and  compared  with  Mitchell's. 
Measured  on  Smith'"  map,  and  compared  with  Mitchell's. 
Pleasured  on  (ierdcs's  Kecounuissances  aud  Smith's  map. 
Measured  ou  Bluut's  and  Smith's  map. 

Measured  on  Aldon's  Kcconnolssanccs. 

Now  Hsmpalilre . . . 

Mossachusotts 

Khoile  lalaiid 

Connocticut 

Nbw  Jersey 

Mi"yl»nd 

Nirthcm  Atlantic 
Vl.'ginia 

0,160 

2709 

907 

6M 
1,641 

780 

«*» 
2,474 

843 
1030 

20T 
460 

1084 

110 
820 

220 
128 
472 

North  Carolina  .... 
South  Carolina 

Florid.      •    ICoast. 

Ii                  lantlr 

■      .            'c  ... 

*1oni.»,  1.^..  Coast 

i;,im 

8-^18 

1266 

I'i.llB'J 

0017 

V108 

l,S(V,i 
31P 

1,  ,.w 

S83 
24T 
226 
1260 
040 

■      iU 

88 
88 
662 
892 

4SBl|)pl 

Te-          

Total  Gulf. 

Total  South  Atlantic 
anil  (iulf 

TotuI  I'uoMic.  from 
boundary   of  San 
Pii'Kotoiv.outhuf 
Frazcr's  Kl^rtr. . . 

n,T+i 

8B61 

1704 

11,963 
8,261 

C769 
25.T) 

8020 
1843 

Coaat  Survey  of  the  United  States.    It  was 

to  1)0  cxpccteJ  that  .1  people  devoted  to  tho  pursuits  of 
commerce,  and  dep^njinp  in  .sonic  degree  on  the  sea 
an  a  means  of  conin- anient  ion  between  distant  parts  of 
tlie  national  territory,  should  demand,  at  an  early  pe- 
riod of  their  history,  a  competent  survey  of  their  coasts 
and  inland  water*. 

Hiif  a  short  time  previous  to  tho  separation  of  tho 
colonieK,  r-liarts  had  l)Of  constructed  oitho  shores  and 
harhoiw  of  Morth  Amer.  a.  und«r  the  direction  of  F.  AV. 
lies  HttWiBf",  liis  majesty's  Surveyor  General  for  the  Col- 
onies, f  !»«•  progress  of  liis  labors  was  interrupted  by 
tho  Revoluiflon  The  surveys  made  under  tho  person- 
al superintendence  of  Dos  Barren  .itill  bear  testimony 
to  his  sliill  and  tidclity,  -ind  prctont  a  generally  cor- 
rect view  of  those  part*  of  New  K.i.glaiid  and  tho  Brit- 
ish possessions  whicli,  being  rocky,  arc  but  little  liable 
to  change.  Tliey  continue  to  form  thr  principal  basis 
of  the  clmrts  of  the  nortlu'astern  coast  of  this  continent. 
In  tlio  Southern  and  Middle  States,  however,  they  have 
bee-  re>- leied  worso  than  u«elc9!'  by  the  inconstant 
character  of  tlic  bottoms,  and  tl.c  unequal  nu  rit  of  the 
ori;;inal3.  Tlic  8urv('_  .^  of  Des  Barres,  covering  a  vast 
extcii  of  coast,  .vcro  originally  dpfirient  in  minute- 
ness of  detail,  and  in  hydrograpliicnl  information ;  and 
these  defects  have  been  increased  by  the  rapid  aud  ex- 
tensive changes  in  tho  direction,  means,  and  wants  of 
navigation  caused  ly  the  growth  of  the  country. 

The  project  of  a  complete  survey,  conducted  upon  a 
uniform  system  and  extending  over  tho  whole  coast, 
was  first  pix/posed  liy  the  lato  Professor  Patterson,  in 
IHWi.  It  combined  three  objects,  tho  astronomical  de- 
termination of  pntnlnent  points,  a  triangiilation  to  con- 
nect those  points,  and  a  liydrographic  survey  based 
u)'  jn  this  triangulation.  Mr.  t  iallalin,  then  .Secretary 
of  tho  Treasury,  encouraged  the  jirojoct,  ami  obtained 
in  writing  the  opinions  of  learned  men  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  executing  it.  He  selected  tht  plan  of  opera- 
tions recommended  by  Mr.  Hasslor,  tho  (Irst  suporin- 
teadent  of  the  Coaiit  Survey.     ThU  (;etttloman,  a  na- 


tive of  Switzerland,  had  been  employed  in  the  triangu- 
lation  of  the  Canton  of  I'nTne,  and  had  studied  the  sci- 
ence of  geodesy  under  the  most  distinguished  masters. 
It  was  exceedingly  fortunate  that  his  presence  and  ad- 
vice here  secured  tho  curly  adoption  of  tho  only  lucth- 
ou  of  conducting  a  comprehensive  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey that  science  approves — the  only  one  of  which  the 
results  have  a  certain  and  permanent  value. 

it  is  only.,  b.oivcver,  :;;"ce  tho  year  1832  that  tho  sur- 
vey of  tho  coast  has  been  in  uteady  and  active  opera- 
tion. During  this  long  inter\'al  of  neglect  on  the  i)art 
of  tho  government,  the  coasting  trade  and  foreign  com- 
merce of  the  country  have  been  chiefly  indebted  to  tho 
indefatigable  labors  of  those  distinguished  hydrogra- 
phcrs,  tho  Messrs.  Blunt  of  Xew  York  (both  father  aud 
son),  for  the  means  of  safe  navigation. 

The  history  of  its  fortunes,  or  rather  misfortunes, 
during  the  preceding  twentj  -five  years,  may  bo  recited 
in  a  few  words.  A  law  author-'zing  a  survey  of  tho 
coast  was  jiasscd  in  lt*07,  but  nothing  was  done  under 
the  law  until  1811,  when  Sir.  Ilussler  was  sent  to  Europe 
to  procuro  the  tujtruments  specified  in  his  plan.  They 
had  all  to  be  constructed.  The  war  of  1812,  and  the 
failure  of  remittances,  prevented  Mr.  Ilassler's  return 
before  1816,  and  in  August  of  tliat  year  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  tho  office  of  superintendent.  In  1818  Mr.  Ilass- 
ler's connection  with  tho  work  was  brcken  off  by  tho 
repeal  of  that  part  of  tho  law  of  1807  which  authorized 
the  employment  of  citizens.  During  tho  ten  years  that 
followed,  the  const  survey  seems  to  have  been  forgot- 
ten l)y  tho  public  and  by  Congress.  In  1827  Mr.  South- 
ard, the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  a  name  never  to  he 
.nentioiied  without  an  expression  of  tlio  high  respect 
wliicii  ability,  patriotism,  and  long,  faithful,  and  valu- 
al>le  services  must  always  command  in  tho  republic, 
took  occasion  in  hit  annual  report  to  say  that  perfect 
surveys  and  charts  of  our  harbors  could  not  be  made 
without  the  aid  of  the  means  ccnteraplated  by  tho  act 
of  1807 ;  and  In  February,  1828,  tlie  House  directed  tlie 
Committee  on  Naval  Affairs  to  inquire  into  thu  e^pe- 


COA 


*^ 


COA 


dlency  of  rarrylng  into  effect  the  provisions  of  that  act. 
Finally,  in  1832,  the  act  of  1807  was  revised,  and  an 
appropriation  made  for  carrying  it  into  execution,  and 
since  that  period  regular  annual  appropriations  have 
been  made,  varying  in  amount,  but  generally  such  as 
have  been  called  (or  by  the  estimates  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

In  1843  there  was  added  to  the  appropriation  a  pro- 
viso stipulating  that  a  board,  consisting  of  scientific 
persons  in  thu  service  of  the  government,  should  be  em- 
powered to  reorganize  the  work,  and  the  plan  present- 
ed by  them,  when  approved  by  tbei  president,  was  to  be, 
and  is  now,  tho  law  regulating  the  operations  of  the 
survey.  The  scientillc  methods  pursued  by  Sir.  Hass- 
ler  were  continued,  and  it  was  directed  that  the  topog- 
raphy should  be  carried  so  far  inland  as  might  bo  nec- 
essary for  a  proper  dolinealion  of  tho  shore,  and  for  pur- 
poaep  fitlor  of  commerce  or  defense. 

It  i»  Koy,  I'.odcrstood  that  the  aim  of  the  coast  sun'oy 
is  to  furiiUh  with  the  utmost  attainable  accuracy,  and 
in  a  connected  and  uniform  manner,  all  tho  geograph- 
ical toimtjr  aphical,  and  liydrographical  data  tliat  can  bo 
mw\<'  ir  nuy  way  useful  to  the  navigation  and  defense 
of  tilts  exist.  And  it  is  also  supjioscd  that,  in  coUect- 
V^T  these  data,  information  will  be  accunmiuted  that 

»y  b'come  ser\iccable  in  suggesting  nnd  directing 
.1  ;jnd  general  improvements;  such  us  the  placing 
u:A  constructing  of  light-house::,  beacons,  buoys,  ct<\, 
the  r.p  J'  •  "'mproving  channels,  the  efliKt  of  conteni- 
plstiU  .:.,  .  ictions  upon  harlwrs  and  tidid  deposits, 
the  in.tablcncss  of  a  submerged  soil  for  Imiiding,  etc. 
And,  lastly,  it  is  presumed  that  those  Stales  through 
which  the  survey  passes  will,  sooner  or  later,  avail 
themselves  of  tho  base  it  is  able  to  supply,  to  form  a 
correct  geographical  map  of  their  o^^  n  territory,  undiT 
circumstances  very  favorable  to  economy  and  nceuru- 
cy.  These  are  Uio  practical  liunetits,  either  direct  or 
incidental,  conferred  by  the  roast  purvey. 

In  altstract  science  it  has  also  its  n\ission,  equally 
useful  and  distinguished.  It  is  to  contribute  »  yiart  of 
the  means  by  which  tho  irregularly  elliptical  (una  of 
tho  earth  may  he  eatisfactoriiy  determined,  tho  varia- 
tions in  local  gravitation,  their  causes,  and  thencti  the 
internal  structure  of  the  earth,  bo  mado  known,  and 
tl'e  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism  be  explained. 
It  will  illustrate  the  astrouo'  .ical  prcblem  of  the  tides. 
Its  numerous  meteorological  records  will  also  contrili- 
nte  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  ciiniotcs  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  nature  and  action  of  meteoric  storms, 
and  thus  be  of  serdce  to  the  farmer  as  well  as  the  nav- 
igator. 

The  science  of  gcodetics  prescribei,  -he  principles 
upon  which  a  survey  of  an  extended  .egion  should  bo 
conducted.  In  the  crdinary  operations  of  land  survey- 
ing, the  surveyor  is  pe.niittc  1  to  regard  his  field  of 
work  OS  a  plane  surface ;  but  the  engineer  who  is  to 
conitruct  a  map  of  a  .hole  country-,  or  of  a  long  line 
of  continuous  sea-cuast.  must  take  into  consideration 
the  spheroidal  figure  jf  the  earth,  and  present  an  ex- 
act delineation  of  that  part  of  the  sphofofd  upon  which 
he  is  employed.  This  necessity  controls  the  processes 
used  in  computation,  and  the  plan  of  projection  upon 
wliich  the  detailed  result!)  are  given,  whether  it  be  c.-.ll- 
«d  Ji  map  or  chart.  Both  the  projection  and  the  form- 
ula for  computation  involve  the  higher  mathematics, 
and  require  on  acquaintance  with  the  most  adv>inred 
f tate  of  the  niathematico-physical  sciences. 

The  system  of  projection  introduced  Iiy  Mr.  HasBl-./ 
originated  with  Flamstced.  It  is  the  development  of 
a  part  of  the  ca'th's  surface  upon  a  cone,  either  a  tan- 
gerrt  to  «  certain  latitude,  or  cutting  two  given  paral- 
lels and  two  meridians  eijuidistunt  from  the  middle  -nc- 
ridian,  and  extended  on  both  sides  of  tho  meridiui.  ind 
in  Iktitude  only  so  far  as  to  admit  of  no  deviation  fronj 
the  real  putgnitiuies,  such  as  would  be  sensible  in  the 
detail  suneys.  In  this  method  of  reducing  the  curved 
surface  of  tbe  eirth  to  a  plane,  the  radii  of  curvsturu 


of  tho  parallels  and  meridians,  depending  upon  tha 
value  given  to  the  expression  for  the  clllpticity,  and 
the  assumed  form  of  the  globe,  are  important  tcrmi. 
For  practical  use,  tables  have  been  computed  in  tho 
oflice  of  the  coast  survey,  showing  tho  length  in  metres 
of  every  minute  and  second  of  the  arcs  of  the  meridi- 
ans and  parallels  comprehended  in  the  maps.  It  has 
been  found  neciissary  to  recalculate  these  tables  since 
1844,  on  occount  of  the  new  value  of  the  clllpticity  an- 
nounced by  Besscl,  and  adopted  by  the  present  super- 
intendent. There  will  be  occasion  to  recur  to  this 
subject. 

Tho  practical  operations  of  the  const  snrvcy  are  class- 
ed under  the  general  heads  of  triarigulntion,  astronom- 
ical and  magnetic  observations,  tcpography,  and  hy- 
drography. Tho  fundamental  liasis  of  the  survey  is  a 
net-work  of  great  triangles,  tlio  sides  of  which,  varjdng 
from  ten  to  one  hundred  and  ten  miles,  are  the  longest 
that  tho  limits  of  vision  or  the  nature  of  the  countrj' 
will  allow,  and  hence  a  mountainous  rejjion  Is  much 
the  most  favorable  for  a  first  or  pninay  iriirngtilation, 
Tho  starting  line,  or  first  side  of  tho  first  triangle,  call- 
ed tho  bajte  tine,  is  measured  by  mochanical  means,  and 
this  is  a  labor  demanding,  as  much  as  any  other  on  the 
survey,  accuracy,  a  philosophical  regard  to  minute  de  • 
tails,  and  long  previous  preparation.  Observing,  in 
passing,  that  several  kinds  of  measuring-rods  hai  c  been 
heretofore  used,  as  wood  and  glass,  and  that  the  appa- 
ratus of  Mr.  Ilasslcr  consisted  of  an  assemblage  of  four 
irfjn  bars,  each  of  them  two  metres  in  length,  with  which 
he  obtained  excellent  results.  In  1817  the  prtUmitiary 
measurement  of  two  base  lines  was  made  by  Mr.  Ilass- 
ler,  and  in  1834  the  length  of  the  same  lines  was  de- 
termined liy  computation,  carried  from  the  new  base  on 
Tin  Island  beach.  The  diflfcrence  between  the  meas- 
ured and  computed  lengths  of  these  lines  was  in  one 
case  less  than  a  foot,  and  in  tho  other  about  four  inch- 
es ;  the  bases  themselves  were  6"9  and  4'8  miles  long. 
It  will,  perhaps,  best  servo  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  measuring  a  base-line  if  some  account  bo 
given  of  Professor  liachc's  baae-apparatus.  The  meas- 
uring bars  arc  upon  tho  compensating  system,  first  used 
by  Colonel  Colby  in  (ireat  Britain,  and  by  Mr.  Ilorden 
in  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  tho  State  of  Massachu- 
setts i  but  a  principle  not  before  applied  was  introduced 
iu  reference  to  tho  dimensions  of  the  bars,  whicli  is  thus 
stated.  Bars  of  brass  and  iron  (tho  materials  employ- 
ed), of  tho  same  dimensions  will  not,  owing  to  their  dif- 
ferent conducting  powers  and  specific  heats,  heat  ociual- 
ly  in  equal  times,  and  therefore,  during  changes  of  tem- 
perature, the  system  ceases  to  bo  compensaiing.  This 
Mr.  Bache  corrected  by  giving  a  coating  to  the  liars 
that  made  them  absorb  equally,  and  by  proportioning 
the  sections  to  each  other,  so  that  both  would  liavu  tho 
same  temperature  during  variable  temperatures  of  the 
atmosphere.  In  order  to  do  this  satisfactorily,  it  was 
necessary  to  niako  direct  experiments  upon  the  mate- 
rials  of  the  bars  themselves,  after  having  first  arranged 
them  approximately  by  means  of  the  numbers  lakeu 
from  tbe  Ixioks.  Tho  contact  between  two  sets  of  bars 
is  inado  by  a  blunt  knife-edge  and  a  plane  of  agate,  and 
a  lever  of  contact  at  the  ends  of  the  bars  is  corrected 
ijy  a  level  so  delicate  that  several  of  its  divisions  make 
up  a  quantity  entirely  insignificant  in  the  measure- 
ment. The  bars  ore  covered  with  a  doulile  conical 
cose  of  tin,  to  keep  the  fluctuations  of  the  temperaturo 
within  moderate  limits,  and  tho  bases  on  which  they 
arc  supported  ere  covered  witli  several  thickness! s  of 
imperfectly  conducting  material  for  the  same  |mrpose. 
The  length  of  the  apparatus  is  compared,  before  and 
after  final  measurement,  with  a  stiindard  iron  bar 
iliat  had  'leeu  compared  in  the  coast-survey  oflice  by 
means  of  Mr.  Saxton's  reflecting  pyrometer.  By  this 
instrument,  a  change  uf  the  one  hundred  thousandth 
part  of  nn  inch  in  tlie  length  of  the  standard  bar  is  per- 
ccptilde. 

To  the  preceding  description  it  should  be  added  that 


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328 


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the  bars  (regulated  in  aizo  by  the  relative  speciflc  heat* 
of  the  two  metals)  were  heated  above  the  poasible  tom- 
peraturo  to  which  they  could  be  exposed  in  use,  in  or- 
der to  give  them  a  set.  This  precaution  was  at  tirst 
ovcrloolted  in  the  compensation  base-apparatus  of  the 
British  ordinance  survey,  and  it  was  afterward  found 
necessary  to  resort  to  it.  Those  wha  are  at  ull  famil- 
iar witli  the  sul)ject  will  perceive  that  Professor  I)ai:he's 
application  of  the  lever  of  contact  and  level  (first  used 
by  Rcsscl  in  standards  of  measure)  has  not  only  great- 
ly increased  the  delicacy  of  the  instrument  and  lessened 
its  complexity,  but  also  removed  several  sources  of  er- 
ror. Uy  optical  contact,  and  tho  employment  of  a  mi- 
croscopic apparatus  to  determine  tho  distance  between 
tho  compensation  points,  tho  measures  are  repeated  in 
two  different  terms,  each  having  its  peculiar  standard. 
Such  was  the  case  in  the  British  ond  Indian  surveys, 
and  Colonel  Everest  complains  of  the  consequent  lia- 
bility to  error,  and  the  ijurdensomo  accumulation  of 
petty  corrections.  The  remcasurement  of  a  bose  of 
seven  and  a  half  miles,  in  India,  ditfcred,  however,  only 
2-4  inches  from  the  first  length.  In  a  base  of  seven 
miles,  Professor  Bache  found  that  the  same  difference 
miH'it  bo  about  0-5  inch,  if  all  the  errors  were  supposed 
to  fall  on  the  same  side,  whicli  is  most  improbable. 
The  probal>le  error  in  remeasuring  one  hundred  and 
twelve  yards  was  loss  than  five  tliousandths  of  an  inch, 
and  tlio  actual  resulting  error  in  remeasuring  one-third 
of  a  milo  was  nothing. 

This  may  appear  lilte  retining  too  n  'j,  but  it  luust 
bo  known  that  the  linas  measured  by  ttiu  same  bar  in 
winter  and  summer  might  differ  materially  in  nominal 
length.  Tliis  difference  in  tho  original  base  of  tho 
coast  survey  might  bo  about  twenty  feet,  and,  nt  a 
rougli  istimato,  an  error  of  twenty  feet  in  this  place 
would  amount,  In  one  of  tho  largo  triangles,  of  which 
the  sides  arc  between  tifty  and  si.xty  miles,  to  aliout 
one-tenth  of  a  mile.  The  source  of  error  and  its  correc- 
tion being  recognized,  there  is  no  other  limit  to  accu- 
racy tlian  the  possible. 

We  roium  now  to  tho  great  triangles  of  tho  survey, 
whicli,  as  has  liecn  said,  form  its  fundamental  basis. 
The  points  of  the  jiriniary  trianguiation  arc  selected 
with  scrupulous  regard  to  all  those  conditions  which 
make  triangles,  in  the  teclinieni  acceptation,  good. 
Scattered  at  dislnnt  intervals  over  the  vast  field  of 
■work,  tlicy  are  certain  guides  liy  which  the  more  de- 
tailed opcrntfons  are  conducted  and  controlled.  With- 
in tlieni  tlie  space  is  subdivided  into  smaller  trlangleu, 
constituting  tlie  sccimdai-y  and  taliary  tnanijulatitms. 
They  bring  down  the  work  to  the  minute  details  of  to- 
pograpliy  and  hydrography,  and  theuo  subsidiary  tri- 
nngulations  and  details,  circumscribed  as  they  are  by 
tlie  primary  points,  are  restrained  and  corrected  by 
them  In  their  deviations.  As  an  additional  explana- 
tion of  the  necessity  for  this  first  net  of  great  triangles, 
it  may  be  well  to  inform  the  general  reader  that  there 
is  no  iiistrument,  however  delicate  in  construction,  that 
Is  not  liable  to  very  small  errors,  which  the  most  stu- 
dious attention  to  every  disturbing  influence,  whether 
mechanical  or  nicleorological,  can  not  altogether  re- 
move. Now  this  primary  trianguiation,  which  in  a 
mountainous  region  spans  the  surface  w  ith  giant  strides, 
has  fewer  of  these  unaccountable  errors,  simply  Iiecausc 
it  has  fewer  triangles.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add 
that  better  instruments  also  arc  used  in  it.  The  two 
and  a  half  feet  theodolite,  made  by  Simms  (^nfter 
Troughton's  death),  under  Mr.  Ilassler's  supervision, 
and  used  by  him  and  by  Professor  Bacbo  in  the  prima- 
ry trianguiation,  is  still  regarded  in  this  country  and 
in  ICurope  as  a  master-piece  of  invention  and  mechan- 
ism.    It  reads  to  seconds. 

Magnetic  and  astronomical  observations  accompany 
(ho  primary  trianguiation.  The  latter  Lro  for  lati- 
tude, longitude,  and  azimuth,  or  angular  direction  from 
the  meridian. 

Following  the  secondary  trianguiation  in  order  comes 


the  Tiipng]'a]ihy,  ||)8  ^uly  «(f*♦hi^■f(  f«  lo  delineate  faith- 
fully till.'  feitturvs  <'f  (JM<  0m»ili,  H  e«hlblls  the  height 
and  contjuur  of  iB|wv«(i(««i,  itM*  dh/tpc  and  extent  of 
plains,  tliu  cnmmt  iff  •IrfAttW^  »\\  (l(e  eornstructions  of 
man,  and  l\m  whvjki;  imA  \mUMh\  inilllne  of  the 
shores.  It  di*liM(jHl«i»Mi(  Jhf  (il(«(l  )«nd  from  (he  pas- 
turage, and  tlci  gM'V  (mn  i\w  (iH'hsrd,  and  <leslgnatca 
the c|i»r»i;ter  <(f  0)v  Viim\-\»'M\i  t(  speaks  a  universal 
language,  and  nhttnti*  .i>m1('(  (liMlly  to  nature. 

Depending  M\mn  )M  mmmUfj  trianguiation  and 
tlia  topography  Uit  i»»  numm  */*■'  progress,  follows  the 
IlijirDgrajihn,  In  fl*W  P't'ttt  in  JHelwded  all  that  con- 
cerns local  n»vig»t)(w,  #«4  ((»  rt*'((fhn  and  character  of 
the  bottxjiii,  tlw  iWfmnUm  mu\  nmttf^ih  ol  the  currents, 
the  ebb  and  IfUtm  iit  iim  Ij/t^s,  mii\  ((«)  Irtformation,  com- 
ing under  the  ||i/»4  nf  mtUiii  rtlrtfddhs  and  nautical 
instruction,  wltM  l»  »mk«  lip  (Iw  iri«lM«(de  knowledge  of 
tho  local  or  gei)«fa(  pititt,  'tUU  bf  awth  enjoys  the  hon- 
or of  annuM"' iMt;  hImi  miUU'l»\  Ahuifftks  of  tlie  coast 
survey,  which,  tlumnU  ff^uMlilt  (film  (he  combined  op- 
erations of  all,  Jtru  |r4  lifliUfiUt  nlH  Uf  its  means. 

In  (lie  preiadiMg  p»({W  lim  pimi  fitihe  survey  is  pre- 
scntcd,  and  tlw  g«H«f«l  rfiistfil/Ktiwti  of  its  Inliors  is 
stated ;  it  roHiwJIis  mw  U)  fWltii  nf  the  e^teciition  of  the 
various  details,  itll4  uf  ihf  mwlilti  tl(«(  have  lieen  con- 
ferred by  the  co»»t  ^HfVff  lipuli  «i#h(e,  and  upon  the 
local  and  general  mmimnf  at  (lt«  *(«intry  and  of  the 
world.  In  (liiing  iUU  H  »tll  hn  tmnl  convenient  to 
keep  (0  its  actual  ninUl  »<  lilin  rffty, 
1  It  would  nut  Im  JMet,  inm^t^ft  id  leave  Its  past  his- 
tory without  »  tfimtit  lif  fwfycel  («  (he  memory  and 
services  of  tlie  in#n  l*y  »(W!«  (^llifjhtettert  efforts  a  right 
direction  was  giyti)  Ui  llw  *tc»(»  iif  (((«  government  in 
founding  tha  eurvej-,  w(im  wma  filtldlfiit  to  it  (lirougb 
thirty-five  years  uf  itmhi'mi  fw'(t(»(#s,  tuui  who  literal- 
ly died  in  (h«  pirforMl^M' "  lifih  rtdtlcsj  having  written 
tho  last  few  lines  of  bis  (\»*i  fC|«*(t  Hflet  he  fel(  that  he 
liad  l)een  tuuclu>4  |»y  f(»t^  Ii»h4  t/f  death,  iJdiicated  in 
tho  best  European  silmuU  u(  ttmtff  Htiti  ptaetice,  and 
devoted  to  the  pursMits  (tf  m-ktV'i'i  (ttf  l»hich  he  was 
eminently  riuaiifted  )»y  K^lMtVti  CHrtw**«ents,  Professor 
Ilassler  always  liruMgb^  Ui  flw  (»«((  before  him  that 
zeal  and  tenacity  ufpwcpos^  *ll)/)(pit«  «piflt  to  enter- 
prises of  great  iiioin«M(,  »)((!  nMli  tiif  (hem  the  name 
of  ootion.  Ilii  is  lionor/jl/lj-  fctW/Wtt  tin  bis  matbemat- 
icul  and  astroiwmiciil  »ri(}))(;e,  mui  hii;  papers  in  the 
American  l'hilosi»pli)<.»|'|>7M»o»»f i"Hs,( (rtitaiiiing an  ac- 
count of  the  uieiiwds  wiifbijcil  itf  Idtn  on  the  coast 
survey,  will  always  tm  rtii^ufiM  ni  »  ♦abiable  contri- 
bution to  gcodolical  hiumhiiui':  'tbmu  ^ho  knew  him 
intimately  praise  lUu  ^rfU't  lif  iiU  frtpfld«hip  and  the 
generosity  of  liis  dispws)(ij*H,  wl(il«  (be  labors  of  his 
life,  and  the  nianner  Ul  V*hi()l  tlw-J'  «ere  performed, 
bear  ample  witness  to  Mi  il)4/#S(f >■  (tbd  inlegtity.  That 
ho  iiad  some  defects  »f  i!\mfi*i'lttf  H  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say,  for  this  is  (|w  wttvMiUi  iiii  lit  htimanily ;  but 
they  were  not  such  fri  it  miUifi'!*  lt(#  exercise  of  mag- 
nanimity to  forget,  «!)'<  tiim,  wlfii  h  is  rapidly  drawing 
over  them  tho  veil  of  pffiufrf  «)»(•((«(}',  #lll  endear  his 
name  and  his  virtM«»  Ut  tl(«  fvcfctit  «»(1  aifectionate 
respect  of  all  true  Iovaf*  of'  All»>fU'»n  ScieHce. 
I  Un  tiie  death  uf  Mr.  iim^ixf,  Ui  1M»t  the  appoinl- 
I  ment  of  his  successor  w#«  fcgdrrtwd  *M^  deep  interest 
by  tho  learned  wien  of  tiwi  :  vHH(f^<  The  o(fice  of  su- 
perintendent of  tli«  coast  sMrvi<y  is  tWA^niyed  a?  one  of 
the  central  positions  of  AlttiBtlWtt  W-tWiCe,  atisl  (lie  in- 
cumbent is  cxpecliid  ni4  miiy  t(*  t««  «bte  to  fulfill  its 
prescrilied  duties,  )(ut  U)  iif  HUkHfM  i»  (Hftfl  his  powers 
to  the  advancement  of  )»HowM(jf* !((  »*ftf  department 
of  tlie  work.  How  f\tr  (Ije  J»f«w«i  ft»(<pH(((«"i(ieiit,  Pro- 
fessor Baclie,  is  suitwd  ft  »t»s#(if  (hf-sc  (<tppe(atlon9, 
to  sustain  tlie  national  re|m(»tiwtt(  itttii  lo  promote  the 
cause  of  ecieiue,  Hiay  l(«  »i«t((t(»M  frwn  the  fact  thai 
his  oppolntment  was 6«)i>iM4  ('f  ^fMyitUHi  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  t;nga(i'ud  in  (li*  |'((tsiii(s  of  lenniinl;. 
He  was  educated  «(  W«<tt  i'uUH,  ««4  flitlce  grrtdufttiiig 
there  he  has,  in  connecliitfi  t»Ut(  il(«  krahklin  tn;ti(ute 


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8t4 


COA 


•nd  the  Unlvcrsily  of  Pennsylvanl*,  followed  a  course 
of  phyiiical  science  that  hu  made  lilin  well  known  in 
this  country  and  In  Kuro|)0.  While  travelinK  as  the 
President  of  Rirard  Collr)(e,  ha  received  from  the  prin- 
cipal Kuropean  academies  divlinguished  marks  of  con- 
sideration. It  Is  liut  justice  to  Professor  liacbo  to  say 
that  there  is  no  branch  of  the  work  into  which  he  has 
out  been  able  to  Intrmluce  improvements,  either  owinf? 
to  the  discoveries  of  the  day,  as  In  the  use  of  the  mag- 
netic telegraph  for  meridian  differences,  or  owing  (still 
ofltner)  to  his  own  great  and  eminent  scientific  attain- 
ments. This  must  appear  in  the  course  of  these  re- 
marks, but  it  is  quite  as  creditable  to  his  administra- 
tion to  state,  as  may  be  done  with  strict  accuracy,  that 
the  amount  of  results  now  obtained  is  double  that  un- 
der the  former  plan,  for  ou  increase  of  fiO  per  cent,  in 
the  cost. 

The  points  of  the  primniy  trianffuliitim  are  selected 
by  means  of  a  preliminary  reronnoissance.  The  rccon- 
noissances  that  precede  the  triangulations  are  Indispens- 
able, and  require  great  judgment.  The  object  of  the 
general  rconnoissanco  is  to  make  known  the  facilities 
and  difficulties  of  the  work,  and  to  discover  the  best 
plan  for  its  execution.  A  particular  reconnolssancn 
decides  the  position  of  the  stations,  and  prcsenia  a  gen- 
eral sketch  of  the  triangles  in  any  section.  As  they 
constitute  Ihn  authority  to  which  the  rest  is  sulwrdin- 
ate,  and  by  which  it  is  controlled,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
consoquonco  to  know  the  circiinislnnces  under  which 
a  satisfactory  result  may  l)C  scoured  with  the  least  de- 
lay. The  nilc  generally  followed  (and  adopted  by  the 
foiiner  superintendent)  is  «o  observe  on  those  days  only 
that  ap]ii'ar  entirely  unobjectionable.  This  rule  is  at- 
tended with  a  serious  loss  of  time.  Mr.  Baclio  hns  in- 
creased the  rapidity  of  the  work,  and  improved  rather 
than  diminished  its  value,  by  applying  the  niathcniat- 
iial  test  of  the  least  probable  error  to  ob8cr\'ations 
made  under  such  conditions  as  are  onlinarily  fav«ral)lo 
and  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  number  of  oliscrvn- 
tions  made  under  these  conditions,  which  will  niluio 
the  pmbablo  .'rror  to  what  is  attributalde  to  tlic  una- 
voidable errors  of  instrinncnt  and  observer,  is  ascer- 
tained and  taken  as  a  governing  rule.  Six  triangles 
measured  by  Sir.  Haclio  in  18-14  g«\c  fur  the  greatest 
difference  from  180°,  after  allowing  for  the  spherical 
excess,  0"-2  (of  space)  to  each  angle ;  from  this  the 
difference  descended  to  nothing. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  necessity  of  recom- 
puting the  first  tables  of  iirojection,  in  consequence  of 
the  adoption  of  Uessel's  latest  determination  of  the  el- 
lipticity.  The  tables  for  computing  the  triangles  have 
also  been  affected  by  this  change,  and  the  formtdoi 
have  been  revised,  and  undoubtedly  greatly  improved 
in  convenience  and  accuracy.  The  tables  have  under- 
gone a  further  modification  by  substituting  the  legal 
ratio  of  the  metre  to  the  toise  in  tiic  place  of  the  arbi- 
trar}'  standard  resulting  from  the  ingenious,  but  (as 
IScssel  has  said)  "  not  allowable,"  comparisons  of  Mr, 
Hassler. 

This  is  the  proper  place  to  advert  to  the  mode  of  op- 
erations pursued  on  the  Southern  coast.  It  was  per- 
ceived, in  the  early  progress  of  the  work,  that  the  in- 
aptitude of  this  level  region  for  a  comprehcnsiv  e  trian- 
gulation  was  to  Iw  overcome,  either  by  great  expense, 
or  by  resources  not  yet  developed.  Tlie  most  apparent 
expedient  was  tliat  employed  in  the  northern  section 
of  the  great  meridional  arc  of  India,  where  it  crosses 
the  flat  territory  of  the  Doab.  Costly  edifices  of  ma- 
sonry, with  walls  five  feet  thick  at  the  base  and  'v/o  at 
llie  summit,  arc  erected  at  each  of  the  principal  sta- 
tions, and  their  height,  about  fifty  feet,  is  sufTicient  to 
command  a  view  alwve  the  vegetation.  And  this  ex- 
pedient was,  if  contemplated,  In  accordance  with  the 
former  progreM  of  the  American  survey,  which,  ad- 
vancing in  two  directians  from  a  central  base,  was  nec- 
essarily slow. 

In  IMi,  however,  the  present  superinteudent  cxfalb- 


itcd  in  his  annual  report  a  plan  fur  ttw  more  r*nld  •)!• 
ecutlon  of  the  survey,  which  consisted  In  dividing  tli« 
whole  of  our  extended  sea-boanl,  Inilurllng  (liu  (Julf  of 
Mexico,  Into  nine  sections,  comprikliig  a  nearly  equal 
extent  of  shore  line,  and  in  prosecuting  the  work  •ipa* 
rately  and  simultaneously  In  as  many  ut  Iham  siii'lliiiii 
as  the  appropriations  would  allow.  The  work  uf  each 
section  is  commenced  liy  the  incasurcmriit  tit  »  \m»u. 
line,  dnd,  as  the  triangulatiun  Is  exlendid,  |M>  Iiahi 
8er>'cs  as  the  verlflcatlon>baso  of  an  acyoiniliK  sei'llon. 
The  rapidity  of  this  ])lan  Is  made  apparent  by  I'oniild* 
ering  that  all  the  difivrent  pruccitcs  uf  the  t\ir\i'y  (In 
their  nc-essary  order)  may  bo  conducted  at  lli«  naiiio 
time  i  >:  ry  section,  and  thus.  If  tbu  approprlalli/nt 
wer«  sufficient,  the  whole  coast  might  bo  eumplelid  In 
the  time  required  for  a  single  divUion  of  it.  Itiil  ihU 
plan  accommodates  itself  more  easily  to  lire  iharaetvr 
of  th'.'  ground  than  one  in  which  the  direct lun  and  pruK- 
ress  arc  derived  from  previous  connections,  liidvfdi 
every  latitude  Is  allowed  for  the  selection  ut  ftllis  fur 
liases,  and  for  the  most  favorable  difposillon  of  thu  trl« 
angles,  because  each  section  is  for  the  llnro  n  distinct 
undertaking.  The  combination  of  all  will  uiilln  tilt 
extended  coast  of  the  United  Htales  into  onu  cotiipr** 
henslvo  scheme  of  ti-iangiilation. 

The  volue  of  permanent  and  conspicuous  slriii'Dirai 
of  masonr}'  to  designate  points  of  primary  lrlaii(rulA< 
tion  Is  not,  however,  underrated.  While  linipurary 
means  of  elevation  are  employed,  such  as  lliu  htith  trU 
pods,  with  independent  stands  for  the  inslrunieiitu,  first 
used  in  Delaware  Kny  by  the  senior  astisliinl  ol'  tilt 
sur\'ey,  Mr.  Kdward  Illunt,  of  New  York,  it  mum  lio  rB« 
membered  that  the  coast  survey  Is  i  iiubU'd  to  nvail 
itself  of  the  light-houses,  and  otlni  lofty  slrwcluret 
along  the  const.  And  it  may  lie  Fiifely  concluded  (hat 
the  governments  of  the  .Sonihern  Ktutes  will  raix:  up* 
propriato  edifices  at  those  points  of  the  primary  Irian* 
gulation  of  the  coast  survey  w  liich  limit  tliu  Uamt  ut 
their  local  operations. 

Accompanying  the  primary  triangulathin,  as  an  em 
sentiul  part  of  it,  are  tlie  uatnimmkul  ami  mnijlifll''  ub' 
serruliuna.  The  former  arc  for  a/.lmuth,  lulidide,  and 
longitude.  For  the  determination  of  axfiiiulli*,  Mr. 
Dacho  has  employed  (for  the  first  time  on  tlie  wink) 
tlie  elongations  of  Polaris  in  its  eastern  and  tteslein  dU 
gressions.  At  the  time  of  elongation,  w  hen  the  iliiinga 
in  altitude  is  most  rapid,  the  movement  in  a/iniulh  in 
nothing ;  and  thus  the  opportunity  is  enjoyed  ut  iimk- 
ing  careful  and  dclilierate  observations,  Tills  iiii^tliod 
is  independent  of  local  time,  ]ly  utlni{  several  ujr* 
cuinelongation  olj.-icrvntions,  a  mean  uf  u  number  of  rii> 
suits  is  substituted  for  a  single  one.  In  this  rediiitiun 
a  very  simple  formula,  first  invesligated  by  Mr,  Null/, 
of  Philadelphia,  has  been  applied,  and  the  praclfi'ti  || 
simplified  by  the  u?c  of  tallica  fur  the  conipulaliuiis  ut 
latitude,  subjected  to  a  slight  trigonometrical  ihwiiffit, 
It  is  proper  to  state  that  this  method  has  been  in  ii>«  oil 
the  survey  since  iMh,  as  one  similar  to  It,  if  not  likn* 
Ileal  with  it,  has  recently  been  communlcaldd  tu  tilt 
Roj-al  Astronomical  Society  of  Ix'ndon, 

The  superintendent  has  adojiteil  the  suggestion  uf  Itm 
astronomer  roj'al  at  Grcenw icb,  who  propoeid  tefuftliiij 
the  points  of  greatest  elongation  of  circiinipular  kliirf 
to  marks  in  the  horii'.on,  by  perpemilcular  lliiei  dfliilt» 
ted  by  means  of  an  altitude  and  a/liDulh  circle,  I'',luii< 
gation  signals  are  estaldishcd  aliout  two  miles  ditlnnt, 
consistftig  of  a  delicate  wand  by  <lay  and  a  lamp  by 
night,  the  latter  seen  t'irough  a  perforaleil  l/iiard. 

The  determinations  of  the  latitude  (as  Hell  u>  «f  ||i« 
azimuths)  are  frequent.  Since  \Mi  tu»ti'>  ii  Xiltluiiq 
have  been  occupied  for  latitude,  and  seven  fur  a/innitll, 
in  Sections  I.,  II..  and  III,  of  the  survey,  A  eumpar- 
ison  of  the  latitudes  deduced  geailetically  from  a  •i'ii> 
tral  point  with  astronomical  deteriiiiiibtloiis  led  thu  lu* 
perintendent,  in  1844,  to  tne  discovery  of  i'erli>ln  vari' 
ations  in  the  level,  which  could  only  Iw  allrllmt«d  10 
changes  in  form  and  density  uf  the  amtvrUI  vviii|i«»< 


COA 


828 


COA 


\tiK  tho  earth's  crust.  Tlioao  variations  ore  limilar  lo 
tliusu  cau»eil  by  tho  |iroxiiiiity  uf  iiiuiiiitninn  ;  l>ut  wliilv 
th«  lattur  Imvo  l)ccii  well  uiiilorntuod,  tho  Ibrnior  liail 
osrnpcil  iiotlco.  Tlio  mijiicro"..)  ilotcrmiiiations  oftlil 
olcinimt  will,  thoroforo,  occupy  .in  Important  nh. 
tfao  futtiro  (lUeussiona  of  tho  ({oncral  form  anil  intt;.i  ^' 
■triu'turo  of  tho  earth.  A  similar  discovery  has  sii<" 
been  niado  in  tho  ordinaiico  survov  of  Ireland  by  Aiu- 
jor-;ccnoral  Colby,  and  appears  U  iiavo  been  anticl- 
pntud  liy  Laplace  in  tho  oi)inion  given  by  hlin  in  the 
ChaiiiliiT  of  iVers,  in  1H17,  u])on  tho  topographical  map 
of  Franco :  "  If  tho  latitu<Ies  of  tho  uxtrtmo  points  (of 
certain  lines)  a-<d  of  several  Intermediate  points  aro  ol>- 
■erv(Ml,  and  tlio  length  of  tho  seconds  pendulum  corre- 
sponding to  these  points  measured,  a  great  deal  of  light 
will  (lu  tliruwn  upoti  tho  llguro  of  the  earth,  and  upon 
tho  irregularities  of  its  degrees  and  of  gravity." 

It  is  very  interesting,  in  this  respect,  tu  kuow  that 
latitudes  observed  at  tho  cxtrendties  of  tlio  side  of  a 
triangle,  and  forward  anil  backward  azimuths  on  the 
same  lino,  have  dillisred  by  several  seconds,  and  that 
these  deviations  in  tho  plunil)-lin<  ''avo  occurred  where 
the  want  of  uniformity  («•' "the.  .irising  from  difler- 
cnces  in  density,  or  tho  .  it  of  homogeneousnetis  of 
structure)  was  not  appa'  -m  m  a  topo'^raphiial  feature 
of  tho  country.  After  tu  ^omputationa  from  which 
the  preceding  conclusions  aie  di'ris  ed  were  vciilied,  llie 
results  were  ootilirmed  by  llio  introduction  of  new  in- 
strunionts  on  tho  work.  During  the  last  year  a  ircuitb 
telescope  has  l>ecn  used  fu>  obtaining  tho  latitude,  by  a 
mcthoil  invented  by  Captain  Tulcott,  w  liich  consists  in 
observing  tho  dill'ercnccs  of  zenith  distances  of  stu's 
culminating  within  a  sliort  distance  of  each  other,  and 
at  nearly  tho  sanio  altituilea,  on  diU'erent  siiles  of  the 
zcnilli.  Tho  eirciimineridian  altitudes  by  tho  repeat- 
ing circle,  tho  prime  vertical  transits,  and  the  alisoluto 
measurement  of  zenith  distances  by  the  zenith  sector, 
arc  still  used. 

Observations  for  the  comparison  oftheso  instruments 
nnd  methods  liavo  been  inudo  liy  the  snporiiitendent, 
and  liy  ('aptain  T.  J.  l.ee,  of  the  I'nitcd  States  Tojio- 
graphical  IC'iginecrs,  an  assistant  in  tlio  coast  survey, 
■whose  valnatdc  labors  have  been  ohietly  devoted  'o  the 
astronomical  and  magnetic  observations.  Uf  tlio  mm/- 
iKlic  uhacrealiuns  it  will  bo  sullieient  to  say,  as  an  indi- 
cation of  their  character,  that  they  are  made  witli  the 
now  instruments  invented  liy  Dr.  Lloyd  and  5Iv. 'Weber. 
Tho  portable  declinometer  of  Mr.  Weber  (perfected  liy 
Lieutenant  liiddic,  and  manipulated  according  to  Ids 
instructions)  measures  inclination,  and,  by  a  (^ulisidia- 
ry  apparatus,  tho  horizontal  force,  by  tho  method  of 
Gauss.  Fox's  dip  circle,  with  the  use  of  the  dellecling 
magnet,  has  given  verj'  satisfactory  results.  By  means 
of  these  instruments,  the  ilccUiiativn,  inclination,  and 
intrnsili/  (liorizontul  ond  vortical)  aro  determined  in  n 
manner  that  supplies  all  that  is  practically  necessary, 
and  contributes  valuable  additions  to  general  magnetic 
rcsearclics. 

Longitudes  have  been  determined  by  occnitatlons, 
eclipses,  inoon-culminatioiis,  ond  the  freipicnt  trans- 
portation of  chronometers.  Mr,  Hond,  the  director  of 
the  observatory  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  com- 
municates tho  meridian  ditl'erences  by  chronometers 
between  tho  Itritish  observatories  and  Boston.  All 
determinations  of  this  element  are  referred  to  .I  princi- 
piil  port  on  tho  sca-coost^  and  are  connected  in  tho  ag- 
gregate willi  dlfl'prences  obtained  from  Europe  by  chro- 
nometricand  a^trononli^al  comparisons.  The  security 
a(?aiiist  error  afl'orded  by  employing  jiersons  to  com- 
pute who  are  disconnected  with  the  duties  of  tho  field 
or  the  observatory,  is  well  undorstoo<l.  Gentlemen  in 
priviite  life  arc  engaged  to  repeat  tho  important  calcu- 
lations of  the  survey,  and  this  system,  which  enlarges 
the  spin  re  of  labor  in  a  way  not  less  couiniendablo  for 
Its  economy  than  for  its  other  advantages,  receives  uni- 
versal sanction. 

But  tho  discoveries  of  Professor  Henry  (secretary 


of  the  Smithsonian  Institute),  resulting  In  the  inven- 
tion of  tho  magnetic  telegrupli,  have  provided  a  new 
and  more  precise  metliod  of  arriving  at  the  dilferenee 
bctw  'on  tho  times  of  tw"  places,  or  their  din'ureneo  of 
longitude  expiessed  in  time.  The  details  oftheso  ol>- 
servations  wcro  consi(,ncd  to  Sir.  S.  C.  Walker.  Tlie 
rolluwiug  concise  account  of  tho  manner  of  transmit- 
ting tho  signals,  of  tho  possible  errors  of  obsorv  .tioi\, 
and  of  tlio  real  value  of  tho  re  >ults,  is  from  the  pen  of 
Dr.  Baclio  :  "Tho  signals  aro  given  at  one  of  the  sta- 
tions by  pressing  a  key,  which  causes  a  closing  of  tho 
circuit.  This  closing,  it  is  Intended,  shall  lie  simulta- 
neous with  the  ticking  of  r  clock  or  chronometer  at  tho 
station.  Tlic  circuit  beuig  clo.cd,  if  the  electrical  wavo 
or  current  takes  a  sensiblo  t'mo  to  propagate  itself,  or 
to  puss  from  on.'  u.  lui  .lotlier,  the  absolute  time 

ill  which  the  signal  read,  .s  tlio  second  or  receiving 
staliiin  is  sensiljly  diil'crent  from  that  of  making  tho 
signal  at  tliu  llrst  or  giving  station,  A  coil  about  tho 
poles  of  a  horse-shoo  iiiagn<.t  of  soft  inm  furiiis  part  of 
the  circu'  thro  "  >i  which  tho  electrical  ell'ect  is  trans- 
mitted. Undci'  its  inlluenco  tho  soft  iron  becomes 
magnetic,  attracting  tho  soft  iron  bar  (armatura  or 
keeper)  delicately  po'  \  at  a  determined  ilistuncc  from 
the  poles  of  the  magi.<  c;  the  inovjmeiit  of  this  keeper 
jets  in  action  a  local  batter^',  which  gives  sullieient 
power  to  make  the  dots  and  lines  constituting  the  Morse 
telegraphic  signals.  Tiio  click  of  tie'  keeper  of  this 
temporary  magnet  is  cortiparcd,  at  the  neciving  sta- 
tion, with  tliut  of  a  clock  or  chronometer,  tlius  marking 
the  time  at  which  tho  signal  made  ut  a  known  time  at 
the  giving  station  is  received.  From  this  explanation, 
it  appears  that  there  is  liability  to  error." 

Dr.  llaclio  then  proceeds  to  enumorato  llvn  possible 
errors,  njnibered  in  ordir,  and  shows  that  tho  iiunicr- 
icul  values  can  bo  i,.  ,  wli  cose  assigned  to  two  (viz.  1 
and  Ti),  and  t)  at  one  (i  i/.  ')  Is  iusensilde.  A  conipar. 
ison  of  tho  observations  Moves  that  tho  errors  denoted 
by  3  and  1  are  canceled  liy  a  very  small  residual  ipian- 
tity  having  the  opposite  sign,  and  "the  interesting 
conseiiuenccs  follow,  tiiat  '  tho  lelegiaphic  method  of 
comparing  clocks,  distant  t>v'o  liundred  miles  from  each 
other,  is  free  from  erni  .en  the  method  of  coincidence 
of  beats  is  employed ;  >  tiiat  llie  probulde  error  of 
tho  longitude,  from  tJi  iiiethod,  is  tiio  same  as  the 
mean  result  of  the  coiiipal  '  relative  correction  of  the 
clocks  for  tho  night8o''obBet>utian.'  An  investigation 
of  tlio  probaldc  value  >.'  such  error  shows  that,  under 
favorable  astronomical  circunistancc«,  and  witli  'ju> 
earo  in  tho  use  of  liio  transit  instrument,  'the  astro- 
nomical ditVerenco  of  longitude  lielweeii  any  two  sta- 
tions of  n  trigonometrical  f  irvey  may  be  determined  by 
telegraphic  signals,  witli  a  degree  of  precision  of  tho 
same  order  as  that  of  'itVerenco  of  latitude,'  the  inac- 
curacy depending  upo  tlio  snnio  causes  as  tlie  devia- 
tion of  tho  plumb-line.  Before  concluding  w  ith  the 
primary  triangulatiou,  it  must  bo  observed  tliat  Dr. 
Ilaclic  uses  reciprocal  ■. .'  cal  angles  for  determining 
dilFerenccs  of  heights  at  the  primary  stations.  These 
angles  may  bo  measured  at  a  tiniu  of  day  when  it  is 
iinpraclicaole  to  observe  horizontal  angles,  and  the  ef- 
fect of  refraction  near  the  surface  is  Investigated  by  a 
ioiig  series  of  observation  .  The  space  circu  iscribed 
by  tho  terrestrial  angles  i  i  no  first  order,  and  defined 
by  the  celestrial  observations  that  accompany  them,  is 
subdiv  ided  into  u  minute  net-work  of  smaller  triongles, 
constituting  the  aecondarn  and  Ur'.iary  trinnffulrUioiu, 
'lie  points  of  w hicli  embrace  and  dot  ^'  mine  headlands, 
ligiil-iiuiiscs,  beacons,  churches,  hills,  tiid  all  conspicu- 
ous objects  along  tho  c<"-.«t,  tliat  can  be  made  useful  in 
its  navigation.  They  also  bring  down  the  work  to  the 
details  of  tho  to;  ^grtpliy  and  hydrograjihy,  and  sup- 
ply the  bos* 'i 'i,  '  ranches  of  the  survey. 

It  has  bof  '  >  ^'  mentioned  that  tho  topography 
is  minutely  m.l  ^n—.y  Juocriptivc  of  the  ground,  both 
in  form  anu  char.tcl">  The  Lehman  system  of  topo- 
graphical drawin)^  i,  <  i    ci  n  adopted,  but  with  such 


COA 


826 


COA 


inodlC  i'  lit  at  (lie  nature  oriliU  country  o  .»•"  .In 
orUur  to  |ii«Hrve  tha  Iwauty  of  tin-  nitpi.  1  he  aloptt 
■re  reprcKDled  liy  liuliurua,  tl,e  HI  ii,;lh  and  "toncii 
apart  ofwhich  liidlca'e  thu  tlo'.oe  of  inclinalh  .'j.  In 
tka  original  nin|i»,  tlio  horizontal  CMrvci  llinltin){  the 
illHbrent  alupca  ant  drawn  in  rud  ink,  ai  the  draughts- 
man prnKruMca  in  Ilia  ahoct. 

The  aralu  oflhu  i>ri)(inal  ahcet  la  loion,  or  about  (•} 
.  Incbea  KuKlioh  to  the  mile.  I'lana  iiru  l'ri'(|uc'ntly  exe- 
cuted in  the  tluld,  and  furniahcd  from  the  ottit'r,  when 
wanted  for  local  improvement,  on  t»  icu  thia  acalo.  Hut 
tha  charta  dexlgned  for  nnvi);atnra  are  iiocraaarily  rr- 
duced  in  dimenalon.  The  harbor  chnrla  are  publiahi'd 
on  the  acalo  of  ^fn^^pr  '"' '»'«""  -'i  InclicH  Kngliah,  and 
the  mora  general  charta  on  that  of  miiioo'  '"'  ot>"'>t 
three-fourtha  of  an  inch  to  the  niilo;  nlilili  last  ia  the 
acale  of  the  iV(i<  to|iographlcal  niiip  of  I'ranco.  In  all 
the  mapa,  the  topographical  detaila  are  faithfully  pru- 
a«r>'ed,  including  height,  contour,  etc. 

It  appear*  from  the  report  of  the  council  of  the  Koy- 
al  Aalronumiral  Society  to  the  Iwrnty-acvunth  annual 
general  meeting,  that  a  ainillar  acalo  of  execution,  and 
an  equal  lldelity  of  repreaentalbin  in  the  topogrnpiilcnl 
detaila,  have  been  Ihmlly  attained  in  the  ordinance 
mapa  of  Kngland  and  Irrlaiid.  In  both  tho  American 
and  Knglish  nia|ia,  the  aubdivisiona  of  tho  uieridiana 
and  parallela  are  ao  minute,  ttiat  parta  of  a  second  of 
apace  can  lie  eatimated. 

Aa  tjio  lirat  object  of  tho  coaat  aurvey  ia  tho  knowl- 
edge nf  our  own  ahorea  and  inland  watcra,  and  the  gen- 
eral improvement  uf  the  navigation,  both  external  and 
internal,  of  the  coaat,  ao  tho  large  clasa  of  facta  and  re- 
aearchea  embraced  in  tho  general  term  hyiii-ngruplnj  ore 
nxardej  na  being  of  paramount  iniportdncc.  It  ia  to 
the  hydrograpliy  that  the  frienda  of  tlie  coast  aurvey 
direct  tho  public  attention  for  tho  oviiK  wxh  i  f  ita  great 
practical  utility,  and  the  diacovefii-.^  In  t'')  depart- 
ment have  been  ao  numerous  and  >  JuksI.'  ...-  to  secure 
for  it  a  high  degree  ufpulilic  favc;  i  he  llr  t  popular 
inquiry  concerning  the  const  mu  ^-v  ■"  "»  '"  the  prog- 
ress it  has  made,  and  ti'.a  inquir,t  h  t.ti'vny-ii  by  learn- 
ing the  extent  of  tho  ahore  lino  ovoi  i<  ii<.  u  tho  hydro- 
grapher  has  passed.  Hut  Iwfure  estiniaiing  its  per- 
formance in  thia  way,  it  is  necraiiary  to  say,  that,  as 
tho  operations  of  the  triangulations,  etc.,  must  precede 
tho  hydrography,  this  leads  to  an  unfair  eatii-.ate.  The 
hydrography  cun  only  bo  laid  down  when  the  trigono- 
metrical points  on  which  its  operations  aro  bated  have 
been  established ;  thus  two-thirds  of  tho  work  may  lie 
completed  wlicn  tho  hydrographical  lal>ora  commence. 
In  1841,  the  iirst  year  of  Dr.  IJache's  aiiperintendcnce, 
nine  States  on  tho  Atlantic  sea-board  shared  in  the 
benefits  conferred  by  tho  coast  survey;  in  1846,  thir- 
teen Statea;  in  IMIi,  fifteen;  and  in  1H47,  eighteen 
Statea.  Tho  eatiniatcs  for  tho  jiresent  year  include 
all  the  SiMes  on  the  Atlantic  and  tho  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  it  may  bo  inferred  at  once  from  thia  statement 
thai,  if  antficient  appropriations  aro  supplied  by  Con- 
gresa,  a  delinite  and  nut  diatant  period  can  be  assigned 
for  tho  completion  of  the  whole  work. 

Having  premised  thia  statement,  which  was  neces- 
sary to  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  work, 
it  may  be  added  that  the  nautical  jiarts  of  tho  survey 
have  extended  generally  from  Nantucket  Sound  to 
Hampton  Koads  nearly,  including  the  Vineyanl  Sound, 
Block  Island  and  Long  Island  Sounds,  with  all  their 
harbors,  great  and  small,  New  York  Hay  and  harlmr, 
Delaware  Hay  and  river,  a  large  part  of  Chcaapeake 
Bay,  together  with  most  of  the  rivera  emptying  into  It 
north  of  the  Potomac,  and  all  the  external  aca-coast, 
from  the  southern  coast  of  Massachusetts  to  the  Capes 
of  tho  Delav.arp.  In  this  broad  field  a  little  remains 
to  be  done,  but  very  little  in  comparison  with  tho  whole. 
In  addition  to  the  above,  something  has  been  acicjui- 
plished  in  the  hydrography  of  Albemarle  and  Mi.-'sis- 
sippl  Sounds,  and  in  the  latter  especially  great  benefits 
have  already  resulted  to  its  local  commerce. 


It  will  give,  perhaps,  the  l>  '  idea  of  the  valiin  of 
the  hydiugraphicul  wurk  to  enumerate  aomo  uf  'i|»)a 
diacoveriea  and  corrections  which,  in  ilitlcrcnl  |iiaij>a, 
have  signalized  the  progreaa  uf  the  roast  aurvr;  ,  '\.\\i< 
flrat  uf  these  In  order  and  in  merit  in  the  di»c<  v<'ry  ui  • 
new  channel,  straighter  and  deeper  than  the  channels 
before  known,  over  the  outer  bara  uf  New  York  harbor. 
Hui'h  a  gift  aa  this  to  the  first  cuninicniiil  city  uf  tho 
ruiitincnt,where  it  was  very  much  nctilid,  ought  to  gain 
permanent  favor  for  the  entcr|>rlM'  by  w  hicb  it  has  been 
made.  Important  changes  in  the  main  ahip-diannel 
near  Sandy  llouk  were  llrbt  nuticcd  by  Jl^jor  HlcIic,  uf 
the  Topugruphicol  Kngineera,  by  a  c  ('nlpari^on  of  bis 
own  limits  with  those  of  the  coaat  aurvey  in  1842,  and 
this  discovery  has  since  been  confirmed  by  the  latter. 
So  rapid  haa  been  the  accumulation  iipun  the  extreme 
puintofthe  Huuk,  that  thehigh-wntcr  mark  now  stands 
wlicru  there  whs  a  depth  of  40  feel  in  IWIO.  '1  he  (  liani- 
ber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  hna  gratifully  ttiknc*!- 
edged  the  communication  of  this  ini|  uriiint  tact  by  the 
pi'v^eiit  superintendent.  In  lUluuure  Hay  u  new  iind 
straight  chaimel  waa  discovered,  lying  parallel  tu  thu 
main  ship-channel,  more  narrow  than  the  lutlcr,  but 
likely  to  prove  serviceable  in  scant  winds,  and  jjcller 
sheltered  from  floating  ice.  Three  dmnnils  were 
o|)ened  through  the  ridgea  of  CajKi  SIny,  and  apnraiigc 
made  known  through  tho  "Over-falls."  'I be  future 
changca  in  the  latter,  which  may  prove  to  I  e  the  germ 
of  a  new  paaa  to  tho  ocean,  will  be  watched  with  inter- 
est. Tho  result  of  the  survey  in  iJeluware  Hay  lina 
been  wholly  to  change  the  form  of  the  butlum,  as  it 
stood  un  the  old  charts.  Some  shoals  have  been  cruM-d 
altogether,  a  new  one  near  the  deep  water  uf  the  chaii- 
nel-way  has  been  added,  and  the  limits,  hlinpe,  depth, 
and  direction  of  every  shoal  in  the  bay  have  been  al- 
tered. 

In  Long  Lsland  Sound,  Buzzard's  Hay,  Ma.'fachu- 
setts  Hay,  and  Chesapeake  Huy,  no  niiii  h  lins  been  add- 
ed tu  the  sal'cty  uf  nnvigutiun  by  laying  duwii  posiiiuns 
curreclly,  and  by  good  sailing  dircilions,  but  chiclly 
I  by  the  actual  discovery  of  useful  channels  or  uf  hidden 
I  and  unknown   dangers,  that  a  list  of  these  addilions 
>  alone  would  occupy  too  much  S])acc.     In  Long  Island 
I  .><ound,  a  rock  having  only  ISJ  feet  uf  water  on  it,  un 
I  the  Cerberus  Shoal,  was  discovered  ond  detcrniiiuil  by 
thu  brig  Wtt!<liingtun,  in  Scptcmlicr,  1846;  and  in  the 
same  year  three  rocks  were  found  in  the  most  frequent- 
ed part  of  Buzzard's  Buy  by  the  Gallatin.     Changes 
uf  tho  highest  inipurlance,  which,  uwing  to  natural 
causes,  had  taken  place  in  the  channel-way  of  the  en- 
trance to  Mobile  Bay,  were  found  out  by  tho  I'liauix 
in  1847. 

In  the  off-shore  wurk,  the  most  valuable  discoveries 
have  been  mode  by  the  hydrographical  parly  cmpluy- 
ed  un  the  Nantucket  Shoals.  They  deeply  concern  the 
navl^;atioii,  foreign  and  domestic,  of  the  whole  con.st; 
especially  the  European  trade  from  New  York  and  the 
West  India  trade  from  the  Eostcrn  States.  The  insur- 
ance ofliccs  of  New  York  and  Bustun  have  jiublicly  ac- 
knowledged their  obligation  for  these  dUcovcrics. 

To  this  part  of  tho  hydrography  belongs  the  eTj.lora- 
tiin  of  the  Oulf  Stream,  an  enterprise  thot  originated 
with  tho  present  superintendent.  This  ia  nwuik  of 
diflicully  anil  time.  It  wos  commenced  by  the  hydro- 
graphical  assistant  In  command  of  the  brig  Wathing- 
ton,  in  1846,  who  obtained  bottom  near  the  inner  edge 
of  the  Btreani  at  the  depth  of  780(1  feet,  and  the  marked 
and  rapid  change  of  temperature  at  this  place  gave 
reason  to  hope  that  a  curve  uf  similar  depths  might  be 
traced,  corresponding  to  the  inner  line  of  <lircction  of 
tlie  Gulf  Stream,  of  which  any  point  *ouId  be  known 
when  crossing,  from  the  characteristic  changes  uf  tem- 
perature. The  latitude  (the  most  easy  of  the  two  co- 
ordinates to  ascertain  correctly)  being  given,  the  ship's 
longitude  would  result  sufficiently  near  tho  truth  to  be 
of  essential  service  in  approaching  the  coast.  The  deep 
sea  and  surface  temperatures  were  both  taken  in  1846. 


COA 


827 


COA 


I.ioutnnant  nnrhn  aurciMMlvd  to  th«  charge  of  tliU 
duty  In  IH40.  I'rofefiior  llriiry  liaa  tlum  npokun  of  hit 
innrlti  kii<l  micci'im:  "In  tlio  lant  report,  an  account 
wiM  Klvon  of  n  Rerle*  of  ohacrvatlons  on  tlin  (tiiir 
Strpam,  mailx  liy  I.ieulrnant  QcorKO  M.  Ilachc,  whose 
lite  tell  n  Miorillce  to  hU  zeal  in  the  illnchArgn  ofhU 
duty,  and  whoao  luis  f"  i«nc«  was  called  ujiun  tu  mourn 
Juit  ai  ho  wan  comnirncln^',  nith  his  nccuatoniod  ar- 
dor, the  tnveiill)(ation  of  one  of  the  must  Interesting 
phenonivnji  nf  our  ifMni.  Thu  rusulls  ho  obtained  will 
IwKlvi'Uto  Ihoworiil  In  anotiiur  piildliatlon,  and  it  will 
bu  siillluienl  to  state  in  tliis  place  that  ho  examined 
thriM)  entire  sections  acrosH  tliu  stream.  Ills  rvscnrclios 
exhibit  the  renmricaliie  fnit  that  the  wlinin  current  of 
warm  water,  to  the  depth  of  at  least  'tW>  fathoms,  divides 
itselfinto  two  principal  i)runi'hcs,sppariited  by  a  portion 
of  cold  water,  ami  that  tiio  transition  from  tlie  cold  wa- 
ter, alon)(  and  next  to  the  cojisl,  Is  almost  instantaneous, 
•s  if  til*  two  were  separated  by  a  nearly  perpendicu- 
lar \v  ill,  Hili^htiy  inclinint;  to  the  cast  at  the  top." 

Thi-  suliJL'ot  of  tlio  tides  is  now  rcceivlnK  for  the  llrst 
time,  ill  tliH  country,  proper  nttentiun.  The  tide-lu- 
Idos  un  (III!  charts  contain  all  the  Information  an  to 
times,  liel^hts,  and  durations,  that  Is  reipiired  in  prac- 
tice, Corructol  establishments  are  deduced  fnnn  tiie 
moans  of  the  luni-tidal  intervals  comtiined  fureucli  half- 
hour  uriraiisit,  'I'lia  astronomical  probicin  of  tiie  tides 
Is  worked  out  fir  prominent  points  wliero  thu  observa- 
tions liiive  sulllciently  ucuumuiuted. 

The  nii'nn  curves  of  semi-nienstnial  inc()uniily  nf 
time  anil  lieijrht,  corrected  for  thu  mean  annual  paral- 
lax and  docliiialiun,  arc  compared  with  tho  curves  of 
observation  (freed  from  the  diurnal  ine(|uaiity)  at  each 
aemi-lunatiou,  and  tho  variations  in  the  times  and 
hei^lils  of  lii^h  water,  duo  to  chauKcs  in  thu  moon's  dec- 
lination ami  dl.itnnce  from  tlio  earth,  are  tatiulated  for 
the  future  improvenieni     f  tlio  tide-tables. 

Ity  llie  continuance  of  careful  and  constant  observa- 
tions, the  means  will  be  supidied  of  addiiif;  to  tlie 
kmiwicdffo  of  the  diurnal  and  solar  inc(|ualities,  and  of 
slmlyiuKaii  other  phenomena  of  the  tides.  The  resid- 
ual errors  that  ajipeur  in  tlie  seini-nien.strHttl  curves, 
after  eliminntin);  IliiullVcts  of  parallax  and  declination, 
are  caii.sed  by  ntiunsplieric  cliangcs.  Tiio  local  iiitlii- 
cuce;  therefore,  of  particular  u  inds,  and  the  general  ef- 
fect of  changes  ill  tiie  pressure  of  tho  atmosphere,  aro  to 
he  inveHti);ated,  ami  enoui;ii  is  already  known  to  prove 
that  the  seaman  will  derive  great  prolit  from  tliis  part 
of  tile  labors  of  tho  toast  survey,  'I'lie  direction  and 
velocity  of  lldai  currents  are  now  carefully  determined 
for  the  normal  condition  of  the  tides,  and  for  their  dis- 
turbance iiy  winds  and  storms,  and  a  itnowlege  of  tho 
courses  and  conHicIs  of  the  liilea  in  the  liarbor.s  and  in- 
land waters  of  the  United  .States  (us  Long  Island  and 
Vineyard  Sounds)  will  also  result  from  tho  comparison 
uf  numerous  records,  kept  Willi  a  special  view  to  their 
investigiltion. 

To  the  preceding  account  of  tho  operations  of  the 
coast  survey  it  must  bo  added,  that  tho  reductio-i  of 
tlie  maps  to  tho  scale  of  publication,  thu  engraving  and 
printing  of  them,  aro  entirely  executed  in  tlie  ollico  ot 
Woahiiigton.  An  exception  is  made  in  tho  engraving 
of  the  smaller  harbor  maps,  particularly  of  tho  harbors 
of  refuge.  They  arc  sonietimcs  placed  in  the  hands  of 
private  artists,  wiiich  serves  the  double  object  of  an 
earlier  publication  and  of  encouraging  tho  art  of  map- 
engraving  in  this  country.  Tho  propriety  of  publish- 
ing to  the  world  the  important  results  of  the  const  sur- 
vey as  soon  as  obtained  was  immediately  recognized  by 
Professor  Kache.  In  the  case  of  a  discov  jry  aflecting 
the  general  navigation  of  the  coast,  like  that  of  tbe 
"  New  South  Shoal,"  a  "  preliminary  sketch,"  antici- 
pating tlie  complete  chart,  has  been  freely  distributed. 
In  other  casoa,  information  has  been  diEsemtnatcd 
througli  tho  press,  or  furnished  by  authority,  to  chart- 
«( Hera.  The  oflice  at  Waaliington  contains  also  work- 
shops, at  whifli  tho  various  instruments  of  tho  aurvev 


aro  repaired  and  made.  Ail  tho  dotalla  of  tho  olBc« 
duties,  whether  relating  tu  tho  vcrilicatlun  and  engrav- 
ing of  maps,  or  thu  occupation  of  tiie  workmen,  in  the 
absence  of  the  auperlnteiident,  are  under  the  direntiun 
uf  I'aptain  A.  A.  Humphreys,  of  thu  Topographical 
Kngineera,  an  asilataiit.  As  tlio  uperatiuna  uf  tlie  cooat 
survey  are  numerous  and  variuua,  and  its  duties  very 
multiplied  ill  detail  and  conipUcatud  in  tiieir  ronnec- 
tiun,  it  will  bo  readily  liclicved  tliat  thu  dlructlun  and 
ttdjusliiu   It  of  tliem — tin       tiructloiis,  tlio  repuils,  and 


them — make  the  ullico  of 

'  labor  and  respoiislltil- 

lii  Ilii'Se  duties.  Dr. 

nary  triungulatiun 

lietlicr  geodetic,  or 

either  made  by  hiintelf 

'!<>'<     In  tliu  aaiiie  man- 

for  Hectlun  VIII,, 

iiaiii  triaiiguiation 

iiigtiiii.    Inawork 

,  uc>  usionai  iiiillrcct  con- 


ronimuiiicatluns  arUi 

superiiileiident  one  i 

ity.     Ilcsldes  persui 

llucbe  occupies  the  atair 

at  the  north,  and  tile  (il 

asirononiical,  or  nn 

or  under  liisiiniutHl. 

ner  he  has  aisi;  iiiea    .re. 

un  Uaiipliin  Island,  •ml 

acruhs  frum  tliu  (.'iiesapc.i 

uf  such  niiignltudo  and  e. 

triliutluns  to  knowtedgo  may  bo  expected,  and  tlierc  it 

every  disposition  to  uiako  tiiein, 

A  point  of  interest  to  tlio  geologist,  dovoloped  by 
tho  operations  of  the  coast  snrvey,  is  tin-  changes  that 
aro  coii.slanlly  occurring  in  diirerent  parts  of  the  coast. 
Ill  this  respect  its  present  accurate  determinatinns  will 
furnish  in  future  thu  means  of  interesting;  comparisons. 
It  must  be  remarked  here,  also,  that  too  mucli  import- 
ance can  not  bo  ossigned  to  this  view  of  tiio  resiills  of 
the  coast  survey.  With  regard  to  most  harbors  of 
conseiiuence,  the  question  is  repeatedly  asked  wliether 
they  have  undergone  any  change ;  and  tliis  ipiestion 
can  rarely  bo  satisfactorily  answered,  for  tho  want  of 
a  correct  standard  of  comparison.  The  charts  of  the 
coast  survey  will  enalile  tlie  future  hydrographop  to 
point  out  the  changes,  if  any,  and  the  future  engineer, 
in  his  endeavors  to  improve  or  to  preserve  tlie  channels 
of  navigation,  will,  by  a  careful  study  of  these  changes, 
be  aide  to  guard  ogainat  liio  causes  of  olistruction,  and 
loco-operate  intelligently  with  natural  laws,  instead  of 
blindly  opposing  tiieir  cll'ects.  Thu  manner  In  which 
barbgrs  are  atfectcd  by  the  matter  hold  in  suspension 
by  tile  rivers  emptying  into  them,  that  is,  the  place  aud 
form  ill  wliidi  this  matter  is  deposited,  will  receive  such 
elucidation  from  the  inciiiiriea  of  tho  coast  survey  as 
will  assist  the  counsels  of  thu  constructing  engineer, 

Tho  charts  of  the  coast  survey  exhibit,  as  far  as  they 
go,  a  view  of  tlin  topographical  formation  of  tlio  bottom 
of  the  sea.  Specimens  aro  collected,  and  preserved  in 
tliu  office,  of  the  bottom  in  all  its  varieties,  and  it  was 
the  intention  of  tho  late  Lieutenant  Bacbe  to  form  a 
geological  map,  on  which  the  materials  thus  collected 
slioulil  appear,  in  tho  natural  order  of  their  formation, 
Uesides  serving  as  useful  indications  to  tlio  navigator 
and  pilot,  they  prove  to  be,  wiicn  placed  under  the  mi- 
croscope, liighly  interesting  to  tho  naturalist.  The 
doep-sott  soundings  have  been  examined  by  Professor 
I.  W.  liailey,  of  West  Point,  and  have  been  found  to 
be  tilled  with  organisms,  particularly  those  of  the  cal- 
careous polytlialamia,toan  amount  that  is  really  amaz- 
ing, hundreds  of  millions  existing  in  every  cubic  inch. 
"  One  specimen,  from  tlie  depth  of  ninety  fathoms,  is 
crowded  with  remains,  most  of  them  large  enough  to 
be  recognized  iiy  a  practiced  eye  w  ithout  the  aid  of  a 
mngnifler."  And  it  is  not  impossible  that,  in  similar 
cases,  science  may  supply  tho  mariner  with  another 
mode  recognizing  the  character  of  the  bottom.  In 
18 17,  Professor  L.  Agossiz,  of  Cambridge,  accompanied 
one  of  the  hydrogra|ihical  parties  engaged  in  the  oflf- 
.shore  work,  by  the  invitation  of  its  commander,  and 
enjoyed  an  opportunity  of  examining  tho  animals  In- 
haliiting  depths  that  are  rarely  accessible.  It  proved 
to  bo  a  rich  field  of  discovery.  Not  only  many  new 
species,  but  several  now  genera,  were  added  to  the 
known  lists ;  tho  suliject  of  embryology  received  fresh 
illustrations,  and  a  new  light  was  tlirown  upon  the 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


^U&  MIL 

■so  ■^~    MHi 
■^  ^   12.2 

i*a    12.0 


lU 

111 


Mil 


I'-^^i'-^pi 

< 

6"     

t, 

HiotDgraphic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SM 

(716)  •72-4503 


COA. 


J98 


COA 


laws  of  the  geographical  dietribution  of  animali,  show- 
ing that  in  the  different  depths  of  the  lea,  as  in  the  eleva- 
tions of  the  land,  distinct  families  liave  each  their  a»- 
tigned  and  native  dwelling-place. 

It  would  lead  to  but  a  partial  estimate  of  the  value 
of  the  coast  survey  to  omit  these  examples  of  its  inci- 
dental iMnefits  to  Imowledge.  There  are  others  upon 
which  there  is  not  room  to  dwell.  The  friends  of  this 
work  have  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  its  progress,  and 
It  ia  confidently  l>elieved  that  they  may  lay  aside  all 


apprehensions  for  its  future  prosperity.  It  testa  upon 
the  firm  support  of  a  controlling  pubUc  opinion  in  the 
government  and  among  the  people.  Working,  as  it 
does,  in  a  field  that  is  useful  and  honorable,  and  Iwing 
conducted  in  all  its  branches  with  aeal  and  efficiency, 
it  can  not  fail  to  add  every  year  to  the  consideration 
with  which  it  is  now  regarded,  not  only  at  home,  but 
in  every  country  where  science  and  its  application  to 
the  arts  of  life  are  justly  appreciated. — American  At- 
manae/or  1849. 


BncLTB  or  thi  Coast  Sdbtet  at  Dimnmr  Pebiods,  fboh  1844  to  1854, 


PnTlooi  to 
1844. 

ri<>ml844 
tolSti. 

FcrlUi, 

For  leu. 

Total  ftom 

biflllilnc  of 

Bunay. 

»,«4S 

80,648 

.  1,706 
6 

1,708 
6 

48,804 

1 

6 

9 

8 

S 

14 

4 

4 

34 

Wt 

64 

4* 

18* 

106i 

0,078 

17,294 

1,708 

8,089 

^*;JS 

810 

978 

224 

IM 

MIB 

6,427 

900 

688 

11,430 

TBO 

1,160 

223 

324 

2,867 

1,133 

2,008 

446 

840 

8,083 

IB 

71 

14 

7 

107 

44 

244 

86 

» 

868 

0 

82 

6 

0 

66 

P 

44 

17 

20 

00 

1 

27 

18 
""6 

81 

67 

:;," 

116 

8 

18 

4 

6 

IS 

16 

7 

0 

187 

8,822 

8,967 

601 

661 

11,341 

6,100 

7,088 

1,801 
16 

1,468 
14 

16,902 

0,628 

20,980 

■■"o 

"lO 

.... 

808,147 

1,862,009 

1,466 

148,108 

288,876 

806,877 

8,263,908 

1,466 

143,108 

108 

174 

66 
6 
8 

100 
6 
8 

488 

821 

31 

80 

481 

1,827 

4,846 

262 

106 

60)29 

166 

•    187 

20 

84 

416 

127 

172 

26 

49 

873 

826 

899 

174 

133 

1,082 

610 

768 

228 

216 

1,821 

07 

183 

83 

64 

327 

17 

149 

48 

89 

243 

4 

43 

7 

6 

60 

87 

260 

73 

76 

426 

78 

168 

72 

101 

409 

188 

990 

306 

188 

1,667 

28 

70 

27 

16 

140 

127 

490 

180 

128 

888 

•  ••• 

609 

183 

114 

846 

■     «  • 

320 

26 

6 

252 

666 

8,110 

763 

717 

6,166 

1,678 

171 

873 

•    3,117 

6 

40 

8 

4 

62 

«... 

66 

38 

47 

125 

.... 

87 

6 

6 

47 

.... 

16,801 

6,700 

8,048 

39,342 

.... 

28,077 

6,866 

4,876 

39,818 

. , , , 

67,001 

81,818 

24,070 

112,895 

..,. 

tlOT,004 

«8,8Se 

«6,296 

$176,236 

HeoonuoiManoe : 

ueaiDsqusre  miles , 

putiet,  number  of 

BasoUneB: 

number  of. 

{)raUmbiai7,  number  of. 
ength  ot,  la  miles 

Triangulalion: 

area  in  square  miles , , 

extent  of  coast  line,  in  ml'.ea 

extant  of  shore  line,  In  piiles 

horizontal  angle  stations,  number  of 

points  dotemUncd,  number  of. 

vertical  angle  stations,  number  of 

heights  determined,  number  of 

Agronomical  stations: 

azimutb,  number  of. 

latitude,  number  of 

longitude,  number  of 

latitude,  extra,  number  of 

longitude,  extra,  number  of, 

JIagnetle  stations,  number  of 

Triangula tion  parties,  number  of, 

Astronomical  parties,  numlier  of, 

HagneUo  parties,  number  of 

Topography : 

area  in  square  luUes 

lengtli  of  shore  line,  in  miles 

Topographical  parties,  number  of, 

Hydrograpby: 

area  in  square  miles 

parties,  number  of 

soundings,  number  of 

soundings  in  Gulf  Stream  for  temperature 

ikthomsof  line  used  in  same 

tidal  stations,  number  of 

tidal  parties,  number  of 

cunv^nt  parties,  number  of, 

current  stations,  number  of ,- 

specimens  of  bottom,  number  of, 

Topogmpbioal  maps  (original),  number  of 

Hydrographical  maps  (original),  number  of 

Beductlons  and  other  maps 

Total  number  of  manuscript  maps 

Becords  of  trlangnbitious  (original),  number  of  volumes 

Records,  astronomical  (original),  number  of  volumes 

Kecordi.  magnetic  (original),  number  of  volumes 

Duplicates  of  the  above,  number  of  volumes 

Computations,  number  of  volumes 

Hydrographical  books,  munding  j  (original),  number  of  volumes 

and  angle  observations t  (duplicates),  *' 

Hydrographical  books,  tidM  and  /  (original),  " 

current  observations )  (duplicates),  " 

Hydrographical  books,  tidal  leduetlons,  number  of  volumes. ... 

Total  recoids,  number  of  volumes 

library,  number  of  volumes 

Engraved  plates  of  maps,  number  of. 

Engraved  pistes  electrotyped,  number  of 

Published  maps,  number  of 

Printed  sheets  of  maps  distributed,  number  of. 

Printed  sheets  of  maps,  sale  agents,  number  of 

Total  number  of  printed  sheets 

Instruments,  cost  of, 


C'fteral  List  ofCoatt  Survey  Diicover--'<<mdDevelop- 
mtntt  to  1863  incliuive,  am^ikd  hy  lAeutaumt  E.  B. 
Sunt. — As  the  operations  of  the  survey  advance  along 
the  coast,  important  facts  before  unknown  are  con- 
stantly brou^t  to  light.  Many  facilities  for,  and 
dangers  to,  navigation  are  thus  discovered,  which  had 
been  before  wholly  unknown,  and  those  before  but  im- 
perfectly known  aro  developed  by  accurate  surveys. 
Many  such  developments  and  discoveries  occur  in  the 
geodetic  and  topographical  operations,  some  of  which 
are  of  no  slight  value ;  but  those  which  are  embraced 
in  the  hydrographic  work  are  often  of  vital  itnportanoe 
to  commerce  and  navigation.  The  following  list  pre- 
aanta  some  of  the  most  imjiortant  items  of  this  nature, 


and  may  collectively  be  regarded  as  exhibiting  one  ot 
the  most  viduablo  results  of  the  survey.  In  fact,  each 
sheet  which  gives  shore  line  and  hydrography  with 
increased  accuracy  has  somewhat  of  discovery  or  de- 
velopment to  claim ;  but  in  this  list  only  those  case* 
are  included  in  which  a  specific  benefit  has  been  con- 
ferred on  navigation,  either  by  unfolding  some  new 
facility,  disclosing  some  serious  danger,  or  indicating 
some  important  cliange  of  configuration.  The  arrange- 
ment is  geographical,  and  in  the  order  of  sections. 

1.  A  rock  not  on  any  chart,  in  the  inner  harlwr  of 
Gloucester,  Massachusetts—discovered  in  1858. 

2,  A  bank  90  miles  eastward  of  Boston,  with  about 
86  fathoms  water— probably  a  knoll  connected  with 


416 
873 

,0S2 
,821 
88T 
248 

ea 

426 
409 
,B6T 
140 
688 
846 
262 
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Caahe's  ledge,  but  with  deep  water  between  it  and  the 
ledge— 1868. 

8.  Boston  harbor :  Broad  Sound  channel  thoroughly 
lorveyed,  and  marlii  recommended — 1848. 

4.  Kantuclcet  Shoals :  Davis's  New  South  Shoal,  dis- 
covered in  1846,  six  miles  south  of  the  old  Nantucket 
South  Shoals,  in  the  track  of  all  vessels  between  New 
York  and  Europe,  or  running  along  the  coast  from  the 
Eastern  to  the  Southern  States,  or  South  America. 

6.  Ditto !  Two  new  shoals  north  and  east  of  Nan- 
tucket—discovered  in  1847.  ' 

6.  Ditto !  Six  new  shoals  near  Nantucket,  the  out- 
ermost one  14^  miles  ftvm  land,  and  with  only  ten  feet 
water— discovered  in  1848. 

7.  Ditto:  McBMr's  Shoals,  off  Nantncket-discov- 
«red  in  1849. 

8.  Ditto:  Davis's  Bank— discovered  in  1848,  and 
survey  finished  in  1861. 

9.  Ditto :  Fishing  Kip,  a  large  shoal  extending 
north  and  south  about  10  miles  to  the  eastward  of 
Davis's  Bank  and  30  from  Nantucket,  with  4^  .fathoms 
—surveyed  in  1862. 

10.  Ditto :  A  ridge  connecting  Davis's  New  South 
Shoal  and  Davis's  Bank— found  in  1863. 

11.  Ditto:  A  small  bank  or  knoll,  with  but  five 
fathoms  on  it,  about  five  miles  east  of  Great  Rip,  with 
12  fathoms  between  it  and  Davis's  Bank  and  Fishing 
Bip,  the  water  gradually  deepening  outside  of  it  to  the 
northward  and  eastward,  tieyond  the  limits  of  the  se- 
ries of  shoals. 

12.  Contraction  of  the  inlet  at  the  north  end  of  Mon- 
omoy  Island,  and  opening  of  new  entrance  to  Chatham 
harbor— 1863. 

12  bia.  Muskoget  Channel — surveyed  by  Lieutenant 
C.  H.  Davis  m  1848,  and  Lieutenant  G.  H.  McBlair 
In  1850. 

.  13.  Numerous  rocks  in  Martha's  Vineyard  Sound, 
Long  Island  Sound,  and  the  various  bays  and  harbors 
connected  with  them. 

14.  Gedney's  Channel  into  New  Yoric  Bay,  having 
two  feet  more  water  than  the  old  channels.  Had  the 
true  depth  of  this  channel  (which  is  seen,  by  compar- 
ing old  and  new  charts,  to  have  then  probably  existed) 
been  known  in  1778,  the  French  fleet  under  Count 
D'Estaiug  would  have  passed  into  the  bay  and  taken 
the  assembled  British  vessels. 

16.  Sandy  Hook :  its  remarkable  increase  out  across 
the  main  ship-channel  ho,"  been  traced  from  the  sur- 
veys of  the  topographical  engineers  nnd  others,  and 
by  several  successit*'  special  suiveys. 

16  bit.  Increase  of  depth  in  Buttermilk  Channel,  as- 
certained and  made  known  in  1848,  by  survey  of  Lieu- 
tenant D.  D.  Porter. 

16.  Delaware  Bay:  Blake's  Channel  at  the  entrance 
discovered  in  1844--open  when  the  eastern  channel  is 
dosed  by  the  ice.  This  discovery  has  served  to  de- 
velop strikingly  the  resources  of  that  portion  of  Dela- 
ware. 

17.  Blunt's  Channel  in  Delaware  Bay. 

18.  Chunges  in  the  Delaware  near  the  Pea  Patch. 

19.  The  true  extent  and  position  of  the  dangerous 
shoals  near  Chincoteague  Inlet,  Virginia — 1862. 

20.  Mctompkin  Inlet,  Virginia,  shoaling  front  11  to 
8  feet  in  the  channel  during  1852. 

21.  Two  channels* into  Wachapreague  Inlet,  Vir- 
^nia — one  from  the  northward  and  the  other  from  the 
eastward — both  with  seven  feet  water  at  low  tide— 
1862. 

22.  A  shoal  half  a  mile  In  extent,  not  put  down  on 
any  chart,  5^  miles  east  from  the  north  end  of  Para- 
more's  Island,  Virginia :  it  has  but  fbur  fathoms  water 
on  it,  and  has  nine  fathoms  around  it — 1862. 

23.  Great  Machipungo  Inlet,  Virginia;  found  to 
have  a  fine  wide  channel,  with  11  feet  water  on  the 
bar  at  low  tide  and  14  at  high ;  good  anchorage  inside 
in  from  two  to  eight  fathoms :  the  best  harbor  between 
the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  entrances— 1862. 


24.  Two  shoals  near  the  entrance  to  the  Chesapeake 
—one  4}  nautical  miles  southeast  by  east  from  Smith's 
Island  light-house,  with  17  feet  upon  it ;  and  the  oth- 
er east  by  south  nearly,  7}  miles  tnm  the  same  light, 
with  19i'feet  upon  it-'1858. 

26.  Only  three  feet  water  upon  the  "  Inner  Middle," 
the  shoal  part  of  the  Middle  Ground  west  of  the  "  NorUt 
Channel,"  at  the  Chesapeake  entrance — 1862. 

26.  A  26  fathom  hole  2^  miles  west-southwest  firom 
Taxewell  triaugulation  point,  eastern  shore  of  the 
Chesapeake ;  all  other  charts  give  not  more  than  16 
fathoms  in  this  vicinity. 

27.  A  shoal  at  the  month  of  the  Great  and  Little 
Cboptank,  in  Chesapeake  Bay — 1848. 

28.  Deeper  water  found  on  Diamond  Shoal,  and  a 
dangerous  nine-feet  shoal  off  Cape  Hatteras — 1850. 

29.  A  now  channel,  with  14  feet  water,  into  Hatte- 
ras Inlet,  formed  during  the  year  1862,  which  is  better 
and  straighter  than  the  old  channel. 

80.  The  well-ascertained  influence  of  prevailing 
winds  in  the  movement  of  the  bars  at  Cape  Fear  and 
New  Inlet  entrances,  and  the  gradual  shoaling  of  the 
main  bar ;  the  latter  fact  being  of  great  importance  to 
the  extensive  commerce  seeking  this  harbor — 1863. 

81.  Frying-pan  Shoals,  oflf  Cape  Fear,  North  Caro- 
lina. A  clianncl  of  2^  fathoms,  upward  of  a  mile 
wide,  distant  11  nautical  miles  from  Bald  Head  light- 
house, across  the  Fi^ing-pan  Shoals.  A  channel  ex- 
tending from  8  to  4  miles  from  the  point  of  Cape  Fear 
to  8  to  81  miles  from  it,  with  sufficient  water  at  low  tide 
to  allow  vessels  drawing  nine  or  ten  feet  water  to  cross 
safely.  A  channel  at  the  distance  of  14  nautical  miles 
from  Bald  Head  light-house,  one  mile  wide,  with  3^  to 
7  fathoms  water  on  it.  The  Frying-pan  Shoals  ex- 
tend 20  nautical  miles  from  Bald  Head  light-house,  and 
16,  17,  and  18  feet  water  is  found  17  and  18  nautical 
miles  out  from  the  light— 1861. 

32.  Shoaling  of  Cape  Fear  River  bar  thoroughly 
examined  for  purposes  of  improvement — 1862. 

88.  Changes  at  the  entrance  of  Winyah  Bay, 
Georgetown  harbor,  and  the  washing  away  of  Light- 
house Point,  at  the  same  entrance — 1863. 

84.  Mafiltt's  new  channel,  Charleston  harbor,  with 
the  same  depth  of  water  as  the  ship-channel — 1860. 

85.  Changes  in  the  channels  at  the  entrance  of 
Charleston  harbor — 1852. 

86.  The  remarkable  discovery  of  continuous  deep- 
sea  soundings  off  Charleston,  and  of  soundings  in  the 
depth  of  between  400  and  500  fathoms  beyond  the  Gulf 
Stream— 1863. 

87.  The  discovery  of  cold  water  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  below  the  Gulf  Stream,  along  the  coasts  of  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida — 1853. 

'  38.  The  discovery  of  the  cold  wall,  alternate  warm 
and  cold  bands,  and  various  other  features  of  the  Gulf 
Stream,  especially  such  as  concern  its  superficial  and 
deep  temperatures  on  sections,  and  its  distribution  rel- 
ative to  the  shore  and  bottom. 

89.  Various  facts  relative  to  the  distribution  of  mi- 
nute shells  on  the  ooean-bottom,  of  probable  use  to 
navigators  for  recognizing  their  positions. 

40.  Hetzel  Shoal,  off  Cape  Canaveral,  Florida— 1850. 

41.  A  now  passage,  with  three  fathoms  water, 
through  Florida  Reef  to  Legar6  harbor,  under  Tri- 
umph Kecf  (lat.  26°  30'  N.,  long.  80°  03'  W.),  which, 
if  properly  buoyed,  will  be  valuable  as  a  harbor  of 
refuge. 

42.  A  new  channel  into  Key  West  harl)or— 1860. 

43.  Isaac  Shoal,  near  Rebecca  Shoal,  Florida  Reef; 
not  laid  down  on  any  chart — 1862. 

44.  Channel,  No.  4,  a  northwest  entrance  into  Ce- 
dar-Keys Bay— 1852. 

45.  Mobile  Bay  Entrance  Bar  j  in  1822  only  17  feet 
at  low  water  could  bo  carried  over  it ;  in  1841  it  was 
19  feet ;  a;nd  in  1847  it  was  20J  feet,  as  shown  by  suc- 
cessive surveys — 1847. 

46.  The  diminution,  almost  closing,  of  the  passage 


COA 


880 


COC 


between  Danpblne  and  Feliowi  Iilands,  U  the  entrance 
of  Mobile  Bay— 1863. 

47.  Horn  Idand  Channel,  on  the  Coast  of  Hiuls- 
•ippl. 

48.  The  removal  of  the  East  Spit  of  Petit  Bois  IsL 
and  in  the  hurricane  of  1862,  opening  a  new  communl 
cation  Iwtween  the  Gulf  and  Mississippi  Sound,  and 
the  rendering  of  Horn  Island  Pass  more  easy  of  access 
by  the  removal  of  linoUs— 1868, 

49.  The  accurate  determination  of  Ship  Shoal,  off 
the  coast  of  Louisiana,  in  connection  with  the  site  for 
•  light-house— 1853. 

60.  The  changes  at  Aransas  Pass,  Texas,  as  bearing 
on  the  question  of  a  light-house  site— 1868. 

61.  The  determination  of  the  position  and  soundings 
on  Cortez  Bank,  near  the  island  of  San  Clemente,  coast 
of  California— 1863. 

62.  A  ahoal  Inside  of  Ballast  Point,  San  Diego  Bay, 
with  12i  feet  of  water ;  not  laid  down  on  any  chart — 
1862. 

63.  Changes  in  the  channels  of  entrance  of  Humboldt 
Bay  or  harbor,  California— 1852  and  1863. 

64.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  bars  at  the  entrance 
of  Rogue  Siver  and  Umquah  River,  Oregon — 1863. 

66.  South  Channel,  Columbia  River,  surveyed  and 
made  available  to  commerce — 1851.  Changes  of  ohan- 
nels,  their  southward  tendency,  and  a  new  three-fath- 
om channel  from  Point  Hancock,  due  west  to  open 
water,  Columbia  entrance— 1862.  Further  changes— 
1868. 

66.  Various  surveys  and  charts  of  small  harbors  on 
the  Padik,  and  a  continuous  rcconnoissanco  of  the  en- 
tire western  coast  and  islands  at^acent,  a  great  part 
of  which  was  very  imperfectly  known. 

Additional  List  for  1864. 

6^.  Determination  of  the  dimensions  of  Alujn's 
Rock,  near  Cape  Elizabeth,  Maine. 

68.  A  bonk  (Stellwagen's  Bank),  with  10^  to  14} 
fathoms  of  water  on  it,  at  the  entrance  to  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  and  serving  as  an  important  mark  for  ap- 
proaching Boston  an.'  Varbors. 

59.  A  dangerous  si;  ige  (Davis's  Ledge)  to  the 
eastward,  and  in  the  rbood  of  Minot's  Ledge, 

60.  Several  roclu  in  Iul  iaxt  channel-way  in  Boston 
harbor  entrance. 

61.  The  tidal  currents  of  Nantucket  Shoals  and  the 
approaches. 

62.  The  tidal  currents  of  Long  Island  Sound. 

63.  The  changes  in  New  York  harbor,  near  the  city, 
bi^  veen  1846  and  1864. 

il4.  The  general  permanence  of  the  Bodkin  Channel 
and  ohoals  in  its  vicinity,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Pa- 
tapsco  River — between  1844  and  1854. 

66.  A  shoal  (New  Point  Shoal)  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
with  16  feet  water  on  it,  soutl!e<tst  from  New  Point 
Comfort  light-house,  offMobJack  Bay. 

66.  A  reconnoissance  of  the  Wimble  Shoals  near 
Nag's  Head,  coast  of  North  Carolina. 

67.  The  general  permanence  in  depth  on  the  bar  of 
Beaufort,  North  CwroUna,  with  the  change  of  position 
of  the  channel. 

68.  The  changes  in  Maffitt's  Channel,  Charleston 
harbor.  South  Carolina,  from  1862  to  1864. 

69.  A  harbor  of  refuge  (Turtle  harbor)  to  the  north- 
ward and  westward  of  Carysfort  light-house,  Florida 
Beef,  with  a  depth  of  water  of  26  feet  at  the  entrance. 

70.  A  safe  role  for  crossing  the  Florida  Beef  near 
Indian  Key. 

71.  Co-tidal  lines  forthe  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States. 

72.  An  increase  of  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  at  Pass 
Fourchon,  Louisiana. 

73.  A  shoal  at  the  entrance  to  the  Straits  of  Rosario, 
Washington  Territory,  giving  good  holding  ground  in 
88  feet. 

74.  Belle  Bock,  in  the  middle  of  Bosario  Strait, 


Washington  Territory,  visible  only  at  extreme  low 
tides. 

76.  Entrance  Rook,  at  the  entrance  of  Bosario  Strait. 
70.  Unit  Rock,  in  the  Canal  de  Haro,  Washington 

Territory. 

77.  A  flv»-flithom  shoal  in  the  Strait  of  Juan  de 
Fuca,  between  Canal  de  Haro  and  Rosario  Strait. 

78.  The  non-existence  of  two  islands  at  the  northern 
entrance  of  Caual  do  Haro,  laid  down  on  charts. 

79.  The  non-existonce  of  Sun  Juan  Island,  usually 
laid  among  the  Santa  Barbara  group. 

80.  Tides  of  San  Diego,  San  Francisco,  and  Astoria. 
—Coatt  Survey  Rtportfar  1864. 

Cobalt  (Gcr.  KiAaU ;  Du.  KobtU;  Swed,  Cobolt ;  Fr. 
Cobalt;  It.  Cobaltoj  Russ.  K<*olt;  Lat.  Cobaltum),  a 
mineral  of  a  gray  color,  with  a  shade  of  red,  and  by  no 
means  brilliant.  It  has  scarcely  any  taste  or  smell ; 
is  rather  soft ;  epeciflc  gravity  about  8*6.  Sometimes 
it  is  composed  of  plates,  sometimes  of  grains,  and  some- 
times of  small  iibres  adhering  to  each  other.  Its  oxides 
are  principally  employed. — See  Smalts,  or  Smaltz. 
They  form  the  most  permanent  blue  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  The  coloring  power  of  oxide  of  cobalt  on 
vitriflable  mixtures  is  greater,  perhaps,  than  that  of 
any  other  metal.  One  grain  gives  a  full  blue  to  240 
grains  of  gliiss. — Thomson's  Chemiitry  and  Ube's  JHc- 
tioHttrv. 

Cooonliui  Indioua,  or  Indian  Berty  (Sansc. 
Kahtmari;  Malay,  J^btMdgi),  the  fruit  of  the  ifeni- 
tpermum  Cocculua,  a  large  tree  of  the  Malabar  coast, 
Ceylon,  etc.  It  is  a  small  kidney-shaped  berry,  having 
a  white  kernel  inside  of  a  most  unpleasant  taste.  It  is 
of  a  poisonous  and  intoxicating  quality,  and  has  been 
employed  to  adulterate  ale  and  beer. 

Cfy  Mneal  (Ger.  Kotchenilje ;  Du.  Conchenilje ;  Fr. 
CocheniHi. ;  It.  Cocciniglia ;  Sp.  Cochinilla,  Oraia;  Port. 
CochenUha;  Russ.  Konuend),  an  insect  (Cocau  cactt) 
found  in  Mexico,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and  son  . 
of  the  West  India  islands ;  recently,  also,  it  has  been 
introduced  into  Java,  and  promises  to  become  an  im- 
portant product  of  that  rapidly  improving  colony. 
Formerly  it  was  in  Mexico  only  that  it  was  reared  with 
care,  and  formed  a  valuable  article  of  commerce ;  but 
ite  culture  is  now  more  or  less  attended  to  in  various 
parts  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  small  insect,  seldom  exceeding  tho  size  of  a  grain 
of  barley ;  and  was  generally  believed,  for  a  consider- 
able time  after  it  began  to  be  imported  into  Europe,  to 
be  a  sort  of  vegetable  grain  or  seed.  There  are  two 
sorte  or  varieties  of  cochineal :  the  best  or  domesti- 
cated, which  the  Spaniards  called  granajina,  or  fine 
grain;  and  the  wild,  which  they  call  grana  sylvettra. 
The  former  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  latter,  prob- 
ably becanse  its  size  has  been  improved  by  the  favora- 
ble effects  of  human  care,  and  of  a  more  copious  and 
suitable  nourishment,  derived  solely  fi'om  the  Cactus 
cochiniUifer,  during  many  generations.  Wild  cochineal 
is  collected  six  times  in  the  year,  but  that  which  is  cul- 
tivated is  only  collected  thrice  during  the  same  period. 
The  iusecU,  of  which  there  are  about  70,000  in  a  pound, 
being  detached  ttom  the  plants  on  which  they  feed  by 
a  blunt  knife,  are  put  into  bags,  and  dipped  in  boiling 
water  to  kill  them,  after  which  they  are  dried  in  the 
sun.  It  is  principally  used  In  the  dyeing  of  scarlet, 
crimson,  and  other  esteemed  colors.  The  watery  in- 
fusion is  of  a  violet  crimson ;  the  alcoholic,  of  a  deep 
crimson ;  and  the  alkaline,  of  a  deep  purple,  or  rather 
violet  hue.  It  )<<  imported  in  bags,  each  containing 
about  two  hundred  pounds ;  and  has  the  appearance 
of  small,  dry  ,sbriveled,  rugose  berries  or  seeds,  of  a 
deep  brown,  purple,  or  mulberry  color,  with  a  white 
matter  between  the  wrinkles.  In  this  state  they  suf- 
fer no  change  from  length  of  keeping.  Dr.  Bancroft 
says  that  that  cochineal  is  the  best  which  is  "  large, 
plump,  dry,  and  of  a  Hlvtr-tehUe  color  on  the  surface," 

The  spedea  of  cochineal  called  granilla,  or  dust,  is 
supposed  by  Dr.  Bancroft  to  be  piiodpally  formed  of 


coc 


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nilje  I  Fr. 
in ;  Port. 
m>  cnch") 
and  Bon  . 
has  been 
le  an  im- 
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ared  witb 
ircc;  but 
various 
tates.    It 
If  a  grain 
consider- 
Inrope,  to 
are  two 
domesti- 
\a,  or  fine 
ityhtttra. 
ter,  prob- 
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lioas  and 
JO  Cactus 
[cochineal 
jch  is  cul- 
le  period, 
a  pound, 
y  feed  by 
[n  boiling 
U  in  the 
[f  tcariet, 
jatery  in- 
bf  a  deep 
[or  rather 
mtaining 
ipearanco 
\ei»,  of  a 
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they  Buf- 
Bancroft 
k  "large, 
[surface." 
duBt,  is 
inned  of 


grana  tglvettra.  The  insects  of  which  it  consists  are 
smaller  than  those  composing  the  fine  cochineal,  and 
it  does  not  yield  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  coloring 
matter  that  is  yielded  by  the  latter.  The  cochineal 
insect  was  introduced  into  India  in  1795 ;  but  a  very 
inferior  sort  only  is  produced.  It  has  also  been  intro- 
duced into  Java  and  Spain,  but  with  what  success  re- 
mains to  be  seen. — Thomson's  Dispeiuatorj/ j  Ban- 
CKOFT  on  Colon,  etc. 

The  cochineal  plant  (Cactus  cochiuiUifer),  or  some  of 
its  congeners,  is  found  in  varying  abundance  through- 
out the  ton-id  zone,  as  well  as  in  several  warm  and 
temperate  countries  without  the  tropics.  But  much 
doubt  still  exists  as  to  what  particular  species  nour- 
bhes  the  cochineal  insect,  as  it  is  believed  that  the 
plant  which  was  named  by  Linneus,  and  which  has 
been  almost  universally  called  Cactus  cochiuiUifer,  is  not 
the  one  that  produces  the  best  Mexican  cocbiueal ;  nor 
is  it  positively  known  in  what  part  of  America  it  was 
originally  a  native.  Linnoeus  speaks  of  it  as  indige- 
nous to  Jamaica,  and  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Kew 
World;  but  others  assort  that  it  was  brought  &om 
South  America  by  a  Spanish  priest. 

Cochin  China.  This  extensive  kingdom  is  situ- 
ated in  the  Bouthern  extremity  of  Asia,  and  forms  part 
of  the  peninsula  between  China  and  Hindostan.  It 
is  not  separated,  however,  by  any  distinct  boundary 
from  the  ncigl^boring  countries ;  and  its  limits  have 
been  greatly'exteuded  by  conquest  beyond  those  of 
Cochin  Chuia  proper,  which  is  merely  a  strip  of  land 
between  the  China  Sea  and  the  mountains,  and  is  not 
above  sixty  or  seventy  miles  broad.  The  empire  of 
Cochin  China,  which  took  its  present  form  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  comprehends  Cochin 
China  proper,  Tonquin,  the  principal  part  of  Cambo 
dia,  and  the  little  state  of  Chiampa.  This  state,  as 
it  has  been  ag^jrandizej  ^y  conquest,  extends  from  the 
point  of  Cambodia,  in  about  8°  30'  N.  lat.,  to  the  north- 
em  confiiies  of  Tonquin,  which  reach  within  a  very 
few  miles  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  from  the  longi- 
tude of  102°  to  about  109°  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Chinese  Quangsi  orKiangsi  and  Yunan;  on  tue 
west  by  the  kingdoms  of  Laos  and  Siam ;  while  the 
Gulfs  of  Siam,  Tonquin,  and  the  China  Sea  bound  it 
on  the  southwest,  east,  and  northeast.  Its  area  is  es- 
timated at  about  98,000  square  miles,  and  its  popula- 
tion at  from  12,000,000  to  16,000,000.  This  great  coun- 
try is  divided  by  long  ranges  of  mountains,  which  run 
nearly  north  and  south,  and  in  almost  parallel  chains, 
forming  it  into  separate  provinces,  divided  by  physical 
boundaries,  and  inhabited  by  distinct  tribes  and  na- 
tions, although  subject  to  the  same  sovereign.  By 
these  mountainous  ridges  Tonquin  and  Cochin  China 
proper  are  separated  from  Lactho,  Laos,  and  Cambo- 
dia. Another  chain  separates  the  three  latter  states 
fVom  Siam  and  China,  and  gradually  diminishes  in 
height  as  it  approaches  the  south,  terminating  at  the 
■outliern  extremity  of  Cambodia. 

The  soil  in  Cochin  China,  especially  in  the  low  lands, 
is  fertile,  and  its  products  are  very  valuable.  Of  these 
rice,  as  being  the  general  food  of  the  people,  is  the  sta- 
ple commodity ;  and  after  supplying  the  wants  of  the 
people,  about  100,000  piculs  remain  annually  for  ex- 
portation. The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  as  well 
as  the  preparation  of  sugar,  has  of  late  years  much  in- 
creased ;  and  the  annual  exportation  of  sugar  is  con- 
sidered to  be  not  less  than  70,000  piculs.  Cotton  of 
the  best  quality  is  produced  on  the  coast ;  and  of  this 
probably  about  60,000  piculs  are  exported.  Though 
raw  silk  is  produced,  it  is  principally  for  home  con' 
iumption.  Cinnamon  ranks  hi^h  among  its  produc- 
tions, and  has  always  been  celebrated  in  China.  In 
the  southern  parts  the  cocoa-nut  growv  very  luxuriant- 
ly, and  hence  there  is  a  large  exportation  of  oil.  Pep' 
per  of  a  good  quality,  but  in  small  quantity  and  of  a 
high  price,  is  produced  in  the  centr;  1  provinces  of  Co- 
«Un  China ;  but  the  quantity  is  in»dequate  to  the  de- 


mand which  the  Chinese  trade  creates  for  its  export*- 
tion.  It  grows  among  the  central  mountains  of  Cochin 
China,  whence  it  is  exported  to  Cambodia  andTonquin, 
but  principally  to  China,  where  it  is  much  more  highly 
valued  than  any  other  quality  of  tliis  aromatic.  An- 
other exclusive  product  of  tbo  central  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, which  is  extensively  ctdtivated  and  sent  to  the 
neighboring  provinces,  is  tea,  which  ia  very  coarse  and 
only  used  by  the  poorer  classes.  The  other  productions 
of  the  country  arc,  gamboge,  gum,  cardamoms,  eagle- 
wood,  areca-palm,  betel-nut,  ivory,  stick-lac;  hides, 
consisting  of  deer-skins,  buffalo,  elephants',  and  rhi- 
noceros hides ;  peltry,  consisting  of  tiger,  leopard,  ot- 
ter, and  cat  skins ;  feathers,  salt  fish,  horns  and  bones, 
dye-woods,  and  woods  for  ship-building  and  for  domes- 
tic purposes.  Valuable  timber  is  only  found  in  Cam- 
bodia, and  a  small  quantity  of  teak-wood  is  found  in 
the  forests ;  also  ebony  cedars,  mimosas,  walnuts,  iron- 
wood,  and  poon,  and  most  of  the  other  trees  found  in 
the  woods  of  India.  The  wood  used  for  ship-building 
and  for  domestic  purposes  is  strong  and  durable,  and 
is  carried  to  the  capital  in  large  quantities.  There  is 
a  hard,  black  wood  extensively  used  in  cabinet-work, 
and  of  large  dimensions,  which  takes  a  fine  poliiih,  and 
might  form  an  article  of  exportation.  Cambodia  also 
produces  the  Portuguese  rose-wood,  which  the  Chinese 
export  as  they  do  from  Siam ;  also  sandal-wood  and 
other  scented  woods.  Among  the  products  of  Tonquin 
is  a  species  of  vegetable  root,  a  cheap  material,  which 
forms  the  dead-weight  of  all  the  Chinese  cargoes  ex- 
ported from  Tonquin,  and  is  used  extensively  both 
throughout  Cochin  China  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
and  also  in  China,  as  the  material  of  a  red  d^-e.  Edible 
birds'-nests,  the  sea-slug  usually  called  biche-de-mer,  or 
SipuHculus  edulis,  and  various  marine  productions  of  a 
gelatinous  quality,  form  standing  articles  of  trade  with 
China,  and  are  always  in  demand. 

The  geological  formation  of  Cochin  China  is  primi- 
tive ;  the  mountains  are  chiefly  composed  of  granite 
and  sienite,  Uica  slate  and  primary  limestone  here 
•nd  there  occur,  while  several  hills  consist  of  quartz 
rock.  Among  the  mountains  of  Tonquin  is  the  only 
portion  of  the  Cochin  Chinese  empire  which  produces 
iron,  gold,  and  silver.  The  iron  received  from  these 
mines,  which  is  as  cheap  as  that  from  Siam,  supplies 
the.  whole  kingdom,  with  the  exception  of  Saigun, 
which  is  furnished  from  the  latter  country.  Gold  dust 
is  found  in  many  of  the  rivers ;  and  there  are  immense 
rocks  of  marble  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Kiver 
Faifo,  on  a  kind  of  sandy  plain,  of  which  large  quan- 
tities have  been  exported.  This  remarkable  range  of 
limestone  rocks  rises  almost  perpendicularly  from  the 
low  sand  hilb,  to  a  height  of  from  300  to  400  feet,  with- 
out a  hill  or  mountain  near  them. 

The  foreign  trade  of  the  Cochin  Chinese  is  almost 
exclusively  with  China;  the  trade  carried  on  with 
Siam  being  inconsiderable,  and  that  with  European 
nations  still  smaller.  But  there  is  no  indisposition  to 
trade,  though  among  the  Enropean  nations  the  notion 
has  been  propagated  by  travelers  that  the  resort  of 
European  traders  is  in  a  great  measure  interdicted  in 
this  kingdom,  on  the  same  principle  as  in  Japan  and 
China.  In  1818,  a  new  tariff  was  imposed  on  foreign 
vessels,  by  which  the  high  duties  imposed  on  all  for- 
eign vessels  prior  to  1818  were  repealed,  and  equal  du- 
ties substituted  in  their  stead.  By  this  regulation  all 
vessels  pay  a  rated  measurement  duty,  moderate  in  its 
amount,  and  are  exempted  from  all  import  duties  pay- 
able previous  to  1818,  Vessels  that  are  driven  into 
the  ports  of  Cochin  China  by  stress  of  weather,  or  that 
visit  them  for  the  purpose  of  commercial  inquiries,  are 
free  from  all  charges.  Besides  the  exports  above  men- 
tioned are  cardamoms,  betel-nut,  eagle-wood,  dye- 
woods,  stick-lac,  gamboge,  ivory,  elephants'  hides  and 
bones,  and  rhinoceros  bones.  The  imports  are  silk 
goods  of  various  kinds,  the  coarser  kinds  of  teas,  coarse 
china-ware,  paper,  cotton  and  woolen  stufia,  iron,  opi- 


coo 


m 


COD 


vm,  entleiy,  ato.  Of  the  Internal  trade  of  the  ooimtty, 
though  conelderable,  little  is  knovm.  The  trade  with 
China  is  chiefly  conducted  with  Cachao  In  Tonquin, 
Salgun  In  Cambodia,  and  Falfo  and  UuA  In  Cochin 
China.  Then  U  also  some  inconsiderable  interconrse 
with  other  parts  of  the  empire. 

Cochin  China,  flnm  Its  central  situation,  Ita  naviga- 
ble riven,  and  Its  many  excellent  harbors,  possesses 
extraordinaiy  advantages  for  commerce.  Few  coun- 
tries ara  so  amply  provided  with  harbors,  there  being 
within  the  0^°  of  latitude  which  intervene  between 
Cape  St  James  and  the  Bay  of  Turon  no  less  than 
nine  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world,  accesnible  in 
every  wind,  quite  safe  to  approach,  and  affording  the 
most  complete  protection.  The  Bay  of  Turon,  situated 
in  lat.  16°  T  N.,  is  equaled  by  few  in  the  iiastem 
World,  and  surpassed  by  none  for  the  security  and  con- 
venience which  It  affords. — £.  B. 

Cooket,  In  Commerce,  a  scroll  of  parchment,  sign- 
ed and  delivered  by  the  ofHcers  of  the  custom-house 
to  merchants  upon  entering  their  goods,  to  certify  that 
their  merchandise  Is  customed  and  may  ha  discharged. 

Oook-plt,  of  a  ship  of  war,  the  apartment  of  the 
surgeon  and  his  mates  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the 
wounded  in  time  of  action.  It  is  situated  under  the 
lower  deck,  Iwlow  the  water-line. 

Cookswain  (pronounced  ear«i>),  an  officer  on  board 
of  a  man-of-war,  who  has  the  care  of  a  Ijoat  or  sloop, 
and  who  must  be  always  ready  with  his  gang  or  crew. 
He  sits  in  the  stem  of  the  Iwat,  which  he  steers,  and 
has  a  whistle  to  summon  his  men. 

Ooooa,  or,  more  properly,  Caoao  (Fr.  and  Sp.  Ca- 
cao I  Ger.  Kakao),  the  seed  or  nuts  of  the  cocoa-tree 
(Theobroma  cacao),  growing  In  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
many  parts  of  South  America.  It  is  said,  by  Mr.  Bry- 
an Edwards,  to  bear  some  resemblance,  both  in  size 
and  shape,  to  a  young  black-heart  cherry.  The  nuts  are 
contained  in  pods,  much  like  a  cucnml>er,  that  proceed 
Immediately  from  all  parts  of  the  body  and  larger 
branches ;  each  pod  contains  fh>m  ten  to  thirty  nuts, 
of  the  size  of  large  almonds,  very  compactly  sot.  The 
shell  of  the  nut  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  brittle  and 
thin;  the  kernel  Is,  both  Intenally  and  externally, 
brownish,  divided  into  several  unequal  portions,  ad- 
hering together,  bat  separating  without  much  difficul- 
ty; it  has  a  light  agreeable  smell,  and  an  nnctuous, 
bitterish,  rather  rough  and  peculiar,  but  not  ungrateful 
taste.  The  nuts  should  be  chosen  full,  plump,  and 
shining,  without  any  mnstiness,  and  not  worm-eaten. 
They  yield,  by  expression,  a  great  deal  of  oil;  but 
they  ara  cultivated  only  that  they  may  be  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  the  excellent  beverage  cocoa,  and 
the  manubcture  of  chocolate,  of  which  they  form  the 
principal  ingredient.  The  finest  cocoa  is  said  to  be  that 
of  Socomnsco.  The  principal  importatijns  were  for- 
merly derived  from  the  Caraccas  and  Guayaquil,  partic- 
nlarly  the  former,  the  cocoa  of  which  is  also  the  more 
'"aluable.  The  exports  fh>m  Venezuela  amounted  in 
1851  to  8,169,905  pounds,  worth  $1,299,C31.  M.  Hum- 
boldt estimated  the  consumption  of  cocoa  in  Europe  in 
1806  at  23,000,000  pounds,  of  which  Avm  6,000,000  to 
0,000,000  were  supposed  to  be  consumed  in  Spain.  The 
production  of  cocoa  was  languishing  in  the  Caraccas 
for  several  years  previously  to  the  commencement  of  the 
disturbances  in  South  America ;  and  latterly  the  culti- 
vation of  eofffee  seems  to  have  been  in  most  parts  gain- 
ing the  ascendency. — Hcmboldt,  Pert.  Narrative,  vol. 
iv.  p.  386-247,  Engl,  transl.  In  1851  the  exports  of 
ooflbe  from  Venezuela  amounted  to  87,968,081  pounds. 

Cooo,  Coker,  or,  more  properly,  Coooa-nnta 
(Qer.  Koioaiam ;  Dn.  Koiomooten  ,•  Fr.  and  Sp.  Cocoi ; 
It.  Cocda;  Ross.  Koihot;  Sans.  NarHcM),  the  flruit  of 
•  s(>ecles  of  palm-tree  (Coeot  nucifera,  Linn.).  This 
tree  is  common  almost  every  where  within  the  tropics, 
and  is  extremely  v|iluable ;  being  to  the  palmlvorous 
inhabitants  of  many  parts  of  Ceylon,  BrazM,  and  other 
intertropical  regions,  not  manly  their  principal  wealth, 


but  almost  their  entire  dependence.  Every  part  of  tha 
tree  is  appropriated  to  some  peculiar  purpose ;  and  an 
Indian  with  a  garden  containing  twelve  cocoa-nut  trees 
and  two  Jack-trees  Is  said  to  be  comparatively  Independ- 
ent I  But  we  may  observe  that  this  facility  uf  olitain- 
Ing  subsistence  is  not  an  advantage,  but  the  reverse ; 
Indolence  and  a  want  of  civilization  being  its  Invariable 
accompaniment.  The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  from 
60  to  00  fccL;  it  has  no  branches,  but  the  leaves  are 
ttom.  12  to  14  feet  in  length,  with  a  very  strong  middle 
rib.  The  Ihtlt  Is  nearly  as  largo  as  a  man's  head ; 
the  external  rind  Is  thin,  tough,  and  of  a  brownish-red 
color.  Beneath  this  there  is  a  quantity  of  very  tough  ' 
fibrous  matter,  which  is  used  In  the  manufacture  of 
cordage  and  coarse  sail-cloth.  It  is  buoyant  and  ex- 
tremely well  suited  for  ropes  of  largo  diameter ;  and 
until  the  introduction  of  chain  cables  a  majority  of  tha 
ships  which  navigated  the  Indian  seas  were  supplied 
with  cables  of  this  material.  Within  the  fibrous  coat- 
ing is  the  shell  of  the  nut,  which  Is  nearly  globular, 
very  hard,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  and  used  for 
many  domestic  purposes ;  the  kernel  is  white,  in  tasta 
and  firmness  resembling  that  of  a  hazel-nut ;  It  Is  hol- 
low In  the  interior,  the  hollow  being  filled  with  a  milky 
fluid.  While  the  nut  is  green,  the  whole  hollow  of 
the  shell  is  filled  with  fluid,  which  is  reft^shing,  agree> 
able,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  The  solid  part  of  tho 
ripe  kernel  Is  extremely  liutritious,  but  rather  indi- 
gestible. The  kernels  yield  by  expression  a  great  deal 
of  oil,  which,  when  recent.  Is  equal  to  that  of  sweet 
almonds ;  but  it  soon  becomes  rancid,  and  Is  then  em- 
ployed by  painters.  A  tree  generally  yields  about  100 
nuts.  In  clustera,  near  the  top,  of  about  a  dozen  each. 
The  wood  of  the  tree  is  made  Into  boats,  rafters,  the 
A-ames  of  houses,  and  guttera  to  convey  water.  The 
leaves  are  used  for  thatching  buildings;  and  are 
wrought  Into  mats,  baskets,  and  many  other  things 
for  which  osiers  are  employed  in  Europe ;  so  that  every 
part  of  It  Is  applied  to  some  useful  end. 

If  the  body  of  the  tree  be  bored,  there  exudes  from 
the  wound  a  white  liquor,  called  palm  wine  or  toddy. 
It  is  very  sweet  when  fl^sh ;  kept  a  few  hours,  it  be- 
comes more  poignant  and  agreeable ;  but  next  day  it 
begins  to  grow  sour,  and  In  tho  space  of  24  liours  is 
changed  into  vinogar.  When  distilled,  it  produces 
the  best  speclos  of  Indian  arrack ;  it  also  yields  a  great 
deal  of  sugar.  Toddy  Is  obtained  from  several  species 
of  palms,  but  that  of  the  Cocot  nucifera  is  the  best. — 
(SeeMARsnALt.  on  theCocca-nut  Tree;  AinihiK'sMateria 
Inditxt.  An  improvement  effected  in  the  preparation 
of  cocoa-oil  has  made  it  of  much  importance  in  the 
arts,  by  rendering  it  available  In  the  manufacture  of 
candles  and  soap,  and  for  various  purposes  to  which  it 
was  not  previously  applicable.  The  palm-oil  met  with 
In  the  market  Is  not  obtained  trota  the  Cocot  nucifera, 
but  from  nnotherspedesof  palm.  It  Is  chiefly  import- 
ed from  the  coast  of  Guinea. — See  Palm-oil. 

Cocoa-nuts  are  produced  in  immense  quantities  in 
Ceylon,  forming,  with  their  products— oil,  arrack,  and 
coir— the  principal  articles  of  export  trom  that  island. 
They  are  also  very  abundant  in  the  Maldive  Islands, 
Slam,  and  on  several  places  of  the  coast  of  Brazil. 
Cocoa  oil  is  in  very  extensive  use  all  over  India,  and 
large  quantities  are  manufactured  in  the  lower  provin- 
ces of  Bengal.  This  latter  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
that  Imported  from  Ceylon.  At  au  average  of  tho 
three  years  ending  with  1860, 431,071  gallons  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil  were  exported  fVom  Ceylon. 

Cod  (Ger.  Cabljau,  lialalau;  Du.  Cabeljaauw,  Bau- 
haelja ;  Dan.  Cabliau,  Skrtitorsk,  Sakelau ;  Sw.  Cabeljo, 
SakelaU)  Fr.  Morue,  CahiUaud;  It.  Bacca,  Baccalare; 
Sp.  Bamlao;  Port.  Bacalhdoi  Lat.  (iadtu),  a  species 
offish  too  well  known  torequire  any  description.  "  It 
is  amazingly  prolific.  Leowenhoek  counted  9,384,000 
eggs  in  a  cod-fish  of  a  middling  size — a  number  that 
will  baffle  all  the  efforts  of  man  to  exterminate.  In 
the  British  seaa  they  begin  to  spawn  in  January,  and 


COD 


888 


COD 


depotlt  their  eggs  in  rough  ground,  tmong  rocki. 
Soma  continuo  in  roe  till  the  beginning  of  April.  The 
cod  is  only  found  In  the  Northern  parti  of  the  world ; 
it  is  an  oooan  llsh,  and  never  met  with  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  great  rendoEvous  of  the  codflsh  is  on  the 
Banks  of  Mewfoundlxnd,  and  the  other  sand  banks  that 
lie  oir  the  coasts  of  C  pe  Breton,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
England.  I'liey  prefer  those  situations,  by  reason  of 
the  quantity  of  worms  produced  in  those  sandy  bottoms, 
which  tempt  them  to  resort  there  for  food.  But  an- 
other cause  of  the  particular  attachment  the  ilsh  have 
to  those  spots  is  their  vicinity  to  the  polar  seas,  whero 
they  return  to  spawn :  thoro  thoy  deposit  their  roes  in 
full  security ;  but  want  of  food  forces  them,  as.  soon  as 
the  more  southern  seas  are  open,  to  repair  thither  for 
subsistence.  Few  are  taken  to  the  north  of  Iceland, 
but  thoy  abound  on  its  south  and  west  coasts.  Thoy 
Bwarra  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  in  the  Baltic,  and  off 
the  Orkney  and  Western  Isles;  after  which  their 
nnmbers  decreaise  in  proportion  as  they  advance  to- 
ward the  south,  when  thoy  seem  quite  to  cease  before 
they  roach  the  mouth  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Be- 
fore the  discovery  of  Newfoundland,  the  greater  fish- 
eries of  cod  wero  on  the  seas  of  Iceland,  and  off  the 
Western  Isles,  which  were  the  grand  resort  of  ships 
flrom  all  the  commercial  nations;  but  the  greatest 
plenty  was  met  with  near  Iceland.  The  tlnglish  re- 
sorted thither\l)efore  the  year  1416 ;  for  we  find  that 
Henry  V.  was  disposed  to  give  satisfaction  to  tho  King 
of  Denmark  for  certain  irregularities  committed  by  his 
subjects  on  those  seas.  In  tho  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
the  English  were  excluded  from  tho  fishery  by  treaty. 
In  latter  times,  wo  find  Queen  Elizabeth  condescending 
to  ask  pennission  to  fish  in  those  seas  flrom  Christian 
IV.  of  Denmark.  In  the  reign  of  her  successor,  how- 
ever, no  fewer  than  160  English  ships  wero  employed 
in  the  Iceland  fishery;  which  indulgence  might  arise 
from  the  marriage  of  James  with  a  princess  of  Den- 
mark."— Pennant's  British  Zoology.  Cod  is  prepared 
in  two  different  ways;  it  is  either  gutted,  salted,  and 
then  barreled — in  which  state  it  is  denominated  green  or 
pickled  cod ;  or  it  is  dried  and  cured — in  which  state  it  is 
called  dried  cod.  Ready  access  to  tho  shore  is  indispen- 
sable to  tho  prosecution  of  tho  latter  species  of  fishery. 
Distant  Cod  Fisherj/. — The  great  Bank  of  Newfound- 
land, discovered  by  John  or  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1497, 
was  long,  and  perhaps  still  is,  the  principal  seat  of  the 
distant  cod  fishery.  The  extraordinary  abundance  of 
codfish  on  its  banks  having  been  speedily  ascertained, 
the  French,  Portuguese,  and  Spaniards  soon  after  en- 
gaged in  the  fishery.  The  English  were  later  in  com- 
ing into  the  field.  In  1678  France  had  on  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland  160  vessels,  Spain  120  or  130,  Port- 
ugal 60,  and  England  from  30  to  60.  During  the  first 
half  of  last  century,  the  fishery  was  principally  carried 
on  by  the  English,  including  the  Anglo-Americans  and 
the  French ;  but  tho  capture  of  Cape  Breton,  and  of 
their  other  possessions  in  America,  gave  a  severe  blow 
to  the  fishery  of  the  latter.  The  American  war  divided 
the  British  fishery ;  that  portion  of  it  which  had  previ- 
ously been  carried  on  from  Now  England  being  there- 
after merged  in  that  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
last  war,  the  French  being  cxcludccl  from  the  fisheries, 
those  of  England  attained  to  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  prosperity ;  the  total  value  of  the  produce  of  the  New- 
foundland fishery  in  1814  having  exceeded  ^12,800,000. 
But  since  tho  peace,  the  British  fishery  on  tho  New- 
foundland banks  has  rapidly  declined ;  and  can  hard- 
ly, indued,  l)0  said,  at  this  moment,  to  exist.  It  is 
now  carried  on  almost  entirely  by  the  French  and  the 
Americans ;  the  facilities  enjoyed  by  the  latter  for  its 
prosecution  being  greater  than  those  of  any  other  peo- 
ple, and  the  former  being  tempted  to  engage  in  it  by 
the  extraordinary  encouragements  offered  by  govern- 
ment. At  present,  the  British  fishery  carried  on  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Newfoundland  is  confined  entirely  to 
the  shore  or  boat  fishery.    But  this,  though  probably 


not  so  good  a  nursery  of  sailor*  as  the  bank  fishery,  U 
admitted  to  bo  "  the  most  productive  of  merchantable 
fish  and  oil." — M'Queook's  liril.  Amtr.,  2d  cd.  vol.  1. 
American  Cod  Fithery. — Tlie  Americans  have  at  all 
times  prosecuted  the  cod  fishery  with  great  vigor  and 
success.  Their  fishermen  are  remarkable  for  their 
activity  and  enterprise,  sobriety  and  fhigality;  and 
their  proximity  to  the  fishing-grounds,  and  the  other 
facilities  they  possess  for  carrying  on  the  fishery,  give 
them  advantages  with  which  it  Is  verj-  difficult  to  con- 
tend. In  1706  the  Americans  employed  in  the  cod 
fishery  about  31,000  tons  of  shipping ;  in  1807  they  are 
said  to  have  employed  70,30(3  tons ;  but  it  subsequently 
declined  for  several  years,  and  was  almost  entirely  sus- 
pended during  tho  late  war.  According  to  the  ofiidal 
rotums  (laid  l>efore  Congress  the  1st  of  January,  1868), 
the  Americans  had,  in  tho  year  ending  the  80th  of 
June,  1662,  102,669  tons  shipping  engiiged  in  the  cod 
fishery.  During  the  same  year  they  exported  134,782 
quintals  of  dried,  and  19,379  barrels  of  pic]^led  cod; 
their  aggregate  value  being  #463,010.  "  The  Amer- 
icans follow  two  or  more  modes  of  fitting  out  for  tlie 
fisheries.  The  first  is  accomplished  by  six  orsovcn  fai  m- 
ers,  or  their  sons,  building  a  schooner  during  winter, 
which  they  man  themselves  (as  all  the  Americans  on 
the  sea-coast  are  more  or  less  seamen  as  well  as  farm- 
ers) ;  and  after  fitting  the  vessel  with  necessary  stores, 
Ihey  p/ocecd  to  the  banks,  Qulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  oi-  Lat)- 
rador ;  and,  loading  their  vessel  with  fish,  make  a  voy- 
age between  spring  and  harvest.  Tho  proceeds  they  di- 
vide, after  paying  any  baianie  they  may  owe  for  outfit. 
They  remain  at  homo  to  assist  in  gathering  their  crops, 
and  proceed  again  for  another  cargo,  which  is  salted 
down,  and  not  afterward  dried :  this  is  termed  mud- 
fish, and  kept  for  home  consumption.  The  other  plan 
is,  when  a  merchant  or  any  other,  owning  a  vessel, 
lets  her  to  10  or  16  men  on  shares.  He  finds  the  ves- 
sel and  nets.  The  mon  pay  for  all  the  provisions, 
hooks  and  lines,  and  for  tho  salt  necessary  to  cure 
their  proportion  of  tho  fish.  One  of  tho  number  !.j  ac- 
knowledged master ;  but  he  has  to  catch  fish  as  well  as 
the  others,  and  receives  only  about  20^.  per  month  for 
navigating  the  vessel ;  the  crew  have  five-eighths  of 
the  fish  caught,  and  the  owners  three-eighths  of  tlie 
whole.  The  first  spring  voyage  is  made  to  the  banks; 
the  second  either  to  tlto  banks,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
or  the  coast  of  Labrador;  tho  third  or  fall  voyage 
is  again  to  the  banks;  and  a  fourth,  or  second  fall 
voyage,  is  also  made,  sometimes,  to  the  banks." — 
M'Gkeoor,  vol.  i.  p.  220.  It  is  stipulated  in  the 
first  article  of  a  convention  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  signed  at  London,  20th  of  October, 
1818,  that  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  shall  have 
liberty  to  take  all  sorts  of  fish  "on  that  part  of  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  f^om  Cape  Ray  to  the  Ramcau 
Islands,  on  the  western  and  northern  coasts  of  New- 
foundland from  Cape  Ray  to  the  Quirpon  Islands, 
on  the  Magdalen  Islands,  and  also  on  the  coasts, 
bays,  barlmrs,  and  creeks,  from  Mouut  Joly,  on  the 
soutliern  coast  of  Labrador,  to  and  through  tho  Straits 
of  Bolleisle,  and  thence  northward  indefinitely  along 
tlie  coast,  without  prejudice,  however,  to  any  of 
the  exclusive  rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company; 
and  that  the  American  fishermen  shall  alsohavo  liber, 
ty  forever  to  dry  and  cure  fish  in  any  of  the  unset- 
tled bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  the  southern  parts  of 
the  coast  of  Newfoundland  here  above  described,  and 
of  the  coast  of  Labrador ;  but  so  soon  as  the  same,  or 
any  portion  thereof,  shall  be  settled,  it  shall  not  be 
lawful  for  the  said  fishermen  to  dry  or  cure  fish  with- 
out previous  agreement  for  such  purpose  with  tho  in- 
habitants, proprietors,  or  possessors  of  the  ground. 
And  tho  United  States  hereby  renounce  forever  any 
liberty  heretofore  eqjoyed  or  claimed  by  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof,  to  take,  drj-,  or  cure  fish  on  or  within 
three  marine  miles  of  any  of  the  coasts,  bays,  creeks, 
or  harbors  of  his  Britannic  mi^eity's  dominions  in 


/X 


.# 


CdD 


8«r 


tot 


Aneriea  not  Inelndtd  within  tht  tbore-mentioned 
limiti."  The  AmertcM  flihermen  sro,  bowovcr,  ad- 
mitted  into  all  bayi,  etc.,  for  the  purpow  of  (helter,  of 
repairing  damage*,  of  porcbailng  wood,  and  of  obtain- 
ing water,  and  for  no  other  purpoie  whatever ;  and 
when  there,  thejr  are  to  be  placed  under  inch  reatrlc- 


tloni  u  may  ba  neceiiary  to  prevent  their  abtuing  tkj  '* 
privilege)  hereby  rcaerved  to  them.--S«e  Fihiikhiu, 

f'rtnch  Cod  /IMcr^.— France  hai  alwaya  enjoyed 
a  conilderable  ihare  of  the  cod  flihery.  The  follow- 
ing table  ahowi  the  extent  to  which  the  ha«  carried  it 
ilnoe  the  peace  i 


Aooooirc  or  ma  Moioiaa  or  anva,  witu  mni  ToiraAoi,  Caawe,  Aim  OAaoOM,  toat  bavi  aNTniD  nn  mmamT  Pom  ' 
or  FaAHOB  nou  tui  Cod  t'liMEB*  vvaiiia  nia  vMina-inirriOMiD  YaAia, 


lais. 

1880. 
18». 
IMO.. 
1841. 


BU 

87T 


4fi6 


aipph," 


C«l«di, 


ImiKirti. 


8MT1 
46,0M 
(0,881 


IM,UM 


0,811 
8,174 
Il,tt0 

«,8W 

S,il8» 


giilaUb, 

1M,00!1 
l«l,<liT 


888,T40 


_JIadil«li,  iry. '    ) 
qakilAli. 

IM.'iltT 
1110,457 
87,741 


The  quutltie*  of  oU  we  exoluiive  of  (fraoAM  (huilei  non  epur6«> ;  there  ere  alto  tomid*,  etc    MiraelllM,  OnnvOle,  Dun- 
kirk, llaideaiu,  Vk  BoobaUe,  and  Nutea  are  the  prlnolpal  porta  whenoe  ihlpa  are  fitted  out  for  the  flahery. 


But  notwithstanding  tho  apparent  proapority  of 
thia  branch  of  induatiy,  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
it  be  really  ao  beneficial  to  France  at  woald  at  flrat 
light  appear.  It  depends  more  upon  artificial  regu- 
lations than  upon  any  thing  else.  Foreign  cod  la  ex- 
cluded from  the  French  markets  by  tho  oppressive 
duty  with  which  it  is  loaded ;  and  the  comparatively 
great  demand  for  dried  flsh  in  Catholic  countries  ren- 
ders this  a  very  greut  boon  to  the  Fivnch  fiahcrmen. 
But  It  is  admitted  that  this  would  not  be  enough  to 
sustain  the  fishery ;  and  high  bounties  arc  paid  to  those 
engaged  in  it.  Tbeae,  liowaver,  have  been  reduced  of 
late  yeara;  and  they  will  probably  in  no  long  time 
undergo  atill  further  alterations.  St.  Pierro  and  Ml- 
quelon,  small  islands  on  tho  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
belong  to  tho  French.  Their  right  of  lishing  upon  the 
shores  of  that  island,  and  upon  the  great  bank,  was  re- 
placed in  1814,  upon  the  footing  on  which  it  atOod  in 
1792.  Thia  conceaaiun  has  been  much  ol)JectGd  to  by 
Mr.  M'Gregor  and  others :  wo  believe,  however,  that 
they  have  materially  overroted  its  influence.— For  fur- 
ther information,  <«<  Fisiiebies  and  Fkance. 

Cod-Uver  OIL  Pure  cod-liver  oil  is  obtained 
fyom  tho  livers  of  codfish ;  and  la  l)C8t  prepared  when 
the  liver  la  in  a  state  moat  nearly  approaching  that  in 
which  It  exists  when  alive,  and  is  beat  adapted  for  me- 
dicinal use.  The  fineat  oil  ia  devoid  of  color,  taste,  and 
smell,  three  physical  characters  that  arc  more  valuable 
than  any  chemical  tests.  The  aucccaa  which  haa  at- 
tended the  uae  of  this  oil  in  pulmonary  complaints  has 
led  to  the  introduction  of  a  apurious  oil,  chiefly  pre- 
pared of  bleached  whale  oil,  etc.,  which  doea  not  pos- 
sess the  valuable  medicioal  properties  of  pure  cod-liver 
oU. 

SkarkJner  OU  ia  an  oil  that  has  been  lately  import- 
ed fh>m  the  coast  of  Africa.  It  gives  the  usual  liver- 
oil  reactions  with  sulphuric  acid ;  its  peculiar  interest, 
however,  comes  from  its  low  specific  gravity.  Until 
DOW,  sperm  oil,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of  '876, 
was  the  lightest  oil  known ;  but  the  specific  gravity  of 
this  oil  is  only  '866.  It  is  prepared,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, flrom  shark's  liver. 

CofliBe  (Ger.  Koffe,  Koffeboimm ;  Du.  Kojfy,  K(M. 
hoonen;  Da.  Kafft,  KaffebSnntr;  Swed.  Kojfe;  Fr.  It. 
and  Port.  Cage;  Sp.  Cafe;  Russ.  Kofc;  Pol.  Kaaa; 
Lat.Coffea,  Caffta;  Arab,  fun;  Malay,  A'dtca;  Pers. 
Tochem,  K/mli ;  Turk.  Chaube).  The  coflee-tree  Is  a 
native  of  Ethiopia  and  Abyssinia ;  but  It  was  in  Ara- 
bia that  It  first  became  an  ol^ect  of  interest  and  im- 
portance to  the  civilized  world.  The  plant  is  an  ever- 
green, and  ia  accurately  described  by  La  Roque  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  coAee-tree  is  f^m  six  to  twelve  feet  high ; 
the  stem  ten,  twelve,  and  fifteen  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. When  it  Is  full  grown,  it  much  resembles  In 
figure  our  apple-trees  of  eight  or  ten  years'  standing. 
The  lower  branches  ordinarily  bend  when  the  tree  be- 
gins to  grow  old,  and  extend  themselves  into  a  round 
form,  somewhat  like  an  nmbrella ;  and  the  wood  is  so 
yery  limber  and  pliable,  that  the  ends  of  the  longest 


branches  may  bo  bent  down  within  two  or  three  (tai 
of  the  earth.  The  bark  is  whitish,  and  somewhat 
rough ;  Its  leaf  is  much  like  that  of  tho  citron-tree. 
It  continues  green  ail  the  year,  and  tho  tree  is  never 
without  leaves,  which  are  ranged  almost  opposite  on 
each  side  of  the  liough,  and  at  rmall  distances  (W>m 
each  other.  Nothing  is  more  singular  in  lis  kind  tliaa 
its  productions ;  for  almost  in  all  aeasona  of  tlie  year 
blosaoma,  and  green  and  ripo  fruit,  may  be  aecn  on 
the  aanio  tree  ut  the  aanio  time.  When  the  bloasom 
falls  olT,  there  remains  in  its  room,  or  rather  springs 
ttom  each  biossum,  a  small  fruit,  green  at  first,  but 
which  becomes  red  as  it  ripens,  and  is  not  unlike  a 
large  cherry,  and  is  very  good  to  eat.  Under  the  flesh 
of  this  cherry,  instead  of  tho  stone,  is  found  tho  bean 
or  berry  we  call  coffee,  wrapped  round  In  a  fine  thin 
akin.  Tho  berry  is  then  very  soft,  and  of  o  dlsiigreo- 
oblc  taste;  but  aa  the  cherry  ripens,  the  iicrry  in  the 
inside  grows  harder,  and  the  dricd-up  fhiit,  being  the 
flesh  or  pulp  of  it,  which  was  before  catubic,  becomes 
a  shell  or  pod  of  a  deep  brown  color.  The  twrry  is 
now  silid,  and  of  a  clear  transparent  green.  Each 
shell  contains  one  l>crry,  which  splits  into  two  equal 
parts.  When  the  fruit  Is  sufliciently  ripe  to  lie  shaken 
fl'om  the  tree,  tho  husks  are  separated  hom  the  ber- 
ries, and  are  used  In  Arabia  )>y  the  natives;  while  the 
berricB  are  exported  for  the  European  markets." 

From  Arabia  the  plant  was  taken  by  the  Dutch 
about  the  year  1C90  to  Java,  whence  its  culture  spread 
slowly  among  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  found  its 
way  to  the  West  India  Islands.  The  plant  ia  now 
common  in  every  botanical  garden  of  Europe,  and 
there  are  few  private  conaervatories  without  good  speci- 
mens of  the  tree.  When  cultivated  with  a  view  to 
trade,  it  is  most  productive  on  hills  and  mountains, 
where  its  root  is  idmost  always  dry,  and  its  head  flre- 
quently  watered  with  gentle  showers.  It  prefers  a 
westerly  exposure  and  a  loose  gravelly  soil,  liut  freed 
from  weeds  and  grass.  The  plants  are  inserted  ut  dis- 
tances of  six  or  eight  feet  asunder,  and  in  holes  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep. 

If  left  to  themselves  they  would  rise  to  tho  height 
of  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet ;  but  in  extensive  plants^ 
tions  the  trees  are  topped  and  stunted  to  about  five 
feet,  for  the  convenience  of  having  tho  fruit  within 
reach  of  the  gatherer.  Thus  dwarfed,  they  extend 
their  branches  until  they  cover  the  whole  spot  ro — '.d 
about  them.  They  begin  to  yield  fruit  the  third  year. 
By  the  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh  year,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  they  are  at  Aill  bearing,  and  con- 
tinue to  bear  for  upward  of  twenty  years. 

It  has  but  recently  come  to  the  knowledge  of  Euro- 
peans that  the  leaves  of  the  coflTee-plant  contain  the 
same  essential  principle  for  which  the  berries  are  so 
much  valued,  and  that  in  the  Dutch  island  of  Sumatra, 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the  natives  scarcely  use  any 
thing  else,  and  greatly  prefer  a  beverage  made  fl'om 
the  leaf  to  the  berry  itself.   The  leaves  undergo  a  proc- 


COF 


Mi^ 


COP 


Ml  of  eurioK  ilmUw  to  Ua,  Mil  thty  immmh  nil  lh« 
virtual  of  eithar  ti<A  or  ooITn.  TIiU  mny  tw  litoknil 
upon  ai  the  introduction  of  •  mw  ulininiit  iinonu  tin 
innocent  nod  li«nellcUI  nacdiiurlai  uf  ilfui  fur  whIU 
tliu  cnlturo  uf  the  coffau  pUnt  fur  tliu  ulia  of  III  fruit 
is  limited  to  particular  loili  and  IiIkIi  taiiiiNtriiturai, 
the  tree  producua  leavoi  In  ubundunoa  iiny  wiiarv  with- 
in the  troplcD  whero  tha  lull  li  aulttclantly  fvrlllit,  'I'bli 
oxtanilve  habitat,  added  to  Iti  nutrltlva  quulttlM  and 
ffoadom  frnm  any  deleterloui  prinulplo,  {Htllltl  out  tbo 
coffee  plant  ai  the  belt  adapted  fur  ((uiieral  oonium|v 
tion  of  all  the  productloni  atfurdInK  uaffaln. 

The  coffee  berry  (for  which  tha  plant  bai  hllharlo 
been  chieHy  cultivated),  when  ripe,  li  curid  hi  tlin 
Welt  Indlei,  in  Java,  Ceylon,  Ilia  Kait  Itidlui,  and 
South  America,  by  a  prooeii  called  pulphiH  and  waih< 
Ing.  In  ArabU,  I'eriU,  ate,,  It  ii  naltliar  piil|iad  nor 
waihed,  but  cured  In  the  ancient  faililun  liv  the  lalwr 
of  the  handi  and  the  action  uf  tha  lun,  '1  ha  pulplnt( 
procaii  ii  performed  by  macblnary,  which  Kreatly  *x< 
pedltea  the  work ;  but  prootlual  exparleiicuil  Weit  ln> 
dia  planteri  admit  that  tlili  pruoeii;  li  In  luma  ImiMirt. 
ant  reapeoti  Inferior  to  the  Urlentul  nioda.  "  \  ntanU 
felt  preference,"  say  I  one,  "li  Klvxn  In  thu  InndlhK 
Euro|>oun  murketi  to  coffee  which  hai  Huito  tliruuuh 
the  pulping  and  waihing  proceii  |  but,  itrangu  Ui  »»y, 
the  conauman  of  th|i  beverage  are  totally  Ignorant  uf 
the  foot  that  the  piytluce  which  la  cured  In  the  pulp 
furniahei  a  itronger  decootion  than  an  equal  quantity 
of  the  aame  coffee  which  hai  undorgona  the  ulhnr  priiii- 
eii.  The  muclloginoui  lubitanoo  whiuh  li  wuilind  ulf 
by  the  pulping  proceia  ij  abiorlied  by  tlia  Iwan  when 
cured  in  the  pulp.  Thia  givoa  itrangth  tu  thu  prndui'ii, 
and  enhances  iti  aromatic  tluvor."  lluforu  lliu  liarry 
is  available  for  use,  it  undergoes  a  proceii  called  ronat> 
ing.  The  valuable  propertlei  of  coffee  da|ifiiul  vnrv 
much  on  the  manner  In  which  this  prooaai  li  irarforninil, 
For  the  most  recent  and  IntalllgvMt  dliiertallon  on  tlili 
point,  consult  Dr.  Urk'i  DlelioiiurD  qf  Arit,  Afimi^iiti- 
tuivs,  and  ilinet,  last  edition,  vol.  i,  p,  W, 

Speciet  o/Cufe».  Koaiting,  rt(^— Th«  voflTeea  of  Ja- 
maica,  Ceylon,  and  Mooha  are  generally  eiilunnied  tha 
best;  then  follow  the  coffees  of  Costa  Kica,  llumlnli'ii, 
Herbicc,  Domorara,  Bourbon,  Java,  Slartlnlqua,  ami 
Hiiytl.  Arabian  or  Mocha  coifoo  la  prjiU.cuil  In  »  vi<ry 
dry  climate,  th>  best  being  raised  '>;.ii)  mountalmiiii 
slopes  and  sond^-  soUi.  The  moat  '-  sulla  are  not 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  very  fine  uuA-i,  Mr,  Ilryau 
Edwards  observei,  that  "a  rich  deep  ii.il,  fVequanlly 
ameliorated  by  showera,  will  produce  a  luxuriant  tren 
and  a  great  crop ;  but  the  lieani,  which  are  large,  and 
of  a  dingy  green,  prove  for  many  years  rank  iind  v«|)- 
id."  And  thf  same  remark  Is  made  by  tir.  Cruwfurd 
with  respect  to  the  coffee  of  Java, — Kiut  Utdiim  Arehh 
pelago,  vol.  L  p.  487.  Coffiie  Is  Imnroved  by  being 
ke^it ;  it  then  becomes  of  a  paler  color.  Movba,  or, 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  Turkey  ooffeo,  should  \« 
chosen  of  a  greenish  light  olive  hue,  firnsh  and  new, 
free  from  any  mustineia,  tha  berries  of  n  middling  alaii, 
clean,  plump,  and  without  any  intennlxluro  of  alliiki 
or  other  Impurities.  Particular  care  ahoulil  lio  taken 
that  it  be  not  false  packed.  Uood  Weat  India  coffne 
should  be  of  a  greenish  color,  fresh,  free  from  any 
unpleasant  smell,  the  berries  small  and  unhrukuil, 
Coffee  berries  readily  tmbilie  exhalations  frnm  other 
bodies,  and  thereby  acquire  on  advvnlllloui  and  dla«. 
grceable  flavor.  Sugar  placed  near  coffee  will,  In  ii 
short  time,  so  impregnate  the  lierrles  and  Injure  their 
flavor,  as  to  lower  its  value  10  or  20  per  cent,  Vtr, 
Moseley  mentions  that  a  few  bags  of  pepper  on  liuard  a 
ahip  from  India  spoiled  a  whole  cargo  of  ooffae. 

"  The  roasting  of  the  berry  to  a  pro|)flr  dogros  re« 
quires  great  nicety :  the  virtue  and  agr««alilenuai  of 
the  drink  depend  upon  it;  and  both  aru  often  Injured 
by  the  ordinary  method.  Bcrnior  i»ya,  whan  Im  was 
at  Cairo,  where  coffee  is  so  much  used,  ho  was  naiured 
by  the  best  judges  that  than  yrew  »oly  two  |)wpU  In 


thai  great  oily  who  understood  bow  to  prepare  It  la  ' 
perAH'lInn,  If  It  be  underdone,  its  virturs  will  not 
ba  Imparted,  and  In  use  It  will  load  and  opprnas  the 
•toiMi'h  I  If  It  be  overdone,  it  will  yield  a  ilat,  burned, 
and  bitter  taata,  Its  virtues  will  lie  daatroynil,  and  lu 
Uia  It  will  heat  the  Imly,  and  act  aa  an  astringent." 

CultiM  alio  danules  the  drink  which  in  made  from 
tha  ooffba  berrioa,  This  Iwverage  has  been  funiillar  In 
Kurupa  for  tha  last  two  hundred  yean.  The  tint  hu- 
man lialngi  who  appear  to  have  used  the  coffee  iMrrlea 
ware  the  half  aavage  tribca  of  the  higher  Ethiopia. 
According  to  liruce,  the  lierrles  wore  first  parched  like 
any  other  grain,  bruised  Into  powder,  and  mixed  up 
wllh  any  sort  of  grease  into  paste  rolled  Into  little 
balls.  The  same  authority  declares  that  two  or  throe 
of  Ihaie  balls  were  lufUcient  to  support  a  mm  for  a 
whole  day  In  a  marauding  excuriion,  or  In  active  war 
agalnit  loma  nelghUirlng  trilie.  They  merely  pre- 
ferred Iba  roffee  lierry  to  other  grain,  became  It  fed 
1 1  hem  ai  well,  and  cheered  them  more. 

From  Ethiopia,  both  tbo  coffee  plant  and  the  use  of 
I  Its  fllilt  wore  Introduced  Into  Persia  and  Arabia,  and 
It  la  to  the  Arabs  that  we  aro  indebted  both  for  the 
tint  written  account  of  It  and  for  the  manner  of  using 
It  In  A  liquid  statu,  But  though  we  derive  the  only 
iiuthenllu  account  of  coft'oe  from  the  Arabs,  they  ad- 
mit that  they  wore  taught  by  the  Persians ;  and  It  was 
In  the  city  of  Aden,  In  Arabia,  about  the  middle  of  the 
llftgentb  century,  that  the  drinking  of  coffee  first  lio> 
came  general.  The  mufti  of  that  city  introduced  the 
custom  from  Persia ;  his  authority  gave  reputation  to 
the  practice— lawyers  began  to  drink  It — thnne  who 
liived  reading  followed  their  example — artisans  who 
were  obliged  to  work  In  the  night  did  the  lame  thing, 
as  well  ns  travelers  who  Journeyed  In  the  night  to 
avoid  tbo  beat  of  the  day.  In  short,  says  M,  Galland, 
"Ilia  wboto  Inhabitants  of  Aden  soon  becumo  drinkera 
of  coffee,  and  not  only  at  night  to  keep  them  awake, 
but  even  In  the  daytime  for  Its  other  virtues." 

Kruin  Aden  the'  taste  for  coffee  found  Its  way  to 
Mecca,  from  Mecca  to  Cairo,  from  Cairo  to  Damascus, 
from  Damnscui  to  Aleppo  and  from  Aleppo  to  Con- 
Hlantinupla )  but  it  wus  not  until  1016  that  the  use  of 
I'lillhu  found  Its  way  from  Constantinople  to  Venice. 

Ill  IU44  It  was  Introduced  to  Marseilles,  In  1662  to 
London,  and  In  l(Hi9  to  Paris. 

The  flrat  Kngllsh  author  who  mentioned  coffee  was 
llurton.  In  lila  Aiuitimy  of  Melancholy  (vol.  I.  p.  ISO), 
piilillsbed  In  1021,  thirty  years  l)efore  the  introduction 
of  tha  drink  Into  Undon.  "The  Turks,"  says  ho, 
"  liavo  a  drink  called  coffee  (for  they  use  no  wine),  so 
tuunod  of  n  lierry  as  black  as  soot  and  aa  bitter,  which 
Ibiiy  alp  up  ns  warm  as  they  can  suffer,  because  they 
find  by  exporionce  that  that  kind  of  drink  so  used  liclp- 
ntli  dlgcatlon  and  procureth  alacrity." 

It  would  be  an  error  to  Infer  that  the  mode  of  inak- 
Ing  coffee  In  Europe  nnd  Asia  is  the  same.  In  Eu- 
riiiw,  an  Infusion  or  a  decoction  of  the  roasted  berry  Is 
nil  that  Is  consumed ;  but  this  is  a  refinement  In  cook- 
ery not  ajipreclateil  In  Asia ;  there  the  custom  is  now, 
and  always  has  lieon,  different. 

A  highly  trustworthy  traveler,  Lamartine,  In  de- 
scribing  tbo  ordinary  khan  In  Palestine  and  Syria, 
My*,  "a  charcoal  fire  Is  constantly  burning  on  the 
bititrtb,  and  one  or  two  copper  coffee-pots  aro  always 
full  otlhlekfarinaeeoui  coffee,  the  habitual  refreshment 
and  only  want  of  the  Turks  and  Amhs."— Travel/  m 
Hl)rla  tmt  thu  Kail,  vol.  I.  p.  292.  A  cup  of  well-mada 
rolfte  exhilarates,  arouses,  and  keeps  awake.  It  al- 
lays hunger,  to  a  certain  oxten; ,  gives  to  the  weary  in- 
rreaaed  strength  and  vigor,  and  Imparts  a  feeling  of 
cumfbrt  and  repose.  Its  phyilological  effects  upon  tho 
ayatem,  ao  far  ns  they  have  Ixicn  scientifically  Investi- 
gated, appear  to  be  that,  while  It  makes  the  brain  more 
active.  It  soothes  the  body  generally,  makes  the  change 
and  waste  of  matter  much  slower  than  usual,  and  the 
demand  for  food  In  cooscquonoe  proportionately  leas. 


COP 


8se 


COF 


4 


AM  Umm  efflMta  an  produced  br  the  coi^oinMl  aetlon 
of  thrao  logndlcnti,  aithtr  id«ntlo«l  with,  or  •iinlUr  to, 
thoM  contaluml  in  tea.  Thers  li  •  voUtlla  oil  pro- 
duMd  during  tb«  routing ;  •  vtriaty  of  tuinlo  Mtd, 
which  ii  alio  altcrad  In  Mm*  degrm  during  the  roait- 
Ing ;  and  the  tubatance  called  thaln  or  call'oln,  which 
ia  common  to  lioth  tea  and  coflbe,  and  i>  found  In  tho 
learei  of  Onarona  <0UiKaHi  and  llfir  paraguintu,  U>lb 
UMd  lijr  the  ahoriginoi  of  South  America,  u  tea  \»  In 
the  Uld  Continent,  a  nmarltable  reiult  of  chemical  In- 
veitigatlon.  The  chemical  conititution  of  caflfaln  U 
C,.  H,.  N.  O,. 

Ooff««-trade.  The  extent  to  which  the  enltira- 
tloD  of  colKia  hai  lieen  ovrricd  in  the  britiih  potMHioni, 
the  va>t  amount  of  capital  embarked  in  plantation! 
aulted  to  iti  growth,  tho  multitude  of  handi  engaged  In 
ita  culture,  and  the  thipping  noceuarlly  employed  in 
connection  with  that  trade,  iuvett  the  article,  In  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  with  great  importance ;  while 
ai  a  lioveragc,  tho  tendency  of  which  la  to  wean  the 
community  (Vom  Indulgence  in  into^Acatiog  llquora, 
it  la  lecond  to  no  commodity  in  the  Brlttah  tarlflT. 
The  hlatory  of  the  coffiie-trade  prior  to  ISSOla  only  val- 
uable now  aa  an  ezamplo  of  a  commodity  for  which 
there  ia  a  universal  craving  among  mankind,  atnig- 
gUng  succcaafblly,  and  at  laat  triumphantly,  over  lla- 
cal  reatrlctione,  high  duties,  diffbrentlal  dutiea,  and  an 
endleaa  mau  of  antiquated  obatmctlona.  In  common 
with  other  important  neceaaariea  of  life,  It  has  now  at- 
tained to  the  natural  state  of  unrestricted  competition, 
though  it  still  puys  a  cuatoma  duty  of  three-pence  per 
pound.— E.  B. 

Tho  cultivation  of  cofTeo  mot  with  groat  sncceis  In 
St.  Domingo,  and  for  many  years  that  was  the  source 
whence  Europe  derived  ita  chief  supplies,  having  nx- 
ported  at  one  time  about  88,IJ<K)  tons,  or  about  aevon- 
ty-sl.x  million  pounds;  and  it  was  supposed  that,  had 
not  tho  revolution  broken  out  In  l'U2,  It  would  In  that 
year  liuvo  exported  4*2,000  tons,  or  about  eiglity-four 
million  pounds,  llio  devastation  by  that  event  caused 
almost  a  total  cessation  in  the  supplies.  Being  driven 
from  St.  Domingo,  its  cultnre  was  greatly  augmented 
in  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Surinam,  and  Java,  and  was  aubae- 
queutly  introduced  with  great  auccoas  into  Brazil.  Aa 
tho  culture  advanced  In  Brazil,  it  decline<l  in  Cuba,  tho 
growth  of  sugar  having  boon  found  capable  of  more 
rapid  oxteuslon  and  being  more  prolitablo.  It  was 
some  time  after  coffee  waa  first  planted  in  Brazil  l)efore 
It  became  un  article  of  export  to  any  great  extent. 

In  177-1  a  Fronclacan  firiar,  named  Villaso,  cultivated 
a  single  tree  in  the  garden  of  tne  Convent  of  St.  Anto 
nio.  Braail  waa  then  governed  by  the  Marquis  de  La- 
vadlo  aa  viceroy.  Tho  first  fruits  of  tho  tree  were  pre- 
sented to  the  marquis,  who  distributed  them  among 
the  most  respectable  planters,  explaining  to  them  the 
advantages  of  adding  another  valuable  article  to  the 
produce  of  the  country;  bnt  being  strong  in  their  prej- 
udices in  favor  of  sugar  and  indigo,  few  took  pains  to 
cultivate  It,  and  hence  its  progress  was  very  slow.  In 
1808  Don  Joaa  VI.  fled  from  Portugal  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
and  soon  after  opened  the  port  to  foreign  trade.  Tho 
annual  crop  of  coffee  then  did  not  exceed  80,000  bags 
of  160  pounds  each,  or  8,000,000  pounds.  Although  the 
revolution  in  St.  Domingo  had  overthrown  ita  culture 
there,  Cuba  and  Jamaica  continued,  to  some  extent,  to 
supply  the  trader.  In  1820  its  incrcoso  in  Brazil  had 
swelled  to  100,000  bags.  The  decrease  of  supply,  by 
the  desolation  of  St.  Domingo,  caused  it  to  reach  the 
enormous  price  of  148«.  per  cwt.,  or  nearly  87i  cents 
per  pound,  in  London,  in  the  years  1817  and  1821.  This 
great  price  stimulated  the  production  in  Brazil.  The 
fall  of  St.  Domingo  had  caused  tho  culture  of  indigo  to 
bo  transferred  to  British  India,  and  ita  culture  waa 
abandoned  in  Bracil,  with  lugar,  for  coffee.  Hence 
emancipation  in  St.  Domingo  gave  the  monopoly  of  the 
cnltiTation  and  supply  of  indl^  to  BriUiA  Indiik,  whan 
it  hM  remainad  erar  tinoa. 


In  1789,  Jaat  prayloaa  to  tha  rtrolulloa,  Hayti  ax« 
ported  70,H8i,31U  pounda  of  coffee ;  In  IHIH  we  find  th« 
exporta  dill  to  about  2A,000,(iU))  pounds,  and  at  thla 
time  they  do  not  probably  exceed  thirty  or  thirty-flva 
mllliona.  The  export  of  sugars  In  178U,  Juat  before  tha 
revolution,  reached  110,000,000  pounda.  It  has  now 
ceased,  and  tha  population  actually  import  auppliea 
from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  In  18M,  tha  yaar  in  which 
the  Emancipation  Act  want  into  affect,  Jamaica  export- 
cil  to  England, 


\l 


T 


MiiKir,  cwk . . . . 
Culwe,  pciunils . 


MHT 


1,«IW,W 
19,«M,HM» 


i>.«att.iw 


Wa  thna  find  that  tha  asporta  of  coffte  fell  off  tha 
first  five  yeara  after  ainanclpatlon  about  one-half,  and 
Bugar  nearly  In  an  eqnal  ratio.  In  Auguat,  1834,  tlia 
negroea  ware  emancipated  by  the  Engliah  government 
In  Jamaica,  which  atruck  a  death-blow  at  Its  culture 
there,  while  sugar  had  msaaurably  aupcraeded  Its  growth 
in  Cuba.  Theae  causes  combined,  with  the  unrestrict- 
ed supply  of  AfHcan  slave  lalior,  to  giro  Its  culture  a 
powerful  impulse  In  Braiil.  Ilence  we  find  by  the 
year  1880  its  crop  had  increaaed  to  400,000  baga,  or 
04,000,000  pounda.  The  alave-trade,  by  convention 
with  England,  waa  to  ceaae  in  February,  1830.  Thla 
produced  an  enomioua  import  of  slaves,  which  could 
ouly  be  disposed  of  at  low  prices  and  on  long  credits. 
This,  again,  stimulated  the  planting  of  new  estates,  and 
the  crop  rapidly  increased,  so  that  in  1840  it  actually 
reached  1,060,808  bags,  or  about  108,000,000  pounds. 
The  cultivation  being  found  profitable,  the  demand  for 
slaves  continued,  and  notwithatanding  the  attcmpta  of 
the  British  government  to  put  a  stop  to  it,  the  slave- 
trade  has  been  continually  carried  on  clandestinely  ever 
since,  tho  importations  from  Africa  having  amounted 
to  from  80,000  to  50,000  annually,  the  vessels  supplied 
for  which  having  been  chiefly  built  and  fitted  out  In 
tho  Northern  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  sailing 
under  whatever  colors  best  answered  their  purpose. 

The  increase  in  the  crop  since  1840  has  been  very 
rapid,  and  in  1847  reached  atiout  1,804,668  bags,  about 
288,88»,000  pounds.  Tho  low  prices  in  1848  and  1849 
had  a  tendency  to  check  production.  The  difflculties 
of  importing  slaves,  under  •  new  treaty  made  with 
England  in  1845,  cut  off  the  supply  so  nr  that  those 
which  wore  secretly  introduced  barely  supplied  the  an- 
nual loss,  which  was  10  per  cent.,  and  sometimes  more ; 
and  should  tha  trade  be  stopped  altogether,  as  aimed 
at  by  England,  It  will  cause  the  cultivation  of  coflbe  to 
decrease  in  Brazil,  to  become  augmented  In  the  East 
Indies,  and  especially  in  British  India :  and  should  ne- 
gro slavery  be  overthrown,  coffee  would  to  a  great  ex- 
tent follow  the  course  of  indigo,  and  bxcojie  to  some 
extent  an  article  of  British  production  and  control. 
Tho  climate  of  Brazil  ia  highly  favorable  to  the  culti- 
vation of  cofltee,  the  trees  yielding  nearly  double  those 
oftho  West  Indies. 

Tha  growth  of  Brazil,  by  1854,  reached  the  astonish- 
ing quantity  of  400,000,000  pounds,  while  the  produc- 
tion in  tho  British  West  India  Islands  has  rapidly  de- 
clined since  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1834,  ai 
will  be  Eeen  fyom  the  following  table : 

In  the  jrear  1848  the  British  West  ludln  Isl- 
ands/ielded 10,000,000  Iba 

In  tho  years  ISSa,  tt,  and  'C6,  thejr  ylslded 
only t>,000,000llis. 

Jjunaica  alone,  in  1834,  the  year  the  Enisnd- 
pation  Act  was  declared  in  the  islands, 
a.noontcdto 18,288,188  Iba. 

We  see  by  this  the  same  result  as  that  which  fol- 
lowed emancipation  iu  St.  Domingo.  Coffbe,  with  oth- 
er tropical  products,  has  fluctuated  with  the  supply,  and 
cheapness,  and  reliability  of  African  slave-labor.  If 
coolies  can  be  brought  in  under  a  voluntary  apprentice- 
ship, why  can  not  Aflricana  be  allowed  to  come  in  by 
the  aama  method,  placed  under  proper  ngnUtioiia  and 
gwnntMt  on  the  eoaat  of  AfMotf 


.i; 


COF 


'nk' 


cor 


I  astonlBb- 
ke  produc- 

»pldly  (l8- 
|iil884,** 


A.OOOni. 
M,000llil. 

b88,lS8»A 
ivUch  fol- 
1  with  0th- 
Ipply.wd 
labor.  U 
^prentice- 
lime  in  by 
LtlonKB^ 


The  •oAW^rowing  dUtrieti  of  BniU  aro/llvldeil 
lata  lb*  Herra  Abalao  (or  beluw  Ibi  mountalni)  and 
Sarra  Aciiiia  (ibove  Um  mountain*).  Tha  praduce  of 
the  formtr  li  about  on».*lxth  part  of  the  whole  crop  In 
(ood  yeara,  but  ia  mnob  mora  uncertain  than  lb*  Serra 
Aelma,  being  more  liable  to  injury  (h>m  drought,  which 
li  aaid  of  lata  yean  to  have  bean  fra<|ucnl.  The  qual- 
ity li  alio  inferior,  and  ealdoiu  thlpped  to  the  United 
Statat.  The  tmoi  uually  flower  three  tlniei  each  year, 
generally  in  AuKust,  September,  and  October,  and  are 
ready  forplckinK,  In  favorable  eeaaone,  in  March,  April, 
and  May,  with  contlderabla  variation  according  to 
tltuatlou.  In  April  imall  quantitiee  of  poor  new  cof- 
fea  appear  In  market.  In  May  and  June  the  quantity 
li  greaUr,  but  never  abundant  until  July  and  Augutt. 
The  treat  of  Serra  Aclnia  bloom  later,  but  Iho  crop  i» 
mora  nniforni,  enabling  planteri  to  gather  a  crop  at  a 
tingle  picking,  which  it  a  great  saving  of  labor.  En- 
tire cargoet  are  not  generally  obtained  from  the  Serra 
Acima  iliitrlct  until  August  and  September.  Utually 
the  euppliet  remaining  over  of  the  old  crop  are  flrtt 
tent  to  the  market  before  planters  clean  out  the  new, 
and  hence  it  is  often  at  late  at  October  and  November 
before  the  bulk  of  the  new  crop  it  In  market. 

The  cost  of  transporting  the  coffue  to  market  It  laid 
to  average  the  planter  about  two  cents  per  pound,  ow- 
ing to  imperfect  faiiiUtloa.  The  actual  cost  of  produc- 
tion is  said  to  bo  not  much  under  H  cents  per  pound, 
and  a*  negroes  are  decimated  by  cholera  and  other  dis- 
eases, without  now  Importations  are  required  to  supply 
their  placet,  negroct  mutt  advance  In  value  and  en- 
hance the  cost  of  production. 

The  Hrst  import  of  Uraxll  coffee  into  the  United 


COHTABATIVl  BtATEHINT  OF  TIIK  PaODOOTION  or  CorVKK  IK  TH»  WOILD  AT  HimBniT  PniOM. 
YEAU  aHTBBS  INTO  TIIC  (JOMSVlirTIO.t  OK  tUT,  SUCMJiaUl.Na  Ybab.) 


Statet  wat  made  In  1809,  which  eonaialad  ofiaot  baat^ 
landed  at  Salem,  by  lh«  ship  Ifat^att  <U  Somtriumt 
Hence,  within  the  brief  perlml  of  furty-eeven  years,  the 
exports  from  Urasil  have  Increased  to  the  large  aowunt 
of  400,000,000  pounds  In  18M,  and  SiH),UOO,000  la  IHM. 
From  I80»  to  184U,  or  In  a  period  of  forty  years,  the 
Imports  of  ooffiM  from  llraull  Into  the  United  States  in- 
created  from  1809  bags  to  over  100,000,000  pounds. 

For  the  Uscal  year  ending  the  COth  of  June,  IH&ft,  the 
United  States  imporud  from  Urasil  lll6,a<i0,U8a  pounds 
of  ooflba,  of  the  value  of  |II,H1A,H18;  other  UraitlUn 
produoti.  Including  some  sugars,  amounted  to  |1),408, 1 17. 

Total  Impertt tl6,91B,Ne 

Total  *>poru  lu  llnull «,WI,«T» 

IMsnoo  of  intda  ogsliiit  tbe  United  Stolas  ....  tlO.V6T,<e)l 

The  Imports  of  coffee  alone  from  Uraail  In  ]8M-'6& 
exceeded  the  exports  of  the  United  States  to  that 
oountry  by  97,5ft8,ft46. 

The  total  importation  of  coflbe  Into  tho  United  States 
for  the  year  ending  June  80th,  1H65,  amounted  to 
1UO,704,9&0  pounds,  valued  at  •10,704,260.  For  the 
year  eiuling  June,  18fi6,  the  quantity  has  been  much 
larger,  and  as  price*  have  ruled  high,  the  value  has 
been  much  greater. 

The  consumption  of  coffce  has  rapidly  Increased  with- 
in tho  psHt  twenty-tlvo  years,  the  greatest  augmenta- 
tion having  been  in  tbe  United  Slatci,  where  it  hat  av- 
eraged 7^  |)er  cent.  |ier  annum,  while  In  Europe  it  hat 
been  2^  per  cent,  per  annum,  or  at  the  rate  of  4  pet 
cent,  per  annum  for  the  world. 

We  tubmit  tho  following  table,  showing  the  pi«4«p- 
tlon  and  contumptlon  of  coflee  for  the  world  at  differ- 
ent periodt : 

(Tui  PaoDcciton  or  am 


"-itit. 

Iho. 

raj; 

Mtt. 

Umll 

Poosili. 
970,000,000 

110,000,000 

40,000,000 
40,000,000 
10,000,000 
10,000,000 

6,000,000 
96,000,000 
90,000,000 

6,000,000 

ro.i>4» 

980,000,000 

116,000,000 

46,000,000 

80,000,000 

6,000,000 
16,000,000 

6,000.i"1 
86,0(10,(1  <i 
I6.000,IMH) 

7,000,000 

Pouti. 

400,000,000 

140,000,000 

40,000,000 

16,000,(H)0 

6,000,000 

16,000,000 

6,000,000 

4o,aoo,«M 

26,000,000 
8,000,000 

Powida. 

890,000,000 

1»0,000,«00 

86,000,000 

90,000,000 

8,000,000 
16,000,000 

6,000,000 
60,000,000 
90,000,000 

9,000,000 

Java 

ChihA  and  Porto  lUco 

British  Watt  Indie* 

UoetaHlea 

Total 

640,000,000 

606,000,000 

716,000,000 

«07,000,000 

It  will  be  teen  from  this  table  that  tho  greatest  in- 
crease In  18u3  was  In  Ceylon,  a  British  East  India  pos- 
session, where  Its  future  growth  Is.to  bo  most  largely 
augmented  should  slavery  be  overthrown  in  liruzil; 
with  regard  to  which  attempts  have  already  been  mode 
by  a  memlier  of  the  Legislature.  A  bill  was  Intro- 
duced for  gradual  emancipation,  but  it,  of  course,  did 
not  pass.  The  question  arises,  If  negro  slavery  In  Ura- 
cil should  be  overthrown,  where  will  the  cultivation  of 
coffee  next  take  refuge  7  Java  can  not  materially  aug- 
ment the  supplies.  There  are  but  two  other  points, 
viz.,  Dritish  India  and  tbe  west  coast  of  Africa.  Tbe 
tree  It  a  native  of  tbe  latter  locality.  The  consumption 
of  the  world  In  time  of  peace,  and  Increased  wealth  Oom 
the  influx  of  gold,ha8  overtaken  the  labor  of  production. 
Tbe  future  consumption  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States  is  expected  to  be  materially  augmented. 

/'ranee. — In  France,  also,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the 
vintage  for  several  yean,  the  consumption  of  coffee  is 
likely  to  be  increased.  The  annexed  statement  shows 
the  present  estimated  consumption  of  tbe  world : 


United  States  and  British  provinces 910,000,000 

Oermtn  Zolvenin 110,000,000 

Austria,  snd  other  Or rmtn  sUlen 76,000,000 

Holland  and  Belgium »0,000,«)0 

France,  8wltxerlsnd,  and  Buutliem  Europe  .  125,000,000 

Oreitt  Urittin 40,000,000 

Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway 80,000,000 

RuiiU 18,000,000 

Cap*  of  OnodUope,Austndla,  and  California    16.000,000 
Total , uijmjm 


The  question  of  labor  In  the  cultivation  of  tbi*  and 
other  tropical  production*  which  have  become  com- 
mercial necessities  to  the  populations  of  the  temperate 
northern  latitudes,  which  embrace  the  largest  civilized 
portions  of  the  Human  race,  is  becoming  one  of  great 
importance.  The  growing  deficiency  must  not  only 
continue,  but  In  time  greatly  enhance  tho  prices  of 
thete  productt,  which  have  become  necessaries  of  life, 
and  tend  to  drain  the  money  fK>m  Korthem  nations.  In 
order  to  secure  them,  or,  in  otber  words,  place  them 
under  heavy  tribute  for  article*  which  are,  from  habit, 
necessary  to  their  comfort  and  well-being.  England, 
through  her  East  India  possessions,  Is,  no  doubt,  anx- 
ioua't*  secure  as  large  a  share  of  this  Iributo  oa  possl- 
ble^.  and  may,  t«  a  certain  extent,  succeed  with  iadigo, 
sugar,  and  coffee ;  but  she  has  failed,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  fail,  -in  tho  production  of  catton.  Tbe  United 
States  have  sccuredj  and  are  likely  to  keep,  and,  if 
necessary,  by  the  aid  of  England  to  back  the  South  In 
securing  this  Indispensable  production  to  her  prosper> 
ity,  as  well  as  the  prosperity  of  Europe  and  the  North- 
em  States  of  this  Union.  The  vaino  of  slaves  In  Bra- 
zil—the only  Sooth  American  state  which  boa  made 
any  great  progress,  and  that  througn  African  labor — 
has  for  several  years  steadily  increased.  Prior  to 
1880,  when  the  slave-trade  was  legal,  slaves  wert  told 
at  12011,  or  «G6.  From  1880  to  1850,  when  the  trade 
was,  under  treaties  with  England,  prohibited,  and  had 
to  be  conducted  clandestinely,  thiy  advanced  to  400||, 
or  ISaOb    Sine*  18$»,  th»  trade  having  boon  almoik 


// 


oor 

MipprwMd,  Ih*)'  kav*  (ndMUt.r  wttwutmi, 

f  lb*  ilMlaMllM  af  IV  |Mr  otbI.  r*r  Mnaa,  I* 

UMiartWt,  UIMI.    Mim  iIm%  10  ^  tMU.,  U  U 


Mrtw>t»4,  Imt«  dM  Awn  akalart.  m  tppMn  b)r  •  >•■ 

r  tlM  B«gli«,  sad  tlMV 

•M  MW  lUUd  U  Im  w*rtli  ifiOOi  or  titS  Moh.     It 


Mat  itoMMMl  af  Ik*  Mlnlttcr  of  iIm  B«gli«,  sad  tkcv 


WM  Mm  low  mIo*  of  ifaiVM  prior  ••  IMO  whlob  Mlmit- 
Utod  Um  prodMrtoB  of  ooWm,  aad  raaMd  |*<«m  Io  rult 
N  low,  wkMi  woro  la  lUft  to  IMO  not  MMh  ovor  half 
Um  pvaaant  prloaa* 

It  takai  (bar  to  flva  raara  Io  matwa  eoffta^traaa  aftar 
pUntliw  ikaM  bafcra  iMjr  will  jrlald  a  crap  af  batrUa) 
iMiiaa  ina  laddtn  rlw  or  Call  Ib  pricaa  oaa  aot  ao  aad- 
daaljr  Inttuanoa  produellon,  aa  la  tba  eaia  wilb  anaaal 
crapa  lyoai  d«w  plantatloni  of  lugar  and  cotton.  At 
tka  praaant  tima,  owing  to  tha  high  priata  of  ilavaf, 


COF 

no  aaw  aalataa  aaa  ba  bnnail,  and  noaa  ha*a  haaa  for 
•avtral  vaart  |  and  It  la  ttaltd  that  thara  ara  not  baadl 
anoagb  laft  la  tha  eaantry  ia  plah  oat  a  full  arop, 

laroata  or  Cotraa  wto  raa  I'MiiaB  ttiTaa,  IIU. 


llolUnd 8,aM,4tU 

l>*Mk  RMtla4l(a a,ul,78t 


HrtlUhCaMladlaa..  ... 

UrllUh  WMt  MIm 

(■uba 

Hajil . . . 


lUaill . 


I,<I«8,IWS 

(,nflV,IIW 

88IslM 

ft,NI,WT 

186,8«»,a«S 


AMranntrallT 4ii7,M 

OtbarpUMa »,ft47,tl8 

ToUl fSSjiSlffl* 

W><  aiwptad  by  tiaaly,  ar  nan-pud arwa. . .        714^8 


Total , I»I,478,«T 

OiNBaAL  RTAraaaitT  or  raa  Coma  T«4Db  or  ma  I'Mrm  trAtaa,  roa  na  YiAaa  18M,  lUT,  ahd  18M 


Ifn 


At  .Now  Ywk 

Al  BotloB  —  VrDin  Jaira  ) 

and  porta  In  tlia  Eait  {  M,4M 

Itttio ) 

8t  DomUun ViMlk 

AArlaa 1,140 

Otkor  fcnlgn  porta I,l7ft 

At  rklladalpbla. 

BtmU.... lOlkTM 

UOuarmandP.  Cabollo  48|6M 

■I,  DiMnlngo lt,MW 

ManMalbo a,!*! 

Otbar  (M«l(n  part* ■» 

At  laHlnera. 

Uraall 1M,TI* 

U  Ouayra  u4  P.  Cabollo  1I,IH 
Jamaica  and  Porta  Rloo. .  478 
Othor  ferolgn  porta 8^lM 

At  Now  Orloaaft 

Braall 144,784 

Caba,ate. 1,074 


At 


Total. 


-«- 


•Nal  ya^ayy. 


Tfijar 


181,1 


111,011 


Mt,ll8 


4il,54B 
70,1^08 

i;s?i;8ui 


i« 


1M,M8 


in,ON 


JM,«H 


874,708 
88,800 

i,o(ia>,«a8 


~llli~ 
•HSllli 


iit,8aT 


1W,80T 


111,4 


848,888 


TOT 


lM,u4ir 


18,440 


(,M0 


18,800 


80,700 

i»,aoo 


«44,«8» 


TTTBr 


»,B04 


88,880 


86,000 


Cli,000 

H,800 

IU8,M1 


-mr- 


88,88(1 


M,0BI 


4,800 


i«,noo 

»,»00 


IV8,S01 


(1,741 


l,48lt 


881 


8T0 


lUt. 


TTd;S»4 


•4,»T7 


184 


8,187 


14,108 
1,'ttO 


8AU0 


Tsr 


'SCM 


18,788 


146 


80fi 


188 
440 


Mior 


lui 

'       IMi 

Its*. 

Waifbtafrooripia 

K^rtad ' 

N«4i. 
ISU,M8,1M 
8,780,400 

r«m4t. 

817,871,888 
10,410,875 

n7,lM,l8« 
8,010,788 

■elalned  for  eonoumptlon 

■■  )iiiiw,t8r- 

lBOf4WlaV0v 

il»,l4B,4*S     - 

tiooE,  A*  Aix  Poata,  jAnoAar  1, 18S>. 

At  Na«  Yeib,  or  Mo bofa, 

»  ofBahU » 

•>  ofHanuaibo » 

^         »  ofJsTa " 

4>"         »  af  Jan roatu 

afLoOiia^ia km 


af  ,<,u 


"  af  StOomlnco. 

••  afJamalca. " 

«        ,  ofHanllla « 

>M>i  .Yt'ar  Porto  Mm » 

M  aflanollU » 


l,t4l 

TOO 

7,104 

»;884 

41,000 

8,818 

8,280 

1,981 

481 

800 


Total  at  Now  York pl«it  «!3J8 

At  Boilan--JaTa,  St.  Domingo,  ale.     "  VUSf, 

Now  Orioana-Braall >>  8<I,S00 

•▼>     PMIadolpbls-Br^cH,  Ota, »  tO,OB4 

:•'-     BaUlawn— BraalL  al«. '>  4,000 

Othor  porta— Bnab,  ate. "  l>,»W 

Total "  iEIioi 

Total ponndi.  10,488,084 

aioek  Jaaiiary  1, 1808 »  ei,0!i8,t«0 

DaereaM •>  j»,l<M,4H 

The  abova  tablea  show  that  tha  toUl  racaipta  In  tha 
Unlttd  Statra  for  the  year  endlag  Daoamber  81,  18M, 
ware  1,681,239  packagea,  weighing  237,650,186  pounda, 
againit  recelpta  io  1867  of  1,605,088  packagea,  or 
317,871,831  pounda ;  i(hlle  the  eoniumptlon  ia  1868 
Waa  361,266,099  poanda,  againat  a  eonaumption  In  1857 
of  172,666,984  poanda,  being  tiie  very  eonaidemble  in- 
eraaaa  of  about  46  par  cant.  It  will  be  obaarvad  that 
IMt  only  bare  tba  whole  rcoaipta  tha  part  year  been 
Abaorbod,  but  tha  ate«k  baa  bew  redncad  moio  than 


twanty-flve  million  ponnda.  Thla  nnexampled  eon- 
iumptlon It  accounted  for  liy  tBe  fact  that,  during  the 
laat  quarter  of  1867,  the  buiineia  In  thla,  ai  well  a> 
most  other  articlei,  waa  var}-  limited.  The  levare  re- 
vnlaion  of  that  year  baring  for  •  time  annihilated  cred- 
it, and  occailoned  a  rery  great  acareity  of  money,  atocki 
in  diitributlng  Handa  throughout  tha  country  became 
reduced  to  a  very  low  ebb ;  conaequently,  the'quantitv 
withdrawn  tnm  the  ports  for  the  past  year,  though 
nominally  abowing  the  consumption  of  but  13  montha, 
Is  In  reality  the  consumption  of  at  least  16  months. 
The  annexed  statement  shows  the  recelpta  and  con- 
sumption ftir  the  past  eight  yean : 


v««. 

BMl,*.. 

IfiOO 

POMHll. 

189,080,810 
118,048,870 
100,041,800 
l«8,llt,S00 
18>,478,88S 
•88,114,088 
180,018,180 
117,871,88* 

n7,eo8,i8< 

Poimdi. 
184,089,786 
18I,1«ii,7a0 
104,001,000 
176,687,7m 
m,4«l,088 
110,878,187 
1tR,i10,4M 
171,086,984 
1M,2B6,09» 

1861 

1801 

1868 

1804 

ISOB 

18B8 

1887 

1808 

being  an  average  annual  income  of  about  11  per  oent. 
Included  in  this  statement  Is  the  quantity  withdrawn 
from  our  markets,  and  forwarded  inland  Io  Canada 
and  tha  British  Provlncea ;  we  are  unable  to  aacartain 
the  exact  amount,  btit  it  doaa  not  vary  greatly  from 
2^380,000  pounda.      


cor 


889 


COI 


146 


Oofb«-ko«aMk  TIm  flnl  in  KnirUnd  wu  k»fi 
hy  ■  Jaw,  Damtd  .iKolit,  In  ()xr»r<l,  IMO.  la  that 
v««r,  Mr.  K<lwai4i,  an  KanlUli  'I'urkajr  mtrehant, 
liroUKhl  haaia  wUfc  hlia  a  tlrcak  aarrant  namad  Paa- 
<|u«t,  who  kept  (ba  flrat  h»uu  fur  niakInK  colTaa  In 
UtniUm,  wblch  ka  apamtd  In  (ieorga-.vanl,  Ixnnbanl 
Htrnal,  In  lAM.  Paiquat  aflnrwanl  wmt  to  Holland, 
•nd  uptnad  lh«  Drat  liouaa  In  that  coiiiilrv. — Ahdrh- 
•nn.  'I'ha  llaililiow  <'iiltw-hoiia«,  linar  j'«mpl«-liar, 
waa  rcprfoanlMi  aa  a  niilaanoa  to  th«  nrl||blmrhoad, 
1IU7.  CalTta-houaM  were  auppraaand  iiy  prmilania- 
tlun,  20  (Jkarlea  II.,  1076.  'lb*  pruolamatloa  waa 
aflarward  iua|Mndail  en  tlia  potltiou  of  Iha  tradara  In 
Ua  and  ceffaa.— 1I.\yi>n. 

OOflit-dam.  In  arrhltactiira  and  hrldKo-hnlldlniTi 
■  caaa  of  pUlnjt,  watar-tJKht,  tUml  In  the  bed  of  a  river 
for  tiia  purpoaa  of  la.vlnR  tha  Irattom  dry  for  a  npana 
latK*  anoiiKh  to  build  Iha  pier  on,  CulTur-dami  am 
formed  In  varloua  way*,  either  liy  aalngle  Inrloanraor 
a  donbla  ana,  witk  clay  or  chalk  rammed  In  lietwaan 
Iha  Iwo  to  pravant  tka  water  from  comiiiK  throuRh  th« 
•Ida*.  They  ara  alao  made  either  with  piliia  only, 
driven  cloia  toK«tlier,  and  aometlmea  notched  or  dove- 
tailed Into  one  another;  or,  If  tha  water  ia  not  very 
deep,  liy  pllea  driven  at  a  jllatanoe  of  live  nr  nix  feet 
ftroni  euvh  other,  and  grooved  In  tha  aldea,  wl'  larda 
let  daw  n  betwaan  tkani  In  tha  Rroovea.  In  order  to 
build  In  eoffar-damt  a  very  Kood  natural  bottom  of 
iolid  earth  or  clay  U  required ;  for  though  tha  tidai  be 
miula  wat«r>tl||ht,  If  the  bad  of  the  rivar  be  of  a  looae 
conilitonra,  tha  water  will  ooxe  up  through  it  In  too 
great  a  quantity  to  pamill  the  o|Hirutiona  tu  Ihs  curried 
on.  It  la  nlinoKt  needleaa  to  mmark  that  the  ■bleu 
Blunt  bo  very  utroug,  an<l  wall  lirarad  In  the  liulde  to 
reaiat  the  proMure  of  tho  ambient  water. — Ht'TToti'R 
7VaWt,  vol.  I. 

Ooflliw.  Tha  Athenian  heroea  wer«  bnriad  in  cof- 
flna  of  the  cadar-tree,  owing  to  ita  aromatic  and  in- 
oormptlliie  qualltiea. — TiiucroinKa.  Cofflna  of  mar* 
ble  and  atone  were  uaed  by  the  Bomana.  Alexander 
la  laid  t»  have  been  buried  In  one  of  gold ;  and  glaaa 
cofHua  huv-e  liKon  found  in  Knglnnd. — (iouciii.  The 
aarliesi  rerord  of  w<w>den  colHna  in  Kngland  ia  that  of 
the  barial  of  King  Arthur,  who  waa  buried  in  an  entire 
tmnkofoak,  hollowed,  A.  II.  M'2.— AgitKit.  Tha  patent 
eufflna  were  invented  In  1796.— U^vdn. 

CoglMO  (Cimaeum,)  a  commune  ami  ^own  of  Frant.«, 
capital  of  arrondiuement,  department  of  Charento,  31 
milea  weat  from  Angoulume,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  C!ha- 
renta.  Population  4  Uf).  Ithaaanoldcaatle,inwhich 
Francis  I.  wat  Iwrn.  It  U  the  entrepot  of  the  brandy 
of  the  Cbnrento,  to  which  it  givea  ita  name,  and  which 
forma  tke  object  of  a  very  extentive  commerce.  Manu- 
facturca,  eartben-ware  and  paper. 

CoilMr  places  of  metal,  moat  commonly  gold,  silver, 
or  copper,  imprcaaed  with  a  public  stamp,  and  fre- 
quently made  legal  tender  in  payment  of  debts,  either 
to  a  limited  or  an  unlimited  extant.  When  the  pre- 
oloua  metals  Oral  began  to  be  used  aa  money,  or  aa 
standards  by  which  to  measure  the  value  of  diiferent 
articles,  and  the  cquivulents  for  which  they  were  moat 
commonly  exrhan^ed,  they  wore  in  sr  unfashioned 
State,  in  bars  or  ingots.  The  parties  having  agreed 
upon  the  qnantity  of  metal  to  be  given  for  a  commod- 
ity, the  exact  amount  waa  then  asceilained  by  weight. 
But  It  is  obvious  that  a  practice  of  this  sort  must  have 
been  attended  with  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  incoit- 
venlence.  There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that 
the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  use  of  unfiishloned  metals 
a*  money  would  ba  found  in  the  difficulty  of  determin- 
ing their  quality,  or  the  degree  of  their  purity,  with 
anfflcient  precision.  The  operation  of  asunying  is  one 
of  great  nicety  and  difficulty ;  and  could  not  be  per- 
formed in  the  early  ages  otherwise  than  in  a  clumsy, 
tedious  and  inaccurate  manner.  It  is,  Indeed,  most 
pTolwbls  that  when  the  precious  metals  were  first  used 
••  money  tbeii  quality  would  b«  appnoiated  only  by 


Iheir  weigkl  m4  aaiw,  A  Tt«v  almft  ai|i 
would,  kowavar,  ba  saMoleal  ia  aMW  tka  aalMMt  l» 
\xactnaaa  of  oonelnalona  darivod  ftani  aaak  kNMa  m4 
nnaalUfiMlary  erMaria  |  and  Iha  davMafl  of  smim  hm<Ii> 
od  by  wblch  Iha  llaanaaa  uf  Iha  nMtal  MtfliM  Iw  aaatif 
and  rornrtly  asrartainad  would  vary  a«M  b*  Ml  M 
indispanaabla  to  Iha  Ronanl  uaa  of  ■■ild  aMt  allvw  M 
mimay.  Hueh  •  mathod  waa  not  loim  In  pfasMMlag 
itaalf :  II  waa  aarlv  disrovarad  Ibal,  to  woaflalii  ||m 
purity  of  tha  maui,  and  al«i  to  avoid  tha  Iraubb  mi4 
expanse  of  weighing  It,  no  mora  waa  naaassary  Mmm 
to  mark  aarh  piera  with  a  <<>im;)  da«larln|  lla  waIgM 
and  fineness.  Thia  invantinn  waa  mada  M  •  vary 
early  period.  According  to  Hanidolua,  Iha  LydUM 
were  tha  first  who  ooinad  money.— /.M,  I,  (,  94,  (Nkar 
ancient  aulhora  aay  that  Iha  art  of  ralnlnf  was  In* 
vented  during  tha  period,  when  Hatum  and  ■laiiNS 
reigned  in  Italy ;  thai  Is,  In  a  iierbHl  anlaaadsnl  la 
authentic  history.— (lotiitKT,  l>»l'l)riyt»tdM  lieis,  rt«, 
tome  I.  p.  M7, 

MrlaiuMid  m  th«  Unniifiwlur*  nf  fVaa,— i  lafttfa  tha 
artofnielsllurgy  was  well  undurstnod,  IhalNkarnialalt 
were  ftrtqiiently  used  as  luiiney,  Iron  was  tha  primk 
live  money  of  tho  l^r«da>mniiians,  and  rappar  of  Iha 
Romans,  Hut  both  iron  nnd  uuppar  daiarlorala  by 
being  kept ;  and  besides  this  dnfai't,  Iha  ra|ild  lmtirova> 
mvnt  of  tha  arts,  by  lowering  their  |iri«a,  randarad  Ihalf 
bulk  too  great  In  proportion  to  tlisir  value  to  parmtl 
of  their  continuing  to  ba  used  aa  money ,  ('oppar,  !»• 
deed,  is  still  used,  In  the  forninf  tokana  eunvarllbla 
into  silver.  In  ver}'  small  payments,  In  Kngland^ 
copper  pence  and  halftMuee  ara  ratad  at  alwut  73  pof 
cent,  above  their  real  value;  but  aa  thair  laaua  la  *n» 
clusively  in  the  hands  of  government,  and  aa  thay  on 
only  legal  tender  to  the  extent  of  ona  tkUling  In  any 
ona  payment,  thia  over-valuation  Is  not  [miducilva  cf 
any  l>ad  eflect.  The  use  of  copper  In  uthar  euantrlM 
Is  ilmltad  In  much  the  same  way ;  gold  and  silvar  liainf 
every  whore  the  only  metals  made  uaa  of  In  Iha  iiianil* 
factura  of  the  coins  used  In  oonsldarabia  iwymanls. 

Standard  of  Cuint. — By  tha  alaiulard  of  a  miln  U 
meant  the  degree  of  its  purity  and  its  weight ;  that  la, 
the  fineness  of  the  metal  of  which  it  is  miiiln  and  Ilia 
quantity  of  metal  cunlnliiad  In  It.  Hilmir  Mni,—K 
pound  Troy,  or  13  ounces,  of  the  metal  of  whiah  Kn- 
glish  silver  coins  are  made,  containa  11  u«,  I  dwi*. 
pure  ailver,  and  18  dwts,  alloy.  This  pound  Is  «oln«4 
into  60  shillings;  so  that  each  shilling  loiitalns  MO'7>7 
grains  fine  silver,  and  87*37  grains  standard  silvar  | 
and  the  money  pound,  consisting  of  tH)  shillings,  con. 
tains  ieU-M6  grains  pure  silver,  and  171ft'4M  gralni 
standard  silver.  From  1000  down  to  IHlfl,  Iha  (MHind 
weight  of  standard  silver  bullion  was  culnad  into  itS 
shillings.  All  tho  English  silver  coins  hava  liaan 
coined  out  of  silver  of  11  os.  3  dwts,  fine,  frnni  Iha 
Conquest  to  this  moment,  except  for  the  short  period 
of  16  years,  from  the  84th  Henry  VIII.  to  the  2d  KlU*. 
beth.  OM  Coi'fM.— The  purity  of  gold  Is  not  aatlmalod 
by  ths  weights  commonly  in  use,  but  by  an  AbywlRhlll 
weight  called  a  carol.  The  carnts  ure  sulHlivldad  Into 
four  parts,  called  grains,  and  these  again  Into  quaN 
ters ;  so  that  a  carat  grain,  with  res|iect  In  Iha  cam* 
mon  divisions  of  a  pound  Troy,  la  equlvalant  to  1^. 
dwts.  Gold  of  the  highest  degree  of  fineness,  uf  pura, 
is  said  to  be  34  carats  fine.  When  gold  coins  wtra 
first  made  at  the  English  Mint,  the  standard  of  Iba 
gold  put  in  them  was  of  38  carats  8^  grains  Una  and  { 
grain  alloy;  and  so  It  continued,  without  any  varia> 
lion,  to  the  18th  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  in  that  yaiir 
first  introduced  a  new  standard  of  gold  of  22  oarat* 
fine,  and  2  carats  alloy.  The  first  of  these  standirdi 
was  called  the  old,  and  the  second  the  now  standard, 
or  crown  gold ;  because  crowns,  or  pieces  of  Iha  valtia 
uf  6f.,  were  first  coined  of  this  new  standard.  Ilnnry' 
VIII.  made  his  gold  coins  of  iioth  ths«a  standards  l..» 
der  different  denominations;  and  this  practice  WM 
continued  by  his  succeasora  until  1688.     Viam  (hat 


COI 


840 


COI 


period  to  the  present,  the  gold  of  which  the  eoini  of 
England  hiive  been  nude  has  been  invariably  of  the 
new  standard,  or  crown  gold ;  though  some  of  the  coini  , 


\  which  they  an  made,  or  both.     Or^naUy  the  '■Mm 
of  all  countries  seem  to  have  had  the  same  denomina- 
>  I  tion  as  the  weights  commonly  used  in  them,  and  con- 
made  of  the  old  standard,  previonaly  to  1688,  contin-   tained  the  exact  quantity  of  the  preciouu  metals  indi- 
nad  to  circnUte  till  1732,  when  they  were  forbidden  '  cated  by  their  name.     Thus  the  laknt  was  a  weiglit 
to  be  any  longer  current.  j  used  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  GreeliB,  the  <u  or 

VariatioM  of  the  SUmiiard. — The  value  of  all  sorts    ponilo  by  the  Romans,  the  /trr«  by  the  French,  nnd 


of  property  being  estimated,  and  the  stipulations  in 
■Imoat  all  contracts  for  its  purchase,  sale,  or  hire,  being 
made  in  money  or  coins,  it  is  plain  that  no  change  can 
take  place  in  the  value  of  such  money  or  coins  without 
virtually  subverting  these  estimates  and  contracts,  and 
enriching  the  debtor  portion  of  society  at  the  expense 
of  the  crr.litor  portion,  or  vict  vena.  As  the  cost  of 
producing  nil  commodities  is  liable  to  vary,  from  ini> 
provementa  in  the  arts,  the  exhaustion  of  the  present 
or  the  discovery  of  new  sources  of  supply,  none  cm 
be  selected  to  serve  as  money  or  coin  that  may  not 
yary  in  ita  real  value.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
the  precious  metals  vary  less  than  any  material  that 
could  be  suggested.  And  with  the  exception  of  the 
extraordinary  fall  in  their  value  caused  by  the  discov- 
ery of  the  American  mines,  it  seems  to  have  been  re- 
markably constant  at  other  periods.  But  in  addition 
to  the  fluctuations  naturally  inherent  in  the  value  of 
coins,  arising  from  variations  in  the  cost  of  the  metal 
of  which  they  are  made,  their  standard  has  been  re- 
peatedly changed.  Notwithstanding  that  money  or 
coin,  from  its  bein);  universally  used  as  a  scale  by 
which  to  compute  tlie  value  of  all  commodities,  and 
•s  the  equivijent  for  which  they  are  commonly  ex- 
changed, is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  measures 
used  in  society,  and  should,  consequently,  be  preserved 
as  invariable  as  possible,  there  is  none  that  has  been 
10  frequently  altered.  Tlio  necessities  or  extrava- 
gance of  governments  have  forced  them  to  Irarrow; 
and  to  relieve  themselves  of  the  incumbrances  thus 
contracted,  they  have  almost  universally  had  recourse 
to  the  disgraceful  expedient  of  degrading  the  coin; 
that  is,  of  cheating  those  who  lent  them  money,  to  the 


the  pound  by  the  English  and  Scotch;  and  the  coins 
originally  in  use  in  Ureece,  Italy,  France,  and  En- 
gland, bore  the  same  names,  and  weighed  precisely  a 
talent,  a  pondo,  a  livre,  and  a  pound.  The  standard 
has  not,  however,  been  preserved  inviolate,  either  in 
modem  or  ancient  times.  It  has  lieen  less  degraded 
in  England  than  any  where  else ;  but  even  there  the 
quantity  of  silver  in  a  pound  sterling  is  less  than  the 
third  part  of  a  pound  weight — the  quantity  it  contain- 
ed in  1300.  In  France,  the  livre  current  in  1789  con- 
tained less  than  one  tixtg-nxth  part  of  the  silver  im- 
plied in  its  name,  and  which  it  had  actually  contained 
previous  to  1108.  In  Spain,  and  some  other  countries, 
the  degradation  has  been  carried  still  farther.  From 
1296  to  13S5,  the  coins  of  England  and  Scotland  were 
of  the  same  weight  and  purity ;  but  at  the  last-men- 
tioned epoch  the  standard  of  Scotch  money  was  for 
the  first  time  sunk  he\o\i  that  of  England ;  and  by 
successive  degradations,  the  value  of  Scotcn  money, 
at  the  union  of  the  crowns  in  1600,  was  only  a  twelfth 
part  of  the'  value  of  the  English  money  of  the  same 
denomination.  It  remained  at  this  point  till  the  union 
of  the  kingdoms  canceled  the  separate  coinage  of  Scot- 
land. The  gold'  and  silver  coins  of  Ireland  have  been 
for  a  considerable  period  the  same  as  those  of  Great 
Britain ;  but,  until  1826,  they  were  nominally  rated 
8^  per  cent,  higher.  This  diflerence  of  valuation, 
which  was  attended  with  considerable  inconveniences, 
was  put  an  end  to  by  the  act  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  79,  which  as- 
similated the  currency  throughout  the  empire.  The 
tables  annexed  to  this  article  contain  all  the  informa- 
tion that  can  be  desired  by  mercantile  men  with  re- 
spect to  the  weight,  fineness,  etc. ,  of  English  and  Scotch 


•stent  of  the  degradation,  and  of  enabling  every  other   gold  and  silver  coins,  from  the  earliest  periods  to  the 


debtor  in  their  dominions  to  do  the  same. 

The  ignorance  of  the  public  in  remote  ages  facili- 
tated this  species  of  fraud.  Had  the  names  of  the 
coins  been  changed  when  the  quantity  of  metal  con- 
tained in  them  was  diminished,  there  would  have  been 
no  room  fcr  misapprehension.  But  although  the  weight 
of  tho  coins  was  undergoing  perpetual,  and  their  pu- 
rity occasional,  reductions,  their  ancient  denomina- 
tions werj  almost  uniformly  preserved ;  and  the  peo- 
ple, who  saw  the  same  names  still  remaining  after  the 
iubstanca  was  diminished — who  saw  coins  of  a  certain 
weight  and  fineness  circulate  under  the  names  of  flor- 
ins, livres,  dollars,  and  pounds ;  and  who  saw  them  con- 
tinue to  circulate  as  such,  after  both  their  weight  and 
the  degree  of  their  fineness  had  been  lessened — began 
to  think  that  they  derived  their  value  more  from  the 
ttamp  affixed  to  them  by  the  authority  of  government 
than  from  the  quantity  of  precious  metals  they  contain- 
ed. This  was  long  a  very  prevalent  opinion.  But  the 
rise  of  prices  which  invariably  followed  every  reduc- 
tion of  the  standard,  and  the  derangement  that  was 
thereby  occasioned  in  every  pecuniary  transaction,  un- 
leceived  the  public,  and  taught  them  and  their  rulers 
the  expediency  of  preserving  the  standard  of  money 
inviolate. 

The  standard  may  be  r.-duccd  by  simply  raising  the 
denomination  of  tlw  coin ;  by  ordering,  for  example, 
that  a  half-sovereign  should  pass  for  a  sovereign,  and 
the  latter  for  a  double  sovereign,  etc.  If  injustice  be 
resolved  upon,  this  is  the  least  mischievous  way  in 
which  it  can  be  perpetrated,  inasmuch  as  it  saves  all 


present  moment. 

J/ in/,  or  Government  Valuaticin  nf  Gold  and  Silver 
Coins. — If  both  gold  and  silver  coins  be  made  legal 
tenders,  it  is  obviously  indispensable  that  their  value 
with  respect  to  each  other  should  be  fixed  by  author- 
ity; or  that  it  should  be  declared  that  individuals 
shall  be  entitled  to  discharge  the  claims  upon  them  by 
payments,  either  of  gold  or  silver  coins,  according  to 
some  regulated  proportion.  The  practice  of  making 
both  metals  legal  tenders  was  long  adopted  in  England. 
From  1267  to  16G4,  the  value  of  gold  coins  was  regu- 
lated by  proclamation  ;  or,  which  is  thf  same  thing,  it 
was  ordered  that  the  gold  coins  then  current  should  Ic 
taken  as  equivalent  to  certain  specified  sums  of  silver. 
From  1664  down  to  1717,  the  relation  of  gold  to  silver 
was  not  fixed  by  authority ;  and  silver  being  then  the 
only  legal  tender,  the  value  of  gold  coins  fluctuated, 
according  to  the  fluctuations  in  the  relative  worth  of 
tho  metals  in  the  market.  But  in  1717  the  ancient 
practice  was  again  reverted  to;  and  it  was  fixed  that 
the  guinea  should  be  taken  as  the  equivalent  of  21«., 
and  conversely.  •  But  the  value  of  each  of  the  precious 
metals  is  liable  to  perpetual  change.  And  hence,  how 
accurately  soever  their  proportional  value,  as  fixed  by 
the  Mint  regulations,  may  correspond  with  the  propor- 
tion which  they  actually  bear  to  each  other  in  the  mar- 
ket when  the  regulation  is  made,  the  chances  arc  ten 
to  one  that  it  will  speedily  cease  to  express  their  rela- 
tion to  each  othor.  But  the  moment  that  such  a  change 
taket  place,  it  tjecomes  the  obvious  interest  of  every 
one  who  has  a  payment  to  make  to  make  it  in  the 


the  trouble  and  expense  of  a  rceoinage.  But  as  it  ren-  ,  oterta'.ued  metal ;  which,  consequently,  becomes  the 
ders  the  fraud  obvious  and  glaring,  it.haa  rarely  been  I  sole,  or  nearly  tho  sole,  currency  of  the  country, 
lesorted  to;  and  most  reductions  have  been  effect-  Henco  the  reason  why  the  coins  of  some  countries  are 
•d  either  by  diminishing  the  weight  of  the  coins,  or  ;  almost  wholly  of  silver,  and  others  almost  wholly  of 
by  iBCTMsing  the  proportion  of  alloy  in  the  metal  of  { gold.     It  it  estimated,  for  example,  that  when  it  was 


ecM 


S41 


COI 


fixed,  in  1717,  that  the  guinea  oliould  exchange  for 
21*.,  gold  was  overvalued  aa  compared  with  silver  to 
tile  extent  of  1  19-81  per  cent. ;  and  u  the  real  value 
of  silver  with  respect  to  gold  continued  to  increase 
during  the  greater  part  of  last  century,  the  advantage 
of  paying  iu  gold  in  preference  to  silver  became  more 
decided,  and  ultimately  led  to  the  unlvemal  use  of  gold 
iu  all  large  payments,  and  to  the  fusion  or  exportation 
of  all  jilver  coins  of  full  weight. 

In  France,  a  different  valuation  of  the  metals  has 
had  a  different  effect  Previous  to  the  recoinage  in 
1785,  the  Ijouii  iTor  was  rated  in  the  Mint  proportion 
at  only  24  livres,  when  it  was  really  worth  2a  livrcs  10 
sols.  Those,  therefore,  who  should  have  discharged 
the  obligations  they  had  contracted  by  payments  of 
gold  coin  instead  of  silver  would  plainly  have  lost  1 
livre  10  sols  on  every  sum  of  24  livres.  In  conse- 
quence very  few  such  payments  were  made ;  gold  was 
almost  entirely  banished  from  circulation,  and  silver 
liecame  almost  the  only  species  of  metallic  money  used 
in  France.  In  1816,  however,  a  new  system  was  adapt- 
ed in  Great  Britain ;  it  lieing  then  enacted  (56  Geo.  III. 
c.  68)  that  gold  coins  only  should  be  legal  tender  in  allpny- 
menls  I'Jmnrt  thanforiy  $hiUinr/»,  The  pound  of  silver 
bullion,  that  had  previously  been  coined  into  sixty-two 
shillings,  was  then  also  coined  into  sixty-six  shillings, 
the  additional  ^ui*  sbillinga  tteing  retained  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  a  tetgnorape  or  duty  (amounting  to  6  14-31 
per  cent.)  upon  the  coinage.  To  prevent  the  silver 
coins  from  becoming  redundant,  government  has  re- 
tained the  power  to  issue  them  iu  its  own  hands. 
Under  these  regulations,  silver  has  ceased  to  be  a 
standard  of  value,  and  forms  merely  a  subordinate  or 
sulisidiary  species  of  currency  or  cbinge,  occupying 
the  same  place  in  relation  to  gold  that  copper  occupies 
in  relation  to  itself.  This  system  has  been  found  'r, 
answer  exceedingly  well.  A  good  deal  of  differenc.^ 
of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  whether  gold  or  silver 
coins  are  best  fitted  for  l>eing  made  legal  tender.  It 
does  not  seem  that  the  one  possesses  any  very  striliing 
advantage  over  the  other ;  none,  certainly,  that  woiid 
justify  a  change  after  a  selection  had  beei)  made  and 
acted  upon  for  any  consideral)le  period,  Down  to  1626, 
a  scignorage  or  duty  upon  the  coinage  was  usually 
cliarged  upon  the  gold  and  silver  coins  issued  by  the 
Mint;  and  it  may  be  easily  shown  that  the  imposition 
of  such  a  duty,  when  it  is  not  carried  to  an  undue 
height,  is  advantageous.  A  coin  is  more  useful  than 
a  piece  of  uncoined  bullion  of  the  same  weight  und  pu- 
rity ;  the  coinage  fitting  it  for  Iwing  used  as  money, 
while  it  does  not  unfit  it  for  being  used  for  any  other 
purpose.  When,  therefore,  a  duty  or  seignoi;age  is  laid 
upon  «oin  equal  to  the  expense  of  coinage,  it  circulates 
at  its  real  value  ;  but  when  this  charge  is  defrayed  by 
the  public,  it  circulates  at  leti  than  its  real  value,  and 
is  consequently  either  melted  down  or  exported  when- 
ever there  is  any  demand  for  bullion  in  the  arts,  or  any 
fall  in  the  exchange.  It  is,  indeed,  true,  that  were  a 
soignorage  to  be  laid  on  gold  coins,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary, to  prevent  an  enhancement  of  the  value  of  the 
currency,  that  their  weight  should  be  proportionally 
reduced ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  better,  perhaps,  to  let 
them  remain  on  the  present  footing.  But  when  a  seign- 
orage  was  laid  on  the  silver  coins  in  1810,  it  was  not 
necessary  to  take  the  circumstance  now  alluded  to  into 
consideration ;  for  as  they  were  made  subordinate  to 
gold,  and  were  intended  to  serve  as  change  merely,  its 
imposition  had  no  tendency  to  raise  the  value  of  the 
currency,  at  the  same  time  that  it  was  calculated  ef- 
fectually to  prevent  the  fusion  of  the  coins  and  to  yield 
a  small  revenue  to  government. 

Current  Coin ;  lnt$  by  wear. — From  very  careful  inves- 
tigations made  by  the  officers  of  the  British  Mint  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  last  century,  It  was  found  that 
78  l-IO  silver  shillings,  taken  as  a  fair  average  from 
all  tliote  then  in  circulation,  were  required  to  make 
1  lb.  Troy ;  whereai  <2  is  the  number  when  new.  Eleven 


years  afterward  another  fair  average  was  taken,  and 
another  examination  made,  when  it  was  found  that 
82  9-40  shillings  were  required  to  make  a  pound.  Rot 
this  diminution  of  weight  is  excessive,  and  is  not  like- 
ly to  ira  exhibited  by  the  lesn-wom  and  more  frequent- 
ly renewed  silver  coinage  of  the  present  day.  Still  it 
is  unquestionable  that  the  gold  and  silver  coins  are 
exposed  to  daily  wear  and  diminution.  The  British 
government  requested  Mr,  Cavendish  and  Mr.  Hatch- 
ett,  two  distinguished  fellows  of  the  Koy  al  Society,  to 
make  an  extensive  investigation  respecting  the  power 
of  metals  to  resist  fHction ;  and  their  results  are  high- 
ly curious.  They  made  various  alloys  of  silver,  cop- 
per, platina,  iron,  tin,  lead,  t>ismutb,  manganese,  nickel, 
cobalt,  line,  antimony,  and  arsenic,  with  gold ;  they 
rubbed  plates  of  different  kinds  of  metal  over  each 
other  half  a  million  times,  to  determine  which  resist 
friction  best ;  and  they  rotated  similar  pieces  among 
each  other  in  a  barrel.  The  effects  were  such  as  to  re> 
fleet  no  little  credit  on  those,  whoever  they  were,  who 
established  the  standard  of  English  gold  coin ;  for  the 
English  standard  (22  gold  to  2  alloy)  and  the  quality 
of  the  alloy  (silver  and  copper  combined)  were  found 
about  the  best  of  all  the  combinations  sulijected  to  ex- 
periment. In  1807  the  Mint  otBcers,  wishing  to  ascer- 
tain how  much  the  current  coin  hnd  actually  lost  by 
wear,  selected  at  random  one  thousand  good  guineat 
from  a  broker,  and  found  that  they  had  lost  on  an  aver- 
ago  \9s.  per  cent,  in  value.  A  hundred  guineas  from 
a  shop-keeper's  till  had  lost  22<,  per  cent.  Two  hundred 
hulf-guineascxbibited  a  loss  of  42«.  per  cent. — the  small- 
er coins  being  subjected  to  more  severe  wear  than  the 
larger.  Mr.  Jacob,  a  great  authority  on  the  snbjectof 
precious  metals,  stated  it  as  his  opinion  that,  taking  the 
average  of  all  the  goldcoins  in  this  country,  and  an  aver- 
age of  ail  the  hard  usage  to  which  the  coins  are  exposed, 
each  one  bears  an  annual  loss  of  about  1-900  by  fric- 
tion, which  is  a  little  more  than  a  farthing  in  tlie  pound. 
la  silver  coins  the  loss  is  supposed  to  be  five  or  six 
times  greater,  owing  to  the  more  unceasing  circulation 
of  silver  than  gold,  and  to  the  less  fitness  of  the  metal 
to  heiLT  friction.  The  matter  may  be  stated  thus :  put 
900  new  sovereigns  and  900  new  shillings  into  average 
ordinary  circulation  ;  in  twelve  months'  time  the  for- 
mer will  be  worth  atiout  899,  and  the  latter  about  894. 

"  Recent  Coins  ufthe  World. — A  coin,  once  set  in  cir- 
culation, retains  its  place  and  use  longer  than  any 
other  part  of  the  machinery  of  life,  and  is  extremely 
slow  in  going  out  of  fashion ;  so  that  the  information 
respecting  it  which  the  dealer,  the  collector,  and  the 
public  at  large  require,  does  not  soon  become  obsolete. 

"  Pieces  are  current  among  us  a  full  century  old ;  and 
all  that  space  of  time  is  included  in  the  history  of  coin- 
age, contained  in  our  large  mantuil.  But  new  coins, 
or  modifications  of  old  ones,  are  continually  appear- 
ing ;  and  in  the  latter  case,  it  often  happens  that  the 
holder  finds  he  has  become,  if  we  may  so  speak,  an 
unconscious  sufferer.  Old  names  are  retained,  but 
essential  properties  arc  altered ;  and  a  new  progeny  of 
douliloons,  dollars,  francs,  or  shillings,  is  found  by  an 
aKsaycr's  scrutiny  to  be  something  different,  most  like- 
ly inferior,  to  the  older  stock.  Keeping  a  steady  watch 
on  these,  as  it  is  impliedly  our  duty,  we  have  collected 
a  number  of  items  which,  as  in  cur  former  publication, 
will  be  set  forth  in  alphal>etical  order,  and  a*  briefly 
as  possible." — Manual  of  Coins,  by  EcKrsLDT  and  Do 
Boi8, 

The  weight  is  expressed  in  grains,  and  the  fineneti 
in  thousandth  parts, 

Belgimn.—(io\ii  coin,  25  francs;  a  new  denomina- 
tion :  1848  is  the  earliest  date  noticed.  It  expresses 
on  its  reverse  the  intended  standards,  7'915  grammes 
(equal  to  1'2212  Troy  grains),  900  fine.  The  average 
of  twenty  pieces  tried  is  121-9,  fineness  899 ;  value 
t4  72.  This  is  a  slight  depredation :  it  ought  to  be 
$4  79,  to  compare  with  the  former  series  of  Belgian 
gold  coin,  or  $4  81,  to  be  equivalent  with  the  Frenob. 


Gor 


Uf 


cot 


Wa  noties  alM,  in  illver,  »  p)«c»  of  3^  ftranes,  1849, 
waighing  192  grains;  fineneu  (of  a  aingla  apecinien) 
901;  va'.aa  46i  eenta. 

iteiMa.— The  dollars  from  1841  to  1846,  tried  in 
parcel*,  varjr  in  flnenera  from  896  to  901 ;  a  very  largo 
lot  gave  897;  allowing  some  tendency  downward. 
Weight,  varying  fhnn  41 1  to  421,  averages  416i ;  value 
on  a  general  average,  100*6  cents. 

Briam. — The  newjhnn,  or  two^hilling  piece,  being 
one-tenth  of  a  pound  sterling,  is  nnderstood  to  be  an 
advance  toward  a  decimal  system.  A  considerable 
Dumber  have  been  coined,  and  the  piece  is  fairly  in 
•ircolation ;  but,  lilia  other  silver  coins  of  that  coun- 
try, it  seldom  mokes  its  way  out  of  the  realm. 

California.— See  Coins  of  l/ni/eH  Slatei,  p.  844. 

Central  America. — It  is  not  easy  to  keep  pace  with 
the  fluctuations  in  the  coinage  of  this  country,  any 
more  than  with  its  political  histoi^-.  Nine  years  ago, 
wc  averaged  the  doubloon  at  $14  96,  end  the  dollar  at 
91  00*1,  The  country  now  seems  to  be  divided  (we 
jodge  by  the  coins)  into  two  distinct  republics,  Cen- 
tral America  and  Costa  Kica. 

Of  tho  recent  gold  coinage  of  Central  America,  we 
have  had  opportunities  of  examining  the  quarter-doub- 
loon, the  eighth  or  escudo,  and  the  sixteenth.  The 
first,  1850,  weighed  97  grains,  tineness  863,  value  $8  60. 
The  second,  1844  to  1849,  48  grains,  809  fine,  value 
|1  67.  The  third,  1826  to  1849,  24  grains,  809  fine, 
ralue  881  cents.  In  nlrer,  the  dollar  of  1847  is  found 
to  vary  from  880  to  820  thousandths  in  fineness ;  those 
of  1840  to  1842  averaged  887.  It  would,  therefore,  not 
be  safe  to  give  more  than  92  cents  for  a  single  piece,  or 
.  06  by  the  qoantity ;  the  laws  of  wholesale  and  retail, 
in  the  coin  market,  being  directly  opposite  to  those  in 
other  branches  of  trade. 

The  coins  of  Costa  Rica,  the  acceding  state,  are  in 
aeveral  respects  quite  remarkable ;  and  in  this  particu- 
larly, that  the  gold  pieces  are  among  the  handsomest 
that  are  current  in  the  world,  while  the  silver  are  be- 
yond comparison  the  rudest ;  at  least  the  samples  that 
we  have  seen.  The  specimens  assayed  here  lately  are 
tba  half-doubloon,  weighing  208  grains,  851  fine,  value 
97  62;  and  the  quarter-doubloon,  97  grains,  846  fine, 
value  (3  63.  The  silver  piece  is  the  real  (apparently 
ahapiid  with  hammer  and  chisel),  1846,  29  to  46  grains, 
650  to  637  fine ;  average  value  6^  cents. 

ChiH. — In  the  dollar  of  1848  wu  find  a  variation  of 
weight  from  416  to  419;  fineness  901),  which  is  lower 
than  former  dates ;  but  the  average  value  is  101  cents. 

Until  lately,  we  had  no  opportunity  of  testing  the 
fractional  coins.  The  quarter-dollar,  1843  to  1846, 
weighs  only  92,  but  is  903  fine ;  the  eighth,  or  real,  is 
strictly  proportional.  Values  respectively,  22-4  and 
11-2  centi;  making  a  profit  to  government,  and  a  loss 
to  holders,  of  about  11  per  cent. 

The  nowspapers  of  the  day  contain  the  fallowing 
ctatement,  concerning  which  we  have  no  other  infor- 
mation : 

"  The  Chilian  Congress,  now  in  session,  hsK  passed 
•  dew  coinage  law,  article  first  of  which  states  that 
three  clasws  of  gold  ara  to  be  coined,  of  the  standard 
at  nine-tenths  fine,  to  be  denominated,  respectively, 
obndor,  donbloon  (doblon),  and  escudo. 

"  1.  The  condor  to  weigh  three  hundred  and  Ave 
fflft  grains,  and  to  correspond  in  value  with  ten  sil- 
ver dollar*. 

"2.  The  doubloon  to  weigh  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
two  '^1^^  grains,  and  to  correspond  in  value  with  Ove 
silver  dollars. 

"  8.  The  escudo  to  weigh  sixty-one  ^^fi^  grains,  and 
b*  of  the  value  of  two  silver  dollars. 

"Art.  2.  There  shall  be  five  classes  of  silver  money, 
•Im  of  tha  standard  of  nine-tenths  fine ;  viz. : 

"A  dollar,  weighing  five  hundred  -fiff^f  grains,  and 
divided  into  hundredth  parts  or  cents. 

"A  piece  of  fifty  cents,  containing  twp  fiundred  and 
fifty -rtttr grains.        a'   i         -.  ^  ■  V-  .- 


**  Ona  of  twenty  cents,  with  one  htmdred  j^jj^' 
grains. 

"One  of  ten  centa,  with  fifty  xjfv  grains. 

"  One  of  five  cents,  with  twenty-five  |gj^  grain*. 

"  Art.  Sd  establishes  two  classes  of  copper  coinage, 
to  be  termed  cent*  and  half  cents,  to  b*  composed  of 
pure  copper  without  any  alloy." 

CAina.— The  trashy  coin  of  this  gr«at  empire  da- 
serves  notice  only  by  way  of  recreation.  In  1842  wo 
quoted  the  cash  (tong-tsien)  at  800  to  the  Spanish  dol- 
lar; in  1847  the  equivalent  varied  from  1200  to  1800— 
so  hard  is  it  to  fasten  a  value  upon  that  which  is  value- 
less. A  carpenter  or  tailor,  we  are  told,  receives  160 
of  them  (say  thirteen  cents)  for  a  day's  work,  of  which 
sixty  are  required  for  his  daily  bread.  The  coin  is  ex- 
tremely convenient  fur  alms-giving,  a  single  piece  being 
the  usual  quietus  for  a  beggar. 

Ecuador. — The  quarter-dollar,  or  two-real  pieco, 
1847,  weighs  104,  and  is  only  675  fine ;  value  18-9 
cents.  This  depreciation  corresponds  with  what  pre- 
vails in  some  of  the  Oactional  coins  of  Peru, 

/Voiice. — The  twenty  and  five-franc  piece*  of  the 
republic,  although  entirely  changed  in  face,  ore  the 
same  for  weight  and  fineness  as  before. 

Germany. — Here  there  Is  no  change  of  standards,  but 
we  observe  tlie  denomination  of  double  gulden,  not 
in  general  circulation,  value  79  cents.  The  whole 
German  issue  of  the  gulden  series  give*  an  average  of 
900  fine  by  actual  assay. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  new  rate  of  charges  at  this 
Mint,  the  thaler  of  Northern  Geniiany,  750  fine,  yields 
a  return  of  67^  to  68^^  cents,  according  to  wear;  the 
crown,  876  fine,  106  to  107  cents. 

Ilayti. — Large  quantities  of  Ilaytian  coins  have  been 
recoined  here.  They  are  so  variable  in  weight  and 
fineness  that  it  is  not  easy  to  put  a  definite  valuation 
upon  them.  They  should,  however,  yield  76  to  78 
cents  per  ounce,  taken  promiscuously  and  unwashed. 
The  piece  of  100  centimes,  dignified  witli  the  name  of 
dollar,  bearing  the  head  of  President  Boyer,  is  worth 
about  25  cents  upon  an  average ;  while  that  of  25  cen- 
times, both  of  Petion  and  Boyer,  averages  7)  cents.  In 
a  large  promiscuous  deposit  of  all  sizes,  we  found  the 
average  net  value  of  the  "dollar"  to  be  257  cents. 
The  coins  range  fVom  600  to  626  fine,  if  free  from  coun- 
terfeits— a  baser  quality  than  is  to  be  found  in  any 
other  coinage  on  tills  side  of  the  Atlantic,  But  since 
August,  1849,  there  has  been  a  new  order  of  things ; 
and  coin  collectors  and  assojers  are  looking  with  im- 
patience for  the  head  of  Faustin  the  First. 

Mexico. — In  1842,  we  averaged  recent  dollars  at  416| 
grains,  898  fine,  value  100-6  cents.  The  average  fine- 
ness has  since  improved  to  899,  and  value  100-75  cents. 

The  coins  of  two  new  Mints  liave  recently  been  tried. 
The  doubloon  of  Guadalupe  y  Calvo,  in  the  state  of 
Durango,  1847,  varies  in  weight  from  417  to  420 ;  fine- 
ness 869  to  873 ;  average  value  $15  69.  The  dollar  of 
the  same  Mint,  1844  to  1847,  averages  in  weight  420), 
in  fineness  908,  and  therefore  in  value  as  high  as  102-8 
cents.  The  Mint  begun  operations  in  1844 ;  its  dis- 
tinctive mark  is  G.  C,  in  the  usual  place  in  the  legend. 

The  dollar  of  Culiacan,  in  Sinaloa,  1846  to  1848, 
averages  416)  grains,  with  a  pretty  wide  variation  in 
individual  pieces ;  fineness  903;  value  101  cents.  Tiie 
Mint-mark  is  the  letter  C. 

Mexiuan  dollar*  are  not  flowing  so  abundantly  iu 
this  direction  as  in  former  years,  although  they  are 
yielding  a  better  return. 

J/(bn.— The  revolution  of  1848  produced  a  new  gold 
coin  in  Lombardy :  it  bear*  on  the  obverse  a  female 
figure  with  the  legend,  Italia  Libera,  Dio  lo  vvoi.k 
— "  Italy  ttte,  God  wills  it ;"  and  on  the  reverse,  a 
wreath,  within  which  is  the  denomination,  20  Liiui 
Itai.ia.nk— "20  Italian  livres;"  and  outside  of  it  tho 
legend,  Govbkxo  Pbovisorio  ui  Lo.miiardia.  Ii 
weigh*  the  same  as  the  twcuty-franc  piece  of  France, 
and  was  evidently  meant  as  a  return  to  the  Milanese 


COI 


84» 


tUndard  of  1805.  Tha  coin  it  oior*  ran  than  coald  be 
wialicd :  only  a  (ingle  epeclmeu  baa  readied  u.  Coin- 
ooUeoton  will  coniider  it  a*  a  priae  fbr  iu  singular 
beauty  and  its  scarcity,  and  as  the  monument  of  a  great 
•vent  in  history. 

Nelherlandt.-'Tbt  new  2f^ilders  piece  was  an> 
noonoed  in  our  Manual  as  having  been  decraed,  but 
had  not  then  been  reoeit-ed.  The  legal  standards  are, 
'ii  grammes  (885-8  grains)  in  weight,  U4&  thousandths 
in  lineness.  The  actual  resulu  of  dates  1843  to  1846 
are,  886  grains,  IM4  fine;  value  98-2  cents.  The  coin 
often  appears  here  in  mixed  deposits.  It  is  remark- 
able for  its  high  grade  of  fineness;  yet  it  is  really  a 
depreciated  issue,  since,  to  be  equal  to  the  former  guil- 
der series,  it  ought  to  bo  worth  100-2  cents. 

New.  Grnnada. — This  countn'  eontinues  to  send  a 
large  supply  of  doubloons  to  our  market,  and  this 
■takes  it  the  more-  important  to  notice  a  very  recent 
and  considerable  reduction  in  the  value  of  the  coin. 
Within  a  few  montlis  a  new  piece  has  appeared,  with 
new  devices  and  standards ;  the  latter  being  expressed 
on  the  face  of  the  coin  by  "  Lei  0,900— Peso  26,8064 
O."  That  is,  fiaeiuu,  900  thousandths;  vxigKt,  so 
many  grammei — a  long-drawn  fraction,  corresponding 
to  8I)8'31  Troy  grains.  At  those  rates,  the  piece  would 
be  worth  016  48-8,  and  would  avowedly  fall  below  the 
previous  value  of. the  doubloon;  but  upon  actual  trial 
it  is  still  worse,  as  ViU  be  shown  directly.  This  change 
must  have  taken  place  since  the  beginning  of  1849,  as 
we  noticu  pieces  of  the  old  style  bearing  that  date. 

But  as  the  doubloons  of  New  Granada  are  alloyed 
almost  entirely  with  silver,  which  is  now  profitably 
parted  at  this  Mint,  it  is  necessary  to  restate  the  Mint 
value  of  tlie  older  piece,  as  well  as  to  give  information 
respecting  the  new.  The  silver  extracted  makes  a 
sensible  addition  to  the  values  of  both  kinds ;  that  h, 
if  they  are  oflbred  in  sutBcient  quantities  to  meet  the 
requirement  that  the  net  product  of  a  parting  must  be 
not  lass  than  five  dollars;  below  that  limit  the  opera- 
tion is  not  performed.  The  following  terms  must  there- 
fore be  noticed.  The  doubloon  of  the  old  style,  down 
to  the  early  part  of  1849,  weighs  on  an  average  416^ 
grains,  and  contains  870  thousandth.*  gold,  and  about 
120  silver;  if  presented  in  a  quantity  less  than  68 
ounces,  its  net  Hint  value  will  be  $15  61 ;  in  a  larger 
quantity  than  that,  it  will  be  $15  66.  The  new  doub- 
liran,  beginning  with  1849,  weighs  898  grains,  and  con- 
tains in  parcels  893}  to  895  thousandths  gold,  say  894, 
and  of  silver  about  100;  net  Mint  value,  in  any  quan- 
tity less  than  93  ounces,  #16  81 ;  in  a  larger  quantity, 
tl5  36. 

Narusay. — The  immigration  from  this  countrj'  brings 
ut  considerable  parcels  of  Norwegian  and  Swedish 
silver  coins.  The  daUn  of  these  two  realms,  which 
have  the  same  monarch,  were  stated  in  the  Manual  to 
be  interchangeable  as  to  value,  although  ver}-  difllirent 
aa  to  their  standards.  Under  our  new  Mint  charges 
there  is  some  variation  of  value,  since  those  of  Sweden 
are  of  so  much  lower  fineness,  and  are  subjected  to  a 
greater  charge  for  refining.  They  will  be  noticed  in 
place.  The  daler,  and  half^  of  Norway,  average  878 
fine  (the  law  calling  for  only  875,  or  seven-eights),  and 
their  weights,  unworn,  are  respectively  446  and  223 
grains ;  net  Mint  value  of  the  doler,  105  cents ;  the 
half,  52  (.  This  valuation  is  down  to  1848,  the  latest 
date  we  have  seen, 

Peru. — A  new  half-dollar,  with  the  word  Pasco  in 
the  legend,  1844,  gives  an  average  weight  of  203  (vari- 
ation 200  to  210),  fineness  906;  value  49}  cents. 

/'rufsia.— The  years  1848  and  1849,  in  other  respects 
unsettled,  show  no  change  in  the  gold  coinage.  It  still 
maintains  its  superiority  to  the  other  classes  of  ten  and 
five-thaler  pieces.  The  double-Frederick,  or  ten-thaler, 
is  908  fine,  weight  206  grains,  and  is  worth  ii»  01 ; 
practically,  an  even  eight-dollar  piece  for  us. 

Auisa.— Five-rouble  pieces  of  1848  and  1849  show 
tha  fineness  of  916^ ;  a  proof  that  the  ost^ytng  and  al- 


loying are  conducted  with  admirable  exactnaaa,  tb* 
standard  being  916).  The  coin  is  worth  #8  96-7.  Ai 
the  Russian  Mint  depends,  no  doubt,  upon  the  Russian 
miuee,  and  not  u|ion  foreign  coins,  for  its  material,  w« 
felt  an  interest  in  examining  at  to  what  proportion  of 
Mvtr  wat  left  iu  the  alloy  of  the  coin,  and  found  oaljr 
6}  thoutandtht.  Hitherto  we  have  iiaund  no  gold  coini 
so  nearly  desilvered. 

Siam. — We  wera  not  anfficiently  acquainted  with  tha 
silver  bullets  of  Siam  to  take  account  of  them  in  tha 
Manual,  Some  specimens  of  this  curious  money  hava 
since  been  examined.  They  are  of  different  calibres, 
and  tolerably  well  proportioned  to  each  other.  The 
lical  weighs,  witlioot  much  variation,  286  grains,  and 
is  928  fine ;  value  58*7  cents.  The  mdmtg,  61  grains, 
929  fine,  15-2  centa.  The  prang,  30  grains,  907  fine, 
7-3  cents.  Below  this  we  have,  as  a  present  to  th« 
Mint  collection,  three  varieties,  weighing  10,  4,  and  1^ 
grains;  the  last  being  worth  about  three-eighths  of  a 
cent,  and  very  good  silver  withal.  A  sight  of  it  would 
reconcile  our  people  to  the  gold  dollar.  Siam  may 
claim  the  merit  of  originality  in  the  shape  of  her  coin, 
which  will  not  admit  of  piling,  and  scarcely  of  lying 
still-^the  lively  emblem  of  n  true  circulating  medium. 

i9iM(/«t_Tho  specie  daler  of  Oscar,  1847  and  1848, 
is  750  fine,  weighs  625  grains,  and  yielda  104-2  centa 
after  Mint  charges. 

Turkty. — There  was  a  new  system  of  coinage  pro- 
mulgated in  1840,  which  did  not  prevail  long ;  there  la 
a  still  newer,  beginning  with  1845.  The  gold  coins 
are  evidently  designed  to  be  22  carats  (916-6)  fine,  aa 
in  the  neighboring  empire  of  Russia.  By  actual  assay 
they  are  915  fine ;  the  piece  of  100  piastres  weighs  111 
grains,  and  is  worth  #4  37-4;  the  piece  of  50  piastres, 
55)  grains,  worth  $2  18-7.  In  respect  to  value  they 
compare  with  the  former  series  of  20,  10,  and  6  pias-  ' 
tres,  though  entirely  of  different  standards. 

The  silver  coins  are  greatly  improved  in  quality, 
and  apparently  based  upon  the  Austrian  standard  of 
five-sixths  (883))  fine.  They  are  the  piece  of  20  pias- 
tres, 871}  grains,  828  fine,  net  value  82  cents ;  10  pias- 
tres, 186  grains,  826  fine,  41  cents;  and  6  piastres,  92| 
grains,  824  fine,  20}  cents.  These  coins  are  well  ad- 
Justed  in  their  weight,  and  altogether  show  in  their, 
way  a  great  advance  in  the  progress  of  Turkish  civilU 
zation.  The  piastre  of  commerce  seems  to  be  based 
upon  the  gold ;  the  exchange  in  1845,  when  these  coins 
were  received,  rated  the  piastre  at  4-3  cents. 

United  St<Uet.~By  the  law  of  March  3,  1849,  two 
new  gold  coins,  the  double-eagle  and  the  dollar,  were 
added  to  the  list ;  the  former  weighing  516  grains,  or 
21}  pennyweights,  the  latter  25^  grains ;  and  both  of 
the  fineness  of  nine-tenths,  as  the  other  coinage.  A 
very  large  number  in  both  denominations  hava  beea 
issued. 

The  new  postage  law  of  March  3,  1851,  provided  tor 
the  coinage  of  a  three-cent  piece,  composed  of  three- 
fourths  silver  and  one-fourth  copper,  and  weighing  12| 
grains. 

There  are  several  classes  of  gold  coin  which  are  not 
of  the  United  States,  but  which  are  struck  within  tha. 
national  boundaries,  and  which  ought  to  be  noticed  in 
this  place.  These  are  the  UKcnTLRR's  coins  of  Iforth 
Carolma,  and  the  various  California  coins.  In  tha 
same  connection,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  some  detailt' 
respecting  several  varieties  of  stamped  ingots. 

The  coins  of  C.  Bechtler  are  fully  described  in  the 
Manual  (p.  160) ;  but  since  the  date  of  that  publica- 
tion, the  mint  bat  passed  into  the  hands  of  A.  Bech- 
tler, at  appears  on  the  face  of  the  ooin ;  and  there  is  a 
marked  difference  of  value  between  the  C  and  yl ,  Tha 
five-dollar  pieces  of  the  former  were  deficient  from  1 
to  6  per  cent,  upon  the  alleged  value,  averaging  8  per 
cent,,  or  $4  85 ;  the  one-dollar  pieces  were  worth  95} 
to  97  cents.  The  five-dollar  pieces  of  the  latter  vary, 
from  the  full  alleged  value,  to  a  deficit  of  1}  per  cent. 
There  are  no  dates  on  the  coins  to  enable  as  to  maik 


COI 


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the  di Annoe ;  but  th«  piecu  uuytd  in  1848  wen 
batter  than  thoM  (apparently  freeh)  aua.ved  in  1849. 
The  lait  and  neweet  lot  gave  $4  94  to  the  iive^doUur 
piece.  It  i«  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  aa  Becbtler'i 
pieoea  are  alloyed  with  silver,  they  will  produce  about 
•  half  of  one  per  oent.  more  if  oflbred  in  luffieient  quan- 
tity. The  dollars,  as  far  as  tried,  are  i  per  cent,  be- 
low their  nominal  value.  The  coin  appears  to  be  con- 
siderable in  amount,  but  it  is  not  current  in  the  Middle 
and  Northern  States ;  it  is  frequently  brought  to  the 
Mint  for  reooinage. 

The  number  of  private  Mints  which  have  l>een  in 
operation  in  California,  as  indicated  by  specimens  re- 
ceived here,  is  fourteen.  Some  of  these  have  issued 
but  a  single  denomination  of  coin,  othors.two,  and  one 
(the  Mormon)  four.  Ueaides  these,  there  are  the  sUmp- 
ed  ingoU  of  MofhU  &  Co.,  and  of  F.  D.  Kohler,  State 
Assayer ;  and  lastly,  the  coin  of  Augustus  Humlwrt,  a 
United  States  assayer  under  a  legal  provision  of  1860. 

1.  The  coin  of  *'  N.  G.  &  N."  does  not  profess  the 
same  degree  of  accuracy  as  Bechtler's  as  to  fineness. 
iu  claim  to  be  full  wbioiit  ok  half  baolb  is  proved 
by  a  number  of  trials,  the  variation  net  exceeding  one 
grain  in  any  caae ;  but  the  legend  on  the  reverse,  Cal- 
iroRNiA  GOLD  wiTHOiTr  ALLOY,  allows  a  pi«tty  wide 
range.  As  far  as  our  assays  go,  the  truth  of  this  stamp 
is  proved ;  there  is  no  alloy  other  than  that  already 
inuoduced  by  the  hand  of  nature,  and  which  is  gener- 
ally more  than  sufficient.  Three  pieces  gave  severally 
the  fineness  of  870,880,  and  892  thousandths;  all  were 
within  the  scope  of  "California  gold."  They  conse- 
quently are  worth  $4  83,  ^  89,  and  #4  9a|  respective- 
ly, without  the  silver;  and  including  that,  2^  oenU 
more. 

The  coin  is  neatly  executed,  and  besides  the  two 
legends  above  quoted,  bears  an  eagle,  a  circle  of  stars, 
the  date  1649,  and  the  name  San  Francisco.  It  wears 
the  somewhat  brassy  tint  which  belongs  to  gold  alloy- 
ed with  silver  only. 

8.  The  Mint  of  the  "Oregon  Exchange  Company" 
issues  two  denominations,  10  and  6  dollars.  They  re- 
spectively profess  260  and  130  grains  weight  of  "  native 
gold."  One  five-dollar  piece  was  found  to  weigh  127i 
grains,  was  878  line,  and  contained  only  the  natural 
alloy ;  resulting  value,  t4  82 ;  with  the  silver  (in  suf- 
ficiently large  fote),  2^  cents  more. 

The  coin  is  not  well  struck,  but  is  pleasantly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  picture  of  a  beaver,  a  good  emblem 
of  mining  industry  and  of  Western  life. 

8.  Next  is  the  mintage  of  the  "  Miners'  Bank,  San 
Francisco;"  a  ten-dollar  piece,  of  plain  appearance. 

The  average  weight  is  268)  grains,  the  fineness  about 
865  thousandths,  part  of  the  alloy  l>eing  copper.  Aver- 
age value  99  87,  with  a  risk  of  having  it  as  low  as 
#9  76. 

4.  Coinage  of  Moffatt  &  Co.,  1849, 1860 ;  pieces  of 
10  and  6  dollars,  in  imitation  of  the  national  coinage. 
Several  of  the  coining  establishments,  ss  will  be  seen, 
have  adopted  the  same  device,  but  evidently  without 
evil  intent,  as  most  of  their  coins  are  worth  what  is 
professed,  and  some  even  more.  The  fineness,  how- 
ever, is  in  every  case  inferior  to  the  standard  of  the 
Mint,  and  this  is  likely  to  prove  a  source  of  discredit 
from  European  assayers,  who  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  assort.  A  large  promiscuous  lot  of  both  kinds  of 
Moffatt  &  Co.'s  coins,  dates  1849, 1860,  shows  an  aver- 
ago  of  897 ;  average  weight,  to  the  ten-dollar  piece, 
268i  grains;  average  value,  #9  97-7. 

The  S.  M.  V.  on  this  and  other  coins  is  said  to  mean 
"Standard  Mint  Value." 

5.  Ten-doUar  piece  of  J.  S.  O.  (said  to  be  Dr.  Orms- 
by,  of  Pennsylvania) ;  one  piece  assayed  gave  842  fine ; 
weight  2&8i  graius;  valae  fO  37.  Very  few  have 
come  to  hand, 

S.  Twenty-five  dollar  and  ten-dollar  pljeces  of  Tem- 
platon  Keid ;  weigh  respectively  649  and  260  grains. 
Being  the  only  two  specimens  received,  they  have  not 


been  cut  for  aasay,  but  appear  to  be  of  California  gold 
without  artificial  alloy.  Assuming  this,  the  value* 
would  be  about  #24  fiO  for  the  first,  and  (9  76  for  th« 
second. 

7.  Ten-dollar  and  five-dollar  pieces  of  the  "  Cincin* 
natl  Mining  and  Trading  Company,"  1849.  These  also 
have  not  been  cut  on  account  of  their  rarity,  but  ap> 
pear  to  be  of  native  gold,  and,  at  the  weights  of  268 
and  182  grains,  may  be  rated  at  (9  70  and  14  96  re- 
spectively. 

8.  Ten  and  five-dollar  pieces  of  the  "  Pacific  Com- 
pany," 1849;  very  irregular  in  weight,  and  debased  in 
fineness;  a  ten-dollar  piece  weighed  229  grains,  a  five- 
dollar,  180;  assay  of  a  third,  797  thousandths.  At 
those  rates,  the  larger  piece  would  bo  worth  (7  86,  th* 
smaller  #4  48;  but  the  valuation  is  altogether  un- 
certain. 

9.  Five-dollar  piece  of  the  "Massachusetts  and  CaU 
ifomia  Company,"  1849 ;  a  very  pretty  coin,  but  ap- 
parantly  debased  with  copper.  Only  one  specimen  has 
been  noticed  hero ;  it  weighs  116i  grains ;  has  not  been 
assayed. 

10.  Coins  of  Baldwin  &  Co.,  four  varieties ;  1.  A  ten- 
dollar  piece,  1860,  distinguished  by  a  horse  and  his 
rider,  with  a  lasso;  2.  Twenty-dollar  piece;  8,  Ten- 
doUar,  1861 ;  4.  Five-dollar,  1860;  the  last  two  in  imi- 
tation of  United  States  coinage.  Of  the  first,  one  piece 
tried  weighed  263  grains,  fineness  880,  value  (9  96. 
Of  the  second,  four  pieces  tried  varied  from  611  to  628 
grains ;  but  one  hundred  pieces  averaged  617 ;  the 
fineness  varied  from  861  to  871 ;  average  fineness  868^, 
average  value  $19  38.  Of  the  third,  ten  pieces  averaged 
269i  grains;  average  fineness  870;  average  value 
$9  72.  Of  the  fourth,  average  value  $4  02.  The  Bald- 
win coins  contain  some  copper;  about  20  thousandths. 

11.  Ten  and  five-dollar  pieces  of  Dubosq  &  Co., 
1860,  also  in  imitation  of  the  national  coinage.  The 
larger  piece  averages  262  grains,  and  three  specimens 
gave  the  fineness  of  899^,  which  is  a  mere  shade  lielow 
standard;  consequent  value,  $10  16.  A  single  five- 
dollar  piece  yielded  $4  92.  But  a  mixed  parcel  con- 
taining $1000,  gave  the  fineness  of  887,  and  the  closa 
value  of  $1000  20.  Consequently  the  pieces  may  be 
averaged  at  par. 

12.  Five-dollar  piece  of  Shultz  &  Co.,  1861.  Aver- 
age weight,  128}  grains;  fineness  of  three  pieces,  879; 
value,  $4  97-4.  The  devices  are  in  imitation  of  United 
States  coin. 

13.  The  Mormon  coinage,  although  executed  in  the 
Territory  of  Utah,  is  without  impropriety  classed 
among  California  coins,  on  account  of  neighborhood, 
and  the  source  whence  the  material  is  derived.  These 
are  the  four  denominations  of  twenty,  ten,  five,  and 
two  and  a  half  dollars.  Although  there  is  much  irreg- 
ularity both  in  weight  and  fineness,  the  denominations 
are  tolerably  in  proportion  U>  each  other.  A  parcel 
made  up  of  all  sizes,  and  counting  $662  60,  yielded  at 
the  Mint  $479  20;  say  $8  62  to  the  ten-dollar  piece. 
The  fineness  was  886. 

14.  Five-dollar  piece  of  Dunbar  &  Co.,  in  imitation 
of  United  States  coin.  A  lot  of  HI  pieces  averages 
131  grains  weight,  883  fineness,  value  $4  98. 

16.  Fifly-doUar  piece  of  the  United  States  Assay- 
Office  at  San  Francisco,  established  by  act  of  Congrers 
of  1860.  It  first  appeared  here  in  April,  1861.  The 
coin  is  prepared  and  iteued  by  Messrs.  Molfatt  &  Co. 
as  contractors,  and  bears  the  stamp  of  Augustus  Hum- 
bert, assayer.  The  two  professed  rates  of  fineness,  880 
and  887  thounandths,  are  found  upon  assay  here  to  ba 
duly  maintained,  whether  in  single  pieces  or  in  large 
quantities.  But  some  irregularity  in  the  weight  of  so 
heavy  a  piece,  alloyed  with  silver  only,  and  ofl°ering 
eight  comers  to  wear  is  to  be  expected.  When  pre- 
sented in  quantities  sufficient  to  allow  for  parting  tha 
silver,  say  70  ounces,  the  average  Mint  value  is  al>out 
$60  10 ;  in  less  quantities,  the  silver  not  Iwing  allow  li 
for,  the  average  value  is  about  #49  90.    But  oven  with-' 


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intha 
classed 
t)orhood, 

These 

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parcel 
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The 
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out  the  sIlTer  they  occasionally  come  up  fblly  to  the 
alluged  value.  This  coinage  is  understood  to  have 
put  a  stop  to  all  private  issues  in  California. 

The  foregoing  compreliend  all  the  varieties  of  cmn 
that  have  Iwen  brought  to  this  Mint  There  have  been, 
besides,  two  sorta  of  stamped  bars  or  ingots,  evidently 
intended  for  currency. 

1.  The  ingots  of  Moffatt  &  Co.,  of  various  sizes,  firom 
•bout  $0  to  $260.  It  may  bo  stated,  in  general,  that 
soma  were  found  to  be  rated  too  high,  and  others  too 
low.  The  sixteen-dollar  ingot  yields  about  $16  75,  but 
is  irregular, 

2.  Tlio  issue  of  bars  by  F.  D.  Kohler,  Assayerof  the 
State  of  California,  commenced  in  May,  1850.  They 
are  of  various  sizes,  fh>m  $40  to  $160.  Wo  find  a 
slight  undervaluing  in  his  basis  of  calculation,  and  gen- 
erally an  error  of  assay  in  the  same  direction ;  so  that 
on  the  average  his  l>ars  are  worth  at  the  mint  1  per 
cent,  perhaps  if,  mora  tlian  the  value  stamped  upon 
them. 

JtecapUiJation  of  Ike  net  Mint  Value  o/GM  and  Sil- 
err  Coins  itmed  toithin  twenty-five  Yean  past. — Inquiry 
haa  bepn  frequently  made  at  the  Hint  for  a  conipend 
of  the  values  of  foreign  coins,  without  a  due  considera- 
tion of  the  difficulty  of  putting  in  a  small  space  sucli  a 
statement  as  would  be  satisfactory.  The  quarto  vol- 
ume, now  entirely  out  of  print,  was  not  found  too 
large  for  its  purjioso,  which  was  to  supply  such  infor- 
mation as  dealers,  amateurs,  and  legislators  would  from 
time  to  tune  l>e  liliely  to  require.  Still,  a  condensed 
table  of  the  coins  more  usually  seen,  and  within  a  con- 
tracted range  of  date,  would  certainly  lie  useful  to  deal- 
ers and  others,  and  especially  with  the  modifications 
occasioned  by  the  new  Mint  tariff  of  charges.  We 
therefore  offer  the  following,  inserting  values  only,  and 
leaving  the  details  of  legal  weight  and  fineness,  and 
of  actual  weight  and  fineness,  to  be  sought  for  else- 
where ;  as  also  tho  particulars  concerning  coinage  of 
older  date  than  just  specified. 

Gold  Coins. 

t>.  CM. 

iluiMo.— Quadruple  duoat tt  I'i 

Ducat 2X7  6 

Sovereign  (for  Lombordjr) 6  TS 

Aidnt.— Five  gulden t<Oi 

Bomria.— Ducat 2  27 

£<IOr<um.— Twenty-franc  piece 8  S8  2 

Twenty-flve-friinc  piece 4  ?i 

/toHvio.— Doubloon 15  68 

Bi-o/il.—PIcoe  of  0400 roll 872 

Britain.— Sovereign 4845 

Brantairle.—'Vea  thaler T  80 

Cal^fon^ia.—See  Uhitio  Statu. 

Ccntroi  ^nurioo.— Doubloon 1490 

Escudo 107 

Ctosts iKca.— Half-doubloon,  ISCO '.    702 

CA<{<.—D«ubloon  (before  183B) 16  57 

"         (I8,S5 and  since) 1600 

Dennuir/t.— Double  Fred,,  or  ten-thaler 7  89 

£('iia(far.— Hatf-Doubloon 7  00 

/jVFUpt.— Hundred  Piastres 497 

France Twenty  francs 8  86 

tirtece. — Twenty  drachms S  4S 

flaiuwr.— Ten-thaler,  rieorge  IV. 7  84 

Do,         William  IV.  and  Ernest 7  89 

/findoitan.— Mohur,  East  India  Company 710 

JKeeikntmr^,— Ten-tbaler 789 

Jfe£<i;o.— Doubloon,  average ]5n) 

AMA«rtand«.— Ducat , 2205 

Ten  guilders 4  00  7 

Sew  (Jranodo.— Doubloon,  21  carat  standard 15  01 

"         Including  the  silver 16  00 

"  ntne-tenths  standard 16  St 

"         Inclndlng  the  silver 16  30 

PerMtk—Tammn 2  23 

iVu.— Doubloon,  Lima,  to  1833 16  65 

"  Cuzco,  to  1833 1662 

"  "         188T 1558 

ArtMjuI.— Half-Joe  (full  weight) 8  06 

Crown 5  81 

/ViMsio.— Double  Frederick 8  00 

Itmne Ten  acudi 10  87 

/iiuaio.— Five  rouble* 3  90  7 

A'ardiitia,  —Twenty lire 3846 

Sasonu.- Ten-thaler 7  94 

Ducat 2  20 

SMfn.— Pistole  (qwarter  doubloon) 8905 

iSirtey.— Hundred  piastres 4  87  4 


aou>  Cones. 

>.  CH, 

IVrtej/.— Twenty  piastres  (new) 82 

nuMnj/.— Sequin 2  80 

UwUti  StotM.- Eagle  (before  June,  1884) 10  02 

Five-dollar  piece  of  C.  Beditler,  average 4  86 

Dollar  of  the  same,  average 98 

Five-dollar  piece  of  A.  Ucchtler 4  92  to  5  00 

Dollar  of  the  same 90 

Oregon  Exchange  Company,  live  dollars 4  89 

N.  It.  and  N.,  San  Francisco,  five  doUam. .  4  83  to  4  96 

HInen'  Bank,  San  Franc,  ten  dolUn,  average. .  9  87 

Moflktt's  ten-dollar  piece 9  75 

"       five-dolUu'  piece 6  00 

"       •Uteen-dollar  ingot 15  75 

J.  8.  O.,  ten-dollar  piece 9  87 

T.  Reld,  twonty-flve  dollar  piece 2400 

"        ten-dollar  piece 9  76 

Pociflc  Company,  ten  and  Ave,  uncertain. 
MaHKacliusctts  Cumpapy,  five,  uncertain. 

Clnciunati  Company,  ten,  estimated 9  70 

"                  five,  estimated 496 

Baldwin,  twenty  dollars 19  83 

"        ten            "      with  horsemen 9  90 

"         ten            "      second  issue 9  72 

"        five           "                "         499 

Duboaq,ten              "      1000 

five            "      600 

Shults,      "              "      407 

Dunbar,    "               "      498 

Humbert,  United  States  Anaayer,  fifty  dollars. . .  5l>  UO 

Mormon  coinage,  twenty  dollam,  average 17  00 

"              ten  dullara,  average 8  tSO 

"              five  dollars,  nveriige 4  26 

•'              two  nnd  a  half  dollars,  average  9  19 

Koblers's  bar,  about  1  per  cent,  higher  than  his  ^ 

valuation.  ' 

SiLVim  Coins.  ' 

Austria.— Itlx  dollar 9T 

Florin 496 

Twenty  kreutzem 10 

Lira  (tor  Lombardy) 10 

Auini.— Crown 1  OV 

Gulden  or  florin 89  6 

Bamriii.— Crown 1005 

Florin 89  6 

Six  krentzera 08 

Btlgium. — Five  trance 98 

Two  and  a  half  ihuics 40  6 

Two  francs 87 

Franc 18  6 

Bolinia.- Dollar 100  0 

llalfdollar,  dcbaiicd,  1830 875 

(Quarter  dollar,  debased,  1S3U 18  T 

Braril.— Twelve  hundred  reis 99  9 

Eight           "             00 

Four             "             38 

Bremoi.- Thirty-six  groto 35  4 

Britain.— Half  crown 54 

Shilling 21  T 

Fourpence 07 1 

Brunncicl;.— Thaler 08 

Cmiral  it nicrico.— Dollar,  uncertain  ;  say 97 

Costa  Rica,  new  rent  of 05  8 

CAiIi.-Dollar 101 

Quarter  dollar 22  4 

Eighth  dollar,  or  real 119 

Denmart.- Rigsbank  daler 698 

Specie  daler 1047 

Thirty-two  akllllngs 17 

JSwidor.— (Quarter  dollar 18  T 

Egypt Twenty  piastres 98 

Frimee Five  ftwncs 98  9 

Franc 18  5 

*V«nt/ort.— Florin 896 

Gretee.—VttvXwn 10  5 

Ouiana,  BrifisA.— Guilder 20  9 

tfaneMr.— Tbaler,  fine  silver 09  9 

750flne 08 

Aiai/ti.— Dollar,  or  100 centimes 257 

Heme  Caeael Thaler 07  5 

One-sixth  thaler 11 

ffes«<i)amMta(tt.— Florin  orgidden 30  5 

//indostan.— Kupee 44  5 

Mexico Dollar,  average 1007 

iVoftlM.— Seudo 94 

J\'<(A(rlanda— Three  guilders 1 20 

Guilder 40 

Twenty-five  cents 09  6 

Twoandahalfgnilders 98  9 

yew  Oranoda.— Dollar,  usual  weight 1  09 

Dollar,  or  ten  reals,  1861 98 

^onro!/'— RIgsdaler 1  06 

/Vrsia Sahibkoran 916 

yVru.— Dolhur,  Uma  Mbit 1  00  • 

"      Cuzco 1008 

Half  dollar,  Cuzco,  debaaed 80 

"          Arequlpa,  debased 80 

"          Pasco 495 

B)(atML— Zloty 119 


COI 


Sir 


oof' 


Butdi  Cmkii 

»•  a.  M. 

JMwvL— Cmiado  .■ «.« AOt 

Crown,  of  1000  nU lit 

Ualfermrn M 

iVMMfa,— Tbtler,  BTtnua 68 

Ona-ilxth tlitltr,  *T«imi< 11 

Dsubla  Ihalar,  or  SI  iiditeii 1  ID 

J|m«— Sendo 100  6 

Tulon  (UO  Hudo) SO 

-Koabl* 76 

Tuilotr lis  6 

TUityeopMlu.. 99 

MrAMa— FWslIn OS  2 

jSamiir.— Spedci  UuOw M 

TlMUr  (XIV.  F.  M.) w «S 

Mnfc— Ticml >..,...;....     686 

f!|Hria-.PitUrera  (4  naU TsUos) , 196 

SMitcn.— SpmIm  d«l«r 1M2 

lUlfdtlwr 69 

IWfa)/.— Twanty  plutm,  new  oataMg* 89 

nuoMi!/.— UopoMoM 106 

Florin 1...     262 

inirtmttrg.-^auU*u,iait 88  6 

"    .   IBSSandttnoe S96 

Double  thdor,  or  8(  gulden 1  SO 

Compariton  of  American  and  fortigtt  WtiffhU  uied 
for  Preciout  MelaU. — Tho  normal  weight  of  the  United 
StatM  Hint  ia  the  Troy  otince,  for  considerable  quan- 
tities, and  the  ttoy  grain,  for  single  coin*.  This 
oonoe  Is  equal  to  480  gralaa;  to  81-0981S  French 
grammes;  to  1-08108  Spanish  ounce.  The  grain  is 
64'788  milligrammes.  Our  standard  Fhsnch  kilo- 
gramme weighs  15,485  grains,  or  82-15625  ounces. 
The  gramme  is  15-485  grains.  The  milligramme  -0154 
grain.  The  average  estimate  of  the  Spanish  mark  is 
8562  Troy  grains,  or  7-40  ounces  Troy.  It  Is  differently 
subdivided,  according  as  It  Is  applied  to  the  weighing 
of  gold  or  silver.  For  gold,  it  is  divided  into  50  cas- 
tellanos ;  each  castellano  into  8  tomines ;  each  tonilne 
into  12  granos.  For  silver,  the  mark  is  divided  into 
8  ounces ;  each  ounce  into  8  ochavos ;  each  ochavo  into 
6 tomines;  each  tomine  into  12  granos.  Consequent- 
ly, In  gold  weighings  there  are  4800  grains,  and  in  sil- 
ver 4608  grains  to  the  mark.  Tlie  castellano  is  much 
Bsed,  however,  as  a  normal  weight  for  gold  bullion. 
By  deduction  from  the  above,  it  should  weigh  71  -04 
Tvoy  grains;  by  an  invoice  from  New  Granada,  we 
liave  found  it  to  correspond  with  70-935;  so  that  71 
grains  might  be  taken  as  the  equivalent,  accurate 
enough  in  practice.  This  is  Just  one  grain  less  than 
tliree  pennyweights ;  or  -H'O  of  a  Troy  ounce.  This 
mark,  being  employed  not  only  in  Spain,  but  in  all 
Spanish  America,  is  of  course  a  very  important  weight 
to  the  bullion  and  coin  dealer,  and  should  be  duly  un- 
derstood. It  Is,  (lerhaps,  not  more  difficult  to  master 
than  the  pounds  Troy  and  avoirdupois,  with  their  re- 
spective trains.  The  Cologne  mark,  normal  money- 
weight  of  Germany,  by  the  German  Convention  of 
18>8,  was  estimated  at  233-866  grammas,  answering  to 
8609-55  grains  Troy.  It  was  before  rated  usually  at 
8609.  Our  silver  dollar,  simje  1837,  weighs  26-725 
grammes.  A  kilogramme  of  standard  {•Ar)  gold  is 
worth  |S98  25  5. 

BMand  Paching  of  Pncioiu  if4luU. — A  solid  or 
cubic  inch  of  fine  gold  weighs  10-1509  ounces,  and  is 
worth  |209  84.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  same,  $362,600. 
A  cubic  inch  of  standard  gold  weigbs  9-0989  ounces, 
and  Is  worth  $169  28.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  same, 
$292,500.  A  cubio  inch  of  flne  sihvr  weigh*  6-6226 
ounces,  and  is  worth  $7-14.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  same, 
$12,838.  A  cubic  inch  of  standard  silver  weighs 
6-4178  ounces,  and  ia  worth  $0  80  3.  A  cubic  foot  of 
the  same,  $10,891.  These  calculations  are  based  upon 
the  weight  of  water  a*  252-458  grains  to  the  cubic  inch, 
tb«  thermometer  being  at  60°  and  the  barometer  80 

inches Sillimar's  FirtI  Prin.  CAern.,  1848.     The 

specific  gravity  of  flne  gold  Is  taken  at  19-8,  standard 
at  17-3 ;  line  silver  10-5,  *tAndard  16-3.  As  the**  grav- 
itie*  are  only  approximate,  we  may  be  excused  for  not 
carrying  out  the  decimal*  very  far,  as  Is  rather  too 
eltan  dona  in  works  of  science.  Gold  is  not  measured 
by  the  put,  at  least  out  of  Califomia ;  yet  it  may  b« 


inter**tinK  to  know  that  a  dry'«Ma«ui«  pint  of  CalW 
itoraia  grain*  i*  found  to  weigh  Arom  141  to  148^  ounce*  | 
value  about  $2600.  The  average  specifle  gravity  1* 
eon*«quantly  9-61 ;  so  that  It  occupie*  about  twice  a* 
much  bulk,  in  that  form,  a*  when  melted  and  caat  lnt« 
ban.  A  pint  «f  African  dn«t  wa*  fonnd  to  weigh  144 
ounces.  The  advantage  of  having  gold  grain*  or  dn*t 
caat  into  bars  as  a  preparative  for  exporutlon,  I*  per- 
bap*  overrated.  True,  It  ha*  rather  an  Insufficient 
outfit,  if  packed  in  paper,  leather,  muslin,  Seldllls- 
hoxe*r  or  porteiwbettle*,  as  it  came  at  first  from  San 
Francisco.  A  good  tin  box,  well  soldered,  will  hold 
hst  and  keep  dry ;  and  the  Mint  charges  nothing  for 
malting.  This  is  the  most  general  kind  of  packing 
now  used ;  but  the  tin  case,  if  large,  requires  to  be  in- 
cloeed  in  a  wooden  l>ox,  and  after  that  there  is  need  of 
a  vigilaot  watch  and  care.  A  moat  daring  theft  wa* 
lately  committed,  somewhere  on  th*  route,-  by  boring 
through  box  and  case ;  and  about  $0000  worth  was  ab< 
stracted.  A  keg  13)  incites  high,  including  the  chine, 
and  with  a  diameter  of  10  Inches  at  the  head  and  11|| 
at  the  bilge  (outside  measures),  is  a  convenient  size  for 
$2000  in  silver  coin,  or  $50,000  In  gold  coin.  A  keg 
whoaa  measurement*  are  19, 11, 18,  as  above,  is  a  prop- 
er size  for  $6000  in  silver  coin.  A  rectangular  box, 
measaring  inside  10  by  8  inches  by  6  in  depth,  is  the 
*iie  u**d  at  the  Hint  for  $1000  in  silver  coin.  This 
allow*  the  coin  to  be  ihrown  in  promiscuously ;  if 
piled,  at  least  one-third  more  can  be  put  in.  Such  • 
box  would  hold  $36,000  In  gold  coin,  laid  in  order ;  or 
$27,000  in  disorder.  A  bag  6  inch**  by  9  holds  $5000 
in  gold  coin,  with  room  to  tie.  A  bag  14  by  18  is  a 
good  size  for  $1000  in  silver  coin.  One  thousand 
pieces  of  our  three-cent  coin  ($30  worth)  make  a  smaller 
budget  than  many  of  our  customer*  teem  to«nticipate. 
A  bag  H  inche*  by  5  easily  contains  them. — See  J/onu- 
aliffConu,  by  EcKPELliTand  Dc  Boisof  United  States 
Mint.  Published,  New  York,  1863,  by  G.  P.  Putnam 
&Co. 

Privilege  of  Coining. — Th*  privilege  of  coining  money 
has  always  been  claimed  as  a  prerogative  of  the  ex- 
ecutive power,  which  was  guarded  with  extreme  jeal- 
ousy. "  The  legitimation  of  money,"  eays  Sir  Mat- 
thew Hale,  "and  the  giving  it  its  denominated  value, 
is  justly  reckoned  in  jura  nuijettatis,  and  In  England  it 
is  one  special  part  of  the  king's  prerogative."  And 
Kuding  observes,  "As  to  the  impression  of  the  coins, 
the  stamping  thereof  is  tho  unquestionable  prerogative 
of  the  crown,  and  it  was  in  very  few  instances  com- 
municated to  those  persons  on  whom  the  privilege  was 
conferred;  for,  in  general;  the  die*  were  sent  either 
from  the  Exchequer,  or  flx>m  the  master  of  the  mint  in 
the  Tower."  The  privilege  implied  that  the  authority 
of  the  crown  wa*  necessary  to  give  legal  currency  to 
the  coin  ;  and  although  Blackstoi^e  thinks  it  did  not 
extend  to  the  debasement  of  the  coin  to  the  injury  of 
the  people,  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  power  was  not 
always  leglthnately  exercised.  In  truth,  it  Is  only  in 
the  case  of  a  depreciated  currency  that  the  king's  proc- 
lamation is  necessary  to  give  legal  circulation  to  the 
coin  of  the  realm ;  and,  as  a  better  protection  to  his 
subjects,  the  tender  is  limited  within  very  narrow 
bounds. 

AncierU  Conitiliition  of  the  MinlL—Tht  constitution 
of  the  mints  in  the  earliest  times  of  British  history, 
and  the  regulation*  applied  to  the  coinage,  are  ques- 
tions of  antiquarian  research  which  will  be  deemed 
more  curlons  than  profitable.  The  materials  for  such 
an  inquiry  are  extremely  meagre  and  incomplete  ;  for, 
according  to  Ruding,  both  the  Anglo-Saxon  laws  and 
Domesday-Book  are  silent  on  the  subject.  They  fre- 
quently mention  the  moneyer*,  but  make  no  allusion 
to  any  other  officer*  of  the  mint ;  though  it  is  reason- 
able to  sttj^ose  that  the  crown,  whose  prerogative  it 
was  to  coil!  money,  must  have  had  some  jurisdiction 
over  those  vvlto  were  employed  in  the  {tractical  opersr- 
tlon*.— E.B .■    "  -  ■        


/.' 


COl 


84« 


cor 


Tablm  BniTiTi  TO  mc  Coim  or  Ouat  Biiitaik  k»\>  oriin  (.'c^uiiTam. 


Eirotnn  Roini.— Aeconnt  of  the  Quantity  of  FiM  gUrar  oontklned  in  Vit.  or  the  Pound  Sterling  i  the  Quantitr  of  StotHtoni 
Silver,  of  11  01.  S  dwte.  Fine  and  1 1  dn  ta.  Allnjr,  contained  In  Ma.  or  the  Pound  Sterling.  In  the  dUhrent  Belgna,  from  the 
Time  of  Cclward  III.  to  the  Koign  of  George  II  I.— A  •imllar  Account  with  ivapeet  to  Oofd.— And  au  Account  of  the  propor- 
tional Valuo  of  Fine  Gold  to  Fine  Silver,  according  to  the  Number  of  Oralna  oontalned  In  the  Oolne.— OatoitaMm  OrMtM 
(mdlOOOtA  ArM,  IVov  WiH^U. 


Nlv.,.                ■     

doU. 

1. 

1. 

1 

t. 

4. 

NoaikilorOraiaior 

NaallMr«ranlMof 

Nimbtr  of  aniM 

NinkorolOnriaof 

riMGoliitoruulilnr, 

AaaeJUgaL 

rlna  HiMr  la  fO 

SMlllan,  or  Ihe 

Pmigil  RUrllnt,  u 

Sun4at4  aiUir,  II  oi 

•rrUaaoldialo 

■hillMit,  or  Ibo 

PmndMnliai.ai 

(Viuiod  b;  tk* 

Sludud  QoM  if  Canii 

PlM,  in  W  alillllDgi,  w 

Uio  iNiund  RUrllni,  ai 

Gotaod  by  iKi  Mai 

IdoU.  KlnaiUtOUiil- 
llnn,  or  lli«  P«uBd  Btor. 

wcordiog  lo  Ibo  Quaa* 

UlyofnobHMalcoa' 

•71 

CtlMd  kr  'U 

lio*.  ••  l-o4Md  \>i  tk« 
aint  ladMrtwM. 

laiMdlaUM 

MUl  ladaolaM. 

Mlat  Udoaliiroo. 

ladMitarM. 

Colu. 

dniM. 

OrrilM. 

Sralaa. 

Oratau. 

OoMtoMTOf. 

1B44 

18  Kdmrd  III. 

4183 '833 

6388  833 

407  990 

446  080 

1  to  12  091 

184» 

OaKd ward  III. 

4t40'000 

4Stl0'«)0 

883-706 

418-68S 

110  11671 

ISM 

30  Mvard  III. 

889(1 '00* 

4920000 

868126 

800681 

1  to  I116S 

idnt 

ailonrjriV... 

810«  000 

4880000 

868-126 

390  081 

llA  11-168 

1481 

QliennrV.... 

8380000 

8800<I00 

822  812 

861618 

1  to  10-881 

UM 

4  Kdward  IV. 

M84  000 

2880  000 

267-860 

281291 

1  to  10-881 

t4Mt 

6  Kdwaid  IV. 

S«64000 

2880-000 

238-760 

180  464 

1  to  11168 

14T0 

49  Henry  yi... 

SaMKHM) 

2880-000 

288  760 

200-464 

1  to  It  168 

148t 

n  Kdwaid  IV. 

StCMOO* 

2880  000 

288-760 

260  464 

1  to  11 168 

1R0» 

1  Henry  VIII. 

286400(1 

2880  000 

238  780 

260-464 

1  to  11-163 

15111 

11  llonry  VIII. 

2368  000 

2680000 

2IU149 

289-26B 

1  to  11  268 

1B4.1 

84  Iltnry  VIII. 

2000-000 

2162-161 

1II-866 

209-090 

1  lo  10484 

IB46 

36  Henry  VIII. 

1200  000 

1297  297 

176O0a 

108  noo 

Ito   8-818 

15M 

at  llonry  VIII. 

800  000 

864  864 

160  OOO 

174  646 

llo   6O00 

IMT 

1  Hdwaid  VI. 

800  000 

864  «e4 

160-000 

174«5 

Ito    6  000 

1B4» 

8  Kdward  VI. 

800H)00 

8(M864 

106-894 

189-411 

Ito   6161 

•1561 

6  Kdward  VI. 

400  ■OOO 

ni'efc 

isni 

6  Kdward  VI. 

1760-000 

1902-701 

lOO-OOO 

Ito  11 -000 

1568 

6  Kdward  VI. 

1768000 

1911  361 

160-000 

174-648 

Ito  11-060 

1653 

1  Mary\ 

1760  000 

190-2-701 

169-160 

1734B8 

Ito  11-067 

1600 

S  hllaaUelh . . 

1776  000 

1920-000     . 

160  000 

174646 

llolllflO 

laoo 

43  Klltabeth . . 

17IS70B 

18B8-064 

167618 

171 -940 

1  to  10-9i'4 

18114 

2  .laniei  I.  . . . 

1718  709 

1863-064 

141936 

164-838 

1  to  12-100 

t«M 

2  Charles  I... 

1718  7(» 

1868  064 

128  789 

140-487 

1  lo  18-340 

lOM 

18  (Jliurlet  II. . 

1718  709 

1S68  064 

118661 

180-488 

Ito  14^485 

ITII 

3  (leorge  I.  . . 

1718  709 

18681164 

113001 

128-274 

1  to  16-209 

18l« 

60  Oeorge  III. 

1614646 

1746  4M 

1181101 

118-274 

1  to  14-287 

£N(a.lsii  Co  IN  B.— Account  of  English  HHver  and  Gold  Coins  j 

ahowlng  their  Valuo,  the  Selgnnmge 

or  Profit  upon  the  Coinage^ 

tnd  tho  I*McB  of  tlie  Pound  Troy  of  fltaudanl  Gold  and  Silver,  flrom  the 

Keign  of  Edward  III.  to 

tho  Rclgn  of  George  III. 

sUrif. 

Gold. 

'  i.  ■ 

1. 

>. 

4. 

1. 

1. 

7. 

8. 

Equal  lo  Ih. 

Kqn.1  lo  111. 
Mini  Prira 

*■ 

^aelUgat 

rllM>MI0f 

Pound 

Prodi  or 

Mini  Prire  for 

PInaiaaaof 

Ponnd 

Profilor 

thoSllror 

W.ldlit  of 

Mirnorago 

Blandard  Hllver 

Iho  Oold 

Walgblof 

Solgnoraga 

far  Sludard 

intha 

Inch  silver 

wlbe 

oflloi.  <dwU. 

Intha 

■nch  Oold 

on  Iha 

Gold  of  99 

Coiiu. 

coined  into 

Coinage. 

ane,  Troy 

Colna. 

colnad  ialo 

Coin  ago. 

Crflta  flna, 

Wilahlf 

Tror  Weiglil. 

ISM 

ISFxlwardlll... 

Oi.dotn. 
11     2 

t    ,d 
1     0  B 

iC  •.    i. 
0  1     8 

t    f.    i. 
1     0    3} 

Cria.  pa. 
28  S( 

<     a.  i. 

IS    S  4 

t     ,.    i. 

0    8    4 

t    a.    a. 
12  10    8 

1349 

23  Kdward  in.... 

11     2 

1     2  6 

0  1     3 

1     8    8 

23  8t 

14    110 

0  118 

18     3     0 

1806 

SO  Kdward  III.... 

11    8 

1    60 

0  0  10 

1     6    9f 

28  8( 

16    0  0 

0    6    8 

14    8    4 

1394 

18  Itlchard  II.  ... 

11    2 

1    80 

0  0  10 

1     6    9t 

28.11. 

16    0  0 

0    5    0 

14    9  11 

1401 

8  Henry  IV 

11    2 

1    60 

0  0  10 

1     8    9) 

23  8( 

16    0  0 

0    8    0 

14    9  11 

1421 

9  Henry  V 

11    2 

1  10  0 

010 

1  10  lU 

23  81 

16  18  4 

0    8    0 

16    2    9 

1426 

4  Honry  VI 

11    2 

I  10  0 

0  1     0 

1  10  lU 

28  8( 

16  13  4 

0    5  10 

18    1  11 

1464 

4  (Mwaid  IV. . . . 

11    8 

1  17  6 

04    6 

1  16    2t 

23  Si 

20  18  8 

1  10    0 

18    0    6 

1486 

eKdmldlV.... 

11    8 

1  17  6 

04    6 

1  16    2t 

28  Si 

2110  0 

1    0  10 

21    1  10 

1470 

49  Henry  VI 

11    2 

1  17  0 

08    0 

I  17  10 

23  Si 

8J  10  0 

0  13    0 

21     0    7 

1492 

22  Edward  IV.... 

11    2 

1  17  0 

0  1    6 

1  13    4 

23  Si 

22  10  0 

0    7    6 

21  16    0 

14<)3 

1  Richard  I II.... 

11    2 

1  17  0 

016 

1  18    4 

28  Si 

22  10  0 

0    7    6 

21  16    0 

1488 

1  Henry  VII.  ... 

11    2 

1  17  0 

01    0 

1  18    4 

28  .",i 

22  10  0 

0    7    6 

21  16    0 

1609 

1  Henry  VIII.  .. 

11    2 

1  17  0 

0  1     0 

1  18  1U 

23  Si 

28  10  0 

0    2    6 

22    0    0 

tiBn 

IS  Henry  VIU.  . . 

11    2 

2    0  1) 

0  1   ot 

1  18  lU 

23  Si 

24    0  0 

0    2    8 

28    0    0 

16!7 

18  Henry  VIII.  .. 

11    2 

8    6  0 

0  10' 

8    4    0 

28  3il 
22  0 

V7    0  0 

0    2    9 

.... 

1627 

18  Henry  VIII.  . . 

•  •  •  • 

26    8  6 

0    3    0 

24' is'  8 

1643 

84  Henry  VIII,  .. 

io'"o 

8"80 

08    0 

8   i'^ 

280  ' 

28  16  0 

1    4    0 

20    8    0 

1648 

80  Henry  VIII.  . . 

0    0 

8    8  0 

20    0 

8  11     9t 

8-2  0 

30    0  0 

3  10    0 

27  10    0 

1640 

87  Henry  VIII.  .. 

4    0 

2    8  0 

44    0 

8  18    6 

20  0 

SO    0  0 

6    0    0 

27  10    0 

1847 

1  Kdward  VI.... 

4    0 

2    8  0 

44    0 

8  18    6 

80  0 

80    0  0 

1  10    0 

31     7    0 

1849 

3  Kdward  VI.... 

6    0 

8  18  0 

40    0 

8  10    8( 

220 

84    00 

1    0    0 

S3    0    0 

16M 

6  Kdward  VI.... 

8    0 

8  12  0 

*.  .  e 

1561 

6  Kdward  VI.... 

11    0 

BOO 

.... 

M  Si  ( 

86  ■  0  0 

.... 

1661 

8  Edward  VI.... 

.... 

•      .  . 

22  0  ; 

KS    00 

.... 

1663 

8E<lwanl  VI.... 

ii"i 

80  0 

0  i'  0 

2i9  "st 

23  31) 

80    00 

oVo 

1562 

6  Kdward  VI.... 

.... 

82  0   j 

38    U  0 

0    8    0 

83' it'  8 

1663 

1  Mary 

ii'o 

8    0  0 

0  1     0 

2i9'8J 
2  18    6 

23  81 
28  Si 

86    0  0 

0    3    0 

83    0    8 

1680 

2  Elizabeth 

U    8 

8    00 

0  1  e 

88    0  0 

0    6    0 

1580 

2EllMbeth 

88  0 

33    0  0 

0    4    0 

82' ii'  0 

1800 

4:lElliabelh 

ii'i 

b'so 

oi'o 

3    0 "O 

23  3{ 

80  10  0 

0  10    0 

1800 

4SKIUabeth 

, 

. 

280 

83  10  0 

0  10    0 

ss'o'  0 

18IM 

2  James  I 

ii'i 

b"  20 

o"2"8 

2  1»"8 

280 

87    4  0 

0  10    0 

86  14    0 

1826 

2CharlesI 

11    2 

8    2  0 

0  2    0 

3    0    0 

22  0 

41    0  0 

1    1    6 

89  18    7 

tl888 

ISChartesII 

11    2 

S    3  0 

00    0 

8    2    0 

220 

44  10  A 

44  10    0 

171T 

8  Oeorge  I 

11    8 

B    SO 

00    0 

8    2    0 

28  0 

48  14  8 

!!!! 

46  14    8 

1818 

36  George  III. ... 

11    2 

8    8  0 

04    0 

^■^•- 

280 

46  14  6 

46  14    8 

•  1681—6  Edward  VI.]    The  coinage  of  dobawd  allvor  money,  In  the  6th  year  of  Edward  VI.,  of  3  oz.  fine,  ought  mora 

froptrly  tobo  conalderoil  aa  Tokens.     The  »iim  of  XIIO.OO'J  only  waaM  coined S«e, I  Ansa's  ifsaoj/s,  chapter  It. 

t  1627— Henry  VIII.]  Tlio  Saxon  or  Tower  pound  was  used  at  the  .tilnt  up  tu  this  time,  when  tho  pound  Troy  was  sub-; 
■tituted  in  Its  stead.  Toe  Tower  pound  was  but  U  os.  6dwts.,  Trayi  so  that,  fttna  the  Conquest  to  the  28th  of  Edwudl.,, 
10  thilllngo  in  tale  were  exactly  a  pound  in  weight 

°  X  1886— 18  Charles  II.]    The  scignorage  on  the  coinage  was  at  thia  time  given  up,  and  the  gold  bullion  brought  lo  the  Mint 
fauerer  since  beencolued  freoof  oxpenie.    A  salgnomgs  of  8^  per  oont  was  Imposed  on  the  coinage  of  silver  by  68  Oeo.  III. 


Nl 


COI 


848 


001 


floui  Com  or  DirrauiiT  CoinrraiM.  ,  .     ^ „ 

all  t'ountriu*,  eompuWd  Mc«rdln(  to  tha  Mint  IMce  of  Uold  in  Kngland,  uid  lillawing  /l\  la 


A  T«bl*  eontalnlng  tha  Anajri,  Walghtt,  and  Valnai  of  tha  prinelual  Oald  Oolai  of 

"■ ■    wing  itl  lo  enual  $4  84,  which  U  an  A»k 

Aaiaya  hava  Man  mada  both  at  Londoa 


araaa  Valua,  wUI  ttva  tha  Vaitia  of  tha  Coin  In  Unltad  Stataa  Uealmal  Cumn«x. 
ana  Paria,  which  in*  baan  Ibund  to  Tatiiy  aaeh  othar. 


Aiimi.i]i  DoHia- 1  Souveratn i 

lOHi (  Double  duaak 

Ducat  Kramnlti,  or  Hungarian.  I 

Bataiu Caraltn 

Max  d'or,  or  UaxImlUan 

Ducal 

Banc Ducat  (double,  etc,  In  proportion) 

Hatole 

BamnwiOK Platola  (double  In  proportion) 

Ducat 

CoLoom Ducat 

UimiAiK Ducat  current 

Ducat  apcela t 

ChrlaHan  d'or 

Eholaiis Guinea 

Half-guinea 

BeTcn-ahlUlng  place 

Sovereign  

nuaoB DouUa  Xoula  (coined  before  1T86) 

Loula ■ 

Double  Loula  (coined  alnce  1T86) 

Loula 

Double  Napoleon,  or  piece  of  40  fnuMB. . , 

Napoleon,  or  piece  of  SO  franca 

Vtw.  Eeula  (double,  etc.),  tha  unie  aa  the 

Napoleon. 
MAim  Ducat 

Plitole,  old 

PIttole,  new 

Bequln 

Ducat  (double  in  proportion) 

Oeorge  d'or 

Ducat 

Gold  florin  (double  In  proportion) 

Double  ryder 

Ryder  

Ducat 

Double  Loula 

Loula 

Demi  Loula 

Sequin 

X)oppIa  or  platola 

Forty-lire  piece  oflSOfl 

Blx-dueat  piece  of  1T83 

Tvo-ducat  piece,  or  Hequln,  of  1T61 

Thrae-ducat  piece,  or  oneetta,  o(  ISIS 

Gold  lion,  or  fourteen-florin  piece 

Tcn-florin  piece  (1830) 


PiAKKroiT-oa-Tin- 

(illCKTA 

OlNOA 

llAMHiraa 

IlAHOVn 

IIOLbAIfD 

Malta 

MaAS 

Naflh 

KmnELAinis 

Pabma 

PiiDiioirr 

POUHD 

POBTVeAI, 


Fbdmia. 


Rome . . 
RmatA. 


BAmMiiu 
Haxoht  . . 

SlOILT*. .  , 

SrAiM..,. 


Quadruple  platole  (doiibia  In  proportion) . 

Itatole  or  doppla  of  1T8T 

Ditto  of  1T»« 

Maria  Tboresa  (1818) 

P|gt«le  coined  since  1T86  (i,  etc.,  In  prop.) 

Sequin  (t  In  proportion) 

Carlino,  coined  Bince  ITS^  (t,  etc.,  in  prop.) 

PIccv  of  10  franca,  called  Jlar«ii0O 

Ducat 

Dobraan  of  {4,000  reea 

Dobra  of  12,800  reea 

Moldore  or  Lbbonnlne  (i.,  etc.  In  prop.) 

Ilece  of  10  teatoona,  or  ICOO  reea 

Old  eruaado  of  400  reea 

New  cniaado  of  490  reea 

Milree  (coined  for  African  colonlca,  ITbS) 

Ducat  of  1T48 : 

Ducat  of  1 I8T 

Frederick  (double)  of  1709 

Frederick  (single)  of  17T8 

Frederick  (double)  of  1800 

Frederick  (alngle)of  18A0 

Sequin  (coined  itnca  1T60). , 

Scndooflhn  RepuUlo 

Ducat  of  ITM 

Ducat  of  ITSS 

Gold  ruble  of  ITM 

Ditto  of  ITM 

OoldpoltlnoflTTT , 

Imperial  of  1801 

Half  Imperial  of  1801 

Ditto  of  1818 

Carlino  (^  in  proportion) 

Dueat  of  1T64 

Ducat  of  ITVT 

Auguitua  of  ITM 

Augiiatiia  of  IT84 

Ouneeof  1151 

Double  ounce  of  1T58 

DouMoon  of  lTi9  (double  and  ilngte  In  { 
pioporilon) { 


Atmf. 


W.  0 

a  1 
u.  1 

W.J 

W.  8 

a  1 

B,    1 


S 

s 

I 


w.  0  u 
w.  0  It 
a  1  o} 

U.   1    1 
W.  0    81 

B.  I  a 
w.  0   1 

SUnd. 

Stand. 

SUnd. 

SUnd. 
W.  0  » 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 


1 

u 
u 
II 
II 


a  1 

W.  0 
W.  0 
B.    t 

a  1 

W.  0 

a  1 
w.  8 

Stand. 

Stand. 
B.  1  2t 
W.  1  St 
W.  1  " 
W.  1 
a  1 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  1 

a  1 

stand. 
W.  0  11 
W.  1 
W.  0 
W.  1 
W.  0 
W.  0 
B.  1 
W.  0 
W.  9 

a  1 

stand. 

SUnd. 

SUnd. 
W.  0  0| 
W.  0  0» 
W.  0    01 

SUnd. 


S 

S* 
«l 

It 
3J 


S 
1 
11 

«l 
8i 


0 
8 

OJ 

H 
U 
li 
U 

0 
91 


B.  1 
II.  1 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  0 
B.  1 
W.  0 

a  1 

U.    1 

SUnd. 
W.  0    «t 

SUnd. 
B.  1  ?i 
a    1    21 

a  0  ot 
w.  0  "■ 

B.  1 
B.  1 
W.  0 
W.  0 
W.  1 
W.  1 


2i 
9 
II 

u 

9 
9 

at 
II 

«» 

9 


21 

2 

it 

21 

11 

2» 

9 


W.  0    9( 


WtliM. 


Wt(|l 


Iu4 

rli. 


Dwt.  mt,' 

8  14 
4  19 

9  61 
<    B| 
4    4 
9    M 
1  2S 
4  21 


61 

0 

61 

T 

iSt 

19 
?» 


10  11 

n  6t 
e  90 

4  29 
8  T 
4    81 


9    B| 
4    T| 

8  IM 


12  21 
6  » 
2    Bi 

10  16 
6  8 
9  16 
9  61 
4    U 

8  8 
6  16 

1  20t 

2  lOi 
6  T| 
4    T| 

18    9 
4  14 
4  14 
4    St 
6  20 

9  M 
29    6 

4  8| 
9  61 
1:4  19 
18  6 
6  29 
9  6 
0  16 
0  16| 
0  191 
9  6| 
9  61 
8  14 
4    T 

8  14 
4    T 

9  4t 
IT    «l 

9  A 
9  61 
•1  OJ 
0  181 
0  0 
T  ITt 
8  201 
4  si 


n 

61 
61 

a» 

«l 


2  90| 
6  IT 

IT  8t 


■B^ 


ift  mr.  M. 

u  r»  16 

4  90  6 


10  S 

6  10 
14  0 
10  II 
9  1 
19  0 
4  19  6 
9  8  9 
19  8 
1  91  19 
19  8 
4  6  IS 
6  H  10 
1  10  16 
1  19  0 
6  8  6 
10  6  • 
6  9  19 
9  15  19 
4  19  19 
8  8  0 
4  1  10 


1    9  14 

4    4  18 

8  15  4 
1  10  0 
1  9  14 
4    5    8 

9  10  8 
1  IS    0 

19  21  0 
6  9  0 
9  9  19 
9  18  IS 
4  21  18 
1  11  B 
1  10  0 
4  0  8 
8  4  0 
6  19  18 

1  10    0 

2  16  1 
6  T  16 
4    6  16 

IT  12  18 
4  10  4 
4  S  14 
4  1  10 
6  1T  0 
2    9  12 

28  2»    0 

8  18  4 
2    9  19 

84  12  0 
18  0  0 
A  22    0 

1  6  14 
0  14  18 
0  16    9 

0  19  16 

9  9  14 
9  8 
9  18 
6  4 
9  « 
4  13 
9    0 

16  16  6 
9  10    0 

2  9    8 

1  0  10 
0  18  14 
0    9    0 

8  6  8 
4  3  4 
4    S  19 

9  23  16 

2  9  8 
9  9  14 
4  8  8 
4  4  12 
9  15  8 
6    T  14 


16  21  1( 


la  Pan 
0«I4. 


UnlM. 
T8< 
106-4 
B8'3 
116- 
TT- 
62  8 
45-9 
106« 
106T 
61 '8 
614 
491 
61-6 
98-3 
118-T 
893 
394 
il3'l 
tU-9 
111-4 
111-6 
106-3 
1T9' 
89-T 


61-9 

»l-6 

80- 

58-4 

619 

916 

68-3 

89- 

283-1 

140-9 
52-8 

215-8 

108- 
M'5 
53-2 
88-4 

1T9-7 

191-9 
314 
581 

llTl 
9.1-2 

386- 
9T4 
95-9 
89-T 

1164 
Bl« 

6344 
8iT 
69-9 

T6B- 

401-5 

159-9 
49-S 
18-6 
14-8 
18-1 
52-9 
614 

185- 
92-8 

184-6 
95 -2 
69-1 

SIT- 
53-2 
62-6 
29-5 
lT-1 
8-9 

181-9 
90D 
91-3 

219-8 
696 
69-9 
91-2 
91 -2 
68-1 

117- 


8T9' 


ValMla 
■torilni. 


IB  10-M 

18  9-97 

9  5-91 

20  4-13 

IB  7-44 

9  411 

8  1-48 
IS  T-86 
18  S'tS 

9  1- 


8-TO 
6-«9 

9    3-TO 
16    614 
11    0- 
10     «■ 

7  0- 
90  0- 
39  9-S4 
10  10-Tl 
37  7-63 
18  9T5 
31  8  86 
16  10  B 


9 
16 
14 

9 

9 
16 

0 


484 

446 

1-9 

641 

4  86 

4-66 

6-19 


6  1083 


50 
24 

V 
fiS 
19 

9 

9 
15 
31 
21 

0 
10 
20 
16 
68 
IT 


146 
916 
4-13 
1-26 
1-3T 
7-15 
4-98 
T-T4 
9-64 
0-89 
T-49 
8-40 
869 
6-98 
B-T8 
9(6 
16  11-67 
15  106 
29    9-75 


9 
119 
14 
9 
184 
71 


4-34 
8-33 
763 
434 
3  96 
0-TO 


SB  11-24 
8    8  TO 


4 -88 
T-4S 
244 
4-04 
8-Tl 
8-90 
5-08 
T-84 
3-42 
2-86 


9 

2 

3 

9 

9 
82 
10 
32 
16 

9 
64  11-43 

9    4-98 

»    3T1 

8  11T8 

3  0-31 
641 
2-81 
l-i:6 
1-93 
810 
0-Tl 
4-84 
169 
3-81 
3  60 
8-48 


6eio-os 


*  MuehTarttUoDiibuiHliDlbeflDaiieHoftb«8isUiuigttld«ofaM. 


001 


840 


CM 


4-04 
4'4B 
1»      , 
5'4t 

4S6 
4M 
6'1« 
10-88 
14« 
StB 
4'IS 
IM 
1-8T 
T'lB 
448 
T-T4 
9-64 
0-89 
T'4« 
8-40 
8W 
B'«8 
.      818 
IT    «» 
1«  !!■« 
15  10-5 
2-^    3-T5 
4-84 
8-83 
T«8 
484 
8  98 
..     070 

•:6  1W4 

R  8  TO 
4-88 
T'43 
!t'44 
4-04 
8-Tl 
890 
5-08 
T-84 
8-42 
.  9'88 
04  11-48 
9  4-98 
9  STl 
8  11-T8 
3    0-Sl 


WIO'OB 


BrAiM Quulrupl*  pMoln  oflMI 

niMa  of  1*01 

OoraallU,  laid  diilUr,  «r  vlntani  at  ItOt, 

SWIDIN UUUt , 

8«r|T<iUAMD PMoU  o/  tlw  llalvmln  IU|IUMI«  of  iMW. , 

Tbitm D«nt 

TvBkB* laquln  ftiniluell  of  lliiiii>tinlliiii|il«  of  ITTI 

8t-quln  Ibn4ucll  u(  1T8V 

IMriutMUrd*!*) 

Btiiuln  funduoll ,,.,., 

YtmMubuililik  < , .  • 

TnoAMT ZtMblno  or  MqHln. , , . , 

Kutpona  of  Ilia  kliiRiluiii  of  Klrurla 

I'MiTiii  Statu.  . . .  Kaafa  (t  and  i  lit  |im|Hirlluiil 

ViKioa Kaoehlno  or  anquln  (i  and  t  In  |in|Kirtlun) 

WuTiMuiii} CtKlIn 

Uiiaal 

Diioal  (dmilila  and  (  dunal  In  |ini|Hirtlaii) 
Eait  Ixiiiu Moliur  of  ITTO 

Mohur,  Half  itT«T)  i|  In  |il«twrtloi.) 

Mohur  Sliwa  of  HanuHl , , . , 

»'.- '      Moliur  of  Ilia  liulah  Kaal  IlldU  t'ani- 1 

'*  panr.lTiW) 

4    >     I    I  Uoliur,  lltir  llltio  (IM)I) 

-I    ..  Rupaa,  lloniliay  (1818) 

Hu|iaa«rMadra«(INI») 

Paiiodii  •••f 


iMar- 


WMihl. 


I'M.  ai. 

W.  1  1 

W.  I  1 

W.  I  <t 

D.   1  1 

W.  0  u 

11  1  f 

w,  s  si 


W.  9 
H.  0 
II.  1 
II.   1 

W.  0 

n.  1 
w.  a 
II.  1 
II.  1 


Si 

9 
* 
9 

n.  1  It 

11.  1  i\ 

II.    t    81 

w.  a  Bt 
w.  8  u 

II.   0    01 

IHand. 

W.  8    0 


ll»l.  |r. 

IT  9 

4  8» 

1  3 

I  B 
4  lU 
t  Bl 
1  Bl 
«  Bl 

0  IRt 
9  B 

1  II 
3  Bl 
8  IT) 

II  0 


auadara 

Walikl 


7  3!) 

8  931 
T  93 

10    9 

B    8( 
T  11 
T  19 

9  41 


llwt.  (r.  ml. 
I<    9    « 
9    • 
0  18 

8  19 
19    9 

9  8 
S3    8 

1  99  18 

0  IS    B 

1  99    T 

8  4  18 

3  10  14 
T    T  IS 

II    «    8 

9  10  10 
B  4  0 
9  8  19 
9    9    8 

11  IB 

4  10  10 
8  IB    0 

8    8    0 

4  13  18 
T  11  13 
T  19  0 
1  91  11 


Cwitiite 

hi  fan 

UM. 

UnilM.~ 

30UB 

901 

99  8 

01-9 

lOBf 

Bt-O 

48  8 
*i-9 
1918 

49  B 
TO  3 
B3  8 

181  • 
940-1 

B8< 
linT 

61-9 

B9'8 
IMS 

04- 
189-8 

183-4 

98-9 
164T 
166- 

41-8 


ValMla 
■Utllif. 


(3  9  89 
IB  11  SB 
4    0  49 


994 

8111 
8-Tl 
T-94 
TU 
189 
898 


19    B89 


B83 
B- 


43  888 

9  B'8S 

90  14T 

9  9« 

9  STl 

D3  0T9 

18  TM 

30  1-04 

39  B-BO 

IT  0-80 

99  ITS 

99  9  42 

T  4TT 


The  London  Aiaajra  In  thia  Tabia  wiira  niada  liy  nulxirl  lllnKlny.  Ka<|.,  F.K.fl.,  tho  Assay  Maater  of  the  Royal  Mint,  and 
thoae  at  I'aHa  by  Pierre  ITrOdiirlok  Ilonn«Vllln,  Kaaayor  dii  <.'nnitnar«<<,  ai  piibllnhcd  In  hla  olaborato  work  on  the  coins  uf  nil 
nations.  Sp<<clnA)na  of  all  Uia  fbriiliin  rulna  briiUKllI  In  Irfilidcin  fur  eoninierrlal  piirpoM'S  havn  brvn  supplied  for  Ibis  Table 
from  the  lliillion-anlce,  Hank  of  KniiUndi  by  order  nftlin  Hank  Itlnwtdm,  and  have  been  n^lccted  by  John  Humble,  I-><1.,  the 
chief  clerk  of  that  offloe,  who  also  oiMnlnad  Ilia  Tiblas  In  llinir  proiircss.  It  may  likewise  Ise  added,  that  tho  Mint  Reports 
of  Iheao  cominerolal  oolna  ara  ehleAy  fhini  averaii*  asaays  i  and  tliat  all  thn  roninulatlons  hare  been  careftiUy  verified  by  dlf- 
fuant  oaleulatora.— Nola  by  Ur.  K8U,v,  lu  aaiiond  adilluli  of  the  Cambist,  published  in  1991. 

QvAMTi-nia  Aim  Valdb  or  Ookii  mm  Hilvnii  liiri.l.lAM|  add  or  Oorria,  biocitid  akd  rumonAUD  nr  mi  Kotal  Mint, 

AMU  flOIMID  TUIMAT  I»tO  MOMirB  Of  Till  SIVMAb  UlNOMINATtONa  IK  Till  YlAia  (■NDIMO  UIO.  Bl)  186U,  1S5T. 


aav'BivaD  aho  rua«a*sB». 
Gold  bullion  reoeivad  fi-oni  Ilia  Hank  of  Kn|land 

Haatei'  a  supply , , , 

Silver  bullion  purchwad ■..■.<t. 

Market  prioe  par  ounce , , , , 


Copper  purcbHid 

Market  price  par  ton . 


) 

Total  value  of  bullion  and  copper  recalvcd  I 
and  purchaaed  for  coinage  .,,,,., / 


OOLDI 


gILTU; 


eoiaoa. 

Sovereigns 

IIalf-aoverel|[na. 

Total 

Fiorina 

ShUllnca 

Sizpaneaa 

OroaU 

Threapeneea . , , . 
Maundy  money , 

Total 


.1  ""*■-__ 

tfsMM. 

l,aM,4bW  880 

J.TJ'i.obil'TlT 

Wt<l,  la  M(, 

Tsas.   Owl.  qn. 

M      II*     9 

*m 


1,9B»,IT4<4T4 

108100 

1,449,860  011 

01)<ilo091d.p.ai. 

Toat. 

80 

ilFrom  XI  IT  lo) 
i(19t,leM  8  per- 
cent, for  cash.)) 


t,9.'l4,ll-^n  804 


;jsn;4nw 


Corru:  Pennlai ,,., 

Ilalf-pannlea , 

Farthings , 

llalf-farthinga 

Total 

Total  value  coined. 


AiNi,ii40'nflii 

ftT«,0<NI'IKlO 

t69,T9fl'O0O 

B,Tda'OiH) 

4<,nm  Olio 

TSO'OOO 

_l,*8ljWO|0flO_ 

TMi.  I'wI.  On, 

89  It     0 

M        1      1 

H      4     g 

9       9      9 

~ir-Tr~r 


Tsr 


t          :  d. 

B,918,00S    8  T 

4T3,29i'  T  T 

0,413  n  0 


4,398,817    8    9 


OuncM 
l,>BI,808"2m) 
93,611  STO 


1.948,118-100 

"^iffeSO-IHiO 

486,840-000 

908,040-000 

70,09(1-000 
730-000 


l,BB7,9flO -11(10" 


Toof. 
14 
11 
B 


80 


— z 7r~i: 

4,»H),183  19  9 
1,106,954  10  9 
e^J02,ll4"l»    6 


9:iO,170 

168,400 

80,498 

1,6S4 

12,879 

1C8 


48^,688    0"0 


0,061  4  0 

4,048  0  0 

1,84B  4  0 

4T0  0  0 


t         I.  i. 

4,826,086  19  9 

490  18  8 

aOT,441    0  9 


8,499    0    0 


6,226,389  11    9 


t         I.    i. 

4,416,748    4  10 

864,111  17    4 


4,aW,860    9  2 

167,119    0  0 

1!8,106    0  0 

66,836    0  0 

21,978*  0  0 

108    0  0 


873,980    0    0 


8,138  0  0 
2,404  0  0 
1,120    0    0 


11,418    S    0 


0,476,001    7    6 


0,T20    0    0 


6,239,810    9    9 


"  By  one  of  the  article!  of  tho  ZolKVoroln,  or  Cum 
tomi  Union  of  Germany,  it  was  atipulateil  llmt  tho  act- 
tlements  for  the  duties  ibould  be  m»ile  eitlier  in  Prtia- 
Bian  dollars  or  In  florins,  at  the  rat*  uf  7  llorins  for  four 
Prussian  dolUri.  There  were,  howovor,  no  li'irin*  in 
existence  exactly  of  this  value ;  but  88  tlio  iionreit  «ti' 
proRcli  to  it  was  a  valuation  calloil  tlw  'l\  Kuld«iifii88, 
or  florin-foot,  these  Zoll-Veretn  florin*  wore  nominal' 
Ir  reckoned  to  Im  in  this  rate,  though  (lin  dlATerono* 
amounts  to  more  than  2  per  cent,  ilia  torin  24  ((ul* 
denfuBs  implies  that  the  mark  weight  of  Una  silver  Is 
rated  at  'H  gulden  or  florins.  It  waa  formed  by  giv- 
ing to  the  coins  minted  or  valued  in  20  guldonfuss  an 
increased  value  of  one.flflb,  as  rating  the  20-lcr«ut88r 
piece  at  24  kreutiers.  At  6M,  per  ounoe  standard,  the 
value  of  this  mwk  of  Ona  sUvar  ia  worib  Mi.  lii,  staN 


ling,  from  which  the  value  of  the  different  German 
monetary  integers  is  readily  obtained ;  as  reckoning 
271  marks  banco  or  84  marks  current  of  Hamburg,  14 
dollars  of  Prussia,  24^  florins  of  South  Germany,  20 
florins  of  Austria,  and  also  60  lire  of  Anstriache  of  Lom- 
bardy,  to  ha  of  this  amount.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
prevent  the  loss  or  inconvenience  which  would  attend 
their  adhering  to  this  mode  of  valuation,  a  money  con- 
vention woB  entered  into  on  the  25th  of  August,  1887, 
among  the  states  forming  the  union,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  upon  that  a  new  basis  of  valuation  sliould  be 
adopted  for  their  coins,  under  the  term  of  SQddeutscher 
Wlinrung,  or  South  German  valuation,  at  the  rate  of 
241  gulden  or  florins  from  the  mark's  weight  of  fine 
silver."— /rffffr  <if  WMam  Tate,  Etq.,  canAitt  to  tke 


CCH 


<ii» 


iCOl 


tftnm  Oona  ov  MfinmHr  CovimiHi-^  T*bl«  (MUlnlnt  th*  Amyi,  WalghU,  «n<l  Vshlu  of  tht  piin<H|Mt  Mtrtr  Cstat 
of  kll  CounlrlMi  eoaiHtM  >l  Un  rat*  o(  (k  Id,  per  Oune*  HUndud,  tnm  Aihjti  aiatf*  botk  at  IM  Londim  Md  PuU 


Ma 


AMnu. ...... 


Bataua 

Bni* 

B*B(W 


»•   T     i 


Ea«i.AaB., 


:  .iAiio'(  «■» 

nuMoi 


OlMITA 

OmoA 

Uauoio 


Hasotib. 


UhuCihil. 
Ilouin 


■I   nil, I 


:>rfjr 


-»  ^ 


LotM... 

LVOOA , 

Maua 

Miuur 

,,.    I  t,,^,!/,    .1,. 


MOMIIA. 


NAnn....... 

:    i      .'■(  '  ,   '■ 

If  RBXBLAJVDB  . 


Rlt  doHar  of  PrMiU  II.  (tMA 

RU  doUar  of  Iha  klntdooi  of  Uuanrjr  . . 

Half  lb  dollar,  or  dortn,  OmMiWon 

C'a|iflauck,  or  lO^cnutMr  ptcoa 

lT4!nmtMr  pleea 

Ildlba  copf,  or  lO-cnulaar  piaat 

Hlidollar , 

RU  dollu of  1800  (i  In  proporttao) 

c'opftauck 

PaUgon  or  frown  ((  la  pfpponloii) 

Hac*  of  10  bataan ,,,^,, 

Htae  of  48  urolM 

Hlidollar,  CoitMiiMon 

Half  rix  dollar 

Guidon,  or  pleca  of  |,  llna.  of  ITM 

Uuldon,  connion,  of  ITM 

Guidon,  ditto,  of  ins 

Half  gulden,  or  plot*  uf  t,  of  ITM 

Rjrkcdaler,  vroU,  of  ITMI 

Naw  pleca  of  4  Marka 

Halfrykadalor 

Mvk,  apoela,  or  i  rtkadalar 

Ul  dollar,  apwile,  of  Bloawick  and  Hoi-  I 

itala  (plooaa  of  I  and  t  in  proportion)  { 

Phee  of  M  •UlUnii* 

Crown  (ii)U> , 

Half-orovn 

BkUUng 

SIxpaneo  

Crown  (MH) , 

Half-crown 

BUUlng 

BUpanea 

Ecu  of  8  Urraa 

DamI  ecu 

Piaoa  of  S4  ami!  (dirlaioua  In  proportion) . 

Fleco  of  30  MUi  (t  In  proportion) 

rieea  of  B  fhinca 

PbieeofSfranri 

Fraae 

Demi  franc 

Patagon 

ricceoflBiouiioflTM 

8cudo,  of  6  lire,  of  ITM  (t<  (•etc.  In  piopi) 

gcudo  of  the  Ugnrtan  RapHula 

RU  dolUr,  apem 

DnntiUi  mark,  or  SS-Khllllng  piece  (sin-  i 

gle  In  proportion) { 

Plecf  ofSachlUlnga 

Piece  of  4  Khllllnga 

Rlz  dollar,  ConarMMon 

Florin,  or  piece  of  I.  Ane 

Half  florin,  or  piece  of  i,  ditto 

Quarter,  or  piece  of  •  good  groachen,  ditto 

tloiin,  orpiecoof  I,  baaa 

Rlx  dollar,  CmmiHim 

Florin,  or  piece  of  I  (t  In  proportion) .... 

Thaler  of  1TS» 

Ecu,  CofiMnMon  (1815) 

Bon  groa 

Ducatoon 

Ilece  of  8  florlna 

Rlx  dollar  (tho  aasay  varlea) 

Half  rU  dollar 

Florin  or  guilder  (1  In  proportion) 

li-ttlrer  gece 

Florin  of  Oatavia 

Rlx  dollar,  or  fiO-iUver  piece 

Rlx  dollar,  apecle 

Doable  mark 

Mark 

Seudo 

Barbone 

Onace  of  SO  tarl  of  Emmannel  Pinto 

1-tarl  pleca 

Seudo  of  0  lira  (i  In  proportion) 

Ura,  new 

Ura,<ld 

Hondo  of  the  Clialplna  Rapublie 

Piece  of  80  Midi  of  ditto 

Bcndo  of  15  lire,  1TS9  (double,  eto.,  In  i 

proportion) i 

BeudoofMIn,  oflTSt 

Seudo  of  ITN 

Dueal,new  (tin  proportion)... •< 

PleceoflSCarllnloriTtl 

DHtooflTM 

Ditto  of  1806  ({  In  proportloa) 

DlttooflOCarilni(IBiai)...... 

Crown  (i,  etc.,  in  proportion) ,.., 

S^Urer^ace 


Aaay. 


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Swinaif. 
BwiraoL 

AND 

rioriii*nii* 

lUlf  Horln  iwlUi  dlvlslom  lu  pnportlon) 

DutftloriTM 

l>imt  of  ITM  ii  In  pro|Miniaii) .....,,.. 

MeMorxUn 

Itiid*,  ITBt  (I,  ale.,  In  pni|wrtli>n) 

Muds,  ITTi)  (i  *nil  )  In  pruuortlon) 

rtootortllnlUU) 

5.muieple«a  (1801) 

Wx4olUr,  old 

Klx  4oll«r,  tin*  (ITM) 

KluiiB,  or  Ktil<l"N 

NewcniMuli)  (ItM) 

Uluu         (ITU) 

Ulllo         (ITWl 

Rum  vlntitini,  or  plomi  of  140  n^iiii  (ITW). 

TMIoon  (IIW) 

Nowrruwda  (l!MW) 

Ball  TliiUiiii,  or  plven  of  ItO  mw  (1802), , 

Tutuon  (I8UI) 

Tm  vlnlema,  or  piece  of  40  rMt  (ISO!).. 

Iltlfuakian  (180t> 

lMw«  of  (  niMUtM.  of  l\>r«H(«MM  AT-  / 
rim ( 

niito  of  e  iiiita 

Dlllo  of  4  illtta 

Uk  dollw,  I'niHiAn  ourrtBox  (t  In  prop,) 

Rlx  dollar,  ConwiiMoii 

Florin,  or  j)lece  of  | 

Florin  of  Mlaila 

UrUtal,  or  pl«re  of  8  good  groMtMn 

flee*  of  iRrowhen 

Hrtulu.  or  rruwn  (rulnnd  rinee  ITDR) 

MeA/u  Kuilu,  or  half-crown 

Toilone  (ITW 

1^10(1786) 

UroMo,  or  half  INmIo  (1T8S) 

Hcwio  of  the  Roman  Republic  (ITW) 

Rouble  of  {"eier  tha  Orcal 

Ultlo  of  C'alliarlna  I.  (1T26) 

Ditto  of  Peter  n.  (1T2T) 

Ditto  of  Anno  (IT84) 

DllloofKlliabethdTfiO)..... 

Ditto  of  Peter  III.  (1782) 

Ditto  of  t'athailaa  II.  (1T80) 

Ditto  of  Alexander 

flauda,  or  crown  (f  and  i  In  pmpnrtlon). 
Rlx  dollar,  OnweiiMon,  d  and  k  In  pn>-\ 

portion) I 

Piece  of  18  Kiuflchen  of  I^elpele 

Rlx  dollar  current  of  Haxa  Uotha 

i  thaler  of  1 804 . 

Ditto  of  1808 

Ditto  or.leroma  llonaparta  of  1808 

Scudo  (1  In  proportloti) 

Pleoe  olMmlai 

tDollar,  or  late  coinage 

Half  dollar,  ditto 

Mexican  peceta  (17T4) 

Real  of  Mexican  plate  (1776) 

Puccta  proTlnclal  of  2  reala  of  now  plate  I 

(17TB) j 

Real  of  new  plate  (ITOB) ., 

Rlx  dollar  (17(11) 

Rlx  dollar  of  late  coinage 

Ecu  of  40  balaen  of  Lnceme  (1706) 

Half  ditto 


TctOAMT 

.1     '.  ,  ?: 
UimzB  Statm.  . . . 

It 

V.V-;'  ■ 

If 

Florin,  or  piece  of  40  •eblillng*  of  Lu- 

came  (17D3) 

Ecu  of  40bataen  of  the  Helvetic  Repub- 

lie  1788  (1  In  proportion) 

Ecu  of  4  frankcn 

PlaatroefBeliin  of  1801 

Plaatre  ofOrlm  Tartary  (1TT8) 

Plaiitre  of  Tunis  (1787) 

Plaatre  (1818) 

Piece  of  10  Paolt  of  the  kingdom  of  ) 

Etniria(1801) j 

BeodoPiuk  of  ditto  (181)3) 

Piece  of  10  lira  ditto  (1803) 

Ur»(1808) 

tDollar,  17HS  (i,  ate,  In  proportion) 

Dollar  (1798) 

Dollar  (180?) 

Dollar,  an  average  ofS  year* 

Dime,  or  one-tenth  dollar 

Half  dime 

Piece  of  8  lire,  or  24  orcutten  (1800) 

Ditto  of  2  lire,  called  rooneta  provlnciale  ) 

(1808) j 

Ditto  of  8  Ure,  1808  ((  and  i  In  proportion) 


AMJ 


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8  20 

1  10    , 

10  IT  18 
8  8  It 
4  23    4 

1  lA    4 

0  20  0 
18  13  18 
14  1  8 
13  28    0 

13  23    4 

14  0  It 
14  II  18 
12  12  0 
12  10  8 
12  12  11 

14  IB    0 

It    8    4 

T  14  18 

11  4    2 

2  0  19 

1  21    8 

1  23    6 

16  It  t 
B    T    9 

It  17  0 
8  8  10 
4    8  16 

2  1  10 
8    10 

1  IB    0 

17  19  10 

17  12    0 

15  13  14 
8  20  11 

4    8  14 

IS  10  14 

18  8  11 
4  7  8 
4  3  4 
4  8    0 

3  14 


17    SIS 

17  8  4 
28    1  13 

1  0  16 
16  19  It 
10  81  6 
16  14  0 
16  16    0 

1  18  14 

0  21    0 

1  12    9 

1  11    8 
1    8  19 


Uralaa. 

148  4 

78  ■ 

8W« 

8B7  9 

9117 

4889 

490' 

170  8 

348-7 

3608 

2B4'3 

84' 

1301 

9001 

Mil 

1004 

4.14 

1981 

4t't 

41B 

13  3 

104 

1698 

118' 

781 

IB1<« 

3B9- 

19a'4 

1703 

88-S 

81  3 

87  IB 

186T 

116-8 

37 '2 

18'B 

MSI 

3121 

300 -9 

810- 

317-1 

3218 

ITTB 

8TB1) 

lT8t 

814'T 

SSS'l 

1891 

248-1 

463 

481 

43'T 

048 -3 

IIT'B 

tTO'D 

18S4 

92-3 

48-1 

72-9 

861 
SrB'B 
S88'S 
4123 
19t'7 

n-8 

40D'6 
407'8 
DBT 
00'9 
00  B 
tT-T 

883-9 

8SB-0 

B78-7 

63-4 

873-B 

874-9 

SA8-3 

8701 

39-6 

19B 

83-4 

02 '8 

80'B 


1  10-11 

0  4'4T 

1  10-90 
1  11-37 
4  2-11 
1  3-70 
1  II  78 
0  IIKt 
0  8-68 

387 
1-93 
3-40 
B-19 
2  68 
8-40 
TBS 
7 '27 
1'IS 
B-IO 
8-93 
3'TB 
8-B2 
2-83 
9-84 


8 
8 
3 
8 
3 

4    2-01 

1  11-61 
8  10  64 
0  6-33 
B-8T 
6-10 
0-63 
4-40 
S-T9 
1-88 
0-88 
t-43 


0 
0 
4 
1 
4 
3 
1 
0 

0  10-08 

0  B-04 
4  T-22 
4  A-S8 
4  9-6T 
3  848 

1  1-61 


4  9-lS 

4  9-18 

1  1-86 

1  049 

1  1-4T 

0  9-4B 

4  6-46 


8-T6 
8-80 
T-4B 
4-tB 
4-35 
3-42 
3-68 
6-11 
2-Tl 
4-66 

458 

4-iB 


*  Hm  PniMUn  coins,  having  been  dehued  at  dllTcrent  periods,  vary  In  their  reports.  ^s^i 

t  TMs  ti  the  ooln  which  Is  universally  circulated  under  the  name  of  the  Spanish  dollar. 

t  The  ABWMan  dollars,  and  InAitor  iUvtr  plaoMoflate  coinage,  vary  In  flnaness  ftom  W.  4  dwtl,  to  W.  H  iirUL. 


:.  '-**lfe;.;  u.^ 


001 


U2 


^00X 


Mm. 

imtr 

H'atfkl. 

MM4a>4 
Walfkt. 

la  ran 

MI'M. 

TlSlaa.' 

Vnlaa  la 
Maillai 

Oa.4*l. 

ID     1 
4  !•♦ 

b»l  |i.  ail. 

*unUnm.... 

. .    Ml  ilollftr,  iiMfll* , 

W,  1    1 
W.  4    1 

II.    0  11 

II   14     II 
1  U  11 

in  0 

IMM 
IT6'« 

4    114 

u  »-u 

1    KM 

t.'opMurk 

..   Mm*  Mm»,  eg|ii>4  hy  Ik*  Kut  liiill*  1 

ComoMy  ■!  ('>l«iu> 1 

Comiwny'a  nr  IIUii4i>rii 

■    1  •  ,    . 

HUII4. 

•  •  •  I 

•    •  I 

IM' 

1  II  II 

'lliH.            V, 

UtkulU  (IMID) 

MUiMl. 

II    0 

•   no 

IT6« 

1    OM 

RomlMjr.  naw,  or  Hunil  (lllll) 

W.  0    fll 
W.O    It 

T  11 

T  in  4 

l«4T 

1    IKM 

FUm,  C'ananora 

HomlMir.old 

PondlrhMTr 

imio,  ilauM* 

1  II 

1   II   10 

ll'iw 

0     4A 

II.    0  13 

1  II 

1  IS  It 

Oft 

0    4»» 

H   0    A( 

1     0 

1    1    1 

lit 

0  Am 

w.  0  n 

1 }" 

1  II   •• 

W' 

0    B'4t 

nuM«  or  Iha  l>iit«h  R.  1.  «:a  (tMO) .... 

W.O    Tl 

» f' 

.  It   « 

I4II-4 

1    »U 

Th«  •UrIIng  valu*  of  tbo  rorelgn  eolni,  In  Iha  foni. 
colng  UI>Ua,  hai  lM*n  oompulad  fW>in  Iha  aaaaya  u  fuU 
iowi  I  I.«t  It  bo  r«i|ulra(l  to  auinn  tha  value,  In  ttcr- 
ling,  of  a  Franch  iloubia  I^iula  d'or  coined  tlnre  I7HA, 
Iha  au«y  inailar't  report  lieing  aa  rollowii  "  Weight, 
>  4wt».  20  gn. ;  aaeay  W.  li  gri.,"  that  li,  0  vur.  1 ' 
gti,  woria  than  tha  Engllah  atandaird.  Wa  pr  'leed  an 
under i 

from  'ii  car.  0  gr.  tha  flneneia  of  EnglU'i  ituiiuiir. 

f)ld,  take  0  car.  H  gr.,  there  remalm  "I  >'ar.  H  gr. 
ben,  aa  '22  car.  :  31  car.  2t  gn.  : :  0  dwu.  20  grt.  s  U 
dwta.  16  gr>.,  tha  atandard  gold  eonlalnud  in  the  l.oui« 
d'or;  and  hence,  aa  1  oi,  :  XO  174.  l>>i  I.  ::  0  dwU.  10 
gri.  I  £1  17<.  7i(f.,  the  value  of  thn  I.uula  in  •tarling 
niona^r,  and  lo  fur  any  of  tha  other  coini. 


Naaiaa  aa4  ProparUaea. 

Oi>r»h 

"  nckah  .. 


AiKunl  C  I  ■•  W'  M  :  iln,  fur  the  ronreniencr  of 
•nch  of  ' '  r  ^  r  I*  i  m  ,  any  lime  have  oruatluii 
tu  con  i.  voilf  I  Wi.  '  al'arenca  ia  made  lu  an<*litlit 
col  ic,  .1  rulliii.liig  tables  of  thnte  that  were  prlnrl- 
nally  '  '.  <ri  >  "mg  tha  Jewi  and  (Ireeka.  Th«r 
wre  cakiilau  y  Dr,  Arbuthnot  (Tallin  (^  Aneitnl 
f  «,  Wtlflklt.  i'<  ,  4t(<  ad.,  I.oiid.,  i'ni),  aii'l  do  not 
'  .'  maltrially  from  the  tabira  of  I'aiirinn,  whota 
.ii,frx>logi»  (4lo  I'arle,  1780)  ii  the  mott  complete  and 
elaborate  work  th  >l  baa  aver  been  publlihed  with  re- 
•pact  to  aiiciei  t  inoneya,  weighte,  and  nieaauren.  At 
the  aaina  lime  we  confeae  we  ihoiild  not  be  dlapaaeil  lo 
place  much  rolianca  on  Iheee  tallica,  and  wa  have  cIt. 
where  atated  our  rcaaona  for  holding  this  opinion.— 
Encfc.  Brilannira,  art.  Momey. 

Jmrian  (;oun> 

Valaa  In  Blarllaf 


(   •* 


10 
^JO 

1,200 


00,000 


3 


120 


6U00 


Hhekel 


50 


flOOO 


Maneh  \  . 

Mina  Ilsbraica  j  ' 

"STI  Talent 842 


Solidua  auraua,  or  aextula,  worth 0 

Slclui  auraua,  worth , 1 

▲  talent  of  gold,  worth S476 

OBKOIAN    COIKl,  I. 

Lepton 0 

C'halcua 0 

2'!  Dlchalcua 0 

Ilemlobolum 0 

Obolua 0 

Dlobohini 0 

Tetrobolum 0 

Drachma . .  0 

2    |_pidrachraB 1 

Tetradrachma 2 

Ijr  I  Pentadraehina.  >t 


1  lA 
3  ai 

14  Oi 

8  0 

13  Oi 
lit  U 
0  0 


0  o^Vj 

0  0}^ 

0  lA 

0  ify 

t  u 

2  2i 

S  Oi 

7  8 

8  2 

7  0 

'i  8 


An  Aoootmr  or  all 


oiNUt  AT  Tua  DaiTiaii  Mint  noM  ma  liT  or  Jamcaby,  1s16,  to  tiik  Slar  Dx- 

ooiiiitB,  isea. 


Vaar. 

QoM  L-olaaf*. 

allrar  Uolnaia. 

Vaar. 

Oald  Calaaia. 

ml>tr  CUaaia. 

t           I.    4. 

t            : 

J. 

t            1.    <l. 

£             1      •>. 

IDlt 

l,B0e,VBl  It 

0 

18SB 

1,1(I9.TI8    8  10 

140  0(16    4    U 

WIT 

4,SI5,88T  10    0 

t,4Sa.W7  12 

0 

1888 

1,187,782    6    n 

4*7.710    4    0 

18IS 

«,8<j,ST8  10    0 

6Tt.lTI    0 

0 

183T 

1, '.63.1188    8    1 

76,386    4    0 

ISIt 

8,ST4    »    8 

l,VtT,2Tl  12 

0 

1888 

S,8^^8«4  IB    0 

174,(41    0    (1 

18>0 

949.fil<    0  10) 

84T,T1T    4 

0 

1839 

6:!4,810  14    8 

»90.0f>t    1)    0 

18  il 

1».5'*),TM  18    Of 

483,t8t    0 

,1 

1840 

, 

1<I7,9(WI    (1    0 

1811 

D,8M  T8T  11    « 

81.480    T 

1 

1841 

8T8.4T3  10    0 

89,««l    4    0 

1818 

T58.T48  10    0 

18B,«TI  10 

0 

1841 

B,977,II61  18    2 

m.>--i  ()  0 

18i4 

4,0tfi,0TS    0    0 

SSi.OTO  10 

J 

1H48 

6.0(I7.S4»  10    '■ 

«39,t.-'i    n  0 

18tS 

4,S8'l,ffl9    0    0 

41T,B3B  It 

0 

1844 

8,R«I8,»4»    T    1. 

(110.0.12     I)     0 

18M 

6,890,401    T    0 

008,t(l6  It 

0 

184B 

4,244.608  10    6t 

i;-»7.668     II     0 

1821 

1,BI1.0S«  IT    S 

88.019  It 

0 

1848 

4.034,011  17    6 

561t,l<4S    II    n 

1818 

l,0<i8MSe    1    8 

lt.288    8 

1 

184T 

8,148,440    n    n 

116,780    0    '.< 

1829 

1,448,TM  13    « 

108,2BD  10 

0 

1848 

1.4M,9flO  10    1 

86,441    (1    n 

18S0 

9,88T,88I    2    0 

1B1  18 

0 

1849 

2,177,968    1     1 

119,692    (1    0 

18B1 

B«,8I'    B    0 

88,090    B 

8 

IHftO 

1,491,880  17    9 

129,000    0    0 

1831 

8,T3T.0t6  10    0 

14li    4 

0 

1861 

4.400.411     4    9 

87,808     6    0 

isas 

1,!!:'B,M»  la    « 

14C    4 

0 

18R1 

8,741,270  12  11 

189,B»t  11    7 

1884 

6«,949  11    B 

4S1,TTB    4 

0 

18fiS 
ToUI.. 

11,962,391    B  11 

701,644  14    8 

111,148,818    i    9 

14,887,048  11    8        | 

m 

'A 
li 

01 
3 

a 

0 
3 


««•■ 

.   .< 

4    U 

4    0 

4    0 

0     » 

(1     0 

0     0 

4    0 

n   0 

0    0 

1)     0 

0     0 

0    0 

0    0 

0   n 

11     0 

0     0 

6   n 

«    J 

4     B 

coi  41 

•nay  of  Frwiee  eontUU  chlaMHHHteil 
Kliiitn  luft  paytMni*  %tt  vtKtllftHot 
c«pp<r  cviiu  for  th*  •inalUr  «un». 

It  appear*  that  fruiu  1808  tn  mii  thern  w«r«  oolna^ 
with  lh«  '^iSgr  <■'  NapulMti,  at  th*  <Uinir*nt  mint*,  nt 
which  than  »t  ihirtern  tn  Kran'w,  in  Kold  In  ih«  vatu* 
or<2V,001,OI8,  and  i'l  s,  er  t„  lh«  valua  ot£M  t»1t,t(ll 
Vroin  IMIl  io  182H,  the  mm  iiit  nt  the  rulua<«  waa 
i(l7,0Ml,il;\.'.  ill  (olil,  ortwiiiiiv  and  tail;  frano  pi«(<<>»  : 
and  In  «llvor  tl>«  amount  In  pieces  u(  live  frama  rluwn 
to  Avt  MUk  waa  £:M.9tlil,A60  bearlnfc  lh«  tfHity  of  Louis 
XVIII.  ami  Olinil  ■  X.  <>n  Ihv^  alMvo  dau,  the 
•mount  or<'irculaiiiiK  apacla  in  I'l-:  kingidoni  was  (itl- 
maUU,  on  the  lit  of  January,  WM,  at  lt,7IS,7Sl,lN» 
franca,  equal  In  valua  to  4llll.ii?3,l8ti  alerllnK.  The 
gold  and  tllver  rurranry,  prinr  tu  the  Itevolutlon  In 
1780,  wa*  aatimatad  at  i^W.tW.MO  alclinK.  Wa  can 
icarcaly,  howevnr,  draw  any  poeitlvc  inforenca  from 
tha  qiiaiilll)'  of  ((old  and  »ilv«r  ctiliinl  In  Kranca,  ra- 
•pacllng  tha  amount  of  apevla  actually  cIrculatInK,  an 
within  the  laat  twrnty-a*von  years  Ihu  exportation  of 
coin  ha*  l>ean  Arwiy  |><<rmllted.  The  coinaKo  of  France 
has  accordinRly  bemnia  an  article  of  trade  |  ami  bull- 
loa  and  coin  hav*  ba«n  fri<"'ly  exported  or  lmt>ortad, 


^  COI 

ar««n««,<(  to  thfl  naoaaaliia*  of  aommaf e«,  for  Ik*  IM 
yaara  pntMHnf  I8S0,  Ika  quanllly  of  biilllan  ImptrUi 
»»M<laHl  th*  qaaiiUty  ■iimrlwl  I  y  iai),UM,M7. 

The  amiManl  of  th*  gold  and  silver  t'oltian*  In  VfWMt 
for  INAA,  -villi  tha  valu*  In  franc*  and  In  (UrUii|| 
uioney,  was  i 

I[iiIuMmII*( 

if,ftii,fm 
vmua 

mt.im 


lt» 


•O-fran'"  r*    ■*♦« 
lOfniiK 

T.)i»i 


\.im,Wi  I     l7.iUil.4 


i,7()3,a«i 

it;4l*4»4il 

ft.(l»0,    »" 

III  tliHI,'>i. 
■'I  i«l,S« 


ra«M 

,ui,iiiin 

l7.IUil.4<lll 
M'l  m  4i4 
tlO' II  1.774 
I  U74  MM 

ilM.Ut.  If! 


m,'m. 

CowMS*«a4 

1 

hliil,  ITalted  Mlataa,  fbllailili' 

17VI 

1838 

I4M 
1864 

fi 

Uranrh,  I^aw  Urieans , 

Ilranrli,  Charlotto,  North  l^snmna 

Hraiirh,  Han  Cnnclarn , 

Assay  Offlca,  Naw  York 

Total , 

.... 

*■' 

The  doniaitlo  production  of  n  Id,  so  far  a*  la  ln<U- 
catsd  by  the  deposits  at  the  Mi  .  amounts  to  inoro 
than  three  hundred  and  tweiity.t»  million*  of  dollar* 
from  tha  year  17S3  to  IHub,  both  uclusive.  Of  thi* 
lar|{*  sum,  tha  groi*  product  to  tli  -  end  of  tha  year 
1848  wa*  little  more  than  thirteen  i  illion*  of  dollars, 
as  is  shown  by  tho  annexed  table.  I'o  this  aggregate 
of  three  hundred  and  twenty-two  in  'lions  of  dollars 
should  be  added  saveral  million*  as  he  export  from 
California,  via  Panama,  to  Soulbanip  'ii,  and  aUo  the 
export  to  China  and  olaewhero. 
Statement  or  Ooio  ano  fitYXn,  or  DoMKrio  Piouvotion, 

DirO.IITSD  ATTIir  .Ml^T  AND  IIUAII.  nSH  ASU  AsBAtOrrio* 
AT  .Nkw  YciBK,  VROM  1804  Tn  Till  KNn  iir  ls'>6. 


('Mnttf0  <{flk»  I  «  'i'  *im— — Th»  Annual  K*p«rl 
of  th«  Dlrm  tor  of  tli.  ''Mnt,  Iw  Ilia  ynar  INttA,  >.<>•■ 
rlearly  the  xratlau  '<«  I'V  '<t  Mint  and  all  tha 
IwaiMWa,  nil  <H  «a  of  t  •  ^s»«  Dflti'a  nl  N  '  Vorh. 
fiitf  th'i  whole  iif  INii        It  aiiiMiars  II'       he  Inlai 

.•,wimn.'  for  II.  .'ir  w*.  over  #M,lH)<t,fK'  ,  *nd  llial 
till  '  roKaie  nagc  lit  tiir  Mint  and  alt  IIS  liraneha* 
(ill  l.iiis  gall!  -■Ti),  froB.  lb*  year  i/'l»»,  has  ba<m 
$4'.>  iihi>,r)»& H'i.  I'll,  pill'  «*x*<'utedalth«parMtt 
klint,  and  at  saoU    iruK-h,  i.         Iwin  a*  (lilluwai 

^  ~  TaUl  iMMfai 

IfW  l»  ts4  anaM, 

'|li1T,ii>iil,|i«aT 
M,II<M(,MI>M 

ii.mii.tiitii  110 

4.»'i  .'.ilvit  1)0 

liii,si>ii,ii';i)  »i 
_  va.iiitf.irj  »t 

ijl4u«,iMil.l>ilA  wi 


4» 


Yaan. 

Qald. 

aiWar. 

I904-I8vt 

18il«  1S87 

W88-184T 

1818 

»U(l,0()Oi" 

B,0d3,fi00  IN' 

T,«35,0TB  nil 

896,876  011 

7,uT9,1440fl 

80,li3'!,ni4  (K) 

A6,54ii,ai'i  On 

64,K<«.!I6^00 

M,(l'ii,(>Bl  1)0 

B7,'2^-I,1M!I8 

4»,85l,770  11 

$II4;489 
8,101 
88,111 
389,368 
889,471 
41)4,404 
417,279 
3'i8,10» 
333,083 

18« 

1850 

18SI 

188a 

\«i& 

net 

18» 

Total 

Deduct  rc-dopoBlU  uri8S4. 
Actual  amount  to  18fi6 

l>31l1,0O'/,'i71  84 
8,041,137  00 

.','^61,634 

1833,061,184  84 

»i,S6t.884 

Of  this  aggregate, 
been  produced  by  Call' 

CalKunla  (al(ht  jraarai 

NortK  Carolina 

Oouncla 

Vlr((l-il* 

Houtii  ^arollaa 

AlakaBM 

TiMiiinaaae 

New  Mexico 

Other  aimmea 


'It  nliitti    four  par  nscrt.  ha* 
nawnly  I 

%M,<mflei%n 

li.UKlllA 

4h«,HJ.«0 

M>«.l|i«44  '      ih  M 

.1).  mn        ■     ■ 
10  iva  00 
v<:m  1)0 

M.Ntl  M 


Tntai ■pirwrtmj 

Deduct  radopoaiU  of  1864 ,,,       >;i)4l,ltT(K> 

Nut  product  of  the  Rtotos W^QITKi 

Tha  gold  mine*  of  North  rnF'i1i<  "  ira  iilH  In  work* 
Ing  order,  with  a  largo  aullii\  '  .  .tal  fur  Ihnlr  pros- 
ecution ;  but  the  average  rraulla  '...y  Im  Cvnslilnrad  M 
not  very  prolllable  to  tliu  •Imrelmlilitrf. 

Tha  reduced  coinage  at  I'hlliilnlphla  fur  1M(  li  •«• 
counted  for  by  the  unavoidable  dniaya  in  tha  rapalm  ai 
the  Mlut,  autborlud  by  an  aiiiiruprlatlun  tiiaiU  liy 
Congresa  for  tbi*  purpose  In  IR5u.  Tlisa*  rapair*  and 
alterations  were  commoiicsd  liltb  July  last,  and  oocu* 
pled  six  months. 

Tho  total  value  of  the  eolnaga  of  tba  United  HUtei, 
from  the  year  170!)  to  18ft6,  both  inclusiva,  has  baan 
within  a  fractlou  »f  Ave  huiidrad  iiiIIIIoiib,  naiiMl/i 


Mhitf. 


I'hIladulphI* 

Ban  Francisco  Branch,  lS'i4 

New  Orleans  "  lS38-18li8. 
Charlotte  "  1$33-IS66. 
Dahlunem  "  lsa'i.1868. 
Assay  Office,  New  York,  1S&4  .... 
ToUls 


Oolit 


$2»8,B7 1,681  6« 

Ji),689,V61  64 

;:7,330,866  00 

4.1-29, 0!«  60 

'  .f»0,16<l  00 

'.    ,319,87'2  8l 


«ll'.i.  ~lil4,4M  61 


Bllvtr^ 

•80,440,010  «0 

164,076  00 

10,666,800  00 


$100.160.904  1)0 


_     Coppir. 
tl,671,lU6  81 


■»i,87«,i5nr 


TrtsI, 

IKI,IIM,M<  84 

6T,IM,IM6fl» 

4,ni,M0  80 

A,a»o,tM«oo 

jij»i>,8]rjiji_ 


For  the  year  1865,  the  aggregate  coinage,  Inrluding  flno  bars,  was  t&6,312f7S3  00,  namaly  i 


HIala. 

Qold. 

Sllvat. 

(■»»p.r. 

fasT — 

Fhlladolphia 

$111,610,753  14 

10,1 61,677  48 

460,600  00 

117,086  60 

116,778  60 

10,441,813  63 

$1,410,170 

164,076 

1,818,000 

$16,080  78 

3i:i«ITAI48 

f,IM«,mM  00 

1I7.VM  BO 

n«,77il60 

10,Mi,8l8  88 

~li(l«,IIf,T«8  M 

Charlotte 

Assay  Office 

ToUls 

$6'2,7«6,467  20 

$3,601,146 

$16,08018 

COI 


Ui 


im 


It  will  appear  from  tlitf  tabnUrriewtlHittliabranek 
Wnti  at  Nflir  Orleani,  Uablonaga,  and  Charlotte 
could  h*  advantageously  diipeniad  with.  The  gold 
ooinaga  last  year  at  Kew  Orleaat  «aa  only  $4SO,5(M), 
and  the  lilver,  41,918,000.  AU  thia  coald  havo  been 
done  at  Philadelphia ;  and  now  that  the  parent  Mint 
is  provided  with  new  and  improved  machinery,  all  tha 
tUver  coinage  may  as  well  be  done  at  that  point. 

It  appears  that  the  annnal  coinage  at  the  Georgia 
and  North  Carolina  branchea  is  less  than  the  yean 
1848-185!)— having  declined  ttom  f  900,000  in  1862,  to 
#338,000  in  1856.  According  to  a  report  made  by  Mr. 
J.  Phillips  I'henix,  of  the  Conimittco  on  Commerce, 
to  the  Hoiiso  of  Representatives,  in  September,  1860, 
when  the  coinajjre  at  these  two  branches  waa  double 
what  it  is  now,  the  expense  of  coinage  wai  astimatod 
W  follows : 

"'    At  PMIadclphU.... Z'^Spercent 

i    AtNewOrlcmi «-«S       " 

;.      AtCbsrIotIc 9-00      " 

J,.  AtDshlonegK »-»i       " 

At  this  time,  the  percentage  at  the  branch  Mints 
must  be  greater,  as  the  work  Is  less.  Every  dollar 
coined  at  the  Charlotte  and  Dahlonega,  probably  costs 
ten  cents ;  whereas  the  raw  material  could  be  trans- 
ported, at  a  small  cost,  to  Philadcl|iliia  or  New  York. 
The  annual  expense  of  thirty  or  forty  thousand  dollars 
for  the  maintenance  of  these  two  Mints  could  well  l)o 
dispensed  with,  and  the  coinage  executed  at  Philadel- 
phia and  New  York.  In  fact,  the  heavy  expense  in- 
curred by  the  government  for  the  support  of  the  Mint 
at  New  Orleans  is  entirely  superfluous.  The  receipts 
of  gold  at  that  quarter  are  now  too  small  to  require  the 
further  working  of  a  Mint  there. 

The  Director  of  the  Mint,  In  his  report  recently 
made,  alludes  to  recent  improvements  in  machinery 
which  are  calculated  to  facilitato  coinage  operations, 
and  to  produce  more  highly  finished  pieces,  namely : 
"  In  the  coinage  of  half  eagles  particularly,  we  shall 
be  materially  aided  by  a  very  remarkable  machine 
lately  invented.  *  *  *  This  machine  was  manufac- 
tun>d  at  Paris,  and  has  been  introduced  into  the  Mint 
there,  and  one  of  similar  powers  is  also  employed  in 
the  Mint  of  England.  The  one  imported  for  the  United 
States  Mint  is  adapted  to  the  half  eagle  only.  It  is 
justly  regarded  as  a  triumph  of  mechanism." 

The  laiigely  increased  production  of  gold  in  Austra- 
lia and  California,  of  late  years,  has,  of  course,  stimu- 
lated the  workings  of  the  Mints  of  foreign  countries, 
The  coinage  may  be  fairly  estimated  at  about  two  hun- 
dred millions  of  dollars  annually  in  gold,  fifty  millions 
in  silver,  and  nearly  one  million  in  copper.     We  find 


tha  miMMd  ainnmnrf  of  (braign  MlDa^a  (hrtha  year 
IMS,  the  lateat,  t» -which  wa  add  that  of  the  United 
States  for  the  same  year,  all  radaced  to  ateriing; 

SumiAtT  at  TiiR  CoiirAoa  or  TAKiom  Mima  TBtiOCaaOii* 
*iia  Wo«Li>  iif  ma  Yaia  18fiS> 


OoU. 

jcrTwst.Nl 

i8,)ll8,ISM 


COUBitlW. 

Omt  BriUln. 

Fnnoe. 

apaln , 

I'Titmlt 

Austria 

Untted  States. 

Inaia 

Totals...  iA'8T,40O.  700 


S6,m 

1,<R8,TflO 

lli04t,T81 

138,000 


4701,544 

808,588 

150,724 

e«,014 

1,657,485 

1,816.514 

4,240,000 


i»,584,8«» 


C«pp«f.  I       TotsI, 

in),07B  i»t.«4is,«os 


T8,9M' 


18,412 

w,eooi 


14,101,120 

860,724 

181,806 

t,686,T8S 

12,871,707 

4,42a,eo« 


4;i«6,061  X47,180,46n 


The  act  of  Congress  to  create  new  silver  coins  and 
to  reduce  the  weight  of  the  old  denominations,  has  had 
a  good  efleot  in  providing  the  country  with  an  abnnd* 
ance  of  the  small  coins,  and  the  new  act  passed  by  Con> 
gress  in  February,  1867,  and  now  in  force,  will  have 
the  efliict  to  drive-  out  of  circulation  tha  old  and  de- 
preciated Spanish  coins  that  have  for  many  yean  been 
in  use. 

The  Act  of  Congress  of  February,  1867,  in  reference 
to  the  Coinage,  will  produce  a  very  desirable  reform 
in  oar  currency  of  silver  and  copper  coina.  The  new 
ac*  authorizes  the  creation  and  distribution  of  a  new 
cent,  which  relieves  us  of  a  hitherto  ponderous  coin— 
the  comparative  weights  being  as  follows :  Apt  of  Jan- 
uary 18,  1887,  168  grains ;  Act  of  Febrnarj',  1867,  72 
grains  :  difl«rence,  96  grains.  The  former  acts  of  Con- 
gress did  not  make  coj^r  coim  a  legal  tender ;  and  it 
has  been  disputed  as  to  what  amount  they  were  re- 
ceivable for  debts ;  nor  docs  the  new  act  make  them 
legal  tenders  for  any  sum.  The  new  cent  may  be  read- 
ily distinguished  in  the  dark  (h>m  the  current  silver 
coin.  It  presents  about  the  dame  surface  as  the  ten-cent 
piece,  bnt  is  about  double  the  thickness  with  a  sniooth 
edge ;  whereas  the  ten-cent  piece  lias  a  milled  edge. 

With  the  aid  of  the  ttrenty  millions  of  dollars  in 
small  silver  coins  executed  since  the  act  of  March  S, 
1863,  and  the  coinage  of  two  or  three  millions  more 
annually,  for  the  next  few  years,  the  country  will  be 
liberally  provided  with  small  silver  coins,  that  will 
not  only  enter  into  general  circulation  and  effect  the 
purposes  intended,  but  they  will  not  be  liable  to  be 
used  for  the  arta  and  manufactures,  their  legal  value 
being  about  ten  per  cent,  beyond  that  of  their  intrinsic 
value  as  metal. 

According  to  a  careful  table  prepared  for  the  Augs- 
burg AHyemeine  Zeitung,  published  April  16,  1866,  the 
following  table  will  show  the  amount  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver that  haa  been  exiracted  during  various  periods 
from  the  birth  of  Christ  down  to  the  year  1856 : 


V..™.         -  - 

Gold. 

Silvor. 

ValiM. 

V.lu.. 

From  A.D.  to  14M ,, 

Kilo. 
M«8,711 
8,860,487 

270,1 no 

8W,614 

8S9.5i» 

1,616.664 

Kilo. 
13,602,107 
137,096,880 
6,337,414 
]«,716,928 
8,018,411 
4,054,882 

Pranro. 

^8,^6(•,oflfl.ooo 

40,623,000,000 
2,288,000,000 
6,698,000,000 

i,80:i.(ioo,(ioo 

«,37r>.(J0O,(lO0 

UullRri. 

4.6(lt,Sfli>,flOO 

8,104  600,000 

467,«()O,0fl0 

l,81ii,flno,noo 

260,600,000 
1,276,000,000 

"      149210  1810 

"      ISIO  to  1S26 

"     1826  10  IM8 

"      1843  to  1861 

"     1861  to  1866 

Totil 

.... 

81,046,000,000 

16,209,200,000 

PRODUCTION  OP  OOLD  IN  THE  UNITED  BTATEa 
WtkTTMtxT  or  Gold,  or  POHrsTir  rnouccnoii,  narosiTzn  at  tuk  Miht  and  Brahoiiis  to  tur  olobx  or  TBI  Ykak  1S55. 


Vo.li. 

rhiUilelphl.. 

Saii  PrAnclMo.    |     New  OrleMt. 

rhATloHo,  N.  f. 

DAhlonoirB,  a*. 

NfW  Vork. 

ToUli. 

1804-1827. . 

$1  Ici.l'iOd  IHI 

$110,0(10  00 

1828-1837. . 

6,06.n..5IM)  00 

.... 

• . .' 

0,003.600  00 

1888-1847.. 

2,628,641  00 

.... 

$119,699  00 

$1,678,718  00 

$3,218, 6i7  00 

7,«:i6,07ft  (10 

1848 

241,514  00 

.... 

12,693  00 

370.786  00 

271,"6:iOO 

S90,676  OO 

1849 

6,767,002  00 

.... 

677,189  00 

890.782  00 

244,131  00 

.... 

7.079,144  00 

1860 

8l,790..';0«0O 

.... 

4,580,021  00 

a?0,C8!l  00 

247,098  00 

B«,93S,314  00 

1861 

47,074,620  00 

.... 

8,770.722  00 

816.061  00 

B79,,1(I0  00 

.... 

66.,^4(^,61«  00 

1862 

49,821,4!!0  0«) 

.... 

8.777. 7H4  00 

480,(100  03 

476,78;t  00 

.... 

r>4,fi0«,li68  00 

1868 

62,Sf,7.!131  00 

, , 

2,0(1«,673  00 

805,167  00 

482,2«0  00 

N>,622,n61  00 

1864 

86,71.1,3.^Sfl0 

9110,842,281  38 

981,611  00 

218,600  00 

280,226  00 

$9,227,177  00 

B-,'J6S,ir)8  23 

1866 

ToUI.... 

2,691.407  6.1 

20,860,487  20 

411,617  24 

216,988  86 

Il6,ti62  07 

V6,0M.686  11 

49.861,779  11 

!(!288,764,S7'J  6i) 

$31,702,718  40  :»21,SH7,70»  24 

$4,138,236  86 

;^lS,fl86,^l14  07 

$.14,281,863  11 

$831,U02,271  34 
8,041,137  00 

Deduct  r< 
Actual  sn 

-deposits  of  1864 
lount  of  domestl 

^ 

e  gold  deposited 

$322,961,134  34 

? 


cat  8M 

OoLS,  SiLTiB,  AMD  CoppiB  Coim  o»  TBI  UmTm  Statm. 


tXHi 


QoLtt  CotMa  or  18M-*U. 

Double  eagle 

Eagle 

lUir-Mgle .' 

Three  dollani 

SUArtei^eaKle 
ollar  

SiLTi*  Coim  or  lait-'M. 

Dollar 

lUir-dollar 

QiMrtcr-dolUr 

Dime 

H«ir-dime 

Three  cente 

Coi*PBs  Coma. 

Cent(18u7j 

llAlf*eeiit 

Nuiroent(l8BT) 


iMW 
•900 
•(100 

■too 
•ooo 
■wo 

■000 
■900 
•900 
•000 
■900 
■000 


Studsni  Wtlfbl. 

Oriiliia. 

6I0^ 

9W^ 

^■4 
64 'S 

96^ 

II8^4 

IS'S 

11 'Sa 

16S^ 
84^ 


ValiH. 


DolUa. 

VO-UO 

lO'OO 

BOO 

8-00 

^■eo 

100 

i^ot 

■fiO 
■S6 
■10 
■05 
■03 

•01 

005 

•01 


COINAGE  OP  THE  UNITKD  STATES. 

GOLn  AMD  SILVEB  CoiHAOa  AT  THE    MINT  Or  Till  USITBD 

Status  in  tub  ietkbal  Ykabs  fbom  its  KsTAULiBiiyBNT, 

IN    lIKif,    AND   INCXUnlXa  THB  COINAOit    OX    THE    KbANCII 

Mints  ani>  thb  Assav  OrrioB  (Nkw  York),  fbom  tiibib 

OBOANIIATIOII  to  SirTElllIBB  8D,  1867. 


Yun. 


1703  to  XXSf, . 

17116 

17»7 

1703 

17.)fl 

1800 

1801 

ISOit 

18U8 

181)4 

18116 


lSil7 

ISOS 

1S09 

1810 

1811 

ISIJt 

1813 , 

SU 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1810 

1840 

13il 

lS-'2 

1823 

1844 

18» 

18:'a 

1837 

18!8 

ISiO 

1S.TO 

1S3I 

1833 

1833 

1831 

1835 

183a 

183T. 

1S88 

issn 

184u 

1841 

184J 

181) 

1844 

1N4B 

1816 

1817 

1S43 

ISW 

1»5;) 

I8.M 

1K63 

1853 

18M 

I8R5  (to  Sep.  30) 

lS8tt  (to  Sep.  30) 

1867  {to  Sop.  80) 

Total.. 


Uald. 


Dollnn.  Ci 
71,485  (10 
103,737  60 
103,4J3  60 
205,610  00 
313,28500 
317,700  00 
433,570  00 
433,1110  00 
2BS877  60 
268,643  60 
17«,3il7  60 
834,6115  00 
437.406  00 
384,665  00 
160,376  00 
5111,435  00 
417,006  00 
300.435  00 
477,140  00 
77,370  00 
8,175  00 


243,940  00 

368,615  00 

1,310,080  00 

189,S35  00 

88,080  00 

73,4-25  00 

98.300  00 

166,3S5  01) 

93,345  0') 

131,,'>fl6  00 

140,145  01) 

396,;  17, VI 

6I3,I0:>(I0 

714,'J70  00 

798.436  DO 

97^,K>  1 00 

8,11(54.370  00 

3, ISO,  176  00 

4,135,70,100 

1,148  3^}  Oil 

1,8IK),69,-)00 

1,8T5,T6 )  00 

I,tf0l»,8l)>0,l 

l,10>.O.17  6fl 

1,833,1'OfiO 

8.3)3.787  50 

6,4J8,33 )  IK) 

!<,76ii.447  60 

4,034,177  50 

30.'^3I,8S5  00 

8,776.613  50 

0,007,701  60 

8 1,08 1,7.^8  60 

6.',614.492  60 

60  840,187  60 

66.213.906  04 

63.01)4.696  47 

41,l66.r>6T  03 

5S.03a,S9:Ui 

4'<.437,l)fl4  iil 


403,880.408  0« 


Sllnr. 


Doll«n.    ( 

87l),a$3  80 

70,077  60 

13,601  45 

830.301  Ol) 

4'>8.615  00 

324,3011  00 

74,75S  00 

58,348  00 

87,118  00 

100,340  60 

149,888  60 

471.310  00 

607,418  76 

684,800  00 

707,376  00 

633.778  60 

608.340  00 

814,030  60 

630,961  50 

661,687  60 

17,803  00 

38,675  75 

607,783  50 

1,070,454  50 

1,140,000  00 

501,080  70 

82,\7«3  45 

806,800  fiO 

8.')6660  01) 

1,7.V2,477  00 

1,604  683  IM) 

2,IHIi,(l90  00 

2,80I),2i)O  00 

1,675,6)01)0 

1,0114,678  0) 

2,41)5,400  00 

8,176,600  00 

3,6711,000 110 

3,75 1,001 00 

B.4I5,00>J00 

.'!,44:l,a)3  0 ) 

3.606,100  00 

2,o:i6,oio  00 

3,3I6,'>60  00 
3,008,6.<)0  00 
1,713.178  00 
1.115  875  00 
3,335,750  00 
3,733.'i5,)  (K) 
3,115.560  00 
1,873,300  00 
3,5'i8  680  00 
3,374,4^0  00 
3,04l),05a  (10 
3,1 14.96')  Ol) 
1,866,100  00 
774,307  00 1 
001).4I0  00 

9,077,r)7;  00 

8.6ll),37(i  m) 
3.898,745  00 
6.847,070  4:) 
8,376,008  01 


AgifrtgiiU. 


108,375,088  40 


DolUn.    Cli. 

44 ',108  80 

181,806  00 

116,013  06 

635,901  00 

636,800  0  I 

543,050  00 

4117,3.8  00 

491,053  00 

846.4"  5  60 

863,V8!I  00 

319,7f.0  00 

795,834  00 

1,034,943  75 

968,1165  00 

876,761  on 

1,140,308  50 

1,106.346  00 

1,104,46460 

1,038.091  60 

6:18,067  50 

20,483  00 

28.,'i75  75 

607,783  60 

1,313.304  60 

1,308,016  00 

1,8.'0.710  70 

1,016087  45 

81)4,786  60 

067,976  00 

1,846,077  00 

1,720,968  00 

2,094,3;i;>  00 

0,000,706  00 

1,715746(10 

2,'200,3056l) 

8,ia8,605  00 

8,88.i,k;o  00 

.3,877.4.15  00 

8,737,560  00 

7,369,273  00 

6,639,178  00 

7,741,800  00 

3,344.315  00 

4,134.846  00 

3,474,3116  00 

8,403,1:80  00 

2,217,972  60 

4,168,020  6" 

12,0i6,037  50 

7,603,780  00 

6  629,647  60 

6.5 12,767  60 

2-.',695  8,15  00 

6.81S.66'2  60 

11,12 ',711  60 

33  817.838  60 

63  883  S3  16) 
67.8 16  6 '7  60 
04,391.477  94 
6l).7l3,806  47 
44.060.30'>  93 

64  383.1163  00 
51,818.673  8'i 


601,166.480  46 


By  an  act  of  Congress,  1.  The  old  Spanish  coins 
are  rccuivalile  at  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States 
and  several  offices,  at  the  Post^fflces  and  Land.«fflcc8, 
at  the  following  rates ; 


()narter-d«Uar  . . , 
Elghtb.<!ollar.... 
SixteeDtb-dollar , 


Me 

10  cents. 

5  cents. 


[fiu<  ly  (As  tvOh  lection,  Ikef  vnll  6<  rectivabU  at  25, 
Vii,  and  di  cmU,  ntptcHvtlji,  t'n  exehangefor  the  neto 
eentt.'] 

2.  Such  old  <x>ins  "  shall  not  again  be  paid  out  or 
put  in  circolatlon,  but  shall  be  recoined  at  the  Mint" 
for  distribution. 

8.  All  former  acts  authorizing  the  currency  of  for- 
eign gold  or  silver  coins,  and  declaring  the  same  a  legal 
tender  in  payment  for  debts,  are  repealed ;  but  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint  tr  .40  assays 
to  bo  made,  from  time  to  time,  of  such  fo-  i."  coins  as 
may  be  known  to  our  commerce,  to  ('.:  .  .,'.ne  their 
average  weight,  flnencss,  and  value,  ard  la  embrace 
in  his  annual  report  a  statement  of  the  results  thereof. 

4.  T1ie  standard  weight  of  the  cent  shall  l>a  seventy- 
two  grains;  composed  of  88  per  cent,  of  copper  and  12 
per  cent,  of  nickel ;  and  the  coinage  of  the  half-cent 
shall  be  discontinued, 

6,  Authorizes  the  Treasurer  of  the  Hint  to  purchase 
the  materials  necessary  for  the  coinage  of  (he  nev,-  cent. 

C.  It  shall  bo  lawful  to  pay  out  the  said  cent  at  the 
Mint  in  exchange  for  any  of  the  gold  and  silver  coins 
of  the  United  States,  and  also  in  exchange  for  the  for- 
mer copper  coins  issued ;  and  to  transmit  parcels  of  the 
said  cents,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  assistant  treasurers 
and  other  ofBcors  for  exchange ;  and  it  shall  also  be 
lawful  for  the  space  of  two  years  from  the  passage  of 
this  act,  and  no  longer,  to  pay  out  at  the  Mint  the  cents 
aforesaid  for  the  fractional  parts  of  the  dollar  herein 
before  named  at  their  nominal  value  of  twenty-five, 
twelve  and  a  half,  and  six  and  a  quarter  cents  respect- 
ively. 

7.  Hereafter  the  Director  of  the  Mint  shall  make 
his  Annual  Report  up  to  the  30th  June  (instead  of  81st 
December,  as  heretofore),  so  that  the  results  of  tho 
year's  operations  may  appear  in  the  Annual  Kcport  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

In  tho  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint  of 
tho  United  States  for  1867,  he  says  :  "As  my  Kcport  in 
January  last  presented  a  statement  of  the  operations 
for  tlio  year  186tf,  tills  Report  will  embrace  the  opera- 
tions since  that  time,  namely,  from  the  first  day  of 
January  to  the  30th  of  June,  a  period  of  six  months, 

"For  the  purpose  of  exhil)iling  in  a  condensed  form 
tho  entire  operations  of  the  Mint  and  its  brandies  I 
present  the  annexed  summary  statement.  It  cmbraci  3 
the  amount  of  gold  and  silver  bullion  operated  upon 
from  the  time  of  their  respective  organizations  to  the 
SOtli  of  June,  18,57: 

Mint  of  the  United  States,  established  1793. .  $394,805,410  Dl 
llraiich  Mint  at  New  Orleans,  •'  1838..  6.i,4'i3.ll6  00 
Uranch  Mint  at  Daliloiwga,  "  1838..  6,8'25i47  00 
ItrAnch  Mint  at  Oharlotto,  "  1833. .  4. .163.05.)  00 
llranch  Mint  at  .San  Francisco  "  ISIvt. .  71,100,4.3  93 
Assay  Office  at  New  York  "  1854. .  6'2.11)|.44:I83 
Total $6?8,010,188lt 

"  Of  this  amount  there  has  been  received  since  tho 
1st  of  January,  1840,  of  native  gold,  tho  production  of 
the  United  States,  the  sum  of  four  hundred  and  two 
millions  of  dollars.  If,  in  addition  to  this  sum,  wo 
add  the  gold  produced  from  Australia  and  other  foreign 
countries  during  the  same  period,  which  may  be  stated 
to  be  about  five  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  and  tho 
production  of  silver  bullion  from  all  sources.,  which  is 
at  the  rate  of  about  forty  millions  per  annum,  it  will 
be  seen  that  within  this  comparatively  brief  period  tho 
world's  supply  of  the  precious  metals  has  been  increased 
to  the  extent  of  twelve  hundred  and  forty-two  millions 
of  dollars."— Furtlier  Information  on  Coins  and  Coix- 
AOK  may  be  obtainad  by  reference  to  the  Unnrterty  Rev., 
Ixxii.  194;  A'lirM  Ameriam  Recirw,  Ivl.  208  (C.  F. 
Adams);  Hunt's  ^ferchanlt'  Magazine,  v.  879,  vii.  207, 
iv.  434;  Dr  Bow's /f«i'ieu),ii.  281 ;  Baiikert' Magazine, 
vol.  x.  (Professor  Dr  Mouoan)  ;  Manual  of  Coim,  by 
EcKFBLOT  and  Da  Bois,  of  United  States  Mint. 


_i ■ 


COK 


986 


COL 


Coir,  ■  (p«cle<  of  yarn  manufaetnred  out  of  tho 
hnak  of  cocoa-nuta.  Tho  husks  being  steeped  in  wa- 
ter, the  dry  dusty  substance  mixed  with  the  fibres  is 
sapamted.  These  are  afterward  spun  into  yam,  and 
manufactured  into  cordage,  that  is  decmrtd  by  some 
superior  to  that  made  of  hemp.  Tho  goodness  of  coir 
depends  on  the  fineness  of  the  filaments,  and  on  their 
being  of  a  bright  yellow  color.  About  2,600,000  lbs. 
weight  are  annuiilly  exported  from  Ceylon,  principally 
to  Calcutta,  and  other  jrorts  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
also  prepared  in  the  Maldive  Islands,  and  many  other 
places;  and  is  very  extensively  used  throughout  the 
East. — Bektolacci's  Ctylon;  Bell's  Commerce  of 
Bengal,  itc. 

Coke,  or  Coak,  charred  pit-coal,  prepared  for  the 
■melting  of  iron  ore  by  igniting  tho  coals  piled  up  in 
long  ridges  in  the  open  air,  and  closing  in  the  cinders 
with  earth  when  brought  to  a  glowing  red  heat.  For 
the  use  of  tho  manufacturers,  tho  method  liitherto  most 
in  practice  hus  l>een  to  bum  the  small  or  screened  ooul 
in  conical  ovens,  built  of  firc-stono  or  bricli,  tho  floor 
being  generally  about  6  feet  in  diameter,  and  tho  oven 
8  feet  high,  while  an  aperture  of  18  inclieg  diameter  is 
left  at  the  top.  The  small  coal  is  thrown  in  to  the 
depth  of  15  inches  or  more,  and  then  ignited.  The 
oven  door  is  at  first  kept  o|)en,  and  the  hole  at  the  top 
left  uncovered  till  tlie  mass  is  red  hot.  Tho  door  is 
then  closed,  and  by  degrees  the  hole  at  the  top  is  cov- 
ered over  with  two  large  flat  stones,  gradually  ap- 
proaching each  other,  when  the  whole  is  left  to  cool. 
When  sufficiently  cooled,  it  is  drawn  out  with  long  iron 
rakes,  and  the  mass  is  found  to  have  assumed  a  rude 
columnar  arrangement.  The  oven  is  ininiediutely 
charged  again  with  small  coal,  which  the  heat  remain- 
ing in  the  floor  is  found  sufficient  to  ignite,  and  so  tho 
operation  goes  on.  In  both  the  above  ways  good  cokes 
are  made,  but  tho  volatile  products  are  lost.  To  save 
those,  Lord  Dundonald  proposed  to  burn  the  couU  in 
a  close  furnace,  to  which  ho  adapted  nn  apparatus  for 
conveying  the  coal-tar,  with  the  unimoniacul  prod- 
ucts, into  proper  recipients.  About  the  same  time, 
Baron  Von  Haak,  a  German,  constructed  works  in  tho 
neighlwrhood  of  Now/:astle  for  distilling  the  small 
coal  in  large  cast-iron  cylinders  upon  tho  plan  whicli 
has  since  been  adopted  in  the  gas-works,  exotpt  that 
the  soot  from  the  furnace  fires  is,  at  Newcastle,  during 
a  certain  period  of  the  combustion,  before  any  gray 
ashes  have  Itegun  to  arise,  conveyed  into  a  cliamber 
contrived  for  the  jiurpose,  and  collected  for  lamp-black. 
It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  and  illustrative  of  the 
changes  which  the  carboniferous  structure  undergoes, 
that  tho  coal  increases  in  bulk  by  getting  rid  of  its 
gaa  ;  eight  sacks  of  coal  will  yield  ten  sacks  of  coke. 

One  of  the  curiosities  in  coke  is  that,  although  so 
granular  in  appearance,  some  of  the  particles  have  al- 
most the  hardness  of  the  diamond,  and  are  found  fit- 
ted for  cutting  glass. — K.  I). 

Colliery,  a  place  where  coal  is  found  in  stratified 
mosses,  and  excavated  by  manual  labor,  and  common- 
ly brought  to  the  surface  by  mechanical  power.  The 
exact  date  when  coal  began  to  be  used  as  a  fuel  is  not 
very  certain ;  the  appearance,  if  not  the  use  of  the 
mineral,  must  have  been  known  for  a  long  time  in 
districts  where  tho  de|)osit  was  naturally  exposed; 
and,  according  to  xnme  authorities,  it  is  mentioned  as 
having  been  used  in  England  in  the  ninth  century, 
862.  In  1259  King  Henry  III.  granted  the  privilege 
of  ditjging  coals  to  certain  parties  in  Newcastle.  Seven 
years  afterward  coal  had  lieeonic  an  article  of  DXjwrt, 
and  was  termed  sea-coal ;  and  in  1300,  bo  extensive 
was  tho  use  of  coals  in  i.ondoii,  that  Parliament  com- 
plained to  the  king  of  the  noxious  vapors  therefrom 
polluting  the  atmosphere.  In  consequence  of  which 
proclamation  was  made  against  their  further  use,  lest 
the  health  of  the  knights  of  the  shire  ahould  sufler  dur- 
ing their  residence  in  the  metropolis.  Blythe,  writ- 
ing in  1S49,  states;  "  It  was  not  many  years  since  the 


famous  city  of  London  petitioned  the  Parliament  of 
England  against  two  nuisances  or  offensive  commodi- 
ties, which  were  likely  to  come  into  great  use  and  es- 
teem; and  that  was,  Newcastle  coals,  in  regard  of  their 
stench,  etc. ;  and  hops,  in  regard  they  would  spoyle 
the  taste  of  drinck,  and  endanger  the  people."  In  Bel- 
gium tho  earliest  reference  to  coal  was  in  1198  or  1200, 
in  the  county  of  Liege,  where,  according  to  tradition, 
a  blacksmith  was  the  iirst  to  use  it  as  fuel.  In  Franco 
tho  precise  period  of  its  adoption  as  a  substitute  for 
wood  is  not  ascertained.  The  commencement  of  its 
use  in  Paris  was  in  1620,  the  coal  being  drawn,  not 
from  the  mines  of  France,  but  from  the  colVioriea  of 
Newcastle.  In  Scotland  coal  was  known  and  used 
probaldy  at  a  very  early  date.  We  are  informed  by 
Chalmers,  the  antiquary,  that  coal  was  worked  at 
Bo'ness  by  William  do  Veropont  liefore  tho  end  of  tho 
twelfth  century,  and  that  a  tenth  of  the  coals  was  paid 
to  tho  monks  of  Ilolyrood  House.  It  is  more  curious, 
however,  than  important  here,  to  truce  the  date  when 
mineral  coal  was  first  used  as  n  fuel.  The  earliest  em- 
ployment of  it  in  England  in  tho  manufacture  of  U'oii 
was  in  1713,  at  Colebrookdalc,  in  Scotland,  about  tho 
commencement  of  tho  eighteenth  century,  and  in 
France  in  1782.— E.  B.     Ste  Coal. 

ColUaion  (Fr.  Abordai/i'),  in  a  general  sense,  is 
the  act  of  any  two  or  more  bodies  coming  forcibly  to- 
j  gether ;  but  in  commercial  navigation  it  means  the 
shock  of  two  ships  coming  into  sudden  and  violent  con- 
tact nt  sea,  by  which  one  or  lioth  moy  be  more  or  less 
injured.  From  tho  groat  increase  of  navigation,  the 
risk  of  accidents  by  collision  at  sea  has  been  propor- 
tionally augmented.  And  it  is,  therefore,  of  much  im- 
portance, 1st,  to  adopt  such  measures  as  may  be  most 
likely  to  prevent  tlieir  occurrence ;  and,  2d,  to  determine 
by  whom  a  loss,  when  it  does  occur,  should  lie  borne. 

In  regard  to  the  first  afid  most  essential  of  these  ob- 
jects, it  is  effected,  in  part  at  least,  by  whatever  con- 
tributes to  tho  general  improvement  and  security  of 
navigation.  At  common  law,  every  master  of  a  ship 
is  bound  to  keep  a  proper  watch  at  sea,  especially  in 
channels  mucl)  frequented  by  shipping,  and  to  use 
everj'  precaution  to  avoid  coming  into  contact  with 
other  vessels.  '  Hut  this  matter  has  liecn  judged  too 
important  to  l)c  left  wholly  to  deiiend  on  the  good  sense 
and  care  of  individuals  ;  and  with  a  view  to  tlie  secur- 
ing of  attention  to  the  subject,  and  to  the  obviating  of 
the  confiision  that  would  unavoidably  arise  were  ship- 
masters left  to  follow  their  own  ideas  with  respect  to 
it,  rules  and  regulations  liove  Iwcn  laid  down  in  regard 
to  the  courses  to  be  steered  when  ships  arc  passing  cucli 
other,  tho  signals  to  be  made  during  fogs,  the  number 
and  description  of  the  liglits  to  be  exhiljitcd  at  niglit, 
and  other  particulars.  In  1840,  the  Trinity  House,  in 
Great  Britain,  promulgated  a  rule  of  this  sort ;  und 
though  not  in  itself  law,  masters  not  complying  with 
its  instractions  wero  held  to  be  guilty  of  unseamiinliko 
conduct,  and  tjie  owners  were  made  responsilde  for 
the  consequences,  liegulations  similar  to  those  con- 
tained in  the  Trinity  rule  have  since  lieen  enacted  by 
the  Legislature.  As  there  is  no  especial  statute  law  in 
the  United  Stotes,  we  follow  in  a  measure  the  decisions 
of  tho  Englisli  courts,  and  are  governed  by  the  prece- 
dents they  have  established. — .S>e  Kent's  Comvi.,  Left. 
XLVII.  The  existing  English  statute  law  on  the  sub- 
ject is  embodied  in  the  following  clauses  of  the  En-  ' 
glish  Mercantile  Siiipping  Act  of  1864, 17  and  18  Vict, 
c.  104 : 

Jtegttlationt  at  to  Light*  and  FO0  Sijjnals.—The  following 
rttlefl  shall  lie  olmerved  with  iv^ard  to  lights  and  fog  signals ; 
vlr.  :  1.  Tho  Admiralty  shall  IVoni  time  to  time  inako  regula- 
tions rcqnIrinK  the  exhibition  of  sneh  lights,  by  snrli  classes 
of  ships,  whether  steam  or  nailing  ahlpa,  within  surh  places 
and  imdcr  such  clrcumstancos  as  they  think  fit,  and  may  fVom 
time  to  time  revoke,  alter,  or  vary  the  name.  2.  The  Admi- 
ralty may,  if  they  think  tit,  make  regulations  rcqniring  the  use 
of  such  fog  lignali,  by  such  classes  of  ships,  whether  stesm  or 
sailing  ships,  within  such  places  and  under  such  olieumstances 


COL 


857 


COL 


Jho  following 
ffog  Blgnals  i 

IbucIi  classes 
I  Buoh  plnccB 
Vd  may  from 
J  The  Adml- 
llring  the  uM 
■lor  aUam  or 
KrcumBtancei 


M  tliejr  think  lit,  old  majr  tram  time  to  time  revoke,  alter,  or 
vary  the  Bainr.  o.  All  regutatlona  made  in  pursuance  of  thli 
section  shall  be  published  in  the  London  Gaiettu,  and  shall 
cuiutt  Into  operation  on  a  day  to  be  named  In  the  Gazette  in 
which  they  are  published,  and  the  Admiralty  shall  cauBe  all 
such  regulations  to  be  printed,  and  shall  furnish  a  copy  thereof 
to  any  owner  or  mastcrof  ashlp  who  applies  for  thesunie,  and 
production  of  the  Gazette  containing  such  regulations  shall  be 
BufSeient  evidonco  of  the  due  making  and  purport  thereof.  4. 
All  owners  and  nuuters  shall  bo  bound  to  take  notice  of  the 
same,  and  sliall,  so  long  as  the  saiue  continues  in  force,  exhibit 
such  lights,  and  use  such  fog  signals,  at  such  times,  within 
such  places,  In  such  manner,  and  under  such  circumstances 
as  are  enjoined  by  such  regulations,  and  shall  not  exhibit  any 
other  lights  or  use  any  other  fog  signals,  and  in  case  of  default 
tho  master,  or  the  owmer  of  the  ship,  if  It  appears  that  ho  was 
In  fault,  shall  for  each  occasion  upon  which  such  regulations 
an)  Infringed  incur  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £iO. 

Jiule  aa  to  Ship»  meeting  each  oMer.— Whenever  any  ship, 
whether  a  steum  or  sailing  ship,  proceeding  in  one  direction, 
meets  another  ship,  whether  a  steam  or  sailing  ship,  proceed- 
ing In  another  direction,  so  thai  if  both  ships  were  to  continue 
tlielr  respective  courses  they  would  pass  so  near  as  to  involve 
any  risk  of  a  collision,  tho  helms  of  both  ships  shall  be  put  to 
port  so  oa  to  pass  on  the  port  side  of  each  other;  and  this  rule 
shall  be  olwycd  by  all  steamships  and  by  all  sulllug  ships, 
wliotlwr  on  the  port  or  stoi'board  tack,  and  whether  close- 
hauled  or  not,  unless  the  circumstances  of  the  case  are  such  as 
to  render  a  deporture  from  the  rule  necessary  In  order  to  avoid 
Immediate  danger,  nnd  subject  also  to  tho  proviso  that  due  re- 
gard shall  bo  bail  tothodangersof  navigation,  and,  as  regards 
nailing  ships  em  tho  starboard  tack  close-hauled,  to  tho  keep- 
ing such  ships  under  command.  Rule  /or  Steamen  in  nar- 
row CAaniieis.— Kvery  steamship,  wlicn  navigating  any  nar- 
row channel,  shall,  whenever  it  is  safe  and  practicable,  keep 
to  that  side  of  tho  fair  way  or  mid-channel  which  lies  on  the 
starboard  side  of  such  steamship.  //  Colligion  enmtcs  from 
rvmh  of  the  above  Rules,  Owner  not  to  be  enlitkd  to  recover. 
— T  f  in  an  y  case  of  collision  it  appears  to  tho  court  licforo  which 
tho  case  is  tried  that  snch  cnllision  was  occasioned  by  thonon- 
iibwr^'anco  of  any  rule  for  the  exhibition  of  lights  or  the  use 
of  fog  signals  issued  in  pureuance  of  the  powers  before  con- 
tained, or  of  the  foregoing  rules  as  to  the  passing  of  steam 
and  sailing  ships,  tho  owner  of  the  ship  by  which  such  rule 
has  been  infringed  shall  not  bo  entitled  to  recover  any  recom- 
pense whatever  for  any  damage  sustained  by  such  ship  in  such 
collision,  unless  it  is  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  that 
the  circumstances  of  the  case  made  a  departuro  fi-om  the  rule 
necessary.  Rrtaeltta  nf  mch  Rulea  to  imphj  tdll/ul  De/aiiU. 
—In  case  any  damago  to  person  or  property  arises  from  tho 
non-observance  by  any  ship  of  any  of  the  said  rules,  such  dam- 
ago  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  willful  de- 
fault of  tho  person  in  charge  of  the  deck  of  such  ship  at  the 
time,  uiilcsH  it  is  shown  to  tho  satisfaction  of  tho  court  that 
tho  circumstunecB  of  the  case  mado  a  departure  from  the  rule 
necessary. 

An  outhority  similar  to  that  piven  to  the  Lonia  of 
tho  Admiralty  by  the  clause  of  the  Mercantile  Ship- 
ping Act  now  quoted  had  been  already  givSn  to  them, 
and  under  that  authority  they  issued  the  following 
regulations,  which  arc  now  (1856)  in  force : 

Steam  Oswis.— All  BritUh  sea-going  steam  vessels  (wheth- 
ej'  propelled  by  paddles  or  screw)  shall,  within  all  seaa,  gul&, 
channels,  straits,  bays,  creeks,  roads,  roailsteads,  harbors, 
havens,  ports,  and  rivers,  and  under  all  circumstances,  be- 
tween sunBct  and  Bunrise,  exhibit  lights  of  such  description, 
and  In  such  manner  as  hereinafter  mentioned ;  viz. ,  when  tin- 
lieialeam:  A  bright  white  light  at  the  foremast  head ;  a  green 
light  on  the  starboard  side;  a  red  light  on  tho  port  side.  1. 
Tho  mast-head  light  is  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  flvo 
miles  in  a  dark  night,  with  a  clear  atmosphere,  and  tho  lan- 
tern Is  to  be  BO  constructed  as  to  show  a  uniform  and  unbroken 
light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  twenty  points  of  tho  com- 
pMB,  being  ten  points  on  each  side  of  the  ship,  viz.,  from  right 
ab.ead  to  two  points  abaft  the  lieam  on  either  side.  2.  The 
green  light  on  the  Btartioard  side  is  to  be  visible  at  a  distance 
of  at  least  two  miles  in  a  dark  night,  with  a  clear  atmosphere ; 
and  the  lantern  is  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  uniform 


Sailing  VtMeU.—Vffi  hereby  require  that  all  BalllngTeiiela 
when  under  std),  or  being  towed,  approaching  or  being  ap- 
proached by  any  other  vessel,  shall  be  bound  to  show  between 
sunset  and  sunrise  a  bright  light  In  such  a  position  as  can 
be  best  seen  by  such  vessel  or  vessels,  and  In  suWclent  time 
to  avoid  collision.  All  sailing  vessels  at  anchor  in  roadstead! 
or  fair  ways  shall  be  also  bound  to  exlilbit,  between  simset 
and  sunrise,  a  constant  bright  light  at  the  mast-head,  except 
within  harbors  or  other  places  where  regulations  for  other 
lights  for  ships  are  legally  estaUlsbed.  The  lantern  to  be 
used  when  at  anchor,  both  by  Bteam  vessels  and  sailing  ves- 
sels, is  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear  good  light  all 
round  tho  horizon.  We  hereby  revoke  all  regulations  here- 
tofore mado  by  us  relating  to  steam  vessels  exhibiting  or  car- 
rying lights;  and  we  require  that  (he  preceding  regulations 
be  strictly  carried  into  effect  after  the  1st  day  of  August,  18S8. 

IHrectiona  for  Fitting  the  Lights,— thf  manner  of  fitting 
tlie  colored  lights  Is  to  be  particularly  attended  to.  They 
ahould  be  fitted  each  with  a  screen  of  wbod  on  the  inboard 
side.  In  order  to  prevent  both  being  seen  at  the  ume  moment 
from  any  direction  but  that  of  right  ahead.  This  U  important, 
for  without  the  screens  (a  principle  firat  introduced  with  this 
plan)  any  plan  of  bow-lights  would  be  InefTective  as  a  means 
of  indicating  the  direction  of  steering.  This  will  be  readily 
understood  by  a  reference  to  the  illustrations,  where  it  will 
appear  evident  that  In  any  situation  In  which  two  vessels  may 
approach  each  other  in  the  dark,  the  colored  llghtB  will  In- 
stantly indicate  to  both  the  relative  course  of  each ;  that  Is, 
each  will  know  whether  the  other  is  approaching  directly  or 
crossing  the  bows,  cithcrto  starboard  or  to  port  This  intima- 
tion is  all  that  Is  required  to  enable  vessels  to  pass  each  other 
In  tho  darkest  night,  with  almost  equal  safety  as  In  broad  day, 
and  for  tho  want  of  which  so  many  lamentable  accidents  have 
occurred.  Patterns  of  tho  lanterns  to  be  carried,  and  of  the 
mode  in  which  the  screens  are  to  fie  fitted,  may  bo  seen  at  the 
custom-houses  of  the  principal  commerelal  porta  In  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  aystem  of  night  lights  laid  down  in  the  above 
regulations  has  been  adopted  In  her  majesty's  service,  and  by 
the  governments  of  the  principal  foreign  maritime  nations. 

Every  master  of  a  ship  is  bound,  as  well  by  the 
duty  he  owes  to  his  employers  and  to  those  on  lioard 
his  ship,  as  by  positive  rule,  to  keep  a  proper  watch  at 
sea,  especially  in  channels  much  frequented  by  ship- 
ping, and  to  use  every  precaution  to  avoid  coming  into 
contact  with  other  vessels.  In  order  still  better  to 
provide  against  danger,  and  to  obviate  disputes,  the 
Trinity  House  promulgated,  on  the  30th  of  October, 
1840,  tho  following  Kule  of  Navigation : 

Rule  of  navigation  issued  by  the  Trinity  House. — The  at- 
tention of  this  Corporation  baling  been  directed  to  th6  numer- 
ous severe,  and  in  somr  instances  fktal,  accidents  which  have 
resulted  from  the  collis  of  vessels  tuivigated  by  steam,  and 
it  appearing  to  be  indispensably  necessary,  in  order  to  guard 
against  tho  recurrence  of  similar  calamities,  that  a  regulation 
should  be  established  for  tho  guidance  and  government  of  per- 
sons intrusted  with  the  charge  of  such  vessels ;  and  whereas, 
1.  The  recognized  9*ule  for  sailing  vessels  is,  that  those  hav- 
ing the  wind  fair  shall  give  way  to  those  on  a  wind ;  that  when 
both  are  going  by  the  wind,  the  vessel  on  the  starboard  tack 
shall  keep  her  wind,  and  the  one  on  the  larboard  tack  bear  up 
strongly,  passing  each  other  on  the  larboard  hand ;  that  when 
both  vessels  have  tho  wind  largo  or  abeam,  and  meet,  they 
shall  pass  each  other  in  the  same  way  on  the  larboard  hand, 
to  effect  which  two  last-mentioned  objects  the  helm  must  be 
put  to  port ;  and  as  steam  vessels  may  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  vessels  navigating  with  a  fair  wind,  and  shmtld  girt 
way  to  sailing  vessels  on  a  wind  of  either  tack,  it  becomes  only 
necessary  to  provide  a  rule  for  their  obsen-anco  when  meeting 
other  steamers,  or  sailing  vessels  going  large. 

Under  these  consideration  s,  ami  with  the  object  before  stated, 
this  Board  has  deemed  It  right  to  frame  and  promulgate  the 
following  rule,  which,  on  communication  with  the  Lords  Com- 
missioners of  the  Admiralty,  tho  Elder  Brethren  find  has  been 
already  adopted  In  respect  of  steam  vessels  in  her  majesty's 
ser\'ice;  and  tliey  desire  earnestly  to  press  upon  the  minds  of 
all  (lersons  having  charge  of  steam  vessels  the  propriety  and 
urgent  neccaslty  of  a  strict  adherence  thereto;  viz.  :2.  Rule  for 
Steam  Vesuclson  different  Courses. — When  such  vessels  must 


and  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  jmlnts  j  inevitably  or  necessarily  cross  so  near  that,  by  continuing  their 
of  the  compaas,  viz.,  from  right  ahead  to  two  points  absft  the  I  n'spective  courses,  there  would  be  a  risk  of  their  coming  la 


be^m  on  the  starboard  side.  3.  The  red  light  on  the  port  side 
is  likewise  to  be  fitted  so  aa  to  throw  Its  light  tho  same  distance 
on  that  side.    4.  Tho  side  lights  are,  moreover,  to  be  fitted  with 


screens,  on  the  inboard  side,  of  at  least  three  feet  long,  to  pre-    vessel  she  Is  passing  on  the  larboard  hand.     By  order, 
vent  the  lights  ttom  being  seen  across  the  bow.     When  at  an-  J.  HEBnzRT,  Seen 

*Aar ;  A  common  bright  light 


collision,  each  vessel  shall  put  her  helm  to  port,  so  as  always 
to  pass  on  the  larboard  side  of  each  other.  A  steam  vessel 
passing  another  In  a  narrow  channel  must  always  leave  tb« 


J.  HEBnzRT,  Secretaijr. 
TaiNiTV  HODSK,  London,  SOth  October,  1840. 


COL 


858 


COL 


It  mty,  however,  be  proper  to  itate  that  neither  this 
nor  any  rule  of  the  sort  is  to  be  regarded  as  inflexible, 
or  10  be  followed  at  all  hazards.  The  safety  of  the 
■hip  is  the  paramount  consideration,  and  no  master  is 
justilied  in  abiding  by  a  rule,  when  by  doing  so  he 
plainly  incurs  danger.  A.  may  be  in  Ills  proper  course, 
but  if  by  pursuing  it  he  will  run  a  great  risk  of  coming 
Into  collision  with  B.,  who  is  upon  a  wrong  course,  he 
la  bound  to  alter  his  course  so  as  to  avoid  a  collisioni 
The  fact  of  one  master  being  ignorant,  careless,  or  in 
fault,  is  no  reason  why  another  should  not  use  every 
means  in  his  power  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  his 
(hip,  and,  consequently,  of  the  lives  and  property  in- 
trusted to  his  care. 

The  conditions  under  which  cases  of  collision  take 
place  diflisr  extremely.  Thus,  Ist.  It  may  be  merely 
accitlental,  or  be  occasioned  by  circumstances  beyond 
the  power  of  control,  as  by  the  violence  of  the  wind  or 
waves  dashing  or  Impelling  the  ships  together, « ithout 
blame  being  imputable  to  either  party  ;  or,  2d.  It  may 
be  owing  to  the  culpable  negligence  or  misconduct  of 
one  party;  or,  8d.  Both  parties  may  be  to  blame.  In 
•lyudicating  upon  losses  growing  out  of  collisions  that 
have  taken  place  under  such  dilferent  circumstances, 
the  conclusions  must  also  l>e  veiy  different. 

With  respect  to  the  lirst  class  of  cases  there  is  little 
apparent  difficulty :  wherever  a  loss  is  occasioned  by  a 
storm,  a  fog,  or  other  accidental  circumstance  without 
any  blame  being  ascribable  to  either  party,  it  would 
appear  to  be  equitable  ^hat  it  should  be  borne  by  the 
Butlurer.  And  this  principle  having  been  embodied  in 
the  Roman  law,  was  subsequently  ingrafted  into  that 
of  England. — H.iiuiiiALi^  on  Insurance,  cap.  12,  §  2. 
But  other  authorities,  to  whom  the  greatest  deference 
is  due,  contend  that  the  loss  arising  from  accidental 
collisions,  however  it  may  affect  the  parties,  should  be 
equally  divided  between  them ;  and  this,  in  fact,  is  the 
rule  followed  in  most  maritime  slates. — Ordminanee  of 
1681,  lib.  ill.  tit.  xii.  art.  10,  with  the  observations  of 
Valin.  It  also  is  the  rule  sanctioned  by  the  law  of 
England  in  cases  where  both  parlies  are  to  blame,  but 
where  the  blame  can  not  be  discriminated.  Those 
cases  in  which  the  blame  is  clearly  ascribable  to  either 
party  present  no  difficulty. 

The  leading  doctrines  of  the  law  of  England  with  re- 
gard to  collisions  have  been  clearly  and  succinctly  stated 
by  Lord  Stowell.  "  In  the  first  place,"  says  his  lord- 
ship, "a  collision  may  happen  without  blame  being  im- 
putable to  either  party,  as  when  the  loss  is  occasioned 
by  a  storm  or  any  other  t'u  major,  !n  that  case  the 
misfortune  must  be  boi-ne  by  the  party  on  whom  it 
happens  to  light;  the  other  not  being  responsible  to 
him  in  any  degree.  Secondly,  a  misfortune  of  this 
kind  may  arise  where  both  parties  are  to  blame,  where 
there  has  been  a  want  of  due  diligence  or  of  skill  on 
both  sides ;  in  such  a  case  the  rule  of  law  is,  that  the 
loss  must  be  apportioned  between  them,  as  having  been 
occasioned  by  the  fault  of  both  of  them.  Thirdly,  it 
may  happen  by  the  misconduct  of  the  suffering  party 
only ;  and  then  the  rule  U,  that  the  sufferer  must  bear 
his  own  burden.  Lastly,  it  may  have  been  the  fault 
of  the  ship  which  ran  the  oilier  down,  and  in  tliis  case 
the  innocent  party  would  be  entitled  to  an  entire  com- 
pensation from  the  other." — 2  Dodsom's  Admirallg  Re- 
port; 83. 

We  may  add  that  the  rule  of  the  equal  division  of 
the  damage  where  both  vessels  are  to  blame  has  been, 
since  Lord  Stowell's  time,  fully  recognized  and  finally 
established  by  a  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords,  on  an 
appeal  from  Scotland. 

Various  authorities  have  spoken  disparagingly  of 
the  rule  now  referred  to,  and  have  called  it  a  judicium 
nuticorum ;  and  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  very  desirable 
In  cases  of  collision  where  both  parties  are  to  blame, 
that  the  neglect  or  culpability  of  e<ch  tbould  be  accu- 
rataly  determined,  and  the  damages  assessed  accord- 
ingly.   But  from  the  obecurity  in  which  such  cases  are 


almost  always  involved,  and  the  conflicting  testimony 
brought  forward  by  the  different  parlies,  the  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  this  being  done  are  usually  quite  in- 
superable; and  it  Is  better  to  adopt  a  rule  wJiich, 
though  perhaps  less  equitable  in  principle,  is  fairer  in 
its  application  than  any  other  that  could  bo  adopted. 
Of  its  expediency  there  can,  indeed,  be  no  reasonable 
doubt.  The  observations  of  Valin  are,  in  this  respect, 
quite  conclusive.  "C'6toit,"  says  he,  "le  moyen  la 
plus  propro  &  rendre  les  capitaines  ou  mattres  des  na- 
vires  extrimement  attentifs  il  evitcr  tout  abordagc,  sur- 
tout  ceux  des  bntimens  foibles  ct  plus  ausceptiblcs  d'etre 
incommodes  par  le  moindre  choc,  en  Icur  rendrant  tou- 
jours  present  la  crainte  de  supporter  la  moitie  du  dum- 
inage  qu'ils  en  pourroient  recevoir.  Et  si  I'on  dit  qu'il 
auroit  ele  plus  simple  et  plus  court  de  laisser  pour  le 
compte particulier  d'un  chacun  le  domniage  qu'il  auroit 
refu,  comme  provenant  d'un  cas  fortuit ;  la  reponso  est 
qu'alors  les  capitaines  de  gros  navires  n'auroicnt  plus 
craint  de  heurter  les  batimens  d'une  bcaucoup  moindre 
force  que  le  leurs :  rien  done  de  plus  Juste  que  la  con- 
tribution par  moitie." — Conunentoire  lur  fUrdonnanco 
de  1681,  ii.  179,  ed.  1776. 

In  apportioning  the  damage  In  cases  where  both  par- 
ties have  been  in  fault,  the  question  occurs,  wh.iiicr 
the  damage  done  to  the  cargo  shall  be  taken  into  ac- 
count or  left  out  in  the  estimate  on  whiili  the  appor- 
tionment is  to  be  made.  This  knotty  point  has  been 
differently  decided  in  different  countries.  But  the  rule 
which  limits  the  liability  of  owners  to  the  value  of  the 
ship  and  freight  applies  to  cases  of  damage  by  colli- 
sion. For  further  ol>servations  on  this  curious  and  im- 
portant sul{Ject,  in  addition  to  Valin  and  the  other  au- 
thorities already  referred  to,  the  reader  may  consult  the 
chapter  on  collision  added  by  Mr.  Seijeant  Shoe  to  his 
edition  of  Lord  Tcnterden's  work  on  the  Law  of  Ship- 
ping, and  the  chapter  on  the  same  subject  in  Maude 
and  Pollock's  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Merchant  Ship- 
Iiing. 

Number  ofCollinoni  at  Sea. — A  statement  has  been 
prepared  bv  Mr.  John  A.  Rucker,  underwriter,  giving 
a  classification  of  the  number  of  collisions  at  sea  re- 
ported in  Lloyd's  lists  during  the  five  years  from  1845 
to  1849  inclusive.  It  thence  appears  that  the  annual 
numljers  were  603,  504, 699,  6;J,'J,  and  565;  so  that  there 
was  a  decrease  in  1849,  notwithstanding  the  increased 
traffic  of  that  yeur.  The  total  collisicms  of  the  five 
years  amounted  to  8064.  Of  these  279  were  cases  in 
which  a  vessel  was  sunk,  ran  down,  or  al>andoned ; 
189  were  cases  in  which  there  was  serious  damage; 
686  in  which  the  damage,  although  less,  was  still  eon- 
sideralilo ;  and  1910  in  which  it  was  only  slight.  The 
average  of  steamers  in  contact  with  steamers  during 
each  year  is  about  11 ;  of  steamers  in  contact  with  sail- 
ing vessels  ftlioHt  37 ;  of  sailing  vessels  in  contact  with 
steamers  86;  and  of  sailing  vessels  in  contact  with 
sailing  vessels  583.  Since  that  time  the  number  of 
collisions  has  lieen  increasing;  and  in  the  years  1855 
and  1856  they  have  been  particularly  large  in  number; 
and  attended  with  great  loss  of  life,  especially  in  the 
cases  of  the  A  relit,  the  Pacijic,  and  the  Lyimnait. 

Oolcbioum  Autumnale  (Meadoie  Saffron,  or  A  u- 
tumn  Crotut),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Melantha- 
eea,  is  largely  collected  for  medicinal  use  in  England. 
Its  infusion  is  well  known  as  a  powerful  remedy  for 
gout,  and  has  long  been  celebrated  in  France  under 
the  name  of  Kan  Aledicinale.  The  cormus  or  bulli,  and 
also  the  seeds,  are  used  in  medicine,  and  have  u  strong, 
persistent,  l)itter  taste.  Its  medicinal  virtues  appear 
to  be  derived  fhHn  n  peculiar  alkaloid,  which  hus  been 
termed  cokhieia.  The  Ijcst  preparation  is  the  wine  of 
colchicum,  prepared  by  digesting  eight  ounces  of  the 
seeds  in  forty  ounces  of  sherry  for  about  a  week,  shak- 
ing the  vessel  daily,  and  pressing  out  the  liquor.  The 
usual  dose  is  from  ten  to  fifty  drops  taken  in  water.  It 
poaseasea  intense  activity  as  a  poison.  The  plant  de- 
rives its  name  from  Colchis,  in  Armenia,  where  it  i* 


gardi 

thou| 

tion 

wore 

•oas 

anbje 

and  I 

uativ 

Were 

parat 

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£plie 


^^Jatii-ftii^biiti^iiSi' 


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Mid  to  have  abounded.— E.  B.    Ste  Chkistisom  mi 
i'oi»um. 
Coleoyntliia,  Ootoqulntida,  or  Bitter  Cu- 

OUmbet  (Uerm.  Kukiiiumlen;  Uu.  Bilter-upjMUn ;  Fr. 
Coloqinnlet ;  It,  Coloqumlidn ;  Sp.  Cvlnqumtidat ;  Arab, 
and  Pen.  Huntit),  the  produce  of  an  annual  plant  (Ck- 
eumu  coloct/ntki*,  Lion.),  growing  in  Turkey,  Nubia, 
India,  and  other  places,  much  resenililingthe  cucumber 
in  herbage.  When  ripe,  the  fruit  is  peeled  and  dried 
In  a  stove,  and  in  this  state  is  lirought  to  England.  It 
U  inodorous,  but  haa  an  extremely  nauseous  taste.  It 
if  an  exceedingly  powerful  drastic  cathartic.  When 
It  is  larger  than  a  8t.  Michael's  orange,  and  has  black 
acute-pointed  ends,  it  is  not  good, — Aihsliu's  Uattria 
Jndicii, 

■  ■■  CologiM  (Ger,  KiUh  ;  ancient  Agrippma  coUmia),  a 
Ibrtiiied  city  of  Western  Germany,  formerly  capital  of 
electorate,  now  capital  of  Khenish  Prussia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  tlie  Rhine,  across  which  a  bridge  of  boats  con- 
coct* it  with  its  auborb,  Deutz,  46  miles  north-nortli- 
west  of  Coblenz.  Lat.  of  cathedral  60°  66'  29  X., 
long.  6°  67'  62"  E.  Population  7»,600.  It  communi- 
cates l)y  railroad  with  Hamm,  Bonn,  Aix-lo-Chapelle, 
Mnchlin,  and  has  extensive  passage  traffic  with  steam- 
packets  on  the  Khiue.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton- 
yam  and  stutb,  silk  fabrics,  velvets,  woolen  cloths, 
faoniery,  lace,  cordage,  tol)acoo,  hats,  wax-lights,  starch, 
needles,  clocks,  gold  and  silver  articles,  vinegar,  seal- 
ing-wax, earthen  and  lacquered  wares,  and  twenty- 
four  factories  of  AViu  tie  Cvlngne.  'Its  position  gives  it 
an  extensive  and  increasing  trade  twtween  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands,  and  under  the  French  it  was  the 
capital  duput  of  Ro&t.  Population  of  arrondissement 
in  1849,  497,330. 

Colonies :  Colony  Trade.  Colmiet  are  esta)>- 
lishments  founded  in  foreign  countries  by  individtuils 
who  cither  voluntarily  emigrate  from,  or  are  forcibly 
sent  abroad  by,  their  mother  country.  The  colony 
trade  is  the  trade  carried  on  between  colonies  and 
their  parent  states. 

1.  E.HT.\BLi9itMENT  OF  COLONIES.  Greek  Coloniei. — 
Various  motives  have,  in  difl'eront  countries  and  ages, 
led  to  the  formation  of  colonies.  The  Greek  colonies 
of  antiquity  seem  to  have  lieen  chiefly  founded  by  citi- 
zens whom  the  v  luience  and  fury  of  contending  factions 
forced  to  leave  their  native  land ;  but  they  were  some- 
times formed  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  mother 
country  of  a  redundant  population,  and  sometimes  also 
for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  sphere  of  commercial 
transactions,  or  of  providing  for  their  security.  The 
relations  between  the  mother  country  and  the  colony 
depended,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  motives  which 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  latter.  When  a  colony 
was  founded  by  fugitives  forcilily  expelled  from  their 
ancient  homes ;  or  when  it  was  founded,  as  was  fre- 
quently the  case,  by  bodies  of  voluntary  emigrants, 
who  received  no  assistance  from,  and  were  in  no  re- 
spect controlled  liy,  the  parent  state,  it  was  from  the 
flrst  in<lo|iendent;  and  even  in  those  rarer  cases  in 
which  the  emigration  was  conducted  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  the  parent  city,  and  when  the  colony 
was  protected  by  her  power  and  influence,  the  depend- 
ence was  mostly  far  from  Iwing  absolute  and  com- 
plete. The  great  bulk  of  the  Greek  colonics  were  really 
independent  states;  and  though  they  commonly  re- 
garded the  land  of  their  forefathers  with  filial  respect, 
though  they  yielded  to  its  citizenstha  place  of  distinct 
tlon  at  public  games  and  religious  solemnities,  and 
ware  expected  to  assist  them  in  time  of  war,  they  did 
loas  allies  only,  on  fair  and  equal  terms,  and  never  as 
■ubjects.  Owing  to  the  freedom  of  their  institutions, 
and  their  superiority  in  the  arts  of  civilized  life  to  the 
native  inhaldtants  of  tlie  countries  among  whom  they 
were  generally  placed,  these  oolonias  rose  in  a  com- 
paratively short  period  to  a  high  pitch  of  opulence  and 
refinement;  and  many  among  them,  as  Miletus  and 
Xpbeius  in  Aaia.  Minor,  Syracuse  and  Agrigantum  io 


Sicily,  and  Tarentum  and  Loori  in  Italy,  not  only 
equaled,  but  greatly  surpassed,  their  mother  cttiti  in 
wealth  and  power. 

Roman  Colvnim. — The  Roman  colonies  were  for  the 
most  part  founded  by  and  under  the  authority  of  gov- 
ernment ;  l)eing  intended  to  serve  l)oth  as  outlets  for 
poor  and  discontented  citizens  and  as  military  sta- 
tions or  garrisons,  to  secure  the  subjection  of  the  con- 
quered provinces  over  which  they  were  scattered.  The 
most  intimate  political  union  was  always  maintained 
between  them  and  the  mother  city,  '  Their  internal 
government  was  modeled  on  that'of  Rome;  and,  while 
their  superior  officers  were  mostly  sent  from  the  capi- 
tal, they  were  made  to  contribute  their  f\ill  quota  of 
troops  and  taxes,  to  assist  in  carrying  on  the  contests 
in  which  the  Republic  was  almost  constantly  engaged, 

Spanish  Coloniei. — The  early  colonies  of  most  mod- 
em nations  were  founded  by  private  adventurers,  in- 
fluenced either  by  the  hope  of  gain  or  by  a  desire  to 
escape  from  religious  persecution,  without  any  wish  to 
relieve  the  mother  country  of  a  surplus  population  or 
to  bridle  subjugated  provinces.  On  their  flrst  institu- 
tion, therefore,  the  modem  colonies  approached,  though 
with  some  essential  variations,  more  nearly  to  the  Gre- 
cian than  the  Roman  model ;  but  the  period  of  their 
freedom  was  of  very  limited  duration.  They  were 
very  soon  sul)jccted  to  laws  and  regulations  ft-amed  in 
the  metropolis,  and  calculated,  as  was  to  be  supposed, 
rather  to  promote  its  interests  than  those  of  the  colo- 
ny. At  a  somewhat  later  period  the  foundation  of  co- 
lonial establishments  was  eagerly  patronized  by  most 
European  governments,  in  the  view  of  extending  com- 
merce and  of  enriching  the  mother  countrj',  by  secur- 
ing to  her  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  ntarket  of 
distant  countries ;  and  where,  from  the  thinness  of  the 
alwriginal  population,  or  their  inferiority  in  the  arts 
of  civilized  life,  the  colonists  were  enabled  to  amass 
fortunes  with  comparative  rapidity.  The  Spaniards 
who  flrst  resorted  to  America  after  its  discovery  had 
no  intention  of  settling  in  the  country,  or  of  colonizing 
it.  The  idea  that  gold  and  silver  alone  constituted 
wealth  was  then  universally  prevalent;  and  the  bold 
and  enterprising  companions  and  followers  of  Colum- 
bus, instead  of  engaging  in  industrious  undertakings, 
which  thcj'  neither  understood  nor  relished,  sought 
only  to  enrich  themselves  by  plundering  the  feeble  and 
I  defensele»<s  natives  of  the  gold  and  silver  in  their  pos- 
session, and  of  the  abundance  of  which  the  most  exag- 
gerated accounts  were  immediately  spread  through- 
out Europe,  When  new  adventurers  arrived  on  an 
unknown  coast,  their  single  inquiry  was,  whether  it 
abounded  in  goM.  If  it  did,  they  remained,  for  some 
time  at  least,  in  the  country ;  if  not,  they  immediate- 
ly set  sail  for  some  other  quarter.  Ami  rabida  ailii  a 
euHwa  Ilispanos  divertit,  is  the  expressive  statement  of 
a  contemporary  writer  (Petros  Martyms,  in  the  Xovui 
Orbis  of  Grynatus,  p.  511).  The  slow  progress  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  after  their  first  discover}'  mun  prin- 
cipally be  ascribed  to  this  canse.  The  gold  and  silver 
accumulated  by  the  natives  were  very  soon  exhaust- 
ed ;  and  the  skill  and  energy'  of  the  successive  swarms 
of  adventurers,  who  continued  to  pour  into  the  coun- 
try, were  principally  directed  to  the  unproductive  and 
generally  ruinous  trade  of  mining.  The  few  Inrgc  for- 
tunes that  were  made  in  this  way,  like  the  large  prizes 
in  a  lottery,  inflamed  the  cupidity  of  the  multitude, 
and  gave  an  appearance  of  credibility  to  the  fabulous 
accounts  of  the  exeessive  productiveness  of  the  mines. 
After  the  gaml)ling  spirit  which  had  exclusively  actu- 
ated the  early  adventurers  had  begun  to  suliside,  the 
colonists  gradually  betook  themselves  to  agricultural 
and  commercial  pursuits ;  and  the  vast  variety  of  valu- 
able productions  with  which  Mex'co  and  the  other 
Spanish  colonies  alMmnded,  the  extreme  richness  of 
the  soil,  and  their  advantageous  situation,  would,  had 
they  been  only  tolerably  well  governed,  have  occasion- 
ed their  rapid  increase  in  wealth  and  ciTilization.  But 


.4 


COL 


'mi' 


'4)01. 


»  blind  and  Intolerant  deapotiam  pualjrnd  their  ener- 
giei,  and  fettered  and  retarded  their  progreaa.  All  the 
abaaea  and  defecta  of  the  government  of  Old  Spain 
were  tranaferrcd  to,  and  multiplied  in,  the  coloniea. 
'fhe  whole  property  of  thoae  vaat  regiona  waa  consid- 
ered aa  vested  in  the  crown  of  Spain ;  and  every  law 
or  regulation,  whether  of  a  local  or  general  nature, 
affecting  their  government,  emanated  from  the  council 
of  the  Indies,  in  which  it  was  aupposcd  the  Icing  was 
always  preaent.  Wo  can  not  stop  to  descrilie  the  sort 
of  regulations  to  which  the  colonists  were  subjected 
with  any  degree  of  (ninuteneaa ;  but  we  may  notice  a 
few  of  them,  to  furnish  the  means  of  judging  of  their 
general  spiritand  proluible  effect.  It  was,  for  example, 
made  a  capital  offense  to  curry  on  any  intercourse  witli 
foreigners;  and  the  inhubiianta  of  the  different  colo- 
nies were  even  forbidden  any  intorcourae  with  each 
other,  unless  under  the  strictest  and  most  vexatious 
regulations.  There  were  several  articles,  such  as  flax, 
hemp,  and  wine,  which  they  were  not  permitted  to  cul- 
tivate ;  at  the  same  time  that  the  crown  reserved  to 
itself  the  monopoly  of  salt,  tol>acco,  gunpowder,  and 
some  other  leas  important  articles.  The  aloavala,  and 
other  oppressive  imposts,  which  had  proved  destruc- 
tive of  industry  in  Old  Spain,  were  rigoroualy  levied 
aa  well  on  the  exporta  aa  on  the  im|)orts  of  the  colo- 
niea. No  aituation  of  power  or  emolument  could  be 
filled  except  by  a  native  of  Old  Spain.  The  Catholic 
religion  was  established,  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
other ;  and  bishops,  tithes,  and  the  Inquisition  follow- 
ed in  its  train :  while,  in  order  still  Ijottcr  to  consoli- 
date and  atrengthen  the  foundations  of  this  monstrous 
despotism,  the  government  endeavored  to  malie  the 
colonists  insensible  of  their  degradation,  by  proscrib- 
ing every  species  of  instruction,  and  watchfully  oppos- 
ing the  introduction  and  progress  of  all  useful  knowl- 
edige !  Under  such  circumstances,  we  can  not  be  sur- 
prised that  the  continental  colonists,  among  whom  the 
monopoly  system  was  maintained  in  its  greatest  puri- 
ty, should  have  languished  for  above  two  centuries  in  a 
state  of  sluggish  inactivity.  Though  surrounded  by  all 
the  means  of  producing  wealth,  they  were  not  generally 
wealthy.  Oppression  rendered  (hem  indolent;  and 
went  far  to  deprive  them  not  only  of  the  power,  but 
also  of  the  wish,  to  emerge  from  poverty.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  colonists  who  occupied  the  VVest  India  Isl- 
ands waa  not  quite  so  slow.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that,  down  to  the  middle  of  last  century,  Spain  reaped 
no  greater  advantage  from  tlie  poaaession  of  Cuba, 
Hiapaniola,  and  Porto  Rico,  than  Eqgland  or  France 
ttom  the  smallest  of  its  dependencies.  In  proof  of 
this  we  may  mention  that  the  noble  island  of  Cuba, 
which  could'  without  difhculty  supply  all  Europe  with 
augar,  did  not,  in  17&0,  produce  it  sufficient  quantity 
even  for  the  consumption  of  Old  Spain.  But  the  com- 
bined influence  of  an  arbitrary  and  intolerant  govern- 
ment, and  of  a  degrading  superstition,  could  not  bal- 
ance tke  means  of  improvement  which  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and  the  oomraand  thence  arising  over  most  of 
the  necessaries  and  many  of  the  conveniences  of  life, 
gave  to  ttie  colonists.  Owing  also  to  the  total  inca- 
pacity of  Old  Spain  to  furnish  her  transatlantic  prov- 
inces with  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  articles  she  had 
forced  them  to  import  from  Kurope,  and  the  consequent 
extension  of  the  contraband  trade  carried  on  with  them 
by  the  other  European  nations,  she  had  been  compelled 
gradually  to  relax  the  severity  of  her  commercial  mo- 
nopoly. A  new  impulae  was  thus  given  to  the  spirit 
of  industry.  The  colonists  Iwgan  to  be  more  sensible 
of  the  natural  advantages  of  their  situation,  and  less 
inclined  to  submit  to  tlie  blind  and  bigoted  policy  of 
the  Spanish  court.  In  1781,  a  rebellion  broke  out  in 
Pern,  in  consequence  of  an  attempt  made  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  establish  a  new  monopoly  in  that  province, 
which  threatened  to  end  in  the  total  dissolution  of  the 
connection  between  Spain  and  South  America,  and  was 
not  <]uelled  without  great  diQculty  and  much  blood- 


shed. But  the  spirit  of  liberty,  when  once  ezeitedi 
could  not  be  suppressed.  It  continued  to  gain  ground 
progressively,  until  the  commencement  of  the  last  con- 
teat  between  France  and  Spain  interrupted  the  comma* 
nication  with  the  motlicr  country,  and  gave  the  colo- 
niata  an  opportunity  of  proclaiming  that  indepcndenc* 
which,  after  a  lengthened  and  bloody  struggle,  they 
happily  succeeded  in  acliieving. 

BrUith  CoUmiu. — ^The  English,  who,  like  all  the  ^her 
nations  of  Europe,  had  been  impreaaed  with  mingled 
fcelinga  of  admiration  and  envy  by  the  extent  and  inw 
portance  of  the  acquiaitions  made  by  the  Spaniarda  in 
the  New  World,  apeedily  entered  with  enthnaiasm  and 
ardor  into  the  career  of  diacovery.  Owing,  however, 
to  the  bull  which  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  had  obtained 
from  the  Pope,  conveying  to  tliem  the  ample  donation 
of  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  infidels  that  the  Span- 
iards had  discovered  or  might  discover,  the  Eiiglish( 
to  avoid  encroaching  on  the  dominions  of  their  rivals, 
directed  their  efforts  farther  to  the  north.  Several  at- 
tempta  to  found  colonies  on  the  coast  of  America  were 
made  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  by  Sir  Humphrey  Gil- 
bert, Sir  Richard  Grenville,  Sir  Walter  Raleigli,  and 
others.  But  in  consequence  of  their  ignorance  of  tht 
country,  the  deficiency  of  their  supplies  of  provisions, 
the  loss  of  time  in  fruitless  searches  after  gold,  and  the 
various  difficulties  incident  to  the  first  settlement  of  • 
colony,  none  of  these  attempts  proved  sucQcsaful ;  and 
it  was'not  ur.<^il  1607  that  a  small  body  of  adventurers 
founded  the  first  permanent  establishment  of  the  En- 
glish in  America,  at  Jamestown,  in  Virginia.  I.et- 
ters  patent  were  granted  in  1609  hy  King  .lames  to  the 
principal  persons  resident  in  London,  by  whom  the  ex- 
pense attending  the  formation  of  the  colony  was  to  be 
defrayed,  incorporating  them  into  a  company,  and 
establishing  a  council  in  England  for  the  direction  of 
their  proceedings,  the  meml>ers  of  which  were  to  be 
chosen  by,  and  removable  at  the  pleasure  of,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  partners  of  the  company;  permitting 
whatever  was  necessary  for  the  support  and  sustenance 
of  the  colony  for  the  first  seven  years  to  be  exported 
free  of  duty ;  declaring  that  the  colonists  and  tlieir  de- 
scendants were  to  bo  secured  in  all  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  Englishmen,  the  same  as  if  they  had  remain- 
ed at  home  or  been  born  in  England ;  and  reserving 
only,  aa  the  stipulated  price  of  these  concessions,  and 
in  imitation  of  the  policy  of  the  Spaniards,  mie-f/ih  ]«at 
of  the  gold  and  silver  ore  to  be  found  in  the  colonies, 
which  was  to  be  paid  to  his  Majesty  and  his  successors 
in  all  time  to  come.  In  virt-io  of  these  powers,  the 
company  issued,  in  1621,  a  charter  or  ordinance,  which 
gave  a  legal  and  permanent  form  to  the  constitution 
of  the  colony.  By  this  charter  the  supreme  legislative 
authority  was  lodged,  partly  in  the  governor,  who  held 
the  place  of  the  sovereign,  partly  in  a  council  of  state 
named  by  the  company,  and  partly  in  a  general  coun- 
cil or  assembly  composed  of  the  representatives  of  tlio 
people,  in  which  were  vested  powers  and  privileges 
similar  to  those  of  tlie  House  of  Commons.  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  the  king  and  the  company 
quarreled.  The  latter  were  in  consequence  divested 
of  all  their  rights,  partly  by  open  violence,  and  partly 
under  color  of  law,  without  compensation,  after  luiving 
expended  upward  of  £160,000  in  founding  the  colony; 
and  a  governor  and  council  of  state  appointed  by  the 
king  succeeded  to  the  powers  of  those  appointed  l)y  the 
committee. — Robebtson's  Ilittory  of  America,  boolc 
VK.  postim  I  Jeffehson's  A'o***  o»  Virginia,  p.  17!). 

The  founders  of  the  colony  in  Virginia  liad  been 
actuated  solely  by  the  hopes  of  gain ;  l)Ut  the  colonies 
that  were  soon  after  established  in  New  England  were 
chiefly  planted  by  men  who  fled  from  religious  and  po- 
litical persecution.  The  form  of  government  in  the 
New  England  colonies,  though  at  first  modified  a  good 
deal  by  the  peculiar  religious  opinions  entertained  by 
the  colonists,  was  in  its  leading  principles  essentially 
free.    For  a  considerable  period  the  coloniits  elected 


COL 


? 


861 


CJOL 


th«lr  own  governors,  coined  money,  and  exercised 
most  of  the  rights  of  sovereignty  ;  while  the  English, 
wholly  engrossed  with  the  pontest  between  freedom 
and  prerogative  at  home,  had  no  leisure  to  attend  to 
their  proceedings.  Subsequently  to  the  Restoration, 
however,  the  governments  of  most  of  the  New  En- 
gland States  were  established  nearly  on  the  same  foot- 
ing as  that  of  Virginia;  which,  indeed,  became  the  fa- 
vorite model,  not  only  for  the  constitution  of  the  colo- 
nies established  on  the  continent,  with  the  exception 
of  the  proprietary  governments  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Murj'land,  but  also  for  thoso  tliat  were  established  In 
the  West  India  Islands.  But  under  every  vicissitude 
of  government  and  fortune,  the  New  England  colo- 
nists wcro  distinguished  by  the  same  ardent  and  en- 
thusiastic love  of  lilierty  that  had  first  induced  them 
to  quit  their  native  land.  Every  thing  relating  to  the 
Internal  regulation  and  administration  of  the  different 
colonies  was  determined,  in  the  colonial  assemblies,  by 
representatives  ftaely  chosen  by  the  settlers.  The  per- 
sonal liberty  of  the  citizens  was  well  secured  and  vigi- 
lantly protected.  And,  if  we  except  the  restraints  on 
their  commerce,  the  monopoly  of  which  was  jealously 
guarded  by  tlie  motlier  country,  the  inhabitants  of  Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania,  and  New  England  enjoyed  nearly 
the  same  degree  of  freedom  when  colonists  of  England 
that  they  now  enjoy  as  citizens  of  the  powerful  repul)- 
lic  of  North  America.  Their  progress  in  wealth  and 
population  was  in  consequence  quite  unprecedented  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  The  while  population  of  the 
colonies  had  increased  in  1770,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  Revolutionary  war,  to  al>ove  2,000,000,  and  the 
value  of  the  exports  from  Great  Britain  totbem  amount- 
ed to  about  £1,300,000  a  year  I 

It  is  not  diflicult  to  discover  the  causes  of  the  un- 
exampled prosperity  and  rapid  growth  of  our  North 
American  colonies,  and  generally  of  all  colonies  placed 
under  similar  circumstances.  The  North  Amnrican 
colonists  carried  with  them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts 
and  scienceti  practiced  liy  a  civilized  and  polislied  peo- 
ple. They  had  been  trained  from  their  infancy  to  haliits 
of  industry  and  subordination.  They  were  practically 
acquainted  witli  tlie  beat  and  wisest  form  of  civil  polity 
that  had  been  establislicd  inJCurope;  and  they  were 
placeS  in  a  situation  that  enabled  them,  without  diffi- 
culty, to  remedy  Its  defects,  and  to  try  every  institu- 
tion by  the  test  of  utility.  But  the  thinness  of  the  abo- 
riginal population,  and  the  consequent  facility  of  ob- 
taining inexhaustible  supplies  of  fertile  and  unoccu- 
pied land,  roust  certainly  l>e  placed  at  the  head  of  all 
the  causes  which  have  promoted  the  rapid  increase  of 
wealth  and  population  in  the  United  States,  and  in  all 
tlie  other  colonies  both  of  North  and  Soutli  America. 
On  the  first  foundation  of  a  colony,  and  for  long  ofter, 
each  colonist  gets  an  ample  supply  of  land  of  the  bett 
qualily ;  and  having  no  rent,  and  scarcely  any  taxes, 
to  pay,  his  industry  necessarily  becomes  exceedingly 
productive,  and  he  has  every  means  and  every  motive 
to  amass  capUal.  In  consequence,  ho  is  eager  to  col- 
lect laborers  from  all  quarters,  and  is  lioth  willing  and 
able  to  reward  them  with  high  wages.  But  these  high 
wages  afford  the  means  of  accumulation,  and,  joined  to 
the  plenty  and  cheapness  of  the  land,  speedily  change 
tlie  more  industrious  lal)orers  into  proprietors,  and  en- 
alde  them,  in  their  turn,  to  become  the  employers  of 
fresh  laborers ;  so  that  every  class  participates  in  tlie 
general  improvement,  and  capital  and  population  ad- 
vance with  a  rapidity  hardly  conceivable  in  old-set- 
tled and  fully-peopled  countries. 

It  has  lieen  fVcquently  said  that  the  establishment 
of  the  British  American  and  West  India  colonies  was 
a  device  of  the  supj/orters  of  the  exclusive  or  mercan- 
tile system — that  they  founded  them  In  the  view  of 
raising  up  a  vast  agricultural  population,  whose  com- 
merce should  lie  confined  entirely  to  an  exchange  of 
raw  products  for  other  manufactured  goods.  There 
is,  however,  no  truth  in  these  assertions.    On  the  con- 


trary, the  charters  granted  to  the  founders  of  the  set- 
tlement in  Virginia  distinctly  trnpouer  llu  i  u.'anutj  to 
carry  on  a  dirtct  intercoune  leith  foreiyn  itittts.  Nor 
we^  they  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  this  permission  | 
for  they  bad,  so  early  as  1U20,  established  tobacco 
warehouses  in  Kliddloburg  and  Flushing ;  and  th« 
subsequent  proceedings  of  the  British  government 
depriving  them  of  this  freedom  of  commerce,  were  the 
chief  cause  of  tliose  disputes  which  broke  out  in  1676, 
in  an  open  rebellion  of  ominous  and  threa:cniog  im- 
port.— HonuiiTsoN's  Amiriea.  It  was  not  until  the 
colonists  had  surmounted  the  difficulties  and  hardships 
Incident  to  their  first  cstaljlishment,  and  had  liegun  to 
increase  rapidly  In  wealth,  tliat  their  commerce  became 
an  object  of  importance,  and  that  regulations  were 
framed  in  the  view  of  restricting  its  freedom,  and  of 
rendering  it  peculiarlv  advantageous  to  the  mother 
country.  The  act  of  1660,  passed  tiy  the  republican 
Parliament,  laid  the  first  foundations  of  the  monopoly 
system,  by  confining  the  import  and  export  trade  of 
tlie  colonics  exclusively  to  British  or  colony  built 
ships.  But  the  famous  Navigation  Act  of  1660  (12 
Charles  II.  c.  18)  went  much  farther.  It  enacted  that 
certain  specified  articles,  the  produce  of  the  colonies, 
and  since  well  known  In  commerce  l>y  the  name  of  rnu- 
merated  articles,  should  not  be  exported  directly  from 
the  colonics  to  any  foreign  country ;  but  that  they 
should  first  be  sent  to  Britain,  and  tlicre  unladen  (the 
words  of  the  act  are,  lau{  vpon  the  ihore)  before  they 
could  be  forwarde<1  to  their  final  destination.  Sugar, 
molasses,  ginger,  fustic,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  Indigo, 
were  originally  enumerated ;  and  the  list  was  subse- 
quently enlarged  by  the  addition  of  cofl'ce,  hides  and 
skins,  iron,  com,  lumber,  etc.  In  1739,  the  monopoly 
system  was  so  far  relaxed  that  sugars  were  permitted 
to  be  carried  directly  from  the  British  plantations  to 
any  port  or  place  southward  of  Cojie  Finisterre ;  but 
the  conditions  under  which  this  indulgence  was  grunt- 
ed continued  so  strict  and  numerous  down  to  1803, 
when  they  were  a  good  deal  simplified,  as  to  render  it 
in  a  great  degree  nugatory  (EriwARtis's  West  Indies) ; 
and  with  this  exception,  the  oppressive  and  vexatious 
restrictions  on  their  direct  exportations  to  foreign  coun- 
tries were  maintained  on  most  of  the  other  enumerated 
commodities  of  any  importance  down  to  a  late  period. 
But  besides  com|)elling  the  colonists  to  sell  their 
produce  exclusively  in  the  English  markets,  it  wag 
next  thought  advisulile  to  oblige  them  to  buy  such  for- 
eign articles  as  they  might  stand  in  need  of  entirely 
from  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  England. 
For  this  purpose  it  was  enacted,  in  1063,  that  "  no  com- 
modity of  the  growth,  production,  or  manufacture  of 
Europe  shall  be  imported  into  the  British  plantations 
iiut  such  as  are  laden  and  put  on  lioard  in  England, 
Wales,  or  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  and  in  Englisli-liuilt 
shipping,  whereof  the  master  and  tliree-fonrths  of  tlie 
crew  are  English."  Tlie  preamble  to  tliis  statute, 
which  effectually  excluded  tlie  coloni.sts  from  every 
market  for  European  protluce,  except  that  of  England, 
assigns  the  motive  for  this  restriction  to  lie,  "  the  main- 
taining a  greater  correspondence  and  kindness  between 
the  subjects  at  home  and  those  in  the  plantations ; 
keeping  the  colonics  in  a  firmer  de)ieiKlence  on  the 
mother  country ;  making  them  yet  more  beneficial  to 
it,  in  the  further  employment  and  increase  of  ICnglish 
shipping,  and  the  vent  of  English  manufactures  and 
commodities;  rendering  the  navigation  to  and  from 
them  more  safe  and  cheap;  and  making  that  kingdom 
a  staple,  not  only  of  the  commodities  of  tlie  plantations, 
but  also  of  the  commodities  of  other  countries  and  pla- 
ces for  their  supply,  it  lieing  the  usage  of  other  nations 
to  keep  their  plantation  trade  exclusively  to  them- 
selves." It  WHS  also  a  leading  principle  in  the  system 
of  colonial  policy,  adopted  as  well  by  England  as  by 
the  other  European  nations,  to  discourage  all  attempts 
to  manufacture  such  articles  in  the  colonies  as  could 
be  provided  for  them  by  the  mother  country.     The 


/"V 


COL 


862 


cot 


Uitoiy  of  the  colonial  syatem  <i  taW  of  effort*  of  thii 
tort;  and  no  eaMntial  was  thia  principle  ileumed  to  the 
idea  of  a  colony,  that  Lord  Clmthaiii  did  net  heiitate 
to  declare,  in  hia  place  in  Parliament,  that  "the  Brlt- 
lah  coloniits  of  North  America  had  no  kiuiit  (»  muau- 
factiin  fom  a  nail  for  a  hortethn* ,'" — Gliw  ahim's  tV»t 
JnUiet.  And  when  luch  were  the  enactnunti  made  by 
Um  Legiolature,  and  luoh  the  avowed  (entimenta  of  a 

CoMnnea  or  tub  raixnirAL  Nobtu  Amebicah 


Kfeat  parltamentary  leader  and  a  fVifnd  tii  colonii), 
we  need  not  l>e  aiirt)rlscd  at  a  declnratlon  of  the  late 
Lord  HheHleld,  who  did  no  more,  Indeed,  than  exprcii 
the  opinion  of  almoat  all  the  merchanta  and  politicians 
of  his  time,  when  ho  affirmed  that  "tiik  only  ute  uf 
Ameriran  colvniet  or  Wttt  India  itlantU  it  tiik  mosof- 
OLY  o/tktir  connanftium,  and  th»  earriagt  oftkiirfroi- 
,«,/•••  -        -  -  ,- 

■     y.Sw1»?,»'   .'    .'.    Jl-i.  ■•«il  W.-4-W /• 

C'ouiHns  rnion  to  thi  Rirotiitie)!,  ITMt-lTTO. 


Y<». 

lli|iai«i. 

iMlUd. 

N.w  YoA.' 

>«nii.yl»MiU.       ^VirjInU  lin.r»l«Vyf«iii 

CarotloA. 

o-*»- 

Inporta. 

Ki|>ort>. 

Unportl. 

KilMfto. 

Imvorla.      KvjMfto.    1    ImporU. 

Bl|Kll1i. 

Imvorti. 

Eiporto. 

!  Import.. 

« 

£ 

& 

4! 

jC 

e 

e 

V      t 

i.' 

t 

1' 

£ 

ITOO 

41.430 

91,918 

17,567 

40,410 

4.608 

18,629 

817,801 

178,481 

14,066 

11,008 

.... 

.... 

ITOl 

8«,6Sa 

80,811 

18,547 

81,910 

6,220 

12,008 

280,7^ 

199,083 

10,978 

18,908 

• . .  > 

.... 

ITOJ 

87,010 

(4,(16 

7,906 

29,901 

4,146 

9,842 

274.781 

72,891 

11,870 

10,460 

•  •  • . 

UM 

3».Ba» 

e>.(08 

7.471 

17,662 

M60 

9,89« 

144,928 

106,713 

10,197 

12,428 

.... 

ITM 

30,813 

74.800 

10,640 

11.194 

2,480 

11,819 

164,111 

00,458 

14,007 

(.621 

.... 

ITOB 

i-.',7»a 

61,604 

7,398 

27.(101 

1,809 

7,200 

116,768 

174,811 

1,6«8 

19,788 

*.  •  • 

* .  .■ 

1106 

12,210 

67,060 

2.8«9 

31,588 

4,210 

11,087 

149,151 

58,015 

8,651 

4,001 

, . ., 

.... 

ITOT 

88,703 

110,081 

14,288 

29,856 

786 

14„1(6 

207,626 

287,001 

23,311 

10,492 

.... 

1T08 

4>,(as 

115,51)5 

10,847 

26,899 

1,120 

0,720 

«l.'),4(t3 

79.001 

10,840 

11.996 

.... 

.... 

17(W 

2»,B60 

120,840 

l-.',269 

84,677 

617 

6,881 

261,608 

8(M68 

20,481 

28,521 

.... 

ITIO 

81,111 

106, 8.38 

8.11)8 

81,476 

1,277 

8,594 

188,429 

127,039 

20.7118 

19,618 

*  •  1 1 

.... 

mi 

20,415 

137,411 

11.193 

28.866 

as 

10,408 

278,181 

91,636 

12.871 

20,406 

•  •  •  • 

.... 

ITU 

Hjm 

118.105 

11,440 

18,624 

1,471 

8,404 

207,^41 

184.588 

2O.i:04 

20,015 

.... 

1113 

49,904 

120,718 

14.418 

46,470 

178 

17,037 

100.168 

76.804 

82,44» 

28,667 

.... 

1TI4 

61.641 

121,288 

29,810 

44,643 

2,t!68 

14,927 

280,470 

128,878 

81,290 

28,711 

• .  •• 

.... 

1T15 

M,G65 

164,060 

21,816 

64.629 

6,461 

17,181 

174,760 

199,274 

29,158 

16,681 

«... 

.... 

1716 

(9.695 

111,160 

11.971 

61,178 

5,IU8 

11,841 

181,843 

179,696 

46,287 

27,272 

.... 

HIT 

5S,8»a 

181,0111 

24.684 

44,140 

4,499 

22.605 

190,884 

115,961 

41,275 

26,058 

.... 

ni8 

01,691 

131,885 

27,831 

62,900 

5,588 

22,710 

S16,67« 

191,925 

46,886 

15,841 

.... 

UIO 

54,461 

126,317 

19.890 

60,365 

fl,.Mi4 

27,008 

332,009 

104,680 

50,378 

19.630 

.... 

.... 

nil) 

49,100 

128,709 

16,836 

87,897 

7,(«3 

24,531 

831,482 

110,717 

62,736 

18,290 

.... 

mi 

60,488 

114,5.>4 

15,(01 

60,751 

8.C187 

21,548 

867,811 

117,876 

fl1,S5S 

17,703 

1T18 

47,956 

133,722 

20,118 

67,478 

fl.SSl 

20,397 

288,091 

172,754 

79,650 

84,874 

• . . . 

1723 

69,839 

176,480 

27,992 

,  53,013 

8.381 

15,992 

287,997 

128,838 

78,108 

42,246 

•  .. . 

1724 

09,685 

168,607 

21,101 

08,020 

4,057 

80,824 

277,844 

101,894 

90,501 

87,839 

. .  • . 

.... 

17.» 

71,021 

201,769 

24,976 

70,(60 

11,!8I 

41,209 

114,780 

195,884 

91,941 

39,182 

17S« 

(3,816 

200,881 

88,307 

84,840 

5,960 

57.634 

324,707 

186,981 

03,468 

48,984 

*  i . . 

1727 

76,063 

187,277 

81,017 

67,461 

12,823 

81.979 

421,688 

192,965 

96,056 

28,264 

• . .. 

17M 

(4,080 

194,690 

21,142 

81,034 

16,230 

87.478 

418,089 

171,092 

91,175 

83,067 

17« 

6i.Ml 

1(1,101 

15,888 

64,760 

7.484 

29.709 

886.174 

108,981 

113,329 

^S,8C6 

173» 

54,701 

108,190 

8,740 

64,866 

10.681 

48,501 

840,828 

150,981 

161,780 

64,786 

1781 

49,048 

188,467 

20,756 

66,110 

11,786 

44,260 

408,802 

171,278 

159,771 

71,146 

1731 

(4,o:i5 

S16,600 

9,411 

65  640 

8.5.'4 

41,0!!8 

310,799 

148,289 

120,207 

58,2(18 

"m 

1783 

61,983 

184,570 

11,826 

65,417 

14,776 

40,566 

403,1(18 

186,177 

177,845 

70.466 

'  *2«'3 

1,696 

1734 

81,261 

146,400 

1^307 

81,758 

20,217 

64,891 

378,000 

172,086 

120,466 

99.663 

IS 

1,911 

17SS 

71,899 

13»,li:> 

14.155 

80,405 

21,919 

48,804 

394,996 

210,881 

145,848 

117,887 

MlO 

12,111 

17S6 

06,78S 

122,153 

17,944 

80,000 

20,780 

01,613 

380,168 

204,794 

214,083 

101,147 

1,011 

1787 

(9,347 

213,023 

lfl,>t8n 

115,883 

15,198 

6fl,0!:0 

492,246 

211,801 

187,758 

68,980 

, 

5,701 

1738 

6».1I( 

103,233 

10,218 

183,488 

11,918 

61,450 

891,814 

258,860 

141,119 

87,798 

IT 

6,496 

1739 

46,604 

110,378 

18,459 

106,070 

8,184 

54,461 

414,(64 

217,200 

286,191 

94,445 

288 

8.814 

1740 

72,889 

171,081 

21,41)8 

118,777 

15,048 

60,761 

341,097 

281,428 

265,560 

181,811 

924 

8,524 

1741 

(0,051 

198,147 

21.142 

140,430 

17,158 

91,010 

677,109 

243,582 

230.830 

224,270 

.... 

2,563 

174JJ 

63,106 

148,8)9 

13,530 

107,501 

8  5i!7 

76,2(16 

427,709 

264,186 

1.HC07 

127,063 

1,022 

17,013 

1743 

68,165 

171,461 

15.067 

184,487 

9,606 

79,840 

667  .f^l 

828,1  ('6 

235.180 

lll,4!i9 

2 

2,291 

1744 

50,248 

143,981 

14.517 

119,910 

7,446 

01,214 

402,709 

284,865 

191.594 

79,141 

.... 

769 

1745 

38,948 

140,463 

14,083 

M,957 

10,130 

54,280      399,423 

196,799 

91,847 

86,815 

* . , . 

939 

1749 

3S.0I1 

200,177 

8,841 

86,711 

16,770 

73,6'.i9 

419,371 

282,546 

70,897 

102,809 

984 

1747 

41,771 

210,640 

14,992 

187,984 

2,882 

82,404 

4'il.«in 

200,088 

107,600 

96,529 

24 

1T48 

29.748 

197,081 

11,368 

148,311 

12,308 

76,8.S0 

494.861 

252,024 

167.806 

160,172 

.... 

1,814 

1749 

3:),99» 

238,286 

23,413 

266,778 

14,944 

238.087 

434.013 

823,000 

120.499 

104,085 

61 

6 

1760 

48,456 

843,(59 

35,632 

267,130 

2^,191 

217.713 

608.089 

349,419 

191.(107 

134,037 

1,941 

2,126 

1761 

63,287 

805,974 

42,8(8 

148,941 

28.870 

190,917 

460,086 

247.l''7 

246.491 

188,244 

856 

2,066 

liSi 

74,31!i 

173,340 

40.648 

194,0.)0 

19,978 

201.606 

509,466 

826,151 

283.204 

160,777 

1.616 

3,163 

17B3 

83.uU.'> 

845,523 

40,663 

177,804 

88,617 

246,644 

1182.615 

866,776 

164,634 

113,009 

8.067 

14,126 

1764 

00.638 

329,433 

26.668 

127,497 

30,049 

244,647 

673.435 

323,513 

807,238 

149,215 

3,230 

1,974 

1755 

63,5BS 

841.790 

28,066 

151,071 

31,830 

144,456 

439.(68 

28,M57 

825,525 

1,39,887 

4,437 

2,630 

17M 

47,869 

3H371 

24,073 

260,425 

20,091 

200,109 

337,76J 

426,087 

222,915 

181,780 

7,168 

586 

1167 

27,660 

S63.404 

19,168 

363,811 

14,100 

108,426 

418,  Vil 

884,897 

130.889 

218,949 

•  t  •  1 

2,671 

17G8 

30.204 

406.694 

14,260 

36l),Ni6 

21,383 

200.953 

451,302 

4iW,471 

150,511 

181,002 

.... 

10,212 

1750 

26.986 

617.067 

21,684 

630.785 

22,404 

498,161 

367,228 

459,007 

206.534 

216,255 

0,074 

16,178 

17(0 

37.801 

699,647 

11,125 

480.106 

22,754 

707,998 

604,451 

805,882 

102,789 

218,181 

12.1(18 

1761 

40,116 

834,215 

48,648 

189,570 

89.170 

204.007 

466,083 

545,360 

253.  U02 

264,687 

6.764 

24.'i7'9 

1761 

41.733 

247,385 

58,881 

288,040 

38,091 

200,109 

415,709 

418,599 

181,696 

194,170 

6.611 

28.701 

1708 

74,815 

268,854 

52,998 

238,500 

38,228 

284,151 

042,294 

656,i»l 

282,366 

260,182 

14.409 

44.908 

1764 

88.157 

450,766 

53,697 

615,416 

80.258 

4.10,191 

569,508 

615,191 

341,727 

305.808 

81.325 

18,838 

1705 

14^819 

451,190 

54,969 

.182.840 

25.148 

863.868 

605,071 

883,214 

885,918 

334,700 

84.183 

29,165 

1760 

141,733 

409,042 

(7,020 

330,829 

20.851 

327.314 

461,093 

872,648 

193.587 

190,781 

5il.074 

67,268 

1707 

128,207 

406.081 

61,428 

417,967 

37.641 

371,830 

437,916 

487,028 

3i;5,027 

244,098 

36.^)0 

23,334 

17(8 

148.875 

419.707 

87.115 

4S1,980 

59,404 

432.107 

408,048 

47VS4 

608,108 

289,808 

42,402 

5«,r,02 

17(» 

119,363 

207,091 

73,466 

74,918 

20,111 

199,006 

361,891 

488,i)63 

887,114 

800,600 

82,270 

5S,,T40 

1770 

148,011 

394.461 

69,881 

475,901 

28,109 

134,881 

486.094 

717,782 

278,907 

146.278 

65,5.11 

60,198 

1771 

l.'iO.SSl 

1,420,119 

95,875 

668.011 

31.616 

728,744 

577.848 

920,326 

420,311 

409,169 

63,810 

70,493 

1771 

116,2(5 

824.830 

82,707 

343.970 

29.133 

607,909 

528.404 

798.910 

426,C23 

449,610 

60,083 

92.400 

1173 

124.424 

627,065 

76.246 

289,214 

80,062 

4M,448 

689,803 

«>S,9fl4 

456,613 

844.859 

8fi,391 

62,982 

1774 

112,248 

662,476 

80,0<A 

437,987 

69,611 

(26,602 

012,030 

618.788 

431,801 

178.  ri4 

67.647 

67,618 

1776 

1)0,588 

71,616 

18(7,018 

1,228 

176,9(1 

1,366 

768366 

1,911 

670,34« 

6,245 

103,477 

118,777 

177« 

762 

65,060 

2,318 

.... 

1.421 

368 

73,226 

.... 

13,668 

.... 

12,569 

*  "  During  the  war  of  the  Revolution  our  comnieroe  waa  suspended :  after  the  peace,  In  1788,  our  tisde  oontlnned  to  languish ; 
It  had  to  contend  with  domestic  and  foreign  obatoclesj  foreign  nsUons  enterUincd  a  jinlonsy  concerning  these  States ;  st  home 
a  rivslship  was  prevalent  among  the  several  members  of  the  confederacy,  and  checked  the  prosperity  of  the  nation.  Each  of 
the  thirteen  Independent  aovereigntles  contemplsted  Its  own  iuunediate  ioterfstl  j  iome  of  the  State*  demand  the  commercial 
tnteicouna  with  them  to  be  equally  ft«n  to  all  nattona."   ,  ..'..'.,.;  t     . 


OGL 


MS 


COL 


i'uyvk*TliiN  Of  fNM  lUiTiMi  Nnnii  AMnioAM  IJolonih. 


829 
1,095 
l,»4l 

ia,ii« 

«,01S 
6,701 
8,400 
8,814 

2,&6;i 

1T,018 

S,!91 

TOO 

839 

984 

24 

1,8U 

6 

2,126 

2,005 

8,108 

14,1S8 

1,974 

2,030 

r>so 

2,611 

10,21'^ 
15,178 


CnlOBlM. 

('•Iwilal  riiyalMlM, 

Inrnaat  Ml 
I'wi.  llAl 
4atri<n. 

t'fnl.  iitr 

Amiulii. 

laaraaM  Mr 
(•111.  Id  Ptrt. 
iHl,  M  Vnn. 

luflrMM 
|i«r  CCNt. 
li«r  Annum. 

la«fMM 

Mr  t'tal.  la 
T4  Ynn. 

la«rMMp«r 
Lt.  Mr  Aaa. 

In  n  Ymk 

rfHi" 

~loil,ii00' 

ini, 

Uonnecticut 

UU.IKM 

102  HIO 

0-28 

778-38 

10-46 

l)el>w«rB 

,  i  t , 

Ini'l.  Ill  I'a. 

IIT.INIW 

.... 

Ui-orKtH 

6,im 

27,000 

.... 

860-00 

1840 

Maryland  

2B,noo 

m.omi 

I74,IIIW 

240  ■00 

6  00 

IWll 

4  00 

6I0O0 

806 

MawMrhiiMttii  . . 

TD.IMNI 

WO.IMKI 

IIM,0«0 

21421) 

440 

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281 

402-80 

644 

Nuw  llttmp«hlni, 

1U,UIKI 

uo.oiiu 

m,im 

200  40 

417 

S40II0 

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D'iO'OO 

12-48 

Nuw  Ji-ntey 

IB.IJUO 

OlI.IMNI 

I'M.im 

MIUM 

0  26 

180  00 

BOO 

8-^0'IMI 

11-08 

Ni'w  York 

aii.iioo 

IUO,(lllt) 

il:iN.U<NI 

vunoii 

4M 

188  00 

681 

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9-87 

North  (.'■rulln*  . 

h.flrtit 

4n,iKio 

|iti,oiio 

HOOflO 

1007 

302  12 

1102 

8620  00 

47-67 

I*ennivlvanla... 

2(),IXMI 

210,000 

1I4I,(MW 

tIMIM 

28'lie 

8fl'4l> 

1-40 

lom-oo 

21-00 

Kliudii  iHlaiid  ,., 

1(»,(KK} 

ui  1,000 

AN.INiO 

26000 

621 

o&n 

1'68 

480  00 

049 

^utli  Carolina., 

7,(100 

ra.iNiii 

Uil,MN) 

II2H67 

684 

21000 

808 

122!*  57 

10-00 

Virginia 

40,000 

k,-i,uoo 

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11260 

2  84 

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978 

060  00 

8-78 

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XiioHTiiKi 

Slavoa,  eatlmnted 
All  clnaaca 

.... 

nno.iiod 

[3M,<iii5j 

l,M(l.li«0 

\t)6»fyin 

i  **?  •*'*_ 

O^S        1      107117 

OM 

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1312 

At  Iho  bcglnnlntf  of  tliu  Ihivuliilliin  tlin  Nuiilliiirn  ruluiilpa  lind,  Ihcrrfun.',  812,000  white  Inhakitaiiu,  and  Ihu  Nurtliem 
1,491,000.     Oanniwtlmit  wiu  Iha  ftiiirtli  NIatn  III  mull.     Mauacliiiiwtta  and  IVnnaylvanlo 


York,  which  waauvan  oxoallud  hy  (.'oiiniiiiUiiut. 

II.  M.uiMTiiiiR  OP  Tiin  nitiTiaii  riii.iiNii',<i. — Not' 
«itli9tuniiin|{  thu  loai  of  tha  Uiiitoit  Nliiloa,  Ilia  ('ol»> 
Dies  of  Ureat  Ilrilain,  uxclualvo  of  Iniliit,  rxcuiiit  In 
number,  extent,  and  vulux,  (lioan  of  iivury  iitlii<r  roiiiu 
try.  Previously,  inileoil,  to  Iho  ItrniikltlK  out  iif  till)  Ulv 
contests,  tlio  colonial  (iuniliiiona  of  H|iillll  far  I'Xi'iiniUul 
in  extent  and  ini|iortaneH  llioan  of  any  ollinr  iiowcr, 
But  Culm,  IVirto  lllco,  and  tliu  l'lilll|i|)lnii  Uliiiiila  nr'i 
now  oil  that  remain  to  lior,  Tlinau,  liiitiiiui,  urn  very 
valuable  poaacatlona,  tlioiiKh  iiifiirlor  to  lliOMi  of  ICli- 
gland. 

A'orlh  American  Culunirt,— In  North  AiiisrIoA,  Ortiat 
Britain  posaessea  tiio  proviiieua  of  I.owitr  ailit  t -ppnr,  or 
of  East  and  Wcat  Canada,  Nuvn  Nuolln,  Now  llriiii*. 
vlck,  I'rlnco  Kdward'a  lalnnd,  and  lliitir  ilnpniidiini'lca. 
Tlio  situation  and  buundarlei  of  ttiiiau  provlnciw  will 
bo  more  caaily  learned  from  |li«  liiapoiitlon  of  llie 
map  than  they  could  lio  from  any  iluai'riptlon.  The 
■horrs  uf  Nova  Scotia  mid  New  lirtinawU'li  nru  WKtli. 
ed  l)y  the  Atlantic  Ocean  |  and  tlio  iiobio  lllvor  Ht, 
Lawrence,  by  ita  conimuiiication  with  tlio  )(■'<">(  Ameri- 
can lakes,  gives  to  Canada  all  tlio  lienullt*  of  n  most 
extensive  inland  navlt{atlun,  and  forma  a  iiiitiiral  out- 
let for  her  surplus  produi-n,  aa  woll  as  for  Iho  surplus 
produce  of  that  part  of  the  United  HtNti'it  wlili'h  Is 
washed  by  tho  lakes,  Tliero  la  overy  varloty  lit  tlin 
Boll  and  climato  of  thesii  rnuloiis,  In  Lower  Canada 
the  winter  ia  very  severe,  Tho  aurfai'O  uf  Iho  country 
la  covered  with  snow  for  nearly  half  tint  ynar,  from  lliu 
beginning  of  December  to  thu  nildillo  of  April  the  Ml, 
Lawrence  is  frozen  over,  and  alDiriU  a  anioiilh  and  riiii- 
venient  passage  for  thu  sIoiIkos  liy  which  It  ia  (lion  cov- 
ered. But  though  severe,  thn  cllmatu  la  'fiif  from  be- 
ing unhealthy  or  dis;  ;jjeeabla,  Thn  wrallier  la  K"»' 
erally  clear  and  bracing;  and  tho  liiltor  of  urllsniis,  at 
th^ir  out-door  omploynieiits,  la  rnrrily  sua|iiiiiili'il  for 
many  days  in  aucceasiiin,  On  tho  hrenkltiK  up  of  the 
ice  in  the  latter  end  of  April  or  tho  iMi^lnillnK  "'  '^'■■yi 
the  powers  of  vegetation  almost  liiiniadlatvly  resume 
their  activity,  and  bring  on  tho  fliiii  aoasoii  with  a  ra- 
pidity that  is  astonishing  to  a  atruiiger,  Thn  highest 
temperature  in  Lower  (.'anuda  varliia  from  IMI"  to  UVi" 
of  Fahrenheit ;  but  tho  purity  of  tho  Mtniunphern  nbatvf 
the  oppressive  heat  that  la  felt  III  llioat  countrlea  where 
the  mercury  ranges  lo  high  j  and  tho  wiiather  Is,  on  tho 
whole,  decidedly  pleasant,  That  part  of  thn  province 
of  Upper  or  West  Canada  which  atrotilies  from  Lake 
Simroe  and  tlio  liiveni  Trent  and  Novnrn,  Wnatward  to 
Lake  Huron  and  the  Ht.  Clair  ltlver,Hiiil  aoiithward  lo 
Lake  Erie  and  part  of  Lako  Ontario,  has  a  soil  uf  ex- 
traordinary fertility,  capalilo  of  proiliicliiK  luxuriant 
crops  of  wheat  and  every  aort  of  grain,  "  Tho  cli- 
mate," says  Mr.  Rouchettc,  late  aiirvsyor  gnnoral  of 
Lower  Canada,  "  Is  so  piirtlciilarly  aalubrloiia,  thai  epi- 
demic diseases,  either  ainc.ig  men  or  cattle,  are  almost 
entirely  unknown.  Ita  influenca  nil  tho  fnrtlllly  of  the 
coil  is  more  generally  porcuptlhio  thwi  it  In  In  Lower 


tylvanla  wore  each  a  third  larger  than  New 
l/nlttd  malM  Cmttui  Jttport,  I860. 


Canada,  and  is  suppoaed  to  be  congenial  to  vegetation 
in  a  much  superior  degree.  The  winters  are  shorter, 
and  not  always  marked  with  such  rigor  as  In  the  latter. 
The  doratioii  of  frost  is  always  accompanied  with  a  line 
clear  sky  and  a  dry  atmosphere.  The  spring  opens, 
and  thn  resumption  of  agricultural  labors  lakes  place, 
from  six  weeka  to  two  months  earlier  than  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Quebec.  The  summer  heats  rarely  prevail 
to  excess,  and  the  autumns  are  usually  very  friendly 
lo  thn  harvests,  and  favorable  for  securing  all  the  late 
crops." — BoI)c-iiette'.s  Tvpngrajphicul  JJtairiplion  of 
Caiiaila,  p.  69li.  Tho  ground  on  tho  shores  of  Lake 
Ontario  and  Lake  Erie,  as  far  west  as  the  junction  of 
the  Thames  with  the  St.  Clair  Lake,  is  laid  out  in 
townships,  and  partly  settled.  But  tho  population  i* 
still  \ery  thin.  To  the  north  of  the  liiver  Thames, 
along  the  banks  of  the  St.  Clair  and  the  shores  of  Lake 
Huron,  round  to  the  liiver  Severn,  and  thence  to  the 
river  that  Joins  Lake  Nippissing  and  Lake  Huron,  is  a 
liuundless  extent  uf  country  that  is  almost  entirely  un- 
occupied.  The  interior  of  this  space  lias  hitherto  been 
but  imperfectly  explored;  but  the  banks  of  tho  SI. 
Clair  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron  uflord  the  finest 
situations  fur  settlements.  The  soil  is  in  many  placet 
of  (ho  greatest  fertility,  the  river  and  lake  teem  with 
flsh,  and  every  variety  of  the  best  timber  is  found  in 
(lio  grea(est  profusion.  The  winters  in  the  )irovinces 
of  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward's  Island,  and  New 
iirunswick  are  more  severe  than  in  Upper  Canada, 
and  they  are  a  good  deal  infested  with  fogs  and  mists; 
but  their  proximity  to  England,  and  their  favorable 
sitiintlun  fur  tlio  fishing  liusiness,  give  tiiem  considera- 
ble advantages.  In  addition  to  the  above.  Great  Brit- 
Inn  possesses  the  Hudson's  I'my  territory,  a  tract  of 
vast  extent,  but  situated  in  an  inlio»pilabIe  climate, 
and  wurlli  very  little  except  as  huntiiig-grouiuU«.  She 
also  possesses  the  large  islands  of  Newfoundland  and 
Capo  Breton,  tho  latter  being  a  dcpi-mlcncy  of  Nova 
Scotia ;  but  their  soil  ia  barren,  and  the  climate  severe 
and  foggy:  so  that  tbcy  are  valuable  prim  ipolly  as 
llshing  stations.  The  following  table  exhibits  tlia 
population  of  tho  dift'eront  North  American  colonies  at 
tho  under-mentioned  epochs : 


Colonlen. 

Population. 

Data  of  Cantufl. 
1884 
1864 
1851 
1849 
1846 
1850 

fcaotem  ( I^wiir)  Canada 

Weatiirii  (Upper)  Canada 

New  llruiiBwk-k 

Prlnri)  Kdward'a  lal.  and  C.  Breton 

1,04H,0(IO 
1,200,000 
193.8110 
02.034 
«0,5<»i 
270,117 

Nova  Hcntia 

Of  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Canada  in  1844,  no  fewer 
tlian  filfl,565  were  of  l-'rench  extraillon,  forming  wlmt 
Is  called  the  A'a^i'un  CanaUienne.  In  Upper  Canada, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  population  is  almost  wholly  of 
British  origin. 

H'«$t  India  Colonia. — In  the  West  Indies  the  En- 
glish possess  Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  Su  Lucia,  Antigui^ 


COL 


Wl 


COL 


Oranad*,  Trinidad,  and  noma  other  Ulanda,  baitdaa 
Daroarara  and  Uerbica  In  South  Amarlca.  Jamaica, 
by  far  tha  larKut  and  moit  valuable  of  her  tuiular 
poaMuiont,  It  alwut  130  mllei  In  lenxth  and  40  mtlea 
in  mean  breadth,  containlni;  alxiut  'J,H(M),(XX)  acrei,  of 
whiuh  froin  1, 100,00(1  tu  1,>2I)0,000  are  auppoud  to  be 
in  cultivation.  IlvInK  iltuated  within  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  the  heat  In  the  Wvnt  Indlea  U  interne,  liut  la 
moderated  by  the  iiea-breeio  which  blowa  regularly 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  day.  The  raina  make 
the  only  diatinction  of  aeaaoni.  They  •omctlmes  fall 
iirith  prodigioua  Impetuoalty,  giving  birth  to  innumer- 
able torrent!,  and  laying  all  the  low  country  under 
water :  tha  treea  are  green  the  whole  year  round :  they 
have  no  anow,  no  tnit,  ami  but  rarely  aomo  hail.  Thu 
climate  It  very  humid ;  iron  ruata  and  corrodea  In  a 
very  abort  time ;  and  it  la  this,  |)crliapa,  that  rondcra 
the  Weat  indict  to  unfriendly  to  Kuro|ican  conatltu- 
tiona,  and  producet  thoae  ninllgnant  fevert  that  are  to 
very  fatal.  The  vegetable  productlona  are  niiuieroua 
and  valualile ;  but  the  augar-cane  and  the  coffbc-plaiit 
are  InconiTiarably  more  Important  than  the  othcrt,  and 
conatltuti  the  natural  richet  of  the  lalar  '.'i. 

The  Weat  Indiei  are  occaaionally  availed  by  the 
moat  dreadful  hurrlcanet,  which  deatroy  in  a  moniciit 
the  hopet  ai:d  labort  of  the  plantera,  ind  dovaatato  en- 
tire ialanda.  Whole  flelda  of  augar-cancs  tre  aonielimca 
torn  up  by  the  roota,  houacs  arc  eitbei'  thrown  down 
or  unroofed,  and  even  the  heavy  copper  bullcra  and 
atllli  In  the  worki  have.  In  numeroua  inatancca,  been 
wrenched  from  the  ground  and  battered  to  pieces.  The 
rain  poura  down  in  torronta,  ewceping  liefore  It  every 
thing  that  comet  in  ita  way,  Tiiu  dcatructlon  cauaed 
by  auch  dreadful  acourgea  aeldom  failt  to  produce  a 
▼er/  great  tcirclty,  and  not  unfrequcntly  famine ;  and 
we  are  grieved  to  have  to  add,  that  the  levcrlly  of  the 
diatresa  hat  on  ac^nra!  occaaiont  been  inatcriuUy  ag- 
gravated by  a  refu  i  on  the  part  of  the  authoritiea  to 
allow  iniportatloii  direct  from  the  United  Stateal 
Thlt  wa^  tha  caae  at  Dominica  to  lute  at  1817.  "  It 
ia  ttsted  In  a  report  by  a  committee  of  the  Aaacmbly 
of  Jamaica,  that  15,000  nugrocii  periahed  between  the 
latter  end  of  1780  and  the  beginning  of  1787,  through 
famine  occaaioncd  by  hurricanca  an<l  the  prohiliilion 
of  importation  from  the  United  States." — Eiwaiids'h 
Weit  India,  vol.  il.  p.  61K. 

Jamaica  waa  discovered  by  Columbua  In  l'i!)4,  and 
continued  in  posaesaion  of  the  Spaniarda  till  l(ifi5,  when 
it  waa  wretted  from  them  l>y  the  English.  Although 
It  had  thut  been  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
under  the  power  of  Spain,  tuch  w&i  the  deadening  In- 
fluence of  her  colonial  tyslem,  that  it  did  not,  when 
it  wat  conquered,  contain  l&OO  while  Inhabitanta,  and 
thete  were  immeraed  in  sloth  and  poverty.  Of  the 
many  valuable  articlea  which  Jamaica  aoon  after  pro- 
duced in  tuch  profusion,  many  were  then  altogether 
nnknown ;  and  of  those  that  were  known,  auch  a  sup- 
ply only  wat  cultivated  at  wat  required  for  the  con- 
iumption  of  the  inhabitanta.  "The  Spaniah  settlers," 
tayt  Mr.  Brj'an  Edwards,  "  possessed  none  of  the  ele- 
gancies of  life ;  nor  were  they  acquainted  even  with 
many  of  those  gratittcations  which,  in  civilized  states, 
are  considered  nccosrary  to  Its  comfort  and  conven- 
ience. They  were  neither  polished  by  social  inter- 
course nor  improved  by  education;  but  passed  their 
days  in  gloomy  Itnguor,  enfeebled  by  sloth  and  de- 
pressed by  poverty.  They  had  been  for  many  years 
in  a  state  of  progrcwlve  degeneracy,  and  would  prob- 
ably in  a  short  time  have  expiated  the  guilt  of  their 
ancestors  by  falling  victims  themselves  to  the  venge- 
ance of  their  slaves." — Hittory  ofihe  ]Ve$t  fnJiet,  vol. 
i.  p.  297,  8vo  ed. 

For  a  considerable  number  of  years  after  England 
obtained  possession  of  Jamaica,  the  chief  exports  were 
cocoa,  hides,  and  indigo.  Even  so  late  at  1772,  the 
exports  of  sugar  amounted  to  only  11,000  hogsheads. 
In  1774  they  had  increased  to  78,000  hogsheads  of 


sugar,  2(1,000  puncheont  uf  rum,  and  (IJM7  bags  of  eof> 
fee.  The  American  war  waa  viry  ii\JuriouB  to  tha 
Weat  India  aattlonienta;  and  they  may,  indeed,  be  aatd 
to  lie  atill  auffiirlng  from  Ita  elTecta,  aa  the  indvpendenca 
of  America  led  to  the  enactment  of  thoae  rrstrictlona 
to  the  Importation  of  food,  lunilier,  etc.,  that  wore  ao 
very  hurtful  to  the  plantera.  In  1780  Jamaica  waa 
viaited  by  a  most  deatruclive  hurricane,  the  dcvaata- 
tion  orcaaioned  by  which  prr,  luced  a  dreadful  famine; 
and  other  hurricanea  followed  in  Ilia  Immedlatily  auc- 
ceeding  yeara,  Uut  in>17H7  a  new  era  of  impmvunient 
began.  The  dovanlation  of  8t.  Domingo  liy  Ihu  negro 
tnaurrectlon  which  broke  out  in  17112,  lirtt  dlniliiUhed, 
and  In  a  few  years  almost  entirely  annihilated,  tha 
annual  supply  of  116,000  hogahcadt  of  augar,  which 
Franco  and  the  Continent  liad  prcvloualy  iiecii  accut- 
lomcd  to  recei  e  from  Ibat  itiand.  Tbia  diiiiliiution 
of  aupply,  by  causing  a  greatly  increased  demand  for, 
and  a  cunae(|uent  rise  in  the  price  uf,  augar  raiaud  in 
the  other  isiaiida,  occasioned  an  cxtraordiiiaiy  cxlon- 
alon  of  cultivation.  So  powerful  in  tliia  respect  waa 
its  Influence,  that  Jamaica,  which  nt  an  average  of  Iho 
alx  years  preceding  1700  had  jirudiicod  only  N;l,()(H) 
hogaiieaiis,  exported  in  IHOI  and  1802  upward  of 
280,800  hogalionda,  or  lia,(m  a  year ! 

The  aanie  rixe  of  prici',  w  iiicli  uperated  ao  powerfully 
in  Jamaica,  occuaionud  a  siniila,  though  less  rapid  ex- 
tension uf  cultivation  in  other  islands,  and  in  Cuba, 
Porto  Itico,  and  llie  foreign  colonics  generally.  Tho 
vacuum  caused  by  Iho  ccaaali'un  of  the  aiippllcs  from 
St.  Domingo  lioing  thus  more  tliaii  tilled  up,  u  reaction 
comnienoed.  The  price  of  sugar  rapiiUy  declined) 
and,  notwilhalandiiig  a  forced  niurkot  was  for  n  while 
opened  to  it,  liy  aubaliluting  it  for  malt  in  tlie  distil- 
lery, prices  did  not  attain  to  their  former  elu^ation. 
On  the  opening  of  the  Continental  ports,  in  INUI  and 
1814,  they,  Indeed,  rose,  for  a  abort  time,  to  nil  extrav- 
agant height;  but  they  very  soon  fell,  invidviiig  in 
ruin  many  of  the  speculators  iqion  an  advance,  Pricet, 
iiuwever,  continued  at  n  pretty  hif;h  level  down  to  181(4 ; 
liut  they  sustained  a  material  fall  in  tiie  coiiriiu  of  tlis 
following  year,  and  were  comparatively  low  fnun  tha( 
period  down  to  18!)6,  when  llie  extraordinary  falling 
off  in  the  supplies  uf  sugar  coiieeqiient  to  tlic  mcusiirea 
connected  with  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  again 
occasionec'  a  considerable  rise  of  price.  Hut,  as  al- 
ready seen,  this  high  price  was  entirely  factitiuus,  be- 
ing wholly  caused  by  our  excluding  foreign  sugar  from 
our  market.  Now  that  the  sugar  of  Brazil,  Cuba,  and 
Java  it  admitted  on  paying  reasonable  duties,  prices  are 
comparatively  low.  And  from  the  extraordinary  fa- 
cility with  which  augar  may  be  raised  in  the  countries 
referred  to  and  elsewhere,  wo  have  no  idea,  provided 
they  adopt  no  rath  or  ill-advised  measure  in  relation 
to  slaves,  that  its  price  in  their  markets  would  bo  like- 
ly to  sustain  any  material  or  permanent  increase,  even 
though  the  demand  for  it  were  doubled  or  more.  The 
imports  to  England  of  sugar  from  her  West  Indian  col- 
onics, which  amounted  to4,103,800cwts,  in  1831,  sunk, 
in  1841,  to  2,151,217  cwts, !  In  1852  they  amounted 
to  3,408,627  cwta. 

The  devastation  of  St,  Domingo  gave  the  same  pow- 
erful stimulus  to  the  growth  of  coffee  t;:  the  o<'-ier  West 
Indian  colonies  that  it  did  to  the  gro-.rth  of  sugar ; 
ami  owing  to  tho  extraordinary  increase  in  the  de- 
mand for  coffee  in  England  and  other  European  coun- 
tries, the  supply  went  on  increasing  till  it  was  checked 
lay  the  influence  of  the  measures  relating  to  slavery. 
In  1752,  for  example,  only  60,000  lbs.  of  coffee  were 
exported  from  Jamaica;  in  177,'  tho  export  amounted 
to  440,000  lbs, ;  in  1797  it  had  increased  to  7,y31,621 
ll)s. ;  and  In  1832,  when  il  had  attaincil  its  maximum, 
(he  exports  to  England  only  amounted  to  19,405,0.'S3 
lbs.  Such,  however,  and  so  rapi<l  has  lieen  their  sub- 
sequent decline,  that  in  1852  (he  exports  to  England 
from  Jamaica  amounted  to  only  3,780,796  lbs,  1 

We  have  already  teen  that  when  Jamaica  was  taken 


COL 


86& 


from  the  HpanUMi  it  nnlv  ufnitilned  1500  whit*  inhtb- 
itaiitf,  III  lUi:liliu|iii|iuUtl<>naiiiuuiit<)illo77(MwhllM, 
and  U6(Vt  ilavn.  It  wuulil  have  banii  will  for  the  ill- 
and  lim*  (he  raca*  conlliiuuil  to  prvMrvu  tliia  relatluii 
to  each  othiir;  Iml,  uiifurtunalvly,  the  lilmk  popula- 
tioii  ha*  llioreaiwd  iiiuru  tlimi  Jlim  linivi  an  ra|jidly  as 
the  white;  the  latter  haviiiK  uiilv  iiicreaied  from  77<lt4 
to  alwiit  DU,01K),  whilu  tliu  former  liaa  iiH'reawd  from 
8fi04  to  alwut  U1U,()0<I,  excluiivo  of  |i«noaa  of  color. 
The  real  valui'  uf  the  vxporti  to  Jamaica  aiiiountii  to 
•bout  i;7UU,(K)()  a  year,  Ih'Iiik  about  one-third  part  of 
the  export)  to  the  Weet  liiilian  coloiiioi.  It  wan  former- 
ly much  more;  but  Ibun  a  laritn  portion  of  the  articles 
sent  lo  Jamaica,  and  snine  of  the  other  colonies,  were 
only  sunt  tliero  as  to  an  rnfripu/ 1  being  aiilise()noiitly 
exported  to  the  Hpanish  main,  l)urlnt(  the  ascondon- 
oy  of  the  .Spanish  dominion  in  Mexico  and  South  Amer- 
ica, tills  trade,  which  was  tlion  contraband,  was  carried 
on  to  a  Ki°eat  extent.  It  is  now  inucli  fallen  oA',  and 
U  principally  carried  on  from  St.  Thomas  and  Ilun- 
duras. 

Uarliadooi  wai  the  earliest  Knglish  possession  in  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  the  inoct  easterly  of  the  Caribliean 
iilanils ;  ItridKetown,  the  capital,  lieinK  in  long.  W 
41'  W.  liurliadocs  is  by  far  the  best  cultivated  of  all 
the  West  Indian  Islands.  It  contains  alwut  1U&,(MH) 
acres,  Imving  ^in  1852)  a  population  of  about  ia,iiU<) 
whites,  I  &,l)UO  piwpl<>  of  color,  and  1 1(I,(HJU  l)lucks.  Of 
late  years  it  has  exported  from  6IH),(M)U  to  740,tNMI  cwts. 
of  sugar.  Uarbadoes  hud  iiltaincd  thu  acme  of  lis  pros- 
perity in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  white  population  is  said  lo  have  uinouiitcd  to 
about  riO,0(KI,  though  this  is  probably  an  exaggeration. 
But  it  is  only  as  compared  with  Itself  that  it  can  be 
considered  us  having  fallen  oil';  for,  compared  with  thu 
Other  West  Indian  Island:*,  lis  superiority  is  manifest. 
It  raises  nearly  as  mucli  I'uod  os  is  adequato  for  its  sup- 
ply. Tlie  islands  next  in  imporlanco  are  St.  Vincent, 
Grenada,  Trinidad,  Antigua,  etc.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  any  special  dittuils  with  respect  to  tliein, 
their  po|iulation  and  trade  i>eing  exhibited  in  the  uii- 
noxed  taldes.  Luring  thu  late  war  Great  Ilritain  tuuit 
^um  tlie  Dutch  tlio  settlements  of  Uenierara,  Ucrldco, 
and  Es8C<iuilx>,  In  Guiana,  which  wore  definitively  ceded 
to  them  in  IHH,  The  soil  of  thcsL  settlements  is  nat- 
urally very  rich ;  and  tiivy  liavc,  in  tliii  respect,  a  de- 
cided advantage  over  most  of  the  West  Indian  islands, 
Th'.'ir  advance  was  for  a  wliilu  very  great,  but  recently 
their  progress  has  been  clicciceil,  and  (heir  exports  liuve 
declined  most  materially.  This,  however,  is  entirely 
in  consequence  of  the  want  of  lalior ;  for  in  other  re- 
spects these  colonies  have  every  facility  of  production. 
Various  ichcnics  have  been  suggested  for  supplying 
this  want;  but  none  of  Ihcm,  unless  they  involve  the 
principle  of  compulsory  service,  will,  wo  appndiend,  l)e 
successful.  The  rum  of  Uenierara  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tatit  I.  The  best  samples  of  Herbice  coiTee  are  very 
tupetior,  a.id  it  used  to  be  e.xtensively  cultivated  both 
in  tlm  c  colony  and  in  Demerara.  In  1831  the  exports 
amn>  iitcd,  from  both  colonies,  to  3 .67G,7'1'I  pounds ;  but 
the-  have  since  declined  to  next  to  nothing,  having 
amounted  In  1852  to  only  tt4,89()  pounds.  C'uusidcra- 
ble  quantities  of  cotton  were  formerly  exp:.-tcd  from 
vlr.iuna;  but  the  Americans  having  superior  facilities 
ft  r  its  production,  its  culture  has  nearly  ceased.  Co- 
i/m,  annotto,  etc.,  are  produced,  but  not  aliundantly. 

I^xelusivo  of  the  above,  the  English  possess  the  set- 
tlement of  Ilulize,  on  the  Uay  of  Honduras.  This  is 
of  importance  asafibrdinga  means  of  ol>taining  aliund- 
ant  supplies  of  mahogany ;  but  it  is  of  more  import- 
ance as  an  entreput  for  the  8up[ily  of  Guatemala  and 
Centrnl  America  with  English  manufactured  goods. 

The  exports  from  England  to  the  West  Indian  colo- 
nies consist  of  coarse  cottons,  linens,  checks,  hats,  and 
other  articles  of  negro  clothing ;  iron  and  steel,  wrought 
and  unwrought;  leather,  including  saddlery  and  liar- 
netf ;  glass ;  beer  and  ale ;  soap  and  candles ;  station- 


ery; hardware  iit  sarthi  --wtiret  •(•¥•§,  hoops,  enaf, 
linio,  paint,  leaU ;  Irish  provisions,  herrings,  and  other 
suit  tisli ;  along  with  furniture,  wine,  lieer,  medicines, 
and  iniiued  almost  every  article  which  a  great  manu- 
facturing country  can  sup)dy  to  one  situated  in  a  trap* 
ical  climate,  which  has  very  few  mechanics  and  hardly 
any  manufacliires.  Since  the  o|iening  of  Ihe  ports  on 
the  Spanish  Main  to  ships  from  England,  the  exports 
(0  the  West  Indies  have  decreased  both  in  quantity  and 
value;  this  decrease  being,  however,  more  than  bal- 
anced by  the  increased  shipments  to  Mexico,  (.'oloin- 
bia,  etc.  The  declared  or  real  valua  of  the  exports 
amounted,  In  IHA-i,  to  i;'J,UIII.S68. 

Mmry. — M'hat  used  to  be  called  West  India  curren- 
cy was  an  imaginary  money,  and  had  a  diA'erent  value 
In  diflbrcnt  colonies.  The  value  it  bore,  as  oomparcd 
with  sterling  money,  was  supposed  to  represent  the  cor- 
res|iondlng  value  of  the  coins  in  circulation  In  the  dif- 
ferent islands  at  the  time  the  proportion  was  fixed : 
these  coins  being  for  the  most  part  mutilated  and  oth- 
erwise worn  ami  ilefaced,  currency  was  in  all  cases  less 
vsluaiile  than  sterling.  Tlio  following  are  the  old  val- 
ues of  Xiuu  sterling,  and  of  a  dollar,  In  the  currencies 
of  the  different  islands  t 

Starl.          Can.  Dol,         Carr, 

.Inimacn XIIKI  =:  «140  1  =:  Os.  M. 

llurlwilocH  i:iUO  ::=  iilBB  1  =  St,  Bd. 

Wlndwanl  Ulmndi  (etcsnt  llsr- 

b«doo«) 4100  =  X17B  1  =  Rs.  Bd. 

Uewara  Inland jtltiU  =  i.VflO  1  =  ffa,  Od, 

Uut  latterly  these  currencies  have  been  in  great  meas- 
ure siqiorseded  by  the  introduction  of  sterling  money, 
current  at  the  same  rates  as  in  EngAiiid,  and  of  the 
Spanish  dollar. 

Ily  an  order  In  council  of  the  28d  of  March,  182A, 
British  silver  money  was  made  legal  tender  through- 
out all  British  colonial  possessions  at  the  same  nom- 
inal value  as  in  England ;  and  liills  for  the  same  are 
given  on  the  treasury  of  London,  of  iIKH)  each  IjIII  for 
illUB  such  silver  money.  By  this  order,  also,  the  value 
of  the  Spanish  dollar  was  fixed  at  4:  id.  Ilritisli  silver 
L.oncy  throughout  all  the  colonies  where  ll  is  current ; 
but  this  value  was  further  reduced  on  the  'ilst  of  Sep- 
tember, IHDH,  to4<.  2(i.  The  value  of  the  doubloon  was 
then  also  fixed  at  Mi. 

Autlralian  Colonies. — This  group  of  colonics,  though 
founded  in  a  very  distant  part  of  the  world,  and  at  ■ 
comparatively  recent  cpocli,  will  pn  .-ably,  at  no  very 
distant  epoch,  far  surpass  the  others  i:;  magnitude  and 
importance.  The  countries  in  which  ihey  are  situated, 
including  the  great  Australian  continent,  formerly  cull- 
ed New  Holland,  with  Van  Diemen's  Land  or  Tasma- 
nia, New  Zealand,  etc.,  are  of  vast  extent,  and  dill'cr 
in  many  respects  from  each  other.  Hitherto,  also,  by 
far  the  larger  portion  of  the  continent  is  wholly  unex- 
plored ;  and  even  the  islands  are  but  very  impcrfccti; 
known.  Enough,  however,  has  transpired  to  show  tl  it 
this  great  division  of  the  globe  differs  in  some  most  ti ',  • 
portant  res])ccts  from  most  or  all  countries  with  which 
we  were  prc.bunly  acquainted;  and  that  it  is,  in  fact, 
full  of  anonial,  s.  The  interior  of  the  continent  ha! 
not  licen  sufllciently  explored  to  enable  any  distinct 
opinion  to  bo  formed  as  to  the  height  of  the  mounlain 
chains;  but  it  appears  to  be  pretty  well  es'ablisliec' 
that  it  has  no  great  rivers,  or  at  least  none  (hat  rcac'.i 
the  sea.  Indeed,  it  seems,  speaking  generally,  (o~')C 
a  law  in  this  new  world  that  rivers  are  largest  near 
their  source ;  and  that  they  gradually  diminish  as  they 
proceed,  and  most  commonly  dwindle  into  insignifi- 
cance, or  lose  themselves  in  marshes,  before  they  reach 
the  ocean.  In  consequence,  perhaps,  of  this  singular 
constitution  of  its  river  system,  it  is  found  that  in  Aus- 
tralia the  best  land  is  not  nt  the  months,  but  toward 
the  sources  of  the  rivers.  There  are,  no  doubt,  excep- 
tions to  this  rule ;  liut  it  nppc  .rs  to  hold  in  the  greater 
number  of  instances.  Generiiliy,  also,  the  extent  of  fine 
land  appears  to  be  conipuralively  limited ;  and  in  so  far 
as  the  continental  portion  of  the  countrj'  has  been  ex- 


Mb^ 


VvO 


COL 


plorol,  It  appMn  t«  b*  BMh  baMtr  adaplad  A>r  |MMt«r- 
ag*  ibta  fur  tUlag*. 

(Jotil  J)ipotin.—Jh»  Und,  Um  pMturm*,  lb*  ih««p, 
th*  co|)|Mr  auil  utliar  vrilliiary  mliKralt,  whirh  ar*  funnd 
In  abuiidanca  In  varloiu  parta  uf  Anttralla,  hava  all 
baan  raadarad,  (wr  Um  pRMnt  at  Uaal,  uf  iiu  Import- 
•nca  aoniparaii  wtib  tba  Rold  dapualt*  with  wbUli  tba 
aooUr/»nl  li  w  Urgaly  anduwad.  'I'baM,  wblvli  wiira 
dlaoorrrad  to  lata  aa  IIUI,  ara  uf  tba  most  ealraordlna- 
ty  riihiMu,  I'hay  axoaad  In  producllvanon  nm  only 
tba  Kvid  Oald*  of  Calirornia,  bui  (Vary  tbIiiK,  Imlaad, 
s4  which  aay  Idaa  oould  pravioualy  hava  bui'ii  aiitar' 
taliixd.  Aiutralla  baa,  in  conaaquenca,  bacuina  an  ot>- 
Ja«t  of  aarnatt  and  ualv»raal  atlantlun.  Au  almoat 
unparalliilad  amount  of  enilKraliun  ha*  Iwan  dirvvigd 
la  h«r  ahurva.  Il«r  population  and  her  trido  are  tM>tli 
iaaraaalnti  with  dlKantlo  (tridaa ;  and  her  gold  i*  InHu- 
anolng  tlie  waKen,  the  prleot,  and  the  Induatry  uf  every 
sivillaed  people. — .let  ari.  Auarn/ti.i  i  auJ  (loi.ii. 

It  ware  idle  to  Indulge  In  upaaiilatluni  In  regard  to 
the  pariud  whan  the  axhauetlun  of  the  Aualrallaa  gold 
Oalda  may  lie  expected  i  there  are  no  data  on  which  to 
baaani  avon  a  cui^actura  on  auch  a  aulifeat.  Hut 
whether  the  lupplit'e  fruin  thuin  Im  duitlneil  to  bo  of 
long  or  abort  duration,  tlixy  have  already  [men,  ami 
no  doubt  will  ennlinue  to  b«,  uf  great  advantage.  Wo 
do  not  mean  by  thia  to  tay  or  inilnuale  that  thu  good 
reaulting  fnim  tba  influx  of  guld  fruii\  Auatralia  and 
Oaliromia  ban  b««n  unaceonipanlotl  by  any  drawbaclii, 
The  gauibliug  and  diaaipation  to  whicli  it  haa  given 
rUa  ara  ubvioua.  liut  theee,  though  conaiilerable,  are 
but  •  trilling  deduotion  from  Ita  many  advantage! ; 
from  the  puworful  atiniulus  it  ban  given  to  induelry 
and  civilixallon,  from  the  new  chaiiuoU  it  haa  openeil 
to  coniinvrue,  and  from  Ita  greatly  amidiorating  the 
condition  uf  the  Uburlng  cUaaea  In  tbit  and  moat  other 
oouatrlea. 

Tba  northern  portion  of  Auitralla,  Inoladlng,  peN 
bapa,  about  a  third  part  of  the  entire  continent,  Una  Ik-> 
twaen  the  tropisa;  the  other  portion  of  (he  continent, 
with  the  aiUacent  Itlanda  of  Van  Uiemen'a  Land  and 
Mew  Zealand,  being  In  the  touth  temperate  xone.  The 
climate  of  the  dilferent  parta  of  the  continent  muat, 
tliurefurp,  it  ii  oliviuui,  dKTvr  wry  widely.  We,  how- 
aver,  know  but  little  of  the  climate  of  intertropical  Aim- 
trallo,  except  that  it  it  within  the  range  of  the  Indian 
monaoon ;  that  the  temperature  along  tlie  oooat  it  rap- 
idly niaed  by  •  wind  from  the  aoutli,  which  ha*  been 
■fpoaed  to  aflbrd  •  atrong  preaumption  uf  tba  axlit^ 
•Me  of  Bandy  deaerta  In  tba  Interior;  and  that  the  air 
la  to  vary  moUt  that  during  the  teoaon  of  tba  montoon 
iron  tmplementa  are  with  the  utmoat  difficulty  pre- 
tervcd  from  rutting.  It  It  commonly  oald  that  the  cli- 
mate ofextra-triipical  Australia,  and  eepcoially  of  New 
Houth  Wales,  aaaimilatet  closely  to  that  of  Southern 
Italy.  Out  thi*  statement  muat  l>a  taken  with  consid- 
erable limitatioa ;  for,  Itt.  The  atmosphere  la  very  de- 
cidedly denser;  'id.  The  exiremea  of  temperatnra  are 
inlinitely  greater ;  Sd.  The  average  heat  is  rather  leti ; 
and,  4th.  The  temperature  appear*  to  decline  mora  rap- 
Idly  by  increase  of  elevation.  The  grand  defect  in  the 
climate  of  exira-troplcal  Australia  appeara  to  contitt 
in  th*  periodical  recurrence  of  wet  and  dry  leaaont. 
Somelime*  hardly  a  single  drop  of  rain  falls' for  an  en- 
tire year  or  more ;  and  though,  happily,  dew*  are  in 
tuch  teaion*  peculiarly  abundant,  they  form  no  ado- 
quats  lubttitute  for  rain.  During  long-continued 
droughU  cropt  of  all  kind*  are  destroyed ;  and  herlMige, 
except  in  a  few  favored  ipot*,  *uffert  teveroly.  I  lence, 
oa  already  stated,  all  the  ea*tcm  part*  of  extra-tropic- 
al Australia,  and  perhaps  alao  the  southern,  would  seem 
to  be  much  better  fitted  for  pasturage  than  for  husband- 
ry. The  drouglits  arc  exceedingly  injuriout  to  the  lat- 
ter, and  they  would  necessarily  Involve  any  large  pop- 
ulation that  depended  principally  on  the  indigenous 
products  of  the  toil  in  extreme  privation*.  Certainly, 
bowevar,  do  coitgi^y  taeiaa  to  b«  bettar  fitted  for  gra'i- 


iog,  or  rather  for  the  growth  of  theep  and  wool,  A 
dry  climate  I*  m|H>rlally  eultabl*  tu  lliv  latlirg  Md 
though  the  poaturaa  b*  far  fhim  luxuriant.  (Iiplr  liuund* 
leaa  extant  oampenaatet  fur  every  oiler  <l  itolaney, 
Mhaap  era  not  native  tu  the  country,  ■  >ni'>  Hurk  of 
twenty-nine  head  havhig  liern  Introiluo"!  I'  i  the  llrtt 
time  by  tli*  original  I'jiglitli  tettlurt  In  l.nt.  Fur  a 
while,  however,  their  valuii  was  not  appreciated  j  but 
the  Impiirtaniw  uf  ilieep-farming,  and  Ita  tultableneta 
to  the  country,  having  Immh  demonatratad  l>y  .lohn 
M'Arthur,  Ktq.  (,to  whom  lb*  roluny  la  undvr  tha 
graaleat  ubilgatlons),  it  haa  since  Inoreaaed  with  un- 
preeedentetl  rapidity.  In  proof  of  (his,  it  may  bvilated 
that  while  the  Import  uf  wool  Into  t<r*at  HrKabi  fh>m 
Anatralla  amounted.  In  IM'i'i,  to  Only  ia'J,tM*U  pounda. 
It  hail  lH>n<ased  In  IH2i  to  4II,(HI0  ptiunds.  In  IWM  to 
HUt),7()ii  puunds,  and  in  IMAI  to  tha  enormous  nmuunl 
of  4I,H1(),III7  pounds.  Van  liiemen't  Land  U'lnt'  lesa 
tul^uct  to  dronghti  than  New  South  Wales,  husbandry 
ia  carried  un  In  It  to  a  greater  extent,  and  with  mora 
ndvantagoi  but  there  also  shccii-rarmlng  is  the  princi- 
pal. Olid  perhap*  the  moat  advautogvout  employment. 
—  tin)  Van  lUKMRN'a  I.anii.  New  Zealand,  which 
baa  only  lieen  retorted  to  by  regular  coluniitt  tine* 
IH40,  it  belter  llttvil  for  agriculture  (ban  either  Austra- 
lia or  Van  lliemon's  Land,  and  its  climate  It  more  Ilka 
(bat  of  Kngland.  TIm  ground  in  It  i»,  however,  rathrr 
diflicult  to  clear ;  the  natlvet  are  also  much  niuru  formi- 
dable, and  ll  Is  not  to  suitable  for  sheisp-fumilng. 

i'opiilalim. — The  Kuropean  population  uf  the  Auo* 
trnlian  colonlea  it  liellaved  tu  have  been,  at  tha  uudar> 
mentioned  date*,  nearly  a*  follow*  i 


('•laUn. 

Ymk. 

^  CopulaUm. 

>ew8uutli  W»le» 

Vlrlnrlii,!lllil  Derenibor 

Van  1  Menten's  l.aiid 

itir>i 

IWO 

\m) 

IHfiO 

1U:,I68 
'J(l(J,ll(IO 
7»,(l«0 
(M.UUO 
7,01 '0 
2^,4110 

New  i^'deiid 

TiiUl 

billl.BdS 

Krptndilun  by  llrtat  Hriltim  on  Ihe  Aiulralum  CoU 
oniet. — Kngland  doe*  not  appear  to  spend  any  money 
in  Victoria!  the  last  parliamentary  return  un  colonial 
expenditure  doat  not  mention  that  colony.  The  fol- 
lowing table  exhibttt  the  amounts  expended  un  four 
rolunles  in  the  years  l)l&:i-'&4,  and  tho  purpute*  to 
which  tliey  were  applied : 


(Julflelaa. 


Hontli  AiisfrelU 

New  Moiitli  Wales  . . . 
Vail  Dleiuun's  l^nd  . 

West  Austmll* 

Total 


Milllarjt 
CbarfM. 

"im.Kitl 

ui.iiia 

M,1I0 
06,711 

i:it)'j,'.'B2 


CItII 
ChanrH. 
JH-i 

lo.iiaa 

2011, 

IIH.I^JS 

i3i7;3rt7 


Naral 
CliarKM- 


A-m 


Total. 

7i,aiii 

S04,'>7 

ia.'i,x84 


£>a   |ji:47'.>.B84 


These  totals  do  not  really  represent  X479,(W6  spent 
by  Urcat  lirilaln  on  her  Australian  colonies:  except 
Souili  Australia,  all  are  "  penal  tettlementi,"  or  have 
been,  and  tho  large  expenditure  has  mostly  lieon  In- 
curred in  guarding,  disciplining,  feeding,  and  clothing 
convicts.  In  fact,  tho  Australian  colonies  cost  Iter  next 
to  nothing,  being  but  a  small  per  cent,  of  what  It  would 
cott  to  keep  cunvicia  at  home.  Under  tho  new  cunstitu- 
tion  for  the  four  free  colonies,  Western  Australia  lias  be- 
come a  convict  settlement  by  her  own  choice,  and  has 
tho  advantage  of  a  large  expenditure  in  consequence, 
the  following  tunit  having  been  reserved  out  of  the  rev- 
enue annually  fur  the  purposes  indicated.  The  civil  list 
includes  the  governor's  salury,  judicial  salaries,  and 
those  of  departments.  Tho  retiring  allowances  arc  for 
ofticiala  liable  to  removal  on  political  grounds. 


OalMln 

CI*U 
LUI. 

Rtllria* 
Allowaoi'M. 

Pablla 
Wiinhip. 

Vtctorin  

«0,B60 
18,300 
10,000 

A'4,0()0 
B,90tl 
a,lTB 
1,700 

£&II,OOII 
28,000 
16,000 

New  Hoiitli  Wales 

Van  Uiumcn's  Land 

South  Australia 

Total 

i:vu,iic>o 

jC18,tMl 

i;uu,ooo 

COL 

tun*;  KMUMHUtlMU  TIU  V4JUUt» 


807 


COIi 


x 


I? 


t'ouwiMi  «r  km  iiir«iiT4ii<a,  MLiinoiiia  t»  Om*v  lt<u*Mi<,  wnn  tiiiii  I'orvhl* 

TIM,  Tllit'll,  uin  NtTlutTlon. 


huafil  iiilBMA. 

CWIWI*  »JMt ^,,,, 

('•lixlit  Wint 

New  llnilwwirk 

Nciv«  Mniti* 

C«iM(  llnttnii 

frliirv  Mwtrd'i  lilud. 
NewlbiiiiiJliiuU 


TuUl 


Antttfim  . 
ItftriwiDM . 
l>iini|nU:K. ., 
DronaiU... 
•Uiiit'r*  . , . 
MuhiKrnit. 
Nov  In. 


Wut  laDiM, 


••t»a<*it*i 


Ht.  (.iiiiii«iib«r . 

AiiKullU 

Ht  l.u«l> 

Ht.  Viuronl 

Tnbll||i> 

Toniil* 

TrinliUil 

llalutniM 

Uurmiiilitii 

Ilrillih  OiiUtut. 
lloniluru 


Tutil  , 


tilbnUUr 

MhIIh  anil  (loin 

( '•iw  of  (IoihI  lln|w  tnd  NtUl .  ■ 

HIvrra  U-uiui.... 

(Gambia 

Oolil  liimat 

Cpylnn 

Mtturltliifl ,»... 

New  guiitli  WalH 

Victoria 

Van  DIomen'a  Land 

WMtcrii  AnatralU 

Huiitli  Aiiatralla 

New  Zralauil 

Aacenaiuii 

»t.  Heldia 

Ilniiif  Kor.jC 

II(>ll|,'ulau(r 

Total 


Tolali 


/  North  Am 
MVot  Iiull 
( ( ttlllT  cult 


;  North  Ameriran. 
nlluii . 

uloillt'H  , 

Otncral  TolaU. 


MO.Mint 
VM.UM 

iva.nuo 
iiT«,ni 

U.IVM 
ll«.ftU« 


AMI.Ml 

n.im 

110,  VB« 

W.'ilH) 

BV.OTI 

I7T,4M 

T.i.U 

0,11(11 

tn,m  I 

«.«II4  I 

ufiia 
I4,a;s 

H.Osl) 
«8,«(I0 
■i7,&IU 

11, (KM 
~TTo,448 

II,  1st 

11A,M4 
M8,«TII 
44,47«  ) 


B,67 

SA'.'.Mni 

l,«tt7.M» 

lOa.B-.'B 

lOT.KlS 

'ito.ono 

10,0(10 
7,000 
M.OOO 
22,400 
000 
6,41)0 

2,'.'IB 


U,27s,li4a 

9,481, 0«1 

II7U,44S 

3,8Ts,(Mfl 


«.7ao,lAb 


tlMI'Ml  ««JlH.| 


llMlarMValw^ 

I.I,.  IL.    I       "'  •'"'•''  —* 
•  iy<witf4  rioMl  Ui« 


■■MM  lal 
VliiU.I  >ia(J.>iil, 


iM,ei5 
i(U,iioa 

77U,M7 
70,148 

(I4,BS1 

l,B'i(l,RU» 

l,oo;i,oim 

72a,(UK) 

100,241 

«1 

BO,70ii 

21,0B6 

S'i.'ailT 


4,40(1,006 

9,18S,7I» 
0,42D,28t 
4,460,006 
ia,«77,007 


IMI 


NMalw  mt  Tmm«<  •«  rtwb,  I44I. 


2 

l,4S0.H'm 

072,W7 

n.iii 

STii,nt 
TuiiT'ii 

17.1.  am 
<ii,tt(ii 

II4.T42 

I'jo.nai 
i,««i,('ni 

17, 1  at 

4(l,7t4 
IdN.'Bt 
ISO,0l»T 
SfiO,4U4 

ioN,oia 
i»,iai 

Mo,  41)1 
«s.T4S 
2|i,S7l 

i,'>27,ii4a 

774,242 


~r 

2,4«l,BM 

442,ll<a 

44B.ao» 
Bl.lOtf 

aai.iao 
~»*iao;M« " 

M,10t 
4li),47» 

aa.Bvn 
4A,i«a 

TOU,2«0 

111 

t,«0( 
M,fl44 

ri,i>74 

1U.2UI 
1«,S2« 


t7B,i«a 

a2,(i»!i 
n2,4aA 

SS|i,OM 

2a2,tfaa 


4<*t,2M 

ai)i,44a 
7B/.ai8 

I     114,64(1 

)     47.107 

107,66» 

176,414 

292, 1 M 

l,!01,>al 

(HM.4Ua 

420,024 

B4.72II 

i)7B,08n 

171.000 

2,  Ml 

28,248 

•a2,B0tt 

13A 


C>,eb8,MI« 

B,780,S80 
2,4aU,6C6 
B,(IM,0fla 


11,828,614 


l'iiifM4  Iiiww4  wia 

liMVa(Mla<(4nl. 

an,  M4 

Ml.ttl 


•r'rtai, 


M.I|Hi 

in<io 
lota 

IBff 

178 
U<ltA 

n 
an 

12 

IB 

170 

2 

II 

24 

la 

20 

IT 

1 

M 

ID 

2 

174 

77 


B(,ir6 

tl.liM 

IB,|U« 
Vl.ttl 

3.027 

4,iao 

64,48(1 

ttTI 

I, TUB 

B,C«t 


»^ 

K 

71 
I7B 

B2 

44 

ai 
1-1 


"Mi 

8016 

Nao 

884 

4618' 


B,47* 

«,Oll 

4,Bia 

221 

n.BN 

6,ftlM 

BIB 

44,480 

2«.III4B 

"TO;Rirl~Ki4 


iB.nt 

1 1. MM) 

47,48(1 

12,207 
■1,1181 

ii.Tia 

27,lll» 


B<,1IM 
'i.lBd 
iVtOI 


iT4,B4t  ~n« 


'.<2ii.6:iH 
n4,N4ti 


1,4h1,iUi<(' 


•«4(n« 


IBTI 
TB« 

IBO 

21* 

llot 

It 
M 

10 

BO 

«I4 

I 

6 


BOB 

I  KM 
III! 
8(1 

84 
»7 
II 


t4« 

'a 
1 
u 


21  hi 
'•4 

"iHift 


"».«,■ " 

l7»,aM 
4I.1M 

iB.mi 
"Til4,»«0 

ILMW 

2I,B«« 

%,*» 

I8.0«t 

tt,V» 

Itl 

t01 

•.IN 

4,1k* 

a,7M 

4,IBW 

482 

«B,e44 

2,r4» 

lo.»Bi) 
M,»M 
IB.BVB 

88,268 
ai,U8B 
27.IMI 

m,IM7 

A  407 
2«,MI 
«l,4lll 


M,BIT 

'i.BTB 

l»V 

(,T24 


»I4,I'*0 


ACOOCHT  or  TUII  TOTAL  EXFIHIIITVIK  l.NnCURin   I>T  TIIK  I'SITKII  KmolMUi   rOll  ClOLUNIU  AMU  MILITARY   AND    M«IIITIIII 

HTATln.-<l  IN  IS4U-'B0. 


Olbraltar 

M«lt« 

Capn  of  Uutid  llnpo 

Maiirlllua 

Iknnuda 

St.  Helena 

Aacenalon 

llellgi>lttnd 

Ionian  Ulunda 

Falklanil  Iilanda 

llon^  Knnfr 

PttmtMimu  and  Smtmtim. 

Ilarbadot'i 

(livnada 

8t  Vincent 

Tobafto 

AntlKua 

Montaerrat 

Xt.  chriitopher'a 

NevI 

AngullU , 

VlrKln  Itlaodi.. 

Dvnilnlca 

dt.l.nda 

Trinidad 

llrltlah  Onlan* 


X 
210,740 

laii.atw 

201.469 

iia,a()7 

128,076 

ao.scB 

1,488 

048 

183,042 

8,403 
1!M,270 


7-3- 
18  10 
12  0 
12  8 
»  2 
2  4 
8  11 

6  • 

7  10 
18    a 

8  0 
0    5 


m,m  6  10 


Jamalra 

Itahainaa 

Ilondural 

Uiinada ■ 

Nova  Hcotla 

Npw  llnmiwlck .., 

Prince  F.dward'a  lalud 

Newfoundland 

Sierra  Leone 

Gambia 

I'ape  Coait 

Ceylon 

South  Auilralla < 

North  Auatralla 

New  Zealand < 

Labuu... 

rt»mt  Silllmmtt, 

New  South  Walia , 

Van  Dtemen'fl  I.and 

Weat  AuKtralia 

Oenoral  Charge* 

Total 


^     - 

l6A,0:it 

22,1  M) 

18,008 

1180,284 

144,718 

1 1. ('84 

a.CNO 

8I,UW 

<4,8l'li 

»I,8'|'a' 
1.1180 

160.241' 
8,221 

68,184 
224,444 

_B4,2B4 


.  (T 

8  6 

IB  8 

10  a 

16  8 

6  t 

6  4 

1  f 

»  1 

10  T 

11  « 

II  * 

14  T 

IB  4 

IB  II 

H    0 

II  6 

Itf  6 

Uil 

III.  Otiikr  Colonies.  Spanith  Colonies. — Spain, 
whoae  colonial  poasesaions  extended  a  few  yeara  ago 
firgm  the  froutiera  of  the  United  States  to  the  Straits 


of  Magellan,  is  not  at  present  poiseiaed  of  8  foot  of 
ground  in  the  whole  American  continent.  Htlll,  how> 
ever,  her  colonial  poaaesaloBB  Me  of  great  v*tu8  aimI 


COL 


COL 


Importance.  In  the  West  Indiea,  abe  is  mistroas  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Kico — the  former  \>y  far  the  largest 
and  flneat  of  the  West  Indian  islands,  and  the  latter 
also  a  very  valuable  possession.  In  the  East,  Spain 
la  miatress  of  tho  Philippine  Islanda,  which,  were  they 
in  the  hands  of  an  enterpriaing  people,  would  speedi- 
ly Iwconie  of  very  great  commercial  importance. — iS'ee 
ike  articlft  Havana,  Manilla,  Porto  Rico. 

Dutch  Colonies. — Java  is  the  principal  Dutch  colo- 
nial possession,  and  it  is  one  of  which  it  is  not  easy  to 
exaggerate  the  value  and  importance. — iSes  Uatavia. 
In  tiie  Kust,  the  Dutch  also  possess  the  Moluccas,  Den- 
coolen,  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  Macassar,  and  the 
eastern  coast  of  Celelies,  Banda,  etc.  They  have  sever- 
al forts  on  the  Gold  Coast  in  Africa ;  and  in  the  West 
Indiea  they  possess  the  islands  of  Curaf  oa  and  St.  £u- 
Btatius,  Saba,  and  part  nf  St.  Martin ;  and  on  the  con- 
tinent of  South  America  they  are  nuisters  of  Dutch 
Surinaip.  Curafoa  and  St.  Eustutius  are  naturally 
barren,  but  they  have  been  both  highly  improved. 
From  its  lieing  very  conveniently  situated  for  main- 
taining a  contraliand  traffic  with  the  Coraccas  and 
other  districts  in  South  America,  Curafoa  was  for- 
merly a  place  of  great  trade,  paiticularly  during  war. 
But  since  the  independence  of  South  America,  Cura- 
foa has  ceased  in  great  measure  to  l>e  an  entrepot ;  the 
goods  destined  for  the  continent  l)eing  now  for  the 
most  part  forwarded  direct  to  the  place  of  their  desti- 
nation.   That  district  of  Surinam  ceded  to  the  British 


I  in  1814,  comprising  the  settlements  of  Demerara,  Ber>< 

I  bice,  and  Essequibo,  formed  the  most  valuable  portion 

I  of  Surinam,  or  Dutch  Quiana.     The  district  which 

:  atill  belongs  to  the  Dutch  lies  to  the  south  of  Berbice. 

It  contains  about  88,000  aquare  miles,  and  a  population 

of  about  66,000.     It  is  daily  Itecoming  of  more  value 

and  importance.     The  exporta  of  augar  may  amount 

to  alwut  25,000,000  pounda,  and  thoae  of  coffee  to  about 

4,000,000  pounds, 

French  Colnnia, — Previously  to  the  negro  insurrec- 
tion that  broke  out  in  1792,  St.  Domingo  was  by  far 
the  most  valuable  colony  in  the  West  Indies.  But 
this  disastrous  event,  having  first  devastated  the  island, 
terminated  in  the  establishment  of  the  independent 
black  republic  of  Hayti.— Sf  e  Port  av  Prisck.  Hav- 
ing  also  sold  Louisiana  to  the  Americans,  and  ceded 
the  Mauritius  to  the  English,  without  making  any  new 
acquisition,  the  colonial  dominions  of  France  (for  Al- 
giers can  not  be  reckoned  among  them)  are  at  this 
moment  of  very  limited  extent.  They  consist  of  Gua- 
deloupe and  Martinique,  and  the  small  islands  of  Ma- 
rie-Galante  and  Deseadia,  in  the  West  Indies;  Cay- 
enne, in  South  America ;  Senegal  and  Goree,  in  Afri- 
ca ;  the  Isle  de  Bourbon,  in  the  Eastern  Ocean ;  St. 
Marie,  in  Madagascar;  and  Pondicherry  and  Chan- 
dernagor,  with  a  very  amall  surrounding  territory, 
in  the  East  Indies.  The  annexed  tabular  statements 
show  the  population,  trade,  etc.,  of  the  French  colo- 
nies. 


ACCOnMT  OP  TUB  POTOI.ATIOX  OK  THE  FeEMOU  COLONIES,  AND  0»  TIIXIB  CoMmiOE  WrTU  FSAXCE,  IN  1836. 


i'opuUUop,  IM1. 


FrM. 


SlSYt. 


Toul. 


IniuorU  Into 
rrftncs. 


u«,  188«. 

KxporU  from 
KrRDrt. 


Hbiiii  «tilcr«d. 


Shipi.    Toflnag*. 


Nliip8cl««r«ilout. 
Ship*.     Tonnng*. 


Saint  Pierre  and  Higuelon., . . 

Martinique 

Guadeloupe 

Cayenne  

Bourlwn 

Senegal , 

Fieoch  factories  in  India  (1336) 
Totals 


Number. 
1,4U0 

40,043 
82,069 
6,060 
36,803 
18,040 

107,788 


Niunb«r. 

7:,469 
9B,flU» 
10,692 
69,296 


Number. 

1.40U 

11T,.M2 

127,008 

21,t:48 

100,099 

18,040 

(ljan.,1830) 

107,736 


FrUQci. 

2,424,244 
16,423,438 
24,675,141 

3,121,762 
10,743,890 

8,374,724 

4,323,028 


Franei. 

700,336 

17,062,292 

22,119,138 

2,098,106 

9,804,940 

6,466,923 

441,326 


No. 
144 
368 
618 

42 
166 

36 


Turn. 
23,920 
48,861 
70,027 

6,T92 
48,830 

4,791 

11,008 


801,187 


268,960 


660,0113 


70,086,221 


68,348,121 


209,326 


No. 
143 
363 
648 

4C 
149 

62 

8t 
1860 


Torn. 

23,  SO."; 

122,'jll 

69,060 

7,f6l) 

43,4S3 

6,963 

16,552 


200,U'3 


Account  or  tub  Quantitoh  or  ma  pbincital  Abticles  pboduced  in  tub  Fbbnoii  OoLOiaig  in  1S36. 


Cblonla  ud  KitablUliiiMiiti. 

Sugnti 

or»u 

QasUtiM. 

con<. 

Coco*. 

Cotton. 

CIOTM 

Mid 

Anaolto. 

Tobaroo. 

Oum. 

Wu. 

Bklni. 

Wood. 

MarUnique 

Ki!og. 
34,1&»,680 
34,836,722 
23,384,116 
2,422,796 

6'.i2'!iil7 

471,086 

928,200 

42,000 

1,422 

62,084 

Kilog. 
126.411 
10,1)111 
10,000 
2B,UM1 
1,447 

Kllog. 
18,  •.05 
18,194 

280,000 
6,720 

Kllog 

239 
193,600 
107,080 

Kllog. 

!!!! 
813,000 

Kilog. 

S4,'(«7 
82,000 

Kilog. 
l,79i;610 

Kilog. 

46^134 
46,134 

Kllog. 

227,728 
Cent.  390  ) 
l«q.    38) 

Kllog. 
13,03C 

Seueaal 

Factories  in  India  (1836). . 
Totals 

94,803,214 

2,188,198 

172,768 

378,010 

800,819 

818,000  110.047 

1,791,610 

227,728 
Cent  8;i6 
Paq.    88 

64,146 

But  it  would  appear  from  the  following  account  of 
the  exports  from  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe,  in  1861, 
that  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  has  had  much  the 
same  influence  over  production  in  the  French  colonies 
that  it  lias  had  in  the  British  colonie8,witliout  being,  we 
believe,  in  any  degree  more  advantageous  to  the  blacks. 

AacooNT  OF  TiiR  ExroKTS  or  Nativk  Pboddcb  feoh  Mab- 

ti.mqdb  and  Guaiixloctb  in  1861. 

MABTfniQva. 

Sugar,  Mnscorado kil.  SS,4«<,69a 

Sugar,  clayed —  807 

Molames lit         88,754 

Rum _        206,611 

Colfee kil.       110,938 

Cocoa —        140,033 

Caaria _        163,580 

Logwood —         60,260 

Sugar,  Mus(  orado ktl.  20,048.888 

MoIaaaeB lit  18,870 

Rum —  142,139 

Coffee klU  221,218 

Cotton —  20,443 

Coeoa _  11,461 

Casala —  IW 


Daniih  Colonies. — In  the  West  Indiea,  theae  consist 
of  the  islands  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John. 
St.  Croix  contains  about  100  square  miles,  and  has 
about  24,C0O  inhabitants.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  it  is 
well  cultivated.  The  principal  productions  are  sugar, 
rum,  and  coffee,  the  exports  of  sugar  having  formerly 
amounted  to  about  26,000,000  pounds  a  year.  Proba- 
bly, however,  they  have  been  diminished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1848.  St. 
Thomas,  which  has  ai)out  14,000  inhabitants,  lias  long 
been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  one  of  the  principal  em- 
poriums in  the  West  Indies.  It  owes  this  distinction 
partly  to  its  convenient  situation,  partly  to  its  spa- 
cious and  safe  harbor  at  St.  Thomas,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  island,  and  partly  and  principally  to  the  mode- 
ration of  the  import  dutiei>,  which  vary  from  1  tu  1^ 
per  cent.  St.  Thomas  has  in  consequence  became,  as 
it  were,  a  depot  for  the  supply  of  the  neighboring  isl- 
ands, goods  being  sent  to  it  to  be  warehoused  till  op- 
portunity offers  for  cunveying  them  to  their  final  des- 
tination. The  great  b.Hicles  of  importation  are,  man- 
ufactured goods,  principk'Iy  from  England,  but  partly 


COL 


869 


COL 


Kllo(. 


40,60; 
13,03C 


54,145 


consist 
Si.  John, 
and  has 
and  it  is 
iro  sugar, 
formerly 

Proba- 
in  conse- 
8-J8.  St. 
lias  long 
cipal  eni- 
istinction 

its  spa- 
louth  side 
he  modo 

1  to  It 
ecome,  as 
orinK  isl- 
■A  till  op- 
flnal  des- 
are,  man- 
)ut  partly 


also  ft^m  other  countries  of  Europe,  with  provisions,  | 
lumber,  etc.,  from  the  United  States.     In  India  the  | 
Danes  formerly  possessed  Tranqucbar,  near  Madras ; 
and  Scrampoor,  near  Calcutta ;  but  these  they  sold,  in 
1845,  to  tlio  East  India  Company. 

SwedM  Cohniet. — The  Swedes  possess  one  colony — 
the  small  island  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  the  West  In- 
dies. It  is  only  about  2&  square  miles  in  extent,  but 
is  very  fertile.  It  has  no  springs,  nor  fresh  water  of 
any  sort,  except  such  as  is  supplied  by  the  rain.  Pop- 
ulation between  8000  and  UOOO.       ' 

Selection  nf  Sites  for  Colonial  Ettahlithmentt. — Noth- 
ing can  be  more  unwise  than  the  plan,  if  so  we  may 
call  it,  hitherto  followed  in  the  selection  of  places  at 
wliich  to  found  colonies.  The  captain  of  a  ship,  with- 
out any  knowledge  whatever  of  the  nature  of  soils  or 
the  capacities  of  a  country  in  an  agricultural  point  of 
view,  falls  in  after  a  long  cruise  with  a  river  or  bay, 
abounding  with  lish  and  fresh  water,  and  surrounded 
with  land  that  holes  fertile  and  is  covered  with  herbage. 
He  forthwith  reports  all  these  circumstances,  duly  em- 
bellished, and  strongly  recommending  the  situation  as 
an  admirable  one  at  which  to  found  a  colony ;  and,  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten,  this  is  all  the  information  that  is 
required  in  talcing  a  £tcp  of  such  infinite  importance. 
No  wonder,  therefore,  that  many  lino  schemes  of  colo- 
nization should  have  ended  only  in  loss  and  disappoint- 
ment; and  tint  situations  which  the  colonists  were 
taught  to  look  upon  as  a  species  of  parudiso  have 
proved  to  bo  ony  thing  but  what  they  were  represent- 
ed. Botany  Bay,  though  described  by  Captain  Cook 
as  one  of  the  finest  places  in  tlie  vorld,  had  to  bo  aban- 
doned by  the  colonists  that  were  sent  out  to  it,  as  the 
country  round  it,  instead  of  being  favorable  for  cultiva- 
tion, is  a  mere  sanc'y  swamp.  Is  it  possible  to  sup- 
pose, had  the  prope  •  inquiries  been  entered  into,  that 
any  attempt  would  have  been  made  to  establish  a  col- 
ony in  so  pestilential  a  climate  as  that  of  Sierra  Leone  ? 
The  colony  on  Sw  in  Kiver,  Australia,  may  bo  adduced 
as  another  instance  of  misplaced  or  prematura  confi- 
dence in  the  reports  of  those  who  were  really  without 
the  means  of  forming  a  correct  cstimoto  of  the  various 
circumstances  necessary  to  bo  attended  to  in  forming  a 
colony.  Wo  therefore  hope  that  an  end  may  be  put  to 
this  system — a  system  which  is  in  no  common  degree 
injurious  to  the  public  interests,  and  is  higlily  criminal 
toward  those  who  embark  as  colonists.  The  founding 
of  a  colony  should  be  looked  upon  in  its  true  point  of 
view — as  a  great  national  enterprise.  It  is  not  an  ad- 
venture to  be  intrusted  to  presumptuous  ignorance, 
but  should  be  maturely  weighed,  and  every  circum- 
stance connected  with  it  carefully  investigated.  Above 
all,  the  situation  in  which  it  is  proposed  to' found  the 
colony  should  bo  minutely  surveyed ;  and  its  climate, 
soil,  and  capacities  of  production  deliberately  inquired 
into  by  competent  persons  employed  for  the  purpose. 
Were  this  done,  government  and  the  public  would  have 
the  best  attainable  grounds  upon  which  to  proceed; 
and  neither  party  would  have  much  reason  to  fear 
those  disappointments  which  have  hitherto  so  often  fol- 
lowed the  exaggerated  representations  of  those  to  whom 
the  important  and  difficult  task  of  selecting  situations 
for  colonics  has  been  delegated. 

Columbia  or  Oregon  River,  in  Washington  and 
Oregon  territories,  and  British  possessions.  Its  north- 
cm  branch  takes  its  rise  in  the  Kocky  Mountains,  in 
lat.  50°  N.,  long.  116°  W, ;  from  thence  it  pursues  a 
northern  course  to  near  M'Gillivary 's  Pass  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  At  the  boat  encampment  the  river  i?  SCOO 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (here  it  receiven  two 
small  tributaries — the  Canoe  Kiver,  and  that  froo  the 
Committee's  Punch  Bowl) ;  from  thence  it  turns  south, 
having  some  obstructions  to  canoe  navigation,  and  re- 
ceiving many  tributaries  in  its  course  to  Colvillc,  among 
which  are  the  Kootanio,  or  Flat  Bow,  and  the  Flat 
Head,  or  Clarke  River,  f^om  the  oast,  and  that  of  Col- 
vUlo  from  the  west.  Tbii  great  river  is  bounded,  thus 
▲  a 


far  on  its  course,  by  a  range  of  high  monntaing,  well 
wooded,  and  in  some  places  expands  into  a  line  of 
lakes  before  it  reaches  Colville,  where  it  is  2049  feet 
above  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  having  a  fall  of  660  feet  in 
220  miles.  To  the  south  of  this  it  tends  to  the  west- 
ward, receiving  the  Spokane  Rivorfrom  the  cast  (which 
is  not  navigable),  and  takes  its  rise  from  the  Cwur 
d'Alene.  Thence  it  pursues  a  westerly  course  for  about 
CO  miles,  receiving  several  smaller  streams,  and  at  ita 
bend  to  the  south  it  is  joined  by  the  Okanagan,  a  riv- 
er that  has  its  source  in  a  line  of  lakes,  ali'ording  canoe 
and  boat  navigation  for  a  considerable  extent  to  .Mt 
northward.  The  Columbia  thence  passes  to  the  south- 
ward until  it  reaches  Wallawalla,  in  the  latitude  of  46°, 
a  distance  of  160  miles,  reccivTng  the  Piscous,  Y'Aka- 
ma,  and  Point  de  Boise,  or  Entyatecoom,  from  the 
west,  which  take  their  rise  in  the  Cascade  range,  and 
also  its  great  southeastern  branch,  the  Saptin,  or  Lew- 
is, which  has  its  source  in  the  Wind  River  Mountains, 
and  brings  a  large  quantity  of  water  to  incrcaiie  the  vol- 
ume of  the  main  stream.  The  Lewis  is  not  navigable, 
even  for  canoes,  except  in  reaches.  The  rapids  are  ex- 
tensive, and  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  generally  pass- 
es between  the  Rocky  Mountain  spurs  and  the  Blue 
Mountains.  It  receives  the  Kooskooskc,  Salmon,  and 
several  other  rivers  from  the  east  and  west — the  former 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  latter  from  the  Blue 
Mountains — and,  were  it  navigable,  would  much  facil- 
itate the  intercourse  with  this  part  of  the  country.  Its 
length,  to  its  junction  with  the  Columbia,  is  520  miles. 
The  Columbia  below  this  point  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Oregon  and  Washington  territories  to  the  Pa- 
cific. The  river  at  Wallawalla  is  1286  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  about  3500  feet  wide ;  it  now  takes 
its  last  turn  to  the  westward,  receiving  the  Umatira, 
Quisnel's,  John  Day's  and  Do  Chute  rivers  from  the 
south,  and  Cathlatate's  from  the  north,  pursuing  its 
rapid  course  of  80  miles,  previous  to  passing  through 
the  range  of  Cascade  Mountains,  in  a  series  of  falls  and 
rapids  that  obstruct  its  flow,  and  form  insurmountable 
barriers  to  the  passage  of  boats  by  water  during  the 
floods.  Tho&o  difQcultics,  however,  are  overcome  by 
portages  around  the  falls.  The  waters  here  descend 
40  feet  in  the  distance  of  two  miles.  From  thence  there 
is  still-water  navigation  for  40  miles,  when  its  course 
is  again  obstructed  by  rapids.  At  the  Dalles  the  river 
is  compressed  into  a  narrow  channel  300  feet  wide  and 
half  a  mile  long,  and  flows  between  high  walls  of  ba- 
salt, and  the  water  falls  50  feet  in  the  distance  of  two 
miles.  Thence  to  the  ocean,  120railes, it  is  navigable  for 
vessels  of  12  feet  draft  of  water  at  the  lowest  state  of  the 
river,  though  obstructed  by  many  sand  bars.  In  this 
part  it  receives  the  Willamette  from  the  south,  and  the 
Cowelitz  from  the  north.  The  former  is  navigable  for 
small  vessels  20  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Klackamus, 
three  miles  below  its  falls ;  the  latter  can  not  be  called 
navigable,  except  for  a  small  part  of  the  year,  during 
the  floods,  and  then  only  for  canoes  and  barges.  TJie 
width  of  the  Columbia,  within  20  miles  of  its  mouth,  is 
much  increased,  and  it  joins  the  ocean  between  Cape 
Disappointment  and  Point  Adams,  forming  a  sand-spit 
from  each,  by  deposit,  and  causing  a  dangerous  bar, 
which  greatly  impedes  its  navigation  and  entrance. 
The  influence  of  the  tides  is  felt  80  miles  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  Pacific.  Its  entire  course  is  about  750 
miles.  During  the  year  1860,  160  vessels  entered  and 
departed  from  tlie  ports  of  Columbia  River.  Vessels 
of  a  draft  of  17^  feet  have  been  safely  taken  over  the 
so'ith  bar,  and  it  is  supposed  that  vessels  drawing  over 
20  feet  can  enter  safely.  This  noble  river  was  discov- 
erc'1  by  Captain  Gray,  of  Boston,  in  the  year  1792,  in 
the  ship  Columbia,  and  named  from  the  ship.  It  was 
first  explored  from  its  sources  to  the  sea  in  1804-'6,  by 
Messrs.  Lewis  and  Clarke,  by  order  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States.  By  the  Oregon  treaty  its  navi- 
gation is  open  to  British  vessels.  The  Coast  Survey 
are  now  preparing  a  diart  of  this  river. 


^',:,'r!li: 


COL 


870 


COL 


■  Colombo,  the  modem  capital  of  Ceylon,  on  the 
aouthweat  coast  of  the  island ;  lat,  ti°  6G'  6"  N.,  long, 
79°  49'  48"  E.  It  is  defended  by  a  very  strong  fort, 
nearly  surrounded  l>y  the  sea,  in  wliieh  is  a  light-house 
97  feet  high.  Population  of  the  town  and  fort,  in  1881, 
81,640.  The  houses,  generally  only  one  story  high,  are 
of  stone,  clay,  and  lime ;  and  the  town  has  more  of  a  Eu- 
ropean appearance  than  any  other  in  India.  The  inhab- 
itants are  principally  Cin;^alese,  The  temperature  is 
remarlcable  for  its  equalil.v ;  and  though  very  humid, 
the  climate  may,  on  the  ^v(K>le,  b»  eateemod  salubrious 
and  temperate.  There  in  no  luirbor  at  Columbo  for 
large  vessels,  but  only  an  open  roadstead.  A  pro- 
jecting rocic,  on  which  two  batteries  are  erected,  af- 
fords shelter  to  a  small  semicircular  bay  on  tho  north 
lidc  of  the  fort,  having  a  wooden  quay  to  facilitate  the 
loading  and  unloading  of  boats.  The  depth  of  water  is 
not  sufficient  to  allow  sloops  or  large  dhonics  to  come 
alongside  the  quay ;  those  exceeding  lOU  tons  burden 
lying  at  about  a  cable's  length  from  it.  A  bar  of  sand, 
on  which  the  water  is  not  more  than  12  feet  deep,  ex- 
tends from  the  projecting  rocIc  across  this  bay.  The 
channel  where  it  may  bo  crossed  by  tho  larger  class  of 
ships  is  liable  to  shift ;  and  it  is  only  in  tho  fme  weath- 
er of  the  safe  season  that  they  venture  within  tho  bar. 
The  outer  road  affords  secure  anchorage  for  half  the 
year,  from  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  end  cf  March, 
daring  the  prevalenco  of  the  northeast  monsoon,  when 
the  wind  blows  off  the  land ;  during  the  other,  or  south- 
west monsoon,  when  the  wind  blows  flrom  the  sea  on 
shore,  the  road  is  very  far  from  safe;  and  the  ships 
that  frequent  it  are  sometimes  obliged  to  slip  thoir  ca- 
bles and  stand  out  to  sea. — Milbuun's  Oriental  CoM' 
merce;  Hamilton's  Gazetteer,  etc. 


As  respects  Its  harbor,  Colombo  is,  therefore,  very 
inferior  to  Trincomalee,  tho  harbor  of  which  is  acces- 
sible at  all  times,  and  is  one  of  the  best  in  India;  but 
the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  Columbo  is  more  fertile ; 
and  it  has  tlin  command  of  an  iutenial  navigation, 
stretching  in  a  lateral  direction  along  the  coast,  from 
Putlam,  to  the  north  of  the  city,  to  Caltura  on  the 
south,  a  distance  of  about  100  miles,  partly  obtained 
by  rivers,  and  parly  by  canals.  Many  dnt-bottomod 
boats  ar«  employed  in  this  navigation,  the  families  de- 
pendent on  which  reside  mostly  on  board.  Nearly  all 
the  foreign  trade  of  Ceylon  is  carried  on  from  Columbo, 
and  it  has  also  a  large  share  of  the  coasting  traffic. 

Moneys, — The  rix  dollar=l«.  6(i. ;  but  accounts  are 
kopt  in  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence,  as  in  England, 

The  Bank  ofCtylon,  established  in  1840,  has  its  head 
office  in  London,  its  principal  office  in  tho  island  being 
in  Columbo.  It  transacts  all  sorts  of  banliing  busi- 
ness, remitting  money  to  and  from  the  inland,  granting 
cash  credits  on  the  Scotch  system,  discounting  bills,  etc. 

yVeighUi,  Measures,  etc, — The  weights  are  divided 
into  onnces,  pounds,  etc.,  and  are  the  same  as  in  Great 
Britain.  The  candy  or  bahar=600  lbs,  avoirdupois, 
or  461  lbs.  Dutch  Troy  Weight.  The  principal  dry 
measures  are  seers  or  parrahs.  The  former  is  a  perfect 
cylinder,  of  the  depth  and  diameter  under-mentioned : 

OepUi,  DiMMtor, 

Seer 436  Inches.       4'35  incliea. 

The  parrah  is  a  perfect  cube,  its  internal  dimensions 
being  in  every  way  11'57  inches. 

The  liquid  measure  consists  of  gallons,  and  their  mul- 
tiples and  submultiples.  150  gallons=:l  leaguer  or 
legger. 

The  bale  of  cinnamon  consists  of  92^  lbs.  very  nearly. 

Account  or  tue  Qdantitus  ahd  Valufs  or  nix  nuiiCiPAL  Auticlxs  raoDncxu  ih  xxd  expobtid  rnoH  Cetlon  dubinu 

1881. 


ArllclM. 

QautlUtt. 

VllllM. 

ArUdM. 

QuAntiticR.    !            Vnliiei.           1 

Arrack galb. 

Anca  nuta cwt 

Cinnamon pounds. 

Cocoanuta No. 

Coooanut  oil . . .  galls. 

Coffee cwt. 

Coir  popo — 

Copperah — 

Homa — 

Plumbago — 

Precioua  stones,  pack. 

168,789  ar^  1  keg 
78,030  0  26 
509,491 
4,037,814 
44-'),6991and2a(an 
849,967  0  10 
37,612  0  12 
27,0i6  1    0 
2,020  3    K 
26,832  3  17 
4 

X  f.  J. 
6,269    9    7 

64,806    4  11 

60,849  2  0 
6,701    4    1 

31,414  9  7 
688,166  14    9 

13,286  4  1 
0,078  0  7 
8,207  17  8 
6,608  2  8 
1,206    0    0 

Rum galls. 

Sugar cwt 

Wood pea. 

bdls. 

9.841 
1,703 
34.740  2  14 

809,558 
634 

JC             I.     u. 

061  10    „ 
1,086    4    0 

]'■     10,993    4    4 

43,088    4    7 
139,927  10  11 
727,311  10    8 

Imports  ro^ixpv  rted .     goodii. 

Ex.  the  warehouse  . .    siwcio. 

Total 

.... 

jei,806,S77    0    1 

AocouNT  or  Tin  Qcamtities  or  Coppee,  CraKAHOH,  Coooa- 
KUT  Oil,  and  Coib,  the  PBont'oi  or  the  Island,  exfobt- 
ai>  rsoH  Ceylon  nmiiNa  the  pollowino  Yeabs,  endino 

TUB  6TU  jA>DABr. 


Vaan. 

CoffM. 

Ciiiwiaoa. 

ComMiil  Oil. 

Coir. 

Cwt. 

Poumb. 

Oalltu. 

Cwt 

.1840 

41.863 

6U8,S'.t2t 

367,643 

28,196 

1841 

68.206 

889,3731 

478,742 

23,440 

1»12 

80,684 

817,919f 

821,966 

21,643 

1843 

119,806 

121,146t 

476,967 

26,180 

1844 

94,847 

602,704 

726,206 

22,187 

1S46 

133,967 

1,067,841 

448,301 

28,077 

1846 

178,603 

408,211 

282,186 

10,640 

1847 

173,8M 

401,666 

123,981 

23,197 

1843 

293,221 

447,8691 

197,361 

23,620 

1849 

280,010 

491,ti87t 

811,626 

26,199 

1860 

878,6n3 

7ii3,7(iU 

673,279 

28,422 

1851 

278,473 

W4,867 

407,960 

89,886 

1852 

849,957 

6113,491 

443,699 

87,612 

FoBT  Dues— CoLCMBo, 

Jt  t.t. 

Entry  Inward,  with  cargo,  ton 0  0  2 

"  inbollast Frco. 

Clearance  outward,  with  cargo,  ton 0  0  2 

"  inballait Free. 

And  In  no  case  to  exceed 600 

Coffee  Export, — Wo  are  enabled  by  the  courtesy  of 
the  Collector  of  Customs  to  afford  the  total  exports  of 
coffee  for  the  year  ending  October,  10th,  1864,  includ- 
ing shipments  at  Galle.  The  exact  figures  are :  plan^ 
taUon,  303,908 ;  ordinary,  180,177 ;  total,  484,086  cwt., 
wbich  is  an  increase  of  85,128  cwt.  since  1862. — Co- 
Uwlbo  Obstner,  October  Kth,  1864. 


ABTICLES  EXPORTED  PBOV  COLCHBO  AND   GaLLP. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  Columbo,  April  It,  1856. 


CoffM : 
I'lantation  .  cwL 

Native cwt, 

ToUl 


Cinnamon  . . .  pounds. 

Coooanut  oil. .  gallons. 

Plumbago ....  cwt. 

Coir:  Kojw...  — 
Junk  . .  — 
Yam  ..  — 
Fibre..    — 

F.bony cwt. 

Deer  homs ...  cwt 

Arrack gallons. 


From 
Oct.  11, 1861, 

ti> 
tpril  10, 1853, 


131,447 

74,344 


206,791 

173,6R8 

600,477 

7,806 

8,249 

867 

16,288 

1,337 

6,636 

1,182 

396 


From 
Oct.  M,  18M, 

to 
AprinO.lJM. 


169,323 
94,134 


263,467 

886,987 

782,218 

14,201 

2,762 

264 

14,486 

3,8<)3 

4,799 

1,118 

600 


Prom 
Oct.  I1,I8U, 

to 
April  10, 18U. 


166,396 
76,211 


241,607 

489,869 

688,180 

1,343 

6,!I88 

1,378 

16,8'.i6 

8,272 

8,122 

643 


Value  of  Imports  and  Exports,  Ceylon,  July  Hth,  18D5, 
— The  value  of  the  imports  during  the  last  quarter  was 
£2,697,326,  and  that  of  tho  exports  £2,246,288. 

Foreign  Ships  in  Coasting  Trade. — By  order  of  Coun- 
cil, Nov.  21st,  1856,  goods  and  passengers  may  bo  con- 
veyed from  one  part  of  the  island  of  Cej-lon  to  anotlicr 
part  thereof  in  other  than  Uritisli  ships. — See  Cbylom. 

Columbo-root  (I)u.  Columbo  icorlel ;  Fr.  Racine 
de  Colombo ;  Germ.  Columbo-wurxel ;  It.  Radice  di  Co- 
lumbo; Port.  Rail  di  Columba;  Sp.  Raiz  di  Cotuntbo; 
Mozainb.  i^a^Bini),  the  root  of  the  plant  of  that  name. 
It  is  a  staple  export  of  the  Portuguese  from  Mozam- 


..*.1 


COL 


871 


COL 


biqne.  It  ia  not  cultivsted,  but  grows  naturally  in 
great  abundance.  It  is  imported  in  circular  pieces 
from  i  an  inch  to  3  incites  in  diameter,  generally  from 
i  to  }  of  an  inch  thick ;  the  baric  is  wrinkled  and  thick, 
of  a  browniuh  color  without,  and  a  brightlsli  yellow 
within ;  the  pith  is  spongy,  yellowish,  and  slightly 
striped :  when  fresh,  its  smell  is  rather  aromatic ;  it  is 
disagreeably  bitter,  and  slightly  pungent  to  the  taste, 
somewhat  rosombling  mustard  that  has  been  too  long 
kept.  Choose  the  largest  pieces,  fresh,  and  of  a  good 
color,  as  free  from  worms  as  possible,  rejecting  that 
which  is  small  and  broken.  The  freight  is  calculated 
at  16  cwt.  to  a  ton. — Mii.biirm's  Menial  Commerce. 

Colmnbua,  Chllatopher,  the  celebrated  naviga- 
tor and  discoverer  of  the  Western  World,  was  born  in 
Genoa  about  the  year  1446.  Although  several  illus- 
trious families  have  contended  for  his  alliance  to  them, 
his  father  Uomenico,  and  his  ancestors,  appear  to  have 
followed  the  trade  of  wool-combers  or  carders,  and 
were  of  humble,  though  reputable  origin.  Columbus 
received  his  edu>  ilion  at  the  university  of  Padun,  and, 
having  evinced  an  early  passion  for  the  sea,  entered 
into  nautical  life  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  The  first  voy- 
age in  which  we  have  any  authentic  accounts  of  his 
being  engaged  was  a  warlike  expedition  fitted  out  at 
Genoa  in  1469,  wlien,  associated  with  hardy  and  daring 
adventurers,  he  acquired  so  much  distinction  as  to  be 
intrusted  with  a  separate  command.  After  this,  it  is 
supposed,  he  woIb  employed  in  various  commercial,  pi- 
ous, and  predatory  expeditions  against  the  Moliani- 
mcdans  and  Venetians,  in  company  with  a  famous  cor- 
sair of  his  own  name  and  family,  and  acquired  reputa- 
tion and  experience  in  his  profession.  His  son  Fer- 
nando relates  that,  in  an  engagement  oif  the  coast  of 
Portugal  with  four  Venetian  galleys,  returning  richly 
laden  from  Flanders,  the  vessel  on  board  which  he 
served,  and  one  of  the  Venetian  ships  to  which  it  was 
grappled,  took  fire.  Columbus  threw  himself  into  the 
sea,  seized  an  oar  which  was  floating  near  him,  and  by 
this  means,  and  his  dexterity  in  swimming,  reached 
the  shot«,  although  two  leagues  distant.  Proceeding 
thereafter  to  Lisbon,  he  was  induced  to  take  up  his  res- 
idence in  that  capital, 

Columbus  becanii!  acquainted  in  Lisbon  with  the 
most  eminent  men  in  science  and  maritime  art,  whom 
the  encouragement  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal  had 
attracteil  around  him.  At  this  period  (anno  1470)  he 
was  in  the  vigor  of  manhood,  of  engaging  appearance, 
grave,  courteous,  and  aiTal>Ie  in  his  deportment,  mod- 
erate and  simple  in  his  diet  and  apparel,  eloquent  in 
discourse,  possessing  high  magnanimity,  and  a  temper 
which,  though  irritable,  was  under  the  control  of  a  gen- 
tle and  enthusiastic  piety.  Here  he  married  Dona  Fe- 
lipa,  daughter  of  Bartolomeo  Monis  de  PalestrcUo,  an 
Italian  cavalier  lately  deceased,  and  a  distinguished 
navif^ator,  who  had  discovered  and  colonized  the  isl- 
and of  Porto  Banto,  Having  obtained  possession  of 
the  journals  and  charts  of  this  sea  captain,  and  also 
hearing  accounts  of  his  voyages  from  his  widow,  Co- 
Inmbus  was  seized  with  an  irresistible  desire  of  visiting 
unknown  regions.  In  order  to  indulge  it,  ho  made  a 
voyage  to  Madeira,  and  continued  during  several  years 
to  trade  with  that  island,  the  Canaries,  Azores,  the  set- 
tlements in  Gidnea,  and  the  other  places  wliich  the 
Portuguese  had  discovered  on  the  continent  of  Africa. 
Ily  the  experience  acquired  in  such  a  numl)cr  of  voy- 
ages, Columbus  became  one  of  the  most  skillful  navi- 
gators in  Europe. 

Ilis  eminent  biographer,  Washington  Irving, relates 
that  "  he  divided  the  clrc'imference  from  cast  to  west 
at  the  equator,  according  to  Ptolemy,  into  twenty-four 
hou's,  of  fifteen  degrees  each,  making  three  hundred 
and  sixty  degrees.  Of  these  he  imagined,  comparing 
the  globe  of  Ptolemy  with  the  earlier  map  of  Marinus 
of  Tyre,  that  fifteen  hours  had  been  known  to  the  an- 
cients, extending  from  the  Canary  or  Fortunate  Isl- 
ands, to  the  city  of  Tbinis,  in  Asia,  the  western  and 


eastern  extremities  of  the  known  world.  The  Portu^ 
guese  had  advanced  the  western  frontier  one  hour  more 
by  the  discovery  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  de  Verd  Isl- 
ands; still  about  eight  hours,  or  one-third  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  earth,  remained  to  be  explored.  This 
space  he  imagined  to  be  occupied  in  a  great  measure  by 
the  eastern  regions  of  Asia,  which  miglit  extend  so  far 
as  to  approach  the  western  shores  of  Europe  and  Afri- 
ca. A  navigator,  therefore,  by  pursuing  a  direct  course 
from  east  to  west,  must  arrive  at  the  extremity  of  Asia, 
or  discover  any  intervening  land.  The  great  obstacle 
to  be  apprehended  was  from  the  tract  of  ocean  that 
might  intervene ;  but  this  could  not  be  very  wide,  if 
the  opinion  of  Alfraganus  the  Arabian  were  admitted, 
who,  by  diminishing  the  size  of  the  degrees,  gave  to 
the  earth  a  smaller  circumference  than  was  assigned  to 
it  by  other  cosmographers — a  theory  to  which  Colum- 
bus seems  generally  to  have  given  much  faith.  He 
was  fortiticd  also  by  the  opinion  of  Aristotle,  Seneca, 
Plin\  ind  Strabo,  who  considered  the  ocean  as  but  of 
moderate  breadth,  so  that  one  might  pass  from  Cadiz 
westward  to  the  Indies  in  a  few  days." 

On  these  grounds  Columbus  formed  the  vast  and 
daring  enterprise  which  was  destined  to  hand  down  his 
name  to  posterity  with  unfading  honor;  and,  firmly  es- 
tablished in  a  belief  of  the  successful  result  of  his  proj- 
ects, "he  never,"  says  Ir\'ing,  "spoke  in  doubt  or  hes- 
itation, but  with  as  much  certainty  as  if  his  eyes  had 
beheld  the  promised  land.  A  deep  religious  sentiment 
also  mingled  with  his  thoughts,  and  gave  tliem  at 
times  a  tinge  of  superstition,  hut  of  a  sublime  oiul  lofty 
kind.  Ho  looked  upon  himself  as  standing  in  the  hand 
of  Heaven,  chosen  from  among  men  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  high  purpose;  he  read,  as  he  supposed,  his 
contemplated  discovery  told  in  Holy  AVrit,  and  shad- 
owed forth  darkly  in  the  prophecies.  The  ends  of  the 
earth  were  to  be  brought  together,  and  all  nations,  and 
tongues,  and  languages,  united  under  the  banners  of  the 
Redeemer."  The  disturbed  state  of  Portugal  under  Al- 
phonso  re'tarded  the  progress  of  discoverj*.  The  com- 
pass, though  in  general  use,  had  not  gained  that  reli- 
ance which  induced  mariners  fearlessly  to  brave  the 
dangers  of  the  deep ;  and  the  project  of  a  voyage  through 
boundless  wastes  appeared  extravagant  and  impracti- 
cable. Nothing  daunted,  however,  by  these  dishcart- 
eningsymptomSiColumbuspursuedbisfavorite  schemes 
with  ardor,  and  longed  to  put  them  into  execution.  So 
perilous  an  adventure  was  not,  however,  to  be  attempt- 
ed without  the  patronage  of  some  sovereign  power;  and 
John  II.,  of  Portugal,  having  at  this  juncture  ascend- 
ed the  throne,  and  being  favorably  inclined  to  the 
cause  of  discovery,  Columbus  made  his  proposals,  which 
were  graciously  received  by  the  monarch,  ond  referred 
to  a  learned  junto.  The  result  of  their  conference 
therefore  was,  that  they  recommended  the  king  to  fit 
out  a  caravel  privately,  and  attempt  the  proposed  dis- 
covery by  the  designated  route,  which  they  ascertain- 
ed from  charts  and  details  craftily  obtained  from  Co- 
lumbus. John,  in  an  evil  hour,  had  the  weakness  to 
adopt  this  perfidious  counsel.  The  caravel  departed, 
but  the  pilots  had  neither  the  genius  nor  fortitude  of 
Columbus ;  their  courage  failed,  and  putting  back  to 
the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  they  returned  from  thence 
to  Lisbon,  execrating  the  project  as  extravagant  and 
irrational. 

Columbus  next  carried  his  proposition  to  Venice, 
where  he  was  equally  unsuccessful.  He  also  sent  his 
brother  Bartholomew  to  lay  his  plans  before  Henry  VII. 
of  England,  having  in  the  mean  time  sailed  himself 
for  Spain,  where  he  arrived  after  having  spent  all  his 
means.  Columbus,  in  this  state  of  alject  poverty,  set 
out  for  the  Castilian  court  at  Cordova  in  the  spring 
of  1486.  The  moment  was  unpropitious  for  such  a 
proposition,  the  Spanish  sovereign  being  at  the  time 
engaged  in  military  preparations  against  the  Moorish 
kings.  At  length,  throngh  the  intercession  of  Cardi- 
nal Gonzalez,  he  obtained  an  interview,  and  submitted 


'« 


\ 


COL 


878 


COL 


bii  pnject  to  Ferdinand.  AVom  ont  with  a  series  of 
disappointments  and  delays,  and  supporting  liininelf 
by  mailing  maps  and  charts,  Columbus,  despairing  of 
the  Spanish  patronage,  began  to  look  to  other  courts, 
in  hopes  of  meeting  more  encouragement.  lie  had  al- 
ready made  preparations  for  this  purpose,  and  taken 
measures  for  the  disposal  of  his  children  during  his  all- 
sence,  when  Juan  Perez  solicited  him  to  defer  his  jour, 
ney,  making  application  at  the  same  time  to  IsaboUa- 
the  result  of  which  was  a  gracious  invitation  of  Colum- 
bus back  to  court,  accompanied  with  tho  present  of  a 
small  sum  to  equip  him  for  the  journey.  The  mon- 
•rchs  were  now  pledged  to  attend  to  his  proposals,  and 
negotiations  were  set  on  foot  to  carry  them  into  exe- 
cution. He  proposed  that  a  small  fleet  should  be  fit- 
ted out  under  his  command  to  attempt  tho  discovery, 
and  stipulating  that  he  should  be  invested  with  the 
titles  and  privileges  of  admiral  and  viceroy  of  all  the 
seas  and  lands  he  should  discover,  with  one-tenth  of  all 
gains,  either  by  trade  or  commerce.  He  further  offer- 
ed to  furnish  an  eighth  of  the  cost,  on  condition  of  en- 
joying an  eighth  of  the  profits.  His  terms  were,  howev- 
er, deemed  inadmissible ;  the  negotiation  broke  olT,  and 
Columbus,  in  indignation,  mounting  his  mule,  was  al- 
ready on  the  road  to  Cordova,  with  the  intention  of  im- 
mediately proceeding  to  France,  when  he  was  over- 
taken by  a  messenger  from  the  queen,  who  had  been 
prevailed  upon  by  the  arguments  of  Quintanilla  and 
St.  Angel,  two  of  Columbus'  patrons,  to  favor  his  un- 
dertakings. The  negotiations  were  now  completed, 
and  the  capitulations  were  signed  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  at  Santa  Fe,  on  the  17th  of  April,  1493.  The 
articles  of  agreement  were  to  the  following  efTect: 
That  Columbus  should  be  constituted  high  admiral  in 
all  the  seas,  islands,  and  continents  be  should  discover, 
with  similar  honors  and  prerogatives  to  those  enjoyed 
by  the  high  admiral  of  Castile  in  his  district.  He  was 
also  nominated  viceroy  and  governor  general  over  all 
the  said  lands  and  continents ;  and  a  tenth  of  all  free 
profits  arising  from  tho  merchandise  and  productions 
of  the  countries  within  his  admiralty  was  granted  to 
him  forever.  Columbus,  or  bis  lieutenant,  was  to  be 
sole  judge  of  all  causes  and  disputes  arising  out  of  traf- 
fic between  those  countries  and  Spain.  Ho  was  fur- 
ther permitted  to  contribute  an  eighth  part  of  the  ex- 
pense of  expeditions  to  the  countries  he  expected  to 
^irii'uver,  and  was  entitled  in  return  to  an  eighth  part 
of  the  profits.  A  principal  object  of  Columbus  in  this 
undertaking  was  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  faith, 
to  which  he  was  a  zealous  devotee.  Expecting  to  ar- 
rive at  the  extremity  of  Asia,  ho  hoped  to  spread  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  among  the  barbarian  nations  of  the 
East ;  and  so  confid<.nt  were  his  anticipations  that  let- 
ters were  actually  given  him  by  the  sovereigns  for  the 
Grand  Khan  of  Tartary.  Although  tho  royal  docu- 
ments were  signed  both  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
her  separate  crown  of  Castile  defrayed  all  tho  expense ; 
and  the  queen  in  consequence  reserved  for  her  subjects 
of  that  kingdom  an  exclusive  right  to  all  tho  benefits 
which  might  accrue  from  the  success  of  the  expedition. 
The  arrangement  being  finally  completed,  Columbus 
set  sail  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  in  three  small  ves- 
sels, only  one  of  which  (commanded  by  himself)  was 
completely  decked,  The  two  others  were  commanded 
by  Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon  and  Vineente  Yaficz  Pinzon. 
The  expedition  hod  sailed  nearly  200  leagues  to  the 
westward,  when  Columbus  perceived  that  the  needle  of 
the  compass,  when  night  set  in,  had  varied ;  a  circum- 
stance which  filled  the  pilots  with  consternation.  For 
this  phenomenon  he  was  obliged  to  invent  a  ret  son, 
which,  though  it  did  not  satisfy  himself,  yet  served  to 
dispel  their  fears.  As  the  squadron  ailvanced,  various 
indications  of  land,  suoh  as  birds  flying  from  the  west, 
the  water  becoming  less  salt,  and  occasionally  covered 
with  weeds,  animated  and  supported  the  courage  of  the 
crew ;  but  at  length  murmurs  and  fears  began  to  pre- 
vail UDOog  them.    They  had  lailed  for  •Uvea  days, 

I:     ■ 


wafted  by  a  most  propitious  breeze,  over  a  tranquil 
sea,  without  lowering  or  shifting  a  sail.  The  rude  sea- 
men began  to  be  alarmed  that  no  otiier  winds  blew  but 
easterly,  and  that  it  would  therefore  be  impossible  for 
them  ever  to  return  home,  A  few  light  brce/es  from 
the  west  allayed  for  a  time  their  apprehcnsiuns,  and 
several  small  singing  birds  came  in  the  morning  and 
flew  away  at  night.  But  the  sailors  lost  all  patience, 
and  became  so  mutinous  and  refractory  that  it  required 
the  utmost  address  of  Columbus  to  maintain  his  au- 
thority. The  appearances  of  land,  though  frequent, 
were  in  many  instances  deceiving ;  and  at  last  tho  sea- 
men broke  forth  into  loud  clamors,  and  insisted  upon 
abandoning  tho  voyage.  Fortunately,  however,  on  tho 
following  day  tho  manifestations  of  land  were  such  as 
no  longer  to  admit  of  doubt.  In  tho  evening  Colum- 
bus perceived  a  light  glimmering  at  a  distance,  and 
the  noxt  morning  land  was  clearly  seen  about  two 
leagues  distant.  The  sailors  now  burst  forth  into  the 
most  extravagant  transports.  They  threw  themselves 
at  tho  feet  of  Columbus,  implored  his  pardon,  and  pro- 
nounced him  to  be  a  person  inspired  by  Heaven  with 
more  than  human  sagacity  and  fortitude,  to  accomplish 
ti  design  so  far  beyond  the  ideas  and  conceptions  of  all 
former  ages.  At  daybreak,  says  his  biographer  Spo- 
torno,  on  the  12th  of  October,  the  hero  landed,  "e  di 
ffrand'orma  il  nuovo  muniio  imjmma"  (and  with  his  great 
footstep  impressed  tho  New  World).  Columbus  and 
his  followers  threw  themselves  on  their  knees ;  and  ris- 
ing, the  admiral  drew  his  sword,  planted  the  cross, 
hoisted  the  royal  standard,  and  in  the  presence  of  the 
astonished  natives,  who  imagined  that  the  Spaniards 
had  dropped  from  heaven,  took  possession  of  theso  new 
countries  in  tho  names  of  the  Castilian  sovereigns,  giv- 
ing the  island  the  name  of  San  Salvador.  Having 
visited  several  of  the  West  India  islands,  and  settled  a 
colony  in  Uispaniola,  he  again  set  sail  for  Spain.  On 
the  voyage  he  fell  in  with  the  Pinta,  which  had  sepa- 
rated from  him  for  a  long  time  through  the  wickedness 
of  the  captain,  who  had  gone  in  seurch  of  gold.  After 
encountering  several  violent  tempests,  Columbus  ar- 
rived in  the  Tagus,  near  Lisbon,  on  the  4th  of  March, 
1493.  He  was  treated  with  the  most  honorable  atten- 
tions by  the  court  of  Portugal,  and  finally  reached  the 
port  of  Palos  on  the  15th  of  March. 

The  triumphant  return  of  Columbus  excited  the  most 
unbounded  transport.  Wherever  ho  went  tho  air  rang 
with  acclamations,  and  he  received  such  honors  as  are 
paid  to  sovereigns.  The  court  was  then  at  Uarcelona, 
and  Columbus  took  care  immediately  to  acquaint  the 
king  and  queen  of  his  arrival.  They  were  no  less  de- 
lighted than  astonished  with  this  unexpected  event. 
The  admiral  was  conducted  into  the  city  with  all  im- 
aginable pomp.  Tho  sovereigns  received  him  seated 
in  state  under  a  rich  canopy  of  brocade  of  gold,  sur- 
rounded by  their  principal  nobility.  When  ho  ap- 
proached they  stood  up,  and,  raising  him  as  he  kneel- 
ed to  kiss  their  hands,  ordered  him  to  bo  seated  in  thc>r 
presence,  and  give  a  circumstantial  account  of  his  voy- 
age. When  ho  had  finished  his  oration,  which  he  de- 
livered with  much  modesty  and  simplicity,  the  king 
and  queen,  kneeling  down,  oftered  up  solemn  thanks  to 
God  for  tho  discovery.  Every  possible  mark  of  honor 
that  could  bo  suggested  by  gratitude  or  admiration  was 
conferred  on  Columbus;  the  former  capitulation  was 
confirmed,  his  family  wis  ennobled,  and  a  fleet  ordered 
to  be  equipped  to  enable  tho  navigator  to  go  in  quest 
of  those  more  opulent  countries  which  he  still  confi- 
dently expected  to  (iiid. 

The  successful  attainment  of  tho  splendid  discovery 
of  Columbus,  great  and  manifold  as  were  its  advant- 
ages to  mankind,  was  the  prelude  to  tho  dark  and 
troubled  epoch  of  li'";  life.  By  his  second  voyage  to 
tho  Western  World  ho  no  doubt  in  part  realized  his  ex- 
pectations, extended  his  discoveries,  and  came  back  to 
Spain  with  substantial  proofs  of  success;  but  tho  os- 
tensible purpose  of  hia  return  waa  to  obtain  Nparation 


COL 


878 


COM 


lid  diBcovcry 
1  its  advnnt- 
lo  dark  and 
Id  voyage  to 
llUedhisex- 
lamo  back  to 
I  but  tUo  08- 
In  reparation 


of  Ii^urlons  Imputations  which  had  been  heaped  upon 
him,  and  generally  to  have  lils  privileges  confirmed 
and  enlarged  so  as  to  enable  him  to  exercise  his  au- 
thority over  the  colonists,  who  had  become  refractory 
and  unmanageable.  Hut  his  third  voyage  only  accel- 
erated his  disastrous  fate.  The  newly-discovered  pos- 
sessions were  distracted  with  the  horrors  of  rebellion. 
The  verdant  and  blooming  isles,  the  expected  abodes 
of  peace  an(>  happiness,  wete  converted  into  theatres 
of  sanguinary  conflicts  and  misery ;  and  Columbus 
found  liimself  an  object  of  fear  and  execration.  It  was 
during  this  voyage  that  he  landed  on  the  coast  of  Fa- 
ria,  in  South  America.  Meanwhile  his  enemies  in  the 
Old  World  were  not  idle.  An  investigation  into  his 
conduct  was  instituted  under  the  control  of  Francisco 
Bovadilla,  wlio  was  empowered,  should  he  find  the 
charges  of  maladministration  proved,  to  supersede  Co- 
lumbus, and  assumo  the  government  of  Hispaniola. 
The  result  was,  that  ho  and  his  brothers  Diego  and 
Bartolomeo,  after  having  been  treated  with  the  great- 
est indignities,  were  sent  to  Spain  in  chains.  From 
these  disgraceful  bonds  ho  was  immediately  on  his  ar- 
rival released  by  the  Spanish  monarchs ;  but  his  com- 
plaints were  tardily  acknowledged ;  he  again  sank  into 
obscurity,  and  was  reduced  to  such  straitened  circum- 
stances that,  according  to  his  own  account,  "  ho  had  no 
place  to  repair  to  except  an  inn,  and  very  frequently 
had  not  wherc«ithal  to  pay  his  reckoning." 

At  length  he  Svas  again  employed  upon  a  fourth  voy- 
age, with  restricted  powers ;  but  the  result  was  unpro- 
pitious,  and  he  returned  to  Spain  dejected  in  mind  and 
worn  out  with  bodily  4bfirniities.  Death  at  last  re- 
lieved hlni  from  his  earthly  afflictions.  Ho  expired  on 
the  21  th  of  May,  1606,  commending,  with  his  latest 
broatli,  his  spirit  to  God.  \  niarlde  tomb  was  reared 
ever  his  dust,  bearing  the  inscripdon, 
A  Costilla  y  a  Leon, 
NuBTO  moiido  dio  Colon. 

Columbus  was  a  man  of  great  and  original  genius, 
energetic  in  his  conduct,  and  possessed  of  lofty,  daring, 
but  noble  nmtntion.  •  "  The  magnanimity  of  his  na- 
ture," says  Irving,  "shone forth  through  all  the  troub- 
les of  his  stoniu-  career.  Though  continually  out- 
raged in  his  digi!  v,  braved  in  his  authority,  foiled  in 
his  plans,  and  en  ngered  in  his  person,  by  the  sedi- 
tions of  turbulent  il  worthless  men,  and  that  too  at 
times  when  sufferiu  'inder  anguish  of  body  and  anxi- 
ety of  mind  enough  !■  \nsperato  the  most  patient,  yet 
he  restrained  his  vnli  it  and  indignant  spirit,  and 
brought  himself  to  forlienr,  and  reason,  and  even  to 
supplicate."  His  piety,  tIioii<,'h  tinctured  with  super- 
stition, was  genuine  and  forvi'iit.  If  on  certain  occa- 
sions his  religion  displayed  Itself  in  harshness' and  se- 
verity, tho  spirit  of  the  ego  ho  lived  in  must  be  advert- 
ed to  in  palliotion  of  his  conduct.  His  temperament 
was  deeply  imbued  with  poetic  enthusiasm.  "  It 
spread,"  remarks  Irving,  "n  golden  and  glorious  world 
around  Inm,  and  tinged  every  thing  with  its  own  gor- 
geous colors.  It  betrayed  him  into  visionory  specula- 
tions, which  subjected  him  to  tho  sneers  and  cavils  of 
men  of  cooler  and  safer,  but  more  groveling  minds.  It 
filled  his  mind  with  solemn  and  visionary  meditations 
on  mystic  passages  of  tho  Scriptures,  and  on  the  shad- 
owy portents  of  the  prophecies."  "  His  soul,"  observes 
a  Spanish  writer,  "  was  superior  to  the  ago  in  which  ho 
lived.  For  him  was  reserved  tho  great  enterprise  of 
traversing  a  sea  which  had  given  rise  to  so  many  fa- 
bles, ond  of  deciphering  the  mystery  of  hia  age." 
"  With  all  tho  visionary  fervor  of  his  imagination," 
odds  Washington  Irving,  "Its  fondest  dreams  fell  short 
of  tho  reality.  IIo  died  in  Ignorance  of  the  real  grand- 
eur of  his  dlscoverj'.  Until  his  last  breath  ho  enter- 
tained the  idea  that  ho  had  merely  opened  a  new  way 
to  the  old  resorts  of  opulent  commerce,  and  had  discov- 
ered some  of  the  wild  regions  of  the  East.  Ho  sup- 
posed Ilispaniola  to  be  the  ancient  Ophir  which  had 
been  visited  by  the  ships  of  King  Solomon,  and  that 


Cubo  and  Terra  FIrma  were  hut  remote  ports  of  Ai<in 
What  visions  of  glory  would  have  broken  upon  his 
mind  could  he  have  known  that  he  had  indeed  discov- 
ered a  new  continent,  equal  to  the  Old  World  in  mag- 
nitude, and  separated  by  two  vast  oceans  from  all  tho 
earUi  jitherto  known  by  civilized  man  !  and  how  would 
his  magnanimous  spirit  have  been  consoled,  amid  the 
afflictions  of  age  and  the  cares  of  penury,  the  neglect  of 
a  fickle  public  and  the  injustice  of  an  ungrateful  king, 
could  he  have  anticipated  the  splendid  empires  which 
would  arise  in  the  beautiful  world  he  had  discovered, 
and  the  nations,'  and  tongues,  and  languages  which 
were  to  fill  its  lands  with  his  renown,  and  to  revere  and 
bless  his  name  to  tho  latest  posterity !"  It  will  bo  re- 
marked that  Mr.  Ir\'ing,  in  accordance  with  the  gen- 
erally entertained  belief  of  all  his  biographers,  alludes 
to  Columbus  as  being  the  first  discoverer  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  which  is  emphatically  so,  as  far  as  the 
commercial  world  is  concerned.  It  is,  however,  cer- 
tain that  the  continent  was  visited  by  the  Icelanders  in 
tho  end  of  tho  tenth  and  the  beginning  of  tho  eleventh 
centuries ;  and  Sebastian  Cabot  discovered  Newfound- 
land and  Labrador  in  June,  1497,  nearly  a  year  pre- 
vious to  the  visit  of  Columbus  on  the  coast  of  Paria. 
It  also  seems  more  than  probable  that  Columbus  was 
aware  of  Cabot's  discovery. 

Several  controversies  have  arisen  bearing  upon  the 
claims  of  Columbus  to  tho  discovery  of  the  Western 
World ;  but  such  disputes,  in  so  far  as  they  afi'ect  the 
discovery  of  the  Columbian  Archipelago,  are  proved  to 
be  idle  and  futile,  as  no  doubt  now  remains  of  Colum- 
bus having  been  the  first  navigator  of  the  Old  World 
who  reoched  the  island  of  San  Salvador,  and  tho  first 
who  visited  the  shores  of  the  South  Americon  conti- 
nent. One  of  tho  most  current  slanders  on  our  navi- 
gator's fair  fame,  as  related  by  Incn  Garcilaso,  was 
that  Alonzo  Sanchez,  sailing  to  tho  Canaries  in  1484, 
reached  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  and  communicated 
his  voyage  and  route  to  Columbus.  Some  other  Span- 
ish writers  notice  the  event  without  giving  the  name 
of  the  aullKir  of  the  discovery.  Oviedo  considers  these 
relations  as  mere  vulgar  fables.  We  are,  however,  told 
by  Columbus  himself  that  lie  took  advantage  of  such 
accounts  as  were  transmitted  to  him  by  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  mariners,  some  of  whom  had  sailed  west- 
ward so  far  ns  to  perceive  what  they  considered  to  be 
indications  of  land.  Gallo  and  Giustiniani,  authors 
contemporaneous  with  Columbus,  assert  that  Barthol- 
omew Columbus  first  conceived  tho  idea  of  western  dis- 
covery, and  communicated  it  to  his  brother;  but  Co- 
lumbus has  been  triumphantly  vindicated  from  these 
ungenerous  aspersions  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of 
the  Spanish  writers,  among  whom  Las  Casns,  who  knew 
both  brothers,  and  preserved  many  papers  belonging  to 
Coliimbus,  merits  especial  credence.  But  if  any  doubts 
remained,  they  are  completely  removed  by  tho  written 
declaration  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  who,  in  a  com- 
munication dated  tho  4th  of  August,  1494,  write  thus 
to  tne  admiral:  "One  of  tho  principal  reasons  for  which 
your  discovery  (the  first)  has  caused  so  much  joy  to  us 
is,  that  it  is  to  bo  ascribed  to  your  genius  (por  ser  in- 
ventada),  and  that  it  has  Icen  commenced  and  termi- 
nated by  your  own  individunl  endeavors,  by  your  cour- 
age, your  perseverance,  and  industry." — E.  B. 

The  discoveries  of  Columbus  were  followed,  in  1497, 
by  those  of  Cabot  on  the  northeast  coast  uf  Ameil- 
ca;  in  1500  by  Cabrul,  a  Portuguese,  who  visited  the 
coast  of  Brazil  and  tho  mouth  of  the  Amazon ;  in  1508 
by  Pinzon,  who  is  said  to  have  entered  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata.  In  1511  Diego  Columbus  conquered  the  island 
of  Cuba.  In  1518  Balboa  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  X^ 
ricn.  In  1619  Cort6z  landed  in  Mexico.  In  mH 
Peru  was  invaded  and  conquered  by  Pizarro. 

Colza,  Oil  of.  The  oil  expressed  from  the  seed  of 
llie  lirasska  aleracea,  a  species  of  cabbage.  Colza  oil 
Is  much  upcd  in  France  and  Belgium  for  burning  in 
lamps  and  other  purposes. 


\ 


COM 


874 


COM 


Ooaunnos.  Commerce,  in  its  most  general  Mine, 
implies  tiia  excliange  of  articles  of  any  lijiid  for  money 
or  otiior  articles.  Xlio  earliest  form  of  such  nxctianges 
is  by  barter,  liocaase  tlie  use  of  gold  and  silver  is  not 
adopted  until  society  has  made  a  certain  progress. 
"  The  armor  of  Uiomed,"  says  Homer,  "  was  plain,  and 
paid  for  by  nine  oxen ;  while  the  splendid  armor  of 
Glaucus  cost  a  hundred."  Barter  being  now  disused 
in  all  improved  countries,  commerce  is  almost  always 
■nderstood  to  denote  the  exchange  of  commodities  for 
money.  In  Franco  and  the  south  of  Europe  the  words 
used  to  designate  commerce  are  derived  fiom  ihe  Lat- 
in; in  Holland,  Germany,  and  other  northern  coun- 
tries, a  vernamilar  word  is  more  frequent ;  but  all  are 
alike  in  meaning,  being  applied  equally  to  home  and 
foreign  trade. 
,.  We  propose  in  the  present  essay  to  treat  of, 

I.  The  principles  of  commerce,  and  the  evils  of  in- 
terfering with  the  free  course  of  trade ;  II.  The  history 
of  Commerce,  particularly  in  Great  Britain,  Holland, 
and  America  ;  III.  Prominent  commercial  changes  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

I.  Principles  or  Co.mmercr. — By  "  principles  of 
commerce,"  we  understand  conclusions  of  two  I(ind3 ; 
those  deduced  from  the  practice  of  merchants,  and  ap- 
plicable to  the  management  of  trade  by  individuals ; 
and  those  of  a  more  comprehensive  character,  which, 
resulting  from  the  course  of  productive  industry  gen- 
erally, are  entitled  to  the  attention  of  a  minister,  or  of- 
ficer, of  the  Department  engaged  in  the  task  of  devising 
regulations  for  trade.  Most  of  those  conclusions  seem 
so  plain  as  to  admit  of  littlu  question  ;  but  it  is  a  fact 
that  several  of  thorn  have  l>een  the  result  of  long,  and, 
in  some  cases,  of  dearly  bought  experience.  As  a  spec- 
imen we  give  the  following : 

1.  Mercantile  Axiomi ;  example  of  them. — Short  cred- 
its and  quick  returns,  however  small  the  commission 
or  proflt,  are  eventually  bettor  than  long  credits  and 
a  large  commission  or  charge. 

2.  The  greatest  mercantile  profit  arises  from  inter- 
course with  populous  and  long-settled  countries,  such 
as  Holland,  because  the  inhabitants  are  in  general  pos- 
sessed of  capital,  and  punctual  in  their  payments. 

8.  Itecently-scttle<t  countries,  like  the  United  States 
of  America,  the  West  Indies,  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
America,  are  always  bare  of  capital.  There  is  a  per- 
petual tendency  in  them  to  draw  it  from  Europe ;  and 
mercantile  transactions  with  these  countries,  profitable 
in  the  outset,  often  become  otherwise,  from  delays  of 
payment,  and  ultimate  insolvency. 

4.  Trade  should  bo  left  as  much  as  possible  to  its 
natural  course,  interference  being  almost  always  hurt- 
ful. Governments  ought  merely  to  remove  obstacles 
and  grant  facilities.  Privileges  and  monopolies  were 
formerly  very  general ;  but  these,  if  necessary  in  an 
early  age,  when  individual  capital  was  too  scanty  for 
distaiit  undertakings,  should  be  withdrawn  as  soon  as 
such  capital  becomes  sufiicicnt. 

6.  Division  and  subdivision  of  employment  can  be 
carried  to  only  a  limited  extent  in  agriculture.  In 
mauufactnres  they  may  bo  carried  very  far,  and  are 
productive  of  the  greatest  advantage.  They  atlbrd 
employment  to  persons  of  every  age,  and  they  conduce 
greatly  to  the  finished  execution  of  work.  Hence  the 
Bnperiority  of  towns,  in  particular  of  the  larger  towns. 

Rules  or  observations  like  these  are  very  seldom  met 
with,  either  in  printed  works  or  in  personal  intercourse ; 
and  the  reason  is,  that  while  few  departments  of  indus- 
try have  been  followed  in  practice  to  so  great  an  ox- 
tent  as  commerce,  hardly  any  other  has  been  less  an 
•bject  of  study  in  regard  to  its  principles.  There 
are  hardly  rny  books  or  written  compositions  for  the 
purpose  01  uistmeting  the  merchant  in  the  practical 
managemeni.  of  bis  business,  and  not  many  contain- 
ing statistical  or  other  Informatio;!  connected  with 
trad*.  To  no  profession  ore  written  precepts  consid- 
ered to  be  so  little  applicable ;  in  none  is  proficiency 


thought  to  depend  lo  exclusively  on  proct'ce.  Hence 
an  unacquaintance  with  priniiplos  or  general  rules, 
and  the  comniiisiaa  of  grievuim  errors,  as  well  by 
merchants  in  the  pursuit  uf  buslncnx,  as  by  the  gov- 
enimont  in  the  enactment  of  coninicroial  regulations. 
Of  the  former  we  may  take  as  examples  the  reptated 
glutting  of  foreign  markets  with  goods,  and  the  inju- 
dicious extension  of  sugar  cultivation  iu  the  West  In- 
dies; of  the  latter,  the  fetters  inipoMud  npun  Ihe  bank- 
ing system,  without  stability  being  given  to  the  sys- 
tem by  the  control  and  interest  which  should  bo  taken 
by  the  general  government. 

The  belief  thut  it  is  for  the  advantage  of  a  nation  to 
manufacture  almost  every  article  it  consumqs  bp.o  been 
the  cause  of  the  must  serious  inconvenience  and  loss. 
It  is  thus  that  in  France  the  making  of  sugar  from  beet- 
root, and  the  more  serious  error  of  erecting  blast  fur- 
naces for  making  iron  iu  districts  unprovided  with  coal 
fuel,  have  placed  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  a  situa- 
tion whence  it  can  not  be  withdrawn  without  heavy 
loss.  In  like  manner,  the  privileges  so  long  conferred 
by  act  of  parliament  on  the  silk  manufacture  in  En- 
gland, frequently  tended  to  produce  cm  barrassnient,  be- 
cause they  intcribrcd  with  the  natural  course  of  trade. 
No  branch  of  industry  can  be  of  pennancnt  advantage 
to  a  nation,  unless  it  can  support  itself  without  indi- 
rect or  artificial  aid.  Were  merchants  and  umimfac- 
turers  left  to  themselves,  the  natural  course  of  things 
would  point  out  the  branches  of  productive  industry 
likely  to  succeed  or  not  in  a  particular  country ;  and 
capital  would  not  then  be  advanced  on  an  insecure 
foundation.  Plain  as  this  apf^ars,  it  is  quite  at  vari- 
ance with  the  creed  of  our  ancestors ;  a  creed  which, 
under  the  name  of  "  mercantile  sybtcm,"  long  retained 
an  influence  over  our  traders,  and,  iu  sonic  degree,  over 
members  of  the  Legislature. 

The  Mercantile  System  explaitud. — The  basis  of  that 
system  was,  that "  wealth  consisted  in  the  precious  met- 
als ;  that  what  is  gained  ii>  trade  by  one  nation  must 
be  lost  by  another ;  and  that  our  great  otiject  in  receiv- 
ing returns  for  our  exports  should  be  to  get  money  in- 
stead of  merchandise."  It  followed  from  such  notions, 
that  of  all  possessions,  a  mining  country,  such  as  Mex- 
ico and  Peru,  was  the  most  desirable ;  and  hence  in  a 
great  measure  the  rupture  of  England  with  Spain  in 
1740,  which  led  to  the  unfortunate  British  expedition 
to  Carthagena,  involved  her  in  a  contest  with  France, 
and  caused  her  in  the  course  of  eight ,  'ears  an  immense 
waste  of  blood  and  treasure.  The  return  to  a  state  of 
peace  in  1748  obliged  her  to  desist  from  attempts  on 
Spanish  America,  but  the  influence  of  the  mercantile 
system  continued,  and  was  singularly  favored  by  the 
annual  custom-house  returns.  These  retur.ig  exhibit 
an  apparent  excess  of  exports  abovu  imporcs,  and  give 
rise  to  the  notion  that  the  balance  is  sent  to  :his  country 
in  the  shape  of  money.  Supposing  tho  exports  of  En- 
gland to  the  Continent  of  En-ope  to  amount  for  any  giv- 
en year  to  ^£20,000,000,  and  the  imports  to  .£14,000,000 ; 
the  difierence,  or  £6,000,000,  is,  according  to  this  absurd 
notion,  the  amount  of  proflt  paid  in  money.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  custom-house  returns  take  no  notice 
of  some  very  important  items,  such  as  the  export  of 
public  money  for  foreign  garrisons,  the  transmission  of 
bills  of  exchange  to  foreign  merchants,  or  the  import 
of  smuggled  goods.  Besides,  if  the  quantum  of  circu- 
lating medium  remain,  as  it  probably  does,  very  near- 
ly on  a  par,  what  becomes  of  the  supposed  importation 
of  money  ?  Were  England  in  posnession  of  all  the  an- 
nual balances  which  the  advocates  for  this  system  sup- 
pose her  lo  have  received  in  money  during  the  last  cen- 
tury, her  metallic  stock  would  not  be  below  X400,000,000 
sterling ;  that  is,  ten  times  its  actual  a.iiount ! 

Wealth  supposed  lo  cotuitt  in  Gold  and  Silver. — ^M'licn 
a  merchant  exports  goods,  tho  sale,  of  course,  takes 
place  abroad,  and  a  remittance  is  made,  either  by  bill 
or  by  the  return  of  other  nicrchandiso.  It  liurdly  ever 
enters  into  the  contemplation  of  the  exporter  that  he 


COM 


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COM 


would  find  an  advantoge  by  obuiolng  a  return  in  coin 
or  liullion.  Money  owct  the  reputation  it  has  ucquiied, 
as  an  object  of  national  intercbanVi  to  itH  convenience 
iu  other  respecta;  to  its  being  The  commodity  with 
which  we  regularly  go  to  market,  and  to  its  titness  for 
the  smallest  purchases,  by  the  minuteness  of  its  sub- 
divisions. But  this  recommendation,  however  import- 
ant in  private  buniness,  should  have  no  weight  in  the 
intorcourco  of  nations;  niercbanls  can  be  at  no  loss  to 
dispose  of  a  remittance  made  iu  the  shape  of  goods,  nor 
is  it  any  object  with  them  to  multiply  the  means  of 
petty  purchases, 

Vapitul  fifjined. — The  interest  of  a  ccmmereial  conn- 
try  is  not  to  increase  the  amount  of  its  currency,  but 
to  quicken  its  circulation ;  the  sume  sura  performing 
double  and  triple  duty  when  passed  expeditiously  from 
hand  to  band,  Now  nothing  promotes  circulation  so 
much  as  exemption  from  arbitrary  interferences,  were 
the  etfect  nothing  more  than  the  general  preservation 
of  credit.  In  Franco,  the  monstrous  abuse  made  of  the 
paper  system  in  the  beginning  of  the  Uevolutlon  has 
long  prevented  the  use  of  any  other  circulating  medium 
than  coin ;  the  result  is  an  annual  loss  of  three  millions 
sterling  to  the  public,  such  being  the  difference  between 
tlie  cost  of  paper  and  the  precious  metals,  even  after 
making  an  allowance  for  the  retention  of  a  portion  of 
the  latter  suflicient  for  the  purpose  of  banking.  Some 
people,  however,  imagine  tliat  to  increase  the  amount 
of  tiio  circulating  medium  is  to  increase  the  capital  of 
a  country.  These  persons  should  recollect  that  capital 
is  l)y  no  means  limited  to  money,  but  embraces  all  that 
n\nss  of  property  which  is  devoted  to  reproductive  con- 
sumption. Wlien  wo  wish  to  lend  capital,  or  to  cni' 
ploy  it  in  business,  wo  begin  by  selling  the  various  ar- 
ticles at  our  disposal :  the  amount  is  then  in  our  hand 
iu  the  shape  of  money ;  but  this  is  very  transient ;  the 
money  disappears  as  soon  as  wo  make  payment  for  the 
new  purchases.  The  public  not  having  time  to  enter 
iiito  all  this  reasoning,  judge  from  first  impressions,  and 
take  for  granted  that  money  is  capital,  because  its 
agency  is  required  to  put  capital  in  motion.  Govern- 
ments, however,  might  have  saved  thcniselves  much 
trouble  in  providing  supplies  of  metallic  currency,  since 
tlie  natural  course  of  business  will  invariably  provide 
them  for  itself.  The  plenty  or  scarcity  of  the  precious 
metals  iopcnds  on  considerations  altogether  different 
from  the  imagined  balance  of  trade.  Specie  was  so  scarce 
in  England  in  ISO'J  that  the  government  was  not  a  little 
embarrassed  to  find  £200,000  for  the  Walcheren  expedi- 
tion ;  yet  in  that  year  her  custom-house  returns  present- 
ed an  apparent  balance  of  above  ;£7,000,0<X)  in  her  favor. 

Losses  to  England  from  the  Mercantile  System. — No 
country  has  sufforcd  so  much  from  the  errors  of  the 
mercantile  system  as  England ;  partly  on  account  of 
the  influence  of  traders  and  manufacturers  in  her  legis- 
lature; partly  from  the  temporizing  policy  of  the  min- 
isters, who  have  seldom  scrupled  to  buy  the  consent  of 
any  great  body  of  the  community  to  a  new  tax,  by  the 
grant  of  some  injurious  preference.  Hence  a  variety 
of  pernicious  regulations  iu  favor  of  the  landed,  the 
shipping,  and  the  manufacturing  interests ;  hence,  also, 
a  number  of  unfortunate  measures  in  the  foreign  policy. 

The  nth  and  18<A  Centunes.—Ova  English  ancestors 
laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental  rule,  that  there  could  be 
no  profit  on  the  one  hand,  without  a  corresponding  loss 
on  f  he  other.  They  considered  trade  as  a  game  of  mere 
transfer,  and  had  no  idea  how  a  country'  could  derive 
wealth  by  an  interconme  between  its  own  inhabitants, 
diaries  II.  entered  on  the  war  of  1672  with  high  hopes, 
imogining  that,  by  destroying  the  commerce  of  Hoi- 
lanil,  England  would  not  only  increase  her  own,  but  in 
a  manner  absorb  that  of  the  world.  Political  reasons 
led  England  afterward  into  close  alliance  with  Holland, 
and  prevented  the  ebullitions  of  jealousy  in  that  direc- 
tion ;  but  the  alarming  power  of  Louis  XIV.  and'  the 
prospect  of  his  acquiring  the  crown  of  Spain,  led  her  to 
a  closer  connection  with  Portugal,  and  particnlarly  to 


the  well-known  Hethven  treaty,  concluded  in  1703,  the 
ol;Ject  of  which  was  to  favor  the  consumption  of  port 
wine,  in  return  for  a  similar  preference  to  her  inanufao- 
tures.  The  result  has  been,  that  she  hau  not  scrupled, 
for  more  than  a  century,  to  import  injurious  commodl> 
ties  for  the  sake  of  an  imaginrry  prlitical  advantage ; 
we  say  imaginary,  because  France  could  evidently  have 
agreed  to  take  English  manufactures  in  return  for  her 
produce ;  and  if  the  increase  of  French  trade  had,  on 
one  hand,  the  efibct  of  augmenting,  to  a  certain  extent, 
her  national  power,  it  would,  on  the  other,  have  in- 
creased her  dependence  on  England,  and  have  render- 
ed a  war  extremely  impolitic  and  unpopular. 

English  attachment  to  Portugal  arose,  in  a  great 
measure,  ttom  her  not  being  a  manufacturing  country, 
and  likely,  in  the  opinion  of  the  calculators  of  the  day, 
to  be  so  much  the  more  advantageous  in  tlie  capacity 
of  a  customer.  This  notion  has  prevailed  to  a  very  re- 
cent period;  the  administration  of  1808  and  1809  not 
.'Crupling  to  give  encouragement  to  the  export  of  mer- 
chandise, on  a  large  scale,  to  the  unproductive  occu- 
pants of  Srazil  and  Spanish  America.  Now,  the  fact 
is,  that  the  means  of  extending  trade,  and  consequent- 
ly profits,  with  a  foreign  country,  are  to  be  estimated 
by  a  quite  opposite  rule ;  they  depend  on  the  produc- 
tive power  of  that  country,  on  its  means  of  aflbrding 
equivalents  for  our  .commodities;  in  other  words,  on  its 
capability  of  paying  for  that  which  it  suits  us  to  sell  to 
it.  Now,  what  country  was  ever  wealthy  without  in- 
dustry? The  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  the  richest 
the  world  ever  saw,  fall,  in  point  of  annual  produce, 
far  short  of  the  annual  value  of  the  cotton,  the  tobacco, 
the  flour,  and  other  less  tempting  products  of  the  United 
States,  In  like  manner,  the  cochineal,  the  cocoa,  the 
barilla,  and  even  the  indigo  of  Spanish  America,  form 
a  small  amount  when  put  in  competition  with  the  ex- 
changeablo  commodities  possesiicd  by  the  industrious 
nations,  such  as  France,  the  Netlierlands,  or  the  north 
of  Gennanj". 

Mercantile  Policy  of  other  Countries. — If  ft-om  En- 
gland's favorite  policy  wo  turn  our  attention  to  that 
of  Continental  states,  wo  And  Holland  steering  a  course 
of  impartiality,  and  guarded  from  an  imitation  of  these 
trespasses,  n  'ndeed  by  superior  knowledge,  but  by 
thecharacti  moderation  of  her  government.    The 

northern  king.  s  deserve  comparatively  little  atten- 
tion, their  rulers  liuving  in  general  given  their  thoughts 
much  more  to  war  than  to  discussions  of  internal  pol- 
icy. The  same  thing  was  long  true  of  a  countr}'  where 
the  commercial  interest  has  at  no  time  been  very  con- 
siderable ;  the  personal  will  of  the  sovereign,  and  the 
influence  of  the  noblesse,  having  afforded  the  grand  rat- 
sons  determif  antes  tor  public  measures.  Still  the  histoty 
of  France  is  notwithout  traces  of  the  efliects  of  mercan- 
tile prejudices.  Among  other  regulations  of  the  kind, 
there  formerly  existed  several  for  the  purpose  of  favor- 
ing line!  manufactures  instead  of  cotton,  because  flax 
was  a  home  product,  while  the  purchase  of  cotton  car- 
ried money  out  of  the  country. 

Frjnce. — At  last  it  was  found  out  by  some  Frenchmen 
of  greater  sagacity  than  the  rest,  that  cotton  might  be 
safely  admitted  to  entry,  the  money  required  to  buy  it 
proceeding  necessarily  from  the  employment  of  French 
industry  in  some  shape  or  other.  But  the  extent  of 
popular  prejudice  was  most  singularly  exemplified  at 
the  time  when  it  was  proposed  to  permit  the  unrestrain- 
ed use  of  toiles peintes,  or  printed  calicoes;  every  town 
that  had  a  chamber  of  commerce  remonstrated  against 
it.  A  deputation  sent  from  Rouen  aflirmed,  that  "  the 
proposed  measure  would  throw  its  inhabitants  into  de- 
spair, and  make  a  desert  of  the  surrounding  country ;" 
Lyons,  the  centre  of  the  silk  manufacture,  declared  that 
"the  newsiiad  spread  terror  into  all  its  workshops;" 
Tours  "  forcRiw  a  commotion  likely  to  cause  a  convul- 
sion in  the 'body  politic;"  Amiens  asserted  "that  the 
proposed  act  would  Income  the  tomb  of  the  manufac- 
turing industry  of  France ;"  and  Paris  declared,  "  that 


.a^m 


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it«r  mcrchanta  camo  forward  that  they  might  bathn  the 
throiio  with  their  tears."  The  government,  however, 
ltoo<l  firm  ;  tho  duty  on  printed  calico  wai  withdrawn, 
and  tho  inspector-genoral  of  manufacture*  ventured 
wmo  time  afterward  to  challenge  tho  authors  of  thoae 
elegant  effusions  to  compare  tiieir  predictions  with  the 
result.  "  Will  any  of  you,"  ho  said,  "  deny  that  tho 
manufacture  of  printed  calico  has  been  tho  cause  of 
giving  a  vast  extension  to  tho  industry  of  tho  country, 
by  employing  a  number  of  hands  in  spinning,  weaving, 
bleaching,  and  printing  ?  I^ok  only  to  the  branch  of 
dyeing,  and  say  whether  this  change  has  not  done  more 
foritin  afew  years  than  other  manufactures  would  have 
accomplished  in  a  century." 

Commerce  of  Auttria. — In  somo  countries  govemBient 
go  much  farther,  and  still  act  in  a  commercial  or  man- 
ufacturing capacity,  notwitlistanding  all  the  adnmni- 
tions  of  political  economists,  or  tho  more  home-felt  les- 
ions of  experienco.  The  Austrian  government  con- 
ducts the  gold  and  silver  niin^s  of  Hungary  to  so  little 
accuunt,  that  the  prollt  realized  from  these  splendid  es- 
tablishments does  not  exceed  a  few  thousands  a  year. 
In  thu  year  1817  the  French  government,  desirous  of  lay- 
ing in  a  stocli  of  corn  for  Paris,  obtained  a  loan  of  mo.i- 
ey,  with  which  they  made  purchases  in  various  mar- 
kets lioth  in  and  out  of  the  liingdom.  Tho  result  was 
most  distressing ;  the  price  of  corn  rose  from  8U«.  to  120<. 
per  quarter.  The  people  in  tho  provincial  towns  be- 
came apprehensive  of  a  scarcity,  and,  though  in  general 
submissive  to  a  fault,  attempted  at  liouen  and  other 
places  to  impede  the  course  of  tho  market,  and  to  pro- 
scribe a  limit  to  the  price  of  com.  The  alarm,  once 
given,  extended  through  great  part  of  Europe,  and  gave 
occasion  to  a  sudden  rise,  as  may  be  seen  by  reference 
to  tlio  corn  prices  at  tho  time  in  London,  Amsteninm,< 
and  Hamburg.  Nothing  is,  therefore,  mote  impolitic 
than  the  interference  of  the  public  treasury  witli  mar- 
kets, however  good  the  motive ;  a  truth  which  has  l>ecn 
so  thoroughly  felt  in  England  as  to  prevent  any  thing 
of  the  kind  during  the  last  sixty  years,  government 
having  conflned  itself  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  as  1800, 
1810,  1816,  to  permitting  the  free  import  of  com. 

Modified  Stale  of  the  SfercantUe  Sgttem. — We  are  next 
to  advert  to  the  mercantile  system  in  its  most  limited 
sense,  in  the  shape  which  it  now  bears,  after  all  the 
moditications  of  the  experience  of  a  century  and  a  half. 
Tho  predilection  for  the  importation  of  "hard  dollars" 
has  disappeared  among  a  portion  of  the  public,  partic- 
nlarly  since  making  the  disoovery  that  bank  paper  can 
be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  gold  and  silver.  But 
even  these  persons  are  far  from  admitting  the  doctrines 
of  political  economists  in  all  their  extent ;  they  still  cling 
to  the  notion  that  we  should  discou.-age  t|)e  import  of 
a  foreign  article  whenever  a  corresponiiing  commodity 
can  he  raised  at  home ;  that  we  should  impede,  or  even 
prohibit, all  foreign  manufactures;  and  that  we  should 
not  scruple  to  encourogr  certain  fabrics  of  our  own  by 
bounties.  Buch  was  formerly  the  creed  of  the  m^ority 
of  the  merchants  and  manufacturers;  such  was,  forty 
years  ago,  the  creed  of  ministers  and  presidents  of 
boards  of  trade.  It  proceeds  on  the  plausible  idea, 
that  there  can  not  bo  provided  too  much  omploynient, 
lind  that  our  people  'would  bo  in  danger  of  falling  short 
of  work  were  ive  to  purchase  finished  articles  at  the 
lianda  of  foreigners.  But  there  is  not  in  the  natural 
course  of  things  any  such  deficiency  of  labor  as  to  make 
it  necessary,  or  '-ven  expedient,  for  us  to  turn  things 
out  of  their  r.-x;ular  order  for  the  sake  of  giving  em- 
ployment to  uur  popi-.latiou.  Providence  has  evident- 
ly ordained  thai  industry  should  bo  at  no  loss  for  ol>- 
Jects ;  the  interruptions  to  its  peaceful  course  arise  ft-om 
our  own  wayward  policy ;  from  our  restraints,  prohibi- 
tions, and,  above  all,  from,  our  sudden  changes  from  war 
to  peace,  and  from  peace  to  war.  » 

Equally  erroneous  is  the  notion  that  it  b  more  for 
oar  interest  to  send  abroad  manufactures  than  raw 
prodac«gr  money.   If  yougranta  bounty  on  an  export. 


you  do  nothing  mora  or  less  than  bribe  a  forelgnsr  to 
make  a  purchase  from  you ;  you  withdraw  from  Its  nat- 
ural destination  a  portion  of  your  capital  and  labor; 
for  the  sake  of  extending  one  branch  of  business,  you 
weaken  your  means  of  competition  in  others.  Mr. 
Hume  has  Justly  remarked,  that  in  a  question  of  per- 
sonal right,  tlie  percnpMon  of  a  half-educated  man  may 
be  sufiiciently  sound ;  but  that  the  case  is  difl'oront  in 
legard  to  matters  of  general  policy,  where  the  real  is 
often  different  from  the  apparent  result.  Now  this 
state  of  half  knowledge  has  been  the  origin  of  almost 
all  mercantile  miscalculations ;  wo  have  listened  to  flrst 
impressions,  and  hav>^  not  scrupled  to  give  them  a  prac- 
tical operation  by  acts  of  government,  without  ever 
considering  that  the  rcmolu  consequences  would  be  in- 
jurious to  ourselves. 

Tlie  true  Principle  of  Commerce. — Wo  may  safely  dis- 
charge from  our  minds  all  that  has  been  said,  and  all 
that  has  been  written,  in  regard  to  the  greater  relative 
advantage  attendant  in  trading  in  this  or  that  partic- 
ular commodity ;  we  may  feel  satisfied  that  prollts  are 
much  more  on  an  equality  than  is  commonly  supposed ; 
that  no  one  would  long  bo  a  dealer  in  that  which  did 
not  aft'ord  him  advantage,  or  remain  a  stranger  to  that 
which  was  throwing  an  extra  gain  into  tho  pockets  cf 
liis  neighbor.  The  same  rule  is  applicable  in  a  na- 
tional sense,  the  traffic  in  one  commodity  being  eithtr 
directly  or  indirectly  as  productive  of  profit  as  in  an- 
other. Even  foreign  articles  of  luxury  should  not  bo 
discouraged,  since  tho  money  required  to  pay  for  them 
must  be  previously  raised  by  the  employment  of  in- 
dustry in  somo  useful  manner.  This  affords  a  new 
proof  of  tho  fallacy  of  first  impressions,  and  leads  to  tlio 
grand  practical  conclusion  of  allowing  people  to  "  liuy 
commodities  wherever  they  can  bo  got  cheapest,  with- 
out seeking  to  favor  homo  produce  above  colonial,  or 
colonial  almve  foreign." 

Merchants  should  possess  unrestricted  freedom,  not 
only  in  regard  to  the  articles  they  deal  in,  but  in  re- 
spect to  the  time  o'  keeping  them  back  or  bringing 
them  to  market ;  and  this  not  only  from  the  general 
title  which  every  one  has  to  the  management  of  liis 
own  property,  but  from  a  conviction  that  whatever 
benefits  the  individual  will  be  productive  of  corre- 
sponding benefit  to  tho  public.  This  is  a  point  of  the 
last  importance,  as  reconciling  the  lower  orders  to  a 
variety  of  unpopular  employments  of  capital,  such  as 
buying  up  goods  to  be  warehoused,  and  not  brought 
to  market  till  prices  are  advanced.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  capitalist  who  buys  a  thousand  hogsheads  of  su^ar 
or  its  arrival  from  the  West  Indies  in  August,  for  the 
purpose  of  selling  it  in  the  succeeding  March  or  April. 
Such  a  transaction  is  of  use  to  all  parties,  affording,  in 
the  first  instance,  a  customer  for  the  planter  or  plant- 
tor's  correspondent ;  a  depository  for  the  public  during 
the  season  that  the  article  ought  in  great  part  to  bo 
stored  up ;  and  tinally  a  seller,  at  a  time  when,  with- 
out such  deposits  and  such  forthcoming  of  supply,  tho 
price  might  have  become  exorbitant,  and  might  havo 
continued  so  until  tho  arrival  of  the  next  year's  crop. 

The  more  we  study  the  natural  progress  of  com- 
merce, the  more  we  shall  be  satisfied  of  the  expediency 
of  leaving  all  its  various  agents  to  their  uncontrolled 
management.  Business  then  divides  itself,  partlcu- 
litrly  in  a  large  city,  into  a  variety  of  separate  branch- 
es, each  of  which  may  bo  carried  on  to  a  surprising 
extent  by  separate  establishments.  The  comniis.'I'.n 
cl)arged  by  such  persons  is  small,  their  dispatch  ex- 
traordinary; capit'l  doe:  not  remain  locked  up  in  their 
h/inds,  and  goods  find  their  way  to  tho  market  when- 
ever prices  are  encouraging,  that  is,  whenever  the  con- 
sumers are  in  want  of  them ;  they  are  withheld  only 
when  the  market  is  glutted,  and  when  to  force  sales 
would  be  productive  of  eventual  injury  to  the  buyers 
themselves.  The  doctrine  of  the  happy  medium  is  no- 
where more  applicable  than  in  commerce :  if  you  re- 
duce prices  for  one  season  bfllow  what  is  necessary  to 


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indemnliy  the  proUucaf,  yuu  rlliicnura|{«  proiluetinn  for  I  of  inantifnctiiroii,  without  sufllclcntly  weighing  tho  lo> 


tho  noxt,  Bnil  you  oxpoio  yourulf  lu  tlia  liaiaril  of  a 
dearth. 

Jfonnpo/ici,— Monopoly  la  now  ((antinWy  Aitinlttod 
to  ho  higlily  impolitir.  Ku  new  iirillit*  of  tlio  liltid 
have  l)con  iaaued  in  Ureat  llritalii  fur  many  ynara,  and 
every  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  ICaat  India  Com- 
pany has  been  inariced  liy  a  dlniiniitlon  of  lu  rnatrlot- 
ive  character,  till  In  18114  ila  monopoly  waa  ahuliahod, 
In  the  United  Statea  nionopollui  liavu  never  hwn  per- 
mitted, the  government  ImvInK  early  aneii  their  li\)ii- 
rious  ofTecta.  Tho  puldio  are  now  aware  that  a  privi- 
leged company  can  not  make  Ila  piindmw'a  alirnad  on 
hotter  teniia  than  inJivlduala,  and  that  llin  chief  ope- 
ration of  the  privilege  la  to  enhance  tliu  aiiln  prleoa,  or, 
in  other  worda,  to  put  money  Into  lliu  hanila  of  a  few 
at  tho  expenao  of  tho  nation,  They  am  further  nwaro 
that  tho  concuma  of  a  largo  luirporatloii  rnn  not  lie 
managed  with  tlie  ndnuto  economy  and  viKllanco  of 
the  private  merchant,  and  tliiit  Ila  gritiid  advantage 
Ilea  in  the  intelligonco  and  duxtiirily  n('c|ulred  liy  tho 
tranaaction  of  huainoaa  to  a  large  uxliint  liy  oiio  nalnl)- 
liahmcnt ;  an  ad^  antago  of  great  Imporlaiii'ii,  hut  which 
has  nothing  to  do  with  tlie  puaaeaaluii  of  oxoluslvo 
privilegBB. 

The  liiial  concluslona  to  bo  drawn  from  Ihn  princi- 
ples of  commerce  aro  of  '.ho  moat  ciinipridiiinalvo  niid 
Iwnellco-.it  nnturp.  They  teach  ua  that  flvurv  iiallon 
linds  its  account  la  the  proapertty  of  its  iieighlnira ; 
that  it  would  oxperienco  a  corroapnnding  niiirurlng 
tram  tlicir  decline;  that  to  aim  at  ongniaaing  tnnru 
trudo  than  tuilurally  falli  to  iiurthnre,  la  aooiicr  or  Inlor 
injurious  to  ourselves;  and  that  war.  ovmi  wliuii  suc- 
cessful, is  attended  witli  tiio  most  aarioua  Inaaea.  War 
turns  to  waato  a  large  portion  of  our  productive  mnaiiH  | 
it  leaves  us  oppressed  with  a  ruinous  burden  In  peace ; 
it  impedes  the  future  extension  of  our  oxporla,  for  the 
injury  done  to  our  neighbors  recoils  on  ouraelvea ;  In 
sliort,  it  is  so  replete  with  evil  to  tho  puldin  nnd  Indi- 
viduals, as  to  he  juatillublo  only  In  nil  oxtrninn  Mao, 
such  as  tho  defense  of  national  Indupenduncp,  or  the 
overthrow  of  a  tyrannical  usurper. 

Division  of  Etiiphi/ment ;  itt  miml/M  /\  dmnldffel,— 
Division  and  subdiviaion  of  omploy niniit  form  tho  grrnt 
distinction  between  u  backward  and  an  linprnvcd  stnto 
of  productive  industr}'.  It  inoruaaea  tho  nlllcliincy  of 
the  mcchaoio  or  manufacturer  to  an  extent  of  which 
no  ono  who  has  not  studied  tho  aultject  can  littva  nil 
adequate  conception.  Now,  tho  dogroo  to  which  em- 
plovmcnt  is  subdivided  depends  nioiilly  on  the  al»i  of 
a  city  or  town ;  and  In  eatinmting  the  atato  uf  clvlljisn- 
tion  in  a  particular  country,  wo  can  not  Iia>»  n  bettor 
guide  than  tho  proportion  of  tho  Inhaidtanta  uf  lowna 
to  those  of  tho  open  country,  Flanilura  and  llultnnd 
were  long  the  most  Improved  part  of  tli«  north  of  Kit- 
rope,  and  had  the  greatest  nunilMrof  towns  on  n  given 
extent  of  territory.  This  they  atill  havo,  with  th<i  nx- 
ception  of  the  counties  (Laneashiro  and  tlin  West  Hid- 
ing of  York,  England)  which  are  tint  clil'if  aeata  of  Kn- 
gliah  manufactures.  After  tho  Notherlaiida  In  town 
population  come  tho  north  of  Italy  and  iiorthcaat  of 
France,  along  with  tho  western  part  of  (lurntnny, 
Prussia  and  Austria  have  each  a  comparatively  aninll 
number  of  towns;  "oland  has  still  fewer,  and  Kuiala 
is  the  most  deflclent  of  any  countiy  in  Kurope.  In  Kn< 
gland  the  increase  of  town  population  has  lieen  pro- 
gressive during  tho  laat  eighty  or  ninety  ycara,  and 
bids  fair  to  go  on  in  an  equal  or  greater  ratio. 

The  division  of  employment  la  tho  result  of  com- 
merce and  of  increased  population.  It  Is  of  two  kinda  i 
that  among  individuals,  by  which  a  apecillu  taak  la  ap- 
propriated to  each,  and  tiiat  among  nationa,  liy  whluh 
particular  kinds  of  products  are  raised  to  a  grniiter  ox- 
tent  in  one  country  than  in  another,  Tim  Utter  la  as 
yet  only  beginning  to  claim  the  attention  of  piiltllo 
men,  for  it  has  been  a  frG<,'icnt  error  « ilh  {{ovurnmont 
to  establisb,  in  their  respective  terrltorlwa,  a  >arlaty 


cal  olistacles  or  disadvantages.  Of  this  Franco  fur- 
nishes some  striking  examples,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  Iron,  The  abundanrc  of  conl  in  Kngliind,  and  the 
case  in  conveying  it,  and  other  bulky  goods,  l>_v  canals, 
give  to  their  manufactures  of  iron  and  hardware  an 
advantage  which  Franco  in  vain  endeavors  to  equal. 
Her  true  policy  would  be  to  repeal  tho  very  heavy  du- 
ties on  the  import  of  foreign  manufactures,  and  to  trust 
to  her  means  of  supplying  the  world  with  wine,  brandy, 
and  tlio  other  natural  products  of  her  country  to  an 
equal  or  greater  amount. 

I'rinHplet  nf  Cimimcrcej  how  far  unJertlood. — In 

fioint  of  knowledge  of  the  great  doctrines  of  polit- 
I'ol  economy,  Germany,  or,  to  speak  more  properly, 
the  I'rotostant  part  of  Germany,  particularly  Saxony, 
mny  lie  said  to  take  tho  lead  of  other  countries  on  the 
Cuntlnnnt.  Tho  Dutch,  however  exemplary  in  their 
practical  legislation,  have  little  turn  for  speculative 
reasoning;  the  French  have  not  patience  to  follow 
throiigli  its  various  links  a  chain  of  philosophical  de- 
ductions; hut  their  admiration  of  whatever  is  humane 
or  liberal  makes  them  wonderfully  delighted  with  the 
brilliant  conclusions  of  the  science.  They  have  the 
advantage  of  possessing,  in  the  work  of  the  late  J.  B. 
Sny,  tho  best  arranged  general  treatise  that  has  hith- 
erto appeared  on  tho  subject;  and  they  ore  by  no  means 
III  prepared  for  a  very  extensive  application  of  politi- 
cal Improvements,  such  as  tho  abolition  of  privateer- 
ing, tlie  repeal  of  all  heavy  duties  on  foreign  goods, 
and  tho  sulistitution  of  inland  taxes  for  those  custom- 
house Imposts  which  impede  the  free  communication 
of  nations.  Tho  rest  of  F'urope  is  so  much  in  tho  dark 
In  regard  to  the  great  truths  of  politicol  science  as  to 
SCO  merely  through  the  medium  of  local  governments. 
Niich  Is  the  case  likewise  in  Italy,  although  that  coun- 
try con  boast  Individuals  of  some  note  among  the  writ- 
ers on  tho  principles  of  commerce,  and  tho  reflecting 
turn  of  tho  people  Is  favorable  to  such  investigations ; 
and  oven  In  llritoin  a  largo  party  is  still  adverse  to 
tho  unrestricted  opplicotior.  of  these  simple  and  benef- 
icent principles,  but  this  porty  is  daily  diminishing, 
Tho  hoppy  ctTects  of  tho  free-trade  principles,  which 
havo  been  for  some  time  in  operation,  os  proved  by 
tho  periodical  returns  of  the  English  Board  of  Trade, 
ore  fads  which  con  not  bo  withstood ;  and  wo  may  safe- 
ly calculate  that  a  few  years  will  convert  tho  remain- 
ing advocates  of  protection  to  the  free-trade  faith. 

Speculation  in  Trade. — Among  men  of  business  this 
expression  Is  applied  to  Incurring  extensive  hazards 
In  the  hope  of  extensive  emolument;  in  short,  to  what- 
ovoris  foreign  to  tho  proper  business  of  the  individual, 
or  beyond  the  control  of  common  rules.  It  is  to  such 
undertakings  that  vulgar  credulity  ascribes  extraordi- 
nary profits;  and  even  well-informed  men  are  apt  to 
glvo  way  to  tho  assertions  so  confidently  made,  of  vast 
ocraslonni  gains  In  this  line  of  business.  Dr.  .Smith 
himself,  after  remorking  (\Veahh  of  Nations,  book  i. 
chap.  10)  that  to  make  a  fortune  in  a  regular  line  com- 
monly requires  a  long  life  of  industry  and  frugality, 
odds,  no  doubt  on  the  faith  of  repeated  assurances  from 
morcontilo  friends,  that  there  aro  many  examples  of 
fortunes  rcollzed  by  speculators  in  tho  course  of  a  few 
years.  Now,  tho  men  who  embark  in  speculation  ore. 
In  general,  very  loose  accountants;  their  estimate  of 
profits  applies  to  tho  gross,  never  to  the  net  return ; 
besides,  they  aro  almost  always  adventurers,  ond  ad- 
venture's aro  seldom  noted  for  the  observance  of  truth. 
T^eir  favorite  season  of  activity  is  a  time  like  that  of 
IHOH,  when  tho  sudden  stoppage  of  ordinary  intercourse 
caused  a  rapid  fluctuation  in  tho  price  of  commodities, 
nnd  when  tho  rcgulor  mcrchonts  withdrew  from  the 
scene.  Now,  what  sober  cstimato  can  be  formed  of 
loss  or  gain  In  such  a  chaos?  Add  to  this,  that  these 
men  trade  almost  always  on  credit,  are  in  need  of  all 
the  support  which  flattering  representations,  and  ru- 
mor! of  sudden  profit,  can  glvo  them.    All  thess  re*- 


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■oni  Mom  to  Juitliy  •  dolllxrat*  Inquirer  In  doing  wliit 
ii  wldom  done  on  luch  occMloni,  wo  nivan  iu  with- 
holding hil  beUef  from  the  conlldcnt  ■llu)(atioiit  uf 
■pacuUton,  lo  long  u  thoy  are  uut  ii  npurtod  by  col- 
lateral eviilvnco. 

Frtiiuency  <\f  VuappoinlnuMt. — Our  opinion  li,  that 
Initead  of  the  large  proliti  cuiiiiuonly  ucrilwd  to  thli 
coune  of  trade,  tbu  individuala  concerned  in  It  expe- 
rience little  alee  than  diiappointinente,  and  maintain 
•  perpetual  itrugglu  to  keep  up  a  fair  appearance  to 
the  world.  Thia  opinion  ii  founded  partly  on  a  kiiowl- 
edKO  of  the  actual  career  and  cireuuislancca  of  apocu- 
Utoro,  liut  more  on  the  woll-knuwn  fact  that  altnoat 
every  line  of  buainesa  la  in  the  liand)  of  eatuldiahed 
merchant*,  who,  of  couriw,  aru  too  vigilant  to  overlook 
the  opportunity  of  emolument,  and  who  have  much 
better  means  of  information  than  tenitwrary  interlop- 
era.  Still,  ahould  there  remain  doulils  an  tu  tho  accu- 
racy of  our  opinion,  tha  iiuoation  may  be  brought  to  a 
point  by  reference  to  the  account-books  of  any  given 
number  of  celebrated  speculators;  their  alfaira  end 
almost  always  in  bankruptcy ;  their  papers  continue 
open  to  access  for  years  in  tho  hands  of  (heir  solicitors 
ur  assignees;  and  we  aro  much  mistaken  if  an  inspec- 
tion of  them  would  show,  in  one  case  out  of  ten,  that 
the  parties  had  at  any  period  succeeded  iu  realizing 
tliclr  boasted  profits. 

Pemiciaiu  KgtcU  of  Sj>tculaiioH.—\Ve  have  teen  In- 
duced to  dwell  the  more  on  tlie  boasts  of  s|ieculators, 
liecauso  they  are  productive  of  groat  mischief  in  unset- 
tling persons  in  business,  particularly  young  men,  and 
iu  raakiiiK  thcni  look  on  their  proper  lino  with  com- 
parative inditl'erence.  It  would  bo  endless  to  attempt 
an  enumeration  of  the  various  w&ya  in  wliicli  tho  rage 
for  speculation  has  brought  misfortune  on  merchants 
oud  manufacturers.  Tho  opening  of  a  new  country, 
such  as  Uuenos  Ayrcs,  Brazil,  or  Caraccas.  led  tu  the 
export  not  only  of  a  prodigious  overstock  of  murchan- 
diso  fitted  for  the  country,  but  of  many  articles  totally 
unsulted  to  the  climate  and  habits  of  the  people. 
Again,  in  1814,  when  tho  war  with  Franco  was  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  goods,  both  colonial  and  manufactured, 
wore  poured  into  the  Continent  of  Europe,  as  if  the 
compass  of  tho  markets  wa3  unbounded,  and  as  if  the 
calamities  of  war  had  produced  no  decrease  of  capital. 

Holland  I  itt  iiutruelire  JCxampU. — The  country  in 
which  trade  shone  forth  in  all  its  splendor ;  where  ir 
was  cultivated  without  the  support  of  amis  or  prohib- 
itory regulations ;  where,  in  short,  it  developed  its  ben- 
eficial tendency  In  all  its  extent,  wns  Holland.  If  we 
look  to  the  early  enterprises  of  the  Dutch,  wu  find  them 
enabled,  by  the  power  of  thrir  productive  industry,  to 
assert  their  independence  at  homo,  and  to  assail  their 
enemies  in  the  remotest  part  of  their  empire.  The 
Tortugueso  in  tho  East,  ind  the  Spaniards  in  the  West, 
were  each  found  unequal  to  the  task  of  resisting  these 
republicans.  A  proud  stand  was  niado  by  them  against 
tlio  navy  of  England,  and  they  did  not  fall  into  despair 
even  when  assailed  by  English  forces  in  coi^unction 
with  those  of  France.  Afterward,  when  restored  to 
an  alliance  with  England,  and  when  they  co-operated 
with  her  in  tho  great  struggle  against  Louis  XIV.,  it 
is  surprising  how  large  a  proportion  both  of  troops  and 
subsidies  was  furnished  by  this  apparently  inconsider- 
able state.  "  No  country,"  says  Sir  William  Temple, 
"can  be  found  where  so  vast  a  trade  has  been  man- 
aged, yet  the  inhabitants  have  no  native  commodities 
toward  building  vessels,  and  hardly  any  that  ore  con- 
siderable for  trafiic  with  their  neighbors.  Holland  is 
grown  rich  by  force  of  industry-,  by  improvement  and 
manufacture  of  foreign  growths."  Proceeding  to  s|)ec- 
Ify  more  particularly  the  causes  of  this  mercantile  pros- 
perity, Sir  William  enumerates  "  the  easy  communica- 
tion of  water,  particularly  by  the  Khine  and  Maese ; 
the  security  of  property;  the  undisturbed  liberty  of 
conscience,  and  the  progressiva  influx 'of  people  perse- 
cuted for  tlieii  religious  opinions  ia  Floitders,  England, 


France,  and  Germany."  Such  we.  the  original  eanscat 
those  of  subsequflilt  operation  wore  tho  "  general  habit 
iif  industry  and  orononiy  ;  tlio  fnriimlioii  iil'  iJiiiais ;  the 
institution  of  banks;  thu  lnw  inlrri'st  of  nionry;  the 
apprupritttiun  uf  particular  towns  to  particular  branch- 
es of  business ;  application  to  liio  fisheries,  an<l,  what 
he  regrets  much  should  not  exist  in  F.ngland,  tlio  prac- 
tice of  keeping  an  ofllcial  reginler  of  all  purrhaiies  of 
land  or  houses ;"  a  practice  introduced  into  Holland 
and  Flanders  In  tho  reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  wlilch  at 
present  exists  in  Scotland,  to  tiie  incalculable  conven- 
ience and  security  of  money  transactions. 

Kffrelt  of  Trade  n/nm  fHiliriilualt. — Wo  am  now  to 
say  a  few  wonis  on  a  ditlvrcnt  t<ipir,  namely,  tlio  cflucis 
of  trade  In  forming  tho  character  of  individuals ;  a  mat- 
ter uf  no  little  impurlnnce  in  a  country  like  ours,  where 
merchants  both  cunstitiilo  so  large  a  portion  of  tho  com- 
nmnity,  and  exercise  such infiuincu on  the  proceedings 
of  government.  The  mercantile  character  has  a  num- 
ber of  good  points,  being  exempt  from  thu  vacuity 
and  indecision  so  frequent  in  fashionable  lifi',  ns  well 
as  from  tlio  various  vices  consequent  on  idleness,  and 
which  aro  so  strikingly  cxcniplillcd  in  tho  gambling 
and  libertinism  of  tlie  French  metropolis.  Whatever 
good  is  produced  by  continued  activity,  and  by  a 
pointed  attention  to  thu  spocitic  objects  of  one's  occu- 
pation, may  be  confidently  looked  (or  among  cuinnicr- 
cial  men ;  with  the  further  advantage,  in  large  con- 
cerns, of  an  exemption  from  |ictty  jealousies  and  in- 
vidious interferences.  In  such  cities  as  London  and 
Amsterdam,  niei .hunts  are  aware  that  the  field  ia  am- 
ple for  all ;  that  tho  pros|icrit;  of  one  is  very  far  from 
impeding  that  of  others;  and  hat  when  disappoint- 
ment ami  failure  occur,  their  origin  will  bo  found  in  a 
very  dill'erent  causa  than  competition.  Here,  how- 
ever, we  must  close  our  encomium,  and.  In  the.  spirit 
of  impartiality,  proceed  to  exhibit  tho  opposite  side  of 
tho  picture.  Tho  merchant's  knowledge  Is  particular, 
not  general ;  he  obtains  a  habit  uf  understanding  Indi- 
vidual character,  and  a  dexterity  in  managing  his  own 
affairs ;  but  he  has  not,  and  can  not,  from  his  course  of 
occupation,  acquire  tho  power  of  reasoning  compre- 
hensively on  the  interests  of  trade.  If  he  observe  in 
war  a  tendency  to  raise  prices,  or  to  invigorate  partic- 
ular lines  of  trade,  such  as  ship-owning  or  insurance, 
h?  will  probably  bo  led  to  the  general  inference  that 
to  a  maritime  country  war  is  advantageous.  Tlia  con- 
tests of  Great  Britain  from  1770  to  laiO  having  been 
attended  with  the  undisputed  command  of  the  ocean, 
nothing  mot«  was  reijuired  to  satisQ'  the  minority  of 
traders  that  hor  mercantile  marine  was  in  a  slate  of 
equal  ascendency.  They  took  au  pied  de  la  leltre  the 
custom-house  reports  of  annual  exports,  without  ob- 
serving how  much  was  to  be  deducted  on  account  of 
the  depreciation  of  bank  paper,  or  bow  surely  they 
were  laying  the  foundation  of  future  distress  by  sub- 
mitting to  enormous  taxation.  Again,  when  in  1807 
tho  long  continuance  of  war  had  given  a  serious  wound 
to  lier  trade  and  navigation,  a  majority  of  tho  mer- 
chants ascribed  it,  not  to  the  true  cause,  bnt  to  tlie  un- 
dermining competition  of  tho  United  States.  Their 
range  of  reflection  was  not  such  as  to  enable  them  to 
perceive  that,  by  overturning  the  prosperity  of  tho  lat- 
ter, they  would  sap  the  foundation  of  their  own ;  and 
that  every  million  which  they  prevented  us  from  add- 
ing to  our  capital  was  so  much  withdrawn  from  a 
fund  devoted  to  the  increase  of  the  productive  industry 
of  Britain.  Henco  the  unfortunate  orders  in  council, 
the  main  cause  of  the  overthrow  of  her  exchanges  with 
tho  Continent,  of  the  increase  of  expenses  in  Spain  and 
Germany,  of  her  war  with  tho  United  States ;  in  siiort, 
of  the  long  continuance  of  her  suflbringi  since  tho 
peace. 

Bad  Effect  of  long  Ci-edA*.— Nothing  would,  in  our 
opinion,  conduce  more  to  the  prosperity  of  trade  than 
the  adoption  of  the  plan  of  doing  all  wholesale  business 
for  raady  money,  wid  the  relinquialunent  of  that  habit 


COM 


870 


COM 


Id,  in  our 
rado  than 
I  business 
hat  habit 


of  lunf(  credit  which  pr()ni|ita  to  unguarded  entnrprlan, 
and  ha»  fur  no  many  years  Inrn  the  principal  cuuix  of 
crt)willni(  Uiii  roliininH  nfthn  Kaxcttrii. 

Tu  nhuw  till)  ri'sultit  of  luni;  iTudIt,  it  is  ni'cessury  tii 
gn  lit  soniu  iun^tU  into  priiriicnl  iiiustrntlun,  and  to 
apprinn  our  ruailiTH  uf  the  n-nl  situalinn  of  tlio  nii\Jiirily 
of  our  niuiiufui'turvrs  and  i  xpoit  niorchiinls.     A  man- 
ufacturur  on  tho  priixi'nt  fl><>ul>^'  riToivcs  orders  in  the 
cournn  uf  tliii  ycur  from  twenty  or  tliirly  niurcantllo 
housen;  tl>0)(u<)dn  (o  l>u  exported  prolialily  (o  (lio  Wost 
Indies,  tlio  Npunish  Main,  or  llruitil ;  thu  undttrstuod 
tonn  of  rrudil  twelve  months.     The  nmnufiicturer  does 
nut  rccoivo  thu  orders  fk-oni  aliroad ;  lio  has  an  Inter- 
mt'dlutu  guurantri',  that  of  thu  exporliuix  mcrcluint. 
8till  tho  risk  is  consldurahli' ;  Imt  Im  .laturully  hopes 
fur  tho  liost,  and  is  unwilling;  to  decline  an  order  when 
It  conies  to  him  from  a  quiiricr  of  rcspcctalillity,     Now 
by  morcantllu  roipcclahllii;  our  rciKlers  are  to  under- 
itand  Integrity,  and  the  Intention  of  acting  up  to  cn- 
gattemonts ;  but  tlin  power  of  doin^  so,  especially  at  n 
reniotu  date,  is  u  very  dilt'urent  ({uehtion,  and  is.  In  gen- 
eral, possessed  In  a  much  smaller  dc^reu  than  the  pub- 
lic imagine,     Tiiu  trader  whoso  capital  is  large  will 
not  seruplu  to  ship  goods  to  tho  viluo  of  M  per  cent, 
greater  than  his  capital,  tlrst  In  tho  hopu,  so  general 
r.iuung  merchants,  of  realizing  il  Imudnumu  profit,  and 
next  In  cuulldcncu  that,  shoidd  the  foreign  market  l>o 
dull,  and  sln<ald  delays  occur  lit  obtaining  returns 
witliin  tiio  given  time,  his  credit  will  proeuro  him  In- 
dulgence fur  several  months,  ut  the  aiul  of  whicli  thu 
expected  remittances  can  hardl}'  fall  tu  arrive,     lie 
may,  and  in  general  does  go  on  fur  several  years  with- 
out much  embarrassment,  receiving,  indeed,  less  than 
bu  sends  out,  but  informed  that  all  has  Iwen  well  told, 
and  eun  not  fail  to  be  soon  realized.     lie  thus  gees  on 
pleuhing  himself  at  every  balanco  of  Ills  books  with  the 
seeming  profit,  and  only  regretting  that  hitherto  that 
prollt  has  not  been  tangible,  since  it  exists  in  the  shape 
of  a  debt  duo  by  his  correspondents.     IIo  continues, 
however,  under  a  favorable  ex|ioctation  of  their  mak- 
ing up  for  past  dellcionclcs,  and  flatters  lilmself  that 
the  delay  has  resulted  from  partial  or  temporary  causes, 
lie  begins  to  tind  himself  straitened  for  funds,  but  has 
as  )'et  little  difliculty  in  obtaining  relief  from  a  moneyed 
ftriend,  or  a  prolonged  credit  from  the  manufacturers. 
His  correspondents  continue  'a  write  in  a  strain  of  con- 
fidence, and  to  cull  for  more  goods,  which  If  ho  be  of  a 
conllding  character,  will  lead  Idm  to  extend  tho  annu- 
al amount  of  his  shipments;  but  at  all  events  ho  is 
obliged  to  continue  a  certain  supply  for  the  sake  of 
keeping  up  tho  assortment  of  stock.     Still  ho  flnds  that 
year  after  year  a  larger  portion  of  his  capital  remains 
with  bis  correspondents,  and  that  they,  hbwovcr  de- 
sirous (for  wo  by  no  means  put  an  extreme  case),  are 
unable  to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  debt,  because 
they  are  in  like  manner  left  unpaid  l)y  the  inhabitants 
of  tho  country.    To  go  to  law  would  bo  of  no  avail, 
linco  it  Is  the  policy  of  almost  every  government  in  a 
recently-settled  country  to  favor  the  debtor,  and  to 
give  him  tho  moans  of  retaining  capital  in  his  hands. 
Affairs  now  begin  to  bo  serious  with  tho  exporter;  the 
manufacturer  and  other  creditors  can  not  or  will  not 
give  further  time,  and  demand  an  explanation  of  his 
circumstances.      This  explanation   takes  place,  and 
serves  to  show  that  their  debtor  is  a  man  of  honor, 
with  more  assets  than  debts,  but  tho  latter  are  certain, 
while  tho  former  are  at  a  distance  of  301)0  miles.     The 
consequence  is  a  grant  of  time,  an  allowance  to  the 
debtor  of  two,  three,  or  four  years,  to  act  under  letter 
of  license,  In  the  hope  of  accomplishing  that  which  it 
is  evident  can  not  be  performed  sooner.    This  is,  in 
goneral,  both  the  wisest  and  most  liberal  course ;  still 
it  is  not  often  found  to  succeed,  because  the  foreign 
debts  can  seldom  bo  realized  in  climates  where  life  is 
held  by  so  uncertain  a  tenure,  where  respectable  agentti 
are  so  rarely  found,  where  buyers  of  goods  have  so  lit- 
tle capital,  and,  sbivo  all,  where  the  law  allows  them 


such  a  length  of  time  fur  psvment.  A  few  of  tho  prom< 
is«d  iustallmenis  are  prolialily  made  guud,  but  in  gen- 
eral tho  merchant  recognizes  the  Impnicticabillty  of 
fullllling  tho  rnmaindor,  and  finds  it  eventually  u«ce^ 
•ary  to  submit  lu  bankruptcy, 

I IMind  II  Cnunlry  of  thurt  Credit, — In  Holland  we 
find  that  In  its  botusr  days  bargains  were  almost  al- 
ways made  for  ready  money,  or  lur  so  shurt  a  date  as 
nix  veeks  or  twu  months;  pnillls  were  •mall  In  their 
ratio,  but  the  quickness  uf  returns  made  them  eventu- 
ally largo ;  failures  were  rare,  even  in  so  distressing  an 
(Ta  as  tlio  occupation  of  their  country  by  the  Krench, 
wliieli  began  In  17U5,  and  involved  from  the  outset  a 
Htiippni(n  of  maritime  Intercourse  with  all  their  pos- 
sensiuns  in  India  and  America.  Tho  (onscqucnco  of 
IIiIh  stoppage  was  a  decay  of  trade,  a  suspension  of  va- 
riuus  undertakings,  a  scarcity  of  work,  a  miserable 
dullness  in  tho  sale  of  giMids;  all  leading,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  diminished  income,  and  eventually  to  en- 
eruacliment  uii  capital ;  but,  amid  this  distress,  the  fail- 
ures were  surprisingly  few.  Another  example,  equal- 
ly replete  witji  instruction,  was  the  state  of  Fronce  aft- 
er the  double  Invasion  of  1H14  and  1816,  There  pre- 
vailed at  that  time  a  general  discouragement  among 
the  upper  ranks,  and  a  great  deal  of  wtutchedness 
among  tho  lower,  trade  being  at  a  stand,  end  stocks  of 
goods  lying  unsold  in  shops  or  warehouses  fur  years; 
still  bankruptcy  was  exceedingly  rare.  All  this  shows 
what  a  satisfactory  prospect  wo  may  anticipate  when 
we  adopt  tho  plan  of  traiii<actlng  the  greater  part  of 
our  business  for  ready  money.  Yet  we  are  far  from 
recommending  any  law  or  measure  to  enforce  that  ulj- 
Ject;  tho  evident  advantage  of  the  plan  will  not  fall  to 
secure  its  adoption, 

II.  IIlSTOity  OK  CojiMEUCE,  Origin  of  Cmnvterce, 
— It  has  been  an  object  with  many  w  riters  to  ascertain 
In  wliai  notion  of  anti<|ulty  commerce  was  first  carried 
to  a  considerable  extent ;  but  as  that  extent  implies  a 
previous  population,  tho  more  simple  inquiry  would  be, 
in  what  country  population  first  acquired  density,  par- 
ticularly in  towns.  The  answer  Is,  that  mankind  first 
increased  tlieir  numbers  in  warm  latitudes,  csiiecially 
In  situations  where  irrigation,  whether  effected  by  the 
overflow  ing  uf  rivers,  by  the  descent  of  streams  from  a 
range  of  mountains,  or  by  any  other  means,  was  so  ex- 
tensive as  to  counteract  the  parching  elTect  of  beat,  and 
givo  to  vegetation  a  luxuriance  unknown  in  colder  re- 
gions. It  was  thus  that  tho  Nile  gave  fertility  to 
Kgypt,  the  Euphrates  to  Chaldea,  and  the  Ganges,  iu 
tho  lower  part  of  its  course,  to  Bengal. 

The  earliest  w  rittcn  notice  of  commercial  intercourse 
is  in  Scripture,  where  we  read  of  Joseph  being  sold  by 
his  brethren  to  a  company  of  Ishmaelitcs  or  Arabs,  who 
were  going  to  Kgypt  with  spices,  balm,  and  myrrh,  con- 
veyed on  the  backs  of  camels.  These  itinerant  traders 
probably  b.'oughfr  back  com,  Egypt  iicing,  even  at  that 
remote  period,  an  occasional  granary  'or  Syria  and  oth- 
er a(\jacent  countries.  Tho  conveyin.i;  of  goods  on  the 
backs  of  animals  ought  to  be  remari.ed  as  indicativo 
of  a  primitive  state  of  commercial  inlorcourse — of  that 
which  is  carried  on  before  the  forming  of  roads  or  tho 
use  of  wheel-carriages.  Such  was  the  case  in  England 
two  centuries  ago ;  such  at  present  is  th<:  cose  in  Span- 
ish America,  and,  in  somo  degree,  in  Old  Spain,  the 
mountainous  nature  of  that  country  making  it  a  mat- 
ter of  some  difliculty  to  form  roads. 

Phanicia,  SiJon,  nnd  Tyre. — But  whatever  might  be 
the  inland  traffic  of  the  Arabians,  Chaldeans,  or  Egyp- 
tians, they  made  very  little  progress  in  navigation ; 
that  was  the  province  of  the  Phconicians,  who  acted  as 
naval  carriers  to  the  neighboring  nations,  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Dutch  did  during  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  to  tho  rest  of  Europe.  This  almost 
exclusive  possession  of  navigation  may  seem  strange 
in  the  present  age,  hut  tho  cause  was  the  same  in  both 
cases — namely,  the  difliculty  in  a  rude  age  of  finding 
men  capable  of  conducting  vessels  in  the  open  sea. 


COM 


880 


COM 


BMininiiMp,  now  lo  (kinlllar  to  lh«  tnhaliltanii  of  iil> 
mntl  rvprv  |M>rt  in  Kuni|i<',  wai  In  lh<>«i  iUy«  undiT- 
timxl  l>,v  iinly  it  llniltiiil  niiinlior,  ami  naa  raninl  on 
with  a  (lawn's  orcautliin  nml  •InwiirM  lianlly  vri'illliln 
to  a  niiKli'ni  rvailur,  Tliuit  lli«  •rami'ii  ufaiu'li'iit  tliiii'* 
mailx  It  a  ruin  to  kocp  within  oiniil  <if  laml,  a*  If  triial- 
lnf(  for  |inilet'llun  lo  a  •iliiallon  which  Ihn  niiirlnen  iif 
our  (lava  Imik  oil  a*  atti'mlml  with  coiiiildcral)!^  rUk. 
Thli  r.roM  from  tha  great  itlinireni'e  In  tliu  inoilu  uf  pro- 
pollinK  vnmivla,  fur  whirli  thu  niiMlurn*  triiHt  ihlvtly  In 
thn  wliiil,  anil  navlKatn  with  riiniparutlvc>ly  fi!W  haniln. 
Tlie  niniill  liiirk*  »t  thu  anili'htii  wvrii  llttuil  out  with 
earn;  a  ninthodwlilih  rr<|ulr<'<l  n  ^ri'iit  narrillcu  of  iiiuii- 
ual  lalHir,  Iml  waa  attimli'd  h  ith  thu  ailvnntai;u  of  tinil- 
InK  a  roaily  ihultwr  In  a  liay  ur  iruck  whonaver  tho  tky 
p»rtcinil('il  t«nipi'Htnoii«  wciithiT. 

What,  it  may  l>n  unkcil,  wan  tlio  chirf  cnnno  of  IJio 
axtpn»ion  uf  thn  nA\  i^ulinn  of  t'hu-nlcla?  Tho  vicin- 
ity of  K^vpt,  anil  tlio  c|iiitntity  of  provlaionii  and  nicr- 
chandiMi  exported  from  that  fcrlilu  country.  Thu  nav- 
iKatinn  of  the  |{pd  Hoa,  uU»,  wnit  condurli'd  chlclly  t>y 
I'hirulcinn*.  Iliiitnry  in  not  aulflrlonlly  pxpliclt  In  rc- 
garil  to  thn  comnioditica  forming  thn  olijvct  of  tralllc 
•long  the  Kcd  Hca,  nor  havo  wii  any  certain  knowl- 
<dga  of  tho  era  at  which  thu  trndo  with  Imlin  liy  that 
channel  conimoncad.  lionapnrtP,whcn  mcdituting  liin 
expcditiun  tu  Kgypt,  wa*  hid,  in  hlx  i<nii){uino  r»liniali' 
of  Its  advantaifca,  to  conaidcr  thit  Ucil  ,S<'it  as  tho  tlttcul 
line  of  cuniniunicalion  witli  India,  and  to  iiicriiio  the 
Wealth  of  TholH's,  in  KKypI,  one  of  tho  carlivit  of  com- 
morcial  citk'n,  lo  intcrcourMi  with  tlio  coai'tof  Malaluir. 
Uut  whctlicr  tliu  nnvi^tttuni  of  tho  lied  Hca  procwdcd 
■t  thai  curly  dutn  as  far  as  tliu  shores  of  India,  It  is  ev- 
ident that  iin  extensive  tratllc  was  carried  on  wiili  Cos- 
K'lr,  or  a  sea-port  on  the  lied  .Sea  whiili  comniuniejiiiil 
with  ThelH>s.  Tlio  epoch  at  which  Homer  velel>rate(l 
the  wealth  of  that  city  Is  nearly  Iho  sanio  as  that  at 
which  I'iKL'iilcian  mariners  navlKittud  tho  Ited  Sea  on 
account  of  Iho  Jewish  government  In  tho  reipi  uf  ISol- 
omon ;  hut  no  historical  invcstlgatoi' has  hein  aide  to 
fix  with  curtainty  tho  situation  of  I  tphir  and  Tarshish, 
tho  ports  witli  which  theso  vessels  trado<l.  Sonio  con- 
fldcnt  calculators  have  considered  them  to  havo  been 
In  India;  hut,Judglnf;  fVom  tho  limited  skill  uf  navi- 
gators in  that  early  ii:;e,  it  seems  more  likely  that  these 
harbors  wuro  near  the  eastern  or  more  remote  parts  of 
tho  Kcd  Sea,  a  port  frum  which  there  probably  was  a 
direct  communication  with  India. 

(Irtece. — Such  was  tho  traflic  of  tlie  I'hiiMiiclans  with 
tho  south  mill  cast ;  It  oxtcndcd  also  to  countries  less 
peopled  ai'id  in  a  still  moro  primitive  nlato  In  tho  west. 
The  islaiiid  uf  Crete  soems  to  have  owed  to  them  its 
early  cl\ilizallon;  and  oftcr  Crete  came  Attica,  lloeo- 
tia,  the  I'cloponncsus,  in  all  of  which  tradition  record- 
ed the  early  introduction  of  tho  arts  by  settlers  arriv- 
ing from  I'hicDicia  or  Kgypt.  Thesa  arrivals  seem  to 
have  taken  place  alwut  a  thousand  years  before  tho 
Christian  era,  and  half  of  that  time  elapsed  in  tho  grad- 
ual attainment  of  that  stato  of  civilization  to  which 
Greece  had  arrived  at  tho  period  of  her  political  celeb- 
rity— tho  invasion  of  her  territory  by  tho  Persians  un- 
der Darius  and  Xerxes,  lireocc  is  in  several  respects 
well  fitted  for  foreign  commerce.  Her  coast  is  greatly 
Indented  by  the  sea,  and  presents  a  number  of  inlets 
hardly  inferior  to  tho  well-known  gulfs  of  Argos  and 
Corinth.  Ilonco  an  early  familiarity  with  the  use  of 
■hipping,  and  the  practice  of  sending  out  colonies  at  itii 
early  a  date  as  a  century  after  the  'I'rojan  war.  These 
colonies  proceeded  in  various  dircctiuns,  to  Asia  Minor 
in  tho  oast,  to  Thraco  and  the  Euxino  in  the  north,  to 
Sioily  and  Italy  in  the  west.  The  progress  made  by 
tlie  inhabitants  of  these  colonial  settlements  was  rapid, 
particularly  at  Syracuse,  whose  capacious  harbor  soon 
acquired  it  extensive  commerce  and  a  numerous  popu- 
lation. Agrigentum,  Messina,  Tarentum,  were  like> 
wise  places  of  considerable  importance.  It  was  the 
coatom  of  these  aad  other  colonies  to  maintain  an  al- 


liance anil  mercantile  ronnecllnn  with  the  parent  atatn, 
•iieh  as  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos:  and  a  iiiiinlrer  odhar- 
aeters  eniinnnt  in  lltvraturu  and  the  art<  appi  iired  hi 
the  culonles  at  a  time  » liuii  their  esliiblinhiiieiit  might 

have  iH'en  conalderiil  as  too  r nt  to  nllord  mure  than 

the  noi'usaarles  uf  life.  Hut  In  it  iiewly-setiied  cuiin> 
try,  such  as  thu  llniled  .Slates  uf  Anierlea,  variuiia  cir- 
cumalaneea  incur  lu  Increaau  llic  luiinlier  and  Inipniva 
tho  condition  uf  Iho  Inhaliitants-  |irovisioii4  are  alaimU 
ant,  in  riiiiaei|uenc«  of  the  extent  of  uiiiH:cupieil  land  | 
thu  connection  with  the  iiiuiliir  country  Insures  a  cer- 
lain  extent  uf  trade,  wliliu  tlie  munopulies  and  other 
abuses  natural  tu  a  lung-settled  cuminunlly  are  In  • 
manner  unknown. 

Al/ient.—On  tho  other  hninl,  Iho  Inland  territory  of 
(ireeco  was  not  well  llttcil  for  cumniercial  Intereuurse. 
It  Is  traversed  by  nonavigaliifl  river;  ondlieiiigmunnt- 
j  ainous  and  riiggeil,  it  could  not,  oven  In  the  days  of  ita 
prosperity,  lionsl  of  ruads,  inerchandlso  being  In  thoao 
,  days,  as  at  present,  conveyed,  not  in  carriages,  luit  on 
I  tho  backs  of  horses  and  oxen.     This  dellcicni'v  of  cmn- 
muiiicatliin  by  land  was  oiiii  cause  of  the  dlllerent 
•tales  uf  (ireeco  so  long  maintaining  tlieir  IndepiiuU 
ence,  and  of  Iho  limited  ascendency  altaiuiMl  by  Lai*- 
j  diemon,  whicli,  In  extent  of  iiiiillary  means,  was  so  su- 
perior tn  lliu  other  states  of  tho  I'llopoiinesus.     Sparta 
and  Thebes  being  inland  towns,  and  Corlntli  eonipura- 
llvcly  a  small  state.  Alliens  was  the  chief  coninierelal 
city  of  ancient  (irene.      Her  distanco  from  the  sea, 
live  miles,  was  sui  li  as  tu  airurd  her  secnrily  against  a 
sudden  descent  from  an  invading  ainiament,  wlillo  It 
:  was  siilHcleiilly  near  to  her  harlior,  tho  I'irnun,  fur  tho 
■  easy  transmlsslun  of  merchandise,    Tlio  trade  anil  »lii|)- 
.  ping  of  Athens,  liowever  small  It  might  appear  tu  a 
I  modern  reader,  ivin  siieli  as  to  give  it  an  nsiendeiicy 
over  the  dlU'ereiit  islands  In  the  eastward  of  (Ireece,  and 
to  enable  It  lu  niulnlain,  in  Ibe  I'eloponneslaii  war,  a 
lung  slrii(,'glo  against  a  Htroiig  cuiifeileracy.      When 
uvcrciinio  nt  last,  in  eiiusciineneu  uf  what  may  be  termed 
an  aeildenlal  cause,  llie  capture  uf  Its  lleet  by  l.yson- 
der,  its  political  depression  was  of  short  duratiiin  :  " 
octlvlty  ami  industry  of  its  inhabilants  revivcc! 

]  troile,  so  that  Alheim  continued  for  iiges  the  n I  ,■  ]►- 

nlous  and  >  iiiiiinereial  place  in  (ireece, 

yV/ir.— Tyre,  though  at  no  time  a  town  of  lewal  •«> 
lent,  remained  long  In  tho  enjoyment  of  cx-inniileraMa 
trade.      From  tho  reign  of  Solomon,  »V*m  its  «wn- 
i  incrcial  activity  is  described  in  ScrlptKT.    t  >  its  cap- 
ture and  destruction  by  Alexander  I'v  lin'at,  Ihero 
I  elapsed  a  period  of  seven  centuries.     T'he  formidablo 
I  rosistanco  It  made  to  tho  Macedoni«n  arms  inipresscd 
j  Alexander  with  a  strong  srnso  of  tho  value  of  wm- 
I  merco,  and  of  its  ollect  in  Increasing  tho  sources  of  na- 
j  tlonal  power.     Though  known  to  the  world  cliielly  as 
a  warrior,  Alexander  had  considerable  claims  to  tho 
j  character  of  a  politician.     Ho  adopted,  and  caused  his 
followers  to  adopt,  to  a  certain  extent,  tho  manners  of 
tho  nations  they  conquered ;  and  by  tho  expedition  of 
Ncarchus  from  tho  niunih  of  thu  Indus  to  thu  Persian 
(iulf,  he  discovered  n  cumincndablo  zeal  fur  mariliino 
discovery.     Kqual  Judgmeiit  was  evinced  by  him  In 
founding  his  new  city  of  Alexandria  In  a  position  such 
as  to  command  an  extensive  range  of  intorcourse.    Tho 
Nile  brought  to  it  on  one  hand  tho  valuable  products 
of  Egypt,  and  aflbrdcd  on  the  other  a  ready  inlet  to  tho 
merchandise  imported  from  Kurupo.   To  India,  also,  tho 
route  by  Alexandria  and  tho  Ued  Sea  was  )>referabla 
to  that  of  tiie  Persian  Gulf,  which  involved  thu  neces- 
sity of  0  considerable  journey  by  land. 

Carthage. — Contemporary  with  tho  deolino  of  Ath- 
ens and  tho  rise  of  Alexandria,  but  superior  to  either  in 
commercial  activity,  was  Carthago,  the  destruction  of 
which  forms  one  of  the  foulest  blots  tn  Iho  history  of 
the  Komans.  The  situation  of  Carthago  was  well  adapt- 
ed for  trade ;  its  harbor  waa  good,  its  range  of  naviga- 
tion extensive,  both  to  east  and  west.  Founded  by  • 
colony  trom  Tyre,  It  maintained  a  friendly  IntergourM 


COM 


881 


COM 


with  riwrnlcU ;  wlilla  hi  tb«  wnt  of  tlm  Ui'iiU«rr»- 
a«M,  III  Nit'il}',  Hpnlii,  iiixl  tliD  wiiitli  ol  KraiuB,  It  iiiot 
wltli  iiu  i:uiiiiiitiri'l«l  rival.  'I'Iii'm  cuuiitrli'i,  at  that 
tliiiu  iiiirU  IIUuil,  ami  aliiiunt  iiiii'iiUlvali.'cl,  ttcrn  t(r^'at- 
ly  liiiliilili'il  to  ('urtlia)(u  fur  tlm  iiitrc>ilu<:tloii  ufiiitilll- 
gaiit  •I'tllnr*,  anil  ilnrlvuil  fruiii  Imr  lliu  naiiiu  ail\aiit 
■t(uii  wlili'h  liri'tiiu,  iigvural  ri'iitiirli'a  Inrciru,  liml  ru- 
Mlvril  rniiii  riiii'iiiciu  anil  lbK>pt.  In  .Spuiii  llui  lliio 
harliunuf  ('urlliUK<'naauc|  CailU  wcru  ri'iiili'nil  tlm  ru- 
lort  iif  •lil|i|iliit(  liy  tlici  CurtliiK'"!*"*  i  ■»>''  ultlmnt 
mIIIiii;  on  nur  ruaclcra  tu  livliuvu  tlia  truilltiniial  atair- 
lliiiia  iit  tliu  uxtL'iit  (if  tlii'ir  navl)(atluii,  titlivr  tu  tlm 
Dorlli  lit  Kuropu  ur  tliu  tuiilli  uf  Africa,  wu  iiiiiy  wllli 
cuhllili'iiiu  alllrin  thai,  had  nut  thin  litnlu  unhii|i|iily 
falli'ii,  rroni  tlm  Jraluuxy  of  tlm  Ituniaim,  It  wuiiltl  haw 
txiun  tlm  inoiiiis  uf  ilimiiln^  Imluilrloua  Imlill*  uvur  a 
gruat  part  uf  thu  wu>t  of  Kuropv,  ami  uf  a<lvaiicliig  \ty 
Mvvral  cuiitiirlua  tho  pro^rt  sh  uf  thii  imcfu!  iirta. 

Jionit. —  Tlio  pulky  uf  (,'arthaK<',  thouKli  nut  uniform- 
ly pacillc,  waa  fur  Ipm  pi'rnkloua  thiui  thu  pirputuul 
lemlvni'y  in  a^tKruMlun  uf  n  inllllury  atalo  llku  Ituinv. 
In  navl^utiuii  tho  Uunmni  wiini  at  no  liinu  rcniarku- 
blo.  DuriiiK  timir  loutllcta  with  thu  tarlluiKliiluiiH 
th«y  aualaliivd  ri'ptiitiHl  lunaca,  chlolly  frum  llm  ininkill- 
Ailni^na  uf  llii^iriiiMuni'n,nnil  tImIr  Inahillty  to  copi^  niih 
thu  fury  uf  tliu  nlcnuiila.  AftiT  thiiy  huil  trluinplivd 
ovor  thu  CurthaKliilaii.',  ami  cxlumli'd  thu'lr  iiimiucalA 
to  Mai'udun  ami  (iruoiu,  thu  Ituiiuins  wiro  no  lun^tir 
undor  tlm  micaalty  uf  o(|uippin)(  tluvta,  licciiunu  nu  niur- 
itlmo  puwLT  darud  tu  dl»piitu  thiir  auprumaiy.  Dul 
tho  oxti'nslun  of  tho  Ituiiiaii  power  wun  fuvorablu.  In 
■svcrul  ri'apuotK,  tu  cuiiiiimrca  ;  plrui'V  waa  aiipprcamtd, 
•lid  merchant  vussels  hud  free  aecens  to  aliiiuat  oviry 
part  uf  thu  Mediterranean.  Ileneu  u  );rudunl  Inereuiu 
in  thu  length  uf  mereantllo  vuyuKei',  w  hieh  iiuw  oMend- 
•d  on  uim  hami  to  tho  north  uf  I'ruiu'u  and  tiernmiiy, 
on  tlm  other  to  thu  Imliaii  Ueeun,  to  which  it  became 
eoay,  from  the  prut;rcs>ivu  improvement  uf  navltftttiun, 
to  prueced  cither  liy  thu  Itcd  Sen  ur  tiiu  I'urHiuu  (iulf. 
Tlm  inurinpr»' cuinpaas  was  atill  11/  ^iwii,  liutthu  inii- 
fonn  diiectluM  of  thu  winil  in  cci,  lin  seasons  enabled 
tho  nuvi|{ut(>ra  to  and  from  liulia  to  coiiipluto  their 
VoyuK''^  with  llttlu  dllliculty. 

The  MiiUlle  Agin. — It  woa  li)ward  the  middle  of  the 
flfth  century,  about  a  hundred  years  after  tho  rcmovul 
of  tho  mat  of  umpire  tu  ronHtanlinople,  tliat  thu  Ui>- 
mana  beeuino  unublu  t"  defend  their  frontier  nt(alni» 
tho  uncivilized  trilrua  «ho  presKed  on  them  from  the 
north  and  lail.  Tho  conseiiiiencu  wua  that  thu  cuiin- 
try  along  the  lihinu,  tho  inliiml  provinces  uf  (jaul,and, 
•oino  time  aflurward,  Spain  and  thu  north  uf  Italy,  were 
ovorruii  by  those  rude  U:s9ailants.  The  increase  in  tlm 
population  cjf  luwns  wus  chickod,  many  |)laccs  bein^ 
plnndereil.  others  subjectud  to  heavy  cuntributions,  and 
property  in  Kcncnil  rendered  unaufo.  There  was  nu 
loiiKOr  a  cci  ' '  .  ir  general  government ;  the  tcrritury 
of  tho  cnipi  .'  \«as  dividud  into  a  number  of  separate 
(tntes,  thu  riders  uf  which  had  no  just  idea  of  tho  iin- 
porliince  of  iimmorcc.  These  uneducated  governors, 
accuNtomed  >  appeal  on  almost  all  occasions  to  the 
HWunl,  werv  nut  sutllciciitly  enlightened  to  forego  thu 
teniptatiun  of  a  present  seizure  for  tho  sake  uf  the  last- 
ing advantage  of  mercantile  intercourse. 

J'iaa. — Next  to  Venice  in  tlm  history  of  modern  com- 
merce came  I'iaa,  a  town  built  on  tho  banks  of  thu  Arno, 
St  a  distance  of  nearly  three  leagues  from  tho  sea.  Its 
trade  was  chiolly  with  tho  wostorn  cuast  of  Italy,  with 
Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  Sicily.  Its  coniiiiurcial  import- 
ance was  prior  by  two  centuries  to  that  of  (lenoa,  al- 
though it  never  equaled  tlm  latter  in  extent  of  naviga- 
tion, nor  in  the  number  of  diKtant  sel!'..  uicnts.  Pisa 
declined  from  its  cuinmorciul  rank  in  consequence  of 
Leghorn,  which  was  situated  immediately  on  the  coast, 
b«ing  better  adapted  to  foreign  intercourse. 

Genoa. — Genoa  continued  flourishing  from  the  year 
1000  until  its  ill-judged  hostilities  with  Venice  in  tho 
Utter  baU  ef  the  fourtMntb  c«Dtuiy,    These  were  in- 


jurious tu  liulli,  yst  tioth  ni'ovurad  ttmti  iIm  «lb«lt  M 
aa  tu  hold,  during  aovaral  eanlurloa,  a  dlitliinulalwit 
rank  In  tradu.  Thuy  war*  raitiarkahia  alaii,  iiarlliu* 
larly  Venice,  fur  a  variety  of  tha  lluar  inaiiulartura*. 
Neither  cuiilil  liuu>t  uf  a  supply  uf  iha  raw  nialrrlala  uf 
ulinoat  any  inaiiufaciuru  In  ihalr  rMpecilva  tiirrlliirl«s| 
but  thair  iiunmroua  inurchant  M-»a«la  bruuuht  a  tarlaly 
uf  pruducta  frum  a  dlaliincn,  and  tha  amount  uf  Ilia  pi>|K 
ulatlun  uf  either  ciiy  Hua  aueli  aa  lu  randur  prai'lh  abU 
that  divialun  ^f  enipluymeiit  which  la  Ilia  auul  of  liiaif 
ufacture,  anil  wlilih  waa  at  that  tliiiu  aliiiual  utikiiuwa 
In  uther  purta  uf  I'iuropa. 

(.'uiKfiKifiniiji/r.-  ('oiiatantliiupla  hail  Iha  guiiil  fur* 
tuim  to  ri'inuin  nnluiiihed  by  Iha  ananiliiB  uf  llw  till' 
piru  until  thu  middle  uf  llm  llflaanlh  canliiry,  a  lima 
when  civlli/.atiiin  bad  mudu  prograaa  In  tlm  h.  it  uf  Ku< 
rope,  and  liturulure  wa>  uii  lliii  aya  uf  run  Ivlng  itgraat 
c.-itvnaiun  by  th«  dUcuvery  uf  Ilia  art  ul  printing,  Ta 
tida  lurtunate  colnchliniu  uf  tho  ravlval  uf  llm  aria  In 
thu  weat,  at  a  tiniu  when  tha  vaal  uf  Kurupa  wa*  sink- 
ing under  thu  preaturu  uf  barbarlain,  wu  uvm  Ilia  prai* 
ervallun  uf  nmch  that  waa  valuahla  In  Iha  atiilimt 
wurlil;  and,  among  uther  thinga,  that  uf  vi-rlalii  man- 
ufacturea  and  bmncliia  uf  cuinmirca,  i'unalanllnupla 
hud  all  along  ninintuiiiedacummarrial  lnli<ri'uursa  with 
Venice  and  uther  purta  In  lliily,  and,  In  gunaral,  with 
Alexandria.  Tlm  aanm  had  been  t|,a  laaii  In  raganl  tu 
India  ;  fur  when  the  uci  upuncy  uf  Kgypt  by  ihn  Hura- 
cells  prevented  the  trade  lu  India  <iY  tlm  lied  Mia,  It 
was  kept  up  by  thu  Cuaplan  and  Muxliia,  Hut  bv  far 
thu  ahurteat  couriu  from  llm  euat  uf  Kuriipa  lu  India  It 
by  tlm  Knphrates  and  tlm  IVralun  tiulf,  It  waa  tu  Iha 
extent  of  intercuurau  curried  on  liy  ihls  i.haniial,  aunia 
timo  after  thu  Cbriatlaii  era,  that  wv  ura  In  aairibn  llm 
weulth  and  grundunr  uf  ralmyra,  a  clly  artieted  In  Iha 
midst  uf  deserta.  Thia  wuuld  have  lunlliiutd  onii  uf 
the  chief  rentes  uf  cuminunicatiuii  butHueii  Knrupa  anil 
India  during  thu  MIddlu  Ages,  had  nut  llm  laravani 
been  in  perpetual  danger  frum  thu  Aralia  aflar  Ihn  da- 
clino  uf  thu  civilUed  guverniimnta  In  ilila  part  uf  Aala, 

I'lniri'. — Tlm  appreheiialun  ingenilnloil  by  ||h>  np' 
prouch  uf  barbnriuna  from  tlm  iiorlli  and  eaal,  led  a 
number  uf  traders  and  nninufiietnrura  aiillli'il  In  tha 
north  uf  Italy  tu  llx  their  fuinillua  In  llm  anmll  ialuiidi 
near  tho  months  of  thu  I'u,  Timrii  lliu  aurrunndllig 
waters  all'urdcd  them  a  degreu  uf  pruliu'llun  agalnat  In* 
viideis,  w  hu,  huwuver  furmiilablu  liy  land, had  nu  nieaiia 
of  carrying  on  hualilltlea  by  sea,  Much  Waa  llm  origin 
of  Venice,  a  city  situatud  in  tlm  nildal  uf  Uiv  watnra, 
and  destined  to  acqulru  exteiislvu  tradu  frum  Ihii  aceii' 
rity  attendant  on  her  pualtlun,  and  lu  laku  a  lead  amid 
tho  inurcantilu  states  uf  the  MIddlu  Agfa, 

The  gruwing  trudo  between  Kuropii  and  India, 
though  of  cunsiderablu  value,  w  aa  nut  uxtvnalVM  anuugh 
to  be  iiroductivu  of  tlm  wealth  aaurlliud  lu  It  by  I'r, 
liobortson  ami  other  hialorlana,  wliu,  unui'i|uaiiit«d 
practically  with  coinmercu  and  lla  IlinlUul  gains,  are 
ready  to  lend  an  car  to  tho  aangulns  •lalvtimnta  uf  rnr- 
ly  writers.  Thus  thu  wealth  uf  Venice,  luininunly  as- 
cribed  tu  its  trudo  with  Alexandria  und  India,  waa  Ilia 
conscc|Ucnco  of  a  variety  uf  cunaea,  nu  unx  lielng  uf  par- 
ticular iinportuncc,  becuusu  auverul  I'enturlua  weru  pnaa- 
edin  tho  gradual  incrcusu  of  ill  pupululhiM  and  capital, 
yenico  all'orded  a  securu  rcaort  in  agva  wlii'ii  utiiar 
countries  were  in  danger  uf  invaalun  and  pbindar,  it 
hud  also  a  prudent  guvcrnineiit  In  tiinas  wh  1..  In  must 
purls  of  Europe,  there  was  Utile  Idea  uf  u  fr'  1  •.nalilu- 
lion,  or  of  a  regular  adininlatratlun  uf  Juallip,  Vimlva 
was  in  this  state  when,  in  tho  twulflh  and  ihlrieMnth 
centuries,  the  Increase  of  trallic,  arialng  frum  1  nviylng 
tlie  crusaders,  with  ihuir  military  aluroa,  himI  llm  readU 
ness  of  Ihoso  zouluus  cumbatunts  lu  uxluiid  lliv  sway  nf 
a  Christian  state,  enabled  that  cuniniuri-'lal  ri'piilille  to 
increase  her  furuign  territories,  In  ganarnl,  thu  for- 
eign policy  of  Venice  waa  pacllle,  hut  alia  foiiml  It  dlf^ 
flcult  to  avoid  hostilitlea  with  tho  Turka,  iit  tu  «aca|i« 
(rom  taking  •  part  in  tha  repeated  eoDteiU  wbieb  took 


COM 


COM 


place  between  France  and  Austria  for  the  territory  of 
the  Hilaneiie.  Those  who  take  an  interest  In  tracing 
the  gradual  extension  of  industry  will  find  in  Venice 
the  origin  of  several  important  commercial  institulious. 
In  that  city  was  established  the  first  pablie  bank,  And 
there  also  was  first  introduced  a  funded  debt  transfera- 
ble from  hand  to  hand.  The  same  thing  held  in  re- 
gard to  lesser  matters  connected  with  the  details  of 
mercantile  business.  Bills  of  exchange,  If  not  invented 
by  Venetian  merchants,  were  first  carried  by  them  to  a 
great  extent ;  and  the  principles  of  book-keeping  by 
double  entry  were  there  first  understood  and  applied  in 
practice.  However  familiar  those  principles  may  bo 
to  merchants  of  the  present  day,  they  were  too  refined 
for  the  rude  and  primitive  state  of  roost  parts  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Spain. — Here  it  may  be  well  to  point  ont  the  fallacy 
of  a  notion  general  in  Spain,  and  not  uncommon  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  namely,  that  in  the  Middle  Ages 
Spain  was  a  flourishing  country,  and  possessed,  in  Tar- 
ragona, Tortosa,  and  Zaragoza,  great  population  and 
wealth,  each  of  these  towns  lieing  said  to  have  contain- 
ed several  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  This  sin- 
gular opinion  was  widely  spread,  in  consequence  of  the 
prominent  figure  made  by  Spain  in  the  politics  of  Eu- 
rope, in  the  reigns  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  It.  The 
public  did  not  take  into  account  the  great  addition  of 
power  conferred  on  Spain  by  hrr  possessions  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries ;  nor  were  there  in  these  days 
statisticians  capable  of  explaining  the  very  slow  man- 
ner in  which  either  cultivation  or  commerce  can  ac- 
quire extension  In  a  country  so  mountainous,  and  with 
•o  few  means  of  transport,  as  Spain.  Of  roads  she  can 
boast  only  the  few  that  are  required  for  the  purposes 
of  government,  the  cross-roads  being  little  more  than 
bridle  paths,  and  the  traffic  of  the  country  being  in  gcn- 
ral  carried  on  by  mules.  All  this  indicates  a  scanty 
population  and  backward  state  of  society,  as  has  been 
the  case  in  Spain  in  every  ago ;  for  there  is  no  truth  in 
the  traditionary  opinion  that  her  population  was  great- 
ly thinned  by  emigration  to  America.  The  numlwr  of 
persons  who  proceeded  annually  from  Spain  to  America 
never  exceeded  the  tenth  part  of  tliose  who  at  present 
go  annually  from  Ireland  to  Canada.  The  truth  is, 
that  the  power  of  Charles  V.  and  I'hilip  II.  vraa  great 
only  because  the  power  of  the  other  princes  of  Kuropc 
was  very  limited.  The  military  establishments  of  that 
«ge  were  quite  Insignificant  compared  to  those  of  the 
present  times. 

The  Ilantt  Toani. — One  of  tho  chief  features  in  mer- 
cantile history  during  tho  Middle  Ages  was  the  associ- 
ation of  towns  in  the  north  of  Europe  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  security  to  mercantile  property.  At  that  time 
the  diflTerent  countries  of  Europe  were  very  imperfectly 
governed ;  there  were  then  no  regular  posts  and  very 
fow  roads,  so  that  tho  means  of  redressing  grievances, 
or  of  making  communications  from  one  part  to  anoth- 
er, were  very  imperfect.  Too  much  has  been  said  of  the 
political  power  exercised  by  the  Hanse  Towns,  but  the 
association  was  of  great  use  in  protecting  individual 
property.  It  dated  ttom  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  originated  at  Lubeck,  a  sea-port,  which 
bad  not  in  those  days  more  population  or  wealth  than 
•t  present,  but  possessed  much  more  comparative  im.- 
portance,  because  very  fow  places  in  Europe  could  at 
that  time  boast  of  30,000  or  40,000  inhabitants.  The 
trade  between  the  Baltic  and  tLa  west  of  Germany  cen- 
tred in  the  harbor  of  Lubeck,  in  ages  when  navigators 
were  not  sufllciently  skilled  to  proceed  to  or  come  fh>m 
tho  Baltic  by  the  circuitous  route  of  the  Sound.  The 
association  of  the  Hanse  Towns  consisted  first  of  Lu- 
beck, Hamburg,  and  Brunswick,  but  soon  extended  to 
other  places — to  Amsterdam,  Dordt,  Cologne,  on  the 
'  one  side,  to  Dantzic,  Konigsberg,  Riga,  on  the  other. 
These  and  mony  smaller  towns,  to  the  number  of  sixty 
and  upward,  became  members  of  this  protecting  body, 
which  oontinned  in  a  state  of  union  daring  threo  cen- 


toriea.  At  the  end  of  that  time  It  wa«  gradnally  dia> 
solved,  not  by  any  violence  or  exercise  of  authority, 
but  by  the  continued  progress  of  civilization;  tho  di& 
ferent  governments  In  the  north  of  Europe  having  by 
that  time  acquired  the  power  of  protecting  their  mer- 
cantile subjects.  It  is  now  about  two  centuries  since 
the  association  of  the  Hanse  Towns  ceased  to  exist  ia 
a  comprehensive  sense;  and  for  a  considerable  time 
the  name  has  been  confined  to  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and 
Bremen,  Hamburg  took  the  lead  of  other  trading 
towns  of  the  north  of  Germany,  by  means  chiefly  of 
the  extent  of  its  river,  and  the  consequent  easy  com- 
munication with  the  sea  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  in- 
terior of  Germany  on  the  other.  It  gained  also  by  the 
improvement  of  navigation  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  when  vessels  ttom  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope found  it  no  longer  necessary  to  suspend  their  voy- 
age at  Bruges,  but  found  it  practicable,  and  even  easy, 
to  proceed  at  once  as  far  as  the  Elbe, 

The  Ntthei-landt. — The  wealth  and  possession  of  the 
Netherlands  belong,  like  tho  early  opulence  of  Tyre, 
and  tlie  magnitude  of  the  trade  of  Carthago,  to  the  re- 
matkablo  phenomena  of  mercantile  history.  To  judge 
from  tho  physical  aspect  of  Holland,  the  general  marsh- 
iness of  the  soil,  the  indiflTorent  climate,  and  the  total 
absence  of  mineral  products,  wo  should  bo  inclined  to 
consider  it  among  the  least  favored  countries  of  Eu- 
rope ;  but  all  these  advantages  were  balanced,  and 
more  than  balanced,  by  the  possession  of  extensive  wa- 
ter communication,  Ko  part  of  Europe  equals  Flanders 
and  Holland  in  extent  of  inlets  from  tho  sea,  in  the 
breadth  of  navigable  rivers,  or  in  the  ease  with  which 
canals  may  bo  excavated.  To  these  advantages,  much 
more  than  to  civil  instUutions,  wo  are  to  ascribe  tho 
early  prosperity  of  the  Netherlands ;  for  these  appai^- 
cntly  unpromising  countries  took  a  lead  in  civilization 
almost  as  remarkable  as  the  more  favored  regions  of 
tho  nortli  of  Italy,  That  they  were  not  so  early  in  the 
career  of  improvement,  was  owing  to  tho  comparative 
barbarism  of  tho  countries  in  the  north  of  Europe  with 
which  they  held  intercourse ;  wliilc  Italy  bad  commu- 
nication on  one  hand  with  Constantinople  and  the  EasU 
cm  empire,  on  the  other  hand  with  the  soutli  of  France, 
t)ie  west  of  Italy,  and  various  sea-ports  which  still  pre- 
served a  portion  of  ancient  civilization, 

Flanders  ■•  IloHand. — Tho  soil  of  Flanders,  without 
being  naturally  fertile,  was  more  easily  cultivated  than 
the  comparatively  marshy  districts  of  Holland.  Hence 
the  early  superiority  of  tho  Flemings  in  agriculture  and 
manufactures.  It  was  in  the  fourteentli  century  that 
tho  art  of  weaving  the  finer  woolens  was  introdnced 
fVom  Flanders  into  I'lif^land,  and  in  the  sixteenth  that 
we  derived  from  tho  same  quarter  many  useful  imports 
in  agriculture  and  gardening.  The  progress  of  tho 
Dutch  in  navigation  was  equally  remarkable.  Tho 
tiaese  and  Khine  enabled  them  to  bring  down  tho 
bulky  produce  of  the  interior,  such  as  timl)er,  com  or 
cattle,  to  their  own  coast,  as  well  as  to  carry  up  tliese 
rivers  to  the  inland  provinces  the  various  articles  of 
merchandise  imported  from  the  south  of  Europe.  Hence 
the  increase  of  Dordt  at  Ilotterdam.  The  rise  of  Am- 
sterdam was  owing  to  a  different  cause ;  to  the  extent 
of  the  Zuydcr  Zee  ;  to  tho  easy  access  which  that  ex- 
panse of  water  afforded  to  vessels  from  the  Elbe,  tho 
Weser,  and  the  Baltic. 

Bruget. — Bruges  owed  its  increase  to  its  adoption  as 
an  intermediate  port  for  vessels  from  the  north  and 
south  of  Europe.  A  voyage  from  tho  Mediterranean  to 
tho  Baltic  was  in  those  days  a  formidablo  undertak- 
ing ;  sea-faring  men  accounted  it  too  long  to  be  perform- 
ed out  and  home  in  one  season,  and  gladly  embraced 
the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  warehouses  of  Bruges 
for  landing  their  cargo  from  the  south,  and  taking  on 
board  another  from  the  north,  without  tho  dolay  of  a 
passage  through  the  Sound.  This  plan  of  dividing  the 
voyages  to  the  north  continued  during  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries ;  in  the  flfttenth  it  iu  a  great 


cou 


S8S 


COM 


niMsnra  ecaicd,  because  the  improTementa  in  seaman- 
ahip  made  it  easy  for  vessels  to  proceed  directly  to 
Hamburg,  Copenhagen,  and  other  northern  parts. 

Anttcerp. — Antwerp  succeeded  Bruges  as  the  station 
authorized  by  the  Hanso  Towns ;  but  its  prosperity  was 
mainly  owing  to  the  width  and  depth  of  the  Scheldt, 
-which  may  be  said  to  surpass  any  of  the  maritime  in- 
lets in  the  north  of  Europe.  The  time  of  the  chief  pros- 
perity of  Antwerp  was  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  its 
population  and  wealth  had  attained  a  great  height  for 
so  unimproved  an  age,  and  would  have  continued  to  in- 
crease, had  not  the  tyranny  of  Philip  II.  provoked  the 
Inhabitants  to  insurrection,  and  exposed  them  to  all 
the  evils  of  a  siege  and  capture  by  a  military  force. 
The  consequence  of  this  misfortune,  and  of  the  contin- 
ued intolerance  of  the  Spanish  government,  was  the  re- 
moval to  Amsterdam  of  many  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
of  a  groat  share  of  the  mercantile  business  of  Antwerp. 
In  the  next  century  the  Dutch  acquired  ip'cat  political 
weight,  and  toolc  advantage  of  it  to  prevent  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Scheldt,  that  Amsterdam  and  liotterdam 
might  possess  exclusively  the  trade  with  the  interior 
provinces.  This  singular  prohibition,  unexan.pled  in 
the  history  of  commerce,  remained  in  force  15U  years ; 
for  the  Scheldt  was  not  opened  to  merchant  vessels  un- 
til 1794,  when  the  Netherlands  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  France.  During  all  that  time  Antwerp  was  deprived 
of  the  benclit  of  foreign  trade;  its  population  ceased  to 
increase,  and  roinained  stationary  at  the  number,  on  an 
average,  of  60,000. 

Maritime  Route  to  India. — The  great  olyect  of  navi- 
gators in  the  fifteenth  century  was  to  reach  India  by 
the  ocean,  ami  to  curry  on  what  was  accounted  a  lu- 
crative traffic  without  interruption  from  the  Turks  or 
Arabs.  The  discoveries  required  for  this  purpose  were 
made  by  the  Portuguese,  who,  in  situation,  were  nearer 
than  other  Europeans  to  tlio  western  coust  of  Africa,  the 
line  necessarily  followed  by  those  who  aimed  at  rcacliiug 
India  by  a  now  course.  The  Portuguese  had  in  those 
days  more  tlutn  one  prince  of  the  blood  disposed  to  pat- 
ronize maritime  discovery ;  liut  their  seamen  were  very 
unskillful,  so  that  in  following  their  awkward  eflbrts  at 
discovery,  wo  And  season  after  season  passed  in  tracing 
the  unknown  part  of  the  coast  of  Africa  to  a  distance  of 
only  fifty  or  sixty  leagues.  This  inconceivable  slow- 
ness marked  the  navigation  of  the  Portuguese  in  their 
progress  toward  the  equator,  until,  in  1484,  they  ven- 
tured to  forsake  the  coast,  stood  out  to  tlie  open  ocean, 
and  penetrated  l&OO  miles  to  the  south  of  the  line. 
From  that  time  a  bolder  course  was  taken  by  these  ad- 
venturers, and  at  last  the  discovery  of  the  route  to 
India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  accomplished  in 
1497. 

Ditcottry  of  America. — The  discovery  of  America 
was  efl'ected  in  a  very  ditl'crent  manner.  Though  ac- 
complished by  Spanish  vessels,  the  honor  of  the  enter- 
prise belonged  more  properly  to  Italy ;  for  it  was  only 
in  a  country  accustomed  to  navigation,  and  possessing 
well-educated  mariners,  that  so  distant  a  voyage  could 
have  l)een  accounted  practicable.  Many  years  were 
passed,  as  is  well  known,  by  Columbus  in  forming  his 
plan,  and  soliciting  the  aid  re<iuircd  to  carry  it  into 
effect;  but,  once  embarked  in  the  attempt,  the  success 
was  speedy,  because  the  mind  of  the  conductor  was 
sufficiently  enlightened  to  persevere  in  the  voyage,  in- 
stead of  returning,  as  would  probably  have  been  done 
by  an  inferior  navigator  before  traversing  the  half  of 
the  Atlantic. 

AVo  now  come  to  the  sixteenth  centurj',  the  time 
when  the  productive  industry  of  Europe  received  a 
considerable  impulse  from  the  influx  of  the  precious 
metals  ttom  America.  >  At  that  time  the  chief  trading 
towns  of  Europe  were  in  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  and,  in 
a  much  less  degree,  in  France,  England,  and  Germany. 
In  the  latter  countries  the  towns  wore  very  small,  not 
being  peopled  to  the  extent  of  one  third  of  tlieir  pres- 
ent numbers.    Nothing  shows  more  clearly  the  back- 


wardness of  manufactures  in  that  age,  the  imperfect 
division  of  employment,  or  the  limited  communication 
between  one  province  and  another  There  vere  in 
those  days  few  lines  of  intercourse  entitled  to  the  name 
of  roads,  or  fit  for  conveying  com  or  merchandise  by 
wheel  carriages.  Even  in  countries  comparatively  lev- 
el, such  as  the  south  of  England,  the  north  of  France, 
the  north  of  Germany,  there  were  no  carriage  roads, 
and  goods  were  conveyed  on  the  backs  of  mules  and 
horses,  in  the  same  manner  as  over  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  Alps.  Nor  were  there  in  that  time  post- 
office  establishments  for  the  service  of  either  govern- 
ments or  merchants. 

An  increase  in  town  population  is  the  best  evidence 
of  improvement  in  agriculture,  as  in  commerce.  In  a 
rude  state  of  cultivation,  the  la))or  of  seventy  or  eighty 
persons  is  required  to  raise  provisions  for  a  hundred ; 
so  that  three  fourths  of  the  inhebitanta  are  obliged  to 
live  in  country  districts,  for  the  mere  purpose  of  rais- 
ing subsistence.  But  as  machinery  and  implements 
become  improved,  and  the  art  of  husbandry  is  better  un- 
derstood, the  fanner  can  render  more  effectual  the  labor 
of  himself  and  his  assistants ;  there  remains  a  greater 
surplus  of  provibions  for  the  support  of  the  inhabitants 
of  towns;  and  somewhat  more  of  the  population  are 
enabled  to  attach  themselves  to  employments  distinct 
from  agriculture,  namely,  those  of  mechanics  and  man- 
ufactures. To  this  improved  condition  Europe  was 
slowly  advancing,  when  the  discovery  of  the  silver 
mines  of  America  had  tlie  effect  of  materially  quicken- 
ing its  ]>rogress.  This  renders  it  proper  to  make  a  few 
remarks  on  the  supply  of  gold  and  silver  in  early  ages. 

The  precious  Metals. — It  is  somewhat  singular  that 
Egypt,  a  country  never  remarkable  for  mines  in  its 
own  territory,  should  have  been  among  the  first  to  give 
an  example  of  mining  on  a  large  scale.  But  the  Egyp- 
tians had  extended  their  conquests  to  the  southward, 
where,  in  the  mountains  of  Nubia,  there  were  extensive 
mining  districts.  In  these,  as  in  the  mines  of  other 
parts  of  the  world,  masses  of  ore  contained  only  par- 
ticles of  silver,  and  the  task  of  raising  the  ore  to  the 
surface  was  very  laborious.  This  was  performed  in 
the  Nubian  mines  with  little  aid  from  machinery,  and 
chiefly  by  manual  labor,  as  is  still  the  case  in  many 
parts  nf  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America.  The  next  ac- 
counts of  mining  in  ancient  history  relate  to  Greece, 
where,  from  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country, 
the  mines  were  nmuerous,  though  not  particularly  pro- 
ductive. They  were  wrought  in  Attica,  Thrace,  and 
several  of  the  islands.  The  laborerswere  paid  partly  in 
money,  partly  in  provisions ;  and  the  accounts  handed 
down  to  us  by  Greek  writers  show  that  mining,  like 
agriculture,  afforded  a  fair  return  for  the  capital  and 
labor  employed,  but  no  remarkable  profit.  Spain  in 
those  times,  as  at  present,  was  remarkable  for  exten- 
sive mining ;  as  were  in  a  less  degree  Sardinia,  Corsi- 
ca, and  the  small  island  of  Elba. 

Such  undertakings  were  long  carried  on  for  the  pub- 
lic account;  but  toward  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  the  Koman  government  withdrew  from  most 
of  its  mining  establishments,  allowing  individuals  to 
carry  them  on  for  their  own  account.  The  quantity 
of  gold  and  silver  in  circulation  appears  to  have  sub- 
sequently decreased ;  but  we  are  greatly  at  a  loss  for 
correct  information  in  regard  either  to  the  state  of 
mines  or  the  prices  of  commodities,  as  represented  in 
money,  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Jn^ii  qf  Silcerfrom  America. — It  is  now  three  cen- 
turies since  the  importation  of  silver  from  America,  in 
particular  from  Mexico  and  Peru,  amounted  at  first  to 
iialf  a  million  annually,  and  increased  to  one,  and  af- 
terward to  two  millions.  This  sum  was  such  as  to  af- 
fect the  prices  of  com,  labor,  and  merchandise  general- 
ly. It  caused  a  gradual  rise  of  prices,  carried  to  the 
greatest  length  hi  maritime  districts,  in  parts  connect- 
ed -with  each  other  by  navigation.  The  published 
works  of  the  sixteenth  century  contain  many  noticea 


COM 


884 


COM 


of  the  riae  In  the  price  of  commodities,  and  of  the  in- 
convenience resulting  to  the  consumers  from  such  rise : 
the  advantages  to  agriculturists  and  producers  general- 
ly were  not  so  clearly  perceived,  or  the  humble  classes 
ei\)oying  them  had  not  equal  means  of  stating  them 
to  the  public.  The  supplies  of  gold  and  silver  from 
America  to  Europe  continued  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  during  the  sixteenth ;  yet  their  etfect  was  not  so 
great  for  several  reasons.  First,  the  number  of  per- 
sons among  whom  silver  now  circulated  was  far  great- 
er than  formerly.  Gold  also  had  become  more  com- 
mon, and  began  to  form  the  chief,  or  almost  the  sole 
medium  for  large  payments ;  and,  lastly,  the  use  of  sil- 
ver for  plate,  jewelry,  watches,  and  other  ornamental 
purposes,  increased  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  im- 
proved circumstances  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes. 
There  remained  thus  less  silver  to  add  to  the  coin  in 
circulation. 

Bank-noiea. — It  was  in  the  eighteenth  century,  par- 
ticularly after  1750,  that  the  use  of  bank-notes  became 
general  in  England,  and  subsequently  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  This  may  be  compared  in  its  ef- 
fect on  prices  to  an  additional  supply  of  gold  from  the 
mine,  because  its  tendency  to  raise  prices  is  consider- 
able, though  not  so  great  as  is  vulgarly  supposed ;  be- 
cause bank  paper  payable  in  cash  on  demand,  of 
which  alone  we  speak,  can  never  be  unduly  extended. 
Bank-notes  have  as  yet  obtained  little  currency  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe ;  but  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  North  America,  their  eflbct  on  prices  may  be  naid 
to  have  been  similar  to  that  of  the  importation  of  the 
precious  metala  from  America.  In  cither  case,  the  con 
sequence  was  a  rise  in  the  money  price  of  corn,  and 
commodities  generally.  To  comprehend  the  benefit 
of  such  rise,  wo  should  consider  society  as  divided  into 
two  great  parts ;  the  producing  and  the  ncn-producing 
classes.  The  latter  consist  of  capitalists,  landholders, 
or  fixed  annuitants ;  the  former  of  farmers,  especially 
tenants  on  lease,  manufacturers,  merchants,  and,  in 
general,  all  persons  who  carry  on  business  with  borroW' 
ed  capital.  If  a  tenant  on  lease  continue  to  pay  during 
twenty-one  years  the  same  rent,  while  the  market  price 
of  his  crops  experiences  a  progressive  rise,  it  follows 
that  his  circumstances  will  improve.  Thus,  on  the  aug- 
mented importation  of  silver  from  America  to  Great 
Britain,  which  began  three  centuries  ago,  there  took 
place  a  slow  but  steady  rise  in  prices,  the  etikct  of 
which  was  of  great  advantage  to  agriculturists,  in  par- 
ticular to  those  who  held  land  on  lease.  The  yeoman 
who  was  cautious  and  persevering  thus  laid  the  found- 
ation of  a  little  property,  the  next  generation  a(!ded  to 
it,  and  the  third  rose  from  the  condition  of  cottagers  to 
that  of  farmers.  This,  or  something  like  this,  was  the 
course  of  circumstances  in  England,  during  the  chief 
part  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. If  the  efibct  was  at  no  time  very  great,  it  was 
continued  and  progressive ;  for  we  can  trace  no  great 
or  general  decline  in  the  price  of  agricultural  produce 
until  the  general  pe^ce  of  1814. 

Trade  of  Great  JirUain. — The  trado  and  navigation 
of  Groat  Britain,  great  as  it  now  is  in  extent,  did  not 
by  any  means  make  an  early  figure  in  the  commercial 
history  of  Europe.  Of  this  the  principal  cause  was  the 
thinness  of  her  papulation  compared  to  that  of  the  north 
of  Italy  or  the  Netherlands,  and  the  consequent  insig- 
niflcancu  of  her  towns.  The  slow  progress  in  trade  is 
also  to  be  ascribed  to  political  causes,  to  the  civil  trou- 
bles originating  with  the  great  barons,  tho  fhiquent 
wars  with  France,  and  still  more  to  the  long  and  san- 
guinary contests  in  the  fifteenth  century,  respecting  the 
rival  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster.  It 
was  not  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  little  more  than 
throe  centuries  ago,  that  the  advantages  arising  from 
the  extant  of  coast  and  abundance  of  fuel  began  to  be 
brought  into  active  operation.  During  the  reign  of 
U*  McoeiMr,  the  prograw  of  improTeiaaut  racelved  ]!(• 


intercourse  was  moi 
fined  to  the  East  Ind  . 


tie  patronage  'Wim  the  court,  but  a  most  efficient  indi- 
rect aid  from  i\\a  introduction  of  Protestantism.  The 
advantages  rcsu:  jing  from  that  happy  change,  and  the 
development  of  national  industry,  were  strongly  dis- 
played during  the  long  reign  of  Elizabeth,  under  the 
wise  adniiuistration  of  Cecil.  At  that  time,  also,  was 
felt  the  benefit  arising  to  the  productive  classes,  from 
the  augmented  import  of  gold  and  silver  from  America. 
Exporti  to  North  America. — A  striking  feature  in  the 
trade  of  England,  compared  to  that  of  France,  Germa- 
,  ny,  and  other  Continental  countries,  is  the  magnitude 
of  its  exports  to  distant  parts,  such  as  India,  North 
America,  and  the  West  Indies.  These  different  branch- 
es of  trade  employ  a  number  of  seamen,  and  make  a 
conspicuous  figure  in  the  list  of  yearly  cxportii.  Thej' 
are  considered  as  the  pillars  of  commercial  prosperity; 
but  those  who  estimate  them  so  highly  have  no  idea  of 
tho  large  sums  of  capital  that  have  been  withdrawn 
by  each  of  these  countries  from  England.  The  Unit- 
ed States  of  America  consumed  English  manufactures 
largely  for  nearly  a  century,  but  in  no  one  year  did 
we  remit  back  to  Great  Britain  the  full  value  of  the 
articles  which  wo  imported.  Tho  amount  due  from  tho 
United  States  to  England  has  exceeded  the  general 
estimate,  and  is  known  only  to  the  merchants,  who  feel 
the  deduction  thus  made  from  their  pecuniary  means. 
A  similar  drain  has  long  been  made  by  her  West  India 
.colonics,  but  in  a  Xc"'  ''^.^ree,  until  within  these  fifty 
years,  since  which  r'"! .  ,    rawnfrom  England  has 

amounted  to  many  m  Vith  India  commercial 

.  uad  the  exports,  con- 
ii.pany  and  to  a  few  mercan- 
tile houses  in  London,  were  on  a  comparatively  small 
scale  until  tho  present  ago,  during  wliich  the  extension 
of  the  private  trade  from  Liverpool,  and  tho  advance 
of  capital  on  indigo  plantations,  made  the  India  busi- 
ness assume  a  considerable  resemblance  to  that  with 
North  America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  real  and 
substantial  benefit  arising  from  commerce  takes  place 
At  home,  and  shows  itself  in  the  extension  of  manufac- 
tures, the  increase  of  towns,  the  improvement  of  roads, 
canals,  and  harbors. 

Of  the  Course  of  trade  in  Great  Britain  during  tho 
last  half  century,  tho  following  is  a  brief  summary. 
After  the  peace  with  the  United  States  of  America  in 
1783,  her  trade  suffered  for  some  time  by  the  transition 
from  war  to  peace,  but  gradually  improved ;  and  in  tho 
years  1789, 1790, 1791, 1792,  was  decidedly  prosperous. 
After  this  came  tho  war  with  France,  which  was  at 
first  injurious  to  trade,  but  after  the  abundance  of  mon- 
ey consequent  on  the  extended  circulation  of  bank 
paper  in  1797,  assumed  a  very  different  appearance, 
and  seemed  to  bring  a  yearly  addition  to  the  national 
wealth.  This  ostensible  increase  of  profits  was  kept  up 
during  the  chief  part  of  the  war,  but  at  the  peace  tlic 
state  of  circumstances  underwent  a  complete  change ; 
the  transition  was  great  beyond  example ;  prices  fell  in 
every  department  of  business,  and  the  year  1816  was 
among  the  most  gloomy  in  the  commercial  history.  A 
revival  of  trade  took  place  in  1817  and  1818,  but  it  was 
succeeded  by  a  long  depression.  In  1823  trade  revived 
once  more ;  in  1824  it  became  prosperous,  and  in  1825 
afforded  a  striking  example  of  the  abuse  of  mercantile 
prosperity ;  at  the  end  of  that  year  a  general  fall  of 
prices,  and  afterward  the  heavy  calls  to  meet  the  ex- 
penses of  the  late  gigantic  railway  undertakings,  ag- 
gravated by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  of  1846,  oc- 
casioned the  greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  pecuniary 
accommodation,  and  led  to  tho  crisis  of  1847. 

Effect  of  War  Expenditure.— ¥rom  the  ease  with 
which  money  was  borrowed  by  tho  government  of 
Great  BriUin  during  the  eighteenth  century,  the  wars 
carried  on  were  both  of  frequent  occurrence  and  on  a 
scale  of  great  expense.-  The  result  was  a  continued  in- 
•rease  of  debt  and  taxation ;  but  the  burden  did  not  ap- 
pear beyond  her  means,  until  the  unprecedented  length 
to  which  it  WM  carried  by  the  wan  of  1798  and  1803. 


:/ 


COM 


Both  took  place  under  the  ministr}'  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and 
the  extreme  to  which  he  allowed  expenditure  to  be  car- 
ried was  the  more  remarkalile  when  wo  consider  hia 
long  experience  in  finance,  and  that  from  the  time  of 
his  coming  into  office  his  attention  was  given  to  the 
state  of  the  trade  and  revenue.  Several  of  his  early 
measures,  such  as  the  commutation  of  the  duty  on  tea, 
and  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  in  1786,  were 
entitled  to  great  commendation.  A  similar  opinion  is 
not  now  entertained  of  his  revival  of  the  sinking  fund; 
and  it  was  in  an  evil  hour  that  he  allowed  himself 
to  be  diverted  from  his  pacific  course  by  the  urgency 
of  the  aristocracy  and  his  sovereign  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  Frencli  revolutionists.  Unfortunately  the 
atrocities  of  these  men,  the  endless  usurpations  of  Bona- 
parte, and,  above  all,  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  un- 
checked issue  of  bank  paper,  carried  the  expenditure 
to  an  unprecedented  height. 

In  the  midst  of  ihis  hazardous  career,  the  death  of 
Mr.  I'itt,  and  the  removal  from  office  of  his  immediate 
successors,  transferred  the  management  of  British  tii  an- 
ces  to  the  hands  of  men  wholly  unequal  to  the  task:  of 
men  unconscious  of  the  precarions  nature  of  paper  cur- 
rcncy,  and  of  the  danger  of  such  measures  as  a  stop- 
page of  neutral  navigation,  or  a  war  with  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  consequence  wos  a  deprecia- 
tion of  the  bank  paper  during  five  years,  an  enormous 
waste  of  the  public  money,  and  a  burden  on  the  coun- 
try of  unparalleled  amount.  A  state  of  war  is  attend- 
ed by  a  great  demand  for  the  6er^-ico  of  individuals,  as 
well  in  the  army  ond  navy  as  in  the  public  offices.  A 
great  number  of  persons  are  thus  withdrawn  from  pro- 
ductive employment,  and  the  consequence  is  an  in- 
crease of  the  wages  and  incomes  of  those  who  remain 
80  employed,  as  well  as  bringing  into  activity  a  number 
of  persons  wlio  in  a  season  of  peace  would  hardly  have 
been  accounted  worthy  of  employment.  A  rise  in  the 
price  of  com  and  other  produce  is  another  consequence 
of  a  state  of  war ;  this  leads  to  a  rise  of  rent ;  a  rise  of 
rent  to  increased  e.\penditure  on  the  part  of  the  land- 
lord ;  and  that  to  a  geaeral  activity  and  continued  em- 
ployment of  working  classes.  Such  was  the  condition 
of  Great  Britain  during  the  twenty  years  from  1794  to 
1814,  while  in  the  twenty  years  that  followed  the  peace 
there  was  a  corresponding  decline,  and  then  a  gradual 
return  to  higher  prices.  The  fall  in  the  price  of  prod- 
uce lowered  rents,  and  greatly  lessened  the  income  of 
the  upper  classes ;  hence  a  contracted  expenditure,  and 
a  want  of  employment  for  the  lower  orders.  All  this 
exemplifies  tin;  i>rccarious  nature  of  such  a  riso  of 
prices  as  took  ])lace  in  the  late  wars,  and  will,  more 
than  any  other  argument,  confirm  the  public  in  an  ad- 
herence to  peace. 

Vecrenn  cftheprtcions  ifdalt. — The  supply  of  gold 
and  silver  from  America  to  Europe  continued  regular- 
ly to  increase  until  the  year  1810,  since  which  the  dis- 
orders in  Spanish  America,  particularly  in  Mexico, 
shortened  the  supply  from  that  quarter  by  at  least  one- 
half.  Mr.  Jacob,  in  his  work  on  the  precious  metals, 
calculated  the  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  circulating 
coin,  during  the  twenty  years  that  succeeded  the  peace 
of  1814,  at  not  less  than  20  per  cent.  This  decrease  in 
the  supply  of  the  precious  metals  must  have  had  some 
effect  in  lowering  the  prices  of  commodities,  but  to  what 
extent  it  is  not  possible,  with  our  imperfect  data,  to 
form  an  opinion.  But  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Califor- 
nia in  1848,  and  in  Australia  in  1861,  has  not  only  made 
up  for  any  deficiency  in  the  supplies  from  other  quar- 
ters, but  from  these  two  countries  alone  there  has  been 
furnished  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  the  entire  an- 
nual produce  of  the  precious  metals  from  all  ports  of 
the  world  in  the  most  productive  periods  nf  their  work- 
ing. The  effect  of  this  has  beeu  to  raise  wages  and 
prices  very  largely  both  in  Europ*  ind  America,  and 
to  give  a  great  stimulus  to  emigration  from  Britain, 
and  especially  from  Ireland,  and  to  some  extent  fh>m 
Qermau}-.— iSM  Emiokatiok. 
Bb 


COM 


Fm  Trade.— In  1846  Sir  Robert  Peel  abolished  th« 
customs  duties  on  420  different  articles.  This  measure 
was  a  virtual  abandonment  of  the  system  of  protection, 
which  was  shortly  after  followed  by  the  total  repeal  of 
the  com  laws. 

Progmt  of  American  Commerce. — The  sixteenth  cen« 
tury  introduced  the  leading  European  powers  to  a  nit' 
nute  acquaintance  with  the  continent  of  America.  Ad- 
ventu.'ous  navigation  had  rescued  a  world  from  savage 
dominion,  and  there  were  adventurous  spirits  enough 
to  people  that  world,  and  identify  thenceforward  their 
destinies  with  it.  A  hundred  years  after,  and  civiliza* 
tion  planted  her  abodes  through  all  this  waste.  Pe- 
culiar, indeed,  is  the  feeling  with  which  these  infant 
days  of  our  country  arc  regarded,  so  like  an  illusion  doe* 
it  seem^BO  like  a  dream  of  glowing  imagery.  We  look 
back  OS  to  a  classic  era,  and  the  romance  of  Pocahon- 
tas, and  of  Raleigh,  of  Fernando  de  Soto,  and  Juan 
Ponce  de  Leon,  do  they  thrill  us  less  than  the  bcatifio 
visions  of  the  Greek,  recurring  to  ages  long  ago,  when 
Ilion  resisted  the  shock  of  Agamemnon's  heroes,  and 
the  Argo  sailed  away  to  distant  Colchis?  The  dim 
antiquity  seems  gathered  around  both  of  them  alike. 
But  let  it  pass,  all — the  romance  of  our  history.  They 
imagined  not,  the  men  of  that  day  imagined  not  the 
stupendous  results  w  liich  have  occurred  so  soon.  They 
saw  not  the  benign  and  regenerating  influences  of  a 
virgin  land,  preserved  for  countless  ages  uncormpted 
by  tyranny,  and  ignorant  of  o]  pression.  Could  such 
a  soil  have  nurtured  else  than  freemen  ?  They  saw  it 
not,  and  do  we— even  we — see  other  than  darkly  j-et 
the  great  consummation,  the  mighty  destinies  of  the 
regions  which,  three  cer.turies  ago,  were  proclaimed 
from  the  mast-h'jau  ui  a  crazy  ocean  bark,  a  speck  upon 
the  distant  her  /un  ? 

The  development  of  American  character  is  replete 
with  instruction,  and  solves  one  of  the  roost  remarka- 
ble problems  in  the  history  of  mankind.  The  untried 
scenes  of  a  new  world,  cut  off  by  trackless  oceans  from 
contact  and  communion  with  the  civilization  of  unnum- 
bered generations,  were  sufficient  to  introduce,  what 
might  have  been  predicted  of  them,  results  new,  strik- 
ing, and  without  a  precedent.  The  indomitable  will, 
the  stern  endurance,  the  inflexible  and  hard;  |<irit  of 
independence,  the  high  daring,  the  lofty  patriotism,  the 
adventurous,  unlimited  enterprise,  the  genius  resolute, 
active,  intrepid ;  inexhaustible  in  resources,  elastic  in 
vigor  and  in  freshness,  buoyant  ever  and  hoping  on, 
and  executing  amid  every  trying  scene,  every  danger, 
and  difficulty,  and  disaster — triumphing  every  where 
and  in  all  things.  Philosophy  could  have  argued  this 
complexion  for  the  men  whose  fathers  braved  so  much 
beyond  the  ocean,  and  would  philosophy  have  won  less 
than  the  fame  of  prophecy  by  her  judgment  7 

But  we  pause  not  here  to  lament  the  causes  which 
have  counteracted  these  genial  influences, and  left  whole 
regions  of  America  stagnated,  as  it  were,  in  the  very 
elements  of  vitality  and  yet  living  hopelessly  on. 
Should  we  refer  to  Mexico  and  the  South  American 
States  ?  What  is  there  here  of  progress  to  chronicle, 
and  how  much  of  humiliation  ?  Regions  blessed  by 
Heaven  in  every  thing  but  in  men.  Changing  ever 
their  dynasties  and  their  despots  in  revolution  and  in 
blood.  In  motion  always,  without  progress.  In  arms, 
without  valor.  Loving  change  rather  than  hating  op- 
pressors. Proclaiming  civilization  and  annihilating 
its  advances.  The  bitterness  of  Voltaire's  sneer  has  no 
cruelty  or  injustice  in  its  application  to  many  of  them, 
"  enpatuanl  ks  chetmux  de  leuri  maitres  ils  »e  donnent  h 
litre  d'electeurs  det  roit  et  de  deetnutettra  det  tyrant!" 
Under  Heaven,  as  it  was  the  destiny  of  the  savage  ab- 
original, incapable  of  civilization,  and  with  no  law  of 
progress  ingrafted  upon  his  nature,  to  fado  away  before 
the  steady  advances  of  European  arms  and  policy,  so 
the  Anglo-Saxon  element  of  America,  by  its  flexibility 
and  its  power,  by  the  new  elements  which  it  has  taken 
to  itself  in  the  trying,  yet  triumphant  scenei  throagh 


COM 


886 


COM 


which  it  hat  passed,  v/ill  and  must,  i<i  the  inevitable 
001  ie  of  events,  preside  over  the  destinies  of  the  conti- 
nen  of  America,  aiding  and  directing  them,  adding 
life  and  vitality,  rousing  dormant  and  sleeping  ener- 
gies, and  developing,  upon  the  theatre  of  the  world, 
Diovements  in  comparison  with  which  all  that  history 
can  furnish  before  the  deluge,  before  the  era  of  Christ, 
I  d  since,  shall  dwindle  into  insigniticance !  It  needs 
po  ardent  temperament  to  draw  a  stronger  picture. 

American  Commerce  in  (he  tevent  tntk  Century. — The 
<aa\y  colonists  were  exposed  for  a  fearful  probation  to 
the  most  extraordinary  vicissitudes  and  necessities. 
With  the  itxe  in  one  hand  they  reduced  the  sturdy  for- 
•ata  into  the  farm-yard,  and  with  the  knife  in  the  other 
they  resisted  the  approaches  of  the  stealthy  and  san- 
guinary savage.  A  meagre  subsistence  rewarded  the 
toils  that  kuew  no  rest,  and  the  charities  of  the  mother 
oountiy  were  invoked  for  men  whose  determined  wills 
grew  stronger  as  they  suffered.  This  period  had  its 
ditferent  limits.  Fifteen  years  after  the  landing  of 
William  Sale,  we  find  the  proprietary  government  in 
England  complaining  to  the  Carolinas,  "  wo  n.ust  be 
silly  indeed  to  maintain  idle  men."  Thirty-three  years 
after  the  landing  of  Bienville  in  Louisiana,  the  West- 
ern Company  threw  up  their  charter  in  utter  hopeless- 
ness and  despair. 

New  England's  rugged  soil  yielded  a  too  reluctant 
tribute  to  the  industry  of  her  sons.  They  went  out 
early  upon  the  ocean  by  wWch  ilioy  wcro  girt  in  search 
of  bread  that  thu  plol^  yielded  not.  To  this  hardy  and 
daring  people  the  Ijoons  of  Nature  were  to  be  found  in 
bar  apparent  denial  of  tliem  all. 

The  seventeenth  century  aftbrds  us,  however,  but  a 
few  particulars  of  the  trade  which  had  been  started  in 
the  colonies.  That  it  was  limited  can  be  readily  im- 
agined; that  it  should  be  worthy  of  uny  regard  at  all, 
is  the  only  source  of  surprise.  The  materials  of  this 
portion  of  our  history  arc  meagre.  It  is  sufficient  that, 
in  1647,  a  trade  had  been  opened  from  the  Northern 
port'  to  Barbadoes  and  others  of  the  West  Indies ;  that 
s  collector  of  the  customs  was  appointed  at  Charleston 
in  1685,  and  that  the  hardy  enterprises  of  the  Nan- 
tucket whalemen  received  their  first  impulse  in  16U0. 

American  Commerce  from  1700  lo  the  Revolution. — In 
the  year  1731  we  find  a  petition  read  ir.  Parliament  from 
the  American  colonies  that  the  African  trade  bo  thence- 
forward laid  open  to  them.  In  the  name  Parliament 
it  was  conceded  that  the  whole  gain  of  the  mother 
country  from  the  trade  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  alone 
amounted  annually  to  £180,C'M).  Tho  Pcnnsylvanians 
were  exporting  corn  to  Spain  and  to  Portugal,  and  with 
the  proceeds  of  their  ships  and  cargoes  selecting  out 
merchandise  in  the  English  markets.  To  the  Dutch 
alone  'loy  sold  oOOO  pistoles  annually  in  liquor  and 
provi  They  had  their  invoices  to  Surinam,  and 

Hispu  , 'la,  the  West  Indies,  Canaries,  Newfoundland, 
and  the  other  colonics,  and  £150,000  from  the  proceeds 
to  traffic  in  Britain.  "New  York,"  «ay»  a  chronicle 
of  this  epoch,  "sendafcwerships  to  England  than  some 
other  colonies  d>>,  but  those  they  do  send  are  richer,  as 
dealing  more  in  furs  and  skins  with  the  Indians,  and 
they  are  at  least  of  equal  advantage  to  England  with 
those  of  Pennsylvania.  The  soil  of  New  England  is 
not  unlike  that  of  Britain.  Ti  employs  about  40,000 
tons  of  shipping,  and  about  600  sail  of  ships,  sloops,  etc., 
about  half  which  shipping  sails  to  Europe."  Now  be- 
gan the  parent'8  jealousy  of  her  oflkpring.  Nothing,  it 
was  said  in  Parliament,  nothing  is  more  prejudicial, 
and  in  prospect  more  danscroiis  to  any  mother  king- 
dom than  the  increase  of  shir.ping  in  her  colonies.  The 
only  use  of  colonies,  added  Lord  Sheffield,  is  the  mo- 
nopoly of  their  consumption  and  the  carriage  of  their 
produce.  In  1780  the  Commons  of  England  struck  an 
inefrcctual  blcv  at  the  American  trade  with  the  French 
and  Dutch  colonics,  it  having  lieen  represented  to  them 
a*  greatly  detrimental  to  England  and  her  colonies. 
In  7.782  a  writer  gravely  announced  that  the  con- 


venience of  the  Americana  from  the  plenty  of  beavers, 
hare,  coney  wool,  and  many  utiier  furs,  gave  them  such 
advantages  that,  unless  restrained,  they  would  soon 
supply  all  the  world  with  hat).  The  Board  of  Trade 
of  the  same  year  report  that  there  are  more  trades  car- 
ried on  and  manufactures  set  up  in  the  provinces  on  the 
continent  of  America,  northward  of  Virginia,  prejudi- 
cial to  the  trade  and  nianfactures  of  Great  Britain  than 
in  any  other  of  the  British  colonies.  In  1760  the  Amer- 
icans were  forbidden  to  work  in  iron,  and  Lord  Chat- 
ham declared  not  long  after  in  Parliament  that  the  col- 
onies of  North  America  had  not  even  the  right  of  man- 
ufacturing a  nail.  So  stringent  had  become  the  pro- 
tective policy. 

In  1764  was  imposed  an  onerous  burden  upon  Amer- 
ican commerce  by  the  mother  country,  grown  jealous 
of  its  too  great  extension.  This  commerce  had  great- 
ly enriched  the  home  as  well  as  the  colonial  govern- 
ment, but  the  former  was  too  much  blinded  by  erro- 
neous i:ol!cy  to  perceive  it.  She  heeded  not  the  annu- 
al purchases  made  in  hor  markets  with  tho  avails  of 
lumber,  beef,  fish,  pork,  butter,  horses,  poultry,  live- 
stock, tobacco,  corn,  flour,  bread,  cider,  apples,  cab- 
bages, onions,  etc..  disposed  of  by  our  traders  to  tlio 
eager  West  India  planters;  and  Lord  Sheffieldj  in  his 
oluervations  on  the  commerce  of  the  American  States, 
tells  us  that  at  this  time  the  Carolinians,  of  their  ex- 
ports to  Kingston,  Jamaica,  took  back  one-half  in  tho 
produce  of  that  rountr}',  the  middle  provinces  one- 
fourth,  New  England  one-tenth,  and  tho  balance  in  spe- 
cie dollars.  The  trade  of  Britain  with  the  American 
colonies  employed  in  1769,  1078  ships,  and  28,t)10  sea- 
men. Tho  valuo  of  her  imports  from  them  for  that 
year  amounted  to  £3,370,000,  and  of  their  imports  from 
her  to  £8,724, flOU,  showing  a  Inrgo  difference  in  favcr 
of  the  parent  country. 

In  1770  tho  imports  of  Carolina  were  £635,714,  thoso 
of  New  England  £564,034,  of  Mar}-land  and  Virginia 
£851,140,  the  exports  of  Virginia  at  (he  aamo  time  be- 
ing double  the  value  of  thoso  of  either  of  tho  9tlicrs 
named.  Mr.  Burko  triumphantly  announced  in  tho 
House  of  Commons,  "  Our  trade  with  America  is  scarce- 
ly less  than  that  wo  carried  on  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century  with  the  whole  world !  In  the  six  years  end- 
ing with  1774  there  was  an  average  import  from  tho 
colonics  into  England  of  £1,752,142,  and  an  average 
export  to  them  in  turn  of  £2,7S2,0S6.  Crippled  as  our 
energies  wero,  they  could  not  be  repressed.  It  was  a 
vain  effort  to  contino  the  enterprise  of  a  people  whose 
views  embraced  tho  world  itself,  into  tho  narrow  com- 
pass affbrdcd  by  English  ports,  and  by  portions  of  Eu- 
rope southward  of  Cape  Finisterro.  When  the  day  of 
reckoning  came,  ui  it  did  at  last,  for  these  reckless 
abuses  of  power,  and  they  were  proclaimed  in  the  bill 
of  rights,  not  tho  least  of  the  us,  rpations  for  wl'.ich  ret- 
ribution was  demanded  is  to  bo  found  in  tho  clause : 
'  She  has  cut  ofl'  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  tho 
worid.'" 

In  the  article  Colonies  a  table  will  be  fotind  com- 
piled from  the  most  authentic  sources,  which  exhibits 
the  trnde  of  the  mother  country  during  the  whole  of  tho 
periods  we  have  been  considering;  the  table  is  of  great 
interest,  embracing  as  it  does  in  one  view  almost  the 
entire  commerce  of  America  for  seventy-six  years. 

From  these  statistics  we  learn  the  relative  commer- 
cial position  of  the  different  provinces.  Dividing  tho 
whole  time  embraced  into  periods  of  twcnty-fivo  years 
each,  we  observe  in  the^r»<  period  that  Virginia,  Ma- 
irland,  and  Carolina  furnish  almost  the  entire  export!), 
and  import  much  more  largely  than  Now  England  and 
New  York.  In  the  tecond  period  New  York  greatly 
increases  her  imports,  which  still  fall  short  of  those  of 
New  England,  or  Virginia  and  Maryland,  while  her 
exports  are  enhandd  but  little.  The  whole  exports 
of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  England  com- 
bined did  not  reach  the  amount  of  those  of  Carolina 
singly.    In  the  third  period  Pennsylvania  imports  more 


glish  ( 


ITst . 
17S6. 
I7M. 
1787. 
1T88. 
1T89. 

vm . 

Comm 
and  unti 
men  and 
and  ther 
much  in 
and  into 
and  unio 
fortunes, 
first  grar 
Constitui 
eiff^  naiit 
dians." 
cd  under 
serves,  ' 
ing  claim 
and  (he 
men  ted 
struggles 
and  mark 
The  finam 
to  use  the 
each  statt 
or  conven 
the  confcd 
ready  to  i 
its  ruins. 


COM 


887 


COM 


_,  found  com- 
hicli  exhibits 
1  whole  of  the 
l)le  19  of  great 
w  almost  the 
lix  years, 
itivo  comtncr- 
Diviiling  the 
nty-five  j'oars 
Virginia,  Mn- 
ntirc  exports, 
England  and 
York  greatly 
jrt  of  those  of 
nd,  while  her 
whole  exports 
England  com- 
se  of  Carolina 
import*  more 


largely  than  New  York,  bat  less  than  New  England ; 
the  Southern  provinces  retain  their  rank  aa  exporters, 
Carolina  being  still  greater  than  Now  York,  New  En- 
gland, and  Pennsylvania  together;  and  Georgia,  a  new 
plantation,  equals  New  York.  Truly  is  the  empire  of 
trade  a  fickle  and  inconstant  one. 

Conmerce  <^the  United  Slates  nniler  the  Articfet  of 
Federation. — Dnrinr;  the  Revolution  all  foreign  enter- 
prise was  of  neces  4ty  suiipcnded,  and  in  struggling  for 
liberty  men  taught  themselves  to  .forget  and  despise 
every  mere  physical  want.  Leagued  together  for  com- 
mon defense,  the  states  were  able  to  resist  every  device 
of  power,  and  sustain  a  long  and  bloody  contest.  But 
when  that  contest  was  ended  and  liberty  wen,  the  con- 
federation exhibited  at  once  its  nervelessncss  for  peace, 
and  for  the  arts,  and  p'^licy,  and  duties  of  peace.  The 
fabric  which  could  resist  the  storm  crumbled  away 
when  the  sunshine  succeeded.  So  true  is  it  that  the 
necessities  of  men  are  the  only  durable  bond  of  their 
union,  and  that  without  this  union  there  is  no  strength. 

From  the  close  of  the  war  until  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  there  may  bu  considered  to  have  been  no 
great  regulating  head  in  America.  No  uniformity  or 
system  prevailed  among  the  states,  and  their  commerce 
was  consequently  exposed  to  the  utmost  uncertainty, 
fluctuation,  and  loss.  Tonnage  duties  were  levied  in 
different  ports,  ai  it  suited  the  caprices  of  the  several 
governments,  and  as  they  were  more  or  less  desirous 
of  encouraging  particular  branches  of  navigation  and 
trade  at  the  expense  of  others.  By  a  policy  more  as- 
tute than  that  of  her  neighbors.  New  York  managed  in 
this  way  soon  to  increase  largely  her  foreign  trade,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  empire  she  now  maintains. 
From  1784  to  1790  our  commerce  exhibited  the  most 
remarkable  results.  For  seven  years  consecutively  the 
imparts  into  American  cities  from  Britain  were  never 
otherwise  than  twice  the  amount  of  the  exports  to  her, 
and  for  several  years  were  three  and  even  five  times 
their  value.  A  drain  of  specie  is  said  to  iiavo  been  the 
consequence,  a  very  natural,  though  not  necessary  one, 
and  great  commercial  cmbartassment  and  distress. 

The  following  tible  made  up  from  records  of  the  £-.•- 
glish  custom-liuuse  will  he  found  of  interest : 


Vtm. 

Eiliorta,  Amcrleft 
to  Britain. 

ImporU.  Amerlcft 
from  Brilain. 

17S4 

i;74(),846 

8113,  (>04 

440,119 

893,037 

1,023,784 

],ODO,1I18 

1,191,071 

i:8,07»,467 
2,308,023 
1,003,465 
2,009,111 
1,886,142 
2,526,298 
8,431,178 

1786 

1780 

1787 

1788 

1789 

1700 

Commerce  of  the  United  States  under  the  Constitutiott 
and  uniHim. — In  this  crisis  the  attention  of  thinking 
men  and  patriots  in  all  parts  of  the  nation  was  aroused, 
and  there  was  perhaps  nothing  which  contributed  so 
much  in  urging  the  States  into  a  general  convention, 
and  into  the  adoption  of  a  constitutional  government 
and  union,  calculated  to  preserve  their  liberties,  their 
fortunes,  and  their  glory  in  all  the  future.  One  of  the 
first  grants  of  power  conceded  to  Congress  under  this 
Constitutio.i  was  that  of  "  regulating  commerce  with  for- 
eign nations,  among  the  ie,;eral  stoics,  and  fcith  the  In- 
dians." Referring  to  the  state  of  things  which  exist- 
ed under  the  articles  of  federation,  an  able  writer  ob- 
serves, "Interfering  regulations  of  trade  and  interfer- 
ing claims  of  territory  were  dissolving  the  attachments 
and  the  sense  of  the  common  interest  which  had  ce- 
mented and  sustained  the  Union  during  the  arduous 
struggles  of  the  Revolution,  Symptoms  of  distress 
and  marks  of  humiliation  were  rapidly  accumulating. 
The  finances  of  the  nation  were  annihilated.  In  short, 
to  use  the  language  of  the  authors  of  the  Federalist, 
each  state,  yielding  to  the  voice  of  immediate  interest 
or  convenience,  successively  withdrew  its  support  (Vom 
tlie  confederation,  till  the  fVail  and  tottering  edifice  was 
ready  to  fall  upon  our  heads,  and  to  crush  us  beneath 
its  ruing.   Most  of  the  federal  constitutions  of  the  world 


have  degenerated  in  the  same  way,  and  by  the  same 
means." — Kent,  vol.  I.  p.  217. 

No  more,  said  a  memori",!  from  Charleston,  on  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution — no  more  shall  we  lament 
our  trade,  almost  wholly  in  the  possession  of  foreign- 
ers, our  vessels  excluded  from  the  ports  of  some  na- 
tions and  fettered  with  restrictions  in  others ;  our  ma- 
terials, the  produce  of  our  own  country,  which  should 
be  retained  'ir  our  own  use,  exported  and  increasing 
the  maritime  consequence  of  other  powers.  With  this 
memorial  before  them,  and  others  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter, Congress  at  its  first  session  appointed  a  committee 
to  report  upon  "  the  expediency  of  increasing  the  duty 
upon  foreign  t'"  ii age  carrying  American  produce  to 
places  in  As'-'rica  not  admitting  American  vessels ;  and 
to  frame  a  bill  placing  the  same  restraints  upon  the 
commerce  of  foreign  American  states  that  they  place 
upon  us." 

By  the  report  of  Alexander  Hamilton  in  1790,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  total  tonnage  of  the  United  States  at 
thst  time  was  aa  follows : 
American  vessels  in  foreign  trad,3  363,093  tons. 

Coasteni  above  twenty  tons 113,181     ^* 

In  the  fiahcrica 26,262    "    —602.626  tons. 

Total  foreign  tonnaRC 262,913    " 

United  States  and  Uritlsh 812     " 

United  States  and  other  foreign 838    " 

Total 766,089    " 

The  tariff  o^  I  89  was  specific  and  ail  valorem,  and 
discriminated  lu  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  trade  con- 
ducted by  our  own  shipping.  In  this  we  but  imitated 
the  navigation  acts  of  European  slates,  by  means  of 
which  it  has  been  supposed  the  enormous  maritime 
consequence  of  some  of  them  was  principally  secured. 
Wo  shall  not  pause  to  argue  a  point  in  political  econo- 
my so  long  mooted  among  writers  of  the  greatest  abil- 
ity. The  jealousies  of  nations  have  gone  and  still  go 
very  far.  Even  the  philosophical  Voltaire  thought 
that  their  gain  could  not  otherwise  accrue  than  with 
each  other's  loss.  England  long  imposed  the  most  on- 
erous restrictions  upon  all  other  commerce  than  her 
own,  and  her  advances  in  consequence,  or  notwith- 
standing, have  been  unprecedented.  Her  tonnage 
when  she  commenced  this  system  was  less  than  that  of 
the  United  States  at  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

There  was  one  department  of  our  maritime  industrj- 
which  demanded  the  earliest  attention  of  government, 
and  we  think  its  general  interest  will  be  siitfieient  apol- 
ogy for  any  space  we  may  allot  to  its  consideration — 
TiiK  nsnERiEs.  Mr.  Jefferson,  in  1791,  then  Secre- 
tary of  State,  fumisl..d  an  admirable  report  upon  the 
subject,  which  wo  proceed  to  analyze.  As  early  as  1520. 
there  were  fifty  ships  upon  the  Newfoundlaml  v„..-"t« 
at  a  time  for  cod.  In  1577  the  French  had  150  vessels 
there,  the  Spaniards  100,  Portuguese  50,  and  English 
lo.  The  French  fisheries  began  early  to  decline.  In 
1768  tlie  Americans  took  but  little  less  than  the  En- 
glish, and  the  French  took  lea8^  of  nil.  In  1789  England 
obtained  double  tlio  quantit.y  of  America  and  France 
together.  During  the  Revolution  the  American  fish- 
eries were  almost  entirely  abandoned,  and  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son left  it  to  tho  wisdom  of  Congress  to  decide  whether 
tliey  should  not  be  restored,  by  opposing  prohibitions 
to  prohibitions  and  high  duties  to  high  duties,  on  the 
fish  of  other  nations. 

Tlie  whale  fishery  was  prosecuted  by  the  Biscarans 
as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century.  The  British  began  its 
encouragement  in  1G72  by  bounties.  The  Americans 
opened  their  enterprises  in.l716.  They  succeeded  ear- 
ly in  the  discovery  in  the  Southern  Seas  of  the  sperma- 
ceti whale,  v.>hich  they  attacked  instead  of  the  Green- 
land hitherto  known  to  navigators.  In  1771  wn  had 
204  whalers.  During  the  war  England  held  out  tho 
largest  bounties  to  the  trade,  and  so  irresistible  were 
these  in  the  depressed  condition  of  our  fishermen,  that 
it  is  said  many  of  them  were  on  the  eve  of  lemoving 
to  Halifax,  to  prosecute  the  business  there,  and  were 
only  deterred  by  a  letter  from  Lafayette  declaring  that 


COM 


888 


COM 


Trance  would'abate  her  duties  upon  oil.  The  little  isl- 
and of  Nantucket  is  tlio  great  heart  of  these  lisLer'es. 
A  sand-bar,  said  Mr.  Jefl^rson,  fifteen  miles  long  and 
three  broad,  capaldo  by  its  agriculture  of  maintaining 
twenty  families,  employed  in  these  flsheries,  before  the 
Revolution,  between  5  and  COOO  men  and  boys,  and 
contained  in  its  only  harbor  140  vessels.  In  agricul- 
ture, then,  they  have  no  resource,  and  if  thnt  of  their 
flsberies  can  not  be  pursued  from  their  own  habitations, 
it  is  naturol  they  should  seclc  others  trom  which  it  can 
he  followed,  and  principally  those  where  they  will  flnil 
a  sameness  of  language,  religion,  laws,  habits,  and  kin- 
dred. 

In  1803  Mr.  linger  stated  to  Congress  in  his  report, 
that  it  would  seem  the  cod  fisheries  had  gained  ground 
since  the  Revolution,  but  that  the  whale  fishcrieu,  on 
the  contrary,  had  been  for  some  time  post  ou  the  de- 
cline. The  war  of  1812  was  most  disastrous  to  the  fish- 
ermen, but  they  soon  afterward  recovered  their  pros- 
perity, and  en  the  first  of  January,  1814,  n-o  had  614 
vessels  engaged  nt  sea,  of  the  value,  including  catch- 
ings,  of  #27,784,000.  On  the  first  of  .Tanuory,  184G, 
there  were  680  ships,  34  brigs,  21  schooners,  and  1 
sloop;  tonnage  233,149;  manned  by  about  20,000  sea- 
men and  oSicers,  consuming  over  tliree  million  dollars 
annually  of  American  produce.  Proceeds  of  whale  fish- 
eries #9,000,000  per  annum,  of  which  only  $2,000,000 
are  re-exported. 

In  1844,  Mr.  Orinnell  stated  in  Congress : 

"  This  Aeet  of  whaling  ships  Is  larger  than  ever  pursued  the 
business  before.  Commercial  history  furnishes  no  account 
of  any  parallel.  The  voyages  of  thouu  engaged  in  the  spcmi 
fishery  average  three  and  a  half  years ;  they  search  every  bco, 
and  often  cml^o  three  or  four  months  with  a  man  at  each 
mast-bead  on  the  look-out,  without  the  cheering  sight  of  a 
whale.  They  are  hardy,  honest  and  patriotic,  and  will,  as 
they  did  In  the  lost  war,  stand  by  their  country  when  In  da.i- 
ger;  thev  will  man  our  ships,  and  fight  our  battles  on  the 
oaan." 

Mr.  Clayton  remarked  in  February,  1846 : 

■*  We  have  at  this  time  a  commerce  uf  2,417,000  tons  of  ship- 
ping, England  iias  2,420,060  tens,  so  that  we  are  nearly,  nay. 
It  is  my  opininn.  we  are  completely  on  a  par  with  her.  I 
doubt,  sir,  whether  England  has  a  greater  rominercial  marine 
or  greater  inteiests  to  protect  Wo  have  more  than  TOO  wliale 
ships  In  the  racihc,  an  extensive  Indian  commerce  and  a  great 
and  daily  growing  coiniucrco  wit!'  China."— Ebohne's  WliaU 
ing  Cruite  and  Uittaty  qf  ttu,  Whaling  Fiihtry.  IfrW,  p.  fc3i». 

At  the  close  of  the  last  century  there  were  many 
causes  which  tended  to  odd  a  vast  importance  to  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States.  For  several  years  this 
commerce  enjoyed  unparalleled  and  almost  unmeas- 
ured prosperity.  Scarcely  admitted  into  the  family 
of  nations,  we  found  the  whole  civilized  world  engaged 
in  the  fiercest  and  m\.A  sanguinary  conflict.  A  wise 
and  indeed  "m.isterly"  neutrality  was  of  course  the 
true  policy  of  the  nation.  The  oarrj-ing  trade  of  the 
world  fell  at  once  into  our  hands.  We  supplied  the 
mother  countries  with  the  products  of  their  own  colo- 
nies. The  East  and  West  Indies  alike  were  opened  to 
our  shipping.  Their  rich  products  filled  our  ware- 
houses, supplying  consumption  and  re-export.  Pros- 
perity such  as  this,  however,  was  fated  to  be  brief.  The 
conflicting  powers  sacrificed  every  thing  to  their  mutu- 
al hatred,  and  minded  little  the  rights  of  a  nation  they 
had  not  even  learned  to  respect.  Protestation  ended 
in  war,  and  the  rights  of  our  sailors  were  established  on 
every  sea.  With  the  return  of  peace  in  Europe,  the 
carrying  trade  departed  rapid!y  from  us. 

In  1791  the  king  and  council  of  England  admitted 
American  unmanufactured  goods,  except  fish,  oil,  blub- 
ber, whale  fins,  certain  naval  stores,  etc.,  into  Britain 
at  the  same  duties  as  British  American  produce.  The 
treaty  of  commerce  of  1794  between  the  two  govem- 
manu  was  a  reciprocity  one,  both  parties  binding  them- 
salvet  to  impose  no  greater  restrictions  upon  each  oth- 
er than  thay  imposed  upon  ethen.    Thli  treaty  regu- 


lated ourKait  India  commerce,  then  ner.'ly  opened  aiiu 
promising  a  great  extension. 

From  1790  until  1797  Pennsylvania  continued  large- 
ly the  greatest  cxpoiler  in  the  Union.  In  1791  South 
Carolina  occupied  the  third  rank.  In  1797  New  York 
for  the  first  time  took  a  leading  position,  which  site  has 
ever  after  maintai-ied.  The  llrtt  exports  of  Tcnncsseo 
and  Mississippi  date  from  1801,  those  of  Kentucky  und 
Indiana  from  1802,  oi  Michigan  1803,  Orleans  Territor'. 
X804,  and  Ohio  1806.  This  wu  shall  see  more  partic- 
ularly hereafter.  It  is  sufliciont  now  to  indulge  (he  re- 
ilcctions  which  the  facts  before  us  so  naturally  awaken. 
Mysterious  have  been  the  changes.  Old  age  and  pi .- 
mature  decay  have  fallen  upon  citits  once  famous  for 
their  tradv  ;  and  .'.lie  quays,  ulitru  tho  flags  of  all  na- 
tions floated,  have  come  nt  last  to  bo  comparatively 
deserted.  AV  ^.ook  around,  and  there  have  started  up 
others  like  mature  creations,  full  o(  vigor  and  stalwart 
even  in  their  i'llancy.  How  hardly  can  reason  realize 
thnt  these  wondrous  changes  are  not  all  the  pictures  of 
a  fertile  imagination.  Where  is  placed  Virginia  now, 
that  mother  of  states,  who  in  1769  exporiel  to  foreign 
lands  four  times  as  much  as  New  York  ?  and  where  is 
Carolina,  who::^  exports  at  the  same  time  doubled  thuso 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  together,  and  were 
equal  to  five  times  those  of  uU  New  England  ?  If  tiade 
grow  to  colossal  stature,  its  proud  empire,  hastens  also 
to  swift  decay. 

The  difilculties  which  beset  our  commerce  in  tiio 
early  part  of  the  present  century,  when  the  ti\  al  hos. 
tilo  powers  of  Europe,  jealous  of  our  prosjicrous  neu- 
trality, strained  every  nerve  to  involve  ns  in  their  dis- 
putes, will  be  called  to  mind  by  every  one  familiar  with 
history.  AVo  ~werc  matlc  thp  victims  of  tho  policy  and 
arts  of  these  nations,  and  even  as  early  as  1703  their 
depredations  upon  our  commerce  were  considerable. 
In  five  months  alone  of  that  year  it  was  stated  in  tlio 
House  of  Peers,  that  six  hundred  A  meriean  vesseU  were 
seized  or  detained  in  British  ports  for  alleged  violations 
of  orders  and  decrees  claimed  as  principles  under  tho 
la  IV  of  nations.  These  aggressions  upon  our  rights 
were  long  and  extensively  practiced,  as  the  fallowing 
table  will  exhibit) 

Seizures  of  Ahericjui  Vessels  from  1803  to  1S12, 

nythellritbh BIT 

lly  tho  Krcnch 553 

lly  the  Neapolitan 4T 

Uy  Iha  Danish  tribunals TO 

Total  vesaols IWi 

And  this  at  a  time  when  we  were  at  peace  with  all 
the  nations  on  earth !  Indemnity  for  these  spoliations 
hac  ')ecn  the  subject  of  numerous  treaties;  among  oth- 
ers, that  of  England  in  1794,  France  1803,  and  Spain 
in  the  Florida  treaty  of  1819.  But  this  whole  period, 
so  interesting  in  our  annals,  deserves  a  minute  survey. 

On  the  conquest  of  Prussia  in  1806,  Bcuiparte  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  crushing  the  maritime  power  of  Brit- 
ain, by  prohibiting  all  the  world,  in  his  famous  litrlin 
Decree,  from  conducting  any  trade  with  lur  or  her  nu- 
merous dependencies.  Tho  retaliatory  British  orders 
in  Council  followed  at  once,  and  ail  countries  in  tiio 
world  connected  in  any  way  with  France,  or  opposed 
to  England,  were  declared  to  bo  under  precisely  tho 
same  restraints  as  if  actually  invested  in  strict  block- 
ade by  British  forces.  Incensed  by  so  unexpected  and 
ruinous  a  measure.  Napoleon  issued  tho  memorable  il/i- 
lan  Decree,  making  lawful  prize  of  all  vessels  submit- 
ting at  any  time  or  in  any  way  to  British  search  or  tax- 
ation. It  was  natural  that  these  illegal  ond  unauthor- 
ized proceedings  should  excite  the  utmost  interest  und 
concern  in  tlie  United  States  so  materially  und  even 
vitally  affected  by  them.  We  protested  in  vain.  The 
administration  recommended  as  the  sole  remaining  al- 
ternative of  peace  an  embargo,  which  Congress  adopted 
in  1807.  This  measure  tlio  commercial  interests  warm- 
ly opposed  01  ruinous  to  them,  and  memorials  were  for- 
warded from  many  quarten  praying  for  it*  repeal.    To 


ftese  It  wi 
teaching  f 
merco  and 
■ition  to  pr 
try  for  arti 
'o  supply 
matter,  ho' 
leon,  who  ' 
to  France,  i 
glish  coinm 
Ingston,  "t 
would  bo  f( 
Just  ground 
In  1809,  t 
wos  substitu 
er  regarded  i 
%  her  in  pr 
American  pr 
The  Cong! 
sion  of  the  c 
named,  if  the 
hostile  and  ai 
pretended  to  c 
nearly  one  yen 
ofliciolly  pron 
part  ofNapol 
tuni  the  gam, 
milfating  to  oi 
With  England 
^■0  might  exn 
alternately,  ac 
«ho  had  provok 
deep  to  l)c  subd 
od  a  crin;e.    Tl 
and  the  aggresj 
'^oi  ot  sixty  ,!„!/, 
solemn  dicliirat: 
vere  retribution 
dignity  of  Amor 
Commerce  of 
been  an  era  of  j 
great  powers  of 
Ized  for  once  tl 
"ec,  or,  if  anodi 
ed,  and  we  hoi 
wnk,  the  United 
am  only,  and  ha 
prepared  to  shar 
can  be  wielded  a 
the  seas  be  transi 
The  history  of 
Material  enough  i 
to  it,  even  with  tl 
has  been  celebrat 
mternaHonality,  ai 
name.    The  prog 
most  strongly  mi 
minds  of  evervlo 
ment,  perceived  fi 
imperfectly,  prose 
fiU'redaathewind 
enimcnt,  free  pros, 
andinoverv-right( 
When  sholl  natioi 
ana  meet  each  oth 
goun<l.»    Wo  are 
*ve  advocate  a  poli 
erous.    No  single] 
movement,  if  made 
Jhe  condition  of 
forthe  early  trinmpl 

u^/f  "'"»•  The 
tariffs  have  been  re 

nrct-named  nation  h 
radically  changed,  a 
i  he  German  states 
00  al*)  the  Spaniaj 


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ftese  It  WB8  replied  by  government,  "  The  embarso,  by 
teaching  foreign  nations  tho  valiio  of  Amoricnn  com- 
merce and  productions,  will  inspire  them  with  a  dlspo- 
Bltion  to  practice  justice.  They  depeud  upon  this  coun- 
try for  articles  of  first  necessity,  and  for  raw  materials 
to  supply  their  nmnufnctures."  Such  a  view  of  tho 
matter,  however,  did  nut  occur  to  tho  mind  of  Napo- 
leon, who  '.-gardcd  tho  embargo  as  greatly  favorable 
to  Franco,  and  aiding  him  in  his  warfaro  against  En- 
glish commerce.  "To  sub.nit,"  said  ho  to  Mr.  Liv- 
ingston, "to  pay  England  th'  tribute  she  demands, 
would  bo  for  America  to  cid  her  against  him,  and  a 
just  ground  of  war." 

In  1800,  a  non-intercount  with  Britain  and  Franco 
was  substituted  for  tho  embargo,  whidi  the  latter  pow- 
er regarded  as  such  an  evidence  of  hostility  as  to  just- 
ify Iier  in  proceeding  at  onco  to  condemn  millions  of 
American  property  as  lawful  prize. 

Tho  Congress  of  1810  determined  upon  tho  admis- 
sion of  the  commercial  vessels  of  tho  powers  nl)0ve- 
namod,  if  tho  act  were  preceded  by  a  revocation  of  their 
hostile  and  arrogant  decrees.  The  French  government 
pretended  to  close  in  at  onco  with  the  proposal,  but  it  was 
nearly  ono  year  later  before  her  rc|)Cttling  ordinance  was 
officially  promulgated,  evidencing  a  disiiosition  on  the 
part  of  Napoleon  lo  play  witli  us  in  l>ad  fiiitli,  and  to 
turn  the  game  at  any  time  to  liia  advantage — so  hu- 
miliating to  our  ■  nda  are  the  events  of  this  entire  era. 
With  England  K  was  long  doubtful  what  relationship 
wo  might  expect  to  sustain.  Hostile  and  peaceable 
alternately,  according  to  her  caprices  or  her  interests, 
she  bad  provoked  in  American  minds  a  resentment  too 
deep  to  1)0  subdued,  and  forbearance  longer  was  regard- 
ed n  crime.  Tho  Orders  of  Council  remaining  in  force, 
and  the  aggressions  Increasing  daily,  a  non-intercourse 
act  of  s{:ctii  days  was  resorted  to,  the  prelude  only  to  a 
solemn  diclnratian  qficur.  Then  was  tho  hour  of  se- 
vere retribution,  and  then  t  as  tho  national  honor  and 
dignity  of  America  triumphantly  vindicated ! 

Commerce  of  the  United  States  since  1812. — This  has 
been  an  era  of  prosperity  and  rapid  advance,  and  the 
great  powers  of  tlio  civilized  world  seem  to  have  real- 
ized for  once  tho  rich  benefits  of  n  prolonged  armis- 
tice, or,  if  another  o.tprcssion  bo  preferred,  a  protract- 
cd,  and  we  hope  permanent  peace.  In  commercial 
rank,  the  United  States  of  America,  subordinate  to  Urit- 
ain  only,  and  having  outstripped  all  tho  world  else,  is 
prepared  to  share  a  divided  sceptre,  until  that  sceptre 
can  be  wielded  alone  by  her  hand,  and  tho  empire  of 
the  seas  be  transferred  to  her  keeping. 

The  history  of  our  trade  for  the  last  thirty  years  hi"^ 
material  enough  for  many  more  pages  than  wc  can  all  < 
to  it,  even  with  the  greatest  condensation.  The  period 
has  been  celebrated  by  an  approach  to  a  more  liberal 
intemntionality,  and  a  reciprocity  something  else  than  in 
name.  The  progress  in  tho  last  year  or  two  has  been 
most  strongly  marked  toward  that  ultimatum,  in  the 
minds  of  every  lover  of  truth  and  of  human  advance- 
ment, perceived  first  by  Lord  Bacon,  and  ably,  though 
Imperfectly,  presented  by  his  followers — commerce  tin- 
fett'.red  as  the  winds  that  waft  it — free  religion,  free  gov- 
ernment, free  press,  ft-ee  traffic — freedom  every  where, 
and  in  over^-  righteous  thing  throughout  all  tho  world ! 
When  shall  nations  sacrifice  their  foolish  jealousies, 
and  meet  each  other  on  this  high,  broad  and  Christian 
ground  ?  >Vo  are  no  partisan  here,  but  a  cosmopolite. 
We  advocate  a  policy  as  wide  as  tho  earth,  and  as  gen- 
erous. No  single  nation  can  afford  to  act  alone — the 
movement,  if  made  at  all,  must  bo  universal. 

The  condition  of  Europe  now,  however,  argues  little 
for  the  early  triumph  of  those  principles  to  which  we  have 
been  referring.  The  latest  British,  French,  and  Austrian 
tariffs  have  been  restrictive,  though  in  the  case  of  the 
first-named  nation  her  policy  would  appear  about  to  be 
radically  changed,  as  In  the  late  repeal  of  the  corn-laws. 
Tho  German  states  maintain  the  exclusive  policy,  as 
do  also  the  Spaniards  oud  Fortugueso.     liussia  was 


latest  In  adopting  the  restrictive  system,  but  we  see  by 
her  last  tariff  some  evidences  of  improvement,  which 
neither  Sweden  nor  Denmark  furnishes.  The  duties 
of  the  Italian  states  have  been  generally  moderate,  ex- 
cept for  Rome  and  Naples,  and  wo  recognize  a  great 
Improvement  In  these  In  the  late  tariflf  of  his  Holiness 
the  Pope.  Tho  commercial  system  of  Holland  is  tho 
most  liberal  in  all  Europe,  but  tho  South  American 
states  appear  to  be  governed  by  the  same  spirit  as  that 
which  dictated  tho  policy  of  Spain. 

In  1824,  Great  Britain  seemed  desirous  of  removing 
in  some  degree  her  restrictions  upon  tho  navigation  of 
other  powers.  Sho  entered  into  reciprocity  tre".ties 
with  many  of  them,  and  in  this  was  soon  after  imitated 
by  the  United  States,  In  the  treaties  of  1825-(j-8-9  wjth 
Central  America,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Ilansc  Towns, 
Frussia,  Brazil,  Austria,  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  Mex- 
ico, Russia,  Venezuela,  Greece,  Sardinia,  Netherlands, 
Hanover,  and  Portugal.  Wo  also  entered  into  similar 
but  limited  reciprocity  treaties  with  Franco  In  1822, 
continued  afterward,  and  with  England  in  1821,  1826, 
and  1833,  and  a  full  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada  In 
1854.  These  treaties  were  arranged  by  Mr.  Kennedy, 
Chairman  of  tho  Committee  of  Commerce,  into  three 
clussoB. 

1.  Those  securing  mutual  privileges  of  export  and 
import  of  produce,  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture 
of  tho  stipulating  powers,  transported  in  tlieir  own  ves- 
sels, without  discrimination  on  tonnage. 

2.  Those  providing  for  a  levy  of  duties  not  less  favor- 
able upon  the  tonnage  of  either  than  are  levied  upon 
tho  tonnage  of  other  powers. 

8.  Those  requiring  equality  of  port  charges. 

For  statistics  of  the  commerce  of  tho  United  States, 
SCO  artlclo  Umteh  St.\te8. 

Commercial  Policy  of  the  United  States. — The  United 
States  have,  since  the  very  commencement  of  their  ex- 
istence as  un  independent  government,  ever  been  will- 
ing and  ready  to  reciprocate,  to  the  fullest  extent  and  in 
the  most  liberal  spirit,  all  privileges  and  favors,  wheth- 
er of  navigation  or  commerce,  extended  to  their  flag  by 
foreign  nations.  To  this  end,  and  in  order  to  antici- 
pate the  usually  dilatorj'  process  of  treaty  negotiations, 
the  President  of  tho  United  States  is  vested,  by  act  of 
Congress,  with  authority  to  issue  his  proclamation 
granting  to  the  vessels  of  foreign  nations  equal  and 
similar  privileges  and  favors  to  those  extended  to  the 
vcss<ds  of  the  United  States  in  the  ports  of  such  foreign 
nations,  on  receiving  official  notice  thereof  from  the 
accredited  agents  of  such  governments. 

Vessels  belonging  to  the  following  nations  are  ad- 
mitted, under  tho  provisions  uf  law,  treaties  of  com- 
merce and  navigation,  or  conventions,  into  the  ports 
of  the  United  States  on  the  same  terms  as  American 
vessels,  with  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  their  own 
or  any  other  country :  Argentine  Confederation,  Aus- 
tria, Belgium,  Brazil,  Chili,  Denmark,*  Ecuador, 
Great  Britain,  Greece,  New  Granada,  Guatemala, 
Hanover,  Hanse  Towns  (Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lu- 
bec),  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Netherlands,  Oldenburg, 
Peru,  Prussia,  Russia,  San  Salvador,  Sardinia,  Swedeu 
and  Norway,  Tuscany,  Two  Sicilies,  f  Venezuela. 

Vessels  belonging  to  the  following  nations,  with 
which  tho  United  States  have  reciprocal  treaties  on 
tho  footing  of  tlio  "most  favored  nations,"  or  with 
whom  reciprocity  exists,  are  admitted  into  tlic  ports  of 
the  United  States  on  the  same  terms,  as  ntpects  tonnage 
or  navigation  duties,  as  vessels  of  the  United  States,  with 
tho  produce  or  manufactures  of  their  own  or  any  other 
country :  Bolivia,  Costa  Rica,  Mexico,  Muscat,  Otto- 
man  Empire,  Portugal,  and  Lruguay. 

*  Tlio  trenty  betnecn  the  Cnlti-d  States  and  Dcnmuk  ex- 
pired on  tfie  14tli  day  of  April,  18M. 

t  By  dcTce  of  December  18,  1864,  equality  with  the  na- 
tional licg  is  ofTered  by  the  government  of  tho  Tiro  SicUIos  to 
the  .vessels  of  suck  nations  as  reciprocate  the  &Tor,  This 
equality  applies  to  tho  direct  and  indU^ct  trade. 


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LEADINO  EVBNTB  OF  A  COMMEnCIAl  CHARACTER 
IN  THE  1«TH,  ITTH,  18TH,  AND  IDTH  CE\TURIE8. 

Hixtrtnth  Century. — ISU8.  The  Portuguese  command- 
er Alouquerque,  on  his  w»y  to  India,  discovered  Zan- 
zibar.— 1S04.  Death  of  Isabolla,  Queen  of  Spain,  and 
(Hand  of  Columlms,  November  26,  x.  &3.  Columbus 
returned  firom  his  fourth  and  last  voyage.  The  Vena- 
tiana,  Jealous  of  the  new  Indian  trade  of  the  Portu- 
guese, incite  the  mamelukes  of  Egypt  to  commence 
hostilities  against  them. — 1605.  Francesco  de  Almelra, 
Portuguese  viceroy,  established  factoriea  along  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  and  his  fleets  interrupted  the  commerce 
of  Egyptian.s  and  Venetians.  —  ISOO,  The  sugar-cane 
brought  to  HIspaniola  from  the  Canaries.  The  Great 
Ifany,  the  first  ship  of  the  English  navy,  built. — 1507. 
Margaret  of  Savoy,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  con- 
cluded a  commercial  treaty  with  England.  Portu- 
guese settlements  formed  on  Ormus  by  Albuquerque, 
and  on  Ceylon  by  Almeida.  Madagascar  visited  liy 
Tristan  d'Aeunha. — 1609.  The  Venetians  recover  Pad- 
ua, and  rise  again  in  power.  Diego  Columbus  (son  of 
Christopher)  governor  of  Spanish  America. 

1610-1520. — The  Portuguese  established  themselves 
at  Malacca  (1511),  which  becomes  the  centre  of  their 
trade  with  the  neighboring  islands  and  witli  China. — 
1513.  Vajco  Nunez  de  Holboa  crosses  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  and  reaches  the  Paciflc. — 1515.  The  Rio  do  la 
Plata  discovered  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Sotis. — 151 G.  Death 
of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  January  23,  m.  C4. — 1517.  Tho 
Portuguese  trade  with  China  at  Macao,  Negro  slaves 
brought  to  Hispaniola.  The  sweating  sickness  (cold 
plague)  ragod  in  London. — 1518.  Silveyra  opens  the 
Portuguese  trade  with  Bengal. — 1519.  Fernando  Cortez 
attacked  Mexico.  Fernando  de  Magelhacns  sailed  on 
bisexpeditlon  to  tho  I'acific,  and  having  passed  through 
the  Straits  now  bearing  his  name,  discovered  tho  La- 
drones  and  PhiIip|)inos,  and  Was  murdered  by  tho  na- 
tives.— 1520.  Cortez  took  the  City  of  Mexico. 

1521-1530.— After  the  death  of  Magclhaens  (1521), 
Cano  conducted  the  squadron  to  the  Moluccas,  and  (in 
l.'i22)  retu-ned  to  Seville,  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope ; 
having  concl'uucd  tho  flrst  circumnavigation  of  the 
{•lobe,  in  1154  days. — lt>24.  First  discovery  of  Peru,  by 
Pizarro  and  Almagro. 

1631-1540.— Porto  Bello  and  Cartagena  (Spanish 
Main)  founded  in  1532. — Mines  of  Zacatecas  discover- 
ed.— 1583.  Cortez  conquered  Cuzco  and  Quito,  the 
capitals  of  Peru.  — 1534.  The  Sound  opened  to  the 
Netherland  merchants.  Canada  discovered  by  Car- 
tier. — 1635.  The  use  of  tobacco  flrst  known  in  Europe. 
— 1536.  Final  subjugation  of  Peru ;  discovery  of  Cali- 
fornia by  Cortez. — 1537,  Conquest  of  New  Granada. — 
1640.  Cherry-trees  brought  from  Flanders  and  planted 
in  Kent,  England. 

1541-1550.— The  Portuguese  odmitted  (1542)  to  trodo 
with  Japan. — 1543.  Death  of  Copernicus:  he  deferred 
until  his  lust  days  the  publication  of  his  great  work, 
De  OrHum  CaUstium  Reitolutionibut. — 1545.  Dlscowjrj' 
of  the  mines  of  Potosi. — 1546.  Rate  of  interest  in  En- 
gland fixed  at  10  per  cent.  (37  Henry  VIII.).— 1548. 
Introduction  of  the  orange-tree  from  China  into  Port- 
ugal. 

1551-1560. — ^Tho  London  Steelj-ard  Company  (the 
first  commercial  company  established  in  England,  1232) 
deprived  (1551)  of  their  privileges. — 1552.  All  loans  at 
usury  declared  illegal,  and  subject  to  forfeiture  in  En- 
gland. The  King  of  France  (Henry  II.)  prohibits  the 
export  of  money. — 1558.  The  Salters'  Company,  Lon- 
don, established. — 1560.  Ordinary  rate  of  interest  at 
Antwerp,  12  per  cent. ;  and  fixed  at  tho  samo  rato  in 
Germany,  Flanders,  and  Spain,  by  Charles  V.  Bourse 
established  at  Antwerp. 

1661-1570.— Merchant  Tailor8'School,London(1661), 
instituted.- 1564.  Tho  Manillas,  ceded  by  Portugal  to 
Spain,  received  the  name  of  the-  Philippines. — 1567. 
The  Koyal  Exchange,  I<ondon,  founded  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham,  September  7.     Caraccas,  in  Venezuela,  bUilt 


by  the  Spanlarda. — 1668.  Soma  ships,  conveying  money 
ttom  Spain  to  the  Duke  of  Alva,  aro  detained  by  Queen 
Elizabethat  Southampton  and  Plymouth. — 1569.  Luis 
do  Atalde  revives  the  waning  power  of  Portugal  in 
India.  Drawing  of  tiie  first  English  lottery.— 1670. 
The  Koyal  Exchange,  Loudon,  opened  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. 

1671-1580.— Rate  of  Interest  limited  in  Fngland  to 
10  per  cent. — 1571.  Large  accumulations  of  gold  from 
America.  Manilla  built  (1573),  and  made  thu  seat  of  a 
Spanish  viceroy. — 1676.  Tlio  plague  devastated  Italy, 
70,000  died  iit  Venice.     Martin  Frobislicr  sailed,  Juno 

II,  to  seek  a  northwest  passage;  failed,  and  returned. 
— 1577.  Drake  couiniencod  his  voyr;,.  round  tho  world, 
November  15. — 1578.  Tiio  Kor  .cgians  attempted  to 
interrupt  the  English  commer  .e  with  Archangel.  Cali- 
fornia explored  by  Drake,  First  colony  planted  in 
Virginia,  by  Gilbert.  Tulips  Introduced  into  England. 
— 1579,  Queen  Elizabeth  entered  into  a  treaty  of  cum- 
merco  with  tho  Sultan,  and  established  tlio  Turkey 
Company.  — 1580.  Drake  returned  from  his  voyage, 
November  3 ;  tho  order  of  knighthood  conferred  upon 
him. 

1681-i590. — Correctlin  of  tho  Calendar  by  Gregory 

III.  (1582)  ;  October  5th  made  the  15ih.— 1583.  Q  '<en 
Elizabeth  claimed  the  sovereignty  of  Newfoundland, 
and  fortlAed  St.  John's. — 1584.  Kaloigh  conducted  a 
second  colony  to  Virginia.  — 1585.  Drako  and  Fro- 
bisher,  with  a  powerful  licet,  attacked  tho  Spanish  net- 
tlements  in  tlio  West  Indies.  Davis  explored  tho 
northeast  coast  of  America.  Coaches  flrst  used  in  En- 
gland.— 1586.  Success  of  Drake  in  Hispaniola,  San  Do- 
mingo, and  Florida.  Potatoes  and  tobacco  introduced 
into  England.  Cavendish  sailed  on  his  expedition. — 
1587.  The  Scottish  Parliament  (James  VI.)  adopted  10 
per  cent,  as  the  maximum  rate  of  interest. — 1688,  The 
Spanish  armada  sailed  from  Lisbon  Alay  29,  entered 
tho  English  channel  July  19,  and  was  defeated.  Lord 
Burleigh  established  the  first  newspaper.  The  Kni/Vuh 
Mercury. — 1589.  Cavendish  returned  with  greatwcalth, 
taken  from  tho  Spanish  settlements  during  his  voyage 
round  the  world.  The  stocking  frame  invcutcd  by 
Rev.  William  Leo,  of  Cambridge.— 1590.  The  first  pa- 
per-mill In  England  established  by  John  Spillman,  at 
Dartford,  In  Kent. 

1591-1600. — English  ships  pursued  tho  whale-fishery 
(1591)  at  Cape  Breton.  Tclesco;>es  improved  and 
brought  into  general  notica  by  Janscn,  of  Middlo- 
burg, — 1593,  Whalebone  first  used  in  England. — 15'j4, 
The  Falkland  Islands  discovcrcl  by  Hawkins. — iu96. 
Oranges  first  known  in  England. — 1598.  Whale-fishery 
commenced  at  Spitzbergcn. — 1600.  The  English  East 
India  Company  estaldished. 

Seventeenth  Clrntury.—1601-1610.— Debate  on  mo- 
nopolies  (1601),  def?.nded  by  Francis  Bacon — abolished 
by  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  flrst  English  factories  es- 
tablished on  the  Malabar  coast.— 1601.  The  rate  of 
interest  in  France  (Henry  IV.  and  Sully)  fixed  at  6^ 
per  cent. — 1602.  Artichokes  introduced  into  England 
fVom  Holland;  Asparagus  from  Asia;  Cauliflower 
from  Cyprus. — 1604.  Tho  plague  raged  violently  in 
London. — 1606.  English  companies  chartered  for  set- 
tlements in  Virginia.  The  French  established  them- 
selves in  Canada.  New  Holland  discovered  by  the 
Dutch. — 1608.  Hudson  explores  tho  bay  now  known 
as  Hudson's  Bay.  Quebec  built, — 1609.  Many  Puri- 
tans left  England  for  Virginia,  with  Sir  Thomas  Gat£i 
and  Sir  Q.  Somers — the  latter  driven  to  tho  Bermudas 
(or  Somers'  Islands).  The  Dutch,  by  levying  heavy 
tolls  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  transfer  the  com- 
merce of  Antwerp  to  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  Cop- 
per coin  first  issued  by  tho  Mint,  Itondon.  Armistice 
of  twelve  years  concluded  between  Spain  and  the  Unit- 
ed Provinces.— 1610.  Batavia  settled  by  the  Dutch  on 
the  island  of  Java,  The  invention  of  the  thermomater 
ascribed  to  Fra  Paolo,  to  Ssoctorio,  and  to  Drebbel  «>f 


Alkmaar. 


v..4uSiv:;;?i-/4  feif*  «&i4«*'l-  -4ii  ^fU  St* 


COM 


801 


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1611-1620.— Thfl  IlnlUiil  I'rovlrmi  oliUlntd  (1013) 
ttom  th«  Turki  •Uvandtunuuii  Uriiii  in  lliuir  «i<iiimtirca 
In  the  I^ovant.  —  ZUlli.  Knuliuli  fiiclurlM  ciitaliliilieU 
■t  Sumt,  in  India,  ami  at  (lunil>ruon,  on  llu-  t'onlan 
Uuir.  The  Imcuanaara  notad  on  llio  I'oaula  of  Aniorlra. 
— IGH.  I^ijarlilnn*  invanlad  liy  l/iird  Napier,— 1015. 
Coll'ea  in  at  Vunica.- Kill!.   Ilallln  nxploroi.  tiio 

bay  to  wliiuii  liia  nania  wat  uivan.— lOIH.  Firiit  voy- 
■gu  of  tho  Uantia  to  Indta,  and  nuttliitncnt  at  'J'ranqiia- 
bar.  I'atunt  t(runtiid  'ur  u  llru-anKino  f'lr  rnlaInK  lial- 
lost  and  water,  naarly  on  tli>i  |irlni!l|dn  of  tiiir  »t«ani. 
tnijino.  -  lii2U.  Hlll(  lint  nmnuraulurud  III  Kng'aml. 
Fl^moutli  c'oluuy  auttlud. 

I(!'.il-16;l0. — Tliu  Qoni|uait«uf  tli«  Dutcli  nomtnonui  d. 
First  punnaiiuut aolllumttnt  on  Manliattan  Uland(i02'> 
by  tliii  Duteli.  'i'liu  colony  at  Nuvit  Hvotia  (l&i'l)  mt' 
tlud  by  tlio  8uotcli lUil,  Tlia  ratit  nr  inMrvat  In  En- 
gland ri'diiL'tid  to  H  |iar  i^unt,  (;2i  JaniNa  I.),  and  In 
Scotland  in  IIUI2,-  KI2A,  Thii  uulturaof  ailk  coniincncod 
In  Virginia. — lOltu.  Krunuli  itullliimtinia  ut  Hun<')(al  aud 
(inyuna.— lt'i!{7,  HniuiuM  of  tliii  Uiili'li  admiral,  lluiu, 
in  Itruzll:  Kiiae<|,.i|io,  in  Unyana,  foundod  liy  blm. 

1U31-16IU.— (.'Iiarliia  I,  rovlvud  nninii]mlltia,  told  pat- 
ents  and  privlluKo*  to  nutv  aiin|>anl»i<,  and  lm|io«od  a 
atamp  on  carda. — l(iU2.  A  aolony  of  I 'atliolli'it,  nnder 
Lord  r"Uiinoro,  autllud  In  Maryland.  'Ilia  lliitcli  nc- 
"-.ircu  ioi»lun.ofHt,  l''.ii»lallit,---lllllt.  Writ  fur  lovy- 
iiig  sliip-nionity  In  ICnifland,  TIni  Dnli'li  toolt  Curncoa, 
— 15:15.  I'roclainution  In  ICnKlund  axnlnil  liacknoy- 
coa(di(;s  «tandiii|{  in  tlio  ktruula,  <iHadulon|i«  and  Mar- 
tiniqno  appropriatod  by  l''ran<H>.— I(ltl7.  Tlio  lovy  of 
sliip-nioncy  unpopular.— 'HI  10,  Hliip-nunoy  votod  to  bo 
llloKol. 

l(ill-10&0,— Tatniun  dUvovarad  Van  tllMimn's  Land 
(l(!i'J),  and  nnniod  it  in  lionur  of  Ilia  Untcli  Kovvrnor  of 
llutiiviii.— lOia.  llayunnoi'olonlxiid  bytliul''r«ii(di.  Van 
Dicniun  Kunt  |)u  Vriun  uinl  Muliwup  to  uxploro  tint  octmn 
nortli  uf  Japan. — 10 If).  Tiuinrualar  part  of  C'nndlo  con- 
qnorod  by  tliu  Turku.— I1II7,  lliiyK«ii»  lnv«nt(3d  ond 
applii'd  the  ponduluin  to  ii^orku,  •-lOriO,  'ilia  Uulcfa 
took  po88uii(iion  of  tlia  (>Hpu  of  Uoiid  Hope, 

lOAl-lOiiu.— <iuurrid  liiilwituii  llii-  I'^iigllxh  and  the 
Dutch  (11)51)  about  the  rlulit  of  llnliInK;  tho  nmnaacro 
at  Anilioyna;  unduolonial  oni^roiiidilnanla,  llaluuf  In- 
terest reduced  by  (iiu  Itnnip  rarllaniunl  tu  fl  par  cent, 
— 16(iU.  Tea  UHod  In  l.unduii, 

1601-11)70.— Qonibay  and  TaiiKioi'  ended  to  EiiKlaiid 
(1602),  and  fnio  trado  with  llraitll.— lOOa.  'i'lio  prollts 
of  tile  Knijiisli  I'ust-olliei)  and  wliiu  lloi)niKia,Kraiited  to 
the  Duko  of  York,  'i'lio  llnanetin,  niiinnfauturoii,  coin> 
invrce,  niarlno  and  colonial  iiyiiteni  of  l''rtttii'c.  Improved 
under  Colbert. — 1005.  London  udlivtud  liy  tliu  plague, 
April  'J8.— 1060.  Urent  liru  In  liondon,  from  Hrpteni- 
bor  2  till  September  0;  propurty  dtiitruyad  valued  at 
i8,000,lWO,— 1007.  A  tax  of  twidvo-ptinno  levied  on 
every  ton  of  coal  brouKlit  Into  London,  daniiary  IH,  to 
aid  the  rol>nildiii|{  of  Lonilim.  'lint  llrnl  Ktono  of  ihe 
new  Royal  ICxchunKO  laid  (Aiiuunt  211)  by  <Jhnrlca  II. 

1071-1080.— The  money  in  Ihu  Kx(!litiiiuur(12lh  Janu- 
ary, 1072) seized  by  Cliarlxt  II,  (ii'unt  lonl'ntion  and 
coninicreial  dittrea*  followiid,— lOWl,  The  publication 
of  ncwspa|iera  and  pampliluta  without  a  llcauae  d«- 
clared  (Miiy  10)  to  bu  llloKal  In  t2ii((lKnd. 

1081-lOUO.— A  i)unny>pu»t  flmt  nalabliahed  in  Lon- 
don (108^)  by  a  privalu  individual  named  Murray, — 
1686.  The  I'opo  of  Komu,  by  ootnpiiUory  procein,  re- 
duced the  rata  of  intaruat  on  tlia  puldio  dobt  from  1  to 
3  per  cent.— 1088,  The  Vciiuliunii  mado  further  prog- 
ress in  DalniBtia. 

1691-1700.— OrlKin  of  tliB  Hank  of  KiiKlnnd  (1694, 
25th  April),  under  William  III,  Htamp  duties  In  En- 
gland commenced,  28Lh  June,— I  OKA,  CiniimlMlonorsap- 
pointed  for  buildinKliruenwieli  llnnpllaL — 1607,  Char- 
ter of  Dank  of  ICii|{land  rsnawitd  till  12  tnnntha'  notlco, 
—1008.  Addreas  of  tha  ICnglUh  lloilM  of  Common*  to 
William  III.,  for  the  dbii'ouriiKAmiHit  of  the  woolen 
manufacturo  and  tlio  pruinutluu  uf  tko  linen,  10th  June. 


—1600.  Czar  Peter  Introduced  the  compntatlon  of  tlffla 
In  UumIu  liy  the  Ciiriatiun  era,  but  adhered  to  :iie  old 
•tyle.  Dainpier  explored  the  northw  jtt  coaat  of  New 
Holland. 

Kighttenth  Ctntury. — 1704.  Tho  Baiton  Neu-i  Tetter 
publiaiied — the  flrst  newapapor  In  the  American  colo- 
nic*.— 170H.  Bank  of  EnKliind  charter  rcnnwed,  and 
again  in  171U.— 1700.  Copyright  act  In  England,  8 
Anne.— '1710.  The  8outU  Hea  Company  originated,  6tb 
May. 

1711-1720.— A  capital  of  X1,000,000  raised  (1711)  for 
the  South  Sea  Company. — 1711.  Kio  .Tanciro  taken  by 
tlio  French  admiral,  Uuguii  Troulii. — 1712.  The  flrat 
atamp  duty  on  newspaper,  levied  ..i  England. — 1718. 
The  ClarenJon  Vrtu  established  at  Oxford,  by  the 
profits  of  tho  History  of  the  Itebellion.- 1714.  The 
rate  of  interest  in  England  reduced  fl'om  6  to  6  per 
cent.,  and  all  contracts  at  a  higher  rato  declared  void, 
— 1716.  John  Law  originated  his  banking  and  Missis- 
sippi schemes.— 1717.  Kirnt  project  of  a  sinking  fund  for 
the  liquidation  of  the  English  national  debt.  Law  ob- 
ained  extended  privileges  for  his  bai.k. — 1718.  Law's 
I  ionipany  declared  to  be  the  Hoyal  Bank.— 1720.  Tha 
^  oulh  Sea  Company  Act,  passed  7lli  April.  South  Sea 
a  ock  rose  to  890,  June  2.  Kage  for  speculative  schemes, 
^■iventcen  petitions  for  joint -stock  patents  refused. 
£  outii  Sou  bubble  burst,  IlOth  September. 

1721-1730.— The  directors  of  tho  South  Sea  Com- 
pnny  (1721)  taken  into  custody,  24th  January.  Aisla- 
b'e,  and  otlicr  members  of  Parliament  implicated,  ex- 
pe'led.  Walpnic,  Lord  I'reaaurcr  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exc'icqucr,  2d  April.  Tbo  estates  of  directors  of  South 
Hen  Company,  amounting  to  two  nillliona  sterling,  for'- 
feited. — I72''l<  Act  passed  to  prohibit  English  subscrip- 
tions to  the  Ostcnd  Company. — 1725.  Tumults  at  Cilas- 
gow,  25th  Juno,  on  account  of  tho*  Malt  tax. — 1726, 
Cotton  a  staple  product  of  llispaniola. — 1729.  Fire  at 
Constantinople ;  12,000  houses  und  7000  people  perisb- 
cd.  John  Law  died  at  Venice,  21st  March,  x.  68.— 
17ilO.  Charter  of  the  East  India  Company  renewed. 

1781-1740.— Culture  of  silk  commenced  (1732)  in 
Georgia.  Parliamentary  grant  to  Sir  Thomas  Lambs 
(17:)2,  April  8)  for  having  introduced  the  silk-engine, 
— 1738.  Thu  English  government  refused  to  join  the 
Dutch  in  stopping  the  East  India  commerce  of  the 
Danes  and  Swedes. — 1733.  The  Excise  law  proposed 
In  England,  and  abandoned  by  Walpolo.  — 1734.  En- 
glish ai't  passed  against  stock-jnMJiiig.  Tho  new 
Uank  of  England  building  opened  5lb  June,  in  Thread- 
needle  Street. — 17,10.  High  tide  in  the 'X'hamcs.  West- 
minster Hall  Hooded.  Parliamentary  debates  publish- 
ed in  the  (ItntUman't  Afaijaziiu. — 1740.  Tho  first  cir- 
culating library  in  London  established  at  132  Strand, 
Parliamentary  debates  prepared  by  Dr.  Johnson. 

1741-1750.— Chortcr  of  Hank  of  England  (1742)  re- 
newed. Lord  Anson  returned  (1744)  from  his  voyage 
round  tho  world,  with  ^£1,250,000  in  treasure. — 1750, 
A  riot  at  Tiverton  against  the  Introduction  of  Irish 
worsted  yarns,  lOtb  January.  Uounties  granted,  and 
a  company  formed,  to  encourage  tho  British  and  white 
herring  and  cod  fisheries, 

1751-1760.— An  act  of  Parliament  (1751, 24  Geo.  II.) 
orders  tho  Gregorian  (or  now)  stylo  to  be  used  in  Great 
Dritain. — 1753.  Two  thousand  bales  of  cotton  exported 
by  Jamaica. — 1754.  Commencement  of  war  between 
England  and  France,  and  military  operations  under 
Washington  in  Virgiuia,  etc. — 1759.  'The  Bank  of  En- 
gland issued  £16  and  £10  notes,  Blst  March.— 1760. 
Culture  of  silk  commenced  in  Connecticut. 

1701-1770.— Opening  of  tho  Duko  of  Bridgewater'a 
Canal  (1701)  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool. — 1762. 
The  island  of  Cul>a  surrendered  to  Lord  Albemarle  and 
Admiral  Pococke.  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
and  other  islands  taken  from  tho  French. — 1764.  First 
improvement  of  the  steam-.engine  by  Watt.  Bank  of 
England  charter  renewed. — 1765.  Stamp  Act  for  Amer- 
ica passed  by  the  British  Parliament,  March, — 1767. 


COM 


808 


COM 


Tbt  IIouM  of  Commona  niolvail  to  impoM  UutlM  on 
vsriuui  articU*  iiii|>nrta(l  into  America. 

1771-17HO.— Arkwritilit'i  mcuiuI  paMnt(1771)rorbU 
imprnvumont  In  cotton  uplnning.  Cultiiri'  ortilk  com- 
manccJ  in  I'onutylvanlu. — 177;2.  Goninicrclsl  panic  in 
London,  c«umi<I  by  tlio  failura  of  Noal,  Foriiyco,  & 
Coniimiiy,  lianliert. — 1771).  Tea  doitroycd  in  lloiton 
barliur,  Itltli  Novambor.  Tho  'jovarnor  oritiingalmado 
governor  of  all  the  liritUli  Hltiementi  in  India — 1774. 
The  petition  of  the  Masaachusutte  Aaaoniliiy  to  I'arlia- 
ment  preeuuted  (January)  by  Or.  Franldin,  who  wus 
then  removed  hum  ofHco  uf  deputy  poatniaator-generai 
for  the  coioniaa.  Uurliu'a  celebrated  apect  h  on  the  tea 
tax,  April  It).— 1774.  Watt,  in  partneraliip  with  Uoul- 
ton,  founJa  hia  ateani-enKine  eatabliahnient  at  Solio, 
— 1770.  Captain  Coolc  aailed  on  hia  third  voyage. — 

1780.  Cliarter  of  the  tirat  liaLk  of  North  America,  ap- 
proved by  Congreas  26th  May. 

1781-17UO. — Uanic  of  England  charter  renewed,  on 
ttiAlting  further  advances  to  government  of  i,'ll,OiN),000. 
Necker  publiahed  hia  Unancial  atatflmeut  for  Franco 

1781,  and  retired  from  office.— 178-i.  National  Dank  of 
Ireland  eatabliahod.  — 1783.  Charter  granted  to  the 
Bank  of  Ireland.— 1784.  The  liank  of  New  Vork  char- 
tered, 9th  June. — 1780.  Uritiah  treaty  of  commerce 
witli  France. — 1787.  "  Pennaylvania  Society  for  the  an- 
coura(^enient  of  Manufactures  and  the  useful  A  rta"  form- 
ed. Cotton  exported  by  Weat  India  Inlands. — 178!). 
Issue  of  assignats  in  France,  17th  December. 

1791-1800.— Vancouvor'a  voyago  of  discovery  (1791). 
The  buckle-makers  of  Uirniingham  petitionud  I'arlia- 
ment  against  the  use  of  sboc-atrlnga.  Numerous  rlota 
at  Uirmingliam.  — 1793.  The  tirat  cmbaaaador  from 
Turkey  arrived  in  London,  December  2i>.  Whitney's 
cotton-gin  invented  and  lirat  used. — 1795.  Embargo  on 
all  Dutch  ahipa  in  Knglisli  porta,  2i>th  January.  Warren 
Hastings  Bc<{uittod,  23d  April.— 1797.  Sua'pcnaion  of 
the  Bank  of  England,  26tli  February.  Notes  of  £1 
and  £2  llrst  iaauod,  March  11.-1798.  Silver  tokena 
iasued  by  tlio  Bank  of  England,  lat  January,— 1799. 
Sugar  first  extracted  from  beet-root,  by  tho  I'ruaalan 
chemist  Achard. — 1800.  General  distress  and  rlota  in 
England,  caused  by  the  liigh  price  of  bread,  January. 
Dispute  rcapecting  the  cloao  of  tho  century.  Lalando 
decided  that  Slat  December,  1800,  ia  the  laat  day  of 
the  18th  century.  Union  of  Great  Xtritain  and  Ire- 
land, 2d  July.  Bank  of  England  charter  renewed  un- 
til 1833. 

JfineteentH  Ontury.  — 1801-1810. —Embargo  laid 
(January,  1801)  on  all  Kuasian,  Danish,  and  Swediah 
vaaaela  in  English  ports.— 1802.  Santeo  Canal,  .South 
Carolina,  completed.— 1803.  Louiaiana  sold  by  Franco 
to  the  United  States  for  $16,000.0O<^  Tho  flrst  printing- 
press  in  New  South  Wales  eatabliahod  at  Sydney.  Cale- 
donia Canal  opened  for  travel.  Trial  of  steamboat  on 
the  Seino  by  Fulton,  9th  August.  The  flrat  bank  in 
Ohio  chartered.— 1804.  Wilberforce's  slavc-trauo  bill 
n^ectod  by  the  House  of  I^onla.  The  Code  Napoleon 
adopted.  Ice  tirat  exported  from  the  United  Slates  to 
the  West  Indies.— 180j.  The  Gregorian  calendar  again 
adopted  in  France.  — 1806.  Tho  Capo  of  Good  Hope 
surrendered  to  the  English.  Abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade  by  English  Parliameut,  10th  June.  Tho  loom  In- 
vented  by  Jaequard,  a  mechanic  of  Lyona,  East  India 
docks  opened  at  London,  4th  August.— 1807.  Milan  de- 
crees against  English  commerce,  11th  November.  Ful- 
ton's first  voyage  on  tho  Hudson.  The  Bank  of  Ken- 
tucky chartered.  First  manufactory  of  woolen  cloths 
in  tho  United  SUtes  establibhed  at  Plttsfield,  Moaaa- 
chusetts.  Middlesex  Canal,  Massachusetta,  completed 
—1806.  Manufacturing  districts  of  Manchester,  etc., 
pe»itionadforpeaco.— 1810.  Deaths, by  Buloide,of  Abra- 
ham Goldscbmidt,  Francis  Baring,  and  other  English 
merchants. 

1811-1820.— English  guineas  publicly  sold  for  a 
pound  note  and  seven  sbillings.— 1811.  Mr.  Homer's 
(lo^ition  for  resumption  ofoaah  payments  In  England 


nyeetod.     Firat  steamboat  built  at  Pittsburgh 1812. 

Various  riots  In  tlie  matiufacturing  districts  of  Lanca- 
shire and  Yorkshire.  Daclaralion  of  war  liy  the  United 
States  agalnat  England,  IHth  June.  — 1811.  London 
TinuiD  Aral  printuil  by  ateani,  29th  Novenilier. — IHIS, 
Veto  of  the  L'nited  Slatea  bank  liiil  by  Proaident  Maiil- 
■on.  Bank  rechartored  for  20  yeara. — IHli).  Tho  new 
Itasslan  tariff' prohibited  the  importation  of  n^'arly  all 
Uritiah  goods.  Bank  of  England  advanced  X':i,i)00,OI)0 
further  togovamment,  making  a  total  of  jei4,0ou,000.— 
1817.  Paris  lirat  lighted  by  gas.  First  atoanibiat  from 
New  Urieana  to  Louisville 1818.  Firat  Polar  expedi- 
tion of  Captain  Julin  Franklin  left  England.  Stviiin- 
lioats  built  on  Lake  Erie. — 1819.  Emigration  to  Cape  uf 
Good  Uopo  encouraged  by  the  British  government. 
The  steamship  HarannaA  arrived  at  Liverpool  from  tho 
United  States,  15tb  July.  Commencement  uf  tho  sus- 
pension bridge  over  the  Monai  by  Telford.  The  flrat 
bank  in  Illinola  chartered. — 1h20.  Florida  codiid  to  the 
United  Statca  by  Spain.  Suspcnaion  bridge  over  the 
Tweed.     Firat  ateamer  aaiendcd  tliv  Arkanaaa  iiivrr. 

18:.!1-I830.— (Japtain  Parry'a  and  Lyon'a  oxpodition 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean  left  England  80th  March,  18J1. 
Bank  of  England  resumed  specie  payments.  —  I  '422. 
Funeral  of  Coutts,  the  London  banker,  4th  March.  The 
tirat  cotton-mill  in  Lowell  en'c  tud.— 1823.  licvivnl  of 
buaineas  in  tho  English  factories. — 1824.  Advancn  in 
the  prices  of  agricultural  produce  in  England.  Act 
passed  for  the  Thames  Tunnel,  2  Ith  June.  Fauntlcroy, 
banker,  hung  for  forgery,  3Ulh  November.  ( 'hamplain 
Canal,  New  York,  completed. — 1826.  Panic  in  the  En- 
glish money  market  (December).  Failure  of  numer- 
ous country  banks.  Erie  Canal  completuil.  — 1820. 
Mr.  lluaklaaon's  free-trade  policy  advocated  in  liouio 
of  Commona  by  vuto  of  223  to  40.  Coin  in  Bank  of 
England  reduced  to  £2,400,0()0,  28th  February.— 1827. 
Commercial  confidence  restored  in  England,  and  em- 
ployment for  tho  poor.  "Society  for  tho  IMHusion  of 
uaeful  Knowledge,"  eatablished  at  the  instance  of  Ixinl 
Ilniugliam.  Union  Canal,  Pennsylvania,  coni|ilctud. 
liuincy  liuilroad  completed. — 1828.  Delaware  and  1 1  lul- 
sonCanal,  Syracuse  and  Oswego  Canal,  New  Y'ork, com- 
pleted. India  rubber  guoda  manufactured  in  Cunnucti- 
cut. — 1829.  Increase  of  silk  manufactuma  in  Kiiglnml 
and  reduction  of  duty  on  raw  silk.  Prize  awanicd  to 
Mr.  Stephenson  for  hia  locomo'iv-  "ngino  on  tlio  Liv- 
er]>ool  and  Manchester  lio'.iway.  Suiiaci  I;<tion  by  Con- 
greaa  to  the  Chesapeake  >  nd  Oh'n  Canal,  Muv  3.  De- 
parture of  Captaii.  "--.J  on  bis  voyage  of  disL-ivcry. 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  opened,  17th  O  'to- 
ber. — 1830.  Opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Man'-'..ca. 
ter  Railway,  15th  September.  Free  navlg.ition  of  tho 
Black  Sea  opened  to  the  United  States  by  treat. ',  7tb 
May.  Charlca  X.  fled  from  Paris,  Slat  July.  West 
India  trade  with  tho  United  States  opened  to  B  ilish 
vessels.  Independence  of  Belgium  acknowledged. 
Pennsylvania  State  Canal  finished. 

1881-1840.— Parliamentary  reform  bill  introi'u^uii  in 
iiiSl  by  Lord  John  Kuasell  j  rcjoetud  by  tho  House  of 
Lords,  8th  Octolwr.  Free  trade  convention  at  Pliiln- 
dclphia,  October  1.  Stephen  Girard  died  2<;ih  Decem- 
ber, JK.  84.  Insurrection  in  Jamaica,  28th  Deconilicr. 
—1882.  Veto  of  United  States  Bank  bill  by  President 
Jackiion,  10th  July.  New  taritr  act  passed  by  Con- 
gress, July.  Ohio  State  Canal  finished.  Albany  and 
Schenectady  Railroad,  Columbia  Railroad,  Pennsylva- 
nia Railroad,  Newcastle  and  Fronclitown  Railroad,  com- 
pleted.—1888.  Ice  flrst  exported  to  tho  East  Indiea  from 
the  United  Statea,  18th  May.  Opening  of  tho  China 
trade  to  the  Engliab.  Eoat  India  Company  charter  re- 
newed ;  ceased  to  be  a  commercial  body.  Bank  of  En- 
gland charter  renewed.  Usury  restrictions  removed  in 
England  from  all  commercial  paper  having  less  than 
tbreo  months  to  mature.  Mr.  Clay's  tariff  bill  passed 
l)V  Congrcaa.  Removal  of  tho  depoaits  from  tho  Unit- 
ed Statea  Bank,  September.— 1834.  Tho  Chlneao  sua- 
pend  intercourao  with  tho  English  at  Canton.    Tho 


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first  bank  In  Indiana  chartered,  London  nnd  Weat- 
niiiittor  lUnk  cumuu>ni;od  butlneu,  lOdi  March.  Ueto- 
lutlon  uf  the  United  Statci  Hunntu  rondemiilng  Priiil- 
dunt  .lttckBc>n  fur  n-niuval  of  dopoill*,  SUruli.  NomU 
nation  of  Koger  U.  Taney  as  Huurptary  of  iho  Troasury, 
rojeutcd  l>y  vote  of  28  to  18.  Abolition  of  slavory  In 
llrltlah  West  Indie*.  Uultlmoru  und  Ohio  Kallroad 
opened  for  travel  to  Harper's  Kerry,  1st  Decemlier. 
Hank  of  Maryland  failed,  24th  Marcli. — IHDfi.  French 
Inilemnity  bill  passed,  IHth  April.  Ualtlmoro  and 
M'ashlnKton  Uallroad  opuned  for  travel,  'iSil  AuKiist. 
Hank  of  Maryland  riotn  In  Ualtlniore,  8th  August.  Loss 
of  ♦•.•(),0(M),000  by  fire  in  Now  York,  Mth  Ueconibor. 
lldiiton  ond  rrovldcm'o  Railroad,  lloston  and  Worcester 
Ituilroad,  coniploted.— IMilU.  Charter  of  United  States 
Dank  expired  tiarch  I,  and  aucocedod  by  Pennsylva- 
nia United  Htates  Dunk.  Keduction  of  the  newspaper 
Stamp  duly  In  Kngland,  15th  September.  Failure  of 
the  Commercial  and  Agrienltural  Hank  of  Ireland.  An- 
thracite coal  used  for  atoamlioatson  North  Ulver.  In- 
dopcnii  lice  of  South  American  ropniiilcii  acknowledged 
iiy  Spain,  4tli  Dttcomber. — 18!I7.  I'anic  in  the  London 
market,  Juno.  Failures  of  American  bankers  In  Lon- 
don. Further  nuulilicatioiia  of  the  usury  laws  of  En- 
gland. Fniiuro  of  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
May  10.  (irand  Junction  Uailway,  Kngland,  opened 
4lh  .Tilly.  Revolt  in  Canada.  Mont  do  Viblt,  Lim- 
erick, CBtaiillshod. — IX.'IS.  lUilway  o|ienod  from  Lon- 
don to  Southampton,  17lh  May.  Wreck  of  the  Forfar- 
Aire ;  heroism  of  Uraco  Darling,  Ath  September.  Koyui 
F.xchango, London,  burned,  lOtii January,  Koaumption 
of  specie  payments  in  Now  I'ork,  May.  Sub-trvasury 
bill  defeated  In  Coni;rcs9,  Juno.  United  Stntos  lOx- 
ploring  expedition,  under  Captain  Wilkes,  loft  Hamp- 
ton Roadx,  lUtii  August,  linpriKonnient  for  debt  abol- 
ished in  England.— 1880.  Hrilish  trado  with  China 
stopped,  Decemlier,  Second  suspension  by  tho  banks 
at  i'iiiladclphla  (Utii  Se|itpmber),  followed  by  bank  fail- 
ures 111  the  South  and  West.  Western  Railroad,  Wor- 
cester to  iSpringfleld,  opened  Ist  October,  Union  Dank, 
London,  commenced  business. — 1810,  Penny  postage 
adoploii  i  I  F.ngland,  Antarctic  continent  discovered 
by  Wilkes,  I'Jth  January.  First  sti'nni  vessel  at  Doston 
g  'vcd  from  Kngland,  Ud  Juno,  First  Cunaril  steamer, 
^.■10  llrilannia)  arrived  at  Doston  18th  July ;  and  the 
/lc«(/i(i,  17th  A'lgust.  Fiscal  Dank  bill  vetoed  by 
President  Tyler,  IGth  August.  Bankrupt  law  passed 
by  Congress,  18lh  August.  Dill  for  distribution  of 
public  lands  passed  by  Congress,  2;ld  August.  Fiscal 
corporal  inn  bill  vetoed  l)y  President  Tyler,  !>th  Sep- 
tomlier.  I.oon  of  $12,000,000  autliorizcd  by  Congress. 
1841-LHJO. — The  island  and  harbor  of  Hopg  Koig 
ceded (1841)  by  tho  Chinese  to  England,  Pennsjh n- 
nia  United  Stales  Dank  failed  tliird  time,  6th  Fetrni- 
ary,  and  made  an  assignment  4th  .Scptcml^r.  Union 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  lOtli  February,  Foreign 
trade  of  Canton  suspended,  and  hostilities  with  the  En- 
glish renewed,  21st  May,  Canton  taken  27th,  Ainor- 
tcan  clucks  exported  to  England. — 1842,  Anti-corn-law 
movement  in  Parliament  by  Sir  R.  Peel,  Captain 
Wilkes  returned  from  his  exploring  expedition,  11th 
June.  Aahburton  treaty  ratilied  by  tho  Senate,  20lli 
August.  Dritish  treaty  with  Cliiiia  (29th  August),  by 
which  it  was  agreed  to  open  five  free  ports. — 1843.  Re- 
turn of  Captain  Rosa  from  tho  South  Pole,  Cth  Septem- 
ber, Trcoty  of  commerce  by  Sir  H,  Pottinger  with 
Cliina. — 1844.  Treaty  of  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
United  States  rejected  by  the  United  States  Senate,  8th 
June.  Anti-rent  riots  in  New  York,  August.  Re- 
charter  of  Dank  of  England,  Magnetic  telegraph  be- 
tween Daltimore  and  Washington,  Cheap  postage  act 
of  United  States  went  into  operation  July  1. — 18-15. 
Treaty  between  United  States  and  China  ratilied  by 
United  States  Senate,  Kitli  January.  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin left  England  25th  May  on  his  Arctic  expedition. 
Anti-corn-lsw  league  at  Manchester.  Steamship  O'rrat 
Britain  arrived  at  New  York,  10th  August.     Treaty  of 


annexation  of  Texas  ratilied  by  United  Niatea  S«nat«, 
1st  March.  I.oaa  of  4il,00il,l)00  by  fl'e  In  New  York 
city,  10th  July.  Peel  ministry  resigned,  llth  Decem- 
ber.— 1810.  Oregon  treaty  between  Kngland  and  tho 
Unltcil  Slatea  signed  In  London,  17th  July.  Second 
fuilura  uf  the  potato  crop  In  Ireland.  Steamship  (IrtM 
Ilrittiin  stranded  In  Dundrum  Day,  32d  Octolier,  Dec. 
larution  of  wur  with  Mexico  by  tho  United  States,  12th 
May,  Now  tarilT  bill  passed  by  Congress,  28th  July, 
Veto  of  French  spoliation  bill  by  President  Polk,  flth 
August.— 1847,  Gold  In  Calirornia  discovered.  Unit- 
ed  States  ship  Jumttlomt  left  Doston  28lh  March,  and 
frigate  Miwrdonian,  IHlh  July,  with  provisions  for  relief 
of  the  Irish,     (jreat  commercial  distress  tliroughiiut 

Greit  Driloiu,  Hcpt.-Nov 18-18.  The  State  of  Mary- 

land  r'<sumed  payment  of  inlorcst  1st  January.  Treaty 
of  peace  between  Mexico  and  United  States,  signed  llOth 
May,  Suspension  bridge  at  Niagara  Falls,  completed 
2!lth  July,  Edict  to  Incorporate  Dank  of  France  with 
nine  branches,  27lh  April,  India  rubber  life-preserv- 
crs  Invented,— 1810.  Penny  postage  adopted  In  Prussia, 
First  experiment  of  a  sulimarine  telegraph  at  Folk- 
stone. — 1H60.  Lopor.  Invasion  of  Cuba,  £20,000  reward 
ofl'urod  by  Parliament  for  discovery  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin, 8th  March,  Collins  line  of  steamers  to  Livcrjiool 
commenced  operations,  Sleanicr  Allanlic  loft  New 
York,  27th  April,  The  celebrated  Koh-l-noor  diamond, 
valued  at  $2,000,000,  brought  to  Kngland,  July, 

1851-1868.— The  London  exhibition  opened  1861, 
May  1.  Coiitraotof  PacliaofEgyptwIthMr.  Stephen- 
son for  a  railway  fVom  Alexandria  to  Cairo.  Railways 
completed  liotween  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  Duli- 
lin  and  Oalway.  Collins  steamer  I'acijlc  arrived  In 
Liverpool,  Moy.  Y'acht  America  won  tho  race  at 
CowcR,  22d  August.  Hudson  River  Railroad  opened 
to  Albany,  8th  October,  Dr.  Kane  returned  from  the 
(irinncU  expedition,  October,  — 1852.  Construction  of 
French  Crystal  Palace  ordered,  Februarj',  Expedition 
of  United  States  naval  forces  to  Japan,  March.  Dr. 
Rao  returned  from  his  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin, 
Febraory.  Ship  Prince  A  Ibirt  returned  from  search  for 
Sir  John  Franklin,  7th  Oclober.— ISM.  Trial  trip  of  tho 
caloric  steamship  t'.riiMon  from  Now  York  to  tho  Polo- 
mac,  llth  January.  Second  Arctic  expedition  left  New 
York)!llstMay,  American  expedition  arrived  at  Japan, 
8th  July.  Ix)9softheBte(iii  '  \^^  IlumMdt,h\\\  Decem- 
ber.— 1854,  Combined  flcei  ;  England  and  France  en- 
tered tlic  Black  Sea,  llth  January,  Loss  of  the  steamer 
San  Franciaco,  6th  January.  Steamer  Cily  of'Hasguio 
lost,  March,  Declaration  of  war  by  England  against 
Russia  In  behalf  of  Turkey,  28th  March,  Commercial 
treaty  between  United  States  ond  Japan,  French  loan 
of  260,000,000  francs,  announced  March  11,  and  Turk- 
ish, loan  of  £2,727,400,  London  joint-stock  bankers 
admitted  to  tho  clearing-house,  June  7,  Crystal  I'alaco 
at  Sydenham,  opened  10th  June.  Bombardment  of 
.•^111  Juan  by  ship  Cyam,  18lh  July.  Loss  of  steamer 
Ardii',  27th  September.  Captain  M'Clure  rctnma  from 
Arctic  discovery,  2Htli  September.  — 1855.  Discovery 
of  Captain  Franklin's  remains.  £10,000  awarded  Cap- 
tain M'Clure  by  Parliument.  Paris  exhibition  opened 
16th  May,  Submarine  telegraph  wire  laid  in  Black 
Sea.  Resistance  by  United  States  to  payment  of  Sound 
dues.  First  railroad  train  crossed  suspension  bridge 
at  Niagara,  14lh  March,  French  loan  of  600,000,000 
francs  taken,  18th  January.  Snspcnsion  of  Page, 
Bacon,  &  Company,  Adams  &  Company,  San  Fran- 
cisco, 22d  February,  English  loan  of £16,000,000  takott 
by  Rotlischllds,  20th  April,  Ships  A  rctic  and  Rtiease, 
Captain  Hartstcne,  left  New  York  for  relief  of  Dr.  Kane 
and  party. — 1850,  Tho  Arctic  dlscovcrj--ship,  Jiesolute, 
was  delivered  to  the  British  anthorities  at  Portsmouth, 
aotii  December,— 1867,  Trial  trip  of  tho  United  States 
frigate  jVi'o^oro,  22d  April,  Suspension  of  Ohio  Life 
and  Trust  Company,  New  York,  24th  August.  Suspen- 
sion of  tho  banks  at  Philadelphia,  25th  September; 
Baltimore,  etc,  2Ctlij  New  York,  14tk  Ovtober. 


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CfoBunmio*,  Ood«  d«.    Thli  wu  ■  part  of  tiit 

C<mI«  N'ii|hjIiiuii  kiiuwii  sa  Im  Cmij  CaUt  and  trttrward 
U  /m  •Vir  t'oilet.  'I'lia  C'uite  ila  Cuiiiuwrce  wh  pro- 
inttlK»t«<l  tn  January,  IMUH.  It  waa  foumleil  in  loiii* 
maaiuro  upon  llio  unloniiancca  of  Itf7:i-'M1  uf  Louia 
XIV.  Uii  account  of  tliu  many  niu<lillcatlona  which 
the  cuda  of  IHO.^  hail  unilarKunii,  a  naw  taxt  uf  Ihu  ca<la 
waa  proniuliiatflil  In  January.  IMI.  TheCuduiluCiini- 
niarce  la  cuiialilurud  thu  twal  |>«rt  uf  t'rvnch  lc){liilutiun. 
The  Inalllullon  of  (he  coniniercial  trilmnala  haa  Ixicn 
of  Knat  advantaKo  to  Fraiicn,  and  haa  Ih)«ii  uduptod  in 
other  cuuntriea.  Thaao  couria,  of  whicli  tliuru  aro  'ilii, 
conaiat  of  apreaUUntand  twour  niureJudK«»t  oUchuavn 
by  tlui  inonhanta  ainonK  thoninclvva,  and  for  ii  liniitod 
tluia :  (licy  arc  nut  paid  fur  lliclr  acrvirca,  hut  tho  i/ri/- 
Jitr  ur  rc't(iatrar  ri'cuivua  a  aalary.  Thu  LWc  dt  Cum- 
fntree  cunaiata  uf  fuur  hooka :  tha  flrnt  trvata  uf  coni- 
mcrcu  in  {ivni'»\;  of  tho  varloua  dcacriptiuna  uf  coni- 
Uirrclal  muii ,  uf  the  keeping  of  bouka;  of  compunlea 
and  partnerabipa ;  cil'  lirokvra,  cuuiiniaalunera,  carrlcra, 
etc.  The  aacond  Ireata  of  inarilinio  cuinniuriu ;  aliip- 
pinfCi  inaurancca;  Lankruptey,  etc.  The  third  vun- 
cerna  bankruptciea ;  md  Iho  fourth  treata  of  thu  com- 
morcial  trlhunala,  tin  ir  Juriadictiun,  mid  proccudinK''. 
lly  a  law  uf  April,  Win,  appeula  In  in  iilera  uliuvo  Uiuo 
fraiici  (^furiiiorly  1000  frauca)  are  carried  to  thu  C'our 
Koyaltt  of  tho  diatrlct,--Ii<>iiN'.'4  Cj/rloiiulia. 

The  French  code  la  retained  In  Ulienlali  IVuasIs ;  In 
tha  kinitdoni  of  Naplci  with  auinu  tew  niodillcationa ; 
in  the  Caiitnii  of  (isneva,  In  Switzerland,  and  in  llel- 
giuin ;  and  rurmed  the  baaia  of  the  cude  of  Loulnluiia, 
iUKKi'^ted  ur  prepared  liy  the  late  lldward  l.l\  In^'itluii. 

Comtnarolal  Treaties.  Tliu  llrat  treaty  uf  cum- 
mercu  iiiadu  liy  Kiit(laiid  «  illi  any  foreign  iiutinn,  »ua 
entered  iiilu  Willi  the  KliMniiitc,  1  I'.dwuril  1.,  I'i72. 
Tho  accuiiil  waa  with  I'urtujjal  and  y|)aiii,  'i  Kdward 
II.,  1308.— .•<<;(;  TltK.tTIKH. 

Commodore,  a  Kcnoral  offlror  tn  tho  nnvy,  inveat- 
cd  with  tho  command  of  a  detachment  of  ships  of  war 
deatined  un  any  particular  cnterpriae,  ami  IiIh  ahip  is 
diatiii^uinhcd  fruni  tlia  real  of  his  aquadruii  l>y  u  broad 
pendant  tapurlnj;  toward  tho  uulcr  and,  and  aoino- 
liiiios  forked.  The  word  la  corrupti'd  fruin  the  .Spuii- 
lah  coniffulaJor,  wliich  ai^illca  butli  tliu  supcriur  uf  a 
monaatcry  and  a  knight  who  huUlfi  u  commaiidcry. 
Couiinudoro  la  alao  a  name  given  to  the  cuiivuy  or  lead- 
ing ahip  in  a  fleet  of  merchautnien,  which  carries  a 
light  In  her  top  to  guide  tho  other  ahipg. — K.  I).  See 
Co.Nvor. 

Companies.  In  commerce  or  tho  arts  a  company 
is  a  nuiiilicr  of  persons  aasoclated  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  aonio  commercial  or  Industrial  umlnrtuk- 
ing.  When  there  are  only  a  few  individuals  associated, 
it  is  most  cunimonly  called  a  copnrtHery ;  tho  term  com- 
pany being  usually  applied  to  large  associations,  like 
tlio  East  India  Company,  tho  Hank  of  England,  etc., 
who  conduct  their  operations  by  ineuiis  of  agents  act- 
ing under  the  orders  of  a  lioard  of  directors.  Compa- 
nies have  generally  been  divided  into  two  groat  classes 
—exclusive  or  joint-etock  companies,  and  open  and  reg- 
ulated companies. 

1.  KxHunee  or  Joint-Uoch  Companies. — Bj  an  insti- 
tution of  this  sort  Is  meant  a  company  having  a  certain 
amount  of  capital,  divided  into  a  greater  or  smaller 
number  of  transferable  shares,  managed  for  tho  com- 
mon advantage  of  tho  shareholders  by  a  body  of  di- 
rectors chosen  by  and  responsible  to  them.  After  the 
stock  of  a  company  of  this  sort  has  been  subscribed,  no 
one  can  enter  it  without  previously  purchasing  one  or 
more  shares  belonging  to  some  of  the  existing  mem- 
bers. The  partners  do  nothing  individually ;  all  their 
resolutions  are  taken  in  common,  and  arc  carried  into 
ofTect  by  the  directors  and  those  whom  they  employ. 
According  to  the  common  law,  all  the  partners  in  a 
joint-stock  company  are  jointly  and' individually  lia- 
ble, to  the  whole  extent  of  their  fortunes,  for  the  debU 
of  the  compan/.   They  may  make  arrangements  among 


thamselrea,  limiting  thnir  ubilgations  with  rnipsct  to 
each  other ;  but  unleaa  entablialiud  liy  an  authority  eoni- 
pntent  to  sat  aaids  tho  gi'iiural  rule,  they  aro  all  indall- 
nltely  reaponalblu  to  tlu'  public. 

"  In  a  private  coparlnpry,  no  partntr,  withnut  thn 
consent  of  thu  company,  can  tranafvr  hia  >liHru  tu  an- 
uthar  person,  or  Inlruduce  a  nuw  memljer  into  the  com- 
pany. Kacli  iiicnilirr,  however,  may,  upon  proper 
warning,  withdraw  from  thu  copartnery,  and  demaiiil 
payment  from  them  uf  lila  ahare  uf  the  cuniiiion  atocli. 
In  a  juint-stuck  company,  on  thu  contrary,  iiu  ineinbar 
can  demand  payment  uf  hia  share  from  the  cuinpany ; 
but  each  niainlier  may,  without  their  cuiment,  tranafar 
his  iliare  tu  auother  peraon,  and  Ihi'rcliy  introduce  a 
new  member.  Tho  value  of  a  aharu  in  ajuint  stuck  la 
alwaya  the  price  which  it  will  bring  in  thu  market; 
and  this  may  lie  either  greater  or  less,  in  any  propor- 
tion, than  the  sum  which  ita  owner  ataiida  credited  for 
in  tliu  stuck  of  the  company." —  Wrullh  iifMuliuiu,  p.  II3D. 

'.'.  I'tilili/  iif  JoiHl-tloch  t'lmpunitt. — Whenever  Iho 
capital  required  to  carry  on  any  undertaking  exceeds 
what  may  be  furnished  by  an  individual,  it  is  liidlspen- 
aable,  in  order  tu  the  prosecutiun  of  tliu  undertaking, 
that  an  aaauclation  aliould  be  funned.  In  ull  tlioso 
caaes,  tuo,  in  which  tho  chances  of  auccesa  are  doubt- 
ful, ur  wliero  a  lengthened  periud  must  iii'ccHiturlly 
elapsu  lieforu  in  undertaking  can  be  conipldcd,  an  in- 
dividual, thuugli  ready  ciiuiigh  to  ciintrlbulo  a  small 
Kuin  In  connection  with  uthurs,  wuuld,  generally  speak- 
ing, bu  very  littlu  inclined,  oven  If  ho  had  tho  nicaiis, 
tu  encounter  tho  whole  respunslbility  uf  such  enter- 
prises. Hence  tho  necessity  and  advantage  uf  ciimpa- 
iiioa  or  ssauclatioiia.  It  Is  tu  them  tliat  »c  are  indebt- 
ed fur  tliune  canals  and  railways  by  which  every  part 
uf  the  I'uiintry  Is  Intersected,  t'ur  tho  furinatluii  of  so 
muiiy  iiublu  ducks  and  wareliuuses,  for  the  institution 
of  our  principal  banks  and  liisuranco  olHces,  and  for 
many  other  establishments  uf  great  public  utility  cur- 
ried (111  by  tho  combined  capital  and  energies  uf  large 
bodies  and  individuals. 

11.  llianchf  iiflnilu»lr!),fut  the  Prottcutiim  (\fu-hifh 
Jti'ml-itoik  Cumj>anie»  mny  be.  ailiaiUaymiutu  eilMiiih- 
eti. — III  order  to  Insuru  a  rational  prospect  of  success  to 
a  cuiiipaiiy,  the  undertaking  should  admit  uf  being  car- 
ried on  according  to  a  regular  systematic  )iian.  i'he 
rea.Hun  of  this  ia  iiulliclently  obviuus.  Tho  liuniness  of 
a  great  association  must  be  conducted  by  factors  or 
agents;  and  unless  it  lie  of  such  a  nature  as  to  admit 
of  their  duties  being  clearly  pointed  out  and  delhied, 
tho  association  would  ccaso  to  have  any  ell'ectiial  cuii- 
trol  over  them,  and  would  be,  in  a  great  measure,  at 
their  mercy.  An  individual  who  manages  his  own  af- 
fairs reaps  all  tho  advantage  derivable  from  superior 
skill,  industry,  and  economy ;  but  thu  agents,  and  even 
directors  of  joint-stock  companies  labor,  in  most  cases, 
entirely  or  principally  for  the  advantage  of  others ;  and 
can  nut  therefore,  liuwevcrcunscicntious,  have  the  saiiio 
powerful  motives  to  act  with  energy,  prudence,  and 
economy.  "  Like,"  says  Ur.  Smith,  "  the  stewards  of 
a  rich  man,  they  arc  apt  to  co.isider  attentiun  tu  small 
matters  as  not  for  their  master's  honor,  and  very  easily 
give  themselves  a  dispensation  from  having  it.  Neg- 
ligence and  profusion  therefore  must  always  prevail 
more  or  less  in  the  management  of  tho  allliirs  nf  such  a 
company."  It  also  not  unfrequently  happens  that  they 
sulTcr  from  tho  bad  faith,  as  well  as  the  carelessness 
and  oxtrava|j;ance  of  their  servants;  tho  latter  having 
in  many  instances  endeavored  to  advance  their  own  in- 
terests at  the  expense  of  their  cmplaycrs.  llonco  the 
different  success  of  companies  whoso  business  may  bo 
conducted  according  to  a  nearly  uniform  system — such 
as  dock,  canal,  and  insurance  companies,  railroad  com- 
panies, etc. — and  those  whoso  business  does  not  admit 
of  being  reduced  to  ony  regular  plan,  and  where  much 
must  always  lie  loft  to  tho  sagacity  and  enterprise  of 
those  employed.  All  purely  commercial  companies, 
trading  upon  a  joint  stock,  belong  to  the  latter  class. 


COM 

Mot  out  of  (ham  hu  Ihwii  uhla  tu  willuUnd  tlia  compa- 
tllinii  of  privata  ■ilviiiturnr* i  llivy  tau  not  iiilijnct  Iha 
•gi'iiti  tlii  y  ainpluy  (u  buy  aii<l  x'll  luiiiinmlllii't  In  illi- 
tant  rouiilrloii  ti>  un>  rlTrctual  rPii|ioii>iliility ;  anil  frum 
tliU  <  In  iiiiialani'i',  ami  lli»  aljimo  that  imuully  liialnu- 
•tu  tliciiitrlvi'i  iiiti)  aviiry  (U|mrtniiiiit  iiflliitlr  niaiiuk;<t- 
niaiit,  nu  (ucli  i:om|iniiy  liua  uvur  •ui'>:t'U(!i'il,  uiiU'm 
when  It  haa  altahRil  luniu  i-xclunlvo  prlvllvgu,  ur  bucn 
protcctuil  from  i't>in|i«tUliin. 

Thu  Ahhu  Morclk't  ha>  ulven,  in  a  tract  piiUUbuil  In 
I'filt  (A.Vomm  ile  lit  ll<i)<mif  lU  M.  M.,  p.  I),'i-;)8),  a  llat 
of  !>t>  Jiilnt-atuck  iMinipunu'H,  fur  tho  pru»i'rutl(in  uf  va- 
rlouit  lirnnihca  of  furul^n  triitli',  «8talili>h<Ml  in  ilinV'ri'nt 
pnrlA  iif  I'luriipo  ainre  llUX),  oviTy  unn  uf  which  hail  fall- 
eil,  lliiiiitth  moat  of  them  liail  cxcliialvit  prIviluKua 
Bluat  iif  tiiuao  that  havo  livon  cilablUhuil  ainro  Ilia  pul>- 
llcnlion  of  Ihu  Ahl>«i  Murcllut'a  triu  t  havii  Imii  a  simi- 
lar futo,  Itut  notv  ''h.ilamling  Loth  prlnilplo  nnd  cx- 
paricnco  concur  in  lowin^  how  vury  ill  lllteu  u  lar^o 
aaaoclatluii  la  fur  tho  purpusa  of  proacii'ting  cunimur- 
clal  unilurlaklnga,  Ihurs  aru  casca  In  >ihlch  they  inn 
not  lie  proaccntod  oxcupt  liy  aaauriull'lia  of  thia  aurt, 
•ml  when  It  may  bo  cxpi'iliuiit  tu  );■''  t  thcni  cortuiu 
peculiar  prlvilcgca.  '".  hen,  owiii(!  i'hcr  to  ihu  diain- 
cllmillun  or  liiulillily  oi  govornmi'  >u  ulVurd  p  c- 
ttun  to  tliuBO  engaged  In  any  purticiilar  departn.  '  of 
trade,  tlic'V  aro  obllge<l  to  piuvldo  for  their  oi  > 
fciiBo  and  ^'curlty,  It  la  ubvioualy  neieaeary  ,v  t  .liey 
(hould  luivo  tka  power  to  exclude  anch  lndi\i  luula  as 
may  nfn  f  to  nubnilt  to  the  men  h,  or  to  bear  their 
due  aliiur  uf  tlu!  expense,  r<M|iiir  '  i'  le  common  pro- 
tection of  all.  Tliu  Ituaalan  (V  iipun)  I  ho  iiaat  India 
Company,  tho  Levant  or  Tnrki^  Company,  and  moat 
of  tliu  oilier  great  trading  companica  that  have  exist- 
ed, aecm  principally  tu  have  grown  out  of  a  real  or  sup- 
posed neceaslty  of  this  sort.  It  wna  not  believed  tliot 
any  snfu  or  advantageous  Intcrcourao  could  bo  curried 
on  with  barbarous  countries  without  tlio  aid  of  ships  of 
wor,  faeturlcs,  Interpreters,  etc. ;  and  as  govcrnmeiil 
was  nut  ubio  or  willing  to  all'ord  this  assistance,  the 
traders  were  formed  into  compares  or  associutioiis,  and 
vested  with  siuli  peculiar  privileges  o»  appeoied  to  be 
necessary  for  eimbling  ( ben»  to  prusccuto  tho  trailc  ^vitll- 
out  ony  extrinnie  sujiport.  "  AVhen,"  says  Ur.  Smith, 
"  a  company  of  mereliants  uiidertuke,  at  their  own  risk 
and  oxpensc,  to  estaldiali  a  now  tradu  with  sonio  re- 
mote and  barbarous  nullun,  it  moy  not  bo  unrcasona- 
l)Ia  to  incorporate  ther.i  into  a  joint-stock  company  and 
to  grant  thcni,  in  case  of  aucccaa,  a  monopoly  oi,'  the 
tradu  for  n  ■•■rtain  number  of  years.  It  Is  tho  cosiest 
and  moat  u  .■  i  ..'  way  in  which  tho  atato  can  recom- 
pense thi  .  ..■  ;; warding  a  dangerous  and  expensive 
•xpcrlniem,  ci  which  tho  public  is  afterward  to  reap 
tho  bcnelit.  A  temporary  monopoly  of  this  kind  may 
lie  vindicated  upon  tho  aamo  principles  upon  which  a 
like  ivonopuly  of  a  new  machine  is  grunted  to  its  in- 
venli  i,and  that  of  a  new  book  to  Its  author.  Butupou 
tbv'  cxpirotion  of  tho  term,  tho  monopoly  ought  cer- 
ttuiily  to  determine ;  tho  forts  and  garrisons,  if  it  was 
found  necessary  to  establish  ony,  to  be  taken  into  the 
bands  of  the  government,  their  valuo  to  be  paid  to  the 
company,  and  the  trade  to  bo  laid  open  to  all  tho  sub- 
jects of  "the  stote."—  M'eallh  ofSationSy  p.  339.  It  may 
bo  doubted,  howovor,  whether  it  bo  really  necossory, 
even  In  such  a  cose  as  that  now  mentioned,  to  estab- 
lish ajoint-tlock  compdny  with  peculiar  privileges,  and 
whether  tho  samo  thing  might  not  bo  more  advanta- 
geously olTecled  by  tho  establishment  of  an  open  or 
regulated  company. 

4.  Open  or  Rcgulattd  CompanUs.  —  'Xha  affairs  of 
such  companies  or  associations  oro  manogcd  by  direct- 
ors oppointcd  by  tho  members.  They  do  not,  howev- 
er, posscsa  a  common  or  joint  stock.  Eucli  individual 
pays  a  fino  upon  entering  into  the  company,  and  most 
commonly  an  onnuol  contribution :  o  duty  opplicablc 
to  tho  business  of  tho  company  is  also  sometimes  charged 
upon  the  goods  Impoited  and  exported  bom  and  to  the 


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connlrlaa  with  which  lliay  Iraila.  Th«  auma  to  rollMt* 
ad  ara  appllud  by  Iha  dlrnitnra  to  lit  out  ainliaaaaiiurf, 
ciitiaula,  an<l  auch  publiu  funcllmiariaa  aa  may  Im  r«> 
quirmi  to  facllltnlii  eunmiurel.il  daallllga,  or  Xu  liulM 
fiictorioa, maintain criilaars, utii.  Iha  inumbvra  uf  auuk 
conipHiili'a  tradu  upon  tliidr  own  aluvk,  ami  at  lliair  owa 
rink  I  ao  that  when  thu  lliiii,  ur  tliu  aiiiii  payalila  on  a4« 
misaion  Into  a  ruguUlail  company,  la  iiiudiirala,  It  la  Inw 
puaalblu  fur  Ita  iiii'mlHira  to  form  any  euiiibliiitlluii  that 
wuuld  have  thu  elVei't  of  raialiig  ihalr  prullta  alwva  iIm 
cominoii  lovul ;  anil  tliuru  la  tlm  aainu  kanii  ami  eluaa 
coinpelitiuii  amung  Ihnn  that  lliaru  la  aniuHK  utiiar 
clasaea  of  tradura.  A  regulated  ■'umpany  la,  In  faiit,  • 
devleo  for  making  ihiiaoviigaKiiil  III  a  particular  braiiuli 
of  Irado  bear  the  puidie  or  pullllial  axiMniavs  Im  Idaiil 
to  it,  at  the  aanitt  lliiiu  that  It  luaviia  tlioiii  tu  roinlual 
their  own  bualnesa  with  thulr  own  capital,  and  In  thair 
own  way.  hhould,  therefuru,  guvarniiieiit  at  any  tlm« 
refuae,  or  ba  iiiiablu  to  allurd,  that  prulai.tluii  tu  IImib* 
engaged  in  any  branch  of  Irada  which  la  imi'iiaaary  t« 
enable  ihem  tu  carry  It  on,  thulr  fornialluii  iu'u  a  ran* 
ulatcd  company  wiiubt  aci  iii  lu  ■..  liiu  moat  JuUI<  luu< 
meoauro  that  could  lie  adoplud,  Inaamuih  aa  It  ttouM 
ubtc'ii  for  them  that  protection  which  la  IndlapriiaabIa, 
witluut  encroaching  on  Ihu  fruaduin  uf  Individual  an- 
terpriac.  Thu  African  and  Iha  l.avanl  cuiii|iai<li<a  In 
(jrcat  Ilritain,  and  soma  oilier  branchaa  of  Irailii,  wart 
for  u  lung  tinio  cunducled  l.y  opitn  ur  rugululiol  lumpa* 
nies.  Thuac,  huHa\er,  liavu  buuii  riteuiilly  aliollahadt 
the /'il' lean  ('un.pauy,  by  Ihu  act  1  and '.1  lieu,  I  V.o,  !IN| 
und  '"  Levant  (.'onipany,  by  Ihu  act  II  (Itiu,  IV,  e,  88. 
1  lie  liuasio  Company  still  uxlala,— ^Vaa  lliiaaiA  CuM« 

lA.NV. 

In  BO  for  OB  relates  to  protectlun,  it  may  pxrliapa  b« 
thought,  fur  the  reaauna  given  bv  llr,  niiilih^  that  a 
juint-stock  cunipaiiy  la  butler  caliulat'iil  to  Kflord  It 
than  a  regulated  company.  Thu  illriiulura  of  ilin  laltar 
having,  L)r.  Smith  allegea,  nu  piirtlcular  iiilureal  In  tha 
prosperity  of  tlio  general  tradu  of  ihii  conipuiiy,  fur  lia< 
liouf  of  which,  shlpa  of  war,  faclorlua,  ur  fiiria  have  lo 
bu  maintained,  ore  apt  to  iieglei't  llietii,  and  lu  appi/ 
their  whole  energies  to  tiiu  caru  uf  their  uwii  privata 
concema.  Dut  the  Intereata  uf  thu  illructora  of  a  Joint* 
stuck  company  are,  hu  contauda.  In  a  great  inuaaiira 
identifled  with  those  of  Ihu  aaauiiatlun.  They  have  no 
private  capital  cinpluyed  In  lli«  traita)  Ihalr  pruflta 
must  depend  upon  tho  prudent  and  prolltablu  manage* 
ment  of  tho  common  stock ;  ami  It  may  tlmrvfurn,  It  le 
argued,  bo  fairly  prcauinod  that  tliuy  will  bn  mure  ill*> 
posed  to  attend  cirefully  to  all  the  iiiaaiia  by  wlilvli  the 
prosperity  of  tho  osaoclatlon  may  b«  bual  aviiirnd.  On 
tho  other  hand,  however,  it  Is  •eldoiii  timt  tliu  direct- 
ors of  Joint-stock  companiea  atop  at  thu  prupur  point  | 
having  almost  invariably  attvmptad  lo  ektund  llieir 
commercinl  dealings  by  force,  and  to  bticiiniu  nut  unly 
Inercliants  but  sovereigns.  Nor  la  thia  any  thing  but 
what  might  hove  been  expected,  seeing  that  the  ii>ii< 
siderotion  and extcnsivu  palronugv  aeiruliig from  audi 
measures  to  tho  direciura  la  geiiurally  uf  fur  iiiurii  ltn< 
purtance  to  them  than  a  moduratu  liicruOMi  uf  the  dIvU 
(lends  on  their  stock.  Whenever  tliay  have  JMian  able, 
they  have  seldom  scrupled  tu  amploy  arnia  to  advaiiM 
their  projects ;  and  initeud  of  conteiitliig  tlHiltiaulvea 
with  shops  and  fucturies,  hovu  cunatruutad  furtillca< 
tions,  embodied  orinics,  ond  unguged  In  war.  llut  auch 
has  not  boon  the  case  with  rcgulatud  emiipanlM,  TIm 
businesses  under  their  control  have  iiiilfuriiily  Iwun  voti> 
ducted  in  a  comparatively  frugal  and  |mraliii"liluui 
manner;  their  estnblishmunla  huvu  buuii,  fur  tho  moat 
part,  ttnfiucd  to  factories ;  and  they  huvu  rnraly,  If 
ever,  ollowcd  themsulvci  to  be  ludueed  by  wiieliiea  of 
conquest  ond  dominion. 

And  hence,  contidoring  them  as  cammtretul  muolitnu, 
it  does  not  really  seem  that  lliura  can  be  any  iluubt  u 
to  tho  superiority  of  a  regulated  over  a  juliit'«toeli  eoiU' 
pony.  The  latter  haa  the  defuet,  fur  wliivli  nothing  •!• 
uost  cou  compoiuate,  of  nitinlif  ucluUitty  imUmiml 


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896 


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tnttrprtM  and  eompetilion.  When  such  a  compnny  en- 
Joys  any  peculiar  privilege,  it  unturally,  in  pursuing 
Its  own  interest,  endeavors  to  profit  by  it,  how  injuri- 
ous soever  it  may  be  to  the  public.  If  it  have  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  trade  with  any  particular  country,  or  of 
any  particular  commodity,  it  rarely  fails,  by  under- 
stocking the  homo  and  foreign  markets,  to  sell  the  goods 
which  it  imports  and  exports  at  an  artificially  enhanced 
price.  It  is  not  its  object  to  employ  a  comparatively 
large  capital,  but  to  make  a  large  profit  on  a  compara- 
tively small  capital.  Tlio  conduct  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  in  burning  tpices,  that  their  price 
might  not  be  lowered  by  larger  importations,  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  mode  in  which  such  associations  uniform- 
ly, and,  indeed,  almost  necessarily  act.  All  individu- 
als are  desirous  of  obtaining  the  highest  possible  price 
for  what  they  have  to  sell :  and  if  they  are  protected 
by  a  monopoly,  or  an  exclusive  privilege,  from  the  risk 
of  being  undcrwld  by  ,->thers,  they  never  hesitate  about 
raising  the  price  of  their  products  to  the  highest  eleva- 
tion that  the  competition  of  the  buyers  will  allow  them  ; 
and  thus  frequently  realize  the  most  exorbitant  prof- 
its. And  yet,  notwithstanding  these  advantages,  tuch 
is  the  negligence,  profusion,  and  peculation  insepara- 
ble from  the  management  of  grert  commercial  compa- 
nies, that  even  those  that  have  had  the  monopoly  of 
the  most  udvantageons  branches  of  commerce  have 
rarely  been  able  to  keep  out  of  debt.  It  will  be  shown 
in  the  article  East  India  Co.MrANV,  that  ti\at  associ- 
ation has  lost  by  its  trade ;  and  that,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  aid  den .  d  from  the  rovennes  of  India,  it  must 
long  since  have  ceased  to  exist.  To  buy  in  one  mark- 
et ;  to  sell  with  profit  in  another ;  to  watch  over  the 
perpetually  occurring  variations  in  the  prices  and  in 
the  8up)ily  and  demand  of  commodities;  to  suit  with 
dexterity  and  judgment  the  quantity  and  quclity  of 
goods  to  the  wants  of  each  market,  and  to  conduct 
each  operation  in  the  best  and  cheapest  manner,  re- 
quires a  degree  of  unremitting  vigilance  and  attention, 
which  it  would  bo  visionary  to  expect  from  the  directors 
or  servants  of  a  great  joint-stock  association.  Hence 
it  has  happened,  over  and  over  again,  that  branches  of 
commerce  which  proved  ruinous  to  companies  have  be- 
come exceedingly  profitable  when  carried  on  by  indi- 
viduals. 

6.  Cowtitulim  »/  Cfompanies. — When  application  is 
made  for  an  act  to  incorporate  a  number  of  individuals 
into  a  joint-stock  company  for  the  prosecution  of  any 
nseful  undertaking,  care  should  be  tal  .n  not  to  con- 
cede to  them  an}'  privileges  that  may  be  rendered  in- 
Jur!ous  to  the  public.  If  a  company  lie  fonned  fur  the 
construction  of  .^  dock,  a  road,  or  a  canal,  it  may  be 
necessary,  in  order  to  stimulate  individuals  to  engage 
in  the  undertaking,  to  give  thrni  some  peculiar  privi- 
leges for  a  certain  number  of  years,  ''ut  if  other  per- 
sons were  ti  be  permanently  hindered  from  construct- 
ing new  docks,  or  opening  new  lines  of  communication, 
a  lasting  ii^ury  might  be  done  to  the  ])ublic.  It  may 
be  highly  expedient  to  incorporate  a  company  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  water  into  a  city;  but,  supposing 
there  were  no  springs  in  the  vicinity  o'her  than  those 
to  which  this  company  had  acquired  a  right,  tlic y  might, 
aniess  restrained  by  the  act  incorporating  thorn,  raise 
the  price  of  water  to  an  exorbitant  height,  and  make 
large  profits  for  themselves  at  the  expense  and  to  the 
Injury  of  the  public.  In  all  cases  of  this  sort,  and  in 
the  case,  indeed,  of  all  joint-stock  companies  establish- 
ed for  the  formation  of  canals,  railroads,  etc.,  it  would 
be  Bound  policy  to  limit  the  rates  charged  for  their 
services,  or  on  account  of  the  water,  ships,  goodly  etc., 
conveyed  by  their  means,  and  also  to  limit  the  divi- 
dends, or  to  fix  a  maximum  beyond  which  they  should 
not  be  augmented :  enacting,  that  if  the  rates'cbarged 
by  the  company  produce  more  than  sufficient  to  pay 
the  maximum  rate  of  dividend,  and  to'dcfray  the  wear 
and  tear  of  the  aqueduct,  canal,  etc.,  they  shall  be  al- 
lowed to  reduce  tbei^  till  tbe^r  only  yield  this  much ; 


and,  in  the  event  of  their  declining  to  do  so,  that  the 
whole  surplus  above  paying  the  dividend  shall  be  ap- 
plied to  purchase  up  the  stock  of  the  association,  so 
that  ultimately  the  charges  on  account  of  dividends 
may  be  entirely  abolished. 

6.  Companiet  en  Cummandile. — In  France  there  is  A 
sort  of  companies  denominated  lociitet  en  commandite, 
A  society  of  this  description  consists  of  one  or  mora 
partners,  liable,  without  limitation,  for  the  debts  of  the 
company ;  and  one  or  more  partners,  or  commanditairei, 
liable  only  to  tiie  extent  of  the  funds  they  have  sub- 
scribed. A  commnndilaire  must  nut,  however,  take 
any  part  in  the  business  of  the  company;  if  he  do  this, 
he  loses  his  Inviolability,  and  mr^es  himself  responsi- 
ble for  the  debts  of  the  association.  The  names  of  tho 
partners  in  such  societies  must  be  published,  and  the 
amount  of  tho  sums  contributed  by  the  commanditairei. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  introduce  partnerships  of  this 
sort  into  this  country ;  but  it  seems  very  doubtful 
whether  any  thing  would  be  gained  by  such  a  meas- 
ure. Partnerships  en  commandiVe  may  be  very  easily 
abused,  or  rendered  a  means  of  defrauding  the  public. 
It  is  quite  visionary  to  imagine  that  the  commanditaires 
can  be  prevented  from  Indimctly  influencing  the  other 
partners ;  and  supposing  a  collusion  to  exist  among 
them,  it  might  be  possible  for  them  to  divide  largo 
sums  as  profits,  when  perhaps  they  had  really  sustain- 
ed a  loss ;  and  to  have  tho  books  of  tho  association  so 
contrived  that  it  might  bo  very  difficult  to  detect  the 
fraud.  This,  it  is  alleged,  is  by  no  means  a  rare  oc- 
currence In  France. 

7.  Ciric  Companiet,  or  Corporations. — Exclusive  of 
tho  companies  previously  mentioned,  a  number  of  an- 
cient companies  or  corporations  exist  in  most  European 
countii<'s,  tho  members  of  which  cijoy  certain  political 
as  well  as  commcrdal  privileges.  When  the  feudal 
system  began  to  bo  subverted  by  the  establishment  of 
good  order  and  regular  government  in  the  towns,  tho 
inhabitants  were  divided  into  certain  trades  or  corpo- 
rations, by  which  the  magistrates  and  other  function- 
aries were  chosen.  Tho  members  of  these  trades,  or 
corporations,  partly  to  enhance  tho  value  of  their  priv- 
ileges, and  partly  to  provide  a  resource,  in  ease  of  ad- 
versity, for  themselves,  acquired  or  usury  d  the  power 
of  enacting  by-laws  regulating  tho  admission  of  new 
members,  and  at  tiie  same  time  set  about  providing  a 
fund  for  the  support  of  such  as  Accident  or  misfortuno 
might  reduce  to  a  state  of  indigence.  Hence  the  ori- 
gin of  apprenticeships,  the  refusal  to  allow  any  one  not 
a  member  of  a  corporation  to  carry  on  any  business 
within  the  ])reciiicts  of  any  town  corporate,  and  the  va- 
rious regulations  that  had  to  bo  submitted  to,  and  the 
fees  that  had  to  be  paid  by  the  claimants  for  enrullinent 
in  corporations.  For  a  lengthened  period  these  jivivl- 
loges  and  regulations  were  very  oppressive.  Within 
tho  last  cent  iiry,  however,  their  iniluenco  has  been  pro- 
grcesively  diniinisliing.  In  France,  where  the  abuses 
inseparable  from  tho  system  had  attained  to  a  very 
great  height,  it  was  entirely  swept  off  by  tho  Revolu- 
tion :  and  though  corporations  still  exist  in  (ireat  Itrit- 
nin,  they  have  been  stripped  of  several  of  their  pecul- 
iar franchises ;  and  should  now,  for  the  most  part,  bo 
regarded  more  perhaps  in  the  light  of  charitable  than 
of  political  institutions.  It  would  be  well,  however, 
were  they  reduced  entirely  to  tho  former  character, 
and  were  the  few  political  and  commercial  privileges 
which  they  still  enjoy  communicated  to  the  rest  of  tho 
citizens.  At  their  first  institution,  and  for  some  time 
after,  corporations,  coiisiilcred  as  political  bodies,  were 
probably  useful:  but  such  is  no  longer  tho  case ;  and  in 
so  far  OS  they  now  possess  any  special  immunities,  they 
tend  to  obstruct  that  free  competition  that  is  so  ad- 
van  tageons. 

The  following  extract  fi'om  a  Report  on  the  Commerca 
and  Manufactures  of  the  United  Slatet,  drawn  up  by 
Albert  Gallatin,  Esquire,  then  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, and  laid  before  CengToas  in  1816,  sets  the  superior 


COM 


897 


COM 


adrantageg  resulting  from  the  unrestricted  freedom  of 
industry  in  a  very  striking  point  of  view.  "Ko 
cause,"  says  lie,  "  bas,  perhaps,  more  promoted  in  ev- 
ery respect  the  general  improvement  of  the  United 
States,  than  the  absence  of  those  systems  of  internal 
restrictions  and  monopoly  which  continue  to  disfigure 
the  state  of  fiociety  in  other  countries.  Mo  laws  exist 
here,  directly  or  indirectly,  confining  men  to  a  partic- 
ular ocGupatiou  or  place,  or  excluding  any  citii'..'i'  from 
any  branch  ho  may  at  any  time  think  proper  to  pur- 
sue. Industry  is,  in  every  respect,  free  and  unfetter- 
ed ;  every  species  of  trade,  commerce,  and  profession, 
and  manufacture,  being  equally  open  to  all,  without  re- 
quiring any  regular  apprenticeship,  admittiun,  or  license. 
Uence  the  improvement  of  America  has  not  been  con- 
fined to  tlie  improvement  of  her  agriculture,  and  to  the 
rapid  formation  and  settlement  of  new  states  in  the 
tTildemcss ;  but  her  citizens  have  extended  their  com- 
merce to  every  part  of  the  globe,  and  carry  on  with 
complete  Sdcceas  even  those  branches  for  which  a  mo- 
nopoly had  heretofore  been  considered  essentially  nec- 
essary." 

Tlicre  is  in  Rees'  Cyclopedia,  art.  Cohfany,  a  list 
of  the  different  civic  companies  belonging  to  the  city 
of  London,  iu  which  the  periods  of  their  incorporation, 
and  various  other  important  particulars  with  respect  to 
several  of  them,  are  specified. 

Among  the  earliest  commercial  companiesinEngland 
may  be  named  the  Stccl-yard  Society,  established  A.v. 
12i)'2.  The  second  company  was  the  merchants  of  St. 
Thomas  A  Deckct,  in  1248. — Stowe.  The  third  was  the 
Merchant  Adventurers  incorporated  by  Elizabeth,  15G4. 
Tbera  are  ninety-one  city  companies  in  London ;  the 
first  twelve  are, 

1  Mercers 18»3 

2  Otoccra 184S 

8  Drapers 1400 

4  FiuhinongcrB 1384 

B  OoIdMiilths , 132T 

6  Skinnem 1S2T 

T  Merchant  Tallon 1460 

8  llabcrdashcra , 144T 

9  Saltern 1508 

10  Ironmongera 1464 

11  Vintners 140T 

12  Uoth-workera 1482 

Companies,  Bubble.  Ruinous  speculation:;  com- 
ing uiiiler  tliis  name  have  been  formed,  commonly  by 
designing  |)ersous. '  Law's  ISubble,  in  1720-'21,  was 
perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  llic 
South  Sea  Bubble,  in  the  same  year,  was  scarcely  less 
memorable  for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of  families.  Many 
companies  were  established  in  Great  Britain  in  1824 
and  182A,  and  most  of  them  turned  out  to  bo  bubbles  ,- 
and  owing  to  the  rage  for  taking  shares  in  each  scheme 
«s  it  was  projected,  immense  losses  were  incurred  by 
individuals,  and  the  families  of  thousands  of  specu- 
lators were  totally  ruined.— ^See  Law's  Bubble  and 
Bankrupts. 

Compaaa  (Germ.  Kin  Kompast ;  Du.  Zeehompass ; 
Do.  Hvehmpdss ;  Sw.  SjiKompast ;  Fr.  liouitole,  Cvnipas 
de  mer;  It.  JIussuta;  Sp.  Agiija  de  marear;  Port.  Com- 
passo  de  murtar;  Kuss.  Kumpass  iorabelniii),  or  mari- 
ner's compass,  an  instrument  composed  of  a  needle  and 
card,  by  wliicli  the  ship's  course  is  directed.  Tlie  nee- 
dle, with  little  variation,  always  points  to  the  north; 
and  hence  the  mode  of  steering  by  the  compass. 

The  common  opinion  is  tliat  the  compass  was  in- 
vented by  Flavio  Gioia,  a  citizen  of  the  once  famous  re- 
public of  Amalphii  very  near  tlio  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Dr.  Kol>ertson  has  adopted  this  opiU' 
ion,  and  regrets  that  contemporary  historians  furnish 
DO  details  as  to  the  life  of  a  man  to  whose  genius  soci- 
ety is  so  deeply  indebted. — History  of  America,  vol.  i. 
p.  47,  8vo  ed.  But  though  Gioia  may  have  made  im- 
provements on  the  compass,  it  has  been  sI\own  that  he 
baa  no  claim  to  be  considered  as  its  discoverer.  I'aS' 
lages  have  been  produced  firom  writers  who  flourished 
More  than  a  century  before  Qioia,  in  which  the  polar 


ity  of  the  needle,  when  touched  by  the  magnet,  it  dis- 
tinctly pointed  out.     Not  only,  however,  had  this  sin- 
gular property  been  discovered,  but  also  its  application 
to  the  purposes  of  navigation,  long  previously  to  the 
fourteenth  century.     Old  French  writers  have  been 
quoted  (Maci'Uehsom's  Annals  qf  Cummerce,  anno 
1200 ;  Kees'  Cyclopedia),  tliat  seem  fully  to  establish 
this  fact.     But  whatever  doubts  may  exist  w  ith  respect 
to  them  can  not  aft'ect  the  passages  which  the  learned 
Spanish  antiquary,  Don  Antonio  de  Capmany  {Quet- 
tiones  Critkas,  p.  73-182),  has  given  from  a  work  of  the 
famous  Raymond  LuUy  (fie  Cotilemplatione}  published 
in  1272.     In  one  place  Lully  says,  "  as  tlie  needle, 
when  touched  by  the  magnet,  naturally  turns  to  the 
north"  (<icu<  acu»  per  naturam  vertUur  ail  lejjtentrionem 
dum  sit  tacta  tt  magnete').     This  is  conclusive  as  to  the 
author's  acquaintance  with  the  polarity  of  the  needle; 
and  the  following  passage  from  the  same  work — "aa 
the  nautical  needle  directs  mariners  in  tlicir  naviga- 
tion" (si'cut  acus  nautica  dirigit  mar-inarioi  in  sua  naii- 
gativne,  etc.),  is  no  less  conclusive  as  to  its  being  Used 
by  sailors  in  regulating  their  course.     There  are  no 
nieatis  of  ascertaiiting  the  mode  in  which  the  needle 
liaymond  Lully  had  in  view  was  made  use  of.     It  has 
been  sufficiently  established  (see  the  authorities  al- 
ready referred  to,  and  AzvNi,  IHssertation  svr  I'Origine 
de  la  Boussole)  that  it  was  usual  to  float  the  needle,  by 
means  of  a  straw,  on  thu  surface  of  a  basin  of  water; 
and  Capmany  contends  that  we  arc  indebted  to  Gioia 
for  the  card  and  the  method  now  followed  of  suspend- 
ing the  needle ;  improvements  which  have  given  to  the 
compass  all  its  convenience,  and  a  verj*  large  portion 
of  its  utility.     But  this  part  of  his  Dissertation,  though 
equally  learned  and  ingenious,  is  by  no  means  so  sat- 
isfactory as  the  other.     It  is  difficult  to  conceive  liow 
mariners  at  sea  could  have  availed  themselves  of  a 
floating  needle;  but,  however  this  may  be,  it  seems 
most  probable  that  Gioia  had  considerably  improved 
the  construction  of  the  compass ;  and  that,  the  Anial- 
phitans  having  been  the  first  to  introduce  it  to  general 
jise,  he  was,  with  excusable  partiality,  represented  by 
(hem,  and  subsequently  regarded  by  others,  as  its  in- 
ventor. 

The  reader  will  not  consider  these  details  out  of 
place  in  a  work  on  commerce,  which  the  compass  has 
done  so  much  to  extend.  "  Its  discovery,"  to  borrow 
the  language  of  Mr.  Macpherson,  "  has  given  birth  to 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  commerce  and  navigation. 
The  former  it  has  extended  to  every  shore  of  the  globe, 
and  increased  and  niultiiilied  its  op:  itions  and  bene- 
ficial eflccts  in  a  degree  which  was  iiot  conceivable  by 
those  who  lived  in  the  earlier  ages.  The  latter  it  has 
rendered  expeditious,  and  coni|>aratively  safe,  by  ena- 
bling the  navigator  to  launch  out  upon  the  ocean  free 
from  the  danger  of  rocks  and  shoals.  By  the  use  of 
this  noble  instrument,  the  w  hole  world  has  become  one 
vast  commercial  commonwealth,  the  most  distant  in- 
habitants of  the  earth  are  brought  together  for  their 
mutual  advantage,  ancient  prejudices  are  obliterated, 
and  mankind  are  civilized  and  enlightened." 

According  to  the  purposes  to  wliich  the  instrument 
is  chiefly  applied,  it  becomes  the  tnariner's  cimpasi,  the 
azimuth  compass,  tlie  variation  compass,  each  particular 
application  requiring  some  peculiarity  of  construction ; 
but  whatever  modifications  it  may  receive,  the  essen- 
tial parts  are  the  samo  in  all  cases.  These  are  a  mag- 
netized bar  of  steel,  called  the  needle,  having  fitted  to 
it  at  its  centre  a  cap,  which  is  supported  on  an  upright 
pivot  made  sharp  at  the  point  in  order  to  diminish  the 
friction  as  much  as  possible  and  allow  the  needle  to 
turn  with  the  slightest  force.  The  nuiriner's  compass 
has  a  cir  idar  card  attaclied  to  its  needle,  which  turns 
with  it,  and  on  the  circumference  of  which  are  marked 
the  degrees,  and  also  the  thirty-two  points  or  rhumb*, 
likewise  divided  into  half  and  quarter  points.  The 
pivot  rises  from  the  centre  of  tlio  bottom  of  a  circular 
box,  called  the  c«mpass-b«x,  which  contains  the  needle 


COM 


COIT 


•nd  it|  card,  «nd  which  ia  covered  with  a  glaas  top  to 
prevent  the  needle  from  being  disturbed  by  the  agita- 
tion of  the  air.  The  compass-box  is  suspended  within 
a  large  box  by  means  of  two  concentric  brass  circles  or 
gimbals ;  the  outer  one  being  fixed  by  horizontal  piv- 
ots, both  to  the  inner  circle  which  carries  the  compass- 
box,  and  also  the  outer  box,  the  two  sets  of  axes  being 
■t  right  angles  to  each  other.  By  means  of  this  ar- 
rangement, the  inner  circle,  with  the  compass -box, 
needle,  and  card,  always  retain  a  horizontal  position, 
notwith.^tanding  the  rolling  of  the  ship. 

The  notation  of  the  mariner's  compass  is  as  follows : 
The  circumference  being  divided  into  the  four  quad- 
rants by  two  diameters  at  right  angles,  the  extremities 
of  these  diameters  are  the  four  cardinal  points  (cardo, 
a  hinge),  marked  K,  S.,  E.,  W.  (north,  south,  cast, 
west).  Bisecting  each  of  the  quadrants,  the  several 
points  of  bisection  nre  denoted  by  placing  the  two  let- 
ters at  the  extremities  of  the  quadrant  in  juxtaposi- 
tion. Thus  N.E.  (northeast)  denotes  the  point  which  is 
half  way  between  north  and  oast;  and  so  with  N.W., 

t-  -->■■■ 


^*% 


►v^. 


S.K.,  S.W.  (northwest,  southeast,  southwest).  Let  the 
octants  next  be  bisccte<l;  the  points  of  division  are  de- 
noted by  prefixing  to  each  of  the  above  combinations 
first  the  one  and  then  the  other  of  the  two  cardi- 
nal points  of  ^.;i!  ti  <t  is  formed.  Thus  N.E.  gives 
N.N.E.  and  E.N.K.  i 'icrth-northeast  ond  tast-north- 
east);  and  so  in  redjiect  of  the  others.  Sixteen  points 
have  thus  been  named.  Let  the  distances  be  again  l>i- 
sected,  then  each  of  the  points  so  found  is  expressed  liy 
that  one  of  the  preceding  points  already  named  to  which 
it  is  nearest,  followed  by  tlic  name  of  the  cardinal  point 
toward  which  its  departure  from  the  nearest  point  leads 
It,  the  two  being  separated  by  the  letter  b  (by).  Thus 
the  point  halfway  between  N.  and  N.N.E.  is  N.  by  E. 
(north-by-east);  that  which  is  halfway  between  N.N.E. 
and  N.E.  is  N.E.  by  N.  (northcast-ljy-north),  etc.  The 
whole  of  the  thirty-two  points  are  thus  distinguished 
in  the  figure. 

The  principal  requisites  of  a  compass  are  intensity 
of  directive  force,  and  susceptibility.  The  first  of  these 
is  obtained  by  constructing  the  needle  of  the  materiel 
and  form  I>est  suitdd  to  receive  and  retain  the  magnet- 
ic virtue.  A  number  of  experiments  on  this  subject 
were  made  i)y  Coulomo,  and  more  recently  Iiy  Captain 
Kater,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in  the  Phil.  Trans, 
for  1821.  Captain  Kater  found  that  the  kind  of  steel 
capable  of  receiving  the  greatest  magnetic  force  is  shear 
steel ;  and  that  the  best  form  is  that  of  a  lozenge  or 
rhomboid,  cut  out  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  diminish  the 
extent  of  surface  in  proportion  to  the  mass,  it  being 
found  that  the  directive  force  of  the  needle,  when  mag- 
netized to  saturation,  depends  not  on  the  extent  of 
surface,  '•—.<.  ■.,•'.  the  wass  Beyond  a  certain  limit 
(about  "■'  iif^a  •s^  no  additional  |)Ower  is  gained  liy 
incren.j.'  ,  liK;  icn.'lh  of  the  needle;  and  needles  ex- 
oae'l'iiif!  a  vOTi  .;>  i:h  rate  length  are  apt  to  ha  ye  several 
MK-  cntiv)'  )'i''^<'t,  i  le  effect  of  which  is  to  produce  a 
gwa:  di'.i'.liiatic  it' directive  force.  On  this  account 
ihori  ""Ji.!",  m;  'J  very  hard,  are  to  be  preferred. — 
Bba.  I  K '•'    .'.-vj .  'jpedia  of  Arts. 

Like  many  other  of  the  most  valuable  arts  of  life,  the 
origin  of  the  compass  la  entirely  nnknown.     By  some 


writers  it  is  ascribed  to  Flavio  Olola,  who  lived  In  th« 
thirteenth  century ;  yet  Guyot  de  Provence,  who  lived 
a  century  earlier,  speaks  of  the  loadstone,  to  which  he 
gives  the  name  of  marinetti,  or  mariner's  stone,  as  use- 
ful  to  navigation.  Others  protend  that  it  was  invent- 
cd  in  France ;  but  there  seems  to  bo  no  other  reason 
for  this  supposition  than  the  fact  that  from  time  im- 
memorial the  north  point  of  the  compass  card  haa 
been  distinguished  and  ornamented  with  a  Jleur  de  lit. 
For  a  reason  of  a  different  kind,  but  perhaps  of  the 
same  degree  of  weight.  Dr.  Wollis  and  others  have 
supposed  the  invention  to  belong  to  England,  the  name 
comjxut,  which  is  given  to  the  instrument  by  most  Eu- 
ropean countries,  being  used  in  England  to  signify  s 
circle.  The  term  hussota  in  Italian  and  touisole  in 
French,  has  also  i)ecn  supposed  to  be  derived  from  our 
term  box,  by  which  the  compass  is  frequently  desig- 
nated. Giloert,  in  his  celebrated  work  De  Magneie, 
affirms  that  Marco  Polo  brought  the  invention  to  Eu- 
rope from  China,  about  the  year  1260.  It  appears  very 
probable  that  the  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  the 
directive  property  of  the  loadstone  at  an  early  period. 

The  azimuth  compaii,  l>cing  intended  to  show  the 
bearing  of  objects  in  respect  of  the  magnetic  meridian, 
baa  its  circle  divided  merely  into  degrees,  instead  of 
the  rhumbs  used  in  navigation,  and  ia  provided  with 
sights  to  allow  the  angles  to  bo  taken  more  accurately. 

The  rarialion  compaii  is  designed  to  exhibit  the  di- 
urnal changes  in  the  deviation  of  tho  magnetic  from 
the  true  meridian ;  and  tlie  needle  is  genera'ly  made 
of  mucli  greater  length  than  the  mariner's  compass,  in 
order  to  render  minute  variations  more  sensible. 

Compata  Vatititions. — In  a  recent  publication  on  tho 
danger  to  which  vessels  are  exposed  from  compass  va- 
riations, there  was  suggested  a  plan  of  much  import- 
ance to  commerce:  that  in  all  large  ports  at  least, 
wliere  vessels  are  equipped,  a  competent  person  ought 
to  be  appointed,  whose  duties  should  be  to  select  in  ev- 
ery ship  an  advanta^ous  position  for  a  standard  com- 
pass, combining  the  two  requisites  in  such  selection  of 
a  manageable  local  attraction,  and  of  convenient  ac- 
cess for  navigating  the  ship — to  determine  experiment- 
ally the  local  deviations  of  the  standard  compass  in 
different  azimuths,  to  instruct  the  master  how  to  repeat 
the  same  on  future  occasions,  and  to  see  that  he  right- 
ly and  thoroughly  understands  the  deduction  of  the 
true  magnetic  courses  from  those  oi  the  standard  com- 
pass, and  of  the  course  by  the  standard  compass  corre- 
sponding to  the  true  course  which  he  desires  to  steer. 

Self-registering  Compans.—The  self-registering  com- 
pass, by  M.  Deluil,  is  designed  to  register  the  changes 
of  direction  in  a  vessel  for  every  three  minutes  during 
the  twenty-four  hours.  The  marking  is  made  upon  « 
compass  card.  It  consists  of  a  clock  movement  placed 
at  the  centre  of  the  apparatus  for  causing  the  point  or 
pivot  carrying  the  ncerlles  to  move  up  and  down  at 
regular  intervals— of  an  endless  screw,  furnished  with 
a  nut  cnrrj'ing  the  point,  for  piereing  the  paper — and  of 
the  compass  card,  made  of  three  needles  fixed  to  a  sheet 
of  mica.  The  mica  is  covered  with  a  disk  of  velvet, 
fimilj-  glued  to  it  by  means  of  strong  glue,  and  whose 
tissue  has  been  saturated  with  a  kind  of  glue  that  ia 
soft  when  cold.  When  the  needle  is  fixed  toward  tha 
north,  the  axis  or  diametral  line  of  the  compass  card  is 
placed  in  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  ship,  and  the  puno- 
tures  made  every  three  minutes  indicate  the  deviation 
of  this  axis. 

Composition,  i»  Commerce,  commonly  implies  the 
dividend  or  sum  paid  liy  an  insolvent  debtor  to  his  cred- 
itors, and  acrppted  by  them  in  payment  for  their  debts. 

Coney  T^JTool  (Gcr.  KanincheMtroUe ;  Du.  Konyn' 
hair ;  Fr.  Poil  de  lapin ;  It.  Pelo  di  Caniglio;  Sp.  Cotit' 
jiina),  the  fur  of  ral)bits.  This  article  is  extensively 
used  in  tho  hat  manufacture ;  and  besides  the  large 
supplies  raised  at  home,  a  groat  deal  is  imported.  Th« 
imports  usually  range  from  aboat  800,000  to  aboni 
600,000  skins  a  year. 


CON 


899 


CON 


Congreve  Rockets.  Invented  by  General  Sir 
William  C'ongrovo  in  1W)3.  Tlio  Congrovo  rockets, 
iirst  uDod  against  IJoulogqe  in  180G,  are  of  various  di- 
mensions, and  difierently  armed,  as  they  are  intended 
for  tiic  flcld  or  for  bombardment.  Those  of  the  former 
class  carry  shells  or  case-shot ;  those  of  the  latter  are 
armed  with  a  very  combustible  material  contained  in 
a  strong  mctallio  cylindrical  case  with  a  conical  head. 
When  once  inflamed,  this  substance  is  unextinguisha- 
ble,  it  scatters  its  burning  particles  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  when  spent,  the  ball  explodes  like  n  grenade. 
The  rocket  is  ]>roJectcd  hcrizontally,  and  makes  a  loud 
whixzing  nuiso  i:i  its  passage  through  the  air.  The 
ammunition  used  varies  from  U  to  42  lbs.  and  upward. 
These  rockets  were  certainly  a  very  important  inven- 
tion ;  but  from  their  liability  to  deflection  and  other 
defects,  they  are  now  regarded  as  less  advantageous 
than  the  ordinary  red-hot  slrot  and  bombs.  The  se- 
cret of  their  composition  also  is  not  so  great  as  to  defy 
imitation  by  foreign  artillerists.  <!)'iV  ]ViUiam  Cmi- 
yrcrc,  Burt.  (1772-1828),  inventor  of  the  rocket  culled 
by  his  nunio,  was  a  general  of  artillery,  and  co-operated 
with  the  l)uke  of  York  in  reforming  tlio  British  army. 
He  wrote  an  Ktcmentary  Treatkc  m  the  3lountiiig  of 
\avul  Urdnimce  (Loud.  1812);  and  a  Description  of  the 
J/i/Jrv-jmeumnlic  Ixick  (Lond.  181g)  Ho  died  at  Tou- 
louse in  1828.— K.  B. 

Conueoticut,  the  southernmost  of  the  New  En- 
gland States,  is  situated  between  lat.  41°  and  42°  2' 
N.,  and  long.  71°  20'  and  73°  15'  W.,  and  between  3° 
46'  24"  and  9'  41'  24"  E.  long,  from  Washington.  It 
is  bounded  north  by  Massachusetts,  east  by  lihodc  Isl- 
and, south  by  Long  Island  Sound,  and  west  by  New 
York.  It  contains  4750  square  miles,  or  3,040,000 
acres.  Its  population  in  1790,  was  237,946;  in  1800, 
251,002;  in  1810,  261,942;  in  1820,  275,248;  in  18;i0, 
297,711 ;  in  1840, 300,015 ;  In  1850,  370,792.  The  cap- 
ituls  arc,  Hartford,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Connecti- 
cut, at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation,  50  miles  from 
its  entrance  into  Long  Island  Sound,  and  New  Haven, 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  which  sets  up  4  miles  from  the 
sound.     It  contained,  in  1850,  eight  counties. 

The  beautiful  river  from  which  the  State  of  Connec- 
ticut derives  its  name  was  first  discovered  (in  the  }'enr 
1614)  by  the  Dutch  Capttiin  Adrian  Block,  who  sailed 
into  it  as  far  up  as  the  present  site  of  Hartford,  and 
who  named  it  "i)e  Versche  Jlivier"  (the  Fresh  River), 
probably  from  the  fresh  appearance  of  its  waters  and 
green  valleys.  The  Dutch  from  New  Amsterdam  madu 
some  attempts  at  settlement  along  this  river.  But  the 
English  colonists  and  explorers  from  Plymouth  and 
Boston,  on  their  way  to  the  west,  reached  it  about  the 
j'cur  lli.10,  and  became  soon  the  exclusive  proprietors 
of  the  river  and  its  valley.  They  adopted  for  it  the 
original  name  of  the  aborigines,  which,  in  its  true  In- 
dian shape,  is  said  to  have  been  "Quonehlucut."  The 
meaning  of  this  word  is  stated  to  bo  "  The  Long  River," 
and  it  appears  to  be  a  designation  which  the  Indians 
3|>plied  often  as  a  river  name.  Among  others,  we  find 
also  ill  Long  Island  a  Connecticut  Biver.  The  name 
was  at  first  written  in  different  ways.  AVo  find,  for  in- 
stance, on  one  map  of  the  year  1635,  the  orthography 
"Ji.  Conokteook."  At  last  the  orthogrophy  "Connec- 
ticut" prevailed.  The  English  colonists  applied  the 
name  of  the  river  for  the  first  time  to  a  territory  in  the 
year  1631,  when  they  claimed  a  tract  of  land  around 
the  present  site  of  Hartford,  and  intended  to  erect  there 
a  colony,  to  which  the  name  of"  Colony  of  Connecticut" 
was  given.  This  was  an  inland  country,  sometimes 
also  called  "  the  Colony  of  Hartford."  In  the  year  1662 
ting  Cliarlcs  11.  united  with  this  colony  that  of  New 
Haven,  which  was  planted  on  the  shores  of  Long  Isl- 
and Sound,  and  which  had  existed  for  some  time  sep- 
arately imder  a  particular  name.  The  king  named 
both  united  colonies  "  The  Province  of  Connecticut ;"  and 
in  this  way  this  name  was  extended  to  the  sea-coast. 
It  included  then  also  »  great  part  of  l>oug  Island, 


which  had  been  settled  and  was  claimed  by  planters 
and  emigrants  from  the  Connecticut  valleys.  But 
soon  after  the  conquest  of  New  Netherland  by  the  En- 
glish (1664)  the  Duke  of  York  claimed  the  whole  of 
Long  Island,  whi'  li  now  was  separated  from  the  colo- 
ny of  Connectici.  and  became  a  part  of  the  province 
of  New  York,  lu  compensation  for  this  loss  the  bound- 
aries of  Connecticut  wero  extended  to  the  west  as  far 
as  Mormaromck  or  Byram's  Biver,  within  thirty  miles 
from  New  York,  so  that  now  the  name  Connecticut 
covered  nearly  the  whole  of  the  northern  shore  of  Long 
Island  Sound.  These  boundaries  along  the  sea-coast 
have,  upon  the  whole,  remained  unchanged  ever  since. 
— J.  G.  Koiii,. 

Though  generally  hilly  and  broken,  no  part  of  the 
surface  rises  to  a  great  height  above  the  sea.  The 
greatest  elevation  is  a  range  of  mountains  commencing 
at  a  bluff  called  East  Kock,  near  New  Haven,  and  con- 
tinuing northward  through  the  state.  The  hills  are 
generally  of  moderate  size,  and  occur  in  quick  succes- 
sion in  ranges  trending  northward,  presenting  to  the 
traveler  an  ever-varying  aspect.  The  soil  is  gener- 
ally fertile,  but  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage. 
There  were  in  this  state,  in  1850,  1,768,178  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  615,701  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms.  Cash  value  of  farms  4172,726,422 ;  and  the  value 
of  implements  and  machinery,  $1,892,641;  live-stock: 
horses,  26,879;  asses  and  mules,  49 ;  milch  cows,  85,461 ; 
working  oxen,  46,988;  other  cattle,  80,226;  sheep, 
174,181;  swine,  76,472;  value  of  live-stock,  $7,467,490. 

Manufactures. — There  wero  in  the  state,  in  1850, 106 
cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of  $4,012,000, 
employing  2665  males,  and  3313  females,  producing 
54,370,627  yards  of  sheeting,  etc.,  and  950,000  pounds 
of  yarn,  valued  at  $4,122,962 ;  149  woolen  factories, 
with  a  capital  of  $2,583,742,  employing  1893  males, 
and  1666  females,  producing  8,950,372  yards  of  cloth, 
valued  at  $4,921,162;  12  establishments  making  pig 
iron,  with  a  capital  of  $207,600,  employing  120  persons, 
producing  13,020  tons  of  pig-iron,  etc. ;  the  entire  value 
of  products,  $379,600;  60  establishments,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $580,800,  employing  049  persons,  and  making 
11,210  tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  $981,400 ;  18  es- 
tablishmi  nts,  with  a  capital  of  $529,500,  em))loying 
374  persi'iis  manufacturing  6325  tons  of  wrought  iron, 
etc.,  valued  at  $667,560;  117  flouring  mills,  116  tan- 
neries, with  a  capital  of  $360,500,  employing  407  per- 
sons; value  of  products,  $731,006.  Capital  invested 
in  iTir.nufnctures,  $23,890,848;  value  of  manufactured 
nriicki.  i^-i  1,897,848. 

'\  hi'  ^tlllu  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers  and  streams. 
Few  of  (ho  rivers  are  navigable  for  more  than  a  short 
djfianc';  from  their  mouths.  The  principal  is  the  Con- 
nect icui.,  w  bich  rises  on  the  northern  border  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  after  a  course  of  about  400  miles  falls 
into  1  ong  Island  Sound  between  Saybrook  and  Lyme. 
Its  general  direction  is  south-by-west,  separating  New 
Hampshire  from  Vermont,  and  aftrrward  passing 
tliroifih  the  western  part  of  ilassaclnnetts  and  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Connecticut.  Below  MidUletown  it  turns  to 
the  scuth-southeast,  and  continues  iu  that  direction  to 
its  mouth.  It  is  navigable  to  Middletown,  30  miles  from 
the  sea,  for  vessels  drawing  10  feet,  and  to  Hartford,  20 
miles  higher,  for  vessels  drawing  8  feet  of  water.  The 
canals  and  other  improvements  recently  made  to  over- 
come the  rapids  and  falls,  have  rendered  it  navigable 
for  small  boats  as  far  as  Wells  Biver,  260  miles  above 
Hartford.  The  principal  tributary  of  the  Connecticut 
in  this  state  is  the  Tunxis  or  Farmington,  which  rises 
in  the  eastern  slope  of  tho  Green  Mountains  in  Jlassa- 
chusetts,  and  flows  southward  to  Farmington,  where  it 
abruptly  changes  its  course  to  the  northward.  On 
breaking  through  tho  trap  range  of  the  Talcott  Mount- 
ains, it  again  takes  a  southerly  direction,  and  falls  into 
the  Connecticut  opposite  East  Windsor.  The  Ilousa- 
tonic  rises  in  the  western  part  of  Massachusetts  and  en- 
ters this  state  ueai  its  uortUwost  corner,  after  which  it 


CON 


GON 


hM  •  sonth  and  soulheaat  coarse  to  tho  Sound.  Iti  en- 
trance is  obstructed  by  a  bar,  but  them  is  a  sloop  nav- 
igation for  12  miles.  Tlio  Thames,  forme'.l  by  the 
Junction  of  tho  Qiiinebaag,  Sbetucket,  and  Yantic  Riv- 
ers near  Norwich,  falls  into  the  Sound  at  Xow  Lon- 
don. The  mineral  wealth  of  Connecticut  is  considora- 
blc.  Iron  ore  of  excellent  quality  is  found  abundant- 
ly in  various  parts.  The  copper  mines  of  Bristol  and 
Plymouth  tti-e  said  to  be  the  most  proUtublo  in  the 
United  States.  According  to  Professor  Sitliniun,  tho 
Bristol  vein  extends  in  a  soutbeily  direction  for  more 
than  30  miles,  and  if  fully  worlced  is  capable  of  aifoi'd- 
Ing  employment  to  30,000  minors.  The  Plymouth 
mines  are  considered  to  be  equally  rich.  Copper  is 
also  found  at  Granby.  Fine  marbles  of  diffcrcnt  kinds 
are  abundant,  and  extensive  quarries  of  freestone  nX' 
1st  in  thi.  mounuin  regions,  end  furnish  an  c.xcelleat 


building  material.  Zinc,  cobalt,  manganese,  and  plum- 
bago are  also  found ;  and  the  nunnral  waters  of  Staf- 
ford have  long  been  celebrated. 

Connecticut  has  a  larger  productive  school  fund,  in 
proportion  to  its  population,  than  any  other  state, 
amounting  to  (2,049,482.  This  originated  chiefly  from 
the  sale  of  the  Western  Reserve,  constituting  a  large 
part  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  of  Ohio  in- 
cluded in  its  original  charter,  and  ceded  to  it  by  the 
United  Spates  by  way  of  compromise.  In  1662  tlicre 
were  in  the  state  53  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $12,6011,808. 
It  has  no  state  debt.  There  is  a  state  prison  at  Weth- 
orsfleld,  erected  in  1826. 

Tho  following  synopsis  of  the  length,  cost,  capital, 
earnings,  etc.,  of  the  Connecticut  railroads,  is  from  the 
Official  Report  of  tiie  Railroad  Commissioners  of  that 
state  for  18&G: 


Nmici. 


New  York  and  New  Haven 

Now  Haven  and  Hartford 

Norwich  and  Worcester 

Hartford,  Providence,  and  riahklll 
N,  London,  Willlmantio,  and  Palmer 

New  Haven  and  Now  London 

Housatonic 

Naiigatuck 

Danbiiry  and  Norwalk 

New  York,  lYovidence,  and  IVwton 

New  Haven  and  Northampton 

BoKton  and  New  Yoik  Central 

Total 


Total 
Lflosth. 


Mllw. 

62t 

72 

66 
122t 

«6 

60 

li 

2iH 

6't 

f>Ot 

74t 


L«ngth  In 
ContiecUeut 


MllM. 

«j 

6) 
06 
67 
6) 
74 
67 
23 1 

6 
6Si 

8 


TTii 


bMi 


InpiKI 
Paid  lii. 


$2,092,460 
2,360,1100 
2,122,.'llW 

2,not',iio 

600,200 

788,6:18 

2,000,000 

1,031,800 

270,  o^o 

l,8C;,,0Oi; 

02>,5O0 

2.240,300 


Dsbt 
Ftiiidod  and 
Uiit'uDdad. 


$2,888,010 

140,000 

1,664,689 

2,030,66"i 

1,073,672 

761,46. 

414,240 

524,244 

97,100 

440,700 

600.000 

l,6is,071 


Earniogi, 
18U. 


$6,070,079 
8,818,982 
2,607,153 
4,060,868 
1,604,682 
1,465,669 
2,431,773 
1,630,723 
873,460 
2,158,000 
1,400,0-0 
3,403,818 


$968,275 
730,012 
30''i,286 
268,6S« 
124,043 

88,007 
839,196 
220,469 

66,241 
260,627 
145,136 

10,917 


$lS,702,24S|$r2.106,35fl|$J9,605,fl6J^$»,584,339 


Nai 

DWI- 

Earnlnj^ 

danda. 

$838,8n 

862.799 

$235,000 

68,4."SS 

5'.',7S7 

119,011 

18.141 

063,830 

.... 

80,818 

176,629 

.... 

08,965 

21,900 

13,070 

74,S34 

!i7,(;»2 

74.054 

36,900 

8,139 

$1,44S,4I2 

$ai'4,491 

COHMKBCC  or  TOi  Stats  or  CotrNxonouT  (snowiKo  ;ii.so  tuk  TiisTBicrr  To!n(AOB  in  1821, 1881, 1841,  ahd  1861)  ntov  Oci. 

1, 1S20,  TO  .h.ir  1,  1866. 


Yaara  aoding 

Bxporla. 

lui  porta. 

Toooaga  Clearad. 

Dlilrlf  I  Tonnaga.         | 

Domaalie- 

ForaigD. 

Total. 

Total. 

Atnarlean. 

PoralfD. 

RcgUtarad. 

Enrollad  and 
Licanaad. 

Sept  30, 1821 

1822 

1823 

18M 

1826 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

Total. . . 

Sept  SO,  1831 

1832 

lasa 

1834 

1836 

1836 

1837 

1988 

1809 

1840 

Total... 

Sept  80, 1841 

1849 

9mos..    184S* 

June  30, 1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1880 

Total... 

June  30, 1851 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1866 

1866 

$366,180 
479,363 
430,941 
570,684 
684,686 
63.>,454 
567,100 
493,926 
460,986 
£85,610 

$10,007 
6.969 

1,120 
6,218 
4,684 
1.1,439 
23,176 
27,620 
6,985 
3,901 

$876,187 
485,312 
4S2,061 
675,852 
039,270 
708,898 
690,276 
621,546 
467,970 
MO.r.U 

$312,090 

607,004 
456  463 
1561.510 
707,478 
786,194 
6.10,004 
485,174 
809,5i)8 
260,683 

14,749 
17,442 
16,788 
20,946 
24,396 
21,634 
18,078 
17,588 
16,090 
18,286 

"ios 

■  77 

74,084 

81,720 

$;>,174,868 

$48i,07S 
430,466 
427,603 
421,419 
487,510 
i<31,176 
623,103 
543,610 
6S8,226 
618,210 

$102,008 
$810 

"997 

!.'-,460 

7,023 

9,487 

$5,276,  itIO 

$482,883 
430,466 
427,603 
422416 
tl2,9i'l 
438.199 
682,600 
643,610 
583.226 
618,210 

$4,996,128 

$406,066 
487,715 
862,014 
885,720 
489,602 
468,168 
818,849 
843,331 
442,847 
277,07ii 

1C6,940 

20,139 
20,944 
1P,468 
18,548 
10,628 
20,842 
20,209 
18,892 
26,308 
24,122 
108^1580 

27.886 
27,263 
14,118 
88,881 
87,086 
in.181 
20,536 
23,600 
20.440 
17.616 

185 

■«6f 
606 
204 
618 
1,649 
2,146 
420 
916 
479, 

18,068 

84,810 

$4,848,890 

$699,848 
532,802 
807,223 
798,725 
960,S10 
766,912 
608,702 
601,064 
261,000 
241,262 

$43,777 

i,m 

8.245 

lO.OOfc 

400 

"oih 

$4,892,173 

$•599,348 
632,392 
807,223 
800,016 
909,055 
775,012 
109,192 
iiOI,064 
264,000 
241,930 

$3,870,279 

$2;.6,!189 
835,707 
230,841 
823,299 
872,075 
413,47ij 
275,823 
220,310 
234,748 
872,390 

7,297 

0,027 
4,791 
2,748 
4,730 
2,101 
6,987 
1,966 
4,818 
8,719 
9,802 

26,421 

88,e5i 

$5,660,438 

$483,804 
606,904 
497,709 
721,807 
369,402 
800,6S2 

$20,094 

$1S4 
270 
ll,6ti6 
1S.2M 
10,382 
20,212 

$5,fi80,13J 

$434,0.-8 

500.434 
789,676 

878.874 
968,876 

$3,083,655 

$342,994 
394,076 
645,798 
662,977 
688,826 
741,786 

252,841 

i%rM 

21,507 
10.042 
23,760 
21.869 
31,417 

48,179 

8,127 
10,287 
8,062 
7,842 
7,879 
8,029 

41,805 

.... 
74.874 

Nine  months  to  Jun«  30,  and 

OoiUlOlldat<«d  Fnnd.  Dovn  to  1816  the  ex- 
chequers of  Great  Britain  and  Treland  were  kept  sepa- 
rate, certain  portions  of  the  publ'c  revenue  arising  in 
each  kingdom  being  especially  r.ppropriated  to  tho  dis- 
charge of  the  interest  on  its  own  debts,  and  other  pe- 
culiar purposes.  But  on  Jannary  utfa,  1616,  the  sepa- 
nt*  axchequeri  were  consolidated  into  one ;  and  an 


fiscal  year  begins  July  1,  1S4S. 

act  was  at  the  same  time  passed  consolldoting  certain 
portions  of  the  Joint  revenue  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land into  one  fund,  hence  called  the  Consolidated  Fund, 
and  providing  for  its  indiscriminate  application  to  the 
payment  of  the  public  debts,  civil  lists,  and  other  speo- 
itied  expenses  of  both  kingdoms.  Some  portions  of 
revenue  are  not  included  in  this  fund  •■  but  it  embraces 


byfai 
1838, 
dated 
pendi 
frayet 
X81,7. 
ble  to 
p.  8!Hi 

Co 

£urop 

still  la 

land, 

(Propt 

phorui 

0*12" 

estima 

the  bei 

tionof 


lUftrme 
thedlroctli 


CON 


401 


CON 


by  far  the  Ur|(est  part  of  th«  piiMlo  income.  Thus,  In 
1888,  of  •  toUl  net  income  of  £47,888,460,  the  Consoli. 
dated  Fund  included  no  less  than  £44,144,488 :  the  ex- 
penditure on  account  of  the  peculiar  charges  to  be  de- 
frayed by  the  fund  during  the  same  year  amounted  to 
£81,742,918,  leaving  a  surplus  of  £12,401,670  applica- 
ble to  other  objects. — Faibman  on  the  Fund;  7th  ed. 
p.  896  J  Pari.  Paptr,  No.  849.     Sess.  1889,  etc. 

Conatantlliople,  a  famous  city  of  southeastern 
Europe,  formerly  the  metropolis  of  the  Eastern,  as  it 
still  Is  of  the  Turkish  empire,  on  a  triangular  point  of 
land,  on  the  European  side  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
(Propontis),  at  the  point  where  it  unites  with  the  Bos- 
phorus,  or  channel  leading  to  the  Black  Sea,  lat.  41° 
C  12"  N.,  long.  28°  59'  2"  E.  Population  variously 
estimated  at  from  800,000  to  600,000,  but  believed,  by 
the  best  authorities,  to  be  about  450,000.  The  situa- 
tion of  this  renowned  city  is,  in  a  commercial  point  of 


view,  one  of  the  finest  imaginable.  Standing  on  th« 
narrow  straits  uniting  the  Mediterranean  and  EuxioS 
Seas,  she  at  once  commands  and  is  the  entrepot  for 
the  commerce  between  them.  The  harbor  is  most  ex- 
cellent. It  consists  of  an  extensive  inlet,  or  arm  of 
the  sea,  Ftretcliing  along  the  northeast  side  of  the  city, 
which  it  divides  from  the  suburbs  of  Galata  and  Pera. 
It  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  float  '.he  iargost 
ships,  and  can  accommodate  more  than  ICOO  sail.  The 
strong  current  that  sets  through  the  Eosphorus  into 
the  Sea  of  tlarmora  strikes  against  Seraglio  Point  (see 
Planiy ;  a  part  of  the  water,  being  in  consequence  forced 
into  the  harbor,  runs  along  its  southwestern  side  in  the 
direction  marked  by  the  arrows  (see  Plan),  till,  arriv- 
ing at  its  extremity,  it  escapes  by  whe  opposite  side. 
In  the  middle  the  water  is  still,  un  leaving  the  port, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  well  over  to  the  northern  side ; 
for  otherwise  the  ship  might  be  taken  by  the  current, 


74.874 


"?•'? 


SEA       OF 


POBT  or  OOMSTANTINOrLE. 


AlAmiMs  to  Plan.— A,  Seraglio  Point ;  D,  QalaU ;  C,  Scutari ;  D,  Tower  and  Light-house  of  Leander.    The  arrowi  show 
Uw  direction  of  the  currants.    The  soundings  are  in  fathoms, 
Co 


CON 


40» 


CON 


and  driTMi  en  flnaglio  Point.  It  may  b*  wortk  while, 
bow«y«r,  to  femark  that,  notwitlutandiog  tliia  iucon- 
TMloiin,  the  current  ha*  been  of  aignal  terrice  to  the 
dty,  by  tcouring  the  harbor,  and  carrying  awa/  the 
flith  and  ballaat  by  wLich  U  v.w-  oihevfii'i:  have  been 
long  since  cholied  up.  TIv:  CiMnncu  aci-oti  from  Se- 
raglio Point  to  the  oppc":  ui  a::'iui'b  of  ;3cttt<i,>!.  .>n  th. 
Aiiatic  coast,  is  ratbe:>  mote  /Imj;  ua  Engiiia  rail  \ 
Within  less  than  a  quai:'.>;  of  i  .nil!  of  the  lutier  is  i 
(ooky  islet,  upon  which  iw  %  U-'^tr  and  l:(.-!'it-iioa;;, 
known  by  ths  name  of  ^Un  Tn^rer  nf  Ijeauder.  Fi'i  - 
•ignuirs  rssiu.  n  Ualata,  '•'•v^^  imf  tV  '  .tbir!  i  aa  t^'' 
aasturn  side  '''  the  harbci  ;  aiud  it  ii  tiuen, '  jiit^qiioui  - 
hf,  ;J.at  the  |i'-incipul  trade  of  the  place  is  carried  •ni. 
Vim  qqays  arc  ,,  >d,  and  *b>,i'  l!ft  close  alongside. 

r.'je  Boephorai.  or  c-haauk''  of  Constantinople,  runs 
in  I  ><  >i-theast  by  n>n(ii  direction  about  16  miles,  vary- 
ing  .11  breadth  from  1^  to  i  a  mile.  It  is  swept  by  a 
rapid  current,  wliicb  it  reqi-ircs  .  brisk  gale  to  s*>!ni, 
and  l>a!-  tbrfjuj,  >our  n  gn'it  depth  of  wat'  ■.  'j'fie  .ol- 
lespci',  crSlmitof  liie  Ourrianellos,  leading  from  the 
ArcbipoUgo  to  thu  Stit  of  Marmora,  vs  about  13  ]tvi^iies 
in  length.  Iti  dire,  fioi:  i«  nearly  iwi'ft'i*'.  Where 
narrowest,  it  l,i  lit;i>.<  more  U:i>i  a  mi.-:  ton.  It 
also  is  swept  i>y  a  iiioag  currat:%  tind  haj  Ueep  walt;r 
througliout. 

The  Buljoined  plan  of  part  of  Constantinople  and  its 
port  is  copied,  uithoiit  reduction,  from  the  beautiful 
plan  of  the  city  and  iiosphorus,  drawn  and  engraved 
by  M.  Mcrsoff  Robert  of  Munich,  and  pnblished  by  Mr. 
Wilde  of  London. 

Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than  the  appearance 
of  the  city  whon  seen  from  the  sea,  but  on  landing  the 
illusion  vanishes.  The  streets  are  narrow,  dark,  ill- 
paved,  and  irregulai'.  Owing  to  the  want  of  any  ef- 
fective system  of  p'lKi',  and  of  the  most  ordinary  at- 
tention to  cleanlinesN,  they  are  extremely  filthy,  and 
are  infest>id  with  beroVs  of  dogs,  and  also  with  rats, 
which  pen'brm  the  fuiiclions  of  scavengers.  The 
houses  are  mostly  built  o<  wood,  and  fires  arc  frequent. 
Most  of  these  happen  desi^^'i^edly ;  the  burning  of  a  few 
hundred  houses  being  deemed  the  readiest  and  most 
efl^ctual  means  of  making  the  government  aware  of 
the  public  dissatisfaction,  and  of  procuring  a  redress 
of  grievances, 

Moneg. — Accounts  are  hept  in  piastres  of  40  paras, 
or  120  aspcrs.  The  Turkish  coin  has  been  so  much 
degraded,  that  the  piastre,  which  a  few  years  ago  was 
worth  :U.  siterliiig,  is  now  worth  little  mora  than  id.  A 
bag  of  silver  (Iryftrj  =r  JOO  piastres,  and  a  bag  of  gold 
(i«<z«)  ==30,000  piastres. 

Weiff/ilt  and  MeamreA. — The  commercial  weights 
are:  176  dram*=l  rottolo;  2-272  rottoli=:l  oke;  6 
okes  =  l  batman;  7i  bttmans=:l  quintal  or  cantaro= 
12-1'457  (124i  very  nearly)  lbs.  avoirdupois  =  5fi-437 
kilogrammes— 116-627  lbt<.  of  Hamburg.  The  quintal 
of  cotton  is  46  okes=-127'2  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

The  pik  or  pike  is  of  two  sorts,  the  greater  iimi  the 
lesser.  The  greater,  called  halebi  or  cichim,  used  in 
the  measursme.nt  of  silks  and  woolens,  is  very  near  28 
inches  (27*9).  The  lesser,  called  endae,  used  in  the 
measuring  of  cottons,  carpets,  etc. =27  inches.  Hence 
100  long  piks=77'496  English  yards,  and  1(M  sliort 
piks=75-154  English  ynrda  But  in  ordinary  com- 
m<-rcial  aflitirt  the  pil  :  estimated  at  jttui  uf  an  £n- 
glinh  yard. 

Corn  is  measure' 
Winchoster  bushel 
=4  kieloz. 

Oil  ail  '  fT-irli-. 
1  (,'allon  6  I  ij  .  : 
oil  should  -.j;.''  ,1 
Keixy. 

The  Fm-i  r-'-  -  4  on  acconnt  of  English  vessels  in 
the  harbors  >  ■  u-  '^"cmau  vnpiie  are  fixed  by  treaty 
•t  800  aspen  i  ••,(;    -  -imc  nor  less. 

rrwds.rtf. — Owii]/  t-       e  vicious  institutions  nfthp 


'      I  ittoi  or  killotp  r:0'941  of  a 
•  )i=:l  quarter.     The/onin 

■  re  sold  by  the  alma  or  mrtT= 

h  wine  measure,    '.'he  alma  of 

.1. — Xklkenhre(;uei(  and  Dr. 


Turks,  and  th*  disorganized  state  of  th«  empire,  the- 
trade  of  Constantinople  is  very  far  from  being  so  ex- 
tensive a*  might  bf  supposed  from  ita  situation  and 
population.   The  imports  consist  of  corn,  iron,  timber, 
tallow,  and  furs,  principally  from  the  Ulack  Sea ;  and 
of  cotton  staff*  and  yarn,  coal,  tin,  tin  plates,  woolens, 
^Iks,  cutlery.  Watches  and  jewelry,  paper,  glass,  furni- 
rure,  indigo,  cochineal,  etc.,  from  England  and  other 
i'.nropean  ountrie*.      Corn  and  cot!ce  are  ini|iorted 
("'<«  Alexandria;  but  considerable  quantities  of  lira- 
j  '  '  rA  West  India  cqffee  are  also  imported,  partlcular- 
>  i    iJrItisb  and  American  bottoms.     Sugar  is  parti/ 
ii.'.f  tried  from  the  East,  but  principally  from  the  West 
iniies.     The  exports  consist  of  silk,  which  is  by  far 
the  most  important  article,  carpets,  bides,  wool,  Angola 
goats'  hair,  yellow  berries,  boxw  jod,  opium,  galls,  bul- 
licn  and  diamonds,  and  a  few  other  articles.  Rut  llie  ex- 
ports are  always  very  much  less  than  the  imports ;  an4 
s!'.'is  carrying  goods  toConstanlinoplo  cither  return  in 
ha  .ast,'orget  return  cargoes  at  Smyrna,  Odessa,  Salon- 
ica,  etc.,  on  which  piaccs  they  frequently  procure  bills 
at  Constantinople.   Uy  far  the  largest  proportion  of  tho 
trade  of  the  city,  and  of  the  Levant  generally,  is  in  the 
bands  of  Greek  merchants,  who  by  their  superior  skill, 
industry,  and  knowledge  rf  Ihoae  with  whom  they  have 
to   deal,  have   completely  distanced    their  English, 
French,  and  other  European  competitors  (denominated 
Franks).      The  Armenians  only  have  been  able  to 
withstand  the  competition  of  the  Greeks,     llurgains 
am  negotiated  liy  Jew  brokers,  some  of  whom  are  rich. 
Constantinople  was  known  as  tho  Stanboli  of  tlio 
Greeks,  or  Istanboul  of  tho  Turks,     An  attempt  was 
made  to  change  this  latter  name  into  Islambonl,  that 
is,  the  town  of  Islam  or  Mohammedanism,  and  coins 
wero  even  struck  bearing  tko  new  name ;  but  tho  at- 
tempt failed,  and  tho  c(>inage  again  bears  the  inipres- 
Kion  "  struck  at  Istanboul."    The  entire  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical authority  of  the  Turkish  empire  is  con-^cn- 
trated  in  the  city,  where  re<:ido  the  chief  pashas,  muf- 
tis, and  ulcmas;  tho  patriarch  a.nd  synod  of  the  Greek 
Church;   an  Armenian  and  a  Catholic  archbishop. 
That  part  of  it  which  is  now  occupied  by  the  seraglio, 
and  which  is  separated  from  tho  rest  by  a  wall,  is  un- 
derstood to  have  liecn  the  Byzantium  of  tho  ancients. 
Commercial  Policy. — 1 1  is  singular  tliat,  as  respects 
commerce,  the   policy  of  tho   Turkish   government, 
wliether  originating  in  design  or  carelessness,  is  enti- 
tled to  the  highest  jiraise.     "  Nu  restrictions,"  says 
Mr.  Thornton,  "  are  laid  on  commerce,  except  in  tlie 
instance  of  agencral  prohibition  of  exporting  tho  arti- 
cles necessary  for  the  support  of  human  life  to  foreign 
countries,  especially  from  the  capital,  where  alone  it  is 
rigoroiuly  enforced ;  nnd  .wis  in\   "litio  'C'fraint  will 
no  doubt  be  reii  .. raX  when  the  Turkish  government 
shall  become  sensible  that  what  is  intendeil  as  tho 
means  of  securing  abundance  is,  in  fact,  tho  sole  <  nuso 
of  that  scarcity  which  is  sometimes  experienced.    ^^  ith 
this  one  e.yccption,  commerce  is  perfectly  free  and  un- 
fettered.    Every  article  of  foreign  or  domestic  growth 
or  manufact'ire  is  conveyed  into  every  port,  and  over 
every  province,  without  any  iiilcrferenco  on  tho  part 
of  the  magistrates,  after  payment  of  the  duties.     On 
this  subject  I  spr ak  from  actual  expcri<'nco,  -mkI  may 
appeal  to  every  fori'irn  or  :       i     ti    rfh.int  in  T:i  Ucy 
for  its  general  truth.'  — /'; .  ■      S.iilt  o,~  '/'•  ■I'-j.  a  01.  i. 
p.  82. 

The  '   :ies,  too  .iT>ir.ely  moderate,  bcinf  .  nly 

five  per  cent,  on  is.)  ■rts ,  viz.,  three.pcr  cent,  on  ^m  1 
when  landed,  bimI  mvo  per  cent,  on  I'lcir  being  admit- 
ted to  consumption  {L'bicini,  i.  281),  antt  about  three 
per  cent,  on  most  articles  of  cx|.ort.  Hence,  in  almost 
all  that  relates  to  l:cr  commercial  regulations,  Turkey 
is  :  ttled  to  re.nd  a  lesson  to  tho  i.odt  civilized  Euro- 
pi.  .  powers;  and  this  she  did  in  a  very  able  manner, 
in  an  ofHclnl  paper  publishcii  m  tho  MonUeur  Ottoman, 
in  Scptemlier,  18.i2.  We  extract  a  few  paragraphs 
from  this  interciiiiiig  document. 


CON 


403 


CON 


.  "  Good  aeom,  toIemncR,  and  hoiplUUty  hart  long  af(0  done 
for  tlifl  Ottoman  empire  what  the  other  itatea  of  Kuropo  are 
endeavoring  to  effect  by  more  or  le&a  happy  political  rombl* 
natloni.  fcUuce  the  throne  of  the  aiiltana  has  been  elevated 
at  Conitantlnuple,  commercial  prohibiliona  have  been  un- 
known ;  they  opened  all  the  porta  of  their  ttmpiro  to  the  com- 
merco,  tu  the  luaiuifacturcs,  to  the  territorial  produce  of  the 
Occident^  or,  to  say  better,  of  the  whole  worlil.  Liberty  of 
commerce  haa  reigned  here  without  llmlta,  aa  large,  aa  ex- 
tended aa  it  waa  poMible  to  be. 

*'  Here  every  oltiect  of  exchange  is  admitted,  and  clrcnlatei 
without  meeting  any  obstacle  other  than  the  payment  of  an 
Inllnlti'ly  small  portion  of  the  value  to  the  custom-houne. 
The  chimera  of  a  balance  of  trade  never  entered  into  heads 
■enslblo  enough  not  to  dream  of  calculating  whether  there 
was  most  profit  1':  buying  or  selling.  Thus  the  markets  of 
Turkey,  supplied  from  all  countries,  refusing  no  oldectii  which 
inercantile  spirit  puts  in  circulation,  and  imposing  no  charge 
on  the  vessels  that  transport  them,  are  seldom  or  never  the 
■cones  of  those  dlfordcrcd  movements  occasioned  by  the  sud- 
den deflcleney  of  fuch  or  such  merchandise,  which,  exorbi- 
tantly raising  prices,  are  the  scourges  of  the  lower  orden,  by 
unsettling  their  habits,  and  by  inflicting  privations.  From 
the  system  of  restrictions  and  prohibitions  arise  those  de- 
vouring tides  and  libbs  which  swoop  away  In  a  day  the  labor 
of  years,  and  convert  cummrrce  into  a  career  of  alarms  and 
perpetual  dangera.  In  Turkc'y,  where  this  aystem  docs  not 
exist,  these  disastrous  effects  are  unknown, 

*'  The  extreme  moderation  of  the  duties  ta  the  complement 
of  this  rL'gimc  ot  commercial  liberty;  and  In  no  portion  of  the 
globe  are  the  olllcers  charged  with  the  collection  of  mure 
confiding  facility  for  the  vahwtlons,  and  of  so  decidedly  eon- 
dilatory  a  spirit  in  every  transaction  regarding  commerce, 

"Awny  with  the  supposition  that  these  facilities  granted 
to  strangers  are  concessions  extorted  from  weakness  I  The 
dates  of  the  conti*uetB  termed  capitulations,  which  establUh 
the  rights  actually  eujoyei'  by  foreign  merchants,  recall  pe- 
riods at  which  the  Mussulman  power  waa  altogether  predomi- 
nant In  Europe.  The  flrsteapitulation  which  France  obtained 
waa  in  1CU5,  from  Soliman  the  Canonist  (the  Magnificent). 
The  disposKlona  of  these  contracts  have  become  antiquated, 
the  fundamental  prlnciplen  remain.  Thus,  SCO  years  ago, 
the  sultans,  by  an  act  of  munificence  and  of  reason,  antici- 
pated the  most  ardent  desires  of  civllieed  Enrojw,  and  pro- 
claimed unlimited  freedom  of  commerce." 

Pul  the  policy  of  Turkey  in  other  respects  harmonize 
witli  tliis,  rlio  would  be  one  of  the  most  civilized  and 
powerful  of  nations,  instead  of  being  one  of  the  most 
abject  and  degraded.  Unfortunately,  liowevcr,  this  is 
vcrj-  far  from  being  the  case.  Tyranny  and  insecuri- 
ty univcrsoUy  prevail.  "  The  cultivator  of  the  soil," 
says  one  of  her  eulogists,  "is  ever  a  helpless  prey  to 
injustice  and  oppression.  The  government  agents 
have  to  suffer  in  their  turn  from  the  cruelty  and  rapac- 
ity of  which  they  tliemsclves  have  been  guilty;  and 
the  manufacturer  lias  to  bear  his  full  share  of  the  com- 
mon insecurity ;  he  is  fixed  to  the  spot,  and  can  not 
escape  the  grasp  of  the  local  governor.  The  row  ma- 
terial monopolized  by  a  boy  or  oyan,  may  be  forced 
upon  him  at  a  higher  price  than  ho  could  purqhase  it 
himself,  and  perhaps  of  inferior  quality ;  fines  may  be 
imposed  upon  him,  he  may  be  taken  for  forced  labor, 
or  troops  may  be  (piurlered  on  his  workshop." — Ungu- 
n\HT  (in  Turkey  audits  Rrsouthis,  p.  lai). 

Some  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  of  late  years 
by  the  Turkish  government  to  rcfornt  abuses;  but 
with  little  or  no  practical  effect.  There  is,  in  truth, 
neither  public  virtue  nor  principle  in  the  country  to 
second  these  efforts.  Corruption  of  every  kind  is  as 
prevalent  as  ever ;  and  tliu  rayahs  continue  to  be  ex- 
posed to  every  sort  of  oppression.  There  are  no  roads 
in  any  part  of  the  empire ;  and  agriculture  is  every- 
where in  the  most  abject  condition.  Indeed,  vast 
tracts  of  the  most  fertile  (and  of  W  tlie  u.^-t  flourisli- 
ing)  districts  of  Asia  Jlinor  are  wholly  waste  and  un- 
occupied ;  and  (he  e>"i,  imtead  of  diminishing,  is  con- 
tinually .ncrcasing.  The  greater  density  of  popuhil  ion 
in  European  Turkey,  and  the  little  industry  found  in 
it,  are  due  to  tlie  (  nergics  of  the  Christian  population. 
And  when  th<:  latter  have  been  emancipated  from  the 
ilaveiy  in  which  they  have  Iiecn  long  held,  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  their  barliarlan  task-uiasters  from  Europe, 


the  beautiful  provinces  in  which  thoy  have  bo«n  so 
long  permitted  to  encamp  will  again  become  the  favor- 
ite seats  of  industry  and  civilization.  But  the  degra- 
dation in  which  the  native  inhabitants  are  involved 
would  have  been  still  more  coinplote,  but  for  the  free- 
dom of  commerce  they  have  always  enjoyed.  This  has 
tended  to  keep  alive  the  seeds  of  industry,  and  to  coun- 
tervail io  some  small  extent  the  destructive  influence 
of  oppression  and  insecurity.  Had  their  intercourse 
with  foreigners  been  either  prohibited  or  placed  un'*,er 
oppressive  restrictions,  the  barbarism  of  Turkey  would 
have  been  completed,  and  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that 
there  could  have  been  any  thing  like  wealth  or  indus- 
try in  the  empire 

"As  the  Turks  do  not  allow  a  census  to  be  taken, 
all  statements  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  tl<  't 
dominions  must  be  doubtflil  and  coiijectural,  Utua 
calculates  the  population  of  Constantinople  at  no  more 
than  300,000;  while  General  Andr6ossy  calculated  it, 
without  including  Scutari,  at  697,600;  his  calculation 
being  founded  on  the  dally  consumption  of  bread.  The 
number  of  houses  is  about  88,100.  According  to  An- 
drl-ossy,  tho  division  of  the  Inhabitants  is  as  follows : 
300,000  Turks,  T&lars,  and  other  Mussulmans;  200,000 
Greeks;  60,000  Armenians ;  30,000  Jews;  and  the  re- 
mainder of  tho  various  Frank  nations.  In  1861,  tho 
census  of  tho  resident  British  gave  only  200,  The 
mortality  is  said  to  be  greater  than  in  any  other  city 
In  Europe  ;  but  tho  recruits  that  arrive  from  all  parta 
of  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  especially  the  slaves 
brought  for  sale,  till  up  the  numbers  faster  than  they 
fall  away  by  death.  Of  late  years,  too,  the  rayahi 
seek  refuge  from  the  exactions  of  the  provincial  pashas 
in  the  ncighborhuod  of  the  seat  of  government,  where 
the  Tanzimat  or  new  constitution  Is  better  observed. 
Although  the  public  slave-market  has  been  sliut  for  a 
few  years,  the  trade  in  slaves  is  still  carried  on  with 
all  its  episodes  of  horror  and  abomination.  The  close- 
ly latticed  windows  of  the  harems  of  the  rich,  the  pris- 
on-like aspe(^t  of  the  better  streets,  and  the  caravan  of 
gaunt,  shoeless  Nubian  girls  in  their  cotton  wrappers, 
are  part  ami  parcel  of  the  odious  system, 

"  The  trade  of  Constantinople  consists  chiefly  in  the 
supply  of  tho  wants  of  the  state  officers,  and  of  the  mil- 
itary and  naval  persons  who  are  attracted  to  the  cap. 
ital ;  but  it  is  chiefly  by  foreigners  that  the  handicraft 
operations  are  performed.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  those  of  cotton  and  silk  goods.  The  Armenians  are 
the  cliief  jewelers  and  silversmiths.  The  Jews  are 
perfumers,  druggists,  and  brokers;  the  Franks  are  the 
principal  mechanics;  and  the  chief  business  is  trans- 
acted uC  the  several  liazars. 

"  The  foreign  trade  of  Constantinople  is  favored  by 
its  excellent  harbor,  capable  of  containing  1200  ships. 
It  is  the  medium  of  intercourse  between  that  part  of 
Asia  whence  laden  camels  arrive,  and  the  difl'ercnt  di- 
visions of  Europe,  collecting  the  drugs  and  silks  of  tho 
one,  and  distributing  them  among  the  others.  It  w  ould 
require  much  space  to  collect  and  enumerate  the  ram- 
ifications of  such  a  trade  as  is  carried  on  In  minute  ar- 
ticles to  and  from  the  city  of  Constantinople.  The 
city  is  distant  1G80  miles  from  London." — E.  B.     Ste 

TUKKEV. 

ConBula.  We  propose  to  divide  this  article  into 
thren  parts:  I.  Consuls,  their  Origin,  and  I^ws  re- 
sp  ctingthem;  II.  Duties  of  Consuls;  III.  Diplomat- 
ic ami  Consular  Law  of  the  United  States. 

Consul  (Cn-arof),  the  highest  ordinory  magistrate 
of  tho  Roman  republic.  It  \i  probable  that  tlie  word 
is  compounded  of  cm  and  >a/io,  and  is  formed  like  ex- 
sul  and prastil,  so  that  coniiilet  signifies  those  who  go 
together.  They  were  anciently  called  pratvret,  impera- 
tores,  or  jndices. 

I.  Co.N.suLs,  TitEiit  Origin,  ano  Laws  nKSPEcriNO 
TiiKM. — Consuls,  in  the  nineteenth  centurj',  are  com- 
mercial agents,  appointed  to  reside  in  the  sea-ports  of 
foreign  countries,  with  a  commission  to  watch  over  the 


CON 


CON 


oommercial  ri|;hti  and  privtisgei  of  th«  nation  deput- 
ing them.  TJio  eatablithmunt  of  connuU  is  onq  of  the 
IDMI  uiefUl  of  modern  commercial  inalitiitions.  The}' 
were  appointed  about  the  twclftli  century  in  the  opu- 
lent states  of  Italy,  such  as  Pisa,  Lucca,  Genoa,  and 
Venice,  and  their  origin  has  Ixxin  ascribed  to  the  ne- 
eesiity  for  extraordinary  assistance  in  those  braiichon 
of  commerce  formerly  carried  on  with  barbarous  and 
tinctvilixed  nations.  The  utility  of  sucli  a  mercantile 
officer  has  been  perceived  and  felt  by  all  trading  na- 
tions, and  the  Mediterranean  tradu  iti  particular  stands 
highly  in  need  of  sucii  accreditvi!  persons.  Consuls 
have  lieen  multiplied  and  sent  to  uvery  part  of  the 
world  where  navigation  and  commerce  can  successful- 
ly penetrate ;  and  their  duties  and  privileges  are  now 
generally  limited  and  doHned  by  treaties  of  commerce, 
or  by  the  statute  regulations  of  the  country  which  they 
lopresent.  In  some  places  thoy  have  been  invested 
with  Judicial  powers  over  disputes  between  their  own 
merchants  in  foreign  ports;  but  in  the  cumnicrcial 
treaties  made  by  Great  Hritain  there  is  rarely  any 
stipulation  for  ciothing  thoni  with  Judicial  authority, 
except  in  treaties  with  the  Barhary  powers;  and  in 
England  it  has  been  held  that  a  consul  is  not  ntrictly 
•  Judicial  officer,  and  tlicy  have  there  no  Judicial  pow- 
er. It  has  iioen  urged  by  some  writers,  as  a  matter 
highly  expedient,  to  establish  rules  requiri'.g  mer- 
chants abroad  to  submit  their  disputes  to  the  Judicial 
tuthority  of  their  own  consuls,  particularly  with  ref- 
erence to  shipping  concerns,  llut  no  government  can 
invest  its  consuls  with  judicial  power  over  their  own 
iulijcct!>  in  a  foreign  country,  without  the  consent  of 
the  government  of  the  foreign  country,  founded  on 
treaty  ;  and  tl'oiro  is  no  instance  in  any  nation  of  Ku- 
rope,  of  the  adniissiun  of  criminal  Jurisdiction  in  for- 
eign consuls.  The  laws  of  the  United  States,  on  the 
sniiject  of  consuls  and  vice-consuls,  especially  authorize 
;hem  to  receive  the  protests  of  masters  and  others  in 
relation  to  Aincrican  commerce,  and  they  declare  that 
consular  certificates  under  seal,  shall  receive  credit  in 
the  courts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  likewise  made 
their  duty,  where  the  laws  of  the  country  permit,  to 
administer  the  p<<rsonal  estates  of  American  citizens 
dying  within  their  consulates,  and  leaving  no  legal 
representative ;  ami  to  take  charge  of  and  secure  the 
effects  of  stranded  .American  vessels  in  the  absence  of 
the  master,  owner,  or  consignee ;  and  they  are  Iwund 
to  provide  for  dcstilutc  seamP"  ivjthin  their  consulates, 
and  to  send  them  at  Iho  pubiio  expense  to  the  United 
States.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  American  consuls  and 
commercial  agents  to  recluini  deserters,  and  to  dis- 
countenance insul>orclinatiun,and  to  lend  their  aid  to 
the  local  authorities  for  that  |)urpose,  and  to  discharge 
the  seamen  cruelly  treated.  It  is  also  made  the  duty 
of  masters  of  American  ves«el.i  on  arrival  at  a  foreign 
port,  to  deposit  their  registers,  sea-letters,  and  pass- 
ports, with  the  consul,  vice-consul,  or  commercial  agent, 
if  any,  at  the  port.  These  particular  powers  and  du- 
ties nre  similar  to  those  prescribed  to  British  consuls, 
and  to  consuls  tinder  the  consular  convention  lietween 
llio  United  States  and  France,  in  1788;  and  thoy  are 
in  accordance  with  the  usages  of  nations,  and  are  not 
to  lie  construed  to  the  exeluiion  of  others, resulting 
from  the  nature  of  the  consular  appointment.  The 
consular  convention  between  France  and  this  country 
in  1778,  allowed  consuls  to  exercise  police  over  all  ves- 
tcUot  their  respective  nations,  "  within  the  interior  of 
the  vessels,"  and  (o  exercise  a  species  of  civil  jurisdic- 
tion by  determining  disputes  concerning  wages,  and 
between  the  mastcrr  ai..   crews  of  vessels  belonging  to 


their  own  country,  iiio  ''r 
the  consular  convention  wi  >' 
uiitary,  and  altogether  cxii ;i- 
thority  ;  and  we  have  no  lre»' 
cedes  even  such  consular  fun> 
our  courts  is,  tliat  a  foreign  con^ 


tion  claimed  under 

was  merely  vol- 

i  y  coercive  au- 

i'»i.nt  which  con- 

rhe  doctrine  of 

luly  recognized  by 


our  government,  may  assert  and  defend,  ai  a  compe- 


tent party,  thu  rights  of  property  of  the  individuals  of 
his  nation  In  the  courts  of  the  United  titates,  and  may 
institute  suits  for  that  purpose  without  auy  special  au- 
thority from  that  party  for  whose  benefit  be  acts.  Hut 
the  courts,  in  tliat  case,  said  that  they  could  not  go  so 
far  as  to  recognize  a  right  in  •  vice-consul  to  receive 
actual  restiluticm  of  the  property,  or  its  proceeds,  with- 
out showing  some  specific  power  fur  the  purpose  from 
the  party  in  interest.  No  nation  is  bound  to  receive  a 
foreign  consul  unless  it  bos  agreed  to  do  so  by  treaty, 
and  the  refusal  is  no  violation  of  the  peace  and  auiiiy 
between  the  iintions,  ('onsuls  are  to  l<e  approved  and 
admitted  in  the  usual  form ;  and  if  any  consul  be  guil- 
ty of  illegal  or  improper  conduct,  he  is  liable  to  have 
his  txtqualur  (a  written  recognition  of  his  character) 
revoked,  and  to  be  punished  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  country  in  which  he  is  consul ;  or  he  may  be  sunt 
back*  to  his  own  country,  at  the  discretion  of  the  gov- 
ernment which  he  has  offended.  The  French  and 
American  consuls  are  forbidden  to  be  concerned  in 
commerce,  liut  British  consuls  arc  generally  allowed  to 
be  concerned  in  trade ;  and  in  such  cases  the  character 
of  consul  docs  not  give  any  protection  to  that  of  mer- 
chant, when  these  characters  are  united  in  the  sanni 
(lerson.  Though  the  functions  of  •  consul  would  scum 
to  require  that  liu  should  not  be  a  subject  of  tlie  slate 
in  which  he  resides,  yet  the  practice  of  the  maritime 
powers  is  quite  lax  on  this  point ;  and  it  is  useful,  and 
ttiought  most  convenient,  to  appoint  subjects  of  the 
foreign  country  to  bo  consuls  at  its  ports, 

A  consul  is  not  such  a  public  minister  as  to  bo  enti- 
tleil  to  the  privileges  appertaining  to  that  character, 
nor  is  he  under  the  special  protection  of  the  law  of 
nations.  Ho  is  entitled  to  privileges  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, such  as  for  safe  conduct ;  but  he  is  not  entitled  to 
the  JIM  gentium.  Vattel  thinks  that  his  functions  re- 
quire that  he  should  bo  independent  of  the  ordinary 
mmino/ Jurisdiction  of  the  country,  and  that  lu  ought 
not  to  be  molested  unless  bo  violates  the  law  of  nations 
liy  some  enormous  crime,  and  that  if  guilty  of  any 
crime  he  ought  to  be  sent  home  to  be  punished.  But 
no  such  imnmnities  have  been  conferred  on  consuls  by 
the  modem  practice  of  nations ;  and  it  may  be  consid- 
ered as  settled  law  that  consuls  do  not  ei^oy  the  pro- 
tection of  the  lav/  of  nations,  any  more  than  other  per- 
sons who  enter  the  country  under  a  safe-conduct.  In 
civil  and  criminal  cases  they  are  equally  subject  to  the 
laws  of  the  country  in  which  they  reside.  The  same 
doctrine,  declared  by  the  public  Jurists,  has  been  fre- 
quently laid  down  in  the  English  and  American  courts 
of  justice.  It  seems,  however,  from  some  decisions  in 
France,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Warden,  that  foreign  con- 
suls can  not  bo  prosecuted  before  a  French  tribunal 
fur  acts  done  by  them  in  France  by  order  of  their  gov- 
ernment, and  with  the  authorization  of  the  French  guv- 
cmment,  and  that  in  general  a  consul  can  not  bo  pros- 
ecuted without  the  previous  consent  of  his  government. 

Consular  privileges  are  much  less  extensive  in  Chris- 
tian than  in  Mohammedan  countries.  In  the  latter, 
they  can  not  be  imprisoned  for  any  cause  whatever, 
except  by  demanding  Justice  against  thenj  of  the  Porto, 
and  they  partake  very  considerably  of  the  character  of 
resident  ministers.  They  arc  diplomatic  agents  under 
the  name  of  consuls,  and  "njoy  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges which  the  Otlcmo  i  1  orte  recognizes  in  rdation 
to  the  foreign  ministers  resident  at  Constantinople. 
By  treaty  an  entire  innnunity  is  usually  given  to  the 
persons,  domestics,  and  effects  < '  he  resident  consuls, 
and  no  consuls  reside  with  th  >  Ij:-  ;ry  States  but  un- 
der the  protection  of  treati'  '. 

Considering  the  impo!.^;.:.  .;  ',>(  insular  func- 
ti"-  ind  the  activity  >v  iiich  ;■  ..quireu  'f  them  in  all 
.;i>.        larltime  ports,  and  the  approach  xhlch  consuls 

'  As  WM  the  case  with  the  British  cnnsuio  at  Nuir  York, 
Philadelpliio,  and  Cincinnati,  in  tlie  year  1H&G,  The  oincial 
eiequatur  of  those  gentienien  mis  hith'lnwD  by  Preaideut 
fierce,  and  their  ofBcial  fu-        ta  ceased. 


CON 


40A 


CON 


iD«k*  to  tha  cfficMx  •ntl  MgnHy  of  r1l|itniiiatlu  tharac- 
ten,  it  w»  •  wImi  |iruvltluii  In  lh«  ('uliilltiidun  of  (ha 
United  8lutei,  wliiuli  gtvu  lu  tli«  Nii|inima  V.uurl  oriK- 
inal  Juriuliutiuu  in  all  vaaa*  affaulitiu  (lutiauli  m  wdII 
ai  cniliaiiaUora  an  J  otlinr  |iulilic  iiilnliilvra )  ami  (liu 
federal Jurlwllialon  U  unduraluinl  In  lin  iixiluilva  uf  the 
atate  cuurla. — Kknt'h  Cumm.,  \«eX.  II. 

In  the  treaty  ijetwt'un  Hwifilcn  and  Ilia  thilKd  Htaloa 
of  Ameriia,  raliliud  on  ltn<  Vlth  ufJuty,  IMIH,  It  ii  iill|c 
ulaled  that  (ho  vuniiuU  a|i|iulnlud  \<y  I'ilhvr  govern' 
nient  to  reildu  within  thu  duniinliMiD  uf  tha  other,  or 
their  ■uhtti(utci,  "ahall,  a«  aufh,  liavu  Ilia  rlgh*.  uf 
•ctinu  a>  Jnduet  or  artltara  In  all  t%w»  of  dllfi'rMK'eii 
whU'ii  nity  urlM  totwuan  thu  ia|itulii»  mid  irawii  of 
the  ve8«eU  of  tha  n'ltlun  wluwa  altiilr.*  ara  inirunted  to 
their  care.  'I'lio  ranpacjtlvu  uovvrniniiiitii  nbull  have  no 
right  to  lutorfura  in  thin  nurt  of  wirulm,  except  In  the 
caacof  the  conduct  of  the  craw*  dlntiirlilliK  |Hibllu  or- 
der and  trani|ullllty  in  the  country  In  whlcti  the  venm  I 
mn^ happen  (o  he,  or  In  which  tlin  cuniul  of  Ihe  place 
may  ha  ohilt;ed  to  cull  fur  llni  inlervnnlion  and  lupport 
pf  the  oxocutivo  pouar,  In  order  l»  canon  IiIk  dcelnUin 
(o  ho  re»pi'eled  j  it  iH'iiiiti  however,  well  iitidomlood, 
(bat  thii  (ort  ofjudtfineiit  or  arhltrathm  can  iiotdo- 
privo  the  cuntendint;  parliet  of  tlmlr  rl((hla  of  appeal- 
ing, on  tlieir  return,  to  tha  Judicial  aullioritlva  of  their 
country." 

II.  i>u<i>«ij/'(7on<ub,— Thadutlca  of  a  cnnnul,  even 
in  (ho  conflned  (eiiiia  In  wliU'li  they  are  conitnoiily  uii- 
dcrsluod,  are  important  and  inultifarloun,  It  la  his 
business  to  hi  alwnyii  on  tlio  iipol,  (o  watch  over  Iho 
coninicrcial  intercata  of  the  aul(|«cla  of  Ilia  alato  wliane 
aj^ent  bo  ia;  to  bo  reaily  (o  aaalkt  them  with  advice 
on  all  douh(rul  occaaiuna ;  to  ace  (hat  (ha  (.'oiidltluiia  in 
cuinniercial  (roadea  are  propirly  ohanrv  I'l  j  that  tlioMi 
he  is  appointed  to  protect  ire  aul{|«eled  lu  no  untii'nn- 
sary  or  uiOuatiflabla  dotnaiida  In  conducting  their  hiini- 
ucfs;  to  repreaciit  (lieir  Krhivancea  ('•  ihu  outhcrldea 
of  (he  place  y  nero  they  ruaiile,  or  to  '  le  niliaaaador  of 
t*  0  anvereign  appointini;  hini  at  (lis  <:•.    t  on  which  the 

'  -ulaiiip  depcnda,  or  to  (liu  Kovurtiinen;  at  home :  in 
a  word,  to  exert  biinaelf  to  render  (li«  conu,''    <    '  '  c 
suhjccta  of  (ho  coun(rv  ci'iploylii^  lilni,  withli.  :l' ' ' 
Ita  of  hia  coubulBblp,  »»  '  oinfortulde,  and  llieli  '  'ai.  >ii'  - 
tioiia  aa  advantageuiia  vnd  aecura  a*  puaalhla, 

'iho  fullowing  more  detailed  nxpimltlon  of  tha^cn- 
tral  dutiea  of  a  conani  la  taken  from  Mr.  ChUty'a  work 
on  Commercial  Jmu! I  "A  <oiiaul,  In  order  to  be  proper- 
ly qualilied  for  Ilia  euiployment,  alioubl  take  care  (o 
make  himaelf  uma(ur  of  the  laiiKuafci  iiaoil  liy  (he  coiir( 
and  (he  niafr'siiacy  of  tha  country  hI  re  hu  realdca,  »o 
aa  to  convbiau  with  eaao  upon  aulijctia  relutliiK  to  hia 
duties.  If  the  common  (leupla  of  llio  court  tiao  anoth- 
er, ho  must  acquire  that  aUo,  lliat  he  may  be  able  to 
settle  !''  ilii  dift'ercnces  without  troubling  Ilia  niaKlatra- 
cy  of  the  placo  for  the  inlerpanlllon  of  their  anihorUy ; 
such  as  acciden(a  happening  In  (he  harlior,  by  the  thips 
of  his  nation  runniiiK  foul  of  and  diuir'  ■l>iit..i.'rn  (o  each 
o(her.  Heia  (o  nialie  hima«lf  Aci^i'tlii.i 'i  i  ht  Im  not 
already,  with  the  luw  of  nation*  ai.l , '  jii>.  .•,  with  the 
tarift'  or  specification  of  dulie  nn  i>  llvlaa  Imported  or 
exported,  and  with  all  tho  muniuipal  ordinances  and 
laws. 

"  He  must  take  especial  notlca  of  all  prohibitions  to 
prevent  the  export  or  im)>urt  of  any  artlclea,  aa  well  on 
the  part  of  (he  a(ate  wherein  he  realilca,  an  of  tho  gov- 
ernment employing  him  j  so  that  lie  may  adniunlah  all 
his  coun(rymen  against  carryinK  on  an  Illicit  com- 
merce, tx)  (ha  detriment  of  the  ravenueai  and  In  viola- 
tion of  tha  laws  of  either ;  and  It  is  his  duty  to  attend 
diligendy  to  iliU  part  of  hia  oAicu,  In  order  to  prevent 
smuggling,  and  coiiaoi|uent  haxard  of  conttuvatlon  or 
detention  of  abipa,  and  iin|irlsonment  of  the  inaatera 
and  mariners  It  la  alao  hia  duty  to  protect  from  in- 
sult or  inipoaaiim  Ilia  countrymen  of  every  description 
widiiu  hia  j  iriadietion.  If  redrvas  (or  lijury  luflbrod 
is  not  obtained,  be  ia  to  carry  hli  complaint  by  msmo' 


rial  to  (he  minister  resi<llng  at  (he  court  on  which  the 
conaulthip  depends.  If  there  be  none,  bo  is  to  address 
hiiimclr  directly  to  tho  court ;  and  if.  In  an  import- 
ant cttKc,  his  complaint  bo  nut  answered,  he  ia  to  (rans- 
iiiit  the  memorial  to  (he  aecretary  of  atate.— IlKAWxa, 
Wauiikn,  e(c. 

"  When  insult  or  outrage  is  ollcrcd  by  one  from  bis 
country  (o  a  native  of  the  place,  and  (he  niagia(rate 
(hereof  complains  (o  the  coiihul,  he  should  summon,  and 
In  case  of  diaoliedlenco,  may  by  armed  force  bring  be- 
fore him  (he  otfender,  aud  order  him  (o  give  imniediata 
aatiafacdon ;  and  if  he  rcrune,  be  resigns  him  to  tUe 
civil  Jurisdiction  of  tho  magistrate,  or  to  the  mililary 
taw  of  (he  garrison ;  nevertheless  alwni/t  acliny  at  cohh- 
lelur  or  adevcalt  at  hit  trial,  when  (here  is  queadon  of 
life  or  iiruperty.  Uut  if  a  subject  be  accused  uf  an  of- 
fense alleged  to  have  been  committed  at  sea,  within  the 
dominion  or  Jurisdiction  of  his  sovereign,  it  Is  then  the 
duty  of  (ho  consul  (o  claim  cognizance  of  the  cause  for 
his  country,  and  (o  require  the  rcleose  of  the  parties,  if 
detained  in  prison  by  the  magialrary  of  the  place  on 
any  such  accusation  brought  before  ihcni,  and  (bat  all 
Judicial  proceedings  against  (hrin  do  instantly  cease; 
and  lie  may  demand  (he  aid  of  (be  power  of  (he  coun- 
(ry,  civil  and  military,  (o  enable  him  to  secure  and  put 
the  accused  pardes  on  board  i^uch  a  ship  as  he  shall 
tliink  tit,  that  they  may  lie  conveyed  home  to  be  tried 
by  (heir  proper  Judges.  If,  contrary  to  this  requisi- 
tion, (lie  niagis(ratcs  of  (he  country  persist  in  proceed- 
ing (o  (ry  (he  ofTensc,  tho  consul  should  then  draw  up 
and  transmit  a  memnrial  (o  the  minister  at  (he  court 
of  (hat  country ;  and  if  (hat  cuiirt  give  an  evasive  an- 
swer, (ho  consul  should,  if  it  be  a  sea  oH'ense,  apply  to 
(he  proper  au(borides,  siadng  (he  case ;  and  upon  (heir 
represeniadon,  the  secretary  for  the  proper  department 
will  lay  (he  ma(ter  before  the  king,  who  will  cause  the 
embassador  uf  the  foreign  s(u(e  (o  write  to  his  court 
abroad,  desiring  (bin  urders  mny  inimcdia(cly  be  given 
by  (hat  government  (hat  all  Judicial  proceedings 
against  (he  prisoner  be  si.iyed,  and  dia(  he  be  released. 
— .Sie  Cose  vf  Uoreeman  and  hit  Crcu;  Ueawes,  vol.  ii. 
p.  422. 

"  The  consul  Is  not  to  permit  a  merchant  ship  to 
leave  tho  port  wbi'-o  he  resides  without  his  passport, 
which  be  is  not  to  grant  until  (ho  mas(er  and  crew 
(hereof  have  sadsficd  all  juoi  demands  upon  (hem; 
and  for  (his  purpose  he  ought  to  see  (he  g  ernor's  pasa 
of  a  gurrisoned  town,  or  (he  burgomasK  mless  (he 
merchant  or  factor  to  whom  (he  ship    .  signed 

will  make  himself  responsible. — Bkawe^  .b;rc., 

vol.  ii,  p.  423.  It  is  also  hiv '1u(y  (0  claim  "r  retuver 
all  wrecks,  cables  and  aiicburs  belonging  (o  tho  shlpa 
of  his  couiUry  found  at  sea  li}-  flshcrnien  or  other  per- 
sons, (o  pay  the  usual  salvage,  and  to  communicate  a 
icjiort  diuieof  (o  authorides  at  home.  The  consuls  and 
vice-consuls  are,  by  express  enuclment  (46  Geo.  8,  c. 
08,  §  U9),  empowered  to  admini8(er  oa(hs  in  all  casea 
respecdng  quarandne,  in  like  manner  as  if  they  were 
magistrates  of  (ho  several  (owns  or  places  where  (hey 
respecdvely  reside.  It  is  also  laid  down  that  a  con- 
sul Is  to  attend,  if  requested,  all  arbKrations  where 
property  is  concerned  between  masiers  of  ships  and  (ho 
freighters,  i)eing  inhabitants  of  (he  place  where  be  re- 
sides."— CiiiiTY  on  Ci.mmerciid  Law,  vol.  i.  p.  68-61, 
and  the  numerous  authorities  there  quoted. 

Any  individual,  whether  bo  bo  a  siilijcct  of  the  state 
by  whicli  ho  is  appointed,  or  of  another,  may  be  select- 
ed to  rdl  (he  office  of  consnl,  provided  he  be  a[iproved 
and  admitted  by  the  government  in  whoso  (erritory  he 
is  (o  reside.  In  most  ins(ances,  however,  but  not  al- 
ways, consuls  are  tho  subjects  of  die  state  appointing 
them.  M'  -.i,  however,  of  the  peculiar  dudes  of  a  con- 
sul must  always  depend  on  the  na(urc  of  tho  inter- 
course with  the  country  (o  w  hich  he  is  sent,  and  of  the 
instructions  given  liini.  Consuls  are  regularly  sup- 
plied with  copies  of  all  acts  relating  to  trade  and  navi- 
gation, quarantine,  slave-trade  suppression,  emigra- 


ifia.^ilT'] 


s  ':^% 


CON 


406 


CON 


timi,  (io.,  and  with  tha  traatiM  bclWMn  thit  anil  other 
oouiilrlcf,  and  mint  of  court*  ahap*  (h«lr  conduct  aC' 
conUni{ly.  Thay  ara  itrtctly  forhiddau  from  corre- 
•poiHlliiK  with  prirale  parliea  on  puldtc  maltor*.  IJn- 
dcr  tha  (Itntnit  Intlructiiitu  for  Briluk  CoiuuU,  "  ha 
will  bear  in  mind  that  il  ii  his  principal  duty  to  pro- 
taot  and  promoto  the  lawful  trade  and  trading  inlcreati 
of  hia  country  liy  every  fair  and  proper  maumi,  taking 
care  to  conform  tu  the  laws  and  rvguUtlona  in  ques- 
tion i  ami  while  ha  is  Bup|>orting  the  lawful  irndu,  lie 
Will  lake  special  notion  of  all  probililtioiis  with  renpiMt 
to  the  export  or  Import  of  apeclHad  arllcl-.n  as  well  on 
tbe  part  of  the  state  In  which  lie  resides  as  of  his  gov- 
•mmeni,  so  that  ha  may  caution  all  his  countrymen 
•gainit  carrying  on  an  Illicit  comiiiercu  to  the  detri- 
ment uf  the  revenue,  and  in  violation  of  the  laws  and 
regulations  of  either  country;  and  he  will  not  full  to 
^  \  partment  imniedlato  noliro  of  any  attempt 

10  Lonirav'  lo  tha .     iws  and  rc)(ulationK. 

"The  consul  will  give  hia  lust  advice  and  assistance, 
when  called  upon,  to  his  counlrymoii,  quieting  thoir 
differences,  promoting  peace,  hamiony,  ami  good-will 
among  them,  and  conciliating  as  much  as  |>os«iblo  the 
sulijects  of  the  two  countries  upon  nil  points  of  dllTcr- 
ence  which  may  fall  under  his  cognizanco.  In  the 
orent  of  any  attempt  being  made  to  iigiiro  his  country- 
men, vltlier  In  their  persona  or  property,  he  will  up- 
hold their  rightful  interests,  and  the  privileges  secured 
tu  them  by  treaty,  by  due  rcprt^sentallun  in  the  proper 
oftlcial  quarter.  He  will,  at  the  same  time,  be  careful 
to  conduct  himself  with  mildness  and  nio<lcratiun  in  all 
his  transactions  with  the  public  authorities,  and  ho  will 
not,  upon  any  account,  urge  claims  on  behalf  uf  his 
countrymen  to  which  thoy  are  not  Justly  and  lairly  en- 
titled. If  redress  can  not  be  obtained  fi'oni  the  local 
administration,  or  if  the  matter  of  compluinl  be  not 
within  their  Jurisdiction,  the  consul  will  apply  to  the 
oonKul-general,  or  to  his  minister,  if  i  «  be  no  consul 
general  in  the  country  wherein  he  re.<i>ies,  in  order  thai 
he  may  make  a  representation  to  tlie  higher  authori- 
ties, or  take  such  other  steps  in  thu  case  as  ho  may 
think  proper;  and  the  consul  will  pay  strict  attention 
to  tlM  instructions  which  he  may  receive  from  the  iiiin- 
iater  or  consul-general." — See  M'Cui-Loril's  Vulionmy 
ofCvmm-rce;  Kent's  Commentariei ;  Knryclnpeilin  liri- 
Umiifa,  Hth  eil,  published  by  Messrs,  Little,  lirnwn  and 
Co,,  Boston;  Manunl  for  Ifnited  tiltilet  C'liuuh,  1W&7; 
Ti-on's  British  Cuiuul't  Afimiial,  London,  185S.  Tl.c 
reader  may  vith  advantngu  refer  lo  the  articles  ri  Con- 
lult  and  Ctmiular  JJutiet  contained  in  Dk  Bow's  Re- 
eifio,  vol  i.  p.  66;  Hv^r'i  MerehanW  .}fiigmine,\ol.\i. 
p.  297,  vol.  :.iil.  p.  651,  vol.  x.  p.  447,  vol.  xii.  p.  211, 
Tol.  xvll.  p.  4,1,  vol.  xviii.  p,  60;  Foreign  Quarlerli/  Re- 
vino,  vol.  xix,  p,  106, 

Juritdtction,  Pririteget,  and  Immunilie$  nf  ContuU. — 
"The  Jurisdiction  (^  a  consul  only  extends  over  the 
■objects  of  tho  nation  he  is  nominated  by,  eitlio'-  K>si- 
dent  iu,  or  arrivi.ig  at,  the  v'ace  In  which  he  has  been 
appointed  to  reside.  In  countries  where  there  arc  em- 
bassies ir  well  as  consula^'S  tiie  JurisuLCtion  ot  the  lat- 
ter .generally  only  extends  over  the  sea-faring  suljects 
ofour  nation,  at  the  same  lime  it 'a aichcs  over  her  com- 
mercial Interests,  That  of  a  consul-general  presides 
over  tho  consul,  and  that  of  a  consul,  in  most  instances, 
over  that  of  the  vice-consuls.  The  consular  jurisdic- 
tion depends  more  entirely  into  what  country  tho  con- 
sul may  be  sent.  Thus  foreign  consuls  in  England 
have  no  Judicial  authority  whatever,  British  consuls, 
however,  in  most  countries,  have  judicial  power,  and 
consequently  their  Jurisdiction  liecomes  either  retrench- 
ed or  extended,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stipula- 
tions of  the  ratilled  treaty. 

'*  When  the  consul  is  appointed  he  Is  always  pro- 
ridad  with  copies  of  the  conventions  with  the  country 
he  is  sent  to.  In  regard  to  the  privileges  and  immu- 
nitii)^  a  consul  ei^ya,  there  have  always  existed  doubts 
whechar  he  may  b«  considered  exempt  from  the  civil 


Jurisdiction  of  the  state  to  wlm  h  he  is  nominated ;  and 
although  many  others  have  laid  down  lo  thu  contrary, 
still  It  may  be  maintained,  and  In  perfect  conformity 
to  the  law  of  nations,  that  where  thu  regular  uxrquu- 
lur  has  burra  accorded  to  the  consul,  ho  ought  to  be  ex- 
empt from  the  civil  Jurlsdiclino  uf  the  stale  lo  which 
he  is  accredited.  By  the  exequatur  tbe  sovereign  ac- 
I  knowledges  lilni  as  the  cuiiaular  i'('i<reseiilnlive  uf  his 
'  empire,  bearing  her  appointnient,  and  protected  by  hur 
I  passport;  and,  as  regards  the  nature  of  his  missiuu, 
only  resident  for  a  short  time  at  the  slate.  I'liuur 
III.  »n  circumstances  he  ought  to  lio  exempt. 

"  In  countries  out  uf  Kurope,  or  where  there  is  no 
embassy,  the  consul  et^uys  the  same  privileges  as  an 
eniliuaaadur,  and  ia  dnjhitn  the  eiiibaasadur  or  ropre- 
sentalivu  of  hit  sovereign,  only  under  another  name, 
lie  can  perforin  all  ucts  of  a  iiutary  public,  all  deeds 
executed  by  him  being  hclil  lo  n  valid,  and  acknoMl- 
edged  in  our  courts  of  liiw,  lie  can  allciid  all  levees 
of  the  sovereign  after  rccelviug  bis  excni-iilur  and  ci- 
ther after  having  been  prcsciiled  lo  tho  sovereign  by 
the  embassador,  or,  in  Ills  ali^ence,  by  the  minister  uf 
foreife..  aHairs.  Ttio  consulalu  ia  generally  lonsidered 
as  the  territory  of  the  power  by  which  it  is  tenanted, 
and  all  deeds,  acts,  and  any  other  documents  executed 
under  tho  soul  of  the  consul  are  valid  in  thu  country 
from  which  ho  has  been  neiit.  At  the  samu  time,  It 
must  be  perfectly  understood  that  all  acts  thus  issued 
by  tho  consul  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  not  valid  in 
the  couiitr>'  in  which  ho  resides,  except  there  bo  a  spe- 
cial conveiiiion  to  thatclTbcl,  All  dueuniculs,  nsqulrcd 
to  bo  valid  before  tho  tribunals  of  the  country  he  ia  In, 
ought  lo  be  niado  out  by  the  proper  lawyers  uppuiiit- 
ed  fur  that  purpose;  for  it  can  not  be  expected  tliul 
where  a  consul  la  only  authorized  as  Judicial  authority 
for  his  own  country,  that  his  acts  should  be  acknoul- 
edi;eil  and  received  a.<  legal  Instruments  in  the  tribu- 
iiiil'i  i,t  ti<n  country  he  is  accredited  to,  althougli  his 
acta  she  I  be  respected,  ns  it  might  be  possible  ttiat 
they  colli  '>e  grounded  U|"h  iiiite  a  Jilfcrent  Irx  iifr- 
ctUoria,  i  i  .'ould  nut,  Iherelurc,  be  taken  in  ovideiieu 
against  d>.  nients  perhaps  quite  opposite  in  a  legal 
point  of  view,  and  it  would  1 1  unjust  to  allow  them  tu 
bo  received  "-Tiison's  British  CmuuVs  Manual.  1858. 

III.  Coti.>(l(ii  f  fiilem  of  III'-  United  ,SVn/M  — Tho  es- 
tabliahmcnt  of  a  coi  ■'ular  Mntein  in  the  I'nitcd  Slates 
was  nearly  •  "evnl  with  that  uf  the  general  govermnenl. 
In  thu  see(.'  i  annual  adilre  of  President  Washington 
to  tho  first  <  ungrcss  ho  iiii  •  mcd  that  body  that  "  the 
patronage  of  "tir  eoinnierce,  uf  our  nierchunts,  and  sea- 
men, called  for  the  appointment  uf  consuls  in  foreign 
countries ;  that  it  seemed  exjiedicnt  to  regulate  by  law 
the  exercise  of  that  Jurisdiction  and  those  functions 
which  are  permitted  cither  by  express  convention  or 
by  a  friendly  indulgence  :'  i  the  places  of  their  resi- 
dence," Prior  lo  this  perloil  consuls  were  not  allowed 
salaries,  nor  permitted  lo  demand  fees  or  receive  per- 
quisites. 

In  each  branch  of  Congress  this  recommendation  of 
tho  I'rosident  was  referred  to  the  appropriate  comniit- 
tee,  and  consular  bills  were  reported  in  accordance 
therewith.  They  failed,  however,  lo  become  laws,  the 
House  having  stricken  out  the  whole  of  the  Senate  bill 
with  the  exception  of  the  first  section. 

In  the  early  part  of  th"  second  Congress  substantial- 
ly the  same  bill,  probably  drawn  by  Mr.  Kllsworth 
(afterward  Chief  Justice),  was  reported  to  the  Senate  by 
a  committee  lo  whom  the  recommendation  of  the  Pres- 
ident had  been  referred ;  and,  subsequently,  after  the 
adoption  of  several  amendinenis,  it  passed  both  branch- 
es of  Congress  unanimously,  and  became,  on  tho  14lh 
of  April,  1702,  a  law  uf  the' land. 

From  this  period  till  the  year  1855,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  act  of  July  20lh,'l840,  regulating  the  ship- 
ment and  discharge  of  seamen  and  the  duties  cf  con- 
suls, scarcely  any  change  was  made  In  the  laws  affect- 
ing tha  consular  system,     ' 


CON 


m 


CON 


Mxlation  of 
nto  commlt- 

accorclance 
lie  lawn,  the 

Senate  bill 

substantial- 
KlUworth 
10  Senate  by 
of  the  Prcs- 
after  the 
j'oth  branch- 
on  the  14lh 

1  the  excep- 
ng  the  ship- 
itiea  cf  con- 
laws  aifecl- 


In  tb«  year  1NA4,  5lr,  Perklni,  of  Loiililana,  then  a  { 
mxinber  of  Ihe  llouan  of  H«preMnlativiia  fVuni  l,oul-  { 
■I>]|*,  havini{  il'vutml      nisolf  moiit  axalduouialy  to  Iha 
•ludy  of  Iha  lubirct,  pninrud  a  hill  to  ritniwlvl  the  dip- 
lomatic ami  coiuiilar  nytlema  of  the  Uni(«'l  HIalea. 

The  bill  wai  advocated  in  the  Ilouie,  and  llnally 
paascd  by  a  rota  of  I41i  yi*ai  to  03  nayi. 

In  tiiR  StMiate  it  passed  unanimoualy,  racetvod  the 
approval  of  llm  l'r«^  Imt  on  llie  Int  of  March,  1(I5A, 
and  went  into  operaii'in  on  the  Ul  of  July,  in  the  lanie 
year. 

AccordlnK  to  the  rrinnimendaMnn  of  Mr.  Marcy,  Sec- 
retary of  Slate,  the  subject  was  a^ain  liruught  forward 
ill  AuKuat,  ImAiI,  mud  a  new  act  paiMiMl  by  a  vote  in  the 
HouM  uf  KMprcKiilatlvuii  of  103  to  !>(!,  and  pasud  the 
Seiiulu  iinaninioualy  on  the  lUlh  of  I  hat  month. 

It  has  rarely  happened  that  a  law  so  Important  sk 
this  has  paKned  CiHiKrosa  with  such  unanlinity~-one  lu- 
volvinft  many  and  Important  chanKos  in  the  diploniat- 
lu  and  consular  systenm  of  thii  United  Slati'i* ;  creating 
newolHcca;  incri'aaing,  reduiin^,  or  enliri'ly  abolliili- 
\nn  Ihe  nalaricft  nl'  iilany  consular  oftlcim;  cmilulnlnK 
proviniona  allxiiln/;;  every  Amrrii'aii  merchant  unit 
shipmaster  (Mii;at;cd  in  foreign  tradi',  and  every  Amer- 
ican traveler  in  Kuropc^  repealing  provlaiuns  of  e^llll- 
inf;  lawn;  onactinf;  others  for  llie  ri'Kulation  of  the 
af(nnl«  of  the  )(0vernment  in  fi>rei){n  rountrics,  and  uf 
civil  ofliceni  in  the  I  iiitt'd. Slates;  inipoBiu);  heavy  pen- 
alties for  tlin  violuliuii  of  lli«  proviaiunn  of  Ihe  slalute ; 
and  nuthnriziiiK  and  iri|uirin;(  Ihe  performance  of  im- 
porlanl  dutioK  I  y  the  hiKlicst  executive  olHoerH  of  Ihe 
government.  Tli>'  favor  which  tlie  liill  received  in  bolh 
branches  of  ConKrcas  was  doubtless  due,  In  parl,lo  Ihe 
fact  lliat  the  near  approach  of  the  close  of  the  session 
left  little  lime  for  its  discussion  and  amendment,  and 
to  llie  respect  entertained  by  the  Ilouso  for  the  com- 
millce  on  forei);n  atfairs,  which  reiKirled  the  bill,  whose 
chairman,  it  was  understood,  had  devolpd  much  time 
and  care  In  ltd  preparation.  The  law  provides  for  the 
rate  of  compensation  to  be  received  by  all  diplomatic 
and  consular  ofHccrs,  of  whatever  (;rade;  fixes  their 
compensation ;  permits  the  latter  tu  transact  business, 
or  prohibits  them  from  doing  so,  in  certain  places ;  pre- 
acrllws  the  conditions  of  otlicial  bonds:  imposes  penal- 
ties for  the  violation  of  the  provisions  of  Ihe  law,  and 
indicates  the  manner  in  which  actions  for  the  recovery 
of  penalties  shall  l>e  tried ;  authorizes  the  appoinlmenl 
of  consular  pupils,  of  interpreters,  and  of  additional 
iecrelaries  of  le);alions ;  fixes  the  period  at  which  Ihe 
com|)ensalion  of  the  ofiiccrs  named  in  the  act  shall  com- 
mence and  terminate ;  prov  idea  for  the  filling  of  diplo- 
matic and  consular  ollicea  teni|>orarily  vacant,  and  the 
pay  to  bo  received  liy  olllcers  acting  ad  iiiterim ;  for- 
bids the  exercise  of  diplomatic  functions  by  unauthor- 
ized persons;  authorizes  tiie  President  to  define  the 
limits  of  the  several  consul  i'  and  commercial  Agencios, 
to  provide  for  the  a^ipointi  lUt  of  •idiordinate  consular 
officers  and  their  coni|>en8nlioii  ir\'\  lilcewise  to  fix  the 
rate  or  lariffof  fees  for  cinuuliii  i-ivices,  and  designate 
what  sbnll  be  regarded  iit  oljii'i.'kl  services;  requires 
the  consular  tariff  to  lie  n  i-urici  lo  Congress  annually, 
and  also  the  amount  of  fees  received  at  the  several  con- 
sulates; directs  the  mode  in  which  the  payment  of  fees 
shall  be  made  and  accounted  foe,  and  the  coin  in  which 
ihey  shall  be  payalde ;  imposes  additional  duties  upon 
collectors  and  shipmasters  in  respect  to  consular  serv- 
ices, receipts,  and  invoices;  forbids  diplotnatio  and 
consular  officers  lo  be  absent  from  their  posts,  or  to 
hold  correspondence  in  regard  to  the  pulilic  affairs  of 
•ny  foreign  government  with  tlie  press,  or  private  per- 
sons, or  otherwise  than  with  the  proper  ofHcera  of  the 
United  States;  forliiils  consular  officers  being  pecun- 
iarily interested  in  tlie  receipt  or  disbursement  of  the 
wages  of  seamen,  or  in  expenditures  made  for  their  ro- 
lief  or  transportation;  provides  that  no  compensation 
■hall  be  paid  to  diplomatic  and  consular  olHcers,  un- 
leai  they  shall  be.  citizsna  of  the  United  States ;  au- 


thorises the  President  to  supply  the  bigullons  and  eon- 
sulales  of  the  Ci  Ited  NIaIvs  wllh  enrlaln  iirlirlea  nccw 
esaary  for  the  transaction  of  Ihe  pujjlic  liusiness,  and 
lo  prescrllie  sucli  regulations,  and  make  and  iaaim  such 
orders  and  insi ructions,  not  inconsistent  Alth  Ihe  Con- 
stitution or  any  law  of  the  1,'nlled  NIales,  in  relation 
to  the  duties  of  all  dlploniallc  and  ccmsular  officers,  the 
transaolion  of  llicir  busineaa,  the  rendering  of  account* 
and  returns,  the  payment  uf  compenaallun,  the  safe* 
keeping  of  the  archives  and  pulilio  property  In  the 
hands  of  all  such  officers,  Iha  conmiunicalion  of  infor- 
mation, and  Ihe  procurement  and  Irunsndasiun  of  Ihe 
products  of  Ihe  arts,  sciences,  man ufati urea,  agricul- 
ture, and  commerce,  from  time  to  lime,  as  he  may 
tliiiik  conducive  to  the  puldic  interests ;  reijuires  these 
officers  In  conform  to  such  regulations,  orders,  and  In- 
Btrucllons ;  makes  It  Ihe  duty  of  Ihe  Secrelnry  of  Slate 
tu  publish  official  notlllcations,  from  lime  lu  time,  of 
such  commercial  infoniialion  communicated  lo  him  by 
Ihe  diplomatic  and  conaular  ofliiers  as  he  inny  deem 
important  lo  the  public  interests,  and  to  report  lo  ('on- 
gresa,  at  least  once  in  each  year,  a  synopsis  of  so  much 
of  Ibo  Inriirinntion  on  all  subjects,  which  shall  be  so 
commimiriiird  to  him,  as  lie  may  deem  valuable  for 
public  iiili  rmation;  authorizes  tlie  granting  and  Issu- 
ing of  pns      'Is,  under  certain  conditions,  and  the  per- 
formance .'I  notarial  duties  by  secretaries  of  legation 
und  consular  officers ;  enacts  various  provisions  in  re> 
glird  to  Ihe  desertion  of  seiimen,  the  payment  and  the 
fiirf'eilure  of  wages  and  extra  wages  in  certain  cases, 
and  the  settlement  of  seamen's  aceounis,  and  their  dis- 
charge in  foreign  countries ;  provides  for  Ihe  account- 
ability uf  cunsular  officers  for  the  extra  wages  of  sea- 
men ;  prescrilies  the  kind  of  returns  and  reports  to  be 
made  liy  consular  officers,  and  requires  all  shipmaster* 
III  apply  to  consular  officers  fur  the  transaction  of  con- 
sular liusiness,  and  |iermils  the  detention  of  ships'  pa- 
pers till  payment  shall  lie  made  of  all  demands  and 
wages  on  account  of  such  ships  ami  vessels :  defines  the 
duties  of  consular  otlleers  in  respect  to  all  eiliiens  of 
the  I'nited  States  (U  ing  alirond,  and  the  meaning  to 
be  affixed  to  the  several  titles  by  which  consular  utH- 
cers  are  designated;  imposes  heavy  penalties  fur  all 
malfeasance,  and  for  the  violation  of  the  jirovisions  of 
the  act ;  repeals  all  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
with  its  provisions ;  and,  llnally,  provides  that  the  act 
shall  lake  effect  on  the  first  of  .lanuary,  1867.     It  will 
thus  Ihb  seen  that  Ihe  law  which  now  regulates  the  dip- 
lomatic and  consular  systems  of  the  United  States  em- 
braces a  great  iinmlier  of  sulijects,  and  enters  into 
much  detail  with  respeei  to  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  consular  office.     Many  uf  its  provisions  are  emi- 
nently Judicious ;  the  expediency  of  others  must  ba 
tested  by  time  and  their  practical  operation.     The 
treaties  und  conventions  of  the  United  States  w  ith  foi^ 
eign  nalluns  contain  many  iniprrtunt  provl,siona  relat- 
ing to  Ihe  duties,  rights,  and  privileges  of  consuls,  es- 


pecially those  which  have  been  negotiated  with  China 
and  the  Ottoman  Porte, 

Ilut  "Ihe  most  complete  consular  conventions  ever 
concluded,"  as  remarks  Mr,  Tiison,  Ihe  latest  writer  on 
the  snliject  of  the  duties  of  coii.siils,  "  are  those  between 
France  and  the  United  Slates,  and  between  the  latter 
country  and  Holland ;  the  former  negotiated  at  Wash- 
ington liy  Mr.  Everett  and  M.  Sartiges,  and  the  latter 
at  the  Hague,  under  the  instructions  of  Mr.  Marcy. 
The  rules  laid  down  therein  aro  very  explicit,  and 
ought  to  be  taken  as  examples  by  all  other  nation*. 
They  will  be  of  great  utility  to  all  consuls,  in  showing 
them  wliat  their  present  duties  are,  and  what  they  are 
most  likely  to  liecome.  These  conventions  are  such  as 
are  likely  to  be  taken  as  precedents  for  f\iture  treaties 
on  the  same  subject."  Occurrences  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere,  within  the 
last  few  years,  have  shown  how  defective  is  the  legif- 
lation  of  tills  country  in  respect  to  consuls.  The  sub- 
ject attracted  Mr.  Webster's  attention,  while  Secretarf 


CON 


40t 


CON 


of  SUU ;  and,  at  hU  ■U|{K*<ti<»>i  ()>•  ■tlcatlon  of  Con- 
Kr«M  wu  cill«l  to  It.  lU  ninarlitil  that  no  •■ountry 
hai  a  dMp«r  Interett  in  McurliiK  the  prutsctlon  uf  Ulp- 
lomatlo  anil  coniuUr  aK'uti  than  th«  Lnitad  Statvu. 
Tbair  ooromarca  •praailt  ovar  avary  aaa,  and  vltlta  <v- 
»ry  ellma ;  and  thcM  iKantt  ara  appolntad  to  protait 
It*  intnnata,  aa  wall  aa  to  Kuard  tha  paaca  of  tha  coun- 
try, and  maintain  the  honor  uf  ila  Hag.  Whila  thiii 
aogaKsd  in  tlw  dltchar^tn  of  Important  function!,  tlmy 
•hould  lie  olijacta  of  «t|>«cial  ruapact  and  protecllon, 
aach  according  to  the  rigbta  belonging  to  bla  rank  aod 
alation. 

Aa  much  haa  baao  dona  durlntr  Iho  laat  fouryaara  aa 
•t  any  forninr  parlod  in  this  country,  liy  niaanr  of  con- 
aular  convention!,  by  la|{lalatlan,  ami  liy  clrtulara  la- 
aued  by  tha  Hacratary  of  State,  nut  only  to  aeoure 
Ibaaa  objecta,  but  to  perfect  the  consular  ayitam,  and 
to  rentier  It  uaeful  to  the  country.  In  obedience  to  the 
circular!  Isaued  by  Mr.  Marcy  to  conaular  olHcers  on 
the  (llh  of  October,  IHAa,  the  l&lh  of  March,  1H64,  tha 
11th  of  July,  IH&6,  and  alio  the  gnneral  and  !piM'ial  In- 
•tructlona  of  tha  Department  of  Htate,  a  vaat  amount 
of  Information  relating  to  ahlp-hulldlng,  (hipping,  nav- 
igation, tonnage,  learoen,  foreign  tariih,  commercial 
ragulationi,  and  other  subject!,  haa  liean  tranamitted 
(0  the  Department  by  the  United  Stale!  consuU.  The 
matter  thue  collected  Is  Important  and  valuable;  its 
preparation  reflects  great  credit  un  the  Industry  and  In- 
telligeiu'o  of  the  cun!ular  corpa,  and  alTords  a  striking 
lUaatralion  of  the  importance  of  their  servicea. 

At  the  present  time  the  consular  corpa  of  the  United 
Statea  consists  of  seven  consula-general,  one  hundred 
and  seventeen  consuls,  and  nine  commercial  agents, 
who  receive  for  their  compensation  fixed  salarlea ; 
ninety  consuU,  ten  comiaercial  agents,  and  elKhty-livo 
consular  agents,  who  are  authorized  to  retain  for  tholr 
compensation  the  official  fc^us  which  they  receive.  Ke- 
tldlng  aa  these  officers  do  in  all  the  principal  marts  of 
traffic  and  commerce  throughout  the  world,  aud  hav- 
ing their  duties  carefully  detlnod^  by  law  and  the  In- 
atructions  of  the  Executive,  It  may  reasonably  b«  ex- 
pacted  that  all  information  affecting  the  commercial 
relatione  of  the  United  States  with  foreign  nations  will 
ba  furnished  by  them  to  the  Department  of  State,  and 
published  for  the  benefit  uf  their  fidlow-cltizens. 

As  an  Illustration  of  the  value  to  bo  placed  on  the 
correspondence  of  conaula.  It  may  lie  stated  that  in  a 
dnbate  which  took  place  In  1842,  In  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, Lord  Falmerston  remarked,  ttiat,  during  the 
timu  he  had  the  honor  of  being  at  the  head  of  the  for- 
eign department,  he  liad  read  e<-ery  report  and  every 
letter  received  from  the  consular  officer*  abroad,  from 
the  most  elaborate  report  of  the  highest  consul-general 
down  to  the  leait-lmportont  letter  of  the  lowest  vice- 
ooiMul.  "  Very  lal)oriou*  reading  it  was,"  he  add*, 
"but,  *cattored  tbiougb  the  voluminous  papers  that 
thus  came  nuder  my  eye,  I  found  many  impoitant 
matturs  witli  which  it  wo.-  my  dnty  to  be  acquuinted ; 
and  it  U  i|uile  a  mistake  to  smpoco  that,  because  there 
I*  a  lupcrintendent  of  tlio  conr.ular  department,  the 
Secretary  of  HMt  doe*  not  give  the  same  minute  at- 
tention to  the  consular  a*  to  the  other  dutie*  of  the 
ofBce,  though  the  conaular  correspondence  amount*  to 
one-bialf  of  the  whole  correspondence  of  the  foreign 
office."  The  perfection  to  which  the  coniular  system 
ho*  attained  in  Franco  fumishet  an  Illustration  of  what 
may  be  accnmplialicd  by  a  thoroughly  organized  con- 
iular rstablishment.  The  objects  contninplated  by  such 
•  syrUtm,  as  has  been  well  remarked  by  a  writer  prac- 
tically acquainted  with  tha  ■miijeet,  ara  Dotblng  lesa 
than  the  advaucoment  of  the  prosperity  and  power  of 
nalioiu.  Deputed  to  watch  over  the  commercial  right* 
oud  privilege*  of  their  respective  cnnntries,  consular 
officer*  are  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  highest  iate- 
rasta,  and  exercise  a  more  important  influence  upon 
mercantile  prof  perity,  the  foundation  oi  national  great- 
nesa,  than  any  other  foreign  agonta  of  government. 


Scattered  tbroughout  the  whole  world,  occupying  aa 
eminent  social  position  in  all  the  mercantile  cities  of 
avary  nation,  and  performing dullas  whlth  bring  them 
mom  or  less  Into  collision  with  (lie  people  among  whuni 
they  reside,  they,  by  their  conduct  and  maanera,  iuHis- 
encu  the  Judgment  which  i>  I'urnivil  of  tha  country  tbry 
represent,  and  either  add  lu  it*  dignity  or  reltocl  dia- 
honor  un  Ita  national  cliarai^er. 

1.  Nalurt  atui  Hulitt  itf'  (A«  t'ontuUr  <IJfi(t.~Th» 
word  "consul*,"  as  used  In  the  Cunstltutlon  of  th* 
United  Stales,  deslgnalei  u  class  uf  public  olllrers  ap> 
pointed  by  their  governnient  to  reside  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  especially  In  sea-|iorts  and  other  place*  of 
commerce,  to  discharge  ailnilnistratlvn  and  sonietlmea 
judicial  functions  in  regard  to  their  countrymen  who 
dwell  or  may  be  in  the  country  where  they  reside;  to 
aid  In  tha  authentication  uf  ducumoirt*  abruad,  and 
generally  to  perfunn  such  uther  ilutles  as  may  Iw  aa- 
signed  to  them  by  tha  laws  and  orders  uf  their  govern- 
ment. 

a.  Clnua  o/Coiuular  (J/iKcrrs.— Accordingly,  by  va- 
rloua  lawa  of  the  I'nilud  Slates,  duties  are  imposed 
and  rights  conferred  on  this  description  uf  pulillo  offi- 
cerx,  under  the  names  uf  cunsul.t-geueral,  contuU,  vice- 
consuls,  deputy-consuls,  commercial  agents,  vice-cum- 
nrarcial  agents,  and  consular  agents.  It  Is  provided 
by  the  Ulst  section  of  the  act  uf  Congress  approved 
August  IH,  IHM,  that  these  official  designations  shall 
be  deemed  to  have  the  respective  meanings  therein 
assigned  to  them,  namely :  "  consul-general,"  "  con- 
sul," and  "  commercial  agent,"  shall  be  taken  to  dfr 
note  full,  principal,  and  permanent  "consular  officers," 
aa  distinguished  from  subordinate*  and  substltutea; 
"  dtiputy-conaul"  and  "  consular  agent"  to  denute  "  cou- 
aular  officera"  subordinate  to  such  principals,  sxcrcl^ 
Ing  Iho  powcra  and  performing  t)\»  duties  within  th* 
limits  of  their  consulate*  or  commercial  agenelea  ra- 
■pectivoly — the  former  at  the  same  ports  or  placea, 
and  the  latter  at  porta  or  places  dill'erent  fruni  thosu 
at  which  such  principals  are  located  respectivuly ;  and 
"vice-consuls"  and  " vice-conmiercial  agents"  to  de- 
note "consular  officers"  who  shall  be  substituted,  tem- 
porarily, to  All  the  places  of  "consuls-general,"  "con- 
suls," or  "commercial  agents,"  when  they  shall  b« 
temporarily  absent  or  relieved  from  duty;  and  the 
term  "  consular  officer"  to  include  all  such  officera  a« 
are  mentioned  in  the  said  section,  and  none  others. 

8.  Appticaliiin  of  Acli ((ft'ungnu.— It  1*  further  pro- 
vided by  the  *ain«  auction  that,  in  the  construction  and 
for  the  purpose*  of  all  other  acts  and  part*  of  acts  which 
shall  remain  in  force  after  the  act  above  mentioned 
shall  take  eflbct,  defining  any  of  the  power*,  declaring 
any  of  the  rights,  preacrlblng  any  of  the  dutie*,  or  im- 
pb*ing  any  penalty  or  punishment  for  any  act  of  omla- 
alon  or  comml**lon  of  any  consul,  commercial  agent, 
vice-consul,  or  vice-commercial  agent,  or  allowing  or 
enjoining  tho  porformatice  of  any  act,  matter,  or  thing, 
with  or  befure  any  smh  officer,  all  such  act*  and  part* 
of  act*  shall  In  all  these  eeveral  respocts,  so  far  as  may 
be  cinsistent  wilh  the  aunject-maiter  and  context  of 
the  same,  and  with  tlio  said  act  and  the  treaties  of  th* 
United  States,  be  deemed  and  ttken  to  mclude  and 
apply  to  all  consular  officera  Just  as  though  all  such 
offlrers  were  specifically  named  tlinrein. 

4.  Cerluin  CotuiUar  Pviyt. — The  ii.iportant  act  of 
1792  contains  a  decl* ratory  provision,  which  is  to  ba 
understood  as  implied  in  all  other  acts  of  Congress,  aa 
follows : 

"  The  specification  of  certain  powern  and  duties, 
•  •  ♦;  to  be  ex'jrcised  or  performed  by  the  consul* 
and  vice-consuls  of  the  United  Slates,  rball  net  be 
construf>d  to  tha  exclusion  of  others  resulting  from  tlm 
nature  of  their  appointments,  or  any  treaty  oi  conveu- 
tion  under  which  they  may  act."* 

So  that  the  powers  and  dutie*  of  tsoniula,  besides 


•  gtsiutei  at  largo,  vol.  1.  p.  W1. 


being  d< 

general  t 

between 

t.  Ill4f^ 

the  law  ( 

leges,  iiih 

legislaliv 

*l.  CVnm 

•rise  fron 

they  are  r 

lie  minlst 

and,  consi 

among  dil 

lali\'«  |,„|| 

missions  w 

govern  mei 

fir  Ilia  uii 

are  to  lin«; 

ani-e  wKh 

nioy  Iw  niu 

nitle.,  rlgh 

niutiinl  ron 

exercised  li 

oiin\,'n(ionj 

•flairs  have 

•ular  ortlicn 

or  are  not  fi 

wlik'h  are  a 

tlioy  are  pei 

granted  to  f, 

lis  own  l(<rri 

7.  m,nt 

of  the  places 

to  their  enju 

been  aicorilo 

ed  on  usBKu  i 

thenisclvi'H.  t 

of  the  t'niieil 

port  tha  fads 

a  copy  of  all 

•ame,  to  tho 

*l  ructions. 

Wag  or  alianit 

•ionofilip  I), 

8.  J'ertniiai 
eonsular  olli.'i 
•nd  In  their  li 
with  tho  peop 
•upreme  aulhi 

9.  Sli/lei/c 
nicatlon*  with' 
M  to  set  fori 
but  firmly,  ov 
intemperate  la 
.vond  the  limit 
defeat  their  oh 

10.  Injlutnct 

by  their  persoi 

«pcct  conduct 

will  best  SHCC& 

complishnicnt  i 

tcrcourse  is  a  ci 

tries  and  all  m 

this  source,  rat 

and  disputes,  i 

moved.— De  Ci 

11.  thitift  I'm 

Slates  on  the  si 

cially  authorize 

tcr*  and  other* 

declare  tligt  coi 

c>ive  faith  and  o 

It  is  likeH'ise  mi 

the  laws  of  the 

the  assets  of  the 

who  may  die  wit 

npreaentative,  a 


CON 


400 


I  act  of 

to  be 

Itas,  U 


«itidei 


balng  ilcAiMil  by  krit  of  ConffTMii,  am  tnillcatml  liy 
gonml  trvttlM  and  roniular  conrtntloni  tiiteml  Into 
b«lWMn  III*  llnlUil  Statu  and  uther  •ovtrnlKii  (luwun. 

6,  Inlrmulionat  Ijue.—CouiuU  |hmmm,  niuraovnr,  hy 
tha  law  of  nationi,  many  funcllani,  rlKhli,  and  (irivi- 
leK«»,  uihar  than  iurh  at  an  deflnid  by  cunvantlun,  by 
Irglilativa  art,  or  by  rrKulalbiii. 

«.  Contiiliir  /'rtfi/ri/r*.— Their  prlviloK**  nf^Marlly 
■riM  from  iba  rhararmr  of  tbiilr  a|i|>uintni<inlii ;  but 
Ihay  arc  not,  llkn  Ihnn  orcinbaaiiaclari  and  olhar  pub- 
lie  minlitrni,  pmcluly  dollnKil  by  Intornatlnnal  law ; 
and,  cunHquenllv,  thry  may  l>«  extended  or  llniltod 
among  dllhmnt  natluni,  either  by  treallen  or  the  legli- 
lallv'o  (Killiy  of  ihoaa  counlrle*.  Although  the  coni- 
nilMlonii  which  I'nlted  Ntaten  coniuU  receive  from  their 
guvarnment  aru  expr«MHl  in  the  eame  termi  and  con- 
fi'r  the  uino  authority,  yet,  a*  the  consular  fUncdon* 
are  to  bnexercliied  in  a  foreign  country,  and  In  accord- 
ance with  un  exci|uttur  l»ued  l>y  it*  •overeign,  they 
may  lie  nioru  ur  lc«*  n^iilrlctcd.  Whenever  the  immu- 
nltlcn,  right*,  and  dutic*  of  con*nU  are  pretcrlbed  by 
mutnni  consular  convention*,  tbcy  are  to  be  oi\)oycd  or 
•xerciicil  In  accordance  with  tliu  iitipulation*  of  such 
cohvcntlunn.  In  Ibune  counlrlcii  with  which  the  United 
Stales  have  entered  Into  no  coiiMiliir  convention,  con- 
(ular olllccr*  may  discharge  suib  iliilles  as  are  allowed 
or  are  nut  forbliUlcn  by  the  laws  of  those  countries,  ur 
which  are  allowed  by  connnon  usage  ;  and  sumelinics 
they  are  permitted  to  exerclso  such  privilugns  as  are 
granted  to  forelga  consuls  by  the  United  States  within 
Its  own  territory. 

7.  When  Obttarlet  art  inlerpoitd. — If  the  authorities 
of  the  placcH  where  consuls  reside  oppose  any  ol>stacles 
to  their  er\)oymcnt  of  the  privileges  which  may  have 
been  atcoriied  by  consular  conventions,  or  wliieh,  found- 
ed on  usa|<u  or  reciprocity,  niny  have  liecn  claimed  l>y 
theniselveH.  they  will  refer  the  subject  to  the  legation 
of  the  United  States  residing  in  the  country,  and  re- 
port  the  facts,  together  with  their  own  proceedings  and 
a  copy  of  all  their  correspondence  in  relation  to  the 
same,  to  the  Department  of  State,  and  await  lis  in- 
structions. In  no  case  will  they  strike  the  consular 
Hug  or  al)an<lon  their  post  without  tho  express  pcrmis- 
sion  of  the  Department. 

H.  Ptrtmial  DrmMiior. — One  of  the  first  duties  of 
consular  oHicers  is  to  exhibit  in  their  offlcial  conduct, 
and  in  their  intercourse  with  tho  local  authorities  am! 
with  the  people  of  the  country,  a  proper  respect  for  tho 
(upremc  authority. 

0.  Slgle  (/(tffU'ial  Communieatimu. — In  their  commu- 
nications with  official  functionaries,  thoy  will  bo  care- 
ful to  set  forth  their  views  and  opinions  courteously 
but  Hrmly,  avoiding  In  all  cases  the  use  of  violent  or 
intemperate  language.  All  discussions  extending  be- 
yond the  limits  of  a  Just  moderation  are  injurious  and 
defeat  their  own  olgect. 

10.  Influence  nf  J'enonal  Character. — It  is,  above  ail, 
by  their  personal  inlluence  and  character,  by  circum- 
spect conduct  and  a  conciliatory  spirit,  that  consuls 
will  licst  succeed  in  settling  difncuilies  and  in  the  ac- 
complishment of  important  objects.  Commercial  in- 
tercourse is  a  common  bond  of  interest  among  ail  coun- 
tries and  all  men,  and  it  is  by  arguments  drawn  IVom 
this  source,  rather  than  by  unreasonable  pretensions 
and  disputes,  that  injurious  restrictions  can  be  re- 
moved,— 1)e  Ci.Kncg,  tome  ii.  p.  82  tt  teg. 

11.  Duties  tmiioaedby  Ijitei. — Tlie  laws  of  tho  United 
States  on  (he  sulijcct  of  consuls  and  vice-consuls  spe- 
cially authorize  them  to  receive  tho  protests  of  mas- 
ters and  others  relating  to  American  commerce,  and 
declare  that  consular  certificates  under  seal  shall  re- 
ceive faith  and  credit  in  the  courts  of  the  United  Slates. 
It  is  likewise  made  the  duly  of  consular  officers,  where 
the  laws  of  tho  country  pomdt,  to  collect  and  remit 
the  assets  of  the  pcr.4onal  estates  of  American  citizens 
who  may  die  within  their  consulates  und  leave  no  legal 

.tepreieDtative,  and  tu  take  charge  of  and  secure  the 


afflicts  nf  stranded  i  nmU,  In  tiia  alittnca  of  Ilia  mat* 
ter,  owner,  ur  conslgno*}  and  tk*/  are  liuuMd  lu  |iri>. 
vide  fur  dettilule  tsaiiinn  within  Ihalr  vniisulalss,  and 
to  sand  them,  at  ih*  public  ■ipanss,  lu  lli«  Unllsil 
Niatss.  ll  is  their  duly,  likawita,  to  rM'lalm  daaarltrt, 
to  discountenaucu  inauliordiiiallun  and  land  lliair  alii 
to  tho  local  autliiirlliat  for  Ihit  purpuau,  lu  dlsiharH* 
taamsn  cruelly  traalad,  and  to  raialva  rriiiii  iIm  iiiaa- 
lar*  of  American  vusselt,  on  lliidr  arrival  at  a  fural|n 
port,  and  after  llie  vuttal  ahail  bav«  uuma  In  an  vnlrir, 
the  register*,  tea  laltiirs,  and  passports  of  turli  vrtaala. 
These  duties,  and  some  olliara  which  ara  preurlliad  \>f 
legal  enactment,  are  In  acrurdaiuo  wllh  llm  iiasges  of 
natiunt  |  Kknt,  vuI.  I,  p.  '<';|,  and  with  spedal  Iraatjr 
slipulalions  wllli  eiirlain  countrlfi, 

12.  Viirirty  and  Impiirliinet  nf  (,'imtuliir  llullti,-m 
Many  of  thu  lunsular  duties  arlHi  from  pii ullar  t\u 
cumtlances:  such  as  the  charaiier  and  liaMlt  uf  ilia 
nation  in  wlileh  the  consul  risldvt,  lit  laws  and  ru«> 
turns,  and  the  nature  of  lit  iiilercoiirsu  wllh  Oih  United 
States.  In  the  most  restricted  sense,  lliey  ura  Imiiur* 
tant  and  multlfurluus,  are  qullu  dll1'er>  lit  fruiii  lliui* 
of  other  ollliem  emijiiiyed  In  foreign  alluirs,  ami  ra> 
quire  for  tlicir  proper  perfurmani'v  an  aiiiounl  of  prao* 
ticul  informallon  fur  which  the  loinularolllciir  nved*  a 
special  training.  Coiituls  are  so  ■llUNli'd  as  lu  aa«r> 
else  toward  their  counlrymen  wllhin  llielr  iimsular 
jurisdiclion  the  duties  ul^Judgus,  arbiters,  and  prace- 
mailers ;  they  aru  tliu  regUlurs  of  marrlagi'ii,  lijrlhs, 
and  <lealhs;  they  act  as  notaries,  and  •uninliines  a* 
revenue  officers;  they  watch  over  and  verify  Ihn  san- 
itary condition  of  their  consulates ;  unil,  by  their  du< 
mestic  relations,  they  cnn  furnish  a  full  and  accurata 
idea  of  the  commerce,  mivlgalloii,  and  Industry  p*itut> 
lar  to  the  country  of  Ihrir  renideiieo, 

III.  Cuminereiitl  Utyulutiiini. — 'I  be  euinilM'rclal  lltlaf- 
eats  of  their  own  country  are.  In  a  iiieaaure,  niminll- 
ted  to  their  care.  They  are  to  tee  wlivlhur  Ilia  allptf 
latlons  in  commercial  treaties  aru  ob«ar\ad,  ami  n<por| 
ail  changes  In  commercial  regulations  and  muiil<'l|ia| 
ordinances 

Every  H  edict,  or  regulation  of  the  ((uvarnnient 
where  ll  '  '     In  any  way  airecling  Ihn  eommerca 

of  tlic  UiiitiMi  1^  '  which  conies  lo  the  kiiowU'dgs  uf 
consul  r  "  >'ci  i',  ii  >,  t  be  imnicdlalely  Imnamlllad  tn 
thu  i^ii:'.<.  .  ui.kit.  '  i>  ;  and,  if  It  lie  a  local  regiilalioti, 
opernsh^  •uilvdii  li  r  ,  "eular  port,  they  must  aUoglva 
1  .M'|'(I;h  '  iu>ir'  'll  '  to  llie  initilaler,  if  there  Ihi 
t'u  1,'  il>i    1.. -itf'     '  «   itc!  the  dl'Irlcl  Imluiigs, 

'•1    '  'j7^<''  "■< '  <  .ifii  ix  oftlcurs  are  axiieeliid,  In 

<e\:  iivusiMiiiiliu.e  I J  ..uta  all  eveiil*  wlilvh  bear 
upon  I'l"  (.ciinirrin  uetween  the  country  wliere  Ihey 
reside  and  lii..  d  Stales,  the  eslalillHlitiiHiil  uf  nxw 

branches  ot  ii  di  .ry  wllhin  thu  liiiilla  uf  their  lunsular 
Jurisdiction,  an  I  the  increase  and  decline  uf  aiicli  at 
have  been  bcforu  Gatabilshed,  They  ahould  alto  inaka 
such  niggcstii  IS  OS,  In  their  opinion,  may  lend  lu  an 
iucrcare  of  trade,  and  point  uut  uiiy  clrcumslancr* 
which  may  have  produced  a  contrary  iilt'eil,  wllh  Iha 
means  that  appear  proper  for  avoiding  suili  a  rnaiiU, 
When  new  products  of  the  arts,  kclenies,  ur  iimnufao 
turcs  appear  to  be  valualdu  cither  fur  oxjiui  I  ur  Impvrl, 
and  this  is  not  generally  known,  the  fact  almuld  b« 
communicated  to  the  Department,  and  aantplea  sent, 
if  not  loo  bulky,  with  tlio  consular  letters ;  but  If  too 
bulky  they  may  bo  addrcscod  to  the  cullvclor  of  aunit 
one  of  our  principal  ports.  Seeds  of  plants  mid  grain 
suitalile  fur  cultivation  in  tho  United  Hlstea  >)iuiiIiIhIso 
be  sent.  In  general,  the  duties  of  a  contiilar  olllciir  rt> 
quire  an  attention  to  every  thing  that  cun  pruniulu  tli* 
commercb  and  navigation  of  this  country,  and  th«  In- 
terests of  its  citizens. 

Ifi.  Contentiona  to  be  avnidti, — Contiilar  oflleer*  art 
particularly  cautioned  not  to  ente:  'mIu  any  I'lintfll' 
lions  which  can  be  avoided,  eithei  <  ,i    t'  'Untry- 

men  or  the  authorities  of  the  co  itr>  'ii  #\)  ,  lliay 
reside ;  referring  questions  of  that  nature   '  '      ,'t)iiia 


tm 


410 


COIif 


Itter  or  to  the  Department ;  using  every  endeavor  ro 
settle  in  an  amicable  manner  all  disputes  in  which  their 
countrymen  may  be  cone  ;riicd ;  and  countenancing  and 
protecting  them  before  the  authorities  of  the  country  in 
■U  cases  in  irhich  they  may  be  ii^ured  or  oppressed, 
but  withholding  from  them  support  when  they  have 
been  willfully  guilty  of  an  infraction  of  the  laws,  par- 
ticularly in  any  attempt  to  defraud  the  revenue.  In 
this  last  case  they  will  aid  the  proper  ofliccrs  in  check- 
ing any  such  practices. 

16.  fortign  I'olilics. — All  consular  officers  are  for- 
bidden to  participate  in  any  manner  whatever,  direct 
or  indirect,  in  the  political  concerns  of  the  countries 
by  whose  governments  they  are  severally  acknowl- 
edged and  recognized  in  their  public  character ;  and 
they  will  be  on  their  guard  against  the  enlistment  of 
their  feelings  upon  the  side  of  any  of  the  political  or 
sectional  parties  which  may  exist  in  these  countries. 
In  tlieir  letters  upon  such  subjects,  even  to  this  De- 
partment, they  will  confine  themselves  to  the  commu- 
nica  ion  of  important  or  inteitsting  public  events,  as 
they  occur,  in  a  clear  and  concise  form,  avoiding  all 
unnecessary  reflections  or  criticism  upon  the  character 
or  conduct  of  individuals  or  govenmicnts;  and  tlicy 
will  not  give  publicity,  tlirough  tlie  press  or  otherwise, 
to  opinions  or  speculations  injurious  to  t)ic  public  in- 
stitutions of  those  countries,  or  the  persons  concerned 
in  the  administration  of  then ;  but  it  is,  nt  the  san)c 
time,  no  less  their  duty  to  report,  freely  and  season- 
ably, to  their  own  govcrnnient,  all  important  facit 
which  may  come  to  their  knowledge,  tbroiiKli  aiilben- 
tic  channels,  touching  the  political  condition  of  tliesc 
countrie.s,  especially  if  their  conimunicutions  can  be 
made  subservient  to,  or  may  aU'ect,  the  interest  and 
well-being  of  their  own, 

17.  Prohibitions. — All  consularofficcrs  are  prohibited 
b}'  the  19th  section  of  the  oct  approved  August  IR, 
185(1,  from  corresponding  in  regard  to  the  public  aft'airs 
of  any  foreign  government  with  any  private  person, 
newspaper,  or  other  periodical,  or  otherwise  tlinn  with 
the  proper  otficers  of  the  United  States,  and  from  rec- 
ommending any  person,  at  home  or  abroad,  for  any  em- 
ployment of  trust  or  profit  under  the  government  of  the 
country  in  which  they  are  located ;  as  well  as  from  ask 
ing  or  accepting,  for  themselves  or  any  other  person  or 
persons,  any  present,  emolument,  pecuniary  favor,  of- 
fice, or  title  of  any  kind,  from  ony  such  government. 

18.  Diptomotic  Functions. — As  consuls,  excepting  in 
Mohammedan  states,  are  not  invested  with  dijilomat- 
ic  powers,  they  are  not  entitled  to  communicate  direct- 
ly, except  under  special  circumstances,  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country  in  which  they  reside.  Consu- 
lar officers  are  forbidden  by  the  12th  section  of  the  oct 
to  exercise  diplomatic  functions,  or  hold  any  diplomat- 
ic correspondence  or  relation  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States,  in,  with,  or  to  the  government  or  country  to 
which  they  shall  be  appointed,  or  any  otiicr  country 
or  government,  when  there  shall  be  in  such  country 
•ny  officer  of  the  United  States  authorized  to  perform 
diplomatic  functions  therein,  unless  expressly  author- 
ized by  the  President. 

19.  Mode  nf  addressing furtiyn  Ocremmenls. — When- 
ever application  is  to  t)e  made  to  such  government,  it 
mnst  Iw  done  through  the  minister  of  the  United  States, 
if  there  be  ono ;  if  not,  and  the  case  should  require  it, 
the  consul  may  make  the  application  to  the  proper  de- 
partment, but  in  lespectful  terms,  stating  tlia  exigency 
of  the  case,  and  that  an  application  to  the  subordinate 
officers  could  not  bo  made,  or  that  it  had  proved  Inef- 
fectual. 

20.  Pricileges.—k  consul  is  not  such  a  public  minis- 
ter as  to  be  entitled  to  the  privileges  appertaining  to 
that  character,  nor  is  he  under  the  special  prolwtlon 
of  the  law  of  nations.  In  civil  And  criminal  rases, 
where  not  otherwise  provided  by  trooty  stipulations, 
ho  is  subject  to  the  lews  of  thecountry  in  which  he 
ntldes. 


21.  Tttatiet  and  Conventions.— It  is  the  dnty  of  con* 
suls  to  be  conversant  with  all  treaties,  conventions, 
and  consular  conventions,  also  with  the  laws  and  com- 
mercial and  other  regulations  relating  to  their  coKjular 
functions. — Manual  for  Consuls,  issued  by  the  Vtpart- 
meat  of  State,  Washington,  1857. 

An  Act  to  regulate  the  JHpUmuitie  and  Consular  Si/stemt 
i^the  United  States,  paasnt  August  10, 1666.— Be  It  enacted 
by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  In  Congron  usembled,  thul.  embuudora, 
envoys  extraordinary  and  minister*  plenipotentiary,  minis- 
ters resident,  commiulonera,  clmrgcis  d' affaires,  und  secretaries 
of  legation,  appointed  to  the  countries  horeinaner  named  in 
Bchcdu!')  A,  shall  be  entitled  to  compensation  for  their  Bcr\*- 
ices,  TPRpcctlvely,  at  tlio  rates  perannum  hereinafter  Bpecllled ; 
that  is  to  say,  cmbaafadors  and  envoys  extraordinary  and 
ministers  plenipotentiary,  the  full  amounts  spcclAed  therefor 
In  said  schedule  A ;  nilnlsters  resident  and  commisaioncrs,  T6 
per  centum;  charges  d'affaires,  50  per  centum;  and  secretaries 
of  legation,  15  per  centum  of  the  said  amounts,  n^spcctivcly ; 
Provided,  that  the  compensation  of  the  Secretary  of  the  le- 
gation to  China,  acting  as  Intcrprcter,  vhall  bo  at  tho  rate  of 
.15000,  and  If  not  acting  as  such,  at  tho  rate  of  $11000 :  aad 
that  of  the  Secretary  of  Legation  to  Turkey,  acting  as  dra(j. 
Oman,  at  the  rate  of  $3000,  and  If  not  acting  aa  such,  at  the 
rata  of  $2000  per  annum. 

Schedule  ^. --Great  Britain,  $17,500;  France,  $17,500; 
ItuBBla,  $12,000 ;  Spain,  $ltf,000;  Austria,  $I2,0:K):  l-rusila, 
$12,000;  Brazil,  $12,000;  Mexico,  $12,000;  China,  $12,000; 
all  other  countries,  each  $10,000. 

Sect.  2.  And  lie  It  further  enacted,  that  the  President  be, 
and  Is  hereby  authorized  to  appoint  for  tho  legations  at  Lon- 
don and  Paris,  respectively,  an  aajlstant  Becrotary  of  legation, 
who  shall  be  entitled  to  compensation  for  tliclr  services  re- 
spectively, lit  tho  rate  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  per  annum ; 
for  the  legation  to  China,  an  Interpreter,  when  the  secretary 
of  legation  sliiill  nut  be  acting  as  siieh,  who  sliuU  be  entitled 
to  comiicnsiitlun  at  the  rate  of  $,'>000 ;  and  for  the  legation  to 
Turkey,  a  dragoman,  when  the  secretary  of  legation  shall  not 
be  acting  an  such,  irho  shall  be  entitled  to  compensation  at 
the  mto  of  $1000  per  annum. 

Sect.  3.  And  be  It  further  enacted,  that  consuls-general, 
consuls,  and  commercial  agents,  appointed  to  the  ports  and 
places  hereinafter  speclticd  In  schedules  B  and  C,  sliali  bo 
entitled  tu  compensation  for  their  services,  respectively,  at 
the  rates  per  annum  herelniifter  specified  In  s^ild  schedules 
II  and  C ;  and  If  the  President  shall  think  proper  to  appoint 
a  consul  to  any  port  or  place  named  in  the  said  Ech^'dules  B 
and  C,  for  a  commercial  agent,  inetead  of  such  eommercial 
agent,  or  vice  versa,  and  an  appointment  shall  be  made  ac- 
cordingly, the  conipensntion  for  such  consular  ofllcer  shall  be 
the  same  In  any  such  case  as  that  fixed  for  such  port  or  place 
in  tho  schedule  embracing  tho  same;  and  if  he  shall  think 
tho  public  interests  will  he  Bubser\ed  by  appointing  to  any 
such  port  or  place  a  consul-general,  instead  of  a  consul  or 
commercial  agent,  and  an  apiwlntment  shall  be  made  accord- 
ingly, the  compensation  for  such  consul-general  shall  be  the 
same  as  that  fixed  for  eucli  port  or  place  hi  the  schedule  em- 
bracing the  same. 

Sect  4.  And  bo  It  further  enacted,  that  consuls-general, 
consuls,  and  commercial  agents,  not  embraced  in  schedules 
B  an>'  C,  shall  be  entitled,  as  compensation  for  their  soiv 
Ices,  to  such  fees  as  they  may  collect  In  pursuance  of  the  pro' 
visions  of  this  act,  respectively. 

Sect.  6.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  no  consul.gcncral, 
consul,  or  commercial  agent,  embraced  In  schedule  B,  shall, 
while  he  holds  his  oflico,  bo  interested  in  cr  transact  any 
business  as  a  merchant,  factor,  broker,  or  other  trader,  or  us 
a  clerk  ot  other  agent  for  any  such  person,  to,  from,  or  wltliln 
the  port,  place,  or  limits  of  bis  conpulate  or  commercial  agen- 
cy, directly  or  Indirectly,  either  In  his  own  name,  or  In  the 
name  or  through  the  agt-ncy  of  any  other  penou  ;  and  if  aii- 
pointed  after  tills  act  shall  take  effect,  he  shall,  in  his  oflielal 
bond,  stipulate,  as  a  condition  tlereof,  not  to  violate  this  pro- 
hibition ■  and  If  apiwiiited  before,  and  retained  in  olBcc  after 
this  act  shall  lake  effect,  bo  shall,  within  such  reasonable 
lime  OS  tho  i'renident  shall  prescribe,  enter  Into  n  new  omclul 
bond,  with  such  stipulation  as  a  condition  thereof;  and  if 
any  such  ronsnl-g"neral,  conBUl,  or  commercial  agent,  ahull 
violate  such  prohibition,  ho  shall  bo  liable  to  a  penalty 
therefor,  for  the  use  of  tho  Tnited  Btaten,  equal  In  amount 
to  the  annual  oompeusa'ion  specified  fur  him  In  said  sched ale 
B,  which  may  be  recovered  In  an  action  of  debt  at  the  suit  of 
the  United  f-taten,  elthei  directly  for  tho  penalty,  as  such, 
agalUHtsi'^h  consul-general,  or  consul,  or  commercial  agent,  or 
upon  his  offlclal  bond,  as  llnuldated  dumages,  for  the  breach 
of  such  eondltioni  against  su  'i  canaul-geaeral,  coasul,  oi 


CON 


411 


CON 


MmmeroUl  ftgent  and  his  BiiretieSf  or  any  one  or  more  of 
them  ;  and  In  every  such  caHe  all  such  ttctlons  shall  bo  open  to 
the  United  States  for  the  coUect'.oa  of  such  penalty  till  the 
ume  shall  be  collected  in  aome  one  of  such  actions;  and 
every  such  penalty,  when  colleotedt  shall  be  paid  Into  the 
treasury  of  the  United  Statee;  and  such  prohibition  shall  be 
applicahlo  to  all  consulH'general,  but  not  to  any  consul  or 
commercial  agent  not  embraced  in  taid  schedule  B,  except 
as  hereinafter  authorlxcd,  unless  otherwise  expressly  pro- 
vided by  law. 

Sect  6.  And  bo  it  further  enacted,  that  the  President  bo, 
and  is  hereby  authorircd  to  appoint  three  interpreters  of  the 
Chinese  language,  who  shall  to  entitled  to  compensation  for 
their  services,  resiiectlvcly,  at  a  rate  not  to  exceed  fifteen 
hundred  dollars  ptT  annum,  to  bo  determined  by  the  Preul- 
dent,  and  to  assign  such  interpreters,  from  time  to  time,  to 
such  eonsiilatos  in  China,  and  with  such  duties  as  ho  may 
think  proper. 

Serf.  7.  And  be  It  further  enacted,  that  the  President  be, 
and  is  hereby  authorUcd,  whenever  he  Bhall  think  the  pub- 
lic guod  will  hi!  promoted  thereby,  to  appoint  consular  pupils, 
not  to  exceed  twenty-five  in  number  at  any  one  time,  who 
shall  bo  citizens  of  the  irnlted  States,  and  entitled  to  com- 
pensation for  their  flervlces,  respcftlvely,  at  a  rate  not  to  ex- 
ceed one  thousand  dollard  per  annum,  to  bo  determined  by 
vhe  President;  and  to  aflsign  such  pupils,  from  time  to  time, 
to  such  consulates,  and  with  such  duties  as  be  may  think 
proper;  and  before  the  appointment  of  any  such  pupil  shall 
bo  maile,  satisfactory  evltlcncc,  by  examlnr.tiun  or  otherwise, 
shall  be  furn'-^hed  of  hlii  quallflratlDnti  and  fitnciiis  fcr  the  ofilco 
to  tho  Secrotar)*  of  State,  and  by  him  laid  before  the  President. 

Sect  8.  And  bo  it  further  enacted,  that  no  person  appoint- 
ed, after  this  act  shall  tako  effect,  to  any  such  office  as  is 
mentioned  In  the  firat,  second,  third,  sixth,  or  seventh  sec- 
tions of  this  act,  Bhall  bo  entitled  to  compensation  for  hU 
■ervicea  therein,  except  from  tho  time  when  ho  shall  reach 
hid  pust,  and  enter  upon  his  official  duties,  to  the  time  when 
he  shall  cease  to  hold  such  office,  tind  for  such  time  as  shall 
'jo  actually  and  necescarily  occupied  in  rc-olving  his  instruc- 
tions, not  to  exceed  thirty  days,  and  in  making  tho  transit 
betwci^n  i\u*  place  of  Ms  residence,  when  appointed,  and  IiIb 
post  of  duty,  at  tho  commencement  and  termination  of  the 
period  uf  bis  official  service,  for  which  he  shall  in  all  cases 
bo  allowed  and  paid,  except  ns  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  no 
person  bIiuU  Ik^  deenu'd  to  hold  any  such  office  after  Ills  sue- 
cesKur  hliull  bo  appointed  and  actually  enter  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office  at  hla  post  of  duty,  m>r  after  his  official  residence 
at  such  post  shall  havo  terminated,  if  not  so  relieved;  but 
no  fuch  alluwance  or  payment  shall  ho  made  to  any  consul- 
general,  consul,  or  commercial  agent,  contemplated  by  the 
fourth  section  of  this  act,  or  to  any  viceconsul,  vlcc-com- 
mcn-iiil  agent,  deputy  consul,  or  consular  agent,  for  the  time 
Bo  occupied  In  recelvln-j  itistructlon.i,  or  In  such  transit  as 
aforesaid;  nor  shall  any  such  officer  as  Is  n^fcrred  to  in  this 
section  bo  allowed  compensation  fur  the  time  so  occupied  lu 
such  trans't,  ai  tho  termination  of  the  period  of  his  official 
service,  if  no  shall  havo  resigned,  or  been  recalled  therefrom, 
or  fur  any  malfeasance  in  hts  office. 

Sect.  9,  And  bo  it  f;  .her  enacted,  that,  when  to  any  dip- 
lomatic office  held  by  any  person  there  shall  be  superadded 
anoth'-r,  such  person  shall  bo  allowed  additional  compousn- 
tiou  fur  his  services,  in  such  superadded  office,  at  tho  rate  uf 
fifty  per  centum  of  the  amount  allowed  by  this  act  for  such 
superadded  office;  and  such  supi'raddod  office  shall  be  deemed 
to  continue  during  the  time  to  which  itittllniUed  by  tho  term« 
thereof,  und  for  such  time  aa  shall  be  actually  and  necesoarlly 
occupied  lu  making  the  transit  between  the  twu  jwsts  of  duty, 
Mt  tho  coninicncoment  and  tenninatlon  of  tho  period  of  such 
flUiM-Tailded  MVhv  so  lluilted,  and  no  longer. 

Sect  1".  And  Iw  it  further  enacted,  that  for  such  time  an 
any  seeretay  of  h'gatlon  shall  bo  lawfully  authorized  to  act 
as  charge  d'afTatrtH  tiu  interivi  ot  the  post  to  which  he  shall 
have  been  apiH*lnted,  he  shall  Im!  (^Tititled  to  receive  compen. 
satlon  at  the  rate  a'lowid  by  this  act  for  a  charge  d'affiilres  ut 
such  post;  but  ho  .»hall  not  be  cntltU'd  U*  receive,  for  such 
time,  Ibo  conipeni-ation  allowed  fo:  h'a  Rcr\icea  as  secretary 
of  legation. 

Sect.  II.  And  bo  it  further  enacted,  that  for  Fuch  time  as 
any  conKular  officer  shaU  he  autboilred,  pursuant  to  the  pro- 
vlAlouH  of  this  act,  to  perform  diploniatlr  funrtionKlntlie  ub- 
senco  ofthe  regular  diplomatic  officer  in  tho  country  to  whirh 
he  shall  be  appointed,  he  shall  be.  entitled.  In  addition  to  his 
compensation  as  such  consnb.r  officer,  to  receive  compensa- 
tion for  his  serxlcea  while  hu  anthodrpd,  at  tho  rate  allowed 
by  this  act  for  a  fecn'tary  of  lef^fatlon  In  mieh  country. 

Sect.  V2.  And  be  It  furtVer  enacted,  that  no  consular  officer 
shall  exercise  diplomatic  functions,  or  hold  any  diplomatic 
obffespond^Te  or  relation  on  the  part  of  the  United  gtates,  In 


with,  or  to  the  goremment  or  the  country  to  which  he  shall 
be  appointed,  or  any  other  country  or  government,  when  there 
shall  be  In  such  country  any  officer  of  the  United  States  au- 
thorised to  perform  diplomatic  functions  therein,  nor  in  any 
cAse,  unless  expressly  authorized  by  the  President  so  to  do. 

Sect  13.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  every  consul-gen. 
eral,  consul,  and  commercial  agent,  apiKihitcd  before,  and  re- 
tained In  office  after  this  net  shall  take  effect,  shall,  without 
unneeessary  delay,  und  every  such  officer  appointed  after  this 
act  shall  take  elTect,  shall,  before  he  receives  his  commission 
or  enters  upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  enter  Into  a  bond  with 
the  United  States  with  such  sureties,  who  shall  be  permanent 
residents  of  the  United  States,  as  the  Secretary  of  State  shall 
approve,  in  a  penal  sum  no^less  than  one  thousand  nor  more 
than  ten  thousand  dollars,  and  in  such  form  as  tho  President 
shall  prescribe,  conditioned  for  the  tnie  and  faithful  account- 
ing for,  paying  over,  and  delivering  up  of  all  fees,  moneys, 
goods,  efTeets,  books,  records,  papers,  and  other  property 
which  shall  como  to  his  hands,  or  to  the  hands  of  any  other 
person  to  his  use  as  such  con ful -general,  consul,  or  commer- 
cial agent,  under  any  law  now  or  hereafter  enacted;  and  for 
the  true  and  faithful  performance  of  all  other  duties  now  or 
hereafter  lawfully  Imposed  upon  him  as  such  consul-general, 
consul,  or  commercial  agent  t  and  In  the  cues  of  consuls-gen- 
eral, consuls,  and  commercial  agents  embraced  In  schedule  B, 
such  bond  shall  contain,  by  way  of  further  condition,  the  stip- 
ulation required  by  the  fifth  section  of  this  act ;  and  all  such 
bonds  sliall  bo  deposited  with  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
and  In  no  case  shall  the  penalty  of  such  bond  be  leas  than  the 
annual  compensation  allowed  to  the  officer  entering  Into  such 
bond ;  and  the  President  shall  be  authorized  to  require  a  new 
or  additional  bond  from  any  such  consul-general,  consul,  or 
commercial  agent.  In  like  form  and  In  such  penalty,  within 
the  limits  aforesaid,  In  amount,  as  he  shall  prescribe,  when- 
ever. In  his  opinion,  tho  public  good  shall  require  It. 

Sect.  14.  And  be  It  further  enacted,  that  the  President  be, 
and  he  is  hereby  authorized  to  define  the  extent  of  country 
10  bo  embraced  within  any  consulate  or  commercial  agency, 
and  to  provide  for  tho  appointment  of  vice-consuls,  vice-com- 
mercial agents,  deputy  consuls,  and  consular  agents  therein, 
lu  such  manner,  and  under  such  regulations  as  he  shall  deem 
proper ;  but  no  compensation  shall  bo  allowed  for  the  serv- 
ices of  any  such  vice-consul,  or  vice-commercial  agent  beyond 
nor  except  out  of  the  allowance  made  by  this  act  forthc  prin- 
cipal consular  officer  In  whoso  place  such  appointment  shall 
bo  made ;  and  nu  vice-consul,  vice-commercial  agent,  deputy 
consul,  or  consular  agent,  i<hall  be  appointed  otherwise  than 
In  such  manner  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  President 
shall  prescribe,  pursuant  to  tho  provlsiouB  of  this  act. 

Scrt^  15.  And  he  It  further  enacted,  that  eveiy  vice-consul 
and  vice-commercial  agent  shall  be  entitled,  as  compensation 
for  his  sen-ices  as  such  to  the  whole  or  so  much  of  the  com- 
pensation of  the  principal  consular  officer,  in  whose  place  ho 
shall  be  appointed,  as  Kliall  be  determined  by  the  President, 
and  the  residue,  If  any,  shall  he  jiuld  to  smh  principal  con- 
sular off.cer;  ond  every  consular  agent  Khali  bo  entitled,  as 
compensation  fur  his  sen-Ices,  to  ruch  fees  as  he  may  collect 
In  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  or  so  much  tlicrcof 
sxH  shall  be  determined  by  the  President;  and  the  principal 
ufficcr  of  tho  consulate  or  commercial  agency  within  the  lim- 
its of  which  such  coni«ular  agtuit  shall  be  appointed,  shall  bo 
entitled  to  the  residue.  If  any,  in  addition  to  any  other  com- 
l)eu.iation  allowed  him  by  this  act  for  his  services  therein ; 
and  the  President  shall  have  power  to  subject  any  consul  or 
eonimercial  agent  contemplated  by  the  fourth  tteetlon  of  this 
act,  and  any  vice-consul,  vlec-commerclal  ogeiit,  deputy  cuu- 
Nul,  or  consular  ngcnt,  to  the  prohibition  as  to  trade  contain- 
ed in  the  fifth  section  of  this  act,  and  to  rettuire  from  any  of 
ilieui  Kuch  bond  as  is  provided  for  by  the  thlrtrtnth  section 
of  this  act,  whenever  he  shall  think  the  public  intercuts  will 
be  promoted  thireby. 

Sect.  10.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  President  be, 
and  Is  hereby  authorized  to  prescribe,  from  time  to  tli^e,  the 
rates  or  tariff's  of  fees  to  ho  charged  for  official  services,  and 
to  designate  what  shall  bo  ri'garded  as  official  Sf^rvlces,  be- 
hides  such  as  arc  cxprL-ssly  declared  by  law,  in  the  business 
of  the  fcveral  legations,  consulates,  and  cununerciul  agencies, 
and  to  adapt  the  same,  by  such  differences  us  may  be  neces- 
sary or  proper,  to  each  legation,  consulate,  or  eonunerulal 
agency,  and  such  rates  or  tariffs  shall  be  reported  annually  to 
Congress;  and  it  shall  l)e  the  duty  of  all  ufficera  and  persons 
eoniu'cted  with  such  legatiims,  consnlutes,  or  .commercial 
agencies  to  collect  for  such  official  services,  such  and  only 
such  fees  us  may  be  prescribed  for  their  respective  legations, 
consulates,  and  commer  lul  ugeneiei',  and  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  th(!  collocton  of  the  several  districts,  whenever  any  clear- 
ance is  granted  to  any  hhip  or  vessel  of  the  United  States, 
duly  registered  as  such,  and  bound  on  any  foreign  voyage,  to 


CON 


4t3 


CON 


ftnnex  thereto,  in  ovciy  cue.  a  copy  of  the  ratea  or  tarlflki  of 
feea  which  Hhall  be  atluwed  In  punuance  of  the  provialona  of 
this  act,  auU  then  in  force  i  and  it  ihail  bo  the  duty  of  all  con- 
sular officcm  at  all  thues  to  keep  up  in  their  ofllceB,  respect* 
ively,  a  copy  of  such  ratea  or  tariffs  aa  ■ball  be  In  force,  in  a 
condpicuouii  place,  and  aul^ect  to  the  examination  of  ail  per- 
sona interested  tticrein. 

Sect.  IT.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  it  shall  Iw  the  duty 
of  all  consular  officers  to  give  receipts  for  all  fees  which  shall 
be  collected  for  their  ofAcial  services  respectively,  expressing 
the  particular  services  for  which  tlie  same  were  collected: 
and  If  any  tiuch  consular  officer  sliall  collect,  or  Icnowingty 
allow  to  l>c  collected,  for  any  auch  aenice,  any  other  or  great- 
er fees  than  such  as  shall  bo  allowed  pursuant  to  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act  for  such  service,  he  shall,  besides  his  liability 
to  ref\ind  the  same,  be  liable  to  pay  to  the  person  by  wliom  or  in 
whose  bt^hnlf  the  same  shall  bo  paid  treble  the  kmuunt  of  said 
unlawful  charge  so  collected  aa  a  penalty  therefor,  to  he  re- 
covered by  such  person  in  any  proper  foim  of  uct'.on,  to  and 
for  the  use  of  sucli  person,  besides  costs  of  suit ;  and  in  any 
such  cas'e  the  Secretary  of  the  Trensury  is  hereby  authorized 
tu  retain  out  of  the  compensation  of  such  officer  the  amount 
uf  Kuch  overchai^e  and  of  such  penalty,  and  charge  tho  same 
to  such  officer  in  account,  and  thereupon  to  refund  fuch  un- 
lav.ftil  charge,  and  pay  such  penalty  tu  the  person  entitled  to 
the  same,  if  he  ithiill  tlilnlc  proper  so  to  do. 

Sect.  18.  And  be  it  furllier  enacted,  that  all  fees  collected  at 
any  of  the  legations,  or  by  the  consuls-general,  consuls,  and 
commercial  at^ents  mentioned  in  schedules  U  and  C,  and  by 
vice-consuls  and  vice-commercial  agents  appointed  to  per- 
form their  duties,  or  by  any  other  purauns  in  their  behalf, 
shall  he  accounted  for  to  the  Secretary  of  tlie  Treasury-,  and 
held  subject  to  his  draft,  or  otiier  din'ctlonH;  and  all  such 
conau la-general,  cont>uls,  commerciul  agent.i,  and  conttular 
agents  as  are  allo\tcd  for  tlieir  compensation  tho  wholo  or 
any  part  of  the  fees  which  they  may  collect  pursuant  to  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  and  all  vice-consuls  and  vlce-oouimer- 
cial  agents  appointed  to  {H*rforni  the  duties  of  said  cuntjuis- 
general,  consulii,  aud  conmierclal  agents  as  are  allowed  for 
their  compensation  the  wholo  or  any  part  of  Buch  fees  hh 
aforesaid,  shall  nialtu  returns  of  nil  such  fees  as  tliey  or  any 
other  persons  i;i  their  belmlf  bhull  so  collect,  in  such  manner 
as  the  Secretary  of  State  shall  prescribe  ;  and  all  such  fees  an 
sltall  be  so  cuPccted,  accotmted  for,  and  reportiul,  shall  be  re- 
ported annually  to  r'ongre&a,  with  tho  report  of  tho  rates  or 
tariffs  of  fees  rc<iuln.'d  by  the  seventeenth  s<'ction  of  this  art, 
with  a  full  list  of  all  cont>iilar  ufficerh;  and  if  any  consul  gen- 
eral, consul,  or  commercial  agent,  mentioned  in  scliedules  H 
and  <',  or  any  vice-consul,  or  vlce-comniercial  agent, appoint- 
ed to  perform  the  duty  of  any  t^nch  officer  mentioned  in  said 
schedules  II  aud  C',  shall  omit  to  eolk-rt  any  fue.-t  wltich  he 
shall  lit^  etititlei  to  charge,  pursuant  to  tlu'  provisUnm  of  this 
act,  for  any  official  Kcr\'iro,  ho  Khnll  1«  lialde  to  the  Inited 
Btntcs  tht  refer,  aa  though  ho  liad  collected  the  Kame,  unless, 
upon  good  cause  shown  therefor,  the  St^cretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury shall  think  proper  to  remit  the  same  ;  and  »  vi?ry  consular 
officer  Hhall  numl>erall  receipts  given  by  him  for  fues  received 
forotHeial  servlcci*.  In  the  order  of  their  dates,  beginning  with 
number  one  at  the  coniiuencement  of  tho  perind  of  his  scrv 
ice,  and  on  the  tinil  day  of  January  in  every  yciir  thereHftcr; 
and  he  shall  keep  a  book,  In  which  he  shall  register  iitl  fees 
BO  *¥ccived  by  him.  In  the  order  in  which  they  shall  be  re- 
ceived, speoifylng  in  such  register  each  item  of  ferviee  ond 
the  amount  received  therefor,  from  whom,  and  the  dates 
when  received,  and  If  for  any  service  connected  with  any  ship 
or  vessel,  the  name  thereof,  ami  indlt:ating  who:  items  and 
amounts  are  embraced  in  each  receipt  (flven  by  '.ilm  therefor, 
and  numbering  the  8.ime  aeconling  to  the  noatber  of  the  re- 
ceipts respectively,  so  that  tho  receipts  and  leglster  shall  cor- 
re«pond  with  eaelt  other;  and  he  shall,  in  kucIi  reglHter,  H|}er- 
ify  the  name  of  the  pers'jn  for  whom,  and  the  datt  wImu  he 
shall  gtunt,  issue,  or  verify  any  passport,  certify  any  invoice. 
or  perform  any  othtr  official  service  In  the  ei  try  of  the  re- 
ceipt of  the  fees  therefor,  and  also  number  each  consular  net 
Bo  ivc-eipted  for,  with  tlie  number  of  such  receipt,  and  as 
shown  by  such  register;  and  it  shiill  Iw  the  duty  of  all  own- 
ens  agents,  consignees,  masters,  and  commanderH  of  shl|m 
and  vessels  to  whom  any  receipt  for  fees  Phall  be  given  l.y 
anyeonr^tilar  officer,  to  f'trnhh  a  copy  thereof  to  the  citllector 
of  the  district  In  which  sucli  ships  and  vepsels  shall  tirst  ar- 
rive on  their  return  to  the  I'nited  States,  and  It  (slmll  be  the 
duly  of  every  collector  to  forward  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  all  <oieh  copies  of  receipts  as  Hhall  Imve  been  so 
furnished  to  him.  and  also  n  stat^'ment  of  all  certifti-d  in- 
voices which  siiall  come  to  his  otlice,  giving  the  dates  of  t|ie 
c«*rttticate  and  the  names  of  the  persons  for  whom,  and  of  the 
rouKular  otTlccni  by  whom  the  same  wen-  ccftlfleil ,  anil  every 
consular  officer,  In  renderlt:g  his  account  or  report  of  fees  re- 


ceived, shall  furnish  a  full  transcript  of  the  regiater  which  he 
is  hereby  reqtitred  to  keep,  under  oath  or  affirmation  that  the 
■lame  is  true  and  correct,  and  that  the  same  contains  a  fUll 
and  accurate  statement  of  all  foes  received  by  blm,  or  for  his 
use,  for  hla  official  services  as  such  consular  officer,  to  the  best 
of  his  knowledge,  during  tho  period  for  which  tho  same  shall 
purport  to  be  rendered,  and  that  such  oath  or  affirmation  may 
be  taken  t)cfore  any  person  having  authority  to  administer 
oaths  and  affirmations  at  the  port  or  place  where  such  consu- 
lar officer  Is  located ;  and  If  any  such  consular  officer  shall 
willAilIy  and  corruptly  commit  perjury,  In  any  such  oath  or 
affirmation,  within  the  intent  and  meaning  of  any  act  of  Con- 
gress now  or  hereafter  made,  ho  may  bo  charged,  proceeded 
against,  tried,  and  convicted,  and  dealt  with  in  tlie  samo 
manner,  in  all  rcspccta,  as  If  such  offen^o  had  been  commit- 
ted  in  the  United  States,  before  any  officer  duly  authorized 
therein  to  administer  or  take  such  oath  or  affinnatlon,  and 
shall  be  subject  to  the  same  punishments  and  disability  there- 
for as  are,  or  shall  bo  prescribed  by  any  such  act  for  such  of- 
fense. 

Sect.  10.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  no  such  officer  as 
is  mentioned  in  tho  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  sixth,  or  sev- 
enth sections  of  this  act  shall,  nor  Khali  any  consular  agent, 
bo  absent  from  his  post,  or  tho  perfunnanco  of  his  duties,  for 
a  longer  period  than  ten  day<>  at  any  one  time,  without  the 
permission  previously  obtained  of  the  l*residont;  and  no  com- 
pensation shall  bo  allowed  for  tlie  time  of  any  such  absence 
in  any  case,  except  in  eases  of  Blcknese ;  nor  shall  any  diplo- 
matic or  couRular  officer  correspond  In  regard  to  tlio  public 
alTalrs  of  any  foreign  government  with  any  prlvato  jicrson, 
newspaper,  or  other  periodical,  or  otherwise  than  with  tho 
proper  officers  of  the  United  States,  nor  recommend  any  per- 
son, at  home  or  abroad,  for  any  employment  of  truKt  or  pro6t 
under  the  government  of  tlio  country  In  which  he  Is  located; 
nor  ask  nor  accept,  for  himself  or  any  other  person,  any  pres- 
ent, emolument,  pecuniary  favor,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind, 
from  any  such  government, 

Sert.  20.  And  bo  It  further  enacted,  that  the  comj)cnBatlon 
pi-ovlded  by  this  act  sintll  bo  In  full  for  all  tho  services  and 
personal  expenses  which  shall  be  rendered  or  Incurred  by  tho 
officers  or  iwrsonp  n^spectUely  for  whom  such  compensation 
Ik  provided,  of  whatever  nature  or  kind  such  services  or  per- 
sonal expenses  may  be,  or  by  whatever  treaty,  law,  or  In- 
structions suc'i  services  or  personal  expenses  bo  renden'd  or 
Incurred  are  or  shall  be  required;  and  no  allowance,  other 
than  i<n<'h  as  is  provided  by  this  act,  shall  be  made  in  any 
case  for  the  outfit  or  return  homo  of  ony  sucli  officer  or  per- 
son ;  and  no  couKulur  officer  shall,  nor  nlmll  any  person  im- 
der  any  consular  offic^jr.  make  any  chorge  or  receive,  direct- 
ly or  Indirectly,  any  tompensatlon,  by  way  of  commission  or 
otlierwlse,  for  receiving  or  disbursing  the  wages  or  extra 
wages  to  which  any  soanian  or  mariner  shall  b*  entitled  who 
bhall  be  dischargecl  In  any  foreign  country,  or  lor  any  niunr>y 
advanced  to  any  such  seaman  or  mariner  who  shall  beck  re- 
lief from  any  consulate  or  commercial  agency:  nor  Khullany 
consular  officer,  or  any  person  under  any  consular  ofbier,  bo 
Interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  any  profit  derived,  from 
clothing,  boarding,  or  otherwlsi*  j-upplying  or  scndhiij  huino 
any  such  a-aman  or  mariner:  provided,  that  such  prohibi- 
tion as  to  profit  Khali  not  '.e  conr^lnied  to  relieve  or  i-revont 
any  such  otllcerwho  shall  lie  the  owui-r  or  otherwise  interest- 
ed In  any  ship  or  vessel  of  the  Unlttul  .States,  from  transport- 
ing in  sudi  ship  or  vessel  uny  such  seaman  or  mariner,  or 
from  receiving  or  Ijeing  interested  in  such  ifiosonable  allow- 
ance HA  may  lie  made  for  such  trans])ortation,  under  and  liy 
vli'tre  of  the  fourth  seotion  of  the  acr.  entitled  "An  .\t  t  nup- 
plementary  to  the  Act  coneeniing  Consuls  and  Vice cinsulf", 
and  for  the  further  protection  of  American  seamen."  approved 
February  28,  lSft3. 

Sect.  21.  And  be  It  further  enacted,  that  no  eompensatlon 
provided  by  this  act  for  any  such  officer  as  i.-'  mentioned  in 
the  first  section  of  Ihls  act,  or  for  auy  as^slstant  «tvri'tar>'  of 
legation,  or  for  any  sncli  officer  is  Is  mentioned  in  sclMidulcti 
It  and  (J  of  the  third  section  of  this  ait,  or  any  apptojjrin- 
tlon  therefor,  shall  be  applicable  to  the  payment  of  t)u'  lom- 
pensation  of  any  pirson  ujipointed  to  or  holding  any  such 
officf  after  this  act  shall  tak^  effi-'ct,  who  stiall  not  he  a  eiti- 
reii  of  Mm  Inlted  States;  nor  shall  any  other  campensatlon 
Ih>  allowed  in  any  such  case. 

Sect.  22.  .\nd  be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  i'»*e8ldent  bp, 
and  Is  hereby  authorized  to  provide  at  the  public  expense 
uU  Kuch  Hlotlimery,  blanks,  r»'C'»rd  and  other  books,  B»ai(', 
presses.  Hags,  and  signs,  as  he  nhall  think  necessary  fnr  tho 
several  legatlvnv  niulatcs.and  commercial  agencies  in  the 
iransaetlon  of  t'  i.  huHiness;  and  i^'hunever  ho  shall  think 
there  la  sufficient  reason  ;hercfor,  to  allow  consuls-general, 
consuls,  ond  commercial  an'.'uts,  who  are  not  allowed  to  trade, 
actual  expunscB  of  office  rent,  not  tu  exceed,  in  any  case,  ton 


per  ccntun 

lowed  to  81 

make  and  I 

with  the  Ci 

latlon  to  tl 

the  transac 

«nd  returns 

of  (he  arch; 

officers,  the 

xaeat  and  tr 

nianufuctun 

as  he  may  I 

ahall  be  the 

Ulations,  ord 

of  the  Secret 

time  to  time, 

to  him  bysu 

deom  imjiort 

not  to  exceed 

to  Congress, 

niuch  of  tho 

communleute. 

Information. 

Sect  23.  Ar 

Stato  shall  he 

cause  passport 

countries  by  SI 

States,  and  nn 

and  prescribe  1 

other  person  si 

nor  shall  anvp 

any  other  jiors 

ahull  any  ch.irjj 

'•■^ypussport  i'2 

case  the  feo  nlh 

dollar,  nor  shai] 

sucli  verilicatio: 

acting,  or  claim 

^'nited  States',  o 

ahall  not  be  law 

or  verify  any  pa; 

pftKHpnr'.toorfo 

anyp,.rs.,n  claiii; 

portorv.riticatit 

thor.iite.)  i„gruni 

and  wiiMiiiiy  gri 

f'^ranypers.jn  u. 

«o  'jffepdingslj  .1, 

dem<  *.i<,r,  ttMc. 

notex.'  edln^o^ 

hundred  -i.  Mars, 

against,  tn*  d,  coi 

trict  where  u<  urn 

tho  duty  of  all  ^ 

theprovis!  msof 

toniak.-  return  ,  , 

manner  ai.d  ns  of 

shall  specify  ,;.,   , 

."ons  lo  whom  tho 

as  embraced  in  wu. 

where  a  legat'on  « 

i^on  other  tha:i  thi 

States  at  HUch  yi 

passport,  oxcent 

a'ivo. 

oec-r  2-t,  And  Ij( 
of  legation  mid  coi 
over  ho  hhal!  bo  rer 
80  to  do.  at  the  po 
legation,  consulate, 
«'■  take  from  auy  pci 
('"itlon,  and  also  to 
any  AoUuy  public  i 
perform  within  the 
nrmalion,  affidavit, 
*»wom,  affirmed,  tak 
office-  wljeii  e(>rtiiie 
"c  aa^ood,  valid,  ofl 
tlio  United  States  to 
ailirmation,  affidavi 
minlHt..red,  sworn,  a 
a'ly  oth-.T  person  wii 
"Hdc'inpetent  there 
*-'orrui.tly  commit  pe 
»>'!  to  commit  perji 
aavit,  fn-  deposition, 
art  of  Congress  now. 
charged,  proceeded  a 


■ft 


vlt 


CON 


m 


CON 


t'ij  or  pcr- 
iw,  or  iD- 
ndon'tl  or 
ncc,  other 
1(1(1  In  any 
or  or  pcr- 
>erBon  nn- 
■,  dlrcct- 
ission  or 
or  extra 
tUlcd  who 
,ny  nioiH'y 
U  seek  rP- 
hhiilUny 

^.thr.T,  Vhs 

i^,.^y  from 

iiuj  huino 

|h  i.rohlbl- 

iiitcroht- 
tranttjiort- 
.inrlniM-,  or 
hW  iiUow- 
lor  and  hy 

\rt  ftUp- 

rnnsuh", 
'  approved 

Jnponsntion 
luUont'd  in 
Tori'tar)*  ^^ 

IftllOtMUl- 

r  any  such 
Et  \io  a  eiti- 
liiponnatluu 

JcBhlent  b^, 
lie  *'si«mBO 
Inks,  8*■"l^ 
■ary  for  Iho 
TclPHin  tho 
LhaU  thUik 
lilHfi''in'raI» 
111  tntrarte, 
ty  case,  len 


per  centum  of  the  amount  of  the  annual  compensation  al- 
lowed to  Biich  ottlcer,  and  to  probcrlbe  such  regulations  and 
make  and  Itwuo  such  ordrrs  and  Instructions,  not  liiconslBtent 
with  the  l^uuhtitution  or  any  law  of  the  I'nitcd  States,  In  re- 
lation to  the  duties  of  all  diplomatic  and  couBular  offlccre, 
the  transaction  of  their  business,  tlio  rendeiing  of  accouuta 
and  returns,  tho  payment  of  compensation,  the  safe  keeping 
of  the  archives  and  public  property  in  the  hands  of  all  such 
officers,  tlie  communication  of  information,  and  the  procure- 
ment and  transmission  uf  tho  products  of  the  arts,  sciences, 
manufactures,  agriculture,  and  commerce,  from  time  to  time, 
as  he  may  think  conducive  to  tho  public  interests ;  and  It 
Bhall  be  tlio  duty  of  all  such  officers  to  conform  to  anch  reg- 
ulations, orders,  and  instructions.  And  it  shall  be  thf  duty 
of  tho  Secretary  of  State  to  publish  official  notifications,  from 
time  to  time,  of  Nuch  commercial  Information  communicated 
to  liim  by  such  diplomatic  and  consular  ofllcers,  as  ho  may 
deem  importont  to  tho  public  interest,  in  such  newspapers, 
not  to  e?xeed  three  In  number,  as  he  may  ficlert,  and  report 
to  Congress,  at  least  onco  In  each  year,  a  synopsis  of  so 
much  of  tho  information  on  all  subjects  ',vhich  Bhall  be  so 
communicated  tu  him,  as  ho  may  deem  valuable  for  public 
Information. 

Sect.  23.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  thftt  tho  Secretary  of 
Stato  shall  l)e  authorized  to  grant  and  issue  passports,  and 
cause  pitssportii  tu  1)0  granted.  Issued,  and  verified  In  foreign 
countries  by  such  diiilomatic  or  consular  officers  of  the  United 
Ftatcs,  and  under  Buch  rules  as  the  President  shall  designate 
and  prescribe  for  and  on  behalf  of  tho  United  States  and  no 
other  person  shall  grant,  issue,  or  verify  any  sucli  passport , 
nor  shall  any  passport  be  granted  or  issued  to,  or  verified  for 
any  other  i)ersonri  tliau  citizens  of  tlie  United  States;  nor 
Bhull  any  charge  be  made  for  granting,  issuing,  or  verifylut? 
r  .^y  p^sKjiort  except  In  n  foreign  countrj-;  and  in  any  sudi 
case  the  fee  iillowed  tliercfor  Khali  not  exceed  the  sum  of  one 
dollar,  nor  shall  any  such  ehari;c  be  mado  for  mon'  than  one 
such  verification  In  any  foreign  country;  and  if  »oy  person 
acting,  or  claiming  to  act,  in  any  office  or  capacity  iMWler  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  the  states  of  tho  United  Stat**,  who 
shall  not  be  lawfully  authorized  so  to  do,  shall  grunt,  l«mi«, 
or  verify  any  passport,  or  otlicr  in-trument  in  the  nature  o^* 
paHHiPMi*,  to  or  for  any  citizen  of  the  United  Stiites,  ortoorfor 
any  piMsin  claiming  to  be  or  designated  as  such  in  such  pass- 
port or  v»ri1ioation,  or  if  any  consular  officer  wlio  shall  be  au- 
thor? zc(i  to  grant,  issur,  or  verify  passports,  shall  knowingly 
and  will-iiilly  gram.  S&tue,  or  \crVy  any  uich  pas^p^rt  to  or 
f'jf  any  person  not  a  citizen  of  the  i  .lited  Htattv,  the  person 
so  -jffopding  fib' Jl  be  dee-ufd  and  taken  to  be  guilty  of  a  niis- 
demt  iii'ir,  a'ui  on  convit  liou  thereof,  shall  br  imprisonrd, 
not  exc  ■(•ding  one  year,  or  fined  In  a  sum  not  to  exceed  live 
hundred  -I'Mars,  or  botli.  and  may  ho.  chjxrgrd,  proceeded 
against,  tfifl.conviol'jd,  n'lid  dojilt  with,  therefor,  Iti  tlic  dis- 
trict where  Ik  may  I  c  am  hted  '.r  in  custody ;  and  it  shall  be 
tho  duty  of  ail  y«'f»ions  wlin  shall  be  authorized,  pui-suant  to 
the  provisions  of  t1;ii  ac:,  to  grant,  ieptir,  or  verify  pasHports, 
to  m»k.»  return  of  tl'.<'  same  to  tho  Serrctarj'  of  State,  in  such 
manner  fti.H  f>8  often  as  he  shall  require  ;  aim  suoli  returns 
shall  specify  .;..  .  aiues  and  all  otl>er  partinilars  of  the  per- 
sons to  whom  the  same  «I  atl  1)0  graut^id,  Issued,  or  veriflod. 
as  embraced  in  r»ueh  passpoit  j>rovldod,  th»t  in  anyeuuntty 
where  a  leyat'on  of  the  United  .'States  is  t?stablished,  no  pcr- 
hon  other  than  thft  d(;jloniatic  i.  itresemative  of  the  United 
Btates  at  such  jsla -o  A\^n  \)c  permitt^  d  to  grant  <.r  issue  any 
passport,  except  !'.i  the  abaence  then*"p»m  of  such  reprosent- 
aUve. 

^c<;^  24.  And  bo  it  further  enacted,  ihat  every  secretary 
of  legation  and  con'jular  offlrpr  U  hereby  authorized,  when- 
ever he  sliai!  Ijo  required  or  nniy  deem  it  necessary  or  proper 
60  to  do,  at  the  p'^st,  port,  place,  or  wltiiin  'ho  limits  of  his 
legation,  consulate,  or  commercial  agciicy,  to  administer  to 
or  take  from  any  person  an  oath,  affinujitlo'i,  affidavit,  oi  dep- 
o-'itlon.  and  also  to  i  jrform  any  uotariul  act  or  nets  sudi  as 
any  ;iotnry  public  Is  rcquln^d  or  authorized  In*  luw  to  do  or 
perform  within  tlio  United  States;  and  eveiy  smii  oath,  af- 
ilrma.icu,  allidavit,  deposiiion,  and  notarial  net  adn.iini.-tercd, 
bworn,  affirmed,  taken,  liad,  or  done,  by  or  i.efure  any  sncli 
office'  when  cenilied  under  liis  hand  and  seal  of  office,  shall 
be  as  ^ood,  valid,  effectual  and  of  like  force  oud  effect  within 
tho  United  States  to  all  Intents  and  purposes  as  If  such  oath, 
affirmation,  affidavit,  deposition,  or  notarial  act  had  been  ad- 
ministt.red,  SMoni,  affirmed,  taken,  had,  or  done,  by  or  Iwfore 
a'ly  oth'T  person  within  tho  United  States  duly  authorized 
and  (  unpctent  thereto;  and  If  any  person  shall  willfully  and 
corruptly  cuuimlt  perjury,  or  by  any  means  procure  any  per- 
son to  commit  perjury,  in  any  such  oath,  affirmation,  affi- 
davit, of  deposition,  within  the  intent  and  meaning  of  any 
act  of  Congrc>s8  now  or  hereafter  mn'le,  such  offender  may  be 
charged,  provcedod  against,  tried,  oinvicted,  and  dealt  with 


in  any  district  of  the  United  States  In  the  same  manner,  In 
all  respects,  as  if  such  offense  had  been  committed  In  the 
United  States,  before  any  officer  duly  authorized  therein  to 
administer  or  take  such  oath,  affirmation,  affidavit,  or  depo- 
sition, and  shall  be  subject  to  the  name  punishment  and  dis- 
ability therefor  as  arc  or  shall  bo  prescribed  by  any  such  uct 
for  such  offense  i  and  any  document  purporting  to  havp  af- 
fixed,  impressed,  or  subscribed  thereto  or  thereon  tUf  seal 
and  signature  of  the  officer  administering  ur  taking  the  same 
in  testimony  thereof,  shall  bo  admitted  in  evidcnco  without 
proof  of  any  such  seal  or  signature  being  genuluc  or  of  the 
official  character  of  such  person;  and  if  any  person  bIiuU 
forge  any  such  seal  or  signature,  or  shall  tender  in  evidence 
any  such  document  with  a  false  or  counterfeit  seal  or  signa- 
ture thereto,  knowing  tho  same  to  be  false  or  counterfeit,  he 
shall  be  deemed  and  taken  te  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  on  conviction  shall  be  Imrrlsoned  not  exceeding  three 
years,  nor  less  than  one  year,  t.-'d  fined  in  a  sum  not  to  ex- 
ceed thrco  tlioLsand  dollars,  and  nuiy  be  charged,  proceeded 
against,  tried,  c<  'vlcted,  and  dealt  with,  therefor,  In  the  dis- 
trict where  he  may  bo  arrested  or  in  custody. 

Sect.  26.  And  be  It  further  enacted,  that  whenever  any  sea- 
man or  mariuer  of  any  vessel  of  the  United  States  shall  de- 
sert such  vessel,  tho  master  or  commander  of  such  vessel 
shall  note  the  fact  and  date  of  such  desertion  on  the  list  of 
the  crew,  and  tlie  same  shall  be  officially  authenticated  at 
the  port  or  place  of  the  con*«ulate  or  commercial  agency  first 
vi.-ited  by  sucli  vessel  after  such  desertion,  if  such  desertion 
slinll  have  occurred  in  a  foreign  country ;  or  if  In  such  case 
such  vessel  shall  not  visit  any  place  where  there  shall  ho  any 
consulate  or  commercial  agency  befo'-e  licr  return  to  the 
United  States,  or  tho  desertion  shall  have  occuiTed  In  this 
country,  the  fact  and  time  of  such  desertion  shall  be  officially 
authenticated  before  a  notary  public  immediately  at  the  fii-st 
_  irt  or  place  where  snch  vessel  shall  an  ive  after  such  deser- 
tion ;  and  all  wages  tlmt  may  be  due  to  nrh  seaman  or  mar- 
iner, and  whatever  interest  he  may  havo  in  the  cargo  of  such 
vessel,  shall  lie  forfeited  to  and  become  the  property  of  tlie 
United  States,  and  paid  over  for  their  use  to  the  collector  of 
the  port  where  the  crew  of  such  vessel  arc  accounted  for,  aa 
s^Xjii  an  the  same  can  bo  asiertaliied;  first  deducting  there- 
from any  expense  which  may  necessarily  have  been  Incurred 
■n  ac/jount  of  such  vessel  in  consequence  of  such  desertion  ; 
A*-^  in  Bottling  the  account  of  such  wages  or  interest  no  al- 
I  'iwance  or  deduction  shall  be  made  except  for  moneys  actu- 
;.Uy  paid,  or  goofTs  at  a  fair  price  supplied,  or  expenses  in- 
curred I"  or  for  Kiicli  seaman  or  mariner,  any  receiptor  vouch- 
er from,  or  nrrnngement  with  such  seaman  or  mariner,  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding. 

Sect.  26.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  upon  the  appli- 
cation of  any  .-eaman  or  mariner  for  a  dircharge,  if  It  shall 
appear  to  tho  cunsulai'  officer  that  ho  is  entitled  to  his  dis- 
charge under  any  act  of  Congre,-B,  or  acvordlt:;;  to  the  gene- 
ral principles  or  usages  of  maritime  law,  as  recognized  in  tho 
United  States,  lie  shall  discharge  such  seaman  or  mariner, 
and  shall  require  from  tlie  master  or  commander  of  the  ship 
or  vessel  from  which  such  discharge  shall  be  made,  the  pay- 
ment of  tlireo  months'  extra  wages,  as  provided  by  the  act 
horcinl)efore  mentioned,  approved  February  28,  ISOr  ;  and  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  such  matter  or  commander  to  pay  the 
Kame,  anu  no  .^uch  payment  oi  any  part  thereof  s!. all  bo  re- 
mitted in  any  case,  except  such  as  are  mentioned  in  the  pro- 
viso of  the  ninth  clause  of  the  act  entitled  "An  Act  in  addi- 
tion to  the  several  Acts  regulating  the  Shipment  and  Dis- 
chorge  of  Seamen  and  tho  Duties  of  Consuls,"  approved  July 
•JO,  1S40,  uud  as  hereinafter  provided,  and  the  extra  wages 
required  to  be  paid  by  tho  said  ninth  clause  ol  the  last  hcre- 
inbefoie  mcutioued  act,  and  by  this  section,  shall  be  applita- 
bio  to  the  same  purposes  a;id  In  the  same  manner  as  is  di- 
rected by  tho  sold  act,  approved  Febnniry  28, 1803,  in  regnrd 
to  tho  extra  wages  required  to  be  paid  thereby;  and  if  any 
consular  officer,  vhen  discharging  any  seaman  or  mariuer, 
shall  neglect  to  require  the  payment  of,  and  collect  the  ex- 
tra wages  ivquinvl  to  Iw  jmld  in  tho  case  of  the  discharge  of 
any  seaman  or  mariner,  by  either  of  the  said  acta,  as  far  as 
they  shall  remain  in  force  under  this  act  or  by  t)ils  act,  he 
shall  bo  aceouutablo  to  the  United  Stat"a  for  thj  full  amount 
of  their  share  of  such  wages,  and  to  such  seaman  or  mariner 
to  the  full  amount  of  his  share  thereof;  and  if  any  seaman 
or  mariner  shall,  after  his  discharge,  have  incurred  any  ex- 
pense for  hoard  or  other  necessaries  at  the  port  or  place  of  his 
disehHrge  before  shipping  again,  sucli  expense  shall  be  jmid 
out  of  the  share  of  the  three  mouths'  wages  to  which  he  shall 
be  entitled,  which  shall  l)e  retained  for  that  purpose,  end  the 
balance  only  paid  over  to  him:  provided,  however,  that  Ih 
cases  of  wivckod  or  stranded  sldps  or  vessels,  or  ships  or  ves- 
sels condemned  as  unfit  for  service,  no  payment,  or  extra  wa- 
ges shall  be  required. 


Mi^ 


I 


!•'• 


CON 


4U 


CON 


Sect.  2T.  And  be  It  Airther  "nacted,  that  every  coniuUr 
officPT  Hhil',  keep  a  detailed  Uat  of  ali  seamen  and  mariners 
■hiiipc'I  and  diacbarged  by  him,  (•pedfying  their  nnniet  and 
ibi  nanina  of  the  veaaeU  on  and  from  which  they  ahall  be 
ihlpped  and  diicharged.  and  tho  payments,  if  any,  made  on 
account  of  each  fta  dlacharj^d,  and  also  of  the  number  of  the 
tcimIs  arrived  and  departed,  and  thu  amounts  of  their  regis- 
tered to^na^,  and  the  number  uf  their  aeiunen  ind  mariners, 
and  df  those  vr\\o  arc  protected,  and  whe.ber  citteena  of  the 
Vnlted  Stateo  or  not,  bikI  aa  uearK-  a^  posftble  the  nature  and 
value  of  tlieir  cargoes,  and  when'  produced,  and  make  re- 
turns of  the  same,  with  their  accouuts  and  other  return.",  to 
the  Secretary  of  tlio  Tieaaury;  and  no  consular  officer  shall 
eeriffy  any  invoice  unless  he  shall  '  o  satlnfied  that  the  person 
ma^iiif^  the  o:ith  or  afHrmution  thereto  iK  theperjon  he  rep- 
rest  rtd  himAcIf  to  be,  that  he  Is  ncredibli'  pei-son,  and  that  the 
Btab<  mrnts  made  under  huc'u  oath  orariinuutlun  are  true;  and 
be  shall,  thereupon,  by  hie  certificate,  state  that  he  was  so 
Mtisfied;  and  it  sliall  be  the  duty  of  every  consular  otflcer  to 
fhmish  to  the  Becrctury  of  the  Treasury,  is  often  as  shall  be 
reqifircd,  the  prices  current  of  all  articles  of  merchandise 
usually  exported  to  the;  United  folates  frcm  the  port  or  place 
in  which  ho  bImII  be  located. 

iitct  28.  And  I  ,  it  furtht  rcnftcted,  that  it  shall  ho  the  duty 
of  every  niastcr  and  eumiimndor  of  a  ahlp  or  vessel  of  the 
V'nlte-I  States,  whenever  ho  f'hall  Imvo  occasion  for  any  con- 
sular or  other  ofTicial  sc/vlce,  which  any  consular  olTlcer  of  the 
United  States  shall  he  authorI»-'i  by  law  or  usage  ofllcially 
to  perform,  and  for  which  any  fees  shall  Iw  allowed  by  thu 
said  rates  or  tArlfTs  of  feen  as  Aforesaid,  to  apply  to  fueh  one 
of  the  Mid  ofUcers  as  may  then  Im  officially  located  at  the 
consulate  or  commercial  agency,  if  any  there  be  where  i.irh 
service  shall  be  rcfiuiriMl,  to  perform  ^uch  service,  and  sncM 
master  or  comaiander  shall  pay  to  such  ofTlcj^r  such  fees  ra 
■hall  Iw  allowed  for  such  service.  In  pursuance  of  the  pruvi.s- 
ions  of  this  act ;  and  if  any  such  master  or  conimantler  shall 
omit  BO  to  do,  he  shall  be  llnble  to  the  I'nitcd  States  for  the 
amount  of  the  fees  luvfnlly  chargeable  for  such  senicc?,  as 
thoi](;fh  tlie  said  scnicus  had  Ik  en  pcrfi  nied  hy  such  off\cer. 
And  all  consular  cfliccrs  arc  hereby  authorized  and  required 
to  retain  in  th'^ir  possession  all  the  paperti  of  such  ships  and 
vewela  which  shall  be  deposited  with  them  as  directed  hy  law, 
till  payment  shall  bo  made  of  all  demands  and  wages  on  ac- 
count of  such  I'hipfl  and  vcBsels. 

Sect.  29.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  if  any  citizen  of 
the  United  Htatcs  who  shall  die  abroad  shall,  hy  any  lawful 
tcatanientarj*  dlepos'tlon,  leave  special  directions  for  the  cjs- 
tudy  and  management,  hy  the  crnstilar  officer  of  the  port  or 
place  where  he  olia!I  die,  of  Wv  personal  property  of  which 
he  shall  die  possessed  In  such  country,  as  contemplated  hy 
the  act  entitled  "An  Act  concemiu^j  (,'onsuls  and  Vice-con- 
suls," approved  April  14,  1792,  It  shull  be  the  duty  of  such 
officer,  so  far  as  the  law  of  such  country  will  permit,  strictly 
to  observe  such  directions;  and  if  any  such  Wtlzen  so  djin^ 
shnll,  hy  any  lawful  teslanientary  dir'puHlti'n,  Imve  appointed 
any  other  person  or  iKTdons  than  such  officer  to  taico  charge 
of  and  manage  liuch  property,  It  nhall  be  t'lc  duty  of  such  of- 
ficer, whenever  rcrpilrcd  by  such  person  or  persons  so  ^.ppoint- 
cd,  to  give  his  official  aid  iti  whatever  way  may  he  necessary 
to  facilftat:!  the  proceedings  of  such  person  or  pei-sons  in  the 
lawful  execution  of  such  trubt,  and,  so  far  as  thu  laws  of  the 
country  permit,  to  protect  the  property  of  tlie  deccaBcd  from 
any  interference  of  the  local  authorities  of  the  country  where 
such  citizen  shall  die;  and  to  this  end  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  con:4Ular  officer  to  phiro  his  offici.U  seal  unon  all  or 
any  of  the  personal  propiTty  or  cfTecttf  of  the  deceased,  and 
to  break  and  remove  huch  seals  as  may  bu  required  by  such 
person  or  pcr/^on.i,  and  not  otlierwlse. 

Sect  80.  And  be  it  further  cuueted,  that  all  fees  collected 
for  and  in  behalf  of  the  L'nited  States,  In  pursuance  of  this 
act,  shall  be  collected  in  the  coin  of  the  Lnlted  Stutos,  or  at 
Its  representative  value  in  cxchau^ 

Sect.  31.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  In  the  construc- 
tion, and  for  the  purposes,  of  all  other  n.'ts  and  parts  of  acts 
which  shall  remain  in  force  after  thla  act  pholl  take  effect, 
defining  any  of  the  powers,  declaring  any  of  the  rights,  pre- 
Bcrihing  any  of  the  duties,  or  imposing  any  penalty  or  pun- 
ishment for  ftitv  act  of  omission  or  commission  of  any  consul, 
fomnicrcial  agent,  vice-consul,  or  vlce-commcreial  s^ent,  or 
allowing  or  enjoining  the  performance  of  any  act,  matter,  or 
thing,  with  or  before  any  such  officer,  al!  Mich  acts  and  parts 
of  acts  ahall  In  all  these  several  respecti;,  sn  far  as  may  he 
consistent  with  the  suhject-uiatter  and  context  of  the  Siime. 
and  with  this  act  and  the  treaties  of  the  United  State.t,  he 
deemed  and  taken  to  include  nnd  apply  to  all  consular  offi- 
cers as  though  all  Kuch  officers  were  sperially  named  therein ; 
and  the  said  official  deMgnatfons  in  contemplation  of  all  such 
aclH,  and  parts  of  actf,  and  of  this  act,  bhall  be  deemed  and 


t4ken  to  have  the  respective  meanings  hereinafter  aaalgned 
to  them — that  Is  to  say,  '^Consul-General/*  ** Consul,"  and 
'^Commercial  Agent,"  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to  denote 
full,  principal,  and  i>ermaner\t  "consular  officers,"  aa  distin- 
guished from  aubordinates  and  substitutes:  "Deputy  Con- 
sul" and  "Consular  Agout"  ahall  be  deemed  and  taken  td 
denote  "consular  officers"  aubordlnate  to  such  principals, 
exorcising  the  powers  and  performing  the  duties  within  tho 
limits  ol  their  consulates  or  commercial  agencies  rosjiectlve- 
ly,  the  former  at  the  same  porta  or  places,  and  the  latter  at 
ports  or  places  different  frtm  those  at  which  such  prlncipaU 
are  located,  respectively ;  aad  "vice-consuls"  and  "vice-com- 
mercial agents"  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to  denote  "con- 
sular officers,"  ^ho  shall  be  subbtltutud  temporarily,  to  fill 
the  p1act3  of  '■  consuls-general,"  "eouBulB,"or  "commercial 
agents,"  when  they  shall  be  temporarily  absent,  or  relieved 
from  duty;  and  the  term  "consular  officer,"  as  used  in  this 
act,  shall  he  .  eui'^d  and  taken  ti  Include  all  such  officers  ain 
arcmcUloned  In  his  section, and  none  others;  and  the  term 
"  diplon.atic  officer,"  as  used  in  this  act,  8l>r«ll  be  deemed  and 
taken  to  Include  all  the  ofilcers  mentioned  in  tho  first  section 
of  this  act,  anil  none  others. 

Sect.  32.  And  bo  it  further  enacted,  that  If  any  consular 
officer  shull  willfully  ncg.cct  or  omit  to  perform  seasonably 
any  duly  Imposed  upon  him  by  thla  or  any  other  act,  or  by 
any  order  n--  -Titruction  made  or  given  in  pursuance  of  this  or 
M\j  oth  'ball  he  guilty  of  any  willful  malfeasance  or 

uh'<  M  'I  any  corrupt  rouduct  in  his  office,  he  shall  bo 

liahlt  8  injured  by  i.ny  such  neglect  or  omisbion, 

malfedoiiuu..,  u^..  e,  or  corrupt  conduct,  for  all  damages  occa- 
sion 'herei.y:  and  fnr  all  such  damages  by  any  such  officer, 
he,  his  sureties  upon  his  ci'lctttl  bond,  shall  bo  responsible 
there  i  .•  lull  umouutof        penalty  thereof,  to  he  micd  In 

thenamt  <..!  the  United  Stnter,  lor  thu  us<i  of  the  person  or  per- 
sons so  injured:  provided,  that  such  suit  shnll  in  nocoKepreJu* 
dire,  hut  shall  be  held  In  entire  sulwrdinatiou  to  the  Interests, 
rlujnis,  and  deniandsufllie  United  States,  as. igalnst such  offi- 
ciT,  under  such  bond,  for  every  willful  act  of  malfeasance  or 
corrupt  conduct  in  hU  office ;  ond  If  any  such  officer  shall  refuso 
to  pay  any  draft,  order,  or  warrant  whic!i  may  be  drawn  upon 
him  by  the  proper  otTuer  of  the  Treasury  Department  for  any 
public  moneys  of  the  United  Slates  In  his  hands,  or  for  any 
uniounb  due  fioui  him  to  the  United  Stales,  Mhuiever  the  c4- 
paolty  in  which  li  may  have  received  or  may  hold  the  same, 
or  to  transfer  or  disburse  any  such  moneys  promptly  upon  the 
h  gal  requirement  of  u'ly  authorized  offieerofth 'United  States, 
he  f:>'i  I  he  deemed  and  taken  to  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  hy  imprtEonmcnt 
not  to  exceed  ten  jiars  nor  less  than  one  year,  or  by  fine  not 
t'(  t'xceed  two  thouribud  dollars  nor  less  thun  trtu  hundred  doj- 
!a>i,or  both,  at  ib-  discreti*  n  of  thu  court;  and  any  sudi  offl- 
cei  3o  offending  may  be  ..arged,  proceeded  aguinst,  tried, 
convicted,  nnd  dealt  with,  u  any  district  in  wlilch  ho  niuy  }je 
I  arr«  Htrd  or  in  custody. 

Sect.  33.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  fifth,  Mxth, 
and  s«'vonth  sectiuns  of  tho  not  hereinbefore  mentioned,  ap- 
proved July  20,  F40,  and  all  of  the  act  euiitled  "An  Act  to 
remodel  \\\v.  Diplomutlc  mid  CouKuhit'  Systems  of  tins  United 
Stotes,"  approved  Murcli  1,  ISft.*,  and  all  acts  and  pnrtHof  acta 
whcithy  any  such  fees  as  arc  nutemplated  hy  the  seventeenth 
section  of  tliif*  act  arc  fixed  or  ailowod,  and  any  iihsge  or  law 
whereby  any  uttaeho  U  or  may  be  allowed  to  any  legation 
other  than  such  as  arc  provided  in  this  act,  or  ref^uirhig  any 
secretary  of  legation  to  be  employed  otherwltie  tlian  ao  pro- 
vij«"l  by  this  act,  and  all  other  acts  and  parts  of  acts,  m  far 
as  tac  e.'.nio  are  iucouslstent  wi'h  thU  act,  he  and  the  xanio 
are  hereby  annulled  it'd  repealed,  and  no  attuclio  t-:hall  bo 
allowed,  in  any  case,  i:ur  any  secretary  of  legation,  otherwlso 
than  iis  providetl  by  tlds  act. 

Scct.ii.  And  bu  It  further  enactcff  that  this  act  shall  take 
effect  on  thu  first  dey  of  January,  ISbT,  and  not  before. 

SCIIKDULK  B. 

BALABIES  OV  CONSrLJ-OFJfCRAT.  A.NP  Cl/NBUf.S  OF  TUR  CNITKD 
BTATIIA. 

I,  CoTVtxtlg-General—i'uhA:  Havana,  $6000.  nritish  In- 
dia: CUcut'ia,$6000.  Urltlsh  North  Amerlcat  QueU'c,  4:4000. 
Japan  :  Slmoda,  $5000.  Turkey :  Constantinople,  $30i)0. 
Kgypii  Alex-indrla,  !ti.BOO.     Frankftirt-ou-the-Maln,  !f3OU0. 

II.  r'ofw«/«-  /••ir8f  rtow.— (ireat  Hrltttln:  London,  $7 WK)- 
Mverponl.  $7fiO0;  Mellwume,  $4000;  Hong-Kong,  $;ir>00: 
•  Jlasgow.  !f8()00,  MiutrUIus,  $2C00;  Singapore  $2r>00 :  lie!- 
fast,  $2000;  fork.  $'i(KH>;  I>uudee,  $2000;  Demamra.  :{:2000; 
Haliiax,  $2000;  Kingt-t^m  (Jamaica),  $2000;  Leeds,  $2000; 
Manchester.  $2000 ;  Nassau  (New  Providence),  $200t(;  South- 
ampton, $2fKM)-  Turk's  Island,  $2000. 

France:  Havre,  $6000;  Paris,  $PiOOO ;  Marseilles,  $2600; 
Bordeaux,  $2000;  La  KocbeUe,  $lfiOO;  Lyons,  $1500. 


€0N 


JliS 


CON 


Runla:  Mokcow,  $2000;  OdefM.SaOOO;  Ravol,  $2000;  St. 
PetersburK.  $3000. 

Spain:  .Mllt4nzl>^  $'.J600:  Trintdid  de  Cuba,  $!!fiOO;  Sant- 
UxD  do  Cuba,  $-2e<M:  Han  Juan  (I'urto  Kico),  $itO0O;  Cadli, 
$1600;  Malaga.  $1500;  l>uaro  (I'nrta  Ulco),  (1600. 

Auitria:  Trleate,  $9000;  Vienna.  $1600. 

I'ruMla:  Alx  la  Cliapulle,  J^jO. 

China:  Canton,  $4000 ;  Sbanghal,$4000;  Foo-tcboir,$S600; 
Amo)',  $3000;  Nlngpo,  $8000. 

Turki'y :  Beyrout,  $2'iOii ;  Smyrna,  $2000 ;  JeruBalem, 
$1600. 

Netherlands.-  llotterdani,  $2000;  AicatcrdaB.,  $1000. 

Belgium :  Antwerp.  $2600. 

Portugal:  Fundiul.  $1600:  Oporto,  $  1 5<)0. 

Denmark:  St.  ThomiiH,  $4000;  KUInour,  $1600. 

Sardinia:  Genua.  $1600. 

Switzerland :  UuhIc,  $2000 ;  Oenovn,  $1600. 

Slcllleii:  Mefslna,  $'.S00;  Naples,  $1600 ;  Palermo,  $1600. 

BoAony:   Lclpsic,  $1&J0. 

Bavaria:  Munich,  $1000. 

Tuscany:  Leghorn,  $1600.  .':   . 

Wartcmborg:  Stnttgardt,$1000. 

Iliinsealic  and  free  towns :  Bremen,  $2000 ;  Hamburg, 
$2000. 

Birbary  States:  Tanglers,  $3000;  Tripoli,  $3000;  Tunis, 
$3000. 

llrazil ;  Illo  do  Janlrro.  i(CflO0 ;  Pomanibnco,  $2000. 

Mexico:  Vera  <'ni«.  $8500;  Acapulco,  $200a 

Peril :  ^•allno,  $3600. 

Chill :  Valpaniiro,  $3000. 

Buenos  Ayro!i:  Buenos  Ayrcs,  $2000. 

Nlcamgna :  San  Juan  del  Sur.  $2000. 

New  GrHniida:  Asplnwnll,  $2600;  Panama,  $3600. 

Venezuela:  I.<iguayrft,  $1500. 

Sandwich  Islands:  Honolulu,  $4000;  Lahslna,  $3000. 

III.  foniiHO-cinl  Agmt»—FirU  Clata. — Nicaragua  :  Snn 
Juan  .1(1  Norte,  $2000. 

St.  Domingo:  Port  au  Prince,  $2000;  Bt  Domingo  (city), 
$1600. 

SCHEDULE  0. 

I,  Coni»uf—Sef<md  CToss.— Gtv«t  Britain  :  Bhy  of  Islands 
(New  Zealand),  $1000;  Cape  Town,  $1000;  Falkland  Isl- 
ands, $1000. 

Austria :  Venice,  $750. 

I'ri,-,ia:  Stettin,  $1000. 

Turkey:  Candlo,  $1000:  Cyprus,  $1000. 

Ncthcrlnnds.  Batavla,  $1000. 

Portugal :  Fnyal,  $760 ;  Santiago  (Cape  do  Vcrdos),  $TBO. 

Denmark:  Saint  (roix.  .f 760. 

Sardinia:  Spezcla,  $1000. 

O recce:   Athens.  $1000. 

Muscat:  /.nliribiir,  $1000. 

Brazil  :  Itiihla.  $1000  ;  Maranham  Island,  $1000  ;  Para. 
$1000;   I'.lo  firandv,  $10v)0. 

Mexico:  .«atainor.is,  :f|(  00;  Mexico  (city). $1000;  Tamplco, 
$1000;   I'o.OTdel  Xorle,  $Mi«;  Taljahco,  $6U0. 

Pent;  Pallo.  JftOO;  Tuinbez,  $500. 

Chlil:  TulealiiinlMi.  $imxi 

New  (iranada:  <  artlisKcuu,  $IjOO;  SabaniUo,  $600. 

ilond-  ras:  Ouiuu,  $l')OII. 

£cuador  :  (tuaiu'ttiil,  $760.  * 

Bollvio:  C.jhlja,  $600. 

iTuyuav;  Moiiieviden,  $10t)0. 

Society  IblniiilH:  Tahiti,  $1000. 

Navigatois'  lF:lanil»:  Apia.  $1000. 

Fcejce  Islands:  l.antl.^lii,  $1000. 

II.  (jimvitrrlnt  AiimlH— Second  Class.— ToTt'igtl;  St.  Paul 
do  Loanda  (AiigoliO.  $11100. 

Liberia:  .Monrovia.  $1000. 

Quincn:   (;al)oou.  $1,000. 

St.  Domingo,  (ape  llayllen.  $1000;  Anx  Cayos,  $600. 

Russia:  Anioor  Hlvi  r.  $IOnO. 

Conmtar  t'e  a  of  llif  I'nilni  Stalen,  prescribed  by  the  Pres- 
ident, In  accordance  wllh  the  provli:ions  of  the  act  nf  Congress 
approved  August  IS.  I860,  regulating  tho  diplomatic  and  con- 
sular ayetems  of  the  United  Statcc: 

Detahtmis.nt  of  Stati.  Sovember  10,  1868. 

The  following  is  the  rate  or  tariff  of  fecc  prescribed  by  the 
President  to  bo  charged  by  all  rousiilar  officers  for  the  serv- 
ices herein  speciued,  which  ''shall  be  reganled  at,  oflieial 
Bcr\  Iren,"  and  the  fees  therefor  ,-olleeted  lu  American  or  Span- 
|ph  »il»'er  dollsrs,  or  their  equ'valent 

At  the  expiration  of  each  quarter  tho  state ,nen;  of  fisrs  must 
be  rendered,  In  accordance  with  the  printed  Innlructions.  by 
all  consular  otbccrs  onttticd  to  salaries  residing  at  sea-ports 
tnd  at  Inland  places,  to  the  (Secretary  of  tho  Treasury,  and 
the  amount  Uureof  held  subject  to  his  draft  or  other  direc- 


tions.   If  tha  conmlar  offlcen  are  not  entitled  to  salarlei,  th* 
returns  must  be  made  to  the  Seoretary  of  State. 

Hecciving  and  delivering  SMp't  /Vipers.— For  recelrlny 
and  deiivuring  ship's  register  and  papers,  including  consular 
certificates,  half  a  cent  on  every  ton,  registered  measurement 
of  the  vessel  for  which  the  service  Is  performed. 

Dixharffina  or  shipping  Seamen  or  Mariners. —Tot  everjr 
seaman,  Arum  one  to  ten,  who  ma/  be  dl:«barged  or  shipped, 
including  certificates  therefor  attached  to  craw  list  and  ship- 
ping articles,  to  be  puld  by  the  maaterof  the  vessel, 60  cents; 
but  no  additional  charge  shall  be  made  for  any  number  of  sea- 
men exceeding  ten,  who  may  be  discharged  from  or  shipped 
between  the  date  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the  vessel,- 
Protests,  POMporti,  etc. 

For  Doting  marine  protest $1  00 

For  extcntllng  marine  protest 'i  00 

And  If  It  exceed  200  words,  for  every  additional  100 

words 1  00 

For  Issuing  warrant  of  survey  on  vessels,  hatches,  car- 
go, provisions,  and  stores,  or  either 1  00 

For  a  passport.  Including  seal 1  00 

For  vl.'4uliig  a  passjiort 1  00 

For  preparing  agreement  of  master  to  give  Increased 

wages  to  seamen,  attested  tinder  seal 1  00 

For  preparing  any  oth^r  otliclul  document  or  Instru- 
ment of  wriitng,  not  herein  named  or  enumerated. 

If  under  100  wti.ls 1  00 

If  exceeding  100words,forevcryaddltlonal  lOOnords     0  60 

For  the  /oltomng  Certiflcates,  viz. : 
Of  the  deposit  of  a  ship's  register  and  papers,  when  re- 

quired  by  custom-house  authorities 0  26 

In  cases  of  vessels  deviating  from  the  voyagt? 0  60 

vn-ien  the  ship's  register  is  retained  entire  in  the  con- 
sulate   0  2B 

For  master  to  take  home  destitute  American  seamen .  no  fee. 
Of  conduct  of  crew  on  board.  In  cases  of  refusal  of 

duty  and  in  cases  of  Imprisonment,  etc 0  25 

Given  to  master  at  his  own  rcfiuest 0  50 

To  a  seaman,  of  his  discharge no  fee. 

Of  auuolntment  of  new  muster,  mcluding  oath  of  nias- 

U'r 1  00 

Of  the  ownership  of  a  vessel 0  50 

Of  tlocislon  and  award,  in  cases  of  protests  against 

masters,  passengers,  or  ci-cw 2  00 

Of  roil  »)r  list  of  crew,  when  required  by  the  captaju 

or  authorities  of  tho  port 0  .^0 

To  1)111  of  health 0  5;) 

To  shipping  articles 0  60 

Of  canceling  ship's  register 0  60 

To  debenture  certificate.  Including  oaths  of  master 

and  mate 1  -6 

To  invoice,  including  uatli 2  (H) 

To  currency 0  50 

Of  sea  letter. 2  HO 

Of  indorsement  of  bottomry  on  ship's  register 0  50 

Of  Indorsement  on  payment  of  bottomry  on  ship's  reg- 
ister   0  60 

Of  Indorsement  of  now  ownership  on  ship's  register. .  U  50 

A  chnowledgnunts. 

Of  tho  master  to  bottomry-bond 1  00 

Of  tho  merciiant  to  assignment  of  bjttomry-lond.. . .      1  00 

Of  the  vendor  to  a  bill  of  sale  of  vessel 100 

Of  the  master  to  a  mortgage  or  mortgage  bill  of  sale 

of  vessel 1  00 

Of  the  master  to  an  onler  for  payment  of  seamen's 

wages  or  voyages,  at  home.  Including  making  up 

order,  if  required 0  50 

Of  one  or  mo^o  persons  to  a  deed  or  Instrument  of 

writing 2  00 

Of  ono  or  more  persons  to  a  power  of  attorney 2  00 

i)edara(t'oiui  and  Oaths. 
Of  declar.'tlon  and  oath  of  master  to  one  or  more  de- 
sertions. Including  oaths,  attached  to  crew  list  and 

shipping  articles eaeli      0  60 

To  one  or  more  deaths  or  Insses  ot' seamen  ovcrlMmrd 
at  sea,  Including  oaths,  attached  to  crew  lift  and 

shipping  articles eacb      0  50 

To  not  lieing  able  to  procure  two-thirds  o'  a  crew  of 

protected  American  seomcn 0  60 

Fo  ship's  inventories  or  rtorcs 0  fiO 

Tn  ilio  correctness  of  log-hook 0  60 

To  ship's  bills  and  vuuchci's  for  disbursements  and 
repairs 0  50 

.1  iitMiiticatUig  Copies  of  Papers. 

Of  'narine  note  of  protest 1  00 

Of  esteiuii'il  protest 2  00 

Of  cull,  wuri'ftnt.  (\nd  report  of  survey  on  vessel,  batch- 
es, cargii.  pi'uvisiDUB,  ami  stores,  or  either 1  00 

Of  Inventiirler.  imil  b  (tors,  or  either,  of  master.s 1  00 

Of  account  of  sales  of  vessel,  cargo,  provisions,  and 

stores,  or  either 1  00 

Of  advertirement  for  funds  on  botton>ry 1  00 

Of  advertisement  of  sale  of  vessel  or  cargo,  provisions 
or  stores 1  00 


C30N 


416 


CON 


AvtienUeeUing  Signalun*. 
To  report!  of  lurrcy  on  Tewnl  or  citrgo,  prorUloni  or 

■torn fl  00 

To  eftimtto  of  repaira  of  vetael 1  00 

To  (auetionwr'i)  account  of  Hie*  of  reieel  or  cargo, 

proviHlon*  or  atorei 1  00 

To  avemife  bondi 8  00 

Of  governors,  Judge*,  notario*  public,  cuitom-houae 

and  other  offlcer* i  00 

or  nierc'hanU  and  indirlduala S  00 

For  any  other  conaular  certificate  or  servlccB  of  like 

character  not  herein  named  or  enumerated 0  BO 

ConauU'  Oritri  and  Lftleri. 

To  lend  seamen  to  hospital no  fee. 

To  send  seamen  to  prison 0  KO 

Tu  release  seamen  vrom  prison 0  60 

To  authorities  or  captain  of  the  port,  In  cases  of  slnlc- 

Ing  vejtscis 0  KO 

Bequostin^  the  arrest  of  seamen 0  60 

For  any  other  letter  or  order  of  like  character 0  DO 

Filin0  Doeumentt  in  OontulaU. 
Call*  of  survey  on  vessel,  hatches,  cargoes,  provlalona, 

and  stores,  or  rtther 0  26 

Warrants  of  sui".  tiv  on  vcaaela,  hatches,  cargoes,  pro- 

vlaiona,  and  stores,  or  cither 0  26 

Iteporta  of  survey  on  veaaels,  hatches,  cargoes,  provis- 
ions, and  Ktores,  or  either 0  26 

Estimate  of  rcpaira  of  vesael 0  'i6 

Consul'a  certificate  to  advcrtlxemeut  for  flmda  on  bot- 
tomry        0  26 

To  advertiaement  of  sale  of  vi'«».'l,  cargo,  provisions, 

and  stores,  or  either 0  26 

Inventories  of  vessels,  carf;o,  provisions,  and  stores, 

or  cither 0  26 

Letter  of  masU.>r  notifying  consul  of  sale  of  veaael,  car- 
go, proviaio'ifl,  and  aturca,  or  either 0  26 

Ofinastcr  notifying  auctioneer  of  aalo  of  vessel,  cargo, 

provlKioiia,  and  stores,  or  cither 0  26 

Accounts  of  sale  of  vessel,  cargo,  proviaione,  and 

stores,  or  either 0  26 

For  filing  any  other  document  prepared  lu  or  out  of 

the  consulate 0  26 

Bemrding  Doettmen/A 
Calls  of  survey  on  vessel,  hatches,  cargo,  provisions, 
and  stores,  or  either ;  warrants  and  n-ports  of  ditto, 
ditto;  estimates  of  repairs;  certificates  of  consuls  to 
advertisements  for  funds  on  bottomry,  and  of  anlo 
of  vessel ;  Inventories  of  vessel,  cargo,  proviaions, 
and  stores;  letter  of  niaater  to  conaiil  notif}-ing  salo 
of  vessel,  cargo,  provisions,  and  stores,  or  either ; 
letter  of  master  to  auctioneer,  and  account  of  sale* 
of  vessel,  cargo,  provisions,  and  stores,  or  either, 

for  every  100  words 0  20 

(As  the  original  documents  are  required  to  be  filed  In  the 
consulate,  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  record  them.  Should 
It  ever  become  necessary,  however,  to  deliver  up  the  originals, 
they  must  be  recorded  before  deliver}-,  the  party  receiving  the 
same  paying  the  record  fee,  a*  above  mentioned.) 
Order  and  consul's  certificate  to  pay  aeumen's  wagea 

or  voyages,  at  home 0  26 

CertlArahj  given  to  master  at  hi*  own  request,  when 

required 0  26 

Appointment  of  new  master 0  26 

Application  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  for  a  sea 

letter..., 0  26 

Sea  letter,  for  every  lOOworda 0  20 

Bill  of  sale,  when  required,  for  every  100  words 0  20 

Consul's  letter  to  captain  of  port,  or  authorities.  In 

cases  of  sinking  veaaels 0  26 

Consul'a  certificate*  to  njaatera  taking  home  destttuto 

American  seamen do  fi^e. 

Prot«'sta  of  matera  and  other-,  other  than  marine  pro- 

teata,  for  every  100  words 0  20 

Average  Iwnds,  when  required,  for  every  100  words. .      0  20 
Powersof  attorney,  when  required,  forevcrylOOword*     0  20 
Any  other  document  or  Instrument  of  writing  not  here- 
in named  or  enumerated,  prepared  in  or  out  of  the 
consulate,  and  required  to  bo  recorded,  for  every  100 

words 0  20 

BftaiMi  of  d/vta»ed  American  CTWiena.— For  taking  Into 
pcjaesslun  the  pemnal  estate  of  any  citizen  who  shall  die 
vltliln  the  limit*  of  a  conaulatc.  Inventorying,  selling,  and 
finally  settling  and  preptring  or  transmitting,  according  to 
law,  the  balance  due  thercon,  6  per  cent  on  the  gross  amount 
of  such  estate.  If  part  of  such  estate  shall  be  delivered  over 
before  final  sfUtlcnient,  2J  per  cent  to  be  charged  on  the  part 
!»  delivered  over  as  la  not  In  money,  und  6  per  cent,  on  the 
gross  amount  of  the  residue.  If  among  the  effects  of  the  de- 
caaaed  arc  found  certiflcatea  of  foreign  atocks,  loans,  or  other 
property,  Vi  jut  cent  on  the  amount  thereof.  No  charge  will 
be  made  for  placing  the  official  seal  open  the  personal  prop- 
erty or  cfTccta  of  such  deceaat  d  citizen,  or  for  breaking  or  re- 
moving the  aeala,'  when  reqtiired  by  the  poraon  or  person* 
leferred  to  in  secUon  29  of  the  act  of  August  18, 1860, 


Miieellmiemu  Sertieat.  ki^n. 

For  connil'i  aeal  and  algnature  to  clearance  flrom  eui> 

tom-houae  authorities $0  00 

For  administering  oath*,  not  herelnboforv  provided 

for each      0  26 

For  consul'a  attendance  at  a  ahlpwreuk,  or  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  asslatlng  a  ship  In  distress,  or  of  saving 
wrecked  goods  or  property,  over  and  above  travel- 
ing expenses,  a  per  diem  of  $4,  whenever  the  con- 
sul'* interposition  1*  required  by  the  parties  Inter- 
ested        4  00 

For  attending  an  appraisement,  wUem  the  goods  or 

effect*  are  under  11000  in  value B  00 

For  attending  valuation  of  goods  of  $1000  and  upward 
In  value,  for  evory  day's  attendaaco  durlug  which 

the  valuation  continues 6  00 

For  attending  sale  of  goods.  If  the  purchaae-uiuney  bo 

under  $1000 8  00 

For  Attending  sale  of  goods.  If  the  pmvhase-moncy  Is 
tlOOO  and  upward,  for  every  day  during  whlcli  the 

sale  continues 5  00 

For  attending  salo  of  vessel,  when  required '2  00 

Fees  for  unofficial  Servieea A*  the  unofilcial  acts  uf  a 

consular  officer  may  be  performed  by  a  notary  public,  and  as 
the  compensation  cliarged  therefor  la  regarded  aa  a  perquisite 
of  htsotlice,  the  rate  of  suchcompenaatiou  may  bedctei*mlned 
either  by  agreement  or  the  custom  of  the  place,  aubject,  how- 
ever, to  future  Inatructloiu). 

i:xterritorialand  otktr  Privileges  nfContuls. — Accord- 
ing to  an  elaborate  opinion  prepared  by  Mr.  Cualiing, 
Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  under  dato 
July  14, 1855,  tlio  United  States  may,  witli  consent  of 
the  government  of  another  country,  auperadd  to  the 
regular  duties  ther(;in  of  consul  any  of  those  of  a  min- 
ister. There  are  tivo  great  classes  of  cases  in  which 
this  fact  exists,  and  might  well  bo  systematized,  or  at 
least  more  explicitly  recognized,  in  consular  stipi'la- 
tions  witli  foreign  governments. 

Consular  Priiitcges  in  Colonial  or  other  l^pendenciea  of 
Forrigih  Slates, — Uno  is,  that  of  the  transmarine  posses- 
sions of  sundry  of  tho  states  of  Europe.  Here,  many 
cogent  reasons  dictate  that  tho  concession  should  be 
granted  to  our  consuls,  by  such  slates,  of  tho  right  to 
address  tho  colonial  or  provincial  governor.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  law  of  nations  to  prevent  this ;  it  is  con- 
venient for  all  parties ;  it  is  a  consular  right  exercised 
by  treaty  in  the  ^reat  pasholics  of  the  Turliish  empire. 
Tho  United  States  have  recently  made  provision  to 
tho  same  elfcct  in  treaty  with  a  Christian  power,  name- 
ly, the  Netherlands ;  and  that  government  having  thus 
wisely  relimiuishcd  its  long-subsisting  scruples  on  this 
point,  we  may  reasonably  expect  similar  liliorality  in 
future  commercial  negotiations  with  other  countries  of 
Kurope, 

Consular  Duties  whvre  there  is  no  Diplomatic  litprcseul- 
atire  of  the  Untied  Stalts. — The  other  class  of  cases  of 
this  nature  is  that  of  a  consul  residing  near  a  metro- 
politan government  where  there  is  no  minister,  either 
because  of  temporary  cessation,  or  bccaose  inducements 
have  not  existed  fur  the  interchange  of  diplomatic  rep- 
resentatives between  such  government  and  the  United 
States.  In  this  case  it  becomes  tho  oflico,  perhaps  it 
may  bo  said  the  right,  of  the  consul  to  place  himself, 
uith  the  permission  of  his  own  government,  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  political  authority  of  such  gov- 
ernment. Here,  as  in  tho  other  case,  tho  fact  occurs, 
and  is  of  common  convenienco ;  it  is  not  inconsi.steut 
with  public  law  ;  and  so  far  as  regards  the  Uniti.d 
States,  it  has  example  in  treaties,  for  iustanco,  in  our 
lost  consular  convention  with  France.  It  is  a  tiling 
of  manifest  necessity  as  between  the  United  States  and 
some  of  tlio  countries  of  Germany,  with  which  our  re- 
lations are  entirely  amicable,  without  calling  for  per- 
manent diplomatic  representation.  The  German  Band, 
though  in  some  features  resembling  our  own  federal 
republic,  yet  differs  cssentia'Iy  In  this,  that,  in  the  for- 
mer, tho  federal  outhority,  in  matters  of  peace  and  war, 
acts  on  states,  not  individuals,  and  of  course  each  state 
retains  the  power  of  foreign  representation  and  negoti- 
ation. Hence,  if  we  do  not  see  cause  to  interchange 
ministers,  we  may  yet  well  reciprocally  enlarge  the 
consular  functions,  in  our  relations  with  such  states  as 


CON 


m 


CON 


400 

B  00 

6  00 
8  UO 


500 
2  00 


Bavm-ia,  Saxony,  'Wiirtomlierg,  llanovor,  the  Ileuien, 
the  Mcchk'nburgB,  ur  any  utiicr  of  the  members  of  the 
Bunil. 

Derivation  of  Pritilegea  by  Coniuls. —  Meanwhile,  It 
■woulJ  not  ill  either  of  these  classes  of  cases  folUiw,  be- 
cause a  consul  of  the  United  States  in  Davaria,  or  one 
of  Vurarla  in  tlic  United  States,  may  be  admitted  to 
address  the  government,  that  therefore  he  becomes  a 
diplomatic  personage,  with  mtcrnalional  rights  as 
audi,  and  among  them  tluit  of  exterritoriality.  If  his 
coninii.ision  be  that  of  consul  only,  if  his  public  recog- 
nition be  an  exequatur,  tlic  foreign  coniml  is  subject  to 
the  lociil  law  in  the  United  States;  and  our  own  con- 
sul ill  tlic  foreign  country,  if  invested  in  ony  case  with 
quai.i-ext<'rritorial  riglils,  doiH  not  derive  these  from 
the  law  uf  nations,  but  only  from  tlie  special  concession, 
by  general  law  or  otherwise,  of  the  particular  foreign 
government.  If,  indeed,  the  United  States  see  lit,  in 
any  ca:ie,  to  confer  the  function  of  charg6  d'all'aires  on 
their  consul,  cither  with  or  without  limitation  of  time, 
as  they  niny  lawfully  do,  that  is,  to  superimpose  the 
oftice  of  niiuisttron  that  of  consul,  then  ho  has  a  double 
political  capacity,  and,  though  invested  with  full  dip- 
lomatic jirivilcfjc,  yet  becomes  so  invested  as  charge 
d'atfaircs,  not  as  conrnd ;  and  the  fact  of  such  casual 
duplication  of  function  does  not  clinngfl  the  legal  status 
of  consuls,  whether  they  be  regarded  through  the  oyo 
of  the  1.1W  of  nations,  or  that  of  the  United  States. 

I'agan  and  Mohammedun  Omntriea. — It  has  been  ob- 
served, that  "  in  Egjpt,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  China,  the  inl- 
ands of  the  Pucilic,  the  coiisuIh  enjoy  all  the  diplomatic 
privileges.  The  motive  i.s  not  only  iu  the  dillcrence 
of  law  and  religion  with  oi<rs,  but  also  in  the  absence 
of  other  diplomatic  representatives."  This  remark  re- 
quires qualification.  In  the-  caso  of  China  and  Turkey, 
for  instance,  our  consuls  have  not,  qua  consuls,  any 
"diplomatic  privileges,"  except  such  as  they  might 
have  in  Franco  during  the  absence  of  a  minister;  such 
exterritorial,  not  diplomatic,  privileges,  as  they  really 
enjoy,  they  enjoy,  not  because  they  ore  consuls,  nor 
because  of  the  absence  of  proper  diplomatic  represent- 
atives in  those  countries,  for  we  liave  them,  but  be- 
cause they  arc  citizens  of  the  United  States.  And  the 
true  cxjilanation  of  the  diplomatic  rights  appertaining 
to  consuls  in  the  Mohammedan  states,  whether  inde- 
pendent ones,  like  Morocco  and  Muscat,  or  subject  to 
the  suzerainty  of  the  I'orte,  like  Tripoli,  Tunis,  ond 
Egypt,  and  so  of  the  Pacific  or  Indian  islands,  is,  that 
they  are  not  Christians,  and  arc  \\\jI  admitted  to  a  full 
community  of  international  law,  public  or  private, 
with  us,  the  nations  of  Christendom. 

Institution  of  the  consular  OJfice, — It  might  bo  demon- 
strated historically,  what  in  this  place  it  w  ill  sutfico  to 
affirm,  that  the  institution  of  consuls,  in  their  present 
capacity  of  international  agents,  originated  in  tlio  mere 
fact  of  difTercnces  in  law  and  religion  at  that  period  of 
modem  Europe  in  which  it  was  customary  for  distinct 
nationalities,  coexisting  under  the  same  general  polit- 
ical head,  and  even  in  the  same  city,  to  maintain  each 
a  distinct  municipal  government. 

Ctmsuls  in  the  /.etvj7i(.—  Such  municipal  colonies,  or- 
ganized by  tho  Latin  Christians,  and  especially  by 
those  of  the  Italian  republics  in  the  Levant,  were  ad- 
ministered each  by  its  coneub,  that  is,  its  proper  mu- 
nicipal magistrates  of  the  well-known  municipal  de- 
nomination of  ancient  Italy.  Their  commercial  rela- 
tion to  the  business  of  their  countrymen  was  a  mere 
incident  of  their  general  municipal  authority.  Such, 
also,  at.  the  outset,  was  tho  nature  of  their  political  re- 
lation to  other  coexisting  nationalities  around  them  in 
tlie  same  country,  and  to  that  country's  own  supremo 
political  or  military  power. 

/»  Countries  not  Christian.— The  consuls  of  Christian 
itatcs,  in  the  countries  not  Christian,  still  retain  unim- 
paired, and  habitually  exercise,  their  primitive  func- 
tions of  municipal  magistrates  for  their  countrymen, 
their  commercial  or  international  capacity  in  those 
Do 


countrien  being  but  n  part  of  their  general  capacity  M 
the  delegated  administrative  and  judicial  agents  of 
their  nations. 

Ongin  of  the  Law  of  Nations, — This  condition  of 
things  came  to  be  permanent  in  tho  Levant,  that  is, 
Greek  Europe  and  its  dependenciea,  by  reason  of  the 
tido  of  Arabic  and  Tartar  conquest  having  overflowed 
BO  large  a  part  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and  established 
tho  Mohammedan  religion  there.  But  the  result  was 
different  in  Latin  Europe,  because  the  modern  nations, 
formed  in  this  quarter  out  of  the  broken  fragments  of 
the  Western  empire,  twing  Christian,  and  thui  deriv- 
ing their  religion  and  their  civilization  from  tho  same 
fountain-head  of  Uome,  settled  into  something  of  ap- 
proximation to  one  great  political  community,  under 
the  influences,  potential  when  combined,  of  the  milita- 
ry power  of  the  Prankish  or  Germanic  emperors,  and 
the  moral  power  of  the  Papal  See.  Thus  it  was  that 
tho  mass  of  legal  ideas,  which  we  now  call  the  law  of 
nations,  came  to  exist  and  have  authority.  U  is,  in 
its  origin  at  least,  the  system  of  public  law  of  I>ntin  ur 
Western  Europe. 

Approximate  Unity  qf  Public  Law. — This  imperfect 
political  unity  of  Western  Europe  was  obstructed  at 
first  by  the  antagonism  of  the  C'elto-Komanic  and  the 
Cermanic  races,  and  was  threatened  with  complete 
dissolution  when  that  original  antagonism  reappeared 
in  tho  separation  of  some  of  the  Germanic  populations 
from  the  Pupal  See,  under  the  popularly  assumed  re- 
ligious title  of  Protestants.  But  after  thirty  continu- 
ous years  of  reciprocal  devastation  and  slaughter,  the 
states  of  the  old  and  new  faith  concluded  a  truce  at 
least,  if  not  a  peace,  and  agreed,  while  acquiescing  in 
the  fact  of  religious  difl'erenee,  to  maintain  approxi- 
mate unity  of  public  law,  and  thus,  by  subordinating 
the  religious  idea  to  the  legal  one,  to  livo  together  in 
some  sort,  as  they  have  continued  to  do,  with  only  oc- 
casional spasms  of  fanatical  intolerance  breaking  out 
into  civil  or  foreign  war.  At  a  late  period,  Kuasia, 
though  of  Greek  faith,  came  into  the  European  system 
of  public  law,  with  the  less  ditfirully,  indeed,  for  the 
reason  that  Latin  Europe  and  Greek  Europe  alike  nour- 
ished the  legal  traditions  of  the  Roman  empire,  though 
these  bo  derived  in  the  former  case  from  Rome,  and 
in  the  latter  from  Constantinople. 

Change  in  the  Nature  of  the  consular  Officeamong  Chrit- 
tian  Nations. —  Thus,  by  the  combination  of  Romanic 
law  and  Christian  faith  it  is  that  we  have  come  to  have 
a  common  public  law,  under  whose  gradual  operation 
claims  of  private  exterritoriality  soon  fell  into  desue- 
tude among  the  governments  of  Christendom ;  Italians 
in  England,  and  Englishmen  in  Italy,  at  length  sub- 
mitted  to  the  local  law ;  foreign  colonial  nationalities 
finally  ceased  to  exist  of  right ;  their  consuls  proceed- 
ed to  sink  from  the  condition  of  municipal  functionaries 
into  that  of  mere  commercial  or  semi-diplomatie  ones : 
and  thus,  in  process  of  time,  by  traditional  usage,  by 
positive  provisions  of  local  law,  and  by  treaty  stipula- 
tions, the  existing  legal  character,  with  its  limited 
right.s,  was  fixed  on  the  foreign  consuls  mutually  ac- 
credited in  the  countries  of  Christian  Europe  and 
America. 

In  Mohammedan  States Inoarrelatienswith  nations 

out  of  the  pale  of  Christendom,  we  retain  for  our  own 
citizens  and  consuls,  though  wo  can  not  concede  to 
theirs,  tho  rights  of  exterritoriality.  Religion  is  tho 
chief  representative  sign,  and  it  is  an  element  of  the 
question  of  public  law.  But  the  critical  fact  is  the 
difference  of  law.  The  legislation  of  Mohammed,  for 
instance,  is  inseparable  from  his  religion.  We  can 
not  submit  to  one  without  also  undergoing  tho  other. 
The  same  legal  incompatibility  exists,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  between  ns  and  the  unchristian  states  not 
Mohaniniedan. 

Insiitatfs  and  Pandects. — Whereas  Christendom,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  all  its  subdivisions  of  race,  nation- 
ality, and  rbu;',iaD,  i*  the  common  heir  of  the  political 


CON 


418 


con 


idea*,  and  eip«iclally  thu  leglalatlon,  of  tbA  Roman  nn- 
pir* ;  for  the  Instltutci  and  I'andcct*  thuinselves, 
though  comprising  thu  sum  ot  the  Icyal  science  of 
Some,  were  conipilod  and  promulgated  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  constitute  the  hniad  foundation  of  the  juris- 
prudence, iiublic  and  private,  of  the  whole  of  Cbrlsten- 
dom. 

Until/  in  Ckruttnduta. — When  the  countries  now  Mo- 
hammedan shall  be  reaubjected  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bomun  law,  then  can  they  bo  admitted  to  the  same  r«- 
dprocal  community  of  private  rights  with  us,  which 
prevails  in  (;hrlstian  Kurope  and  America.  Until 
that  event  happens,  Turkey,  and  v^thr?  Moslem  states 
in  Africa  or  Asia,  may,  like  China  or  Japan,  enter  into 
the  sphere  of  our  public  law  in  the  relation  of  govorn- 
roent  to  governnient,  but  not  In  the  relation  of  govern- 
ment to  men.  That  full  interchange  of  international 
rights  la  admissible  only  among  the  nations  which 
have  unity  of  legal  thought,  in  being  governed  by,  or 
constituti'd  out  of,  the  once  dissevered,  but  since  then 
partially  reunited,  constituent  of  the  Grieco-liomun 
empire. — MnnuaIJ\>r  CoiuitU,  Vnittd  Statet,  lf<57. 

Contraband,  in  commerce,  a  commodity  prohib- 
ited to  be  e.xpurted  or  lnip(jrtcil,  boii,';ht  or  sold.  Con- 
tralwnd  is  al^o  a  term  applied  to  <''.aigtiate  tliat  claas 
of  commotii'iis  which  neutrals  »ro  not  allowed  toourry 
during  war  U  a  belligerent  power,  it  is  n  rceoi^nir.cd 
general  priucipl<?  of  th)>  law  uf  nut-ona,  that  ahipa  may 
sail  to  and  trade  with  all  kingdoniB,  c»untrio»,  and 
states  in  peace  with  the  [irinces  or  authorities  whose 
flags  they  l)ear;  and  that  they  are  not  to  bo  moU'Sted 
by  the  ships  of  any  other  jmwcr  at  war  with  the  coun- 
try with  which  thoy  are  trading,  unless  they  engage 
in  the  conveyance  ot  contraband  goods.  Hut  great  dif- 
ticulty  has  ariiien  in  deciding  as  to  th«  goo<ls  comprised 
under  this  term.  The  reason  of  the  limitation  sug- 
gests, however,  the  species  of  articles  to  which  it  prin- 
cipally applies.  It  is  indispensable  that  those  who 
profess  to  act  upon  a  principle  of  neutrality,  should 
carefully  abstain  from  doing  any  thing  that  may  dis- 
cover a  bias  in  favor  of  either  party.  Itut  a  nation 
who  should  furnish  one  of  the  belligerents  with  sup- 
plies of  warlike  stores,  or  with  supplies  of  any  article, 
without  which  that  belligerent  might  not  bo  able  to 
carry  on  the  contest,  would  obviously  forfeit  her  neu- 
tral character:  and  the  other  belligerent  would  be 
warranted  in  preventing  such  succors  froi^i  being  sent, 
•nd  confiscating  them  as  lawful  prize.  All  the  liest 
writers  on  international  law  admit  thU  principle ; 
which,  besides  being  enforced  during  every  contest, 
has  liecn  sanctioned  by  repeated  treaties.  In  order  to 
obviate  nil  disputes  aa  to  what  commodities  should  be 
deemed  contraband,  they  have  sometimes  been  speci-. 
fied  in  treaties  or  conventions.  (See  the  r'sfercnoes  in 
Lampreui  Del  Commerdo  de  Popoli  yeutrali,  §  0.)  Itut 
this  classification  is  not  always  respected  during  hos- 
tilities; and  it  is  aii|^icntly  evident  that  an  article 
which  might  not  be  eontraliand  at  one  time,  or  nnder 
certain  circumstances,  may  become  contraband  at  an- 
other time,  or  under  diflferent  circumstances.  It  is  ad- 
mitted on  all  hands,  even  by  M.  Hubner,  the  great 
advoc.tte  fur  the  freedom  of  neutral  commerce  (/>e  la 
Saitie  det  Batiment  NetUra,  torn.  1.  p.  193),  that  every 
thing  that  may  he  made  directly  avaUaule  for  hostile 
parposes  is  contraband,  aa  arms,  ammunition,  horses, 
timber  for  ship-building,  and  all  sorts  of  naval  stores. 
The  greatest  difficulty  has  occurred  in  deciding  tm  to 
provisions,  which  -ire  sometimes  held  to  bo  contra- 
band, and  sometimes  nu,..  ImtiI  Slowell  has  shown 
that  the  character  nfthe  jtort  to  which  the  provisions 
are  destined,  is  the  principal  circumstance  to  be  at- 
tended to  in  deciding  whether  they  are  to  be  looked 
npon  as  contraband.  A  cargo  of  provisions  intended 
for  an  enemy's  port,  in  which  ii  was  known  that  a  war- 
like armament  was  ii:  preparation,  would  be  liable  to 
arrest  and  confiscation  ;  while,  if  the  same  cargo  were 
intended  for  a  port  wber  j  non..  but  merchantmen  were 


fitted  out,  the  most  that  could  be  done  would  be  to  de- 
tain It,  paying  the  neutral  the  same  price  for  it  he 
would  liuvu  gcil  from  the  enemy. 

Contraband  ofWar.  "Questions  of  contraband 
were  much  discussed  during  the  continuance  of  our 
neutral  character,  in  the  furious  w  .r  between  Kngls' 
and  France,  commencing  In  17V8,  and  the  United  Mc-. 
professed  to  be  governed  by  the  modern  usage  of  na- 
tions on  this  point.  The  national  conveiilion  of  France, 
on  the  yth  of  May,  1793,  decreed,  tha  leiilral  veaseU 
laden  with  provisions,  destined  to  an  enemy's  )>ort, 
aliould  be  arrested  and  carried  into  France,  nnd  onu  of 
the  earliest  acts  of  (England,  in  that  vt  ar,  w  ks  tu  detain 
all  neutral  vessels  going  to  France,  and  Imliii  with 
com,  meal,  or  flour.  It  was  insisted,  on  the  part  of 
Kngland,  that,  by  the  law  of  nationa,  all  provisiuns 
were  to  he  considered  as  contraband.  In  the  ease  whero 
the  depriving  of  an  enemy  of  those  supplies  wos  one 
of  the  means  employed  to  rcdnce  him  to  reasonable 
terms  of  peace ;  and  that  the  actual  situation  of  Franco 
was  such  as  to  lead  to  that  mode  of  distressing  her.  In- 
asmuch as  she  had  armed  almost  the  whole  laboring 
class  of  lier  people,  for  the  purpose  nf  commencing  and 
supporting  hostilities  against  nil  ,  .  governments  of 
Kurope.      This  claim  on  part  of  FIngland  was 

promptly  and  perscvcrin  v  ^slated  by  the  I'niled 
States;  and  thoy  conlenden  ..t  corn,  Hour,  and  nieiil, 
being  the  produce  of  the  soil  and  labor  of  the  country, 
were  not  contraband  of  war,  unless  eorricd  to  a  jilaeu 
actually  invested.  Tlie  treaty  of  commerce  '.villi  V.n- 
gland,  in  17n4,  in  the  list  ■  .'  contraband,  staled,  that 
whatever  nintcriula  served  directly  to  the  building  ond 
e<iuipment  of  vessels,  with  the  exception  of  unwrought 
iron  and  lir  |)lanks,  should  be  considered  contraband, 
and  liable  to  conliscalion ;  but  the  treaty  left  the  (piea- 
tion  of  provisions  open  and  unsettled,  and  neither  power 
was  understood  to  have  relin(|ui»hed  the  construclioii 
of  tho  law  of  nations  whicli  it  liad  assumed.  The  trci- 
ty  admitted  tbot  provisions  were  not  generally  contra- 
band, but  might  become  so  aecordinj;  to  the  existing 
law  of  nations,  in  certain  cases,  and  tboso  cases  were 
not  defined. 

"  It  wn?  only  stipulated,  by  way  of  relaxation  of 
the  penalty  of  the  law,  that  w  liciiever  provisions  were 
contraband,  tbo  captors  or  (heir  government  slioulil 
pay  to  the  owner  the  full  value  of  the  articles,  togelji- 
er  with  the  freight  and  a  reasonable  profit.  Our  (,'"v- 
emmcnt  has  repeatedly  admitted  that,  as  far  as  tlnit 
treaty  enumerated  contraband  articles,  it  was  decliira- 
torj-  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  that  tlio  treaty  conceded 
notbiuf^  on  the  subject  of  contraband. 

"  The  doctrine  of  the  English  admiralty  on  tbo  sub- 
ject of  provisions  being  considered  contralinnd,  was 
laid  down  very  fully  and  clearly  in  the  case  of  tlie 
Jonffe  Margarelha.  It  was  there  observed,  that  tlic 
catalogue  of  contraband  had  varied  much,  and  some- 
times  in  such  a  manner  os  to  make  it  diflSeult  to  assijjn 
the  reasons  of  the  variations,  owing  to  particular  cir- 
cumstances, the  history  of  w  hicli  had  not  nerumpanied 
llie  bistoiy  of  the  deeisiona.  In  lfi73,  certain  arliejes 
of  provisions,  ns  com,  wine,  and  oil,  were  deemed  etm- 
traliand,  according  to  the  judgment  of  a  person  of  great 
knowledge  and  ex|)eriencc  in  tlie  practice  of  the  a<lnil- 
ralty ;  and,  in  much  later  limes,  many  clber  sorts  of 
provisions  have  been  condemned  as  contrabond.  In 
1747  ami  174«,  tiulter  and  salted  fiah  nnd.riee  were  con- 
demned iif  contraband ;  and  those  cases  fliow  that  arli- 
cles  of  human  food  have  been  conaidercd  as  contraliind 
when  it  w  as  iirobabl".  they  were  intended  for  naval  or 
aiilitary  use.  The  modern  eatablislied  rule  is,  H'lt 
provisions  are  not  generally  contraband,  but  may  be- 
<  nme  Si)  under  eircumslames  arising  out  of  the  partic- 
ular aittialion  of  tho  war,  or  tho  condition  of  the  i>artiis 
engaged  In  it.  Among  the  clrcumatanccs  wliicli  te.id 
to  preserve  prm'iaions  from  being  lialilc  to  be  treated 
aa  contraband,  one  is,  that  they  an-  tbo  growth  of  tlie 
;country  which  exports  them.     Anothter  circumstauce 


to  which 

nations,  I 

nianufacti 

*ncc,  thoc 

out  of  it  n 

orably  cui 

•IJcri'  4  as 

to  an  enen 

of  it  for  hi 

'»,  wbethei 

use  of  life, 

tliey  were  j 

tnlllturv  ui 

whieli  the 

If  the  p-rt 

the  ai  tides 

■•  l:,  „• 
If  tlie  gie,; 
Brest  III  Fi 
ft  a  port  of 
««mcd  that 
<'■  "igh  It  is 
'  1 1'lied  to  c 
ascertain  poi 
IMIM,  i      ?  IIOI 

"»o  frc.i  the 
tion  of  o  ho 
military  port 
when  tho  aril 
was  notorious 
articles  wouk 
These  cloct 
sentially  the « 
(-'ongress  in  ] 
'o  wliomsoeve 
neeessarie. ,  to 
colon'    ,  pfioul 
'lliey  w.i,.   lij 
Court  of  tho  1 
»nil  feel  tlio  v/i 
parly  to  a  niar 
<'"',  tt  neutral 
in  tlicaetofca 
ish  ormi—  '.. 
being  ni    , 
country,  n-   ;  ,'i 
military  c;  . 
observed   Ibac 
ions  wei-.     mt 
become  so  on  ai 
war,  or  on  acct 
for  tlie  ordinary 
■"■ere  not  con'ro 
for  the  nnny  or 
military  e.-nav 
were  the  f  -oh  lli 
for  tho  cue,  - .  „ 
Ijand,  and  linbh 
or  navy  w(.,.     , 
«et  interpositioi 
"This  case  ft 
Reoit,  and  carrit 
piled  to  provisioi 
voyage  of  th.   ,St 
(ho  infliction      ,_ 

"Itwastheu.,, 
l>o  conlrabnnd ;  n 
ni™t,sofwarwhl( 
'II  (he  remark  thi^ 
from  time  to  time 
not  indeed  by  the 
in  (1  e  application 
to  mc-t  the  varyl 
"  t  elearl 
captor 

"•  .   'i-   ;..  ill 

iffprorffi;        an 


CON 


m 


COlt 


cation  of 
ions  wiTc 

slioulil 

togctti- 
Oiir  tjuv- 

iis  lliiit 

ilc.liirii- 

1  tlio  9ub- 

mnii,  w»» 

i.f  tlw 

tllttt   tliu 

111(1   EOUlt!- 

t  to  assign 
iculnr  cir- 
•oiuliniiicil 
ill  ortii'li'S 
onicJ  coii- 
m  of  great 
tlio  ailnii- 
f^r  Borls  of 
llianil.     In 

!  were  CDll- 

L-  tliat  nrli- 
lontralnml 
Ir  naval  or 

lie    is,   tV  It. 

Til  may  1j>- 
Ithe  iiarlic- 
Itlie  parties 
Ivliich  teiid 
The  treated 
L.vtli  of  the 
tcumetancc 


(0  which  lome  tniliilKcnrn  U  ihown  hy  th«  pMrtle*  of 
natlona,  It  vheii  thn  ortlilva  urn  III  tliitir  nmlvn  or  tin- 
iimnufacturcil  atato.  Thuii  Iron  In  trontml  with  Iniliilti- 
tncc,  though  anekun  anil  olbxr  liiitnininnla  fnlirlcatoil 
out  of  it  are  dircelly  contrahanct,  lli>in|i  l»  niiiro  fk>v> 
orabljr  cunsldorod  than  cordaKn,  anil  wIk^ai  U  lint  con- 
■Idcre  1  ai  so  uljortiuiialile  a  cummiMtlly,  whnn  gotng 
to  an  enemy's  ronntry,  as  any  ot  tha  lliml  pmparallons 
of  It  for  human  use.  The  nioi ,  ini|iorlAnt  (llsllnrlUm 
l>,  whether  ili  j  artielui  wnro  Inloniliid  ftir  thn  iifillnary 
use  '}f  life,  or  even  for  increanlllu  ship's  iisn,  nr  whether 
tlicy  were  Rolii/  with  a  hlithly  |irnlinhl«  ildsllnatlon  to 
military  use.  The  naturo  and  i|uallly  of  thn  port  to 
whirl)  the  artleles  aro  goinK  '■  ""l^  'x  Irrational  tasi, 
If  the  p'Tt  lie  n  general  coinmiirelal  min,  It  Is  pritsnmdd 
the  ailicles  nro  going  for  elvll  usn,  tlMMi;{h  nci'Aslnnnlly 
r.  1 :,  u'  may  ho  ronstrueted  In  that  port,  Hut 
if  the  gi'v.'.  predninlnant  vharai'ler  In  that  port,  llko 
Drcst  in  Frnneo,  or  I'orttmuulh  In  Knujand.  Ii«  that 
of  a  port  of  naval  military  ci|ulpnii*nt,  Ft  will  lia  pre- 
sumed that  Jio  articles  wnru  going  fur  inllllary  use,  al- 
ii, nigh  it  Is  poisibla  that  the  artleles  might  have  lieen 
1 1  |j|jcd  tn  civil  eouauniption,  As  It  Is  liii|i»ssllil(i  In 
aacert»!n  positively  tlio  llnal  use  of  an  artii'lii  anrljiillt 
uma,  i  %  not  an  iiijurious  rule  whii'h  dtidni'i'S  Ihn  llnni 
use  frc.i  the  immcdiato  desllnatinn ;  and  Ihn  pri'sntnp- 
tion  of  a  iiostilc  use,  founded  on  lis  di'sllnnllon  to  a 
military  port.  Is  very  niuih  Inllaini'il,  If,  nt  thn  time 
when  tho  arlieicj  wero  .'{oliig,  a  coiislileralilii  armnnient 
was  notoriouflly  preparing,  In  wlileh  a  supply  of  llioso 
articles  would  lie  cmincnily  useful," 

Tlienc  uoctrines  of  the  I'.ngllth  prl/.»'  law  Wero  es- 
sentially tho  same  with  lliosn  adopted  liv  llin  American 
Congress  in  IVTS,  for  they  deiiared,  llillt  all  Vesnels, 
to  w liomscever  lieionglng,  enrrjing  provisions  or  other 
neceR.iarle. ,  to  li.o  Hrltlisli  army  nr  navy  ttllhlii  the 
colon'  ,  fIiouIiI  lie  liable  to  selxnra  and  rnnllseatlon. 
Tliey  wiic  likowiso  fully  adnnted  liy  tliii  Miiprenio 
Court  of  tho  X'nited  States,  when  tvft  ennin  to  know 
anil  feel  tlio  value  of  lielllgerent  lights,  liy  lini'nnihig  a 
parly  lo  a  maritimo  war.  In  tlie  eiiso  of  Ihn  Cnmmrr- 
ren,  a  neutral  venffl,  ruptured  liy  iinn  of  iiiir  ei'ul«ers 
in  tlic  act  of  carrying  provisions  mr  tint  uso  orilie  llrll- 
ish  armi'  n  Spain,  <!io  court  lield,  tliiit  prnvlnlnns, 
being  ni  .  '  ;,ioperly,  liut  tlin  growth  i.f  lint  enemy's 
country,  h  ■■  destined  for  the  supply  of  111"  ciieiiiy's 
military  o;  ;i  kI  force,  wern  cnnlraliiiiid.  'llm  court 
oliserved  that,  ../  tiic  modern  law  of  niltlons,  provis- 
ions well  lot  generally  contrabaml,  '■"»  thev  iiilyht 
become  i^u  on  account  of  the  piirtii'iilur  slltiatlnii  of  tho 
war,  or  on  account  of  their  (lesllimljon,  If  ilislliied 
for  the  ordinary  usi  of  llfti  In  Ihe  enemy's  eniinlry  tliey 
were  not  con'raband,  but  it  was  ollierwisn  If  destined 
for  the  nnny  or  navy  of  ,'ho  enemy,  or  for  his  ports  »if 
military  e-  naval  equipment.  And  If  the  prnvUlons 
were  the  <  -owth  of  the  enemy's  cmintry,  and  destined 
for  the  ene.-v's  use,  they  wero  In  lin  treiited  as  ronlra* 
band,  and  linlilo  to  forfeiture,  even  IIioiikIi  llin  army 
or  navy  wi .'  i  a  neutral  port,  for  It  would  Im  a  di- 
rect interposition  in  the  war. 

"This  case  followed  tho  decisions  of  HIr  M'ltllam 
Scott,  and  carried  the  docirinn  of  ''onlrillmnd,  lis  np- 
piicd  to  provisions,  to  as  great  an  extent,  !l  held  thn 
voyage  of  tbi  .Swedish  iinulrai  si  iih'gHl  ns  to  deserve 
the  inlliction      ■  iic  penalty  of  loss  of  treight. 

"  Itwa8theuiii(»ie//iV(whlchdeternili)cdan  artlilnin 
lie  contraband  ;  and  as  articles  rnmo  into  \m<  as  linple. 
mcnts  of  war  which  were  before  Innocent,  there  Is  truth 
in  the  remark  that  as  ih-  inenns  of  war  vary  and  shift 
from  time  to  time,  the  lav  of  nations  shifts  with  Ihein; 
not  indeed  by  tho  change  of  principles,  liiil  by  n  change 
in  ti  n  application  of  them  to  new  eases,  and  In  order 
to  mc-t.  tie  varying  Invontloiia  of  war.     When  goods 

i-i     t  -learly  shown  to  ho  ccntrabnnd,  cnnilsca- 

t  captor  is  the  natural  eon«ef)iioTici;,     This  Is 

h'   ,     ci.      ill  ;."'l  cases,  as  to  Ihn  arflcin  Itself,  except- 

.ng pTorifii-  ■■  ,  and  as  to  thorn  wli'in  they  linpoina  con- 


traband, tho  ancient  and  strict  right  of  forfeiture  ii 
softened  down  to  a  right  of  pre-emption  on  reasonable 
terms.  Hut,  generally,  to  stop  contraband  goods  would, 
as  Vattel  observes,  prove  an  inefl'cctual  relief,  especial- 
ly at  sea.  Tho  penalty  of  confiscation  is  applied,  In  or- 
der that  the  fear  of  loss  might  operate  as  a  check  on 
tho  avidity  for  fain,  und  deter  the  neutral  merchant 
from  supplying  tho  enemy  with  contraband  crticiei. 
Tho  ancient  practice  wat,  to  seize  the  contraband  goods, 
and  keep  them  on  paying  the  value.  Hut  the  modem 
practice  of  conliscation  is  far  more  agreeable  to  tho 
mutual  duties  of  nntionts  and  more  adapted  to  the 
preservation  of  tiieir  rights.  It  is  a  general  under- 
standing, grounded  on  true  principles,  that  the  powers 
at  war  may  seize  and  confii<cato  all  contraband  goods, 
without  any  complaint  on  the  part  of  the  neutral  mer- 
chant, and  without  any  imputation  of  a  breach  of  neu- 
trality In  the  neutral  soverri,>;n  himself.  It  was  con- 
tended on  the  part  of  the  French  nation  in  17!lfi,  that 
neutral  governments  were  bound  to  restrain  tlieir  sub- 
Jcels  from  selling  or  exporting  articles  contruiiand  of 
war  lo  Ihe  belligerent  powers.  Hut  it  was  siicccsi  ''iilly 
shnwn  nn  the  part  of  the  I'nlted  StaUs,  that  iieutraU 
may  law  fully  sell,  at  home,  to  a  licUi^rent  pur.hascr, 
or  car'v,  IbemBelvcs,  to  the  bclllgoient  powers,  contra- 
biind  iirlicles  suliject  to  the  right  of  seizure,  m/inn.«'(«. 
This  right  has  since  been  explicitly  declared  by  the 
Judicial  authorities  of  this  country.  The  right  of  the 
ncutrul  to  tranp[iort,  and  of  tlic  hostile  power  to  seize, 
are  conflicting  rights,  and  neither  party  can  charge  the 
other  with  a  criminal  act." — Kent's  Commenlariet, 
I-ect.  VIII. 

Coiitrnband  articles  are  said  to  bo  of  an  infectious 
nature,  nnd  they  contaminate  the  wholfl  cargo  belong- 
ing to  Iho  saino  owners.  Ily  the  ancient  laws  of  Eu- 
ropn,  the  ship  also  was  liuble  to  condeinnatioii  when 
ca|itiired.  lUit  tho  modern  view,  since  Grotius,  is 
milder,  and  latterly  the  ship  is  liable  to  confiscation, 
and  when  fraud  is  detected,  Ihe  innocent  portions  of 
Iho  cargo  are  also  lialdc. 

Ily  tlio  ancient  law  of  Europe,  a  ship  conveying  any 
rnnlrnliand  nrtlclo  was  liable  to  confiscation  as  well  as 
the  nrtleie.  Hut  in  the  modern  practice  of  iho  courts 
of  admiralty  of  this  and  other  countries,  a  milder  rule 
has  been  adopted,  and  the  carriage  cf  contraband  ar- 
llch'S  is  attended  only  with  the  loss  of  freight  and  ex- 
penses, unless  when  the  ship  belongs  to  tlio  owner  of 
tho  contraband  cargo,  or  when  tho  simple  n'lisconduct 
of  conveying  such  a  cargo  has  been  connected  witli  other 
malignant  nnd  aggravating  circumstances.  Of  these 
a  folso  destination  and  false  papers  are  justly  held  to 
be  tho  worst.— (5  Kodinson's  Admiralty  Itiporta,  275.) 
The  right  of  visitation  and  search  is  a  rigiit  inherent 
In  all  belligerents ;  for  it  would  be  absurd  to  allege 
that  they  had  a  right  to  prevent  the  conveyance  of  con- 
traband goods  to  an  enemy,  and  to  deny  them  the  use 
of  Iho  only  means  by  which  they  can  give  tfTect  to  such 
right.— (VATTi-.i.,  book  iii.  c.  t'.  §  114.)  The  object  of 
Iho  search  is  two-fold  :  Jirst,  to  ascertain  w  hetlier  the 
ship  Is  neutral  or  an  enemy,  for  the  circumstance  of  its 
hoisting  a  neutral  flag  affords  no  security  tliat  it  is 
really  such  ;  and,  sccoiiJIi/,  to  oscertain  whether  it  has 
contraband  articles,  or  enemies'  property,  on  board. 
All  neutral  ships  that  would  navigate  securely  during 
war  must,  consequently,  be  provided  with  passports 
from  llicir  government,  and  with  all  the  papers  or  doe- 
iimonts  nccessory  to  prove  the  property  of  the  ship  and 
cargo  ;  and  they  must  carefully  avoid  taking  any  con- 
Iraliuiid  articles  or  belligerent  property  on  board  ;  nnd 
hence,  ns  Lampredi  has  observed,  a  merchant  ship 
wliich  seeks  to  avoid  a  search  by  crowding  sail,  or  by 
open  force,  may  justly  bo  captured  and  Bulaectcd  to 
confiscation. 

It  has,  indeed,  been  often  contended  that  free  thij'S 
make  free  f/imda  (que  hparilkm  nmrrc  la  manhandife), 
and  that  a  belligerent  is  not  warranted  in  seizing  the 
properly  of  an  enemy  in  a  neutral  ship,  unless  it  be 


CON 


420 


CON 


contraband.  Tha  iliicuMl"  <  of  tlili  Important  queitlon 
would  lead  ui  Into  detal '  .  >  h  do  not  properly  conio 
within  tlio  scopo  uf  tl'  '  V.  i". ,  Wa  may,  however, 
ihortly  ob>or>'c,  tliat  t  "  sacii  prlvllego  could  be  con- 
ceded to  DeutralH,  without  takinK  from  bclllKi'renta  the 
right,  Inaeparablu  from  a  atato  of  war,  of  tcl/lnK  an  on- 
erny'n  property  If  found  In  plncra  where  hualilltlcs  may 
bo  lawfully  carrleil  on,  aa  on  tliu  high  icaa.  In  fact, 
were  tha  princlpto  in  queatlon  admitted,  Iho  conimcrro 
of  a  belligerent  power  with  ita  rolonica,  ur  other  coun- 
tries borond  the  aea,  might  bu  proaecuted  in  neutral 
ahlpa,  with  a<<  much  aecurity  during  war  as  in  puace  ; 
■0  that  neutrals  would,  in  thia  way,  bo  authorized  to 
render  a  belligerent  more  Important  asaiatanco  than, 
perhapa,  they  could  have  done  had  they  supplied  him 
with  truop8  and  ammunition !  Ilut  it  la  aurviv  unnec- 
essary to  suy,  that  to  act  in  this  way  is  a  proceeding 
altogether  at  varianco  will.  tb'>  idea  of  neutrality. 
Neutrals  are  bound  to  conduct  tl.'smselves  In  the  tyiril 
nf  iinparlidUti),  and  must  not  alTord  such  aid  or  asAitl- 
anee  to  one  party  as  may  the  better  enable  him  t« 
make  bead  against  tlio  nihnr.  It  is  their  duty  "nun 
inl'rponere  m  htUn,  non  hoilt  imminente  ko$tun  iripere." 
.^nd  yet  it  is  mlbifest  that  the  lending  of  neutral  bot- 
toms to  carry  on  a  belligerent's  trado  is  in  direct  con- 
tradiction to  this  rule.  The  ships  or  cruisers  of  a  par- 
ticular power  may  have  swept  those  of  its  enemy  from 
the  sea,  and  reduced  him  to  s  state  of  great  difKuully, 
l>y  putting  a  stop  to  his  commcreo  with  foreigners,  or 
with  his  own  colonics  ;  but  of  what  consequence  would 
this  bo  if  neutrals  miglit  step  in  to  rescuo  him  from 
such  difficulties,  l>y  carrying  on  that  intercourse  fur 
him  which  he  can  no  longer  carry  on  for  Iiim<ieir?  It  U 
natural  enough  that  such  a  privilege  shouM  lio  coveted  ' 
l>y  neutrals ;  but,  however  advantageous  to  them,  it  Im 
wholly  subversive  of  the  tuiversally  admitted  rigiiLi  i 
of  belligerent  powers,  as  well  as  of  the  princi|i1ea  of  | 
neutrality ;  and  can  not,  therefore,  be  truly  said  lo  Iju  ' 
bottomed  on  any  sound  principle.  | 

In  the  war  of  1756,  the  rule  was  laid  down  by  Great  j 
Britain,  that  neutrals  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  carry  on  a  , 
trade  during  war  that  they  were  excluded  from  during 
peace;  so  that,  supposing  a  nation  at  war  with  Great 
Britain  had,  while  at  peace,  proliibiled  foreigners  from  j 
engaging  in  her  colonial  or  ci>asting  trade,  neutrals 
would  not  have  been  pcrniitlcd  to  engage  in  it  during  | 
war.  This  rule  has  been  much  complained  of;  but  tlio 
principle  on  which  it  is  foun<led  xeems  a  tnund  one,  and  | 
it  may  in  most  cases  be  safely  adopted.  TIte  'Isliiis  uf 
neutrals  can  not  surely  be  carried  farther  than  that 
they  should  lie  allowed  to  carry  on  their  tradu  <luring 
wor  as  they  had  been  ai-nutlimed  to  carry  it  on  daring 
peace,  except  with  places  under  blockade ;  but  it  is 
quite  a  different  thing  when  they  claim  to  bo  allowed 
to  employ  themselves  during  war  in  a  trado  in  which 
they  had  not  previously  any  right  to  engage.  To  grant 
them  this,  would  not  'jo  to  preserve  to  them  their  for- 
mer rights,  but  to  give  them  new  ones  which  may  be 
fairly  withheld.  Supposing,  however,  that  cither  of 
the  l)elligercnt  powers  has/orce  aiifficitnt  to  prevent  any 
intireotme  belwetn  the  other  and  it.f  coloniet,  or  any  in- 
tercourse between  different  parts  of  the  other,  she  ndght, 
in  the  exercise  of  the  legitimate  riglits  of  a  belligerent, 
exclude  neutrals  from  such  trade,  even  though  it  had 
formerly  been  open  to  them ;  because  otherwise  she 
would  be  d>  nrived  of  tho  advantage  of  her  superior 
force ;  and  the  neutrals  would,  in  fact,  when  employed 
In  this  way,  be  acting  as  the  most  efficient  allies  of  her 
enemy. 

For  a  full  discussion  of  this  important  and  difHcult 
question,  and  of  the  various  distinctions  to  which  it 
gives  rise,  see  the  work  of  Ilubncr  {De  la  Suiaie  dca 
Bniiment  Neutret,  2  tomes,  12mo,  17.^7),  in  which  tho 
diflerent  arguments  in  favor  of  the  principle  that  "  tho 
flag  covers  the  cargo,"  arc  stated  with  great  perspicu- 
ity and  talent.  The  opposite  principle  has  been  advo- 
cated by  Lampredi,  in  bit  ver^-  able  treatise  JJel  Com- 


mercio  de'  I'lpoli  ffeutrnli,  J  lo ;  by  Lord  Liverpool,  In 
his  Iritcourtt  on  the  Conduct  of  llrtiil  llrilain  in  riifmrt 
lo  jV<u(ifiJji,  written  in  17&7 ;  and,  abo\i'  ull,  liy  Lord 
.Stowell,  In  his  Justly  celebrated  decitiunn  in  the  Ad- 
miralty Court;  and  Kkmt'.'*  Commentanti,  Lect,  III. 
Martens  inelines  to  Ilubnsr's  opiulon.— Ueu  J'mit  du 
Droit  det  (,'etu,  liv.  vlll.  e.  7. 

OontraOtS.  An  executory  contract  Is  an  agree- 
ment of  two  or  mora  persona,  upon  aufllcient  conalder- 
ation,  to  do  or  not  to  do  a  particular  thing.  The  agree- 
ment is  either  under  nciil  or  not  under  seal.  If  under 
seal,  it  is  denominated  a  speciality,  and  if  not  under  a 
seal,  an  agreement  by  parol ;  and  the  Iatt4ir  include* 
equally  verbal  and  written  contracts  not  under  seal. 
The  agreement  cunvnyaan  inlcreat  cither  in  puaseaslon 
or  in  action.  If,  for  instance,  one  pcmon  sells  and  de- 
livers goods  to  another  for  a  price  paid,  tho  agreement 
is  oxeculed,  and  liecomcs  complete  and  absolute ;  but 
if  the  veiiilor  agrees  to  sell  and  deliver  at  a  future  lime, 
and  fi'i'  a  slipulated  price,  and  llio  other  party  to  ac- 
cept and  |iny,  the  contract  is  executory,  and  reHl»  In 
action  mi!  ly.  There  are  also  exprchs  and  implied 
contracts.  The  former  exists  when  tho  parties  con- 
tract in  express  words,  or  iiy  writing;  and  tho  latter 
are  those  contracts  wliich  the  law  raises  or  presumes, 
by  reunon  of  some  value  or  service  rendered,  and  be- 
cause connnon  Justice  re(|ulres  it. 

Kvery  contract,  valid  in  law,  is  made  between  par- 
ties having  aufllcient  understan<liiig  and  ago  and  free- 
dom of  will,  and  of  the  cxerciiio  of  it,  for  llio  yitin  ease. 
If  Iho  contract  l>o  entiTcd  into  Ijy  means  uf  viulenco 
offered  to  tho  will,  or  under  tho  influence  uf  undue  con- 
straint, the  parly  may  avoid  it  by  the  plea  of  duress ; 
mid  it  is  re(iui-ile  to  tiie  validily  of  every  agreemeut, 
that  it  be  tho  result  office  and  bondjiile  exercise  uf  tho 
will.  Nur  will  n  coiitra(  t  bo  valid  if  ulilained  by  mis- 
representation or  com-  alment,  or  if  It  Ire  fuunded  in 
iiiiHtako  as  lo  the  subject  matter  of  tho  c<  iilract,  A 
contract,  valid  by  tho  law  of  the  place  «  here  it  is  made, 
is  generally  speaking  valid  every  wlicre, _/'ur(i  gentium, 
and  by  tacit  consent. 

The  lex  loci  coiitivrlua  controls  tho  nature,  construc- 
tion, and  validll^  of  tho  contract ;  and  on  this  bioad 
foundation  the  l.nv  of  contracts,  founded  on  ncce^sity 
and  commcreiul  convenience,  is  said  to  have  been  orig- 
inally cstublislied,  If  tho  ride  were  otherwi.se,  tlio 
citizens  of  one  country  could  not  safely  contract,  or 
carry  on  commerce  in  tlio  territories  uf  anulhor.  Tho 
v.'^ivmaTy  intercuurso  of  mankind  requires  that  llie  acts 
of  parties,  vu'.il  where  made,  should  U^  rccoguisied  In 
other  countries,  provided  il.,_v  !,o  not  contrary  to  (jood 
morals,  nor  repugnant  to  the  policy  and  positive  insti- 
tutions of  the  state.  I'artios  are  presumed  to  contract 
in  reference  to  the  laws  of  tho  country  in  which  tho 
contract  is  made,  and  where  it  is  to  bo  paid,  unless 
otherwlso  expressed.  Hut  if  a  contract  bo  mado  under 
one  government,  and  is  to  be  performed  under  aiioilier, 
and  tho  parties  had  in  view  the  laws  uf  such  other 
country  in  reference  to  tho  execution  of  the  contract, 
tlie  general  rule  is,  that  the  contract,  in  rcsp-  "t  to  its 
construction  and  force,  is  to  l>e  governed  by  tho  law  of 
tho  country  or  state  in  which  it  is  to  be  executed  ;  tho 
foreign  law  is  in  such  cases  adopted  and  efl'ect  given  to 
it.  Thus,  the  days  of  grace  allowed  upon  bills  of  ex- 
change are  to  be  completed  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  place  in  which  they  arc  to  be  paid,  and  not  of  tho 
place  in  which  they  are  drawn,  for  that  is  presumed  to 
have  been  the  intontiun  of  the  parties. 

It  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  contract  that  it  bo 
founded  on  a  sulficicnt  considcratiun.  It  was  an  early 
principle  of  tho  common  law,  that  a  mere  voluntary 
act  of  courtesy  would  not  uphold  an  assumpsit,  but  a 
courtcsj'  shown  by  a  previous  request  would  support 
it.  Thero  must  be  something  given  in  exchange, 
something  that  is  mutual,  or  something  which  is  tho 
inducement  to  the  contract,  and  it  must  be  a  thing 
which  is  lawful  and  coDipelent  in  value  to  sustain  the 


tc 
of 


tho 
mail; 
Is  I 
posul, 
In< 
time  i 
party 
sion, 
other, 
the  tit 
bound 
less  he 
Tho  I 
the  qii 
to  be  1 
and  w 

Wh 
pnrch; 
then 
of  brc 
turnii 
scind 
rccovi 
after 
right 

If  I 
of  ma 
whcr 
tion, 
the  c 

Wi| 
bein^t 
twcei 
and  t 
cntitl 
dltioi 
made 


CON 


421 


CON 


DOI,  111 

Lnnl 
itt  All* 
:.  III. 

>i«  i/u 


niaiimptlnn.  Tho  rule,  that  a  contl(lerat1i)n  U  necMnar}' 
to  tlie  validity  <if  a  contract,  applli'i  to  ull  lontruiti 
and  aK''<^<'n<°<i'>  ■■"(  under  wal,  with  the  excqillun  of 
lillli  of  exchan^fo  and  ne((i>tlalj|n  iiutoa  aftvr  thny  have 
been  nt'Kiillali'd  and  paucd  into  tho  han<lii  of  an  Inno- 
cent liicliirair.  'I  h«  ininiedi»t«  parllcii  to  a  bill  or  noto 
or<i  atl'i'dcd  liy  tho  want  of  considcrntlun,  and  It  U  onl;  ; 
■■  to  third  pumons,  who  rnino  to  thu  ponicsaion  of  Ihcj 
papir  In  tlio  usual  coiirau  of  trade,  willioiit  notice  of  the 
ori);inal  defect,  that  tho  want  of  contiduratlon  can  not 
bo  >Unf(e«l, 

'lie  Contrael  of  Sale. — A  aalc  la  a  contract  for  tho 
'  i>r  projiiTty  from  ono  person  to  another.  Tor  ■ ' 
'>n»ideratlon  ;  and  three  tl>'>ii){>  n.ro  requisite 
t<  vi/..!  the  thin|{  sold,  which  la  tho  object 

ot  t,tho  price,  and  tho  consent  of  tho  con- , 

'  iM     I.     Tho  thing  sold  niiiit  have  an  net iinl 

tiol  t'xiatcnco,  and  bo  api'dllc    or  ideiililied, 
ai  ''•  of  delivery,  othcrwl^e  it  la  not  strictly  a 

CO  1",  but  a  apccinl  or  executory  0),'recnicnt. 

It  I  matter  bo  In  oxiHiencc,  and  only  con- 

eti  ,  i\  .1  the  iioBsosolon  of  tho  seller,  as  liy  Mu^ 
In  the  po!!esjiioii  of  Ida  agent  or  carrier  alimail,  it  is 
noverliioless  a  sale,  tliough  a  conditional  or  imperfect 
ono  depending  on  thn  future  actual  delivery.  Dut  if 
tho  article  inlcndei)  to  bo  sold  has  no  existence,  there 
can  bo  no  coiitraet  of  sale.  Thus  if  A  sella  his  hurse  ' 
to  II,  and  It  turns  out  that  tho  liorso  was  dead  at  the  | 
time,  though  tho  fact  was  uulinonn  to  the  parties,  the 
contract  in  uetexiMirily  void. 

The  prill:  is  uii  ensentlul  liigredlenf  In  tho  contract 
of  sale;  and  it  must  be  real  and  not  merely  nominal, 
and  llxed,or  bo  susceptible  of  lieing  ascertained  in  the 
mode  prc."eriln"d  by  tlic  eontroct,  without  further  nego- 
tiation between  the  parties.  Mutual  consent  is  req- 
uisite to  tho  creation  of  the  contract ;  and  it  becomes 
binding  when  n  proposition  is  made  on  ono  side  and 
accepted  on  tho  other ;  and  on  tho  other  bund,  it  la  no 
contract  if  thero  bo  an  error  or  ndstakc  of  n  fact,  or  in 
circumstances  going  to  tho  essence  of  It,  In  creating 
tho  contract  the  negotiation  may  bo  carried  on  by 
mail;  and  the  contract  is  complete  when  tho  answer 
is  sent  with  nil  duo  diligence  after  tho  receipt  of  pro- 
posal, and  Is  out  of  the  iiiiitrid  of  the  parly  accepting. 

In  every  salo  of  a  cimttei,  if  the  possession  be  at  the 
time  In  another,  ond  there  lio  no  warranty  of  title,  the 
party  buys  at  his  peril.  Hut  if  tho  seller  lias  posses- 
sion, and  he  sells  as  his  own  and  not  as  agent  for  an- 
other, and  for  a  fair  price,  ho  Is  understood  to  warrant 
the  title.  With  regard  to  tho  (quality,  the  seller  Is  not 
bound  to  answer  unless  ho  expressly  warrants,  or  im- 
Icss  ho  has  mado  a  falso  representation  or  concealment. 
Tho  common  law  requires  tho  purchaser  to  attend  to 
the  qualities  of  the  article  ho  buys,  which  arc  supposed 
to  ho  within  the  reach  of  his  observation  aiid  judgment, 
and  which  it  is  equally  his  interest  and  duty  to  e.xert. 

When  the  goods  aro  discovered  to  bo  unsound  the 
purchaser  ought  immediately  to  give  notice  or  return 
them,  ,.nd  thereby  rescind  tho  contract.  In  tho  eoso 
of  breach  of  warranty,  ho  may  sue  upon  it  without  re- 
turning tho  goods ;  but  he  must  retnrn  them  and  re- 
scind tho  contract  before  ho  can  maintain  an  action  to 
recover  tho  price.  Ho  can  not  deal  with  the  goo('s 
after  discover}'  of  fraud  in  a  sale,  without  losing  his 
right  of  action. 

If  there  bo  intentional  concealment  or  suppression 
of  material  facts  in  tho  making  of  a  contract,  in  cases 
where  both  parties  have  not  equal  access  for  informa- 
tion, it  will  bo  deemed  unfair  dealing,  and  will  vitiate 
the  contract. 

When  the  bargain  Is  completed,  by  the  terms  of  sale 
being  agreed  upon,  the  eontroct  becomes  binding  be- 
tween the  parties  and  w  ithout  actual  delivery  of  goods, 
and  the  property  is  at  the  risk  of  tho  buyer ;  and  he  is 
entitled  to  tho  goods  on  payment  of  price  when  no  con- 
ditions have  been  made.  Special  conditions  may  be 
made  as  to  risk,  time  of  delivery,  credit,  &c.     In  the 


flrit  inatanco  In  make  the  contract  valid,  Ihrro  munt  be 
a  delivery  or  tendei  of  paynumi,  or  earnest  given,  nr  u 
momorandum  in  wrltlnK  aigned  by  tho  purchuner. 
When  goods  are  to  In)  delivered,  delivery  to  an  agent, 
carrier,  or  matter  of  a  veatel  la  uquivaleut  to  delivery 
to  purchaacr.  Tho  delivery  to  agent  or  carrier  muit 
be  auch  aa  to  create  reaponalbllity  In  that  agent  or  car- 
rier, and  if  Insurance  in  tlie  unage  it  ought  to  bo  done, 
and  also  the  buyer  iiifdrmed,  with  diligence,  of  contlgn- 
nient  and  delivery.  Symbolical  delivery  will,  in  many 
catea,  lie  sulllclent,  such  at  tranafer  of  key  of  ware- 
house Ik  lu  seller  to  buyer,  or  putting  private  nuirk  by 
buyer  upon  tho  goods,  tellers  lime  ami  iilace  are 
.*  cash  juiynicut  and  place 


pecitled,  the  comnio' 
where  (hev  aro  at '' ii 
Led.  XXXIX. 

Convoy,  !• 

natu  a  ship  or   ,   p^  ul  ■ 


-Ke.nt'b  ('i.m»nn(iiWt*, 

'  .1'  term  applied  to  detlg- 
i,)'.olnted  liy  ^uvenimenl, 
or  by  tho  cominander-iD.iiiier on  a  piiitlnilar  atutiou, 
to  escort  or  |irotect  tho  merchant  ships  procoetling  lu 
certain  porta.  C'unvoya  aro  mostly  appoinlid  during 
mtr;  but  they  are  sometimes  also  appointed  during 
peace,  for  tho  security  of  ships  navigating  seas  infested 
with  pirates. 

Indlviduula  have  not  always  been  left  to  themselves 
to  judgo  as  to  the  expediency  of  sailing  with  vv  with- 
out convoy.  Tiie  governnienta  of  most  nmi  ilinw  atatca 
buvo  thouglit  priijier,  wiicn  they  were  engaged  iii  hoa- 
tilities,  to  oblige  their  subjects  to  place  themselves  un- 
der an  escort  of  tlii'  aort,  that  tho  enemy  might  not  bo 
enriched  by  their  capture.  Acts  to  lliia  oflect  were 
passed  in  (jreat  Hritaln  during  the  American  war  and 
the  last  Kreucli  war.  The  lust  of  these  acts  (13  Geo,  III. 
c.  (i7)  enacted,  that  it  should  not  be  lawful  for  any  ship 
belonging  to  any  of  his  majesty's  subjects  (except  a> 
therein  provided)  to  depart  from  any  port  or  placo 
wbalever,  unless  under  audi  convoy  as  shoidd  bo  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose.  The  master  was  rc<|uii'ed  to 
uso  his  utmost  endeavors  In  continue  with  tho  convoy 
uuri  g  the  whole  voyage,  or  such  part  thereof  as  it 
should  bo  directed  to  accompany  his  ship ;  and  not  to 
sejiarate  therefrom  without  leave  of  the  commander, 
under  very  iicavy  pecuniary  penalties.  And  in  case 
of  any  ship  departing  without  cimvoy  contrary  to  thu 
act,  or  willfully  separating  therefrom,  all  insurances  on 
the  ship,  cargo,  or  freight,  belonging  to  tjje  master,  or 
to  any  other  person  directing  or  privy  to  such  dejiart- 
urc  or  ae|iaration,  wcro  rendered  null  and  void.  The 
customs  ofTicers  were  directed  not  to  allow  any  ship 
that  ought  to  sail  with  convoy  to  clear  out  from  any 
place  in  tho  United  Kingdom  for  foreign  parts,  without 
requiring  from  the  master  bond  with  one  surety,  with 
condition  tbat  the  ship  should  not  depart  without  con- 
voy, nor  afterward  desert  or  willfully  separate  from  it. 
The  regulations  of  this  act  did  not  extciul  to  ships  not 
requiring  to  be  registered,  nor  to  those  licensed  to  sail 
without  convoy,  nor  to  those  engaged  in  tho  coasting 
trade,  nor  to  those  belonging  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, etc. 

It  Is  very  common,  during  periods  of  war,  to  make 
sailing  or  departing  vilh  cumvt/  a  condition  in  policies 
of  insurance.  This,  like  other  warranties  in  a  policy, 
must  be  slnclJy  performed.  And  if  a  sliip  warranted 
to  sail  with  convoy,  sail  without  it,  the  policy  becomes 
void,  whether  this  bo  imputable  to  any  negligence  on 
the  part  of  the  insured,  or  the  refusal  of  government  to 
appoint  a  convoy. 

There  arc  five  things  csscutial  to  sailing  with  con- 
voy, viz. :  jirst,  it  must  bo  with  a  regular  convoy  un- 
der  an  olTicor  appointed  by  govcramont ;  aceondly,  it 
must  be  from  the  place  of  rendezvous  appointed  by 
government ;  Ihirdli/,  it  must  bo  a  convoy  for  the  voy- 
age ;  fiiurl/ily,  the  master  of  the  ship  must  have  sailing 
instructions  from  the  commanding  officer  of  the  con- 
voy ;  and  Jijlhly,  the  ship  must  depart  and  continue 
with  thn  convoy  till  the  end  of  tlie  voyage,  unless  sep- 
arated by  necessity. 


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TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Hiotographic 

Sciences 
Corpordtion 


33  WEST  MAIN  STIteET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  i4S80 

(716)  873-4503 


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N> 


GOO 


422 


COP 


with  respect  to  the  third  of  tboae  condlllona  we  may 
ob«erv«,  that  a  warranty  to  wil  with  convoy  generdly 
meani  3  convoy yin*  tke  voyage ;  and  it  ia  not  neceaaary 
to  add  the  worda  "  for  the  voyage"  to  make  it  ao.  Nei- 
ther will  the  adding  of  theae  words  in  aome  Inatancei 
make  tlie  omiaalon  of  them  in  any  caaa  the  ground  of 
a  dtlferent  conatruction.  A  warranty  to  aail  with  con- 
roy  doei  not,  however,  uniformly  mean  a  convoy  that 
Is  to  accompany  the  abip  inaured  the  entire  way  from 
the  port  of  departure  to  her  port  of  deatination ;  but 
such  convoy  as  government  may  thinlc  fit  to  appoint 
as  a  sufficient  protection  for  ships  going  the  voysga 
Insured,  whether  it  b«  tot  the  whole  or  only  a  part  of 
the  voyage. 

Sailing  Instmctlons,  referred  to  In  the  fonrtb  con- 
dition, are  written  or  printed  directions  delivered  by 
the  commanding  officer  of  the  convoy  to  the  several 
masters  of  the  ships  under  his  care,  that  they  may  un- 
derstand and  answer  signals,  and  Icnow  the  place  of 
rendezvous  appointed  for  the  fleet  in  caae  of  diaperaion 
by  storm,  or  by  an  enemy,  etc.  These  aal^'ng  instmc- 
tlons are  ao  very  indispensable,  that  no  vesst'  can  have 
the  full  protection  and  benefit  of  the  convoy  without 
tliem  ;  hence,  when,  through  the  nogligcnco  of  the 
master,  they  are  not  obtained,  the  ship  ia  not  said  to 
have  aailed  with  convoy ;  and  a  warranty  in  a  policy 
of  Inaorance  to  that  ef^ct  ia  held  not  to  be  complied 
with.  If,  however,  the  master  do  all  in  his  power  to 
obtain  sailing  instructions,  but  is  prevente'd  <h>m  ob- 
taining them  by  any  insuperable  obstacle,  as  the  bad- 
ness of  the  weather,  or  if  they  be  refused  by  the  com- 
mander of  the  convoy,  the  warranty  in  the  policy  is 
held  to  be  complied  with. 

For  further  information  as  to  convoy,  see  Abbot  on 
the  Law  of  Shi^nng,  part  ill.  c.  8;  Marshall  on  In- 
surance, book  i.  c.  9  §  6. 

Cook,  Captain  Jamea.  This  celebrated  navi- 
gator was  bom  at  Marten,  near  Stockton-on-Tees,  Oc- 
tober 37,  1728,  and  was  originally  apprenticed  to  a 
merchant  in  Yorkshire ;  but  having  a  strong  predilec- 
tion for  a  sailor's  life,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  his 
discharge,  and  immediately  entered  into  new.  indent- 
ures with  some  coal  shippers  in  the  same  county.  In 
iiieir  employ  he  became  a  good  seaman,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  mate,  but  subsuquently  entered  the  British 
navy  as  volunteer.  In  1766  he  was  appointed  to  the 
mastership  ift  a  sloop,  and  Joined  the  fleet  operating 
against  the  French,  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  His  Judg- 
ment, bravery,  and  great  skill  in  conducting  hydro- 
graphic  surveys,  gained  for  him  a  lasting  reputation 
and  Increasing  honors ;  and  In  1764  he  was  appointed 
marine  surveyor  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador.  In 
1767,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Royal  Society,  ho 
was  sent  to  the  South  Pacific  to  observe  the  approach- 
ing transit  of  Venus,  and  was  accompanied  by  Messrs. 
Green,  Solander,  and  Mr.  [afterward  Sir  Joseph] 
Banks.  All  the  phenomena  were  successfully  observed 
at  Otaheite,  June  8, 1769.  Cook  then  sailed  in  quest 
of  the  supposed  southern  continent,  circumnuvigating 
New  Zealand,  and  after  other  scientific  observations  he 
crossed  to  Batavia,  and  thenco  returned  to  England  in 
the  aummer  of  1771,  and  was  promoted  shortly  after. 
In  July,  1772,  he  commenced  his  second  voyage,  which 
lasted  three  years,  when  he  was  raised  to  a  post-cap- 
taincy, with  a  lucrative  appointment  in  Greenwich 
Hospital.  In  1776  lie  volunteered  to  lead  the  scientific 
expedition  to  determine  the  problem  of  a  northwest 
passage  between  the  Atlantic  and  Paclflc  oceans,  and 
running  fnm  the  Cape  to  New  Zealand,  and  thence 
through  the  Pacific,  he  discovered  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands, which  he  left  for  further  observttiona,  retumicg, 
however,  to  winter  at  O.fyhee.  An  unfortunate  ml** 
nnderstanding  between  some  of  his  people  and  the  "na- 
tives terminated  In  a  fray,  in  which  Cook  was  killed, 
after  a  deaperatn  resistance,  February  14, 1779. 

CoMMrage.  This  art  must  be  coeval  with  the 
dawn  of  history,  and  seems  to  have  been  early  known 


in  every  country.  The  coopers  of  London  were  Inoo^ 
poratedinlSOl. 

Copal,  a  resin  which  exudes  spontaneously  mm 
two  trees,  the  Xhtu  cooaUinum,  and  the  Elaocarput  co- 
palffer,  the  first  of  which  grows  in  America,  and  the 
second  in  the  East  Indies.  A  third  species  of  copal- 
tree  grows  on  the  coasts  of  Guinea,  especially  ou  the 
banks  of  some  rivers,  among  whose  sands  the  resin  is 
found.  It  Qccnis  In  lumps  of  various  sizes  and  of  va- 
rious shades  of  color,  ttom  the  palest  greenish  yellow 
to  darkish  brown.  Its  specific  gravity  is  found  to  vary 
in  difierent  specimens  from  1'069  to  I'O'l,  being  in- 
termediate in  density  between  its  two  kindred  resins, 
animi  and  amber.  Some  rato  its  specific  gravity  so 
high  as  1-189,  which  is  probably  one  of  the  errors  with 
which  chemical  compilations  teem.  Copal  is  too  hard 
to  be  scratched  by  the  Luii,  whence  the  excellence  of 
its  varnish.  It  has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and  is  with- 
out smell  or  taste.  When  exposed  to  heat  in  a  glass 
retort  over  a  spirit  lamp,  it  readily  melts  into  a  liquid, 
which  being  further  heated  boils  with  explosive  jets. 
A  viscid,  oily-looking  matter  then  distills  over.  After 
continuing  the  process  for  some  time,  no  succinic  acid 
ia  found  in  the  receiver,  but  the  copol  blackens  in  the 
retort.  Anhydrous  alcohol  boiled  upon  it  causes  it  to 
swell,  and  transforms  it  by  degrees  into  an  elastic,  vis- 
cid substance.  It  is  not  soluble  in  alcohol  of  0'825  at 
the  boiling  point,  according  to  experiment.  Copal 
disaolvea  in  ether,  and  this  otbereous  solution  may  be 
mixed  with  alcohol  without  decomposition.  Caout- 
choucine  acts  very  slightly  upon  it  by  an  experiment, 
oven  at  the  boiling  temperature  of  this  very  volatilo 
fluid ;  but  a  mixture  of  it  with  alcohol  of  0-826,  in  equal 
parts,  dissolves  it  very  rapidly  in  the  cold  into  a  per- 
fectly liquid  varnish.  Alcohol  holding  camphor  in  so- 
lution also  dissolves  it,  but  not  nearly  so  well  -.s  the 
last  solvent.  According  to  Unvcrdorljcn,  copal  may 
bo  completely  dissolved  by  iligesting  one  part  of  it  for 
24  hours  with  one  part  and  a  half  of  alcohol  (probably 
anhydrous),  because  that  portion  of  copol  whicli  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol  dissolves  in  a  very  concentrated  so- 
lution of  the  bolulile  portion.  Oil  of  petroleum  and 
turpentine  dissolve  only  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  raw 
copal.  By  particular  management,  indeed,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine may  be  t  ombined  with  copal. 

Fused  copal  possesses  different  properties  trom  the 
substance  in  its  solid  state;  for  it  then  may  be  made 
to  combine  both  with  alcohol  and  oil  of  turpentine. 

Unverdorben  has  extracted  from  the  copal  of  Africa 
five  different  kinds  of  resin,  none  of  yrhich  has,  bow- 
ever,  been  applied  to  any  use  in  the  arts. 

The  ultimate  constituents  of  copal  by  an  analysis 
are,  cariron  79-87,  hydrogen  9'00,  oxygen  11-1 ;  being 
of  hydrogen  7-6  in  excess  above  the  quantity  necessary 
to  form  water  with  the  oxygen. 

Much  Information  has  been  received  firom  various 
sources  concerning  this  somewhat  ill-understood  prod- 
uct of  late  years.  It  is  now  known  that  there  are 
three  different  kinds  of  copal  in  commerce,  but  nothing 
is  known  of  their  distinguishing  characteristics.  We 
have  East  Indian  and  West  Indian  copal,  and,  under 
the  latter  name,  two  very  different  substances.  The 
East  Indian,  called  also  African,  is  more  colorless,  soft, 
and  transparent  than  the  others;  it  forms  a  fine  surface, 
and  when  heated  emits  an  agreeable  odor.  It  furnish- 
es the  finest  varnish.  Fresh  essence  of  turpent'io  dis- 
solves it  completely,  but  not  old.  Essence  digested 
upon  sulphur  will  dissolve  double  its  own  weight, 
without  letting  any  faU.  Fresh  rectified  oil  of  rose- 
mary win  dissolve  it  in  any  proportion,  but  if  tho  oil 
is  thickened  by  age  it  serves  only  to  swell  this  copal. 

When  cautiously  melted,  it  may  be  then  dissolved 
in  good  essence  of  turpentine  In  any  proportion,  pro- 
ducing a  fine  vanish,  of  little  color. 

A  good  vamlah  may  he  made  by  dissolving  one 
part  of  copal,  one  of  essence  of  rosemary,  with  from 
two  to  three  (^  pure  alcobol.    This  varnish  should  be 


COP 


428 


COP 


ireinooT- 

iflly  from 
arpui  CO- 
,  and  the 
of  copal- 
\y  ou  the 
e  reain  U 
ind  of  va- 
Bh  yellow 
id  to  vary 
being  in- 
rei  reslni, 
jravlty  so 
irrors  with 
is  too  hard 
:ellenco  of 
nd  is  with- 
in a  glass 
Lo  a  liquid, 
losive  jet*, 
ver.    After 
iccinlc  acid 
kens  in  the 
causes  it  to 
elastic,  vi»- 
i  of  0-825  at 
nt.     Copal 
tion  may  h« 
,n.     Caout- 
experiment, 
rery  volatile 
825,  in  equal 
1  into  a  pcr- 
mphor  in  so- 
)  well  ".s  the 
1,  copal  may 
part  of  it  for 
lol  (probably 
which  is  in- 
centrated  so- 
itrolcum  and 
cent,  of  raw 
>d,  oil  of  tur- 
tles from  the 
nay  be  made 
irpcntine. 
pal  of  Africa 
ch  has,  how- 

an  analysis 

11-1 ;  being 

tity  necessarj- 

from  various 
Icrstood  prod- 
hat  there  are 
!,  but  nothing 
eristics.    We 
a,  and,  under 
stances.     The 
colorless,  soft, 
a  fine  surface, 
r.    Itfurnish- 
urpent'no  dis- 
enco  digested 
own  weight, 
id  oil  of  rose- 
but  if  tho  oil 
dl  this  copal, 
then  dissolved 
)portion,  pro- 

lissolvlng  one 
ry,  with  ft-om 
Dish  should  be 


applied  hot,  and  when  cold  becomei  very  hard  and 
durable. 

The  West  India  specie*,  or  American,  comes,  not  in 
lumps  of  a  globular  form,  bnt  in  small  flat  fl-agment*, 
which  are  hard,  rough,  and  without  taste  or  smell.  It 
is  usually  yellow,  and  never  colorless  like  the  other. 
Insects  are  very  rarely  found  in  it.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  Antilles,  Mexico,  and  North  America.  It  will  not 
dissolve  in  essence  of  rosemary. 

The  third  kind  of  copal,  known  also  a»  West  Indian, 
was  fonnerly  sold  as  a  product  of  the  East  Indies.  It 
is  found  in  fragments  of  a  concavo-convex  form,  the 
outer  covering  of  which  appears  to  have  been  removed. 
It  contains  many  insects.  When  rubbed  it  emits  an 
aromatic  odor.  It  gives  out  much  ethereous  and  em- 
pyroumatio  oi^  when  melted.  It  forms  a  soft  vamisb, 
which  dries  slowly. 

Fusel  oil,  or  amyle  spirit,  has  been  lately  used  as  a 
solvent  of  the  hard  copal;  but  it  does  not  di-y  into  a 
vory  solid  varnish. 

Copal  varnish  was  first  discovered  in  France,  and 
was  long  known  by  the  name  of  vemit  martin.  It  is 
applied  to  snuff-boxen,  tea-boards,  and  other  utensils. 
It  preserves  and  gives  lustre  to  paintings ;  and  con- 
tributes to  restore  the  decayed  colors  of  old  pictures, 
by  filling  up  cracks,  and  rendering  the  surface  capable 
of  reflecting  light  more  uniformly.  Copal  is  liable  to 
be  confounded  y^Uh  gum  anime,  when  the  latter  is  very 
clear  and  good.  But  it  is  of  importance  to  distinguish 
between  them,  as  the  anim^,  though  valuable  as  a  var- 
nish, is  much  less  so  than  the  finest  copal ;  the  varnish 
with  the  former  being  darker  colored,  and  not  so  hard. 
Besides  tbe  external  appearance  of  each,  which  is  pret- 
ty distinct  to  a  practiced  eye,  the  solubility  in  alcohol 
furnishes  a  useful  test,  the  anime  l>eing  readily  soluble 
in  this  fluid,  while  the  copal  is  hardly  affected  by  it ; 
copal  is  also  brittle  between  the  teeth,  whereas  anime 
softens  in  the  month.— Bkbs'  Cyclopedia;  Ubb's  Dic- 
tionary, ttc. 

Copeck  (kopcika),  a  Russian  copper  coin,  so  called 
from  the  impression  of  St.  George  bearing  a  lance.  A 
hundred  of  thoni  moke  one  ruble.  The  value  of  the 
copper  coin,  compared  with  the  assignation-ruble,  va- 
ries in  the  different  governments. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital  of  Denmark,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  In  the  channel  of  tho 
Baltic  called  the  Sound;  lat.  65°  41'  4"  N.,  long.  12° 
3u'  4G"  £.  Population,  in  1845, 126,787.  It  is  a  well- 
built,  handsome  city.  In  going  into  Copenhagen,  the 
course  is  between  the  buoy  on  the  Stubben  Bank  to  the 
left,  and  the  buoy  on  the  Middle-grounds,  and  those  in 
advance  of  the  three  Crown  batteries  on  the  right,  west- 
southwest  by  compass.  From  the  three  Crowqs  to  the 
roads  the  course  is  south-southwest.  The  water  in  the 
channel  is  from  six  to  four  fathoms  deep ;  but  it  is  nar- 
row, and  the  navigation  rather  difficult.  Thcr^  is  no 
obligation  to  take  a  pilot  on  board ;  but  if  a  vessel  wish 
for  one,  she  may  heave  to  abreast  of  the  battery,  when 
he  will  come  to  her.  Vessels  not  intending  to  come 
into  liarlior  bring  up  in  tbe  roade,  at  from  a  quarter  to 
half  a  mile  fTom  shore,  In  about  four  fathoms,  tho  town 
bearing  south-south',,  ist.  In  the  harbor,  within  the 
boom,  the  water  is  Hm  17  to  18  feet  deep.  Vessels 
in  harbor  load  and  unload  alongside  the  quay.  The 
anchorage  in  the  roads  is  good  and  safe. 

Money. — Accounts  are  kept  in  rix  dollars  of  6  marcs, 
or  9G  skilliugs ;  the  rix  dollar  being  formerly  worth 
about  4j.  lii.  sterling.  But  in  1813,  a  new  moneiary 
system  was  adopted,  according  to  which  the  new  or 
Rigsbank  dollar  is  worth  2<.  3^.,  being  half  the  value 
of  tho  old  specie  dollar,  and  |  of  the  old  current  dollar. 
But  the  money  generally  used  in  commercial  transac- 
tions is  bank  money,  which  is  commonly  at  a  heavy 
discount,  The/xir  of  exchange,  estimated  by  the  Rigs- 
bank  dollar,  would  be  8  dollars  7'6  skillings  per  pound 
sterling. 

Weight*  uixi  J/iswitrM.— The  commercial  weights 


•re,  IB  pounds  s  1  lisponnd ;  20  Hipoand  =  1  shlp> 
pound ;  100  lbs.  =110i  lbs.  avoirdnpoisslSt  Ibt.  Trof 
zslOl  lbs.  of  Amsterdam =108  Ibi.  of  Hamburg. 

The  liquid  measures  are,  4  anker*=l  ahm  or  ohm; 
l\  ahm=l  hogshead;  2  hogshead* =1  pipe;  3  pipe* 
=1  quarter.  The  anker=:10  (very  nearly)  English 
wine  gallon*.  A^iuitr  of  win* =980  pot*;  and  100 
pot*=2H  wioe  gallon*. 

The  Aty  meaanre*  are,  4  viertel*=l  (chetAl ;  8  Mshaf. 
fel*=l  tdende  or  ton ;  12  ton*=l  Iast=471  Winoheatar 
bushels.  Tbe  last  of  oil,  butter,  herring*,  and  otlMr 
oily  *ub*tance*  *hould  weigh  224  lbs.  net. 

The  measure  of  length  is  tho  Bhineland  foot=lti 
inches  very  nearly.  The  Danish  ell=2  feet;  100  ells 
=68}  English  yard*. 

Trade  ^Copitthagen. — The  trade  of  Copenhagen  has 
latterly  increased  considerably,  particularly  the  grain 
trade  with  England.  At  the  commencement  of  1862, 
297  merchant  vessels  of  about  85,000  ton*  burden  be- 
longed to  the  port.  Tbe  harbor  is  large  and  commo- 
dious, capable  of  containing  500  merchant  vessels  be- 
sides the  navy ;  and  by  tbe  aid  of  canals,  large  vessels 
can  come  almost  to  the  centre  of  the  town.  The  en- 
trance is  commanded  by  the  powerful  batteries  of  Trek- 
roner  and  Sextus.  The  principal  Import*  are  timber, 
pitch,  and  tar,  chiefly  from  Norway  and  Sweden ;  flax, 
hemp,  masts,  sailcloth,  and  cordage,  from  Russia ;  to- 
bacco from  America ;  wines  and  brandy  from  France ; 
coal,  earthenw&re,  iron,  steel,  and  salt  from  England ; 
and  West  India  produce.  The  principal  export*  are 
com,  rape-seed,  butter,  cheese,  beef,  pork,  horses,  cat- 
tle, wool,  hides,  skins,  bones,  grain-spirits. 

The  manufactures  of  Copenhagen  are  not  important, 
but  are  making  considerable  advances.  There  are  ex- 
tensive cloth  and  calico  factories,  fbunderies,  and  iron- 
works; also  breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries,  Bugar-re- 
flneries,  etc.  Piano-fortes,  clocks,  watches,  surgical 
and  mathematical  instruments,  tobacco,  chocolate,  por- 
celain are  among  its  other  productions.  The  royal 
China  factory  is  celebrated  for  its  models  of  Thorwidd- 
sen's  works  in  biscuit  China.  The  population  of  Co- 
penhagen was  in  1769,  92,571 ;  in  1801,  100,975 ;  in 
1834, 119,292;  in  1840, 120,819;  in  1845, 126,787;  and 
in  1855,  148,591 ;  of  which  last  about  67,000  were 
males,  and  over  76,000  females,  including  a  Jewish 
population  of  2500.  The  climate  is  damp,  changeable, 
and  unhealthy ;  which,  added  to  the  almost  total  want 
of  sanatory  regulations,  renders  the  mortality  greater 
here,  it  is  said,  than  in  any  other  town  of  Europe  witli 
the  exception  of  Vienna. 

Tbe  Port  Charges  at  Copenhagen  vary  accordinir  cs 
the  vessel  has  come  from  this  or  the  farther  side  of 
Cape  Finistcrre, or  ttom  the  Indian  seas;  as  she  is 
wholly,  or  only  part  loaded ;  and  as  she  clears  out  with 
goods  that  have  been  m  traniilu,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  free  of  duty,  or  has  on  board  a  cargo  of  native 
produce  sulgect  to  duty.  On  «  ship  of  300  tons  be- 
longing to  a  privileged  nation  from  this  side  Cape  Fin- 
isterrc,  unloading  and  loading  mixed  cargoes  in  Copen- 
hagen, the  difierent  public  charges,  including  Sound 
dues,  brokerage,  &c.,  would  exceed  JE60 ;  and  ttom  the 
farther  side  of  Cape  Finisterre,  the  charges  would  be 
nearly  ;C100,  M  ben  a  ship  is  not  fully  loaded,  lastage 
money  and  light  dues  are  only  charged  in  proportion 
to  the  cargo  on  board,  Lastage  money  is  not  charged 
on  ships  outward  bound,  laden  with  transit  goods,  aa 
tar,  pitch,  iron,  &c.  But  notwithstanding  these  de- 
ductions, it  is  obvious  that  port  charge*  are  very  heavjr, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  a  material 
obstacle  to  the  extension  of  trade. 

Citizenihip. — To  enable  a  foreigner  to  trade  as  a  mer- 
chant in  Denmark,  be  must  become  a  burgher,  which 
costs  about  ,£100,  and  it  will  require  about  £60  more 
to  flree  him  from  the  obligation  of  serving  in  the  miU- 
tia.  The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  foreigner  estalv 
lishing  himself  in  Denmark  as  a  manufticturer  are 
much  greater,  on  account  of  the  exclusiTe  privileges 


COP 


424 


eop 


•qjoysd  by  the  gvilds  or  corporatloni  into  which  the 
principal  crafu  or  tradeii  are  divided. 

CreM. — Goods  imported  into  Copenhagen  are  com< 
monly  raid  un  credit ;  three  monthi  U  the  term  gener- 
ally allowed  on  moat  tort*  of  goods,  and  In  a  few  in- 
stances  six  months.  The  discount  for  ready  money  is 
4  per  cent.    Bankruptcy  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

Inmranct. — Marine  insurance  is  effected,  on  liberal 
terms,  by  a  company  established  in  1746.  Many  Co- 
penhagen risks  ate,  however,  insured  at  Amsterdam 
and  Hamburg.  Copenhagen  has  good  building  yards, 
and  is  in  all  respects  an  eligible  place  for  the  repair 
of  ships,  and  for  supplying  them  with  provisions. 

Gtnerai  Rtmarla. — On  (he  whole,  the  commerce  of 
Denmark  used  to  bo  in  a  stationarj'  stfite;  a  conse- 
quence partly  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  under 
which  the  country  is  placed,  and  partly  of  the  policy 
of  government.  The  latter  long  exerted  itself  to  bol- 
ster up  a  manufacturing  interest,  by  laying  oppressive 
duties  on  most  species  of  manufavtured  articles.  Even 
under  the  most  favorable  circamatanL-es,  such  conduct, 
though  it  may  benefit  a  few  individuals,  is  sure  to  be 
productive  of  great  national  loss.  But  in  the  case  of 
Denmark,  the  circumstances  were  such  as  to  render  the 
restrictive  system  peculiarly  injurious.  AU,  or  nearly 
all,  the  branches  of  industry  carried  on  in  the  kingdom 
were  subject  to  the  government  of  guilds  or  corpora- 
tion! ;  no  person  could  engage  in  any  lino  of  business 
until  he  was  authorixed  by  its  peculiar  guild ;  and  as 
the  sanction  of  this  body  was  rarely  obtained  without 
a  considerable  sacrifice,  the  real  efibct  of  the  system 
was  to  fetter  competition  and  improvement,  and  to  per- 
petuate monopoly  and  routine.  Even  the  Danish  writ- 
ers acknowledge  that  such  was  the  infiuence  of  the  late 
regulations.  "JVos  ouvrien,"  say  they,  "»ont  chert, 
tracmlleut  kntement,  et  touveiU  mal  ft  tarn  goAl ;  leur 
education  tH  negligee.  Oh  ne  ki forme  point  apemir,et 
PapprentiJ' tuU  machinakment  ce  qu'il  voitfairt  au  mai- 
tre.  — C.VTTKAu,  Tableau  det  Ktati  Danoi»,  tome  ii. 
p.  260.  But  within  the  last  few  years  this  system 
has  been  quite  changed.  Industry  has  been  emanci- 
pated from  many  troublesome  regulations,  and  moder- 
ate duties  have  been  substituted  for  prohibitioas.  But, 
however  favorably  situated  in  other  respects,  it  would 
be  idle  to  expect  that  a  country  without  waterfalls, 
and  without  coal,  should  lie  able  to  manufacture  cot- 
tons, woolena,  etc.,  at  so  cheap  a  rate  aa  they  may  be 
imported  flrom  others  enjoying  greater  natural  facilities 
for  their  production.  The  staple  business  of  Denmark, 
her  agricultural  and  rural  economy,  has  been  most  ma- 
torially  improved  of  late  years ;  and,  as  already  seen, 
her  exports  of  raw  produce  are  now  of  great  value  and 
importance.  The  trade  of  the  country  suffers  from  the 
too  great  magnitude  of  the  port  dues  and  of  the  transit 
duties ;  and  the  Sound  duties,  being  charged  on  native 
aa  well  as  foreign  ships,  operate  as  an  inland  duty  on 
trade.  Considerable  improvements  have,  however, 
been  effected  in  the  commercial  legislation  of  the  conn- 
tiy  during  the  last  dozen  years,  by  the  opening  of  the 
trade  to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  the  abolition 
and  reductidn  of  other  regulations  and  duties ;  and  it 
may  be  fairly  presumed  that  the  benefits  resulting  from 
these  measures  will  pave  the  way  for  the  introduction 
«f  others  of  a  similar  character. — See  Denmark. 

Cappvt  (fierm.  Kugfer ;  Dti.  Koper;  Da.  Kobbert 
Bw.  Koppir;  Fr.  CirtiTe ;  it.  Jiame;  Sp.Cobrei  Port. 
Cobrt!  Russ.  Mjed,  Kramoi  mjed;  Pol.  Miedz;  Lat. 
Cuprum  {  Arab.  Nehau;  Sans.  TVimra),  a  well-known 
matal,  so  called  from  its  having  been  first  discovered, 
or  at  least,  wrought  to  any  extent,  ifa  the  Island  of  Cy- 
pras.  It  is  of  a  fine  red  color,  and  has  a  ^nat  deal  of 
brilliancy.  Its  tasto  is  styptic  and  nauseous ;  and  the 
hands,  when  rubbed  for  some  time  on  it,  acquire  a  po- 
cnliar  and  disagreeable  odor.  It  is  harder  than  silver : 
ita  specific  gravity  varies  according  to  its  state,  being, 
when  quit*  pure,  near  9'000.  Ita  malleability  is  great ; 
it  f/uy  b»  hammered  ont  into  leaves  so  thin  as  to  be 


blown  abont  by  the  slightest  breeM.  It*  duotlllty  Ii 
also  considerable.  Its  tenaojty  Is  so  great,  llmt  •  eop< 
per  wire  0-078  of  an  inch  In  diameter  It  vapabln  uf  sup- 
porthig  802-26  lbs.  avoirdupois  without  hrealilng.  lis 
liability  to  oxydation  fhrni  ejiposara  to  air  or  damn  Is 
its  greatest  defect.  The  rust  with  whlub  It  li  tlieti 
covered  is  known  by  the  name  of  verdlKrIi.  and  is  oil* 
Of  the  most  active  poisons.— Tiiomihin'n  Chfrnitlry, 

It  is  one  of  the  six  primitive  ineltli  |  Its  dlmiovsry 
is  said  to  have  preceded  that  of  Iron.  We  nu\  In  th« 
Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine  vopntir,  nrtulous  M 
gold.  — £-zra  viil.  27.  The  great  dIvUllilllty  of  this 
metal  almost  exceeds  belief;  a  gfaln  of  It  dissolved  In 
alkali,  os  pearl  ashes,  soila,  etc,,  will  kIvw  a  Mnillila 
color  to  more  than  500,000  tlniiis  its  whIkIiI  III  WMt«r| 
and  when  copper  Is  in  a  state  of  fusion,  If  lli«  !)<«•(  drop 
of  water  toucii  (lie  melted  ore,  It  will  fly  about  Ilka 
shot  firom  a  gun.— Boyi,ii,  Tlie  ntlllH  or  Fultliin,  In 
Sweden,  is  the  most  surprising  artlllolal  eNt'Mvatluii  In 
(he  world.  In  England,  copper  mines  waru  disi'overed 
in  1661,  and  copper  now  form*  an  initneui*  bianeh  In 
the  British  trade.— IIaydm. 

If  we  except  gold  and  silver,  copper  seem*  to  have 
been  more  early  known  than  any  otliar  nitlal.  Ill  the 
first  ages  of  the  world,  before  the  iiidthad  of  working 
iron  was  discovered,  copper  was  the  prltii^lpul  Inurtidl- 
ent  in  ail  domestic  utensils  and  Inntruiiient*  of  war, 
Even  now  it  is  applied  to  so  many  purposes,  a*  to  rank 
next,  in  point  of  utility,  to  Iron, 

Attos$  of  Copper  are  numerous  and  of  great  value. 
Those  of  tin  are  of  most  iniportantio,  'rlii  aiUled  to 
copper  makes  it  more  fiitible,  less  llaSile  to  rust,  nr  to 
be  corroded  by  tlio  air  and  other  eoinnmii  •ulmtaiirni, 
harder,  denser,  and  more  sonorous,  In  tli(<iiii  ronpectl 
(he  alloy  has  a  real  advantage  over  uninUiid  eopptir  i 
but  this  is  in  many  cases  iiiorii  timn  iioiiiiti'rliHtatii'su 
by  the  grer  i  brittlcness  which  oven  a  iimdKralii  port  Inn 
of  tin  imparts;  and  wliich  is  n  singular  ii|ri,'Uitistanc*, 
considerinf}  that  both  nie(als  are  s(i|mrAl«ly  vury  mal- 
leable. 

In  a  pure  state,  copper  Is  a  very  brilllAHt  liielal,  init 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish,     It  i«  uf  a  line  rt>d  t'ulor, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  every  other  nistal  OKi-ept 
titanium.     Its  specific  gravity  varies,  aodurdli: " 
density,  from  8-6M4  to  80, 

Copper  alloyed  with  from  1  to  B  per  ttent, 
rendered  harder  than  before  j  Its  color  la  y#lloH ,  <,  ..'t 
a  cast  of  red,  and  its  fracture  granuUr  |  it  lias  i-onsiil- 
erable  malleability.  This  appear*  to  Iimv<>  been  the 
usual  composition  of  many  of  the  anelent  ed^sd  tools 
and  weapons,  before  the  method  of  workln|t(  Iron  was 
brought  to  perfection.  The  ,re> .tif  of  the  Uroekw,  and 
perhaps  the  <a  of  the  Itonia>'< ,  was  iiathiltt(  else,  Kv«ll 
their  copper  coins  contain  (t  niUture  of  tin.  Tlin  itti- 
cients  did  not,  in  fact,  possess  (iti  Im*  been  often  efiiitciid- 
ed)  any  peculiar  proccsu  for  hardeiiliig  Clipper,  sxcopt 
by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  tin.  An  alloy  In  which 
the  tin  is  from  0-1  to  one-eighth  of  the  whole  U  hard, 
brittle,  but  stiU  a  little  malleable,  elo*«  gralniid,  Hita 
yellowish  white.  When  the  tin  Is  a*  inupli  us  oiiit-iilxth 
of  the  mass,  it  Is  entirely  brittle  |  and  eotilliiiiiis  m  In 
every  higher  propor'ion,  Tho  yellownesfi  of  III"  itlliiy  It 
not  entirely  lost  till  tho  tin  amounts  to  O'lt  of  llin  whiite. 

Copper  (or  sometimes  copper  with  «  lltlln  kIiiv),  hI* 
loyed  with  ae  much  tin  as  will  make  from  alioiit  O'l  to 
one-sixth  of  the  whole,  form*  an  alloy  whit'li  is  priiii'l- 
pally  employed  for  bells,  brass  eannon,  hrotiKH  statues, 
and  various  other  purposes,  IlaDue  It  Is  t'lilUd  binmM 
or  bell  metal  I  and  is  excellently  Alted  for  tlin  uses  to 
which  it  is  applied,  by  its  hardness,  density,  sunuroui- 
ness  and  fusibility.  For  cannon,  »  lower  (irtiporlion 
of  tin  is  commonly  used.  Accerdliig  to  Pr,  Watunn, 
tho  metal  employed  at  Woolwlcli  enntlslii  of  UK)  parti 
of  copper  and  trom  8  to  12  of  tin  |  liKiice  It  rttt«ln* 
some  little  malleability,  and,  therefttre,  Is  louKhar  than 
it  would  be  with  a  larger  portion  rif  tin,  Tills  «ltoy 
being  more  lonoroMtliM  iron,  bractguni  tfiv*  •  loud* 


as* 


as 


COP 


U  Nport  tbtn  Iron  guns,  A  common  alloy  for  bell 
metal  ii  80  parts  of  copper  and  20  of  tin  ;  lome  artiati 
a<ld  to  theso  Ingredients  zinc,  antimony,  and  silver,  in 
•mall  proportions ;  all  of  which  add  to  the  sonorous- 
neas  of  the  compound. — See  Bkix-metal, 

When  in  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  the  latter  metal 
amounts  to  about  one-third  of  the  mass,  the  result  is  a 
boantihil  (ompound,  very  hard,  of  the  color  of  steel, 
and  susceptible  of  a  very  line  polish.  It  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  the  reflection  of  light  for  optical  purpoocs ;  and 
Is  therefore  called  tpeculum  metal.  Besides  the  above 
Ingredients,  it  usually  contains  a  little  arsenic,  zinc,  or 
silver.  The  application  of  an  alloy  similar  to  the 
above  to  the  construction  of  mirrors  is  of  great  antiq- 
uity, l)eing  mentioned  by  Pliny ;  who  says,  that  for- 
merly the  best  mirrors  were  reckoned  those  of  Bmndn- 
sium,  of  tin  and  copper  mixed  (ttanno  et  are  miilit). — 
nUt,  Nat.  lib.  xxxiii.  §  9.  Set  Thomson's  Chemittry ; 
Rebs'  Cgclopedia;  Dr.  Watson's  Chemical  Euayt,  vol. 
Iv.,  etc. 

Brituh  Copper  Trade. — Great  Britain  has  various 
copper  mines  in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  Wales,  etc.,  but 
particularly  in  the  first.  Though  known  long  before, 
tlio  Cornish  copper  mines  were  not  wrought  with  much 
spirit  tin  last  century.  From  172C  to  1736,  they  pro- 
duced at  an  average  about  700  tons  a  year  of  pUfe  cop- 
per. During  the  ten  years  from  1760  to  1776,  they 
produced  at  an  average  2660  tons.  In  1798,  the  prod- 
uce exceeded  600O  tons ;  and  it  now  amounts  to  from 
11,000  to  12,500  tons,  worth,  at  f  100  a  ton,  from 
.CI, 100,000  to  i£l,250,000  sterling.  In  1768,  tho  famous 
mines  in  the  Parys  Mountains,  near  Amlwch,  In  Angle- 
sea,  were  discovered.  The  supplies  of  ore  furnished 
by  them  were  for  a  long  time  abnndant  beyond  all 
precedent ;  but  for  many  years  past  the  productiveness 
of  tho  mine  has  been  declining,  and  it  is  now  almost 
cxhauste^i.  \t  present  the  mines  of  Anglesea,  and 
other  parts  ot  ,  'ales,  do  not  furnish  200  tons  of  copper. 
Those  of  Devonshire  yield  nearly  2000  tons ;  the  quan- 
tity produced  in  the  other  parts  of  Kngland  being  quite 
inconsiderable.  The  Irish  mines  produce  about  960  tons. 
Those  of  Scotland  never  were  productive,  and  have 
been  almost  entirely  abandoned.  The  entire  produce 
of  the  copper  mines  of  tho  empire  may,  therefore,  l)o 
estimated  at  present  at  from  15,000  to  10,000  tons.  In 
consequence  of  the  greatly  increased  supplies  of  copper 
that  were  thus  obtained,  England,  instead  of  being,  as 
formerly,  dependent  on  foreigners  for  the  greater  part 
of  her  supplies  of  this  valuable  metal,  became,  previ- 
ously to  1793,  one  of  the  principal  markets  for  the  sup- 
ply of  others ;  and  notwithstanding  tho  vastly  increased 
demand  for  copper  during  tho  war  for  the  sheathing  of 
ships  and  other  purposes,  the  exports  continued  to  in- 
crease and  the  imports  to  diminish ;  the  greater  pro- 
ductiveness of  tho  Cornish  mines  having  sufficed  not 
only  to  balance  the  increased  demand,  but  also  to  make 
np  for  the  falling  off  in  the  supplies  fh>m  Anglesea. 
Owing  to  the  want  of  coal  in  Cornwall,  the  ores  are  not 
smelted  on  the  spot,  but  are  all  sent  to  Swansea ;  It 
being  found  cheaper  to  carry  the  ores  to  the  coal  than 
the  contrary.  The  East  Indies  and  China,  France, 
the  United  States,  and  Italy,  are  the  great  markets  for 
British  copper.  "Thus,  in  1861,  of  the  total  quantity  ex- 
ported from  Great  Britain,  amounting  to  17,665  tons, 
3603  went  to  the  East  Indies  and  China,  8183  to 


France ;  808A  to  the  United  States ;  1896  to  Italy ;  and 
2118  to  the  Ilanse  towns  and  Holland. — Pari.  Paptr, 
No.  462 ;  Session,  1862. 

foreign  Copper.— Copper  ores  are  abundant  in  Swe- 
den, Russia,  Japan,  Australia,  Cuba,  Chili,  Columbia, 
etc.  Near  Fahlun,  In  the  province  of  Dalecaria,  in  Swe- 
den, is  the  celebrated  copper  mine  of  the  same  name, 
supposed  to  have  been  wrought  nearly  one  thousand 
years.  For  a  long  time  it  was  extremely  productive, 
yielding,  toward  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tur}',  an  annual  produce  of  about  8,000,000  pounds  of 
pure  metal ;  but  it  has  since  greatly  declined ;  and  It 
is  most  probable  that  at  no  distant  period  it  will  be 
wholly  abandoned; — Thomson's  Travelt  in  Sweden,  p. 
221.  There  are  copper  mines  in  other  parts  of  Swe- 
den ;  but  the  entire  produce  of  copper  in  that  country 
does  not  at  present  exceed  from  760  to  800  tons,  of  a 
quality  inferior  to  that  of  England.  The  produce  of 
the  copper  mines  of  Russia  has  been  estimated  at  290,000 
poods  or  4061  tons  (English)  a  year. — TEoononsKi, 
f'orcet  Prodttclirei  rfe  ta.Ruesie,  1.  300.  The  copper 
mines  of  Japan  are  said  to  be  among  the  richest  In  the 
world.  The  Dutch  and  Chinese  export  considerable 
quantities  of  their  produce',  which  Is  spread  all  over 
the  East,  and  is  regularly  quoted  in  tho  prices  current 
of  Canton,  Calcutta,  and  Singapore.  It  Is  uniformly 
met  with  in  the  shape  of  bars  or  Ingots ;  and  when  the 
copper  of  South  America  is  worth  in  the  Canton  mark- 
et from  915  to  (16  per  picul,  that  of  Japan  is  worth 
from  $18  to  f  20  per  picul.  Copper,  the  produce  of  the 
Persian  mines,  is  imported  into  Bombay  and  Calcutta 
from  Bushire  and  Biissorab.  But,  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view,  the  copper  mines  of  the  United  States, 
Cuba,  Chill,  and  Australia  are,  after  those  of  En- 
gland, by  far  tho  most  Important.  The  working  of  the 
mines  of  Cuba,  which  had  been  abandoned  for  a  length- 
ened period,  was  resumed  a  few  years  ago,  principally 
by  an  English  company,  which  has  been  eminently 
successful.  Large  quantities  of  Cuba  ore  are  taken 
to  Swansea  to  be  smelted;  and  large  quantities  of 
Chili  ore  are  also  taken  there  for  the  same  purpose. 
Of  the  total  imports  of  copper  ore  in  1861,  amounting 
(including  rei/uftM)  to  42,181  tons,  Cuba  furnished  20,876 
tons ;  Chili,  8051  tons ;  and  Australia,  7219  tons ;  the 
rest  being  supplied  by  Spain,  Peru,  etc.  There  was  a 
very  extraordinary  increase  in  the  supplies  of  copper 
from  Australia  during  the  four  or  five  years  preceding 
the  discovery  of  the  gold  fields.  The  produce  of  the 
Burra  Burra  Mine,  for  example,  which  in  1846  was 
6369^  tons  of  ore,  had  swelled  in  1860  to  18,692  tons. 
But  since  then  some  of  the  mines  have  been  abandoned, 
and  the  progress  of  the  others  checked.  Foreign  cop- 
per Imported  Into  Great  Britain,  and  the  copper  ob- 
tained from  the  smelting  of  foreign  ore,  were,  previous- 
ly to  1842,  wholly,  or  almost  wholly,  re-exported  ;  the 
duty  in  Great  Britain  on  the  copper  ore  when  it  was 
taken  or  snelted  for  home  use  being  so  very  heavy  as 
to  make  it  bo  altogether  exported  in  an  unwrought 
state.  But  in  1842  that  duty  on  copper  ores  and  un- 
wrought copper  was  very  materially  reduced ;  and  it 
was  repealed  In  the  course  of  the  year  1863.  The  pre- 
sumption, therefbre,  is,  that  the  imports  into  Great 
Britain  of  ore  for  smelting  will  increase,  and  that  con- 
siderable quantities  of  copper  derived  fVom  foreign  ores 
will  be  brought  into  use.         ■'  ,i-'^--i- »-:,-.  i... 


Exports  of  Dbitisu  Coppxb  in  tub  mmiBiiiHTiointD  Ykabs. 


Ymb. 

TTnwraiitlit. 

Cola. 

ShMli,  NiUa,  ite. 

Wirt. 

WiwighlCoppnot 

ToUl  of  BriUA 
Copper  ezpoTiod. 

Cwt. 

Cwl. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Cwt 

Cwt. 

1S20 

41,165 

10 

68,121 

8 

22,663 

121,968 

18JB 

10 

2184 

6I,4ST 

40 

25,003 

78,624 

1830 

B6,T«2 

040 

6«,B3l 

16 

66,448 

183,164 

1885 

89,40(» 

,      J 

100,807 

48 

20,219 

161,624 

1840 

»0,»56 

S»l 

119,260 

89 

,    10,427 

150,478 

184S 

lPi.,72T 

618 

154,859 

S3 

9,403 

860,781 

1860 

164,«T8 

148 

2fl8,00T 

S6T 

7,962 

426,163 

1861 

112.245 

1810 

221,018 

715 

16,628 

851,111 

1869 

118,4m 

95T 

291,887 

2424 

16,187 

888,721 

COP 


426 


etm 


■  Coppw  1*  in  extensive  demwid  all  over  IndU,  be> 
tag  largely  used  In  the  dock-yartU,  in  tlie  msnufaotiure 
of  cooking  utensils,  in  alloying  ipelter  and  tin,  etc. 
The  funeral  of  every  Hindoo  bringi  an  accestioD  to  the 
demand,  according  to  his  station ;  the  relatives  of  the 
daceaaed  giving  a  brass  cup  to  every  Orahniin  present 
at  the  ceremony :  so  that  Hve,  ten,  fifty,  one  hundred, 
ore  tbonsand,  and  sometimes  more  than  ten  times  this 
bat  number,  are  dispensed  upon  such  occasions. — 
Bkll's  Commtrce  <^  Bengal. 

A  modern,  and  now  a  very  extensive  use  of  sheet- 
copper,  is  for  the  sheathing  of  ships.  That  part  of  the 
bull  of  a  ship  that  is  in  the  water  is  covered  with  sheet- 
copper.  This  covering  preserves  the  wood  from  the 
attacks  of  the  tettdo,  and  thereby  gives  the  ship  the 
advantage  of  passing  more  rapidly  through  the  water, 
•a  the  copper  bottom  remains  always  smooth ;  for  sea- 
weed and  shells  will  not  take  root  and  attach  them- 
•elves  to  copper,  as  they  do  to  bare  planks,  owing  to 
the  galvanic  eflfect  produced  by  the  action  of  sea-water. 
As  Uiis  action,  however,  produces  a  rapid  decay  of  cop- 
per, it  was  proposed  by  Sir  Humphry  Oavy  to  neutral- 
ise it  by  applying  metaJUic  protectors — an  object  which 
he  accomplished ;  but  as  this  also  deprived  the  copper 
of  the  cflTect  it  was  intended  to  produce,  and  allowed 
the  molluscous  tribes  to  attach  themselves,  the  protect- 
ing process  was  abandoned. 

Copper  bolts  are  used  for  fastening  the  planks  and 
timbers  of  ships.  This  is  a  great  improvement  in  ship- 
building. A  copper-fastened  ship  or  boat  is  preferable 
to  one  with  iron  fastenings,  because  the  copper  bolts 
remain  mialt«red  by  rust,  aud  ehduro  longer  than  the 
wood  which  they  hold  together,  particularly  when  used 
in  the  state  of  lUloy,  which  preserves  it  from  waste  by 
neutralising  the  galvanic  action.  For  the  frames  of 
delicate  dipping  needles  and  magnetic  compasses,  cop- 
per is  employed,  as  it  has  been  found  that  the  brass 
generally  uawl  in  philosophical  instruments  sometimes 
contains  Iron,  which  of  course  might  affect  the  mag 
Belie  needle.  Copper  is  drawn  into  wire,  used  for  com- 
municati  )U  with  the  bells  in  houses,  and  for  other 
purposes.  Small  pipes  for  conveying  coal-gas  from 
the  level  of  the  street  to  the  aperture  by  which  the 
gas  issues  were  formerly  made  of  copper  or  of  brass, 
till  superseded  by  tin.  These  pipes  were  fitted  ou 
an  iron  cylindrical  mandril,  and  a  cylindrical  ring 
drawn  over  the  outside.  By  this  means  copper  and 
brass  tubes  are  drawn  oat.  The  brass  tulies  for  tele- 
scopes are  drawn  out  in  the  same  manner. 

Copper  may  be  plated ;  that  is,  its  surface  may  bo 
covered  with  a  layer  of  silver,  by  rubbing  the  surface 
with  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  silver,  muriate  of  soda,  and 
acidulous  tartrata  of  potass  (cream  of  tartar).  But  the 
method  practiced  at  Birmingham  is  the  most  perma- 
nent and  effiictual.  A  plate  of  copper,  with  a  jilate  of 
silver  applied  to  It,  and  borax  placed  in  the  interstice, 
is  heated  to  a  particular  degree,  which  it  requires  the 
skill  of  a  workman  to  know — a  degree  of  heat,  in  short, 
near  that  at  which  copper  and  silver  melt.  The  two 
metals  thus  heated,  and  in  contact,  are  then  taken  out 
of  the  furnace  and  passed  through  rollers.  There  Is  a 
fusion  and  combination  of  the  adjacent  surfaces ;  and 
their  adhesion  is  perfected  by  the  pressure  of  the  roll- 
ers. Copper  thus  plated  is  manufactured  at  Uinning- 
ham  into  candlesticks,  teapots,  buttons,  buckles,  and 
a  variety  of  other  articles. 

Standard  silver  coins  contain  a  small  proportion  of 
copper,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them  hardness.  This 
proportion  is  regulated  by  government  in  the  several 
countriea  of  Europe,  and  varies  in  diAerent  states.  The 
combination  of  gold  and  copper  in  various  proportions 
is  used  for  making  rings  and  other  trinkets.  Copper 
is  gilded  by  applying  on  its  surface  an  amalgam  of 
gold  with  mercury.  Bron::e  ornaments  are  gilded  in 
the  same  way.  Copper  united  with  zinc  forms  brass ; 
when  alloyed  with  tin  it  forms  bronze.  This  combi- 
nation it  bard  and  brittle  if  the  proportion  of  tin  be 


great;  but  when  the  proportion  of  tin  !•  iniall,  the 
bronie  is  soft,  and  possesses  tenacity  so  as  not  to  be 
easily  broken.  The  ancients  employed  hard  bronst, 
containing  much  tin,  in  making  sword  blades,  spear 
heads,  hatchets,  and  cutting  instruments.  Bronse 
cramps  are  found  in  ancient  buildings  in  li^ypt.  Stat- 
ues and  bas-reliefs,  culinary  vessels,  and  a  variety  of 
other  articles  of  soft  bronze,  are  to  be  seen  |n  ditt'oreDi 
collections  of  antiquities.  In  modem  times  soft  bronze 
is  used  for  casting  cannon  and  statues. 

Copper  melted  with  a  large  proportion  of  tin  consti- 
tutes bell-metal,  which  is  bard  and  brittle.  The  metal 
of  which  the  Chinese  gongs  are  made  is  composed  of 
the  same  ingredlenta ;  and  it  has  the  property  of  being 
in  some  degree  malleable  at  a  certain  stage  of  its  cool- 
ing, for  their  gongs  are  covered  with  marks  of  the 
hammer.  The  most  common  ore  of  copper,  from  which 
the  chief  supplies  of  that  metal  are  derived,  is  the  yel- 
low copper  ore,  or  copper  pyrites,  essentially  a  combi- 
nation of  copper  with  sulphur  and  iron.  There  are, 
however,  numerous  otiier  ores  of  copper  in  which  the 
metal  is  in  combination  with  oxygen,  carbonic  acid, 
various  other  metals,  etc.  Copper  in  its  varied  arti- 
ficial combinations,  as  in  that  of  verdsgris  (acetate  of 
copper),  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper),  Scheele's  green 
(arsenhe  of  copper),  verditer  (carbonate  of  copper),  etc., 
is  largely  used  in  the  arts  of  dyeing,  painting,  enam- 
eling, glass  and  porcelain  coloring,  etc.  The  salts  of 
copper  are  poisonous ;  and  from  the  facility  with  which 
copper  utensils  become  oxydated,  their  use  should  be 
as  restricted  as  possible.  One  or  two  of  the  salts  of 
copper  are  occasionally  used  in  medicine ;  and  the  sul- 
phate of  copper  has  been  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
eiBcacious  emetics  in  croup,  checking  the  disease  ond 
preventing  the  effusion  of  the  fibrinous  matter  into  the 
tracliea.  This  salt  is  also  used  as  a  lotion  In  the  treat- 
ment of  ulcers,  etc. 

Amtncan  Copper. — Although  the  copper-mining  in- 
terest In  this  country  Is,  as  yet,  in  Its  infancy,  it  has 
already  produced  results  that  give  promise  of  its  soon 
standing  among  the  foremost  of  our  mineral  products, 
and  of  adding  greatly  to  the  already  diversified  re- 
sources of  wealth  and  power  of  our  people.  Previous 
to  1840  we  were,  in  common  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
entirely  dependent  upon  England  for  our  supply  of 
this  useful  material. 

We  are  this  year,  1866,  producing  about  6000  tons 
of  it,  equal  to  one-seventeenth  of  the  whole  amount  re- 
(I'Ured  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  world.  The  copper 
mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  have  been  worked  for 
centuries,  while  those  of  our  lioke  Superior  region  have 
only  been  opened  a  few  years,  and  not  successfully  and 
systematically  worked  until  within  the  last  five  years. 
The  opening  of  the  Sault  St.  Marie  canal,  by  counecting 
the  navigation  of  Lake  Superior  with  that  of  the  chain 
of  lower  lakes,  has  given  an  impetus  to  the  business 
that  will  soon  make  it  the  great  source  of  supply  of 
copper  to  our  own  and  foreign  countries,  on  account 
of  its  great  purity  and  the  inexhaustible  beds  of  its 
ore.  Eighteen  new  stamping  mills  have  been  erected 
the  past  year,  uod  at  least  fifty  more  will  be  put  into 
operation  this  year.  The  total  shipments  of  the  Lake 
Superior  copper  mines  are  thus  stated : 

Tout. 

Ontonagon  District 8170 

PorUgo  Lake  District 345 

Keweenan  Point  District 22|I4 

Total 47f>a 

The  value  of  the  copper  on  the  wharves  on  Lake 
Superior  equals  |440  a  ton ;  total  product,  $2,092,200. 
Tho  increase  of  the  year  1856  over  1864  was  about  2000 
tons,  and  it  is  estimated  that  in  185(>-'67,  the  increase 
will  be  1600  tons  over  1855.  The  government  of  r>anco 
has  had  Mens.  Rivot,  of  tho  School  of  Mines  in  France, 
examining  the  Lake  Superior  copper,  in  consequence 
of  the  supply  from  Russia  being  cut  ofi*;  and  the  Amer- 
ican copper  haa  been  tested  and  found  equal,  if  not  su- 


eop 


4S7 


COB 


8176 

...  346 
.....  «i'34 
.....  4I6& 

■ves  on  Lako 
.,  ^2,092,200. 
a«  about  2000 
,  the  increase 
lent  of  Franco 
les  in  France, 
consequence 
nd  the  Amer- 
ual,ifnotBU- 


Mrior  to  the  Ruultn,  and  tu  (nparior  to  tM  Englit^. 
The  luperior  tenacity  of  the  American  copper  ia  a 
(trong  reconiniendatioD. 

Copper  JiutU  anil  Statuet. — These  couiit  wholly  of 
copper,  in  a  thin  ibeet ;  and  the  whole  of  the  metal 
hail  been  reduced  or  precipitated  from  a  liquid  solution. 
Wo  believe  that  the  flnt  example  of  this  striking  pro- 
duction was  a  bust  of  the  late  Dr.  Dalton,  made  by 
Mr.  Cheverton  about  ten  years  ago ;  and  the  practica- 
bility being  thus  demonstrated,  the  art  may  be  now 
followed  to  any  extent.  The  processes  are  curious. 
The  bust  is  first  modeled  in  some  kind  of  clay,  which 
may  afterward  easily  be  broken  away  piecemeal ;  and 
on  this  a  thick  copper  tUm  is  deposited  by  tlie  electro 
process.  The  clay  core  or  model  being  broken  away, 
the  copper  remains  as  a  hollow  shell,  the  inside  of 
which  has  taken  the  exact  impress  (though  reversed) 
of  the  outside  of  the  bust.  This  copper  shell,  on  being 
properly  prepared  on  the  inner  surface,  is  mad^  the 
groundwork  on  which  a  second  deposition  takes  place ; 
it  is  used,  in  fact,  as  a  mould,  from  which  one  or  more 
busts  may  be  procured. 

Architects  and  sculptors  are  gradually  availing 
themselves  of  this  art  in  the  furtherance  of  their  pro- 
fessional labors.  The  late  Bavarian  sculptor,  Stigl- 
mayer, who  was  employed  by  King  Ludwig  on  so 
many  important  works  at  Munich,  devised  a  mode  of 
coating  coUossal  plaster  statues  with  copper,  by  the 
electro  process.  In  a  remarkably  expeditious  way.  But 
one  of  the  most  important  applications  of  the  art  is 
that  which  is  exhibited  in  the  new  and  splendid  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Isaacs,  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  which  the  em- 
peror has  expended  large  sums.  Certain  parts  have 
been  ornamented  in  a  remarkable  way.  The  cathedral 
has  seven  very  large  doors,  or  rather  door-ways,  throe 
of  which  are  44  feet  wide  by  30  high ;  they  are  formed 
of  bronze,  but  all  the  adornments  ar«  produced  by  the 
electro  process.  These  adornments  are  of  a  most  elab- 
orate nature ;  they  comprise  no  less  than  51  bas-rcllefg, 
63  statues,  and  84  alto-relievo  busts.  It  is  not  simply 
as  a  matter  of  economy  that  the  electro  process  has 
been  adopted,  for  the  czar  is  not  a  man  to  entertain 
scruples  on  such  a  point ;  but  there  are  certain  advant- 
ages of  an  artistic  character.  By  the  electro  process 
the  sculptor  is  sure  to  have  his  model  faithfully  copied ; 
and  the  lightness  of  the  material  enables  him  to  impart 
bolder  relief  to  his  designs  than  if  they  were  cast  in 
bronze ;  while  this  lightness  of  weight  also  justifies 
blm  la  suspeudiug  pendants  or  bosses  from  vaulting, 
of  a  larger  size  than  would  l>e  safe  if  made  otherwise. 

Copperas,  a  term  employed  by  the  older  chemists, 
and  popularly  as  synouymous  with  vitriol.  There  are 
three  sorts  of  copperas :  the  green,  or  sulphate  of  iron ; 
the  blue,  or  sulphate  of  copper ;  and  the  white,  or  sul- 
phate of  zinc.  Of  these,  the  first  is  the  most  important. 
Sulphate  of  iron  i«  distinguished  in  common  by  a  va- 
riety of  names,  as  Martial  vitriol,  English  vitriol,  etc. 
When  pure  it  is  considerably  transparent,  of  a  line 
bright,  though  not  very  deep,  grass  green  color ;  and 
of  a  nauseous,  astringent  taste,  accompanied  with  a 
kind  of  sweetness.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1°834.  It 
uniform!,  reddens  the  vegetable  blues.  This  salt  was 
well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  mentioned  by  Fiiny 
(i7M(.  Nat.  lib.  x.xxiv.  §  12)  under  the  names  of  muy, 
tory,  and  calchantum.  1 1  is  not  made  in  the  direct  way, 
t>ecause  it  can  be  obtained  at  less  charge  from  the  de- 
composition of  pyrites  on  a  large  scale  in  the  neigh bor- 
bood  of  collieries.  It  exists  in  two  states,  one  con- 
taining oxyd  of  iron,  with  0-22  of  oxygen,  which  is  of 
a  pale  green,  not  altered  by  gallic  acid,  and  giving  a 
white  precipitate  with  prussiate  of  potass.  The  other, 
in  which  the  iron  is  combined  with  0-30  of  oxygen,  is 
red,  not  crystallizable,  and  gives  a  black  precipitate 
with  gallic  acid,  and  a  blue  with  prussiate  of  potass. 
In  the  common  sulphate,  these  two  are  often  mixed 
\a  various  proportions. 
.  ^uljf^te  of  iri^  i|t  of  peat  importwifa  in  tlte  trUlr 


It  Is  a  principal  ingredient  in  dyeing ;  In  the  mannbo* 
ture  of  ink,  and  of  prussian  blue ;  it  is  also  used  in  tan> 
nlng,  palming,  medlcina,  etc.  Sulphurie  acid,  or  oU 
of  vitriol,  was  formerly  manufactured 'from  sulphata 
of  iron.— iSe«  Acius. 

Sulphate  of  copper,  or  Hut  vitriol,  commonly  called 
Roman  or  Cyprian  vitriol.  Is  of  an  elegant  sapphira 
blue  color,  bard,  compact,  and  semi-transparent ;  when 
perfectly  crystallized,  of  a  flattish,  rhomboidal,  decaba- 
dral  figure;  its  taste  is  extremely  nausaous,  styptto, 
and  acrid ;  its  specific  gravity  is  2-1848.  It  U  used  for 
various  purposes  in  the  arts,  and  also  in  medicine. 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  or  vhile  vitriol,  is  found  native  in 
the  mines  of  Goslar  and  other  places.  Sometimes' it  ia 
met  with  in  transparent  pieces,  but  more  f?ommonly  In 
white  eiBorescencos.  These  are  dissolved  in  water, 
and  crystallized  Into  largo  irregular  masses,  somewhat 
resembling  fine  sugar,  having  a  sweetish,  nauseous, 
styptic  taste.  Its  specific  gravity,  when  crystallized, 
is  1-912;  when  in  the  state  in  which  it  commonly  oc- 
curs in  commerce,  it  is  1-827&.  Sulphate  of  zinc  i« 
prepared  in  the  large  w«}'  ttom  some  varieties  of  the 
native  sulpburet.  The  ore  is  roasted,  wetted  with 
water,  and  exposed  to  the  air.  The  sulphur  attracts 
oxygen,  and  Is  converted  into  sulphuric  acid :  and  the 
metal,  being  at  the  same  time  oxydized,  combines  with 
the  ttcid.  After  some  time  the  sulphate  is  extracted 
by  solution  in  water,  and  the  solution  being  evapora- 
ted to  dryness,  the  mass  is  run  into  moulds.  Thus, 
the  white  vitriol  of  the  shops  generally  contains  a  small 
portion  of  Irou,  and  often  of  copper  and  lead. — Lewis's 
Hat.  iledica ;  Vkk's  ZHciumarg;  Rkes'  Cifclopedia. 

Copper  Money.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign 
of  Servius  TuUius,  used  rude  pieces  of  copper  for  mon- 
ey. In  England,  copper  money  is  of  extensive  coin- 
age. That  proposed  by  Sir  Robett  Cotton  was  brought 
into  use  in  1C09.  Copper  was  extensively  coined  in 
1665.  It  was  again  coined  by  the  crown,  23  Car.  II, 
1672.  Private  trailers  had  made  them  previously  to 
this  act.  In  Ireland,  copper  was  coined  as  early  aa 
1339 ;  in  Scotland  in  1406 ;  in  France  in  1580.  AVood'a 
coinage  in  Ireland  commenced  In  1723.  Penny  and 
two-penny  pieces  were  extensively  issued  In  1797.  The 
half-farthing  was  coined  in  1848. — Ste  Cent, 

Copyxigbt.    See  Books. 

Coraole,  a  small  kind  of  boat,  constructed  of  wick- 
er, and  covered  with  leather,  or  with  cloth  made  water- 
proof with  oil  or  tar.  From  its  extreme  lightness  it 
may  be  transported  on  the  shoulders  from  place  to 
place.  Coracles  are  common  In  Wales.  A  similar 
kind  of  boat  bos  been  used  in  the  East  from  remote 
antiquity. 

CatiX  (Germ.  KwMen;  Du.  Koracien;  Fr.  Cormli 
It.  Corale;  Sp.  and  Port.  Coral;  Russ.  Korattui  Lat, 
CoraOiumi  Arab.  Beted/  Pers,  Merjtm;  Hind.  Moon- 
go),  a  marine  production,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties.  It  was  well  known  to  tbe  ancients,  but  it 
was  reserved  for  tho  moderns  to  discover  its  real  na- 
ture. It  is,  in  fact,  the  nidus  or  nest  of  a  certain  spe- 
cies of  vermes,  which  has  the  same  relation  to  coral 
that  a  snail  has  to  its  shell.  As  an  ornament,  black 
coral  is  most  esteemed ;  but  the  red  is  also  very  highly 
prized.  Coral  is  found  in  very  great  abundance  in  the 
Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  in  various  placea  in  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  etc.  It  grows 
on  rocks,  and  on  any  solid  submarine  body ;  and  it  ia 
necessary  to  its  production  tliat  it  should  remain  fixed 
to  its  place.  It  has  generally  a  shrub-like  appearance. 
In  the  Straits  of  Messina,  where  a  groat  deal  Is  fished 
up,  it  usually  grows  to  nearly  a  foot  in  length,  and  its 
thickness  is  about  that  of  tho  little  finger.  It  requires 
eight  or  ten  yean  to  arrive  at  its  greatest  rize.  Tho 
depth  at  which  it  is  obtained  is  various — fh>m  10  to 
100  fathoms  or  more ;  but  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to 
its  production  tbat  tho  rays  of  the  sun  should  readily 
penetrate  to  the  place  of  its  habitation.  Its  value  de- 
pends upon  its  size,  solidity,  and  the  deptli  and  biU- 


COB  4 

lUne^  of  lU  color,  and  li  so  very  varioui,  that  while 
■one  of  the  Sicilian  coral  eelli  for  ei)(ht  or  ten  Ruineai 
aa  ounce,  other  deecriptions  of  it  will  not  fetch  l«,  a 
poand.  It  if  highly  priied  by  opulent  natives  in  In- 
dia, aa  well  ai  by  the  fair  lex  throughout  Kurope.  The 
Inferior  or  worm-eaten  coral  it  used  in  some  parts  of 
the  Madraa  coast,  in  the  celebration  of  funeral  rites. 
It  It  also  used  nwdioinally,  Besides  the  fishery  In  the 
Straits  of  Messina  already  alluded  to,  there  are  valu- 
able flsherias  on  the  shores  of  Majorca  and  Miniirra, 
and  on  the  coast  of  Provence,  A  good  tl...'.  '  Licui- 
torranean  coral  is  exported  to  India,  which,  however, 
draws  the  largest  portion  of  its  supplies  from  Iho  Per- 
sian' Gulf.  Tho  produce  of  the  flshery  at  Messina  Is 
stated  by  Spallanzani  {Travelt  m  thi  Tiro  SicUiet,  vol. 
W.)  to  amount  to  12  quintals  of  260  lbs.  each. 

The  manner  of  Ashing  coral  Is  nearly  the  same  ever;'- 
where.  That  which  is  most  commonly  practiced  In  the 
Mediterranean  is  as  follows:  seven  or  eight  men  go  in  a 
boat,  commanded  by  the  proprietor ;  the  caster  throws 
his  net,  if  we  may  so  call  the  machine  which  he  uses 
to  tear  up  the  coral  iVom  the  bottom  of  the  sea;  and 
the  rest  worii  the  boat,  and  help  to  draw  in  tho  net. 
This  is  composed  of  two  lieams  of  wood  tied  crosswise, 
with  leads  Axed  to  them  to  sink  them ;  to  these  beams 
is  fastened  a  quantity  of  hemp,  twisted  loosely  round, 
and  intermingled  with  some  loose  netting.  In  this 
condition  the  machine  is  let  down  into  tho  soa ;  and 
when  the  coral  is  pretty  strongly  entwined  in  tho  honip 
and  nets,  they  draw  it  up  with  a  rope,  whieli  thoy  un- 
wind according  to  the  depth,  and  which  it  sometimes 
requires  half  a  dozen  boats  to  draw.  If  this  rope  hap- 
pens to  break,  the  fishermen  run  the  hazard  of  being 
lost.  Before  the  fisliers  go  to  sea,  they  agree  for  the 
price  of  the  coral ;  and  tho  produce  of  the  fishery  is 
divided,  at  the  end  df  the  season,  into  thirteen  parts ; 
of  which  the  proprietor  has  four,  the  caster  two,  and 
the  other  six  men  one  each ;  tho  thirteenth  belongs  to 
the  company  for  payment  of  lioat-hin),  etc.  See  Ainh- 
lie's  Materia  Indica;  Rkrs'  Cyclojiedia ;  Enci/clopedia 
Melropolitana ;  Bell's  Commerce  ofhengal,  etc. 

Cordage  (Germ.  Tauwerki  Uu.  Touwtaerk;  Fr. 
Jfiwouorcf,  Cordagt ;  It.  Caobane ;  Sp,  Jatvia,  Cordaje), 
a  term  used  in  general  for  all  sorts  of  cord,  whether 
imali,  middling,  or  great,  made  use  of  in  the  rigging  of 
ships.  The  following  table  shows  how  many  fathoms, 
fafit,  and  inches,  of  a  rope  of  an}'  size,  not  exceeding 
14  inches,  make  1  cwt.  At  the  top  of  the  tabic,  mark- 
ed inches,  fathoms,  feet,  inches,  the  first  column  is  the 
circumference  of  a  rope  in  inches  and  quarters ;  the  sec- 
ond, the  fathopis,  feet,  and  inches  that  make  up  1  cwt. 
of  such  a  rope.    One  example  will  make  it  plain. 

Snppoea  it  is  required  how  much  of  a  7-inch  rope 
will  make  1  cwt ;  find  7  in  the  third  column,  under 
inches,  or  circumference  of  the  rope,  and  Immediately 
opposite  to  it  you  will  find  9, 5,  6 ;  which  shows  that  in 
a  rope  of  7  inches  there  will  be  9  fathoms  5  feet  6  inchts 
required  to  make  1  cwt 


1 

id 

1 

hi 

1 

III 

1 

480    0    0 

a 

Itt     1     0 

10 

4    6    0 

u 

813    8    0 

14    4' 6 

lot 

4    4    1 

u 

218    8    0 

s 

13    8    0 

\u 

4    2    3 

1* 

IfiS    8    0 

H 

IS    8    9 

4    1    8 

3 

124    8    0 

ei 

It    8    0 

11 

4    0    8 

2* 

OS   a    0 

in 

10    4    0 

Hi 

8    6    T 

«» 

n  8  0 

T 

9    S    < 

lU 

8    4    1 

s» 

<5    4    0 

Tt 

9    1    « 

iif 

8    8    8 

8 

54    0    0 

n 

8    4    0 

IS 

8    8    8 

B| 

4S    6    2 

T» 

8    3    6 

12t 

8    2    1 

39    8    0 

8 

T    8    6 

8    2    0 

H 

84    8    9 

H 

T    0    8 

2    T    8 

4 

80    1    « 

84 

6    4    8 

13 

8    6    8 

I 

2«    6    8 

81 

6    %    1 

13i 

2    4    9 

24    0    0 

9 

6    0    0 

isj 

2    4    0 

91    3    0 

9i 

6    4    0 

13t 

8    8    6 

B 

19    a    0 

9t 

6    8    0 

14 

8    8    1 

lU 

IT    4    0 

91 

6    0    6 

—attGMi*, 


»  OOIt 

Oordwalmn  or  Oordlnnra,  the  term  by  which 
ihoematen  are  designated  In  the  statutes.  The  word 
is  fornicil  from  tlio  French  eonbmnirr,  which  Mteaga 
derivp',  from  cordouaH,  a  kind  of  leather  brought  fttim 
(Jonlova,  and  used  for  the  upper  leather  of  shoes.  Oth- 
ers derive  it  ttom  corde,  rope,  liecauso  shoes  were  an- 
ciently made  of  cords;  as,  indeed,  they  still  aro  In 
some  parts  of  Spain,  under  tho  name  of  alpargale$.  But 
tho  former  etymology  is  evidently  more  proper. 

Cores,  ft  largo  peninsula  of  Asia,  formed  nn  one  side 
l)y  the  Yelluw  8ea,  and  on  the  other  by  tho  Sea  of 
Japan.  It  is  situated  immediately  to  tho  coat  of  Chi- 
na; and  its  length  may  be  cstlmalcU  nt  400  miles, 
by  160  in  average  breadth.  A  great  part  of  what 
was  formerly  supposed  to  be  its  western  coast  was 
found  by  Captains  Hall  and  Maxwell  to  consist  of 
an  immense  archipelago  of  small  islands,  which  have 
since  been  subdivided  Into  sererol  groups,  and  aro 
known  as  Amherst's  Islands,  the  C'orean,  and  Hall's 
Archipelago.  Tho  largest  of  these  is  the  island  of 
Quelpaert,  called  by  the  natives  Mnsa,  in  the  centre  of 
which  there  is  a  mountain  peak  al>out  0000  feet  aliova 
the  level  of  tho  sea.  Tliongh  rocky  and  bare,  Ihcso 
groups  aroforthe  most  part  inhabited.  Tho  peninsula 
itself  is  divided  from  tho  Japanese  Inland  of  Kiusin  by 
the  Straits  of  Cor<>a,  and  by  a  high  mountain  ranga 
called  the  Shanalin  or  Champcshan,  trom  the  country 
of  the  Mantchoos.  It  embraces  an  area  of  about 
06,000  miles,  with  a  populatiun  of  alKtuteight  millions, 
Tho  interior  of  the  country  is  rugged  and  mountainous, 
being  intersected  by  a  lofty  branch  of  tho  northern 
range,  wbfch  in  turn  sends  ofl'  numerous  offshoots  to 
tho  sea.  The  principal  valleys  lie  toward  tlie  western 
and  southern  coasts,  and  these  districts  alone  ei^oy  a 
temperate  climate.  Tlie  eastern  coast  is  bleak  and 
precipitous,  while  the  northern  frontier  is  cold  and  des- 
olate, and  thus  subserves  tho  purposes  of  despotism  by 
cutting  off  all  friendly  communication  with  the  main 
land.  The  principal  products  of  the  country  comprise 
wheat,  millet,  rice,  ginseng,  tobacco,  silk,  cotton,  and 
hemp.  The  three  last  are  exported  both  in  the  raw 
nnd  manufactured  state.  Timlwr  and  cattio  are  plenti- 
fully supplied  from  the  forests  and  pasture-grounds, 
as  well  as  furs  from  the  northern  jungles.  Its  mineral 
wealth  is  said  to  include  gold,  silver,  iron,  rock-salt, 
and  coal ;  and  from  tlio  tril>ute  sent  to  the  Emperor  of 
China — consisting  both  of  bullion  and  manufactured 
articles — the  precious  metals  seem  to  be  wrought  to  a 
considerable  extent.  The  Coreans  resemble  the  Jap- 
anese and  Chinese  in  dress,  habits,  and  religion,  but 
are  said  to  be  as  inferior  to  either  of  these  in  mental 
vigor  as  they  are  superior  in  strength  and  stature. 
Their  mode  of  writing  is  alphabetic,  and  they  arc  said 
to  possess  an  extensive  literature ;  but  as  all  ingress 
into  the  cot^ntry  is  denied  to  Europeans,  and  all  egress 
to  natives,  little  is  known  of  these  particulars.  They 
keep  up  considerable  commercial  intercourse  with  Chi- 
na and  Japan,  whence  they  import  pepper,  aromatic 
woods,  alum,  and  goods  of  Dutch  manufacture ;  but 
most  of  tho  trade  is  managed  by  a  circuitous  overland 
route,  and,  lieing  discouraged  by  the  government,  is 
carried  on  with  secrecy  and  at  considerable  risk.  The 
kingdom  of  Corea,  although  tributary  to  China,  is  gov- 
erned at  will  by  its  own  king — tho  Chinese  emperor 
doing  little  more  than  formally  ratifying  his  decrees. 
It  is  divided  into  eight  provinces,  and  contains,  ac- 
cording to  Chinese  accounts,  161  towns.  The  capital, 
King-ti-tao,  stands  on  the  river  Kiang,  a  small  stream 
which  flows  into  the  Yellow  Sea.  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  king,  and  contains,  among  other  things,  an  ex- 
tensive library.  In  modem  times  a  few  French  mis- 
sionaries have  penetrated  into  the  country,  but  with 
little  success. 

Cork  (Germ,  ^orit;  Vu.  Korl;  Kurk,  Vlothout;  Fr, 
Liege;  It.  Sughero,  Suvero;  Sp.  Corcho;  Port.  Cortica 
(<f«  iSotretro) ;  R]isb.  Korkoicoe  dereteo ;  Lat.  <Suier),  tho 
thick  and  spongy  bark  of  •  species  of  oak  {fiuerotuStf 


COB 


410 


OOR 


Uf,  Linnani)  thnndMit  In  dry  mounUinow  dU(ri«U 
In  tha  south  of  France,  «nd  in  Spain,  PortUKtl.  lUly, 
and  Barbary.  Tha  tree  growi  to  tha  height  or  thirty 
foet  or  more,  hai  a  atrlltini;  resemblance  to  tha  Qutrcut 
Ihx,  or  evergreen  oak,  and  attaint  to  a  groat  age.  Aft- 
«r  arriving  at  a  certain  atate  of  maturity,  It  purlodloal. 
ly  Bhcda  Ita  barli  (  but  tliia  valuably  product  la  found  to 
b«  of  a  much  better  quality  when  It  it  artlAclally  r«* 
moved  <Vom  the  tree,  which  may  be  elhotad  without 
any  injury  to  tho  latter.  After  a  tree  hat  attained  to 
tho  age  of  from  twenty-aix  to  thirty  yeara,  it  may  bo 
barked;  and  tho  operation  may  be  aubaequently  r«> 
peatcd  once  every  eight  or  ten  years,  the  quality  of  lbs 
cork  improving  with  the  incrcaaing  ago  of  the  tree. 
The  bark  it  taken  off  in  July  and  August  |  and  triwa 
that  are  regularly  sttipped  are  said  to  live  fbr  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  or  more.— Poibet,  Hut,  J'hlloiH' 
phique  detPhntet,  tome  vli.  41D.  Cork  it  light,  poraya, 
readily  compressible,  and  wonderfully  eUslio,  It  nmy 
bo  cut  into  any  sort  of  figure,  and  notwithstanding  lis 
porosity,  is  nearly  impervious  to  any  conmion  liquor. 
These  qualities  make  it  auperior  to  all  other  tubttancaa 
for  stoppers  for  bottles,  in  the  manufaotura  of  wlilrh  It 
is  principally  made  use  of.  It  it  also  employed  as 
buoys  to  float  nets,  in  tho  construction  of  life-boala,  tbit 
making  of  water-proof  shoes,  and  in  various  other 
ways.  Before  being  manufactured  into  stoppers,  the 
cork  is  charred  on  each  sido ;  this  makes  it  contract, 
lessens  its  porosityy  and  consequently  fits  It  tha  belter 
for  cutting  oflTallcoinmunication  between  the  external 
air  and  the  liquid  in  tho  bottle,  Spanish  block  it  modu 
of  calcined  cork.  The  cork  tree,  and  tha  uses  to  which 
the  bark  may  be  applied,  were  known  to  tha  tireeka 
and  Komans.  Pliny  mentions  that  the  Romans  *m- 
ployed  It  to  stop  all  kinds  of  vessels  |  but  the  use  of  it 
forthis  purpose  does  not  appear  to  have  been  common 
till  glass  bottles  came  Into  general  use,  whiuh,  accord- 
ing to  Beckmann,  was  not  till  the  fifteenth  century, 
Other  vegetable  productions  have  been  soniotinius  em- 
ployed instead  of  cork ;  as,  for  instance,  the  ipondlai 
lutta,  a  tree  which  grows  in  South  America,  particular- 
ly in  moist  places,  and  which  is  there  called  moiibln  or 
monbain.  The  roots  of  liquorice  are  applied  to  the 
same  use,  and  on  tbls  account  the  plant  is  cultivated 
in  Sclavonia,  and  exported.  A  tree  called  ngiia,  which 
grows  in  North  America,  has  been  found  also  to  aflbrd 
a  substitute  for  cork. 

Considering  it  in  a  politic  as  well  as  in  an  econom- 
ical sense,  seasonable  measures  should  bo  taken  to  form 
in  the  United  States  plantations  of  this  tree,  sufliclent 
for  the  future  supply  of  cork,  partkularly  for  tha  in- 
creasing demands  for  that  material  which  are  likely  to 
•rise  from  the  culture  of  the  vine.  As  a  further  argu- 
ment in  showing  the  importance  of  fostering  this  brahcb 
of  rural  econdmy,  it  may  bo  stated,  that  the  amount  uf 
cork  which  It  yearly  imported  into  the  United  States, 
is  valued  at  more  than  $284,000. 

Cork  Jacket,  an  apparatus  to  buoy  up  the  body 
In  swimn'.lng.  It  consists  of  pieces  of  cork  inclosed 
hetwecn  two  pieces  of  strong  canvas,  ond  Is  shaped  so 
as  to  be  worn  like  a  jacket,  but  without  arms.  It  is 
now  almost  quite  superseded  by  the  air  belt  made  of 
waterproof  cloth.  The  cork  jacket  appears  to  be  a 
very  old  invention ;  for  Plutarch,  in  his  life  of  Camil- 
las, mentions  that  the  messenger  sent  by  that  general 
to  his  fellow-citizens  when  besieged  in  the  capitol, 
made  nse  of  a  cork  jacket  in  swimming  across  the  Ti- 
ber, the  Gauls  being  in  possession  of  the  bridge, 

Cork,  a  city,  parliamentary  borough,  and  river  port 
of  Ireland,  capital  of  the  county  of  Cork,  and  a  county 
of  itself,  on  the  Lee,  eleven  miles  above  the  entrance 
of  Cork  Harbor,  and  187  miles  southwest  of  Dublin, 
Area  of  city,  48,006  acres ;  of  the  municipality,  2flliB 
acres.  Population  of  county  and  city,  or  barony, 
106,065;  of  municipal  borough  (1861),  84,114.  Tba 
city  proper  is  built  on  an  island  formed  by  the  Lae, 
Priadpiil  nuumfikotiutf  are  of  iMther,  iron,  and  otiwr 


mtlsllUi  Meotli,|>lMt,f<tovts,andpap«r,md  tbtrt  ti* 
sum*  NNMiHslva  1ir«w»rlet  and  dIalilUries ;  the  wooltn 
•lid  ttiiUin  itianufMlMrxt,  formtrly  txtensive,  are  now 
all  but  tNllHttti  'I'll*  trad*  Is  extensive,  the  exporta 
cMiialat  itf  «(irH,  Kmtr,  liuller,  and  other  Irish  produce  |  ' 
liii|M(fli  Minslal  ifbltdy  of  manufactured  goods  from 
KilgUnd  I  wilMS,  fruits,  and  salt  l>om  Portugal  and 
ill*  Msdliarrailtiati )  tinilier  from  tho  Baltic  and  North 
Anioriv*,  ( 'ork  iKiinmiinliates  by  steam-packets  with 
l,utldun,  I'ulillll,  Itrlalul,  Liverpool, and  (ilasgow.  Cork 
llurhur  Is  »  lliiti  land-looked  batln.  formed  by  the  estu- 
ary uf  tiM  l^tt,  whioii  la  navigable  to  1^  miles  above 
Cork  uily.  It  It  tariie  and  deep  enough  to  contain  tho 
wliulti  llrlllalt  navy,  and  lias  an  entrance  one  mile 
aiiru»f,wlllilit  wliltfh  lit  breadth  varlea  to  eight  miles, 
it  auttialH*  Mpik«  and  llaulliowllna  lalanda,  on  which 
ara  «rtllt«ry  barrwkt  and  various  ordnance  workt. 
I.N(,  Al"  60  4"  M,,  luiir  H"  19"  W.  On  its  shores  ara 
Ilia  t4)H'iia  «if  (!uv«  and  I'atiage,  with  quays  four  mllit 
III  ImiKlti,  and  «  hluli  w«re  erected  at  a  cott  of  jei00,000. 

Corn  (NantiH  ddrn),  tlie  Krain  or  seeds  of  plants  sep- 
•ralud  friilli  llin  kiiIcm  fir  var,  and  used  for  making  bread. 
AtwurdliiK  lu  Iha  Kurupean  Interpretation  there  are 
aaveral  ii|i(i«l«a  wf  vmn,  such  as  wheal,  rve,  and  barley, 
inilli'l  and  rl«it,  oatit,  tnalte,  and  lentils,  peas,  and  • 
liuilibiir  uf  iitll«r  kinds,  each  of  which  has  Its  peculiar 
qiiNlKltia  Nlld  uii<<flllt>(<Bt,  Kgypt  was  anciently  tha 
most  fm\\»  lit  nil  (olitlli'lcs  III  turn,  This  appears  both 
from  mt^mi  mid  prufiitie  lilniory.  It  supplied  a  consld- 
arablH  purl  uf  llm  pciiplH  tiiliject  to  the  Koman  empire, 
and  was  i'lill«d  tlia  (^'^  inii'ie  (/tlime  and  Ilaly.  Ceres 
lias  tlm  crtidU  uf  lixliitf  llie  first  who  taught  them  tha 
USD  of  eurH,«n  wlilidl  a««t)unl  she  was  ranked  by  tlicm 
M  Ik  d«lly,  Mmm*,  however,  attributed  tht  honor  to 
Tri|it«l«lllHll  I  wllils  ollicrt  award  the  honor  to  loth 
alika,  inaklnif  C'«r«»  the  first  discoverer,  and  Triptula- 
mi«a  tllA  flriit  platll«raild  oulllvaloruf  corn.  Diodorui 
HIdtllua  aM)rll»«(l  ill«  wllule  to  tsis;  In  which,  as  Poly, 
dura  Virgil  Mbi>i<rvei),  lie  does  not  dtfler  from  other  au- 
thurs^l«la  and  (Iitros  Iteing  In  reality  tho  same  person. 
Tha  AlllDlllails  pl'«<(«nd«d  that  It  was  ntnong  them  th« 
art  of  KowltIK  wm  iouk  Its  rise;  and  the  Cretans  or 
Candiula,  Hlfi||lHtii«.  and  Kgypllans,  also  lay  claim  to 
tha  dialilldtliill,  Hume  llillik  the  title  of  the  Siciliana 
best  tumiurl'id,  Niully  being  the  country  of  Ceres;  and 
it  is  ttlliigi'd  llmt  filie  did  not  leach  the  t  ecret  to  the 
AtlietiiaiiH  fill  klie  bad  first  Instructed  he  ■  own  com> 
patriot*,  Ollicrt  swy  iliat  Ceres  passed  first  into  Atti- 
ca, tlieiifw  llilo  (jret«,  Hlid  lant  of  alt  Into  Sicily.  Many 
•ulioUrs,  however,  iiiMlnlalii  that  It  was  In  Egypt  the 
art  of  i-'iiUlviitltiK  corn  first  began ;  and  it  Is  certain 
that  Ibara  wan  mm  In  Kgypt  and  the  East  long  before 
tha  tiiiia  of  OrKK.^^K.  II, 

Mdsti,  Qv  tiiillm  Cvfiii^Among  the  oljecti  of  cul- 
ture ill  tilH  I'tlileii  HlMWj  mtitt,  or  Indian  com,  takes 
pracadaiiiie  In  the  ««ale  of  rrops,  at  it  Is  best  adapted  to 
tba  soil  and  clliitate,  Ntid  furnishes  tho  largest  amount 
of  imtrltWe  twA,  Where  due  regord  Is  paid  to  tlie 
tel«etion  of  V»rl«itleii,  and  cultivated  in  a  proper  soil, 
it  may  be  Aft'oiilited  as  a  sure  crop  in  almost  evary 
portion  of  tlie  Imldlalde  |$tube  between  the  44th  degree 
of  north  lutitude  and  h  correspandlng  parallel  south. 
Ueaidea  Its  produotion  In  this  country,  its  principal 
culture  It  iliiiitfd  to  Mexleo,  the  W'est  Indies,  most  of 
tha  tt«t«i|  of  Moiitli  America,  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
I<ombftrdy,  and  Mtiitli^rn  anil  central  Europe  generally. 
It  is  aliiu  MHltlVHled  with  success  In  northern,  southern, 
and  Vi  tvrii  Afrtcii,  India,  China,  Japan,  Australia, 
and  tlia  MAlldHlili  Islandf,  the  groups  of  the  Azores, 
tlia  Madeiran,  tbe  Oanariee,  and  numerous  othor  ocean 
itleii. 

Alttioutfh  there  liiu  been  mach  written  on  the  East- 
ern oritiill  of  tills  gnUlj  It  did  not  grow  In  that  part 
of  Asia  watered  by  the  Indut  at  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Qreat't  expedition,  m  It  it  not  among  the  produc- 
tion* of  that  mmtiy  wentlmuid  by  Nearchus,  the  com- 
nwndvr  ot  ib*  ImI.    M«ilfa«f  U  it  Mtlwd  b/  Arriaa^ 


COR 


m 


{jm 


Dlodonii,  Colitm«n«,  nor  tn/  MW  m«I«iiI  ■«l1i«r. 
And  «v*n  u  Uu  •■  MUl,  lh«  yiitf  M>it§  CotNmlwi 
dtfcortrwl  Am«rt««,  Ju*n.  ill  CnIi*.  In  hi*  "Ortiu 
BanlUtIi,"  nitkn  no  monilnn  uT  II,  li  Iw*  n«t«f  bcm 
found  in  tny  nnoUnt  liiiiiiihiit,  Mriwtiht||Ni,  or  pft»- 
mid ;  nor  hM  It  awtt  Uwn  ruiiivMnlAl  In  »ny  ancient 
Minting,  ienlptura,  uf  wurk  of  irt.  unmpt  In  Am«rlri. 
Bnl  In  thU  Muntrv,  •uwrillna  In  0»r«tlMa  (to  In  V«g«, 
on*  ofth*  enrliNt  ParuvUn  ntoloHani,  IIm  p»t»im  ^»t- 
dini  uf  th*  IncM  w*n  orn«m«nM4  with  maJM  In  gold 
and  •llvar,  with  all  tlw  icralnt,  uttliid*,  ilallit,  and 
IcnvMi  and  In  an*  ln«tan<i«,  In  tho  "Oardan  of  Mold 
and  Silvtr,"  than  wa«  an  aniln  anm^M  of  oMiiklar' 
abl«  (Ue,  nprtMntIng  tiM  maiiM  In  It*  axaot  and  nat* 
itral  •hapa,  a  proof  n«  I«m  of  Iha  waallh  of  th*  ln«ai, 
than  of  thair  vanaratlon  for  tbla  lm|(ortaiil  main. 

rn  forthar  proof  of  th«  Am«rl4'an  nrlMin  of  tlili  plant, 
It  may  6«  iUt«i  tM  it  la  atlll  found  gtmtint  in  a  wIM 
itata,  ft'om  th*  Kooky  Nountalna,  In  Nnrlh  Amarlra. 
to  tha  humid  foraat  nt  Paracuay,  wham,  Inntcad'  of 
having  aacb  grain  nakud,  a*  la  atwayi  lh«  ram  after 
long  eultlratlon,  it  la  •'onipli'l'ly  nifmit  with  glnmea 
or  Imika.  It  la,  moreovar,  a  w«ll'attlh«nllfat«-d  fid, 
that  malM  waa  found  in  a  atala  of  .  .'ttlrallon  liy  tha 
aborlghiaa  on  th*  iiiand  of  f'uha  at  lh«  tlma  nt  it* 
discovery  by  Colnmbua,  a«  wall  a*  In  moat  other  plaeea 
in  America  Aral  aaiilorad  \ty  RuroMant, 

The  drat  auccaaahi  atfnipt  of  In*  Kngllfti  In  IVoHh 
America  to  culMvat*  thi*  grain  wiM  mail*  nn  Jamat 
Rivar,  In  Virginia,  In  lfl<W,  Tbii  ftdimtulf  Mnl  over 
by  tha  "  I/>ndan  t'onipany"  »t»ptfil  tha  nnwle  then 
practiced  liy  th*  Indiana,  whii'b,  with  nmna  tnndlAra' 
tlona,  h*>  baao  purauad  war  atnfa.  Tim  ylf-ld  at  thai 
time  ia  repra*ant«d  to  hav*  Iwan  from  two  hitndred  to 
cioto  than  a  Ihouaand  fold.  Tlia  »am«  Inrrt^aM  waa 
noticed  by  th*  earlv  a«ttl*ra  In  lllln«l»,  Tha  praaent 
yield,  eaat  of  tha  Rocky  N</unlalni,  whin  Jwdlplniidly 
cultivated,  varia*  f^om  twanty  to  «n«  hundrad  and 
thirty-fly*  buabala  to  an  aor*. 

Tbo  varieties  ot  Indian  com  ar»  vary  nnmafoni,  ex- 
hibiting many  grades  of  sIkh,  solor.  and  conffrrwailon. 
Among  these  are,  (ha  ahrulilty  r*«4  that  grnwa  on  (he 
shores  of  Lake  8u|i8r|ori  tho  giganda  tlalka  of  (he 
Ohio  Valley;  (he  ()ny  aar*.  wlln  Hal,  doW'HInglng 
grains,  of  Canada  |  tM  hrillfaflt,  riiiinilml  lUtte  (icarl: 
the  bright-red  grains  and  whit«  mtU  nt  Ihf  plght-rowed 
hematite;  the  swelling  ear  of  tbo  Ug  wbita)  and  tbo 
yellow  gourd-aaed  of  the  Hmth, 

From  the  flayibility  ot  tbln  plant,  it  may  b«  arcli- 
matiaed,  by  gradual  eulllvatlon.from  T«aat  to  Maine, 
or  fh>m  Canada  to  Draail j  hut.  in  ellbar  e»»t,  ita  char- 
acter ia  aomewhat  obang»4,  an4  oflan  now  varieties  are 
the  reaulta.  The  bla<lea  uf  tba  plant  ar«  of  great  value 
ai  food  for  atoek,  and  form  an  arti«l8  hut  rarely  esti- 
mated aufficlently,  whan  pontidaring  tbo  agrltruttural 
prolneu  of  th*  aotttbom  m4  iotitb<w«at«m  alatos  es- 
pecially. 

The  incraaaa  of  pru'luotion  tmn  1140  («  MM  was 
214,000,000  buab«la,  aqual  lo  M  |«r  eni,  Tbo  produc- 
tion of  New  England  baa  advanwd  from  (),{^»,noo  to 
10,377,000  bushela,  ibowing  an  insrtiM  of  )I,IW4,000 
bushels— nearly  M  per  iwol,  N«w  York,  W«w  iltmiy, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  an4  Maryland  increaeed 
W,812,000  bushels-^moro  than  60  per  ««ni,  In  the 
production  of  this  crop  no  fHato  hu  fitrogradod,  Ohio, 
which  in  X840  occuplad  tba  fonrth  plaea  ai  a  corn-pro- 
ducing stats,  now  ranki  a«  tlt«  Ant  f  Xtfltnoky,  second ; 
Illinois,  third;  T«n»*s»a»,  fourth,  The  wop  of  Illl- 
noii  has  increased  from  M,<W,WW  10  67,WO,OO0  bush- 
ela,  or  at  the  rata  of  flO  per  iwit,  In  ten  yenn. 

Of  tba  numaroua  vari«ti««,  aoma  are  liest  adapted  to 
th*  aoutham  states,  wblla  otbari  ar«  l;«fl«f  aufted  for 
tha  northern  and  aaatem,  TboM  fanerally  eultitated 
in  th*  former  ar*  tba  HoHtbam  Wg  and  Miialt  yellow, 
tha  Sontbam  big  and  amall  wMla^inl,  (ka  yiXmt  Po* 
ravian,  and  tba  Virginia  wbita  gettrdtwad,  In  the 
mora  mitlMrljr  and  uHnif  Htm,  «tM/  atiltivato  tba 


golden  Sieas,  orlTortham  yollow-Hlnl,  tha  King  Philip' 
or  eight-rowed  yellow,  the  (Canada  early  white,  tb# 
Toscarora,  th*  whit*  floor,  and  the  Rhode  Island  whlM» 
flint  flour. 

The  eitanded  eultlratlon  of  thia  grain  Is  ohletlr  etn, 
fined  to  the  eaatam,  middle,  and  western  atatea,  though 
mnch  more  aucceasfally  grown  in  the  latter.  Tha 
amount  exported  fVem  flouth  Carolina  in  1748  waa 
m>,!)On  lioshels;  fh>m  North  Carolina,  in  17S8,  61,080 
hiisbcis ;  from  Virginia,  for  several  year*  preceding 
the  llnvolutlon,  annually,  (KX),000  busliela ;  from  Phit 
adeiphia.  In  17M,  1)0,740  buahcls;  in  1707-'68,  60,ml 
bualiels;  in  1771,  2nB,44t  bushela. 

The  total  amount  exported  from  this  country  In  1770 
waa  D78,849  bushels ;  in  17(M,  2,004,086 huahela, Bfil,09t 
of  which  were  Indian  meal ;  in  IHOO,  2,082,486  bnahela, 
nfln.lfmofwhieh  were  in  meal:  in  1810, 1,140,960  IiubH< 
ela,  8(5,74 1  of  which  y/en  In  meal.  In  1820-'21,  thera 
were  exported  007,277  bushels  of  com  and  ISI.OOO  bar- 
rels of  Indian  meal ;  in  1880l.'»1  ,  571 ,812  bushels  of  com 
and  207,604  barrels  of  meal ;  in  1840-'41,  686,737  bush- 
els of  com  and  232,264  barrels  of  meal ;  in  1846-'46, 
1,286,008  bushels  of  com  and  2V8,790  barrels  of  meal  { 
in  184(U'I7, 111,828,060  bushels  of  com  and  048,060  bar- 
rels of  meal ;  in  1860-'&1, 8,426,81 1  bushels  of  com  and 
208,622  barrels  of  meal.  More  than  11,000,000  bushela 
of  Indian  corn  were  consumed  In  1860  in  the  manufoo* 
ture  of  malt  and  spirituous  llquiin. 

According  to  the  censn*  of  1840,  the  com  crop  of 
the  United  States  was  877,681,976  bushala;  of  1860, 
692,820,612  bushela. 


Alabwna 

ArlunwS 

Calircirnlik 

Oiliimbla,  tXttrlct  of. . 

<!onneetlcut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Oenrgla 

ininol 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kenlucky 

(lOiilaltna 

Maine 

Maryland 

Moaaachusetta 

Mirlilgan 

MlaalsrippI 

Mloaonrf 

New  lUinpablre 

Now,Ter»cy 

SewYork 

North  CaroUna 

Ohio 

I'ennsylvania 

Hhflde  Island 

Oouth  Carolina 

Tenneaaee , 

Toxoa 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wiaeonsin 

Minnesota  Territory , . , 
New  Mexico  Territory. 

(iregon  Territory 

Utah  Territoi7 

Total 


— tr<fr_ 

Suhtla. 

tU,U«7,004 

4,«M,6S!t 

so.'aw 

1J)00,44t 

9,UW,UfiO 

8::8,1IT4 

«»,W)B,1M 

M,«n4,{ni 

S8,16l>,)l8r 
l,*M,Ul 

811,8  tT.ia) 
B,(61.«I9 

<!M,i»a 

s,'2aii,uao 

1,809,103 

2,271,089 

ia,l<l,9ST 

1T,B8S,(U4 

l,l«2,6;i 

4S81,«T8 

10,  •»,!«« 

Sa,6l)B,T0B 

83,008,li4 

14,240,022 

480,409 

14,799,805 

44,980,188 

l,i»,'«T8 

84,677,801 

879,(59 


IndUo  Cora. 


877,681,975 


li 


98,764,048 

8,8911,998 

19,286 

86,980 

1.9a(s04S 

3,146,649 

1,11110,809 

80,080,099 

67,010,084 

69,i;04,sai 

N,(io«,;9» 

6fi,  072.691 

10.««6,878 

1,760,066 

10,i4tt,S{>ti 

2,946,490 

6,041,420 

99,440,669 

S6,914,b87 

1,678,070 

8.760,704 

17,867,400 

27,»41,061 

69,078,096 

19,836,214 

680.901 

16,971,454 

69,1170,998 

6,028,876 

2,032,890 

86,264,819 

1,988,079 

10,726 

846,411 

2,918 

9,899 


609.3^6,619 


Oorn  Irfiwa.  An  adequate  supply  of  breadstuflh 
ia  evidently  of  the  yery  flrat  importance  to  every  coun- 
try, and  should  be  as  regular  as  Is  possible,  since  sud- 
den flncttutions  in  an  article  of  such  universal  neces- 
sity are  injurious,  and  scarcity,  with  the  consequent 
high  prices,  brings  distress  upon  the  poorer  classes, 
and  is  a  fraitful  canse  of  discontent  and  convulsions. 
The  best  means  of  securing  a  sufficient  and  steady  sup- 
ply of  this  article  ia  a  subject  of  some  diversity  of  opin- 
Ion,  and  the  practice  of  governments  has  varied  mueh 
at  diflbrent  times.  One  theory,  urged  by  Adam  Smith, 
bnt  questioned  by  Ur.  Malthui  and  most  others,  ia, 
that  the  government  should  do  absolutely  nothing  id 
the  matter,  on  the  ground  that  th*  farmer*  and  eort 


COR 


Ml 


ooa 


M«r«li*nl(,lf  nnchttktd,  will  ilwayiftmn  oomolTUwi 
•f  (hair  own  InUratl,  Md  that  their  Inttreit  will  coln- 
eide  with  that  of  th«  rmt  of  th«  oominanlty.  Ilut  broad, 
iwatping  tliaoriei  of  thli  lort  ar*  raraly  adopted  In  tha 
pracllual  adnilnlitrallun  of  altkira;  and  a  Ktivemroanl, 
In  inakinK  rafpilatloni  on  thia  lul^oct,  at  on  ovary  othar, 
lodka  at  ill  internal  condition,  tha  character  and  pur- 
miita  of  III  popnlatlon,  and  its  foreign  commarcial  rala> 
lioni  ;  and  though  it  may  not  Judge  correctly  of  the 
bcit  maani  of  laourlng  a  iteady  and  luinciant  lupply. 
Ibis  docs  not  prove  that  a  total  nagluct  of  the  aul^ct 
would  bo  the  wi>e>t  and  the  aafeil  policy  In  all  countrlea 
anil  ut  all  timeii.  It  la  oerlain,  however,  that  very  un- 
wise meaiuras  have  often  baeu  reaortsd  to,  and  some- 
Umcii  tuch  at  tended  rather  to  aggravate  the  evil  than 
to  provide  a  remody.  One  way  to  guard  againit  a  aoar- 
city  is  that  adoplad  by  the  king  of  Egypt  in  the  tima  of 
Joaaph-^tha  purchaalilg  of  com  by  tha  government  In 
tima  of  plenty  at  home,  or  importing  It  ftam  abroad, 
and  storing  It  in  public  magaiinos,  to  !>«  distributed 
■a  the  public  wants  may  demand.  Uut  this  system  Is 
attended  with  great  expense,  and  affbrds  but  an  uncer- 
tain and  inatioquate  provision.  Most  governments, 
accordingly,  instead  of  making  direct  purchases,  at- 
tempt to  provide  a  remedy  by  the  passage  of  laws. 
This  subject  of  grain  legislation  Is  by  no  means  enttru- 
ly  modem.  The  Athenians  hr.d  laws  prohibiting  thv 
exportation  of  com,  and  requiring  merchants  who  load- 
ed their  vessel*  with  It  in  foreign  ports  to  bring  tliclr 
cargoes  to  Athths.  The  public  provision  and  distribu- 
tion of  com  was  an  important  branch  of  administra- 
tion at  Rome,  and  very  intimately  connected  with  tln' 
public  tranquillity.  The  regulation  in  the  supply  of 
com,  and  the  trade  in  tbo  article,  haa  been  a  frultftil 
sul^ect  of  legislation  in  mo<lera  Europe.  But  it  is  to 
be  observed,  that  the  public  solicitude  and  current  of 
legislation  take  this  <llrectlon  only  in  populous  conn- 
tries,  or  at  least  those  in  which  the  population  presses 
hard  upon  the  means  of  domestic  production  of  broad- 
itufTs ;  for  a  country  of  which,  like  this,  the  Aaple  ex- 
ports are  brcadstullk  needs  to  take  no  measures  for  se- 
curing a  supply ;  and,  as  floor  and  Indian  meal  arc 
great  articles  of  exportation  in  tho  United  States,  this 
country  has  bad  no  occasion  for  laws  to  guard  against 
a  famine,  since  tbo  ordinary  course  of  Industry  and 
trade  gives  the  greatest  possible  security,  by  produc- 
ing a  surplus  In  provisions,  which  a  high  price  at  home, 
in  anticipation  of  any  scarcity,  will  be  sure  to  retain 
for  tho  supply  of  domestic  wants.  In  agricultural 
coontries  the  olject  of  solicitude  is  to  supply  the  want 
of  arts  and  mannfactures,  as  in  populous  and  highly 
improved  eonntries  It  is  to  supply  tho  want  of  food. 
But  the  laws  directed  to  this  object  have  been  very 
various,  and  Mma  of  them  contradictory ;  for  as  in 
Athena,  ao  in  England  at  one  period,  the  laws  prohib- 
ited the  exportation  of  com ;  whereas,  at  snother  pe- 
riod, and  for  a  very  long  one  in  the  latter  country,  a 
bounty  was  given  on  the  exportation ;  and  bcth  these 
laws  had  tho  same  object,  viz.,  the  adequate  and  steady 
supply  of  the  article.  For  this  purpose  the  bounty  is 
the  measure  undoubtedly  calculated  to  produce  the  ef- 
fiect  intended,  and  the  permanent  prohibition  of  export- 
ation must  aggravate  the  scarcity  which  it  is  intended 
to  prevent.  Such  a  bounty  tends  to  stimulate  a  sur- 
plus producflon,  and  so  to  give  a  country,  by  this  fac- 
titious encouragement,  the  same  security  in  respect  to 
a  supply  as  results  from  the  spontaneous  intercourse 
of  industry  and  trade  in  Poland,  the  southern  part  of 
Russia,  and  the  United  States.  But  the  objection  to 
the  bounty  is  its  great  expense,  requiring,  as  it  does, 
the  imposition  of  a  tax,  and,  at  the  same  time,  raising 
the  price  of  the  article  to  the  domestic  consumer.  To 
secure  the  advantages  and  avoid  some  of  the  burdens 
of  this  law,  Mr.  Burke,  in  1778,  proposed  the  system 
of  Cora  laws  so  long  adhered  to  In  Great  Britain,  ac- 
cording to  which  Qo  bounty  is  paid,  'but  the  exporta- 
tion of  com  is  permitted  when  it  is  sold  under  •  certain 


price  In  the  home  market.  This  price  Is  determlnad 
by  the  average  sales  In  certain  spaclfled  places  tnt  ft 
given  time ;  and  when  It  rises  above  a  certain  otbar 
flxad  price,  the  importation  is  permitted.  Ily  Mr. 
Burke's  bill,  wheat  might  be  exported  whan  the  prtaa 
was  under  4is.  the  quarter,  and  imported  when  it  was 
over  4I)».  The  hone  grower  Is,  therefore,  sare  to  ha 
free  firom  •  foreign  oonipelltlon  at  any  price  undvr  4««., 
and  this  gives  him  conlidenca  In  pursuing  this  aperlea 
of  ^  uUlvatlon.  Tha  rale*  or  prices  at  which  exporta- 
tion and  Importation  have  since  hrrn  allowed,  haw 
varied  fh>m  time  to  Ihne  very  malrrially ;  but  the 
principle*  of  the  laws  and  their  tlliti  are  the  same.— 
E.  A. 

Hf/orm  <jf  Iht  Com  Lmei  i)f  A^^fmrf.— In  \tK&,  • 
measure  was  adopted  whioh  made  a  wide  breach  In 
the  com  laws.  In  \Wl  the  Legislature  <rf  Canada 
passed  a  law  Imposing  a  doty  of  8*.  a  quarter  on  all 
wheat  imported  into  tlie  province,  unless  from  tha 
United  Kingdom,  stating,  In  the  preamble  to  this  act, 
that  it  was  passed  in  the  expectation  and  belief  that  a 
corresponding  reduction  would  ho  made  in  the  dutlea 
on  wheat  and  wheat  flour  imported  into  the  Ignited 
Kingdom  ftrom  Canada.  And  conformably  to  this  an- 
ticipation, the  act  G  &  7  Vict.  c.  30,  passed  in  1848,  re- 
duced the  duty  on  wheat  Imported  IVom  Canada  to  Is. 
a  quarter,  and  proportionately  on  wheat  flour.  ThI* 
act  met  with  much  opposition  fWim  a  part  of  the  agri- 
cultural Interest  in  England,  who  contended  that  it 
would  lend  to  tho  Introduction  of  nniimitcd  supplie* 
of  corn  from  the  United  States,  at  a  duty  of  only  4«.  • 
((iiarter,  or,  allowing  for  smuggling,  at  perhaps  only 
hulf  that  amount.  But  experience  showed  that  these 
anticipations  were  not  likely  to  be  realised ;  for,  though 
the  Imports  Avm  Canada  were  materially  increased, 
the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  importation  of  com  from 
the  United  States  into  Canada,  and  the  danger  and 
expense  of  the  voyago  IVom  Montreal  or  Quebec  to 
Kngland,  must  necessarily  have  prevented  the  Import- 
ation through  this  channel  tnra  ever  becoming  of 
much  importance.  Still,  however,  ihe  measure  was  In 
so  far  an  abandonment  of  the  com  laws ;  and  if  Great 
Ilritain  was  Justified  in  admitting  the  produce  of  the 
Knited  States  to  her  markets  in  this  indirect  way,  it 
was  not  easy  to  discover  satisfactory  grounds  on  which 
to  exclude  the  produce  of  other  countries. 

The  success  of  the  measures  adopted  in  1842  encour- 
aged Sir  Kobert  Peel  to  attempt  still  more  considerable 
changes  in  1845,  when  he  abolished  the  customs'  du- 
ties on  about  420  articles,  some  of  which  were  of  very 
considerable  importance.  Tho  measures  then  adopted 
were  eouivn^ent,  in  fact,  to  the  virtual  abandonment 
of  the  ,".•')  r.-tive  system;  and,  under  such  circum- 
slanc«.j,Jl  could  not  be  expected  that  the  com  laws, 
on  which  so  serious  an  Inroad  hsJ.  been  made  by  the 
Canada  act,  wonid  he  able  to  maintain  their  place  on 
this  statnte-book  for  any  very  lengthened  period. 

They  might,  however,  have  been  continued  for  soma 
time  longer,  bad  not  the  unsatisfactory  com  harvest, 
and  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  of  1845,  made  it  nec- 
essary to  adopt  measures  for  averting  the  anticipated 
deficiency  in  the  supplies  of  food.  Under  the  critical 
circumstances  in  which  the  population  was  then  be- 
lieved to  be  placed,  the  temporary'  suspension  of  tha 
corn  laws  could  hardly  have  been  avoided ;  but,  if  onca 
suspended,  their  re-enactment  would  have  bien  all  but 
impossible,  and  it  was  better,  perhaps,  by  at  once  pro- 
viding for  their  repeal,  to  make  an  end  of  the  system, 
and  of  the  dissatisfaction  and  agitation  to  which  it  had 
given  birth,  than  to  endeavor  to  continue  it  in  any 
modified  shape.  Such  was  the  v'.ew  of  the  matter  tak- 
en by  Sir  Robert  Peel;  and  lie  fortunately  succeeded, 
despite  difficulties  that  none  else  could  have  overcome, 
in  carrying  the  act  9  ft  10  Vict.  c.  22,  for  Che  imme- 
diate modification  of  the  com  laws,  and  for  their  total 
repeal  at  the  end  of  three  years,  or  on  the  1st  Febraary, 
1849..  From  that  date  wheat  and  other  com  were  sub-' 


COR 


489 


COB 


jMt*d,  on  Importation  Into  (irtst  Dritaln,  In  t  Axtil 
duty  of  !<■  »  >|iMrt*r  j  •nil  Hour  miiI  mimI,  of  nil  wrti, 
to  •  flaml  dulj-  uf  Hd.  •  owl,--K.  U. 

Ootiraoopla  (l<at.  rorHH,  •  horn ;  and  '"pia,  plan- 
ts). In  tlin  lln*  arti,  an  umamoiit  r«prai«nllng  a  bum, 
IVom  wbic'  tua  ttwwara,  frulta,  Uiavei,  and  tha  Itka. 
Tha  origin  U4  tiM  cornuoo|ilK  Iih  ba«n  varluiiily  kIvhii. 
Soma  autbora  hav«  traood  It  to  tha  Infant  daya  of  Jii> 
pitar,  whow  nuraa,  Amaltbaa,  wliitn  ono  of  hur  Koala 
bad  brokan  otT  a  born  agalnit  a  traa,  praaontnd  It  tu 
Uta  god  wn-athad  with  fluwara  and  llllod  with  fruit. 
Banc*  It  bocama  tha  amblaui  of  I'lanI/  ainonH  tha  an- 
danta,  in  which  light  It  l«  ragarded  alio  by  many  mod- 
•rn  nations.  Tha  cornucopia  l»  found  In  tha  typaa  of 
anclant  coini,  particularly  upon  tboaa  of  Sicily. 

Ooraoratton  la  tha  tarm  ganerally  appliad  to  a 
body  or  men  by  apaclal  law  andowed  with  tha  power 
and  maana  of  acting  collectively,  with  tha  dIatlnctnaM 
and  Individuality  of  ona  man  puraulng  the  Uictatua  of 
bia  own  will,  white  their  exUtance  Is  kvpt  up  liy  a  per- 
patual  surceiiian,  lo  that  tho  collactiva  hotly  acta  Ilka 
an  individual  man  with  a  perpetuated  vitality,  Though 
the  corporation  might  b«  deonietl,  from  tha  admiration 
bestowed  on  It  by  professional  writers,  to  be  tha  pecul- 
iar creation  of  English  genius,  tliore  Is  little  doubt  that 
the  system  was  derived  from  the  mu»ici/iia,  uniittrtita. 
tu,  and  collrgia  of  the  Uoniaus ;  and  Ihera  U  even  rea- 
son to  Iwlitsvo  that  there  are  corporations  which  date 
their  history  back  to  the  Institutions  of  tlie  Weatuni 
Empire.  The  adage,  Indeed,  expressed  by  a  Koman 
Jurisprudent,  that  it  required  three  to  mako  a  college 
— tritfaerrt  collegium  (60  l>Ug,  16,  8i) — shows  a  prac- 
tical consciousness  of  the  most  clfectivo  meant  of 
strengthening  the  action  of  a  small  corporation,  la  an 
a^iuatmcnt  by  which  equal  numbers  with  the  chances 
of  balanced  divisions  are  to  bo  avoided,  and  tliat  num- 
ber Is  selected  which  always  aflurds  a  ni^ority  of  two 
to  ono. — K.  U.  Corporations  aro  stated  by  LWy  to 
bava  been  of  very  high  antiquity  among  the  Itomans. 
They  wore  Introduced  Into  other  countries  from  Italy. 
These  political  bodies  ware  first  planned  by  Numa,  In 
order  to  break  the  forco  of  the  two  rival  factious  of 
Sablnes  and  Romans,  by  Instituting  separate  societies 
of  every  manual  trade  and  profession. — PMiTARCii, 

Oorsalr  (It.  curiai-e).  A  term  used  in  the  south 
of  Europe  and  some  other  parts  for  a  pirate  or  his  ship. 
The  corsairs  of  Oarbary  wero  coniinissioncd  by  their 
prince*  to  attack  the  merchant  ships  of  hostile  countries, 
OonrettS,  a  sloop  of  war ;  according  to  some  au- 
thorities, an  advice-boat  with  fewer  than  twenty  guns. 
CoamatlO  (Koa/ieu,  to  adorn),  any  preparation  to 
render  the  skin  soft  and  white,  or  to  beautify  and  im- 
prove the  complexion.  The  word  comutai  among  tho 
Bomans  was  used  to  denote  a  class  of  slaves  whose 
business  it  was  to  dr«ss  and  adorn  tholr  mlslrosses. — 
E.  B.  Preparations  for  improving  beauty  were  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  some  authorities  refer  them  even 
to  mythology,  and  others  to  tbr  Grecian  stage.  The 
Boman  ladles  painted ;  and  those  of  Italy  excelled  in 
heightening  their  charms  artiflcially,  by  Juices  and 
colors,  and  by  perfumes.  Bouge  has  always  been  in 
disrepute  among  the  virtuous  and  well-ordered  women 
of  England,  though  somo  simple  eotmetici  are  regarded 
as  innocent,  and  ate  in  general  use. — Ashe.  The  fe- 
males of  France  and  Germany  paint  mora  highly  than 
most  other  nations. — Biciiauuhox.  In  Great  liritain 
a  stamp  was  laid  on  cosmetics,  perfumery,  and  such 
medicines  as  really  or  supposititiously  boautlfy  the  skin 
or  perfume  tho  person,  and  the  vendors  were  obliged 
to  take  out  licenses,  26  Geo.  III.  178(.— IIayuh. 

Costa  Rloa,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Nicaragua,  from  which  it  U  sepa- 
rated on  the  northeast  by  the  river  San  Juan,  on  the 
•ut  and  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  east  by 
New  Granada,  fh>m  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river 
Cbirigua  entariog  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Cbiriqui 
antaring  tba  Padflc,  and  on  tha  wntb  and  wwt  by  tba 


I'aciAr  I  balwtan  lat.  H°  and  11'  N.,  and  long.  It*  W 
and  84"  W  W,  Area,  about  1H,IMN)  square  miles.  It 
Is  divided  Into  six  dlstriots,  vis.  i  Han  ioti,  Cartago, 
Hnradla,  Al^ucla,  Uuanaraute,  and  I'unta  Annas,  and 
estimated  to  contain  'J1A,imnI  inliatiltants,  iif  wliuni  'iMU 
ara  Indians,  It  1*  Intarsaotud  illagonally  l)y  tha  pri- 
mary range  of  tha  lathinus,  which  throwa  off  immaroua 
spurs  on  either  side,  giving  tu  the  surface  a  cunllnued 
alternation  of  abrupt  heights  and  sudden  depressions, 
i'lie  principal  ranga  has  several  lofty  eminences,  and 
'  also  several  volcanoes,  huih  active  and  dormant.  In- 
cluding those  uf  Oroal,  Votoa,  and  Cartago;  from  the 
summit  of  the  last  of  which  both  tha  I'aelAe  and  the 
Atlantic  waters  are  distinctly  visible.  l>sta  Itlca  con- 
tains some  exceedingly  rich  gold  mines ;  banc*  the  ori- 
gin of  Its  name.  The  mines,  however,  are  now  very 
littlu  wrought.  Niiver  and  co|i|>er  also  exist,  With 
the  oxoepllon  uf  tho  Sfla-t'uusls,  tho  climate  is  mild  and 
temperate,  nuvnr  subject  to  excessive  heats  ur  colds, 
and  rantly  cxjirriuncliig  any  other  vicissitudes  than 
thoso  from  the  dry  tu  the  rainy  season.  It  Is  thers- 
fora  extremely  wall  adapted  to  agricultural  purposes, 
and  capable  uf  bringing  to  maturity  most  of  Iho  plants 
peculiar  to  the  tropics,  and  many  oxotlits.  Tim  sull  Is 
remarkably  fertile,  especially  the  valleys  and  the  tabla- 
landa.  Tho  pruductluns  are  colTee,  I'acao,  Ihclian  corn, 
tobacco,  sugar,  and  sonio  wheat.  The  huracs  uf  C'oata 
Uii-a  are  of  an  Inferiur  deat'rlptlon,  but  the  mulus  are 
much  esteemed ;  and  cattle,  sheep,  k'oats,  and  bogs  ar* 
reared  in  great  numbers,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

Among  the  principal  rivers  of  Costa  HIca  are  th* 
Tempis<|Ue  and  (irande,  falling  Into  the  Day  of  Nlcoya ; 
the  ileus  or  Macho,  which  afterward  takes  the  name 
of  Ituventason,  and  falls  into  the  Caribbean  8ea ;  the 
Malina,  formed  by  the  rivers  Chirripo  and  Harbiila; 
the  Kscudo  de  Voragua,  dividing  Central  from  .South 
America ;  tho  Ilanana,  Tiribee,  and  C'ulabra,  all  (kll- 
ing  into  the  Caribl>ean  Sea ;  tho  Chrico  Mola  or  Clirlck- 
am  Aula,  falling  Into  the  Bay  of  Cheriqul;  tho  Costa 
Itlca  ortian  Carlos,  and  the  Harapiqul,  Into  tho  San 
Juan.  Tlio  Ilaya  Is  a  canal,  believed  by  sume  to  be 
natural,  and  by  others  to  have  been  cut  by  the  aliorig- 
inos,  couimonclng  at  the  port  of  Moln  or  8ult  Creek, 
and  running  parallel  to  the  coast  at  far  as  I'vurl  Kay 
Lagoon,  a  distance  of  IHU  miles. 

Custa  Kica  produces.  In  large  quantities,  mahogany, 
cedar,  Brazil,  and  various  uther  kinds  of  timber.  On 
the  spo-vooat  of  Nlcoya  somo  pearls  and  large  quanti 
ties  of  mothcr-of-|>earl  shells  are  found.  Coffee,  how- 
ever, forms  the  most  important  product  of  the  republic. 
Its  cultivation,  though  only  introduced  about  the  year 
1H80,  has  increased  so  rapidly,  that  8000  to  4000  tout 
are  now  exported  annually.  Tobacco,  which  it  of  ex- 
cellent quality.  Is  a  government  monopoly,  and  is  ex- 
ported In  email  quantities.  The  other  exports  are  gold, 
sugar,  Brazil  wao<i,  mother-of-pearl,  ox  and  cow  hides, 
horns,  etc.  The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  manufac- 
tured goods.  Total  revenue  In  1862, 94M,118 ;  expen- 
diture in  the  same  year,  $416,207. 

The  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  Costa  Ilica  are  regulated  by  the  treaty  of  July  10, 
1861,  and  by  the  local  legislation  of  tha  country.  Tha 
treaty  guarantees  reciprocal  freedom  of  commerce,  and 
places  the  two  countrie!<,  with  respect  to  each  other,  on 
the  footing  of  the  moat  favored  nations. 

Tho  local  commercial  legialation  of  Cotta  Bica  was 
complotely  remodeled  and  materially  modlAed  in  the 
year  1804.  The  decree  by  which  this  was  efltntcd 
bears  data  Augost  81,  1864. 

The  1st  article  grants  liberty  of  commerce  to  the 
vessels  of  all  nations — specifying  certain  descriptions 
of  merchandise  monopolized  by  the  government,  and 
other*  prohibited;  which  are  detailed  in  the  Uriff  of 
CosU  Bica. 

Tho  2d  article  provides  that,  at  the  minor  ports,  tha 
export  of  productions  of  the  country  only  can  b«  per- 
mitted, under  proper  regulationa. 


OOR 


COT 


lt»46' 
II.     It 

»rt«r»[ 
M,  and 

ni-iWO 
h«  prl- 
iiiaroui 
ntlnucd 
eiiluni. 
.-••,  inil 
i»nt,  In- 

and  tha 
(lea  con- 
I  tha  or^ 
low  vary 
„  With 
mild  and 
or  cold*, 
dua  than 

|»  thiira- 
purpoMa, 
till  |i\anta 
t  liu  auU  I* 
the  tald»- 
illan  coin, 
!S  u(  Costa 
inulua  ara 
d  hoK>  ara 
ia\lty. 
ca  «ro  tha 
ofNlcoya; 
I  iha  oama 
n  8«ai  the 
d  BarbtUa; 
from  South 
.ra,  all  Wl- 
aorChrlck- 
,  tho  Cotta 
jito  tha  San 

Homo  to  ba 

tlio  ttlwrlg- 

8ttU  Creek, 
I'curl  Kay 

mahogany, 
Imbar.     On 
,rife  quantl 
Jolfta,  how- 
he  republic, 
lut  tho  year 
4000  toni 
Ich  li  of  ex- 
,  and  l»  ex- 
rta  aro  gold, 
cow  Wdea, 
if  roanufac- 
18;  expeu- 

nlted  States 
f  of  July  10, 

lintry.  Th« 
amerce,  and 

Ich  other,  on 

Ita  Blca  vas 
lllfied  in  the 
eiftctcd 

herce  to  the 

Idescriptions 

nment,  and 

be  Uriff  of 

or  porta,  tha 
foanlMP*!- 


AH,B,  AltlMlklMd«ffhHitl«»^*fto|Ma( 
akall  b«  aaiablltbad,  under  tuah  raguUtlMit  aa  iba  |av< 
ammani  may  daam  III  lu  »dQ\it, 

An.  i.  Al  (Mil  |Mifla,  InUntl  Md  ••pori  eamiiMrea 
only  ihall  ba  allawad,  aMaapt  In  m|NNil  uf  auvh  mar- 
ohandiaa  aa  abatl  ba  monupiaUiwI  by  (ba  guvammant 
orproblbllad. 

Tha  M«iMid  abaptar  of  Ika  law  lontalaa  a  ipaclflra* 
lion  uf  fraa  guuda,  logalhar  wllh  a  Hal  of  prohlbllad 
arilolia ;  among  iha  (brniar  iMlaif  Iha  paraoflal  afllNiM 
of,  or  marsbandiM  aanorlad  for  iIm  u*a  at,  dlplamalla 
aganla  or  Ibair  tulia,  bul  not  Ihaaa  of  Mmaiila  |  aad  In 
Iba  laliar  ara  Ineludad  rum,  lln^anna,  and  mHnlllona 
of  war,  wbleh  van  lia  Imporlad  only  nndar  apMlai  au- 
thorliy.  Tha  moiiuiNilUad  arllalaa  ara  lobaiwo  (In  leaf 
or  nianufaaturad),  iiowdar,  and  aallpaira  |  wblab  eaa 
ba  admlltad  only  on  (ovamHtaiil  aaauunt, 

Thia  law  aaiandt  lu  alalaan  aha|tlara|  and  aurh 
|iarts  aa  apply  lo  navlcallon  and  aammarM  wohIiI  Im 
trantlaiad  and  Intartad  al  laiitflh,  ware  II  not  undar- 
alood  to  have  baan  iiialarlally  mutllflad  by  a  raonnl  da- 
oraa,  of  wbliib  a  aummary  li  given,  wllb  Iha  tariff  of 
Coita  Klea, 

The  I'nitad  llalaa  oonaul  at  Nan  Joad  (Cotla  Klea) 
comniunk'iiM  tl«a  fulluwlug  vbaiigaa,  under  data  Uoto- 
bera,  IHMi 

"  I  have  Iha  konor  to  laabiaa  hatawllb  ae|ilaa  of  three  lie- 
cnn  iMued  by  IbU  (unmiiiMit,  tiMiHlwrvil,  rMi|wll»iil)r,  I, 
1,  and  8.  Nu.  1,  daiad  Nuvniiilwr  14,  l«M,  U  imnif  |irii- 
R>|uln(  til*  llaia  flaail  IW  lit*  iww  UrtlT  (a  miif  uf  wlilch  haa 
bean  IranmilUad),  lo  Uka  odmH  (turn  Iha  In  «f  llartinilwr, 
lUM,  to  Iha  lut  uf  July,  IMA.  No,  *.  uf  lk«  MHia  date,  ra- 
quint,  artlclu  lit,  pravluu*  lii  Iha  laiMiNf  «f  Manl.andlM,  In 
addlllou  to  Iba  manlhal  hanrlaAtf*  pmaanlad  by  Ihe  maalar 
of  anjr  rnaael  arrtvlaa  al  Ilia  iwrt  of  I'HMla  Aranaa,  thai  par- 
mlMlon  lo  dlMuibarfc  liu  uliUlnad  Aula  Iha  •nllei'lor  ul  tua- 
tooia,  and  Ibal  lu  llw  duauiiiaiil  will«lllna  IliU  iwrnilMlon  niuil 
ba  upniMad  (be  <|uallly  and  orlifin  of  tha  nwida  Inlandud  lo 
ba  landed,  and  alw  tliair  niarkal  value  In  llM  porl,  Artlrle  9 
requlrae,  proviuua  to  Ilia  abiaraniHi  »f  a  VMa«f  frnm  luif  port 
of  lbs  rapubllo,  the  prtMuilallon  \iy  Iha  aonManaaa  of  a  man- 
UmI  of  tba  werebandlae  to  ba  vipurlad,  and  Ita  value  In  Ihe 


paet  of  akipiaaat,  Artlrle  t,  uf  Ika  tame,  ra^aUw,  hi  aaaa 
where  a  paifl  utiljr  of  a  aar|o  bee  keea  landed,  Ikat  tha  aaii< 
ilinaai^  prevlniN  to  a  alaarance,  pnaani  aaelliar  '  aeiraalad 
manlfaal,'  ipaalfirbif  Ilia  ((uallljr  and  value  of  the  geodi  that 
hava  bean  landed.  Nn.  a,  dated  Jiiljr  ««,  tlM,  ordara  thai  all 
iMaMtM  aplrtla  landed  In  the  port  of  Paula  Annaa  ba  dapi>e- 
llad  la  Ike  pablla  alona,  and  aiaoto  the  pajrmenl  of  Ainr  eenia 
per  Boiind,  anae  «al|hl,  upon  Iheir  retnovat  tnm  bond.  Ne 
•'arliiar  ahaagee  have  been  made  la  Iha  aunmetelal  ajtale* 
of  tble  repuUla  wllhlu  the  IIom  epeelAed." 

Pur  Iha  laal  Aftaen  yaara  Iha  country  haa  liean  rap* 
Idly  prugreaaing,  owing  lo  Ihe  peacealilu  and  Induatrl- 
oua  aharavlar  of  the  people,  and  tha  moderate  eeuraa 
purauad  by  Ihe  govornmonl.  Many  internal  Improve- 
mania,  principally  In  common  roadt,  have  Iwen  robi- 
pleled  j  and  the  producliona  of  tba  country  have  In- 
vreoaed  ao  that  tha  axporta  now  amoant  to  $1,000,000 
yearly,  white  flftaan  yaara  ago  tbay  amounted  only  to 
about  9100,000.  In  Iba  lama  lima  Iha  population  haa 
been  doubled,  and  may  now  (ISM)  ba  eallmatad  at 
lllUilNH)  lr.haliitanla.  Home  ibw  emigrants,  prinvlpally' 
Oarmana,  have  gone  Into  Iha  oonntryg  but  the  diffl- 
oulllea  met  with  on  Ihe  route  to  Coala  Hica  will  pr^ 
vent  mocb  IniinlKratton.  Tha  two  principal  porta  of 
Coala  Hloa  are  I'linta  Arenaa,  on  tha  tiulf  of  Mcoya, 
and  Matllna,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Montfi. — The  money  of  account  la  the  peao,  or  dol- 
lar, valued  at  the  aame  aa  the  United  Htates  dollar; 
but  soma  are  coined  of  bate  metal,  which  are  worth 
only  76  cents.  At  Venexnela  and  Ecuador,  the  dollars 
ara  similar  to  tboio  of  New  Granada.  1  dolUraag 
reals  (100  cents);  1  real=  16  quartoas:  82  maravadi, 
alao  U  granl.— for.  /'.  J. ./  T. 

Tba  valuea  of  imporit  and  exports  between  Iha 
United  8laleeand  Cosia  Kica  can  not  be  diitlnguished 
from  tboae  given  fbr  Central  America  generally.  The 
Ibllowing  atalemant,  exhibiting  Ihe  general  foreign 
navigation  and  trade  of  Ihe  prineipal  port  of  tba  re- 
public (Punta  Arenas),  furnishes  a  fair  average  annual 
slateniant.  It  may  be  observed,  that  the  values  are 
given  fhim  ships'  roglstera,  or  involcea;  and  are,  eanso- 
quently,  conaiderably  below  Ihe  market  values. 


SMTBuin  uuiaiTiNO  ma  uaaai«li  li'uasuiN  Nitvi«iiTlnii  «Hn  Ta«iiK  or  lua  Poai  or  PvnU  Axaiiaa,  Diiii«»*na  Yaaa 

aaiiiai)  liariMBtaUl,  18  b. 


Kaa-.u.^ 

"'A':' 

United  Watoa 

— ij-' 

Brillah.... 

ft 

Vraneb , 

« 

Bunlah....; ,..,. 

Hamburg ',,,, 

Hanoverian ,,,,,, 

« 

? 

BardlnUn , 

10 

ChllUn ,„, 

i 

Paruviaa .,.,.,,.,,, 

Near  Oranadlan ,,,,,, 

IS 

Ceutral  Amerteaa ,, 

4 

UoatoUloan 

Ift 

Total 

~"M  ' 

4aaivaa. 
NawtM  •< 

TnlM. 

i,44» 


l,MI 


M 

1,94( 

r,«r 


CtMtuoM.  Accounts  of  magnlrtwtnt  allira  rtflir  to 
vary  remuta  antiquity,  Tlia  nuaiuiiia  uf  tba  (iraclan 
and  Roman  ladios  was  cnniuty  and  graiMful.  The  wo* 
men  of  Cos,  whose  luunlry  was  faiiiHUN  for  the  silk- 
worm, wore  a  manufacture  of  luiiuin  anil  silk  of  lo 
beautiful  and  delicate  a  tuxlure,  and  (hair  garmenta, 
which  were  always  wlilla,  wura  mi  itlanr  and  Ibin  that 
their  bodies  could  ba  aaan  through  lliam,'— Ovti>.  As 
relataa  to  coatuma  worn  on  the  slag*,  /KmiIivIui  lbs 
Athenian  was.  It  is  said,  tha  lirst  who  •ravtail  a  regu* 
lar  stage  for  bis  actors,  and  urdarad  Iheir  dresaes  lo 
be  suited  to  their  charactors,  alwut  -IIMI  H.^.^y'iiWan 
Marblt:  Excess  in  dress  was  rnstraiiwd  by  a  law  In 
Kngland,  In  the  reign  of  Kdward  IV,,Hl)A.  Amla„a)(t 
in  the  reign  of  KltsaUiib,  167'<,~Ht<iwk,  Ntr  Waltar 
Baleigh,  wo  are  told,  wura  a  whllu  *alin'tilnkad  vest, 
cloae-aleeved  tu  (he  wrial,  and  iivor  Ilia  iHiily  a  brown 
doublet  finely  flowered,  and  eiiiliruldarad  wllli  pearls. 
In  tba  f«atb«r  of  bU  hat,  a  larga  ml*/  Mid  jmwI  drop 


"iivilMfalaa 


IIUI.SliI) 

n,M)o 

8,000 

sa,iTo 

dT.dM 
40,MN 

88,406 

lt,TM 

4t,0N 

4,T1( 

a«,Tn 

~P»,8U 


at  lbs  bottom  of  tha  sprig,  in  place  el  a  button.  Ilia 
Inweches,  with  hta  atocklngs  and  riliboB  gartcra,  fringed 
at  Iha  and,  all  white ;  and  butt'  skoei,  which  on  great 
court  dayi,  were  ao  gorg-eously  severed  with  precioua 
ttonoa  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  ef  ^fitiOO ;  and 
he  had  a  suk  ef  armor  of  solid  ailver,  with  sword  and 
bait  blaalng  wllh  diamonds,  tubies,and  pearls.  King 
James's  favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  could  aUbrd 
to  have  hls'  diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when 
ho  chose  to  shake  a  few  off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained 
all  the  fame  ho  desired  from  the  pickera-up,  who  were 
|b,'CRerally  If  damu  dt  la  Cvtir.— Haydn. 

0«tt>  or  Cot,  a  particular  sort  of  bed-frame,  sus- 
pended from  Ike  beams  of  a  ship,  between  decks,  fur 
(ha  officers  to  sleep  In.  It  conaiils  of  a  large  piece  i:f 
canvas  lewed  into  the  form  of  a  cheat,  about  six  feet 
long,  one  foot  deep,  and  three  feet  wide,  and  is  extend- 
ed by  a  square  wooden  frame  with  a  canvas  bottom,  and 
tiiaa  primlpally  in  tba  waid-room  of  a  maiMfrww* 


CSOT- 


*H 


COfSS 


Cottoa.  ThU  article  will  be  coiiaidered  under  the 
general  beada  of  I.  Species  and  Places  of  Production, 
II.  Cotton  Climate  :  1.  Of  the  World  ;  2.  Of  the 
United  SUtes;  8.  Nile;  4.  Algeria;  6.  Africa;  6.  The 
Mediterranean;  7.  British  India.  III.  Cotton  Trade 
of  the  United  SUtes:  1.  History;  2.  Statistics.  IV. 
Cotton  Trade  of  the  United  States  with  1.  Great  Urit- 
ain;  2.  France;  3.  Spain;  4.  Hanse  Towns;  '5.  Bel- 
gium ;  6.  Sardinia ;  7.  Switzerland  ;  8.  Kussin ;  9. 
Sweden ;  10.  Portugal ;  11.  Brazil ;  12.  Egypt ;  13. 
Maklco.     V.  Capacity  of  the  Cotton  Bale. 

Cotton'  &Ia»ufactiibk£  will  be  treated  under  its 
proper  head. 

i.  SrEciEs  AND  Places  of  Proddction  op  Cot- 
ton.— Cotton  (Goui/piuiH)  is  a  vegetable  down  of  ex- 
quisite softness,  with  beautifully  line  fibres,  and  is  an 
indigenous  product  of  nil  intertropical  regions.  Lin- 
neus  subdivided  tho  cotton  plant  into  livo  speciea: 
1.  Oottj/piuin  htrbaceum !  2.  G.arbvnum;  3.  6'.  hirtu- 
turn ;  4.  (J.  religmum ;  5.  (J.  Barbadenie. 

Other  authorities  have  enumerated  as  many  as  ten 
species,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  the  division  into 
three  classes  will  be  sutliciently  minute.  Tlie  varieties 
are  exceedingly  numerous;  yet  of  those  most  widely 
diffused,  kerbactouf  cotton,  lArub  cotton,  and  tree  cot- 
ton need  only  be  especially  referntd  tx>.  Tho  most  use- 
ful cottou  is  tho  herbacnouB,  which  is  an  aunual  plant, 
cbietly  cultivated  in  tho  United  States  and  jn  the  East 
Indies.  It  grows  from  two  to  five  feet  in  height,  is 
rich  in  foliage,  and  its  fibrous  fruit  is  preceded  by  flow- 
ers, of  white  or  pale  yellow  color,  like  those  of  the  con- 
volvulus. As  the  flowers  fade,  a  pod,  or  capsule  is 
/oruied  of  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  containing  tho 
fibre*  of  cotton,  and  as  the  pod  ripens  it  expands,  and 
itlie  •■o.w-wliite  fibres  burst  forth  ready  to  bo  gathered. 
1.  TA»  Ilfrbaceout  Cotton. — This  plant  grows  to  tho 
height  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches,  Avith  leaves 
of  dark  green,  bluo-veined,  and  flve-lobod.  Tho  flower 
is  •  pale  yellow,  one  pistil,  livo  petals  or  leaves,  purple- 
apotted  ft  tba  bottom.  On  the  falling  of  tho  flouer  a 
pod  of  triangular  shape  and  triple  shell  is  developed. 
He  pod,  in  course  of  ripening,  bursts,  discloses  a  snow- 
white  or  yellowish  ball  of  down,  in  three  looks,  inclos- 
ing and  tightly-adhering  to  tho  seeds,  which  resemble 
those  of  the  grape,  though  of  several  times  tho  size. 
The  seed  is  planted  in  spring,  and  the  cotton  gathered 
at  fall.  The  rows  in  the  fields  are  five  or  eix  feet  apart; 
the  distance  of  the  holes,  in  which  several  seeds  are  de- 
posited, is  about  eighteen  inches.  Much  care  in  weed- 
ing, thinning,  and  pruning,  is  required  durin/;  tho 
process  of  culture.  TIhk  is  tho  course  pursued  in  tho 
United  States,  which  has  the  advantage  over  that  pur- 
sued in  India,  by  producing  a  cotton  vastly  more  val- 
uable. A  field  of  cotton  at  the  gathering,  snys  Mr. 
Balnea,  when  the  globes  of  snowy  wool  are  seen  among 
the  glossy  dark  leaves,  is  singularly  beautiful ;  and  in 
the  hottest  countries,  where  the  yellow  blossom  or  flow- 
er and  the  ripened  fruit  are  seen  at  the  same  lime,  the 
beauty  of  the  plantation  is,  of  course,  still  more  remark- 
able. The  herbaceous  cotton  is  grown  to  the  greatest 
extent,  and  said  to  bo  cultivated  in  nearly  every  coun- 
try congenial  to  the  gossypiuni,  existing  even  at  Alep- 
po, in  Upper  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Senegal. 

2.  The  Hirtutim,  or  Shrub  Cotton. — It  is  said  to  grow 
wherever  the  herbaceous  is  found,  and  to  vary  accord-- 
ing  to  climate,  being  biennial  or  triennial  in  the  West 
Indies,  lasting  from  six  to  ten  years  in  India  and  Egypt, 
perennial  in  the  hottest  climates,  and  in  the  mildest 
cotton  regions  an  annual.  The  shpib  cotton  is  likened 
to  a  curront  bush,  and  is  of  several  varieties.  The  hir. 
tutum,  a  low  shrul)  nircady  mentioned,  tliu  Indicvm,  at- 
taining ten  or  twelve  feet ;  the  vitifolium,  of  the  south 
of  France  and  South  America;  tlie  relii/iosum,  of  Suri- 
nam and  India ;  the  la'lfiiliiim  of  the  West  IndicH ;  the 
Barhadenu  of  Barbadoes ;  and  the  I'eruvian.  The  pod 
of  tho  shrub  cotton  differs  from  that  of  the  herb  in  l)e- 
\ng  egg-shaped.    Tha  Ouiana  and  Brazil  cottcn  is  of 


this  kind,  and  is  said  to  yield,  in  tha  hotlsst  conntrits, 
two  crops  a  year. 

8.  The  Arboretcml,  or  Tree  Cotton. — ThU  remark- 
able plant  is  of  Indian,  Chinese,  Egyptian,  and  Amer- 
ican growth.  The  height  of  tlio  tree  varies  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet.  Marco  Polo  describes  tha  treo  at  (juz> 
erat  six  yards  high,  and  bearing  fruit  for  twenty  years. 
There  is  a  tree  described  la  South  America,  Indian 
Isles,  West  Indies,  and  on  the  Guinea  coast,  of  a  hun- 
dred feet  high,  bearing  a  silky  cotton,  only  useful  for 
making  quilting  and  beds.  Tho  justly-celebrated 
Amtri.an  lea-uland  cotton  is  derived  from  the  urbore- 
u»>.  Its  fibre  is  long,  strong,  silky,  and  of  a  yellowish 
tinge.  Tile  seed  is  black  and  of  Persian  origin,  though 
originally  introduced  into  this  country  from  the  Baiia- 
ma  Islands,  where  it  had  been  introduced  by  the  Board 
ofTrado  from  Anguilla,  an  island  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
This  cotton  was  raised  first  in  Georgia  in  1796,  and  tho 
first  bag  exported  by  Alexander  Biscui,  of  St.  Simon's 
Island,  two  years  after.  The  section  of  country  caj)a- 
ble  of  producing  this  staple  is  very  limited,  being  con- 
fined to  tile  low  sandy  islands  along  the  coast  of  Suulh 
Cii-olina  and  Georgia,  from  Charleston  to  Savannah. 
Tho  quantity  grown  in  1806  and  in  1882  was  precisely 
the  same. 

In  tho  United  States  tho  seed  of  the  herbaceous  cot- 
ton is  sown  generally  in  the  montl>.?  of  March  and 
April,  and  its  marketable  fruit  is  usually  gathered 
in  the  period  commencing  witli  August  and  tcriuinat- 
ing  with  tho  year.  Boweds  and  Orleans  cottons  con- 
stitute the  great  productions  of  tho  United  Stat>.'S,  and 
aro  recognized  in  tho  English  and  European  markets 
as  "  American  cotton."  .  These  cottons  aro  cUiviiy  cul- 
ti\'ated  in  the  great  valley  of  tho  Mississippi,  tho  fields 
of  its  growth  now  extending  to  Texas.  Tho  cultiva- 
tion of  cotton  in  the  United  States  is  moat  scientilically 
and  industriously  pursued,  and  is  attended  with  highly 
profitable  results,  the  value  of  tho  crop  being  little  less 
than  {<  15(1,000,000.  It  is  expected  that  in  1856  tho  en- 
tire crop  will  amount  to  3^  millions  of  bags,  of  more 
than  4M  lbs,  each.  But  the  skill  of  the  American 
planter  lias  been  most  conspicuous  in  tho  production 
of  fine  sea-islnnd  cotton.  Tho  seed  of  this  cotton,  which 
is  also  an  annual  and  herbaceous  plant,  was  obtained 
in  1786,  in  the  Bahama  Islands,  where  it  had  been  in- 
troduced from  the  West  Indies,  and  was  first  cultivated 
in  Georgia.  Tho  small  islands  which  extend  along  tlio 
Americnn  coast  from  Charleston  to  Savannah  were 
found,  from  their  sandy  soil  and  contiguity  to  tho  sea, 
to  be  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  exqui- 
sitely fine,  long,  and  strong-stapled  cotton.  This  cotton 
soon  acquired  great  and  deserved  celebrity.  A  great 
demand  arose  for  it ;  but  from  the  limited  extent  of 
tho  islands  upon  which  it  can  l>e  grown,  and  tlic  ex- 
pense attending  its  cultivation,  it  can  only  bo  supplied 
at  a  comparatively  higli  |iricc.  Ilcnco  tho  production 
of  this  cotton  was  not  susccptildo  of  indefinite  cxtonsion 
like  tho  shorter-stapled  cottons  of  tlie  United  States ; 
and  from  tho  beginning  to  tlio  middle  of  the  present 
ccntur}-  the  total  yearly  amount  of  tho  crop  bus  not 
greatly  varied,  tho  annual  yield  averaging  about  ten 
millions  of  pounds  weight.  From  tlio  circnmstancu  of 
the  seed  of  this  cotton  having  been  first  introduced  into 
Georgia,  it  was  consequently  called  Georgia  cotton, 
though  its  cultivation  had  only  been  successful  upon 
the  sea-coast  of  that  state.  Its  celebrity,  however, 
caused  it  to  lie  planted  upon  the  high  lands  of  Georgia, 
where  it  was  found  to  de).  »nerute ;  but  still  the  quality, 
though  shortened  in  staple,  was  found  to  bo  of  a  desir- 
able class,  and  it  acquired  the  name  of  uplands,  or 
bowed  tinorgitt  cotton,  while  tlie  some  seed  yielded  the 
famed  sea-Island  cotton.  Here  it  may  be  observed  timt 
a  humid  atmosphere  and  a  sandy  soil  seem  most  con- 
ducive to  the  production  of  good  useful  cotton;  but  for 
the  growth  of  very  fine  and  long  stapled  cotton  an  im- 
pregnation of  salt,  both  in  the  soil  and  in  the  air,  ap- 
pears to  be  indispensable.  „.„.„.,  ..„.^..    .„  ,,. 


COT 


485 


COT 


Without  the  energy  of  the  American  planter,  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive  the  poesibility  of  the  cotton  inde 
nf  England  and  of  the  world  attaining  the  extent  and 
iiiiportan  :a  which  It  now  poweases.  As  the  colonics 
of  Great  Britain — the  West  Indies  in  particulai — pos- 
sessed all  the  natural  advantagns  of  so'l  and  cllr.iate 
for  producing  cotton  to  an  extent  much  beyond  the 
probaliio  consumption  of  the  United  Kingdom,  it  might 
reasonably  liave  been  inferred  that  the  colonial  inter- 
ests alone  would  have  stimulated  the  cultivation  and 
production  of  cotton  to  supply  the  certain  and  increas- 
ing homo  demands  of  the  constantly-enlarging  manu- 
factories. Whether  the  fatality  of  protection  to  tlie 
English  colonies,  maladministration  of  colonial  affairs, 
or  supineness  on  the  part  of  the  colonists  tliemselves, 
produced  the  indilTcrence  which  caused  an  urticle  of 
increasing  importance  lilte  cotton  to  be  neglected  when 
renmncrativo  markets  wore  opening  for  indeflnite  sup- 
plies of  it,  may  be  wisely  inquired  into,  not  to  remedy 
the  piist,  but  for  the  purpose  of  asrcrtainlng  how  far  a 
new  and  profitable  direction  may  he  (jivcn  for  the  fu- 
ture to  colonial  labors  and  olVorts;  for  the  stigma  will 
remain,  that  while  arts  and  inventions  were  lieing  de- 
veloped at  home,  which  became  the  sources  of  great 
national  wealth,  the  cultivation  of  the  material  on 
which  to  exercise  the  skill  and  labor  of  her  working- 
clnsscs  had  to  be  sought  and  obtained  from  a  foreign 
source. 

In  the  British  East  Indies  the  cultivation  and  man- 
nfactura  of  cotton  have  certainly  existed  longer  than 
in  ony  other  country.  For  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  cotton  was  largely  used  in  the  domestic 
manufactures  of  India,  and  the  clothing  of  the  Hindoos 
then  consisted  chiefly  of  garments  nir.d  s  from  that  veg- 
etable product.  'Earliest  in  possession  of  the  herba- 
ceous cotton  plant,  tho  natives  of  India  were  enabled 
to  manipulate  its  fibres,  and  to  establish  a  cotton-man- 
ufacturing industry  which  hns  remained  almost  un- 
cliangcd  to  the  present  time.  More  than  two  thousand 
yciirs  before  Europe  or  England  conceived  the  idea  of 
applying  modem  industry  to  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton, India  had  matured  a  system  of  hand-spinning, 
weaving,  and  dyeing,  which,  during  that  vast  period 
of  time,  received  no  recorded  improvement.  W'itli  a 
plant  indigenous  to  tho  soil,  and  a  people  remarkable 
for  iutt'liigcnce  when  Enropo  was  in  a  state  of  barba- 
rism, it  is  wonderful  that  no  approximation  was  made 
to  tlio  mo>-iianicai  manufacturing  operations  of  modern 
times,  and  still  more  strange  thiittho  agricultunil  pro- 
duction of  cotton  should  not  within  tliot  period  have 
been  improved  ond  considerably  enlarged.  The  cotton 
of  India,  during  its  known  existence,  can  only  lie  re- 
garded as  n  material  for  manufacture  greatly  inferior 
to  the  like  jiroductions  of  other  countries.  India  un- 
questionably possesses  soil,  climate,  and  all  the  requi- 
site elements  from  nature  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
tu  an  almost  boundlcEis  extent,  and  uf  a  quality  which 
ml^'lit  lie  must  useful  and  acceptable  in  the  manufac- 
tures of  Europe,  and  even  of  America.  During  a  scries 
of  years  tho  weight  of  cotton  grown  in  tho  East  Indies 
and  consumed  in  Great  Britain  may  have  been  one- 
tcntli  of  the  whole,  while  the  value  can  not  lie  estima- 
ted at  moro  than  one-twentieth  of  the  total  cost  of 
home-consumed  raw  cotton.  The  British  West  Indies 
supply  only  small  portions  of  tho  cotton  required  by 
tlic  manufacturers  of  the  United  Kingdom,  though  the 
quality  of  tho  cotton  there  produced  is  excellent ;  and 
woul<l  bo  very  largely  bought  and  consumed  if  it  were 
largely  supplied.  For  a  considerable  time  tho  British 
colunics  have  not  supplied  more  than  nnc-twentieth 
part  of  the  British  consumption  of  cotton,  and  yet  in 
the  possession  of  Great  Britain  there  exists  a  greater 
extent  of  land  suited  to  the  growth  of  cotton  than  in 
any  other  dominion.  At  Port  Natal  cotton  of  excellent 
quality  might  be  grown  to  any  reasonable  extent ;  and 
in  Australia,  cotton  equal  to  the  finest  of  the  fine  might 
bo  produced  to  an  almct  indefinite  amount. 


Tho  moat  remarkable  fact  is,  that  although  cotton 
was  cultivated  In  gardens  fVom  remote  antiquity  In 
China,  yet  this  ingenious  people  never  turned  it  Into 
any  account  until  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  at 
which  time  its  manufacture  among  them  began. 

The  fallowing  passages  Ooni  the  narratives  of  those 
who  hav'j  visited  India,  are  replete  with  interesting  In- 
formation on  the  suliject  before  us.  Marco  Polo  found 
cotton  in  Guzerat  in  large  quantities,  taken  from  a  tree 
about  six  yards  high,  and  bearing  for  twenty  years. 
The  cotton  fhim  a  tree  of  this  age  is  adapted  only  to 
quilting,  but  that  taken  tnm  trees  of  twelve  years  is 
suitable  for  muslins  and  other  manufactures  of  extraor- 
dinary flnenesa.  Sir  John  Mandeville,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  later  by  fifty  years  than  Polo,  says,  that  in 
many  places  tho  seed  of  the  cotton  in  India  which  we 
call  tree  wool,  is  sown  everj'  year,  and  there  spring  np 
from  it  copses  of  low  shrubs  on  which  the  wool  grows. 

A  luxuriant  field,  says  another,  exhibiting  at  the 
same  time  the  expanding  blossom,  the  bursting  cap- 
sule, and  the  snowy  flakes  of  ripe  cotton,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  objects  in  the  agriculture  of  Hindostan. 
Malte  Brun  is  equally  instructive  on  the  point :  "  The 
cotton  tree  grows  on  all  the  Indian  mountains,  but  its 
produce  is  >-  ~no  in  quality ;  the  herbaceous  cotton 
prospers  cl'ifly  in  Bengal  and  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast,  and  there  the  best  cotton  goods  are  manufac- 
tured. Next  to  these  two  provinces,  Aladure,  Mara- 
war,  Pescaria,  and  the  coast  of  Malabar  produce  the 
finest  cotton.  The  plant  is  cultivated  in  every  part  of 
India;  the  finest  grows  in  the  light,  rocky  soil  of  Guz- 
erat, Bengal,  Oude,  and  Agra.  The  cultivation  of  this 
plant  is  very  lucrative,  an  acre  producing  about  nine 
quintals  of  cotton  annually." 

Brazil  is  an  extensive  cotton-growing  conntry,  and 
sends  steady  supplies  of  it  to  tho  European  markets. 
The  quality  of  its  cotton  is  every  where  highly  esteemed. 
Persia,  Spain,  Italy,  Malta,  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
are  all  capable  of  producing  excellent  cotton ;  but  in 
.\frica  there  are  probably  greater  uhdeveloped  resources 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  than  can  be  found  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  globe.  The  example  of  Egypt  is 
a  great  lesson  for  the  governors  of  those  countries 
whose  agricultural  resources  remain  undeveloped.  In 
IS21,  Mchemet  Ali  conceived  the  possibility  of  effect- 
uolly  cultivating  cotton,  and  succeeded.  From  that 
year  to  tlie  present  time  largo  supplies  of  that  usefkil 
and  now  indispensable  raw  material  have  been  ob- 
tained from  Egypt,  to  the  great  convenience  of  the 
British  manufacturer,  who  has  found  the  quality  sec- 
ond only  to  the  sea-island  cotton  of  the  United  States. 

Tho  herbaceous  cotton  plant  unquestionably  exhili- 
its  nil  tho  desirable  qualities  of  cotton  applicaiile  to 
manufactures,  as  jirovcd  by  the  productions  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  East  Indies.  The  cottons 
produced  in  tho  West  Indies,  in  Brazil,  and  in  Egypt, 
urc  from  the  shrub ;  and  it  is  observed  that  the  older 
the  plant  the  coarser  become  the  fibres.  Tree  cotton, 
as  a  marketable  prod\ict,  is  almost  nnknown ;  liut  in 
Borneo,  and  in  nmny  other  tropical  regions,  tlic  plant 
on  whicli  it  grows  is  fuimd  flourishing  in  n  wild  state. 
To  insure  economy  of  culture,  and  of  gathering  the  cot- 
ton as  it  opens  and  ripens,  it  is  evident  that  the  plant 
and  the  shrub  are  most  accessible,  and  that  the  tree 
can  not  nlwa_\  s  lie  cither  safely  or  conveniently  climbed 
to  obtain  its  downy  fruit. 

In  Central  Africa,  cotton  has  also  been  a  staple 
growth  since  the  date  of  our  earliest  records.  It  Is 
mentioned  by  travelers  as  abundant  on  the  banks  nf 
l!ie  Senegal,  the  (iambia,  and  the  Niger,  at  Timbuctoo, 
Sierra  Leone,  the  Cape  de  Verd  Isi:iiid»,  on  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  and  in  Aliyssinia.  In  hot  clinmtcs,  also, 
says  nil  authority,  the  cotton  plant  grows  so  abundant- 
ly, that  this  is  the  cheapest  material  of  which  cloth  can 
lie  made.  With  such  recommendations,  it  can  not  fail 
to  continue  the  staple  and  universal  manufacture  of 
Africa. 


COT 


486 


ccrr 


lo  modem  tlnien,  no  material  on  whisk  the  indaitry 
•f  manliind  is  exerted  cmn  be  compared  with  the  vaat 
inportaaca  of  that  benelicent  gift  of  Providence,  cot- 
ton. HUlioni  of  our  fellow-creatures  depend  upon  its 
cultivation  and  manipulation  for  support.  Capitalists 
•mbark  in  its  production  and  manufacture,  as  also  in 
ita  trading  and  mercantile  distribution.  National  re- 
sources are  enlarged  and  benefited  by  it ;  and  to  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  it  has  proved  a  fbuntain 
of  wealth,  from  which  streams  of  prosperity  have  flowed 
from  the  time  of  its  first  introduction  as  an  agent  of  la- 
bor and  traffic  lo  the  present  moment. 

TIm  upland  cotton  is  a  diAerent  species  from  the  sea- 
island,  and  is  separated  with  such  difficulty  from  the 
seed,  that  the  expense  of  cleaning  the  wool  must  have 
put  a  atop  to  it*  further  cultivation,  had  not  a  ma- 
chine, by  which  the  operation  of  cleaning  is  easily  and 
successfully  accomplished,  been  invented.  Tliis  ma- 
chine was  invented  in  1705  by  Mr.  Eli  Whitney  of 
Massachusetts.  There  are  two  qualities  of  the  cot- 
ton —  the  one  termed  Upland  Georgia,  grown  in  the 
states  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina;  and  the  other, 
of  superior  quality,  raisr  i  upon  the  l>aiiks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  dictinguished  in  the  market  by  thu  name 
of  New  Orleans  cotton.  A  strong  prejudice  existed 
for  some  lime  against  the  upland  wool,  which  was 
thought  to  be  of  inferior  quality,  and  not  to  take  a 
good  color  in  dyeing;  but  being  found  suitable  to  dif- 
ferent coarse  fabrics,  its  cultivation  was  so  rapidly  ex- 
tended, that  in  1807,  56,018,448  lbs.  of  upland  cotton 
were  exported  from  the  United  States. 

The  cotton  of  the  tinost  quality  ever  brought  to  the 
English  market,  or  probably  ever  grown,  was  that  for- 
merly mentioned  as  having  been  raised  in  the  island 
of  Tobago,  between  the  years  1789  and  1792,  upon  the 
•state  of  Mr.  Robley.  That  gentleman  carried  the  cul- 
tivation of  this  article  to  some  extent ;  but  the  price 
of  cotton  falling  very  low,  and  the  cultivation  of  sugar 
becoming  extremely  profitable  in  consequence  of  the 
destruction  of  the  sugar  plantations  in  the  French  isl- 
ands, he  was  induced  to  convert  his  cotton  grounds  into 
•  sugar  plantation.  The  production  of  cotton  of  this 
very  fine  description  has  hardly  over  been  attempted 
by  any  other  person,  although  it  is  believed  that  the 
price  it  would  yield  would  amply  repay  its  expense. 

Until  about  the  year  1816,  it  was  thought  that  the 
cotton  wool  of  India,  from  tlie  shortness  of  its  staple, 
could  not  be  spun  with  advantage  upon  machinery; 
and,  in  consequence,  the  greater  part  of  the  Indian  cot- 
ton was  spun  upon  the  couimon  jenny,  and  used  as  weft 
for  the  coarsest  calicoes.  It  was  discovered,  however, 
that  by  mixing  it  with  the  longer  stapled  wools  of  other 
countries,  it  might  be  brought  into  a  state  fit  for  the 
mule  and  spinning  frames. 

The  United  States  consul  at  Naples,  in  answer  to 
the  cotton  circular  issued  by  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, says :  "  The  cotton  cultivi '  ^d  in  the  plains  near 
Castelamari,  Angri,  Scafata,  and  Nocura,  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  plant  is  small  and  an- 
nual, and  is  cultivated  with  so  much  advantage  that 
various  projects  by  companies  have  been  started  to 
give  extension  to  its  cultivation;  but  without  being 
carried  into  execution.  It  has  been  cultivated  fcr 
more  than  ten  years.  Before  the  French  occupation 
there  was  a  very  limited  quantity,  but  during  the  Ber- 
lin and  Milan  li^crees  of  Napoleon,  the  cultivation  in- 
creased very  i.ipidly,  and  the  price  reached  a  dollar  a 
pound,  though  it  had  to  be  sent  by  land  to  Lombardy, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  The  quantity  has  since  de- 
creased. I  have  not  been  able  to  leam  whether  the 
French  introduced  seed,  or  sowed  such  as  they  found 
here;  but  the  cotton  fibre  has  not  deteriorated  either 
as  to  length,  strength,  or  uniformity.  On  the  contra- 
ry, the  quality  has  improved. 

"About  two  millions  of  pounds  are  produced  here. 
Ib  Sicily,  to  the  south  of  the  island,  the  cultivation  is 
greater  than  in  Naples.     In  past  times,  small  quanti- 


ties of  Artton  wtra  shipped  to  Manellies,  but  s!nc« 
manufactures  liave  increased  here,  it  is  all  consumed 
in  the  country.  The  most  extensive  manufacturers 
(Vonwiller  &  Co.)  import  annually  from  the  United 
States  two  cargoes  of  cotton,  of  moderate  size,  besides 
quantities  indirectly.  Much  twist  is  imported  from 
England.  Manufactures  are  improving,  but  are  still 
far  from  reacliing  such  perfection  as  to  otter  any  induce- 
ment to  export  them. 

"  The  price  of  ginned  cotton  is  about  14  to  16  cents 
per  pound.  The  cultivation  is  protected  by  a  duty  of 
|8  per  cantar  of  196  lbs.  English  if  introduced  direct 
from  the  United  SUtcs,  and  (16  if  indirect.  It  is 
ginned  by  the  ordinary  roller  and  by  hand,  as  well  us 
by  the  saw-gin ;  and  100  lbs  of  unginned  will  yield 
about  one-third  clear  cotton.  It  is  packed  with  band* 
and  feet,  and  is  not  exported,  nor  is  there  any  fixed 
number  of  pounds  to  tlie  bale.  The  cost  of  producing 
one  pound  of  cotton  fibre,  well  ginned,  is  from  10  to  13 
cents. 

"An  acre  of  ground  will  produce  about  600  lbs.  of 
unginned  cotton.  Tim  value  of  an  acre  of  cotton  land 
is  9450,  and  the  rust  is  $20  to  $25  per  annum ;  but  yon 
must  take  into  consideration  the  annual  land  tax  of 
from  one-liftb  to  one-fourth  of  the  rent,  which  nmst  be 
paid  by  the  owner  of  the  land  every  two  months  in 
equal  rates. 

"  If  any  causes  operate  injuriously  to  the  cotton 
crop,  they  are  to  be  ascribed  more  to  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  inhabitants  than  to  any  thing  else.  The 
relations  generally  between  the  landowner  and  the 
cultivator  are  not  of  the  best  kind,  the  bad  faith  of 
the  latter  being  characteristic,  while  the  owner  barely 
leaves  him  enough  to  miserably  subsist  on.  In  soma 
seasons,  too,  worms  do  ir^ury  to  the  plants,'  as  well  as 
fogs  and  mists  in  July  and  August." 

II.  Cotton  Climati».  1.  The  Cotton  Dittruts  of 
the  Globe  cotuidered  with  rrfertnce  to  their  Climalet, — 
On  inquiring  into  the  climate  best  suited  to  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton,  we  must  remember  that  we  have  to 
pay  attention,  not  only  to  the  air,  but  also  to  the  va- 
por. These  may  be  considered  in  some  respects  as 
forming  two  distinct  atmospheres ;  the  one  uniform  in 
quantity,  and  in  tlie  proportion  of  its  ingredients,  but 
cver-vatying  in  temperature ;  while  the  vapor  varies 
not  only  in  this  respect,  but  in  the  quantity  in  which 
it  is  present,  and  also  in  its  point  of  deposition,  when 
alone  it  becomes  perceptible  as  moisture. 

Cotton  is  cultivated  in  so  many  countries,  that  we 
can  not  but  expect  it  to  be  capable  of  flourishing  in 
considerable  diversities  of  climate.  Thus,  the  rich  al- 
luvial lands  of  the  Mississippi  diflfer  not  only  in  soil, 
but  also  in  temperature  and  dryness,  from  the  sandy 
fields  of  Georgia.  In  dryness,  both  must  differ  from 
the  uniformity  of  moisture  which  prevails  in  the  isl- 
ands where  sea-island  cotton  is  produced.  Some  grows 
naturally  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  in 
the  countries  situated  along  the  cost  of  the  Andes ;  and 
much  is  cultivated  in  the  moist  parts  of  Guiana  and 
Brazil.  Humboldt  liar,  seen  it  at  UOO  feet  of  elevation 
in  the  equatorial  Andes,  and  at  6500  feet  in  Mexico. 
But  here  different  species  may,  perhaps,  be  included, 
as  we  know  that  which  yields  Pernambuco  cotton  is 
cultivated  in  many  parts  of  South  America.  In  the 
Old  World,  we  find  cotton  growing  in  the  interior, 
Iwth  of  Africa  and  of  India,  where  there  must  be  con- 
siderable dryness  of  climate.  It  is  cultivated  with 
some  success  in  Egypt,  and  also,  of  late,  in  Algeria, 
and  near  Port  Natal,  in  South  Africa ;  but,  in  the  two 
former,  only  by  tlie  aid  of  artificial  irrigation.  It  is 
produced  in  various  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  in 
many  ports  of  China,  and  in  almost  every  part  of 
continental  India.  Thence  it  may  be  said  to  extend 
into  P<irsia,  Asia  Minor,  and  to  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  including  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
whence  the  English  manufooturer*  received  their  ear- 
liest supplies  of  cotton. 


COT 


487 


oorr 


within  thMe  limlU,  extending  from  the  eai4iitor  to 
forty  degrees  of  latitude,  we  Itnow  timt  there  ai-e  con- 
(iderable  diversities  of  climate ;  but  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer in  many  of  these  localities,  does  not  differ  so  much 
as  might  be  expected  from  their  latitudes.  The  tem- 
perature of  tropical  regions  is  known  to  bo  modified  by 
the  amount  of  moisture,  while  that  of  the  interior  of 
continents,  even  iu  high  latitudes,  is  increased  by  the 
greater  clearness  of  sicy,  which  is  dependent  on  the. 
comparative  absence  of  moisture.  This  cause  tends  to 
increase  even  the  cold  of  winter,  ft'om  thn  more  free 
radiation  which  taiies  place  at  night  in  a  cloudless  at- 
mosphere. Humboldt  has  remarked  that  O'oMyfium 
Jiaiimdenae,  hiriutun,  and  reiigvnum,  have  each  tlieir 
favorite  climate,  from  0°  to  84°  of  latitude,  where  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  from  «'i°  to  68°  Fahren- 
heit, but  that  G.  herbaeeum  is  successfully  cultivated 
iu  the  temperate  zone,  where,  with  a  mean  summer 
hi'.it  of  73°  to  76°,  the  mean  of  winter  is  not  less  than 
40°  or  48°. 

But,  in  taking  n  general  survey  of  the  localities 
where  cotton  is  chiefly  cultivated,  we  should  observe 
that  many  of  them  are  in  islands,  and  otiiers  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  sea.  This  is  certainly  the  case  with  the 
districts  where  tlic  finest  cottons  are  produced,  ani  the 
largest  returns  to  the  acre  obtained.  It  has  frequent- 
ly been  stated  that  the  beneficial  effects  of  such  locali- 
ties are  chiefly  due  to  the  presence  of  salt  in  the  soil, 
or  to  its  beil)g  carried  up  in  the  spray,  which  is  trans- 
ported by  winds  into  the  interior.  Koster,  in  his 
"Travels  in  Brazil,"  states,  on  the  contrary,  that  "the 
districts  which  are  universally  allowed  to  be  the  best 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  cotton,  are  far  removed  from 
the  sea-coast,  arid,  and  oftentimes  very  scantily  sup- 
plied with  water ;  also,  that  the  opinion  is  very  gene- 
ral, tliat  the  cotton  plant  will  not  thrive  in  the  neigh- 
Iwrhood  of  the  coast,  and  also  that  plantations  were 
yearly  receding  farther  into  the  interior,  the  soil  pre- 
ferred being  a  deep-red  earth,  wliich  l)ecoraes  extreme- 
ly hard  after  a  long  interval  without  rain."  Sonic- 
thing,  no  doubt,  must  bo  owing  to  tlie  species  which  is 
cultivated,  and  to  the  climate  of  the  plantation  being 
more  or  less  moist.  Thus,  Spix  and  Martins,  in  their 
"Travels,"  state  that  "the  cotton  tree  cultivated  at 
Rio  do  Janiero  (G.  7/nria(fe>Me— sometimes,  bu'.  more 
rarely,  the  G.  hfrbaceum)  thrives  very  well,  but  is  stat- 
ed not  to  furnish  such  duralde  materials  as  that  in  the 
higher  and  dryer  districts  of  Minus  Novas." 

Proximity  to  the  sea  has,  however,  other  peculiari- 
ties besides  the  facility  of  affording  saline  ingredients 
to  the  soil  or  to  the  atmosphere.  It  participates,  to  a 
certain  degree,  in  the  peculiarities  of  an  insular  cli- 
mate ;  that  is,  in  greater  uniformity  of  temperature 
than  is  found  in  places  farther  in  tlie  interior,  and  in 
tlie  freer  circulation  of  air  from  the  usually  alternating 
land  and  sea  breezes.  There  is  also  greater  equability 
of  moisture ;  for  air,  passing  over  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  necessarily  takes  up  a  larger  proportion  of  water. 
Tills  it  does  not  immediately  deposit  on  the  coast,  un- 
less it  is  backed  by  hills,  because  it  usually  becomes  a 
little  warmed  by  the  heated  land,  and  is  then  capable 
of  taking  up  more  moisture.  But,  as  it  reaches  the 
coast  in  a  comparatively  moist  state,  it  necessarily 
rather  checks  than  favors  excessive  evaporation,  and 
thus  does  not  force  the  foliage,  exposed  to  its  influence, 
to  give  up  an  undue  quantity  of  moisture.  This,  how- 
ever, is  necessarily  the  case  whenever  a  dry  current  of 
air  passes  over  the  surface  of  the  leaves.  To  the  influ- 
ence of  moisture,  therefore,  we  must  ascribe  the  more 
luxuriant  vegetation  of  some  searooasts,  and  of  many 
tropical  islands. 

Baron  Humboldt  and  Professor  Dove  have  pointed 
out  that,  while  Europe  has  a  true  insular  or  sea  climate, 
both  in  winter  and  summer,  North  America  inclines  to 
a  continental  one  in  winter,  and,  in  many  parts,  to  a 
sea  climate  in  summer;  that  is,  it  has  a  cold  winter, 
with  a  oool  summer,  with  the  exception  of  certain  dis- 


tricts, which  are  excessively  hot.  But  Northern  and 
Central  Asia  have  a  true  continental  climate,  both  in 
winter  and  srmiiier,  or  a  cold  winter  and  a  hot  sum- 
mer. Motwitbatanding  this,  we  must  also  recollect 
that,  thougli  each  locality  may  participate  in  the  char- 
acteristic climate  of  its  continent,  all  places  near  the 
coast  will  have  more  or  less  of  an  inoular  climate,  while 
tliose  in  the  interior  have  such  as  are  of  a  continental 
nature,  though  in  varying  degrees. 

The  different  varieties  of  cotton  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  are  believed  to  belong  to  one  species ; 
that  is,  that  the  "  Georgian,"  or  "short-staple,"  is  the 
seo-isUnd,  carried  into  the  interior;  and  that  the  "sea- 
island"  itself  was  originally  introduced  from  the  Ba- 
hamas, or,  more  remotely,  from  Anguilla,  one  of  the 
West  India  Islands.  The  "New  Orleans"  does  not 
differ  specifically  from  the  sea-island  cotton,  and  is 
admitted  b}'  the  planters  of  the  South  to  be  identical 
with  the  plant  of  Mexico,  whence  they  procure  their 
finest  seeds.  It  is  conjectured  tliat  it  was  from  the 
neighboring  coast  of  Mexico  that  the  indigenous  cotton 
of  that  country  was  introduced  into  the  Vest  Indies, 
and  thence  taken  to  the  island  of  Bourbon.  Hence  we 
ma}'  account  for  Gastypium  Barbadetue  being  identical 
in  species  with  the  New  Orleans  and  sea-island,  as  well 
as  with  the  Bourbon  cotton. 

The  Slexicaii  plant  is  not  a  native  of  the  temperate 
regions  of  that  country,  but  of  the  iierras  ealtentet,  or 
hot  districts.  It  is  produced,  for  instance,  in  the  neigh- 
Imrhood  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  is  represented  as  growing 
spontaneously  near  Valladolid,  a  town  situated  on  the 
great  plain  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  described  by 
Humlioldt  as  one  of  the  warmest  regions  in  equatorial 
America.  Mr.  Stephens  states  that  the  spontaneous 
growth  of  cotton  around  that  town  had  led  to  the  crec> 
tion  of  a  cotton-faotorj-  in  the  place.  Mr.  Norman,  in 
liis  "  Rambles  in  Yucatan,"  says,  "The  cotton  planta- 
tions, or,  rather,  the  districts  where  the  material  ii 
raised  that  is  consumed  in  the  manufactory  in  this  city, 
are  to  the  north,  and  known  as  the  Tizcmen  district. 
The  same  spot  is  seldom  cultivated  for  two  succecsi>'« 
seasons.  After  the  crop  is  gathered,  the  ground  is  suf- 
fered to  be  overrun  with  weeds  and  brushwood,  which, 
when  years  have  elapsed,  are  cut  down  and  burned, 
and  tho  field  is  replanted."  This  rude  method  of  cul- 
ture is  adduced  only  to  show  how  little  attention  is 
paid  to  the  plant  in  its  native  country.  But,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  know  something  precise  respecting  the  cli- 
mate of  one  at  least  of  its  native  districts,  we  take  from 
Professor  Dove  the  subjoined  notic«  of  the  means  of 
observations  made  at  Vera  Cruz  for  thirteen  yean. 
This  town,  situated  on  the  coast,  in  latitude  ]'J°  12' 
north,  and  in  longitude  96°  9'  west,  has  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  77°.02  Fahrenheit,  with  a  dift'erence  of 
only  12°-42  between  the  hottest  and  coldest  months, 
thus: 


January SO-tlS 

Febriisry 71-«0 

Hareb 73-40 

April 7217 

May 80-48 

June 81-S6 


July 8150 

August 82-40 

Sepfcjnber 801)« 

October 78-44 

November 7S'88 

December 71 -Ot 


The  Mexican  cotton  has  been  introduced  into  Texas, 
as  well  as  into  Louisiana  and  Alabama.  In  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Texas,  where  the  climate  is  very  congenial, 
the  plant  does  not  require  to  be  renewed  more  ft-equent- 
ly  than  once  in  three  or  four  years,  to  yield  a  crop  su- 
perior in  quality  and  quantity  to  the  annual  planting 
of  Louisiana.  Cotton  planting,  in  that  part  of  Texas, 
commences  in  February,  ond  picking  liegins  at  an  ear- 
lier and  continues  for  a  longer  period  than  in  the  other 
states ;  tlie  average  return,  also,  to  the  acre,  is  consid- 
erably greater  in  Texas  than  in  the  other  states,  and 
the  expense  of  cultivation  considerably  less,  in  conse- 
quence, not  only  of  the  greater  richness  of  the  foil,  bnt 
also  of  the  peculiar  mildness  of  the  climate.  The  cot- 
ton, moreover,  is  of  a  superior  quality,  and  planters  of 


COT 


488 


COT 


acknowUdgsd  Ttrmclty  ■tato  that  it  is  not' niiooRimon 
to  plolc  4000  pounds  of  seed-cotton  from  an  acre. 

Mr.  Featherstonbaugli,  after  crossing  into  Nortliam 
Texas,  in  aliout  latitude  US"  40',  oliscrved  that  he  had 
never  seen  the  cotton  plant  growing  in  greater  perfec- 
tion lieforc ;  for,  in  the  cotton  districts  he  had  passed 
through,  the  plant  was  ■  low  dwarfy  bush,  nut  exceed- 
ing two  feet  in  lioight ;  but  here  the  plants  were  Oto 
feet  high,  often  liearing  800  liolls,  and  yielding  from 
1600  to  2600  pounds  of  sced-ootton  to  the  acre,  which 
gives  from  '26  to  80  per  cent,  in  weight  of  row,  marltet- 
able  flbre. 

The  most  successful  cnltivation  of  cotton  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  well  known,  is  in  the  lower  parts 
of  Georgia,  Alaliama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Tex- 
as. In  tliese  regions  there  is  comparatively  little  fivst, 
and  the  winter  is  always  mild,  with  considerable  heat 
In  summer;  but  this  is  tempered,  to  a  great  extent, 
by  the  pleasant  and  salutary  eflbots  of  the  sea  breeze, 
which  sets  in  from  the  Gulf  or  the  Atlantic  for  a  great 
part  of  the  day.  There  are  heavy  dews  at  night,  and 
frequent  showers  occur,  in  the  spring  as  well  as  in  the 
summer.  In  the  interior  and  more  northern  portions 
of  these  states  (which  are  in  some  parts  elevated  from 


600  to  1000  ftet  above  the  level  of  (ha  im»),  frofi  Is  «»i 
pected  in  October,  and  often  coiitlliuas  uiilll  April  | 
sometimes  it  occurs  oven  in  May,  so  as  In  lnjiiri),  but 
does  not  then  usually  dualroy,  thii  (ilitltt.  'I  hn  linat  of 
summer,  though  frequently  lilull,  sllll  Is  tiillipored  liy 
the  influence  of  the  ocean  ur  thu  Gulf  lit  Munko,  aitit 
of  the  numerous  great  rivers,  as  wvll  as  by  Ilia  ihiwa 
and  occasional  showers,  Thu  cullivNiloii  of  iinilnii  Is 
generally  commenced  abuut  tlia  biiKlntiiiiK  of  April, 
when  the  land  is  still  saturated  with  llin  winter  rains, 
and  difficulty  is  sometimes  uxperlenusd  In  gi'ltliiK  tli« 
land  sufficiently  dry;  otIiorwUt',  a  goiitl  slioMxtr  It  ««• 
scntial  when  cutlon  is  tint  sown,  anil  it  U  ilnslralilo 
also  tahave  occasional  shower*  during  lli«  planting, 
plowing.  Slid  hoeing  soasuiis,  The  bulls  ImikIii  (o  t)p(!n 
about  the  middle  of  July,  and  ennlimin  to  do  so  tnilll 
the  appearance  of  frost,  from  (he  inlddlti  to  lh«  eiiil  ot 
October,  and  tbu  llrst  delivery  of  Ihtt  nnw  t*ro))  uii  Ilia 
sea-board  is  from  thu  llrst  tii  thu  (weiitl«lll  of  AuKimt. 
In  order  to  have  a  niuru  |ir'Mi|«ii  iiluH  iif  tliii  «llliidlD< 
of  the  most  favorable  coltuii  ijlaiilulii,  and  fur  tha  ad* 
vantage  of  comparing  tlieni  with  lliunti  of  ollltir  uoiin' 
tries,  the  subjoined  Table  la  tolanleil  frotii  I'rufuisor 
Dove,  as  published  by  the  Uritlsh  Assovlatlofl  I 


MXAM  TiHrxBATimit, 


LoMlitlM. 

LaL 

N. 

Lous. 

(10 '30 

r<b. 
■5?5i 

Manh. 

April. 

Hajr. 

JOIU. 

July 

Jl»g»M. 

••lit.  1  0>t,      Nsr. 
8T-10  "WTll  IJ-I.I 

hi4ir 

Uslveston,  Texas 

«)» 18' 

a6°  10' 

T5-0O 

7B-2(t 

88-60 

861)0 

88-/0 

8S6il 

Nov  Urleans,  La. 

29   OS 

BO  70  1  OO-TC 

6S-39 

msa 

72-41 

77-Jfl 

81-18 

Hi-i'i 

82-12 

7l»-4«    Uii'TI    (411 

M'/ti 

Mobile,  Ala.  .... 

30   12 

■J J    50    6D4U 

51 -37 

6604 

70-00 

70-30 

8-^-17 

8241 

fi-VJ 

7!f;i4   fli'KT   itl'ho 

imm 

Daton  Rouge,  La. 

30   20 

91    81     BJ-S7 

61 -S  J 

01-55 

OS -99 

70  f)}! 

82-90 

80-10 

82-04 

Ti>'6)i   M'i«4   llJ't? 

i).i".y 

Jackson,  La. 

90   61 

91   10  UT-60 

494) 

Ni-iiO 

OB -40 

70-80 

79-70 

81-70 

70-90 

76-10   0T'40   h'llio 

4^'4<l 

Houston,  Texas . 

31   64 

95  6*1 

«6"i0 

00 '60 

C8-70 

72-70 

86-50 

80-10 

84-20 

81-4!) 

836 1   72-110   O'J'IIO 

IIO-IH) 

Natohes,  Miss.  , . 

31   34 

91    M 

6()lii 

6l)-8J 

02-20 

09-98 

7  J -72 

89-02 

81-74 

8II-1J 

74-'W   WW   11)2.) 

49<o:i 

VIcksburg,  Mlsa. 

32  24 

91   60 

61-40 

63'72 

08-99 

74-01 

70-84 

80-06 

82-48 

80-11 

[70-40   (M-O'i   hii'Jtf 

liD'Ui 

MUB 
uf 

Yiar. 

HI  80 
Oil  112 

Ot  lb 

III  23 

mm 

0010 
AI-IM 


To  compare  with  these,  we  shall  further  adduce,  from  I  the  Atlantic  const,  as  In  Floridn,  Quurglit,  Alld  CarolU 
the  same  Tables,  the  mean  temperatures  of  places  on  |  na,  as  well  as  in  ijio  Interior  uf  tlio  lust  two  I 


LoealltiM. 

LatN. 

Lon.w. 

Jan. 

60-7.) 

Kab.      March.    April.  |   May    |  Inm. 

July. 

AmkiivI. 

II.J.1. 

(fcl, 

w.w~ 

'ihtT" 

V.«f 

St.  Augustine,  t'la. . 

•211°  60' 

81°  27' 

(i4-ii7 

07-65  i  'lO-OO 

70-8/    ,■51-41 

8;81  1  8,-(i7 

Wl-|il>  i.lSII 

iW'h 

llO'ii'J 

iV'lil 

Savannah,  Ga 

32     5 

81    10 

62-15 

63  74 

01-19  j  67-36 

73-14 

77-89 

82-23 

82  01 

76  UU 

6iH<2 

hT'2 

All  60 

iM'iO 

Charleston,  S.  <;.  . . 

82  4T 

79   67 

49  01 

5.' 80 

BS-34  1  03-20 

7619 

T8-86 

80-70 

8U-I6 

T-l'IIO 

110 'ill 

1)1 'Do 

hi  "lO 

ormi 

Fort  Johnston,  8.  C. 

34     0 

78     B 

61 -4-.' 

5.' -19 

00-6-' 

66-28 

73-70 

78-18 

HI -67 

wi-:io 

70-,T.I 

«;i'il 

Oii'lil 

tl'l'ill 

110 'HA 

Columbia,  B.  C 

84     0 

80  68 

87-70 

42 -(lO 

47-80 

62-20 

07-80 

72-41 

76-10 

TO -60 

110 '.iO 

ftivo 

III 'TO 

'MM 

It; 'lit) 

Augusta,  Oa. 

S3  28 

81   54 

45-69 

[47-68 

68-60 

02-34 

69 -08 

77-72 

79-4T 

76'.B 

[T2-iia 

OO'IW 

64<4» 

4a'4fl 

01 'DO 

2,  Climate  of  the  Cotton  Regumt  of  the  United  Statu. 
— The  climate  of  Georgia  is  somewhat  warmer  than 
that  of  Carolina,  but  the  low,  flat  country  of  both,  in 
summer  and  autumn,  is  moist,  and  somewhat  un- 
healthy. The  spring  is  commonly  rainy,  and  the  heat 
of  summer  is  considerable,  but  is  tempered  by  the  gen- 
tle breezes  which  blow  almost  daily  from  the  sea.  The 
winds  change  from  southeast  to  southwest  about  the 
end  of  July,  but  are  variable,  from  storms  of  thunder, 
and  the  heavy  rains  of  July  and  August.  The  cold 
weather  seldom  commences  before  the  beginning  of 
December,  and  terminates  in  March,  but  the  winter  is 
usually  mild,  and  snow  seldom  falls  near  tho  sea,  and 
soon  melts  away.  The  hilly  parts,  200  miles  from  the 
sea,  are  agreeable  and  favorable  to  health.  .The  win- 
ter is  colder ;  snow  falls  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches. 
Though  the  preceding  tables  are  sufficient  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  the  climates,  it  would  be  desirable,  for 
agricultural  purposes,  to  have  also  the  maxima  and 
minima  for  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumnal  months, 
for  a  series  of  years,  as  a  night  of  frost  may  destroy 
the  plants,  and  ^tyeai  heat,  with  drought,  will  be  equal- 
ly ii^urious,  from  dri-ing  them  up.  Cotton,  as  before 
observed, is  sown  in  April;  picking  commences  in  July 
or  August,  and  continues  until  November,  and,  on  the 
coast,  sometimes  e^-en  as  late  as  December.  The  sea- 
island  plant  yields  about  l'i&  or  180  pounds  of  clean 
ginned  cotton  per  acre.  Of  the  short  staple,  in  the 
bill  country,  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Carolinas,  not 
more  than  600  pounds  of  seed  cotton,  or  160  pounds  of 
daan  cotton,  con  be  obtained  to  the  acre.  The  short 
•tapla  ootten  is  mora  or  lesa  cultivated  all  the  way  ttom 


the  southern  borders  of  Virginia,  lo  tlio  sniilhwegtom 
streams  of  tho  Mississippi,  Tlio  liioiiii  quatltlly  over 
all  is  estimated  at  Vitt  pounds  ufgliiiml  I'lilloit,  of  liuth 
sea-island  and  of  the  short  staple,  to  all  iiorii,  but  the 
amount  of  labor  is  much  grttator  for  ths  foriiior  timn 
for  the  latter. 

In  comparing  tho  cllmatai  of  tilt  oottofl  roglnns 
above  described  with  lliosu  of  othur  ooillltrlns,  It  Is  ilpo 
essary  to  remember  tho  pucullarlty  of  that  «f  AmtiHifl, 
with  which  this  sultject  was  ooiMinonwil,  and  nlw  Imw 
much  the  best  cotton  distriuts  nr«  liillii)in««il  by  tlia 
Atlantic,  or  tha  Mexican  Gulf,  Thu  ulliiiain,  to  llio 
west  of  the  Alleghany  Moiitilalns,  la  (•(mDltlcrnl  moro 
mild  than  that  under  the  sunie  paralliils  In  tlin  Atlan- 
tic states,  and,  liy  soma,  even  to  thu  oxtvnt  of  Ihi'ee  de- 
grees of  latitude.  This  has  liean  «)(plHltii<il  iis  nouspd 
by  the  warm  air  of  tho  Gulf  of  MhxIbo  lit<liig  driven 
up  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  mil  that  (if  I  ho  Ohio. 
The  direction  of  tho  valley,  north  anil  Mittth,  no  doubt 
favors  the  course  of  tha  wutlwrn  winds,  whilo  the  ro- 
gions  of  the  Atlantic  slopes,  being  Iransverwi,  opposo 
any  such  transmission,  and  also  tho  mlurallun  of 
plants.  The  linearity  of  tho  plaaes  of  whli'li  the  mean 
temperatures  have  been  adduiwil  arii  on  llm  so«-««ast, 
and  necessarily  partluipato,  to  soino  «xl«nt,  In  tho  pn- 
culiarities  of  an  insular  eliniAtu|  (hot  Is,  ut  loasani 
moderately  contrasted,  Still,  tha  dlitbrenoo  butwaon 
the  hottest  and  tha  ooldest  innnlh  of  tha  y««r  In  muah 
greater  than  at  Vera  CruKi  that  is,  than  iT  \  lieln?, 
at  Mobile,  Galveston,  and  Mew  Orlsaiis,  »7''iin,  DO'-IO, 
and  29" '96,  respectively,  Hut  In  til*  Interior,  at  Nat- 
chez and  Vioksburg,  tha  ditlbrmiwi  aro  Kreator,  baing 


COT 


m 


COT 


u( 
Vim. 

1)1  (to  I 
iiiiti'i 
at  lb 
iti-'iii 

111 '00 
Od'IO 
AIM 


I  M  iKI'lO 
I'M)  Dfi-Vl 
ynW  (M'li* 
I  W)  at 'OB 
|'4n  DI'OO 


BS''69  and  Br-67.  In  tlie  Atlantic  districts  the  difTer- 
«nccs  are  nearly  aa  great  as  those  on  the  south  coast, 
being  81°-7S  at  Savannah,  and  Sl'OO  at  Charleston, 
while.  In  the  interior,  the  differences  are  much  greater, 
being  36°-02  at  Augusta,  and  88°-10  at  Columlila.  In 
addition  to  the  foregoing,  it  is  desirable  to  notice  some 
of  the  general  features  of  the  climate,  both  of  the  Gulf 
and  of  the  Atlantic  states,  as  it  will  then  bo  readily 
seen  how  much  it  is  modlHed  l>y  the  vicinity  of  the 
■ea,  and  by  the  conllgtiration  of  the  coast : 

Mifsittippi. — Near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  climate 
resembles  that  of  the  lower  parts  of  Louisiana;  the 
'  'Winter  is  mild,  the  summer  warm,  but  tempered  by  the 
constant  prevalence  of  the  brcezn  from  the  Oylf,  to- 
gether with  the  elevation  of  the  surface.  At  Natchez, 
however,  the  thermometer  in  winter  sometimes  stands 
•s  low  as  10°  Fahrenheit.  In  sickly  seasons,  the  in- 
babilants  frequently  remove  to  the  high  banks  of  the 
bay  of  St.  Louis. 

Alabama. — In  the  low  and  southern  parts  of  this 
ttate  the  heat  is  very  great.  The  climate  of  the  inland 
and  upper  parts  resembles  that  of  Georgia,  and  may  be 
considered  remarkably  mild.  Frost  commences  gene- 
rally in  October,  and  continues  sometimes  as  late  as 
the  20th  of  May,  so  aa  to  injure,  but  not  destroy,  the 
cotton,  in  the  more  elevated  parts.  During  summer, 
there  Is  usually  a  prevalence  of  westerly  winds.  Those 
firom  the  southeast  are  regarded  as  the  sure  harbingers 
of  rain.  At  Mobile,  from  nine  in  the  morning  till  even- 
ing, the  pleasant  and  salutary  effects  of  the  sea  breeze 
are  felt.  The  rich  verdure  of  the  earth,  with  the  copi- 
ous dews  that  fall  during  the  night,  and  the  elevation 
of  the  soil,  which,  in  the  upland  parts,  is  from  600  to 
1000  feet  above  the  sea,  produce  a  beneficial  cffiect  on 
the  climate. 

lAmUiana. — The  climate  of  most  parts  of  this  state 
is  somewhat  variable.  From  tho  sea  to  Point  Coupee, 
it  seldom  snows  or  ft'eezcs,  except  in  the  months  of  De- 
cember and  January,  and  then  when  the  wind  is  from 
the  north  or  northwest.  There  Is  less  heat  and  more 
moisture  than  in  similar  latitudes  on  the  Eastern  Con- 
tinent, and  the  climate  is  generally  very  mild.  In 
winter,  the  thermometer  seldom  falls  more  than  two 
degrees  below  the  freezing  point  In  December,  1800, 
the  thermometer  sank  to  12°  near  New  Orleans,  and 
snow  fell  for  the  first  time  in  twenty  years.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1811,  the  mercury  fell  fk'om  78°  to  10°,  and  the 
Mississippi  was  completely  frozen  over.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  (February,  1856),  it  is  reported  as  low  as  20°, 
and  the  Mississippi  as  frozen  quite  over  with  the  ice 
several  inches  in  thickness,  and  the  ground  covered 
with  ice  and  slcot  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  Inches. 

Georgiit. — Ail  the  flat  country  of  this  state  is  de- 
scribed as  moist  and  unhealthy  during  the  warmer 
months,  especially  the  "rice  swamps;"  tho  climate  is 
somewhat  warmer  than  that  of  South  Carolina.  The 
winter  ia  the  most  pleasant  season  of  the  year,  when 
the  tliermometcr  usually  ranges  from  40°  to  60°,  though 
soniclinics  a  considerable  degree  of  cold  has  prevailed ; 
snow  is  uncommon,  but  frosts  have  been  experienced 
even  as  late  as  April.  A  strong  northeast  wind  will 
occasionally  blight  a  promising  fleld  of  cotton,  as  in- 
sects will  sometimes  destroy  it.  Tho  spring  is  usually 
rainy,  the  summer  inconstant,  with  a  temperature  of 
from  76°  to  90°  from  June  to  September.  The  atmos- 
phere feels  springy  and  enlivening,  being  refreshed  by 
gentle  breezes,  which  blow  almost  daily  from  the  sea- 
shore. About  the  20th  of  July  the  summer  rains  set 
in,  often  accompanied  with  storms  of  thunder,  and  se- 
vere winds,  which,  though  not  tropical  In  their  violence, 
are  often  so  heavy  as  to  deluge  the  fields.  About  the 
end  of  July,  or  beginning  of  August,  the  wind  usually 
changes  its  direction  from  southeast  to  southwest.  The 
month  of  August  is  the  period  of  most  solicitude  to  the 
cotloii-grower,  as  heavy  rains  at  that  time  occasionally 
cause  Ihe  plant  to  part  with  its  young  bolls,  and  even 
it!  leaves.    The  autumn  is  ulually  fine  and  clear;  and 


about  the  20th  of  October  frosts  are  expected,  but  do 
not  often  come  before  the  end  of  the  niontli.  Th«  In- 
habitants of  the  hilly  tracts,  two  hundred  miles  from 
the  coast,  enjoy  an  agreeable  climate,  wbiih  is  favor- 
able to  health.  The  winter  ia  colder,  snow  scmetiuios 
falling  to  a  depth  o'  livo  or  six  inches.  The  summer 
is  not  BO  hot,  and  the  winds  of  autumn  are  less  violent ; 
and  the  cotton,  being  less  exposed,  is  allowed  to  hang 
longer,  so  as  to  become  perfectly  mature. 

Houlh  Carolina. — The  winter  of  the  lower  parti  of 
this  state  is  mild ;  and  the  diSerenic  between  the  mild- 
est and  severest  winter  is  about  sevci  teen  degrees,  often 
with  lieavy  frosts,  and  sometimes  snow,  but  with  a  hot 
sun  during  the  day ;  though  snow  seldom  falls  near  the 
sea.  The  winter  may  bo  considered  as  terminating  in 
March,  when  snow  and  heavy  rains  usually  occur;  but 
April  and  May  are  commonly  dry  months.  In  the  low 
country  the  heat  of  summer  is  intense ;  but  Ihe  climate 
is  liable  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  wlien  it  is 
damp  with  fogs  and  heavy  dewr,  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust are  generally  the  wettest  months,  and.  Ihe  rains 
consist  of  heavy  bursts  and  frequent  showers,  vhich 
are  liable  to  occur  in  spring,  sunmicr,  and  autumn. 
Novemljer  is  usually  fine,  even  after  Ihe  coming  of 
frosts,  which  sometimes  do  not  occur  until  December. 
The  average  quantity  of  ruin,  for  ten  years,  was  49-3 
Inches;  the  largest  quantity,  83-4  inches,  and  the  least, 
36-C  inches,  in  any  one  year.  In  the  upper  countr}-, 
frost  appears  earlier  and  continues  later ;  but  the 
weather  is  not  so  variable.  In  winter  the  cold  is  con- 
sideralile,  but  docs  not  last  very  long.  The  climate 
of  the  Santce  Hills,  which  are  situated  eighty  or  nine- 
ty miles  from  the  coast,  is  similar  in  character. 

Tejraii. — The  climate  of  Texas  is  decidedly  more 
healthy  than  that  of  Louisiana,  or  any  other  of  Ihe 
Gulf  states ;  still,  on  the  low  Diluvial  coast,  intvrmit- 
tents  are  prevalent  during  tho  summer  and  autumnal 
months;  but  tho  yellow  fever  is  rarely  known.  Com- 
paratively little  rain  falls  from  March  to  October, 
though  gusts  of  wind,  with  thunder,  frequently  occur, 
with  sufficient  rain  to  make  excellent  crops.  During 
the  rest  of  the  year,  hot  weather  generally  prevails. 
The  winters  are  warm  and  mild  on  the  coast,  and, 
for  some  distance  inland,  snow  Is  seldom  seen,  except 
on  the  higher  table-lands  or  mountains.  From  April 
to  September,  the  thermometer,  near  the  coast,  usually 
ranges  from  63°  to  100°.  The  greatest  heats,  however, 
are  tempered  by  strong  and  constant  breezes,  which 
begin  to  blow  soon  after  the  rising  of  the  sun,  and  con- 
tinue until  past  noon.  The  nights  throughout  the  mid- 
dle regions  arc  cool  and  refreshing  during  the  year. — 
Report  of  the  Dipartmer.t  of  Slate  of  the  United  Ktalea. 

In  connection  with  Ihe  climate  of  the  United  States, 
it  is  desirable  to  take  some  notice  of  that  in  which  an- 
other species,  the  "  Brazil"  or  "  kidney"  cotton,  '■<  cul- 
tivated. From  the  observations  of  the  late  Dr.  Loudon, 
at  Pemambuco,  it  is  found,  that  the  quantity  of  rain 
which  fails  at  that  place  is  considerable,  and  that  the 
air  must  always  be  in  a  moist  state.  As  Kostcr  state* 
that  cotton  succeeds  better  from  SO  to  160  leagues  inte- 
rior, the  climato  may  still  be  more  moist  than  thitt  on 
the  coast. 

3.  Climate  of  the  Cotton  Region  of  the  Nile.— Ihe  soil 
and  climate  of  F.gypt  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cot- 
ton,  but  the  yield  depends  greatly  on  the  rise  of  the 
Nile.  When  Ihe  river  is  low  the  crop  suffers,  as  little 
or  no  rain  falls  before  December.  Almost  all  the  land 
in  Lower  Egypt  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  th& 
growth  of  this  product,  yet  it  is  not  all  equally  good. 

It  rains  frequently  in  the  vicinity  of  Alexandria, 
and  but  seldom  on  the  Delta. 

Tho  culture  of  colton  In  Egj'pt,  on  a  large  scale,  is 
comparatively  recent.  It  was  first  tuidertaken  by  M. 
Juniel,  a  Frenchman,  who,  in  1821,  laid  before  the  Vice- 
roy all  the  advantages  and  results  arising  from  its  pro- 
duction. Previous  to  that  period,  the  cotton  produced 
in  that  country  was  of  inferior  quality.     A  few  plants 


COT 


440 


COT 


onl^r  had  been  Introduced  from  India,  and  were  lo  be 
found  in  the  garden  at  Cairo,  whure  tb«>'  lerved  as  or- 
namenta.  From  thew  tho  cultuni  waa  extended  on  a 
grand  scale,  and  became  one  of  the  |>riiioipal  branches 
of  the  agriculture  of  the  Viceroy.  Altliout;h  the  soil 
along  the  Nile  appears  to  be  generally  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  the  "  Jumel"  or  "  Make"  cotton,  it  is 
planted  In  preference  in  rich,  heavy  lands,  which  retain 
eonsiderable  moisture,  and  wh^re  the  plant  can  acquire 
sufficient  strength  to  produce  well-iilled  bolls.  The 
grounds  where  the  cotton  is  cultivated  are  kept  free 
trom  tho  overflowing  of  the  river,  as  the  standing  wa- 
ter would  rot  the  plants  and  cause  them  to  perish. 
The  agricultural  labor  of  the  countr)-  is  performed  ex- 
cloaively  by  the  Fellahs  (peasantry),  a  peculiar  race, 
who  labor  under  a  system  similar  to  that  of  tho  serfage 
of  Russia.  The  black  slaves  (chiefly  Nubians  and 
Abyssinlans)  In  the  country  are  occupied  exclusively 
In  domestic  duties,  and  live  better  and  labor  leas  than 
the  Fellahs.    The  latter  are  not  permitted  to  leave  tho 

{iremisas  to  which  they  belong,  and  the  reward  of  their 
abor  Is  left  to  the  will  of  the  proprietor,  and  generally 
Is  the  minimum  of  subsistence.  Thoy  live  in  mud  hov- 
els, r-<d  are  allowed  to  partake  of  animal  food  but  once 
a  ,.uar,  and  then  as  a  religious  duty.  Like  the  Emper- 
or of  liussia,  the  present  Viceroy  has  made  some  ex- 
periments in  making  the  Fellahs  nominal  proprietors 
of  small  farms ;  but  the  exactions  of  the  Turkish  offi- 
cials never  leave  much  margin  in  their  proflts.  There- 
fore, having  but  little  interest  in  the  soil  they  cultivate 
beyond  the  merest  subsistence,  their  labor  is  slovenly, 
their  fields  poorly  tilled,  and,  consequently,  improve- 
ments can  not  well  be  introduced.  The  Fellalis  take 
great  care  to  protect  the  fields  by  dikes  of  earth,  where 
they  are  subject  to  inundation  at  tho  time  of  tho  rise 
of  the  Nile.  Nevertheless  the  cotton-plants  arc  wa- 
tered periodically  by  means  of  Suh/ieht,  Shadoufi,  or 
water-wheels.  In  winter,  they  water  them  every  fif- 
teen days ;  in  the  spring,  if  there  is  much  dew,  every 
twelve  days ;  and  in  summer,  every  eight  days.  It 
may  here  be  remarked  that,  in  summer  and  autumn, 
the  dews  are  very  copious.  The  system  of  irrigation 
is  admirable.  The  planters  of  soma  of  our  Southern 
States  might  profit  by  its  adoption.  In  every  other 
respect  the  culture  by  the  Fellahs  is  slovenly  to  the 
last  degree.  They  bef^in  to  prepare  tho  land  for  cul- 
ture by  flooding  it  in  December,  and  allowing  the  wa- 
ter to  remain  upon  it  from  ten  to  twenty  days.  No 
manure  is  employed,  as  the  ordure  of  the  animals  of 
burden  is  used  for  fuel.  The  only  fertilizer  is  the  de- 
posit of  the  sediment  of  the  Nile  when  the  land  is 
overflowed.  They  plant  in  March  and  April  in  Lower 
Egypt,  before  which  they  usually  give  only  one  tillage 
to  the  ground,  if  it  be  rich ;  but  if  tho  soil  be  indifler- 
ent,  it  is  worked  two  or  three  times.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  Said,  they  every  where  plow  to  a  depth  of  about 
fifteen  inches.  They  then  run  furrows  at  the  distance 
of  about  8^  feet.  After  plowing  they  level  the  ground 
by  breaking  the  clods,  and  it  require*  no  further  prep- 
aration. They  then  make  holes  from  three  to  four  inch- 
es in  depth,  and  Si  feet  apart.  In  which  they  deposit 
fh>m  two  to  four  seeds  that  have  been  previously 
steeped  in  water  for  twenty-four  hours  to  hasten  their 
germination.  In  some  cases  the  Fellahs  cultivate 
vegetables,  etc.,  In  the  intervals  between  the  plants. 
At  the  time  of  the  inundation  they  eradicate  the  weeds. 
The  first  year,  they  cut  the  cotton  plants  with  a  kind 
of  pruning-knife,  and  remove  all  the  branches,  which 
they  use  for  fuel.  This  operation  gives  more  strength 
to  the  plants,  and  protects  them  trom  cold,  which  would 
otherwise  cause  the  branches  to  perish.  The  second 
year,  they  only  work  the  ground  wheq  making  a  new 
weeding,  and  the  plants,  which  had  before  acquired  a 
growth  of  from  3^  to  A  feet  in  height  the  first  year,  now 
grow  only  in  a  less  degree. 

The  cotton  Iwglns  to  dower  early  In  July,  and  con- 
tinues to  bloom  till  December,  and  even  into  February 


or  March.  The  period  of  harvesting  raria*  In  diflbmit 
districts.  The  first  year,  it  commences  in  July  and 
ends  in  January,  when  the  season  is  not  too  cold.  The 
product  of  each  plant  is  1^  pounds  in  the  rough;  tha 
second  and  third  years,  from  1^  to  3  pounds;  but,  in 
the  subsequent  years,  the  plants  lose  tlieir  fecundity, 
and  it  has  been  foand  necessary  to  renew  them  eveijr 
three,  and  in  some  instances  every  two  years.  They 
would  produce  bolls,  however,  for  a  long  period — say 
fifty  years.  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  the  plant 
increases  in  its  shrubby  character,  producing  a  very 
thick  foliage  with  but  few  bolls. 

The  yield  of  cotton  varies  according  to  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  cultivated.  That  which  ia 
sown  in  winter,  called  liauly,  and  which  is  watered  only 
during  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  gives,  on  an  average, 
above  200  pounds  to  the  acre.  That  wateretl  by  means 
of  wheels,  and  called  Miikaici,  gives  about  SOU  pounda 
to  the  acre.  The  maximum  yield  has  been  as  high  as 
700  pounds;  but  such  instances  are  rare. 

4.  CltPtate  n/Ihe  Collm  Regimu  vf  Algeria.— 1\m  soil 
of  Algeria  Is  generally  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation 
of  cotton ;  but  tho  climate  is  quite  the  reverse,  from  tha 
deficiency  of  rain,  the  very  light  dews,  the  extreme 
heat  of  summer,  and  the  almost  incessant  rains  in  au- 
tumn. Nor  is  tlie  whole  of  Algeria  suited  to  the  growth 
of  cotton ;  it  is  necessary  to  select  those  parts  which  ara 
the  most  propitious.  On  the  chain  of  the  Atlas,  as  well 
as  on  tho  plains  which  crown  its  heights,  tho  heat,  al- 
though in  summer  excessive,  does  not  continue  long 
enough  in  autumn  tu  permit  the  complete  maturity  of 
the  bolls.  In  tho  region  of  Tell,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  abandon  its  culture  at  an  elevation  of  2000,  or  even 
1600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  But,  beyond  this 
central  and  mountainous  country,  there  extend  two 
zones  which  are  declared  suitable  for  the  growth  of 
cotton,  and  it  is  said  that  proof  has  been  given  to  that 
eflbot ;  one  is  the  region  of  tho  coast  from  La  Caile  to 
Nemours ;  the  other,  that  of  the  Saharian  oasis.  An- 
other obstacio  to  its  culture  is,  that  cotton,  in  general, 
can  not  be  planted  before  the  middle  of  April  without 
running  the  risk  of  tho  seeds  perishing  from  tlio  excesa- 
ive  moisture  of  tho  land.  Consequently,  it  can  not  ar- 
rive at  maturity  Iwfore  tb'j  prolout,'ed  rains  of  autumn 
commence,  which  nearly  stop  its  growth.  The  province 
of  Oran  is  reputed  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  cotton  than  the  other  two,  Algiers  and  Constantlne. 

Algeria,  situated  as  it  is  between  the  34tli  and  37th 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  bounded  on  one  side  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  the  other  by  tho  Desert  of  Sa- 
hara, ttoxa  which  it  is  separated  by  mountains,  pos- 
sesses a  climate,  in  most  parts,  similar  to  the  zonoa 
l>ordering  on  the  tropics.  It  is  not,  however,  strictly 
a  tropical,  neither  can  it  l)e  said  to  be  a  temperate  re- 
gion. It  is  particularly  remarkable  for  the  uniformity 
of  its  temperature  throughout  the  year. 

The  Moniteur  contains  a  report  from  Marshal  Vail- 
lant,  addressed  to  the  Emperor,  on  tho  subject  of  the 
growth  of  cotton  in  Algeria.  In  the  document  tha 
Minister  of  War  recognized  the  good  effects  of  the  de- 
crees of  the  16th  of  October,  1853,  by  which  an  annual 
prize  of  20,000  francs  was  allotted  for  five  years  to  (ha 
best  cotton-grower  in  tho  Franco-African  colony ;  and 
for  three  years,  commencing  with  1664,  the  whole  cot- 
ton produce  of  Algeria  was  ordered  to  be  purchased  by 
the  state  at  a  price  fixed  beforehand,  at  an  advantageous 
rate  to  the  producer.  In  consequence  of  this  encour- 
agement the  growth  of  cotton  has  increased,  and  it  ia 
said  the  quality  is  equal  to  that  of  American  growth. 

In  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  Algeria,  stable-dung 
is  sometimes  used,  though  but  few  fanners  pay  any 
attention  to  their  fields.  As  their  cattle  an  never 
housed,  their  means  of  making  manure  become  very 
limited.  Thi^  plant  from  the  16th  of  April  till  tha 
10th  of  May,  in  rows  aliout  two  feet  apart.  The  crop 
is  hoed  four  tiroes,  and  irrigated  as  often  as  water  can 
be  spared  from  other  plants;  and,  when  abundant,  it 


COT 


Ul 


COT 


.k  sppUtd  maty  four  dtyi.  Th«  bolls  Iwgiii  to  fonn 
i,.  July,  and  the  plants  contlnus  in  flowsr  from  8«p- 
iombar  until  the  latter  part  of  February.  The  har- 
veating  also  commences  in  September,  and  lasts  tmtil 
the  following  spring. 

6.  C'lmale  of  the  Cotton  Dutriett  <^  other  Part$  of 
Jkfnca. — Cotton  of  a  very  good  quality  has  been  culti- 
vated for  some  years  at  Natal,  nearly  at  ths  southern 
extremity  of  Africa.  The  coast  is  low  along  that  re- 
gion, and,  in  some  parts,  even  swampy ;  but  the  land 
within  ten  miles  of  the  sea  is  considered  most  favora- 
ble to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  probably  from  the  con- 
stant moisture  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  warmth  of 
the  climate ;  though,  no  doubt,  it  may  ba  successfully 
grown  farther  in  the  interior.  The  country  beyond  is 
described  as  lieing  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of 
grazing.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  obtain 
cotton  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  seed  of 
the  best  varieties  have  been  iotrtxlaced  Arom  the  United 
Slates.  In  Liberia,  Dahomey,  and  other  places,  line 
samples  havo  been  produced,  principally  from  the 
green-seeded  and  kidney-seeded  sorts.  The  climate  is 
represented  as  favorable,  but  a  different  population  is 
required  for  an  extended  and  profitable  production. 

6.  Climatt  of  the  Cotton  Regiont  and  Itland*  tf  the 
Mediltrrdnean. — Considerable  quantities  of  cotton  are 
cultivated  in  other  countries  bordering  on  tho  Medi- 
terranean. It  is  generally  the  product  of  the  India 
species,  though  seeds  have  been  introduced  from  £g}'pt 
and  the  United  States.  These  are  cultivated  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  parts  of  Greece,  and  the  islands  generally 
known  as  the  Levant.  The  Italian  cottons  are  pro- 
duced in  Sicily,  in  Calabria,  near  Naples,  and  in  Mal- 
ta. Those  of  Sicily,  Calabria,  and  Castellamare  are 
the  best,  and  are  usually  produced  from  American  seed. 
A  Nankin  cotton  is  cultivated  in  Malta,  but  is  all  man- 
ufactured for  domestic  use. 

At  Naples,  the  soil  and  climate  are  well  suited  to 
the  growth  of  cotton,  with  the  aid  of  artificial  irriga- 
tion in  times  of  drought.  In  some  seasons,  however, 
the  plants  receive  injury  from  insects,  as  well  as  from 
fogs  and  mists,  in  July  and  August. 

Tlie  manure,  when  employed,  is  the  dung  of  animals, 
but  no  other  fertilizer  is  used.  The  seed  is  planted  in 
April,  in  rows,  with  sufficient  space  between  them  for 
the  passage  of  water,  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation. 
The  plants  are  in  flower  in  June  and  July ;  the  cotton 
harvested  from  September  to  Novemlier ;  and  tho  yield 
per  acre,  unginned,  besides  other  crops  between  the 
r*ws,  600  pounds. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Sicily  are  better  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  cotton  than  those  of  Naples,  particularly 
on  the  southeast  side  of  the  island,  and  within  twenty 
miles  of  the  sea.  Farther  inland,  the  heat  is  not  suf- 
flclent  to  mature  the  crop.  The  maxitnum  tempera- 
ture of  the  cotton  regions,  firom  May  till  October,  is 
77°  Fahrenheit;  minimum,  61i° ;  the  mean  68°.  The 
quantity  of  rain  which  falls  during  the  cotton-growing 
months  is  generally  fully  sufficient  for  the  perfection 
of  the  plant.  The  principal  injury  to  the  crop  is  oc- 
casioned by  long-continued  north  winds,  which,  how- 
ever, but  seldom  occur. 

7.  Climate  of  the  Cotton  Dutriett  of  Britith  India.— 
The  British  East  India  possessions  embrace  an  almost 
boundless  extent  of  territory,  extending  from  the  Him- 
alaj'a  range  of  mountains  on  the  north,  to  the  ocean, 
including  nearly  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  of  IliuUo- 
Stan,  the  island  of  Ceylon,  and  that  portion  of  Burniah 
lying  between  the  20°  of  N.  lat.  and  the  bay  of  Bengal. 
In  the  peninsula  of  India,  the  climate  is  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  two  monsoons — one  from  the  northeast, 
which  blows  chiefly  on  tho  eastern  coast,  and  the  other 
fhim  the  southwest,  which  is  mostly  felt  in  Malabar 
and  the  western  parts  of  the  country.  In  some  parts, 
the  advantages  of  both  monsoons  are  enjoyed ;  but  in 
others,  the  change  from  the  moisture  of  the  rains  to  the 
heat  and  dlyness  which  succeed  them,  is  nearly  as 


marked  In  Ita  eharaotar  as  at  Sahartuiporo,  and  tb« 
cotton-plants  suffer  as  much  from  the  transition.  Such 
being  the  extremes  of  temperature  and  of  dryness,  m 
well  as  the  shortness  of  the  several  seaaona  iu  which 
the  plant  may  be  made  to  grow— that  is,  during  th* 
hot  and  dry  weather,  from  March  to  June,  or  during 
the  steaming  moisture  of  the  rainy  season,  followed,  at 
fiiat,  by  a  hot  and  moist  summer,  and  then  by  a  cold 
and  dry  autumn,  succeeded  by  a  bracing  winter— a 
plant  must  be  hardy  to  sustain  uninjured  such  extrema 
and  sudden  vicissitudes.  But  all  India  is  not  identical 
in  climate.  In  some  parts  the  accession  of  the  rains 
is  earlier,  their  termination  more  gradual,  and  the  cold 
of  winter  less,  or  the  country  ei^oys  the  advantages  of 
a  double  monsoon ;  so  that  there  is  a  longer  period  of 
growth. 

Temperature,  as  we  have  seen,  is  only  one  of  the  eW 
ements  of  climate,  and,  though  a  very  important  one, 
is  yet  unable  of  itself  to  do  any  thing  toward  the  growth 
of  a  plant,  unless  water  be  within  the  reach  of  its  rooli 
to  dissolve  and  carry  into  the  vegetable  cells  and  vei> 
sels  the  elements  of  nutrition.  1 1  must  be  decomposed, 
in  contact  with  air,  not  too  dry,  nor  yet  too  damp,  but 
containing  its  due  proportion  of  oxygen  and  carbonie 
acid  gas,  and  illuminated  by  the  light  of  the  sun. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  cotton-plants  may  exist  through 
a  long  range  of  temperature,  and  of  ntolsturc  and  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere;  but  it  is  equally  certain  that 
they  will  never  attain  healthy  vigor  of  growth  unless 
there  is  a  due  supply  of  moisture  in  a  moderately  warm, 
or  rather  hot  atmosphere.  Though  tho  degree  of  heat 
may  be  measured  with  a  thermometer,  moisture  is  not 
always  indicated  by  the  rain-gauge,  for  rain  may  fall 
and  run  off  the  surface,  or  percolate  tho  soil,  and  the 
earth  and  the  atmosplwre  both  be  left  in  a  parched 
state,  even  during  the  season  of  growth.  The  moist- 
ure  can  only  be  determined  by  the  hygrometer,  or  the 
wet  and  dry-bulbed  thermometer;  and,  imperfect  aa 
the  minority  of  such  instruments  an,  the  information 
obtained  from  many  situations  would  be  invaluable,  a< 
we  might  then  be  more  sure  of  drawing  correct  infer- 
ences, because,  though  we  might  not  be  able  to  ealcn- 
late  correctly  the  exact  quantity  of  mois>ur°  contained 
in  the  atmosphere,  we  could  see  whether  tnis  was  in  * 
state  of  saturation,  or  was  capable  of  taking  up  a  still 
larger  quantity,  and  thus  in  the  onecaee  checking,  and  in 
the  other  favoring,  evaporation  from  the  soil,  and  from 
the  surface  of  plants.  To  tho  comparative  moisture  of 
tlie  air  on  the  sea-coast,  and  in  places  w  ithin  the  reach 
of  the  moist  sea  air,  must  chiefly  be  ascribed  the  pref- 
erence of  the  cotton-plant  for  snch  sitnations,  or,  at 
least,  for  its  successful  culture  in  so  many  islands  and 
along  so  many  coasts.  But  to  this  it  may  be  objected^ 
that  a  long-stapled  cotton  is  successfully  grown  in  the 
dry  climate  of  Egypt.  In  that  country,  however,  co- 
pious irrigation  pro<luce8  the  same  benefloial  effects  in 
a  warm,  dry  atmosphere.  Excess  of  moisture  in  a 
warm  climate,  however,  may  prove  as  injurious  as  ita 
deficiency ;  for  then  the  parts  of  vegetation  may  be  al- 
together stimulated,  or  may  be  in  a  state  of  continual 
growth,  when  plenty  of  branches  and  leaves  are  pro^ 
duced,  but  few  flowers  and  very  little  cotton. 

The  seasons  of  India,  over  a  great  part  of  the  conn- 
try,  are  divided  into  the  cold,  the  hot,  and  the  rainy  { 
names  which  sufficiently  indicate  the  particular  char- 
I  acteristics  of  each.  If  we  take  an  equatorial  climate, 
I  like  that  of  Singapore,  as  a  standard  of  comparison,  w* 
Hhall  observe  a  very  great  difftrence  between  it  and 
(hat  of  a  northwestern  situation  in  the  plains,  such  aa 
Saharunpore,  in  80°  of  north  latitude,  tlie  first  being 
remarkable  for  nniformity,  and  the  latter  for  a  great 
range,  both  of  the  dry  and  wet-bulbed  thermometer. 
PlanU  which  live  throughout  the  year  in  the  open  air 
at  Singapore,  will,  in  most  cases,  suffer  both  ff-om  th« 
cold  and  the  beat  of  Saharunpore,  though  they  mny 
flourish  in  the  rainy  season  almost  aa  well  in  the  on'a 
as  the  other. 


y£kiill^4«.^^Vit'<u^^^^jii37b'^k^~oL'k^ll->^^-;?Mi^/^fiB^^ 


'/  COT 

TMWMKfiilil  n  TU  8iiu>a,  it  ti 


442 


Wi 


BflAia,  or  immAL  LooAtmn  nt  Innu,  wnna  Cornni  liii  imin 

OULTIVATBU 


i 

Halfki 
■buva 

■ml 

1 

I 

88 -IK) 
77-7(> 
OU-Sll 

G'J'OO 

SI  2!! 

llfrt 
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i 

1 

i 

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} 

j 

t 

1 

Vut. 

Mi -68 
81 -til 
7H-0-, 
80"i(l 
8U01 
71-71 
7801 
7(1-61 

. 

SSir.".;;:::::::; 

10  43' 

la   4 
n  sa 

25  18 
it  2D 
:8  41 
a  St 
30  IB 

81)  14 
88  18 
»i  M 
80  lii 
TT   18 

77  89 

78  5 

Heifc  level. 
MS  IcreL 
■M  level. 

1)00  ft 
600  ft. 

80  a 

1000  ft. 
IKifiOft. 

8<t(IO 
7ft«(l 
(M'.O 
42  W 
ilifOS 
61- III 
Bi-m 

6JT8 

S'l-O0  8.'>01l 
so  so  8870 
N(l'a0  8B'4O 
TII07  8IH1 
72'lb.S8fi& 

«;)■(l(),~..•lHI^8l)il 
80  80  87  70  8^  80 
8ft-70  88-70  Sl'>4(l 
.4-»|yO".'8  8'>-TI 
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8-J'6:i  ST-IB  S8  01 

80UO|b;-uo 

84-tlO  8U-;ii 

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711 -VO  7-1  ■»! 

Ml  •411  7il-i:i 

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7'i  3i  00- 

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67  a.' 
ASKM) 
07-00 

7603 
711  «fl 
T3-00 

Deyrftb  boon 

8fl-0B  89-(ifl  8(1-76 

81 -00184 -onas-oi) 

74-Oil|tU- 
78-06671 

AvK>u>i  (jVAMTi-rf  or  Raix,  in  Imoiih  anr  PAm,  o.i  Tim  Bi-m  or  Exi*itniMr,iiT>  ix  tiii  ci'i.tvm  or  Cottox,  ox  tub 

Low  LaNIiI  ur  TUK  COAIT,  AKU  UM  tub  TAIILK■LA^U  ur  TUK  UKCTAN,  IX  IMUIA, 


Mtw. 


Madru 

Dombav 

ButiiRgnt-n-y 

Taiina 

Uftpooleo 

K(ind«l!lal 

MahAbiileiihwiir 

Haunchguiinoe 

ItatUnli 

CoUpoor 

Poouh 

Nanuck 

Btilgatim 

Uharwar 

Ahmednugger .>. 

Shorapore 


18°  4' 
18  68 


19  «0 


IT  60 

li'  10 

10  SO 

18  no 
10  64 
10  00 
16  23 

19  10 


SJ"  U' 
72  63 

78°'tlb 

TJ'  80 

78'  "l« 

78  10 

78  00 

78  B8 

76  (JO 

76  8 

78  IK 


Htifhi 

abor* 


(WU  luviil. 

KCa  hn-nl. 

160  ft. 

■ea  level. 

900  ft. 

1740  ft. 

4600  ft. 

4000  ft 

2B2un. 


1812  ft. 
2(XH)  ft. 
I'fttio  ft. 


I  UU 


(I  •la 


at 
(I  au 


0  08 


ita  12-on 


"a 

_a. 

8".jtl  I  b-U  I  -1  7il  lU-Ut) 


t 

12'4u.U><6 


kuiikun,  aeii  count , 

»         Inland  . . '. 

WeiteraGhi^tii.'.!! 


•*          •'      coat  branch . 
Decoan,  table-land 


87-20 

48 

lU-t6 
UiO-10 
184-90 
1416) 
^n4-84 

ri0-e» 

09-20 
U(>-74 
1UK)2 
20-72 
W-CO 
n^-81 
'J  I  -88 
B2-.0 


—P.  S.  Patent  OjfU»  Report,  1888. 

III.  Cotton  Tradb  of  the  Unitrd  Statkr.  1. 
Hietory. — Cotton,  which  adininistora  so  boontifully  to 
the  wants  of  (jivilized  ai  well  as  to  savngo  man,  and  to 
the  wealth  and  economy  of  the  countries  producing  it, 
stands  pre-eminent  in  the  United  States,  lioth  as  re- 
gards its  superior  staple  and  the  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  its  cultivation  has  Ijeen  brought.  One  or 
more  of  its  species  is  found  growing  wild  throughout 
the  torrid  zone,  whence  it  has  lieeii  disscminntcil,  and 
become  an  important  object  of  culture  in  several  coun- 
tries thereto  aiUaient  from  time  immemorial.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  growing  in  India,  where 
the  natives  manufactured  it  into  cloth;  by  Theophras- 
tus  as  a  product  of  Ethiopia;  and  by  Pliny  as  growing 
in  Egypt,  toward  Arabia,  and  near  the  borders  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Nieuhoir,  who  visited  China  in  1666, 
says  that  it  was  then  cultivated  in  great  aliundance  in 
that  country,  where  the  seed  had  been  introduced  about 
600  years  before.  Columbus  found  it  in  use  by  tlio 
American  Indians  of  Cuba,  in  14!)2 ;  Cortez,  by  those 
of  Mexico,  in  1610;  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  by  tlie  In- 
cas  of  Peru,  in  1&32 ;  and  Cabo^a  de  Vaca,  by  the  na- 
tives of  Texas  and  California,  in  1536. 

Of  the  precise  period  of  the  tirst  introduction  of  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  into  the  North  American  col- 
onies, history  is  silent.  In  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Nova 
Britannia  offering  most  excellent  fruits  by  planting  in 
Virginia,"  published  in  London  in  1609,  it  is  slated 
that  cotton  would  grow  as  well  in  that  province  as  in 
Italy.  It  is  also  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Beverley, 
in  his  History  of  Virginia,  that  Sir  Kdmund  Andros, 
while  governor  uf  the  colony,  in  1692,  "  gave  particu- 
lar marlts  of  his  favor  toward  the  propagating  of  cot- 
ton, which,  since  his  time,  has  been  much  ne^ected." 
It  further  appears  that  it  was  cultivated  for  a  long  time 
in  the  eastern  parts  of  Blaryland,  Virginia,  Carolina, 
and  Georgia,  in  the  garden,  though  not  at  all  as  a 
planter's  crop,  for  domestic  consumption.  In  another 
pamphlet,  entitled  "  A  State  of  the  Province  of  Georgia, 
•ttestad  upon  oath,  in  the  Court  of  Savannah,"  in  1740, 
it  was  averred  that "  large  quantities  hate  been  raised, 
and  it  is  much  planted;  but  the  cotton,  which  in  some 
parts  is  perennial,  dies  heru  in  the  winter;  which, 
nevertheless,  the  annual  is  not  inferior  to  in  goodness, 


liut  requires  more  trouble  in  cleansing  from  the  seed." 
Atiout  the  year  1742,  M.  Dubrcuil  invented  a  cotton 
gin,  which  created  an  epoch  in  the  cultivation  uf  this 
product  in  Louisiana.  During  tlio  Kevolutiun,  tho  in- 
habitants of  St.  Mary's  and  Talbot  counties,  in  Mary- 
land, as  well  as  those  of  Capo  May  county.  New  Jcr- 
.  sey,  raised  a  sufficient  quantity  of  cotton  to  meet  tlicir 
wants  for  the  time.  It  was  formeily  produced  in 
small  quantities,  fur  family  use,  in  the  county  of  Siii- 
sex,  in  Delaware,  near  tlie  head-waters  of  the  Chop- 
: tank. 

I     The  seed  of  the  sea-island  cotton  was  originally  ob- 
I  tained  from  the  Bahama  Islands,  in  about  tho  year 
\  1785,  being  the  kind  then  known  in  tho  West  Indies 
as  the  "  Anguilla  cotton."     It  was  first  cultivated  by 
I  ilosiah  Tattnall  and  Nicholas  TumbuU,  on  Skidaway 
Island,  near  Savannah;  and  subsequently  by  James 
I  Spaulding  and  Alexander  Itisset,  on  St.  Simon's  Isl- 
!  and,  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Altaiiiaha,  and  on  Jekyl  Isl- 
and, by  Richard  Leake.     For  many  years  after  its  in- 
troduction it  was  conAned  to  tho  more  elevated  parts 
of  these  islandii,  bathed  by  the  saline  atmosphere,  and 
surrounded  by  the  sea.     Gradually,  however,  the  cot- 
ton culture  was  extended  to  the  lower  grounds,  and 
beyond  tho  limits  of  the  islands  to  tho  a(\jaccnt  bhores 
of  the  continent,  into  soils  containing  a  mixture  of 
clay;  and  lastly,  into  coarse  clays  deposited  along  the 
great  rivers,  where  they  meet  the  ocean  tides. 

Previous  to  1794 — the  year  after  tho  invention  of 
Whitney's  saw  gin — tho  annual  amount  of  cotton  pro- 
duced In  North  America  was  comparatively  inconsid- 
erable ;  but  since  that  period,  there  is  probably  nothing 
recorded  in  the  history  of  industry,  including  its  nian- 
nfacture  in  this  country'  and  Europe,  that  would  com- 
pare with  its  subsequent  increase. 

In  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  the  grow-th  of  cotton  is 
principally  restricted  to  tho  maritime  countries  lying 
between  the  4Uth  degree  of  north  latitude  and  a  cor- 
responding parallel  south.  On  the  easterly  side  of  the 
Western  Continent,  tills  plant  will  perfect  its  growth 
in  most  of  the  districts  adjacent  to  the  tidal  waters,  in- 
cluding the  regions  bordering  on  tho  Mississippi,  tho 
Amazon,  and  the  Parana,  between  latitude  39°  north 
and  40°  south  |  and  on  the  west  coast  of  America,  be- 


COT 


448 


COT 


81U1 
7H-0-I 
SO-ifl 
tlOOl 
71-71 
78-51 
W-b! 


\ 

Vmf. 

h«. 

•lb 

aiKi) 

6S'7S 

lU-lB 

lUO-IO 

184  «t 

141-6) 

a>4-»t 

w-do 

BD-iO 

80-74 

ID-OS 

20-72 

JO-iO 

n^-81 

HI -SB 

sa-iO 

twMn  tho  40th  puallel  nurth  and  •  corrMpondiriB  d«-   vmiiiii,  <Im  nmouttt  ol  IRM  wmM  hare  exmedad 

grei-  nniith,  i  H,)NN),INIO  lml««, 

Tho  growth  of  thU  ttaplo  ti  chloflv  conllnad  lu  lit*  |  'I'ltH  ti)t|Hirl  of  nitinti  from  the  United  Matei  to  the 
dia,  i:hinu,  Japmi,  Aualralls,  I'urilu,  Turkuy,  Mjuttiuril  i  miMtllrlfit  iff  tintlhorti  Kiirupe  i-ommenced  aome  ilxly 
Kuropc,  Araliia,  Kgypt,  Algeria,  noutliuni  anil  WHiluril  |  ynHt*  »nu,  III  the  y»»t  liWO,  Holland,  incluiling  the 
Africa,  tho  nuuthiirii  rection  uf  lliu  riiKiiil  Htatuii,  llrlt-  [  lutrUuty  mm  ktlottli  at  the  kliiKdom  of  Belgium,  re- 
ish  (iiiiuim.  Now  (jranailn,  Vciioxiu^lu,  I'aru,  liraitll,  !  uttivvd  7ll,lKM  IMMlllda)  til  1HM  the  aggregate  quantity 
Uruguay,  tlio  Weit  Indies,  aud  iiuiiiBroua  oilier  uucail  fHporlfd  In  III*)  Iwn  coinilrlHt  was  17,l(!0,9fl7  pound*. 
Ulei.     '  I  III  IWIIt  Nitrway  and  llfiimarkHrat  Imported  American 

According  to  Dr.  Boyle,  who  lia»  recently  InvuKll'  i'ii(lwil,«llluuiillliKllint year to))M,lUU pounds;  In  1866 
gated  tliu  suljjcct,  the  dllTercnt  lucalilios  of  the  four  vu-  Ol«»tfKfl>Hal«  iiiiantll/  exported  to  these  twocountrlea, 
rlolics  ur  sjiccieii  of  cotton  (soo  page  -lU-l)  may  he  slatud   liifludTlitf  Ntttnlcii,  was  sirnie  7,n(Kl,n00  ponnds.   Prussia 


in  tliu  lullowing  manner  i 

1.  (iot$>ipium  Indicum,  or  herbactum  —  the  cottuil 
plant  of  liidia,  China,  Arabia,  I'orsia,  Asia  Minor,  Ulid 
•omo  parts  of  Africa. 

2.  (louypium  urbotfum — a  tree  rotton,  iiidlgsnum  to 
India. 

8.  dnti/pium  llnrbademe — (ho  Slexican  or  West  Ill» 
dian  cuftun,  of  which  tho  sea-island,  New  Uriuaiis,  himI 
upland  Cicorgia,  are  varieties.  It  was  long  silicu  inlrw' 
ducvd  into  the  island  of  Uourlwn,  and  thcnea  lulu  liu 
dia;  licnco  it  acquired  tho  name  of  " llunrlioii  iiiltoil," 

•1.  (liMi/jiium  I'eruviunum,  or  «eu»ii>iu^M;»— .hIiIiIi 
yields  lliu  I'emambuco,  I'uruvian,  Maranlmin,  UImI 
lira/ilinn  cotton,  especially  distiuguisliod  hy  III  Itlnt'k 
seeds,  which  adiioro  llrnily  together.  'I'lila  variety  Imii 
long  since  Iwen  introduced  into  India. 

Tho  clilef  vurielics  cultivated  in  the  United  HtftU>» 
are  tho  black  seed,  or  sea-island  (II.  avboreum),  known 
also  liy  tho  name  of  "  long-staple,"  from  lt«  line,  wllil«, 
silky  appearance  and  long  llbres ;  the  greun  seed  (//, 
herbuceiim),  called  "short-stoplo,"  from  Us  shorlvr, 
-whito  staple,  -with  green  seeds,  and  ronmieriuUlly 
known  l>y  tho  naniu  of  "upland  cotton;"  and  two 
kinds  of  Nankin  or  yellow  {U.  llarbaiUme),  the  Mun> 
lean  and  I'otit  Uulf.  Tlie  average  yield  It  tthuut  MO 
pounds  per  acre. 

Tliu  earliest  record  of  sending  cotton  from  this  cuiin* 
try  to  Kuropo  is  in  tho  table  of  exports  from  (.'ImrluS' 
ton,  ill  IT-lT-'-lS,  when  seven  bags  wore  shipped  |  MM' 
other  parcel,  consisting  of  2000  pounds,  was  shipped 
in  1770;  and  a  third  shipment  of  71  bags  was  niailu  111 
1784,  which  Kngland  seized, on  tiie  ground  that  Amur' 
ica  could  nut  produce  a  quantity  so  great.  The  amount 
exported  from  tho  United  States  In  1701  was  IHP,lt|li 
pounds;  in  1793,  487,000  pounds;  in  17IM,  »,«Jl,7<«) 
pounds;  in  1796,0,270,300  pounds;  in  1800,  l7,7N|>,Hlia 
pounds ;  in  1810,  9.1,261,402  pounds ;  In  IM'^lW'JI, 
124,893,405  pounds ;  in  1830-'31,  270,070,784  puuildn  | 
inl840-'41, 630,204,100  pounds;  inl86O-'6l,0>i7,2!)7,UtW 
pounds. 

According  ta  the  Census  returns  of  1840,  the  amount 
cultivated  was  790,479,276  pounds ;  of  1860, 087,-»4l»,««« 
pounds;  showing  an  increase  of  19(i,970.!l26  pounds. 

It  appears  that  the  culture  of  cotton  Is  rapidly  dl' 
minishing  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.     In  lliose 


Hint  MWMlxn  Ixgan  linporling  eollon  from  the  United 
hlNlKS  in  IMM.  HttMla,  In  1809,  received  cotton  from 
lint  I/hIIdiI  Hlale*  fur  Ihc  first  lime,  and  to  the  amount 
of  half  a  nillllwi  uf  pounds;  while  In  1868,  the  year 
priur  U)  III*  f'«ninii>iH<emi'n(  of  the  late  war,  Ihe  export- 
Hlltni  In  lliat  I'oiinlry  aniounled  to  more  than  21  mil- 
lltniSi  'I'll*  llaiiiifl-lowns  received  cotton  from  the 
I'lllUid  Nlal<<s  prior  lu  Ihs  year  1800,  and  the  progress 
uf  illN  trnili)  wllh  Ihusn  rlllns,  which  Is  cxhiliilcd  in  the 
numulnitil  KlMlnmenl,  strikingly  exemplilles.  In  conncc- 
llun  with  thu  ri'hiarks  which  have  preceded,  and  the 
gKnural  slalmnent  which  follows  It,  the  rapid  and  pow- 
nrfllt  mlvaiii'tinient  uf  ihe  klng-stap'.c,  not  uf  the  United 
HlHlKS  inily,  liiit  uf  Ihe  cuinmercial  world. 

At  Ihn  it\m\\i\^  at  Ihe  present  century,  the  Imports 
ui  mtiUtn  Wiiul  into  Ureat  Mrllain  were  about  76,000 
lialiiii  pur  aniitim  |  nuw  iho  consumption  of  tlmt  coun- 
try is  2,6011,000  hales  annually,  while  the  rest  of  Eu> 
Mipn,  and  ilnt  United  Hiales,  that  then  had  no  manufao 
twrtM,  MM  Hhniil  l,9UO,0OU  more,  lo  say  nothing  of  the 
«uniium|iil(in  tit  Asia.  Of  lids  4,000,000  bales,  Ave. 
•Ijtilis  «r«  ttl«  prnduat  *A  this  country.  The  result  of 
till)  piMl  lliri<«  years  proves,  that  neither  tho  existence 
uf  M  war  ln«ulvllig  the  i-hief  nations  of  Kuropo,  nor  the 
IIUMlliallunn  In  trade  runst-quent  on  lis  cessation,  have 
bail  Any  iilfri't  on  the  demand  for  our  great  southern 
slapln)  ililis  I'stnldlshliig  the  fact  that,  the  next  to  tho 
ivadlllK  nrili'lcs  id'  liiiman  food,  It  has  faeccime  a  great 
and  llMdil  nei'i'sstty. 

A  ilui.iuniciit  cotiiplled  from  the  very  liest  data,  by 
una  tiDcutllirly  filled  fur  the  task,  was  lately  read  before 
tlw  Mwi«ll«si«r  Chanilier  uf  Commerce,  exhibiting  very 
Inipurlant  fatls.  The  value  of  the  cotton  manufactur- 
llIK  inilunlry  uf  the  wurld  was  estimated  at  i:i20,000,000 
Ntellillf{.  ur  l|ilt0O,IIUO,O0ll.  Of  this  amount  tho  entire 
piipulHliiin  uf  liM'Mt  Orltain  con!>uined,  in  value,  about 
iji'i'l*/)  Iter  lli>iiit  per  annum.  England  exports  to  tho 
it'nileil  HUtes  inaniifMi-tured  goods  at  Iho  rate  of  77 
V¥M*  1m  «Hi'li  indlvlditat  In  this  country,  but  being  our. 
SHiveM  l«r|$«  inaniifactiirers,  and  In  view  of  tho  general 
ImttHr  cundltlun  uf  tl.c  bulk  of  our  population,  it  is 
pruliHliln  lltat  our  cunsumptlon  of  cotton  goods  will 
l>Ni'i<i<li  Iliat  uf  Orrat  llrllain  60  per  cent,  per  head. 
Hlltjiainl  DXpurtS  In  her  Nurth  American  colonies  cot> 
lull  uiiudii  flt  Iht)  rate  of  $1-63  per  head  per  annum,  for 


states  it  is  doubtless  giving  place  to  other  producliuns  lliu  whuin  piitmlalloii )  to  Uiissia,  only  at  a  rate  of 
of  tho  soil.  There  has  been  a  very  hoovy  falling  uff  llirii|i'llftlni  uf  A  cent  per  head ;  to  France,  two  cents 
also  in  Louisiana,  and  no  appreeiabln  increata  in  Mill*  pxr  lieait  f  lu  lier  Kast  India  possessions,  at  the  rate  of 
sissippi ;  but  the  diminution  in  tlie  former  alal«,  and  I  III  i,'#nU )  hilt  these  three  lost  countries  niaiiufacturc  at 
the  failure  uf  any  advance  in  the  latter,  are  Accountud  |  lllilin',  Mpeelaltv  Vtmve,  who  mainly  provides  for  her 
for  l)y  tho  terrible  inundations  of  tho  Miseiaslppi  and  >  uwn  watllD,  white  ttussia  receives  goods  from  several 
its  tributaries.  But  for  that  calamity,  it  is  prnlmhia  siHiri'im.  Ksllnialing  Ihe  population  of  the  globe  at 
that  their  increased  yield  would  havo  eqiialei]  that  of  ^  NAII,IIOI),0(IO,  Ihe  flppurtlonment  of  the  w  hole  value  of 
Alaliama,  which  now  occupies  the  first  ploce  as  a  t'ot^  lliiiiiilfAi'Infed  ^uuds  winild  lie  aliout  70  cents  for  every 
ton-planting  state,  and  has  almost  doubled  its  pi'odui^'  IliliHliilAiil,  limn,  Woman,  and  child, 
tion  since  1840.  Immense  as  tho  extent  and  value  of  i  't'hx  iPintelli'V  ut  tlie  nge  Is  gradually  toward  an 
this  crop  has  become,  it  is  not  extravagant  lo  anlli'l^  \  i<i|llllli/Nllun  td'^ltie  tnoral  and  physical  condition  of 
pate  n  rate  of  increase  for  tho  current  decennial  period  tll»  hnniHH  family,  'the  wealthier  and  middle  clasact 
which  will  bring  up  the  aggregate  for  the  yaar  I8I!U  lu  |  nitpsHlt  ttlUl'll  ttiufe  ttinn  heretofore  in  articles  of  lasto 
4,000,000  bales.  I  unit  luHUry,  in  liousehutd  and  personal  adornment, 

The  average  annual  yield  for  the  five  years  endinjg  ttlliir^liy  ttli<  AHlsiin.  mechanir,  and  laborer  are  bcnefit- 
with  1836  was  estimated  at  1,066,000  bales ;  for  Ilia  !  i<it,  Hint  their  eundlllon  Improved.  The  barliarous  and 
same  period  ending  in  1840, 1,440,000  bales ;  for  A  Ilk*  delmiwd  nations  and  trilies  of  the  world  are  fast  tending 
period  terminating  with  1860,  2,270,000  bales,  Hnd  I  toward  llie  halills,  and  acquiring  the  tastes  of  dviliza* 
no  disturbing  cause  interrupted  the  progre(«iv»  ad*  I  tloii  |  (Iw  first  syniptem  of  which  la  the  exchange  of 


./^ 


COT 


COT 


Uwir  fornMr  nida  m4  ««Mty  •totliliiK  fcf  dratMi  of  oar 

manurai'luniii  (innIi, 

llcnc*  It  r«(|Hlmi  MKhMr  MNiwiitMi  nnr  •rHumonl  to 
•bow  that  •  M/y  tmiUI  entrnil  inurtmi  In  Ida  ooniufflp- 
llon  of  ooltiNi  kminI*  ¥iuhM  <l«tn«N«l  »  iii|>|il/  ol  ri« 
matarUl  ImvoimI  »1m  ftftsnt  tMUiy  «t  lh«  wortil  to  tt- 
hri,  A  rtr«rMMi«  Ut  UtUU  "  Uoiwral  lM|)orl  of  Otton 
Into  OrtM  Urlisiit"  will  *Imw  llMt  Dm  trntll  firotluvt 
of  iha  W««t  Ituliw  I*  •iMMMt  rtMUm»iy-Ah»t  the 
*wn«  li  tka  ««M  with  llrMll,  im  »n  «v«rM«  of  yaan ) 
tlia  axport  ilianua,  U«t  yaw,  w«a  only  lM,mw  lialaa, 
walgblng  Iwaa  (bMi  'iWI  potMNla  WMili,  In  Kicrpt,  th* 
product  of  tba  paat  fuw  ytmt*  Imm  •varaMd  about 
twlca  •«  muah  m  tlia  (traaMllNK  iMifbMl  i  ■iKriant  vaar 
only  U&,(KW  ImUw  uaMia  fnwi  that  amiraa,  walghlnR 
2&0  pouiia*  «a>:li  I  wltil«  tba  avaraK*  *bl|tm«tit«  turn 
th«  Ka«t  Iiidtua  (uf  tba  paat  ala  yaara  li  bat  aiO,000 
bales  par  aiiiiuiii,  walKblNK  alwut  WN)  |wun<la  aac  h. 

Tba  main  i|ii|iun4«Hii«  of  Dm  worlil  It  on  tliU  coun- 
try, which  (ant  yuar  fMritii>h«4  H,m,im  lialaa  out  of  a 
total  proilut't  uf  i,1i»),m>.  A*  tba  n«w  land*  of  ih« 
Wait  coma  Into  vultlvallutti  and  thn  firoaraM  of  our 
railroad*  bring*  tba  tiroii  wllbin  raacb  of  tba  aaaboard, 
tbare  will  Im  •  griKlMal  ln«r«a»«  «/f  our  protluHlnn )  Init 
to  thU  avitn  (baru  tiiMrt  Im  n  IImiII,  i.«nabbirlnf(  th*  na- 
ture of  the  L'litnata  and  awil  naaaaaary )  and  the  time 
may  not  be  vary  Ur  di«t*Nl  wItMt  wa  ihatl  fall  to  Mie«t 
the  dauiand.  lindar  thU  atata  iit  iMnitn,  It  Is  not  to 
be  wondurad  at  that  tba  uotaftlliMiils  of  KnKland  and 
France  an  jiMttiiig  fwrib  avary  tflturt  to  foatvr  the  oiil- 
tivalbin  of  cotloit  In  (lH«lr  nolonbis,  We  hava,  rertaln- 
ly,  no  caua*  br  faar  »ri»»UtH»y  In  viaw  of  these  eAbrts. 
Not  only  are  wa,  na  ifrodMcara,  iHl«rt<«t«d,  but  the  for- 
eign maiiufauturar,  Iba  iNilitival  aratiuinitt,  and  the 
pbllaut|iru()iiit,  alika  bava  laban  Iha  matter  Into  serious 
considsratiuii,  Wa  van  afaraaly  I'onletnplale,  wiiliout 
amotioa,  tha  diaastrwM*  raaulla  t'omtHerilally,  jiolitiral- 
ly,  and  sociallv,  (bat  might  folbiw  a  general  liiilure  of 
on/y  ufM  crou  m  tbU  vimnUi/,  'I'tmta  Mould  bo  no  re- 
serve to  fall  bask  H|)0H,  'iha  sbH'li  in  (treat  llrltain 
on  the  lit  of  January  U»t  wat  lint  lltlh*  larger,  wlili  a 
conauiNption  of  'i,m,m»  l)ab<«,  than  It  was  in  IMI, 
with  ■  uoii>um|itb«M  xf  A  tittla  ovvr  i,mi,<m  bales  i 
and  not  half  so  large  a*  Iba  *to«b  on  January  1,  llMO. 

t  STATMTICN  nr  TMB  ('(»TT(tN  VHAifti  Of  THE 

imiTnit  atATKd. 

Rtvtshbnt  »iis»Hiri»i»  »Ma  T4BIH'  Ititttaa  unu  I'tmm- 
uoiaa  Haaui.«Tio»a  «(H/ii'4Hia  m  AnumfiHt  Crrtton  la 
ma  pB:a<'>»>4i.  t;ii«Maa<it4i,  tmi^taita. 


CwwMM' 

ii^iltiUM 

fMm  «f  riiiir. 

final  Urluln....... 

f(*ft 

Vraoca ,,,, 

mi^uii,,., 

la  Hatlonal  vmwIs, 
|»flt    In   fxrclgn 

vrmwla,  (ia44.' 

Spain....,.,,,,,,,, 

(AlpoHad*,,;, 

In   Nsll'inal   r«m<-lii, 
lai  ««'Mst  In  lor- 
elgn  tassels,  fl  ML 

Roasia ,,„ 

M^mds,,,,, 

lal  (vints, 

Hremsn , , , , , 

A4  vthtfm  , , , 

|«fl  ^r«e«t. 

■ardinla ,,,, 

,,,,,,,,,,,  f,  , 

\m, 

Belgium ,,,, 

It  ittit  II  tt  It  I 

¥m, 

Austria ,,, .,,,, 

iittitttttiti  t 

Vm. 

^iwedsn  sod  Norsray, 

""""""" 

Ill  NwfidMl,  <y«fl|  In 
Nitfas)',  neatly  | 
««titia)ri*eaMil, 

UaxUo ,,,, 

Hsmburg  ,,,,,,,.,. 
Hollsnii ,,,,, 

.♦dvalfrt-fHi  ,,, 

illW, 

let  1  per  senl 

TwoaUIIIss .,, 

IWiAa  ^M»4>, 

M«0, 

Ur;M<liN,A,|»wAs. 

1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 

t^ree, 

r>enai*rk ,,, 

1  lilt  11 

I'ri'K, 

I'lirtugst , 

WIiwh'imIs,,,, 

OI-AeeniA 

rusosny  .,,.,,,,,,, 

I'upstiUah!* 

Juba,.,,,, ,,,,,,,,, 

ffMi, 

r4'NI  ^ifHds  , , 
IMpawida,,,, 

10  ssnts, 

Ift   nalMial   tsssela, 

Idll  In  foreign  Tcs- 
Sets,  9f|  p«r  cent. 

Ml  a  valoalloft  of 

.#"»' 

•  By  the  trusty  of  mi,  I'nilMl  INalKS  VMSsels  an  eqiislUol 
with  freneh  vessels  (»  Hia  difwf  laifdirtall/rti  Into  tHhm  nf 
•itldss  the  growtb,  RHHlHllMlHM,  Of  pfsduae  «f  the  Vnllsd 
Blatai, 


UoTTon  llBor  or  baiki  iTATa.  Aixioamm  to  tub  Vmrat 

HT.tTBS  l.'BIOVS. 


auiMas4T<crllH<ML 

C'oMik  sXkuot. 
ISM. 

aisa^t'oM;.;. 

1IM> 

Alshsms 

Arksnsss 

Uslswsro 

'  rosa44. 

iiT.iuH.Ma 

O.OHM.tlll 

aiM 

13,IIO,t>3B 

ias,S'j'i,iiiM 

!i«0,l47 

l«0 

«*I,4M 

161,KA8IH 

B,«73 

t03.4OI,n7T 

Itil.lll 

61,08(1,1(10 

01,710,274 

i<7,701,87T 

lialM  of  «M  rxra^i. 
M)l.4'itt 
«A,^I44 

4Kii31 

■m,on 
■■"i4 

7»8 
]T!(,737 

4i*'4',m 

biljilB 
3011,001 

i04,r>a< 

M.ilTl 
U,II4I 

Florida 

(Irorgls 

Illinois 

Indians 

Kantueky 

I^uUlsns 

Msrylind 

MlMlMlppI 

Mtmiuii 

North  Usrullna. . . . 

HoMlh  t'arolius 

TutineMSfu 

Virginia 

Total 

71)(),4Y0,lJ7r) 

tl,44b,7li!l 

The  a*>ove  nro  eatlniatcN  nufroly ;  and  the  totals  vary  from 
•ho  tabular  rctnma  on  pam  44B.  The  ((uantltlfH  ruusumed 
vheni  grown  will  socount  In  part  for  the  diacrepanolpa 

T*nii\;i  Cnai'ABATivK  HTAtrMrMT  z::-.,,i<ii  run  aveuob 
QwvNTiTiEs  nr  t.'OTio'*  riw»in:r!;i>  A>ti>  munryM  tM  Tjia 

OnITHII  KTATBt.   WITH  THK  VaI.  :1S  Or  TH.!  l^'.  ANTITISH  SO 

Bxpoaieu!  TiHiKTH  .11  Willi  Tui;  t;i  av..<iT  I'liiots  or  Cot- 

TON  IN  TIIK  rmiBh  HTATIW  ANIl  liltKAT  IIUITAIN,  BISrSl'T- 

iTM.v,  n.MjN'i  iiiK  r:i!ST  tii:'.rk  Vr.Am  or  kaiii  l>i«:Atia, 
mil  A  I'iRMiit  i,y  sixnr.TMUH.:  Vkaiw,  nioM  1*93  to  1804^ 
ii'.n'ii  i.'<i<Lts|vi:,(a) 


Prgduod. 

■xrouTth,               1    pao'M  in     | 

UuntHI<i. 

V>ltl».     1  II.  H    1 11.  B.] 

IVwiidi. 

PtNinda, 

UolUn.    1  CraU. 

Paafft. 

Vi'i 

nu'i 

1T04 

1 

B,300,0(K1 

748,000 

283,000   31) 

101-6 

ISO.'  1 

1803 
1S(14 

60,000,000 

88,000,000 

0,000,000 

li'l 

104-6 

1SI3) 

I8i;-.j 
tsu) 

ISM 
IN«3 
1»M4) 

183:1 

1833 
1«t4 

78,800,000 

22,000,000 

2,700,000 

t«l 

■m 

203,800,000 

IB'J.BOO.OOO 

22,100,000 

140 

81 

431,600,000 

S44,0M>,000 

38,fi00,000 

U'23 

71 

i>m 

(rtl»44 

i8r>2 

1853 
18M) 

(M 

807,100,000 

680,206,000 

00,706,000 

7  43 

B 

(M 

l,32T,4OO,000 

1,064,500,000 

07,000,000 

9-l'i 

61-7 

(rf) 

(a)  This  statement,  mado  up  with  esre  and  lalwr  from 
sources  ofllclal  and  unofllclal,  and  oftun  conflicting,  although 
not  perhaps  statlsllcsllx  exsct.  Is  yet  probably  enough  so  tot 
those  purposes  of  genersl  conipariKun  for  whirli  it  U  submit- 
ted. For  obvious  reasons,  the  agijri'Kate  of  the  exportation 
and  consumption  of  cotton  ran  not  he  expected  to  balance  the 
production  In  any  single  year,  independently  of  ntocks  on 
hand  from  preceding  years.  An  avrrage,  year  with  year,  of 
some  70,000  pounds  consumed  for  household  and  other  uses, 
and  of  some  8,000,000  pounds  lost  or  destroyed,  and  of  Mime 
600,000  pounds  of  Imported  cotton  consumed,  arc  alDO  Items 
to  lie  considered  In  striking  this  balance ;  as  well,  moreover, 
as  thd  fact  that  the  sums  are  In  round  numbers,  and  that  the 
only  flgurrs  In  the  statement  which  can  be  viewed  as  at  all 
atabsttcal  aie  those  giving  the  amounts  and  values  of  expor- 
tation. The  data  for  quantities,  values,  and  prtoeH,  derived 
from  Uie  Treasury  reports,  do  not.  It  will  be  peroelved,  slways 
alTord  results  entirely  coni<lstent. 

(M  The  rapacity  of  tho  bale  la  computed,  agreeably  tJ 
usage,  at  400  pounds.  In  ohanging  hales  Into  pounds  for  this 
Htatouionl,  ulthoiigh  an  average  of  460  pounds  to  the  bale 
would  iirobably  In]  more  exact. 

(r)  Nine  months  only,  the  year  ending  .Tune  80  Instead  of 
8ep%'mber  80,  as  before. 

(rf)  The  Tth  decade  terminates  In  1861.  The  sUtcment 
may,  therefore,  be  viewed  as  rmhraclng  a  period  of  seventy 
yesrs,  from  1T92  to  1861,  Inclusive. 

The  following  table  gives,  opposite  to  each  year, 
the  crop  of  the  United  States,  tho  iiumlier  of  balea 
of  now  crop  received  in  New  Orleans  up  to  tlio  1st 
of  Heptember,  with  the  date  of  killing  frost.  The  re- 
marks  appended  arc  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  rharacter 
of  the  season.  RcfiscninK  from  canse  to  elfect,  tha 
reader  will  be  enabled  to  form  soma  idea  of  tha  caiuea 


I'raU. 

PtMa. 

1»U 

101-« 

lOJ 

i«4-a 

1«» 

•20t 

11 '23 

Ti 

T4J 

6 

O'H 

«1-T 

COT 


44* 


COT 


operating  for  or  iKalntt  •  Htg*  crop,  •Iwtyi  (Mtring 
Iq  iiiIikI  the  graiiual  Ini'reun  In  the  lirtadth  of  tiisth 
Unit  pkntiid  iu  tlia  Wuil  mkI  Hoiithwont. 


Il.4lll(l«l>l.l. 
i*io...  .7.'..,. 
IMI 

h^. 

t.m.ouo 
i,«i4,i>ao 

l.«S8,«()0 
S,B78,MK) 
1,08U.400 
1,(^4.6:10 

IMl 

IMS 

1M44 

1M5 

1840 

U40l>60i) 

IMT 

l.TTSOOO 

1S4H 

1,040,1X10 
'i,7V8,6aO 

1S40 

186) 

IgBI 

9,0!I0,T()0 
8,006,1100 

ISBS 

IHfrJ.... 

IMM 

8,ol^aao 

8,«».IKI0 
9,0811,000 

1866 

I8U 

9,847,800 
8,697,800 

ukain  A»(wrrrnii«(  fmt. 


1,704 

8!U 

6,780 

0,>M 

140 

],US» 

9,804 

477 

«7 

U,16B 

6,OT7 

74 

1,001 

98,V89 


Not.  It 
Nor.  90 
Not.  18 
Uot.  9T 
Nov.  14 
Nov.  10 
Nov.  90 
Nov.  90 

n'oV."«« 

Nov.  II 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  37 

Nov.  14 
Oct.   84 


BIllAkKa. 

1880— Flnl  Urirn  orop.    R«uon  n>iiiHrknl)ly  flnu  thrutighouC 

1840 — t'nfuvorHblu  ii>&jion.    Ovprflow  nf  MlfMrtmlppl  Hirer. 

1841 — WcNtrni  crop  r(mm1,  Hi'vcni  druuglit  In  AUbAma. 
Ocorgla,  KlorMa,  and  MlHiinlppl. 

1848->'(lf>ner«1ly  gnod  M-aion  and  f^arly  picking. 

1H4^' — IMe  Hprlnx,  rulny  inuinKT,  and  early  tnttL 

1844— Very  Knod  Kaaon,  aiid  early  picking.  Partial  over- 
flow of  Mlaaiiinlppl  Klver. 

1846— MlMlMliipl  Klver  and  Wcntrrn  crop  gno<l  and  early. 
DroMKlit  riidurotl  the  eaatern  crop  On<i,on<l  lialca. 

184(1— Late  iipring,  early  and  Reneml  vinltatlon  of  army 
wonna;  the  latter  destruyloK  400.000  tu  CiOO.(l()0  Imlea. 

1847— Ijite  HCAaun.  but  favurnblu  fall.  The  occiirrenro  nf 
the  French  Ittivolutlon  put  down  prlcei,  and  900,000  balea 
wem  held  back  In  tho  country. 

1848-8iiniuicr  rainy,  but  flno  fltll ;  200,000  baica  brought 
Ibrward  nf  pn'vluua  crop. 

184'.)  — Frtirtt  In  aprlng,  heavy  ralnolntTnly,  partial  overHovof 
MI'«alH)ilppl  Itlvcr;  Ited  Klver bottoiuaovcrtluwLMl  In  Hunimcr. 

l.S.')0— ituckward  spring,  pli-king  begun  uuuiually  late. 
Partial  overHow  of  Mlialulppt  lilver. 

1861  — Kuvorablo  anmnier  and  early  picking. 

}8Sl>—  Iteniarkably  flno  arunin,  early  picking,  and  lato  froik 

186.1— l.atu  and  rainy  acaHon. 

lSb4-'r>6— Backward  anoiuin.  About  260,000  baloa  kept  back 
by  lowncRH  of  the  watera  in  Alabama,  Louiilana,  Arkanaaa, 
and  Texaa. 

18&6-'tj6— Fine  leaann.  Karly  picking,  anfflclently  good  to 
countrrbalanee  an  early  froat.  About  860,000  balea  of  laat 
crop  received,  which.  In  Iket,  will  mako  the  actual  product  of 
18M-'V>.  .1,01)7,800  balea,  and  reduce  that  of  ISeS-'OO  to 
8,277,800  liuloa. 


Sfa-Mand  Cntlon,  The  crop  of  thlt  Important  ittpl* 
for  Iha  year  ending  fWpt.  1,  IHM,  waa  44,ftl2  baUa; 
IHM-'u.'),  4il,M41  balai,  and  In  IH.i8-'U,  »l>,6tt0  balaa. 
The  nxelpta  In  lHftA-'6(l  Ixflnjf,  fynm  l-lorlda,  10,000) 
CieorKta,  19,246 ;  South  Curulina,  ■.ni,8«l7. 

I  he  exlrai>rdlnary  crop  of  the  year  lN66-'{6  In  the 
Cnlted  Slatee  (8,&8T,0IM)  haira)  haa  paiaed  into  the  nu« 
merouB  cliannela  of  cuniumptlon  at  prirea  ninch  higher 
than  fur  Ave  yeara  |>ast,  leavliiK  a  atock  on  liand  un  lal 
.Septambar  laat  of  uiily  5-i,0«IO  balea  la  all  the  United 
StMaa  porlB.  Thia  conaumptlon  la  atlll  going  on 
throughout  the  Hrltiah  and  Conllnentat  manufacturing 
dlatrlota;  and  tho  liicreaaa  of  machinery  added  to  nillla 
hitherto  working,  it  Is  eatlmated,  will  nxiuire  In  Oteat 
Britain  atone  an  additional  weekly  lupply  of  4000  balea. 

Acontmr  aiiowiNii  Tna  DarTiNATioN  or  ina  Cottob  bi- 
roaTKii  rniM  ma  I  mitu)  HTATaa  m  1S4T,  1818,  *hu  lS4t. 


CoujitrlM. 


Rnaala 

Mwrden  and  Nor 

I    way... 

iDenniark 

Ilunae  Towna..., 
Illolland 

Ilelgiuin ... 

iKngland 

Hcotland 

Ireland 

,Ulbraltar 

t.'antida 

UritUh  Am.  Uol.  . 

France,  Atlantic  . . 

MedtUr'n. 

iRpain 

thiha 

Portugal 

Italy 

Sardinia 

lAnitrlan  porta , . 

Mexico 

Central  America 

China  and  Mouth 
Seal 


ToUI. 


IMI. 
Puunda. 
6,«I8,BCB 

I   9,887,«l)a 

«60,T89 

10,880,648 

1,073.894 

1I),1N4.848 

8118, 160.6114 

19,<8i>,788 

4(4  40T 

00,100 

11  8,08(1 , 

I'i9.6(l7  I 

07,4Jl,«6« 

4,(ll&.4M 

18,aia.«68 

8,luO,lB3 


8,720,718 
4,404,l>04 
11,780,078 


848,008 


697,8111,068 


PtMn4a. 
1U,8M,0I1 

4,078,084 
«t,ni» 
tT,480,408 
4.861,eo» 
16,8T0,«7« 
648,011,188 
8e,001,U«6 


188,20! 

88,!I68' 

li;9,26i;,878 
7.084  f>8:i 
10,8811  486 
4,r;67,474 
774 
6,077,881 
2.614,804 
20,408,010 


18,068 
SU,274,481 


Poiu>>. 
10,SSri,«Bl 

7,024,160 

4,77* 

18,844. 4(>4 

ll,887,l!86 

88,118,809 

687,4IM),0I1 

88,171,778 

8,06».64T 

B.  718.819 

I  04.1 6T 

I  2,747 

14'),288.6()0 

0,868.283 

23,886,804 

1,684,784 

240,806 

10,6(14,461 

0.063,707 

13,270,884 

8,8(!8.-04 

684,781 

760,861 


1,014,61)8,010 


N.D.— Tho  aea-lsland,  umoiintlng  to  11,060,260  Iha.,  la  ex- 
cluded IVom  the  exports  in  tho  fbregoiug  table  for  1840.  In- 
cluding them,  the  total  exporta  of  that  year  werv  1,020,602,869 
pouoda. 


Statkmknt  ixniBrnxo  ma  Qtantity  amd  Valve  or  Cottom  rxrcBTEn  anni'Ali.t  iboji  tok  Umitid  BTAXia  raoM  1891 

lO   IS66,  IMCtCSlVE,  AMI*  Tlia  ATtSAHK  iBIia  Ff.B  I'OtNIt, 


1881.. 
18-.'8. . 
1888. . 
1824. . 
1886. . 
1826. . 
ISiT. , 
1828. , 
1820.. 
1830.. 
1881.. 
1832. . 
1833.. 
1834. 
183B.. 
1836. 
18.17. 
18:8. , 
1830., 
1S40. 
1811., 
1842., 
1843. 
1844. 
1S4B. 
1846. 
184T. 
1848. 
1840. 
1860., 
1861. 
180J. 
1863. 
1864. 
18fiS. 


Total  Iha.. 


Pouuita  of  ('oUoD. 


Olbar. 


11,344,(166 

ll,8.'>(>,636 

18.186,688 

9,B-.'6,722 

lt,(168.278 

6,078,862 

16,140,708 

ll,8ti8,410 

18,833,807 

8,14T,l6B 

8,811,769 

,    8,748,373 

11,142,887 

8,096,087 

7,762,736 

7,840,607 

5,'.;86,ft71 

7.886,.<I40 

6,107,404 

8,770,069 

6,837,484 

7,864,0:9 

7,516,070 

6,01)0,070 

9,380,686 

0,888,833 

6,298.073 

7,784,148 

ll,!i0!),o|» 

8,886,403 

S.aoo.flWJ 

11,711.S.fl78 

1I,1U6,16S 

10.4S6,483 

18,069,600 

880,8077204 


113,&4!),880 
133,4'J4,40O 
161,680,689 
138,843,041 
166,784,689 
108,662,668 
270,160,817 
100,302,044 
262,003,870 
200,SI1,C8T 
268,608,023 
818,461,749 
010,636,611 
870,601,070 
870,686,866 
415,781,710 
488.004,566 
BSS.rtlB.fBT 
4118.6(16,808 
736.161.31)3 
583,066  676 
B77.4«-.',018 
784,7S.'.027 
067.634  370 
803.6'6,;J71 
638,100,622 
620,026,085 
806,660,888 
1,014,638,010 
627,145,141 
01 8,037,483 
1,081,402.664 
1,10(),4«6,206 
077,346,688 
996,366,011 


18,164,766,946 


Total. 


184,81'3.4aB 
144,676,006 
173,728,270 
148,800,608 
176,440,907 
204,636,416 
294,810,116 
210,500,468 
264,837,186 
998,460,109 
276,979,784 
082,816,182 
824,608,604 
884,717,007 
887,!I5S,003 
488,631,807 
444.811,687 
696,062,807 
418,624,218 
743,941,061 
630,',O4,100 
684,717,017 
702,297,106 
663,638,466 
878.n(.^,9r6 

647,^^8.(r>.'i 

637,210,(63 
814,274,431 

1,026, 602,26!) 
036.381,604 
927,237,OS9 

1,008.230.680 

1,111.570,370 
0S7,!S33.ia6 

1,008,424,601 

18,476,264,240 


Valua. 


(20,167,484 
24,086,068 
20,446,620 
81,047,401 
86,846,649 
25,086,214 
20,360.646 
28,487,229 
26,576  311 
29,674,898 
26,880,409 
81,724,682 
80,101,106 
49.448.403 
64,001.803 
71.2S4,0i6 
0:1,240,102 
61,6.16.811 
61,288,083 
68.870,807 
64,380,841 
47,608,464 
40,110,806 
H063,801 
61,730.643 
42.767.841 
63,416,848 
ei,0F8,204 
60,306,967 
71,084,616 

112,316,817 
87,1'66,783 

110.466,404 
OS.006,320 
88,148,844 


$1,880,347.7^ 


Avorago  iMt 
p«r  pouad. 


163 

11-8 
16-4 
20-9 
12-2 
10 
10-7 
10 
9-9 
9-1 
08 
111 
12-8 
16-8 
16-8 
14-2 
10-3 
148 
8  6 
102 
81 
6  3 
81 
503 
7-81 
1084 
7-61 
6'4 
11-8 
1211 
8-06 
0-86 
9-47 
8-74 


tior 


COT 


TAasiJUi  eouritMtTf  Rt*nitairr  tHowiini  Tin  QvairriTiu  or  Votiou  nromn  rBOM  m  I'bitiii  Dtatm  to  Tim 
r^nKiiriL  niii«nni«L  CoDinaiH  ■ririoriTii.T,  «mii  thi  *H«vtL  tvniui  Ahi>d<>i*  innruri  AKn  tk*  akmu^l  at- 
ttta*  AMoiiNn  or  l>irt(M  iwiivitv  TMimiiraiiM,  ron  a  I'lmon  or  riTa  \avK<,  >i«»i  l'<M  to  1x06,  noiii  imiloivi. 
Tub  Uata  h>»  Till*  itTATaitaMT  Aaa  nuaiTtu  raiia  tua  I  a(Trii  HTtTiw  Taatai  at  lltroiT*.  i«  wUdH  tni  i  iiiiHai.ni  ti 
YiAlt  I  luoa  Jiiaa  SO,  Tiia  YaAS  m  IhuTiaH  ado  Vnuieii  urrirxAi.  IMxiiitaiiTa  ooaniaiNinM  * i rn  that  nr  tiia  i  al- 
mAK  naiina  <>»«  ('aci«  or  A*i>AaKMr  liiMttrANOiaa  im  Kn.oaaa  ma  wikhkailt  tio  lAMa  >  atua. 


OnalrtM  to  wkltk  nftmt.  1 

I       l«tl. 


Urvat  llrtlaln 

KraoM 

Wn 

liana*  Towna  . . . . 

Urlaiuin 

.VuArta 

Sardinia  and  luljr 


M»U« 

Ilalland 

Awmlrn  anil  Nnrwajr . 
DrIlUh  N.  A.  yuawulona 

Hanmark 

(  nba , 

I'lirtugal 

Klmwliam 

To  all  oaunlrl«a. 


l9li,l»t,6Tl 
lll,VTM»  6 
IdTIHMI 
l«,IW6,U|i< 

IO,M(l,4n« 
10. 

5. 1  ti  1,1)74 
VU,6W 


ltII,6T1 


(RiTr>IIT,(l)MI 


l(UI 

T6*.Mll,TH 
INO,^!,;!!! 
Wlhll.liVH 
li.Ulo.Mit 
n.l6T,Him 
KI,|I4(*,4II4 
IT,I»I4.9<M 
10,4TMIM 

«.Tao,n»i 

1(I,«S«,(UII 

6,l>M),09ft 

1D,6«N 

ST.OM 

SHMM 

on.iu 

Mi.<<(tn 

r,(')i»ii,«i((i,(iri« 


4  Imm  lk«  UaI 
HM.     ■ 

tod  aui«  h  ilM  Y»n 

ftft  Aniwuito  •! 

CAtoa 

AMHMt  •*«»(• 
AMiMMU  »(   OuUM 

l>N.        1          lut. 

T(M.I>H«,4lN"M,Vl|,(MT 

«T.i,4  H.llNi 

Ti'illW.141 

KrtM', 

IHll,J*l,llUI  IU.KH,I1«I 

•illl.llll,M)l> 

171),N1ltt,6«4 

l'.',oiiti,n(xi  m 

ii«,>ni,('4'i  aft."^4,(i:4 

li:i,(ni.Iii6 

ll«.7(U  «:>V 

•iKi:m  0(1 

W,(kTI.Ti<4    llT.TICtt'^'i 

IMI,Mi>V,(IVI 

«(I,(|||,1IM 

«8,71ID  out 

l^4»4  4t<    U,im.4il(l 

I.',tll».r6» 

I7,(lll7,47'i 

Krpp. 

IT,MH.«4't 

14.1X11.144 

l),Tdl  4(16 

|(1,7M»,7«7 

|-r.». 

V.W.9'* 

U,VK>.K\» 

I«,()n7,(«U 

I4,»ll,ll() 

IMlfcrrnt  rHtra. 

tll.lMKnA 

i,li|4,«M 

44H,XP7 

i),n44.><(i« 

47,(>l'«  Dd 

T.4M.H(i| 

IJ.I4«.(MII 

7,6.'T,('7U 

»\>M\.«Vl 

IIIU,"!"  Wt 

1.i»<.V»4 

•,01(1,1116 

4.IMI.4I4 

(i.7riu,v<7 

I'rrc. 

•,(i»0,Blt 

•,«l'i,Tli) 

H,4'i'<,4;i7 

t.Mi.mi 

IMffirtmlratM,! 

ltl,WA 

71I,T1MI 

H^ll.'/Ol 

11(11,(170 

Knc, 

4lin.l«9 

.I.MNII 

iioiMxa 

14'J,HTA 

Vn*. 

1»«,»M 

WI)A\H 

DO. '(I 

1711  014 

tmtfi 

M.m\ 

l-i  1,060 

144  (KKI 

W  \Vn 

i»  a 

mt.im 

l,il4<l,NI>6 

V7(l,Ht<'i 

■4«,0ls 

iii,6i(i,:it(r 

^IINT,M».l(Hi^l,INW,4<'>,"'l 

l,Otll>,(iM),10(l 



*  Th«  Bimiiinla  iirdiitli-A  ptlil  um  raleiiUtol  nh  tlm  riittnin*  ralxa  Riven  In  tli<i  pni'i'dlnK  atalunionl  (n,  aUliounli  Ukmh 
mifa,  cliirluK  tl>'  Ivi'  yiani  clialRnati'il,  liavii  In  xinio  l((aUn<»<a  undvrKuna  oliangra.  Ilalgluui,  I'ur  axauipl«i  did  nut  admit 
eolliiii  Inw  (iiilll  Ihe  |iaaa«Ki>  i>rilix  law  of  April  IV,  INOd. 

t  The  amount  la  mkuUtad  ou  tha  niadluiu  uf  IIm  ad  wilorm  duljr  of  Uroniun  ami  llamburK,  on  aa  aaauinad  vuluallon 
of  17  <«nta  iH-r  pound. 

t  Tha  amount  l<  ealoulalod  on  kha  ratra  of  Ilia  vilatlnf  larllf  of  Janiury  01,  186A,  prior  to  which  i»tton  waa  altliur  pro- 
hllillcd  or  aultjorti'd  to  a  duty  iMinlvalrut  to  prohlhltlon. 

I  Tnltril  HtHti>a  Trcaanry  rapurta  do  not  itlva  (|((antlil«a  tn  Notwajr  diatluul  fruni  Uiuae  tu  8w«dau.  In  Iha  lattur,  ootlon 
b  fra*  i  la  tbu  furmar,  tha  dutjr  la  nuarljr  half  a  oant  per  pound. 


F.xiimT  or  CartoH  m  riinaiim  I'oara  rnoni  HaiTintuca  1,  innn,  to  Aiiain  81,  ISM, 


Wtlara  from.                               (Iraal  Brl(aln, 

rraar*. 

Nonliof  Kuro)w.  1  (nli«r  foralffM  Pnfto, ' 

■  ■■•■  ¥;toi. 

Nvw  Drluana baliia 

Moblla •• 

Taxaa , ■> 

Flmlda " 

Havannah " 

Charlralon ■> 

Vlnilnla  and  North  Carolina    » 
llallimora '• 

(IHII,(l."i 

i»i,(im 

Itl.Otl 

IKI.N'.KI 

tO'i,7l8 

1B0,631 

104 

4!24 

181,048 
7,4'il 

»t4,HI4 
MAO 

ii.ono 

18,W 
87,U«a 

"■« 

l«.',ti'.n 
'.11,010 
9,176 
»,0.0 
«,ll(>7 
40,7iT 

i'Kwn 

nn.Mii 

»,0(i7 

'i,'H'(i8 
Ba,4ii« 

'b.Vt'i 

'  i,mm 

48n,0^'4i 
li4,flUtl 

r6,s.M 

l8-.,aj« 

871,111 

lOd 

47J 

!:B(1,4'i4 

l!l,077 

ll.Wjd.dod 

lt,V44,'iOU 

7i(>,m>7 

rhiladtlphia •• 

New  York » 

Uoaton » 

BM>^        ,                  01 

Om.tMi  Total.  186ft-'M .... 
Toul,  ytuir  1864-» 

Innraan 

l.»Jl,IW(l 

l,M'l.7lt 

S7l,a70 

4SO,0aT 

«>i),vai 

70,706 

B0»,|Xi6 

1  >-.Kiil> 

1148,678 

w<,via 

Qcamtitt  or  Cottok  ouKatHin  ht  Aim  in  ma  kakm  r>r  MANirAcrirBxu  mobtii  or  Vibiiiiiia. 


Yian. 

Balai. 

«6i.70il 

\ii^~— 

Balai. 

Vaaw, 

■alai. 

'  Vtaia, 
■■1S88--8* 

tITO.OH 

issa-'iM 

Ba'l... 

lod.iiu" 

iwuW 

l84li-'6 1 

4S7,7(» 

18UI~'44 

r4'J,744 

198U7i8 

6:>o  6S4 

l848-'4n 

6l'4.(l,'IO 

l84!i-'4.) 

a^MM 

ih:i7-'I)8 

li4fl,0(JJ 

iH,)2-'aa 

1114.412 

l!*i.'64 

<I0,6,'I 

1«(47'4>I 

(11,77'i 

1841-'4'i 

M7(i60 

1(W<U'B7 

22i),640 

is:ii-'.Ti 

17,'),H()II 

18»i-'611 

(III, late 

l84«-'47 

4  7,1(07 

184li-'41 

K07,«N8 

I8!,6-'3(1 

280,71)8 

I)tll0-'3I 

l*i,14i 

1S6I--6J 

(III8,0W 

l»4fr-'4a 

4-.'-',B;i7 

1880-40 

1106,11(3 

IS:!4-'3B 

2I«,88.S 

ISJll.'IIO 

liO.Bli 

iseuei 

404,108 

I(i44-4B 

I180,(lfl« 

We  give  Iwlow  ,^  iMe  of  the  amount  of  cotton  con. 
tamed  th»  past  rear  in  the  States  suiilh  and  weat  of 
VirKtnia,  and  not  inciuded  in  the  recfipta  at  the  porta. 
We  have  largely  increaaed  the  «Kliniate  trom  the  ynar 
previoua,  but  ^ivo  it  only  for  what  It  purports  to  lie, 
an  eitimale,  which  we  bellave  approximates  corrvi't. 
Bess. 

There  are  no  atatiitical  returns  of  the  quantilicA  of 
cotton  manufactured  in  Ihe  Stales  south  of  Virginia; 
but  it  la  well  known  that  Ihe  yearly  consumption  in 


Ihoto  States  la  increasing,  as  well  aa  in  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Illinoia,  and  Missouri.  At  the  last  census  the  cn|iiliil 
employed  In  Iho  nianufactitro  of  cotton  Kooda  in  tlin 
Southern  Stales  was  as  follows :  Maryland,  (l2,'i!1li,(Hiii; 
Vlrninla,  $l,lHJH,(H)Of  North  Cnrtjlina,  il,0.".H  (hm; 
South  Carolina,  ^H.-iriOOU ;  (ioorgia,  «l,7IUI,nuO ;  i 
Ida,  f«0,(IOU;  Ali'l' >^ia,$(!r)l,000;  MiasisalppI,  9H(i,«0( 
Kentucky,  ^289,ui'i;  Tenncaacp,  (mSO.OOO;  M'  u,.!, 
$102,000*.  At  this  period  [18u0-7]  these  s'  i<  i  : 
prolialily  douMed. 


Slatoa- 

l«S4, 

ISU. 

"   i»M. 

lUi. 

lilt. 

ISIt. 

into. 

North  Carolina bnlst 

Houth  Carolina " 

(Jporgla " 

K.OOO 
16,000 
:B,oao 

1,600 

ooo 

4.       V 

_11.,>      ~ 

1S,BJ(» 
10,600 
A  600 
6,600 
4,000 

20,00(1 
12,000 
28,000 
0.000 
6,000 
8S,0:lO 

20,00(1 
10,000 
20.0(Kr 
6,000 
6,000 
30,000 

16,(HI0 
10,000 
12,000 
^00fl 
7,000 
18,000 

18,000 
10,000 
18,000 
4,000 
8,000 
12,000 

20,0110 
1500(1 
27,00.1 
0,0(10 
12,(10(1 
27,600 

On  the  Ohio,  Ftc....    " 
Total  to  Roptoinber  1... 

86,IMlO 

1IJ6,U*KI 

90,000 

7B.0(HI 

00,000 

107,60(1 

To  which,  If  added  (for  ti;?  pat.f. ., ..  •)  lh«  stocks  in  j  nnj  crop  received  this  year  to  the  1st  Sept.,  ond  some 
the  interior  towns  1st  Sept.  (say  J,'<!'» .  jiiea  .  *ie  quan.  |  260,000  bales  detained  in  the  inturior  Sept.  l«t,  IHSS, 
tity  now  (letuinrd  in  the  Int)  riov  (say  5(',Ct)0  iiales),  and  I  )>.%  low  rivers,  etc.,  which  it  is  fair  to  suppose  came 
that  lust  on  its  way  to  mark,>t  the  post  .vt'ai  to  the  crop    foi  ;■  ard  the  pnst  season,  and  is  already  added  to  the 


as  given  above,  received  at  the  sliippini;  jwrts,  the  aj;- 
gregate  will  show,  aa  near  aa  may  be,  the  amount  rowed 
in  the  United  States  the  past  Bcason— say,  in  round 
numbers,  3,335,000  bales  (after  daduoting  1800  bales 


rec(>ipts  at  the  )>orls),  against 


IWW baica,  n,17«,0fl0 

18M 8,'iOO,flOO 

If^BS 8,"'«0.000 

1862 8,100,000 


18.11 balea,  2,460,000 

1S60 2,2l2.onO 

1849 2,R4fl.flflO 

1848 9,867,000 


BaUa. 

I'.Hl.llu 

l'.it,412 


gliiiii,  Ohio, 
ftlio  OB))!!"! 
Lod"  In  llio 
||i,'2ati,(K>0; 

l,n()0:       i 

M""n..rl, 
»'  111"    "  • 


IU«. 

"211,0(10 

IBOOO 

iT.OOt 

(l.OllO 

li!,i50n 

2T,600_ 

TOT,Mlt_ 

L,  and  K"""' 
It.  l»t,  1«M, 
^poiie  canio 
Iddcd  to  the 

L  2  450.0(10 

"'  2  21'2,onO 

J,fi4fl,000 

J3BT,000 


GOV 


44T 


COT 


I  AM  Mf  U  AMntm  Of  VN*  (7At*M  ClM  AV  Tm  Vtnm  h4TU 

a<Ntr*m  wi*n  tri  Yiam  iw)B.  ■■>m, 


4I«   MLMRIt 

T"  hniia  Mfto ..<••. to ••••.!•<•#  1,4(11,010 

CoMtvlM...,, MM I«4.ll»f 

«lMk,  IM  l«f<Mk*f,  iMi MUKI 

Ilari-lviii  front  M*MI«  ,.  .•.•iimtiii ■■><<  (T,4BI 

I(f>r<ilva4  from  MontaiiiMriri  •)•, •.. <■•  nnna 

HMi>W>a  f»>iiii  H^rliU .,,.■,.,•. *,l(0 

K<ir«lv«4  from  Tula*  . , , ,  ,..i  ,,,,,i,,t«,,,i,,.i,(  I9,MPI 

■iMli,  iM  «ii|iUlulwr,  IWt T,ni 


ffjiwrf. 

T*  faralii)  |MrW, , .  ■  I ,  I . . 

ManuruturmI  I*  M'.w      ••) 
■lixk,  tit  lailb  '     ir,    Ai  , 

llaMlftil  r  ;MII  n    ^  0*1  •<"  ' 

»tMk, '  ■  ■•ft*H>:4»,  i^'i 


K'MW 


•.,ti«ft«ii« 
I ••••••*»t*(* 


MT.ON 

I9MII 

1,107 

I0,«>5 


t  tf I*  tf (  I  II II • 


4Jia4 


CoMi  '<•  ur 
■kxk,  lit  ••ptaMb' 


WtMt 

^rt4 <iiti,,iiti<tiii*i'< 

n<i  liitnM4,  Tuh«la(),,,..it i> 

'It'  ',1 1 ,1  iifi«(ii«  *«ii*« 


3iL 


i,Mi,nT 


IllBM 


BO.IIM 
«4.0lt 

I, aw 


titltttllllt 
IttttllllttI 
Ittltltlttll 
tttttlttttit 
ttttfltttttt 


Dtiutt  itoak,  I  il  aJVUintMr,  IIBT  .  t  < 

ritOiitAt 
Ktptrt 

To  fortlgn  parU— li|ll»nit» ,  1 1 1 1 

IUa-lalaM4«tttt,.t 

Cuaitwlaa— t'plaiiila ,  1 1 1 ,  t ,  t 

J|<ia'laUlhla,,t..ttt 

nniji"!  at  Apala<tlilivila,,,t,tttt,ttt 
8lMk,  lit  Moptiiniliar,  IMM 1 1 1 1 1 

luiutt  Rtoek,  tit  Mpteinhir,  MAT . .  1 1 .  t .  1 1 . 

•ROMIAt 
Ktport. 

To  foralgo  porti^>rpl»n4« t  •  t  ■  1 1 1 1 

NM-lakHiil*  1 1 1 1 1 1 ittttttt 

C'oaalarlaa— CptoMi tttttttntttttit 

HM.|a|«n<la , . ,  t . , , ,  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Rtoek  In  lta*annah,  lit  H«pt«iribiir,  IDM 

Block  In  Au(iut(h  all,,  lai ItapUliilwr,  IMM. ...,,, 

DtHiul. 
Raoal  vnd  from  narl4»— ■an-lalAflAa  ,.■  .■.•>•<.••  > 
Ktiirk  III  gataiiiMh,  lit  Haplaiilb'T,  IWtT  ,,,.,,,,,, 
Hluokln  AuguatA,  •!«.,  lai  MptaiiilMr,  IWi •••>.> 

lomi  ii*lioi,ii«A. 
Kttmrt/nm  ('H4Ki,nmii)— 
To  fornlgii  porta  - 1'  (lUiMla  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..,>  i  •>  < 
H«a-I«l*iul»  ,■  .1  ,,,,,...<.  I  • ...  • 

CoMtwIaa— IJplanda i,.  i.i  •>•■■>><•■>•<•  > 

gaa-hlaiKla  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
nurnnd  and  m«iiuritaliir«4  at  tltftrlvatlH  ,,,,,,,,,, 
Stock  In  i;liarUiaton,  Ut  Mapitiiilwr,  \ttl»  ,,,,,,,,, 

Kiporljrom  fJiuiaotroMfN,  N,  (!,— 
To  coaatwlao  porta— tplaiuta,  .•>,••  t  »■>•>•■  i  ■  i  <  ■ 

DtdHft. 

R*mlvi>d  IVi  in  Florid  '  -tua.laland*  > ,  >  •  <  ■  >  >  >  <  • ,  • . 

Heo«'.  V  HAvaiitwIt— H<»-laUlida  ,,,.,,•■,,,, 

I'liUiidM,      ,..•,..<■<. 

Stock  in  UharloatoR,  Itt  SapOnitlwr,  I WT  ..<.<..., . 


98.TIT 
M 

TO.WH) 
IB,(«I 

aon 

10 


inii,i4i 

■  Ml 

liT.tw 

T,44T 

Mt 

l.VOI 


T,T«9 
I.T4T 


SM.M7 

in,sM 

1IS.1IIS 

wi 

1t,TI6 
l9«,Sft4 

1,«1S 


T,»IB 

1,5TB 

Ift.TM 

B,«4I 


Export. 
To  coMtwti*  porta  , 


HOkTil  OARfthlNA. 


B>T,MT 

4,tas 


TlgalNIA. 
Kaport, 
To  foralgn  porta, , 

Coaatwiao #>>><•>>>•  >>if>>ii 

Munlkatnrad  (tAktn  from  tlia  pefM 
Stock,  lit  SapUmbar,  IIM. . , 


fit*i(frii*i*ift*(««l(« 


11**11 f< 


n.9m 


4m 


1,BT«,4M 


Mi 


Bn,M4 


14S,M« 


in,4or 

BO 


108,414 


11,441 


4SI,7n 


!B,Bn 


IB,1S5 
4^0 


fnfiwf  Stock,  lit  Septamlwr,  IIAT ,, 

RceelTcd  at  New  York*  PlitladalpliU,  wtlt  H»lllnian>,  oyorland,  rrom 

Tenniiaee,  etc >  nm  >,,,.,,,.,,,,, , , 

Total  Crop  op  th*  Vnitim  iiTAnR  , , 

InnrwtM  Avxr  rrnp  nf  tWT. , , 
DlMraiiM  frniii  etiip  tit  IMM.. 
iMrMWOVCr  Itnjl  "Ji^M,  ■ . 


'•■} 


1,418,000 


111,1101 


80a,lTT 


80,881 


1S3,»3 


400,161 
13,g«B 


14,T05 
B.«t4 

TTTI,I«T 


1,«I1,4M 


1M,844 


<K»,TII8 


lt0,0T8 


l,2».0U 


144,404 


4S4,B-B 


W,T»T 


811,111 


89},44& 


18«,WT 


873,014 


807,881 
17,147 


18,773 
4,TB1 


'^PB«.wn 


495,078 
18,008 


400,171 
16,180 


10,4B3 
14,215 


81,000 
7,C6l 


J 


«.Bi7.845  :  1,847.839 


bnica,  174.448 
"     418,8* 


COT 


448 


COT 


IfS?" 


■B,^^- 


i'iisiif, 


liisi 


ilisl 


i'iiili 


s 

5 


^i§ 


2*2!  ««M 


l.l.ii.i. 

» t2  2  X  ?5 


§§     § 

3sf    a 


2||SS  ^ 


i 


f gK^S  S 


I  4 

Si" 

ti  — 


h 


I? 


11 


sfi'    S 


roo'o'gid 


'efcj  y 


^SSt-S 


liil'^» 


to  M  ?i  o  A    e) 


|gs||| 


S^'SSIIS'S'  aC 


liiiiii 


55, 

S2> 


•s  . 


i  Hi's' I 


SSiS" 


f^t 


,-St8S 

^lO  Ar-> 


Si. 5 


liii 


;^&  : 
"•2  ?  " 


S82aS2  .  . 


;iSi2p§§s§ii 


S«%eot-*»Q  ^«  sif- 
oi  ot  Qi  9-*  <M  91  oi  ?)  jii 

M  S  ?i  65  (Tt  -M  -^^  >S  5*  «t  ?i  « 


2  5  CO  »0  C.  CC  3  ^  S  i*-  «  M  -I 

8Sirswi-*OQ5JS«  -I- 

C^»»  <>»  t-f  l-«  «' ?-•  T-T.—' P-' i-f  .-.' r-* 


ciDG0C£d:CCCC<X(/%cnCO</.  CO 


e.  go  ^  ff  "N  h- 1* 
■5)  o  «o  25 1-  — 
e  r-  I-  «  I- 


«  c  ift  ej  t*  'M  ®  t-  « *»  Tl  — »- 

P5  C»  1^  t-  ©  »»  MS  O  «  a  t-  OP  - 
r-  M  ©1  -r  CO  *^  —  k'  -  (Tj  -r  »-  — 
^_  c;  «£  cc  c»  j?j  C  c\<s  I-  M  r-  ^^ 
W  CI  C  i"  «J  ©1  Ct  M  (N  CI  ci »«'  r^  ct 


Ta 


Total  poRKieN  Expohtd  or  <!otton  from  rnii  r«iTF.n  Status. 

'66.  ''H54-'»5.   I    l«83-'64.   |    1«J-'S3.  [    l>51-'si. 


I    I((67-'58. 


Ctreit  Uritaio l,8il.i.!mil 

Fnnco 8>t.0ii2 

North  of  Europe 2IM4n 

Other  foreign  port! I    III, 1142 

ToUl |ii.M0;«58 


H5«-'51 


1,428,8711 
4I3.8&T 
246.THS 

_K4,«82 


l,9'il.»>«i,l,5t'.i,TlUjl,60:t,7Sil 


480,037 
3U4,nnft 
248.B78 


V,9&t.6:HI 


40n,!l3li 

irw.ano 

14<*..'IA2 


.174,or)8 
168,172 
17I1.I68 


l,7iHJ,8«l 
42«,72R 
171,17(1 
193,fi3(i 


2,-.44,209|2,8ltf,148,2,BiH,4«0 


1,(MS.;4'.I 
421,375 

108,871 
lS4,i:4' 


2,443.«I4« 


• 


COT 


I '^9 


COT 


STATunrr  aHOwma  rm  Wiiklt  aitd  Total  Bkoupti  of  Cottoh  ihto  tii>  Poan  or  Tin  CinntD  Statu  ;  Atio 
Tna  W»KLT  ASD  Total  Ezpotn  or  Cotton  to  Ouat  Britaim,  Fbahok,  Mobtu  or  EoBora  ahd  OTnii 
FoREioN  POBTa ;  toqbtbkb  with  TBI  Stock  oh  Uajtd  n  thb  Soirpoia  Pobt<  ;  Draiiia  tbb  labt  Fiti  Tbabs. 
Abbakobd  and  Fcblibbbd  ST  ViLUAM  P.  Wbiobt,  riB  J.  Y^  Cotton  Bbokbb,  New  Yobk.     (tarn  Fiovbb! 

■BPBEaXNT  TilOVBAMDS  Or    BaLKS.) 


r     - 

Sbptubbb,  1851^  TO  AoouiT,  1858,  inoluuvb. 

1 

1. 

RBCEmS. 

EXPORTS. 

RECEIPTS. 

EXPORTS. 

1 

D*T 

BrIulD. 

FrUM«. 

North 

Eurolw 

OUiir 
Ibrelipi 

porta. 

t 

1 

1 

OfMl 

Brlt.111, 

Fruee. 

North 
Earop*. 

Othar 

foralfO 
porU. 

i 

i 

1 

1 

ft 

H 

1 

1 

1 

1 

^ 

1 

t 

1 

t 

1 

^ 

g 

1 

1 

1 

^ 

S 

0 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

i 

d 

8 

1 

tn 

Sept. 

19 

0 

IS 

0 

12 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

14 

64 

0 

8 

0 

17 

1 

<i 

3 

(1 

1 

81 

31 

88 

" 

26 

29 

47 

4 

16 

1 

8 

« 

0 

1 

3 

6 

30 

82 

10 

18 

b 

26 

(1 

1 

1 

8 

1 

3 

10 

81 

86 

Oct 

8 

8S 

86 

« 

22 

1 

8 

1 

1 

0 

2 

8 

38 

100 

17 

85 

6 

80 

0 

1 

2 

A 

1 

8 

R 

39 

87 

** 

in 

47 

182 

10 

H2 

t 

6 

(1 

1 

s 

4 

15 

48 

180 

28 

58 

6 

85 

1 

« 

0 

6 

(1 

8 

A 

45 

99 

11 

n 

M 

1S7 

2« 

58 

1 

T 

11 

1 

1 

6 

28 

71 

151 

27 

a5 

U 

46 

1 

R 

1 

6 

2 

n 

IB 

60 

108 

u 

84 

69 

266 

111 

68 

5 

12 

(] 

1 

J 

8 

18 

89 

185 

41 

126 

4 

50 

2 

5 

(1 

A 

8 

T 

8 

68 

181 

H 

81 

81 

887 

80 

98 

0 

13 

8 

4 

4 

18 

87 

126 

224 

47 

173 

7 

57 

1 

6 

1 

T 

8 

10 

12 

80 

161 

Nov. 

T 

84 

421 

19 

117 

6 

17 

1 

6 

4 

16 

29 

165 

262 

60 

223 

14 

71 

4 

10 

0 

7 

0 

10 

IS 

9S 

177 

" 

u 

105 

526 

48 

160 

« 

20 

! 

T 

n 

19 

51 

206 

802 

66 

289 

14 

86 

0 

10 

8 

10 

2 

13 

19 

117 

214 

11 

21 

109 

68.^ 

W 

219 

« 

26 

1 

R 

« 

25 

72 

278 

324 

63 

862 

15 

100 

1 

11 

0 

10 

8 

16 

19 

186 

246 

u 

28 

lie 

761 

82 

261 

9 

86 

1 

9 

9 

84 

51 

829 

882 

70 

422 

12 

112 

6 
10 

17 

2 

18 

2 

17 

22 

158 

378 

Dec 

S 

lis 

S64 

.M 

805 

6 

41 

2 

11 

1 

a5 

68 

892 

420 

75 

497 

19 

1,31 

27 

2 

14 

2 

19 

88 

191 

307 

u 

12 

188 

1,002 

it) 

860 

13 

64 

2 

IS 

4 

89 

74 

466 

465 

72 

569 

24 

155 

H 

86 

1 

15 

4 

28 

87 

228 

838 

** 

111 

,125 

1,127 

44 

404 

(1 

60 

1 

14 

1 

40 

52 

618 

614 

90 

6,59 

« 

186 

10 

46 

0 

15 

4 

27 

46 

278 

862 

" 

20 

1,244 

46 

460 

6 

66 

2 

16 

0 

40 

51 

572 

560 

106 

764 

31 

217 

7 

62 

0 

15 

8 

80 

41 

814 

408 

Jan. 

2 

114 

1,868 

66 

516 

15 

81 

8 

19 

9 

49 

93 

666 

608 

108 

872 

26 

243 

5 

57 

8 

18 

2 

82 

86 

860 

468 

11 

II 

185 

1,498 

49 

666 

17 

98 

2 

21 

10 

59 

78 

748 

596 

87 

969 

24 

267 

18 

75 

4 

32 

« 

41 

^5 

405 

496 

11 

16 

101 

1,594 

7« 

(HI 

7 

105 

5 

26 

9 

68 

97 

840 

570 

76 

1,086 

jl 

298 

15 

90 

1 

28 

f 

44 

60 

456 

496 

11 

2« 

114 

1,708 

Jl 

692 

6 

110 

1 

27 

9 

7; 

66 

906 

606 

77 

1,112 

14 

832 

19 

109 

6 

39 

t 

49 

64 

619 

507 

14 

80 

118 

1,826 

58 

760 

16 

126 

9 

86 

6 

82 

88 

994 

621 

97 

1,209 

44 

876  12 

121 

8 

82 

8 

58 

62 

681 

611 

Fob. 

A 

120 

1,946 

70 

820 

m 

139 

6 

41 

5 

87 

98 

1,087 

619 

120 

1,829 

81 

407  16 

187 

1 

88 

4 

56 

52 

688 

566 

U 

1« 

126 

2,072 

2« 

846 

T 

146 

4 

45 

6 

93 

48 

1,130 

670 

129 

1,468 

34 

441  24 

161 

1 

84 

4 

60 

68 

696 

606 

" 

20 

129 

2,201 

[It 

884 

11 

157 

i 

47 

6 

98 

56 

1,186 

701 

140 

1,.59S 

S'i 

478    4 

165 

7 

41 

(1 

66 

+8 

741 

678 

" 

27 

126 

2,827 

28 

912 

17 

174 

6l 

68    8 

106 

69 

1,246 

750 

107 

1,705 

44 

617  17 

182 

8 

49 

4 

69 

73 

817 

692 

March 

B 

108 

2,480 

46 

958 

s\  182 

12 

66 

» 

109 

69 

1,314 

764 

106 

1,811 

66 

578    8 

186 

T 

66 

1 

70 

67 

881 

721 

" 

12 

112 

2.M'J 

86 

994 

11 

198 

0 

65 

5 

114 

52 

1,866 

828 

90 

1,901 

m 

635    « 

191 

IS 

74 

'i 

72 

88 

972 

697 

11 

19 

69 

2,611 

41 

l.OS.'l 

17 

210 

2 

67 

T 

121 

67 

1,483 

774 

72 

1,978 

70 

706  2C 

211 

11 

85 

7 

79 

10s 

1,080 

646 

" 

26 

79 

2,690 

M 

1,071 

20 

280    » 

70 

8 
0 

124 

63 

1,495 

776 

83 

2,056 

76 

181    9 

220 

8 

88 

8 

87 

96 

1,176 

618 

April 

2 

72 

2.762 

29 

1,100 

25 

265 

10 

80 

124 

64 

1,559 

777 

72 

2,128 

69 

840    9 

229 

2 

90 

2 

89 

72 

1,243 

612 

" 

U 

69 

2,821 

41 

1,141 

!■ 

268 

7 

87 

6 

129 

61 

1,62(1 

787 

99 

2,227 

57 

897    4 

288 

2 

92 

« 

95 

69 

1.317 

687 

" 

111 

68 

2,S84 

80 

1,221 

2S 

291 

11 

96 

1 

1811 

lis 

1,788 

679 

85 

2,312 

,50 

947    1 

284 

4 

96 

1 

96 

56 

1,873 

616 

" 

2H 

40 

2,924 

41 

I,2li2 

17 

.SOS 

111 

112 

1 

181 

75 

1,818 

629 

87 

2,899 
2,459 

47 

994    3 

237 

0 

96 

t 

104 

.58 

1,481 

670 

" 

30 

51 

2,97,') 

48 

1,310 

27 

mb 

IS 
4 

125 
129 

11 
6 

142 
148 

99 

1,912 

668 

60 

45 

1,0.39    3 

240 

6 

101 

5 

109 

63 

1,489 

6\5 

May 

T 

41 

8,016 

45 

1.855 

19^854 

74 

1,986 

628 

68 

2,517 

29 

1,063 

6 

246 

6 

107 

5 

114 

46 

1,.585 

645 

" 

U 

89 

J,O.W 

41 

1,396 

12  366 

1(1 

189 

1 

149 

64 

2,050 

488 

44 

2,561 

W 

1,126 

4 

2.VI 

4 

111 

1(1 

124 

76 

1,611 

605 

u 

21 

21 

9,076 

89 

1,435 

11 

877 

4 

143 

2 

161 

B6 

2,106 

489 

44 

2,605 

28 

1,154 

0 

2,50 

7 

lis 

14 

128 

39 

1,660 

608 

u 

2» 

28 

8,104 

40 

1,475 

2 

879 

4 

147 

8 

154 

49 

2,156 

417 

86 

2,640 

57 

1,211 

11 

5 

261 

4 

122 

6 

184 

73 

1,728 

547 

Juno 

4 

18 

,8,117 

B 

1,509 

10 

389 

4 

1.M 

4 

158 

51 

2,206 

872 

86 

2,675 

61 

1,272 

266 

12 

184 

6 

140 

84 

1,812 

492 

it 

11 

IS 

8,li!5 

80 

l,5;i8 

13 

402 

III  1,57 

8 

161 

52 

2,2.58 

8.30 

86 

2,711 

M 

1,3118 

4 

27(1 

2 

1»6 

5 

145 

47 

1,8,59 

467 

u 

18 

IB 

8,1,')0 

81 

1,569 

0  402 

8|160 

2 

163 

86 

2,294 

808 

27 

2,738 

27 

1,83,5 

8 

278 

2 

138 

2 

147 

89 

1,898 

466 

" 

25 

12 

8,162 

241 

1,593 

7|409 

2I 162 

1 

164 

34 

2,828 

269 

29 

2,767 

58 

1,888 

16 
6 

293 
298 

8 
1 

141 

8 

1.50 

74 

1,972 

.391 

July 

2 

10 

8,172 

26 

l,61S 

4|418 

1 

168 

3 

167 

8:1 

2,861 

244 

28 

2,790 

87 

1,425 

145 

3 

158 

49 

2,021    356 1 

9 

6 

.8,178 

23 

l,6t1 

0'418 

1 

164 

2 

169 

26 

2,887 

228 

11 

2,801 

26 

1,451 

1 

806 

7 

152 

3 

156 

44 

2,06,5 

.316 

" 

16 

18 

8,191 

lU 

1,651 

0 

418 

8 

167 

1 

170 

14 

2,401 

217 

11 

2,812 

17 

1,468 

1 

807 

2 

154 

2 

158 

22 

2,(I8'I 

297 

u 

28 

2  8,198 

8(1 

1,681 

5 

41 S 

1 

168 

4 

174 

40 

2,441 

172 

17 

2,829 

111 

1.487 

5 

312 

2 

156 

4 

162 

80 

2,117 

268 

u 

80 

6  {8,198 

16 

1,697 

4 

422 

168 
168 

6 

4\ 

179 

25 

2,466 

160 

10 

2,889 

83|1,620  I  9 

821 

8 

159 

6 

168 

61 

2,168 

217 

Ang. 

n 

4!3,202 

18 

1,715 

0'422 

183    22 

2,488 

126 

12 

2,S51 

16 

1,536  16 

,337 

8 

161 

2 

170 

86 

2,304 

1S8 

18 

8  13,206 

10 

1,725 

0  422 

0  16S 

5 

1SS 

15 

2,508 

112 

12 

2,863 

25 

1,601    2 

389 

2 

168 

i 

172 

81 

2,235 

166', 

" 

20 

10  8,216 

7 

1,732 

0,  422 

8  171 

0 

188 

10 

2,518 

99 

11 

2,874 

12 

1„578  111 

349 

1 

164 

ij 

175 

26 

2,261  j  128 

" 

2T 

7  8,222 

5(1,787 

5,  427 

2,173 

8 

191 

16 

2.528 

88 

18 

2,887 

i4;i„587  la 

362 

1 

165    1 

176 

29 

2,290   108 

Correction 

41  8,263 

Ojl,7a7 

0|427 

- 

171 

' 

198 

0 

2,528 

107 1 

48 

2,980 

17|1,604  12 

874 

0 

166    0 

176 
176 

29 

2.819  1 117 

ToU 

|8,268 

|l,T87 

427 

ml 

198 

2,528 1 107 

2,980 

|l,604  1 

874 

105 

2,819 

117| 

Contrasted  with  the  preceding  season,  tlic  year  Just 
closed  (1856),  as  we  have  already  observed,  may  be 
considered  one  upon  which  the  trade  may  well  be  con- 
gratulated. The  monetary  panics,  the  drought.^  and 
the  ravages  of  a  deadly  pestilence  in  some  of  the 
Southern  seaports,  the  periodical  embarrassments  con- 
sequent u)ion  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  I'uropean 
war,  all  contributed  to  render  the  spring  and  summer 
of  IHS.'i  memorable  for  the  drawbacks  and  discourage- 
ments, not  only  to  the  cotton  interest,  but  to  the  gen- 
oral  trade.  Fur  different  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
twelve  months  under  review.  With  iiotliing  to  com- 
plain of  iu  respect  to  the  crop  itself,  the  interior 
F  «■■ 


streams,  during  the  whole  season,  have  enabled  the 
planter  to  forward  with  promptitude  to  the  now  ready 
and  remunerative  markets  abroad.  Many  of  the  New 
Orleans  and  Mobile  houses,  which  had  been  compelled 
to  stop  payments,  improved  the  earliest  opportunity 
returning  prosperity  presented  to  redeem  their  accept- 
ances, and,  in  many  instances,  with  interest  in  full, 
thus  re-establishing,  on  an  honorable  basis,  credits 
which  the  unanticipated  misfortimes  of  the  year  before 
had,  perhaps,  temporarily  impaired. 

The  crop  of  1855-S6,  it  will  l>e  seen  by  the  accom- 
ponying  figures,  was  8,527,845  l)alcs,  which  has  been 
BO  liberally  disposed  of  that  the  supplies  on  hand,  oa 


% 


COT 


450 


COT 


STAnmNT  BRowiNO  TBI!  WxKKLT  AND  TOTAL  Bcoinpn  Or  OonoH  IMTO  Tni  PoBn  or  Tnx  Unitkd  Statu  i  <uo 

TIIK    WkEKLT     AMD    ToTAt     KXfORTS    Or    CoTTON     TO    OKEAT    BbITAIH,    FbANOB,    NoRTII  OF     ElIBOI'K     AMD    OTIIKS 

VoiKiaH  PoBis ;  touiithiii  with  tiik  Htook  on  Uamd  in  the  BuirpiNO  Ports  ;   duhino  the  la8c  Two  Yxaba. 

ABKANOED   and    PUBLiailED    BT  WiLLIAH    P.    WbiOUT,    PEE    J.    Y..    COTTON    BEOKEB,  MBW  YoXK.      (TUE    FiQUEEI) 
BEPBISENT  TuOtTSANDS  Or    BALES.) 


Aug. 

18 
20 
27 

Ciorrcctloii 


18:2,750  251 
12  2,762  22'1,( 
10 '2,772  181..' 
18  !2,78li  IS  1,! 
62  2,M7  -22  l,f 


Total. ...|       !2,847|    |l,650      |410|    1 185      |l6o|       |2,246|l48 


both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  are  down  to  a  figure  which 
encourages  the  expectation  that  quite  as  much,  in  the 
aggregate,  will  be  required  for  actual  consumption,  at 
home  and  altroad,  in  the  course  of  the  year  on  wliich 
we  have  just  entered.  Thus  much  by  way  of  retro- 
ipect. 

To  revert  to  details  ;  our  marliet  opened  r*  ■■ady  in 
September,  1855,  witli  a  fair  liusiness,  but  during  the 
remainder  of  that  month  and  tliroughout  Octol)er,  un- 
der the  influence  of  adverse  accounts  from  Europe,  and 
heavy  receipts  at  the  South,  a  gradual  decline  ensued, 
prices  having  fallen  upward  of  one  cent  on  nearly  all 
grades  during  that  period.     About  the  beginning  of 


November,  we  received  advices  of  a  heavy  frost  in 
some  of  the  growing  regions,  which,  in  connection 
with  the  paucity  of  our  stocic,  caused  a  reactionary 
movement:  but  tlio  response  from  Liverpool  to  our 
frost  accounts  not  proving  as  favorable  as  was  ex- 
pected, the  market  ogain  toolt  a  downward  turn,  and 
prices  gradually  receded  for  several  weelts,  when  in- 
telligence arrived  of  the  accejitance  by  Kussia  of  the 
proposition  of  tlic  Allies  as  the  basis  for  peace.  Under 
the  influence  of  this  welcome  news,  greater  animation 
was  manifested  In  the  market,  and  prices  were  once 
more  in  the  ascendant.  This  feeling  continued  for 
several  weeks — the  market  being  supported,  mainly  by 


1840 
1S41 

1842 
1848 
1841 
184S 
,    1S48 
1847 
1848 
1W9 
■    I860 
1851 
l'SS2 
1853 
1854 
1865 
1856 


1841  I1.4  _«, 

1842  klVT 
1848  8-16-]. 

I860  _,' 

1882         _  i 


COT 


461 


COT 


speculative  ahlppers — when  prices  took  another  turn, 
and  the  improvement  obtained  on  the  strength  of  the 
peace  propositions  was  quite  iost.  Subsequently,  during 
a  period  of  many  weelts,  which  brings  us  down  to  the 
last  of  April,  the  marliet  wos  very  strong,  and  a  rise 
of  fully  one  cent  was  realized.  Our  domestic  spinners 
were,  during  nearly  the  whole  of  this  period,  the  most 
heavy  operators,  taking  on  an  average  12  to  15,000 
bales  per  week.  Early  in  May,  a  complete  change 
seems  to  have  taken  place  in  the  minds  of  our  leading 
exporters.  Largo  holders,  who  had  been  sanguine  of 
such  an  advance  in  Liverpool  as  would  enable  them  to 
recover  their  investments  in  the  staple,  were  disap- 
pointed, the  market  again  l)ecom!ng  dull  and  drooping. 


The  depression  was  not  of  long  duration,  however,  fut 
the  reduced  supply  not  only  here,  but  in  every  piirt 
of  the  United  States,  now  l>egan  to  attract  attontinn, 
and  holders  became  indifferent  about  offering  tlieir 
supplies;  and  as  the  high  prices  checked  consumption, 
the  market  assumed  an  inactivity  unusual  for  the 
season,  which  continued  throughout  July  and  August, 
holders  all  the  time  maintaining  an  unrelenting  firm- 
ness. 

The  year  closed  with  a  reduced  stock,  both  here  and 
at  the  South,  and  the  supply  in  the  manufacturers' 
hands  at  the  eastward  being  also  limited,  the  inclina- 
tion of  prices  was  to  a  higher  range. 

The  trode  of  New  York  has  apparently  fallen  off  j  a 


Cotton  C«or  of  thb  Uritxd  States 

,  FOE  KAOII  YEAB,  FKOH 

gETTBl^BER  1 

,  1828  TO  SXPTEUBEB  1, 

1866. 

DaU. 

TOTAl 

Oflor^ln. 

CROP  BICnVBD  U  ATLAMTtO  ffTATU. 

TOTAL  CROP   RKCBIVBO   IH  OVlt  aTATRS. 

CROP. 
Graiul  I'olal. 

Soiitb  Cftrolliui. 

North  Carolina. 

Virlrlnla. 

Florida. 

Alabama. 

LouUiana. 

Teia». 

1824 

162,786 

184,618 

46,000 

end  Virginia 

4,600 

44,924 

126,481 

....   • 

609,158 

1S25 

138,000 

97,000 

72,000 

u 

8,000 

68,798 

200,463 

669,249 

1628 

190,692 

111,978 

88,480 

u 

2,817 

74,201 

261,969 

720,027 

1827 

238,920 

179,810 

112,811 

u 

4,168 

89,707 

836,870 

967,281 

1828 

163,749 

109,783 

77,422 

ti 

8,940 

71,663 

804.188 

790,598 

1829 

249,166 

168,276 

104,621 

(t 

4,146 

79,958 

264,249 

.... 

870,416 

1880 

268,117 

188,871 

86,862 

a'!,600 

6,787 

102,684 

854,024 

.... 

976,846 

1881 

280,502 

186,166 

86,640 

83,895 

13,073 

118,188 

426.486 

.... 

1,088,848 

1882 

276,487 

178,872 

28,461 

87,600 

22,661 

126,021 

822,836 

987,477 

1883 

271,026 

181,876 

80,268 

80,829 

23,641 

129,.S66 

403,448 

1,070,488 

1834 

268,655 

227,869 

83,220 

4»,T25 

86,738 

149,978 

454.719 

1,205,894 

1886 

222,670 

208,166 

84,899 

88,170 

62,085 

197,692 

611,146 

1,254,828 

1880 

270,121 
262,971 

231,287 

82,067 

29,197 

79,762 

236,716 

481,536 

1,860,726 

1887 

196,877 

13,004 

28,618 

8.8,703 

232,248 

600,8n 

1,422,980 

1S83 

804,210 

2H884 

21.439 

82,000 

100,171 

809,807 

781,288 

1,801,497 

1889 

20.%112 

210,171 

11.136 

22,200 

75,177 

251,742 

684,994 

1,860,682 

1840 

292,698 

813,194 

9,394 

23,650 

186,257 

446,725 

958,673 

2,177,886 

1841 

148,947 

227,400 

7,866 

20,800 

93,652 

820,701 

814,680 

.... 

1,684,946 

1842 

282,271 

260,164 

9,787 

19,013 

114,410 

818,816 

727,658 

1,683,574 

1848 

299,491 

851,658 

9,039 

12,139 

161,088 

481,714 

1,060,216 

2,878,875 

1844 

265,697 

804,870 

8,618 

14,500 

145,562 

467,990 

832,172 

2,080,409 

18J5 

296,440 

426,861 

12,487 

25,200 

188,698 

617,196 

929,126 

2,894,BaS 

1S48 

194,011 

251,405 

10.637 

18,282 

141,184 

421,968 

1,037,144 

27,(l68 

2.100,587 

1847 

242,789 

850,200 

6,061 

18,991 

127,862 

828,462 

705,979 

8,817 

1,778,661 

1848 

264,875 

261,752 

1.518 

8,962 

158,776 

486,886 

1,190,788 

89.742 

2,347,634 

18i9 

891,872 

46S,117 

10,(U1 

17,650 

200,186 

618,706 

1,098,797 

88,827 

2,-28,696 

1860 

848,635 

884,266 

11,861 

11,600 

181,844 

860,9,53 

781,888 

81,268 

2,096,706 

1861 

822,376 

887,075 

12,928 

19,940 

181,204 

461,748 

933,689 

4,5,820 

2,865,267 

1862 

825,714 

476,614 

16,242 

20,820 

18f,499 

M9,449 

1,878,404 

64,052 

8,016,029 

1863 

849,490 

463,203 

28.496 

26,788 

179,476 

54.5,029 

1,680,876 

8,5,790 

8,262,882 

1854 

816,005 

416,764' 

11.524 

21,986 

1,W,444 

588,684 

1,348,925 

110,825 

2,930,027 

1865 

878,694 

499,272 

26,189 

31,000 

186,597 

4M..595 

1,232,M4 

80,787 

2,847,889 

1856 

889,445 

496,976 

38,098 

20,453 

144,404 

659,:;« 

1,661,488 

118,078 

8,627,846 

*  Texas  at  tlits  time  was  not  a  part  of  the  United  States. 
FbuvIuts  to  Eueopb,  Rates  of  Excii.'.nce,  Stock  ox  Hand,  and  £xtbf.ve  Pbices  fkou  1823  to  1866. 


Year. 

rBiionni, 
From  N«w  York,  lit  October. 

BXCHA.NGR. 

AtNewYork,I.lOclob«r. 

8TDCK  ON    HAND. 

Extreme  Prlci 

•  In  Liverpool. 

1 

Mvarpool. 

Harre. 

London. 

France. 

America. 

Liverpool. 

Upland.  "  Oood." 

Sen  fslmtid. 

IltUclobor. 

la.  Jenimry 

pence.         Iwncc- 

8  1-2—10  3-4 

I'encc, 

pence. 

1823 

-i-a<i. 

—         C. 

«_ 

._ 

153,00(> 

82 

.^ 

24 

1824 

3-8  -1-2 

-1  1-4 

10  1-4—10  1-2 

-.525 

861,000 

g  8-4—10  1-2 

■23 

— 

27 

1826 

8-8  —1-2 

I         -1  1-4 

10  1-2—11 

—512  1-2 

82I,IHI0 

9  1-2-19  1-2 

27 

— 

42 

1828 

8-8  —1-2 

—1 

12       —12  1-2 

528      --580 

811,600 

6  8-4—  8  8-4 

20 



80 

1827 

1-4  —1-2 

1-3  -    5-8 

II       -11  1-4 

511  1-4—515 

287,806 

6  8-4—  7  8-4 

18 

_- 

20 

1828 

1-4  —8-8 

8-4  —1 

10  1-2—11 

610       —612  1-2 

842,700 

6  8-8—  7  8-8 

18 

— 

22 

1829 

—1-4 

7-S  —1  1.8 

9  6-8—  9  3-4 

—622  1-4 

. 

167,690 

6  1-1—7 

18 

— 

21 

1880 

8-8  —7-16 

-1 

10  1-4—10  1-4 

583  1-2—686 

3l',805 

203,200 

7       —  7  T-8 

18 

— 

20 

1881 

—1-4 

7-3-1 

10  8-4—11 

510       —511  1-4 

119,428 

2,VS,000 

8  7-8-  7  1-4 

18 

— 

18 

188j 

8-8  -7-16 

-    3-4 

—  8 

,580       -682  1-2 

41,599 

212,860 

7       —8 

18 

— 

18 

1838 

1-4  -8-3 

8-4-1 

7       —  7  1-2 

—582  1-2 

48.205 

197,960 

7  7-8-12  1-2 

IS 

— 

22 

1884 

8.8  —1-2 

1-2  -    6-8 

7  1-4-  7  1-2 

.580       —582  1-2 

29,617 

180,770 

8  7-8-11 

20 

— 

20 

1836 

8-8  -7-16 

8-4—1 

9       —9  1-4 

.522  1-2-525 

41,628 

145.S10 

10  1-4-18  1-4 

80 

— 

83 

1836 

8-8  -1-2 

8-4-1 

8       —  8  1-2 

—526 

43,841 

184,700 

10  1-2—12 

80 

— 

86 

1887 

1-4  -.3-3 

8-4-1 

14       -16 

—602  1-3 

7^820 

204,590 

7  1-4—11 

80 

— 

40 

1888 

1-4  —.5-10 

1-2-    8-4 

10       -10  1-4 

517  1-2-620 

40,305 

170,820 

8  1-4—  9  1-2 

80 

— 

88 

1889 

.5-16-7-16 

3-4  —1 

9  8-4—10  1-4 

516       -517  1-2 

62,244 

24S340 

7  1-2—10  1-4 

88 

— 

86 

1840 

1-4  -6-16 

1-2  —    8-4 

8       -  8  1-4 

-520 

68,442 

1st  Sept 

72,479 

206,042 

6  6-8-  7  1-4 

S8 

— 

86 

1841 

1-4  -6-16 

8-4-1 

9  8-4-10 

—517  1-2 

866,140 

7       —7  3-4 

24 

— 

28 

1S42 

8-16—1-4 

1-2  -    8-1 

«  8-4—  7  1-2 

—535 

31,807 

429,a80 

0  8-4-  7 

34 

— 

24 

1848 

3-16—1-4 

3-8  —    6-8 

9       —  9  l-4'528  3-4-525 

94,486 

4.56,600 

6  1-2—  6  1-2 

24 

— 

24 

1844 

6-16-H-8 

8-4-1 

9  8-4—10                   —622  1-2 

159,772 

658,880 

6  1-4-  6  8-4 

24 

— 

80 

1846 

1-4  -5-18 

IMO—    8-4 

9  8-4—10  1-4528  8-4—625 

98,420 

749,580 

6       —  5  3-4 

80 

— 

80 

1846 

1-4  —5-16 

5-8  —    7-8 

8  1-2—9 

530       —682  1-2 

107,122 

8S5,480 

6       —  7  8-4 

80 

— 

80 

1847 

3-16—1-4 

3-4-1 

7  1-2—8 

627  1-2-628  8-1 

314,887 

488,970 

6  8-4-  8  l-|l  8 

—12  1-2-26—80  j 

1848 

—3-18 

—    6-8 

9       —  9  8-8 

—620 

171,463 

368,630 

4  8-4—  6       1  6 

—  8 

— 2(^-25 , 

1849 

-1-8 

—    1-2 

9  1-2-9  8.4.528       -.527  1-2 

164,763 

393,840 

4  7-8—  7  1-S  6  12—9  3-4—20—20  1 

1860 

-1-4 

—    1-2 

10       —10  1-2520       —632  1-2 

167.980 

463,000 

7  1-2-  8  8-4  9 

—11  1-2—20—20 

1861 

—1-8 

—    8-8 

10  1-4—10  1-2511  1-4—512  1-2 

128,304 

6.58,896 

5  8-4—  8  6-8i  8 

—11 

—20—22 

1862 

—1-8 

—    1-4 

10  1-4—10  6-8518  8-4—615 

1)1.176 

423,780 

6  8-4—  7       ilO 

—18 

—22—28 

1853 

3-16—1-4 

—    1-2 

9       —  9  1-2618  8-4—515 

13.\6ia 

577,810 

6  1-2—  7  1-413 

—16 

—28-86 

1864 

-1-8 

—    1-3 

9  1-4—  9  8-4511  1-4—518  8-4 

18.5,603 

597,500 

0  8-8—  ■,          9  1-2—13 

—34—86 

1865 

6.82-fM6 

—    1-4 

9  6-8—10                   —612  1-2 

143,836 

651,840 

6  8-8-  Tl-2  8 

—10 

-SO-34 

1866 

84,171 

^ 

1 

■«# 


462 


COT 


eircumiUnoe  whloh  ditoown  •  satlaftwtoiy  expUnv 
tion  In  th*  krg*  Incraue  of  iraiuitn  biuinau  between 
the  principal  sontheni  porta  uid  tbo  markets  of  Eu- 
rope.    These  openUiona  are  mainly  under  the  control 


of  partlei  in  tUa  olty,  acting  in  tlw  eapaolty  of  iMsu. 
laton,  brolcen,  o^nti  for  foraign  •pliitiam,  uto,  U  hw 
flraqaently  happened  that,  wlian  tlio  ntui'k  li)<r«  woii  r«> 
ducedtoaaomparatlv«lylowU|{ur«,  iiitrtlxK  whii (ipKritt* 


STATamicT  BHowiNo  THa  SsTrainD  WixKLY  Balis  or  Corroic  in  thi  Orrr  or  Naw  Yuan,  ma  (iiitinwino  roa 
"MiDDuifO  Ui'L.^Koa"  AHD  "MiDDUNU  OaLiAMt,"  wnu  Tiia  Ratis  or  FBgioiiT  TO  l.ivaai'001.,  ANii  Tiia  unuiua 

or  EXOUANOI  OR  LOKDON  AICO  PA219,  rOB  Till  TlAB  IVDIitO  BiPT.  1,  18M. 


OmU. 

Ssl«. 

UpUndi. 

lUdllnc 
OrkMti. 

Fralfht  to  Unltuol, 

"SX."* 

""te" 

"    1 
"    s 
Oct 

"      1 

..      g. 

"    a 

Not.    ( 
»      li 
"      11 

4,  lasi..... 

10,000 

11 

118-8 

8-16-  ...   per  lb. 

1098-4-UO 

■  6,ili:«-.  ,,,, 

r. 

4,000 
10,000 
8,000 
6,000 
^800 
^000 
7,000 
9,000 
^000 
9,600 
10,509 

10  8-4 
101-3 
191-8 
10 

96-3 
91-8 
91-4 
91-8 
9 

91-4 
91-8 

111-8 
108-4 
108-S 
101-4 
10 

9  7-8 
9  3-4 
96-3 
98-8 
96-8 
9  7-8 

8-16-7.38 
1-4  — 0-93 
8-19-  ... 
7-16-  1-9 
8-8  —  7-16 
8-8—  ... 
6-16-11-32 
6-16-  ... 
1-4—  ... 
6-82—  8-16 
1-3-6-82 

u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 
It 
li 
u 
It 

109  84-110 
1097*-  ,.., 
1097-8-  ,,,. 
109 1.»-  ..,, 
109      -189  M 

108  m-l09 

109  -109  M 
108 1-1-109 
108 1.3-109 
108      -108  i-t 
108      —108 1.4 

«.iii-»-  .... 

6.18  I-8-    ,.,. 
A,l8t-3-    ,... 
A,|8R.4_    .... 
»,IA      -A,1«  M 
A,l«}.4^,t8M 
A,IAl-4"-A,1«84 
6,17  l-3-fl,8ll 
A,I7  14-A,18M 
A,  1811.4-0,30 
A,18H.4~-A,80 

9 

4 

2 

3 

S 

I 

) 

i 

I 

» 

Deo.    { 

;  "   1' 
I  »   11 

1    "      81 
Jan.     1 

r 

9,000 

6,000 
14,000 

7,000 
11,600 

6,500 

9  6-8 
91-8 
91-8 
91-3 
9  1-4 
91-4 

10 

96-8 
91-8 
91-2 
91-3 
91-8 

6-82-8-16 
6-82—8-16 
1-4-  ... 
9-32-  8-16 
7.82—14 
3-16-  ... 

u 
u 
1 

1 
u 

1 

108      —108  1 .4 
108      —108 1.4 
108  8.4-109 
108  8.4—109 
108  1-3— 108  8.4 
108  1.2-   ..,, 

6,80      -    ,,.. 
A,8I  1.4--A,4il 
6.90      -    .,,, 
A,l««.«^.lTI-t 
690      -=    ,,,. 
A,8A      -ff.tn  14 





.'.'.'...'.'.'.'. 

,  1856 

"      11 

"      18 
"      88 
"      86 
Feb.     6 
"      11 
«      19 

11,000 
14,000 
10,000 
A600 
80,000 
10,000 
82,000 

91-4 
91-4 
91-4 
91-4 
9  8-4 
9  7-8 
10. 1.8 

91-9 
91-2 
91-3 
91-3 
10 

101-4 
10  3-4 

8.16-  7-82 
1-4—  ... 
1-4—  ... 
1-4—  ... 
8-16-  ... 
7-82—1-4 
1-4—  ... 

* 
* 
4 
t 
I 
1 

108      —108  M 
108  1-4-108  1-9 

108  —1081-3 
1081-4-1081-3 
108 1-3-108  B-4 

109  -109 1-4 
109      —109 1-4 

6.91 1.4-    .,,, 
A,9I  t.4-    . , ,', 
6,811.4-    ,,,. 
6.81  1-4-    ,,,, 
A.8U.4-    ,.,, 
A.I8  A.4— A,9I  1'4 

.......... 





u      ss 
March  4 
"      10 
»     18 
u     84 
April   1 

98,000 
18,000 
12,000 
16,000 
16,600 
88,000 

108-9 
10  8.3 
101-8 
101.3 
101-4 
10  3.3 

10  8-4 
10  3-4 
10  8-8 
10  3.8 
101-3 
10  8.3 

1-4  —  9-83      " 
8-16—  7-82      " 
1-4—...       » 
1-4  -  9-82      " 
9-82—  M6      " 
1-4-...       '• 

100      -100 1-4 
1091-4  -109  8  Jt 
1091-4-109  34 
1001-4-109114 
109  1.8—  ,,,, 
1U91.8—  ,,,, 

6.1T1-8-    ,,., 
MTI4-.   .,,, 
A.8I1-4-.    ,,,, 
6.80      -fl,17 1-9 
A,9«      -6,17 1.» 
A,8n      -^,17 14 

'      T 
»      16 
"      81 
"      89 

Hay    6 

»'   18 
"      19 
u      8x 
Jane   9 
»      10 

17,000 
88,000 
88,000 
18,000 

8,000 
12,000 

9,000 
18,000 

6,000 
12,000 

101.2 
10  8-4 
111-8 
11 1-4 
10  3-4 
10  8-4 
10  6-8 
10  6-8 
10  8-4 
10  7-3 

10  3.4 

11 

118.8 

111-3 

11 

1-4-...       ' 
3-16—  ...       ' 
1-8-...       ' 
1-8—  ... 
1.3  —  ...       ' 

1091-8—  ,,,, 
10968-   ,,,. 
100  6-8-     ,., 
109  8-4— III) 
1098-4-   ,,,, 

109  8-4-110 

110  -   .,,, 
100  8-4-   ,.,, 
109  1-3-109  8-4 
109  1-2—109  8-4 

"*  — --                   "fir     mm 

A,1T  l+-ft.U  M 
MT   *-   ,,,. 
MT1.3-   ,,,, 
A,l»(.4-.   ,.„ 
M«i.4_   ,.,, 
A,l«(.4-.   ,.,, 
A.IAJ.4-   ,,., 
A,J»1.4=    ,.,, 
A.lfll.4-   ,,,, 
A.lfll.4==    ,,., 

U             1    8-16—  ...       * 

10  7-3 
10  7-8 
11 
111-8 

3-16-  7-82      ' 
8-16—  ... 
6-82—  3-16      ' 
8-16-  7-82      ' 

"      19 
"     84 

6,000 
6000 

111-8 
111-8 

113-8 
113-8 

3-16—  ...       ' 
8-16-  ...       ' 

109  H-4—   ,,,, 
109  8-4--110 

6.18   4-    ,,, 
A.I7  I'S—MA 

"      SO 

6,000 

111-4 

11 1-3 

8-16—  ...       ' 

109  8-4—110 

6,17   4-=A.lfl 
A.lrt   .t-A.lA 
A,17   .4-6,1  S 

July    8 

»      14 

4,600 

11  3-8 

11  5-8 

S-32—  ...       ' 

100  8-4—110 

8,000 

116-8 

117-8 

6-32—  ...       ' 

110      —11014 

"      22 

"      28 

Ang.    S 

10,000 
8.000 
8,000 

118-8 
118-8 
11  S-S"""- 

11  7-8 
11  7-8 
11  7-8™"'- 

1.8  -  6-82      " 
1-8  —  ...       ' 
1-8-  ...       " 

110      -   ,,,. 
109  6-8—100  74 
109  6-8-109  T4 

A,I7   .8-fllA 
6,)7|.8-*.IA 
A.17  IW-«,tA 

"     11 

8,000 

11  S-S""""- 

11  7-8">'"n. 

1-3  —  ...       ' 

109  84—   ,.,, 

A,l61-4-«,1S 

"      19 
•*     28 

4,000 
6,000 

11 
,11 

118-8 
118-9 

6-32-  ...       ' 
6-32-  ...       « 

110      -IIOM 
110      -110 14 

6,1814-    ,.., 
A.181'8-    ,,.. 

ExroBTB  raox,  ahd  CoinnHP' 

tiojr  or  CorroN  is,  Tni  United  Btatbi,  raoM  1827  to  IWX). 

Y..r. 

OONSUMPTIOW  AT  VARIUUa  1 

l.iWia,                      1 

KnaLkXD. 

niAVcs. 

ontB  room 

lV)TAt. 

IKQLAItD— WMkly. 

Bslu. 

rmiHci. 

udiuii  aintu  1 

nnrtlt  pf      • 

llll«W(«l« 

Httflliiul, 

wmlilf, 

nfallkllHlt, 

B«lM. 

tela. 

B«lM. 

Biilx. 

Vf\iaH.     S«.I«. 

Balm. 
280,000 

Vlrfliila,      1 

■"IM,4«« 

( VIriflnl*, 

1827 

646,1.39 

157,952 

49,707 

863,793 

8,181 

764 

1828 

424,748 

148,519 

26,733 

600,000 

9,200 

360 

377,600 

130,698 

,,, 

I4,nw 

1829 

489,001 

184,821 

06,173 

749,000 

9,092 

869 

241,68(1 

mnas 

>,*( 

14,881 

1880 

695,713 

200,791 

42,212 

838,716 

10,203 

673 

264,760 

13fl,ftl9 

. , ., 

16,003 

1831 

618,718 

127.029 

27,086 

772,783 

11,041 

688 

260,784 

183,144 

,,,» 

16,49« 

1832 

638,143 

207,209 

46,871 

891,728 

11,540 

689 

248,343 

178,800 

.,,, 

17,140 

1838 

680,145 

207,617 

29,793 

867,486 

11,868 

460 

273,463 

194,418 

. . .  t 

16,1128 

1884 

766.291 

216,424 

65,236 

1,027.951 

18,094 

617 

306,000 

196,418 

, .  >, 

1Y.667 

1885 

722,718 

252,470 

4.8,311 

1,028,499 

13,719 

619 

379,fl<lil 

916,388 

, . . , 

18,848 

1836 

771,148 

266,188 

79,267 

1,116,603 

13,991 

668 

808,7116 

986,788 

,,,, 

19,4A3 

1837 

880,786 

260,722 

56,917 

1,168,428 

14,661 

498 

867,913 

938,640 

till 

90,888 

1888 

1,165,1!» 

821,480 

8S,994 

1,575,629 

17,247 

864 

860,608 

246,IMW 

•  III 

88,904 

1SS9 

79S,418 

242,243 

84,028 

1,074,689 

1.1,879 

879 

391,403 

976,018 

. .  > , 

91,430 

• 

1840 

1,246,791 

447,468 

181,747 

1,^76,008 

19,200 

810 

326,288 

2116,198 

34.009 

1S41 

858,743 

848,776 

105,759 

1,813,277 

17,279 

817 

446.61)6 

39r,8liN 

t .«, 

39,«89 

1842 

93^631 

399,129 

131,487 

2,468,247 

16,832 

268 

861,277 

8«7,hAi) 

<  1 », 

38,818 

1843 

1,409,711 

848,139 

1H287 

2,010,130 

19,978 

893 

44,1,1186 

836,129 

. . ,» 

36,894 

1 

1844 

1,202,498 

282,685 

144,807 

1,629,490 

21,821 

296 

880,878 

1146,744 

97,473 

1 

1845 

1,489,806 

859,857 

885,098 

1,088,756 

24.412 

aie 

88l),»4r 

IM.MN) 

.... 

»t,277 

1S46 

1,102,369 

859,708 

204,780 

1,666,792 

34,260 

877 

417,861 

498,697 

. . , . 

80.498 

1847 

880,909 

241,486 

163,827 

1,241,223 

Ifl,40« 

888 

413,079 

4-^7,967 

3i,3(lfi 

1848 

1324,266 

279,172 

254,824 

1,868,261 

22,443 

892 

393,407 

681,778 

7A,mK» 

9<,146 

1849 

1,687.901 

868,2.19 

821,684 

2,227,864 

24,111 

868 

269,109 

6|8,fl«9 

im,«)rt 

80,646 

1860 

1,106,771 

28?,627 

198,767 

1,590,1M 

20,238 

288 

8AI.«7'i 

4«r,7A* 

107,600 

99.136 

1861 

1,418,268 

801,8&S 

869.037 

1,988.710 

23,748 

427 

8I0,«I3 

404,108 

Aft,(HW 

81.918 

1869 

1,668,749 

421,875 

883,628 

2,4(.3,6»6 

27,748 

677 

851.667 

608,089 

76,00(» 

36,790 

1868 

1,786,860 

426,723 

864,318 

2,628,400 

27,6i4 

867 

804,612 

671,009 

9«,0«« 

86,618 

1864 

1,608,780 

874,058 

841,340 

2,319,148 

29,188 

497 

866,784 

«lU,ft7l 

IIIA.IHK) 

87,839 

1868 

1,549,716 

409,981 
480,687 

284,660 

2,241,209 

99,728 

650 

A«lt,A»4 

8A,n04 

40,403 

186S 

1,921,886 

562J>88 

3,981.606 

— 

nil     , 

^mm... 

lilM- 

pouni 

ceedc 

poun 

than 

quan 

Brita 


better 
exani 
the 
half  I 
paria 
a  dill 
the 
of  wl 
Kif 
oftlj 
iJ 
meni 
fort 
and  I 


COT 


468 


COT 


b  transUu  ootton  were  purcluaing  ftom  twenty  to  thirty 
thooaand  bales  per  week,  and  not  nnfreqnently  turning 
the  itaple  over  two  or  three  times  in  the  period  wUch 
_  used  to  sulHce,  nnder  the  old  ayatem,  of  moldng  bnt 
'  one  fair  profit  out  of  it.  The  theory  of  certain  par- 
tlen,  based  upon  an  incorrect  estimate  of  things  as  they 
are,  favors  the  impression  that  the  cotton  trade  of  Kew 
York  is  on  the  wane,  but  like  all  other  theories  resting 
only  upon  the  basis  of  the  imagination,  it  fades  away 
before  the  recital  of  the  hard  facts  that  stare  it  in  the 
face. 

New  York  being  the  centre  of  the  world's  trade  on 
this  continent — the  grand  focus  of  all  the  latest  intel- 
ligence from  the  old  world,  and  all  sections  of  the 
new,  the  rendezvous  of  nearly  all  the  most  important 
lines  of  ocean  steamers,  the  entrepot  of  more  than  five 
eighths  of  the  entire  foreign  commerce  of  the  country, 
the  readiest  medium,  financially  and  every  other  way, 
between  thu  producer  and  the  consumer,  the  planter 
and  agriculturist  here,  and  the  factor  and  manufacturer 
there — Kew  York  being  ail  this  and  much  more  liesides, 
wo  repeat,  it  must  continue  to  control  the  cotton  trade 


of  the  oouBtiy  for  a  centnry  to  come.  But  it  is  some- 
times inferred  that  the  American  cotton  trade  at  largo 
is  destined  to  an  eventual  decline,  in  consequence  of 
the  constant  endeavors  of  Great  Britain  to  seek  new 
fields  for  its  cultivation  by  means  of  what  is  called 
firee  labor,  near  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  among  the 
sickly  malarias  of  the  East  Indies.  These  experiments, 
we  think,  have  been  sufficiently  tested  to  justify  tho 
conclusion,  that  the  cotton  planter  of  the  United  States 
has  nothing  to  apprehend,  for  at  least  a  generation  to 
come,  from  any  competition  from  these  sources.  Even 
did  the  endeavor  to  cultivate  the  plant  in  the  Indies 
succeed  to  any  considerable  extent,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  the  remoteness  of  the  producer  from  the  manu- 
facturer, must  always  give  us  such  an  advantage,  as 
regards  low  freights  and  expeditious  transit,  as  would 
render  the  colonial  speculation  comparatively  profit- 
less. There  are  many  other  considerations  and  argu- 
ments which  might  be  adduced  to  substantiate  this 
conclusion,  but  these,  we  take  it  for  granted,  are  not 
required,  to  allay  any  serious  apprehensions  of  do- 
mestic ruin  from  this  species  of  foreign  competition. 


Stocks  or  Cotton  on  Hand  in  tue 

0NITSD  States  on 

8l8T  AVOUBT.     BALin. 

IBM. 

I8M. 

1854. 

issa. 

1319. 

ISM. 

ISM. 

1S49. 

1S48. 

I84T,        1 

New  Orleans.. 

Mobilo 

Florida. 

Texas 

Bav'h&Aug'a. 

Charleston 

N.Carolina.... 

Virginia. 

New  York 

OtborM.  porta. 
Total 

«,»»5 
5,006 
74 
628 
8,881 
8,144 

■'842 

84,657 

9,500 

89,425 

28,519 

166 

3,062 

8,887 

2,086 

"680 

66,846 

9,846 

24,121 
29,278 
688 
3,205 
11,518 
17,081 

"760 
82,988 
17,129 

10,523 

7,516 

528 

428 

12,9»t 

16,126 

"m 

67,675 
20,460 

9,758 

2,819 

461 

«17 

6,65'i 

11,146 

"460 
4^796 
14,283 

15,890 
27,797 
278 
696 
84,011 
10,068 

"620 

35,410 

8,850 

16,612 
12,963 
1,148 
S85 
29,069 
80,693 

i'.ooo 

60,720 
1^466 

15,480 

6,046 

616 

452 

25,819 

28,806 

V,760 
67,085 
15,260 

87,4f»l 
28,684 
607 
747 
86,603 
14,095 

"444 
41,987 
16,180 

28,(98    1 
24,173    , 
2,108 
83 
25,020 
29,655 

*  '448 
88,269 
26,650 

64,171 

148,886 

185,608 

185,648 

91,170 

128,900 

187,980 

164,768 

171,468 

214,887 

IV.  Corroji  Tbade  of  the  United  States  with 
Great  Britain.  1.  General  Information  Respecting 
the  Cotton  Trade  of  the  United  Stale).— Great  Sritain. — 
The  annual  average  importation  of  cotton  from  all 
ODuntries  int^  England  the  lost  five  years  has  been 
838,335,984  pounds,  of  which  quantities,  according  to 
British  authorities,  661,529,220  pounds,  or  more  than 
thrae  fourths,  were  from  the  United  States.  The  an- 
nual average  exportation  to  the  Continent  and  else- 
where has  been  122,810,688  pounds,  or  about  one  sixth 
of  the  total  quantity  imported,  leaving  716,525,296 
pounds  for  the  annual  average  consumption.  Al>out 
one  sixth  of  the  whole  amount  imported  was  from  Brit- 
itsh  possessions. 

In  1781,  Great  Britain  commenced  the  re-exportation 
of  cotton  to  tho  Continent  and  elsewhere.  In  1816 
the  quantity  thus  re-exported  had  risen  from  the  an- 
nual average  of  1,000,000  pounds  to  that  of  6,000,000 
pounds.  In  1863,  the  aggregate  amount  exported  ex- 
ceeded 148,500,000  pounds,  of  which  nearly  83,000,000 
pounds  were  derived  from  the  United  States,  and  more 
than  60,000,000  pounds  from  the  East  Indies.  The 
quantit}'  of  American  cotton  re-exported  by  Great 
Britain  to  the  different  markets  of  Europe,  when  com- 
pared with  the  quantities  imported,  is  much  less  than 
of  that  imported  from  other  countries — a  fact  which 
suggests  the  superiority  of  the  American  article,  and  its 
better  adaptation  to  purposes  of  fabrile  industrj-.  For 
example,  about  one  tenth  of  the  cotton  imported  from 
the  United  States  is  re-exported,  against  nearly  one 
half  of  that  imported  from  the  East  Indies.  A  com- 
parison between  American  and  East  India  cotton,  shows 
a  difference  of  100  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  farmer ; 
the  cotton  of  the  East  Indies  containing  25  per  cent, 
of  waste,  while  that  of  the  United  States  contains  only 
12^  per  cent.  The  fibre,  also,  of  the  latter  excels  that 
of  the  former. 

In  1788,  the  efforts  of  the  East  India  Company  com- 
menced for  the  promotion  of  the  growth  of  cotton,  and 
for  tho  improvement  of  its  quality,  in  British  India ; 
and  the  first  exportation  of  the  article  to  England  was 
made  the  same  year.  In  1814  the  exportation  amounted 
to  4,000,000  pounds  i  it  now  averages   165,000,000 


pounds  per  annum.  An  area  of  about  8000  square 
miles  is  said  to  be  devoted  to  the  culture.  Liverpool 
is  the  great  mart  of  the  cotton  trade  of  Great  Britain 
and  of  Europe  generally.  Thus,  while  the  total  im- 
ports of  the  article  into  the  United  Kingom,  according 
to  British  authorities,  in  1852,  amounted  to  2,857,888 
bales,  the  quantity  at  this  port  reached  2,206,788  bales. 
About  six  sevenths  of  the  cotton  received  at  Liverpool 
cemes  from  the  United  States ;  and  of  this  four  fifths 
is  estimated  to  bo  imported  for  the  factories  of  Lanca- 
shire and  Yorkihire.  Since  March,  1846,  cotton  has 
been  admitted  into  British  ports  free  of  duty.  Prior  to 
that  period  the  duty  was,  of  and  from  British  posses- 
sions, 8  cents ;  from  other  places,  70  centt  per  112 
pounds.  Tho  number  of  spindles  in  operation  in  En- 
gland is  estimated  at  more  than  20,000,000.  The  value 
of  cotton  supplied  l>y  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain 
in  1853  was  $57,616,749,  being  about  the  average  each 
year  the  last  four.  The  quantity  of  cotton  exported 
from  the  United  States  to  England  in  11  months  of  tho 
fiscal  year  1856,  is  estimated  at  2,755,000  bales.  It 
appears  from  "Commerce  and  Navigation,"  that  the 
importailca  u(  raw  cotton  from  the  British  West  Indies 
into  the  United  States  has  increased,  for  some  years 
past,  in  a  ratio  quite  proportional  to  the  decrease  of 
such  importation  into  Great  Britain.  Thus,  the  import- 
ation of  cotton  into  tho  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  respectively,  from  the  British  West  Indie.o 
from  1861  to  1855,  inclusive,  was  as  follows : 


Yenrt. 
1851.. 

1852.. 
1868.. 
1864.. 
1855.. 


InloUii 

Into 

UDlKd  Slatfi. 

Greftt  BrItalD 

pounds..    29,858 

446,529 

"      ..      6,756 

708,696 

"     ..  252,893 

844,000 

"      ..  159,881 

205,072 

"      ..  880,217 

No  data 

The  average  price  per  pound  of  cotton  from  1851  to 
1855,  inclusive,  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
respectively,  is  shown  as  follows : 

In  tha  At  Man- 

YMri.  United  Stalei.  cheiter,  <).'  B. 

1861 18.11  cents.  12  1-4  cents. 

1868 8.06      "  111-4     " 

1858 9.86     "  18  4-7     " 

1854 9.47     "  12  8-4     " 

1866 8.74     "  12  1-1     » 


COT 


454 


COT 


The  following  ititement  shows  the  qauitltlea  of  cot- 
/m  impoited  into  Great  Britain,  and  the  countries 
whence  importe<l,  fVom  1840  to  1856.  The  figures  are 
derived  from  a  "  Statistical  Abstract  for  the  United 
Kingdom,  presented  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  b}- 
command  of  hor  Majesty,"  by  Mr.  Albany  W.  Fon- 
blanquo,  superintendent  of  the  statistical  department 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.     The  commercial  year  in  En- 


gland begins  January  1 ;  in  the  United  States,  July  1 ) 
hence, 'seeming  discrep:incie8  in  figures  for  apparently 
the  same  periods  of  time.  In  the  following  table 
the  colamn  headed  Egypt  includes  Turl(ey,  Nyrin,  and 
the  Mediterranean  generally  ;  the  East  (nilies  includes' 
British  India  generally;  the  West  Indies,  the  West 
India  Islands  lielonging  to  Qreat  Britain,  and  British 
Guiana: 


1840. 
1841. 
1843. 
1848.. 
1844. 
I1S46.. 
1 1846.. 
1847.. 
18(8.. 
1849.. 
I860.. 
1861.. 
1862.. 
1858.. 
1364.. 
1866.. 


Aggregate  6  years. 
Average  5  years. . . 


Uniud  8UUI. 


Poondi  of  Cotton  ImfKirtad  loto  Qraat  BritAln  from— 


487,856,604 
868,340,9«4 
414,080,n9 
674,783,620 
617,213,622 
636,650,413 
401,94»,8»8 
844,699,291 
600,247,483 
684,604,060 
498,168,112 
696,688,963 
766,680,6(4 
658,4.'51,796 
732,161,860 
679,3»(,a96 


8,432,186,753 
684,427,851 


Bnill. 


14,779,171 
16,671,848 
1^333,838 
18,076,188 
31,084,744 
30,167,688 
14,746.821 
19,966,922 
19,971,878 
80,788.138 
80,299,932 
19,889,104 
26,506,144 
24,190,623 
19,708,600 
24,677,963 


114,817,433 
83,868,485 


6,824,98f 

9,097,180 

4,489,017 

9,674,076 

12,406,827 

14,614,699 

14,278,4(7 

4,814,268 

7,281,861 

17,869,348 

18,981,414 

16,950,526 

480.53,640 

*:t>,86S,674 

28,358,120 

82,622,688 


I      EMt  IndlM. 


149,a38,647 
29,867,709 


77,011,389 

97,888,168 

92,972,6i<9 

66,709,729 

88,689,776 

68,487,426 

84,640,148 

88,984,614 

84,101,961 

70,888,516 

118,872,748 

122,626,976 

84,939,483 

181,848,160 

119,329,162 

146,213,976 


654,44^096 
180,889,139 


Waat  Indlci. 


866,167 

1,688,197 

698,603 

1,360,444 

1,707,194 

1,894,447 

1,201,857 

798,988 

640,487 

944,807 

228,913 

446,629 

708,696 

8U,060 

206,072 

No  (lata. 


1,099,867 
424,839 


ElM«rhor«. 


8,649,403 
^061,61S 
4,441,260 
8,185,224 
6,064,641 
725,836 
1,140,113 
698,587 
837,086 
1,074,164 
2.090,698 
1,877,658 
8,960,993 
2,078,562 
2,090,300 
8,476,160 


17,984.167 
8,696,883 


692,448,010 
4»7.9U2,:)55 
631,750,036 
678,198,116 
646,111.804 
721,079,953 
467,856,274 
474,707,015 
718,020,161 
756,461.,012 
668,67«,.s61 
767,379,749 
949,782,418 
896,266,780 
837,388,104 
890,159,872 


4,869,921,053 
871,984,390 


Stathunt  snowiNo  tiir  Quantities  of  Cotton  Exported  by  Orkat  Britain  to  ali.  Countrirs,  hrspkctively,  and 

THE   UOrNTRIES  WURNCR  IKPOBTRD,  FOR  A  PERIOD  <>r  FlVI  YeARS,  PROX  1851  TO  1356,  BOTU  INOLUBIVK.* 


Y..rt. 

Eiportod  lotU 

countriot. 

Of  which 

wu  Imported 

from — 

Unlt'd  BlAtOB. 

Itroill. 

Ejrypl. 

Eut  Indlti. 

ElHwhen, 

18S1 

Pound*. 
111,930,400 
111,875,466 
143,569,680 
125,.'»4,800 
124,84^760 

Pound!. 
66,931,841 
69,217.120 
82,701,472 
55,101,200 
66,989,683 

P.mlid.. 
1,38.3,880 
8,619,840 
4,786,768 
1,433,193 

759,860 

Puuodi. 
211,008 
124,664 
948,416 
869,600 
886,064 

Pouiidi. 

42,969,163 
88,844,673 
60,082,064 
68,645,808 
66.210,704 

Pound!. 

49li63 
60,960 

isn 

1858 

1864. 

1866 

Annnal  average 

124,466,219 

66,136,168 

2,498,608 

407,948 

U,353,43S 

.... 

*  Compiled  tnm  the  monthly  "  Accounts  Kelatlng  to  Trade  and  Navigation,"  presented  to  t!io  British  Parliament,  the 
only  authority  at  liand  from  whlcii  the  countries  whence  the  cotton  exported  was  imported  could  be  ascertained.  Results 
gathered  from  these  monthly  accounts  somctlmos  vary  from  tliose  given  In  the  "Annual  Statement  of  the  Trade  and  Navi- 
gation of  the  United  Kingdom,"  fh>iD  which  latter  documunt  was  made  up  the  table  that  follows. 


Coontri!*  to  which  tiportcd. 

Pouod!  of  cotton  exported  from  Great  Britain  In  the  year!— 

Annual 
areraire. 

IMl.         1          inti. 

ISU. 

1854. 

Bnasia 

8M  85,472 

2,4.84,664 

1,576,04t 

87,473,0(0 

23,119,104 

13,866,480 

1,34\504 

2,742,820 

1,366,044 

2,647,120 

A606,840 

8,691,340 

674,240 

22,472,016 

16,834,224 

12.657,630 

2,226,440 

2,288,208 

1,957.033 

2,324,560 

43,937,392 

4,414,368 

1,143,296 

83,417,440 

28,676,592 

18,466,672 

2,403,968 

8,860.864 

8,880,288 

8,418,800 

208,5(4 
6,364,660 
83,444,634 
86,055,264 
26,934,.'M4 
14,0(0,768 
2,759,282 
8,321,323 
4,311,364 
6,883,893 

82,484,312 

4,076.8.'i6 

6,709,556 

29,364,440 

28,891,116 

14,506.400 

9,lt-8,586 

8.165,080 

2,991,324 

8,448,468 

Sweden 

PmsslB 

Holland 

Belgium 

Frentse 

SardlnU 

Austria 

Other  countries 

Aggregate , 

109,766,82t 

109,581,186 

148,669,680 

128,826,112 

122,810,688 

Statement  or  Iuport  op  Cotton  in  Bairs  into  Great  Brptain,  dorino  the  last 

Ten  Tears. 

itu. 

AUanllc 

New  Orleane, 

TouI 

Bnull. 

W.  lodlei, 

K«Tt. 

Eut 

Slatei. 

Mobile,  tte. 

United  Statee. 

and  Berblce- 

ete. 

Indlea. 

Total. 

Liverpool 

420,884 

987,604 

1,603,480 

134,443 

1,090 

6,84( 

112,100 

279,366 

2,142,813 

London 

207 

74 

881 

820 

468 

40 

99,877 

100,936 

Bristol  ds  Hull.. 

658 

656 

OUsgow 

6,726 

8.991 

14,717 

644 

3,878 

16,626 

88,765 

Total,  1855.... 

624,819 

994,459 

1.623,473 

184,763 

1,090 

T,856 

115,018 

896,014 

2,278,213 

"      13.54.... 

613,600 

1,152,970 

1,664,471 

107,898 

673 

8,775 

81,036 

809,293 

2,172,697 

"      1863.... 

808,787 

1,028,276 

1,633,068 

183,443 

673 

8,267 

106,398 

43.5,627 

2,264,270 

"      1853.... 

642,104 

1,164,809 

1,789,318 

144,197 

,  ,  ,, 

12,530 

189,936 

221,413 

2,867,338 

"      1861.... 

480,464 

918,243 

1,393,706 

108,721 

4,877 

67,4.33 

823,309 

1,90.3,646 

"      1880.... 

610,248 

616,646 

1,134,194 

171,797 

6,640 

79,7*J 

807,901 

1,749,295 

"      1849.... 

499,260 

888,777 

1,477,727 

163,768 

9,114 

72,651 

182,147 

1,906,427 

"      1843.... 

45t009 

678,183 

1,875,375 

100,201 

7,889 

29,010 

227,613 

1,739,997 

"      1847.... 

274,217 

654,489 

374,087 

110,229 

•  >  >> 

4,984 

20,729 

222,766 

1,282,797 

,       "      1S44.... 

348,278 

686,828 

990,994 

84,178 

.... 

12,998 

60,681 

166,140 

1,248,937 

Export  and  Consumption  or  Cotton  ii>  Oreat  Britain  roR  rocR  Tears, 


■      EXPORT. 

CONSUMPTION.                            1 

lits. 

Urcrpool. 

120,800 

4,700 

200 

2,600 

104,800 

London. 

Other 
PorU. 

.ToUl.     1      ISM.      1      ISU.      I      im. 

ms.       1       I8i4. 

lUl.      1     uu. 

American. . 

Brazil 

West  India. 

l2?{S'Ji.: 

ToUl 

850 
80 
80 
60 
83,100 

4,760 

260 

8,660 

188,400 

187,600 

8,200 

100 

3,000 

168,600 

176,000 

18,100 

600 

8,400 

161,500 

168,960 

14,800 

800 

1,000 

100,740 

1,677,943 

114,473 

9,086 

120,938 

276,3()( 

1,626,689 

100,678 

9,177 

106,218 

207,738 

1,408,963 

119,818 

10,699 

119,648 

196,687 

1,507,766 

124,464 

9,863 

109,005 

160,461 

384,800 

88,406  1     .... 

816,900 

814,400 

849,400 

292,300 

2,099,293     1,949,827  !  1,864.610 

1,911,664  1 

involv 
Fro 
water, 
now 
procee 
bales  I 
of  the 
46,000 
eion  of 
on  at  ( 
advum 
of  con! 
to  loai 
larger 
very  : 
year  c; 
the  lat 
in  con! 
ished  1 
2. 

twofh 

to  Fra 

ported 

or  ma 

terms, 

but  th< 

the 


nrand 
ToUl. 


2,142,812 

100,986 

6,W 

83,T»5 

2,278,2  IS 

8,172,B9T 

2,2&»,2'0 

2,857,833 

1,903,540 

1,749,295 

1,905,427 

1,789,997 

1,282,797 

1,248,987 


i68  i  1,507,706 

124,464 

9,863 

109,005 

16M61 

i;9n,664 


c(yr 


4M 


COT 


BTATunirr  or  Stock  or  Oottoh  in  BmmB  Poim,  at  tub  oloii  or  tuc  last  aiz  Tiau. 


DfMripUon. 

lau. 

ToUl  In  Iha  Unidom.                                             | 

Uvarpool. 

liondon. 

Other  PorU. 

ISM. 

IIM. 

lut. 

1)51. 

lUI, 

ISU. 

Bealtlud 

10,240 

1,690 

860 
10 

10,600 
1,600 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

BUIneddo 

Upland 

84,220 

180 

880 

86,280 

811,810 

808,870 

860,770 

946,800 

978,900 

Mobile  ind  Alabama. 

83,240 

880 

88,670 

.... 

New  Orleana 

109,690 

8,660 

106,140 

.... 

.... 

.... 

*  .  •  • 

Pornarabuco,  oto 

22,660 

•  •  •  • 

S!2,6«0 

•  •  •  • 

Bahlaand  Mocolo 

18,440 

60 

18,600 

47,630 

49,000 

64,6i0 

49,600 

68,700 

21,900 

48,290 

82,200 

140 

100 

49,640 
890 

2,680 
880 

22,000 

60,870 

182,170 

1,080 

68^990 
202,620 

ro^iio 

i  970,660 

102,770 
188,210 

26',o6o 
(  172,000 

86,i6o 
148,400 

Egyptian 

8urat  and  Madras... . 
Bengal  and  Manl!Ia... 

Other  dcscrlptiona. , . . 
Total 

8,400 

260 

.... 

8,660 

'4,6io 

8,040 

6,160 

1,800 

1300 

428,810 

61,120 

0,540 

486,470 

624,460 

717,630 

667,620 

494,600 

622,400 

LIVERPOOL  COTTON  STATEMENT. 

B«lu. 

Stock,  l»t  January,  1865 661,800 

Import  la  1856 9,149,709 


9,694,000 


Total  quantity  told  In  1856,  as  per  I  a  ^^  f^gn 
weekly  rcturni, .  f  "i"*'-'™' 


Deduct  proportion  sold  to  specu- 1      tqo  lan 
lalora for  ro-»ale .....\     ^^^'^ 


2,266,200 


Stock,  l5t  January,  1866 428,800 

Balu. 

'''*Mrt  UiSm!"!"'"".*?!'."."  }2.2«8,200,  or  48,662  pr.  wk. 
pn  1864— 2,1U,lbo'or  4bi656 
bales  per  vcck.] 
Ded.  cxp.  to  Contbent,  228,600  ) 
»  Irclana...      6,800). 


284,800 


Taken  for  consumption 2,080,900,  or  89,056  pr.  wk. 

[In  1864,..  1,885,800,  or  86,250     "     ] 

LONDON  COTTON  STATEMENT. 

Slim. 

Stock,  1st  Januaiy,  1860 62,300 

Import  In  1856. 101,000 


Balei. 
188,700 


168,800 


Stock,  Ist  January,  1850 51,100  1 

Exported  to  the  Continent...  82,600  J 
"  Liverpool ) 

Taken  for  consumption  In  England . . .    19,600  or  S7T  pr.  wk. 
[InlSM..      7,600  "  146      '• 

The  above  figures  show  that  the  past  year's  con- 
Bumptiou  was  double  that  of  1810.  The  aggregate 
production  of  the  past  12  years  sums  up  37,297,600 
bales,  while  the  coDsumption  has  been  38,212,500 ;  the 
latter  being  in  excess  of  the  former  92r>,000  bales,  thug 
reducing  the  stock  of  new  material  by  that  much  since 
1845 — a  startling  fact  in  view  of  the  great  interests 
involved. 

From  a  reliable  source  of  iutelligenco  across  the 
water,  we  learn  that  new  machinery  added  to  mills 
now  working,  together  with  manufactories  now  in 
process  of  erection,  will  require  in  1857  about  4,000 
bales  of  cotton  per  week  more  than  the  consumption 
of  the  present  year,  making  an  aggregate  of  nearly 
45,000  bales  per  week.  On  the  Continent,  the  exten- 
Bion  of  manufacturing  power  is  supposed  to  be  going 
on  at  about  the  same  rate.  Consequently  prices  will 
advance  till  they  reach  a  point  tending  to  a  diminution 
of  consumption.  What  that  point  will  be  we  have  yet 
to  learn.  Though  the  stocli  of  cotton,  at  present,  is 
larger  in  Liverpool  than  lust  year,  it  will  be  reduced 
very  rapidly,  as  the  imports  up  to  tlie  close  of  the 
year  can  scarcely  be  moi«  than  half  so  large  as  during 
the  latter  months  of  1845,  and  perhaps  not  even  that, 
in  consequence  of  the  lateness  of  the  season  and  dimin- 
ished receipts  at  our  ports. 

2.  France. — Cotton  constitutes  in  value  more  than 
two  thirds  of  the  domestic  exports  of  the  United  States 
to  France,  By  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  1882,  it  is  im- 
ported, like  all  other  "articles  of  the  growth,  produce, 
or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,"  on  the  same 
terms,  whether  in  United  States  or  national  vessel* ; 
but  the  importation  must  be  direct,  and  the  origin  of 
the  article  duly  anthenticated.    A  minUterial  decree 


of  December  17,  1851,  enlarges  the  provision  of  the 
treaty  relative  to  the  direct  voyage,  so  far  as  to  extend 
the  equality  between  the  vessels  of  the  two  nations 
when  importing  cotton,  even  should  the  American  ves- 
sel touch  at  a  British  port ;  but,  in  that  case,  the  cap- 
tain is  required  to  exhibit  a  certificate  from  the  French 
consul  at  that  port,  stating  that  no  commercial  trans- 
action there  took  place.  The  French  government  is 
directing  its  efforts  to  the  development  and  extension 
of  the  cotton  culture  in  its  colonial  province  of  Algeria. 
To  that  end,  in  December,  1863,  an  aggrgate  value  of 
20,000  francs,  in  prizes,  was  offered  by  the  emperor  to 
the  most  successful  cultivator  of  cotton  in  that  province. 
The  result  is  announced  as  most  favorable.  In  De- 
cember, 1864,  the  entire  sum  was  divided  between 
three  rivals,  whose  merits  were  judged  equal — two  of 
them  being  French  colonists,  and  one  an  Arab — a  gold 
medal  to  each  being  also  awarded.  To  the  meritorious 
of  the  second  rank,  a  silver  medal  to  each  was  pre-  - 
sented.  The  amount  produced  in  1854  was  180,552 
pounds.  Next  to  Great  Britain,  France  is  the  largest 
importer  of  American  cotton  ;  and  what  Liverpool  is 
to  the  former,  Havre  is  to  the  latter.  At  those  two 
points  the  importations  are  concentrated,  and  thence 
distributed  to  the  different  markets  of  either  empire,  or 
re-exported  to  foreign  countries.  The  re-exportations 
of  France  are  chiefly  to  Switzerland  by  railway  ;  after 
which  country,  in  this  trade,  come  Sardinia  and  Hol- 
land ;  smaller  quantities  being  sent  also  to  Spain,  the 
ZoUverein  and  other  countries.  Next  to  the  United 
States,  France  derives  her  supplies  of  cotton  fh)m  the 
levant ;  and  the  third  place  is  held  by  South  America. 
These  facts  are  illustrated  by  the  following  statements, 
made  up  from  the  "  Tableau  General  du  Commerce  deh 
France"  for  the  year  designated.  [The  quantities  are 
given  in  kilogrammes,  each  kilogramme  being  equal 
to  about  2  1-5  pounds.  Kilogrammes  multiplied  by  9 
and  divided  by  4  will  give  pounds.] 

Tabulab  compabativb  Statxueht  suowino  xnK  QUAN- 

TITIBS    or    COTTOX    lui-OKTED    INTO    FrANOB,    AND    TUB 
COUNTRIRS  WnENCB  ImPORTBD,  FOR  A  PERIOD  OF  TUBBR 

Years,  rBO«i  1862  to  1855,  botu  inclusive. 


CouDirifli  wheocs 
imported. 


United  Sutes.. 

Egypt 

Turkey 

England 

Belgium 

Brazil 

Peru 

Yenciuola 

Hayti 

East  India's.... 

Elsewhere 

Aggregate... 


Kilogramme*  of  cotton  imported  Into  France  In 
the  yesra — 


76,104,464 

4,882,.^75 

1,027,887 

088,907 

831,074 

418,563 

168,710 

816,9%3 

76,697 

47,955 

898,091 


18iS. 


IBM. 


79,881,785 

4,831,872 

1,871,289 

890,822 

608,449 

280,818 


169,686 

104,510 

6,674 

191,029 


88,989,822        88,065,022        84,666,028 


77,746,470 

8,601,827 

876,884 

1,647,994 

876,860 

127,912 

289,688 

68,064 

77,165 

188,049 

206,569 


The  only  country  in  Europe  which  can,  in  any  sense, 
be  said  to  compete  with  Great  Britain  in  the  supply  of 
the  extra  European  demand  for  cotton  goods  is  France. 
And  when  the  character  and  extent  of  this  branch  of 
the  French  export  trade  are  described  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  most  formidable  rival  is  not  yet  much  to  be 
dreaded. 


^'■V 


COT 


456 


COT 


Tabulae  noiiPAiATiTi  Btatihikt  uuiaiTiiio  thi  Qvantitixs  or  Cottom  ihvobtid  into  Fhahoi  noa  nn  I'mTro 
Ktatii.  ahr  riou  otiikb  Codntsiiib,  imiLUDiNa  Ubazil,  with  TIM  Aa<iii!aAT»,  moM  1S20  to  1R63. 


Yfiin 


1820.. 
1821., 
1822.. 
1828. . 
1824.. 
1826.. 
1820;, 
183T.. 
1828. . 
1829., 
1830., 
181)1. 
1832.. 
1833., 
1834., 
1886., 
1886.. 
1887., 


Frum 
Unllid  DUbia. 


KUtMraiiM. 
ll.UaO.IHIII 
IO.IS6.IIUO 

9.600,00.) 

i2,igii,(i<io 

16,74'.l,0i)() 
18,4M,000 
21,921,000 
21.880,000 
21,617,000 
26.H44,000 
23,160,000 
22,778,000 
27,88,1,000 
28.sl»,0ll0 
81.6S7.000 
32,828,0110 
36..16S,000 
S6,409,00il 


Kroiii 
otbar  Pluai 


KlloarKltii. 
8,1.78  000 
I  .>,4U2,(NI0 
12,1172,(100 
8,I68.IK)0 
I2,2>>l,000 
11,213,000 
9,69.1.0110 
7,804.000 
6,758,0,10 
6,906.000 
6,110,000 
(1,461,000 
6,268,000 
0,701. mio 
6.1)48.000 
6,4:i7,(KIO 
7,(MI4,00O 
7,B61,»00 


AfinfiU. 


Klloiruu. 
2(1,203.000 
22,687,000 
21,672,000 
20,364.000 
28,030,000 
24,667,000 
31,914,000 
20,084,000 
27,876,000 
31,839,000 
20,2(10,000 
28  220,000 
32.036,000 
86.610,000 
36.039,000 
88,7(10.(100 
44,113'.00O 
48.880.000 


18.18, 
1839. 
184(1. 
1841. 
1842. 
1»13. 
18«,|. 
I84A. 
1846. 
1847. 
1848. 
1849, 
ISM. 
1861. 
lS.Vi, 
1863. 
1S64 
1860 


rijm 
^nlUdJllaUr 
Kllofram*. 
48,7h(l,O0O 
84.882,000 
48,6S1,(«]0 
BO.860,000 
62,B3.',0OO 
66,136,000 
61,241,000 
66,612,000 
60,700,000 
42,226,000 
43,24:i,OllO 
60,931,000 
61.9I9,0<IO 
63,914  (XH) 
66,740,000 
7ii,221,fl(lO 
67,463,(MO 
71,897,000 


olh«r  PlarM 


K  lloirrAiiw. 

7.47'.>.(NI0 

6.7(12.000 

4  301.0(10 

6.f/20.(»10 

4  UII6.00II 

3.8.  r>.0  0 

4,0^3  IWIO 

4,11(1,000 

8,4117,000 

3.ili7.(HI(l 

l.MKi  000 

8.2:i,'l,0(l() 

4.  47.()(>0 

4  67(l.(l(iO 

6.329.(H» 

4.87(1,0(10 

4.141,(100 

4,24l,(KIO 


Ac(n|>la. 


KliiMrramt. 
&1.2.'>il,(iOO 
40.611  (.100 
6.',I42.0(K( 
K>  870,000 
67,827.0(10 
00.000,(00 

r)8,.'-02.ooo 

(10.71  8  Olio 
(14,2i7,«00 
46 1>:22.0(;0 
14.U(i9,IMI0 
04,164,(KIO 
69,46(1,000 
68,484.000 
72.069,000 
76,0111,0(10 
71,604.000 
76.188,000 


From  the  forcgoinfr  tal>1c  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
importaliun  of  cotton  into  Franco  from  other  countricii 
than  the  United  States,  including  Itrnzll,  IVom  1820  to 
1855,  Imn  fallen  off  more  than  50  per  cent. ;  while  from 
the  U.  States  it  has  increased  more  than  COO  per  cent. 

The  French  tariff  in  1858  imposed  Ave  diflcrcnt 
rates  of  duty  on  raw  cotton  imported  in  French  vessels, 
according  to  where  it  came  from  ;  and  three  other  rates 
of  duty,  similarly  distinguished,  on  cotton  imported  in 
foreign  vessels.  The  duty  most  extensively  operative 
— that  on  Anicrican  cotton  entering  in  French  bottoms 
— was  20  francs  per  100  kilograms,  or  about  sixteen 
shilling.^  per  220  pounds.  And  as  the  whole  quantity 
imported  (75,0'J1,000  kilograms)  yielded  to  the  revenue 
r(',27C,000  francs,  giving  an  average  of  22'2B  francs  per 
100  kilograms,  it  is  probable  that  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  what  was  imported  actually  paid  this  rate  of  duty. 

The  bounty  on  exportation  was  25  francs  per  100 
kilograms  of  manufactures  or  yam.  It  was  allowed 
in  1853  on  7,117,864  kilograms  of  manufacture  and  on 
198,601  kilograms  of  yarn.  This,  with  a  moderate  al- 
lowance for  waste  of  the  raw  material,  though  called 
a  bounty,  could  in  effect  have  been  little,  if  at  all,  rasre 
than  a  drawback  of  the  import  duty. 

It  would  seem  that  the  French  exports  in  this  kind 
are  not  more  than  a  tenth  in  value  of  our  own.  .And 
where  were  they  sent,  and  why  ?  Tlio  largest  custom- 
er for  these  French  manufacturers  (taking  two  parts  in 
seven  of  the  whole  value)  was  Algeria;  but  Algerian 
consumption  may  be  deemed  practically  French  con- 
sumption. The  two  customers  next  on  the  list,  when 
arranged  in  order  of  magnitude,  are  the  United  States 
and  the  United  Kingdom.  These  took  between  them 
two  other  seventh  parts  of  the  whole.  And  the  goO(.Is 
sold  in  the  English  and  American  markets  are  well 
known  to  owe  their  peculiar  value  rather  to  the  de- 
signer and  the  dyer  than  to  the  spinntr  and  weaver. 
Their  consumption  does  not  admit  of  any  very  rapid 
or  wide  increase.  French  taste  and  French  chemistry 
have  deservedly  won  for  the  French  textile  fabrics, 
wherever  they  arc  applicable,  a-  superiority  as  well 
knc  n  as  it  is  incontestable.  But  this  has  little  efTect 
in  determining  the  locality  of  the  cotton  manufacture 
of  the  whole.    With  a  few  trifling  exceptions,  of  which 


cotton  laco  imported  from  Uelgium  is  the  only  one 
w  orlhy  of  notice,  no  cotton  foreign  manufactures  were 
in  1853  admitted  to  French  consumption. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  exports  of  cotton 
to  France  for  six  years,  ending  with  June  30,  1856, 
and  the  value ;  as  also  the  total  value  of  domestic  ex- 
ports to  Franco  during  the  said  years,  respectively. 


Ytmn. 

PolUKlf. 

v.lu.. 

To(«l  v>lu< 
(lonitilic  Kxpurtt. 

I860 

1.6,.s84.(,9l 

$l4.tll>.\44» 

1(117,1 1)0,277 

1851 

139.164,671 

18,1':4,6I2 

26.1102.(»-6 

1,862 

186,214,270 

in.J!18r80 

22.190.070 

la.'iS 

18:i.2J0,913 

19.248.070 

21),  120.806 

1864 

144,4288(10 

14.632,712 

BO.068,262 

1855 

210,113.8(19 

ll',086.42;i 

81,623.81'8 

French  ofiicial  documents  furnish  the  following  facts 
relative  tc  our  cotton  trade  with  that  empire.  Ity  the 
custom-house  returns  for  1855,  it  appears  that  there 
were  received  for  the  following  years  from  all  countries: 

i:«» 168  400,000  pounds. 

1,863 Itin.OdO.OOO       " 

18»» 11,7,620,000       " 

1866 167,2{K),(10O       " 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantities  of  cotton 
imported  into  Havre  from  all  countries  for  a  period  of 
four  years,  ending  with  1855 : 


Ve»n. 

Prom  tli« 
Unlltil  SlXea. 

From 
Brud. 

Prom 
«lFewh«r«. 

Total. 

isf)a 

1863 

18.',4 

1S66 

BulM. 
874,900 

374,61)0 
411,000 
406.601) 

BllM. 
6000 
28(10 
2000 
2600 

Bnln. 
14.400 
12,200 
12,000 

9. 01)0 

BaleB. 
396  300 

88;».50() 
42.-..000 
418.100 

TaDLB  BIIOWIMO  THE  CjU.VNTI'l'lEB  Oir  I  OTTOS   RK(^EIVF.II  AT 
TUB  OTIIBR  TORTH  OV  Fh\N<!R  nmiNO  THE  SAME  ^'BARS. 


I3:i2. 

1863. 
ISr4. 

is;..'.. 


Pnim  tli« 
UnlMil  Blala, 


Blll«B. 

17,800 
14,600 
19,800 
12,006 


Prom 
Buypi. 


Bain. 

8(1,700 
38,000 
21,400 
80,700 


From 
•iMwhar*. 

BnJea. 
12.6(j0 
17.0110 

4,300 

2,S00 


Total. 


Balaa. 
07.000 

f4r)Oo 

46.000 
46600 


From  the  subjoined  taltle,  showing  the  quantities  of 
cotton  received  by  the  United  States  in  the  course  of 
trade,  during  a  period  of  five  years,  from  other  coun- 
tries, it  will  bo  perceived  that  none  is  imported  from 
Brazil : 


TABOLAB  ST.kTKMBtIT  SnOWIHO  THB  QUANTITIES  OF  COTTOH  nfTOKTBn  INTO  TIIK  UnITEH  STATES,  IN  TOIrNDS,  AMD  CoiIK- 
TRIB8  WUBNCB  IMPOBTBU,  FOB  A  I'iRiOD  OK  FIVE  YEAR8,  FBOH  1861  TO  1866,  BOTH  INCLUSIVE. 


Yean. 

Dutch 
Wail  Indiaa. 

BrIIUll 
VIM  Indlaa. 

Hhpl. 

Now 
Granada. 

Vaneruela. 

Elaairbara. 

All 
Conntriaa. 

1861 

PoaiiiU. 
22^474 

"iso 

1,002 

PoiutOt. 

29.863 

6.766 

S62,893 

160,881 

1,880,217 

Pounds. 
12,000 

216,799 
196,127 
189,214 

Poundfl. 
110.190 

09.838 
192.267 
186,928 

44,369 

Pound*. 
6,010 

6i,'3l'0 

■  iia 

Pounda. 

9,204 

146,480 

860 

8,644 

160 

Pound!. 
100.767 
244,518 
722,028 
546,210 
2,116,367 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1666 

28,606 
4,721 

2,328,699 
466,720 

018,140 
lj2,628 

602,682 
120,616 

67,788 
13,647 

158,848 
81,769 

8,794,510 
768,902 

Average 

It  may  be  remarked  that,  with  the  exception  of 
42,522  pounds  exported  to  England  in  1853,  no  cotton 


I  imported  into  the  United  States  was  exported  during 
I  the  years  designated. 


1851. 
1868. 
1808. 


COT 


4B1 


COT 


Total. 


BalM. 

(•4r)00 

45,00(1 
46,  wo 


,  ASH  CoiiK- 


All 
CountriM, 

PouDdi, 
10«,757 
1!44,.M8 

M6,l!10 
2,116,1167 


8,794,610 
768,902 


Taivla*  ooiirAiATira  Btatimiht,  (aoviiitt  thi  QuaX' 
TiTiu  or  Cotton  ixpoitir  ut  Vdanoii  to  ai.IiIIoun- 

TKIM,  mPltOTIVKl.T  FOR  A  rSRlOn  or  TIHtH  Vh«iui,  rHIlM 
18S1  TO  ISH  DOTH  INOLVtlVI.  n'llll  iill4IITITilUI  AHN 
OITIN  IN  KlLOOIAimn,  Al  IN  TU«  l>HICO>IIIIIU  TADM,] 


OouUriai  to  wUok 
•iporUd. 

Kllofrmaunw  of  coltM  «ipor1«d  tium  ¥nuu0 
In  th«  yu«rt— 

IWf. 

lUI.       1         104,        1 

SwItnrUncI 

Matherltncla. 

Bardlnl* 

7,oy»,M7 

1,709,004 

l,fi64,8M 

108,408 

110,6M 

17,6S» 

1,14«,PM 

7l<7a 

318,868 

48,016 

74,018 

7,OIW,0M 
8|)7,»Ba 

18tMI81 
188,686 
S1»,8I0 

m,u6i 

61,17» 

18,488 
80,484 

TT,'iKI« 
6H,TM 

IIuisoTowna 

Austria 

Entftaiid 

litigluin 

Hpaln 

Tuflcanv 

£Iaewhore 

Aggregate 

19,177,086 

t,S7l,84u 

HjrmfiM 

COHrAKATITI    TABDLAS     STATIMIMT    •IIDWIIIU    Til*    ({VAN 

TiTin   or   Cotton   consdhko   in    Fkanui,  anu  thm 

CoUNTEin  WIICNRK  IMPOIITltD,  rol   A  PKHIOII  Or  TH8R8 

YiAU,  rBOH  ISSii  TO  18&4,  botu  iMOLiiaivi, 


CoantH««  whsne* 
imported. 


United  SUtva.. 

Egypt 

Turkey 

England 

BelglUDi 

Brazil 

Peru 

Voneznola 

Haytl 

Kaat  iDdlea,,,, 

Elaowbere 

Aggregate. 


KllograjniiMs  of  flnlton  eomuoud  la  9i»m» 
tn  Ui*  yMrt — 


1854. 


MM. 
«7,4MAlN 
'i,H|it,MA 
Ml,ftll 
lT0,(t«4 
8»S,IT6 
10A,MI| 
m,4l4 

141,181 

TABnLAR  COMrARATIVa  8TATRMRNT  SIIOWINU  TIIK  QlUM' 
TITIRS  or  COTTUM  WHICH  PAIURO  in  TRANaiT  TIIHUIIUH 
FllANOR,  WITH  THE  CuUNTRIRa  WHENCE  IT  C41III,  Atill 
WHITHER   IT  WENT,   EESPECTIVKLY,    DISTINIIUiaillkO    TIIK 

Quantities  to  and  rRuM  each.  roR  the  I'KUion  or 
.  THKRE  Years,  rno»  1S92  to  1S54,  both  iNOLvaivii, 


60,740,104 

2,764.662 

970,818 

8,066 

281.074 

482,809 

144,184 

206,688 

47,860 

906,968 

981,448 

72,068,961 


im», 

70,WO,76a 

2,401,407 

744,881 

8,442 

661,066 

966,460 

210,077 

161,609 

70,680 

968,874 

176,987 


7^091,2SS 


YMTf,    Coontrlai  wheiw«,    QiwnUti«F«    CimiitrWwhIthir.     giwatilUf. 


1862 


1868 


1854 


United  atstes, 

England 

Egypt 

Elsewhere..., 

Aggregate.. 

United  States. 

England 


Egypt, 
Elsowliere 

Aggregate.., 
United  States, 

England 

Eitypt 

Elsowliere 

Aggregate.. . 


KUo<. 

6,060,467 

1,266,630 

1,028.128 

266,810 


7,607,684 

4,800,»123 

761.19!) 

1,822,872 

02,173 

T,476,orr 


4,628,826 

1,402,872 

S.'M.I.'iO 

886,698 


7,297,641 


Bwltiorland. . , 

Sardinia 

Zollvcreln..., 
Elsewhere..., 

Aggregate.. , 
Swttterland. . , 

Sardinia 

Zullvereln..  . 
Oolglum ...... 

Aggregate,;, 
Switzerland... 

Sardinia 

Zollvcrein 

Elsewhere.... 

Aggregate.. 


Kllix, 
7,M7,»9r 

iiw,nm 

106,079 
18,618 

7,6rt7W 

7,Oii«.OI4 

107,11ft 

102,770 

70,26!) 


i.mM 


6,601.926 
266,887 
878,660 
66,770 


7,997,IHt 


3,  Spain. — Tabular  comparative  statemont,  nhuwliij; 
the  quantities  of  cotton  imported  into  Spain,  unil  tlio 
countries  whence  imported,  for  a  period  of  Hve  yaata, 
from  1851  to  1855,  Irath  inclusive. 

Tlie  statistical  office  has  no  official  Spanish  data  from 
which  to  inal(e  up  {he  statement  required. 

The  quantities  of  cotton  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  Spain,  according  to  United  States'  Treanury 
reports,  the  year  specified,  were  as  follows : 

PoiiinN,        ,  Pouiu)*. 

1851 84,272,626         1854. 86,IW4,074 

1862 29,801,928         1865. 8!t,07l,79B 

1S68. 86,861,042    ||    Average  (6  years)  88,7114,21)',) 

Prom  Culia,  the  same  years,  according  to  Dalaiim* 
Generalea  of  tliat  island,  the  quantities  exported  to 
Spain  were  as  follows 

Pdui^iI*. 

1854 1,480 

1888 NodaU), 

Average  (4  years) .     1  )il,4!l» 


Pmindl. 

18.M 18,416 

1852 800,295 

1868 188,625 

From  Porto  Rico,  according  to  official  Ualauziw  of 
that  island,  as  follows 


Poundt. 

1851 816,088 

1869 141,807 

tSSS 94^869 


PoilWl*. 

18M Nod»t», 

1885 Nodata, 

Avtrrsc*  0  yean) .    984,147 


l«M 


M,,,, 
M..,, 


Vnm  IImmII,  fHieurdlng  to  the  Propoita  »  Rtlatario 
lit  (tml  •iii|rlrf ,  for  tii«  yeari  1869-'!),  and  lHr>I>-'4,  the 
i(Maii(lll«a  of  notion  exported  to  Spain  were  as  foilowa : 

PltvnAM.        II  P.itinda. 

l,WMyt8        ATsnue  (9  years).  2,821,498 

Hpnln,  tMMMirilInK  to  the  6'uAdrv  f7nKni/ of  that  king- 
dom fur  IMtV,  IttipnrttHi  that  year,  from  countries  of  pro- 
i1ut>limi,!lll.tllf1,MI  {Kiiinds  of  cotton ;  of  which  quantity 
(ll*  DlilMol  NUt«a  mipplled  21,(H)9,4-il  pounds ;  Culia, 
n,l(7l,NW)  iniiiimIs  )  llrntil,  Ha';,«U4  pounds ;  I'orto  Klco, 
llT'liNNI  luilifidii,  «lii1  Venejiiiela  21,1)10  pounds. 

4,  lliitif  '/'//i/(»*,_Tlie  states  of  Germany  are  sup. 
pllwl  with  tliH  I'ottfin  rimsiime<l  In  their  factories  chietly 
(liriiUKli  tllM  llNllsentki  cities,  Hamlmrg  and  liromon. 
HmiMnit  iu>ii(  l<i  (liM  /ollrerein,  In  1868,  cotton  imported 
dtraot  froift  tim  l/tilted  Htates,  to  the  valne  of  9084,778 
M,  8li<t  til  AMDtrU  to  the  valtie  of  $1M,1&8  21.  The  fac 
tiiriaii  of  I'rusaU  «iid  Hnumy  ore  numerous,  and  import 
tMit  i/)i|y  ttw)  raw  mnierlal  from  the  cities,  but  also  larga 
ilM8iitltli>ii  lit  yniM,  The  number  of  spindles  in  o|)era- 
twifi  III  (Im  slNtPS  (lomtioslng  the  ZoUverein  is  estimated 
8t  MiiWHnl  of  1,110)1,1810.  This  Is,  doubtless,  an  under 
HulllilHtii,  H»  thfi  Industrial  enterprise  of  the  ZoUvorain 
liDM  MlNiln  rNplil  progress  since  the  date  of  the  official 
itiiiiMlllKiil.  froiii  wllh'li  these  figures  are  derived.  Tha 
uKport  of  I'ottoii  tissues  from  the  Zollvereln  in  1853 
WMIimilUit  lit  value  to  13,31)4,497  84,  of  which  amount 
4l./,ll7A,2lli>  IM  lit  vnlile  came  from  the  factories  of 
Httwiiiy, 

'fllN  \\m<m  Towns,  from  geographical  position,  are, 
«llit  lllllBt  HlwMys  continue  to  lie,  the  great  marts  from 
wlliiji  ntw  lilMierliil  of  ml  (tescriptions  will  be  supplied 
U>  tli»  »t«l«s  lit  tile  Oermanic  commercial  Union, 
Wtsnim  »n\mHi^  uf  Ainprlrnn  cotton  and  tobacco  to  these 
poliitit  »n  ll88Vy,  Mud  constantly  increasing.  These 
(ioiiiiiit<ri>|ii|  i<|tt«s  receive  their  snpplies  of  raw  cotton 
not  only  from  tim  United  States,  Indirect  trade,  as  well 
MS  from  ttl'8i«ll  Nhil  (itlier  countries  of  South  America, 
but  nImi  In  lli«  Indirect  trade  from  English  ports  and 
otlmr  Utttnuillln  of  Kiirope,  In  1855,  the  ZoUverein  sent 
throu^;!)  tin*  llMn.xe  (sirts  to  the  United  States  cotton 
fiilirlw  til  (ll«  V8l(W  of  more  than  $1,600,000  in  return 
fur  (Im  mw  i)iiit«rtMl. 

Tl)«  folliming  statement  shows  the  quantities  of  cot- 
toil  DKiioHwl  friim  tlie  United  States  to  the  Hanse 
TiiWDS  (tvury  lo  yews,  for  •  period  of  61  years,  from 
IM06  to  im  I 

1W,0<I8 
l,846<MS 


In  imift   

"  l»m..,,,,,„ 


MJ.IW 


Poundi. 

In  1886 2,688,147 

"  1846 17,204,094 

"  1866 80,809,091 


'I'liUmim  U  Imrne  in  direct  voyage  from  the  United 
HtntD*  I  Hilt  KO,  however,  with  cotton,  in  the  carrying 
tritdo,  of  wliii^li  Ureat  tlrltaln  has  been  for  many  years 
HH  iM'ttvit  t'om|Mtltor,  Entering  the  ports  of  the  United 
KUlHihm  (tm  iif  duty,  her  merchant  flag  can  realize  a 
protititblA  IrmU  lit  Its  re-exportation  to  the  various  ports 
of  iioiitiiH)Ht)tl  liurnpe,  Thus  the  Hanse  Towns  re- 
ddlvn  tlmlf  supplies  of  raw  cotton  uot  only  from  the 
Ultit«4  H(Ht«s  III  the  direct  trade,  but  also  in  the  indi- 
rut't  trifk  fnmi  Kui^llsh  {lorts  and  other  entrep&ts  of 
Knro(M(,  'i'||«  Miinual  average  quantity  of  cotton  ex- 
imrtwt  fnmi  tlm  UiiUed  States  to  the  Ilanse  Towns,  in- 
I'luililltf  iVussltl,  during  the  4  years  from  1851  to  185'!, 
Iiotll  ilii'lualvn,  WHS  3(,811,(;2G  pounds;  while  the  an- 
um\  nviifitjfii  nxtMirts  from  Ureat  Britain  during  the  4 
ymm  mMliK  Den,  31,  1854,  was  80,563,996  pounds. 

'CIlH  hiihuaI  (tverntfe  quantities  of  cotton  exported 
friili)  tlia  Mim*  (Mnititrips,  respectively,  during  the  same 
iwrlodit,  to  thn  iithet  Itntlons  of  northern  Europe,  exhib- 
it nillliUr  rn-illlt-i.  These  facts  are  illustrated  by  the 
nubJoiiiMl  utiiteiMAflt,  nnd  sugge.it  a  strong  argument 
for  tllK  linriollil  consideration,  by  the  navigation  inter- 
tiiits  lit  tim  I  f  llitt<il  Mates,  of  such  measures  as  would  be 
UMly  to  (inilllote  the  direct  exportation  of  our  great 
HtuplD  front  imr  own  ports.  In  our  own  vessels,  to  those 
of  (li«  60Uii(ri««  by  wlilob  It  is  consumed. 


OOT 


4fn 


COT 


OoMMiiTin  >t4T»(i>T  (NiiOlNit  tN«  (JvaRTtna  or  Oottoii  iironio  to  omtain  Oovitnin  or  NokTniRN 
KuMom,  nuiH  Tit*  Vnniiu  IHum  jtnu  tiiiM  Biitiiw,  iMrmiTiLT,  roa  a  Piiiod  or  tiibu  Yeam,  rauM 
l*tU  TO  liM,  mriit  miii.iittrii, 


O..M.tai. 

riifiM  Tfta  I'urriD  triTM. 

raoM  ■■■*?  MirrAiH.                   | 

IMI. 

mil. 

Pi d<. 

IIM4. 

IMI. 

im. 

IU4. 

P..HniU. 

I',...nd.'. 

i'uuniU. 

■■<nii«l>. 

lUuMTiWIMtM  I'fWMto 

JUTI.fH 

87,719,931 

gl<,l«l,«fl« 

B4,BflO,7B(I 

B9,4I»,KHS 

8«i«i»iii 

»t,lM,*»0 

1A,4»4,'US 

18,»HO,4fiO 

ia,«,%7,(Wo 

lM<l«,87'i 

14,04ll,7lH 

RuuU ,,,,, 

Holland .,,,,,,1,1, 

9l.9**A,B«a 

1,»U»M 

4A,e<>»,K4l> 

4N,eH7,8M 

k<W,M4 

T.nH8.>M 

<,MH,1«6 

l^N»4,n4 

9)*,l)7ll,fi«« 

8^9A4,^44 

•wtuan  Mil  Uotmtf, ,,,„ 

«,nw,M7 

9,«13.7I» 

H,MI,S«I 

4,414,808 

S,8(MI,IWI0 

^Wl»» 

IW,')7M11 

lllO,MW,MU 

iilft,()W.7lt« 

ft.  Htlffium.—MiiH  lit  llt«  vMtim  imfHirUti  Into  ll«l- 
gium  U  fruiii  tJM  DiiIImI  HtitU*,  mihI  Ik  ('(rniiimeil  hy 
har  own  htturlw*  «(  lilioMt,  l.l'K".  Antwerp,  Mullnei 
(Mecliliu),  aU',,  wliU'll  *r«  m1<I  t(i  i'in{ihiy  »  unpltHl  of 
tl!2,000,OUO,  mu)  in/ira  tlwH  l';';,*KK)i>|)*<rntlv«i<,  nnil  to 
turn  out  un  i»niiu»(  v»Ihi<  ..f  4il7,*HKi,<ioo  In  fulirlca, 
wliicb  «rti  111  liigb  ri>|iM(«,  TImi  TMmu  Oen^rat  of 
UalKiuui  fur  INA'l  glvN*  tlln  lin(iwrliilbm  of  vuttnn  Into 
that  kln|{(luni  ««  fulliiwi  I 

BTATiunar  kiiiihitivu   tun  ((I'AKti'hMi  iir  IkmoK  lu- 
ruHTKIl  mt't  itNliiMIN  tM  l<ft<. 

wm 
i»,m 

mfiu 


fritm 

ITnitodHtiUei. 


ifi^it.m 


England U,VI*,m 

Holland V.TDH/iM 

Franca tl4il,f)|it 

Hanio  Towna, .  T*,M« 


ir' 


,  (ffnm 


UrMtl 

oilMr  «oHtiirl«i 


TiHal.,.,,.  »8,''*),114 
or  the  aiNiva  t'ltal,  !t/),7N.'l,!llll  |»>lin(1i«  ttura  conaum- 

nd,  nnd  7,(HU,t«33  aviNirtad, 
Tlie  i|iiuntitv  tiii|ii(rt<i<l   \iy  Uttii  and  rlvera  wia 

8,1(M,N51  iwumfi  I  \iy  •««,  '.t(»,ri!),!>A!t  t.onni1a, 
Of  the  i|uaiitlty  a«|«)rt«il,  «),tMi,IHth  pauniU  wia  bv 

land  and  riven,  »n4  tH),MfiH  \nimiiU  l/y  imit, 

I'ruul*  rwsailvtwv  ()>)' land  MHt  rivi.fl>), . , . , 
Vraneo       '•  •»  '*..., 

Ilolland     "  «  »      ,,,, 

And  all  oUu/  noHntrM  mifiiiinf  (bf  mm 


4«a.fi»« 
184,118 


Tuial  by  laud  mid  rir«r»  and  I//  wa... .  J,o»4,n98« 
The  cutuin  tliua  a»purt«4  wna  lin|Kirt«(l  as  fullowa : 

_  I'dllfKl*. 

•'     From  ITnlMifaW,,,.,,,,.,,, .,,.,,.,,,  ft,ftS(i,W7 

"     Knalaiid, ,,.,,,,.,,.,,,.,,,,,, Mi?,M» 

"    l/oliaiid.,, ,,..,,,.„„.. ...I.... ...     tcVAA 

"     Franan,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,        4,999 

ToI»I.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..,,"t,(1»4/iM 
The  average  annnal  atwrnnt  iif  dutl^fi  dfrlred  hj 
Belgium  from  i:itlUm  fiir  t\m  iWn  ymrn  ending  with 
1854  wua  upward  of  (tHI.IHm,  and,  In  tlln  latter  year,  It 
raniced  the  tliirteentli  hiimiiik  artiidoq  lin|Hirteil'ln  tliin 
regard.  Tlie  duty  Miidur  tlin  Uw  iiCf miliary  fll,  1862, 
was  1  franu  7U  uentliMM  iMr  tW  |«iiindi<,  lly  the  law 
uf  April  Vi,  W>4,  luitUiu  IwnaMiH  rr««, 

In  18»4,  ItelgluiH  v^ntttmi  MfttMtt  faliflcn  In  value  aa 
foUowa  I 

Cotton fchrlaa.,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.  H,701,B7J 
Belgian  iiiauufiwitur*;  ■,,,,,,,,,,,,,..., 


Foreign  niaauAi«(lirii*rii'fX(i«rt«(!l...,  |3,0flS,9M 
6.  ;$ar(/iflia.— Hardilli*  im)iiirt«,  m  an  average,  aome 
four  or  five  inlllioii  |iiHiMd4  nt  I'liHim  each  year  from 
England  and  Franea,  »im1  almlit  (lie  mnw  ({iiantity  from 
tiie  United  htatevj  «ltlioil(jll,  in  Wif),  the  Impnrtfithm 
from  tha  latter  (Miuiitry  iiHi1ili<llly  tiind  from  l,(r»r>,a72 
pounda  tlie  precedlriii  J'nar  t<i  l'lj777,7(ir>  pound*  I 
There  eeems  no  «wNli'l«(it  rfHmm  Why  American  vea- 
»eU  should  nut  mnvty  tlia  wlioto  iiuantlty  re(|uire<l  by 
Sardinia  directly  Ui  tianiia,  aa  W«H  aa  for  Kngliah  and 
French  vemiela  ft  viitry  thltlMT  M  Imrtlon  of  American 
cargoes  landed  at  l.lvafiaKil  of  Kavfe,  A  almi'  r  re- 
mark is  applicalila  to  ttia  idllff  piitiit  of  (Inly,  and  to 
those  of  Austria  uh  tll«  Ai1riatl«  i  and  the  enterprise  of 
estaldiahing  lines  of  m'aMii  •t'>Hm«>i'«' between  porta  of 
the  IJniteit  HMSos  and  thiiw  of  (lin  MedlterrHnenn  will, 
if  successful,  t«(>d  Kraatly  Ui  fttcourage,  If  nut  to  secure, 
auch  direct  importattim. 


•  TliU  i».«q  etcet»  ittUjUHI  ptmiiiil  evef  the  amount  glTon 
above  as  exportud,  that  i)H«iitfty  Utning  li««n  entered  for  eon< 
aumptiou  dm  iuh««i|iMHll)'  wKMnHTS. 


7.  Sicilzrrland.—Vour  flftha  of  all  the  cotton  con- 
sumed liy  the  factories  of  Switzerland  is  estimnted  to 
lie  im|H>rted  at  Havre,  whence  it  passoa  through 
Franca  by  railway,  being  burd^^ned  with  heavy  chargca 
in  the  transit.  In  183!l,  the  quantity  thus  recelv  d 
amounted  to  nearly  fi,(IOO,IM)0  pounds.  In  1H43  it  hud 
reached  nearly  17,000,000  pounda.  The  entire  receipt 
of  cotton  in  184;)  was  2-2,000,000  pounds.  In  IHAI  it 
omounted  to  !i7,0».5,72r>  pounds,  of  which  ll),721),n20 
pounds  were  from  the  United  States.  In  1852,  Switz- 
erland received  through  France  15,816,775  [lonnds  ;  in 
1853, 16,816,471)  pounds,  and  in  18,'>4. 14,078,257  |iounda, 
according  to  the  Tableau  (Unfral  <t  France  for  th»se 
years.  Imports  from  tlie  United  States  Into  Switzer- 
land are  made,  for  the  most  part,  through  the  customs 
frontiers  of  Dume,  Basle,  Soleure,  and  Argovie,  bor- 
dering on  France  and  the  southern  part  of  Germany. 
A  aevero  restriction  on  the  importation  of  cotton,  und 
niao  of  tobacco,  to  Switzerland,  us  well  as  on  the  re- 
<  eptlon  by  the  United  States  of  Swiss  ware  and  manu- 
factures in  return.  Is  the  vexatious  and  expensive 
triinsltage,  especiully  through  France.  The  oppression 
of  this  system  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  the 
annual  average  aggregate  value  of  merchandise  on 
which  transit  tolls  are  paid,  proceeding  from  Switzer- 
land, is  (1853)  nearly  <|80,000,000 ;  and  the  value  of  that 
proceeding  to  that  republic  more  than  hi'f  Lf.  muoii. 
Switzerland  sent,  in  transitu  to  France,  c  U  n  tissues 
to  the  value  of  nearly  #3,000,000  in  1862 ;  und  to  the 
value  of  nearly  $4,000,000  In  1853.  By  the  Frcr.ch 
tariff,  such  fabrics  are  excluded  from  France  for  con- 
sumption. Since  1846,  Switzerland  is  stated  ofHciiilly 
to  have  quite  superseded  in  the  markets  of  (ierniany 
and  Austria,  the  yams  of  Great  Britain.  In  1830  tliut 
republic  had  in  operation  400,000  spindles;  in  1840, 
750,000,  and  in  1850,  960,000 ;  the.  number  having  more 
than  doubled  in  20  years. 

According  to  Swiss  official  custom-house  reports, 
that  republic  received  cotton  from  the  United  States  as 
follows,  the  years  apecilled : 

Poaoda.       11  Poiimli. 

!«» 15,942,740     I    18.% 1(),(I6.%2(H) 

1951 18,72»,.')20    ll    1S53. 18,441,930 

In  return,  cotton  stuffs,  as  follows,  were  sent  to  the 
United  StuUs: 

Ponndii,        [1  Ponnila. 

lS6n a,«2(!,8(IO     i    1952 4,077,9'iO 

1951 8,I50»,()60    li    1988. 6,266,160 

In  1855,  Switzerland  returned  to  the  United  States, 
ill  exchange  for  raw  cotton,  the  same  article  manufac- 
tured, to  the  value  of  $212,700. 

8.  liuftia. — Before  the  breaking  out  of  the  late  war, 
ilie  manufacture  of  cotton  in  the  Russian  empire  was 
progressing  with  extraordinary  activity.  The  nuin- 
lier  of  spindles  exceeded  850,000,  producing'  annually 
upward  of  10,000,000  pounds  of  cotton  yarns.  The 
barter  trade  with  the  Chinese  at  Kiachta  stimulates 
this  branch  of  manufacture  in  Russia,  as  the  article  of 
cotton  velvets  constitutes  the  leading  staple  of  ex- 
change, at  that  point,  for  the  teas  and  other  merchan- 
dise of  China.  In  former  years  this  article  was  su|)- 
plied  almost  exclusively  by  Great  Britain;  but  the 
Chinese  prefer  the  Russian  loanufocture,  and  hence  t)io 
steady  progress  of  that  branch  of  industry.  Thus  the 
annually  increasing  importations  of  the  raw  material, 
and  consequent  diminution  in  the  quantities  of  cotton 
yami  Imported  la  accounted  for.    Wera  raw  cotton 


•  > 


OOT 


460 


OOT 


l,lHi.^2^K) 
i8,441,83l) 

gent  to  the 


the  late  war, 
empire  was 
The  mim- 
ing annually 
yarns.     The 
tu  Btimulatos 
the  article  of 
itaple  of  ex- 
ler  merchan- 
ide  was  suiv 
ain;  hut  the 
md  hence  the 
y.    TUus  the 
raw  material, 
ities  of  cotton 
raw  cotton 


•Anlttcd,  M  in  KngUnd,  firm  of  (Inty,  the  United 
States  would,  moiit  prohtbly,  lupply,  In  the  direct 
trai'e,  the  whole  quantity  connumed  in  that  empire. 
As  It  i»,  the  rommerclul  reforms  In  Kiissia,  already  an- 
nounced ofltcinlly,  and  now  In  progress,  comprehend- 
ing, as  they  do,  the  establUhment  of  American  houses 
at  8t,  Petersliurg,  must  necessarily  tend  to  that  re- 
■ult.  There  are  at  present  In  Kussia,  or  there  were 
previously  to  the  war,  41)6  cotton  factories,  employing 
112,427  operatives,  and  protlucing  annually  4(),lK)7,7IWt 
pounds  of  yams,  and  corresponding  amounts  of  textiles, 
9.  Swtdtn. — The  Importations  of  cotton  in  1851, 
according  to  Swedish  ufllciai  authorities,  amount  to 
7,08(),42H1  lbs.  against  1 ,8»2,4II1  Il>s.  In  18 11 ,  and  74U,4S4 
pounds  In  1881.  In  184H,  these  authorities  show  an  Im- 
portation of  2,U00,l)OO  pounds  against  0,88N,A72  pounds 
in  185!) ;  which  latter  amount  exceeded  that  of  the  im- 
portation of  1862  by  1,247,041  pounds,  and  that  of  1850 
by  more  than  5,200,000  pounds,  being  the  largest  of 
any  preceding  year.  In  1848  the  amount  was  8,074,020 
pounds.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported 
from  Sweden  in  1850  was  (46,000  against  $7,500  only 
In  1851. 

10.  Portugal. — In  the  year  1855,  the  quantity  of  raw 
manufactured  cotton  imported  Into  Oporto  amounted 
to  0,607,454  pounds,  the  value  of  which  Is  estimated  at 
$1,516,644,  on  which  the  duty  paid  was  $800,579  13. 
This  kingdom  imported  1,011,45!  poimiN  of  cotton  in 
1855,  of  which  quantity  144,006  pounds  were  exported 
firom  the  United  States,  and  the  residue  from  Itrazil. 
In  1858-54,  according  to  Uruzllian  official  reports,  Por- 
tugal received  thence  2,07»,760  pounds  of  cotton.  Hjr 
imports  of  yam  in  1855  were  1,218,157  pounds,  valued 
at  #171,817  07,  and  paying  an  aggregate  of  duties  of 
$61,142  84. 

11.  Brazil. — The  expottatlons  of  cotton  trom  Brazil, 
in  1848-44  and  1858-54,  are  stated  by  Brazilian  official 
authorities  as  follows : 

Pound*. 

ISaS—ftl 28,420,820 

184»-4» 20,050,1(10 


Increase  la  ten  years 3,g01,lC0 

The  growth  and  export  of  cotton  from  Brazil  appear 
to  be  nearly  stutlonary.  Great  Britain,  which  is  the 
largest  customer,  imported  from  Brazil  the  following 
quantities : 

In  1828 32,600,000  pounds. 

InlSfiS 22,S24,0fl0       " 

In  1852-53  the  exportation  amounted  to  31,983,050 
pounds,  of  which  quantity  Great  Britain  received 
26,881,201  pounds,  Spain  2,291,578  |)ounds,  Portugal 
1,896,286  pounds,  and  France  889,048  pounds.  Of  the 
total  exportations  in  1853-54,  Great  Britain  received 
22,576,122  pounds,  Spain  2,351,279  jmunds,  Portugal 
2,673,766  pounds,  and  France,  643,611  pounds.  Ex- 
ports from  Brazil  to  England  began  in  1781.  There 
are  insuperable  drawi)acks  to  the  extension  of  the  cot- 
ton culture  In  Brazil,  among  which  may  be  reckoned 
the  ravages  of  insects,  the  peculiarities  of  the  climatj, 
and  tiie  expense  and  difficulties  attendant  upon  its 
transmission  from  the  interior  to  the  coast.  It  has 
long  since  been  ascertained  in  Brazil  that  the  cotton 
plant  will  not  flourisli  near  to  the  sou,  und  the  planta- 
tions have,  in  consequence,  receded  further  inland,  as 
well  to  avoid  tiiis  difficulty  as  to  seek  now  and  i''esli 
lands.  Pernamliuco  is  the  principal  cotton-growing 
province  of  Brazil.  The  exports  from  that  provmce 
were,  according  to  Brazilian  uuthoritios,  in 

Bnlai  (or  160  lb>.  rich).' 

182.^ 70,78,'. 

1930 0I,1,^2 


Uale<(ofl>OIbi.  ga>'h), 

1S40 W,S49 

1842 21,867 

1845 26,502 


1885 62,142 

12,  Kgypt. — The  cotton  culture  in  Egypt  Cvmraenccd 
in  1818,  and  exportation  to  England  in  1823,  The 
comparative  tabular  statement  subjoined,  derived  from 
Egyptian  sources,  showing  the  quantities  exported  at 
the  port  of  Alexandria,  and  tlie  countries  to  which  ex- 
ported, respectively,  for  a  period  of  3  years,  from  1853 


to  11)65,  both  InoInalTe,  would  Indicate  an  Inereai*  (■ 
the  culture  by  no  means  rapid  In  successive  years  i 


TouiMla  of  Cultttn  «t|N)rtiid  from  K^fypl  to 
Ur»«l  Brllnln.t  _l'rtn't.    j  _  AiiiiHa, 
lOjiO.OOol   8,H21,0I 


«635»,l»00  lO.TW.OOol   8,H21,000 
J4,»fW,T0O    T,4M,li)0  lo,lM,*KI 


88,»8n,UM)    11,461,200 

M,iJ(w,7oo;2r,«ii,Hoo 


I2,7T4,»0'I 
2»,20t,10O 


9*«,4A2,IN)0|  »,2l(l,a00    P,7&8,T(HI 


IKlM.KH) 
2iNH,4<MI 

e"-t,MJo' 


All  poiinlrit 

■in^Aaoo 

4i,Mtl,A0O 
Ae,n7l,H00 

I4«,><o6,aao 

4M,llri,0W) 


If  to  the  aggregate  exported  be  added  from  S  to  6 
million  pounds  worked  up  in  the  cuuntr}-,  a  lilHiral 
estimate  of  the  annual  amount  of  the  cotton  crops  of 
Egypt  will  have  been  made.  The  factories  established 
l>y  Mehemet  All  are,  it  Is  stated,  going  rapidly  to  ruin. 
The  cotton  goods  manufactured  are  coarse  "  caftas,"  or 
soldiers'  "  nizam"  uniform.  Much  cotton  is  used,  also, 
in  making  up  divans,  the  usual  furniture  In  Egypt. 
The  Egyptian  bale  is  estimated  at  Alexandria  at  800 
pounds.  The  United  States'  consul  general  at  that 
port,  In  a  despatch  dated  the  1st  Instant,  from  which 
are  derived  the  ul)Ove  facts,  says:  "The  new  crop  Is 
now  coming  in,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  little  above  the 
average," 

13,  Co(/on  Culture  m  Mexico. — The  United  States' 
consul  at  Tampico  has  furnished  the  following  interest- 
ing Information,  In  rclatl,)n  to  the  varieties,  culturej 
and  manufacture  of  cotton  in  Mexico,  in  answer  to  a 
circular  issued  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in  Feb- 
ruary last :  "  Tlie  greatest  production  in  this  country 
of  this  article  is  on  the  coast  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  south- 
ward from  the  capital  of  the  State  of  that  name  toward 
Alvarudo,  and  westward  toward  Flacotalpan  and  in  Its 
neighborhood,  A  little  over  seventy-live  pounds  of 
seed  cotton  yields,  when  ginned,  twonty-flve  pounds 
of  cotton  wool.  The  quality  is  good,  and  tlie  whole  is 
sent  up  tlio  country  for  consumption  In  the  factories  of 
Jalapa,  Orizc'ia,  and  Puebla,  From  Vera  Cruz  to 
Matamoras,  notwithstanding  the  territory  being  so  ex- 
tensive, and  BO  admirably  adapted  for  the  growtli  of  cot- 
ton, nv/ne  is  pro<luced  beyond  n  little  In  tlie  neighbor- 
hood of  Papantle,  which  the  Indians  cultivate  for  their 
own  use,  and  spin  in  the  same  primitive  manner  as  did 
their  ancestors  at  the  time  of  tii^  conquest,  viz.,  by 
means  of  a  species  of  wooden  spindle,  tlie  |ioint  of 
which  is  put  in  a  common  woodrn  liowi,  and  its  gyra- 
tions given  by  the  lingers.  Frjin  the  yum  tliiis  spun 
they  manufacture  n  narrow  cloth,  and  this  is  still  tlio 
custom  In  many  parts  of  the  country  In  the  neigh- 
l>orhood  of  Matamoras  cotton  is  raised,  l.'ut  in  limited  ' 
quantities,  and  Is  also  cultivated  in  Monclova.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  seed  are  required  to  produce  twenty- 
live  pounds  of  clean  cotton.  All  that  is  produced  in 
these  places  is  consumed  in  the  fuctores  of  Saltilto. 

"  On  the  west  coast  mention  may  be  made  of  Santi- 
ago, a  place  situated  between  Teplc  and  Mazatlun, 
where  a  considerable  quantity  is  rai:  vl,  wiiich  is  dis- 
posed of  by  the  factories  of  Topic.  F'ui  licr  south,  and 
between  tlie  towns  cf  Antlin  and  Colima,  aud  down- 
ward toward  the  sea,  a  very  rich  cotto'r  country  is  to 
be  seen,  and  where  immense  quuntitie'i  could  be  raised 
were  tiiere  more  hands  to  attend  to  its  cultivation ;  as 
it  is,  however,  sufficient  is  gathered  for  the  supply  of 
the  factories  of  Colima,  and  some  of  it  even  finds  its 
way  to  Guadalajara,  the  capital  of  tii  t  State  of  Jalisco, 

"  From  Colima,  a  stretch  must  be  made  to  the  neigli- 
liorhood  of  Acapuico,  where  cotton  's  raised,  but  by  no 
means  in  abundance ;  but  all  that  is  gutliurcd  in  that 
section  of  the  country  is  sent  tq^ho  market  at  tlio  city 
of  Mexico.  That  part  of  the  country  is  called  '  Costa 
Grande,'  and  is  separated  from  the  '  Costu  Cliicu'  by 
tho  river  Papagayo.  On  the  latter,  and  in  the  nelgh- 
borhoml  of  Ayutla,  cotton  Is  raised,  but  in  limited 
quantities,  and  sent  to  Puebla  for  sale.  The  cotton  on 
tho  whole  of  this  coast  only  requires  seventy-five 
pounds  of  seed  to  produce  twenty-five  pounds  of  cotton- 
wool when  ginned.    The  whole  of  the  east,  as  well  as 


COT 


460 


COT 


lh*l  of  lh«  wad  ooul,  for  ahoat  40  U*((imi  Inland,  li 
uilmirohly  adapUd  Air  lb*  Kruwth  of  mtlnn.  Tba 
miintr)'  i>,  howarar,  entirely  unp<i|iuUtMl,  and  cnn- 
lldxrahla  dilHcuU}'  U  •xp«rl«ni'Mt  In  K'ttlnK  In  tha  bar- 
veil  in  conuquvnca  th«rm>f.  Tb«ra  ara  very  f«w 
Und«d  pniprlatora  wbo  davota  Ibair  attantlon  tii  tha 
cultivation  nf  cotton,  axcepi  on  tha  coait  of  Vvrit  (,'rui. 
All  lb*  rait  U  raUad  by  imall  farman  (raucbeMii)  wbo 
ara  runtrnt  to  gxt  about  ona  half  the  anuiunt  uf  Ita 
valuti.  .Such  paymrntn  ara  niadn  in  a  fuw  gim\»  and 
gnK'ertea,  In  anticipation  for  wblib  they  ar»  cbnrKi'd 
axorliitani  pricct.  An  axpt'TiniKnt  bua  Iwrn  niada  to 
ralaa  cotton  on  a  farm  aliout  12  laaKuaa  firoin  Hnn  LuU 
Potoai,  betwaan  6  and  7  tlmunand  fw  t  above  the  leval 
of  tba  aen,  and  tba  raault  ha*  lioan  favorulda.  An  en- 
larpriaing  Hpanlard  Ir  now  raialnK  cotton  S  taaguca 
trom  Tula,  with  evary  pro«|iert  of  a  lutUfactory  ratum. 
ilU  farm  li  aliout  4.'i(H)  or  AIKX)  feat  aliove  tha  laval 
of  the  Ma.  No  cnro  la  bcntowod  on  tliu  plant,  Tba 
•eed  in  put  into  the  ground,  and  no  further  notice  la 
taken  of  it  until  It  la  quite  rl|ie  and  ready  for  pIvkinK. 
The  conaequence  ii,  thai  the  atnple  la  not  ao  Umft,  nor 
the  cotton  Tnry  One,  althflui;h  quite  good  enough  for 
the  manufuotoriea  of  tliia  country.  The  growth  of 
cotton  throughout  Mexico  la  perennial." 

V.  CAPArtTT  or  TUB  CoTTOw  Balh. — Thn  com- 
mercial atandard  of  quantity  In  the  cotton  trade  la  gen- 
erally the  hale.  The  weight  of  tbn  bale,  however,  ia  liy 
no  means  uniform.  Indee<l,  acaKrlj-  any  weight,  ineaa- 
ure,  or  atandanl  of  capacity  may  lie  considered  Icaa  ao. 
It  Tarica,  from  different  cauaea.  In  different  countrira, 
and  In  different  aectlona  of  the  anme  country,  ot  differ- 
ent perioda,  and  according  to  the  different  kinda  or 
qnalitiea  of  the  article.  Improvonicnta  in  preaiing 
and  packing,  to  dimlniah  oxpenao  in  bagging  and 
freight,  tend  constantly  to  augment  the  weight  of  the 
bnle.  Thus,  In  1700,  the  United  8tatea'  bale  wiia  com- 
puted at  only  200  pounda.  In  1824,  the  average 
weight  of  bales  Imported  Into  Liverpool  waa  'ili6 
pounda ;  but,  increasing  constantly,  12  years  later  the 
average  was  819  pounds.  M'Cullocb,  however,  in 
1832,  considered  800  to  810  pounds  a  fair  average ;  and 
Bums,  810.  At  the  same  time,  the  upland  cotton  liale 
was  estimated  at  820  pounds,  and  tlie  sea  island  at 
280  pounds.  According  to  PItkins,  the  Kgyptian  liale 
weighed  at  one  time  but  00  pounds,  thougli  It  now 
weighs  more  than  8  times  as  many.  At  the  same 
period  the  Brazilian  liale  contained  IMO  pounda,  though 
.  it  now  contalna  Imt  160  pounds,  while  the  West  Indian 
bale  weighed  850  pounds,  and  the  Colomliian  bale  101 
pounda,  or  the  Spanish  quintal.  Acconling  to  Bums, 
the  United  States'  bole  at  Liverpool  averaged  S-lfi 
pounds,  the  Brazilian,  IHO  pounds,  the  Egyptian,  220 
pounds,  the  West  Indian,  8ilO  pounds,  and  the  I'^at 
Indian,  830  pounds.  At  the  Lowell  factories,  in  1831, 
according  to  Pitklns,  the  bale  averaged  801  pounds. 
In  1830,  the  bale  of  the  Atlantic  cotton  States  was 
estimated  at  300  and  326  pounds,  and  that  of  the  Gulf 
States  at  300  and  460  pounds.  In  Liverpool,  at  tiie 
same  time,  the  estimate  for  the  bale  of  upland  or  short 
staple  cotton  was  821  pounds ;  for  Orleans  and  Ala- 
bama, 402  pounds;  for  sea  island  322  pounds;  for 
Brazil,  173  pounds ;  for  Eg>-ptian,  218  pounds ;  for  East 
Indian,  360  pounds ;  and  for  West  Indian  280  pounds ; 
while,  according  to  Bums,  boles  imported  Into  France 
were  computed  at  only  200  pounds  each.  Woterston's 
Manual  of  Commerce,  a  reliable  British  publication 
(1866),  gives  the  Virginia,  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
West  Indian  bale  at  800  to  BIO  poands ;  that  of  New 
Orleans  and  Alabama  at  400  tQ  600  pounds;  East 
Indies  at  320  to  360  pounds;  Brazil  at  160  to  200 
pounds ;  Egyptian  at  180  to  280  pounds.  Alexander's 
Unirerml  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Meaiuret  gives 
the  bale  of  Alabama,  Loaislana,  and  Mississippi  at  600 
pounds,  that  of  Georgia  at  376  pounds,  and  that  of 
South  Carolina  at  362  pounda.  At  Rio  de  Janeiro  the 
Brazil  bale  is  estimated  at  160  pounds. 


Prior  lo  1866,  the  Unllad  Htataa'  "Commaraaattd 
Navigation"  gave  axptirta  ot  cuttoo  In  pounds  uuly. 
They  ara  luiw  given  In  balea  aa  wall  aa  in  puunUa— iba 
aggregate  amount  of  tha  year  ending  June  IK),  1(66, 
Iwlng  •i;M)n,UrA  balaa,  or  1,008,424,601  poun'U:  tha 
bale,  ai'uordiogly,  averaging  about  438  pounda.  Soma 
liolet,  however,  ara  avIdanUy  much  haavlar,  and  soma 
much  lighter  tlian  this.  For  example,  tba  210,118,800 
pounila  of  cotton  exported  to  Franca  give  446  pounils 
to  eai'h  of  tba  470,208  iialea  ;  rnd  ttia  tfAu,lU  pounda 
(!X|M>rted  to  Auslrbi  give  4U2  ,i<iuail«  Iti  each  of  tha 
1,030  bales;  while  tha  7,6:';, (I7V  pounda  exported  to 
Mexico  give  only  2U0  pounda  to  each  of  tba  26,017 
bales  in  which  they  wars  oontaineU, 

tivtrpool  lfVi^A<.— Tba  relatlva  average  weighta 
and  culiical  coutontt  of  balaa  of  cotton  imjiorted  Into 
Liverpool,  in  1862,  are  thus  given  i 

UtvrlMInn  or  baU.  Ai'f>  wl.  la  ll«  CoaUMllnev.n. 

Mobile not     M 

New  Orleans. 4M     M 

llplanil 8t<>    H 

Hualilanil 8118     ft 

Kiutlnillan 8X8    IB 

KiryplUn S4B     H 

Wi^at  Inillsn Illll     16 

BrailUaa IM     ST 

Tliese  figures  sliow  nut  only  tba  great  variety  of 
bales  that  enter  Liverpool,  but  that  tlia  moat  ellgilila 
fonn  of  bale  is  tiuit  of  tba  VmkI  Indies — double  tba 
weight  lii'Ing  packed  within  the  same  compass  as  In 
any  other  description  of  bole.  In  the  great  cotton 
marts  of  Liverpool  and  Havre,  as  in  tbuse  of  New 
Orleans  and  ilobile,  the  article  ia  almost  invariably 
treated  of  by  merchants,  brokers,  and  commercial 
men,  by  the  bale.  Thus,  a  report  on  the  trade  of  Liv- 
erpool gives  tha  import  of  cotton  Into  Great  Britain,  in 
18,'ri,  ut  2,367,3:18  liulea.  The  aggregate  of  cotton  im- 
imrted  in  that  year  ia  given  in  tiieofllciol  report  liy  the 
Board  of  Trade,  at  !I20,782,448  pounds  ;  the  boles  aver- 
aging, accurdiiigiy,  3'J.'i  jKiunds  each. 

Cotton  Manufacture,  This  subject  will  be 
considered  under  the  general  heads  of,  I.  Origin  and 
Introduction,  II.  Invention  and  Improvements.  III. 
Cotton  Manufactures  of  Foreign  Countries.  IV.  Sta- 
tistics of  ('ottun  Manufacture.  V.  Origin  and  Eurly 
History  of  Cotton  Manufactures  in  America.  VI. 
Cotton  Manufacture  in  the  United  States. 

I.  OiiiiiiN  ANO  Intuuuui.'tion. — The  nuinufacture 
of  cotton  had  its  origin  in  the  East,  where  thn 
cotton  plant  Is  indigenous,  and  where  the  cllmato 
renders  a  light  and  absorbent  fabric  a  suitable  cloth- 
ing for  the  people.  It  haa  in  conaequence  been 
long  estalilished  over  every  part  of  Asia,  although  it 
was  only  In  India  that  tlie  fuliric  was  manufactured 
extensively,  with  a  view  to  foreign  exchange.  Arrian 
mentions  cotton  cloth  among  the  commoditiex  which 
tlie  Komans  brought  from  India ;  but  the  <|U»ntlty 
Imported  by  tliem  was  inconsiderable,  ariaing  from  tlio 
preference  wliich  they  gave  to  woolen  clothing.  Dr. 
Koliertson  remarks,  that  the  difference  between  the 
cargoes  Imported  from  India  in  ancient  and  in  modem 
times  appears  to  have  orlaen,  not  from  any  diversity 
in  the  nature  of  the  goods  prepared  for  sale  in  that 
country,  but  from  variety  In  the  tastes  or  in  tlie  wants 
of  the  nations  with  which  they  hove  succcsulvely 
traded. 

The  antiquity  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  can  not 
be  reached  by  ony  authentic  records.  Neitlicr  wool, 
silk,  nor  linen,  can  claim  a  higher  antiquity.  One 
tiling  is  pretty  certain,  that  its  first  manufacture  may 
be  traced  to  India,  whence  it  passed  to  all  the  rest  of 
the  world.  India,  indeed,  bos  been  tlio  soune  of  many 
of  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  It  was,  in  oil  probability, 
the  cradle  of  mankind,  and  the  source  of  As&yrion, 
Egyptian,  and  Persian  civilizotion. 

The  Indians  have  in  all  ages  maintained  an  unap- 
proached  and  almost  incredible  perfection  in  their  fab- 
rics of  cotton.  Indeed,  some  of  their  muslins  might  be 
thought  the  work  of  foiriea  or  insecta  rather  than  of 


OOT 


iil 


COT 


s 

s 

97 


mM  I  bat  IkM*  tr*  priN|iiM/|  In  MiMn  (|il*ntl(lM,  uid 
••Mom  have  liMn  ••|»ir(«<l.  In  llm  aHin*  |rMvln>'«  "t 
IiiclU  frrini  whli'li  lli«  •iii'lunl  (tt—kt  iilr{«lni«l  iIjc  lliii><it 
inu^lln*  thmn  kniiwn,  n»m»\y,  ll«n||«l,  IHm*  Mt'iilahliiK 
fiilirlr*  »TK  niiiiiiif«rliir«<1  «t  lh«  |ifiM,-<nl  lUji,* 

Wo  «r«  tiiM  l>y  two  Mnhiminwlitn  lni««li-r«.  "  ho 
want  til  IikIIh  In  Hid  Ml)  iwntiify,  llmt  "In  Ihst  '  in- 
try  lh»y  iniiliH  Karni*nt«  iit  aiiiili  ••tr«<irillnarr  iixrfMv 
tlnn,  that  nnwhara  •!•••  »f»  Ilia  Ilka  to  Iw  •mn.  Tlwy 
nr«  wov*n  to  that  i|«Kri<a  iit  rtn*n«a«,  tlial  tliay  may  Im 
ilrawn  tlirniiKh  a  rtng  uf  miMlnrala  alua."  Mar'ii  I'oln, 
in  tha  liltli  I'aiiliiry,  in«nll«n«  ('iirnmanili<l,  xml  n>f»- 
dally  Maaull|ialani,  a*  iiriHlui'lnK  "  Ilia  Hnaat  and  moat 
iMtutirul  I'litttma  tllat  ara  In  Iw  fiiiind  In  any  part  of 
tli«  wnrlil  i"  aiu!  IliU  U  •till  Ilia  i<»««  M  In  Ilia  ll<iw«rwl 
anil  Kla«ail  rotlimi,  I'allnil  ililiilnHa, 

Tha  I'lirtUKiiaia  aiUantiiniM  whn  wani  in  Imlln  Im- 
mailiataly  Hft«r  Ilia  ilUiiivary  of  tha  rotita  liy  tha  Cafxi 
of  (liMiil  lliiiMi,  ii|i«ali  of  "thn  |{r»nl  <|iiantltl)ia  of  rot- 
tnn  I'lotha  itdmlrulilr  pnlnloil,  alui  wmia  whita,  ami 
•oina  alripail,  haM  In  tha  IiIkIiioI  aatlinatlim,  which 
were  maila  in  lUnjliil,"  Caiaar  Krailarlck,  a  Vanfttan 
merchant,  who  travalait  In  Imlla  In  lAAil,  iWrllia*  tha 
<ixtenalv«  Inula  ciirrlnl  on  liatwaan  Hi.  'thumd  (n  port 
IM  niiira  from  N«|{apaliini)  anil  IVkii,  In  hiiniliaat  (cot. 
ton)  cloth  of  avarv  xirt,  paliilad,  whlnh  la  n  rara  thlnx, 
lincauaa  thia  klml  of  cloth  ahowa  aa  If  It  wera  kUiIriI 
with  illvnra  colora  j  ami  Ilia  mora  thoy  nra  waahad,  llio 
livelier  tha  rolora  will  Itacoina,  And  thara  la  mnda 
•uch  ai'cuuiit  oflhU  kind  of  cloth,  that  « imall  liala  of 
it  will  coat  IIMK)  or  ItlNNI  dm  ala, 

Taveriilcr,  who  tr«v»l«d  In  India  nIhuiI  VW  yaara 
11^0,  apeuka  of  tliii  whita  callcoaa  (ao  callail  from  thn 
ulty  of  (^ullcut,  in  India,  wh«r«  limy  wara  llrat  •aan 
by  Euroiwana),  or  niilalln*  wovati  In  HanKitl,  and  ran- 
dereil  an  rciiiitrkulily  whita  liy  lwln)(  dip|H<<l  In  lamon 
Juice.  Iln  aaya  i  "  Honia  caltcnta  nra  a<i  Una  .hat  yon 
Clin  hurilly  fvel  thani  in  your  hand  |  and  Ilia  thrand, 
when  apiin,  la  acurcely  diai'«r»ll)la,"  Tha  anina  writer 
•ayi  thiit  "  there  U  niaila  at  Naconua,  In  the  province  of 
Mitlwu,  a  aort  of  callcut  ao  nnn,  tUnl  when  n  iniin  piila 
it  on,  hit  akin  ahall  amiaar  aa  plainly  IhroiiKh  It  na  If 
he  wni  (|iiita  nuked  |  liiit  Ilia  innnlmnta  nra  not  (>ar- 
niitted  tu  trana|N>rt  It,  for  tha  Kovarnor  la  olili)(ad  to 
■end  it  all  to  tlia  IJrual  MoKiil'a  aarnKllo  nnd  tha  prin- 
cipiil  Ionia  of  tha  court,  to  iniika  Ilia  aiiitnnnaaea  nnd 
nolili'inen'a  wivua'  ahifta  ami  (("'"■'''it*  f"f  thn  hot 
weutiier.  And  tliu  kini{  and  Ilia  lorda  Inkn  Krant  plaai- 
uro  tu  liehold  them  in  lliaaa,  and  Mia  lh«ni  dnnce  with 
notbInK  elae  ugxin  Ilium,"  H|K<MklnK  of  tha  turlmna  of 
the  Moliainmedan  liidiaiia,  Tavarniar  myn  i  "  Thn  rich 
have  thnm  of  ao  Una  ii  clotli,  tlial  V$  or  IW  idia  of  It  put 
into  a  tiirlian  will  not  widxh  i  ouncaa," 

Eighteen  huiidrail  yaara  ntfo,  AcmrdlnK  In  Arrlnn, 
author  of  tha  "  I'ariplua,"  )h»rn  warnlhouaiindaofinnn, 
women,  and  cblldreil  amploynl  iit  llnrochn,  In  (lii/.nrnt, 
and  the  udjacent  vlllaKua,  In  llin  innnufNcliirnof  cotton, 
from  tliu  coaraeat  aull>i'lolli  t<i  Ilia  ilnnat  inuallna.  Ho 
thut  it  U  a  ijreat  mlataka  to  aup|io*n  llmt  cotton  mnnii- 
facturioa  ure  of  a,  mixlurii  origin,  'i'liny  «xUt«d  in  India 
centurica  lieforo  tlia  (Ihriatiiiti  arn. 

TliB  Ingenuity  of  Ilia  llliidiai  cidlim  fflnnufnctiirnra 
ia  truly  wondarful,  Tlia  lata  llnv,  Wllllnm  Ward,  n 
missionary  of  NarmniiorH,  anya  Hint  "  nt  two  plncna  In 
Bengnl  niuelins  ara  ma'tu  mi  aiicaadlnKly  flnn  that  four 
months  ara  required  Ui  wnava  ona  piacn,  wlilcli  aelta  nt 
500  rupees.  Wlum  this  lililaliit  la  taiil  on  the  grns.a, 
and  the  dew  has  fallait  upon  it.  It  la  tio  Inntfer  dhcem- 
Ible."  We  might  clta  a  nrnitt  fiiimliar  or  crndltnldo 
authorities  In  proof  of  lh«  Dnmiaaa  of  Indlrt  cotton  mnn- 
ufncturos,  ami  llui  lugaMuity  of  Ilia  llllidiKM.  Iiitt  these 
will  suffice.  TliB  oriental  liyparlada,  which  describes 
the  muslins  of  Dacca  aa  "  wtlit  uf  mwrn  vimt,"  is  less 
poetical  than  ia  |{uii«rMlly  »M|)|io»«d.  No  tnodern  Kuro- 
pean  manufacturer  of  cotlmi  nt  nil  nppronches  the  IIIH' 


•  Botiw'i  lUflorx  «f  Itw  VutMi  tteiiiiAMlitra,  p,  88. 


itnoa  In  raipacl  to  Iha  Anenaas  of  hU  fahrlea.  Tha 
•  xtrama  of  llnannsa  to  whb'h  yarna  for  muaiin^  ar* 
now  spun  In  (Iraat  llrltain  la  'JM  banka  to  Ilia  pound, 
Ihougfi  cotton  yam  has  liaan  apun  In  Kiitiland  making 
SAO  hanks  to  tha  |iaund.  ThIa  woa,  iiow^vnr,  only  an 
axparlinani,  to  aaoartain  how  Una  cult4in  rmibl  b«  tpnn. 
Nn  snch  yam  la  or  could  \m  uaad  In  nakluK  muaiina,  or 
Air  any  other  purpose.  Tha  lllniliHia  ara  Iha  only  oiiat 
who  have  war  woven  such  yam  Into  falirlca. — Us 
How 'a  Ituliitlriiil  llnniircrt. 

The  Implemnnla  umhI  l>y  tha  Indiana  in  the  illlferent 
proceaaes  of  tha  cotton  manufacture,  from  tha  cleaning 
of  tha  wool  to  lla  conversion  into  thn  tlnast  niualin, 
may  Iw  purchasad  for  the  value  of  a  few  •hilllnK",  ami 
ara  ao  riida  nnd  ainipla  a  conatrucllon  as  to  Im  aviilciitiy 
Iha  Invention  of  a  very  early  pariiMl.  With  the  excep. 
lion  of  tha  loom,  none  of  them  drserve  the  name  of  • 
machine,  or  display  tha  allKhtaat  mechanical  hiKcnu- 
liy.  They  spin  Iha  ynm  U|Km  the  dlatalT)  and  yet, 
with  nil  the  advantage*  which  we  in  this  Muiilry  ileriv* 
fhim  machinery,  we  bavo  only  recently  linen  able  to 
equal,  either  in  rineneas  or  quality,  the  yarn  which  U 
produ<»d  by  means  of  Ibis  primitive  Inatruiiient.  Tli« 
well  managed  use  of  the  llng>ir  nnd  tbunili  of  the  In- 
dian spinner,  pntienlly  and  carefully  iippllcd  In  tba 
formation  of  the  thread,  ami  the  moisture  nt  tlio  sama 
lima  commiinlciitnil  to  It,  are  found  to  have  the  effect 
of  Incorporating  the  llbrns  of  the  cotton  inore  (lerfectiy 
than  cnn  lin  aceompllsbed  by  our  most  Improved  mo- 
hliiHs. 

The  loom  is  composed  of  n  fiiw  sticks  or  reeds,  which 
the  Inillun  carries  about  with  bim,  and  puts  up  In  lb* 
Ileitis  under  tlin  shade  of  n  tree,  or  at  the  side  of  bll 
cottage.  He  digs  a  hole  large  enough  to  contain  hia 
legs  nnd  the  lower  pnrt  of  the  "  gear,"  and  fastens  tha 
balance  to  some  convennint  brunch  over-head.  Two 
loops  underneath  the  gner.  In  whU'h  be  Inserts  hit 
great  toes,  serve  ns  trndles :  and  he  employs  the  shut- 
tle, formed  like  a  large  netting-needle,  but  of  u  length 
somewhat  exceeding  the  breadth  of  the  cloth,  as  "  bat- 
toon,"  using  it  alternately  to  draw  through  the  weft 
and  strike  It  up.  The  reod  Is  the  only  part  of  tha 
weaving  apparatus  which  approaches.  In  the  perfection 
of  lis  construction,  to  the  Instruments  we  use.  The  loom 
has  no  beam,  and  the  warp  is  laid  out  U|ioii  the  gniuiid 
the  whole  length  of  the  piece  of  clolh.  Thn  wnaven 
live  entirely  in  villages,  as  they  could  not,  if  shut  up 
in  towns,  work  In  this  manner.  Upon  this  rude  ma- 
chine, worked  in  the  way  wo  have  mentioned,  the  In- 
dians produce  these  muslins,  which  have  long  been 
such  objects  of  curiosity  from  the  exquisite  beauty 
and  flneners  of  tlicli'  texture. 

It  is  probable  that  the  whole  of  the  tmplcmenta 
which  wo  have  Just  described  existed  ns  wn  now  find 
thnm  before  the  people  of  India  were  divided  Into 
castes.  The  transmission  of  the  same  employment 
from  father  t.>  son  (which,  although  not  specially  en- 
Joined  by  the  Hindoo  code.  Is  the  invariable  practice 
in  India),  wbllo  It  has  the  effect  of  conveying  unlm- 
paired  the  knowledge  acquired  In  any  art,  tends  to 
check  its  further  advancement.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
Mr.  Rickanis,  who  so  ably  ndvocateil  the  interests  of 
the  natives  of  India  In  the  discussion  in  the  British 
Tarllament  on  the  renewal  of  the  Company's  charter 
(1814),  that  Inttoriy  this  form  of  society,  with  all  its 
dependencies,  hublts,  and  restraints,  has  been  held  to- 
gether chietly  by  the  oppression  of  the  fiscal  exactions, 
the  want  of  a  free  trade,  and  the  consequent  nniversal 
poverty  of  the  people.  In  support  of  this  opinion,  ha 
refers  to  what  the  Hindoo  population  of  Calcutta  and 
Bombay  have  achieved  in  the  pursuits  of  comiperce. 
We  tnist,  however,  that  we  may  now  look  forward  to 
the  speedy  al<olltion  of  this  system,  so  ranch  opposed 
to  all  development  of  talent  j  and  which,  by  reducing 
man  to  the  condition  of  a  machine,  bag  paralyzed  tha 
exertions  and  arrested  the  improTemcnt  of  the  peopi* 
of  India. 


COT 


462 


COT 


To  the  same  cause,  however,  which  thus  prevented 
improvement  in  India  is  to  be  attributed  that  dexter- 
ity in  his  particular  employment  which  the  Indian  ar- 
tisan possessea.  Frqjn  the  earliest  age  he  learns  to  spin 
and  weave  \mder  the  direction  of  his  father ;  and  hav- 
ing no  hope  or  desire  of  advancement  in  any  other 
line,  he  gains,  through  constant  practice,  that  wonder- 
ful skill,  which  may  thus  be  considered  almost  as  a 
family  inheritance.  To  be  able  to  manage  his  ill-con- 
structed loom,  even  in  the  production  of  ordinary  fab- 
rics, he  is  obliged  to  acquire  such  a  sleight  of  hand, 
that  it  is  not  surprising  if,  out  of  the  multitude  trained 
in  this  manner,  a  few  should  be  found  capable  of  pro- 
ducing those  muslins  which  are  said,  when  spread  upon 
the  grass,  to  appear  like  the  gossamer  web.  From 
the  superiority  of  these  goods,  and  from  their  retaining 
the  beauty  of  their  appearance  longer  than  £uro|)ean 
muslins,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  cotton  of  which 
they  are  made  is  of  bettor  quality  than  any  known  to 
the  European  manufacturers.  This,  however,  is  a 
mistake :  there  is  no  cotton  in  India  of  a  quality  ijupe- 
rior  to  the  best  sea  islands.  The  excellence  which  these 
muslins  possess  is  to  be  ascribed  wholly  to  the  skill- 
ful tact  of  the  workman  in  tlie  processes  of  spinning  and 
weaving.  The  long  cloths  and  line  pullicats  are  made 
chiefly  within  the  presidency  of  Madras,  the  coarse 
piece  goods  and  pullicats  in  Surat,  the  tiucst  calicoes 
at  Musulipatam,  and  table-cloths  of  a  superior  quality 
at  Patnu,  Kach  district  varies  from  the  others  in  the 
nature  of  its  productions,  as  may  bo  seen  from  the  dif- 
ferent denominations  of  cotton  goods  to  be  found  in 
every  consignment  coming  from  India. 

An  apprehension  has  sometimes  been  expressed  that 
the  inhabitants  of  India,  in  possession  of  the  raw  ma- 
terial, may  obtain  a  knowledge  of  machinery,  and  by 
combining  with  its  peculiar  advantages  their  cheaper 
labor  and  uperio^  manual  dexterity,  may  be  enabled 
to  undersci ,  to  such  a  degree  as  to  ruin  and  put  an  end 
to  Uritish  laanufucture ;  but  in  the  state  of  the  people 
of  India  tl.  -re  are  circumstances  whicli  render  this  im- 
possible, y  ithout  a  change  being  first  produced  upon 
Comparative  Statkhknt  or  tue  Cost  of  Enolisii  and 

NISnED    BT    Mr.   KE.NNEDY    OF    MaNCUESTEB    TO    THE 
OOSTLVDED  TO  ISM. 


their  moral  condition,  their  institutions,  and  their  hab- 
its. The  training  which  makes  the  Indian,  witii  such 
imperfect  tools,  able  to  perform  his  work  so  well,  dis- 
qualifies him  from  doing  it  in  any  other  way,  or  with 
any  other  implements  than  those  to  which  ho  has  been 
familiarized  from  his  infancy.  The  attempt  to  intro- 
duce machinery  into  India  is,  however,  now  being 
made.  A  spinning-mill  has  been  built  at  Calcutta; 
and  althoiJt{h  the  private  company  which  commenced 
the  undertaking  has  failed,  the  work  continues  to  be 
carried  on.  There  are  at  present  nearly  700  persons 
employed  in  the  mill,  engaged  at  the  rate  of  about 
seven  shillings  each  per  month  ;  but  these  people,  it  is 
found,  can  not  continue  to  work  beyond  a  few  hours  at 
a  time,  and  a  succession  of  hands  to  can^-  on  the  opeVo- 
tions  through  the  day  is  required.  To  train  them,  in 
such  circumstances,  to  dexterity  and  skill  is  impossi- 
ble ;  and,  accordingly,  the  yarn  spun  is  not  only  of 
inferior  quality,  but  even  with  the  low  nominal  wages, 
costs  so  much  as  to  disqualify  it  for  competition  with 
the  yam  of  Great  Britain.  An  attempt  is  now  being 
miide  to  establish  a  cotton-spinning  mill  et  Bombay. 

The  extensive  introduction  of  machinery  into  Great 
Britain  has,  meanwliile,  by  reducing  the  price  of  man- 
ufactures, enabled  th(im  to  maintain  a  successful  com- 
petition with  the  Indian  goods  at  homo,  by  sending 
cotton  manufactures  to  a  large  amount  to  India  itself, 
A  complete  revolution  has  in  consequence  taken  place 
in  the  nature  of  the  exporta  from  that  country  to 
Kurope,  and,  indeed,  to  all  the  markets  on  tliis  side  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  AVhen  England  first  got  pos- 
session of  India,  her  investments  at  home  were  princi- 
pally (in  point  of  value  almost  entirely)  composed  of 
manufactured  produce.  They  are  now,  in  a  great 
measure,  made  up  of  the  produce  of  the  soil,  indigo, 
cotton,  wool,  raw  silk,  saltpetre,  etc.,  etc. 

The  following  table  shows  the  difference  of  the  cost 
of  cotton  yam  produced  in  India  and  in  Great  Britain, 
and  indicates  the  changeless  nature  of  unaided  human 
labor  in  the  former,  whilst  by  mechanical  appliances  in 
the  latter,  cheapness  and  plenty  result : 
IsDiAv  Cotton  Yarn  in  tub  Years  1S12  ANn  1S30,  fur- 

COUMITTKE    OF    PARLIAMENT    ON   KaST    ISOIA  AfFAIRS,   AND 


No. 

ENGLISH  COTTON  YARN. 

INDIAN  COTTON  YAIIN.     | 

Iluiki  Mr  day  par 

Prlc«  of  Cotton  and  Wait« 
porlb. 

Labo'  p«r  lb. 

Cotlparlb. 

Price  of 

Cotinn  And 

Wule 

p«tlb. 

Ubor 

perJb. 

Colt 
per  lb. 

1819,  1830, 
and  18M. 

1811, 

1830. 

18M. 

1819. 

1830. 

1854. 

1811. 

1830. 

ISM. 

1819. 

1(30. 

18M. 

1819, 1830. 
and  ISM. 

1819,1830, 
and  1864. 

40 
60 
80 
100 
120 
150 
400 
SSO 

9' 

1-75 

1-6 

1-4 

1-26 

1- 
•TB 
•05 

2'75 

2-5 

2- 

1-8 

1-65 

1-83 
•9 
•0 

2-T5 

2-5 

2 

1-8 

l-«5 

1-88 
•9 
■8 

■.    d. 

1  6 

2  0 
2    2 
2    4 
2    « 
2  10 
8    4 
4    0 

1.    d. 

0    T 
0  10 

0  lU 

li* 

1  8 
B    0 

8     8 

B.     d. 
0     fl 

0    71 
0    9 

0  11 

1  8 

1  9 

2  6 

3  6 

I.    d. 
1     0 

1  « 

2  3 
2  10 
8    6 
6   e 

18    8 
81    0 

■.    ■!. 

0  71 

1  01 

1  71 

3  21 

2  8 

4  11 
11    6 
24    e 

•.    d. 
0    6 

0  8 

1  8 

1  8 

2  0 
8    6 
6    0 

18    0 

..    d. 
2    6 
S    6 

4  4 

5  2 

6  0 
9    4 

20    0 
85    0 

•.    d. 

1    21 

1  101 

1    6i 
8    4} 
4    0 
6    7 
14    6 
2S    2 

I.   d. 

0  11 

1  81 

2  0 
2    6 
8    8 
6    8 
8    6 

21    6 

■.    d. 
0    8 
0    81 
0    41 
0    5 
0    5 
0    6 
0    6 
0    8 

I.    J. 

8    4 

B    8J 
8  101 

nil 

16    0 
25    0 
44    7 

88    4 

a.    d. 

8  7 
6    0 

9  8 
12    4 
16    B 
25    A 
45    1 
84    0 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  this  change  would 
have  produced  most  distressing  effects  upon  tho  crowd- 
ed population  of  a  country  such  as  India,  which  in  all 
ages  has  been  a  great  manufacturing  and  exporting 
community ;  but  no  materially  unfavorable  conse- 
quences have  resulted  from  it.  In  India,  every  man- 
ufacturer is,  at  the  same  time,  a  husb;^dman.  When 
nut  employed  in  m.>king  a  web,  ho  supports  his  family 
by  agricultural  labor.  It  thus  happened,  that  in  pro- 
portion as  the  demand  for  goods  for  export  declined, 
the  natives,  without  difficulty,  and  without  that  dis- 
tress which  generally  attends  a  change  of  employment 
in  other  countries,  were  able  to  direct  their  attention 
more  and  more  to  agriculture  ;  and  the  result  has  hith- 
erto been  rather  an  improvement  in  their  condition 
ttun  otherwise. 

The  cotton  manufacture  of  China  is  of  immense 
amount,  and  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  for  home 
coniumption ;  but  its  origin  is  not  of  the  same  remote 


date  as  that  of  India.  Indeed,  the  lateness  of  its  rise, 
and  tho  slowness  of  its  progress,  in  a  situation  so  fa- 
vorable, iipjiear  extraorJinary.  In  the  accounts  of  tho 
revenues  and  of  the  arts  in  China  during  the  period 
of  tho  celebrated  dynasty,  which  commenced  about 
1100  years  before  tlie  Christian  era,  and  lasted  for 
some  centuries,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  cotton 
plant  J  nor,  indeed,  is  there  any  notice  of  cotton  in 
these  records  until  about  '200  years  before  the  Cliris- 
tian  era ;  from  which  period  to  the  sixth  century,  tho 
cotton  cloth,  which  was  cither  paid  in  tribute,  or  of- 
fered in  presents  to  the  emperors,  is  always  mentioned 
as  a  thing  rare  and  precious. 

The  cotton-tree  was  introduced  into  China  at  tho 
time  of  the  conquest  of  that  country  by  the  Slogul 
Tartars,  in  the  year  1280 ;  after  which  period  every 
encouragement  was  given  by  government  to  tho  cul- 
ture and  manufacture  of  cotton.  But  there  were  con- 
siderable difficulties  to  be  encountered,  In  the  preju- 


lOr 

Coil 

lb. 

p«rlb. 

. 



Kill, 

1815,  1«30 

8M. 

■nd  1854. 

il. 

1.    A. 

4 

8    7 

H 

6    0 

«* 

9    8 

1 

la    4 

0 

16    5 

0 

85    n 

T 

45    1 

84    » 


COT 


468 


COT 


dices  of  the  people,  and  In  the  opposition  of  those 
engaged  In  the  manufacture  of  woolen  and  linen  ;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  year  1368  that  these  obstacles  were 
altogether  surmounted.  After  that  date  the  progress 
of  cotton  manufacture  was  rapid,  and  now  nine  tenths 
of  the  population  are  clothed  in  its  fabrics. 

Almost  the  only  cotton  goods  exported  from  China 
nro  nanlieeBs.  Barrow  states  the  production  of  all  the 
fabrics  of  the  Chinese  manufacture  at  the  time  he  vis- 
ited the  country  (in  1792),  to  bo  stationary,  attributing 
this  to  the  want  of  proper  encouragement  from  the 
government,  and  to  tlie  rigid  adherence  of  the  people 
to  ancient  usages.  To  keep  a  nuinufacture  in  a  pro- 
gressive state,  there  must  be  a  progressive  demand 
for  its  products ;  and  the  Ohineso  manufacturers  hav- 
ing no  means  of  disposing  of  any  surplus  quantity, 
must  accommodate  the  supply  to  the  wants  of  their 
own  consumption.  It  is  said  by  travelers  who  have 
obtained  access  to  that  country,  that  the  people  show 
a  great  desire  for  articles  of  foreign  manufacture. 
How  valuable,  then,  to  that  countrj-,  as  well  as  to 
others,  must  bo  the  establishment  of  a  free  intercourse, 
and  how  conducive,  probably,  to  the  increase  of  the 
productions  of  all  I  The  Chinese,  over  and  above  the 
cotton  wool  which  they  raise  at  home,  import  largely 
from  British  India,  and  from  the  Burmese  territories. 
This  intercourse  commenced  toward  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  rentur}'.  A  famine,  which  happened  in 
China  about  that  period,  induced  the  government  to 
direct,  by  an  imperial  edict,  that  a  greater  proportion 
of  the  land  should  be  thrown  into  the  cultivation  of 
grain.  Since  then,  the  importation  of  cotton  from 
India  has  been  considerable,  although  constituting  but 
a  small  part  of  what  is  consumed  in  tlieir  manufac- 
ture. The  amount  of  their  importations  is  stated  at 
40,000  bales. 

Introduction  into  Europe. — The  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton goods  in  Europe  is  said  to  have  been  Arst  at- 
tempted by  the  commercial  states  of  Italy,  before  the 
discovery  of  the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  These  enterprising  communities  were  the 
entrepots  through  which  the  cotton  fabrics  of  India 
passed  to  the  different  markets  of  the  West ;  and  be- 
ing situated  in  the  noighlwrhood  of  countries  whore 
the  cotton  wool  was  grown,  and  familiar  with  manu- 
facturing processes,  it  is  supposed  that  they  were  led 
to  attempt  the  imitation  of  articles  so  much  valued, 
and  bringing  so  high  a  price.  Another  account  as- 
signs the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufacture  into 
Europe  to  a  later  date,  and  gives  to  the  people  of  tlie 
Low  Countries  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  man- 
ufacturers of  these  articles,  in  imitation  of  the  cotton 
fabrics  which  tho  Dutch,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  began  to  import  from  Iqdia.  But 
this  last  account  can  not  be  correct ;  for  Guicciardini, 
in  1560,  in  a  very  full  list  wliich  he  gives  of  the  dif- 
ferent articles  annually  imported  into  and  exported 
from  Antwerp,*  then  tlie  greatest  commercial  mart  in 
Europe,  specifles  fustians  and  dimities  of  many  flne 
sorts  among  tho  manufactured  articles  imported  from 
Milan,  and  mentions  cottons  generally  among  those 
brought  from  Venice.  But  in  the  articles  exported 
from  Antwerp,  although  we  find  linens  sent  to  almost 
every  country,  cotton  cloth  is  not  once  mentioned. 
Italy,  therefore,  at  that  time  had  a  cotton  manufac- 
ture, which,  it  is  probable,  soon  after  made  its  way  to 
the  Netherlands ;  for  we  know  it  was  brought  from 
the  latter  country  to  Britain  by  Protestant  refugees 
about  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  or  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

For  th'^  introduction  and  after  improvement  of  many 
of  thes  ->  articles.  Great  Britain  is  indebted  to  the  late 
Mr,  John  Wilson,  of  Ainsworth.  This  gentleman 
was  originally  a  manufacturer  of  fustians  at  Manches- 
ter, but  had  early  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cot- 


*  8<ie  Maopherson's  Annali  of  OomnMree, 


ton  velvets,  which  by  pere^vering  efforts  ho  succeeded 
in  bringing  to  the  utmost  degree  of  perfection.  His 
improvement  of  the  mode  of  dressing,  of  finishing, 
and  particularly  of  dyeing  these  goods,  acquired  for 
them  so  high  a  character,  that  both  in  the  home  and 
foreign  market  his  articles  sold  in  preference  to  those 
of  every  other  manufacturer.  Kb  plan  for  cleaning 
off  the  loose  and  uneven  fibres,  was  liy  the  use  of  ra- 
zors. He  afterward  successively  employed  for  this 
end,  singeing  by  spirits  of  wine  and  tho  application  of 
a  hot  iron  resembling  a  weaver's  drying  iron,  wl  'sh 
last  instrument  had  been  introduced  for  the  same  pur- 
pose in  the  manufacture  carried  on  in  the  Manchester 
House  of  Correction  by  Mr.  Whitlow,  governor  of  that 
institution.  At  a  later  period,  Mr.  Wilson  effected 
his  object  by  drawing  the  goods  rapidly  over  a  cylin- 
der of  cast  iron  heated  to  redness,  by  which  they  were  in 
a  superior  manner  cleared  of  the  down  or  pile  which 
had  been  raised  upon  them  in  the  various  operations  of 
weaving,  washing,  bleaching,  or  dyeing.  These  suc- 
cessive inventions  of  Mr.  Wilson,  for  performing  this 
process,  give  us  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which 
improvements  are  introduced  into  the  manufactures, 
when,  fortunately,  the  efforts  of  self-interest  are  di- 
rected by  intelligence  and  talent.  Mr,  Wilson,  having 
a  turn  for  chemical  inquiries,  investigated  the  differ- 
ent known  processes  of  dyeing ;  and,  by  the  improve- 
ments he  introduced  in  the  application  of  them  to  his 
own  manufacture,  materially  advanced  that  nrt.  Hav- 
ing succeeded  to  his  satisfaction  in  dyeing  the  other 
rich  colors,  he  procured  from  the  Greeks  of  Smyrna, 
the  secret  of  dy.eing  Turkey  red.  An  account  of  this 
process  was  given  by  him  in  two  essays,  read  to  tho 
Philosophical  and  Literary  Society  of  Manchester,  and 
which,  on  his  retiring  from  business,  he  printed  and 
distributed  among  his  friends.  Tlie  many  vi.luable 
improvements  introduced  by  Mr.  Wilson  into  >  he  dif- 
ferent processes  connected  with  the  cotton  nianufac- 
ture  had  the  effect  not  only  to  establish  it  mor)  firmly, 
but  rapidly  to  enlarge  its  extent. 

II.  Inventions  and  Improvements  in  Cotton 
SIanufaoture. — It  has  been  said  that  the  yam  pro- 
duceda  century  agoinEngland,bj'thoone-thread  wheel, 
the  only  spinning  machine  known,  did  not  exceed  in 
quantity  what  60,000  spindles  of  the  present  machinery 
cm  yield.  To  have  reared  and  trained  hands  suffi- 
cient to  have  doubled  this  quantity,  liad  it  been  possi- 
ble, must  have  been  the  work  of  a  length  of  time,  and 
the  amount  of  manufacture  would  still  have  been  in- 
significant. A  change  in  the  system,  therefore,  had 
become  indispensable  ;  and  we  find  that  different  inge- 
nious individuals  had  already  begun  to  employ  them- 
selves in  contriving  a  better  mode  of  spinning.  When 
we  contrast  the  splendid  inventions  connected  with  the 
cotton  manufacture,  which  from  this  period  burst  forth 
in  rapid  succession,  with  the  passive  acquiescence  in 
tho  use  of  imperfect  machinery  during  the  long  period 
which  preceded,  we  are  apt  to  ascribe  these  improve- 
ments to  tlie  circumstance  alone  of  a  number  of  men 
of  genius  having  at  that  moment  arisen,  and  to  forget 
that  tlio  ultimate  cause  exists  in  the  times  which 
calle<l  their  energies  into  action.  About  the  year  1750, 
the  fly-shuttle  had  been  invented  by  Kayo  of  Bury — 
one  of  the  most  important  steps  in  the  progress  of  the 
art  of  weaving ;  and  in  tho  year  1760  improvements 
had  begun  to  bo  made  in  the  carding  process. 

James  Hargreaves,  a  weaver  at  Stanhill,  near 
Church,  in  Lancashire,  England,  an  illiterate  man, 
posscsed  of  no  great  mechanical  knowledge,  had  adapt- 
ed the  stock  cards,  used  in  the  woolen  manufacture, 
to  the  carding  of  cotton,  and  had  besides  greatly  im- 
proved them.  By  his  invention  a  person  was  able  to 
do  doulile  the  work,  and  with  more  ease  than  liy  hand- 
carding.  In  the  stock  canls,  one  of  the  cards  is  fixed, 
while  the  other,  being  suspended  by  a  cord  over  a 
pulley,  is  worked  by  the  carder  j  and  in  this  way,  two 
or  three  cards  can  be  applied  to  the  same  stock,    Thii 


COT 


464 


''COT 


eontiivanee  wm  soon  tncceeded  by  the  cylinder  cards, 
or  carding  engine.  It  is  not  ascertained  wlio  was  tlie 
Inventor  of  this  valuable  machine,  but  It  i»  l<nown 
that  the  father  of  the  late  Sir  Robert  Feel  was  among 
the  iiersons  who  first  used  it ;  and  that,  so  early  as 
1762,  he,  with  the  assistance  of  Hargreaves,  erected  a 
carding  engine  with  cylinders,  at  Blackburn.  This 
machine  did  not  differ  materially  from  that  now  in 
use,  except  that  it  had  no  contrivance  for  detaching 
the  cotton  (h>m.tho  cards,  an  operation  which  was  per- 
fbrmed  by  women  with  hand-cards. 

These  successful  advantages  show  that  the  minds  of 
the  manufacturing  class  had  been  awakened  to  discov- 
ery, and  must  have  encouraged  and  stimulated  the 
efforts  that  were  then  making  to  effect  corresponding 
improvements  in  spinning. 

There  had  been  several  unsuccessfiil  attempts  to  im- 
prove the  mode  of  spinning  before  the  year  1767,  when 
James  Hargreaves,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned, 
invented  the  "  tpinning-jenny."  The  idea  of  this  ma- 
chine is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  him  by  seeing 
a  common  spinning-wheel,  which  had  been  accidentally 
overturned,  tontinue  its  motion  while  it  lay  on  the 
ground.  If  such  was  the  cause,  it  marks  a  mind  of  no 
common  description,  which  from  so  casual  an  occur- 
rence could  elicit  an  invention  of  so  much  importance. 
After  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  carry  into  exe- 
cution the  conception  he  had  formed,  he  succeeded  in 
producing  a  rudely-constructed  jmny  of  eight  spindles, 
turned  by  bands  from  a  horizon*.;!  wheel.  In  it  the 
eiglit  rovings  were  passed  betwe  m  two  pieces  of  weod 
laid  horizontally  the  breadth  f  the  machine ;  and 
these  being  grasped  in  the  spinner's  hand,  and  drawn 
out  by  him,  formed  the  rovings  into  threads.  The 
stroeture  of  this  Jenny  was  soon  afterward  greatly  im- 
pnived,  and  it  was  at  last  brought  to  work  as  many  as 
eighty  spindles.  This  machine,  although  of  limited 
powers  when  compared  with  the  beautiful  inventions 
which  succeeded  it,  must  l)e  considered  as  the  first  and 
leading  step  in  that  progress  of  discover}-  which  car- 
ried improvement  to  every  branch  of  the  manufacture 
— which,  as  it  proceeded,  changed  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  the  means  of  production.  l)y  substituting  me- 
chanical operations  foi'human  labor — which  caused  the 
manufactured  article  to  become  more  and  more  a  prod- 
uct of  capital.  The  progress  of  invention  after  this 
wail  rapid ;  for  when  it  was  seen  that,  with  the  aid  of 
the  few  mechanical  combinations  we  have  mentioned, 
the  spinner  had  been  enabled  to  increase  his  power  of 
production  eightyfold,  the  attention  of  those  engaged 
In  other  branches  of  manufacture,  was  awakened  to 
the  possibility  of  introducing  changes  equally  benefi- 
cial into  their  peculiar  employments. 

Hargreaves'  invention  occasioned  great  alarm  among 
those  who  earned  their  subsistence  by  the  old  mode  of 
spinning,  and  even  produced  popular  commotion.  A 
mob  broke  into  his  house  and  destroyed  his  machin"  ; 
and  some  time  after,  when  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
advantage  of  his  invention  had  begun  to  bring  his 
spinning-jenny  into  general  use,  the  people  rose  a  sec- 
ond time,  and  scouring  the  country,  broke  to  pieces 
every  carding  and  spinning-machine  they  could  find. 
Hargreaves  himself  bad  by  this  time  removed  to  Not- 
tingham, where  he  was  engaged  in  erecting  a  small 
spinning-work,  about  the  same  period  that  Mr.  Ark- 
wrlght  came  to  settle  there,  who  had  also  been  driven 
from  Lancashire  by  the  fear  of  similar  violence. 

The  jenny  in  a  short  time  put  an  end  to  the  spin- 
ning of  cotton  by  the  common  wheel ;  and  the  whole 
wefts  used  in  the  manufacture  Continued  to  be  spun 
upon  that  machine,  until  the  invention  of  the  "  mule- 
jenny,"  by  which  it  was  in  its  turn  superseded.  Har- 
greaves died,  in  great  poverty,  a  few  years  after  his 
removal  to  Kottingham. 

^Vhile  Hargreaves  was  producing  the  common 
jenny,  Mr.  Arkwright  (afterward  Si.  Richard  Ark- 
uright)  wo*  employed  in  contriving  that  wonderful 


piece  of  mechanism,  the  spinning.frame,  called  first  the 
witer-fTame,  and  afterward  the  throstle,  which,  when 
put  into  motion,  performs  of  itself  the  whole  process 
of  spinning,  leaving  to  the  workman  only  the  office  of 
supplying  the  roving  or  prepared  material,  and  of 
joining  or  piecing  the  thread  when  it  happens  to  break. 
In  the  year  1769,  Mr.  Arkwright  obtained  his  patent 
for  spinning  with  rollers,  and  Mr.  Need  and  Mr. 
Stmtt  became  his  partners  in  the  concerns  to  be  car- 
ried on  under  it.  He  erected  a  mill  at  Nottingham, 
which  he  worked  by  horse-power.  But  this  mode  of 
giving  motion  to  the  machinery  being  expensive,  he, 
in  the  year  1771,  built  another  mill  at  Cromford,  in 
Derbyshire,  to  which  motion  was  given  by  water.  We 
shall  now  proceed  to  give  an  account  of  the  different 
machines  used  in  cotton-spinning,  invented  by  Sir 
Richard  Arkwright,  and  of  those  afterward  invented 
by  others,  describing  them  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  employed.  In  this  manner  we  shall  be  able  to  ex- 
hibit a  view  of  the  present  state  of  the  art.  The  in- 
struments used  in  the  preparation  and  spinning  of 
cotton-wool,  are  the  following : 

The  opener ;  the  scutcher,  and  spreading-machlne  ; 
the  carding-engine ;  the  lap-machine ;  the  drawing- 
frame  ;  the  slabbing  fly-frame ;  the  intermediate  fly- 
frame  ;  the  finishing  fly-frame ;  the  throstle-frame  f^r 
coarse  warps  ;  the  self-acting  jenny  for  numbers  below 
60 ;  and  the  hand-mule  jenny  for  higher  numbers. 
The  first  three  of  these  instruments  are  employed  in 
the  rude  jirocess  of  cleansing  the  raw  cotton,  and  sep- 
arating its  matted  flecks.  In  the  carding-machine  it 
is  carded  and  further  puiifled ;  in  the  lap-machine  it  is 
fashioned  in  flat  folds ;  and  in  the  drawing-frame  it  is 
formed  into  a  loose  rope,  the  fibres  of  which  have  a 
parallel  arrangement.  In  the  slabbing-frame  it  Is 
slightly  twisted ;  and  in  the  intermediate  and  finishing- 
frame  it  is  still  further  twisted,  particularly  in  the 
higher  numbers ;  but  it  is  not  yet  yam.  The  throstle- 
frame  is  chiefly  used  for  coarse  warps ;  while  upon 
the  self-acting  and  hand-mule  jennies,  both  coarse  and 
fine  yams  are  spun. 

This  description  of  the  carding-machine  is  still  ap- 
plicable for  numbers  of  yam  above  100,  which  are 
made  from  sea-island  cotton.  For  numbers  above  60, 
a  system  of  twice  carding  it  is  still  employed.  The 
engines  are  generally  86  inches  wide.  The  cotton  is 
partially  carded  in  the  breaker  or  first  card  ;  it  is  then 
re-formed  into  a  lap  ;  and  is  lastly  passed  through  the 
finisher  or  second  card ;  for  the  finest  yams,  however, 
comliing  Is  substituted. 

To  make  the  operations  of  the  various  machines  just 
enumerated  more  plain,  we  will  give  the  metamor- 
phoses of  a  bale  of  cotton,  ttoxa  the  time  it  is  brought 
to  the  manufacturers  until  it  becomes  yarn  ready  to 
be  made  into  cloth.  Women  and  girls  in  the  mill  take 
the  cotton  from  the  bale  by  handfuls,  and  feed  with  it 
the  opening-machine.  The  cotton,  laid  upon  an  end- 
less apron,  is  caught  between  the  teeth  of  revolving 
rollers,  which  eflTectually  tear  and.  separate  the  locks 
asunder ;  the  cotton  is  opened  into  a  light  and  flocu- 
lent  mass,  and  the  few  remaining  seeds  and  the  dirt 
are  expelled.  Then  the  scutching-machiae  comes  into 
requisition ;  again  Is  the  cotton  placed  upon  an  endless 
apron,  and  again  exposed  to  the  action  of  revolving 
rollers ;  the  impurities  are  yet  further  separated,  and 
the  beautiful  down}'  cotton  becomes  lapped  in  a  con- 
tinuous  sheet  upon  a  cylinder.  These  sheets  of  down 
•these  softest  of  all  soft  layers — how  do  we  convert 
them  Into  delicate  yam  ?  The  broad,  soft  sheets  go  to 
tlie  carding-machino,  where  a  number  of  wire  combs, 
or  rather  wire  brushes,  comb  the  cotton  out  into 
straight  fibres ;  and  these  fibres  are  dexterously  whip- 
ped off  by  a  "  doffing"  apparatus,  to  assume  the  form 
of  delicate,  narrow  ribbons,  or  tlireri.  Next  we  see 
all  these  slivers  joined  by  another  machine,  so  a-t  to 
form  a  continuous  lap;  and  this  lap  is  again  carded 
and  dofl'ed,  by  which  the  substance  becomes  equalized 


a  RVfll 
franifT 
in  sc[| 
whol^ 
throul 
ceiveif 
The 


COT 


4«» 


COT 


ks  moeb  M  ponlble.  The  cotton  U  thm  ugiSn  brought 
to  the  atate  of  a  ribbon  or  silver ;  and  then  are  brought 
Into  use  the  macbiqea  which  convert  this  ribbon  into  a 
yam  or  tiiread.  The  drawing,  the  slubUng,  and  the 
roving-macbhies,  all  have  relation  to  this  conversion  ; 
we  see  numerous  pairs  of  tollers,  between  which  the 
cotton  is  drawn  ;  tbe  drawing  rounds  it,  equalises  it, 
and  gives  it  a  slight  twist ;  until  at  length  we  see  the 
delicate  yam — fine,  perchance,  as  a  spider's  web— 
elaborated  from  the  thick  but  soft  ropes  of  cotton. 

More  correctly,  however,  we  should  say  that  the 
cotton  does  not  become  yam  till  after  the  spinning. 
Nothing  excites  more  astonishment  in  cotton  factories 
than  the  self-acting  mule.  The  complex  carriage,  20 
or  80  feet  long,  with  its  army  of  spindles  (sometimes  as 
many  as  800  in  number),  travels  slowly  to  and  fro,  and 
draws  out  delicate  threads  to  a  state  of  still  greater  deli- 
cacy and  tenuity ;  the  drawing  out  thins  the  cotton,  the 
rapid  revolution  twists  it ;  and  thus  by  drawing  and 
spinning  do  the  Houldsworths  and  the  Bazleys  of  the 
nineteenth  ecntur}-  produce  cotton-yarn  whose  fineness 
almost  exceeds  belief.  And  while  the  mule-machine 
is  thus  making  fine  yam  for  weft-threads,  the  throstle- 
machine,-  by  a  different  mode  of  action,  produces  the 
stronger  yam  for  warp-threads ;  then  again,  if  it  be 
sewing-cotton,  or  hosiery-cotton  that  is  required,  we 
trace  the  yam  to  the  doubling-machine,  where  two  or 
more  are  twisted,  one  around  another,  whereby  a  much 
denser  thread  is  produced.  The  amount  of  machinery 
in  the  spinning-rooms  of  some  of  the  mills  is  astonish- 
ing :  in  some  cases  75,000  spindles  whirling  away  at 
once  in  one  room,  each  one  requiring  the  co-operation 
of  a  number  of  other  delicate  little  pieces  of  mechan- 
ism. 

We  have  noticed,  in  speaking  of  the  cardtng-engine, 
which  Mr.  Peel  erected  in  1762,  that  at  that  time  the 
cotton  was  taken  off  the  finishing-cylinder  by  means  of 
hand-cards.  But  by  the  time  Mr.  ArkWright  began 
his  spinning,  this  operation  was  performed  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  roller  with  tin  plates  upon  .it  like  the 
floats  of  a  water-wheel,  which,  revolving  with  a  quick 
motioc,  scraped  off  the  cotton  from  the  card.  This  was 
a  rude  contrivance,  and  in  its  operation  injured  both 
the  cotton  and  the  cards.  Mr.  Arkwright  substituted 
for  it  a  plate  of  metal,  toothed  at  the  edge  like  a  comb, 
which,  in  place  of  b«lng  made  to  revolve  like  the  other, 
was  moved  rapidly  In  a  perpendicular  direction  by  a 
crank,  and  with  slight  but  reiterated  strokes  on  the 
teeth  of  the  cards,  detached  the  cotton  from  them  in  a 
uniform  fleece.  He  employed  narrow  fillet-cards, 
wound  round  the  dofling-cylinder  in  a  spirol  form,  by 
which  contrivance  a  continuity  of  fleece  was  produced, 
which,  as  it  left  the  card,  was  gradually  contracted  in 
Its  size  by  being  passed  through  a  kind  of  funnel,  nnd 
then  flattened  or  compressed  between  two  rollers  ;  after 
which  it  was  received  into  a  tin  can  in  the  state  of  a 
uniform,  continued  carding.  The  taking  off  the  cot- 
ton from  the  cards  in  this  manner,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  curious  operations  in  the  process  of  cot- 
ton-spinning ;  and  although  the  crank,  which  forms  a 
part  of  the  apparatus,  had  perhaps  been  used  in  some 
wuy  or  other  prior  to  the  date  of  Mr.  Arkwright's  sec- 
ond patent  (as  was  urged  in  the  action  for  having  It 
set  aside),  the  comb  for  tatting  off  the  fleece,  and  the 
spiral  card  which  produces  Its  continuity,  were  inven- 
tions indisputably  his  own. 

Description  of  the  Miile-jennij. — The  mule,  In  Its 
structure  and  operation,  is  a  compound  of  the  spinning- 
frame  and  of  Hargreaves'  jenny,  from  which  circum- 
stances it  has  probably  received  its  name.  It  contains 
a  system  of  rollers  like  that  t)elonginf;  to  the  twist- 
frame  !  hut  in  place  of  bavins  "very  four  or  six  of  them 
in  separate  hands,  as  is  thf.  case  in  that  machine,  the 
whole  are  coupled  together  j  and  the  rove  being  drawn 
through  them,  is,  in  its  conversion  into  thread,  re- 
ceived on  spindles  revolving  like  those  of  the  jenny. 
The  carriage  on  which  these  spindles  ore  placed  Is 
Go 


mevable,  and  Istaade  to  recede  fh>m  the  roUan  •  il*> 
gree  faster  than  the  thread  is  given  out,  After  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  roving  has  been  thus  delivered  by 
the  rollers,  they  are  stopped ;  but  the  carriage  contin- 
ues to  recede  somewhat  further ;  and  the  spindles  con- 
tinuing also  to  revolve,  the  thread  is  drawn  out  to  the 
fineness  required,  and  then  receives  Its  proper  portion 
of  twist.  This  last  operation  resembles  that  performed 
by  the  common  jenny,  and  produces  a  similar  effect. 

In  an  account  of  the  means  which  contributed  to 
that  fall  in  the  price  of  spinning  which  we  have  men- 
tioned, we  must  not  omit  the  progressive  improvement 
In  the  cultivation  of  the  raw  material,  and  in  the  ap- 
plication of  Its  different  qualities  to  their  most  profita- 
ble uses.  Previous  to  the  year  1793,  the  cotton  used 
in  the  coarser  articles  of  the  manufacture,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  quantity  imported  from  India  and 
trom  the  Levant  for  the  fustian-trade,  was  wholly  the 
growth  of  the  English  and  of  the  French  West  India 
Islands.  That  for  the  l>etter  kind  of  goods  was  raised 
in  Demerara,  Surinam,  and  Berbice.  The  wool  for 
fine  goods  was  grown  in  the  Brazils ;  and  that  for  th« 
few  very  fine  muslins  then  manufactured,  m  the  Isle 
of  Bourbon. 

In  1787  the  descriptions  of  cotton  Imported  into 
Britain  appear  to  have  been  as  follows : 

Ponmlf. 

From  the  British  West  Indies, 6,800,000 

From  the  French  and  Spanish  colonies. . ,  6,000,000 

FromthoDutch 1,700,000 

From  the  I'ortugoese. , 11,500,000  :,r. 

From  the  Islo  of  Bourben,  by  Ostend  ....  100,000    ... 

From  Smyrna  and  Torkey. 0,700,000 

ToU 83,300,000 

Had  Britain  continued  to  derive  her  sole  supply  of 
cotton  fVom  these  countries,  the  progress  of  the  manu- 
facture would  have  been  greatly  retarded,  not  only 
from  the  difBculty  of  making  the  production  of  the 
raw  material  keep  pace  with  the  increasing  consump- 
tion, but  from  the  impossibility  of  olrtaining  the  quali. 
ties  of  wool  suited  to  the  finer  descriptions  of  goods, 
wl'.kh  the  improved  machinery  enabled  us  to  under- 
t'lke. 

The  year  1770  has  always  been  stated  as  the  period 
at  which  the  planters  of  the  southern  States  began  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  raising  of  cotton-wool.  But 
we  happen  to  know  that  in  1764,  William  Rathbone, 
an  extensive  American  merchant  in  Liverpool,  re- 
ceived from  one  of  his  correspondents  in  the  southern 
States  a  consignment  of  eight  bags  of  cotton.  This 
cotton,  on  Its  arrival  at  Liverpool,  was  seized  by  tlit 
custom-house  officers,  on  the  allegation  that  it  could 
not  have  been  grown  In  the  United  States,  and  that  it 
was  liable  to  seizure  under  the  shipping-act,  as  not 
being  imported  in  a  vessel  belonging  to  the  countrj-  o( 
its  growth.  When  afterward  released,  it  lay  for  many 
months  unsold,  in  consequence  of  the  spinners  doubt- 
ing T/hether  It  could  be  profitably  worked  up.  But 
fortunately,  about  the  year  1770,  the  planters  in  the 
southern  States  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  rais- 
ing cotton-wool ;  and  besides  carrying  the  cultivation 
of  the  article  to  a  great  extent,  they  produced  quali- 
ties of  cotton  before  unknown.  In  1792  the  quantity 
of  cotton  exported  from  the  United  States  was  only 
l.S8,328  Ills.,  no  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  having 
been  attempted  in  America  for  many  years  after  that 
period.  In  ISJJl  they  exported  619,000  bales  to  Great 
Britain,  127,000  to  France,  and  27,000  to  other  parts. 
In  1845  the  quantity  grown  in  the  United  States  wiis 
2,100,537  bales,  and  it  is  estimated  that  3,500,000  bnlet^ 
will  be  shipped  in  1857. 

The  American  cotton-wool  first  taken  to  Gre:,t 
Britain  was  very  ill-cleaned,  and,  in  consequence,  was 
indiscriminately  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  tlir 
coarser  species  of  goods  It  was  soon,  however,  per- 
ceived that  the  cotton  raised  upon  the  coast,  termed 
sea  islatid  cotton,  had  a  finer  and  longer  staple  than 
that  grown  further  back  in  the  country-,  and  known  hf 


COT 


M6 


COT 


111*  name  of  upland  cotton.  But  It  w<s  not  for  BOTeral 
j-esn,  and  until  after  a  succusion  of  trials,  that  thii 
wool  was  ascertained  to  be  of  a  quality  in  every  re- 
■pect  superior  to  tlie  cotton  of  the  Isle  of  Bourbon. 
Indeed,  it  was  only  in  the  year  1796  that  the  finest  de* 
scription  of  it  was  applied  to  the  purposes  for  which 
Bourbon  wool  had  tUI  then  (wen  used,  and  which  it 
soon  entirely  supplanted.  The  second  quality  of  it 
about  the  same  time  supplanted  the  Brazil  wool  in 
many  liinds  of  goods. 

The  cotton  received  from  Egypt  is  found  to  be  among 
the  most  useful  that  is  grown,  and  that  raised  from 
se^i  island  seed  rauks  in  quality  next  to  American 
MS  island. 

III.  CoTTo»  Mamvpaoturb  of  FoREiaN  Coon- 
tries. — Having  succeeded  in  the  production  of  cotton, 
the  Pasha  of  E(!;ypt  thought  he  might  advance  another 
Step,  and  have  it  spun  into  yarn  and  woven  into  cloth. 
He  accordingly  formed  establishments  for  spinning  and 
weaving  in  Cairn,  Bosaco,  Rosetta,  and  other  places ; 
and  80  early  as  1826  he  had  at  woric  61  mills,  moved 
by  the  power  of  buffaloes.  The  machinery'  was  sup- 
plied from  France  and  England,  orders  in  council  hav- 
ing been  obtained  in  the  latter  countr}'  to  authorize  its 
export.  Power-looms  were  also  sent  out,  but  did  not 
succeed.  A  few  years  later,  the  pasha  shipped  1,000 
bales  of  yam  to  Calcutta  for  sale ;  but  it  was  not  of  a 
quality  to  enter  into  competition  with  English  yarn, 
and  it  was  found  to  be  unsalable,  except  at  a  most  dis- 
advantageous price.  He  ordered  it,  therefore,  to  be 
woven  into  cloth,  in  Calcutta,  on  his  own  account,  and 
to  be  re-shipped  to  Egypt,  in  a  manufactured  stat-!. 
Clapperton  and  Landors,  on  their  expedition  to  trace 
the  courses  of  the  Niger,  found  the  inha))itants  every- 
where clothed  in  cotton.  They  mention  tliat  cotton- 
wool is  produced  in  the  different  districts  in  the  inte- 
rior, and  is  spun  into  cloth  on  the  spot.  There  exists, 
therefore,  in  the  heart  of  Africa,  an  «i<tensive  manu- 
facture of  cotton  cloth.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  they 
give  no  information  of  the  way  in  which  the  yam  is 
apnn,  and  no  description  of  the  loom  employed  to 
weave  it.  It  would  be  interesting  to  knovf  the  nature 
of  the  instruments  used  l)y  the  natives  in  these  pro- 
'■esses,  as  such  iinowledge  might  enable  us  to  trace 
whence  the  Africans  derive  their  acquaintance  with 
the  art  of  weaving,  and  thus  perhaps  throw  some 
light  on  African  history.  It  appears  tliat  the  people 
of  Elwe,  and  of  the  countries  near  the  coast,  are 
chiefly  clotlied  in  Manchester  cotton  goods  ;  a  circum- 
stance which  would  lead  us  to  expect,  should  we  suc- 
ceed in  obtaining  a  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
interior  of  Africa,  that  a  valuable  marliet  for  the  man- 
nfactures  may  be  found  in  that  country. 

Within  the  last  20  years  (1854),  the  American  set- 
tlers of  Liberia  have  established  a  communication 
across  the  country  to  Timbuctoo,  and  have  found  there 
m  considerable  marlcet  for  cotton  cloths.  For  more 
extended  information  of  this  trade,  see  LiBBRi.k. 

In  France,  cotton  yam  id  often  made  in  a  iliflerent 
place  from  cotton  cloth.  Paris  and  the  northern  de- 
partments are  the  chief  quarters  for  the  supply  of  the 
former  article,  which  is  sent  in  quantities  to  Kouen, 
St.  Quentin,  and  other  places.  In  former  years,  cot- 
toR  ys'n  used  to  be  smuggled  in  great  quantities  fh>m 
England ;  but  this  is  now  limited  to  the  finer  qualities. 
The  cotton  manufactures  of  the  more  substantial  liind, 
called  bonneterie,  such  as  stockings  and  caps,  are  car- 
ried on  in  the  Ardennes,  in  Normandy,  and  the  de- 
partment of  the  Gard,  in  Languedoc,  is  also  noted  fur 
this  manufacture.  The  exportation  of  cotton  goods 
from  France  in  1840,  reached  6,000,000  kilogrammes, 
valued  at  105,7d<<,743  francs.  I'he  importation  of  cot- 
tou  thread  from  England  in  1853,  was  90,002  kilo- 
grammes, in  value,  l,5u9,.Sll  francs.  That  of  raw 
cotton  in  1839  was  40,634,278  kilogrammes,  in  value, 
71,204,784  franca;  in  1840,  62,941,681  kilogrammes, 
in  value,  94,006,976  t'ranca.    The  cotton  manufactures 


of  Franca  consume  betwaan  DO  Mtd  M  nUlioDi  ut  kilo- 
grammes, annually  impurtad. 


Cottou  wool  coDsarasd  In  FrtDM, . , 

Cotton  wool  In  transit ..,,.... 

Cotton  thread  aied  at  boma  ,,,,,..  > 

Cotton  thread  In  tranilt, . , , , , , 

Cotton  cloth  coniumed  In  VruiM... 
Cotton olotb lo  traoilt, ,.,,,, .....•• 


M,I«I,U70 

l,ltlN,*i»4 
IIM,IIM 

M,4M,»T8 


Total Um»fiM 

We  shall  now  resume  our  MMWunt  of  tb«  prugrvsi 
of  the  manufacture  in  Great  Urltaliii  Fmiii  Hir  Ulcbard 
Arkwright  having  commeoveil  bin  <)|wrAll«iis  ut  Not- 
tingham, the  seat  of  the  sloiikliig  iimnufMcture,  and 
from  his  connection  with  Mr.  N««it,  who  was  largely 
engaged  in  it,  the  whole  produpa  of  liU  spitinliig  waa 
at  first  devoted  to  that  trade,  Tba  euttofi  yam  for  this 
manufacture  requires  to  bs  purli^ularly  iimiKilh  and 
equal ;  and  to  secure  these  quaUtUis,  It  is  siiun  by  A 
process  diff'ering  a  little  from  tbut  tilii|iliiy*i(l  fur  ardl> 
nar}-  twist.  Being  from  two  roves  In  |ikc«  ut  one,  it 
is  called  double  spun  twist,  Tb«  liilrtHluvtIon  of  thli 
article  produced  a  great  vluin|{a  U|t(in  tba  ilocklng 
manufacture.  Ilund-spun  cotton  was  nnllrely  laid 
aside ;  and  stockings  made  i<f  IwUt  wttrti  of  mi  siiiierlof 
a  quality,  that  in  a  short  time  thoy  wbolly  «utiplHnlod 
thread  stockings. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  itocklngi  In  Notting- 
hamshire, Derbyshire,  and  l^leuUtimu,  ii  now  uf 
great  extent. 

About  the  year  177.1,  Mr,  N««d  nnd  Mr,  Hirutt 
made  the  important  discovery,  llwt  llie  yarn  t'Coducad 
by  the  spinning-frame  Imd  sulllclvHt  i>tr«ni(lli  to  fit  It 
for  warp,  although  Its  firmness  And  btirdnoss  fcitilered 
it  less  suitable  for  weft.  The  wtifl,  lliprxfiird,  contin- 
ued to  bo  spun  by  Uargrtuvas'  Jtmny  i  nnd  from  thli 
time  the  calicoes,  and  other  arili'ln*  In  Imitation  nf 
India  goods,  which  bad  bitbertu  btan  m«nu.''actured 
with  linen  warp,  came  to  be  mad*  wholly  of  cotton  t 
and  the  progressive  increusa  «f  tbsio  niiitiufacturas, 
particularly  of  calicoes,  after  tbU  tlni«,  was  unexam- 
pled. 

After  having  made  »  consldaraltla  quantity  of  those 
goods,  Mr.  Need  and  Mr.  Htrult  di«vuv«r«d  that,  whi>n 
printed,  they  were  subject  to  iluulil*  tli«  duty  charged 
upon  calicoes  woven  with  llnitii  w«r|i,  and  that  their 
sale  was  even  prohibited  in  tli«  liuiiia  market.  After 
a  long  and  expensive  appUcatlon  to  the  i«Klslature, 
they  succeeded  in  procuring  tb*  n\m»\  uf  those  Im- 
politic laws.  Nearly  about  the  iamm  |it<rliMl,  calicoes 
entirely  of  cotton  were  begun  I'l  lit)  made  at  B!ack- 
bum,  and  also  at  Preston  |  tvlilrlt  ptat'os  soon  liecumo 
the  seat  of  their  manufacture,  and  fur  a  long  time  the 
great  market  to  which  the  printers  from  all  jinrts  vt 
the  kingdom  resorted  fur  their  su|i|ill«<«.  This  branch 
went  on  increasing  for  many  yaars  In  •  most  extra- 
c.'^inary  degree.  Aliuut  tb»  y«Ar  IHOfi,  It  wns  ''titcu- 
lated  that  the  number  uf  |il«u«s  sold  annually  In  the 
Blackburn  market  was  not  loss  tlian  a  tnltllun  |  and  by 
that  time  the  manufacture  uf  tills  article  was  nut  con- 
fined to  the  country  around  ItlHttklmm,  but  had  spread 
into  the  north-west  district  uf  Yorkslilre,  princltiolly 
about  Colna  and  Bradford,  from  which  part  of  the 
country  20,000  pieces  weekly  Ar«  laid  tu  nave  been 
sent  to  Manchester. 

The  ttomenclature  of  Culltm  (Imidt.  and  th«  admis- 
sion of  new  names,  are  amon|{  tbs  uddltloi  of  the  cotton 
manufacture.  What  thasa  names  nii>an,  It  would, 
perhaps,  not  be  very  easy  to  say  |  Minietlmes  tbey  In- 
dicate a  degree  of  fineness  In  tbs  y/mAt,  sutnetlines 
the  mode  of  weaving  |  suniatlnias  a  color,  n  pattern,  a 
garment  for  which  tbey  are  sultabltt,  ur  n  dlntlngulsliiMl 
personage  who  first  wore  Ibeui  |  sutnttllinds  a  furcign 
product  which  tbey  imitate  |  suin*tlinHS  a  country  for 
whose  market  they  ara  Intended,  ur  a  town  which  is 
the  chief  seat  of  their  manufacturii,  ur  a  firm  which 
takes  a  lead  In  their  productliin-'lt  inatttrs  little  what 
the  meaning  may  be  |  a  naw  naina  lias  a  coninicrulal 


gowi 
was 
that 
of  this 


GOT 


467 


COT 


Tsloa;  and  tb«  ShskespeiUn  dictam  concerning  "a 
rose  by  any  other  name,"  etc.,  is  not  always  assented 
to  in  slioplceeping  philosophy.  Let  us  run  hastily 
over  a  bundle  of  these  nances.  We  have  dress  ging- 
hams and  fancy  gingluuna,  and  umbrella  ghighams, 
checlced  and  striped  ginghams,  and  ginghams  linown 
by  the  high-sounding  names  of  Camperdowns,  Coro- 
mandels,  matallas,  vicuDaa,  and  brioias.  We  have 
boolc  muslins,  Jaconet  muslins,  binhop  )awn  muslins, 
saeharilla  muslins,  tarlatan  muslins,  Scotch  lawn  mus- 
lins, Victoria  muslins,  India  and  Swiss  mull  muslins, 
leno  muslins,  striped  muslins,  lappet  muslins,  spot 
muslins,  sprig  muslins,  and  a  number  of  other  memb«r8 
of  the  muslin  family.  We  have  table-cloths,  diapers, 
huckabacks,  jean-stripes,  clan  tartans,  galas,  Hunga- 
rians, and  Derries — all  made  of  cotton.  There  are 
surongs,  crossovers,  selamporeg,  Granvilles,  denims, 
panos  da  costo — all,  we  believe,  of  the  cotton  shawl 
family.  There  are  counterpanes,  quiitings,  vestings, 
dimities,  swarsdowns,  moleskins,  doeskics,  lambskins, 
velveteens,  beaverteens,  fustians,  long-cloths,  shirt- 
ings, calicoes,  everlastmgs,  nankeens,  coutils,  and 
other  cotton  goods,  the  enumeration  of  which  would 
be  almost  wearisome.  A  few  groupings  will  show  the 
relations  between  these  goods.  For  instance,  the 
gingham  family  consists  of  stout  cotton,  in  which 
threads  of  two  or  more  colors  are  woven  together  into 
stripes,  etc.  •,J'uttia>u,  beaverteens,  velveteens,  mvleskins, 
and  several  others,  are  woven  on  the  same  principle  as 
velvet,  with  a  nop  or  pile,  which  is  either  cut  or  left 
uncut ;  damasks,  huclMbacks,  diapers,  ticks,  and  cam- 
brics, are  cotton  limitations  of  the  similarly-named 
flaxen  goods ;  quilts  and  counterpanes  liave  downy  tufts 
to  increase  the  thickness  and  softness ;  shirting  cali- 
coes, sheeting  calicoes,  printing  calicoes,  long-cloth,  and 
duck,  are  varieties  of  plain,  serviceable  cotton  goods, 
varying  in  stoutness ;  chintz  is  a  stout  calico,  after- 
ward printed  in  several  colors ;  corduroys,  jeans,  quiit- 
ings, and  many  other  varieties,  are  very  strong  cottou 
goods,  mostly  twilled.  As  for  muslins,  their  variety 
is  almost  interminable. 

The  first  attempts  to  make  muslins  in  Groat  Britain 
commenced  simultaneously  in  Lancashire  and  at  Glas- 
gow about  the  year  1780,  but  without  success.  There 
was  no  yam  fitted  fur  the  weft  of  these  goods,  except 
that  spun  upon  Uargreaves'  Jenny ;  and  when  made 
of  this,  it  was  found  they  were  not  of  a  marketable 
quality.  Recourse  was  then  had  to  wefts  brought 
from  Indi^;  and  although  a  better  article  than  the 
former  was  by  tins  means  produced,  it  was  still  not  of 
a  quality  to  compete  successfully  with  Indian  muslin. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  invention  of  the  mule  Jenny 
enabled  the  spinner  to  produce  yams  suited  to  such 
fabrics,  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  cotton  articles 
became  an  important  branch  of  trade  in  Great  Britain. 
That  machine,  as  has  been  mentioned,  came  into  use 
at  the  end  of  the  year  1785,  upon  Sir  Richard  Ark- 
wright'a  patent  being  cancelled;  and  it  is  from  that 
period  we  ought  to  date  the  commencement  of  this 
part  of  the  manufacture.  So  rapid  was  its  progress, 
that  in  1767  it  was  computed  that  500,000  pieces  of 
muslin  were  in  that  year  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain. 

Muslin  began  to  be  made  nearly  at  the  same  time  at 
Bolton,  at  Glasgow,  and  at  Paisley,  each  place  adopt- 
ing the  peculiar  description  of  fabric  which  resembled 
most  those  goods  it  had  been  accustomed  to  manufac- 
ture ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  judicious  distribution 
at  first,  each  place  has  continued  to  maintain  a  superi- 
ority in  the  production  of  its  own  article. 

Jaconet,  both  coarse  and  fine,  but  of  a  stout  fabric, 
checked  and  striped  muslins,  and  other  articles  of  the 
hea\  ier  description  of  this  branch,  are  manufactured 
in  Bolton  and  in  its  neighborhood. 

Book,  mull,  and  lino  muslins,  and  jaconets  of  a 
lighter  fabric  than  those  made  tu  Lancasbiie,  are  man- 
ufactured in  Glasgow,   Sewed  and  t.'miboured  muslins 
20 


are  almost  exclusively  made  there'  and  in  Paisley.  A 
machine  of  most  ingenious  contrivance  for  performing 
the  operation  of  tambouring,  was,  in  the  year  1807,  in- 
vented by  Mr,  John  Duncan  of  Glasgow,  and  a  patent 
taken  out  for  the  discovery.  Eich  machine  contains 
about  40  tambouring  needles,  and  Is  superintended  by 
a  girl,  who  pieces  the  thread  when  it  breaks.  This 
beautiful  and,  at  first,  promising  piece  of  mechanism 
has  never  come  into  general  use.  At  present  there 
are  only  three  or  four  machines  kept  at  work  by  the 
Messrs.  Mitchells  of  Glasgoi^,  who  at  an  early  period 
became  proprietors  of  the  patent.  What  are  called 
fancy  goods,  woven  in  the  loom,  were  first  made  at 
Paisley,  which  had  been  the  chief  seat  of  the  silk 
gauze  manufacture  of  this  country.  In  the  silk  trade, 
which  was  then  beginning  to  fall  into  decay,  a  body 
of  most  ingenious  workmen  had  been  bred.  Ily  em- 
ploying them,  the  taste  and  invention  which  had  pro- 
duced the  varieties  displayed  in  that  beautiful  article 
were  immediately  transferred  to  the  production  of  sim- 
ilar fabrics  of  muslin.  From  this  circumstance.  Paisley 
for  a  long  time  retained  the  exclusive  possession  of 
this  branch ;  but  being  only  seven  miles  distant  from 
Glasgow,  the  general  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture  of 
Scotland,  and  the  nuirt  to  which  most  purchasers  of 
muslin  resort,  many  of  its  principal  manufacturers  have 
been  induced  to  move  their  establishments  to  that  city^ 
although  the  weaving  of  these  muslins  continues  rx>  be 
executed  in  Paisley  and  its  neighlxirhood. 

There  is  a  curious  circumstance  to  be  noticed  with 
regard  to  the  manufacture  of  the  very  fine  fabric.4  of 
muslins  in  Scotland — that  a  great  part  of  the  yom  used 
for  them  is  brought  f^om  Manchester,  in  consequtmca 
of  the  Scotch  spinners  not  having  yet  been  able  to  pro- 
duce the  very  fine  numbers  of  yam  of  the  best  quality. 
This  inferority  does  not  proceed  ttota  a  less  perfect 
construction  of  the  machiner}- employed  in  Scotland, 
the  mechanics  and  the  machine-makers  of  Glasgow  be- 
ing admitted  to  be  excellent  workmen  ;  neither  does  it 
arise  from  the  want  of  skill  in  those  who  conduct  the 
business,  or  from  any  difference  in  the  processes  em- 
ployed in  the  two  countries  ;  but  it  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  same  cause  which  produces  the  superior  yam  of 
India,  namely,  an  adroitness  and  mechanical  sleight  of 
hand  in  the  operative  spinners  of  Manchester,  acquired 
by  a  few  out  of  the  great  multitudes  bred  there.  The 
manufacture  of  the  thicker  cotton  fabrics  v  .at  the 
same  time,  rapidly  lising  in  importance.  1  manu- 
facture of  dimities  has  Iwen  exclusively  confii/  to  the 
north  of  England,  all  attempts  to  make  them  in :  tiand 
having  proved  unsuccessful.  Balason  handkei  liipfa 
were  first  manufactured  about  Preston  and  Cb(»t  y, 
where  they  still  continue  to  be  made.  The  manufacture 
of  ginghams  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to  I^ancashire, 
but  for  many  years  it  has  been  extensively  introduced 
at  Glasgow,  although  Lancashire  continues  to  be  the 
chief  seat  of  this  branch. 

Pullicat  handkerchiefs  were  first  made  about  the 
year  1785,  at  Glasgow,  where  the  manufacture  of  them 
has  been  carried  on  to  a  great  extent.  They  were 
not  mi.de  in  Lancashire  till  some  time  afterward,  and 
the  manufacture  of  thom  there  has  never  lieen  to  the 
same  amount ;  Glasgow,  therefoje,  continues  to  be  the 
principal  marl  for  this  article. 

Blue  and  white  checks  and  stripes  for  exportation 
were  at  first  of  a  linen  fabric,  but  were  afterward 
woven  with  linen  warp  and  cotton  weft ;  and  when 
Sir  Richard  Arkwright's  discovery  enabled  the  spinner 
to  produce  cotton  yams  of  sufficient  strength  tu  be 
used  for  warps,  a  great  proportion  of  these  goods  ciinio 
to  be  made  wholly  of  cotton.  This  manufacture  is 
carried  on  in  Lancashire,  and  in  the  county  of  Fife, 
and  to  a  small  extent  at  Aberdeen  ;  its  chief  seat,  how- 
ever, is  Carlisle. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  cambric  was  begun 
about  the  same  period,  and  w^as  separated  into  two 
brinchea ;  into  cambric  to  be  used  in  garments  in  a 


COT 


Mi 


OOT 


whita  or  printed  lUto,  and  Into  cambric  made  In  imi- 
tation of  Frencli  linen  cambric,  to  be  wed  for  the  same 
purpose  as  that  article.  The  first  is  made  nearly  alto- 
gether in  Lancashire,  irhere  the  manufacture  of  it  is 
carried  on  to  a  great  extent ;  and  the  second,  of  much 
less  amount,  wholly  at  Glasgow.  The  Scotch  manu- 
facturers have  never  been  able  to  rival  the  Lancashire 
In  the  first,  nor  the  Lancashire  manufacturers  to  rival 
the  Scotch  in  the  last. 

Bandana  handl[«rchiefs,  and  Bandana  cloths  for  gar- 
tienU,  were  first  made  by  Mr.  Henry  Hontelth,  at 
Glasgow,  about  the  year  1802,  and  are  now  manufac- 
wired  there  to  a  considerable  amount.  The  cloth  is 
lyed  a  bright  Turliey  red,  and  the  color  is  discharged 
(rom  those  par*.s  which  form  the  pattern  or  figure,  by 
passing  a  chemical  mixture  through  them.  Glasgow 
itill  continues  to  be  the  chief  seat  of  this  manufacture, 
wd  there  are  in  that  city  several  large  works  for  car- 
ying  it  on.  The  demand  for  Bandanas,  however,  has 
•ttorly  fallen  off  while,  in  consequence  of  the  repeal 
if  the  impolitic  duty  on  printed  cloths,  the  consump- 
ion  of  these  has  greatly  increased  ;  and  most  of  the 
Droprietors  of  the  Turltey-red  dyeing  establishments 
lave  therefore  been  induced  to  add  calico-printing  to 
.heir  former  business. 

The  value  of  the  present  annual  production  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  of  Great  Britain  is  estimatod  at 
/;64,000,000  steriing,  of  which  neariy  iC8.S,000,000  is 
the  value  of  goods  and  yam  made  for  exportation. 
■  The  capital  invested  in  buildings  and  machinery  may 
be  calculated  at  nearly  the  same  as  the  annual  amount 
of  the  manufocture,  and  more  than  double  what  it 
was  80  years  ago,  while  the  quantity  of  goods  annually 
produced  is  much  more  than  triple ;  yet,  from  the  im- 
provement of  the  processes,  and  consequent  diminution 
of  the  expense  of  production,  with  the  reduction  which 
has  talien  place  at  the  same  time  in  the  price  of  the 
raw  material,  this  more  than  tripled  quantity  of  the 
manufactured  article  does  not  represent  more  capital 
than  was  represented  by,  and  required  for  the  bringing 
to  market  the  lesser  amount  during  the  preceding 
period.  In  the  year  1812,  when  Mr.  Crompton  applied 
to  Parliament  for  a  remuneration  for  his  invention,  he 
found  by  as  accurate  an  investigation  as  he  could 
make,  that  the  number  of  mule  spindles  in  the  country 
was  between  four  and  five  millions ;  and  Mr.  Kennedy, 
in  his  memoir  of  Mr.  Crompton,  has  stated,  that  the 
number  in  1829  hnd  increased  to  7,000,000.  In  1817, 
he  estimated  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  the 
spinning  of  cotton  in  Great  Britain  at  110,763,  and  the 
number  of  spindles  in  motion  at  6,645,833,  and  the 
quantity  of  yam  produced  at  99,687,500  nounds.  The 
quantity  of  cotton  yam  spun  in  18.S2  wos  222,000,000 
pounds,  of  which  132,000,000  pounds  have  been  man- 
ufactured into  cloth,  giving  employment  to  203,373 
looms;  but  In  1853  the  yarn  spun  was  685,410,000 
pounds. 

IV.  Statistics  of  tub  Cotton  MANnpACTCRK. — 
It  is  obvious  that  the  home  consumption  in  the  United 
States  has  always  borne  a  most  disproportioned  ratio  to 
the  entire  growth,  and  that  even  in  the  last  four  years, 
when  it  liad  attained  to  the  highest  point  which  It  has  yet 
reached,  the  quantity'reserved  for  domestic  use  never 
exceeded  a  seventh  part  of  the  whole,  and  generally 
fell  considerably  lielow  it.  It  Is  deserving  of  notice, 
however,  that  in  the  period  of  time  which  this  table 
comprehends,  the  Intemal  consumption  of  the  United 
States  has  been  trebled ;  but  large  as  this  increase  may 
seem  in  the  eye  of  a  native  economist,  the  conclusion 
from  it  will  not  be  satisfuctor}-  If  the  collateral  circum- 
stances are  not  considered ;  and  the  chief  of  these  is, 
tliat  it  is  an  increase  on  small  quantities,  and  indicates 
no  more  than  the  gradual  growth  of  an  infant  trade, 
which  the  cotton  manufacture  was  in  North  America  in 
1829.  We  believe  that  in  this  manufacture  Great 
Britain  has  as  yet  little  to  fear  from  competition  ;  but 
we  are  not  equally  oonfident  that  Its  prosperity  may 


not  ba  exposed  to  risk  from  tier  Ill-judged  anxiety  to 
secure  a  monopoly  of  Hi  advantages.  The  practice  of 
excluding  from  her  markets  the  manufactures  of  other 
countries  la  not  only  contrary  to  sound  political  princi- 
ples, but  gives  rise  to  a  spirit  of  hostility  unfavorable 
to  her  interests,  and  places  her  in  such  a  stato  that 
when  other  nations  in  retaliation,  exclude  her  manu- 
flictures  from  their  markets,  she  has  no  right  to  com^ 
plain. 

That  we  may  not  decide  this  question  rashly,  let  at 
examine  what  is  the  danger  to  which  she  would  be  ex* 
posed  If  she  were  to  take  the  opposite  system,  and  open 
her  ports  to  the  manufactures  of  other  countries.  If 
they  can  now  export  annually  to  the  value  of  about 
;£32,000,000  sterling  of  cotton  goods,  which,  burdened 
with  freight,  charges,  and  the  exporter's  profit,  they 
are  able  to  sell  in  competition  with  foreign  manufacture, 
can  they  have  any  thing  to  fear  from  a  competition 
with  that  manuAicture  in  het  home  market,  where  the 
circumstances  of  the  competing  parties  would  be  re- 
versed t  So  far  from  the  introduction  of  foreign  man- 
ufacture Into  her  market  lieing  an  evil,  we  are  inclined 
to  think  that  It  would  be  advantageous  to  her  interests ; 
and  that,  in  the  interchange  of  various  fabrics  which 
would  be  the  result,  the  sale  of  her  own  manufactures 
would  l>e  increased.  Commerce  being  altogether  a 
matter  of  barter,  it  is  necessary  for  every  country  to 
purchase  in  order  that  she  may  sell ;  and,  fortunately, 
even  In  the  same  branch  of  manufacture,  there  Is 
always  room  for  such  exchanges.  There  are  shades 
of  difference  In  the  fabric  of  everj'  article,  upon  which 
taste  or  fashion,  or  caprice,  never  fails  to  fix  an  arbl- 
tnry  value,  thereby  constituting  them  into  separate 
commodities  capable  of  being  exchanged.  But  the 
view  we  are  taking  of  this  Important  question  does  not 
rest  altogether  upon  theory.  Happily  we  have  ex- 
perience in  support  of  it.  No  one  disputes  the  advan- 
tage resulting  from  the  interchange  of  commodities 
between  Maine  and  I/)ui8lana,  or  alleges  that  it  would 
be  for  the  benefit  of  either  to  have  the  manufacture  of 
the  other  excluded  from  Its  market.  Yet  these  two 
districts  have  their  dependence  upon  manufactures 
which  in  their  general  features  are  the  same. 

It  is  well  known  regarding  the  commercial  treaty 
with  France,  in  which  some  approach  was  made  to  a 
free  trade  t)etweun  the  two  countries,  that  while  it 
lasted,  the  sale  warehouses  of  London  and  Manchester 
were  resorted  to  by  purchasers  from  the  different 
towns  of  France,  with  the  same  freedom,  and  in  nearly 
an  equal  proportion  of  numbers,  as  from  the  towns  in 
England.  And  although  in  these  warehouses  French 
and  English  commodities  of  a  similar  description  were 
to  be  found,  and  British  shopkeepers  were  at  the  same 
time  dally  resorting  to  France  to  make  purchases,  in 
no  period  wera  her  manufactures  in  a  state  of  greater 
progressive  prosperity  than  during  the  eight  years 
(from  1786  to  1793)  that  this  treaty  existed.  There  is 
no  one,  we  believe,  who  has  taken  the  trouble  to  In- 
vestigate the  matter,  that  will  not  say  that  both  were 
benefited  by  this  treaty,  and  probably  exactly  in  the 
degree  that  the  exclusive  system  In  both  had  been  de- 
parted from. 

In  addition  to  this.  It  may  he  proper  to  notice,  that 
Switzerland  and  Saxony  have  always  been  open  to  the 
reception  of  cotton  goods  free  of  duty ;  and  that  in  no 
other  countries  on  the  Continent  is  the  cotton  manu- 
facture in  a  more  thriving  state.  Might  it  not,  there- 
fore, be  a  wise  measure  to  withdraw  their  refltrictl(iii» 
against  the  importation  of  foreign  manufactures,  since 
the  Interfere  ncc  of  these  with  her  own  products  in  the 
home  market,  supposing  no  Interchange  of  the  two  to 
take  place,  nevr  could  counterbalance  the  amount  of 
the  sale  she  may  be  deprived  of  l)y  following  the  op- 
posite pn1i(  y,  and  thus  inducing  the  exclusion  of  her 
own  gmnls  from  the  foreign  market  ? 

Fe:irs  have  been  expressed  that  the  lo.'or  wages  for 
which  the  laborers  of  other  countries  <Lat  compete 


184T. 
1848.. 
1848.. 
1880.. 
I8SI.. 
18Sa.. 
18N.. 
1864.. 
18S5.. 
18M.. 


COT 


469 


GOT 


fcr  wages  for 
(at  compete 


with  OrMt  BriUin  in  the  aunufactara  oan  work,  mi 
npon  which,  Apom  the  Gheapneis  of  their  provlsiona, 
they  can  affotd  to  live,  may  ultimately  enable  them  to 
take  (he  manufacture  out  of  her  hands.  In  reply  to 
tbii,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  sufficient  to  recall  to  our  read- 
era  the  small  part  of  the  cost  of  the  commodity  which 
now  belongs  to  the  labor  of  the  hand,  and  the  daily 
diminution  which  is  taking  place  even  of  that  part,  by 
the  introduction  of  now  mechanical  substitutes.  Thiu, 
for  example,  in  1767,  each  spindle  required  a  person  to 
work  it ;  but  now  one  man,  with  the  aid  of  ■  few 
piecers  to  take  op  and  join  bis  broken  ends,  can  work  a 
thousand  spindles.  In  Lancashire,  in  1818,  there  were 
not  more  than  2000  power-looms,  and  of  these  not  a 
h.ilf  in  employment ;  while  In  1882,  so  extensive  had 
been  the  change  from  hand-weaving  to  weaving  by 
power,  the  number  had  increased  to  80,000. 


Tavulab  ooMrAaAnva  STATuaar  aaowiHO  m  diolams 
Valvi  or  OoiToii  UAicorACTvai*  or  all  Kindo,  Ann 
OorraN  Yabhs  KxroHTiD  raoK  Obeat  Bhitain  raov 
1840  TO  1850,  BOTn  iHOLnnvB. 


Yun. 

Muafbcturaf. 

Yanu. 

1840 

«87,88a,650 
81,161,560 
69,539,410 
81,170^000 
94,088,810 
9^780,480 
98,688,890 
86,876,916 
8I,766,84& 
100,«i6S»0 
109,868,485 

|36.50«,640 
86,834,»40 
88,857,810 
36,968.8B(> 
84,941,910 
S4.816,17S 
89,410,140 
19,789.900 
19,688,165 
88,510,445 
81.918,890 

1841 

1841 

1848 

1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1848 

1860 

The  following  table  gives  the  extreme  prices  of  cot- 
ton wool  at  Liverpool  on  the  81st  December,  ttom  1818 
to  1863,  slinwiiig  the  progressive  redaction  of  the  raw 
material  daring  that  time : 


Sea  bland... 

Orleans 

Upland 

Kgypttan.... 
Pernambuco. 
Maranham... 

Demerara 

West  India... 
Bnrat 


Sea  Island... 

Orleans 

Upland 

Kgypttan 

Pernambuco. 
Miranham... 
Demerara.... 
Surat 


16i-ll 
17  — 19| 

10— lOi 
19  —14 
17  -18i 
8— 14t 


1841. 


"d-: — T. 
7|— 14 
si— 9 
81—7 
6— lOi 
61-8, 
6-7} 
5i-10» 
l|— 5 


I8it. 


d,  d. 
14i— 14 
7-11 
H-H 

9}-10i 
8J-1U 
7i-8i 
6t-7i 


1B44. 


d.         d. 
9—80 

8  —  6< 
6J— 9 
41-8 
*\—  7| 
41—10 
li— 5 


ISM. 


d.  d. 
10—10 
7-9 

7}- 4 

10 -ir 

8l>-9 
8-U 
61-71 
6  —  61 


d.  d. 
9  —30 
8—10 
81-71 
6i-ll 
6*- 81 
4  —  8 

1  —  6 


it  -iJ' 
6-9 

?t7i 
31—5 


1S4T. 


d.        d. 

8—80 

41—10 

41-81 

51-11 

6  —  91 

41-81 

41-9 

it— 9 


1848. 


d.         d. 

6—15 

91—3 
8  —  6 
4i— 8 
41-8 
81—  7 
4  —  7 
11-41 


181*. 


d.         d. 

—18 
8  —  9 
7  —  8 


ISM. 


d.         d. 

181—16 

7i-ll 
11—161 


"=:!t  m 


n-  . 

91-10 


51 


5  — 8| 


1849. 


I8M. 


d.        d. 
61—10 

;ii-8i 

IJ-  71; 

45-9 

43-71 

Sir- 61 

81-71 

11-61 


d.         d. 

9  —10 
61-10 

6  —  9 
81-61 


I83<.       I 


d.        «. 

14—36 
7-14 
71-11 

11  —18 

10  —161 
9}— 14 
9—16 

81—9 


8—21 

6-11* 
61-9 
41- 8J 

41-8 
11-61 


d.  d. 
14-38 
5—10 
6—91 
81-161 
81-11 
7  -10 
8—18 

81-61 


1851. 


d.        d. 

10  -18 
81-81 
31—7 
6-11 
61-81 
41—8 
41—9 
11-51 


IStn, 


d.  d. 
10  —86 
41-9 
41-71 
8—14 
81-101 
71-10 
7—18 

81^61] 


18U. 


The  subjoined  table  contains  comparative  e8timal<>!< 
of  the  quantities  of  raw  cotton  consumed  in  the  chief 


manufacturing  countries  during  1840  to  1853,  inclu- 
sive (in  millions  of  pounds'  weight). 


Ooontritt. 

1840. 

1841. 

I8«i. 

I84S. 

1844. 

1841. 

1844. 

1841.    IB4a. 

1848.    18M. 

IStl. 

I8N. 

1853. 

Splndlii  miulrad  In 

1850  lo  prodiiM  th* 

qii<mur«a  Into  40't 

MiileY.m. 

Oreat  Britain 

478 
71 
157 

28 
111 

4il 
66 
164 

19 
116 

461 
78 
168 

88 
105 

631 

81 

152 

44 

181 

543 

86 

446 

26 
143 

597 
96 
158 

88 
158 

604 
97 
169 

89 

175 

425'          " 

<06 

116 

81 
176 

591 
111 
127 

19 
109 

627     561 

160     188 

186'    141 
19 

47       45 

105     183 

to;     f45 

784 

186 

194 
41 

45 

165 

88 

17,978.884 

4,092,808 

4,369,280 
891,808 

.'^,461 

1,834,616 

6,784,616 

RasaU,  OermanT,  Hoi- 1 
land,  and  B«lglntn. . .  f 

118 

149 

84 

45 

168 
13 

179 

199 
44 

65 

137 

19 

Spain 

Countries  bordering  ou  ) 

the  Adriatic. f 

nntted  States  of  America 
Sundries,     Medlterra- 1 

nean,ete. ) 

Total 

841 

785 

846 

940 

M4     1.047,1.074   881 

1,068 

1.116,  l,18ij  1,175;  1,481{  1,608 

84,886,911 

__J 

Looking  at  the  production  of  the  post  and  the  de- 
mand! for  the  future,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  cotton 
manufactures  should  show  uneasiness  lest  their  ipin- 
dles  should  be  idle  for  want  of  the  raw  material.  Thu 
consumption  of  raw  cotton  has  rapidly  Increased  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years,  and  the  unusually  large  crop  of 
last  year  has  been  fully  used  up,  leaving  no  residue. 

Quantities  or  Raw  Cottoh  impobted  ihto  tbjs  United  Kukodom  noM  tabious  Counteiks, 


though  with  the  prospect  of  better  prices.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  the  increased  consumption  for  the  past  year, 
nu  give  the  quantities  of  raw  cotton  consumed  is. 
Great  Britain  since  1817.  It  will  l>e  seen,  that  of  the 
increase  for  the  last  year — equal  to  15  per  cent. — over 
three  fourths,  or  11  per  cent.,  came  from  the  United 
SUtes.  '-'  ■-.■■ 


T«r. 

rh«Uidt>d9Mtn. 

Brutl. 

Ti. 
Hedlhrninui. 

llrttUl.Pou.nt<>l>. 

In  the 

Eut  Indlu. 

krlUiliWtu 

lodlti  and 

BritUli  QiUiw. 

Other  Countries. 

Total. 

184T 

Pounds. 

864,699,191 
600,147,488 
634,604.060 
488.153,111 
696,688,931 
765,680,644 
658,451,796 
711,161,846 
681,619,414 
780,040,000 

P-iindi. 
19,966,9% 
19,971,878 
30,788,183 
80,199,981 
19.839,104 
26.606.144 
14.190,618 
19,708,600 
24.677,951 
21.aiO,000 

Pound.. 
4.814.268 
7,131.861 
17,369,848 
48,981,414 
16,9.10Aifi 
18,059,640 
18,868,576 
13,508,008 
81,904,163 
84,616,000 

P.iundiw 

83.9at,614 

84.101,961 

70388.515 

118,814741 

118,626,976 

84,918,481 

181,848,160 

119,686,009 

145,179,116 

180,490,000 

Pnnndl. 

799,988 
640/4.37 
944,307 
128,981 
446,519 
708.696 
850^418 
409,110 
468,461 
461,8M 

Poundi. 

698.587 
817,086 
1,074,164 
l,0»0,6f8 
1377.65S 
8,960,992 
1,084,161 
1,780,081 
6,992,805 
6,489,000 

PnHnda. 

474,707.616 
718,010,161 
766,469.011 
668,676,861 
767,879,749 
919,781.448 
896,178.749 
887,388,149 
891,761,061 
1,013,886.518 

1848 

1849 

1880 

1851 

1851 

1868 

1864 

1865 

1866 

According  to  official  tables,  the  cotton  industry  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  yielded  last  year  about  flfty- 
four  millions  sterling,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as 
half  the  cotton  industry  of  the  whole  world ;  but  foreign 
countries,  besides  taking  half  of  the  raw  cotton  sent 
to  market  reoeive  large  snpfdies  of  cotton  yams  fh>m 


Great  Britain ;  and  ill  Asia  and  Africa  cotton  is  still 
largely  spun  by  hand ;  hence  the  world's  cotton  indns- 
try  may  be  valued  at  120,000,000,  which  would  alford 
to  every  man,  woman,  and  child,  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
2s.  9}d.  worth  of  cotton  manufactures,  or  about  fourteen 
yards  iier  head  per  annum  of  excellent  calico. 


COT 


470 


COT 


Omlamd  TAtna  or  BuniB  ako  huu  OonoN  HANirrAonnin  ard  Twm  aro  Tabu  ■xroram  to  nn  in(i>m> 

■  UITIOIIID  OonXTBIM  IN  THI  YlAB  UW. 


PoMiUlton  ol 

ComirfM 
liportsd  10, 


67,000,000 
8,000,000 

1,UB0,18S 

s,<Mo,oao 

l^Ty<,890 

«l,000 

9,008,1100 

141,000 

884,000 

«,000 

«,444vM0 

8Ai!l,SS8 

148,196 

86,H»I,l8a 

4,S80,000 

971,416 

00,000 

UJii1,itO 

911)1,(100 

17,094 

4,390,000 

1,970,000 

2,(I00,000 

7,600,000 

7,886,000 

l.<0,000 

908,100 

1,000,000 


96,100,000 


106^000 
9,000,000 
16,000,000 


10,000,000 


101,469 

40,000 

18,760,000 

160,000,000 

6,000,000 

9,600,000 

860,000,000 

90,000 

96,000 

2,690,000 

006(000 

9,466,040 

944^ 

14,600 

600,000 

461,900 

190h8W 

13^000 

81,000 

8,000 

986,000 

860,000 

97,000,000 

8,000,000 

98,060 
1,967,699 


VilMlMrkMilor 
Country. 


6^000,060 

860,000 

100,060 

1,600,000 

1,600,000 

9,000,000 

19.000 

90.000 


890,690,746 


ffr,5»,6S7 


868,908,469 


0-626 

l«i 

4.M 

0-95 

8'96 

0-87S 

0'78 

O-SO 


7  19    7 

0  ifii-BO 

0    1    8-96 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 


98  14 
0    1 


70 

1 

0 

7-70 

0 

1-98 

6 

9-78 

8 

9-98 
1  8-98 
0  11-90 
0  10-46 
8    6 

8  8 

9  9 


OonnlflM  to  wUeh  tiportod. 


Oottco  monufM- 
Inrot  vnl^rad  bj 
iboyoid. 


DKLABID  VALU>, 


0    1  10-80 


0    0    1 


0    1    9.78 


7-98 


0    0    9 
0    1    9-80 


18  18 


078 
780 

'8-80 
0-76 
1-98 
4-98 


8  17  10-60 
0  19  9-78 
0    0    9-80 


0    7    8-78 
86  19' 8-98 


0  0 
0  1 
0    8 


1 

9-98 
1      . 


0    1  10-80 


10 
0 
0 
0 
0 

9  11 
0    7 


9    9-60 
9    6 

0    91S 

OHM 

6  1-70 
1-78 
4-70 


•-76 

4 


Biual*— Northorn  purta. 

"       Ports  within  tbo  Black  Bm 

8wod«n 

Norway 

Denmark  (Ineludlag  Iceland) 

Pmula 

Maeklenburg-Hchworin , 

Uanorar 

Oldenbarg  and  Knlphauwn 

IlanMatio  Towns 

HoHgolahd 

Holland 

Belgium 

Channel  Islands 

France , 

Portngal  Proper , 

"       Aiores , 

"       Uadcira 

Spain,  Continental,  and  the  Balearic  Isls. 

"     Canary  Islands 

aibralUr 

Italy,  etc.— rlz.  Hardlnlan  Terrltoriea 

Duchy  of  Tuscany... 

Papal  Terrltoriea ... 

Na|>lesand  Sicily.... 

Aiutrlao  Territories., 

Malta  and  Oozo , 

Ionian  Islandi* 

Kinnloni  of  Greece 

Turkish  Dominions,  exeluitlve  of  Wal- 1 
lochia.  Mo.  (laYla,  V 
Syria,  and  Kgypt  1 

Wallachia  and  MoldaTia 

Syria  and  Palestine 

,  kgypt— Portu  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Tunis 

Algeria 

Morocco,  etc 

Western  coast  of  Africa 

British  possessions  In  South  AfVlca. .... 

Eastern  coast  of  Africa 

African  Ports  on  the  Bed  Sea. 

Cape  Verdo  Islands 

I,  Ascension  ant?  St  Helena 

Mauritius. 

Aden 

Persia 

^  Continental  India,  with  the  contlgnons  I 
IsUnds :— vtx.  British  Territories  f 
"  "        The  BIrman  Empire. 

Islands  of  the  Indian  Seas :— Jara 

■•  "  Philippine  Isls. 

China 

Hong  Kong 

Japanese  Islands 

British  Settlements  In  Australia. 

Senth  Sea  Islands : . . , . 

British  North  America 

BritUh  W.  India  Isls.  and  Brit  Outana. 

Honduras  (British  Settlements) 

Foreign  West  India  Isli. :— Cuba 

■■'  "  Porto  BIco.. 

'  "  Ouadaloupe, 

"  "  Martinique.. 

*  "  Curacoa 

>•  "  BtOrolx... 

'  "  BtThomaa,. 

French  Onlana 

Dutch  Oulana. 

Haytl 

Unlicd  States  of  America 

CalUbmla. 

Mesloo 

Central  Anierloa 

New  Grenada. 

Venetnala 

Ecuador 

Braill 

Oriental  Bnpubllc  of  the  Uragnay 

Bnenoa  Ayres,  or  Argentina  BepnbUe. . 

Chill 

BollTia 

Pf-n 

Falkland  Islands 

Gkeanland  and  Darla'  Straits. 


0  16    6 


84,888 

9,409 

7,160 

97,608 

84,089 

887 

'619 

786^800 

478^700 
69,170 

4e,s«s 

66,869 

611,190 

47,609 

16,040 

78,983 

61,889 

874,989 

949,918 

986,676 

80,498 

148,621 

900,804 

108,448 

67,098 

98,690 

1,610,629 

77,460 
949,689 
818,148 


63,889 

884.719 

907,7S8 

1,880 

'9,787 

979 

124,987 

088 

4,447,418 

4r9iiM 

888.160 

1,028,074 

177,991 

800^718 
18,704 

668.688 

870.016 
82,400 

841,294 
4,778 


11,816 
97'^64e 

i',6io 

78,441 

8,894,029 

89,979 

478,216 

116,787 

280,g«4 

182,486 

18,999 

1,727,687 

983,079 

9l^^481 

M8,418 

623l604 
108 


lludary.  L«c«, 


109 
9,176 
1,798 
2,027 

900 

"'is 

909^968 

9 

81,480 

07,890 

1.283 

46,874 

10,808 

808 

721 

6,897 

8,066 

21,996 

17,796 

96,696 

618 

18,979 

6,069 

9,000 

023 

807 

18,829 


681 
7,601 

"i'ii 

1,167 

12,714 


486 
^782 


64,899 

'6^797 

8,868 

829 


228,888 

176 

60,lk1 

94,828 

8,114 

48,002 

144 


669 

161879 

"'91 
9,938 

648,601 

6,914 

47,790 

6,801 

12,480 

6,880 

629 

60,009 

10,988 

17,164 

4^099 

88J80 
100 


CoMna  Twkl, 
snl  Ysra. 


187,^ 

4,186 

48,990 

98399 

64,142 

26,B0S 

60 

146,790 

9,076^717 

1,691^ 

178,676 

474 

48,684 

42,810 

1,140 

18 

0,988 

401 

7,460 

46,770 

101,743 

78.740 

199,680 

136,118 

80,447 

1S,4H 

12,161 

158,843 

76,832 
88,480 
27,790 


60 
617 
041 


1,168,964 

8bl844 

9,1(0 

101,306 

97,089 

'8^9i8 

28^466 

18-i 

1,881 

78 


4,288 


80 

9,671 

670 

11,719 

7,741 

948 

89 

20 

890 

889 

918 

4,078 

'l",481 


TMal. 


130,949 
18,760 
04,637 
04,480 

101,18s 

97,'>4B 

60 

147,490 

8,0M,8.SO 

9 

9,247,17s 

200,286 

48,202 

108,710 

664,868 

49,869 

17,68-4 

86,188 

66,270 

408,670 

806,788 

868,118 

109,776 

661,028 

841,469 

140,991 

86,000 

108,008 

1,682,819 

183,380 
2;6,720 
888,080 


63,810 

8(16,603 

921,040 

1,080 

'2,787 

1,408 

129,992 

030 

^6S0,fl69 

448^960 

844,18b 

1,199,799 

978,684 

1,040^621 

18,880 
749.2.«.2 
S»!i,mii 

06,868 

884,464 

4,917 


11,978 

iK,m 

I'.l'Sl 

70,4  r4 

4,182,901 

90,868 

032,685 

181,399 

293,781 

188,928 

79,669 

1,7.18,366 

264,449 

2.N5,80H  I 

693,(188  ' 

6S8|8i0 
910 


Total '. gi8,»01,940    £1,910,809    |f6,890,6ffl     ^W,n2,902 

EtUmated  consumption  of  Ootton  ManuAtotares  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. .     91,294,494 


0   1   S-17S    [riM  amount  of  British  Cotton  Manolkctaras  supplied  for  the  whole  world.. 


08.987,890  I 


COT 


4T1 


COT 


V.  OBiaiR  AKD  Early  IIiitobt  or  Corrow  MaW' 
vrAcrnRKi  or  Ahkrica. — Cotton  la  nf  IniliKHnima 
American  ii[TOfrth.  On  the  first  UrnllnK  nl  tlie  N|Min' 
laria  in  Mexico,  tli«y  found  it  In  coniiditrulila  iwr- 
faction.  The  Mexicans  are  aald  to  Iirvh  lioaii  miMy 
dependent  upon  this  product,  the  wool  of  ralililt*  Hiitl 
hares,  feathers,  and  a  fibrous  plant  called  mttgmt,  tiit 
their  clothinf;  materials.  The}-  had  neither  wmil, 
hemp,  nor  silk,  and  their  f^ax  was  not  used  fur  th«*« 
purposes.  Out  of  cotton  they  fal>rlcated  walis  nf  eip 
ccedini;  tenuity,  and  their  cloths  were  woven  lilt** 
beautiful  figures.  Mantln^,  bed-curtulns,  and  i'Kr|i«t<, 
they  flnishnd  elegantly  witi.  mingled  cotton  und  fxittt^ 
ers.  Cortez  sent  to  Charles  V.  uf  Hpaln,  "  cotton 
mantles,  some  all  white,  others  mixed  with  whita  111)4 
Mack,  or  red,  green,  yeUov,  and  blue,  wulstmiHts, 
handkerchiefs,  counterpanes,  tai>eBtrlea,  and  cariiatii  fif 
cotton."  A  peculiar  cotton  paper  was  rooila  In  M  '»• 
ico,  small  cloths  of  the  nam:;  material  conatltuta4  It 
part  of  thulr  currency,  and  their  warriors  are  said  to 
have  had  cotton  cuiroases.  The  modern  Mexicans 
have  lo<t  the  perfection  of  their  ancient  art  of  inanu.' 
facturo.  The  American  plant  wat  not  coiiflned  t4 
Mexico  alone ;  Columbus  found  it  wild  In  UUpanliiU 
and  on  the  continent  of  South  America,  where  It  Imd 
already  grown  into  an  article  of  use  for  clothing  und 
other  purpoiies.  The  Brazilians  mode  their  beds  iif  It, 
The  Abbe  Clavlgero  nays,  that  of  "  cotton,  the  H«xl< 
cani*  made  large  webs,  and  as  delicate  and  Ana  as  thoaa 
of  Holland,  which  were  so  highly  esteemed  In  Ruropw, 
They  wove  their  cloths  of  different  figures  and  inliirs, 
representing  different  animals  and  flowers.  Of  faatlM 
ers.  Interwoven  with  cotton,  they  made  mantles,  Iwut' 
curtains,  carpets,  gowns,  and  other  things,  not  less  snft 
'ban  beautiful.  With  cotton,  also,  they  Interwo /«  tlw 
finest  huir  of  the  belly  of  ralil>itB  and  hares,  after  liaV" 
Ing  spun  It  into  thread ;  of  this  they  mode  most  liaHU' 
tlful  cloths,  and  in  particular,  winter  waUtcniits  ti)t 
their  lords."  Cochineal  and  indigo  beint;  native  prod' 
nets  of  Mexico,  they  were  well  supplied  with  iyeinff 
materials  ;  but  the  fact  of  their  having  carried  tba  iirt* 
of  manufacturing  and  dyeing  cotton  to  such  »  lii|{li 
stage  of  perfection,  is  proof  that  they  must  liava  f»t 
celred  their  knowledge  ftom  India,  by  way  of  tb» 
west. 

Magellan,  Drake,  Cavendish,  Damplar,  Van  Xoort, 
all  agree  that  cotton  wae  one  of  the  articles  of  dre«s 
among  the  American  savages,  on  the  discovery  of  ttta 
country.  At  St.  Salvador  the  wimen  ara  daacrlliDd 
aa  dressed  in  cotton  coats.  Even  as  far  north,  says 
Mr.  Seabrook,  as  the  Mes-chacebe,  or  Mlasisslppl,  tfiA 
earliest  explorers  of  that  river,  and  Ita  trllmtiiry 
streams,  saw  cotton  growing  wild  In  the  pod,  and  In 
great  plenty.  These  facts,  and  they  might  almost  Iw 
Indefinitely  innltiplled,  are  Introduced  to  reliiit  tlia 
opinion  founded  on  the  negative  testimony  uf  Captnin 
Cook,  that  the  gossypum  Is  not  a  native  of  the  westATO 
hemisphere.  That  celebrated  voyager  found  nn  cottnfi 
between  New  Zealand,  86°  8.,  and  the  Sandwii'l) 
Islands,  20°  N.  In  addition  to  flax,  and  the  hark  nf 
the  mulberry-tree.  In  which  Captain  Cook  says  tlMt 
the  inhabitants  of  those  regions  were  habited,  the  nA' 
tions  all  over  the  continent  nearly,  used  as  artlclaa  of 
dresa,  besides  cotton,  feathers,  the  wool  uf  raliliUx,  tllti 
maguei,  and  silk-graia.  In  1726,  cotton  was  »  rtftpla 
product  of  HUpaniola.  lu  1763,  Jamaicit  axponad 
2,000  bags.  On  an  averaga  of  eight  years,  fruw  1140 
to  1748,  the  export  of  cotton  from  liarlMuloas  woa  tfUU 
bags  ananally.  lu  1787,  St.  Domingo,  M,  Cbrl'tU' 
pher,  Grenada,  Domi'iica,  Antigua,  Montaerrai,  and 
Nevis,  and  the  Virgin  Islands,  exported  the  same  w>m< 
modity^  la  1803,  there  wcie  grown  Ave  varietiaa  uf 
cotton  in  Jamaica,  the  common,  the  brown-lwardaii, 
the  Nankin,  the  French,  and  the  Brazilian,  Vrmn 
these  facts,  Mr.  Baines  draws  the  conclusion  that  tha 
manufacture  of  cotton  must  thereftore  be  supposed  to  \m 
eoerol  with  the  origlul  aettlemant  ef  America  |  but 


lairnMl  mm  an  mnch  divided  as  to  the  data  of  this 
avHttt,  Mftnx  mrrylng  It  nearly  as  hign  as  the  deluge, 
Hiid  iMwf  ('(mtctidlng  for  a  much  later  period.  Th« 
AtitKrii'itn  m.it  I'  '  tnre  may  at  all  events  claim  a  high 
tUitpPH  nf  HHI  ,<i,i.y. 

VI,  t'otfOK  MAHirACtrRKS  IS  TUB  IInitru 
WtKfm,^llliilnrtml  ftkrtch  nf  Ih*  Riit  and  Progrrit 
(if  Ikf  Vnllim  MnnuJHdnriet  m  Ihe  United  Slaten. — As 
Mrly  NS  tllH  VMf  17A7,  a  society  was  formed  in  Phiia- 
d^lpltiit,  tlWiW  lh«  natne  of  thn  "  Pennsylvania  So- 
rlut^  fiir  llie  Kticotcngemnnt  nf  Manufactures  and  tha 
llwhll  Artaf'  which  made  siima  pro;<res8  in  the  inunu- 
Imiiitin^  nf  var Inns  hlndn  of  goodx,  nuch  as  jeans,  cor. 
dlirny*,  fiMtlittfH,  plfllti  and  finwered  cottons,  Hax  Iln- 
ail4,  tiiw  llliftts,  i«t^,  Hut  'he  machinery  employed  in 
(hta  ilianuffl''ttir«  seems  to  have  been  of  the  ver}'  rudest 
kind,  A  short  tlm«  berom  the  formation  of  this  society, 
an  f(tf«m|it  to  sjiln  mtton-yam  l)y  machinery  had  been 
niit/la  at  1lrldK«WRter  and  Ileverly,  in  the  State  of 
Maaani'litiaHlft,  Two  mechanics  from  Scotland,  Alox- 
nitiUr  ntiil  tMmtf,  flnrr,  hrctli'Ts,  wer«  employed  tiy  a 
Mr,  Ihr,  of  tOtst  Hridgawntcr,  to  make  carding,  spin- 
nlNB,  mi\  fotlng-maehlni-s,  which  they  completed; 
wnd  nn  lh«  Iflth  nf  Nnrember,  1780,  the  General  Court 
nf  MAKNMnhtlDettK  made  them  u  grant  of  ;£'^00,  lawful 
•NOBuy,  fnf  thelf  eticoiirngcment,  and  afterward  added 
to  thn  iNttinty,  by  giving  tllem  six  tlckct.s  in  the  Stata 
Uflit  \ittl«ty,  In  which  there  were  nn  l)Ianks. 

In  Mufdl,  17»7,  Thomnr.  Soniers,  an  Kngilsh  mld- 
nhiptfi/tn,  I'lmnttilct^A  a  machine,  or  model,  under  the 
dlfMtioil  of  Mr,  Ofr  (  and,  by  a  resolution  of  the  Gene- 
ral (,'nttrt,  4tW  wefe  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  incter, 
to  f'nwMiragn  him  In  the  enterprise. 

'Ph«  l^^hWe  femnlned  In  the  possession  of  Mr.  Orr  for 
(ha  It'niN't'il^)!!  of  all  disposed  to  see  them,  and  he  was 
rmfHauM  by  thn  General  Court,  to  exhibit  and  give 
all  Itlforntntion  or  nxplanation  regarding  them.  It  is 
hfliavtid  that  the  above  were  the  firat  machines  mads 
In  (lin  l/nitMl  Mates  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton. 

'I'll*  flttvurly  Company  commenced  operation*  In 
I7N7,  mtii  are  flllpponeit  to  lie  the  first  company  that 
niadM  itny  progress  In  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
I  thitt  «t  Hrliigdwater  had  lieen  on  a  very  limited  scale), 
ynt,  tint  illfflclittleft  nnder  which  they  labored— the  ex- 
troofdlnary  hum  nf  materials  in  tiie  instniction  of  their 
iwr^ant*  unil  workmen — the  high  prices  of  machines, 
unknown  to  their  mnchnnici,  and  Imth  intricate  and 
ililDi'Mlt  in  thfir  I'onstrnction,  together  with  other  in- 
''iitfnt*  which  itRtially  attend  a  new  business— were 
«M'b  (lt«(  tli«t  cowpniiy  were  put  to  tlie  necessity  of 
»\>lt\yUlK  to  ttt«  Mute  legislature  for  assistance,  to 
«.^y<«  tlt«m  from  lielng  compelled  to  abandon  the  enter- 
prls.-  "ItoKothef, 

In  t  IM*tr  (iHUInM  to  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
iMmtittlvpd  of  Massachusetts,  presented  June  2d,  1790, 
H'i\f  thrtw  yeatn  after  they  hid  commenced  operations, 
tl)«*y  HlUti  "That  their  expenditure  had  already 
mumnMl  to  neArly  X4,000,  while  the  value  of  their 
tmsnining  stock  waa  not  equal  to  £2,000,  and  a  further 
vary  cnnsMornble  advance  was  absolutely  necessurj-  to 
oliiitin  that  d«((re«  of  perfection  in  the  manufacture, 
wliti^h  ftloni*  rnnid  ensure  success." 

Ai'm>fiHllK)y  a  grant  nf  £1,000  was  presented  them, 
to  \m  aiijtrnjtfiited  In  such  a  way  aa  would  efTectually 
pfftfflot*  tlm  monnfaotntlng  of  cotton  piece-goods  in 
thwdomtnonwealth, 

Tha  pethton  almve  referred  to,  and  other  collateral 
ht<t»,  finActontl)'  prove  that  cotton-spinning  In  this 
aotttttfy,  ftirther  than  the  hand-card  and  one  threud- 
w.iafl,  was  farrted  through  ita  first  struggles  l>y  the 
Itavarly  (inmpnny  tn  Massachusetts.  And  from  this 
Mot*  tna  mantifactnre  was  carried  to  Rhode  Island— 
tUimgH  It  tnxst  h«  acknowledged  that  both  States  were 
ItlitMlitfd  to  (itt¥^^  emigrants  for  instruction  and  assist- 
»ni>»  In  «pinn(flf(  and  weaving,  as  well  as  in  preparing 
tlw  (iott«m, 

i'o(tOlM{*tnnifig  commenced  in  Rhode  Island  in  1788^ 


COT 


4)8 


COT 


!•  wkkb  jur  DmM  Aii|Im«x,  AmIivw  D«at«r,  taA 
UwU  PMk,  kll  uf  I'rnvldMUMi.  MtefMl  Inki  •■  ■cr**' 
nrat  to  malU  what  wm  lb«n  wifUd  "  iHiiiMbtpuii  oloth." 
TIm  IdM  M  Ant  WM IM  mnImi  liiilM  »f  llii«n  warp  •pun 
by  kand  |  lint  imtrtng  thai  Mr,  Orr,  iif  llrMgairalar, 
and  Um  iiavarlv  I'umimny,  Im4  ImMirtad  miiM  modcln 
or  drangliU  o/  mavltliiar)'  A«M  K«MlaM,  Ihcv  Miit 
Ibltbar  and  ubUlnwl  drawlHiia  «f  lh«M,  according  tu 
wbick  tbay  aimiittiu<i»4  mmMmfif  «f  iMr  own.  Tb« 
Ant  Ibay  m»i»  wa«  a  lutHiatf^MiklM,  which  wai 
■oMMlblng  almUar  Ut  lhiM«  mmi  uaad  li/f  carrtlna  wool, 
tba  (wtinn  baiiu  lakiw  wff  lb«  Ma«hln«  >|p  rollii,  and 
alUrwapf  ronad  !»}•  bawd,  'ttm  Mat  wjla  nplnnlnK- 
frama,  •omatbintf  aliNiU*  t<«  tiM  wat«r>fram«,  or  rath<ir 
Iba  common  Jauny,  Ixtt  a  vafy  ImtMrfuct  manhln*.  It 
cnniUUd  of  algbt  b«»ta  of  four  uptndla*  aach,  being 
8*i  ipladlaa  in  all,  and  wa«  »ro«||hl  iif  mtBtm  of  a 
orank  turua<|  by  ik«  band  (  thia,  aftwr  Iwlng  triad  for 
roma  tima  lii  l'ri)vM«n(i«,  waa  taluw  to  f  awluaket  and 
atUchad  «u  a  wtt«»l  \ittnmiM  I*  wai«t )  tba  work  of 
turning  tba  nwubina  wm  Um  laiwrl  <•  to  tw  dona  hy 
band,  and  tba  ina«<blita  itaalf  waa  U:  •nparfact  to  ba 
tumad  by  watar,  Hmm  aftar,  ttMaa  Macblaaa  wara 
•old  to  Noaaa  Ukwn,  of  i'n»tM«M««  |  but  aa  all  tba 
carding  and  raving  waa  doM«  liy  band,  It  waa  rttj  Im- 
perfavt,  and  bHt  y»ry  lUtU  oomM  Iw  liona  In  thia  way. 
8ucb  wara  tita  rnda  maobifMia  um\  tut  uplnnlng  cotton 
prarioua  to  17IW  |  and  tba  wn«d«f  i»,  not  that  th«  man- 
ufacturara  failod  in  tbair  nn4«rtahlttgii,  but  ratbcr  that 
tbay  wara  aUia  f>  p«r»#v»fa,  Aiid  wa  can  now  par- 
eaiva  that  frum  tbaaa  Mnitll  baglnnlnga,  tba  praaant 
brigbUnad  proap««t«  nnaivad  tbair  foundatlob. 

Tba  Drat  i^ottim-iMiil  «f  tba  Ullitad  MM«a  waa  aractad 
\a  I'awtuufcat,  UU44m  InImh),  Ity  tba  lata  Mr.  Samuel 
Slstar,  a  nativa  of  iMpaf,  DartiytMre,  Kngland,  In 
17D0.  TImi  maohtiiary  waa  that  i4  tha  Arkwrlght 
patant.  't'bara  i«  avld«iM<«  that  Hafgraava'a  Jannlat 
wara  in  tm  in  tbi»  lottntry  ttravioaa  to  17»0,  bat  by 
whom,  and  wb«n  intMdHtMWl,  la  twA  known.  They 
wara  workad  (ifiwdpalty  by  H«'ot«b  and  Irlah  weaTari,, 
wboproduaadmtMdgaod^  of  llrnin  and  cotton.  Great 
Britain,  at  that  tima,  umi  t<ti^  mmn»  to  prevent  the 


bitroductiun  «f  bar  apinning  iMaeklnery'lnta  other 

«ii|if«M«iy 

tmsofttl 
bw  bad  feilad,    Tita  \Um,  Tancb  Com, 'of  PbUadeU 


countrlaa, 

•ad  every  Mttampt  to  tmi 


Iter  law  «ii|if«Miy  fuMA  lla  aanortatlon  ; 
(  Um  machlnary  Into  Amer 


pkla,  antarad  into  »  bond  with  a  iwrwn,  who  engaged 
to  aand  bin  from  (.ondim  ««>mpl«t«  braaa  models  of 
Arkwrigbt'a  patanta,  Tba  maoblHery  waa  oomplet«l 
•ad  paakad,  litit  waa  dataatad  by  tfa«  aMmlnIng  offloar, 
•nd  IbrMtad,  Muwrdiiig  l«  ttw  wibitlntf  lawa  of  Great 
Britain.  No  way  rawaiHdd  to  obtain  tha  bmieflt  of  the 
Brltiib  bivuntloun  but  to  tHanufactura  *Jwm  on  oar 
own  aoil,  I'or  tMa  purpMa  Mr,  Mataf  came  to  Amer- 
ica, ifa  bad  baaii  a  nupil  of  Arkwrtght,  and  waa  per- 
fectly familbir  with  Ml  ftia  |ait«tt(«.  Itu  brought  with 
bim  naitbar  pattarna  tm  HMmofanda  to  nsalat  him  in 
bis  work,  Itut  dapMided  MttiKty  ««  bis  meniafy,  • 
thing  wbiob  tb«  atatulaa  #f  Graat  firltalo  could  not 
reach.  Tba  JUlig  «f  Kligtand  bad  ft'equently  made 
piDciamstionb  agtlMt  MtytfadaMHanlMylng  the  king- 
dom, and  haii  tiallad  on  bia  oA««H  tot  tbeir  most  vigil- 
aat  watcb  againat  it|  b«t  tba  pntfomfcrDa  of  men 
leaving  tba  kingdom  twuM  not  b«  always  detected. 

Soma  of  tba  Ant  yam  mad*  tiy  Mr,  AUter  In  Amer. 
lea,  and  aouia  of  tita  Arat  Mitton  cloth  made  fioniit, 
waa  sent  to  tba  (itaeratary  of  tba  Traasury,  on  the  16th 
of  October,  17*1 1  and  it  towubably  In  enlstenoa  now. 
It  is  stated  that  Mr,  (jlay  Had  mm  of  tha  Arst  yam 
to  bU  posaaaalMi  i»  WMt,    ft  waa  aa  Ana  aa  a  tTo.  40. 

Mr.  Slater  mii»  indtMad  t«  i««va  bb  amployinant  un- 
der Mr.  Arfcwrigbt,  in  Knglaitd,  to  com*  to  Amerioa, 
by  aMing  •  pramium  olhnA  iiy  tba  f  * nnsylvanU  Bo- 
aiaty  for  a  aartain  mmMm  to  aphi  eotloii. 

Mr.  Hintar  Uborad  undar  lb«  graataat  dlaadvanta^sa 
fbr  tba  want  of  suitaltia  matMlals,  and  mechanics  of 
taflaLtnt  in^yasiity  t«  WMbA  Mm.    Tba  bialory  of  his 


flnt  labor*  la  deeply  Intaraating,  for  tba  detaila  of 
which  we  roust  refer  the  reader  to  his  blograplier.  Ilia 
flnt  machine  was  what  is  called  a  water-frame,  of  only 
24  spindles.  Such  was  the  humble  origin  of  cutton 
manufacturing  in  Americii.  from  that  flrst  machine 
the  advancement  of  the  cotton  manufacture  baa  been 
^ruiy  astonishing.  It  has  caused  hundreds  uf  piipulnus 
villages,  towns,  ami  even  cities,  to  spring  up  aa  if  by 
magic,  where  only  a  few  years  ago  nothing  was  seen 
but  a  l«rren  wiUemess.  Astonishing  as  has  been  the  in- 
crease of  the  various  manufacturing  towns  anil  vlllogea 
in  the  United  States,  Lowell,  in  Massaehuaetta,  sur- 
passes every  thing  of  the  kind  that  has  l)een  wttucsaed 
within  the  memory  of  man.  In  IfllO  its  site  was  a 
wilderness,  whither  sportsmen  went  to  ahoot  game. 
The  entire  population  of  the  territory  unmnd  it  did  not 
exceed  300  souls.  It  was  a  poor,  barren  dletrict,  with 
but  a  few  house*  on  the  spot  where  the  city  now 
stands;  and  the  Inhaliitants  supported  themselves 
principally  by  flsbing  in  the  Couconl  and  Herrimao 
rivers,  at  the  junction  of  which  Lowell  is  situated.  A 
company  of  wealthy  men  in  Boston,  seeing  the  valu- 
able water-privileges  of  tha  spot,  purcluaed  it  for  manu- 
factUiing  purposes.  The  flrst  cotton  mill  was  erected 
there  in  1822 ;  and  in  1830  the  population  of  the  place 
bad  increased  to  0477  persoiia.  In  1840  the  population 
had  increased  to  20,796 1  and  tha  value  of  property 
there  was  ^12,400,000.  In  18S6  the  number  of  cotton- 
mills  was  85,  spindles  3S0,»48.  Thus,  what  only  80 
yean  ago  was  a  wild  posture-ground  has  become  a 
large  and  flouriahlog  city )  a  proof  of  what  a  water- 
power,  seconded  by  capital  and  enterprise,  can  do  for 
a  place.  Lowell  is  a  splendid  example  of  an  American 
raanufucturing  city,  and  excites  the  attention,  and  in 
some  measure  the  Jealousy,  says  Mr.  McCuiloch,  of 
Manchester  and  Glasgow.  We  need  no  better  proof 
of  what  manufactures  can  accomplish  than  the  history 
of  Lowell.  The  Lowell  cotton-mills,  owned  by  twelve 
manufacturing  companies,  extend  in  a  continuous  line 
of  about  a  mile,  f^om  tha  Merimoc  to  the  I'awtucket 
Falls. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  thti 
country  is  luporaileled  In  the  history  of  industry. 
The  second  cotton-mill  in  America  waa  erected  in  1795, 
at  the  same  place  as  the  flnt,  No  more  were  built 
until  1808,  when  a  third  was  erected  in  Massoohusetts, 
followed  by  a  fourth  in  1804.  During  the  three  follow- 
ing years  ten  more  mills  were  erected  in  Rhode  Island, 
and  one  in  Connecticut,  making  in  all  iiflcen  mills, 
with  8000  spindles,  producing  800,000  pounds  of  yam 
annually.  By  a  report  made  to  the  government  in 
1810,  it  appeara  that  87  additional  mills  had  been 
erected  by  the  end  of  1809,  of  which  62  were  then  in 
operation  by  horse  and  water-power,  running  31,000 
splndlri.  The  cotton  manufacture  continued  to  spread, 
onu  ;eceived  a  considerable  Impulse  ttova  the  war  of 
1812.  In  that  year  there  were  In  Rhode  Island  38 
cotton  factories,  with  30,663  spindles.  In  Massachu- 
setts there  were  20  mills,  with  17,371  spindles. 

A  report  made  to  Congress  in  1816  gives  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  the  consumption  of  cotton  by  our 
mills,  showing  bow  rapidly  the  cotton  manufacture  had 
advanced.    The  consumption  of  cotton  was,  in 

BflM.    11  Mn. 

1800 600         1910 10,000 

1805 ,...     1,000    II    ISIS. 00,000 

Tha  fbllowing  statement  is  also  officially  made  la 
the  same  report,  showing  the  state  of  the  cotton  man- 
ufacture at  that  time : 

Oonltol  employed  In  »ia 940,000,000 

Molea  employed  over  IT  year*  old 10,000 

Women  and  female  cbllaren 60,000 

Boys  under  IT  yean 24,000 

Cotton  sloth  mannfkstured yarda  81,000,000 

Cost  of  same tM,000,a0O 

Baweottoo, 90,000  bales,.. or  lbs.    27,000,000 

The  aubjeot  of  protection  was  then  extensively  agk 
tatad.  Tha  importationa  of  cotton  goods  in  1816  and 
1816  waxv  immanae,  aod  eteotad  great  alarm  amoo( 


\1 


COT 


478 


COT 


in 

Bdn, 
10,000 

90,000 
J  made  in 
tiUon  man- 


minoflutaren.  Th«  ameiint  of  Importatloni  of  thoM 
two  yein  wu  about  %\mf!f*ifm.  'during  tha  yean 
1H17,  18IN,  1819,  and  1820,  great  diatreii  prevailed 
•mong  tha  manufacturen,  but  Congreii  waa  uot  dia- 
poied  to  K'ant  their  petltiuna  In  full. 

Tariff  lawn  were  paaied  in  1824,  182H,  and  1883,  in 
•aoli  of  wliioh  tlie  duty  upon  foreign  cotton  goods  im- 
ported waa  2S  per  cant.  ii>/  valorem,  Tlieie  dutiea, 
though  they  did  not  prevent  our  marluita  from  being 
glutted  with  foreign  gooda,  cauied  our  manufaoturat  to 
gradoally  incraaia. 

Taa  CoTToir  M«>urAonraaa  a 


In  1890,  the  Ant  cotton  mill  in  PaanaylranI*  wat 
erected  at  Manayunk  l>y  Captahi  John  Towom.  i'hera 
were  then  only  two  mnall  cottages  on  the  ipot.  II 
now  contains  BOO  dwellings,  6  churches,  16  stores,  and 
about  80  mills. 

Among  the  numerous  towns  that  luve  sprung  Into 
existence,  owiug  to  tlin  inriuence  of  uiiinufactures, 
may  lie  mentioned — Wullhum,  Patemun,  Ware,  Fall 
River,  Taunton,  Pawtucicet,  Lowell,  Lawrence,  I>rov- 
Idenco,  Rhode  laUnd,  Maco,  Ltwilton  I'tlls,  MkbUi 
etc.  -•!'.   j;*  ..:'■>-   I  ... ,  •.><?(, 

TWBLvi  Of  ma  Btitss,  w  1881.    ''.   f  "    '  '    '  ''" 


Maine 

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Masiaehusetts.... 

Rhode  Island 

Ounneetlent. . , . , . 

NewTork 

New  Jersey 

Psnnsylvsola.. . . . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

Total 


40 

17 

96« 

118 
94 

119 
61 
67 
10 
98 
_7_ 

801 


Looai. 


— sr 

8,580 

862 

8,981 

6,n8 

9,809 

8,868 

816 

8,801 

885 

1,001 

91 


176^000 
6^800,000 

896,600 
18,891,000 
6,869,840 
9,886,000 
8,86>,600 
1,017,644 
8,758,600 

884,600 
8,144,000 

990,000 


140,613,984 


Nwnbar  ftf 
■pbMllM. 


118,776 

19,898 

889,717 

18^768 

116,628 

167,81( 

68,979 

180,810 

34,806 

47,288 

9,844_ 

1,1«8,708 


YnHi  of 
•letll  podue«d 

ytarty. 


l,76tM8IO 
99,080,600 

9.28M00 
79,281,000 
87,181,681 

2(l,u^^.V)0 

21,010,920 

^  188,778 

81,882,467 

^2I)8,74« 

7,1149,000 

876,000 

'28(U6I,990 


lH)uadi  of 


rr'"' 


616,000 
7,866,060 
574,600 
81,801,061 
9,371,481 
6,818,000 
6,997,718 
1,877,418 
4,807,192 
1,901.500 
2,224.000 

llH,IHIO 

607514,036 


77,467,816 


DOTTOM  MAlCnrAOTUKKS  IK 

1860. 

llalM. 

M 

Ciptui 
liniaUd. 

B>Ju  of 

COUOD, 

Toiuof 
eoil. 

Valwofsll 
raw  WMUtUd. 

Numlwr  of  hwula 
•mpiuyad. 

Eotlra  wuM  p«r 
tnoatll. 

V»la.  of  .0- 
tin  frviueit. 

T«nli  of 

■bMUivr, 

•t«. 

M«Im. 

FcnuiU*. 

mi..: 

V.ttui.., 

Maine 

18 

4' 

9 

818 

158 

128 

88 

21 

808 

12 

24 

27 

28 

18 

86 

'ii 
1 

i 

8 
8 

"l 

"» 

88,839,700 

10,960,600 

802,600 

38,46^680 

6,87^000 

4,819,100 

4,178.920 

1,488,600 

4,698,926 

460,100 

1,386,000 

1,908,900 

1,068,800 

887,200 

1,786,156 

80,000 

661,900 

88,000 

18,6«0 
869,600 
889,000 
897,000 

48^000 

loilooo 

88^000 

81,581 
88,(y26 

2.248 
12..  107 
5(...l8 
8U,»«I 
87,778 
14,487 
44,108 

4,780 
28,825 
17,785 
18,617 

9,929 

20,380 

800 

5,208 
480 

170 
8,411 
8,760 
4,270 

"678 

'3^160 

"960 

2,021 
7,679 

46°64B 
18,116 

8,806 
1,689 
4,467 

24,180 
1,9'ifl 
8,212 

4,806 

1,000 

8,6io 

720 
8.152 

"800 

1,658 

81,678,110 

4,889,429 

114,415 

11,189,809 

8,484,679 

1,500,061 

1,98M78 

886,645 

8,162,580 

812,068 

1,168,679 

828,876 

681,908 

195,971 

900,419 

8<1,000 

387.081 

81,600 

8,976 
897,600 
180,907 
887,060 

38,220 

86^446 

oViooo 

7S<I) 
2,911 
94 
9,298 
4,059 
2,708 
2,688 

616 
8,5»4 

418 
1,008 
1,275 

442 

809 

878 
28 

846 
19 

"is 

810 
181 
182 

"'88 

"'76 

"41 

2,0.'HI 
9,811 
147 
19,487 
6,910 
8,478 
8,684 

l,(»Ort 
4,099 

416 
3,014 
1,888 
1,777 

620 

1,809 

87 

8«» 
17 

"'is 

681 
221 
869 

"'67 

"'so 
"io8 

82-A896- 

7^718 

1,480 

212,802 

02,288 

61,670 

48,244 

11,078 

08,612 

8,826 

15,.M6 

12,988 

6,168 

6,683 

18,725 

900 

4,058 

870 

"ioo 

8,304 
2,707 
2,191 

"496 

"sio 

"676 

885,978 

114,161 

1,881 

264,514 

76,668 

41,080 

86,699 

10,487 

40,856 

4,926 

10,108 

11,791 

7,916 

^161 

10,862 

886 

1,946 

101 

"iflo 

8,780 
2,070 
1,684 

"8S6 

"sflO 

"825 

(1,606,866 

8,880,619 

196,100 

19,711,481 

8,447,120 

4,267,521 

8,601,989 

1,109,624 

6,822,262 

68,8,489 

2,120,504 

1,486,884 

881,842 

74H,88S 

2,185,(U4 

40,920 

882,280 

80,500 

lb>J7 
510,624 
178,480 
894,700 

H800 

141^900 

100,000 

82,861,6«4 
118,106,947 

1,861,000 
198,751,801 
06,7«V,611 
61,780,700 
44,901,475 

8,128,680 
46,746,790 

8,521,688 
97,888,928 
1^64O,107 

1,470,110 

6,568,787 

7,200,292 
624,1)00 

8,031,000 

868;260 

1,008,000 

280,000 

i,4ob;6oo 

New  Uampshlre . 

Vermont 

Masaschusctts..,. 
Bhodo  Island.... 
Connecticut   , . . . 

Now  York 

New  Jomoy 

Pennsylvania.... 

Delaware 

Maryland 

VlriHnla 

North  Carolina. . . 
South  Carolina... 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Loulslaua 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentuoky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

IndlanaT. 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Iowa 

WtsoonMn 

Callfbtnia 

Disk  of  Columbia. 
Total 

1,094 

74,501,081 

641,240  { 121.099 

884,388,066 

88,160 

69,186  Mm  778 

8708,414 

' 

,     .-,...   J 

TABtrLAS  OOMPABATIVE  StATRMRNT  SIlOWlNa  THH  QirANTlTlRS   AND  DKCI.ARRD   VaLURS   Or  COTTOK  MaNUFACTURRS  AND 

Yarns  Expobtrd  rsov  Orrat  Britain  and  rRou  tub  Unitro  Statrs,  rrsprctitelt,  to  all  Copntrirs,  roa  A 
riBioo  orFivB  Years,  rRou  1S61  to  1855,  both  inolusivb.* 


Ymn. 

(IREAT  BRITAIN. 

UNITBD  STATES.                              | 

HANDVAOTOmll. 

VAUS. 

MARUrACrVKKS. 

TARNI.                        1 

QuAiiUtln. 

V«l«.l.t 

Qutuillllei. 

ValDM. 

<)lUI>8llM. 

Valwi. 

1861 

1861 

1868 

18.14 

1856 

Agrecats. 
Average. . . 

V.rd.. 
1,618,161,789 
1,6H1.VI,914 
1,5(4,692,659 
1,(91,977,478 
1,986,846,987 

(110,246,010 
108,142,290 
119,509,700 
116,884,800 
180,628,875 

PoUili. 

148,968,106 
145,478,802 
147,689,802 
147,128,408 
186,499,647 

(88,246,010 
88,278,276 
84,478,965 
88,466,986 
86,152,140 

No  data. 

H 
U 

U 
.1 

(7,308,»48 
7,687,488 
8,746,800 
6,486,901 
6,867,181 

No  data. 

u 
u 

(87,260 
84,718 
92,694 
49,818 
None. 
(148,887 
19,777 

9,290,886,775 
;,868,167,165 

686,605,676 
117,101,115 

749,611,755 
149,922,831 

170,608,626 
84,121,825 

.... 

(84,981,0(6 
6,»8«,811 

' .  • .'  l" 

*  Made  op  ttom  British  and  United  States*  ofllclal  dooumants,  respeotlroly ;  the  sommerdal  year  of  the  ibrmer  ending 
Deeemher  81,  and  of  tho  latter  June  80. 


t  The  ponnd'sterling  li  computed  at  five  dollars. 

The  articles  Cotton  and  Cotton  Manufactures  have 

been  compiled  principally  from  the  otBcioI  report  of 

the  Statistical  Office  to  Congress  in  1866,  United 

States'  Patent  Office  Reports,  tables  prepared  by  Mr. 


W.  P.  Vl^right,  cotton  broker.  New  Yorit  city,  Enoyolo. 
pedia  Britannioa,  eighth  edition,  and  De  Bow's  In|> 
dustrial  Resources  of  tha. Unitad.States,  the  latter  now 
published  at  Washiogton,  D.  C. 


cor 


47i 


COT 


■tAfiMiRT  isaiaimra  m  riHiitaii  Iii»mn*Tinn  aid  liaixmitATiaii*.  Mniutici  KmiBTtriniii  «■»  namb  rna. 
(vnmnii  ur  riMMidH  C'onoa  lioopi,  tovmiis  with  tih  <  oimvianitiir  »r  roHiiiua  Lorrun  (iiMina  <iv  ii  ixiniiaTio 
KiruKTATicx.  Till  Ni'ima*  or  I'odku*  nr  Hk«  ■•i.anI)  anu  utiim  >  uttox  ami<uai.i,v  iiniaTii)  ranu  tiik  t.  > 


IMO 

I»(t 

IMI  

KM 

IS44 

INfi 

M« 

IMT 

1848 

1S4» 

IMM 

IMI  .... 

18U 

IBM 

18B4 

isns 

IMW 

Yntiy  «v. 


•  •Tt«-li,   Makix 


laiinifM. 


il.AI)4- 

ii.7b;.(i»<i 

ll.MtlMft 

4,i>rM.7M 

IU.II4I.4;h 

IIIMdll,; 

laMn.A^A 
IA,l»AHTft 

iK.iill.ri8) 
m,TM.N4i 
.■o,i()8,Tr.i 

."M  114,449 
1(1  IW  l,4M 
iT.TSI.BII 

'>)i,»4i>,Mje 

li.iftT.llS 

■JMilT.IHW) 
lil.7iN41H 


l^uralfN 


I.IW).4NII 

UI4,l>4» 
4<l4,ll4» 

«7:l.!Jit:i 

4Mil,IIVl 

I,'/Iil,l7; 

671, iwi 

4.'7.in7 

fl77.U-«ii 

(K»7.IH(I 

l,lM.,'ui:i 

I.4(li,l7.< 

l,5so.4UB 


iiu.i,n4 


DoUIMll* 


.i.Mu.a  17 

U.IV'^  Mil 
.'.'.iloiMinl 

4,!I'.'7,»-.N* 
:i.MV4i4l 
4.ilN'i.Mili 
.^,7lH,V(lfl| 
4  van,  rill 
4,illl.4lMl 
I.V4t.7<ift 
7.ili'i,IBI 
■<,7tW,HU4 
.M>.nftli), 
.^,-<B7.1Sll 
II.INI7,lKIU 


llmii*  tint 

■iiiH|«l)iin 

of  funmn 

I  iitlon 

liMMla. 


T 

B.4"*Mimi 
lo.s'n  1  s 

M.74I.IWII 

I  '/.il4t.7Ml 

ii:i,'iiM.Nx 
'in,ii(iii,7« 

li.Sfi7,4« 
l4,7(M,7lil 
17,.i)ft.4l7 
lft.l>tl,7ftii 
lli.All.IIK 
'il.4H«t,Ml« 
tMlt)/.4'l(l 
'M.«7lt,in(i 
..'J.4^l.ll.'4 
l.'i,74l,B>H 
'J4.m;.B'4 


B,ii<M,7T<{IB,H>4,8(l4 


IliXlM  eii«m)m|f. 
IliM  if  r»r«lia 
1  iMutt  ituuia 
III  cr  iliMnMlJ« 
KifarUUaM^ 

I.N6I.IIHH 

7.71*,  4114 

A.7fO.U:i8 

ri7H,7i  4' 

lll.Xli.lKMI 

1I.3II.II4I 
Iii.ll'i4.il7 
11,4^7, il'i 
Kl.'.'M.tlW 
lt.IU7.IN8 
l4.'i4A.W.lT 

s.ll-.'O.BIft 
17,7ilH,(lft(» 

M.Wt.mm 

li,MiT,liT7 
I7:I7II.IIB 


*  UuioMtle  »purUtluiui  uvir  liuiua  oonauuiptlun  of  Airalgii  coltun  gwUa. 


Rtatiiiint  KxiitniTina  tub  PoroLATioH,  total  PBonnnr  or  MANurAOTCBBa  or  ('ottoii  and  Fxroari  or  baw  CnrTow, 
UANurAiMuaaa  nr  Cotton  in  the  I'nitiii  .'•TATica.  iiimB  C'oNaVHrrioN  or  noiiaaTio  lioona,  iiomb  t'oNacMrTioM  or 
roBaiuN  (iuoiia,  AND  Till  TOTAL  iioMa  I  oNauHPTioN  or  roBBiuN  AND  uoniaTiu  (oTTOM  Uuoua,  AMD  tub  Allothbnt 
PIbCai-ita.  roBTUB  YiABa  IN4II.  I8MI.  and  INSA. 


PDpuUll'lll 

Total  pniiliict  of  mannftusturva  ot  ration  and  <jx|>orU  of  n»  cation 

AllotiDi'iit  |ier  r«|ilta  uf  nii.iiiifai-hin'a  of  cottun  and  oporta  of  raw  ratton 

MAnafartun-a  of  cotton  In  tlio  l'o4tiH]  Htatra , 

Allotm«iit  iwr  raplta  of  the  maiiufacturea  of  cotton  in  Iho  I  nltvd  Htatea 

Iloma  oiniiiinptlon  of  doineatlc  Kooda 

AilotiUi'nt  per  capita  of  the  homo  rotiauniptlon  of  domoMtli  cotton  gaoda 

Home  cotHiintiitlon  (if  forrlgn  rotloti  gwntn 

Allntiiiniit  |i4.>r  raplta  of  the  lioino  ronauiiiiitlun  of  forclKo  cotton  gooila 

Total  linini^  coiiinmptton  of  foreign  and  dontcntir  Kiioda 

Allotini'iit  per  capttii  of  total  home  connmuptlun  of  forolKii  and  donicatte  gooda. 


IHM. 


I7IHW..IB3 
lllll,Vi0.7dll 

II  4rii'J 
4a.HSii,4fi8 

171  M 
4^,800,840 

■i  60-74 
n.4illl,B<.  B 

Ulll  M 
48.'.>»1.n4I 


lU*. 


«i.ti)iH;n 

♦  133,86:1  HflO 
BIT  IB 

0l.8llli.ls4 
■i  00-77 

67,134.701) 

»  41-1 -nil 

1«,681011 
11  H4-Nfl 

T0,81«,37« 
U31  'J2 


;F~St: 


mi. 
isbbTt' 

|IBV,|l8r>B0 

6>fi'.iT 
10,1(04,7 1 -i 

1I«I04 
06,107,681 

SI  DO  40 
16,T44,BH 

007*1 
80.8BS,08U 

liU-40 


Statbmny  or  -niB  ItiroBTt  iino  tdb  TiciTiin  Statkh  or  roBBiiix  CorroNR  and  (.'otton  MAKvrAoruui 

riavAL  ^  BABa  1864,  186,\  and  IHBO. 


DVBiRa  nil 


kaw  col  tun 

IMnlfld  and  colored  cottona 

White  cottona 

Cottona,  tanilioulvd  or  embroidered*.. 

Velvet-*  of  cottun 

^Vlveta  of  cotton  and  allk 

C'orda,  i^'.iiipa,  and  galloona 

lioalery  and  aillclea  made  on  fhimea, , 

Cotton,  yam  and  thread 

Ilattcra'  phiah,  part  nllk 

Cotton  limtrting,  lacca,  etc 

All  other  ruttuiia , 

TiiIbI  Iniporta  of  cotton 


»S4.884. 


,11U,761 
000,000 
006,688 
1114.00ft 
Bie84S 

inro.7iio 

20,  us 

ini.iiiu 

■.«7.V88 


»:iu.  1811.868 


Sunimnry  obowlng  ths  export*  of  domeatic  anil  for- 
eign unnjaniifacturcd  anil  manufactured  cotton  from, 
•nd  the  iniporta  of  manufactured  cotton  into  the  United 


Stalea  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  ,10,  1857.  This 
aiinimary  atao  Kperillca  tlie  countiiea-  with  which  thli 
truilu  was  comlutlod. 


ExvoBTii  or  THB  roanoN  MANrrAOTOBB*  or  Cotton  raou  tto  Initbd  s^tatxb  roa  tub  Yba 

a  ItMIINS  J 

T»lal 
Vara  and 
Thraad. 

trwB  30,  1«BT. 

WhlUxr  MportaJ. 

PW«  (looJ.. 

V,.|<>«la. 

ronto, 
Ulmjn.  and 
nadoaaa. 

Hualary  and 

ArtlriM  mad* 
o«  rraiaa*. 

Maaafartuiaa 

of,  not 

■pMiaad. 

Aalatle  Knaala 

»l.;i44 
8.164 

490 
1,B« 

410 

».r>B 

l.»IO 

18,440 

6,079 

SBO 
I.0B4 

n 

M,116 

1T1.»4<) 

»,««l 

49,638 
4» 

n.Viw 

?,B66 
111 

•880 
145 

.... 

$140 

H«V6 
T68 

.... 

i'a'iB 

*60 

si,Ma 

isb'm;) 

8.31)8 

lii'.JST 
6,18T 

"iio 
iKsio 

HuaHlan  INmSPsaioiu  In  North  Amerloa 

Panliih  West  Indiea 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

England 

Scotland 

Other  nritlah  North  American  Poasesilona 

Britlah  llondnma 

Brittah  Cast  Indies...  1 

Mexico 

BrmBll   

Chill 

Sandwlrh  Tdnndi 

Whala-llshetles 

Toul 

$806.30^ 

*B7S 

ili*.i 

$ll,Slfl 

$  2.616 

•22S.I0T 

«I8A.'.-VB 
119.36T 

•iHs 

•M81 
12 

16.147 
8.6T2 

«IBS61 
T.ZB'i 

SI6B,'.'4« 
Ti.SflS 

Not  from  warehouse 

Kuislauu  III 
Hainhiirg. , 
nrenieii  , . 
Other  (leriiu 
I  Holland  . . 
UelKlum.. 
,  Kiigland.. 
Scotland.. 
Ireland,.. 
Canada. . . . 
Other  ilrilUl 
Ilritlsh  Weit 
DritlKh  foair 
British  Auati 
ilritiah  |;a>t 
France  on  Hi, 
Franco  on  tli 
Hpain  on  the 
Philippine  la 

tuba 

1  Azores  . . 
Sardinia. . , 

Tuaaany 

Porta  In  AfHc 
Now  liranadii 
Venoauela . 
Chill 

Sandwich  lala 
China ....     ^ 


GOT 


4T< 


COT 


r.xTOBT*  iir  TNI  wmwftr  M»iiiir««»TlilM  n»  Cimnn  riioii  Tin  I  hitud  ht4Tm  rn«  »ii«  Viai  imiiii*  .(CUB  t^,  IHT. 


IlllWltll  V'M,  III  V    S,    , 

NwihIIiIi  Waal  ImtlM, ,, 

IMlllilftik   ,, 

l)*nliii  W»M  Iit4liw... 

HruiiMii til 

liutnh  Wi'«  lii<llii<  .,11 
lliifh  K.ut  liiiIlM    ,,,. 

IM«liim  .11,11 

Knultml ,,,,, 

Sinlluiiil  >,,•>,  1 1 

OlliriilUr ,11 

M»IU 

<'*iiiuiii ,,,,, 

Dllitr  llrll.  S.  A,  I'uWii 

llrltlnh  Wi'M  riiill 

Ilrlllah  ll.iiiiliina 

llrlUihlliil*ii»,,,i 

llrltUli  l^l<•.  III  MtU*.. 

Ililllili  ikiKiiali* 

iirilUh  Kui  lii.IlM 

■■'rftniiH  (III  Ihi-  AlUiillii , , 
Kraniw  »n  ilm  Ho'liurr'ii 
Knineli  N.  A.  I'liMalnlniK 
gp4ln  iiii  (III!  Ailkiillg 

('aiiarjr  |g|iiiii|,t 

rhUlpiiliin  laUiiiU  I , 


riiMiit 

Wblto                       1     IHhat     II 

lUltt   ikH      llMk 

Ifwl 

maiiiilM' 

_j 

»« 

..n  „*• 

•••• 

4t» 

UiUM    Kmxi 

■iKit 

I* 

IMfi 

1,111 

lil.*M 

Kwm 

1      ■   t 

M,«l» 

4II.<M 
lUii 

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»,lh\ 

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l.Utll 

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t  •  ,   , 

...  I 

i.mf 

l.n>Ni 

91 

U.MII 

IflftM 

llitiM'i 
ITU  AMI 

l<)Vi4l» 

IMIil 

iim.;iM 

IM4  4 

D'l.1'1 

•iT.TiM 

IJfM 

Ml< 

H,W/ 

Mr 

l.l«f 

I:M« 

l.M 

4.IU 

i'l'iPi 

ii'iiiifl 

l.dfl 
IIU 

'SM 

VT^W 

«».  f  m 

St  HI 

»,vnn 

mwt 

IIIKIIA 

T*4 

•111 

( 1  » » 

liM 

IKM 

I.4IIA 

j>:^i( 

*  *  «  * 

l,iiliT 

1  ■  < 

«,4I» 

UN  Ml 

10 

•  1  r  » 

1  1  «  1 

V.fMII 

.  t  1  • 

I  .  1  # 

lift 

Tflft 

1,11)11 

MIMA 

l.iWI 

.... 

WklUn  tirMtt^, 


WMl. 

«k«  ikw 

Uiuk 


l.illw 

I'lirln  HloOi.i, 

Cnrtunl 

Mxlufrit 

< '•iw  da  VanI  lalanila 

Aanraa 

Turkajr  In  Kurnp* 

Tiirkar  In  Aala 

FiirU  In  Afrlu 

Ilayll 

Han  Donilniio 

Ma<lni 

I'tiiilral  llapubllo 

Now  Omnada 

Vpnaanala 

Hraall 

I  ruH.iay,  or  <;Uiilil.  U«p, 

Arfanllna  llemibUi* 

(hill 

I'l-rii 

Miindwirh  lilanda 

I  Hilar  lalanda  Inllio  raolflr 

I  hina 

Whali'-Aaheriaa 


*,m\ 


tiOlM 

Miei 

l.iO'll 

tu,su 

Vil.431 
r.KT;! 

4»JI0 

<,77U 

m.AM 

lO.iNU 

ii),4;n 

IT«.1'4 

TT.flns 

4ii,00'i 

4,0M 

lai.filB 

<Wl)j 


1T.II« 

«,li||« 
««ii 

i.aiMi 

007 

B.T4II 

t.»U 

4b.6\t 

6AT.'.Hi 

Vt.iM 

I. Ml 

ITI.IAN 

II7U6 

M.IU 

«I,TT8 

«MV.»ni 

IK.IIDI 

a6.aov 

DTI.fWn 

n.96fi 
8.i,e»4 

htAV 

9:  B.irs 


Tiiiiii  vaiii* i.iss  I  SB  B.40.i.ian  iki.  luv  eu.  IbS 


IHiwr 


{Biaa«ta» 
I  lata.  »». 


'il.'.^T|  in.niA 


n 

I.IIM 


Uti 
6.or,ll  l20,4Bi 
S.OTS  40 


SiBIT 

8.T(W) 

B.VIW' 

tl.»iT 

94.  NIDI 

11,1  n; 
4  Tin 

IfliiT 
B,4t< 

Hill 

1114 


IIT.BIA 
U 

i.ww 

ll.iH<:i 

4'iO 

l.MU 

5.01  i» 


14n 


..^ 


ExroM*  or  piMiNvrAiitvaiw  i:<m»H,  or  modi  I'aonttoTiim,  rBOM  tui 

ilVNI  UU,  I8M. 


Umitid  Statu  roa  tna  Yeas  mipiiii) 


•nil,  88 

,nii,T5» 
.nrti.OflO 


iM.onft 

1.M9  MS 


( 30,  1S8T. 


tilt 


IBS  631! 

a.ttus 


11I.28T 
8,I8T 


filrA'.'W 


vnMufmtiti, ■■■'■ 

Haiaa. 

■.a.Ulaa4.  "    ' 

"■    ■■    aitf.  

ValM,  ' 

Nankar. 

PauaiU. 

Piiuadi. 

KuaaU    n  iha  lUllla  ami  ftiiUHHtM 

W.M)] 

ai,ii.;3.Mi4 

$4,107,231 

IVinalii  1 ,.1,1,111. 

H 

. , ,  I 

m.m\ 

:i.n74 

Xwaili'ii  aiKl  Nurw*)!  ,,  n, ,  i,i,,,ii,>i,.,,ii 

«1,BiB 

■  ■  •  • 

in.oas.ofB 

1,V40,04'J 

Uaiiiiiurk  . ,  ,1 i,,,,i,*,.  ,,i, ,,,,«, II 

1,4j:) 

•  1,1 

i,i7(i,a«ii 

i&4.ai» 

llanibiirii ,,,ii,,,,,,i,,,iiii. 

Si.TiO 

•  •It 

iii,m4.o;b 

1.31 1,11  !ir> 

llniiiinn I ,1  III,,.,,!  II  1,1 

Tl,l«» 

1»,1SB 

B4n6i.M'l 

4  8Hil,4H 

Holland , ,,  i ,,,,,,  i,i  i 

9t.MJ 

. ,  •• 

10,484 fi7 

1  !M8.II'S 

UalRlnin ,,,>,,,,,,,,,,,, 

iM.lIB 

lOO.IKlO 

IV,U7,4'.'a 

1.420,0116 

KnKlaiid  ,.  i.,i,ii ,, .,,,,,■,,, >,,,,, <■,,,,, 

l,4IO,«4T      , 

i),iiA4.vea 

047.<)a',>.4H4 

8l.62ll,0ia 

Hiutlaiid 1 1 1 1 1 , ,  1 1  > ,  1 1 , 1 , 1 , ,  1 1 1 ,1 , , ,  1 1 

10,4m 

tlifiU 

7,070  «,15 

iiN>,ii8a 

Inland ,  1  • , , ,  1 , , , . , ,  1 1 , , ,  1 , ,  1 , 1 , , 

4fl,»lT 

8i),W8  7»« 

<.«I'>.»B4 

('anaiU m,  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1 

I.1I4T 

«so 

860.810 

vi.a^s 

Kranao  mii  Ilia  AIUiill*,i,i,,i,,i,, ,,,,,,,,, 

aTA,BTO 

8,486,S73 

100,  SOS.  an  J 

23,08i,mT 

t'raiii'u  nil  iliu  M>»llliirriina«iiii,,,,i,,,i,,ii 

a,IBT 

...   - 

1,I8B,UIS 

181.118:1 

Hpalnoii  iliii  .\ilanlla ..,,,,,, 

gBDO 

B.<108,IS« 

474,04.1 

8|ialnon  ili«  UiullUrmnaan  ,,ii,,,i,,,.ii,. 

»B,Tn4 

4t,7BI.!'8l 

B.O'.U.Ilf 

Cub* ,.  1,1  ii.,i,  „,,,,,, 

4 

«,0.1(> 

'.'00 

I'ortuuul  ,.,.,, 1 ,>,(,,,. 1 ,,,, 1 1 ,,,,,,,,,,,  1 

m 

no.  4:19 

«,»;i'i 

Aiori'a . . . .  I . .  1 , 1 , . , ,  1 1 , ,  1 1 , , , , , , , , ,  1 , 1 , , , , 

4 

sas 

1,000 

«M 

Sardinia n*,  n,,,,,,,  i,,,,,i,ii 

»«,TP4 

, , 

ia,fBs,«Tj 

i,r«:.M'3 

Twn  HIcllli'a ,,,  ,.,,,,,,111,, ,,,,,,  1,1 

l.JTB 

.1. 

IWI.B8T 

7I.80« 

Auatita ,,,,,,,,,,«,,,>,,,,,,  II 

ie.i3i 

. .  I. 

7.ai4,Wi2 

»B.'.U24 

M»»lc« 

Tolal , 

gti.ic* 

7,ft,'>8  I'.as 

01111,747 

""'VM:'^' 

l-i94i).':5iB 

l,liaB!l4i,7NI 

l|Hill.t)7B.Nf>',> 

IiiroRTa  uy  TU»  MANVrAVTVUW  or  t'onm  IKtii  Tm  1 

siiTin  Htateb  ron  tiii 

YeaU  KNUINa  <)U!<E 

SO,  19S7. 

WhaaM  laiyafM, 

naMOaMla. 

Valrala. 

t'rirflt, 
Ulmni.  wd 

(Jalluuna. 

llnalirj,  aiiil 
.(rllalM  Biada 
on  l^ranuM. 

TwUl  V«fn 
■nJ  TbrtaJ. 

HiitMn* 

Plu.h  of 
4tlk  Rnd 
t'oUon. 

Munuffiriiiras 

■jitciliv'l. 

Uujfla  m  tlia  Haiti*  Mill  Vurtli  tliii 

fl.lN) 

, 

...  a 

. , 

t  a   .  . 

$7*'. 

Hamburg , , ,  1 , 1 1 1 1 1 

IW,7:« 

»»;il 

$5,rii8 

$3*4,091 

»ist 

58,!>0i> 

llruniiMi ,  ,,,,n 

tl*.IW 

n.ftw 

2,4'8 

l,ll87,aS4 

ITS 

$a,.i4i 

292,4  '■ 

Dthi'r  Herman  port* ,iiii,i,,i 

1       .  1 

• .  .  t 

a  •  .  . 

2 

a  •  •  • 

Ilolland ,,,,,,.,, 

BDt 

«.«« 

83 

1S9 

a  a  •  * 

a.OI8 

UalKlum ,  > ,  •  I , ,  I , , . , , , ,  1 1 

A4BIK 

1.4'iT 

(»T8 

20,0D6 

214 

, , 

111,^88 

Kiiirland , , ,  • , , , , ,  „ , , , ,  1 1 1 

l«,4ilKiOHT 

e6i.a7A 

200,fl.lo 

i,n-.',asft 

094,020 

0,191 

IIOT.K' 

Scotland , ,  1 1 1 1 , , ,  1 1 , 1 

t,IHt.'m 

i,an» 

81 

14,1!  B 

8117,313 

•   •   a   a 

06,9^  t 

Ireland , ,  1 1 , , , , , , , 

n.*n 

•  •It 

.... 

•  .  a  . 

•  ••• 

»*< 

Uanada , ,,,,, 

nm 

49 

a  •  «  . 

1 

1 

2,761 

VI 

.... 

•  .  .  a 

,  •  •  • 

• , ,  • 

...  a 

4 

llritiahWoO  iMdIat .,,.,,.. 

27 1 

.... 

•  •  •  . 

2 

.  1,  • 

1ST 

Ilritixli  I'oaaeaatona  In  Afrlu* , , 

IM 

.... 

a  .  .  a 

•  ■ . , 

.  .  a* 

Urittab  AuatralU ,,,, 

•m 

•  >  .  . 

.  •  .  < 

*  .  •  . 

.  ■  aa 

,, 

llrltbili  ICattIudlM.,,1 ,,,,,,, 

•  a  . 

289 

7T0 

443 

Franw  on  tlia  AUaitlla ,,,,, 

1,«4,I*T 

t.ilM) 

6.B01 

B»,l)63 

7,7.>9 

1,487 

221,7.11 

Franco  on  tho  Mi'dllsrranaan  , , ,  1 , 1 

i,im 

.  .  •  < 

.   •   a   • 

TBT 

Spain  on  lli>*  Madtlwrsnawi  , , 

Pliillpphiu  laltuda , ,,,, 

4 

.... 

.  a  a  t 

a  •  a  a 

*  *  a  . 

m» 

t  .  <  i 

•    .   .   • 

>  ••  • 

.  •  ■  a 

.•  •  a 

4 

Cuba , ,,,, 

Htt4 

•  <  *  * 

«  .  •  a 

a  .  •  . 

<  ■  .■ 

24 

Azorpa ,  1 , , ,  1  • .  1 , ,  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

.... 

.  .  a  ■ 

181 

.  •  a  a 

, , 

Sarilliilu ..i,i,i,>iiiii,,iii 

lit 

1  *  n 

.   .  <  . 

m 

40 

Tuaaanjr , >,,,,,■.  1 1 ,,, , 

»  *ll 

•  «  •• 

.  •  >. 

* . .  • 

.... 

.... 

B 

Porta  In  Afrloa ,,.,,>,,,,  1,, 

1 

.... 

•  *aa 

,.,, 

•  ••  • 

41 

Now  Uranada ,  > ,  > , , ,  1 , , ,  1 1 , , , 

«i,tTO 

H  •  i 

215 

B27 

bOl 

a  a  a  a 

Veneiuela . , , . . , , , , , ,  1 1 , , , ,  1 , 

IK 

...» 

II,, 

•  a   .  . 

.   .   a  . 

• ,  •• 

a  a  *  • 

ChlH ,,,,,,,,,, 

Nil) 

•  ■  .  . 

•II, 

•  a.  . 

•  •  •  • 

a  a  a  a 

Sandvich  lalandl  1...,,, 1, 

»« 

1.4* 

1 1  If 

•  .  •  » 

a  •• 

'               .  .  .  • 

China ,„,. ,„,,,,, 

Total  value ,,•  111,11,1 

.... 

•  •a. 

4 

.••• 

...a 

HMJf^.VnT 

■»-il3S  4 

$;».2lrt.M7 

*l,-i<l.lf>3 

$11,478 

$1.7'2ft.flKT 

oon 


470 


OOTT 


Cotton  Dyeing.  (Ttinlur«daCoeon,Ft.;Baum- 
voUti^M>erti,  G«rm.)  Cotton  and  linen  yarns  and 
elotha  hava  nearly  tha  tame  affinity  for  'lyes,  and  may 
therefore  with  propriety  be  treated,  in  this  reapect, 
together.  After  they  have  acquired  the  proper  de- 
gree of  whitenesi,  they  are  BtiU  unfit  to  receive  and 
retain  the  dyes  in  a  permaniMit  manner.  It  is  neceg- 
taiy,  before  dipping  them  into  the  dye-bath,  to  give 
them  a  tendency  to  condense  the  coloring  particles 
within  their  cavities  or  pores,  and  to  commnnioate 
inch  chemicii.1  properties  as  will  fix  these  particles  so 
that  they  will  not  separate,  to  whatever  ordinary  trial 
they  may  be  subjected.  All  the  colors  which  it  would 
lie  desirable  to  transfer  to  these  stnffs,  unfortunately 
do  not  possess  this  permanence.  Men  of  science  en- 
gaged in  this  important  art,  have  constantly  aimed  at 
^be  discovery  of  some  new  processes  which  may  trans- 
fer into  the  class  of  fast  colors  those  dyes  which  are 
at  present  more  or  leas  fugitive.  Almost  all  the 
goods  manufactured  of  cotton,  flax  or  hemp,  are  in- 
tended to  be  washed,  and  ought,  therefore,  to  be  so 
dyed  as  to  rests  the  alkaline  and  soapy  solutions 
commonly  used  in  the  laundry.  Vitalis  distinguished 
dyed  cottons  into  three  classes :  1.  the  fugitive,  or 
fancy-colored  {petit  teint),  which  change  their  hue  or 
are  destroyed  by  one  or  two  boils  with  soap ;  2.  those 
which  resist  five  or  six  careful  washings  with  soap, 
are  good  dyes  (Aon  teint) ;  and  those  which  were  still 
more  durable,  such  as  Turkey  reds,  may  bn  called  fast 
colors  {grand  teinf).  The  colors  of  Ilrazil-wood,  log- 
wood, annotto,  safBower,  etc.,  arefuyitive;  those  made 
with  madder  without  an  oily  base,  are  gdodf  and  those 
of  madder  with  an  oily  mordant,  an/uat. 

Cotton'-WOOd.  (Populus  argenlra.)  This  spe- 
cies is  scattered  over  a  great  extent  of  country,  com- 
prising the  middle,  southern  and  western  States.  It 
is,  however,  quite  rare  in  the  middle  States.  K^ 
York  city  may  be  considered  as  the  most  northern 
point  at  which  it  grows.  It  is  quite  commo^i  along 
the  Mississippi  river.  The  cotton-tree  grows  some- 
times to  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  and  2  or  3  feet  in 
diameter.  The  leaves,  while  very  young,  are  covered 
with  a  thick,  white  down,  which  gradually  disappears, 
leaving  them  smooth  aljove,  and  slightly  downy  be- 
neath. The  wood  of  the  cotton-tree  is  soft,  light,  and 
unfit  for  use,  and  inferior  to  that  of  most  of  the  other 
poplars.  It  is  appropriated  to  no  pa,rticular  use  in  the 
arts  or  for  fuel. — Brownk,  JSglea  A  mericana. 

Counterfeiting.  Large  sums  of  money  have 
been  expended  with  a  view  to  devise  plans  for  the 
prevention  of  counterfeiting  bank  notes,  bank  checks, 
etc.,  but  thus  far  no  successful  plan  has  been  devised. 
The  New  England  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Counterfeiting,  has  for  some  years  Iwen  in  operation 
at  Boston,  and  is  aided  by  the  treasury-  of  Massachu- 
setts to  the  extent  of  12,600  per  year.  This  society 
has  been  the  means  of  detecting  and  punishing  nu- 
merous counterfeiters.  Forging  of  government  cer- 
tificates of  United  States  stock,  land  warrants,  etc., 
is,  by  act  of  Congress,  punishable  by  imprisonment 
not  over  10  years.  For  counterfeiting  a  post-ufiice 
frank,  a  fine  of  $10  will  be  imposed.  The  counter- 
feiting of  coins  of  the  United  States,  or  of  foreign 
coins,  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonment  l>ctween  3 
and  10  years,  or  imprisonment  of  6  years  and  a  fine 
of  tl,000.— See  Dti.xLAr's  Vigest  Lawt  U.  S.,  pp.  76, 
•40J,  404,  726,  72»,  1002. 

Conntennark.  In  Numismatics,  a  stamp  fre- 
quently seen  on  ancient  coins,  often  ol>litemting  a 
large  part  of  the  impression.  Tbe  countermark  is 
generally  a  figure  or  inscription,  and  some  antiquaries 
have  considered  that  their  use  was  to  augment  the 
value  01  the  money ;  others,  that  it  was  only  struck  on 
money  taken  from  an  enemy. 

Coupons,  from  the  French,  is  a  term  employed 
in  England  and  elsewhere,  to  denote  the  warrants  for 
the  payment  of  the  periodical  dividends  or  interest  on 


pnbllo  stocks,  a  number  of  which  being  appended  to 
the  bonds,  are  severally  cut  off  tor  presentation  as  the 
dividends  fall  due,  generally  semi-annually — some- 
times quarterly.  The  prac  ice  of  appending  coupons 
to  bonds  is  new  generally  adopted  by  States  and  cor- 
pot'ations,  as  they  facilitate  the  collection  of  the  semi- 
annuid  or  quarterly  interest  thereon. 

Courier  (Fr.,  courir,  to  run),  a  messenger  sent 
post  or  express  with  dispatches.  The  couriers  em- 
ployed by  the  ancients  were  of  two  kinds ;  first,  those 
who  ran  on  foot,  called  by  the  Greeks  hemerodromi,  or 
day-runners,  regarding  whom  Pliny,  Coinelius  Nepoa, 
and  CiEsar  mention  that  some  of  them  would  run 
twenty,  thirty,  thirty-six,  and  in  the  circus  even  forty 
leagues  a  day ;  second,  riding  couriers  (etireorei  equi- 
tania),  who  changed  horses  as  modem  couriers  do. 
Xenophon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus,  He- 
rodotus says  they  were  very  common  among  the  Per- 
sians, and  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  world  more 
swift  than  such  messengers.  That  prince,  says  Xen- 
ophon, proved  how  far  a  horse  could  run  in  a  day,  and 
built  stables  at  corresponding  distances ;  and  at  each 
station  a  courier  was  always  ready  with  a  fresh  horse 
to  forward  the  package  to  the  next  stage,  and  so  on 
throughout  the  empire.  But  it  does  not  appear  that 
either  tlie  Greeks  or  Romans  had  any  regular  system 
of  couriers  till  the  time  of  Augustna.  Under  that 
prince  they  traveled  in  cars,  about  24  B.C.,  though  it 
would  appear  tliat  they  afterward  went  on  horseback. 
Under  the  Western  Empire  they  were  called  riatoret ; 
and  under  that  of  Constantinople  curtorea.  Couriers 
or  posts  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  France  by 
Charlemagne,  about  A.i>.  800.  The  couriers  or  posts 
for  letters  were  estaldished  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  lA>uis  XI.  of  France,  owing  to  this  monarch's 
extraordinary  tagemess  for  news.  They  were  tha 
first  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  a.d.  1463. 

Court-;r-laster  is  a  considerable  object  of  manu- 
facture. It  is  made  us  follows :  Khtck  silk  is  strained 
and  brushed  over  ten -or  twelve  times  with  the  follow- 
ing preparation :  Dissolve  ^  an  ounce  of  balsam  of 
benzoin  in  6  ounces  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine ;  and  in 
a  separate  vessel  dissolve  1  ounce  of  isinglass  in  as 
little  water  as  may  be.  Strain  each  solution,  mix 
them,  and  let  the  mixture  rest,  so  that  any  undis- 
solved parts  may  suliside.  When  the  clear  liquid  is 
cold  it  will  form  a  jelly,  which  must  l>e  warmed  before 
it  is  applied  to  the  silk.  When  the  silk  coated  with 
it  is  quite  dry,  it  must  be  finished  off  with  a  coat  of  a 
solution  of  4  ounces  of  China  turpentine  in  6  ounces 
of  tincture  of  benzoin,  to  prevent  its  cracking. 

Court  of  Clainu.  This  is  a  new  court,  estab- 
lished by  act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States,  Feb- 
ruary 24,  1664,  having  jurisdiction  of  claims  by 
individuals  against  the  United  States,  arising  fkom 
disputed  cases  at  the  Treasury.  This  obviates  the 
necessity  of  petitioning  Congress  for  indemnity  for 
losses  sustained  under  government  contracts,  etc. 
See  DuSLAP's  Vigest  Ixma  V.  iS.,  pp.  1457 — 1459. 

Coutte,  Ttaomae.  This  distinguished  London 
banker,  whose  death  caused  much  excitement  in  the 
metropolis,  was  at  one  time,  in  wealth  and  import- 
ance, ut  the  bead  of  the  banking  and  moneyed  interest 
in  England,  lie  was  at  first  a  partner  in  the  house 
ut  St.  Mary  Axe,  Ix)ndon,  and  afterward  admitted 
into  his  brother's  banking-house,  in  the  Strand,  Lon- 
don. His  own  bank  stands  on  nearly  the  centre  of 
the  site  where  stood,  many  years  ago,  an  exchange, 
similar  to  Exeter  Exchange,  It  was  then  considered 
one  -i  the  best-constructed  places  of  safety  in  Great 
Orii     1,  except  the  Bank  of  England. 

Mr.  Joutts  died  on  the  24th  of  February,  1822,  hav- 
ing attained  tbc  age  of  ninrlg-one.  His  will  was  read 
tlie  Sunday  evening  after  hts  death,  in  the  presence  of 
his  family.  To  the  surprise  of  many,  he  bequeathed 
his  whole  property,  to  the  amount  of  .£900,000,  to  Mrs. 
Coutta,  formerlv  Mhw  MeUon,  an  aetr>Mi  at  her  own 


cmA.> 


41% 


OBB 


,  1822,  hav- 
lU  WHS  read 
presence  of 
bequeathed 
00,  to  Mrs. 
■at  her  oirn 


diipMal,  «{t1icn!t  mentloiitiig  any  other  penoa,  or 
leavin);  a  niugle  legacy.  This  was,  prohably,  to  m- 
cape  the  legac}*  duty,  which,  if  his  fortune  were  left 
to  others,  would  haye  amounted  to  £60,000.  The  firm 
of  Cnutts  and  Co.,  said  to  be  controlled  by  Miss  Bnr- 
dett  Collets,  is  still  among  the  hanliing-honses  of  Lon- 
don.—See  Mnteri'  Mag.,  N.  Y.,  11.  p.  626  (1848). 

Cove.  An  inlet  on  a  rocky  coast.  It  is  a  term 
nearly  synonymous  with  harbor :  the  word  cove  be- 
iilg  generally,  though  not  always,  nsed  when  (he  in> 
dentation  on  vhe  coast  is  too  shallow  or  narrow  to 
admit  first-class  vessels. 

Cowea,  West,  a  seaport-town  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Medina,  4  tcnlH  K.  of  Kcwport, 
and  78  miles  from  London.  It  occupies  a  rising 
ground  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  river,  presenting  a 
striking  appearance  fh>m  the  sea.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  irregular  j  but  many  of  the  modem  build- 
ings are  handsome,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  nume- 
rous elegant  villas.  It  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea- 
bathing, and  has  numerous  hotels  and  lodgiug-houses 
for  the  accommodation  of  visitors.  The  harbor  is 
safe  and  convenient,  and  its  entrance  is  defended  by 
a  battery.  It  forms  the  rendezvous  of  the  Koyal 
Yacht  Club,  who  hold  their  annual  regatta  here.  It 
has  a  very  considerable  coasting  trade.  Exports, 
chiefly  agricultural  produce  and  malt ;  imports,  coal, 
colonial  produce,  manufactured  goods,  etc.  Ship- 
building Is  extensively  carried  on.  On  tho  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  which  is  here  about  half  a  mile  broad, 
is  East  Cowes,  where  is  the  custom-house  of  the  port, 
and  near  which  is  Osborne  House,  the  marine  resi- 
dence of  her  Majesty.     Pop.  (1851),  4,786.— E.B. 

Cowhage,  or  Cowitcb  (Hind.  A'lWacA),  the 
fruit  or  bean  of  a  perennial  climbing  plant  (^DiAichot 
pruriens,  Lin.)  It  is  a  nativt,  of  India,  as  well  as  of 
several  other  Eastern  countries,  and  of  America.  The 
pod  is  about  4  or  5  inches  long,  a  little  curved,  and 
contains  from  8  to  6  oval  and  flattlsh  seeds  ;  the  out- 
side is  thickly  covered  with  short,  bristly,  brown 
hairs,  which,  if  incautiously  touched,  stick  to  the 
skin,  and  occasion  intolerable  itching. — Ainsue's 
Materia  In'lica, 

Cowries  (Ger.  Kauris;  Du.  Kauris;  Fr.  Coris, 
Courts,  Bouges ;  It.  Cori,  Porcellane ;  Sp.  Suciot  Zim- 
bos)  are  small  shells  brought  from  the  Maldives,  which 
pass  current  as  coin  in  smaller  payments  in  Hindostan, 
and  throughout  extensive  districts,  in  Africa.  They 
used  to  be  imported  Into  England  previously  to  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave  'ode,  in  which  they  were  subse- 
quently employed.  They  are  on  article  of  trade  at 
Bombay.  The  best  are  small,  clean,  and  white,  hav- 
ing a  beautiful  gloss ;  those  that  are  yellow,  large,  and 
without  lustre,  should  bo  rejectpd.  The  freight  Is  cal- 
culated at  20  cwt.  to  the  ton.—  Mii.dubs'8  Orient.  Com. 

Cozening,  tricking,  defrauding.  In  law  it  denotes 
an  oltense  whe''e  any  thing  is  done  deceitfully,  either 
with  regard  to  contracts  or  otherwise,  and  which  can 
not  properly  be  defined  by  any  special  name.  In  tho 
civil  law  it  Is  called  stelllmmttis. 

Cranberries,  or  Red  Whortleberries,  the 
fruit  of  a  moss  plant,  the  Vaccinium  nrycoccus  of  Lin- 
niL'Us,  The  berries  are  globular,  about  the  size  of 
currants ;  are  found  in  mossy  bogs.  '  Cranberries 
have  a  peculiar  flavor,  and  a  sharp,  acid,  agreeable 
taste ;  tliey  are  easily  preserved,  and  are  extensively 
used  in  making  tarts.  They  are  very  abundant  in 
North  America,  and  In  the  northern  parts  of  Kussia ; 
the  latter  being  of  a  superior  quality.  It  is  suid  that 
some  very  fine  ones  have  recently  been  l)r()Uglit  from 
Xew  South  Wales.  Consideraide  quantities  are  pro- 
duced in  New  England  on  the  marshy  lands  near  the 
coast. 

Crank,  in  sea  language.  Is  applied  to  a  vessel 
when,  from  too  much  top  weight,  or  the  want  of  suf- 
ficient ballast,  or  cargo,  or  from  any  other  cause,  she 
can  not  beiu:  much  sail  without  danger  of  oversetting. 


It  also  dniotei  an  lion  brace  tn  inpporting  thi  lu 
terns  on  the  poop-quarters  of  the  ship. 

Crape  (Fr.  Cript ;  0«r.  FloAr,  Krauijhr;  It.  Ks- 
pumHItt,  Soplillo ;  Bus.  Flior ;  Sp.  Cre<pon),  a  liglit, 
transparent  staff,  in  manner  of  gauze,  made  of  raw 
silk,  gummed  and  twisted  on  t^e  mill,  and  woven 
without  crossing.  When  dyed  black  it  Is  much  worn 
by  ladles  as  a  mourning  dress.  '  Crapes  are  crisped 
(ertjM)  or  smooth  ;  the  former  being  dooble,  are  used 
in  close  mourning,  the  latter  in  less  deep.  White 
crape  is  appropriate  to  young  nnmarrled  females,  and 
to  virgins  on  taking  the  vail  in  nunneries.  The  silk 
destined  for  the  first  is  spun  harder  tlian  for  the 
second ;  since  tho  degree  of  twist,  particularly  for  the 
warp,  determines  the  degree  of  crisping  which  it  as- 
sumes after  being  taken  fh>m  the  loom.  It  is  for  this 
purpose  steeped  in  clear  water,  and  rubbed  with  pre- 
pared wax.  Crapes  are  all  woven  and  dyed  with  the 
silk  in  the  raw  state.  They  are  finished  with  a  stif- 
fening of  gum-water.  Crape  is  a  Bolognese  invention, 
but  has  been  long  manufactured  with  superior  excel- 
lence at  Lyons,  in  France,  and  Norwich,  in  England. 
There  is  now  a  magnificent  fabric  of  it  at  Yarmouth, 
by  power-loom  machinery.  There  is  another  kind  of 
stufiT,  called  crfpon,  made  either  of  fine  wool,  or  of 
wool  and  silk,  of  which  the  warp  is  twisted  much 
harder  than  the  weft.  The  eripons  of  Naples  consist 
altogether  of  silk. 

Crayons.  Colored  cylinders  used  for  drawing 
upon  paper ;  they  are  usually  made  of  a  fine  pipe-clay, 
colored  with  metallic  pigments  or  carmine.  Crayons 
containing  plumbago  are  styled  soiid  lead  pencils. 

Cream.  (Fr.  Crime).  A  semi-fluid  yellowish 
substance  which  collects  on  the  surface  of  milk,  and 
which  is  made  into  butter  by  the  process  of  churning.' 
When  the  milk  of  any  animal  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time,  it  spontaneously  undergoes  certain  changes 
— this  substance  rises  to  the  surface  and  forms  a  thin 
stratum,  which  is  called  cream,  and  which  consists 
chiefly  of  oily  particles ;  while  the  milk  below,  which 
of  course  is  thinner  than  it  was  before  the  cream  sep- 
arated from  it,  is  of  a  pale  bluish  color,  and  consists 
of  curd,  coaguinm,  or  the  matter  of  which  cheese  is 
made.  When  cream  is  kept  for  some  days  it  gradually 
becomes  thicker,  and  partially  coagulated ;  and  if  put 
into  a  linen  bag  and  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  a  cool 
room,  it  will  acquire  the  consistence  of  cheese ;  and 
this  is  one  among  other  modes  of  making  cream  cheeses. 
When  cream  Is  shaken  by  churning,  it  is  resolved  into 
its  component  parts,  and  hence  we  have  butter  and 
buttermilk.  In  order  to  make  butter  it  is  not  always 
necessary  that  the  cre^m  should  be  separated  from  the 
milk ;  but  whether  separated  or  not,  the  process  is 
facilitated  by  allowing  the  liquid  to  stand  for  some 
time,  during  which  a  part  of  the  sugar  contained  in 
the  serum  is  changed  into  an  acid,  which  shortens  the 
process  of  churning  by  facilitating  the  separation  of 
the  butter  from  the  milk.  When  either  cream  or 
milk  is  churned  without  having  previously  l)ecome 
sour,  the  process  is  much  more  tedious ;  and  some- 
times, from  causes  not  easily  accounted  for  by  tho 
dairy-maid,  it  is  nnsuccessful^  and  the  milk  is  said  to 
be  bewitched.  The  true  cause,  however,  is  the  want 
of  acidity ;  because  it  bas  been  found  that  the  addi- 
tion of  a  small  portion  of  vinegar  will  dissolve  the 
charm,  and  cause  the  almost  immediate  appearance 
of  butter.  Cream,  when  separated  from  milk  nnd 
kept  till  it  has  become  acid,  is  frequently  mixed  with 
milk  newly  drawn  from  the  cow ;  and  this  eaten  with 
sugar  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  preparations  of  the 
dalrj-.  Costorphiff  cream,  so  called  from  a  village  of 
that  name  in  tlie  neighborhood  of  Edinburg,  is  made 
b}-  putting  the  milk  of  three  or  four  days  together 
with  the  cream  Into  a  vescel,  and  allowing  it  to  re- 
main there  till  it  has  become  sour  and  coagulated. 
The  whey  is  tlien  drawn  off  and  fresh  cream  added ; 
and  when  it  Is  brought  to  table  it  is  eaten  with  sugar. 


OBB 


478 


ORS 


■ad  ia  Um  itnkirbeRjr  ttuon,  wiih  tlut  finiit.  Der- 
onahin  cream  ii  lim^^  loar  curd,  or  lour  oraam  t$t- 
<n  with  ftMh  milk,  or  fmii  cream,  witli  or  without 
the  addition  of  tngar,  Devonahire  acalde<l  or  clonted 
cieam  is  milk  and  cream  heated  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  Buffered  to  cool,  when  the  cream  will  be  found  to 
have  separated  bom  the  milk,  and  when  akimmed  off 
may  eiUier  be  madi  into  butter  or  eaten  with  fresh 
cream  and  sugar.  Common  clotted  cream  ia  simply 
milk  and  cream  in  a  coagulated  state,  and  sour. 
When  the  clotted  cream  is  broken  and  stirred,  and  the 
whey  drawn  off,  the  mass  may  Im  turned  into  cheese 
by  artificial  pressure,  by  whidi  the  whey  ia  separated 
instantaneously ;  or  by  suspending  it  in  a  porous  lug, 
in  a  cool,  airy  situation,  when  it  will  be  separated  by 
degrees.  See  Butter,  Cheese. — Bbandb'b  Em. 
of  Art.    See  BuTTBa  Dairy. 

Credentials,  Letteni  o£  The  instrument,  in 
the  form  of  a  letter,  from  one  government  to  another, 
which  conatitntes  the  evidence  of  the  title  of  a  min- 
ister at  a  foreign  court  to  the  power  which  he  exer- 
cises. There  are  two  sorts  of  credentials :  the  one 
sealed,  drawn  up  and  countersigned  by  the  minister 
of  foreign  affairs ;  the  other  open,  signed  only  by  the 
government.  Unless  the  minister  lie  mentioned  ex- 
pressly in  hia  credentials  as  an  embassador,  he  has 
only  a  right  to  the  observances  due  to  foreign  minis- 
ters of  inferior  rank. 

CSredit,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  generally  treat 
of  it,  is  the  trust  which  ia  given  to  a  person  when  be 
obtains  a  loan  of  money,  or  purchases  any  article,  the 
payment  of  which  is  to  be  mode  at  an  after  period. 
Every  sum  of  credit,  therefore,  must  be  founded  on 
a  transfer  of  a  corresponding  sum  of  capital ;  and  the 
Whole  amount  of  credit  existing  at  any  time  can 
never  exceed  that  of  the  lent  capital.  Credit  is,  in 
reference  to  the  peraon  who  givea  it,  the  power  of 
lending,  and  to  Um  who  receivos  it,  the  power  of 
borrowing.  The  basis  of  credit  is  confidence,  and 
this  ia  found  to  exist  extensively  only  where  good 
faith  and  punctuality  have  been  allowed  to  grow  into 
habit,  and  where  laws  afford  to  cre<litors  the  easy  and 
certain  means  of  recovering  their  debts. 

In  young  countries,  before  dealings  liave  became 
multiplied,  we  find  people  inattentive  to  tlieir  moncj- 
engagements,  when  there  ia  no  want  of  property  with 
the  debtor,  and  even  when  the  payment  of  the  debt 
lias  l)een  fixed  by  document  to  a  poaitive  term.  But 
aa  transactiona  increase,  and  population  presses  more 
clesely  together,  a  knowledge  of  the  circumstuucos 
of  individuals  ia  rendered  difficult,  and  a  necessity 
for  punctuality  arises,  to  prevent  doubts  being  enter- 
tained of  the  ability  to  pay.  And  this  apprehension 
of  discredit  entertained  by  the  debtor,  and  of  its  con- 
sequences to  his  future  transactions,  has  more  effect 
to  establish  and  maintain  good  faith  and  exactness 
than  the  operation  of  the  laws  ia  able  to  produce. 
When  capital  ia  abundant,  relatively  to  the  means  of 
employing  it,  the  competition  of  capitalists  produces 
a  facility  of  obtaining  credit;  and  parties  become 
enabled  to  borrow  and  purehase  upon  credit  who  could 
not  do  so  before.  Credit  is  then  said  to  be  high,  Imt 
it  is  the  value  of  the  capital  which,  from  the  over- 
stock, lias  become  low.  The  capitalist,  in  these  cir- 
cumstances, gr„n'8  less  scrupulous  about  his  security, 
tliut  he  may  bring  within  the  range  of  his  dealings  a 
greater  bo<ly  of  Iwrrowers  or  purchasers,  and  thereby 
be  enabled  to  keep  up  his  price. 

When  the  supply  of  capital  continuea  in  thia  state 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  gives  rise  to  an  imprudence 
of  conduct  wMcb  lays  the  foundation  of  much  after 
evil.  Salea  and  loans  are  made  at  credits  far  beyond 
the  ordinaiy  periods ;  and  those  into  whose  hands  the 
extra  capital  liy  this  means  p,i8ses,  considering  It  aa 
a  fund  with  which  they  may  trade,  go  on  also  extend- 
ing their  dealings  and  credits,  until  the  whole  aystem 
Is  put  upon  the  stretch.    In  thia  aituation  any  inter- 


mptioo  to  the  sale  of  commodities  occasions  instant 
confusion  and  distress.  The  confidence  which  had 
prevailed  givea  place  to  alarm  and  distrust,  and  the 
same  effect  ia  produced  for  the  time  by  the  retard- 
ment of  the  circulation  that  would  have  beei|  expe- 
rienced had  the  capital  itself  been  withdrawn. 

By  the  operation  of  credit,  not  only  ia  the  circuU- 
tion  of  capital  facilitated,  and  its  employment  in- 
creased ;  but  by  its  moans  alone  certain  descriptions 
of  capital  can  bo  brought  into  action.  When  an  arti- 
cle is  sold  upon  credit,  the  seller  places,  for  the  time, 
a  portion  of  his  capital  at  the  command  of  a  party 
who  may  have  no  capital  of  his  own.  Thia  person, 
nevertheless,  by  another  operation  of  credit,  Is  ena- 
bled to  sell  upon  credit  also,  and  still  keep  his  engage- 
ment with  the  party  from  whom  he  bought.  This  he 
accomplishes  by  calling  in  the  assistance  of  the  money 
capitalist,  the  banker,  who  advances  to  him  the 
amount  of  the  sale  upon  hia  and  his  purchaser's  joint 
aecurity,  and  receives  in  consideration  a  rent  for  the 
sum  advanced.  By  thia  process  facility  and  exten- 
sion are  given  to  circulation,  beyond  what  could  take 
place  if  the  commodity  coul(!  be  exchanged  only  for 
immediate  value ;  while  an  opportunity  is,  at  the  same 
thne,  afforded  of  emplo^MUg  a  branch  of  capital  which 
would  otherwise  remain  inactive  and  without  use.  I* 
is  almost  unnecessary  to  remark,  that  it  is  by  the 
operation  of  credit  that  a  return  is  got  from  the  capi- 
tal of  persons  who  are  incapable  of  employing  it 
themselves,  and  which  can  be  put  into  a  state  of  use- 
ful activity  only  by  lending  it  to  others. 

In  Scotland,  after  the  disposition  to  commercial 
pursuits  began  to  manifest  itself,  the  progress  was 
retarded,  by  the  total  want  of  commercial  capital  in 
the  countr}-.  To  get  the  lietter  of  this  difficulty,  and 
draw  to  these  employments  ony  little  capital  that 
otherwise  existed,  it  became  the  practice,  when  a 
commercial  undertaking  was  to  be  entered  upon,  to 
associate  in  the  adventure  some  persons  of  known 
substance,  md  upon  the  joint  credit  of  the  parties 
forming  the  company,  to  borrow  the  capital  necessary 
for  corrying  it  on.  The  credit  which  was  thus  cstab 
lished  is  called  company  credit,  and  is  effectuiil  to  its 
proposed  end  of  borrowing  or  purchasing  with  advan- 
tage, according  to  the  sujiposed  responsibility  of  the 
parties  of  whom  the  company  is  com]H)sed.  Up  to 
the  year  1798  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  manu- 
facturing and  mercantile  concerns  of  Scotland  wore 
carried  on  upon  this  plan ;  and  to  give  strength  to 
their  credit,  and  encourage  those  who  had  money  to 
lend  to  place  it  with  them,  a  rule  was  establislied,  and 
confinned  by  decisions  of  the  courts  of  law,  that,  in 
case  of  bankruptcy,  a  creditor  of  a  company  sliould 
be  entitled  to  claim  upon  each  of  the  partners'  sepa- 
rate estates,  in  competition  with  the  party's  individual 
creditors,  for  the  balance  of  his  debt  unpaid  from  the 
company's  effects. 

When  a  party  purchasing  or  l)orrowlng  capital 
gives  a  ivritten  obligation  fur  the  amount,  parable  to 
the  order  of  his  creditor  at  a  certain  fixed  period,  lie 
emiiodies  a  sum  of  credit  capable  of  being  exclianged 
again  fur  capital ;  and  the  transference  of  these  docu- 
ments to  new  parties,  who  replace  to  the  former  cred- 
itor the  capital  he  had  lent  upon  them,  is  what  is 
called  a  i^irculation  of  credit.  Indeed,  without  the 
use  of  bills,  or  of  some  instrument  of  similar  powers, 
credit  must  have  been  confined  to  a  single  operation 
lietween  first  contracting  parties,  and  the  circulation 
of  capital  limited  to  what  could  have  been  effected  in 
this  way.  But  a  transferaljle  document  of  the  sum 
to  be  received  liecomes  itself  a  negotiable  or  marketa- 
ble article ;  and  the  collective  credit  of  the  parties 
through  whose  hands  it  may  successively  pass  con- 
tinuing to  he  engrafted  upon  it,  a  new  facility  is 
gained  to  oinulatiun  by  every  movement  which  it 
makes.  1  he  whole  of  the  credit  embodied  b)'  bills, 
however,  ia  not  brought  into  circulation:  a  part  only 


(3RE 


m 


CRE 


of  the  lellen  or  lendtra  requiriniK  to  luiTe  their  capi- 
tal replaced  to  them  \>y  anticipation.  Bnt  it  la  ac- 
cording to  the  expected  facility  with  which  payment 
may  tm  thua  an  .'.;,  ated,  that  credit  is  at  first  freely 
and  raadily  gireu  ■  i  tai  whenever  any  thing  occurs  to 
impede  the  circulation  of  ere  Jit,  there  ia  an  immediate 
disposition  fn  the  menhant  to  withhold  or  limit  it. 

Kvery  transfer  of  capital  made  upon  a  buyer  or 
borrower's  own  obligation  of  payment  creates  a  new 
sum  of  transferable  credit ;  and  this  is  the  case,  al- 
thongh  it  should  be  the  same  capital  that  is  again 
aad  again  transferred.  But  a  sale  of  goods,  or  an 
fidvaace  of  money  upon  the  obligation  of  a  third 
party,  indorsed  to  the  seller  or  lender,  forms  no  addi- 
tion to  the  sum  of  circulating  credit,  the  transaction 
l)eing  the  circulutiria,  not  the  creation,  of  a  sum  of 
credit.  Neither  does  a  succession  of  purchases  or 
Irarrowings,  effected  by  means  of  the  same  document 
indorsed  from  the  one  party  to  the  other,  add  to  the 
sum  of  credit  in  circulation.  For  although  each  of 
these  transactions  is  the  ground  of  a  separate  obliga- 
tion between  the  parties  contracting,  there  is  witli 
the  whole  but  one  absolute  creditor,  tlie  holder  of  the 
bill,  and  one  absolute  debtor,  the  acceptor  of  the  bill, 
the  others  being  merely  contingent  debtors  to  the 
one,  and  contingent  creditors  of  the  other. 

Circulated  credit  is  to  be  classed  into  that  circulated 
by  loan,  and  that  which  is  circulated  by  means  of  sale. 
The  first  is  the  circulation  of  the  credit  founded  upon 
the  obligation  of  individuals  or  private  companies, 
and  called  private  credit ;  t!.  -  '  of  that  founded 

upon  the  obligations  of  tuL  y-  i    he  transfers  of 

the  stocli  of  corporate  bodiea  u  i  t'. '  t  public  credit. 
The  documents  of  these  t-  •■  -'^(ions  of  credit 
possess  different  and  distinct  :£UulUies,  and  are  differ- 
ently negotiable.  It  may  be  proper,  therefore,  to 
examine  how  they  are  employed  as  means  of  borrow- 
ing or  purchasing,  what  are  their  separate  powers, 
and  what  is  the  probable  extent  of  the  circulation  of 
each.  We  shall  begin  with  those  belonging  to  pri- 
vate credit,  which  are  as  follows : 

Firft,  Obligations  payable  to  the  bearer  on  demand, 
and  which,  being  passed  without  recourse,  are  em- 
ployed as  money.  Secondlt/,  Transferable  obligations 
payable  at  an  after  date,  as  notes  of  hand  and  Vills  of 
exchange,  which,  teing  negotiated  with  recourse 
upon  the  preceding  obligants,  are  taken  as  guarantied 
pledges  of  a  sum  to  lie  received  when  they  l)ecome  due. 

The  circulation  of  obligations,  payable  to  the 
bearer  on  demand,  or  notes  employed  as  money,  is 
the  circulation  of  a  credit  liorrowed  liy  the  issuer  of 
the  note  from  the  public ;  the  holder  of  the  note  at 
the  time  is  the  creditor ;  and  the  property  he  gave  in 
exchange  for  it  is  a  loan  from  him  to  the  banker.  ,  As 
it  is  in  the  power  of  the  party  giving  this  credit  at 
any  time  to  put  an  end  to  it  l>y  calling  for  his  money, 
these  notes  circulate  upon  the  credit  of  the  issuer 
alone.  No  assurance  of  payment  is  required  from 
the  person  from  whom  they  are  received,  as  is  the 
case  with  bills ;  the  payment  of  which  being  at  a  fu- 
ture date,  it  is  thought  necessary  to  reserve  recourse 
against  the  parties  through  whose  hands  they  have 
passed.  The  circulation  of  notes  payable  on  demand 
is  therefore  a  circulation  of  what  may  be  termed  sin- 
gle credit,  and  bills  a  circulation  of  collective  credit. 

\Vhen  bank-notes  are  issued  by  a  lianker  in  dis- 
count of  a  bill,  it  may  be  supposed  that  a  twofold 
credit  is  put  into  circulation :  a  credit  to  the  party  to 
whom  the  bill  has  been  discounted,  and  a  counter 
credit  from  him  to  the  issuer  of  the  notes.  But  in 
this  stage  of  the  transaction,  no  circulation  of  credit 
has  taken  place.  Credit  is  circulated  only  when  ex- 
changed for  capital,  and  in  this  case  it  has  been  but 
the  exchange  of  one  credit  for  another.  The  lianker, 
indeed,  In  giving  his  notes  payable  on  demand  in  ex- 
change for  a  bill  payable  at  a  futnre  date,  gives  what 
U  of  a  quality  different  from  that  which  he  receivei ; 


for  what  he  gives  is  immedUtely  exchangeable  for 
capital,  and  to  the  person  receiving  it  is  the  same  a| 
capital. 

But  still  It  Is  only  credit  he  has  parted  with,  which 
will  not  be  in  a  state  of  circulation  until  it  comes  to 
be  exchanged  for  capital.  In  as  far  as  relates  to 
circulation,  the  transaction  Is  the  fame  with  that  of  a 
person  lending  his  credit  to  another,  by  accepting  a 
bill  to  him  without  value.  A  sum  of  credit  Is  there- 
by created,  but  Is  not  circulated  until  the  bill  comei 
to  be  exchanged  for  value.  The  credit  that  Is  In  cir- 
culation fi«m  the  exchange  of  bank-notes  for  a  bill, 
is  a  credit  from  the  party  who  at  the  time  has  given 
capital  or  value  for  the  notes.  When  the  banker 
"  cashes"  them,  he  becomes  the  creditor,  but  while 
they  remain  in  circulation  the  public  Is  the  creditor. 

The  amount  of  credit  from  the  circulation  of  cash 
notes  never  can  be  pushed  beyond  what  would  have 
been  the  value  of  the  specie  that  would  have  been  in 
circulation  had  the  currency  been  of  the  precious  met- 
als, which  the  notes  only  serve  to  represent.  Should 
the  notes  cease  to  be  convertible  into  specie,  their 
amount,  indeed,  may  he  augmented  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  issuer ;  but  their  value,  and  the  credit  in  circu- 
lation from  them,  will  still  be  regulated  by  this  limit. 
The  increased  sum  will  represent  the  value  which  the 
smaller  did  before,  and  each  note  will  be  reduced 
in  its  value.  In  the  proportion  of  the  increase  that 
may  have  taken  place  of  the  whole.  This  descrip- 
tion of  circulating  credit  Is  of  a  quality  different  from 
the  others.  Frou  supplying  the  place  of  capital,  in 
its  character  of  currency,  it  Is  lent  out  as  capital ; 
but  loans  from  this  fund  are  precarious.  Its  amount 
depending  upon  the  state  of  public  confidence,  and 
l)emg  liable  to  be  diminished  by  evei^'  call  upon  the 
banks  to  replace  the  notes  with  specie. 

Circulating  notes,  not  convertible  into  specie,  issued 
under  the  authority  of  the  state,  have  been  called  a 
fabric  of  unreal  credit.  But  this  currency,  however 
unsuitable  to  Its  proper  ends,  affords  a  circulation  of 
real  credit.  It  is  indeed  exposed  to  constant  fluctua- 
tion of  value,  according  to  the  amount  of  it  in  the 
circle ;  and  the  party  taking  It  is  obliged,  for  his  own 
safety,  to  Include  In  the  price  of  what  he  gives  for  it, 
sufficient  to  cover  the  difference  between  it  and  specie, 
and  the  risk  of  further  depreciation  while  It  may  re- 
main In  his  hands.  Still,  however,  an  amount  of 
credit,  to  the  value  of  what  has  been  given  for  the 
notes,  in  the  first  instance,  is  put  into  cliculation, 
and  an  amount  continued  In  circulation,  to  the  value 
always  of  what  they  are  exchangeable  for  at  the 
time ;  the  holders  of  them  always  remaining  credit- 
ors of  the  Issuer,  to  the  extent  of  the  whole  sum 
which  the  notes  profess  to  pay.  A  currency  of  this 
description,  however,  is  Inapplicable  as  a  measure  of 
value,  and  therefore  unfit  to  be  employed  as  a  circu- 
lating medium.  And  as  to  the  other  object.  Intended 
by  its  issuers  to  supply  an  amount  of  funds  to  the 
state ;  the  depreciation  with  which  it  must  be  issued 
at  first,  and  the  loss  to  be  sustained  from  taking  It 
back  again  at  par,  render  it  an  expensive  means  of 
Iwrrowlng. 

With  regard  to  obligations  payable  at  a  future 
date,  which  constitutes  the  second  branch  of  private 
credit,  and  which  we  are  next  to  consider,  the  credit 
founded  on  them  Is  circulated,  either  in  the  transfers 
of  the  ordinary  capital  In  sales,  as  when  the  credit  of 
indorsed  bills  Is  employed  to  purchase  goods,  or  in  the 
transfers  of  the  bunking  capital  in  loans,  as  when  the 
credit  of  indorsed  bills  ia  employed  to  borrow  money ; 
the  transfer  under  the  lotter,  when  the  lilU  is  ex- 
changed for  money,  lieing  often  a  further  circulation 
of  a  credit  previously  circulated  under  the  former, 
when  the  liill  was  exchanged  for  goods. 

A  fictitious  bill,  that  Is,  an  acceptance  given  with- 
out value,  vests  In  t1in  person  in  whose  favor  it  la 
drawn  a  stun  of  transferable  credit  not  less  than 


\ 


I 


ORB 


48# 


OBR 


irooU  lutTe  bean  tke  cue  if  it  lud  baeo  tli«  iouumtut! 
«f  •  mIc,  or  loan  of  property.  Mr.  Thornton,  in  kli' 
trmtiM  on  Paper  Credit,  eatablialied  tlie  doctrine,  till 
tlien  disputed,  Ui*t  tlie  credit  of  a  bill  does  not  rest 
upon  the  nature  of  tlie' transaction  In  which  it  has 
originated,  but  upon  the  conceived  ability  of  the  obli- 
gants  to  discharge  the  debt.  The  being  able  to  em- 
body in  bills  every  sum  of  credit,  .  fUmislied  the 
means  of  employing,  with  incalr.t  e  advantage  to 
commerce,  a  portion  of  the  capital  of  tke  counti}*, 
which  otherwise,  it  is  probable,  would  have  remained 
inactive.  The  security  they  afford  for  the  repayment, 
at  a  stipulated  period,  of  the  sums  lent  upon  them, 
furnishes  the  means  of  an  interim  employment  of 
money  held  for  after  occasions,  whti  li  the  party  would 
not  otherwise  venture  to  lend  out ;  of  money  which 
formerly  lay  Idle  in  the  hands  of  parties  unacquainted 
with  any  safe  means  of  using  It ;  and  of  the  money 
which  traders  are  daily  receiving  in  the  course  of 
their  business,  but  which  they  do  not  immediately 
require.  These  different  sums  collected  in  the  hands 
of  a  banker,  form  wlut  is  called  the  banking  capital 
of  the  country ;  and  which,  lent  out  upon  such  secur- 
ities, produces  not  only  a  profit  to  him,  but  interest 
to  the  parties  who  liavo  placed  them  at  ills  disposal. 
The  importance  of  this  intermediary  fund  in  the 
transactions  of  the  country  is  such,  that  when,  from 
distrust,  at  any  time,  these  deposits  are  withheld  or 
withdrawn  iW)m  the  bankers,  the  mercantile  body  is 
convulsed  throughout. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  division  of  credit,  that 
circulated  by  sale ;  the  documents  of  the  first  branch 
of  which  are,  the  negotiable  obligations  of  govern- 
ment, as  exchequer  bills,  navy  bills,  etc.,  and  the 
whole  of  the  public  funds,  constituting  what  is  termed 
the  credit  of  state.  Whcu  capital  is  to  be  competed 
for,  this  credit  has  an  advantage  in  the  market  over 
the  former.  Its  price  rises  according  to  the  dem^Knd ; 
and  by  that  means  it  is  enabled  to  secure  whatever 
share  it  may  require  of  the  supply.  This  is  not  the 
case  with  the  credit  circulated  by  transfers  of  capita^ 
upon  loan,  the  price  or  stipula:  d  rent  of  which  cui 
not,  whatever  may  be  the  demand,  rise  beyond  a  pre- 
Bcrilied  limit.  It  has  the  effect,  in  these  circum- 
stances, to  force  the  capital  applicable  to  this  ptrt  of 
the  circulation  to  seek  the  employment  of  the  r'her ; 
.'■that  the  inconvenience  produced  by  an  interrup- 
tion of  circulation  i^m  a  diralnutiun  of  the  general 
capital,  fails  entirely  upon  the  circulation  of  bill 
credit,  the  supply  for  the  circulation  of  the  credit 
transferable  by  sale  being  kept  full,  at  the  expense 
of  that  applicable  to  the  circuluti<jii  uf  credit  transfer- 
able by  loan. 

The  transferable  shares  of  public  stock  companies, 
from  being  occasionally  a  mean«  of  temporary  invest- 
ment of  capital,  have  '<y  some  been  cor.siciercd  as 
forming  a  part  of  the  circulating  credit  of  the  cuun- 
try.  But  this  id  not  the  cose.  The  stocks  of  those 
companies  form  a  part  of  the  ordinary  circulating  cap- 
ital ;  and  of  consequence,  the  transfers  of  their  shares 
are  not  operations  of  credit,  but  exchanges  of  capital 
between  the  buying  and  selling  parties.  The  trans- 
fers of  the  preuiIimiB,  however,  paid  in  tho  purchase 
of  this  description  of  stock,  which,  although  no  part 
of  tho  capital,  form  un  immediate  part  of  the  price, 
may  be  fairly  considered  as  a  circulation  of  credit,  to 
i>e  added  to  the  amount  of  the  circulating  credit  of 
the  country.  The  mode  of  circulating  tliis  credit 
l>eing  the  same  with  that  of  tho  public  funds,  and  Its 
market  value  rising  nr  falling  with  the  general  abund- 
ance or  scarcity  of  capital,  its  circulation,  when 
capital  is  scr.rce,  immediiitoly  interferes  w^tb  the  cir- 
culation of  credit  by  simple  borrowing. — E.  I).  See 
also  "  IIuuPEn  on  C'urrenrt/,  Boston,  1850.  JJanlert' 
Magazine,  N.  Y.,  1855-1856.  See  IIu.sx's  Mer.  Mag. 
(0.  F.  Adam.s),  ii.  p.  186.  Democratic  Rev.,  ii.  p.  167 ; 
UL  p.  196;  V.  p.  147.     Encgdoptdia  Amer. 


Oi««it  UMUim.  TiM  OiMil  MebUtor  Itonk, 
•ecoiding  t«  th«  proTlakm]  of  ila  cbHt«r,  U  •  jotat- 
stock  company,  oripinlaol  •!  PMif ,  tot  Iha  purpoM  of 
developing  woiki  of  publlo  ImprnvtiMiil  by  eonsolMtt- 
Ing  the  sacuritiai  af  varloM  •n'npriiaa  fait«  oiw  dom- 
mon  fund.  Its  capital  rtock  IIm4  |t  00,000,000 
ftrnncs,  divided  into  sbarai  of  Afd  flwnM  ImIii,  payabla 
to  bearer.  It  i«  autlioriMl  to  lubMfllw  tot  or  «a- 
quire  publio  tatM,  the  •Im;«>«  or  boMlt  of  «nr  joint* 
stock  company,  and  mora  partimilart}'  of  raUwayi, 
canals,  mining,  and  other  pnl  Ho  worhl,  HOW  aliitlng, 
or  hereafter  to  axis*.  |  also  to  lH4  for  any  kMn,  or  for 
the  stock  of  any  kind  of  publlo  work*,  and  hi  dla- 
pose  of  and  realize  the  aama,  It  la  alao  anthorlaad 
to  issue  its  own  bonds  for  an  anuiltnt  aotial  to  Itl  sub- 
siriptions  and  purchosoi  i  sueh  hoAdrniay  lia  ItiUMi 
to  the  extent  of  ten  timaa  lt«  capital  (tttat  ttt,  000.000,- 
000),  but  they  shall  not  b»»a  U»«  than  ftirty-flvadaya 
to  run.  This  privilaga  has  not  y$t  baan  availad  of, 
the  Government  having  raquaitM  than  (a  postpona 
the  proposed  issue  of  240,000  iMiflda  (130^000,000  fram  S) 
Ip  1895,  in  order  ^ot  to  interfara  with  tlia  fortheomlng 
State  loans,  as  well  as  to  guanl  a)(itln»t  lni'r#ns«d  «m> 
baTassment  in  the  money  niarkat.  Tho  nK,<regate 
amount  o'  money  meaivad  in  a««ount  oiirraiit,  and  of 
bonds  issued  having  lata  than  a  yaar  to  run,  can  not 
exceed  twice  the  amount  of  capital  paid  In  ftbat  Is, 
not  over  120,000,000  francs),  Tlia  company  itaa  au- 
thority to  sell  or  hypotheeata  ita  MOttHtlai,  and  to 
exchange  the  same  for  othara,  It  «an  loan  on  public 
funds,  shares  and  Itonda,  and  opiit  (mdit  In  account 
current  on  thi  various  Mouritles  |  It  can  take  charge 
of  all  collections  for  account  of  Jnlnt-atofk  compnnleli, 
pay  their  coupons  and  dlvtilen>1ii,  anil  mako  other  dis- 
bursements for  them.  /I  it,  hftwavar,  frprmiilg  vn- 
derttood  (so  runs  the  sti-tnia)  Ihut  U  ihnll  not  lett 
"  »hort"  or  bug  on  time,  {tt  t^t  tfpvftitmmt  tnttndu 
que  la  lociiti  nt  f'rn  jismiflt  rf»  vmtu  h  lUeouvert,  «i 
d'athali  h  prime.) 

The  company,  which  was  eraatad  In  November, 
1852,  has,  thus  far.  Issued  but  thraa  vary  condensed 
and  Inccmplets  reports,  awl  eKtansiva  as  are  its  opar- 
atluns  thus  far,  It  slates  thitt  from  It*  Iniiblllty  to  Issue 
bonds  at  present,  it  hus  not  yot  (Men  abia  to  show  the 
world  the  full  merits  of  Its  wnrkjtiff,  The  reports  re- 
fer to  tho  operations  of  tlia  cHltmdar  years  r(  1868, 
1854,  and  1865,  and  bear  data  April,  1DS4, 1M5, 1850. 

"TST" 


uw, 

lftm»t, 
M,BM),nOO 


ti4,tia),nuO 


rtsr 


10tl,iBll,0VO 


l^is«,aoo 


Invosted  (together  with  priiAts)! 


Stocks  anil  Rondi 
on  band,  Dec.  31 

Less  Inrtallnients 
not  due 


Trcasory,  City  of 
Parts,  and  othor 
notes 

Hallrnad  and  oth- 
er Bonds 

Stuck  contriii'ts. .. 
Total 

Total  purokoMta 
throiigfi  tho  year 

Total  sales  through 
theyuar 


8T,t6ll,lllll) 


10,TdO,(X)0 

IT.lWt.ttOO 
»S,Ofl(),(t()() 

i«,n<io,iK)0 

111,000,000 


«,4«0,OOO 


W,iao,noo 
17,1100,000 

Vl.mMl.fl'K) 

TiyftViKiA 

ia<fl«A,A0O 

no,ooo,iMo 


189,000,000 


Ai,oao,o«o 
ivl,ooo,uoo 


14,000,000 

Ra/)Oo.ooo 
»l*),noo,oflo  I 

817,000,000) 


Tho  particular  nature  of  the  |iiircli«w«  and  sulcs  Is 
not  made  publlo.  Wo  do  not  flild  In  tho  pilpPM  tiofuio 
u.s  any  reference  to  tlia  divlilsnds  nt  UitM  prolltK,  ex- 
cept for  the  year  1855,  Hut  Hw  profits  or  InvflKtinin^t 
and  stock  transaction*  at  the  tItMirDn  iiliino,  iiinoimtf  d 
to  3,018,000  francs  In  JH5;i,  and  to  «,!i07,(MK)  fratioi  In 
1854  i  and  the  prodts  of  oil  kinds  to  20,000,000  frMcs 
in  1855.  The  profltl  on  tha  "  quirk  Itrmi"  at  the 
Bourse  are  set  down  at  2,000,000  francs  in  1858,  and 


■CI?2 


481 


CRI 


iri'il.         I 


S,non,ooo 

i1.(KlO,0«0 


IdfH  ticflnll 

ifdilti",  fx- 
Vttnttmfi'9 
nwuiintcl 
fffiin!«  In 
Offl)  ttMi-» 
i"  nt  tbe 
VSfii,  And 


8,40^,000  in  1854 ;  there  is  no  means  of  aacertaining 
those  of  18B5,  the  report  being  silent  on  the  subject 
Full  particulars  are  wanting  as  to  the  various  trans- 
actions of  the  company  relating  to  subscriptions  to  the 
capital  storlc  of  new  companies,  ',o  loans  to  companies 
already  established,  and  to  the  negotiations  in  which 
the  company,  without  engaging  its  fund,  acts  simply 
as  sponsor  and  intermediary.  But  the  following  com' 
prise'the  chief  transactions  which  have  contributed  to 
give  Mdt  to  this  active  corporation :  In  1868  it  con- 
fined itself  to  previously  existing  corporations.  Id 
1854  it  created  the  company  of  the  Grand  Hotel  du 
Louvre,  in  the  Sue  do  Rivoli,  with  a  capital  of 
24,000,000  francs  j  the  Maritimp  Company  (of  clip- 
pers), with  80,000,000  francs  capital ;  and  the  Au!i- 
trian  Railway  Company,  with  a  capital  of  200,000,- 
000  francs,  the  shares  of  which  were  issued  in  the 
beginning  of  1855.  In  1855  it  subscribed  for  a  large 
portion  of  the  new  stock  of  the  Saint  Bambert  Kail- 
way,  the  Western  Railroad  of  France  (puett),  and  the 
Central  Railroad  of  Switzerland,  and  the  Elro  Canal 
Company — 'imounta  not  mentioned. 

In  1853  it  toolc  a  large  amount  of  the  Cr6dit  Foncier 
bonds,  and  30,000,000  francs  of  the  Grand  Central 
Railroad  l)onds,  and  6,000,000  franca  of  the  Vi6ille 
Mfntagne  (Zinc)  Company's  bonds.  In  the  same 
year  it  sold  out  all  the  Credit  Foncier  bonds,  and  most 
of  the  Vi6ille  Ilontagne ;  the  Grand  Central  bonds 
were,  most  of'them,  still  unsold  at  the  beginning 
of  1855.  In  1854  it  toolc  about  5,500,000  francs  of 
the  Eastern  Railroad  (Eni)  bonds,  and  purchased  six- 
teen thousand  l)onds  of  the  Dole  and  Sulins  Railroad 
Itonds  ;  the  amount  of  these  bonds  is  not  mentioned, 
prolmbly  500  francs  each.  In  1856  it  guarantied  the 
sales  of  18,000,000  francs  of  the  We&tem  Railroad 
Btocli  (Oiieat),  and  of  100,000  lK>nds  of  the  Southern 
railroads  (Midi),  representing  28,000, 'XM)  francs ;  and 
it  toolt  charge  of  the  loan  of  82,000,000  ft-ancs  for  the 
Austrian  Railway  Co.,  which  passed  rapidly  and 
almost  wholly  into  the  bands  of  German  capitalists. 

The  companj*  acted  os  sponsor  or  ogent  in  1864,  for 
the  re-formution  of  the  mines  of  the  Loire,  and  for  the 
fusion  of  tlie  several  omnibus  companies  in  Paris  into 
one  joint  concern ;  ,"nd  in  1856  for  the  consolidation 
of  the  various  Parisian  gas  companies.  It  has,  more- 
over, iiccn  preparing  for  two  years  past  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Eastern  and  Southern  Sai-  AVorks.  It  put 
in  a  bid  for  the  last  government  loan  of  780,000,000  in 
behalf  of  itself  and  its  correspondents,  for  no  less  a 
sum  than  626,000,000 ;  1)ut  its  share  was  reduced 
when  the  bids  were  adjudicated  to  1,281,000  francs  of 
the  3  per  cent,  rentes.  At  the  close  of  last  year  it  em- 
barked in  grand  speculations,  which  remained  unset- 
tied  at  the  date  of  the  last  balance-sheet,  but  they 
appear  there  as  yielding  an  estimated  loss  of  600,000 
francs.  The  amounts  received  in  account  current  are 
mostly  from  large  companies,  and  can  c  ly  be  with- 
draivn,  acconling  to  express  stipulation,  to  bo  ex- 
pended on  their  respective  works.  Individuals  are 
also  allowed  to  make  deposits,  t'lo  company  agreeing 
to  take  charge  of  their  investment  and  stock  specula- 
tion. 

In  order  to  fully  appreciate  the  power  of  this  vast 
machine  as  n  speculative  agent,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  managers  and  leading  depositors  arc 
men  in  the  enjoyment  of  extraordinary  resources  of 
wealth  and  position,  and  that  in  their  speculative  op- 
erations at  the  Bourse,  they  and  the  company  all  act 
in  concert,  thus  acquiring  a  power  over  the  market 
which  nothing,  in  the  absence  of  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances, can  hope  to  resist.  This  power  is  made 
the  greater  froni  the  large  amounts  employed  by  the 
roiupany  in  carrying  stocks  for  brokers  and  outside 
■peculators,  in  the  shape  of  stock  contracts,  or  as  the 
French  call  them,  reports,  which  contracts  mostly  ma- 
ture on  the  game  day  in  each  month.  The  company 
are  thus  enabled  to  depress  the  Bourse  when  they 
Hu 


wish  to  buy,  by  refusing  to  make  new  contracts  when 
aettlement-day  comes,  thereby  forcing  sales  on  s  tight 
money  market ;  and  to  promote  a  rise  when  they  wish 
to  sell,  by  granting  a  great  increase  of  facilitios  to 
other  dealers  in  stocks. — N.  Y.  Timet.  See  Banktrt' 
Magazine,  N.  Y. :  July  1866,  July  1850. 

Creek  (Saxon  crecca,  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
I>atin  crtpido)  is  a  shore  or  bank  on  which  the  water 
beats,  running  in  a  small  channel  from  any  part  of 
the  sea.  It  is  also  applied  to  any  part  of  a  iarr  s  river 
which  is  resorted  to  as  a  harbor  or  landing-place  by 
small  craft.  In  the  United  States,  the  term  creek  is 
used  as  synon}-mous  with  the  English  words  brook 
and  rivulet. 

Creole.  (In  Spanish  CrioUo.)  A  name  given  to 
the  descendants  of  whites  bom  in  Iklexico,  South 
America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  in  whom  the  Euro- 
pean blood  has  been  unmixed  with  t\M  of  other  rr.  .es. 
The  various  jargons  spoken  in  the  West  India  islands 
by  slaves,  etc.,  are  called  Creole  dialects. 

Creosote,  or  the  fieiK-preaervtr,  from  Kpeaf  and 
au^u,  is  the  most  important  of  the  Ave  new  chemical 
products  obtained  from  wood  tar  by  Dr.  Reichenbach. 
The  other  four,  pamffine,  eupione,  picamar,  and  pitta- 
cal,  have  hitherto  been  applied  to  no  use  in  the  arts, 
and  may  be  regarded  at  present  as  mere  analytical 
curiosities.  Creosote  may  be  prepared  either  from 
tar  or  from  crude  pyroligneous  acid.  The  tar  must 
be  distilled  till  it  acquires  the  consistence  of  pitch, 
and  at  the  utmost  till  it  begins  to  exhale  the  white 
vapors  of  paraiHne,  The  liquor  which  passes  into  the 
receiver  divides  itself  into  tliree  strata,  a  watery  one 
in  the  middle,  placed  between  a  heavy  and  a  light 
oil.  The  lower  stratum  alone  is  adapted  to  the  prep- 
aration of  creosote.  Creosote  exists  in  the  tar  of 
beech- word,  to  the  amount  of  from  20  to  26  per  cent., 
and  in  crude  pyroligneous  acid,  to  that  of  1-^.  It 
ought  to  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  because 
when  left  open  it  becomes  progressively  yellow, 
brown,  and  thick.  Creosote  has  considerable  power 
upon  the  nervous  system,  and  has  been  applied  to  thf 
teeth  with  advantage  in  odontalgia,  as  well  as  to  the 
skin  in  recent  scalds.  But  its  medicinal  and  surgical 
virtues  have  been  much  exaggerated.  Its  flesh-pro- 
serving  quality  is  rendered  of  little  use,  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  removing  the  rank  fla'  or  which  it  imparts. 

Crecaet,  a  great  light  set  on  a  beacon,  lighthouse, 
or  watch  tower.  It  also  signifies  a  lamp  or  torch ;  a 
large  light  or  lantern  fixed  on  a  pole.  Minshen  de- 
rives the  word  from  the  Dutch  keerse,  landela ;  but  it 
is  more  probably  fiom  the  French  croiaset,  a  little 
cross — that  symbol  having  been  usually  placed  upon 
beacons. 

Crew,  the  company  of  sailors  belonging  to  any 
ship  or  vessel.  Ready  obedience  to  the  lawful  orders 
of  their  superiors,  ability  to  discharge  their  duties, 
and  alacrity  in  their  performance,  at  all  times  and 
under  the  most  perilous  circumstances,  are  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  good  seamen. — See  Sea- 
MEX.  See  Kent's  Com.  Manual  for  Consuls.  Pab- 
sojis'  Mercantile  La'c. 

Crimea,  a  peninsula  in  the  Black  Sea,  forming 
part  of  the  Russian  government  of  Taurida,  with  the 
mainland  of  which  it ' .  connected  by  the  isthmus  of 
Perekop.  It  is  situate  between  44°  and  46°  N.  lat., 
and  32°  and  37°  E.  long.  It  is  of  an  irregular  square, 
or  rhomboid  form,  measuring  diagonally  about  190 
miles  from  east,  to  west,  and  123  from  north  to  south, 
and  containing  an  area  of  a'oout  8,000  square  miles. 
Its  south-eastern,  western,  and  jiorth-westem  coasts, 
are  washed  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  oostern  b}'  a 
shallow  lagoon,  called  the  Sivash,  or  Putrid  Sea, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azoff  by  a  very 
narrow  strait,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  tongue  of 
land,  consisting  of  sand  and  broken  shells,  about  70 
miles  in  length,  and  1  to  1^  in  breadUi.  The  east- 
ern part  of  ihe  Crimea  t'urms  a  minor  peninsnla, 


A 


CRO 


482 


CRO 


ttntcblug  eutwsrd  to  the  itnit  of  Kertiih  or  CafTa, 
or  Jenikaleb,  tho  ancient  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  whlcli 
forms  tlie  communication  between  tlie  Blaclc  Sea  and 
tlie  Sea  of  AzolT,  but  it  is  not  navigabie  by  large  or 
deeply-laden  veaseU.  The  most  valuable  commer- 
cial production  is  salt,  which,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  obtained  in  very  large  quantities  from  tuilai,  or 
•alt  lakes,  near  Perelcop,  Kozlov,  Kaffa,  and  Kertsh. 
It  is  a  government  monopoly,  and  yields  a  considera- 
ble revenue.  The  other  principle  articles  of  com- 
merce and  exports  are  wine,  honey,  wax,  leather, 
hides,  wool,  and  lambsiiins ;  of  the  last  of  which, 
called  ihunuki,  great  quantities  lue  exported  yearly 
to  Poland  and  other  neighboring  countries.  The 
only  manufacture  worth  notice  is  what  is  called  mo- 
rocco leather,  which  is  produced  of  good  quality. 
The  mountains  contain  masses  of  red  and  white  mar- 
bles, full  of  cracks  and  Assures,  which  make  them 
well  adapted  for  quarr}'ing,  if  there  were  a  demand. 

Crimlnala.  By  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
oonsnlar  officers  are  required,  in  casec  of  the  intended 
shipment  of  paupers,  or  pardoned  criminals,  to  the 
United  Stat.",  to  give  timely  notice  of  the  fact,  both 
to  the  Dtpartment  of  State  and  to  the  collector  of 
customs  oi'  the  port  to  which  the  vessel  having  them 
on  board  may  be  bound ;  furnishing  the  names  of  the 
parties,  a  d.^scription  of  their  persons,  the  name  of  the 
vessel,  and  the  date  of  sailing,  in  order  that  proper 
steps  may  be  taken  for  the  enforcement  of  such  police 
regulations  as  may  have  Ijeen  adopted  by  the  several 
States  upon  the  subject. — -Vanual/or  Cotuuli. 

Crockery.  In  use,  and  made  mention  of  as  pro- 
duced l>y  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  so  early-  as  1890 
B.C.  The  Romans  excelled  in  this  kind  of  ware, 
many  of  their  domestic  articles  being  of  earthen  man- 
ufacture. Ciocker}',  of  u  tine  kind,  in  various  house- 
hold utensils,  was  made  at  Faenza,  in  Italy,  about 
A.D.  1810 ;  and  is  still  called  fayence  in  French. 
Earthenwaro  vesseU  were  in  use  among  the  most  an- 
cient nations.  Various  domestic  articles  were  made 
by  the  Romans,  715  B.  c.  The  art  was  revived  and 
improved  in  Italy,  a.d.  1810.  Wedji;ewood's  patent 
ware  was  first  made  in  17G2.  His  pottery  in  Staflford- 
shire  was  extended  to  a  variety  of  curious  composi- 
tions, subservient  not  onlv  to  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  life,  but  to  the  arts,  unt.iquit}',  histor)',  etc.,  and 
thereby  rendered  a  very  im|j.,\-tant  branch  of  com- 
merce, both  foreign  and  domestic. 

Cronatadt,  or  Kronstadt,  a  strongl}--fortifiod 
seaport  town  of  Russia,  and  the  great  naval  station  of 
the  Russian  fleet  in  the  aorthem  seas,  is  situated  ou 
the  island  of  Kotline  (fret  uently  also  called  Cronstadt, 
from  the  town),  at  the  h<  ud  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  20 
miles  west  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  N.  lat.  59°  69'  26"; 
E.  long.  29°  46'  80".  The  popuUtion  in  1849  was 
26,120 ;  but  it  varies  considerably  at  different  times 
of  the  year,  and  in  summer  generally  amounts  to 
about  60,000.  The  island  of  Kotline  is  in  general  out- 
line an  acute  triangle,  7  miles  in  kngtb  by  about  1  in 
breadth,  with  its  base  toward  St.  Petersburg,  and  its 
apex  extending  obliquely  seaward.  The  eastern  or 
broad  end  is  occupied  by  the  town  of  Cronstadt ;  and 
1^  miles  from  the  western  point  ol'  the  island  is  the 
lighthouse  of  Tolboochin  or  Tolbeacon.  The  streets 
are  regular,  and  in  general  well  paved ;  but  the 
houses,  with  the  exception  of  those  belonging  to  gov- 
ernment, are  chiefly  of  one  story.  The  town  was 
originally  built  of  wood,  and  wooden  structures  are 
still  numerous :  but  such  buildings  are  now  forbidden 
by  law,  and  the  majority  of  the  houses  are  now  built 
of  brick,  and  plastered.  Cronstadt  is  divided  into 
two  parts — the  Mortkaia  chatt,  sea  district,  and  the 
Konpachttkaia  chcut,  or  commercial  district— and  into 
four  subdivisions.  Of  the  two  canals  which  traverse 
the  town,  that  of  St.  Peter,  constructed  of  granite,  is 
2,160  feet  long,  by  about  80  yards  wide.  It  com- 
mences between  the  Merchant  and  Middle  llaibort, 


and  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  of  which  one  arm  oom* 
municatos  with  a  dock,  where  ten  ships  of  the  line  can 
be  repaired  at  once.  The  Catherine  canal,  1,880 
fathoms  in  length,  communicates  with  the  Merchant 
Harbor,  and  thus  enables  vessels  to  take  their  stores, 
munitions,  etc.,  directly  flrom  the  store-houses.  Be- 
tween the  two  canals  stood  the  old  Italian  palace  of 
Prince  MenscfalliofT,  the  site  of  whicn  is  now  occupied 
by  a  large  building  used  as  a  school  for  pilots,  and 
educating  above  300  pupils.  On  the  northern  s'de  of 
the  idlund  the  ]>assage  is  impracticable,  except  for 
very  ;mall  craft,  being  obstructed  by  rows  of  piles  and 
large  masses  of  stone,  extending  ftom  the  island  to 
Lisi  Noss,  on  the  mainland.  The  southern  channel  is 
the  only  practicable  passage  from  the  Gulf  of  FInl<md 
to  St.  Petersbn''g,  and  it  is  ttrongly  defended  on  both 
sides  by  forts  and  batteries.  The  principal  of  these 
are  Forts  Alexandnr,  Rlsbank,  Peter,  Cronslott,  and 
that  of  Menschikoff,  already  mentioned.  The  Great 
Road  is  commanded  by  Forts  Alexander  and  Ris1>ank, 
atwut  1,600  yards  apart.  The  former,  on  the  left  side 
of  the  passage,  consists  of  a  front  with  4  tiers  of  em- 
brasures,  and  two  flanks  of  8  tiers  each,  and  a  rear 
wall  mounted  with  guns  on  hartrtis.  It  is  built  of 
blocks  of  granite  on  a  foundation  of  piles  in  18  feet  of 
water,  and  commamls  the  road  by  116  8  and  10-inch 
guns,  all  in  casemates.  Fort  Rlsbank,  which  was 
not  tinished  last  year  (1853),  on  the  opposite  side,  is 
also  of  granite,  resting  on  a  foundation  of  piles,  in  16 
feet  of  water,  and  is  armed  with  tiers  of  guns  of  the 
heavfest  calibre.  Further  eastward,  on  the  left,  is 
Fort  Peter,  or  Citadel  Fort,  with  3  towers  or  bas- 
tions joined  by  2  curtains;  the  first  commanding 
the  approach  to  the  rear  of  Fort  Alexander,  while 
the  second  and  third  sweep  the  main  channel. 
These  bastions  have  28  guns  in  casemates,  and 
28  guns  above  en  barbette :  the  curtains  have  no 
casemates,  but  mount  20  gun?  en  barbette.  To  the 
right  of  the  Little  Road  's  Cronslott,  an  irregular 
pentagon,  originally  built  by  Peter  the  Great.  It 
presents  to  the  sea  a  low  line  of  rimbor  casemates, 
forming  a  battery  of  40  guns  placed  a  Jkur  d'eau, 
and  disposed  in  the  half  of  each  of  two  bastions  with  a 
connecting  curtain.  All  this  work,  however,  has 
been  destroyed,  and  last  year  (1863)  the  plies  had 
been  driven  on  which  a  granite  fort  was  to  be  built, 
which  by  this  time  (October,  1854)  is  probably  com- 
plete. The  mole  forming  the  western  flnnk  of  the 
Merchant  Uarbor  mounts  70  guns,  besides  12  mortars ; 
and  the  channel,  between  Cronslott  and  tho  mole,  Li 
only  250  yards  wide.  Almost  all  vessels  bound  for 
St.  Peterslinrg  touch  at  Cronstadt,  and  those  drawing 
more  than  7  feet  of  water  load  and  unload  hnre — the 
goods  being  convoyed  to  and  from  the  city  in  lighters. 
Vessels  of  10  feet  draugb  jave,  however,  been  Icnown 
to  go  up  with  high  walor.  The  port  is  ;e-bound 
during  the  winter,  from  Xovembor  to  April.  Cron- 
stadt was  founded  l)y  Peter  tho  Great,  1703. — L.  B. 

Cronstadt  is  tho  port  through  which  the  foreign 
commerce  of  St.  Petersburg  i:;  principally  conducted. 
The  number  of  vessels  cleared  in  1848-49,  was  as 
follows : 


rear.. 

Enterad. 

Cleired. 

1948 

1848 

1,M5 

WTO 

1,470 
1,550 

In  those  figures  Great  Britain  held  the  first  rank. 
The  number  of  British  vessels  entered  and  cleared 
was  920,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  209,318  tons. 
Under  the  French  flag  there  entered  and  cleared  58 
vessels,  of  8,698  tons.  The  total  value  of  French  car- 
goes imported  in  1849,  reached  about  $5,000,000, 
against  $1,000,000  of  exports  direct  to  France.  Of- 
ficial returns  for  1853  exhibit  a  total  of  1,898  vessels, 
under  all  flags,  having  entered  during  that  year ;  and 
the  following  table  gives  the  nationi^ty  and  number 
of  these  arrivals  from  each  nation : 


CRU 


i83 


CUB 


ftrst  rank, 
id  cleared 
318  tons, 
cleared  58 
rench  car- 
:5,000,000, 
,nce.  Of- 
98  vcBsels, 
year;  and 
id  number 


'       CouatHtt. 

No.  of  vetMli, 

CountrlAl. 

No.  of  toimIj. 

Kngland., 

HoIUnd 

Denmwk 

Swodon 

PruMla 

Norway 

Luboo 

RllMit 

Mecklenburg. , 

684 
;t84 
199 
186 
1!6 
»T 
89 
88 
b) 

Hanover 

Oldenburg 

United  Statoa., . 
Franco 

4S 
43 
41 
41 

sa 

8 
8 
1 

Naploa 

Brumon 

Hamburg 

CrcM-treea,  in  a  ohip,  plec«a  of  oak  timoer,  anp- 
ported  by  the  cheeks  and  troatle  trees,  at  the  upper 
ends  of  the  lower  and  top-masts  to  sustain  the  fran>e 
of  the  tops  in  tile  one,  and  to  extend  the  top-gallant 
shrouds  on  the  other. 

Crotou  Oil  is  expressed  from  the  rieds  of  an  eu- 
pborblaceouB  shrub,  the  Crotou  tiglium,  a  native  of 
Hindostan  and  of  the  irarmer  parts  of  Asia.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  of  an  ovate  tri- 
angular shap'i,  b..  1  containing  three  ovate  seeds, 
about  the  size  of  a  i«a.  The  kernels  of  these  yield, 
on  pressure,  about  50  per  cent,  of  oil,  which  is  of  a  pale 
amber  color,  and  a  thlckish  consistence,  like  castor  oil. 
It  has  no  odor,  but  has  a  peculiar  acrid  taste,  vhich  is 
felt  most  strongly  in  the  back  of  the  palate  and  throat. 
Croton  oil  is  a  speedy,  powerful,  and  sure  cathartic, 
in  small  doses,  of  one  to  three  drops ;  and  it  possesses 
two  valuable  properties :  1st,  that  however  active 
and  powerful  the  purgative  action  may  be,  it  soon 
ceases,  and  leav^i  no  del>llity ;  and,  2d,  that  it  excites 
the  biliary  secretion,  more  powerfully  than  any 
known  medicine.  In  consequence  of  one  or  two  drop.s 
being  a  dose,  and  its  action  commencing  very  shortly' 
after  its  administration,  it  is  invuinable  in  impending 
apoplexy,  and  in  almost  all  diseases  in  which  torpor 
or  paralysis  exists.  In  hydrocephalus,  even  when 
effusion  of  water  on  the  brain  appears  to  have  taken 
place,  the  late  Dr.  Abercrombio  stated  that  it  would 
often  bring  al)Out  the  recovery  of  the  patient.  It  is  a 
medicine  which  deserves  for  more  attention  than  it 
has  yet  received. — E.  B, 

CroTVU,  in  Commerce,  a  common  name  for  coins 
of  several  nations,  which  are  about  the  value  of  a 
dollar.     Sse  Coins,  Table  op. 

Crovrn  OlaBB,  the  best  kind  of  window-glass. 
The  hardest  and  most  colorless,  is  made  almost  en- 
tirely of  sand  and  alkali,  and  a  little  lime,  without 
lead  or  any  metallic  oxyd,  except  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  manganese,  and  sometimes  cobalt.  Crown  glass 
is  used  in  connection  with  flint  glass  for  dioptric  in- 
struments, in  order  to  destroy  the  disagreeable  effect 
of  the  aberration  of  colors.  Both  kinds  of  glass  are 
now  made  in  the  highest  perfection,  in  Benedictebura, 
where  Kiechenbach's  famous  manufactory  of  optical 
instrumen...  is  situated. 

Cruoibles  (Creuaeti,  Fr. ;  Schmektiegel,  Germ.) 
are  small  conical  vessels,  narrower  at  the  bottom  than 
the  mouth,  for  reducing  ores  in  docimasy  by  the  dry 
analysis ;  for  fusing  mixtures  of  earthy  and  other  sul). 
stances ;  for  melting  metals,  and  compounding  me- 
tiillic  alloys.  They  ought  to  be  refractory  in  the 
strongest  heats,  not  readily  acted  upon  by  tlw  sub- 
stances ignited  in  them,  not  porou»to  liquids,  und  capa- 
ble of  bearing  considerable  alterations  of  temperature 
without  cracking ;  on  which  account  they  should  not 
be  made  too  thick.  The  best  crucibles  are  formed 
from  a  pure  Hre-clay,  mixed  with  finely-ground  cement 
of  old  crucibles,  and  a  portion  of  black-lead  or  gra- 
phite. Some  pounded  coke  may  be  mixed  with  the 
plumbago.  The  clay  should  bo  prepared  in  a  similar 
way  OS  for  making  pottery  ware ;  the  vessels  after 
being  formed  must  he  slowly  dried,  and  then  properly 
baked  in  the  kiln.  Platina  crucibles  are  not  fusible, 
but  are  too  costly  for  general  use. 

Cruiae.  (Germ.,  kreutzen,  to  crots.')  A  voyoge 
within  certain  limits,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  with 
enemy's  ships,  pirates,  etc.,  or  for  mere  exercise,  or 
for  the  relief  of  vessels  in  distress. 


Cfraiaers,  in  naval  affairs,  vessels,  cs  the  nam* 
imports,  employed  on  a  cruise.  The  name  is  com- 
monly giv'jn  to  small  men  of  war,  made  use  of  to 
secure  merchant  Bh!i»  and  vessels  from  the  enemy'i 
small  frigates  and  privateers.  They  are  generally 
formed  for  fast  sailing,  and  well-manned. 

Cuba,  the  largest  .ind  richest  of  the  West  India 
islands,  and  the  moft  important  colony  of  Spain,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  on  the  iJth  October,  1492, 
^i  ring  his  first  \  jya((0.  It  was  first  called  Juana  in 
honor  of  Prince  John,  ton  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella ; 
but  after  Ferdinand's  doath  it  received  the  name  otFer' 
'tandina.  It  was  subsequently  designated  Santiugo, 
irum  the  patron  saint  of  Spain ;  and  still  later  Ave 
Maria,  In  honor  oi  the  Virgin.  Its  present  name  b 
that  by  which  it  was  known  among  the  natives  at  the 
time  of  its  discovery.  It  was  then  divided  into  nhie 
independent  principalities,  under  as  many  caciquet. 

The  island  of  Cuba  is  long  and  narrow,  somewhat 
in  the  form  of  an  irregular  crescent,  with  its  convex 
side  toward  the  north.  It  divides  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  into  two  passages :  that  to  the  N.W. 
being  32^  leagues  wide  at  the  narrowest  part,  between 
the  points  of  Ilicacos  in  Cuba,  and  Tancha  on  the 
Florida  coast ;  and  the  S.W.  passage  88  leagues  wide 
between  the  Cabo  de  San  Antonio  of  Cuba,  and  the 
Cabo  de  Catoche,  the  most  salient  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan.  Cuba  lies  between  71°  and 
85°  W.  long.,  and  19°  and  23°  N.  lat.  Its  length, 
following  a  curved  line  through  its  centre,  is  790 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  (from  Cape  Matemil- 
los  to  Mota  Cove)  is  107  miles.  The  area  is  estimated 
at  81,468  square  miles,  or,  including  the  other  small 
islands  attached  to  it,  32,807  square  miles.  The  coast 
of  Cuba  ib  generally  low  and  flat,  and  is  surrounded 
!)}■  numerous  islands  and  reefs,  which  render  the  ap- 
proach both  difficult  and  dangerous  to  those  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  proper  channels.  The  low  nature 
of  the  coast  subjects  it  to  frequent  floods  and  im  nda- 
tions ;  and  especially  on  the  north  side  of  the  island, 
there  are  many  large  lagoons  from  which  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  salt  is  obtained.  No  island,  how- 
ever, in  proportion  to  its  size,  has  a  greater  number 
of  excellent  harbors,  many  of  them  accessible  even  to 
ships  of  the  lino.  A  range  of  mountains  extends  from 
one  end  of  the  island  to  the  other,  dividing  it  Into  two 
unequal  portions,  of  which  the  northern  is  generally 
the  narrower.  'The  highest  are  those  at  the  ,S.E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  to  the  N.W.  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  and  have,  according  to  -Humboldt,  an  elevation 
of  1,200  tolaes,  or  7,673  English  feet.  This  Cordillera 
is  ono  great  calcareous  muss,  resting  on  a  schistose 
formation.  The  summits  are  for  the  most  part  rocky 
and  naked,  occasionally  interrupted  by  more  gentle 
undulations.  The  central  and  western  parts  of  the 
island  contain  two  formations  of  compact  limestone, 
one  of  clayey  sandstone,  and  another  of  gypsum. 
The  limestone  formations  abound  in  caverns.  The 
secondary  formations,  east  of  Havana,  are  pierced  by 
syenltlc  and  euphotide  rocks  united  in  groups.  The  > 
syenite  strata  are  intercalated  with  serpentine,  and 
inclined  to  the  X.AV.  In  some  places  petroleum  runs 
out  of  rents  in  the  serpentine ;  and  abundant  springs 
of  this  fluid  are  also  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island.  The  rivers  In  general  are  necessarily  short, 
and  flow  toward  the  north  and  south.  The  largest  is 
the  Cauto,  rising  in  the  Slorra  del  Cobre,  and  fulling 
into  the  bay  of  Buena  Esperanza  on  the  southern 
coast,  after  a  course  of  60  leagues,  for  20  of  which  it 
Is  navigable,  though  at  low  water  obstructed  by  bars- 
The  Sagua  le  Grande  rises  in  the  Sierra  del  Escam- 
bray,  passes  Santo  Domingo,  and  falls  into  the  sea  in 
front  of  the  Boca  de  Maravillas,  being  navigable  for 
five  leagues.  The  principal  of  the  other  rivers  are 
the  Sagua  la  Chica,  the  North  and  South  latibonica 
the  Cuyaguateje,  Saai>,  Agobama,  and  the  Hanabana. 
On  some  of  the  rive  ,  are  beautiful  cascades,  while 


/^ 


CUB 


484 


CUB 


Mveral  of  them  flow,  daring  part  ot  their  counes, 
under  ground. 

The  mineral  rlchei  of  the  iBlind  iit:ve  not  yet  been 
explored  to  any  considerable  extent.  Though  gold 
and  ailver  have  undoubtedly  been  found  on  the  island, 
the  quantity  haa  never  been  sufficient  to  repay  *'^e 
labor  of  search.  Gold  was  sent  to  Spain  froL.^  us 
Island  by  the  early  settlors,  but  it  was  more  probauly 
the  accumulated  wealth  of  the  aborigines  in  previous 
centuries,  wrested  from  them  by  tyranny  and  rapine 
at  the  period  of  the  conquest,  than  the  product  of  hon- 
est labor  on  the  part  of  the  colonists.  Traces  of 
auriferous  sand  are  found  in  therirers  Ilolguin,  £s- 
cawbray,  etc.  Some  specimens  of  the  finest  gold 
have  been  ol>tained  in  recent  times  from  the  workings 
of  Agabama  and  Sagua  la  Grundo,  but  at  an  expense 
of  time  and  lalmr  that  could  not  remunerate  the  par- 
ties engaged  in  it.  In  1827,  silver  and  copper  were 
discovered  in  the  jurisdiction  of  Villa  Clara,  and  the 
first  ores  gave  no  less  than  7  oz  of  pure  silver  to  the 
quintal  (  ^  lOTj^  lbs.)  of  ore ;  but  they  have  become 
less  productive,  probably  from  not  being  properly 
worked.  The  copper  mines  near  Santiago,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island,  are  of  great  extent,  and 
very  rich,  employing  nearly  900  persons,  an<'  yielding 
an  ordinary  average  of  about  27  per  cent,  of  pure 
metal.  They  were  wrought  with  some  success  during 
the  17th  centuri',  but  had  been  abandoned  for  more 
than  100  years.  About  the  year  1830,  Mr.  Hardy,  a 
landed  proprietor  in  the  island,  happened,  vhon  on  a 
visit  to  that  part,  to  cany  off  some  of  the  refuse  of  the 
old  wiikings  in  order  to  sul>Ject  them  to  analysis,  the 
result  of  wh!  :h  was,  that  the  metal  was  found  so  rich 
as  amply  to  repay  the  expense  of  sending  it  to  En- 
gland for  smelting.  Several  other  mining  companies 
have  shice  been  estaolishcd ;  and  the  amount  of  cop- 
per ore  exported  in  185U  was  662,288  quintals,  or 
nearly  25,100  tons.  Of  the  36,683  tons  of  copper  ore 
imported  in  1851  into  the  United  Kingdom,  20,825 
tons  came  fh>m  Cuba.  Coal  of  a  highly  bituminous 
character,  affording  a  strong  heat,  and  leaving  verv 
little  solid  residue  in  the  form  of  ashes  or  cinders,  is 
very  abundant.  In  some  places  it  degenerates  into  a 
form  resembling  osphaltum,  and  near  the  coast  it  is 
often  found  in  a  semi-liquid  state  like  petroleum  or 
naphtha.  In  the  quarries  near  Havana  a  thick  slate 
is  found,  fit  for  floors  and  pavements.  Marbles  and 
jaspers  of  various  colors,  and  susceptible  of  a  high 
polish,  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  island,  and 
particularly  in  the  Isle  of  Pines.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  iron  exists  in  various  parts  of  Culia;  and 
many  parts  of  the  great  Cordillera  undoubtedly  con- 
tain roclu  of  a  ferruginous  nature ;  but  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  access,  the  scarcity  of  fuel,  and  the  want  of 
capital,  no  extensive  mining  operations  have  licen  en- 
gaged in.  Kative  loadstone,  however,  has  l)cen  found 
in  various  parts,  and  chalylieate  springs  are  numerous. 

The  circulating  medium  of  Cuba,  was  until  lately 
composed  entirely  of  the  precious  metals;  paper 
money  is  now  issued  by  the  bank  which  has  just  gone 
'  into  operation.  The  coins  in  use  are  the  Spanish 
dooblon,  or  onza  de  oro,  which  is  a  legal  tender  for  17 
hard  dollars,  and  at  the  ordinary  rate  of  exchange  of 
8  4-37  per  cent.,  is  worth  £S  lOs.  lOd.  sterling ;  and 
the  subdivisions  of  the  doblon,  the  half,  the  quarter, 
the  eighth,  and  the  sixteenth — ^the  last  lieing  equiv- 
alent to  a  dollar  and  half  a  real.  The  Mexican,  Co- 
lombian, and  other  South  American  doblons  are  a 
legal  tender  for  IC  bard  dollars,  equal  to  £3  6s.  8d. 
sterling,  and  are  sometimes  in  demand  for  exportation 
at  a  premium :  their  divisions  are  worth,  8,  4,  2,  and 
1  dollar  respectively.  Of  silver  coins,  the  Spanish 
dollar  and  its  divisions,  and  also  Mexican,  United 
States,  and  South  American  dollars,  are  legal  tenders 
at  their  nominal  value. 

The  principal  port  is  Havana,  or  Havannah,  on  the 
north  coaat  of  th«  island  of  Cuba,  of  which  it  ia  the  I 


capital,  the  Moro  castle  l>eing,  according  to  Hum- 
boldt, in  lat.  28°  8'  15"  N.,  long.  82°  22'  46*'  W.  The 
population  of  ttie  city  and  suburbs  was  said  to  lie,  in 
1851,  about  200,000.  In  1827,  the  resident  population 
amounted  to  04,023;  viz.,  46,021  whites,  8,216  free 
colored,  15,3-17  free  blacks,  1,010  colored  slaves,  and 
22,830  black  slaves.  The  port  of  Havana  is  the  finest  in 
the  West  Indies,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  The  entrance 
is  narrow,  l>ut  the  water  is  deep,  without  bar  or  ob- 
struction of  any  sort,  and  within  it  expands  into  a 
magnificent  bay,  capable  of  accommodating  1,000 
large  ships — vessels  of  the  greatest  draught  of  water 
coming  close  to  the  quays.  The  city  lies  along  tho 
entrance  to,  and  on  the  west  side  of,  the  bay.  From 
its  position,  which  commands  both  inlets  to  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  its  great  strength  and  excellent  harbor, 
Havana  h),  in  a  political  (Hiint  of  view,  by  fur  tho 
most  important  maritime  station  in  the  West  Indies. 
As  a  commercial  city  it  also  ranks  in  tho  first  class. 
The  |)orts  of  the  island  licensed  for  foreign  trade  are 
Havana,  Santiago,  Tuerto  Prince,  Matanzos,  Trin- 
idad, Baracoa,  Giliara,  C:  lufuegos,  and  ManzauUla. 
A  bank  has  lieen  recently  established  in  Cuba,  under 
a  royal  charter. 

It  is  impossible,  from  the  conflicting  accounts  of  the 
different  writers  upon  the  subject,  to  arrive  at  uny 
thing  like  certainty  as  to  the  number  of  inliabitants  on 
the  island  ut  tho  time  of  its  conquest ;  but  it  may  be 
estimated  at  probably  from  300,000  to  400,000.  There 
is  little  doubt,  however,  that  before  1560  tho  whole  of 
this  population  had  disappeared  from  tho  island.  Tho 
first  census  of  Cuba  was  taken  in  177.'i,  when  tlio  pop- 
ulation was  170,862.  In  1781  it  was  272,140.  The 
following  table  gives  the  population  since  that  period : 


y««r. 

\Vhlli.i. 

Fre.  BImIh. 

Slavftn, 

Tot.l. 
600,000 

isn 

274,000 

114.000 

218,4  KH) 

1811 

2M,021 

116,691 

22.\268 

68(1,980 

183; 

3I1,UM 

106,404 

240,042 

704,4^7 

1841 

418,201 

i.w.sas 

486,498 

1,007,624 

1S48 

^ift,7«9 

i40,m 

828,7.^9 

898,782 

1M9 

487,188 

164,410 

828,897 

94^440 

18S0 

606,660 

206,570 

486,100 

1,247,280 

Neither  of  the  last  two  censuses  include  the  gur- 
rlson,  crew^s  of  vessels,  or  tho  floating  pcpulution. 

The  following  Is  a  more  minute  classiilcfltion  of  the 
people  of  the  island,  according  to  the  census  of  1850 : 

Creole  whites. 620,000 

gpaulariU 80,000 

Troops  anil  marines. 28,000 

Forelijnoni. 10.680 

rioatinK  population 17,000 

Total  whltos,  606,660 

Free  mulattoca 118,200 

Froo  blacks. 87,370 

Total  IVeo  colored  population,  206,670 

Slavoa,  mulattoca 11,100 

Slaves,  blacks. 426,000 

Total  slavoa,  486,100.  

Grand  total 1,217,230 

The  present  population,  adding  garrison  and  floating 
population,  is  nearly  1,100,000.  The  census  of  1816 
gives  the  population  of  the  principal  towns  as  follows : 
Havana,  106,968 ;  Puerto  Prince,  19,168 ;  Santiago  dc 
Cuba,  24,005 ;  Mi.lon'zas,  16,986 ;  Trinidad,  13,222.  The 
population  of  Havana,  in  1849,  is  given  at  142,002,  and 
in  1850,  at  150,561. 

The  chief  agricultural  products  of  Cuba  are  sugar, 
coffee,  and  tobacco.  Tlie  cultivation  of  thcoo  has  ad- 
vanced with  great  rapidity  since  1809,  when  the  ports 
of  the  island  were  more  freely  opened  to  foreigners. 
The  cultivation  of  coffee  advanced  for  a  time  with 
equal  or  even  greater  rapidity  than  that  of  sugar ;  but 
latterly,  from  tho  low  prices  of  coffee,  the  cultivation 
of  sugar  haa  become  the  more  profitable,  and  in  a  great 
measure  supplanted  coffee.  Among  the  other  produc- 
tions are  Indian  com,  rice,  beans,  plantains,  cotton, 
cocoa,  pine-apples,  lemons,  oranges,  limes,  flgs,  mel- 
ons, etc.    Of  tho  manufacturei,  the  principal  are  the 


CUB 


m 


CUB 


640,000 
8«,IW0 

2s,noo 

10.660 
IT.OOO 

118,200 
8T,3T0 


making  of  tngar,  molouM,  rum,  and  :?c^**,  :ki|  tli« 
preparation  of  cofTea  and  wax. 

The  lateat  and  most  rellalile  atatiatloa  of  tlia  UUiid 
proBent  the  following  dlvlalona  of  agricultural  indiM' 
tr}',  viz.:  sugar  eatatea,  1,44'ii  cuflVia  oatiittt',  ),ftlN| 
toliacco  estates,  fliKfi;  and  grazing  farnm,  Il,lttt0,  iin 
which  aro  reared  about  898,1UU  head  of  uattlu,  Ik' 
■Idea  these,  large  herds  of  cattle  are  alwi  marad  cm  tita 
extensive  and  fertile  prairies  of  the  uncultivated  (>ur- 
tlon  of  the  Island E.  B. 

Politically,  the  Island  of  Cuba  Is  divided  Into  (lirNN 
departments :  the  Oriental,  the  Central,  and  the  l)iiii|> 
dental ;  and  these  aro  again  sul)dlvided  into  a  iiuitlliar 
of  governments,  aulvgovemments,  and  colonies,  'I'Iih 
Central  ond  Occidental  departments  form  tlia  I'lvl) 
province  of  Havana,  and  the  Oriental  thp  uivll  prov« 
ince  of  Cuba. 

In  1809,  the  restrictions  Impoaet*  upon  Cuba,  of 
trading  to  no  foreign  country  wl  ataver,  wora  re- 
moved; and  from  that  period  to  tht.  present,  oAiiUl 
returns  of  the  population,  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
revenue  of  the  Island  have  been  annually  prepared, 
and,  apparently,  with  great  care,  These  re|Hirta,  or 
"  Balanzaa  Gcnerales,"  exhibit  a  regular  and  marked 
progress  In  the  Industrial  and  commercial  moyeiltenta 
of  Cuba,  from  the  period  abovi  specKled— its  tfMls 
with  foreign  nations  steadily  advancing,  and  tilt,  slip* 
plies  of  Its  more  prominent  staples  regularly  kitapliig 
pace  with  the  Increased  demands  of  an  mlurgad  and 
comparatively  emaikflipated  commerce.  In  177A,  tlit< 
entire  population  of  the  island  was  170,1)70,  In  l^M, 
it  had  risen  to  1,247,230,  showing  an  Inoreaaa  during 
the  intervening  75  years  of  1,070,880,  or  about  700  (Mir' 
cent.  ' 

Comnurce  with  Cuba. — The  Increase  of  the  trade  of  tlia 
United  States  with  the  port  of  Havana  over  that  of  all 
otiier  nations,  notwithstanding  the  bod  feeling  that  liiia 
existed  between  the  two  countries,  is  truly  wonderfMl, 
The  Havana  Mercantile  Report  of  the  7th  of  August, 
1855,  gives  a  statement  of  the  numl)er  of  vessela,  their 
tonnage,  and  the  nations  to  which  tliey  belong,  whiili 
entered  the  port  of  Havana  during  the  Hrst  I)  months  uf 
the  IC  years  last  past.  The  increase  in  tlie  total  toiiimga 
for  the  first  6  months  of  the  year,  from  1840  to  1N/)A,  is 
a  trifle  more  than  100  per  cent.  While  the  Aliieriiai) 
tonnage  has  increased  more  than  200  {ler  cent,,  the 
Spanish  and  British  are  nearly  stationary.  For  ths  11  ri>t 
6  months  In  181C,  the  American  tonnage  oinphiyed  III 
this  trade  was  71,722 ;  the  Spanish,  55,628  |  anii  the 
British,  82,069.  Tlie  total  numl>er  of  vessels  wliliJ) 
entered  that  port  during  the  G  months  ending  July  1st, 
1855,  was  1,080,  of  a  tonnage  of  3a4,9ni) ;  and  '>f  tlienu, 
570,  of  a  tonnage  of  231,484,  were  A.nerlcan  |  ft8,fi;t8 
Spanish;  82,105  British.  The  French  tonnage  lias 
increased  firom  1,761,  in  the  first  6  months  of  }H40i  to 
8,269,  for  the  same  period  of  1854,  and  23,2H;1,  miw 
than  two  thirds  of  the  British,  in  1855.  In  the  f  m- 
nago  of  other  nations,  Belgian,  Dutch,  Uanisli,  Ureni' 
en,  Hamburg,  and  others,  there  has  Leon  no  niaturiiil 
increase.  Prior  to  the  removal  of  tlio  restrictions  on 
foreign  commerce,  there  was  some  trade  carried  on  be. 
tween  the  United  States  and  Cuba,  by  virtue  of  Hpsn. 
ish  grants  and  occasional  relaxations  of  the  law  |  tint 
it  was  generally  limited  to  the  Importation  of  articles 
necessary  to  supply  tlie  people  of  the  Island  wltll  the 
means  of  subsistence. 

Tlie  wars  between  the  mother  country  and  tlia 
Spanish  American  republics  having  driven  the  Span* 
ish  flag  from  the  ocean,  the  lawa  of  differential  duties 
remained  in  abeyonce,  and  the  commerce  of  Culm,  e*. 
isting  chiefly  with  the  United  States,  wos  carried  on 
in  American  bottoms,  which  even  extended  their  serv- 
ices  to  Spain,  bringing  the  oil  and  wine  of  the  I'enill- 
sula  to  the  colonists.  The  gradual  settlement  of  tha 
dinicultlea  with  the  revolted  provinces  enabled  the  flag 
of  Spain  again  to  come  upon  the  sea,  and  her  mercan- 
tile marine  received  a  new  impulse     During  the  pa> 


Hiii  (ttw(  tlAd  tilapsed  since  the  opening  of  the  ports, 
tha  natiirni  Inornnse  of  the  wants  of  the  colonists,  at- 
Inlldaiit  upon  an  exchange  of  their  products  with  those 
lit  fiirKlgft  cotllilrles,  opened  a  market  In  Cul>a  f  r  many 
of  dm  |iriidil('ts  of  mechanical  Industry,  which  found 
tliulr  way  tlmre  tliroiigh  the  |)orts  of  the  United  .''tates ; 
Ml  tlint,  at  tlid  close  of  this  era.  In  the  year  1830,  the 
fiiriilgti  nointtmrcn  of  the  Island  was  confl'.o^i  almost 
ai«'lii«tv«>ly  to  our  marts,  to  which  she  looked  even  for 
tllima  artlclvK  which  were  not  produced  In  this  countrj-. 
'I'lila  waa  thii  seamm  of  the  most  prosperous  commerce 
li«tWi<Hlt  f/'lllin  and  the  Ifnlted  States.  The  re-birth 
of  tlia  N|/niiliih  inerilinnt-mariiie  brought  with  It  clam- 
or* for  protection,  and  the  tariff  of  Culia  wac  altered, 
lin|iosillg  a  differential  duty  upim  goods  imported  In 
fiirtilgll  liidtotli'i,  The  object  of  this  duty  was  to  en- 
iioiiragM  tllo  employment  of  national  vessels  In  the 
traila  iif  thtt  Island  with  this  country.  Spanish  ships 
VKty  mum  tnndo  lliclr  appearance  In  American  ports, 
ailli  WKfn  ratildty  obtaining  a  large  share  of  the  carr  - 
lug  (railn,  wlitch  had,  before  that  period,  been  enjoyed 
B»'dll«lvnly  by  American  vessels. 

Alaitlt  (Ills  time,  re|i«ated  but  unavailing  repreaeub- 
atloiia  liiwl  (wen  made  to  the  Spanish  government  of 
tlia  liijllndi'd  of  Its  course  In  imposing  such  discrim- 
illlttlMg  ilutips  lioth  on  the  navigation  and  commerce  of 
(iin>\)(lt  ('llllllt^les,  and  In  favor  of  Spo-.'''  bottoms. 
Ni'gotlatloiis  having  proved  abortive,  a  s^  .em  of  .lo- 
fitlMlVM  or  fptilllniory  measures  was  recommended,  as 
tlia  oflly  ttlPiilis  of  self-protection,  in  an  elaborate  re- 
liort  madn  by  the  Cimimittee  on  Commerce  of  the 
lloMSH  of  Itepresnntatlves,  in  May,  183-1,  which  con- 
I'luitii*  thus  I  "  Your  committee,  therefore,  from  a 
vkw  of  all  (lie  circumstances,  have  deemed  It  their 
duty  (o  re|iort  a  bill,  authorlising  the  Secretary  of  the 
TrfHiiliry  Ui  collect  such  additional  tonnage  duties 
ll|Hiii  HiMlilsIt  vessels  entering  the  jiorts  of  the  United 
Htilt«>s  from  Culin  and  I'orto  Kico  as  shall  be  equlva- 
lan(  (o  tllii  itlscrlmltlHtlng  duty  that  would  have  been 
llllpiwt«l  M(«m  the  cargoes  of  such  vessels,  respectively, 
If  tlia  Mimn  had  been  exported  from  Havana  in  Amer- 
Imaii  liottomil )  Htld  also  upon  Spanish  vessels  clearing 
out  ffottl  tlld  putln  of  the  United  States,  such  ad- 
ditional tonnage  duty  as  would  be  equivalent  to  the 
itlsirhlllnatitlg  duty  payalde  upon  their  cargoes,  ro- 
«|aiiitivt<l)',  If  ltil|iorted  Into  Havana  in  American  bot- 
tom*." 

Tlia  bill  ret/orfed  lH>came  a  law  in  June,  1834,  and 
('onforinalily  f';  l.'s  provisions,  the  Secretary  of  the 
'I'fMllsliry,  ill  Ve\tt':nrf,  18!!."i,  issued  to  the  collectors 
of  tliS  "0.4t<imit  Ids  circular,  in  the  fnUowing  words : 
"  i  Imvfl  i»  call  the  attention  of  the  olIiccrH  of  the  cus- 
toms Ui  Hia  iicwitiiprtnying  copy  of  the  act  of  Congre.is 
('OH"arilillg  tonnage  duty  (m  .Spn.iish  vessels,  approved 
tlia  fKHll  ifline  last,  and  which  goes  into  oporaticp  on 
tllH  )s(  day  of  March  next.  Tubular  stuti-inents  are 
nmiffiail,  sliowing  ttle  rate  of  duty  to  bo  levied,  in  the 
natllfa  oftfiniiage  duty,  on  tlie  arrival  of  Spanish  ves- 
SHi*  at  any  port  In  the  United  States,  coming  from  the 
IsIhiiiIs  of  ( !ul«*  Of  I'orto  Kico,  either  directly  or  after 
tolli  llillg  at  any  port  or  place,  Indcn  with  merchandise 
subjioit  III  discriminating  duty  when  exported  from  the 
port  of  llnvaim  in  American  bottoms,  together  with 
tlia  rata  of  duty  to  bo  exacted  from  the  aforesaid  ves- 
suls  dM|iiinint$  from  a  port  of  the  United  States,  with 
»  I'Sftf.i  diiiitlncd,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  either  of 
tlia  IsTailds  lipfore  described." 

'I'lia  nlilivtf  extract  from  the  circular  contains,  in 
sulistmil'ii,  tll«  llfst  8  sections  of  the  act  of  IHH. 
Tlia  (Hit  iwction  shows  the  purport  and  scopo  of  the 
Wt.  »ll4  timt  it  Wfla  designed  by  the  committee  from 
wIliiHl  it  fltianated,  as  well  as  by  Congress  in  its  adop- 
tion, to  foriw  tlld  government  of  Spain  into  a  more  lib- 
»>rill  lllld  Just  course  of  legislation  in  regard  to  the 
coiiiiiiarca  brtween  tlie  United  States  and  this  island, 
by  pliM'llliS  Npanish  vessels,  with  their  cargoes,  coming 
ittto  ur  diipHrtill((  'rmn  the  United  States,  In  the  same 


OUB 


488 


CUB 


toDdllloii,  SI  to  ImWNrt*  wf  all  klml*,  lliiit  AnMrlaan 
vimmU  »r*  •uliiiii!i«4  III  III  Dm  wilnnloii  iif  Hpula,  ThU 
tqiulitx  WM  i|"iiwi«i|«i|  Nil  |inp«<ri)lltr«l)'  In  litlialf  ot 
lb*  InUrmiU  of  lull*  «iii|  I'urto  Hint,  hn  In  vlmllnitlun 
of  our  iiiiiiiiiiurrUI  rluliit)  mimI  Hi*  ritli  iii<i||(in  rx- 
prunly  llwlta  it»  i!iinlliiMitlii'«  atld  tntttktn  ll«  applica- 
tion to  III*  »L'i'<iiiiplUliliMi|lt  III  that  end.  TliU  Mctloa 
b  in  tliaM  wonln  i 

"Ami  bt  il  /urthfr  mtwlni,  Thul  wliimerw  the 
VnMnui  ot  tlia  Uiiilwl  Ntaton  uliall  \m  Mtlnflixl  that 
tha  iilai:rlinin.itlilK  i|iltl««  In  ratiir  nf  NpanlKli  iMittoiiii* 
levlad  upun  tha  ii*t\l<m»  iit  AinorlcHli  rvMoln  In  the 
port*  of  CuU  «M.|  |'..rt<i  Kiiii  hava  Iwan  almlUhed,  or 
wlimiavar,  In  bi:>  ii(iiHHili,  a  italli<ra('t<iry  arranKenient 
upon  tha  nulijart  »l  tha  nalil  iliitlf*  nhall  liava  lioou 
niada  Iwlwaan  tha  Ifnltoil  Mtat«<i  anil  Hpaln,  the  Pres- 
iilant  U  h»r«lT autllurUail l<i ilwiara  the  mm»  liy  proc- 
lamatiun,  aii't  lharau|iiiii  till*  a«t  iibalt  cean  to  have 
any  furthar  furra  iir  alfai  t," 

In  1H4U  tha  Traanui')'  llaiMrtmntil  anwrtalnpil  that 
certain  privl|i>|{uii  IiimI  l/auii  Hvciinhiil  un  tlio  purtof  the 
Npaniah  |{iivurMilM«l(  Itl  vnaa^U  'if  tha  llnltnil  Htatnii 
enterlnif  unit  <ttt|iartlii|(  frirtit  lairt*  In  the  laland  uf 
Ouha.  A  viruular  waa  iiHmmllatol)'  Itniimt  frum  that 
departinant,  whiuh,  aft^r  tiltliif(  tha  pruvtulonn  nf  tha 
avta  of  IMlli  and  IWH,  and  i<pi<i'Hyinu  the  prlvll«f{cii 
nlludad  to,  Bayii  i  "  It  i  ifM>fi|ili<litl^'  fulhiwn,  that  where 
no  tonnai{a  duty  ut  di<i!riiMln»lliit(  duty  on  the  cargoea 
of  Aiuerican  vamuU  «Mt«<rlM4  or  ilfpartlnx  froni  porta 
or  placea  in  the  inland  iif  Ciiha  U  lllipnacd  niiil  lollerted 
thereat,  Hpailiall  trti>«<'U  follllliu  rrmn  auch  porta  ur 
plucea  are  to  \m  niiiiilarly  traatad,  m  tv^nuU  toniinge 
duty,  in  tha  (airta  ut  ilia  l^liltwl  Wlat«»,  'I'ho  cdlleut- 
ora  of  tlia  LUntuliia  u>i,  tliariifiira,  Inalructcd  to  nhataln 
from  tha  exaL'thili  uf  any  t'ilinai(i<  duty  on  Hiinlnh  vea- 
aela  coming  from  (Nirta  ut  \i\m<v<i  In  the  lj<liind  of  Culm, 
In  lialUat,  ur  wliuit  la'tfll  with  cafgopa  of  niulaaaea 
taken  in  at  altliar  of  mM  laiii^," 

In  V^bi  4  tiiniUr  liiritular  waa  laatied  to  collectora, 
inatruc'tinK  tliuiii  to  a<1iliit  Hpaniah  veaarla  arriving 
from  Hpanlah  or  any  idllff  tuMnn  fiotta,  thoae  of  Cuha 
and  I'ortii  Hlfo  a^wiitad  [tha  fiiyal  decree  of  Bd  .Jan- 
uary, Wi'i,  tt»i!t.-|i(ad  i'MYm  and  I'lirto  Klco  from  the 
privilegaa  tbut  rai.|)irutiat4<d|,  In  entry  on  the  aamo 
footlnii  a«  Aliiariuail  vtmwtn,  a>  ra^afded  tonnage  duty, 
light-money,  ai|/J  all  olliaf  d(ia»  to  Ihe  I'nltcd  Stataa, 
80  far  lid  ru»|»«it4  vnMala,  'i'\wm  actii  (uf  WM-M) 
have  lieen  in  forua  niiw  diirinK  a  (lerliKt  uf  22  yeara, 
and,  with  tba  ai(j!a|4tiiH  uf  (ha  atlf(lit  privtlegea  which 
called  fur  tlia  MiriiMlmra  already  referred  to,  have 
failed  to  prialuoa  tha  alfai  t  tiuntemplated  liv  their  rn- 
octment.  Tha  vuimiMiri'e  lietween  tha  United  Statea 
and  theaa  ialanda,  in  tha  NKKr«f(ate,  has  not  fallen 
oflTj  hut  tha  iiii  raaaa  ha<*  iiilt  la<«n  auoh  aa  aliould  be 
ezpeutad  from  tha  ginat  e^iianohm  ut  our  general  com- 
merce, and  tlia  ii|i7aaiH<d  listnliipinenl  uf  the  agricul- 
tural and  iuduatrjat  raiuiiiriieil  uf  Cuba,  nince  that 
perlud.  Tlis  inu4  uhvioua  affeii  Ima  been  to  exclude 
8panUb  ahipa  from  uur  |Mrta,  and  to  deatruy,  in  a 
measure,  all  that  (lurthm  ttl  the  carrying  trade  hence 
to  Cuba  wbi<:h  coiiiprtaad  artictea  of  foreign  product ; 
for  the  Bpaninb  vaMaU.  no  UmHit  pertnltted  to  engage 
In  the  carrying  tr»<la  Iwlween  the  I'nited  Statea  end 
Cuba,  on  inure  favurabia  t«rina  than  American  veasela, 
were  noon  drtvail  fn/ni  uw  Jiurta,  and  aupplied  the 
want*  of  tha  iuUlld  frulll  tba  I'mintrlea  where  the  orti- 
clea  wars  iiruduiwd  i  and  tbUK  the  hardware,  giaas, 
delf,  and  drygiaida  uf  V,n\l,\mi\,  that  had  been  prevl- 
oualy  brought  to  tlia  Mh\Uu\  Matea  In  Amarlooii  pocket- 
abipa,  prin.ijially.  fruni  l,<»nd»rt  and  Liverpool  to  New 
York,  ware  now  dlraclly  \»i\ititUA  Into  fJubo )  and  the 
came  reault  baa  att«lidi<d  the  iiarrying  trado  from 
France  in  Iwr  nilkt  and  famy  wares,  and  Oermany  in 
her  cottnna,  lln«n»,  and  liuniaMi', 

Tha  fuUuwfng  labia  i>abiblt#  the  number  and  na- 
tionality of  vaaaala  ampbiyed  lo  the  trado  of  Cuba 
during  tba  tbraa  y«»ra  1M0,  MW,  and  laM  t 


K»ria*». 

IM. 

IDm. 

lUt. 
71IT 
MA 
KM 

guantah 

Ifnlled  Btatea 

188 
1,10« 

aw 

808 
IMP 
187 

Allothar 

Total 

-l,«i4 

l,7U» 

2,888 

Oliakid. 

IIU4. 

liN. 

Int. 

HnuUh 

m 
tu 

94T 

886 
880 
814 

Tl»"' 
910 
2«0 
1,817 

ifnltodBtutoa..., 

Allolhor 

TnUI 

1,288 

ijrto 

An  analyaia  uf  tha  preceding  liguraa  will  ahuw  an 
aggregate  inoreaao  in  the  nuinlwr  uf  veimela  entered 
frum  18^U  to  1H2U,  of  4U  ;  and  to  l>iil4,  of  1)77  ;  and  iu 
veasela  cleared,  an  increuae,  fur  the  lirMt  (lerhid,  uf  282, 
and  fur  tha  aecond,  of  620.  The  incrauae  in  Spaiilah 
veaacia  entered  from  1620  tu  tH2<J  wua  208,  and  to  MM, 
&X)  veaaela.  The  deoroase  from  IH'JU  to  182<J  in  the 
United  Statea  veaaida  waa  ia7,  and  to  18UI,  1(!1 ;  and 
the  decrease  iu  vi'>^<  U  from  all  uthor  nations,  fur  the 
first  period,  waa  2H,  and  to  1H;14,  71  vcsmcIs. 
TAauB  i;xuiuiT»a  tue  V-iLue  ur  Iuimjhid  ikiu  Cuba 
DUKiNo  TUB  Tuur«  Vb.viis  1^28,  1S20,  Itiai. 


IK«. 

1B«». 

18*4. 

[(8,412,487 
1,184,407 

4,070.018 
8,tlUU,lUl 

008,414 
1,6711,018 

B«2,«0U 

2,210,270 

hATIUNAL  CUMUKHCI. 

National  voaaela... 
Forotira  voasela .... 
Dopotlt 

|4<i»,8S2 
2,449,410 
l,Ta»,021 

8I4.6S8 
B,8)12,->«8 
1,180,451 
1,«28,tl27 
1,208,080 

572.788 
»I4,926,TM 

(I,160,M1 
8,501,008 
S,521,4«l 

844,828 
6,7iVl,7il5 
1,245,947 
1,'«7.77B 
l,0O,^740 

544,800 

rt>BllUR  OMMBIICK. 

National  vcaaola . . . 
Kriiiii  iriiltoil  tttatea 

From  Franco 

Krum  Kiittlund 

From  IlanaoTowna 

From    Italy,    Hol- 

laiiil,      PortUKal. 

DiMimark,       and 

East  Indlea. 

ToUI 

$18,606,858 

118,668,800 

The  preceding  tables  show  nn  increase  in  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  impurta  into  the  ixland  in  1829  over  1820 
of  $3,770,102!  while,  during  the  second  jwrluu,  frum 
1829  to  1834,  this  trade  remained  stationary.  A  mi- 
nute analysts  of  the  flgurea,  however,  will  show  the 
signlflcunt  fact  that,  while  the  carrying  trade  in  Span- 
ish bottoms  has  risen  from  *84-J,82C  in  1829  to  $4,970,- 
013  in  1834,  the  impoiis  from  the  United  States,  during 
the  aamo  period,  fell  from  $5,7,11,705  to  $3,090,101. 
During  the  three  years  compared,  thu  imports  into  tho 
United  States  from  Cuba  remained  stationary,  being 
in  1820  $3,894,597;  in  1829,  $3,191,535;  and  in  183-1, 
$3,824,724. 

Imports  of  Flour. — During  the  periods  under  review 
— indeed,  at  all  times — provisions  form  the  largest 
item  in  the  imimrta  from  the  United  States.  The 
enormous  diacriminution  in  favor  of  the  national  Aug 
on  flour  has  always  had  the  effect  of  reatricting  nlnio.st 
exclusively  to  national  vessels  tho  trade  in  this  article. 
Tims,  In  1829  tho  value  of  flour  imported  into  Culm, 
in  Spanish  vessels,  was  $1,582,708,  while  from  tho 
United  States  it  amounted  only  to  $345,335,  and  from 
all  other  places  to  $13,002 ;  and  in  1849,  or  twenty 
years  after,  the  value  of  flour  imported  in  Spanish  bot- 
toms was  $2,675,202 ;  from  the  United  Statea,  $9,3,34  ; 
and  from  uU  other  places,  $1,725.  The  acts  of  1832 
and  1834  can,  unquestionably,  be  traced  in  this  great 
falling  off  in  the  article  of  flour ;  but,  that  other  causes 
also  iciitributcd  in  -oi^uring  fur  the  Spanish  flag  so 
complete  n  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  this  article  is 
demonstrated  by  tho  fact  that,  while  the  value  of  flour 
imported  from  all  other  places  (than  the  United  Stutc!<) 
in  1829  amounted  to  $13,002,  representing  1,093  bar- 
rels, we  And  this  figure  in  1849  dwindled  down  to 
$1,725,  representing  only  138  barrels.  That  tho  re- 
peal of  these  acts  would  largely  augment  tho  exjiort 
as  well  as  the  iinjiort  trade  of  the  United  States  with 
Cuba,  there  can  bo  no  question ;  but,  ontU  the  dls- 
criminationa  in  favor  of  the  national  flag  are  modified 
or  removed,  the  carrying  trado  between  the  Unitei' 


.'CUB 


487 


CUB 


SUtoi  anil  llitt  isluiiit  woulil,  uiitlei  tliair  unequal  and 
unjust  <i|ieri4tlun,  Iw  almoit  exulunlvely  luunopoUiad 
by  H|>»iii.ili  lM>ttomii, 

Ciimmrreial  J'liUi-y  of  Spain, — The  raatrlctlvo  pallcy 
of  S|mln,  eapeciitlly  ua  regonli  the  trade  of  her  culonleii, 
u  adhered  to  to-day,  in  Cuba  and  i'orto  Ktcu,  ulnioat 
aa  ri|;uruuiily  aa  when  ahe  wua  nibtreiia  uf  nmirly  the 
cntiru  auutliorn  jmrtion  of  thla  continout  j  and  the  Kta- 
tlonary  condition  of  the  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  these  islands  since  18!l-k  would  seem  to  in- 
dicate the  frultlessncaa  of  any  elTorts  to  force  her  from 
thia  lino  of  policy  by  measures  of  retaliation  or  coun- 
tervailing acta.  So  long  aa  the  system  itself  nhnll 
continue  to  lie  the  colonial  policy  of  Spain  but  little 
modillcation  In  its  details  need  be  looked  for,  whether 
the  InSueuco  to  that  end  bo  countervailing  acts  or 
diplomacy.  "  Be  careful,"  says  the  Instructlona  of 
the  l(lng  and  Council  of  the  Indlus  to  Luis  de  Veloaco, 
viceroy  of  New  Spain,  early  In  the  sixteenth  century, 
"  Be  careful  not  to  foster  manufactures,  nor  to  allow 
the  cultivation  of  vines,  Inasmuch  as  there  was  always 
ample  provision  of  theso  things,  and  tho  commerce  of 
the  kingdom  should  not  be  impaired  by  such  colonial 
products  j"  and  In  the  year  1010  those  royal  instruc- 
tions were  repeated,  with  the  addition  of  tho  following 
emphatic  language :  "  Inasmuch  as  you  understand 
perfectly  how  much  the  observance  of  these  rules  Is 
necessary  for  tho  dependence  of  tho  colonies,  we 
charge  and  command  you  to  see  to  their  faithful  exe- 
cution." The  same  spb'lt  that  dictated  this  protection 
for  tho  wine  and  oil  of  Spain,  und  for  tho  exclusive 
trade  In  these  articles  to  her  American  colonlea,  in 
1610,  remains  uncliangcd  in  any  degree  (because  there 
Is  no  practical  distinction  between  prohibitive  discrim- 
inations and  positive  prohibitions)  in  tho  commercial 
policy,  which.  In  185G,  two  centuries  and  a  half  later, 
virtuilly  excludes  American  flour,  and  many  other 
staples,  for  which  the  Inhabitants  of  Cuba  must  neces- 
sarily look  to  a  foreign  market. 

Until  the  system  itself  ia  abolished,  and  Spain 
adopts  the  more  liberal  commercial  policy  which  char- 
acterizes tho  present  enlightened  age ;  until  she  fol- 
lows the  example  of  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  other  nclghlioring  countries,  in  removing  all  un- 
necessary shackles  from  commercial  cnterpriso,  the 
commerce  of  Cuba,  not  only  with  the  mother  country, 
but  with  tho  Unltud  States,  and  all  foreign  nations, 
must  remain  as  It  has  during  the  past  (quarter  of  a 
century — crippled,  restricted,  and  struggling  ;  Incom- 
petent as  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  home  government 
— inadequate  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  colonial,  and 
almost  powerless,  from  tho  restrictions  with  which  it 
Is  burdened.  In  developing  the  exhaustless  resources  of 
the  island,  or  even  In  supplying  the  necessary  means  of. 
comfortable  sulisUtence  to  the  great  bulk  of  Its  inhab- 
itants, unless  at  prices  far  above  their  scanty  means. 

If  the  government  of  Spain  could  be  induced  to  pro- 
pose, or  to  agree,  to  a  similar  commercial  reciprocity 
with  the  United  States  to  that  now  existing  l)etwecn 
the  latter  country  and  tho  British  North  American 
provinces,  it  woidd  not  only  supersede  countervailing 
acts  and  retaliatorv  measures,  by  establishing  thn  com- 
mercial relations  l>etween  them  on  a  basis  of  just  and 
liberal  reciprocity  ;  but,  it  is  believed  that,  while  in  a 
Tery  short  period  it  would  make  tho  island  of  Cuba 
the  richest  in  wealth,  us  It  Is  In  natural  resources,  of 
any  Island  of  the  same  size  in  the  world,  it  would  also 
eminently  contribute  to  cement  more  strongly,  if  not 
render  indissoluble,  the  Imnds  of  union  between  it  and 
the  mother  country. 

luroRTS  or  TonAoco  into  the  United  States  raoM  Cuba, 
rOR  TUB  YeAKS  ENDINO  ,IVNE  BOTH,  1SS3,  HM,  1S05. 


Untiwnurnotiir^il, 

S«|»r..                    1 

Pounili. 

V.lue. 

M. 

Valiw. 

18S8 
18M 

186S 

4,29M)80 
4,662,187 
3,718,986 

|76(,629 
700,871 
628,112 

177,9« 
171,823 
167,807 

12,806,020 
2,760,229 
2.681,468 

Th«  folliiwlng  table  exhibits  the  ralua  of  export! 
from  the  United  States  to  Culw  during  two  |Mrlo<U, 
embraciiig  three  yaiura  each : 


Ytt»r». 

Vilu<. 

(H,aou,Iiil 

•4»>illr./ri.w. 

Vd». 

1H115 

^4ll«,ol« 

1H»6 

6,668,281 

VIM 

«,887,»6» 

1,687  bbU. 

♦7,780 

1864 

K,661,762 

11,608 

'<8,4tt» 

isee 

8,004,681 

8,428 

88,176 

It  win  Ik  seen  from  thia  table  that  the  export  tradt 
of  the  Ui)lted  States  to  Cuba  In  IHSii  is  less  than  It 
was  In  18S0,  whllo  tho  increase  in  IHM  and  1866  Is  by 
no  nu-ans  proportionate  to  the  rapid  Increase  of  our 
general  'lommerce,  and  of  th«  agricultural  products  of 
Cuba.  Were  the  dlscrlmlnui  i'lna  removed,  flour  would 
un<iue8tlonably  become  our  Uadlng  staple  export  to 
Cuba.  The  importations  of  thla  article  into  Cuba  In 
1847,  wore  235,248  barrels,  of  which  176,870  barrela 
were  from  Spain,  and  50,37!)  barrels  (torn  the  United 
States.  In  1848  the  numl)er  of  Imrri'N  imported  fell 
to  231,110,  of  which  only  18,17f>  barrel^  were  from  th« 
United  States.  Tho  most  moderate  eatimatu  puts  tha 
consumption  of  Hour  In  Cuba,  were  It  admitted  at 
reaaonabio  duties,  at  from  800,000  to  000,000  barrels. 
That  this  trade  wor.  bl  be  enjoyed  almost  exclusively 
by  the  United  States  ih  evident  from  the  fact  that  llour 
la  among  our  heaviest  articlea  of  expnit,  and  European 
compi'lltlon  with  a  country  within  a  few  days'  sail  of 
tho  island  would  be  out  of  the  question. 

Tho  balance  of  trade  between  tho  United  States 
and  Cuba  is  enormously  against  the  former.  In  1833, 
this  balance  amoimted  to  1(112,207,706;  in  185&  it  waa 
$10,020,757.  Tho  value  of  600,000  barrela  of  flour, 
flxing  the  price  at  $5  per  barrel,  would  be  $2,500,000 ; 
or  one  fifth  of  tho  balance  against  the  United  States 
would  bo  realized  on  the  single  article  of  flour  alone. 
Thn  increaaed  quantitlcn  cf  liacon,  pork,  lard,  and  pro- 
visions generally,  of  douio^ttic  manufactures,  etc.,  would 
render  the  cummerco  l«tween  this  country  und  Cuba 
more  equal,  as  well  as  more  Just  j  while  tho  exports 
from  Cuba  to  the  United  Stutoa  would  bo  |>ro)iortiona- 
)ily  augmented.  One  year's  trade,  if  cuiHluctcd  on 
principles  of  miproclty,  would  bo  sufHcient  to  demon- 
strate tho  advantages  which  would '  ult  to  both  coun- 
t.'lea  from  the  adoption  of  a  pollc-  ...mmonded  alike  by 
tho  products  and  wants  of  nac!.,  respectively,  and  by 
every  principle  of  commercial  economy. 

Great  as  is  the  productiveness  of  Cuba  at  present, 
some  writers  asser''.  that  under  a  good  government 
it  would  be  Increured  fivefold ;  its  mineral  resources 
would  then  be  fully  developed,  ond  it  wo'  1  bo  able 
fully  to  take  advantage  of  its  admirable  i><>sltion  to 
dovi'lop  Its  trade,  Tho  continuance  of  the  present  line 
of  policy  in  reference  to  Cuba  must  in  time  lead  to  a 
revolution  which  Spain  will  bo  unable  to  quell. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  Spanish  tariff  uf  tho  year 
1880,  in  Cuba,  several  revisions  have  been  made,  and 
the  rates  of  duty  from  time  to  time  have  been  mate- 
rially dlMiiuishcd,  to  the  eminent  advantage  of  tho  rev- 
(Miue ;  but  there  has  still  been  retained,  and  in  many 
instances  increaaed,  tho  dKTercntial  duties  in  favor  of 
Spanish  products  and  national  bottoms.  The  follow- 
ing instances  of  the  operation  of  these  differential  du- 
ties will  sufficiently  exhibit  their  general  character. 

LanX. — An  article  of  great  consumption  In  Cuba, 
Imported  almost  exclusively  from  tho  United  States,  is 
subject  to  a  duty  of  4J  cents  per  pound  when  brought 
from  this  country  in  American  bottoms ;  the  coarser 
qualities  of  oil  (olive),  which  are  Imported  for  tho  same 
purposes,  are  delivered  with  a  duty  of  2  4-5  cents  per 
pound;  and  tho  result  is,  that  10,000,000  pounds  of 
lard,  being  a  vastly  superior  article,  are  Imported, 
while  8,600,000  pounds  of  oil  from  other  countries,  far 
inferior  to  lard,  are  enabled  to  compete  with  it  In  the 
markets  of  Cuba,  becouse  of  tho  diflTerence  in  price,  in 
its  favor,  produced  by  the  duty. 


fl  CUB 


488 


CUB 


ProdH<iiimi.  — Afniarillrnli'  t  UA>,  nr  ram)  It  iltatilUd 
from  iiiuluio  kn>l  thn  rrtatt  ufaiiKtr-work*.  It  In  xilit 
Mr  |ilp«  <>f  lift  K'llon'i  wl'h  or  without  rtik,  ■ccord- 
IliK  10  ii){rvaiiii<nl ;  kikhI  tatU  l«  of  not  loia  than  'JO  ila- 
gnut,  civtr  •ml  tran>p«r«nt,  •ll»(htly  brown  In  rolor, 
•ml  iimwth  taitn,  Thn  c»[H)rli  of  Ihia  artUlo  fur  tlin 
jraar  IX.'itl  wore  (lioiit  lA,  1711  pipaa,  of  which  TMA  wunt 
to  Spain;  lAO  to  Iha  rnicml  Slalea;  2!i|  to  liritat  llrlt- 
•In;  2i)Ul  to  Cnwva,  or  Falniniith  and  a  market;  till) 
to  llamliurR  anil  Itn-nn^n ;  XilII'  to  Kranoi;  fiWI  (< 
Triaale  and  Vnnieo;  1  Til  i  i  South  Anierlraand  Mexi- 
co; and  tho  balann  Ut\y,  (llbmltar,  aml^a  market. 
Tha  oxportt  of  IHItb  vrry  conaidiirahly  exnsoil  any  pro- 
Yloua  year,  and  from  the  nuiulxr  of  rxtanaiva  distll- 
lorlea  racently  eatahllahrd,  the  article  U  likely  to  form 
•  ronaidarabia  item  or  ox|iortatlon  In  future.  It  haa 
eumniaudi'd  the  laat  year  aa  lii|{h  aa  #46  and  #18  per 
pipe  during  A  portion  of  it;  at  the  tenniniiliou  of  thu 
year  It  was  i|uoted  at  $40  to  |42,  lirUk,  I  ho  numbur 
of  pipaa  ahlpped  wero  21,102,  of  whirh  HIO  want  to  the 
United  States;  1140!)  to  (Ireat  Krltnin;  798  to  (ior- 
nsny ;  7114  to  Kranco ;  17,787  to  Spain ;  KfJ  to  South 
America  and  Mexico)  and  the  balance  to  Italy  ami 
Other  countriea. 

Iji'tf  roh3ceo. — Toban  o  la  one  of  tho  moat  Important 
•rllclea  of  pro<luction  in  the  iatand  of  Cuba.  Tim 
plantera  commenco  to  plant  in  Angnat  or  8cptonili«r, 
after  the  heavy  ruins  are  over,  and  when  the  northern 
may  im  liiokod  for,  which  Kunorally  come  accompanied 
liy  a  dri7.zlini;  rain  that  la  fiivuralde  to  the  plant.  In 
February  or  March,  and  ns  lata  aa  April,  tho  tobaceo 
It  rut  and  taken  to  a  huu!-e  ur  ahed,  preolcd  fur  the 
purpoao  of  aflbnllng  ahado,  and  nt  the  s:tnio  time  nfree 
circulation  of  air;  It  la  placed  on  ciye«  (pole»\  Inlil 
•  horizontally  at  aome  dlitanco  from  tho  ground,  where 
It  \\  allowed  to  bccomo  porfeifly  dry  until  tho  aprinR 
rains  commence,  when  tho  humidity  sci/es  thu  leaf, 
causes  It  to  swell,  and  to  take  the  silky  nppoaranco  pe- 
culiar to  It.  It  is  then  taken  from  the  polos  and  laid 
in  a  heap  on  tho  ground,  the  leaves  Iwing  sliglilly 
•prinkled  with  water;  in  this  slate  it  umlergoos  u 
Iperlos  of  fermentation.  After  this  operation  Is  gono 
through,  the  leaves  are  placed  in  manojot  (hands); 
afterward  It  Is  a  very  common  practice  to  tako  a  quan- 
tity of  refi'se  loaves  and  Infuse  them  in  a  certain  ipian- 
tlty  of  water,  and.  In  some  instances,  wine,  ond  even 
alcohol,  or,  rather,  tatia  Is  used  when  the  tobacco  Is 
light  colored  and  weak,  and  it  is  desired  to  givo  It  iii- 
ereaaod  strength.  This  Infusion  undergoes  a  state  of 
fcrmentatlon,  after  which  tho  refuse  loaves  deposit 
themtelvos  at  the  bottom.  Tho  tobacco  Is  dipped  Intu 
this  preparation  before  being  hung  up  in  a  room  almoat 
•Ir-tight,  where  It  undergoes  tho  sweating,  to  which 
the  name  of  calenlura  (fever)  Is  given ;  the  process  of 
dipping  is  performed  aa  many  times  as  tho  tobacco  may 
require.  I  am  under  tho  Impression  that  this  process 
might  1)0  used  to  great  advantage  with  the  Connecticut 
tobacco.  Tho  <|ualitles  of  Cuba  tobacco  vary  accord- 
ing to  tho  tectlon  or  district  In  which  it  is  produced: 
that  grown  on  tho  western  end  of  tho  Island  is  the 
oclcbratod  Vuelta  AbiOo  tobacco ;  that  raised  in  other 
parts  of  the  island,  which  Is  very  inferior  in  quality,  Is 
known  undor  the  name  of  Vuolta  Arriba.  There  is 
another  class,  called  Vara,  from  wliieh  Puerto  Principe 
cigars  arc  made. 

Tho  best  Vuelta  Ab^}o  tobacco  it  grown  on  the  mar- 
gins of  certain  rivers,  which  aro  periodically  overflown, 
and  is  called  tobacco  tie  rio,  diatingnishcd  from  other 
tobacco  b}-  a  lino  sand  found  In  the  creases  of  the 
leaves.  Good  tobacco  it  aromatic,  of  a  rich  brown 
color  (this  color  is  preferred  by  those  who  are  fond  of 
a  strong  cigar,  but  there  is  many  a  light-culored  leaf 
that  is  quite  as  strong),  without  stains,  and  the  leaf 
thin  and  elastic,  burnt  well  without  bitter  or  biting 
taste.  There  is  probably  no  prmluctlon  of  the  earth 
that  oflera  so  many  disappointments ;  the  raising  of  it 
it  subjected  to  many  contretempt.     If  I  am  not  mlt- 


liiken,  only  on*  good  cnip  ia  mnd«  In  three  yeara  on  an 
average.  Tobacco  ia  uiuaiiy  di  ideil  Into  live  elaaaea, 
to  wit  I 

('alidad  or  Mbra  i  thia  la  the  brat  tobacco ;  tho  balaa 
alwayt  cnnlain  lUl  hunda  or  innnnjin,  of  4  gavlllaa  «r 
Angvra,  nf  aliuut  'i.'>  leaver  raih,  unil  marked  4,'llo.  Thu 
atrungeat  cigiir  la  nm<lo  with  this  leaf.  Infurlnilu  Prin- 
cipal or  I'riniara  (llrsts);  haa  losa  Havor  llian  Mlira, 
and  Is  geuirally  uf  llghli'r  colur.  Tho  leaves  ahuulil 
lie  whole  and  elualle;  HO  haiiils,  of  4  gavillas  (uf  110 
leaves ),  are  In  each  bale,  wliiih  is  nmrkeil  II  80,  Su- 
^-undaa  (■ernnda):  many  good  wrap|Kirs  in  theao;  but 
lli«  ni^jurlty  of  thu  leaves  urn  atainoii,  have  a  l>ad  col- 
or, or  have  Ix-en  slightly  tnuclied  i'y  tho  worm.  Thit 
wrappar  Is  weaker  than  thu  llrsts.  This  class  Is  put 
up  in  balea  nf  M)  nianujns,  uf  4  gavlllaa,  ea(  h  uf  theao 
uf  8ft  to  40  leaves,  and  inurkeil  V  '.'  «  80,  Tercoras,  ur 
thirds,  eonslituln  thu  best  llllers,  nnd  sonio  wrappers 
nm  found  amung  them,  especially  If  llio  lubuei  o  is  new. 
Tho  bales  have  80  niannjus,  uf  I  guvillus,  buviiig  up- 
ward uf  40  leaves  eiieh  ;  tho  bales  nre  Iimi-kod  II  ii  80. 
Cuartns,  ur  fourths:  the  iii'ist  Inferior  I'i.its,  lit  only 
for  llllers.  Thn  bales  eunlaiii  80nianujus,  uf  4  ga\  lllua ; 
no(lel<'rniliiednii'ulierof  leavosinthoKavlllas;  marked 
4  n  8ii.  Vuelta  Arriba  tobacco  Is  puc  up  In  tho  aanie, 
or  a  similar,  manner. 

It  would  1m3  dinicidt.  Indeed,  fur  any  one  to  all'  nipt 
to  llx  prices  for  lulmcro;  they  vary  fruni,  any  :>li)  to 
tITO  generally,  but  occasionally  fubuluua  prices  aro 
paid  for  that  which  is  very  guml  In  quality,  and  which 
olTers  a  fair  prospect  uf  yielding  a  largo  iiunilier  of 
cigars,  I  have  It  frnm  a  very  rcllablu  source,  that  n 
little  over  n  month  since,  Hie  ccleliraled  f nlory  uf  fji 
llija  tie  Ctthtiiiiu  ;/  CarhijiU  |iu!il  thu  sum  of  #10,0110 
cash  for  a  lot  of  only  4.')  bales,  none  of  which  e.\eeodoil 
KH)  llis.  In  weight.  Ily  the  following  quotatiuiis,  given 
by  our  latest  price-current,  it  will  bo  pcnelvcd  how 
varied  tho  prices  are  for  tubaccu : 

ll'iO  tn  $140  for  Arsts,  sunouds,  and  tlilrila. 

00  to     M)  fur  rijiirtha.  "1  ArroriUiig  to  rpinl. 

40  tu      Mlforltnha.  lily,  selirtlun,   mill 

■ill  to     BOfursixIha  (reiionn  ;  nil  Is  Vu- 

IT  to     '20  fur  levciithaand  Capadnnk.J  ilta  Almjo. 

When  tobacco  Is  shipped,  it  is  generally  covered 
with  crash, 

C'igni't  ore  made  of  all  classes  of  tobacco,  nnd  of  va- 
rious sizes  and  shapes,  and  therefore  of  various  values. 
There  Is  probably  no  manufactured  article  sn  difllcult 
to  eslimato  tho  triio  value  of  us  cigars;  there  are  cer- 
tain well-known  brands  that  can  coiiiniaiid  almost  any 
prico;  they  have  a  llxcd  valuo;  such,  for  Instance,  as 
those  of  /,«  llija  tie  Ciibtifitu  y  Cai'bttjttl,  Ciibtirytis,  I'a- 
Inrgtu,  1m  Iliguera,  etc,  and  even  among  those  of  high 
reputation,  and  having  apparently  fixed  prices,  cigars 
aro  delivered  nt  lower  rules  tlian  those  appearing  in 
tho  bill  of  rates  to  persons  that  advance  tliem  largo 
sums  of  money  for  the  purchase  of  tobacco,  and  recoivo 
in  payment  largo  quantitie.s  of  these  cigars  per  month. 
These  celebrated  brands  are  known  to  bo  tho  pur- 
chasers of  thu  best  and  highest  priced  tobacco ;  at  tho 
samo  time,  it  is  well  known  that  they  purchase  cigars 
from  smaller  factories,  niako  scleclioiit  with  great  care, 
pack  them  in  their  own  lioxes  with  their  on  n  brands, 
and  obtain  for  thetc  the  same  prices  as  for  Ihe  cigars 
made  at  their  own  manufactories ;  and  just  as  good  an 
article  may  bo  procured  clscwhero  for  half  the  prico. 
But  very  few  of  the  cigars  proceeding  from  those  cele- 
brated factories  aro  consumed  on  the  island ;  and  thcro 
arc  oven  some,  liut  comparatively  few  of  wlioso  cigars 
are  sent  to  thn  United  Stales,  and  thcro  arc  many 
whose  works  all  go  to  the  States.  I  mean,  in  tho 
above  remarks,  in  tho  way  of  trade.  It  would  lie  quito 
impossible  to  give  any  positive  ligurcs  in  regard  tu  the 
extent  of  manufacture  of  cigars  in  this  island;^ not- 
withstanding all  my  diligence  in  procuring  informa- 
tion, and  the  various  modes  employed  for  the  purpose, 
my  efforts  have  failed.    Tho  only  modo  I  could  And  to 


oiin 


480 


CUB 


of  va- 

vnltics. 

fllcult 

nro  ccr- 
rnoHt  any 

unci',  as 

J'a- 

uf  high 

,  einars 

ariiig  in 
em  lnrt;e 
receive 
man  til. 

tlio  pur- 
at  the 

Bu  cigars 

■oat  care, 
brands, 

ho  cigars 
good  an 

lie  price. 

1050  cclo- 
ind  thcro 

so  cigars 
ro  many 

n, in  tho 
lio  quite 
rd  to  the 
nd;^not- 
infornia- 
purposo, 
Id  find  to 


makt  an  apprnalmtllnK  •'•llmaid  nt  lhi>  nnanlitjr  mnnii- 
f»c'tiirr<i  la  hy  Hllnullng  lift  Iha  niimli«r  nt  amoktrt 
III  Iha  laUiiil,  Ami  liora  I  nial  inm  utrnl  atuniiiiing- 
liliH'k— "  What  la  Iha  piipuUllinior  I'lilial'"  It  l«  <'ul- 
culatvd  (u  luw  aa  miliar  vna  Milllliin  and  aa  hlifli  aa  ont 
nillliun  ami  a  half. 

It  luiiat  Im  liiiriia  In  mind  llial.  aIniiKt  nvnrr  man, 
and  a  vury  lari^a  purllun  nt  wiiniim,  In  ilm  laluiKi  aiiinl<u 
cigarai  and  allhiHi|{h  l(  la  vary  Irim  Ihiil  a  largn  niim> 
Ixir  uaa  Iha  ilKarrlliia  ur  papnr  ilKara,  allll.  It  la  known 
that  a  vary  larifn  |i»rtliiii  uf  Ihom  alaii  cunaiiinn  Ihu 
ulhiir  kind,  »r  Iiiirii4,  My  iilijni^t  haa  hraii  In  amor- 
lain,  ill  Ihii  Itral  pl«i!i>,  iIm  hiima  I'linaumpllon.  In  my 
oll'uria  III  ualliiiala  iIim  Miiinlior  <if  ainnkcra  l>y  lni|iiirln> 
friiiii  hulh  HpttiiianU  and  (l»rniaii>,  I  lliid  llw  lallinato 
varyintf  lMl»«an  ll<lil,(Ha*  and  ],iHm,im,  Tnn  ■  Igara 
per  day  la  < unaldurud  aliniit  Ilm  avi'rago  i|iianllty  lon- 
aiiniad  hy  vaih  paravn.  A»  my  liaaU  of  roli'iiliiilun,  I 
liiivujiiil  down  lliH  iiMinliar  at  '|iNi,(iO<l.  Thia  would 
givu  fur  Ilm  I'lmanmplhm  nt  Ihn  Inland  Ilm  nliiioit  In- 
criiiUlda  ainuuni  uf  I IIUI  mlllluna  nt  cl^ara  pur  annum, 
cipml  tu  l,li!'l,i/<HI  h>u»a  i>f  liMNI  (lai.li.  1,'akulatlng 
I'ucli  lliuuauiid  Ui  wuIkIi  I'i  Ilia.,  vaih  amukiir  cnnaumoa 
11  ilia,  pur  annum.  'I'hla,  laki'ii  In  lonnralloii  wllh 
llio  amount  ufdapiiria  friitii  all  partauf  Ihn  Inlniid,  that 
laii  uut  Imi  h<aa  than  Ilm  i'unaum|illiin,  awidla  Ihn  llguroa 
to  ail  uxluiit  that  la  atarlllMK,  and  makna  mn  dmilit  Iho 
liuaia  uf  my  I'ali'ulitlliin.  And  ynl  I  am  liild  l>y  many 
that  I  uiii  ratlmr  uuiliir  than  i>vi'rtliiiniiml>«ruf  aiiiiik- 
cra, and  ilm  i|iiaiilll)  timy  lunaunin  piir  day. — f'omuhr 
lliprnl  Id  Ihn  llfiiniiiiiriil  i\^ Htnli\  I'lilliil  Hlnlm, 

tfiii/ar. — Thia  I*  riinaldnrnd  Ihn  gri'ateal  alaplo  of  tho 
inland  of  I'uliw,  'Mm  Kriiidliig  of  Ihn  cane  gunpruily 
(iiiuiiiuncua  ill  Iha  iiiiiiilliuf  Ddiniiihi'r,  and  ilm  sugars 
um  liriiught  lu  imtrkiil  fruin  ilaniiary,  niid  aoniotiiiios 
as  I'urly  aa  thu  middlti  <if  llai'mnlivr,  iiiilli  .Inly;  the 
gri'utc-at  i|iiaiitliiiia  I'linm  In  March,  April,  and  May. 
TImru  ura  Iwi  kliida  iiiailt>,  kiinwn  na  "clnved"  and 
"  Muscovadi)  i"  Ilm  griialuat  i|iianllly  hy  fur  la  cinyod. 
ofiliiii,  thu  prinoipal  dlviiluii  lai  l-lori'li',  whlln,  vol- 
tow,  hrown,  and  i'uKimlui,  It  la  pa'ki'd  on  Ilm  plan- 
tiitiona.  Tho  rlayi-d  la  put  In  liuxin,  wclghinjj  from 
I.jO  tu  Mill  poiiiida  uroaaj  Ihn  larii  uaualjy  la  17  pounds. 
A  nicri'liuiilaidu  huil  of  auuar  niiiat  wnlKh  Ul  arrolms 
(uf  il)  Ilia.)  nut  I  If  n  llttln  nnddr,  a  diidiictlon  of  M 
cents  pi'r  Iwx  la  iiiaila  |  and  If  miiili  under,  Ihn  sugar  is 
njcited,  aa  Ihn  import  duly  la  iijion  tlio  hox,  ond  il 
would  not  hn  fur  Ilm  lnt'<rKat  of  Ihn  alilppcr  or  export- 
er to  ciTopt  any  lion  wvlghllii^  Inas  than  Ifl  nrrohas. 
Muscovado  Is  put  In  I'aaka,  widghing  from  I20<ito  inoi) 
pounds  grosai  lam,  10  pir  icnl.  Clayed  sugar  is 
usually  sold  In  lula,  aaaiirtad  lialf  whiles  and  half  yel- 
low  or  hrowna,  p«r  aamplB,  liy  llennand  limkers ;  it  Is 
examined  Imfurn  rui'flvnil,  ainf  Omt  whieh  Is  nut  niuol 
to  sample  rojertud.  WliaiiaiigarritniNlhslonfr  In  store 
it  hecomes  inoiat  and  lu«i«  tia  Kraln. 

Tho  export  of  au^ar  from  ilavNna,  necordlng  to 
Humboldt,  Binounlad,  In  Ihit  fo»f  years,  1'(!(>-'(!n,  every 
year  only  to  about  I  ;t,iHH)  boxHa,  JJInn  years,  1770-78, 
every  year  only  to  about  ftll,(KHI  boxes, 

The  grcot  Increaaa  In  Ilin  protlili'llun  of  sugar  In  this 
island  coniiiienced  about  Ihn  year  INZO,  when  steam 
WHS  substituted  iinon  jdantaliona  fur  ux  or  mule  power. 
Nearly  two-thirda  of  ihii  ((iiaiillly  exported  Is  from 
Havana,  and  the  larguat  porliun  nn  American  bottoms. 
Tho  olHclal  returns  of  (mjairta  lan  liol  bo  considered  ns 
correct ;  for  many  a  vuaanl  liaa  lienn  cleared  as  laden 
wllh  a  full  cargo  of  molaaana  wliett  alio  carried  n  full 
cargo  of  sugars,  and  tliurfiby  not  only  defrauded  the 
royal  revenue  of  Ilm  export  duty  upon  the  sugar,  but 
had  her  tonnage  duty  nut  lovlnd  or  returned  to  her, 
and  in  former  year*  inany  v#)la<<li  having  n  full  load 
of  sugars  cleared  in  liallaati  but  nven  supposing  that 
they  gave  tlw  truo  i)uaiillly  iir|i»flfld,  they  cortainly 
give  no  idea  of  the  mtUiiit  of  Ilm  rrop,  The  consump- 
tion on  the  Island  It  la  ImixMsibts  to  estimate ;  tho 
quanilty  U  aliHMt  invmillhla.     Mo  «<mntry  In  the 


world  consumes  so  much  sugar  as  the  people  of  Ihll 
Island  in  pniportlon  to  the  pupulaliun.  filch  and  pour, 
evory  table  -almost  wllhuiil  exception,  uxilusivo  of 
the  negroes  upon  planlalluna— is  furnlahvd,  ninro  ur 
leaa,  wllh  Ilm  preserviid  fruita  of  thu  country,  and  Ihu 
quuiitily  of  proaorved  fruita  aent  to  all  parta  of  Ihe 
wnrl'l  la  very  great.  And  then  la  tu  be  lunsldured  Ilm 
augar  llial  la  consumed  in  a  cuunlry  where  every  w  Idle 
inhabllnnl,  and  u  largo  purtiuii  of  the  culurvd  pupula- 
liun aUi>,  takn  culTeo  three  or  four  liiiiea  a  day.  The 
pruspet  ta  of  Ihe  preaent  crop,  from  all  parts  of  Ihu  Isl- 
and, were  never  mora  llatlerliig.  It  is  prubable  that 
llmro  will  bu  a  large  incroaae  over  Ihe  last  year's  crop. 
Contracts  have  already  Immii  entered  into,  paying  as 
high  aa  ^22  per  box.  The  bu.\es  and  casits  uro  paid 
for  separately,  as  wUl  be  exhibited  in  Ilm  pm  J'urma 
invoices  given  in  continuation.  The  brokerage  upon 
sugar  is  1  pi  r  I'l'iit,  of  which  Hie  purchaser  pays  a '-ilf 
per  cent,  and  lliu  s'ller  thu  other  haii'  per  cent.— L''  .  iti- 
/iir  Itrliinit,  Cnilml  Nlaltt,  lH6l-'63. 

fVi/fi-c— Tho  production  of  this  article  has  rapidly 
diminished  during  tho  last  11  or  15  years  on  the  norlh 
part  of  Ciilia,  owing  to  liio  low  prices,  scarcity  of 
laliorors,  and  consei|Uont  hlKh  rales  of  wages,  and  II 
larger  |irolIts  in  tho  culllvalion  of  Ihe  sugar-cane. 
The  berry  liegiiis  to  ripen  about  August,  when  the 
picking  is  commenced,  and  continued  until  December 
or  January  next.  It  liegina  to  (lower  in  February, 
Murcli,  April,  or  May;  the  lliird  llower  gives  thu  best 
coll'oo ;  the  urticlo  is  brought  tu  market  tluoughout  the 
year;  Imt  in  Dccenilier,  January,  and  I  liruary,  and 
even  as  lute  as  March,  it  comes  In  greatest  i|uantilles. 
Tlio  packing  in  sucks  of  from  0  to  H  arrobas  of  25  pounds 
Is  efl'octcd  on  tho  plantations ;  tho  tare  of  a  sack  Is  '2 
pounds.  CotVeo  is  sold  by  regular  licensed  lirokcrs  by 
sample,  and  before  being  received  is  examined,  ond  if 
not  eiiual  to  tho  sample  is  rejected.  It  is  usually 
classed  Into  live  grades ;  Superior,  First,  Second,  Third, 
and  Tr^'ache.  Thero  is  a  class  called  Carucolilh,  a 
round  bean,  tho  produce  of  tho  first  bearing  year,  when 
Ihu  pods  have  only  one  kernel ;  after  the  llrst  year  tho 
pods  have  two  kernels.  ColVee,  when  a  long  time  in 
store,  loses  its  nroma,  and  fades  in  color ;  when  good, 
tho  berries  aro  smooth,  eipiiil,  and  unbroken,  freo  from 
stones  or  unpleasant  smell,  and  of  a  fresh  green  color. 
Tho  rultivulion  of  cotTeo  was  introduced  in  the  iFland 
of  Cuba  in  1707-'98  by  tho  French  emigrants  fioni 
Hayti.  In  180 1  tho  exports  were  50,U0O  arrobas;  la 
180',>,  .120,000  arrobas. 

It  will  bo  observed  how  sadly  tho  pro-lucllon  of 
coffeo  has  decreased  within  tho  last  few  y  <.  "^he 
time  Is  now  fust  approaching  when  none  w  i''  '  .  cd 
on  this  side  of  ('uba,  and  then  tho  inhabi.ai  '  .  will 
have  to  depend  upon  the  culVoo  raised  In  the  district  of 
St.  Jago  dcCuba,  which  is  still  quite  large  in  quantity; 
and  were  it  not  for  the  immense  quantiiy  of  beans, 
corn,  and  other  grain  that  are  roastci^  .i  id  mixed  with 
tho  real  coirce,  the  quantity  of  tho  bitier  would  scarce- 
ly  suffice  for  the  consumption  of  a  ojuntry  where  it  is 
used  in  such  great  quantitici..  It  is  believed  by  many 
that  I  III'  time  will  arrive  vhen  the  island  of  I'uba  will 
have  to  import  cofTco  for  the  consumption  of  her  inhab- 
itants.— CoiDulur  Returns,  I'niled  Stales. 

Custom-house. — Husiiiess  transacted  at  the  custom- 
house in  Havana  is  nil  done  In  writing,  and  pretty  much 
all  upon  stamped  paper,  mostly  at  60  cents  a  slicet,  ex- 
1  pting  that  for  outward  register,  called  papel  de  ihs- 
t-'i,  costing  |8  tho  sheet.  Vessels  that  go  to  ontporti 
to  load  havo  to  pay  anchorage  and  other  small  foes, 
averaging  some  $15  or  $16  each.  At  Cienfuegos  every 
vessel  pays  the  health  commissioner  $2,  and  as  much 
more  if  ordered  to  <|uarantine.  At  Matunzas,  besides 
the  charges  recovered  as  here,  tho  government  exacts 
$4,  and  the  royal  exchequer  $1.  At  Sagua  an  extra 
fee  is  exacted  of  $-1  if  she  enters  in  ballast  and  loaves 
with  cargo,  and  $8  if  she  brings  cargo  and  carries  away 
cargo. 


CUB 


490 


CUB 


.■-■--■• 

COMMIROI 

or  TUB  liiiTiD  States 

WITH  Cuba, 

rBOK  OOTOBEB  1, 

1620,  TO  July  1, 

133&    - 

Eiporto. 

iDiporu. 

Wh«r«or  there  WM 

11  Onlliun  and  Hpeele. 

Tonnafre  Cleared.       | 

94pumb<raS. 

DunwtUt. 

Furdmi. 

Toul. 

Tuul. 

ICiporteiJ. 

imported. 

Aiu.'rli'An. 

Korelga. 

1841 

t2,«60,056 

$1,51)0,626 

$4,540,680 

$6,694,849 

$266,162 

$1,163,263 

108,922 

8,632 

1829 

8,201,046 

1,060,578 

4,270,618 

6,967,054 

221,561 

690,169 

99,983 

6,:i5 

1828 

8,271,270 

2,134,096 

5,405,865 

6,962,381 

863,400 

271,TM 

106,886 

4,766 

1824 

8,611,693 

2,105.840 

6,807,688 

7,899,.326 

262,093 

1,102,746 

124,338 

4,946 

1825 

8,276,666 

1,341,146 

6,120,702 

7,66«,419 

147,816 

^f^l"^ 

111,208 

PI? 

1826 

8,749,653 

2,332,774 

«,18':-,t.32 

7,668,759 

408,923 

410,606 

121,764 

2,184 

1827 

4.160,747 

2,6,56,841 

«,910,088 

7,241,819 

876,169 

478,690 

139,881 

8,648 

1828 

8,912,997 

2,490,994 

6,403,991 

6,123,185 

787.010 

679,228 

180,618 

8,909 

1829 

8,719,208 

1,869,626 

5,678,889 

4,866,524 

6.32,144 

868,920 

114,599 

8,120 

1880 

Total... 

3,489,060 

1,477,676 

4,916,735 

6,577,230 

276,687 

862,034 

114,061 

11,356 

(86,292,344 

$19,700,669 

$51,993,038 

$67,427,519 

$4,129,969 

$5,807,424 

1,1«5,49S 

60,^3 

1881 

$S,r«4,144 

$1,259,698 

$4,898,842 

$9,371,797 

$800,600 

$181,774 

132,222 

17,916 

1382 

8,681,897 

1,680,754 

.•>,812,151 

7,009,857 

199,182 

91,065 

128,538 

25,632 

1888 

3,986,113 

1,700,697 

6,672,700 

9,754,787 

458,223 

99,858 

188,693 

31,091 

1884 

3,692,980 

1,659,456 

6,352,486 

9,096,002 

14.3,469 

600,666 

129,624 

29.954] 

1886 

8,917.436 

1,689,872 

6,600,808 

11.840,615 

316,176 

266.256 

151,313 

26,788 

1888 

4,601,717 

1,903,772 

6,406,490 

12,734,976 

616,142 

122,518 

166,460 

8,829 

1837 

4,808,783 

2,063,8'20 

6,867,608 

12,447,9'22 

607,147 

1,643,110 

175,796 

P'i?J 

1883 

4,721,488 

1,454,825 

6,176,763 

11,694,912 

2:t5,290 

410,794 

198,746 

10,618 

1889 

5,026,626 

1,091,205 

6,116,831 

12,599,848 

179,497 

821,814 

194,678 

12,806 

1S40 

Total... 

6,831,471 

979,041 

!>,310,516 

9,986,477 

149,570 

648,103 

li>2,543 

15,670 

142,876,100 

$16,288,032 

$68,114,132 

$104,950,987 

$8,023,160 

$4,296,617 

1,593,478 

191,891  1 

1841 

$5,107,011 

$632,071 

$5,789,082 

$11,667,027 

$150,461 

$134,909 

194,001 

14,168  ' 

1842 

4,197,468 

672,981 

4,770,449 

7,660,429 

100,102 

235,940 

182,466 

9,719 

1848* 

2,920,922 

899,876 

8,826,797 

6,015,938 

128,496 

656,205 

136,383 

4,897 

1844 

i8»4,002 

934,.533 

6,288,696 

9,930,421 

673,910 

170,027 

2'i4,618 

7,538 

1815 

6,20;J,803 

800,946 

6,.5<U,7M 

6,804,414 

18,699 

629,103 

171,892 

16,198 

loW 

4,713,966 

773,170 

6,487,186 

8,159,632 

329,801 

609,991 

177,630 

12,888 

1847 

6,006,617 

97£,'W9 

6,977,706 

12,394,867 
12,s6:M72 

615,774 

881,767 

248,616 

18,498 

1843 

6,432,830 

4M,333 

6,890,713 

1 10,049 

768,289 

281,261 

13,486 

1849 

4,641,145 

668,008 

6,309,218 

10,659.9.')6 

81-*,S0O 

442,.593 

234,608 

19,561 

1860 

Total... 

4,580,256 

460.041 

4.990,297 

10,292.398 

177,355 

296,011 

254,018 

29,708 

(49,062,635 

$6,288,107 

$55,800,742 

$95,828,649 

$2,,524,44« 

$4,113,790 

2,160,237 

146,093 

1861 

$6,289,276 

$1,284,817 

$8,624,123 

$17,046,931 

$1,034,064 

$839,018 

861,782 

29,942 

1852 

5,80.3,196 

714,355 

6,517,561 

17,861,728 

371,0.57 

270,112 

870,608 

22,780 

1863 

6,778,419 

514,.54<l 

6,287,9,59 

18,685,755 

128.980 

89,092 

865,892 

22,730 

1354 

3,228,116 

82.3,630 

8,551,7,52 

17,121,!W9 

61,736 

120,658 

8f '  049 

26,189  1 

1865 

7,607,119 

897,468 

8,004,682 

18,625,3.39 

49,872 

188,497 

431,1^ 

31,190  1 

1656 

7,199,086 

610,229 

7,809,20:3 

24,436,693 

894,062 

28,945 

488,796 

13,336  1 

*  9  months  to  Jooo  30,  and  fiscal  year  begins  July  1. 


The  followinf;  table  will  show  the  values  of  lard  and 
oil  imported  into  Cuba,  ij  1851,  1852,  and  1853 : 

1961  Lard. $891,743    Ollvooll $477,259 

1852    "    883,775  "       48,5,204 

1863    "     861,036  "       472,783 

Meal». — The  existence  of  a  differential  duty  on 
meats  imported  in  Spanish  bottoms,  draws  the  supply 
of  this  article  in  the  marlcets  of  Cuba  from  Buenos 
Ayres  to  the  extent  of  30,003,000  pounds  annually ; 
while  from  the  United  States  it  comes  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  notwithstanding  the  quality  of  the  article  im- 
ported from  the  United  States  is  far  superior  to  that 
from  South  America. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  quantity  of  jerked 
beef  imported  into  Cuba  during  the  years,  185U,  1851, 
1852,  and  1853,  and  the  countries  whence  exported. 
The  arroba  equals  about  25i  lbs. 


Yean. 

From  Ike  United  SUIei. 

From   Kpalli,   (Vntral  und     1 
SoHlh  .*.      lea.               1 

ArrobaJi. 

Dollan. 

Arroba*. 

l>oit«H. 

18.50 
1851 
1952 
1853 

6,244 

6,.377 

4,419 

674 

8,960 

7.862 
6,286 
1,053 

1.208.016 
1,87H652 
1,163,231 
1,016,695 

1,638,101 
1,678,910 
1,607,822 
1,867,140 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  sugar  from 
Havana  and  Matanzas,  fur  the  years  1853,  1851,  and 
1855: 
ExpoBT  or  SuoAB  ra  Boxes  fboh  Havana  and  Matanzas. 


To 

)l»3. 

1X54. 

IBU. 

United  Btotes 

149.574 

14,868 

225.618 

89,866 

1.5,171 

8,826 

11,626 

81,760 

50.680 

29.(18V 

7,607 

6,839 

63&,341 

164,396 

67,410 

274,372 

1.5,496 

44,277 

7,930 

24,908 

61,880 

37,590 

41,808 

8,428 

4,737 

■(■87,756 

197,179 
42058 

213.2.30 
28,968 
83,093 
10,992 
26,817 

196,848 

118,808 
10,795 
6,563 
15,266 

1108,177 

Great  Britain 

Coves,  and  a  uurliet 

Baltic 

namburg  and  Bremen . . . 
Holland 

Bolsiam 

Bpain 

p>ance 

Trieste  and  Venice 

Leghorn  and  Oenoa 

OUicr  Torts. 

Total  boxes 

Taiii.k  ExiiiniTisQ  Tim  VALHP.  or  Floub  impobted  into 

t;ullA  FllOM  1347  TO  185:i,  DIUi:iiTED  FROM  THE  "  IIalanzas 

()e.nerai.f.8"op  tuat  Isla.vd. 


Yean. 
1847 

From  Spain, 

From  the 
Unil«d  Slates. 

$629,0.56 

From 
Knfiland. 

From  other 
countrlae. 

$2,137,976 

$63,694 

$14,647 

1818 

2.050,623 

174.405 

0,711 

25,050 

1849 

2,OT2,500 

0,:»2 

6,362 

125 

18,50 

8,204.9''9 

6,605 

1,2.50 

1851 

8,091.525 

20,291 

650 

•  •  •< 

1952 

r.,97 1,909 

91,064 

2,7'5 

1853 

2.677,791 

29,930 

80,149 

25 

The  duty  in  Cuba  on  Hour  im|)orted  from  Spain  is 
$2  5'^;  on  tliat  imported  from  the  United  States,  in 
American  or  other  foreign  bottomE,  is  $10  81 ;  the  ef- 
fect of  which  is  to  drive  the  American  article  entirely 
from  tho  Cuban  marl(ot,  except  at  such  times  as  when 
scarcity  may  have  curried  it  up  to  famine  point.  Tlie 
tonnage  duty  that  exit,ts  on  Spanish  bottoms  is  62^ 
cents  iier  ton,  a.id  on  fore!,{n  shipping  $1  50  per  ton, 
contributing,  in  combination  with  oticr  difTereiitiul 
duties  and  restrictions,  to  tlie  Spanish  ting,  advantages 
in  tho  carrying  trado  of  the  products  of  that  island  to 
the  northern  ICuropean  ports. 

Tho  imports  of  flour  into  Culii  from  the  United 
States,  from  1853  to  1850  inclusive,  aie  shown  in  the 
following  talde : 

Year  endlitir  June  SO. 


Board  of  Ti-cule, — Tho  annual  report  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  of  the  island,  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
royal  treasury,  of  tho  general  navigation  and  commer- 
cial movements  of  the  island,  in  tho  year  1850,  sets 
forth  these  farts  in  a  manner  worthy  attention.  It 
shows  that  in  1850  there  had  been  an  increase  over  the 
last  year  of  $2,088,226  in  the  value  of  goods  Importeti 
in  national  vessels,  but  that  the  importation  in  foreign 
vessels  had  only  increased  ^574,5-10 ;  n  result  to  be  &»- 
cribed  to  the  protective  and  dtfTerential  system  which 


eign  f 

inereii 

portat 

ing  01 

amoui 

1849, 

lowiu) 

pUed, 


CUB 


491 


CUB 


4,766 
4,346' 
1,212 
2,184 
8,648 
8,909 
8,120 
11,886 

60,^08 

17,»1« 
26,632 
81,i«l 
29,964 
26,788 
8,329 
13,194 
10,613 
12,806 
15,679 
191,891  I 

14,163  ' 

9,719 ; 

4,897  I 
7,683  i 
16,198 
12,838 
18,498 
18,435 
19,661 
29,708 

146,093 


29,942  , 
22,780  I 
22,780  I 
26,183  1 
81,190  I 
18,380  1 


From  other 
ouuntrlei. 


114,647 

26,060 

125 


25 


Value. 


♦7,780 
8-.',4'<9 
88,176 
80,066 


fsvon  Spanish  over  foreign  sliippiog,  and  on  wlich  the 
present  tari6F  is  based.  In  regard  to  exportation,  ex- 
actly the  contrary  state  of  facts  will  appear.  In  1860 
the  exports  In  foreign  vessels  increased  $2,748,287, 
while  the  increase  in  national  bottoms  was  only 
$147,104.  These  different  results  are  traceable  to  two 
causes,  namel}- :  as  to  imports,  to  the  discriminations, 
both  in  respect  of  tonnage  and  tariff  duties,  in  favor  of 
the  national  flag ;  and  as  to  exports,  to  the  advantages 
which  foreign  vessels,  exporting  the  products  of  the 
island,  enjoy  as  national  vessels  in  the  countries  to 
which  they  respectively  belong — advantages  which,  in 
general,  more  than  countervail  the  discriminating  ex- 
port duty  in  Cuba  in  favor  of  the  national  flag. 

In  the  year  1849  the  value  of  importation  was 
$30,820,460,  an  increase  over  the  previous  year  of 
$885,892 — an  amount  much  less,  however,  than  had 
been  expected  from  the  steady  progrebs  of  the  island ; 
and  in  the  same  time  the  importation  diminished,  as  it 
appears,  in  many  articles  of  provision.  Foreign  (lour, 
preserved  meats,  cod-fish,  bacon,  jerked  beef,  lard, 
butter,  and  foreign  wine  (although  the  national  wine 
increased  to  an  amount,  in  value,  $200,000),  fell  in  the 
scale  of  quantity,  and  the  article  of  rice  increased  more 
♦han  8,000  arrobas  over  the  importation  of  the  last 
year,  in  consequence  of  the  cargoes  of  that  article  from 
ihtanilla ;  so  that  had  it  not  been  for  this,  and  the  in- 
creased amount  of  some  other  provisions  imported, 
articles  of  manufacture  and  coin,  the  yearly  account 
would  have  exhibited  a  still  more  considerable  dim- 
inution. This  state  of  things  was  considered  by  the 
.Board*  to  be  the  result  of  some  evident  causes,  such 
OS  the  extreme  drought,  which  affected  the  crops  of  the 
season,  and  the  prevalence  of  cholera  in  the  ports  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  rendering  sanitary 
measures  necessary,  which  interfered  with  the  natural 
flow  of  commerce.  But,  be  these  causes  what  they 
may,  a  result  of  the  year  was  an  amount  of  carrying 
trade  under  the  Sp»nish  flag  to  the  Island,  of  more  than 
$1,000,000  in  tlie  value  of  effects  imported ;  and  if  the 
produce  of  the  Peninsula,  brought  in  national  vessels, 
be  taken  into  account,  the  increase  of  this  branch  of 
business  reached,  in  twelve  months,  near  $700,000, 
which  was  con'iidered  to  be  the  result  of  the  differen- 
tial duties  existing. 

VALCE  or  TUB  IMPOBTATIOK  Or    BlOK    INTO  GOBA,  IN  TUB 
YXAB8  1848  AMD  1849. 


From 

1848. 

1M9. 

gpain  and  her  colonies 

Spanish  American  republics. . . 
United  States 

{223,943 

101,664 

701,118 

16,621 

{146,925 

61,418 

799,499 

41,234 

Other  countries. 

Total 

11,047,246 

$1,039,076 

From  earlier  tables,  it  appears  that  in  the  year  1820 
the  value  of  Spanish  produce,  arriving  at  Cuba  in 
Spanish  sbipj,  amounted  to  only  $409,352 ;  in  the  year 
1830  it  reached  $8,000,000  j  it  exceeded  $5,000,000  in 
1840,  and  at  the  close  of  1848  had  risen  to  more  than 
$7,000,000.  Foreign  produce  brought  in  national 
vessels  in  1825  amounted  to  $2,449,440,  exceeded 
$5,000,000  ia  ISIO,  and  reoched  near  $8,000,000  in 

1848,  when  the  Spanish  flag,  in  both  commercial  move- 
ments, came  to  flor.t  a  value  of  $14,936,811.  The 
duties  arising  on  imp<irtation8  in  the  year  1849,  woie 
$5,844,783 ;  on  exportations,  $584,477 ;  making  a  total 
of  $6,429,260,  dimlnisihing,  when  compared  with  the 
preceding  year,  in  the  one  instance  $4,36,621,  and  in 
the  other,  $124,1136 ;  making  a  total  of  $561,457.  For. 
eign  flours  fell  off  16,654  barrels,  although  the  Spanish 
increased  1,121  barrels ;  and  a  gcnpral  increase  of  im- 
portations of  national  produce  had  ensued,  and  a  lessen- 
ing of  foreign,  which  tended  greatly  to  decrease  the 
amount  of  duties.     The  ccimmerciiil  action  of  1848  and 

1849,  and  of  succeeding  years,  is  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing tables,  made  up  from  the  official  exhibits  com- 
piled, annually,  for  t\i«  government : 

*  BoUniu  Oenerol  del  Comorolo  de  la  Isla  de  Cuba,  1849. 


-j^j»jS 


C*  M       O  00  ^  -*  •^'Oi  <7> 


fo;    (-ijStojIfc;    CO  « I— ic  t-i  (£.  r* 

i'  3i4! 


tc  CO  a>  -■»  o  t 

00  «o  K>  «o  V  ii 

-*  w  o  o»  o  y 


Ot  Cf  feO         >4  ibk  QD  •>)  00  M  CJI 

rSto,   to.   Sg9»c!i=&c3^4^s 


toSo'   go'   o>;'<S-HSeaSw^% 


I 


s 


lisih 


■t^M-   -».  V«-   o> <P « «e 00 9» *' 


M  M  Ol  l«  jS 


.3.8:  P:  1^:  ,3ISfi.8,8g 


JA       j-ij«jsi -1  <to 


jM32aSS22 


r 


CUB 


m 


CUB 


BTATntiirr  or  ran 

CtOAHTITCRg    01 

VALUI8    or    THK    PRIIfOIPAl    ABTIOIR 
DUBIHO  THK   Yeau  1848  TO  1864. 

or   BDMDTKtOI 

iMPOsnD  nrao 

CtriAt 

Yn, 

Rice. 

CodHib. 

Spulak 
Flour. 

F.milgii 
Floiir. 

B«or. 

Pork. 

Ibm. 

PoHndaT 
2,5«l,625 
1,776,088 
1.887,882 
1,(!56,500 
776.968 
1,122,600 
1,562,652 

Urd. 

Arrubiu. 

878,706 
866,024 
294391 
298,401 
294,609 
286,680 
871,917 

Butlar. 

Cll00M. 

Jarktd 

BMf. 

Bacon. 

Winei. 

Forolga 

1848 
1819 
1860 
1861 
1852 
1868 
1864 

Arrobna. 

864,278 

872,306 

917,868 

29,069 

837,697 

1,168,872 

1,070,240 

Arrobu. 
898,069 
677,466 
445,696 
621,924 
541,742 
538,685 
621,801 

Barr«l*. 
212,941 
214,240 
266,606 
246,697 
820,922 
214,466 
281,897 

Unrreli. 

18,176 
1,597 
845 
2,826 
7,023 
5,100 
7,287 

POILICIV 

819,200 
826,225 
868,040 
439,042 
775,350 
516,050 
769,100 

Pound  •. 
1,118,100 

768,400 
910,008 
624,200 
486,787 
628,225 
687,495 

Poiintla. 

698,473 
763,941 
698,688 
6H194 
460,419 
609,140 
462,266 

P.iniiiiH. 

1,667.270 
1,806,114 
1,426,406 
1,422,511 
1,595,670 
794,931 
1,250.684 

Arrobtu. 

1,270,677 
1,184,096 
1,213,260 
1,391,030 
1,268,613 
1,017369 
1,876,878 

Poimdi. 

653,680 
626,209 

.■KB,.™! 
84'.>.2'2:l 
467,245 
497,105 
086,925 

Dollori. 

1,248,492 
1,474,105 

1,700,102 
1.630,ii.M 
1,681,994 
1,642,795 
1,205,069 

Oullim. 
108.8(0 
101,848 
75,871 
09,200 
173,403 
164,692 
813,866 

Statkiient  of  tuk  Quantities  os 


Values   or  toe   pkincipvi. 

DUEINO  THE  YeAIU  1848 


Articles 
TO  1854. 


or  Sub8isti:nce    expobted  fboh  Cuba 


Yean. 

Ajruanilonta. 
(Kom.) 

Cotton. 

Sugar. 

ColTee. 

Beoiwax. 

Wood!. 

Honey. 

Muloflses. 

Copper 
ora. 

Leaf 

tobacco. 

Segnra. 

Pl|«.. 

Pound.. 

lloju. 

Arnihaa. 

Arrubaa. 

Dollnrs. 

Ilutlan. 

11  tide. 

QiilnlaU. 

656,191 

Pound!. 

M. 

184S 

16,389 

29.690 

1,228,713 

694,187 

60,110 

H.H2ll.% 

66,623 

22S,726 

6,27^680 

161,480 

1849 

11,6M 

78,665 

1,099,894 

877,686 

86,691 

817.994 

48,108 

246,670 

588,810 

4,019,188 

128,720 

1860 

4,826 

88,475 

1,249,618 

520,1IW 

69,194 

859,128 

55,182 

209,044 

M2,28S 

7,978,148 

212,640 

1861 

9,221 

13,046 

1,539,994 

r.7.Ml9 

67,4,W 

89S,9I1 

69,626 

818,429 

4-32,832 

9,486,591 

270,818 

1962 

11,359 

12,009 

1,409,012 

789,826 

68,691 

468,945 

78,6-38 

262,,'S98 

891,470 

9,787,448 

142,567 

1958 

14,294 

188,626 

1,657,192 

442,7-30 

45,946 

448.483 

85,959 

808,831 

8,089,797 

237,850 

1854 

25,272 

87,262 

l,63.'j,-.'il 

611,493 

71,ii34 

647,818 

104,812 

261,815 

649,653 

9,809,160 

261,318 

Stateme.vt  of  tub  Quaktitieii  or  Values  of  the  principal  Articles  exported  from  Cuba,  1948 — 1954. 
[Made  up  fboh  the  "Balanzas  Generales."J 


Arllelea. 


Coffee an'Obas 

Cotton do. 

Cacao do. 

M^aque  (cut) dollars 

Beeswax  (brown)... arrobos 
Beeswax  (whito) ...     do. 

Tobacco,  leaf pounds 

Tortle-sholl do. 

Sugar. boxes 

Molasses bhds. 

Copper  ore quintals 

Onano  (palm  leaf). .seroons 

Aguardiente pipes 

tiegars thousands 

Cigarillos  &  ptcado.  dollars 

Honey do. 

Fruiti,  etc do. 

Woods do. 

Jfetals  (old) do. 

Mats do. 

Manuflictnres do. 

Liquids  &  provisions   do. 

Hides do. 

All  other  articles. . .     do. 
Total  value  of  a«  exports]  $26,077,067 


694,187 
1,148 
8,485 

T,867 

l^B6e 

84,644 

6,276,&30 

2,395 

1,229,713 

229,726 

656,491 

26,044 

10,386 

161,480 

110,096 

56,628 

87,267 

850,206 

102,638 

48.488 

70,148 

96,234 

7,988 

174,872 


IM». 


877,636 

2,946 

2,170 

8,868 

16,632 

19,163 

4,019,188 

8.678 

1,099,834 

246,670 

688,310 

86,038 

11,640 

128,720 

89,110 

49.108 

24,619 

817,894 

86,593 

7,092 

47,832 

106,618 

9,160 

849,492 


(22,486,656 


620,184 

8,889 

7,768 

11,076 

18,2.34 

89,960 

7,978,148 

4,884 

1,249,618 

269,044 

652.298 

58,831 

11,825 

208,212 

77,299 

66,182 

54,647 

859,128 

84.889 

6,774 

41,087 

181,098 

9,6.W 

231,772 


»26,631,948 


575,119 

621 

7,089 

28,179 

18,449 

44,004 

9,486,591 

80,140 

1,589,994 

819,428 

432,882 

47,861 

9,221 

270,818 

105,446 

69,626 

82,044 

898,811 

62,254 

7,138 

49,887 

142,053 

5,819 

260,a38 


789,326 

12,009 

88,614 

1,458 

27,810 

31,231 

9,787,448 

8,848 

1,409,012 

262,593 

831,470 

42,961 

11,869 

180,610 

(W,796 

78,688 

63,476 

459,945 

80,126 

8,008 


107,610 

25,548 

484,376 


t31.»«l,fi8l  {  (27,453,986 


442,780 

6,646 

87,857 

1,021 

26,406 

19,640 

8,089,797 

4,868 

1,657,192 

808,881 

845,080 

4,288 

14,294 

287,850 

84,595 

Ki,95« 

68,106 

418,488 

198,100 

60,624 

151,522 

89,456 

21,162 

895.028 


611,493 

1,490 

18,650 

69 

29,042 

42,292 

9,809,160 

2,730 

1,685,751 

261,916 

&49,N')8 

10,411 

26,272 

261,818 

178,826 

104,812 

82.628 

647,818 

99,1,38 

12,693 

09,186 

124.277 

".185 

:- 311.724 

♦81,210,405  |'*?>'is:'J8r 


Statement  of  the  Values  of  the  prinotpal  Articles  imported  into  Cuba,  from  1848  to  1864. 
[From  the  "Balanzas  Qenerales."] 


Artleles. 


ArtU-iet  o/nibHdteHOf. 

Olive  oil 

Liquids. 

Moats 

Spices 

Fi  uits,  nuta,  preserves 

EIco 

Cereals,  fioiir.  pulse,  cacao. . 

LanI  and  butter 

Cheese 

Fish 

Ice 

Dry  good). 

Cottons 

Woolens 

Linens 

Bilks 

OtAtr  matmfticturet. 

Skins  and  peltries 

Wotul 

MoUl 

Glass 

Iron-ware 

Soap 

Medicines 

Frmlture 

Perfumery 

Candles,  sperm,  lard 

Tobacco  of  all  kinds 

Ootn. 
Gold  and  sliver 

Total  value  otall  Imports 


(568,717 

2,042,042 

2,07.^129 

68.484 

840,804 

l,07.^6-36 

.3,220.682 

1,176,0*4 

100,838 

728,602 


2,177,716 
405,851 

2,028.  S-V) 
486,072 

475,1.'S2 

2,812,7.38 

189,084 

72,284 

1,061,893 

420,482 

99,441 
120,091 

27,982 
123,892 

22,729 

769,191 


ift-w. 


.1 


$.567,440 

2,164.920 

1,971.262 

62,931 

271,017 

1,092.597 

8,n67,,%44 

1,200,755 

149,7.51 

653,080 

189,768 

2,4S:  ■"'-. 

497,     ' 
2,840,982 

880,943 

483,710 

1,721,299 

213.266 

64.460 

993.044 

96,4:j0 
91.1116 

43,.'i9 
184,61  .' 
22,67. 

858,6;M 


(707,974 

2.U9.,561 

1,978.011 

66,5.58 

259,446 

1,139,744 

8,410,988 

969,072 

167,924 

621,349 

201,887 


$25,485,665  j  $26,820,460 


1,881,058 
$28,988,227 


$477,269 

2,347,796 

1,985,423 

86,442 

287,586 

1,169,6,56 

3,614,154 

974,781 

171,662 

619,206 

199,842 


2,696,909 

8,021,009 

622,422 

431,702 

8.161,793 

8,528,084 

427,967 

529,812 

476,901 

689,457 

1,895,375 

2,211,229 

230,749 

290,209 

95,688 

104,504 

1,093,818 

1,186,579 

479,626 

515,189 

144,007 

168.925 

107,982 

157,628 

50,473 

66,141 

178,926 

198,901 

18,223 

20,7«9 

2,511.408 


$32,811,480 


(495  264 

2,563,808 

1,909,898 

92,066 

805.374 

1,046,604 

4,404,407 

949  143 

186,246 

668,424 

72,717 

2,661,667 
359,060 

2,481,564 
699,747 

639,874 
2,042,136 
1.56,996 
176,797 
1,829,695 
691,067 
187,136 
181.200 
103,944 
140,844 
27,672 

999,424 


$29,780,242 


$472,783 

2,8.59,058 

1,62,5,067 

81,146 

275,340 

1,072,685 

8,127,293 

941,403 

89,416 

698,285 

97,942 

8,080,874 
487,187 

2,199,692 
583,165 

708,802 

1,869,960 

106,460 

217,259 

1,634,589 

618,220 

150,423 

169,963 

171,646 

171,247 

17,952 


In  1851  Cuba  imported  to  the  amount  of  $32,311,- 
430,  being  an  increase  over  tlie  year  1850  of  $3,328,- 
203,  trhich  exceeded  the  importationa  of  1849  nearly 
two  millions  of  clolUrs,    The  only  articlea  that  had 


v-«)V' 


$4.83.162 

2,7.36,874 

2,215,029 

97,614 

27-5,742 

1,000,221 

4,888,846 

1,197,(M3 

1.58,135 

878,323 

119,995 

2,,59.5,m)9 
424,673 

2,425,195 
664,837 

864,825 

2,402,907 

167,172 

141,510 

1,579.946 

629,130 

142,900 

164,9S4 

11.5,*tS 

127,971 

20,1125 


•ird  maa 


suffered  diminution  were  liqu 

terials  for  railroad  cars. 

Under  tho  national  flag (1 . .   .'^,176 

UDdor  foreign  flags 12  '  j,3M 

Total  importations  la  18;>t,  <0>  t<1.4,';:i 


CUB 


498 


CUB 


NouBXB  or  Vessels  xntebimq  the  Posts  of  Cuba  rBOH 
1848  TO  1854. 


Nation. 

1S4S. 

1849. 

877 

l«3tt 

451 

07 

68 

11 

24 

24 

0 

12 

15 

18 

9 

8 

I 

1850. 

87S 

1690 

4U8 

125 

70 

24 

20 

49 

7 

25 

22 

9 

11 

2 

18 

2 

3350 

1851. 

883 

•AU4 

570 

110 

74 

86 

25 

01 

13 

27 

14 

7 

18S9.I  IMS. 

I8I4. 

8pauUh 

875 

1733 

070 

86 

72 

20 

21 

33 

16 

16 

7 

2 

6 

2 

1 

9471  901 
IBSO  2307 

»J8 

2130 

407 

100 

67 

29 

25 

24 

16 

16 

1 

4 

476 
82 
60 
82 
80 
1:7 
11 
11 
8 
27 

36> 
1^6 
67 
20 
24 
45 
13 
17 
7 
17 

Danish 

Dutch 

Ilclglan 

t<panUli  American 

Swedish  and  Norwegian 

llrazilian 

3 

28 

4 

8S09 

2 

2 

5 

3612 

2 

8 

0 

3U18 

■"4 

8811 

Austrian 

Italian 

Total 

8548 

8218 

The  Prensa,  of  Havana,  has  recently  given  some  in- 
teresting statistics  of  the  commerce  of  that  port,  from 
which — since  Havana  is  to  Cuba  very  much  wliat  Paris 
is  fo  France — a  fair  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  business 
of  the  whole  island.  Such  particulars  are  eminently 
interesting  at  the  present  moment,  while  Cuba  is  kept 
so  prominently  before  the  public. 

The  island  of  Cuba  enjoyed  during  the  past  year  a 
degree  of  commercial  prosperity  unexampled  in  the 
histor)'  of  the  colony.  Her  exports  to  foreign  coun- 
tries were  increased  in  comparison  witli  those  of  pre- 
vious years.  All  the  products  of  the  island,  too,  ap- 
pear to  have  realized  unusually  remunerative  prices. 
The  great  increase  in  the  commerce  of  Havana  is 
shown  to  some  extent  in  the  following  statement  of 
tonnage  employed  in  the  trade  of  that  port  with  for- 
eign countries : 


Vean. 

Aniericfui.    |     Bngllnh. 

Spaiiiah. 

I860 

Tom. 
298,299 
344,046 
308,120 
804,138 
330,998 
879,327 
884,752 
406,878 
392,572 

Tons. 
65,136 
68,303 
5r.,427 
58,324 
89,556 
49,963 
69,013 
M,110 
74,127 

Tona. 
107,230 
114,210 

114,338 
111,029 
111,823 
120,881 
159,584 
153,061 
151,027 

1861       

1852 

1863 

18.">4 

1868 

I860 

1867 

1888 

Another  and  a  curious  statistical  table,  furnished 
by  the  Prenaa,  namely,  of  the  number  and  Rationality 
of  passengers  arrived  in  Havana  in  the  year  1858,  will 
not  be  found  uninteresting.  It  will  bo  remarked, 
however,  that  nothing  is  said  of  the  Coolies  or  the  Af- 
ricans, who  for  the  most  part  entered  the  island  at  the 
outports : 

From  the  United  States 4,8S7 

From  England 282 

From  Spain 4,^73 

From  American  ports  not  in  the  United  States . .    1,468 
From  ICuropean  ports  not  in  England  or  France  .         23 

From  France 84 

From  the  Canary  Islands 1,06ft 

Troops 8,S03 

Colonisia 12,977 

Shipwrecked  persons 46 

Total 31,502 

Passengers  In  transit 9,509 

The  exports  of  sugar  from  the  port  of  Havana  to  all 
parts  of  the  world  were,  in  1858,  as  follows  : 


Spain  

United  States 

Channel  ports)  

Great  Uritainf 

Russia 

Sweden  and  Denmark 

Hamburg  and  Bremen 

Holland 

Rclgfum 

France  

Gibraltar 

Trieste  and  Veuloo 

Genoa 

Other  ports.  North  and  South  America, 
Total 


BoxeH, 


171,100 

219,366 

298,508 

35,068 

2,471 

fl,6(10 

83,680 

12,876 

26,738 

76,081 

1,480 

42,780 

6,467 

9,804 


940,614 


Hhdi. 


0,613 

S87 

2,609 


83 


10,004 


The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  sugar  from 
the  ports  of  Havana  and  Mutanzns  during  the  past 
nine  years.     The  quantities  are  estimated  in  boxes : 


1850 1,013,634 

18.-)1 1,287,891 

1852 1,017,480 

1853 1,073,418 

1864 1,248,484 


1.S55 1,208,060 

1856 1,163,818 

1857 1,110,000 

1858 1,263,160 


The  exports  of  cigars  and  leaf-tobacco  from  Havana 
in  1858,  as  compared  with  those  of  1857,  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

Cigars,  the  figures  being  stated  in  thousands : 


To 


United  States 

Great  Britain 

Itussia 

Sweden  and  Denmark 

Hamburg  and  Bremen 

Holland 

Belgium 

France  

Spain 

Trieste  and  Venice 

British  provinces 

Mexico  and  South  America . 


I       1857. 


Total. 


44,198 

27,718 

473 

1,591 

30,779 

(■60 

4,3f;5 
19,S51 

7,769 

0,512 


140,719 


4?,869 

17,720 

147 

69 

17,843 

1,048 

2,782 

11,890 

8,963 

03 

26 

3,306 


100,^31 


Tho  exports  of  leaf-tobacco  in  1858  are  given  as  fol- 
lows : 


United  States 

Channel  ports)   

Great  Britain/  

Hamburg  and  Bremen 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Spain 

Trieste  and  Venice 

Genoa 

Mexico  and  South  America. 
Total 


Ilhdi. 

984,862 

133,386 
485,010 

162,505 

91,703 

1,793,330 

18,302 

27,277 


3,690,185 


1868^ 

ilLila; 
1,492,426 
923,BM 
199,1'41 
907,404 
9,620 
149,230 
3fi2,8:i8 
903,519 

' "  8110 
128,080 


5,046,8  6 


On  the  whole,  the  figures  abundantly  set  forth  the 
extensive  commercial  prosperity  of  the  island. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  Cuba,  wo  give  the  following  table  of  imports  and 
exports  for  the  last  five  years  : 


Year  endlnff 

Eiporta  of 
domeatlc  Produce. 

Total 

Total 

June  30. 

Eiporta, 

Importa. 

1S54 

$8,i'-;8,110 

$8,561,7.02 

$17,124,339 

1865 

7,007,119 

8,004,682 

18,6>6,I139 

18511 

7,19i>,038 

8,70!i,'J6S 

24,486,693 

1857 

9,379,682 

14,923,443 

4'>,243,I01 

1868 

11,673,167 

14,43,3,191 

27,S14,840 

The  island  of  Cuba,  from  its  geographical  position, 
commands  tho  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  im- 
mense and  annually -increasing  trade,  foreign  and 
coastwise,  from  the  valley  of  that  noble  river,  now 
embracing  half  the  sovereign  States  of  the  Union. 
With  that  island  under  the  dominion  of  a  distant  for- 
eign power,  this  trade,  of  vital  importance  to  theso 
States,  is  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  destroyed  in 
time  of  war,  and  it  has  hitherto  been  subjected  to  per- 
petual injury  and  annoyance  in  time  of  peace.  Our 
relations  with  Spain  must  always  be  placed  in  jeopardy 
while  tho  existing  colonial  government  over  the  island 
shall  remain  in  its  present  condition. 

For  the  fi.<ical  year  ending  June  30, 1838,  the  exports 
to  Cuba  from  the  United  States  amounted  in  value  to 
$14,433,191.     The  articles  of  export  are  as  follows  : 

Lard $1,779,328 

Iron  (manufactnred) 1,489,755 

Mannf-uJturos  of  wood 1 ,002,040 

B.iarde,  lumber,  etc 874,734 

Hide. 011,802 

Rico 03.',n40 

Tallow 206,649 

The  following'  "  statements"  of  revenue  collected  by 
the  maritime  and  terrestrial  custom-houses  of  that 
island  in  the  year  1866,  compared  with  the  preceding 
year,  publisbed  in  the  government  Gazette,  by  order 


/ 


CUB 


494 


Ctjfe 


of  Ihe  laptifntendent-general  of  tll«  royil  e)Cc1iuiuer, 
indicate  incnased  activity  of  trade ;  ihe  excess  of 
nv^oue  collected  in  December,  18S5,  over  the  same 


month  in  1854,  being  na»rly  |2M,000,  Md  ill*  «iimm 
for  the  wliole  uf  IHfiS  o"«r  (be  wlioUt  of  1(IS4  nmuunt* 
ing  to  $360,428  4a(. 
Btatehiht  or  Ritxwoii  oollioted  nr  Oum  nf  1855  van  1864,  aOMrARil), 


Alin^iilitnulaak 

Iltluyt^lWt. 

In  llM  yur  IBM. 

Iiiuiut  In  liil,          1         CMnnMlalMI,          | 

UiilHiM. 

rinnirM. 

Jl.rllliiM. 

T«rr«.lrt.I. 

T«rr..lrwrr 

nnnnm., 

TartMlHal; 

UftTana 

•6,456,869 
869,011 
815,560 
960,561 

isifih 

854,979 
68,715 

696,699 
69,148 
49,710 

8^498 
74,451 
10,600 
16,961 

$9,a94,8Tl 

980,900 

88,789 

78,719 

68,634 

88,534 

81,865 

84,499 

87,969 

864,520 

84,709 

7,878 

60,099 

80,876 

11,043 

9,991 

6110 

li699 

188,960 

1,096,429 

(6,416,4I« 
918,609 
899,954 
916,288 

8aii4 

116,878 
369,891 
48,899 
674,869 
76,585 
40,170 

29^910 
9ra,'164 
17,960 
19,986 

(9,Q88,92« 

906,661 

58,948 

63,908 

68,608 

68,010 

99,010 

59,650 

41,801 

996,878 

80,884 

8,111 

87,589 

94,719 

7,967 

9,818 

635 

8,525 

177,169 

989,499 

•89,948 

441898 

161688 
10,899 

'ifiio 

•8I,T4»"^ 
95,948 
97,889 
14,815 

4,«9B 
l£678 

«,86« 
IM,77» 

6,168 

«,T7« 

109 

'ijm 
«,m 

166,987 

•4V>H 
"43b9 

mi* 

ik 

JII,M«9 

7,1100 

i«f  ■ 

H081 
'68« 

""8 

Matinitt 

Cardenas. 

rrinldaj 

VUla-Clani 

ato.  Eapl.ttn 

SagnalaOrondo.. 

Gisnfuegos 

Romedios 

OnU 

Manunillo 

GIbara. 

Holcoln 

Nuevltos 

3ta,0rtu 

Ooootanamo 

Pto.  Principe..... 

Lottory  departm.. 

Total 

»9,99S,761» 

•4,001,388 

(9,874,891 

•4,164,779 

•117,868 

♦441,197 

"mm 

■  ♦iiw 

Bevc 

nne  collected 

t  m  1855,  tis 

890,100,t  and 

In  1854,  •18,689,671,  an  Inoreina  In  IWW  «f  •ltB(),49H,                     | 

*  Error  in  original :  the  flgnres  shonld  bo  9,934,061. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark  in  this  place,  that  the 
Balaazai  Geaeralea,  from  which  the  preceding  and 
aubseqaent  tables  are  derived,  are  not  to  be  considered 
as  giving  the  precise  quantities  and  values  of  the 
commercial  exchanges  of  the  island  of  Cuba  with 
foreign  nations.  They,  donbtles^  present  the  mini- 
mam  amounts  of  each,  as  it  would  neem  to  be  the 
policy  of  the  custom-house  ofScials,  by  whom  these 
annual  reports  are  prepared,  to  undervalue  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  island.  Au  far  back  as  the  year  1825, 
the  unreliability  of  these  Bulanzas,  as  authority  in 
statistical  compilitiond,  requiring  precise  accuracy, 
was  noticed  by  Baron  Humboldt,  in  that  portion  of 
h.U  "  Personal  Narrative"  which  relates  to  the  i<iland 
of  Cuba.  Alluding  to  them,  he  observes :  "  I  have 
examiued,  in  another  work,  fifteen  years  since,  the 
basis  upon  which  are  founded  the  tables  published 
under  the  fallacious  titls  of  '  Balanzas  de  Comerico.' " 
Since  that  period,  it  would  seem  that  but  little  im- 
provement has  l>een  made  in  the  preparation  of  these 


t  Error  ef  •5,618— oxooM,  J  Kftitr  of  14,700  oicois, 

annual  exhibits  of  trade  |  for  tlm  l)«t*nft><ient  Is  ofn< 
dally  advised,  as  lata  as  1H8II,  timt,  III  fDnpect  of  val- 
ues, the  amounts  stated  III  tint  IIiiIhidhih  nro  fully 
one  fourth  l<is8  than  tli«  r«itl  iiMirk«il  value  b<j(h  of 
io'ports  and  exporui,  Jiowevor  thU  iijiy  lie,  the 
statements  and  tabids  given  i»r«  nil  whiuh  are  access!- 
ble ;  none  other  being  imblUlMd  or  |ire{mr«d  |  and  for 
all  useful  purposes,  they  will  mrvK  tlin  ntHtlstlclan  u 
well  as  if  the  greatent  nuourary  Imd  Imeit  nttulned, 

The  commerce  or  Culm  with  fiirnlgii  niitlritm  for  the 
year  1851,  is  fully  set  forth  In  tlia  iiiiritixod  Ktfltenientc, 
taken  from  the  "  Ilulunxas  (l8tiitrHl«s"  fur  tlint  year. 
It  is  followed  by  two  other  talilBn,  «iri(l«  iiji  from  the 
Balunzas,  designed  to  IHustrnto  tim  nammerclfil  move- 
ments of  Cuba  during  «  port.Hl  iit  tw«iity'tiliia  reirs, 
from  1820  to  1854,  both  Ini-'luiilvtt  \  whlUt  n  tliinf  table 
exhibits  a  comparative  vl«w  uf  tli«  forolgti  commerce 
of  Cuba  and  Porto  Won,  with  tli«  d(ltl«»  rppulved,  and 
the  numlwr  of  vessels  eutarud  and  <')«tir«>l,  during  a 
period  of  seven  years,  from  WH  u>  lHfi4, 


OoHiiEROB  or  Cuba  wnn  rcuaas  Nations  rnou  1S26  to  184a     [Hadh  dp  raoii  TUN  "  tUi,4ll8M  Onii«ii«i,iss."] 

IMPORTS. 


r«n. 

NMIODSI 

eommeiva. 

In  oatlnnal 
tbimU. 

UnlKd 
State!. 

EntUnd. 

Auierlrnn 
portn. 

Fniue. 

HanM  Towns 

•nd 
PfntherlMuli. 

Pgrta„ril» 
li*lll>. 

l)>1M>lt, 

iv.7,r " 

TtiUl. 
'1'......  '■ 

Peioa. 

Pmm. 

Tm'.!. 

Pefi*. 

P««VI. 

P«W,!,, 

Pe«o«. 

189d 

9,858,793 

314,888 

6.632,80£ 

1,328,627 

1,169,461 

1,631, 1«6 

!6,tHW 

!J11,7»4 

1,759,691 

14,995,764 

1897 

9,541,899 

349,728 

T,16)!,696 

1,618,371 

.... 

1,472,201 

1,640,011 

lW,>i2fl 

H«'J,IM7 

9,llfl6,«46 

I7.8«2,(t64 

182S 

4,623,809 

431,568 

6,599,096  l,7ro,OS5 
5,784,7651  1,837,776 
4,791,644  1,746,388 
4,690,808  1,465,983 
3,649,986,  1,957,964 
4,461,479  1,«2.M78 

.... 

1,63.'5,S55 

2,0H2.9l|« 

176,0!J7 

■mm 

9.098,501! 

I»,5fl4,929 

1829 

4,981,048 

844,896 

.... 

1,24.Vj4: 

I,.'M«,HJ5 

87,H8fl 

llft,WII 

tMi\Mt 

lM,09f.,Ni6 

1880 

4,789,776 

1,051,586 

.... 

721,MS 

1,701,363 

81,9A« 

J01I.1M 

i,9IHI,9N3 

16,171,569 

1081 

4,121,899 

1,89^89C 

.... 

e6»,6l>4 

1,S08,H99 

2il,IIH2 

W,6vj 

N»5,0ltl 

)h/4S7PI 

1839 

8,576,707 

8,178,69« 

, 

S0.\824 

1,9',S,197 

83,818 

17,114 

796,512 

in,l»'',406 

1838 

8,185,781 

4,V77,53C 

1.87I,7S6 

927,491 

l,14,^,967 

90,931 

9rt,7r.i 

WtM»fl 

11.61 1.1 39 

1884 

8,419,487 

4,9-0,01! 

8,690,101   1,6T6,918 

1,747.224 

906,414 

8.%5,36il 

19,215 

161,161 

1,(34,407 

11/iflil,800 

I'--,- 

?  508,349 

5,900,956 

5,406,919  1.689,46.^ 

2,084,55!! 

904,140 

619,211 

66,6*17 

l«>,4tll 

1,1(^,1)45 

2(i,72'i,079 

lit. 

470,725 

5,680,070 

6,568,281    1,622,429 

l,,579,58i- 

817,446 

7flfl,0.'i9 

69,06« 

tUM'* 

1,(109,771 

2a/>r.l.969 

i: .; 

'i.,659,153 

4,966,191   6,.MS,9571  1,8T8,96I 

1,099,867 

861,.380 

6(»,048 

28,IHI 

95,450 

»,6l»l,MI 

22,(140,357 

If..'. 

4,4«0,9«7 

8,168,152  0,'i02,00£:  1,489,30< 

1,718,650 

616,954 

916,49ii 

7»,I9H 

64,6«M 

I(.17»,/M5 

24.729.N71 

18(  • 

5,890.515 

7,108,704  6,139,794.1  1,770,499 

1,467,125 

714,664 

5.'i2,07.S 

124,406 

IW.09t( 

9.(i».7,9H 

25,217,796 

1840 

5,995,961 

0,6H718,  5,654,195  1,437,199 

915,641 

618,461 

1.010,991 

47,014 

99,4011 

8W.I79 

94,709,199 

1323 

ETPOETS. 

1,992,«S9 

186,S7E 

8,394,597 

1^533,474 

.... 

1,162,218 

2,998,154 

47«,»»9 

900,761 

t,«iii,»m 

13,800,888 

1S27 

2,934,950 

184,069 

4,107,449 

1,605,078 

.... 

1,048,618 

2,651,083 

4HT,2H8 

41*9,40'; 

l,4*.1.««l 

14,216,199 

1828 

1,K3«,934 

711,479 

8,176,9« 

1,611,820 

.... 

754,812 

2,,Si)9,229 

7«!t,WI 

m,'H> 

l,4Tlt,020 

IH,II4,3(<9 

1329 

9,299,680 

562,658 

3,191,585 

1,729,404 

.... 

907,80.S 

2,406,813 

9il4,U2i. 

ll(lll,^4'l 

1,»'W,|J4V 

iii,nn9,4flr 

1830 

8,740,747 

613,267 

4,266,732 

^228,.W4 

.... 

7.'^7,7!l(t 

2,413,290 

',036,2»« 

iim.iHi 

l,frj|,l44 

ift.irfl.9P8 

1811 

9,193,761 

727,888 

8,921,692 

1,667,720 

.... 

44l,0.')4 

2,l'*H,li99 

544,<<8« 

44IM66 

89(1,1^.4   12,918,711 

1839 

2,178,!W7 

»98,4M 

8,10i,46« 

2,101,0*6 

.... 

300,999 

2,.VtO,S13 

t,lHn,69C 

lttf«,674 

m,m  lflM(f,.n1T 

1838 

1,854,714 

1,974,040 

4,88^SSJ 

9in,9S1 

19,078 

681.821 

1,771,31! 

1  137,774 

«M,5)I 

MM,Ni;t  ii>,9!in.loo 

1834 

9,074,592 

1,40I,56S 

8,824.724 

2,nso,3«7 

16,214 

6«7,4!ll 

2,2S(I,782 

1,»'.I,2S» 

101,448 

954,615  f|,4'(7.9f>5 

1885 

1,801.099 

1,114.695 

4,866,661 

1,754,676 

10,275:     603.085 

2,076,(K)1 

994,771 

161,9'W 

1,179.25'*  M.mi.'M 

1836 

2,848,453 

917,738 

5,518,994 

1,700,116 

86,195      4'-'9,65*l  1,B.S  1,985 

',099,67» 

96«,7»<l 

s,WiM\i  \Km\iw> 

1887 

9,919,474 

1,994,989 

5,792,62C 

9,990,406 

21S.323:  1,3HHi>s'  2,713,688 

144,018 
1.646,953 

MN.IOfl 

(.H75,ttl8  20,346,407 

1838 

9,699,159 

I.5S9,84C 

6,674,691 

8,083,1!2S 

80,582,     771,572'  9,69H,1«8 

846,6411 

I,fl74,9«'  90,471,109  | 

1889 

9,719,799 

1,961,785 

6,598,0411 

5,141,09« 

70,9861     845,906  9,054,088 
87,919     908,605  2,836,620 

266,401 

494,W(n 

»,4Th,M1  91.411,8*)  1 

Wk.^ 

8,478,680 

9,044,441 

6,860,789 

6,749,438 

OH'HI^ 

Ill9,»lt 

«,»47,74fl 

95,941,788 

CUB 


495 


CUB 


1i^ 


.'     'a  •»*^  ■ 

Ok  W 


Si 


w     :g  :  : 


^     iiii 


II 


¥ 


;ll§ 


S^'^S 


•CO      -IH 


1    ./•ror.--»r.^ 


Sf  :^ 


«S  5»  *»  tfc  T-t  30     rtOD 


ef 


:!:: 


88  .t: 

OOO      -00 


sa 


:sSgSS 


8  . 


*Hr»«aice3 


J-'^^sS 


S£gf!?;£!9? 


=$;5 


■X  t-  ■+  9?  Oi 


is 


l3^ll^3'-*S'ir^' 


rfaf 


I 


<*!*  1^  T-^  1^  ^^  ■  ju  V,'  r"  *^  ^v  T^  UJ 


«  9f  »H  l-T  IF^" 


D  1-1  0>  O  *-  ^ 


2S¥fe£^5'5fSfS5 


S' 


of 


h     '« 


h^SS 


SIR 


'  Si 

:a 


o  o*j 

$  S  ^ 
s  h  " 


:S^ 


»-'2f 


:§S 


.ae 


CUB 


496 


CUB 


Ooin>A>ATin  SumiABT  or  tot  Couherob  or  Cuba,  nox  IMl  to  1R54.    [Fbou  xm  "Balakzas  GmBAin."] 


Yatnw 


1S41 

1841 

1S4S 

18M 

1845* 

1840 

1847 

1843 

1849 

ISM 

18S1 

18A2 

ISM 

18&4 


1841 

1842 

1848 

1844 

1S45* 

1840 

1847 

1848 

1849 

]8flO 

ISSl 

18M 

18AS 

1854 


VALDi  or  raroErATiDM. 


TALUK  or  BXPORTATIOa. 


la  utlooA) 

veu«U, 


In  fonlipi 


l*,llil,78S 
14,887,780 
1 8,883,741 
lB,il8,8S3 

18,651,821)1 
l^ft4tl,6T(l 
1^^!»,8I8, 
16,866, 84«| 
1'<,4M,071] 
ll»,e9»,lVfl! 
2<).Si»,rM' 
18.4il,Cil' 
2(1,676,946' 


Teaoi. 

10,967,625 


ToW.« 


jlniutloiul 

I     Tf>M«U.    I 


"Jzir  T"-'- 


I. 


25,!)SI,4«8  7,148,674 
10,24»,790!a4,(H?.6-i7  6,976,.')84 
I0,(I.'')8,W '  *:).  I -"J,096  6,9.W,B-i8 
Il,S87,877i■2,^l^'>(■,.•2S16.ll6li,746 
ll,tVJ7,764l'iS,<Mi7„Wll.7(l8,.'i«l 
'(,974,069  M,6-i5,:W!  S,81S,hSl 

a'J,itSfl,llB]'6,,'i49,867; 

8«,48i^,tli5  6,945,098 
'!6,l«il,t6n5,573,6Ji6 
ia,»tv'<,i47  fi,(l'-'rt,6S9; 
82.)lli.4;IIH<V2<l4,(»8 
fl.  454,490  29.78(i,2-l?!7,(ll8,017, 
!i,  i68.175l-27,789,yl,  I  ,',273,847 
l»,718,CJi)|i)1394,5?s[8,MW,607| 


16,''40,MS 
10,21  H,«47 
9,958,615 
10,528,165 
11412,264 


•, I,  ;26,9«) 26,774,614 
19,V08,117,2«,  884,701 
18,078,908  li^0i9,712 
19,878. 845'2.\426,591 

12,ft84,8IO  18.792,872 
16,181,7(1712  ^'Kl(l,66» 
21,449,413!..:j",iS77li 
20,081,974;  7,098 
16,868,021  !w.*«i,556 
1 9,61 :, '(08  2fi,G8 1,948 
25,1.37, .i-J9^1,!i41,688 
>20,485.'J/ 8,27,468,986  1 
2«,93<),,'i67fell,2IO,405  1 
24.177,128pi,6s3,78l 


EsroETAnoK  or  tub  rRnroiru  FBoDvononi  or  txb  itLAND. 


flofftr. 


Mol.'.tJBnuKtj'.l 


CoAr, 


ll<iif  . 

p.">,  1  ;J' 
n-.,i,(» 

t-:-lU3, 

,0.  V-  •«!,] 
47!.  VMS] 
98)  ."I  tSi 
,27J.,.^tl; 
,22S,rlSi 
,099.;i4l 
,249.i:i3 
,589,.i"l! 
,409,1  .■12 
,657,11' ■ 


Hhd..t  I  I'll-..  I 
131,890  11,302 
119,138  10,227, 
191,098  18,81fll 
172,4:11  6,.I26 
121,.S22  4,120 
808,597  9,082 
25)1,840  19,782 
228,J26|  16,389 
248,5'0  11,640 
269.0H  4,82.' 
818,428  9,2211 
262,5981 11, 8.^9 
:'|'S,8.31!  14,294^ 
Ji'l,   161  25,272 


Arnihna.ft 

l,28,5,mMl 

1,988,8.(6 

1,681,782 

1,240,032 

M9,322 

817,662 

982,1,M 

694,11:7 

877,11)7 

820,13,; 

575,11 


OnpiMr   I  Tohftcco,  ITottMrol 
ore,      '      nw,      MAiiiifMi 


698,0606,767.677' 

783,1171  ,^942,888, 

708,660  7,208,238; 

2,0(«,587,4,08J),7681 

869,922  0,6:^873 

68,\6W  8,826.047 

,565,495  9.809,606 

656,49'  1  J75,630 

,583,8I(     ,19,188 

tp62.28t,     ,178,148 

432,882:.;. '.86,591 

T,*,:;2i;    881,4709,:  !•  448 

«;■,:•'.:  I  845,080  9,1rii'97 

II    '.'I  649,668 9,809,;. 'HI 


v."t:r  ,  l;;^^ !  tow..  I  !<.»„«,.♦ 


I  "    '    '"T 


1,068 

917 
847 
819 
875 
877 
S78 
888 
947 
902 


5,081 

8,084 

i.r."'' 

2,657 

i,vro 

3,685 

■■■.sso 

«,f!88 

i,710 

ii'sa 

2,2<4 

.i,.,'iH 

2.9'M 

.S.Til 

2.673 

H,5-'8 

8,38r'. 

3,3!^ 

2,47'= 

.ytfo) 

2,98f. 

a.S(« 

?,068 

it.,ii 

3,014 

3  9(6 

2,8^ 

.■l,il2 

.J67.S39 
472.1"« 
477. 7M 
ftvr.'Xa 

r.\r,-i  I 

BSI,.-   '     ; 

73,8,  •  .  I 

T12,C-,ii  : 

i74,fl'4  i 

997,9W  ! 

ftt^OKI  I 
713,»«i 

■V12.794  ! 


Dutlei  on 
Imp^rlAIIrn. 
1 


5,94.').sl9 
6.005,632 
5,896,839 
6,Uir<>.408 

.•-,,3»*',418 
'vi'8,423 

'jA'i-'i' ■'■ 
■!  17^,8% 

;>,.-. 4,7-', 
.',9(;t,i  ,:■ 

7,';ii .  i' 
7,',  .11,1,  •■ 


•  From  184)  (.)  (848,  thcso  totals  Include 
tho  vnluo  of  koimIb  ploof  )  on  dof  n«lt,  «.s 
well  u  of  '.hoee  set  laliy  i  ii;  wtei  or  i- 
P'lr^ed,  and  am  i}i'tf*  ct'n-.,ierft)I.v  ftu,(i- 
'.II  .itod.  Prior  to  l-.*.,  no  ,t;«tl«>ct  t-.'.imni 
ttii!,  dovotod  to  deposit  '■,  tb"  'lalanzu 
Oon.3nil !  but  slnco  tlist  yenr  larl  imiit..;- 
tluQ  litA  been  ohscrrod,  a*".^  ibo  :::,ult  Is 
pircolvcdln  thodlmlnutloii  <  .'tho;>i,".anlB 
of  v.ilucs. 

t  Prior  to  1846,  but  one  cc>l;.mn  wm  ,1. 
vntfd  to  tonnofro,  no  dlstluctlou  bcio;^ 
mado  between  the  tonnage  of  national  and 
foroig;n  veeeels  in  tho  Balania:  but  since 
that  year  such  distinction  baa  been  ina<le, 
tliouiih  it  h  not  regarded  In  this  atatament. 

1  or  36  gallons. 

S  Arroba— 25t  pounds. 


Oekkkal  0()M(>At.'.TivK  Sr,n'r.i<i;:'T  ',r  t  ie  AuorriT  and  Ci!ab,icteb  op  tuk  Oom.mebcr  of  Cuba  and  Pobto  Kioo 
rBox  1848  TO   iM,  wiTti  iiir,  Aiuou.srs  i.r  DciiES  BBCKivEk,  and  tub  Kuhbbbs  or  Vissbls  bhtebku   .ihd 

OLEABED,   ANt.  T1;.K  aFSPBi  I'lVE  'I'o.S.VAlit,;  Or  T;iB  SAUK. 

[Fkou  t>ie"Bai.ak«a3  Oenbbales,"] 
CUBA. 


(. 


!MPORrATIO!(  INTO  C'-BA. 


Tom 


K4Tio;.ii,  i 

1  .PRODUCT*.  I 


roBKisx  rupoL'CTs. 


• ...  ;ii'«ii;'l> 

<      ^v.JvIl 

grti,."t-3r. 


~l^ 


In  Spviltli 


In  for»ljcn 
ve:.*eU. 


EXIHiRTATION  FROM  CUBA. 


roK  rni 

NATIONAL 

•mxbw. 


In  Spv-Uh 
I    reo«ela 


r>.>rtnr-. 
ISi'*!  TAte'V'.Vt  KJ.l:J.r'<>r  10,218,247 iw. 

is^roi  7,os2.r.'  ,-.':y\;i4i  y.94ft,fla'^ 2e, 

1851 '  S,.W0,2^',  - '  t.lWT  12.IWT,24^ 
1852']0,2'>0.42PIv  ■  -i.THl  9,av>.ft82 
18W,  7,7ft6,C':cH),71U.W^  9,il41,24T 
ISW!  9,057,42yn,*,Uo52[10^293 


If.  SimnUh]  Jr.  furflffn 


-I- 


rk.Uar..    I  "Yv.'lir-.     I     Onlln,..    <"  D<.ll»r.. 

'2,118,ll^6,2O.OS1.!.7.!26,077,0i>-.|  6.883,S.'SS 


>..!lnr..    I  r«..ni« 
,4JW,.'i65  8.9127,007 

.12il.4m).3,113,fi70|2,»60.46416,S63,i:-.-i2'.!,4a6,.VA  6.429,260 

,9,8:1,227 3,O71,OS42,!I.'i7,7S319,0O!!,On12,'i.631,948  6,721,260 

,;lll,4)!0'2,S.36,S28;l..SS2,787  25  I22,."iti7  8l,!l41,«83  8,40'2,884 

,',  80.242 .3.882,6Sjl8,l.iV.388i2':. 485,918  27,4,^936  8.873,086 

,789,8flO,8,293,87liC,974,976j23,93,i,,')67  31,2I;l.405  8,»'«),317 

,394,SfS8,616,6»34,s»0,9l*24,l  "1,123,82  683.731  9,743,600 


NO.  OF  V  ESSRUa  *  TONNAOK, 

CLKABID. 


ToDQAffC.)    Ho, 


TunlUMib,  ' 


8,548 
3,218 
8,856 
8,865 
8,617 
8,916 
3,312 


723,285!  2,949  No  data 
712,572  2,8991  1). 
874.014,  3.1.51 
997.99<li  n,7S»l 
622.0 10|  3.274; 
713,34<1  8,827; 
742,794  8,667| 


U.I. 
Do. 

no. 

Do. 
1)0. 


1848  1 148,079  1,79.3,870  1,6  \801  4.469.751 

;.>M9;  i.".  .Oflffl  2.;'I9.03,'I  l,ii51,66fl  4.(-*1..583 

i-«0;  l,;;"'  961!  1.879,48>i|  1,986,679  5,222,0'>9 

...,  ._      „_-,  _„ 6,078.870 

0,298,895 


POKTO    KICO. 

"660^a2(jj~2S3,8T6,  X69.5,B00 
MU.128'  '237.823  4,7>)fl,419 


lt;61l  WH2,717i  2.210,062  2,821,089 

1852i  2.030,9471  2.122.7841  2.14-l,643 

1853    1.411.004,'  2,194,376  1,780,630  5.335.9l0;  440,406;  l»5,090^  4.5!!8,881 


28.S.916,  '271.860 

6C'i,45l|  '.:80,940 
409,ai8|  M»,718 


5,821,642 

4,918,632 
8,8113,002 


5,695.136 
6,402,371 
6,877.31(1 
5,761,974 
4,6r  2,339 
6,299,327 


1,034,'289 
1,092.307 
1,189,001 
1,069,418 
1,259,173 
-.,051,837 


1,066,118,910  1,129,123,261) 
1,096  124,881!  1.126, 129..J73 
1.206  I82,04o;  1,179;  131. 767 
1,824  160,686  1,209  1.54,042 
1,462  175,886, 1,352:  1('k'<.i6H 
1,888  151, 663[1,235|  164,867 


Qcural  Port  A'.'.7</(a(f>iM.  1.  Ships  leavlns  irith  a  full 
cargo  of  molaB»3s  a.-e  free  of  tonnage  duties. 

2.  Hliips  a.  rlTing  In  ballast,  and  leaving  In  the  sanie  stAte, 
pay  no  tonnage  £uiy  :  but  if  they  should  take  i-etum  cargoes 
of  the  fnilta,  or  otler  arlicles  of  the  Island  (entire  cargoes  of 
niolasaoa  orlv  excepted),  they  pay  tl.o  regular  duty. 

3.  Ships  n  •: '  Ing  <n  distress  for  water,  or  other  neecssaries, 
are  f^ec  trvm  t  nnago  duty  j  bnt  when  tncy  discharge  tho 
whole  or  pan  .  (heir  curgo  (unless  every  part  is  n,jaln  talten 
In,  and  no  vart),  or  lead  with  produce,  foreign  or  nntlro  (ino- 
lassrs  CTCcptcd),  they  are  subjcclcd  to  the  entire  tonnage  dity. 

4.  Vessels,  i'oroi(4ii  or  national,  whic'o  ba'e  left  a  port  of 
the  ishind,  having  prld  the  proper  tonnage  duty,  and  which 
tnter  any  port  of  the  iiiland  to  repair  damages  they  may  ha/e 
Kustained  at  Si!a,  by  reason  of  storm  or  other  casualty,  aie 
exempt  from  further  tonnage  duty. 

6.  Veswds  entering  the  porls  of  the  hiand  with  m'.\ 
coal,  l!;  vriual  or  groater  quantity  than  the  numlwr  »>; 
per  their  renter,  pay  only  50  cents  per  ton  for  tonna^.    • 
eve**  if  they  hnng  other  merch.%i)diso  bojidea.    They  are  also 
exempt  from  all  othe.'  l.ical  i;harges  (excepting  captain  of  tho 
port's  fees),  luch  as  pontoB  and  health  dues,  castom-houso 
vlalta,  entJ7  and  clearance  '■  -x,  wharfage,  atage-hlrr,  etc. 
Such  aa  bring  ooal,  solely,  In  i  >  i  quantity  than  thatr  tonnage 


Pleasure,  paj  60  cents  pr.r  ton  open  tho  portion  occupied  by 
coal ;  aud  the  diiJerrnce  between  this  portion  and  the  num. 
ber  of  tons  that  tho  vessel  may  prove  to  have,  by  Spanish 
measurement,  will  bo  sebjccted  to  the  payment  uf  the  full 
tonnage  duty ;  but  these  vessels  are  allowed  the  exemption 
from  all  other  chargeE  excepi;  captain  of  the  port's  fees. 

Vessels  having  on  board,  besides  coal  in  leas  quantity  than 
their  mcasuremt  nt,  other  cargo,  are  in  the  aamc  case  re- 
specting the  tonnage  dues,  but  are  subject  to  the  punton. 
health  visits,  regist>~ring  and  other  nenal  dnes.    Mail  Kte 
era,  rc^ognixed  as  si  ch,  are  permitted  to  bring  and  rarvr  i. 
tons  of  nrgo  without  paying  tonnage  dues.    If  th.'  ■  xt  .^ 
discharged  erceeUs  3  tons,  they  pay  duty  on  Buch  . 
over  and  above  the  3  tons.    Vessels  going  from  one 
another  of  the  laland,  carry  a  sea-letter  of  inlrode .     ..i 
the  custom-house  of  the  other  port,  stath  ;  f-^it  th. 
chargi:ii  have  been  paid.    This  letter  coa'j«i '.    '"' 
Vovember  4,  IS.'M,  all  vessels  having  to  per'  ,   .  -, 
mnstgo  either  to  Havana  or  to  St.  «Jago  .i.n 

purpose.    Quarantine  fee,  |il  per  da.v.     !>.'    '  '  ti: 
Ing  general  regulations,  '.rhlch  are  in  fdr^a  at  " 
tho  liland,  there  are  others  of  a  mora  local  r   .,?    ; 
cable  to  aorae,  and  not  to  othen.    These  rel>  e  i ..  > 
ally  to  tonnago  and  port  duties,  Bod  utter  ehit;  ^-.u. 


.  of 

M 

'.  i;:»t 

■ilfgO- 

lorts  of 
-i>)dl. 

,  sr"'!l- 


Do, 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


occupied  by 
nd  tho  nuni- 
by  Spaiiinh 
uf  Uio  full 
exemption 
.'8  fees. 
inantltythaTi 
mo  COM  re- 
the  ponton, 
Mall  "^ 
ami  ran'. 
If  th.' 
Buch   ' 

one 

rodv 

th. 


tt 


■liuti 

lb 


.  of 
ao 

«.,.■  t'.:«t 

:  tovego- 
lorta  of 

■      -TlVli- 


CUB 


in 


CUB 


Tl>«  tonn«ca4atlM  and  other  clurg««  tt  tha  princi- 
pal ports  an  lubjoined : 

AT  HAVANA. 


Xfttanofehr.rg*!. 


ICj.  .,!  visit,  p«r  ton*. 

Q'l  i;>'rTiinnit  Intarpreter 

Ott.'ital.i  of  tUe  port'!  foea:  oo  entering 
on  clearing. 

Ti«nit.'«i'ja  of  manlfeit , 

Toar.m\  'Uf,  pertoat. , 

LlftJit  1.  8'  ^r  ton    

Poiiim  V     «,  per  ton , 

Wkjirtfrt  iiact,  per  ton 

S/<i»if<in-hinnfcw:  Inwitd  vlalt 

Outward  Ttalt 

Annotiiion  fee , 

Kxtract  of  Mnjilfejt,  fW)in 

Keirixtir  <lui'«  (for  each  dally  retarn  of 


cargo  dlwiiarged,  whethor  one  or  one 

thoiisA';  T  i>acKago8) 

^'^r  oittw.t  I  register  and  stamp  paper. . . 


I  of  hei-  Ji,  over  150  totia, . 
under  IM  tons. 


rortln 

T«U«U 

Spulili 

TMHlU 

i-y 

w 

10  08 

*O08 

3  OO 

8  W 

800 

800 

800 

400 

ISO 

oeu 

0  0«1 

oosi 

OSll 

Otli 

0  01} 

oou 

SBO 

D50 

fiSO 

860 

£00 

200 

4-0  00 

4-0  00 

680 

660 

835 

885 

DOO 

000 

400 

400 

•  '.Ills  file  1>  received  by  the  boarding  physician,  and  la 
■Tiiil  ed  to  thu  general  board  of  health.  Ho  recolvoa  the  bill 
of  iK'iiith,  which  must  be  authenticated  by  the  Spaulah  con- 
aul  at  111.  port  of  departure,  under  a  peia'ty  of  being  sent  to 
quaranitne  for  seven  days,  and  a  flno  of  flfty  dollars. 

t  Per  Hpaulah  measnrement ;  In  addition  to  this  duty,  one 
per  cent,  bahtnit  upon  the  result  of  the  tons,  multiplied  by 
H,  la  charged. 

Pilotagt.  It  ia  optional  for  a  reasel  to  take  a 
pilot,  unless  she  goes  into  the  inner  harbor  beyond 
the  shuuls ;  in  which  case,  whether  she  takes  one  or 
not,  she  has  to  pay  $10  coming  in  as  far  as  the  inner 
harbor,  $10  going  out,  and  $10  from  any  part  of  the 
outer  harlior  into  the  inner.  Foreign  men-of-war  pa}' 
BO  port  charges.    If  a  pilot  is  taken,  the  rate  charged 


la  the  aame  u  paid  by  Spanish  men-of-war.— $7  ia, 
and  the  same  out. 

AT  BABAOOA. 


Vtijn  of  CharfH, 


Tonnage  duty. 

Anchorage 

Free  pus  at  the  Ibrt 

Health  oRlcera'  te»  for  boarding  vessela. 

Costom-booae  interpreter's  fee 

Costom-honse  officer's  fiie  to  visit  no  bonrd,  to 
seal  and  unseal,  so  long  aa  the  voasol  la  dis- 
charging  

Opening  vusael's  register. 

BegtaterofdespatcL 


TMMM 


•160 
12  00 
800 
800 
60O 


600 
800 
8«0 


AT  SAINT  JAGO. 


Nttnrtt  of  ehaifM. 


Health  visit,  per  ton 

Government  interpreter 

Cuatom-house  Interpreter 

■'  Inward  vialt, 

"  outward  vlalt 

Extract  of  manlfeat 

Cuatom-house  officer,  por  dlem,  while  ves- 
sel la  discharging 

On  aggregate  amouni.  of  tonnage  duty, 
per  cent 

Light-house  dues,  per  ton 

Captain  of  port'a  fee 

Fort  paaa 

Pllotwe 

Wharrage  per  dlem,  on  100  tons 

Wharfinger 

Btampcdpaper 

Clearance •. 

Telegraph 

Duty  per  ton 


■Ign 
leu 


|i«r 


tO08i 
200 
400 
880 
660 
060 

6  60 

1  00 
0  06i 
12  60 

0  80 
400 

1  60 
1  60 

10  00 
860 
4  00 
160 


6  80 
660 
060 


AT  TRINIDAD,  MATANZAS,  AND  OABDENAS. 


Natnn  «f  elurgfli. 


On  aagrcgato  amount  of  tonnage  duty. 

Light  duos,  per  ton , 

Pilotage  for  schooner.  In  and  out 

brig,  "  

"  bark  or  ahip, "  

Entering  in  ballast,  per  day 

"       with  cargo,  while  dIacbarglDg,  per  day. 

Clearing  In  ballast 

"        with  cargo 

Governor's  fee , 

Health  visit,  per  ton 

Captain  of  the  port. 

Fort  pass 

Mnd-macfalne  duty,  per  ton 

liOOk-ont  man 


lOaBlOlf   TtMU*  PAT 


One  per  cent. 
10  m 

22  00 
29  00 
84  00 

825 

6  50 

2  T6 
21  60 

8  00 

0  08 
10  00 

1  00 

0  21i 

1  00 


to  06i 
1  Entering   and  leav- 
y    ing  with  or  wlth- 
)     out  pilot,  tl2  00.. 

Whole  expenae,  t2S 
I  Opening  register  and 

f    clearing,  )2T 

tl  00 

0  08 

6  00 

|2  60  (and  stamps) . . 


( When  drawing  T  to 
■{  iafeet,tl2.  Each 
(     additional  foot,  fi. 

Anchorage,  (6  00. 


ifode  of  CoUecling  Outlet.    The  collection  of  the 


n]Q 


The 


duties  is  made  in  a  very  sinipJa  uiannor, 
island  of  Cuba  is  divided  int  u^loms  intendoiicies, 
of  which  Havana  is  the  principal.  The  intendency 
ia  organized  into  seven  branches,  viz. :  the  intendant, 
the  superior  counsel  of  the  hacienda,  the  tribunal  of 
account.4  the  accountant-general,  the  treasurer-gene- 
ral, iho  administration  oi  the  customs,  and  the  admin- 
istration of  the  internal  revenue.  Tha  adminiatration 
of  the  customs  is  comprised  of  the  administrator  or 
collector,  tite  accountant,  and  the  treasurer.  'When 
a  vessel  arrives  at  the  Havana,  she  is  first  1>oarded  by 
the  Health  officer,  after  whom  comes  the  r  i^b  *«. 
I'or  and  the  umuggling-preventivo  wrvxi  .  tojiy 
ot  the  custom-houae  regulations  in  F-  .■.iie'i,  French, 
and  Knglish,  is  faandeil  to  the  cap'  -d  i  manifest 

required  of  him  of  all  luo  partlcu. '  j  <  bis  vessel  and 
cargo.  Every  article  on  board  ti  .  vessel,  omitted  ui 
the  manifest,  is  subject  to  conlist.-n'.  jn.  Within  forty- 
eight  hours  after  the  entry  of  th'i  vessel,  every  cou- 
Bi..7nee  must  deliver  detailed  staterients  of  the  articles 
coming  to  him,  with  their  quantities,  wei^;hts,  ^ud 
moMures,  all  redii>    .  to  the  legal  standard. 

All  the  documeii.K  and  pipers  relating  t.;  u  vessel, 

are  stitched  toi;ether  in  a  book,  with  the   signatures 

and  fionls  of  uU  the  government  ofQuera,  through  whose 

handa  the  •evtral  documents  pass.     A  copy  of  tlii* 

Ii 


book  is  made  for  the  use  of  the  inspectors  and  apprais- 
ers J  the  latter  function  being  restrained  within  very 
narrow  limits,  by  a  printed  tariff  of  all  articles  of  im- 
port, with  a  valuation  to  each,  which  valuation,  in  a 
great  degree,  defines  the  duties  of  tha  ad  valorem  char- 
acter. As  fast  as  the  inspection  and  appraisement  take 
place,  the  consignee  is  permitted  to  remove  the  goods, 
by  procuring  the  signature  of  some  responsible  per- 
son to  the  words  inscribed  in  the  book,  "  I  make  my- 
self answerable  for  the  duties."  The  inspection  and 
appraisement  being  concluded,  the  book  is  retnmed 
to  tl':3  .1  'V'.untant'ij  office,  where  the  liquidation  of  the 
o'lties  i.<!  1.  rthwith  made.  The  payment  is  then  pro- 
' . . iT.'d  v.Itli.  These  payments  are  mostly  cash  ;  that 
is  ^  i)t:y  on  some  articles,  whatever  may  be  the 
amount,  „.)  H  is  required;  upon  other  articles,  the 
duties  are  c.iah  under  $l,00n 

If  the  nmount  is  greatei  \  credit  of  one  fourth  is 
given  for  8i.\ty  days,  and  o.  e  fourth  [ayable  at  tin 
end  of  each  succeedi'.g  month-  -making  five  months' 
credit  In  all.  .Tho  security  for  this  credit  consists 
simply  in  the  promiisory  note  of  the  consignee,  with- 
out indorsement,  with  the  power,  in  case  oT  a  failure. 
ty  convert  every  other  note  of  the  sanii  Individual  into 
a  cash  debt ;  the  individual  to  be  forever  after  inca- 
pacitated to  enter  goods,  except  for  cash. 

This  system  has  been  in  fori:e  many  years,  and  nu- 


560 

100 

0  081 

12  60 

060 

400 

0T5 

1  60 

10  00 

860 

400 

otn 

/ 

cue 


4»l' 


CUM 


Mr  it  no  lou  whttaver  haa  b«en  instained  by  th«  gov- 
ernment. 

Formerly,  the  aime  credits  required  tlie  endorse- 
ment of  a  holder  of  real  estate ;  but  this  was  al>an- 
doned  on  account  of  its  insecurity, — Macorkoor's 
SuuMct !  U.  S.  Com.  Dig.  For  further  information, 
refer  to  Am.  <}«or.  Xev.,  vii.  xl,,  280;  HoNT'a  Afaff., 
vl.,  Yii.,  xvii.-xxi.,  619;  North.  Am.  Sep.,  xxix. ; 
Db  Bow's  Bev.,  vili.,  p.  818,  ix.,  164 ;  Ch.  £xamr., 
ri.,  260,  xxiii.,  82 ;  Fraser's  Mag.,  xii. ;  LlTTKLl/8 
living  Age,  xxil. ;  Foreign  Quar.,  ill.,  p.  400 ;  Bl^CK- 
WOOD,  xl.  i  Southern  Quarterly,  Iv.,  xxi. 

Oab«b*  (Qerman  Kubtien ;  French,  Cubebtt  t 
Italian,  Cubebi;  Spanish,  Cubebat ;  Russian,  Kubebii ; 
Ijttin,  Piper  Cubeba ;  Arab,  Kehabeh  ;  Javanese,  Ku- 
Wianhit )  Uindostan,  Cubab-chinie),  the  produce  of  a 
vine  or  ciimlHir  extensively  grown  in  Java.  It  is  a 
■mall  dried  fruit,  like  a  peppcr-com,  but  somewhat 
longer.  Cubebs  have  a  hot,  pungent,  aromatic,  slightly 
bitter  taste ;  and  a  flagrant,  agreeable  odor.  They 
should  be  chosen  large,  fresh,  sound,  and  the  heaviest 
that  can  lie  procured. 

Cubit.  This  was  a  measure  of  the  ancients,  and 
is  the  first  measure  we  read  of ;  the  ark  of  Xoah  was 
made  and  measured  by  cubits. — Uoldkn.  The  He- 
brew sacred  culiit  was  two  English  feet,  and  the  great 
cubit  eleven  English  feet.  Originally  it  was  the  dis- 
tance from  the  elbow,  bending  inwards  to  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  middle  finger.— Calmet. 

Cnoumber,  a  tropical  plant,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties,  largely  cultivated  in  hot-houses  in 
England. 

Cucumber-tree.  Magnolia  arumirmla.  In  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  where  this  tree  is  found,  it 
is  iinown  only  by  the  name  of  cucumber-tree.  It  is  a 
beautiful  vegetable,  equal  in  height  and  diameter  to 
the  big  laurel.  The  most  northern  point  at  which  this 
tree  grows,  is  near  the  falls  uf  Niagara,  in  latitude  4!)°. 
It  abounds  along  the  whole  tract  of  the  Alleghanics, 
to  their  termination,  in  Georgia,  over  a  distance  of 
900  miles.  It  is  also  found  on  the  Cumberland  Mount- 
ains. The  situations  peculiarly  adapted  to  its  growth 
are  the  declivities  of  mountains,  narrow  valleys,  ond 
the  banks  of  torrents,  where  the  air  is  constantly 
moist,  and  where  tiie  soil  is  deep  and  fertile.  At  the 
distance  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  from  the  mountains, 
either  way,  this  tree  is  met  with  only  accidentally 
upon  the  steep  banks  of  rivers,  where  the  atmosphere 
is  constantly  refreshed  by  the  evaporation  from  their 
surface.  We  may  conclude,  then,  that  this  tree  is  a 
stranger  to  all  parts  north  of  the  river  Hudson,  and  to 
all  the  Atlantic  parts  of  the  United  States,  to  the  dif. 
tance  of  100,  loO,  and  200  miles  from  the  sea  ;  th'j  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  and  the  extreme  heat  of  the  climate  in 
summer,  being  utterly  uncongenial  to  its  growth.  It 
is  also  rare  in  the  fiarts  of  Kentucky  ond  West  Ten- 
nnsiee  which  are  most  remote  from  the  mountains, 
where  thi'  fm-v  of  the  country  is  less  uneven.  The 
cucumber-tree  Sdmetiincs  exceeds  80  feet  in  height, 
with  a  diameter  of  3  or  4  feet.  The  trunk  U  perfectly 
straight,  of  a  unifonii  size,  and  often  destitute  of 
branches  for  two  thirds  of  its  length.  The  summit  is 
ample  and  regularly  shaped,  and  the  tree  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  American  forests.  'I'he  leaves  are  fi  or  7 
inches  long,  and  three  or  four  inches  broad,  upon  old 
trees ;  upon  saplings  growing  in  moist  places,  they 
are  sometimes  twice  as  large. 

On  old  rtocks  the  l>ark  of  this  tree  is  grayish,  and 
deeply  furroweil.  The  perfect  wood  is  soft,  and  of  « 
yellowish  brown.  It  is  fine-grained,  and  susceptilile 
of  a  l>rilllaDt  polish. 

Being  a  rare  tree,  it  is  only  accidentally  eniplnyed 
in  the  arts.  Sawn  into  boards,  it  serves  in  Joinerj-  for 
the  interior  of  wooden  houses,  and  for  its  size  and 
lightness,  it  is  selected  for  largo  canoes.  Most  of  the 
inhabltante  of  the  country  Iwrdering  on  the  Allegha- 
nie.',  gather  the  fjnes  of  this  tree  about  midsummer. 


when  tliey  are  half  ripe,  and  steep  them  in  whisky  | 
a  glass  or  two  of  this  liquor,  which  is  extremely  IHt- 
ter,  they  habitually  take  in  the  morning,  as  a  preserva- 
tive against  autumnal  feven.  —  Bruwhk'b  Sglva 
A  meriama. 

Cudbear,  a  purple  or  violet-colored  powder,  used 
In  dyeing  violet,  purple,  and  crimson,  prepared  from 
a  species  of  lichen  (Lichen  tartareut  Lin.),  or  crusta- 
ceous  moss,  growing  commonly  on  limestone  rocks  in 
Sweden,  Scotland,  the  north  of  England,  etc.  Almut 
180  tons  of  this  lichen  are  annually  exported  from 
Sweden.  It  commonly  sells  in  the  port  of  London 
for  about  20f.  per  ton  i  but  to  prepare  it  for  use  it  must 
be  washed  and  dried ;  and  by  these  o|)erations  the 
weight  is  commonly  diminished  a  half,  and  the  price, 
in  effect,  doubled.  Though  possessing  great  beauty 
and  lustre  at  first,  the  colors  obtained  from  cudbear 
are  so  very  fugaccous,  that  they  ought  never  to  be 
employed  but  in  aid  of  some  more  permanent  dye,  to 
which  they  may  give  body  and  vivacit}-.  In  this 
countr}'  it  is  chieily  used  to  give  strength  and  liril- 
liancy  to  the  blues  dyed  with  indigo,  and  to  produce 
a  saving  in  that  article  ;  it  la  also  used  as  a  ground  for 
madder  reds,  which  commonly  incline  too  much  to 
yellow,  and  are  made  roxj  by  this  addition.  The 
name  cudbear  was  given  to  this  powder  by  Dr.  C'nth- 
bert  Gordon,  who,  having  obtained  a  patent  for  tne 
preparation,  chose  in  this  way  to  connect  it  with  hia 
own  name, — BANxno;:r,  Philntnphy  of  Ctilort. 

Culeus,  in  Roman  Antii^  \!ty,  the  largest  measure 
of  capacity  for  things  liquid,  containing  twenti'  am- 
phora! or  40  umie ;  e(,ui\ alent  to  116  gallons,  I'fi  pints 
English,  Culeut  also  denoted  a  sack  or  bag.  Parri- 
cides were  punished  nt  Home  by  l>eing  thrown  into  the 
Tiber  in  a  sack,  along  with  a  cuik,  an  ape,  and  a  viper. 
Culm  (Welsh  culm),  a  variety  of  coal.  It  is  dif- 
ficult of  ignition,  l>ut  bums  for  a  long  time,  without 
flame  or  smoke,  but  emitting  a  disagreeable  smell.  It 
docs  not  cake,  and  it  leaves  out  few  ashes.  Culm  is 
the  bitumen  oxyyenatum  of  I.innwus,  and  the  glaui 
kohle  of  Werner.  It  is  otherwise  known  as  anthracite. 
—See  Coal. 

Culna,  in  Hindostan,  a  town  in  the  Britixli  dis- 
trict of  Burdwun,  presidency  of  Bengal,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  linughly,  on  the  route  from  Cutwa 
to  the  town  of  Hooghly,  i*'t  miles  east  of  the  city  of 
Burdwan.  It  is  the  port  of  the  district,  and  has  long 
been  noted  for  its  trade  in  rice,  grain,  silk,  and  cot- 
ton. Of  late  years  the  traffic  of  tiie  place  has  greatly 
increased,  in  consequence  of  its  being  found  a  con- 
venient station  for  steomcrs  plying  between  Calcutta 
and  the  uppci  provinces.  The  liazaar  consists  of 
1000  shops,  and  the  population  of  the  town  has  l>een 
stated  at  60,000,     Lat,  23°  14' ;  lo.ig,  88°  20*. 

Culpee,  a  town  of  Bengal,  district  of  Hooghly,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  Hooghly.  It  stands  8S 
miles  below  Calcutta,  at  the  mouth  of  a  creek  that 
gives  shelter  to  boats  from  the  impetuosity  of  the 
tide,  which  runs  there  with  great  violence.  Opposite 
the  town  is  the  place  of  anchorage  for  large  sliips 
which  can  not  get  higher  up  the  river.  The  shores 
here  are  a  bed  of  mud,  and  I'e  linnks  of  tlie  river  are 
covered  with  thick  jungle.  (Julpee  is  considered  ex- 
'"•'■niely  unhealthy,  on  account  of  the  swnnips  and 
woods  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  E.  long.  88°  W  ; 
N.  lat.  22°  6'. 

Cumberland  river,  a  large  river  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  which  flows  through  Kentucky  iind 
falls  into  the  Ohio.  Its  entire  length  is  nliout  (JUO 
miles,  and  navigable  for  large  steamboats  lo  Nnvb- 
ville,  203  miles,  and  for  boats  of  15  tons,  8W  ni'' 
■  »rgi3  quantities  of  cotton,  com,  and  tobacco,  urn 
runsported  by  flat-tmats  and  steamlwats  from  nuiucr- 
nois  cour'.es  on  this  river,  to  New  Orleans. 

Cummin-ieed  (Ger.  A  »>«/»;  Fr.  Cumin  j  Jt. 
Comino,  Cumino;  Sp.  Comino ;  Arab.  Kemun),  the 
seeds  of  an  annual  plant  (Cuminium  ryminum,  Lin.),  • 


CUB 


409 


CUR 


,    HTO 

iiuiuer- 

lin:   !'• 

«b),  the 

I,in.), » 


natWe  of  Eg^nt,  hot  exttnalvely  euMvwM  In  MMtl)' 
and  Malta.  Thoy  have  a  atrnni;,  raoiillar,  lM>»vy 
odor,  and  a  warm,  bltteriah,  dlaaKreaalila  tiiatit,  Til*}' 
ar«  long  and  slender. 

Cnmnook,  <>r  Old  Oumnook,  a  villafa  ut  \yr- 
■hire,  In  Scotland,  on  the  I.iiijar  Water,  Vi  mlUaniMitiif 
Ayr.  It  Is  noted  for  the  manufactura  of  »mitt-Ut%i'», 
similar  to  those  of  Ijiurenrekirk,  tlia  iiauulUrltX  "^ 
which  is  the  "invlaibla  wooden  hlni;a,''  Haa  altbda 
Snuff'-boxet. 

Cupal,  a  shallow  earthen  veaael,  aoiiiawbat  uf  • 
cup  shape,  generally  made  of  liuns  aurtli,  It  U  liavd 
in  the  assays  of  the  precious  metals,  whji'l)  «r«  fHa*i4 
upon  a  cupel  with  lead.  Cupellatton  maana  tlia  raflll' 
ln)(  of  Kold  or  silv  er  upon  a  cnpel, 

Cupellatlon  is  a  mode  n(  analynlng  gold,  allvaf, 
palladium,  and  platinum,  by  adding  to  siriall  INHtl'ina 
of  alloys,  containing  these  metala,  a  lilt  uf  laail,  fnaing 
the  mixture  in  a  little  cup  of  Imne  earth  iiallad  •  mim, 
then  by  the  Joint  action  of  heat  and  air,  uaydlntng  tiM 

Tabular  STATiuaNT  or  Saimaim  rauM  Tim  laixtUB  0/  iUm/tmA  iu  VMM 
KNDiNU  Jima  80T1I,  1888.    [Madk  ui'  »|iiim  Uii«ai/Mlt  USftiaM  to  YMa 


I'tipput,  tin,  etc,  present  in  the  preciona  metals.  The 
imjriU  thus  prmluced  are  dissolved  and  carried  down 
lMt«  ih«  imtittt*  cupri  In  a  liquid  state,  l)y  the  vltritied 
imyd  lit  mmI,     Hm  j4«my,  (loU,  and  Silver. 

OUfMOa.  This  Island  is  situated  In  the  Caril>b^ 
atl  Hm,  nxar  thn  const  of  Veneiuela,  and  la  about  42 
mll«is  Inng,  and  from  10  to  16  miles  broad.  The  chief 
arlinks  of  axport  are  i;oat-skins,  huts,  hides,  and  salt. 
'I'll*f9  am  niimnroiis  hnrl)ors,  l)nt  that  of  .Santa  Anna 
I*  fmisldnred  the  Imst  and  safest.  The  principal  mer- 
fh«ll<il»«  flachsngfld  In  the  coasting-trade  of  Cura^oa 
cnflslHff  of  hides,  goat-skins,  dye-woods,  con,  cochi- 
tiaat,  a)«f(«r,  Indigo,  and  hats.  The  chief  article  of 
Intofnal  trade  Is  salt,  this  being  the  only  article  man- 
NfactHrwl  for  export.  The  following  table  exhibits, 
lit  imx  vIhw,  tlie  general  commerce  of  the  island  with 
tlia  l/tiltMl  Mtiites  during  three  years,  ending  with 
INAH,  It  Will  be  seen  that  the  export  trade  to  the 
l/lllt<><l  Htatos  Is  yearly  increasing,  and  that  in  1853 
tho  iiwreasa  over  1861  Is  nearly  100  per  cent. 

irairaD  Statks  Dvaixa  rn^  Tnaaa  Yrabs 
UspARTMitHT  or  Stati,  Wasuixotok.] 


D^Domimulon  of  nurckuallu. 

IWI, 

ISM. 

I8U. 

NumlMr,  wtigbt,  uf 
nwuur*. 

V»lwi, 

flmtyif,  ttsliflif ,  Of 

niM. 

Number,  w«lf  ht,  or 
msMuro. 

VaIii.. 

Alcoa  

pounds 

dosen 

barrols 

pounds 

bags 
number 

doaon 
number 

kega 

nnmbar 

packagas 

barrels 

barrols 
boxoa 

pounds 

tona 
ponnda 

""a 

400 
4.882 
»,T20 

U04 
287,000 

Wiitt 

22,621 
■"■» 

»,00« 
180 

n 

10,942 

•m 

a,w 

"m 

T,429 

tut 

■"i4 
l,4#8 

t't',Mt 

""* 

t  'ti 

"ma 
} 

l,'M 
"iflS 

m 

poimds     ll,»AI 
»          tiim* 

pimii4(t      Win 

»wN  tilts      '»,i4n 

nuiiilisi'  U9^1 

Amm        'li,mi 
immbm    lo,1M 

M  ^      '"m 
puimds     M^I2 

IIHIIltlSf       V,t«2 

bws         "104 
»iiiiiili««ttn    1'ifl 

\ttne\»      11,011 
M.                 i4li 

jw/Hiids  m,m 

poiliiits      iM,lto 

197 

"ikt  , 

1,7()6 
96,169 

8i9^»28 
88,W4 

"«78 
4,722 

■  '24 

"m 

8,106 

8«2 

6,606 

9^046 
1,784 

ponnda      18,848 

pounda        1,710 
puncheon         1 

pounds       'Om 

pounds          108 
bags              921 
number   247,688 
barrola            2T 
duien         16,912 
numbor     17,821 
pounds        9,200 
62,815 

ponn  I '      M^io 
•*              1,600 

bnncbss      "200 

bag-            "'so 

barrel         43^484 
M.                  280 
pounds     294,247 
{[iil'ons           978 
pounds      24,494 
114 
Ions                618 
pounds       12,746 

$887 

"820 
28 

1,824 

"io 

764 

101,899 

101 

107,878 

89,600 

28 

1,181 

'6',6«0 
150 

"ii2 

"ik 

I'sliiie 

996 
7,886 

880 
1,892 

818 

9,846 

1,084 

$800,180 

Arrow-root 

Balsam 

Bay  water 

Barilla , 

Ooppor 

DlTlDtvi 

Qoat-sktns 

H«to 

Hides 

P«lin  leaf 

Plmsoto 

Bait 

Ha  ffATB 

Sugar 

filrnp 

Tortoise -shell 

Wood 

Wool 

1 

Curaooa,  n  liqueur  which  derives  its  naina  frmn 
the  island  of  Curafoa.  It  is  prepared  in  great  f»r- 
fection  by  the  Dutch.  It  derives  Its  flavor  fridll  M«" 
ville  orange  peel,  with  a  small  quantity  of  i/iti(iamiill 
and  mace. 

Curmi  {Kovp/u),  in  Anliquiti/,  a  sort  of  malt  IlijIWir 
or  ale,  made  of  barley,  and  which,  aceoidlliu  I')  1>U»' 
corides,  was  used  bv  many  nations  ln»tea't  of  wlllli, 
That  writer  also  relates  that  in  the  wastaril  |i>irt  uf 
Iberia,  and  in  Britain,  a  similar  beverage  was  In  bis 
time  prepared  from  wheat. 

Curranta  (Fr.  Rauitu  </«  Corinlhe  i  Oer.  Knrhlh' 
en;  It.  Uct  passe  di  Coriv'os  It.  Piuiiilit  tlnrlttlhU 
actt;  Rus.  Korinka,  Opock  i  'i,i.  yVisas  de  Cuflntii),  * 
smnll  species  of  grape,  largely  cultivated  ill  Xnftio, 
Cephalonia,  and  Ithica,  of  which  islai'ds  tlisy  fi»rm 
the  staple  pro<lucp;  and  in  the  Moif  '  Mie  vjiiiiiit)' 
of  Patras.  The  plant  is  delicate  ;  rl ..  of  7  yMtO 
must  elapse,  after  a  plantation  h.^  '^  n  lurmed,  \m- 
foro  it  begins  to  produce,  its  i4,i.,  ii„i  "  >^<  'rus  It 
considnr-i"  •  ontlay  of  capitat.  Tbt  ■  ,«p  Is  |J».tli!(»» 
larlj  '  ..  I  injnry  from  rains  in  burvast,  i  nd  is 
altogcrhet  '«  a  very  precarious  deBcrt|itlan.  \ft«r 
being  dried  m  the  sun,  the  curranta  are  8](|)'ir(«4 
packed  In  large  butts.    They  are  in  extenalva  dsiilAlHi 


III  KlirnlM  and  the  Ignited  States,  and,  when  mixed 
wltll  flitiir  and  suet,  make  a  dish  that  is  peculiarly  oc- 
l<K|flilllt«  Ui  the  lower  classes. 

OtStTllilt  (liHt.  current,  from  cuito,  to  run,  to 
lliiW),  Ittflrally  signlfles  running,  flowing,  passing. 
Ili<lli'«,  IMssIng  from  iierson  to  person,  or  from  hand 
U>  Unmt  circulating,  as  current  opinions,  current 
ikiIHi  In  commerce  it  is  applied  in  an  analogous 
S8IIW  ta  tile  price  of  any  commodity :  as  current 
VkIii*'  Uliit  Is,  the  ordinary  or  present  value.  As 
Hpplii'il  to  time,  It  la  equivalent  to  now  present  or 
|ia«iitti|j  I  MS  the  current  month  or  year.  It  is  applied 
i^hidlly  til  the  progressive  movement  of  fluids,  es- 
fwwliillv  (■''ilr,  electricity,  and  water. 

Otlt^rauM  in  the  ocean  arise  from  various  causes, 
('itlliif  (iifortflfial  or  constant.  They  may  be  ooca- 
slmimt  I'X  >  ternal  impulsion,  for  example,  a  gale 
iif  wind)  frail,  t  dllTerence  in  the  te-mporu*:urc  of  dif- 
dircwl  (Wfts  0 ■  'he  sea;  from  the  inequni ';  ofevap- 
iiratloi:,  thu  ir-^ltlng  of  the  polar  ice,  or  in  short  any 
tiause  t«tu1int<  to  disturb  ihe  hydrostatic  equilibrium. 
H  is  dlnioult  In  many  cas>-'  to  trace  tlioir  c  .uses,  or  to 
(jlV8  lilty  »atlsfa<'.".v  theory  of  fheir  ey'«tpnce;  but 
tin  Mflwilllt  Of  'belr  lm|)ortanc6  .o  navigation  they 
havti  li<<(in  iiliscved,  especial'/  of  late  years,  with 


'm^7,^^- 


ClTtt 


SOO 


CUB 


gnat  DM*.  Amamm  IIhnmi  wtikh  lMt«  •  |i«rni»n«nt 
or  gciwral  vbtrM'Ur,  (Imim  urii  (wm  whlth  iir«  vary 
wnurktbU,  Tit*  AMI  I*  Ihal  nt  Ih*  '/rnuldiil  wal«n 
w*>tw»r(l  ruuiul  (Ita  Ki«'l<«i  i*M<l  llMi  Mwrnil  thai  which 
coDitontly  Ikiwii  (tmii  Muh  |niU  lowanl  th«  cqiMtur. 
Tb«  Uufiwul  or  wiMtwrU  <>Mrr«<«it  l«  rhkHy  cntillnatl 
within  tho  MHw,  aitlaiMliHK  I41  almiit  fM*'^  on  each  nil** 
Qftha  aiiuator,  anil  lt<  vahH'H)'  I*  Mllmatml  Iry  II'" 
boldt  at  aUiut  U  ur  III  iiillan  a  ilay.  in  the  Atk  h.< 
it  MiwraiM  Into  Iwii  lifaiidio*,  ima  »r  whicli  fo'nui 
tba  (iul/Ulnam  1  ami  tli«  ifth«<r  lUmn  ahmff  tin  . mMt 
of  Bratil,  ami  fntim»  lliniMMh  tlia  fHraltfi  nf  Mnistilan. 
Til*  <>uir  Htnwn  liuw*  Horlhtvarit  thriwifh  thr  iiil<lille 
vftba  Atlantlu,  till  It  r«a«ilMi*  th«  llafM  Vord  Itlandu) 
it  than  iiiwuiii  lUmunU  tlia  (,'arililNian  M<'a,  Imtwiwn 
CuIm  and  tba  pvntiKitla  of  Vii(<NlaH,  iiw«i-|  4  round  tha 
Gulf  of  Maaii'ii,  miil  t'HaliM  out  tiy  Dm  jlalrnma  (;hnn- 
nal;  tli«n,  •iiraailliiK  out  lii  a  Mfxatcr  lireailth,  it  con- 
tlBUsa  it*  iMurttt  al<i|iK  tltM  alKiroo  M  llifi  IJnItsd  Htntft« 
to  NewfuundUwi,  wlt«fa  It  l»  ilaflactod  aaiiward  by  ■ 
currant  iwttiNK  In  Crolii  lUltlN'*  lUy  1  and,  panxinx  the 
Aiorcii  and  0»mry  fi>laiid«,  Mn'  i«  In  a  gnnt  m«a9- 
ur«  into  itauir,  tta  brxadlli  l<  <  1  'taKniw  In  th«  Da- 
baina  Cbaunul,  aiMi  ^eUwtty  ffm  'n  !i  mlIcK  an  hour. 
(MuBB4ir'a  liniiinijihii,  y,  iWl.)  I  h*  (xiliir  cnrrrnta 
flow  ooBitantI/  fri'iii  tba  \m[m  n^ntA  thn  oquator, 
tbougb  it  it  avl/lant  that  tl  >\f  mittrnn  inu>t  l>«  tup- 
pliad  by  uurranta  In  a  mmu»>^  dlrmalon.  Their  ex- 
latanca  U  firuved  liy  Ola  «fa«l  ttiimi**  of  Ice  whl<h  are 
carriad  avary  ya«r  itum  tba  fa^lar  Man  to  tropical  lat- 
itudai.  Ocaanb!  mrtm\U,  by  ii«rr>iii)(  with  them  the 
tamparatura  of  tlia  r«K>rma  wbt^ce  they  flow,  con- 
tributa  in  no  umall  A»m'm  Ut  modify  tlie  t  iieratura 
of  tba  atiiioepliarH,  NniTijIi'X  a  ibarKCter  to  the  climate 
of  the  countrtiK  Ui  wbb'h  tlii^y  »fe  contl({Mnnii.  On 
tba  par»lb>l  of  y«W  VorIt,  ttniilUiidt  fiiun<'  the  tem- 
peratura  of  tlia  (iHif  NtfwaiM  Vt'  tit  fabrenbeit,  while 
out  iif  tba  curranl,  tba  boat  of  tba  oceiin  at  the  nur- 
faca  WW  only  ISiV\  I  be  i;tirr<<tit  which  flown  along 
thaaa<t«rn  cu»*t  of  Afrii  •.  and  <totilde!<  thi;  ('a|)e  of 
Good  i[o|M  in  a  »traani  UUi  utile*  Itroad,  in  from  7°  to 
8°  waniiar  than  tli«  «mtl({t«»ii(i  sea,  »ee  'lutf 
Stnam, 

Currant*  of  w«l«r,  liiia  Kurmtitii  of  air,  meeting 
from  varloua  dirai'tbmi,  I'Wat*  gyrallonit,  which  In 
aome  parts  of  tb«  wa,  H<i  im  tiui  coast  of  Norway, 
usuma  tba  aupa^rania  of  whlriprNil*.  aa  though  the 
watar  wara  drawn  into  a  I'baftm  lieiow.  The  cel- 
ebrated Mu«|stfoiM  1<  i'»l(wl  by  »Mt'h  a  conflict  of  Hdal 
or  other  utruaini,  A'tiHlral  Dcfcbcy,  l{,iV,,  has  given 
diagram*  illuotraHfB  of  many  "fot»l<rry  atreama  'n 
the  English  l.'bunnttl,  a  niimiH^  of  which  occur  bi- 
twaaa  tba  ontar  I'Klrnniitii'ii  of  the  Channel  tide  ond 
tba  atraapn  of  tba  oeaaiibt  or  narent  w«*«,"  "  They 
are  claaily  t>  Ita  m'lHtHlltmi  tiit,"  naya  he,  "liy  the 
•trettBia  «4Jting  obib|iM<ly  tipffti  aiu<h  other,"  It  la  not 
nacataary  t'l  a«i*o«Uta  wil'i  ovaaiila  ctirrenta  the  Idea 
tliat  tliay  niuH  of  n«<<o«.'ity,  aa  im  land,  run  from  a 
liiglisr  to  a  lower  IkvoI,  lit*  far  froni  tbia  being  the 
case,  aonia  eurfnitl^  •,(  tb«*  aea  M<'tnally  run  up  bill, 
whibi  otliar*  niit  <ii  it  Iwal.  The  Outf  Htrcnm  is  of 
tbia  claw,  Tba  mm  Hto  mUU'U  ttllt  from  the  Atbintic 
into  the  Heditarranaurt,  aM  Ifaui  the  Indian  Ocean 
into  tbu  lied  M«»,  art  Ibe  rsftirae  of  tbia,  Here  thn 
bottom  of  tba  niMffHt  U  pnilMllily  a  water  letel,  and 
the  top  an  ini'linatt  plan",  riinMitiv  ihim  hill.  Talie 
the  liad  tia«  liurrvilt  a*  an  iilu>tratl'm.  That  Hea  tiea,  1 
for  the  roost  par*  MtUin  »  Mlnleas  and  rlrerleaa  dia-  \ 
trict.  It  m»y  ■  <.fH(i»f»i(l  to  a  li  ng  and  namiw 
trougb.  Haing  o  a  ralnlfaa  diatrlct,  the  evaporation 
from  it  i»  imwi-ioa  1  »Mm«  of  the  watrt  ti  (m  taken  np 
in  rstumad  t^)  It  ttliar  liy  flvara  or  ralna.  It  is  about 
l,bOO  milea  long  i  it  liaa  Miarlv  tiifrtb  and  aouth,  and 
txundafrow  UtitH**  l»''t«  the  piiraltel  )rtm°  north. 

MidiUrrmimt  /,'«(r«»^i,^WIth  regard  to  an  under 
currant  from  tba  l(«'iit<'rr«tM<afl,  w«  may  renark  that 
Ifaan  i«  •  «urr*ot  «lw»y»  ««ttlng  id  at  tb«  tnrfaco 


fVnm  the  Atlantio,  and  that  thia  la  a  aalt-watar  cnr> 
rant,  which  carriea  an  immenM  amount  of  aalt  into 
that  Ma.  Wa  Itnow,  moreover,  that  that  aea  la  not 
■ailing  np  j  we  might  Infer  the  exUtenca  of  an  uudeN 
currant  i'toii);!!  nhbh  tbii  aalt  Hilda  its  way  out  Into 

tb  •      '  If  ;    .11      I'r'iU. 

'J  hi  '  -ci  1' ttu  Indian  Octtm. — lly  oarefully 
tn  iilnluf  .<.  -Iiyalcal  featurea  of  thia  sea,  and 
rtiidying  iis  u.uditlons,  ere  are  led  to  look  for  warm 
currcntatbat  have  their  gcneaia  In  thlaocciin,  and  thut 
carry  from  it  volumes  of  overheated  water,  pmbuoly 
exceeding  In  quantity  many  times  that  whli'h  la  dla- 
charge<l  liy  the  Gulf  Stream  from  its  fountains.  The 
Atlantic  Ocean  1  <  open  at  the  noithabut  tropical  coun- 
tries bound  the  Indian  Ocean  in  that  diraction,  Tha 
waters  uf  this  ocean  arc  hotter  than  those  of  the  Ca- 
rilibean  Sea,  and  th»  i<vi>|M>n..'  1  'lere  Is  much 

greater.  That  it  U  ^  cul  jr,  vo  iiiighl,  withn  nlh 
aervation,  infer  from  tliu  fact  of  a  higher  temperature 
and  a  greater  amount  of  preclpitatbiu  on  the  neigh- 
Imrlng ahorca.  These  two  fao»,  taken  together,  tend, 
it  wonid  seem,  to  ahow  that  large  currenta  of  w  irm 
water  have  their  genesis  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  One 
of  them  is  the  well-known  Moziinil>i(|un  current, 
called  at  the  Cupe  of  Good  Hope  the  Lngiillaa  cur- 
rent. Another  uf  these  currents  makes  its  escape 
through  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and,  behig  joined  by 
other  wann  streams  from  the  Java  and  <^h!na  Seas, 
flows  out  into  the  Pacilic,  like  another  Gulf  Stream, 
iHttween  the  I'hllippines  and  the  shores  of  Asia. 
Thence  it  attempts  the  great  circle  route  for  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  tempering  climates,  and  losing 
Itself  in  the  aea  on  its  route  toward  tlie  north-west 
coast  of  America.  Between  thn  physical  features  of 
this  current  and  the  (it-lf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic. 
there  are  several  point  of  resemldunce.  Sumatra 
and  Blalacca  correspond  to  Florida  and  Cuba ;  Romeo 
to  the  Bahamas,  witli  the  Old  I'rovidenco  Channel  to 
the  south,  and  the  Florida  Pass  to  the  west.  The 
coasts  of  China  answer  to  those  of  the  United  States, 
the  Philippines  to  tbo  Bermudas,  the  Japan  Islands 
to  Newfoundland.  As  with  the  Gulf  Stream,  so  also 
here  with  thia  China  ('urrent,  there  la  a  counter  cur- 
rent of  cold  water  between  it  and  the  shore.  The 
climates  of  the  Asiatic  coast  corresptmd  with  those  of 
Amerii:a  along  the  Atlantic,  and  tlioao  of  Columbia, 
Washington,  and  Vancouver  am  duplicates  of  those 
of  Westeri'  i^arop*  and  the  BritLih  Islands ;  the  cli- 
mate of  Califomu  (State")  resembling  tliat  of  Spain  ; 
the  sandy  plains  and  rainless  regions  of  Lower  Culi- 
''mla  remi-.ding  one  of  .Vfrlca,  with  its  deserts  Iw- 
t  ween  th"  same  paralli-i  etc.  Moreover,  the  Nortli 
Pacific,  like  the  North  Atbintic,  is  envcloiied,  where 
these  warm  waters  go,  with  mists  and  fogs,  and 
streaked  with  lightning.  'I'he  Aleutian  Islund^t  arc 
xlnii  it  aa  renowned  for  fogs  and  mists  as  are  the 
Orand  Banks  of  Newfoun<i1nnd.  A  surfiior  current 
flows  north  through  Behrini;'a  Straits  into  the  Arctic 
.Sea ;  but  in  the  Atlantic  tlie  current  is  from,  not  into 
the  Arctic  Sea :  it  flows  south  nn  tlie  surface,  uortli 
Iwlow ;  Behring'a  Straits  'leing  too  shallow  to  admit 
of  mighty  under  cur  ^nts,  or  to  permit  the  introduc- 
ti<m  from  the  p  >'  asln  of  any  large  Icebergs  into 
the  Pacific. 

The  Current  Paa      —The  contrast  haa  lieen 

drawn  Iwtween  tlie  1  hina  "  Gulf  Stream"  of  tlie 
North  Pacific,  tr.'.  the  Gull  .Stream  of  the  Xiirtb  At- 
lantic. The  rour.'.e  of  the  China  Stream  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  traced  out.  There  is  along  the 
coast  of  California  and  Mexico,  a  southwardly  move- 
ment of  waters,  as  there  i  ■■  along  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  toward  the  Cape  de  Verd  labinda.  In  the 
open  space  west  of  this,  southwardly  act  along  the 
African  coast,  there  is  the  f  imons  Sargasso  Sea,  which 
is  the  general  receptacle  of  the  drift-wood  and  sea- 
weed of  the  Atlantic.  So,  in  li>r ;  manner,  to  the  west 
from  Califwnia  of  this  other  soutawardly  set,  Ilea  the 


OUR 


801 


otm 


ilumlila, 
those 
the  cU- 
Spain ; 
Cali- 
crts  Im!- 
North 
where 
anil 

are  the 
urrcnt 
ATCtie 
not  into 
north 
to  admit 
.ntroiluc- 
ergs  into 

has  iieon 
of  tin- 
!„rth  At- 
itis  never 
long  the 
ly  move- 
coast  of 
In  the 
long  the 
ea,  wliich 
and  sea- 
)  the  west 
,  lie«  the 


pool  Into  which  the  drift-womi  and  sea-w««d  of  the 
North  Paclfln  are  Kenerully  ({nthi^red,  liiit  In  smHll 
•{uantltieii.  The  natives  of  the  AleatUn  Islands, 
whore  no  trff»«  ((raw,  depend  upon  the  drift-wood  cast 
ashnro  there  for  all  the  ttmlirr  lued  in  the  construc- 
tliHi  rif  their  hosts,  ftshlng-ta<^kle,  and  himsehold  gear. 
Among  this  timlier,  the  camphor-tree,  and  other 
woods  of  China  and  Japan,  are  said  to  l)e  often  recog- 
nised. In  thU  fact  we  have  ailditional  evidence 
touching  this  (;hina  8tream,  as  to  which,  bat  little, 
at  I"  »t,  is  known.  "The  Japanese,"  says  Lieuten- 
ant Bent,  in  a  paper  read  liefnre  the  Araerii^an  fleo- 
firnphlcnl  Society,  Janaarj-,  1886,  "  are  well  aware  of 
ts  existence,  and  hove  given  it  the  name  of '  Knro- 
8iwo,'  or  lllack  Htream,  which  Is  nndoniitedly  derived 
from  the  deep  Idue  color  of  Its  wnt-r,  when  compared 
with  that  of  the  adjacent  ocean."  (-'rum  this  we  may 
infer  that  the  Mue  waters  of  this  China  Stream  also 
cimtain  more  salt  than  the  neighlwring  waters  of  the 
sea. 

Tht  Cnld  Currntt  of  Okotilt.—\m\ion  of,  but  coun- 
ter to  till  Jhina  Current,  along  the  eastern  sliores  of 
A  sin,  is  found  a  streak  or  layer,  or  current  of  cold 
water  answering  to  that  between  the  (lUlf  Stream 
and  the  American  coast.  This  current,  like  its  fellow 
In  the  Atlantic,  is  not  strong  enougli  at  all  times 
sensibly  to  affect  the  course  of  navigation  ;  Imt,  like 
that  in  the  Atlantic,  it  is  the  nursery  of  most  valua- 
ble fisheries.  The  Hsheries  of  .Fapan  are  quite  as 
extensive  as  th.iin  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  people 
of  each  countrj-  are  indebted  for  their  vaUialde  sup- 
plies of  excellent  flsh  to  the  cold  waters  which  the 
currents  of  the  sea  lirlng  down  to  their  shores. 

Jtiimboldt't  Current. — The  currents  of  the  Pai'iflo 
■re  but  little  un(lerstoo<l.  Among  those  about  which 
most  is  thought  to  Iw  known,  is  the  Humboldt  Ciir- 
rrnt  of  I'l'Tu,  which  the  great  and  good  man  wliose 
nil:  '^  it  Ix-ar  sras  the  lirst  to  discover.  This  cur- 
rent Is  felt  as  I  as  the  equator,  i  litigating  the  rain- 
lens  climate  of  .  u  as  it  goes,  and  niuktng  it  delight- 
ful. The  Anu>  -.vlth  their  snow-cups,  on  one  side 
of  the  narrow  Paciflc  slopes  of  thi  inter-tropical  re- 
pulilic,  and  the  ciirrtnt  from  the  Antarctic  regions  on 
the  other,  make  I'  rlim  ite  one  of  tlie  most  remarka- 
ble in  the  world  ;  for,  th.  igh  torrid  as  to  latitude,  it 
is  such  OS  to  tom|rcrature  that  cloth  clothes  arc  seldom 
fe't  as  oppressiv.  luring  any  tini"  of  the  year,  oape- 
cially  after  nightr  ill. 

Vurrenlt  of  the  A  tianlie. — The  principal  currents 
of  the  Atlantic  will  lie  descrliied  in  the  article  on 
the  Cioit  Stream.  Lesules  these,  its  offsets  are  the 
Equatorial  Current  and  the  St.  Roque  or  Brazil  Cur- 
rent. Their  fountain-head  is  the  same.  It  is  in  the 
warm  waters  about  the  equator,  letween  Africa  and 
America.  The  former,  receiving  the  Amazon  and  the 
Omhoco  08  tributaries  by  the  way,  flows  into  the  Ca- 
ribliean  Sea,  and  becomes,  with  tiie  waters  in  which 
the  vapors  of  the  trade-winds  leave  their  salts,  the 
feeder  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  Brazil  Current, 
coming  from  the  same  fountain,  is  supposed  to  be  di- 
vided by  Cape  St.  Roque,  one  liranch  going  to  the 
south  under  this  name,  the  other  to  the  westward. 
This  last  ha«  been  a  great  bugbear  to  navigators, 
principally  on  account  of  the  difflculttos  which  a  few 
dull  vessels  falling  to  leeward  of  Si.  iiiique  have  found 
in  lieating  up  against  it.  It  was  said  to  have  caused  the 
loss  of  some  English  transports  in  the  last  century, 
which  fell  to  leeward  of  the  Cape  on  a  voyage  to  the 
other  hemisphere ;  and  navigators,  accordingly,  were 
advised  to  shun  it  as  a  danger.  Tills  current  has  lieen 
an  olijcct  of  special  investigation  during  my  researches 
connected  with  the  Wind  and  Current  Charts,  and  the 
result  has  satisfied  me  that  it  is  neither  a  dangerous 
nor  a  constant  current,  notwithstanding  older  writers. 
Horsburgh,  in  his  East  India  Directory,  cautions  nav- 
igators against  it ;  and  Keith  Johnston,  In  his  grand 
physical  Atlas,  pnbliahed  in  1848,  thus  speaks  of  it : 


'*  Thli  enrrent  grsatly  Impedes  the  pmgreH  of  thoiA 
vessels  which  crosn  the  equator  west  of  'M°  west  lon- 
gltuile,  impelling  them  lieyond  ('ape  St,  Ku,|ii«,  when 
they  are  drawn  tuwainl  the  northern  coast  iif  Uraail, 
and  can  not  regain  their  course  till  after  weeks  or 
months  of  delay  and  exertion."  Ho  fitr  fMm  this  be- 
ing the  case,  my  researches  abundantly  prove  that 
vessels  which  cross  the  equator  five  hundred  mlliM  to 
the  west  of  longitude  2H°  have  no  difliculty  on  ac- 
count  of  this  current  in  clearing  that  Cape.  I  receive 
almost  daily  the  alistract  logs  of  vessels  that  cross  the 
equator  westof  8()°  west,  and  in  three  days  fp.in  that 
crossing  they  are  generally  clear  of  that  (.'ape.  A  few 
of  them  report  the  current  in  their  favor :  most  of 
them  experience  no  current  at  all ;  liut,  now  and  then, 
some  do  find  a  current  setting  to  the  northwanl  and 
the  westward,  and  o|)erating  against  them  at  the  rate 
of  twenty  miles  a  day.  The  inter-troplcal  regions  of 
the  Atlantic,  like  those  of  the  other  oceans,  ulmund 
with  conflicting  currents,  whlih  no  researohiii  yet 
hate  enabled  the  mariner  to  unravel  so  that  he  may 
at  all  times  know  where  they  are  and  tell  how  they 
run,  in  order  that  he  may  lie  certain  of  their  help 
when  favorable,  or  sure  of  avoiding  them  if  adverse. 

Under  Vurrenls. — Lieutenant  J.  ('.  Walsh,  in  the 
II.  S.  schooner  Tuney,  and  Lieutenant  S.  P.  Lee,  in 
the  If.  8.  Iirig  Dolphin,  both,  while  they  were 
corrj'Ing  on  a  ayHtem  of  observations  in  connection 
with  the  Wind  and  Current  Charts,  had  tlii'lr  atten- 
tion directed  to  the  subject  of  suJiinarine  currents. 
They  made  some  interesting  experiments  upon  the 
subject.  A  block  of  wood  was  loaded  to  sinking,  and, 
by  means  of  a  fisliing-line  or  a  bit  of  twine,  let  down 
to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  or  Ave  hundred  fathoms, 
at  the  will  of  the  experimenter.  A  small  barrel  as  a 
float,  just  sufficient  to  keep  the  block  from  sinking 
furtlier,  was  then  tied  to  the  line,  and  the  whole  let 
go  from  the  lioat.  To  use  their  own  expressions, 
"  It  was  wonderful,  indeed,  to  see  this  barret/a  move 
off,  against  wind,  and  sea,  and  surface  current,  at  the 
rate  of  over  one  knot  an  hour,  as  was  generally  the 
case,  and  on  one  occasion  as  much  as  If  knots.  The 
men  in  the  Imat  could  not  repress  exclamations  of  sur- 
prise, for  it  really  appeared  as  if  some  monster  of  the 
deep  had  liold  of  the  weight  below,  and  whs  walking 
off  with  it."  Both  ofHcers  and  men  were  amazed  at 
the  sight.  The  experiments  in  deep-sea  soundings 
have  also  thrown  much  light  upon  the  subject  of  un- 
der currents.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  they 
exist  in  all,  or  almost  all  parts  of  the  deep  sen,  for 
never  in  any  instance  yet  has  the  deep-sea  line  ceased 
to  run  out,  even  after  the  plummet  had  reached  the 
bottom.  If  the  line  be  held  fast  in  the  lioat,  it  invaria- 
bly parts,  showing,  when  two  or  three  miles  of  it  are 
out,  that  the  under  currents  are  sweeping  against  the 
bight  of  it  with  what  seamen  call  a  ttriijt/inff  force, 
that  no  sounding  twine  has  yet  proved  strong  enough 
to  withstand.  Lieutenant  J,  P.  Parker,  of  the  Uni- 
ted States'  frigate  Congreta,  attempted,  in  I8&2,  a 
deep-sea  sounding  off  the  coast  of  South  America, 
lie  was  engaged  witli  the  experiment  eight  or  nine 
hours,  daring  which  time  a  line  nearly  ten  miles  long 
was  paid  out.  Night  coming  on,  he  had  to  part  the 
line  (which  he  did  simply  by  attempting  to  haul  it 
in)  and  return  on  Imard.  Examination  proved  that 
the  ocean  there,  instead  of  l>eing  over  ten  miles  in 
depth  was  not  over  three,  and  that  the  line  was  swept 
out  tiy  the  force  of  one  or  more  under  currents. — 
Maurt's  Fhijaical  Geography. 

Currency.  (Lat.  curro,  I  run.)  In  Political 
Economy,  a  tenn  sometimes  used  to  express  the  col- 
lective amount  of  the  money,  and  of  the  bills, 
checks,  and  other  sahstltutes  for  money,  employed 
in  selling  or  buying,  or  in  the  distribution  of  the  com- 
modities and  services  among  the  different  ranks  and 
orders  of  the  community. — See  Artidet  Banks,  Coilt« 
AOB,  Credit,  and  Gold. 


CUR 


503 


CUR 


OnnrcnolM  In  UnlUd  Mtat**.  Th«  Tr«i>- 
uTj  Uapartnicnl  of  th*  L'niud  SUta*  l»u»(l,  iin  th* 
IMh  of  H«|>UiiiU<r,  IH61,  th«  following  liiatructioiM  tu 
('oll*i^)ni  siiil  cilHccni  of  tba  cuitoiiu :  "  Iii  vl«w  of 
tha  anilwrniMiitantii  axUliiiK  ut  xinia  of  Ilia  |irtn('l|>*l 
|M>rti,  and  tha  want  of  unlfuriiilty  in  tlia  practica  uf 
aiM-AilnK  iliiti><a  u|Hm  ninrihiinrliiiu  iiivolcail  in  ilc|ira- 
t'latail  foreiKn  curraiu  ie»,  It  in  ilaaniKil  imipar  to  «iitul>- 
llih  aoiiia  uniform  rrKulationi  on  tha  luhjact,  for  tha 
fntura  )(iivi!riini»nt  of  otiiciini  of  tha  cuKtiinin.  'I'lio 
law  raquiraa  involca^  of  all  Importml  ni«ri:hiiniliaa 
•ubjcct  to  an  lul  vaJoitm  dut}'  tu  Imi  nmda  out  in  tha 
ourraury  of  tha  vountry  or  pluca  wliera  tha  lni|)orta- 
thiii  la  maila.  Tb«  baala  of  valua  upon  which  the  ilu- 
tlaa  are  to  Im  aaaaaied  la  the  truii  iimrknt  value  in  tlio 
|>rlni:ipal  niarketa  of  the  rouiitry  ut  the  imriml  of  ex- 
portation to  the  United  Ntutaa,  exhlliitril  in  auih  for- 
•iKn  currency  at  Ita  Intrlnaiu  vulut-,  and  converted 
Into  money  of  the  United  State*  uooinlinK  to  the 
ratxa  of  value  at  which  aald  currency  may  have  been 
di'terniineil  aKreeahly  to  law.  DonKrcna  hua  fixed  the 
value  of  aome  of  tliu  foreign  currcnuiex  iit  a|iocillc 
nitea  ;  but  wliera  the  invoivn  coat  of  K<xxl'i  wari'a,  or 
nii*rchandiae  la  exhililted  in  a  deprcciatt'il  currency 
iaaued  and  circulated  under  the  authority  nfuny  for- 
al^n  K<>v>n>i»«nti  the  I*re«ident  of  the  United  Stiitea 
if  duly  authorlxed  by  law  to  cauao  to  be  eatiibliahed 
'fit  and  proper  ragulathina'  for  e«timutin;(  the  dutiea 
on  any  audi  ffuoda,  warea,  and  mnrchunillaa.  In  all 
ooaea,  therefore,  where  the  foreign  eurri'in^y  ie  depre- 
ciated, itn  value  In  money  of  the  United  Stutoa  ia  to  l>e 
aarertainod  In  the  mode  preacrll>«d  by  the  circular  in- 
•tructiona  iaaued  by  the  Department,  l>y  direction  of 
the  Preaidrnt,  under  the  datea  of  the  Mtii  of  May  and 
the  Ifith  of  AuKuat,  18111,  and  the  16th  of  October, 
IHll'J.  Altbou)(h  the  consular  certificate,  required  by 
•alil  inatructiona,  of  the  value  in  United  Statea'  money 
of  any  foreign  depreciated  currency  in  ordinarily  to  \te 
r"ceive<l  and  taken  »a  evidence  of  auch  value,  yet  it 
is  not  to  lie  deemed  conclusive  in  coaea  where  facta 
or  eircumatancea  may  exiat,  producing  a  rational  be- 
lief that  manifest  brror  attachea  to  auch  certillcate. 
Where  Congreei  has  fixed  the  value  in  American 
money  of  any  foreign  currency,  it  is  to  lie  underatood 
that  the  value  it  to  attach  in  all  cases  in  estimating 
that  dut}-;  and,  ahouM  an}'  of  the  auid  ciirrenciea  lie- 
come  depreciated,  eitlier  liy  the  iaaue  of  government 
paper  money  or  otherwise,  the  collectors  nevertlieless 
will  make  no  alteration  in  the  value  in  ostlinuting 
duties,  without  the  previous  authority  of  the  Depart- 
ment, which  authority  will  lie  promptly  given  in  all 
cases,  so  soon  as  the  fact  of  auch  deprecintion  is  au- 
thentically brought  to  his  knowledge.  Such  informa- 
tion has  been  received  as  regards  the  Austrian  florin, 
which,  until  further  instructions  on  the  subject,  the 
collectors  will  consider  as  depreciated  currency,  and 
levy  the  duty  accordingl}'  on  invoices  stated  in  it. 
The  foreign  currencies  alluded  to  almve,  tlie  value  of 
which  is  fixed  liy  various  acta  of  Congress,  nre  noted 
at  f<xit,  for  your  informatlim  and  government, 

"  It  frequent  h'  happens  tlint  invoices  stated  in  the 
carrency  of  the  <  ountry  of  shipment  have  expressed 
on  the  face  of  them,  in  the  currency  of  another  coun- 
try, the  amount  for  which  bills  of  exchange  may  have 
lieen  drawn  in  payment  of  the  gcHids,  or  for  other 
causes.  In  cases  where  Ixith  currencies  have  a  spe- 
cie basis,  any  differencis  which  may  exist  between  the 
two  amounts  thus  exhibited  is  presumed  to  arise  from 
the  interest  on  the  sight  of  the  bill,  or  a  regular  dif- 
ference of  exchange  between  the  two  points ;  and 
where  the  currency  of  the  country  of  "shipment  is  de-  i 
preciuted,  a  similar  difference  may  exist  between  the 
specie  value  of  the  foreign  currency  thus  expressed  on 
the  face  of  the  invoice,  and  the  consular  ccrtilied  B|)e- 
cie  value  of  the  local  depreciated  currency  i  u  which 
the  invoice  is  stated.  As  the  law  provides  tlmt  the 
duties  shall  be  estimated  on  the  specie  value  of  the 


curraney  of  tha  rmiutry  whence  tba  slilpmant  is  made, 
thai  niiKle,  as  a  general  rule,  will  tbrrefnn  ha 
adopted  ;  yet  where  the  dilfereiKa  liclwren  the  valuo 
of  two  currencies,  expressed  upon  tha  face  of  tha  In- 
voice, is  BO  great  a*  to  sxelta  a  well-founded  belief 
that  either  deception  or  error  exiata,  the  appralaar* 
are  rei|ulred  to  iiiveatigate  the  facta,  and  If  they  as- 
certain that  there  hua  been  error,  either  In  the  cun- 
aular  cortlHcate  in  giving  the  a|iecie  value  of  a  depr»- 
ciuted  currreney,  or  tliut  otherwiae  the  true  apecia 
value  In  currency  of  the  United  .Stiitea  has  not  bean 
coirei'tly  set  fvrtli,  it  will  lieconie  their  duty  to  cor- 
rect said  error  by  advancing  the  coat  or  value  given 
in  the  invoice  or  on  the  entry,  aitbar  in  the  price  uf 
the  gooiU  or  the  eatimated  siiecie  value  of  the  depre- 
ciated currency." 

Curriol*  (IM.  curriculum,  a  chariot),  a  carriage 
with  two  wlieela,  drawn  by  two  horaea  alircaat,  and 
aupportad  by  a  pule  conneclMl  with  a  bar  across  the 
horaea'  twcka. 

Currying  of  Leathar  {Corroytr,  Freneh  t  ^'U- 
rUkltn,  (iernian)  ia  the  art  of  dressing  aktns  after  tbey 
are  tanned,  for  the  purpoaea  of  the  ahoemaker,  coach, 
and  hameasmuker,  etc.,  or  of  giving  them  the  neces- 
»My  smoothness,  luetre,  color,  and  suppleness.  The 
currier's  shop  bus  no  resemblauce  to  the  tunuor'a  prem- 
ises, having  u  quite  different  set  of  tools  nnd  munipu- 
billona.  Kvery  kind  of  tanned  leather  not  intendsd 
for  soles  or  such  course  purposes,  is  generally  curried 
liefore  lieing  delivered  to  the  workmen  who  fashion  it, 
auch  aa  ahoeiiiukera,  couchinukors,  saddlers,  etc.  Tlio 
chief  o|ierutions  of  the  currier  are  four:  1.  Dipping 
the  leather,  whicli  consists  in  moistening  it  witli  water, 
and  lieating  it  with  the  mace,  or  a  mullet,  upon  the 
hurdle.  lie  next  applies  the  cleantrt,  both  blunt  and 
sharp,  OS  well  ns  the  heiid-knifo,  to  remove  or  thin 
down  all  inequalities.  After  the  leather  is  shaved.  It 
is  thrown  once  more  into  water,  and  well  scoured  by 
rubbing  the  grain  side  with  pumicc-stono,  or  a  piece 
of  slaty  grit,  whereby  it  parts  with  the  bloom,  a  wbit- 
isli  mutter,  derived  from  the  oak  bark  in  the  tan-pit. 
2.  Applying  the  pommel  to  give  the  leatlicr  a  granu- 
lar upiieiirunco,  and  correspondent  flexibility.  The 
leather  is  first  foldeil  with  its  grain  side  in  contact, 
and  rubbed  strongly  with  the  pommel,  then  rulilied 
simply  upon  ita  gruin  side  ;  whereby  it  becomes  ex- 
tremely flexible.  .1.  .S<'ruping  the  leather.  This  makes 
it  of  uniform  thickness.  The  workman  holds  the  tool 
nearly  perpendiciilnr  upon  the  leather,  nnd  forcildy 
scrapes  the  thick  places  with  both  his  hands.  4, 
Dressing  it  by  the  round-knil'e.  For  this  purpose  he 
stretches  the  leather  upon  the  wooden  cylinder,  lays 
hold  of  the  pendent  under  edge,  with  the  pincers  at- 
tached to  his  girdle,  unil  then  with  both  bauds  applies 
the  edge  of  the  knife  to  the  surface  of  the  leather, 
slantingly  from  aliiAe  downward,  and  thus  pares  off 
the  coarser  fleshy  parts  of  the  skin.  This  operation 
requires  great  experience  and  dexterity;  and  when 
well  performed,  improves  greatly  the  look  of  the 
leather. 

The  liide  or  skin,  being  rendered  flexible  and  uni- 
form, is  conveyed  to  the  shed  or  drying-house,  where 
the  greasy  substances  are  applied,  which  is  called  dub- 
bing (daubing)  or  stuffing.  'The  oil  used  for  this  purpoio 
is  prepared  by  iKilling  sheepskins  or  doeskins  in  cod 
oil.  This  application  uf  grease  is  often  made  before 
the  graining-lioard  or  pommel  is  employed.  Ileforo 
waxing,  the  leather  is  commonly  colored  by  rubbing  it 
with  a  brush  dipped  into  a  composition  of  oil  and  lamii- 
blttck  on  the  flesh  side,  till  it  be  thoroughly  black  ;  it 
is  then  black-sized  with  a  brush  or  sponge,  dried,  tal- 
lowed with  the  proper  cloth,  and  slicked  upon  the  flesh 
with  a  broad,  smooth  lump  of  glass ;  sized  again  with 
a  sponge  ;  and  when  dry,  again  curried  as  above  dc- 
scrilied.  Currj-ing  leather  .on  the  hair  or  grain  side, 
termed  black  on  the  grain,  is  tlie  same  in  the  first  op- 
eration with  that  crossed  on  the  ilesb,  till  it  Is  scoured. 


OIW 


COS 


CU8 


ind  unl- 
-where 
led  di»l>- 
purposo 
in  cod 
before 
Before 
ibbing  it 
id  laini>- 
iluck;  It 
;ied,  tul- 
the  flesh 
ain  witli 
Ijove  dc- 
■ain  Bide, 
first  op. 
Bcouied. 


1h««  Ilia  Ural  IiImIi  !•  iitivll«<l  tn  ll  whIU  w«t,  by  a 
luiliitliiM  iif  i'ii|i|i«riia  |iNl  MiHiti  IIm  Rralii,  after  thia  haa 
iHivn  rul/liKil  with  •  ulimv  i  «  briiah  dlpiwd  In  alula 
uriiia  la  naiit  ruUwil  i>n,  than  an  Inm  alleker  i«  ii'<ed 
til  iiialta  tlia  Kralu  I'liina  mU  aa  ftna  aa  (amalbla.  It  la 
now  aliiirKil  Willi  nil,  Whan  dry,  II  la  aaaaonwl  j  Hint 
la,  riililMd  iivar  wllll  ■  l/ruali  dlpfaid  In  i  npperaa-watar, 
on  Ilia  iirain,  till  It  U  iwrfai-tly  lilw^li.  It  la  next 
alliki'd  Willi  »  umal  nrltalun)',  to  liika  nut  tbt  wrln- 
klia,  and  aniwiilli  llw  i  imraa  ((rain.  'I  lia  K'aln  la  Anally 
ralaad  wllli  Ilia  imiHiiial  iir  KralnliiK-lHiunl,  by  amily. 
Iiitf  It  t<i  Ilia  lastliar  In  dllTafaat  dlraclloni.  When 
lliiiruUKlilv  litr,  It  la  Kralnml  ailalii  In  twii  or  three 
wuya,  IIMaa  liitaMil«l fiir lovartliK roai'liea  »r« ahavrd 
nearly  aa  lliln  m  abiM  hl«lM,  and  lilueked  upon  tha 
Kraiii, 

OurtAllW.  WIikIiiw-i  iirlalna  ara  now  made  In 
graat  varlaty,  liuth  i>f  malxrUla  and  in^iiiiifai'tiira,  the 
primdiial  dlnurunia  IwInK  aa  t<i  the  forincr,  whiih  coii- 
aUt  t'lilvlly  iif  I)  riillli,  wind,  and  ciitlon.  Hllk  la  em- 
plii)'«d  III  ilmmultt  and  luinrm,  nilaed  with  wool,  the 
fririiiar  Iwlng  •  H<iwaty  pattern  nt  allk  on  a  woolen 
fuiindiitlon,  wlillat  tha  laltar  la  a  aatln  alrliie  arranged 
in  tha  aaina  way  aa  fa^arda  tha  mmiHHiliiK  mnterlulit. 
A  a|M>i'|aa  lit  liiiri/-i"li'rl  |a  alMi  now  iHifd  In  which  tlie 
two  iiiaterlaU  urn  bleti'led,  niid  which  iiuikea  a  rdh 
and  aiaK^iit  I'urtiiln  i  llil«  l«  inada  aim  In  woid  without 
■ilk,  and  tliun  irallad  rrjiii,  When  wmd  la  imed  by 
it<eir,  it  than  fiirina  a  {i/'«w/'C/"M  anlted  to  dInlnK-roonia, 
ur  a ditniiwk,  wdiih  i«  not  hi  tMaiitiful  to  the  eye  aa 
tliM  liU  ilumiuli,  but  allll  anntelantty  ao  for  cominou 
puriHiava,  or  alw  n  mnrrm,  alllier  pliiln  or  watered,  or  a 
chidli,  whii  h  la  a  tliill  trill  nint^rlal,  printed  with  rhintz 
putteriia,  (.'otton  la  niaila  lnt<i  a  plain  artliie,  witlmut 
any  thiiiK  but  a  mare  web  and  woof,  which,  when 
priiiteil  mid  i(la/^d,  \*  lulled  ihlnta. 

Ouctoma  «ra  duliea  rlinrxail  ii|Nm  roinmoditlea  on 
their  IwinK  litiiairtwt  Into  or  ex|Hirt«d  from  a  country. 
They  wara  i'oIIhi-IkiI  ii|hiii  iiiarcliandlae  in  EnKlnnd, 
uiiilar  Kllialruil  II,,  In  t(7ll,  'the  kinu'a  claim  to  them 
by  |{ruiit  of  I'arllaiiienI  waa  aatabliahed  il  f^lward  I., 
127-1.  I  illla  la  i|lli>atlimntile,  j  Tha  ciiatnnia  were 
farmed  to  Mr.  'riHiliiiia  Miiilth,  for  iCln.OlNl  for  several 

years,  in  the  ralifii  of  KlUaUth H-rowK.    They  were 

farmed  by  CharUa  II,  for  i'fHK»,'W«  in  tha  year  IfiUB 
—Uavkn^ni-.     'rim  diltlaa i'oIImi  led  In  Kngbind  were 

In  IMii l!U,iaNI               In  tana £!i,t7S.iN)0 

In  IftW A0,(aii» 

InlOH'.,,,  Wojim 

In  mwi )Aa,i«ai 

In  I4W,.,  ,  tmm> 

lnI7'M,.,.  \fitihM» 

In  17411 ';,iluo,iaal 

Tha  luat'inia  In  Ireland  were,  In  the  year  1224.  viz., 
on  ovary  aaik  of  wool,  ikl, )  cm  every  liiat  of  hlde«, 
(III.  I  and  'ii\,  on  ayny  \mtt»\  of  nSnti.—AnmU  of  Jhib. 
tin.  (^U'lomdinuwi  iillicara,  and  ofllcera  of  excine, 
wera  diiu|ii«lilii«l  from  virtln«  fi?r  tlie  election  of  mem- 
bers of  I'arllament,  liy  »l«tnln  82  (leorge  III.,  1782. 

Cuatoiiia  dutlaa  a«em  to  have  "xlafed  In  every  coni- 
nierciiil  louutry,  Tha  Athenliina  laid  n  tax  of  a  flfth 
on  the  corn  and  otliar  Nl«<ri'linndl<<e  lin|Mirted  from  for- 
eljpi  couutriaa,  and  alao  on  Miveral  of  the  commodities 
exportad  from  Attli'N.  The  piMorm,  or  customs  pay- 
abla  on  tha  coiiMiKNlitiea  ititported  into,  and  exported 
from,  the  dilf«rttut  jaifta  In  the  Itotnan  empire,  formed 
u  very  anciitnt  and  iiii|Hirt>tnt  part  of  the  public  reve- 
nue, Tha  ratva  at  which  they  were  charged  were 
fluctuatiiiK  ami  varioua,  and  tittle  la  now  known  re- 
apectiiiK  tliaill,  (,'iiiiiro  lllforma  lia,  tliat  the  duties  on 
corn  eX|iorta4  front  tha  porta  of  HIclly  were,  in  his 
time,  6  par  c«Mt.  I!liiter  thti  Imperial  Kovernment, 
the  amuiint  of  tha  ptifUirin  detieniled  aa  much  on  the 
caprice  of  the  priiM'a  aa  on  the  rent  exlKences  of  the 
■tkte.  Tbuuifh  aoiitatlMlNo  dimlMistied,  they  were  never 
entirely  r«uittt«d,  anil  were  maidi  more  frequently  in- 
cruaaed.  Ulldar  tha  llyMludM  einperora,  they  were 
M  biKli  aa  12^  per  imnt. 


111  IWIH 1I,4»K,II00 

In  1M0 i7,Mo,oi)o 

In  law H.dU.ooo 

In  1140 Iv.fls.iMM) 

In  IMfi ■io,0(io,ouo 


Cuiloma  duttas  axUlad  in  Kngland  previous  to  the 
l'oni|ueat.  They  appear  to  have  derived  tliclr  name 
from  haviiiK  been  iiiiinemoriaily  or  cuatumariiy  charKeil 
on  certain  artiiiea  when  conveyed  acrosa  the  ijrliici- 
|ial  ferriaa,  lirldKes,  etc.,  within  tlie  kingdom,  and  on 
these  and  other  artidca  of  native  and  foreign  produce, 
when  ax|Hirted  from  ur  imported  Into  the  kingdom.  In 
12Ut)  the  entire  cuatunia  revenue  of  Kiiglanil,  liiduiiing 
that  derived  from  tolia  and  fair*,  aimiuntad  to  only 
X4,VAH  7a.  Ili<i,  I  It  la  not,  therefore,  true,  aa  has 
auiiietimea  lieen  Ktated,  tliat  the  king'a  llrat  claliii  to 
the  cuatoma  waa  entabliahed  in  the  reign  of  l-Mwurd  I. 
liut  that  able  and  |Hilltic  prince,  by  rendering  the  levy 
of  tha  old  dutiea  mora  elTectuai,  and  pnioiiriiig  the 
aanction  of  parliament  tu  tlie  imixinition  uf  new  dutiea, 
waa  the  tirat  who  made  the  cuitoiiis  revenue  of  any 
iimterial  iniportaiiuii.  The  dutlen  were  at  flrat  princi- 
pally laid  on  wool,  wooifeia  (^i<li'-c|iakina),  and  leather 
when  exported.  There  were  aino  extraordinary  dutioe 
paid  by  aliens,  whicli  were  deniiininatcd;)'ii'i.''i  cuiiitntu, 
to  diatiiiguiah  them  from  the  roniier,  ur  maytui  rutluina. 
Tlie  dutiea  of  tonnage  and  poundage,  uf  wliicli  men- 
tion la  Bu  i'rei|ueiitly  made  In  Kngiish  hiatory,  were 
cualoniH  dutiea ;  tlie  flrat  being  paid  on  wine  by  the 
tun,  and  the  latter  lieing  an  tut  viilurem  duty  of  to 
much  a  |H>uiid  on  all  utiier  merclianiil.ie.  U'lieii  these 
duties  were  granted  to  the  crown,  they  were  denomin- 
ated tubnijirt ;  and  as  Hie  duty  of  poundage  had  con- 
tinued for  a  lengtlienud  (wrliMl  at  the  rate  of  la.  a 
pound,  ur  b  per  cent.,  a  subsidy  came,  in  the  language 
uf  the  cuatunia,  tu  deiiute  an  nii  vulurem  duty  of  5  per 
cent.  The  new  tubmly  granted  in  tlie  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.  was  an  additlun  of  &  |ier  cent,  to  the  dutiei 
on  moat  imported  comniudities. — Trratite  in\  I'tualion, 
by  J.  It.  MdC'ulluoii,  2(1  ed.,  p.  234. 

The  various  custom*  duties  were  collected,  for  the 
first  time,  in  u  Iwok  of  rates  publisiied  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.;  u  new  liook  of  rates  being  again  puldished 
in  the  reign  uf  George  I.  Uut,  exclusive  uf  the  duties 
entered  in  tlicse  twu  books,  many  mure  had  been  im- 
posed at  different  times  ;  so  tiiat  the  accumulation  of 
the  duties,  and  the  complicated  regulations  to  which 
they  gave  rise,  were  pruductive  of  the  greatent  em- 
barrassment. The  evil  waa  increased  by  the  car^ 
less  manner  in  which  now  duties  were  added  to  the  old, 
a  per  centage  being  sometimes  added  to  the  original 
tax ;  while  at  other  times  the  cumiuodity  was  esti- 
mated liy  a  new  standard  of  bulk,  woiglit,  nuiulier,  or 
value,  and  charged  with  an  additional  impost,  without 
any  reference  tu  the  dutiea  furmcrly  ^nposed.  The 
cunfusiun  arising  from  these  sources  was  still  further 
augmented  by  the  special  upprupriation  of  each  of  the 
duties,  and  the  cunsoiiueiit  necessity  of  a  separate  cal- 
culation for  each.  The  intricacy  and  confusion  insep- 
arable from  such  a  state  of  things  proved  a  serious 
injury  to  cummerco,  and  led  to  many  frauds  and 
abuses. 

Customs  duties,  like  all  dutiei  on  particular  com- 
modities, though  advanced  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
merchant,  are  ultimately  paid  by  those  liy  whom  they 
are  consumed.  When  a  government  lays  a  duty  on 
the  foreign  commodities  which  enter  its  purls,  the  duty 
falls  entirely  on  such  of  its  own  subjects  as  purchase 
these  commodities ;  for  the  foreigners  would  cease  sup- 
plying its  market  with  them,  if  they  did  not  get  the 
full  price  uf  the  cummodities,  exclusive  uf  the  tax ; 
and,  fur  the  same  rcaaun,  when  a  government  lays  a 
duty  on  the  cumiuudities  which  its  subjects  are  ulwut 
to  export,  the  duty  dues  nut  fall  on  them,  but  on  the 
foreigners  by  whom  they  are  bought.  If,  tlierefore, 
it  were  possible  for  a  country  to  raise  a  sufficient  reve- 
nue by  laying  duties  on  exported  commodities,  such 
revenue  would  be  wholly  derived  from  uthcrs,  and  it 
would  1>e  totally  relieved  from  the  burden  of  taxation, 
except  in  so  far  as  duties  might  be  imposed  by  foreign- 
era  on  the  goods  it  imports  from  them.  Care,  however, 
must  be  taken,  In  imposing  duties  on  exportation,  Oct 


cus 


004 


CUS 


to  Uj  them  00  commodities  that  may  be  produced  at 
tht  nrae,  or  nearly  the  same,  cost  by  foreignere ;  for 
the  eir  ~t  of  the  duty  would  then  be  to  make  the  mar- 
kt.>t  be  supplied  by  others,  and  to  put  an  entire  stop  to 
V.  ilr  exportation.  Bat  In  the  event  of  a  country  pos- 
s^ising  any  decided  natural  or  acquired  fcdvanta(^  in 
the  production  of  any  sort  of  commodities,  &  duiy  on 
their  exportation  would  se«m  to  be  the  most  unexcep- 
tionable of  all  taxes.  If  the  Chinese  chose  to  act  on 
this  principle,  and  had  the  power,  they  might  derive  a 
considerable  revenue  from  a  duty  on  exported  teas, 
which  would  fall  entirely  on  the  English  and  other 
foreigners  who  buy  them.  The  coal  and  tin,  and  per- 
haps, also,  some  of  the  manufactured  goods  produced 
in  this  country,  seem  to  be  in  this  predicament.  The 
revenue  derived  tnia  the  customs  duties  in  1690,  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  amounted  to  no  more  than 
X60,000.  In  1618,  it  had  increased  to  .£148,076 ;  of 
Arhich  no  less  than  j£109,572  were  collected  in  London. 
In  1660,  at  the  Restoration,  the  customs  produced 
£431,n82 ;  and  at  the  Revolution,  in  1688,  they  pro- 
duced £781,987.  During  the  reigns  of  William  III. 
and  Anne,  the  customs  revenue  was  considerably  aug- 
mented, the  nett  payments  into  the  exchequer  in  1712, 
being  £1,315,423.  During  the  war  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Paris  in  1763,  the  nett  produce  of  the  customs 
revenue  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to  nearly  £2,000,- 
000.  In  1792,  it  amounted  to  ;e4,407,000.  In  1816, 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  il  amounted  to  £11,860,000. 
See  Great  Britain.     See  Tariff,  Vnittd  Statei. 

Consular  officers  are  instructed  that  the  following 
values  have  been  established  by  the  laws  of 
the  United  States  for  certain  foreign  currencies, 
Wz. :  dollars  of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  and  Central 
America,  $1 ;  dollar,  specie,  of  Denmark,  $1  05 ;  dol- 
lar, rix,  or  thaler,  of  Prussia,  and  the  Northern  States 
of  Germany,  69  cts. ;  dollar,  rix,  cf  Bremen,  78f  cts. ; 
dollar,  specie,  of  Oweden  and  Norway,  ifl  06 ;  ducat 
of  Kccles,  80  cts. ;  franc  of  France  and  Belgium, 
18  6-10  ':ts. ;  florin  of  Netherlands,  40  cts. ;  florin  of 
Austria,  48^  cts. ;  florin  of  Southern  States  of  Ger- 
many, 40  cts. ;  guilder  of  Netherlands,  40  cts. ;  lira  of 
the  Lon<b.\rdo-Venetian  Kingdom,  IB  cents;  lira  of 
Tuscany,  1  j  cents  j  lira  of  Sardinia,  18  6-10  cts. ;  li  i^re 
toumoise  of  France,  18^  cts. ;  livre  of  I.eghom,  16 
cts. ;  milrea  of  Portugal,  $1 12 ;  milrea  of  Azores,  83)- 
cts.  J  marc  banc:  it  Hamburg,  Si  cts. ;  ounce  of  Sicily, 
82  40 ;  pound  sterliag  of  Great  Britain,  #4  84 ;  pound 
sterling  of  British  ■provinces  of  Nova  Scotio,  New 
Brunswick,  Newfoundland,  and  Canada,  $4 ;  pagoda 
of  India,  $1  84 ;  real  vellon  of  Spain,  5  cts. ;  real 
plate  of  S|>ain,  10  cts. ;  ruble,  silver,  of  Russia,  76 
cts. ;  rupee,  company,  44^  cts, ;  rupee  of  British  In- 
dia, 44^  cts. ;  tael  of  China,  $1  48. 

Invoices  of  merchandise  made  out  in  the  depreciated 
currencies  of  Austria,  Ch'tc,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Porto  Rico, 
and  Nova  Scotia,  with  certificates  of  United  States' 
consuls  annexed,  will  he  received  by  the  collectors  of 
tti  United  States. 

The  depreciated  pound  sterling  of  Nova  Scotia  will 
be  taken,  in  computation  at  the  custom-house  of  du- 
ties, in  the  case  of  Invoices  of  merchandise  from  that 
province  made  out  in  that  depreciated  currency,  at 
(8  84,  as  compared  with  the  silver  currency  of  the 
ITnlted  Stutes,  provided  such  depreciation,  at  the  date 
of  exportation,  is  ccrtifisd  hy  the  United  States'  con- 
sul at  the  port  of  shipment. 

The  v.jlue  of  the  Austrian  silver  florin  is  fixed  by 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Austrian  paper 
florin  is  usually  depreciated  in  comparison  with  it. 
Assuming  It  to  be,  for  example,  depreciated  88  per 
cont.,  the  computation  will  l>e  made  by  collectors  liy 
proportion,  t)  wit ;  as  188  ;  100,  so  is  the  amount  of 
paper  florins  stated  in  the  invoice  to  the  value  in  silver 
florins.  Of  course  the  consular  certiflcato,  showinj^ 
the  rate  of  drpreciatinn,  must  \m  produced  in  such 
CMot. — See  contra,  Act,  Feb,  1<>67. 


A  Tabu  laowna  tdi  Bivxhui  ooLttonn  noa  rm 
BsoiMNnia  or  nu  OovxaxHaNT  to  Jdjik  sn,  18fi6, 

DNDia    TUI    HIAD    or    CCSTOHS,    AMD    TUX    FABTIOUlAa 

TABirr,   mn>t%  which  tm    BiviKoa   raou  Tuoea 
soeaoas  was  oollxord. 


Teiin, 

Fnjm  Caitomi. 

DiUortarUr. 

Toltl  receipt*. 

From' 

(■July  4, 1789— gen- 

1 

March  4, 

eral;  AngnstlO, 

1789,   to 

•4,8»9,478 

1790  —  gefleral ; 

I  110,210,026 

Dsc  81. 

1791 

vm 

March  8,  1791- 

J-iff'SSI 

L    general 

8.740,766 

May  2— general 

1798 

4,266k80« 

.... 

6,720,624 

1794 

4,801,065 

June    6  —  special ; 

Juno  T— general. . . 

10,041,101 

1795 

6,588,461 

Jan.  29— general  . . . 

9,419,802 

17-3 

6,667,987 

8,740,829 

1..-; 

7,549,649 

March  8— general; 

July  8— special.... 

8,768,916 

1798 

7,106,061 

8,200,070 

1799 

6,610,449 

12,621,459 

1800 

'•SSS'S?! 

Hay  18-^spectal 

12,151,184 

1801 

10,750,778 

•  •*• 

12,945,466 

iBoa 

12,488,235 

15,.101,891 

18H8 

10,479,417 

11,064,097 

18(M 

11,098,666 

March   26— special; 

March  27— special. 

11,863,840 

1805 

12,l>«6,487 

18,689,608 

IBM 

1'  ^T,«9? 

.... 

15,608,828 

1807 

16,846,621 

.... 

16,898,019 

1808 

n,863,66( 

•  ■■ . 

17,032,644 

1809 

7,296,020 

.... 

7,778,478 

1810 

8,588,809 

12,144,206 

1811 

18,818,222 

14,481,8881 

1812 

8,958,777 

July  1— special 

22,639,088 

1818 

^i^^ 

July  29— special 

40,624.844 

1814 

5,998,772 

84,569.586 

1815 

7,282,942 

60,961,287 

181« 

«fl.«n6,874 

February  5— special  i 
April  27— general . 

67,171,421 

181T 

26,2S»,S48 

.... 

)|.'!,S'W,592 

1818 

17,170,886 

April  20— special.... 
March  8— special.... 

21,693,9S6 

1819 

20,288,608 

24,606,666 

1820 

15,005,612 

> ..  * 

20.'  SI  498 

1821 

13,004,447 

.... 

19,578,708 

iB-.-a 

17,689,761 

2fl,'.:82,427 

1828 

19,088,483 

20,540,666 

1834 

17,878,825 

May  22— general.... 

24,881,212 

1825 

20,098,718 

20,840,868 

1826 

28,841  ,S!!1 

2.\260,484 

1827 

l»,712,2-« 

22,966.808 

1823 

28,205,523 

May     19— general; 

May24-Bpeclal... 

£4,768,629 

1829 

22,«81,965 

24,827,027 

1880 

21,922,89) 

May    20  —  special ; 

24.844,110 

1881 

24,224,441 

.... 

28,626,820 

1832 

28,465,287 

July     18  —  special ; 

July  14— general . . 
Mar.  2— special;  Mar. 

81,866,561 

163S 

29,082,608 

2 — compromlso  . . . 

88,948,426 

1884 

16,214,967 

.... 

21,791,986 

1886 

19,891,810 

8,M30,(I87 

1886 

28,409,940 

.  50,'<26,796 

1887 

11,169,290 

.... 

27,8-*858 

1888 

16,158,800 

89.019,882 

1889 

28,187,924 

118,881,242 

1840 

18,499,602 

.... 

2.%n82,198 

1841 

14.487,216 

8cpt  11— general... 

80,519,477 

1842 

16,187,908 

Aug.  80— general... 

84.773,744 

Juno  8u,'43 

7,046,848 

20,7^2,410 

1S48— 14 

2,1,188,670 

.... 

81,19.S,.W 

1844— » 

87,62^.112 

.... 

211,941.858 

1815-46 

26,712  687 

29,699.967 

](M6— 47 

88,747,864 

JHly80,184(^-general 

65,38S,168 

1847—48 

81,757,070 

Mar.  !9, 1848- Bpecl.il 

66,ii92,479 

1848—49 

28,346,788 

Ang.l«,1848-Bpeclal; 
J*n.26,lM9— spec. 

69.706,892 

lh>j— 60 

80,668,686 

47,649,888 

1850-51 

49,017,667 

.... 

62,762,704 

1851—52 

47,889,826 

.... 

49.898,115 

186»-S8 

68,981,8661 

* ... 

61,500,102 

1858-54 

64,224,190 

.... 

■•8.802,891 

18»4— » 

58,026,794 

.... 

65,861,874 

1865-56 
ToUI. 

64.022,868 
|l,82t,181,69i 

78,918,141 

|1,8»,9!17,256 

Tlie  value  of  the  specie  dollar  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way having  been  flxcd  by  an  act  of  Congress  of  the 
22d  May,  184B,  at  100  cents  United  States'  currency, 
and  the  rix  dollar  banco  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  being 
a  component  part  of  their  specie  dollar,  and  in  the  in- 
variable proportion  of  2}  to  1 ,  and  consequently  equal 
to  89}  cents  United  States'  cjrrency ;  the  rix  dollar 
banco  of  bvedcn  and  Norway  is  therefore  taken,  in 
computations  at  the  custom-houses,  at  the  rate  of  392 


til 

b[ 
n| 

"i 

r| 

cif 
tq 


ctrs 


S05 


CUT 


MBts,  United  States'  earreney,  and  no  oenaokr  cer- 
tificate will  be  required,  uolesa  the  currency  should  be 
depreciated.  All  former  acts  authorizing  the  currency 
of  foreign  gold  or  silver  coins,  and  declaring  the  same 
a  legal  tender  in  payment  of  debts,  are  hereby  re- 
pealed ;  but  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  director  of  the 
mint  to  cause  assays  to  be  made,  from  time  to  time,  of 
such  foreign  coins  as  may  be  known  to  our  commerce, 
to  determine  their  average  weight,  fineness,  and  value, 
and  to  embrace  in  his  annual  report  a  statement  of  '''^e 
results  therefor. 

The  certificate  of  the  United  States'  consul,  showing 
the  value  of  the  currency  of  the  country  from  which 
the  merchandise  is  imported,  and  in  which  the  invoice 
is  made  out,  in  United  States'  or  Spanish  silver  dollars, 
must  he  required  in  every  case  in  which  the  value  of 
such  foreign  currency  is  not  fixed  by  t):  e  laws  of  the 
United  States.  And  in  case  the  foreign  currency  in 
which  the  invoice  is  made  out,  whether  its  value  is 
fixed  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  or  not,  Is  de- 
preciated, the  certificate  of  the  United  States'  consul, 
stating  the  rate  of  depreciation,  must  be  produced  on 
the  entry,  and  the  ofiicers  of  the  cu&iioms  are  governed 
by  such  certificate  in  computing  the  foreign  market 
value  of  the  merchandise. 

Cuttonu  Duties  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
tnxes  levied  upon  goods,  and  produce  brought  for  con- 
sumption from  foreign  countries ;  such  duties  are  some- 
times collected  upon  exports  made  to  foreign  countries, 
and  upon  goods  and  produce  passing  from  one  port  to 
another  in  the  same  countr}'. 

The  earliest  statute  passed  in  England,  whereby 
the  crown  was  authorized  to  levy  customs  duties,  was 
the  3d  of  Edward  I.  The  mode  long  employed  in  tlie 
collection  of  tliese  duties,  was  to  aflix  a  certain  rate  or 
value  upon  each  kind  or  article  of  merchandise,  and  to 
grant  what  was  called  a  snhsidy  upon  these  rates.  This 
subsidy  was  generally  1  shilling  of  duty  for  every  20 
shillings  of  value  assigned  in  the  book  of  rates.  The 
early  acts  which  grant  these  duties  speak  of  them  as 
sul)sidies  of  tonnage  and  poundage.  The  word  tonnage 
was  applied  to  a  specific  duty  charged  on  the  exporta- 
tion of  each  ton  of  beer ;  and  the  word  poundngo  was 
applied  to  other  articles  valued  as  alreiidy  explained. 

The  first  "  book  of  rates  ogreed  ujwn  liy  the  House 
of  Commons"  is  believed  to  be  thiit  compiled  by  a 
committee  in  1642,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and 
put)lished  under  the  authority  of  the  House  by  Law- 
rence Blacklock.  The  next  book  of  rates  of  which  we 
have  any  record,  was  puldished  by  order  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  1660,  the  year  of  the  restoration  of 
Charles  11.— Nat.  Cyclo.  See  Hdnt's  M.  M.,  v.  145 
(J.  BowBiNo),  vi.  9  (C.  Raouet),  ix.  4^18  (C.  C. 
■\\'mTTi.ESKT),  iv.  (G.  Tucker),  xiv.  456  (by  C.  C. 
Jkwktt).     See  also  Encyc.  Am.,  Art.  Tax'^a. 

Custom-house,  an  oflicn  established  by  law  in 
maritime  cities  or  seaports,  for  the  receipt  and  man- 
agement of  the  customs  and  duties  imposed  on  goods 
imported  or  exported. 

Customs  of  Merchants.  The  law  merchant 
is  a  peculiar  system  which  prevailed  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  times ;  it  was  especially 
recognized  in  the  time  of  Edward  III. ;  when  the  sta- 
ple was  ordained,  a  mayor  was  to  be  cliosen  in  each 
town,  skilled  in  the  law  merchant  to  do  right  to  every 
man  accordiug  to  tiiat  law.  The  modem  law  mer- 
chant is  composed  of  three  distinct  elements,  viz.,  the 
mstoms  of  merchants,  the  ordinances  of  foreign  states, 
and  tile  statute  law — as  art  precedes  science,  so  cus- 
toms precede  law.  Long  are  these  customs  practiced 
before  they  are  committed  to  writing.  Hut  though 
not  written  or  declared  by  the  legislative  power,  they 
acquire  all  the  authority  cf  law,  and  are  gradually  en- 
grafted ii|)on  the  common  law  of  the  country.  The 
customs  of  merchants  arc  part  of  the  law.  Judicial  di- 
tcrmiuuttons  settle  what  is  the  custom  of  incrchiints, 
•nd  thev  become  the  Itx  mtrcnloria  as  to  the  ditferent 


qnesttona.  In  order  that  a  cnstom  be  binding,  it  nniat 
be  either  the  usage  of  the  whole  mercantile  world,  or  of 
a  particular  trade  universally  known  as  such.  A 
usage  of  a  particular  place,  or  of  a  particular  class  of  peN 
sons,  would  not  b«  binding  on  other  persons  unless  these 
were  acquainted  with  those  usages  and  adopted  them. 
In  all  cases,  however,  no  custom  can  be  set  against  an 
express  statute  law.  Among  the  most  important  cus- 
toms among  merchants  are  the  establishment  of  boards 
of  trade,  the  settlement  of  disputes  by  arlritrations, 
and  the  binding  force  of  the  decision  of  a  referee.  See 
Levi's  Manual  ofMeramtile  Law, 

Cutlass,  a  short  sword  used  by  seamen.  The  art 
of  fencing  with  it  is  different  from  that  with  the  small 
sword  or  broad  sword.  A  guard  over  the  hand  is  an 
advantage.  It  is,  if  well  understood,  a  very  effectual 
weapon  in  closu  contest ;  on  account  of  its  shortness, 
it  can  be  handled  easily,  and  yet  it  is  long  enough  to 
protect  a  skillful  swordsman. 

Cutlery  (Fr.  coutdlerie;  Lat.  ctdter,  a  knife), 
generally  speaking,  includes  all  cutting  tools  made  of 
steel.  Various  co.intrics  and  cities  have  at  diflTerent 
periods  excelled  in  the  manufacture  of  some  particular 
article,  as  Damascus  for  a  beautiful  sword  blade,  which 
has  hitherto  baflled  all  attempts  at  imitation.  If  this 
blade  is  made,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  by  welding 
together  extremely  fine  wires  of  iron,  steol,  and  gold, 
laid  alternately  on  each  other,  the  dexterity  required 
is  such  as  must  astonish  the  most  active  and  expe- 
rienced workmen  of  other  countries.  The  peculiar 
wave,  usually  called  the  water,  so  universally  ad- 
mired, is  effected  by  the  application  of  a  weak  acid  to 
the  polished  surface  of  iron  and  steel.  At  Damascus, 
sulphate  of  olumtne  is  used ;  but  any  dilute  acid  seems 
to  answer  the  purpose.  The  cutlery  of  England  is  de- 
servedly held  in  high  estimation  in  every  part  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  finer  articles,  as  razors,  pen- 
knives, scissors,  and  surgical  instruments,  are  made  of 
cast  steel,  that  is,  steel  purified  and  equalized  by 
fusion.  Dexterity  and  nice  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  workman  to  a  variety  of  circumstances,  as  the 
quality  of  the  tteel,  nature  of  the  fuel,  accuracy  in  the 
process  of  hardening  and  tempering,  and  many  other 
minor  considerations,  are  essential  to  the  production 
of  a  good  cutting  instrument.  For  table-knives,  and 
all  cutler}'  of  that  description,  shear-steel  is  generally 
used;  the  tang  and  shoulder  of  the  table  knifb  and 
fork  are  iron,  united  to  the  blade  by  welding.  The 
celebrated  Indian  steel  called  wootz  is  not  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  British  cutlery. 

The  prlnc  pal  seat  of  the  cutlery  trade  of  England 
ij  at  Sheftield,  where  all  kinds  of  table  cutlery,  razors, 
lienknives,  scissors,  sur,-  ons'  instruments,  and  every 
variety  of  cutting  instruments,  are  manufactured. 
There  are  also  some  small  manufactures  of  similar  ar- 
ticles in  London  j  but  much  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  cutlery  sold  as  London-made,  is  a'  tually  manufac- 
tured in  Shefflcld,  although  bearing  the  name  of  Lon- 
ion  manufacturers.  ShelHeld  cutlery  has  de8or\-edly 
obtained  a  liigh  degree  of  reputation  in  almost  every 
pai  of  the  civilized  world ;  and  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  commerciiil  interests  of  the  country 
thiit  this  higli  character  should  be  maintiiincil.  But 
I.-^re  it  must  not  be  omitted  to  be  mentioned,  that  there 
is  also  an  extensive  manufacture  of  an  inferior  descrip- 
tion of  cutlerj-,  principally  consisting  of  table  knivos 
and  forks,  scissors,  and  pocket-knives,  which  nro  pro- 
fessedly Made  for  export  to  the  less  civilized  )>ortion8 
of  the  globe,  but  also  retaileJ  in  large  quantities  in 
this  country.  It  is  msnufactured  by  casting  from  a 
species  of  pig-iron.  This  iron  is,  from  the  superabun- 
dance of  its  carbon,  highly  susceptible  nf  liciuidlty, 
and  readily  c  sts  into  the  required  form.  In  this 
state  the  cast-iron  cutlery  is  extremely  hard,  and  as 
brittle  as  glass ;  lut  it  v  reilujcd  from  tids  hardness 
by  decomposition — bein;^  subjected  to  a  strong  and 
long-continued  fire  in  ul<>se  vessels,  in  contact  with 


CTJT 


006 


CUT 


Unn  ore,  oxyd  of  iron,  or  any  aubstance  containing 
oxygen,  vith  whicli  the  superabundant  carbon  com- 
bines, and  flies  off  in  tlie  state  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
This  cast-iron  cutlery  is,  when  iinished,  not  always 
distinguishable  in  appearance  from  that  made  at  the 
forge,  and  can,  of  course,  be  afforded  at  a  much  lower 
price.  This  very  fusible  iron  may  be  applied  to  many 
purposes.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  it  is 
quite  unfit  for  any  description  of  edge  instrument. 

These  observations  apply  generally  to  every  descrip- 
tion of  l(nife  used  in  surgery ;  but  the  nature  of  euch 
particular  operation  should  not  lie  considered,  in  judg- 
ing of  the  requisite  degree  of  strength  or  delicacy  of 
edge.  Next  in  importance  to  the  linives  are  the  saws 
used  in  surgerj'.  All  of  these  must  be  of  the  best 
spring  temper,  which,  for  the  cast-steel  blade,  is  about 
670°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  for  one  of  Indian  steel  000°, 
or  quite  the  boiling  point  of  mercurj'.  Of  another 
class  of  instruments,  namely,  those  denominated  blunt, 
it  will  be  sufUcient  to  observe,  that  what  is  icnown  by 
the  name  of  shear-steel  is  best  adajjted  for  the  purpose. 
Case-hardened  iron  has  been  most  improperly  used, 
this  hardening  being  very  superficial.  It  is,  in  fact, 
converting  tlie  surface  only  into  steel,  by  heating  it  to 
redness,  in  a  close  vessel,  in  contact  with  animal  char- 
coal, such  as  charred  bone,  leather,  or  liorn,  and  quench- 
ing it  when  red-liot  in  a  cold  fluid.  Iron  thus  treated, 
will  take  a  l>eantiful  polish ;  but,  except  fur  orna- 
mental purposes,  it  ought  never  to  be  employed. 
Some  invtruments  are  necessarily  nimle  of  gdid  or  sil- 
ver J  as  catheters,  and  other  tubes  aiul  probes.  When 
for  these  ductility  is  required,  the  inetuls  sliould  be 
unalloyed ;  the  extra  expense  of  which,  will  be  more 
than  compensated  by  the  convenience  of  giving  to  the 
instruments,  in  all  cases,  the  desired  curve  an(l  form. 
The  handles  of  instruments,  together  with  all  orna- 
mental parts,  must  in  li  grcit  measure  dei)end  on  tlie 
taste  and  choice  of  the  purchaser,  it  would  be  well, 
however,  to  avoid  such  niater'uls  as  are  liiiown  to  pro- 
duce chemical  action  when  in  contact  with  |iolislied 
steel.  Ivory,  motlicr-of-peurl,  and  ebony  are  much 
used ;  but  the  fine  walnut-tree,  such  as  the  London 
gunmakers  employ,  is  perhaps  of  all  the  woods  tiiu  best 
for  the  purimse.  .Sandal-w<iod  answers  very  well,  al- 
though it  by  no  means  deserves  all  the  credit  which 
has  been  given  to  it  as  a  preservative  of  Mteel  from  rust. 
The  instriunent-maker  who  wishes  to  excel  will  do  well 
to  avail  himself  of  every  opportunity  of  witnessing  the 
operative  pirt  of  surgery  ;  that  he  may  observe  how 
far  tlie  instrument  is  mechanically  and  physically 
adapted  to  its  purpose,  and,  if  ne  'essarv,  bo  the  better 
able  to  make  the  requisite  alteration. — I',.  I). 

The  value  of  hardwares  and  cutlery  exported  from 
Great  iJritjiin  in  IKJ't,  was  ;£'2,9fiO,391.  In  the  New 
Kngland  .States  the  manufacture  of  cutlery  is  rapidly 
increasing.  In  Massachusetts  about  $400,000  is  in- 
vested in  this  branch,  with  an  annual  product  of  alwut 
$600,000. 

Quietly,  but  rapidly,  wo  are  day  by  day  gaining  on 
the  old  world,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  it 
will  Ite  discovered  tliut  the  majority  of  our  manufac- 
tures are  actuallj-  superior  to  thoso  of  Kurope.  As  an 
illustration  of  this,  we  will  venture  to  assert  that  there 
are  very  few  persons,  not  concerned  in  the  liusiness, 
who  are  aware  of  the  degree  of  excellance  which  the 
manufacture  of  cutlery  has  attained  i.i  the  I'niced 
States,  or  that,  if  it  were  generally  known  and  en- 
couraged, we  shoulil  ill  all  probaliility  lie  entirely  self- 
dependent  us  logards  its  production.  On  tliis  subject, 
Fleischmann,  whose  work  on  the  "  llranches  of  Indus- 
try in  the  United  States"  has  contributed  more  than 
anyotliKi'  book  to  enlighten  Germany  as  to  our  country, 
remarks  as  follows : 

"  The  manufacturers  of  cutlers'  In  the  United  States 
have  fcr  surpassed  those  of  the  old  world  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tiHils,  and  that  not  merely  in  the  Hxcellencu 
of  the  metal  uited,  but  especially  in  the  practical  utility 


of  their  potttma,  and  In  the  remarkable  degree  of  finish 
of  their  work." 

It  ia  A  somewhat  remaricable  fact  that  American 
hardware  ia  every  '•  ;r  developing  in  its  shapes  a  prac- 
tical economy  of  nia^  jrial  and  a  straight-forward  adapt- 
ation to  the  end  in  view  which  ore  unknown  to  the 
greater  part  of  Kurop«.  The  American  laborer  or  me- 
chanic, it  is  well  known,  even  where  not  gifted  with  a 
greater  degree  of  physical  ability,  will  still,  as  a  rule, 
turn  out  more  work  in  a  day  than  a  foreigner  under 
tlie  same  circumstances.  With  such  men,  who  go 
directly  at  their  work  and  stick  to  it,  there  is  no  play 
and  no  trifling  with  labor,  A  result  of  this  is  shown 
in  the  fact  that  the  American  ax,  which,  in  its  well- 
known  form,  is  entirely  a  native  American  pattern,  is 
far  more  practically  useful  than  the  miserable  Euto- 
|iean  ax  which  it  has  supplanted.  And  not  in  axes 
alone,  but  in  many  other  implements  there  has  been  a 
marked  progress,  and  a  gradual,  thougi:  unnoticed, 
communication  of  practical  jiatterns  to  English  manu- 
factories. In  our  factories,  which  are  themselves  very 
(generally  proofs  of  the  same  principle  of  economy  and 
of  keeping  directly  at  tlie  object  proposed,  there  is  ac- 
tually more  of  the  first  quality  English  steel  used, 
than  in  England  itself.  Of  Hoop  L,  the  best  quality 
of  English  steel,  there  is  annually  ten  times  as  much 
used  as  in  England,  though  that  country  manufactures 
about  lifty  times  as  mucli  cutlery  us  we  do. 

Could  our  American  mechanics  receive  the  credit  so 
justly  their  due,  for  the  improvements  which  tlioy 
have  gradually  introduced  into  the  shape  of  carpentcn" 
tools,  and  could  the  world  be  made  aware  of  the  degree 
to  which  of  late  years  the  English  trade  has  been  in- 
debted to  them  for  these  improvements,  we  will  ven- 
ti're  to  state  tliat  there  are  few  who  would  not  be 
ania/.ed.  The  European — especially  the  continental — 
suffers  in  tliis  respect  under  a  tyranny  of  "old  cus- 
toms," wliich  no  Yankee  mechanic  would  believe.  If 
w(!  l<M)k  through  Paris,  if  we  examine  the  pattern- 
plates  published,  we  are  amazed  at  the  luxuriance  of 
beautiful  and  practical  forms  annually  produced,  which 
glitter  in  shop  windows,  or  are  displu}°ed  at  exhibi- 
tions, llut  go  into  the  country,  and  we  find  the  same 
clumsy,  unpractical  old  implements  wliich  were  used 
three  centuries  ago.     The  seed  falls  on  stony  ground. 

At  the  present  day,  American  cutlery  is  extensively 
i.uitated  in  (jermuny,  even  to  the  marks  and  names  of 
our  manufacturers.  This  is  also  dune  by  English 
goods,  but  the  complimentary  fraud  has  lieen  of  late 
years  greatly  on  the  increase  as  regards  our  own.  We 
will  not  assert  that  there  is  not,  especially  in  England, 
a  vast  anidiint  of  inventiveness,  nor  that  u  correspoud- 
iiig  degree  of  improvements  has  not  been  made.  Hut 
a  practical  invention  is  less  likely  to  die  in  the  liirth  in 
.\uieri<:a,  and  we  cimtidently  assert,  without  fear  of 
lefutation,  that  if  any  one  will  study  the  history  of 
cutlery  patterns  adopted  for  the  last  5U  years,  including 
ail  the  alliet'  branches  of  manufacture,  he  will  find 
that  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  practical  improve- 
ments have  been  of  American  origin. — Hunt's  ifcr- 
ihanta'  ilaguzine. 

Cutter.  A  vessel  with  one  mast  and  a  bowsprit,  of 
considerable  breadth  in  proiKirtiou  to  her  length.  T)io 
distinction  between  u  cutter  and  other  vessels  of  ono 
must,  which  are  called  sloops,  Is,  that  in  the  cutter  the 
jib  has  no  stay  to  supfiort  it. 

Cutters,  Revenue.  These  vessels  are  usually 
aliout  100  or  1.50  tuns,  built  as  fust  sailers,  to  aid  the 
revenue  ofliccrs.  The  captains  and  lieutenants  of  reve- 
nue cutters  uf  the  Unit.'d  States,  are  a]ipoiiited  by  the 
I'resi.lent.  Their  reports  are  ni'de  t.  Hie  Treasin-y 
Department ;  the  vessels  suliject  to  the  direction  uf  tho 
collector  of  the  port.  Their  officers  and  seamen  aru 
placed  ujion  the  navy  pension  list,  when  disa'j'ed.  Con- 
gress has  recently  authorized  the  construction  or  pur- 
chase of  steam  revenue  cutters,  which  will  furnish 
material  aid  to  the  guverumeut  oQicera  in  extraordi- 
nary caaea, 


CYP 


507 


CYP 


Cyolopasdia.  (Mora  commonly  Encyclopedia, 
from  the  Greek  words  h  KiK^u  m'udeia ;  itutructiont 
.»  0  circle.')  A  work  containing  definitians  or  accounts 
of  tlio  principal  Hubjects  in  one  or  all  depurtmenta  of 
learning,  art,  or  science.  Its  arrangement  may  lie 
eitlier  according  to  divisions  into  the  various  sciences, 
etc.,  or  tlie  subjects  may  be  arranged  and  treated  in 
alpliabetical  order.  The  Encyclopidie  Franfoite,  or 
Diclionnaire  Encyclopidique,  and  the  Encyclopadia  liriU 
annlca,  have  been  the  most  celebrated  works  of  this 
species ;  but  the  earliest  appears  to  be  the  Lexicon 
Technicum  uf  Harris,  pul>lished  in  1706.  The  great 
French  work,  the  Encyclop4Jie  Methoilique,  consists,  not 
of  one,  but  of  a  series  of  encyclopedias  or  dictionaries. 

Cypress,  a  forest  tree,  of  whicti  there  are  many 
varieties,  the  species  denominated  the  evergreen  cy- 
press (Ciipreuua  tevtpervirent)  and  tho  white  cedar 
(fiupressus  Thyoides)  l)eing  the  most  celebrated.  The 
cypress  is  iudigenous  to  the  soutliem  parts  of  Europe, 
to  several  parts  of  Asia,  and  to  America.  It  grows  tu 
a  greut  size,  and  is  a  most  valuable  species  uf  timber. 
It  is  never  attacked  by  worms  ;  .ind  exceeds  uU  other 
trees,  even  the  cedar,  in  durability.  Hence  the  Athe- 
nians, when  desirous  to  preserve  the  remains  of  tlieir 
Iierocs  and  otlier  great  men,  had  them  inclosed  iu  cy- 
press coffins ;  and  lience,  also,  the  external  covering 
of  tlio  Egyptian  mummies  is  made  of  tlie  samo  endur- 
ing muteriiil.  The  cypress  is  said  to  live  to  a  great 
age  :  and  this  circumstance,  combined  with  its  thick, 
dark,  green  foliage,  has  made  it  bo  regarded  as  the 
emiilem  of  death  and  tho  grave.  In  his  Geography 
and  History  nf  the  Western  Utates,  Mr.  Timothy  Flint 
has  given  tlie  following  account  of  the  cypress-trees 
found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  vuUe}-  of  the  Missis- 
sippi :  "These  nolde  trees  roar  tlieir  straight  colunms 
from  a  largo  cone-shiipcil  buttress",  whose  circumfer- 
ence ut  the  ground  is  pcrliaps  3  tiniis  that  of  tlie  regu- 
lar shaft  of  the  tree.  This  cone  rises  from  G  to  10  feet, 
with  a  regulai  and  sliurp  taper,  and  from  the  ape.x  of 
the  cone  towers  the  perpendicular  column,  with  little 
taper  after  it  has  left  tho  cone,  from  00  to  80  feet,  clear 
shaft.  Very  near  the  top  it  begins  to  throw  out  mul- 
titudes of  horizontal  l)ranches,  which  interlace  with 
those  (if  the  adjoining  trees,  and,  when  bare  of  leaves, 
have  an  air  of  desolation  and  dciitli,  more  easily  felt 
than  doscrlbed.  In  the  seaaoii  of  veg'tation  tiie  leaves 
are  short,  flue,  and  of  a  verdure  so  deep  as  almo  t  to 
Bf  cm  lirown,  giving  an  indescribable  air  of  fiincroal  so- 
lemnity to  this  singular  tree.  A  cypress  forest,  wlii'ii 
viewed  from  the  adjacent  lillls,  with  its  numberless  in- 
terlaced arms  covered  with  tliis  dark-brown  foliage, 
has  the  aspect  of  a  scaffolding  of  verdure  in  tho  air. 
It  grows,  too,  in  deep  and  sickly  swamps,  the  haunts 
of  fever,  musciuitoen,  moccasin  snakes,  alligators,  and 
all  Iciatlisonie  and  ferocious  animals,  that  congre- 
gate far  from  tho  abodes  of  man,  and  seem  to  make 
common  cause  with  nature  against  him.  The  cy- 
press loves  tho  deepest,  most  gloomy,  inaccessible 
swamps ;  and  south  of  33°  is  generally  found  covered 
with  sable  fc  toons  of  long  moss,  hanging,  like  shrouds 
of  mourning  wreatiis,  almost  to  the  grimud.  It  seems 
to  flourisli  best  when  water  covers  its  roots  for  half  the 
year.  Unpromising  as  are  the  places  and  circum- 
stances of  its  growtli,  no  tree  of  tho  country  where  it 
is  found  is  so  extensively  useful.  It  is  free  from 
knots,  it  is  easily  wrougl.t,  and  makes  excellent  plauks, 
tbingies,  and  tim'ier  of  all  sorts.  It  is  very  durable, 
and  incomparably  th-j  most  valuable  tree  in  the  south- 
ern country  of  tills  valley,"  Of  whatever  materials 
the  building  is  constructed,  the  roof  is  universally  cov- 
ered with  cypress  shingles,  which,  if  made  of  trees 
felled  in  tho  winter,  last  forty  years.  Cypress  boards 
are  preferred  to  those  of  pine  for  the  inside  i>f  iiriek 
houses,  and  for  window-aaslics,  and  tho  panels  of  doors 
exposed  to  tlio  weather ;  cabinet-makers  also  choose  it 


for  the  inside  of  mahogany  furniture.  It  is  highly 
proper  for  tlie  masts  and  sides  of  vessels,  and  wherever 
it  grows  it  is  chosen  for  canoes,  which  are  fashioned 
from  a  singlo  trunk,  and  are  often  80  feet  long  and  6 
feet  wide,  light,  solid,  and  more  durable  than  those  of 
any  other  tree.  It  makes  the  beat  pipes  to  convey 
water  under  the  ground ;  especially  the  black  variety, 
which  is  more  resinous  and  solid. — ^Browne's  Tr  e» 
of  America, 

Cyprus  (Kybris),  an  island  in  the  X.  E,  corner  of 
the  Levant,  lying  at  about  equal  distances  from  the 
shores  of  Cilicia  and  Phoenicia.  Its  extreme  length 
from  the  promontory  of  Dinaretum  to  that  of  Acamas 
is  about  140  miles ;  its  exti  erne  breadth,  from  the 
promontory  of  Crommyon  to  that  of  Curias,  about  70 
miles.  The  area  is  roughly  estimated  at  about  4,500 
English  square  miles.  The  greater  |uirt  of  the  island 
is  occupied  by  the  central  ridge  and  spurs  of  the 
Stavro-Vuno  and  Santo  Croce  mountains  (the  ancient 
Olympus).  Jlie  loftiest  peaks  of  this  range  attain  a 
height  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Tlio 
northern  slopes  are  rocky  and  bare,  but  on  the  side  of 
the  south  they  are  well  wooded  and  highly  picturesque, 
and  inclose,  in  various  parts  of  their  course,  valleys 
of  unrivaled  fertility.  Considerable  part  of  the  wealth 
of  ancient  (^lyprus  arose  from  its  copper  mines,  the 
most  iin)>ortunt  of  which  were  those  of  Tamasus  in  the 
centre  of  the  island.  Soli  on  the  north  coast,  and  Aina- 
thus  and  Cyrium  on  the  south  coast.  In  these  mines 
gold  and  silver  were  also  found.  The  precious  stones 
cf  Cyprus  were  also  highly  valued.  The  chief  of 
these  were  the  emerald,  agate,  malacliito,  jasper,  opal, 
and  the  minerals  asbestos  and  rock  crystal. 

The  first  settlers  in  Cyprus  appear  to  have  been 
of  Phoenician  origin.  Under  Augustus  it  liecame  an 
in-perial  province,  and  was  governed  by  a  proconsul, 
with  a  staff  of  inferior  officers.  Before  the  close  of  the 
1st  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Jewish  popidation 
of  the  island  had  g'catly  increased,  and  in  the  reign  o{ 
Hadrian,  is  said  to  liave  risen  in  reliellion,  and  sluiu 
•J00,000  of  the  otlier  Inhaliitants.  In  the  7tli  century, 
Cyprus  fell  into  the  hands  of  tlie  Saracen^ ;  and  in  the 
9th,  it  owned  the  supremacy  of  tlie  "g'l.jd"  Huroun 
Al  Raschid.  At  the  (lose  of  the  12th  century,  it  was 
conquered  h)  Kiclmrii  Cuiur  de  i.ioii,  who  made  it  over 
first  to  the  Knights  of  the  Temple,  and  'iltimatoly  to 
Guy  of  Lusignan,  titular  king  of  Jerusalem.  For  three 
centuries  tho  islami  remained  ;i  tlu  family  of  I.usi^'- 
imn,  till  in  147'j,  it  became  an  appeiid«;^e  of  the  Vene- 
tian ri  public.  Cyprus  was  ri tiined  by  the  Venetians 
till  In  i.J71  it  was  overrun  by  an  army  of  Turkisli  in- 
vaders, wlio  still nc'd  Lelkosia  and  Fumagosta,  and 
made  n  general  mass;,  .e  of  the  inhabitants.  Sirco 
that  data  the  islan  1  has  remained  in  possession  of 
the  Turks,  and  now  forms  a  pa.',halic  In  the  Ey.ilet  of 
Djizairs,  Under  tl)o  Turkish  rule  the  material  pros- 
pcrity  of  Cyprus  ha.*  greatly  declim;'  In  the  times 
of  the  Venetian  supremacy,  tlie  island  maintained  a 
population  of  1,000,0/0  ;  its  present  popiilafi'/n  is  only 
aliout  loU,000,  of  whom  tho  great  majority  ire  Greeks. 
Slany  parts  of  the  island,  formerly  healthy  and  fertile, 
aro  iiow,  from  malaria  and  other  causes,  barren  and 
uninliubitablc.  Its  trade  was  at  one  time  valualile 
and  important ;  now  the  value  of  its  annual  imports 
does  not  exceed  £20,000  •  of  its  exports,  about  jEOi),- 
000.  Besides  corn,  of  which  it  produces  about  120,000 
quarters  annually,  Cyprus  yields  in  considerable  qunn- 
titles  cotton,  wine,  various  kinds  of  fruit,  opium,  uud 
madder  j  while  the  mountain  districts  furnish  olives, 
pines,  and  iiauy  species  of  voluablo  timber.  On 
the  island  are  found  great  quantitiej  of  the  ferula 
i/n-rii,  which  the  Cypriote  applies  to  a  gro.it  variety 
of  domestic  ,nirposcs.  This  is  the  plant  whose  usei 
are  feigned  l>y  the  poets  to  have  been  taught  tu  muN 
tola  of  old  by  Prometheua. 


DAG 


508 


DAI 


_..  I'f^i 


n-:.»H. 


D. 


Dacca,  th«  capital  of  an  extensive  and  rich  district 
In  tlie  eastern  quarter  of  the  province  of  Bengal,  a 
large  city,  and  for  80  years  the  capital  of  Bengal,  of 
which  it  is  atiU  the  tliird  city  in  point  of  extent  and  pu)/- 
nlatiun.  It  is  situated  beyond  the  principal  stream  uf 
the  Oanges,  on  thu  northern  bank  of  a  verj'  large 
branch  of  that  river,  called  the  Boor  Ounga,  or  old 
Ganges,  at  the  JUstance  of  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges.  Its  position  i!<  admirably  well 
adapted  for  inland  trade,  as  the  river  which  flows  past 
-t  con.municates  with  all  ths  other  inland  navigations 
by  a  direct  course.  The  present  town  covers  a  great 
den'  of  ground,  ex.>:(:nding  four  miles  alon;;  the  bank 
of  the  r,X':i;  though  it  is  not  of  proportional  hreadtli. 
The  h'  'II  es  of  the  wealthy  are  built  of  l)rick,  but  there 
are  ui.;ny  thatched  houses,  with  verj-  narrow  and 
crooked  sUoets ;  the  bazaars  ace  only  tiled  or  thatched ; 
and  Rf  ovary  vacant  spot  Is  cocered  with  trees,  tlie 
town  l.xiiis  from  a  distance  like  a  grove.  Owing  to 
the  efl'jrts  iif  Hrit  sh  competition,  the  manufactures  of 
Dn.  ca  are  at  this  time  scarcely  deserving  of  notice  ; 
but  here  were  furmerly  manufactured  the  most  l)cau- 
tiful  muslins,  which  were  exported  to  all  quarters  of 
the  wo.ld,  and  which  had  long  been  famed  for  their 
delicacy  and  Iwauty,  The  spinning  of  the  thread  was 
cariied  on  witli  wonderful  nicety.  The  operation  was 
performed  with  tlie  (inpers  on  a  fine  steel  spindle  by 
young  women,  who  could  only  work  during  the  early 
part  of  the  morning  while  the  dew  was  on  the  ground  ; 
for  such  was  the  extreme  tenuity  of  the  fibre  that  it 
would  not  licar  manipulation  after  the  sun  had  riien. 
Suih  was  the  skill  of  the  darners  that  they  could  re- 
move an  entire  thread  from  n  pi(^o  of  muslin,  and 
replace  it  by  one  of  «  liner  texture.  Frorii  their  won- 
derful fineness  these  muslins  were  called  .Vbrawan,  or 
"  fluwing  water,"  and  Shabnam,  "  evening  dew." — 

E.  n. 

Dag;uen'eotype.  The  name  given  to  a  process  in- 
vented by  M.  Diigiierre  of  I'ari?,  in  IM.Iil,  l>y  which  per- 
fect fac-simllcs  of  objects  are  tranKferred  upon  thin  cop- 
flcr  plates  v'lth  phited  silver.  The  Images  ire  produced 
ly  1115  action  of  light  upon  the  loiline.  through  the  focus 
of  the  camera  obscnro.  An  apparatus  somewhat  kin- 
dred in  deiign,  was  In  untriniihition  about  the  snnic 
time  by  M.  Niepci5,  and  about  live  i  curs  previously  by 
Henry  Kox  Talliot  of  London  ;  the  original  idea,  how- 
ever, Is  truceable  as  fir  buck  as  the  days  of  Koger  Ba- 
con. Ilj-  means  of  the  Tiilbotype,  a  recent  improve- 
ment u|Hin  the  above  process,  pictures  in  colon  are 
produce;!  both  on  pnpet  and  plates.  He  important  a 
discovery  in  the  fine  arts  was  the  daguerreotype 
deemed  by  the  French  government,  that  it  awarded  to 
its  inventot  a  life  pension  of  (JOW  francs.— Haydn. 
See  Silmman's  Jinrnal  nf  Sriinr.e,  xxxvii.,  p.  ()9  ; 
xl..  p.  137;  xliil..  p.  18.i  ;  Fimifln  Qimiirrh/  It'i-., 
xxiii.,  p.  '-'18  i    WiHlmitulir  Rpt:,  x'x.tlv.,  p.  4.14. 

In  1802  Mr.  Thomas  Wedgewcwd  and  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  succeeded  in  forming  pictures  of  objects  laid  on 
pajier  prep.ired  «ith  nitrate  of  silver,  and  In  taking 
profiles  (silhouettes)  by  iiican.'i  of  shadows.  They  pro- 
posed to  obtain  siiuilar  effects  by  means  of  the  cairtern 
obscura,  but  their  paper  was  not  sufficiently  sensitive. 
The  eflTectual  bar  to  their  proceedings  was,  however, 
this :  that  they  could  dlsi'over  no  means  o{  firing  lln 
iku'l'icH  which  they  iiad  obtained,  or  preventing  the 
wlioln  surface  of  the  paiicr  fnim  being  gradually  black- 
ened l)y  exposure  to  light. 

In  l<tll  .1.  NiCEPKoni;  Niei'ce,  a  retired  proprietor 
at  Chalons  sur  Saone,  entered  into  a  similar  inquiry, 
but  by  methods  quite  diflVrent.  He  employed  the 
.solar  elfert  uixm  resinous  iKidies,  and  some,  at  least, 
of  bis  pictures  were  executed  upon  plates  of  pewter  or 


of  rotted  silver.  Thoy  were  mo»t!y  eople<<  o'  engrav- 
ings and  the  light  part*  eorrenpimded  to  the  lights  of 
the  origlmls.  He,  haw«!Vtir,  M  length  succeeded  in 
flxinK  linpreMliifiii  of  ylnwn  (H  Blin  camera  ol.-i urn, 
though  ill  an  imperfect  tnanner,  mnt  after  vep'  long 
exposure.  The  pietiiren  thtin  oh(,iiln#rt  had  this  in 
common  with  more  Iwrfeet  \mnv»%m,  that  the  liimln- 
oas  impression  wan  Itr't  br"ll((lit  Into  view  In-  a  chemi- 
e»l  process  (i«'M«;Mf»M<)  I' K|K)(iHr«  In  the  cnninra.  Ii> 
1825  Nlcephore  NI«|H!«  I  "CLtiiM  miiioeliited  with  l>a- 
guerre,  who  hud  prHvloimiv  liedu  (mgaged  in  tl'ii  same 
research ;  they  agreed  to  eomtniinicitte  the  results  of 
their  several  experlmontn.  Tlin  ritsltlt,  ns  Is  well 
known,  was  tha  liivenlliiM  nf  the  OAniir.nur.n'rTrfl, 
not  improperly  ciillsit  rt'ler  iMgtierre,  who  seems 
really  to  have  worked  It  nut  almost  nntlrt'ly  for  him- 
self after  the  denth  of  Ntepfw  In  iH||l)|  while  so  pa- 
tient and  deterniineil  win*  llngiierrd  In  keeping  his 
secret  till  brought  to  pTfecHi  n,  that  he  did  not  even 
show  his  remits  iimIII  eafl>  III  IWIf,  when  the  numer- 
ous specimens  he  had  to  exhibit  rivaled  In  delicacy 
any  thing  that  the  art  hit*  »llien  prwluced.— ft'nc//,  Urit. 
Pre.  Dititrlaliim,  by  Vim\\¥,*. 

Dahlia.  TliU  Imitiltlful  llower  wan  Imported  fnmi 
China,  of  which  It  U  A  lliltlve,  early  In  the  present 
century,  and  uiniiteiira  In  Howefa  h  iv«  annually  laid 
out  hundieds  of  poitiiiU  Itl  I'liglniid,  nnd  thousands  of 
francs  In  I'ruiice,  In  the  purchase  of  It,  The  Swedish 
botanist,  I'roressor  Duhl,  llr>t  iiiltlvnted  and  made  It 
known.  It  siaiii  wttruefed  Notice  In  Kngliiiid,  where, 
from  the  beauty  of  It*  form  iitiil  vnHef.v  of  color,  it  be- 
came at  onca  un  Bspecliil  fuvorlte,  IH  iHlfi,  nlioiit  2 
months  after  the  battle  of  Wiilerloo,  It  was  Introduced 
into  I'mior,  and  the  celeliriited  Ihirlst,  >\ndre  Thoiiine, 
suggested  various  pnicHi'iil  Improvements  in  its  man- 
agenienl.  The  bolmil'it,  (leorgl,  Inlit  flioHly  before 
this  introduced  it  «t  Ht.  (•"Icfsbiirg  t  nnil  heme  it  Is, 
that  to  this  day  tlie  diililii  Is  known  tliroiighoiit  (icr- 
niiiny  iinilcr  the  naiiie  of  tlnii'ifhin, — llAtliji, 

Daliry.  Milk,  either  In  lt<  natural  state,  or  In  the 
form  of  butter  and  cheese,  Is  an  article  of  diet  so 
wholosoine  and  so  piil«tab|e|  tliiit  the  health  and  com- 
fort of  people,  eaiiecliilly  such  of  tiieni  ns  dwell  in 
cities,  deiK'nil  niiNli  upon  their  having  a  pure  and  plen- 
tiful supply  of  It  lit  nil  (teitiion*,  JtAitiir  XIanaok- 
MKNT,  which  liM  liidi'K  every  (hli'.g  about  the  jiroilio  tion 
and  tioat'iient  of  milk,  It  coriseqiiently  a  very  Import- 
ant branch  of  hiisbandn',  and  one  In  which  every 
body  feels  liiterented,  The  (ihyriij.it  conditions  of  the 
dilTerent  countries  of  th"  world  have  determined  In 
each  cu.se  the  partlciilur  iiillk-yleldliig  animal  tnort 
suitable  to  be  there  llKcd  for  dairy  purposes.  The 
Lapiander  obtiilfls  hi*  Kill/pile"  of  milk  florn  his  rein- 
deer, the  rovin;{  Tartar  fntm  his  (nafc«,  nnd  the  llo- 
doiiin  of  the  desert  from  Ills  c/i»iels,  In  the  teniperato 
regions  of  the  eurtll  llinfly  panioral  tribes  subsist 
mainly  upon  the  milk  of  their  sheep,  In  some  rocky 
regions  the  gost  U  liivninabin  for  this  purpose ;  and 
the  buffalo  Is  ei|iially  mi  ntiild  the  swamps  and  jiiiif^lcs 
of  tropical  cllmiites,  The  lllllklllg  of  eWes  was  ojico  a 
common  pruetleit  In  ((rent  flrltaln  j  but  It  has  fallen 
into  dlsiue  lieeaiiBO  of  l(s  lllirlflll  effects  upon  the  Hock. 
A  frw  mlh'h  man*  /ii|i|  goats  are  hejit  for  the  licneflt 
of  Inf.ints  or  !iival|i|»  i  but  with  them  exceptions  tho 
cow  l>  the  only  Milmal  now  used  for  dairy  purposes  in 
this  ( .iiuitry  and  K.iirojir, 

Butter  Is  made  eltliitr  ffoiii  efeaiii  only,  or  by  churn- 
ing the  whole  milk  ami  ereain  together,  The  best  but- 
ter Is  ohtiilned  from  the  cream  which  rises  during  tho 
first  12  hours  after  niHklng,  Kud  the  next  best  by 
churning  the  whole  mill*,  In  the  former  eisc  the  now 
milk,  after  beinif  u»rufiilly  strained,  la  poured  into 


56<: 


DAM 


609 


DAM 


ir  111  the 

llipt    BO 

inil  I'om- 
lw<ll  in 
inl  plrn- 

ANAdK- 

.liH  tiim 

iiiipDrt- 
fivnry 
of  ttio 

iliii'il  In 

ml   iiiiift 
'llio 

tils  roin- 
Itic  lle- 

•inpi'riito 
hhIhIsI 
<•  rocky 

ripp  ;  and 

M  IIIU'O  ft 

an  fallen 
thu  fluilt- 
I-  lionrfit 
[i(in»  tlio 
rjjnses  in 

ly  iliurn- 
jl'io'sttint- 
|irlni?  tliH 
ll(■^<t  l>y 

■  tlio  now 
iircil  into 


sIikIIow  vessols  of  glazed  earthenware,  glaM,  tinned 
iron,  wood,  lead,  or  zinc,  of  which  the  8  flrst-named 
torts  are  the  best.  The  wooden  vessels  are  objection- 
able from  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  them  thoroughly  ; 
and  the  last  two  from  Uie  noxious  salt  which  is  produced 
by  the  action  of  the  acid  of  the  milic  on  the  metal. 
When  it  is  intended  to  extract  as  nearly-  the  whole  of 
tiie  butter  from  the  millc  as  is  practicable,  the  1st 
skimming  takes  place  at  the  end  of  2d  hours,  and  is 
followed  up  by  on  j  or  more  skimmings  at  further  in- 
tervals. The  cream  is  stored  in  jars,  which  should  be 
kept  in  d  place  separate  irom  the  milk-room,  that  the 
milk  in  toe  coolers  may  not  be  prematurely  acidulated 
by  the  proximity  of  the  sour  cream.  The  latter  is 
either  stirred  repeatedly,  or  poured  from  one  vessel  to 
anoth'  ,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  tuugh  coat 
u^ion  It  bbrore  enough  is  accumulated  for  churning. 
In  lar^e  d.iiries  it  is  usual  to  chum  dally.  Three  days 
is  as  Ion);  as  the  cream  can  ordinarily  he  kept  with 
safety  to  the  quality  of  the  butter.  AVhen  a  cow  has 
recently  ciilved,  hci  milk  is  comparatively  rich  in  but- 
ter and  poor  in  curd  {  but  soon  the  relative  proportions 
of  tlicii'  rinstltuentu  change  placet,  the  cream  dimin- 
ish' 'le  milk  lieeon>ing  thicker.  A  very  sensi- 
bli*  n  tLe  ({Uiiliiy  (ilsu  usually  takej  place 
wi  again  liecomes  preirnant.  In  not  a  few 
cas  8  the  cream  is  so  affected  by  this  circumstance, 
f  doubiu  or  treble  the  'ength  of  time  is  required  to 
c.i  '  ".lat  sufficed  bu.,  re,  and  the  butter  ii,  at  tlie 
sawo  .  .lie  of  inferior  quality.  If  cowh  are  flurried  and 
heated,  cither  by  gadding  In  the  pasture,  or  liy  being 
overdriven  In  bringing  them  liome  fur  milking,  their 
milk  lieiunieij  peculiarly  liable  to  corrupt,  the  yield  of 
butter  in  scnsildy  lessened,  and  its  (|Uality  Is  impaired. 
The  siiicesH  of  tlie  process  of  churning  depends  much 
on  the  temperature  of  the  cream  being  nicely  regu- 
lated. A  mean  temperature  of  OO''  I'"iilir..ihelt  soeins 
to  be  the  best.  The  temperature  of  the  cream  usually 
rises  about  lO"^  during  the  process  of  churning.  A  bout 
60°  is  therefore  the  desirable  starting-piint.  Advan- 
tage U  derived  froi.i  rinsing  the  churn  with  cold  water 
in  summer  and  with  warm  water  in  winter.  The  od- 
ditlon  to  the  cream  of  small  qMuntitlcs  of  cold  or  hot 
water,  ns  the  ca.se  requires,  is  also  found  benoficial. 
Uo.t  or  barrel  rhums  tve  preferred  when  the  creiim 
only  Is  churned,  the  f  rmer  being  best  adapted  for 
small  dairies,  and  the  latter  for  large  ones, — E,  B, 
See  liiilter  mid  Cheese. 

Damaged  O-OOds,  In  the  language  of  the  customs, 
are  goods,  subject  to  duties,  that  have  received  some 
injury  either  in  the  voyage  homo  or  in  the  bonded 
warohou.fcs. 

Oomar,  a  kind  of  indurated  pitch,  or  turpentine, 
oxu'ling  spontaneously  from  various  trees  imllgenous 
to  most  of  the  Indian  islands.  DitTercnt  trees  produce 
diffore.it  species  of  resin,  which  are  designated  accord- 
ing to  their  color  and  cons'ctence.  "  One  is  called 
linm  -bi:  u  in  Malay,  or  Jl,im'  selo  in  .lavr.nese, 
wliich  means  liard  o'  stoney  rosin ;  and  another  in 
common  use,  Damcr-J'ulih,  or  white  rosin,  wliicli  is 
softer.  The  trees  which  produce  the  damar  yield  it  in 
amazing  qiiiintity,  and  generally  without  the  neces- 
sity of  mailing  incimons.  It  6.111110  through  the  bark  ; 
Bid  is  either  found  adhering  to  the  trunk  or  l>ranches 
in  Inrgi'  lumps,  or  In  musses  on  the  ground  under  the 
trees.  As  these  often  grow  near  the  seaside,  or  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  the  damar  is  frequently  floated  away, 
and  collected  in  distant  jileces  as  drift.  It  is  exported 
in  largo  quantities  to  Hengal  and  China;  anil  Is  used 
for  al)  the  purfiore.s  to  which  wo  apply  pitch,  but  prin- 
cipally in  paj'ing  the  liottoms  of  ships,  Uy  a  previous 
arra'igemeirt,  almost  any  quantity  may  bo  procured  at 
Borneo,  at  the  low  rate  of  ^  dollar  per  picul." — Ckaw- 
Foiii),  h'mt.  Archip.,  v.  i.,  p.  455,  v.  iii.,  p.  120. 

UamascUB.  This  city  was  in  being  in  the  time 
of  Abraham. — Giu.  xlv.  It  Is,  consequently,  one  of 
the  most  ancient  in  the  world.     From  the  Assyrians, 


Damascus  pasaed  to  the  Persians,  Md  from  thwa  to 
the  Greeks  under  Alexander;  and  afterward  to  th* 
Romans,  about  70  B,c,  It  was  taken  by  'Jie  Sa.ivceng 
A,n,  633 ;  by  the  Turks  in  lOOfi ;  and  wat,  destroyed 
by  Tamerlane  in  1400.  It  was  in  a  joomey  to  this 
place  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  mirrcidoualy  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  faith,  and  here  he  began  to 
preach  the  gospel,  about  a,d.  60,  Damascus  is  now 
the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pachalio, — Uay0V,  Damas- 
cus is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  trade  both  with  India 
and  with  Europe.  The  productions  of  IndU,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  spices,  cotton  manuibrtnres,  coarse  and 
fine  muslins,  and  gold  stuifs,  are  in  great  demand,  and 
bring  high  prices.  They  are  brought  from  India  by 
the  Perjion  Gulf,  Bassora,  Bagdad,  and  Aleppo,  The 
manuf'aetnres  of  England  aro  much  sought  after,  and 
!i«ld  in  very  high  esteem,  particularly  light  woolen 
cloths  of  gay  colors,  printed  cottons  and  chintzes,  and 
silk  and  v  <t-oii  shawls  made  in  imitation  of  those  of 
Cashmere ;  also  needles,  pins,  knives,  scissors,  and 
tine  Hardware,  as  well  as  china  and  earthenware, 
whether  English  or  Indian.  These  goods  being  gene- 
rally imported  through  Saida,  Beirdt,  and  Tripoli,  are 
sold  at  vei'y  high  prices.  Iron,  lead,  tin,  cochineal, 
sugar,  and  other  European  articles,  are  also  imported 
through  the  same  channel.  Wearing  apparel  for  fash- 
ionable persons  of  both  sexes  at  Damascus,  and  clothes 
that  have  been  worn,  are  brought  from  Constantino- 
ple .'  und  being  distributed  all  over  the  country,  are 
frecpie'itly  the  means  of  spreading  the  contagion  of 
the  plague.  Among  the  various  manufactures  to  be 
foiDid  In  the  bazaars  are  superb  caparisons  for  horses, 
of  which  tiic  Turks,  as  well  as  all  the  other  eastern 
nations,  are  extremely  fond.  These  are  made  li.  Eu- 
ropean Turkey  ;  and  a  number  of  fine  bridles,  martin- 
gales, and  silver  and  emiiossed  breast-pieces,  come 
:.ls)  from  Persia.  The  firearms  are  chiefly  of  French 
ami  German  manufuctur- .  being  prepared  in  an  orna- 
mental style  expressly  for  this  market.  The  sahre 
blades  are  alino.it  all  of  the  old  Persian  or  Damascus 
mitnufa'  tiire,  The  art  of  making  them,  however,  is 
no  'onger  known  or  piacticed  in  this  city ;  so  tliat 
thuy  grow  dally  more  valuable,  a^  no  mo'l  i/i  sword 
can  cuinparo  with  them  in  temper  and  quality.  The 
silk  seen  In  the  iia/.aars  of  Damuscus  is  principally  of 
Oliine^ie  and  Indian  manufacture  ;  the  furs  come  from 
Russia,  Georgia,  C'ircossia,  and  Armenia ;  the  velvet 
from  Italy ;  copper  from  Asia  ttinor ;  tlie  manufac- 
tures of  Britain  through  Smyrna ;  and  various  other 
artiiles  of  un  inf -rlor  kind  from  Gerniany  and  France. 
There  are  few  inuniifaitures  in  Damascus ;  and  these 
consist  chiefly  of  silk  stuffs,  plain,  colored,  and  em- 
bioidered  witli  gold  ;  f.ibrics  of  plain  cotton,  and  cot- 
ton and  silk  mixe.i,  all  fur  bomo  consumption,  and 
mostly  of  broad,  striped,  or  wavy  patterns,  for  the 
ctftans  of  the  Turkish  dress. 

Commerce,  as  in  all  other  places  in  the  East,  Is  car- 
rlad  on  by  means  of  caravana,  of  which  the  principal 
Is  that  which  goes  with  the  annual  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca.  It  is  conducted  by  tliu  pasha,  viio  receives 
the  standard  of  the  Prophet  from  the  governor  of  tlio 
castle,  and  gives  a  :  olemn  pledge  for  its  restoration, 
riiis  expedition  unites  commercial  with  nillglous  ob- 
jei'ts.  A  caravan  ajcompanlcd  by  a  numerous  train 
of  armed  incr'.  goes  thrice  a  year  to  Bagdad,  tha  jour- 
ney occupying  30  dcys ;  tliat  to  Aleppo  travels  twice 
or  thrico  a  month.  Besides  these,  many  other  cara- 
vans go  to  different  ports  of  Syria,  Damascus  lioiiig  a 
groat  rendezvous  and  emporium  of  trai^e.  Provisions 
and  fruits  of  ail  kinds  are  abundant ;  also  Ice  und 
snow,  tvliich  may  always  bo  obtained  from  the  neigh- 
boring iiiountuins.  Damascus  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  oldest  city  in  the  world,  its  history  remounting 
beyond  the  time  of  Abraham,  whose  steward  Ellczer 
was  a  naiivo  of  tills  iilaco.  A  great  era  in  its  his- 
tory is  its  conquest  by  tho  Saracens. — E,  B.  See  Am. 
Whig  liev.,  viA.  vili. 


DAM 


010 


DAN 


Dunaaoiu  Blade*  are  iworda  or  cimatcn,  pre- 
Mnting  upon  their  surface  a  variegated  appearance  of 
walering,  aa  white,  silvery,  or  blacic  veins,  ia  fine 
lines,  or  fillets  ;  fibrous,  crossed,  interlaced,  or  paral- 
lel, etc.  They  are  brought  from  the  East,  being  fab- 
ricated chiefly  at  Damascoa.  whence  their  name.  Their 
excellent  >{Uality  has  Iwcome  proverbial ;  for  which 
reason  these  blades  are  much  sought  after  by  military 
man,  and  are  high-priced.  The  oriental  processes 
have  ntjver  been  satisfactorily  described ;  but  of  late 
yearn  methods  have  been  devised  in  Europe  to  imitate 
the  fabric  very  well. 

Danuwk  (from  Damascus,  whence  first  brought), 
a  variegated  textile  fabric  of  silk,  richly  ornamented 
with  raised  patterns  representing  flowers,  fruits,  etc., 
woven  in  the  loom.  It  is  also  fabricated  in  woolen 
stuffs.  Woolen  damnslis  and  moreens  are  sold  in 
Englan'    it  '.)(V  to  Is.  6d.  per  yard. 

JMmu  ■!.-  Uk  iwise  denotes  a  Itind  of  wrought  linen, 
used  chiefly  f«r  table-cloths  and  napkins,  iind  so  called 
becaUF?  !t«  pattems  resemble  those  of  real  damask.  It 
waa  f.rst  DiP'i't  in  Handcrs,  but  it  is  now  wrought  ex- 
tun:i\'il  m  Britain,  particularly  at  Dunfermline  in 
Scotland,  and  also  nt  Lisbuni  and  Ardo}'ne  in  Ireland. 
'  •'  iW.oT  description  has  latterly  been  made  of  cotton. 

nth  Damasks. — As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
lust  centi-rv,  the  manufacture  of  linen  damasks  was 
introd'.K  '  Ireland  from  (lermany ;  and  there  still 

exist  ••|i.,^i.  .ns  woven  in  Ireland  130  years  ago. 
The  manufacture  has  gone  on  increasing  in  excellence, 
and  it  is  now  considered  that  the  liigli-class  Iriiih  dam- 
asks equal  any  from  any  other  country.  Almost  all 
are  used  'in  Great  Hritain,  and  the  Itetter  kinds  are  so 
costly  that  none  but  the  wealthy  can  purchase  them. 
Hand-loom  weaving  is  invarial)Iy  adopted  fur  the  Iwst 
damasks  ;  but  tlie  power-loom  is  now  beginning  to  Iw 
employed  for  the  cheaper  damasks  and  diapers ;  and 
it  is  lioi)cd  tliut  this  will  create  a  foreign  market  for 
them.  Tlie  .lacquard  loom  is  e~tensively  used  for  the 
richer  damasks,  for  which  its  wonderful  action  yapc- 
cially  adapts  it.  What  u  <iacquani  loom  is,  a  long  and 
wearisome  description  would  scarcely  make  intelligible; 
wliat  it  appears  like,  the  tboiisiinda  who  watched  the 
working  of  tliu  several  Jacquurd  looms  at  tite  great  ex- 
hlliition  may  perhaps  remember ;  what  it  does  i»  exem- 
plified by  specimens  of  pattern,  or  dumask,  or  figure 
weaving,  for  which  it  is  especi.iUy  adaptcil.  In  de- 
signing table-clotlia,  table  napkins,  and  d'oyleys,  for 
royal  personages,  city  companies,  club  houses,  and 
regimental  messei^,  the  damask  mnnufjcturers  of  Ire- 
land sometimes  display  ccnsideralilo  tn  te ;  and  this 
taste  afterward  reflects  some  of  its  light  ipon  the 
cheaper  and  ordinary  commercial  produrts.  It  is  yet 
a  disputed  point  among  porsoiis  cnisti>.'aliy  inclined, 
what  kind  of  ornamentation  is  best  fitted  for  colorless 
damasks ;  human  forr  a  and  features  are  selc'.om  dam- 
asked satisfactorily,  and  buildings  are  v  ar^-  tame  affairs 
when  so  depicted ;  at  present,  heraldic  emiilems  seem 
to  take  the  lead. 

Damask  is  also  applied  to  a  very  fine  steel,  prepared 
in  some  parts  of  the  Levant,  but  particularly  informer 
times  at  Damascus,  wheuue  its  name.  It  is  used  for 
sword  and  nitlabs  blades,  and  is  vet y  finely  tcnii>cred. 

Damaskeeniug,  or  Damasking,  the  art  of 
ornamenting  iron  or  steel,  by  making  incisions  on  its 
surface,  and  filling  them  up  with  some  other  met-ii, 
generally  gold  or  silver.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  ciirii''  - 
ing  sword  Idades,  guards,  locks  of  pistols,  etc.  There 
are  two  ways  of  damasking ;  the  one,  which  is  tlie 
finest,  is  when  the  metal  is  cut  deep  with  proper  in- 
struments, and  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver  A/ire  ;  " 
otlier  is  superficial  only.  This  art  is  of  great  antiquitj  , 
and  its  invintion  is  attributed  l>y  Ilcrodutus  (i.  2o)  ^.> 
Glaucus  (if  Chios,  who  lived  ii.o.  -I'JO.  It  would  ap- 
pear to  have  fl(>urished  at  some  period  in  Damascus, 
whence  the  name  is  generally  derived. — E.  1), 


Dama—ln.  A  species  of  woven  damask  wltli 
gold  and  silver  flowers. 

Dampier,  William,  an  English  navigator,  was 
bom  at  East  Coker,  Somersetshire,  about  1652.  Hav- 
ing early  become  an  orphan,  he  was  removed  from  the 
litttin  school,  and  placed  with  the  master  of  a  ship  at 
Weymouth,  In  this  ship  he  mode  a  voyage  to  New- 
foundland ;  but,  disgusted  at  the  cold  of  that  north- 
em  climate,  on  his  return  he  engaged  himself  as  a 
common  sailor  in  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies.  Hs 
next  served  in  the  Dutch  war  under  Sir  Edward 
Sprague,  and  was  present  at  two  engagements ;  but 
the  declining  state  of  bis  health  induced  him  to  come 
on  shore,  and  remove  to  the  country,  where  he  re- 
mained some  time.  In  the  year  following  he  ficcamg 
an  under-manager  of  a  Jamaica  estate ;  but  only  con- 
tinued a  short  time  in  this  situation.  He  afterward 
engaged  in  the  coasting-trade,  and  thus  acquired  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  all  the  ports  and  bays  of  that 
hiland.  Having  entered  on  board  a  vesnel  bound  for 
the  bay  of  Campeachy,  and  returning  n  second  time  to 
the  same  coast,  be  remained  with  the  logwood-cutters, 
and  engaged  himself  aa  a  common  workman.  During 
his  stay  in  that  countr}-  he  collected  the  materials  for 
the  minute  and  interesting  account  which  he  has  given 
of  the  laborious  life  of  these  people,  as  well  as  cf  tim 
geographical  description  and  the  natural  history  nf  the 
country.  It  appears  that  he  was  preparing  in  ITOS  for 
another  voyage.  It  is  mentioned  in  Woodks  Uoo- 
ERs'  Voyage  liotind  the  World,  that  Dampier  liad  the 
command  of  u  ship  in  the  South  Seas  about  tlie  year 
1705,  and  along  with  Captain  Stradling,  whose  vessel 
foundered  at  sea.  Dampier  accompanied  Woodes 
Rogers  in  his  voyage  round  the  world  in  tlie  years 
1708, 1709,  1710,  and  1711,  but  only  in  the  capacity  of 
pilot,  which  is  supiiosed  to  be  a  circumstance  due  to 
some  remissness  in  his  conduct.  During  this  expedi- 
tion Guayaquil  was  taken,  and  Dampier  had  the  com- 
mand of  the  artiiler}'.  Nothing  further  is  known  of 
the  life  of  Dampier ;  and  we  are  equally  ignorant  of 
the  place  and  time  of  his  death, — E.  B.  See  lletro- 
fpectivo  Reviev,  vol.  ix.,  p.  73,  for  an  account  of  the 
voyages  of  Dampier. 

DantziO  (in  German,  Damig),  the  principal  port 
and  commercial  city  of  Prussia  proper,  and  capital  of 
a  cugnominal  government,  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  about  4  miles  from  its  mouth.  N.  lut.  tyV'^ 
20'  i  E.  long.  IH'^  38'.  Po|)ulation  in  1849,  including 
military,  63,91 7 ;  of  whom  2,369  were  .Jews,  13,839 
Catholics,  and  47,7i3  Protestants.  Ramparts,  bas- 
tions, and  wet  ditclies,  which  have  been  vastly 
strengtiiencd  since  the  war,  and  gigantic  works  for 
laying  the  countrj'  underwater,  have  done  what  forti- 
fications can  to  make  Dantzic  impregnable.  I'lie  road 
or  bn3'  of  Dantziu  is  covered  on  the  west  side  tiy  a 
long,  narrow,  tow,  sandy  tongue  of  land,  extending 
from  Rescrhoft  Point  (on  which  is  a  light-house"),  in  lat. 
.W°  50|'i  long.  «°  23'  15",  upward  of  20  miles  in  an 
E.  by  S.  direction,  having  the  small  town  of  llcclu  or 
Heel,  near  its  termination.  A  light-house,  elevated 
12,^  feet  (English)  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  been 
erected  within  alwut  \  mile  of  the  extremity  of  this 
i>oiat.  The  flashes  of  the  light,  which  is  a  revolving 
one,  succeeil  each  other  every  \  minute.  Dantzic  lies 
about  8.  \  Vf.  from  the  Heel ;  its  port  being  distant 
about  f(.ur  'eagu.-^s.  There  is  good  anchorage  in  the  roads 
for  ships  of  any  burden ;  but  they  are  exposeil,  except 
ininiodlately  under  tlie  Heel,  \.o  the  north  and  nortli- 
easteriy  winds.  Tlicre  ar.-;  V.ar'ior-lights  at  too  en- 
trance to  the  port.  All  ships  entering  the  Vistula 
I  inuiit  heave-to  a'lout  a  mile  iff  the  poi-t,  and  tal:e  a 
!  ','ilot  on  l>oard  ;  and  jiilots  must  always  be  ompluyed  in 
I  moving  »liv|,*  in  tbo  harbor,  or  in  going  up  and  down 
I  the  river.  Tlie  usual  depth  of  water  at  the  mnuth  of 
the  river  is  from  12  to  lit  fi«t  ( English) ;  in  the  harbor, 
from  !3  to  14  feet  deep ;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
I  Motlau  with  the  Vistula,  from  9  to  9^  feet ;  and  in 


DAN 


fill 


DAN 


)iil  port 
pitnl  of 

of  tho 
5-1° 
icliulinR 

13,3119 

ustly 
jrks  for 
at  forti- 
he  road 
do  \>y  a 
.teiuiing 
I,  In  lut. 
>s  in  on 
Ii'clii  or 
•levated 
las  Ixsen 
of  thU 
ivolvini? 
itzic  lies 
distant 
he  roads 
I,  except 
id  niirtli- 
tuo  cn- 
Vistulu 
d  take  a 
iloyed  in 
nd  down 
iioutli  of 
B  harbor, 
le  of  the 
and  io 


toini,  from  8  to  9  feet.  Molea  have  been  erected  on 
lioth  tides  the  entrance  to  the  harbor;  that  ou  the 
eastern  aide,  which  ia  moat  expoaed,  is  constructed  of 
granite,  but  is  not  yet  completed ;  tho  other  la  partly 
of  Htone  and  partly  uf  timber. 

7V(«fc.— Next  to  Petersburg,  Dnntzic  is  the  most 
Important  commerviul  city  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It 
owes  its  distinction  in  thia  respect  to  Its  situation ;  the 
Vistuhi,  with  its  Important  tribntaries  tho  Bug,  Na- 
row,  etc.,  giving  it  the  command  of  a  great  internal 
nuvigatio.i,  and  rendering  it  tho  entrepSt  where  the  sur- 
plus products  of  West  I^ussia,  Poland  as  far  ns  Hun- 
gary, and  part  of  Lithuania,  are  exchanged  for  those 
imported  from  the  foreigner.  Tho  exporta  of  wheat 
from  Uautzic  ore  greater  than  from  any  other  port, 
Udesso  excepted.  There  are  four  sorts  of  wheat  dis- 
tinguished here ;  viz.,  nhite,  ki'gh^ied,  mixed,  and 
red,  according  ua  tlie  white  or  red  predominates.  The 
quality  of  Dantzlc  wheat  is  for  the  most  part  excel- 
lent ;  for,  tliough  small  in  the  berrj-,  and  not  so  heavy 
as  many  other  sorts,  it  is  remarkaldy  thin-slcinned, 
and  yields  tlie  tinest  flour.  The  white  Polish  wheat 
exported  here  is  the  best  in  tho  Baltic.  Rye  is  also 
verj-  superior,  being  both  clean  and  heavy ;  the  ox- 
ports  of  liarlcy  and  oats  are  comparatively  inconsider- 
able, and  tho  qualities  liut  indifferent.  Very  fine 
white  peas  are  exported.  Next  to  grain,  timber  is  tho 
most  important  article  of  export  from  Dantzic,  but 
latterly  the  supply  has  been  diminishing,  and  tho 
quality  is  soid  not  to  bo  so  good  as  formerly. — Meek: 
Tiie  principal  supply  of  fir  timber,  masts,  etc.,  is 
brought  by  the  river  Narew,  which,  with  its  branches, 
rises  in  old  Prussia  and  Lithuania,  and  falls  into  the 
Hug  near  tho  confluence  of  the  latter  with  the  Vistula. 
Ojk  planks,  staves,  etc.,  aro  brought  down  from  the 
higher  parts  of  the  Vistula,  and  tho  tributary  streams 
of  Dunajetz,  Wieprez,  etc.  Salted  pork,  weed  ashes, 
linseed  and  rapeseed,  mats,  bones,  zinc,  spruce  beer, 
feathers,  etc.,  are  also  exported. 

Imports, — These  consist  principally  of  iron  and  steel, 
herrings,  wine,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton  and  cotton  yarns, 
spices,  salt,  coal,  tobacco,  dyewoods,  spirits,  rice,  etc. ; 
but  tlieir  value  is  seldom  more  than  half  that  of  the 


exports. 

DUTIKS  ON  PlLOTAUR  AND    POI.IOB  Pa8«P0RTS  AT 

DAXTZia 

Dlltiei. 

Pnis«Iaa  and 

prlvUearod 
fonlKn  flftif*. 

Poreltrn  Itjuffi 
)>rlvllcKit(l. 

PlIotaKfj  Duties, 
Vessel  drawing  6  ft.  wator  and  under. 

Ih.  111.  |ir. 

1  15    0 

2  15    0 
8    0    0 
8  15    0 
4    0    8 

1  W  0 
1  IT    6 

1  25    0 

2  T    « 
8    5    0 

lb.  <ll.  |if. 

2  0     0 

3  0    0 
8  15    0 

4  0    0 
6    0    0 

1  25    0 

2  0    0 
2    6    0 
8    5    0 
4  15    0 

"       8    "       " 

"       9    »       "     

"           "      10    "       "    

Polloo  passport  taxes. 
Vessel  of  25  Insti,   SO  tons,  and  under. 
60    "      100    "         

"        100     '•      200    '■      

"        200    "      400    "      

"     above  400  lasts 

Mnney. — Acconnts  used  formerly  to  he  wholly  kept 
in  guldens,  guilders,  or  florins  of  30  groschen.  The 
rixdollar==;t  florin8=!)0  gro8chen==270  schillings^ 
1,62(1  pfennings.  The  florin  or  guilder=9d.  sterling, 
and  tlie  rixdollar=29.  !kl.  A  new  system  was,  how- 
ever, introduced  into  all  parts  of  tho  Prussian  do- 
minions, conformably  to  the  decrees  of  tho  30th  of 
September,  1821,  and  of  the  22d  of  June,  1823.  The 
(."ologne  mark  (containing  3,G09  English  grains)  is  the 
weiglit  at  present  used  in  the  Prussian  mint  in  weigh- 
ing tho  precious  .netals.  The  fineness  of  tho  coins  is 
not  determined,  as  previously,  by  carats  or  lotha,  hut 
the  mark  is  divided  for  this  purpose  into  2S8  grains. 
Accounts  are  now  kept  in  tho  public  offices  in  thalers 
or  dollars  (R.),  silver  groschen,  and  pfennings ;  1  dol. 
=30  sil.  gr.=12  pf.  Tlie  only  silver  moneys  now 
coined  are  dollars  and  k  dollar  pieces;  but  smaller 
coin.^  are  in  circulation,  of  former  -oinnges.  The 
Pnissian  silver  coins  have  ^  of  alloy ;   and  as  the 


mark  Is  coined  Into  14  dollars,  each  ahonld  contain 
257*68  KnglUh  grains  pure  silver,  and  be  worth  about 
2a,  11^.  aterling ;  but  the  aaaaya  do  not  alway* 
atrictly  coincide  with  the  mint  valuation.  Tho  gold 
coins  are  Frederic  d'ora,  doable,  single,  and  half 
pieces.  The  mark  of  288  grains,  having  2<>0  graini 
of  flne  gold,  Is  coined  in  86  Fred,  d'ors.  The  Fred, 
d'or  la  worth  from  i>  dol.  18  ail,  gr.  to  5  dol.  22  sil.  gr,, 
according  co  tho  demand. 
Weighltani  Meanuret. — The  commercial  weights  are, 

8'i   lotlis         =    1  ounce. 

16   ounces      —    1  pound. 

1(4  poniuls     ~.    1  ilspound. 

20   ponnda     ^    1  small  atone. 

88  pounds     —     1  large  stooo. 

110  lbs.^^1  centner ;  3  centncrs=l  ahippound  (330 
Iha.) ;  100  lbs.  of  Pantzic=il03-3  lbs.  avoird.=-l(j-85 
kllog.=94-7  Iba.  of  Amstcrdam=90-6  lb».  of  Hamburg. 
The  liquid  measures  are,  for  beer. 


B   quarts 

^ 

1  ankor. 

4  ankers 

= 

1  ahm. 

ii  *hma 

zs 

1  lihd. 

a  hhds. 

=: 

1  hoth. 

i  botha 

— 

1  nider. 

t  ftidora 

= 

1  last=fl 

'4  Eug.  wine  gala. 
In  wine  measure,  which  is  less  than  l)eer  measure,  the 
ahm=89J  Eng.  gallons.     Tho  pipe=2  aums. 

ThelB8tofcom~6|maltcr8=00  8cheffels=240vier- 
tels=:060  metzen  ;  and  weighs  4,680  lbs.  Dantzic 
weight  In  rye.  The  Bchelfel;^"^!?  of  a  hectolitre= 
1-liii  Winchester  bushels.  Hence  tho  last  of  CiO  schof- 
fel3=::ll  quarters  3  bushels ;  tho  last  of  55^  schefl°eU=» 
10  quarters  7  bushels. 

Tho  Dantzic  foot=ll'8  Kng.  inches,  or  100  Dant/.tc 
feet==94-16  Eng.  feet.  The  oil  is  2  feet  Dantzic  meas- 
ure. The  Rhineland  or  Prussian  foot=="3138  Fr'-nch 
metres,  or  12'866  Eng.  inches  ;  hence  IflO  Prussian^ 
102-8  English  feet.  The  Prussian  or  Berlin  ell  has 
25J  Prussian  inches— 26'2o6  Eng.  ditto.  100  Berlin 
ell8=72-93  Eng.  yards ;  and  137-142  Berlin  ell9=.100 
Eng.  yards.  14f  Prussian  miles  are  equal  to  10  geo- 
graphical miles. 

Oak  planks,  deals,  and  pipe  staves  are  sold  by  the 
shock  of  60  pieces;  wheat,  rj'e,  etc.,  are  .sold  by  tho 
last  of  564-  schelfela. — Kelly'a  Cambist ;  Nelkettbrecher, 
ifanual  Unieersd. 

Com  Trade  of  Dantzic. — Grain  is  almost  wholly 
brought  to  Dantzic  by  water,  in  flat-bottomed  boats 
suited  to  the  navigatiim  of  the  Vistula,  Bug,  etc.  The 
English  consul  estimated  tho  expense  of  the  convey- 
ance of  wheat  and  rye,  including  the  duty  at  Thorn 
and  the  charges  of  turning  on  the  river,  till  put  into 
the  granary,  as  follows : 

Par  Imp.  quarter. 


.  J. 


d. 


From  tho  nppcr  provinces  on  the  Bn?,  a  dis. 

tancooffiom  Too  to  500  miles 9    2  to  T  10 

From  the  provinces  of  Cracow,  Sondouilr,  and 

LuWIn,  650  to  850 8    6  "  6    4 

From  Warsaw  and  Its  nclghliorhood,  about  240 

miles 4    9   "  8  11 

From  Wlaclaweck  and  Its  neighborhood,  about 

140  miles 4    2   •'  8    6 

From  Orandentz,  a  distance  of  about  70  miles, 

no  duty  at  Thorn,  and  when  not  turned  on 

tho  river 0  10   "09 

The  Bug  has  many  windings,  and  its  navigation, 
wiiich  is  tedious  and  uncertain,  can  only  bo  attempted 
in  the  spring,  when  the  water  is  high.  It  is  the  same, 
tho\igh  in  a  less  degree,  with  some  of  the  rivers  that 
fall  into  tho  Vistula  before  it  reaches  War.«aw ;  and 
toward  Cracow  the  Vistula  itself  is  frequently  un- 
navigable,  especially  in  dry  seasons,  except  in  spring, 
and  after  the  midsummer  rains,  when  the  snow  melts 
on  the  Carpathian  mountains.  The  navigation  of  tho 
Polish  rivers  in  some  seasons  is  more  than  usually  bad. 
The  com  from  the  upper  provinces  does  not  re.ich 
Dantzic  till  from  2  to  4  months  later  than  usual,  and 
is  burdened  with  u  very  heavy  additional  expense. 
In  fact,  the  supplies  of  grain  at  Dantzic  depend  quitu 
as  much  on  the  abundance  of  water  in  the  rivers,  or 
on  their  easy  navigation  in  summer,  as  on  the  good- 


DAN 


«ia 


DAN 


B«M  of  the  harvutf  "  Then  are,"  «»yi  Ur.  J«cob, 
"  two  modes  of  oonv«ylng  wheat  to  Duitzla  by  the 
Vbtuls.  That  which  grows  near  the  lower  purts  of  the 
river,  comprehending  Poliah  RuuU,  and  part  of  the 
province  of  Plocic,  and  of  Musovia,  in  the  liingdom  of 
Poland,  which  is  generally  of  an  inferior  quality,  is 
conveyed  in  covered  Ixwts,  with  iibiftlng-boanU  that 
protect  the  cargo  from  the  rain,  but  not  from  pilfering. 
Those  vRsxels  are  long,  and  draw  about  16  inches 
water,  and  bring  about  IM  quarters  of  wheat.  They 
are  not,  however,  so  well  calculated  for  the  upper 
parts  of  the  river.  From  Cracow,  where  the  Vistula 
lirst  liecomes  navigable,  to  below  the  Junction  of  the  Bug 
with  tlint  stream,  the  wheat  is  mostly  conveyed  to 
Dantzic  in  open  flats.  These  are  constructed  en  the 
banlcs,  in  seasons  of  leisure,  on  spots  far  from  tlie 
ordinar}-  reach  of  the  water,  but  which,  when  the  rains 
of  autumn,  or  the  molted  imow  of  the  Carpathian 
moiintiiins  in  the  spring,  till  and  overflow  the  river, 
are  easily  floated.  Barges  of  this  description  are 
about  75  feet  long,  and  30  broa<l,  with  a  depth  of  2^ 
feet.  Thoy  are  made  of  flr,  rudely  put  together,  fast- 
ened with  wooden  treenails,  the  comers  dovetailed  and 
■ecured  with  slight  iron  clamps— the  only  iron  em- 
ployed in  their  construction. 

"  A  large  tree,  the  length  of  the  vessel,  runs  along 
the  bottom,  to  which  the  timliers  ore  secured.  This 
roughly-cut  keelmm  rises  9  or  10  inches  from  the  floor, 
and  hunlles  are  luid  on  it,  which  extend  to  the  sides. 
They  are  covered  with  mats  maiii'  of  rye  straw,  and 
serve  the  purpose  of  dunnage  ;  leaving  below  a  space 
in  which  the  water  that  leaks  through  the  aides  and 
bottom  is  received.  The  bulk  is  Itept  from  ihe  sides 
and  ends  of  the  barge  by  a  similar  plan.  I'he  water 
which  these  ill-constructed  and  imperfectly-calked 
vessels  receive,  is  dipped  out  at  the  end  and  sides  of 
the  bulk  of  wheat.  Vessels  of  this  description  draw 
from  10  to  12  inches  water,  and  yet  they  fretiuentiy 
get  aground  in  descending  the  river.  The  cargoes 
usaaily  consist  of  from  180  to  '.'00  quarters  of  wheat. 
The  wheat  is  thrown  on  the  mats,  piled  as  )ili;li  as 
the  gunwale,  and  left  uncovered,  exfiosed  to  ull  the 
inclemencies  of  the  weather,  and  to  the  pilfering  of  the 
crew.  During  the  passage,  the  barge  is  carried  along 
by  the  force  of  the  stream,  oars  l)t>ing  merely  used  at 
the  head  and  stem,  to  steer  clear  of  the  sand-bauks, 
which  are  nimierous  and  shifting,  and  to  direct  the 
vessel  In  passing  under  the  several  bridges.  These 
vessels  are  conducted  l)y  6  or  7  men.  A  small  boat 
precedes,  with  a  man  in  it,  who  is  employed  sounding, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  shifting  shoals.  This  mode  of 
nuvij;ating  is  necessarily  very  slow ;  and  during  the 
progreic  of  it,  which  lasts  several  weeks,  and  even 
months,  the  rain,  if  any  fall,  soon  causes  the  wheat  to 
grow,  and  the  vessel  assumes  the  appearance  of  a 
floating  meadow.  The  shooting  of  the  tibres  goon 
forms  a  thick  mat,  and  prevents  the  rain  from  pene- 
trating more  than  an  inch  or  two.  The  main  bulk  is 
protected  Ity  this  kind  of  covering,  and,  when  that  is 
thrown  aside,  is  found  in  toleralde  condition.  The 
vessels  are  l)roken  up  at  Dantzic,  and  usually  sell  for 
about  I  of  their  original  cost.  The  men  who  conduct 
them  return  on  foot.  When  the  cargo  arrives  at 
Dantzic  or  Killing,  all  but  the  grown  surface  is  thrown 
on  the  land,  spread  al)road,  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
frequently  turned  over,  till  any  slight  moisture  it  may 
have  inililbed  ii  dried.  If  a  shower  of  rain  falls,  as 
well  as  during  the  night,  the  heaps  of  wheat  on  the 
shore  are  thrown  together  in  the  form  of  u  steep  roof 
of  a  house,  that  the  rain  maj-  run  otT,  and  are  covered 
with  a  linon  cloth.  It  is  thus  frequently  a  long  time 
after  the  whciit  has  reached  Dantzic,  before  it  is  fit  to 
be  placed  in  the  warehouspi. 

"TliB  warehouses  i /pfic/ii-rii)  are  verj"  well  adapted 
for  (Storing  corn.  They  consist  ,{enerally  of  7  stories, 
8  of  which  iirp  in  the  roof.  The  floorr.  nre  about  9  feet 
uonder.     Each  of  them  ia  divided  by  perpendicular 


purtltioni,  the  whole  length,  about  4  f««t  high,  by 
which  different  parcels  are  kept  distinct  ftom  each 
other.  Thus  the  floors  have  two  divisions,  each  of 
them  capable  of  storing  from  150  to  200  quarters  of 
wheat,  and  leaving  sufficient  space  for  turning  and 
screening  it.  There  are  abundance  of  windows  on 
each  floor,  which  are  always  thrown  open  in  dry 
weather  to  ventilate  the  com.  It  U  natuUy  turned 
over  three  times  a  week.  The  men  who  perform  the  ope- 
ration throw  It  with  their  shovels  as  high  as  they  can, 
and  thus  the  grains  are  separated  ftt>m  each  other, 
and  exposed  to  the  drying  influence  of  the  air.  The 
whole  of  the  com  warehouses  now  left  (for  many 
wore  burr^  during  the  siege  of  1814)  are  cajialile 
of  storin  ,  u :  ),000  quarters  of  wheat,  supiwslng  the 
quarters  to  be  la.-ge  enough  to  All  each  of  the  2  divis- 
ions of  the  floors  with  a  separate  heap  ;  but  as  of  late 
years  it  has  come  down  from  Poland  in  smaller  parcels 
than  formerly,  and  of  more  various  qualities,  Wliicb 
must  of  necessity  be  kept  distinct,  the  present  stock 
of  about  2ro,000  quarters  is  found  to  occupy  nearly  the 
whole  of  tliose  warehouses  whicli  are  in  repair,  or  are 
advantageously  situated  for  loading  the  ships,  8hlpi 
are  loaded  b}'  gangs  of  porters,  with  great  despatch, 
who  will  complete  a  cargo  of  COO  quartf^ra  in  about  8 
or  4  hours." — First  Rtport. 

Hanking  Kitabliahmentt. — There  Is  none  such  here, 
excepting  a  branch  of  the  Royal  or  Ooverament  bank 
of  Berlin.  This  was  founded  partly  in  thu  viuA  or  re- 
ceiving de|iosit3  of  money  under  litigation  in  the  courts 
of  the  province  ;  moneys  the  property  of  minors  nnd 
charitablo  institutions,  the  former  until  disposable  or 
placed  on  good  security  ;  and  moneys  Iwlonging  to  in- 
dividuals not  merchants,  and  at  times,  also,  those  of 
tlie  latter.  Intorest  is  paid  on  such  deposits  as  fol- 
lows, viz. :  3  per  cent,  on  sums  belonging  to  minors ; 
'i\  per  cent,  on  sums  belonging  to  charitable  institu- 
tions, churches,  and  sums  deposltad  by  the  courts  of 
justice,  and  2  per  cent,  on  all  other  deposits. 

The  principal  is  demandal>le  at  pleasure,  unless  other- 
wise stipulated.  The  bank  makes  advances  ou  grain 
and  some  other  kinds  of  goo.ls  at  5  per  cent,  interest ; 
discounts  bills  with  3  signatures,  not  having  more  than 
2  months  to  run,  at  6  per  cent,,  and  sometimes,  \then 
money  is  plenty,  at  a  lower  rate.  It  also  malces  ad. 
vances  at  4  per  cent,  on  deposits  of  Fred,  d'ors  and  cer- 
tain foreign  moneys  ;  and  It  occasionally  buys  bilh  for 
account  of,  and  sells  bills  on,  the  Ber'in  Bank.  It 
does  not  issue  notes.  The  amount  of  its  capital  is  not 
fixed ;  but  government  guaranties  its  transactions. 
It  is  relieved  from  the  payment  of  postage  on  money, 
and  it  is  not  required  tr  use  the  stamps  fixed  by  law, 
on  bills  for  Its  deposit  transactions,  Imt  only  those  of 
10  B.  gr.  (aiwut  ll|d.) ;  while  i.idividuals  must  u.se 
stamps  for  such  bills  of  S  s.  gr.  for  every  400  r.  of  not 
longer  date  than  3  months,  and  for  e/ery  200  r.  of 
longer  date.  On  negotiable  bills,  however,  the  tiank 
must  use  the  stamps  fixed  by  law,  say  of  5  s.  gr. 
(about  5i<l.)  fur  sums  of  60  dol.  to  400  dol.,  and  at  the 
same  rate  for  every  additional  sum  between  100  dol. 
and  400  dol.  Bills  from  and  on  foreign  places,  nego- 
tiated at  Dantzic,  are  not  subject  to  the  stamp  duty. 
The  affairs  of  the  liank  are  not  made  public.  Being  a 
government  concern,  there  are  no  dividends.  It  is 
not  supposed  to  he  very  profitable,  at  least  in  the  pres- 
ent circumscrilwd  state  of  trade,  althougli  enjoying 
the  advantages  of  exemption  from  jiostage  of  money!', 
and  paying  less  stamp  duty.  It  is  true,  however,  tliut 
the  direct  advantage  of  the  lower  stamp  duty  is  en- 
joyed by  the  Iwrrowor, 

Credit,  Brokerage,  etc. — ^Very  few  goods  are  con- 
signed from  abroad  for  sale,  fir  such  consignments 
rarely  turn  to  good  account,  imports  are  seliloni  nld 
for  cash,  l)ut  generally  at  1,  2,  and  3  months'  cn-dit,  nr 
longer.  The  discount  allowed  for  cash  payments, 
when  sold  on  time,  is  usually  6  per  cent.,  Iiut  ii  varies 
according  as  money  is  plentiful  or  otherwitr,.     Any 


tween 
bet  wee 
xxii,, 
The 
on  the 
both 
vessels 
can  ret 
their  < 
tion  all 
Black  1 
Conseqi 
of  Brail 
the  Jtui 
gratis  1 
ship,  an 
entering 
visions 
Uanube, 
questrut 
tile  Dim 
trian  Hu 
eitlicr  fo 
Black  Si 
Kuasiao 


DAN 


«18 


PAK 


J  are  con- 

Tdoiii    'il'l 

r(:ri''lit,<'r 

Inyments, 

t  ic  varies 

Any 


panoD,  being  a  burgbar  of  th«  town  ('wtlMl  MIX  afl« 
of  good  character  may  Imcuiuv),  may  traHH/x  I  lm«lii«ii« 
M  a  commiuion  marvliant  wr  iWitur  |  Imt  liriilioM  munt 
be  clinsen  by  the  aldari  uf  th«  ui/r|K(ra(lwHit  lit  lu  r- 
chuntH,  approved  by  the  nu*'  -if  "f  til*  (iftiilH  . '  'I 
■worn  in  liy  the  maglatracy  of  (It*  tuwn, 

Danube  (Uernian,  Umutu  /  aw,  lluniAiuii  »>  '^ 
/<<»■),  an  important  river,  ami,  mni  Ut  til*  Vul|||a,  l>ie 
largest  in  Kurupe,  originatea  in  tin.  I'ru»,  A  mimhtain 
torrent  which  riuea  in  the  IC.  daclivUy  of  tiM  Miihwarat* 
waid,  in  liaden,  at  an  elevation  ut  *i,Nft(t  fant  nIiov«  lh« 
level  of  the  aea.  The  atreaui,  whuii  ioiiioil  iiy  tll« 
Urigavh,  and  by  the  waten  of  a  uprillg  rriilii  llw  i'NaIIh 
garden  of  U^naueachingun,  taltnK  tllN  iMiiMi  iif  IIm 
Uonau.  It  flowa  llrat  generally  K,  N,  li,,  tiiriiuuli  «h 
alpine  country  to  L'i'n,  thence  V,,  N.  K,  nh4  M.  %,  Ut 
Paasau,  it  traverse*  the  plain  uf  UavartA,  Vium  I'aiM 
lau  to  Vienna,  K.  8.  K,,  it  intemeiiU  »  liilly  ritKliiti, 
,i.nd  the  remainder  of  iu  course,  K,  N,  V,,  Ut  WatlK^li, 
S.  to  U^7>^,  and  K.  to  the  Ulac|(  Hea,  in  tlirotltfll  N  i^iiilti^ 
try  generally  tlut,  except  ot  the  liellla  of  lli«  "  irm 
gate,"  K.  of  Oraova,  Length  (ilirert),  1,IKNI  lMil«iD  |  iif, 
including  windings,  l,Vih  miles,  t  ilruilM  It  Hlirfai'd 
of  about  25O,0UO  8i|uare  n  '  f  \  its  avaragi)  full  i*  IN 
inches  per  mile,  but  belo\  .  nth  it  is  iillTv  II  IiiiiIhiii  ) 
at  Ulm  it  is  1,400,  ut  Ke^.  '"rg  1,H0I>,  ill  VnhnnU  MHI. 
at  Vienna  'LOO,  and  ut  Pesf  h  ,.IK)  feet  iiIhivm  til«  l«yal  iif 
the  sea.  Its  breadth  at  Dim  Is  lUN  feet,  ami  in  iti*  liiwer 
course  U,010  feet ;  depth  at  Ulm,  <i  feuL ,  at  I'tKHai*,  10 
feet ;  und  lower  dov'ii,  aver  ('B %) fuut,  It  (musks  Nl|jtlii4' 
ringen  and  Ulm  in  WUrteniii'ig,  Diiliiigiiii,  lliii'lmtitiit, 
Donauwurth,  IngolMtailt,  l{«ge!)sliiirg,  MIHt  I'ltusail,  III 
Diivaria ;  Liiiz,  Uiernstuin,  Koriieuliiirif,  aiul  Vlnilllli, 
in  Austria ;  Presliurg,  Koiiioin,  (iran,  naitlMttl,  lluiln, 
Pesth,  Peterwardein,  and  CurlowitX,  lit  llutlgMry  ) 
Belgrade,  Semendria,  and  Orsova,  ill  Herviit  |  Wlilin, 
Nicoiwli,  Kutschuk,  .Silistria,  and  lllrsiiliiivM,  ill  lluU 
garia;  Uiurgevo  and  Urahiluv  iu  WaiitttilllM,  'l'lt(< 
chief  atlluents  of  the  Danulie  are,  on  tlii>  rigtil,  tlix 
Iller,  Lech,  Isar,  Inn,  Kns,  Kuali,  Pritve,  Hmv»,  Mii- 
rava,  Tiraok,  Isker,  Vid,  and  Juiitrit  |  miil  on  (lilt  left, 
the  Altmtihl,  Nab,  Kogen,  March,  Waag,  llriill,  Tlmlss, 
Teoies,  Chy'.  Aluta,  Jaloninit;<a,  Nerstli,  mimI  I'riKii, 
Near  its  mouth  in  the  llluck  Me»,  it  s«i|iarat«s  into 
Boveral  branches,  the  southeriiiiiost  of  wllii'll,  ifiiiloil 
the  branch  of  3t.  George,  forms,  liy  the  trsiity  of  Ailfl 
anople,  the  boundary  iietweeii  tlie  Dtttiliiiill  Sllllitt'ti 
and  Russia.  It  coramuuicutes  by  canals  witli  tliu  V\\m, 
by  means  of  the  Moldau,  and  with  (llH  Itliiim  by  llm 
Altmuhl.  It  is  navigable  for  vessuU  of  lINI  tolll  ffollt 
Ulm.  St«ain  packets  wura  established  on  tlin  DttlllllM 
in  1830,  and  there  are  10  steam  vessels  iiin|iliiytiii  hit' 
tween  Presburg,  Pesth,  and  C'ourtailtinii|ilit,  NHil  K 
between  Itegensburg  and  \M\i. — Hue  lOlAaHIl',*  Miiu,, 
xxii.,  500,  C8-J ;  QuiN'a  Steam  Vui/nfff  Uiiu'H  Ihf  lltmim, 

Tlie  ports  of  Duila  and  (jalats  ai's  apjiointuit  MS  (ioiIk 
on  the  DunulH)  for  the  cuninierce  of  iieutmi  powers, 
both  as  regards  exportation  anil  iiiiportation,  Tllit 
vessels  of  neutral  |)owers  coming  from  tha  lllfK'lt  M«M 
can  return  freely  into  tliiit  sea  utter  hitvittg  ri<iMivwl 
their  cargoes  in  the  ports  aliove  lueiitlulldil,  oil  ('iitliii= 
tion  always  that  they  ali.staiii,  liefure  etittiring  (llii 
Black  Seu,  from  touching  ut  uny  (wrt  oil  th«  l>«n«lM<, 
Consequently  tlii'se  vedscis,  Ijefore  <|i||ttillg  tll«  (sirts 
uf  llraila  uuil  Cialiitz,  must  pn-^ii^iit  )Ii»ir  doi'ii)iMillli>  to 
the  Uus.iian  consulur  agi'ia,  who  will  fliriiUli  lllntti 
grutis  with  a  certiluute  showing  the  ihiotiiiiaMili  of  (lin 
ehip,  and  bear'.ig  the  formal  d<ti  lurutiiiil,  that  If  lii<fiirit 
entering  the  sea  they  shouUi  ili;teml>aik  »!«ril  ill'  Jlfo^ 
visions  upon  uny  (mint  uf  the  right  banit  of  (ltd 
Danube,  they  wiU,  hy  this  coiitravuiiliiiii,  iniiiir  no- 
questratiun.  Neutral  vested.-  Hliiih  wioll  tii  UM'itnit 
the  Dimulie  in  ordiT  to  piunml  at  oiiuu  into  tli«  Amd^ 
trian  Stiitea,  and  which  curry  ibiwil  cargoss  ituHllwil 
either  for  Brila  or  Oalutis,  or  for  e«|iorli«tliin  liy  tint 
Black  Sea,  will  be  liable  to  tin)  sum.'  formiliiiy  of  n 
Kiuaian  uertiliouto  indi'Mtiug  (Delf  il«i<tUli«(iMli  HUil 


nfalilMlIng  them,  under  ilmilar  penalttet,  from  enter- 
ing Into  any  traffic  on  the  right  hunk  of  the  Uonube. 
Meutral  vessels  wishing  to  descend  the  Danube  will 
turf  meet  with  any  hind'  lunce,  pn>vided  that  on  their 
IMSsngn  by  lirsova  the-  furnish  themselves  at  the  Rus- 
sian consuluve  with  a  lertltlcate,  stating  that  they  be- 
'irtig,  hondjlilf,  to  a  neutral  power,  and  that  their  cargo 
IS  not  destined  for  one  of  the  Turkish  ports  uf  the 
DanMlie.— P.  J.  of  T.     1860. 

Oardanellea  (Straits  of  the),  form  the  communi- 
cation lietween  the  Sea  of  Marmoii  u)id  the  Archipel- 
ago, Tills  channel,  through  which  there  flows  a 
colistAiit  current  out  of  the  Sea  of  Slarmura  into  the 
Artihlpelago,  Is  upward  of  &0  miles  long,  and  varies 
In  breadth  from  1  mile  toward  its  western,  to  10  miles 
at  Its  eastern  e:>l.iio.ii .  t  drives  ita  name  from  two 
nnulent  fortresses  on  either .  .de  of  the  river,  of  which 
oiiK  Is  built  on  the  site  of  the  at^cient  Sestos,  ami  the 
other  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Abydos.  About  '10 
miles  to  the  west  of  thene  ere  two  modem  fortressei 
calleit  the  Vew  (  '<  ties,  and  between  the  old  and  the 
n«w  fort-:  .re  miiuur}'  works  of  various  descriptions. 
'Hie  total  numl>er  of  guns  mounted  on  these  fortresses 
Is  090,  some  of  which  i'  barge  stone  shot,  and  require 
H  uliarge  of  more  than  ..  cwts.  of  powder.  It  derived 
Its  ancient  name  of  the  Hellespont  from  tlie  tradition 
iif  Pliryxus  and  I  telle,  and  is  celebrated  In  nnclent 
times  tor  the  bridge  of  boat*  built  over  it  by  Xerxes. 
I(  is  memorable  also  as  the  sceno  of  the  death  of  Le- 
andflf,— K.  U,  i 

'I'lie  gallant  exploit  of  forcing  the  passage  of  the 
t)at(tanelle8  was  achieved  by  the  British  squadron 
liniler  Admiral  Sir  John  Duckworth,  Feb.  lUth,  1H07  ; 
iiut  the  admiral  was  obliged  to  repass  them,  which  be 
illd  with  great  loss,  and  iinmensa  damage  to  the  fleet, 
March  3,  fuliowlng ;  "'  castles  of  .Sestos  and  Abydos 
llUfllngdown  rocks  of  ston^,  lachof  many  tons'  weight, 
Upon  the  decks  of  the  Jlntish  snipe. — IIayux.  So 
long  as  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  were  excluiiivcly 
jsissessed  by  Turkey,  that  sea  might  with  propriety 
lie  considered  a  mare  cfniMuin;  and  there  soeins  no 
reason  to  ((uestion  the  right  of  the  Ottoman  Porte  to 
exclude  other  nations  fro"  navigating  the  passage 
ttlilcll  connects  It  with  t.'  ''f<"!il,eiiunean,  lioth  shores 
of  this  passage  being  at  tl'  3me  time  portions  of  the 
Turkish  territory  ;  butsiu  l'"<  territorial  acquisition!^ 
made  by  Russia,  and  the  cum. '  'rcial  establishment.' 
furnied  ny  her  on  the  shoi  s  of  the  Euxine,  both  thut 
nlllpire  ami  the  other  maritime  po\ve,r8  have  become 
entitled  to  participate  in  the  commerce  of  the  Black 
Men,  itnd  consequently  to  the  free  navigation  of  the 
hHtduni^lles  anil  the  Bosphorus.  This  riglit  was  ex- 
pressly recognized  b)  the  7th  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Adtlanople,  concluded  in  1H29  between  Russia  and 
tile  I'otte,  both  as  to  Ri  ssii  n  vcs<<els  nnd  those  of 
ollitir  Kuropean  States  in  unity  with  Turkey.  The 
U)i  article  of  the  treaty  of  JSaO,  between  the  United 
Mates  and  the  Olti  man  Pu  e  provides  that  merchunt 
vessels  of  the  United  States,  in  like  manner  as  vchhcIs 
iif  the  most  favored  nations,  Rhall  have  liberty  to  |iu8k 
the  canal  of  the  Imperial  Residence,  and  go  and  come 
In  the  llluck  .Sea,  either  laden  or  iu  ballast ;  and  they 
niny  be  Inden  with  the  pri.ltice,  manufactures  und 
iiftect-:  of  the  Ottoman  euipii  Kcept  such  us  are  pro- 
hibited, as  well  us  of  their  ow  i,  country. — AVheatos's 
Inlmiuliimal  /,««•,  p.  211. 

Ddtlo.  A  Persian  gold  coin  (so  called  liy  the 
(ifep|ii<,  from  Darius,  the  name  of  several  Persian 
"ovpfpij^'ia),  Isving  up')u  the  obverse  an  archer, 
tfotttied  and  kneeling  upon  one  knee,  ar.d  on  the  re- 
Verse  »  quadrata  incusa,  or  deep  c'cft.  The  weight 
of  the  dnric  is  aliout  1!10  grains, 

Datlsn  (I''iin"i!,  'Y  "  The  Isthmus  nf  Darien. 
of,  »s  It  is  rao  1  !  ;y  styled,  the  Isthmus  of 
t'unntim,  connei  mil  South  America,  and  is 

|irlilripnl1y  coin{iri.v     lu  I.  "  republic  of  Granada,    On 
(lie  nuriliern  side  is  th"  ;...  ibean  Sea  and  the  Gulf 


y- 


Vkt 


5U 


DAT 


•f  ttarf.r  on  Mm  m«Mi  <ti«  iMt  nt  1>«m  -  a 
ImiMi  th»  tuthmn*  tmpm  )«  ilmnt  fOO  mllnK.  wHh  tn 
tytttm  tifMKftih  nl  4n  m\U»  i  l>ut  ..  long.  ,  it  nir- 
row*  mwn  in  Um  ll««)i  do  mt*" ..    At  this  pent  it  li 


Th«  AmMani  rniit  Egyptteni  an  '  'le  Imtm  of  thi>  !•««• 
In  thp  prapanitiun  of  bagu  tml  banket*;  the  In..,  rht, 
th«  outer  miiI  Inner  hark  of  thu  trunk,  snil  th  'ir.  fy 
iolwtance  it  the  ruot  of  tlia  Iriavea,  where  th''    I'liriitij 


pNWMwl  t<>  l>«l«M)ilh  ih«  Ktitji  <^n«l.     The  eomitry  k  '  fVnm  the  trunk,  have  all  their  r«ii[iertlre  \yji ,  and 
unOHlAtinif,   will)    rlMtnn   iit  «m«ll    ninontalnii,    but   iiexiilvii  tliln,  the  kernelK  nf  the  fruit,  nntwitlmtaniiing 


I 


fry  f«>tli«  ami  trull  llmtmred,  The  rxpenw  cf  a 
eumprMNltuiM  •hit)  c«tiil,  my  Wi  nillen  long  and  'JOO 
fact  wlili,  wiiulif  n*ft  Iw  I«m  than  $/M),<)n(i,riOO.  Whan 
Mt  1*  cmtuMcrwl  thot  im«  half  th«  wnrld'n  commerce 
would  In  oil  imilwlillit/  |mm  thrtmgh  thia  canal,  the 
•C|wnM  la  Irilllng,  All  Iha  India  and  China  tradr, 
llt«la«4  ut  d<wlill»tg  (taf*  Hfrrti.  wimld  Hnd  paaaage 
lltruHKl)  tim  )'«Hal.  It  nhnnld  l«  free  t<i  all  nationa 
wlto  »»»M  lit  tha  fiHtottuHinn  try  mmty  or  credit." 

An  NMifUfirlallnfl  WM  ilnlirared  In  the  naval  appro- 
prUtbm  liill  itt  ixM,  glvlntf  a  anm  not  to  exceed  fSfi,- 
OU),  tn  Im  mid  to  fdNnira  D«le<^t«d  h^  the  Secrvtarlea  of 
War  and  H»vy  "  fitrth«t>«i.tfi>Mi  of  making  explorationa 
and  vanfli'aliiifl  nt  lh«  mr^ffyn  already  made  of  a  «bip 
cwial  nuurlli*  lattimtia  trf  Darlen,  to  connect  the  wa- 
ter* lit  til*  I'ariflc  tttu\  th«  Atlantic  hy  the  Atrato  and 
Tru»H4<i  flvafi," 

t>»tnM*rmim,f/imflni  freneh, /MMo*  ,-  lullan, 
Datltrii  HiMnlah,  iMtllm'),  th«  fmit  of  the  palm-tree 
U'hitHlit  ilwlfill/era  l<lM.;.  ThIa  tree  la  ahnndant  In 
V4^\A,  liartwrr,  AraMit,  I'vrnla,  and  the  adjacent 
oountrioa,  |i»rtl«iil«rly  im  the  conlinea  of  the  desert, 
•nd  wharnvxr  Ibofa  Is  Sflffirlent  mHstum.  It  is  a  tall, 
m*j«*ti4'  trxo  I  KUd  n<|ieH(eil  rt-fr^rences  are  made  to  it 
In  (h«  Mi'rwl  wrIliHgs  fKrclns,  xir.  14),  and  in  the 
Ki>r»ii,  MnhamitK"),  In  iin«  nf  his  sayings,  beauti- 
tfAXy  immynn*  IIm  \t\ilifl\ti  and  generous  man  to  the 
|Nllm-tr««  I  "  Ma  staiuls  ef««t  Iwfore  Ms  Lord ;  in  his 
•very  fteiUm  h«  UMtlvin  i\m  Impulse  received  from 
»\>n¥ii,  mv\  hli  whfdn  ll's  Is  devotied  «  i..*-  welfare  of 
bU  fu||«wrif»«tt(rc»,"  Hut  the  *-iii!r,(ilji.(  In  which 
tha  (laliiMrm  !•  Iield  In  (he  Kast  U  »«  Vm  iwHhed  more 
to  lu  utilll;/  limn  I't  Its  Maiity.  i»^«  fi^rr  i  the  prin- 
e||«l  jxirdif  »lM«<iMl(«)«tem«'«  i«i'  -Mbitaiitsof  many 
mtU  lit  Ar4ll^H  ((«d  t'.i'hHty,  v.;il  '(■"•r  iirr  held  in  the 
hlgll«»t#»l(lHi*tl<it(wh(<ft.v»ftheyBi'  livt  -'Ith.  "They 
ara,"  eayn  lltirffkhar'tt,  "  by  far  th«  m,.«t  jssrntiul  arti- 
vU  »f  fwid  dir  tiMi  lower  r'lxsses  of  Medina  ;  their  hair- 
r««t  t«  i>%\mH*4i  with  as  much  anxiety,  and  attended 
with  ««  niiii'li  umiffiit  rclitlcing,  as  the  vintage  in  the 
south  of  Knrofw  i  and  If  the  crop  falls,  which  often 
li«p|i«na,  ««  thosM  trees  are  seldom  known  to  pnidnce 
aliundantiy  for  ft  or  4  soccesslve  yearn,  or  is  eaten  up 
liy  |h«  lo<'M«t<i,  nnlfefsfll  gloom  overspreads  tlie  popu- 
UtiAn,  M  if  It  CmhIim  weni  apiirehended."— rravr/s  i'r 
.inihin,  vol,  lv„  p,  i(l4, 

Tb«r«  U  nn  #mI«M  variety  of  dntea.  Generally, 
buwavar,  ttuf  tuny  Im  descrtlied  as  beiAg  somewhat  in 
tba  'tMiw  ol'  an  a^-orn,  littt  nsually  larger,  conKi^iting 
of  •  tllb'k,  (l«4hy  sulrstance,  incluilln);  nnd  freely  sep- 
arating tmm  NH  oldlttg  st<rne  or  kemul,  having  a  fur- 
row on  til*  imit  sld«,  'llieir  tacte  is  agreealdy  sweet, 
awnmiHiHiMi  with  h  slight  astrlngenry.  The  new 
fruit  i«  ie«ll«d  ^ty  the  Arahs  /■uleb,  Wfcen  the  dates 
•r«  »lt'>w«d  lo  frntaln  on  the  tree  till  they  are  quite 
rlpa,  and  li»v*  l»ti('oi«e  soft  and  of  a  high  red  color, 
Ibey  urn  fimtw4  into  a  hard,  solid  paste  or  cake,  called 
wljim',  TltU  Is  fofttied  Iry  pressing  the  ripe  dates  forc- 
ilil)'  into  Urija  i>itslt«ts,  each  containing  aliout  2  cwt. 
"  In  till*  st»t«,"  says  Durckhardt,  "the  Kedouins  ex- 
port tint  ndioiM  {  tn  thx  market  It  is  cut  out  of  the  bas- 
kiBt,  and  mM  \iy  the  |(ot(nd.  It  forms  part  of  the  daily 
food  at  all  iUiitvn  iitufiiyU  t  In  trfveling  it  is  dissolved 
in  w#t«r,  #nd  Imms  affords  a  sweet  and  rofre.ihing  drink. 
Uurinij  tlia  (nowwsrti,  the  ships  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
Itrinii  iui^iiu*  (fim  tlussorah  t<i  I>]idda,  for  sale,  in  small 
liankcts,  wi-l|;ltinf(  atmat  10  (Hiunds  each  ;  this  kind  is 
prxfurrsd  Ut  wvpff  other.  Ships  lionnd  from  Arabia  to 
indlit  t«k^  wtf  li  thsm  a  considerable  quantity  of  a'ljiiue, 
wbl^'b  la  ruddlly  disposed  of  among  the  Slohanimed- 
■n*  of  Hin4»ma,""'Tr«rrli  in  Arabia,  vo!.  i.,  p.  67. 


their  hardness,  Cre  used  as  food  for  cattle  ;  they  are 
soaked  fcr  9  days  in  water,  when  they  become  softened, 
and  are  given  to  oamehi,  cowa,  and  sheep,  instead  of 
l)ariey  ;  they  are  said  to  be  much  more  nntrltiv* 
than  tluit  grain.  There  ar«  shops  at  Medina  in  which 
nothing  else  la  sold  bat  date  kernels  ;  and  the  beggur* 
are  continually  employed  in  all  the  main  streets  in 
picking  up  those  tliat  are  thrown  away. — Jiwi-khiinll, 
vol.  li.,  p.  212.  All  the  leHiiumenta  of  Araliian  cMik- 
ery  are  exhausted  In  the  prepuratiim  of  dates  ;  and  the 
Araba  nay  that  a  good  housewife  will  daily  snpply  her 
lord  for  a  month  with  a  dish  of  dates  difl'erently  dressed. 
Palm-trees  ar«  raised  by  shoots ;  and  l>r.  8haw  ni'  n- 
tiona  that  they  arrive  at  their  vigor  in  about  DO  years, 
and  continue  so  70  years  afterward,  lienring  yearly  16 
ur  20  clusters  of  dales,  each  of  them  weighing  l.'i  or  20 
pounds  ;  after  this  period  thoy  liegin  to  decline,— 7'roi>> 
fit  in  the  iM^mt,  p.  142,  4to  ed. 

The  best  dates  imported  are  said  to  come  fhim  To- 
nis,  hut  they  are  most  commonly  brought  from  Hmyma 
and  Alexandria.  They  nhonlil  he  chosen  large,  soft- 
ish,  not  much  wrinkled,  of  a  reddish  yellow  color  on  the 
outside,  with  a  whitish  membrane  betwixt  the  Hesh 
and  the  stone,  'lliose  that  are  dry  and  hard  are  of 
little  value. 

The  date-tree  is  indigenous  to  Syria,  Arabia,  and 
the  lower  parta  of  Persia,  Eg}'pt,  and  northern  Africa, 
whence  it  was  introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe ; 
and  It  is  also  more  or  less  cultivated  in  British  Indiji, 
South  Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  America.  Though 
iMlonging  to  the  extensive  family  of  palms,  which 
al>ound  and  flourish  in  inoxt  tropical  regions,  It  attains 
perfection  only  in  comparatively  higli  latitudes,  and 
doulitless  would  be  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of 
the  more  arid  rogions  of  Califonila  and  of  our  southern 
States. 

The  date  is  a  lofty  tree,  growing  to  a  height  of  (!0 
feet,  with  a  rugged  trunk,  crowned  with  leaves  li  or  H 
feet  hmg,  with  pinna:  .7  feet  long,  end  a  little  more  than 
an  inch  broad.  The  tiowers  of  l)oth  sexes,  which 
grow  on  separate  trees,  come  out  in  ver)'  long  bundles, 
fttmi  the  trunk,  between  the  leaves,  and  ore  covered 
with  a  spatha,  which  opens  and  withers.  Those  of  tlio 
male  tree  have  6  short  stamens,  with  narrow,  four- 
cornered  anthers,  flilcd  with  pollen.  The  female  flow- 
ers have  a  roundish  germ,  wiiich  afterward  becomes  an 
oval  berry,  with  a  thick  pulp,  inclosing  a  hard,  oblong 
stone.  Tills  licrry  is  the  fmit  known  as  the  date  of 
commevee,  upon  wliicli  a  considerable  portiim  of  the 
people  <,if  Kgypt,  Araliia,  and  Persia,  alm(«t  entirely 
snbsist,  A  single  tree  will  produce  tnm  100  to  IIOO 
pounds  of  this  fmit  in  the  season.  They  come  into 
liearing  at  from  6  to  10  years  of  .^ge,  and  are  fruitful 
for  upward  of  200  years. 

The  extensive  importance  of  the  date-tree,  in  the 
countries  where  it  occurs,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
( ■  rious  subjects  to  which  a  traveler  can  direct  his  at- 
tention. Independent  of  the  use  of  the  fruit  as  foml, 
the  inhabit.Bnts  make  a  conserve  of  it  with  sugar,  and 
even  grind  the  hard  stones,  to  feed  to  their  cuiiiels. 
In  Barhary  they  form  handsome  beads  of  these  utoncs. 
From  the  leaves  they  make  couches,  liasket:',  bags, 
mats,  brushes,  and  fly-traps ;  the  trunk  is  split,  and 
employed  in  erecting  small  buildings,  also  fur  fences 
to  gardens  ;  and  the  steins  of  the  leaves  are  used  for 
making  cages  for  their  poultry.  The  tlire«d.H  of  tlio 
web-like  integument  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  are 
twisted  into  ropes,  wl..  h  are  employed  in  rigginu; 
small  vesseis.  The  amylaceous  central  part  of  the 
trunk  is  also  good  to  eat,  and  the  buds  arc  enteeined  ii 
delicate  vegetalde  ;  and  even  the  young  shoots  are  said 


DKA 


ftl6 


DBA 


to  /•Minhl*  uparafpia.  The  nap,  which  ii  iiweattih 
when  Itnt  collwlnl,  ami  miy  Im  ilriink  im  •  mild  b«T- 
»nff.  If  dbtllled  into  n  kinri  nt  ipirlt,  known  In  amt- 
•rn  onuntrle*  \>y  the  nama  of  "  arrack."  It  Is  obttUnml 
by  cutting  nlT  the  head  of  the  trm,  and  acnniilntf  out  a 
hollow  In  the  top  of  the  item,  where,  In  aiicending,  tt 
lodget.  8  or  4  quart*  may  Im  obtained  dally  from  a 
■Initlt  pain,  for  lu  or  ir>  Aiyt.—U.  tl.  Patau  Office 
Htport,  If,'),'!,  p.  6(!. 

DkTite,  Imams  of  wood  or  Iron,  with  ibeavei  or 
blocka  at  their  end-*,  projcctinfc  over  a  veMel'a  ekle  ur 
Item,  to  ho!9t  In  the  boatii. 

Days  of  Gh-ao*.  'I'heie  vary  In  almott  all  nier- 
ciintile  townt  and  uountriea,  but  the  tendency  of  mod- 
em legitlatlon  la  to  abolUh  them  altogether.  In 
Franca,  lielglum,  Lorobardy,  Tuacany,  the  Two  Slcl- 
liea,  and  other  Statea  where  the  French  oodo  haa  been 
lntro<lui'cd,  thero  are  no  dnya  of  grace.  So  throughout 
tlie  (leinnan  8tatea  thity  are  alttigether  done  away.  In 
(ireiit  Urltiun,  and  Ireland,  and  the  United  8tute«  of 
AiBxrica,  there  are  H  daya ;  in  Denmark  there  are  8 
daya  ,  In  .Sweden,  <  daya  ;  in  Kuaaia,  8  daya  for  billa 
at  aight,  ID  daya  for  bllla  at  a  Axed  time  ;  In  thn  Can- 
ton of  llurne,  MwitzerUnd,  (i  du ya ;  in  8paln  and  Por- 
tugal, none;  and  in  the  Nethcrlinda,  none. 

The  law  merchant  rca|iecta  the  religion  of  diflerent 
peoplea.  A  Jhw  waul<l  not  be  boun(l  to  pay  n  bill  on 
a  day  nacrud  to  him.  8o  if  the  tirut  day  of  griice  aliouid 
be  on  8uturduy,  and  Monday  C'hri«tmaa-day,  und  the 
maker  a  .l«w,  the  note  would  l>e  payable  on  Friday, 
The  word  inontii  nieuna  generally  n  calendar  month. 
A  note  dated  on  the  ilUth  of  Anguat  would  end  with 
tb«  corri!i<|H)ndin^  cUy  of  the  month.  In  calculating 
tlie  day  when  I  b«  bill  folia  due,  the  day  of  the  date  Ip 
ulwuya  excludiiil ;  «o  n  lilll  drawn  on  the  let  of  Janu- 
ary at  10  daya  after  date  would  became  due  on  the  11th, 

and  not  on  the  10th Uanual  of  Afercanlil'-  [.aw,  by 

Lkonk  I.kvi.  In  New  \  ork  and  other  Statci  atotutea 
have  been  adopted  by  the  Legialaturn,  providing  that 
when  a  bill  falla  duo  on  a  puldio  holiday  (ClirUtmaa, 
4th  of  July,  Thankagiring  Day,  New-Year'a  Day,  and, 
In  New  Urleoua,  January  Htli,  fur  inatance)  the  bill 
ahiill  lie  payable  the  day  preciHling. 

Dead-lighta,  |-.irta  <ir  ahuttora  to  oloae  in  the 
cabin-winduwa  of  a  nhip  in  liail  weather. 

Dead-reokoning,  in  Navif/alion,  the  estimation 
that  ia  ntade  of  the  place  whero  a  ahip  ia  situated,  with- 
out having  rccourao  to  obaorvution  of  the  celestial  bod- 
ies. It  ia  made  liy  observing  the  distance  she  has  run 
by  tba  log,  and  the  course  on  which  slip  has  been 
steered,  making  allowance  for  drift,  lee-way,  etc, 

0«ad  Sea  or  Lake  Aaphaltitea'  (Arabian, 
Bahr-tl-Lout,  "  Sea  of  Lot"),  n  lake  of  Palestine,  cele- 
brated in  Scripture  na  the  site  of  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah, between  lot.  81°  5'  and  ;il°  52'  N.,  and  long.  8«° 
•20'  and  35°  -lit'  K,,  ita  N.  extremity  nearly  20  miles  E. 
Jerusalem.  Mean  length  N.  to  S.  alniut  il5  miles ; 
average  breadth  from  10  to  12  miles  ;  but  ita  aize  varies 
greatly  in  different  eeasona  and  yenra. — Kobin80!<. 
It  is  incloaed  in  a  valley,  bounded  by  bare  limestone 
niountaina,  and  according  to  recent  researches,  ita  dept 
is  about  (150  fathoms,  and  its  surface  \fiVl  feet  below 
that  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  it  bring  thus  by  far 
the  deepest  known  tiaaure  on  the  earth's  surface.  Tlie 
river  Jordan  enters  it  on  ita  north  aide.  Its  waters 
are  thoroughly  impregnated  with  salt ;  and  it  has  not 
been  proviid  that  any  animal  exists  in  this  sea.  A 
mountain  of  rook  salt  on  ita  S,  W,  aide,  called  Hajr 
VtJum,  "  Stone  of  Sodom,"  preserves  the  name  of  that 
city,  ruined  with  others,  as  described  in  G>  ncsia  xlx., 
24-28  ;  and  traces  of  towna  or  buildings  are  reported, 
on  doubtful  authority,  to  have  been  seen  at  certain 
times  in  ita  bed.  Aaphiiltum  was  thrown  to  the  sur- 
face at  its  southern  extremity  in  large  quantities  after 
the  oarthquakea  of  1834  and  1837.  Messrs.  Kobinson 
and  Smith  have  found  the  "Aiclepitu  gii/antea,"  grow- 
ing at  Kngcdi,  on  Its  wealem  coast,  the  fruits  of  which 


(thii  famed  "  apples  of  Sodom")  though  Inviting  m  *f' 
pearance,  crumlile  in  the  hand  Into  powder. — Baa  ^V, 
A.  Ktr.,  I.,  p.  20a  (by  II.  II.  liiWAnim)  |  Bib.  ,Sac.,  v, 
897,  vii.  (by  Dr.  Hiihinhoii)  j  Siixihan's  Jour.,  xUIH 
viii.,  317 !  NuHk  tirit.  Hev.,  U.,  p,  261 ;  lAvrng  Agr,  xxUI, 
(aains  article) ;  ao  Lit.  itut.,  xiv,  (M,  F,  Maiiuy)  ; 
Mtthmiift  Quar.  Jiev.,  ix.,  1133  ;  lUvinf  Agt,  xxxl.,  307. 
''  In  undertaking  to  nxplnre  the  phyaical  geography 
laymlf  atanding  aide  tiy  xidn 
und,  and  with  him,  far  away 
'M  conaldering  some  of  the 


of  tlio  ■'<>»,  I  havii  fouii 
with  ti  ■  giMihigiat  "I'  ' 
from  the  aea-shorr. 
pbrnoinena  which  > 
inimenae   indentatum 
aea-drainag«— present 
Among  the  moHt  ''  ' 
Dead  Sea.     Lieut 
Navy,  has  rim  a  li  .el 
ninean,  and  llml.i  t    "  f i 
low  the  general  atii  a  \ 
account  fur  this  great 


<ina  of  the  earth— those 
face   that  have  no 
plation  and  stuily, 
1  i/ieae  la  that  of  the 
of  the  United  States' 
'  sea  to  the  Meditor- 
'"Ut  1,300  feet  be- 
lli.    In  aeeking  to 
of  watci-levol,  ihe 


geologist  examines  the  nuigliboriiig  region,  and  ualla 
to  hia  aid  the  forcea  of  elevation  and  depression  which 
are  auppoaed  to  have  reaided  in  the  neighborhood ;  he 
then  points  to  them  as  the  agenta  wliiili  did  the  work. 
Truly,  they  are  mighty  agenta,  and  they  have  diveral- 
tied  the  aurface  of  the  earth  with  tlie  most  towering 
monumenta  of  their  |iower.  liut  la  it  neoesaary  to 
suppoae  that  they  reaided  in  the  vicinity  of  tliia  re- 
gion ?  May  they  not  liavo  come  from  the  aoa,  and 
lieen,  if  not  In  this  case,  at  least  In  the  case  of  other 
inland  basins,  as  far  removed  as  the  other  liomi.'<phere  t 
Thia  ia  a  queation  which  I  do  not  pretend  to  answer 
deflnitely,  Uut  the  Inquiry  as  to  the  geological  agency 
of  the  winils  in  such  cases  ia  a  queation  which  my  in- 
veatigationa  Imve  auggeated.  It  haa  ita  aeat  in  the 
sea,  and  tiiercfore  I  pro|Hiund  it  as  one  which,  in  ac- 
counting for  the  formation  of  this  or  that  inland  liosln, 
ia  wortliy,  at  loaat,  of  consideration. 

"  la  there  any  evidence  tluit  the  annual  amount  of 
precipitation  u|K)n  the  water-ahed  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at 
some  former  period,  was  greater  than  the  annual 
amount  of  evaporation  from  it  now  ia  ?  If  yea,  from 
what  part  of  the  aea  did  tlie  vapor  that  supplied  the 
oxceaa  of  that  precipitation  come,  and  what  haa  cut 
off  that  supply  ?  The  more  elevation  of  the  rim 
and  depreaaion  of  the  Like  liaaiu  would  not  cut  it 
off.  If  wo  establish  the  fact  that  the  Dea<l  Sea  at  a 
fiu'mer  period  did  send  a  river  to  the  oceon,  we  carry 
along  with  this  fact  the  admission  that  when  that  aea 
overflowed  into  tliat  river,  then  the  water  that  fe'' 
from  the  clouds  over  the  Dead  Sea  basin  was  more 
than  the  winds  could  O'livert  into  vapor  and  carry 
away  again ;  the  river  >  arried  olT  the  excess  to  the 
ocean  wlience  it  came. 

'.'  In  the  basin  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  luiain  of  tlie 
Caspian,  of  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  in  the  otner  inland 
basins  of  Asia,  wo  arc  entitled  to  infer  that  the  precip< 
itation  and  evaporation  are  at  this  time  exactly  equal. 
Were  it  not  so,  the  level  of  these  seas  would  lie  rising 
or  sinking.  If  the  precipitation  were  in  excess,  those 
seas  would  be  t;radually  lieconiing  fuller ;  and  if  the 
evu])oration  were  in  excess,  they  would  be  gradually 
drying  up ;  but  observation  does  not  ahow,  nor  history 
tell  ua,  that  either  is  the  case.  As  far  as  we  know, 
the  level  of  these  seas  is  as  permanent  as  that  of  the 
ocean,  and  i'.  ia  diflieult  to  realize  the  existence  of 
subterranean  channels  between  them  and  the  great 
ocean.  Were  there  such  a  channel,  the  Dead  Sea  be- 
ing the  lower,  it  would  Ije  the  recipient  of  ocean  waters, 
anil  we  can  not  conceive  how  it  should  be  such  a  re- 
cipient without  ultimately  rising  to  the  level  of  its 
feeder.  It  may  be  that  the  question  suggested  by  my 
researches  has  no  bearing  upon  the  Dead  Sea ;  tiiat 
local  elevations  and  sulisidences  alone  were  concerned 
in  placing  the  level  of  its  waters  where  it  ia.  Kut  is 
it  prolmble  that,  thruugbout  all  the  geological  periods, 
during  all  the  changes  that  have  token  place  in  tb< 


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dlitribntloii  of  land  ud  water  inrfu*  over  the  earth, 
the  windi,  which  in  the  general  channels  of  circalation 
jMMM  orer  the  Dead  Sea,  have  alone  been  unchanged  ? 
Thronghont  ill  agea,  periods,  and  formations,  is  it 
prsbable  that  the  winds  have  brought  us  just  as  much 
moisturs  to  that  sea  as  they  now  bring,  and  have  just 
taken  up  as  much  water  ftrnn  it  as  they  now  carry  off? 
Obvioasly  and  clearly  not.  The  salt-beds,  the  water- 
■laiks,  the  geological  fohnations,  and  other  focts 
traced  by  Nature's  own  hand  upon  the  tablets  of  the 
rock,  all  indicate  plahdy  enough  that  not  only  the 
Dead  Sea,  but  the  Caspian  also,  had  npon  them,  in 
fonner  periods,  more  abundant  nins  than  they  now 
hare.  Where  did  the  vapor  for  those  rains  come 
flrom  7  and  what  has  stopped  the  supply  ?  Surely  not 
the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  Dead  Sea  basin." — 
Uadbt's  Phgt.  Gtog.  of  the  Sea,  p.  323. 

Dead-water.  The  water  that  closes  in  with  a 
•hip's  stem. 

Deala,  or  Deal-bearda  (German,  Didtn ;  Dutch, 
Ifeelen;  Danish,  Btder;  Swiss,  Tiljor;  French,  Pbm- 
ekes  minces;  Italian,  Tavole,  Piane;  Russian,  IhriH) 
Folish,  raretce),  a  thin  kind  of  fir  planks,  much  used  in 
carpentry.  They  are  farmed  by  sawing  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  into  longitudinal  divisions,  of  greater  or  less  thick- 
ness, according  to  the  purposes  they  are  intended  to 
•erve.  They  an  imported  fh>m  Dantzic,  Petenbutg, 
Narva,  and  many  other  ports  in  the  Baltic,  and  tnm 
North  America ;  but  those  fh>m  Clirlstiana,  the  capi- 
tal of  Norway,  are  the  best,  and  bring  the  highest 
Srice.  They  are  distinguishable  from  those  produced 
t  the  co.-i^^ons  provinces  of  Norway  ;  their  superi- 
ority has  been  said  to  depend  principally  on  their  lieing 
more  perfectly  sawed ;  hut  it  really  depends  on  the 
greater  care  with  which  the  sap-wood  and  other  defect- 
ive portions  of  the  timber  are  cut  away,  and  on  the 
quality  of  the  timber.  A  Russian  standard  deal  is  12 
feet  long,  11  inches  wide,  and  1^  inch  thick  ;  400  feet 
of  H  inch  plank  make  a  load.  A  Christiana  standard 
deal  is  11  feet  long,  9  inches  wide,  and  H  inch  thick. 
There  is  another  standard  of  Norway  deals  at  Dram, 
10  feet  long,  9  inches  wide,  and  It  inch  thick. 

Debenture,  a  term  used  at  the  custom-house  to 
dgnUy  the  certificatf  subscribed  by  the  customs  officers, 
and  given  to  the  exporter  of  goods  on  whicli  a  drawback 
is  allowed,  bearing  that  the  exporter  has  complied  with 
the  required  regulations,  and  that  he  is  entitled  to  such 
drawback. 

Debt,  in  law,  is  a  species  of  contract,  whereby  a 
dkote  in  action,  or  right  to  a  certain  sum  of  money,  is 
mutually  acquired  and  lost ;  usually  divided  into  debts 
of  record,  debts  by  special  contract,  and  del)ts  ny  sim- 
ple contract.  A  debt  of  record  is  a  sum  which  appears 
to  be  due  by  the  evidence  of  a  court  of  record  ;  such  as 
debt  on  judgment  or  recognizance.  Delit  by  specialty 
-is  where  a  sum  is  acknowledged  to  \m  duo,  or  becomes 
4ne,  by  Instrument  under  seal ;  such  as  a  covenant, 
bond,  etc.  Both  these  species  of  debts,  being  con- 
tracted by  a  man  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  attach  on 
bis  lands  and  tenements,  and  bind  them  in  the  hands 
of  his  heir  or  devisee.  Del>t  by  simple  contract  is  either 
by  parole  or  by  written  obUgation  unsealed  ;  within 
which  class  fall  bills  of  exchtmge  and  pronilssnr}-  notes. 
Debt  is  also  a  persona!  action  of  contract,  in  which  the 
plaintiff  seeks  the  recover}-  of  debt ;  i.  e.  a  liqvidated 
or  certain  sum  of  money  alleged  to  be  due  to  him. 

TMit,  Impriiotmnit for.  See  Hvirr's  M.  Mag.,  iv. 
pp.  72,  688 ;  ff.A.Rnitw,  xxxii.  (by  A.  H.  Everett)  ; 
Am.  Almamte,  184S,  181 ;  Weetmituter  Bevirm,  ix.,  xix., 
XX.,  xliv  ;  Brituh  and  For.  Rev.,  v. ;  Baakeri'  Maga- 
mnt,  iU.  p.  88. 

Decade  (T<atin,  dfi-a»,  trora  Greek  dexa,  ten). 
A  word  used  by  some  old  writers  in  a  general  sense  for 
the  numlwr  ten,  or  an  enumeration  by  tens  ;  Imt  more 
pecnllarly  appropriated  to  the  number  of  books  into 
which  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  by  Livy  is  di- 
vMed,  each  division  consisting  of  ten  books  or  decades. 


It  waa  also  the  name  given  to  the  space  of  10  day*, 
which  in  the  French  republiean  calendar  waa  substi- 
tuted for  the  ordinary  week.  The  10th,  or  last  day, 
wai>  termed  decadi.  Thus,  except  in  bissextile  years, 
the  whole  numlier  of  decades  waa  86i  :  the  days  of  the 
half  decades,  falling  at  the  close  of  the  year,  were  at 
one  time  called  taneculottidet,  and  afterward  compL-  ( 
mentaiyi  and  dedicated  respectively  to  Virtue,  Ge- 
nius, Labor,  Opinion,  and  Kecompence. 

Decimal  Coinage,  a  system  of  monetary  calcu 
lation  advancing  to  infinity  from  a  fixed  standard  of 
value,  and  performing  its  multiplications  by  any  in- 
creasing progression  of  tens,  and  its  divisions  by  a 
decreasing  progression  which  is  also  decimal. 

This  system,  whose  superiority  to  all  others  now  In 
nse  is  universally  acknowledged,  waa  first  organized 
and  established  by  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  France 
in  1790.  It  forms  a  part  of  that  vast  decimal  metrical 
system  of  weights  and  measures,  which,  since  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  haa  obtained  in  France,  and  is 
slowly  spreading  thence  into  the  other  countries  of 
Europe  and  America.  The  subject  was  so  widely  and 
keenly  agitated  throughout  Great  Britain  in  the  open- 
ing months  of  1858,  that  the  House  of  Commons  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  investigate  the  whole  matter. 
The  report  of  this  committee  was  laid  liefore  the  House 
on  the  lit  of  August  of  that  year.  This  document 
was  introduced  with  a  strong  recommendation  of  the 
decimal  system  of  coinage,  and  proiiosed  that  the  basis 
of  that  system  when  introidnced  should  be  the  present 
pound  sterling.  By  the  retention  of  ;he  pound,  the 
decimal  system  m^ht  be  Introduced  with  the  least 
possible  change.  Its  10th  part  already  exists  in  the 
shape  of  the  fiorin  or  two-shilling  piece,  while  an  alter- 
ation of  4  p«r  cent,  in  the  value  of  the  present  farthing 
will  serve  to  convert  that  coin  into  the  lowest  step  of 
the  decimal  scale,  which  it  is  necessar}'  to  represent  by 
means  of  an  actual  coin,  viz.,  the  one-thousandth  part 
of  a  pound.  To  this  lowest  denomination  it  was  pro- 
posed by  the  committee  to  give  the  name  of  mil,  in 
order  to  mark  its  relation  to  the  unit  of  value.  Tho 
addition  of  a  coin  to  be  called  a  cent,  of  the  value  of 
10  mils,  and  equal  to  the  100th  part  of  a  pound,  or  the 
10th  part  of  the  florin,  would  serve  to  complete  the  list 
of  coins  necessary  to  represent  the  moneys  of  account, 
which  would  accordingly  be  pounds,  fiorins,  cents,  and 
mils.  As  to  the  coins  by  means  of  which  the  decimal 
system  will  be  developed,  it  is  proposed  that  some  of 
those  now  in  nse  be  retained,  and  that  new  coins  I  e 
sulMtitnted  for  others  of  them.  Tho  coins  thus  re- 
tained would  be  the  present  sovereign  (1000  mils),  the 
half-sovereign  (600  mils),  florin  (100  mils),  and  shilling 
(50  mils,  or  5  cents).  The  present  sixpence,  under  the 
denomination  of  25  mils,  might  be  retained ;  and  the 
crown-piece,  or  a  piece  of  260  mils,  of  which  few  are  in 
circulation,  need  not  l>e  withdrawn.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  would  be  desirable  to  withdraw  the  half-crown, 
and  the  threepenny  and  fourpenny  pieces,  which  arc 
inconsistent  with  the  decimal  scale.  In  the  United 
States  the  decimal  system  has  been  introdnced  into  tlie 
coinage  with  great  advantage;  and  an  effort  is  now 
Iwing  made  to  introduce  it  into  weights  and  measures, 
which  it  is  hoped  will  succeed  in  a  few  years. 

Decimal  Praotiona,  are  fractions  which  havo 
for  their  denominator  10,  100,  1000,  etc.,  or  in  gcnenii 
some  power  of  10.  The  use  of  decimal  fk'actions  is 
merely  an  axtensioh  of  the  ordinary  scale  of  arithmet- 
ical notation.  Setting  out  from  tho  unit's  place,  the 
1st  figure  to  the  left  (in  the  expression  of  any  whole 
number)  denotes  so  many  tens,  the  2d  to  the  left  so 
many  hundreds,  the  8d  so  many  thousands,  and  so  on  ; 
so  that  in  the  number  705,  for  example,  each  unit  of 
the  6  is  the  10th  part  of  each  unit  of  thn  ',  and  each 
unit  of  the  6  a  10th  of  each  unit  of  tho  6.  In  like 
manner,  in  the  expression  of  a  decimal  fhiction,  setting 
out  from  the  unit's  place,  tiM  1st  figure  to  the  right 
expresses  so  many  10th  patta,  the  2d  to  the  right  so 


DBO 


617 


DEO 


ich  have 
„  (Kenenil 
actions  i» 
arithraet- 
place,  the 
my  whole 
le  left  80 
ltd  so  on ; 
h  unit  of 
and  each 
In  like 
J,  settinK 
the  right 
light  (O 


Many  100th  paita,  the  8d  lo  many  lOOOtht,  and  lo  on ; 
10  that  each  fignre,  aa  before,  expresaea  parts,  which 
are  each  10  times  smaller  than  those  expressed  by  the 
figure  immediately  preceding.  By  expressing  fteo- 
tlons  in  this  manner,  the  operations  of  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  are  exactly  the 
same  as  in  integer  numbers.  In  order  to  distinguish 
the  integral  from  the  fractional  part  of  a  numeric^  ex- 
pression, a  point  or  comma  is  placed  between  them. 
Various  marlu  have  been  used  for  this  purpose  at  dif- 
ferent times;  but  the  point  la  now  most  commonly 
employed,  and,  according  to  the  practice  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  it  should  always  be  placed  near  the  top  of 
the  figure,  thus  2*40,  which  prevents  it  from  being 
confounded  with  the  ordinary  marks  of  punctuation. 
^Decimal  ftactions  appear  to  have  been  introduced  by 
Kegiomontanus,  about  the  year  1464;  but  Stevinus 
was  the  first  who  wrote  an  express  treatise  on  the  8ut>- 
Ject  in  his  Pratique  tF  Arithmttiqut,  published  in  1582. 
The}'  are  now  universally  employed  in  all  arithmetical 
calculations ;  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  a  dec- 
imal division  of  weights,  measures,  money,  etc.,  has  not 
been  adopted  in  all  clvilixed  countries,  by  which  the 
reduction  of  fractional  parts  from  one  scale  to  another 
would  be  obviated,  and  all  the  applications  of  arithme- 
tic to  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life  greatly  simplified. 
A  subdivision  of  weights  and  measures  on  this  principle 
was  adopted  in  France  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
but  has  not  been  imitated  by  other  countries. 

Decimal  Weighta  and  Meaaures.  I.  IfUro- 
Huclion  of  the  Decimal  Syetem. — The  introduction  of  the 
decimal  system  is  so  Important  to  all  nations,  and  the 
advantages  so  apparent,  that  any  discuaalon  on  the  sub- 
ject will  be  of  interest.  The  facility  of  transacting 
every  business,  and  the  saving  of  labor,  would  be 
much  increased  by  having  a  general  and  convenient 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  The  good  result  of 
the  introduction  of  the  decimal  system  into  our  coin- 
age is  so  universally  admitted,  that  efforts  should  be 
made  to  carry  the  system  out  in  all  our  ttandardt. 
The  importance  of  the  clause  in  the  Magna  Charta, 
and  expressed  in  an  old  English  law  of  older  date,  is 
not  folly  felt,  that  there  ahall  be  only  one  meamre  and 
one  weight  throughout  the  land.  This  has  never  been 
realized  either  in.  England  or  this  country,  though 
many  efforts  have  been  mode  to  introduce  a  common 
system.  Ooi^mercial  intercourse  would  be  facilitated, 
and  many  of  the  embarrassments  and  delays  would  bo 
obviat'-il,  could  a  system  be  made  unlveisal  in  all  mar- 
itime conutries.  There  is  no  bar  to  the  introduction 
of  such  a  system ;  for  whatever  difference  there  may 
be  in  the  systems  adopted  or  in  the  notation  used,  yet 
they  are  all  founded  on  the  Arabian  numbers.  All 
have  the  same  numerical  system  for  a  foundation, 
though  the  superstructures  are  varied.  It  would  be 
scarcely  practicable  to  introduce  into  the  whole  world 
a  general  system  at  once ;  but  it  is  practic'hle  for  the 
principal  maritime  nations,  who  are  so  much  interested, 
to  have  a  congress,  and  unite  upon  some  complete  xys- 
<tom  that  would  take  the  place  of  the  many  disjointed 
and  empirical  ones  now  in  use.  The  rest  of  the  world 
would  follow  in  time,  ftrom  the  fact  that  convenience 
and  advantage  are  more  than  equal  to  custom.  How- 
ever, the  principal  end  would  be  attained  in  a  short 
time— commercio/  intercourse  would  be  carried  on 
among  nations  with  one  atandiird ;  having,  if  necessar}', 
the  notation  admitted  into  each  country  affected  by 
the  language,  but  yet  to  be  equivalent  in  values.  It  is 
a'  very  Interesting  question  what  shall  be  the  standard  i 
and  one  where  rival  claims  can  l>e  brought  forward, 
each  standard  of  measure,  of  weight,  and  of  coinage 
having  some  advantages ;  and  it  may  be  difficult  to 
decide  what  are  the  best.  It  seems,  however,  to  be 
admitted  that  the  decimal  division  is  the  only  perfect 
one.  It  being  stated  as  a  general  principle,  that  for 
convenience  a  standard  varying  but  little  from  some 
old  standard,  should,  If  possible,  be  uwd< 


II.  The  Natural  Standard  or  Unit /or  the  Bait  o/ 
the  Sgstem. — In  respect  to  coinage,  our  standard  of  a 
dollar  for  a  unit  seems  to  answer  ever}'  purpose,  and 
is  the  most  convenient  of  any  in  use  in  the  world.  So 
it  will,  perhaps,  be  sufficient  to  examine  with  respect 
to  weights  and  measures.  The  standard  or  unit  for 
measurement  that  would  seem  to  be  given  by  nature, 
is  the.drcumference  of  the  earth  taken  at  n  given  lati- 
tude. We  have  there  an  unvarying  base,  and  one 
always  practicable  to  measure.  For  convenience,  we 
would  naturally  take  a  part  of  this  circle,  vAng  any 
natural  division.  This  is  given  to  us  at  once  by  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  and  the  aio  a  fixed 
star  traverses  in  a  given  time,  and  then  dividing  by  a 
decimal  division  this  time  of  rotation,  gives  a  standard 
of  convenient  length.  Having  to  call  In  the  aid  of  ao- 
trouomy  to  determine  this  distance,  the  notation  used 
in  that  science,  of  degrees  and  minutes,  etc,,  was  natu- 
rally adopted.  It  was  found  that  one  degree,  or  860th 
part  of  the  earth's  circumference  divided  into  60  parts, 
was  about  equal  to  a  mile  of  the  old  empirical  system, 
A  very  sniall  change  will  be  therefore  necessary,  tak- 
ing this  mile  as  a  unit.  From  this  unit  a  table  is  con- 
structed that  will  give  the  most  convenient  measures, 
with  the  least  possible  change  from  the  old  system, 
and  one  that  could  be  adopted  at  least  by  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  with  advantage  : 

III.  1.  General  Table  o/ New  Lineal  Meaturepropoted. 

lOtenths  =  1  Inch.       <    oj-ivi.-  ».    .j 

10  inches  or  100  tenths,  =  1  foot  ; ;:''     , '  . .  ■ 

6  feet  or  80  Inches        =  1  hthom.  '  "  ' — 

1000  ttthoms  or  6000  feet  =  1  mile, 

60  mtlas  =  1  degree  on  the  meridian. 

Measures  of  Temperature  and  Air. — The  centigrade 
thermometer  generally  used  in  France  and  other  coun- 
tries, having  its  zero  at  the  freezing  point — the  only 
invariable  point  of  temperature  in  nature — and  ita 
100th  degree  determined  by  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water,  when  the  barometer  stands  at  24^  inches  of  the 
new  lineal  measure  proposed  to  be  adopted  in  prefer- 
ence to  Fahrenheit's  scale.  The  barometer  to  be  marked 
in  inches  and  lOths  of  the  new  measure.  The  new 
standard  of  lineal  measure  to  be  the  fathom  of  6  feet 
marked  on  a  rod  of  brass  or  other  metal,  and  made 
equal  to  6  feet  0*91548  inch  of  our  present  measure 
at  the  temperature  of  62-6  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  or  17 
degrees  of  the  centigrade  thermometer.  This  propor- 
tion will  make  the  proposed  mile  equal  to  1012*716 
fathoms  of  our  present  measure,  being  the  mean  length 
of  the  minute  of  a  degree  of  terrestrial  meridian,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Airy's  treatise  on  the  figure  of  the 
earth. — Ency.  Metro,  Should  more  extensive  surveys 
of  meridianal  areas,  since  made  or  in  progress,  lead  to 
a  more  accurate  Value  of  the  said  minute,  it  is  pro- 
posed that  the  necessary  correction  shall  be  effected, 
not  by  changing  the  standard  rod,  but  by  altering  the 
legal  temperature  to  a  higher  or  lower  point  than  17 
degrees  centigrade. 

For  measuring  works  of  architecture  and  engineeN 
ing,  the  foot  and  its  decimal  subdivisions  will  be  used, 
and  measurements  by  10  feet  and  100  feet,  and  not  by 
the  yard  or  rod. 

2.  For  Land  Measure. — The  fathom  to  be  the  tmit, 
and  10th  and  100th  for  fractions,  and  all  square-woric 
to  be  so  measured : 

1000  square  fltthom*    =:    1  acre.  wtnin  ;.'t 

1000  acres'  =    1  roils  ■■/•'■■•  i.a; 

8.  For  Solid  Measure The  foot  to  be  the  nnlt  t  v 

1000  oublq  Inobts    =    1  foot.  ,;,  , 

Liquids  to  be  measured  by  solid  measurements :  it'-'' 
10  ooblo  inches  =    1  pint  ^tk 

100  cubic  inches  =    1  ksUod.        '., , 

100  cubic  gallons  or  10  cubic  feet  =    1  barrel         /, ' 

4.  Measures  of  Weight  Proposed.  ''■ 

,, ,       lOtenths       =    1  ounce.  ,,, 

I       10  ounces      =    1  poand,  J' 

"    "  100  pounds      =    1  hundred-weight  3"' 

1000  pounds      =    1  tbousand-weigbt,  it  i 

WOO  pounds      =    Iton.  ^, 


MOf 


SIS 


DEB' 


Aad  1  pound  be  the  weight  of  l-WKh  of  a  cable  foot 
of  water  at  17  degraei  oentigrade,  and  tbe  barometer 
standing  at  24^  inches  of  the  new  lineal  meaaure.  Jfy 
thia  arrangement,  100  pounds  will  be  eqoal  to  alwot 
106  pounds  of  the  present  aroirdlipols  weight.  All  the 
weights  fbr  coins,  bullion,  apothecailea'  weights,  etc., 
be  regulated  by  this  system,  and  all  customs  and  du- 
ties collected  by  these  tables.  This  would  soon  Intro- 
duce the  system  without  any  compulsory  measures. 

rv.  Sonie  qf  the  Advantajfet  of  the  Jv<w  8y$ltm  of 
Meaiara  and  Weight*. — The  mue  proposed  Is  the  nau- 
tical or  geographical  mile,  and  used  exclusively  for  the 
purposes  of  navigation  by  all  the  maritime  nations, 
and  inserted  in  all  the  scales  of  charts  and  maps  of  the 
worid,  Is  tbe  only  nniversal  measure  now  lecogniaed. 
Also  the  Weights,  as  well  as  the  measures,  are  decimal 
parts  of  the  unit,  as  fiir  as  can  be,  without  a  total 
change  of  our  present  systems.  The  French  metrical 
system  has  proved  a  failure  practically.  Theoretically 
it  is  perfect ;  taking  the  decree  for  a  unit,  and  usfaig 
the  decimal  divisions  throu^ont.  But  our  whole  no- 
tation In  astronomy  and  navigation  is  founded  upon 
the  division  of  the  degree  into  60  pArts,  and  we  can  not 
iuve  a  complete  change  until  we  manufacture  our 
cloclu  and  watches  so  as  to  mark  time  by  decimal 
divisions,  and  change  our  hours  and  minutes  into  cor- 
responding lOths  and  lOOths ;  in  fact,  abandon  entirely 
our  present  system.  This  Is  too  great  a  change  ever 
to  be  practicable,  especially  where  so  many  ftlibrent 
people  liave  to  conform.  The  system  that  has  been 
proposed,  only  introduces  tlia  decimal  divi*um$  into 
the  standards  already  adopted,  and  is  not  only  practi- 
cable, bat  the  cliange  can  readily  be  made,  aa  iv  the 
case  of  oar  coinage.  It  will  be  sol&cient  to  convince 
the  most  skeptical  of  the  necessity  of  a  change,  to 
make  an  examination  of  the  tables  of  weights,  meas- 
ures and  coins  in  the  world.  And  as  no  better  time 
to  correct  an  evil  can  be  had  than  the  present,  it  is 
hoped  tliat  our  government  will  lead  the  way  in  so  use- 
ful a  change.  The  British  government  kavq  already 
taken  maasutes  to  have  ~  ezamiBation  and  reseonhes 
made  for  tUs  object,  ht  seen  from  the  follow- 

ing: 

"  8ir  John  Wrottv  i>mght  the  decimal  system 

of  coinage,  weights,  etc.,  before  Parliament,  February 
2Mh,  1824,  bul:  it  was  not  till  Hay,  1888,  that  a  com- 
mission of  inquicy  was  appointed  at  the  instance  of  tbe 
then  Cliancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Mr.  Spring  Rice, 
since  Lord  Monteagle ;  and  in  June  20, 1848,  another 
rommission  was  appointed ;  they  both  consisted  of 
c  juinant  scientific  men,  and  both  reported  strongly  in 
fliror  of  the  change.  A  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  reported  to  the  same  eflkot,  August  1st, 
1863.  Mr.  Qladstaae,  however,  whUe  admittfaig  the 
advantagaa  of  this  system,  tlwugbt  its  iotndnction 
prematura.  In  June,  1854,  an  association  was  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  adoption  of  the  sys- 
tem. In  July,  1856,  the  commtssionen  for  inquiry 
wen  again  appointed."  See  Weigku  amd  Meaiuru. 
See  Bmkert'  Magatiue,  N.  Y.,  1866;  Btmkenf  RegU- 
ter,  N.  Y.,  1857. 

DeoUiwtionoftiwlfeedlc.  PnfiBssar  Chris- 
topher Haasteen,  of  Christiana,  in  Norway,  is  tlu 
person  who  has  given,  prolwbly,  the  greatest  impulse, 
in  recent  times,  to  the  efforts  to  methodize  the  facts 
and  laws  of  the  earth's  magnetism.  M.  Hansteen  was 
bom  September  86, 1788,  and  is  Professor  of  Astron- 
omy in  the  University  of  Christiana,  and  Director  of 
the  Ofaaerratory.  HU  dissertation,  entitled  MagmitU- 
mut  der  Erdo,  published  in  1819,  which  received  a 
prize  firom  the  Royal  Danish  Academy,  recapitulated 
all  the  authenticatrd  facts  obtained  by  Voyagers  oni! 
others,  from  the  earliest  times.  It  wUl  be  recollected 
that  Halley  had  reprtsented  tbe  magnetic  variation  at 
dUferant  parts  of  tlis  globe  by  Ihiea  traced  on  Merca- 
tor's  chart,  and  passing  through  all  the  pUces  when 
the  variation  (or  decHnatlon)  of  the  needle  from  the 


tm*  Borth  waa  eqaal ;  aad  babg  wdl  owan  af  tba 
progressive  (or  secular)  changes  la  the  eourse  of  these 
lines,  he  pro|K)se(i  the  hypothesis  of  8  pafai  of  magnstia 
poles  interior  to  the  globs,  of  which  1  pair  nmdvea 
slowly. 

Professor  Han<«>sn  also  constructed  charts  of  the 
lines  of  eqnal  dip.  In  certain  poaitions  between  the 
tropics  tlie  dip  Is  nothing,  or  tbe  fireely-snspended  mag- 
netic needle  remains  horisoatal.  The  line  connecting 
these  piaeei  is  called  the  magnetic  eqoator.  It  is  an 
undulating  line,  inclined  somawhen  near  13°  or  18° 
to  the  terrestrial  equator,  and  cutting  It  la  3  points,  not 
exactly  opposite,  but  in  about  8°  30*  and  174°  80'  of 
E.  long,  ficom  Paris,  aooordlng  to  Admiial  Dupamy'a 
observations  in  1886.  The  pnsitioB  of  these  aodsa  is, 
however,  variable.  The  north  end  of  the  needle  (as  Is  • 
well  known)  dips  more  and  aiofe  In  the  aotthara  hem- 
isphere, until  in  a  certain  place  it  bnoomet  vertical, 
when  iiierefore  the  horiaontal  eomponeat  of  tlie  mag> 
netle  force  Is  nothing,  sad  the  oomaion  compass  loses 
altogether  its  dtractive  power.  Similar  plieaomena 
occur  In  the  southern  hmsisphon.  Lines  of  dip  of 
10",  to',  etc.,  may  be  drawn,  and  where  the  dip  la 
90°  there  Is  a  true  magnetic  pole.  The  iMst  observa- 
tions serve  to  show  that  there  is  but  one  such  true  pole 
in  each  hemisphere. — B.  B.  PrtUmimuy  /Mwartatum, 
by  J.  D.  FoRBia,  F.R.8. 

D0«d  is  a  written  contract,  sealed  aad  delivered. 
It  must  be  written  before  the  ssaUag  and  delivery, 
otherwise  it  is  no  deed ;  and,  after  it  is  once  formally 
executed  by  the  parties,  nothing  can  be  added  or  in- 
terlined ;  and  therefore.  If  a  deed  be  sealed  and  deliv- 
ered, with  a  blank  left  for  the  sum,  wUeh  the  obUgea- 
deli'^rs  up  after  sealing  and  delivery,  this  will  make 
the  di  :^  void.  A  deed  must  be  made  by  parties  ca- 
pable ot  contracting,  aad  upon  a  good  consideration, 
and  the  subject-matter  most  Im  legally  and  formally 
set  out.  The  formal  ports  of  a  deed  are  tha  premises 
containing  the  number,  names,  additions,  and  titles  t 
the  parties,  the  covenants,  which  are  clauses  of  agree- 
ment contained  in  the  deed,  whereby  the  contracting 
parties  stipulate  for  the  truth  of  certain  foots,  or  bfaid 
themselves  to  the  performance  of  some  speoiflc  acts ; 
the  conclusion,  which  mentions  theexeontion  and  date 
of  the  deed,  or  the  time  of  its  being  given  or  executed, 
either  expressly,  or  with  reforenee  to  some  day  and 
year  before-mentioned.  Every  deed  most  be  founded 
upon  good  and  anfflcient  oonsideration,  not  upon  an 
usurious  contract,  nor  upon  fraud,  oolhuion,  either  to 
deceive  toMi  JUe  purebosen,  or  Just  and  lawful  credit- 
on  ;  any  of  which  considerations  will  vacate  tbe  deed, 
and  subject  the  parties  to  forfoitura,  and  in  soma  cases 
to  Imprisonment.  A  deed,  also,  without  any  consid- 
eration, is  void.  A  deed  mast  be  executed  by  tbe 
party  himself,  or  by  another  for  him  la'  liis  preaancs, 
or  with  his  direction ;  or,  in  his  absence,  by  an  agent 
authorized  so  to  do  by  another  deed,  also  under  seal ; 
and  In  eveiy  sneh  case,  the  deed  must  l>e  made  and 
executed  in  the  name  of  the  prinoipal.  A  deed  takea 
eifect  only  from  the  day  of  delivery ;  and  therefore,  if 
it  Iuve  no  date,  or  a  dote  impossible,  the  deliveiy  will, 
in  all  cases,  ascertain  the  diirta  of  it ;  and  if  another 
party  seal  the  deed,  yet,  if  tha  party  deliver  it  himself, 
he  thereby  adopta  the  sealing  aad  cigaing,  and  by 
such  delivery  makes  them  both  his  own.  The  deliv- 
eiy of  a  deed  may  be  alleged  at  any  time  after  the 
date  ;  but  unless  it  be  sealed  and  Mgularly  delivered, 
it  is  no  deed.  Another  reqaislte  of  a  deed  b,  that  it 
be  properly  witnessed  or  attested.  Tbe  attestation  is, 
however,  necessary  rather  for  preserving  the  evidence 
tlun  as  intrinsindly  essential  to  the  validity  of  the 
instrument.  There  are  four  principles  adopted  by  the 
courts  of  law  for  the  expo8iti<>n  of  deeds,  via^ :  1. 
That  they  he  beneflcial  to  the  grantee,  or  person  in 
whose  favor  tliey  are  Intended  to  operate.  3.  Tiiot 
where  the  words  may  be  employed  to  some  intent, 
they  shall  not  be  void.    8.  That  the  words  be  eon* 


DSd 


019 


DEL 


itniad  aooofdiag  to  Um  iMMillig  of  lb*  ptttiH,  »»i 
(ha  inUnt  of  tha  paitiu  b*  aanri«4  into  all^At,  provldsd 
■uoh  inUnt  can  poaiUiljr  ataMt  m»  •  Uw,  4.  Tb»t  tlw/ 
ara  to  ba  axpoundad  oonaonMtl)'  to  t(M  rHl«»  «f  l«W, 
and  naionably,  wiUuxit  iujary  to  tM  gnuitor,  tfld  t« 
tha  graataat  advaalaga  of  tha  gf  antaa.c^K,  Ai 

D»gt—  of  Latitud*  if  tiia  »mim  or  Ai«t*n«8|  on 
th«  maridian,  thnugh  wUab  an  oowrvar  muft  RWV« 
to  vary  hla  latituda  by  1  dagroa,  or  to  \mr»U»  or 
diminish  the  diitanea  of  •  atar  from  tbo  noflitb  by  1 
degree ;  and  which,  on  tha  ntppoaitioA  of  tb»  pifn«t 
ipkerlcity  of  tha  aaith,  ia  tha  MOtb  part  of  tb«  mM- 
ian.  Tha  length  of  a  datpraa  of  »  moridiAH,  or  othw 
great  cirda  on  the  aurfaoa  of  tbs  aartb,  Id  vum»\jf  it- 
termlnad  by  diSsrant  obaarvor*,  and  tb«  in»(bnd«  IM4« 
use  of  are  varlooa  |  and,  tbaraforo,  without  ont«riflH 
into  the  hlatory  of  all  attempt*  a(  tbi«  kM,  wo  ibtfl 
praatat  our  leadara  with  tiia  fallowbltf 
TA3tas  or  na  Dwraaain  LaoaTiM  or  ♦  Dmmg,  M  MO/MM 
o««D  in  vAUQDs  p*iii»  or  TUP  l$4aTHi  THii  Ti.di  or  m 
MKASuauiiirr.  tui  LATrriiUR  or  in  0IRMI<M  mm,  Wtn, 


DaM. 


1690 

im 

164t 

IWi 
lTt8{ 
1T8T 

1740  J 


ITU 

ITH 
1755 
1764 
1766 
1768 
1802 


1808 


aOi'  N. 
T  N. 

IB    N. 


40 

n 

N. 

M 

so 

N. 

49 

22 

N. 

» 

00 

N. 

0      0 


ISt  B. 
0  ». 
44  N. 
40  V. 
18  N. 
S9  M^N. 
20^  M. 
82  N. 
tOk  N. 


BneTlliH      , 
Norwooa . , , 


BtceloH. 

Ploard ,i 

Cavini ,f 

Hsopertnis,.,,,: 

C«sala)*l40iMII« 
Juaod'UllPi,,, 
Boogitgr.,. 
Ooaoaoilna 

UOMII*, 

BoseorlPll,!.... 
Bsuoarla,,,,,., 

LlMganlg 

Uaanniuid  Wmo 

Swanherg, 
LambtoR  . 
Blot,Ar*«o,  «(«„, 


Hrmmf, 

iHllMd.' 

mm, 

ffMM. 


Degree  of  hongltoA*  is  tbo  ap«A«  botwoon  3 
meridiann  that  make  an  angle  of  1°  with  ^««b  Otbsr  «( 
the  poles,  tha  quantity  or  length  of  wblnb  is  v»r)«l«to 
acoordlug  to  the  latitude.  Tbo  folb)Wtn«  t»l(l«  git' 
preJises  the  length  of  a  degree  of  UiogitHdom  difl^roHt 
latitudee,  suppoeing  tha  earth  to  ponAMU  a  porfopt 
sphericity : 


ut. 

ML1«. 

Ut 

MlUi. 

U.. 

¥0.^  ri, 

sfe. 

ispri 

0 

62-07 

28 

6««1 

it 

47'»r  - 

D 

ffWl 

1 

62-06 

24 

8^ 

47 

4r'0« 

d^'iO 

i 

69-08 

15 

4« 

fi'iA 

fidilf 

8 

68  •97 

26 

62-01 

49 

ma 

%itM 

4 

68-90 

27 

61-48 

60 

X^h 

mtS 

» 

6a«i 

28 

60«« 

61 

0'¥t 

i 

imiM 

t 

T 

68-48 

29 

80 

60-86 
62-76 

u 

ii-i 

8 

68-81 

81 

50-18 

54 

IA'h 

9 

66'IS 

82 

68-51 

55 

mtm 

k 

fw 

10 

67-aB 

as 

67-8T 

6« 

IW'68 

» 

fi! 

It 

67-78 

S4 

B7-20 

67 

87*8 

0 

Tf 

12 

67-48 

86 

56-61 

68 

H-M 

»t 

m 

18 

67-21 

86 

55.81 

e« 

MM 

•U 

14 

66-95 

S^ 

56-10 

K 

«4-60 

1 

15 

66-65 

64-87 

68^4A 

14 

1 

1« 

66-31 

89 

68-61 

62 

82-40 

t 

17 

69-98 

40 

52-W 

48 

Hi'8» 

*# 

'1 

18 

6B-62 

41 

62-07 

64 

tit 

« 

12 

66-24 

42 

51-27 

66 

t« 

ig 

10 

64-84 

48 

60-46 

66 

28'fla 

8# 

21 

64-42 

44 

49>6« 

•T 

68 

M'06 

m 

'oa  1 

21 

68-27 

45 

48-74 

26<aA 

J 

A  degree  of  the  meridian  on  the  surftMW  of  tb»  (flolio 
has  been  variously  determined  by  4ii^or^nt  ohsorvors, 
M.  Picart  meas-ured  a  degree  in  tbo  lotitodfl  of  #^  81', 
aud  found  it  equal  to  fi7,060  Frenub  toiws,  ilot  tb^ 
Frenuh  mathematicians  who  axaniined  PiPftFt'i  itmrn^ 
tions,  found  that  the  degree  in  that  lotitudo  in  /)7,)<*A 
toiaes.  Mr.  Norwood  measured  tbo  distsnea  ((BtwuMi 
I/iodon  and  Toric,  and  foonil  it  906,7fit  Rnglisb  foot,  mA 
finding  the  dllTerenca  of  latitodea  8"  iw,  (b)t9rniifl«4 


tb«  ttUtlttty  of  1  degree  to  be  867,196  English  feat,  oi 
01  mgtith  Ittlies  and  388  yards.  Maupertois  meaa- 
ur«d  «  dotfrwi  In  Lapland,  in  the  latitude  of  66°  2V, 
add  fttttUil  It  07,408  tolses.  A  degree  waa  measured  at 
tbo  «(|Uator  hi'  other  Vranch  mathematicians,  and 
foUHd  to  mmtaln  i>e,767-8  tolses.  From  these  meas- 
MrnHMttta  It  appears  that  the  earth  ia  not  a  aphere,  but 
ail  obbtto  «t)h«rold,— £.  B. 

OcktWAfU]  DM  of  the  middle  United  Stotos,  next 
to  8b«d«  hlaua  tha  amallast  in  tlie  Union,  and  in  pop- 
ulotbm  tho  leaat,  Is  bounded  north  l>y  Pennsylvania, 
««lt  hf  tlelawara  River  and  Bay,  nouth  and  west  by 
MuyfltOi.  U  Is  between  88°  27'  and  39°  60'  N.  lot., 
Ofld  iMtweett  76°  04'  48"  and  75°  66'  W.  long.,  and 
lietwwM  l"  la'  and  1°  67'  E.  long,  from  W.  It  U  92 
IhIIm  lutw  and  38  brood,  and  conUlns  2,120  square 
ioiloN,  Of  1,866,800  acres.  The  population  in  1790  was 
6li,0tf4 1  in  1800,  64.272 ;  in  1810,  7-2,674 ;  in  1820,  72,. 
74Uj  )lt  1800,  70,789 1  in  1840,  7M,086 ;  in  1850,91, 582. 

Jsaft^  tiUtory That  Delawure  Bay  was  already 

known  to  the  Spaniards  a  long  time  before  Hudson, 
Iboro  {»  Ho  doubt.  But  the  question  is  what  they 
(iMlkd  it,  Bensoti,  in  hia  memoir  on  the  names  of  the 
8t«t«  of  Mew  York,-say8  that  they  called  it  The  Bag 
ij/illl  SatnU,  lie  does  not  give  his  authority.  In  the 
toofit  autlcfit  Spanish  description  of  the  east  coast 
Wtlji'b  we  bz-.re  (that  of  Ovledo),  this  "Bay  of  all 
K«ldt«"  i«  not  mentioned  all.  But  Oviedo  mentions 
It  fllthlu  </«  S,  Chruloval  on  the  east  coast,  and  says 
(b«(  it  stands  under  30°  N.  lat.  This  is  nearly  exactly 
tbs  iMtitude  of  tlelawore  Bay,  which  therefore  probably 
1.4  rtesitfnoted  by  him  under  that  name.  If  it  is  true 
tbat  the  Spanish  Cabu  de  lat  Arenat  la  our  Cape  Hen- 
k^lii  then  that  large  bay  which  the  Spanish  maps 
iH¥Hfll«lity  point  Immediately  to  the  north  of  this  cape, 
milfit  bo  Maware  Buy.  The  iigure  which  they  give 
(0  i\At  l)Oy,  OS  well  as  to  the  river  which  they  malie 
mn  into  it,  corresponds  with  the  configuration  of  oui 
\m^  and  f tvec.  Often  we  And  on  the  maps  the  name 
Uivon  hy  Ovledo— that  of  Bahia  de  S.  Ckrittoval  or 
uMpilui'ol  (St,  Chrlstopherus  Bay),  written  to  it.  So 
for  lni«titH(<e  on  a  Spanish  map  of  1680,  so  on  a  French 
mop  mode  after  a  Spanish  original  of  1587 ;  but  some- 
(Imtti  other  names  appear  here  ;  for  instance,  that  of 
AoA/r*  (Itf  la  ttuetta  (Repulse  Bay),  or  that  of  Rio  de  S. 
Antmiu,  prnliflbly  only  because  the  map-makers  con- 
fuundod  all  those  names  in  a  most  irregular  way.  As 
to  tho  Sponlsh  navigator  who  brought  home  the  sketoh 
tif  our  bof ,  and  gave  It  the  name  of  St.  Chrittopherut 
tm,  there  Is  yet  some  doubt. 

Too  flrst  navigator  whom  we  can  prove  to  have  l>een 
At  tbo  OUtrance  of  the  bay,  is  Henry  Hudson,  when 
(1000)  ho  sailed  along  the  coast  from  Chesapeake  Bay 
toward  the  north.  He  looked  into  the  bay,  found  it 
foil  of  shoals,  did  not  explore  It,  gave  to  it  no  name, 
and  "  luapeaetl,  from  the  currents  which  came  out 
from  It,  that  there  was  a  river  leading  into  it."  It  is 
pnUy  g«tit»fn\\y  said  that  Lord  Delaware,  when  (in 
the  fear  lAlO)  he  sailed  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  was 
thrown  ont  of  his  way  and  touched  at  this  bay,  and 
that  it  wa«  therefore  called  by  him,  or  by  his  compan- 
l6H«,  and  the  flrst  English  settlers  in  Tirginia,  Dtla- 
mfH  /lltjf,  This  was  not  only  the  flrst  English,  but 
U(Mm  tho  whole  the  first  name  under  which  the  bay  be- 
eamo  more  generally  known  in  Enrope.  We  see  it  for 
(h«  6ftt  time  mentioned  and  writtep  in  the  letter  of 
daptalfl  Afgalt,  of  the  year  1612,  in  Pnrchas'  Pilgrims. 
Tbo  old  Virginian  writers  spelled  or  corrupted  the 
namo  In  very  different  ways.  Sometimes  they  writo 
"  %  tMfd  bektttire't  Bay,"  sometimes  Dehvar  Bay, 
and  wmottmea  bdaumn  Bay.  Later  French  map- 
makOfS  {tot  Instance  Bellln)  made  of  this  Bay  Delaware 
or  fMUf,  The  flrst  map  on  which  we  And  this  name, 
{»  a  little  map  of  the  greater  part  of  the  east  coast  by 
(iaptain  Smith,  of  the  year  1624.  For  the  flrst  time, 
tiretty  well  drawn,  the  bay  is  to  be  fonnd  on  the  flfit 
map  of  Maryland,  of  the  year  1680. 


DEL 


8i6 


DBt 


After  Hndaon  and  Lord  DeUwus,  Dnteh  drippwi 
and  nsvigaton  war*  the  flrit  who  entorod  thte  t»y. 
The  Dotch  CapUIn  Hendrlduen  nlled  (1616)  up  Into 
the  bay  and  rirer  aa  far  aa  Schuylkill  river.  Captain 
Onmalloa  Uay  entered  the  bay  1628,  explored  it,  lailed 
up  in  the  river  aa  high  at  leaat  aa  the  preaent  aite  of 
the  city  of  PhUadelphU,  and  boilt  there  •  fort  called 
"  Fort  Naiaau."  The  bay  waa  ftom'hi  « catlud  ••  New 
Port  May."  The  river  waa  called  by  ,u«  Outch  Zu^dt 
rmitr  (the  South  river),  with  reipect  to  the  aecond 
great  river  of  the  Kew  Netherlanda  to  the  north  (Hud- 
unn'a  river).  It  i«  not  evident,  but  it  ia  probable  that 
the  Dutch  commenced  at  once  ijler  Hodaon'a  dlacovery 
to  deaignata  the  river  under  that  name.  The  flrat  boolc 
in  which  the  name  Zoydt  rivier  li  mentioned  and 
printed  b  the  "Kew  World"  of  Uet,  1624.  From 
the  river  also  the  bay  waa  generally  called  Znydt 
Bay,  the  South  Bay,  and  thig  name  became  among 
the  Dutch  ao  common  tliat  the  other  name.  New  Port 
Hay,  was  loon  foigotten.  Another  Dutch  name  for 
the  bay  waa  that  of  Godyn's  Bay,  fh>m  the  well-luown 
Afjst  srdam  merchant,  Samuel  Oodyn,  who  purchaaed 
firoro  the  Indians  Cape  Hay,  and  a  tract  of  country 
from  this  cape  along  the  shores  of  the  bay.  Other 
Dutch  names  of  this  river  sometimes  used  were  JVoa- 
aoK  rivur,  Princt  Baidriei'i  rivter,  and  Charlet  rivitr. 
This  latter  name  waa  in  use  as  well  among  the  En- 
i;li«h  as  among  the  Dutch.  We  find  in  an  English 
(locoment  of  the  year  1648,  the  name  Delaware  or 
Charlet  river.  And  so  we  And  on  the  Italian  map  by 
Lucini,  taken  from  a  Dutch  original  in  about  the  year 
1631,  the  name  Rio  Carlo.  We  do  not  know  in  honor 
of  which  Cliarles  the  river  was  so  called.  The  English 
claimed  the  bay  and  river  in  consequence  of  Cabot'a 
and  Delaware's  discovery,  and  fhim  difTerent  other 
reasons.  The  Dutch  claimed  it  trom  Hudson's  discov- 
ery, and  took  possession  of  it  about  1628,  through 
Captain  Hay.  In  the  year  1629  they  built  another 
fort  there,  called  Swanandael,  and  1683  the  great  navi- 
gator, David  Pietersa  de  Vries,  entered  the  bay  and 
river,  explored  it,  and  made  there  also  a  temporary 
little  settlement.  Fort  l/pland. 

But  all  these  Dutch  settlements  disappeared  again, 
and  wen  partly  destroyed  by  the  Indians,  and  the 
river  and  Iny  were  without  any  habitation  ttom  1638 
to  1638,  when  at  last  the  Swedes  entered  it  under 
Peter  Minuit,  Hinnet,  or  Menewe.  They  changed  the 
whole  geography  of  the  l>ay  and  river.  The  river  was 
under  them  called  The  New  Stndtland  Stream,  and  the 
bay  Neie  Swtdeland  Bay,  and  the  Swedes  erected  also 
new  forts  and  gave  Swedish  names  to  the  old  Dutch 
forts,  which  they  partly  rebuilt.  The  greater  number 
of  the  Swedish  and  Dutch  settlements  on  Delaware 
river  and  bay  were  ntade  on  the  western  shore,  and 
tills  first  Dutch  and  Swedish  population  formed  ttom 
tba  beginning  a  peculiarly  situated  community.  What 
since  1688  was  called  Nev  Swedeland,  comprised  prin- 
cipally the  territory  of  the  present  State  of  Delaware. 
The  Swedea  remained  17  years  in  possession  of  the 
river  and  bay,  and  one  of  their  engineers,  Lindstrom, 
who  accompanied  the  Swedish  governor  Kising,  in  the 
year  16M,  made  •  minnte  exploration  and  the  first 
special  map  of  the  whole.  In  the  following  year,  1655, 
lunraver,  the  Dutch  governor  of  the  New  Netherlands, 
Stuyvasandt,  appeared  with  some  men  of  war  in  the 
bay,  and  subdued  the  whole  little  New  Sweden  to  the 
Dutch.  Tliey  reintroduced  the  old  and  some  new 
Dotch  names,  but  retained  possession  only  for  9  years. 
When  the  English  (1664)  coAqnered  this  land  flrom  the 
Dutch,  it  waa,  ootil  1681,  attached  to  the  great  prov- 
ince of  New  Yorlc  But  during  the  same  time  the 
founders  of  Maryland  considered  it  to  lie  comprised 
nndar  this  name  and  to  be  a  part  of  their  coloi^  of  Mary- 
land. In  this  period  were  formed  the  8  counties  of  which 
the  State  still  to-day  consists,  and  the  whole  tract  waa 
nsaally  called  iht  three  lower  countiet  on  the  Delatoare. 
In  the  year  1681  WOUom  Penn  bought  these  3  coun- 


tle«  tivm  the  Duke  of  Tork,  and  thay  made  now  • 
port  of  Pennsylvania,  nnder  the  nanol  name  of  Th» 
Terriloriet  of  Peitmylvama,  or  the  Three  Louier  Coun- 
ties. They  remained  in  connection  with  Pennsylvania 
until  1776,  when  these  territories  separated  ftom  Penn- 
sylvania and  declared  themselves  independent,  nnder 
the  name  of  the  Stale  of  Delaware. — J.  O.  Kohl. 

A  somewhat  elevated  table-land  passes  through  • 
portion  of  the  State  flrom  north  to  south,  dividing  the 
waters  which  fall  into  Chesapeake  Bay  fhnn  those 
which  flow  into  Delaware  Bay.  This  table-land  con- 
tains a  chain  of  swamps  in  the  western  part  of  thia 
State,  from  which  its  principal  streams  originate. 
The  soli  in  the  north  is  a  strong  clay.  Along  Dela- 
ware River,  and  for  about  10  miles  west  of  it,  the  soil 
ia  generally  a  rich  clay,  well  adapted  to  agricaltiin ; 
but  between  this  and  the  swamps  the  soil  is  light  and 
sandy.  Proceeding  toward  the  south,  the  soil  be- 
comes mora  sandy,  and  in  Sussex  county  sand  greatly 
predominates.  Kaoline,  or  porcelain  clay,  is  found  in 
the  northern  portion,  bog-iron  ora  in  the  southern,  and 
shell  marl  throughout  the  State.  There  were  in  1850, 
680,862  acres  of  land  improved,  and  876,282  of  unim- 
proved in  farms.  Cash  value  of  farms,  $18,880,081 ; 
and  the  value  of  implements  and  machinery,  9510,279. 

lAve  Stock,  etc. — Horses,  18,862 ;  asses  and  maleS| 
791 ;  milch  cows,  19,248 ;  working  oxen,  9,797  ;  other 
cattle,  24,166 ;  sheep,  27,508 ;  swine,  66,261 ;  value 
of  live  stock,  (1,849,281 ;  of  sUnghtered  animals,  $S7B,- 
666. 

Agricultural  Produett,  etc. — ^Wheat,  482,611  bushels ; 
r}-e,  8,066;  Indian  com,  8,145,642;  oats,  604,618; 
barley,  66 ;  buckwheat,  8,615 ;  peas  and  beans,  4,120; 
potatoes,  240,642;  sweet  potatoes,  66,448;  value  of 
products  of  the  orchard,  $46,574 ;  produce  of  market 
gardens,  $12,714;  pounds  of  butter  mode,  1,065,308; 
of  cheese,  8,187  ;  molasses,  50  gallons ;  beeswax  and 
honey,  41,248  pounds ;  wool,  pounds  produced,  57,- 
768;  flax,  11,174;  hops,  848;  hay,  tons  of,  80,159; 
clover-seed,  2,526  bushels ;  other  gross  seeds,  1,403 ; 
flax-seed,  904  bushels ;  and  wen  made  145  gallons  of 
wine ;  value  of  home-made  manufactures,  $88,121. 

Manufacturet,  etc. — There  were  In  the  State  in  1850, 
12  cotton  factorins,  with  a  capital  invested  of  $585,- 
100,  employing  418  males  and  425  females,  producing 
6,205,000  yards  of  sheeting,  etc.,  valued  at  $588,489 ; 
5  woolen  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of  $136,600, 
employing  113  mules  and  86  females,  manufacturing 
157,000  yards  of  cloth,  valued  at  $244,610 ;  18  esUb> 
iishments  making  pig-iron,  with  a  capital  of  $873,600, 
employing  250  peraons,  and  making  8,630  tons  of  cast- 
ings, etc.,  valued  at  $267,462 ;  2  esUbiishmcnt.*,  with 
a  capital  invested  of  $16,000,  employing  60  persons, 
manufacturing  550  tons  of  wrougut  iron,  valued  at 
$56,000 ;  70  fioaring-mllls,  83  saw-mills,  16  tanneries, 
with  a  capital  of  $99,850,  employing  108  persons; 
value  of  products,  $168,742 ;  8  printing-offices,  isisning 
2  semi-weekly,  and  8  weekly  newspapers.  Capital  in- 
vested in  manufactures,  $2,978,945 ;  value  of  manu- 
factured articles,  $4,649,206. 

The  principal  port  is  Wilmington,  a  port  of  entry, 
and  the  principal  commercial  town  of  the  State,  situ- 
ated between  Brandywine  and  Christiana  Creeks,  1 
mile  above  thoir  junction.  On  Brandywine  Creek  are 
some  of  the  finest  flouring-miUs  in  the  United  States, 
to  which  vessels  drawing  8  feet  water  can  come. 
Christiana  Creek  is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  14 
feet  of  water,  and  gives  to  WUmingtQn  considerable 
commerce.  'The  tonnage  of  the  port  In  1860,  was  13,. 
665  tons.  The  foreign  trade  of  Delaware  is  efTected 
chiefly  through  Baltimore,  New  Tork,  and  PttUadol- 
phia,  especially  the  last;  so  that  its  direct  foreign 
commerce  is  very  InconsIderaMe.  During  1850,  16 
vessels  were  built,  of  an  aggregate  burden  of  1,848 
tons,  viz,,  12  schooners,  3  sloops,  and  1  steamer.  The 
Chesapeake  and  Delawara  Canal  connects  these  two 
bays. 


ice  of 
De 
which 
State 
nia  ft 
DcUti 
by  th( 
em  an 
tude4 
sea,  ai 
turns 
rectioi 
in  lati 
Joined 
south- 
ofthes 


/. 


OfiC 


831- 


DEL 


FoniOK  OoHHnun  or  Tm  Stati  or  On&wAU.  noH  Ootobh  1, 1810,  to  Jvit  1, 1866, 


rMRMdlx. 

EiporU. 

Imporu. 

TouHoCliorwL 

DUIrietTrnMgfc       ^ 

DOBMllt. 

ronlfn. 

Total. 

Tool 

rnrtlgo. 

KHM<n4. 

Kurolledua 

LlMOHd. 

Sopt.30,  1821 

1822 

1898 

1824 

1826 

1816 

1887 

1828 

1829 

1880 

Total.... 

8«pt80,  1881 

1882 

1988 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total.... 

Sept.  80,  1S41 

1842 

9inoa,     1848* 

June  80,  1844 

1846 

1816 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1880 

Total.... 

Jane  80,  1861 

1862 

1868 

1864 

1866 

1850 

8^724 
18,964 
29,861 
88,818 

9,406 
27,028 

7,195 
69,168 

19,680 
4,642 
18,118 

i;i96 

1,877 
MOT 

$86,446 
168,692 
68,887 

8^196 
9,406 

19,896 
7,196 

61,168 

60,124 
11,080 
18,6)8 
10,009 
6>«8 
1M60 

1,888 

4.081 
124 
199 
817 

1,186 
817 

1,060 
808 
962 

'Hi 
"lii 

667 

9,721 

1468,119 

84,614 
16,M2 
4^9I1 
61,946 

88,826 
74,981 
40,888 
86,844 
8,680 
87,001 

$88,824 

$491,948 

84,614 
1^141 
4M11 
6<,946 
88,896 
74,981 
40,888 
8^844 
8,680 
87,001 

$471,878 

81,666 

18,668 

9,048 

18^948 

10,611 

107,068 

66,841 

1,848 

"802 

11,848 

799 
699 
186 

418 

966 
888 

91 

18,468 

$486,277 

88,885 
e^666 
98,490 
128,771 
188,195 
144,IM8 
285,458 
88,089 
87,850 

'iii 

406 

"ii 

879 

$486,277 

88,589 

66,666 

98,682 

126,177 

188,196 

146,221 

286,469 

88,058 

88,229 

$426,960 

8,276 

8,657 

4,686 

8,098 

1,274 

11,216 

12.722 

4»0 

1,400 

1,684 

1,682 
2,687 
1.949 
8,S82 
4,968 
8,496 
4,096 
2,466 
1,091 

1,298 

2,202 

1,672 

866 

'ioo 

'889 
8,611 
1,599 

906 

9,160 

$957,099 

80,920 
68,087 
76,880 

8,178 

$960,272 

8b!920 
68,087 
76,880 

$47,712 

Ksii 

8,063 

26,101 

8!o58 
2,414 

1,674 

11,890 

'  668 

11,217 

*  Nine  months  to  June  80,  and  the  flwil  year  begins  July  1. 


Delaware  Bay,  at  the  month  of  the  Delaware 
River,  is  a  Iari;e  arm  of  the  sen,  76  miles  Tong,  20  miles 
wide  between  Cape  M:iy  on  the  north,  and  Cape  Henlo- 
pen  on  the  .south,  and  30  milea  wide  in  the  middle.  The 
navigation  is  difficult  and  dangerous,  being  interrupted 
by  many  shoals.  Its  low  and  sandy  shores  were  with- 
out harbors  until  the  construction  of  the  Delaware 
Breakwater  within  Cape  Henlopen. 

Delaware  Breaicwrater.  This  breakwater  is 
situated  at  the  entrance  into  Delaware  Bay,  near 
Cape  Henlopen.  The  anchorage  ground,  or  roadstead, 
is  formed  by  a  cove  in  tho  southern  shore,  directly 
west  of  the  pitch  of  the  cape,  and  the  seaward  end  of 
en  extensive  shoal  called  The  Skeart.  The  entrance 
from  the  ocean  is  1,950  feet  in  width,  and  is  accessible 
during  all  winds  from  the  sea.  The  depth  of  water  it 
from  24  to  86  feet  deep,  at  low  tide,  throughout  the 
harbor.  There  are  two  dykes,  one  of  1,600  feet,  and 
the  other  of  6,000  feet,  giving  a  secare  harbor  of  seven 
te.tha  of  a  square  mile.  The  ol>Jects  of  this  artificial 
harbor  are  to  protect  vessels  from  winds  from  east  to 
north-west,  by  way  of  north,  and  against  the  floating 
ice  of  the  bay. 

Delaware  River,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
which  rises  on  the  west  side  of  the  Catskill  Mountains, 
State  of  Xew  York,  and  after  separating  Pennsylva- 
nia from  New  York  and  iSiew  Jersey,  falls  into  the 
Delaware  Bay  5  miles  below  Newcastle.  It  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  two  streams.  The  Mohawk,  or  west- 
em  and  main  branch,  rises  from  a  small  lake  in  lati- 
tude 42°  45'  N.,  at  an  elevation  of  1880  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  flows  south-west  for  nearly  60  miles,  when  it 
turns  suddenly  to  the  south-east,  flowing  in  that  di- 
rection for  5  miles  to  the  Pennsylvania  boundary  line 
in  latitude  42°  N.  Eight  miles  below  this  spot  it  is 
Joined  by  the  Popaeton  branch,  which  has  a  previous 
■onth-west  course  of  about  50  miles.  After  the  union 
of  tbeie  two  atraanu,  the  river  pursues  a  winding  south- 


east course  l)etween  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  for 
60  miles  to  the  north-west  comer  of  New  Jersey, 
where  it  receives  the  Neversink  Kiver.  It  then  turns 
Honth-west,  along  the  liase  of  the  Kittaning  range,  for 
85  miles,  in  passing  through  which  it  forms  what  ia 
called  the  "  Water  Gap,"  a  great  natural  curiosity. 
The  banks  here  rise  precipitously  from  the  water's 
edge  to  the  height  of  1,600  feet,  overhung  by  immense 
masses  of  rock,  and  at  the  south-east  entrance  leaving 
scarcely  room  for  a  road.  Tho  passage,  however, 
widens  toward  the  north-west.  Its  entire  length  is 
alK)ut  2  miles.  From  this  point  it  pursues  a  south- 
east and  then  a  south-west  course  to  Easton,  where  it 
receives  the  Lehigh,  a  large  tributary,  from  the  west. 
A  little  below  this  the  river  passes  through  South 
Mountain,  and  has  a  south-east  course  to  Trenton,  60 
miles  below  Easton ;  having  in  that  distance  26  rapids, 
with  a  total  fall  of  165  feet.  These  falls  are  navigable 
at  high  water.  The  river  below  Trenton  turns  to  the 
south-west  until  near  the  bay,  which  it  enters  in  a 
south-east  direction,  after  an  entire  course  of  809  miles. 
It  is  navigable  for  vesseb  of  the  largest  class  to  Phil- 
adelphia, 40  miles,  and  for  sloops  36  miles  further,  to 
Trenton.  Above  the  falls  at  Trenton  it  is  navigable 
for  boats  of  8  or  9  tons  for  100  miles.  The  Delaware 
is  connected  with  the  Hudson  River  and  the  bays  of 
New  York  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  the 
Morris  Canal,  and  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canul. 

Del  Credere  Commiaaion.  All  agents  who 
sell  goods  for  their  principals,  and  guaranty  the  price, 
are  said  abroad  to  act  under  a  del  credere  commimon. 
In  tho  United  States,  this  phrase  is  seldom  used,  nor 
is  such  guaranty  usually  given,  except  b}-  commission 
merchants.  And  where  such  guaranty  is  given,  the 
factor  is  still  but  a  surety,  so  far  that  his  employers 
must  first  have  recourse  to  the  principal  debtor.  But 
his  promise  is  not  "  a  promise  to  pay  the  debt  of  an- 
other," within  the  statute  of  frauds.     Nor  does  be 


DKII 


>mt--'^- 


DEM 


giunuitjr  th*  Mfi  arrlnd  of  Ih*  noiMgr  neUrtA  hy 
him  in  psyramt  of  tho  gooda,  Md  tniumltted  to  hli 
•mplojor,  bat  miut  UM  proper  cantlon  in  Mmlinft  it. 
If  iw  taka  a  not*  tnm  the  parehaier,  thia  not*  ia  hii 
emplo/ar'i ;  and  if  ha  taka  dapreclatad  or  had  paper, 
ha  miut  malta  it  good.— Parson*  on  ittrctmriU  Lav, 
ch.  X.,  p.  ISO. 

In  mercantilt  law,  a  term  dirivad  fkom  the  Italian 
(frtdtrt,  to  truat),  which  denotaa  a  oonmitsaiaii  uranted 
ysy  a  marcliant  to  a  futor  to  diapoie  of  gooda ;  ih»  fac- 
tor, for  tho  conaidaratlon  of  an  additional  paroentage, 
agraaing  to  guaranty  the  solvency  of  the  purchaaer. 

i30lft  or  Dclf  (Germaa,  Faymet,  l/naehUi  Pond- 
Urn  I  Dutch,  M/tporctli/n ;  French,  faienbe),  a  coarae 
apaclea  of  porcelain,  originally  manufactured  at  Delft, 
whence  ita  name.  It  is  a  kind  of  pottery  of  baked 
earth,  covered  with  an  enamel  of  white  glsiing,  which 
givea  it  the  appearance  and  neatneaa  of  porcelain. 
Some  kinda  of  this  enameled  pottery  dlflfer  fh>m  oth- 
ers, either  in  their  auataining  sudden  heat  without 
breaking,  or  in  the  beauty  and  regularity  of  their 
forma,  enamel,  and  the  painting  with  which  thoy  are 
ornamented.  In  general,  the  line  and  beautlnilly- 
enameled  potteries,  which  approach  the  neareat  to 
porcelain  in  external  appearance,  are,  at  the  aame 
time,  thoae  which  least  reaist  a  brisk  flra ;  while 
those  which  auatain  a  sadden  heat  are  coarae,  and  re- 
semble common  pottery. 

Demand  and  Supply  are  terms  used  in  polit- 
ical economy  to  express  the  relations  between  con- 
sumption and  production — between  the  demand  of 
purchasers  and  the  supply  of  commoditiea  by  thoae 
who  have  them  to  aell.  The  relations  between  the 
demand  for  an  article  and  ita  supply,  determine  its 
price  or  exchangeable  value :  the  relations  between 
the  demand  fur  labor  and  its  aupply,  determine  the 
amount  uf  wugea  to  be  earned  by  the  lalmrer.  For 
cauaea  explained  elaewhere,  the  price  of  an  article  will 
rarely  vary,  for  any  length  of  time,  very  much  above 
or  below  ita  cost  of  production ;  nor  will  the  wages  of 
labor,  for  any  length  of  time,  much  exceed  or  fall 
belew  the  amount  necessary  to  maintain  laborers  and 
their  families  in  auch  comforta  aa  their  habits  of  life 
have  aecustomcil  them  to  believe  necessary  for  their 
aubaistenoe;  but  bearing  in  miud  that,  in  the  prioea 
of  commoditiea  and  labor,  there  is  a  certain  point,  de- 
termined by  caoaes  independent  of  demand  or  aupply, 
above  or  below  which  pricea  can  not  materially  vary 
for  any  considerable  time :  all  varlationa  of  price,  if 
the  medium  in  which  they  are  calculated  remain  un- 
changed, may  be  referred  to  the  proportion  which 
exiata  between  the  demand  for  commodities  and  the 
aupply  of  them — between  the  quaatitiaa  whioh  pur.^ 
ohasera  are  willing  and  able  to  buy,  and  the  quantities 
which  prodnoers  are  able  and  willing  to  sell. 

To  Imve  say  inflnenee  upon  prices,  a  demand  must 
ha  aeoompanied  by  the  moana  of  purchaaing.  A  de- 
mand ia  not  aimply  a  want — a  deaire  to  obtain  and 
enjoy  the  products  of  other  men's  labor)  for  if  this 
were  its  meanhig,  there  woald  never  be  the  least  pro- 
portion between  demand  and  aupply :  all  men  would 
alwaya  want  every  thing,  and  production  could  not 
keep  pace  with  consnmption.  But  an  "  effective  de- 
mand," aa  it  ia  termed  by  Adam  Smith,  exista  wher- 
ever one  man  ia  anxious  to  exchange  the  prodnnts  of 
hia  labor  for  that  of  other  men.  It  ia,  therefore,  of  an 
effective  demand  only  that  political  econoolata  are 
apeaking  when  they  examine  the  oireaantanoea  of 
demand  and  aupply  in  connection  .with  prices. 

But  although  a  demand,  without  the  means  of  pnr- 
diase,  can  not  affect  prices,  the  universal  desire  of 
mankind  to  poaaess  articles  of  comfort  and  luxury 
suggests  other  important  conaiderationa.  Aa  thia 
deaire  ia  natural  to  man,  and  too  often  ia  ao  atrong  aa 
to  tempt  him  even  to  commit  crime,  it  obvioualy  needa 
no  encouragement ;  men  will  alwaya  gratify  it  when- 
ever they  have  the  means,  and  these  means  oonaist  in  i 


the  produsta  of  their  own  labor.  Heaee  all  that  It 
required  to  convert  this  deaire  ol  acquisition  into  an 
effective  demand  ia  ample  employment  for  induatry. 
Increase  tlie  prodartion  of  all  commoditiea  and  an 
Increased  consumption  of  them  ia  the  certain  reanit  | 
for  men,  having  larger  prodaeta  of  their  own  lalwr  to 
olhr  In  exchange  Air  the  producta  of  other  men'a  labor, 
are  enabled  to  purchase  what  they  are  alwaya  eager  to 
acqolre.  Production,  tlierefore,  ia  the  great  object  to 
he  secured,  not  only  as  fumlahing  a  aupply  of  commo<l- 
itles  necessary  and  useful  to  mankind,  bnt  also  us 
creating  an  effective  demand  for  them.  When  trade 
is  depressed  by  a  languid  demand,  it  is  commonly  aaid 
that  increaaed  conaumption  ia  all  that  Is  required  to 
restore  Ita  proaperity.  Bui  how  is  thia  oonanmpMon 
to  be  caused  ?  The  deaire  to  consume  la  invariable, 
and  thua  any  falling  off  in  conaumption  muat  lie  at- 
tributed to  a  diminished  production  in  some  depart- 
ments of  Industry  which  cauaea  an  inability  to  c(m> 
same.  When  production  Is  restored,  an  effective 
demand  for  all  articles  will  immediately  follow ;  but 
until  the  productive  energies  of  the  consnmera  are  in 
a  atato  of  activity,  it  ia  in  vain  to  expect  fhmi  them  an 
increased  demand. 

Theae  considerations  lead  ua  to  the  concluaion  that 
a  univaraat  glut  of  all  commotlitics  is  impossible.  The 
aupply  of  particular  commodities  may  eaaily  exceed 
the  demand  for  them,  and  very  often  doea  exceed  it ; 
bnt  OS  the  oonatant  doHire  to  obtain  commoditiea  needa 
nothing  but  the  power  of  offering  other  commoiUties 
in  exchange,  to  become  an  effective  demand,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  a  universal  increase  of  production  ia  neces- 
sarily accompanied  by  a  proportionate  increase  of 
consumption.  Men  are  stimulated  by  no  love  of  pro- 
duction for  ita  own  aake,  but  they  pro<luce  in  order  to 
conaume  directly,  or  liecauae,  by  exchanging  their 
produce  with  othera,  they  are  able  to  enjoy  the  various 
comforta  and  luxuriea  which  they  are  ail  desiroua  of 
obtaining.  Active  production,  therefore,  in  all  de- 
partments of  industry,  cauaea  a  general  and  effective 
demand  for  commodities,  which  will  continue  to  be 
equal  to  the  aupply  unleaa  it  lie  checked  by  war,  by 
restrictiona  upon  commerce,  or  by  other  clrcumatoncea 
which  prevent  a  free  intercliange  of  commoditiea. 

A  country  is  in  the  highest  proaperit}-  when  there  la 
an  active  and  atoudy  demand  for  commoditiea  and 
labor,  and  a  sofHvicnt  .lupply  of  them.  Any  disturb- 
ance of  the  proportion  between  one  and  the  other  is 
injurious  to  the  community;  and  the  injury  ia  greater 
or  Issa  according  to  the  extent  and  duration  of  auch 
disturbance.  When  the  proportion  is  well  adjusted, 
the  whole  community  derive  benefit  from  the  clrCnm- 
Ktance,  both  as  producers  and  consumers ;  when  it  ia 
disturbed,  they  are  injured  in  both  capacities. 

Having  described,  thus  generally,  the  nature  and 
cauaea  of  demand,  and  ita  intimate  connection  with 
anpply,  it  liecomea  neceaaary  to  examine  the  influence 
of  demand  and  aupply  upon  one  another,  and  upon 
production,  conaumption,  pricea,  and  profits.  Thia 
infiuence  varies  according  to  the  circumatancea  of  the 
market,  and  the  nature  of  the  commodities  to  whick 
it4  law  may  be  applied.  Theae  may  be  beat  under 
atood  by  oonaldaring,  lat,  the  efieots  of  a  demana 
exceeding  the  supply ;  and  2dly,  of  a  supply  exceed- 
ing the  demand. 

1.  The  first  effect  of  a  demand  exceeding  the  anpply 
of  a  commodity,  ia  to  raise  ita  price.  Aa  more  persons 
want  to  buy  the  commodity  than  the  producers  are 
able  or  willing  to  aupply,  they  can  not  ail  obtain  what 
they  deaire ;  but  muat  share  the  supply  between  them 
in  some  manner.  But  their  wants  are  very  much 
regulated  by  the  oeat  of  gratifying  them.  One  man 
would  purcliaae  an  article  for  a  dollar  for  which  he 
may  bo  unwilling  or  unable  to  pay  two ;  while  others, 
rather  than  forego  the  pttrobnae,  will  consent  to  pay 
that  amonnt  Thoae  who  have  commoditiea  to  aell, 
finding  that  they  have  mora  cuatomen  than  they  coa 


DBIf 


»S8 


DBlf 


B  Bupply 
s  persona 
been  an 

^nwhat 
lecB  them 
much 

.je  man 

which  he 
le  others, 
\t  to  pay 

I  to  lell, 
lUkey  CM 


Mtli^,  Immediately  Infer  that  they  ere  lelllnft  them 
too  cheaply,  and  that  they  oould  diapoee  of  all  their 
itoelt  at  a  higher  price.  The  price  ii  acoordlnifiy 
ralM<l,  when  the  ule  beconee  limited  to  thoie  who  are 
not  reatralned  fVom  buying  liy  the  Increased  price.  In 
principle,  though  not  in  outward  fbrm,  the  mariut  ii 
In  the  nature  of  an  auction.  The  teller*  endearor  to 
obtain  the  higheet  price  for  their  goods ;  the  price 
rises  with  the  eagerness  of  those  who  wish  to  buy,  and 
tho  highfst  bidders  only  secure  the  priies.  In  the 
martlet,  however,  the  competition  of  the  buyers  is  not 
perceptible  among  themselves,  except  through  the 
prices  demanded.  Their  competition  determines  the 
prices,  Init  the  sellers  Judge  of  its  extent,  and  regulate 
their  demaads  so  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible 
advantage  ft«m  it. 

Some  commodities  are  positively  necessary  for  the 
snpport  of  the  people,  of  which  the  supply  may  fall 
very  short  of  the  demand  and  be  incapable  of  Increase. 
This  Is  the  case  when  there  is  a  bad  harvest  In  a 
countrj'  which  is  excluded  from  a  foreign  supply  by 
war  or  by  fiscal  restrictions.  Here  the  price  rises  in 
pniportlon  to  the  defirlency  of  the  crops.  The  compe- 
tition for  food  la  universal.  Some,  indeed,  may  be 
driven  to  the  consumption  of  inferior  articles  of  food, 
and  others  to  a  diminished  consumption ;  but  all  must 
eat.  The  number  of  consumers  is  not  diminished, 
while  the  supply  Is  reduced)  and  tho  price  must, 
therefore,  rise  and  continue  high  until  a  fresh  supply 
can  l>e  obtained.  In  a  siege  the  competition  is  still 
greater.  The  prices  of  provisions  become  enormous  j 
the  rich  alone  can  buy ;  the  poor  mutt  starve  or  plun- 
der. 

A  similar  effect  is  produced  if  the  supply,  wlt)iout 
being  deficient,  be  confined  to  the  possemion  of  a  small 
number  of  persons,  who  limit  it  to  the  consumers  In 
onlcr  to  secure  higher  prices.  However  abundant 
com  might  be  in  a  iKsieged  town,  if  one  mnn  were 
exclusively  authorized  by  law  to  sell  it,  it  might  rise 
to  a  famine  price,  unlets  the  people  broke  into  the 
granaries,  or  the  government  interfered  with  the  mo- 
nopoly. Less  lu  degree,  but  similar  in  principle,  is  the 
effect  upon  prices  of  everj-  limitation  of  the  market  by 
fiscal  restrictions.  When  any  sellers  are  excluded, 
the  others  are  enabled  to  raise  their  prices. 

These  are  casei  in  which  the  sup;!'-  can  not  be 
increased  to  meet  \he  demand,  or  in  '  ■  s  the  supply 
is  mo»-  pollzed.  But  the  greater  numi  . '■  ■;  oommod- 
itiet  n'i'y  be  increased  In  quantity,  and  th  supply  of 
them  is  not  artificially  limited.  The  price  of  these 
also  rises  when  the  demand  exceeds  the  supply :  but 
the  increased  price  raises  the  profit  of  the  prodncier, 
and  attracts  the  competition  of  others  \n  the  market. 
Fresh  capital  and  labor  are  applied  to  the  production 
of  the  profitable  article,  until  the  supply  is  accommo-; 
dated  to  the  demand,  or  exceeds  it.  The  prices  grad- 
ually fall,  and  at  length  the  profits  are  reduced  to  the 
same  level  as  the  profits  in  other  undertakings,  or  even 
lower.  The  encouragement  to  further  production  is 
thus  withdrawn,  and  prices  are  adjusted  so  as  to  secure 
to  the  producer  the  ordinary  rate  of  profits,  and  no 
more. 

But  sometimea  the  demand  for  a  commodity  is  di- 
minished, If  the  supply  fall  short  of  it  for  any  consider- 
able time.  There  are  various  articles  useful  and 
agreeable  to  mankind,  but  not  essential  to  their  exist- 
ence, which  they  are  eager  to  enjoy  as  far  as  they  can, 
but  for  which  thej-  are  not  prepared  to  make  great 
sacrifices.  When  the  price  of  an  article  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  raised  hy  a  deficient  supply,  continuing  for  some 
length  of  time,  it  it  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  many 
persons  who  learn  to  regard  it  with  indifference. 
They  would  buy  it  if  it  were  cheap ;  but  as  it  is  dear, 
they  go  without  it,  or  are  satisfied  with  a  substitute. 
In  this  manner  the  number  of  consumers  is  diminished. 
Others  again,  who  will  not  be  deprived  of  an  accui- 
tomed  luxury,  e^Joy  it  more  sparingly,  and  consume  it 


in  lesa  qnantltiaa.  But  ao  long  aa  the  supply  li  aot 
incraaaad,  th*  price  will  eonllnne  high,  because  tha 
consumen  who  still  purchase  the  article,  notwithstand- 
ing ita  price,  k-ep  up  an  effective  demand  equal  to  tha 
whole  sapply ;  while  there  I*  itlll  a  dormant  demand, 
only  awaiting  a  reduction  of  price  to  beeome  effective. 

For  the  same  reasons,  a  demand  fV>r  articles  it  di- 
minished when  their  price  la  artificially  raised  by  tax- 
ation. The  demand  Is  gradually  conflnad  to  a  smaller 
number  of  penont,  and  many  consume  more  spar- 
ingly- 

In  these  variout  wayi  damaad  aad  lupply  iMcome 
adjusted  through  the  medium  of  price,  whenever  the 
<me  exceeds  the  other.  This  Is  the  result  of  natunl 
laws,  the  oporutioii  of  which  is  of  the  highest  value  to 
mankind.  If  the  supply  be  Incapable  of  increase,  it 
economises  consumption;  if  the  supply  can  b«  In- 
creased, it  encourages  production.  In  either  ease,  it  it 
of  great  benefit  to  the  consumer.  To  revert,  for  a 
moment,  to  the  example  of  a  l>ad  harvest,  in  a  country 
excluded  firom  all  foreign  supply.  Suppose  that 
prices  did  not  rise,  but  remained  precliely  the  same  at 
if  the  harvest  had  been  abundant,  what  would  lie  the 
consequence  ?  The  whole  population  would  consume 
as  much  bread  as  usual,  and  use  flour  in  every  way 
that  luxury  points  out,  unconscious  of  any  scarcity. 
Farmers  might  even  feed  their  cattle  with  wheat.  By 
reason  of  tnis  improvidence,  the  whole  of  the  com 
would  lie  consumed  before  the  next  harvest,  and  the 
horrors  of  famine  would  bnrst,  without  any  warning, 
upon  a  people  living  as  if  they  were  in  the  midst  of 
plenty.  This  evil  is  prevented  by  a  rise  of  prices, 
which  is  a  symptom  of  scarcity,  just  as  pain  it  a  symp- 
tom of  disease.  By  timely  precaution  the  danger  is 
averted.  A  high  price  renders  providence  and  econ- 
omy compulsory,  and  thus  limits  consumption.  The 
supply,  theref)ire,  instead  of  lieing  exhausted  before 
the  next  harvest,  is  spread  over  tlie  whole  year.  '  In 
the  case  of  food,  it  is  true  that  such  economy  is  pain- 
ful and  presses  heavil}-  upon  the  poor:  but  this  evil  la 
a  mercy  compared  with  famine.  If  no  privation  had 
been  endured  before  scarcity  became  alarming,  none 
but  rich  men  could  buy  a  loaf:  for  every  one  who  had 
a  loaf  to  sell,  would  be  risking  his  own  life  if  he  sold 
it. 

These  observations  are  also  applicable  In  some 
measure  to  cases  in  which  prices  are  raised  by  the  sup- 
ply being  confined  to  one  or  to  a  few  persons,  who 
have  contrived  to  buy  up  the  whole  or  nearly  the 
whole  of  any  commodity.  But  such  exclusive  posses- 
sion (sometimes  improperly  called  a  monopoly)  can 
not  exist,  for  any  length  of  time,  in  articles  of  which 
the  supply  is  capable  of  increase.  The  extreme  case 
has  been  put  of  a  liesieged  town,  in  which  the  whole 
supply  of  com  was  monopolized  by  one  man.  Under 
those  circumstances  of  course  he  would  demand  a  high 
price;  but  unless  his  exclusive  supply  were  upheld  liy 
law,  H  does  not  follow  that  the  inhabitants  would  suf- 
fer on  that  account.  A  most  provident  consumption 
of  food  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  defense  of  a 
town,  and  no  organization  could  dlstributa  provisloni 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  people  so  well  at  a  sys- 
tem of  purchase  restrained  by  a  high  price.  It  mnst 
also  be  recollected  that,  without  any  auch  exclusive 
possession,  the  fiict  of  tlie  siege  alone  must  raise 
prices  by  cutting  off  fresh  supplies.  If  the  siege  con- 
tinue, provisions  are  more  likely  to  last  out  by  the  in- 
strumentality of  prices  than  liy  any  other  means.  At 
the  same  time  the  sole  possessor  of  the  com  would  be 
restrained  fftim  keeping  back  the  supply  beyond  the 
actual  necessity  of  the  occasion  <  y  many  considera- 
tions. He  would  know  that  if  a  popular  tumult  arose 
— if  the  town  were  relieved,  the  siege  raised,  a  capitu- 
lation agreed  to,  or  the  place  suddenly  carried  by 
assault — the  value  of  his  oxcluslve  property  would  be 
destroyed.  His  own  interest,  therefore,  is  coincident 
with  that  of  the  people.    It  is  better  for  both  that  th* 


DEM 


024 


wppljr  (hoald  b*  matod  oat  with  pMnknoay  |  11  U  dan- 
ganiiu  to  lioth  that  it  ibouM  b*  Immodtnttly  ■tliitad. 

la  olrcunutancM  1*m  pMuUarlluui  thaw,  vary  littla 
avil  can  arita  ttam  an  axoluilva  poaaaailun  of  any  oom- 
modity  not  protactad  dinotly  or  Indlractly  liy  law.  If 
tha  iiupply  ba  eapabia  of  incraaia,  and  tha  damand  ba 
•uffiolent  to  analila  tha  owner  to  aacura  a  hl)(h  price, 
for  reaaona  already  explained,  the  market  would  rap- 
Idly  ba  iopplied  from  other  iiuurtara.  If  the  aupply 
can  not  ba  Incraamd,  that  fact  alone  would  ralaa  the 
price)  and  It  Is  probable  that  the  aupply  would  not 
have  been  to  great  without  tha  extraiinliniiry  artlrlty 
of  tha  eapitallit  who  had  been  able  tu  aecure  for  hia 
country  the  whole  acoaulbia  aupply  to  ba  collected 
(torn  the  marketa  of  tha  world. 

A  monopoly,  property  w  called,  1«  of  a  totally  dif- 
ferent character-  for,  however  abundant  the  supply 
of  an  article  may  be,  It  may,  nevartbeleaa,  ba  inacoes- 
alble  to  tha  conaumer. 

When  prices  are  high  by  reason  of  the  demand  ex- 
ceeding the  supply.  It  is  by  no  moans  necessary  that 
the  profits  of  those  who  sell  the  dear  commoditiea 
should  always  ba  greater  than  the  profits  in  other 
branches  of  trade.  It  must  always  lie  recollected,  that 
where  scarcity  la  the  causa  of  the  high  price,  tha  aell- 
•rs  who  demanil  it  have  the  less  to  sell.  Whera 
scarcity  la  not  tlie  cauae,  but  the  demand  is  great  be- 
cause the  supply,  notwithstanding  tho  exertions  of 
produoers,  can  not  keep  pace  with  it,  the  profits  are 
undoubtedly  greater  than  usual,  until  tha  supply  haa 
been  increased. 

II.  It  is  now  time  to  consider  the  effects  of  a  supply 
exceeding  the  demand,  and  this  division  of  the  Inquiry 
will  require  leas  elucidation,  as  the  effects  of  such  a 
condition  of  the  market  may  be  stated  to  be  tha  ver}' 
reverse  of  those  which  we  have  Just  l>een  examining. 
When  there  is  more  of  a  commodity  than  people  are 
prepared  to  buy,  its  price  must  fall.  Its  sellers  must 
offer  it  for  sale  at  the  price  at  which  thoy  can  Induce 
people  to  purchase.  All  is  now  in  favor  of  consumers. 
They  are  no  longer  bidding  against  each  other:  but 
the  sellers  are  competing  among  themselves  to  get  rid 
of  their  goods.  The  price  falls  generally  in  proportion 
to  the  excess  of  the  quantity,  but  this  result  is  very 
much  qualified  liy  the  nature  of  the  article.  If  there 
lie  an  excess  of  supply  in  perishable  goods,  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  the  natural  fall  of  prices.  When 
fish  is  unusually  aliundant,  it  must  lie  cheap,  or  a  great 
part  of  it  will  lie  destroyed : ,  it  must  be  eaten  at  once, 
or  not  at  all ;  and  to  induce  people  to  eat  it,  it  must  be 
offered  to  them  at  a  low  price.  But  with  articles 
which  may  be  held  back,  in  expectation  of  higher 
prices,  their  Value  may  l>e  partially  sustained.  Pro- 
duction may  be  reduced,  and  the  stock  gradually 
brought  into  the  market,  until  the  supply  has  been 
equalized  with  the  demand ;  and  wherever  the  article 
is  such  as  to  admit  of  voluntary  Increase  or  diminu- 
tion, the  natural  result  of  an  exunasive  supply  is  to  re- 
duce production,  until  the  balance  of  supply  and  de- 
mand has  lieen  restored.  This  mutual  adjustment  is 
in  perpetual  operation,  and  is  ordinarily  effected  with 
such  precision,  that  it  may  be  said,  without  exaggera- 
tion, that  a  large  city  is  supplied  exactly  with  every 
thing  its  inhaliitants  require — even  down  to  an  egg  or 
a  pint  of  milk.  There  is  always  enough  of  every 
thing,  and  rarely  too  much. 

Whenever  there  is  an  excessive  production  of  any 
commodity,  it  is  an  evil  almost  aa  great  as  scarcity. 
It  is  true  that  the  consumer  derives  benefit  from  it, 
but  the  producing  classes  are  most  injuriously  affected. 
In  order  to  raise  the  value  of  the  produce  of  their  labor, 
they  must  cease  to  produce,  or  must  produce  in  less 
quantities.  Tho  workmen  are  thus  either  deprived  of 
employment  altogether  for  a  time,  or  are  employed  for 
a  portion  of  their  time  only,  at  reduced  wages  ;  while 
their  employers  are  dixposing  of  their. goods  at  low 
prices,  which  scarcely  repay  the  outlay  of  their  capital. 


Mor  doaa  tha  penalty  of  ovar-produotlon  fill  axeln- 
aively  npon  those  engaged  in  the  trade  in  which  aup- 
ply haa  exceeded  the  demand.  Their  diatrsaiies  extend 
to  othar  claases.  It  has  lieen  shown  already  that  it  la 
to  production  wa  must  look  aa  the  cause  of  auatained 
consumption,  and  thus  the  pressure  upon  any  conaid- 
erable  liranch  of  productive  Industry  muat  be  sensibly 
felt  by  those  wlio  have  the  produce  of  their  own  laiior 
to  sell.  I'ltMluctlon  haa  failed,  and  oonaumptkin  mual 
therefore  lie  diminished. 

The  ruiniMit  consequences  of  gluts.  In  particular 
staples  of  trail'-  and  manufacture,  are  too  well  known, 
especially  in  lliii  country,  tu  require  any  further  iilua* 
tratiun ;  but  tlieir  causae  are  not  alwaya  agreed  upon. 
8uch  gluU  at*  often  attributed  to  the  Ikcility  with 
which  manufactures  are  priHluced  by  machinery  ;  but 
we  have  shown  that  over-protluctlon  in  all  branches  of 
lndnstr>-  Is  Impossllile  {  and  if  that  ba  true,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  when  partial  gluts  are  produced  by  the  aid 
of  machinery,  that  powerful  agent  must  have  been 
misapplied.  It  la  not  contended  that  nothing  cnn  ba 
pnMluced  in  too  great  abundance.  Whether  machinery 
lie  used  or  not,  production  must  lie  govemetl  liy  tha 
same  lawa  of  demand  and  supply.  Those  things  only 
must  b«  produced  for  which  there  is  a  demand,  and 
they  muat  not  be  produced  in  greater  abundance  than 
the  demand  warranta.  But  the  more  generally  ma» 
chinery  is  used,  the  more  abundant  will  be  the  prod- 
ucts which  men  will  have  to  exchange  witli  each 
other,  and  therefore  the  better  will  be  the  market.  U 
fallows  that  machinery  can  only  cause  a  glut  wlicn  ap- 
plied excessively  to  particular  objects,  precisely  in  tlie 
same  manner  as  an  exccnaive  quantity  of  lalmr  would 
cause  one  if  applied  where  it  was  not  needed  by  the 
demands  of  commerce. 

The  supply  of  markets  Is  a  very  speculative  busi- 
ness, and  is  often  conducted  with  more  zeal  than  dis- 
cretion. When  a  particular  trade  is  supiiosed  to  b« 
more  prosperous  than  others,  capitalists  rush  into  it  in 
order  to  secure  high  profits ;  and  in  this  country  tha 
abundance  of  capital,  the  perfection  of  our  machinery, 
and  the  skill  of  our  workmen,  enable  them  to  produca 
with  extraordinar}-  facility.  Over-production  in  that 
|iarticuUr  trade  is  tho  consequence,  and  all  engaged  In 
it  suffer  from  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of  their 
goods;  but  If,  instead  of  rushing  into  the  favorite 
trade,  they  had  distriliuted  their  enterprises  mora 
widely,  their  own  interest  and  that  of  tjie  couimunitr 
would  have  been  promoted.  When  a  ship  is  wrecked, 
if  all  the  crew  precipitate  themselves  into  one  boat, 
they  swamp  it ;  but  if  they  wait  till  nil  the  lioats  are 
lowered,  and  apportion  their  numliers  to  the  size  of 
each,  they  may  all  reach  the  shore  in  safety.  And  so 
it  is  in  trikde :  one  trade  may  easily  be  glutted,  while 
there  is  room  in  other  trades  for  all  the  capital  and 
industry  that  need  employment. 

In  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  market  and  the 
variety  and  abundance  of  commodities  to  be  ex 
changed,  will  be  the  facility  of  dlspoalng  of  the  prod- 
ncts  of  capital  and  labor ;  and  this  consideration  points 
out  as  the  most  probable  antidote  to  gluts,  a  universal 
freedom  of  commerce.  When  the  free  interchange  oa 
commoditiea  is  restrictol,  not  only  Is  a  glut  caused 
more  easily,  but  its  causes  are  more  uncertain,  and  de- 
pendent upon  unforeseen  events.  With  the  whole 
world  for  a  market,  the  operation  of  the  laws  of  de- 
mand and  supply  would  be  more  equable,  and  tha 
universality  of  the  objects  of  exohango  would  make 
gluts  of  rare  occurrence.  The  market  would  still  be 
llalile  to  dbturbanoe  by  )iad  harvests,  by  errors  in  the 
monetary  system,  by  shocks  to  public  credit,  and  by 
war ;  but  apart  from  these  cauMs  of  derangement,  de- 
mand and  supply  would  be  ailjusted,  and  the  product- 
ive energies  of  all  nations  called  into  full  activity.— 
Bohn'r  Cyclo.  Pol.  Kcon. ;  Adam  Smith,  II'i«/<A  of 
Natioiu,  book  i,  -,  M'Cdllocu,  Princiflet  of  Pulitical 
Economi/,  part  i.,  cb.  7,  and  part  U.,  ch,  1,  2 )  HaXk 


DEM 


090 


DEN 


Itnd  the 

be  ex 
kie  prod- 
In  points 
Inivenal 
lunge  0. 
caused 
,  and  de- 
le whole 
]g  of  de- 
land  the 
lid  make 
still  l>o 
\n  in  the 
,  and  by 
jient,  de- 
I  product- 
Itlvity — 
•eallh  of 
pMieal 


TRoi,  PrineipUt  1/  Polilifal  Keimomf  1  RioAnno,  eh. 
80 1  M11.1.,  kuagi  OH  UnHlthd  QhuHohi  <\f  Poliliaal 
KcuHomj/,  Ka»ay  II. 

Damurrag*,  In  commercial  uvl|(alloii,  la  an  al- 
lowance made  to  the  mailer  or  owntn  of  a  ihip  by  the 
freighter,  for  detaining  her  In  port  lonKer  than  the  pe- 
riod agreed  upon  for  her  iaillng.  It  U  uiually  atlp- 
ulated  In  cbarter-partlae  and  bllU  of  lading,  thai  a 
certain  numl>^r  of  dayt,  called  running  or  working 
daya,  Hhiill  Iw  allowed  for  receiving  or  dlncharglng  the 
cargo,  and  that  the  freighter  may  detain  the  veiMl  for 
a  further  siMcllied  time,  or  ae  lung  aa  he  pleaiei,  on 
payiuont  of  w  much  prr  dirm  tot  luch  over-time. 
When  the  contract  of  affreightment  expreuly  •tipu- 
latai  that  lo  many  daye  nhall  !«  allowed  for  diacharg- 
Ing  or  receiving  the  cargo,  and  io  many  more  for  over- 
time, such  limitation  la  interpreted  aa  an  expreei 
•tipulatiun  on  the  part  of  the  freighter,  that  the  veaiel 
•hall  in  no  event  l>e  detiiiiied  longer,  and  that  if  de- 
tained he  will  lie  lialile  for  demurrjige.  Thia  holda 
even  in  caaes  where  the  di-lay  la  nut  occaaloned  by  any 
fault  on  the  frelgbter'a  part,  liut  la  inevitable.  If,  for 
example,  a  ahip  be  detained,  owing  to  the  crowded 
atate  of  the  port,  for  a  lunger  time  than  la  allowed  by 
the  contract,  demurrage  la  due  |  and  It  la  no  defeni*  to 
an  action  for  demurrage,  that  it  aroae  from  port  regu- 
lation*, or  oven  from  the  unlawful  acta  uf  the  Cuatom- 
bouBo  ulHcera.  Demurrage  la  nut,  however,  clalmalile 
for  a  ()ulay  occaaloned  by  the  hoatlie  detention  of  the 
■hip,  or  the  hoatlie  occupation  uf  the  Intended  port ; 
nor  is  it  claimable  for  any  delay  wilfully  occaaloned  by 
the  maati'r,  or  owneri,  or  crow  of  the  venael.  The 
claim  fur  demurrage  ceaaea  aa  soon  aa  the  ship  la 
cleared  out  and  ready  for  aailing,  though  she  should 
Ik)  detained  by  adverse  winds,  or  tempestuous  weather. 
— Ciiittt's  Commereial  Law. 

ProfcHHor  Parsons  In  his  admirable  work  on  Mercan- 
tile Law  [Boston,  1H5U],  says  : 

"  As  time  has  becoino  uf  the  utmost  Importance  In 
commercial  transactions,  Ixith  parties  to  this  contract 
should  be  punctual,  and  cause  no  unnecessary  delay ; 
and  for  such  delay,  the  garty  Injured  would  have  his 
remedy  against  the  party  In  fault.  The  charter-party 
usually  provides  for  so  many '  lay-days,'  and  for  so  much 
'  demurrage.'  Ij»y-<l«y»,  or  working-days,  are  «o  maiiy 
days  which  the  charterer  is  allowed  for  loading,  or  for 
unloading  the  veaaol.  These  lay-days  ore  counted  from 
the  arrival  of  the  ship  nt  the  dock,  wharf,  or  other  place 
of  discharge,  and  not  from  her  arrival  ut  the  port  of 
destination,  unless  otherwise  agreed  on  l)y  the  parties. 
In  the  absence  of  any  custom  or  bargain  to  the  con- 
trar}-,  Sundays  are  computed  In  the  calculation  of  lay- 
days at  the  port  of  discharge ;  but  If  the  contract 
specillcs  "  working  lay-days,"  Sundays  and  holidays 
are  excluded.  If  more  time  than  the  agreed  lay-<luys 
is  occupied,  it  must  be  paid  for ;  and  *  demurrage' 
means  what  Is  thus  paid.  Usually  the  charterer  agrees 
to  pay  so  much  demurrage  a  day.  If  ho  agrees  only 
to  pay  demurrage,  without  specifying  the  num,  or 
if  so  many  working  days  are  agreed  on,  and  nothing 
more  Is  said,  it  would,  generally,  at  least,  lie  con 
aldered  that  the  numlier  of  lay-days  determined  what 
was  a  reasonable  and  proper  delay,  and  that  for  wliat- 
loevor  was  more  than  this,  the  party  in  fault  must  pay 
a  reasonable  indemnity.  If,  after  the  lay-<lay8  al- 
lowed for  unloading,  have  commenced,  and,  of  course, 
after  a  safe  arrival,  liut  before  the  cargo  is  unladen, 
ship  and  cargo,  or  cargo  alone,  is  Inst,  without  the 
fault  of  the  ship,  of  the  owner,  or  of  tlie  master,  the 
freight  or  churter-inoney  Is  due,  because  that  was 
tamed  by  the  arrival. 

,'  "  If  time  be  occupied  in  the  repairs  of  the  ship, 
which  are  made  necessary,  without  the  fault  of  the 
owner  or  master,  or  of  the  ship  itself,  that  is,  if  they 
do  not  arise  from  the  original  unseaworthiness,  the 
charterer  pays  during  this  time.  Many  cases  have 
uiMn  where  the  ahip  was  delayed  by  difi'erent  causes, 


and  tha  question  oeeurred,  which  party  abould  pay  for 
the  time  thus  lost.  On  the  whole,  wa  should  say,  thai 
no  delay  ariaing  tmm  the  elementa,  aa  fnmi  Ice,  or  llils, 
or  tein|ieat,  or  from  any  m  t  of  government,  or  fTum 
any  dlaabillty  of  tha  conaignee,  which  could  not  Iw 
imputed  to  hia  own  aot,  or  to  hia  own  wrongful  neg- 
lect, would  give  riaa  to  a  claim  on  Iba  charterer  fur 
damnrrag*. 

''^murraga  seems  aaaentlally  due  only  for  tha 
fauit  or  voluntary  act  of  tha  charterer ;  but  if  he  hire* 
at  ao  much  on  time,  that  la,  by  tha  day,  week,  ur 
month  I  then,  If  the  veaael  be  delayed  by  selaura,  em- 
bargo, or  capture,  and  the  impadimenl  Is  removed  and 
the  ship  completes  her  voyage,  the  charterer  pays  fur 
the  whole  time.  If  aha  be  condemned,  or  utherwiaa 
loat,  Ibia  lermlnatea  the  voyage  and  the  contract. 

"  The  contract  may  be  dissolved  by  tlia  parties,  by 
united  consent,  or  against  their  consent,  by  any  cIn 
cumstancea  which  make  the  fulfillment  of  the  contract 
Illegal  I  aa,  for  example,  by  a  declaratiun  of  war  on 
the  part  of  tha  country  to  which  the  ahip  belongs, 
against  that  to  which  she  was  to  go.  80  either  uu 
embargo,  or  an  act  of  non-intercourse,  or  •  blockade 
of  the  port  to  which  tha  ship  was  going,  may  either 
annul  or  suspend  the  contract  of  charter-party.  And 
we  should  say  they  would  lie  held  to  suspend  only.  If 
they  were  temporary  In  their  terms,  and  did  not  re< 
quire  a  delay,  which  would  be  deitructlve  to  the  pur- 
poses of  the  voyage. 

"  In  reference  to  all  these  points,  It  Is  to  be  under- 
stood,  that  if  the  parties  know  the  circumstance, 
which  they  make  their  bargain,  and  provide  for  It, 
any  bargain  they  choose  to  make  In  relation  tu  it 
would  be  enforced,  unless  it  required  one  or  the  other 
of  the  parties  to  do  something  prohibited  by  the  law 
of  nations,  or  of  the  country  In  which  the  parties  rcw 
aided,  and  to  whose  trihunala  they  must  resort. — P.v  R- 
aoMs'  Mercantile  Law,  p.  862-867.  Sea  Kent's  Cwu., 
111.,  pp.  264,  26S. 

Denarlua,  In  Roman  A  nliqully  the  chief  silver  cdin 
among  the  Romans,  worth  in  sterling  money,  aliuut 
7{(f,  or  al)out  15  cents.  It  was  originally  of  02  grains 
weight;  and  was  considered  equivalent  to  tlio  Attic 
drachma,  which,  however,  weighed  C7  grains.  It  was 
originally  oii'  seventh,  but  afterward  fell  to  one-eighth 
ounce.  (See  Arbuthiiot  on  Coins.)  There  was  also  a 
golden  denarius,  of  which  there  Is  a  specimen  in  the 
British  Museum  weighing  60  grains,  liesides  others  of 
less  weight.  As  a  weight,  It  was  equal  to  the  seventli 
part  of  a  Roman  ounce.  Denarius  was  also  used  us 
of  the  value  of  an  English  penny. 

Denier,  a  small  French  coin — copper  coin,  of  which 
there  were  12  to  a  sol. 

Denmark,  a  kingdom  in  the  north  of  EnroQp, 
small  In  extent  and  scanty  In  population,  liut  known 
in  history  from  an  early  period  of  the  Christian  era. 
There  Is  no  authentic  account  of  the  origin  of  the  nnme 
of  Denmark,  nor  of  the  quarter  from  which  the  coun- 
try' received  its  early  Inhabitants.  From  the  similarity 
of  the  Danish  and  German  languages,  as  well  as  from 
the  general  course  of  migration  in  early  ages,  it  seems 
probable  that  Denmark  was  peopled  liy  immigrants 
from  tlie  south — from  Ilolstcin,  Hanover,  and  Saxony. 
There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  whether  natives 
of  Denmark  formed  part  of  the  formidable  hordes 
which  passed  the  Roman  frontiers  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries ;  but  the  attacks  on  this  empire  were  proba- 
bly  made  liy  trilies  less  remote,  the  expeditions  of  the 
Danes  being  In  general  maritime.  For  such  expedi- 
tions they  were  remarkalde  as  early  as  the  eighth  iind 
ninth  centuries,  as  was  proved  by  their  repeated  Inv.i- 
slnns  of  England,  their  occasional  descents  on  Scntlunii, 
ond  their  conquest,  followed  by  pern  .ment  occupation, 
of  Normondy.  To  cross  a  sea  of  three  or  four  liundred 
miles  in  breadth  was  a  Iwld  undertaking  for  men  unac- 
quainted with  the  use  of  the  compass ;  but  the  num- 
ber of  islands  in  Denmark  early  accustomed  thn  In- 


DCK 


AM 


DBN 


tafeMMM  !•  M»l<tllM,  m4  fav«  Mmbi  •  pnMleal 
4HMfMy  !•  It,  iImMm  *m  Ikat  MtiHlnd  bjr  iha  Ualoh 
tfum  ^Ml  vliMi/  !•  MiM  cf  Ik*  Ha,  ami  to  iha 
MMliM  W  («Ml  nvafi,  IHHh  rMMrtM  pfoVHd  III* 
wIvMiaga  if  •  HMirtlliM  ^ttUn,  tat  In  iboM  dayi 
iMlthM  rrMM  Mr  Knglaad  wart  oapabla  of  aaadton 
fartb  •  Mval  MmammH. 

M»NH)«rk  I*  a  imrtliin  of  ih*  Kraat  Kurd|iia»  plaa, 
aiKt  NMf  Im  4tfanlia4  aa  almort  ■ntrurmly  Ut«I,  *ltli 
paHtal  lMi|Nallltaa  af  aii*h>«,  panlouUrly  In  Hehl**' 
wl«  a«4  llaMatM,  aifl  th«  Ulanda  af  f anan  and  Zta- 
UM,  tba  lillM<toM  faniiata  H  Iwo  (rwu  dWialana,  Iba 
»*u  •  hMHi  MMNtaNla,  aatandlag  tiom  iha  Klba  to  Ihu 
Haaffgaf  raab,  and  iba  athof  a  alaalar  af  UUndi  aapa- 
fMltif  tlM  Ualla^  tttm  tba  Rant  Haa.  Tba  wuiarn 
oanllnaaaa  laval  of  marih 


MNMM  af  Um  (WMMula  an  a 
iwM  I  Ilia  hrtaHar  I*  drf  an 


pwiaba  a<  Ika  aama  abaranlaitMlet.  Th*  aoil  oT  Iba 
W«iaM4  I*  gmmMy  A'rtll«,  pfnduclnn  tha  llnett  paa- 
iHra,  Md  anaallatii  rarn  rropa,  I'bi)  rllinata  U  mlldar 
Umm  Iba  Naflbtrfl  ttlaai'lnn  nt  iha  country  woald  indl- 
«ala I  Iml  lb«  >hv  I*  v«rr  rrM|uantl.v ol<niurad  with  va- 
|l»fi  awl  mni'l  r>«i|«,  awl  lh«  nunimar  Untn  only  troni 
J)tn»  I*  fb«  MbWM  nt  Au^ntt.  Tha  ellmnta,  however, 
la  n<«|  MawbniMffma,  Tbn  mum  of  Ihn  (npnUtton  eon- 
ttit*  nt  MaitM,  who  Afl'iipy  tha  Ulan<l«,  North  .Intlaiid, 
•Md  tb*  ttMrlbarn  part  fif  Mrbl'-awltf.  Oarman*  oeonpy 
t%»  aiititbxrn  pari  nt  N'  hlmwlK,  Holataln,  and  Lanan- 
tmrit  I  Vntniif  and  \tinUt  II vo  on  tliu  lalandi  and  otliar 
part*  lit  Ilia  Mifittarn  coatfi,  AicrlmiUiira  iind  iNh.TlRii 
•ra  iMr  prlnclli*!  mrntmllona.  From  KUHI  till  t84H 
lb«  kInK'I'iif)  wa<  an  alnHiIni*  mnnarrhy  ;  liut  In  tba  1*1- 
>*r  ynitf  a  mrtiiillliitlnn  wa*  granUil  l>y  lbs  klnif;  and 
Ibx  l>Kl«l*llta  power  la  now  vi^tnl  in  two  parliament- 
ary IniiII««,  Iha  ynlkithlitff  and  f/fnilttlMnq,  lioth  con- 
•la'liiK  of  KUcilra  nwimlnrn  |  Iha  fnrmar  rciamlding  thu 
lliiit»»  iif  It  'pf«Minlatlvi-a,  and  th*  littor  thn  Senate,  of 
Iba  I'lmitrtxi  nt  Iha  Untied  »liit*«  of  North  Amcrloa, 
rallter  Ihan  Ilia  l/ord*  and  (.'nminont  of  Ureal  lirltain. 
I'enmarli  I*  a  •mall  and  poor  country,  and  her  naval  and 
iniUtUfy  power  e<rfrea|iiind<  with  hor  iniall  reaoiircea. 
MIm  p(Mae««««  In  Riiropfl  tlio  Faroe  lalanda,  and  tho 
Ur||«,  voleanir,  and  (Kwr  Uland  of  Iceland,  with  a  por- 
lixit  lit  W«<l  (ire«nland. 

Hill)  Mi  liy  Mr,  Tuglnr,  /frituh  Cumut  at  fUji'nnrt,  with 
rufiHivi*  ID  lh»  Tradi  ijf  tJmmirtfii-  Ike  Vmr  1806.— 
''  ilia  illlpurl*  ut  thia  country  in  the  y«ar  ISSG  again 
•lli«w  Hit  auMmanlallon,  lielng  16.i,1.1H  ton*  In  weight, 
or  iion.lttn  in  value,  tirg<-r  than  the  proviuu*  year; 
IIm)  ««|i»iI«,  on  Iha  contrary,  a  great  fulling  off,  beinR 
mi  la«*  a  turn  lltan  4!75fl,04'i  in  value  liclow  thoie  of 
lUfifl,  the  prlM>:lpal  naiKe  of  till*  Ijeing  tho  reaction  in 
IImi  uralH  irad<,  which  wa*  to  be  exiieotcd  aflcr  tho 
Mliv*  yii»r  ut  IMA,  during  whiuli  luch  immenie  ex- 
pltrU  ik  iirain  lixili  plaee  from  tho  producing  to  the 
Mtntum^nn  counlrle*,  and  the  reault  to  Denmark  was 
ItHlfWI  ifiiartar*  dacreaaa  in  thu  exports  of  thi*  article. 

"  On  aompaflng  llie  value  of  the  import*  with  that 
W  lb«  anp'iria  fur  the  yaar  MM,  a*  givon  up  in  the  re- 
lltrH*,  there  I*  found  a  lialanco  aguiust  tha  country  of 
»» !«<•  a  aum  than  iia, 764,470;  but  thU  I*  only  nom- 
Initl,  ilin  great  tlllfarance  aridng,  a*  1  have  remarlied 
Ih  prxtlou*  yntn,  from  the  low  utBclul  value  at  which 
tiM arll<il«<  aaliortad  are  caloulatad ;  fur,  Ukiiig  the  av- 
ttiti^ii  prlea*  throughout  tba  year  IHJM,  for  grain,  Imt- 
t«r,  and  \mtin,  aa  a  bad*  for  deciding  the  actual  value 
i4  III*  aaport*  of  thaie  article*  atone,  it  would  be  found 
lltat  they  proilu(«  a  •am  of  about  i;i,070,000  more  than 
tba  aN««HHI*  dated  In  the  return* ;  and  were  toma  otb- 
«r  «f  tba  linporlaiit  artlclaa  of  ex|>ort  calculated  aftvr 
tbair  araraga  prieaa,  It  may  with  oontldence  be  *aid 
that  Iha  dllferenea  between  tha  value  of  th;  import* 
and  anierrt*  would  b«  reduced  to  lea*  than  .£l,UU(),OiM) 
—a  aHfllrlently  large  eum  for  a  countr}-  which  ha*  for 
many  year*  liaeii  Aeurlthlng  upon  the  extended  ez- 
|Miri  «r  It*  agrtsultural  produce,  did  wo  not  take  into 
«utMld«riitl'jtl  that  the  augmentation  in  the  import* 


prinalpalty  arlaaa  llireogb  Iba  inaraaaed  demand  Ihr 
foralga  artlalaa  of  ooainiaraa,  for  ooaauniptlon  or  Inx- 
iiry,  caUM'd  by  tbu  impriivail  cundlUoa  and  cIrcuBi- 
*lanc«*  ut  tiw  *gri*iihural  populalluo. 

"  Tbu  tout  omaant  iif  Import  duty  paid  In  Danmark, 
in  Iha  vaar  lOAU,  waa7,04l,7U7  rlxdollar*,  l«ing  I)(A,II6I 
rlx  dollar*,  or  4!IH,:UW,  mora  than  In  lb*  pi«vloua  y**r  | 
tko**  article*  wtileh  pro<luii*d  moat  lieing  (ugar,  lini- 
bar,  woolen  and  ivltoii  good*,  eolTue,  Iron  and  Iriin- 
ware,  wine,  aplrlta,  dik  aiul  *ltk*n  K<*<id*,  and  lln«ii 
good*,  the  daly  on  thaa*  arliciv*  having  amnuntol  to 
MtMM%  or  tM'<  par  eent.  of  th*  lirtal  lni|M>rt  duly. 
Tba  total  Impart  duty  give*  an  avarag*  of  II  par  cant, 
oa  tha  total  value  of  tba  Importa. 

"Tba  trade  lialwaan  l>aamark  and  tlie  dlfferant 
ooantria*  I*  In  mach  about  Iha  aame  proporibin*  to 
each  other  **  in  tba  y*ar  IMA,  tlie  only  graat  exrrp. 
tian  being  thai  of  Ku*ala,  which  In  18U  ainonnted  tu 
only  i.;IO,M«,  wheraa*  in  IHM  it  ro*e  lo  JHtl,m\l,  Iha 
reauit  of  the  ceaeatlon  of  hortilillr*  liatwecn  the  allied 
power*  and  that  country.  Hamburg  >how*,  a*  uiiiai, 
tba  targeal  amount  of  dirtot  tmla  with  Denmark  ;  liut 
■a  a  great  deal  of  the  good*  Imparted  u  from  ll*m- 
liurg  are.  In  fact,  mimifaclured  article*  from  Kiigland, 
France,  and  the  Orraian  atalei,  trananiltted  ri'i  that 
place,  It  mav  be  eonidd*r*d  that  the**  connlrle*  reap 
a  tari;e  portion  of  the  lieneAt  arleing  (Vom  *uoh  trade. 
T'ha  aame  may  of  couna  lie  *ald  of  tho  export  trade  of 
thia  country  to  Hambnrg,  moat  of  the  pnduca  Mhlch 
And*  It*  way  tlicra  IVom  Jutland  and  the  ducliieii  being 
destined  fur  other  part*.  The  value  of  the  importa  tU- 
ruct  from  (Jrent  lirltuin  hail  increaecd  with  an  amount 
of  Xl.')3,00li ;  ttie  value  of  tho  export*  to  that  country 
having,  on  the  othor  hand,  deereaicd  i,'348,00O,  or  above 
M  per  cent.,  to  be  accounted  fur  by  the  dcproinloii  in 
the  Engliali  grain  market*  after  tha  reopening  of  tlio 
KuMlsn  ports. 

"  Witii  rofercnce  to  tho  ahipplng  trade  of  Denmark, 
It  I*  to  be  remarkcti,  that  a  great  part  of  tho  Daiiiali 
■hipping  onguKed  In  the  foreign  trade  wa*  employed 
bvtweoii  this  country  and  (Jreat  Dritain.  Tlie  total 
quantity  of  murchandiie  imported  from  Great  Dritain 
In  1X50  wo*  2!)l,7i:9  tons,  of  which  160,140  ton*  wero 
brought  ill  Danish  siiipa,  mukin;;  6li  per  cent,  aguinet 
62  p<'r  cent.  In  1855.  The  gotnls  exported  to  Urunt 
Britain  measured  !)a,705  tuns,  of  which  80,S88  tons,  or 
86  per  cent,  (in  1866,  80  (ler  cent.),  wuro  carried  by 
Danish  ship*. 

"Of  the  trade  carried  on  tietwecn  Denmark  and 
Hamburg  by  sea  78  per  cent,  fell  upon  the  Danish 
*btppiiig,  of  that  with  Ru*«la  33  per  cent.,  Norway  33 
per  cent.,  *nd  Sweilen  only  0  per  cent.  Tiie  trade 
with  Allona,  aa  also  with  the  Daniah  colonies  in  the 
West  Indies,  wa*  carried  on  entirely  by  Danish  ships." 

The  shipping  trade  of  the  principal  port*  in  Denmark 
wai,  in  186(1,  a*  follow* :  ;  ,  ,^,,^ ,,  ,^.^    ,, 

C'onmiAoaii. 


Vam    '" 

■  *iii|>i; 

tnU«. 

Slow  IK*. 

lav 

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18,TW 

C«i,l8B 
T.>I1,1IT 

Tim. 
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188« 

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p  iiiiii«r' 

1     RViUtorT' 

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"rem. 

11  soil 
116,480 

T.MII. 

"    70,1  Hit 

18M 

KiKI. 

Vnn. 

4u,i. 

l.(M.r. 

ttawmf. 
T«a.. 
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I8BB 

MI4 
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Tcaa. 
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Alton  A. 

Y«»n. 

ahlpa. 

H<(lfUr. 

auiwsirfl. 

ISES 

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SOMtM 

Tom. 

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«23,7»7 

n( 
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Tom. 


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M3,79T 


.%-iimi  Diui Tn  14tm  ih*  r«((nhic  khig  nf  T>raiMrk 

■ud*  ■  oommariUI  (maty  with  llitnry  VII.  nf  Kn- 
gUnd,  by  which  th«  Kngllah  tngiKKil  to  pny  the  (tnnail 
nUM  on  ill  VMMiU  ontKrlng  i>r  nitunilng  fyiim  lh« 
lUltJi'  I  •nil  In  return  th«y  w*ro  kllowad  tn  h*v«  mcr- 
cantlU  ciiii/iiiIk  In  thn  chief  uraporta  of  Denmark  and 
Norway.  Ily  thU  llnw  tb«  •xtrniiou  of  trail*  had 
(Itco  riM  In  IVnioark,  a«  In  Kngtaml,  to  a  mlddla 
riau,  among  whomth*  M>verf>lgn  found  in  each  roun- 
Iry  tha  mcaiu  of  halanring  Iha  polltU'jil  wnighl  of  Iha 
nubility  j  hanoa  a  grant  waa  niada  liy  Ik*  king*  nf 
I'anniark  of  variooi  prlvtlagai  to  tradan,  and  rallaf 
fynm  a  nunilxr  of  loral  impokta  on  tha  tranilt  of  mar- 
ohamlliic.     H»«  hnnitk  Himml  thin. 

The  Amrd  StulriiUlg. — On*  of  th*  prlnrlpal  pnlltl- 
nal  quMtlon*  iMtwmn  Kngland  and  Denmark  mTlimd 
In  tha  y«ar  1710,  In  tha  mld«t  of  a  war  b«tw*mi  Kn- 

f:land,  rrance,  Hpnln,  and  the  North  Ann  nt.inrolonlaa. 
)urlng  that  arduoui  eontcat,  Rngland,  aiip*rlor  at  a*n, 
had  no  dlfflciilty  In  obtaining,  by  her  own  marrhant- 
men,  a  atipply  of  heinp,  cnrdiigo,  and  oth*r  naviil 
iturM,  friiii  the  naltli',  wliil*  Kriinc*  and  Npain  Irnatrd 
to  rac«lvltig  auch  aiippllna  by  nriitral  vraaela.  Hut  llie 
Brttlah  guvammont  danleil  tha  right  of  neutral*  to 
carry  wnrllka  atorea  ;  aud  the  northern  powora,  headed 
by  the  amblllout  Culharlne  of  Kiiaaia,  entered  Into  a 
compact,  called  the  Armed  Neutrality,  by  wh'ch,  with- 
out reaorting  to  actual  hoatllity,  they  aought  to  over- 
awe  Kngland,  and  to  rontlnne  the  quratlonal)le  trafllc. 
Happily  n)i  libxNlahcd  followed  thia  diplomatic  menace, 
and  the  (|ueatlon  fell  to  the  ground  In  178V,  on  the  ne- 
gotiation for  tt  general  peace. 

Tha  king  of  Dcninnrk,  aubject  all  along  tn  Imhecitity, 
became  after  1781  quito  lncapn)>le  of  governing.  Ilia 
(on,  the  crown  prince,  waa  therefore  appointed  regent, 
and  aoon  poaaed  acveral  Judiclnui  enaetmenta.  The 
peuaunta  living  on  the  crown  Innda  were  gradually 
emanci|iated — an  example  followed  by  a  number  of  the 
nolillity  on  their  reapectivo  eatatca.  In  the  nUilltion 
of  the  African  alavc-trade  Denmark  had  the  honor  of 
taking  Iho  load  among  tho  govenimenta  of  Kuro|)e. 
The  crown  prince,  guided  liy  th*  counaela  of  Count 
BomilorIT,  aon  of  the  minlatcr  already  mentioned,  long 
remained  neutral  In  'he  politicul  rnnvniainna  engendered 
by  the  French  Revuliitl'iti  He  cnntinned  to  adhere 
ateadfoatly  to  thia  plan  utilil  in  IHOl  the  Kmperor  Paul 
of  Rusala  having,  aa  in  the  coae  nf  the  nrmed  neutrality, 
furmed  a  compact  nf  tho  northern  |K)W('ra  hoatlle  to 
England,  a  Briliali  fleet  was  aent  into  the  ll.ilHr  under 
the  order*  of  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  with  Lord  Nel.iDn  aa 
hl(  aecond  In  command. 

It  waa  thia  fleet  which  taught  the  Danea  that  their 
capital  was  not  Impregnable,  and  that  the  long  line  of 
men-of-war  moored  in  (Vont  of  the  harbor  was  an  In- 
•ufllclent  defcnae  ogainst  luch  enterpriaing  opponents, 
llie  attack  took  place  n<i  tho  2d  of  April,  1801 ;  and 
tho  reaUtance  of  the  Danes  waa  spirited,  but  fruitless. 
The  loss  of  the  English  in  killcil  and  wounded  ex- 
ceeded 1000  men,  but  that  nf  their  opp<ments  was 
much  greater,  and  most  i  <'  their  shipping  was  destroyed. 
Happily  little  injury  wus  done  to  the  capital.  A  ces- 
sation of  hostilities  took  place  forthwith,  and  was  fol- 
lowed liy  a  treaty  of  peace.  The  death  of  the  Emperor 
Paul,  which  occurred  soon  afterwanl,  dissolved  tha 
compact  between  the  northern  courts. 

Hut  no  treaty  of  |)euce  coulil  Iw  regarded  aa  perma- 
nent during  the  ascendancy  of  llunuparte.  After  de- 
feating first  Austria,  and  then  Prussia,  that  extraonli- 
nar}'  man  found  means  to  obtain  the  conlidenoe  of  the 
Emperor  Alexander  of  Kusaia,  and  In  the  autumn  of 
1807  threatened  to  make  Denmark  take  part  in  the  war 
against  England.  Although  the  Danish  g>jvi^m^ent 
discovered  no  intention  to  violate  its  neutrality,  the 
English  ministers,  eager  to  please  the  pnbllc  by  acting 
on  a  system  of  vigor,  despatched  to  the  Baltic  both  a 
tieet  and  an  army,  In  order  to  compel  the  surrender  of 
the  Danish  navy  uiion  condition  of  its  being  restored 


■I  a  |>MM.  Tn  neh  a  damaml  Iha  enwn 
lav*  an  ImmwHal*  nagativ*,  dw'laring  tliat  ka  waa 
both  able  and  willing  to  maintain  bla  n*ulrallty,  and 
that  hia  ll*«t  rnnid  nn«  li*  given  nfi  on  any  such  eiin- 
ditlon.  On  IhU  th*  Knglhih  army  liind*<l  near  (lopMa- 
hagan  i  laid  atag*  to  thai  city  i  and  aonn  ohllgMl  tka 
govemnwnl  to  purrhaan  Ita  safety  ky  soffMidarlot  Iba 
whni*  of  Ita  naval  fnfc*. 

Tkla  art,  Ik*  ninat  quMilkmahU  tn  point  uf  JnaMc*  of 
any  commHlad  liy  Ik*  llrillah  govamnMnt  during  lh« 
war,  can  hanily  h*  d*f*nd*d  nn  Iha  aenr*  of  policy. 
Th*  batUa  nf  Tnflilgar  had  er*  Ihia  li**n  fnuKht)  and 
afUirthal  gr*at  vklnry  h«r  sutwriority  at  aea  waa  so 
dacialv*  aa  »o  axempt  her  from  th*  n*««i«alty  <if  olfciid. 
Ing  foreign  power*  by  adn]itlng  ailnnin  iiMaaur**. 
Th*  r>**ntm*nt  fslt  on  that  oenaalon  by  th*  Kmp«ror 
of  Ruiaia  was  ai>  KTrst  ••  In  d*priv«  England  during 
four  anlnons  year*  of  th*  lM>n«flt  of  hi*  allliinc*  i  aiul 
tha  salinre  of  the  Danish  fleet  ao  exasparatsd  the 
rrown  prlnc*  and  th*  nation  at  larg*,  thai  th*y  forth- 
with declared  war  againat  Knglaml,  throwing  tb*m- 
aelvcs  completely  Intn  th*  arma  of  Kranr*. 

The  hoatlliti**  iH-tween  England  and  Denmark  w*r« 
carried  on  liy  aea,  partly  at  th*  entrance  of  the  llaitio, 
and  partly  on  the  eoast  of  Norway.  These  conaiatfd 
of  a  aeries  of  actlona  lietween  single  veaaeia  or  amall 
detachments,  in  which  tho  Danes  fought  olwaya  with 
•nirit,  and  not  Infrrniiiently  with  •ucness.  In  regard 
<  trad*,  both  natlima  anlfered  severely ;  th*  llrillah 
merchantmen  In  tho  Hullic  beinu  much  annoyed  by 
Danish  cmlaera,  while  th«  foreign  Inide  nf  Denmark 
waa  in  a  manner  sns|iended  by  England's  naval  su- 
periority. 

ropulnlitm. — The  Increase  and  dislrihution  of  tho 
pnpniatinn  of  Denmark  will  appear  ttoia  the  following 
table ; 


Th*  population  of  Denmark  Proper,  1st  February, 
18M,  was  as  follows : 


Zoslsnil  and  Moon . . . 

Bomholm 

Fnnan,  ete 

Laalanil  and  Falster., 

North  Jutland 

Total 


ITfl.SM 
(»,4M 
81  .Wi 
II.IU 
«8,tS4 


tWfitr 


Ronil  niiU. 


1H,4T« 
1SMD4 

67,i«8 
_IW«.MI 
1,'llY,V89 


T.'liil. 


8I.M7 

IST.SIS 
Tl»,017 

<im.Mfl 

1,407,717  ■ 


The  poputntinn  of  the  principal  towns  of  Denmark 
Proper  (lat  Felimary,  IHftO)  was  as  follows,  viz. : 
Copenhagen,  ]29,HnO;  Odensee,  11,100;  Helsingor, 
8,100 ;  Aarhuua,  7,800 ;  Aalborg,  7,700 ;  Kauden, 
7,800  J  Hnrsens,  «,80n ;  R5nne,  4,700;  Svendborg, 
4,A0O;  Predericia,  4,800;  Vihorg,  4,000;  .Slagelse, 
4,000 ;  and  Koeskilde,  B,800.  In  the  duchy  of  Schles- 
wig,  the  principal  towns  with  their  populations  on  lat 
Febraary,  1840,  was  as  follows,  viz. :  Klenatwrg,  12,- 
611;  Hchleswig,  11,2(^1;  Hadersleve,  6,10S ;  Eckems, 
fOrde,  4,058;  and  Apenrnde,  4,021.  In  that  of  Hol- 
stein  as  follows,  viz:  Alton*,  2M,006;  Kiel,  12,844; 
Rendaburg,  10,000;  and  (ilQcksUdt,  6,089. 

The  principal  porta  are  Copenhagen  and  Elsinore. 
Copenhagen,  capital  of  Denmark,  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  in  the  channel  of  the 
Baltic  called  the  Sound,  in  l«t.  fi5°  41'  N.,  long.  12°  85' 
46"  E.  Tho  water  In  the  ciiannel  is  from  25  to  85 
feet  deep ;  but  it  is  narrow,  and  the  navigation  difficult. 
Vessels  not  intending  to  come  into  the  harbor  bring  up 
in  the  roads,  at  ftrom  one  qturter  to  one  half  a  mile 
ftom  shore.  In  about  25  feet  water.  In  the  harbor, 
within  the  lioom,  the  water  is  from  17  to  18  feet  deep, 
and  vessels  unload  alongside  of  the  quay.  The  an- 
chorage in  tho  roads  la  ifooA  and  aafe. 

Elsinore,  or  Elaineur  (Danish  HeltingOr),  a  seaport 
town  of  Denmark  Proper,  on  the  east  coast  of  tliu  isl- 


DEN 


628 


DEN 


and  of  Seeland.  It  standi  at  the  nanowest  part  of 
the  Sound,  oppoaitc  the  Swediah  town  of  Helnlngborg, 
fh>m  which  it  is  three  miles  distant.  All  merchant 
Teasels  are  obliged,  under  certain  reservations  depend- 
ing on  the  weather,  to  salute  the  castle  by  lowering 
their  top-sails  in  passing.  In  the  vicinity  is  Horienlyst 
(Mary's  delight),  till  lately  a  royal  chatnau,  now  the 
property  of  the  corporation,  and  let  to  a  private  family. 
The  towns  of  Altona  and  Wanslwcic  are  included  un- 
der the  head  of  foreign  commerce,  as  standing  without 
the  toll-regu)ations  of  the  kingdom. 

The  navigation  from  the  north  of  Germany  to  Den- 
mark, around  the  northern  point  of  Jutland,  being 
always  tedious,  and  sometimes  dangerous,  gave  rise  to 
the  idea  of  uniting  the  two  seas  by  means  of  a  canal, 
communicating  with  the  river  Eyder.  The  work  was 
commenced  in  1777,  and  <i  niched  in  the  course  of  seven 
years,  at  a  great  expense.  This  is  the  Canal  of  Kiel, 
which  begins  near  the  town  of  that  name,  on  the  side 
of  the  Baltic,  and  extends  eastward  about  twent}--three 
miles,  when  it  comes  in  connection  with  the  Eyder. 
This  canal  is  nearly  100  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  and 
64  at  the  bottom ;  it  has  six  locks,  and  its  least  depth 
of  water  is  10  feet ;  it  admits  vessels  of  120  tons  bur- 
den; and  of  such  small  shipping  no  less  than  from 
2,000  to  :<,000  pass  in  a  year.  Of  no  less  importance  is 
the  Stncknitz  Canal,  which,  along  with  the  railway  be- 
tween Altona,  GlQcIcstadt,  and  Kiel,  serves  to  promote 
the  commerce  of  the  duchies.  There  are  also  railways 
from  Copenhagen  to  Elsinore,  and  from  Copenhagen 
to  Roeskilde ;  and  one  has  been  recently  opened  from 
Tonning  to  Flensburg,  with  a  branch  to  Rendaburg. 
Tonning  is  the  port  on  the  east  coast,  and  the  length  of 
navigation  from  there  to  the  Baltic  is  about  105  miles. 
The  passage  to  the  Baltic  by  the  Sound  continues  to 
be  followed  by  English,  Dutch,^nd  other  vessels  of 
heavy  burden,  as  well  as  by  Swedes  and  Norwegians, 
on  account  of  the  vicinity  of  their  respective  countries 
to  the  Sound ;  but  coasting  vessels  and  other  traders 
from  Oldenburg,  Hamburg,  the  mouth  of  the  Ell>e,  as 
well  as  from  Tonning  and  the  ports  of  ^hleswig,  and 
still  more  small  Danish  bark.i  belonging  to  the  islands, 
find  it  a  great  convenience  to  traverse  the  Canal  of 
Kiel.  The  hazard  on  the  north  coast  of  Jutland 
arisen  from  extensive  sand-banks  and  a  number  of 
currents. — E.  B. 

The  customs  regulations  of  Denmark  did  not  assume 
any  fixed  or  permanent  character  until  toward  the 
close  of  the  last  century.  No  regular  system  of  com- 
mercial policy  was  pursued ;  and  the  regulations  which, 
from  time  to  time,  were  enforced,  were  issued  more 
with  the  immediate  view  of  recruiting  the  treasury  of 
the  crown,  than  with  any  regard  to  tlie  encouragement 
of  the  industrial  or  commercial  enterprise  of  the  coun- 
try. High  and  prohibitoiy  duties  were  imposed ;  ex- 
clusive privileges  were  granted  by  the  crown  to  such 
companies  as  were  either  rich  or  favored  enough  to  se- 
cure them ;  competition,  so  essential  to  success  in  every 
pursuit,  was  prevented ;  and  the  industrial  energies  of 
the  nation,  the  only  true  basis  of  individual  as  well  as 
of  national  wealth,  were  crushed  by  the  monopolizing 
spirit  and  grasping  cupidity  of  these  privileged  associ- 
ations. They  enjoyed  the  exclusive  right  of  trading, 
even  with  the  colonists;  of  supplying  their  wants; 
taking  in  exchange  their  surplus  productions  at  such 
valuations  nnd  prices  as  they  thought  pmper  to  fix  and 
wore  willing  t'l  |iay.'  About  the  period  already  referred 
to,  a  better  system  was  gradually  introduced.  Many  of 
the  restrictions  which  hod  hitherto  contributed  to  fetter 
and  depress  the  foreign  trade  of  Dennutrk  were  taken 
off;  a  new  taritf  was  adopted ;  and  th'o  whsle  system  of 
regulations  was  coiisnlidutcd  into  the  "  ordinance  31, 
Christian  VII.,  lUted  the  Ist  of  Kel)ruary,  1797,  re- 
lating to  the  customs;"  which,  with  the  various  enact- 
ments since  adopted,  cunstitutus  tlie  l>asis  of  the  pres- 
ent commercial  policy  of  Dennmrk. 

Under  these  regulatiuns,  a  distinction  is  drawn  be- 


tween privilegi"!  and  nnprivileged  natlont.  The  former 
arc  those  with  ■■  Iiich,  by  treaty,  couventlon,  or  other- 
wise, a  reciprocity  and  equrlity  of  commerce  and  navi- 
gation have  been  established — such  treaty,  convention, 
etc.,  prescribing  the  terms  on  which  reciprocity  U 
granted ;  the  latter  are  subject  to  extra  duties,  amount- 
ing to  as  high  as  60  per  cent,  above  the  rates  fixed  in 
the  general  tariif.  To  the  former  class  the  United 
Stiitcs  belong,  the  treaty  by  which  entire  reciprocity 
and  equality  of  commerce  and  navigation  are  guaran- 
tied, dating  as  far  back  as  April,  1826.  The  following 
abstract  embraces  the  principal  stipulations  of  thii 
treaty,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion: 

No  particular  favors  in  respect  of  commerce  or  navi- 
ga<von  to  be  granted  to  other  nations,  which  shall  not 
become  common  to  the  other  party,  on  like  or  equivo.- 
lent  terms.  Commerce  and  navigation  between  tlie 
two  countries  to  rest  on  the  liberal  basis  of  jKTfcct 
equality  and  reciprocity  •  and  the  citizens  and  subject* 
of  each  to  enjoy  all  rights,  privileges,  and  exemptions, 
in  the  territories  of  the  other,  which  native  citizens  or 
subjects  do  or  shall  enjoy ;  Iceland,  the  Faroe  islands, 
and  Greenland,  and  the  places  situated  beyond  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  direct  trade  between  Den- 
mark and  the  Danish  West  India  colonies,  being  ex- 
cepted from  the  operation  of  the  treaty.  Duties  to  be 
alike  on  all  manufactures  or  merchandise  of  any  coun- 
try that  can  be  lawfully  imported  into  either  country, 
whether  such  importation  be  made  in  the  vessels  of  one 
nation  or  the  other.  Similar  equality  to  exist  in  re- 
spect to  exportations  or  re-exportations  f^om  either 
countr}',  and  in  the  vessels  of  either.  The  produce 
and  manufactures  of  each  countr}',  when  imported  into 
either,  to  be  subject  to  no  other  or  higher  duties  t.'inn 
similar  produce  or  manufactures  of  any  other  country ; 
and  this  equalit}'  to  extend  to  exports  from  either 
country  to  the  ports  of  the  other.  Articlo  5th  stipu- 
lates that  neither  the  vessels  of  the  United  States  nor 
their  cargoes  shall,  when  they  pass  the  Sound  or  the 
Belts,  pay  higher  or  other  duties  than  those  which  are 
or  may  be  paid  by  the  most  favored  nation. 

lfe<<  India  Coloniet. — In  the  intercourse  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Danish  West  India  colonies,  it 
is  agreed  that  whatever  can  be  lawfully  imported  into 
or  exported  from  the  said  colonies,  in  vessels  of  one 
party,  from  or  to  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  or  from 
or  to  the  porta  of  any  other  foreign  country,  may,  in 
like  manner,  and  with  the  same  duties  and  charges  a))- 
plicable  to  vessel  and  cargo,  be  imported  into  or  ex- 
ported from  the  said  colonies  in  vessels  of  the  other 
party.  The  treaty  to  continue  in  force  ten  years,  with 
the  usual  stipulation  for  twelve  months'  notice  if  either 
party  should  desire  to  terminate  it  after  that  period. 

The  general  foreign  navigation  of  Denmark,  in 
1844,  employed  33,845  vessels,  measuring  ],2C(>,4]7 
tons,  and,  as  appears  from  official  returns,  floating 
765,475  tons  of  merchandise. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  inquire  to  what  extent  the 
national  flag  of  Denmark  participated  in  this  general 
movement.  The  total  number  of  vessels  which  en- 
tered and  cleared  on  foreign  voyages  in  IB'14  was  X),- 
845,  with  a  tonnogo  of  1,260,417  tons,  and  conveying 
765,475  tons  of  freight.  Of  these  vessels,  there  were 
under  the  Danish  flag  22,275,  with  a  tonnage  of  717,- 
891  tons,  and  conveying  450,070  tons  of  freight.  Thus, 
Denmark  had, 

1  St.  In  the  number  of  tossoIs S5.8  per  cent. 

Sd.  In  the  tonnsfio A2.T       " 

M.  In  the  cargoes 60  " 

Leaving  for  all  other  nations, 

1st.  In  tho  number  of  vessels lii.i  percent 

2d.  In  the  tonnage 47.4       " 

8(1.  In  the  cargoes 4Vt  " 

The  aggregate  tonnage  of  ves.sels  employed  in  tlio 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  Denmark  in  1844, 
was  3,458  tons.  In  1851,  it  had  decreased  to  2,608  ; 
in  1856,  it  was  2,013. 


/ 


HnoniRT  TaMU  or  Duch abk,  Jahvabt,  ISM. 


629 


DEN 


MiBwk.  I  H<M«wlir. 

HoUlalD.    ! 

Vo»Ml9 

^40, 

65,084 
1,008 
1,67S 

1,470 

11 

17,144 

813 

AM 

i,aTS'  ■ 

10,898 
105 

TonnigeofToaieU 

"        ofttetmera 

OlMIBAt  BtATBHIIIT  Or  IVPOKTB  IKTO  DKNIIAn  AND  !>■• 
riNDEKCIHg  IN  1847,  WITH  AMOUNT  Or  DcTin. 


OaMrfptlon  of  Marohjui* 
■llw. 


Total  nnmber  of  veasela,  5,154;  stesmera,  87.  Tonnigo  of 
MlUDZ  TeH«Ia,  103.171 :  stoamon,  1,819.  Hone-power,  9,069. 
Boo  (joOm  Ahnanac,  1867. 

From  official  returns  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Den- 
mark, it  appears  that  in  1847  the  imports  and  exports 
united  amounted  to  i)4G,B00,000 ;  a  sum  nearly  equally 
divided  l)ctween  Denmork  Proper  and  its  dependencies. 
In  estimating  the  true  relative  value  of  this  commercial 
movement,  we  must  bear  in  mfaid  that  the  kingdom 
proper  contains  a  population  of  1,860,000  inhabitants, 
and  comprises  an  area  of  683  Danish  superflcial  miles ; 
while  the  duchies  contiin  a  population  of  842,000  souls, 
spread  over  an  area  of  only  !U8  Danish  miles.  The 
Danish  miles  are  given  as  found  in  the  authorities 
ftrom  which  these  facts  are  condensed,  and  because 
they  will  suffice  for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  Den- 
mark and  dependencies  in  Europe  contain  an  area  of 
1,081,076  geographical  miles,  and  a  population  of 
2,296,687,  exclusive  of  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the 
Fanw  islands.  Thus,  the  latter,  with  a  territory  less 
thfj'i  OLe  half,  and  a  population  more  than  one  third 
less,  ,  xitributes  more  thun  its  proportionate  share  to 
the  general  commerce  of  the  country.  The  importance 
which  Denmark  attaches  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
duchies  is  thus  anounted  for.  Tliey  are  not  only  the 
granaries  from  which  her  cereal  supplies  are  obtained, 
but  they  also  constitute  the  commercial  conduits 
through  which  her  principal  products — ^llve  cattle, 
horses,  etc. — ^pass  to  a  market.  The  loss  of  the 
duchies  would,  besides,  inflict  an  irreparable  injury 
upon  Denmark,  by  outtlng  off  the  enormous  revenue 
which  she  has  so  long  derived  from  the  Sound  dues ; 
as,  in  the  event  of  a  separation,  the  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  Canal  would  soon  become  the  principal  route  to 
the  Baltic. 

The  description  and  quantities  of  merchandise  which 
constitute  the  cliief  basis  of  the  exchanges  between 
Denmark  and  foreign  countries,  for  any  one  year  of 
average  commercial  activity,  will  furnish  the  most  ac- 
curate standard  by  which  to  judge  of  the  present  or 
prospective  importance  of  the  trade  between  that  king- 
dom and  the  United  States.  Data  from  which  to 
calculate,  even  approximately,  the  value  of  importa. 
tions,  ore  not  at  hand.  A  valuation  based  upon  such 
data  as  are  possessed  may,  however,  lie  attempted. 
Wo  And  that  the  duties  levied  on  importations  for  the 
year  1847  reached  as  high  as  $2,685,654,  or,  in  round 
numbers,  $2,600,000.  Allowing  12  per  cent,  on  the 
ira|)orts  ns  the  amount  of  duties,  we  have  as  their 
value  for  that  year  over  #20,000,000.  The  value  of 
the  exports,  as  registered  in  the  Danish  custom-houses, 
is  more  accessible,  and  will  be  found  under  its  proper 
head  In  the  following  tables. 

Of  the  $2,685,8.54  which  is  found  under  the  column 
of  duties  on  Imports,  the  portion  received  in  the  cus- 
tom-houses of  Denmark  Proper,  amounted  to  $1,806,- 
246,  and  that  which  was  levied  In  ^he  duchies  reached 
$879,408.  While  this  latter  sum  is  less  than  60  per 
cent,  of  that  received  in  Denmark  Proper,  we  must 
not  infer  that  importation  into  the  duchies  was  In  the 
same  pMi)ortion.  On  the  contrary,  the  table  which 
follows  will  show  that,  in  general,  they  Import  more — 
in  some  cases  100  {ler  cent,  more — than  the  kingdom 
proper.  The  disproportion  in  the  amount  of  duties 
results  from  the  operation  of  different  tariffs ;  that  of 
Denmark  Proper  being  much  liigher  than  the  tariff  ap- 
plicable to  the  Duchies  of  Sclileswlg  and  Kolsteln. 
Altona,  In  the  Duchy  of  llolstcln,  the  most  important 
commercial  city  in  Denmark  next  to  Copenhagen,  Is  a 
free  port;  and  all  goods  may  be  landed  and  stored 
without  any  other  charges  than  port  does. 


Cottons 

Bugar  and  syrups 

Woolens ,. 

Wood 

Coffee 

Iron,     anmanlkoturiid 
and  minufacturad. . , 

Wines 

Bait 

Brandy     and     other 

tplrUs 

Tobaoeo , 

Coal 

Cloths,  linen 

"       Bilks. 

Cotton,  raw  and  spun . 

Tea 

Olosswaros 

Pottery 

Homp  and  flax 

Itioe 

Fruits 

Paper 

Bkins  and  hides  tanned 
Yam,  cotton 

"     woolen 

Other  articles 


Mttiunr*  or 
qwMltlly. 


Ktlogs.. 


Tol>1. 


Onblofeet, 
Kllogs..... 


Total  duties  collected. 


Heotolltres 

Kllogs..... 
Tons 

t 


>l 


1,085,000 

18,074,000 

556,000 

8,464,000 

6,57S,000 

20,608,000 

81,000 

16,006,000 

•     88,000 

8,816,000 

614,(XI0 

618,000 

87,000 

1,374,000 

883,000 

1,766,000 

868,000 

2,566,000 

3,868,000 

1,888,000 

884,000 

680,000 

162,000 

6^000 


Amounti  of 
dntldi. 


|82.%600 
891,000 
866,878 
808,506 
159,588 

126,178 
184,484 

83,886 

83,886 
n,876 
51,886 
49,476 


89,060 
84,696 
81,848 

28,880 

89,994 

18,828 

16,740 

18,080 

9,114 

8,184 

8,848 

680,320 


I  2,685,664 


The  hectolitre  is  equal  to  26-4178  gallons. 
The  authorities  from  which  the  preceding  table  is 
compiled  omit  the  countries  from  which  the  different 
articles  were  exported.  The  United  States'  Treasury 
Report  for  1847,  however,  furnishes  data  to  supply  the 
omission  as  respects  the  United  States.  From  that 
document  the  following  statements  are  derived : 

American  tonnage,  entered  from  Denmark none. 

"             "        clcsied  ftom  the  U.  B.  for  Den- 
mark   A 816  tons. 

Foreign  tonnage,  entered  flrora  Denmark 717    " 

"          "        ricared  from  the  U.  8.  for  Don- 
mark 2,274    « 

Total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  1S47. .  8,807  tons. 
The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Denmark  is 
shown  by  the  following  exhibit  of  exports  ft-om  and 
imports  into  tho  United  States. 

Exih,rt«.  Import*.  Totft). 

1826 $84.^870  (49,264  |S95,184 

1886. 68',985  48,971  684,956 

1»I6. 121,248  1,318  124,656 

1856 287,715  1,130  828,845 

The  total  exports  of  domestic  produce  to  Denmark 
from  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Juno, 
1856,  were, 

In  American  vessels (158,904 

In  foreign  vessels 85,966 

Totoi 'im^m 

And  foreign  produce 81,768 

Total  for  the  year (887,713 

GXFOBTS  rXOM  THE   ITnITRD   STATES   TO   DENMARK  rOB  TRB 

Yeabs  enoinu  Jkke  80, 1847  and  1!i50. 


DoMTlpllon  of  merchiuidUe, 


Dye  woods 

Tobacco lbs. 

Spirits  of  turpentine .  galls. 

KIco tlorcos 

Cotton  (raw) lbs. 

Kre  and  other  grains 

Flour bbia, 

Itoain  and  tnrpontlno    " 
Whale  Jc  other  flsh  oil,  gls. 

Bnndrles 

Drugs  and  modli-lnes. . 
Totol 


Quiuillilfa, 


2,119 

7,756 

.^,029 

660,738 

■"i7 


V«ln,->. 


(210 

8,708 

115,625 

68,609 

6,000 

181 

456 

11,888 

6,019 


IMS. 
ViUiiel. 


81,763 


49,663 
127,790 


8,316 
15,202 


803,895    I   827,718 


It  appears  that  the  United  States  supplied  Denmark 
In  1847  with  all  the  rice  imported  into  thnt  country, 
and  a  large  share  of  the  raw  cotton,  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, flsh-oU,  grains,  etc.  Wines  and  spirits  are  chiefly 
imported  ftum  France,  eitlier  direct  or  l>y  way  of  Ham- 
burg, and  cottons  almost  exclusively  from  England, 
but  in  1856-6,  the  exportation  of  tobacco,  groin,  flour, 
oils,  and  turpentine,  had  ceased. 


.  \  i 


DEN 


880 


DEN 


Ths  following  table  exhibits  the  vftlne  of  exports 
from  Denmark  and  the  dnchies  to  all  foreign  conntrlea 
daring  the  years  designated.  The  valaes  are  given  In 
ftsncs,  each  equal  to  18'6  cents. 


DetrtptloB  otTMrtltmoilM, 


Cereal*.        

LlreanimaU 

Bntter. 

Bacon,  etc 

Hides  and  skins... 

Seeds  

Wool  (raw) 

Salted  provisions., 

Bones 

Total  Franos.. 


isu. 


41,88S,000 

1S,4B8,000 

8,000,000 

1,A29,U<0 

2,710,000 

1,168,000 

779,000 

098,000 

8M,noo 


70,«»,00V 


I84S. 


4«,818,0«0 

11,780,000 

11,708,000 

1,802,000 

1,720,000 

1,005,000 

680,000 

461,000 

968,000 


76,178,000 


I8«1. 


6^714,000 
11,66«JD00 
9,066,000 
1,670,000 
1,816,000 
1,««),000 
1,679,000 
780,000 
807,000 


84,745,000 


The  following  snggostion  is  found  in  a  commercial 
report  recently  issued  under  the  direction  of  the  French 
government,  which  may  be  found  useful  to  others  be- 
tides the  French  merchants  engaged  in  the  trade  with 
the  countries  of  northern  Europe  : 

"  In  the  northern  nations,  especially  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Norway,  there  is  an  active  demand  for  a 
beverage  extensively  used  in  those  countries,  which 
our  merchants  engaged  in  supplying  them  with  lig- 
iteurt,  might  advantageously  imitate.  It  is  a  mixture 
known  among  the  northern  people  as  gammel  Franih 
riVn  (old  French  wine),  and  composed  of  white  wine, 
rum,  syrup,  and  spices.  This  kind  of  net/ut  Ik  highly 
esteemed  by  a  people  who  have  no  relish  for  liquors, 
unless  they  are  highly  sweetened." 

In  1830  there  was  published,  by  order  of  the  Danish 
government,  a  statistical  report  of  the  commerce  and 
navigation  of  Denmark  Proper  for  the  year  1848. 
From  this  publication,  it  appears  that  though  Denmark 
was  involved  in  difificulties  with  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation during  the  year  1848,  the  general  commerce 
of  the  kingdom  suffered  no  sensible  diminution.  This 
was  mainly  owing  to  the  geographical  position,  as 
well  as  to  the  militarj'  murine  of  Denmark,  by  means 
of  which  she  was  enabled  to  blockade  most  of  the 
German  ports,  and  thus  give  free  scope  to  her  own 
merchant  flag.  Cnt  off  from  the  German  markets, 
firom  which  she  nsnallj'  draws  her  supplies  of  articles 
of  first  necessity  for  her  manufactures,  she  sought  for 
new  channels  through  which  to  supply  her  wants ; 
and  at  once  found  England  already  waiting  to  avail 
herself  of  the  difficulties  in  which  she  was  embroiled. 
Hence,  the  principal  foreign  trade  of  Denmark  during 
this  year,  was  carried  on  with  England. 

The  numlier  of  vessels  employed  in  the  foreign  trade 
of  Denmark  in  1848  was  as  follows : 

■atared Vessels  7,008    Tonnage 383,747 

Cleared "       7,816  "      J58,98« 

ToUl 14,819  "       692,579 

The  tonnage  of  merchandise  was  480,240  tons. 

From  North  and  South  Ameaica  there  entered,  dur- 
ing the  same  year,  Gl  vessels  of  12,820  tons ;  while 
there  cleared  67  vessels  of  15,368  tons,  of  which  there 
were  18  vessels  of  3,736  tons  under  a  foreign  flag. 

The  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  from  all  coun- 
tries, in  1848,  as  compared  with  1847,  was  as  follows : 

1848.— Import* 118,021,860 

Export* 8,076,678 

Total  trade  In  1848 »21,098,888 

.1847.-Import» $18,69/,71« 

Eiport* 7,015,882 

Total  trade  In  1847 .TT. 20,618,078 

Increase  ^  1943 '486,460 

Of  the  alxive  ligures,  the  trade  of  Copenhagen  alone 
•baorbed: 

184a— Importa .-..    «9,808,624 

Exports I'if?!?** 

Total  trade  of  Copenhagen  in  1848..  111,271,786 

1M7.— Import* 19,069,860 

';.         ExporU J,8I6,860 

'^ ' ''  ToUl  trade  of  Copenbagcn  In  1847 . .    10,884.720 

Increase  In  1848 |387,0«U 

See  Commercial  Jtelatiom  ^ftht  U.  JS.,  1867. 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  trade  feetWMn  lh« 
United  States  and  Denmark  during  the  year  1848 
Navioatiom  and  Comiiiiicii. 

Entered  the  United  States  from  Denmark 1 ,494  tons. 

Cleared  from  the  United  States  for  Denmark..,.  8,438    " 

Imports  from  Denmark 119,017 

Exports  to  Denmark 181,913 

Of  the  general  exports  from  Denmark  during  1848, 
England  received  50  per  cent.  ;  and  of  grains,  as  high 
OS  65  per  cent. ;  while  in  1847  the  proportion  exported 
to  Great  Britain  was  only  86  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
The  exports  to  the  United  States  were, 

Woolen  and  worsted  yams |856 

Ho*ler]r 662 

Bristles,  8,188  lbs 1,110 

Ksgs,  53,290  lb* 1,614 

Coal,  96  tons 410 

Unennmorated,  paring  a  duty  of  6  per  cent 9,467 

"               ..          »          JO     »      2,694 

"               u          .1          80     «      241 

Sundries 2,778 

Total $19,017 

Copenhagen,  as  already  remarked,  absorbs  about  80 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  trade  of  Denmark.  In  18ol 
there  entered  at  this  port  821  steam-vessels,  propelled 
by  engines  of  44,865  horse-power  aggregate,  and  float- 
ing 4,700  tons  aggregate  of  merchandise,  viz. : 

From  Prntala 620  tons. 

"    England  978     •' 

"    Luboc 1,688     " 

"    Weimar 1,008     " 

"    Elsewhere 606     " 

The  chief  imports  into  Copenhagen  trom  foreign 
countries  in  1851,  were  iron,  coal,  cabinetmakers'  and 
other  wood,  flre-wood,  and  heav}'  merohandise.  From 
the  United  States  and  Cuba  there  entered  15  vessels, 
of  8,158  tons'  measurement,  and  with  2,884  tons  of 
merchandise ;  and  from  the  Danish  West  Indies,  34 
vessebi,  of  8,670  tons'  measurement,  and  with  8,632 
tons'  merehandise.  The  imports  of  sugar  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

From  Danish  West  Indies kilogrammes,    6,600,000 

"      Brazil "  1,50(P,(H)0 

"      Cuba "  2,760,000 

"     Java "  650,1WO 

"     Entrepots  or  Europe "  100,0(J0 

Total "  'l6;600,000 

Imports  of  coffee  were  from  Brazil,  Haj-ti,  and 
European  entrepots,  5,250,000  kilogrammes  ;  of  which 
there  were  exported  from  Copenhagen  500,000  kilo- 
grammes, leaving  4,750,000  kilogrammes  for  consump- 
tion. 

The  value  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Denmark  for 
1853  and  1854  is  exhibited  in  the  subjoined  table  : 
OamnncR  op  DsxifAnK  and  the  Dithiks  or  BrnLEswio 

AND  UOLBTKIII   rOR  TIIR  YeAK*  1863  AND  18.^. 


Coantrj'- 


I8M. 


Import  •. 


Hambnrp.... 

Great  Britain 

Altona 

Norway 

Sweden 

Knula 

U.  8tate^  West 
Indies,  and  8, 
Sea. 

Lnboe 

Dan.  Colonies. 

Pmssia, 

Holland 

Iceland 

Bremen 

Franco 

Belgium 

Mecklenburg... 

Hanover 

Madlti^rranean 

E  Indies,  China 
and  Oulnca 

Greenlsnil. . . 

Faroe  Isles . . 

All  othon. . . 


16,988,378 
7,664,040 
4,141,248 
2,179,825 
2,918,5iM 
8,566,109 


8,467,4.'M 

2,169,566 

1,914,682 

1,208.808 

713,090 

806,056 

1,012,1M 

668,407 

2,^^,869 

877,671 

165,277 

444,781 

289,020 
276,882 
146,168 
267,865 


Eiportn. 


9,019,762 
10,662,224 
8,821,698 
S,aM,727 
1,821,128 
812,750 

860,246 

1,015,»I4 

880,006 

91A129 

1,199,444 

607,788 

46.926 

825,905 

498,449 

278,299 

828,012 

14,461 

122,013 

10fl,«46 

63,306 

424,864 


ToUl  (thalers).  60,860,712 1 81,268,800  60,861,711  { 89,088,108 


Imitorlt. 

ll!,S59,(16« 

10,882,863 

4,481,490 

2,246,696 

8,657>18 

854,618 


2,997,838 

2,651,947 

2,800,786 

2,U01,.VI9 

8H,H8fl 

840.783 

1,232,626 

619,718 

222,805 

678,374 

261,1192 

148,365 

278,877 

48,188 

106,293 

1,096,880 


Eiport*. 


9,048,n5 
12,194,060 
5,208,919 
2,553,518 
1,773,W7 
49,610 


142,175 
1,170,229 

849,600 

950,001 
2,278,108 

658,107  i 
74,364' 

17.H,969 ! 

872,692 ! 

269,644 , 

3I6,6S0 
88,086 1 

73,4401 
76,748  . 
69,411 


jSpIr 

Tob 
8ho 
jHi» 

T. 

T 


Danish  vessels  arriving  in  tho  United  States  from 
the  Danish  island*  of  Santa  Cruz  and  St.  Thoniaa  are 


BEN 


Itt 


DEN 


|gS6 
M2 

l,tlO 

1,614 
410 

»,45T 


2,"80,000 

6fio,noo 

100,0(10 


MM.                   1 

■■ 

Eiport.. 

Wl 

■m,04«,775 

nA8 

12,194,0«O 

4IN) 

B,«fl8,»19 

«»n 

a,5iS,51« 

%4S 

1,T:8,B4T 

«1H 

49,«10 

T4,8M 
17S,909  1 
87'2,*)9-2  , 
869,644 , 
8in,6S0 

88,Uti« '. 


not  chargeable  with  tonnage  duties  in  the  ports  of  the 
United  States ;  the  vessels  of  Denmark  and  the  United 
State)*  being  placed  on  the  same  footing,  in  that  re- 
spect, under  the  provisions  of  tiie  act  of  Congress  of 
the  81st  May,  1880,  and  the  treaty  with  Denmarlc  of 


the  2eth  April,  1836.  The  following  table  ezhiliits 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Denmarli 
flrom  the  year  1820  to  the  year  1866,  by  which  it  wil 
be  seen  that  this  commerce  does  not  assume  any  addt 
tional  importance  from  year  to  year ; 


YMTimdliif. 

Kiporti  to  Denniark. 

Inpotta. 

Wkaniiif  tktra  «•>  Id  BiUlon 
•nd  Speel«. 

Tottlug. 

Clemd.         1 

DomuUc. 

Foreign. 

ToU. 

Tol.1. 

Kiported. 

InipaTfe4- 

Amcrirui, 

Foreign. 

Sept.   80,  18ai 

|lto,6'tf3 

♦860,536 

♦526,108 

♦16,156 

.... 

4,142 

ma 

82,028 

160,757 

192,780 

11,282 

1,248 

.... 

1838 

89,788 

68,184 

92,91T 

24,028 

.... 

909 

267 

18M 

86,487 

299,822 

885,809 

.... 

.... 

.... 

2,416 

82 

1895 

214,617 

637,146 

851,068 

46,827 

6,099 

200 

1826 

100,582 

245,288 

846,870 

lX'!2i 

.... 

♦842 

2,681 

.... 

18J7 

148,958 

258,988 

402,941 

40,822 

.... 

2,928 

.... 

18S8 

160,979 

836,689 

687,668 

117,946 

♦600 

4,289 

203 

18W 

78,697 

18,106 

86,768 

»?'2'1 

.... 

1,048 

1,070 

1880 

Total... 

76,292 

29,048 

105,840 

5,884 





1.929 



♦1,087,786 

♦2,489,568 

♦8,477,364 

♦854,570 

♦600 

♦842 

27,276 

1,811 

B«pt  80,1881 

tl78,88S 

♦176,888 

♦866,216 

♦576 

♦10,600 

8,060 
4,2® 

1882 

181,605 

860,115 

681,720 

68,812 

18,600 

728 

1888 

180,511 

112,458 

292,961 

28,172 

7,000 

2,907 

791 

1884 

99,643 

818,461 

418,104 

62,543 

5,842 

12,523 

2,280 

1886 

212,461 

110,889 

823,800 

121,000 

4,900 

2,881 

1,282 

1886 

814,288 

271,717 

&86,9!l6 

48,971 

8,718 

1,190 

188T 

172,2011 

109,421 

281,081 

102,819 

1,092 

4,797 

1888 

98,081 

24,750 

122,881 

27,118 

880 

1,072 

1889 

60,084 

88,177 

88,811 

80,997 

70S 

961 

1840 

Totol... 

76,188 

17,868 

94,061 

7,501 



824 

1,362 

tl,668,»79 

♦1,580,(184 

♦8,094,008 

♦543,087 

♦46,842 

21,811 

14,448 

Sopt  80,  1841 

♦110,424 

♦24,304 

♦134,788 

♦8,791 

.... 

889 

1,965 

1842 

70,766 

27.819 

98,586 

•  .•• 

795 

917 

9  mos.      1843 

74,0.'i7 

6,610 

81,167 

•  .      * 

.  .  •  1 

465 

1,714 

June  80,  1444 

1>»,869 

11,975 

112,834 

6,068 

481 

2,567 

1846 

124,666 

20,601 

1A187 

22,429 

1,040 

2,116 

1848 

97,746 

23,496 

121,242 

1,818 

666 

1,398 

1847 

198,952 

4,948 

208,895 

475 

.... 

216 

9,274 

1848 

164,661 

17,262 

181,918 

19,617 

im 

2,676 

1849 

55,188 

65,139 

19,204 

>..• 

1,681 

1850 

Total... 

165,874 

20,706 

186,580 

627 

..-    . 

602 

8,282 

♦  1,163,744 

♦157,56d 

♦  1,321,809 

♦78,419 

....         ^ 

6,817 

20,524 

Jane  80,  1861 

♦92,2,'i7 

♦19,640 

♦111,797 

♦88,887 

199 

3,086 

1862 

93,009 

22,643 

115,052 

16,611 

.... 

874 

8,916 

1853 

82,1)08 

.... 

82,903 

...t 

.... 

832 

2,174 

1864 

87,S70 

28,547 

111,417 

8,091 

714 

1,894 

1865 

70,996 

8,676 

79,071 

1,701 

.... 

1,210 

1,027 

1866 

196,960 

81,755 

227,716 

1,180 

.... 

2,197 

716 

SlATBHKST  KXIIIBITINU  TIIK    CHARACTER,  QUANTITIES,   AND 

Values  op  UuxcaTio  Piiodittb  of  the  United  States, 

TDOETIIRR  WITH  THE  TOTAL  VALUES   OF   FOSXION   I'UOD- 

tiers,    Imported     imto  Ubnhabk,  from  tuk  United 
States  in  1864  and  1866. 


I8H. 

I8U.                         I 

ValiiK. 

QilMltlllu. 

Viiliiu. 

Oil,  spcrmacotl 

Whalebone 

♦485  galls.       1,920 
1,416  ihiL        aiinn 

♦8,616 

1,218 

104 

297 

18,846 

-80 
19,263 
90,971 

1,741 

4,619 

897 

Cnndjos,  spormacetl. . . 
Mnnufacturos  of  wood, 
lionln  and  tnrpentlno. . 
Flour. r 

"i»1 

8,815 

67 

74974 

868 
bbls.       4,860 
bbls.       ""s 

Blaoult 

Rico 

Ckitton 

8,340  ill"       9n«ii« 

Tobacco 

1,868 
938 

1,000 
166 

"6o4 

lbs.       lV,728 
pairs       6,000 

Spirits  from  moloues. . 
Si>lrits  of  turpentine. . 
Tobacco,  inaimftictured 
Shoes,  Indla-rubbor. .. 
Hltcollaneous 

Tot.  domes,  products 

Tot  foreign  products 

Total  trade 

♦87,870 
28,547 

♦tU,9U6 
8,075 

♦111,417 

♦79,6il 

The  l>anish  merchants  no  longer  import  tobacco 
from  the  countries  of  its  production.  In  1818  there 
were  2,03'2,,387  liilogrammes  imported,  nt  a  volue  of 
about  $469,966  20,  principally  from  Holland,  Bremen, 
and  Hamburg,  where  select  cargoes  can  at  all  times  l)e 
purchased.  These  markets  are  supplied  chiefly  from 
the  United  States.  From  Cuba  Denmark  imports  an- 
nuiiUy  aliout  12,2.')0  kilogrammes — say  27,000  ll)s.  of 
segars.  Tliere  are  no  restrictions  of  any  kind  on  tlio 
sale  of  tol>acco  in  Denmark  ;  and  under  the  inmlerate 
duty  [leaf  or  unmanufactured,  80|  cents  per  110^  lbs. ; 
manufactured,  $3  l.'i  per  llOJt  lbs.],  direct  importations 
from  the  United  States  could  not  fail  to  l)e  profitable. 


value,  ♦hlSO 
639 

1,404 

1,868 

106 


In  the  article  of  cigars,  at  least,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  United  States  could  not  successfully  compete 
with  Cuba.  The  quantities  of  tobacco  exported  direct 
from  the  United  States  to  Denmark  during  the  four 
years  specilied,  were  as  follows  : 

1862— Unmanufnctarod 15  hhds, ; 

Manufiictured 8,085  lbs. 

1858 — Unmanufactured none 

Manufiictured 9,248  lbs. 

1864— Unmanufactured 18  hhds. 

Manufactured 800  lbs. 

1865 — Unmanufactured none 

Manufiictured 11,728  lbs.            ••       1,741 

So  long,  however,  as  any  duty  is  imposed  in  Den- 
mark higher  than  that  levied  on  similar  merchaniiise 
in  Hamburg  and  the  other  Hanscatic  towns,  viz.,  from 
-}  to  )-  of  1  per  cent.,  they  will  continue,  more  espe- 
cially Hamburg,  to  be  the  entrepots  from  which  Den- 
mark will  have  to  draw  her  supplies  of  such  colo- 
nial produce  as  her  own  islands  in  the  West  Indies  can 
not  furnish.  Cereal  produce  constitutes  the  leading 
staple  of  Danish  exports,  and  forms  the  chief  basis  of 
her  exchanges  with  foreign  countries.  Indeed,  Den- 
mark may  be  considered  an  exclusively  agricultural 
and  maritime  country.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  predom- 
inant feature  of  her  national  character.  In  18,51  the 
entire  exports  of  the  kingdom  amounted  to  upward  of 
$7,500,000.  Of  this  sum,  cereals  appropriated  $4,500,- 
000.  The  commerce  of  the  kingdom  and  the  duchies 
for  the  year  1852,  imports  and  exports,  reached  the 
sum  of  $42,450,810  90 ;  and  the  proportion  of  cereals 
in  the  export  trade  was  about  equal  to  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding year.  During  the  past  10  or  12  years,  however, 
manufactures  have  made  consideralde  progress  in  tl:c 
kingdom  and  the  duchies  •,  and,  were  tlio  obstacles  re- 
moved, with  which  this  branch  of  national  industry 


DEN 


892 


DEN 


hM  to  oontond,  tha  most  opprasslT*  of  which  are  royal 
and  privUaged  KonopoUu,  and  heavy  consumption 
dutica,  that  progress  wonld  be  stUI  moi«  encouraging, 
and  its  influence  mora  perceptibiy  felt  in  the  aug- 
mented wealth  and  increased  commercial  prosperity  of 
Denmarlc.  The  following  brief  summary  of  the  pres- 
ent state  of  manufactures  in  thia  kingdom  is  condensed 
from  recent  Danish  official  publications,  and  is  given 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  extent  to  which  Den- 
marlc mutt  rely  on  the  worlcshnps  of  other  nations  for 
the  necessary  supplies  for  her  2,600,000  subjects. 

Woclem. — ^The  woolen  manufactures  of  Denmark 
are  coarse,  and  of  a  very  inferior  quality.  Tha  chief 
factories  are  those  of  Neumunster,  in  the  duchy  of 
Holstein.  The  proportion  which  these  manufactures 
bear  to  the  quantity  annually  consumed  in  the  king- 
dom may  be  seen  from  the  following  statement : 

Foreign  woolens  eonsamed >fi,9u6  IbSw  148,000  lbs. 

Nenmunster  woolens  consumed    86,700    "     88,000    " 

Besides  these  woolen  cloths,  Denmark  consumes 
large  quantities  of  other  manufactures  of  wool,  partic- 
ularly such  as  are  suitable  for  women's  apparel.  These 
are  all  important.  During  the  2  years  above-named, 
this  class  of  imports  reached  as  high  as  320,000  lbs. 
each  year,  yielding  a  revenue  to  the  government  of 
nearly  (10,000. 

Cotton*. — The  manufacture  of  cottons  was  intro- 
duced into  Denmark  about  40  years  back,  but  its  prog- 
ress was  slow  and  inconsiderable  until  within  the  past 
10  years.  At  Copenhagen  there  were  manufactured 
from  1836  to  1840  about  800,000  Danish  ells  (about 
2'26  feet  each)  per  annum  from  cotton  twists  supplied 
from  English  markets,  Sinoe  1840,  the  custom-house 
declarations  indicate  a  large  augmentation  in  the  quan- 
tity of  spun  cotton  (twist)  imported.  In  1844  it 
reached  as  high  as  911,000  Danish  livres.  The  Dan- 
ish livre  is  a  fraction  over  1  lb.  avoirdupois.  The 
manufacture  of  printed  cottons  has  been  attempted, 
but  the  experiment  has  but  indifferently  succeeded ; 
indeed,  its  present  continuance  is  owing  to  high  pro- 
tective duties.  The  chief  cotton  manufactures  may, 
therefore,  be  said  to  consist  of  old-fashioned,  heavy, 
coarse  pieces,  brought  through  the  loom  by  a  process 
at  once  slow  and  expensive.  There  is  but  one  factory 
in  the  kingdom — that  at  Nyhavn — where  modem  im- 
provements are  introduced.  The  success  which  has  so 
far  attended  the  operations  at  this  factor}'  may  eventu- 
ally create  an  extensive  demand  in  Denmark  for  Amer- 
ican cotton. 

How  far  these  factories  fall  short  of  the  demands  for 
home  consumption  may  be  gathered  from  the  following 
figures : 

Corton  Glotus  ihpoitsd  into  DniiiiAaK  raopaa,  raoM 
1$4«  TO  ISfiO. 


1,1(0,000  lbs. 
1,110^000  " 


184«....     1,120,000  lbs.     I  1849.. 

1847....     1,010,000"  18M>.. 

1848....       780,000"       | 

These  importations  were  destined  for  the  kingdom 
proper.  The  quantities  imported  for  consumption  in 
the  duchies  can  not  be  ascertained ;  but  tlioir  relative 
consumption  of  such  manufactures  considerably  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  kingdom  proper. 

Paper. — At  Strondmullen  and  Silklierg  there  are 
several  flo'ir;.>iiing  paper-mills  ;  but  the  prices  rule  so 
high,  that,  despite  the  protective  duties,  paper  figures 
largely  in  t!>e  imports  from  foreign  countries.  In  1860 
there  were  imported  217,663  kilogrammes,  valued  at 
#68,180  88. 

Sugar. — Sugar  refineries  have  reached  n  high  state 
of  prosperity  in  Denmark.  Of  upward  of  12,000,000 
lbs.  of  refined  sugar  consumed  in  the  kingdom,  or  ex- 
ported, but  little  is  imported  from  foreign  countries. 
Kaw  sugars,  however,  constitute  an  important  item  in 
the  importations  of  the  country  ;  indeed,  it  is  known, 
that  if  we  except  England,  there  is  mora  sugar  con- 
sumed in  Denmark,  in  proportion  to  its  popuUtion, 
than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world.    In  I860  raw 


sugar  imported  reached  13,186,288  kilogrammai,  val- 
ued at  (1,616,931  66.  Of  this,  there  were  imported 
direct  from  the  United  States  only  77,253  lbs.,  valued 
at  (8,102. 

jPorctlam.—Than  is  a  factory  at  Copenhagen,  under 
government  monopoly,  for  manufactures  of  this  de- 
scription. It  contributes  but  little,  however,  either  to 
the  revenues  of  the  country  or  the  wants  of  the  people. 
Tha  manufacturaa  are  of  beautiful  fabrication  and 
brilliant  colors,  but  they  are  not  considered  durable. 
Notwithstanding  a  high  protective  duty,  the  markets 
of  Denmark  are  supplied  with  manufactures  of  porce- 
lain ftrom  Franca.  In  1860  there  were  atwut  40,000  lbs. 
imported. 

VittUleriei. — This  is  tha  most  flourishing  branch  of 
manufactures,  both  in  the  kingdom  and  in  the  duchies. 
Nearly  all  the  spirits  produced  in  these  establishments 
are  from  grain.  The  excise  duty,  or  impost,  derived 
from  the  distilleries,  forms  a  large  item  in  tha  revenue 
of  Denmark.  In  1860  they  produced  21,262,078  Dan- 
ish cans  (over  1  quart  each)  of  spirituous  liquors. 
During  the  same  year,  2,492  gallons  of  spirits  from 
molasses  were  imported  direct  from  the  United  States, 
at  a  value  in  the  home  market  of  $1,009. 

BreKeriet. — The  number  in  Denmark  is  not  known, 
officially ;  but  they  can  not  add  much  to  the  internal 
wealth  of  the  kingdom,  as  tLeir  annual  consumption 
of  malt  does  not  exceed  700,000  lbs.  In  1860  there 
were  imported  direct  from  the  United  States  14,617 
lbs.  of  hops,  valued  at  $685. 

(jHoM-workt. — There  are  4  establishments  in  the 
kingdom,  4  in  Schleswig,  and  1  in  Holstein.  They 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  bottles,  of 
which  they  produce,  annually,  upward  of  3,000,000. 

Ship^uiUing. — The  principal  ship-yards  in  the  king- 
dom are  at  Copenhagen  and  Elsinora,  and  are  chiefly 
used  in  the  repair  of  vessels.  At  Apenrade,  a  capa- 
cious port  opening  into  the  IJttle  Belt,  vessels  of  tha 
largest  class  are  built.  In  1846  12  vessels,  and  in 
1847,  15  were  built  at  this  place.  In  the  former  year, 
30  large  class  vessels,  Iwlonging  to  this  port,  entered 
the  harliors  of  Kio  de  Janeiro  and  Montevideo. 

f'outtJeriu. — Prior  to  the  separation  of  Norway, 
Denmark  drew  all  her  supplies  of  iron  from  that  coun- 
try. Since  that  event,  the  eflTorts  to  obtain  sufficient 
supplies,  even  for  maritime  purposes,  have  not  been 
crowned  with  success.  The  geological  formation  of 
the  country  is  not  such  as  to  furnish  minerals ;  hence, 
with  the  exception  of  building  materials,  but  little  i£ 
left  for  the  miner  to  develop.  There  are,  however, 
founderies  at  Garlshytto,  near  Rendsburg,  which  em- 
ploy upward  of  250  hands,  and  produce,  annually, 
200,000  lbs.  of  iron ;  one  at  Copenhagen,  of  about 
equal  annual  produce,  from  which  considerable  quan- 
tities of  anchors,  chains,  etc.,  are  obtained ;  and  seve- 
ral others,  distributed  throughout  the  duchies,  at 
Altona,  Kiel,  Flensburg,  and  Ottousen.  Near  Elsinore 
there  is  a  founder)'  for  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms, 
which  produces,  annually,  about  2,000  muskets.  Be- 
sides the  nuinufacturing  establishments  above  enumer- 
ated, there  are  in  tho  kingdom  200  tan-yards,  and  60 
tan-mills,  yielding  annually,  the  latter  2,600,000  lbs. 
of  ground  tan,  and  the  former  3,080,000  tanned  hides. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  are  88  cunying  establish- 
ments, in  which  164,000  lbs.  of  skins  are  annually  pre- 
pared for  hosiery  and  otLer  uses.  At  Altona  000,000 
lbs.  of  candles  are  manufactured  each  year ;  100,000 
lbs.  of  refined  wax  are  annually  produced  in  the  king- 
dom and  duchies;  soap,  oils,  chemicals,  gunpowder, 
etc.,  but  the  manufacture  of  these  last-named  articles 
is  so  inconsiderable  as  scarcely  to  afl°ect  importationt 
from  foroign  countries. 

The  only  manufactures  in  Denmark  which  yield  a 
supply  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  to  the  home  consump- 
tion, are  those  of  refined  sugan  and  tobacco.  The 
former  is  fully  adequate  to  meat  tha  demands  of  the 
home  market ;  and  the  latter,  augmented  to  soma  ax- 


of  thei 
lego  1 
from 
their  j 
opened 
and.  : 
tensive 
exports 
valoren 
ton. 
ports, 
is,  prob 
provislo 
introdut 
sels  emj 
taket 
age. 
draught 
King 
regulatl 
St.  Croi 
•luno  30f 
of  the  sa 
Section 
from  natl 
there  dl« 
sted  and  ', 
Danlab) 


DEN  0 

t«nt  hy  Imports  ftrom  the  United  StatM  and  Onh*, 
equally  so.  The  quantltiei  annually  imported  from 
these  conntries  have  already  been  given.  Alton* 
counts  28  tobacco  factories,  employing  488  bands,  and 
producing,  annually,  1,062,068  lbs.  of  tobacco,  106,' 
487  lbs.  of  snuff;  and  12,000,000  segars.  At  Copenll»' 
gen  4'/'S  workmen  are  employed,  and  the  annual 
produce  reaches  1,000,000  lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  10,000,> 
000  segars.  Besides  these,  there  are  other  Umttm 
factories,  at  Flensbnrg  in  Schleswig,  aod  Kiel  in 
Uolstein,  which  contribute  largely  toward  the  national 
supply.  It  has  been  already  shown  whence  Denmark 
obtains  her  supplies  of  unmanufactured  tobacco,  and 
why  her  manufacturers  are  forced  to  purchase  it  at  MO* 
ond  hand  in  the  neighboring  entrepots,  instead  of  im' 
porting  direct  firom  the  countries  of  production, 

It  will  bo  easily  seen,  from  the  preceding  summai^, 
how  much  Denmaric  still  depends  on  foreign  oountriaa 
for  the  supply  of  her  most  essential  wants.  6inos  she 
has  lieen  Induced  to  profit  by  the  example  of  Kngland, 
and  other  neighboring  countries,  in  abolishing  tits 
duty  on  raw  cotton,  her  spindles  have  multiplied,  and 
she  is  now  learning  to  depend  on  her  own  capital  and 
industry  for  the  spun  cottons  which  she  has  heretofore 
derived,  and  which,  to  a  great  extent,  she  still  derives, 
from  the  Khglish  spinning-factories.     A  similar  ■nodi-' 

OOUPABATIVR  SlATESIEST  Of  THB  COMMKltOK  0»  TUB  Va\Ttt»  ST+TM   Wlflj  fllB  tiA1>lt8tt   WtlSt  IhBIBS,   KJIIIBITINO  TnR 
VALUB  of  EXPOBTS  10  AND   lilPOBTS  »B01I    BACII   l)UlIirT»¥,  4«i(l  THB  TaKIKilS*  Of  AMBKIOAH   ASD   UANIBn  VESSBUI 

ABBivmo  vaou  and  dbpabtino  to  baou  CouhtrVi  nVIMNM  fMH  Itum  iimitHiAtHO, 


9  DEN 

Anatinn  In  haf  t«fin'  In  respect  to  nnmunufactured 
Mmnm,  attd  itihtit  raw  material  not  grown  on  her  soil, 
wuitM  t#ll4  tli*t  mily  to  augment  the  importations  of 
surI)  [innUum  ftrnn  the  prodncing  countries,  but  would 
aMltnvndy  tiitttribltln  l«  attract  Investments  of  her  own 
«*|)lti«llKi'«<,  mttHlpl)^  her  manufactured  productions,  and 
eimbJM  llf  r  (tl  iMi'iime  «n  exporter  of  the  sam'i  descrip- 
tion* of  HMfulMtullse  which  have  lo  long  been  an  nn- 
niMt  drain  »\t>m  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom,  and  a 
iMNtvy  *trttWlW)<k  upon  the  industry  of  the  people.  A 
mut»  a|»tN)**i(«  illtistratliin  of  this  truth  can  not  be  found 
than  (Imt  wbMl  the  ijeneral  returns  of  trade,  for  any 
oiia  j^aar,  will  furnish,  Her  average  annual  imports 
ara  almnt  i|iln,IMHI,000  in  value,  a  large  portion  of 
whit'l)  nmn  i<t  MlMdrhed  by  manufactured  articles,  or 
artii>la<*  half^Hnufadtured,  such  as  cotton  twists,  etc. ; 
whda  Itar  annual  e*p<n1s  scarcely  cover  half  that  sum 
(say  i|i7|ft*HUin(l),  (Wit  thirds  of  which  are  derived  from 
oaraals  mm  ttthxr  aKrIfiiiltural  produce.  Until  the 
m»m(m't<»f\ng  Itnlttptry  of  Denmark  receives  greater 
enuoiiraii^mHHt  friim  the  government,  the  heavy  dis- 
propnrtlDn  li#(W««n  Imports  and  exports  which  the 
aliiivti  t)){HrM  (tKhihtt,  or,  In  other  words,  the  ruinous 
ImlHItva  fif  trftilA  ngttinitt  Denmark,  in  her  commercial 
relatlona  wHh  tnfti\gn  countries,  must  contiuue  to 
a%Ut.,-^t'm,  M,  If,  ^, 


Y»u. 

OOMtntRCIi. 

WAVIOAtlOIf.                                      1 

TALUK  or  ■XPOKn. 

VAWsariWRawi 

jtXkSIf 4«  fl*»i/i«. 

POBBtON    TOIflVAGB.                1 

DometUo 
prodiics. 

Foreign 
.produce. 

Total. 

I'HIlMt  mM: 

C%«'fll  It'M 

Hull  si«m. 

Cnureil  Ihe 
United  State". 

CloHred  from 
the  U.  StAtea, 

184S 

(884,508 

|160,9-i8 

t904,429 

^m,m  -'^ 

V'.lxt 

■«i.,Wd 

I,4«9 

i,4Sfr 

184S 

059,453 

106,464 

1,125,916 

m 

§S1«il 

909 

1,875 

1847 

s!a,m 

152,031 

989,808 

3,900 

4,815 

184S 

8T(t,»69 

70,874 

958,848 

«ft.ftt9 

l.SflO 

4,065 

1H48 

78I,1»T 

54,149 

781,846 

889,141 

i»,i)7B 

8,514 

6,426 

ISfiO 

867,140 

114,818 

981,958 

247,459 

950 

2,690 

16B1 

90a,6s7 

1^,^002 

1,038,289 

I0|,74fi 

1^889 

6,059 

4,175 

18SS 

810,439 

120,097 

981,186 

im 

fiMn 

9.062 

0,581 

1!«8 

918,481 

41,100 

954,641 

\H,m 

iM» 

u,(m 

4.906 

9,571 

IBM 

928,9'i4 

84,020 

902,950 

mm 

L|;ir 

99,840 

0,993 

7,984 

1855 

848,111 

45,858 

888,464 

m»ti 

84,a4T 

0,441 

5,120 

Ich  yield  a 
e  conanmp- 
tacco.  The 
lands  of  the 

to  BOOM  »- 


Danish  West  India  Colonies. — Prior  to  the  year  18ltS, 
the  trade  between  the  United  States  and  8t.  Croiv 
was  not  regulated  by  any  law  or  act  of  tlu  DanUh 
government.  The  inhabitants  were  at  first  allowud, 
by  the  local  authorities,  a  limited  quantity  of  sugar  or 
molasses  from  tlieir  estates,  to  exchange  for  provisions, 
Afterward  they  were  permitted  to  purchase  oiie  half 
of  their  supplies  in  this  way ;  and,  finally,  the  privi- 
lege was  extended  so  as  to  enable  them  to  piirihasB 
from  foreigners  all  they  needed  for  the  supplies  of 
their  plantations.  St.  Thomas  was  at  the  same  time 
opened  as  a  flree  port  for  the  trade  of  all  countries, 
and,  in  consequence,  became  the  empt>riuin  of  an  ax- 
tensive  commerce.  The  duties  upon  imports  and 
exports  are  moderate,  not  exceeding  1^  per  cent,  od 
valorem ;  and  port  charges  do  not  exceed  19  cents  per 
ton.  This  does  not  apply  to  vessels  from  European 
ports,  which  pay  45  cents  per  ton.  The  distinction 
is,  probably,  made  to  encourage  the  introduction  of 
provisions,  rather  than  the  fancy  articles  and  liquors 
introduced  from  Europe.  At  St.  Croix,  however,  ves» 
sels  employed  in  tlie  foreign  trade,  even  if  they  ilo  not 
take  a  pilot  on  board,  are  compelled  to  pay  half-pilot- 
uge.  The  full  charge  is  $1  per  foot  of  the  vessel's 
draught,  in  and  out.  In  1832  an  ordhiance  of  the 
King  of  Denmark,  dated  at  Copenhagen,  prescril>ed 
regulations  for  foreign  navigation  and  commerce  with 
St.  Croix.  This  was  superseded  1)y  an  ordinanoe  of 
.Tune  30th,  1850,  published  at  St.  Croix  15th  of  August 
of  the  same  year,  and  which  is  now  in  force. 

Section  1  provides  that  all  vessels,  native  or  foreign,  both 
fk'oni  national  and  forclf^  porta,  may  trado  to  St  Croix,  and 
there  discharge  and  load  at  tho  two  ports  of  entry,  (Jhristian- 
sted  and  Frodoricksted.  Sselion  3.  Vessels  belonging  to  the 
Daolah  West  India  Xalanda,  trading  between  Denmark  and 


tha  MtwiMi  DImII  fttjaf,  In  futtire,  the  same  rlghla  and  priv- 
llDgNS  M  Vtimi\ll  Iic1rt«pt)f«  (d  tho  mother  country.  Section  3. 
tjvury  yfiiM(i|  It)  Ui  (MV  ^ltttmge  dues  aeoordlng  to  Its  tonnage, 
lli)(h  m  t<nl«rillK  atm  IpsvlOit,  st  the  folloirlng  rates :  If  the 
vmml  rllwImF^n  (if  luail  to  the  amount  of  one  half  its  tonnage, 
and  altiiVf,  (iff  ('iihimt<l'(<l«l  last  BO  cents ;  if  it  discharge  or 
lufid  frnin  nns  ipiltrll>r  In  «tie  half  of  its  tonnage,  per  commcr- 
Pial  laitt  yil  fipiitit  I  if  it  diarhstgo  or  load  leas  titan  one  quarter 
of  Its  tmrngf,  »»  fmilttlefftsl  last  10  cents.  AM  vessels  not 
diwhoFgiHg  i,r  (HKilldu  sfe  enempt  from  tonnage  dnes,  as  well 
as  viisiwlii  Miinme  Ul  the  Itatilnh  West  India  Islands,  when 
tra4llllj  llflwt<i<ll  Al;  I'fiiin  Sfid  the  otiier  two  islands. 

If  iHnnaijf  (\w<t  itre  jiitlil  at  one  of  the  custom-houses 
of  (l)N  ifitHHil,  lit  Ht  HI,  Thomas,  additional  tonnage 
dues  ars  Ui  Iw  jMitl  mity  In  cnse  the  vessel  should  again 
dlsuharija  tir  Itiinl,  ilurlnti!  the  same  voyage,  goods  to 
sHoll  an  MlUitunt  (hot,  together  with'  the  preyious 
aiwiunl  dlto'lmrijwl  ur  loaded,  it  shu'l  reach  a  quantity 
on  whifill  a  MijMf  Umm^e  due  is  fixed.  At  Chris- 
(ianetutli  VMSsfli*  (tfw  fuHlier  to  pay  one  half  the  amount 
of  ttmnitjj*!  )\w>i,  M  tli(<  illiiive  rate,  for  keeping  the  har- 
lior,  wttn  wll«f*«»  «nil  other  appurtenances,  in  repair. 
Tl)8  6th  >iaMliiin  (irovliles  that,  within  24  hours  after  the 
vassal  liaa  Itc^n  himnht  (n  anchor,  the  whole  cargo, 
wliether  intfrnlfil  to  he  discharged  or  not,  shall  lie  en- 
t«r«4  A(  (in*  VUStoiH^lloUse,  stiedfled,  and  in  writing. 
If  tlw  wIimI**  mtifii  In  not  to  lie  discharged,  tho  remain- 
der iihall,  «tn  tlix  VKiifiers  clearing  out,  l>e  entered  for 
e*|wr(  In  tho  mne  tnanner.  l<'or  duties  on  imports 
and  eifports,  artii'les  free  of  duty,  and  regulations  rel- 
ative to  tita  tra(l«<  of  Hi,  Vtuin,  reference  is  made  to  the 
tarilf,  in  U<i  itri'iicr  plam,  (I'art  II.)  For  tlie  descrip- 
thms  of  HtartilmniliM  f  ntering  into  the  trade  between 
the  Uni(«4  Ntatfit  antl  the  Danish  West  India  Islands, 
see  (!«m«MUr  IWHrns.  "  gl,  Oroix,  14th  June,  1854," 
I'art  IK.    Tlw  VMt«M  of  the  United  States  arriving 


N 


DEN 


534 


DEN 


at  Fndaricluted,  St.  Croix,  fhim  July  the  lit  to  De- 
cember Slat,  1858,  were  8  brigs,  8  barks,  2  schoonen. 
The  aggregate  value  of  their  inward  cargoes  was  #40,- 
003,  and  that  of  the  outward  cargoes,  •32,462.  There 
arrived  during  the  same  period  at  Chriatiansted,  7 
brigs  and  2  schooners  under  the  American  flag.  Value 
of  cargoes  not  stated. 

For  notice  of  Danish  Exploring  Expeditions  Round 
the  World,  see  Hdht's  Mag.,  xxiil.,  406 ;  Edinburg 
Sev.,  xliv.  (article  by  Sir  Janb8  Hackihtosh)  ; 
Hdnt's  Mag.,  z.,  pp.  218, 808  ;  Edinb.  Rev.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
287  (by  Stonrt  Smitu)  ;  Wulmituter  Rev.,  1.,  p.  76, 
viil.,  p.  469,  xlviii.,  p.  196 ;  North  Am.  Rev.,  xxvU., 
p.  285  (by  IIemkt  Wiikatok). 

The  Sound  Duet. — Connected  with  the  commercial 
relations  which  exist  between  the  United  States  and 
Denmaric,  is  the  question  of  Sound  dues,  to  which  sub- 
ject the  6th  article  of  the  treaty  of  1821  relates.  This 
has  long  been  a  vtxata  questio  between  the  two  govern- 
ments. It  still  continues  to  be  a  subject  of  diplomatic 
discussion ;  and  is  fully  laid  before  Congress  in  a  com- 
munication from  the  Department  of  State,  under  date 
of  May  80,  1864.  (Executive  Document  No.  108, 
House  of  Representatives,  83d  Congress,  1st  session.) 
In  1848,  the  Danish  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  ad- 
mitted to  our  representative  near  the  court  of  Den- 
mark "  thut  the  principle  upon  which  those  dues  are 
collected  can  not  be  defended ;"  yet,  the  flnal  set- 
tlement of  the  question  has  been  put  off,  from  time  to 
time,  under  various  pretexts,  although  the  govern- 
ment of  Denmark  has  been  more  than  once  officially 
notified  thiit  "the  United  States  have  thus  long  8u1>- 
mitted  to  the  exaction  from  deference  and  respect  for 
Denmark ;  but  it  can  not  be  expected,  great  as  is  our 
regard  for  that  ancient  and  respectable  power,  that  we 
shall  submit  to  it  much  longer." 

The  10th  article  of  the  treaty  of  1826  stipulates  as 
follows :  "  The  present  convention  shall  be  in  force 
for  ten  years  from  the  date  hereof ;  and  further,  until 
the  end  of  one  year  after  either  of  the  contracting 
parties  shall  have  given  notice  to  thn  othejr  of  its  in- 
tention to  terminate  the  same  ;  eacli  of  the  contracting 
parties  reserving  to  icself  the  right  of  giving  such  no- 
tice to  the  ether,  at  the  end  o!  the  said  term  of  ten 
years  ;  and  it  is  hereby  agreed  between  them,  that,  on 
the  expiration  of  one  year  after  such  notice  shall  have 
been  received  by  either,  from  the  other  party,  this  con- 
vention, and  ull  tlie  provisions  tlicreof,  shall  altogether 
cease  and  determine." 

The  notice  required  by  the  foregoing  article  has 
l>een  given  by  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
and  it  Is  believed  that  no  new  treaty  will  be  entered 
into  with  the  government  of  Denmark,  without  a  spe- 
cial article  stipulating  that  vessels  of  the  United  States, 
in  passing  and  repassing  the  Sound  and  the  Belts, 
sh^  be  forever  exempt  from  the  payment  of  any 
duties,  either  upon  their  tonnage  or  their  cargoes. 
By  virtue  of  a  resolution  of  the  Senate,  in  executive 
session,  March  8,  1855,  Mr.  Bedinger  was  instructed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  communicate, 
and  on  the  14th  April,  1856,  did  communicate,  to  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  of  Denmark,  notice  of  the 
desire  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  to  ter- 
minate the  treaty  of  1826,  in  accordance  with  the  10th 
article  of  the  same,  and  that  at  the  expiration  of  12 
months  from  the  date  of  said  notice,  said  treaty  "  shall 
cease  and  determine."  In  the  communication  to  Con- 
gress fh)m  the  Department  of  State,  already  referred 
to,  the  bistor}'  of  tlie  Sound  dues  is  tlius  given  : 

"  The  date  of  the  origin  of  the  Sound  tolls  has  never 
been,  so  far  as  is  known  to  this  government,  authentic- 
ally ascertained.  They  are  presumed  to  be  the  relics 
of  exactions  by  the  Notman  pirates  of  the  dark  ages. 
As  civilization  advanced,  they  were  enforced  upon  the 
plea  of  protecting  the  lucrative  herring-fishery  at 
Schonen.  The  coasts  of  the  three  straits  (Skaggerack, 
Cattegat,  and  the  Sound)  were  owned  by  Denmark 


until  1668  (with  the  exception  of  86  years  in  the  14th 
century),  when,  by  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Rothschild, 
the  east  coast  of  the  Great  Belt,  including  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Ilelsinburg,  was  transferred  to  Sweden,  and 
is  still  owned  by  her.  The  right  of  sovereignty  upon 
which  Denmark  presumed,  in  consequence  of  her  own- 
ership on  either  side  of  this  conncctlug  link  uf  ocean 
water,  necessarily  ceased  after  this  occurrence,  even  if 
it  had  been  before,  in  the  slightest  degree,  in  cunfurm- 
ity  with  national  law.  But,  nevertheless,  she  persisted 
at  Cronberg,  the  key  to  the  Sound,  in  extorting  large 
sums  from  every  bottom  that  passed.  Previous  to  the 
treaty  with  Sweden  in  the  14th  century,  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Sound  tolls  was  resolutely  and  successfully 
resisted  by  the  Ilanseatic  League.  Then,  as  now, 
they  came  in  direct  conflict  with  the  interests  of  all 
the  cities  upon  the  Baltic ;  and  that  powerful  confede- 
racy, at  that  time  in  the  meridian  of  its  greatness,  ob- 
tained a  free  passage  for  its  ships  and  cargoes  through 
the  Sound.  In  the  year  1401,  Denmark,  perceiving 
that  the  Hanseatic  League  held  her  authority  over  tho 
straits  in  utter  contempt,  deemed  it  judicious  to  invite 
other  nations  to  engage  in  the  trade  of  the  Baltic ;  and 
a  convention  was  entered  into  with  England,  and  8ul>- 
sequently  with  Holland,  by  which  their  vessels  were 
permitted  to  pass  through  tho  Sound  by  the  payment 
of  mere  nominal  tolls.  In  1516,  it  appears  thut  the 
latter  countiy  paid  no  tolls  whatever,  but  stipulated  to 
give  a  small  sum  instead  thereof.  This  was,  as  in- 
tended, a  blow  at  the  Hanseatic  cities  ;  and  in  their 
name  Lubeo  demanded  the  immediate  exclusion  of 
the  Dutch  from  the  Baltic — a  demand,  however,  that 
was  not  complied  with.  In  1544  a  treatj-  of  commerce 
was  concluded  l)etween  Christian  III,  of  Denmark  and 
Charles  V.,  Regent  of  tlio  Netlierlands,  by  which  tho 
subjects  of  the  high  contracting  parties  were  permitted 
to  trade  with  each  other,  by  paying  the  sound  dues 
which  had  been  levied  '  since  days  of  old.'  Tlie 
Dutch  at  this  period  were  a  great  navigating  and  com- 
mercial people,  and  the  stipulations  which  they  en- 
tered into  imparted  dignity  to  the  jurisdiction  claimed 
l>y  the  Danes  over  the  Sound,  The  influence  of  tho 
Ilanse  towns  began  to  decline  alwut  the  beginning  of 
the  15th  century,  but  they  exercised  a  supremacy 
over  the  North  and  Baltic  seas  until  the  middle  of  tho 
16th.  From  their  unceasing  quarrels  with  Denmark, 
relative  to  the  Sound  tcdls,  recourse  was  had  to  nego- 
tiation ;  and,  in  15G0,  *  the  King  of  Denmark  and  his 
subjects  (m  the  one  part,  and  the  right  honorable  Han- 
seatic cities  and  the  merchants  thereof  on  the  other 
part,'  concluded  the  treaty  of  the  Odensee.  In  16fl3, 
Denmark  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Sweden,  and  slie 
made  this  circumstance  a  pretext  to  increase  the  Sound 
tolls  against  the  Hanse  towns,  notwithstandiug  her 
covenant  to  the  contrary  three  years  before,  which  was 
still  in  force  ;  but  the  Ilanse  towns,  in  their  declining 
power,  were  compelled  to  submit  to  this  violation  of 
her  obligation.  In  1570  a  treaty  was  contracted  )je- 
tween  Denmark  and  Sweden,  at  Stettin,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  the  latter  nation  should  be  exempted 
from  the  Sound  dues  ;  but  this  was  evaded  from  timo 
to  time  by  Denmark,  in  levying  the  toll  upon  tlio 
wines  intended  for  Queen  Christiana's  own  private  use, 
and  by  the  prohibition  of  ammunition  when  Sweden 
was  in  absolute  want  of  it  for  prosecuting  the  thlrt}- 
years'  war.  At  length  Denmark  became  so  Intolerant 
as  to  search  Swedish  vessels,  unnecessarily  detain 
them,  and,  in  some  instances,  convey  them  to  Copen- 
hagen, The  Netherlands  experienced  1)ut  little  Iiettrr 
treatment.  The  Stadtholder  complained,  ami  he  was 
put  off  with  promises.  In  1640,  the  year  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Hanseatic  League,  the  United  Nether- 
lands, which  had  secured  their  independence,  formed 
a  compact  with  Sweden  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
respective  rights ;  and  in  1645  a  new  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  on  the 
same  day  (August  13)  one  between  Deumarli  and  the 


/ 


DEN 


S88 


DEN 


NatherUndi.  In  tba  negotisttoni  which  concluded 
them,  the  Dutch  and  Swedish  plenipotentinrios  de- 
manded free  navigation  through  the  Sound  for  all 
nations.  The  Danish  plenipotentluritiH  contended  that 
the  Sound  was  a  'Danish  canal,'  and  that  the  tolls 
collected  were  of  a  similar  character  to  those  exacted 
at  the  mouths  of  certain  rivers  in  Germany  and  Hol- 
land. France,  acting  as  a  mediator,  held  the  question 
under  consideration,  to  be  decided  at  a  more  conve- 
nient period ;  and  subsequently  she  sustained  ttie  inter- 
eats  of  Denmark,  for  which  site  was  rewarded  by  the 
bestowal  of  the  same  advantages  to  her  flag  as  had 
been  bestowed  upon  the  Netherlands,  and  without  any 
limit  as  to  duration.  In  1654  Great  Uritain  concluded 
a  treaty  with  Denmark,  which  was  renewed  in  1670, 
by  which  all  the  advantages  were  to  lie  enjoyed  by  her 
which  had  been  conferred  uiwn'the  Netherlands.  Pre- 
vious to  1720  (from  1647),  Denmark  fixed  the  toll,  in 
her  treaties  with  other  countries,  '  in  conformity  to 
the  terms  granted  to  the  Netherlands  ;'  but  after  that 
time  she  placed  them  upon  the  footing  of  '  the  most 
favored  nations.'  Sweden,  in  consideration  of  the 
restoration  of  her  provinces  which  had  been  conquered 
by  Denmark,  stipulated  to  pay,  in  future,  l>y  the 
treaty  c '  Fredericksburg  of  June  it,  1720,  the  same  rate 
of  Souid  dues  that  were  collected  upon  the  ships  and 
cargoes  of  the  most  favored  nations,  reserving  to  her- 
self the  right  to  establish  a  commissary  at  Elsinore,  to 
prevent  impositions  upon  lier  navigation  and  commerce. 
These  conditieos  and  obligations  ('ilthongh  several 
treaties  have  been  made  between  the  two  nations 
since)  continue  to  be  observed.  During  the  18th 
century,  Sweden  having  lieen  quieted,  the  Sound  tolls 
seem  to  have  l)een  submitted  to  by  other  powers  and 
states  without  opposition.  Denmark  concluded  seve- 
ral now  treaties,  but  none  of  them  contained  provi- 
sions prohibitory'  of  the  exaction  of  the  dues  demanded 
at  Klsinore. 

"  This  was  the  condition  in  which  Denmark  was 
found  when  tlie  Congress  of  Vienna  assembled.  It 
was  quite  naturally  expected,  at  that  time,  that  the 
Danish  Sound  tolls  would  present  a  legitimate  sulijcct 
for  the  delilwrations  of  that  l)o<ly,  and  tliiit,  in  tlio  set- 
tlement of  the  affairs  of  Europe,  they  would  be  entirely 
abrogated.  But  Frederic  VI.  of  Denmark  was  pre- 
sent at  Vienna,  and  the  oliject  of  compassi<m  with  the 
representatives  of  the  sovereign  most  interested,  on 
account  of  the  liombardment  of  Copenhagen  and  the 
destruction  of  his  tieot  a  few  years  before ;  and  out  of 
tcnderncNS  to  him,  as  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  this 
question  was  permitted  to  remain  in  statu  quo.  Vague 
intimations,  it  is  stated,  have  occasionally  been  given 
at  Co|)enhagen,  that  the  Sound  tolls  were  guarantied 
to  Denmark  l)y  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  os  on  indem- 
nity f^ir  the  surrender  of  Norwoy  to  Sweden.  Ad- 
mitting the  truth  of  this,  and  that  every  European 
government  was  irrevocably  bound  by  such  proceed- 
ings, the  United  States  were  nut  u  party  to  it  in  any 
way,  and  no  oliligation  is  imposed  upon  them  to  re- 
spect the  arrangement.  Nothing  has  been  more  re- 
mote from  the  purpose  of  our  government,  from  the 
day  on  wliich  it  was  ushered  into  existence,  than  that 
of  surrendering  to  any  power  its  right  of  using  the 
ocean  ns  the  highway  of  commerce.  This  right  it 
claims,  and  will  use  all  proper  means  to  secure  to  it- 
self the  full  enjoyment  of  it  in  every  quarter  of  the 
globe. 

"  The  fact  is  notorious,  that  the  Sound  dues  affect 
us  more  sensibly  than  ony  European  nation.  Under 
tlieir  operation,  Great  Urituin  has  a  decided  advantage 
over  us,  as  concerns  our  chief  staple.  Raw  cotton, 
according  to  the  most  rclialilo  statements  Irefore  the 
Department,  is  charged  witli  al)out  three  per  cent,  ad 
valorem  in  its  transit  tlirough  the  Sound ;  while  cotton 
twist,  of  which  Great  Urituin  ships  from  !)0,000,UOO  to 
SO,000,UOO  Ills,  to  ports  of  the  Baltic,  pays  only  one. 
per  cent,  ad  valorem  I    If  we  quietly  submit  to  such  a 


tax  upon  tha  raw  material  of  our  fields,  Great  Britain, 
as  a  matter  of  profit,  can  well  afford  to  consent  to  tha 
comparatively  moderate  one  upon  the  article  manufac- 
tured from  it,  because  she  can  not  fail  to  perceive  that, 
were  the  dues  abolished,  we  should  as  certainly  gain 
markets  for  the  raw  product,  as  she  should  lose  them 
for  the  manufactures  of  her  spinneries.  For  the  five 
years  terminating  the  Blst  December,  1848,  264  Amer- 
ican vessels  entered  the  Baltic,  upon  the  tonnage  and 
cargoes  of  which  the  Sound  tolls  amounted  to  570,478 
Danish  bank  rixdoUars.  Since  then,  no  tabular  state- 
ments have  been  received  of  our  vessels  passing  El- 
sinore, nor  the  sums  annually  paid.  The  Sound  toll 
levied  upon  our  chief  products,  which  find  a  market  in 
the  countries  bordering  upon  the  Baltic  and  beyond 
them,  according  to  the  most  reliable  Information  on  tha 
suliject,  is  as  follows : 

Raw  cotton,  per  100  lbs 20  contl. 

Klco,  per  100  lbs. 11    " 

r»dily  (rice  in  husks),  per  100  lbs 8t  " 

K»w  tobacco,  per  100  lbs 174  " 

Whalo  oil,  per  bbl 6i  " 

"  Consequently  a  cargo  of  2,000  bales  of  cotton  pays 
a  tax  of  about  $1,720 ;  n  cargo  of  800  hhds.  of  tobacco, 
$1,400 ;  a  cargo  of  1,000  tierces  of  rice,  $700.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  toll  on  tonnage,  the  cost  of  pilotage  for  a 
ship  drawing  18  feet  of  water,  flrom  Dragon  to  Kl- 
sinore, varies,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year, 
from  $20  to  $30." 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  number  of 
American  vessels  that  passed  the  Sound  at  Elsinore, 
to  and  from  tlie  Baltic  Sea,  from  1837  to  1843,  inclu- 


1887. 


1S88. 
1840. 


lot 

168 
114 
148 


lS4t„ 
1843:. 
1843.. 


129 
118 
IBS 


Btatemknt  of  this  Numukb  of  Vksskis  of  ah  Nations 

THAT   PASSED  TilK    SuOND  AT    EmINORK,  TO    AND    FEOH 

THB  Baltic  8ka,  from  1S33  to  1848,  inclusivk. 


NUIoullty. 

IS38. 

1839. 

1940^ 

1S4I. 
122 

IMS. 

113 

1S4S. 

American 

1S8 

114 

148 

152 

Belgian 

25 

84 

20 

11 

6 

6 

Bremen., 

4S 

05 

(iS 

68 

56 

86 

Danish 

1,01» 

1,189 

1,048 

1,082 

1,070 

1,410 

Dutch 

»S6 

1,192 

960 

970 

917 

1,286 

English 

4,009 

4,498 

8,972 

8,777 

8,619 

8,,M5 

French 

268 

240 

239 

218 

238 

179 

Hsmbure 

Kanovenan.. . 

29 

18 

28 

20 

14 

27 

62S 

819 

768 

828 

766 

887 

Lubeo 

107 

108 

96 

88 

77 

76 

Mecklenburg. 

842 

970 

958 

958 

820 

840 

Neapolitan . . . 

2S 

44 

48 

16 

51 

67 

Norwegian... 

1,497 

1,091 

2,082 

1,066 

1,843 

1,635 

Oldenburg..,. 

69 

126 

88 

182 

142 

183 

Portuguese. . . 

8 

4 

8 

2 

2 

Prussian 

2,491 

3,046 

2,996 

2,«>0 

2,811 

2,582 

Russian 

759 

887 

820 

S-tt 

757 

783 

Bpnntsh 

17 

20 

18 

14 

4 

8 

Swedish 

1,162 

1,262 

1,884 

1,182 

1,278 

1,461 
14,980 

ToUl 

18,988 

16,214 

16,702  !I4,780 

18,994 

Statemknt  of  Sou.nd  Dcks  paid  OS  Goods  siiipprd  bt 
AuEsiCAN   Vessels  to   and   frou  tub  Baltic  Sea, 

FROH  1887  TO   1S43  INCLl'BIVR. 


Year. 

From  lh«  BalUe 

Fromtim  Ualtie 

iuu.1 
Sp«rle 

lo  Anier,  pnrti. 

to  foreiini  P*irl*. 

Hollart. 

1S87 

715,827 

14,2.30 

666 

90,224 

1888 

109,140 

17,498 

1,62« 

129,165 

18.39 

7^762 

11,488 

119 

84,119 

1840 

04,110 

13,294 

1,010 

118,414 

1841 

73,828 

16,967 

9,218 

90,614 

1842 

57,254 

8,860 

1,030 

67,144 

1843 

71,763 

7,886 

1,916 

81,618 

Tlie  old  specie  dollar  of  Denmark  is  valued  in  tba 
United  States  at  $1.05.  {United  States'  Com.  Dig., 
1H56-7,  p.  300,  issued  under  the  orders  of  Secretary 
Marcy,  of  the  State  Department.) 

We  find,  now  and  then,  full  official  returns  pub- 
lished in  the  different  commercial  pa|>ers  of  Europe. 
From  some  of  these,  and  from  other  relialile  sources, 
wo  have  compiled  the  following  tabular  statcinenti 
which  will  serve  to  show  the  amounts  of  revenue  de- 
rived by  Denmark  from  the  Sound  dues,  as  well  as  the 


/N 


DEN 


086 


DEN 


proportion  Miigiiad  to  each  of  tha  iMding  eommaroUl 
oonntrlM  In  tha  aima : 


1880 |i,oT<i,oao 

UU 1,012,000 

IStn 1,140,000 

im i,oM,«oo 

1884 (88,000 

1888 W8,000 

1S8< 1,000,800 

tSSr 1,0T4,T0S 


1888 |1,1M,»U 

1R8». 1,188,881 

1H40. 1,1»4,80« 

1841 1,1W,(M 

1841 i,oia,ua 

1848. 1,1«1,(W0 

1844. 1,180,111 

1840. 1,808,81)8 


J' 


Anrente |1T,8«0,849 

Anniul  average 1,100,648 


1858 1,176,478 

The  foIlowlnf{  table,  ezhtbitlng  the  number  of  yes- 
Mis  that  paased  the  Sound  from  1750 to  18l«,  Is  derived 
from  a  statistical  work  recently  published  In  France : 


1760. 
1708. 

mo. 

1777. 

1778. 

1779. 

1780. 

1781. 

1782. 

1788. 

17S4. 

1785. 

1780. 

1787. 

1788., 

1789.. 

1790.. 

1791.. 

17M., 

17*8., 

1794.. 

1798.. 

1797.. 

1799.. 

1800.. 

1801.. 

1805.. 

1806.. 

1807.. 
,  1808.. 
I  1809.. 
I  1810.. 
I    1811., 

1811  . 


ViaMli. 


4,500 

6,015 

T,786 

9,068 

8,478 

8,171 

8,891 

8,181 

8,875 

11,128 

10,867 

10,188 

9,000 

9,750 

9,218 

8,828 

9,781 

10,451 

12,114 

9.916 

10,511 

11,118 

^9,628 

7,848 

9,048 

8,988 

11,587 

7,140 

6,240 

121 

879 

2,898 

2,898 

2,475 


1813. 
1814. 
1815. 
1816. 

1817. 
1818., 
1819., 
162U., 
ISll., 
1811.. 
1828., 
1824. . 
1825.. 
1816.. 
1817.. 
182S.. 
1819.. 
1880.. 
18.11.. 
1882.. 
1838.. 
1884.. 
1835,. 
1S86.. 
1887.. 
1888.. 
1889.. 
1840.. 
1841.. 
latl.. 
1843.. 
1844.. 
1815.. 
1846.. 


1,426 

8,186 
8,816 
8,871 
18,149 
12,566 
10,667 
10,884 
9,;S8 
8,486 
9,6M 
10,494 
18,142 
11,068 
12,099 
18,1611 
18,566 
18,110 
11,941 
12,202 
10,985 
10,605 
10,265 
ll,92.'i 
18,100 
18,9,19 
16.175 
15,061 
14,708 


14,940 
17.888 
1^9.■iO 
18,710 


If  we  divide  the  preceding  table  into  periods,  we 
have  the  following  annual  average  number  of  vessels 
for  each  period : 


Avtri^  aniituil 
Domber. 

1750 4Ji00 

1768—1770 6,880 

1777-1780 8,625 

1781—1790 9,M6 

1791—1800 10,2M 

1801—1810 ^257 

From  various  authorities,  the  number  of  vessels  that 


Ararage  annafel 
liiiiiib«r, 

1811—1820 7,948 

1821-1880 11,503 

1S81— 1840 12,781 

1941—1843 14,583 

1844—1846 17,888 


passed  the  Sound  down  to  1853  is  compiled, 

as  follows  : 

Y«.r..    IFrom  lb«  N.iMh  8««.  From  lli«  Bailie  8««. 

Total.          1 

1847 

10,675 

10,811 

21,487 

1818 

8,526 

8,214 

16,789 

1S4S 

10,048 

8,696 

18,789 

1850 

9,651 

9,403 

19,059 

1851 

9.D8U 

9,976 

19,906 

1852 

8,809 

8,786 

17,545 

1858 

10,661 

10,850         1 

21,512 

Annual  average  number  fVom  1847  to  1868 

.19,284 

The  ofBclal  reports  relative  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Sound,  In  possession  of  the  Department  of  State,  do 
not  come  down  to  a  later  period  than  18&3.  The  an- 
nual returns  of  the'  foreign  commerce  of  the  Hanse 
towns  for  1854,  compared  with  the  two  preceding  years, 
are,  however,  at  hand ;  and  from  these  it  apiwars  that 
the  numlier  of  Uanse  vessels  which  jiaased  the  Sound 
was  as  follows : 


18M. 

tsu. 

IMt. 

llambnrg 

65 

T 

lot 

88 
87 
186 

49 
14 

188 

Lubec 

Total 

181 

256 

108 

The  amount  of  Sound  dues  paid  by  the  Hania  to« 
In  the  yeara  apaclfled,  waa  aa  followa : 


1848 61,600 

1847 98,884 

1846 115,190 


The  late  war,  of  which  the  Baltic  was  one  of  the 
chief  theatres,  will  explain  tha  diminution  in  1854. 


Franca. 

18B1 108,150 

18B0 66.411 

1849 M,60e 

Total,  471,854  franco,  equal  to  |89,S67  86 ;  on  annual  average 
of  78,659  frano^  or  |14,916  21. 
If  we  are  correctly  Informed  as  to  the  assessment 
and  the  bases  on  which  Denmark  proposes  to  raise  her 
revenues  under  the  scheme  of  capitalization,  it  would 
setiin  quite  evident  that  she  has  at  least  taken  care  of 
"her  own  interests"  aa  Implicated  In  this  question; 
and  our  govemmont,  in  rejecting  the  compromise  thus 
tendered,  accompanied  as  It  was  with  the  entangle- 
ments of  the  "  balance  of  power  In  Europe,"  under 
whose  shield  Denmark  wishes  to  place  these  exactions, 
pursued  the  true  policy  of  the  country  l>y  avoiding  any 
such  "  dangerous  complicity,"  as  Mr.  Marcy  terms  it. 
The  offer  of  the  United  States  to  share  lllwrally  in 
compensating  Denmark  for  Iter  expenditures  at  Klsl- 
nore  In  the  interests  of  commerce  ought,  us  it  seems  to 
us,  to  satisfy  any  reasonable  demand  which  she  can 
urge  upon  our  own  country  or  the  countries  of  Europe ; 
and,  if  all  combine  to  pay  a  "  fair  equivalent"  for  the 
advantages  derived  by  their  commerce  from  the  out- 
lays of  Denmark,  it  should  Iw  accepted  by  her  without 
furtlier  delay  or  protest,  and,  instead  of  making  the 
antiquity  of  her  exaction  the  plea  fur  its  continuance, 
should  rather  acknowledge  the  equity  of  those  govern- 
ments which  are  willing  to  meet  all  her  Just  claims  in 
the  future  without  seeking  any  Indemnity  for  the  past. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of  vessels 
of  all  nations  that  have  passed  the  Danish  Sound 
during  the  years  1864-55 : 


I'msalu... 
Donniark., . . 
Norway. . . . 

Sweden 

England  . . . 

Russia 

.Mecklenburg 
Lubec.  .. 
Hamburg.. 
Bremen. . . 
Hanover.... 

Holland 

Oldenburg . . 

Franco 

Belgium 

Italy 

Bpaln 

Austria. 

Portugal .... 

Pern 

United  States 
8.  America.. 


*"E'"'i"Frolnlh. 


1,416 
900 
1,426 
1,258 
1,219 

"868 

84 

16 

16 

841 

798 

74 

61 

5 

19 


1,448 
T21 
1,414 
1,205 
1,196 

879 

86 

26 

IS 

854 

T05 

76 

63 

6 

14 


7,798 


Total. 

isu. 


2,804 

1,621 

2,840 

2,468 

2,415 

7 

787 

70 

48 

29 

695 

1,698 

l.-iO 

125 

11 

58 


16 


Total. 


8,095 

1,898 

8,328 

2,688 

2,0112 

166 

878 

111 

61 

11 

497 

1,460 

79 

81 

11 


46 


15,787  I  16,868 


Increase.. 

Decrease  In  1865. 


Iner'se. 
I8U. 


18 

198 

188 

71 

44 

"so 


Da«r*io, 

SSI 

277 

120 

"l50 
186 
41 
19 


691  I  1,472 


681 


It  will  bo  seen  that  the  total  number  of  vessels  that 
passed  the  Sound  in  1853  exceeds  that  of  the  preceding; 
year  by  8,907  vessels.  Of  the  whole  number,  18,100 
were  laden,  and  3,846  were  in  ballast.  The  countries 
which  contributed  most  to  this  augmentation  arc 
Prussia,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Mecklenburg,  and 
Kussla.  The  following  table  will  show  the  nation,  and 
the  number  of  vessels  from  each  nation,  In  1853 : 

Nation*. 


Natlom. 

.Vii.  nf  TeSMili. 

England 

4,668 

PruMla. 

8,471 

Norway 

8,411 

Denmark, 

2,0M 

Sweden 

1,996 

Holland 

1,874 

Russia 

1,202 

Mecklenburg. 

Hjinover 

Franco 

Oldenburg.. . . 

Luboo 

United  States. 


1,067 
748 
843 
101 
166 
96 


For  a  sketch  of  the  Danish  Exploring  Expedition 
around  the  World,  see  Hunt's  Aferchartti'  Magazine, 
vol.  xxiii.,  p.  406 ;  vill.,  469 ;  We»tm.  Rev.  1.,  75,  xlviii , 
195 !  iV.  il.  Rev,,  xxvii.,  285  (by  11.  Wubatoh.) 


DEP 


AS7 


DES 


Tabdlab  8*ATuiaRT  iHowno  nn  Natioatiom  or  nii  Bomns  tbb  riisoiPAL  NATiom  rAknoirATnia  thibux,  Taa 

BlIAll    AHiaHIO    TO    lAOU,  AMD   TIIK   l>>arollTIOM    Of   lAOO  PU  OMTUM    OK  TUI  WHOLE,  riOM  18S0  TO  1H64,  >OTU 

iMotmir*. 


a.  J  J«»'_ 

m 

SJT 
488 
tiO 

"iM 
180 
41  I 
19 


1,47'i 


t>81 


C8»el9  that 
le  preceding 
ilier,  18,1_G« 
a  countrien 
ntation  aro 
nburg,  and 
nation,  and 
18532^ 

1,067 
748 
84« 
101 
1B6 
96 


r«u«. 

■i«UM. 

BwadM  and 
Worwiijr. 

Dannuk. 

Riud*. 

rnwU. 

llMklnbiiri  Huh  Towm 

Uolud 
auui. 

Fraof*. 

HoIlui4. 

1860 

1S61 

1«M 

1858 

1804 

^48ti 

4,893 
8,(01 
4,668 
9,046 

,4,685 
6,177 
6,190 
6,407 

6,841 

1,966 
1,540 
1.464 
9,004 
1,990 

1,1S8 
1,098 

946 
1,909 

178 

9,8(1 
9,660 
9,819 
8,471 
8,108 

1,081 
1,0M 

ni 

1,067 
868 

176 
986 
104 
166 
181 

106 
11( 
TO 
M 
41 

"44 
Ml 

180 
848 

8T 

1,006 
9,081 
1,691 

1,874 
1,808 

Aggregate- 

'90,9id 

96,080 

8.993 

4,687 

18,086 

4,730 

1,061 

441 

1,046 

8,90ir 

A'rorago... 

4,18a 

6,916 

i.eeo 

907 

9.787    1         (66    1         910 

88 

"  m  ' 

1,7«U 

Proportion 
per  cent.. 

9808 

98-9 

n 

B 

16-8 

6-8             l-l 

0-6 

i-i 

(^ 

BtguUuioiu  ohitntd  on  pat$iHg  through  tht  Sound 
into  th»  Baltic. — If  the  vesaol  be  laden  with  cotton  for 
Kuaiia,  the  captain  muat  lie  provided  with  a  certificate, 
properly  attested  by  the  Danish  consul  at  the  port  of 
departure,  verifying  that  the  cotton  does  not  come 
firom  Kgypt  or  the  Levant.  Every  veasol  not  thus 
protected  will  be  aubject  to  quarantine,  and  may  have 
her  antire  cargo  put  ashore. 

Every  captain  must  be  able  to  show  legal  evidence 
of  the  nationality  of  hi.'i  vessel ;  must  be  provided  with 
a  manifest  and  a  clearance  from  the  custom-house  offi- 
cers at  his  last  port.  Should  the  vessel  come  from 
France,  Holland,  Belgium,  Portugal,  or  Hamburg,  the 
captain  must  exhibit  liis  passport.  If  from  Holland 
or  Belgium,  destined  for  Prussia,  tho  certificate  of  the 
Prussian  consul  at  the  port  of  departure  will  suffice. 

If  the  vessel  comes  from  the  United  States,  laden 
with  cotton,  the  captain  must  be  provided  with  a  man- 
ifest of  his  cargo,  custom-house  clearance,  register  of 
nationality,  and  the  certificate  of  the  Danish  consul 
attesting  that  the  cotton  was  actually  grown  in  the 
United  States ;  ov  if  it  come  from  Brazil  or  any  other 
country,  that  it  was  first  landed  at  a  port  in  the  United 
States,  and  not  transhipped  from  a  foreign  vessel. 

If  tho  vessel  comes  from  Cul)a,  the  captain  must  be 
provided  with  a  register  attesting  the  nationality  of 
his  vessel,  a  manifest,  passport,  and  custom-house  re- 
ceipt ;  and  it  would  ha  advisable  for  him  to  have,  also, 
a  bill  of  health,  attested  by  tho  Danish  consul  at  the 
port  of  departure. 

The  papers  and  certificates  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding remarlcs  must  be  in  duplicate  ;  and,  when  the 
vessel  is  destineil  for  Kussia,  should  there  be  any  in- 
terlineations, or  marginal  notes,  or  addenda,  tho  cap- 
tain's signature  must  be  affixed  to  each,  so  as  to  give  it 
authenticity Com.  Ret.  U.  S. 

Since  the  preceding  article  was  in  type,  a  conven- 
tion was  held  in  reference  to  thefunding  of  the  Sonnd 
dues  on  the  part  of  the  several  governments  interested. 
For  the  results  of  those  deliberations,  the  reader  is  re- 
fefred  to  article  entitled  "  Sound  /Jhm." 

Deposit.  This  term  is  applied  to  the  sum  of 
money  which  a  man  might  deposit  with  the  slierifF  after 
he  was  arrested,  instead  of  putting  in  special  bail. 
The  amount  of  the  deposit  was  the  sum  sworn  to  on  the 
bacic  of  the  writ.  (Blackstonr's  Comm.)  Deposit 
is  also  nsed  for  any  sum  of  money  which  a  man  puts 
in  the  hands  of  another  as  a  kind  of  security  for  the 
fulfilment  of  some  agreement,  or  as  a  part  payment  in 
advance.  The  Roman  word,  depositum,  signified  any 
thing  which  a  man  put  in  the  hands  of  another  to  keep 
till  it  was  asked  back,  without  any  thing  t>eing  given 
to  the  depositarius  for  his  trouble.  The  depositor  was 
called  deponens  or  depositor.  The  depositary'  was 
bound  to  take  care  of  the  thing,  and  to  make  good  any 
damage  tliat  happened  to  it  through  flrandulent  design 
(dolm)  or  gross  neglect  {lata  culpa).  The  depositor 
could  recover  the  thing  by  action ;  but  the  depositary 
was  entitled  to  satisfaction  for  any  loss  that  he  sus 
tained  In  the  matter  of  the  deposit  by  any  default 
(culpa)  on  tho  part  of  the  depositor.  The  depositar}' 
could  make  no  use  of  the  deposit,  except  with  the  per- 
mission of  the  depositor,  either  given  in  express  words, 
or  arising  from  implication.  If  a  man  refused  to  re- 
tam  a  deposit,  and  was  condemned  in  on  action  of 


deposit  (actio  drpoiili),  infamy  (infamia)  was  a  conse* 
quence  of  the  condemnation. — Dio.,  16,  tit.  8;  Jv- 
VBNAL,  Sat.  xlli.,  00. 

Depot  (Fr.),  la  used  to  designate  a  place  where  all 
sorts  of  military  stores  and  provisions  are  kept,  or 
where  recruits  are  received  and  traine<l.  It  is  also  ap- 
plied to  that  portion  of  a  regiment  which  remains  at 
home  when  the  rest  is  ordered  upon  foreign  ser\'ice. 
And  is  used  generally  to  denote  any  place  intended  aa 
a  place  of  deposit  for  merchandise ;  as  the  terminus  of 
a  railroad.  The  term  station  is  more  proper  for  places 
intended  merely  for  passenger  accommodation. 

Depresaion  of  the  Horison,  or  Dip  of  the 
HorlBOn,  in  Xautical  Astronomy,  denotes  the  depres- 
sion or  dipping  of  the  visible  horizon  liefore  the  true 
horizontal  plane,  and  wliich  arises  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  not  placed  on  the 
same  level  with  tho  surface  of  the  sea,  but  at  some 
distance  above  it.  Hence  in  observing  the  altitude  of 
the  sun  or  a  star  almve  the  horizon  with  the  sextant, 
the  altitude  appears  greater  than  it  really  Is.  Let 
a  =  the  radius  of  the  earth,  and  x  =  the  height  of  the 
eye  above  the  horizon ;  then  tho  cosine  of  the  angle 

of  depression       — ; —      At  the  height  of  10  feet  this 

a-f-X' 

amounts  lo  about  tliroe  minutes  of  a  degree. 

Derrick,  in  nautical  language,  used  in  a  variety 
of  meanings,  but  chiefly  for  a  tackle  used  at  the  outer 
quarters  of  a  mizzen-yard,  consisting  of  a  double  and 
single  block  connected  by  a  fall. 

Deaert  (Lat.  detertum,  participle  of  ieaero,  to  </»• 
sett,  to  leave),  a  large  tract  of  barren  country  j  a 
waste. — E.  B.  A  term  generally  used  to  designate  nn 
uninhabited  place  or  solitude ;  in  which  sense,  as  has 
been  judiciously  remarked,  It  is  equally  applicable  to 
the  fertile  plains  watered  by  tho  Maranon,  and  the 
sandy  wastes  of  Lybia,  but  applied  more  particularly 
to  the  vast  sandy  and  stony  plains  of  Aftrica  and  Asia. 
In  every  region  of  the  globe  plains  aro  to  be  found  of 
greater  or  less  extent,  which,  tiiough  marked  by  strong 
features  of  resemblance  in  their  grand  outlines,  exhil>it 
with  the  different  latitudes  in  which  they  are  placed  a 
corresponding  variety  of  character,  and  accordingly 
the  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  each  are  known  by 
different  appellations.  Thus  we  have  the  stipjxs  of 
Europe,  the  desertt  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  mvannah$ 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  and  the  pampas  and 
Hanoi  of  South  America. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  Africa  consists  of  its 
immense  deserts,  wliich  have  in  all  ages  presented  to 
the  speculations  of  the  geographer  objects  highly  wor- 
thy of  attention.  Of  these  the  chief  is  tho  SaJiara,  or 
the  Deaert,  so  called  by  way  of  eminence.  This  pro- 
digious zone  of  sand  stretches,  with  few  interruptions, 
from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  confines  of 
Egj'pt,  and  comprehends  in  its  length  and  breadth  a 
superficies  of  about  2,200,000  square  miles.  Tho  sand 
raised  by  the  burning  wind  called  the  simoom  is  fre- 
quently in  a  state  of  motion,  and  as  it  sweeps  along  in 
its  career  of  desolation  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  waves  of  a  tompestuous  sen.  This  immense  ex- 
panse, however,  is  by  no  means  a  uniform  surface  of 
loose  sand.  In  many  parts  the  drear}'  wastes  is  l)roken 
'by  low  bills  of  naked  sand-stone,  or  by  tracts  of  arid 


DES 


588 


DES 


ela^,  and  ocruloiully  It  U  enlivened  hy  venUnt  blei 
or  oatti,  which  eerve  u  reitinK-platel  for  the  caravani 
that  traverae  these  dlamal  region*.  Hut  for  theiin  oattt, 
inileed,  the  Sahara  would  be  wholi}-  impaauble.  It 
preaenta,  aaya  Malte  Biun,  no  tracea  of  a  beaten  path, 
and  the  cararana  that  traverae  it,  dlrectin)(  their  way 
by  the  (mlar  star,  deicribe  a  tortuous  road  in  order  to 
profit  l>y  the  oaava,  which  are  represented  as  brilliant 
with  v«Ketatlon,  but  which  prolialdy  owe  a  greitt  part 
of  their  reputation  to  the  contrast  they  form  with  the 
absolute  barrenness  of  the  desert. 

The  great  deserts  of  Africa  are  omly  separated  from 
tboae  of  Asia  by  the  valley  of  the  river  Nile,  and  the 
Red  Sea.  But  upon  this  subject  we  can  not  refrain 
from  transferring  to  our  columns  tiie  remarks  of  Dr. 
Traill,  who  has  sketched  with  a  masterly  hand  the 
grand  outlines  of  the  AsUtlc  deserts.  "  .Soon  after 
quitting  the  Nile,  the  traveler  by  the  route  of  Sues  en- 
counters sand,  which  is  continued  into  the  centre  of 
Arabia,  where  It  forms  the  desert  of  Nedsjed,  extend- 
ing to  the  valley  of  the  Euphmtca.  'i'he  sandy  zone 
then  inclines  nortliwanl.  enters  Persia,  and  forms  the 
saline  deserts  of  Adjemi,  Kerman,  and  Mekran ;  it  is 
turned  north-east  by  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  passes 
through  Oaubul  and  Little  Itukharia,  till  it  Joins  the 
vast  deserts  of  Cobi  and  Shamoo,  which  occupy  so 
large  a  portion  of  Central  AsU  lietween  the  Altaian 
and  Mustug  chains,  and  reach  to  the  confines  of  ('hina. 
The  sandy  zone,  thus  traced  throughout  the  breadth 
of  the  ancient  continent  from  western  Africa  to  the 
120°  of  east  longitude,  has  been  computed  to  cover  an 
area  of  6,6(H),(K)0  square  miles ;  but  the  Asiatic  portion 
of  this  tract  includes  many  chains  of  mountains  and 
fertile  valieya.  It  is  characterized  by  the  occurrence 
of  arid  wastes  of  sand  or  clay,  sometimes  with  saline 
incrustations  on  the  surface,  and  is  rcmariubly  deficient 
in  conslderalde  rivers :  except  the  Nile,  the  Euphrates, 
the  Indus,  and  the  Oxus,  there  are  no  large  rivern  |u  a 
region  which  embraces  almost  a  fourth  |>art  m  both 
Africa  and  Asia.  Thia  portion  of  Central  Aaiu  forms 
a  series  of  elevated  plains,  6,000  miles  in  length  from 
east  to  west.  Some  of  these  plains,  says  Humboldt, 
are  covered  with  herbqge ;  others  produce  only  ever- 
green saliforous  plants,  with  fleshy  and  Jointed  stems ; 
but  a  great  number  glitter  from  afar  with  a  saline 
efllorescence  that  crystallizes  in  the  semblance  of 
lichens,  and  covers  the  clayey  soil  with  scattered 
patches  like  new-fallen  snow."  Under  the  bead 
SIiKAUR  will  be  found  some  account  of  the  so-called 
singular  optical  illusion  so  often  seen  in  the  desert. 

In  Scripture,  the  term  desert  bears  a  wholly  difTerent 
interpretation  from  that  usually  attached  to  it  in  pro- 
fane writings.  It  has  been  fully  shown  by  Kulund 
Cl'aJat.  1.  i.  p.  375)  that  the  Hebrew  -1210  (midbar), 
the  ipri/to{  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  dettrtum  or  tnlitwUi 
of  the  Latins,  bear  no  anJalogy  to  each  other;  the  first 
being  appropriated  almost  exclusively  to  those  thinly- 
peopled  districts  of  the  Holy  Land  which  yielded  pas- 
turage for  cattle,  and  were  remarkable  at  once  for  their 
beauty  and  the  luxuriance  of  their  vegetation. 

"  The  arid  plains  and  deserts,  as  well  ati  high  mount- 
ain ranges,  have,  it  may  well  be  supposed,  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  movements  of  the  great  aerial  ocean,  as 
ahoals  and  other  obstructions  have  upon  the  channels 
of  circulation  in  the  sea.  The  deserts  of  Asia,  for  in- 
stance, produce  a  disturbance  upon  the  grand  system 
of  atmospherical  circulation,  which,  in  summer  and 
■utumo,  is  fell  in  Europe,  in  Liberia^  and  away  out 
upon  the  Indun  Ocean,  as  far  to  the  south  as  the 
equinoctial  lino.  There  is  an  indraughC  from  all  these 
regions  toward  these  deserts.  These  indraughts  are 
known  as  monsoons  at  sea ;  on  the  land,  as  the  prevail- 
ing winds  of  the  season. 

"  We  perceive  how  a  desert  land  spreads  its  influ- 
ence through  the  distance  upon  the  winds.  The  first 
affects  of  beating  up  the  plains  are  necessarily  felt  by 
the  air  newest  at  hand,  and  by  that  further  off  at  a  - 


later  period,  so  that  the  south-west  mnnsoon  Influenca 
Is  in  this  part  of  the  ocean  propagnti  1  from  the  land 
out  U|)on  the  sea  at  the  rate  liefore  sUted.  Of  course, 
the  vast  plains  of  Asia  are  not  brought  up  to  mons<M>n 
heat  ptr  mitrm,  or  In  a  day.  They  require  lime  both 
to  be  heated  up  to  this  |Niint  and  to  be  cooled  down 
again.  The  mcmsoon  season  may  In  always  known  by 
referring  to  the  causes  which  pro<luce  those  winds. 
Thus,  by  recidlecling  where  the  thirsty  and  overheated 
plains  are  which  cause  the  monsoons,  we  know  at  once 
that  these  winds  are  rushing  with  greatest  force  toward 
these  plains  at  the  time  that  it  Is  the  hottest  season  of  the 
year  upon  them.  The  Influence  of  these  heated  plains 
u|ion  the  winds  at  sea  is  felt  for  a  thousand  miles  or 
more.  Thus,  though  the  desert  of  Cobi  and  the  sun- 
l>umed  plains  of  Asia  are,  for  the  moat  part,  north  of 
latitude  I1U°,  their  influence  in  making  monsoons  Is  fell 
south  of  the  equator.  So,  too,  with  the  great  desert 
of  Sahara  and  the  African  monsoons  o'  the  Atlantic ; 
also,  with  the  Salt  Lake  country  and  the  Mexican 
monsoons  on  one  side,  and  those  of  Central  America 
in  the  Paoiflo  on  the  other.  The  influence  of  the  des- 
erts of  Arabia  upon  the  winds  Is  felt  in  Austria  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  as  the  observations  of  Kriel, 
lament,  and  others  show." — Mauhy's  Vhi/tical  (Jeoy, 
nf  tke  Nea. 

Deaertion  by  a  Seaman.  "  Desertion  from  the 
ship  without  Just  cause,  and  nni'rno  no»  recfrlendi,  or 
the  Justitluble  discharge  of  u  seaman  by  the  master  for 
bad  conduct,  will  work  a  forfeiture  of  the  wages  pre- 
viously earned ;  and  tMs  is  a  rule  of  Justice  anil  of 
policy  which  generally  pervades  the  ordinances  of  tho 
maritime  nations.  Uy  the  EnglUh  statute  law,  and 
by  the  act  of  Congress,  desertion  is  accompanied 
with  a  forfeiture  of  all  the  wages  that  are  due,  and  an 
absence  of  forty-eight  hours  without  leave,  is  made 
conclusive  evidence  of  desertion ;  and  whatever  un- 
justifiable conduct  will  warrant  the  act  of  tho  master 
in  discharging  a  seaman  during  the  voyage,  will  e<|ually 
deprive  the  seaman  of  his  wages.  liut  tlie  forfeiture 
is  saved  if  the  seaman  repents,  makes  compensation  or 
offer  of  amends,  and  is  restored  to  his  duty.  Public 
|M>licy  and  private  Justice  here  move  together,  and  the 
maritime  ordinances  unite  in  this  conclusion.  The 
master  Ims  power  to  remit  a  forfeiture,  and  the  penalty 
of  forfeiture  is  not  applied  to  slight  faults,  either  of 
neglect  or  disobedienco.  There  must  be  cither  an 
habituul  neglect,  or  disobedience,  or  drunkenness,  or 
else  a  single  act  of  gross  dishonesty,  or  some  other  act 
of  a  heinous  and  aggravated  nature,  to  justify  the  dis- 
charging a  seaman  in  a  foreign  port,  or  the  forfeiture 
of  wages;  nor  will  the  admiralty  courts,  except  in 
cases  of  great  atrocity,  visit  the  offenses  of  a  seaman 
with  the  cumulated  load  of  forfeiture  of  wages  and 
compensation  in  damages.  They  stop  at  the  forfeitnru 
of  the  wages  antecedently  earned,  and  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  forfeiture,  the  advanced  wages  are  made  a 
charge  on  the  forfeited  wages,  but  the  hospital  money 
is  apportioned  ratalily  on  the  wages  for  the  whole  voy- 
age. In  these  regulations  the  moderation  of  tlie  courts, 
and  the  solicitude  which  the  peculiar  condition  and 
character  of  seamen  excite,  are  equally  manifest.  So, 
if  the  seaman  quits  the  ship  involuntarily,  or  is  driven 
ashore  from  necessity,  from  want  of  provisions,  or  l>y 
reason  of  cruel  usage  and  for  personal  safety,  the  wages 
are  not  forfeited,  and  he  will  be  entitled  to  receive  them 
in  full  to  the  prosi)eroug  termination  of  the  voyage. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  la  the  duty  of  the  seiimen  to 
abide  by  tiio  vessel  as  long  as  reasonable  ha|)e  re- 
maiifs ;  and  if  they  desert  the  ship  under  circum- 
stances of  danger  or  distress  from  the  perils  of  the  sea, 
when  their  presence  and  exertions  might  have  pre- 
vented damage,  or  restored  the  ship  to  safety,  they 
forfeit  their  wages,  and  are  answerable  in  damages. 
And  even  when  a  seaman  might  well  have  been  dis- 
charged in  the  course  of  the  voyage  for  gross  misbe- 
havior, if  the  master  refuses  to  discharge  bim,  and 


DES 


S80 


DET 


Imtm  him  III  Impriionmant  uliroad,  he  wilt,  In  that 
«M«,  In  •utillad  to  hli  wiffci  until  lili  nturn  to  the 
Unltml  8tat«ii  aftar  dcJuotiiiK  rriim  the  rlulin  hia  tlma 
of  iiiiprUanmanl." — KBHT'a  CumuuHtarin,  Lact,  xlvl. 
Than  are,  howarer,  at  tirnen,  cxtmiuatlnK  circuin- 
Itanceii,  which  will  In  part  authorino  u  Halliir  to  louve 
his  ahip  In  ii  torelKn  port.  Thin  nuhjuct  It  (llicumied 
with  ('Ivarnpjiii  in  tha  work  alHivo-mentiimad.  Judifa 
8tory  IkiIiIh  that  the  vuyaKe  of  a  uhlp  li  ended  whrn 
■he  arrivHH  at  her  port  of  doatinatlon,  and  la  aafely 
moored,  tlioiiKh  her  cargo  lie  not  delivered  |  and  deaer- 
tiun  nftprward  doe*  nut  forfeit  the  wagea  entire,  but 
a  partliil  forfeiture  only  ua  con^pcnaatiiin  for  breach  of 
duty. — Ibitl.     8«e  DiaoiiAKOH  nr  Skahrn, 

Desl|n  (Fr.  ikumrin,  from  Lat.  Jeiigno),  a  acheme 
or  plan ;  purpoHe,  intentlun ;  a  reproaentatlon  of  a 
thing  liy  an  outline  or  iketuh,  etc,  Ihiign,  In  the 
manufacturiea,  axpreiui  the  Hgurea  witli  which  the 
worliman  eurlchea  Ida  atuff  or  silk,  and  which  he  copies 
after  some  |iattorn.  Dfign  In  I'aintmg,  is  the  flrat  idea 
of  a  large  work,  drawn  roughly,  to  be  afterward  care- 
fully executed  and  llnished. 

JJfiign,  ScliooU  ii/*,  nro  establishments  for  Instructing 
pupils  in  the  art  of  drawing.  In  some  the  instruction 
Is  confined  to  what  Is  sulisorvlent  to  the  tine  arts,  but 
In  others,  oxpecially  In  the  very  admirable  establish- 
ment at  PMinburg,  under  the  lloaitl  of  Trustees  of 
Arts  and  Manufurturos,  not  only  is  attention  paid  to 
the  instructlAi)  of  the  painter  and  the  sculptor,  but  de- 
sign is  taught,  to  perfect  the  mechanic  In  the  principles 
of  his  art,  wherever  ornamental  pattern  is  required. 
Such  8clio<ds  have  Iraon  long  opened  In  Franco  and 
various  piirts  of  (iemiany,  from  which  lm|H>rtunt  bene- 
fit has  liocn  conferred  on  the  manufacturing  Industry 
of  tliose  countries.  The  FMinlmrg  School  of  Design 
ap|)eurs  to  have  been  the  first  established  In  Uritain 
for  the  express  Improvement  of  manufacturing  Indus- 
try. It  Is  most  ably  conducted,  and  has  found  Ita  pu- 
pils in  demand  for  the  chief  seats  of  Kngilsh  manufac- 
turing art.  In  England,  besides  the  estalilishment  at 
Somerset  House,  Umdcm,  there  is  a  brunch  school  of 
design  in  Spltalllelds  that  is  well  attended.  Similar 
schools  are  now  eHtublished  In  Hlnnlnghani,  Manches- 
ter, Coventry,  Nottingham,  Leeds,  York,  Uudders- 
lleld,  ShetHeld,  Norwich,  Stoke-on-Trent,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  Ilanley,  Ulusgow,  and  Paisley.  Several 
have  lieen  established  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and 
Boxton,  and  other  portions  of  the  United  States,  and 
their  utility  is  clearly  demonstrated. — ItiiAMDK'a  A'nr. 

De-allvering  Lead.  Nearly  all  lead  oro  con- 
tains a  little  silver;  and  Mr.  Pattinson  of  Newcastle, 
Kngland,  has  devised  an  ingenlnus  and  beautiful  mode 
of  separating  it.  His  discovery  has  rendered  many 
load  mines  workable  which  must  otherwise  have  been 
abandoned.  The  chief  ore  whence  lead  Is  extracted  is 
galena,  u  bulphurct  of  the  metal,  containing  on  an 
average  about  80  per  cent,  of  lead  and  a  minute  portion 
of  silver ;  and  this  silver  treasure  often  determines  the 
working  or  non-working  of  the  mine.  Until  recently, 
20  ounces  of  silver  to  a  ton  of  lead  were  the  least  that 
would  pay  for  the  expense  of  separating ;  but  Mr.  Pat- 
tinson has  enabled  the  lead  smelter  to  realize  a  profit 
from  so  small  a  ratio  as  3  or  4  ounces  to  the  ton.  The 
lead-smelting  at  the  Allenbcad  mines,  and  at  the  Wan- 
lock  lead  hills  in  Uumfriesshire,  are  both  founded  on 
Pattinson's  process. 

This  process  is  not  only  scientific  in  the  principle  on 
which  it  la  based,  but  it  is  really  beautiful  to  witness. 
After  the  ore  has  been  smelted,  and  the  lead  run  off 
into  the  form  of  blocks  or  "  pigs,"  these  pigs  are  slowly 
rc-melted  in  large  cast-iron  open  vessels.  The  molten 
leaa,  while  gradually  cooling,  is  stirred  uninterrupted- 
ly with  an  iron  rod,  and  crystals  of  lead  gradually  form. 
These  crj'stals,  being  denser  and  heavier  than  the  rest 
*f  the  lead,  fall  to  the  Iwttom,  and  are  thence  removed 
ky  the  aid  of  a  colandur  or  perforated  ladle.  Now 
these  crystal*  contain  less  silver  than  an  equal  weight 


of  the  uncryttalllied  load  i  and  here  we  benln  at  one* 
to  sea  the  rutlnnalo  of  the  prtH'eas  :  since  none  of  the 
silver  la  aetnally  gone,  that  which  has  left  the  crystals 
has  tended  to  enrich  the  remaining  portion  of  the  lead. 
Again  are  the  crystals  melted,  to  get  more  and  mora 
silver  out  of  them  ;  again  is  the  rlclier  lead  melted,  to 
Increase  Its  richness  at  the  ex|ienie  of  the  niiwly-formad 
crystals ;  and  thus  do  the  double  processes  advance  until 
almost  every  atom  of  silver  is  obtained  from  tha  lead. 
Uut  this  requires  another  kind  of  operation.  Tha 
very  rich  lead  U  brought  to  an  intense  heat  In  a  pecu- 
liar furnace,  and  a  blast  of  air  is  driven  upon  It ;  tha 
lead  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  tha  air  to  form  lith- 
arge, while  the  silver  sinks  to  tha  bottom  In  a  pun 
state,  forming  a  slab  of  delicate  silver.  A  very  lieau- 
tiful  appearance  presents  itself  during  the  Dmcass :  the 
molten  silver  abaorbs  much  oxygen,  whicn  escapes 
again  aa  the  metal  solidlHea ;  bursting  through  tli* 
gradually  hardening  surface  of  the  mass,  the  bubbles 
of  gas  force  along  with  them  portions  of  the  fluid  meta. 
from  below.  It  really  affords  a  verj-  close  representa- 
tion of  a  volcano ;  for  the  same  chemical  laws  are  In 
operation  In  iMith  cases.  This  escaiio  of  oxygen  leaves 
the  surface  coveretl  with  beautiful  and  fantastical  con- 
cretions of  pure  and  brilliant  silver — silvery  mountains 
and  valleys,  formed  by  a  process  bearing  much  anal- 
ogy with  that  by  which  our  earth  mountains  were 
Iirobably  formed.  In  the  recent  London  Exhibition 
there  was  a  <'uko  of  silver  weighing  no  less  than  8flOC 
ounces,  obtained  from  lead  In  Mr.  Ileaumont'a  rainet 
in  Northumberland. — Novellin  ami  Intention: 

Detroit,  a  city  and  ]iort  of  entr}-  of  the  Unitac 
States,  capital  of  the  county  of  Wayne,  Michigan,  sit 
uated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Detroit  Strait  or  River 
which  connects  I^kes  Huron,  St.  Clair,  and  Erie.   I^at 
42°  2'  N,,  long.  «8°  2'  W.     The  city  exten(hi  along 
the  river  for  mora  than  a  mile  and  a  half,  its  centra 
point  being  7  miles  from  I^ke  St.  Clair,  and  18  froK 
Lake  Erie.     The  river  is  here  about  five  eighths  of  a 
mile  in.width  ;  and  Its  depth  varies  from  12  to  48  feet 
Tlie  descent  from  I.ake  St.  Clair  to  Lake  Erie  is  abo'. 
0  feet,  or  8  Inches  per  mile ;  and  the  velocity  of  tb 
current  at  the  deepest  part,  opposite  the  city,  Is  2 
miles  per  hour.     Its  shores  on  both  sides  ara  highl; 
cultivated ;  and  from  its  outlet  into  Lake  Erie  to  it 
origin  at  Lake  Huron  resemble  a  continuous  village 
with  fine  farms,  pleasant  villas,  groves,  gardens,  am. 
excellent  roiids.      The  town  Is  well  and  regularly 
built,  extending  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle  fur  aliout 
1200  feet  from  the  river,  and  afterward  tennlnaticg  in 
a  triangle.     Some  of  the  principal  streets  are  200, 
others  120,  and  others  CO  feet  wide.     These  generally 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles.     The  houses  are 
mostly  of  wood,  but  many  of  them  are  of  brick.     The 
principal  of  the  public  buildings  are — the  old  State 
House,  the  United  States'  Buildings  (of  polished  lime- 
stone), the  State  buildings  for  the  supreme  court,  public 
ofliccs,  county  court-house,  county  jail,  city-hall,  and 
market,  the  new  Catholic  cathedral,  and  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Anne.     Detroit  Is  well  supplied  with  water  horn 
the  river,  by  means  of  hydraulic  machiner}'  In  the  up- 
per part  of  the  town.    Ship  and  boat  building  is  a  large 
and  important  branch  of  business  ;  and  there  are  sev- 
eral large  steam  saw-mills,  iron  founderies,  etc.  Detroit 
has  a  very  extensive  trade,  for  which  it  enjoys  many 
advantages.    The  harlwr  is  capacious  and  secure.    It 
is  connected  by  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  with 
Chicago  vlii  New  BuflTulo  and  Michigan  City,  a  distance 
of  268  miles,  and  by  the  Pontiao  with  the  town  of  tliat 
name,  20  miles  distant.     The  Great  Western  Railroad, 
constructed  through  Canada,  brings  it  into  direct  com 
munication   with  the  New  Y'ork  and  other  eastern 
routes.     The  population  in  1801  was  only  770,  and  in 
1880,  2222 ;  in  1840  It  amounted  to  9193,  and  1850  to 
21,000,  while  in  the  summer  of  1853  it  was  84,400. 
This,  however,  includes  only  those  within  the  corpo- 
rate limits,  beyond  which  there  is  a  numerous  popid» 


\ 


DIA 


fit 


DlA 


Mm,  w(mm  MtiM  •Miipallon  and  InUniU  tra  In  Iht 

■Nato,  IliVMitoil  Inr  Anaslmanilcr,  AM)  n.  n.— 
/V/H||r,  TIm  rlfal  ilUI  «/  thu  •iin  m«ii  it  liuiim,  wia 
|rf««wl  (fit  tlm  Umiilx  nf  t;rilrlnu»  liy  I,.  I>a|ilriuii  (^ur* 
•or  mhtm  IIdm  *»»  ilUMwl  Inin  hmin,  -JDH  ii.  i.—lllnir. 
In  th«  timm  nf  th«  umiKiriiri,  •Imniit  nvrry  paUrn  anil 
iinMI«  iHili'llnn  had  a  aun-dlal.  Thay  war*  lint  hI  up 
In  fhiirchM  In  <«,  ii,  OtH,—l^!/Ut. 

DUMie«4  (Oar.  Mn.  Ha.' anil  Cr.  hiamtml,  Nw. 
Ihmmil,  fllimiml*  i  It.  «p.  and  Tort.  Oiimumlf  i  Kun. 
<4/«/«/  ViA,  hnimnnt  I  \*i,  .Uium$  i  Hind,  //im),  a 
|irai<l(>M«  ainna  whlrh  haa  l»«n  knuwn  fr<im  tha  raniot- 
a««  aM*>,  I'llny  liaa  doairllwil  It  (//iW.  AW.,  Ill),  117, 
Mil  lilll  hU  ai'i'ounl  In,  In  many  nmprrti,  Inarcurala. 
11  (a  fiHind  In  dllTarant  (mrta  of  Indlii,  and  In  llornao ; 
It  la  at«i  Aiiind  In  Itrarll,  m  which,  ln<l«rd,  Kuropa 
n«,«  I  •  »»M  Id  ha  at  praMnt  antlraly  da|ianilant  for 
*N|i|dt«a  lit  dlamnnda.  Illthartu,  howavor.  It  haa  not 
liaan  «••»  with  anywhara  aanapt  within  thn  troplm. 
It  I*  IIm  NKMt  tiaaullfiil  and  mnut  valiiahln  of  pniloua 
•tnnaa,  It*  moat  pornm«in  rnlom  arn  wlilln  and  K^ay, 
tf  varlntia  ahwlaa,  It  orrura  alio  rod,  Iduo,  lirown, 
yajlfiir,  and  ifraan,  Tha  rolora  ara  roninionly  pala. 
II  la  alwari)  cryatallliiad,  hnt  aomatlmra  ao  linparfai^ly 
ibat  It  miKht  paaa  for  amnrphoti*.  It  la  tha  hardaat 
My  In  niHnf»,  Ktitamal,  limtra  from  aplendid  «u 
KtlmmxrhiM  f  Inlamal,  alwnyii  uplomlld.  It  la  lirltth' ; 
lla  aiiwinii  M'«rlly  la  fl'ft,  Whi-n  rtililwd  It  lieccniaa 
lantDfoty  aiai'lrlf,  a*an  Imfoni  It  haa  lawn  cut  liy  the 
lapidary,  whifh  la  n»rt  th<i  raa«  with  any  other  (jem.— 
'I'HoMaiiN'a  ('/irmhlry. 

Mlan««n<la  wara  flr«t  liroii|(ht  to  Kiirope  fn)ra  tha 
Knal  whara  Iha  mlna  nt  Hiimlndpoiir  waa  the  lint 
known  I  an.l  whara  tha  minaa  of  (iolronda  were  dliw 
miyumi  IW4,  'Ihia  dlntrht  may  lie  termed  the  reiilni 
U(  dlai>i>md>.  Tha  minea  of  nruall  were  clUcovcrcd  In 
IU»,  '  wmi  thaaa  Inat  a  diamond,  welKhlnff  IflHO 
•Mtti'f  ,  r  H  <mn<'aa,  waa  ai  lit  to  the  I'ourt  (if  i'ortiiKal, 
•)  I  ^«a  vatiiad  l>y  M,  Homeo  dn  I'lalo  nt  the  e.xtrava- 
Kant  ami  "fr/l,<K'l(),(HI«)n'ala|  l>y  othrra  it  waa  valued 
«1  MAtlH,  ■m,  Ita  value  waa  next  atnted fo lie ;i,6()0,nO()  j 
liHl  lla  tma  valna  la  tMra,imn.  The  diamond  called 
lit*  "  ttwinnUIn  of  IlKht,"  which  lietonxed  to  the  king  of 
l-'anlml,  waa  Iha  moat  anperli  gem  over  aeen.  It  waa 
wf  llta  flnaat  water,  and  the  hV/jn  of  an  egg,  and  waa 
mIxi  yalnad  at  fl,nn(l,(NMI,  The  great  diamond  of  the 
Wliliariff  of  Knaala  welgha  lim  carnta,  or  I  ox.  12  dwt.  4 
ft,,  Ifiiy,  The  eni|ireaa  <!ntharino  II.  oflttred  for  It 
4fllMi1'M,  liaaldaa  an  annuity  for  life  to  the  owner,  of 
iUm,  wid/'h  waa  refuae<l  (  I'lUt  it  wna  afterward  sold  to 
(;«th«flna'it  favorite,  count  Orioff,  for  the  <Ir»t  men- 
thmwl  awm,  without  the  innnlty,  and  wna  liy  him  pre- 
IMinlad  l<(  Iha  ampraaa  on  her  Mrth>diiy,  1772.  It  la 
RMW  In  tha  a<'a|itra  of  Raaaia.  Thr'  Mtt  diamond 
w»iKh«d  IfMt  laraia,  and,  after  cutti'<  ,  'W  r.<i>iiti.  U 
waa  ■ -M  to  Iha  king  of  Krance  for  ai'*),  <')''  » iTV'i,  - 
l/iit, 

Arnrrdlng  »o  Mr,  Mntmm  (Or>'  .'.    '■v.  ,,   u. 

•ImxiM  I*  liaffivtly  rryatalllne,  r     ''       »  Ji  i,  of 

I'laar  affflng  w«t«>r.  In  Iha  middle  oi  wiilih  you  will 
(tanalta  «  almng  light  playing  with  a  great  deal  of 

Sdnt,  If  the  coat  he  amnoth  and  lirlght,  with  a  little 
n«l«ira  of  uttmn  In  It,  It  la  not  thn  worae,  and  teldom 
prinfnt  had  j  Irtd  If  there  he  a  mixture  of  yellow  with 
ll»«  gfa'-n,  (hen  (i«war»  of  It— It  la  a  aoft  greoay  atone, 
«nd  will  pmva  had. 

T'lln/htiimimitii,  Culling,  r/r.— To  oaeertain  whether 
»ny  afiaciman  la  a  troe  diamond  or  not,  ■  fine  file  may 
\m  Haad  I  and  If  Iha  aurface  of  tha  atone  be  the  least 
»\irmM  lit  acrali^hed  liy  ita  action.  It  la  not  a  diamond. 
'ri*«  difTofawa  will  ala»  appear  upon  oloaa  examination 
Wlllimil  Ihia  hiatrament :  the  raya  of  light  easily  paaa 
IhroHgh  othar  getna,  hut  In  the  diamond  they  are  re- 
ttm'ifh  tn  Iha  aurfaca,  which  occoaiona  Ita  superior 
MIIUlMiy<  If  the  apeclmen  under  examination  lie 
f«ry  mtnttl*,  M  mny  h«  placed  between  two  half- 


crowns,  or  char  flat  matalllo  aurfacaa,  and  praasad 
with  tha  tbumli  and  flngari  if  a  diamond.  It  will  not 
lie  Inlurwii  )iu'  If  otiiarwiaa,  it  will  break  and  fall  to 
pt  <rder.  On  n,  lount  of  the  sxtranio  hanlneaa  of  Iha 
dliimi'nd,  the  art  of  nitt  iiig  and  |iuliahlng  it  wiik  fur  ii  long 
llnir.  iinlinown  In  Kunipe.  Hut,  In  1  l&ll,  a  ynung  umn 
of  tha  numa  nf  Ixiiiin  itarghen,  a  native  iif  llrugim,  ia 
•aid  to  have  tonatrurtrd  a  |iollahlng  wheel  fur  lh«  pur> 
p<iae,  which  waa  fbd  with  ilianinnd  (Miwder  Inntaml  of 
iiirvmlnm,  whhh  tha  Chinese  and  lllndiNia  had  Imen 
hing  accuatunia<l  to  employ,  Iterghen  was  led  to  thia 
dlacorery  liy  observing  the  action  pnaluced  by  rulihing 
two  rough  dianiiiiiiia  tugether,  Dli'Uiiinda  are  cut  into 
lirllliants  iinil  rose  dianionda  i  tha  rtiiai  '  ein|«,  fur  Ilia 
moat  |iart,  niadii  <iut  of  Ilia  oct'iL  i  .  r,)  tnia,  undthe 
latter  from  the  apheroldai  V    ,■  ■  'ot'    '»  I'raeliciU 

Minrmliigy !  \iv.K»' I'y      md  •,     i., 

t'ltmmrnittl  IW/ia  •  "(bai  •.  i. — In  le  great  or 
wholesale  trade  tl'ure  <  liu«  ii»tle  lluctn.illon  in  tha 
price  of  those  i"  innnil        li'  '  lie  t<mie<l  i/imn  lit 

ifrneri'' (Irmn  I  will  liegin      Ji  liriilinnta  from  una 

grain  lo  !t| '-  rn'  a 'h,  8ui  h  I'rillianta  douliia  lUt, 
niidwhn^  1 1 .  '  >'<  'aimed  Ana, are  worth  from  i.7  to  XH 
|M>r  carat.  Ni  'dy  ivllnra  iimv  I ,ike  lU  per  cent,  loan  for 
'"  h ;  but  this  ia  the  genn  :ii  venga  price  for  a  lot  of 
10,  20,  or  M)  carnta  of  weli-m.iiie  stones,  If  tlie  quiility 
Im  goiMl.  llrllllnnta,  from  two  grains  to  three,  may  li« 
lx>uglit  in  lota  at  from  XI  ~:  to  X«  per  curat.  It 
is  to  bo  uniluratood  that  dlanioniln  In  a  lot  are  never 
all  quite  free  fnini  faults  ;  hence  there  may  arise  u  ilif 
ference  of  10  |iar  cent,  in  the  price.  Ntones  iif  II  grains, 
if  tine  anil  pi'rf<  rt,  are  always  in  demand  nt  i'H  tii  4)1) 
per  carat,  llrlliianta  from  .'I  grains  to  4,  if  very  Una 
and  well  proportioned,  are  worth  from  i.'M  to  4.1)  |icr 
carat.  Those  nf  a  cnral  each,  if  very  lino  and  well 
selected,  are  worth  X^  to  illO.  Three  year*  ago  1  of- 
fered XVi  each  for  H,  and  could  not  obtain  Iheni.  llrll- 
iianta from  A  grains  toO,  if  pure,  are  worth,  from  ilin 
to  ilH ;  if  perfectly  tine,  und  of  the  full  weiglit  of  (i 
grains,  they  are  worth  from  £\1  to  A'lH  each.  1  have  fur 
such  paid  i.'20.  Ilrilliiinta  of  2  cnrata  euili,  iiro  worth 
from  £'.'7  to  XWi.  .Stones  of  this  weight,  if  well  pro- 
portioned, are  considered  of  a  tine  size,  and  well  culcii- 
lated  fur  pins,  or  the  centre  of  clusters  i  indeed,  well 
proportioned  dhimonda,  from  6  grains  to  2  curata  ciich, 
are  always  in  demand,  and  are  rctiiiied  at  from  i,''.'0  to 
XAlt  each,  according  to  their  degree  of  perfection,  or  ua 
the  retailer  may  think  lit  to  clinrgo  them.  For  hril- 
lianta  of  8  carats.  If  flue  and  well  formed,  from  i.'7U  to 
i.'HO  may  be  obtained.  Htones  of  this  size,  nnd  larger, 
are  more  liable  to  capricious  lluctuutions  of  price  tlinn 
tho  smaller  ones  liefora  named,  being  cliiody  required 
for  the  centra  stone  of  salable  necklaces.  Urilliants  of 
4  carata,  if  tine,  are  worth  from  illOO  to  411110.  1  have 
•old  atones,  single  cut,  a  little  oJf'ciJor,  of  this  weiglii 
nt  HO  guineaa.  I  poaseased  one  of  17  grains,  pcrfec^^ 
white,  having  a  .urface  lai  rn  oa  that  of  a  7  curat  stimo 
ough:.  to  '  •  t  was,  k  unsciiuently,  very  thin,  liut  I  ■. 
Ing  mud  quest,  on  account  of  ita  great  tpmul  i>r 

•urface,  it  was  sold  for  XIUO.  Urilllaiila  of  !>  curat*  uro 
not  frequently  met  with  in  general  trade,  and  are  val- 
luible  in  price :  aa  tho  dealera  exact  more  if  tlle^  It  now 
that  sucii  stones  are  wanted  than  they  woul'i  in  the 
ragular  course  of  buslnesa.  The  pricea  may  > '  ^uiil  to 
vary  from  4:180  to  4:200. 

Urillinnts  of  6  caruts,  aa  before  stateil,  are  not  com- 
mon :  they  ore  suitable  for  centre  stones  of  ex|«>-n>i%  ■> 
necklaces  and  single  stone  rings.  If  perfect  ao'l  n.il 
shaped,  they  sell  for  f  2»fl  to  4:250,  or  more.  Vur  i-  ti- 
mating  the  value  of  peculiarly  tine  dianion  '  then  ia 
no  fixed  standard.  Hough  diamonds,  svIim  1  ,ix  line. 
and  well  formed  for  cutting,  may  lie  ostinmtnl  .i<i  fol- 
lows :  Square  the  weight  of  the  stone,  multiply  the 
pnxluct  by  2,  and  the  nsult  will  be  the  value  in  piiuiida 
sterling.  Brilliants,  if  tine,  may  bo  cutimutcd  by 
squaring  the  weight  in  carats,  and  multiplying  tho  pro- 
duct by  8,  which  will  give  the  amount  in  pounds  ster* 


DfA 


041 


THK 


\\ 


Haiti  Aa  •  vary  Wk"  pni|Mrty,  Ixith  In  flrnat  IlriUln 
■ill  In  olhn  oouBlrt«i<  .>/ KurMiM,  U  vmUiI  in  <lii<iniimU, 
it  limy  Iw  latuwtlDK  tu  liv  iiiturmnil,  Ihiit  imr  mili  ili« 
(irlia (if  llMi«  tf»>*  >>'»>  for  aovrnil  ymtm  liwii,  (itn'n  (ha 
wbolv,  iffiutuiJly  ri'\uit,  liut  thnt  It  l«  llkaly  tii  iixillniiu 
oti  llw  •dviinva.  At  Ilia  |'|(  .cni  liimi.  iiiiWiHl,  anil  l'»r 
til*  luiit  faw  yann,  than  hwi  ..>-ii  n  I  K  iwla  iif  di*- 
moiiiU  III  I'liijiniiil,  nor  illil  tbe  luriuiittuvri  ' 'i^luii  • 
(laiiikiiii  »  ill  iKilicn  I  liii(  I'll  Ilia  (.lootliusnt  Hi.'  truiln 
Imi)  Imh.'!!  xi.'vily,  Hiiil  r<>U)(li  iliitinomU  Iwvu  iwan  ciiii- 
■Uiitly  rJHliiK  III  prku.  I  Iml  tliU  ailvaiii'a  will  li«  |in>- 
graimlvu  iiiiiy  lia  mMiiiiieil  fnnu  th«  fj'  >.  that  tlia  Iwx 
(llaiiiiiiiil  Knmml  now  known,  the  S«rn.  ilii  Krlo  in  H'  i- 
■  11,  hM  Haanrolly  paaMll  tha  xanith  iif  ill  pr>«|HMi..v. 
I  want  iivar  tho  KNalar  |Mrt  of  what  la  yat  raHvivail, 
■ml  allll  ramaina  to  lia  wurki'il,  ami  I  conceiv.!  ilutt 
there  wiiiiM  Iw  nu  (IllllcuUy  In  lalvulntinK  tlii^  Iru^h 
of  tint*  In  whii'h  tha  |ireitant  numliaruf  wixl^inK  may 
railiira  It  to  n  atuta  of  exhaimtliin,  Ilka  that  nt'  tlin  fiir- 
fuinail  (■(ili'onila.  Tha  iivaniKu  iiimuni  |iri>ilu(u  of  tu- 
turn  yanra  niiiy  lie  aatiinatail  liy  tho  ainnunt  olitalniiil 
from  tliiit  |iortlon  which  haa  iMwn  alrvmly  workail, 
Uruiil  may  \m  aaiil  to  fumiah  Kur<i|M  with  '2(>,ihmi  or 
80,IKN)  carata  |H<r  annum  of  mUKh  illaiaomla,  whivh,  if 
TOiliicail  to  lirlllinnta,  may  make  an  iiillux  i  tu  tha 
raarkatofm)(M)orlH»M)caruta  annually.— MAWh  ■«  7Wa- 
lite  utt  JlidimmiU,  'ii\  ail.  |ip.  \)  H,  anil  p.  )iU, 

The  ruin  atiitail  liy  Mr.  Mawe,  anil  a(lo|lai\  the 
Jcwoliira,  for  iv<tlm»tlni;  ^he  value  of  dlumomlM  i  .uItU 
ply  tha  m|iiara  of  tha  weight  in  uarata  liy  2,  *n  the 
pniilii'!t  la  tliii  value  In  iKiumla  aturllnK),  i^aii  omiy  .  'lil 
in  the  i-aaa  of  tlioae  tliiit  are  of  l  ainull  aUa,  i'»  do  "t 
w«lt(h  mure  than  21)  carata,  Tliu  value  of  the  lar^'  -t 
diamunda,  which  are  exveedinKly  rare  (non  niti  rei/il  ■< 
II  iu  iiiltiiDiliim  fxnicit  coi/niliu,  I'llny),  van,  it  la  clan, 
do|MMid  u|Hin  nothing;  liut  the  competition  of  tha  pur 
vhuaera.  The  diamond  lielonKlnf{  to  the  amperur  of 
liraxil  la  the  largeat  In  the  world,  it  la  atiU  uncut, 
and  walKha  lOHO  carata  |  to  that,  accordlni(  to  thu  Jew- 
elera'  rule,  it  muat  lie  worth  the  enorinuua  aum  of 
i;5,<M'l,HU0 1  It  may,  however,  lie  doulitad  whether  hia 
Imperial  majeity  would  have  any  lilnlnclinutlon  tu  part 
with  it  fur  the  odd  aum  of  £M-i,HlM.  The  fanioua 
dliimond  IwlunKinK  to  the  em|ierur  of  ituaaia,  which 
the  Jewelers  tell  ua  ia  worth  X4,HU4,U00  did  not  cost 
i;iull,lNIO. 

Ulumonda  are  not  uied  excluaivaly  aa  artiulaa  of 
ornament  or  luxury.  They  are  frequently  anipluyod 
with  Krest  advantage  in  the  arta.  "  Had,  discolored 
dhiimmda,"  sayi  Mr.  Mawa,  "are  sold  to  break  into 
powder,  and  may  be  said  to  have  more  extensive  sale 
than  brilliants,  with  all  their  captivating  lieauty.  In 
many  uparations  of  art  they  are  indi!i|i«naable ;  tli« 
tinu  caniao  and  intaglio  owe  their  jierfuction  to  the 
diitmund,  with  which  alone  they  can  bo  engraved. 
Tho  lieauty  of  the  onyx  would  yat  remain  dormant, 
had  nut  tho  unrivaled  power  of  tha  diamond  been 
called  forth  to  tha  artist's  assistance.  The  cnrnolian,  tha 
•gttto,  or  wiirngurm,  can  nut  lie  engraved  by  any  other 
tubatiinru.  Kvory  crest  or  letter  cut  upon  hunl  stone 
is  indalitixl  tu  tho  diamond.  This  is  not  all ;  for  with- 
out it  blocks  of  crystal  could  nut  be  cut  into  slices  for 
epactacli's,  agate  for  anuiT-boxas,  etc."  The  carat  grain 
used  in  weighing  diamonds  ia  difTerent  from  the  troy 
grain,  5  diamond  grains  lieing  only  equal  to  4  truy 
grains.  See  tVethHintter  Hev.,  xxi.,  p.  iai ;  Host's 
Magazine,  xv.,  p.  COO  ;  Fhakrii,  xv.  ^liy  Carlisle)  j 
Baidrrt'  Afagaiine,  N.  Y.,  vol.  v.,  270,  a«9. 

Diaper.  (Oer.  />!•»//,•  I)u.  Dtvl:  Kr.  lAnge- 
ouii-i;  It.  Teht  leuula  a  open)  Sp.  Mantelet  aleman- 
itriui  Ku».  Sal/tti'tMfhme),  a  sort  of  line  lioworod 
linen,  lOKmonly  uxod  fur  table-cloths,  naplcina,  etc., 
brought  to  tho  highest  perfection  In  the  manufactories 
in  the  iiurth  uf  Ireland,  in  (iormany,  and  Scotland. 
It  siiniatinies  resembles  an  inferior  liind  of  damask, 
it  ia  said  to  have  lieen  originally  manufactured  at 
Ypres,  in  Flanders ;  wheoM  tbe  term  d'Vpras,  ooiw 
rupted  into  diaper. 


1 1  itlun,    is  the 

"^'"■unllng 

^>n^    i   dali- 

"  iirt-   >nd 

•  <■  ;lio  W  \\\m 

it  ->4r^    to 

rai,  or  of 

■  tlia  com- 

li,    "f  two 
1  til'       rmer 

I'  i-OH, 

1  diet    i«r>' 


Ml   gl 

.  iows 

.i'l  I, 


DIM  (C)w.  in^Wj  0U.  T,mrtimgm,  ft.  I)fi{k 
joiirr)  U.  /MuU:  Sp,  Oadnt  |(us.  Kotli),  eubiool 
pkicvH  "I  hfliHi  or  tvnry.  marked  with  dots  on  each  of 
(lii'ir  alilrn  fmin  l  ii>  O,  occunling  tu  the  nnnilMir  uf  the 
tmn  Thay  am  uiatl  In  vari'^ua  goniM  of  chance,  by 
being  thrown  fcwn  a  Ihix. 

Dlnlcar  (prit^lily  fnun  itnm,  In),  In  our  oUl  wrt- 
tars,  is  ised  tu  ilc nut*  the  ntHwber  or  ^u•ntlty  uf  tan, 
piirtlcularly  l<>tl  bidas  or  ski"',  nf  wriMch  twniity  inaiU 
a  laat  I  ami  is  suiiiatiiniw  I    i  thhiga,  oa  • 

dicker  uf  gloved  or  ten  (>«  >.  ">  of  Ircii  ur  ten 

laan,  nti'. 

DloUonanr,   In   Its    original 
amiiirfing  of  all  tlin  viotiU  of  a  Im 
tu  the  order  iil'  lliu  alpha^'at.  and 
nittiin  ur  axplanatiun  t"  •>»<  i>    wll^l, 

»'lanras  liegan  to  Iwi  iiupi    t i  ' 

tiplicity  of  technical  t'liM.  i. 
I'uinplle  dictlunariiiH,  oith'  ■  ul'  »< 
particular  acienri"<.  >  "  >  '  iig  tn 
pilcr.     Ilunca  diniuij  may 

aurts,  of  vurdt,  and  <  imlt  or  i 
Sanaa,  tha  term  dictinu  y  haing  nqi, 
in  the  lattur,  to  iHeyili'iKedin.  A  st 
'uf  the  Chinuso  languogn  cuul»>n>i>l(aUjut  tO,00)'  iiuw 
itv'lura,  iniiat  uf  thnin  liieriiglyphii  if  °<i>t'  'apfeynU- 
tiiuna,  aomewhut  like  uur  signs  of  the  '  wm  ptr^ 
factail  by  I'a-out-sha,  who  liveil  abn  n,  r,— 

Morruun.     ( 'yclupwdios  ware  cnnipllr  lifteentll 

and  sixttienth  centuries.     Tlie  lirst    '  >   ur    -» 

lubrity,  perhaps  tho  llrst.  Is  tty  Am  'piiii,  a 

Venetian  friar,  in  I,.atin  ;  h*  wrote  '  ii<  ight  liii,- 

guagaa,  about  A.  n,  1,100. — Nirenm,  i  Lejricon 
l/eiiliiglultoH  WHS  pulillahed   by    I'Muiuml  tidl,  In 

11)51),    I)ayle':<  liutlonar;' was  publUhod  In  'the 

tirst  work  of  the  kind  in  which  a  man  nin  mto 
think," — r«//iiir«.     Cham  i  irrs'  Cyclopaiiilii  iirst 

lictiunar}'  uf  tho  circle  of  the  arts,  scieiu'i  w«s 

iilillshod  in  172H,     The  |.  raat  dictionary  'i- 

^'ilsli  language,  by  8umuel  .iuhnson,  appenn  ..',, 

1  riiiiiia  liruse's  Dictionary  irf  the  Vulgar  Tun,  ' ,is 

I'   u|iili>d  in  17tiH ;  and  fruiii  this  periud  iiiimcr'  iiv 

ti'  Kirica  have  lioen  added  to  our  sture  uf  lili  ri>, 
N.   ill   Wobater's  great  American    Dictiunury  in 

ICii  IJHh  language,  in  two  i|uarto  volumes,  wiu  i 
pul'linhed  lit  New  Haven  in  1828,  It  was  rcpniii."' 
in  Lundun  In  1H,'I2,  Numerous  abridgments  ami  iiaw 
oditii  MH  of  the  whole  work  have  since  been  publlshi'il  in 
LumI'  1  and  New  York. — llai/dn. 

Die  (Kr.  lU),  in  coinage,  is  the  instrument  by 
which  the  impresaiuns  are  given  u|xin  tho  various  do- 
noniiii  I  uuns  of  coin.  The  ftdlowing  is  an  outline  of 
the  dii  •lumiij'acture :  Tho  engraver  selects  a  forged 
plug  01  ■  he  best  cast  steel  of  proper  dtmensiuns  for  hia 
intend)'  work  ;  and  having  carefully  annealed  it,  and 
turned  surfaces  smoutli  in  the  lathe,  proceeds  to 
engrave  pon  it  the  intended  device  fur  the  cuin. 
When  til  is  |icrfoct  the  letters  are  put  in,  and  the  cir- 
cularity u  ul  size  duly  ailjustod  ;  It  is  Hun  hardened,  and 
in  termed  ■•■  matrix.  Another  plug  of  .I'jft  steel  is  now 
selected ;  .•  ml  tho  matrix  being  carefully  adjusted  upon 
it,  they  ur>'  placed  under  a  very  powerful  lly-preis, 
and  two  or  three  blows  so  directed  as  to  commence  an 
impression  ^  r  the  matrix  upon  tho  plug ;  this  is  then 
annealed,  ai.  I  tho  operation  re|>eated  till  the  plug  re- 
ceives a  )ierf  ft  iuipression  of  the  work  U|ion  the  mat- 
rix. This  imiirrssion  Is  of  course  in  reliej",  tho  original 
work  upon  tl  <  matrix  being  indented,  and  produces 
what  is  teruii  I  the  punch.  This,  beiug  duly  shaped 
in  the  lathe,  is  hardened,  and  ia  employed  in  tho  pro- 
duction of  Imp^resslons  in  soft  steel  or  diet,  which, 
being  properly  turned  or  hardened,  are  exact  yVic- 
timilei  of  the  original  matrix,  and  are  used  iu  the  pro- 
cess of  coinage.  When  a  pair  of  dies  arc  mude  of  good 
steel,  duly  hardened  and  tempered,  and  are  carefully 
used,  they  will  aometimea  yield  from  twu  to  three 
huttdnd  thouiMid  impiesslona  ImTon  thay  twcome  m 


DIP 


JI4d 


Dl? 


far  i^orn  or  Injured  as  to  require  to  be  reuovs'l  from 
the  coining  presses. 

Dieppe,  a  commune  and  seaport  town  of  France, 
capital  arrondissement,  Department  Seine  Inferieure,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Arques  on  the  English  Channel,  and 
88  miles  north  of  Rouen,  and  by  railroad  1S5  miles 
from  Paris.  I-at.  of  light-house,  49°  65'  7"  north, 
long.  1°  6'  2"  east.  Population  17,000.  It  is  divided 
into  the  town  proper,  and  the  suburb  le  PoUet,  which 
communicate  by  a  flying  bridge,  both  Iwing  well  fur- 
nished with  water  from  an  aqueduct  supplying  nearly 
200  fountains.  Principal  ediflccs,  an  old  castle  on  a 
cliff  west  of  the  town,  2  churches,  the  town  hall,  com- 
mune college,  thei)tre,  public  library,  baths,  and  a 
school  of  navigation.  The  port,  inclosed  by  two  jet- 
ties, and  bordered  by  quays,  can  accommodate  from 
60  to  80  vessels  under  600  tons ;  but  it  dries  at  low 
water,  and  it  is  otherwise  inconvenient.  Dieppe  has 
an  active  general  trade,  ship-building  docks,  manufac- 
tories of  ivory  wares,  watches,  lace,  etc.,  and  it  is  a 
packet  station,  communicating  daily,  by  steamboats 
with  Brighton ;  the  trafSc  having  increased  considera- 
bly since  the  opening  of  the  Paris  and  Rouen  Railroad. 
It  is  also  resorted  to  by  summer  visitors ;  but  its  in- 
hal)itants  depend  chiefly  on  its  fisheries  of  herrings, 
mackerel,  and  oysters. 

Digit,  or  Monnde,  in  Arithmetic,  any  integer  under 
IC,  as,  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  by  means  of  which 
all  num1>ers  are  expressed.  Digit,  in  Astronomy,  the 
twelfth  part  of  the  dinmerer  of  the  sun  or  moon  ;  a 
term  used  to  express  the  quantit}'  of  an  eclipse.  Thus, 
an  erli{>8e  is  said  to  lie  of  svc  digits  wlicn  one  half  of 
the  disk  is  hid. 

Dike,  or  Dt/te,  in  its  primary  sense,  denotes  a  ditch 
or  drain.  The  word  seems  to  have  been  formed  from 
the  verb  to  dig;  though  others  derive  It  from  the 
Dutch  d'gt,  a  dam,  sea-bank,  or  wall.  It  is  generally 
used  to  signifj'  a  work  of  stone,  timber,  or  fascines, 
raised  to  oppose  the  entrance  or  passage  of  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  a  river,  lake  or  the  like.  Junius  and  Sig- 
nage conceive  the  Flemish  to  have  iHirrowcd  their 
word  from  the  Greek  Tctxoc,  jrall;  but  Guiohard  de- 
rives it  from  the  Hebrew  dag/iah. 

Dimity  (French,  lituin ;  Italian,  Dubhtln ;  Span- 
ish, Dimite),  a  species  of  cross-barred  stuff  entirely 
composed  of  cotton,  similar  in  fabric  to  fustian.  Dim- 
ity was  originalij'  imported  from  India.  Dr.  Johnson 
calls  it  dimmili/,  and  describ"s  it  as  a  kind  of  fustian. 
The  distinction  lietween  fustian  and  dimity  seems  to 
Iw,  th.it  the  former  designates  a  common  tweeled  cot- 
ton cluthuf  a  stout  fabric,  which  receives  no  ornament 
in  the  loom,  Iiut  is  most  frequently  dyed  after  l)eing 
woven.  Dimity  is  also  a  stout  cotton  cloth,  but  not 
usually  of  so  thick  a  texture  ;  and  Is  ornamented  in 
the  loom,  cither  with  raised  stripes  or  fancy  figures, 
Is  seldom  dyed,  but  usually  worn  white,  as  for  bed  ond 
Iwdroom  furniture.  The  striped  dimities  are  the  most 
common,  they  require  less  labor  in  weaving,  th;m  the 
otiiers  ;  and  the  mounting  of  the  linim  being  more  sim- 
ple, and  consequently  less  expensive,  thej"  can  be  sold 
at  much  lower  rates. 

Dime,  a  silver  coin  of  the  I'nited  States,  weighing, 
according  to  the  act  of  Congress  of  IK.IS,  ilS  lO-inO 
grains.  The  half-dime  weigliing  one  half,  or  19  20-100 
grains ;  Iwth  legal  tenders  to  the  amount  of  five  doW 
lars.      See  IUxkkrs'  Jfagnzinr,  .Yew  i'nrl;  185."! -IS.'iC. 

Dippiug-Needle,  a  magnetic  needle  that  dips  or 
inclines  to  the  earth  ;  an  instrument  for  ascertaining 
the  amount  of  the  magnetic  inclination  at  the  different 
IK)ints  of  the  earth's  surface.  This  fact  was  first  ol)- 
scrved  by  one  Robert  Norman,  an  Knglishman,  and  a 
maker  of  compasses  for  mariners,  at)out  the  j-ear  1.57fi, 
who,  finding  that  ho  wiw  always  oldiged  to  counter- 
Imlanco  ttiat  end  which  turns  to  the  north  liy  a  l)it  of 
wax  or  such  other  substance,  though  the  balance  had 
t)een  ever  so  exact  before,  pulillshed  an  account  of  his 
discover}-  oa  a  matter  of  importance.  The  subject  was 


instantly  attended  to ;  and  instruments  were  not  only 
contrived  for  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  the  dip,  but 
various  speculations  were  formed  concerning  the  cause 
of  so  surprising  n  phenomenon.  The  general  pheno- 
mena of  the  dipping-needle  are,  that  in  the  equatorial 
regions  it  remains  in  a  horizontal  position,  but  as  we 
recede  fh>m  the  equator  toward  either  pole,  it  dips  • 
the  north  end,  if  we  go  northward,  and  the  south  end, 
if  we  proceed  southward ;  and  the  further  north  or 
south  wo  go,  the  greater  is  the  inclination.  Its  incli- 
nation is  likewise  found  to  vary  very  considerably  at 
different  times  in  different  places  of  the  earth. — K.  B. 

In  the  most  improved  form  of  construction  of  the 
dipping-needle,  the  axis,  instead  of  being  a  cylinder, 
is  a  knife-edge,  resting  perpendicularly,  like  the  sup- 
ports of  a  pendulum,  on  two  agate  planes.  A  needle 
thus  supported,  however,  must  necessarily  make  small 
oscillations  ;  consequently  It  must  lie  so  adjusted  that 
when  it  points  in  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  force, 
the  knife  edges  may  he  perpendicular  to  the  agate 
planes.  The  mean  ralue  of  the  angle  of  the  dip  must 
therefore  be  known  previously  to  its  construction  ;  but 
it  is  the  best  adapted,  on  account  of  its  delicacy,  for 
ascertaining  the  minute  variations  of  the  dip  at  the 
same  place.  The  angle  of  the  dip,  like  that  of  the 
variation,  changes  its  value  when  at  the  same  place, 
following,  of  course,  the  motion  of  the  magnetic  poles, 
which,  from  the  observations  made  by  Scoresby, 
Parry,  Ross,  and  others,  in  high  latitudes,  appear  to 
have  a  motion  westward,  the  annual  amount  of  which 
is  about  11'  4".  In  the  summer  of  1831,  Commander 
R6ss,  in  an  excursion  from  the  vessel  in  which  his 
party  wert  5o  long  detained  in  the  polar  seas,  reached 
a  spot  on  the  continent  of  Korth  America,  which  had 
been  calculated  to  Ih)  the  positten  of  tl'.e  magnetic 
pole.  There  ho  found  the  dip  of  the  needle  to  be  89° 
59',  within  one  minute  of  the  vertical ;  ar.  1  compass- 
needles  suspended  in  the  most  delicate  manner  possildo 
exhibited  Tin  polarity  whatever.  The  latitude  of  this 
spec  is  70°  .5'  1/" "north,  and  its  longitnde  96°  46' 
4">"  west.  For  a  description  of  some  other  forms  of 
the  dipping-needle,  see  BREW-sTEn's  Treatise  on  Afag- 
net  ism. 

Diplomacy,  in  its  most  restricted  sense,  is  used 
to  express  the  art  of  conducting  negotiations  or  ar- 
ranging treaties  between  nations  liy  means  of  their 
foreign  ministers,  or  written  correspondence ;  l)nt  In 
its  most  extended  signification,  it  embraces  the  whole 
science  of  negotiation  with  foreign  states  as  founded 
on  pnlilic  law,  positive  engagements,  or  an  enlightened 
view  of  the  interests  of  each.  But,  upon  this  subject, 
we  can  not  do  lietter  than  embody  in  our  pages  some 
rem.irks  from  the  Introduction  of  Marten's  Afamiel 
Diplomat iijve,  in  which  a  distinct  view  Is  exhiliited  of 
tYio  lni|iortance  and  main  olijects  of  diplomacy.  Di- 
plomacy, says  that  able  statesman,  must  lie  placed  In 
the  foremost  rank  of  the  useful  sciences.  Tlic  fiito  of 
nations,  in  the  present  state  of  tlie  world,  depends 
greatly  on  tlieir  relations  with  others  ;  and  these  again 
arc  materially  influenced  and  determined  by  the  na- 
ture of  tlieir  foreign  policy,  that  is,  liy  tlie  success 
with  wliich  they  have  cultivated  and  applied  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  science.  Diplomacy  emliraces— 1.  The 
law  of  nations,  by  which  the  relations  of  one  state 
with  another  are  determined  both  In  peace  and  war. 
2.  The  political  principles  of  individual  states,  as  de- 
duced from  a  regani  to  their  peculiar  interests ;  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  way  in  wliich  tliese  interests  may 
lie  reconciled  with,  and  made  suliservient  to,  the  law 
of  nations.  S.  An  acquaintance  with  the  privileges 
and  duties  of  diplomat'^'  agents.  4.  Tlie  conduct  of 
negotiations,  or  the  course  to  lie  pursued  In  treating 
of  the  interests  of  different  states.  5.  The  moral  and 
physical  statistics  of  eacii  |M)wer.  6.  The  political 
and  milltarj-  history  of  the  states  having  diplomatic 
relations ;  and  the  projects,  tendency,  and  policy  of 
their  respective  governments.     7.  'The  variour,  gyi- 


DIP 


543 


DIS 


tarns  of  govtrnraent,  supremacy,  concession,  retention, 
eqailibrium,  centralization,  confederacy,  etc., that  may 
be  brought  into  operation.  8,  The  art  of  composing 
diplomatic  despatches.  To  this  multifarious  informa- 
tion the  diplomutist  should  unite  the  powers  of  cal- 
culation and  application  peculiar  to  stron);  minds — ^the 
"  tact  des  convenances,"  which  may  be  felt,  but  can 
not  be  expressed — circums|>ection,  address,  and  perfect 
Integrity.  The  combination  of  tlicse  various  qualities 
will  procure  for  the  diplomatist  such  a  character  for 
sagacity,  rectitude,  and  straightforwardness,  and  will, 
sooner  or  later,  obtain  for  him  an  ascendency  over  the 
minds  of  others,  and  give  great  weight  to  his  opinions. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  diplomacy  of  every 
nation  is  more  or  less  within  the  range  of  casualties  ; 
being  subject  to  the  versatility  inseparable  from  human 
affairs,  the  flcltleness  and  passions  of  man,  and  the 
uncertainty  of  eventt — an  unlooked-for  death,  a  change 
of  ministry,  treaciierous  designs,  undue  influence  from 
any  quarter,  a  false  calculation,  corruption — each  of 
these  causes  may  change  the  policy  or  course  of  a  gov- 
ernment ;  and  this  will  more  or  less  atfect  ever}' 
other  government,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  its 
influence.  In  addition  to  these  numerous  causes  of 
variation,  if  ambitious  projects  lie  entertained  by  any 
great  power,  diplomacy  becomes  still  morn  intricate 
and  difticult.  Every  state  desires  to  l)e  protected 
against  the  storm  which  its  rulers  imagine  tliey  can 
prognosticatA,  and  of  whose  burstin);  they  are  appre- 
hensive. Again,  we  must  remarl?,  that  the  schemes 
of  a  government,  how  admirably  soever  contrived, 
have  often  miscarried,  either  from  sulmrdinuto  persons 
or  those  intrusted  with  puttnig  them  in  execution 
having  misapplied  or  misunderstood  tho  instructions 
of  their  superiors. 

From  what  has  l)een  said,  it  will  be  easily  under- 
stood, that  in  diplomacy,  false  estimates  are  frequently 
formed  of  the  merits  of  original  plans  or  designs  from 
looking  at  their  results  only.  The  diplomatist  is,  of 
course,  exempted  from  all  responsibility  in  regard  to 
operations  mixed  up  with  the  events  of  war — he  is  an- 
swerable only  for  the  success  of  his  projects  under  the 
conditions  on  which  ho  proposed  them. 

A  diplomutist  of  moderate  capacity,  if  favored  i)y 
circumstances,  may  accomplish  mucli  more  than  the 
man  of  genius  who  has  to  contend  with  adverse  for- 
tune ;  l)ut  this  difference  of  success  makes  no  change 
in  their  relative  ability,  and  those  acquainted  witli  tlic 
circumstances  readily  discriminate  between  sagacity 
and  accident. 

Diplomacy  has  been  practiced  in  substance  ever 
since  mankind  have  lieen  formed  into  independent 
states,  though  it  Is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  precise  pe- 
riod at  wliich  the  term  came  into  use.  'i'lie  system, 
however,  of  tho  regular  and  uninterrupted  residence 
of  foreign  ministers  during  peace  at  tho  F.uropean 
courts,  us  at  present  practiced,  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated with  the  Cardinal  de  Hicliciiou.  Ileforo  that 
time  embassies  Iind  l>cen  only  sent  on  special  occa- 
sions, luit  attended  with  much  greater  sliow  and  reti- 
nue tlian  has  l>een  tiie  fashion  in  modem  times ;  while 
tho  substantial  Inisiness  of  states  at  tlie  neighboring 
courts  was  transacted  liy  agents  of  a  lower  stamp  and 
character.  Diplomatic  agents  are  now  ranked,  in  Eu- 
rope, in  tlie  following  order,  according  to  tlie  regula- 
tions of  tho  Congress  of  Vienna  : — 1.  .\mhassador8  ; 
2.  Envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  plenipoten- 
tiary; 8.  Ministers  resident ;  •!.  ('liargcs  des  aftalrcs; 
5.  Secretaries  of  legation  and  attaches ;  the  latter, 
however,  have  no  precise  diplomatic  character,  and 
are  imly  considered  by  courtesy  as  attached  to  the 
legation. 

Among  the  I)cst  works  on  this  important  subject  are 
tho  Tniiti  com/ilH  de  Uliilomatie,  »u  Theorie  generate 
del  Relatiotit  exterieures  de>  PuUsnncet  de  I'Kumpr,  par 
M.  LB  CoMTE  DE  GARDEN  (I'arls,  1833),  3  vols.  Hvo. ; 
and  De  Wicquefort'i  Ambatactdeur  et  cet  Fonctium  (lid. 


Opt.)  1746,  12  vols.,  4to.  See  also  the  ifanutl  Diplo- 
matique, by  Von  Marten  (Paris,  1825)  j  Fi.assan's 
Iliit.  Gen  et  Saitonn,  de  la  Diplom.  Franfaise,  7  vols. 
(Paris,  1811),  and  Von  Marten's  (senior)  Grundritt 
einer  Diplom.  Getchichieder  Europ.  Staatthaiulel,  etc., 
(Hamburg,  8vo.)  Bbanue's  Enc.  See  N.A.Jtev., 
xxxix.  802  (by  E.  Everett)  j  xxiv.,  p.  82  (by  T. 
Pitkin)  ;  U.  IS.  Lit.  Gaz.,  v.,  p.  1  (by  C.  Cdshino)  j 
Fhaseb's  Magazine,  xli.,  p.  605;  Foreign  Quarterly, 
xUi.,  p.  1. 

Discharge  of  Seamen.  Whenever  a  ship  or 
liessel  belonging  to  a  citizen  of  tho  United  States  is 
sold  in  a  foreign  country-,  and  her  company  discharged, 
or  when  a  seaman  or  mariner,  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  is  with  liis  own  consent  discliarged  in  a  foreign 
country,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  master  or  commander  to 
produce  to  the  consular  officer  tho  certifled  list  of  h  s 
ship's  company,  and  pay  to  such  consular  officer  for 
every  seaman  or  mariner  so  discharged,  being  desig- 
nated on  such  list  as  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
three  months'  pay,  over  and  above  the  wages  whicli 
may  then  be  due  to  such  mariner  or  seaman,  two  thirds 
thereof  to  be  paid  by  such  consular  officer  to  each  sea- 
man or  mariner  so  discharged,  upon  liis  engagement 
on  board  of  any  vessel  to  return  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  other  remaining  third  to  be  retained  for  tiie 
purpose  of  creating  a  fund  for  tho  payment  of  the 
passages  of  seamen  or  mariners,  citizens  of  tlio  United 
States,  wlio  may  lie  desirous  of  returning  to  the  United 
States,  and  for  tho  niaiutenunce  of  American  seamen 
who  may  be  destitute,  and  may  l)e  in  sucli  foreign 
port.  The  several  sums  retained  for  tlie  seamen's  fund 
are  to  be  accounted  for  to  the  Treasury  Department  l)y 
tho  consular  officers  receiving  the  same. — Statutes  at 
Large,  U.  S.  See  Hunt's  Mag.,  xi.,  p.  Ml ;  Ihid.,  p. 
230;  Kent's  Commentaries ;  Parsons'  Meriuntile  I.ain. 

According  to  tlio  laws  of  the  United  States,  consular 
officers  are  not  to  discliarge  a  seaman  for  sliglit  or 
venial  oft'enses,  and  certainly  not  for  a  single  off'cnse 
unless  of  a  very  aggrav  ated  character.  If  tlie  charge  be 
negligence,  drunkenness,  disol>edience,  or  dishonesty, 
the  question  should  lie,  wliether  the  misconduct  was  of 
such  a  degree  as  to  show  a  habitual  inattention  to  or  un- 
fltness  for  duty,  having  always  in  view  the  particular 
station  of  the  piirty  and  the  nature  of  his  duty.  If  tlio 
iillegation  be  tliat  the  seaman  is  a  dangerous  person, 
i'rom  a  spirit  of  insubordination,  or  hostility  to  tiio 
master,  it  has  been  held  that  the  master  must  sIiow 
tliat  the  danger  is  such  as  would  affect  the  mind  of  a 
man  of  ordinary  firmness.  Hut  even  In  cases  of  ag- 
gravated off'enses,  or  of  a  continued  course  of  conduct 
wliich  would  justify  tho  discharge  of  a  seaman,  if  he 
repents  and  offers  amends,  tlie  principle  whicli  is 
always  operating  in  his  favor  against  all  kinds  of  for- 
feiture, witli  very  rare  exceptions,  intervenes  to  restore 
him  to  liis  rights,  and  lie  is  ordinarily  entitled  to  lie  re- 
ceived again  on  lioard.  To  deprive  a  mariner  of  ttio 
lienellt  of  this  rule,  it  should  appear  that  the  miscon- 
duct amounts  to  a  radical  disqtialitication,  ns  dislion- 
esty  and  haliituai  drunkenness  in  a  steward ;  or  that 
tile  party  is  really  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety 
of  tlie  ship.  Tiicse  principles  receive  additional  force 
from  tho  general  policy  of  tlie  laws  of  tlie  United 
States,  whicli  discountenances  tho  discharge  of  seamen 
in  foreign  ports.  Tlie  various  enactments  in  respect 
to  destitute  seamen  sufficiently  show  tho  paternal  so- 
licitude of  the  government  for  tho  preservation  and 
protection  of  tho  seamen  of  the  country. — .Manual /or 
tjotwils.     See  Desertion  dy  Seamen. 

"  Tiie  right  of  tlie  seaman  to  lie  lirought  back  to  his 
own  homo,  is  very  jealously  guarded  by  our  laws. 
The  master  slioulil  alw^ays  present  his  sliipping  arti- 
cles to  the  consul,  or  commercial  agent  of  tlie  IJnited 
States,  ot  every  foreign  jiort  which  lie  visits,  but  does 
not  seem  to  be  required  by  law  to  do  this,  unless  tho 
consul  desires  it.  Ho  must,  however,  present  tliem  to 
the  first  boarding  officer  on  his  arrival  at  a  humo  port. 


DIS 


844 


And  if  apon  an  arriral  at  a  home  port  flmm  a  foreign 
voyage,  it  svpean  that  any  of  the  seamen  are  missing, 
the  master  must  account  for  their  absencu.  If  he  di>- 
charges  a  seaman  abroad  without  his  consent,  he^ust 
pay  to  the  American  consul  three  months'  wages,  of 
which  the  consul  gives  two  to  the  seaman,  and  remits 
one  to  the  Treosuiy  of  the  United  States  to  form  a 
fund  for  bringing  home  seamen  from  abroad.  This 
obligation  does  not  apply  when  the  voyage  is  necessa- 
rily brolien  up  by  a  wrecic,  or  similar  misfurtune.  But 
proper  measures  must  be  taken  to  repair  the  ship,  if 
possible,  or  to  obtain  the  restoration,  if  captured.  An^ 
the  seaman  may  hold  on  for  a  reasonable  time  for  this 
purpose,  and  if  discharged  before,  may  claim  the  extra 
wages.  Our  consuls  and  commercial  agents  may  au- 
thorize the  dicharge  of  a  seaiuiiii  abroad  tor  gross  mis- 
conduct, and  he  then  has  no  claim  fur  the  extra  wages. 
They  may  also  send  our  seamen  home  in  American 
ships,  which  are  bound  to  bring  them  for  a  compensa- 
tion not  exceeding  ten  dollars  each,  and  the  seamen  so 
sent  must  work  and  obey  as  if  originally  shipped. 
Besides  this,  if  a  master  discharges  a  seaman  in  a  for- 
eign port,  he  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  600  dollars,  or  six 
months'  imprisonment.  And  a  seaman  may  recover 
full  indemnity  or  compensation  for  his  loss  of  time,  or 
expenses  incurred  by  reason  of  such  dischai^." — 
Paksoss'  Mercantile  Law,  p.  898. 

Diaconnt,  a  sum  of  money  deducted  iWim  a  debt 
in  consideration  of  its  being  paid  before  the  usual  or 
stipulated  time.  The  circumstance  on  which  its  fair- 
ness is  founded  is,  that  the  creditor,  by  receiving  his 
money  before  it  comes  due,  has  the  interest  of  the 
monv\v  during  the  interval.  Consequently  he  should 
only  receive  so  much  as,  put  out  to  interest  during  the 
period  in  question,  will  realize  the  amount  of  his  debt 
at  the  time  when  it  would  have  liecome  due.  For  in- 
stance, jEIOO  is  to  be  paid  at  the  end  of  3  years ; 
what  should  be  paid  now,  interest  being  4  per 
cent.  ?  Here  it  is  evident,  that  if  we  divide  the  whole 
debt  into  112  (or  100-)-8X4)  parts,  100  of  these  parts 
will  make  the  other  12  in  three  years  (at  simple  in- 
terest), whence  the  payment  now  due  is  the  112th  part 
of  i.'lb,00O,  or  £»9  6s.  9d.  The  rule  is,  n  l>eing  the 
number  of  years  (a  fraction,  or  number  and  fraction),  r 
the  rate  per  cent,  and  D  the  sum  due, 

Present  valuer 


Discounts 


lOO-f-nr' 
Dne 


"lOO-(-tir' 

In  practice,  it  is  usual  not  to  tind  the  real  discount, 
but  to  allow  interest  on  the  whole  debt  in  the  slm|)e  of 
abatement.  Thus  it  would  be  considered  that,  in  the 
preceding  example,  three  years'  discount  upon  41100, 
at  4  |>cr  cent.,  is  jC12,  or  £68  would  be  considered  as 
the  present  value. 

In  tramiactions  which  usually  proceed  on  compound 
interest,  as  in  valuing  leases,  annuities,  etc.,  the  prin- 
ciple of  discount  is  strictly  preserved.  The  present 
value  in  the  preceding  case  is,  in  its  most  usual  form, 

V  V 

,—. — ■-,  and  the  discount  D— r-,-  — ; 
(1 +/))-'  (l+p)"' 

where  p  is  the  rate  per  pound  (not  per  cent. :  thus  it  is 
•0-1  for  4  per  cent.).  Hut  recourse  is  usually  hod  to 
the  tables  of  present  values  which  accompany  all  works 
on  annuities  or  compound  interest. 

The  name  of  discount  is  also  applied  to  certain  trade 
allowances  upon  the  nominal  prices  of  good^.  In  some 
branches  of  trade  tlu-^se  allowances  vary  according  to 
the  circumstances  which  affect  the  markets  j  and  wliat 
is  called  discount  is  in  fact  occasioned  by  fluctuations 
in  prices  which  it  is  thought  convenient  to  maintain 
nominally  at  unvarj-ing  rates.  This  system  is  prac- 
ticed in  some  branches  of  wholesale  haberdasher}' 
business,  and  we  have  now  before  us  a  list  of  prices 
furnished  to  his  customers  by  a  manufacturer  of  tools 
M  Sheffield,  In  which  tb«  nominal  price  of  each  articls 


is  continued  the  same  at  which  it  has  stood  for  many 
years,  while  to  every  different  species  of  tool  there  ia 
applied  a  different  and  a  fluctuating  rate  of  discount, 
this  fluctuation  constituting  in  fact  a  difference  of  price 
l)etween  one  period  and  another.  The  rates  of  dia- 
count  in  this  list  \iay  from  6  to  40  per  cent,  upon  the 
nominal  prices  of  the  different  articles. 

The  term  discount  is  also  employed  to  signify  other 
mercantile  allowances,  such  for  example  as  the  abate- 
ment of  12  per  cent,  made  U|)on  the  balances  which 
imderwriters,  or  insurers  of  sea  risks,  receive  at  the 
end  of  the  year  from  the  brokers  b;'  whom  the  insur- 
ances have  Iwen  efiected.  The  word  discount  is  fur- 
ther used,  in  contradistinction  to  premium,  to  denote 
the  diminution  in  value  of  securities  which  are  sold 
according  to  a  fixed  nominal  value,  or  according  to  the 
price  they  may  have  originally  cost.  If,  for  example, 
a  share  in  a  canal  company,  upon  which  JEIOO  has  been 
paid,  is  sold  in  the  market  for  i;i)8,  the  value  of  the 
share  is  stated  to  be  at  2  per  cent,  discount. — BuiiN. 

Diaoriminatiitg  Dutiea.  The  discriminating 
duty  of  10  per  cent,,  under  the  11th  section  of  the  U. 
S.  tariff  hiw  of  1842,  is  an  additional  duty  of  10  per 
cent,  on  the  rate  of  legal  duties  chargeable  on  the  im- 
ports, and  not  a  duty  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  value  of 
the  goods ;  as,  for  example,  an  import  chargeable  with 
a  regular  duty  of  20  per  cent.,  and  also  with  the  dis- 
criminating duty  of  10  per  cent.,  under  the  llth  sec- 
tion of  tariff  act  pf  1842,  would  become  chargeable  with 
a  duty  of  22  |ier  cent.,  and  not  30  per  cent. 

It  has  Iwen  decided  that  a  discriminating  duty  ex- 
acted on  a  Spanish  vessel  clearing  from  a  port  of  the 
United  States  for  Cuba  or  X'orto  Kico,  under  the  2d 
section  of  the  act  of  30th  June,  1834,  "  concerning  ton- 
nage duty  on  Spanish  vessels,"  can  not  he  refunded, 
although  tlie  vessel  may  never  arrive  at  her  destination, 
being  wrecked  on  the  voyage. — Manual  fur  Consuls. 

Dispensary,  a  place  where  mediciues  are  made  up 
and  distributed ;  but  used  more  generally  for  a  char- 
itable institution,  where  the  poor  are  supplied  witli 
medicines  and  advice.  Institutions  of  this  nature  are 
of  comparatively  recent  origin ;  thougli  they  are  now 
to  lie  met  with  in  every  town  of  any  importance,  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  To  every  dispensary 
there  ore  always  attached  one  or  more  physicians,  sur- 
geons, and  apotliecaries,  whose  duty  it  is  respective!}' 
to  prescribe  and  dispense  medicines  to  the  poor,  and  to 
visit  them  in  their  own  houses  in  the  event  of  tlicir 
being  too  ill  to  attend  personally  at  the  institution. 
In  most  cases  dispensaries  are  supported  by  voluntary 
contributions. 

Distafli  the  staff  U>  which  hemp,  flax,  wool,  or 
otlier  substances  to  be  spun,  is  fastened.  The  art  of 
spinning  witli  it  at  the  sniull  wheel,  first  taught  to 
English  women  by  Anthony  Uonaviita,  un  Italian,  20 
Hen.  V'll.,  1605, — Stowk.  The  distaff  is  used  an  au 
emblem  of  the  female  sex. — Howell.  Tlie  di.^taff 
formerly  occupied  the  place  in  the  drawing-room  or 
boudoir  of  the  English  ladies  that  the  harp  or  piano 
does  now. 

District  of  Columbia  occupies  a  space  of  UO 
square  miles,  and  is  situated  on  the  left  l>ank  of  the 
Potomac  Kiver,  121)  miles  from  its  entrance  into  Chcsa- 
lieake  Bay,  and  at  the  head  of  navigation.  The  terri- 
tory was  formerly  10  miles  square,  and  was  ceded  l)y 
the  States  of  JIaiylund  and  Virginia  for  tlio  purposu 
of  l>ecoming  tlio  seat  of  govommont  of  the  United 
States.  The  |M)rtion  west  of  the  Potomac  was  retro- 
ceded  to  Virginia  in  1840.  I'he  District,  whiah  is 
under  tlie  inmicdiute  jurisdiction  of  Congress,  contains 
the  cities  of  Washington  aud  Georgetown,  and  is  en- 
tirely comprehended  in  the  county  of  Washington. 
Population  in  1800, 14,008 ;  1810,  24,023 ;  1820,  33,030 ; 
1830,  89,834;  1840,  43,712;  and  in  1850,  51,(i87 : 
whites,  88,027  ;  free  colored,  »,g'3;  and  3,C87  slaves. 
In  1850,  there  were  16,267  acres  of  land  improved, 
and  11,187  of  unimproved  land,  in  farms.    Cash  valU5 


I  Sept ! 


Sept; 


OisUUa 


qnont  conde 
^^friafrxitort), 
"f  'ho  art  of 
alchemists ; 
•■•'mote  ages 
ilerived  from 
till.ition,  thou 
riliarmuceutici 
extcnsivo  seal 
'he  distilleries. 
I'KK.MExr.VTlr 
tails  bearing  i 
"f  spirituous  |i 
"e  shall  limit 
processes  whici 
*»  »wo  distinc 


Dig 


"^"^rr,  •40,820.  '"w  •"mplement.  tnd  i  m„4,  , 

toes.  2S  t/<io       '  *'*'  P~»  and  bean.    7Viu       ^'    '"«'»  <>'  bMi»l»  of  wm!k        ""^  ""'  herring,  tho». 


I^Mri  •adbf. 


i>otneitle, 

1.081,476 
T79,803 
<l96,8Sg 
74»,1C» 
«0,8«1 

70S,6S1 

»i4,a!JB 

T46,S91 


"-•'-"'.m   I.ct.„ncaA„xA«.u 


149,848 
11,9S5 
2I,T93 
28,053 
»,*)8 
8,840 


'•"'•^■Jl^ l,2»r,M7 

1888...         I        jg,_3^ 

806,91)2 
614,671 


isas. 

1834... 

1885.. 
I  1.S88.., 

1887.... 
183S.... 
18:19.... 
1840.... 

Total. 
Sept  30,  1841 
L  1843.'."." 

June  80,  l»i4    ' 

1846:.':;" 

1848.... 
1847... 

1848..." 

IV)0 '' 

ToUl... 

[Juno  30,  l%i 

1S52,'.""" 
1W8 

'8fl4...""" 
18,15..  '■■ 
18.18. ..■■■■ 


467,766 
866,760 
•«97,965 
761,429 


TM,8S5 
498,820 
284,763 
560.298 
6('9,42» 
913,701 
124,269 
88,666 
111.607 
80,8*,8 


72,560 
79,005 
75,466 
87,992 
86,143 
_  20,001 


13,463 
8,408 
21,450 
13,498 
8,063 
8,182 
1,448 
6,.<!63 
6,7.53 

2,494 

179,100 

4,496 
2,8,56 

185 
9,254 

7«6 
1,213 


Tou). 

"  W»8,46r 
1.048,480 
801,295 
722,406 
768,807 
,634,281 
1.182,143 
707,448 
928,097 
768,978 
•C4l»;»86" 

1,220,»7B 
1,IH474 
1.002,816 

820,894 

617,689 

826,874 

469,209 

873,113 

603,717 

788,923 


200_ 

»1S,93^ 


769,881 
601,676 
284,949 
669,653 
610,164 
914,914 
121,209 
83,666 
111,607 
80,6S8 

»8MviT" 

72.560 
79,005 
7.5,4,56 
87,993 
86,148 
J!0,001 


|8»8,934 
470,618 
275^083 
«79,«58 
•77,297 
269,630 
827,623 
181,666 
305,921 
__J68,660 
»3,966;82r 

198,555 
188,047 
150,046 
196,264 
111,196 
111,419 
102,225 
122,748 
182,611 
_    119,852 

77,268 
29,056 
95,443 
66,623 
70,.529 
79,770 
25,049 
26,988 
85,668 

69,819 

*6(i4,l(J2^ 

80,813 
6t,142 
71,494 
48,108 


Aaarleu 

"TSIOM 
16,025 
12,686 
12,16T 
13.84S 
11.664 
17,849 
1-8,269 
18,466 
18,803 
~i8^706~ 

19,862 
14,749 
12,963 
10,793 
9,296 
4,650 
8,894 
4,464 
6,693 
12,815 


Toning,  C[„^_ 


11.472 
7,055 
6,242 
9.801 
10,772 
15,.390 
2,123 
1.6,52 
3,.'f20 
J,520 
60,747 

1,859 
2,014 
1,681 

841 

912 

840 


2,817 

878 
3,089 
2,140 
3,269 
1,138 

513 


8,361 
4,197 
8,001 
8.!)a8 
2,6.29 
8,503 
298 


6,073 


8,748 


8,438 


7,»1« 


3,903 


20,001 


nmiote  n,;e8  to  th„  4     ■•  ''""'"'ess   known   in  m„„         "eoesMrily  blendcj  darinr./    "''^^ '*'"' *'»^h  it 
ext<,„.,iv„  scale  Sb  ,  V '   '  ':""'"'  ""  "?»»  the  mo"  t    rZ;     T'^.'^  *°  '™™ediate  Se„  ',      '*"''  ^""'"''^ 


DPT 


546 


DIV 


oadflT  constaiit  agitation  in  a  proper  qaantitj  of  hot 
water  in  the  moM-Um ;  tlie  wort  is  tlien  run  off,  and 
flreali  water  added,  till  tlia  aolnble  nutariaU  of  the 
grain  are  extracted.  In  this  way  the  mixed  worts  or 
muk  is  obtained,  which  is  afterward  to  l>e  subjectod  to 
fermentation.  When  the  waxh  is  adjnited  as  to  dens- 
ity, it  is  run  into  the  fermenting-rats,  where,  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  yeast,  it  is  subjected  to  the 
process  of  fennentation,  which  continues  from  6  to  10 
or  18  days — the  time  required  for  its  completion  vary- 
ing. The  proo/  ipirit  of  commerce,  and  that  of  the 
Pharmaeopoiia,  is  generally  stated  to  be  of  the  spectflc 
gravity  of  0-920  at  62°  and  is  considered  as  a  mixture 
of  t^al  weighi*  nfabioluit  alcohol  at  the  tptcific  gravily 
of  0'791  at  60°  and  of  water.  The  rectified  epirit  of 
commerce,  or  rather  that  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  is  di- 
rected to  lie  of  the  specific  gravity  of  0-888  at  60°,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of  about  82  parts  of  al>- 
solnte  alcohol  and  18  of  water. — Bbands's  Cfclo.  See 
also  Encg.  Brit.,  8th  edition. 

Divan  (Arabic  dimm),  among  the  Arabs,  Persians, 
and  Turlc9,  is  a  word  that  bears  very  various  significa- 
tions. It  primarily  denoted  a  lioolc  of  accounts,  a  mus- 
ter-roll of  troops,  etc. ;  and  hence  came  to  be  applied  to 
a  collection  of  \ync  poems  (called  gatellet)  arranged  in 

•  kind  of  alphabetical  order.  Thus  we  have  the  Di- 
van ofSadi,  the  Ditean  ofllafiz,  etc. ;  a  practice  which 
has  been  imitated  by  (iocthe  in  his  WettStllicher  Diwan, 

•  collection  of  pocmx  in  the  Oriental  style.  The  wonl 
among  the  Orientals  denotes  also  a  coimcil-chamber,  a 
tribunal  of  justice,  and  in  like  manner  is  applied  to  the 
general  council  nf  state.  Under  the  khaliffs  of  Bag- 
dad, the  diwan  wan  a  court  of  justice  over  which  the 
khaliff  presided  in  person.  At  Constantinople  in  the 
present  day  the  term  is  used  to  denote  the  great  coun- 
cil of  the  empire.  It  is  also  a  common  application 
among  the  Turks  for  a  saloon  or  chamber  of  reception, 
or  in  which  business  is  transacted,  or  used  as  a  place 
of  occasional  repose.  The  divan  more  properly  is  a 
kind  of  stage,  raised  about  a  foot  above  the  floor  of  the 
saloon,  covered  with  rich  tapestrj',  and  furnished  with 
a  number  of  embroidered  cushions  leaning  against  the 
wall ;  and  on  this  the  master  of  the  house  is  seated 
when  ho  receives  visitors.  Hence  the  word  is  frequently 
applied  by  other  nations  to  a  kind  of  public  coflfee-rooni, 
furnished  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar. — K.  II. 

Diwl  Divi,  the  commercial  name  of  the  pod  of  the 
Cirtalpinia  coriaria,  a  leguminous  plant,  found  in  low 
marshy  situations  on  the  north  coast  of  South  America, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  West  Inillos.  It  is  used  Imth 
for  dyeing  and  tanning,  but  chiefly  for  the  latter  pur- 
pose. The  pod  is  from  2  to  3  inches  in  length  by  } 
inch  in  breadth,  and  when  in  perfection  is  of  a  rich 
brown  color.  It  contains  a  few  small  seeds ;  but  the 
only  valuable  portion  is  a  resinous  matter,  of  a  briglit 
yellow  color,  easily  pulverized,  which  lies  l)etwixt  the 
outer  skin  and  the  husk  tliut  incloses  the  see.l,  and 
contains  a  large  quantity  of  tannin.  Almut  O-IDths  of 
the  imports  into  Enjriiind  come  to  Liverpool,  wlicre  the 
following  quantities  were  received  during  the  last  four 
years,  viz. :  In  1840,  3IJ60  tons ;  1H50, 2700  tons ;  1851, 
2280  t<,ns ;  1852,  iO'M  tons.  It  might  lie  supposed 
from  this  statement  that  the  article  was  going  out  of 
favor  i  iMit  such  is  not  the  case.  When,  however,  the 
price  in  England  is  under  £10  per  ton,  the  imports  de- 
crease ;  and  it  has  latterly  been  Iralow  this  limit.  Re- 
cently, however,  its  price  has  risen  considerably ;  and 
with  this  rise  the  imports  may  be  expected  to  increase. 
Maracaibo,  Rio  de  la  Huche,  and  Savanilla  are  almost 
the  only  places  whence  this  article  is  imiurted.  That 
brought  from  &Iaracaibo  is  the  Imst,  that  from  Sava- 
nilla the  most  Inferior.  During  the  last  4  years  prices 
have  ranged  lietween  XV  Vit.  and  £14  per  ton  for  Rio 
Uaohe  and  Maracaibo,  and  £7  and  ;eiO  15s.  for  .Sava- 
nilla, the  highest  quotations  lieing  now  current  (Septem- 
ber, 18,M).  I)ivi  Divi  is  used  by  dyers,  not  for  the 
esloring  principle  which  it  contains,  but  for  its  strong 


astringent  qnalltie*  M  a  mordant.  For  thb  pnrpon  it 
is  at  present  used,  to  some  extent,  Instead  of  sumach, 
which  Is  scarce  and  dear ;  and  hence  the  recent  high 
price  of  the  article.  In  tanning,  it  accelerates  the 
process,  and  imparts  to  the  leather  a  clean  and  healthy 
apearance. 

Dividend,  In  commerce,  is  a  word  which  has  two 
very  distinct  meanings.  In  its  more  general  employ- 
ment it  Is  understood  to  express  the  money  which  Is 
divided,  pro  rata,  among  the  creditors  of  n  bankrupt's  es- 
tate, out  of  the  amount  realized  from  his  assets.  The 
other  meaning  attached  to  the  word  dividend  signifies 
the  periodical  division  of  profits  among  shareholders  of 
insurance,  railroad,  bank,  and  other  corporations. 

Diving-bell,  First  mentioned,  though  obscurely, 
l>y  Aristotle,  825  n,  c.  The  diving-bell  was  first  used 
in  Europe  a,  u,  1609.  It  is  said  to  have  been  used  on 
the  coast  of  Mull,  In  searching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  liefore  A,  n.  1669.  Ilalloy  greatly 
improved  this  machine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the  first 
who,  hy  means  of  a  diving-bell,  set  his  foot  on  dry 
ground  at  the  Iwttom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton  applied  tho 
condensing-pump  to  force  down  air.  Mr.  Spalding 
and  his  assistants  going  down  in  a  diving-bell  in  Ire- 
land were  drowned,  June  1,  1783.  The  Roi/al  (leorge 
man-of-war,  which  was  sunk  ofl'  Portsmouth  in  1782, 
was  first  surveyed,  by  means  of  a  diving-bell,  in  May, 
1817.  Lately,  and  particularly  in  1840,  it  has  been 
employed  in  sub-marine  surveys.  The  first  diving- 
bflle  was  the  wife  of  Captain  Morris,  nt  Ph'mouth,  who 
descended  in  one  a  few  j-cars  ago. — Haydn,  it  is  an 
apparatus  by  means  of  which  persons  are  let  down  and 
enabled  to  remain  under  water,  and  execute  various 
operations ;  such  as  leveling  or  clearing  the  bottom 
of  harbors,  preparing  a  foundatlin  for  buildings,  bring- 
ing up  sunken  materials,  etc.  The  principle  of  the 
diving-bell  depends  on  the  impenetrability  of  atmo- 
spheric air,  and  may  bo  illustrated  by  a  very  familiar 
experiment.  Bring  the  edge  of  an  inverted  tumliler, 
or  any  close  vessel,  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and, 
keeping  the  mouth  horizontal,  press  it  down  in  the 
water.  It  will  be  seen  that,  though  some  portions  of 
water  ascend  into  the  tumbler,  tho  greater  part  of  the 
space  remains  empty,  or  only  filled  with  air ;  and  any 
object  placed  in  this  space,  though  surrounded  on  all 
sides  with  water,  would  remain  perfectly  dry.  In  fact, 
the  quantity  of  air  remains  the  same,  but  is  compressed 
into  a  smaller  volume,  in  proportion  to  the  depth  to 
which  it  is  made  to  descend.  Now,  if  we  conceive  a 
vessel  of  wood  or  iron,  sufliciently  capacious  to  hold 
several  men,  to  \te  suspended  by  a  chain,  and  lowered, 
by  means  of  weights  attached  to  it,  to  any  moderate 
depth  under  water,  it  is  evident  that  they  mu}-  remain 
there  for  a  considerable  time,  and  perform  any  opera- 
tion that  could  lie  executed  on  land  in  tho  same  con- 
fined space.  The  machine,  however,  as  thiLs  di'srrilicd, 
is  liable  to  two  great  defects,  which  must  be  .)bviatoil 
by  other  contrivances  before  any  great  advantages  can 
l>e  derived  from  it.  In  the  first  place,  as  the  air  by  its 
coniprcssiliility  allows  the  water  to  enter  tho  lower 
part  of  the  bell,  the  dry  space  is  not  only  diminished, 
but  the  Iwttom  on  which  the  bell  rests,  and  where  the 
operations  are  to  be  carried  on,  is  also  covereil  with 
water  to  a  proportional  depth.  In  the  second  place, 
the  air  within  the  bell,  by  the  repeated  respirntiim, 
s'lon  lieconies  mephitic,  anil  unfit  to  support  life ;  so  that 
it  is  necessan'  to  elevate  the  apparatus  after  short  in- 
tervals to  admit  a  fresh  supply. 

It  is  not  known  at  what  period  the  diving-bell  was 
invented,  Beckman,  in  his  "  History  of  Inventions," 
mentions  that  at  Toledo,  In  the  16th  century,  two  (irecks, 
In  the  presence  of  tho  emperor  ("harles  V,  and  several 
thousand  spectators,  let  themselves  down  under  water 
in  a  large  inverted  kettle,  with  a  burning  light,  and 
rose  again  without  Iwing  wet.  Oeorge  Sinclair,  tlie 
author  of"  .Satan's  Invisible  World  Displayed,"  in  his 
work  entitled  "  Ars  Nov.i  et  Magna  Gravitatis  et  Le- 


■l}jc^^H 


DIV 


A4r 


fiJI 


to  hiiW 

uv  rciiii>ii> 
any  operii- 
Biime  cim- 
(Icsi-rilie'li 
,e  ,)l)viiitod 
nta^os  can 
air  l>y  its 
tho  lower 
aimlniMieil, 
wlicro  tlio 
ivercil  with 
cond  place, 
rpspirati'ini 
life ;  SI)  that 
er  slinrt  in- 

Ing-lipU  was 
Inventionn, 
,  two  ('.  rocks 
,  anil  several 
under  water 
IK  Unlit,  ttn'l 
Sinclair,  the 
lyed,"  in  W' 
■Itatis  et  Le- 


ay 


^tatii,"  mentions  some  attempts  that  were  made  about 
tho  year  1665  to  raise,  by  means  of  a  diving-ball,  tba 
treasuro  from  the  ships  of  the  Invincible  ArmaiU  tliat 
went  to  the  bottom  near  the  Isle  of  Mull,  in  the  He- 
brides, and  describes  the  kbid  of  bell  that  was  em> 
ployed.  But  on  account  of  the  defects  to  wbtcb  ws 
have  alluded,  the  diving-bell  continued  to  ba  of  very 
little  use  till  the  time  of  Dr.  Halley,  who  contrived  a 
means  of  introducing  fresh  air  into  the  Ml  while  un- 
der water,  and  of  allowing  the  mephitic  or  brsatiied 
air  to  escape.  The  bell  he  made  use  of  he  descrilos 
as  havuig  been  of  wood,  containing  about  00  oublo 
foot  in  its  cavity,  and  of  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone, 
whose  diameter  at  the  top  was  8  feet,  and  at  the  bot- 
tom 6.  This  was  coated  with  lead,  so  heavy  that  it 
could  sink  empty,  and  tho  weight  so  distributed  about 
its  bottom  that  it  could  only  deucend  in  a  perpendicular 
direction.  In  the  top  a  clear  glass  was  fixed,  to  let  in 
the  light  from  above,  and  a  cock  to  lot  out  the  air  that 
had  been  breathed.  To  supply  the  air  to  the  liell,  \m 
caused  a  couple  of  barrels,  of  about  30  gallons  each,  to 
be  cased  with  lead,  so  as  to  sink  empty,  each  of  them 
having  a  bung-hole  in  its  lower  part,  to  let  in  the  water 
as  tlio  air  in  tliem  condensed  on  their  descent,  and  tu 
lot  it  out  again  when  they  were  drawn  up  full  from  be- 
low. To  a  hole  in  the  uppermost  part  of  the  barrels  a 
trunk  or  hose  was  fixed,  long  enough  to  full  l)elow  tlia 
bung-hole,  and  ikept  down  by  a  weight,  so  tliat  no  sir 
could  escape  by  the  hose  till  its  end  was  raised  up, 
The  liarrels  thus  prepared  were  let  down  by  tlie  side  of 
tho  bell.  A  man  stationed  on  a  stage  suspended  from 
the  bell  was  ready  to  take  up  the  hose ;  and  as  soon 
as  their  ends  were  brought  to  the  surface  nf  tlie  water 
in  the  barrels,  all  the  air  that  was  included  in  tlie  u|h 
^cr  parts  of  them,  was  blown  with  great  vinlouce  into 
tlie  bell,  while  the  water  entered  at  the  Imng-bules  lie- 
low  and  filled  the  barrels.  By  means  of  this  contriv- 
ance the  air  was  not  only  kept  fre'th,  but  another  great 
advantage  was  gained,  namely,  that  by  admitting  a 
Buflicicnt  quantity  of  it  the  wliole  of  the  water  was  ex^ 
pellcd  from  the  inside  of  the  bell,  and  the  l>ottum  of 
the  sea  laid  dry. 

By  means  of  this  contrivance  for  the  admission  of 
fresh  air,  it  was  now  possilde  to  rem»<n  for  any  length 
of  time  under  water ;  but  the  use  of  the  apparatus  was 
still  found  to  bo  attended  with  some  inconveniences, 
and  even  considerable  danger.  Tlie  divers  witliin  the 
bcl!  iia>  ing  no  power  over  it,  its  rising  or  sinking  dfir 
pends  entirely  upon  the  people  at  the  surface  of  tlie 
water ;  and  as  the  bell,  even  when  in  the  water,  has 
considerable  weiglit,  there  is  always  a  possiliillty  uf 
the  chain  l>y  which  it  is  raised  breaking,  which  would 
inevitably  bo  attended  with  the  destruction'  of  tlie 
:lir<>rA.  Another  danger,  still  more  to  lie  apprehended, 
is,  tliat  if  the  mouth  of  the  lioll,  in  its  descent,  sbould 
cuine  upon  a  sunken  sliip,  ur  a  rock  projecting  aliruptly 
from  tlio  bottom,  it  inlglit  be  overset  liefnro  any  signal 
could  be  given  to  those  almve.  These  defects  were  ob- 
viated by  tho  very  ingenious  contrivances  of  Mr. 
Spalding  of  Edinburg.  In  order  tu  avoid  tlio  risk 
of  being  upset  when  the  bell  descends  on  a  rocky  or 
uneven  bottom,  ho  suspended  a  considerable  weight, 
which  he  culled  a  balance-weight,  below  the  liell,  liy  u 
rope  passing  over  a  pulley  lixed  iu  the  inside  ;  and  tliu 
other  weights  attached  tu  the  bell  being  so  ailjustuil 
tliiit  tliey  could  nut  sink  it  without  the  balance-weight, 
as  siion  as  tlie  latter  rested  on  the  ground  th«  liell  re- 
nininod  suspended  in  the  water.  In  case  of  the  nioutli 
of  the  bell  being  caught  by  any  obstacle,  the  balance- 
weight  is  immediately  lowered,  till  it  rests  on  tlie  liot- 
tiiiii ;  and  as  tho  bell,  when  thus  relieved,  is  buoyant, 
tlic  divers,  having  disengaged  it  from  the  rock,  have  it 
in  tlieir  power  cither  to  descend,  by  pulling  in  tlie  rope, 
or,  by  allowing  it  to  run,  to  ascend  to  the  surface, 
Anutiier  contrivance  of  Mr.  .Spalding  deserves  mention. 
lie  divided  the  bell  into  two  com|iartnients,  tlie  one 
above  the  other,  and  communicating  by  means  of  a 


slrni^MKli,  The  dlvvfit  »te  stationed  in  the  lower  one, 
0)14  till)  w»\nMit  MM  Ml  ndjustod  that  when  the  cavity 
abovti  is  fmM,  Ml«  bell  Is  buoyant  i  when  it  is  filled 
wit!)  WAtur,  titt*  Iwtl  sinks.  Immediately  above  the 
partition  writ  MHM  »\\tt  iu  the  sides  of  the  bell ;  and  at 
tba  top  i«  HH  Ill1rii<«,  wlllcll  nan  be  opened  or  shut  at 
illeitilUFli,  MuUtHtsili  how,  this  orifice  being  open,  the 
ball  in  riiquifHO  dl  \m  lowered  ;  as  it  descends,  the  wa- 
ter »ntet<l  At  till*  sllln,  Nltd  the  air  escapes  by  the  ori- 
lica,  Wlliin  (till  »V\i»UiU»  In  entirely  under  water,  and 
ths  finvUy  mimi{imit\y  rnmpletely  filled,  let  the  url- 
rtua  ba  *||))l(.  TIm  bell  will  now  continue  to  descend  ; 
but  If  tlw  «tii{Mi(li<li  mmtliunlcating  with  the  upper  com- 
pHFtmiint  Iw  iipilH«lt,  ill«  air  will  rush  from  the  under 
to  tlia  Hfi)»r,  HH(t  (1ii>|)lH<'«  a  quantity  of  the  water,  and 
the  flpiwrHtHH  will  bit  lightened  by  the  whole  of  the 
water  so  dtii|ilHi<i>ili  Tint  divers  have  It  thus  in  their 
power  to  rii^lllHtit  tll«  de^icmt  or  riso  as  they  please. 
By  »4lMitHll)i  It  iifMiilH  i(((a(itlty  of  air  Into  the  upper 
v^vHy,  th'  'IfeiMtllt  i/ftlie  bell  Is  arrested ;  by  admitting 
a  jfrmtff  iiiliintit,V,  it  bi<i'timea  buoyant,  and  rises  to 
tlis  top.  Thill  Hl«tllii(l  lit  constructing  the  diving-bell 
hiM  iiot,  howiiviir,  twitti  ailopted. 

The  «rit«tl<!it  llMltroV^ment  on  the  diving-bell,  since 
that  of  Ifulhty,  *(1S  IHMili'  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Smea- 
ton,  aM  foiliiiatii  ill  (ntdnii  down  n  continued  stream  of 
air,  liy  lllfdHil  of  »n  Hlr^plimp,  through  o  flexilde  tutie ; 
nu4  this  plnH  !•«  how  always  adopted.  In  the  year 
17I8D,  XiiiiiAtolt  I'Oltiitrilcted  a  diving-bell,  to  be  used  in 
tl)«  nperHtlonil  thflt  l<im(«mplated  at  liamsgate  harbor, 
on  a  mw  »»il  Improvi'd  plltn,  Instead  of  a  bell-shaped 
vessel  sunk  by  Wltiyhts,  his  apparatus  consisted  of  a 
squors  vhiiiit  of  f  Itiit-Trim,  4^  feet  long,  4^  feet  high,  and 
II  feet  wldP)  nffofillHjj  surtlelent  room  for  2  men  under 
It,  It  WAH  l'll<>t  lif  filll'll  n  thickness  that  its  own  weight 
was  suntiliinf  to  uhlk  It  t  ntid  its  thickness  was  greater 
near  the  iniiuth  or  tower  part,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
easily  overneti  Thin  (<otlsttuctlon  of  the  diving-bell 
gave  tlie  Mieil  within  jt  ho  power  of  raising  or  sinking 
it  I  but  M  the  Hti|'l*l'l*t)l^  ^Ks  made  to  be  used  at  a  place 
where  the  tiAtllfe  of  the  bottom  whs  known,  this  disad- 
vantage Willi  Mi't  I'lOlnidered  of  great  consequence ;  and, 
in  fact,  it  In  dmnii  by  e.<t|»<l'li<lice  that  it  ia  better  to  leave 
tlie  liell  til  lie  entirely  (guided  from  above.  On  account 
of  tlie  fdiility  with  which  water  conveys  sound,  the 
str»l(es  of  A  hmnnier  on  the  Inside  of  the  bell  can  be 
heard  et  u  (jreet  distance  i  and  the  sound  coming 
tlifiiugh  the  wnter  lots  h  peculiar  character,  which  can 
not  lie  niistillieni  \W  prevlotts  arrangement,  any  direc- 
tbins  eiin  lie  (jlven  in  this  manner.  For  instance,  1 
blow  niej'  dPIlote  more  nir  j  2,  stand  f  ist ;  3,  heave  up ; 
i,  lower  down,  end  so  oH;  With  these  successive  im- 
provoilltintn,  the  dlvhljj-liell  is  found  to  be  a  most 
iUipiirtiint  nmi'hlne  in  nil  the  great  operations  to  lie 
purfiirilied  under  WHter,  It  Was  used  with  great  lul- 
vantllgB  by  Mr,  llennie  in  the  cnnstruction  of  the  va- 
rious liitrliorn  he  lirojeited )  and  it  has  recently  been 
BiiuuoiiBfHily  enifdoyed  in  denpetilng  the  Clyde  between 
Ijlasgiiw  end  ((reenmh,  end  improving  the  navigation 
of  tlie  river,  Wee  the  ilrtkle  l»lViso-nEi.i,,  in  the  now 
editimi  (if  the  Klii'l/ilminliil  liritnimlm.  Sec  Am.  Jour 
Hiunie,  *sll,,  ((,  (13ft (  Jl/iltlcirund,  xvll.,  330;  I.IT 
TKM.'b  .\lll4rlim,  vl.,  |i,  tiXtu 

Djitl^A,  It  town  of  Afillibi,  on  the  Bed  Sea,  aliout 
21  nillun  from  Mei'i'lli  of  which  It  Is  the  seaport,  in  lat. 
n°  W  N„  hmu,  rt«s  14'  v.,  It  is  well  built.  Tho 
streets  iifs  nojieved,  luit  s)m«hi«snnd  airy;  the  houses 
liigll,  itni|  ciiniitrHi'tedj  fot  the  most  part,  of  madrepores 
audiitliur  niiirine  fninlls;  The  supply  of  water  is  scanty, 
and  its  ((imlilV  indilfttrent,  Nmall  vessels  npprouch 
ilniia  bi  thx  IJIIIIJK  (  but  IrtfgP  vessels  are  olili;;ed  to 
aiii'liiir  in  tile  meds,  About  2  tulles  (ifT,  limdin;;  and  un- 
loaiilng  by  me/ins  of  litjhlets.  The  entrance  tu  the 
rwuis  Is  dlftieillti  end  should  nut  be  attempted  witliimt 
a  piliit,  MJIddii  Is  e  (ddie  of  iimslderable  coniimMcial 
iinporteioe,  it  Is  the  ce/ir/iA  In  which  is  centered  the 
greatur  pitrt  of  the  I'onmierce  between  India,  I's^ypt, 


DOC 


S48 


DOC 


ud  AnbU.  Many  of  it*  merchanti  poaMu  Urge  cap- 
ital* :  some  of  them  aa  mnch  u  fVom  £150,000  to 
^£200,000.  The  trade  In  colTae  brought  from  Mocha 
and  other  porta  in  Yemen,  ia  the  moat  conalderable,  but 
It  ia  said  alao  to  l>*  the  most  hazardoua.  The  retuma 
are  principally  made  in  cash.  The  trade  with  India 
and  the  Gulf  of  Persia  ia  aafer  than  the  coffee  trade, 
and  ia  very  considerable.  DJidda  has  also  a  good  deal 
of  intercourse  with  the  ports  of  Cosseir,  Soual(in,  and 
Massouah,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
Imports  from  the  lost  two  principally  consist  of  slaves, 
gold,  tobacco,  dhourra  or  barley,  hides,  batter  (of 
which  immense  quantities  are  made  nse  of  in  Arabia), 
mats,  etc.)  in  return  for  which  the  Africiun  receive 
Indian  goods  suitalde  for  thair  marlcets,  dressea  and 
ornament*  for  their  women,  datea  (whicli  are  not  pro- 
duced in  any  part  of  Nubia),  iron,  etc.  The  principal 
article  of  import  from  Cosseir  is  wheat ;  and  not  only 
DJidda,  but  the  whole  Hedjaz,  or  Holy  Land  of  Arabia, 
la  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  Egypt  for  com. 
Coffee  is  the  principal  article  sent  in  return.  Business 
la  transacted  at  Djidda  with  ease  and  expedition.  The 
number  of  ships  belonging  to  the  port  is  estimated  at 
250,  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  timber,  none  of  them 
are  built  at  Djidda — those  Iwlonging  to  it  1>eing  either 
purchased  at  Boml)ay  or  Muscat,  or  at  Mocha,  ITo- 
deida,  or  Suez.  For  a  considerable  period  each  year, 
before  and  after  the  feast  of  Ramadliun,  when  ))ilgrim8 
come  ftvm  all  quarters  to  visit  Mecca,  the  town  is 
thronged  with  strangers,  and  a  great  deal  of  mercantile 
business  is  transacted.  Djiddu  is  at  present,  and  has 
been  for  a  number  of  years,  under  the  government  of 
the  Pacha  of  Egypt.  The  montyt,  weights,  and  meat- 
unit  of  the  latter  country  (for  which  see  Alkxandria) 
are  now  generally  used  in  Djidda,  the  commerce  of 
which  has  been  much  improved  and  extended  in  con- 
sequence of  the  comparative  security  and  gowl  order 
enforced  by  the  pacha. — Bdrckuarut,  Tmvih  in 
Arabia,  vol.  i.,  pp.  1-100. 

Dock,  an  inclosed  place  for  the  reception  of  ships, 
either  for  their  security  or  for  the  convenience  of  Imiid- 
ing  or  giving  them  repairs.  This  word  has  lieen  de- 
rived by  some,  al)8urd1y  enough,  from  tlie  Grecit 
dexoftai,  to  receive.  That  we  had  it,  along  with  al- 
most the  whole  of  our  sea  terms,  from  the  northern 
continental  nations,  is  sufHciently  obvious.  Thus,  in 
Flemish,  it  is  ilol- ;  Teutonic,  dock ;  Swedish,  docla ; 
Suio-Gothic,  docia ;  perhaps  originally  from  detken,  to 
cover,  protect,  secure,  inclose.  The  dock  for  inclosing 
the  prisoner  in  a  court  of  justice  is  evidently  from  tlie 
same  origin. 

Docks  for  the  reception  of  ships  are  of  two  kinds, 
tret  and  diy.  A  ml-ilvrk  may  either  have  gates  to  re- 
tain the  water  in  it,  so  that  sliips  shall  constantly 
remain  afloat,  or  be  left  open  for  tlie  tide  to  flow  into 
and  ebb  out  of  it  at  pleasure,  either  leaving  it  dry  at 
low  water,  or  with  a  certain  depth  of  water  remaining 
in  it,  according  to  its  construction  and  situation  with 
regard  to  the  low-water  mark,  and  to  the  ebbing  of  tlie 
sea  at  spring  or  neap  tides.  A  wet-dock  without  gates 
is  generally  distinguished  by  the  name  of  a  basin,  wliich, 
however,  is  sometimes  indiscriminately  applied  to  n 
wet-dock,  whetlier  with  or  without  gates.  A  dry-dach 
either  becomes  dry  by  the  cl)l>ing  of  the  tide  when  the 
gates  arc  left  open,  or  by  shutting  the  gates  at  low 
water,  and  pumping  out  whatever  water  may  remain 
in  it  at  that  time,  liy  tlie  power  of  men,  hones,  wind, 
or  l)y  tlie  steam-engine. 

Wel-docks. — A  wet-dock  may  be  defined  to  be  "a 
liasin  of  water,  in  which  ships  may  be  kept  afloat  at 
all  times  of  the  tide ;"  a  dry-duck,  a  "  receptacle  in 
which  every  part  of  a  ship  can  l)e  examined,  and  its 
defects  repaired."  Ships  may  also  be  convenienti}' 
built  in  dry-do<:ks,  and  floated  out  liy  opening  the 


uneformt ;  and  a  slip,  una  calte.  The  digging  out  the 
earth,  and  building  the  aurronndlng  walla  of  masonry 
to  prevent  the  sides  falling  in,  and  the  preparation  of 
the  mortar  and  puzzolana,  in  the  construction  of  a 
wet-dock,  are  attended  with  great  labor  and  expense. 
The  two  wet-docks  or  basins  of  Cherbourg  (see  Biirak- 
watkr),  which  are  among  the  finest  specimens  that 
exist  in  the  world,  are  estimated  to  have  cost  .C3,000,- 
000  sterling.  The  labor  of  excavation  may  sometimes 
be  spnred,  and  a  series  of  wet-docka  or  basins  conve- 
niently made,  by  turning  the  course  of  a  tide-river 
through  an  isthmus,  and  placing  a  pair  of  gates  at  each 
end  of  the  old  channel.  In  this  way,  were  the  new 
docks  of  Bristol  constructed  out  of  the  bed  of  the 
Avon.  Wet-docks  are  an  Improvement  In  navigation 
and  commerce  of  the  utmost  importance,  but  of  very 
modem  date  In  this  country ;  indeed,  they  owe  their 
introduction  entirely  to  a  spirit  of  individual  enterprise 
in  commercial  speculation.  Liverpool  might  still  have 
remained  a  poor  fishing-village  hut  for  ita  convenient 
docks,  whicli  not  only  produce  to  the  town  and  corpo- 
ration a  large  revenue,  bnt  insure  to  the  merchant 
every  possilde  facility  in  refitting,  loading,  and  dis- 
charging his  ships,  whatever  their  liurden  or  their 
cargo  may  be,  without  being  exposed  to  the  risk  of 
losing  both  ship  and  cargo  in  a  rapid  tide-river ;  and 
at  all  events,  to  an  unavoidable  delay,  occasioned  by 
distance,  the  weather,  or  the  state  of  the  tides. 

London,  though  unquestionably  the  first  city  in  the 
world  for  its  opulence.  Its  commerce,  and  public  spirit, 
and  possessing  within  Itself  the  powerful  internal 
means  of  supporting  docks,  and  all  otlier  conveniences 
that  trade  and  shipping  may  require  on  the  most  ex- 
tensive plans  ;  Ixindon  was  the  lost  to  try  the  experi- 
ment of  dorks,  except  in  the  case  of  two  spirited 
individuals,  Mr.  Perr)-,  at  Blackwall,  and  Mr.  Wells, 
at  Greenland  Dock,  both  private  ship-builders.  Not- 
withstanding the  total  inadequacy  of  legal  quays, 
which  subjected  the  merchants  to  incalcalable  losses 
and  delays,  and  in  many  cases  proved  otisolutely  ruin- 
ous ;  notwithstanding  the  effect  of  the  heavy,  expens- 
ive, and  fatal  cml)arrassments  experienced  regularly 
on  the  arrival  of  the  West  India  fleets,  and  the  annual 
losses,  by  plunder  in  tlie  river,  on  West  India  produce, 
which  alone  were  calculated  to  amount  to  i:i50,fl00  to 
the  proprietor,  and  X.'>0,flOO  to  the  revenue,  and  more 
than  the  double  of  those  sums,  including  other  branches 
of  commerce  ;  It  was  not  till  the  rear  1799  that  preju- 
dices and  private  Interests  were  so  fur  removed  as  to 
enable  the  merchants  concerned  in  the  "'est  India 
trade  to  obtain  an  act  of  Parliament  to  carrj-  into  ex- 
ecution a  plan  of  docks,  quays,  and  warehouses,  fiir 
the  convenience  of  that  trade  on  the  Isle  of  Dofis. 
Since  that  time  the  London  Docks,  St.  Katharine 
Docks,  and  various  others,  have  been  completed*,'  ito 
the  incalculable  lienefit  of  the  shipping  interest  and 
the  commerce  of  the  metropolis. 

The  docks  of  Liverpool  were  the  first  of  the  kind 
tliat  were  constructed  in  this  kingdom,  Iiy  virtue  of 
an  act  of  Parliament,  passed  In  1708  ;  and  from  that 
period  the  town  of  Liverpool  has  rapidly  raised  itself 
from  a  poor  tlsliing-vlllagc,  and  a  port  for  coasting- 
vessels,  to  be  the  second  commercial  town  and  port  In 
the  empire  ;  and  the  improvements  carried  out  for  the 
enlargement  and  licfter  arrangement  of  the  docks. 
rendered  It,  for  convenience  and  appearance,  In  this 
respect  the  verc  first,  not  even  London  excepted. 

It  apjieurs  from  a  statement,  apparently  authentic, 
that  In  the  ten  years  ending  with  1808  the  number  of 
ships  which  entered  these  docks  was  •18,497,  tonnage 
4,9M,204  ;  and  the  dock  duties  received,  £32«,f)fifi  ; 
and  that  In  the  following  ten  years,  ending  in  1818,  the 
number  of  ships  was  00,200,  the  tonnage  6,.')7.'),,'i(j(), 
and  the  amount  of  duties,  X6n6,<tB8 ;  while  for  a  sin- 


gates  ;  though  In  all  dockyards  there  are  places  set !  gle  year,  ending  June,  IS.*)!),  no  less  than  20,490  ves- 
apart  for  this  purpose,  under  the  name  of  slips.  A  I  sels  entered  the  docks,  the  tonnage  of  which  was 
wet-dock  Is  call  I'd  liy  the  French  uniosin;  a  dr^'-dock,  18,889,981,  and  the  amount  of  duties,  £266,702— tlie 


DOC 


549 


DOC 


Urgest  amount  y«t  receivod — the  foUowing  being  the 
return  for  the  last  ten  years : 


the  kinil 
virtue  of 
from  thut 
ised  itpplf 
constinR- 
,nil  port  in 
out  for  flip 
the  (locks, 
ire,  in  this 
pteil. 
authentic, 
number  of 
)7,  tonnage 
£329,r)B6  ; 
inl81»,  the 
6,375,51)0, 
e  for  ft  iiin- 
20,490  ve»- 
which  was 
!B6,702— the 


Y<»r. 

NiinlMr  of 

Tonaaf*. 

Aaoaalot 
datl«a  rcMtvMl. 

1848 

18,411 
20,621 
19,961 

20,889 
20,811 
10,788 
20,457 
21,071 
21,478 
20,490 

2,448,278 
2,682,712 
8,016,681 
8,096,444 
8,851,539 
8,284,968 
8,689,146 
8,586,887 
8,787,686 
8,912,506 
8,889,981 

£188,286 
18M64 
228,247 
218,428 
144,435 
197,617 
124,224 
111,748 
285,527 
246,686 
256,702 

1844 

1840 

1846 

1847 

,1848 

1K48 

1860 

1861 

1862 

1868 

It  may  also  be  observed,  tliat  this  extraordinary  in- 
crease has  taken  place  since  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade,  which,  it  was  formerly  asserted,  would  be  the 
ruin  of  Liverpool. 

The  }Vest  India  Doclu,  on  the  River  Thames,  were 
commenced  in  February,  1800,  and  opened  in  August, 
1802.  They  consist  of  an  outward  and  a  homeward- 
bound  dock,  and  communicate  by  means  of  lucks  with 
a  basin  of  Ave  or  six  acres  on  the  end  next  to  Black- 
wall,  and  with  another  of  more  than  two  acres  at  the 
end  next  to  Llinehouse,  both  of  which  basins  commu- 
nicate with  the  Thames.  The  outward-bound  duck  is 
about  870  yards  in  length,  by  135  in  width,  containing 
consequently  an  area  of  more  than  24  acres  ;  the  home- 
ward-bound dock  is  of  the  same  length,  and  166  yards 
in  width,  its  area  being  little  short  of  30  acres ;  and 
the  two  together  will  contain  with  ease  at  least  500 
vessels  of  from  260  to  500  tons.  The  whole  are  sur- 
rounded with  a  high  wall,  and,  as  a  security  against 
lire,  the  moment  that  a  ship  enters  tiie  dock  the  crews 
are  discharged,  and  no  person  whatever  is  allowed  to 
remain  on  board,  or  within  the  premises,  the  gates  of 
which  are  closed  at  a  certain  hour.  They  are  sur- 
rounded l>y  immense  warehouses,  which  are  estimated 
to  contain  nearly  10,000  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  an 
immense  quantity  of  rum.  The  sum  authorized  by 
Parliament  to  l>e  raised  for  completing  these  doclu 
and  warehouses  was  i:i,200,000,  and  the  total  expense 
was  probably  not  far  sliort  of  i:],500,00<>;  yet  on  this 
captital  the  subscribers  have  been  receiving  from  a 
very  short  period  after  their  opening,  10  per  cent., 
which,  by  the  terms  of  the  act,  is  not  to  be  exceeded, 
and  the  term  granted  is  limited  to  21  years ;  but,  like 
most  other  property,  these  docks  have  been  greatly  de- 
preciated in  value,  and  at  present  barely  pay  8  per  cent. 

The  next  set  of  docks  that  were  undertaken  for  the 
advantage  of  the  trade  of  the  capital  were  the  London 
Dochi.  These  docks  are  situated  in  Wapping,  and 
are  appropriated  for  the  reception  of  all  ships  arriving 
in  the  port  of  London  with  wine,  spirits,  tolMkcco,  and 
rice  on  board,  but  not  exclusively,  ships  having  on 
lioard  other  cargoes  being  admitted  on  the  payment  of 
certain  fees.  The  oct  of  Parliament  for  incorporating 
the  Dock  Company  was  passed  in  1800,  authorizing 
them  to  raise  a  capital  of  ^£1,200,000 ;  but  such  was 
the  number  of  houses  to  be  purchased  (we  believe  not 
less  than  1200)  occupyinft  the  site  of  the  dock,  that 
this  capita),  by  suluequenc  acts,  was  extended  to  £'i,- 
200,000,  the  dividends  on  which  are  limited,  as  in  the 
West  India  Docks,  to  10  per  cent.  The  great  dock  is 
420  yards  in  length,  and  2:tO  yards  in  width,  covering 
an  area  of  20  acres.  A  liasin  of  3  acres  nearly,  con- 
nects it  with  the  river.  The  wareliouses  are  very  niag- 
nilicent ;  and  the  tobacco  wareliuuse  is  the  grandest 
and  most  spacious  building  of  iu  kind  in  tlie  world, 
being  capable  of  containing  25,000  hogsheads  of  to- 
bacco, and  the  vaults  underneath  as  many  pipes  of 
wine.  This  single  building,  under  one  roof,  is  seid  to 
occupy  upward  of  4  acres  of  ground.  These  docks 
were  opened  in  February,  1805. 

The  Eait  India  Dock*,  for  the  exclusive  reception 
and  iiccommodation  of  tlie  Fast  India  ships,  were  the 
lust  in  succession.  The  act  for  the  incoriwration  of 
the  company  wag  pasted  in  July,  1803,  authorizing 


them  to  raise  a  capital  of  £200,000,  which  was  after 
ward  increased  to  £600,000,  the  dividend,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  two  others,  to  be  limited  to  10  per  cant, 
lliese  docks  are  situated  at  Blackwall.  That  for  the 
reception  of  homeward-bound  ships  is  470  yards  fn 
length  by  187  in  width,  containing  a  surface  of  rather 
more  than  18  acres ;  the  outward-bound  dock  is  260  by 
173  yards,  and  is  consequently  something  more  than  9 
acres.  An  entrance-basin  of  8  acres  nearl}',  and  ■ 
spacious  lock,  connect  them  with  the  Thames. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  London  Docks,  the  St. 
Katharine's  Docks,  and  the  Victoria  Docks,  in  course 
of  construction ;  of  these,  detailed  accounts  will  be 
found  under  the  article,  London. 

In  other  portions  of  England  and  Scotland,  there 
have  been  costly  docks  constructed  of  late  years,  viz. : 
Hull  has  6  docks,  occupying,  with  their  basins,  a  wa- 
ter area  of  40}  acres.  A  timber-pond  of  0  acres  was 
constructed  in  1853.  The  tonnage  of  shipping  in  1852 
was  799,800  sailing-vessels,  and  305,021  steam-vessels ; 
the  amount  of  dock  dues,  £483,755.  Southampton, 
the  station  for  the  West  India  mail  and  Lisl>on  and 
Alexandria  steamers,  is  now  constructing  extensive 
docks  and  quays  to  accommodate  their  great  and  in- 
creasing traflSc.  Grimli/  Harbor  has  lately  been 
greatly  improved.  Wet  and  dry  docks  have  been  con- 
structed, on  the  most  approved  principles,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  £250,000,  and  a  canal  cut  into  the  Humber 
culculated  to  admit  vessels  of  1,000  tons'  burden. 
Hartlepool  has  also  lieen  of  late  years  greatly  enlarg- 
ing its  harlmr  and  dock  accommodation.  Sunderland 
has  new  docks  of  18  acres'  extent,  which  were  opened 
in  1850,  and  whicli  can  accommodate  300  sail.  Dun- 
dee has  lotely  immensely  improved  her  harbor  and 
docks ;  liesides  two  smaller  docks,  the  wet-dock  now 
constructing  will  occupy  14J  acres,  the  lock  of  which 
will  be  00  feet  broad.  A  berdeen  has  a  wet-dock,  where 
the  largest  vessels  may  float  in  safety  ;  it  covers  nearly 
40  acres,  with  quoy  room  of  about  9,000  feet.  Leith, 
the  port  of  Edinl>urg,  has  3  wet-docks,  containing 
al)Out  15  acres  of  water  room.  Detailed  accountt  of 
these  docks  will  be  given  under  the  names  of  the  respective 
ports. 

The  naval  dry-docks  of  the  United  States  are  among 
the  most  stupendous  mechanical  enterprises  of  the 
country ;  they  are  constructed  at  the  navy-yards  of 
New  York,  Charlestown,  Norfolk,  etc.  By  far  the 
most  extensive  and  magnificent  of  these  structures  is 
the  granite  drj'-dock  at  Brooklyn  ;  80,000  tons  of 
stone  have  been  used  in  its  construction  ;  the  masonry 
foundations  are  400  feet  in  length,  and  120  in  breadth. 
The  main  chamber  is  286  feet  long,  and  30  feet  broad 
on  the  bottom  ;  307  feet  long,  ami  98  feet  broad  at  the 
top  within  the  folding-gates  ;  the  height  of  the  wall  is 
36  feet.  The  work  was  commenced  in  1841,  and  took 
10  years  to  complete  it;  the  aggregate  expenditure 
was  nliove  $2,100,000. 

Dry-docks. — A  dry-dock,  requiring  to  be  perfectly 
water-tight,  demands  the  greatest  care  in  its  construc- 
tion. It  is  sometimes  lined  all  around  with  wood,  but 
more  generally  with  masonry,  mostly  of  hewn  granite. 
The  expense  is  very  considerable,  as  the  foundation, 
by  means  of  piles  or  otherwise,  must  be  well  secured, 
all  leakage  prevented,  and  the  culvers  or  drains  prop- 
erly constructed,  to  let  in  and  carry  off  the  water  with- 
out its  undermining  the  quays  or  piers.  The  cost  of  a 
complete  dry-dock  will  vary  probably  from  £20,000  to 
£100,000',  according  to  the  size  of  the  ships  it  is  in- 
tended to  admit,  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  on 
which  it  is  to  be  constructed.  A  dry-dock  may  be 
single,  or  made  to  contain  only  one  ship  ;  or  double,  to 
contain  two  ships  ;  but  the  former  is  the  most  common, 
because  most  convenient.  As  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  preserve  the  water  m  a  wet-dock,  and  to 
keep  it  out  of  a  dry-dock,  it  may  be  proper  to  describe 
the  different  kinds  of  gates  which  are  in  use  for  thii 
purpose. 


DOG 


C50 


DOC 


Dock  Gate*. — The  moat  common,  and  on  the  whole 
perhaps  the  beat  end  moat  convenient,  are  awlnging- 
giit«!<,  which  open  in  the  middle,  und  lie  flat,  one  purt 
uguinat  each  wharf  or  aide-wall  of  the  paHango  lending 
into  the  docli  or  baaiii.  Thia  iiind  of  doclc-gate  ro- 
c{uirea  to  be  made  of  great  Htrength,  with  aound  timlwr 
and  good  iron,  and  the  gudgeona  on  which  the  hingea 
turn  to  bo  well  aecured  into  the  »tone  abutmenla. 
Care  alio  must  l)e  taken  tu  make  the  bottom  of  the 
paaaage  and  the  bottom  of  the  gatca  perfectly  plane 
and  parallel,  to  prevent  leakage,  and  give  facility  to 
their  o|)ening  and  abutting,  which  la  usually  asaiated 
by  rollem  fixed  in  a  groove,  and  performed  by  moana 
of  a  amall  capstan  on  each  pier.  Attached  to  the  top 
of  the  gates  is  usually  a  foot-bridge  with  railing,  which, 
separating  in  the  middle,  opens  and  shuts  with  the 
gates. 

The  most  simple  but  by  no  means  the  most  eifective 
contrivance  f)r  keeping  out  the  water,  is  the  wicket- 
gate.  It  conaista  of  three  parts,  which  when  opened 
arc  removed  acparately.  Thia  gate  is  rarely  made  use 
of  unless  where  the  abutments  are  not  eufliciently 
strong,  or  their  fuunchition  auflicicntly  accure,  to  bear 
the  weight  of  a  pair  of  swinging-gatea. 

A  third  kind  of  gate  conKists  of  a  flonting-<lam  or 
cui.'iHtx>n,  first  Introduced  into  this  country  by  (iencral 
Dcnthuui,  and  first  applied  to  the  great  new  liasin  in 
Portsmouth  dockyard.  They  are  built  somewhat  in 
the  alia|)e  of  a  <  iroenlund  fishing-boat,  sharp  at  the  two 
ends,  narrow,  and  deep  in  proportion  to  the  deptli  of 
water  at  the  entrance  of  tile  dock.  The  keel  fits  into 
a  groove  at  the  liottom  of  the  passage,  and  the  two 
'lanting  ends  rise  and  fall  in  corresponding  grooves 
cut  into  the  two  abutments.  I)y  letting  in  the  water, 
the  caissoon  sinks  in  the  grooves,  and  acts  as  a  closed 
gate  ;  and  l>y  pumping  (mt  the  water,  or  letting  it  out 
to  a  certain  depth,  tlie  dam  flouts  as  the  tide  rises,  and 
tlie  narrow  part,  rioting  to  the  top,  is  readily  disengaged 
from  the  grooves,  and  easily  floateil  away  as  a  boat. 
The  advantages  of  these  floating-dams,  as  stated  by 
General  Bentham,  are,  that  they  are  cheaper  of  con- 
struction than  the  gates  heretofore  in  use  for  closing 
docks  or  basins ;  that  they  occupy  less  apace,  are  more 
easily  repaired,  and  one  and  the  same  dam  is  capable 
of  being  used,  as  need  may  require,  in  different  places 
at  different  times.  Theae  cai;)soons  have  also  the  ad- 
vantage of  serving  as  I>ridge8  of  communication  for 
loaded  carriages  across  the  entrances  they  close,  and 
they  require  much  less  labor  than  gates  in  o|>enlng  or 
shutting  up  passages  into  dorks  or  liasins,  since  their 
occasional  buoyancy  may  lie  olitained  without  pump- 
ing water  or  unloading  ballast. 

Docking  a  Ship. — When  a  ship  is  liroiight  into  a  drj' 
or  graving  dock,  she  gradually  subsides  us  the  water 
flows  out,  till  her  keel  rests  npon  the  lino  of  square 
bliK'ks  which  are  placed  to  receive  it  alon;^  the  middle 
for  the  whole  length ;  and  on  these  blocks  she  is  kept 
steady  and  upright  by  a  numtier  of  shores  or  polos  on 
each  side,  one  of  their  ends  being  placed  on  the  nllam 
or  steps  of  the  dock,  the  other  under  the  ship's  bends 
ond  Imttora.  As  a  ship  under  repair  generally  requires 
something  to  be  done  to  the  main  or  false  keel,  or  at 
any  rate  these  parts  require  to  l)e  inspected,  sometimes 
to  shift  the  main  keel,  or  to  add  to  the  whole  length  of 
the  false  keel,  it  was  always  found  necessary  in  such 
casea  to  remove  the  blacks,  in  o/der  to  get  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ship ;  but  this  operation  could  not  be  per- 
formed without  the  more  serious  one  of  first  Ufling 
liodily  the  ship  clear  of  all  the  blocks,  and  suspending 
her  as  it  were  in  the  air.  This  process  was  performed, 
by  driving  wedges  simultaneously  under  the  ends  of 
ail  the  shores  that  supported  the  ship ;  an  operation 
that  required  from  four  to  five  hundred  men  to  enalde 
them  to  suspend  a  ship  of  the  first  rate.  When  the  ' 
San  Josef,  a  largs  three^ecker,  reiiuired  her  Ijottom  to 
b«  examined  in  1800,  the  assistance  of  almost  every  ^ 
artificer  in  the  dockyard  was  found  necessary  to  per-  I 


form  thli  process  of  lifting  her;  nor  was  thia  the  onljr 
inconvenience ;  the  ship,  thus  auapendod,  aulTered  very 
material  injury  by  the  pressure  of  her  own  enormous 
weight  against  the  en<ls  of  the  shores  that  sup|H>rt«d 
her,  such  as  forcing  in  her  sides,  straining  the  knee* 
and  all  her  fastening,  lireaking  the  treenails,  etc. 

To  remedy  these  glaring  inconveniences  and  verjr 
se/ioua  injuries  that  ships  thus  ]>laced  were  apt  tu  sua- 
ta:n,  and  to  eSect  a  saving  of  time  und  expense  in  tho 
ojHiration,  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  Kobert)  Scpplugs,  then 
muster  shipwright,  and  afterward  surveyor  of  the 
navy,  contrived,  several  years  ago,  nn  improvement, 
as  ingenious  aa  it  simple,  liy  which  twenty  men  will 
suspend  tho  largest  ship  in  the  navj-,  or  rather,  which 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  will  disengage  any  ona 
lilock  that  ma}'  be  required,  in  the  apace  of  two  or  three 
minutes,  without  the  neci-ssity  of  suspending  her  at  all; 
and,  as  a  first  rate  in  dock  sits  upon  alwut  fifty  blocks, 
these  twenty  men  will  clear  her  of  tho  whole  of  those 
■docks  in  al>out  two  hours ;  and  as  the  saving  of  a  day 
in  completing  the  repairs  of  a  ship  is  frequently  tho 
saving  of  a  whole  spring-tide,  the  docking  and  uudock- 
ing  of  a  ship  may  make,  and  frequently  has  made,  by 
this  new  method  the  difference  of  a  fortnight  in  tho 
time  of  e<iuipping  her  foi  sea. 

The  Idock  of  Mr.  Seppings,  Instead  of  being  one 
solid  piece,  consisted  of  three  wedgea,  or,  more  prop- 
erly speaking,  of  one  obtuse  wedge  and  two  in<^lined 
planes,  which,  when  put  together  und  placed  under  tho 
ship's  keel,  appear  as  under,  when  viewed  in  the  direc- 


tion or  line  of  the  keel,  where  G  is  the  wedge  on  which 
the  keel  rests,  having  its  obtuse  angle  equal  to  17il°, 
and  HH  are  the  two  inclined  planes,  each  having  an 
acute  angle  of  6°.  Tlie  wedge  is  of  hard  wood,  having 
it«  two  sides  lined  with  iron  ;  the  two  inclined  planes 
are  of  cast  iron,  When  one  of  these  blocks  Is  to  be 
disengaged  from  under  a  ship's  bottom,  nothing  more 
is  required  than  a  few  smart  blows  alternately  on  the 
two  sides  of  tho  two  inclined  planes,  when  they  fly  out, 
and  the  middle  part  or  wedge  drops ;  and  the  facility 
of  thus  disengaging  any  of  the  blocks  is  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  preasure  upon  that  block.  Tho 
strokes  are  usually  given  by  a  kind  of  catapultu  or 
liattering-ram,  lieing  a  thick  spar  or  polo  moving  on  a 
pair  of  wheels,  as  KK.   This  simple  contrivance  to  get 


at  any  part  of  a  ship's  bottom  by  removing  In  succes- 
sion all  the  blocks,  without  the  necessity  of  lifting  tlie 
ship,  which  tho  removal  of  any  one  block  required  to 
be  done  by  the  old  method.  Is  now  universally  adopted 
in  all  the  dockyards  ;  and  the  lords  of  the  admiralty 
marked  their  sense  of  the  great  utility  of  the  Improve- 
i.ient,  liy  bestowing  on  Mr.  Seppings  a  reward  of 
.£1000  for  the  invention. 

Roofing  the  JJocfa.— Another  very  material  improve- 


in  (incces- 
lifting  tlie 
quired  to 
y  adopted 
admitnlty 
I  improve- 
reward  of 

I  Improve- 


DOC 

nent  Introdneed  It  that  of  covering  the  dry-dockt  and 
building  slips  with  roofs.  The  rapid  decay  of  ships 
of  war  by  tliat  species  of  disease  known  l>y  the  name 
of  the  dry  rot,  attracted  very  )(eneral  attention  i  its 
alTacta  wore  well  known,  but  a  variety  of  opinions 
were  entertained  as  to  its  causes  and  its  cure.  It  was 
quite  ol)vioUB,  however,  that  exclusion  of  air  and 
niulsture  were  the  two  i^reut  operating  causes  In  K'vinK 
activity  to  the  progress  of  the  disease  (see  Uliir  Hot)  ; 
and  that  u  ship  in  dock,  stripped  of  her  planking,  and 
open  to  the  weatlier  in  every  part,  alternately  ox|H>sed 
to  frost,  rain,  wind,  and  sunshine,  must  at  least  have 
her  tinilioni  differently  affected,  some  swelled  and 
water-soaked,  others  shrunk  wltli  heat,  and  others 
rifted  with  the  wind  and  frost ;  and,  if  closed  up  with 
planking  in  this  state,  might  lie  expected,  at  no  great 
distance  of  time,  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  decay.  The 
workmen,  too,  in  the  open  docks  or  sli|M,  suffered  from 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  no  loss  than  the  ships, 
and  their  liflior  was  frequently  suspended,  to  the  great 
detriment  of  the  naval  service.  The  measure  of 
routing  over  tho  docks  and  slips  had  long  and  repeat- 
edly licen  suggested,  liut,  either  from  prejudice  or  a 
false  economy,  it  was  only  of  late  years  carried  into 
practice,  but  is  now  universal  in  all  the  yards.  These 
roofs  are  generally  constructed  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
having  the  sides  and  ends  occasionally  closed,  according 
to  tlie  quarter  from  which  the  wind  may  blow ;  and 
by  tliis  contrivance  the  timlier  is  prevented  from  rift- 
ing, as  it  is  liable  to  do,  l)y  the  action  of  a  thorough 
draught  of  wind,  and  the  health  of  the  artificer  is  pro- 
vented  from  injury.  The  light  ia  admitted  through 
numerous  windows  placed  in  the  roof.  These  roofs 
are  in  general  supported  on  a  row  of  pillars,  and  cov- 
ered with  plates  of  iron.  The  same  roof,  with  little  or 
no  repair,  serves  as  a  covering  for  eight  or  ten  different 
ships  in  succession.  General  Ucntham,  who,  in  his 
statement  of  Servicft  rendered  in  the  Civil  Department 
of  the  Nar;/,  seems  to  claim  to  himself  nil  tho  inven- 
tions and  improvements  which  have  been  introduced 
Into  the  dockyards  for  the  last  forty  years,  carries  his 
invention  lieyond  a  mero  covering,  and  pro|H)se8  to 
house  over  tlie  docks  and  ships  so  completely  as  to 
afford  "  means  of  licating,  warmiii);,  ventilating,  and 
artificially  lighting  the  interior  at  pleasure ;  the  intro- 
duction of  boilers  or  stoam-kilns  for  bending  the  planks 
within  the  inclosuro ;  tlio  introduction  of  maoliinery 
for  assisting  in  various  operations,  particularly  the 
more  laborious  ones ;  the  {iroviding  room  for  carrying 
on  all  the  shipwright's  work  within  the  building ;  be- 
sides u  variety  of  lessor  works,  such  as  it  is  found  very 
inconvenient  during  the  building  or  repairing  of  a  ship 
to  have  executed,  for  example,  in  a  smith's  or  carpen- 
ter's shop  ut  a  distance."  Such  liuildings  would  not 
only  lie  enormously  expensive,  i>ut,  m  the  present 
crowded  state  of  the  dockyards,  utterly  impracticable, 
■With  regard  to  the  invention  of  covered  docks  and 
■lips,  they  have  lieen  used  in  Venice  from  time  imme- 
morial ;  and  it  appeared  from  the  evidence  given  by 
Mr.  .Strange,  the  British  consul  at  that  port  in  the 
year  1702,  liefore  the  commissioners  of  land  revenue, 
that  two-and-twenty  large  ships  had  been  under  cov- 
ered slips,  some  of  them  for  sixty  years  nearly.  At 
Carlscrona,  also,  there  are  several  covered  docks,  and 
both  are  strongly  recommended  for  tho  building  of 
ships  under  cover.  > 

ilaiilinfi  up  Shipi. — Among  other  ex|ierimcnts  which 
were  made  in  the  dockyards  for  facilitating  and  ex- 
pediting the  repairs  of  ships,  one  may  be  mentioned, 
of  which  many  persons  were  sanguine  enough  to  think 
that  the  successful  result  was  likely  to  be  attended 
with  most  important  benefits  to  the  naval  service.  It 
was  that  c)f  hauling  up  ships  of  war,  of  any  dimen- 
■ions,  on  Imilding  slips,  instead  of  taking  them  into 
docks.  It  is  no  uncommon  practice,  at  various  ports 
of  this  kingdom,  where  there  are  neither  artificial 
twains,  nor  natural  harbors,  to  haul  vesaela  of  the  bur-- 


DOC 

den  of  fifty  to  two  hundred  tons,  or  probably  largar, 
upon  tho  beach,  by  means  of  capstans,  to  give  them 
repaira ;  in  like  manner,  most  of  the  large  fishing 
smacks  are  hauled  up  for  security  In  tempestuous 
weather ;  but  tho  practicalillity  of  luiuling  up  ships  of 
war,  especially  of  the  larger  classes,  was  a  matter  of 
some  doubt.  Several  frigates  hud,  at  various  times, 
l>oen  hauled  upon  slips,  when  the  docks  were  all  occu- 
pied ;  and  the  ease  witli  which  tlio  o|>eration  was  per- 
formed Induced  the  ofllcers  of  the  dockyard  to  propose 
tho  hauling  up  of  a  line-of-battle  xlilp.  Tho  Kent  of 
74  guns  was  selected  for  this  pur|ii>ie.  It  was  neces- 
sary. In  the  first  place,  to  take  her  into  a  dock,  to  have 
(iroper  liilgewaj's  prepared,  and  to  I><i  stripiMxl,  so  as  to 
be  made  as  light  as  possil>le ;  her  wiight  lieing,  accord- 
ing to  a  calculation  made  fnnn  the  water  she  displaced 
when  afloat,  aliout  fourteen  hundred  tons.  To  heave 
up  this  weight  fourteen  capstan  i  wore  employed,  and 
the  number  of  men  to  work  these  were  as  under : 

Nino  nion  to  each  bar  and  swifter 1,819 

Elgtit  men  to  liold  on  at  ooch 119 

Tfirco  men  lo  iiach  capstan,  to  SI  tunc!  tho  fill 49 

Men  on  board  the  slitp,  and  uniployed  In  otbor  opera- 
tions       iflO 

Total  of  men  employed 9,116 

The  time  occupied  in  hauling  her  up,  after  all  the  pur- 
chases were  brought  to  bear,  was  forty  minutes.  The 
ex|)ense  of  preparing  her,  and  the  loss  and  wear  and 
tear  of  the  materials,  wiis  estimated  at  somewhere 
about  .£2,000. 

The  advantages  which  slips  are  supposed  to  possess 
over  dry-docks  are  many  and  important,  .  They  can  be 
constructed  at  one  twontictli  |>art  of  the  expense  ;  they 
occupy  less  space ;  they  can  be  constructed  on  a  steep 
or  a  shelving  shore ;  and  ships  can  be  hauled  upon 
them  either  In  spring  or  neap  tides ;  whereas  a  dry- 
dock  can  only  lie  made  in  particular  situations,  and, 
when  made,  ships  can  only  be  docked  and  undocked 
In  certain  states  of  the  tides ;  from  which  circumstance 
a  con.'Iderablo  delay  and  Inconvenience  are  frequently 
experienced.  It  should  be  recollected,  however,  that 
a  large  ship  must  necessarily  go  into  a  dock  prepara- 
tory to  her  being  hauled  up  on  a  slip. 

It  has  been  considered  as  not  at  all  Impossible,  aa 
was  suggested  some  time  ago  by  Mr.  Perring,  tlien  the 
Ingenious  clerk  of  the  check  in  Plymouth  dockyard, 
that  the  wliole  ordinary  might  hereafter  be  luid  up  on 
slips,  which,  if  housed  over,  would  unquestionably  be 
the  best  means  of  Increasing  their  durability,  and  pre- 
serving them  from  partial  decay.  Nor  is  it  certain 
that  in  the  end  it  would  not  be  the  most  economical 
mode  of  preserving  them.  The  expense,  as  appears 
from  the  Jiatimatea  of  the  Ordinanj  of  the  A'ary  for  the 
year  1817,  is  i;i87,00O  for  harbor  victuals,  harbor 
moorings  and  riggings,  etc.,  besides  .£135,00(1  for 
wages ;  the  chtef  part  of  both  which  sums  is  on  ac- 
count of  ships  of  war  laid  up  in  ordinary,  n<ine  of 
which  would  be  required  by  placing  them  on  slips.  It 
would  indeed  form  a  singular  revolution  in  naval  man- 
agement, if  ships  hereafter  should  be  laid  up  in  ordi- 
nary on  dry  land,  while  the  timber  of  which  they  are 
built  was  considered  to  be  the  best  preserved  under 
suit  water ;  a  process  which,  from  some  experiments 
recently  made,  promises  fair  to  be  the  most  effectual 
prevention  of,  and  a  probable  cure  for,  the  dry  rot. 
(See  Uby  Hot.)  This  method  of  preserving  timber 
has  long  been  practiced  at  Brest,  Carthagena,  and  sev- 
eral other  places  on  the  continent ;  and  the  only  ob- 
jection to  it  in  some  of  our  ports  appears  to  be  the 
attack  of  the  worm  known  to  naturalists  by  the  name 
of  Teredo  nuvalit,  whose  bite  is  almost  as  destructive 
as  the  dry  rot. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  very  many  and  serious 
objections,  even  were  the  measure  practicable,  of  haul- 
ing up  ships  of  the  line  in  particular,  to  bo  laid  in  ordi- 
nary on  slips.  In  (he  first  place,  the  length  of  sea- 
beach  which  would  be  required  is  greater  than  probably 
all  the  dockyards  in  the  kingdom  could  furnish.    SrO' 


DOC 


552 


DOC 


on/By,  the  thras  wimnt  offlc«n  who  an  now  mnploywl 
in  each  iihip,  ami  who  are  the  lieat  men  In  the  Hiirvice, 
beinK  no  lnn(;«r  nerennar}-,  would  he  turne<i  adrift,  and, 
In  all  pnihaliility,  utterl)-  lout  to  the  navy.  Thirdly, 
no  iart^  ehlp  could  lie  hauled  on  the  alipa  without  being 
provlouiiy  taken  into  a  doci(  to  have  her  hllgewaya 
fitted,  and  her  bottom  prepared  for  placing  her  on  the 
•lip.  The  time  taken  for  thl«  purpoM  must  necenra- 
rlly  Interfere  with  the  other  worka  of  the  yard ;  and 
after  taking  her  out,  the  preparatlonx  for  heaving  her 
up,  the  eapetuna,  block*,  pnrchniie-faIN,  cbainn,  and  a 
variety  of  other  artlclM,  amount  to  a  Tcry  large  ex- 
pcnae,  not  leu,  witli  the  expenne  of  the  roof  to  cover 
the  ihip,  than  .£10,000  for  each  nhip  vo  ha-iled  up. 

Oockj/ardt.—PnvioaiAy  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  kinga  of  England  had  neither  navj-  anennia  ncr 
dockyards,  nor  any  regular  eataliliahinent  of  civil  or 
naval  officen  to  provide  dtilpa  of  war,  or  to  fight  them. 
They  had  admirnln,  however,  ponnemlng  a  high  jiiria- 
dlction  and  very  great  powerr  And  It  would  appear, 
fknm  a  very  curious  poem  in  Hackluit't  Culltctim,  culled 


Tha  parftetloB  of  a  dockyard,  IndapMldaBtly  of  th* 
advanbigM  of  machinar}',  which  are  l>ut  contingent, 
may  lie  onnsidertd  to  depend  upon  one  or  more  exteiw 
•Iva  baalna,  lurronnded  by  spacious  wharfs  or  quaya. 
Hy  means  of  Umm  a  prodigious  saving  of  time,  lalior, 
and  ex|ieBS«  may  h»  saved,  in  every  stag*  of  the  prog- 
ress of  fitting  oat  a  ship  for  saa,  from  the  moment  sbiu 
is  launched  Amm  the  slip,  or  taken  out  of  a  duck,  ai 
well  as  In  dismantling  a  ship  on  returning  to  port  to  ba 
paid  off  and  repaired,  or  laid  up  in  ordinary.  For  thia 
purpose  the  docks  and  slips  should  occupy  one  of  tha 
sides  of  the  basin,  with  working-sheds  for  carpenten 
and  Joiners,  smiths'  shops,  saw-pits,  and  seasonini^ 
shetls  lietween  them.  The  ship,  when  completed  on 
the  slip  and  launchail  into  the  basin,  may  then  b« 
taken  immediately  into  the  adjoining  dock  to  b«  oofv 
pered.  From  this  she  pmceec'i  to  the  seconi  side  of 
the  Itasin,  In  the  comer  of  which  i»  the  Iwihist-wharf, 
The  remainder  of  tlie  side  will  proliabiy  lie  occupied  hy 
the  victualing  department,  with  appnipriate  stores  in 
'he  rear  for  various  kinds  of  provisions,  and  behind 


The  Polide  afKerpmg  ll  s  Sra,  that  Henrr  V.  had  botii  iheae  the  bakeri-,  lirewerj-,  and  slaughter-houses  ;  on 
ships,  olBcers,  and  men  exclusiveh'  appropriated  to  hi*  -  'h*  wharf  the  iron  tanlu  for  holding  water,  now  uni- 
service,  and  Independently  of  those  which  the  Cinque  ,  /ersally  used  for  the  ground  tier  In  lieu  of  wwden 
Porf  a  were  Imund,  and  the  other  ports  were  occasio^i-  "^  ')ks.  These  are  taken  on  hoartl  next  after  the  l>al- 
ally  called  upon  to  furnish,  on  any  emergenoy.  ',iy  ;  laxt,  and,  tof^ther  with  the  superincumbent  casks, 
this  poem  it  also  appears  that  Little  Hampton,  unfit :  would  be  tilled  in  the  ship's  hold  by  means  of  Hexibia 
aa  it  now  Is,  was  the  port  at  which  Henrj-  built  pipes  to  convey  tlie  water  int<i  them.     The  pmvislona 

-his  irrrst  Dromioni  would  at  the  same  time  lie  taken  on  l)oard  at  tha  sama 


Whlah  passed  otlier  Kreat  thlpprt  of  the  commons. 
But  what  these  dromiinu  were  no  one  can  now  tell ; 
nor  is  it  easy  to  conceive  how  the  building  and  repair- 
ing of  the  Groat  Harry,  which  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII.  was  launched  at  Portsmouth,  and  cost  £16,000, 
was  managed,  considering  the  very  ra|iid  strides  made 
at  once  from  the  small  Ciniijac  l*o<t  veuseis,  manne*! 
with  21  men  and  a  Ikiv,  to  this  i<:->rmoua  fioating  cas- 
tle. At  that  time  it  is  well  kni.v  ,t  tiint  they  had  no 
docks,  nor  even  sniistltutes  for  tncm. 

The  foundation  of  b  regular  navy,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  dockyards,  and  the  formation  of  a  board,  con- 
sUtlng  of  certain  commissioners  for  the  management 
of  its  alfaln,  was  first  laid  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  the 
first  dockyard  erected  under  his  reign  was  that  of 
Woolwich.  Those  of  Portsmouth,  Deptford,  (Chatham, 
nnd  Sheemess,  followed  in  succession  ;  and  tha  luut, 
excepting  the  new  and  unfinished  yard  of  ''embroke, 
was  Plymouth,  which  was  founded  liy  Willbim  III. 

From  the  first  establishment  of  the  dockyards  to  the 
present  time,  most  of  them  have  gradually  been  en- 
larged and  improved  by  a  succession  of  expedients  and 
m.'ike-shifts,  which  answered  the  purposes  of  the  mo- 
ment; but  the  best  of  them  possess  not  those  con- 
veniences and  advantages  which  might  1>e  olitained 
fVnm  a  dockyard  systematically  laid  out  on  a  uniform 
and  consistent  plan,  with  its  wharfs,  Imsins,  docks, 
slips,  magazines,  and  workshops,  arranged  according 
to  certain  fixed  principles,  calculated  to  produce  con- 
venience, economy,  and  despatch. 

Neither  at  the  time  when  dockyarda  were  first  es- 
tablished, nor  any  subsequent  periods  of  their  enlarge- 
ment as  the  necessities  of  the  service  demanded,  could 
It  have  lieen  foreseen  what  incal  julaliln  advantages 
would  one  day  lie  derived  from  tlie  substitution  of  ma- 
ehiner}'  for  human  labor ;  and  without  a  reference  to 
thia  vast  improvement  in  all  mechanical  operations,  it 
could  not  be  expected  that  any  provision  would  lie 
made  for  it»  ftitore  introduction ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
docks  and  slips,  the  workshops  and  storehouses,  were 
•uccessively  bnilt  at  random,  and  placed  wherever  a 
Tacant  space  would  most  conveniently  admit  them, 
•od  in  snch  manner  aa  in  most  cases  to  render  the  sub- 
Mqnent  introduction  of  machinery  and  iron  railways, 
and  those  Tarious  contrivances  found  in  the  large  man- 
nfkctsring  establiahments  of  private  individuals,  quite 
fanpossible,  eren  in  the  most  commodiooa  and  roomy 
dockyarda. 


wharf,  in  front  of  tlie  victualing  stores,  Tlie  third 
side  might  be  appropriated  to  the  ordnance  department, 
with  tho  gnn-wharf  extending  along  the  wliole  side, 
and  tlia  gun-carriage  storehouses,  magazines,  etc.,  in 
the  rear.  The  fourth  side  would  lia  occupier^,  as  tha 
anchor  wharf,  with  tlie  cable  storehouses,  the  sail-lofts 
and  stores,  rigging-ioft,  and  magazines  for  various 
stores,  in  the  rear.  Itehind  these,  again,  on  the  first 
side,  containing  the  dri--dacks,  and  building-slips,  tha 
ground  would  be  appropriated  to  the  reception,  lierth- 
ing  and  converting  of  timber,  from  whence  Iron  rail- 
ways would  lead  to  the  saw-mills,  saw-pits,  and 
workshops,  all  of  which  would  be  placed  on  that  side. 
Un  tha  second  side  a  pond  or  liasin  for  the  victualing 
lighten  and  craft,  with  wharfs  communicating  with 
*he  manufactories  and  storehonses;  the  same  on  the 
ordmince  or  third  side ;  and  on  the  fourth  side  might 
be  f'.aced  the  ropert',  hemp  storehoujes,  tar-houses, 
with  a  basin  for  hemp-vessels,  lighters,  and  the  like. 
Communicating  with  the  great  liasin  on  the  building 
side,  and  also  with  tha  river  or  luirbor  on  the  shore  of 
which  tha  dockyard  is  to  lie  formeil,  should  be  a  mast- 
pond,  with  a  lock  for  the  storing  of  spars.  In  front 
the  mast-houses,  to)>-houses,  ca|i«tan-houses,  and  a  slip 
to  launch  the  masts  into  tlie  ixind.  Hera  also  might 
be  pUced  the  iKiat-houses  and  lioat-pond. 

A  Sg$te>nalic  JJoeiiianl. — A  peninsular  situation, 
having  at  least  three  fourths  of  its  shore  surrounded 
with  deep  water,  is  peculiarly  favorable  for  some  such 
arrangement  as  is  here  nientione<i,  as  any  number  of 
locks  and  canals  might  lie  made  to  communicate  with 
the  river,  so  that  shipa  coming  into  tha  basin  miglit  not 
interfere  with  tliosa  going  out,  nor  the  lighters  and 
other  craft  bringing  their  several  species  of  stores,  with 
either  or  with  one  anotlier.  By  such  an  arrangeme;'t 
a  sliip  would  be  equipped  for  sea  at  half  the  present 
expense,  and  within  half  the  usual  time.  A  sliip  fit- 
ting out  for  an  anchorage  distant  from  the  dockyani, 
is  lialila  to  every  inconvenience  and  delay,  as  all  her 
gnns,  stores,  provisions,  and  water,  must  ba  carried  to 
her  in  dockyard  lighten  and  other  croft,  into  which 
and  out  of  which  tliey  must  lie  hoisted  and  re  'misted ; 
liable  to  delay  from  Iwd  weather  and  contrary  winds ; 
to  be  stova  alongside  the  ship,  to  the  total  loss  or  dam- 
aging of  their  cargoes.  Added  to  which  Ir  the  loss  of 
time  in  going  liackward  and  forward,  especially  to  the 
artiflcen;  tba  desertion  of  the  men ;  the  accidents  from 
tha  upaatting  of  boala;  and  mai^    other  avUs,  of  • 


DOO 


Ml 


magnltad*  not  Milly  to  b«  ealoulatad,  and  axiiMdad 
on\y  Ity  the  itlaippnlntmont  nn<l  vexatiiin  that  nnaroM- 
ably  oci-ur  whnn  »lilp«  urn  |irr|inrinK  fr>r  iinine  partlcu- 
luT  and  pr«Mtn)(  mrvicA  ;  hII  nf  whirh,  whitii  iihl|Mi  an 
fitted  out  in  a  banin  for  nea,  ara  avnlclml.  Ilara  an 
delay,  no  emlwitlement,  no  denertlon  ciin  take  plaiw, 
A  8hlp  in  retarning  fmm  aea  may  b«  cinclied  and  un- 
doclied  into  the  haiin  w  itii  all  li<*r  ■toren  on  lidard  \  anil 
If  to  lie  paid  off,  Innteiiil  nf  kropInK  the  crew  on  Ixiard 
fir  weeka,  till  all  thp  ntoren  have  bren  dpliverad  Into 
the  doekynril,  the  nhlp,  liy  the  pmpoiied  plan  of  baalna, 
would  rnnaln  securely  In  the  banin,  to  In  utrlpped  at 
leisure  by  the  riggera  and  laliorera  of  the  yard,  aiid  the 
crew  Income  immediately  available  fur  other  ahlpa, 

PorlmoulH  Dockynrd. — Portamouth  dockyard  will 
always  Iw  considered  aa  the  grand  naval  araenal  of 
Enitiand,  and  the  heiulqiiarters  or  general  rendezvoua 
of  the  llrltish  fleet.  The  dwkyard,  accordingly.  Is  by 
far  the  moat  rapacious ;  and  the  safe  and  extenalvo 
harlwr,  the  noble  anchorage  at  Hpithend,  the  central 
altiiatlnn  with  respect  to  the  Kngllnh  Channel  and  the 
opposite  coast  of  France,  and  particularly  with  regard 
to  the  naval  araenal  at  (.'herbourg,  render  Portamouth 
of  the  very  flrat  im|iortance  an  a  naval  station  ;  and  in 
thia  view  of  It,  every  possible  attention  appears  to  have 
been  paid  to  the  extension  and  improvement  of  its  dock- 
yanl.  The  noble  steam-basin,  which  was  opened  by 
the  Queen,  In  Slay,  184H,  with  great  ceremony.  Is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  recent  Improvements.  The 
sea  wharf-wail  of  this  yard,  extending  in  tlie  directiim 
of  north  and  south,  along  tiie  western  shore  of  the  har- 
bor, is  about  H,9()0  feet  in  length,  and  the  mean  depth 
may  be  2,U00  feet ;  and  it  incloses  an  area  of  more  than 
100  acres. 

In  the  centre  of  the  wharf-wall,  facing  the  harbor, 
Is  the  entrance  into  the  great  basin,  whose  dimensions 
are  3H0  by  *2II0  feet,  and  its  area  'i\  acres.  Into  this 
basin  open  4  excellent  dry-dorks,  and  on  each  of  its 
■Idea  ta  a  (lry-<lock  opening  into  the  harlHir ;  and  all 
of  theae  8  docks  are  capable  of  receiving  ahlps  of  the 
largest  ^lass.  llesldea  these.  Is  a  doulde  dock  for  trlg- 
ates,  the  stern  dork  communicating,  through  a  lock, 
with  the  harlwr,  ain!  the  head  dock  with  another  basin 
al)OUt  8,1(1  feet  square.  There  is  also  a  chamber,  with 
a  wharf-wall  on  each  aide,  (iliO  feet  in  length,  and  of 
sufllclent  width  .o  admit  of  transports  and  mercliant- 
ahipa  bringing  stores  to  the  d(H-kyanl.  In  the  same 
face  of  the  yard  are  3  i.uliding-slipa,  capable  of  receiv- 
ing the  largest  ships,  and  a  small  one  for  sloops,  be- 
sides '2  liulldlng-slips  for  frigates  on  the  northern  face 
of  the  yard,  and  u  smaller  slip  for  sloops.  The  rnngo 
of  storehouses  on  the  north  east  side,  and  the  rigging- 
house  and  sall-loft  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  cliain- 
l>er,  are  magniticent  buildings,  the  fornmr  occupying 
nearly  600  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  tli«  two  inter- 
mediate spaces,  and  n  >arly  (>0  feet  in  width,  and  the 
two  latter  400  feet,  Tii<  two  hem|)-houscs  and  the  two 
sea-stcre  houses  occupy  a  line  of  building  which,  with 
the  three  narrow  openin  ,'S  between  them,  of  '!ft  feei 
each,  extend  80O  feet.  1  he  ro|)e-houso,  tarring-house 
and  other  ap)>endages  oj'  the  ropery,  are  on  the  same 
scale.  The  two  aets  of  quadrangular  storehouses,  and 
the  two  corresponding  buildings,  with  the  intervening 
Mmlwr-berths  and  HT,.pit»,  at  the  head  of  the  dry- 
dorks,  issuing  ttom  tie  great  basin,  arc  all  excellent, 
and  conveniently  pin  e<l.  The  smith«r>-  la  on  a  large 
scale,  and  contiguous  to  It  is  an  iron-mill,  a  cop|ier- 
mill,  and  a  copper-refluery,  ut  which  Is  re-melted  and 
rolled  all  the  old  copiter  which  is  taken  from  ships' 
bottoms  ;  and  here,  also,  are  cast  bolts,  gudgeons,  and 
various  articles  of  copper  used  in  the  navy.  The  num- 
lier  of  sheets  manufactured  in  one  year  of  the  war, 
amounted  to  about  H(M),0<M),  weighing  alKive  12,000 
tons ;  on  which  It  has  been  calculated  that  a  saving 
of  at  least  £20,000  was  effected  tat  the  public,  besides 
obtaining  a  good,  pure  article.  Most  of  these  were 
constructed  under  the  direction  of  General  Bentlmiii, 


(Bentham's  flerrirM.)  At  the  head  of  the  north  dock 
are  the  wuod-ndlls,  at  which  every  article  of  turnery, 
ralwtting,  etc.,  Im  iH'rformed  for  the  nse  of  thu  nuvy, 
from  lioring  tlie  rhamherof  a  pump  to  the  tundng  of  a 
button  for  a  rhest  of  drawers,  Kut  the  pr{nrl|>al  part 
of  these  mllta  is  the  machlner}-  for  making  blwks,  con- 
trived by  that  Ingenious  artist,  Mr,  Brunell  (sea 
TnRiHioT.ii'a  Cari>K!<tyy),  which  can  not  be  mgatdad 
without  exriting  the  higliest  respect  for  the  talents  and 
■kill  of  the  Inventor. 

The  northern  extremity  of  the  dockyard  la  chiefly 
occupied  with  seasoning-sheds,  saw-pits,  and  tImbeN 
lierths,  the  working  boat-house,  and  boat  storehouse. 
On  the  eastern  extremity  are  tituated  the  houses  and 
gardens  of  the  su|)erlntendent  and  principal  ofllcers  of 
the  yard,  the  chapel,  and  the  niyal  naval  college, 

Cnparilij  of  a  Dorkynrd. — The  capacity  of  a  dock- 
yard for  building,  repairing,  and  relltting  aliipa  of  war, 
depends  upon  so  many  circumstances  that  it  scarcely 
admits  of  oalculatlim  ;  chiefly,  however,  on  tho  fucllt- 
fles  alforiled  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  dry-docks, 
liuildlng-slips,  and  basins,  and  on  tho  number  of  ship- 
wrights and  other  artiflcers  Ixinie  on  the  strength  of 
the  3'ard.  In  building  new  ships,  where  the  materials 
are  at  hand,  and  no  interrupt<ons  occur,  the  capacity 
may  lie  ascertained  to  a  tolerable  degroo  of  accuracy. 
To  complete  the  building  of  a  74-gun  ship,  it  is  calcu- 
lated that  the  lalmr  of  one  man  would  be  required  for 
18,000  days,  or  of  18  men  for  1,000  days,  or  about  64 
men  to  finish  lier  in  the  space  of  one  year.  A  doek- 
ynril, therefore,  with  600  good  shlpwrlghta,  might  be 
expected  to  launch  from  H  to  10  74-gun  ships  every 
year,  If  the  conveniences  of  the  yard  admitted  them  all 
to  be  employed  on  the  building ;  liut  this  kind  uf  ship 
ta  now  aiipplanted  by  ships  of  1*20  and  1,10  guns,  re- 
quiring a  relative  Increase  of  hands.  With  regard  to 
repairs,  they  are  so  various  and  so  uncertain,  that  ic 
would  Ih)  next  to  Impossible  to  form  any  calculation 
that  should  at  all  approach  to  the  truth.  A  writer 
well  ven-ed  in  navr.l  matters.  In  attempting  to  prove 
the  sufllclency  of  our  dockyards,  without  having  re- 
course to  private  merchant-yards  during  war,  has 
stated,  that  by  a  uniform  system  of  management, 
"  the  annual  regeneration  of  ahips-of-the-lino  may  be 
safely  reckoned  at  tieelrf  mil,  and  that  of  frigates,  at 
rl;ihl  mil ;  and  that,  besides,  there  might  bo  docked 
for  casual  repairs,  in  the  course  of  one  year,  two  h:tn- 
(Iml  ami  tixty-ni-rfn  mil  of  ships  and  vessels  of  war." 
— /.filer  In  IaiiuI  MrlfiUe  on  tht  Otntral  Stale  of  the 
llrili*h  .Van/. — K.  H, 

The  llr(H>klyn  Navy  Yard  is  tho  most  extensive 
navul  depot  in  thu  1,'ntteil  States,  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  Walialiout  Ray,  at  the  north-eastern  part  of  the 
city,  and  contains  46  acres  of  land.  It  is  inclosed  by 
a  substantial  l>rlck  wall  on  the  land  side,  and  on  the 
left  h  ind,  as  you  enter  its  gate,  there  is  a  flower-gar- 
den most  tastefull}'  arranged. 

Thia  spacious  yard  affords  si'fflc'cnt  room  for  the 
residence  of  tho  officers,  machine-  hops,  storehouses, 
etc.  The  most  conspicuous  buildings  arc  two  large 
eillHcps,  '2r>0  feet  long  by  126  feet  wide,  and  120  feet 
high,  ca  .able  of  containing  the  larg.!st  .ships  of  wor 
while  lieiiig  built.  In  time  of  poaco  several  national 
vessels  are  usually  to  be  seen  here,  either  laid  up  or 
undergoing  repairs,  A  vast  amount  of  cannon,  can- 
non-balls, liombs,  and  all  kinds  of  munitions  of  war.  Is 
always  on  hand  at  this  dfpiit.  The  Brooklyn  dry- 
dock  is  located  at  the  Navy  Yanl,  and  Is  capalde  of 
receiving  the  largest  ships  of  war.  Tills  is  a  magnifi- 
cent work,  uneqnalod  by  any  of  the  kind  In  America, 
and  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world.  Tiie 
foundation  is  40(1  feet  long  by  120  wide,  and  the  main 
p'lamlMir  or  basin. is  28G  feet  long  by  IM)  wide  at  '.he 
'oottom,  and  307  feet  long  and  08  wide  at  the  top.  i'he 
weight  of  tho  iron  folding-gates  is  160  tnna  ;  the  pumps 
discharge  40,000  gallons  per  minute.  The  engine- 
house  is  a  flre-proof  building,  containing  machinery  of 


DOL 


6S4 


DOM 


Iht  NMMi  |«rf*H  klmt.     Th*  whoU  oceupUd  10  ytan 
In  lb«  fiiifM  of  I'linairiiellon.    Hm  Arri.CToa'*  JUie- 

Uimiiry  </  ihiktiniii, 

DomWOoA  I '  '">  fiMif  t'liiriitii).  The  w<kmI  of  thU 
lr»«i  !•  Itiiril,  I  irMiiMi't.  haavy,  uml  Anr-Knlnail,  niiil  la 
tm<nAMi>  III  a  lirlllUnl  |ioll>h,  from  which  clnuni- 
•i'tHia  It  m»y  \m  •iilnlUulml  hit  nunirniua  |iur|>n*»»  tii 
•  lllili  lrfi«»iiiNl  la  n|iji||«i|  Tlia  aaii-wiKxl  la  uorfmllv 
wlllt*,  atiil  Iha  haail-w  ««l  l»  iif  tlm  iciliir  of  ifioiulata. 
Ih  lit*  I'lill^il  Ml.iti-a,  It  riitcra  Into  tlia  (oiiatriiition 
of  mKlir  itrtlf  Ira,  Inith  for  iitllllv  Mri.l  ornamant,  am  h 
»•  III*  liariillxa  of  ll^ht  toola,  ninllrta,  toya,  Hv.  It  la 
a<i4it«tliN»a  ua«|  I,*  faniiara  for  harrow  teeth,  for  Iha 
liDiiHia  of  lioratki'ollara,  ami  alao  for  alKH'liiK  th«  rtmnnm 
ofaUlai  liiil  to  whatavrr  iiiirpoaa  It  la  u|i|illnil,  IwlfiK 
\U\,\»  ill  •|i|||,  It  ahoiilil  iiKvcr  Ih)  wrou«ht  till  It  la  [...r- 
fatlly  aanaoiiHl.  Tha  ahiMita,  whoii  thr™  or  four  vmra 
iM.  ara  fotiiKl  aiiltal>l«  for  tha  IlKht  hoopa  of  iuiuill 
VNaka.  Niiil  In  Iha  MliMia  Ntutca,  tli«  ook«  of  iiilll- 
Wllwala  aro  m*<l«  of  Kii-m,  nml  Ilia  forknl  liriinrhva  ara 
(Hifivarlnl  Into  Ihayokfa  which  ara  piil  ii|pon  the  rn-ika 
ilf  aMlllo,  \i,  pravriit  Ihaiii  fmin  lirraklntf  Into  liicloaKil 
lalila,  III  Ilia  parla  of  Ilia  rounlry  wliera  It  iilKmnda, 
It  aafraa  for  axcallcnt  fyal.  Thn  Inner  liiirk  of  thia 
traa  la  a^lrniialy  liltlvr,  ami  U  iiainl  iia  u  kihhI  auliatl- 
tllla  tilt  IliK  I'eriirlnii  Imrk,  Tha  hark  iilao  inuy  lie  auli- 
•IIIiiIkiI  for  Kiilla  In  tha  nianiifartura  of  Ink,  uml  fnim 
Ilia  iMfk  of  mora  niiroiia  roota,  tlio  Aniorlt'iin  Imlliina 
iiUiiln  a  mnt\¥t  ilya.  An  Infiiaion  of  tlio  llowrra  of 
»lll»  Iraa  la  alao  iiaail  hy  Ihciii  In  tho  ciin.  of  intrrnilt- 
t«llU,  'Ilia  friill  la  wiinetliiipa  tiikrn  iia  n  tonic,  In  the 
form  of  a  afilrltiioiia  lm[iri-Kniitlon,  uml  it  likewiae  fonna 
»  fi*vi(flla  ri>|iiial  for  viirloiia  a|H-<'ii<a  of  lilrda.  In  Kn- 
tftilll'l  Ilia  aola  liaa  of  thia  «|m(lc«  la  un  orniiinvntiil 
•lirilli,  Hliil  from  |ta  Urxe,  white  llowera,  "  eiimioua  of 
ilia  plirlly  of  anow,"  whieh  lliiely  I'ontruat  with  the 
"  foraal  Kraen,"  It  richly  ileaorvoa  u  |ilttcfl  in  every 
«'o||afl|/rti  whcra  It  will  tbriv*.— IliiowME'a  Trtti  of 
Aiiifrliiii 

Soldftima,  Nenfiirlni;  |H<o|ile  have,  na  If  liy  com- 
mon coo.ciil,  iIIvIiIimI  the  oceun  off  into  renlona,  and 
cll/ifm  Icf  l/c(|  ihein  nci'ordliiK  to  the  winila  ;  p. ;/.,  there 
»ra  Ilia  "Irndi'-wlml  rexlona,"  the  "  viiriiildcK,"  the 
"  liofaa  liillliidea,"  tlin  "  dolilrunia,"  etc.  The  "  equii- 
iorlMl  doldfimia"  la  niiolhnr  of  theae  culm  pliuoa.  lie 
alilaa  lialli«  n  rejjion  of  cnlma  and  ImflllnK  winda,  it  ia 
«  ravioli  liolail  for  111  ralna  uml  iloiida,  whicii  miike  it 
ona  lit  Mill  moat  o|i|ireaalv«  nml  dlBujircealde  plucex  at 
mm,  'I  lia  amlKraiit  ahljia  from  Kuni|ie  for  Aimtridm, 
liuva  lo  I  roaa  11,  They  nra  often  lintlled  !u  it  for  two 
(If  (liraa  waelia  j  tlieii  fhn  children  and  the  pas»en((era 
*Im/  Ufa  of  ilalk'Hie  health  auffer  most.  It  la  a  fri«lit- 
ful  «f/il  e-yiird  m  tha  way-aiile  to  tliat  golden  laud. 
— Wai  lira  I'lii/t.  (kiiy.  n/'lKe.  .Ira,  p.  1!0«. 

Dollar,  th«  naina  of  a  allver  coin  of  .Spain  and  of 
tilt)  l.'nilwl  ,«Kal«i(  worth  KWcenta.  The  dollar  up- 
fiailfa  lo  have  l»een  orliflnally  a  (iermun  coin  ;  and  in 
Vitrttilf  putt'  of  (larmany  there  ore  coins  of  different 
Valllaa  m  calleil.  Thia  word  corroaiKinda  to  the  (ier- 
m»«  l/iii/ii;  Iha  (yOW-(>ermnn  dahlrr,  tho  Daniah  i/ii/it, 
tlia  Italian  lnlUra.  All  Iheaa  wonhi,  toKcther  with  our 
M'li',  ara  ilarlvnd  from  tho  name  of  the  Bohemian 
iimil  Jimihimt.thiil  (.looclilm'a  Valley),  where,  in 
Vi\K,  tha  Count  of  Hchlick  coino<l  silver  piecoi  of  un 
iilMfa  walKlit.  Theae,  Indeed,  were  not  the  first  of  the 
kinil  I'olned  (  yet,  «a  they  were  numeroua  and  very 
ItfuA  thay  liacame  Keneralty  known  liy  the  name  of 
jiHuhim't-lhitlrr,  which  la  the  German  adjective  of  Jo- 
mhim'ttlittl,  ami  al<o  Hchllckemlmler'from  the  nume 
lit  tlia  Connta,  Aa  theae  coins  were  In  good  repute, 
Ihtdtri  Ware  alao  coined  In  other  countries,  bat  of  dlf- 
Airant  value  j  thus  originated  the  laub-thaUr  (leaf- 
M\»f),  l'hiUipp§  ihaJer,  the  Swedish  copper  dollar  etc. 
Ill  llNssia,  «  dollar  Is  called  jephimock,  from  Joachim. 
^K,  A.    Hm  Coirs. 

D'/lphln,  In  nautical  langaage,  a  rope  or  strap 
faataiMul  round  tha  most  of  a  ship  to  give  support  to 


tb» pmlihnmg  (a  mass  of  yarn  or  oakum  uaad  t<i  pra« 
rent  chaling),  wbera  tha  lowar  yards  r«at  on  th« 
alinga.  Iliipkin  la  alio  applied  to  a  a|iar  or  liuoy  (iir- 
iilahad  with  a  Urip<  ring,  and  auchvrad,  to  which  a 
:  veaael  may  html  it*  cuhla. 

j  Oomloll.  lu  regard  to  the  atatua  not  Cbrlatian, 
,  not  only  the  Mohuiumedun  atutea,  hut  ail  tha  real,  the 
;  true  rule  iip|i«ara  to  he,  that  caiitracta  of  illlieiia  of 
the  I'nited  isiatea  In  generul,  and  ea|i«i'laliy  Ihu  ton- 
trait  i>l  marriage,  urn  nut  auliject  to  the  lixlmi,  iiut 
muKt  lie  governed  liy  tha  law  of  the  doinlril )  and  tliui, 
theri'fiire,  in  auch  countriea,  a  valid  ciinlruct  of  niar- 
riuge  may  lie  aoleninl/eil,  und  the  contract  authentica- 
ted, not  only  liy  an  amlwaaador,  liut  liy  a  cimKiil  »( tlui 
I'nited  .States.  The  Kngliah  uulhoritlea  come  to  •iili- 
atantiidly  the  aauie  cuiulualon,  fur  alinilar  reuaona, 
"  .Ndliiidy  can  aup|Hiae,"  aaya  Lord  Stowell,  "  that 
while  the  .Mogul  empire  exl»ted,  an  Kngliahumn  I  In 
llindoatan)  was  liouiid  to  conauit  the  Koran  for  tha 
celeliratlon  of  hia  marriage."  In  moat  uf  the  Aalutlc 
ami  African  couutrlca,  liidoeil,  l.iw  la  (leraoiial,  not 
hical,  aa  it  won  in  miiiiy  |airta  uf  modern  l'luni|Hi  lu 
the  formative  |ieriiid  of  its  preacnt  organiiatimi. 
Heme,  in  llriliah  India,  IliniUHia,  I'uraeea,  .Icwa,  Mo- 
hainmedana,  I'hriatiuna,  all  marry  according  to  the 
law  of  tlieir  religion.  The  eccleniaatical  law  nf  lln- 
gland  goes  further  than  thia,  fur  It  rciiigiiueti  the  mar- 
riage of  Kngliahinen,  c«l«lir.ited  acioriliiig  to  the  Kn- 
gllah  law,  that  In,  liy  u  clergyman,  in  llritlali  factories 
aliroad,  tlioiigli  situated  in  (liriHtian  ciiuntriea,  liUt 
countriea  of  the  Itoniun  (.'uthulic  or  (irevk  religion. — 
MuHiialj'ur  Coiiiiih,  I',  .S'. 

MrriliiinlA. —  I'liu  national  charactor  of  merchants 
n>i>iding  in  Kuri'pe  and  America,  U  derived  from  that 
of  the  country  in  which  tiiey  resiile.  In  the  eaaterti 
parts  of  tiiu  worl'd.  Kumpcaii  persona,  trading  unilt  r 
the  shelter  anil  protection  of  t  he  fui  lories  founded  there, 
take  tiielr  national  cliaracter  from  that  asHociatiim  un- 
der whicli  tlicy  live  and  carry  on  llielr  trade.  This 
distinction  arises  from  tlio  nature  and  haliits  of  the 
countries.  In  tho  western  |uirts  of  the  world,  alien 
merchants  mix  in  the  society  of  the  natives  ;  access  siiil 
intermixture  are  permitted,  and  they  liecomo  incar- 
|ioratuil  to  nearly  tho  full  extent.  Hut,  in  the  ICust, 
from  almuHt  the  olde>t  times,  an  iiiinii.scilile  character 
has  lieen  kept  up:  I'ureigners  are  nut  admitted  into 
tlio  general  isidy  and  muss  of  tlie  nation ;  they  con- 
tinue strangers  ami  snjiiurners,  as  all  their  fathers 
were.  Thus,  with  respect  to  estalilishinentn  in  Tur- 
key, the  llritish  courts  of  prize,  during  wur  with  Hol- 
land, deternilned  that  u  merchant  carrying  on  trudti 
at  Hinyrna,  under  the  protection  of  the  Dutch  consul, 
was  to  lie  considered  u  Dutchman,  and  condemned  his 
property  as  liolonging  to  un  enemy.  And  thus  in 
I'iilnn,  und  generally  throughout  the  l''.ust,  jR-rKons  ad- 
mitted into  u  factory,  ure  not  known  in  their  ow  n  pecu- 
liar national  character ;  and  not  being  permitted  to 
assume  tlie  character  of  the  country,  are  considered 
only  in  the  character  of  that  association  or  factory. 

liut  these  principles  are  considered  not  to  lie  ap- 
plicable to  the  vast  tiirritories  occupied  by  tho  llritisli 
In  llindostun  j  lieeuiise,  as  Sir  W.  SiMitt  observes, 
"  though  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mogul  is  occasionally 
brought  forward  for  tho  pur])0se  of  policy,  it  liardly 
exists  otherwise  than  as  uphuntom  ;  it  is  not  upplied 
In  uny  way  fur  the  regulation  of  their  estulilishmentn. 
(ircat  Kritain  exercises  the  power  uf  declaring  wur  and 
peace,  widch  is  among  tho  strongest  marks  of  actual 
sovereignty  j  and  If  the  high  and  empyrean  sove- 
reignty of  tho  Slogiil  is  sometimes  brought  down  from 
tho  clouds,  as  it  were,  for  tho  purposes  of  policy,  it  by 
no  means  interferes  with  the  actual  authority  which 
that  country,  and  the  East  India  Company— a  crea- 
ture of  that  countr)- — exercise  there  with  full  effect. 
Merchants  residing  there,  are  hence  considered  British 
subjects." — 'Wheaton's  International  taw,  Fart  Iv., 
eb.  1,  p.  408. 


DOIl 


0AS 


IX)W 


DomlnlOS)  on*  of  tlm  |^«wiinl  K"»ip  of  tnUiiiU  tii 
Iht  Wntl  InilUt,  IxliinKinK  tii  llrlUlii,  uikI  lyliiK  U- 
twun  III*  Krani'h  Inlitiiila  nf  Mitrtliil<|iin  hikI  ••iiiulit- 
liiil|w,  '^1  miUa  liiirlh  iif  tli«  fiirmor,  mul  ulioiit  tlm  nmiin 
dUtitnim  aolltll  1)1  tlln  liittxr.  |)cilllillii'it  WiK  xii  liuillml 
liy  Ciiliinihiiii  rriiiii  liia  liH>iii|(  illiiri>v<'ri'i|  It  mi  it  Muii- 
iluy  (III  I  ID.'I).  It  wu  <ip<l«il  til  KiikIiiiiiI  liy  tlii<  (ii'ira 
of  I'arln,  III  170;l,  liut  waa  lakoii  liy  tli«  Kr»iirli  In  I77H, 
At  thii  |i>'iii'ii  uf  l7Na  It  wua  rttatiirail  tu  Kiit(l>iii<l|  In 
whiMM  |iiiH«i<>ii<liiii  it  liiia  aliirn  riHiiiiliiiiil.  Diiiiiliiliik  N 
'iV  nillaa  In  li'iiKtIi  Iriiin  mirth  to  amitli,  itml  Hi  In 
br«iiiltii,  iinil  liiia  un  iirKit «(  »tm»t  INII, llltl  uiri-a.  Tim 
prlnri|ial  town  iinaauii,  altuiiti'il  iin  tlm  H.W,  alilu  of 
tho  iaiiinil,  la  In  l»t.  I.V  ll>'  N.,  Iiihk.  01"  W  W.  Tim 
■urfiit'ii  la  K'nKrully  niKKml  ami  niniiiituinoiia,  intnr- 
•iwrii'il  with  fiTtllii  iinil  wpII-wiiIiti'iI  viillrya,  Tlio 
hlKlieat  |ioliit  la  A, ill  I  hut  jIkivo  till  luvul  nl'  tliu  aim. 
Tha  iirlKin  of  thia  l»liin<l  la  voliiinii',  iiml  anl|iliur  itiiil 
other  volrunlo  pruilui'ta  iiru  Hliumlant.  Thu  aoll  la 
llKlit  uiiil  Wdll  lulujitKil  fur  thu  t(ruwth  nf  nill'i-e,  'I'lm 
llilla  »r»  iMiviiruil  with  viiliiiilili)  tliiilivr  tri'ua  of  thu 
klmla  I'liiiiiniinly  fuuiiil  In  the  NVoxt  Imliiia.  Iluiiin  i^ 
uliunilaiit,  anil  tlm  llalicriua  on  thu  noiint  aro  very  |iro- 
dnutlvi*.  Tliii  |irlnrl|Mil  |iriHlnrtiiina  am  aii){ar,  nmlua- 
•ea,  rum,  cuiriiii,  I'oeua,  iinil  iirani{i>a.  Thu  riiltlMitiun 
uf  I'ottiin  haa  liituly  lii'i'ii  Intriiiluecil  to  it  ainall  vxtunt, 
unil  haa  liuiin  fnuinl  to  anawur  very  well,  |iartit'ularly 
on  laiiil  iiuar  th«  Ht'a-iiiiaat.  The  |irini'i|ial  «tii|ilu  |iroii- 
ucta  cxiKirtml  in  the  yeura  I'liillnt;  M\  .lanuar}',  IHi'i, 
ami  >'itli  January,  lN.'i;i,  weru  aa  I'ollowa  : 

INA'/.  iHsa. 

Bnmr (I'i.im  I'wu.  iw,;-"*  rwta. 

Knm Mi.D'iT  uiill*.  »MM  Kulla. 

Mnlunoi UA.ihIO      "  Hl.iilil      •■ 

(.'oiri'ii h\»AH  II*  II'.MII  U.S. 

«!iiiim m,'*M   "  iw.'.'im   " 

T.lini'  JnIrn 4.tlsit  Kiilla.  ft.ml'.'  aiilU, 

Arrow  riiut MIU  Iba.  H.Ai.'V  ll>a. 

<lrurii(>'a I.OIU.NOO  l.aM.irJII 

Cotiua  Wiml 2,iKa»  Itu,  il.'Jfto  Ilia. 

Thi'  vaiiii)  of  u.\|iiirt<  ami  linporta,  nml  tho  rovunuo 
for  thu  yeara  IHIU,  IK.JO,  anil  IHSl,  wuro  aa  follows : 
IH41I.  Irnin.  IMAI. 

Iniporta £.'ai,l)IA        iiAT.ilM        £7I,h'JN 

Kxiiorla 4s,il7U  b»:ia.'>  mfiil 

Itcv.'iiuu t(,Ul!l  1iVi75  I'^.OOl 

Thu  |io|inlatiiin  in  IHIt  waa  22,200,  of  whom  ll,lini 
were  I'uniulea,  Tho  |iriiiri|uil  hurliora  uro  Itoaeuu  and 
rrimo  liiipert'a  Kay. — 10.11. 

DorilOOk  ia  u  ii|ici'ii'a  of  li^uruil  linen  of  atont  f.ilirio, 
V  hich  ili'rivpa  ita  name  from  a  toy.  n  In  Sootlanil,  wlicro  it 
waa  llrat  manufacturi'i)  furtalili'-rlnth.i.  It  la  tliu  mo»t 
■ini|ilu  luittern  of  all  tint  vurii'tira  of  the  illa|ii'r  or  ilani- 
Oak  atylu,  and  therefore  tho  ((ooila  are  usually  of  rmirae 
quality  for  ooinmon  lioiiauholil  wear.  It  reueivea  tlio  nat- 
ure liy  reversing  tlio  llualiinu  of  the  warp  and  woof  ut 
certain  Intervala,  »o  na  to  form  H(|>iarc.s  or  olilong  rect- 
iintlle.a  upon  theilotli.  Tho  nioataimplo  of tlicao  lau  aui;- 
ceaaion  of  alternate  aipiarea,  forming  un  imitation  of  a 
checker  huaril  or  inoaaie  work.  The  coaraeat  kinila 
are  jjenerally  woven  ua  tweela  of  three  leaves,  where 
every  thread  lloata  over  two,  and  la  Interaeeted  liy  tlio 
third  in  auceeaaion.  iSomc  of  the  liner  are  tveela  of  four 
or  live  lettvea,  liut  few  of  more  ;  for  the  six  or  seven 
leaf  tweela  are  seldom  or  never  uaoil,  and  tho  eight 
leaf  tweel  is  confined  ulmoat  exclusively  to  dnniaak. 

Dort,  or  Dordrecht,  an  impurtant  coniinen'ial 
city  of  Holland,  capital  of  a  <'o|;nominal  district  in  the 
province  of  South  Holland,  10  miloa  south-east  of  Itiit- 
terdiini.  It  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  Meiise,  said 
tu  have  licen  apparated  from  the  mainland  in  1121,  liy 
an  inundation  which  swept  away  72  villages,  and  aliout 
100,000  inhaliitaiita.  This  is  oiie  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
Holland,  liut  the  periiHl  of  ita  rise  is  uncertain.  It 
was  surrounded  liy  walls  in  12;il  liy  Florent  IV.,  Count 
of  Holland,  who  made  it  his  residence,  and  ip'anted  it 
many  Important  privileges.  In  11.07,  utniust  the  entire 
town,  incluiling  the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  founded  in 
13liiJ,  and  other  pulillc  liulldings,  was  doatmyed  liy 
fire.    It  was  one  of  the  first  towns  to  embraco  tha  Ro- 


fiirmwl  mllgloii,  and  tu  throw  off  IIm  yoke  of  tli*  MiMtn- 
lah  king.  In  Vui  a  inrvting  of  dnputlM  wiis  h>M 
livrv,  nhoii  thu  liidepenilunce  of  tha  Uiiltitd  I'rovlmii 
waa  llmt  dui'lurtid  ;  and  In  IIIIH  and  Mil!)  aat  Iha  roln- 
lirated  M}  iiihI  iif  Hurt.  I'hn  tiittii-h.ill  la  a  hanilHuiiM 
liiillilliigi  iiiiil  thu  prim  ipitl  ihiirih  la  an  old  (iuthlo 
■trui'tiirn  iliKl  fint  huig  l>y  IVTi  fuut  wid«,  with  a  heavy 
aipiaru  tower,  and  niimeroiia  monitiiii'ntul  alohxa,  aiiina 
of  great  antlipilly.  The  hall  In  ithlch  tlm  sviiihI  waa 
held  la  now  a  puliilc  liiiuae.  The  Imuaea  nre  gunurully 
of  an  untli|uu  fashion,  nilli  tlm  galilea  turned  outwarii, 
and  many  of  tliuin  d.ilu  from  the  period  of  the  kSpanlali 
iH'cuiuitlon.  Dort  |ai>seaaea  u  giHiil  harlinr,  from  which 
two  canala  lead  to  the  rentru  of  the  town,  and  thiia 
f.ii'llltate  the  iiiiiveyame  nf  goiida  to  thu  warehoiiaM. 
It  larriea  on  an  extensive  trade  in  corn,  flax,  ault  llah, 
train  oil,  and  timlier,  liniiight  down  the  itiiinn  ;  and 
liaa  shi|i-liulhiing  docka,  auw-milla,  aiigar  'iiid  aalt  rti- 
llnerlea,  tiiliaccii  factorlea,  lineii-lileachlng  autl  whilu- 
lead  Hiirka,  Dort  la  the  liirthplacn  of  tho  hruthan 
Du  Witt.      ropillatiiilulN''0),  20,878. 

Doubling,  in  navigation,  the  act  nf  sailing  round 
iirpaaaltig  lieynnd  it  I'upe  or  priiiiiontory. 

Doubloon,  nr  Doblon,  a  Npaniah  and  I'ortiigunM 
coin,  licing  the  ilimhie  of  a  piatole,— K.  II.    8eo  Ciiixa. 

Dover,  Strait*  of,  the  narrow  channel  lietween 
Dover  and  ('aliia,  wlil'li  separates  (Ireat  llritain  from 
tlm  I'remh  cnait.  llritain  la  aiipiHiaed  liy  many  to 
have  liein  once  a  peninsula— tlm  present  atraits  iiccii- 
pylng  the  aite  nf  the  istiiiiius  which  Joined  It  to  (laid. 
"  The  correapondeiicy  nf  strata,"  aays  .Mr.  rennuiit,  In 
hia  Irii,  Xixilnt/;/,  "  nii  p.irt  of  thu  opposite  shores  of 
llrit.iin  and  I'rance,  IcaVea  no  ronm  to  dmilit  that  thej 
well  once  united.  The  chalky  clilfs  nf  lllancHe/.,  lie- 
tween Calais  and  iloiilogne,  and  tlmae  to  tho  westward 
of  Dover,  exactly  tally.  The  last  are  vast  and  con- 
tinued ;  tile  former  siiort,  itiid  the  termination  of  the 
inimenso  lied.  lietween  Iliinlogne  and  Folkestone 
(aliout  <i  miles  from  the  latter)  is  anntiier  memorial  nf 
tho  Junction  of  the  two  countries ;  a  narrow  sulimariiio 
hill,  called  the  y^'/i-ni/w,  aliout  a  i|uarter  of  a  iiiilo 
liriiad,  and  111  inilea  long,  extending  eastward  toward 
the  (loodwin  Sands.  Ita  materials  are  lioulder-stoiies, 
adventitious  to  many  st- ita.  The  depth  of  water  on 
it,  in  very  low  spring-tidea,  is  only  1 1  feet.  The  llsli- 
erinen  from  Kolkestonu  have  often  touched  It  with  u 
|5-feet  oar,  so  that  it  is  Justly  the  dread  of  navigators, 
Many  u  tall  ship  has  struck  on  it,  and  sunk  instantly 
into21  fathnina  of  water."  In  .Inly,  17H2,  tho  luUiute,  of 
of  III  guns,  struck,  and  lay  on  it  during  three  houra,  liut 
liy  starting  her  beer  and  water,  got  dear  oil'.  Tiiose 
celebrated  straits  are  only  21  inilea  w  ide  In  tho  narrow- 
est |iart;  from  the  pier  nf  Dover  to  tl,  it  of  Calais,  24 
miles.  It  is  said  that  their  breadth  is  di  ninishing,  and 
tliat  they  are  two  miles  narrower  tliun  th  -y  were  In  an- 
cient times.  An  accurate  ob.scrver  for  50  y  >arg,  remarks 
tliat  thu  increased  height  of  water,  from  a  decrease  of 
breadth,  hits  been  apparent,  even  in  thii  space.  The 
depth  of  the  channel,  at  u  medium,  in  th(  highest  spring- 
tides, la  about  2j  fathums  ;  thu  bottnii'  is  either  coarse 
sund  or  rugged  sears,  which  have,  for  ages  unknown, 
resisted  tlie  attrition  of  tho  currents. — K.  A. 

Down  ((ier.  Dunrn,  Flnumftdn-n;  Du.  DoM;  Vt. 
/Iiiret;  It.  J'inmi  miillii,  I'itimiiii ;  Sp,  f'lujel,  Ptii- 
j/iiizii ;  Una.  I'uih ;  Lat.  /'lumie),  tho  line  feathers  from 
the  breasts  of  several  birds,  ]mrtlcularly  those  nf  the 
duck  kind.  That  of  the  eider  duck  Is  the  most  valu- 
able. These  birds  pluck  it  from  their  breasts,  nml  line 
their  nests  with  it.  Jlr.  Pennant  says  tliat  it  is  so 
M'ry  elastic,  that  ft  quantity  of  it  weighing  only  f  of 
»n  ounce,  mora  than  tills  the  cruwn  of  the  largest  liat. 
That  found  in  the  nest  is  most  valued,  and  termed  lire 
ildvn ;  it  is  miicli  more  elastic  than  that  plucked  from 
tho  dead  bird,  which  la  comparatively  little  esteemed. 
The  eider  duck  is  found  on  the  w  eatern  islunda  of  .Scot- 
land, hut  the  dowu  is  principally  Imported  from  Nur- 
woy  and  Ireland. 


DRA 


566 


Dm 


Downs,  a  bank  or  elevation  of  sand,  which  the  sea 
gathers  and  fonns  along  its  shores,  and  -which  serves 
It  as  a  barrier.  The  word  is  formed  from  the  French 
dune,  or  the  Celtic  dun,  a  mountain.  Charles  de  Visch 
(jCompend.  Chronolog.  Exnrd.  et  ProgreM.  Abbot. 
Clartu.  B.  Maricf,  de  Dunit)  says,  Valirm  rrptril 
artnarum  enllibui,  quoi  ineola  Duynen  rocant,  iindiqtie 
tin'iam.  K  is  also  applied  to  a  large  open  plain,  pri- 
marily on  elevated  land. 

Dotctu  is  particularly  applied  to  a  famous  roadstead 
for  ships  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  county  of  Kent, 
from  Dover  tu  the  North  Foreland,  where  lioth  out- 
ward and  homeward-bound  ships  frequently  make 
Rome  stay,  and  squadrons  of  men-of-war  rendezvous  in 
time  of  war.  It  affords  excellent  anchorage,  and  la 
defended  by  the  castles  of  Deal,  Dover,  and  Sandwich. 
Dragoman,  or  Drogueman,  an  interpreter;  a 
term  of  general  use  in  the  Levant  and  throughout  the 
East.  There  are  dragomans  attached  to  the  embassies 
and  consulates  of  Christian  nations  residing  at  the 
Porte.  The  word  is  formed  from  the  Arabic  targeman 
or  targiman.  of  the  verb  taragem,  "  he  has  interpreted." 
From  dragoman  tho  Italians  formed  dragmnanno,  and, 
with  a  nearer  relation  to  its  Arabic  etymolog}',  Itirri- 
mannof  wlience  comes  Iruehtr^mn,  as  well  as  dragoman 
and  drogueman.     See  Turkev. 

Dragon's  Blood  (.Sang  draeon,  Fr. ;  DrarhenblOt, 
Germ.)  ii  a  resinous  substance,  which  comes  to  us 
sometimes  in  small  balls  almut  the  size  of  n  pigeon's 
egg,  sometimes  in  rods  like  the  linger,  and  sometimes 
like  irregular  cakes.  Its  color,  in  lump,  is  dark 
brown-red ;  in  powder,  bright  red ;  friable ;  of  a  shin- 
ing fracture;  sp.  grav.,  I'lUG.  It  contains  a  little 
beuzoic  acid,  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  readily 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  It  is  brought  from  tln' 
East  Indies,  Africa,  South  America,  as  the  produce  dt' 
several  trees,  tho  Draecena  Draco,  tho  Vterocarpus 
tantalinus,  Plirocarput  dram,  and  the  Calamus  rotang. 
Dragon's  blood  is  used  chiefly  for  tinging  spirit  and 
turpentine  varnishes,  for  preparing  gold  lacquer,  for 
tooth  tinctures  and  powders,  for  staining  marble,  etc. 
According  to  Herl)enger,  it  consist*  of  9'07  parts  of  red 
resin,  2  of  fut  oil,  3  of  benzoic  acid,  1'6  of  oxalate,  and 
S'7  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  a  celebrated  English  ad- 
miral, was  l)om  near  Tavistock,  Devonshire,  in  l.M.'i. 
His  father,  who  had  lieen  bred  a  sailor,  obtained  a 
naval  chaplaincy  from  Queen  Klizabcth,  and  was  after- 
ward vicar  of  Upnor  church,  c  the  Medway.  Young 
Drako  was  educated  at  the  expense  and  under  the  care 
of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  who  was  his  kinsman ;  and,  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  he  had  risen  to  be  purser  of  a  ship 
trading  to  Biscay.  At  twenty  he  made  a  voyage  to 
Guinea ;  and  at  twenty -two  ho  was  made  captjiin  of 
the  Judith.  In  that  capacity  he  ytn»  in  the  harbor  of 
San  Juau  dTlloa,  in  the  (Julf  of  Mexico,  where  he 
behaved  most  gallanth'  in  the  actions  under  Sir  .Tohn 
Hawkins,  and  returned  with  him  to  England,  having 
acquired  great  reputation,  though  with  the  loss  of  all 
the  money  which  he  had  embarked  in  the  expedition. 
Having  next  projected  an  attack  against  the  Spaniards 
in  the  West  Indies,  to  indemnify  himself  for  his  former 
losses,  he  set  sail  in  1572,  with  two  small  ships  named 
the  Patka  and  tho  Stran.  He  was  afterward  joined  Uy 
another  vessel ;  and  with  this  small  squailnm  he  t^nik 
and  plundered  the  Spanish  town  of  Nomlire  de  Dios. 
With  his  men  he  penetrated  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  committed  great  havoc  among  the  Span- 
ish shipping.  In  these  expeditions  he  was  much  as- 
sisted by  a  nation  of  Indians,  who  were  then  engaged 
in  a  desultory  warfare  with  the  Spaniards.  Ilaviug 
embarked  his  men  and  fllled  his  shii>s  with  plunder,  he 
liore  away  for  England,  where  be  arrived  in  August, 
1753. 

In  l.'>89.  Sir  Francis  Drake  commanded  the  fleet  sent 
to  restore  Don  Antonio,  King  of  Portugal,  the  land 
force*  being  under  the  orders  of  Sir  John  Norria ;  but 


they  had  hardly  pnt  to  sea  when  the  commandem  dif- 
fered, and  thus  the  attempt  proved  abortive.  liut  as 
the  war  with  Spain  continued,  a  more  formidable  expe- 
dition wag  fitted  out,  under  Sir  John  Hawkins  and  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  against  their  settlements  in  the  West 
Indies,  than  had  hitherto  been  undertaken  during  the 
whole  course  of  it.  Here,  however,  the  commanders 
again  disagreed  about  the  plan  ;  and  the  result,  in  like 
manner,  disappointed  public  expectation.  These  dis- 
asters were  keenly  felt  hj'  Drake,  and  were  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  his  death,  which  took  place  on  board  his 
own  ship,  near  the  town  of  Nombre  de  Dios,  in  the 
West  Indies,  January  «8th,  1595.— E.  B.  See  fdlnb. 
Ree.,  Ixxx.,  197  ;  Dublin  Vnir.,  xxlll.,  p.  651 ;  N. 
Am.  Kev.  [Peabody],  lix.,  p.  70;  Littell's  Living 
Age,  iii.,  p.  289. 

Dra^vback,  a  term  used  in  commerce  to  signify 
the  remitting  or  paying  back  of  the  duties  previously 
paid  on  a  commodity  on  its  being  exported.  A  drawback 
is  a  device  resorted  to  for  enabling  a  commodity  affected 
by  ta.xes  to  lie  exported  and  sold  in  the  foreign  market 
on  the  same  terms  as  if  it  had  not  been  taxed  at  all.  It 
differs  in  this  from  a  bounty,  that  the  latter  enables  a 
commodity  to  lie  sold  abroad  for  lfs>  than  its  natural 
cost,  whereas  a  drawback  enables  it  to  be  sold  exactly  at 
its  natural  cost.  Drawbacks,  a;  Dr.  Smith  has  ob- 
served, "do  not  occasion  the  exportation  of  a  greater 
quantity  of  goods  than  would  have  been  exported  had 
no  duty  been  imposed.  They  do  not  tend  to  turn 
toward  any  particular  employment  ft  greater  share  of 
the  capital  of  tho  country  than  would  go  to  tiiat  em- 
ployment of  its  own  accord,  but  only  to  binder  the 
duty  from  driving  away  any  part  of  that  share  to 
other  employments.  They  tend  not  to  overturn  that 
lialance  which  naturally  establishes  itself  among  all 
the  various  employments  of  the  society,  'out  to  hinder 
it  from  being  overturned  by  the  dutj-.  They  tend  not 
to  destroy,  but  to  preserve,  whot  it  is  in  most  cases 
advantageous  to  preserve — the  natural  diviiion  and 
distribution  of  labor  in  the  society."  Were  it  not  for 
the  sj'stem  of  drawbacks,  it  would  lie  impossilile,  un- 
less when  a  country  enjoyed  some  very  jiecnliar  facil- 
ities of  production,  to  export  any  commodity  tlint  was 
more  heavily  taxed  at  home  than  abroad.  Hut  tho 
drawback  obviates  this  difRculty,  and  enables  mer- 
chants to  export  commodities  loaded  at  home  with 
heavy  duties,  and  to  sell  them  in  the  foreign  market 
on  the  same  terms  as  those  fetched  from  countries 
where  tliey  arc  not  taxed.  Most  foreign  artictles  im- 
ported into  this  countrj'  may  lie  warehoused  for  sulise- 
({Uent  exportation.  In  this  case  they  pay  no  duties  on 
lieing  imported,  and,  of  course,  get  no  drawliack  on 
their  sulisequent exportation.  Sometimes  a  drawback 
exceeds  the  duty  or  duties  laid  on  the  article ;  and  in 
such  cases  the  excetn  forms  a  real  bounty  of  that 
amount,  and  .should  be  so  considered. 

Dredging  Machine.  A  machine  for  clearing 
out  or  deepening  the  beds  of  navigable  rivers,  liarliors, 
canals,  etc.,  bj-  the  removal  of  deposited  matter. 

Dresden  China.  The  fine  |>oree1ain  ware  known 
as  Dresden  china  was  discovered  tiy  M.  Boeticlier,  who 
was  at  the  time  an  apothecarj-'s  Ikiv,  1700.  Services  of 
this  ware  have  cost  many  thousands  of  pounds  each. 
A  costly  sor\ice,  each  piece  exquisitely  painted,  and 
tho  liattlcs  represented,  and  subjects  all  different,  was 
presented  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington  by  tho  King  of 
Prussia,  in  1KI6,  and  is  the  finest  in  England. 

Dressing.  A  term  applied  to  gum,  starch,  and 
other  articles  used  in  stiffening  or  preparing  silk,  linen, 
and  other  fabrics. 

Drift,  in  navigation,  the  angle  which  the  line  of  a 
ship's  motion  makes  with  the  nearest  meridian,  when 
she  drives  with  her  side  to  the  wind  and  waves,  and  is 
not  governed  by  the  helm.  It  also  implies  the  distance 
which  tlie  ship  drives  on  that  line.  7>r//>,  in  mining,  n 
passage  cut  between  shaft  and  sha  1,  or  a  way  wrought 
under  the  earth, 


iiig  chieli\ 
euomy  /it  t 
the  ortiio  o 
that  ofiiec  i 
vested  in  t 
the  expens 
seas  of  pip, 
lie  at  once 
ment.     In 
•"■ought  .a, 
in  1801,  on( 
180(!,  Seven 
the  last  WL 
brought  £\ 
iind  so  l:irg( 
nioMient  in 
"ftcr  paying 
and  large  sti 
'ly,  gave  a 
service,     (i 
<^i»il  list,  in 
it  was  arra, 
roight  accrui 
exchequer  fi 
'lie  civil  list 
tiim  in  that  i 


•\;^ 


DRO 


S57 


DRU 


f(,r  clearing 
ers,  hurbore, 
inttcr. 

wiire  known 
rticlirr,  who 

8ervii:c«  of 
)oun(l9  cttfh. 
painted,  ami 
IffiTiMit,  was 

the  Kini;  of 
mil. 

stari'li,  ftnil 
ij;  8ilk,  linen, 

the  line  of  a 
riiliiin,  wh™ 
vavcs,  anil  i* 
)  the  dintunco 
I,  in  niinini?,  a 
■way  wrought 


Drift  of  Bottles.  It  is  a  custom  often  practiced 
by  seafaring  people  to  throw  a  bottle  overboaM,  with  a 
paper,  stating  the  time  and  place  at  which  it  ia  done. 
In  the  absence  of  other  information  as  to  currents,  that 
afforded  by  these  mute  little  navigators  is  of  great 
value.  They  leave  no  tracks  behind  them,  it  is  true, 
and  their  route  can  not  be  ascertained.  But  knowing 
where  they  were  cast,  and  seeing  where  they  are  found, 
some  idea  may  be  formed  as  to  their  course.  Straight 
lines  may  at  least  be  drawn,  showing  the  shortest  dis- 
tance from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  their  voyage, 
with  the  time  elapsed.  Admiral  Boechey,  R.  N.,  has 
prepared  a  chart,  representing,  in  this  way,  the  tracks 
of  more  than  100  battles.  From  it  it  appears  that  the 
waters  from  every  quarter  of  the  Atlantic  tend  toward 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  its  stream.  Bottles  cast  into 
the  sea  midway  between  the  Old  and  New  Worlds, 
near  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  America ;  at  the 
extreme  north,  or  further  south,  have  been  found  either 
in  the  West  Indies  or  the  British  isles,  or  within  the 
well-known  range  of  Gulf  Stream  waters.  Of  two  cost 
out  together  in  south  latitude  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
one  was  found  on  the  island  of  Trinidad,  the  other  on 
Guernsey,  in  the  English  Channel.  In  the  absence 
of  positive  infonnation  on  the  subject,  the  circumstan- 
tial evidence  that  the  latter  performed  the  tour  of  the 
Gulf  ia  all  l>ut  conclusive.  And  there  in  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  some  of  the  bottles  of  the  admiral's  chart 
have  also  performed  the  tour  of  the  Gulf  Stream ;  then, 
without  being  cast  ashore,  have  returned  with  the 
drift  along  the  coast  of  Africa  into  the  inter-tropi(  al 
region  ;  tlience  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  so  on 
with  the  Gulf  Stream  again.  Another  bottle  thrown 
over  off  Cape  Horn  by  an  American  master  in  1837, 
has  been  recently  picked  up  on  the  coast  of  Ireland. 
An  inspection  of  the  chart,  and  of  the  drift  of  the  other 
bottles,  seems  to  force  the  conclusion  that  this  bottle 
too  went  even  from  that  remote  region  to  the  so-called 
higher  level  of  the  Gulf  Stream  reservoir. — Mauby, 
Plii/s.  Giog.  nfthe  Sea. 

Drift-Bail,  a  sail  used  under  water,  veered  out 
riglit  a-hoad  by  slieets,  as  other  sails  are.  It  serves  to 
keep  tlie  ship's  head  riglit  upon  the  sea  in  a  storm,  and 
to  prevent  her  driving  t^o  fast  in  a  current. 

Drift-wood,  trees  or  timber  carried  out  to  sea  by 
rivers  when  in  flood ;  timber  drifted  or  floated  l)y  water. 

Driving,  in  sea  language,  is  said  of  a  ship  when 
her  aniliiir  fails  to  hold  her  fast,  and  pho  floats  away 
with  the  winil  or  tide.  A  vessel  is  also  said  to  drive 
when  she  scuds  before  a  gale. 

Droits  of  Admiralty.  The  perquisites  result- 
ing eliii'lly  from  tlic  seizure  of  tlio  property  of  an 
enemy  at  the  conmieiiceiuent  of  a  war,  and  attached  to 
the  otiico  of  Lord-higli-adiniral,  or  to  the  crown  when 
tliat  oflice  is  vacant.  These  perijuisites  were  originally 
vested  iu  the  sovereign,  to  enable  him  to  provide  for 
the  expense  of  defending  the  realm,  ond  clearing  the 
seas  of  pirates  ;  iind  their  value  and  importance  will 
bo  at  once  perceived  from  the  following  brief  state- 
ment. In  1TU8,  one  ship  wliich  had  l>een  captured 
brought  il.JOjOOOj  in  IHOO,  another  brought  i:«a,0UOi 
in  ISO-l,  one  taptureil  ship  was  worth  i:i05,()00;  and  in 
ISOfi,  several  taken  at  once  netted  X155,000.  During 
the  last  war,  also,  the  Dutch  ships  at  one  seizure 
brought  4:1,0:10,000;  the  Spanish  ships,  4:2,200,000; 
and  so  large  were  the  sums  made  at  ouo  and  the  same 
moment  in  this  rich  fund,  that  the  crown  one  ycor, 
after  paying  many  hundreds  of  thousands  to  captors, 
and  large  sums  to  ditrcront  branches  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily, gave  a  million  out  of  the  residue  to  the  public 
service.  {Edinb.  Rev.,  vol.  xxxiii.,  p.  482.)  By  the 
civil  list,  introduced  on  the  accession  of  William  IV., 
it  was  arranged  that  all  droits  of  admiralty  which 
might  accrue  during  his  reign  sliould  be  paid  into  the 
exchequer  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  public  service ;  and 
the  civil  list  of  her  present  majesty  has  made  no  altera- 
tiim  in  that  arrangement. — Brande, 


Drowned  Penona.  Dirtctimt  for  RaUmng 
Penotu  Apparently  Drmmtd,  From  R.  B.  Fobbrs, 
Esq.,  of  Boston,  an  officer  of  the  Iklassachusetts  Hu- 
mane Society. — Convey  the  body  to  the  nearest 
house,  with  head  raised.  Strip,  and  rub  dry ;  wrap 
in  blankets ;  inflate  the  lungs  by  closing  the  nostrils 
with  thumb  'and  finger,  and  blowing  into  the  mouth 
forcibly,  then  pressing  with  hand  on  the  chest.  Again 
blow  in  the  mouth  and  press  on  the  chest,  and  so  on 
for  TEN  MiNOTES,  or  until  be  breathes.  Keep  the 
body  warm,  extremities  also.  Continue  rubbing.  Do 
not  give  up  as  long  as  there  is  any  chance  of  success. 

Drugs,  Inspection  of.  By  an  act  of  Congress, 
passed  June  '2(i,  1848,  to  prevent  the  importation  of 
adulterated  and  spurious  drugs  and  medicines,  it  was 
provided,  that  all  drugs  and  medicines,  medicinal 
preparations,  including  medicinal  essential  oils  and 
chemical  preparations  used  wholly  or  in  part  as  medi- 
cine, imported  into  the  United  States  from  abroad, 
shall,  before  passing  the  custom-house,  be  examined 
and  approved,  as  well  in  reference  to  their  quality, 
purity,  and  fitness  for  medicinal  purposes  as  to  their 
value  and  identity  specified  in  the  invoice. 

Also,  that  all  medicinal  preparations,  whether  chem- 
ical or  othenvise,  usually  imported  with  the  name  of 
the  manufacturer,  shall  have  thj  true  name  of  the 
numufacturer,  and  the  place  where  they  are  prepared, 
permanently  and  legibly  affixed  to  each  parcel,  by 
stamp,  label,  or  otherwise ;  and  all  such  medicinal  pre- 
parations imported  without  such  names,  affixed  as 
aforesaid,  shall  be  adjudged  to  be  forfeited. 

That  if,  on  examination,  any  drugs,  medicines,  med- 
icinal preparations,  whether  chemical  or  otherwise, 
including  medicinal  essential  oils,  are  found,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  examiner,  to  be  so  far  adulterated,  or  in 
any  manner  deteriorated,  as  to  render  them  in  strength 
and  purity  inferior  to  the  standard  established  by  the 
United  States,  Edinburg,  London,  France,  and  German 
pharnnieopoeias  and  dispensaries,  and  thereby  improper, 
unsafe,  or  dangerous  to  be  used  for  medicinal  purposes, 
a  return  to  that  effect  shall  l>e  made  nyxm  the  invoice ; 
and  the  articles  so  noted  shall  not  pass  the  custom- 
house, unless,  on  re-examination  of  a  strictly  analytical 
character,  called  for  l)y  the  owner  or  consignee,  the  re- 
turn of  the  e.xaminer  s'.  all  be  found  erroneous ;  and  it 
sliall  be  declared  as  the  result  of  such  analysis,  that  the 
said  articles  may  properly,  safely,  and  without  danger, 
be  used  for  medicinal  pur|M)ses. 

That  the  owner  or  consignee  shall  at  all  times,  when 
dissatisfied  with  the  examiner's  return,  have  the  privi- 
lege of  calling,  at  his  own  expeme,  for  a  re-examina- 
tion ;  and  depositing  with  the  collector  such  sum  as 
tlio  latter  may  deem  sulltcicnt  to  defray  such  expense, 
it  sliall  be  tlio  duty  of  that  otHcer  to  procure  some  com- 
petent analytical  chemist  possessing  the  confidence  of 
the  medical  profession,  as  well  as  of  the  colleges  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy,  if  any  such  institutions  exist 
in  the  State  in  which  the  collection  district  is  situated,  a 
careful  analysis  of  the  articles  included  in  said  return, 
and  u  report  upon  the  same,  under  oath  ;  and  in  case 
the  re|Hirt,  which  shall  bo  final,  shall  declare  the  return 
of  the  examiner  to  be  erroneous,  and  the  said  articles 
to  tie  of  the  requisite  strength  and  purity,  accordAig  to 
the  standards  referred  to  in  the  next  preceding  section 
of  this  act,  the  entire  invoice  shall  be  passed  without 
reser\'atlon,  on  payment  of  the  customary  duties  ;  liut 
in  case  the  examiner's  return  shall  be  sustained  by  the 
analysis  and  report,  the  said  articles  shall  remain  in 
charge  of  the  collector,  and  the  owner  or  consignee,  on 
payment  of  the  charges  of  storage  and  other  expenses 
necessarily  incurred  liy  the  United  States,  and  on  giv- 
ing of  liond,  with  sureties  satisfactory  to  the  collector, 
to  land  said  articles  out  of  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  the  privilege  of  re-exporting  them  ut  any 
time  within  the  period  of  six  months  after  the  report 
of  the  analysis ;  but  if  the  auid  articles  shall  nut  lie  sent 
out  of  the  United  States  within  the  time  specified,  it 


DRY 


558 


DRY 


■liall  be  tbe  duty  of  the  collector,  at  the  exfitration  of 
the  said  time,  to  cause  the  same  to  be  destroj'ed,  hold- 
ing the  owner  or  consignee  responsible  to  the  United 
States  for  payment  of  all  chargen,  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  said  articles  had  been  re-exported. 

Drugget,  a  coarse  and  flimsy  woolen  texture, 
chiefly  used  for  covering  carpets.  It  was  fonnorly 
extensively  employed  as  an  article  of  clothing  among 
the  poorer  classes,  more  especially  of  fcinalofi  ;  but 
this  and  similar  fabrics  are  now  almost  wholly  super- 
seded by  cotton  goods,  which  induce  greater  cleanli- 
ness. 

Dninunond  Light.  The  three  angles  of  the 
enormous  triangles  by  which  a  topographical  survey  is 
primarily  conducted,  sometimes  80  or  100  miles  asun- 
der, must  be  visible  one  from  another ;  but  how  to 
produce  the  visibility  ?  In  the  earlier  sur^'eys,  where 
such  daring  distances  were  not  attempted,  a  signal 
light  was  in  some  cases  obtained  l>y  reflecting  the  light 
of  the  sun  from  a  well-adjusted  surface  of  polished  tin, 
or  by  Bengal  lights  being  fired  at  night,  or  by  a  pow- 
erful Argiind  lamp  being  placed  behind  a  lens  or  before 
a  parabolic  reflector ;  but  Lieutenant  Drummond,  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  Irish  survey,  made  a  happy 
suggestion  which  eclipsed  in  elBciency  all  others.  In 
what  is  called  the  Drummond  or  IJme  Light,  a,  small 
ball  of  lime  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  spirit-flame 
fed  by  pure  oxygen  gas ;  the  flame,  in  a  highly-vivid 
state,  heats  the  lime  to  an  intense  degree,  and  in  this 
heated  state,  it  emits  a  light  of  suq)rising  brilliancy, 
far  exceeding  that  of  any  flame  j-ct  seen.  So  Iieauti- 
fuUy  was  Drummond's  apparatus  constructed,  that  the 
lamp  fed  itself  with  spirit  and  witli  oxygen,  supplied 
itself  with  balls  of  lime  as  each  one  slowly  wasted, 
and  reflected  its  surpassing  liglit  from  un  exquisitely- 
jifllished  parabolic  surface  of  silvered  copper.  It  was 
not  merely  figuratively  but  literally  true,  tliat  a  piece 
of  lime,  not  bigger  than  a  Iwy's  marble,  emitted  a  liglit 
at  Londonderry  which  was  visible  at  Belfast — a  .'.;i- 
tance  in  a  direct  line  of  nearly  seventy  miles.  On  a 
later  occasion  Colonel  Colby  made  a  lime-light  signal 
visible  from  Antrim  in  Ireland  to  Ben  Lomond  in 
Scotland,  a  straight-lino  distance  of  95  miles.      See 

LlOIIT-IIOUSES. 

Dry  Distillation.  This  term  is  applied  to  the 
distillation  of  substimccs  per  se,  or  without  the  ad- 
dition of  wotcr :  thus  if  we  put  wood  into  a  retort  or 
otiicr  distillatory  apparatus,  and  subject  it  to  lient,  it 
yleliis  tur,  vinegar,  water,  and  various  gaseous  and 
other  ni;itters.     See  Distillation. 

Drying  Machines.  The  drying  process ,  l)y  cen- 
trifugal agency,  is  of  very  wide  application.  Bleach- 
ers, (ij-crs,  and  calico-printers  use  it.  Tlie  wet  mass  of 
cloth  or  yam  is  put  into  a  hollow  cylinder ;  this  cyl- 
inder is  made  to  revolve  from  1  to  '.'  tliousand  times  in 
a  minute ;  tlie  moisture  is  driven  fmni  the  cloth  with 
great  violence ;  o|)enings  are  left  to  afl'dnl  an  exit  for 
this  water  into  an  outer  vessel,  and  in  a  few  seconds 
the  cloth  is  nearly  drj-.  Nothing  l)ut  actunlly  wit- 
nessing the  process,  can  convey  an  adequate  idea  of 
tlie  rapidity  of  this  drying  process.  In  some  of  tlie 
baths  and  laundries  now  estalilishcd,  machines  of  this 
liind  are  employed  to  supersede  the  hnnl  necessity  of 
"  wringing"  tlie  wet  linen — a  great  liooii  to  the  jioor 
women  who  avail  tliemselves  of  these  advniitiiges. 

Dry  Rot.  A  most  destructive,  and  apparently 
infectious  disease  in  timber,  which,  by  decomposing 
the  filires,  deprives  it  of  all  strength,  and  in  i.o  great 
length  of  time,  reduces  it  to  a  mass  of  dry  dust ;  a 
circumstance  from  which  it  seems  to  have  derived  its 
name,  which,  perhaps,  would  lie  lietter  expresse<l  liy 
that  of  tnp  rot. 

Though  this  disease  must  from  its  nature  have 
been  co-existent  with  tlie  timber-trees,  it  would  not 
seem  to  hare  excited  much  attention,  and  perhaps  was 
not  known,  certainly  not  liy  its  present  name,  before 
the  middle  of  the  last  century ;  at  some  period,  we 


rather  think,  of  Sir  JoLa  Pringle's  presidency  of  thi 
Royal  Society  of  London.  But  for  a  long  time  after 
this  little  notice  appears  to  have  been  taken  of  it ;  its 
ravages  being,  In  all  probaliilit}-,  inconsideralile,  in 
comparison  with  what  they  have  been  of  late  j-ears. 
Even  now,  the  disease  Is,  in  fact,  chiefly  confined  to 
modem-built  houses  and  modem-built  ships,  and  more 
particularly  to  the  ships  of  the  navy.  The  proximate 
cause  of  it  has,  therefore,  rightly  enough,  as  it  would 
seem,  been  ascribed  to  the  unseasonable  state  of  the 
timber,  when  placed  in  certain  situations,  and  under 
particular  circumstances.  It  could  not  fail,  in  tlio 
course  of  tlio  late  long-protracted  war,  to  become  a 
matter  of  general  observation,  that  a  more  rapid  decay 
than  usual  hud  become  almost  universal  throughout 
the  fleet,  and  especially  among  the  newest  and  most 
recently  repaired  ships.  Many  anxious  inquiries  were 
instituted,  and  experiments  made,  with  the  view  of 
ascertaining  the  real  cause  of  a  decay,  the  further  pre- 
vention of  which  was  so  highly  important  to  the  na- 
tional welfare  and  security.  The  alarm  was  greatly 
increased  when,  in  1810,  the  Queen  Charloll.\  a  first 
rate  ship  of  war,  shortly  afterward  launched  at  Dept- 
ford,  was  discovered,  after  a  close  examination,  to 
have  all  her  upper  works  infected  with  the  ilri/  rot; 
or,  in  other  words,  the  ends  of  most  of  the  beams,  car- 
lings,  and  ledges,  the  joinings  of  the  planks,  etc.,  were 
observed  to  be  covered  with  a  mouldy,  fibrous,  and  re- 
ticulated crust,  and  the  parts  of  the  timber  so  covered 
to  1)0  perfectly  rotten.  All  the  newsnapers  and  jour- 
nals of  the  day  were  filled  with  this  u.amiing  fact,  and, 
in  consequence  thereof,  a  multitude  of  dry  rot  doctors 
proflTered  their  assistance :  one  having  a  nostrum  for 
eradicating  the  disease  where  it  had  made  its  appear- 
ance, and  another  for  preventing  its  ftirther  approach. 
Some  of  these  specifics  were  expensive  and  incon- 
venient, many  of  them  impracticable  of  application, 
and  most  of  them  futile  and  olijectionable  in  one  way 
or  another.  These  doctors,  in  fact,  like  the  physicians 
for  the  human  liody,  wlion  ttie  seat  of  tlio  disease  is 
unknown,  were  lalioring  altogether  in  the  dark,  having 
no  other  guide  to  direct  thorn  than  their  own  whims 
and  fancies,  each  being  ignor-mt  of  the  eflTect  of  the 
respective  experiments  which  they  wished  to  try  on 
this  diseased  macliinc. 

Proerat  of  the  Cnmmnn  lint, — Authors  are  at  variance 
among  themselves,  whether  the  conimofi  rot  in  timber, 
or  the  dry  rot,  lie  not  one  and  the  same  disease.  A 
little  reflection,  however,  will,  we  conceive,  lead  us  to 
consider  them  as  essentially  dilfcront,  both  in  the 
symptoms,  the  progress,  and  the  causes,  though  tlie 
effect  of  destroying  the  fibre  of  the  wood  is  jirctty 
nearly  the  same.  If  a  post  of  wood,  for  instance,  bo 
driven  into  the  ground,  seasoned,  or  unseasoned,  it  will 
speedily  begin  to  decay  just  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or,  as  it  were,  lictwoen  the  earth  and  tlie  air; 
if  driven  into  the  eartli  through  water,  as  in  a  pond, 
the  decay  will  commenoo  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 
or,  as  it  is  tichnically  expressed,  between  wind  anil 
water,  while  oil  almve  water,  and  all  that  is  constantly 
immerged  in  the  water,  as  well  as  the  part  in  the  earth, 
will  remain  sound.  Thus,  also,  a  beam  of  wood  let 
into  a  damp  wall,  will  begin  to  rot  just  where  it  enters 
the  wall ;  so  will  wooden  bannisters  when  they  are  let 
through  the  top  and  foot-rails.  In  these,  and  similar 
cases,  the  rot  begins  externally,  and  its  progress  is  in- 
wi  rd,  and  is  more  or  less  accelerated  by  the  alternate 
action  of  wind,  heat,  and  moisture,  being  ijrenlml  wlicn 
the  altematives  of  exposure  to  wet  and  drouglit  are 
most  frequent,  and  least  whnn  (Constantly  immersoil  In 
water,  or  constantly  preserved  in  a  dry  utmosph 're. 
Such  we  believe  to  be  the  usual  process  of  the  enm- 
mon  ml  in  wiHid,  and  it  is  evidently  occasioned  by  al- 
tcmatc  cxposiiie  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  to 
moisture  and  dryness,  to  heat  and  cold. 

Pmrefs  uf  the  Dry  Rot. — If  the  same  post  bo  well 
charred,  or  covered  over  with  a  thick  coating  of  paint, 


DRY 


660 


DRY 


Lt  bo  -well 
1  of  paint, 


or  vanilah,  or  tar,  no  such  effect  will  be  prodaced  ex- 
temally,  the  coating  lieing  sufficient  to  protect  it 
against  the  action  of  the  weather;  but  if  it  should 
happen  to  be  a  green,  or  unaeasoned  piece  of  wood  so 
tarred  or  painted,  in  no  great  length  of  time  the  wood 
will  bo  found  to  have  Iwgun  to  decay  inttmally,  while 
the  outer  surface  apjiears  uninjured,  liut  at  length  it  will 
also  yield  to  the  disease.  If  this  piece  of  wood  had 
been  placed  in  a  warm  cellar  or  close  room,  where  there  is 
little  or  no  circulation  of  air,  and  more  particularly  if 
the  room  or  cellar  were  damp,  thero  would  be  per- 
ceived, in  no  great  length  of  time,  a  fine  mould)-  coat- 
ing spread  over  its  surface,  of  a  brownish  yellow  or 
dirty  white ;  and  shortly  afterward  it  would  be  found, 
on  examination,  to  resemble  in  its  form  and  structure 
some  of  the  beautifully  ramified  cdgtf,  or  sea  weeds ; 
which,  in  process  of  time  would  become  more  compact, 
the  Interstices  being  so  completely  filled  up  as  to  give 
the  whole  mass  the  appearance  and  consistence  of 
leather.  "  At  first,"  says  one  -.  iter,  "  its  appearance 
is  that  of  fine  fibres  running  on  the  surface  in  endless 
ramifications,  resemlding  the  nervous  fibres  of  leaves  ; 
presently  the  interstices  are  filled  up  with  a  spongy  or 
leather-lil(c  sul)stance,  assuming  the  character  of  cryp- 
togamous  plants  distinguished  l)y  the  name  of  fun- 
ffut." 

By  Mr.  Wade,  the  general  sj'mptoms  of  dn/  rot  are 
thns  described  :  "  The  wood  at  first  swells  ;  after 
some  time  it  chaViges  its  color,  then  omits  gases  which 
have  a  mouldy  or  musty  smell.  In  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  it  the  mass  arises,  and  cracks  in  transverse 
directions.  Lastly,  it  Iwcomes  pulverulent,  and  forms 
vegetable  earth ;  and,  generally,  in  some  of  these 
stages  of  decay,  the  different  species  of  fungus  are 
found  to  vegetate,  on  the  mass." — Treatise  on  the  Dry 
Rot  m  Timber,  by  Thomas  Wade. 

These  ap))earances  do  not  invariably  take  place,  the 
surface  of  tho  diseased  timt)er  sometimes  remaining 
undianged,  while  tho  process  of  rotting  is  going  on 
within ;  they  are,  however,  pretty  consfjint.  But 
however  sound  the  surface  may  l)e,  it  will  appear,  on 
examining  the  piece  of  wood,  placed  in  a  situation 
similar  to  those  above  mentioned,  that  the  whole  of 
tho  interior  fil)res  are  decomposed,  and  l)ecome  a  mass 
of  dust  inclosed  within  a  thin  external  shell.  No 
cliarring  of  the  surface,  no  paint,  tar,  or  varnish,  will 
prevent  this  process  from  tailing  place,  when  the  seeds 
of  the  dry  rot  exist,  an<l  are  placed  in  a  situation  favor- 
able for  their  growth,  though  they  may  prevent  the 
external  character  of  mouUliness  from  taking  place  an 
tho  surface. 

Oiiirnclrristic  Differenre  of  the  two  Rots. — The 
symptomatic  differenre,  then,  between  the  common  rot 
and  the  dry  rot  may  perhaps  l)e  thus  defined  :  Com- 
mon rot  is  a  disease  in  timlwr,  occasiimed  by  the  alter- 
nations of  the  weather  acting  on  its  surface,  and  de- 
stroying its  fil)res  externally  inward.  Dry  rot  is  a 
disease  in  timl)er,  occasioned  by  l)eing  shut  up  in 
warm,  close,  and  moist  situations,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  destroy  its  fibres  by  a  process  acting  internally 
outward. 

Causes  oj  the  Dry  Rnl. — Without  stopping  to  inquire 
in  wliat  manner,  and  bj'  what  agency,  chemical  or  me- 
chanical, or  both,  the  common  rot  acts  on  the  external 
fibres  of  tho  wood,  the  effect  of  alternate  exposure  to 
the  weather  is  tuo  well  known  to  rccpiire  any  further 
proof  as  to  its  being  tlie  innnediate  cause.  The  immedi- 
ate cause  of  tlio  dry  rot  is  equally  ol>vi(Uis ;  but  the 
predisposing  state  of  the  timber  to  contract  tlie  disease 
is  not  so  clear  a  problem.  Accordingly,  theories  with- 
out end  have  been  hatched  to  explain  the  phenomenon. 
A  writer  in  a  public  jonrnal,  who  has  sliglitiy  touched 
on  the  subject,  thus  explains  it:  "  It  is  well  known," 
he  observes,  "  that  if  a  piece  of  green  wood  lie  laid 
across  a  fire,  the  air  within,  expanded  by  the  heat,  will 
drive  out  ut  each  extremity  a  viscous  fluid,  possessing 
the  property  of  disposing  itself  en  the  surface  i  1  retic- 


ulated fllamenta.  Tho  same  appearance  of  nervous 
foliation  is  not  uncommon  In  the  intermediate  spaces 
of  the  concentric  layers  of  the  allmmum  of  wood ;  and 
the  core  or  heart  of  trees,  and  particularly  of  the  pitch- 
pine,  after  its  passage  in  the  heated  hold  of  a  ship,  ii 
often  enveloped  with  a  membranous  corticle,  like  that 
which  lies  immediately  beneath  the  bark.  All  these 
appearances  are  certain  indications  of  thj  dry  rot ;  and 
they  point  out,  with  suiilcient  clearness,  that  the  sap, 
or  principle  of  vegetation,  brought  into  activity,  is  the 
cau>e  of  the  disease ;  the  effect,  though  infinitely  more 
rapid,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  common  rot.  It  is 
still  a  problem,  in  wliat  manner  this  sap  circulates ; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  tubes  and  cells  of  the 
alburnum,  or  sap-wood,  are  filled  with  it  in  the  spring 
of  the  year,  and  that  they  are  empty  in  the  winter ; 
that  it  is  organized  matter,  developing  itself  by  heat 
in  all  the  various  forms  of  new  bark,  leaves,  and 
branches.  The  8teo<  of  a  tree  cut  down,  will,  on  the 
return  of  summer,  iii.ike  an  effort  to  push  out  leaves ; 
a  more  feeble  efl'ort  of  this  organized  sap  ends  in  the 
production  of /un^u*  only." — Quartei-ly  Review,  No.  xv. 
The  real  efficient  cause  of  the  Ary  rot,  is  that  of  the 
juices  of  the  timber  being  brought  into  a  state  of 
putrefaction,  occasioned  generally  by  exposure  to  a 
moderate  degree  of  heat  and  moisture  in  a  stagnant 
atmosphere,  "  To  favor  this  process,"  says  Mr.  Wade, 
"  as  much  as  possible,  the  air  and  water  should  not  be 
renewed,  as  they  undergo  a  decomposition,  which  takes 
place  verj-  slowly."  From  the  structure  of  timber  be- 
ing composed  longitudinally  of  an  assemblage  of  pipes 
or  tulws,  it  is  only  necessary  that  one  end  of  a  log  of 
wood  should  be  placed  in  a  damp  or  wet  situation,  to 
occasion  the  moisture  to  be  conveyed  lo  the  opposite 
end  by  capillary  attraction  ;  and  hence  arises  the  in- 
fectious nature  of  the  disease,  which  will  always  spread 
wherever  the  moisture  finds  its  way  ;  and  even  where 
there  is  no  moisture,  it  will  be  created  by  the  filaments 
of  the  fungi  working  their  wi^'  through  the  tubes  of 
the  dry  wood  and  carrying  it  with  them.  Hence,  also, 
the  rapid  decay  in  ships  of  war,  from  the  great  inter- 
nal heat  occasioned  by  the  numlier  of  men,  tlio  moist- 
nre,  and  the  close  air.  Hence,  also,  in  houses,  the 
dn/  rot  always  first  appears  in  the  lower  apartments, 
where  the  floors,  partitions,  skirting-boards,  etc.,  are 
supplied  with  moisture  from  the  wet  walls  on  the 
ground.  In  the  London  houses  there  is  generally  a 
room  on  the  basement  story,  called  tho  house-keeper's 
room,  which  is  boarded,  and  carefully  covered  over" 
with  an  oiled  floor-cloth.  In  such  a  room  the  dry  rot 
is  sure  to  make  its  appearance.  The  wood  absorbs  the 
aqueous  vapor  which  the  oil-cloth  will  not  allow  to  es- 
cape, and  being  assistetl  by  the  heat  of  the  air  in  such 
apartments,  the  decay  goes  on  most  rapidly  ;  and,  as 
Mr.  Wade  observes,  "  if  the  seed  of  fungus  be  present, 
the  plant  is  developed  in  all  the  superfluity  of  vigor 
exhibited  in  a  hot-house,  where  the  same  means  are 
resorted  to,  namely,  an  atmosphere  scientilically  and 
artificially  heated,  and  highly  charge<l  with  aqueous 
vapor."  Timber  may,  in  fact,  have  tho  seeds  of  dry 
rot  within  it,  and  yet  by  proper  treatment  be  kejit 
sound  for  a  great  length  of  time.  Thus,  ships  laden 
with  particular  cargoes,  atfoni  remarkable  instances  of 
the  eftects  of  such  cargoes  on  tlieir  duration.  The 
warm  moisture  created  by  a  cargo  of  hemp  is  commu- 
nicated to  the  timlwr,  and  promotes  a  rapid  putrefac- 
tion. Mr.  Chapman  says,  tliat  the  ship  Brothers,  built 
at  Whitby,  of  green  timber,  proceeded  to  Petersburg 
for  a  cargo  of  hemp.  The  next  year  it  was  found,  on 
examination,  that  her  timbers  were  rotten,  and  all  the 
planking,  excepting  n  thin  external  skin.  A  lading 
of  cotton  is  always  injurious  to  the  ship,  and  even  teak 
is  affected  by  a  cargo  of  jwppei .  The  timber  which  is 
brought  from  America  in  tlie  heated  liidd  of  a  ship,  is 
invariably  covered  over,  on  being  landed,  with  a  com- 
plete coating  of  fungus.  It  was  the  too  general  use  of 
this  timber  in  ships  of  the  royal  navy  that  at  one  time 


DRY 


660 


DBT 


iBcraMed  tha  dU«ais  to  tuoh  an  alarmliig  degrc*. 
TboM  ahips,  on  the  contrary,  which  are  employed  con- 
stantly in  tha  coul  and  lirae-trade,  are  reiy  durable, 
and  have  been  known  to  laat  for  a  century.  Tliese 
effects  are  obviously  to  be  ascribed  to  the  exclusion  of 
air  In  the  one  case  from,  and  the  free  admission  of  it 
in  the  other  to,  thu  interior  surface  of  the  sliip,  asitisted 
in  the  latter  instance  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  by 
the  coals  and  lime  from  the  timber  and  planking. 

Prevention  of  Dry  Rot. — If  wa  arrive  at  the  right 
conclusion  as  to  the  cause  of  dry-rot  in  timber,  we  can 
be  at  no  loss  with  regard  to  tha  mode  of  treatment  for 
the  prevention  of  the  disease.  The  experiments  for 
this  purpose  have  been  very  numerous,  but  may  be 
classed  under  three  general  bends ;  desiccation  or  sea- 
soning ;  immersion  in  earth,  sand,  or  water ;  and  im- 
pregnation with  some  foreign  matter,  which  will  resist 
pntrefaction. 

The  most  simple  and  common  mode  of  ptevonting 
the  decomposition  of  vegetal>le  matter,  is  by  depriving 
it  of  moisture.  Various  schemes  have  been  put  in 
practice  fur  drying  the  juices  in  large  logs  of  timber. 
Time  alone  will  do  it  when  the  wood  Is  placed  in  fa- 
vorable situations,  that  is  to  say,  in  a  dry  atmosphere, 
and  constantly  e.xposed  to  a  free  circulation  of  air; 
but  time  will  also  produce  the  rot  in  timber  when  piled 
up  In  stacks  in  the  open  air,  imbibing  moisture  from 
tha  earth,  and  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  sea- 
aona,  and  the  alternatives  of  woather ;  scorched  at  one 
time  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  at  another  drenched  with 
rain,  and  rent  and  split  in  every  possible  way  by  the 
freezing;  of  the  water  which  has  in^inuuted  itself  into 
the  pores  and  crevices  of  the  wood.  It  was  formerly, 
and,  indeed,  till  very  lately,  the  practice  to  let  ships 
of  war  remain  on  the  stocks  in  frame  for  two,  three,  or 
four  years,  to  leaton,  as  it  was  called ;  but  there  never 
was  so  mistaken  a  notion.  "  >Vhen  a  ship,"  says  Mr. 
Wade,  "  is  built,  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  lower 
part  farms  a  grand  reservoir  for  all  the  rain  that  falls  ; 
and  as  the  timbers  in  that  part  are  placed  as  close 
together  as  possible,  the  wet  escapes  very  slowly. 
Those  timlwrs  are  always  soaked  with  moisture,  and, 
to  some  distance  from  the  keel,  exhibit  a  i;reen  appear- 
ance ;  their  green  matter,  when  viewed  through  a  mi- 
croscope, is  found  to  be  a  l)eautiful  and  completely 
formed  moss,  which  vei^ctutes  at  the  expense  of  the 
timber.  If  to  season  timber  be  only  to  dry  it,  the 
sooner  it  is  dried  the  i  'cttcr ;  i-nd  when  completely  drj-, 
It  can  not  too  soon  be  employed  in  ship-building,  when 
it  should  be  kept  dry.  It  can  not  cnswer  any  end  to 
have  seven  years'  wear  out  of  a  ship  on  the  utocks." 
At  length  our  shipwrights  are  convinced  of  this  truth, 
and  the  plan  now  generally  adopted  in  shi|>-building  is 
to  protect  the  vessel  by  a  roofed  structure,  with  the 
aides  open  to  admit  a  free  current  of  air,  but  to  exclude 
all  moisture,  as  well  as  the  raj-s  of  the  sun  (see  Dook- 
YAHDS) ;  a  practice  which  we  have  tardily  adopted 
from  the  Swedes  and  the  Venetians.  A  new  system 
seems  also  to  have  been  adopted  in  the  piling  of  the 
timlier  stacks.  Instead  of  their  beirig  placed  on  old,  use- 
less, unil  often  rotten  logs  of  timber  resting  on  the 
^ound,  they  are  now  insulated  from  the  earth  on  stone 
or  iron  pillars  ;  and  in  place  of  their  surfaces  coming 
in  contact  with  each  other,  pieces  of  wood  are  placed 
lirtween  tliem  so  as  to  admit  of  a  circulation  of  air. 
Nothing  further  appears  to  be  wanting  but  to  protect 
the  trps  and  the  ends  of  the  stocks  or  piles  from  the 
effocts  of  the  weather. 

Of  the  various  niiKles  of  artificial  and  rapid  desicca- 
tion, that  of  charring  is  perhaps  the  best ;  but  it  is 
liable  to  two  objections  ;  the  first  is,  that  if  the  surface 
be  completely  charred,  it  diminishes  very  much  the 
strength  of  the  timber;  and,  secondly,  it  the  more 
readily  attracts  moisture.  Tho  juices  cf  timber  may 
ba  drawn  off  or  liardened  by  kiln-drying ;  but  this  also 
disturbs  the  arrangement  of  the  fibres,  and  deprives 
the  wood  of  a  great  part  of  its  strength. 


ExperirutUt — Sea$omng  J'imber. — Tha  ezparlmeots 
made  by  Mr.  Lukin  for  the  rapid  seasoning  of  green 
oak  timtci,  promised  at  one  time  much  success,  but 
ended  In  disappointment.  He  conceived,  that  if  tha 
acid  and  the  watery  particles  were  driven  out  of  a 
piece  of  oak  timber  by  some  process  which  should  pre- 
vent the  surface  from  splitting,  the  fibres  would  ba 
brought  closer  Into  contact,  and  whilst  the  log  lost  in 
weight  it  would  gain  In  strength.  With  this  view  he 
buried  a  piece  of  wood  in  pulverized  charcoal,  in  a 
heated  oven.  The  log  wore  a  promising  appearance ; 
the  surface  was  close  and  compact ;  it  had  lost  in  its 
weight  and  dimensions ;  but  when  divided  with  the 
saw,  the  fibres  were  discovered  to  have  started  from 
each  other,  exhiliiting  a  piece  of  fine  net-work,  resem- 
bling the  inner  l>ark  of  a  tree. 

The  bad  effects  of  applying  artificial  heat  to  the  sea- 
soning of  green  timber,  were  strongly  exemplified  by 
a  practice  introduced  very  generally  into  our  ships  of 
war  which  had  exhibited  indications  of  the  dr}-  rot, 
particularly  in  the  Queen  Charlotte.  Enormous  fires 
were  made  in  stoves  placed  in  various  parts  of  the 
ship,  and  the  heat  led  in  tubes  to  the  cavities  between 
the  timbers,  etc.  The  consequence  of  which  was,  as 
might  1)0  expected,  an  increase  of  the  mischief  they 
were  intended  to  prevent.  Ever}'  part  of  the  ship  was 
converted  into  a  hot-house,  and  every  part  where  the 
seeds  of  fungi  had  been  deposited  began  to  throw  out  a 
luxuriant  crop  of  mushrooms ;  and  where  these  did  not 
appear,  the  juices  of  the  wood  were  thrown  into  a  state 
of  fermentation,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  twelve-month, 
a  groat  part  of  her  upper  works  became  a  mass  of  rot- 
tenness. After  staving  tha  powder  magazines  of  some 
of  the  ships,  there  appeared  under  their  floors,  which 
are  contiguous  to  much  moisture,  numbers  of  large 
excrescences  of  a  leathery  consistence,  of  the  size  and 
ahape  of  a  quart  gl|^-decanter ;  and  In  all  such  parts 
where  two  surfaces  of  the  wood  were  Imperfectly 
l>rought  into  contact,  were  whole  masses  of  fungi. 

Winler.fiUcd  Timber. — Another  mode,  of  very  an- 
cient standing,  was  practiced  for  getting  rid  cf  tho 
juices  of  timber.  This  was  supposed  to  be  effected  by 
felling  the  tree  In  the  winter  season,  when  the  sap  hud 
descended  and  the  vessels  were  empty.  By  this  prac- 
tice the  bark  of  the  oak,  so  valuable  in  the  process  of 
tanning,  was  lost,  as  it  will  strip  only  from  the  wood 
in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  sap  is  said  to  be 
rising.  The  supposed  superior  quality  of  the  wood, 
when  winter-felled,  and  the  general  practice  of  felling 
oak  timber  at  that  season,  may  be  inferred  from  a  stat- 
ute of  Juiiies  I.,  by  which  it  is  enacted,  that  no  person 
or  persons  shall  fell,  or  cause  to  be  felled,  any  oaken 
trees  meet  to  be  harked,  when  bark  Is  worth  2s.  a  cart- 
load (tinil)cr  for  the  needful  building  and  reparation  uf 
houses,  ships,  or  mills,  only  excepted),  but  between 
the  first  day  of  April  and  the  last  day  of  .Tune,  not  nvcn 
for  the  king's  use,  out  of  barking-time,  except  fur 
building  or  repairing  his  majesty's  houses  or  ships. 

The  old  Sovereiffn  of  the  Sean  is  the  standing  exam- 
ple generally  quoted  to  prove  the  beneficial  effocts  uf 
winter-felled  timber.  Wo  are  informed  by  one  writer 
that,  when  taken  in  pieces,  after  47  years'  service,  tho 
old  timl)er  was  still  so  hard  that  it  was  no  easy  matter 
to  drive  a  nail  into  it,  and  all  future  writers  have  taken 
it  fur  granted  that  this  was  owing  to  its  being  winter- 
felled.  Mr.  Pett,  however,  who  built  her,  takes  i.i 
notice  of  any  such  circumstance.  He  merely  says  lie 
WHS  commanded  by  the  king,  on  the  I  Itli  of  May,  l(ilir>, 
to  hasten  intu  the  north  to  procure  the  framc-tim'.ier.H, 
[ilank,  and  treenails,  for  tho  great  new  ship  at  Wool- 
wich. Ilut  lie  left  his  son  behind  to  .••hip  tho  moulds, 
proviiions,  and  workmen,  in  u  hired  chip,  to  trnnsiiurt 
them  to  Newcastle  ;  that  the  frame,  as  it  was  ;;ut 
ready,  was  sent  in  colliers  from  Niwcastle  and  .Sun- 
derland ;  and  that,  on  the  21st  December,  in  the  sapie 
year,  the  keel  was  laid  in  the  dock ;  and  in  less  than 
two  years  after  this  she  was  launched.   Now,  as  it  was 


DRY 


Ml 


DRY 


o(  tho 
fected  by 
! sap  hud 
,hi9  pruc- 
■ocess  of 
Hie  wood 
aid  to  be 
tie  wood, 
of  feUint; 
m  a  stat- 
ic person 
ny  oaken 
>9.  a  cart- 
iration  of 
between 
not  oven 
cept  for 
ships. 
ijjT  oxiim- 
..ffects  of 
nc  writer 
rvice,  tho 
sy  niattiT 
I've  taken 
ijT  winter- 
takes  r.t 
y  savs  lie 
|lay,lC:ir>, 
:.tini".iers, 
at  Wool- 
|o  inoulds, 
trnnt^liort 
was  'r;^t 
and  Siin- 
|»  the  SO"'* 
,  loss  thttii 
r  as  It  w« 


the  middle  of  May  before  Mr.  Pett  received  liU  msj> 
esty's  commnnda  to  procure  timber  for  this  ship,  Aud 
as  she  was  on  the  stocks  the  same  year,  it  Is  nut  very 
prubable  that  the  timlier  procured  and  sent  In  colliers 
from  Newcastle  to  Woolwich,  was  felled  in  the  winter  ( 
much  less  could  it  have  been  "  stripped  of  Its  bark  In 
the  spring,  and  felled  the  aecond  succeeding  autumn," 
as  Mr.  Wade  has  It. 

Neither  is  there  the  least  proof  cf  the  old  Roi/nl 
William,  recently  broken  up,  when  a  century  old,  be. 
ing  built  of  winter-felled  timber.  The  fact  Is,  that  she 
was  rebuilt  half  a  dozen  times,  and  the  only  old  »l)d 
original  timber  remaining  in  her  was  in  the  lowest 
part  of  her  hull,  always  Immersed  In  the  salt-water 
externally,  and  washed  with  the  bilgn-watsr  inter- 
nally; and  the  wood  from  this  part  of  lier,  wl>en 
broken  up,  was  perfectly  sound,  but  quite  black,  bitv^ 
ing  the  appearance  of  being  charred. 

As  far  as  experiments  have  been  made,  there  is  iw 
reason  to  conclude  that  timber  felled  in  tlie  winter  is 
at  all  more  durable  than  that  which  is  felled  at  tU« 
usual  time.  In  the  year  1798,  the  Ifawke,  sIiHip-uf- 
war,  was  ordered  to  be  built,  one  side  being  of  tinilier 
that  had  been  barked  in  the  spring  and  felled  In  the 
winter,  and  the  other  side  with  timber  felled  at  the 
usual  tune.  In  1803  she  was  reported  to  be  In  so  bad 
a  state  of  rottenness,  that  she  was  ordered  to  be  takeit 
in  pieces,  when  no  ditforence  whatever  coulii  be  dis- 
covered in  the  state  of  the  timbers  of  tlie  two  »iiles.  It 
is  suld,  however,  in  Derrak's  Memoirs  of  the  Nuinj, 
"  that  the  timber  had  been  stripped  in  tlie  spring  of 
1787,  and  not  felled  until  the  autumn  of  1790,"  and  this 
is  given  as  an  explanation  of  the  failure.  Why  the 
barking  in  the  spring  should  add  to  the  durability  of 
timlier,  Is  not  easily  conceive<l,  if  the  objei  i  lie  to  fell 
the  timber  when  all  the  sap-vessels  are  eiii|ity,  as,  if 
the  sup  descends  at  all,  which  is  doubtful,  it  might  be 
expected  to  descend  more  freely  when  the  bark  is  nn 
than  off  the  tree.  This  subject  has  not  escaped  the 
attention  of  the  commissioners  of  the  royal  woods  and 
forests,  and  various  experiments  have  been  made  with 
a  view  to  throw  more  light  on  a  subject  so  vitally  im^ 
portunt  to  the  British  Navy.  In  France,  so  long  ago 
as  1CG9,  a  royal  ordinance  limited  Im  felling  of  timber 
from  the  1st  October  to  the  l&th  .  -il ;  and  the  con- 
servators of  the  forests  directed  tl  the  trees  should 
be  felled  wlKsn  the  "  wind  was  at  n>  j,"  and  "  in  tlis 
wane  of  the  moon ;"  and  we  And  an  i  i  '  rurtion  of  llo- 
naparte,  that  "  as  ships  built  of  timln  :  rolled  at  the 
moment  of  vegetation  must  be  liable  to  rapid  decay, 
and  require  immediate  repairs,  from  the  effect  of  the 
fermentation  of  the  sap  in  those  pieces  which  had  not 
been  felled  at  the  proper  season ;"  the  agents  of  tlie 
forests  should  almdge  the  time  for  felling  naval  tim- 
ber, which  should  take  place  "  in  the  decrease  of  the 
moon,  from  the  1st  Noveml>er  to  the  15th  March." 

Immersion  m  JCarth,  Sand,  or  Water. — Tho  facts  ara 
so  numerous  and  so  strong  in  favor  of  tho  durability 
of  timber  when  steeped  in  water,  or  buried  in  eartli  or 
sand,  that  no  doubt  whatever  can  be  entertained  of  the 
effieaey  of  such  a  practice.  At  Brest,  all  the  timber 
used  in  ship-building  is  deposited  in  tho  narrow  creek  of 
the  harbor  which  runs  through  the  middle  of  tho  dock- 
yard, and  It  Is  said  that  tho  Brest-built  ships  never  had 
the  ivy  rot.  The  same  practice  prevailed  at  Cadiz  and 
Carthagena.  Indeed  there  is  reason  to  think  that 
steeping  in  fresh  water  is  a  preventive  of  dry  rot,  prob- 
ttldy  by  dissolving  the  juices  of  the  timber.  It  was 
an  ancient  practice,  and  we  believe  it  is  still  followed  In 
some  parts  of  Knglund,  to  place  the  timlier  Intended 
for  threshing-rtoors  in  tho  midst  of  a  stream  of  water 
to  harden  it ;  and  all  the  oak  planks  intended  for  the 
wainscoating  of  the  old  mansions  were  previously 
steeped  in  running  water. 

It  is  said,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  doubt- 
ing the  fact,  that  the  planks  of  ships  near  the  bows, 
which  are  obliged  to  be  boiled  in  water  or  steam  in 
Nk 


ordftr  to  b^iiil  (titmt,  ate  never  infected  with  tho  dry- 
m  I  If  Uw  WHt<'('  Itl  Whli'li  they  are  boiled  be  strongly 
iinpri'i/llitlfit  tfllli  nnit,  file  effects  would  probably  be 
mm  itMrHblfi  mA  i1«<t<lnlve, 

if)  H  IftilMfK  fPHfl  tiy  Mr.  Ogg,  a  salt-rofiner,  to  the 
I'l.Vftloittll  ItlDliflKiim,  im  the  prevention  and  cure  of 
dry  flit  iff  *ihl|M  til'  W.tr,  common  salt  Is  strongly  re- 
mmmmiA^i  tut  lli*  vh^HJitiesn,  Its  wholesomoness,  and 
its  e^»^  «|i|)li«i|«litrfl  t  but  lie  proposes  a  saturated  solu- 
tiiil)  m  UNHt  Iff  ttrhleh  he  would  st«ep  not  only  single 
lugs  ut  ptiitllftj  litit  fife  whole  frame  of  a  ship,  or  even 
thw  dhip  linflf,  "  \mi  every  ship  in  tho  navy,"  says 
tits  sHilcrflllli'r,  "  \m  Itltmetsed  a  siifllclent  time  in  tills 
fluid,  Hllil  Ifl  fVfry  ftHW  ship  be  prepared  in  the  same 
way,  Htlil  iUf  tut  Wiitlld  be  heard  of  no  more.  But 
liow  Is  Otji*  in  \m  Hi'Hittipllslied  ?  I  oiiswer,  iirovide  a 
doMfc  Uf  (luti|(«  Hilfticipntly  capacious  to  receive  five, 
tliM  »f  {.ytmiijt  xltiliK,  (itid  the  work  is  done."  As  com- 
niun  s«(-W(tlt<f  will  Hflswer  the  purpose  equally  well, 
IIm  AlilMf-'Attlit  uf  tiAtCilnlVe  docks  and  water  saturated 
wlHl  suit  m#  »l(ull,V  KIKlecessary.  Hut  Mr.  Ogg,  like 
Mr,  Hu»tt»i|»,  (tWiPrtfs  til  tnlstnke  the  real  cause  of  dry 
rot,  "  I  HrttHHj  sdj-s  lie,  "  that  dry  rot  is  occasioned 
by  tlw  vwtJWtNlivt'  ((tJHclplfi )  brine  will  destroy  thia 
(irinfiplw  I  tlwi  oltllt  fhd  ship  in  brlno."  The  experi- 
llianU  Iff  tlt»*  ('«««  »f  till"  tieiislance  find  the /.Wen  show 
timl  iifiiia  In  nut  fi«i'es.i«tv. 

Tll»  H(lt<'ll  IlKVlfiK  o'isprred  that  their  busses,  in 
wliiulf  flm  llfffifi(ji»  W«te  caught  and  stowed  away  in 
(liiikls,  i«»(ni1  Imiijpf  Kl(in  any  otiier  craft,  adopted  the 
jirootitis  III  (iltiM({  nil  the  vacancies  between  the  tim- 
liers  itni\  filAffki*  iif  <iltjps  With  salt,  and  of  boring  holes 
in  tllli  Int'ijl'  tittllipl'n  tttid  cramming  them  full  of  salt. 
TI»B  Aini'liiwilo  (fill)  fiKltid,  that  the  shi|»  enii>loyed  in 
carryinij  nut  mh  tiif  tlieir  flsherlea  and  domestic  pur- 
poses, WMFA  lllf  ItlUfit  durable  t  and  both  tliey  and  the 
liltWh  KPM  ijkA  lu  ^et  M  cargo  of  salt  into  a  new  ship, 
as  Hid  mtf^iii  limim  iit  ptenervlng  her.  The  carpenter 
of  tl)0  f'mid-liil,  «ft  Aliteflcan  74  gun  ship,  when  at 
(Spithsud,  tul4  nmm  iit  llPr  visitors,  that  at  tho  juno- 
tiui)  iif  (lis  lieitmii,  Mild  (It  till-  butt  end  of  the  timbers, 
piBcps  wers  ('(If,  KHi)  file  hollow  part  filled  witli  salt, 
and  wverwl  witll  felt,  fur  the  purpose  of  preserving 
thosH  |i4rl4  wtlPfHtWu  surfaces  are  Imperfectly  brought 
^«g^tllaf,  fmn  ttis  drj-  rut,  wliere  it  is  always  most 
pr«v»liin(, 

'I'bufM  »f»,  ItrtwetSf,  tety  serious  objections  to  the 
ilV.nwn'SlHfl  III'  ullljio  irt  a  sfrniltf  solution  of  salt,  and  the 
prAOtiufi  iiC  itl>>«irfillfj  m\i  in  the  vacant  space  between 
the  tlMiliofii,  wlliill  lliiiy  nut,  perha|i«,  apidy  with  equal 
force  t«  tlifif  limMdfoiufl  itl  sea-water.  It  Is  obser%-ed 
by  »  yif\m  ill  llw  limiHpi'li/  Ueriew  for  October,  1814, 
that  "  tllH  ttttritiliim  fur  ttiolsture  which  salts  and  acids 
IMissesn,  wuhIiI  lioiili  (l(«  whule  Interior  of  the  ship 
dripping  wrt  i  wllicli  *«liid  tint  only  destroy  the  ship 
witb  His  wrt  riii,  litii  Hip  ahlp'ti  company  also,  whose 
health,  SlijKtrtiiiiCK  Iiaa  proved,  Is  best  iireserved  by 
keeping  IJiM  tihlp  Hii  ,\fy  os  pussilile  t  and  thus  the  rem- 
edy wimirt  (iB  Wiirwi  tllirn  the  disease."  These  bad 
elfucfs  ImVH  tllM(»p.6ti»tt«bly  been  experienced,  the 
murinti)  uf  HI«f{IIPi>ill,  whicli  exists  In  sea-water,  lieing 
one  of  tlin  iMUal  i|p|ii(IIPi!H<fit  salts  j  but  whether  the 
ali8tf»iti4»n  rif  lMuisllir«  frum  tlie  atmosphere  be  of  long 
dnrtt)  inn,  i»  it  Uii  wliich  remains  to  be  proved.  In  cor- 

roboratiiin  wf  Him  ilHllfi(H(«  Pltpcts  above  described,  Mr. 
Strangu  tit  Ills  li'.viihm'p*,  iilisetveft,  "that  the  practice 
ut  Veiiiiw  of  i\m  twAi  (lit  timber  being  thrown  into 
suit  wat*r  pfiivf  Ills  its  stpr  lipcimilng  dry  In  the  ships, 
and  that  IliM  wtll,  wslpr  rtlsled  and  corroded  the  Iron 
bolts,"  Mr,  ('ll(l(»milll  (llsduliserves  that  "tho  Flor 
ilia,  li  'H)  (jHM  ollili,  f  illipn  frutti  the  Americans,  and  sub 
saquaiiHy  i'uinill)<>>duttpil  ill  tile  Ilrltlsli  service,  had 
been  sulMtiDWHIKil  i  Ntlil  ttie  result  was,  that  in  damp 
weather  SVSry  thilta  ilSPIIItltl  moist,  the  Iron-work  was 
rnstad,  »n(t  tll#  llMlilt  uf  lll«  crew  was  impaired  i  in 
liiitt,"  lis  wM*,  "  tilDiictit  m  (•Irclttostanced  are  perfect 
bygruHotwrs  I  M^  its  srnsihle  to  changes  of  the 


DRY 


fi62 


DRY 


moUtnre  In  the  ttmoaphera  as  lumps  of  rock  salt,  or 
slips  of  fuel,  or  the  plaster  of  inside  walls  whore  sea- 
sand  has  been  used." 

Mr.  Chnpmiin,  however,  is  of  opinion,  that  vessels 
impregnated  with  l>ay-salt,  or  the  large  grained  salt  of 
Limington  or  of  Liverpool,  (being  pure  muriate  of 
soda,  without  ndmLxture  with  the  l>itter  deliquescent 
salts),  will  possess  decided  advantages,  as  would  also 
vessels  laden  with  saltpetre,  if  it  has  been  dispersed 
among  their  timlrars ;  and  Mr.  Ogg  sees  no  dilficult}' 
in  refining  salt  so  as  to  deprive  it  of  its  deliquescent 
quality,  lint  if'  a  very  weak  solution  of  salt,  or  even 
msh  water,  shall  be  found  to  answer  the  purpose,  the 
objection  against  immersing  timber  in  sea-water  seems 
to  be  got  rid  of.  That  it  will  immediately  destroy  all 
vegetable  life  In  the  delicate  fibres  of  the  fungus,  and 
also  prevent  its  ^'utnre  growth,  is  quite  clear ;  and  if  It 
shall  be  found  to  prevent  also  the  putrefactive  process, 
it  may  be  considered  the  most  advisable  wa}'  to  pre- 
pare timber  for  all  purjwses  of  house  carpentry,  and 
ship-building. 

Impregnalion  of  Timbtr  with  Foreign  Subttanet$. — 
A  great  variety  of  substances  besides  common  salt, 
indeed  almost  any  salt  or  acid,  will  destroy  and  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  fungus.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy 
recommends  a  weak  solution  of  the  corrosive  subli- 
mate as  the  moat  efficient.  A  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron  or  copperas,  is  much  used  in  Sweden  for  hardening 
and  preserving  wood  for  wheel-carriages,  etc.  It  is 
boiled  in  this  solution  for  three  or  four  hours,  and  then 
kept  in  a  warm  place  to  dry,  by  which  process  it  is 
said  to  l>ecome  so  hard  and  compact  that  moisture  can 
not  penetrate  it.  "The  wooden  vessels,"  says  Mr. 
Chapman,  "  in  which  the  sulpho-femiginous  solution 
is  finally  placed  for  the  copperas  to  crj'stallhe,  become 
exceedingly  hard  and  not  suliject  to  decay."  A  solu- 
tion of  alum  has  been  recommended ;  but  Mr,  Chap- 
man seems  to  think  that  its  earthy  basis  would  become 
a  nidus  of  putrefacti'  <  .  The  wood,  however,  which 
is  nsed  about  alum  works,  liecomes  hard  and  durable, 
and  resists  fire  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  All  tim- 
ber, in  fact,  when  completely  saturated  with  saline 
-natter,  is  more  or  less  indestructil>le,  and  absolutely 
incombustible.  A  solution  of  arsenic  has  not  been 
fonnd  to  prevent  the  dry  rot.  With  reganl  to  the  im- 
pregnation of  oils,  there  are  various  opinions,  some 
thinking  them  Iwneficial,  and  others  injurious  to  the 
durability  of  timtier.  It  is  known,  however,  that 
ships  in  the  Greenland  trade  have  their  timliers  and 
planks  preserved  as  high  up  as  they  are  impregnated 
with  whale  oil  from  the  blublier ;  and  Mr.  Chapman 
says,  that  one  of  the  masters  of  a  Greenland  ship 
having  payed  her  upper  works  with  twelve  or  more 
successive  coats  of  whale  oil  in  hot  weather,  they 
liecame  covered  with  a  thin  varnish,  much  harder  and 
more  compact  than  if  filled  with  successive  coats  of 
turpentine.  Resinous  substances,  however,  are  prob- 
ably better  than  oil. 

After  o  variety  of  experiments  and  sensible  obser- 
vations, Mr,  Chapman  sums  up  the  three  great  opera- 
tions by  which  timber  may  be  brought  to  resist  the 
tendency  to  dry  rot,  1,  To  deprive  the  timl)er  of  its 
mucilage,  whick  is  very  liable  to  fermentation.  2,  To 
impregnate  timl>er  with  any  strongly  antiseptic  and 
non-delliinesccnt  matter,  8,  To  dry  timl>er  progres- 
sively l>y  the  sun  nhd  wind,  or  l)y  the  latter  alone ; 
and  then  to  close  its  pores  completely  with  any  sub- 
stance impervious  to  air  and  moisture,  and  at  the  same 
time  highly  repellunt  to  putrescency. 

Mr.  Wttde  recommends  the  impregnation  of  timber 
with  sulphates  of  copper,  zinc,  or  iron,  rejecting  deli- 
quescent salts,  aa  they  cornxle  metals,  and  would  de- 
stroy the  liolts  and  metal  fastenings  of  a  ship.  He 
observes,  that  timlier  impi>,'nated  with  saline  matter 
If  no  longer  capable  of  i*.  mientation,  and  that,  of 
course,  the  gases  necessary  for  the  nutriment  of  fungi 
M«  not  evolved.     Selenite  is  recommended  as  being 


insoluble,  or  nearly  so,  and  not  liable  to  any  alteration 
In  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere ;  but 
all  salts,  he  observes,  composed  of  barytes,  should  be 
rejected,  Iwcause,  though  they  are  plentiful,  cheap, 
and  have  some  qualities  eminently  fitting  them  to  be 
employed  for  this  purpose,  yet  they  are,  without  any 
exception,  very  poisonous. 

From  all  experiments  that  have  been  made,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  most  effectual  method  of  preventing  the 
dry  rot,  and  of  giving  durability  to  timber,  is  that  of 
depriving  the  sap  of  its  mucilage,  more  especially  in 
the  alburnum,  where  it  most  aliounda ;  for  though  sea- 
sonmg  in  the  dry  way  will  coagulate  and  harden  the 
extractive  matter  of  timlwr,  yet  when  exposed  to 
heat,  moistnre,  and  a  stagnant  air,  the  process  of  pu- 
trefaction will  commence,  and  all  tlio  symptoms  of 
dry  rot  will  speedily  make  their  appearance.  It  will 
be  preferable,  therefore,  that  such  timljer  as  is  likely 
to  l>e  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  weather,  should  be 
seasoned  by  immersion  or  impregnation,  rather  than 
by  the  dry  way. 

Cure  of  the  Dry  Sot. — In  this  disease,  as  in  those  in- 
cident to  animal  life,  prevention  is  much  easier  than 
cure.  In  fact,  tiiere  is  no  other  cure  for  the  part  af- 
fected than  excision,  and  the  sooner  it  is  done  tlie  bet- 
ter, as  the  disease  spreads  most  rapidly  when  fungi  are 
propagated,  throwing  their  minute  fil)res  into  the  tubes 
of  the  contiguous  sound  wood,  and  producing  that 
moisture  which  is  a  condition  absolutely  necessurj-  to 
the  putrefactive  process.  If,  however,  the  fibre  of  the 
wood  is  still  sound,  and  the  roots  of  the  fungi  extend 
not  lieyond  the  alburnum  near  to  the  surface,  immer- 
sion in  sea-water,  as  in  cases  of  the  lietinlance  and 
Eiini,  or  impregnation  with  some  of  the  solutions 
above  mentioned,  may  stop  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease ;  but  the  only  safe  cure,  we  apprehend,  is  that  of 
cutting  out  the  infected  part.  The  sinking  of  the 
Royul  George  at  her  moorings  has  not  been  the  means 
of  preserving  her  timliers.  On  Iwing  visited  in  tlie 
diving-liell,  her  oaken  sides  were  broken  down  into  a 
confused  mass  of  timber  and  lilack  mud  ;  having,  no 
doubt,  Iwen  too  far  gone  in  decay,  when  the  fatal  ac- 
cident happened ;  but  her  fir  deck  appeared  as  sound 
as  the  day  when  she  sunk, 

MisceUaneoua  Ob$ereationt. — It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
suppose  that  the  ancients  were  unacquainted  with  the 
drj'  rot  or  premature  decoy  of  timlier,  Pliny  has  u 
numlwr  of  valuable  oliservations  on  the  preservation  of 
timber,  and  on  its  decay  occasioned  l>y  the  juices ;  unc! 
among  other  things,  recommends  tliut  a  tree  should 
lie  cut  to  the  heart  all  round,  in  order  to  let  the  juices 
escape,  and  that  it  should  net  be  felled  until  the  wliole 
luul  run  out,  lie  knew  that  the  sappy  part  of  oak 
was  more  sul)ject  to  rot,  and  advised  that  it  sliould  bo 
cut  away  in  squaring.  Ho  knew,  too,  that  resinous 
ond  oleaginous  matter  in  wood  preserved  it ;  oliserv- 
ing,  that  the  more  odoriferous  a  piece  of  timber  is,  the 
more  durable.  lie  knew  that  much  depended  on  tlie 
close  texture  of  timber,  and  that  box,  ebon.. ,  cypress, 
and  cedar  might  almost  be  considered  as  indestruct- 
ible. We  also  know  Ihut  cedar,  teak,  and  mahogany, 
are  verj*  durable  woods. 

The  felling  of  timber  while  young  and  full  of  vigor, 
making  use  of  the  sap-wooil  or  alburnum,  and  apply- 
ing it  to  ships  and  buildingo  in  an  unseasoned  stute, 
have,  no  doubt,  contributed  to  make  the  disease  of 
dry  rot  infinitely  more  common  and  extensive  than  it 
wag  in  former  times,  when  our  ships  were  "  hearts  of 
oak,"  and  when  in  our  large  mansions  the  wind  was 
suffered  to  blow  freely  through  them,  and  a  current  of 
air  to  circulate  through  the  wide  space  loft  between 
the  pannelcd  wainscout  and  the  wall.  In  those  old 
mansions  which  yet  remain,  and  in  tlie  ancient  cutlie- 
drals,  wo  find  notliing  like  the  dry  rot,  tlibugh  perhaps 
..  perforated  sore 

And  drillM  In  boles,  the  solid  oalc  Is  found 
By  worms  Toraolons  mten  through  and  through. 


♦  Thci 
noticiid,  n. 
ing  tlio 
nppcnrs I 
as  dry  rot 
preparing 
wood-wor 
purposes, 
tougher,  I 
Is  aa  follo' 
which  la 


r>RT 


563 


DUB 


ill  of  viRor, 
and  apply- 
loneil  state, 
•lisease  of 
(ivc.  than  it 
'  hearts  of 
wind  wa» 
.  current  of 
ift  between 
I  thoKO  old 
;i«nt  catlie- 
igh  porliaps 

I 

irottgh. 


Knmeroua  oxamples  of  the  extraordinary  duration 
of  timlwr  may  be  produced,  both  from  complete  desic- 
cation and  exposure  to  the  air,  and  from  tlie  complete 
exrli'Kion  of  air  and  immersion  in  earth  or  water. 
Without  adducing  the  snrturbrandt  of  Iceland,  covered 
■with  several  strata  of  solid  rock,  or  the  logs  of  wood 
dug  out  of  peat-moss,  the  antiquity  of  which  Is  mere 
conjecture,  we  may  instance  the  mummy-cases  of  Egypt 
as  l)oing  in  all  probability  the  most  ancient  timber  in 
existence  that  has  been  worlied  by  the  hand  of  man. 
When  BelzonI  entered  the  splendid  tomb  of  the  kings 
of  Thebes,  in  which  was  the  transparent  sarcophagus 
of  gA'paum,  he  found  two  human  Azures  larger  than 
life  sculptured  In  wood,  in  as  good  preservation  as  if  it 
had  been  worked  In  his  own  timje ;  but  the  sockets  of 
the  eye,  which  had  been  copper,  were  entirely  wasted 
away.  We  are  told  by  Pliny,  that  the  Image  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus,  supposed  to  be  of  ebony,  remained  entire 
and  unchanged,  though  the  temple  itself  was  ruined 
and  rebuilt  seven  times.  He  adds  that,  in  his  o>m 
time,  the  Image  of  Jupiter  in  tlie  capitol,  made  of  cy- 
press wood,  was  still  fresh  and  beautiful,  though  set  up 
in  the  year  after  the  foundation  of  Rome  651,  nearly 
tlirce  hundred  years  before.  He  further  says  that  there 
was  a  temple  of  Apollo  at  Utica,  the  tlml)era  of  which, 
being  of  Kumidian  cedar,  are  said  to  have  stood  1188 
years.  The  roof  of  Westminster  Hall,  which  Is  con- 
structed of  oak,  has  stoml  for  more  than  three  hundred 
years,  and  is  probably  better  now  than  when  newly 
erected.  Similar  Instances  of  the  long  duration  of 
timber  have  occurred  in  situations  where  the  atmos- 
pheric air  has  been  excluded.  In  the  I.evcrlan  Mu- 
seum was  a  post  said  to  l)e  dug  out  of  Fleet  Ditch, 
cliarred  at  the  lower  end,  having  the  name  of  Julius 
Cicsnr  cut  into  It.  The  foundation  on  which  the  stone 
piers  of  London  Dridge  are  laid  consist  of  huge  piles  of 
timber  driven  close  to  one  another,  on  the  top  of  which 
is  0  floor  of  planks  ten  inches  thick,  strongly  bolted 
together ;  on  these  the  stone  piers  rest,  at  above  nine 
feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river,  and,  at  low  water,  may 
be  seen  or  felt  at  a  very  few  inches  lielow  the  surface. 
These  piles  have  lieen  driven  upwanl  of  six  hundred 
years,  and,  from  the  solidity  of  tlie  8Uperincuml)ent 
weight,  it  may  be  concluded  that  thej'  arc  perfectly 
.■ioimd.  In  the  old  city  wall  of  London,  timber  Is  fre- 
quently dug  out  as  sound  and  perfect  as  when  tirst  de- 
posited there.  As  the  last  instance  of  the  extraordinary 
preservation  of  timlier,  we  may  mention  that  in  digging 
away  the  foundation  of  the  Old  Savoy  I'alaoe,  which 
was  built  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  tlie 
whole  of  the  piles,  consisting  of  oak,  elm,  lieech,  and 
chestnut,  were  found  in  a  state  of  perfect  soundness, 
without  the  least  appearance  of  rottenness  in  any  part 
of  them,  and  the  plank  which  covered  the  pile-heads 
was  equally  sound.  Some  of  the  beech,  however,  after 
being  exposed  a  few  weeks  to  the  air,  liut  under  cover, 
had  «  coating  of  fungus  spread  over  the  surface ; 
which  affords  a  striking  proof  of  the  immense  length 
of  time  that  the  seeds  of  this  pare  site  will  remain  dor- 
mant, without  parting  with  the  principle  of  vegetalile 
life,  which  is  called  into  activity  from  the  moment  that 
tliey  are  deposited  in  a  situation  favorable  to  their 
growth.  In  this  instance  wo  have  only  to  suppose 
that  the  indurated  juices  of  the  wood  liecame  dissolved 
liy  its  exposure  to  the  moist  atmosphere,  and  the  phe- 
nomenon of  fungous  vegetation  is  capable  of  receiving 
a  satisfactory  explanation.*     ('ommunicated  to  the 


*  The  proceJis  tormeJ  ki/awzing  is  similar  to  tlmt  already 
noticed,  as  proposed  by  Sir  Humphrey  Havy — namely,  steep- 
ing tlio  timber  In  a  Bohition  of  corrosive  subl'^-'iate.  Tiiis 
appears  to  l)c  one  of  the  best  preservatives  of  wood  In  so  far 
as  dry  rot  is  produced  by  a  fangns,  Mr.  Bethell's  method  of 
preparing  wood  for  fences,  railway  sleepers,  piles,  and  other 
wood-work  submerged  in  water,  and  for  various  siutiar 
purposes,  is  said  to  render  timber  of  any  description  miicli 
tougher,  and  greatly  to  promote  its  duraljUlty.  The  process 
is  as  follows :  The  timber  is  placed  in  a  strong  close  iron  tjuik, 
which  ii  flllod  with  oil  of  tar  and  other  bituminous  matters 


Eneyrhpadia  Urtfanniea,  by  Sir  Johm  Baurow,  Bart. 
See  Am.  Jour.  Sc,  il.,  p.  114,  xxxlv.,  p.  169  j  Wtal- 
miiuttr  Jiev.,  x.,  p.  414;  London  Quar.,  xll.,  p.  227, 
XXX.,  216;  JI/o«i<%Aev.,lxxxvi.,861,  xe.,  887;  Urb's 
Did.  Aril. 

Dubb«r,  or  Dnpper,  a  leathern  vessel,  bottle,  or 
jar,  nsed  In  India  to  hold  oil,  ghee,  etc.  Barrels,  as 
already  observed,  are  entirely  a  European  Invention. 
Liquids,  In  eastern  countries,  are  for  the  most  part 
packed  for  exportation  in  leathern  vessels,  Dubbers 
are  made  of  thin  untanned  goat  skins  ;  and  are  of  all 
sizes,  from  a  quart  up  to  nearly  a  barrel. 

Dublin,  the  metropolis  of  Ireland,  In  the  county 
to  which  It  gives  name,  and  province  of  I^inster, 
nnking  In  Importance  as  the  second  city  In  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  is  distant  292  miles  W.N.W.  from  Lon. 
don,  1'I8  miles  west  from  Liverpool,  and  AO  miles  west 
from  Holyhead,  in  lat.  68°  80'  88"  N.,  and  long  6°  7' 
13''  W.,  agreeably  situate  In  the  great  central  limestons 
district  which  reaches  across  the  island  from  the  Irish 
Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  River  Litfe}',  and  ex- 
tending to  the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  ILiy  of 
Dublin,  the  waters  of  which  wash  its  suburban  shores. 

The  population  of  the  dty  of  Dublin  was  estimated 
by  Rutter,  in  1753,  at  101,088;  In  1798,  by  Whitelaw, 
at  182,087,  and  was  ascertained  by  the  census  of  1821  to 
nnionnt  at  that  period  to  185,881,  and  by  the  census  of 
1831  to  204,155.  The  population  of  the  city,  according 
to  the  most  recent  enumerations,  in  1841  was  2.S2,726, 
and  in  1851  it  was  258,3(11. 

In  order  still  further  to  promote  the  commercial  In- 
terests of  Dublin,  an  association  was  formed  about 
thirty  years  ago,  under  the  name  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  which  soon  decayed ;  but  the  idea  was  re- 
vived In  1820,  when  a  number  of  merchants  formed 
themselves  Into  a  soeletj'  under  the  same  name,  which 
still  exists.  Its  objects  are  the  protection  and  promo- 
tion of  the  manufacturing  and  commercial  interests  of 
Dublin,  and  of  the  country  in  general.  The  business 
is  transacted  by  a  president,  vice-presidents,  and  com- 
mittee, instnicted  to  communicate  with  the  officers  of 
government  on  the  subjects  of  the  association.  Their 
office  is  held  in  the  Commercial  B"!blings.  The  Ouzel 
Galley  is  another  voluntary  assi  n  of  merchants 

for  determining  commercial  diffen  l>y  arbitration. 

It  takes  its  name  from  that  of  a  ves^i  i,  which  was  the 
occasion  of  a  complicated  and  protracted  suit,  that  was 
ultimatelj-  adjusted  in  an  amicable  manner  by  the  In- 
terference of  some  of  the  most  respectable  merchants 
in  Dublin.  The  effect  of  steam  navigation  on  the 
cross-channel  trade  has  produced  a  great  alteration  In 
the  state  of  commerce  in  Dublin. 

The  Hank  of  Ireland  was  formed  in  1788  In  order  to 
give  security  to  commerce.  It  was  opened  at  first  in 
some  old  houses  in  Mary's  Abbey,  with  n  capital  of 
£600,000,  which  was  afterward  increased  to  f  3,000,000. 
In  the  year  1802  the  parliament  house  was  purchased 
1))'  the  directors,  and  adapted  to  its  present  destination. 
This  edifice  was  erected  in  1729 ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  changes  made  in  it  since  it  was  diverted  from  its 
original  purpose,  the  exterior  has  been  but  little  alter- 
ed. It  consists  of  three  fronts.  The  principal,  toward 
College  Green,  o  colonnade  of  the  Ionic  ordei,  formed 
of  a  fai^ade  and  two  projecting  wings,  la  muc  admired 
for  the  noble  simplicity  of  its  elevation.  The  western 
front,  a  portico  of  four  Ionic  columns,  was  connected 
with  the  other  by  n  colonnade  of  the  same  order,  forin- 


contuiniiig  ercasotu,  and  with  pyrolignlte  of  iron ;  tlic  air  is 
then  exliausted  by  powerful  air-pumps ;  after  which  more  of 
the  satiiratln  ^iiid  Is  forced  in  b^  hydrostatic  pumps.  When 
the  wood  han  i  subjected  for  six  or  seven  hours  to  a  press- 
ure of  from  Iv.  '  .50  pounds  on  the  square  Incli,  the  process 
ia  complete,  am.  Ue  wood  is  found  to  weigh  from  8  to  12 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  heavier  than  before.  It  also  pro8er\'e« 
iron  bolts  driven  Into  it  from  corrosion.  Wood  thus  prepared 
lias  been  used  for  sluepora  on  several  of  the  great  English 
railroads,  and  is  said  to  bu'  o  proved  extremely  durable.  (See 
Ubb's  Diet.  0/  ArU,  etc.,  vol.  11,  p.  903,) 


DUB 


064 


DUN 


log  the  quadrant  of  a  circle.  The  eaitern  tnnt,  which 
waa  the  entrance  of  the  House  of  Lonk,  woe,  by  their 
special  order,  a  colonnade  of  the  Corinthian  order,  whicli 
the  architect  found  ^reat  difllcvlty  in  uniting  -with  the 
other  (larts.  The  apartment  for  the  lordri,  a  tine  room, 
waa  hung  with  tupeiitr}'.  That  of  the  commons  having 
been  bunted  in  17U2(wliothor liy accident ordcsigu has 
never  been  fuliy  ascertained),  was  reconstructed  after 
a  more  elegant  design,  in  the  form  of  a  circio  surround- 
ed by  pillars,  Itetween  which  was  a  galler}-  for  hearers. 
This  flne  hall  was  talion  down  by  the  bank  directors, 
and  converted  into  a  square  room,  now  the  cash-office. 
The  commerce  of  the  port  of  Dublin  had  increased 
so  much  toward  tlie  close  of  the  last  century  that  the 
accommodation  afforded  in  the  river  for  shipping  waa 
found  insufficient,  and  the  Irish  parliament  granted 
4)16,000  for  forming  doclts  on  Imth  sides  of  it.  The 
floating  and  graving  doclcs,  communicating  with  the 
grand  canal  on  the  south  side,  including  a  basin  cover- 
ing 40  statute  acres,  with  a  tine  quay  and  store  frontage 
of  7,600  feet,  were  opened  in  1796 ;  and  8t,  George's, 
the  latest  of  the  custom-house  docks,  in  1821.  These 
latter  cover  an  area  of  H  acres,  having  16  feet  depth  of 
water,  and  1200  yards  of  quay ;  they  are  capalile  of 
accommodating  40,000  tons  of  shipping,  and  the  stores 
have  space  for  8000  casks  of  sugar  and  tobacco,  and 
20,000  chests  of  tea,  wiih  cellarage  for  12,000  pipes  of 
wine.  The  doclcs  on  the  south  side  aflTord  commodious 
wharfage  for  100  sail  of  merchantmen  and  colliers,  ex- 
clusive of  that  supplie<l  l>y  the  river  quays.  The  for- 
mation of  the  asylura-harlior  at  Kingstown,  then  Dun- 
leary,  which  wus  commenced  in  1H17,  gave  additional 
aid  to  the  commerce  of  the  port,  by  the  increased  pro- 
tection it  afr<irded  to  shipping.  The  improvements 
made  on  the  bar,  in  the  erection  of  the  great  northern 
wall  or  breakwater,  and  the  steam  dredging  of  the  bed 
of  the  Liffey  b}'  the  ballast  board,  liy  rendering  the 
channel  sufficiently  deep  for  the  navigation  of  vessels 
of  1400  tons,  has  also  contributed  greatly  to  the  same 
effect. 

There  were  in  1862  belonging  to  the  port,  including 
steamers,  464  vessels,  of  every  size,  from  15  to  1200 
tons ;  the  registered  burden  amounting  to  39,814  tons. 
Most  of  those  vessels  were  employed  in  tiie  coasting  or 
cross-channel  trade,  there  having  l>een  but  6  or  8  in  thit 
of  the  West'  Indies,  the  same  number  in  that  of  France 
and  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  20  or  ilO  in  tlie  North 
American  timber  trade.  The  amount  of  customs  col- 
lected averages  about  £950,000,  and  hax  not  varied 
much  during  the  last  twelve  years,  the  reduction  of 
duties  having  more  than  balanced  the  increase  in  the 
quantity  of  articles  imported. 

*'  First  impressions  of  Duldin,"  says  Inglis,  "  are 
decidedly  favorable.  Dublin,  for  its  size,  is  a  hand- 
somer city  than  London.  Sackville-street  will  com- 
pare with  any  street  in  Kurope ;  Merrioa  Square  and 
St.  Stephen's  Green  surpass  in  extent  any  of  the 
squares  in  the  Uritish  metropolis.  .Iiere  are  points 
of  view  in  Dublin,  the  quays,  and  some  of  the  finest 
public  edifices,  more  striking,  I  think,  than  any  that 
are  to  be  found  in  London ;  and  although  tbo  Irish 
capital  con  boast  of  no  St.  Paul's,  ytt,  in  the  archi- 
tectural beauty  of  some  of  her  public  buildings,  she 
has  just  reason  for  pride.  I  p  jed  but  name  the  Custom 
House,  and  th<-  Bank  of  Ireland  with  its  magnificent 
yet  claasicHlly  chaste  colonnades,  in  proof  this  asser- 
tion." There  is  much  truth  in  thu  dcsciiption,  yet  the 
chief  advantage  which  Di'!>iin  has  in  picturesque 
beauty  lies  in  the  concentration  of  the  objects  of  in- 
terest within  a  small  compass  and  further  examination 
dues  not  confirm  the  first  favorable  impression.  Sir 
John  Forbes,  who  vuited  Ireland  in  1862,  says :  "  I  own 
myself  to  have  been  a  good  deal  disappointed  with  Dub- 
lin as  a  city.  To  say  nothing  of  its  extent,  it  la  greatly 
inferior  in  many  other  respects,  not  only  to  London, 
bot  to  several  towns  in  England,  and  some  in  Scotland, 
Its  >!t«  i«  flat  and  monotonous,  and  its  streets  and 


squares  possess  no  architectural  l>eauty.  The  former, 
to  bo  sure,  are  often  very  wide,  and  some  of  the  Utter, 
as  Merrion  Square  and  Stephen's  (iroen,  are  of  im- 
mense extent,  but  there  is  throughout  a  general  want 
of  elegance  and  grandeur.  Most  of  the  streets  seem 
to  want  dignity,  and  the  majority  of  the  houses  are 
common-looking,  and  even  mean  and  dingy.  While 
denying  both  beauty  and  grandeur  to  Duldin  as  a 
city,  I  must  Join  in  the  universal  Judgment  as  to  the 
splendor  of  many  of  its  public  buildings,  as  the  Hunk 
of  Ireland — formerly  the  Parliament  Mouse,  the  Cus- 
tom House,  the  Post  Office,  the  Koyal  Exchange,"  etc. 
Few  cities  present  a  more  striking  picture  of  the 
extremes  of  splendor  and  destitition  than  Dublin.  A 
line  drawn  from  the  King's  Inns  in  the  north  of  Dub. 
lin,  directly  south,  through  Capel-street,  the  castle, 
and  Aungier-street,  will,  together  with  the  line  of  the 
Lilfoy,  divide  the  whde  area  into  four  districts,  mate- 
rially ditferenl  from  eacii  other  in  appearance  and  char- 
acter. The  suulh-eastern  district,  widch  comprehends 
three  of  the  great  squares,  and  the  north-eastorr.,  which 
includes  tho  two  remaining  squares,  are  chiefly  inhab- 
ited by  the  nobility,  the  landed  gentry,  and  tho  liberal 
professions.  These  two  districts  |)rusont  many  symp- 
toms of  affiuence  and  luxury,  liut  on  proceeding  west- 
ward the  scene  suddenly  changes.  A  considoreble  por- 
tion of  the  south-western  district,  which  included  the 
liliertios  o' St.  Sepulchre's  and  Thomas  Court,  and  wus 
formerly  the  scat  of  the  silk  and  woolen  manufactures, 
and  also  of  the  north-western  portion  of  the  city,  are  iu 
a  state  of  almost  hopeless  dr  cay.  The  squalid  misery 
visible  in  the  ruinous  portions  of  the  city  is  relieved  to 
the  eye  by  the  beauty  of  the  environs  of  the  city ;  and 
in  its  immediate  vicinity  is  the  Phcenix  Park,  of  which 
the  citizens  are  Justly  proud.  It  comprises  an  area  of 
1763  acres,  within  whicli  are  contained  tho  Viceregal 
Loilge,  the  ur.ual  residence  of  the  lord-lieuteuant,  with 
IGO  acres  of  demesne  and  gardens,  the  c'uief  and  under 
secretary's  ledges,  and  the  lodges  of  tho  park  rangers 
and  their  assistants,  witli  their  respective  inclosed 
grounds,  tho  Hibernian  school  foi  soldiers'  children, 
the  military  magazine,  the  military  infirmary,  the 
zoological  gardens,  the  constabulary  barracks,  etc. 
Inglis,  a  good  authority  on  such  subjects,  pronounced 
this  park  as  superior,  both  in  extent  and  diversity  of 
surface,  to  any  public  park,  promenade,  prater,  or 
prado,  belonging  to  any  other  European  city.  (White- 
law  and  Walsh's  llUtory  of  Dublin ;  'I'hdm's  Iriih 
Almanac;  Gilueut's  llUtovy  of  the  Cily  vf  Duhliu, 
1864.^ — E.  13.  Dublin  Univ.  May.,  viii.,  xvi.,  iii.,  iv., 
v.,  vii. 

Duoat,  a  foieign  coin,  either  of  gold  or  silver, 
struck  in  the  dominions  of  a  duke.  The  ducat  was  first 
coined  by  Longlnius,  governor  of  Italy,  who  revolted 
against  the  Emperor  Justin  the  Younger,  and  made 
himself  duke  of  Kavennn,  calling  himself  Ktarcha, 
that  is,  wilhout  lord  or  ruler ;  and  he  struck  pieces  of 
money,  of  very  pure  gold,  with  his  own  stamp,  which, 
as  Procopiua  relates,  were  called  Jucati,  ducats.  Ac- 
cording to  Du  Cangc,  ducats  were  coined  by  Koger, 
King  of  Sicily,  in  the  year  1240.  The  Venetian  ducat 
was  first  struck  by  John  Dandolo,  iu  1280,  and  in- 
scrilicd  with  this  legend : 

"  St  TibI,  Cbrlste,  datus,  quern  To  ri^gia  iste  Ducatus." 
DucatO  (Cape),  the  modem  tiame  of  the  ancient 
Leucate,  a  promontory  ut  tho  south  end  of  Santa 
Maura,  one  uf  tho  Ionian  Isla'ids ;  celebrate<l  as  the 
rock  from  which  Sai>pho  precipi'  uted  herself  into  the  sea. 
Duoatoon,  a  silver  coin,  struck  chiefly  in  Italy, 
particularly  at  Milan,  Venice,  ""'nrenc?,  Genoa,  Lucca, 
Mantua,  and  Parma ;  though  there  are,  also,  Dutch 
and  Flemish  ducatoous. 

Dundee,  a  seaport  town  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Forfar,  42  miles  M.N.E.  from  Edinburg;  N.  lat.  56° 
2' ;  W.  long.  8°  2'.  It  is  situated  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Kiver  Tay,  about  12  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Population  (1866)  78,931 ;  and  a«  a  considerable  increase 


BUN 


865 


DTJN 


silver, 
first 
revolted 
il  nmde 
xairha, 
)iece9  of 
which, 
Ac- 
Koger, 
AD  ducat 
und  in- 

catuB." 
ancient 

Sunta 
il  as  the 
.0  the  sea. 
in  Italy, 
a,  Lucca, 

Dutch 

ounty  of 
.  Ut.  66° 
lorth  side 
s  mouth. 
eincreaM 


ha*  since  taknn  place.  It  may  now  ho  osttmated  at 
"0,000  to  100,000.     Dundee  Is  thus  the  third  town  In 

otlund  in  respect  of  population.  The  name  applied 
to  it  by  the  earliest  writers  is  Alectum  or  Taodunum. 
It  was  sul>aequently  designated  Deidonum,  of  which 
the  present  name  is  supposed  to  l>e  a  corruption.  The 
early  history  of  the  town  Is  Involved  in  obscurity,  but 
It  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  importance  as  early 
as  the  12th  century.  Frequent  mention  Is  made  of  It 
In  connection  with  the  disputes  regarding  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown  of  Scotland  ;  anci  It  was  the  scene  of 
severe  conflicts  between  the  English  forces,  who  In- 
vaded the  country  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  and  the 
Scotts,  under  the  patriotic  Wallace,  and  the  other  sup- 
porters  of  Scottish  Independence. 

Duudco  was  nt  one  time  surrounded  by  strong  walls, 
and  portions  of  them  are  yet  to  be  seen.  The  Cow- 
gotj  port  still  stands,  and  Is  •cgardcd  with  veneration 
as  a  momnrliil  of  (Jeorgo  WIshart,  the  Reformer,  who 
Is  said  to  have  preached  from  it  In  the  yearlWI,  when 
the  plague  prevailed,  the  sick  being  placed  on  one  side 
of  the  wall,  and  the  liealthy  on  the  other. 

The  ground  on  which  the  town  is  built  slopes  gently 
toward  the  river,  and  Is  hounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Law  of  Dundee  and  the  Hill  of  Halgay.  The  former 
rises  to  the  height  of  535  feet,  and  must  In  warlike 
times  have  l)ocn  a  strong  position.  Tlio  walls  of  a 
fortiticatlon  are  still  to  lie  traced  on  its  summit.  The 
town  in  general  is  irregularly  l)ullt ;  but  within  the 
last  20  or  80  years  scvcinl  new  .ind  spacious  streets 
have  been  opened  up.  Tho  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  Exchange  licading-Room ;  the  Royal  Arch, 
erected  by  public  sul)snription  to  commemorate  the 
landing  of  Queen  Victoria  in  1H)4,  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
X8,000 ;  the  Public  Seminaries  ;  and  the  New  Baltic 
Exchange  ("offec-Room,  a  splendid  specimen  of  the 
Klemish-Ciothio  style. 

AVithin  a  comparatively  recent  period  n  number  of 
Important  public  undertakings  havo  l)een  completed. 
The  Dundee  and  Newtyle  Railway  was  opened  for 
trafllc  In  1S26  ;  the  Dundee  ond  Arbroath  Railway  in 
18!18  ;  and  tlie  Dundee  and  I'erth  Railway  in  1HI7.  Py 
means  of  theso  railways,  and  of  the  Edinl]urg,  Perth, 
and  Dundee  Railway,  which  joins  the  Dundee  and 
Ar1)roath  Railway  by  means  of !'.  ferry  and  t)ranch  line 
at  Broughty  Costle,  four  miles  east  from  the  town,  Dun- 
dee has  direct  communication  with  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  There  are  two  gas-light  companies,  eacli 
of  them  with  a  capital  of  about  4150,000  Invested  in 
their  works  and  apparatus.  The  Dundee  Water  Com- 
pany was  formed  In  1840.  Its  capital  Is  almut  ^fl.lO,- 
000.  Its  reservoirs  are  situated  In  the  parish  of  Mo- 
nikie,  about  10  miles  distant  from  the  town ;  and  from 
tiiese  an  abundant  eupplj'  of  water  has  been  procured. 

The  most  important  of  the  public  works  are  the  har- 
bor and  docks.  Previously  to  1815  the  harlror  was  of 
very  limited  extent.  In  that  year  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment was  obtained  for  enlarging  it,  and  erecting  a  wet- 
dock  of  6i-  acres  (King  Wiiiiam's),  a  tide-harbor  of  4} 
acres,  graving-dock,  and  other  accommodation  suitable 
for  the  increasing  trade  of  the  port.  Tho  plan  was 
afterward  greatly  enlarged,  emliracing  new  docks 
(Earl  Grej'"s  of  5J  acres,  and  Victoria  Dock  of  14^ 
acres),  patent  slip,  careonlng-beach,  and  Rdditional 
tidc-harliors.  The  Victoria  D.  ck,  though  for  some 
years  open  to  vessels,  is  not  quite  completed.  The 
quays  are  wide,  and  aiTord  convenient  berthage  for 
almut  70  vessels.  On  the  south  quay  of  Earl  Grey's 
Dock,  is  erected  a  large  crane,  capable  of  raising  30 
tons.  It  is  used  ch  iefly  for  lifting  the  boilers  and  hea vj' 
machinery  of  si  eam-vessels.  Besides  the  ordinary 
branches  of  8hip-i)Uilding,  the  building  of  iron  vessels 
is  carried  on  at  tht  port.  Owing  to  the  increased  bur- 
den of  the  vessels  I'ow  employed  in  tho  trade  of  tlic 
place,  and  tlie  greater  depth  of  water  required  by 
them,  additional  works  nt  the  harbor  are  projected. 
Tho  cost  of  the  docks  and  larbor  woa  about  ;eC00,000. 


The  number  and  tonnage  of  veascla  entered  at  tho 
harbor  for  the  year  ending  81st  May,  1854,  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

Vesaols  In  fbrelitn  tradi),   tn    Boglatorod  tonnage, 
'^       ooMtliiK  do.,  1,7M  **  " 

"       river  do.,  088  "  " 


lin.fWT 
llM,H»t 


Total,       «,nTn  »T,2llfl 

Tlie  following  statement  shows  the  progrosalve  In- 
crease in  tho  harbor  and  shipping  dues.     It  was, 


In  1780 S/Mi 

1T9.1 MB 

1806 ],9T» 


In  1815 W,400 

1886 ii.itns 

18M 1M,4(N 


The  staple  trade  of  Dundee  Is  the  mannfacture  of 
linen  and  hemp  fabrics,  chiefly  of  tho  coaraer  descrip- 
tions. The  manufacture  of  linens  appears  to  have 
been  Introduced  from  Germany  in  the  beginning  of  the 
last  centur}'.  Insignificant  in  extent  at  first,  it  grad- 
ually Increased  till  the  close  of  that  century,  when, 
machinery  having  been  applied  to  the  spinning  of  flax, 
a  great  impulse  was  given  to  It.  Splnning-mllls  were 
erected,  and  of  thcs3  there  are  nowaliout  liO  in  Dundee 
and  Its  immediate  neighborhood.  Hand-spinning  has 
l)eon  entirely  superseded  by  mill-spinning.  The  coaraer 
fabrics  are  still  woven  In  hand-looms ;  but  there  are 
now  six  or  seven  largo  powor-loom  factories,  and  some 
smaller  ones.  The  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are 
sheetings,  sail-cloth,  drills,  dowlas,  sacking,  and  bag- 
ging. Nearly  one  half  of  the  quantity  made  is  sent  to 
London,  Manchester,  Glasgow,  and  Leeds,  for  home 
consumption.  The  remainder  is  exported,  either  di- 
rectly or  Indlrecllj-,  to  foreign  countries.  The  mann- 
facture of  Jute  carpeting  is  also  now  carried  on  to  a 
largo  extent.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in 
the  linen  trade  of  the  place  is  estimated  to  l>e  from 
20,000  to  25,000. 

The  quantity  of  flax,  hemp,  cedilla,  and  jute.  Im- 
ported for  the  year  ending  Hist  May,  1854,  was  as  fol- 
lows :  At  the  harbor,  64,!)41  tons  ;  by  railway,  11,406 
tons ;  total,  05,747  tons. 

The  quantity  of  linen  goods  sent  away  for  exporta- 
tion and  home-consumption  for  the  same  period,  was  as 
follows  :  Lintns  of  all  descriptions  shipped  at  the  har- 
l)or,  421,432  pieces  ;  by  railway,  086,110  pieces ;  total, 
1,107,542  pieces. 

Assuming  the  value  of  the  material  at  £30  per  ton, 
its  total  value  used  in  manufactures  will  be  £1,872,410. 
Assuming  tho  value  of  the  goods  manufactured  to  be 
60s.  per  piece,  their  gross  value  will  be  £3,822,626 ;  and 
on  this  assumption,  tho  balance  of  £1,450,216  repre- 
sents the  cost  of  the  manufacture.  Including  wages, 
the  rents  of  premises,  and  machinery  employed  In  it, 
and  the  profits  of  the  manufacturers.  From  the  fore- 
going statements,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
rapid  increase  of  the  town  In  commerce,  wealth,  and 
population.  Dundee  is  now  the  principal  seat  of  the 
linen-trade  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  its  fabrics  are 
to  be  met  with  in  all  quarters  of  the  world.  In  proof 
of  tho  prudential  ha1)its  of  the  people,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  a  national  security  savings-liank,  opened 
in  1838,  now  contains  upward  of  £70,000,  lodged  by 
4,632  depositors. 

The  country  surronnding  the  town  Is  fertile,  and 
well  cultivated  ;  and  has  sliared  largely  In  its  prosper- 
ity, the  rents  having  increased  much,  and  the  value  of 
the  luni  l)eing  augmented  in  proportion.  With  the 
natural  advantages  which  it  enjoys,  and  the  energy 
and  enterprise  for  which  its  inhabitants  are  distin- 
guished, Dundee  may  be  expected  to  maintain  the  po- 
sition which  It  now  holds  among  tho  commercial  towns 
of  the  British  Empire.— E.  B. 

Dunnage,  in  commercial  navigation,  loose  wood, 
consisting  of  pieces  of  timi)er,  boughs  of  trees,  faggots, 
etc.,  laiii  in  the  Imttom  and  against  the  sido  of  the  ship's 
hold,  either,  Ist,  by  raising  the  cargo  when  she  is 
loaded  with  iieavy  goods,  to  prevent  her  from  becom- 
ing too  stiff  (see  Bai.ia.st)  ;  or,  2d,  to  prevent  tho 
cargo,  should  it  be  susceptible  of  damage  by  watei, 


DYE 


566 


DYB 


from  being  Injured  tn  tha  event  of  her  Iracomlng  leaky. 
A  ship  l«  nut  rei'kuneil  eeewurthy  unlemi  iihe  lie  pro- 
viiletl  with  pru|)pr  and  aulBcient  diiiinUKo. — Kai.dux- 
■h's  Marine  Dicliimaiy ;  AnBorr  (l^ird  Teuturdon)  oh 
the  Imip  of  Nhipiung,  I'urt  lii.,  c.  11. 

Duplloata,  u  copy  or  trnnncript  of  any  thhig ;  an 
ofadeinl,  Icttor,  liill  of  exchange,  etc.  Duplication, 
the  act  of  duuliUng ;  the  niultlpUcution  of  u  uunilior  by 
i.     Aliio  a  folding ;  a  fold. 

Dupondlus,  in  antiquity,  a  weight  of  2  iwundn, 
or  money  of  the  value  of  2  asiiea. 

Dust,  or  Duat**,  a  river  of  renia,  flowing  from 
the  Interior  through  the  province  of  Mekran,  from  the 
Kouthem  ahore  of  which  It  fall*  into  the  Indian  Ucoan, 
Jia  courxe  la  aup|Mued  to  extend,  under  dilTerent  appel- 
liitiouti,  about  I, (MX)  milea, 

Dutch  Cklld,  the  commercial  name  of  a  coarse  in- 
itation  of  gold  leaf,  made  of  cop|ier,  of  broaa,  or  of 
bronxe.     It  la  chielly  used  fur  ornamenting  toy*. 

Dyalng  (7V/n/ur<',  Kr.  ;  Fdrbeiti,  (iomi.)  la  the  art 
of  impregnating  wool,  ailk,  cotton,  hair,  and  akina, 
with  colors  nut  removable  by  waahing,  or  the  ordinor}' 
uaage  to  which  theae  tibrou*  Ixxllea  are  ex|)o»ed,  when 
worked  up  into  articlea  of  fundture  or  raiment.  We 
shall  here  consider  the  general  principlea  of  the  art, 
referring  for  tiie  iwrticular  dyoa,  and  peculiar  treat- 
ment of  the  stuft'a  to  Iw  dyed,  to  the  different  tinctorial 
substances  in  their  alphabetical  places ;  such  as  ccicl'- 
ineal,  indigo,  madder,  etc.  Liyeing  is  altogether  a 
chemical  proceas,  and  requires  fur  its  due  explanation 
and  practice  un  acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  the 
elementary  bodies,  and  the  lawa  which  regulate  their 
oombiiuitions.  It  ia  true  that  many  operations  of  this, 
as  of  other  chemical  arts,  have  been  practiced  from  the 
most  ancient  times,  long  before  uny  just  views  were 
entertained  of  the  nature  of  the  changes  that  took 
plate.  Mankind,  equally  in  the  rudest  und  most  re- 
fined state,  have  always  aought  to  gratify  the  love  of 
distinction  by  staining  their  dross,  sometimes  even 
their  skin  with  gaudy  cidors.  Jfoses  speaks  of  rai- 
ment dyed  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  of  sheep- 
skins dyed  red — circumstances  which  indicate  no  small 
degree  of  tinctorial  skill.  He  enjoins  purple  stutfs  fur 
the  works  uf  the  tabernacle  and  tlie  vestments  of  the 
high  priest.  The  ancient  Kgyptiana  cultivated  this 
art  with  some  degree  of  scientilic  precision,  since  they 
knew  tlie  use  of  mordants,  or  thoaa  substancea  which, 
though  they  impart  no  color  themselves,  yet  enable 
vhite  robes  (caudiJa  rela)  to  absorb  coloring  drugs 
(colortn  tortxtuliliui  mediramentit).  Tyre,  however, 
was  the  nation  of  antiquity  which  made  dyeing  its 
chief  occupation  and  the  ataple  of  its  commerce. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  purple,  the  sacred  syndral  of 
royal  and  sacerdotal  dignity,  was  a  color  discovered  in 
that  city,  and  that  it  contributed  to  its  opulence  and 
grandeur.  Homer  marks  no  lesa  the  value  than  the 
antiquity  of  this  dye,  by  descriliing  his  heroes  as 
arrayed  in  purple  rolies.  Purple  'labits  are  mentioned 
among  the  presents  made  to  Uideon  l>y  the  Israelites 
from  the  spoils  of  the  kings  of  Midiun. 

The  juice  employed  for  communicating  this  dye  was 
obtained  from  two  different  liinds  of  shell-flsh,  de- 
scribed by  Pliny  under  the  names  of  purpura  and  buo- 
cinum ;  and  was  extracte<l  from  a  small  vessel,  or  sac, 
in  their  throats,  to  the  amount  of  only  one  drop  from 
each  animal.  A  darker  and  inferior  color  was  also 
procured  by  crushing  the  whole  sulwtance  of  the  buc- 
cinum.  A  certain  quantity  of  the  juice,  collected  from 
a  vast  numljer  of  shells,  lieing  treated  with  sea-salt, 
was  allowed  to  ri|ien  for  three  days;  yfter  which  it 
was  diluted  with  6  times  its  bulk  of  water,  kept  at  a 
Inoderate  heat  for  6  daj-s  more,  occasionally  skimmed 
to  separate  the  animal  membranes,  and  when  thus 
claritied,  was  applied  directly  as  a  dye  to  white  wool, 
previously  prepared  for  this  purpose  by  the  action  of 
lime-water,  or  of  a  species  of  lichen  called  fucua.  Two 
operations  were  requisite  to  communicate  the  tinest 


TyrUn  purple:  the  1st  conaUted  In  plunging  tha  wool 
Into  the  juice  of  the  purpura;  the  'Jd,  Into  that  o'  tha 
buccinum.  60  drachma  uf  wchiI  rei|uired  KM)  of  tha 
former  liquor,  and  2()0  uf  the  latter.  •Sonu^tluioa  a  pre- 
liminary tint  was  given  with  coccus — the  krrmes  of 
the  present  day — and  the  cloth  received  merely  a  lliiiah 
from  the  precious  animal  Juice.  The  colors,  though 
probably  nut  nearly  so  brilliant  as  those  prodiicllilo  by 
our  ciH'hineal,  seem  to  have  been  very  diiralde,  for 
Plutarch  says.  In  his  H/'e  ii/ Alejnmdrr  (chup.  IKi),  that 
the  (i  reeks  fuunil  In  the  treasury  of  ti.e  King  of 
Persia  a  large  quantity  of  purple  cfuth,  which  was  lu 
iioautiful  as  at  flrst,  though  It  wns  lUO  years  <dd.  Tha 
difliculty  of  collecting  the  purple  juice,  und  the  tedioui 
couiplicjiticm  of  the  dyeing  proceas,  niuile  the  purple 
wcul  of  Tyre  so  expensive  at  Home,  that  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  u  iwuuil  of  It  coat  nearly  XSiO  of  Knglish 
money.  Notwithstanding  this  enurmoua  price,  such 
was  the  wealth  accumulated  In  that  capital,  that  muny 
of  the  leading  citUena  decorated  themselves  in  purple 
attire,  till  the  emperors  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
privilege  of  wearing  purble,  and  prohibited  Its  use  to 
every  other  |i«rson.  This  prohibitiun  operated  so 
much  to  dJBcuurage  this  curluus  art  ua  eventually  to 
occasion  Its  extinction,  first  In  the  western,  and  then 
In  the  eastern  empire,  where,  however,  it  existed  In 
certain  imiierial  manufactories  till  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. 

Dyeing  was  little  cultivated  In  ancient  Greece  ;  the 
people  of  Athens  wore  generally  woolen  drosses  of  the 
natural  color.  Hut  the  Kunuins  must  have  bestowed 
some  pains  U|ion  this  art.  In  the  games  of  the  circus, 
parties  were  distinguished  by  color*.  Four  uf  these 
are  dc^icribed  by  I'llny — the  green,  the  orai,.e,  the 
gray,  und  the  vhite.  Tlie  fuUowIng  ingrodieni  were 
used  by  their  dyera.  A  crude  native  alum  mixed  with 
cop|ieras,  copperas  itself,  lilue  vitriol,  alkanct,  lichen 
rucellus,  or  archil,  broom,  madder,  woad,  nut-galls, 
the  seed  i>t'  pomegranate,  and  of  un  Kgyptuin  ucaciu. 

Hut  the  vast  superiority  of  our  dyes  over  those  of 
former  times  must  be  oscrilied  principally  to  the  use  of 
pure  alum  und  solution  of  thi  as  monlunts,  either  ulone 
or  mixed  with  other  bases ;  substances  which  give  to 
our  common  dye-stufTs  remarkable  depth,  duruliility, 
and  lustre.  Another  improvement  In  dyeing,  of  uioru 
recent  date,  Is  the  application  to  textile  substances  of 
metallic  compounds,  such  as  PrussUm  blue,  chrome 
yellow,  manganese  brown,  etc. 

The  compound  or  mixed  colors,  are  such  as  result 
fh)m  the  comliinatiun  of  twodiSerent  colored  dye-stulTs, 
or  from  dyeing  stuOa  with  one  color  and  then  with 
another.  The  simple  colors  of  the  dyer  are  red,  yel- 
low, blue,  and  black,  with  which,  when  skillfully 
blended,  ho  can  produce  every  variety  of  tint.  Per- 
haps the  dun  or  fawn  culor  ndght  be  added  tu  the 
almvo,  as  It  Is  directly  obtained  from  a  great  many 
vegetable  substances. 

1.  Itcd  with  yi-lloir,  produces  orange  |  a  color  which,  upon 
wool,  la  given  uaually  with  tho  spent  scarlet  bntb.  Tn  tills 
fihado  may  be  referred  flame  color,  pomegranate,  cupucblii. 
prawn,  Jonquil,  cffssu,  chamola,  fit/i  au  tait^  aurora,  nmri- 
gold,  orange  peel,  mordoria,  cinnamon,  gold,  etc.  Bniiff, 
chestnut,  muak,  and  other  aliadea  are  produceed  by  aubiti- 
tutlng  walnut  peels  or  suoiACh  fur  bright  yellow.  If  a  little 
blue  be  adt^ed  lo  orauge,  an  oUro  Is  obtained.  The  only  di- 
rect orange  Jycs  are  onotto  and  aubchromate  of  lead. 

2.  Ued  with  blue  prodiicca  purple,  violet,  lilac,  pigeon's 
neck,  maliow,  peacb  bloesom,  Meu  de  rof,  llnt-blossoin,  ama- 
ranth. 

3.  Red  with  black ;  brown,  chocolate,  roarone,  etc. 

4.  Yellow  with  blue ;  greenofagreat  varletyof  shades,  auch 
aa  nascent  gruitn,  K»y  groen,  grasa  green,  spring  green,  laurel 
green,  sea  green,  celadoii  green,  parrot  green,  cabbage  green, 
apple  green,  duck  green. 

6.  Mixtures  of  colors,  3  and  3,  and  4  and  4,  produce  an 
Indetnlto  diversity  of  tints;  tliua  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  form 
brown  olivea  and  grecnlah  grays ;  In  which  tho  blue  dye 
ouglit  always  to  be  first  given,  lest  the  Indigo  rat  ahould  bo 
soiled  by,  other  colors.  Red,  yellow,  and  gray  (which  Is  a 
gradation  of  black)  give  the  dead-leaf  tint,  as  veil  w  dark 


EAR 


567 


BAR 


onnK*,  Kniifr  nolor,  ttii.  Rnl,  l>lu«,  ud  gr*f,  ifln  »  ml 
wtrtvly  of  ahmlia i  u  lend  gny,  ilitlfl  Kr'^i  wuuil-plguon  |r»7i 
*n>l  (ilhiT  nilnm,  loo  nuinnroua  to  apeclfjr. 

Tho  fiilliivrlnK  Hat  nl  dyoa,  and  Ihn  colorlnK  lubaUneei 
which  prntluru  them,  may  pruva  UM^fii) : 

Hut.  Cochineal,  kimncia,  Itr,  maddar,  arrhll,  ■■■rthamiia  or 
ttlHowcr,  braill  wood,  loKwood,  pcriodiilc  r.i  tnnrrurjr,  alka- 
net. 

Vi-lloip.  (junreltron,  wold,  fiiatlo  (fullow  <^  "Mlt,  annotto, 
anwwort,  ilycr'a  hroom,  turmeric,  fiiatot  {rhu.i  i'<ittnun),  V«r- 
aliu)  niid  AtI((iu)ii  iMtrrioa  (r/iamiiiM  it\fectiinit*),  wlUow,  per- 
oxyil  uf  Iron;  chromiito  of  lead  (rhnnno  yellow),  aulpliurot 
ofiiraunle,  liydruanlphuret  of  antimony  t  nitrlo  add  on  allk. 

Illuf,  Inillgo,  wond  or  paatol,  Pruialan  blue,  turnaola  or 
lltmua.  loKwiiod  with  a  aalt  of  coppnr. 

lilark.  tUlla,  aiimnch,  logwood,  wiilnut  peala,  and  other 
veKctahlea  which  contain  taiuHn  anil  Kalllo  ncid,  alonii  with 
>  furrnKliiona  mordantfl  •  tho  anacardlum  of  liidln 

(Irttii,  Thuao  aru  produced  by  tho  blun  tiint  yellow  dyoa 
•klllfully  comblnod  ;  with  tho  exception  of  tin'  rhromu  graou, 
anil  perhapH  the  copper  KToon  of  Hchwelnfiirt. 

Ontrifif.  Annotto,  and  mUtiirca  nf  red  and  yellow  dyoat 
Juhchnnnuto  of  lead. 

f'liieii,  y>ini,  or  Hoof.  Walnut  poela,  aiimaoh,  hlruhtroe, 
hanna,  aandal  wood, — liRR'a  IHet  nf  ArU, 

Inilii/i)  niul  ('ocMni'ul, — [n  l.'ilH  noltlier  of  the<ie  Im- 
portunt  ilve-Ktutt's  liud  iniiilo  their  wiiy  into  Kuritpe, 
I'liny  iiieiUioiiH  iiiili^o  under  tli«  niiinn  of  iWiVu/n  ,■  liut 
It  nppiinrn  to  Imvo  boeiiiineil  hy  tlio  OrflckH  and  Uomitna 
only  UK  II  piilnt ;  yet  tliero  can  lio  llttlo  doulit  tliiit  In 
India  it  had  Iwen  employed  fromtiinu  iniini'inoriul  an  a 
dyo.Htuir,  IJovhInoal  could  not  ho  known  till  after  the 
diw'overy  uf  Atilerica,  It  waa  UHcd  l>y  tlie  MexiciuiH  an 
a  dyuHtulf.  In  lu'ili  <'ortez  rocolved  ordem  from  the 
court  of  Spain  to  multiply  tliU  precioua  Inaoct,  to  culluct 
It  and  aonil  it  to  8|>ain.  Cochineal  liy  itself  kIvbh  only  a 
ci'iiiiiiun  color ;  it  dyes  trarlet  when  inixod  with  a  aolution 
of  tin.  'I'hii*  fact  waa  dlHcovered  accidentally  liy  ('omo- 
liu.H  l)relil>cl  nhout  the  year  1030.  lie  communicated 
hin  olmervution  to  hiit  8on-ln-law  Kuflelar,  who  wan  a 
dyer  at  Li^yden.  lie  soon  hrouKht  the  pro(^(>aii  to  per- 
fection, kept  it  a  Bccret,  anil  liruu{{lit  tlie  scarlet  color 
into  faxliLun.  8o(m  after,  tiie  aamo  proceHU  waa  dia- 
coveriyl  l>y  a  German  cliemint  called  Kotller,  who  car- 
ried his  Hccrut  to  Konilon  in  1U4H.  A  Flumixb  dyer 
culled  .lolm  Kliiock  |{ot  inl'ormatliin  of  tliu  proeena  In 
11H7,  and  it  uroiluiilly  mule  Its  way  tiiroU)(h  evorj- 
coinitry  of  Kurope.  Indi)(n,  tiiiMi)(h  »  much  more 
im|>ort:int  dye-stutf  than  cochineal,  did  not  make  its 
way  Into  general  use  without  tlie  (frcatost  difllculty. 
Tho  use  of  it  was  prohil>itcd  In  Kngland  during  the 
roign  of  Klizaheth ;  and  tlie  prohibition  was  not  taken 


oil  till  the  time  of  Chtrlos  II.  It  was  equally  prohlb- 
Itrd  In  Hitxony,  wboie  it  w«a  stylvd  in  tlie  pruhlbltiun 
■  corroHivn  aubatance,  nnd  called  fooil  for  the  devil. 
Rastrictiiins  on  the  uae  of  indigo  In  dynlng  were  Im- 
poied  itUo  in  Krunce,  though  It  wim  not  altogether 
prohihlted,  as  It  hud  Iwnn  in  Kiigiund  and  Haximy.  8«e 
nr.itriioi.i.RT,  on  Dj/eitii) ,■  liANruoKT,  on  C'uliirt, 

There  has  been  injeh  aiwculatiun  among  pliiloaopli- 
ical  dyera  rea|)«cting  tho  nature  of  tlie  coloring  mattem, 
anil  the  way  in  which  the  ditferunt  colors  are  induceil 
by  dyeing  ;  liut  theae  speculations  have  nut  led  to  any 
Information  of  much  value.  Tliere  is  reason  for  he- 
llivlng  that  the  coloring  matters  employed  aa  dye- 
stiilTs  nrn  nil  traiiKpurent,  and  that  the  color  is  pro- 
duced l>y  tlieir  action  iin  tlie  light  transmitted  tlirough 
them  from  the  white  lllires  of  the  clutii.  Those  color- 
ing matters  that  transmit  all  the  rays  e(|unlly  leave 
the  cloth  white ;  if  the  blue  ruy  be  transinlttcil  and 
the  rest  alisoriied,  the  cidor  of  the  doth  will  lie  hlur, 
and  so  on.  This  is  all  that  wo  know  about  the  me- 
chanical nature  of  tho  dypstiilt's. 

With  respect  to  the  aptitude  uf  lieing  dyed,  and  the 
brilliancy  of  llie  colors  thus  communleatod,  there  Is 
found  to  be  very  groat  dill'erenco  in  din'erent  tissues. 
Animal  suiutunces  are  much  more  easily  dyed  than 
vegetable  substances.  Uf  animal  substances,  lilt 
receives  color,  and  tho  shades  given  are  brigliter  and 
mora  lieantiful  than  those  whicli  can  be  imliibud  by  any 
otiiiir  tissue.  Woolen  chitli  is  also  very  lit  for  being 
dyed,  and  receives  very  lirllliant  colors  with  avidity ; 
though  in  this  respect  it  is  inferior  to  silk.  Cottor. 
and  linen  are  much  more  dilHcult  to  dye,  and  can  not 
lie  made  to  Imbibe  such  brilliant  colors  as  silk  pr 
woolen.  Thus  the  ricli  scarlet  given  to  cloth  by  the 
combined  action  of  cochineal  and  the  oxyd  of  tin,  has 
never  been  communicated  to  cotton  cloth  or  lineu. 
The  Turkey-red  dye.  wliicli  Is  liy  fur  the  finest  and 
most  permanent  red  that  has  ever  been  communicated 
to  cotton  cloth,  is  a  crimson,  or  rather  a  crimson  with 
a  shade  of  lirown.  It  has  not  the  least  approach  to  a 
scarlet. — K.  1). 

Dyke,  or  Dike.  When  a  mass  of  unstratitied  or 
igneous  rock,  such  as  granite,  trap,  or  lava,  appears  as 
if  injected  Into  rents  and  llssures  iu  the  strutilled  rock, 
so  as  to  intersect  the  strata,  it  is  called  a  di/ke.  Vi/kf 
Is  also  the  name  given  to  a  mound  of  earth,  stones,  or 
other  matorials,  intended  to  prevent  low  land  from 
lieing  Inundated  by  the  sea,  etc.  j  as  the  dykes  of  Hol- 
land. 


E. 


Ich,  upon 

To  this 

rtiipuchln. 

ra,  niari- 

.     BnafT, 

jiy  nubiti- 

If  a  little 

|o  only  dl- 

plgeon's 
,  ama- 


cB,  such 
1,  laurel 
kge  Bros"' 

■roduce  an 
Hblne,  form 
blue  dye 
I  should  be 
irhich  la  a 
|U  ts  dark 


Eagle,  in  numismatics,  a  sort  of  base  money  which 
was  current  in  Ireland  In  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  that  is,  about  tho  your  1272.  There  were 
also  liunines,  rosades,  and  many  other  coins  of  the 
same  sort,  named  according  to  tlie  llgures  with  which 
they  were  impressed.  The  current  coin  of  the  king- 
dom at  tiiat  time  was  a  composition  of  cop|ier  and  sil- 
ver, in  determinate  proportions ;  but  these  were  so 
ranch  inferior  to  tiio  standard  of  that  time,  tliat  they 
were  not  worth,  intrinsically,  half  so  much  as  the 
others.  They  wore  imported  from  France  and  other 
foreign  countries.  When  Kdwurd  had  been  a  few 
ycurs  estulilishod  on  the  tiirone,  ho  set  up  mints  In 
Ireland  for  coining  good  money,  and  then  prohibited 
tho  use  of  eagles,  and  other  kinds  uf  base  coin — making 
it  deatli,  with  conllscation  of  effects,  to  Import  any 
more  of  tliem  into  the  kingdom.  Eagle  Is  the  ilesigna- 
tiun  of  the  principal  gold  coin  of  the  United  States — 
value  ci|iial  tu  10  dullars. 

Earing,  in  nautical  language,  a  rope  attached  to 
tlie  cringle  of  a  sail,  liy  means  of  which  It  Is  bent  or 
reefed. 

EarnoHt,  in  commercial  law,  is  tho  sum  advanced 
by  the  liuyur  of  gootb  in  order  to  bind  the  seller  to  tho 


terma  of  the  agreement.  It  la  enacted  by  the  17th 
section  of  the  famous  Statute  ,if  Frauds,  29  Charles  II., 
c.  A,  that  "  no  contract  for  the  sale  of  any  goods, 
wares,  and  merchandises,  I  ir  the  prices  of  £10  sterling, 
or  upward,  shall  be  allowed  to  bo  good,  except  ti\a 
buyer  shall  accept  port  of  the  goods  so  sold,  and  actt  ■ 
ally  receive  the  same,  or  give  something  in  earnest  to 
bind  the  bargain,  or  in  jiart  payment,  or  that  son.e 
note  or  memorandum  in  writing  of  tlie  said  bargain  be 
made  and  signed  by  the  parties  to  be  charged  by  such 
contract,  or  their  agents  thereunto  lawfully  author- 
ized." As  to  what  amounts  to  sufficient  earnest,  Illuck- 
stone  lays  it  down,  that,  "  if  any  |jf»rt  of  the  price  is  paid 
down,  if  it  is  but  a  penny,  or  any  portion  of  the  goods 
is  delivered  by  way  of  earnest,  it  is  binding."  To  con- 
stitute earnest,  the  thing  must  be  given  as  a  token  of 
ratitlcation  of  the  contract,  and  it  should  be  expressly 
stated  so  by  the  giver. — Chittt's  Commerciul  Law, 
vol.  ill.,  p.  289. 

Ear-ring,  an  ornament  worn  at  the  ear ;  a  pendant 
or  jewel  suspended  by  means  of  a  ring  or  a  hook  passing 
through  the  pendulous  lobe  of  the  ear.  The  use  of 
this  kind  of  ornament  dates  from  the  remotest  anti- 
quity, since  the  first  mention  of  ear-rings  occurs  in  the 


EAil 


sas 


EAR 


iMnfc  "f  ftM««tit.  Kar-rlnip  of  rartaln  kIniU  wen 
ini'Miillr,  xii'l  ntlll  aro,  In  llix  Kant,  ln»triiini>ntii  or 
»fi\»uiliiitn  lit  MoUlry  mill  i>ii|Minilltlon  — IralnK  rii- 
lf«r>l«'l  M  Ull'ninna  ami  amiilclit.  Hucli,  imibalily, 
Wftf  IU» mttUiic  ot •ItriiU'ii  fNiiiily,  wliiili  ha  huiieil 
will)  llio  alranK*  K'"''  *'  l>i'lhi<l.  'I'lilii  iimmiwhat 
iMf l>«fi »t*  tfitHini  lit  ailnnimiint  wax  iiiii'il  (an  It  atill  la 
In  wKiia  i»unlrl«>i  hy  Imlh  utixaaaniniiK  many  (lrl«ntiil 
H«)l<>«i<  I  •••iwlally  \ty  Iha  l.yillann,  rnmlniia,  lliil)y- 
l(>nla*i>,  l/Miyafi«.  anil  CartliaKliilaiia,  aa  may  \m  giilh- 
«r«<l  rriifii  varlmia  anrli-nt  aiitliiira.  Amon^  tha 
Malifuwa  ami  tlia  ¥,Ky\M»n;  Itidr  iiaa  n|i|i<i«n  to  bavn 
iNWtl  I'linnnMl  til  woman  \  hut  that  tlixy  w«ni  axtan- 
al*»ly  iiatiil  liy  tha  man  of  viirlniin  iitliar  natlona  Ik 
•Mlllilonllr  ((fii»»il  liy  tha  KKyptiun  monumanta. 
A)n"ti|(  tna  (lra«lia  ami  Idminna  aitrrinK*  wara  wuni 
im\y  Uy  fxmalaa,  nml  wi-ra  anniptimra  iif  enomioua 
V*lu«,  It  la  •  I'lirioiia  fait  tliiit  tli«  imra  of  thti  Vanua 
»l«  Madid,  ami  of  aoina  otlipr  fi-mnln  htatiiaa,  are 
|i|«fi'«i|,  aa  If  fur  tliK  |>ur|Miaa  of  iH-arliiK  tlipno  ii|i|Mmil- 

Satth,  figure  of  tha  'I'hn  ilvtarmiuutlon  of 
tha  ftMiirn  nml  illmanalima  of  tha  (tiirtti  la  n  pMlilrm  of 
¥i>ry  ufrnt  lm|iortanr«  In  aatrommiy,  Innamiich  iii  it  la 
In  fafarani'i'  tii  Ilia  aarth'a  illiiiiiatar  that  tlin  iliatuncoa 
(if  )lia  (ilHiM'ta  from  tha  aim  anil  from  i<urh  othar  aro 
••lliliatail,  It  la  alao  a  |irolilain  of  va-y  gnat  Intareat 
ami  I'lirtiiaify  i  ami  haa  an'orilinKly  nttnicleil  tha  iittan- 
tl<iM  III  manklml  ainra  tha  aiirllrat  iliiwii  nf  rIvllUation. 
TItafa  Htf  two  (Milnta  of  vlaw  unilcr  whk-h  thia  gnnt 
<|)M">4l'f|i  may  Iw  I'onalilernl.  Thn  fltfiire  of  the  earth 
muf  lia  raxarilail  aa  a  fiirt  to  lie  ilatarmiiied  liy  invoati- 

flatWin  ami  aa|H<rlani'a,  llkn  any  other  phenomena  or 
aw  of  iiiiliira  I  In  whlih  raae  it  la  necvHaary  to  tlnil,  l>y 
lll«  aitiial  ninaaiirement  anil  i'oin|iBriaiin  of  iliflVrent 
laifllirfia  irf  (he  terreatrlnl  aurfai'e,  thn  niitiiro  of  ita 
fMfvaliira,  ami  the  inaKnitiiile of  ita  diami'tera.  I'nilrr 
Iba  aai'imd  (Hiliit  of  view,  the  f|UPHtion  la  olio  of  pure 
llMMify,  The  earth  may  lie  reuarded  na  a  ronKeriea  of 
matt^lal  (larflilea,  altractlii);  eaoli  other  with  fiirci'a 
r*('l(ifoi  alli  )irii|Kirtlonal  to  their  mutual  diatonrea, 
ami  emiiiweil  wjlli  a  rotatory  motion  ahout  a  rtxeil 
•Mia  I  ami  thn  priililem  la  to  determine  the  fiinii  the 
witfil*  maaa  wiiiild  aaaiime  In  virtue  iif  thn  iittriiitive 
ami  I  enlrtfilKiil  forcea  liy  whirh  the  |uirtii'loa  are  im- 
|iall«"l  Viewed  In  thIa  li((ht,  the  nttunl  liKure  of  the 
aaflh  iiecimiea  one  of  the  aerlea  of  ' oiiaequonrea  reault- 
\ttK  fr./in  Iha  iinlveraal  Kravitntion  of  matter,  and  di-- 

(0li4Uiit  on  the  aame  lawa  which  regulate  ita  motion  in 
I*  iirlilt  aliiitit  thn  aim. 

It  wmil'l  Im  n  waate  <•(  time  to  inquiro  what  were 
Mm  (I'ltliiii*  of  the  flxiir-.-  of  the  earth,  which  were  or 
ifM|4lit  ha»»  JH'in  eiilef  lined  liy  ila  eurlieat  and  nio^t 
ymiratit  InhaMtiinta.  A  very  alight  attention  to  llio 
(W/'t  <  iitrtmoii  I'lienoiiifna  render*  the  fact  of  ita  (jen- 
afal  roimdneaa  almnet  patpahin  to  the  acnaea.  Tlie 
MNlffirm  leirel  a|i|iearan('o  of  the  aenailile  horizon  in 
mH'tY  •Miiatlon  III  wlilcli  a  apectutor  can  lie  placed— 
tlia  deiireaalim  of  the  rlri'iim-|Hilar  atara  aa  he  odvuucea 
l/rward  the  aonth,  and  their  elevation  aa  ho  proreeda  in 
»  colli rary  direction  —  tha  diaappearance  of  a  ahip 
•tamlliiK  out  to  a«a— the  projection  of  the  earth  an  aoen 
III  a  liinir  m  l||iae,  and  a  numlier  of  other  familiar  ap- 
|if>liraii<  I'-  ynt  the  Klohular  flxure  of  our  plancl  lieyond 
«ll  maini» '  lit  doiili*.  Keaaonlng  from  auch  np|iear- 
»«<*•.  Ill*  earlieat  Mtrotioinera  univeranlly  regarded 
th*  aarlh  f  a  aphere ;  and  their  attention  was  solely 
Jllract*"!,  in  their  vnrloua  menaiirementa  and  compula- 
ll"lla,  t"  aai^ertnln  Ita  dlmensiona.  Modem  acienre 
haa  dlaiovered  that  Ita  figure  daviatea  alightly  from 
that  of  a  aphere,  lieing  compreaaed  or  flatteued  at  the 
aatrefiilllf ^  of  Ita  axia  of  rotation;  and  the  ohjeit  of 
(Im  a«lriniorii«'r,  at  the  preaeiit  time,  la  to  determine 
DM  mtly  Ma  dimenalnna,  but  also  the  exact  amount  of 
Ita  crnnpfaaadm 

Attenif/ta  to  e«timite  the  magnitude  of  the  earth 
W»r«  UuAk  at  ■  very  early  dote  i  for  Ariatotle  raUt«« 


that  tha  UathamAltcUna  prior  to  hij  time  had  found 
the  circumference  In  he  HH),!)!)!)  atadia.  Hut  Kriitoa- 
Ihriiea  ap|ieara  to  have  lieen  the  Itrat  who  rnlertnlned 
an  accurate  Idea  of  the  prliiciplea  on  whiih  the  deter- 
minalitvn  of  the  llgure  of  the  imrth  really  ile|ii'iida,  mid 
attempted  to  reduce  theau  priiici|ili<a  to  pruclicc.  Ilia 
reaulta,  in  coiiaei|Ui'iicn  of  the  Imperfect  diitii  from 
which  they  were  deduced,  wore  very  iuaccuriite ;  liut 
hia  inethiMl  U  the  aame  na  that  which  la  followed  iit  the 
preaent  day,  de|iendlng,  In  fact,  on  the  compnriinii  of  n 
line  actually  iiicuaured  on  the  aurface  of  the  earth  with 
the  corrt'a|Kiiiding  celoatlal  arc.  He  had  reuiarkeil,  or 
lieen  Informed,  that  at  Syuiie  In  l'p|ier  KgypI,  on  the 
day  of  the  numnier  aolatire,  ut  noon,  olijecta  caat  no 
ahodowa  ;  whence  he  concluded  that  the  aun  waa  ex- 
actly iu  thn  xenith  at  mid-day.  On  the  aame  day,  ut 
Alexandria,  he  oliaerved  the  aun'a  meridional  iii>tance 
ffoni  tlie  zenith  to  lie  7°  I'i',  or  ii  WMIi  part  of  thn 
circunifcreiicn.  Then,  naauiiiing  Hyeiie  to  I'C  exactly 
uniler  the  meridian  of  Alexandria  (tlie  error  in  tiiia 
aaauinption  wa-*  almut  !)'),  and  the  di»taiice  lictween 
the  two  placea,  meaaured  in  a  atruight  line,  to  lie  A.IKH) 
Htiidia,  he  hud  fi.nWIXiM)-.  I>fi0,mxj  atadia  for  the  whole 
circumference  of  the  earth.  It  la  eaay  to  see  how 
very  iiii|ierfect  thia  o|H'ratioii  iiiiiat  have  la-en.  With- 
out mentioning  amalier  errora,  the  neglect  of  the  aolar 
diameter  would  ulone  occaaion  iin  uncertainly  iia  t<i 
the  antra  dei'Iination,  and  coiiacquciitly  ua  to  tiin  length 
of  the  releatiiil  arc,  amounting  to  half  a  degree  on  the 
oliaervation  II  .Syene  ;  and  there  la  no  reaaon  to  aup- 
|Hiae  that  that  ut  Alexandria  waa  more  exact.  Thn 
terreatrial  dintancn  lietweeii  the  two  placea  waa  im- 
aumed  on  ei|iinlly,  or  pnilialily  atill  more  looao  and 
inaccurate  detcrniinationa. 

The  next  attempt  to  aacertuin  the  dImenHinna  of  the 
earth  waa  made  liy  I'oaidoniua.  Thia  aatronoiner 
adopted  II  method  which  dilTered  from  that  of  Kratoa- 
thenea  only  in  determining  the  ccleatial  arc  liy  nieani! 
of  the  altitude  of  a  atnr,  Inatead  of  the  aun'a  zenith 
diatance.  At  Uhodea,  the  bright  atar  CanopuK,  when 
on  the  meridian,  barely  ap|H-ara  above  the  hi^rizon. 
At  Alexandria  the  aamo  atar  waa  obaerved  to  have  a 
meridional  nltitudo  of  a  ^  of  a  aign,  or  7^  dcgreea, 
which,  therefore,  wna  the  celential  arc  intercepted  be- 
tween tile  zenith  of  Alexandria  nnd  lihodea.  The 
terreatrial  diatnnco  la^tWccM  llin  two  plucea  waa  eiti- 
mated,  like  that  between  Ale.xundrlunnd  Syene,  at  .S.OOO 
stadia,  and  they  were  iMith  auppoNcd  to  lie  under  the 
anno  meridian,  llcnce,  aince  7|  degrees  is  the  '18th 
of  the  circumference,  wo  have  5<I00XI8=^'.'I0,(KHJ 
atadia,  for  the  whole  circumference  of  the  globe. 

It  la  inipnaaible  to  form  any  correct  opinion  of  the 
degree  of  approximation  attained  in  theac  nniWnt 
measures,  aa  tho  length  of  the  Ktadiiim  ia  not  known 
with  any  certainty.  That  it  varieil  In  ilitTcrcnt  places, 
and  at  iliffereiit  times,  ia  sufflciently  obvioiia  from  the 
statement  of  Ptolemy,  who,  in  hia  work  on  weography, 
assigns  the  length  of  the  degree  at  500  atadia.  ami  con- 
sequently the  whole  circumference  ut  IHO.ddO,  dilVer- 
ing  ft-om  the  determination  of  Posidonius  in  tlie  pro- 
portion of  B  to  4,  and  atill  more  from  that  of  I'.ta- 
tuHthenes.  Ptolemy  remarked  that  it  »a»  not  necea- 
aary  that  the  line  measured  should  lie  e\ai  tly  in  the 
meridian ;  it  was  suSlcient  to  know  its  inclination  to 
the  meridian,  or  the  uzimuthal  angle,  together  with 
the  latitudes  of  its  extreme  points,  in  urdci  to  compare 
it  with  the  meridional  ar>'.  Tlie  determiii  ition  of  the 
azimuth  is,  however,  un  operation  of  considcralde  dif- 
tlculty;  and  I'tidemy  has  given  no  details  of  the 
method  by  which  he  proposed  to  estimate  it.  He  baa 
lieen  equally  silent  In  reaiiect  of  tho  meous  I  y  wliich 
tlie  mean  length  of  a  degree  was  ascertained  ti>  \m  500 
Hiadia,  so  that  tho  result  which  he  has  recorded  is  still 
leas  satisfactory  than  those  of  the  two  more  ancient 
astronomers. 

Tho  active  curiosity  of  the  Arabians,  which  waa 
exerted  so  succctafuUy  in  promuting  practical  iutron- 


rad 
nic 


redii 

Tho 

tho 

lengi 

tho  I 

a  mi 

plovi 

Tl 

mcnf 

open 

indel 

who 

cauti 

tion 

percl 

Iciigl 

a  qui 

virei 


BAR 


flAO 


EAR 


omy,  illil  not  overlook  Iho  mitivtnr*  of  tho  onrth.  Th« 
('nll|>h  Aliimmcj'Jii,  wlii>  Iivkuii  hl«  ri'l^ii  In  <l>n  ynt 
111,  cirilrnil  It  riiiii|iiiiiy  of  iiKlniniimi'rM  t»  iiiniiiiiirn  n 

ilKt(n<«  oil  tli«  lini'l  |iliilii  of  M |Kitiinil>i.      IliviilliiK 

thotiunlvc*  Inlii  iHci  piirtli'^,  tli«  iiim  |irn<'<'i>(l>'>l  nurth- 
ward,  mill  tint  iirticr  uniitliwiinl,  III  tliii  illrri'tioii  of  tho 
iniTiilUii,  lliroii|{li  11  ilKKriin  iif  Intihiilx,  iiiiil  nii>iii<iiri<il 
with  riHlpt  llm  llliirrurv  cllatiincn  pi«  Hiey  iinpiiwilml. 
The  |i«rrflrt  ii|{n>«iiioiit  iif  lln'lr  cniicliiaioii  with  that  of 
rtiili'iny,  thrciwi  It  oiirii  to  ^rciit  >iu«|ili'lon  ;  iiiiil  whrii 
It  I"  riinniili-rccl  that  thi'lr  ri|MTiiliiiii  wiin  ri'iM-iiti-il  iit  ii 
ilUP'ri'iit  |ilu(K,  with  I'xiirlly  thn  hiiiiik  ri«»iik,  thuri'  iiin 
lin  no  iliiiilit  thiit  tlii<y  lillmlly  iiilnpti'il  I  ho  utatRiiicnt 
of  lhi<  (Irrolc  HntMnnmnr,  nlthi<r  from  Iniililllty  to  pxn- 
ritlx  thn  tank  *ii*lKneil  to  thiun,  or  Ium'iiiihu  thi<y  liail 
no  c'cmllrli-iun  III  thfir  own  iliiliTnilniitlon. 

Krom  tho  tliiio  of  Alainamuiin,  tho  |>n>lili<m  of  ilotor- 
niliiliiK  Ihn  dii  i'IibIoiik  of  tho  oiirth  wim  iiPu'''i't''il|  till 
thii  rrvlviil  of  imtrononiy  with  ftpnoriil  hmriiln^  In 
Kiiropo.  Tho  llr«t  atfoinpt  to  nolvo  It  wii«  iniiil«  hy 
Kcrnol,  who,  alHuit  tho  nililillo  of  tho  lillh  rrntiiry, 
mi'iiniirpil  tho  (lUtiini'e  fnini  I'lirlx  to  AnilriiK,  nlonif  tho 
lil^li  mail,  liy  oliHurvInK  tho  niniilixr  of  rfvoliilloim 
iniiilo  hy  hU  coach'Whool  In  tho  Joiirnoy  liptwi^on  thono 
two  ritloa,  SiipiHixinK  llifni  to  tin  iiniliT  tho  8111110  nio-. 
rlilliin,  whirli  N  nriirly  triio,  ami  hiivlii^  iimortiilnnl 
tho  illllerc'iico  of  thoir  hilitiiili'H,  Vornol  foiinil  hy  thin 
nioiuis  tho  loiijfth  of  tho  ilo^jr.'o  to  Im  57,070  Krciich 
tuUon,  or  iilmut  ;I(!I,!m;o  Kntfllsli  foot.  A  ilo({roo  wiih 
nioaHuniil  long  aftorwiinl  at  tho  nanio  plaio  hy  l.ii- 
ralllo,  In  n  far  nmro  ailrquato  unil  ni'lontlllo  mannor, 
anil  ho  fiiiinil  il  to  ho  07,071  tolxoa.  Thia  iigroi'inrnt  In 
ronih'reil  tho  Iimh  nxtraordiiinry  liy  tho  ilrniinKtanio 
that  tliM  tolso  of  I'Vriicl  waa  not  exactly  of  tho  namo 
lrn){lh  of  that  of  l.nralllo.  Aftor  all.  It  miiKt  he 
allowKil  that  Kornol  mailo  a  fortiinato  (Jko*".  (\>k. 
i.AViMiK,  Anlrntiiiinif,  toin.  ill.,  chap,  xxxv.) 

Hut  tho  flrnt  who  hail  tho  inoflt  4if  attoinptln^  to 
oxeoiito  tho  gooileflc  oporatlonit  that  aro  ImliKponHnMy 
noonHary  to  oflVit  tho  aooiirato  nioamiroinpnt  of  a  h  n^ 
linn  on  tho  nnrfuoo  of  tho  earth,  wu«  Wlllchriiril  Sm  '.I, 
It  niitlvo  of  llollanil,  ami  n  teaihor  of  inathom  urn. 
llavin((  o»tahlishi'i|  a  ohiiln  of  trlanglcx  hitwi'in  Alk- 
inaor  unil  H«rt;on-op-Zooni,  anil  oliHorvod  tho  an^lon 
of  cai'h  trlanglo,  hy  moans  of  a  qiiailrant  of  .'>J  fort 
railliis,  ho  moasurcil  a  hunoon  tho  frozen  toirl'.ire  of  tho 
nioiulows  hotwcon  I.eyilon  ami  tho  vllla^to  of  Hoetor- 
woiiil,  anil  iloternilned  tho  dlxtanco  Iwtwccn  tlio  two 
plai'on  liy  trl(?ononiPtrli'al  eonipiitntlon.  Thn  longth 
of  tlio  (lej^rco  whlidi  ho  funnel  wiji  28,500  Itynland 
pcn^lioH,  or  tthout  55,020  toincs,  whloh  U  aluMit  20.'>0 
toi»c»  too  small.  ThU  roniitt  wiw  pnhll-ihi'd  hy  Miis- 
clionhmek,  who  In  faot  rovisod  or  lah  idatod  tho  oli- 
porvatlons  from  tlio  arl|{lihil  papers  a  1  intiin'  after  the 
(Iciith  of  Siioll. 

Norwood,  ill  thn  year  1635,  attemptod  to  mcaitiiro  a 
de^roo  in  Knuland  Hourly  in  t'l.  ^^nifl  mannor  a»  Ker- 
nel. Ho  inoa'iurod  the  JIhI  1..  hotweoii  London  and 
York  alonn  thn  public  roail.  taking  tho  hoaringa  and 
rediiiing  the  diroition  to  tho  meridian  in  o  rough  way. 
Tho  dlft'ercnce  of  lal'tude.i  li  found  hy  observations  of 
tho  solstice  to  bo  J"  28',  .ml  thence  concluded  the 
length  of  the  dogni'  to  ho  M>;7,17(i  Knglish  feet.  Like 
tho  measurement  of  Fernol,  this  has  liecn  found  to  ho 
n  much  nearer  approximation  than  tho  method  em- 
ployed would  have  led  us  to  expect. 

Tho  application  of  tho  telescope  to  circular  instru- 
ments gave  n  far  higher  degree  of  precision  to  geodetic 
operations.  Picaril,  to  whom  practical  astronomy  is 
indebted  for  this  capital  impmvement,  was  tho  first 
who  measured  tho  arc  of  the  meridian  with  such  pre- 
cautions and  care  as  tho  delicate  nature  of  tho  opera- 
tion rcipiircs.  lie  twice  measiirod  with  wooden 
perches  a  baso  of  nearly  seven  Knglish  miles  In 
length  i  and  observed  the  angles  of  his  triangles  with 
a  quadrant,  having  a  telescope  adapted  to  it  with  cross 
wires  in  its  focus.     He  even  culoulatod  the  error  pro- 


duced hy  the  ln>tnini*nt  Iwlng  placed  out  of  the  o«ntr* 

of  thn  slatliin,  iiiol  i!<'f«riiiltiiMl  Ilin  tPiilth  di'>taiiio  of 
a  star  In  Ihn  1  uiMtolbitloii  CiiHnliipi'lu  with  it  Miclnr,  for 
thn  piir|MHn  iif  olitiiinlng  tho  dltrwrriicei  iif  latitude. 
Thn  illntaiicn  hrtwern  Aiiilcns  and  Malvnlliio  wua 
found  to  lin  7N,M50  lolsos,  and  Iho  dllfKremn  ui'  lilltuda 
I"  22'  55",  wlicnin  tho  result  gave  fur  the  iligr.  •  at 
Amiens  57,0(10  tolsrs  ;  hilt  as  thn  aborrallioi  and  iniita- 
tliin  worn  Unknown  at  that  tliiio,  and  Ihn  rcfnutlon 
was  nut  taken  Into  account-  causes  of  error  to  whli  h 
it  Is  Indlspoiisably  necessary  to  havo  regard  a  deter- 
nilnutlou  wlilili  iignies  so  nearly  with  thn  rciiilts  of 
rncent  measures  loiilil  only  havn  arisen  from  a  fortu- 
nato  coin|i«nsatlon  of  errors.  In  fact,  his  tolso  wit) 
somewhat  shorter  than  that  which  has  simn  been 
adopted  as  tho  stiuidard  ;  and  thn  error  occasioned  hy 
this  I'lrciinistume  nearly  lonipeiisatod  that  which  was 
committed  in  detormliiliig  thn  celestial  arc  ;  so  that  III 
recalculating  all  tho  oloervatlons,  tlio  dngreo  Is  fiiiiml 
to  bo  very  nearly  tho  Haiiie  as  was  found  by  I'liard. 

t'nnrk  t'.ritfnmiHln.  -WWwtiit  geodetic  operatloni 
had  been  conlliied  to  the  detorinliiatlon  of  tho  inagnl- 
tudo  of  the  earth;  lint  a  discovery  mailn  by  Itli  her 
turned  tho  allentioii  of  mathematicians  to  Its  deviation 
from  tho  spherhal  form.  This  astninoiner  havinj^ 
been  sent,  by  the  Academy  of  .Sciences  of  l'arl«,  to  tli« 
isia  III  of  Cayenne  In  .South  America,  for  tho  pur|His« 
of  ilotcrmhiing  tho  amount  of  terrestrial  refract  loii  anil 
other  astronoinieal  objects,  observed  that  his  1  hick, 
«hlih  had  been  regulated  at  Paris  to  la-at  seconds, 
Inst  about  2^  minutes  daily  iit  Cayenne,  and  that,  111 
order  to  bring  It  to  measure  mean  solar  time,  it  wns 
necessary  to  shorten  tho  pendulum  by  morn  than  a 
lino.  Tills  fact,  whieli  apiaiared  exceedingly  curious, 
and  was  si  .irccly  credited  till  it  had  lieen  iniillnneil  by 
tho  suli>ei|iieiit  observiitiiins  of  V'arln  ami  Desliuvus, 
was  first  expi lined  In  tho  third  hook  of  the  I'riiiiipin, 
by  Newton,  »  ho  showed  that  It  could  only  he  referrcil 
to  a  diminution  of  gravity  arising  from  one  of  two 
causes — a  |irotiiberanco  of  tlio  ei|iiatoriul  parts  of  tho 
eurtli,  and  consoipient  increase  of  the  distance  fmni 
the  centre,  or  from  tho  counteracting  efl'ect  ni  tho  ceii- 
trifugal  force,  occasioned  by  tho  rotation  of  the  earth. 
The  former  could  not,  on  iiiiy  rnasonable  suppositloii 
regarding  the  llgiire  nf  tho  earth,  lie  regarduil  us  ailc- 
quute  tu  priiduco  tho  eflcct ;  but  tho  latter,  which 
would  produce  a  retardation  of  tho  pendulum  iit  ( 'ay- 
enno  in  the  r.ii  m  of  tho  s<|uare  of  tho  sine  of  ii°  to  that 
of  1!)°  (the  resiioctive  latitudes  of  Cayenne  and  Paris), 
might  nmoiiiit  to  I'll!  seconds.  This  was  tho  first 
direct  proof  (if  the  diurnal  rotation  of  tho  earth. 

From  this  tiino  tho  exact  detorminution  of  the  figure 
of  tho  earth  began  to  ussumo  a  degree  of  importance 
which  had  not  formerly  uttaciieil  to  It.  The  centrifu- 
gal force  arising  from  tho  diurnal  rotation  completely 
set  aside  the  Idea  of  ,)erfoct  spliericit)'.  Newton,  as- 
suming that  the  ciirtli  had  been  originally  fluid,  iiml 
supposing  its  density  to  bo  tho  same  throughout  the 
whole  nuiss,  and  supposing,  moreover,  that  Its  consti- 
tuent molecules  attract  ono  another  in  proportion  to 
the  inverse  square  of  tile  distance,  demonstrated  that 
it  would  assume,  In  consequence  of  the  rotation,  the 
form  of  a  spheroid  flattened  at  tho  poles ;  and  that  the 
proportion  of  its  eiiuatoriul  to  its  |)olar  axis  would  be 
2110  to  2.'U.  Hut  the  supposition  of  the  equal  density 
of  tho  earth  is  obviously  very  improhablo,  and  conso- 
quently  the  ratio  of  tho  equatorial  and  polar  diameters 
must  ho  different  from  that  now  mentioned.  Newton 
erroneously  concluded  that  if  the  density  is  greater  in 
tho  interior  of  the  earth  than  at  tho  centre,  tho  com- 
presshui  would  ho  greater  than  in  tho  case  of  u  spheroid 
'  f  equal  density.  This  mistake  was  pointed  out  by 
lluygcns,  who,  in  order  to  determine  the  amount  of 
the  compression  from  theory,  reasoned  in  this  way. 
Suppose  two  tubes  to  bo  united  ut  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  forming  a  right  angle  with  ouch  other  ut  that 
point,  and  extending  to  the  surface,  one  in  the  plana 


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of  tbe  equator  u>d  the  other  along  the  potar  axis,  and 
filled  with  a  homogeneous  fluid.  Now  the  fluid  con- 
tained in  the  polar  branch  exerts  a  pressure  on  the 
centre  equal  to  the  whol«  of  its  weight,  while  the 
pressure  of  that  in  the  other  tube  will  be  diminished  by 
the  centrifugal  force.  The  second  column,  therefore, 
If  of  the  same  length,  will  be  less  heavy  than  the  first ; 
and  in  order  to  restore  the  equililirium,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  equatorial  tube  shall  have  gained  as  much  in 
length  ns  it  has  lost  in  weight  through  the  effect  of 
rotation.  Hence  the  sea  in  the  equatorial  regions 
must  be  higher,  or  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
centre,  than  the  polar  sea,  and  consequently  the  earth 
must  have  a  flattened  form.  Calculating  from  the 
supposition  that  the  density  increases  regularly  from 
the  surface  to  the  centre,  where  it  is  infinite,  lluygens 
found  the  rat.o  of  the  diameters  to  be  that  of  678  to 
679.  This  investigation  is  given  in  his  worlc  De  Causa 
Graniath,  published  in  1690. 

frmch  Theory. — The  theoretical  determinations  of 
the  form  of  the  earth  by  Newton  and  liurgens 
were  at  variance  with  the  results  of  gemletic  opera- 
tions that  had  been  carried  on  in  France  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  first  Cassini,  from  1680  till 
1716,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  geometrical  survey 
of  that  country.  Cassini  found  the  degree  of  the  me- 
ridian to  the  south  of  Paris  to  lie  57,092  toises,  while 
on  the  north  of  that  city  it  was  only  66,960  toises. 
This  result  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  earth  is  a 
protracted  spheroid,  or  elongated  at  the  poles ;  a  con- 
clusion entirely  inconsistent  with  the  principles  of  hy- 
drostatic equilibrium,  and  the  deductions  of  Newton 
and  Huygens.  The  question,  however,  was  of  too 
gi-eut  importance  to  astronomy  to  he  allowed  to  remain 
undecided.  Accordingly,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris  determined  to  apply  a  decisive  test,  l)y  the 
measurement  of  arcs  at  a  great  distance  from  each 
other.  For  this  purpose,  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished members  of  their  body  undertoolc  the  nieas- 
nrement  of  two  meridional  arcs,  one  in  the  neighlior- 
hood  of  the  eqaatnr,  and  the  other  in  a  high  latitude. 
In  1735,  Godin,  Uouguer,  and  La  Condamine,  pro- 
ccedcd  to  Peru,  where  they  were  joined  by  tw^o  Span- 
ish officers,  Don  Georges  .Juan,  and  Autunio  d't'llon, 
and,  after  ten  years  of  lalmrious  exertion,  they  meas- 
ured au  arc  of  above  3  degrees,  l>etween  tlic  paralle'o 
of  2'  31"  north,  and  3°  4'  82"  south  latitude.  Th« 
other  party,  consisting  of  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  Ca- 
mus, Lemonnier,  Onthier,  and  Celsius,  were  in  some 
respects  mere  fortunate,  inasmuch  as  they  completed 
the  measurement  of  an  arc  noar  the  polar  circle,  of  57 
muiutes,  and  returned  to  Europe  witliin  16  months  from 
the  perio<l  of  their  departure.  Tlie  measurement  of 
Bouguer  was  executed  with  great  care ;  and,  on  ac- 
count of  the  locality  (the  extremities  lieing  on  different 
sides  of  the  equator),  as  well  as  the  excellent  manner 
in  which  all  the  details  were  conducted,  it  has  always 
l>een  regarded  as  a  most  valuable  detennination.  The 
original  base  was  determined  twice,  and  the  difference 
between  the  t  wo  measures  was  scarcely  2^  inches. 

Alwut  the  middle  of  the  last  century  several  arcs 
of  meridian  were  measured  in  various  countries,  which, 
though  of  inferior  importance  in  comparison  of  the 
more  extensive  surveys  which  have  since  been  under- 
taken, are  nevertheless  deserving  of  enumeration.  In 
1751  Ijicaille  measured  an  are  at  the  Ca|>e  of  Good 
Hope,  whither  he  had  gone  for  the  purpo.i  of  deter- 
termining  the  lunar  parallax,  and  making  other  astro- 
nomical observations.  At  the  latitude  of  33°  18^'  he 
found  the  degree  of  the  meridian  to  \w  67,0.S7  toises. 
This  result  was  nearlj-  the  same  as  had  iMJtjn  obtained 
in  France,  VP  further  from  the  ci|uator ;  and  clearly 
proved  either  the  existence  of  great  local  irregularities 
in  the  form  of  the  earth,  or  the  dissimilarity  of  the  two 
terrestrial  hemispheres.  As  theory  recognixeil  no  such 
abnormal  condition  of  figure,  and  on  the  other  lumd, 
LacaUle'g  observations,  all  the  details  of  which  had 


been  preserved,  appeared  to  have  been  carefully  made 
and  correctly  computed,  the  result  which  they  gave 
was  for  some  generations  a  very  vexaUt  quaitio  among 
all  gpodesists.  After  the  lapse,  however,  of  nearly  a 
century,  the  arc  has  been  lately  remeasured  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  government,  with  all  the  mod- 
em improved  means  and  appliances ;  and  an  approx- 
imate calculation  of  thn  observations  shows,  that  the 
greater  part  of  Lacaille  s  anomaly  was  produced  by 
mountain  utiraction  on  his  plumb-line.     (Ii55). 

In  1751  the  measurement  of  a  terrestrial  arc  was 
undertaken*in  the  Koman  states,  by  tbe  Jesuits  Maire 
and  Boscovich,  It  extended  nearly  two  degrees  Im- 
twoen  liomo  and  liimini,  and  it  was  found  that  the 
degree  of  meridian  between  these  parallels,  namely, 
42°  and  44°,  contained  56,973  toises.  The  details  are 
given  at  length  by  Boscovich,  in  a  work  of  great  ele- 
gance, and  entitled  I)e  Lilteraria  Kipeditione  per  Pon- 
tijiciam  dilioitcm,  etc.     Romie,  1755. 

Liesganig,  a  .Tesuit  iu  1762  also  executed  two  meas- 
ures of  a  meridional  degree,  one  in  Hungary  and  the 
other  in  tlie  Austrian  states ;  but  it  has  been  shown  by 
Boron  Zach,  in  his  Corrrtpoiuknce  Ailronomiquf,  vol. 
viL,  that  the  results  merit  no  confidence,  and,  in  fact, 
would  lead  to  certain  error  if  employed  as  elements  in 
determining  the  figure  of  tbe  earth. 

About  the  same  time,  in  1764,  an  arc  of  meridian 
was  measured  in  North  America,  on  the  peninsula  be- 
tween the  Chcsapejiko  and  Delaware  bays,  by  two  En- 
glishmen, Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon.  They 
employed  no  trinnguhition  but  measured  the  line  with 
deal-rods  along  tlic  wholo  extent  of  the  arc,  the  mean 
latitude  of  wliich  was  39°  12'.  Their  rods  were  af- 
terwards compared  with  the  tlve-feet  brass  rods  made 
by  Bird.  The  latitudes  were  determined  with  a  zenitli 
sector.  The  length  of  the  degree,  after  the  necessary 
corrections  and  reductions  were  made,  was  found  to  lie 
6U,625  English  fathoms,  or  56,888  toises.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  great  care  was  bestowed  on  this  openitiun  ; 
it  is,  however,  easy  to  see  tliat  the  measurement  of  so 
long  a  line  by  means  of  rods  is  liable  to  many  caiues 
of  error  from  which  the  method  of  triangulation  is 
exempt. 

In  1762  Beccaria  undertook  to  measure  a  degree  in 
the  ]ilains  of  Piedmont.  He  found  the  degree  of  tlic 
meridian  at  the  latitude  of  44°  44'  to  contain  57,468 
toises  ;  but  great  uncertainty  remained  respecting  tlie 
correctness  of  tlie  latitudes,  the  extreme  points  of  tlie 
arc  lieing  in  the  near  neighliorhood  of  immense  ranges 
of  mountains,  which  (%uld  not  fail  to  produce  a  very 
considerable  deviation  of  the  plumli-line.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  as  both  ends  of  the  are  were  terminated  by 
mountain  ranges,  whereas  Bosci'n  ii  h's  arc  had  been 
carried  across  the  Apennines  and  terminated  at  the 
sea  coast,  the  emir?  of  the  two  measures  occasioned 
liy  the  local  attraction,  lieing  of  opposite  kinds,  would 
neutralize  each  other,  lUid  give  a  correct  lueun  result. 
Amid  the  rapid  ativunces  of  mathematical  science 
toward  tbe  end  of  the  last  centur}-,  the  dctcriniimtion 
of  the  figure  of  the  ej'rth  was  not  overlooked.  In  tlic 
year  1783  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  British 
government  by  Cassini  de  Thurj',  stating  the  import- 
ant advantages  that  would  result  to  astninomy  and 
navigation,  from  having  the  diflerenco  of  longitude  of 
the  Greenwich  and  Pari*  observatories  determincil  liy 
a  geodetic  measurement.  Fortunately  this  proposal 
was  agreed  to.  The  English  operations  were  placed 
under  the  superintendence  of  General  Roy,  who  tu 
active  and  indefatigable  zeal  united  great  skill  and 
experience  in  practical  astronomy  and  siirvcjing.  In 
the  summer  of  1784  a  base  of  rather  iiioru  tlian  five 
miles  was  measured  on  liounslow  Heath.  In  the 
nieasurcnient  of  this  base,  deal-rods  woru  fir^t  em- 
ployed ;  but  as  these  were  found  to  warp,  and  be  af- 
fe<^ted  with  the  variations  of  the  hygrometrical  stafe 
of  the  atmosphere,  glass  tubes  were  sulistituted  ;  and, 
in  1701,  the  same  base  was  measured  with  a  steel  chain 


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carefully  nude  by  Ramsden,  yet  the  difference  from 
the  former  measure  was  found  to  be  only  three  inches. 
The  mean  result  was  27,4W'2  feet  reduced  to  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  the  scale  being  taken  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  62°  o*"  Fahrenheit.  A  chain  of  82  triangles, 
in  connection  with  tliis  base,  extended  over  the  coun- 
try to  Dover  and  Hastings  ;  and  two  more,  stretching 
across  the  Channel,  connected  them  with  thn  French 
signals  on  the  opposite  side.  The  instrum  nts  em- 
ployed in  this  survey  were  of  the  most  excellent 
description,  and  far  superior  to  any  that  had  ever  been 
employed  in  similar  operations.  The  angles  of  each 
triangle  were  measured  by  a  large  theodolite  con- 
atructe<l  by  Ramsden ;  and  it  was  this  splendid  instru- 
ment that  first  exhibited  the  tpherical  excets,  or  the 
minute  quantity  by  which,  on  account  of  the  sphericity 
of  the  earth,  the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
on  the  earth's  surface  exeecila  180°, 

The  Frcncli  part  of  this  great  operation  was  con- 
ducted with  equal  ability  by  Cassini  (the  fourth  of 
that  name),  Mechain,  and  Delambre.  The  angles 
were  measured  with  the  repeating  circle  of  Borda ;  an 
instrument  of  a  verj-  diiforent  description  from  tlie  the- 
odolite, but  which  in  geodetic  operations  may  fairly  be 
allowed  to  give,  if  not  equally,  at  least  sufficiently 
correct  results,  while  in  practice  it  is  much  more  com- 
modious. The  result  of  the  combined  measures  showed 
the  meridian  of  Paris  to  be  2°  19'  51"  east  of  Ureen- 
wich,  or  9"  less  thnu  had  been  determined  by  Dr. 
Muslcelyne. 

Soon  after  this  time,  a  scries  of  geodetic  measure- 
ments both  in  France  and  Kngland,  [and  also  in  the 
United  States,  in  1805,  for  an  account  of  which,  see 
Coast  Suuvey,]  whicli,  in  point  of  extent,  as  well  as 
minute  accuracy,  far  surpassed  all  the  operations  which 
had  yet  been  undertaken  with  a  view  to  determine  the 
figure  of  the  earth.  In  1791  the  National  Convention 
of  France  bavuig  agreed  to  remodel  the  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  determined  to  adopt  a  standard 
taken  from  nature,  which  might  be  universally  appli- 
cable in  all  countries,  and  capable  of  being  restored  at 
any  future  age,  if  l)y  accident  it  should  happen  to  be 
lost.  Two  such  standards  were  pro|}osed,  namely,  the 
length  of  the  pendulum,  which  makes  a  given  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  given  latitude  ;  and  tlie  quadrant  of 
the  terrestrial  meridian.  Of  these,  the  )iendulum  is 
by  far  the  most  easy  to  be  determined ;  but  it  wos  ol)- 
jei'ted,  that  as  the  length  of  tho  pendulum  varies  at 
ditferent  latitudes,  and  also  depeiuls  in  some  degree  on 
the  geological  character  of  the  country  wlicre  it  is 
nipisured,  its  length,  if  it  should  happen  to  be  lost, 
couia  not  be  recovered,  without  knowing  tho  precise 
place  at  which  it  liad  formerly  been  determined.  The 
Icngtii  of  the  quadrant  of  the  meridian  is,  however, 
invariable,  and,  if  the  earth*  is  a  regular  spheroid  uf 
revolution,  must  be  tlio  same  at  all  places.  Accordingly 
the  Convention  chose  the  ten  millionth  part  of  the  meri- 
dian from  the  equator  to  the  [wle  as  the  unit  of  their  new 
scale  ;  and  in  order  tliat  this  unit  might  l>e  determined 
with  tlio  greatest  possible  precision,  it  was  resolved  to 
romeasure  the  meridian  of  the  arc  of  Paris,  and  to  ex- 
tend it  from  Dunkirk  to  Darcelona,  a  distance  compre- 
hending altogether  an  arc  of  about  nine  degree.'.  The 
practical  execution  of  this  nndertaking  was  confided 
to  two  astronomers  of  distinguished  al)ility,  Delambre 
and  Mechain,  by  wlium  the  requisite  operations  were 
carried  on  during  the  years  1792,  1793,  and  1791,  amid 
all  the  dangers  and  difficulties  arising  from  the  disor- 
ganiised  state  of  the  country,  with  a  resolution  and 
courage  of  which  tho  aimals  of  science  aO'ord  few  ex- 
amples. The  triangles  amounted  to  115  in  number. 
Each  of  the  three  angles  of  every  triangle  was  sepa- 
rately observed  with  the  repeating  circle.  The  dif- 
ferent ooservations,  with  the  original  registers  and 
remarks  of  the  observers,  v/ere  compared  by  commis- 
sioners, among  whom  were  some  of^  the  aldest  men  in 
f ranee.    A  form  was  drawn  up,  after  which  all  the 


calculations  were  made.  The  calculations  of  the  tri- 
angles, as  well  as  of  the  azimuths,  were  examined  by 
Tralles,  Van  Swindon,  Legendre,  and  Delambre  him- 
self. The  triangles  were  connected  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Paris  with  a  base  of  upward  of  seven  miles 
in  length,  behig  6076-9  toises,  at  the  temperature  16^ 
centrigrade,  or  61^  of  Fahrenheit.  A  base  of  verifica 
tion  of  6006.25  toises  was  measured  by  Mechain,  near 
Perpignan,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  arc ;  and 
the  measured  len^^th  was  found  to  dlfler  by  less  than  a 
foot  from  the  \eugth  deduced  by  calculation  from  the 
first  base,  though  the  distance  was  more  than  436 
miles.  A  line  of  this  lengiL,  measured  with  extreme 
precision,  is  obviously  quite  sufficient  to  enable  ui  to 
infer,  with  all  the  requisite  exactness,  the  length  of 
the  qaadrantal  arc ;  but  the  French  astronomers  re- 
solved to  extend  the  triangulation  still  further.  Ac- 
cordingly, Mechain  repaired  again  to  Spam,  and  in  the 
year  1805  continued  the  chain  of  triangles  from  Bar- 
celona to  Tortosa,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 
At  this  place  his  labors  were  prematurely  terminated 
bv  an  epidemic  fever.  The  prolongation  of  the  arc 
W..3,  however,  committed  to  two  philosophers  of  dis- 
tinguished reputation,  Biot  and  Arago.  An  immense 
triangle,  one  of  the  sides  of  which  exceedpd  100  miles, 
connected  the  coast  of  Valcntia  with  the  island  of 
Iviza,  which  was  joined  by  anotlier  triangle  with  For- 
nientera,  distant  no  less  than  12°  22'  13"'ij9  from 
Dunkirk,  the  northern  extremity  of  the  arc.  The  re- 
sult of  the  whole  gave  a  value  of  the  quadrantal  arc, 
differing  somewhat  from  that  determined  by  Delambre 
and  Mechain,  but  so  little  that  the  length  of  the  metre 
would  be  scarcely  affected  by  four  times  the  millionth 
part  of  itself.  The  details  of  this  magnificent  opera- 
tion are  given  at  length  in  tho  four  volumes  of  the 
Jiaae  Metrique. 

The  English  survey,  which  had  been  interrupted  by 
the  death  of  General  Roy,  in  1790,  was  resumed  in 
1793  under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Mudge.  The  origi- 
nal triangles  between  Greenwich  ond  Dover  were  ex- 
tended  along  the  coast  to  Dunnose  in  tho  Isie  of  Wight, 
and  thence  through  Devonshire  and  Wiltshire,  and 
connected  with  a  base  of  verification  measured  on 
Salisbury  plain.  The  length  of  this  liase  was  found, 
after  the  proper  reductions,  to  be  36571'4  feet,  differ- 
ing scarcely  one  inch  from  the  length  deduced  by  cal- 
culation from  the  base  on  Ilounslow  Heath.  So  near 
a  coincidence,  though  probably  owing  in  some  degree 
to  a  compensation  of  errors,  affords  a  convincing  proof 
of  the  extreme  accuracy  with  which  every  part  of  the 
operation  luid  l)een  conducted.  In  1802  the  triangula- 
tion was  carried  into  Yorkshire,  and  a  meridian  arc 
measured  from  Dunno.se  to  Clifton.  The  latitudes  at 
the  terminal  points  wore  determined  with  Ramsden's 
zenith  sector.  The  arc  was  afterward  extended  to 
Burleigh  Moor,  and  has  since  been  carried  to  the  Shot- 
lands.  It  may  be  remarked  that  both  tho  French  and 
English  arcs  present  this  singular  anomaly,  that  when 
portions  of  them  at  pa.'ticulur  places,  are  considered 
separately,  the  length  of  the  degree  appears  to  increase 
on  going  southward. 

The  survey  has  been  continued,  up  to  the  present 
time,  and  the  triangulation  has  been  carried  to  the 
remotest  parts  of  Scotland,  and  a  considerable  part  of 
Ireland,  In  the  course  of  the  operations,  several  im- 
portant improvements,  both  in  respect  of  the  instru- 
ments employed,  and  in  the  method  of  conducting 
geodetic  measurements  in  general,  have  been  intro- 
duced into  practice.  A  base  of  upward  of  seven  miles 
has  been  measured  near  Londonderry  ;  and  it  now  only 
remains  to  detonnine  the  latitudes  of  some  stations,  to 
give  us  tho  elements  of  a  new  and  greatly  prolonged 
arc. 

In  the  years  1801, 1802,  and  1803,  Maupcrtuls"  Swe- 
dish arc  was  remoasurcd  by  Svanberg,  and  extended 
nearly  40'  in  amplitude.  The  methods  were  the  simie 
as  had  been  employed  by  Delambre.     The  extremities 


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of  the  nnw  arc  were  at  Hallum  and  Pahtawars.  The 
distance  vrui  found  to  be  92,778  toisea,  and  the  differ- 
ence of  the  latitudes  1°  87'  20"'8 ;  whence  ]  °=57,- 
106  toises.  This  agrees  much  better  than  tlie  result 
of  Maupertuis  (57,422  toises)  with  other  measures ; 
^ut  the  difference,  which  implies  au  error  of  12"  in 
the  latitude  of  Kittis  as  determined  by  the  French 
academicians,  has  not  been  satisfactorily  accounted 
for ;  so  that  thera  is  still  some  doubt  about  the  length 
of  a  degree  in  that  latitude.  See  SvAynERo's  Kxpo- 
ntion  des  Operationt  /aites  en  Lapponie,  etc.  Stock- 
holm, 1806. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  two  arcs 
of  meridian  liave  been  surveyed  in  India.  The  first 
was  in  the  ncighlKirhood  of  Madras,  and  comprehended 
only  1°  85'.  The  second,  however,  is  the  longest 
whicli  has  yet  l)een  measured.  The  first,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  second,  was  accomplished  under  the  direction 
of  Colonel  I^amliton  ;  and  the  instrumiMits  and  meth- 
od? of  observation  and  calculation  were  exactly  the 
same  as  those  that  had  Ijeen  employed  by  Colonel 
Mudge  in  the  English  survej-.  The  south  extremity 
of  the  second  arc  was  at  Vnnna),  near  Cape  Comorin, 
latitude  8°  9'  .12"-51 ;  and  the  northern  at  Daumer- 
gidda,  latitude  18°  8'  16"-07.  The  amplitude  is  con- 
sequently 9°  53'  •13"-56,  and  the  distance  lictween  the 
extremities  was  found  to  !«  598,629'98  fathoms  (aliout 
680  miles),  giving  GO, -195  fathoms,  or  882,970  feet,  for 
tlie  length  of  tlie  degree.  Several  bases  wore  meas- 
ured, and  the  whole  of  the  operations  appear  to  have 
l)een  conducted  with  great  sitill  and  accuracy.  This 
irc  has  since  Iwen  extended  liy  Captain  Everest  to 
Kaliana,  ktilude  29°  30'  ■l8"-8;  so  that  the  whole 
length  now  includes  more  than  21°.  The  details  of 
Colonel  Lambton's  operations  are  given  in  the  diffcf- 
ent  volumes  of  tlie  Aiiatic  Jlcsmrchex  {see  vols,  viii., 
X.,  xii.),  and  titose  of  Captain  Everest,  in  his  ".le- 
count  of  the  Measurement  of  an  Arc  of  the  Meridian  6f- 
tteeen  the  Parallels  of  18°  3'  and  24°  "',"  printed  at 
the  expense  of  the  East  India  Company. 

Various  geodetic  operations  on  a  less  extensive  scale 
have  been  recently  executed,  which  are  Iretter  adapted, 
perhaps,  to  give  information  resiwcting  the  local  cur\'- 
ature  than  the  general  form  of  the  earth.  Keccaria's 
arc  has  been  remeasured  l>y  Plana  and  Carlini :  the 
results  clearly  demonstrate  the  existence  of  some 
errors  in  the  original  measurement,  but  they  are  not 
yet  altogether  satisfactorj',  anil  the  country  is  vcrj- 
unfivorable.  The  distance  between  (Jottingen  and 
Altuna  has  been  measured  by  (jauss  ;  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  corresponding  celestial  arc  is  known  with 
the  utmost  precision,  from  observations  of  the  latitude 
made  at  the  respective  observatories  of  the  two  places. 
The  amplitude,  however,  is  only  about  two  degrees, 
and  there  is  some  doubt  almut  the  exact  length  of  the 
iron  bars  with  which  the  base  was  measured.  A  more 
extensive  arc  has  been  measured  in  Russia  l)y  Strnve. 
It  extends  at  present  to  three  and  a  half  degrees,  and 
it  is  understood  that  it  is  in  contemplation  to  prolong 
it  still  fttrther.  Many  new  methods  have  Iwen  em- 
ployed in  this  measurement ;  and  it  aeijuires  additional 
value  from  its  high  latitude,  and  the  acknowledged 
skill  and  accuracy  of  the  observer. 

The  above  are  the  principal  arcs  of  meridian,  but 
some  arcs  of  parallel  liave  also  lieen  measured.  The- 
oretically  speaking,  tlie  figure  of  the  earth  may  be  de- 
termined from  the  measurement  of  arcs  of  pArallel,  as 
readily  as  from  meridional  ares ;  and  the  ge(«letieal  op- 
erations in  the  one  case  differ  in  no  resjwct  from  those  in 
the  other.  But  the  great,  and,  we  fear,  insurmountalile 
difficulty,  is  to  determine  with  sufHelent  precision  the 
difference  of  astronomical  longitudes.  In  a  subse- 
quent part  of  tills  article  wo  shall  have  again  occasion 
to  mention  Cassini's  measurement  of  an  arc  of  parallel 
across  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone ;  of  the  English  arc 
between  Beachy  Head  and  Dunnose ;  and  that  recently 
made  from  Marennes  to  Padua.  i 


Tabls  snowiHO  Tira  Lihotr  or  a  Draan  or  LoHoiTimii 
roB  ivBKT  Dioaiit  or  tudk,  in   QEoaaAruioAL 

AND  IN  KnOLISU    M|LI9. 


ut. 

Um. 

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60-88 

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1  88 

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47.92 

65.15 

67 

2.8.44 

26.98 

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69.42 

68.89 

88 

47.28 

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68 

22.48 

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9 

6926 

68-21 

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46-68 

68-67 

69 

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78 

17-64 

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68-23 

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Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  .  t,  ■ ' '  '•  'ietails  ro- 
sjiecting  the  numerous  experin.  ■'-  '■  •'  l  ive  been 
made  of  late  years  to  determine  the  r  ■  '  iho  earth 
by  measuring  the  variations  of  j^  ■ '  ■  "  different 
places  liy  means  of  the  pendulum.  I'hb  most  valualile 
series  of  observations  of  this  kind  we  yet  possess,  are 
those  of  Ciiptain  Foster,  reduced  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Baily,  and  published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,  vol.  vii.  But  a  discovery 
recently  made  by  Bessel  proves  that  less  accuracy  has 
lieen  obtained  by  this  method  than  was  supposed.  It 
has  been  found,  that  a  pendulum,  when  vibrating, 
drags  along  with  it  a  portion  of  air,  the  precise  effect 
of  which  can  lie  ascertained  in  no  other  way  than  liy 
actual  experiment  in  vacuo  with  each  individual  pen- 
dulum. The  probaliie  correction  which  it  would  lie 
necessarj-  to  apply  to  the  results  that  have  already 
lieen  found,  can  not  be  satisfactorily  determined. 

The  mean  of  the  pendulum  experiments  gives  rather 
a  higher  value  of  th«  ellipticity  than  tlie  results  of 
geodetic  measures ;  but  there  are  many  elements,  par- 
ticularly  the  irregular  constitution  of  the  exterior 
crust  of  the  earth,  and  the  density  of  the  str/ita  sur- 
rounding tlie  station,  which  can  scarcely  lie  deter- 
mined, and  which  yet  affect  materiallj-  the  results  of 
the  experiments. 

Besides  the  methods  which  have  now  been  alluded 
to,  physical  astronomy  furnishes  other  means  of  arri- 
ving at  a  knowledge  of  the  figure  of  the  earth.  The 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  nutation  of  the  earth's 
axil,  are  phenomena  depending  on  the  compression  of 
the  earth  j  and  as  their  amount  is  now  ascertained, 
from  astronomical  observations,  with  the  utmost  accu- 
racy, we  can  reciprocally  deduce  from  them  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  compression.  They  do  not,  however,  give 
us  an  absolute  value  of  the  amount  of  compression, 
but  they  make  known  the  limits  within  which  it  must 
necessarily  be  confined.  'J'hese  limits  are]-27!land 
1-578.  But  a  more  delicate  measure  of  tlie  same 
element  is  furnished  by  some  irregularities  in  the 
moon's  motion  to  which  it  gives  rise ;  and  as  the  lunar 
theory  has  now  attained  a  very  high  state  of  iierfeition, 
and  as  the  small  irregularities  which  cause  so  much 
perplexity  in  goodetical  measures  here  entirely  disap- 
pear, tills  Is  perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory-  method  of 
all  (if  determining  the  ellipticity  of  the  earth.  'I'lie  equa- 
tions  into  which  the  Irregularity  question  enters,  were 
discovered  by  Lafilace ;  and  the  ellipticity  necessary 
to  produce  the  observed  effect  was  found,  on  calcnla- 


EAR 


873 


EAR 


n  aUmlcrt 
of  nrri- 
rth.     Tho 
he  ciirth'a 
Tossion  of 
ortnined, 
nont  apcu- 
tt  knowl- 
evcr,  (live 
iiprosKion, 
h  it  must 
].'.'7!l  Kinl 
tlip  Hume 
ies  in  the 
the  lunar 
perfection, 
SB  no  mweh 
ly  (iiciip- 
niethral  of 
'I'lie  oqua- 
terB,  were 
f  nccesBftry 
on  calcula- 


tion, to  1)0  ISOi ;  conflrming,  in  s  moat  remarkable 
manner,  the  deductiuns  from  the  measurement  of  arcs 
and  the  observations  of  the  pendulum. 

The  Surface  of  the  Earth,  and  itt  General  Divitiotu. 
— ^The  surface  of  the  earth  contains  about  196,663.  iOO 
square  miles.  By  much  the  larger  portion  of  this  space 
is  water,  which  is,  indeed,  more  than  twice  the  extent 
of  the  land.  The  surface  of  the  land  is  exceedingly 
diversillcd,  almost  everywhere  rising  into  hills  and 
mountains,  or  sinking  into  valleys,  and  sometimes 
stretching  out  into  plains  of  great  extent.  Among 
the  most  extensive  plains,  are  the  sandy  deserts  of 
Arabia  and  Africa,  the  internal  part  of  Kuropeai  Rus- 
sia, and  a  tract  of  considerable  extent  in  Prussian  Po- 
land, But  the  most  remarkable  extent  of  level  ground 
la  the  vast  table-plain  of  Thibet,  in  Asia,  which  is  the 
most  elevated  tract  of  level  ground  on  the  globe.  The 
principal  mountain  ridges  are  the  Alps  and  P}-reneos, 
in  "urope,  the  Altai  and  Himalaya  Mountains,  in 
Asia,  the  mountains  of  Atlas,  in  Africa,  and  the 
Andes  or  Cordilleras,  in  South  America,  The  great- 
est concavities  of  the  gliiw  are  those  which  are  occu- 
pied by  the  waters  of  the  ocean  ;  and  of  those,  by  far 
the  largest  forms  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  wliich, 
stretching  from  the  eastern  shore  of  Asia  ond  of  New 
Holland  to  the  western  coast  of  America,  covers  nearly 
half  the  glol)e.  The  concavity  next  in  extent  is  that 
which  forms  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  extending 
between  the  new  and  the  old  worlds ;  and  a  third  con- 
cavity is  occupied  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  The  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  Oceans  till  up  the  remaining  concavities. 

Smaller  collections  of  water  wliicli  communicate 
freely  with  the  oceans,  are  called  teas ;  and  of  these, 
the  principal  are  the  Mediterranean,  the  Baltic,  the 
Euxino  or  Black  Sea,  and  tlie  White  Sea.  Seas  some- 
times take  their  names  from  the  countries  near  which 
they  flow  ;  as  the  Irish  Sea,  the  German  Ocean,  Some 
large  collections  of  water,  though  they  have  no  imme- 
diate connection  with  the  great  body  of  waters,  being 
0  J  all  sides  surrounded  by  land,  are  yet  called  seas ;  as 
the  Caspian  Sea,  A  part  of  the  sea  running  up  into 
the  land,  sc  as  to  form  a  large  hollow,  is  called  a  bay 
or  gulf,  as  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Gulf  of  Slexico ;  but 
If  the  liollow  be  small,  it  is  called  a  creek,  a  road,  u  ha- 
ven. When  two  large  bodies  of  water  communicate 
by  a  narrow  pass  between  two  adjacent  lands,  the  pass 
is  called  a  alrait  or  »lrait>,  as  the  Straits  of  Gil>raltar, 
tlie  Straits  of  Dover,  tlic  Straits  of  Babelmandel,  A 
channel  is  a  wider  kind  of  strait.  The  water  usually 
flows  through  a  strait  with  considerable  force  and  ve- 
locity, forming  what  is  called  a  current ;  and  frequently 
thw  current,  as  in  the  case  of  tho  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
flows  continually  in  the  same  direction, 

A  body  of  fresh  water  entirely  surrounded  by  land. 
Is  called  a  lake ;  as  the  Luke  of  Geneva,  Lake  Cham- 
pluin,  A  considerable  stream  of  water  rising  inland, 
and  draining  a  portion  of  country  more  or  less  extens- 
ive, di'icharging  its  waters  into  the  sea,  is  called  a 
riVcr ;  a  smaller  stream  of  the  same  kind  is  called  a 
rivulet  or  brook. 

Of  the  land,  which  fonns  the  rest  of  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  two  iwrtirms,  of  vast  extent,  are  culled  con- 
tintnls ;  the  one  the  eastern  continent,  or  tho  old  world, 
comprehending  Euro|)e,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  the  other, 
the  western  continent,  or  new  world,  comprehending 
North  and  South  America.  New  Holland  is  a  third 
portion  of  land,  however,  which  has  by  some  been  also 
reckoned  a  continent  on  account  of  its  great  extent, 

A  iwrtion  of  land  of  comparatively  small  dimensions 
entirely  surrounded  by  water,  is  called  an  island ;  as 
Britain,  Ireland,  Jamaiea,  Madagascar,  New  Ilol- 
limd  is  the  largest  portion  of  land  which  is  called  an 
island.  When  u  numlicr  of  small  islands  lie  near  p.ich 
other,  they  are  said  to  form  a  group  of  islands,  A 
|H)rtion  of  land  which  is  almost  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  is  called  a  peniniula ;  as  the  Peninsula  of  Ma- 
lacca, the  Morea  or  Grecian  Peloponnesus,  etc.     The 


term  peninsula  Is  often  applied  to  a  large  extent  of 
country.  Thus  we  speak  of  Spain  as  a  peninsula. 
The  narrow  neck  of  land  which  joins  a  peninsula  to  the 
mainland,  or  which  connects  two  tracts  of  country 
together,  is  called  an  itthmut.  The  most  remarkable 
isthmuses  in  the  world  are  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which 
joins  Africa  and  Asia,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Uarien, 
which  connect;  the  continent  of  North  and  South 
America,  A  n,\rTow  tract  of  land  stretching  out  into 
the  sea,  and  appearing  to  terminate  in  a  point,  is  called 
a  cape.  The  most  remarkable  capes  are,  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  at  the  southern  extre-nity  of  Africa ;  Cap« 
Horn,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America ; 
and  the  North  Cape,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Eu- 
rope,  A  large  portion  of  land  jutting  out  into  the  sea 
is  called  &  promontory. 

Until  of  late,  in  systems  of  geography,  the  earth 
used  to  bo  considered  as  divided  into  four  quarters ; 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  A  classiflcation 
in  which  tho  whole  world  is  arranged  under  seven  di- 
visions has  now,  however,  been  very  generally  adopted. 
These  divisions  are,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  North  Amer- 
ica, South  America,  Australasia,  and  Polynesia,  With 
regard  to  tho  last  two,  the  one,  Australasia,  or  South 
Asia,  comprehends  certain  of  the  great  islands,  partic- 
ularly New  Holland,  which  are  usually  considered  as 
belonging  to  Asia ;  and  the  other,  Polynesia,  signify- 
ing many  islands,  comprehends  all  the  smaller  islands 
which  are  scattered  over  tho  great  expanse  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  This  classiflcation  of  the  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface  is  founded  on  tho  most  obvious  iwints 
of  distinction.  We  shall  now  explain  two  divisions 
employed  by  tho  ancients,  which  are  founded  upon 
different  principles  ;  that  into  zoues,  and  that  into 
climates. 

The  divisions  into  zo-ies  is  suggested  by  the  differ- 
ent degrees  of  temperature  which  prevail  in  different 
regions  of  the  earth.  The  temperature  of  a  country 
depends  on  a  variety  of  circumstances ;  but  of  these, 
one  of  the  most  obvious  is  the  position  of  the  sun  with 
regard  to  the  zenith.  The  more  nearly  his  ruys  are 
received  vertically,  the  higher  will  be  the  temperature ; 
ond,  on  the  contrary,  the  more  obliquely  they  fall,  the 
less  effect  will  they  produce  in  raising  the  temper- 
ature. Now  to  every  point  of  the  earth's  surface  be- 
tween the  tropica  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the  year. 
It  is  in  this  region,  then,  that  the  highest  temperature 
will  prcvi>il.  Again,  within  the  polar  circles  the  sun's 
rays  ut  all  times  fall  very  obliquely  ;  and  for  a  length 
of  time  tlicy  do  not  reach  these  two  regions  of  the  globe 
at  all.  Here,  then,  the  temperature  must  be  lower 
than  anywhere  else,  vs  all  other  places  enjoy  more  of 
tho  sun's  genial  influence.  In  the  two  regions  be- 
tween the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles,  a  medium  tem- 
perature is  found,  increasing  as  we  approach  the  former, 
aiid  diminishing  as  we  approach  the  latter.  Thus  is 
the  earth's  surface  divided,  by  the  two  tropics  and  two 
|)olar  circles,  into  fiv«  zones,  distinguished  irom  one 
another  by  the  prevailing  temi)erature  in  each.  That 
between  the  tropics  is  called  the  tofrid  zone,  because 
there  the  heat  is  understood  to  be  extreme.  This 
region,  which  has  tho  equator  passing  through  the 
middle  of  it,  the  ancients,  indeed,  considered  as  unin- 
habitable. The  two  regions  comprehended  within  the 
arctic  and  antarctic  polar  circles,  are  called  the  north- 
em  and  mvithem  frigid  zonet,  on  account  of  the  sever- 
ity of  the  cold  which  there  prevails.  The  two  regions 
situated  between  the  tropics  and  the  ]>olar  circles,  the 
one  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  bounded  by  tho  tropic 
of  cancer  and  the  arctic  circle,  the  other  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  bounded  by  the  tropic  of  Capricorn 
and  the  antarctic  circle,  are  culled  the  northern  and 
southern  ^  mperate  zonet,  because  there  neither  the 
heat  nor  cold  is  excessive  ;  but  the  heat  reaches  the 
highest  temjwrature  of  summer,  and  the  cold  sinks  to 
the  lowest  temperature  of  winter,  without  either  be- 
oomiog  extreme. 


BAR 


674 


EAS 


'  The  divIMon  of  the  earth'*  surface  Into  climates  w:^ 
•mploj'ed  by  the  ancients  for  ascertnining  the  sitni* 
tton  of  places.  Th«y  anpposed  the  northern  and  sonth- 
em  hemispheres  t  be  each  divided  into  Dinall  zones, 
to  which  they  ga\i  the  name  of  climatei,  the  breadth 
of  each  zone  IWng  such  as  to  malie  half  an  hour  of  dif- 
ference in  the  length  of  the  longest  day  at  the  two  par- 
allels of  latitude  by  which  the  climate  was  bounded. 
Proceeding  flrom  the  equator,  where  the  length  of  the 
day  is  always  ii  hours,  they  thus  divided  the  space 
between  it  and  each  polar  circle  intc  24  climates.  Hav- 
ing reached  the  polar  circles  northwanl  and  southward, 
where  the  longest  day  is  24  hours,  they  divided  the 
space  between  each  polar  circle  in  SMcli  a  manner  as  to 
make  the  diflhrence  In  the  length  of  the  longest  day  at 
the  beginning  and  termination  of  each  climate,  one 
month.  Henoe,  as  the  pules  are  alternately  illumi- 
nated for  six  months,  there  were  just  six  LKmates 
within  each  polar  circle. 

Tadlb  or  Climatzs. 


ClInulM. 

Ulltudo  of 
the  Hlffher 

BreitJIb  of 
th«  Cllmile. 

LonRcit  Day 
under  the 
lllgber 
I>»nnel. 

Or. 

Uln. 

Dtf. 

MIn. 

Hotin.    MlD. 

I. 

8 

84 

8 

84 

12        80 

II. 

10 

48 

8 

9 

13         0 

in. 

u 

10 

T 

2T 

18       SO 

IV. 

80 

46 

6 

86 

14         0 

1 

V. 

SO 

£8 

5 

49 

14       80 

VI. 

41 

21 

4 

63 

16         0 

i 

TII. 

4,"! 

29 

4 

8 

15       80 

VIII. 

48 

ii 

8 

80 

16         0 

IX 

61 

67 

a 

68 

U       80 

X. 

M 

ii 

2 

81 

17         0 

XI. 

B« 

86 

2 

8 

17       80 

1 

XII. 

fi8 

26 

1 

49 

18         0 

XIII. 

t,» 

5T 

1 

82 

18       80 

1 

XIV. 

61 

16 

1 

1» 

19         0 

XV. 

02 

24 

1 

8 

19       80 

XVI. 

63 

20 

0 

B» 

20         0 

9 

XVll. 

M 

a 

0 

4S 

20       SO 

XVIII. 

&t 

48 

0 

40 

21         <l 

XIX. 

65 

20 

0 

82 

21       m 

XX. 

65 

46 

0 

26 

22         0 

XXI. 

6« 

6 

0 

20 

22       80 

XXII. 

66 

20 

0 

14 

28         0 

XXIIL 

66 

2S 

0 

8 

28       80 

a 

XXIV. 

66 

82 

0 

4 

24         0 

Month!. 

I. 

6T 

23 

0 

61 

1 

1^ 

II. 

69 

60 

2 

27 

2 

1^ 

III. 

T3 

89 

3 

49 

8 

IV. 

T8 

81 

4 

62 

4 

V. 

84 

8 

6 

84 

6 

VI. 

90 

0 

6 

66 

6          1 

£.  li.  (Hee  GKonRAPiir.). 
'BmxthetfwaxB  (Qer.  Irdene  Waaren;  Dn.  Aar- 
dfjotd;  Fr.  VidixUe  df.  terrt  Palme;  It.  Moviijlin, 
Terroqlie ;  Sp.  f^oza  de  barro ;  Rus.  GorichflKhntl* 
pnssodu  ;  Pol.  Uliuianm  nani/nia),  or  crockery,  as  it 
is  sometimes  termed,  comprises  everj  sort  of  houstthold 
utensils  made  of  ilay  '  ' 'Icned  in  the  tire.  Its  manu- 
facture is,  in  EnglantI  t-ry  consideralde  importance, 
and  the  improvements  >:it  have  l)een  made  in  it  since 
the  middle  of  tlie  laxt  century  have  contributed  pow- 
erfully to  its  extehsinn,  and  have  added  greatly  to  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  all  classes.  "  There  is 
scarcely  any  manufacture  which  is  so  inte'.esting  to 
ccntemplrite  in  its  gradual  improvement  and  extension 
as  that  of  earthenware,  presenting,  as  it  docs,  so  beau- 
tiful a  union  of  science  and  art,  in  fiimislitng  us  with 
the  comforts  and  ornaments  of  civilized  life.  Oheinis- 
try  administers  her  part,  liy  inveHigatin^  the  several 
species  of  earths,  and  ascertaining,  as  well  their  most 
a|>prnpriuto  coml>inntions  as  the  respective  degrees  of 
hfitt  which  the  several  compositions  rtHjuire.  Art  has 
studied  the  designs  of  antiquity,  and  pnxluced  from  I 
them  vessels  even  more  exquisite  in  form  than  the ' 
models  l)y  whitrh  they  have  l)een  suggested.  The  ware 
lias  l>een  provided  in  such  gradations  of  <|nality  as  to 
suit  ever}'  station,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest.  It 
iti  to  Im)  seen  in  every  country,  and  almost  in  every 
house,  through  the  whole  extent  of  America,  in  many 


parts  o.'  -'^la,  and  in  most  of  the  oonntrlei  of  Enropa. 
At  home  it  has  soperseded  the  lesi  cleanly  vessels  of 
pewter  and  of  wood,  and,  by  ita  cheapness,  hoa  been 
brought  within  the  means  of  our  poorest  house-keep- 
en.  Formed  from  substances  originally  of  wo  value, 
the  fabrication  has  induced  labor  of  such  various  classes, 
and  created  skill  of  such  various  degrees,  that  nearly 
the  whole  value  of  the  annual  produce  may  be  consid- 
ered as  an  addition  made  to  the  mass  of  national 
wealth.  The  abundance  of  the  ware  exhibted  in 
every  dwellfng-house  is  sufBcient  evidence  of  the 
vast  augmentation  of  the  manufacture,  which  is  also 
demonstrated  by  the  rapid  incrase  of  the  popula- 
tion in  the  districts  where  the  potteries  havti  been  es- 
tablished."— London  Quar.  Rev. 

For  the  great  and  rapid  extension  of  the  manufac- 
ture, the  English  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  Mr. 
Josiah  Wedgwood,  whose  original  and  inventive  genica 
enabled  him  to  make  many  most  important  discoveries 
in  the  art ;  and  who  was  equally  successful  in  bring- 
ing his  inventions  into  use.  The  principal  seat  of  the 
manufacture  is  in  Staffordshire,  where  there  is  a  dis- 
trict denominatbd  the  Potteries,  comprising  a  number 
of  villages,  and  a  population  whicli  is  supposed  to 
amount,  at  tl:is  moment,  to  aliove  85,000,  by  far  the 
greater  portion  ot  which  i.-  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture. There  are  no  authentic  accounts  of  the  popula- 
tion of  this  district  in  1700,  when  Mr.  Wedgwood 
l>egan  hij  discoveries ;  but  tlie  general  opinion  is,  that 
it  did  not  at  that  time  exceed  20,000.  The  village  of 
Etruria,  in  the  Potteries,  was  built  by  Mr.  Wedgwood. 
The  manufacture  has  been  carried  on  at  Burslem,  in 
the  some  district,  for  several  centuries. 

East  Indies  (Dritish).    8eo  India. 

East  Indies  (Dutch).     See  Holland. 

East  Indies  (French).     See  Francr. 

East  India  Company,  a  famous  ossclation, 
originally  established  for  prosecuting  the  trade  be- 
tween England  and  India,  which  they  acquired  a  right 
to  carry  on  exclusively.  Since  tlie  middle  of  last  cen- 
turj',  however,  the  Company's  political  have  l>ecome 
of  more  importance  thon  their  commercial  concerns. 
East  Indies,  a  popular  geographical  term  not  verj-  well 
defined,  liut  generally  understood  to  signify  the  conti- 
nents and  {.stands  to  the  east  and  south  of  the  River 
Indus,  as  far  as  the  Iwrders  of  China,  including  Timor 
and  the  Moluccas,  but  excluding  tlie  Philippine  Islands, 
New  (Suinea,  and  New  Holland,  l^hinaand  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  were,  however,  included  within  the  limits 
of  the  East  India  Company's  peculiar  privileges.  See 
India. 

I.  East  India  Compamt  (Histomcal  Sketch 
OF).'— The  persevering  effortg  of  tha  Portuguese  to  dis- 
cover  a  route  to  India,  liy  sailing  round  Africa,  were 
crowned  with  success  in  1497.  And  it  may  appear  sin- 
gular, that,  notwithstanding  the  exaggerated  accounts 
that  had  Iwen  prevalent  in  Europe,  from  the  reniotest 
antiquity,  with  respect  to  the  wealth  of  India,  and  the 
importance  to  which  the  commerce  v  ith  it  hail  raised 
the  Phccnicians  and  Egyptians  in  iimjquity,  th«  Vene- 
tians in  the  middle  ages,  and  which  it  was  then  seen  to 
confer  <m  the  Portuguese,  the  latter  should  have  lieen 
allowed  to  monopolize  it  for  nearly  a  Century  after  it 
had  been  turned  into  a  channel  accessible  to  every  na- 
tion. But  the  prejudices  l>y  which  the  people  of  most 
European  states  were  actuated  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  |iecullar  circumstances  under  which  they 
were  placed,  hindered  them  from  emt>arklng  with  that 
alacrity  and  ardor  that  might  have  been  cx|)ected  in 
this  new  commercial  career.  Soon  after  the  Portu- 
guese lM>gan  to  pvosecute  their  discoveries  along  the 
coast  of  Africa,  they  applied  to  the  pope  for  a  bull,  se- 
curing to  them  the  exclusive  right  to  and  possession 
ot  all  countries  occupieil  by  iniiilels,  they  either  had 
discovered,  or  might  discovfr,  to  the  south  of  Cape 
Non,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  in  27°  64'  north  lat- 
itude :  and  the  pontiff,  desirous  to  display,  and  at  th« 


EAS 


BiB 


BAS 


I  time  to  extend,  hia  power,  Immeiiiataly  Utnsd  n 
bull  to  this  effect.  Nor,  preposterous  us  a  prnuseitiiig 
of  this  sort  woul<l  now  appear,  did  ony  one  thau  i\imM 
that  the  pope  bad  a  right  to  isiuui  such  a  bull,  »n4  (Imt 
all  states  and  empires  were  bound  to  obey  it,  Id  mnt- 
tequenrd,  the  Portuguese  were,  for  a  langthenw)  |l«> 
riod,  allowed  to  prosecute  their  conquesU  in  (niHtt 
without  tiie  interference  of  any  other  KuruptMin  \mw»f, 
And  it  was  not  till  a  conaidernhle  period  ut'tur  MM  liv? 
ginning  of  the  war,  which  thv  jlind  and  lirutul  bigotry 
of  Philip  II,  kindled  in  the  Low  Countries,  tilut  tUi> 
Dutch  navigators  l)egan  to  display  their  flag  on  (lie 
Eastern  Ocean,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  tlieir  IndiwH 
empire. 

The  desire  to  comply  with  the  injunctlnns  In  tM 
pope's  bull,  and  to  avoid  coming  into  ciillision,  Itrst 
with  the  Portuguese,  and  subsequently  with  the  HpttiM 
iards,  who  had  concfnered  Poiiiii^ttl  in  16M),  seems  tn 
have  been  the  principal  cause  that  led  the  l-!nglii>h  U> 
make  repeated  attempts,  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI If, 
and  Edward  VI,,  and  the  early  part  of  the  reign  iif 
Elizabeth,  to  discover  a  route  to  India  by  a  tutrtb-wast 
or  north-east  passage ;  channels  from  which  tlia  Poitil^ 
guese  wonld  liavo  had  no  pretense  for  excluding  Uiem, 
But  these  attempts  having  proved  unsuccessful,  m\ii 
the  pope's  bull  having  ceased  to  be  of  any  eft'act  in  this 
country,  the  English  merchants  and  navigators  re- 
solved to  be  no  longer  deterred  by  the  Imaginary  rights 
of  the  Porttiffuese  from  directly  entering  upon  wbnf 
was  then  reckoned  by  far  the  most  lucrative  and  ail- 
vantigeons  branch  of  commerce.     Captuln  Stspliens, 
who  performed  the  voyage  in  1682,  was  the  liret  I'.n^ 
gllahman  who  sailed  to  India  l)y  the  Cupe  of  Onod 
Hope.     The  voyage  of  the  famous  Sir  Francis  \)f»kv 
contributed  greatly  to  diffuse  a  spirit  of  naval  enter^ 
prise,  and  to  render  the  English  better  acqualntad  with 
the  newly-opened  route  to  India.     Hut  the  voyage  nf 
the  celebrated  Mr.  Thomas  Cavendish  was,  in  the  hU 
ter  respect,  the  most  im])ortant.     Cavendish  sail'id 
from  England  in  a  little  squadron,  fitted  out  ut  lll^ 
own  expense,  in  July,  1586 ;  and  having  explored  tllH 
greater  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  a'i  fur  is  the  l'liill|i- 
plne  Islands,  and  carefully  observed  the  most  inipiirt- 
ant  and  characteristic  features  of  the  people  and  coun- 
tries which  he  visited,  returned  to  ICnglnnd  after  » 
prosperous  navigation,  in  September,  IfiHH.     I'urliap^, 
however,  nothing  contributed  so  much  to  Inspire  the 
English  with  a  desire  to  embark  in  the  Imliiin  trilda, 
as  the  captures  that  were  made  about  this  period  (mm 
the  Spaniards.     A  Portuguese  Eiist   India  Klilp,  nr 
cartack,  captured  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  during  bis  exr 
peditlon  to  the  coast  of  Spain,  inflamed  the  cupidity  of 
the  merchantii  by  the  richness  of  her  cargo,  at  tha 
same  time  tliat  the  papers  found  on  lioard  gave  specilii 
Information  respecting  the  traffic  in  which  sliu  bud 
necu  eqgaged.     A  still  more  important  ciiptuiu,  of  the 
same  sort,  was  made  in  150.S.     An  armament,  tlttad 
out  for  the  East  Indies  by  Sir  Walter  Hulelgli,  and 
commanded  by  Sir  John  Durroiigbs,  fell  In,  near  the 
Azores,  with  the  largest  of  all  tlie  Portuguese  car^ 
rucks,  a  ship  of  1000  tons'  burden,  carrjing  7U0  men 
and  86  brass  cannon ;  am\,  after  an  olittinuta  conHlct, 
carried  her  Into  Dartmouth.      She  was  the  largest 
vesse   I  <ut  had  been  seen  in  England  ;  and  her  cargo, 
consisting  of  gold,  spices,  calicoes,  silks,  pearls,  dtugs, 
por-clain,  ivory,  etc.,  excited  the  ardor  of  the  English 
to  engage  In  so  opulent  a  commerce. 

In  consequence  of  these  and  other  concurring  causes, 
an  association  was  fonned  in  London,  in  ].')!W,  for  pros- 
ecuting the  trade  to  Imlia.  The  adventurers  applt»d 
to  the  queen  for  a  charter  of  incorporotlon,  and  also  for 
power  to  exclude  all  other  English  subjects,  who  liud 


not  ol>taine<l  a  license  from  them,  from  carrying  on 
any  species  of  traffic  beyond  the  Capeof  (iood  llopa  or 
the  Straits  of  Magellan.  As  exclusive  companies  ware 
then  very  ^"nerally  looked  upon  as  the  best  instru- 
mentf  for  proiecutini;  most  branches  of  commsrce  01)4 


inihmtry,  tim  Mdventtirsn  teem  to  have  had  little  dIfH- 
miUf  ill  iibtiiliibig  their  charter,  which  was  dated  the 
nift  1)1  nfcpiiilmr,  iftflO.  The  corporation  was  entitled 
"Tht*  (Ut\emtil  and  Company  of  Me-cnantsof  Lon- 
4m)I  tnttWhjt  to  the  East  Indies ;"  the  first  governor 
Ct'lMtltlNft  Nm^lbe,  E/iq.)  and  24  directors  were  nomi- 
mM  til  (h«  cllitrterj  but  power  was  given  to  the 
''i*m|MII^  Ut  elect  ■  ilepiity  governor,  and,  in  future, 
U)  xlfct  their  ffturtmun  and  directors,  and  such  other 
iil/^mu\witti'H  NM  they  tnig-ht  think  fit  to  appoint.  They 
waw  (iliiwiwefed  to  make  by-laws  ;  to  inflict  punish 
BM'Ilt'*,  Kiiliei'  fl(ir|Krrnl  or  pecuniary,  provided  such 
IHiMUIwiKlltS  Wefe  In  accordance  with  the  biws  of 
Kll|jlllll«t  \  Ut  fAfXttt  alt  sorts  of  goods  free  of  duty  for 
■♦  ^mfi>\  1111(1  f(«  »*poH  '-t  ij  1  coin,  or  bullion,  to  the 
dlWHIH*  lit  ;<fW,(MjO  «  ri  r,  itl,000  of  the  some  being 
|irfr'vlmii>l,V  Cfillied  «t  the  mint ;  but  they  were  obliged 
til  illliMffi,  within  0  months  after  the  completion  of 
^vcry  *'<iy«KP,  Pdcejit  the  first,  the  same  quantity  of 
sitvaf,  XHJil,  still  foreign  coin  that  they  had  oxiwrted. 
Tliw  itttMtliMl  iif  the  cliarter  was  limited  to  a  period  of 
Ift  yiiiirii  I  hilt,  with  and  under  the  condition  that,  if  it 
wtffa  iKit  ftidlKl  tot  the  public  advantage,  it  might  be 
iwicctfrt  Hi  nny  time  upon  2  years'  notice  being  given, 
Mhi'Ii  Wd!*  Ill*  litlglti  (if  the  Uritlsh  East  India  Com- 
(illll^  =4h«  tlMisi  cplebrated  commercial  association  o' 
niMilaiit  (If  tiKKlfHi  times,  and  which  has  now  extended 
its  (jWiiy  (ivct  thn  whole  of  the  Mogul  empire. 

It  llllijhl;  h«Ve  been  exni  cl  d  that,  after  tho  charter 
WHU  (ib»i|ll(«l,  ('(rlisiderahle  eagerness  would  have  been 
nwilffciiM  t(i  ctltfdfje  In  the  trade.     Hut  such  was  not 
t|)a  muf,   XiitWltMstandlng  the  earnest  calls  and  threats 
of  IJiii  rtlffictdfR,  rtiiiny  of  the  adventurers  could  not  be 
illdlli'frt  til  CHIIIK  fotWafd  to  pay  their  proportion  of  the 
(')Wf({as  (Hci/1(i||l  to  the  fitting  out  of  the  first  expedi- 
tioib    Aw\  Ml  the  (llrectors  seem  either  to  hove  wanted 
pilWcr  III  ctldlfcp  tii>'it  resolutions,  or  thought  it  lietter 
Milt  til  liiiiifcifts  it,  th^'<y  formed  a  subordinate  associa- 
tilMI,  Wil|6i»ltlli4  (if  sllch  inembors  of  the  Company  as 
H'lfl'^  fMnlJy  wJHiiiij  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  voyage, 
ftnil  )j|  {tp'nf  nil  iiie  risks  and  losses  attending  It,  on 
(umdiliiifl  iif  (llpJl'  having  the  exclusive  right  to  wlint- 
BVCf  jifiii'ts  llllfiht  iirlce  from  it.     And  it  was  by  such 
sillHifditlllfC  lls<!(i('i(ltionB  that  tlie  trade  was  conducted 
dlirilia  Ihf  lifst  la  years  of  the  Company's  exbtence, 
'I'ltti  (ifet  (<!»)ie(1lll(m  to   India,  the  cost  of  which 
aiDollitliiil.  shili'  (ind  cargoes  included,  to  Xfiil.Ofll,  con- 
tjsfad  (it  rtvn  ohips,  the  largest  lioing  Cfli)  and  the 
siMMJIar  IfH)  tolls'  burden,     The  goods  put  on  board 
wara  priticifwlly  triililon,  iron,  tin,  brond-clotlis.  cut- 
lary,  t{(ll=ii,  Ctci     '('he  chief  comn    nd  was  entrusted  to 
('apfiiin  JiiiiKin  Lahciister,  who  had  olroady  been  in 
llMlJil,     'fllpy  'H  sail  ftom  Torbay  on  tho  loth  of  I'cli- 
riiiifv,  llWll,     Mllff  Very  Imperfectly  acquainted  with 
)ba  iaos  HH'l  collHities  they  were  to  visit,  they  did  not 
Mfflva  III  (licif  (IfMitiHUoli,  Acheen,  in  Sumatra,  till  the 
Ml  lit  illllia,  Inn,     Hut  though  tedious,  the  voy.-igo 
W»s,  im  (tic  wtldtf,  lllicommonly  prosperous.     Lanciis- 
tsf  ifHtafiill  fi|(((  cirtnifiefclnl  treaties  with  the  kings  of 
Ai'haaii  mid  Ihllitfitn  i   and  lia^  Ing  taken  on  Ijoard  a 
VfllimlitN  I'rtfgil  of  fielfper  and  other  produce,  he  was 
forllMI<tt«<  »i||((ll(jllj  ill  hi'  Way  home,  to  fall  In  with  and 
(i(l|(t)ira,  til  I'lnii'eH  with  n  Dutch  vessel,  a  Portuguese 
curfilclf  iif  (W»l»  (iitln'  Iriirden,  richly  liulen.     Lancaster 
rB(iirna4  in  the  Hiiwtis  on  the  llthof  Septemlier,  ICDll, 
—Mmln'it  lUlll'ti'tiiil  llifliirii,yo\.  x.,  p.  16;  Maoi'HEii- 
i!)lK'"j  I'lmimn'i'p  iif  llip  I'lirnprnn  Vorrfrs  vulh  India,  p. 
»l|,      Milt  lllitwit^lstanding  the  favorable  result  of  this 
viiyntfa,  the  f  «)icdltl(ilis  fitted  out  In  the  years  iinme- 
dJKlaly   fiittowtllif,   tliollgll    sometimes    consisting  of 
largtr  litlilW,  wefe  not,  on  an  average,  materially  in- 
(iFBiieail,     In  l(il2j  Captain  Hest  obtained  from  the 


•X 


court  Ml  llftht  BCVetrtl  con«lderalple  privileges;  and, 
aiHotlg  ottlcrU)  Ihilt  nf  estntiiNhIng  a  factory  at  Surut ; 
wllli'll  '•tty  WrtHi  lieiiceforth,  looked  upon  as  the  princi- 
pi«|  |triM»ll  nfstii*  In  the  west  of  India,  till  the  acqui- 


EAS 


EAS 


In  eaUbliihing  factories  In  IndU,  ths  Englbh  only 
followed  the  examples  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch. 
It  was  conteD'led  that  they  were  necessar)'  to  serve  as 
dipAt  for  the  goods  collected  in  the  country  for  expor- 
tation to  Europe,  as  well  as  fur  tiioso  imported  into 
India,  in  the  event  of  their  nut  meeting  with  a  reaily 
Tuorket  on  the  arrival  of  the  ships.  Such  establiaii- 
menta,  it  was  admitted,  are  not,  required  in  civilized 
countries ;  but  the  peculiar  and  unsettled  state  of  India 
was  said  to  tender  them  indispensable  there.  What- 
ever weight  may  he  attached  to  this  statement,  it  is 
ubviims  that  factories  formed  fur  such  puri)aso8  could 
hardly  fail  ,of  speedily  degenerating  into  a  species  of 
forts.  The  security  of  the  valuable  property  deposited 
in  them,  furnished  a  specious  pretext  for  putting  them 
in  condition  to  withstand  an  attack  ;  while  the  agents, 
clerks,  warehousemen,  etc.,  formed  a  sort  of  garrison. 
Possensing  such  strong-holds,  the  Europeans  were  early 
emboldened  to  act  in  a  manner  quite  inconsistent  with 
their  character  as  merchants,  and  but  a  very  short 
time  elapsed  Ijefore  they  liegan  to  form  schemed  for 
munopollzing  the  commerce  of  particular  districts,  und 
acquiri'ig  territorial  dominion. 

Though  th(j  Company  met  with  snveral  heavy  losses 
during  the  early  part  of  their  trafBc  with  India,  from 
shipwrecks  and  other  unforseen  accidents,  nnd  still 
more  from  the  hostility  of  the  Dutch,  yet,  on  tho 
whole,  the  trade  was  decidedly  profitable.  Tbcvd  can, 
however,  be  little  doubt,  that  tlieir  gains,  at  this  early 
period,  liave  been  very  much  exaggerated.  During 
the  first  13  years,  they  are  said  to  have  amounted  to 
132  per  cent.  But  then  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  as 
Mr.  Grant  has  justly  stated,  that  the  voyages  were 
seldom  accomplished  in  less  than  80  niunths,  and 
sometimes  extended  to  8  or  4  years :  and  it  sliould 
further  be  remarked  that,  on  the  arrival  of  the  sliips 
at  home,  the  cargoes  were  disposed  of  at  long  credits 
of  18  months  or  2  years ;  and  that  it  was  frequently 
even  6  or  7  years  before  tho  concerns  of  a  single  voy- 
age were  finally  adjustc  i. — Hkelch  of  the  lliitonj  of  the 
Company,  p.  13.  When  these  circuuistanccs  are  taken 
into  view,  it  will  be  immediately  teen  that  the  Com- 
pany's prolits  were  not,  reolly,  by  any  means  so  great 
as  has  lieen  represented.  U  may  not,  however,  lio 
uninstructlve  to  remark,  that  tho  principal  complaint 
that  was  then  made  against  the  Company,  did  nut  pro- 
ceed so  much  on  the  circumstance  of  itn  cliarter  ex- 
cluding the  public  from  any  share  in  an  advantageous 
traffic,  as  in  its  authorizing  the  Company  to  export 
gold  and  silver  of  the  value  of  .£30,000.  It  it  true  that 
tlie  charter  stipulated  that  the  Company  should  im|x)rt 
II  ri  equal  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  within  U  months 
of  the  teriniuution  of  every  voyage  ;  but  the  enemies 
of  the  Compar  contended  thnt  thli  condition  was  not 
complied  wit^.  ,  and  that  it  was  i>esides,  liighly  in- 
jurious to  the  public  interest,  and  contrary  to  alt  prin- 
ciple, to  allow  goK  and  silver  to  b  sent  out  of  tho 
kingdom.  The  merchants  and  others  interested  in  tlie 
support  of  the  Company,  could  not  controvert  :he 
reasoning  of  their  opponents  without  openly  impugn- 
ing the  ancient  policy  of  absolutely  preventing  the  ex- 
portation of  the  precious  metals.  They  did  not,  how- 
ever, venture  to  contend,  if  the  idea  really  occurred  to 
them,  that  the  exportation  of  bullion  to  the  East  was 
advantageous,  on  the  broad  ground  of  the  commodities 
purchased  l)y  it  l>eing  of  greater  value  in  England. 
Itut  they  contended  that  the  exportation  of  bullion  to 
India  was  a<lvantageou9,  liecause  tho  commodities 
thence  imported  were  chiefly  re-exported  to  other 
countries  from  which  a  much  greater  quantity  of 
bullion  was  obtained  than  bad  lieen  required  to  pay  for 
them  in  India.  Mr.  Thomas  Mun,  a  director  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  the  ablest  of  its  oarly  advo- 
cates, ingeniously  compares  the  operations  of  the 
merchant  in  conducting  a  trade  carried  on  by  the 
exportation  of  gold  and  ailrer  to  the  seed-time  and 
harvest  of  agricnltuia.     "  If  we  only  behold,"  sayi 


he,  "  the  aotions  of  the  husbandman  in  the  seed- 
time, T'her  he  casteth  nway  much  good  com  in«o 
the  groiin.!,  we  shall  account  him  rather  a  mad- 
man tl>an  a  husbandman,  ilut  when  we  consider  Ills 
labors  in  the  harvest,  whicli  i^  the  end  of  his  endeav- 
ors, we  find  the  worth  and  plentiful  increase  of  his  ac- 
tions."— TrtatUTt  by  Foreign  Trade,  p.  50,  edition  of 
16(>4. 

We  may  here  remark,  that-whikt  has  been  called  the 
mercantile  cyttem  of  political  tconomy,  or  tliat  system 
which  measures  the  progress  of  a  country  in  the  career 
of  wealth  by  tue  supposed  balance  of  payments  in  its 
favor,  or  by  the  estimated  excess  of  the  value  of  its 
exports  over  that  of  its  imports,  appears  to  have 
originated  in  the  excuses  now  set  up  for  the  exporta- 
tion of  bullion.  Previously  to  this  epoch,  the  policy 
of  prohibiting  tho  exportation  of  bulllion  bnu  been 
universajy  admitted ;  but  it  now  began  to  be  pretty 
generally  allowed,  that  '.'.s  t  mrtation  might  be  pro- 
luctivo  of  advantage,  provided  it  occasioned  the  sub- 
sequent exportation  of  a  greater  amount  of  raw  or 
manufai.'tured  products  to  couctries  whence  hidlion 
was  obtaine<l  for  them.  This,  when  compared  with 
the  previously  existing  prejudice— for  it  hardly  do- 
serves  the  name  of  system — which  wholly  interdicted 
the  exportation  of  gold  and  sUver,  must  be  allowed  to 
be  a  considerable  step  in  the  progress  to  sounder  opin- 
ions. The  maxim,  ee  n'eat  que  Ic  premier  pas  qui  coute, 
was  strikingly  verilied  on  this  occasion.  The  advo- 
cates of  tho  East  India  Company  began  gradually  to 
assume  a  higher  tone,  and.  at  length,  boldly  contendnd 
that  bullion  was  nothing  but  a  commodity,  and  that  its 
exportation  should  be  rendered  as  free  as  th>>t  of  any 
thing  else.  Mor  were  these  opinions  confined  to  the 
partners  of  the  Eost  India  Company.  They  were 
gradually  communicated  to  others ;  and  many  eminent 
merchants  were  taught  to  look  with  suspicion  on  sev- 
eral of  the  previously  received  dogmas  with  respect  to 
commerce,  and  were,  in  consequence,  led  to  acquire 
more  correct  ond  comprehensive  views.  The  new 
iileas  ultimately  made  their  way  into  the  House  of 
C'ummous ;  and,  in  16C3,  the  statutes  prohibiting  tho 
exportation  of  for'iign  coin  and  bullion  were  rejiealed, 
and  full  liberty  given  to  the  East  India  Company  and 
to  private  traders  to  export  them  in  unlimited  quanti- 
ties. 

But  tho  objection  to  the  East  India  Company,  or 
rather  the  East  India  trade,  on  the  ground  of  its  caus- 
ing the  exportation  of  gold  and  silver,  admitted  of  a 
more  direct  and  conclusive,  if  not  a  more  ingenious 
reply.  How  compendious  soever  the  ancient  inter- 
course with  India  by  the  Ked  Sea  und  the  Mediter- 
ranean, it  was  unavoidably  attended  with  a  good  deal 
of  expense.  The  productions  of  i!ie  remote  parts  of 
Asia,  bnmght  to  Ceylon,  or  the  ports  on  the  Malal>ar 
coast,  liy  the  natives,  were  there  put  on  board  tho  sliips 
which  arriveil  from  tho  Arabic  gulf.  At  Berenice  they 
were  landed,  and  carried  l>y  camels  2&0  miles  to  tlio 
banks  of  the  Nile,  They  were  there  again  embarked, 
and  conveyed  down  the  river  to  Alexandria,  wlience 
they  were  despatched  to  different  markets.  The  addi- 
tion to  the  price  of  goods  by  such  a  multiplicity  «( 
operations  must  have  been  considerable ;  more  e.spe- 
cially  as  the  price  clmrged  on  each  operation  was  fixed 
by  monopolists,  sul>ject  to  no  competition  or  control. 
Pliny  says,  that  the  cost  of  the  Araliian  and  Indian 
products  brought  to  liome  when  he  flourished  (ad. 
70),  was  increased  a  hundredfold  by  the  exi)en»e8  of 
transit — (//m(.  Nat.,  lib.  vi.,  c.  23) ;  but  there  can  be 
little  or  no  doubt  that  this  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  rhe- 
torical exaggeration.  There  are  good  grounds  for 
thinking  that  the  less  bulky  sorts  of  Eastern  products, 
such  as  silks,  spices,  balsams,  precious  stones,  etc, 
which  were  those  princi|)ally  made  uee  of  at  Home, 
might,  supposing  there  were  no  political  ol>stacles  in 
the  way,  be  conveyed  from  most  parts  of  India  to  the 
porta  on  the  Mediterranean  by  way  of  Egypt,  at  a  de- 


EAS 


677 


EAS 


oidcdly  cheaper  rate  than  they  could  be  conveyed  to 
them  by  the  Cnpe  of  Good  Hope. 

Kut  at  the  period  when  the  latter  route  to  India 
oegan  to  be  frequented,  Syria,  Egj'pt,  etc.,  wore  occu- 
pied  l>y  Tiirl(a  and  Muniululces ;  burbariana  who  de- 
■pUed  commerce  and  navigation,  and  were,  at  the 
same  time,  extremely  jealous  of  strangers,  especially 
of  Christians  or  infidels.  The  price  of  the  commodi- 
ties obtained  tliro<igh  the  intervention  of  such  persons 
was  net  essaril y  very  much  enhanced ;  and  the  discov- 
er)- of  tlie  route  by  tie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was,  con- 
sequently, of  the  utmost  importance  :  for,  by  putting 
an  end  to  the  monopoly  enjoyed  b^  the  Turks  and 
Mamelukes,  it  introduced,  for  the  first  time,  something 
like  competition  into  the  Indian  trade,  and  enabled  the 
western  parts  of  Europe  to  obtain  supplies  of  Indian 
products  for  about  a  third  part  of  what  they  had  pre- 
viously cost.  Mr.  Man,  in  a  tract  published  in  1621, 
estimates  the  quantity  of  Indian  commoditiea  imported 
Into  Europe,  and  their  cost  when  bought  in  Aleppo, 
and  in  India,  as  follows : 

Cost  or  Inuian  GoMxoDiTim  comsitmkd  ih  Euaoi-a  wmN 

BouoHT  IN  ALKrro  (oa  Alkxandbia). 

6,000,000  lbs.  popper  cost,  with  cbat^es,         x         ■.  d. 

etc.,  at  Aleppo  is.  per  lb 000,000    0  0 

^O.noo  lbs.  cloves,  at  4s.  Od 10«,S78  10  0 

160,000  lbs.  mace,  at  49.  9(1 85,036    0  0 

400,000  lbs.  nutmegs,  at  2.  4<1 46,60    i  4 

880,000  lbs.  IndlKO,  at  4s.  4<1 75,883    6  8 

1,000,000  lbs.  Persian  raw  silk,  at  2s 600,000    0  0 


Total £1,465,000  10    0 

But  the  same  quantities  of  tlie  same  commodities 
cost,  when  bought  in  the  East  Indies,  according  to  Mr. 
Mun,  as  follows : 

X         ■. 

6,000,000  lbs.  pepper,  at  2J(I.  per  lb 62,500    0 

450,000  lbs.  clove^  at  »d 16,875    0 

150,000  lbs.  mace,  at  8(1 6,000    0 

4<H),000  lbs.  nutmeg^  at  4(1 6,666  18 

S50,(K)0  lbs.  Indigo,  at  Is.  2d 20,416  12 

1,000,000  lb.4.  raw  silk,  at  88 400,000    0 


Total i»ll,468    6    8 

Which,  being  deducted  fiom  the  former,  leaves  a  bal- 
ance of  £953,642  13s,  id.  And  supposin)^  that  the 
statements  made  by  Mr.  Mun  are  correct,  and  that 
allowance  is  made  for  the  difference  between  the 
freight  from  Aleppo  and  India,  the  result  would  indi- 
cate the  saving  which  the  discoverj-  of  the  route  by 
the  Ca|>e  of  Good  Hope  occasioned  in  the  purchase  of 
the  above-mentioned  aiticles. — A  Ducourte  of  Trade 
from  Knt/land  to  the  East  Iiidit.i,  by  T.  M.,  original  ed. 
p.  10.  (This  tract,  which  iii  verj-  scarce,  is  reprinted  in 
Purchas's  Pilgrims). 

In  the  same  puolication  (p.  37),  Mr.  Mun  informs  us 
that  from  the  beginning  of  the  Company's  trade,  to 
,Iuly,  1620,  they  had  sent  79  shi|M  to  India ;  of  which 
34  had  cume  home  safely,  and  richly  laden ;  4  had 
been  worn  out  by  long  service  la  India ;  2  had  been 
lost  in  careening ;  6  had  been  lost  b>  the  perils  of  the 
sea,  and  12  had  been  captured  by  the  Dutch.  Mr. 
Mun  further  statiis,  that  the  exports  to  India  since  the 
formation  of  the  Company  had  amounted  to  .£840,376 ; 
that  the  produce  brought  from  India  had  cost  £366,288, 
nnd  had  produced  here  the  enormous  sum  of  £1,914,- 
(i(IO ;  that  the  quarrels  with  the  Dutch  had  occasioned 
a  loss  of  £84,088 ;  and  that  the  stock  of  the  Company, 
in  .ships,  goods  in  India,  etc.,  amounted  to  £400,000. 

The  hostility  of  the  Dutch,  to  which  Mr.  Mun  has 
hero  alluded,  was  long  a  very  formidable  obstacle  to 
the  Company's  success.  The  Dutch  early  endeavored 
to  obta!n  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  spice  trade, 
and  were  not  at  all  scrupulous  about  the  means  by 
which  they  attempted  to  bring  about  this  their  favor- 
ite object ;  the  English,  on  their  port,  naturally  exerted 
themselves  to  obtain  a  share  of  so  valuable  a  com- 
merce ;  and  as  neither  party  wa°.  disposed  to  abandon 
its  views  and  pretensions,  the  most  violent  animosi- 
ties grew  up  between  them.  In  this  state  of  things,  it 
would  be  ridiouloiu  to  suppoee  that  unjustifiable  acta 
Oo 


were  not  committed  by  the  one  party  aa  well  1 1  the 
other ;  though  the  worst  act  of  the  English  appears 
venial,  when  compared  with  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch 
in  the  massacre  of  Aml>oyna,  in  1622.  While,  how- 
ever, the  Dutch  Company  was  vigorously  supported 
by  the  government  at  home,  the  English  Company 
met  with  no  efHclent  assistance  from  the  feeble  and 
vacillating  policy  of  James  and  Charles.  The  Dutch 
either  despised  their  remonstrances,  or  defeated  them 
by  an  apparent  compliance ;  so  that  no  real  reparation 
was  obtained  for  the  outrages  they  had  committed. 
During  the  civil  war,  Indian  affairs  were  necessarily 
lost  siglitof;  and  the  Dutch  continued,  until  the  as- 
cendancy of  the  republican  party  had  been  established, 
to  reign  triumphant  in  the  East,  where  the  English 
commerce  was  nearly  annihilated. 

But  notwithstanding  their  depressed  condition,  the 
Company's  servants  in  India  laid  the  foundation,  dur- 
ing the  period  in  question,  of  the  settlements  at  Madras 
and  in  Bengal.  Permission  to  build  Fort  St.  George 
was  obtained  from  the  native  authorities  in  1640.  In 
1668,  Madras  was  raised  to  the  station  of  a  presidency. 
In  1646,  the  Company  l>egan  to  establish  factories  in 
Bengal ;  the  principal  of  which  was  at  Ilooghly.  These 
were,  for  a  lengthened  period,  subordinate  to  the  presi- 
dency of  Madras. 

No  sooner,  however,  had  the  civil  wars  terminated 
than  the  armies  and  councils  of  Cromwell  retrieved 
the  situation  of  our  affairs  in  India.  The  war  which 
broke  out  between  the  long  Parliament  and  the  Dutch 
in  1662  was  eminently  injurious  to  the  latter.  In  the 
treat}*  of  peace,  concluded  in  1664,  it  was  stipulated 
that  indemnification  should  be  made  by  the  Dutch  for 
the  losses  and  injuries  sustained  by  the  English  mer- 
chants and  factors  in  India.  The  27th  article  bears, 
"that  the  lords,  tlie  states-general  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces, shall  take  care  that  justice  be  done  upon  those 
who  were  partakers  or  accomplices  in  the  massacre  of 
the  English  at  Amboyna,  as  the  republic  of  England 
is  pleased  to  term  the  fact,  provided  any  of  them  be 
living."  A  commission  was  at  the  same  time  ap- 
pointed, conformably  to  another  article  of  the  treaty, 
to  inquire  into  the  reciprocal  claims  which  the  sub- 
jects of  the  contracting  parties  had  upon  each  i>ther  for 
losses  sustained  in  India,  Brazil,  etc. ;  and  upon  their 
decision,  the  Dutch  paid  the  sum  of  £86,000  to  the 
East  India  Company,  and  £3616  to  the  heirs  or  execu- 
tors of  the  sufferers  at  Amboyna. — Bruce' t  Annals, 
vol.  i.  p.  489. 

Th"i  chniter  under  which  the  East  India  Company 
prosecuted  their  exclusive  trade  to  India  being  merely 
a  grant  from  the  crown,  and  not  ratified  by  any  act  of 
Far'/  .-nent,  was  understood  by  the  merchants  to  be  at 
an  .ad  when  Charles  I.  was  deposed.  They  were 
confirmed  in  this  view  of  the  matter,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  Charles  having  himself  granted,  in  1G35,  a 
chaiter  to  Sir  William  Courten  and  others,  authorizing 
them  to  trade  with  those  parts  of  India  with  which  the 
Company  had  not  established  any  regular  intercourse. 
The  reasons  alleged  in  justification  of  this  measure,  by 
the  crown,  wore,  thut  "  tlie  East  India  Company  had 
neglected  to  establish  forified  factories,  or  seats  of 
trade,  to  which  the  king's  subjects  could  resort  with 
safety:  that  they  had  consulted  their  own  interests 
only,  without  any  regard  to  the  king's  revenue ;  and 
in  general,  that  they  had  broken  the  condition  on 
which  their  charter  and  exclusive  privileges  had  been 
granted  to  them." — Him.  Fadera,  vol.  xx.,  p.  146. 

Courten's  association,  for  the  foundation  of  which 
such  satisfactory'  reasons  has  been  assigned,  continued 
to  trade  with  India  during  the  remainder  of  Charles'l 
reign ;  and  no  sooner  had  the  arms  of  the  Conunon- 
wealth  forced  the  Dutch  to  desist  fn)m  their  depreda- 
tions, and  to  make  reparation  for  the  injuries  Uiey  had 
inflicted  on  the  English  in  India,  than  private  ailven- 
tui  ers  engaged  in  great  numbers  in  the  India  trade, 
and  carried  it  on  with  •  seal,  ecouomy,  and  auccesi, 


EAS 


678 


EAS 


llMt  monopol;-  can  never  «x|>«ct  to  rival.  It  la  stated 
In  a  little  work,  entitled  "  UrltannU  LanKuena,"  pub- 
lished in  1A80,  the  author  of  which  ha«  e  /Idently  been 
•  well-informed  and  intelligent  person,  that  during 
the  yearn  1653,  16M,  IGM,  and  IfUiS,  when  the  trade 
to  India  was  open,  the  private  traders  imported  ICast 
India  commoditiea  in  such  large  (|uuntities,  and  sold 
them  at  such  reduced  prices,  that  they  not  only  fully 
supplied  the  Hritiith  marltets,  but  had  even  come  into 
successful  com|iotition  with  the  Dutch  in  the  marltet 
of  Amsterdam,  "and  very  much  sunic  the  aolions 
(shares)  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company." — (p.  122.) 
This  circumstance  naturally  excited  the  greatest  ap- 
piehenslona  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  Company;  for 
bdsides  the  danger  that  they  now  ran  of  being  depriv- 
ed, liy  tlio  active  cum|)etilii>n  of  tlie  KngllKh  merchants, 
of  a  conslderulilo  part  of  the  trade  which  tliey  had  pre- 
viously enjoyed,  they  could  hardly  expect  that,  if  the 
trade  were  thrown  open  in  Kngland,  the  monopoly 
would  be  rVowed  to  continue  in  Holland.  A  striking 
nruof  of  wuut  is  now  stated  is  to  lie  found  in  a  letter 
in  the  third  volume  of  "Thurlow's  State  Papers," 
dated  at  the  Hague,  the  Ifith  of  January,  l(i54,  where 
it  is  said,  that  "  the  merchants  of  Amsterdi<m  have  ad- 
vice that  the  Lord  Protector  intends  to  dissolve  the 
East  India  Company  at  London,  and  to  declare  the 
navigation  and  commerce  of  the  East  Indies  free  and 
open :  which  doth  cause  great  Jealousy  at  Amsterdam, 
IM  a  Iking  that  mill  irry  much  prejudice  the  Kiul  India 
Company  in  Holland." 

Keeling  that  it  Ma»  impoisilile  to  contend  with  the 
private  adventurers  under  a  system  of  fair  competition, 
the  moment  the  treaty  with  the  Dutch  had  lieen  con- 
cluded, the  Company  began  to  solicit  a  renewal  of 
their  charter ;  but  in  tliis  they  were  not  only  opposed 
by  the  free  traders,  but  l)y  a  part  of  themselves.  To 
understand  how  this  happene<1,  it  in:iy  l)«  proper  to 
mention  thai  Conrten's  association,  tlic  origin  of  wliich 
'has  lieen  already  noticed,  ha<l  l>egun,  in  1648,  to  found 
a  colony  in  Assuda,  an  island  near  Madagascar.  The 
Company,  alarmed  at  this  projec'w,  applietl  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  State  to  prevent  it»  lieing  carried  into  effect ; 
and  the  council,  without  entering  on  the  question  of 
either  party's  rights,  recoiiinieiiuud  them  to  form  a 
union ;  which  was  accordingly  effected  in  1649.  Itut 
the  union  was,  for  a  considerable  time,  rsther  nominal 
than  real ;  and  when  the  Dutch  war  had  lieen  put  an 
end  to,  most  of  those  holders  of  the  Company's  stock 
who  had  belonged  to  Courten's  association  joined  in 
petitioning  the  Council  of  State  that  the  trade  might 
in  future  be  carried  on,  not  by  a  joint-stock,  liut  by  a 
rtgulated  company ;  so  that  each  individual  engaging 
in  it  might  lie  allowed  to  employ  his  own  stock,  serv- 
ants, and  shipping,  in  wliatever  woy  he  might  conceive 
most  for  his  own  advantage. — Petition  of  Adcfniureri, 
17th  of  Nov.,  1656 ;  Hnice'i  Annalt,  vol.  I.,  p.  HIS. 

This  proposal  was  oliviously  most  reasonalile.  The 
Company  had  always  founded  their  claim  to  a  monop- 
oly of  tlie  trade  on  the  alleged  ground  of  its  lieing 
necessary  to  maintain  forts,  factories,  and  ships  of 
war  in  Indhi ;  and  that  as  this  was  not  done  by  gov- 
ernment, it  could  only  be  done  by  a  company.  liut, 
by  forming  the  traders  with  India  into  a  regular  com- 
pany, they  might  have  lieen  sulijected  to  whatever 
rules  were  considered  most  advisable  ;  and  such  special 
duties  might  have  lieen  laid  on  the  commodities  they 
exported  and  imported  as  would  have  sufficed  to  de- 
fray the  public  expenses  required  for  carrying  on  the 
traile,  at  the  same  time  that  the  inestimalile  advan- 
tages of  fne  competition  would  have  lieen  secured ; 
each  individual  trader  lieing  left  at  lilierty  to  conduct 
his  enter{irises,  subject  only  to  a  few  general  regula- 
tions, in  his  own  way  and  for  his  own  advantage.     See 

COMPAXIEB. 

But  notwitstanding  the  efforts  of  the  petitioners,  and 
the  success  that  was  clearly  proved  to  have  attended 
the  operations  of  the  private  traders,  the  Company 


succeeded  iu  obtaining  ■  renewal  of  their  charter  trum 
Cromwell  In  1667.  Charles  II.  conflrmed  this  charter 
in  1661 ;  and  at  the  same  time  conferred  on  them  tlie 
power  of  making  peace  or  war  with  any  |iower  or 
{leople  not  of  lh€  Chrittian  rtligitm;  of  establishing 
fortilications,  garrisons,  and  colonies ;  of  exiiorting 
ammiinitiim  and  stores  to  tlieir  settlements  duty  free ; 
of  seizing  and  sending  to  Knglanil  such  liritish  sub- 
jects as  should  be  found  trading  to  India  witliout 
their  leave  ;  anil  of  exercising  civil  aud  criminal  juris- 
diction In  their  settlements,  according  to  the  laws  of 
England.  Still,  however,  as  this  charter  was  not 
fully  conflrmed  by  any  act  of  Parliament,  it  did  not 
prevent  traders,  or  interlopers  as  they  were  termed, 
from  appearing  within  the  limits  of  the  ('ompany's  ♦-r- 
ritories.  The  energy  of  private  commerce,  wt-'ch,  to 
use  the  words  of  Mr.  Urme,  "  sees  its  drift  wi'.o  eagles' 
eyes."  formed  assocUtions  at  the  risk  of  crying  the 
consequence  at  law,  lieing  safe  at  the  .mtset,  and 
during  the  voyage,  siuco  the  Company  were  not 
authorited  to  stop  or  oei/e  the  ships  of  those  who  thus 
attempted  to  come  into  com|)etition  with  them.  Hence 
their  monopoly  was  liy  no  means  complete  ;  and  it  was 
not  till  after  the  Kevolutlun,  and  when  a  free  system 
of  government  had  liccn  estuldished  ut  home,  that,  liy 
a  singular  contradiction,  tlie  authority  of  Parliament 
was  interposed  to  enable  the  Company  wholl}'  to  en- 
gross the  trade  with  the  East. 

In  addition  to  the  losses  arising  from  this  source, 
the  Company's  trade  suffered  severely,  during  tlie 
reign  of  Charles  11.,  from  the  hostilities  that  were 
then  waged  with  tlie  Dutch,  and  fnim  the  confusion 
and  disorders  caused  by  contests  among  the  native 
princes  j  but  in  16(iH  the  Company  iilitained  o  very 
valuable  acquisition  in  tlie  island  of  lloinbay.  Charles 
II.  acquired  this  island  us  a  part  of  the  marriage  por- 
tion of  his  wife,  Catharine  of  Portugal ;  and  it  was  now 
made  over  to  the  Company,  on  condition  of  their  not 
selling  or  alienating  it  to  any  (lersons  whatever,  except 
such  as  were  subjects  of  the  llrltlsh  crown.  They 
were  allowed  to  legislate  for  their  new  possession  ,  but 
it  was  enjoined  that  their  laws  should  lie  consonant 
with  reason,  and,  "  as  near  as  might  be,"  agreeable  to 
the  practice  of  England.  They  were  authorized  to 
maintain  their  dominion  by  force  of  arms ;  and  the 
natives  of  liomliay  were  declared  to  have  the  same 
liberties  as  naturul-liom  subjects.  The  Company's 
western  presidency  was  goon  after  transferred  from 
Surat  to  Ilombay. 

In  1G64,  the  French  East  India  Company  was 
formed ;  and  10  years  afterward  they  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  their  settlement  at  Pondichorry. 

But  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  is  chiefly  memorable  in 
the  Company's  annals,  fnira  its  lieing  the  era  of  the 
commencement  of  the  tea  trade.  The  flrst  notice  of 
tea  in  the  Company's  records  is  found  in  a  despatch, 
addresses  to  their  agent  at  Bantnin,  dated  'i-lth  of 
January,  16G7-H,  in  wftich  he  is  desired  to  send  home 
100  His.  of  tea — "the  best  he  can  get."  (Hkuck's 
Annah,  vol.  ii.,  p.  210.)  Such  was  the  late  and  feeble 
beginning  of  the  tea  trade,  a  liranch  of  commerce  that 
has  long  been  of  vast  importance  to  the  British  nation, 
and  without  which  it  is  more  than  proiialde  that  the 
East  India  Company  would  long  since  have  ceased  to 
exist,  at  least  as  a  mercantile  liody. 

In  1C77  the  Company  oiitained  a  fresh  renewal  of 
their  charter ;  receiving  at  tlie  same  time  an  indemnity 
for  all  past  misuse  of  their  privileges,  and  authority  to 
establish  a  mint  at  liomliay. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  reigns  of  Charles  II. 
and  James  II.,  the  Company's  affairs  at  home  were 
principally  managed  by  the  celebrated  Sir  Josiah 
Child,  the  ablest  commercial  writer  of  the  time  ;  and 
in  India,  by  his  lirother.  Sir  John  Child.  In  16x1, 
Sir  Josiah  published  un  apology  for  the  company, 
under  the  signature  of  "tiXoirorpif — "  A  Trcatisn 
whererein  is  Demonstrated  that  the  East  India  Trade 


licensi 
in  168,T 
influcnc 
incrcasi 
the  Con 
nents 
had  the 
cceded. 
being 
formati( 
The  latt 
unison, 
carried  i 
on  tliii 
history  < 
'ng  com 
'»  fact, 
anthorilif 
if  gold  d 
P- 127.) 


iAi 


57» 


EAS 


renowftl  of 
1  imlemnity 
luthority  to 

Charles  II. 

home  wore 

Sir  .loniiih 

time;  Biiil 

In  1<W1, 

compnny, 

A   Trcatin" 

[ndia  Trad* 


la  the  moat  ITattonal  of  all  Foreign  Tradea" — In  which, 
beaidea  endeavorinK  to  vindicate  the  Company  from 
the  objectiona  that  had  lieen  mxlo  sgalnat  it,  he  ^ve» 
an  account  of  ita  atate  at  the  time.  Prom  thia  acconnt 
It  appeara  that  the  (Jompnny  conalated  of  5Sfl  partnera ; 
that  they  had  from  88  to  8t  '.  ,)a,  of  from  775  to  100 
tons,  employed  In  the  ».  vie  lictween  Kngland  and 
India,  and  from  port  to  port  In  India  (p.  28) ;  that  the 
customs  dutlea  upon  tho  trade  amounted  to  about 
XflO,000  a  year;  and  that  the  valn^  of  the  exports, 
"  In  load,  tin,  cloth,  and  atufTs,  and  other  commodltloa 
of  the  prtxiuctlon  and  manufacture  of  Kngland," 
amounted  to  alwut  £m,000  or  .£70,000  a  year.  Sir 
Joslah  seems  to  have  been  struck,  aa  he  well  might,  by 
tho  inconsiilprablo  amount  of  the  trade ;  and  hp  there- 
fore dwella  on  the  udvantngea  of  which  it  wan  Indi- 
rectly productive,  in  onnlding  ua  to  obtain  eupplics  of 
raw  silk,  pepper,  etc.,  at  a  much  lower  price  than  they 
would  otherwise  have  fetched.  Ilut  this,  though  true, 
proved  nothing  In  favor  of  tho  C  jmpany— It  being  an 
admitted  fact,  that  those  artic'ca  were  furnished  at 
a  still  lower  price  l)y  the  Interloj.  "-a  or  private  traders. 

Sir  Joslah  Child  was  one  of  tho  first  who  projected 
tho  formation  of  a  territorial  empire  In  India.  Hut 
the  expedition  fitted  out  In  1686,  In  the  view  of  accom- 
plishing thIa  purpose,  proved  unauuceaaful ;  and  the 
Company  were  glo'l  f  iccept  i  ace  on  tho  terms  of- 
fered by  the  fl-,ga\.  dir  John  Child,  having  died 
during  tho  coarae  of  these  tranaactions,  was  succeeded 
In  tho  principal  management  of  the  Company's  affairs 
In  India  l)y  Mr.  Vaux.  On  the  appointment  of  the 
latter,  Sir  .losiah  Child,  to  whom  he  owed  bis  advance- 
ment, exhorted  him  to  act  with  vigor,  and  to  carrj- 
whatever  instructions  he  might  receive  from  homo 
Into  immcdiato  effect.  Mr.  Vu\xx  returned  for  answer, 
that  he  should  endeavor  to  acquit  himself  with  Integ- 
rity and  justice,  and  that  he  would  make  the  laws  of 
his  country  the  rule  of  his  conduct.  Sir  Joslah 
Child's  answer  to  this  letter  Is  curious :  "  Ho  told  Wr. 
Vnux  roundly  that  he  expected  his  orders  were  to  be 
his  rules,  and  not  tho  laws  of  England,  which  were  a 
heap  of  nonsense,  compiled  liy  a  few  ignorant  count't- 
gentlemen,  who  hardly  knew  hjw  to  niako  laws  1  ir 
the  goml  government  of  their  own  privat-"  famiV.'s, 
muih  less  for  the  regulating  of  companies  and  foreign 
commerce."  (Hamilton's  JVeu)  Account  of  the  KaM 
Imli'fs,  vol.  i.,  p.  232.) 

Ouring  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
■ind  that  of  his  successor,  the  number  of  private  adven- 
turers, or  interhipprs,  in  the  Indian  trade,  increased  in 
an  unusual  dognic  The  Company  vigorously  exerted 
themselves  In  defense  of  what  they  conceived  to  bo 
their  rights ;  and  the  questiim  with  respect  to  the 
validity  of  tho  (mwers  conferred  im  them 'by  their 
charter  was  at  length  brought  to  issue,  liy  a  prosecu- 
tion carried  on  at  their  instance  against  Mr.  Thomas 
Sandys,  for  trading  to  the  East  lii'lics  withotit  their 
license.  Judgment  was  given  in  fuvcir  of  the  Com|)any 
In  168.5.  But  this  decision  was  asiTil)cd  to  lorru])! 
influence ;  and  Instead  of  allaying,  only  served  to 
increase  the  clamor  against  them.  The  meeting  of 
the  Convention  Parliament  gave  the  Company's  ojipo- 
ncnts  hopes  of  a  successful  issue  to  their  olTorts ;  and 
had  they  been  united,  they  might  prolialdy  have  suc- 
ceeded. Their  opinions  were,  however,  divided — part 
lieing  for  throwing  the  trade  open,  and  part  for  tlie 
formation  of  0  new  company  on  a  more  liberal  footing. 
The  latter  being  formed  into  a  body,  and  acting  In 
unison,  the  struggle  against  tho  Com|)any  was  chiefly 
carried  on  by  them.  "The  proceedings  that  took  place 
on  tliis  occasion  are  among  the  most  disgraceful  in  the 
history  of  the  country.  The  most  open  and  unblush- 
ing corruption  was  practiced  by  all  parties.  "/<  iras, 
in  fact,  a  triai  ichich  should  bribe  the  highest ;  public 
authmty  inclining  to  one  or  other  as  the  irresistible  force 
of  gold  directed."  (Afodem  Universal  History,  vol.  x., 
p.  127.)    Government  appeara,  on  tho  whole,  to  have 


been  ftiTorable  to  the  Company ;  ar.d  they  obtained  a 
froah  charter  fhira  the  crown  In  169.S.  Hut  In  the 
following  year  the  trade  waa  virtually,  laid  open  by  a 
vote  of  the  Houae  of  Commons,  "  that  all  the  subjecta 
of  Kngland  had  an  equal  right  to  trade  to  the  Kiiat 
Indies,  unless  prohibited  by  act  of  Parliament."  Mat- 
tera  contmued  on  thia  footing  till  1698.  The  pecnnlarj' 
dlfllcultiea  in  which  government  waa  then  Involved, 
Induced  them  to  apply  to  the  Company  for  a  loan  of 
£2,000,000,  for  which  they  offered  8  per  cent,  interest. 
The  Company  offered  to  advance  i700,0fH)  at  4  per 
cent. ;  b.<t  the  credit  of  government  waa  at  the  time 
ao  low,  th.'t  they  preferred  acce|iting  an  oflor  from  the 
aaaoclated  >  lerchants,  who  had  previously  opposed  the 
Company,  o'  the  4.'2,00O,00O,  at  8  per  cer.t.,  on  con- 
dition of  tLe>  r  being  formed  Into  a  new  and  exclusive 
compan}-.  W  MIe  this  project  waa  In  agitation,  the  ad- 
vocates of  (Vee  trade  were  not  Idle,  but  exerted  them- 
aelvea  to  show  that.  Instead  of  establishing  a  new 
company,  tne  ild  one  ought  to  he  alwllshed.  Hut, 
however  concbnive,  their  arguments,  having  no  ad. 
ventltioua  recon  mendationa  in  their  favor,  failed  of 
making  any  Imjresslon.  The  new  company  was  es- 
tablished by  ant*  orlty  of  the  legislature ;  and  as  the 
charter  of  the  oU  company  was  not  yet  expired,  tho 
novel  spectacle  \  as  exhiljlted  if  two  legally  consti- 
tuted  bodies,  each  claiming  an  exclusive  right  to  tho 
trade  of  the  same  possessions  ! 

Notwithsfandlnj  all  tho  pretenalona  aet  up  by  those 
who  had  obtaine  1  tho  new  charter,  during  their 
atniggle  with  the  ild  company.  It  was  Immediately 
seen  that  they  were  is  anxloua  as  the  latter  to  sup- 
press every  thing  like  free  trade.  They  had  not,  It 
waa  obvious,  been  actuated  by  any  enlarged  vlewa, 
but  merely  l)v  a  wish  to  grasp  at  the  monopoly, 
which  they  believed  would  redound  to  their  own  indi- 
vidual interest.  The  public,  in  consequence,  became 
equally  disgusted  with  l)oth  parties ;  or.  If  there  were 
any  difference,  It  Is  probable  that  the  new  company 
was  looked  upon  with  the  greatest  aversion,  inasmuch 
-  .  we  arc  :r'turaily  more  exasperated  by  what  we  con- 
ceive to  be  dupVi-ity  and  bad  faith,  than  by  fair  undis- 
guised hostility. 

At  rtrst  tho  mutual  I  atred  of  the  rival  associations 
knew  no  bounds.  Hat  they  were  not  long  in  perceiv- 
ing that  such  condi  ct  would  infallibly  end  in  their 
ruin ;  and  that  while  me  waa  laboring  to  destroy  the 
other,  tho  friends  of  U'^a  trade  might  step  in  and  pro- 
cure the  dissolution  ol  both.  In  consequence,  they 
became  gradually  reconciled ;  and  in  1702,  having 
adjusted  their  differences,  they  renolved  to  form  them- 
aoves  into  one  company,  entitled  The  United  Cnmpany 
of  Merchants  of  Kngland  trading  to  the  Kast  Indies, 

The  authority  of  Parliament  was  soon  after  inter- 
posed to  give  effect  to  this  agreement. 

The  United  Company  engaged  to  advance  f  1,200,- 
000  to  government  without  interest,  which,  aa  a  previ- 
ous advance  had  been  made  of  A'2,000,000  at  8  per 
cent.,  made  the  total  sum  due  to  them  by  the  public 
£.^,200,000,  bearing  interest  at  5  per  cent. ;  and  gov- 
ernment agreed  to  ratify  the  terms  of  their  agreement, 
and  extend  the  charter  to  the  26th  of  March,  1726, 
with  .1  years'  notice. 

While  these  important  matters  were  transacting  at 
home,  the  Company  had  acquired  some  additional  pos- 
sessions In  India.  In  1692,  the  Bengal  agency  was 
trai  ferred  from  Hooghly  to  Calcutta.  In  ]6!I8,  the 
Company  acquired  a  grant  from  one  of  the  grandsons 
of  Anrengzohe,  of  Colcutta  and  2  adjoining  villages  ; 
with  leave  to  exercise  judiciary  powers  over  the  Inhal)- 
itants,  and  to  erect  fortifications.  These  were  soon 
after  constructed,  and  received,  in  compliment  to 
William  III.,  then  king  of  England,  the  name  of  Fort 
William.  The  agency  at  Benj^al,  which  had  hitherti 
l)cen  subsidiary  only,  waa  now  raised  to  tho  rank  of  n 
presidency. 

The  vigorous  competition  that  had  been  carried  or 


EAS 


580 


EAS 


for  aonia  yttut  hcfora  th«  coalition  of  th«  old  and  new 
Companiea,  Iwtwcan  thoni  Mini  tli«  privata  tradvrit,  liad 
ocoaaioned  a  gntt  additional  Importation  of  Indian 
•Ilka,  place  kooiU,  and  other  pn<ducta,  and  a  ifn*t  re- 
duction nf  their  prlca.  Theae  ciniiiniitani'i'a  occa- 
aioned  the  nMMt  vehement  complaint*  among  the  home 
uianufacturen,  who  reaorted  to  tho  arKUmenIa  Invarlt- 
maitr  UKii  iif  on  auch  o<'caainn>  liy  thomi  who  wi*h  to 
ezcluilo  forelKn  competition  ;  alHrniinK  that  manu- 
factumd  India  koihIs  h»<l  lieen  lar)(idy  suixititutod  for 
those  of  Kn^hind ;  tliat  the  Kniflith  nuiiufacturera  had 
liean  reduced  to  the  cruel  neceaaily  either  of  aellln); 
nothing,  or  of  »elling  their  commoditiea  at  auch  a  price 
aa  left  them  no  profit ;  that  great  numban  of  their 
workmen  hail  lieen  thrown  out  of  employment ;  and, 
laat  of  all,  that  Indian  goods  were  not  Iwught  by 
British  gotxls,  liut  l>y  gold  and  silver,  tho  pxpurtatiou 
of  wliii'h  had  caused  the  general  Impoverishment  of 
the  l<iiigdom!  The  merchants  and  others  Interested 
in  the  India  trade  could  not,  Uj  hail  previoualy  hap- 
pened to  them  in  the  controversy  with  respect  to  the 
exportation  of  liullion,  meet  these  stiitoments  without 
attacking  the  I'rinclplon  on  which  they  rested,  and 
maintaining,  in  opposition  to  them,  that  it  was  for  the 
udvantogii  of  every  people  to  buy  the  proilucts  they 
wanted  in  the  cheapest  market.  This  Just  and  sound 
principle  was,  in  consequence,  enforced  in  several  pe- 
titions presi'ntei!  to  Parliament  by  the  Importers  of 
Indian  goods  ;  and  it  was  also  enforced  in  several  able 
publications  that  appeared  at  the  time.  But  these  ar- 
guments, how  unanswerable  soever  tliey  may  now  ap- 
IHSor,  hod  then  but  little  Inlluence;  and.  In  1701,  an 
act  was  pas8e<l,  pnihildting  the  importation  of  Indian 
manufactured  go<Mls  for  home  consumption. 

For  some  years  after  the  re-estulilishnie^t  of  the 
Company,  it  continued  to  prosecute  its  efforts  to  con- 
solidate and  extend  Its  commerce,  liut  tlie  unsettled 
state  of  tho  Blogul  empire,  coupled  with  the  determi- 
nation of  the  Company  to  establinh  fai-tories  in  every 
convenient  situation,  ex|iosed  their  affairs  to  perpetual 
viciasitudes.  In  I71fi,  it  was  resolved  to  send  an  em- 
bassy to  Delhi,  to  solicit  from  Furucksur,  an  unworthy 
descendant  of  AurengzelK,  an  e.xtension  and  confirma- 
tion of  the  Company's  territor}'  and  privileges.  Ad- 
dress, accident,  and  the  proper  application  of  prctenit, 
conspired  to  insure  the  success  of  the  embassy.  The 
grants  or  patents  solicited  by  the  Company,  wore  is- 
sued la  1717.  They  were  in  all  34.  The  sulietance 
of  the  privileges  they  conferred  was,  that  English 
vessels  wrecked  on  the  coasts  of  the  empire  should 
bo  exempt  from  plunder;  that  the  annual  payment 
of  a  stipulated  sum  to  the  government  of  Surat 
should  free  the  Knglisb  trade  at  that  port  from  all 
duties  and  exactions ;  that  those  vi'.lsges  contiguous 
to  Madras  formerly  granted  and  afterward  refused 
by  the  government  of  Arcot,  should  be  restored  to  the 
Company;  that  the  island  of  Diu,  near  the  port  of 
Masulipatom,  should  belong  to  the  Company,  paying 
for  it  a  fixed  rent ;  that  in  Bengal,  all  persons,  whether 
European  or  native,  indelited  or  accountable  to  the 
f.'ompany,  should  be  delivered  up  to  the  presidency  on 
demand  ;  that  goods  of  export  or  import,  belonging  to 
the  English,  might,  under  a  dutluck  or  passport  from 
the  president  of  Calcutta,  be  conveyed  duty  free 
thruugli  the  Bengal  provinces  ;  and  that  the  English 
should  be  at  liberty  to  purchiae  the  lordship  of  37 
towns  contiguous  to  Calcutta,  and,  in  fact,  command- 
ing both  banks  of  the  river  for  10  miles  south  of  that 
city.— Grant's  Skttch  of  the  UUtory  of  the  Eatt  India 
Compani/,  p.  128. 

The  important  privileges  thus  granted  were  long 
regarded  aa  constituting  the  great  charter  of  the  En- 
glish in  India.  Some  of  them,  however,  were  not 
fully  conceded ;  but  were  withheld  or  modified  by  the 
influence  of  the  Emperor's  lieutenants,  or  aoobahdara. 
In  1717,  the  Company  found  themselves  in  danger 
from  a  new  compatitor.    In  the  cootm  of  tlut  year 


some  shipa  appeared  In  India,  fitted  out  by  privata 
adventurers  from  Ostsnd.  Their  success  eniiiurugnd 
others  to  eng.<gn  in  the  same  Una ;  anil  in  V'i'i,  the 
adventurers  were  formed  into  a  company  under  a 
charter  from  hia  Imperial  Majesty.  The  Dutch  nnd 
English  Companies,  who  had  so  long  tieen  hostile  to 
each  other,  at  once  laid  aside  their  animosities,  and 
Joined  heartily  In  an  attempt  to  crush  their  new  com- 
petitors, Kemonstrances  Iwing  found  inefTccfuul, 
force  was  resorted  to ;  and  the  vessels  of  the  Ostend 
Company  were  captured,  under  the  most  frivoloii*  pre- 
tenses. In  the  o|)en  seas  and  on  the  coasts  of  Brazil. 
The  British  and  Dutch  governments  abetted  tho  self- 
ish spirit  of  hostility  displayed  by  their  respective 
Companies.  And  the  em|ieror  was,  in  the  end,  gla<l 
to  purchase  the  support  of  (ireat  Britain  and  llullund 
to  the  pragmatic  sanction,  by  tho  sacrifice  of  the  Com- 
pany at  Oiftcnd. 

Though  the  Company's  trade  hiul  increased,  It  was 
still  Initonsiderablo,  and  It  is  very  difficult,  iudeed, 
when  one  examines  the  accounts  that  have  from  time 
to  time  lieen  published  of  the  Com|iany's  mercantile 
affairs,  to  imagine  how  the  Idea  ever  came  to  be  rnter- 
tuined  that  their  commerce  was  of  any  consldcrulilo, 
much  less  |iaramount,  lin|iortanco.  At  an  average  af 
the  10  years  ending  with  1724,  the  total  value  of  the 
British  manufactures  and  other  products  annually  ex- 
ported to  IndU,  amounteil  to  only  Xi>2,'tlO  12s.  Cd. 
The  average  value  of  the  bullion  annually  exported, 
during  the  Mima  perimi,  amounted  to  je51H,lU2  lis. 
Od.,  making  the  total  annual  average  export  .£617,fil3 
As.  lOd. ;  a  truly  pitiful  sum,  when  we  consider  the 
wealth,  population,  and  industry  of  the  countries  lie- 
tween  which  the  Company's  commerce  was  carried 
on  ;  and  affording,  by  its  sniallncss,  a  strong  presump- 
tive proof  of  the  effect  of  tho  monopoly  in  preventing 
the  growth  of  the  trade. 

At  this  period  (1773)  the  total  nuinlwr  of  proprietors 
of  East  India  stock,  with  their  qualificatiims  as  they 
stood  in  the  Company's  book,  were  as  follows : 

ProtiHetori.  ""     ' 


Englishmen,  possessing  £1,000 

stock  ant]  opwani 

Forrlxnors,    iH»sesalnK   £1,000 

stock  sntl  upward 

Engllslimen,    poasesslDg    £fiOO ) 

stock  and  upward  i 

Foreigners,     possessing     £fiUO  j 

stock  and  upward f 

ToUl 


48T 

81fi 

f,»i« 

»5 


Slork. 
£t,018,8l)S 

6»0,»4D 

es.t,4M 

OO,!^!) 


9,188       £2,.^M,»■2I» 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  extension  of  tho  Company's 
territories,  their  trade  continiie<l  to  be  apparently  in- 
significant. I'uring  the  3  years  ending  with  1773,  the 
value  of  the  entire  exports  of  British  pro<luce  and 
manufactures,  including  military  stores,  exported  by 
the  Company  to  India  and  China,  amounted  to  Xl,'lfi9,- 
411,  being  at  the  rate  of  ;C4N£),803  a  rear ;  the  annual 
exports  of  bullion  during  the  same  perio<l  being  only 
£84,933,  During  the  same  8  years,  23  ships  sailed 
annually  for  India.  The  truth,  indeed,  seems  to  lie, 
that,  but  for  the  increased  consumption  of  tea  in 
Great  Britain,  the  Company  would  have  entirely 
ceased  to  carry  on  any  branch  of  trade  with  tho  I'^st ; 
and  that  the  Ksnopoly  would  have  excluded  us  us 
effect  jally  from  the  markets  of  India  and  China  as  if 
the  trade  had  reverte<l  to  its  ancient  channels,  and  the 
route  by  th«  Cape  of  Good  Hope  been  relinqnished. 

In  1781,  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  Company 
were  extended  to  1791,  with  three  years'  notice ;  tho 
dividend  on  the  Company's  stock  was  fixed  at  8  per 
cent. ;  three  fourths  of  their  surplus  revenues,  after 
paying  the  dividend,  and  the  sum  of  £400,000  payable 
to  government,  was  to  be  applied  to  the  public  service, 
and  the  remaining  fourth  to  the  Company's  own  use. 
In  1780,  the  value  of  British  produce  and  manufactures 
exported  by  the  Company  to  India  and  China  amounted 
to  only  £886,162 ;  the  biUlion  exported  during  the  same 
year  was  £15,014.  The  total  value  of  the  exports 
daring  the  lame  year  woa  £12,648,016 ;  ibowing  that 


■-  rfc.tiLiorf'^'tVi.J.'i,?*. 


:iS,iaifecfc^.'i.-J  ,liii,^' i 


BAS 


0S1 


EAS 


th«  Kut  India  trad*  formed  only  ont  iKlHy-ttfoml  part 
of  lliti  rntira  foralKn  trutn  of  th«  emplrn ! 

'1'Iki  iiclininUtriition  iif  Mr.  IIii<tln|{a  wuii  on*  cnnlln- 
Ufil  xixne  of  war,  m>Kotlatl»n,  and  lntrl)(»«.  Thn  aUte 
of  thn  rountry,  inatiMul  nf  IteliiK  Improved,  liccama 
woraa  ;  ao  muih  ao,  that  In  «  ciiuncil  mlniitn  liy  Mar- 
i|iiia  (^ornwallla,  ilatud  th«  INth  of  Scptemlwr,  17HI),  It 
la  dlatlnctl^- atatml,  "that  tma  thint  /wrt  of  Iht  Com- 
pani/'t  lemlitry  it  now  aJMgUfor  mid  braiU."  Soma 
■liuaea  in  the  coniluct  of  their  aarvanta  were,  Indeed, 
rectlflpil;  liiit,  notwithatandInK,  the  nett  revenue  of 
Mi>n|{iil,  lluhar,  and  Orlaaa,  which.  In  1772,  had  amount- 
ed to  X'i,l'J<),7(l«,  declined.  In  KHft,  to  i:2,072,0«a.  ThU 
exbauntlon  of  the  country,  niid  the  ex|)«nata  Incurred 
in  the  war  with  llyder  All  ami  Frnnce,  Involved  the 
Compain  in  freah  dlfflcultien ;  and  lieluK  unable  to 
meet  tlit-m,  they  were  oldlKed,  in  17HB,  to  preaent  a 
petition  11  I'lirllument,  aettlnjc  forth  their  Innlilllty  to 
pay  the  atipulHted  aum  of  ;C'ltK),000  a  year  to  the  pul>- 
ilc,  iind  prayint;  to  lie  excuard  from  that  payment  and 
to  1)0  auppiirtnil  tiy  a  loan  of  A'IK)0,(MN). 

DnrinK  the  nilminiatration  of  Mariiuia  Oomwallia, 
who  aucrcedod  M.  Ilaatlnxa,  TIppoo  Hall),  the  aon  of 
Hyder  All,  waa  Btripped  of  nearly  half  hia  dominiona  j 
the  (.!oinpany'a  territorial  revenue  waa.  In  conaequence, 
greatly  Incroaaed ;  nt  tho  aamo  time  that  the  p«rma< 
nent  xettlement  wna  carrie<l  into  effect  in  llcni^nl,  and 
other  im[)ortunt  chnnxea  accompllKlied.  Opinion  haa 
iM-en  long  divMcl  aa  to  tho  Intiuenco  of  thrao  chan|;«a. 
On  thn  wliole,  however,  wo  are  Inclined  to  think  that 
they  hiivn  been  decidedly  advantaxeoua,  Lord  (,'om- 
wnllia  WHM,  beyond  nil  ipieatlon,  n  aincere  friend  to  tho 
people  of  InilU  j  and  labored  earnestly,  if  not  alwaya 
auccoaafully,  to  promoto  their  intereata,  which  ha  well 
knew  were  idrntilied  with  thoae  of  the  British  nation. 
DurinK  the  11  yoara  ending  with  17PK,  the  value  of  the 
(loinpany'a  ex|)orla  of  Ilritlsh  produce  and  manufac- 
tures tiucluneed  from  i:«'J8,7«H  to  £l,0;il,'iliV.  Vat  this 
ini  rense  is  wliolly  to  im  nscril)ed  to  the  reduction  of  the 
duty  on  tea  In  )7N4,  and  the  vast  incrouso  that,  conse- 
quently, took  pluco  in  Its  consumption.  (.Sxe  article 
Tk,\.)  Had  tlio  consumption  of  tea  continued  sta- 
tionary, there  appear  no  gruunda  for  thinking  that  the 
Company's  ex|)orts  ii  1708  would  hove  l)ccn  greater 
than  in  17H0,  unless  an  increase  had  taken  place  In  the 
quantity  of  •  -lilnrj'  stores  ox|)orted. 

In  1708  .  J  Company's  charter  was  prolonged  till 
tho  Ist  o'  March,  1H1I.  In  the  act  for  this  purpose,  a 
species  of  provision  was  made  for  opening  the  trade  to 
India  to  private  Indlviduala.  All  his  majesty's  suIk 
jects,  residing  in  any  part  of  hia  Kuropcan  dominions, 
were  allowed  to  export  to  Indio  any  article  of  the  pjo- 
duce  or  manufacturi  't  the  Ilritish  dominions,  except 
military  stores,  ammunition,  masts,  spars,  cordage, 
pitch,  tar,  and  copper ;  and  tho  ("ompany'a  civil  serv- 
ants in  India,  and  the  freo  merchants  resident  there, 
were  allowed  to  ship,  on  their  own  account  and  risk, 
nil  kinds  of  Indian  goo<ls,  except  calicoes,  dimities, 
muslins,  and  other  piece  goods.  But  neither  thn  mer- 
chants in  England,  nor  the  Company's  aer\-ants  or 
merchants  in  India,  wero  allowed  to  export  or  import 
except  In  Company's  ships.  And  In  order  to  inauro 
such  conveyance.  It  was  enacted  that  the  (Company 
should  annually  appropriate  8,000  tons  of  shipping  for 
the  use  of  private  tradera  ;  It  l>eing  stipulated  t  but  they 
were  to  jwy,  in  tlmo  of  pence,  XS  outward,  and  4)15 
homeward,  for  evcrj-  ton  ociupied  by  them  In  tho  f'om- 
pany'a  ships ;  and  that  tiiis  frei^t  might  be  raised  in 
time  of  war,  with  tho  approbation  of  the  Board  of 
Control. 

It  might  have  l)een,  and,  indeed,  most  probably  was, 
foreseen  that  very  few  Ilritish  merchants  or  manufac- 
turera  would  l<«  Inclined  to  avail  themselvea  of  the 
privilege  of  sending  out  goods  in  Company'a  ships ;  or 
of  engaging  in  a  trade  fettered  on  all  sides  by  the  jeal- 
ousy of  |)owerful  monopolists,  and  where,  consequently, 
their  superior  judgment  anil  •conom}'  would  have 


availed  almnat  nothing.  Aa  far,  tharefbre,  aa  they  wtn.' 
concemml,  the  relaxation  waa  more  apparent  than  real, 
and  did  not  produce  any  useful  reaulla.  It  waa,  how- 
ever, made  nae  of  to  a  conalderal)la  extent  by  private 
merchanta  In  India)  and  alao  by  the  Company'a  aerv- 
antk  returning  from  India,  many  nf  whom  invested  a 
part,  and  aome  the  whole,  of  their  fortune,  in  produce 
tit  for  the  Kuropean  marketa. 

Notwithstanding  the  vaat  additiona  made  to  their 
terrltorlea,  the  Company'a  commerce  with  them  con- 
tinued to  he  very  incnnalderable.  During  the  6  year* 
ending  with  IHll,  the  exports  to  India  by  the  Com- 
pany, exclualve  nf  those  mud*  on  account  of  Indlvid- 
uala In  their  ahlpa,  were  aa  undrtr : 


laOT £IWW,41« 

1MM »I«,M4 

IgUD )tU,IM 


ISIO £1,010,811) 

lull 1,088,a|« 


The  exporta  h,v  the  private  trade,  and  the  prifilrge 
trade,  thitt  la,  the  commandera  and  ofllcera  of  the 
(Company's  ships,  during  tho  al)ove-mentioned  years, 
were  al)flut  as  large.  During  the  b  years  ending  with 
1H07-H,  the  annual  average  imports  into  India  l)y 
Rtitlah  private  traders  only,  amounted  to  i,'noA,406. — 
I'apm  publiihfd  by  the  Kiut  India  t'ompntiy  m  1818, 
4to.  p.  5(1. 

The  Company's  exporta  Include  the  value  of  the 
military  stores  sent  from  flreat  Britain  to  India.  The 
ahlpa  employed  In  the  trade  to  India  and  China,  during 
the  same  f)  years,  varieil  from  44  to  68,  and  their  bur- 
ilen  from  88,C71  to  4ri,.14'i  tons. 

For  aome  years  previously  to  the  termination  of  the 
Company's  charter  In  1M18,  the  conviction  had  l)een 
gaining  ground  among  all  clasaes,  that  the  trade  to  the 
Ka»t  was  capable  of  l)elng  verj*  greatly  e'xtended ;  and 
that  it  waa  aolely  owing  to  the  want  of  enterprise  and 
competition,  occasioned  by  Ita  lieing  subjected  to  a  mo- 
nofwly,  that  It  was  conflned  within  such  narrow  limits. 
Very  great  efforts  were,  consequently,  made  by  the 
manufacturing  ami  commercial  interests  to  have  thn 
monopoly  set  aside,  and  the  trade  to  Die  f^ist  thrown 
open.  The  Company  vigorously  resisted  these  preten- 
sions ;  and  had  Interest  enough  to  procure  a  prolonga- 
tion of  tho  privilege  of  carrj-Ing  on  an  exclusive  trade 
to  <;hlna  to  the  l()th  of  April,  1881,  witli  8  years'  no- 
tice ;  the  govemmont  of  India  being  continued  in  their 
hands  for  the  same  period.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
trade  to  India  waa  o|i«ned  under  certain  <  "udltions  to 
the  puldic.  The  principal  of  these  ci  tlons  were, 
that  private  Individuals  should  trade,  .rectly  only, 
with  tho  presidencies  of  Calcutta,  Sludras,  and  Hom- 
l)ay,  anil  tho  port  of  I'enang ;  that  the  vessels  lltted 
out  l)y  them  should  not  \\e  under  !I50  tons'  l)urden  ;  and 
that  they  should  abstain,  unless  permitted  by  the 
Compaii  ,  ortiie  Board  of  Control,  from  engaging  in 
the  carrying  trade  of  India,  or  in  the  trade  between 
India  and  China.  And  yet,  despite  these  disadvan- 
tages, such  is  tho  energy  of  individual  enterprise  as 
com|>ared  witli  monopoly,  that  the  private  traders 
gained  an  ahii'  -t  immediate  ascendancy  over  the  East 
India  Compam',  and  in  a  very  short  time  more  than 
IreHrd  our  trade  with  India ! 

But  besides  l)eing  injurious  to  the  private  trader, 
and  to  the  public  generally,  both  in  India  and  England, 
this  trade  was  of  no  advantage  to  the  East  India  Com 
pany.  How,  Indecil,  could  it  b«  otherwise  ?  A  Com- 
pany  that  maint  <  ned  armies  and  retailed  tea,  that 
carried  a  sword  in  the  one  liaiid  and  a  ledger  in  the 
other,  waa  a  contradiction  ;  and,  had  she  traded  with 
Bucccaa,  would  have  been  a  prodig)'.  It  was  im- 
possible for  her  to  pay  that  attention  to  details  that 
is  indispensable  to  the  carrying  on  of  commerce  with 
advantage.  She  may  have  gained  «imething  by  tho 
monopoly  of  the  tea  trade,  though  even  that  la  ques- 
tionable ;  but  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  she  lost 
heavily  by  her  trade  to  India.  When,  therefore,  tho 
question  aa  to  the  renewal  of  the  charter  came  to  be 
discussed  In  1882,  the  Company  had  no  reasonable 


BAU 


A89 


BAIT 


inU\U 


I  utga  i^ilnal  tlwir  MnK  il»|>rlvail  uf  III* 
|ifi*IU||t  »r  IrwIlKH.  AikI  llw  art  11  miil  i  Will.  't.  ■.'. 
«/«.,  f»r  i'«ntliiiilni(  Iha  i:liarti<r  tilt  |M.>I,  Irrmmnlnl  tht 
I'mUfHUtn'l  nmnnniiitl  rharuiitri  hy  •■iim  tliiK,  tllut  Uw 
Hummnjr't  IrwU  t<i  Chin*  wm  tii  eaun  <iii  tlia  :>'Jil  of 
AutH,  INi^l,  «ii/|  that  Iba  ('uinpaiiy  waa  aa  ujiiu  aa  jKia- 
•ll/l«  art«r  tbal  lUU  In  iIUinim  iif  ilirir  atiM'ka  mi  linml, 
atfl  I  low  lliair  Kiiiiiniiri  lal  Imaluaaa.  Ami  tlia  wiimler' 
M  liii'fraaa  that  hiia  alma  tiikcD  (itaia  in  tba  tr«il« 
Willi  Iha  Kaal  U  Ilia  Iwat  prcKif  uf  tbii  a^ijoclly  and 
•fmiMlti^aa  Iff  Iha  aplnliina  of  Uiiiaa  by  wli  .«u  alTurU 
Um  ln<  uliMa  iif  iiM>n<ip<ily  waa  rKinovoil. 

II,  K*»f  Ikiiu  CiiMPANir  (Cii.iMTirui'ioii  or).— At 
prvaanl  Iha  riiiirllnna  nf  Ilia  K.uat  liulU  ('»iii|wny  ara 
*  iKilly  imlllb  al.  Hha  la  aabi  lu  K<iverii  Imlla,  with  tba 
fXH'iirrarK*  nml  iimlar  tba  aiiiwrvUbui  iif  tba  lluani  of 
I'ifftlriil,  iianrly  on  tba  |ilan  laid  down  in  Mr.  I'ltt'a 
a«l.  Hill,  In  (aiint  »r  rail,  tbu  Kiiwrnnient  la  aubatan- 
lUlly  vaalail  In  tli«  lattar  ;  (li«  ('iiui|uiiiy'a  dlrvutura 
*<llHf4,  »ninfit  on  aoinn  rum  wiaaioiia,  ratbar  aa  k 
iMMni'll  lu  Ilia  I'rrablanl  of  ll>..  Hoard  of  Control,  tban 
*a  •'^ariilalnii  an  lnil«|M<nd«nt,  or  M>m|uiit  authority. 
All  Iha  raal  and  |ioraonul  |iM|>erty  htdi'iiKiiiif  tu  lbs 
(''"(iiiany  on  tba  ^2d  of  April,  iMil-l,  waa  vvatuil  In  tbu 
iiriiwn,  and  l«  babi  or  iimniiKcd  li>  lbi<  Cninpiiny  in 
IfMal  for  Ilia  amna,  aulijaitof  i:ourau  i  nil  ilulnia,  ilalitH, 
Minlrai  ta,  alt.,  already  in  axiatviiev,  >.r  timt  iiiuv  bi"<i. 
•flar  liK  Irrouifbt  Intoaxlxtania  by  L'oni|Hitvnt  uiitbority, 
fha  ( 'mniiany  a  dabia  and  irabilitiBa  are  all  ibarKed  on 
India.  Tba  ditridnnd,  wbieb  ia  111^  p<<t  lant.,  la  puld 
III  Knillaiid  out  of  tba  mvanuaa  of  India;  uiid  pnivU 
•Ion  la  imida  for  tba  aatulilixbiiiant  of  a  «rHnfyy'ufl(i 
flit  Ita  dl«i  hat^..,  Tba  divl.i.  ml  nmy  iw  ri'dvcnied  by 
I'arllaniant,  on  payinant  of  X2IXJ  for  A'KIO  »t<K;k,  any 
llina  aflor  April,  1H74;  but  it  wus  providud,  in  the 
afanl  of  Ibn  ('oinpany  Iwlnn  duprivcd  of  tint  uovom- 
mattt  of  India  in  |ho4,  that  Ibuy  nii^ht  cluim  ru- 
dam|itbrn  of  tba  dlvld«nd  any  tiiiia  tliercuftur,  U|ion 
Kifaayaafu;  notite.— <!1  &  i  Will.  I.  c.  «.'>.)— .1.  U.  Mt- 

I'tll.MN  II, 

8«M,  Hirrin.  Oit.)  The  point  of  the  horizon  at 
wbh'h  Iha  aim  rlana  at  the  tiinn  of  the  oiiulnoxiia ;  or  tin- 
point  dclarniliird  by  ii  |iiir|H'niliiiibir  to  tho  unTbliuii 
drawn  toward  Ilia  (piiirtar  of  aunriae.  Tbu  eatl  la  ou« 
i/f  Iha  four  ntntiiuU  ptiiiifn  of  tho  ccmpoJ. 

SMt  India.    ,H<-«  I  Mill  A. 

8a*t  tU'Wtr  roinniunic'al«a  wltl^  the  Iliidaon  in 
Iha  Itiiy  of  ,Ni-w  York,  and  U  formed  by  the  narrowing 
of  IxxiK  laland  Mounil,  wbicb  opcni  with  a  brouil 
immlh  at  tba  auatnrn  and  into,  iiikI  recoivoa  a  atron)( 
ltn|itil«<<  from  thi-  tidaa  In  tlio  Atlantic.  Tbin  clumntd 
la  mi  iMnl  in  contrailiHtlnction  to  the  N'orth  Klvur  (tli« 
lludaon;.  Aa  iha  Hound  lontracta,  to  the  went  of  the 
bfoad  axpanw  in  front  of  Now  Haven,  and  forms 
what  la  callad  tJntl  Uirrr,  the  oi'eanii-  cun'enta  act  with 
a  f«fi'«  that  inirraaea  with  tbo  diuiiniabiiiK  width  of 
Iha  atraain  j  iind  tbia  ijiuaea  bibber  tidi'.i  hero  than  at 
any  olhrr  plucn  aruunil  tbu  taland,  nrriviiiK  ut  New 
Kirtk  alxiut  tbrfle  (|uartt,'ra  of  an  hour  earlier  than 
IIh»«  by  Ibn  ^arrowa,  Tbia  current  drivea  upwiinl 
nUmn  Iha  aaat  ahore  of  the  HudaoD  many  miliyi  in  ud- 
varn  a  of  tha  other,  on  tho  west ;  and  tbu.i  the  lludaon 
baa  two  tidea,  wlilch  hardly  unite  tbolr  action  till 
l)i«y  have  paa^ed  Tiippan  and  Iluveristraw  liaya, 
Iforll-Oale,  II«ll-(iat«,  or  Ilurl-Uute,  a  dangeroua 
and  vary  irooked  <trait  in  Kaat  Kiver,  ei){bt  iniloH 
H,  K,  of^  Saw  York,  waa  culled  by  the  Dutch  /furlt- 
iJiill,  al){nifyinK  w/ur/poo/.  The  strait  ia  formed  by  , 
ptojiiiUnyi  rocka  that  conflne  tbo  water  to  a  narrow  | 
awl  crooked  cbann>-l,  nccoaiouinK  atron^  eibly  cur- ; 
fariU,  Tbarn  ia  a  autHcient  deptli  of  wato'  for  any  j 
raaaala,  but  the  poaaa^o  of  large  ahipa  aliould  only  bo 
/itl«m|i4«d  with  skillful  pilots.— K.  A.  j 

BatI  A»  Oologna.     This  well-knnwn  perfume  ia  , 
t  Milulion  of  different   volatile   oils   in   pure  stroii); 
tbtrit.    The  principal  condition  for  tbo  preparation  of  a  ; 
ntia  watar  la  the  einpluyiuent  of  u  spirit  ijuite  devoid 


of  fuaiUill  (oil  ol  gT»\a),  and  of  all  forr||ni  oibir.  !■ 
rpa|M>ct  to  Iha  pn>|HirtUin  and  kind  of  olTa  eniployad, 
wa  have  nunieroua  forniube.  It  U  of  iinportancn  that 
tbaaa  oila,  which  are  usually  puri  liiiscd  of  the  i\n>^if\ttt 
of  the  south  of  Kraiica,  aboubl  be  of  tlo'  llnot  (|iiiillty, 
and  that  no  oil  should  \m  used  In  aMllli  lent  i|Uiinlily  to 
allow  of  ita  peculiar  o<lur  belni(  rccoKnl/able  In  tbu 
mixture.  The  oila  are  la  be  dissolved  In  spirit,  and 
the  nii.tturo  allowed  t<i  staml  for  some  weeks  (or  still 
liettur  for  some  months),  tu  Improve  its  (Hb>r.  Distil- 
Ution  does  not  affccl  thia  {  on  the  contrary  a  fresh  dis- 
tilled water  rai|uires  tu  lie  kept  a  iiiiicb  loiiKcr  time. 
Distillation  is  iiiileed  objectbiiuible  {  for  on  ai  count  of 
the  Kieut  volatility  of  the  spirit,  the  oils  in  part  remain 
behind  In  the  still.  Distillation  can  improve  the 
u<b>ronly  when  the  less  volatile  oil  bus  bei'ii  u«ed  In 
too  great  a  qiiuntit),  and  we  wish  to  obtain  u  Ijetter 
pro|M>rtlon.  Ilefore  ull  things,  we  sboidd  I'lnpbiy  ii 
pure,  old,  strong  spirit,  and  not  loo  much  of,  nor  too 
strongly  smelling  oil.  The  ditfereiit  sorts  of  vidutile 
oil  wliicb  are  obtained  from  varieties  of  citrons, 
oranges,  and  lemons.  In  different  states  of  maturity, 
are  Ibe  most  important ;  and,  therefore.  It  Is  most  Im- 
IHiitant  to  ascertain  their  purity  and  gixNiness.  Kors- 
tcr  gives  the  following  formula  for  the  preparulbm  of 
line  euu  de  Cobigne  :  Take  of  rectllled  spirit  X'i  per 
oimt.,  of  Trullea  (,~»p.  gr.  0-8.M),  (I  (wine)  ipiart-;  c«. 
seiice  of  onuiges,  esseuci)  of  bergamot,  essence  of  cit- 
ron, essenie  of  iiiucltn,  and  essrncn  of  petits  grains,  of 
eacli,  J  j  i  essence  of  cedro,  essence  of  sedrat  essence 
lie  Portugal,  and  essence  de  nenill,  of  each  5  sa  ;  oil 
of  rosemary,  j  IJ  j  and  oil  of  tbj  ine,  J  J. 

Otto  ^'ive8  tbo  following  formula  for  a  good  eau  do 
('>>lin;ii.' :  I^M^tilled  spirit  of  Hd  per  cent.  ;  of  Tralles 
(  "  'in  ^p.  gr.),  l.'(M»  (wino)  ipiarts  j  oil  of  citrons,  lb, 
iv  ;  oil  of  bergamot,  lb.  ij;  oil  of  neroll  lib. ;  oil  of 
laveniler,  lb  ■  ss  ;  oil  of  rosemary,  1  Si . ;  and  spirit  of 
ammonia,  |  sa.     Mix:  don't  diatiil. 

This  preparation  has  long  |iossesaed  great  celebrity, 
in  consei|uence  i  liielly  of  the  numerous  virtues  ns- 
cribeil  to  it  by  its  venders  ;  and  Is  resorted  to  by  many 
Mitarics  of  fashion  as  a  panacea  against  ailments  of 
every  kind.  It  Is,  however,  nothing  more  tiian  aro- 
loati/.cd  alcohol,  and  as  such  an  agreeable  companion 
for  the  toilet.  Numerous  lictitbois  recipes  have  been 
offered  for  preparing  euu  de  Cologne ;  the  following 
may  lie  reckoned  authentic,  having  been  imparted  by 
Kuriiia  himself  to  a  friend. 

Take  GO  gallons  of  silent  brandy ;  sage,  and  thyme, 
each  J  vi ;  balm-mint  anil  spearmint,  eu<:b  J  xlj ;  cal- 
amus aromuticus,  Z  iv  ;  root  of  angelica,  3  iJ  i  cam- 
phor, 3  J  i  petals  of  roses  and  violets,  each  J  iv  ;  (lowers 
of"  lavender,  J  ij ;  (lowers  of  orange,  3  iv  i  worm- 
wood, Jj;  nutmegs,  cloves,  cassia,  lignea,  and  mace, 
each  3  >v  i  2  oranges  unil  2  lemons,  cut  in  pieces. 
Allow  the  whole  to  niuccrute  in  the  sjiirit  during  21 
hours,  then  distill  olf  10  gallons  by  tlio  beat  of  a  water 
bath.  Add  tu  the  priHliict ;  essence  of  lemons,  of 
cedrut,  of  bulm-mint,  and  of  lavender,  each  3  ^>J ; 
neroli  and  tho  essence  of  tbo  socil  of  unthus,  each  3  >v ; 
essence  of  jasmin,  5  J  >  "'  bergamot,  J  xij.  Filter, 
and  preserve  for  use. 

Cadet  de  liussincourt  has  proposed  to  prepare  eau 
de  Cologne  by  the  following  rocipo :  Take  alcohol  at  DJ'' 
1). ,  '.'  ({uarts  ;  neroli,  essence  of  cedrut,  of  orange,  of 
lemon,  of  bergamot,  of  rosemary,  each  21  drops  ;  aild 
3  ij  of  tho  seeds  of  lesser  cardamoms  ;  distill  by  the 
beat  of  tt  wuter  bath  a  pint  and  a  half.  When  )>rc- 
pared  aa  thus  by  siiffple  mixture  of  essences,  without 
distillation,  it  is  never  so  good.  There  is  a  curious 
contest  in  Uermany  concerning  the  veritable  Fariim, 
whu  makes  the  celebrated  eau  do  Cologne.  The  con- 
tost  was  curried  even  into  the  Crystal  Puluce,  where 
there  were  four  John  Blaria  Fariiias,  all  claiming  to 
be  the  original.  It  ap|>cars  that  s|)ccu1atian  is  curried 
to  so  high  u  pitch  in  Cologne,  that  uny  cliild  entitled 
to  tho  ■uniumo  of  Farina  ia  bargained  for  as  soon  us 


S|H>ri 

inci 


E(1Y 


ft§8 


VMY 


ttorn,  iikI  cliriilanMl  J«an  MirU.    At  tlin**  thU  avtiit 
U  nvrri  millclpuUil, 

Bau  da  liuo*.  A  ilping  M>lutiiiii  of  animonU, 
>i'iinti>il,  iinil  rvii>lnrK<l  iiillky  by  tlm  lulillllun  of  a  littln 
niHutli'  itiiil  III!  iif  iinilxr.  It  l>  roni<lil«rFcl  nn  KlTwtlvii 
rvnii'ily  In  liidU  tt)(itliiKt  '.Ln  liit«  itt  |iiilitiini>uii  MinkM. 

Bbony  (.(iiT.  Klirnlu'lt  i  I  in.  tMnwuti  Kr.  A'W/ic; 
It.  t^bittut ;  Klirt.  fJifftinriniirrrti'tt ;  l.dt.  Khrtitis),  II 
>|H<i:l*ii  of  wcKxl  IjriiUKlit  prim  l|iully  fniiii  tlia  l-juit.  It 
U  «i(rK«iliii)(ly  linrit  iiiiil  limtvy,  uf  un)i>t  iluraliliit.v, 
mix 'I'ptililii  of  n  very  lliin  |Mili>ili,  uiiil  nil  tliiit  m'roiint 
uiKil  III  iiiiMiili'  iinil  iillivr  liiUlil  wiirk.  Thflrn  an 
liiiiiiv  K|)vcli'H  uriilHiiiy.  Thn  liimt  In  timt  wlilih  U  Jul 
liliii  k,  rr('erniiiivnliiiiHnilriiiil,vi!ryciiiii|iai'l,it»triii)(xiit| 
uiiil  dl'  iin  airlil  |mnK<\nt  tuatd,  Till*  niMii'lt'ii  (d"!"'"''- 
nutiiil  hy  iHitmiliitii  I )imi>iinn  HhrHiit)  la  fiiiiiiil  |irliiri- 
(Hilly  In  MaiUKimiitr,  tlm  Muurltlim,  ami  ('nylnii.  Tli* 
centra  unly  i>f  tli«  tr««  U  milil  tn  \m  vuluulilv.  In 
1MII7,  'JUKI  cwt,  of  tiUiny,  nl  t>iii  mtliiiutml  vuklo  iif 
XVi'J  wvrii  vxiKirti'il  fnini  tli«  '  iiirltliu,  lliwliles  the 
Mmk,  thxrii  urn  mil,  Kr^on,  .•.iil  ynllow  clinny ;  l>ut 
tli«  latter  lira  nut  mi  niucli  i'j<t«i'iiiiMl  u  tlm  fiiriiiir. 
Culiiiivt-niiiki'm  urK  In  tlm  liulilt  of  milmtltutinK  |Htur- 
tri'U  mill  iitlitir  hkihIk  dyeil  liliiik,  in  tlm  |iliieii  at ti  nu- 
iim  «lM)ny ;  lliemi  liownvnr,  want  ih  |Hillnli  iiml  liiKtrn, 
tliiiut(li  timy  liiilil  kIiib  Iwttor.  'Im  prliii  n  liony 
varli'ii  In  tlia  l.nmliin  iniirket  frmii  XTi  tn  X2II  u  ton. 
Till'  iiuiiiitltioH  IniiHirtiMl  ur«  hut  Imnniiiilurulilv. 

Bouiidor.    Men  I'ji  AiMin. 

Eddy  (S,ix.  ril,  tfiln;  iiml  ml,  baehcani),  In  the 
wiiter  1)1'  II  Htruiini  ir  tlile  wliitli,  in  iiuiiiniuwnre  of 
(<triklii){  H)(iiinnt  Ki.i  iilmtui'iK,  In  thrown  '  •  ril, 
iinil  riiiiH  in  ii  illrRi  timi  ii|i|ui«iti!  to  tliiit  nl'  I  •.  ^■.  n  ^rul 
current.  More  rrei|ueiitly,  liowiiver,  the  l<  m  in  •••  «1 
to  ilunotn  till!  whirliii)(  or  circuliir  imitlon  tuuaed  hy 
the  inet>tiii|{  of  two  up|inHitu  lurruntH ;  unit  In  thin 
neiiHU  It  in  Ulan  applied  to  u  Hiniiliir  inotion  of  atiiiiiH- 
I'l.erii. 

Eel  {An;i<iillu  murintaot  I,iiinii-u«),  a  llxli,  the  a|i- 
pciiraneo  of  which  la  too  well  known  to  rcqulru  any 
ileHiriptiiin.  It  in  ti  native  of  alninnt  nil  tlm  watern  of 
KuroiRt,  frei|UentinK  not  only  rivern  hu*  ntajjiiant 
piiidn,  Kein  uru,  in  many  placen,  extremely  .ihundaiit, 
particularly  in  llollunil  ami  .lutland.  Several  (HMiiln 
ant  uppropriuteil  in  Kngland  to  the  raiHiii)^  nf  oein  ;  unii 
comiidcruiilu  nunihern  urn  taken  in  the  I  liunivn  ami 
oilier  rivern.  Itiit  a  lar^a  |H>rtlon  of  the  eeln  used  in 
Kii|{laiid  nru  furiiihiiei.  hy  llidlund.  Indeed,  very 
few  except  IJuti  li  eeln  are  ever  neen  in  Lomlon  ;  and 
evuii  lluuipton  und  Uichmund  aro  principally  xuppliud 
hy  thoin.  The  triulo  is  curried  on  hy  Dutih  truilurn, 
who  employ  in  it  ii«V'  ■'  Minall  vennelH,  hy  iiieann  of 
which  the  luurkc't  in  ri  i':.:,>'  v  uuil  uinply  provided 
for. 

Bfferveaoenoe  (hut.  ijfi-rivtm).  The  encape  of 
guKuoun  matter  from  lii|uiilii,  un  in  the  act  of  fernient- 
utiiui.  All  liquidn  from  which  huhhhin  of  ^'un  rapidly 
escape,  8o  a»  to  '■nsemhlo  boiling,  are  saiil  to  eli'er- 
venco. 

EffloresortQOe  (I.at.  ijloreim,  I  flower).  The 
HjKintaimo'..  i  crumhlinK  down  of  transparent  cryatuU, 
in  coii74oquenco  of  the  Ioh.s  of  water. 

Eggs  (Fr.  (KuJ'i  ;  Lat.  Orn),  are  too  well  known  to 
requiru  to  be  dencrlhed.  They  dilVer  in  size,  color, 
taste,  etc.,  iK'i'nrdin);  tu  the  dill'urent  B|)ecieH  of  birds 
(h.it  lay  them.  The  c^jja  of  poultry  are  thone  mont 
cominunly  UKed  0.1  food  ;  and  form  an  article  of  very 
"onniderable  inijHirtuuce  in  u  comnivrciul  point  of  1  lew. 
The  eK)(n  of  plovem  are  enteemed  a  great  delicai  y, 
and  niuke,  indeed,  a  perpetually  rocurrinK  dish  ut 
fa.thionuhlo  diniicrn, 

Egypt,  a  country  nituutod  at  the  north-eustem  ex- 
tremity of  Africa,  between  N.  lat.  ai°  87'  and  21°  1', 
and  K.  long.  27"  111'  and  3-1'^  12' ;  bounded  on  the 
north  hy  the  Mediterranean  Sen,  on  the  south  by 
Nubiu,  on  the  east  by  I'alentine,  Arabia,  and  the  Heil 
Sea,  and  on  the  weiit  by  the  Ureut  Uoaert.     The  chief 


llaliUproduua  la  whaat  (which  la  mora  ffmwn  than  any 
otiiar  kind  of  corn),  liarlity,  aavaral  mirtn  of  millat, 
maUa,  rli«,  uata,  clover,  |miim,  the  ■ilt(ur-cane,  ronaa, 
two  aiMiclaa  of  thn  tohucco-pluut,  and  cnltnn.  Tha 
•UKar-cuna  la  axtanalvely  cultivatad,  and  axcallaiit 
niiKar  la  muiiiifuctured  from  It.  There  am  llelila  uf 
ronaa  In  tha  KulyiHini,  which  aupply  tlix  marknt  with 
rona-watar.  Tha  tobacco  priHiucad  in  K^ypt  la  coaraf 
and  atrouK  compared  with  that  which  la  ua«<l  by  th* 
midilla  and  up|iar  claaaan,  anil  lni|Hirted  fruni  Hyria 
and  Turkey.  That  of  Syria  la  conaiderad  the  beat.  Of 
taxtila  plantn,  thn  priiicl|ial  aro  hemp,  cotton,  and 
llax  i  ami  nf  planta  iiaad  fnr  dyolnx,  biintard,  aalfron, 
iiiadilur,  woiid,  ami  thn  iiidign-pUiit.  Tha  lntnxlcat< 
luK  hiiaheenh,  which  aome  aiunke  In  a  kind  of  water- 
pipe,  formed  nf  n  cocon-nul,  two  tuhen,  and  a  howl, 
n'ddom  uned  for  any  other  narcotic,  la  not,  aa  liaa  baen 
eiToneounly  nup|Hined,  opium,  hut  hemp.  Thn  elfevt 
in  mont  huiialiil.  The  leuvva  of  thn  hiiiiil'-piant, 
Ki  wn  in  aMindancn,  are  uned  to  tinge,  of  u  liright-red 
cidor,  the  puimn  of  thn  liandn,  the  nolea  of  the  feet,  and 
the  nulla  of  Inith  luiiidu  and  feat,  of  Women  unit  chil- 
dren, the  hair  of  old  ludiea,  und  the  tulln  of  hnr—z, 
Inilign  In  very  extenaivniy  employed  to  dye  the  ahlrti 
of  the  imtiven,  of  tlm  iionrer  cluanea,  and  in,  when  very 
dark.  I'.e  cohir  >  1  mourning;  therefore  women,  at  fu- 
neri'  ..nil  generally  after  a  death,  nnieur  themnelvei 
with  Oil  In  extructed  from  tha  needa  of  thn  ciitton- 

; ' '  '  i|<'inp,  colewort,  the  pnppy,  the  luatnr-oil  plant, 
t  u'l.u,  and  llux.  Tlm  high,  coarne  griisa,  calleil 
lull'eh  (,/'on  »i/H4i,  i-uii/ia)  grown  in  great  quantity  In 
wuate  placen  anh       .oiig  ancient  rains. 

Mr.  I.aiiu  1  H.  ,  cntimutea  tha  (Hqiulation  of  Kgypt 
at  lean  than  'i,IXM),l)UO,  und  gives  the  fulhiwing  num- 
bern  nn  nearly  thone  of  the  several  clasaon  uf  which  it 
in  mainly  componed  : 

Monluiii  KKypllnna  (felldkoon  or  puaaanta,  I    ,  <•»»!» 

and  Inwilnpeople) (    •><""<'"'> 

Chrl^tliin  KKyiitlaiiB  (Copta) 1.V),000 


Osmi'iiilcei,  or  Turks. 
Hyrlalin. ... 

(Irecks 

Arnu'iilans 
•lews 


III.IKM 
6,(100 
e,IN)0 
2,1)00 
B,000 


and  the  remainder,  exclusive  of  the  Arabs  of  the  des- 
ert, ahiiut  7(I,(KK). 

Sir  (iardiier  Wilkinson  (IRIII)  romputen  the  total  at 
about  1,HOO,00();  hut  Clot-lley  (IHIU),  not  olwuys  an 
imjuirtial  writer,  places  it  much  higher,  upward  of 
!l,lMMI,00il.  riie  following  result  of  the  government 
census,  taken  in  1H17~H,  is  remarkable  as  showing  the 
system  nf  falsil'ying  statistics  for  state  purposes.  It  U 
copied  from  an  ofHciiil  return  : 

Kl-Kusoyr S,48."i 

Uosetta 18,40S 

Uanilutta VSDiN 

Hiicj 17 -" 


Middle  Kitypt...  n()l,i04 

Kl-(lh«rbeeyeh. .  MWIHII 

Kl  -  K  aUoobeeye  U  1  ^t.'i^O 

rppcr  Kijypl....  l.lDiMls 

Ksli-rtliarkoeyuli.  84i.B0() 

Kl-Oeeioh ni>.eM 

Kl-Dobeyreh....  !ilS,HIO 

Kl-Monuurceyeb.  4411,511) 

Kl-Oakshleeych..  84-,M7 

Whubra 10,116 


KI-'Arocsh «,B4T 

Alexandria 14J),l»t 

Cairo 2.Vt,Ml 


TuUl 4,842,620 


Since  tlm  conclusion  of  the  Syrian  war,  until  the 
present  struggle,  the  navy  has  been  totally  inactive. 
At  the  former  period,  it  numbered  11  ships  of  the  line, 
ti  frigates  (one  moved  by  8teum-|mwer),  fl  corvettes,  9 
lirigs  (;l  being  steamers),  and  2  cutters.  Some  of  these 
wore  constructed  iu  the  naval  yard  at  Alexandria,  but 
the  hirgor  number  wore  contracted  for  in  Kurope. 
Grout  care  was  bestowed  on  the  formation  of  the  navy, 
and  tho  establishments  connocted  with  it  ut  Alexan- 
dria, but  the  Egyptians  do  not  seem  to  be  »  muritimt 
people,  or,  at  any  rate,  their  men-of-war  have  none  of 
tho  tautnoss  and  neatness  of  Euro|iean  ships  of  th« 
class. — E  11. 

Thn  trade  with  Europe  is  carried  on  through  Alex- 
andria. The  traffic  with  tlio  interior  of  Africa  is  car- 
ried on  by  moans  of  caravans,  which  bring,  in  exchange 
for  European  und  Egyptian  products,  ivorjr,  gold-dust, 


BGY 


584 


EGT 


■kind,  wool,  gain,  oatrich-feathen,  and  metalg.  The 
chief  commercial  rtlations  with  Arak'i  and  India  are 
carried  on  l>y  Cosseir  and  Suez.  Since  the  establisb- 
ment  of  regular  steam-packets  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Indian  Ocean,  Egypt  has  become  the  route  to 
India  for  all  the  correspondence  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
for  the  greater  portion  of  travelers.  The  principal 
means  of  communication  at  present  are  the  Nile,  which 
is  traversed  by  steam-packets,  and  the  canals,  many  of 
which  have  been  repaired  by  Meliemet  All ;  but  even 
the  Iwst  of  them  are  often  unnavigable  during  a  great 
pait  of  thu  }-ear.  The  route  from  Cairo  to  Suez  (180 
miles)  is  traversed  by  horses  and  vans,  and  the  mail  is 
conveyed  in  18  hours.  The  project  of  uniting  the 
Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea,  by  re-opening  the 
ancient  canal,  has  been  recently  revived,  but  it  is  sur- 
rounde<l  with  difficulties,  and  not  likely  to  be  carried 
into  effect.  The  more  pructicable  and  safe  plan  of  a 
railmnd  communication  between  Cairo  and  Suez  has 
been  resolved  on,  and  a  portion  of  it  liuilt.  This  may 
again  render  Egypt  the  principal  entrepot  of  commerce 
betwfcen  the  eastern  and  the  western  worlds. 

Commerce. — The  general  commerce  of  Egj'pt  in 
1661,  reached  a  fotal  of  144,509,000  francs,  or,  in  round 
numbers,  f  2R,9O2,0OO ;  which  shows  an  increase,  when 
compared  with  1841,  of  44,000,000  francs,  or  nearly 
♦9,000,000. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  any  accurate  rt-tums  of  the 
commereial  movements  of  Kg}'pt,  except  such  as  are 
prepared  by  the  foreign  consuls  residing  at  the  differ- 
ent ports  of  that  country,  and  transmitted  to  their 
respective  govemiAints.  F'om  such  soitrees  tlie  fol- 
lowing table  is  compiled,  showmg  the  export  trade  of 
Egypt,  and  vessels  employed,  during  a  period  of  11 
yeara,  ending  with  1851 : 


Vran. 

riailni. 

DolUra. 

Vi-iwli. 

1841 

198,270,180 
180,446,600 
191,888,400 
167,868,480 
18S,78'2,200 
187,841.080 
8()1,.S48,800 
187,!J8«,,Mfl 

aw,*-*,*!? 

818,887,800 
828,804,698 

9,918,807 

»,0«,»80 

9,876,940 

8,898,421 

9,289,110 

9,867,084 

1.5,0(17,178 

7,861,827 

10,1.',2,811 

15,767,890 

16,290,284 

1,280 

184S 

1,860 
1,870 

1848 

1844 

1,*>7 

IMS 

1,097 

1846 

1,241 

1847 

1818 

1848 

1  i08 

1M9 

1,609 

1880 

1,6.50 

1881 

1,798 

Tlio  value  of  tho  pfaBtrrt  varies.  That  of  Alexandria  Is 
reckoned  at  5  cents  United  States'  currency :  tliat  of  Turkey 
generally  Is  equivalent  to  4  cents. 

The  import  trade  in  1841,  tlie  first  year  given  in  the 
table,  reached  187,000,000  I)itt8tre8=fi9,350,000,  and 
ascended  in  18,'>1,  tlie  lost  year,  to  230,000,000  piastres, 
or  alw'Tt  $11,500,000.  The  articles  which  diminished 
in  the  import  tetums  during  the  period,  were  sugar, 
linens,  certain  kinds  of  silks,  ami  mm ;  and  the  di- 
minution was  about  equal  to  the  increasetl  production 
of  those  articles  in  Egypt.  The  imp<)rtation  increas"d 
ID  woolens,  cottons,  French  silks,  and  articles  of  fashion. 
CoHUEBCi!  IN  1S5S  (Value  ix  Pounds  Steruno), 


FxporUtlon  4,600,000. 
To  England...  2,600,000 

"   France 811,000 

"   Auatria....     444,000 


Importation,  2,141,000. 
From  Eniflsnd . .  908,000 

"      France...  17T,(HX) 

"      Austria...  200,000 

Navioation  in  1384  axu  1858. 

Kotercd  uiil  eleftrcd.  Veuali.  Tiinimi^. 

ISM 8,982  7S8,4.'i7 

1885 4,449  918,216 

The  English  flag  occupies  the  first  rank  in  the  re- 
tuns  from  which  the  preceding  figures  are  taken, 
though,  since  the  repeal  of  the  navigation  laws  of 
Great  Uritain  in  1850,  the  importations  under  the  flags 
of  other  countries  of  northern  Europe  have  largely  in- 
creased, 

Alexandria. — The  trade  of  this  port  has  increased 
rapidly  since  the  opening  of  the  canal  which  commu- 
nicates Iwtween  Alexandria  and  the  Nile  at  Atfeh. 
This  communication  has  taken  away  from  the  ports  of 
Damletta  and  Kosetta  the  extensive  commerce  for- 
merly enjoyed  by  them,  and  for  which,  from  their  po- 


aition  on  the  two  moutba  of  the  Nile,  they  posseased 
great  advantages.  The  total  trade  of  Alexandria  in 
1840,  amounted  in  value  to  $11,997,146,  of  which  there 
were  for  imports  $6,0.36,980,  and  for  exports  $6,860,* 
i65.  This  trade  in  1842  reached  In  value  $21,000,000, 
an  increase  over  1840  of  over  $9,000,000.  The  treaty 
of  1888,  placing  foreign  commerce  on  a  mora  secure 
basis  than  had  previously  existed,  and  the  tranquillity 
which  followed  the  settlement  of  the  difficulties  of 
1840,  were  the  causes  of  this  great  augmentation  in 
the  trade  of  1842,  Among  the  exports  of  this  year, 
raw  cotton  reached  in  value  $1,800,000,  of  which 
Austria  received  upward  of  $1,000,000  in  value.  The 
trade  of  1843  oxhil)ita  a  falling  off  from  that  of  the 
preceding  year,  aggregating  only  (imports  and  ?x|iort8 
united)  about  $19,000,000,  of  which  raw  cotton  reached 
in  value  about  $2,000,000.  In  1844  the  total  trade  of 
this  port  fell  again  to  about  $13,000,000 ;  and  in  1846 
the  totals  reached  nearly  $18,000,000,  of  which,  for 
cotton,  there  were  $2,000,000,  In  1849  tlie  foreign 
trade  of  Alexandria  reached  $16,000,000,  of  which  for 
imports,  there  were  $7,600,000,  and  for  exports,  $8,- 
500,000.  The  raw  cotton  exported  this  year  reached 
in  quantity  268,000  quintals  (the  quintal,  or  cantar,  is 
estimated  at  KM  lbs.),  or  25,800,000  Ibb.,  valued  at 
$2,776,000.  The  tranquillity  which  prevailed  in 
Egypt  during  the  ten  years  anterior  to  1850,  was 
highly  favorable  to  tho  development  of  its  foreign 
commerce,  The  treaty  of  1888,  guarantying  the  un- 
restricted circulation  through  Egypt  of  European 
merehandise,  and  its  freedom  from  the  vexatious 
taxes  to  which  it  was  subjected  Iwfore  that  period, 
contributed  in  like  manner  to  the  prosperity  of  this 
port  in  1860.  The  total  trade  exceeded  in  value  $19,- 
000,000,  a  figure  wliich  it  had  never  l)efore  reached, 
excepting  in  the  year  1842,  when  the  large  augmenta- 
tion was  brought  alwuit  by  causes  purely  ncridontal. 
Of  this  sum,  imports  reached  nearly  $8,00O,0O<),  and 
exports  al)out  11,000,000,  Of  the  latter,  raw  cotton 
amounted  in  qiuintity  to  82,084,600  lbs.,  and  in  value 
to  $1,200,000. 

Thu  establishment  of  a  national  bank  in  Alexandria, 
under  the  title  of  Bank  of  Egypt,  has  already,  though 
not  in  o|)eration,  commenced  a  revolution  in  the  ideas 
of  the  fellahs,  or  cultivators  of  the  soil,  with  respect  to 
money  matters.  It  is  well  known  that  the  fellahs 
have  hitherto  hoarded  or  buried  the  cash  they  have  re- 
ceived for  their  produce.  Since  they  have  l)een  paid 
by  drafts  on  the  Bank  of  Egypt,  and  they  find  the 
mode  in  which  those  drafts  are  cashed  is  so  satis- 
factory, some  of  the  more  wealthy  have  o|)ened  ac- 
counts with  the  bank,  and  deposited  their  savings 
there  for  safe  keeping.  Should  this  practice  become 
general,  and  the  many  millions  which  are  known  to  l>e 
hoarded  by  the  fellahs  l>«  brought  into  cireulatinn  and 
laid  out  in  profitable  investments,  it  must  produce  an 
enormous  effect  on  the  prosperity  of  the  country  in 
general. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that,  in  the  voluminous  re- 
ports from  which  the  preceding  statements  of  the 
trade,  both  of  Egypt  and  its  principal  port,  Alexan- 
dria, are  extracted,  the  United  States  does  not  once 
appear.  A  despatch  to  the  State  Ue|)artment,  dated 
Alexandria,  Moy  1,  1856,  Btate.s  that  "  the  increase  in 
foreign  tradera  is  very  perceptible,  but  there  are  few 
branches  of  Aine'.lcan  houses  among  them."  England, 
France,  and  Austria,  seem  to  have  been  the  principal 
foreign  countries  which  participated  in  tlii.i  trade. 
The  total  trade  of  1861  reached  $29,000,000.  ami  that 
of  1852  ascended  to  upward  of  $81 ,000,000,  of  whirh  a 
large  share  is  assigned  to  Turkey  mid  .Syria.  The 
quantity  of  raw  cotton  exported  the  latter  year  was 
718,066  quintals,  valued  at  $6,960,249.  The  whole  of 
this  cotton  was  sent  to  England,  France,  and  Austria, 
in  tlie  following  pro|K>rtion8 :  to  England,  420,118 
quintals ;  to  Austria,  169,800  quintals ;  and  to  France, 
128,030  quintals.    These  figures,  as  well  as  those  em- 


EGT 


68b 


EID 


fioua  re- 
of  the 
Alexan- 
lot  once 
it,  datoil 
roasB  in 
lire  few 
•;nglani\, 
irini'ipnl 
trade. 
~~lnnl  that 
I  whii'h  a 
la.     The 
\enT  was 
Iwhole  of 
I  Austria, 
420,nH 
i  France, 
hose  em- 


plojmd  t'<TOtlgtiout  this  digest,  generally,  are  derived 
from  French  offlcial  sources,  which  purport  to  be  based 
on  those  of  Egyptian  .lUtlioTitiea.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, are  deemed  by  no  means  reliable.     The  follow- 


ing statement  exhibiting  the  export  trade  of  Alex- 
andria for  1855,  tranRmitted  ftrom  the  United  States' 
Consulate-general  at  that  place,  is  stated  to  have  been 
drawn  from  private  sources : 


y 


1                       Oounlriii, 

Cotton. 

Wheal. 

B«UM. 

Flu. 

IndUut  eoro. 

Wool. 

Unnord. 

Cwilmt..* 
270,618 
108,248 
140,412 
1,011 

Ardcbi.t 

1,114,614 
180,441 
27,680 
402,217 

Anleta. 

899,840 
700 

4.1,7,^1 

CADtsn. 

66,429 
1,280 
8,416 

14,268 

Ardiba. 
108,787 

1°8°685 
8,861 

Gantan. 
19,276 

1,680 
689 

1,900 

Ard.'bl. 
46,994 

1,090 

724 

8,180 

France 

Austria 

Other  countries 

ToUl 

620,886 

1,674,863 

44a,24a 

76,849 

120,628 

23,4»1 

61,988 

*  The  cantar  of  Egypt  Is  estimated  at  100  pounds. 

During  the  same  year,  an  English  house  at  Alexan- 
dria sent  two  vessels  to  New  York,  and  an  Aostrian 
house  two  more  to  the  same  destination,  loaded 
chiefly  with  gums,  rags,  ci  c.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
a  profitable  trade  might  be  established  between  the 
United  States  and  the  port  of  Alexandria,  by  sending 
out  such  merchandise  as  usually  finds  a  market  in 
Egypt,  and  receiving  in  return  the  rich  and  varied  ex- 
ports of  that  extensive  emporium. 

Cotton. — ^The  cotton  culture  of  Eg}'pt  commenced 
in  1818,  and  exportation  to  England  in  1823.  The  seed 
is  said  t"  have  been  imported  by  the  pacha  "  from 
Americii  ilio  Mediterranean,  and  Brazil;"  and  these 
different  kinds  of  cotton  may,  therefore,  bo  met  in  cul- 
tivation. The  attempt  to  cultivate  the  sea  island  cot- 
ton is  pronounced  a  failure — the  quality  deteriorating 
rapidly  after  tlie  first  crop — although  the  best  Egypt- 
ian cotton,  called  Maho  (so  called  from  Maho-Bey,  in 
whose  garden,  at  Cairo,  the  plant  was  first  discovered, 
having,  prol)ably,  been  introduced  from  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  during  the  French  invasion),  is  ranked  next 
to  ie,i  island  in  length  of  staple.  The  comparative 
tabular  statement  subjoined,  made  up  from  consular  re- 
turns (the  bale  being  estimated  at  300  lbs.),  shows  the 
quantities  of  cotton  exported  at  the  port  of  Alexandria, 
and  the  countries  to  which  exported,  respectively,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  three  years.  The  quantity  exported 
in  1852  is  stated  to  have  been  as  follows :  to  Great 
Britain,  57,623,400  lbs. ;  to  France,  12,350,100  lbs. ;  to 
Austria,  11,429,700  lbs. ;  elsewhere,  859,100  lbs. ;  pre- 
senting an  aggregate  of  81,762,800  lbs.,  and  far  ex- 
ceeding that  of  either  of  the  three  ensuing  years,  as 
given  in  the  following  table : 

FocNDS  or  Cotton  exportrd  froji  Aicxandria, 
1868—1865. 


Counlriai. 

18t3. 

I8U. 

ms. 

Orcat  Britain.. 

Franco 

Austria 

Elsowhore 

Total 

I'onndi. 

26,489,900 

10,726,600 

6,821,000 

897,800 

I'.'iiii.li. 

24,988,700 

7,464,100 

10,16^^0O 

988,600 

roiiriiln. 

88,980,100 

9,4'^1,2(I0 

12,774,900 

068,100 

43,886,200 

43,546,600 

60,874,800 

If  to  the  aggregate  exported,  be  added  fVom  five  to 
six  millions  pounds  consumed  in  the  countr}*,  a  liberal 
estimate  of  the  annual  amount  of  cotton  produced  in 
Egypt — between  fifty  and  sixty  million  pounds — will 
have  lieen  made.  The  factories  established  by  Mehe- 
met  All  are,  it  is  stated,  going  rapidly  to  ruin.  The 
cotton  gootis  manufactured  are  coarse  "  captas,"  or 
soldiers'  "  nizam"  uniform.  Much  cotton  is  used  also 
in  making  up  divans,  the  usual  furniture  in  Egypt. — 
Com.  ReUuiona  U.  S.     See  article  Alexandria. 

The  Egyptian  measures  are,  the  "  fltr,"  or  space 
measured  by  the  extension  of  the  thumb  and  first  fin- 
ger ;  the  "  shibr,"  or  span  ;  the  common  culiit=22|- 
inches,  the  cubit  of  altout  25  inches,  used  principally 
for  Indian  goods,  and  the  cubit  of  about  26^  inches, 
used  for  European  cloth.  Of  the  measures  of  land, 
the  feddan  was  equal  to  airaut  one  English  acre  anil 
one  tenth ;  it  is  now  less  than  an  acre.  It  is  divided 
into  "  keer&ts,"  or  24ths,  and  consists  of  838}  kasabehs 
or  rods.  The  kasabeli  is  22  "  kabdahs,"  and  the  kab- 
dah,  aliout  6^  inches,  or  the  measure  of  a  man's  fist 
with  the  thumb  erect.  The  I'!gyptian  league  varies  in 
Upper  and  Lower  Eg^pt,  and  is  stated  to  be,  in  the 


t  The  ardeb  equals  6  bushels, 
former,  equal  to  a  journey  of  an  hour  and  a  half,  and 
in  the  latter,  to  one  hour's  jonmey.     The  "  ardeb" 
is  equal  to  very  nearly  five  bushels,  and  consists  of 
six  "  weybehs,"  and  each  weyboh  of  four  "  rubas." 

Weights. — The  weights  are  the  "  kamhah"  (or  grain 
of  wheat),  the  64th  of  a  "  dirhem,"  and  4th  of  a  "  kee- 
r&t."  It  is  equal  to  about  (of  an  English  grain.  The 
"  habbeh"  (or  grain  of  barley)  is  the  48th  of  a  dirhem 
and  8d  of  a  keer&t,  and=127-'l28th  English  grain.  The 
keer&t,  or  carat.  Is  the  24th  of  a  "  mltkal ;"  and= 
from  2  125-128th8  to  3  English  grains.  The  dirhem 
=47  5-8th8  to  48  English  grains.  The  mitk&l= 
weight  of  a  deen&r=from  71  7-16ths  to  72  English 
grains.  The  "  wukeeych,"  or  ounce=from  671^  to 
576  English  grains.  The  "  rati,"  or  pound^from  1 
lb.  2  oz.  5f  dwt.  to  about  1  lb.  2  oz.  8  dwt.  troy.  The 
"  wukkah,"  or  oke=from  8  lb.  3i)Z.  ISJ  dwt.  to  8  lb. 
4  oz.  troy.  The  "  cantir,"  or  100  weight=from  98 
lbs.,  less  200  grs.,  to  about  98  lb.  avoirdupois. 

Honey. — European  sovereigns  and  dollars  are  cur- 
rent in  Egypt,  the  former  being  now  equivalent  to 
about  100  piastres,  the  latter,  if  French,  to  alwut  20 
piastres,  and  if  Spanish  (pillar-dollars),  to  about  22 
piastres ;  but  the  value  of  these  coins  is  constantly 
changing.  The  Spanish  doubloon,  and  Venetian  se- 
quin are  also  current,  and  so  are  Constantinople  coins. 
Of  native  coin,  the  "  faddah,"  or  para,  is  equal  to 
6-25ths  of  a  farthing,  and  there  are  pieces  of  5,  10,  and 
20  faddahs.  The  "  kirsh,"  or  Egyptian  piastre,  con- 
tains 40  faddahs,  and  is  equal  to  2  and  2-5tli9  |)enco. 
These  coins  are  of  silver  and  copper.  Of  gold  coins, 
there  are  the  "  kheyreeyeh,"  of  4  piastres,  and  tlie 
kheyreeyeh  of  9  piastres  (but  the  value  of  these  coins 
has  recently  depreciated),  and  pieces  of  5,  10,  20,  and 
100  piastres.  The  "  riyiil  beledec,"  or  native  dollar, 
is  equal  to  90  paras,  but  is  only  a  nominal  money,  as 
is  the  "  kecs,"  or  purse,  which  contains  500  piastres, 
and  the  "  khazneh,"  or  treasur-  of  1,000  purses.  jr 
tha  weights,  measures,  and  money,  we  are  indebteKl  to 
the  Modem  Egyptians. — E.  B.     See  ALEXAXDitiA. 

Bider-duok.  The  species  of  duck  so-called  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  the  Amiiulw,  and, 
from  certain  modifications  of  tlie  l>eak  and  sternum, 
constitutes  the  type  of  a  subgenus,  called  iSomnteria. 
The  common  eider  (^Somaleria  moUissima)  frequents,  in 
great  numbers,  tlie  Orkneys,  Hebrides,  and  Shetland 
isles.  It  is  defended  from  the  cold  of  the  dreary 
northern  coasts  by  the  development  of  an  unusual 
quantity  of  the  finest  down  beneath  its  dense  exterior 
plumage,  which  is  equally  well  adapted  to  form  an 
impenetrable  barrier  to  the  wet.  The  down  of  the 
eider  constitutes  its  chief  value,  as  it  comliiiics  with 
its  (leculiar  softness,  fineness,  and  lightness,  so  great 
a  degree  of  elasticity  that  the  quantity  of  this  mate- 
rial which  might  be  compressed  and  concealed  be- 
tween two  hands  will  servo  to  stuff  a  coverlet.  As 
the  female  plucks  from  her  own  Imdy  a  quantity  of 
her  finest  down  to  lino  her  nest,  the  Orcadians  avail 
themselves  of  this  instinct,  and  take  nn  early  opportu- 
I  nity  to  rob  the  nest  of  both  eggs  and  down.  She  then 
■  liegins  to  lay  afresh,  md  envelopes  her  eggs  with 
another  Tayor  of  down  ;  and  if  this  be  removed,  the 
male  is  saiil  to  contributo  his  own  down,  when  the 
female  can  afford  no  more.  Lastly,  when  the  brood 
of  ducklings  is  hatched,  tlie  nest  is  again  visited  ind 


/N 


ELB 


686 


iiiB 


the  down  reraored.  Thus  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  valuable  material  funiished  by  the  eider-duck  ia 
obtained  independently  of  that  which  is  plucked  from 
the  slaughtered  birds.  Besides  the  down  and  eggs, 
the  islanders  turn  the  skins  and  flesh  of  the  eiders  to 
profit ;  while  these  birds  cost  them  no  expense,  a* 
thoy  feed  entirely  on  sea-weed  and  other  natural  pro- 
ductions of  the  ocean. 

Blaatio  BandB.  (Tisnii  Elastiqun,  Fr. ;  Feder- 
hars-zeige.  Germ.)  The  manufacture  of  braces  and 
garters,  with  threads  of  caoutchouc,  either  naked  or 
covered,  seems  t<>  have  originated,  some  time  ago,  in 
Vienna,  whence  it  was  a  few  years  since  imported  into 
Paris,  and  thence  into  this  country.  At  first,  the 
pear-shaped  bottle  of  the  Indian  rubber  was  cut  into 
long  narrow  strips  by  the  scissors  ;  a  single  operative 
turning  oflf  only  about  100  yards  in  a  day.  by  cutting 
tho  pear  in  a  spiral  direction.  He  succeeded  next  in 
separating  with  a  pair  of  pincers  the  several  layers  of 
which  the  bottle  was  composed.  Another  mode  of 
obtaining  fine  threads  was  to  cut  them  out  of  a  bottle 
which  had  been  rendered  thin  by  inflation  with  a 
forcing  pump.  All  these  operations  are  facilitated  by 
previously  steeping  the  caoutchouc  in  boiling  water, 
in  its  moderately  inflated  state.  More  recently,  ma- 
chines have  been  successfully  employed  for  cutting 
out  these  filaments,  but  for  this  purpose  the  bottle  of 
caoutchouc  is  transformed  into  a  disc  of  equal  thick- 
ness in  all  its  parts,  and  perfectly  circular.  This  pre- 
liminary operation  is  executed  as  follows :  1.  Tho  bot- 
tle, softened  in  hot  water,  is  squeezed  between  the 
two  plates  of  a  press,  the  neck  having  been  removed 
beforehand,  as  useless  in  this  point  of  view ;  2,  The 
bottle  is  then  cut  into  two  equal  parts,  and  is  allowed 
to  consolidate  by  cooling,  before  subjecting  it  to  tho 
cutting  instrument.  When  the  bottle  is  strong 
enough,  and  of  variable  thickness  in  its  different 
points,  each  half  is  submitted  to  powerful  pressure  in 
a  very  strong  cylindrical  i"nl".  ■•f  metal,  into  which 
a  metallic  plunger  descend.  ,  ..'irlt  forces  the  caout- 
chouc to  take  the  form  of  a  ti  '<^  .ilinder  with  a  circu- 
lar base.  The  mold  is  plunged  into  hot  water  daring 
the  compression.  A  stem  or  rod  of  iron,  which  goes 
across  the  hollow  mold  and  piston,  retains  the  latter 
in  its  place,  notwithstanding  tho  resilience  of  the 
caoutchouc,  when  the  mold  is  token  from  the  press. 
The  mold  being  then  cooled  in  water,  the  caoutchouc 
is  withdrawn. 

The  transformation  of  the  disc  of  caoutchouc  into 
fine  threads  is  performed  by  two  machines ;  the  first 
nf  which  cuts  it  into  a  ribbon  of  equal  thickness 
in  its  whole  extent,  running  in  a  spiral  direction 
from  the  circumference  to  the  centre ;  the  second 
subdivides  this  ribbon  lengthwise  into  several  paral- 
lel filaments  much  narrower  but  equally  thick. — Uue's 
Did. 

BIba,  called  Ilea  by  the  Romans,  and  ^Ihalia  by 
the  Greeks,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  >Sea  lying 
off  the  promontory  of  Populonium,  at  equal  distances 
from  Corsica  and  the  Italian  mainland,  though  some- 
what nearer  the  latter.  Its  outline  is  extremely  irreg- 
ular, and  its  sides  are  indented  by  numerous  inlets  and 
arms  of  the  sea,  reducing  its  breadth  in  some  places  to 
s'mut  3  miles.  The  extreme  length  of  the  island  is 
aljout  18  miles ;  its  extreme  breadth  about  12  miles  ; 
and  its  area  aliout  150  miles.  The  whole  length  of  the 
island  is  occupied  by  a  mountain  range,  one  peak  of 
which  (that  of  Capanna)  -i  'ii  '.o  tlie  height  of  about 
BiiOO  feet  above  the  sea.  i'Ue  i.ixcntains  of  this  range, 
though  themselves  luvi-r .  .nulose  <  allays  of  consider- 
alile  fertility.  Vir  ;  <.  .iUvo.<,  ..s,  i  '..ulberries,  grow  In 
large  quantities  ii  liis  !!<i'iii!i,  v :  ich  ahio  produces 
wheat,  Indian  con»,  aiv:  veff  I'.es  in  abundance. 
Home  of  the  wino  ',  '"''<  'i  in  '  iba  is  of  excellent 
quality,  and  a  wmsiu  ■  lUS  •  iur  !",ity  of  it  is  annually 
exported.  The  smaller  domesti<;  animals  thrive  well 
«nd  are  very  numerous  in  the  island ;  but  the  larger 


kinds,  such  as  oxen  and  horses,  are  somewhat  scarce. 
The  fisheries  off  the  coast  are  important. 

The  iron  mines  of  Elba,  in  modern,  as  in  ancient 
times,  are  extremely  valuable.  The  great  facility 
with  which  the  metal  is  worknd,  and  the  abundance  in 
which  it  is  found,  render  these  mines  among  the  most 
valuable  of  their  kind  in  the  world.  The  ore  is  dug 
from  a  hill,  TiOU  feet  high  and  nearly  2  miles  in  circum- 
ference, which  is  itself  almost  entirely  one  mass  of  ore. 
When  smelted,  it  is  found  to  contain  on  an  average 
about  60  per  cent,  of  pure  iron.  Fuel  on  the  island  is 
verj-  scarce ;  and  the  ore  is  consequently  conveyed  on 
shiplioard  to  the  adjoining  mainland  to  be  smelted. 
The  total  quantity  of  iron  ore  annually  extracted 
amounts  to  nearly  20,000  tons,  giving  employment  to 
130  miners.  The  salt  mines  of  Elba  arc  hardly  infe- 
rior in  celebrity  to  the  iron  ones.  About  4,000,000 
pounds  are  annually  produced,  giving  employment  to 
about  100  workmen.  Besides  Porto  Ferrajo,  the  capi- 
tal, and  the  town  of  Porto  Longone,  Elba  contains  no 
town  of  any  size  or  importance.  Campo,  Capo  Liveri, 
Marciana,  and  Rio  are  mere  villages  or  fishing  sta- 
tions. In  ancient  history,  the  name  of  Elba  very 
rarely  occurs;  and  in  modem  times  it  is  chiefly  memo- 
rable as  having  been  the  residence  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon,  after  his  first  abdication,  from  May  1814  till 
February  1815.  From  that  time  till  the  present,  Elba 
has  l)een  an  appanage  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tus- 
cany.    Pop.  (1854)  21/>59. 

Blbe  (the  Albi*  of  the  ancients),  a  large  river  of 
Germany,  which  rises  in  the  likii.n  Geblrge,  or  Giant's 
Mountains,  Iwtwuen  Silesia  and  Bohemia,  and  is 
known  at  its  source  by  the  Sclavonic  name  of  Lubbe, 
Its  principal  sources  are  the  White  Fountain,  at  the 
iMise  of  the  Schiee-Kuppe,  and  tho  11  fountains  of  the 
Elbe  in  the  Navarian  meadow.  To  the  number  of 
streams  which  descend  into  Bohemia  from  the  neigh- 
boring mountains  it  owes  its  early  increase.  After  its 
junction  with  the  river  Eger,  it  becomes  navigable  ; 
and,  entering  Saxony,  it  pijBses  successively  Dresden, 
Meissen,  Torgau,  and  Wittenberg.  In  its  course, 
which  is  northerly,  it  receives  as  tributaries  the  Mul- 
dau  and  the  Saale ;  and  running  through  the  territory 
of  Blagdeburg  and  the  duchies  of  Mecklenburg  and 
Lauenliurg,  it  discharges  itself  at  hist  into  t'  d  German 
Ocean,  aliout  70  miles  below  Hamburg,  after  a  course 
of  500  miles.  The  Ellie  has  always  been  an  important 
river  in  a  military  point  of  view.  With  respect  to 
commerce,  it  is  of  inestimable  value  to  the  countries 
of  north-west  and  central  Germany,  being  the  channel 
by  which  they  export  their  surplus  products,  and  re- 
ceive their  imports  from  abroad.  It  gives  to  Ham- 
burg its  command  of  the  navigation  fur  into  the  inte- 
rior, although  the  voyage  is  difBcult  on  account  of  the 
numerous  sand-banks  with  which  the  estuary  and  the 
rivers  are  encumbered.  It  communicates  with  the 
Havel  by  the  canal  of  Plauen,  in  the  territory  of 
Magdeburg ;  and  at  Hamburg  it  i.s  connected  in  like 
manner  with  the  Trave  at  I.ubec.  It  is  also  joined 
to  the  Weser  by  a  canal  running  between  Vegcsak 
and  Stade.  By  the  railway  from  Leitmeritz  to  Vienna 
it  communicates  with  the  Danulie ;  and  the  other  rail- 
ways that  touch  upon  otiier  qiuirters  of  the  river  sup- 
ply channels  for  distributing  merchandise  through  the 
various  districts  which  they  traverse.  Alwut  4U  miles 
from  its  source,  the  elevation  of  the  river  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  is  only  daH  feet ;  at  Schandau  it  is 
341  feet;  at  Dresden,  279  feet;  and  at  Ameliurg  in 
Brandenburg,  only  176  feet. 

Formerly  3  entrepots  (Pirna,  Dresden,  and  Magde- 
burg), and  35  tolls,  and  numerous  coriwrations  of 
privileged  watermen,  opposed  almost  iiisurmountublo 
difficulties  to  tlm  navigation :  the  Austriuns  and  the 
Saxons  could  alone  navigate  tho  Upper  Elbe,  that  is, 
from  Magdeburg  to  where  it  ceases  to  bo  navigable, 
anil  the  Prussians  and  Hamburgers  had  the  sole  privj. 
lege  of  navigating  the  Lower  Elb«.    But  the  naviga- 


\' 


ELE 


587 


ELM 


Magde- 


tion  of  the  river  i^aii  definitely  regulated  by  a  conven- 
tion concluded  on  the  13th  June,  1621,  between  all  tho 
bordering  states,  viz.,  Austria,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Han- 
over, Denmarlc  (for  Holstein  and  Lauenburg),  the 
grand  duchy  of  Meclclenburg-Schwerin,  and  the  three 
principalities  of  Anbolt,  This  convention  established 
the  principle  of  free  navigation,  allowing  every  mer- 
chant, to  whatever  bordering  state  he  might  belong, 
-whh  his  own  vessel  and  crew  to  navigate  the  whole 
course  of  tlie  river  without  interruption ;  the  35  tolls 
were  reduced  to  14  ;  the  heavy  dues  which  were  levied 
upon  goods  of  the  first  necessity  were  reduced  to  those 
whicli  are  paid,  one  for  the  cargo  (AVie  Toll),  and  the 
other  for  the  ship  (RecognUiotugebOhr) ;  and  each  state 
was  bound  to  watch  over  the  portion  of  river  which 
passed  through  their  territories,  and  to  preserve  it  from 
every  thiug  injurious  to  the  commerce  or  navigation. 
But  uotwitlistanding  these  regulations,  merchants  are 
still  exposed  to  vexatious  burdens  and  interruptions, 
Woo<l,  stones,  fruits,  and  earthenware,  are  the  prin- 
cipal articles  that  are  brought  down  the  Kibe.  Com, 
wUt,  and  colonial  prwluce  are  the  principal  articles 
whicli  are  carried  up,  and  on  these  the  greater  part  of 
the  duties  are  levied.  For  a  later  ordinance  relating 
to  the  abolishment  of  all  tolls  on  the  Elbe  except  the 
ordinary  port  charges,  see  article  IlAMDUita. 

XSl  Dorado  (Span,  the  golden  region).  The 
name  given  by  the  Spaniards  to  an  imaginary  coun- 
try-, supposed  in  the  Kith  century  to  be  situated  in  the 
interior  of  South  America,  lietween  the  Rivers  Orinoco 
and  Amazon,  and,  as  the  name  implied,  aboipiding  in 
gold  and  all  manner  of  precious  stones.  After  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  tlie  most  ex- 
aggerated accounts  of  the  wealth  and  riches  of  the 
newly  acquired  territory  were  circulated  and  believed. 
A  new  region  was  fabled  to  exist  far  surpassing  the 
wealth  and  splendor  of  Peru ;  expeditions  were  fitted 
out  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  it ;  and  though  all 
guch  attempts  proved  abortive,  tlie  rumors  of  its  ex- 
istence continued  to  be  believed  down  to  the  beginning 
of  last  century.  The  term  has  now  passed  into  the 
language  of  poetry,  in  which  it  is  used  to  express  a 
lan<I  of  boundless  wealth  and  felicity,  like  the  ancient 
Elysium  or  the  Mohammedan  Paradise.  See  a  learned 
article  on  "  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  in  vol,  Ixxii.,  of 
the  Edin.  Review,  which  contains  a  rcmmi  of  all  the 
speculations  that  have  been  entertained  upon  this 
subject, 

Eleotrography,  The  copying  of  an  exquisite 
lino  engraving,  from  a  copper  or  steel  plate  to  an 
electro-copper  deposit,  although  now  become  a  ver}' 
familiar  process,  is  really  a  wonderful  one ;  for,  let  the 
lines  of  the  engraving  be  as  fine  and  minute  as  they 
may,  the  deposited  atoms  of  copper  nurk  them  all 
distinctly — so  infinitely  small  is  each  atom  o't  particle 
compared  with  any  magnitude  which  human  hands 
can  produce.  Like  many  other  wonderful  and  beau- 
tiful processes,  this  is  a  very  simple  one.  Let  us  sup- 
pose that  a  large  steel  or  copper  engraving  is  to  be  so 
copied.  The  plate  is  immersed  in  a  chemical  solution 
of  copper,  and  a  thick  film  is  precipitated  on  it  by 
electro  deposit.  This  film  may  be  easily  loosened 
from  the  plate,  and  its  surface  then  presents  a  reverse 
to  the  plate,  protuberances  instead  of  engraved  lines, 
and  cavities  instead  of  plain  or  raised  portions.  The 
film  is  employed  as  a  sort  of  mold ;  for  it  is  in  its 
turn,  immersed  in  the  solution,  and  made  the  basis  fur 
a  second  deposition.  This  second  deposition  is  allowed 
to  continue  until  a  plate  as  thick  as  the  original  is  pro- 
duced ;  and  this  plate,  when  separated  from  its  parent 
film,  is  seen  to  lie  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  en- 
graved plate  ilrst  operated  upon.  So  perfect  is  the  re- 
semblance, that,  if  the  electro-plate  be  made  with  care, 
an  inked  impression  printed  from  it  can  he  detected 
from  one  printed  from  the  original  plate  only  by  an 
experienced  judge  :  to  ordinary  eyes  they  are  equal  in 
all  respects. 


To  M,  JacobI — almost  simultaneously  with  Mr. 
Spencer — we  are  indebted  for  one  of  the  simplest  and 
most  elegant  applications  of  el  '  tricity — the  gulvano- 
plastic  art,  or  Volatype.  In  \  , j,  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  perfectly  metallic  state  iu  which  the  ba^e  of  a 
metallic  salt  is  deposited  at  the  negative  pole  of  u  vol- 
atile combination.  In  the  case,  for  example,  of  the 
decomposition  of  sulphate  of  copper,  the  sulphuric 
acid  unites  with  the  positive  wire,  or  remains  sus- 
pended, while  the  metallic  copper  is  slowly  and  homo- 
geneously deposited  on  the  surface  of  any  object  (ren- 
dered conducting  by  the  application  of  black  lead  or 
otherwise),  of  which  it  forms  a  perfect  mold,  from 
which  a  fresh  cast  oi  fac-iimile  in  metal  of  the  original 
object  may  be  obtained  by  a  repetition  of  the  process. 
To  see  the  veins  of  a  leaf,  or  the  delicate  wing  of  an 
insect  thus  metallized,  is  certainly  an  astonishing 
thing ;  (ind  the  applications  to  the  useful  arts  are  far 
too  numerous  to  be  noticed  here.  Daniel's  invention 
of  the  Constant  Battery  evidently  suggested  the  Vol- 
atype. 

Xlleml,  a  resin  obtained  from  the  Amyvis  elemifera, 
a  tree  growing  in  different  parts  of  America,  Turkey, 
etc.  It  is  obtained  by  wounding  the  bark  in  dry 
weather,  the  juice  being  left  to  thicken  in  the  sun.  It 
is  of  u  pale  yellow  color,  semi-transparent — at  first 
Boftish,  but  it  hardens  by  keeping.  Its  taste  is 
slightly  bitter  and  warm.  Its  smell,  which  is,  at  first, 
strong  and  fragrant,  gradually  diminishes.  It  used 
to  be  imported  in  long  roundish  cakes,  wrapped  iu 
flag-leaves,  but  it  is  now  usually  imported  in  mats  and 
chests. — Tiiojison's  Chtmiatry. 

Elizir  (Arab),  a  term  applied  in  old  pharmacy  to 
certain  essences  or  tinctures ;  a  mixture  of  an  aromatic 
tincture  with  sulphuric  acid  was  called  eliiir  of  vitriol. 
The  alchemists  applied  the  term  elixir  to  various  solu- 
tions employed  in  the  art  of  transmutation. 

Ell  (Lat,  Uliia),  a  measure  used  chiefly  for  cloth, 
and  varj-ing  iu  leni{th  in  different  countries.  The 
English  and  Flemish  ells  were  those  most  in  use  in 
Great  Ilritain,  The  English  ell  is  45  inches,  while  the 
'Flemish  ell  is  only  27  inches  or  J  of  a  yard.  In  Scot- 
land the  ell  is  37  1-5  Englsh  inches. 

Elm  {Ulmita),  a  forest  tree  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties.  It  attains  to  a  great  size,  and  lives  to 
a  great  age.  Its  trunk  is  often  rugged  and  crooked, 
and  it  is  of  slow  growth.  The  color  of  the  heurt-w^ood 
of  elm  is  gencr..°'y  'I:ivtv  r  than  that  of  oak,  and  of  a 
rodder  brown  'I'lio  ^\i>-wood  is  of  a  yellowish  or 
brownish  white,  .vitii  pores  inclined  to  red.  It  is  in 
general  porov;  imd  <  u'ss-grained,  sometimes  coarse- 
grained, and  ha»  ii>  birge  septa,  It.hus  a  peculiar 
odor.  It  twists  and  warps  much  in  drying,  and 
shrinks  very  much  both  in  length  and  breadth.  It  is 
difficult  to  work,  bu!  is  not  liable  to  split,  and  bears 
the  driving  of  bolts  and  nails  better  than  any  other 
timber.  In  Scotland,  chairs  and  other  articles  ,  f 
household  furniture  are  frequently  made  of  elm  wooii ; 
but  in  England,  where  the  wo«l  is  inferior,  it  is  chiefly 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  Collins,  casks,  pumps, 
pipes,  etc.  It  is  appropriated  to  these  purposes  be- 
cause of  its  great  durability  in  w  ater,  which  also  occa- 
sions its  extensive  use  as  piles,  and  planking  for  wet 
foundations.  The  naves  of  wheels  are  frequently 
made  of  elm  ;  those  of  the  heavy  wagons  and  drays 
are  made  of  oak,  which  supports  a  heavier  weiglit,  but 
does  not  hold  the  spokes  so  firmly.  Elm  is  said  to 
bear  transplanting  better  than  any  other  large  tree. — 
Trkdooi.d's  Principles  of  Carpentry. 

The  wood  of  the  Ulmna  Americana,  like  that  of  the 
European  elm,  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and  is  liable 
to  decay  when  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  moisture 
and  dryness  ;  and  when  cut  transversely  or  obliquely 
to  the  longitudinal  fibres,  it  exhibits  the  same  numer- 
ous and  fine  undulations ;  but  it  splits  more  easily 
and  bus  less  compactness,  hardness,  and  strength — 
weighing,  when  perfectly  dry,  only  33  pounds  to  a 


ELS 


090 


KLS 


enblo  foot.  The  principal  uses  to  which  this  timber 
is  appiied  are  for  malting  naves  or  hubs  to  wheels,  for 
piles  and  foundation-pieces  to  mills,  canal-loclis,  and 
fur  many  other  pur])09es  where  sl.'etigth  in  required  and 
the  vrortc  is  constantly  buried  in  water  or  mud.  In 
the  State  of  Maine  it  is  occasionally  employed  for  the 
keels  to  vessels,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well  adaptt.d 
on  account  of  its  size.  It  is  also  employed  for  the 
swingle-trees  of  the  carritges  of  great  guns ;  and  in 
some  parts  of  tlie  country,  where  more  appropriate 
wood  is  not  to  bo  found,  it  is  used  for  making;  o.x-yokes, 
sleds,  and  other  implements  of  husbandry.  The  bark, 
which  is  easily  detached  from  the  foe  during  eight 
month*  of  the  year,  is  sometimes  used  for  making  bast- 
uiats,  ropes  or  withes,  and  for  the  bottoms  of  chairs. 
The  wood,  when  dry,  makes  excellent  fuel,  and  when 
barned  yields  a  large  proportion  of  ashes,  which  abound 
in  alkaline  salts.  In  Canada,  and  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  States  of  MLinc,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and 
New  York,  a  profltaldc  business  is  followed,  especially 
in  connection  with  clearing  the  forests,  in  preparing  the 
salts  of  ley  for  the  manufacture  of  potash. — Browxk'm 
Trees  of  America. 

Blaluetir,  or  Helsingor,  a  town  of  Zealand,  on 
the  Souijd,  about  22  miles  north  of  Copenhagen,  lat.  56^ 
2'  17"  N.,  long.  12°  88'  2"  j:.  Population  about  8000. 
Adjacent  to  Elsineur  is  the  castle  of  Croi>borg,  which 
commands  the  entrance  to  the  Jtaltic  by  the  Scund. 
All  merchant  ships  passing  to  and  .'rom  the  Baltic  were 
obliged,  until  1857,  to  salute  Crouborg  caatio  by  lioist- 
Ing  their  colors  when  abreast  of  the  same  ;  and  no  mer- 
chant ship  was  allowed  to  pass  the  Sound  without  c?oi>r- 
ing  out  at  Elsineur,  and  paying  toll,  acconling  to  the 
provisions  in  the  treaties  to  that  effect  negotiated  with 
Oenmirk  l)y  the  diRVircnt  European  powers.  The  first 
treaty  with  England  having  reference  to  this  subject  is 
dated  in  1450.  The  Sound  duties  had  their  oMgin  in 
an  agreement  l>etween  the  King  of  Denmark  on  the 
one  part,  and  the  Hanse  Towns  on  the  other,  l)y  -.vaich 
the  former  undertook  to  construct  light-houses,  land- 
marks, etc.,  along  the  Cattcgat,  and  the  latter  to  pay 
duty  for  the  same.  The  duties  have  since  )>eer.  varied  at 
dilfjrcnt  periods.  (See  orticle  Uami3ii  Sound  Does.) 
Ships  of  war  ore  fixempted  from  the  payment  of  duties. 
Host  maritimo  nations  have  consuls  resident  at  Elsi- 
neur. The  following  plan  of  the  Sound  Is  taken  from 
the  admlralt}  ciiart,  compiled  from  Danish  authorities. 
(See  opposite  page.) 

"The  trade  of  Denmark  in  the  yer.r  1855  again 
showed  an  increase,  the  imp'irts  lieing  71,210  tons,  of 
the  val'je  of  (!,4?7,lfi3  lix  dollars,  or  .£747,3119,  and  the 
exports  of  the  value  of  745,314  rix  dollars,  or  i;85,988. 
tartar  than  in  the  previous  year,  and  the  whole  trade 
of  that  country  has  increased  during  eight  years 
80,000,000  rix  dollars,  or  X3,4fi],537. 

"  The  total  amount  of  import  duty  paid  in  Denmark 
In  the  year  1855  was  C,97G,653  rix  dollars,  or  £804,990, 
the  articles  which  brought  in  most  being  sugar,  cotton 
goods,  tl-nbcr,  woolen  goods,  coffee,  iron,  wine,  spirits, 
lilk,  and  silken  goods — the  impart  duty  on  these  arti- 
cles amounting  to  4,744,585  rix  dollare,  or  £547,452. 

"The  value  of  imports  from  Hamburg  to  Denmark 
is  more  than  double  the  amount  of  the  merchandise 
imported  direct  from  Great  Britain,  but  it  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  that  a  largo  amount  of  the 
merchandise  received  from  Hamburg  is  of  English 
manufacture. 

"  ^"'ith  reference  to  the  foreign  and  coastwise  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  Danish  ships  in  the  year  1855 
were  principally  in  the  trade  with  Great  Britain,  tl-.e 
total  quantity  of  merchandise  imported  fro<ii  that 
country  being  230,801  tons,  of  which  143,782  tons,  or 
62  pel  7ent.,  were  convoyed  in  Danish  vessels ;  and  of 
the  l:.  5,394  tons  exported  to  Great  Urilain,  108,299 
tons,  lit  80  per  cent.,  were  carried  by  them.  Of  the 
trade  carried  on  l)y  sea  between  Denmark  and  Ham- 
burg 85  per  cent,  fell  upon  the  Danish  shipping,  of  t:io 


trade  with  Prussia  40  per  cent.,  with  Norway  SO  per 
cent.,  and  with  Sweden  only  6  per  cent.,  t'.iis  latter 
trade  being  carried  on  almost  exclusively  in  Swedish 
vessels." — Report  by  Mr,  Taylor.  Britith  ConnJ  at 
Ktiinmr,  with  rejertnce  to  the  ftitumt  of  the  Trade  of 
Denmark  for  thu  Year  1856.     February  20,  1857. 

"  The  decline  which  has  taken  place  In  the  markets 
of  other  countries  has  been  followod  l)y  a  like  fall  in 
the  prices  of  agricultural  produce  In  this  country;  nev- 
ertheless, i-ven  at  the  low  prices  now  quoted,  there  ap- 
pears no  disposition  to  speculate,  owing,  it  may  be 
presumrd,  cliiefly  to  tie  want  of  conddence  arising  out 
of  the  late  pan.c. 

"  lor  tile  same  reafion  very  li' lie  is  likely  to  be 
done  for  some  time  to  come  ir  tbo  import  trade,  mer- 
chants lieing  more  desirous  of  getting  off  with  their 
old  stocks  tlian  of  entering  upon  fresh  engagements 
under  the  pre.ient  state  cf  money  matlurs  and  the  con- 
sequent exorbitant  rate  of  discount.  This  dom  ant 
state  of  the  trade  will  not  be  felt  to  any  great  extent 
by  the  laboring  classes  in  this  countrj-,  they  bcinjj 
accustomed  to  little  work  and  low  wages  during  the 
winter  season,  and  it  will  prove  beneficial  to  the  credit 
of  the  merchant,  by  the  goods  coming  gradually  into 
consumption,  and  the  consequent  flowing  in  of  hard 
cash,  thus  enabling  him  to  meet  old  engagements 
(which  have,  to  n  large  extent,  been  renewed  under 
guarantee)  without  having  frcsli  <  ocs  on  hand  to  em- 
barrass him. 

"  The  severe  remarks  which  have  l)een  made  upon 
the  credit  of  this  country  have  hitherto  proved  unde- 
served. That  mnch  embarrassment  must  exist  under 
so  heavy  a  crisis  could  not  but  be  expected ;  but  the 
failures  which  have  taken  place  in  Copenhagen  have 
not  been  of  any  great  Importance,  and  those  which 
have  talccn  place  in  the  provinces  are  not  of  a  char- 
acter to  affect  the  mercantile  credit  of  the  country. 

"The  so-called  li'ank  credits  on  Hamburg,  about 
which  so  much  has  liecn  said,  have  not  been  used  by 
tlie  Copenhagen  merchants  for  some  years  past  to  that 
extent  as  formerly,  when  Copenhagen  was  tlio  prin- 
cipal b.inking  place  for  the  whole  of  Denmc  .k. 

■■'  Of  latfcr  years  prov'nciiil  bank3,  previously  un- 
known, have  been  established  in  several  of  the  pro- 
vincial towns  in  Jutland,  and  have  naturally  made 
the  trade  of  that  part  of  the  country  less  dependent 
on  Copenhagen  and  Hamburg  for  its  money  resources ; 
and,  as  tiio  trado  of  Deniimrk  is  a  legitimate  trade, 
increased  through  the  improved  and  flourishing  condi- 
tion of  the  .^rlcultural  classes,  and  not  a  business  of 
wild  speculation,  it  is  fully  expected  that  the  commcr- 
n<\\  "omraunlty  is  in  a  condition  to  uphold  its  credit." 
■  -hUtracl  <f  Report  by  Mr.  Tayixiii,  Britith  Consul  at 
iClsineur,  upon  t,te  Trade  of  Denmark  for  the  Year  1857. 

Ptlotnge,  etc. — When  ships  Cvime  into  Elsineur  roads, 
or  lie  wind-bound  near  the  Lappen,  watermen  come  on 
board  to  inquire  if  tlie  master  will  be  carried  ashore  to 
clear ;  and  in  rough  weather  it  is  always  iicst  to  make 
use  of  fheir  services,  their  boats  being  generally  very 
bafe.  The  Danish  authorities  have  published  a  table 
of  rates,  being  the  highest  charge  that  can  be  made  by 
any  boatmen  upon  such  occasions ;  but  captains  may 
bargain  with  them  for  as  much  less  as  they  please 
Most  shi;  s  passing  the  Sound  take  on  board  pilots,  t1> 
signal  for  one  being  a  ilag  at  tlie  foretop-masthead. 
Those  bound  for  the  Baltic  take  a  pilot  at  Elsineur, 
who  cither  carries  the  ship  to  Copenhagen  or  Dragoo, 
a  small  town  on  the  southeast  extremity  of  the  inland 
of  Amaok,  where  she  is  clear  of  the  grounds.  Those 
leaving  the  Baltic  take  a  pilot  from  Dragoe,  who  car- 
ries the  ship  to  Elsineur.  Sometimes,  when  tlie  wind 
!«  fresh  from  the  east  and  southeast,  it  is  impossible 
for  a  ship  bound  for  Copenhagen  or  the  Baltio  to  double 
the  point  of  Croiilxirg  ;  and  in  that  case  an  Elsineur 
pilot  is  sometimes  employed  to  moor  the  ship  In  the 
channel  toward  KuU  Point,  on  the  Swedish  shore,  in 
lat.  50"  18'  3 "  N.,  long.  12°  20'  E.     But  this  does 


SLS 


Se/treneea  to  PUm.—A,  Castle  ud  light  of  Oronborg;  f>,V,MmuH  ^>,  tUMugbaTg  In  Sweden;  D,  the  bank  called  the 
Lappen;  E,  the  bank  called  tim  i)|«|(#o,    Tti«  MUHdidlft  are  In  fathomi. 


not  often  happen,  as  the  Danish  govemnunt  employ 
Bteam  tugs  for  the  special  purpose  of  bringing  ships,  itt 
adverse  weather,  round  Cronborg  Point.  Tba  pilots 
are  regularly  licensed,  so  tliat,  by  employing  tbsin, 
the  captain's  responsibility  is  at  an  end.    Their  clwrgws 


itra  UncA  hy  autliottty,  and  depend  on  the  ship's 
flmugllt  t)(  Wttlet,  We  snbjoln  a  copy  of  the  tariff  ap- 
|)li<wT»l«  to  t^ilMs  t«k«n  on  board  at  Elsinenr  to  aary 
nllilM  (0  lit»itue,  (jolH-iitiagen,  or  Knll  Point,  with  the 
Mmm  iiiith  itl  »\Wet  and  in  Hlgsbank  paper  dollars. 


PlLOTAOI!  FKOM  THB  IST  OF  4PRII,  TO  TBI!  »Wf  B  W  ftllftllMBItl, 

Pr»f«», 

@lt><ilill«fM< 

Kll'.l  PolDl. 

Bilyir, 
K.b.ilr.  Ml, 

11      T8 
18       14 

14  50 

15  84 
IT       88 

18  54 

19  90 
81       88 
88       48 
84       45 
24       4^ 

98     n 

80       T4 
88       TT 
84       80 

84       84 

fumi 

J       10 

\  i 

Ptptt. 

Kllnr.        1         Piptr. 

Under 
Betwee 

it 

(i 
u 

w 

M 
U 
tl 

u 

M 
U 

8  feet 

4       M 
87      M 

I  » 

85       f)» 
44         I 

Hili.dr.   kfL 

9     m 

10  80 

11  86 
19       84 

18  88 

14  89 

15  81 
14       80 
If       99 

19  10 
91         9 
99       80 
94       79 

90  58 

91  40 
80       89 

R.  b.  dr 
S 

4 
7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
19 
18 
IB 
17 
18 
20 
91 
28 

78 
03 
B8 
44 
86 
25 
16 

7 

98 
84 
44 

8 
59 
19 
74 
84 

K.  li.dr.   Sell. 
6        89 
6       83 
T       76 

8  69 

9  68 

10  56 

11  SO 

18  43 

13  86 

14  80 

15  90 
17       M 

19  19 

20  60 
22       48 
24       28 

n  8  and    9    **      

9    "     10    "    

10    "     11    "    

11    "     12    "    

19    "     18    "           

18    »     14    "      

14    »     18    "        

IS    "     16    "    

16    "     17    »     

IT    »      18    »     

18    "      19    "     

19    "     20    "    

20    "     21    "     

21    »     22    "     

22    "     23    "     

Pilotage  raou  TUI  Isr  OK  OoTOftKR  TO  TBH  (W*a  ot  JKiMn. 


fihip*  drftwing  wktri . 


Under 

Between  8  and 

>'  9  » 

"  10  " 

»  11  " 

"  12  " 

»  18  .. 

•'  14  " 

"  16  " 

"  16  " 

17  " 

«  18  " 

u  19  " 

«  90  ' 

"  91  " 

»  M  » 


8  feet. 

9  "     . 

10  "     , 

11  "  . 
18  "  , 
18  "    , 

14  " 

15  " 

16  " 

17  " 

18  " 

19  " 

20  " 
41  u 

22  " 

13  " 


R.  b.  dr.   Dell. 
14         98 


PnwM.' 


16 
18 
80 
28 
84 
95 
87 
89 
88 
84 
87 
40 
41 
4S 
4« 


75 
54 
87 
19 

TT 

80 
58 
84 
V8 


-Jita     ' 

\l 

n 

84 
84 

a* 

NO 

m 

HA 
88 
41 

UL 


\' 


EMB 


500 


EMB 


When  a  pilot  b  taken  on  board  rt  Dragoe  to  carry  a 
•hip  to  Elslneur,  the  charge  is  the  same  oa  that  given 
u'i  le?  the  first  heud  of  the  above  column.  (A  rr/ih-f^ 
lib  Comnwrc,  tome  tii.,  p.  146.)  ^he^fcn•t,,l.  ii'i.yV-y. 
and  Mraturtt  of  Klsineur  are  the  same  i\  ■  '.iio.v  of  C'»- 
penhogen  (which  see),  except  that  '.  .<>  rixd'illnr  is 
divided  'nto  4  urlt  Instead  of  6  marcs ;  !  !m»  24  ■■'  ii!; -ins 
mako  1  ort ;  and  4  orta  1  rixd.-Uar.  lint  3>iiiii'  vi  les 
aie,  however,  levied  and  paid  in  specu  rixdi.i.-iM..  of 
48  stivers,  9J  such  specie  rlTdoliars  inustltiitlii).  ' 
raarc  fine  silver,  Cologne  \ -Ight.  1  i  !••(<  sil'.""  i« 
C».  2d.  an  unce,  the  valu  of  the  sptoic  rixdcllar  is 
4«.  6Jd.,  and  T»kiiig  it  at  •':?.  an  ounc'  It  is  worth 
S2'7d.,  orAr  4>f<'..  nearly.  1,.  . Uher  caso  .h-s  -.alue  of 
th  '  stiver  may  '  .i  .  ilten  at  I'id.     f-<!  Sound  Dfes. 

rtmail  OM^b;  :;.J&.  This  name,  which  seems  to 
(ii.'uii  "  shaded  -miii'n.-!,"  has  been  given  by  <h»  Baron 
du  Trenilday  to  a  tninufa -ture  by  which  artu  nis  are 
produced,  remarlcabli  alif.'-  or  ihea-  ess,  for  novel 
and  i>  .Teeable  effu.l,  and  for  tli«  ingenuity  of  the 
proci  ;>^  whereby  they  are  rroduceii.  It  copsist.i  in 
flooding  colored  but  tianspai'cnt  .>!azt  i  over  J<'t"giij 
stumped  upon  the  surface!.  rp<M dain  vesiH^,  A 
I'.iin  surface  is  thus  produi I'.l,  in  tviiich  tbe  >  .  ^-iticti 
of  fric  stamped  design  appear  a«  stiii  Sows  of  v.wions 
depths — the  parts  in  highest  relief  rnming  nearest  to 
tl>(>  surface  of  the  glaze,  and  thus  having  the  iflTect  of 
the  lights  of  a  picture.  It  has  been  said  that  "  per- 
I:apii  there  if  no  other  process  in  the  ceruunic  art  )>}' 
wliich,  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  desi|i;n.4  of  high  artistic 
merit  can  be  reproduced  in  the  m<'<t  harmonious  tint- 
ing, for  dessert  or  table  services,  and  for  other  useful 
domestic  purposes." 

Embalinlng  (I>at.  balmmum,  balm),  a  process 
adopted  by  the  ancient  Egyptii^i-,  chiefly  for  the 
preservation  of  dead  bodies  from  [.'.it^foction.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  use  of  Ijalsai.ii-  substances  in 
the  operation;  in  addition  to  these,  fiiine  sulistances 
and  tanning  materials  tiem  also  to  liavc  luen  used. 

Bmbargo,  a  restraint  or  prohibition  imposed  by 
the  putdic  authorities  of  a  country  on  iiiorchant  ves- 
sels or  "Tther  ships,  to  prevent  their  leaving  its  ports. 
Embargoes  are  ur.ually  imposed  only  in  time  of  war, 
or  in  apprehension  of  an  invasion  j  in  wiiich  cases  tlie 
government  employs  the  ships  under  embargo  iu  arm^i- 
iiionts,  ex()editions,  and  transportation  of  troops,  etc. 
Vi'h'^n  it  is  found  necessary  to  stop  the  c(mimnnicati(m 
of  intelligence  l)etween  any  two  places,  an  eml>argo  is 
•aid  upon  all  ships,  l>otb  foreign  and  under  the  national 
flag.  Tn  England,  this  )>ower  is  invested  in  the  crown, 
bus  it  is  rarely  exercised  except  in  extreme  cases,  ami 
sometimes  as  a  prelude  to  war.  The  most  memorable 
in!<tances  of  embargo  were  those  for  the  prevention  of 
com  gu;ng  out  of  the  kingdom  in  KfiU;  and  for  the 
detentioa  of  all  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships 
in  the  several  poits  of  the  kingdom,  owing  to  the 
Armed  Neutrality,  Januarj-  14,  1801.     See  Armku 

NKDTBALITr. 

Embargo  in  the  United  Stntet. — Embargo  on  all 
vessels  in  the  j-orts  of  the  Unitiil  Sfate.<,  passed  by 
Congress  with  mference  to  the  (juarrel  with  Great 
Britain  after  thu  attack  on  the  United  States'  frigate 
Chimpcakf,  1807.  Repealed,  and  non-Intercourse  ai't 
passed,  1809.  Embargo  again  laid  ""  •  'JO  days,  April, 
J812.  War  declared  June  19,  IHi:' 
against  ioss  liy  reason  of  the  \  •■  ■  : 
crnment,  as  an  arrest  ^r  embar^ 
no  distinction  on  this  point  t>eti- 
mcstic  eml>argo  j  and  if  the  ei 
tilt  commencement  o/  .         '  '. 


not  dissolve,  the  cc^ntran  ; 
niny  aliandon  and  clain  . 
ciple  is  incorporated  ir  .  • 
ciMie,  and  it  pervades  m\\' 
It  is  no  objection  to  the  '' 
•urcd,  tliAt  the  loss  \\a\>\.-. 


emment  of  his  own  country. 


/  1  insurance 
''to*''s  own  gov- 
.;i».  There  is 
3ign  and  do- 
.iior^'cne  after 
spends,  but  docs 
i,  dnd  the  Insured 
!..  -f  Tlie  Siimo  prin- 
.•iv  j'rencli  commercial 
T  the  law  of  Insurance. 
.  1  rovery  by  tiie  in- 
et  of  the  gov- 


he  and  the 


Insurer  are  subjects  of  different  states. — Kritt's  Com. 
See  also  I'aksons  on  Mfrcantile  Cotitraett,  p.  806. 

Embassador,  or  Ambasnador,  a  word  of  dU> 
I'Uti'd  origin,  but  probaldy  adopted  into  the  English 
l»)!;,>iage  fmm  the  French,  means,  in  its  general  sense, 
a  i'<i/'i.fcr  n;:iii'rizod  l)y  any  state  to  represent  it  in 
sonii  othe'  in  its  distinctive  sense,  as  indicatinfi;  a 
pui't'cular  kind  if  minister  so  appointed,  it  means  the 
hl|;hest  tl'H<,  I  id  liy  authority  as  well  as  practice, 
there  ire  ;*:>'.'•  !  ich  may  lie  represented  at  others, 
i  yet'  .,"8  nu.n'rt;  ^  i  .ict  '  i  be  entitled  to  app-jint  so 
'  Ingh  a  rip/e.'c*.  aiive  as  an  emliassador.  Messages 
require  to  b^  iiili  rchangcd  l)y  »U  moderately  civilized 
nations,  unleps  those  whicli,  )lko  the  Chinese  or  the 
Japanese,  peculiarl}-  isolate  themselves,  llenct  Sdch 
messages,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  were  sent 
and  received,  arc  rimiliar  occurrences  in  all  histories. 
8oTO"  U"  '"rslisn.i  ig  that  tlie  persons  who  undertook 
>,iij;i ,'  fi  action  uould  enjoy  freedom  and  safety  in  the 
sfate  ti  vhlch  they  were  sent  was  absoluteli  neces- 
sary fur  i;s  performance.     The  Romans  adopted  strict 

'■:•)»  fov  tho  safety  of  emlmssadors  j  liut  the  less  def- 
'1  \)  provisi'ms  of  other  nations  were  liable  to  be 
unfccted  by  i"omcntary  impulses,  and  ir-any  incidents 
of  ancient  warfare  arose  out  of  insults  OT  injuries  com- 
mitted on  embassadors.  It  was  on  the  ground  of  an 
insult  offered  to  his  emliassadors  that  Alexander  de- 
stroyed Tyre.  The  Persian  invasions  of  Greece  were 
stimulated  by  the  xlaughtcr  of  the  embassadors  of 
Darius — who,  however,  demanding  earth  and  water  as 
tokens  of  dependence,  were  rather  mes.sengers  of  hos- 
tility than  emliassadors,  in  any  tiling  like  the  modem 
sense  of  the  term.  Emliassadors  now  communicate 
private!}'  with  sovereigns  or  oflicial  persons,  not  with 
legislative  liotlies.  In  Greece,  however,  embassadors 
sometimes  pleaded  the  cause  of  their  state  in  the  pub- 
lic assemldies,  and  in  Rome  they  were  formally  re- 
ceived liy  the  senate.  The  legatvi  of  the  Romans 
answered  pretty  noarlj'  to  our  embassador  extraordi- 
nary ;  but  the  term  was  also  used  to  mean  another 
and  totally  different  oflicer  who  accompanied  the  pro- 
consul or  governor  of  a  province,  anil  wos  more  like  a 
colonial  secretary.  It  liecamo  the  practice  to  give 
honorary  legations  of  this  kind  on  account  of  the  priv- 
ileges which  they  conferred  on  the  holder  in  the 
province  to  which  he  was  accredited.  Tlicre  is,  how- 
ever, a  distinction  of  a  generic  and  very  cliaraiteristio 
kind  between  the  embassador  of  modem  diplomacy 
and  any  ancient  rciiresentatives  of  states,  'I'he  em- 
bassador of  old  was  chosen  for  a  particular  message  or 
negotiation,  and  a  permanent  resident  representative 
of  one  state  within  another  wai-  urknu>vn,  at  '.st  ,ii 
a  system.  It  if  not  yet  Intel'  ^ill,!  to  nations  licyond 
the  circle  of  Eiiropitm  diplomacy.  The  Turks  had  the 
inveterate  practice,  on  going  to  war  with  a  state,  of 
committing  iis  representative  to  the  seven  towers; 
aiii)  th  ugh  the  reason  assigned  fur  the  practice  was 
the  safety  of  the  person  of  the  embassador  from  out- 
rage, even  this.  If  it  were  sincere,  showed  that  the  feel- 
ings of  hatred  indulged  against  a  member  of  a  hostile 
st.ite  would  break  out  too  strongly  to  be  controlled 
even  by  that  despotic  governnioiit.  The  Chinese,  and 
their  neighbors  nearer  HindostiH,  can  \i  on  a  om- 
lii.is.idor  or  diplomatic  agent  nt,  merely ,»  ^,-  t-td  vjj', 
to  whose  presence  nothing  but  \eoes  ■:  •  n.upels  tliein 
to  submit.     Nor  at     '  he}-  enti  •  jng,  since  the 

European  emliassies  maybe  i'^-  .u.  a  mutually  tol- 
erated system  of  espionage.  I,  i  n  \\  ickefort  call-  the 
embassador  an  honorable  spy,  ; utected  by  the  law  of 
n.itions;  and  l.a  Uru}cre  says  'pigramniatlcall}-,  that 
tb<'  embassador's  function  is  to  cheat  without  licing 
cheated.  The  un  '  rstindin;.' that  an  embassud'  was 
a  person  ever  r-  to  do  whatever  he  could  with  safety 
to  the  advantage  of  his  .iwn  lountry,  at",  the  injury 
of  that  to  which  lie  was  accredited,  became  a  fitanding 
object  of  sarcasm  with  the  wits  of  tht  seventeenth 
centuiy.     Sir  Henry  Wotton,  himself  an  embassador 


•*iSM?.>«.V'^tft^&ft'^i 


^i^iil    .>'-^- 


EMB 


501 


EMB 


,  tinco  the 
utuiilly  tol- 
)rt  ciili--  tho 
the  liiw  of 
...iilly,  tlmt 
;hoiit  being 

ISSU'.l'      wiw 

with  nafety 
.  tho  injury 
I  a  standing 
levonleentb 
•mhasnador 


wli«n  uked  to  write  aomething  in  an  album  at  Angm 
burg,  could  not  resldt  a  sarcaam  on  the  same  subject, 
and  f>pol<e  of  an  embassador  as  a  person  sent  abroad  to 
lie  for  the  good  of  liis  country.  In  its  Knglish  form, 
his  apophthegm  generally  Involves  a  pun  or  equivoke 
in  tho  words  "He  abroad,"  of  wliicli  tlie  original  Ijitin 
is,  however,  not  8Usceptll)lo.  Seloppius  putdished  it 
as  a  declaration  of  the  morality  of  Knglish  diplomacy, 
and  lirought  M'otton  under  temporarj-  disgrace  with 
King  James ;  to  whom  the  jest  seemed  tho  more  dan- 
gerous that  it  announced  that  falso  and  treacheroufl 
system  of  diplomacy  on  which  he,  with  most  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  age,  actea  when  it  was  safe  to  do  so. 

Pennanent  oml)assies,  with  the  eminent  personal 
privileges  conceded  to  embassadors,  have  existed  in 
feudal  Europe  from  an  early  time.  To  find  the  origin 
of  an  institution  seemingly  so  much  at  vurionce  with 
the  selfish  and  ravenous  national  halMts  amid  which 
It  arose,  wo  must  look  to  the  peculiar  sucredness 
claimed  for  their  persons  l)y  the  great  community  of 
European  monarrhs.  The  privileges  of  the  embassa- 
dor did  not  arise  from  principles  of  jurisprudence 
founded  on  general  public  utility,  but  from  tho  prac- 
tice of  the  sovereign  investing  his  representative  with 
his  own  sacrednoss,  and  tho  acknowledgment  on  the 
part  of  the  brother  sovereign  of  the  sufficiency  of  thu 
investiture.  Thus  in  ages  when  international  law  was 
rudo  and  little  respected,  embassadors  claimed  privi- 
leges which  would  in  the  present  day  be  deemed  pre- 
posterous ;  such  as  total  e.xon  pti(m  from  lialiility  to  the 
laws,  civil  or  criminal,  of  the  country  to  which  they 
were  accredited,  and  the  right  to  have  their  offlcia'l 
places  of  residence  respected,  as  sanctuaries  for  crim- 
inals fleeing  from  Justice.  Embassadors  of  old,  in 
fact,  thus  received  concessions  which,  thougli  claimed 
bj-  them  as  l)elonging  proiierly  to  their  masters  as  sov- 
ereign princes,  and  descending  to  themselves  (mly  as 
sulistitutes,  would  not  practically  have  been  enjoyed 
by  sovereign  princes  tliough  tlieoretically  conceded  to 
them.  Tho  advantage  obtained  over  a  state  liy  seizing 
tlie  person  of  tho  sovereign,  would  havo  rendered  it 
unsafe  for  the  principal  to  trust  to  privileges  which,  in 
tlie  less  available  person  of  bis  representative,  were 
scrupulously  respected. 

It  has  always  been  difllcult  in  countries  not  despotic 
to  preserve  tho  sacredness  of  embassies  when  circum- 
stances have  made  them  oflfensive  to  the  people.  Thus 
it  was  dilHcult  to  keep  Gundomarthe  celebrated  Span- 
ish embassador  in  .Tames  tho  First's  reign  from  vio^ 
lence  by  the  London  mob  for  introducing  sedun-cliairs, 
which  they  called  a  device  for  enslaving  Englishmen 
and  making  them  do  the  work  of  beasts.  In  the  anti- 
I'operv  riots  of  1780  the  chapels  of  the  Bavarian  and 
Sardinian  embassies  were  burned.  It  has  ever  been 
usual  to  exact  high  satisfaction  for  injuries  offered  to 
embassadors,  and  despotic  courts  have  had  no  difliculty 
In  conceding  the  demand  where  this  was  rendered  pru- 
dent by  the  power  of  tho  offended  party.  Diplomatic 
difHcultics  of  a  serious  kind  have  often  occurred,  how- 
ever,  in  constitutional  countries  where  the  asserted 
privileges  of  the  foreign  cmliassador  were  found  to 
clash  with  tho  undoubted  rights  of  the  home  citizen. 
In  1C()8  the  Portuguese  minister  was  imprisoned  for 
debt  In  Holland,  and  in  1~0H  a  similar  event  produced 
a  -erious  diplomatic  dilBcuity  in  England.  The  Hus- 
si.in  embassador,  having  luul  his  audience  of  leave, 
was  arrested  for  debt  by  some  tradesmen  in  tho  open 
strec'i  of  L  iidon.  I)e"miiig  that  he  .vas  nttiiLkcl  by 
brav  .  he  defended  himself,  nnd  was  not  secure.! 
with(i;t  sufferin.^  much  vicduice  and  in.lignity.  The 
(V.or  inr.inediately  demanded  tho  Infliction  of  capital 
punishment  on  those  wlio  hiul  been  guilty  of  the  out- 
rage. Much  paraile  was  n'ade  about  instituting  pros- 
ecutions against  all  the  parties  concomeil  in  the  alTair ; 
hut  it  was  inij.  ssilile  for  tho  government  ultimately  to 
treat  it  otliorwlse  than  as  a  matter  for  which  unfortu- 
nately thf  law  mode  no  provUion.    All  that  could  bt 


done  was  to  paM  an  act  to  remedy  the  defect ;  and  t« 
soothe  the  Czar  its  preamble  denounced  in  very  angry 
terms  the  unparalleled  wickedness  uf  those  turliuleni 
and  disorderly  persons  who  had  outrageously  insulted 
the  person  of  hia  uxcellency  the  emiuissador  extraordi- 
nar}-  of  his  Cxarish  majesty,  emperor  of  Ureal  Kussia, 
to  wliom  a  copy  of  the  act  was  sent  with  distinguished 
pomp.  The  diplomatic  body  in  general,  discontcmted 
with  tho  haughty  tone  of  the  English  court,  took  up 
the  question.  SVhen  the  bill  was  passing  they  ol>> 
jected  to  some  parts  of  it,  and  particularly  to  a  condi- 
tion of  tho  protection  uf  emba.ssador8'  retinues,  that 
their  names  should  be  recorded  with  tlio  Secretary  of 
State  and  the  sheriffs  of  Ix)ndon;  but  Parliament, 
then  exulting  in  the  continental  triumphs  of  Marl- 
borough, received  their  demands  with  haughty  silence. 
It  has  been  usual  since  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to 
divide  representatives  into  three  great  classes— embas- 
sadors, envoys,  and  residents  or  charges  rfc*  ajf'aires. 
The  first  and  second  are  accredited  from  the  head  of 
the  government,  and  communicate  with  the  head ;  the 
third  class  have  instructions  from  the  foreign  depart- 
ment of  their  own  government,  and  communicate  with 
that  of  the  state  they  aro  sent  to.  The  term  embas- 
sador extraordinary  having  been  applie<l  to  those  sent 
on  temporary  missions  of  high  importance,  the  terra 
extraordinary  came  to  be  extended  to  the  p<>nnanent 
embassadors  at  the  courts  of  tho  great  powers,  as  it 
was  deemed  desirable  that  no  diplomatic  rank  should 
bo  deemed  higher  than  theirs. 

The  custom  of  admitting  resident  ministers  at 
each  sovereign's  court,  was  an  important  improve- 
ment  in  the  security  and  facility  of  national  inter- 
course ;  and  this  led  to  the  settlement  of  a  great 
question,  which  was  very  frequently  discussed  in  the 
16th  anil  lOtli  centuries,  concerning  tlie  inviolability 
of  embassadors.  It  became  at  last  li  definite  principle 
of  public  law,  that  emiiassadors  were  exempted  from 
all  local  jurisdiction,  civil  and  criminal ;  though  Lord 
Coke  considered  the  law  in  lis  day  to  be,  that  if  an 
embassador  committed  any  crime  which  was  not 
merely  malum  firohibitum,  ho  lost  his  privileged  dignity 
as  an  embassador,  and  might  be  punished  as  any  other 
private  alien,  and  that  he  was  even  bound  to  answer 
civilly  for  his  contracts  that  were  good,  jure  gentium, — 
Kent's  Com.,  vol.  i.,  p.  15. 

It  sometimes  becomes  a  grave  question,  in  national 
discussions,  how  far  the  sovereign  is  bound  liy  the  act 
of  his  minister.  This  will  depend  upon  the  nature 
and  terms  of  his  authority.  It  is  now  the  usual  course 
for  every  government  to  reserve  to  Itself  the  right  to 
ratify  or  dissent  from  the  treaty  agreed  to  by  its  em- 
bassador. A  general  letter  of  credence  is  tho  ordinary 
letter  of  attorney,  or  credential  of  tho  minister ;  and  it 
is  not  understood  to  confer  a  power  upon  the  minister 
to  bind  his  sovereign  conclusively.  To  do  so  import- 
ant an  act  would  require,  at  least,  a  distinct  and 
special  power,  containing  an  express  authority  to 
bind  the  principal  definitely,  without  tlie  right  of 
review,  or  the  necessity  of  ratification  on  his  part. 
This  is  not  tli4tordiiiary  or  prudent  course  of  business. 
Ministers  always  act  under  instructions  which  are 
confidential,  and  which,  it  is  admitted,  they  arc  not 
bound  to  disclose ;  and  it  is  a  well-grounded  custom, 
as  Vattel  olt'erves,  that  any  engagement  which  the 
minister  shall  enter  into,  is  of  no  force  among  sover- 
eigns, unless  raiilied  by  his  principal.  This  is  now  tho 
I  usage,  although  the  treaty  may  have  lieen  signed  by 
plenipotentiaries. — Kent's  Corn.,  vol.  1.,  p.  -IH. 

A  safo  conduct  or  passport  contains  a  pledge  of  tho 
I  puldic  faith,  that  it  shall  bo  duly  respected,  and  the 
'  observance  of  this  duty  is  essential  to  the  character  of 
I  the  govenmient  which  grants  It.  The  statute  law  of 
I  tlic  United  States  has  provided.  In  furtherance  of  the 
'  general  sanction  of  public  law,  tluit  if  any  person  shall 
I  violate  any  safe  conduct  or  passport,  granted  undei 
I  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  he  shall,  on  coii> 


EMB 


602 


EMB 


Tictlon,  h«  impritoned  not  ezceading  8  yetn,  Md 
fined  at  tho  diacratlon  of  the  court. 

The  same  punlabment  is  inHicted  Ufion  tbnse  per- 
sons who  infringe  the  law  of  nations,  by  offering  vio- 
lenco  to  the  persons  of  eml)a8sadors  and  other  pulilic 
minbiters,  or  1))*  l>eing  concerned  in  prosecuting  or 
arresting  them  or  their  domestic  servants.  This  is  an 
offenp9  highly  injurious  to  a  free  and  liberal  eummuni- 
cation  lietween  ditferent  governments,  and  misohicvous 
in  its  consequences  to  the  dignity  and  weil-l>(>ing  of 
the  nation.  It  tends  to  provoke  the  resentment  of  the 
sovereign  whom  the  eml>assador  represents,  ami  to 
bring  upon  the  state  the  calamities  of  war,  'i'be 
English  Parliament,  under  an  impression  of  the  danger 
to  the  community  from  violation  of  the  rights  of  em- 
bassy, and  urged  l)y  the  spur  of  a  particular  occasion, 
carried  tho  provisions  of  the  statute  of  7  Anne,  c,  12, 
to  B  dangerous  extont.  That  statute  prostrated  all 
the  safeguards  to  life,  lil)erty,  and  property,  which 
the  wisdom  of  the  English  common  law  had  estali- 
lisheO,  It  declared  that  any  person  convicted  of  suing 
out  or  executing  civil  process,  u|>on  an  emiwssador  or 
his  domestic  servants,  by  the  oath  of  the  party,  or  of 
one  witness,  (>efore  tlie  lord  chancellor  and  the  two 
chief  justices,  or  any  two  of  them,  might  have  such 
penalties  and  corporeal  punishments  inflicted  ujion 
him  a.1  the  judges  should  think  fit.  The  preamble  to 
the  statute  contains  a  special  and  inHamod  recital  of 
the  breach  of  i.ie  law  of  nations  which  produced  it,  l>y 
the  arrest  of  the  Russian  minister. 

The  ('ongress  of  the  United  States,  during  the 
American  war,  discovered  great  solicitude  to  maintain 
Inviolate  the  obligations  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  to 
have  infractions  of  it  punished  in  the  only  way  that 
was  then  lawful — l)y  the  exercise  of  the  authority  of 
the  legislatures  of  the  several  States.  They  recom- 
mended to  th  '  States  to  provide  expeditious,  exem- 
plary, and  adequate  punishment  for  tlie  violation  of 
sale  conduct!^  or  passports,  granted  under  the  authority 
of  Congress,  to  the  sulijects  of  a  foreign  power  in  time 
of  war;  and  for  the  commii<!<lon  of  acts  of  hostility 
against  persons  in  amity  or  league  with  the  United 
States ;  and  for  the  infractions  of  treaties  and  conven- 
tions to  which  the  United  States  were  a  party;  and 
for  infractions  of  immunites  of  eml>assiulors  and  other 
pulilic  ministers. — Kk.nt's  Com.,  vol.  i.,  p.  180. 

A  marriage,  celebrated  in  any  given  p'ice,  must  l>e 
celebrated  according  to  the  law  of  the  pli>"j,  and  l)y  a 
person  whom  the  laws  designate,  unless  ilie  person  by 
whom,  or  tho  premises  in  which,  't  is  celebrated,  pos- 
sess the  privileges  of  exterritoriality.  Tlierefore  it 
ma}-  be,  according  to  the  opinion  of  Ixird  Stowell,  that 
the  presence  of  a  foreign  sovereign  sojourning  in  a 
friendly  country,  or  that  nfhit  minuter  firnipdeittiary, 
or  the  act  of  a  clergyman  in  the  chapel  or  hotel  of  such 
sovereign  or  his  embassador,  may  give  legality  to 
marriage  l>etween  subjects  rf  his,  or  niemlwrs  of  his 
suite.  According  to  the  American  view,  the  courtesy 
lietween  the  United  Stiites  and  foreign  nations,  in  mu- 
tually ( xempting  from  duty  iirticlcs  imported  liy  cer- 
tain of  their  i  Mic  officers  resilient  alM'oad,  decs  not 
extend  beyond  ministers  or  chnrgh  </<■»  ajfaim,  repre- 
senting their  respective  governments,  and  clothed 
with  diplomatic  powers  ;ad  j.rivileges,  and  does  not 
comprehend  attaches  or  persons  belonging  to  the  min- 
ister's suite,  nor  consular  officers. — Manual/ur  ComuU 
V.  8.,  pp.  -fW,  T,b. 

From  the  moment  a  puldic  minister  enters  the  terri- 
tory of  tho  state  to  which  he  is  sent,  during  the  time 
of  his  residence,  am'  until  he  len.i  lie  country,  he  is 
rctitled  to  an  entire  exemption  fium  th<-  :.'  a\  juris- 
diction, Iwth  civil  and  criminal.  K.  .>i  .  'ng  the 
rights,  interests,  and  dignity  of  the  sovirelgi-  ■  .•*nte 
l>y  wliom  he  t*  delegated,  his  pers<in  is  -  <  rtd  ;ind 
invlolalile.  To  give  a  more  lively  idM  ^'  'hr>i  com- 
plete exemption  from  the  local  jurisdictioi, ,  '  >  fiction 
of  extraterritorialit}r  hM  been  invented,  by  which  the  I 


minister,  though  actually  in  a  foreign  country,  ta  iup> 
posed  still  to  remain  within  tlie  territory  of  his  own 
sovereign.  He  continues  still  subject  to  tbu  laws  of 
his  own  country,  which  govern  Ids  |>erHonal  ttatut  and 
rights  of  property,  whether  dorive<l  from  contract,  in- 
heritance, or  testament.  His  ciilldren  iHini  abroad 
are  considered  as  natives.  This  exemption  from  the 
local  laws  and  Jurisdiction  is  founded  U|Hm  mutual 
utility,  growing  out  of  tho  necessity  that  public  minis- 
ters sliould  lie  entirely  inde|iendent  of  the  local  author- 
ity, in  order  to  fullill  tlie  duties  of  tlieir  mission.  Tlie 
act  of  sending  tho  minister,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
receiving  him,  on  tho  other,  amounts  to  a  tacit  coni|iact 
between  the  two  States,  that  he  shall  be  subject  only 
to  the  authority  of  his  own  nation.  The  passports  or 
safe  conducts  granted  liy  his  own  government,  in  time 
of  peace,  or  liy  the  government  to  whicli  ho  is  sent,  in 
time  of  war,  are  sulHcicnt  evidence  of  his  public  char- 
acter for  this  purpose, — Wueaton'a  Inlertiulional  Imio, 
p,  281), 

BmbesBlement,  in  law,  is  a  felony,  consisting  of 
the  suniH  class  of  acts  which  would  in  any  other  case 
amount  to  larceny,  when  committed  by  one  employed 
as  a  clerk  or  servant,  and  by  viitue  of  his  office,  on  tlio 
goods  and  chattels  of  his  om|doyer, 

A'mbezzlement  by  Seamen. — Mariners  are  bound  to 
cont;  lliute  out  of  their  wages  for  embezzlements  of  the 
cargo,  or  injuries  produced  liy  tlie  misconduct  of  any 
of  tho  crew,  Itut  the  circumstances  must  be  such  as 
to  fix  the  wrong  upon  some  of  the  crew  ;  and  then,  if 
tlie  individual  lie  unknown,  those  of  the  crew  u|Hin 
whom  the  presumption  of  guilt  rests,  stand  as  sureties 
for  each  otlier,  and  they  must  contribute  ratably  to  tho 
loss.  Some  of  the  cases  in  tlie  books  have  established 
a  general  contribution  from  all  tho  crew  fur  such  em- 
liezziement,  even  when  some  of  them  were  in  a  situa- 
tion to  re|iel  every  presumption  of  guilt ;  but  neither 
public  policy  nor  principles  of  justice  extend  the  con- 
tribution or  forfeiture  of  wages  for  such  embezzle- 
ments, lieyond  the  parties  immediately  in  delicto. — 
Kknt's  6'<>ni,,  vol,  ill,,  sect.  252, 

As  earners  by  water  were  liable  at  common  law  to 
the  same  extent  as  land  carriers,  and  as  their  respon- 
sibility was  more  extensive,  and  their  risk  greater, 
from  the  facilities  for  the  commission  of  acts  of  fraud 
and  violence  upon  the  water,  it  was  deemed  in  P^n- 
gland  a  proper  case  for  legislative  interference,  to  a 

Guarded  and  limited  extent.  The  statute  of  7  Georgi 
I.,  ch,  ]fi,  and  2C  George  III,,  ch,  86,  and  &3  Georg« 
III.,  ch,  159,  exempted  owners  of  vessels  from  resiHin- 
sibility,  as  common  carriers,  for  losses  by  fire,  and 
provided  further  that  the  owner  should  not  I.e  lialile 
for  the  loss  of  gold,  silver,  diamonds,  watches,  jewels, 
or  precious  stones,  by  robbery  or  embezzlement,  unless 
the  shipper  inserted  in  the  bill  of  lading,  or  otherwise 
declared  in  writing  to  the  master  or  owner  of  tho  ves- 
sel, the  nature,  quality  and  value  of  the  articles ;  nor 
should  he  be  liable  for  embezzlements,  or  loss  or  dam- 
age to  the  goods  arising  from  any  act  or  neglect, 
without  his  fuult  or  privitj,  beyond  the  value  of  tlie 
ship  and  freight;  nor  should  part  owners  in  those 
cases  be  lialde  beyond  their  respective  shares  in  the 
ship  anil  freight, — Kkmt's  6'o»i,,  vol,  ii,,  p,  789, 

Bmboulng,  the  forming  of  works  in  relief  upon 
any  substance,  whether  by  cutt'i  g,  't,i  'tping,  casting, 
or  any  other  method.  In  sculptuie  particularly,  ac- 
cording as  the  figures  are  more  or  less  prominent,  they 
are  said  to  be  in  alto,  mezzo,  or  basm-rciievo ;  or 
high,  intermediate,  or  low  relief. 

Emboaaing  of  Leather.  Bean  1 '  .ments 
in  basso-relievo  for  decorating  the  extei  i ..  i  < '  r  t  .iioriora 
of  buildings,  medi'.llions,  picture-frii"ies,  c  iiiet  '>"';, 
etc.,  havt  .Gently  made  by  the  pn.A.>ure  of  n,.- 

tallic  bloii,s  t.ni,  dies,  for  which  invention  a  patent 
was  obtoinnd  in  June,  1839,  by  M.  Claude  Schnth. 
The  dies  are  made  of  type-metal,  or  of  the  fusible  alloy 
with  bUmutb,  called  d'Arcet'a.    ThakAtbok^is  beataa 


'  'eittti 
clcthj 


EMB 


Itt 


BMB 


(oft  In  watm ,  tta«n  wning,  preasod,  rolled  uid  fulled  aa 
It  were,  by  workinK  it  with  the  hands  till  It  kecomea 
thicker,  nnd  c|iilte  aiipple.  In  this  atnt*  it  la  laid  on 
the  mold,  and  forced  Into  alt  it«  cavities  lijr  means 
of  a  wooden,  bono,  ur  copixr  tool.  In  other  rases  the 
emboasin);  la  performed  l>y  the  force  of  a  press.  The 
leather,  when  it  han  liecnme  dry.  Is  easily  biken  off 
of  the  mold,  however  deeply  It  may  be  Inserted  Into 
Its  crevices,  by  virtue  of  Its  elasticity.  A  full  detail  of 
all  the  prdc'psiea  la  given  in  Mkwton's  Journal,  vol. 
xl.,  p.  m. 

Emboaaing  Wood  {Botmge,  Fr, ;  Erhabtntt, 
Arbeit,  (tor.),  raised  ilgureg  upon  wood,  such  as  are 
employed  in  picture-frames  and  other  articles  of  omo- 
mentnl  caljtnct  work,  are  usually  produced  by  meana 
of  carvinj;,  or  by  casting  the  pattern  In  plaster  cf 
Paris  or  other  composition,  anil  cementing  or  other- 
wise fixing  It  on  the  surface  of  the  wood.  The  former 
mode  Is  expensive ;  the  latter  Is  Inapplicable  on  man}' 
occasions.  The  invention  of  Mr,  Streaker  may  be 
used  either  by  Itself,  or  in  aid  of  carving ;  and  de- 
pends on  the  fact,  that  if  a  depression  Imb  made  by  a 
olunt  instrument  on  tlie  surface  of  the  wood,  such  de- 
pressed part  will  again  rise  to  Its  original  level  by  sub- 
sequent imnipralon  In  the  water.  The  wood  to  bn 
ornamented  having  been  first  worked  out  to  Its  pro- 
posed shiipo.  Is  in  a  state  to  receive  the  drawing  nf  the 
pattern  ;  tliis  licing  put  on,  a  blunt  steel  tool,  or  bur- 
nisher, or  die,  is  tb  be  applied  successively  to  all  those 
parts  of  tlie  pattern  intended  to  be  in  relief,  and,  at 
the  same  tinni,  is  to  be  driven  very  cautiously,  with- 
out breaking  the  grain  of  the  wood,  till  the  depth  of 
the  depression  is  equal  to  the  Intended  prominence  of 
the  flgare.  The  ground  Is  then  to  be  reduced  by 
planing  or  filing  to  the  level  of  the  'leprcssed  pan ; 
after  which,  the  piece  of  wood  being  placed  in  water, 
either  hot  or  cold,  the  part  previously  depressed  will 
rise  to  Its  former  height,  and  will  then  form  an  em- 
bossed pattern,  which  m.'.y  be  finished  by  the  is  al 
operations  of  nrving. 

Bmbou  iTt)  (Fr.),  signlfles  the  mouth  of  a  rlvoi ' 
it  is  used  also  for  the  mouth-piece  of  a  musical  Instru- 
ment. -. 

Bmbroiderlng  Machine.  {.Machine  a  broder, 
Fr. ;  Stccl-masrhine,  Get.)  This  art  has  been  till  of 
late  merely  a  liundicraft  employment,  cultivated  on 
account  of  Iti  elegance  by  ladies  of  rank.  But  a  few 
years  a|,()  V..  Ileilmann,  of  Mulhause,  invented  a  ma- 
chine of  1  most  ingenious  kind,  which  enables  a  fe- 
male t"  cml>roIder  any  design  with  80  or  100  needles 
us  accurately  and  expei'Uiously  as  she  formerly  -ould 
do  with  one.  A  brief  account  oi  this  remarkable  in- 
vention will,  therefore,  I'e  acceptable  to  many  readers. 
It  was  displayed  at  the  national  exposition  of  the  prod- 
ucts iif  Industry  ri  Paris  for  1884,  and  was  unques- 
tionably the  object  which  stood  highest  in  public 
estctm ;  for  whether  at  rest  or  in  motion,  it  was  always 
surrounded  with  a  crowd  of  curious  visitors,  u(i.  liring 
the  figures  which  it  had  formed,  or  Inspecting  it')  n  < 
ments  and  Investigating  its  mechanism.  l:<0  ■!>  '  U- 
were  occupiid  in  copying  the  same  pattern  witl.  wrt'ect 
re^ulority,  oil  set  in  motion  by  one  person. — UnB'8 
Dictionary  nfArtt. 

Bmbroidery  is  the  name  given  to  the  art  of 
working  flgun-s  on  stufTs  or  muslins  with  a  needle  and 
thread.  All  embroider}'  may  bo  divided  Into  two 
Bortt,  embroiderj-  on  sluffa  and  on  mtulin :  the  former 
Is  used  chiefly  in  church  vestments,  housings,  stand- 
ards, articles  of  furniture,  etc.,  and  Is  executed  with 
silk,  cotton,  wool,  gold  and  silver  threads,  and  some- 
times ornamented  with  sii:nngles,  real  or  mock  pearls, 
precious  or  imitation  stones,  etc.  The  latter  Is  em- 
ployed mostly  in  articles  of  female  apparel,  as  caps, 
collars,  <tc.,  and  is  pcrfo-med  only  with  cotton.  In 
Genua  %y  this  division  In  indicated  by  the  expression 
■  xiue  (white  or  mnslln'  end  hunte  Stickerei  (colored  or 
cloth)  embroider;/.  The  embroidery  of  itufft  is  p«r- 
Pp 


formed  on  a  kind  of  loom  or  frame;  that  nf  mutlin 
by  stretching  it  on  a  pattern  alroaily  designed.  Tha 
modes  of  embruldoring  stufls  or  muslins  with  the  com- 
mon needle  are  extremely  various ;  but  a  mlnut* 
description  of  these  prucossoa  would  be  lu  dilHcult  at 
It  would  bo  uninteresting  to  the  general  reader.  They 
consist  for  tlie  moat  part  of  a  cuml)inatiim  uf  ordinary 
itilihn ;  but  no  limit  can  bo  assigned  to  their  number 
or  variety.  The  art  of  embroidery  waa  well  known  to 
the  ancienta.  Aa  early  aa  the  time  of  Muses  we  find 
It  practiced  successfully  by  the  Hebrews ;  and  long 
before  Oie  Trojan  war  the  women  of  Sidon  had  ac- 
quired celebrity  for  their  skill  in  eml>roIdery.  At  a 
later  perhnl,  this  art  was  Introduced  Into  Greece,  proli- 
ably  by  the  Phrygians  (by  some  considered  us  tlie  In- 
ventors) ;  and  to  such  a  degree  of  skill  did  the  Grecian 
women  attain  In  it,  that  llielr  i)erforman('es  were  said 
to  rival  the  finest  paintings.  In  our  own  times,  tht 
art  of  embroidery  has  been  cultivated  with  grout  suc- 
cess, more  especially  in  Germany  and  France ;  and 
though  for  a  long  (leriod  it  was  practiced  only  liy  tha 
ladle*  of  these  countries  as  an  elegant  accumplishment, 
It  is  now  regarded  us  a  staple  of  traffic,  and  furnishes 
employment  for  a  large  )>ortion  uf  the  population.  In 
Enghind  also  It  apfiears  to  have  taken  deep  root,  as  it 
now  forms  an  accomplishment  of  which  almost  every 
lady  is  in  possession.  About  seven  years  ago  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  the  cultivation  of  this  art,  both 
on  the  Continent  and  in  England,  by  the  invention  of 
a  machine  which  enables  a  female  to  execute  tiie  most 
complex  patterns  with  130  needles,  all  In  mution  at 
once,  aa  accurately  as  she  could  formerly  do  with  one. 
But  as  no  account  of  this  remarkable  Invention  whkh 
we  might  give  could  be  intelligible  without  the  aid  of 
illustrations,  which  would  lie  out  of  place  in  this  work, 
we  mu:it  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Ure's  liictionary  of 
Aril,  etc.,  for  full  Information  respecting  it.  One  such 
machine,  with  130  needles,  is  estimated  to  perform 
dail>  the  work  of  16  hand  embroiderers  employed 
In  the  ordinary  way.  Many  of  them  are  now  mount- 
ed in  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland ;  and  in 
^'^•r  u  'er  there  is  one  factor)'  where  they  do  beau- 
t.iiil  V.  .  ,  See  the  Art  of  Needlework,  edited  by 
t!  C  .untess  of  Wilton.  Liindon,  1810. — Bhandb, 
Eney. 

There  is  one  branch  of  manufactum  connected 
with  cotton  embroideries  to  which  it  would  be  wron ' ' 
not  to  particularly  alliiUn,  and  that  is  the  embroi' 
ering  of  muslins,  better  known  under  the  commn 
designation  of  "  sewed  muslins."  This  la  compar  t- 
tlvely  a  new  manufacture,  having  only  being  flret 
started  In  Scotland  about  the  year  V^'za.  At  that 
period  there  were  only  two  or  three  persons  engaged 
in  the  manufacture;  now  there  are  fifty  or  sixty. 
The  importance  of  tlils  branch  may  in  some  measure 
be  estimated  trom  the  fact  that  it  gives  employment  to 
a  vast  number  of  females  :n  the  rural  districts,  for 
whom  no  other  useful  work  is  provided  in  the  intor- 
"11  s  uf  field  labor.  In  Ireland  alone,  where  it  is 
pi'ucticed  from  the  Giant's  Causeway  to  Capu  Clear, 
and  from  St.  George's  Channel  to  the  Achill  and 
other  remote  islands,  it  is  a  source  of  great  comfort  to 
the  female  po|)ulatlon,  as  it  enables  them  to  add  to 
the  food  and  clothing  of  their  families  %Tithout  entail- 
ing on  them  any  of  the  evils  of  the  factory  system, 
the  work  being  supplied  to  them  by  agents  of  the 
large  manufacturers  scattered  over  all  the  country, 
and  executed  entirely  at  their  own  flresi>les.  As  the 
workers  are  only  engaged  a  portion  of  their  time  ut  this 
species  of  Industry,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  their 
numbers  ;  but  It  is  computed  that  the  amount  paid  in 
."le  western  counties  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland, 
reaches  no  less  a  sum  than  three  quarters  of  a  million 
sterling  annually.  Like  all  other  fancy  trades,  it  bos 
been  aabject  to  its  periods  of  depression,  but  its  prog- 
ress has  been  regular,  from  a  total  produce  of  a  few 
tbonsand  ponnds  s  year  paid  for  labor  in  1625  to  tLs 


t^c 


EMR 


EMI 


•moant  ibove  iUtcd,  th«  gnatett  Incrsiue  havliiK, 
bowevor,  Ukon  plu*  •Incii  1H4&. 

Emerald  (Kr.  Kmirnuih;  (iorm.  HnutragH i  It. 
Bmmililo  ;  IM,  Smarmjiliii ;  Hp,  Ktmrrnlda),  A  prcdou* 
(tona  in  hl^h  DUtimatiim.  It  la  <lliitlii)(iiliilie<t  from  all 
nthur  i;<-ni«  liy  Its  ptuuWut  rmerald  ffrnn  linlre,  varjInK 
In  Intcniity  from  tli«  patent  (miiaihle  t!nf{e  t<>  a  full  anil 
d«op  nilor,  than  which,  na  IMIny  liiia  truly  atatnl, 
no'hing  can  Im  mon  lieautiful  nn<l  pleiinlnKi  nulliut 
eoloru  tuprrliu JHcutulinr  itl.  "  It  f miilatoa,"  he  loii- 
tinuea,  "if  it  dnva  not  iinr|iaiia,  tho  verduro  uf  the 
■prinK  j  and  tho  pyn  antlatod  liy  th<i  daiilInK  ((luro  ot 
the  more  hrilllant  \ifim»,  or  wearied  l>y  inteniin  appli- 
cation, ia  rvlVeahed  and  atrcnKthencd  liy  the  quiet  en- 
livening K^een  of  the  emerald."  In  I'llny'a  time  the 
heat  came  from  Scytbia.  Thnae  met  with  in  modarn 
tlireDd'r   '  Kceed  tho  aize  of  a  walnut.     Some 

■  '.'a  inUi  li  larger  '  lie,  u..  |ierf«ct,  have  liocn  found, 
liut  they  lire  extrvmly  rare.  Nero  uaed  one  aa  an 
eyo-glana  in  attrvcyinK  the  camhatii  of  the  Klaiiintorn. 
Hitherto  Ic  baa  alwayn  lieen  found  iryntalll^ied.  iS|mi- 
clllu  gravity  from  2-(i  to  J?". —  I'i.iny'h  Hut.  Anl., 
Ill),  xxxvii.,  chap.  6  J  Th.vmsos'h  I'hrmufry. 

For  the  laat  two  ccnturiea  and  more,  the  only  coun- 
iry  known  to  yield  emeralds  Is  Peru,  where  they  oc- 
cur in  Santa  Vi,  and  In  the  valley  of  Tunen.  Heverul 
large  stones  have  appeared  in  Kuro|>e.  Aliout  two 
years  ago  I  cut  one,  exceeding  two  oimcca  in  weight, 
for  the  Kmperor  of  Morocco,  l>ut  it  was  full  of  iinper- 
fectiona.  The  largest  specimen  known  Is  a  hexagonul 
crystal,  nearly  six  inches  long,  anil  alwut  two  in  diam- 
eter. This  gem,  however  snuiil,  is  so  rarely  seen 
perfect  that  "an  emerald  without  a  tluw"  bus  luisscd 
into  a  proverb.  A  flne  stonii  nf  four  carats  may  lie 
viili'sd  ati!40  or  X50,  or  even  more.  If  very  pure.  In- 
ferior stones  of  one  or  two  carats  are  sold  at  from  iOs. 
to  70s.  per  carat ;  and  if  smnller,  and  defect'  ",  at  10s. 
or  15*.  |)cr  larat.  Kino  emeralds  are  rare,  .;  in  such 
demand,  that  a  particular  suit  has  lieeu  knonn  to  huvo 
posscil  into  the  |>osaes!<ion  of  a  scries  of  purchasers, 
and  to  have  made  the  tour  nf  Kuropo  in  the  course  of 
half  a  century.— tfAWK  on  niamnmh,  2ded.,  p.  104. 

Bmery  (Fr.  Emrril,  Kmrri ;  (icrm.  Smirgfl ;  It. 
,Smrri/lio,  Smertgio;  Sp,  t.'tmtril ;  KuB.  Xcuhdak ;  IM. 
Smirin).  This  mineral  was  l<ing  rcganled  as  an  ore  of 
Iron  ;  and  was  called  by  Ilafiy^/'cr  i>j  iiU  quntiziffrf.  It 
ia  ver}'  al' mdant  in  the  island  of  Naxiis,  at  CajM-  Km- 
eri,  whence  it  is  imported  in  largo  quantities.  It  oc- 
curs also  in  the  islands  uf  .Icrsey  and  Guernsey,  at 
Almml.'ii,  in  Poland,  Saxony,  Sweden,  Persia,  etc. 
Its  <  "lor  variea  fn  m  red  brown  to  dark  brown ;  its 
apeii.ii  gravity  is  aimut  4'000.  It  is  so  hani  as  to 
scratch  quartz  and  many  precious  stones.  Ily  Mr. 
Tenant's  analysis,  itconsUti  of  alumina,  80;  silica,  3; 
iron,  4.  Another  inferior  k.''ul  yields  82  of  iron,  and 
only  50  of  alumina.  We  have  recent  accounts  of 
emer"  discoveries  in  Minnesota;  but  nearly  all  that  is 
used  at  present  in  the  arts  conies  .ruin  Turkey,  near 
ancient  .Smyrna.  Dr.  Lawrence  Smith,  the  Vpicrican 
geologist,  iiiaile  a  discovery  of  a  ilr|iosit  of  emery 
while  residing  in  Smyrna,  and  he  maile  sn  examina- 
tion of  tho  locality  in  1817.  Dr.  Sniilli  having  re- 
,iuricd  lii^  discoveriea  to  the  Turkish  govenimeiit,  a 
omniii'  >n  of  inquiry  was  instituted,  and  the  business 
mn  u>  med  a  mercantile  form.  The  mona|>oly  of 
the  ciiii  of  Turkey  was  rfdld  to  a  mercantile  house  in 
Smyrna,  and  since  then  the  price  has  diminisheil  in 
the  market.  The  mining  of  the  emery  is  of  the  sim- 
plest character.  The  natural  decomiiosition  uf  the 
Toek  In  which  it  occurs  facilitates  its  extraction.  The 
rock  de<  "inposes  into  an  earth,  in  which  the  emery  is 
found  embedded.  Tlie  quantity  procured  under  these 
circumstances  is  so  great  tliat  it  is  rarely  necessary  to 
explore  the  rock.  The  earth  in  the  neighborhooil  of 
the  lilock  is  almost  always  of  a  red  color,  and  serves 
as  an  indi^Mtion  to  those  who  are  in  search  uf  the  min- 
eral.    Sometimes,  before  beginning  to  excavate,  the 


B|iota  are  sounded  by  an  Iron  rod  with  a  iteel  point, 
and  when  any  resistance  is  met  with,  th«  rod  Is  rubbiul 
in  contiii't  with  Urn  resisting  liwly,  and  the  etl'i«  t  |iro- 
duced  on  the  point  enables  a  practiced  eye  to  A<AA* 
whether  it  has  lM<eii  il«iie  liy  emery  or  not.  The  blmka 
which  are  of  a  convenient  size  are  transported  in  their 
natural  state,  but  are  frequently  broken  by  lar^u  ham- 
mers. When  they  resist  the  action  of  tlie  haninier, 
they  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  lire  for  several 
hours,  and  on  cooling  tlu<y  most  commonly  yield  to 
blows.  It  'ometimes  happens  that  large  masses  are. 
abandoned  from  the  iinposslbility  of  breaking  them 
into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size.     . 

F.iiirry  paprr  U  prepared  by  brushing  the  |)aper  over 
with  thin  giro,  and  dusting  the  eniery-|M>wder  over  it 
from  a  sieve.  There  are  iilaiut  six  degrees  of  coarse, 
ness,  Sievea  with  DO  and  tlO  meshes  jier  linear  inch, 
are  in  general  the  coarsest  and  linent  si/.i  empbijed. 
When  used  by  aitizans,  tlie  entery -paper  is  commonly 
wrapiied  around  a  tile  or  xjip  of  wood,  and  applied  junt 
like  a  tile,  witli  or  without  oil,  iiccunling  to  ciriuin- 
stances,  '1  •■  emery-paper  cuts  more  smoothly  witii 
oil,  but  leaves  the  Work  dull. 

Kmrrg-cluth  only  differs  from  emery-paper  in  the 
use  of  thin  cotton  clotli  liiitead  of  p.tper,  as  the  niu- 
teriai  U|>on  whtch  tho  emery  is  Hxed  by  means  of  glue. 
The  emery-cloth,  when  folded  aruuiid  a  Die,  does  not 
ply  so  readily  to  it  as  eniory-pa|ier,  and  is  apt  to  unroll, 
llenco  smiths,  engineers,  and  others  prefer  einery- 
pa|ier  and  einery-r'icks  ;  but  for  household  and  other 
puriNises,  where  the  bund  alone  Is  used,  the  greater 
durubilily  nf  the  cloth  is  advantageous. 

Hinery-»tick$  are  rods  of  board,  about  8  or  12  inches 
long,  jilaned  up  square ;  or  with  one  side  niuivled  liku 
a  half-rounded  tile.  Nails  are  driven  into  each  end  of 
the  stick  as  tem|Hirary  bundles ;  they  are  then  brushed 
over,  one  at  :i  Mme,  with  thin  glue,  and  dublied  at  ail 
purti  ii  I  l»M|  .  I  Hicry-iiowder,  and  knocked  at  ono 
I'lid  to  >hako  oil   i  ii.>  excess.     Two  coals  of  glue  and 

emery  iire    gem      'y  used.      Tho    ry-sticks    arc 

much  more  econ        ul  than  emory-pa|i«r  wrapped  on 
a  file,  which  is  iiai.     to  lie  torn. 

Kmiry-mkr  consist  <  of  emery  mi  (cd  with  a  little 
beeswax,  so  as  to  i m  .lute  a  solid  lump,  with  which 
to  dress  the  edges  of  imll  nd  glaiio  »  liuels.  Th'i  in- 
gredients should  be  thorouj^hly  iniiir|sirated  by  'tir- 
riiigthemi\turowhii  Hiiid,  after  whiili  it  is  frequently 
IMiureil  into  water,  II  I  thoroiiglily  '  'ailed  with  the 
hands,  and  rolled  into  lumps  befur  it  lias  time  to 
ciKiL  Tho  eiiiory-cak'  is  sometime*  u|iplied  to  tho 
wheels  while  they  arc  revolving ;  but  the  moro  usual 
course  is,  to  stop  the  wheel,  and  rub  in  tlie  cmury-cake 
by  the  hand.  It  Is  afterward  smoothed  down  by  tho 
thumb. 

Emery-paper,  or  patent  ra/,or-sirop  paper,  an  arti- 
I  le  in  which  fine  emery  and  glass  arc  mixed  with 
puper  pulp,  and  made  into  sheets,  us  in  making  ordi- 
nary pa|ier;  the  emery  and  gluss  are  said  to  constitnto 
together  fiO  per  cent,  of  tho  weight  of  the  paper,  which 
resembles  drawing-paper,  except  that  it  has  a  delicate 
fawn  color.  The  emory-pup<ir  is  directed  to  be  pasted 
or  glued  upon  a  piece  of  wood,  and  when  rubbed  with 
a  little  oil,  to  bo  used  us  razor-strop.  See  Uue's  Dic- 
tionary iif  Arlt. 

ZImlgratlon  is  the  act  of  leaving  the  country  or 
placo  in  which  one  has  previously  resided,  in  the  viow 
of  residing  in  some  other  country  or  pUice.  Persons 
so  leaving  the  place  of  their  rcsidei.re  iro  called  emi- 
grants; and  latterly  tho  term  immigrants  has  been 
employed  to  designate  persons  arriving  from  a  distance 
in  some  place  or  country  with  the  intention  of  settling 
in  it.  Persons  leaving  a  country  for  awhile,  to  which 
they  intend  to  return,  are  not  reckoned  emigrants.  This 
term  is  appropriated  to  those  who  leave  their  present 
habitations  to  estnblith  themselves  |iermanently  else- 
where. The  motives  which  lead  to  emigration  arc  vari- 
ous in  the  extreme ;  but,  whatever  its  immediate  cause 


K'vi 


EMI 


fl05 


EMI 


,  «n  arti- 
^.■<1  witli 

(institato 
|)cr,  wli'uli 
II  ilclicato 
lie  (lasti'cl 
,l,f(l  with 
L'liF.'s  Die- 


najr  h«,  >n  cmlttrant*  itxiwrt  '  ithvr  to  krnlil  ioni«  eon- 
■lilerahln  evil,  or  to  Improve  or  «in«n>t  thoir  situation. 
Ihe  natural  niultlpll'^tlon  of  man  nnil  of  llii-  milrmalii 
whl"h  hn  ilomontlciiii-*,  and  tli«  tsmlanry  of  ImiUi  to 
increaao  Imynnil  HUch  tneana  of  nulHiUtenr*  u  may  Iw 
■•niilly  mnila  nvallitliln  fhr  their  iiu|iport,  have  bmn  tn 
all  n(jp«  tho  Krt-iit  caiua  nf  xmlKratlona.  When  tU« 
llmkn  ami  lipnls  of  tim  orcii  inra  of  partlrular  ilUtrlcta 
1«-)(nii  to  lie  m>  numeroua  timl  panture  liecaine  deflriant, 
It  was  an  ulivloua  rewiiiri'f,  in  the  event  of  any  unoo- 
ouplcil  liuifh  lielnK  In  their  vicinity,  for  a  portion  of 
thn  trllm  to  rmlKruto  to  them.  The  Hook  of  (leneala 
nfforrt«  a  utrlkiiiK  <llu>lrntion  of  what  la  now  atatml. 
Th«  herilii  of  Aliniliam  and  I.ot,  it  ia  there  'tated,  had 
»o  Krently  Incromed,  that,  there  not  lii-lti^j  Mom  for 
them  liolli,  conti'Hta  took  place  lietween  their  aorvanln. 
Wh«reu|H>n  Ahrnhum  >uld  to  Lot,  "  la  not  the  whole 
land  lieforo  thee  ?  Separate  thyHelf,  I  pray  thee,  from 
mo.  If  ihou  wilt  take  the  left  hand,  then  I  will  ^o 
to  the  rinht  j  or  if  thou  il-part  to  the  ri^ht  hand,  then 
F  will  no  to  the  left.  Then  Lot  ( lioae  hlni  all  the  plain 
of  .Ionian,  and  I..ot  Journeyed  eimt ;  and  they  aepa- 
rated  themaelveii,  the  one  from  the  other."  (Chap, 
xlll.  8  11.) 

f'rmale  tMifrmtt.— Owing  tn  rauaea  which  an  too 
olivloH^  to  need  lieln«  pointed  out,  the  greater  number 
of  eniij;rantH,  eapeilally  of  tlioiio  who  no  to  new  iiettlc- 
mentx,  ((nuint  of  maicn ;  and  the  want  of  a  projicr 
proportion  of  fomaion  In  often  pnulnrtlve  of  tiie  worat 
I'onsequenceii,  Inasnun  li,  too,  an  tho  fenialo  jmrtlon 
of  the  population  In  old  "(■(tied  countrten  U  Kenoraliy 
that  which  1.1  most  in  cxcchk,  it  In  plain  that  every 
facility  and  enoniragement  uliould  lie  given  to  the  eni- 
IgrHlion  of  w<micn.  Notldng,  tln-refore,  can  !»  moro 
cimniatent  with  nound  |Hdlcy  than  the  effort*  whicli 
have  recently  lieon  made  hy  government,  and  liy  pri- 
vate Iniiividual',  to  Hend  out  well-conducted  females 
to  Au.>itralitt;  and  it  in  to  lie  hoped  that  they  will  not 
relax  In  their  lienevolont  lalmrs  till  tho  wldodlnpropor- 
tion  which  now  (1H.'>7)  exi.stn  between  the  soxea  in  that 
continent  be  materially  reduced. 

The  application  of  ateani  to  the  pnipulHion  of  vea- 
sels  nn<l  the  other  iinprovementa  that  have  Iwen  made 
in  tho  art  of  navinallon,  havo  greatly  diminished  the 
coat,  ri»'  ,  and  time  Hpent  In  distant  voyages,  and  havo 
given  a  proportional  extension  to  emigration.  Not- 
wltlistandinj^  llielr  great  distance,  the  emigralion  from 
I'jirope  to  America  and  Australia,  but  especially  the 
former,  has  latterly  attaincil  to  a  magnitude  which, 
previously  to  the  employment  of  steam  In  navigation, 
would  not  havo  beonccuicelved  possible.  I'or  a  length- 
ened (leriod  the  United  Kingibim  has  furnished  the 
largest  supply  of  transatlantic  emlgnmta ;  but  of  late 
years  tho  emigration  frou!  (icrnniny  hua  become  verj- 
extensive,  an<l  promises  at  no  dif  ant  period  to  equal, 
if  it  do  not  surpass,  that  which  ia  •  irr'>d  en  from  firoiit 
llritain.  The  vast  majority  of  the  (J.  n;i.  ;i  cniigranta 
arc  destined  for  the  I'nited  .Stnt  ■■<,  w',  .i-  (iiey  occupy 
extensive  districts,  and  have  est  .b|l.(!iril  tiiemaelves  in 
great  numliers.  The  .Slates  has"  ibo  become,  since 
]K:t.>,  tlie  principal  resort  of  the  cniigrunta  from  tho 
Ignited  Kingdom,  more  particularly  of  those  from  Ire- 
land i  though  largo  numlicrs  of  the  Knglish  and  Scotch 
emigrants,  with  a  smaller  number  of  Irish,  continue  to 
resort  in  preference  to  (;ana<la.  Since  tho  discovery 
of  tho  gold  (ields  of  Australia,  great  numbers  of  emi- 
grants liavo  gone  to  that  c<mtlnent.  But  its  much 
greater  distame,  and  the  ccmsequent  length  and  cost 
of  the  voyage,  make  it  diilicult  for  the  |>oorer  classes 
to  lind,  without  assistance,  their  way  to  this  new  KI 
Dorado.  .Vnd  we  may  add,  that  to  the  natural  diffl- 
cutties  in  the  way  of  emigration  to  Australia  have 
lioen  superadded  thoso  which  arise  from  an  extrava- 
gant minimum  price  of  Ave  dollars  an  acres  having 
been  set  cm  all  waste  land  in  that  continent,  even 
though  it  pliould  reiiuijre  three,  four,  or  five  acrea  to 
pasture  a  tingle  sheep 


Next  tn  the  United  Kingdom  and  nermany,  China 
furnishes  the  greater  number  of  over-sea  emlgranta 
A  Chliieae  population  has  long  been  settltd  in  large 
numtters  in  many  parts  of  the  (^Btern  Archipelago, 
where  they  am  dlitingulshml  by  their  industry  hdiI 
good  order  I  and  recently  many  thousands  of  them 
have  found  their  way  to  Califomia  an<l  Australia.  We 
subjoin  an  account  of  the  nuiulwr  uf  emigrants  from 
the  Unlteil  Kingdom  in  each  year  from  INIA  to  1N53, 
both  inclusive,  s|ieclfying  the  countries  for  which  they 
sallMl,  and  the  numbers  that  aailod  fur  each : 


Y»r. 

inIjT 

Nurlk 
Am.<rir«n 
(•lulUi. 

linliiil 

HUUi. 

Altai  rtllu 
«t>l<>nt»l 

)!»l»lid. 

All  ulbn 
y\ntmt. 

Toisl. 

1,90* 

192 

i,08f 

IMia 

8.»7n 

9,091 

.  *. . 

118 

tisto 

bil; 

»,T»7 

1II,3M) 

AS7 

20,684 

IKXH 

iMna 

12,429 

.... 

22-2 

27,787 

IHIB 

ItH.Mt 

1».«74 

.... 

579 

IM.T87 

isio 

U.Vil 

l),74A 

.... 

1,068 

8.5,729 

IHtll 

la.v.w 

4,9lt8 

S84 

18,291 

IHW 

16,ni8 

4,1117 

279 

8o.42» 

WHX 

1I,>I.V1 

B,n)l2 

168 

16,MI 

t>i»4 

N,774 

n,1.12 

9V 

11,025 

IHM 

8,741 

^m 

"488 

114 

14,8»1 

li.2fl 

Vi.hlH 

i.im 

908 

116 

»0,»0(1 

IS^T 

12,1)4.'' 

'  1  .^26 

715 

lit 

98,iKia                       1 

IfHH 

12,l>s4 

J.SI7 

1,I)B« 

188 

36,092  '                            1 

tlM» 

|il,Hil7 

l,'.,f)78 

»,ni« 

19T 

81,1»H                               1 

I.SIM) 

ilo,n74 

24,HS7 

1.242 

2M 

56,907 

IHHI 

f>s,(i«7 

211,4 18 

1,601 

114 

88,160 

IWt'i 

c)t;,)i;iii 

82,H7a 

8,788 

19U 

1118,140 

mm 

•JS.SdS 

29,109 

4,01)8 

517 

62,527 

IHH4 

4(MH)0 

8:1,074 

2,Sl)fl 

28S 

76,2«J 

tSDA 

lB,ft7il 

211,720 

i.son 

825 

44,478 

IHHfl 

M:m\ 

87.774 

8,124 

2'.>8 

75,417 

1SH7 

aii,-s4 

88.770 

5,0.%! 

820 

72,084 

IMHH 

4.577 

14,882 

14,0.'l 

292 

88,229 

INW) 

ia,6ft8 

88,.Vta 

15,786 

227 

62,907 

IS40 

112.298 

40,042 

15,850 

l,ll.^8 

90,748 

IM! 

8H,I84 

4.\017 

82,625 

2.786 

113,699 

ima 

M.I28 

e8,>4A2 

8,584 

1,885 

128,844 

\<m 

2.S,.11!< 

»i,:«n 

8,478 

l.'»H| 

57,912 

1»M 

22.924 

4.I.06O 

2,229 

l,'<"il 

T0,68fl 

1S4S 

81,H08 

liK.NlM 

880 

2,:0III 

98,501 

1 

IMII 

18,489 

82,289 

2,847 

1.826 

129  S51 

» 

1H47 

IIW.IHO 

142,tM 

4,949 

1.487 

25s,i7i) 

n 

IH48 

8i,iir>n 

l'*S,28:i 

28,904 

4.887 

24S0S9 

1 

IN49 

41,807 

219,4R0 

82,091 

6,.59fl 

999.498 

IKAd 

82,imi 

228,078 

16,087 

8,778 

980349 

1S.M 

42,il(« 

287,8.^7 

21,582 

4,472 

81«,96fl 

IN.V2 

my,n 

241,201 

87,424 

4,208 

868,764 

829,987 

8,798,699 

ngdom : 

I8SH 
Total 

Ave 

Mfin 

280,KSS 

61,401 

8,129 
55,144 

Xu7i,2:l0 

2,295,466 

■   8»1,680 

ago  annua 

cmlKralloi 

1  n-om  the 

Unlteil  Kl 

From 

K15  to  1858 

..     97,269 

For  111 

1  five  years 

emllug  isj 

■8.  828,002 

Kmi 

ifTUlion  to 

A  mrrica. 

lieix-rl . 

from  the  Stalf  />«- 

imrlmnil.  Ihjnrlmfnt  n/Slatf,  I8|)i!._ln  compliance 
with  the  act  of  Congress  of  March  2d,  iHli),  regulating 
passenger  ships  iind  vessels,  I  have  the  honor  to  com- 
municate herewith  the  annual  statement  of  the  num- 
ber and  designation  of  passengers  arriving  in  the  United 
.States  liy  sea  from  foreign  countries,  during  tho  year 
ending  December  111 ,  1855,  compiled  from  returns  made 
to  this  Department  by  collectors  of  cuatums  pursuant 
to  provisions  of  said  act. 

Tlio  niousiirea  adopted  by  the  Department  in  IHoil 
with  a  view  to  obviate  tho  previous  absence  of  uni- 
formity, and  to  secure  accuracy  in  tho  returns  of  col- 
lectors, on  wliich  tho  statement  ia  based,  and  which 
were  referred  to  in  the  letter  that  accompanied  the  last 
annual  stateineni.  and  in  that  whicli  accompanied  the 
]>roceding  one,  have  conduced  most  favorably  to  tlie 
desired  end. 

Previously  to  tho  statement  of  1854  but  two  roca 
pitulations  were  appended  to  tho  retnms,  namely,  ono 
embracing  the  "arrivals"  in  each  State  during  the 
year;  the  other  tho  number  of  passengers  belonging 
to  each  "  country."  The  statement  now  submitted 
will  be  found  to  embrace  rocapitulations  exhibiting  the 
following  facta : 

1.  Arrival  of  passengers  in  1855. 

2.  Country  where  bom. 

3.  Country  where  they  mean  to  reside. 


KMI 


006 


EMI 


4.  Afaiad  Ma. 

•,  (tninptiUm.  '•  i 

t,  I'M  on  th«  tojtff. 

1.  Vnmf»tMi»  aUUnunt  ihowtnK  '!>*  counlriti  lu 
wkloh  «•?•  iMirn  panMngtra  arriving  in  tl)«  llnlud 
MM**  frnm  f>ir«l||n  rauntrlM,  from  Dtctmbar  31,  \Htfi, 
Ut  IttvcnilMr  III,  IHAA. 

N,  riftn|Mr«tlvii  nUUnMnt  iliowInK  tli«  •((*>  ■"■I  ■■^ 
(if  |>«<wn|(»r«  nrrWInK  In  the  I'lilUil  HUttn  fyum  fiir- 
•l||N  riiUfltrl«ii,  from  UaotnilMr  31,  INA'i,  tu  U«ciiinli«r 
nl,  IMA, 

9,  ('iitnpiirttlrii  aUUincnt  ihciwing  the  orcuiintiiiii 
»f  |iM)wn(|«r«  arriving  in  (ha  United  Htatei  fnnii  ftr- 
olgil  r<rtinlrl««,  rrimi  Dceamher  81,  IHA'J,  to  Duounilx'r 
Ml,  IMA, 

10,  ('(tni|Mrallve  •tatement  of  the  numlier  of  pii»- 
mmtuit*  arriving  In  the  (;nited  Statea,  by  lea,  fMin 
fvrvtgn  iftiinlrlxii,  from  Hiptvmlwr  ilO,  itun,  tu  iJecam- 
)Mir  HI,  IMA, 

AtUnlInn  I*  once  more  Invited  to  the  fact,  that  liy 
tit*  X't  (if  (.'ongren*  of  IMIO,  re<|ulring  Immigration 
tt^ntnn,  iMwaengen  "  arriving  by  tea"  aeem  alnne  con- 
No.  L— AaaivALor  I'Aaaaaaiaa 


templatad,  and  thai  an  amviidment  of  that  act,  m  aa 
lu  embrace  alio  thoM  arriving  by  land,  luema  tu  be 
demanded.  The  attention  of  collectorit  at  Trontler 
cu■tum-houlll^•,  eeiHK'Ully  on  (ha  northern  liorilvr,  luu 
been  diret  trcl  tu  tui-b  Imailgratlun  by  till*  l)i'|iurtiM»nt, 
and  the  ruaiilt  biu  been  return*  from  tiie  colliMtor  ut 
Uiwego,  embracing  the  arrival*  uf  A,()72  |iiu*iiiignra 
during  the  la*t  three  (juartur*  of  the  year. 

Although  the  return*  of  collector*  of  cuatuma  of  the 
(HiBMvrigur*  arriving  within  their  diatrlct*  liavu  lM>«n 
charat'terUed  by  greater  |irecl*luii  during  the  pa«t  year 
than  beretuforu,  there  la  atlil  ruom  for  Iniprovcment  j 
and  tbn  preaent  atutement  will, lllie It*  iiredcicnaora  for 
the  laat  two  year*,  li«  trun*mlttiid  tu  them  with  a  view 
to  aid  them  In  cauaing  their  return*  tu  conform  tu  th* 
requirement*  of  law. 

I  buva  the  lionor  tu  bo  ilr,  your  olicdient  *ervunt, 

W.  L.  M,vn(  Y. 

Hon.  N.  1'.  Ilaak*,  Jr.,  Hpvaltar  of  the  lluuae  of  Iti'iiruatiut- 
atlrva. 

Hulijoined  are  the  more  Impurtant  tublea  avcompa- 
nylng  tlie  Hecnttury'r  letter:  , 

IN  TUa   llNITBD  l*TATt*  IN    IMS. 


nrfi  fl*io|i*hlr*. 
MMHrhnaiitta     . . 

HMmIo  l<(and 

j»»w  V<iili 

IVfin>;l>anla 

Hartland 

Vl»«lr.l*  , 

W'irth'  *rn||M... 
•»iiiOii(;»fol((ia... 

laMlna 


il«. 
YeW.. 


rini 

quarter. 

|lM,P>4 

quarlar. 

Tklnl 
(4Nan«r. 

1,1M 

roarik 
qawwr. 

MaUi. 

r<a.*.'*i. 

■•I  n.i| 

Mala4. 

TXah 

878 

l,ll|M 

11,147 

m» 

9,(M 

•  a  *  * 

4 

14 

a 

17 

4 

11 

\m 

^SM 

M»A 

4,inM 

io,4n4 

7,BTO 

17,078 

1 

IH 

M 

18 

51 

81 

HH 

1V,AI7 

S»,AI« 

40,774 

40,7AO 

10I,7» 

«4,71t7 

14«.A<!1 

ft74 

4.110 

l,44H 

1,440 

8,WI» 

8,1171 

7,Ail 

1,«18 

l,»ll 

a 

4 

1,P14 
H 

i,7»a 

8,flR9 
8 
8 

8,1IW 
8 

4 

«,i«0 

e 

7 

8 

SOS 

144 

bS 

JHd 

565 

103 

711 

flO 

»7 

81 

HI 

U'i 

77 

219 

m 

14 

i 

18 

»7 

M 

., 

1M 

T,17« 

«,iM 

DM 

«,AV8 

11,741 

7,M7 

10,HHH 

111 

at* 

IHA 

1,077 

1,167 

»AA 

1.1 11 

1,151 

1,«)0 

1,044 

Wit 

4,4A7 

DM 

4,7A0 

Sl.HBO 

81.478 

tarn 

AT.US 

14<M»l 

IW,1M8 

11     1  1110,476    1 

f  MM«ff*fl, 

■aiilanil 
hnvmA 


Ku,  II.— CoDNTiT  wuaai  Hoax. 

TnUl. 


1(1 8H,>I71 

4».«t7 

RfMland 5.175 

Wele* 1,171 

iitnH  Hrllaln 1.351 

MrHlah  Amrrlea...    7,7*1 

Franmi MM 

HiMh 951 

l^iftNfal MB 

NwlliKirlanil 4,488 

1,0M 
M 
B 
• 


Cguiurtra.  Total, 

Norway  h  Sweden.       811 

Houth  America...  Ill 

Meileo 410 

Central  Ainerloa..  1 

China Aia 

Weat  IndlA* 887 

Axoree. ...........  175 

Soclnty  lalanda. . ..  1 

Sandwich  Uland*..  7 

Eaat  Indlea 8 

AnitraJU 4 

Ada 8 

Madeira  Island*. . .  1 

Africa 14 

United  (Mates 1»,5M 

Notitated '  l45 

Total 180,47* 

ClllieniortbeU.H.  1«,AW 

tinnmy M,ll> 

f'oland 4*1  Allen* 100,877 

No,  III— CorNTBT  wuaaa  tuet  hian  to  Bkbidi. 

IJliMH  Hlatea 106,«17 

In  otbor  roantrioa t,185 

Cannitf  tl  propeaed  retldenoe  not  itatad 18,(74 

TuM 180,47« 

Xo.  IV.— AuB  AND  Sax. 


Af>, 

Melas. 

r«Mi». 

•lawil,         ™*'-      1 

Vtiitl  t  /ear*. . . . 
DHweea  »*tn.. 

10,117 

9,819 



li,VIMt 

9.100 

8,888 

18,088 

"       10  "18.. 

»,(»05 

7,071 

15,07* 

"       l»"».. 

10,008 

17301 

87,810 

!    *"»•• 

HIM 

15,418 

89,6<T 

•    «"*i,. 

14,080 

10,799 

84,818 

"        80"»., 

1A,«0( 

•.099 

11,708 

"       8ft  "40.. 

11,777 

MBO 

18,817 

Ut  and  D|(ward.., 

15,074 

9,181 

»,155 

An*  not  slated. .. . 
Total  

407 

417 

ii 

88« 

140,181 

90,181            i< 

180,47* 

No.  v.— OOCUPATIOW. 


Owapallou. 

MaUt.     1  reaaUai. 

■teltj. 

T'UI. 

MerohaoU 

Moclianlca 

Farmers 

14,759 

14,997 

84,898 

1,18* 

181 

41,580 

114 

147 

149 

01 

1,4M 

19^W 

1,6m* 

815 

87,401 

"ii 

I4,7.'W 
11,1»B7 
84.008 
1.158 
1.'<1 
41,5-*i) 

m 

M7 

149 

1,59.S 

1,841 

117,000 

180,476 

Marlnen 

Miner*. 

Lawyers 

PhyalcUns 

Clanrymen 

Servania 

Other  occupations 
Not  stated 

Total f  140,181 

90,168 

11 

No.  VI,— UlKD  ON  Tua  VoYAoa, 


ToporUofMaaa 

New  York.. 

"         Ponn 

"         Muvhud... 
■*         Louulana.  . 

»         Texas 

Total 


181 
1 
7 
11 


116 


5 

150 

8 

1 

10 

1 


8<iao) 
•talMl. 


TIT 


8 
881 
T 
9 
41 
8 


408 


No.  X.— Htatkiikkt  or  the  Ncuasa  or  rASMNonia  Aa- 

BIVINO   IN  TUI  ITnIT«D  StATI*  DT  SxA    rROV    KORKIUK 

CouNTKin,  raoM  Ski-t.  «n,  1854,  to  Dko.  81,1856. 


Xagtlali  writon  u,y  thmt  the  lata  extraordtoary  emi- 
gr*<k«  from  Ireland  (1846—1864)  luu  don*  mnch  to 
mtfwi*  U«  eondHloB. 


Yaananlliif 

Sept.  80, 18447. 

1845.. 

1846.. 

1947.. 

1848.. 

iS4».. 

1850.. 
Deo.  t     Vm.. 

'851.. 

1851.. 

\«b».. 

1854.. 

1856.. 


Total. 


MaJn 


Famalai. 


48,897  I 

69,188 

90,973 

184,750 

18«,119 

179,158 

100,908 

88,181 

94^017 

mm 

184,887 
140,181 


wsm 


R^867 

49,190 

66,778 

96,747 

91,S88 

119,915 

118.891 

27,107 

168,145 

16<i81 
176,587 
90.187 


MSIrre 


?r.M°'     T.UI, 


1,406 

897 

1,057 

471 

441 

],0t)8 

ISl 

66 

898,470 


11 

40ilMi' 


84,764 
119,884 
158,648 
281,5S4 
119,488 
299.610 
8(5,:i88 

6.%670 
408,818 
898,4rd 
400,777 
460,474 
180,476 


Montln. 
January., 
fcbriiary. 
"••rch . . . 
April.... 

Ma.v 

June 

July 

Auifust... 
Hiptenibci 
Octuhor... 
November. 
'  Ucccmbor . 
Total.. 


Moil 

ibinnary . . 
'•'ebniary. 
March . , 

'<:::. 

Juno . . . 
July.... 

Auf^ust 

Boptemher. 

OctotHT. ... 

Nov.cinlior., 
Doocmbor . , 
Total. 


and 


nnvy,  ir 


8,401,871 


007 


I'M 


Tn  mldttlnn  tn  IhU  Koveramenl  table  hnr»— which 
l)«Klni<  at  HviiUinlwr,  1848,  and  iliiea  not  g\v»  the 
mean*  iif  ociin|iuri»nn  liftwean  calendar  yeara  till  INMI, 
w«  innert  iin«  |>n<|«red  frnm  the  original  authoritlee  In 
•  fnrin  anmewliut  mure  ayallalile  i 

Cniran  HrATrV  KaTtiaw  nr  AaatTAM  raftM  AaaoAD. 


Y.»<. 

Am«H<'Wi«  uid 

ForalyiHn. 
t  •  " 

879,481 
879,798 
88H,8ta 
497,MVI 
900,n77 

IW^-ilftO 

iN«o-iH4n 

July,  1840— July,  1h4I 

1H4» 

1848 

Jan.  l-Ue«,SI,  1844 

1848 

1»4« 

184T 

IM* 

SS:::::::. 

1861 

18M 

1888 

18M 

IsflB 

8iM,»t» 
7il'i.««» 
SH,N)4 
ini.loT 
7M07 
88,887 
1H0,7R9 
178,888 
188.978 
iM«,lHn 
II9I«,^48 
8'A<81 
4flh,HllH 
89Hk470 
4(N),777 
480,474 
980,476 

Wo  alao  add  the  followInK  talile,  which  ahowa  the 
rapid  advance  of  the  (ierman  omiKrutiim  to  the  United 
Stntca.  tl|>  to  IH.'il,  it  in  fnim  «  |)u|«t  hv  Dr.  (iuebler 
In  llubnpn'H  Stiitiatik  ;  uiid  includcn  only  th<iae  who 
■aileil  from  (icrniun  f><>rti4.  The  yuiira  1N.V2  nnd  IHriil 
are  (Vom  our  ((ovomnient  return*,  and  imlude  nil 
arrivnin.     'Ihuni  in  a  connldcralde  hUHlnens  done  in 


bringing  Oemian  emlgrarta  t'l  rngland  for  theiu  to 
take  pna««Ke  thence  to  America  ;  othen  aall  rrom  Ant- 
werp aiirl  llarra.  Oaebler'a  NtatUtIca  after  1M4A  are 
made  up  from  the  retuma  of  different  aea-purta : 

KmuaAan  to  rna  llaiTau  Htatm  rauM  OiaiiAar. 

1819 4,700 

IHD) 9,900 

1N91 9,400 


18*9 9,800 

1198 9,7(M) 

1894 4,am 

1898 4,HCK) 

18M ll.UOO 

1897 9,800 

1898 H,UIIO 

1899 18,1100 

1880 no  return. 

1881 IMOO 

|h8'J 94,900 

IHIUI 90,mHl 

I>i84 94,IK)0 

INJlft 17,000 

IH88 94,()(MI 

1887 88U00 


1N88 90,000 

!>«• 98,000 

IH40 98.18)0 

1*41 99,000 

lH4t 90,000 

1N«| 98,000 

1H44 48,701 

XtM 87,9(«( 

1844 ,,,.108,889 

1S4T 110,484 

l>t48 )t8,8ll 

1><4« 88,197 

iNfiO 89,888 

IMBI 118,190 

rrom  IT.  8.  Kspnrta. 

1889 I44.N94 

1NS8 141,998 

IHM 9I\000 

1888 71,898 


the 


The  arriviilrt  fmm  Oermany  and  rrutala    In 
l^vemmvnt  taldea  are  here  uddetl  tc>){ethi'r. 

Agrt  i\f  Umigrantt. — The  following  tiilde,  which 
waa  among  thoHe  aent  to  Congreaa  by  the  State  De- 
partment a  few  dnya  aince,  ha*  not  till  now  been  pul>- 
liahcd.  It  givea  the  detaila  of  a  mutter  which  hax 
l)oen  a  good  deal  diacuaacd,  the  age  and  chance  of  life 
of  tho  furrignera  who  arrive  here  : 


CuurABATivk  Btatkhkiit  auowiNO  ma  Aoa  anii  Hix  or  1'AMrxnr.aa  AnaiTixo  in  xna  Uxiteu  Btatiu  raoii  FoaiiuH 
Coi'NTRiaa,  raou  Dao.  81,  18A9,  to  Ukc.  81,  1868. 


The  following  table  hIiuwh  tho  immigration  at  Now 
York  for  tho  luMt  four  youra,  with  monthly  compari- 
lonx : 


Monlhi. 

mu. 

IHM. 

lltu. 

IBU. 

January  

February 

Mareh... 

April 

4,00 1 
ll,9.^8 

9,ftM,'S 
98,tJM8 
80.'il9 
46.87S 
99,^1H 
88,6.19 
80,'.jHS 
28,'iOl 
81,4»JJ 
17,194 
9!44,94S 

l.\M4 
4,448 
8,7ftS 
81,148 
M,u7H 

aft,H07 

118,947 
811,418 
98,789 

SH,li7^ 

90.976 

98,898 

819,998 

7,4t(a 

M»8 

9,089 
10,195 
94,177 
19.498 
18,716 

9,180 
1 1,706 
18,849 

7,488 

9,860 
188,988 

9,844 

9,994 

4,884 

8,995 

19,006 

90,094 

1^846 

17,988 

14,078 

16,986 

16,746 

4,987 

141,878 

j€;:::::::;: 

July 

AuKUSt 

Hiptcmbor 

October 

November 

December 

Total 

Tho  proportion  of  Irish  and  Oermana  arrived  during 
the  year  1856  appears  from  the  following  table : 


I      Iibh. 


January  .... 
February... 

March 

April 

May 

Juno 

July 

August 

September.. 

October 

November.. 

December . . 

Total. 


8h4 
998 
1,040 
8,2:!7 
8,618 
6,015 
6,068 
^090 
4,988 
6,691 
6,901 
1,888 


48,998 


648 
444 

1,905 
2,290 
8,803 
6,045 
^0OB 
7,789 
6,247 
7,616 
7,844 
_Jj941 
86,846 


_Tol«]^ 

9.S44 

2.224 

4.884 

8,296 

19,006 

90,024 

16,848 

17,288 

14,078 

16.0S6 

16,745 

4,287 


141,679 


IjiBt  year  there  waa  an  unusually  nmall  amount  of 
emigration,  owing  to  the  war,  the  drafts  for  the  army 
and  navy,  increased  employment  at  home,  and  the 
check  given  to  emigration  to  the  United  States  by  tho 
stringent  American  regulations  and  the  political  objec- 
tions to  Catholics  and  the  Irish,  and  to  naturalization, 


wlilch  hud  b'  *';i'  freely  granted.     The  employ- 

ment of  mar.  ^  ur^  '  '  .'ers  now  disengaged  fmm  till' 
trauKport  vTy\iie  .ind  ic  iced  fares,  coupled  with  the 
proBporon<  '•i  >  i  i<r  \)^\\^^ '  i.  and  Australia,  will  lead  to 
an  increaK.d  c  ■  grsnon  i     '867. 

*.,  'It  is  •  !   i-nil.r-'iti.,         'he  United  StattL—lXw 
enil     '.      I    r  ilic  iiik.it  \"iu    <  <i  a  an  increase  as  com- 


pari 

thu.      l.7i    • 

the  figurei 
From  istio- 


w  'h  I  lull  .  I  till- 


>C,'I 


'  lo 


i56,  but  is  much  lesx 
'*,     The  following  are 


I8i 

1810— 1S<"      1, 
1820—1880     IH   Al86 
1880—1840     .M  1,000 
1840—1860  1,(;78,888 


1881 989,601 

1859  800,909 

1888 284,946 

1864 819,998 

1866 188,283 

1856 141,916 


The  tide  of  emigration  during  tho  year  18fi6  did  not 
set  in  Ktoadily  until  June  and  .luly. 

The  following  ahows  the  numlier  of  arrivals  and  the 
proportion  of  emigrants : 

CoiinlHt.1.  ArrlT«li. 

Ireland 44,090 

Germany 85,888 

Kn^lanil 98,681 

Scutlaud 4,67s 

Waloa 1,876 

France 9,981 

Bpnln 824 

Switzerland 2,788 

Holland 8,187 

Norway 488 

Sweden 918 

Denmark 471 

Italy 6»0 

From  the  want  of  coal,  Ireland  is  ill-fitted  for  manu- 
facturing industry ;  and  from  the  nature  of  itn  soil  and 
climate,  it  is  much  better  suited  to  pari  tge  than  to 
tillage.  In  1854  the  further  reducti'  i  .it  it-  .•  'v 
tlon  by  one  or  two  millions,  by  emlgi„tion  wad  .  j- 
sidered  favorable  to  its  well-being. 


Cnantriea.  ArrlTftlH. 

Portugal 20 

Belgium 885 

West  Indies 226 

Nova  .Sentlik 80 

Sardinia 490 

Souih  America,...  161 

Cansila 67 

China. 8 

Sicily 10 

Me.xlco 18 

Kiiaalo. 6T 

Turkiy 4 

Greece 0 


i^ 


sJEi 


EMI 


698 


van. 


Jiniuiy 

FtbnuiT.. . . 

Much 

April 

Miy 

Jane. 

Jnly 

Angoit 

Saptember  . 

October 

November. . 

December. . 

Total... 


8,008 

8,844 

8,008 

8,844 

8,fiT6 

4,684 

4,tM 

f,'iS5 

«,S61 

Ii<,no6 

M19 

2^084 

4,881 

15,848 

8,880 

17,858 

8,489 

14,0.%g 

8,978 

1«,986 

8,ftl8 

10,745 

1,800 

4,M0 

89,819 


Km!|n«ntf.        Total. 


141,91fi 


4,807 

7,1M 

18,479 

8fi,l»7 

^^)4S 

20,076 

!1,1S8 

17,497 

20,9S9 

80,868 

6^_ 

18as884 


The  following  tables,  in  connection  with  the  above 
figures,  will  \>e  found  interesting : 

'*!»  PER  CKNT.   lMCBE4aR    OP    PoPVLATIUN   IH  TUB  UNrTKD 
STATK8. 

1800—1810 7,889,884  Increase  about  40  per  cent 

1810— lt80 9,6.'«,181         "           "       80 

1880—1880 18,868,080         "           "       mi      " 

1880— 1S40 17,669,469         "           '•       88}      " 

1840—1850 88,191,870          »           "        84        " 

TuK  PIB  CKXT.  Ikorcase  uf  Iumiobatio.i  in  tue  United 
Statbi. 

1800—1810 70,801    Increase  about  1  percent 

1810—1880 114,006         "  ' 

1880—1830 186,0.S«         "  " 

1880— 1840 670,000  "  " 

1940-1860 1,678,888  "  "        7 

Thf  Emigration  of  \%bG. — The  following  tnlile,  show- 
ing the  destination  uf  emigrants  who  landed  at  Castle 
Garden,  New  Yoric,  during  the  year  18S6,  and  the 
amount  of  cash  means  they  possessed  ut  the  time  of  ar- 
rival, ij  made  up  from  the  official  table  prepared  by  the 
Superintendent  of  the  Commissioners  of  Emigration  : 


OctiioAtloo. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire .... 

Vermont 

Massachusotts 

nbode  Island 

Conncctlcat 

NowYork 

New  Jcricy 

PennsylTonta 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

California 

Delaware 

Maryland., 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama. 

Louisiana. 

Texas 

Arkansas 

MIssonrL 

MIsslsslppL 

Tenness<!e 

Kentucky 

District  of  Columbia. . 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

Mlnntaota 

New  Mexico, 

Utah 

Oregon 

Washington 

Canada 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

West  Indies 

8outh  America 

Mexico 

Central  America.. . . . 

Australia 

Uncertain 

Unknown 

Total 


PuMOgen. 


148 
177 

2,10 

Mf4 

1,864 

8,26-2 

66,065 

8.248 

11,749 

7,0.95 

1,8SS 

11,064 

8,296 

18,827 

8,880 

77S 

81 

1,1M 

667 

66 

178 

47 

12 

30 

171 

76 

80 

1,064 

14 

178 

460 

4(>r 

11 

2 

427 

1,674 


8,686 


2 
11 


1 
2,118 


141,686 


CMh  ni«Aiu. 


(8,986  60 

2.778  81 

5,S57  60 

162.9^1)  iA 

2'J,921  60 

99,.'W1  89 

2,10l,6,'>()  60 

295.480  66 

694,785  4.8 

681.687  81 
160,184  72 

1,400,488  43 

.881,087  83 

1,984,125  10 

842.688  75 
167,608  26 

4,108  60 

no,7(M  28 

2,M98  48 

8,829  60 

8,946  ,10 

8,207  00 

668  00 

1,707  51) 

1(V»8  22 

8,826  75 

4,709  00 

109,122  19 

1,880  00 

11,806  50 

25,817  76 

84.691  69 

a,288  00 

Sm  00 

66,(y48  00 

82,086  88 


652,823  86 


15  00 

1,107  (JO 

1,728  60 

.  1,827  56 

7  50 
100  68 
67  41 
110  63 

20  00 
120,979  93 

80  110 
57  86 

AT«>1lf« 

por  head. 

"»26  98  ■ 
15  66 

21  4a 
20  68 

22  09 
48  44 
88  17 
91  12 

59  18 
96  80 

108  80 
126  63 
100  44 
148  88 
148  94 
215  48 

40  64 
52  16 
44  48 
68  02 

60  26 
174  01 

65  68 

66  91 
68  SO 

109  U 
1.16  66 
1U2  .16 

98  67 
68  61 
65  08 
86  88 
288  8L- 
150  00 
181  00 

88°83 


70  i\ 


•9,»I8,1M  00  I  $6.8  08  I 

The  total  nnmlier  of  arrivals  during  the  yesr  is 
aljout  six  t!iousand  more  than  the  previous  year,  and 
the  proportion  of  cash  means  to  each  passenger  is  con- 


sidenble  larger  than  during  the  lost  five  months  of 
1856.  The  account  of  cash  means  was  not  kept  until 
after  the  first  seven  months  of  185S.  The  number  of 
vessels  liringing  emigrants  lost  year  was  679,  from  21 
different  ports  of  Kurope,  and  not  one  serious  accident 
has  occurred  during  the  disembarkation.  Some  emi- 
grants, ill-udvised  by  interested  parties,  have  declined 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  facil!ti<>s  aflforded  by  the 
Commissioners  of  Emigration,  and  have  consequently 
l>een  plundered  in  various  ways,  sometimes  irremedia- 
bly. The  governments  of  Hamburg  and  Bremen  have 
made  it  a  penal  oft'ense  to  solicit  or  book  emigrants  for 
inland  travel  in  foreign  countries,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  other  European  governments  will  follow  their  ex- 
ample. 

Since  the  22d  of  August  lost  a  system  of  aiding 
destitute  emigrants  baa  l^ecn  established,  which  hag 
proved  highly  beneficial.  Since  that  date  in  185,5,  210 
families  were  assisted  to  the  amount  of  $2,<')n9  25 ;  in 
158  the  advttnce,s  have  already  l)een  repaid,  amounting 
to  $1,456  25. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  arrivals  during  two  weeks 
of  January-,  1857,  only: 


Jan 


Vtual. 


Henry  Clay..., 

Columbia 

Victoria 

Fidelia 

Palestine 

Calhoun 

Ked  Kover 

Wui,  Nellson... 
Wm.  V.  Moses, 
BL  Nlctaola.1.... 

Orpheus 

Swlticrlanil 

Northampton . . 

Union 

Germanla 

Gauntlet 


Liverpool., 


London.... 
Liverpool., 
I^nilon.... 
Liverpool. . 
Havre 


Bremen. . . 
Liverpool. 
Lontlun.... 
Bremen... 
Havre 


Niimbar  of 
paMotifcera. 


219 
418 

183 

260 

119 

230 

153 

808 

880 

166 

820 

808 

116 

49 

77 

67 


.8,260 


The  Dtatinaiion  of  Emiijranis. — The  following  table 
shows  the  destination  and  amount  of  money  possessed 
by  all  the  emigrants  who  arrived  nt  New  York  during 
the  eleven  months  previous  to  July  30,  1856 : 


Dullnallon. 


»\\  New  Knglsnd  States  

Klfleen  Slave  States  Mid  D.  C. 

New  York 

New  ticrscy 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

California 

MInnewta... 

Kansas 

Utah 

Oregon 

Total 


Total  of  the  Free  States  and 
Territories 


£inlflranli. 


8,148 

8,256 

89,943 

9,272 

9,421 

6,117 

l,i)09 

7,718 

2,887 

10,1)00 

1,856 

806 

806 

3 

1,829 

1 


AnMiint  of  thetr 
Ca*h  Cjipltal. 


$121,528  01 

194,888  78 

1,291,028  09 

214,956  79 

646,088  78 

479,683  90 

101,861  63 

698,456  81 

199,860  80 

1,045,661  88 

248,8:16  40 

166,126  18 

85,166  OO 

188  00 

66,670  93 

10  00 


106,707      $6,898,869  64 


108,461    1 16,208,480  SI 


Of  late  years  (185S— 1857)  there  has  been  more 
immigration  to  tlie  State  of  Texas  than  fomierly, 
especially  by  Ucrmuns,  wlio  liuve  formed  lar\;e  settle- 
ments in  several  counties  in  the  western  portions  of 
the  State,  where  land  can  l>o  had  at  60  cents  to  $1  per 
acre,  and  where  the  climate  and  !!oiI  are  favorable. 

Emioratiom  a!«i>  Immioh.vtion. — The  following 
from  IlUBSKn's  '^  Jdhrhucher"  for  1854,  gives  the  des- 
tiiittticns  of  natives  of  flcrmany  embarking  from  the 
ports  of  Hamburg  i>nd  Bremen  ; 


DMIlaatlon. 


1841.  I  ISM.  I   IMS. 


J. 


United  States. ....  88,287  i88,66»  :82,120  A!,481  44,681  l7o,ttH4 


British  America.. 
All  other  places. 


7,8521  1,8221     iliel     50;l 
1,671  IJ.^IJ  l.sn^j  1^44 


Total [41,810  ,86,682 ,84,249 ,111868  49,778  J80,46T 


647  I  4,948 
■1,594]  4,.' 85 

r«1i 


Am 


ll 

joini 


EMI 


1_WI. 

r7o,ii»« 

7    4,948 

4  J  4,.' 86  I 

2'si),4«V  i 


800 

EuoiATioic  rBOK  Obbat  BEiTAnr, 


EMI 


Yaara. 

To  North 
Aourlcancoloolei. 

To  the  United  SUUoi. 

'ToAtulnliu 

Colonlei  end  New 

ZeahDd. 

To  eU  other 
placet. 

Total. 

Numlxr. 

Kate  p«r  oeot,  to 
whole  emltrrmtlon. 

1886 

8,741 
19,818 
12,648 
12,034 
18,307 
80,574 
63,067 
66,839 
28,808 
40,060 
18,678 
84,226 
39,884 
4,677 
12,668 
82,293 
88,164 
64,128 
28.613 
29.924 
81,^08 
43,439 

109,080 

31,063 

41,367 

82,961 

1,197 

842,893 

6,661 
7,068 
14,626 
12,817 
16,678 
24,887 
23,418 
82,873 
29,109 
88.074 
26,720 
87,n4 
86,770 
14,882 
88,636 
40,642 
46,017 
63,863 
23,835 
48,660 
63,688 
82,239 
142,154 
133,233 
219,460 
923,078 
68,143 
1,636,467 

87-28 
88-79 
61-37 
49-13 
60-35 
48-78 
23-16 
81-87 
46-65 
48-89 
60-07 
60-09 
61-05 
48-14 
68-91 
44-79 
87-96 
49-76 
49-68 
61-77 
62-61 
68-88 
66-04 
76-87 
7327 
79-48 
91-67 
63-65 

486 

903 

T16 

1,066 

3,016 

1,243 

1,661 

8,788 

4,098 

9,800 

1,860 

8,134 

6,064 

14.021 

16,786 

16,850 

82,026 

8,631 

8.47S 

3,229 

330 

2,347 

4,949 

28,904 

82,101 

16,087 

2,962 

204,836 

114 

116 
114 

186 
197 
204 
114 

106 

617 

28.3 

825 

898 

886 

292 

227 

1,953 

2,786 

1,886 

1,831 

1,378 

2,830 

1,828 

1,487 

4,837 

6,490 

8,778 

786 

40,820 

14,391 
80,900 
83,008 
36,093 
81,198 
68,907 
88,160 
108,140 
62,627 
76,222 
44,478 
76,417 
72,084 
88,223 
62,207 
90,748 
113,692 
128,344 
67,212 
70,636 
93,.W1 
129,361 
268,270 
348,089 
299,498 
880,849 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1889 

1880 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1835 

1886 

1887 

1388 

1889 

1840 

1941 

1842 

1848 

1844 

1846 

1848 

1847 

1348 

1849 

1S,V) 

1861,  to  March  8l8t 

Total 

53,086 
2,624,070 

Whether  the  foreign  immigration  can  be  liopt  up 
very  long  at  icn  present  higli  figure  must  b«  doubted. 
The  wars  in  Europe,  whioli  it  was  tliouglit  would  checic 
the  tide,  have,  however,  had  no  elfec-t  as  yet.  The 
numtier  arrived  in  New  Yorlc  for  tlie  quarter  ending 
Marcli  illst,  1854,  was  29,023,  against  29,657  in  the 
corresponding  quarter  of  1853. 

Tlie  following  table  shows  the  occupations  of  the 
eniiu -rants  from  England  in  1854  and  '55  : 

IK-l.  1S65. 

niai-kstnlllis  and  farriers 1,674  881 

Brozlorii.  tlii8inithn.  and  M'hltosmUbs 818  148 

Brick  ami  tile  inakors,  poturs,  etc Ill  82 

Bri<-k]ayi'rs.iiiafluii9,nlasturcrMan(l8latur.'^  8,0S4  1,314 

Builders 69  86 

Cal>lni.'t-..iakors  and  upholsterers 182  81 

Carpeiitoi-s  aitd  Joiners 6,1^  2,641 

Curvi-ra  and  )!  Ulers 66  64 

Coaeh-nmkcr.%  etc 60  26 

Coal  miners 177  62 

Coopers 269  171 

Enxlncers 817  235 

Millwright" 86  10 

Miners  and  quarrymen 4,112  1,678 

Painters,  pluiubors,  paper-hangers  and  {  «„.  «., 

Itlazlers > 

Sawyers 213  141 

Bhlpwrlnht* 01  16 

Bmlths  ((ton- rul) 216  263 

Surveyors. 27  82 

Turners 46  26 

Wheelwrights 196  106 

Moehanlcs  not  before  sp^  -Iflod 8,898  2,546 

Totol 21,.'147      1 1,1M 

To  tliis  statement  the  following  remarks  are  sub- 
Joined:    The  total  nuiuber  of  sucli  adults  who  euti- 


grated  in  the  two  years  having  been  respectively  134,- 
789  and  ti5,3C3,  it  follows  that  the  mechanics  and 
skilled  workmen  connected  with  the  building  and  con- 
structive trades,  who  leave  the  country,  form  the  pro- 
portion of  about  one  sixth  of  the  whole  number. 
Fanners,  agricultural  and  general  laborers,  and  those 
identified  with  laud,  constitute  one  half  of  the  bulk  of 
emitrrants. 

Tlie  number  of  foreigners  who  arrived  in  the  United 
States,  since  1790,  may  be  stated  as  follows ;  the  ar- 
rivals from  1790  to  1820  are  given  on  the  outliority  of 
Professor  Tucker ;  those  subsequent  to  that  period, 
are  obtained  from  the  custom-house  reports. 

Abhitals  or  FoREmMKas  in  the  llNiTEn  States. 


Ye»r«. 

ArrlvHls.    j 

Yenn. 

A,rl«.l.. 

1700-1800 
1800—1810 
1310—1820 
1820—1881 
1821—1822 
1822—1828 
182*-1S24 
1324-1826 
132,5—1826 
1326-1827 

50,000 

70,000 

114,000 

6,998 

7,329 

0,749 

7,088 

8,632 

10,161 

12,413 

iNie— 1S.H7 

1387—1888 

73,088 
69,868 
5-i,168 
81.146 
83,604 
101,107 
76,169 
74,607 
102,416 
147,1161 

1888—1389 

1889—1840. 

1840—1841 

1341—1342 

184-2—1848 

1  184.'i--1844 

1.344—1816 

,  134.5—1.840. 

]g27— 1828 

26,114 
24,469 

1846    1347 

220,182 
206,837 

1828—16-29 

'  1843  (15  moB.)  to  Sept.  80. 

1829—1880 

27,158 

1849,  1  year  to       '• 

296,983 

1880-138! 

■28,074 

'  1860, 

279,080 

1881—1382 

46,287 

186-i,  (16  mos)  to  Jan.  1.. . 

439,137 

1882—1883 

66.547 

l8.5:{,  to  1st  January 

872,r-2.5 

1&S3— 1384 

66,&S5 

1»64,  "            "       

868,648 

1S!M— 1S,<» 

62,899 

1S,V5,  "              "        

186,283 

niV- 1886 

62,473 

1866,  "              "        

|141,950 

Nativities  or  Passemgehs  abbivi,-<o  in  the  United  States. 


United  States 

Ireland 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

(Icrnmny 

Prussia,  Austria,  Qormany  and  Kolbknd. 
All  others 


Yrarendinx  Sept.  30, 1S4S. 


Male. 


4.221 
8,3.58 
82,781 
19,718 
21,143 
11,083 


F.mal..  j  8;.«,-J 


1,126 
8,061 
30,188 
18,074 
14,010 
8,971 


165 

822 
887 


419 


Year  tutlng  S,i\<t,  SO.  1847. 


MaU. 


8,081 
16,966 
72,429 
48,360 
46.921 
17,786 


Female. 


1,403 
1S.S69 
56,037 
29,306 
80,705 
11.125 


.Sex  not 
■  Intel. 


26 
215 
2'>2 
280 
286 
466 


Year  endiii](  Dec.  81,  I8A8. 


Male. 


23,ft58 
86.716 
109,268 
34,306 
86,096 
16,484 


Female. 


2,474 
7 1, "08 
88,987 
66,624 
68,1M2 

8,704 


Sex  not 
ttated. 


25 

2,600 
2.600 
2,958 


Lam  m  lieffard  to  Kmir/ranto.-^hy  the  law  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  passed  April,  1857,  it  is  provided 
that. 

No  person  shall.  In  any  city  of  tills  State,  solicit  emigrant 
passent^ers  or  their  luggage  for  emigrant  boarding-houses,  pns. 
senper-ortlces,  forwarding  traiisportatlnn  lines,  or  for  steam- 
ers, giilps  or  vesaelB  boiiiNl  or  about  to  proceed  to  any  port 
not  within  tills  Slate ;  or  !'jr  iiny  person  or  for  any  company 
selling,  or  offering  for  sale,  iiiutKage-tiekots,  or  oontraoUng  or 
offerini;  tJi  contract  fur  passage  lu  any  suoli  sleanior,  ship  or 


vessel  withont  a  license  for  that  purpose,  which  shall  expire 
at  the  •*nd  of  tme  year  from  its  date ;  such  ilcer.-te  may  bo  is- 
sued and  revoked  in  the  discretion  of  the  Mayor  of  the  city 
where  stieli  liecnsQ  may  have  been  granted,  except  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  In  which  such  licenst-  may  lie  issued  or  levoked 
only  hy  and  in  the  discretion  of  tlie  ( 'oniiniHHloncrs  of  i'',iiiigra. 
lion.  Such  persons  receiving  sneh  license  shall  pay  the  fim 
of  $^0,  and  give  a  bond,  with  two  sufticient  sureties,  in  the 
penally  of  ♦600.  conditioned  for  tlio  good  hohavior  and  the 
observance  to  liiiu  of  tho  provisions  this  act,  to  the  Mayor  of 
tbu  city  issuing  the  same,  or  lu  the  Ooiumisslonurs  of  Kml- 


EMI 


800 


ENA 


^ration,  u  the  easo  111*7  be.  The  money  thna  reeelred  or 
collected  on  MUd  bonde  iImII  be  for  the  benefit  of  nld  city,  or 
of  the  emlKrant  f\ind.  Krery  person  so  Uconwd  ehall  wear 
In  a  consptououa  place  about  his  person  a  badge  or  plate,  of 
■uch  charaotc  nd  In  auch  time  and  manner  as  said  Mayor, 
In  tho  city  of  nuw  York,  as  such  CommtsalnncrB  shall  pre- 
scrftio,  with  .hu  words,  **  I,iccnsed  Kmli^nt  Runner"  in- 
scribed thereon,  with  his  name  and  the  number  of  his  license. 
No  person  who  Is  not  of  approTcd  good  moral  character  shall 
be  licensed  as  such  runner.  Every  person  who  shall  solicit 
alien  emigrant  passengera  or  others,  for  the  benefit  of  board- 
ing-houses, pasEcnger-oflicps,  or  forwarding  or  Iransportntlon 
lines,  or  for  any  steamer,  ship  or  vessel  boimd  or  shout  to 
proceed  to  any  port  not  within  the  State  of  New  York,  or  for 
any  person  or  company  selling  or  offering  for  sale  passage- 
tlcketa,  or  coutracting  or  offering  to  contract  for  passage  In 
any  such  steam-ship  or  vessel,  upon  any  street,  lane,  alley,  or 
upon  any  dock,  pier  or  public  hl^hw«y,  or  In  any  other  (ilace 
within  tho  corporate  bounds  of  any  city  In  this  State,  or  upon 
any  waters  adjacent  thereto,  over  which  any  of  said  cities 
may  havejunsdlction,  without  such  licenso,  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  pniiiBhud  by  Imprison- 
ment In  tho  county  prison  or  jail  not  less  than  throe  months, 
nor  exceeding  one  year. 

The  bonds  mentioned  In  the  foregoing  sections  may  he  sued 
by  and  in  the  name  of  the  Mayor  of  the  city  In  which  such 
license  may  have  l)een  issued,  ami  in  the  city  of  Ni-w  Vurk 
by  and  In  the  nauio  of  the  CommissionorR  of  Kniigratlun  in 
any  court  having  oognlzanoethen*of:  and  in  casiMif  a  breach, 
tho  Mayor,  or  the  said  C'ommlssiuners,  shall  recover  the  full 
penalty  of  said  bond. 

AH  personsi  baggage  of  emigrant  passengers  arriving  at 
the  port  of  and  destined  for  the  city  of  New  York,  shall  be 
landed  at  the  place  or  pier  designated  as  the  landing-place  In 
laid  city  for  emigrant  passengera ;  and  tho  captain,  owners, 
and  consignees  of  every  ship  or  vessel  arriving  at  said  port 
with  emigrant  passengers  desiined  for  aaid  city,  shall  be 
Jointly  and  severally  subject  and  liable  to  a  penalty  of  $fiU  for 
each  and  every  emigrant  passenger,  or  his  personal  baggage, 
landed  nt  any  place  or  pier  other  than  the  place  or  pier  afore- 
said ;  which  p<-nalt7  shall  bo  a  lien  upon  such  ship  or  ver.sel, 
and  may  h<>  enfort^ed  and  recovered  by  and  In  the  name  of 
the  <  "ommlssioners  of  Kmigration,  either  by  an  action  or  by 
warrant  of  attachment,  under  and  pursuant  to  article  first  of 
title  eighth  of  chapter  eighth  of  the  first  part  of  the  Itovised 
SUtntes. 

The  Health  Oflicer  shall  give  notice  in  writing  to  the  owner 
or  owners,  consignee  or  consignees,  master,  commander  or 
person  having  charge  of  every  vessel  having  cmigni.it  pas- 
sengera on  hoard  of  such  vessel,  destined  fi.r  tlie  city  of  New 
York,  to  land  such  passengers  and  their  personal  bsggoge,  11 1 
such  pier  or  place  In  the  said  clly  of  New  York  as  has  been 
or  may  at  any  time  be  deaignated  specially  by  the  t'onimlH- 
sionera  of  Kmigration  for  the  inmling  of  emigrant  passi'ngeis 
and  their  personal  baggage ;  and  It  shall  not  tie  lawful  to 
land  finch  passengera  or  their  personal  baggagt!  at  any  other 
pier  or  place  :  and  the  owner  and  master  of  any  vi-ssel,  from 
which  passengers  cr  their  persdual  twggage  shall  be  landed, 
in  violation  of  the  proviaions  of  this  section,  shsll  be  subject 
to  a  penalty  of  $.^t)  f«jr  each  and  every  person  or  his  hnggage 
io  landed  In  viol.ition  thereof;  which  penalty  shiill  be  forth- 
with a  Hen  on  such  ship  or  vessel,  and  may  be  inimcdtately, 
upon  such  violation,  sued  for,  enforced  and  recovered,  with 
costs  of  suit.  Ic  the  nal'ie  of  and  by  the  (.'ommlssloMers  of 
En^llTTition,  either  by  an  action  in  any  court  having  cognl- 
laccc  the'  -of,  or  by  an  attachment  under  and  pursuant  to 
anieli'  first  of  lillo  eighth,  chaptfir  eighth,  of  the  firel  part  of 
the  Ki>visi-d  Statutes,  for  which  punxjse  the  satd  Comniis- 
tloners  of  Kmigration  shall  forthwith  tie  creditors  of  such 
•hip  or  vcssi'l,  and  hsving  a  direct  lien  on  such  ship  or 
vcsm'l.  for  said  iH'Ualty ;  the  aald  i>ennlty,  wl;t'n  recovered, 
to  be  fljiplied  and  used  by  the  said  1 'ommlssioners  for  the  pur- 
poses 'or  which  said  (^tmmlssionera  are  constituted. 

Eminent  Domain.  1'lic  rii^lit  of  the  .State  to 
Its  pulilii'  property  or  tlomaiii  's  nhmluli',  and  exclinles 
that  of  its  own  sulijetls  ns  well  as  other  natiunn.  Tlie 
national  proprietary  right  in  respect  to  those  tiling's 
belongint;  In  private  indiviiluiils,  or  Imlies  eorpurnte, 
within  its  territurial  1'  nits,  is  nhimliitr,  so  far  as  it  ex- 
cluiles  that  of  other  nations ,  Init  in  respe(  t  (o  the 
numliorsof  tlio  .State,  it  \*  jHimmimnl  oijy,  ami  forms 
wliat  i^  ealled  tlie  eiuineat  doiiuin  ;  that  is,  the  ri^ht. 
In  case  of  net'e'<sit}  or  for  the  putilic  safety,  of  ili^pos- 
Ing  of  all  the  pn>|i«rty  <if  every  kiml  within  the  limits 
of  the  State. — Wiikat.  Iiitir.  fyitir,  .See  Corres.  Iie- 
tween  Mr.  Websiku aad Lord  AaiiutitTUN,  Dec.  1837. 


Bmpira  (Lat.  Imperium).  Originally  the  terri- 
tory' or  extent  of  land  nnder  the  command  and  Juris- 
diction of  an  emperor.  The  dominions  under  the  sway 
of  ancient  Romn  were  the  first  to  which  the  tenn  em- 
pire was  applied ;  they  consisted  of  two  grand  divisions 
— the  Empire  of  the  East,  or,  as  It  was  afterward 
called,  the  I^wer  Empire  ;  and  the  Empire  cf  the 
West.  The  farmer  admitted  of  various  suhdivisinns 
in  reference  to  the  diflercnt  dynasties  to  which  i!  was 
subject ;  and  the  latter  becime,  about  the  end  of  the 
9th  centurj-,  the  German  or  Holy  Roman  Empire.  In 
all  these  cases,  the  sovereign,  or  chief  person  in  tho 
empire,  was  named,  the  emperor.  Hut  tho  f  onn  cmi>lro 
has  in  several  Instances  been  employed  to  designate  a 
large  erient  nf  tlominum,  without  reference  to  ttio  title 
of  the  ruler  or  sovereign  of  a  country ;  thus  wn  hear 
of  the  empire  of  Persia,  Ilindostan,  etc.  The  doniin- 
ions  of  the  Queen  of  England  are  invnrialpjy  <lesignHted 
tlie  British  Empire;  and  the  epitliet  "  im|M>riiil"  is 
officially  prefixed  to  tho  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  Tlie  term  empire  was  applied  from  1K04  to 
1S14  to  the  dominions  of  France,  including  nil  the 
countries  then  incorjxjratcd  with  it  by  tlio  coiujuests 
of  Napoleon. 

Emporium,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  a  city  or 
a  place  whore  extensive  cominerclal  trunsuctinns  nro 
carried  on  ;  but  it  is  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
commercial  centre  of  a  countrj',  or  tho  place  to  which 
buyers  and  sellers,  from  various  cotmtrios,  resort. 

Emp3rreuma  (fir.  npinvptvu,  I  h'n<lte).  A  burned 
odor ;  hence,  the  oils  obtained  by  di.stilling  various 
organic  suli.itanccs  at  high  temperatures,  are  called 
empt/mimatir  nifs. 

Enamel  (Fr.  fiiuiil)  n  semi-transparent  or  opaque 
vitrified  substance,  of  the  iiuture  of  glass,  liut  differ- 
ing from  it  by  possessing  a  greater  degree  of  fusiliility 
and  opacity.  Tho  comjiound  which  serves  as  a  basis 
to  most  kinds  of  enamel  is  formed  by  tlie  fusion  of  a 
pure  crystal  glass  or  frit,  ground  up  with  a  fine  calyx 
of  lead  and  tin,  in  certain  proportions  ;  to  vtiicli  is 
usually  added  white  salt  of  tartar.  The  dilFerent 
kinds  of  enamel  arc  made  by  tlie  addition  of  coloring 
substances,  and  melting  or  incorporating  the  whole  by 
fusion.  For  white  enamel,  Ncri  (/>e  Artr  Vilrinr.)  di- 
rects only  manganese  to  be  added  to  the  mutter  which 
constitutes  tho  basis;  for  azure,  zaffer  mixed  witli 
cal.'C  of  brass ;  for  green,  calx  of  brass  with  scales 
of  iron,  or  with  crocus  martis ;  for  black  zaffer  with 
mang'.nese  or  with  crocus  martis,  or  manganese  with 
tartar;  for  red,  maiiganeac,  or  calx  of  copper  and 
crude  tartar;  for  purple,  manganese  with  calx  of 
brass ;  for  yellow,  tartar  and  manganese ;  and  for  vio- 
let-colored enamel,  manganese  with  tlirice-caleiiud 
li^iss ;  111  making  these  enamels  great  nicety  is  reiiiii- 
site.  The  general  way  of  making  thi'  colored  enamel 
is  this :  Powder,  sift,  and  grind  nil  tho  colors  very 
nicely,  and  first  mix  them  with  one  another,  and  thi'i, 
with  the  common  matter  of  enamels  ;  next  set  tliein  in 
|iots  in  a  furnace,  and  when  tliey  arc  well  mixed  and 
incor|Kiratcd,  C'jst  them  into  voter;  when  dry,  set 
them  in  a  fi'mace  again  to  melt ;  and  wlieii  melted, 
take  a  prui'f  of  the  enamel.  If  too  deep-colored,  add 
more  of  tho  common  matter  of  enamels ;  and  if  too 
p»le,  add  more  of  tho  eohirs. 

Enameling,  the  art  of  laying  enamel  upon  metal.s, 
as  gold,  lilver,  cop|i«r,  etc.  Enamel  ornai;ents  fir 
trinkets,  in  almost  endless  variety,  may  be  produced 
liy  the  aid  of  tho  blowpij*'.  The  enamel  is  usually 
first  drawn  out  into  threads,  or  reduced  to  thin  lani- 
inte,  to  facilitate  the  proieiia  of  fusion  ;  and  by  the 
same  means  the  enamel  may  be  laid  upon  metals. 
Ver}'  elegant  ornamental  work  may  be  thus  produced. 
Enameling  also  signifies  to  piiiiit  in  enamel. 

Etuwiel  i'dinlitii/  is  ])erformed  on  plates  of  gold  or 
of  copper,  but  seldom  on  silver,  a»  this  nu'tal  is  apt  to 
occasion  imperfectio'is  in  the  s  .'ace  of  the  er.'iiucl. 
Copper  is  tho  mctul  most  generally  used  for  thu  pur- 


ENG 


601 


ENG 


lie  liv 

,)  di- 
wliiili 

with 

M'Ulos 

with 

witti 

mill 

X   cif 

for  vio- 

iili'iiK'il 

ri'iiui- 

amel 

viTj- 
il  tlii'il 
tlii'iii  in 
;pil  iind 
Iry,  »et 
iiii'ltpd, 

it,  add 

if  too 

niptals, 

?iit.H  fur 

roiiuo'il 

simlly 

I  liini- 

liy  tlio 

mi'tuls. 

iiliictvl. 

gold  or 
In  n]>t  to 
fnnucl. 
Iii»  jiur- 


poaa,  onameled  with  the  white  enamel,  on  which  paint- 
ing is  executed  with  colors  which  are  melted  in  the 
fire,  where  they  talie  n  brightness  and  luster  like  that 
of  glass.  This  kind  of  painting  is  particularly  prized 
'or  its  peculiar  brightness  and  ^-ivacity,  which  is  per- 
manent, the  force  of  its  colors  not  being  liable  to  be 
effaced  or  sullied  with  time,  as  in  other  painting,  and 
continuing  always  as  fresh  as  when  it  came  out  of  the 
workman's  hands.  This  method  of  painting  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  miniature ;  larger  works  being 
liable  to  certain  accidents  in  the  operation.  The  most 
perfect  kind  of  enameling  is  practiced  on  plates  of 
gold,  the  other  metals  being  less  pure.  Copper,  for 
instance,  sometimes  scales  with  the  application  ;  and 
silver  turns  the  yellow  white.  To  obviate  the  crack- 
ing of  the  enamel,  the  plates  are  generally  made  a  lit- 
tlo  round  or  oval  and  rather  thin.  The  operation  is 
usually  commenced  by  laying  on  ii  couch  of  white 
enamel  on  both  sides  of  the  plate,  wliich  prevents  the 
metal  from  swelling  and  blistering ;  and  this  first  layer 
8er\'e8  for  the  ground  of  all  the  other  colors.  The  next 
•tep  is  to  draw  out  exactly  the  subject  to  be  painted 
with  red  vitriol,  mixed  with  oil  of  spike,  marking  all 
parts  of  the  design  verj'  lightly  with  a  pencil.  After 
this,  the  colors  (very  finely  ground,  and  mixed  with 
oil  of  spike  somewhat  thick),  are  to  l)e  laid  on,  atten- 
tion being  given  to  the  mixtures  and  colors  which  agree 
to  the  diflferent  parts  of  the  subject;  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  necessary  to  understand  painting  in  minia- 
ture. When  the  colors  are  all  laid,  the  painting  is  to  be 
gently  dried  over  a  slow  fire  to  evaporate  the  oil,  and 
the  colors  are  afterward  melted  to  incorporate  tlicm 
with  the  enamel,  making  the  plate  rod-hot  in  a  fire  such 
as  enamelers  use. 

Enohaaing,  or  Chasing,  the  art  of  cmbo.ii'ing  or 
making  figures  in  low  relief  upon  gold,  silver,  and 
other  metals.  It  is  (iraiticed  only  on  hollow  thin 
works,  such  as  wptclwascs,  tankards,  cups,  etc.  The 
design  having  been  traced  on  the  exterior  surface  of 
the  metal,  the  work  is  hammered  upon  steel  blocks  or 
puncheons  introduced  within  ;  and  thus  the  workman 
proceeds  to  indent  tho  metil  by  the  successive  appli- 
cation of  tho  block  and  hainmtr  to  the  several  [)arts 
of  the  design ;  after  wliii  li  the  work  i.<  cleared  with 
small  chisels  and  griferi.  In  this  .simple  manner  a 
skillful  artist  is  abl  ■  to  represent  foliages,  figures,  etc., 
with  admirable  p-'cision. 

Bnc^Olopeedia  (rf,  in,  «t/.?.of,  a  ciide,  TUiiei'i 
itutniilioti),  a  term  i-.early  synoi  yirio  js  with  CY<i.or.t:- 
I)IA,  but  sometimes  adopted  in  preference  to  it,  as 
being  ctymologiclly  more  definite  and  complete.  For, 
as  it  has  been  justly  remarked—  f'urlnpiria  m.iy  denote 
" the  iistructlou  n/  eir le,"  as  ('yritpmlia  is  "the  in- 
struction of  Cyrus;'  whereas  in  Es,  t/.-lnjiinliii,  tlie 
prepositum  determiiien  the  meaning  to  he  "  insf nut mn 
in  a  circle."  Vossins,  in  liis  book  lie  Vitiis  Hi  rmonh, 
observes,  "  that  Ci/rhpirtlin  is  used  by  sumo  authors, 
but  Hnryrlnpirdia  l.'v  the  be.it."     Sei    ('ri;(.oi-.«!>iA. 

England,  tho  -xitiiem,  and  by  fur  the  most  fertile 
division  o'  Britain,  corresponds  in  latit'iil..  with  Hol- 
land and  tho  north  of  (icrmany,  extending  from  U)° 
to  65°  45'  N.  Its  figure  is  nearly  triangular,  "nd  its 
extent  of  coast  is  very  great,  Inrfh  from  I  ein:^  much 
indented,  and  from  the  sea  bounding  it  on  all  siiles  ex- 
cept along  a  width  of  70  miles  on  tho  Scottish  bonier. 
The  adjacent  seas  are  the  (ioriAan  Ocean  on  the  eu.-;t, 
St.  (ieorgo's  Channel  on  the  west,  and  tho  Engli«li 
(Channel  on  the  south.  No  country  can  b«  more  for- 
tunately sit'iated  ;  its  climate  is  temperate ;  its  extent 
is  EUllicient  'or  its  political  security  ;  while  its  insular 
imsition  not  only  presents  the  greatest  capabilities  of 
aggrandizement  in  a  commercial  sense,  l)ut  has,  tiv  ren- 
dering a  great  military  force  unnecessary,  in  all  prob- 
ability been  tho  chief  ca^se  of  jireventing  the  execu- 
tive branch  from  usurping  alisoluto  power,  as  in  the 
countries  of  tho  Continent. 

Iti  superficial  extent  had  long  l)eon  a  question  of 


considerable  doubt,  and  the  dilTerent  eatimates  varibd 
no  less  than  10,000,000  of  acres.  Mr.  Pitt,  on  the 
authority  of  Arthur  Young,  assumed,  in  1708,  the 
superficial  extent  of  England  and  Wales  to  be  nearly 
47,000,000  of  acres ;  a  later  calculation  by  Dr.  Bceke, 
approaching  more  to  accuracy  than  any  preceding  one, 
fixed  it  at  38,600,000  acres.  But  accoi-ding  to  tho 
census  of  1861,  the  area  of  the  great  territorial  subdi- 
visions of  Great  Britian  is  us  follows,  viz. :  England, 
50,922  square  miles ;  Scothind,  31,324 ;  Wales,  7898  ; 
and  the  Islands  in  the  British  Seas,  39-1  square  miles  ; 
making  the  area  of  England  and  Wales  58,320  stiuare 
miles,  or  37,1)24,915  imperial  acres.  The  forms  of  the 
islands  are  irregular,  and  do  not  approach  simple 
geometrical  figures,  if  we  except  England,  which  was 
not  inaptly  compared  by  the  ancients  to  a  triangle. 
The  area  of  Great  Britain  is  equal  to  n  square  of  299 
miles  to  the  side ;  England  to  a  square  of  220  miles  to 
the  side;  Scotland  to  a  square  of  .'7  miles  to  the 
side ;  Wales  to  a  square  of  86  miles  to  the  side  ;  the 
Islands  in  the  British  Seas  to  a  square  of  20  miles  to 
the  side.  While  the  area  is  in  the  ratio  of  these 
squares,  or  as  51,  81,  7,  and  't-10,  tho  population  is 
nearly  as  17,  3,  1,  and  1-7 ;  England  has,  on  un  aver- 
age, to  a  square  mile  322  persons,  Wales  136,  Scotland 
only  92,  the  Islands  in  the  British  Seas  363  persons. 
While  about  21,200,000  acres  of  territory  lie  north, 
and  36,400,000  acres  south  of  55°  of  north  lati- 
tude ;  the  populations  on  the  north  and  south  side  of 
the  lino  are  respectively  about  3,173,000  and  17,787,000. 

llarhort. — Portsmouth,  Milford  Ilaveu,  and  Plj  - 
mouth,  are  the  finest  harlwrs  in  England,  and  are  sur- 
passed by  few,  if  any,  in  the  world.  Of  these,  I'orts- 
mouth  is  entitled  to  the  pre-eminence.  This  noble 
harbor  is  about  as  wide  at  its  mouth  as  th  '  Thames  is 
at  M'estminster  Bridge,  expanding  within  mto  a  capa- 
cious ba.'in,  almost  sufiicient  to  contain  the  whole  navy 
of  Great  Britain.  Its  entrance  is  unobstructed  by 
any  bar  or  shallow  ;  and  it  has  throughout  water  ade- 
quate  to  float  the  largest  ntun-of-war  ut  the  lowest 
tides.  The  anchorage-ground  )■<  '  xcellent,  and  it  is 
entirely  free  from  sunken  rocks,  sand-banks,  or  any 
similar  obstructions.  Tlie  western  side  of  the  harbor 
is  f'lmicd  by  the  island  of  Portsea ;  and  on  its  Miutli- 
wcstern  extremity,  at  the  entrance  to  the  liarlior,  is 
situated  the  town  of  Portsmouth,  and  its  largo  and 
imfiortant  suburb  of  Portsea.  Hera  arc  docks  and 
other  eslaiilisl......,its  fur  the  building,  repair,  iiid  out- 
fit of  ships  of  war,  con.slru(^ted  upon  a  very  laigo 
scale,  and  furnished  with  every  convenieni,^.  II. 
Port.smouth  harlior  has  the  additional  anil  important 
advantage  of  opening  into  the  celebrated  road  of  Hiilt- 
head,  lying  lietween  tlio  Hampshire  coai-t  and  the  islo 
of  Wight,  and  forming  a  safe  and  convenient  retreat 
for  the  largest  fleets.  III.  MIITord  Haven  deep'y 
Indents  tho  southern  part  of  Penilirokeshire.  It  is  Oi 
great  extent,  a.nd  has  witliin  it  many  lioys,  creeks,  ami 
roads,  f  ae  water  is  deep,  and  the  nnchorage-grounii 
excellent!  and  being  lomplctely  land-locked,  ships  lie 
as  safely  in  it  as  if  tlicy  were  in  dock.  IV.  Ply 
iiioiilh.  which,  after  Portsmoutli,  is  the  prini'i|>al  naval 
d^pot  of  (''ngland,  has  an  admirable  double  harbor. 
Tho  roadstead  in  Plymouth  Sound  has  been  iiiin  h  im- 
proved liy  the  eonstruilion.  at  a  vast  expense,  of  a 
stupeiidoiis  breakwater  more  than  1,700  yards  in  length. 
This  bulwark  protects  the  ships  Ijing  inside  from  the 
cft'ec  ts  of  the  heavy  swell  thrown  into  the  Sonnd  by 
southerly  and  south-easterly  winds, 

London  stands  at  tho  head  of  the  river  ports  of 
Great  Britain.  Considering  the  limited  course  of  the 
Thames,  there  is  probably  no  river  that  is  navigable 
for  large  (hips  to  so  gieat  a  distance  from  the  »on, 
or  whose  mouth  i"  less  obstructed  by  banks.  Lon- 
don is  mainly  indebted  fur  the  unrivaled  magnitude  of 
her  eonimcrce  to  her  favorable  situation  on  this  noble 
river ;  which  not  only  gives  her  all  the  ailsantages  of 
an  excellent  port,  accessible  at  all  times  to  the  largest 


ENG 


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ENG 


tbipa,  but  rendc.-s  ber  the  emporiam  of  the  extensive, 
rich,  and  populons  country  comprised  in  tli-  baniii  of 
the  rhames.  The  port  of  London  extends  from  Lkim- 
don  Bridge  to  a  little  below  Black wal),  and  i!i  rlivided 
into  the  Pool,  Limehoiise  Reach,  (iroenwiih  Reach, 
Blacl(wa1I  Reach,  and  Ilugaby'a  Rcucli.  The  lo^iat- 
ing  trade  of  London  is  greater  than  that  of  »ny 
port  in  the  world,  and  gives  it  supenority  over 
I<iverpool. 

Liverjiool.  the  principal  seaport  of  ICnglan'l,  liit.  53^ 
45'  N.,  long.  2°  69'  W.,  is  ,tituated  on  the  eastern 
bank  nf  the  Mersey  river,  while  on  tlie  we»t  side  are 
the  docks,  wart-Uouses,  and  otiier  commeroin'  build' 
ings.  The  area  of  the  wet  dockii  is  al>out  IHb  aciv.'<, 
and  of  the  dry  doo  i's  20  ncroa.  The  entrance  of  the 
Mersey  is  impeded  by  shoals,  but  at  liigh  water  may 
be  entered  l)y  the  largest  ships.  The  docks  are  the 
finest  in  the  world,  and  in  connection  with  its  .situa- 
tion and  inland  communication,  give  it  the  posltlbn  it 
holds,  of  the  first  port  in  England,  and  having,  next 
to  New  Yorl.  the  largest  co-nmcrcial  marlm  ,  The 
Slersey,  now  the  iiecond  commr-ciul  river  in  tho  em- 
pire, is  more  incommoded  with  lianks  t)m;i  the  1  liamea, 
and  is  in  all  rea|)ects  infcricr,  as  a  channel  of  niiviga- 
tion,  to  the  latter.  Still,  however,  it  gives  to  F.iver- 
pool  very  great  advantages;  and  the  new  channel 
whicli  has  recently  been  discovered  in  tlic  banks  prom- 
ises to  lie  of  much  importance  in  facilitating  the  access 
to  and  from  the  port. 

Bristol  and  Hull  are  lioth  river  ports.  Owing  to 
the  extraordinary  rise  in  the  Bristol  channel,  tlie  for- 
n.er  is  accessilile  even  to  the  lorgest  sliips.  The  Ilum- 
licr  if  a  good  deal  impeded  by  banks;  lint  it  also  Is 
niivlgalile  as  far  as  Hull  by  very  Iiirge  vessels.  Tlio 
'I'yne  admits  vessels  of  very  conslderaliio  burden  is 
f^ir  a<  Newcastle,  vhich  is  one  of  the  most  important 
shipping  ports  in  the  empire 

•Slntistict. — The  total  length  of  railways  In  Kngiand 
and  Wales  open  for  traffic  at  illst  December,  IH.O.S,  waa 
6, HI]  niilc^.  The  numlier  of  passengers  conveyed  in 
that  year  was  Kl,222,!<til,  of  wlmni  considoraldy  more 
than  one  half  were  (irst  and  seiond  class  passengers. 
1  he  receipts  from  the  goods  tnifHc  soniewhut  exceed 
tl.ose  from  the  passenger  traffic.  Tlie  length  of  lines 
In  course  of  conf traction  at  80th  June,  1H5.I,  was  4!)I, 
while  the  length  authorized  was  'J,!»(i!t  miles,  nearly 
2,.'i00  miles  tieing  neither  open  nor  in  course  nf  con- 
Btri'i'tlon.  The  total  amount  of  capital  and  loans  au- 
thorized to  be  raised  by  railway  companies  In  the 
l/nltcd  Kingdom  previous  to  Itlst  Ueceinber,  18ii2 
(after  deducting  amounts  prup<p.serl  for  lines  sub.so- 
qucntly  abandoned),  was  £ll5ti,R10,'l,'i(i,  of  which 
£'2<ii,1i>ri,r)fi()  had  been  raised ;  the  amount  raised  in 
185-.'  was  £16,39«,993.  The  number  of  pas.scngers  that 
traveled  by  railway  in  the  half  year  enilcd  SOth  .June, 
18,>1,  was  -!5,080,31G ;  tho  amount  of  receipts  from 
passengers  was  £4.092,601  ;  from  horses,  carriages, 
luggage,  and  mails,  £M5,ilij ;  from  general  merchan- 
dise, cattle,  minerals,  etc.,  i:4,H'.!0,82.'j ;  total  for  six 
months,  £9,424,602.      See  RAri.itdADs. 

Klcrtric  TeUijraph. — Connected  with  the  railways  is 
the  electric  telegraph,  which  is  now  stretched  alimg 
thousands  of  miles  across  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land,  or  sunk  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  copveying 
intelligence  between  distant  points  with  the  rapid- 
ity of  lightning.  In  ]84fi,  an  association  under  ti'o  I 
title  of  the  Electric  Telegraph  Company,  obtained  an  i 
•ct  of  incorporation,  and  having  bought  up  the  variou.^  i 
patents  for  electric  telegraphs,  they  sccureil  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  seniling  intelligence  through  the  kingdom 
by  this  meant.  Since  then  they  hi.e  been  extending 
their  operations  in  all  directions  ;  but  great  as  are  the 
advantages  conferred  on  the  country  by  this  Inven- 
tion, there  is  reason  to  expect  that  thej-  will  be  vastly 
Increased  and  extende<l,  as  the  instrument  is  capable 
of  ^tiU  greatr^r  Impntveinents ;  and  when  the  charges 
for  the  conveyance  of  intelligence  nro  reduced  to  thoir 


proper  level,  the  electric  telegraph  will  be  much  mora 
generally  used. 

Canal». — The  canals  of  England  are  extremely  nu- 
merous ;  in  fact  no  country  except  Holland  can  enter 
into  competition  with  her  in  this  respect.  The  En- 
glish canals  are  of  moderate  size,  l)eing  from  25  to  80, 
35,  and  40  feet  in  width,  and,  in  general,  from  5  to  6 
feet  in  depth ;  tho  l<argo8  na^'igating  them  are  very 
long,  frequently  70  or  80  feet,  on  a  width  of  10,  12,  or 
14  feet ;  but  in  many  cases  their  dimensions,  at  least 
their  width,  are  necessarily  smaller,  the '  ^ss  frequented 
canals  Ijeing  narrower  than  those  wo  h&vo  mentioned. 
Could  the  application  of  steam  to  navigation  have  been 
foreseen,  the  canals  of  England  would  probably  have 
'.■•en  made  wider.  For  full  details  with  respect  to  the 
canals  of  England,  and  the  recent  improvements  in 
their  t.instructlon,  and  'u  tra\cling  by  them,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  .Article  Casals, 

Ilrulyes. — Til  3  principal  bridges  in  the  kingdom  are 
the  railway  bridges  across  the  Tweed  and  the  Tyue, 
and  the  seven  erected  across  tho  Thames  at  London, 
four  of  which  have  been  opened  since,  1*17.  Of  these, 
two,  the  Southwark  and  Vuuxliall,  are  of  cast-iron, 
the  one  being  of  three  ve  '  ge  arches,  unit  tho  other 
of  nine  arches,  each  I  pan.     Th 3  ii'.st  exam- 

ple of  an  iron  brid^  je  scale,  either  in  En- 

gland or  any  other  coin...,, ,  .  ..j  that  erected  in  1790, 
ut  Wearmouth  in  I)  mm,  tha  span  of  which  was  240 
feet.  The  chain  br  ■  over  the  Meiiai  Strji'  ,  and  the 
tubular   bridge  over  •  ime  place,  are    ,  onderful 

examples  of  engineering  skill.  Heo  article  liitmoKK, 
etc. 

Tho  principal  cro|)S  cultivated  In  Englunil  and  Wales 
are  wheat,  irats  and  lieuiis,  barley  and  rye,  turnips  and 
potatoes,  with  clover,  hops,  flux,  etc.  It  is  to  li» 
regretted  that  no  estimate,  derived  from  authentic 
returns,  li.is  lieen  formed  on  which  much  relianeo  can 
bo  placed,  either  of  the  extent  of  lan<l  umler  different 
crops,  or  of  tho  average  product  per  acre.  Mr.  t'uird, 
in  his  work  on  l;injU»h  Ai/rieutlure,  p.  622,  gives  the 
following  estimate  us  the  result  of  his  survey  of  En- 
gland in  I860  ul  of  tho  extent  of  land  under  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  crops,  and  in  fallow,  in  Engianil : 

Al  rKM. 

WbcBt a  116,750 

Barley  and  rjo 1,4I6,TS0 

Oats  orid  rye 2,000,00(1 

Beans  mid  peas I.IM.OOO 

Clover 'i.m.tlM 

Rodta  (turnips,  inanKuM,  potatoes,  etc.)..  2,lli>,7.V) 

Hops,  pantens  of  all  sorts,  etc l.Vi.OOO 

Fsllow  and  rape ),.SOO,000 

13,817.000 

nines — Quarries — /run,  Copper,  Tin,  and  Salt  lt'«(7.<. 
— In  regard  ti,  minerals,  Knglanil  does  not  yield  to  any 
counm-  in  Europe  in  natural  abundance,  and  takes  the 
lead  of  all  in  tho  extent  to  which  theso  rude  treasures 
have  been  converted  to  jiurposes  of  utility.  En- 
gland's 'creat  supori<  rity  ties  in  her  coal  mines,  which 
are  not  only  iiioro  pi.iductive,  but  more  u''  un- 
tageously  situated,  than  tlio-:e  of  the  '  ontlnent.  To 
the  mines  along  thr  coast  a  ready  conveyance  is 
afforded  by  htr  insuhir  position,  and  to  those  in  the 
interior  by  her  inland  navigation.  The  cimsiimptidn 
of  coal  in  Englunil  for  domestic  use  has  been  estii  cited 
at  20,000,000  tons  annually.  Large  as  this  i|uunlity 
is,  and  larger  as  it  must  be  when  we  add  to  it  the  vast 
consumption  of  monufactorics,  such  as  iron-works,  imp- 
per-works,  salt-works,  glass-houses,  and  the  like,  there 
is  no  reason  to  apprehend  the  exhaustion  of  this  precious 
mineral;  the  dejith  of  the  coal-beds  I;eing  very  great, 
and  the  extent  of  ground  contnining  thcin  niuountin^' 
to  many  hundred  thousand  acres.  The  principal  coal- 
beds  lie  in  Northumberland,  Uurhioi.  Derliyshirc. 
Staft'ordshirc,  and  Glamorganshire.  The  ixirts  for 
shipping  coal  in  largo  quantities  are  Newcastle,  .Sun- 
derland, and  Hartlepool.  Th>-i  motive  of  the  tax  on 
coal  exported  to  foreign  countrits  was  thus  neither  an 


BNO  fli 

appnhenaion  of  eventual  scarcity,  nor  even  •  csIcuIA' 
t.ion  of  revenue,  so  much  as  a  dread  of  giving  bar 
Continental  neighbors  the  means  of  rivaling  her  mUft' 
ufacturea.  Coal  is  not  wanting  in  Frince  snd  Uw 
many,  but  the  mines  are  at  a  distan'ja  from  watAT' 
carriage,  and  «s  yet  very  imperfectly  wrouglit  (  wItiU 
for  the  purpose  of  domestic  fuel  the  i!ilml)itant8  gif« 
a  preference  to  wood.  After  various  rhunges,  tl)a  uk.^ 
port  duty  on  coal  was  totally  abolished  in  IHoO, 

According  to  the  census  of  1851  the  tuiai  number  uf 
persons  engaged  in  the  coal  tr^de  is  239,46'.), 

In  1853  tlie  exports  of  coal  to  foreign  countries,  *»' 
cording  to  the  real  or  declared  value,  amounted  to 
£1,602,762.     See  article  Coal. 

In  quarries,  whether  of  stone  or  slate,  England  is 
not  .'ich,  particularl}'  the  eastern  half  of  the  kingdom  i 
and  hence  the  almost  universal  use  of  liricli  in  ordi- 
nary buildings.  It  is  not  till  the  traveler  reatjieij 
Durham  that  he  tlnds  stone  commonly  used.  In  the 
north  -t.  counties  quarries  occur  frequently ;  tn  ^lie 
southern,  those  of  Portland  and  Bath  are  tlie  most 
cousiderable.  Still  the  annual  profits  of  the  whole 
are  small. 

No  branch  of  industry  has  increased  mora  rap' 
idly  in  I'.ie  present  age  than  iron-worl(S.  A  i-BHr 
tnry  ago  it  was  computed  that  England  required  an 
annual  importation  of  20,000  tons  of  foreign  iron  ;  itn 
importation,  which,  for  many  years  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  increase,  so  as,  after  tlie  middle  of  last 
cenhiry,  to  carry  the  quantity  required  to  30,000,  iti,, 
000,  anil  itv<>ii  to  50,000  tons.  This  supply  was  Imiugllt 
from  Hwedi^n  and  Russia,  and,  tliough  burdened  with 
duty,  It  WHS  in  quantity  more  than  double  the  nativu 
pro<luie.  Hut  fortunately,  after  the  year  1780,  dis- 
coveries v;ere  made  which  increased  greatly  the  s.inply 
at  home.  Uar  iron  hud  l>een  manufactured  in  Englsiid 
as  on  the  Continent,  with  charcoal  fuel  only,  cflal  ber 
ing  deemed  inopplicalile  to  that  purpose.  Under  that 
impression,  the  rapid  nsumption  of  the  wood  in  tliu 
nclgliborlioud  of  the  difrercnt  iron-v^orks  hud  neiessl- 
tatcd  a  removal,  at  a  great  cspense,  of  iiiuteriuls  from 
one  tfiiit  to  another,  und  was  on  tlie  point  of  causing 
>n  alarming  decny  in  the  liusincss,  wlieii  the  iron- 
masters, after  long  pprseveri'fire,  succeeded  In  apply- 
ing ciiul  to  Ihcir  maiiiifurture.  i'liey  hud  to  conte^ul 
witii  \Hrlous  prcjuiliccx,  (lartiiiiliirly  tlie  supposed  ia- 
fcrliirity  cif  iron  eo  made ;  Imt,  in  the  course  of  yeitn, 
the  manufacture  acijiilred  such  an  extent  that  there 
were,  in  1805,  220  blasl-furnaces,  making  2ftii,0W  tons 
of  pig  iron. 

Ttic  transill.in  from  war  to  peace  did  a  gooil  dial  of 
Injury  to  some  brunilies  of  the  iron  tiiilc;  Imt  llie 
effect  of  the  chungi!  was  not  of  lung  ilunitioii,  and  thi' 
production  of  iron  in  England  has  siiiie  been  astonish- 
ingly inireiiaed.  In  1820  the  pro'hico  was  calculated 
at  100,000  tOh.^.  The  excitement  and  Kpeculution  of 
1821  unit  1825  had  a  wonderful  infiiicm  n  on  tliiii  de- 
partment. According  to  careful  ini|uirips  made  at  th» 
time,  the  furnaces  at  work  in  England  and  V.'des  in 
1827,  with  their  produce,  were  as  under  ! 


«  BNCf 

Ammviif  Hf  tm  tttm»t»  or  FnnAcn  akd  or  itn 

UVtUfmm    lit    laOM   PBOBUOED  in   OaCAT'BBITAIN  IS 

1^  AMU  iUll, 


Stairankhlrc 95 

Shropshire 81 

South  Wales. 90 

North  Wales 12 

Torkehiro ii 

l>orby«!\lro 1  i 


Tmi. 

ii  1 6,000 

7S,II0I) 

■m,im 

24,000 

^n.ooo 

iiO.NW 


'""• 

IMS.                  1 

„t«(«i 

FrtHlnc*  of 

Toul 

Ptodiioo  of 

wmtmtMi 

Iron. 

Furnaces. 

Iron. 

Smm.Wftle'l,,,, 

WwhWslM,...., 

IW 

S!!n,419 

196 

Tom. 
706,680 

14 

17,766 

11 

16,120 

M IF  \mm\iitm(l 

yitfMtUP:,,.... 

86 

100,000 

a4 

«»,1M 

28 

66,660 

|(»xf ijmiittn:  ... 

19 

«3,«73 

80 

96,000  I 

l«j)(fWl(il|)(ffl,„,., 

1(17 

isil,l.'i6 

168 

886,840 

l«»wifwiij, ,.,,.-,, 

4t 

89,590 

84 

8!t,000 

m — 

8R,C40 

180 

^W.OflO 

|_.  Ttfh»(».i,.,,, 

eli^aae " 

628 

2,1108,200  . 

Total., 


266 


O.W.ftOi) 

Owing  to  the  failure  of  various  railroad  and  oilier 
projects  set  on  foot  in  1825  and  182(i,  thi  supply  of  Iron 
soems  to  have  greatly  exceeded  the  demand  ;  and  there 
wa"  a  very  heavy  fall  of  prices  in  1828,  iui'i,  and 
1830,  and  again  in  185U  and  1851.  but  within  the 
last  two  years  prices  have  again  risen  ;  ami  llie  iriiu 
trade  is,  at  this  i.ioment,  iu  a  state  of  great  activity. 
The  produce  of  tlio  various  furnaces  of  IJiglaiid  aud 
Wale!<,  may  be  estimated  at  nearly  2,900,000  tons. 


't'lw  nmmUf  tit  iron  of  all  kinds  manufactured  and 
HnmmmftiHimii,  esported  in  1862,  amounted  to  1,086,- 
l«i*t  t*>ftii,  licsidea  2r«,28ft  tons  of  cutlery  of  the  declared 
vniw  iif  i3j(ij»J/i(»r-  Sow  that  the  railways  are  nearly 
mmi>\M«(i,  it  tniKllt  hare  been  oxpecteu  that  this  would 
httva  I'ftltDWl  It  slt«($natlon  in  Its  mi'nufacture  ;  but  iron 
is  mw  mt  Ajtteii^irely  used  in  tne  construction  of 
8tBUHkV(t«o«t!*,  that  the  demand  has  been  maintained. 
I''up  niiirtl  itmpU  details,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article*  tium, 

iUimwMltiliv^  llflte  long  been  known  in  England, 
Imt  fli(*y  W(if8  rtought  with  very  little  skill  or  effect 
until  t*iw«tv1  llio  year  1700.  Even  at  that  time  the 
aiMMfftI  pfmUli'^,  ttlft  smelting  tlie  metal  from  the  ore, 
tvas  iinh  «  ffW  liutldred  tims  of  copper ;  and  it  hardly 
em'itmUiii  Mill  tiitts  fltiniially,  down  tc  the  middle  of 
hal  t^ndiiry,  Vfnin  that  time  forward,  the  increase 
liui  AMIM  I'fdi'idfif'alile,  ns  well  In  Cornwall  as  in  Devon, 
HiiHU  Wrti**,  and  tierliyshire ;  in  all  of  which,  cop- 
l»ur-Hlill»"»  »t<ffl  discovered  and  wrouglit.  In  North 
WitUa,  tlM»f»  were  IWn  mine.'i,  I'arj's  and  Mona,  which, 
for  ii»H(»'  tillW  after  the  year  1780,  yielded  annually  a 
larga  (|Mi»t(llty  ii(  ate,  but  they  are  no  longer  so  pro- 
lilUfivB  1  th(i  mUltm  (if  Devon  and  Derbyshire  continue 
to  ha  f^fuiifiUi,  hut  the  great  product  is  from  Corn- 
wall i  Ihx  miim  of  (Jornwall  and  Devon  in  1853 
yieldud  IMI ,(((()'  t(<t(ii  of  <opper  ore,  the  metal  obtained 
friiM*  wllii  ll,  nl  tltit  rale  of  (U  per  100,  produced  11,823 
Um*  of  isi;tll(1(tni  (((((per,  which,  at  the  average  rate  of 
jt'liO  liff  tim,  «tt(((U((ted  to  A'l  ,055,220.  It  is  the 
Welsh  (■■(illl((fl(ia  vilMi  afford  to  Cornwall,  as  to  De- 
VdllshiF)',  llw  tll(>(ii)i>  of  smelting ;  and  as  the  ore  is  less 
lieavy  thftft  flin  (((aI  re(]iilred  for  this  operation  (1  ton 
of  ore  rC(|llltiH|/  tfiim  i  to  2J  tons  of  coal),  the  prae- 
ticB  is  t»  I'lmVff  the  ore  in  vast  quantities  to  Wales, 
i/aftiwMlf^rly  Ui  Kw(f(lsp«,  In  thia,  as  in  other  minerals, 
Vraina  is  (jre/tHj'  helllnd  England.  She  lias  various 
ciiiipmr-niltlCB,  hiit  her  coal-mines,  at  least  those  hith- 
BfUi  wrimijllf,  (fK*  »t  1(10  great  a  distance  to  roaKO  such 
iliniuitaitinijK  ((Cdlifal/le  j  and  she  consequently  re- 
quires nH  ft'.ftlMl  ltll|(((ttation  from  Enghind. 

Ii)  Wii  fliord  ttere  «a|(orted  of  brass  and  copper 
nmnuf»<'tur#s  l,«fli,<i«i)oWt.,  of  the  value  of  .£1,761,- 
ft7M, 

('iir)in-»ll  U  ttUn  Ihfl  great  seat  of  the  tin-minef  of 
I'ughttMl  A  (etlidty  ago,  the  average  produce  of  tlio 
tin~-ll)illiii*  h»f((I.J*  c*ippded  16(X)  tons;  it  may  now  bo 
esfiiMttlfui  at  fif/OO  liiha  a-year.  From  abroad  England 
ruceiv(is  tin  iifilii'UmU^  from  her  Indian  p- ssessi'rs, 
Holland,  mill  the  I'tllfed  States.  Of  this,  was  im- 
ported iff  l»n/fi  iV.mi  cwt.  Tho  value  of  tin  un- 
wroilght,  ttfMl  In  flatea,  enported  in  3854,  was  £1,- 

mi,m, 

'iUn  juii.t-mlHPS  ((f  Efftftand  are  principally  in  Cum- 
lierlanil,  N'tflllOftthpflartd.  |)erby''hirp,  Eiintshire,  and 
fi4l<i|i.  Id  l»!ri  l'i(l«latid  and  Wales  produced  80,790 
tons  or  txiiii  nrn,  mmfiTfiii  tons  of  lead.  Ulaok  l-3ad 
is  found  III  f'Mlllbeflaud,  in  the  romantic  district  of 
lliirrowillflf  'I  hm  ftlltie  was  formerly  opened  only  po- 
ri(iiJij'ailj(,  |(i»if()f(f  (h.iil  the  market  might  not  bo  over- 
stdi-ked,  liMl  (lit  a  (((ftsldptable  number  of  years  past, 
It  hua  |i*i(iM  I  Kii^afitly  open. 

'I'liura  i«  m  t^ofltttfy  lietter  supplied  than  England, 


% 


.'B 


ENG 


604 


ENG 


botJi  with  brlne-aprlngi  and  beda  of  foaail,  ur  rock- 
salt.  The  brine-springs  arr  found  in  Cheshire,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  county,  in  places  contiguous  to 
the  rivor  Weaver,  and  at  Droitwich,  in  Woreest«r- 
shire.  The  beds  of  rock-salt,  which  are  of  great  thick- 
ness, were  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Northwich  and 
Lawton.  Tho  greater  part  of  the  salt  produced  is  ob- 
tained from  the  brine-.iprings.  Fonuorly  considerable 
quantities  were  produced  l)y  the  evaporation  of  sea- 
water,  but  since  the  alwlition  of  the  duties  most  of  the 
works  appropriated  to  this  manufacture  have  l>een 
abandoned.  Fiom  the  brine-springs  it  is  obtained  at 
the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  solid  salt  from  four  gallons  of 
liquiil,  while  common  sea-water  does  not  yield  atjove 
one  in  twenty-eight.  The  consumption  of  salt  is  im- 
mense. Meeker  estimated  its  consumption  in  those 
provinces  of  France  which  had  puscliased  an  exemp- 
tion from  the  galieile  {jniys francs  rrdimid)  at  about 
19^  Ills.  (Eng.)  for  each  individual. — Atlminulmlion 
dti  Finance*,  tome  ii.,  p.  VI.  From  all  that  we  liave 
been  alile  to  learn  on  the  subju'  t.  we  believe  that  the 
consumption  of  tho  jieople  of  (iroat  Britain  may  be 
estimated  a  little  higher,  or  ut  Ti  lbs. ;  the  difference 
in  food  and  hatiits,  as  compared  with  tliose  of  the 
French,  fuUy  accounting  for  this  increased  allowance. 
On  this  supposition,  and  taking  tho  |iopi>lntion  of 
Great  liritain  at  21,00l),000,  the  entire  cuiis:unption 
will  amount  to  46^,000,000  ll)s.,  or  20G,i'5O  tons. 

Exclusive  of  this  immense  home-consumption,  Eng- 
land annually  exports  about  1ri,0(Mi,0(N)  bushels,  wliicli, 
at  30  Ills,  a  bushel,  are  equivulent  to  357,143  tons.  The 
Americans  are  the  largest  consumers  of  British  salt. 

Tho  cheapness  of  this  important  necessary  of  life  is 
not  less  remarkable  than  its  diffusion.  Its  present 
cost  may  be  estimated,  at  a  medium,  at  from  14s.  to 
16s.  a  ton. 

Salt  has  been  at  all  times  a  favorite  subject  of  taxa- 
tion. It  was  tirst  taxed  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 
In  179H  tho  duties  amounted  to  &s.  a  liusliel,  liut  Ibey 
were  subsequently  increased  to  l.Os.  a  bushel,  or  about 
forty  times  the  cost  of  the  salt.  So  exorbitant  a  duty 
was  productive  of  tho  worst  effects,  and,  in  particular, 
occasionctl  a  great  deal  of  smuggling.  The  duty  hav- 
ing, in  consequence,  liecome  exceedingly  unpopuhir, 
wns  finally  repealed  in  1823. 

Fiihfrio. — At  present  our  space  allows  no  more 
than  a  brief  notice  of  the  principal  branches  of  the 
iisheries. 

Tho  mackerel  fishery  is  carried  on  with  great  vigor 
on  the  coast  of  Kent  and  Susseir,  in  May,  .lune,  and 
.Tuly,  Ijirge  as  the  supply  is,  it  would  still  admit  of 
augmcntr.tion ;  and  herrings  al.'iO  might  be  caught  in 
vast  quantities  on  the  coast  of  Kent  in  (ictolier  and 
Novemlier.  The  desideratum  with  tho  tisliermen  is 
nut  so  miu'h  a  high  price  as  a  certain  market ;  and  tlie 
most,  efectuil  way  to  procure  that  is,  to  quicken,  by 
every  possible  moans,  the  cfinvcyance  to  Ixindon, 
which  has  lieen  accomplished  by  the  employment  of 
steamboats  and  railways. 

The  pilchard  flsherj-  takes  place  chiefly  on  tho  coast 
of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  and,  though  subject  to 
great  fluctuations,  as  well  from  the  sejisons  as  from 
England's  political  situation  relative  to  the  continent, 
forms  on  the  whole  an  important  branch,  employing  a 
niimtjer  of  mamen  Inith  in  catching  the  fish  and  in  car-  I 
ryii.(»  it  to  foreign  markets.  Its  season  is  generally  , 
from  .June  to  Sep'emlier. 

The  herring,  the  most  imjwrtant  of  all  the  fisheries,  ' 
is   hcppily  now   in  a  state  of  rapiil  extension.     It 
formed,  during  the  17th  ccnturi-,  the  great  employ- 
ment of  the  Dutcli  seamen,  a>id  was  contemplated  by 
their  nciKhlwrs  with  ver>-  jealous  eyes.     Accordingly, 
;.-:  t!. ■•  reign  of  Charles  II.,  particularly  after  the  rup- 1 
turo  with  IlolUnd  in  1(J72,  several  acts  were  passed  for  j 
the  encouragement  of  tho  fishermen,  and  in  a  spirit  of  j 
hostility  to  the  Dutch.     The  suliseqnent  accession  of  j 
William  tfl  the  throne,  and  the  long  friendship  between  ] 


the  two  countries,  relaxed  the  exertions  of  the  gov 
ernment ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  {icace  of  1748, 
that  a  large  bounty  was  given  on  the  tonnage  of  the 
liusses,  or  masted  vessels,  so  employed.  Still  English 
fishermen  were  unable  to  compete  with  tho  ex|ierience 
and  patient  perseverance  of  the  Dutch,  and  it  waa 
found  necessary  to  raise  tho  liounty  from  3Us.  to  60s. 
per  ton.  This  had  the  desired  effect,  and  tlie  niimlier 
of  busses  increased ;  but  the  additional  '.iOs.  Iieing 
withdrawn  in  1771,  the  fishery  again  declined.  Tho 
Aniciican  war,  and,  sulisequently,  tho  wars  of  the 
Jrcuch  revolution,  proveil  extremely  adverse  to  its  ex- 
tension. At  last,  in  1808,  an  act  was  pa8se<)  carrying 
the  bounty  to  .£3  a  ton  on  the  busses,  with  a  further 
grant  'jf  2s.  per  barrel  on  all  herrings  caught,  whether 
in  busses  or  boats.  This  act  was  further  conlinned  in 
1815,  and  the  bounty  per  barrol  raised  to  4s,,  with  the 
qualification  that  the  herrings  should  be  gutted  before 
curing. 

In  consequence  of  tho  encouragement  thus  afforded, 
the  fisher}'  was  materially  extended  ;  liut  this  was 
eflbcted  at  a  great  ex)iense,  and  had,  besides,  several 
bad  consequences.  Tho  Iwunlies  given  b.v  govem- 
raent  tempted  persons  without  capital  or  skill  to  enter 
into  the  business,  to  the  great  injur}'  of  ttie  regular 
fishermen  ;  so  that  notwithstanding  the  extension  of 
the  business,  it  was  found,  as  is  invariably  the  case 
with  all  departments  carried  on  liy  means  of  a  bounty, 
to  lie  in  a  very  unhealthy  state.  In  consequence 
partly  of  the  circumstances  now  stated,  and  partly  in 
consideration  of  the  real  and  sulistantial  relief  given  to 
the  fisher}'  by  the  aUilition  of  tlie  duties  on  salt,  it  was 
resolved  graduall,v  to  withdraw  the  liount}-,  which 
totally  ceased  in  1830.  And  it  may  be  stated,  that 
though  the  fisherv'  fell  off  wliile  tbo  liounty  was  in  tho 
course  of  Iieing  withdrawn,  it  has  since  lieen  materially 
increased,  and  is  now  in  a  better  situation  than  at  nny 
former  period.  From  tlie  year  1811  to  IKW,  the  year 
when  tho  bounty  ceased,  the  greatest  numlier  of  bar- 
rels cured  in  Groat  llritain  was  4 12,1!I5  ;  and  in  tho 
year  ending  December,  IhTt'A,  tiiey  amounted  to  778,- 
030,  the  largest  number  cured  in  any  prevlou.H  year. 
The  (luantities  cured  in  each  year  vary  couslclcrably, 
acconling  to  the  abundance  of  the  .'<hoals  that  appear 
upon  tlie  coasts  in  different  seasons ;  but  since  1H38, 
the  annual  quantity  cureil  has  never  fallen  Im-Iow 
500,000  barrels,  while  for  tho  25  previous  years  they 
would  scarcely  average  300,0(10.  lu  1N5I  there  were 
exported  239,330  barrels  of  the  declared  value  ot 
A'2-28,83a. 

The  co<i  fishery  is  next  in  importance  to  tliat  of  tho 
herring.  It  is  curried  on  in  a  great  variety  of  places 
contiguous  to  tho  Itritisli  shorc-s.  The  finest  fish  is 
caught  round  the  edges  of  the  Dogger  liank,  but 
within  these  few  years  l^mdon  has  lieen  principally 
supplied  .vitli  cod  taken  between  Yarmouth  and  the 
Noru.  Tlie  fisheries  in  the  iieighliorhcKMl  of  the  Shet- 
land and  Orkney  Islands,  are  productivn  and  valuable, 
but  the  great  bank  of  Newfoundland  is  the  principal 
station  of  the  distant  cod  fishery.  About  2,000  men 
are  employed  in  the  sole  fisher}'. 

Salmon  arc  rarely  caught  except  in  estuaries  or  riv- 
ers, whicli  in  most  instance:;  are  private  properf}'.  It 
is  found  in  most  English  rivers,  but  in  siicli  small 
quantities  us  to  make  tho  ft.-ihing  an  object  of  little 
consequence. 

England  is  chiefly  supplied  from  the  fisheries  in  tho 
Scotch  and  Irish  rivers,  but  from  some  cause  or  other 
there  is  a  growing  sran-ity  in  this  fish,  pnilmbiy  from 
tlie  weirs  or  salmon-traps  placed  in  the  rivers  and 
estuaries  in  the  way  of  the  fish  when  ascending  the 
rivers  to  s[)awn. 

(ireenlaiid  was  first  discovered  by  the  Englisli ;  but 
in  this,  as  in  other  branches  of  navigation  she  long 
ifllowed  tho  Dutch  to  take  a  lead.  It  was  not  till 
after  1750  that,  the  government  hiving  granted  a 
lionnty  of  40s.  a  ton  on  every  vessel  empbivcd  in  tU« 


A- 


ENO 


606 


ENG 


es  or  nv- 

erty.     It 

ill  small 

of  littio 

iofl  in  the 
•  or  other 
(lily  from 
iviTs  niid 
iiliDK  the 

lish  ;  but 
she  long 
s  not  till 
jrantoil  a 
d  in  tU« 


whale  fishflfj',  a  considerable  increase  took  place  in 
thin  branch. 

In  liAO,  the  vesAolg  emplu}-ed  were  only  10;  in 
176U,  they  had  increaxed  to  ti7.  The  wur  soon  caused 
a  docroa«e  of  onti  half;  liut  at  the  return  of  peace  in 
1763  thiH  Usher)-  revived,  and  in  1770  the  vessels  em- 
ployed amounted  to  60;  in  1778,  to  65;  in  1775,  to 
9G.  The  American  war  again  caused  a  ilecroase,  and 
in  17N2  the  vessels  so  employed  wore  only  88.  In 
1784  they  increased  to  89,  and  in  1785  to  HO.  After 
this,  they  exceeded  200  annually  till  1793 ;  but  the 
long  continuance  of  thu  late  Wars  reduced  them  below 
half  the  number  employed  previously.  In  1852,  «he 
whale  fishery  employed  ships,  of  the  aggregate  burden 
oflO.liatons. 

The  Newfoundland  fishery  has  been  considerable 
for  fully  a  century  past.  As  a  nursery  for  seamen,  it 
]s  accounted  of  such  consequence  as  to  have  fonned 
the  object  of  a  specllic  article  in  most  of  the  treaties 
of  peace.  The  fish  cauglit,  particularly  in  time  of 
peace,  is  sent  less  to  Britain  than  to  the  Catholic 
countries  in  tlie  south  of  Europe ;  a  market  subject  to 
all  the  interruptions  attendant  on  u  change  of  political 
relations.  Tlse  nunilior  of  vessels  employed  in  this 
fishery  at  different  times  was  as  follows  ; 

In  1781..... TO 

1704 140 

1774 864 

The  American  war  caused  a  diminution  ;  but 

In  1784  the  number  was ti86 

lT(s6  *•  " iW 

At  this  rate  the  fishery  continued  until  the  war  of 
1793,  after  which,  particularly  after  the  rupture  with 
Spain  in  1797,  it  fell  off  greatly ;  the  fishing-vosaels  in 
1708  l)cing  only  140. 

1  he  continuance  of  war,  and  the  aggrandizement  of 
the  French  in  Italy,  occasioned  additional  depression  ; 
so  that  in  1810  the  nunil>er  of  JCnglish  vessels  em- 
ployed at  Newfoundland  did  not  exceed  92.  The 
peace  seemed  to  promise  a  revival  of  this  imiKirtant 
nursery  of  seamen  ;  and  in  the  year  181G  the  number 
of  vessels  which  arrived  in  Nowfounillnnd  was  79.'i, 
manned  liy  C.OOO  seamen  ;  but  the  trade,  both  then  and 
in  1817  and  1818,  proved  unprolitablc,  in  consequence 
of  indifferent  seasons,  of  the  hiffh  duty  imposeil  on 
fish  imported  in  British  vessels  into  Naples,  and  of  the 
comi)etition  of  the  French  fishermen,  supporteil  by  a 
high  bounty  from  their  government.  'I'iio  total  value 
of  fish  exported  from  the  British  colonies  in  North 
America  in  1851,  was  A'827,738. 

It  is  a  matter  of  s\irprisu  to  foreii^ers  that  a  mari- 
time nation  should  not  have  mure  eA'eitually  cultivated 
this  great  means  of  facilitating  the  support  of  the  jwiv 
pie.  The  ample  supply  which  might  have  been 
afforded  liy  the  Xymph  Bank,  on  the  south-east  coast 
of  Ireland,  has  liecn  avowedly  neglected  ;  and  it  was 
only  in  1818  that  the  discoverj-  of  n  bank  of  almost  equal 
productiveness  in  the  vicinity  of  Orkney,  was  made. 

Fish  is  little  known  to  the  mass  of  the  peopio  in  the 
Inland  counties,  though  the  facilities  of  tran.sport 
afforded  by  the  railways  is  gradually  distributing  it  in 
larger  quantities.  l.ondon  lias  always  been  amply 
supplied.  Mr.  Mayhew,  in  his  pamphlet  on  "  London 
Labor  and  the  London  Poor,''  estimates  the  weiglit  of 
fish  annually  consumed  in  Lomlon  at  alwive  450,0(10,- 
000  pounds,  licsides  an  enormous  quantity  of  shell- 
fish. Calculating  the  flsh  of  all  kinds  at  3d.  per  lb. 
on  an  average,  the  amount  would  exceed  il5,00(),000 
(terling.     See  the  article  Kisiikkiks. 

ifanii/drttirvt: — In  this  groat  liepartment  of  English 
productive  industrj',  we  begin  witli  woolens,  which, 
although  no  longer  file  largest  of  those  manufactures  in 
point  of  cNfiortation,  nor  even  in  the  value  annually 
made,  is  entitled  to  the  first  place  from  the  priority  of 
its  establishment,  as  well  as  from  the  substantial  basis 
on  which  it  rests.  England,  from  thu  extent  of  her 
poitures,  abounded  iit  wool  from  a  very  ramote  age, 


and  the  inhabitants  were  douhtleu  capable  of  manu- 
facturing it  into  rude  clothing ;  each  weaver  working 
in  his  separate  cottage,  and  with  very  little  aid  from 
macbiner}-.  In  the  12th  and  IHtb  centuries  she  ap- 
pears to  have  luid  only  the  most  humble  fabrics,  and 
to  havu  imported  all  cloth  of  liner  texture  ;  sending 
abroad  her  wool  in  quantities  to  Flanders,  a  country 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  at  that  period  much 
further  advanced  than  the  rest  of  Europe,  with  the 
exception  of  Italy.  It  was  in  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century  that  a  better  system  was  introduced.  Flem- 
ish manufacturers  were  invited  over  to  England,  and 
improved  greatly  the  quality  of  her  home-made  wool- 
ens. The  seats  of  this  branch  of  industry  appear  at 
that  time  to  have  been  Kent  and  Essex  ;  afterward 
Gloucestershire,  and  subsequently  the  West  Hiding  of 
Vorkshire.  It  occupied  at  first  the  southern  and  more 
improved  districts,  and  spread  ufterwanl  to  the  north- 
ward, on  account  of  the  cheapness  of  lulior,  the  abund- 
ance of  coal,  and  the  convenience  of  water-falls  for 
the  machinery.  The  general  character  of  the  woolen 
manufacture  of  England  has  been  that  of  slow  progress, 
but  of  little  fluctuation  ;  the  latter  evidently  a  conse- 
(|uenco  of  its  depending  more  on  home-consumption 
than  on  exportation.  In  the  long  period  from  1700  tu 
1780,  the  exports  ex|ierlcnced  a  regular,  but  not  rtpid 
rbio,  amounting  in  the  latter  years  to  about  £I.t,500,000, 
while  the  home-consumption  increased  in  proportion  to 
her  augmenting  numbers.  More  recently  the  manu- 
facture has  been  niatcriully  improved  by  the  adoption 
of  various  im|H)rtant  mechanical  inventiims  in  the 
spinning,  weaving,  and  dressing  departments.  On  the 
whole,  however,  improvement  has  been  much  less 
rapid  in  it  than  in  the  cotton  manufacture ;  so  that 
while  her  ox|>orts  of  cotton  stuffs  and  yam  have  in- 
creased beyonil  all  precedent,  those  of  woolens  have 
been  coini>aratively  stationary. 

As  we  shall  enter  fully,  in  the  article  Wooi.ES 
MANup.vorunK,  into  the  details  connected  with  its 
history,  progress,  and  piesent  state,  it  would  lie  use- 
less, even  if  our  limits  permitted,  to  anticipate  these 
here.  Wis  shall  only  observe,  therefore,  that  tiie  en- 
tire value  of  the  manufacture  is  estimafed  at  about 
.£'2.'),000,(MK).  .\ccording  to  the  census  of  1851,  there 
were  employed  in  the  various  branches  of  the  woolen 
manufactures  170,131  males,  and  118,042  females. 
By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  raw  material  of 
the  manufacture  is  the  jiroduce  of  her  own  flocks  ;  Imt 
for  many  years  past  she  has  imported  large  quantities. 
Previously  to  1800  the  average  imports  did  not  ex- 
ceed 3,O0O,0(K)  llis.,  mostly  brought  from  Spain,  the 
wool  of  which  long  maintained  u  high  character.  In 
1800  the  iiniwrts  increased  to  9,000,0(K1  lbs.  Since  then 
they  have  gone  on  increasing,  till,  in  1852,  they 
reached  93,701,458  lbs.,  of  which  43,197,301  lbs.  came 
from  her  own  dependencies  in  Australia.  In  1831  the 
exports  of  woolen  manufactures  amounted  to  il5,232,- 
013,  Since  then  they  have  annually  increased,  till, 
in  1852,  they  reached  il8,73i),934.  For  au  account  of 
the  prices  and  qualities  of  wool,  etc.,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  article  Woof,. 

The  cott'-n  manufacture  of  England  is  entitled  to  the 
greatest  attention  on  different  accounts.  Of  all  her 
umnufactures,  it  affords  the  largest  eiiport,  and  ex- 
hibits the  most  rapid  impruvements  in  machinery. 
Its  introduction,  though  ;iot  remote,  is  less  recent  than 
is  commonly  supposed.  It  appears  to  have  taken 
place  early  in  the  17th  century,  when  it  was  estal>- 
lished  at  Manchester ;  but  it  was  long  conducted  upon 
a  very  limited  scale.  The  raw  material,  imported  at 
liriit  only  from  the  Levant,  in  particular  from  Smyrna, 
iHigan,  after  1600,  to  be  supplied  by  her  Wct-t  India 
colonics.  The  quantity  imported  amounted,  about 
the  year  1700,  to  3,o(»  bales ;  but,  increasing  with  the 
extended  cultivation  of  her  colonies,  it  averaged,  about 
the  year  1720,  something  more  than  7,000  bales.  From 
the  colonial  coiiquesta  of  the  war  of  175<i  her  import  of 


1 


ENO 


606 


ENO 


cotton  received  further  an^entatlon ;  bat  the  manu- 
facture Increased  very  alowly,  a  great  part  of  her  cot- 
ton l>eing  re-exported  to  Holland,  for  the  aupply  of 
Dutch  and  Oerman  weavoni.  It  wan  not  till  after  the 
peace  of  17Gfl,  and  the  Invention  timt  of  the  curding 
machine,  and  next  of  the  aplnning-Jenny,  that  thU 
manufacture  liecanie  connlderably  extendcl.  In  1776, 
the  average  import  of  cotton  approached  1N,(XK)  balen. 
A  variety  of  inventions,  iinequalcd  In  the  history  of 
manufacturing  induat-y,  were  now  made  (iiee  article  on 
the  CoTTox  MAsnFACTonE),  which  gave  an  astonish- 
ing stimulus  to  the  business.  Kino  calicoes  and  muslins 
were  Introduced ;  the  workmen  wore  withdrawn  from 
their  detached  dwellings,  nnd  collected  Into  lar^re  Uc- 
tories  ;  and  the  price  of  the  finished  article  experienced 
a  reduction,  notwithstanding  a  rise  In  the  raw  material, 
and  in  the  wages  of  labor.  Tlie  pcrio<l  which  followed 
the  peace  of  17H8  Is  perhaps  unexampled  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  price,  and  the  consequent  extension  of  sale  that 
took  place  In  regard  to  cotton  goods.  The  commence- 
ment of  hostilities  in  1793  gave  a  pretty  severe  sho<-k 
to  the  business  ;  but  the  improvements  in  machinery 
continuing,  th»  manufacture  soon  recovered,  and  has 
gone  on  Increasing,  under  many  vicissitudes,  with  a 
rapidity  unparalleled  by  a'.iy  other  business,  eith>^r  In 
thut  or  any  other  conntrj'.  Neither  does  there  eem 
to  bo  any  ground  for  fvartr. g  that  this  progres'.  will  lie 
speedily  checked.     On  fit  contrar^',  her  r.uperiority 


town  of  of  Birmingham,  but  In  a  part  of  the  sarround- 
ing  district.  It  Is  computed,  by  the  census  of  1861,  to 
etitdoy,  in  Kngland  and  Wales,  10,066  males,  and 
097(i  females,  of  whom  7626  are  under  20  years  of  age ; 
for  even  this  heavy  article  admits  of  subdivision  of 
employment,  which  lightens  the  labor,  an()  enables 
the  workman  to  avail  himself  of  the  aid  of  his  .amlly. 
Of  the  two  towns,  HhelHeld  is  by  much  the  nioi« 
ancient ;  the  command  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  sumo 
neighl>orhoo<l  having  rendered  it,  so  far  back  as  the  i;)th 
or  14th  century,  a  place  for  the  fabrication  of  the  i;  .ne- 
ly  articles  used  In  those  days  by  our  ancestors.  It  ia 
almut  a  century  since  its  razors,  knives,  nnd  liles  be- 
gan to  take  a  mure  <li'licate  shape.  Ulrmlngham,  huw- 
ovor,  emiiruced  a  wider  rarjo,  ond  advanced  with 
much  greater  rapidity  ;  liut  Sheffield  also  has  itu  ai\Ja- 
cent  district,  inbabitotl  liy  niunufacturors,  though  to  • 
much  less  extent  thnn  the  vicinity  of  Ulnningham. 
This  district,  culled  llallanishire,  extends  six  or  seven 
miles  to  tho  west  of  Sliefllelil. 

Ilardnaro  Is  mudo  in  several  other  places,  such 
as  liilston,  Wol\  erhiunpton,  Dudley,  and  Walsall. 
'  Ka'-h  of  these  towns  is  situated  in  8tuft'ordsliire, 
and.  In  point  v(  manufacture,  is  small  only  in  cnnipar- 
ison  with  Birmingham  or  Kheffield.  Articl.  ippa- 
rently  very  tritliiig  are  manufactured  i  surprising 
extent  in  diircrent  i)l«ccs,  sucli  as  pin-  ,i.  filoucostcr, 
needles  at  KiMl-ilitch  in  Worcpstershir>     ■  atch-movc- 


in  the  mAjurity  of  what  contributes  to  the  advuncement    niciits  and   main-springs   at  IVscott  in   Ijiniashire. 
of  the  manufacture  Is  so  very  deciilod,  thut,  proviiled  I  the  total  value  of  urticlcs  of  iron,  steel,  liruss,  and 


the  pulilic  tranquillity  \te  preserved  uiiiinpaired,  she 
need  not  fear  from  tho  competition  of  others. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  ' '  Cotton  Manu- 
pactdhk"  in  this  work  for  un  account  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  this  great  liranrli  of  nntiimul  industry,  and 
for  tabular  statements,  exhibiting  the  present  magnl- 
tu(b!  and  importance  of  the  trade,  tlie  sources  whence 
tho  raw  cotton  is  derived,  and  the  foreign  markets  for 
the  raw  material  and  manufactured  articles. 

Hanhrnrt. — We  have  already  noticed  the  surprisiuj; 
increase  in  tho  produce  of  the  iron  mines  of  Kngland 
iince  1780.  This  Increase  of  the  raw  material,  joined 
in  some  cases  to  the  command  of  coal  in  tho  viciiiit  r, 
and  in  all  to  a  facility  of  conveyance  of  coal  and  iron 
by  cannls  and  railroads,  has,  in  tho  lust  M  years,  given 
s  great  extension  to  her  hardwanj  manufacture.     In 


'opper,  including  tlio  niunufucture  from  its  curliest 
to  its  most  finished  stage,  is  necessarily  Huctuating, 
but  may  bo  computed  at  ji;;iO,000,000  annually  ;  two 
thirds  of  which  appear  to  be  consumed  at  home,  w  hile 
the  other  third  is  ex|Mirted  to  two  great  murkets — the 
Continent  of  Kuro|)e  and  tho  United  States  of  Aniericu. 
Tho  number  of  (lersons  employed  in  Iho  hurdwaro 
manufacture  in  Knglanil  in  IX.M  wns  about  10o,000. 
/n  tho  United  States,  iron  and  coal  aro  found,  where 
land  and  provisions  are  certainly  much  dieaper  than 
in  liritain  ;  liut  the  scattered  state  of  An\ericau  popu- 
lation must,  during  several  ages,  oppose  serious  ulistu- 
cles  to  the  division  of  employment  necessary  in  nil  tho 
nicer  brandies  of  the  hanlwure  manufacture  ;  particu- 
larly as  the  eas»  with  which  tlio  Mississippi  and  Ohio 
are  navigated  by  steam  op«'ns  even  tho  We.iteru  Statea 


no  department  has  tlie  sulxlivision  of  employment  lieen  to  the  iin|iortation  of  Ilritisti  goods.  I'poii  tho  wholo, 
carried  to  so  great  a  length;  in  none  aro  its  eft'ects  'therefore,  wo  look  on  Knglish  hardware  niuuufuctures  as 
in  cheapening  production  so  conspicuous.  Binning-  j  resting  on  a  solid  basis,  liecuusc  in  them  are  ciimbined 
ham  and  Shetfleld  are  the  two  great  workshops  for  Kn-  several  ndvuntagcs ; — the  raw  material,  the  couiiiinnd 
glish  hardware ;  the  latter  is  confined  to  iron  and  "f  cheap  fuel,  and  the  use  of  machiucy,  which  tho 
steel,  while  i^i  the  farmer  not  only  iron  and  steel,  but  moro  it  is  adopted,  will  bring  a  greater  pro|iortion  of 
copper  and  brass,  constitute  the  materials  of  labor,  i  the  work  within  the  compass  of  women  and  lioys,  and 
Sheffield  faliricates  articles  which  are  less  for  ornament  thus  leesen  the  pro|iortion  liomo  by  wages  in  tlie  cost 
than  utility,  and  which  )»)sse8s  in  general  a  certain  ■  of  1\k  linished  article, 

bulk,  such  as  grates,  spades,  sickles,  files,  knives,  fen-  l.inen  Trade. — Linen  has  never  forinei!  one  of  the 
ders,  fire-irons ;  while  in  Birmingham  thcro  is,  in  ad-  staple  manufactures  of  Kngland,  flax  having  been  less 
ditiou  to  articles  of  solidity,  a  surprising  variety  of  toys,  1  cultivated  there  th-iu  on  tho  op))osite  shore  of  the 
fancy  goods,  and  petty  manufactures  ;  each  triftiiig,  Netherlands ;  a  country  which.  In  the  14th  and  l.'ifh 
when  considered  separatel}-,  but  the  whole  forming  an  centuries,  supplied  the  rest  of  ICurope  witli  tlio  finest 
aggregate  of  great  value.  The  most  insignificant  of  { linens  and  W'Hilens,  When  Kngland  subsc(|uently  ad- 
thcse,  such  as  a  brass  cock  or  a  button  shank,  pusses  '  vanced  in  manufacturing  arts,  the  uliundunt  supply  of 
through  a  number  of  hands,  and  each  artizan  |ierforms  woo!  pointed  out  the  most  siiitalile  hrHmli ;  and  sho 
only  a  single  operation.  He  thus  acquires  an  extra-  '  w  is  contented  to  continue  her  iiii|Hirts  of  linen  from 
ordinary  dexterity  in  bis  limited  department,  and  in  tho  Nctlierlands,  from  Kruiue,  and  from  (Jermuiiy,  it 
the  course  of  a  day  deipatches  several  hundred,  per-  to  favor  tlin  inaniifueture  of  the  sister  isluiid  in  a  de- 
ha|is  even  u  tliousand  articles,  through  his  purticiilnr  partinent  wliich  did  not  excited  her  je.ilousy.  In  Ire- 
stuge ;  the  re^ult  of  all  whicli  is,  that  the  price,  when  land,  tlic  linen  niunufucture  dutes  ubout  two  centuries 
sold  in  quantities,  is  incrediblv  low,  Anutlier  and  ago,  and  in  said  to  have  cAed  much  of  its  e\teii>i(iii  to 
very  intercstin;;  feature  in  tho  situation  of  Uimiing-  tlio  measures  of  the  unfortunalo  V\  intwortli,  in  tlio 
ham,  is  the  |Kipulou.-,ness  of  its  neighborhood.  Yet  in  reign  of  ('liarb's  I.  The  annual  consumption  of  linen 
none  of  the  large  towns  of  Knglanil  is  living  less  ex-  in  iMigland  a  century  ago  was  prolmldy  not  fur  lieli  w 
pensive;  an  advantage  owing  partly  to  tho  abund-  that  of  her  double  |>o|iulatiou  at  present  owing  to  tlia 
ance  of  coal,  partly  to  the  reudy  supply  nf  milk  and  very  general  suli-titutiun  in  uurtimo  of  mttou  articles, 
vegetaldea  from  the  wide  space  occuoied  by  the  popu-  At  that  time  the  linen  manufacture  of  Knglund  was 
lation.  established  cliiofly  in  Kancasliire  and  ('uiiil>erlund,  and 

yaiU. — Tka  miil  trade  is  carried  on,  nut  in  the    in  a  county  very  remote  from  these,  namely,  Dorset- 


ENG 


609 


ENO 


I 


•hlfe,  tn  17-1 5,  goTornment,  apprtned  of  the  nxtenilon 
of  the  manufacture  of  cnartu  linon  in  Sileiia  and  other 
part*  of  Oemiitny,  ami  actuated  liy  the  fallucioua  no- 
tion of  Kwiking  a  iiKinopoly  of  all  kinilH  of  productive 
industry,  ({rnntcrl  a  l)ounty  of  H<l.  per  yard  on  the 
exportation  of  all  llrltiah  linen  of  n  value  from  6d.  to 
18d,  per  yaril ;  in  other  words,  u  proiniuni  of  20  or  26 
per  cent,  '>  ,  the  prime  cost  of  all  inferior  i|ualitieii  ex- 
ported. >So  large  a  grant  Hoon  augmented  the  manu- 
facture of  osnaburgA  and  other  coarae  cloths,  particu- 
larly in  Siotlunil,  .  Ithough  the  ratio  of  increase  was 
infinitely  smaller  than  in  the  case  of  cotton,  where 
there  was  no  premium,  but  a  rapid  improvement  of 
machinery.  The  demand  for  bounty  in  the  ten  years 
ending  in  17Sfi,  was  alwut  X38,(MX)  annually.  Mora  re- 
cently these  ini|)olitiu  issues  were  greatly  increased ; 
but  at  leu  ^th  the  ini|)olicy  of  forcing  a  manufacture  in 
this  .  y  '<';■■'  l>ecomo  obvious  to  every  one,  the 
Uiuiities,  uftrt  I  .ng  gradually  reduced,  ceased  finally 
Id  1880. 

The  manufacture  is  principally  carried  on  in  the 
AVeat  Riding  of '^'urkshlre,  its  chief  seat  being  in  Leeds 
and  i'. '  neighborhood,  and  in  Lancashire,  Dorset,  Dur- 
ham,      I  Salop. 

Ireland  and  Scotland,  particularly  Dundee,  are  both 
superior  to  ".ngland  in  the  manufacture  of  linen.  But 
some  of  tl  '  flax  mills  established  at  Hull  are  on  a 
more  extensive  scale  than  any  other  in  the  empire, 

„  IBtl.  1811. 

The  exports  of  linen  manufactures 

f^oni  Orcat  Brltuln  cml  IrclAnd 

In  l,s,"il  BUd  JM2  were  of  the  do- 

dared  value  of .fi.S,fS22,l)a5     £,<ifiTi,*9l 

Thread  and  small  wares 2W,4(11  MB.^OS 

Linen  yarn 951,488       l,tlO,86S 

£S,05>1,S22  £.-S,372,!WI 
Silt  Manufacture. — In  the  silk  innnufacture,  as  in  tlio 
linen,  Knglnnd  has  hud  to  contend  with  a  formidable 
opposition  i"  other  countries,  particularly  in  France 
■•mil  Ituly  ;  and  "he  has  also  had  to  import  the  whole  of 
the  raw  maturii''..  It  would  therefore  hardly  have  been 
attempte  1  by  'or  countrymen,  but  for  the  great  proflts 
expected  from  an  article  of  general  use  anuing  the 
higher  classes.  Its  introduitioii  goes  back  to  the  l.'ith 
century.  About  the  beginning  of  the  IVtli  it  seems 
to  have  been  carried  to  u  considerable  extent,  owing 
certainly  noi       the  luxu';^  of  the  age,  nor  to  any  great 

proportion  o. icnt  persons  in  tlie  community,  but  to 

silk  being  al'.  t  the  only  article  of  apparel  In  which 
the  vanity  of  dn  could  display  itself.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  i.  ign  ot  Charles  II.,  about  the  year  1(!80, 
raw  silk  beg  a  to  bo  im)iortcd  in  quantitio  •  ""roni  India  : 
and  the  Kngiish  manufacture  received  a  sut)i.tai..i.il 
addition  by  tlie  nuraliors  and  ingenuity  of  the  French- 
men who  settled  in  that  country  after  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  N,mte8  in  108;t.  Various  circum-tanoes 
thus  contributed  to  preser\'e  and  exteiuitlie  maiinfao 
ture,  which  i  intinued  rather  upon  tlie  increase  till  the 


Klllce)  nflllmie'd  in  his  place  in  the  Houm  of  Commoni 
that  the  improved  silk  looms  In  use  in  various  parts  of 
the  ('ontlncnt  enaliled  the  workman  tn  execute  Jtot 
times  us  much  work  m  he  <-ould  do  in  Kngland  ;  while 
in  every  business  not  protected  by  a  monopoly  the 
result  was  precisely  opposite.  At  length,  after  a  great 
deal  of  discussion,  it  was  resolved  to  adopt  a  more  lili- 
erul  system.  In  18'ifi,  a  Idll  was  In  consequence 
passed,  allowing  the  ini|>ortation  of  foreign  silks  on 
juiyment  of  an  ml  valorrm  duty  of  80  per  cent.,  accom- 
panied, however,  liy  the  eflectiial  reduction  of  the  sin- 
gularly oppressive  duties  which  had  previously  been 
im|H>sud  on  the  Imports  of  raw  and  thrown  silk.  'I'liis 
measure,  though  vehemently  opposed  at  the  time,  has 
proved  most  successful.  We  think  that  the  silk  trade 
has  made  more  progress  since  182(1,  when  the  new  sys- 
tem was  introduced,  than  it  did  during  the  whole  of 
the  preceding  century.  The  following  quantities  of 
the  raw  and  thrown  silk  were  iniiurted  into  ti  o  United 
Kingdom  in 

Yuan.  Iba, 

1822 2,e80,Bfl8 

IWta 4,224, Sl)7 


1»tU 5,1100,242 


YtSM.  Illl. 

1«S(I. 6,411,984 

IHftI 5,020,972 

1KM 7,801),«17 


This  table  shows  conclusively  that  the  manufacture 
has  increased  nearly  200  per  cent,  sini'e  the  adoption 
of  those  sound  and  liberal  measures  which  have  been 
the  theme  uf  83  much  ignorant  invective.  It  is  of 
Importance,  too,  to  observe,  that  not  only  the  imports 
of  raw  silk,  but  also  the  exports  of  manufactured  silk 
goods,  are  rapidly  increasing.  The  following  table 
shows  this : 

1822 £181,708     K     1861 i'1,.S21t,77S 

18.32 529,990      1     18.^2 I,.^51,8art 

1850 1,225,(U1      11     1858 2,1)44,012 

It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  manufacture  i»  not 
increasing  nierely  by  reason  of  an  increased  dcmanil  in 
the  home  market,  but  because  Kngland  is  rapiilly  gain- 
ing on  her  rivals  in  the  markets  of  foreign  countries. 
This  alTurds  unquestioiiulile  evidence  of  the  improve- 
ment as  well  as  the  extension  of  the  mnniifacturo.  in 
IH.'i'J  her  exports  of  wrought  silks  to  France  amounted 
to  Ii2.')7,.^.').'),  and  to  the  United  States  to  £-m,h'M. 

Leather,  however  little  it  may  figure  as  an  arti.'le  of 
export,  is  necessarily  one  of  extensive  homo  consump- 
tion in  ever\'  civilized  country,  particularly  in  such  a 
climato  as  that  of  Kngland,  and  where  there  are  so 
many  rich  and  sumptuous  equipages.  It  is  matter  of 
regret  that  there  are  so  very  few  data,  ofticiul  or  otlier- 
wise,  on  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  export  or 
import  of  hides  in  former  ages.  Such  an  estimate 
would  possess  interest,  as  indicating  the  extent  of  her 
pasturage  and  the  number  of  her  cattle  in  comparison 
with  her  population.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
case  at  a  remote  date,  the  custom-house  returns,  for 
many  years  past,  show,  by  the  annual  imports,  tliat 
the  demand  for  leather  has  greatly  exceeded  tlie  home 
supply  of  hides.  For  n  long  time  this  importation 
general  sub  itution  of  cottons  for  .silks  uliout  J  TIM),  j  took  place  from  the  Continent  of  Kiirope,  and  from  tho 
This  gave  a  ti  :ious  shock  to  the  manufacture,  fmin  |  least  civilized  quarters  ;  from  countries  such  as  Lithu- 
whicb  it  rocov.>ied  only  by  slow  degrees.    Its  situation  I  ania  ai»d   I'oliind,  where  the  quantity  of  hides  fnr- 


had  nut  inde^ru  ',cen  at  any  time  prosper(>us  j  and  the 
continued  complaints  of  tiie  manufacturers  occasioned 
within  these  few  years  a  fundamental  change  in  tlie 
policy  under  which  it  had  previously  been  lonJucted. 


nislied  by  tho  cattle  materially  exceeds  tlii:t  of  the 
leather  required  by  the  ini'abitants.  Hut  since  tho 
ojiening  of  tlie  trade  to  South  America,  it  has  been 
found  more  advantageous  to  im|)ort  hides  from  that 


From  the  first  introdiution  of  tlie  manufacture  into  I  continent,  where  tlio  herds  of  wild  cattle  are  so  nu- 
Kngland  down  '■>  182r>,  foreign  sill;  were  cither  posi-  inerous  as  to  meet  tho  eye  of  the  traveler  in  almost 
tively  or  vlrtua.      exclud'Ml.    But  llie  monnpoly  which  '  every  point  of  tho  horizon. 

was  thus  secured  to  tlio  manufaitiirers  proiluced,  what  On  an  average,  there  are  imported  annually  about 
all  moiio|)(die>  invarmbly  do,  an  indiirereiico  to  im- 1  2,000,000  liidcs,  tanned  and  untanned.  The  qiian- 
provenieiit.  Instead  of  trusting  to  tlie  ingenuity  c.r  to  |  tity  of  leather  annually  made  in  lingland  and  )\'ale.s 
the  superior  skill  which  'ley  miglit  have  called  to  may  be  estimated  at  about  .W, 000,000  llis.  The  larg- 
their  aid  for  ptcserving  thei  ■  ascendency  in  the  market,  :  est  tanneries  are  at  Herraondsey,  in  Sonthwark  ;  but 
the  manufacfuicrs  dejiended  upon  tho  cusiom-liouse  I  theroarealso  veryextensive  establishmentsof  tlie  kind 
rogtiluiions,  and  udditiuiiul  penalties  on  smuggling.  \  in  the  country,  as  in  Chcaliire,  Lancashire,  NSestmore- 
In  con-  iU(  nee,  invention  was  quite  «t  a  stand.  Sucii,  !  land,  Cumberland,  and  also  in  Lincolnshire.  The  late 
ii.  I     .  .e  influence  of  the  system  in  this  respect,  j  war,  by  its  long  continuance,  and  the  magnitude  of 

th  ■  6  the  member  for  Coventry  (Jlr.  Edwanl  j  her  army  and  navy,  produced  great  orders  from  gov- 


ENO 


608 


ENO 


•rament  fur  her  lo'i**>«r  manufacturo.  Sboaa  wcra 
•nil  still  are  nuula  wUoleaal*  In  Mveral  tnwni  of  Staf- 
foitlahirx,  Chuhlra,  and  Northamptoiul  r '  out  tuoic 
mada  In  Ix>ndon,  l>>-  the  iirlucljial  dea>nt'«,  n/v,  though 
txpcnaiva,  liy  far  the  beat. 

Of  the  annual  value  of  the  leather  manufactured 
into  ahoei,  boot*,  harneia,  auddlery,  etc.,  there  are  no 
meaiia  of  forming  a  correct  extlinato ;  i>ut  wo  have 
merely  to  conalder  the  iiopiilatlun  of  Kn^land,  and  the 
onavuldable  extent  of  their  wunta,  to  bit  aatlxtled  that 
from  i;iD,000,000  to  X12,UU0,U()0  are  rather  below  than 
above  the  mark,  liut  while  her  homo  conauniptlon  la 
■o  conidderable,  herex|>ort  in  comparatively  small — In 
ordiunry  years  not  exceeding  i:800,UOU;  but  In  1869 
the  exports  of  manufactured  leather  rose  to  i.'l,678,605. 
This  largo  increase  was  probably  occasioned  by  the  reck- 
less connignments  to  Austr  ilia.  The  leather  shipped 
to  Ireland  Is  merely  tunned :  to  other  countries  the 
exports  are  In  a  manufactured  shape.  The  duty  on 
leather  was  wholly  aliolisbed  in  IH'M. 

Connected  with  the  general  manufacture  of  leather 
is  the  glove  trade,  a  brunch  of  no  inconsiderable  ex 


of  cotton  glovea  for  those  of  leather  ;  and  we  have  no 
doubt  tliat,  hull  it  not  been  for  the  greater  cheupnesa 
and  Improved  quality  of  leather  gloves,  caused  liy  the 
atMilltion  of  the  monopoly,  this  aul)stltution  would  have 
liern  carried  much  farther  than  it  has  lieen.  The  in- 
creased lm|)ort<i  of  the  lamli  and  kid  skins,  used  In  the 
manufacture,  abuv  oonclualveljr  that  it  Is  nut  de- 
clining. 

The  manufacture  of  paper,  and  the  f  idea  ronnected 
with  it,  such  as  printing,  bookselling,  buukbiml  iiig,  etc., 
give  occu|)ation  to  between  60,000  and  70,0Uu  {lersuus. 
From  the  excise  returns,  it  ap|ieara  that  the  quantity 
of  paper  of  all  kinds  manufactured  In  I'ltiglund  in  lH.Vi 
iroa  114,r>21,801  lb*.|  and  the  duty,  wliiili  is  at  the 
rate  of  l|d.  per  lb.,  plus  6  per  cent.,  amounted  to 
X7M,640.  It  i*  difficult  to  say  what  |x>rtion  of  thi« 
was  lilted  In  printing  bonks,  and  how  much  was  con- 
sumed by  the  newspa|>era  i  but  the  quantity  used  by 
some  of  the  latter  is  so  great,  tliat  a  single  nowapaiier, 
TAe  Time),  is  said  tn  cuh.iuiu«  about  &0  tons  a  week. 

Wo  come  next  to  a  lirniu  h  of  industry  of  a  very 
different  description,  iiainvh-,  the  brewery,  the  amount 


tent,  being  carried  on  In  several  of  the  midland  and  of  capital  anil  lalwr  invested  in  brewing  cstablislnnciits 
western  counties,  viz,,  at  Woodstock,  Worcester,  j  in  Kiigland  is  very  iar^i  iinil  puilleularly  striking  to 
Ludlow,  Hereford,  Yeovil  In  Somersetshire,  etc.  This  j  those  who  liave  lived  on  tlie  Continent,  and  have  con- 
branch  of  industry  enjoyed  for  a  lengthened  period  the  ;  trasted  the  situation  of  Knglund  with  tliat  of  the  wine 
protection  of  monopoly,  which,  however,  was  alwlished  countries  of  the  south  of  Kuri>|>e.  It  Is  only  in  Flan- 
in  1825.  Many  contradictory  statements  have  been  dera  and  (iermany  that  lireweries  are  numerous ;  and 
made  as  to  the  effects  of  this  measure.  We  lielieve,  |  in  the  latter,  from  the  liniitod  capital,  and  the  scattered 
however,  that  the  depression  so  much  complained  of  i  state  of  their  population,  there  are  hurtlly  any  of  those 
has  nut  lieen  produced  by  it,  but  by  the  substitution  '  largo  ostablisliments  which  exist  in  l.ondon. 
Am  Accoc.vt  or  tiix  total  NiruiiKR  or  Oiiartkhi  or  Malt  hade  lutrwERN  tui  Rth  pat  or  Iaxiiaby,  1^1  add  tiix 

fitU  DAY    or  JaKI-AKT,    ISAtI,    I.f  TH«     tjNlTKO    KiNdlluU  ;    UUTINIIUISIIIIIa    TIIR    (jCANTITV     MAIH:    IK   XACH   OOeNTRV, 


AMI    TNR    (Jl'ANTlTV    CBltD 

*UR  Ykax  xniiixii  thk  ftra 

HY    IllKWKRH   Ann    VliiTIIALIOX,    AND 

DAY  or  Janitaht,  \<>l. 

UY   Uktail 

blKWRUS;    A^lt    SIMILAR  AOTOUNT  rOE 

Enftlona  

Scotland 

YKAR  ENDINO  5TH  JANUARY, 

IBU. 

1                 YEAR  KNDINO  STII  JANUARY,  laM.                | 

QoArtcn  of 
U>lt  niadt. 

qUAKTKES  of  MALT  VViO 

-^    QiiarUn  of 
UAllmsde. 

^CABTISI  Of   MALT  VfID                        1 

B»  bnwari 
■nd  rlrliulcr*. 

By  ralaU 
brewsru. 

Total. 

Bv  )ir«w«r« 
Aiul  vWlnalon. 

Bv  null 

br|.».M. 

ToUI. 

4,0<iH.294 
l»t.in7 
tflo.lW* 

4,l»j,W)il 

4,48«,4M 
491,474 

iwT.m 

IIS 

4*ii,o«: 

1S0,SS« 

180,«9I) 

4,WT,i«l 

4,A8U,;)«) 
B'ill,47» 
808,759 

a,ft7i),itw 

l(M,fl77 
16»,92« 

*»1.\ti 

Ireland 

United  Kintrdom 

S,l»t,Ml 

8,7fi(l,iM4 

481,IK)T 

1    B,'iM,ttl)8 

S,9i)l,77li 

M,m 

Quantities  of  spirits  charged  with  excise  dutlea  in 

the  United  Kingdom  in 

n«ll»n. 

ISSO 8S,I«>1,4«8 

ISfil »t,ll80,»8« 

ISU aS,Vi70,263 

The  quantity  of  beer  brewed  in  England  In  1830 
was  4,ti78,428  barrels.  The  duty  on  l>eer  having 
ceased  on  the  10th  of  October,  18.30,  there  ore  no  sulv 
sequent  accounts  of  the  quantities  brewed.  There 
can  Iw  no  doubt,  however,  from  the  Increased  quantity 
of  malt,  that  the  production  of  beer  hoa  likewlso 
greatly  increased. 

Spirituoui  liquori. — Spirituou.1  llquun  form  one  of 
the  branches  of  manufacture  in  which  England  ia  de- 
pendent on  her  neighbors,  as  she  Imports  an  annual 
supply  of  com  spirit  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  rum 
from  the  West  Indies,  and  brandy  from  France.  It 
has  been  generally  supposed  that  the  consumption  of 
gin  has  increased  materially  in  England  since  1825, 
when  the  duties  were  reduced.  Wo  are,  however, 
inclined  to  doubt  whether  such  be  really  the  esse,  and 
are  disposed  to  believe  that  the  effect  is  more  apparent 
than  real ;  in  fact,  that  it  has  resulted  rather  from  a 
diminution  of  smuggling  than  from  a  positive  increase 
of  consumption.  That  such  has  been  the  case  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland  is  beyond  all  question ;  and  there 
seems  no  reoiton  to  conclude  that  it  is  otherwise  in 
England.  Fur  tables  of  the  quantity  of  malt  used  in 
1853,  and  of  the  quantities  of  spirit  charged  with  ex- 
cise duties  in  1850,  1851,  1852,  see  article  UnKwiNO. 

To  the  i  -miaiuing  manufactures  the  limits  allow  of 
little  space,  though  several  of  them  would  be  accounted 
of  great  importance  in  any  other  country  than  England. 
The  extent  to  which  such  artidea  aa  soap  and  paper 


are  made  in  England  Is  amply  shown  by  the  excise 
returns  ;  but  the  list  of  her  cm  .>rts  is  of  more  conse- 
quence to  the  political  economist,  not  from  the  vulgar 
notion  that  it  Is  l>y  export  only  tlut  national  profit 
is  realized,  but  as  indicative  of  those  commodities  for 
which  she  possesses,  In  her  soil,  her  climate,  or  her 
colonial  |)Osse9sions — advantages  that  give  them  a 
superiority  over  their  neighbors.  Thus,  in  the  cose 
of  glass,  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of  her  coal 
enaliles  her  to  make  an  annual  expurt  of  uiiuve 
£500,1)00.  In  the  manufacture  of  hats,  likewise,  lier 
command  of  wool  fur  the  coarser  kind,  und  of  furs  from 
her  North  American  colonies  for  beaver  hats,  enables 
her  to  ship  to  an  extent  of  nearly  l.'i,000  doaen,  or 
.£44,000  a  year.  In  earthenware  England  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  clay,  of  fuel,  and  of  ready  cuirimunicatlon 
by  canals.  These,  joined  to  the  taste  and  ingenuity 
of  individuals  engaged  in  the  manufacture,  carried  it, 
in  the  course  of  the  IHth  century,  to  an  extent  which 
has  rendered  it  a  natioual  object — a  tract  of  7  or  8 
miles  in  Staffordshire,  culled  the  Pottery  District,  being 
almost  entirely  appropriated  to  it.  The  |><>pulation  of 
this  tract  is  about  60,000.  The  groat  outlet  is  Liver- 
pool, and  the  shipments  take  place  partly  to  the 
(Julted  States — partly  to  the  continent  of  Europe. 
Exports  (comprising  porcelain)  In  1853  reached 
£1,337,911  in  real  value. 

The  stocking  manufacture  is  carried  on  chiefly  In 
the  counties  of  Nottingham,  Derby,  and  Leicester. 
It  formerly  employed  great  numben  of  womeu  in 
knitting ;  but  In  this,  as  in  most  other  branches,  ma- 
chiner}'  boa  greitly  supeneded  manual  labor.  Lace  ia 
made  in  vast  quantities  In  the  midland  countiea ;  and 
here  also  mocbiuery  Is  ezt«n«ively  applied.    And  lo 


Ju 


.    ..i-iv.  .■..^--.    -. 


BNG 


ENQ 


•xtrtanltnKiy  liu  b«rn  (h*  proKTtu  of  Inrcntlon  In    l«rK«,  caniUtinK  of  wool,  eora,  flax,  timtMr,  Ua«i, 
tbl*(le|iHHin<nl,  that  llritlah  Ucn  at  prucnt  cnmiuiniU    and  win*,  fruiu  thu  vicinity  of  Ihu  Klilno. 


roady  talii  In  all   foralKri  markita,  and  U  Isrualjr 
•muKKli'il  (Ten  intu  Francs, 

Vimtmrrr*  mul  Hhif>i)iHi). — With  IrtUnd  llie  intar-  ' 
couna  iif  Knifland  Ih  viiry  Knot  —that  country  landing 
tbcm  Kriiln,  ulttd  and  frcah  pnivUlona,  llva  cattia,  ■ 
liuttar,  etc.,  t»  tha  amount  of  4;U,I)()<),(X)0  or  i;7,000,OUO 


Himlk  11/*  tMrnfm. — ll«ri<  wu  «nt«r  on  countrica  of 
much  l««a  Inilimtry.  Kroui  I'lirtugiil  KiiifUnd  takaa 
wina  In  very  InrKf,  and  fruit  In  numllrr  <|»aiititli'ii,  iu 
ruturn  for  her  icittona,  her  woulann,  and  Imr  liurdwaro, 
Vrom  Mpain  xlin  racclvaa  wool,  winu,  liranily,  oil, 
frulta,  barllU,  etc.      Italy,  withrjut  any  cunimerclai 


annually,  and  CuklnK  1*<'K*'>'  '■>  i^itum  her  manufac-    tmuty,  takea  a  \»rg»  quantity  of  her  nunufacturua, 
tureo,  piirtli  uliirly  cotton,  woolen,  and  hardware,  and  Klvaa  In  return  allk,  oil,  and  fruit.      With  tha 


Noiih  of  /iiriipr. — From  Kuaala  hor  chief  Iniporta 
am  talloiv.  h<  >{i,  ||ax,  corn,  linen,  limlMir,  pitch,  etc.  i 
h  domlnlona,  iron  and  tinil>«ri  from 
mber,  and  potaah ;  from  I'maaia, 
'■X.  All  thea*  countrlea  t>i.,>  be: 
donlul  prcHluca. 
^From  Holland  her  importa 
Oui  lln,  aa  In  the  17th  century, 
re  the  carrlera  of  Kurope,  hut  ogrl- 
'  '•.  wheat,  Kvedt,  hemp,  cheeae, 
liole  to  a  larife  amount ;  In 
1  h  take  her  hardware,  cottonii, 
III  riince  her  Importa  have  lon^ 
been  liurdened  with  heavy  dutiea,  hut  atiU  tliey  are 
lar^^e  and  IncrenaInK,  ('onaiatiug  chleHy  of  wInn  luul 
brandy,  ailk,  luce,  kIovch,  etc  With  (iormany,  h«r 
chief  intenourae  ia  thriiiii;li  the  medium  of  Holland 
and  Ilttml>iirf(.  With  tlii'Kx  lountrlca  her  oxporta  aro 
larKe,  particularly  In  cottona,  hardwuru,  and  colimlul 
produce.      Her    Importa  are   alao  very    vtirioua  and 


from  the 
PoUnd, 
wha.it,  li 
cotton*,  Imi 
Ctntml  1)1 
AN  nut  '  ' 
when  til 
euHurnl    nxi 
butter;     lao 
return  fur  wh 
and  wiHilcnn 


Levant  har  tratUc  ia  almilar— conxiatinK  of  an  ex|Hirt 
of  manufacture*,  piirticulurly  prlnteil  cottona  and  hard- 
ware, a".U  of  an  iin|Hirt  of  ailk,  fruit,  and  druKi. 

lb<  United  State*  are,  notwith         liiiK  their  tarilT, 
iMf  h«*t  <  itatomer*,  recclvInK  f  .  <aud  manuf<ic- 

ture*  of  almost  every  kind  to  '  ,»<■»>■.  .^.n.  i.  ',  and  aund- 
lug  her  In  retuni  vaat  qu  '  i  *.  <;  <  .>th  a,  toliucco, 
rice,  and  Hour  i  hut  the  ir  :  .  u<  -  1'  mI  from  the 
Tnited  Htutea  lioinKfarimt  lortc.-  u<  a  of  Knt;lii>h 
ux|H)rta,  the  difference  la  paid  by  reoiittam <>a  in 
money  from  the  continent  of  Kurope,  arlaing  from 
American  mcri.huiidl8e  aold  flicro.  With  South  Amer- 
ica a  widii  lii'ld  of  commerciul  intcrcourae  haa  boon 
(ipiMied ;  at  preaent,  however,  the  chief  article*  re- 
ceived from  that  vaat  re)(ion  are  bullion,  hhlea,  aklna, 
indigo,  unil  cochineal.  The  trade  I*,  and  will  long  lie 
*uliject  to  the  vartoua  diaadvautugea  of  u  nowly-aettlid 
country,  bare  of  capital,  dolUient  in  induatr}',  and  poa. 
•eaaing  but  u  aniall  iiumlier  of  cunaumera  of  Kuropeun 
conmioditicH  in  proportion  to  it*  extent  and  fertility. 


(louUIHCR  >ir  TU»  i;.viT«o  Htat** 

wiTu  KaoLji 

»o.  Kaon  ()>  r.iiiKii  1,  1»2(Vti>  -Ijux 

1,  1856. 

Yi-ari  rnain(. 

Iiparto, 

tmpitrU. 

Whatmf  llwra  »m  la  BuIUoD 
and  aiwrl*. 

Tooaaia  Clatni, 

ll.iiiwiU>. 

Fomlioi. 

Total, 

Tocl. 

ICipnrud. 

Inittorli'il. 

Amertran. 

(■'nrilgn. 

Bcpt.   HO,  IWil 

ii'M^i^.iiiv 

$»,ll».tW4 

$IMI>4,Tll8 

|y8,lMt,N62 

♦  1,9>I8,605 

♦OU),529 

128,729 

19,546 

!H*i 

'il,U7»,89S 

Ift'Ht.iU 

22,1(11,019 

82,108,947 

796,21') 

90,920 

161,080 

ao,2:li 

l-tH 

iH,»6tt,it(n 

9Ts,474 

19,940,0ri9 

26,801,270 

805,882 

282,822 

182,042 

N),7.81 

lvi4 

1H,«1H,H41 

1,'J*t.i|s2 

19,487,12:1 

20,0.17.92'i 

812,119 

149,101 

140,125 

42,810 

lH2ft 

mjmfiw 

i,m\.\m 

84,127,676 

84,271,510 

808,260 

82,188 

172,409 

89,242 

isao 

|!M"lft,IWi 

i,&ii».i)-i>i 

20,6114,208 

24,:lll2,2(l8 

098,077 

122,210 

147,155 

41,801 

lS'i7 

'A.M4,WI 

9(K,ft9« 

24,4111,017 

28,lir.8,si!l 

2(ai,liil 

81,111 

202.076 

08,711(1 

ivil 

iN,7M7.atii 

9,90(1,2111 

21,097,922 

811.470,180 

2,a5'J,2n9 

20,072 

1!18,.8.18 

75588  . 

WiU  

!il,3H|.IVI4 

l,7IIT,4:i7 

28,048,791 

«8,s92,768 

078,888 

80,826 

179,848 

00,722  1 

luikl 

Total... 

IJ!),7Tlt,iW0 
|al8,(»0ll,.Ml 

H2tl,ll4« 

(|6,40I,04I< 

24,699.906 

22.7.V>,(l40 
»27l(,650AJ9 

112,229 
♦82,47,842 

144,2:11 
♦  :,62I,6>U 

102,714 
1,580,076 

58,5vj 

♦228,627,iW 

482,621 

SopL  80,  IWU 

»«1,  ■^41,4111 

|->.afl7,4:!9 

»8 1,2(18,800 

141,864,828 

♦  1,61,1,048 

♦  180,81)0 

2ai,845 

•^8,461 

JSH'i 

M.(li«,7HM 

•^■.7.MI17 

29,610,905 

84.849,090 

1,112,208 

8;(,680 

189,579 

96.615 

ISHH 

lili,5Sa,(l78 

1.4.-i2.7«ii 

81,086,411 

80,068,815 

244 

81,008 

188,028 

87,602 

IWM 

«'<.07.l,a«4 

2,1174.721) 

4I,04\42(I 

4&,560,(i(l» 

270 

6,80,1,618 

210,250 

hO,i:li) 

IMH.% 

47.llllil,,WJ 

0  (.'>,-<09 

48,980,841 

6».00fl,989 

89,087 

1,808,488 

21.1,810 

69,,M3 

|s;m 

M,;l'ri,4S:) 

r,S74,7il7 

M,  177.220 

75.761,71:1 

2,509 

2,822,920 

it88,817 

78,4.'.0 

ISH7 

4ti.-ii«,lt« 

4,h->4,7(W 

51,119,870 

48,540.757 

1.888,070 

110,209 

208,068 

67.125 

1S.SS 

4S,'''.I!>,MSS 

l,,14.MSH 

."10,44.1,070 

4t,191,s'il 

10,1.85 

9,O00,:146 

844,010 

.      7(1,008 

I'^HB 

M.«l.'i.l)'.'7 

.I.W.Vt.Kis 

58,508,485 

04,80:1,710 

.1.168,400 

1,420,002 

209,400 

02,(1^5 

isw 

ToUI... 

BI,».'>I,77S 
♦«itf,7iiS,e76 

ft,09fl,H,vi 
127,9711,562 

57,048,000 
^151,0911,287 

83,114,18:1 
|t7».489,9&S 

4,8s:i,78fl 
$12,100,627 

808,806 

888,612 

129.218 

♦21,027,880 

2,W8,897 

871,297 

Sept  SO,  l"**! 

$U.\M,V,1 

♦3,1171,220 

♦47,.156,577 

(41,780,007 

♦8.019,187 

♦580,580 

972,081 

130,708 

M'i 

l)6,(WI,S(W 

2,9112.1411       il9,dl8,94S 

8:1,446,4:19 

1,702,748 

20.1,0!9 

28.1.479 

180,0,M 

0  iniis.       .~W 

»~.it9,(m 

1.100,1104 

88,26,1.1.19 

20,141.118 

400 

14,8flf.,714 

329.985 

108,174 

Juno  110.  I''!! 

4\H[4Mi 

1.125.414 

46,ll40,l}a 

41,470,0,81 

8.1,706 

1,181,959 

811,741 

102,588 

islft 

4I..MH,9H4 

4,707,244 

40.280, 1T8 

44,087,860 

8,078.187 

180,829 

874,840 

108,021 

ISllI 

42,7^1, 11 10 

1,7.^,4-19 

44,540,103 

fl,  814,100 
4,1,170,874 

978,110 

412,711 

804.149 

1S8.94J 

1N47 

7o.il'.'.l,77r 

s.l4,921 

71,1)58,099 

SAM 

10,812,980 

457,.193 

S00,5.Vi 

l't4S 

fii.lf.N.O-Jl 

S,924,291 

71,S12,816 

69,708,5ll'2 

9,818,688 

1,010,9.12 

470.M8 

258,210 

l^tO 

AO.Iiil.liU'i 

1,,sho,h7s 

71,042,870 

6^»1^425 

764,097 

2,071,702 

670,018 

849.1810 

KVI 

Total... 

(M.IW(I.1).1» 

4,2111,271 

0s,s97,28U 

72,11V>71 
♦491,196,006 

2,584,115 

♦22,078,208 

627,206 
♦41,816,601 

440,682 
8,880,627 

209,078  , 
'i,i8(),185 

«,11,M:il,ft(i7 

♦311,910,782  ,|.M0,I)42,28» 

Juno  80,  Wl 

♦in5.1'.').0->l 

♦S,15l,200  '»I1S,278,187 

♦90.612.288 

♦  17,099,081 

♦  1,098,667 

621,608 

274,888 

l'*l>'i 

1li7.7s1.«.'S7 

4,580. 1  si     112,824,142 

HS.l  19,869 

84,802,2.84 

1,487,4*4 

678,489 

800,017 

IWH 

lli,77H,>«9 

a,2n9,2IVt     116,987,028 

12,1,774,2.32 

1.8,081,000 

284.790 

004,892 

429,174 

ISM 

1H.M11,7IW 

6,508,0:11     140,07.1,8:19 

I40.:iss7:i:l 

27,!H26,268 

8.1,166 

868,970 

489,210 

liWi 

li9.47,^,»flV 

0,l,1«,17-<  '  18.1,629,145  1  I(tt,4il0,'.'9ll 

47,8,18,015 

107.404 

a81,4M 

2,1.8,915 

1806 

t5'i,M1,978 

1,517,6011  '  154,079,5ai  j  11H,04,1,.144 

84,161,069 

421,971 

928,017 

889,108 

For  a  more  extended  occouiit  of  the  commerce  of 
KiiKlond,  as  well  a*  of  (ireat  Britain,  me  Gkkat 
Bbitais. 

Froi  1  Asia  Knghind  lin;iort«  t(*a.  Indigo,  cotton, 
cofico,  "Ugur,  |>ieco  good.^,  'vory,  drug*,  etc.  Her 
principal  urticlo  of  export  in  cottim  goods,  for  which, 
liow  aingulur  soever  it  may  appear,  Indlii  has,  *incn 
tlie  opening  of  the  trade  in  1811,  become  one  of  the 
very  beat  muikots.    Besides  cotton  stufl'a  and  yarn, 


*he  sends  to  A*ia  woolen  goods,  copper,  and  a  great 
viiriety  of  other  articles. 

From  Africa  Knglund  imports  drugs,  ivori-,  teak 
wood,  hides,  etc.  Hor  export*  are  but  inconsiderable, 
consisting  principally  of  cotton  and  linen  manuf.ic- 
t\ire*.  The  hopes  so  t'rctiuontly  entertained,  of  open- 
ing nn  ndvanlageou*  trade  with  the  interior  of  Africa, 
have  hitherto  been  altogether  disappointnd,  and  it  U 
not  ouppoeed  they  will  be  more  successful  ia  future. 


^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


,^ 


1.0 


I.I 


UilM    |25 

Ui  1^   12.2 

w  lift 

2.0 


us 
ui 


■  40 


IL25  lliu 


Ml 

m 

11.6 


.fr 


ri.:A 


fliotografiiic 

Sciences 
CQrporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  USM 

(716)87^4503 


4r 


O^ 


BNQ 


610 


BN0 


Hm  nemt  dlMovai^  of  tk«  goU  fltlds  la  AosImIU, 
tad  the  coDMqoMit  mU«  of  fanmlgiMta  Into  that 
eoaatTT',  Imto  made  it  an  irapoitaat  narlMt  Ibr  En- 
l^aad'i  pradaoa  and  aiaaafactom.  Th*  deolarod 
raluo  of  her  home  prodace  and  auniiCietare*  exported 
lo  the  Attstrsliaa  ooloniea,  incloding  Van  Diaman'i 
Land  and  New  ZeaUnd,  in  18fiO,  was  X1,S74,146, 
while  ia  1861, 1852,  and  18S8  it  reBpeotlvely  amounted 
to  £3,807,866,  £4,222,«»,  and  £14,606,S8S.  The 
n«nl>CT  of  sliipe  that  cleared  <h>m  the  United  Kingdom 
for  the  Tarlona  Auitralian  coloniei  wa«  27S  in  1861, 
668  hi  1863,  and  1201  ia  1868.  A  letnm  of  the  ex- 
port* and  imports  to  the  Anstrallan  colonies  for  1861, 
1863,  and  1868,  sliows  some  oorioiis  results.  The  ex- 
ports for  1868  exhibit  in  some  instances  an  extincti  >  i, 
and  in  almost  every  aitide  a  decline,  except  wool,  and 
of  coune  gold,  which  is  not  noticed  in  the  return; 
thus  tanners'  bark,  of  which  86,894  cwts.  were 
exported  10-1869,  was  reduced  to  4776  cwts.  in 
1858 ;  and  tanned  hides,  of  which  643,198  lbs.  were 
exported  in  1863,  only  amounted  to  9842  lbs.  in 
1868;  while  nntanned  hides  rose  tiom  30,348  cwts. 
In  1853,  to  41,967  in  1858.  Flax  and  hemp,  guano, 
wine,  timber,  tortoise-shell,  whale-Hns,  etc.,  all  de- 
clined or  disappeared  fWim  the  return.  So  did  cop- 
per and  lead  ore ;  but  copper,  partly  wrought,  that 
is,  in  bars,  rods,  or  injtots,  increased  Oom  878  tons 
In  1853,  to  686  tons  in  1858.  QnicksilTer  fell  from 
14,631  lbs.  In  1853,  to  6988  lbs.  in  1853;  and  wool 
rase  fhim  48,197,801  lbs.  fai  1853,  to  47,076,968  Ibe.  in 
1853. 

The  amount  of  exports  in  1851  being  doubled  in 
1853,  and  quintupled  in  1863,  and  probably  increased 
still  mora  in  1864,  could  not  foil  to  cause  a  glut  in  the 
market,  which  has  produced  great  emlwrrassment  in 
the  colony,  and  entailed  heavy  losses  on  the  specnla- 
ton.— E.  B,  For  complete  statistics  of  Oreat  Brit- 
ain, see  article  Grkat  Bbitaiv. 

Bngllah  Cbannel  (rolled  by  the  French  la 
MOHche),  is  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  lies 
between  the  ncrth-west  coast  of  France  and  the  south- 
em  coast  of  England.  Its  eastern  extremity  Is  con- 
nected with  the  German  Ocean  by  the  Strait  of  Calais, 
and  on  the  west  it  is  imperceptibly  confounded  with 
the  Atlantic  Ooean.  It  lies  between  lat.  88°  48'  and 
61°  north,  and  h>ng.  1°  20'  east  and  5°  43'  west.  At 
its  termination — on  a  line  drawn  from  land's  End  to 
the  extreme  easterly  point  of  the  department  of  Finis- 
tern,  in  France,  it  is  about  40  leagues  wide.  On  the 
French  eoast  it  fnrms  three  considerable  bays;  the 
most  easterly  receives  the  Sevelne ;  the  second  receives 
the  Seine  and  several  smaller  rivers ;  the  third  and 
largest  lies  on  the  south-west  of  the  peninsula  of 
Cotenlin.  On  the  English  coast  is  Mount  Bay,  be- 
tween Lizard  Point  and  Land's  End.  Between  Lizard 
Point  and  Start  Point  is  a  large  gulf,  on  which  nro  sit- 
uated Taimooth  and  Plymouth ;  the  Gulf  of  Exeter 
lies  to  the  east  of  Start  Point.  The  principal  islands 
in  the  English  Channel  are,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  on  the 
English  coast,  and  the  Norman  Islands,  lying  on  the 
French  coast,  the  principal  of  which  an  Guernsey  and 
Jersey.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west.  The 
Channel,  being  shallow  and  contined,  is  subject,  from 
its  communication  with  the  Atlantic,  to  high  and  im- 
petuous tides.  Its  waters  contain  many  fish,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  mackerel  and  the  herring. 
The  oysters  of  Concal  are  also  famous. 

Sngrawing  (Sax.  grnfan,  to  dig).  The  art  of  pro- 
ducing by  indoion  or  corrosion  designs  upon  blocks  of 
wood,  plates  of  metal,  or  other  materials,  from  which 
Impressions  or  prints  upon  paper  or  other  soft  su1>- 
■tanoes  an  obtained  by  pressure.  Engraving,  as  an 
art,  seems  to  have  neuly  the  same  relation  to  design 
and  painting  as  typography  bears  to  written  language ; 
and  its  utility  and  great  importance  must  be  obvious 
to  every  one  from  its  capatnlity  of  giving  a  boundless 
cirouUtioa  to  npreseatatioaa  of  the  most  valaable 


•zoaiptM  of  the  aiti  and  et  ohiacta  esnaaotad  with 
sdaaee.  By  tnne  authon  it  la  plaoad  aiaong  tba 
repretantatloo*  called  nonoeluomes  (jtnvoxfxiiiaTot'), 
Xylography,  ^or  wood  engraving,  wa*  the  earliest 
method  praetioed;  but  its  origin  is  involved  in  ob- 
scurity. If  wa  might  rely  oa  Da  Halde  {Dt$eripluM, 
etc.,  de  I'Empin  dt  la  Chime,  4to.  1785),  it  is  possibk 
that  it  was  known  fai  Chiaa  1120  yean  before  Christ; 
thongfa  we  think  its  invention  is  of  a  much  later  pe- 
riod, aa  the  Chinese  wen  not  acquainted  with  the  art 
of  aiaking  paper  till  95  a.c.  It  has  been  stated  that 
this  art  was  introdaced  into  Europe  Arom  China  through 
the  intercourse  of  the  Venetian  BMrrhanta  with  its  in- 
habitants ;  for  it  Is  proved  that  engraving  on  wood  had 
been  practiced  in  that  part  of  Italy  which  bordan  oa 
the  Adriatic  oa  oarly  as  the  13th  century.  The  iint 
wood  engravings  in  Europe  of  which  any  thing  is 
knowu  ■■•  1.  I  certainty  were  executed  in  1285,  by  a 
brother  spd  sister  of  a  noble  family  of  the  name  of 
Cnnio.  Th(>y  represent  the  actions  of  Alexander; 
and  though  donbts  of  their  anthtinticity  are  expressed 
by  Heinecken,  Mr.  William  Young  Outley,  the  author 
of  the  elegant  and  learned  Ilistoty  of  £ngranng,  to 
which  we  are  much  indebted,  thinks  otherwise.  Bat 
for  the  accidental  discovery  by  a  Venetian  architect  of 
the  name  of  Temsnza  of  a  decree  of  the  magistracy 
of  Venice,  in  1441,  we  might  liave  been  without  posi- 
tive proof  of  the  practice  of  the  art  in  Italy  previous 
to  1467,  and  the  Germans  might  still  have  continued 
to  claim  the  honor  of  its  introduction  into  Europe, 
This  decree,  dated  11th  October,  1441,  states  in  sub- 
stance that  the  art  and  mystery  of  making  oardu  and 
pointed  figures  had  fallen  to  decay  owing  to  their 
extensive  importation;  and  in  order  that  the  native 
artists  might  find  c.icouragement  rather  than  foreign- 
ers, it  was  ordered  that  no  work  of  the  said  art, 
printed  and  painted  on  cloth  or  paper — viz.,  altar 
pieces,  or  images,  and  playing-cards,  and  whatever 
other  work  of  the  said  nrt  is  done  with  a  brush  and 
printed — should  be  allowed  to  be  brought  into  the  city, 
on  pain  of  forfeiting  the  works,  besides  a  pecuniary 
penalty.  This  decree  plainly  indicates  that  wood  en- 
graving was  practiced  in  Venice  as  early  as  the  com- 
mencement  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  Germany  and 
the  Low  Countries,  the  early  block  books  seem  to  hsve 
existed  as  early  as  1420,  and  to  have  given  G  uttemliiirg 
the  hint  for  using  movalde  types.  At  Rome,  in  1467, 
a  work  entitled  ifeditationei  Johnnnit  de  Turrecremala, 
issued  from  the  press  of  Ulric  Han,  embellished  with 
wood  engravings,  in  which  the  design  and  execution 
of  an  Italian  artist  are  evident.  The  decorations  of 
the  work  of  Valturius  by  Matteo  Posti,  of  Verona, 
published  five  years  afterward,  exhibit  considerable 
spirit  and  accuracy ;  and  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  art  had  l>ecn  carried  to  great  perfection, 
as  may  be  proved  by  the  delicacy  and  purity  with 
which  the  designs  are  engraved  in  the  celebrated 
Hypnerotomachia  of  Colonna.  At  this  periwl,  how- 
ever, the  discovery  of  copper-plate  engraving  had 
been  made,  and  to  this  the  more  ancient  art  yielded 
place.  Maso  Finiguerra,  a  goldsmith  and  sculptor  of 
Florence,  and  pupil  of  Masaccio,  a1)0Ut  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  centurj',  seems  from  the  most  authentic 
accounts  to  have  been  the  person  to  whom  the  world 
is  indebted  for  the  diacoveiy.  In  h-  time,  and  'for  a 
considerable  period  previou<>ly,  it  was  the  practice  to 
decorate  church  and  other  plate  with  works  in  niello, 
which  were  designs  hatched  with  a  steel  point  upon 
gold  or  silver,  then  engraved  with  the  burin,  and  run 
in,  while  hot,  with  a  composition  called  niellu — a  com- 
pound of  silver,  load,  copper,  sulphur,  and  liorax, 
which  was  more  eaaUy  fusible  than  silver,  and  of  a 
black  color.  The  superfluous  part  of  this  niello  which 
remained  above  the  surface  of  the  plate  was  then 
rubbed  off  with  scrapers,  anl  cleaned  away  with 
pumico-stone,  leaving  the  engi.wed  design  on  tlis 
plate  with  all  the  etfect  of  a  prim.     In  order  to  pre 


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Mm  MpiM  «r  iMr  dMigM,  th*  ntlito  wmwIuMm 
kaUt  befon  KOing  tha  design  with  the  nMlo  to  tolM 
impfeMioDe  of  the  plite*  wMi  Mith,  over  wbleh  llqoM 
■niphar  wu  poured,  and  ftom  which,  when  oold,  tha 
earth  was  ramored.  But  Finiguemi  earrlad  bla  prMV 
tiee  beyond  thii )  tat  with  a  inlxtars  of  loot  and  oil  IM 
fliled  tha  eaTltia*  of  the  engraving,  and  hy  praMibig 
damp  paper  upon  it  with  a  roUor,  obtained  IrapreailoM 
on  the  paper,  having,  aa  Vaaari  My8,  all  tha  appear- 
ance nt  drawings  dona  with  a  pen,  "  venlvauo  noma 
dialgnate  di  penna." 

ICngrating  m  Wood,  or  Xghgraphf.~'ln  thil  braneb 
of  the  art  the  material  uaed  is  a  blooli  of  box  or  paar* 
tree  wood,  cut  at  right  angles  to  tha  dlraetlen  of  tha 
fibres,  its  thieknesa  befaig  regulated  by  the  sixa  of  tba 
print  to  b«  asacnted.  The  snbjaet  Is  drawn  on  tha 
blocli  with  a  blaok-lead  pencil,  or  with  a  pen  and  In- 
dian Ink,  taking  care  that  the  whole  eflfect  k  repfv- 
aented  in  the  Unea  so  drawn.  The  whole  of  tha  wood 
is  then  cnt  a^ay,  except  where  the  lines  ara  drawn, 
which  are  left  as  raised  parts ;  in  which  point  It  Is 
that  this  mode  of  engraving  differs  esisntlally  from 
copper-plate  engraving,  wherein  the  lines  ara  oat  out 
or  sunk  in  the  metal,  instead  of  being  raised  fyom  It, 
The  Impressions  ftvm  wood  blocks  are  taken  In  tha 
tome  manner  as  from  printing  types. 

iSHgmvmg  on  Copper  is  performed  by  cutting  Unas 
representing  the  subject  on  a  copper-pUta  by  means 
of  a  steel  instmment  ending  In  an  uneqnal-slded 
pyramidal  point,  such  instrument  being  called  a 
graver  or  burin,  without  the  urn  of  aquafortis  t  whii'h 
mode  will  be  seen  below  under  tha  art.  Etoriho, 
Besides  the  graver  there  are  other  Instruments  used  In 
the  process ;  viz.,  a  scra|)er,  a  burnisher,  an  oil-stone, 
and  a  cushion  for  supporting  the  plate.  In  cutting  the 
lines  on  the  copper  the  graver  is  pushed  forward  In  tha 
direction  required,  being  held  In  the  hand  at  a  sntall 
inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  copper.  The  use  of  tha 
burnisher  is  to  soften  down  lines  that  are  cut  too  deep, 
and  for  burnishing  out  scratches  In  the  copper :  It  Is 
about  three  Inches  long.  The  scraper,  like  the  last.  Is 
of  steel,  with  three  sharp  edges  to  it,  and  about  *\% 
inches  long,  tapering  toward  the  end.  Its  use  Is  to 
scraiM  off  the  burr,  raised  by  the  action  of  the  graver, 
To  show  tlie  appearance  of  the  work  during  Its  prog- 
ress, and  to  polish  olf  the  burr,  engravers  use  a  roll  of 
woolen  or  felt  called  a  rubber,  which  is  put  In  action 
with  a  little  olive  oil.  The  cushion,  which  is  a  leather 
bag  about  nine  Inches  diameter  filled  with  sand  for 
laying  the  plate  on,  Is  now  rarely  used  except  I)}-  writ- 
ing engravers.  For  architectural  subjects,  or  in  skias, 
where  a  series  of  parallel  lines  are  wanted,  an  In- 
genious machine  was  InventM  by  the  late  Mr.  Wilson 
Lowf}',  called  a  ruling  machine,  the  accuracy  of  whose 
operation  Is  exceedingly  perfect.  This  is  made  to  act 
on  an  etching  ground  l)y  a  point  or  knife,  connected 
with  the  apparatus,  and  bit  in  with  aquafortis  in  the 
ordinar}'  way. 

Etching  Is  a  species  of  engraving  on  copper  or  othei* 
metals  with  a  sharp-pointed  Instrument  called  an  etch- 
ing-needle. The  plate  is  covered  with  a  ground  or 
varnish  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  aquafortis. 
The  usual  method  is  to  draw  the  design  on  paper  with 
a  black-lead  pencil ;  the  paper  being  damped  and  laid 
upon  the  plate,  prepared  as  above,  with  the  drawing 
next  the  etching  ground,  is  passed  through  the  rolling 
press,  and  thus  the  .'lesign  is  transferred  firom  the  paper 
*«  the  ground.  The  needle  then  scratches  out  the  llnss 
of  the  design ;  and  aquafortis  being  poured  over  tha 
plate,  which  Is  bordered  round  with  wax,  It  is  allowed 
to  remain  on  It  long  enough  to  corrode  or  bite  in  the 
lines  which  the  etching  needle  has  made,  Ktchtiig 
with  a  dry  point,  as  it  is  called,  is  performed  entirely 
with  the  point  without  any  ground,  the  burr  raised 
being  taken  off  by  the  scraper.  Etching  with  »  soft 
ground  is  used  to  imitate  chalk  or  black-lead  drawings. 
For  this  purpose  tha  ground  Is  mixed  with  a  portion  of 


tallow  or  bnl,  Moofdiac  ta  itM  tMNNMl«M  of  tha  niri 
A  phM  of  thin  paptr  baiag  attaehad  tathe  plata  at  tha 
four  oonart  hjr  mim  tamar's  pMcb  and  lying  ov«r  tha 
■Tiittnd,  tha  (Irawiiw  it  aiada  on  the  papar  and  shad- 
dowad  with  tba  blaali'laad  ptnell.  Tba  action  of  tha 
pantii  that  dataabaa  tha  gnmnd  which  adharea  to  tha 
papar,  aaaarding  to  tba  £gr«a  to  which  the  finishing 
M  earrlad  i  tha  papar  iNring  then  rtmoved,  the  work  U 
lilt  In  tba  ordinary  way.  H^pfimg  is  also  executed  on 
tba  atahlng  ground  tiy  dots  Insiaad  of  lines  made  wli^ 
tha  ateblB|t-naad1a,  wblob,  acoordlag  to  tha  intensity 
of  tba  tbadow  to  ba  rttKasantad  are  mada  thicker  and 
oloaar,  Tba  warb  Is  than  bit  In.  Kuihiftg  o»  Sitel  i* 
aKaoulad  much  In  tba  iam«  way  as  In  the  process  on 
eoppar.  Tba  plsta  Is  bedded  on  common  glailer's 
putty,  and  a  ground  of  Hrunswtck  black  Is  laid  In  tha 
usual  way,  tbniugb  which  the  needle  sciatcbea.  It  la 
than  bit  In,  lu  the  way  above  described.  ' 

MttmHnto  A'N^mWM^..— In  this  speflies  of  engraving 
tba  artbit,  witb  a  knifa  or  InstrumeBt  made  for  the  pur- 
poMi,  Hujgh*  ovar  th*  whole  snrfaoe  of  the  copper  In 
avary  diraation,  »n  m  to  trnha  It  snsesptible  of  deliv- 
orin«{  a  uniform  black,  smooth,  or  flat  tint.  After  this 
process  tlia  outline  Is  traced  with  an  etching-needle, 
and  tba  lightast  parts  are  scraped  out,  then  the  middle 
tbit*  Ml  as  to  l«av«  a  gceater  portion  of  the  ground,  and 
so  on  awording  to  tha  depth  required  hi  the  several 
parts  of  tlia  work. 

A^mUlnlii  f^/fmrinff,  whoso  effect  somewhat  resem- 
bles that  of  an  Indian-Ink  drawing.  Tha  mode  of 
sITactliig  this  (llin  design  being  already  etched)  to 
cover  tii«  plato  with  a  ground  made  of  resin  and  Bur- 
gundy iiituli  iir  miistlfl  dissolved  in  rectified  spirit  of 
wins,  wblsb  is  pnurad  over  the  plata  lyhig  In  an  In- 
elined  |Misttlim,  The  spirit  of  wine,  from  its  rapid 
evH|iar«tliili,  luavas  tha  rest  of  the  composition  with  a 
grauulatod  taxtura  over  the  whole  of  the  plate,  by 
which  moans  a  grain  is  produced  by  the  aquafortis  oa 
tba  parts  l«ft  op«tt  by  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit  of 
wins,  Tba  margin  of  the  plate  Is  of  course  pro- 
tscted  in  tba  usual  way.  After  the  aquafortis  has 
bitten  tlio  light«ir  parts  tliey  are  itopl  out,  and  the 
aquafortis  is  again  applied,  and  so  on  as  often  aa  any 
parts  (iontinua  to  raqulra  mora  depth.  Formerly  the 
grain  us«d  t<i  bo  |irndut'«d  by  covering  the  copper  with 
a  |Hiwd«r  or  sitiim  sulmtanre  which  took  a  granulated 
form,  inttnitd  of  using  the  f^nmtmund  above  mentioned ; 
but  this  prituosN  was  l^»%ihd  to  be  both  uncertain  and 
Imperfect,  In  th«  "<>nit.>ouud  the  grain  is  rendered 
finer  or  cuarsir,  in  ,.ri<portion  to  the  quantity  of  resin 
introduced.  This  mii.to  of  engraving  was  invented  by 
A  Freni'ltman  of  tit«  name  of  Ht,  Non,  about  1662.  He 
coniiiiunloatad  it  to  .lean  llAfitlste  le  Prince,  who  died 
In  I7(tl,  from  whom  it  was  acquired  by  Paul  Sandby, 
who  intrmluci'd  It  tlinmgh  the  medium  of  Mr.  Jukes 
Into  Knglaiul.  it  lias  liecn  practiced  in  this  country 
with  miii'ii  grfstcr  success  than  elsewhere. 

JilfhiMff  im  f/^M,— The  glass  is  covered  with  a  tliin 
ground  of  Ihi*i»-w«x  i  and  the  design  being  drawn  with 
tba  atcliiug-nxtHilo,  it  is  sulijcoted  to  the  action  of  suU 
phurio  avid  sprlnitlmt  over  with  imunded  flour  or  Uer- 
byiilllra  s|iMr,  After  four  or  live  hours  this  is  removed, 
and  the  gliiss  ('laanmt  off  with  oil  of  turpentine,  leav- 
ing tiiH  part*  e»v«r«d  with  the  bees-wax  untouched. 
Tills  opariitiiin  may  lie  Inverted  by  drawing  the  design 
on  tha  gliiss  witil  a  solution  of  liees-wax  and  turjien- 
tlne,  anil  sulijticting  tba  ground  to  the  action  of  the 
acid, 

Kngramff  m  ftbttw,  or  Ltli^nfrraphy  (Aiflor,  a  tlimf, 
and  yimijitn',  in  vritf  or  rfwi/i).— A  modem  invention, 
liy  niHiiiis  whereof  impressions  may  lie  taken  from 
drawings  mada  on  stona.  The  morit  of  this  discovery 
belongs  to  Aiii.vs  Hfnefelilnr,  a  musical  performer  of 
the  theatre  at  Munlcli  about  the  year  1800.  Tho  fol- 
lowing are  tiia  prlNiil|iles  on  wlilch  the  art  of  lithogra- 
phy liepuiids  I  ^'Irst,  the  facility  with  which  calcareous 
stones  imiilba  watar  |  tacond,  the  great  disposition  thnv 


XN6 


6ii 


iQir 


her*  ta  •dhei*  to  iMfaioM  aad  0U7  lOlMUiiaM  1  thlid, 
th*  aflntty  between  each  other  of  oUjr  md  neloeu* 
inbMnicea,  and  the  power  they  ponoM  of  repelling 
water  or  a  body  moistened  with  water.  Hence,  when 
drawings  are  made  en  a  polished  sorfkce  of  calcareous 
•tone  with  a  resinons  or  oily  mediom,  they  are  so  ad- 
hesive that  nothing  short  of  mechanical  means  can 
effect  their  separation  fhim  it,  and  while  the  other 
KBite  of  the  stone  take  in  the  water  poured  upon  them, 
&e  resinous  or  oUy  parts  repel  it.  Lastly,  when  over 
•  stone  prepared  In  this  manner  a  colored  oily  or  rssl- 
aoos  substance  is  passed,  it  will  adhere  to  the  draw- 
ings made  as  above,  and  r.at  to  the  watery  parts  of  the 
•tone.  It  was  forme.'-Iy  thought  that  England  did 
Bot  possess  a  sort  of  Dtomx  like  that  of  Germany  suit- 
able to  the  purposes  of  lithography;  this,  however,  is 
BOW  known  to  be  erroneous,  as  the  neighlrarhood  of 
Bath  abounds  with  it,  being  the  white  Hat,  which  lies 
Immediately  under  the  lilue.  It  is  also  found  in  Scot- 
land. The  ink  and  chalk  used  in  lithography  are  of  a 
•aponooeous  quality :  the  former  is  prepared  in  <i«r- 
many  from  a  compound  of  tallow  soap,  pure  white 
wax,  a  small  quantity  of  tallow,  and  a  portion  of 
lamp-black,  all  boiled  together,  and  when  cool  dis- 
solved in  distilled  water.  The  chalk  for  the  crayons 
need  in  drawing  on  the  stone  is  a  composition  consist- 
ing of  the  ingndients  above  mentioned,  but  to  it  Is 
added  when  boiling  a  small  quantity  of  potash.  After 
the  drawing  on  the  stone  has  l)een  executed,  and  is 
perdsctly  dry,  a  very  weak  solution  of  vitriolic  arid  is 
poured  upon  the  stone,  which  not  only  takes  up  the 
alkali  from  the  chalk  or  ink,  as  the  case  may  be,  leav- 
ing an  insoluble  substance  Iwhind  it,  but  it  lowers  in  a 
very  small  degree  that  part  of  the  surface  of  the  atone 
not  drawn  upon,  and  prepares  it  for  ulisorbing  water 
with  greater  freedom.  Weak  gum  water  is  then  ap- 
plied to  the  stone,  to  clone  its  pores  and  keep  it  moist. 
The  stone  is  now  washed  with  water,  and  the  dauliing 
ink  applied  with  balls  as  in  printing ;  after  which  it  is 
passed  in  the  nsual  way  through  the  pr^ss,  the  process 
of  watering  and  daubing  being  applied  for  every  im- 
pression. 

There  is  a  mode  of  transferring  drawings  made  with 
the  chemical  ink  on  paper  prepared  with  a  solution  of 
•lie  or  gum  tragacanth,  which  Iwing  laid  on  Ike  ttont 
amlpcuHd  Ihrtmijk  tktprtsi  leaves  tlie  drawing  nn  the 
•tone,  and  the  procesx  above  described  for  preparing 
the  stone  and  taking  the  impressions  is  carried  Into 
effect.  In  Germany  many  engravings  are  made  on 
•tone  with  the  burin,  in  the  same  way  as  on  copper  ( 
but  the  very  great  inferiority  of  these  to  copper  en- 
gravings makes  it  improliabje  that  this  method  will 
ever  come  into  general  use.  Perhaps  one  of  the  great- 
est advantages  of  the  art  of  lithography  is  the  extra- 
ordinary number  of  copies  that  may  he  taken  from  a 
block.  As  many  as  70,000  copies  or  prints  have  lie«n 
taken  from  one  block,  and  the  last  of  them  noorly 
as  good  as  the  first.  Kxpedition  is  also  gainml,  inue- 
mueh  as  a  fifth  more  copies  can  Iw  taken  in  the  same 
time  than  from  a  copper-plate :  and  as  regard  <  econ- 
omy the  advantage  over  every  other  species  of  en- 
graving is  very  groat. 

Zincography. — This  art,  which  is  of  very  recent  In- 
troduction in  this  country  (so  much  so,  indeeil,  that 
but  few  specimens  are  as  yet  to  lie  seen),  is  similar  in 
principle  to  lithography,  the  surface  of  the  plates  of 
line  on  which  it  Is  executed  being  l>it  away,  leaving 
the  design  prominent,  or  in  relief.  We  huvu  sepu  soma 
beautiful  examples  of  thi»  art,  but  varying  little  in 
their  appearance  from  those  of  stone'  engraving.— 
Brakdr's  Dief.  ofSrienee, 

EngTOHlng,  is  "  the  buying  up  of  com  and  other 
dead  victuals,  with  intent  to  sell  them  again." — Black- 
tlone,  book  iv.  cap.  42.  It  has  lieen  shown  how  ali- 
■urd  it  is  to  suppose  that  this  practice  should  have  any 
injurious  influence.  But,  fur  a  long  time,  most  scarci- 
ties that  occurred  were  either  entirely  ascribed  to  the 


ladMMw  tt  ■miwMti  m4  termtMm,  m>,  at  leaat, 

wan  •upposad  to  Iw  mit«iUA\y  aggmvated  by  their 
pimNMMiiMi'  (n  i)0nt«(|tMfl««i  li«w«ver,  of  tha  prav- 
aiiinai  of  Mora  JMt  and  Miurgad  vtaws  upon  such 
s«bjM!t«,  tiM  •t«(Hl««  that  luMl  Men  mada  for  the  sup- 
prawloB  and  ptmUhnMiit  of  wigrofslng,  forsstaUing, 
•ta,,  w«r*  ftmtMl  Im  1778,  in  Qniat  BriUln.  But 
natwttlwlaiidlng  tbbt  rtfwal,  Mignwslag  continues  to 
ha  ut  indlctaliM  offMiiMii  {mnisnable  at  common  law, 
by  An*  and  i)nprlMmw«iit  |  tboti|^  it  Is  not  at  all  likely, 
wera  an  «tt«n)|it  ituwte,  ttiat  any  Jury  wotald  now  bo 
found  Ignorant  or  tm)wtl«*4  enottgh  to  convict  any 
ona  on  stub  a  iih»rg». 

Batrcpet  (Krmwb),  In  Gommmm,  a  warehouse  or 
nwguiiiM  for  goods  (  am  h«ll««  used  to  designate  a 
saaport  or  oomnMrsM  town  which  exports  the  produc- 
tions of  •  aofMldaralfhi  adiaeent  Urrftoiy,  and  imports 
foreign  good*  fur  It*  SMpply. 

OnTOy  (i'r,  ntrnffm;  In  nnd),  a  person  depnted  to 
nagotlata  a  traaty,  or  io  transact  other  business  with 
a  foreign  |iriiii>ia  <>r  amtttnnumt.  Knvoys  belong  to 
tha  sooond  or<t«r  of  diplffinade  ministers  t  ranking  be- 
low •mtmmAufn  pr»|««rly  so  called. 

Bp»nl«tt*  (rr,  ipHuU,  a  thoulder),  a  kind  of 
shouMar-knot  or  omanMntal  badge  worn  on  tha 
sliouldsr  by  milttan'  m«n.  Offieera,  both  naval  and 
mllllarv,  wmtr  MMUlattM  on  one  shoulder  or  on  both, 
oceording  (0  dwlr  rank  In  the  service. 

Bquuer,  or  80ti«40f,  «n  Independent  state  of 
South  Am«ri«a,  lying  nnder  the  equator,  from  which 
it  takes  It*  nanw.  ft  oorrssponds,  with  a  triBing  dif- 
feremui,  to  tha  old  ^nish  nrutlnca  or  intendancy,  of 
(^ito  I  but  formal  anpletitly  the  northern  portion  of 
the  a»i|)ir«  uf  tlw  \nnn»  <if  fern,  and  latterly  the  south- 
wastam  provtntw  of  the  now  dlss<dved  republic  of  Co- 
lumbia, It  Is  situate  between  8.  lat.  6°  and  N.  Ut. 
2°,  and  W,  long,  from  Oraenwich  70°  and  82°_being 
about  NiiO  wtlfit  In  Itmgth  from  east  to  west,  and  660 
in  breoiltl)  from  north  Ut  Miulti— and  only  contains  an 
sr«»  lit  Nlxiitt  ttiXi^HHi  Ktigllsh  s<|uare  miles.  It  is 
liouiuUul  oil  tint  south  by  the  state  of  Pern,  on  the 
north  by  N«w  (IraHMta,  t^  -last  by  Brazil,  nnd  on 
the  wont  by  tha  t'iMillio  (>•  i'.  the  boundaries  of 

tha  asslam  \tottUm  of  C'  i>re  not  yet  very  well 

dallnod, 

Vt/ftlitlit*  PriMlueiltiM^it  iht  low  countries  that 
dank  tha  b««M  of  the  j4n<les,  the  banana,  cyoas,  plan- 
tain, um'-mt,  JatroplM  which  tirmluces  cassava  and  ma- 
ntot',  Ilia  itotlooHreo,  indlgn,  roflee,  and  the  sugar-cane 
abouiid !  l-anaalh  the  •lavatlon  of  4000  feet,  the  plants 
cbiaiiy  «ultlv»t«i4  for  food  are  the  sweet  potato,  man- 
t\\m,  yam,  and  iMnana,  with  rice,  maize,  and  some 
iagumai.  1  but  above  8100  feet  most  of  these  become 
nn,  »nA  tiirira  only  In  particular  situations.  The 
•ugarrfinns,  liowov«r,  liss  Iwen  grown  so  far  up  ns  7500 
r»«(.  In  noma  of  tlia  valleys  are  extensive  planta- 
tions ttf  sugar-osiin,  c^lnn,  tobacco,  and  cocoa.  The 
valley  of  liUMyiO|iill  in  partliiilarly  fertile ;  the  soil  is 
alluvial,  auil  timro  afe  few  spots  even  between  the 
tmpii's  whii.'h  citn  vl«  with  it  In  richness  and  variety 
i>f  VHgftation,  It  is  cov«re<l  with  groves  of  every 
Itiml  of  tro|«l4wl  fruit,  either  wild  or  cultivated,  as 
tho  |(tn«ii(i|ili>,  |*on*«granflte,  shaddock,  orange,  lime, 
Umon,  \mmU,  aprkot,  cherimoyer,  pulta,  grandilla, 
tuna,  and  |iM«ay,  f  n  the  same  region  are  found  the 
olive,  iftppwr  plant,  t^tniatss,  and  sweet  potatoes,  gum 
eojHil,  Mt\mS\m  balsam,  cnrnna,  dragon's  Idood,  sarsa- 
parilla,  and  vanilla,  To  these  succeed,  in  the  humid 
and  sbadud  I'loflfi  nn  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  troe- 
hm*  and  niwUimn  m  Peruvian  bark,  the  finest  kind 
ut  whivb  is  oldainiid  altout  8  to  12  miles  south  of  Loju 
anxmg  tho  fUoHUtaltt^  of  Dritusinga,  Villanoco,  and 
KumiMttana,  whxre  the  trees  that  yield  it  grow  in  a 
soil  resting  "H  mlf^a^lste  and  gneiss,  at  the  moderate 
alavittlon  of  MM  Ui  707i)  ffet  above  the  level  of  the 
s«a,  iletwtNtn  tb«  elevations  of  0000  to  0000  feet  is 
the  ragkm  baH  sultad  for  the  liuKpean  cereals.  Wheat 


sevc 

due) 

and 

com 

Nea 

the 

ose 

8ul| 

has 

ersi 

coai 


EQU 


Ml 


EQTT 


/ 


win  not  fonn  the  ear  lowirtbai'  at  4600  feet,  or  ripen 
hl;{her  than  at  10,000  feet ;  bat  barley  and  rj'e  grow 
at  an  elevation  2600  feet  atUl  higher.  To  these  may 
bo  added  the  guinea,  a  most  uaafS  production  for  do- 
mestic purposes.  In  this  region  also,  and  a  little 
above  it,  grow  the  potato  and  its  congeners,  all  of 
which  are  extensively  used  as  food;  the  chick-pea, 
broad-bean,  cabtutge,  and  other  European  vegetables, 
are  likewise  abundant.  Within  the  cereal  limits  are 
found  the  oak,  elm,  ash,  and  beech,  which  never 
descend  lower  than  S500  feet,  and  are  seldom  found 
higher  than  0200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Higher  up,  the  larger  forest  trees,  except  the  pine,  be- 
gin to  disappear ;  and  on  the  mountains  of  Quito  the 
escallonia  mark  the  highest  limit  of  trees  at  an  elevation 
11,B00  feet.  The  bejarias,  the  highest  of  shrubs,  ter- 
minate at  18,400  feet,  above  which,  in  rich  and  beaa- 
teous  verdure,  rises  the  zone  of  the  grasses.  Above 
these,  among  the  trachyte  rocks,  only  Uchens,  lecideos, 
and  the  brightly-colored  dust-like  leprarla  are  met  with; 
and  to  these,  succeed  the  region  of  perpetual  snow. 

AnimaU. — In  some  parts  of  the  low  countiy  the  air 
swarms  with  musquetoes  and  other  flies  still  more  tor- 
menting, while  the  ground  teems  with  snakes,  centi- 
pcdesj  and  other  reptiles.  The  banks  of  the  great 
rivers  are  crowded  with  caimans  or  alligators.  Bats 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  of  great  size ;  the  for- 
ests of  the  warmer  regions  almund  with  armadilloes, 
monkeys,  and  cavj-s;  and  everywhere  are  found  the 
jaguar,  the  puma,  the  ounce,  the  ocelot,  and  several 
varieties  of  the  wild  cat.  The  pecari  and  deer  are 
likewise  common,  as  well  as  tliat  singular  animal  the 
ant.eater.  The  characteristic  animals  of  the  Andes 
are  the  llama,  the  guanaco,  the  vicufta,  and  the  paco 
or  alpaca,  some  of  which  are  trained  as  lieasts  of  bur- 
den, while  others,  particularly  the  vicufias,  run  wild 
among  the  mountains,  where  they  are  hunted  by  the 
Indians.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  reared  in  great  num- 
bers, especially  the  former,  in  the  alleys  of  the  An- 
des, and  on  the  declivities  of  the  mountains.  Horses, 
asses,  and  mules,  are  reared  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
bo  articles  of  export.  The  chief  of  the  birds  is  the 
condor,  which  is  found  all  along  the  Andes  southward 
as  far  as  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  but  nowhere  to  the 
north  of  the  equator.  The  turkey,  vulture,  and  gal- 
linago,  are  frequently  met  with,  together  with  many 
kinds  of  smaller  birds.  In  some  districts,  particularly 
along  the  coasts,  considerable  quantities  of  beeswax 
are  collected  {  and  higher  up  there  are  spots  in  which 
the  cocliincal  inject  is  reared.  Along  the  rivers  of  the 
great  plain  turtles  are  numerous  ;  and  their  fat,  called 
manteca  butter,  forms  a  considerable  article  of  trade. 
Fishing  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  along  the  coasts, 
and  a  good  deal  of  salt-flsh  is  prepared.  A  mnrex 
is  also  found  which  yields  a  Juice  used  in  dyeing 
purple. 

Mineral  Productions. — Equador  is  less  rich  in  min- 
erals, especially  in  the  precious  metals,  than  any  other 
of  the  South  American  stntes.  There  are,  indeed, 
several  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  but  the  yeariy  pro- 
duce is  inconsiderable.  In  some  places  are  found  lead 
and  quicksilver,  but  the  latter  is  found,  as  usual,  in 
combination  with  sulphur,  in  the  form  of  cinnabar. 
Near  Azogue,  IS  miles  north-east  by  east  of  Cuen^a, 
the  ore  is  found  in  an  immensely  thick  bed  of  quartz- 
ose  sandstone,  containing  fossil  wood  and  asphalt. 
Sulphur  is  prepared  in  consideral>le  quantities ;  gold 
has  been  washed  from  the  sands  of  some  of  the  riv- 
ers; and  salt  is  obtained  from  sea-water  along  the 
coasts. 

Population. — The  settled  population  Is  composed  of 
Spanish  creoles  of  pure  descent,  meztisos,  mulattoes, 
and  negroes,  the  greater  part  of  them  being  agricul- 
turists, graziers,  and  growers  of  coooa.  These  form 
about  a  half  of  the  population.  The  other  half  are 
native  Indians,  of  whom  those  that  live  among  the 
toonntabis  are  mostly  agricnlturiats,  cultivating  their 


lands  with  much  care,  and  making  for  themselvM 
coarse  stuffs  of  wool  and  cotton.  The  Indians  who 
inhabit  the  eastern  plains  are  in  a  much  lower  degree 
of  civilization.  They  cultivate  only  small  patches  of 
ground,  and  apply  themselves  chiefly  to  hunting  and 
Ashing.  Three  fourths  of  the  population  dwell  in  the 
western  or  mountainous  part  of  the  state ;  and  the 
total  number  is  now  estimated  at  about  800,000. 

Jlfaiii(^ac<ure(. — The  manufactures  are  Unimportant, 
consisting  chiefly  of  coarse  woolen  and  cotton  cloths 
and  other  necessary  articles.  The  foreign  trade  te  al- 
most confined  to  Guayaquil,  and  la  so  trifling  as 
scarcely  to  deserve  notice. 

Political  Condition.— Tfn  1812,  Equador  remained  » 
portion  of  the  Spanish  Empire  of  the  Indies.  It  then 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and  in  1821  became  a 
part  of  the  newly  constttnted  republic  of  Columbia. 
This  union,  however,  lasted  only  till  1881,  when 
Equador  became  an  independent  state.  It  has  gone 
through  several  revolutions  ;  and  by  the  lost  (1862-8) 
the  democratic  party  bos  ghined  the  ascendency,  and 
shown  a  tendency  to  adopt  the  United  States  of  Korth 
America  as  their  political  model,  llie  state  has,  in 
consequence,  received  a  new  and  more  liberal  consti- 
tution; the  Jesuits  have  been  expelled;  and  laws 
havc^been  made  for  the  alwlitian  of  slavery.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  president,  with  a  vice-presi- 
dent and  two  chambers,  all  elective  ;  but  the  constitu- 
tion is  still  notaljy  complicated  by  what  has  always 
been  its  principal  characteristic,  a  predominating  mix- 
ture of  military  despotism,  the  president  being  always 
the  master  of  the  state.  More,  perhaps,  than  any 
other  country  of  South  America,  Equador  has  been 
slow  in  the  development  of  her  resources  and  national 
industiy..  Frequent  revolutions  have  paralyzed  its 
trade,  and  prevented  the  regulation  of  its  finances. 
No  interest  has  been  paid  on  its  public  debt  since  1826. 
It  is  emphatically  the  country  of  natural  convulsions 
and  political  revolutions. 

For  administrative  purposes,  the  state  is  divided  into 
the  three  departments  of  Equador,  Guayaquil,  and  As- 
suay ;  and  these  are  subdivided  into  the  seven  provin- 
ces, of  Quito,  Riobaml>a,  Ibarra,  Guayaquil,  Babahoyo, 
Cuenfa,  Loja,  or  Loxa  (Loh-ha),  and  Jaen  de  Bracamor. 
The  state  likewise  claims  the  sovereignty  of  the  Islas 
de  los  Galapagos,  or  islands  of  land  turtles,  lying  un- 
der the  equator  at  a  distance  of  700  to  900  miles  from 
the  mainland.  The  chief  towns  are  Quito,  with  from 
50,000  to  80,000  inhabitants ;  Guayaquil,  26,000;  Cu- 
enfa,  20,000 ;  Kiobamba,  16,000 ;  Loja,  Babahoyo,  end 
Ibarra,  about  10,000  each.  Quito  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated In  the  elevated  plain  to  which  it  gives  its  name  ; 
and  Guayaquil  on  the  banks  of  a  navigable  river, 
opening  into  the  spacious  bay,  to  which  it  gives  its 
name. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Equador  is  chiefly  carried 
on  at  the  port  of  Guayaquil,  which,  with  the  porta  of 
Manta  and  San  Lorenzo,  is  open  for  general  importa- 
tion and  the  exportation  of  national  produce.  The 
ports  open  for  exportation  only  are  Santa  Elena,  CaU 
lao,  Bahia  de  Caraccos,  Loja,  and  Ibarra.  Guayaquil 
is  the  only  port  of  generid  deposit  for  re-exportation 
to  foreign  porta.  The  principal  articles  of  export  of 
this  republic  are  cocoa,  hides,  cattle,  tobacco,  wool, 
straw-hats,  coffee,  orchllla,  bark,  India-rubl)er,  and  an 
inferior  description  of  cotton.  Cocoa  is  the  leading 
staple,  the  quantity  annually  exported  reaching  over 
15,UO0,00O  pounds.  The  total  value  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  Fxiuador  may  be  stated  at  $4,000,000.  The 
countries  whifli  participate  in  this  trade  are  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Chili,  and  Peru,  in  Amer- 
ica ;  and  England,  Spain,  France,  and  Hamburg,  in 
Europe. 

The  commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
Equador  are  regulated  by  treaty  and  the  local  legiala- 
lation  of  that  republic.  The  treaty  with  the  United 
States  was  ratified  April  9, 1842,  and  stipulates  for 


iQicr 


«u 


BQU 


parlMt  »4iulit7  and  aiitira  noipnoity  of  navlgatioii 
and  commerce,  both  in  the  dinct  and  indirect  trad*. 
Tin  third  article  haa  thin  stipulation  i  "  That  whereas, 
by  a  I»w  of  Equudor,  March  21, 1887,  veuali  built  in 
the  dock-j-ard  of  Guayaquil  shall  ba  exempted  from 
various  charges;  therefore,  vessels  of  the  United  Sutes 
can  not  claim  thia  privilcgn,  but  shall  enjoy  it  if  It 
should  be  granted  to  vessels  belonging  to  Spain  or 
Mexico  and  to  the  other  Hispano-American  republicr." 
The  following  translation  of  the  decree  conferring  spe- 
cial privil^es  on  vessels  coustrncted  at  Quayaquil, 
btaring  date  August  28,  184a,  is  made  from  £1  Omer- 
cio  th  Lima,  October  6,  184G : 

"  The  provisional  govemneBt  considering  that  the 
aUp-yards  of  Guayaquil,  by  reason  of  iU  favorable 
position,  and  in  view  of  the  interests  of  commerce  and 
of  the  npublic,  merit  special  attention ;  therefore,  in 
order  to  advanoe  these  interests,  and  to  encourage  the 
construction  of  ships,  it  is  decreed :  Art.  1.  '^sels 
constructed  at  Guayaquil,  and  retaining  the  national 
flag,  shall  be  exempt  from  tonnage,  anchorage,  and 
other  port  dues.  Art.  2.  Such  vessels  shall  be  en- 
titled to  a  reduction  of  three  per  cent,  on  all  produce, 
merchandise,  etc.,  imported  into  any  of  the  ports  of 
the  republic  for  consumption." 

The  commerce  between  the  United  Jtates  and  Equa- 
dor  is  vei}'  limited,  owing  mainly  to  the  fact  thaf  the 
two  great  staples  of  the  latter  country,  cocoa  and 


straw-hata,  find  bat  little  demand  in  tha  United  Statat 
—the  former  being  of  limited  ooasumptlon,  and  tha 
latter  subject  to  a  duty  of  30  per  cant.  Before  tha 
treaty  between  Spain  and  £quador,  in  1848,  United 
States'  vessels  carried  flour  and  domestic  manu£icturea 
diniot  to  the  port  of  Guayaquil,  and  were  generally 
chartered  to  transport  cargoes  of  oocoa  to  Spafai.  Sinoa 
that  period,  however,  the  high  duties  on  cocoa  In  Spain, 
when  imported  In  foreign  vessels,  have  been  equiva- 
lent to  a  prohibition.  This,  together  with  the  annu- 
ally increasing  importation  of  flour  fhjm  Chill,  lu.s 
produced  a  depressing  effect  on  American  trade  with 
that  republic.  The  following  table  will  exhibit  the 
condition  of  this  trade  during  a  period  of  eleven  suc- 
cessive years.  But  little  improvement  can  be  ex- 
pected, it  is  thought,  so  long  as  the  present  tariff 
regulations  of  the  United  States  oontinua  in  force. 
The  duties  on  navigation  in  the  ports  of  Equador  are 
— tonnage  duties,  S5  cents  per  ton ;  light  dues,  6^ 
cents  per  ton.  When  pilots  are  employed,  the  fees  are 
(2  50  per  foot  of  the  vessel's  depth.  See  Com.  Rela- 
timt  V.  S.,  1858-7. 

Ecuador,  which  once  formed  part  of  the  empire  of 
the  Inoas,  was  discovered  by  Pizarro  in  1526,  and 
was  held  under  the  Spanish  crown  until  the  year  1812, 
when  a  revolution  occurred,  which  ended  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  separate  republic.  In  1821  Ecuador 
disconnected  itself  with  Now  Grenada. 


OoMPABiiTira  STATaiHiiT  or  Tna  Coimnira  or  ma  ITiirrKD  States  with  E<)Vado(,  ■XHurriMO  the  Taldb  or  Ex- 
ruais  TO  AHD  Imposts  tkoh  iaok  Cuv.ntby,  and  tuk  Tonmaiib  or  Ahseioah  ahd  roBiiOR  Vosiia  akuviho 

raOH   AHD  DCPABTIMl  TO   KACn  COUNTKT,   DURINO  TIIS  YEARS  DESIONATtl). 


VIAKS. 

CoUMMCt. 

HAVWAtl6y.                                1 

VALiri  or  BIPOBIH. 

TALUS  or 
iMPDan, 

AinstcAjt  vomMt. 

IX»M1. 
fndiKt. 

rroduc. 

ToUI. 

itMndilM 

UulUd  SUMl. 

ClMT«d  from 
lll«  U.  SUM. 

CuWraJUM 
UnlUd  SMai. 

OmlM  him 
Um  U,  Siaim. 

1346 

94,414 

.... 

MkOM 

il,180 

871 

10,811 

11,180 
87,834 
84,885 

70,898 
18,800 
87,884 
18,686 

"m 

688 

886 

808 

1,»81 

877 

819 

"m 
V,oii 

"888 
410 

614 
168 
1,185 
868 
760 
249 
191 

1*47 

1W0 

1851 

18M 

1858 

1854 

18B6 

The  following  summary  statements  of  the  commeree 
of  Guyaquil,  condensed  from  the  official  reports  for 
the  yean  designated,  will  convey  a  general  idea  of  the 
foreign  commerce  of  Equador,  the  port  of  Gayaquil 
Iwtng  the  principal  port  of  that  npublic  : 
TaADE  or  OvATAqniL  roa  1^16. 


Peru 

Chin 

Bpoln 

Hamburg 

Franoe 

Hexloo 

Central  America.. 

New  Oraaada 

England 

Total 


lm|iort». 

$(M8;i40 

148,930 

S7,«10 

iim 


M80 


|110,77» 
170.810 
190,000 
177,910 
99,780 
75,6M 
86,910 
14,680 
6,170 


8l6,t40    I       881,080 


Tout. 


$718,910 

814,740 

»7,«M 

177,970 

194,070 

T^tlO 

86,910 

19,780 

6,170 


1,897,170 


The  United  States  does  not  appear  in  the  list  of 
conntries  for  I8'16.  Indeed,  the  foreign  trade  of  Equa- 
dor is  conducted  chiefly  with  the  ports  of  Lima  and 
Valparaiso,  the  two  principal  entrepots  for  the  trade 
of  South  America.  The  following  statement  affords  a 
description  of  the  merchandise,  with  its  values,  im- 
ported in  1845,  and  the  conntries  of  origin : 


DtMri|)tli>B  nf  RMrchMdU*. 

VaIiu. 

CouUnoforifln. 

Textiles  of  cotton... 

"        wool 

"      lax 

•i       Bilk 

Wins, 

(146,300 
H4S0 
88,190 
tifi40 
79,410 
76,760 
«,1B0 
81,710 
81,710 
88,760 
11,180 

18,060 
■    «,7»0 

Pern. 

w 
u 
u 

Pern,  Spain,  Franee. 
Ponj,  ChUL  Franee. 
Pern,  Chill, 
ti        .1 

Psro,  Chill,  BpalB,  Franoe 
PerOiChlH. 

^•r  tf.iMtmur.Ti  - 
CfaUl,  Pern,  Fmoee. 

Spirits. 

Previsions 

Hsrdware 

Psper 

Mnsleal  iBstramsaU 

and  fomttura 

Potterjr  and    glass- 

wsns. 

EXPORTS. 


Deieriptloa  ofiiMreliAiidlM. 

Vilqu. 

Whllhw. 

Cocoik 

1860,880 

11,180 
19,890 

8j.Jn.Hjmburg,F.a«^ 

Pern.            •  '    ■     •I''" 
CbUL 

Strsw  bats 

Sole  leather 

The  following  tabular  statement  exhibits  the  de- 
scription of  merchandise  exported  fh>m  the  port  of 
GuayAquil  in  the  year  1856,  with  the  quantity  of  each 
article,  respectively : 

BiporU  of  mtrebAndlM. 

Ooon^ poonds 

Straw  hala. doaen 

Taannd  hides, sides 

Tobaceo. quintals 

Banaparina. ** 

Tamarinds, " 

CoAe " 

OrchUla •• 

BariE " 

Timber. toga 

Caaes pleeea 

Manyles " 

Indla-rabber. qntntals 

The  countries  to  which  the  cocoa  speclfled  In  the 
above  statement  was  sent,  together  with  the  quantity 
to  each,  is  exhibited  as  follows.  Each  carga  equaU 
81  lbs.: 

_     .  Om«». 

Bpala 80,881 

Ilambnrc. , 86,181 

Franca 17,214 

Pern 14,898    18 

Chill 14.8(t7    80 

UnltedState^ 7,544    04 

Central  America. 6,468    69 

Mexico 6,410    80 

Panama. 4,911    78 

TotaL 186,998    10 

The  following  table  exbtbil*  the  quantitieo,  in 
pounds,  of  cocoa,  exported  from  Guayaquil  during  a 


SnonUtlfft. 
,089,768 
88,778 
16,146 
8,«S» 
667 
199 
T76 
4,000 
7,780 
9.868 
78,661 
6,660 
765 


Iba. 

» 

M 
61 


EQU 


eift 


BRI 


U.  State*.  I 

6U~ 
168 
1,185 

e68 

760 

in 


[06>,TI» 
88,TT8 
S6,246 

»•!§? 

6W 

TT« 

4,noo 

T,78» 
•.868 
T8,»l 
6,660 
T65 

Ifled  tn  the 
lie  quantity 
jkTga  equal* 

Ita. 

1214    6a 
1,696    tS 

km  80 

1,644  M 

>,468  69 

iL4l«  8» 

[r,»M  T8    -■. 

j,«98  ao  '  ' 

lantitiefi,  in 

during  • 


pniod  of  Un  yean,  fVom  1M6  to  1861,  both  yean  In- 
oluelve: 

tmmit,  Pooada. 

1846 11,W9,«08  18in »,fi<T,680 

184r ll,0n,«6  18M 18,»Ba,A48 

1848 tl,0OI,8H  18B8 18,MS,0M 

184» 14,184,784  18M 1D,«08,151 

18S0 11,06<,0M  18U 1^0^»,TB8 

The  navigation  retorns  of  Ouayaqnil  fbr  1849,  the 
lateat  period  for  which  they  are  at  hand,  complete,  ex- 
hibit a  total  of  169  vesaels  entered  and  cleared,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  46,888  tons,  diatributed  ai 
follows : 


CointdM. 

BMTiaiD. 

CLIARln.                1 

V.mb: 

t<«,^ 

V.M.I.. 

Vom. 

16 

6 

4 
6 
9 
80  J 

14,810 
^86 
1,054 

1,6»T 
M66 

IS 
5 

4 
6 
8 

886 
1,054 
1,908 
1,MT 
4,968 

United  Blatot 

Fnaee. 

gpg^Q 

IttiyanilOemiany.... 

B,  Amerlotn  repnbllM. 

Total 

14,805 

85 

98,088 

The  only  commercial  legislation  in  this  republic,  of 
recent  date,  it  embodied  in  a  decree  given  at  the  capi- 
tal, Quito,  August  15,  1855,  by  the  President,  Jos6 
Maria  Urliina,  imposing  an  export  duty  on  bark  and 
India-rubber.  The  United  States'  consul  at  Guayaquil, 
in  cnmrnunicating  this  decree,  under  date  of  Septem- 
ber 30, 1855,  says :  "Against  this  injudicious  measure 
of  the  executive,  strong  representations  will  lie  made 
to  the  present  Congress  by  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial classes,  as  unlawful,  and  ti\jarious  to  the  present 
increasing  commercial  prosperity'  of  the  country ;  and 
It  is  prulmliie  that  it  vill  lie  modified  into  renting  or 
selling  the  lands,  or  dune  away  with  altogether.  " 

A  translation  of  this  decree  is  subjoined :  "  Conaid- 
bring  thiit  the  natural  productions  met  with  in  the 
uncultivated  lands  of  the  vepublic  make  part  of  the 
national  riches,  and  that  that  the  Indla-rubl)er  and 
bark  discovered  and  extracted  fl»m  said  lands  are  be- 
coming objects  of  speculation  to  many  persons,  and 
should  he  made  to  yield  a  revenue  to  the  country; 
therefore,  be  it  decreed :  Art.  1.  In  the  ports  of  the 
republic  where  custom-houses  are  established,  there 
shall  be  exacted  a  duty  of  two  dollars  on  ordinary, 
and  three  dollars  on  refined  India-rubl>er,  on  every 
100  lbs.  exported  to  foreign  markets.  Art.  2,  The 
bark  taken  from  government  lands,  and  exported  to 
foreign  countries,  shall  pay  a  duty  of  two  dollars  for 
every  100  lbs.  on  yellow,  three  on  Cailessaya,  and 
eight  on  red.  Art.  8.  Those  persons  who  export  In- 
dla-rubl)er  and  bark  withot  presenting  the  same  at  the 
custom-house,  or  place  appointed  for  the  collection  of 
the  duties  specified  in  the  previous  articles,  with  the 
intent  of  avoiding  the  payment  of  said  duties,  shall 
he  judged  according  to  the  process  detailed  ih  the  law 
of  th(t  2l8t  November,  1853.  Art.  4.  Ever}'  citizen 
who  proposes  extracting  India-rulilwr  or  bark  from 
national  lands,  shall  present  himself  to  the  respective 
governor,  who,  after  hearing  his  proposal,  and  satisfy- 
ing himself  tluit  the  land  is  actually  government  prop- 
erty, sh'iil  give  to  the  parties  applying  the  required 
permission  in  writing.  Art.  5.  Those  engaged  in  the 
collection  of  India-rubber  must  not  cut  down  the  tree ; 
but,  to  obtain  their  object,  should  bore  a  small  hole  in 
the  trunk,  at  the  height  of  alwut  half  a  yard  from  the 
grounil,  penetrating  the  greater  part  of  the  thickness 
of  the  troe,  taking  care  not  to  bore  through  it.  Art.  6. 
Those  who  are  found  taking  Indio-rubljer  or  bark  from 
national  lands  without  having  complied  with  the  con- 
ditions prescrilied  in  articles  4  and  5,  shall  )>e  treated 
as  smugglers,  and  the  substances  collected  taken  from 
them  and  confiscated.  Art.  7.  The  governors  of  prov- 
inces in  the  lands  under  their  jurisdiction  will  take  all 
possible  measures  to  discover  and  apprehend  .ill  parties 
who  endeavor  to  infringe  the  preceding  dispositions. 
Art.  8.  Article  6  applies,  also,  to  those  Individuals  who 
do  not  comply  with  the  dispositions  of  articles  4  and  S, 
under  the  pretext  that  they  are  collecting  the  aforesaid 


substanoas  fVom  their  own  lands,  ihottld  il  \t»  dlioor* 
ered  that  the  said  lands  an  oattonal  ftofnty,  AH,  H, 
Those  persons  who  collect  India-rubbar  and  bark  fIruM 
their  own  property,  an  not  subject  to  any  of  lha  du- 
ties Imposed  in  the  present  dacrae.  Art.  10,  Tlia  Ho«i> 
rat<>ry  of  the  Treasurj-  is  charged  with  tb*  due  aiif«ii« 
tiun  of  this  present  decrae,  of  which  it  i«  his  du(v  lo 
inform  the  Congrass  next  ensuing."— Cof/i.  iMUiimi, 
U.  S.     See  GuAYAguiu 

Bqwitor  {aquar*,  to  maka  eaual),  In  ailrommD 
and  geography,  a  great  cinle  of  tlia  tpbar*,  aquaUy 
distant  from  tlie  two  poles  of  tha  world,  ur  havllif  th* 
same  polea  as  the  world.  It  Is  callcil  wiuatur  bawiiuw 
when  the  sun  is  in  it  tha  daya  and  niglits  an  otiiwl  i 
whence  also  it  is  denominated  the  iquituetiali  and 
when  drawn  on  maps,  planispheres,  or  globas,  It  I* 
called  the  equinoctui  line,  or  simply  Ms  luw,  Kvary 
point  in  the  equator  ia  90  degress,  or  a  quadrant's  dis- 
tance from  the  poles  of  the  world  t  and  bantia  tiw 
equator  divides  the  sphen  in'o  two  equal  bamlspliarwi, 
in  one  of  which  Is  the  northern,  and  In  tha  c4iiar  tha 
southern  pole.  Terrestrial  longitudes  are  maasartd 
on  the  equator,  or  some  oii»  of  Its  parallal  elrolai  | 
commenclog  from  soma  arbitrary  point,  wblob  dlffap> 
ent  nations  assume  variously,  most  of  tham  adoiitin( 
the  meridian  which  passea  through  tbsir  oapitaf  oity 
or  principal  observator)-.  Latitudes  ara  oountad  frum 
the  equator  along  the  meridian. 

Equinox  (Lat.  aquus  and  non,  night).  In  astron- 
omy, is  the  time  at  which  tha  sun  passes  through  tba 
equator  in  one  of  the  equinoctial  points.  Wbsn  tba 
sun  Is  in  the  equator,  the  days  and  nights  an  of  equal 
length  all  over  the  world,  whence  the  derivation  of 
the  term.  This  happens  twice  every  year,  nautely, 
about  the  21st  of  March,  and  the  'i'iA  of  Huptambar  t 
the  former  is  called  the  venml,  and  tba  latter  tba  au- 
tumnal  equinox.  The  equinoxes  do  not  divida  til* 
year  into  portions  of  equal  length ;  for  in  consaqiianea 
of  the  sun  being  at  his  greatest  distanca  from  tba  aaitb 
during  the  summer  months,  and  his  angular  motion  In 
his  orbit  being  consequently  slower,  the  interval  from 
the  vernal  to  the  autumnal  equinox  is  greater  than 
that  from  the  autumul  to  the  vernal.  In  other  words, 
the  sun  continues  longer  on  the  northern  than  on  tba 
southern  side  of  the  equator.  At  the  tieglnning  uf  tb* 
present  century,  the  difference  amounted  to  7  days  10 
hours  and  51  minutes.  The  summer  in  the  uortberu 
hemisphere  is  constantly  longer  than  In  tha  aoutbam 
by  this  quantity  ;  and  to  this  circumstuuua  soma 
meteorologists  ascribe,  in  port  at  least,  tiM  blgbar 
temperature  that  is  found  to  prevail  in  the  nonliam 
hemisphere  under  the  same  p4iruilel  of  latitude. 

Erie  (lake),  situated  north  uf  Mew  York,  I'onnsyU 
vonia,  and  Ohio,  and  constitutes  a  part  of  tba  lionnd- 
ar}-  between  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  Is  !M0 
miles  long,  and  60  broad,  in  its  wbest  |iart.  It  n- 
ceives  the  waters  of  Superior,  Michigan,  and  Uurun 
lakes,  through  Detroit  Kiver,  and  diseliurges  its  wa- 
ters through  Niagara  River  into  Lake  Ontario,  Itl 
surface  is  elevated  565  feet  above  tide-water  in  tba 
Hudson  River  at  Albany.  The  soundings  by  tlM  U, 
S.  Engineers  show  the  lake  to  be  divided  Into  tbrta 
sections  of  unequal  depth,  viz.,  one  extends  from  tba 
head  down  to  Point  Pellee  Island,  and  tba  liottom 
presents  a  general  level,  with  a  depth  of  30  feat  In  tb* 
average.  The  second  is  of  much  larger  extent,  and 
stretches  to  Long  Point ;  is  also  a  level,  with  a  ilaptb 
of  60  to  70  feet.  The  third  section  extends  to  Niagara 
River,  and  is  an  uneven  bottom,  with  various  depths 
of  water,  rouging  from  60  to  240  feet.  The  business 
done  on  this  lake  Is  immense,  and  Increasing.  Tb* 
licensed  tonnage  of  the  lake  Is  188,852  tons,  of  wbiob  a 
large  and  Increasing  proportion  Is  of  steam-vessels, 
!  The  estimated  value  of  the  commerce  amounts  to 
$220,000,000  annually.  Then  an  20  light-bouses  and 
i  beacons  on  the  American  side,  and  10  on  tha  Canadian 
I  side,    A  battle  was  fought  near  it*  wast  end  S«pt*ffl> 


916 


KUP 


bw  10th,  IMS,  batwara  tha  Aaiarlom  fleet,  milar 
Cooiaadgn  Parrjr,  and  tha  EnglUh  flaat.  In  wMoh  tha 
Utiar  waa  eaptand.    8aa  Laki*,  Commtret  of. 

■nnln*  (Gar.  Utrmelin  t  Fr.  Htrmme,  Ermtnt ;  Rm . 
OoniMdu),  ■  ipaciea  of  waatal  (muUln  emtdida,  Mn.), 
•bnniUat  in  alt  cold  eoantrlaa,  particularly  RohU, 
Norway,  LapUnd,  ate.,  and  produoinv  -  uioit  ralna- 
bla  ipaciea  of  Iter.  In  tw"—  .^e  srralna  if  of  u 
brown  color,  and  it  called  the  iloat.  It  la  In  winter 
only  that  the  Air  haa  that  beautiful  anowy  whitaneia 
and  eontiatenee  ao  much  admired.     See  Kdrs. 

BcpartO,  a  ipedea  of  rush,  the  ttipn  Imarurima  ot 
botanliti.  It  la  found  in  the  aouthem  provincea  of 
Spain ;  Md  la  particularly  abundant  on  all  the  aterile, 
uncultivated,  and  nountalnoua  diatricta  of  Valencia. 
BKOKMAim  (Hitt.  of  Invtnl.,  vol.  11.,  p.  280,  Eng.  ed.) 
auppoaea,  apparently  with  good  reason,  that  the  ilipa 
tenacUMHNi  la  the  plant  deaeribed  by  Pliny  under  the 
name  of  Sparta,  who  aacrlhea  ita  application  to  uaeful 
pnrpoaea  to  the  Caitbaginiana.— ffiW.  Mi/.,  lib.  six., 
c.  3.  It  la  still  uaed  for  the  same  purpoae*  as  in 
antiquity,  being  manufactured  into  cordage,  shoes, 
matting,  baskets,  nets,  matresaes,  sacks,  etc.  Cables 
made  of  esparto  are  said  to  be  excellent ;  being  light, 
they  float  on  the  anrface  of  the  water,  and  are  not, 
therefore,  ao  liable  aa  hempen  cables  to  be  cut  or  In- 
jured by  a  foul  bottom.  They  are  exclusively  made 
use  of  in  the  Spanish  navy.  Esparto  is  largely  eon- 
Humed  in  the  manufacture  of  alpergatet.  These  ire 
light  shoes  worn  by  f'u  Valencian  peasantry,  having 
pUttad  soles  made  either  of  esparto  or  hemp,  but  prin- 
cipally of  the  former.  They  are  extremely  cheap  and 
commiadlous  in  hot  climates;  and  heaidea  being  in 
extensive  demand  at  home,  uaed  to  be  exported  In 
immenae  quantitiea  to  lioth  Indies  ;  but  since  the 
emancipation  of  Spanish  America,  this  trade  has 
greatly  fallen  off.  The  Spanish  peasantry  have  at- 
tained to  wonderful  dexterity  in  the  manufacture  of 
esparto.  "  After  having  soaked  the  rush  in  water,  the 
women  and  children,  without  either  wheel  or  spindle, 
contrive  to  twist  two  threads  at  the  same  time.  This 
they  do  by  rubbing  them  between  the  palms  of  their 
hands,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  shoemaker  forms  a 
thread  upon  his  knecH,  with  this  difference,  that  one 
motion  gives  the  twist  to  each  thread,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  unites  them.  To  keep  the  threads  asun- 
der, the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  is  interposed  Iwtween 
them ;  and  when  that  is  wanted  for  other  purposes, 
the  left  thumb  supplies  its  place.  Two  threads  being 
thus  twisted  into  one  of  the  bigness  of  a  large  crow- 
quill,  48  yards  are  sold  for  little  more  than  ^.,  the 
materials  being  worth  about  a  fifth  part  of  the  price." 
— Towhsend'h  Travth  in  Spain,  vol.  lit.,  p.  177 ;  see 
also  p.  129;  Fischer's  Picture  of  Valencia,  Eng.  ed., 
p.  92,  and  p.  57,  etC. 

Bnenoe  D'Orient,  the  name  of  a  pearly-looking 
matter  proeurrd  from  the  bUy  or  bleak,  a  flsh  of  the 
genus  typriniiM.  This  sulMtance,  which  Is  found  prin- 
cipally at  the  liase  of  the  scales.  Is  used  in  the  manu- 
foeture  of  artificial  pearls.  A  large  quantity  of  the 
teales  being  scraped  into  water  In  a  tub,  are  there 
rubbed  between  the  handa  to  separate  the  shining  Dtuff 
which  subeides  on  repose.  The  first  water  being  de- 
canted, more  is  added  with  agitation  till  the  essence  la 
thoroughly  washed  ttom  all  Impurities  ;  when  the 
whole  Is  thrown  upon  a  sieve ;  the  substance  passes 
through,  but  the  scales  are  retained.  The  water  be- 
ing decanted  off,  the  essence  ia  procured  in  a  viscid 
state,  of  a  bluish-white  color,  and  a  peariy  aspect. 
The  intestines  of  the  same  flsli  aie  also  eoveiM  with 
this  beautiful,  glistening  matter.  Several  other  fish 
yield  it,  Imt  In  smaller  proportion.  When  well  pre- 
pared, it  presents  exactly  the  appearance  and  reflec- 
tions of  the  real  pearls,  or  the  finest  mother  of  pearl ; 
propertiea  which  are  probably  owing  to  the  interposi- 
tion of  some  portions  of  this  same  substance,  itetween 
Ihe  lamina  of  these  shelly  concretions.     Its  chemical 


nature  koa  net  been  Imraatlgatefl ;  it  pntrafles  readfljr 
when  kept  moist,  an  accident  which  may,  however, 
be  ooontemcted  by  water  of  ammoBia.  See  P>Amu. 
BMMntlal  OUl,  or  VoUtll*  Oila.  Under  this 
term  are  included  all  those  paenllar  compounds  ob- 
tained by  distilling  vegetable  substances  with  water, 
and  which  pass  over  along  with  tha  steam,  and  are 
afterward  condensed  in  the  liquid  or  solid  form.  The/ 
appear  to  constitute  the  odorous  prindplea  of  vegeta- 
bles. Their  specific  gravity  fluctuatea  on  either  side 
that  of  water ;  they  are  ver}'  sparingly  soluble  in  w»> 
ter,  and  these  aolutiona  conatitute  the  mtdicaled  mtUri  $ 
rose,  peppermint,  and  other  waters  lieing  such  aula- 
tlona  01  the  reapective  essential  oils.  They  dissolve  in 
alcohol  and  form  fMtnrtt,  many  of  which  are  used  as 
perftimes.  When  these  oila  are  pure,  they  evaporate 
ftom  paper  when  held  before  the  fire ;  but  if  adulte- 
rated with  fixe<I  oils,  they  lenve  •  greaay  stain,  and 
seldom  dissolve  perfectly  in  alcohol.  The  more  ex- 
pensive of  these  oils  are  iVequently  adulterated  with  the 
cheaper  ones,  and  this  tnuA  can  only  be  detected  by 
an  experienced  noae.  Their  chief  uae  ta  in  perfumery, 
on  account  of  their  odor,  and  in  medicine  they  form 
valuable  atimnlanta.  They  are  inflammable,  ami  ore, 
with  few  exceptiona,  compounds  of  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  carbon.  The  essence  uf  turpentine,  of  lemons, 
and  a  few  others,  are  hgdrocarbont. 

Batabllahmant  of  the  Port,  a  term  used  by 
writers  on  the  tides,  to  denote  the  Interval  between 
the  time  of  high  water  at  any  given  port  and  the  time 
of  the  moon's  transit  immediately  preceding  the  time 
of  high  water,  when  the  moon  is  in  syiyg}' ;  that  is,  at 
the  new  or  full  moon.  This  intervid  is  Influenced  by 
local  drcumatancea,  and  consequently  different  at  dif- 
ferent places.     Sea  Tidrb. 

BsMob,  or  Batrldga  (Fr.  Duttl  d'autrucke ;  It, 
Penna  matta  di  ilrozto ;  Sp.  Plumazo  dt  avt$trux ;  lot. 
Struthionum  plumn  molliortt),  is  the  fine,  soft  down 
which  lies  immediately  under  the  feathers  of  the  os- 
trich. The  finest  is  uaed  as  a  substitute  for  beaver  in  the 
manufacture  of  hats,  and  the  coarser  or  stronger  sort 
is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  a  stuff  which  resem- 
bles fine  woolen  cloth.  Estridge  is  brought  from  the 
Levant,  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Bthar  (Gr.  ai6iip).  In  chemistry  this  term  ia  ap- 
plied to  a  highly  volatile,  fhigrant,  inflammable,  and 
intoxicating  liquid,  produced  by  diatiUing  a  mixture 
of  equal  weights  of  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol.  When 
these  liquids  mutually  act  on  each  other,  a  series  of 
complicated  changes  enaue,  which  terminate  in  the 
conversion  of  alcohol  Into  ether. 

Btiphorblum  (Ger.  Euphorhiengummi;  Let.  Eu- 
phorbium ;  Fr.  Eupkorbt ;  Arab.  Atul-na/zah),  the 
produce  of  a  perennial  plant,  a  native  of  Africa,  and  of 
many  parts  of  India,  etc.  It  is  a  concrete  gum  resin ; 
is  Inodorous ;  when  first  chewed  haa  little  taste,  but 
it  soon  gives  a  very  acrid,  burning  impression  to  tha 
tongue,  palate,  end  throat,  which  is  very  permanent, 
and  almost  insupportable.  It  is  imported  in  serous, 
containing  from  100  to  150  lbs.  It  ia  in  araall,  hollow, 
forked  piecea,  often  mixed  with  seeds  and  other  im- 
purities.— Thomson's  DitptnuUory. 

Btiphzmtea,  the  most  considerable  river  of  west- 
ern Ajia,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  great 
streams  rising  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  pashallo 
of  Erxeroum,  and  uniting  in  about  N.  lat.  89°,  E.  long. 
89°.  The  Frat  or  northern  branch  has  its  principal 
sources  about  20  miles  north-east  of  the  town  of  Erze- 
num ;  and  the  Murad,  on  the  north  declivity  of  the 
Arghl-dagh  mountains,  45  miles  north-east  ttom  the 
nearest  point  of  Lake  Van.  The  Euphrates  flows  first 
to  the  south,  bnt^  being  driven  westward  l>y  the  Antl- 
Taums  and  Taurus  mountains,  it  works  ita  circuitoua 
way  through  narrow  passes  and  over  cataracts,  until, 
breaking  through  a  defile  formed  by  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Mons  Amanus  (Almo-dagh)  and  the  north- 
western extremity  of  Mont  Taurus,  It  reaches  the 


RDP 


61? 


sent 


|il*1n  eooBtTT'  not  flir  from  flamoaaU  (SamaiMt).  It 
then  winds  lonth  and  ■outh-mit,  psMini;  thr  north  of 
8yrU,  >nd  tha  north-oimt  of  Arabia  Denitrta,  and  at 
length,  after  many  wlndinK*,  unite*  with  the  TIgrIa, 
and  thua  unitnl,  flnds  ila  teniilnatlon  In  tha  Peralan 
Gulf,  In  conjunction  with  thn  TIgria,  it  forma  the 
rich,  alluvial  landa  of  Heaopntamlu,  ov«r  which  It 
iows  or  la  carried  by  canala,  and  tbua  diffiiaea  abroad 
fertility  and  lieauty.  At  OughiUd  and  Hillah  (Babv. 
k>B)  the  Euphratea  and  Tigria  approach  companttvely 
•ear  to  eaeli  other,  but  aeparate  again,  fonnlng  a  kind 
of  ample  Irnaln,  till  thuy  flnntiy  liecomo  one  at  Kurnah. 
Although  occasionally  much  more,  the  breadth  of  the 
Euphratea  varies  between  200  and  400  yards,  but  for  a 
distance  of  60  rallea  through  the  Lemlun  marahea,  tha 
main  atream  narrowa  to  about  80  yarda.  The  general 
depth  of  the  Upper  Kuphratea  exceeda  8  feet.  In 
point  of  cnrrent  It  la  for  the  moat  part  a  alngglsh 
itreaa ;  for,  except  in  the  height  of  the  flooded  aca- 
BOB,  when  Ita  flow  approachea  A  milea  an  hour,  it  varies 
from  H  to  in,  with  a  much  larger  portion  of  its  conrae 
under  8  than  almve,  Ita  general  deacripllon  for  some 
distance  below  Kningon,  la  that  of  a  river  of  the  first 
order,  atmggiing  through  high  hilla  sr  rather  low 
mountalna,  making  an  exceedingly  tortuous  course, 
as  It  forces  ita  waj-  over  a  pebliiy  Iwd,  from  one  natu> 
ral  barrier  to  another,  Aa  it  winda  round  ita  numerous 
barriers,  it  carries  occaalonaily  toward  each  of  the  car- 
dinal pointa  a  consideralde  l>ody  of  water ;  and  la  shal- 
low enough  In  some  places  for  loaded  camels  to  pass 
in  autumn,  the  water  rising  to  alMiut  4|  feet.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  river  la  incloaed  Iwtween  two  par- 
allel rangea  of  hills,  covered  for  the  moat  part  with 
high  brushwood  and  timber  of  moderate  aize,  having  a 
succession  Of  long,  narrow  islands.  The  principal 
towns  on  Its  hanks  are  Samsat,  Ilaoroum,  Komkala, 
BIr,  Qialwr,  DeIr,  Rava,  Anah,  Hadiaa,  El  Ooa,  JIhba, 
Hit,  Hillah,  Lemlun,  Kurnah,  and  Basrah.  The 
scenery  al-.jve  Hit,  in  Itaelf  very  pictureaqne,  la 
greatly  heightened  l)y  the  frequent  recurrence  of  an- 
cient irrigating  aqueducts,  beautiful  specimens  of  art, 
which  are  attributed  by  the  Aral)s  to  the  Persians 
%hen  flre-worshlpers ;  they  literally  cover  both  banks, 
and  prove  that  the  borders  of  tho  Euphrates  were  once 
thickly  inhabited  by  a  highly  civilized  people.  From 
Hit  to  Babylon  the  black  tent  of  the  Bedouin  Is  almost 
the  only  kind  of  habitation  to  he  seen.  This  distance 
is  cultivated  only  in  part ;  the  rest  is  desert,  occasion- 
ally intcr^iier^ed  with  cluatera  of  date-trees.  In  de- 
scending, the  irrigating  cuts  and  canala  Income  mora 
frequent.  Bal)ylon  Is  encircled  by  two  streams,  one 
•Imve,  the  other  below  the  principal  ruins ;  beyond 
which  they  unite  and  produce  abundance.  For  about 
80  miles  below  Hillah  both  lianks  have  numerous  mild 
villages,  shaded  by  date-trees  :  to  those  succeed  huts 
formed  of  bundles  of  reeds.  The  country  lower  down 
toward  lemlun,  la  level  and  little  elevated  above  the 
river ;  Irrigation  is  therefore  easy ;  in  consequence, 
both  Iwnks  are  covered  with  productive  cultivation, 
and  fringed  with  a  double  and  nearly  continuous  belt 
of  luxuriant  date-trees,  extending  down  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  At  one  mile  and  a  half  above  the  town  of  De- 
wanla  Is  the  flrat  considerable  offahoot  from  this  hith- 
erto majestic  river ;  another  takes  place  22  miles 
.lower ;  and  0  miles  further,  at  Lemlun,  it  again  sep- 
arates into  two  branches,  forming  a  delta  not  unlike 
that  of  Damletta,  and  when  the  river  is  swollen,  inun- 
dating the  country  for  a  space  of  aliout  60  miles  in 
width,  with  a  shallow  sheet  of  water,  forming  the 
Lemlun  marshes,  nsarl}'  the  whole  of  wiiinh  is  covered 
witli  rice  and  other  grain,  when  the  river  recedes  in 
June,  Below  Lemlun  the  Tigris  sends  a  branch  to 
the  Euphrates,  which  is  thus  increased  in  Its  volume ; 
and  turning  to  the  east,  receives  the  chief  branch  of  the 
Tigris,  thence  running  In  a  single  stream,  under  the 
name  of  the  8hat-el-Areb,  as  far  as  the  Persian  Quif. 
In  this  last  part  the  river  has  a  depth  of  troni  8  to  6 


fkthomi  I  Tariea  in  breadth  from  800  to  900  yards,  »ai 
presents  banks  covered  with  villages  and  cultivation, 
having  an  appearance  at  once  Imposing  and  majestla. 
The  length  of  the  entire  stream  Is  1,400  miles.  It  Is 
very  abundant  In  ilsh.  The  water  Is  somewhat  turbid, 
but  when  purilled,  is  pleasant  and  salubrtona.  Tht 
Arabians  set  •  high  value  on  It,  and  name  It  Morad 
Sou ;  that  is,  Water  of  Desire  or  longing.  The  rivar 
begins  to  rise  In  Haroh,  and  continues  rising  till  the 
latter  end  of  May.  The  consequent  increase  of  its 
volume  and  rapidity  Is  attributable  to  the  early  ratna, 
which,  falling  in  the  Armenian  mountains,  swell  Itt 
mountain  tributaries  {  and  also  to  the  melting  of  tha 
winter  snows  In  these  lofty  regions.  About  the  mid 
die  of  October  tha  Euphrates  has  reached  ita  Inwar 
ebb,  and  ceaaing  to  decrease,  becomes  tranquil  and 
alngglsh. 

The  expedition  sent  out  by  the  British  government 
under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Chesney,  navigated  the 
Euphrates  in  18B6  frvm  Bireh-Jik  to  Its  estnar}-,  a  dis- 
tance of  1,117  miles  ;  and  besides  throwing  much  light 
on  a  countr}'  then  very  im|>erfectly  known  to  Euro- 
peans, proved  that  there  exist  no  serious  obstacles  to 
the  navigation  of  that  river  by  moderate-sized  steam- 
ers thus  far ;  and  even  for  88  miles  above  Ilirnh-Jik  to 
Beies,  an  important  station  In  a  commercial  point  of 
view,— E,  B. 

Europe,  one  of  the  great  divialons  of  the  globe. 
On  a  flrst  view  Europe  appean  to  tie  less  favored  by 
nature  than  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe  over  whioh 
it  hns  obtained  so  great  an  ascendency.  It  la  much 
smaller  In  extent ;  its  rocky  and  mountainous  surface 
does  not  admit  of  those  noble  rivers,  like  inland  seas, 
which  lay  open  the  remotest  regions  of  Asia  and  of 
America  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  Ita  vegetable 
productlona  are  neither  ao  various  nor  ao  exulierant ; 
and  it  is  poorly  supplied  with  the  precious  metals,  and 
with  many  of  those  commodities  on  which  mankind  set 
the  greatest  value.  On  the  other  hand,  the  climate  of 
Euro|>e,  if  it  nourishes  a  less  luxuriant  vegetation,  is 
of  an  equal  and  temperate  kind,  well  adapted  to  pre- 
serve tlie  human  frame  in  that  state  of  health  and 
vigor  which  flta  it  for  labor,  and  promotes  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Intellectual  and  moral  powera.  The 
mountaina  that  interaect  ita  surface  are  barriers  whioh 
enalded  infant  communities  to  protect  themselves  Arom 
violence,  and  to  lay  the  foundation  of  arts,  knowledge, 
and  civilization.  If  it  haa  few  lari;e  iin-.  igable  riv- 
ers, its  inland  seii  and  liays  are,  f^'w  ttieir  position 
and  extent,  tho  flnest  in  the  world,  t  .  /  ve  l>een  tha 
means  of  creating  and  nourishing  tni.t  commeroial 
spirit  which  has  been  one  great  souree  of  its  improve- 
ment. Though  comparatively  deficient  in  gold  and 
stiver,  It  is  abundantly  supplied  with  those  useful  met- 
als and  minerals  which  minister  still  mora  essentially 
to  the  wants  of  civilized  life.  Ita  apparent  defects 
have  become  the  source  of  real  beneflts,  and  the  found- 
ation of  ita  grandeur.  The  disadvantages  of  its  soil 
and  climate  have  excited  the  industry  of  ita  inhabit- 
ants, given  them  clearer  ideas  of  property,  kindled  a 
resolute  spirit  to  defend  their  rights,  and  called  into 
existence  that  skill  and  enterprise,  and  those  innumer- 
able arts  and  inventions,  which  have  enabled  the  in- 
habitants of  this  apparently  barren  and  rocky  promon- 
tory to  command  the  riches  and  luxuries  of  all  tha 
most  favored  regions  of  the  globe.  It  is  only  in  En- 
rope  that  knowledge  and  the  arts  seem  to  be  indige- 
nous. Though  they  have  appeared  at  times  among 
some  of  the  nations  of  Asia,  they  have  either  stopped 
short  after  advancing  a  few  stepa,  or  they  have  speed- 
ily retrograded  and  perished,  like  something  foreign  to 
the  genius  of  the  people.  In  Europe,  on  the  contrary, 
they  have  sprung  up  at  distant  periods,  and  in  a  va- 
riety of  situations  ;  they  have  risen  spontaneously  and 
rapidl}',  and  declined  slowly;  and  when  they  disap- 
peared, it  was  evident  they  were  but  crushed  for  tha 
time  by  external  violence,  to  rise  again  when  the 


EUR 


ew 


BUR 


ptMMN  hMl  NbiMtd.  It  la  oaly  in  Earop*,  aad 
(ummg  ooImIm  of  KarapMM,  that  th*  powan  of  iha 
hitiMn  mImI,  bfMking  Ibfotijih  IIm  ■lavUb  •tUchnMDl 
lo  McUiil  u—tff  mhI  iMlitiiltoiui,  have  davalnpad 
thai  iirlnrlaU  of  pragNMlva  laiprovaiiMnt  of  which  It 
b  bapoMlhU  to  ealaulato  lb*  Anal  reiulU.  Tha  rudaa 
IrUw  In  Kuropa,  In  whhih  IhU  priaolpla  hai  takan  mot, 
Imm  •  cartain  aoniea  of  raparioiity  over  the  mott  Im- 
pMvad  natlona  of  Airla  and  Africa,  where  eociety  ra- 
■alna  parfeeHjr  ilatlonarjr.  If  thena  aattont  are  ever 
ilaalbMNi  tn  ailraneo  In  oktllaatlon,  they  mutt  borrow 
f^am  Kumpa  Ihoaa  arte  which  nha  haa  invented,  and 
whfek  lialoflii  tn  dvlUaod  life  in  every  climaU,  But 
tka  lanaiHana  adbaiance  of  rude  nationfi  t<i  tha  ciietone 
md  aaparntltlona  of  their  anoaetore,  will  not  allow  lu 
IB  bopa  that  tha  Iwneflta  of  civiliMUnn  will  ba  rapidly 
dlffiMad  In  thin  way.  It  la  more  proluilile  that  colo- 
niaa  fnmi  tha  oMar  iitatea  of  Kurupa  will  multiply  aa 
tlM  population  iMoomee  more  and  more  redundant ;  and 
tiuH  ttieia  coloniea  wilt  carry  the  arte  and  knowledKe, 
tha  UoKUaKe  and  nannen,  of  Europe  with  them,  to 
tha  other  i|iMrter«  of  the  world.  From  prejudicee  on 
both  elden.  It  in  found  that  two  racee,  in  very  different 
itaifaa  of  rivillaatlon,  do  not  readily  amalKamate  ;  and 
U  I*  therefore  prolMbla  that  the  feebler  inliabitanti  of 
tbaaa  enuntrtea,  Ilka  tha  American  Indiana,  will  be 
grailunlly  diii|iUred  by  thu  continual  encroachmenta  of 
tka  more  enerKetio  racaa  of  Kuropa, 

Knropa  la  Imunded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the  Arctic 
Md  Atlantic  Ocaani  j  oh  the  S.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
tha  Black  Hen,  and  Mount  (,'aucaaua;  nn  the  K.  Iiy  the 
Caaplan  Urn,  the  rivnr  Ural,  and  the  Uraliiin  Mount- 
aiua.  The  Lireateat  lenKth  of  the  continent  ia  from 
Oa|ia  8t,  Vincent  to  the  8ea  of  Kara,  in  the  direction 
of  N.  K.  and   H.W.,  and  ia  84W)  KnKliah  niilea.     lU 

?'r«ntaat  extrnt  from  N.  to  .S.  ia  from  Oatie  Matapan  to 
!ape  North,  'MKO  mile*.  The  auperriciea  of  Europe, 
IneladlnK  the  Aiorea,  Iceland,  Nova  /embia,  and  all 
ito  other  lilnnda,  la  8,700,I)U()  KnKliah,  or  2,8UO,000 
MOKNphical  aquare  milea ;  and  the  length  of  ita  coaat 
Una  If  almut  lO.rxW  miles 

Cllmnlf.-—'lh»  climate  of  Europe  is  diatlnKuished  by 
two  pecnlliirltca.  It  enjoya  a  hi^flier  mean  temperature 
than  any  of  the  other  Kreut  diviaions  of  the  world  in 
tha  eorreaponding  latitudes;  and  it  it  not  subject  to 
•neb  violent  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Theae  ad- 
rantafiea  It  owe*  chiefly  to  its  numerous  aeaa,  inland 
bays,  and  lakes,  which  render  its  temperature  similar  to 
that  of  lalsnds ;  and  partly  also,  according  to  Humlioldt, 
to  tti  situation  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  greiit- 
•st  ranife  of  dry  land  on  the  surface  of  the  fflolie ;  the 
waatcrn  ahiaa  of  all  continenta  l>eint(  warmer  tlian  the 
•aatem.  Kumiie  lies  almost  entirely  within  the  tem- 
parata  aone,  not  more  than  one  fourteenth  part  of  its 
•arfaca  lieinK  within  tlia  arctic  circle.  Only  a  vorj- 
■mall  part  of  it  Is  uninhabitable  from  cold,  and  'A  no- 
where auiriTa  from  excessive  heat.  The  mean  tem- 
perature at  its  southern  extremit.v,  in  the  latitude  of 
W,  Is  about  na°  of  Kahrenheit ;  and  at  Cape  North, 
In  tha  latitude  of  71°,  where  the  menn  temperature  is 
•3'-',  the  cold  is  not  greater  than  in  the  latitudes  of  55° 
or  M°  on  the  east  coaata  of  Asia  and  America.  Hence 
Knrope  la  habitable  at  a  higher  latitude  by  12°  or  14° 
tban  either  of  these  continenta. 

Tem/ifralHrt. — The|n  Is  a  diifci«nce  of  the  same 
kind  lietween  the  temperature  of  the  taa-coaata  of  £u- 
Mpa  and  tlie  Interior.  In  lalands,  and  on  the  sea-coast, 
|ba  mean  temperature  of  the  year  ia  higher,  and  tha 
kaat  Is  more  equally  distributed  through  the  different 
aaaaona.  Aa  we  advance  from  the  coast  eoatward  the 
mean  annual  temperature  iliminiahea,  l>nt  the  heat  of 
•nmmer  and  the  cold  uf  winter  increase.  Thus  lA>n- 
don  has  the  same  mean  annual  temperature  as  Vienna, 
btit  It  has  tha  summer  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  tha  win- 
tar  Is  warmer  than  at  MiUn.  Tha  Mediterranean,  tha 
Baltic,  and  Inland  lakes,  produce  the  same  effect  as  the 
In  aa  Inferior  degraa.    Tha  following  tabla 


ahows,  I,  Tha  tomparatura  of  tka  year,  and  tha  ti^ 
rhiua  aaaaona,  in  placea  having  the  aama  latitude)  IK 
The  diffeiwit  diatributiun  of  beat  through  the  varioua 
aaaaona  In  pUcaa  having  tha  sanM  mean  annual  tenw 
peratura. 


««- 

OfllM 

V«v. 

WlKtar. 

•  pri.«. 

vBMraa 

anal- 
mar. 

atusB^ 

Aa- 

tauia. 

M.talh.l  *•"""■• 

limU 

Kdlnburg.... 

47-8 

m-t 

4«-4 

Ui 

4S'4 

W4 

m-s 

Oopenha(«n 

tA-fl 

RA-H 

411 

«9« 

4I*'4 

U'O 

S71 

H«eo»7... 

4<M 

lUtl 

4«-0 

«T1 

ml 

T0-« 

(■0 

IM.4» 

StUalo..... 

S4-4 

44-V 

M-J 

M« 

SS-B 

OTD 

41  •» 

VIoiina 

fiO.< 

w-s 

SI'S 

tv-s 

!»•« 

708 

it* 

II.      tat. 

Dnblln  wm 

4*4 

W1 

4T-« 

DM 

no-o 

Prafoa  »H 

4»'4 

8I'4 

4I« 

W« 

M-i 

.. 

The  mountaina  of  Europe  are  mure  nnmamus  In 
proportion  to  ita  extent  than  those  of  tha  other  graat 
continenta,  l>ut  they  an  of  less  tlevaticm  than  tha 
mountaina  of  America  and  Aaia.  The  higbeat  and 
the  moat  extenaive  chalna  in  Kuro|)a  run  generally  In 
the  diraction  of  east  and  west,  and  are  placed  near  ite 
aouthem  shorea.  The  central  maaa  of  the  Alps,  with 
which  all  the  other  mountaina  In  the  aouth  of  Kuropa 
an  connected,  forma  the  summit  of  the  continent,  and 
determines  the  position  of  the  surface  and  the  counaa 
of  most  of  the  rlveri. 

Ai'rert. — Europe  U  well  watered  with  riven,  but  they 
an  mere  brooks  companxl  with  the  mighty  str«auis  <i 
Asia  and  America,  and,  from  the  unevennesa  of  the  sui^ 
face,  afford  In  general  no  great  extent  of  Inland  navi- 
gation. The  Danube,  the  largeat  river  that  ia  entirely 
In  Kurope,  la  almut  IM)  mIlea  in  length,  and  dreina 
an  area  of  H70,(HM)  square  miles.  liut  tlie  Amaion, 
though  only  twice  the  length  of  the  Danulie,  drains  a 
surface  seven  times  as  large,  and  e(|ual  to  four  lifths  of 
the  continent  of  Euro|ie ;  aud,  as  the  quantity  of  rain 
that  fulls  in  tropical  countries  ia  much  greater  than  in 
northern  latitudes,  it  is  probable,  notwitstanding  tha 
increased  evaporation  there,  tiut  tha  Amazon  conveya 
mora  water  tlian  nil  the  rivers  of  Europe  put  together. 
If  we  divide  the  length  of  the  Danube  into  a  hundred 
parts,  tlie  length  of  the  principal  riven  of  Kurope,  exav 
pressed  in  these  parts,  will  lie  as  follows :  Danulie  100 1 
Volga,  ISO ;  Dnieper,  72 ;  Don,  C9 ;  Khine,  49 ;  Elba, 
42;  Viatuln,  41;  Uire,  87;  Tagus,  82;  Oder,  81 1 
Ubone,  80 ;  Seine,  28 ;  I'o,  21 ;  Tiber,  10 ;  Thames,  9. 

The  courses  of  the  great  riven  show  tlie  fail  of  the 
country-  through  which  they  flow,  but  it  would  be  ab- 
surd to  teke  the  average  of  the  fall  par  mile  from  tha 
measurements  of  their  whole  lengths,  for,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Volga,  and  other  riven  of  Kussia,  the 
early  parts  of  their  respective  counea  ara  among 
mountains,  or  in  elevated  valleys,  when,  and  from 
which,  the  fall  is  ver}'  rapid ;  and  it  is  oily  when 
token  Arom  the  pointe  when  they  leave  their  mount- 
•in  cradles  and  reach  the  plains,  that  auch  an  average 
#111  tru^  indicate  the  extent  and  degree  of  the  gen- 
eral slope  of  the  continent.  The  source  of  the  Volga 
ia  only  alwut  SCO  feet  aliove  the  level  of  the  Caapian 
Sea,  into  which  it  flows,  and  the  length  of  ite  eouno 
being  at  leaat  2000  milea,  without  any  serious  rapids, 
the  average  of  its  fall  is  ronae(|uently  very  regular, 
and  little  mora  than  three  inches  a  mUe  ;  but,  the  di- 
rect distence  lietng  only  900  miles,  the  slope  of  tha. 
country  exceeds  seven  inches  a  mile.  The  source  of 
the  Danube,  in  Suabia,  Is  about  2170  f^t  aUive  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea ;  but  its  fall  ia  in  several  places 
rer>-  rapid,  particularly  between  Pasaau  and  Vienna, 
and  at  the  Inini/ntf,  through  which  it  passes  from  the 
plains  of  Hungary  to  the  low  level  of  Wallachia.  Tha 
average  fall,  tlierefora,  of  such  a  river  would  be  • 
most  fallacious  index  of  the  configuration  of  the  wluila 
length  of  country  through  which  it  flows.  Ita  course 
is  indeed  through  a  seriea  of  terraces,  separated  by 
deep  falls.  The  sourccK  of  the  Rhine,  In  the  heart  of 
SwitcerUnd,  hava  an  olevatiun  of  mora  than  7000  feet^ 


BUR 


619 


/ 


but  whtn  It  rMchti  tb*  I^t  of  ConilMc*  It  hM  aU 
rmuly  r«U«a  to  1000.  rrom  that  Uk«  tu  lUnU,  wli*n 
It  laiivci  the  inountniiw,  It  falU  mura  th»n  IMK)  f««t, 
•nd  avvti  furthtr  down  it  (till  Hows  with  grut  Impet- 
•oalty,  falliDK  -100  fMt  mora  berora  it  r*iM)hM  8trM- 
burif,  A  dlitanc*  of  only  70  mlUi.  Thn  average,  how- 
«v«r,  of  It!  fall  from  the  latter  city  to  tha  Ma  l«  only 
•bout  one  foot  a  mile.  The  elevation  or  the  Klbbntn- 
M«n,  or  auurcea  of  the  Kllw,  In  lloheinia,  i«  42110  bat, 
but  the  river  falla  lo  rapidly,  within  a.  ihort  distance, 
that,  after  pansiuK  the  northern  mountnin  lionler  of 
Uohemla,  It!  elevation  ia  found  to  be,  at  Dreaden,  only 
9M0  feet.  Tha  avaragn  fall  from  that  point  to  tha  tea 
b  l«M  than  a  foot  a  mlla,  The  elevation  of  the  aourca 
of  tha  Oder  U  1706  feat,  but  at  IlreaUu  It  bai  alfaady 
fallen  to  870,  and  the  average  fall  of  tha  remainder  o^ 
Ita  oourao  li  llkewiae  aliout  a  foot  a  mile.  The  eleva- 
tion of  the  auuroe  of  the  Vlitula  wa  have  not  been  able 
to  lenm,  but  a«  It  la  navigable  from  Podxarae,  near 
Cracow,  to  the  aaa,  Ita  average  fall  Is  proliuldy  much 
tha  aame  aa  that  of  tha  Kllte  of  tha  Oder. 

Few  of  the  rivers  of  Kuropa  are  of  much  Import- 
ance as  means  uf  communication  and  transit.  The 
VoIku  becomes  navlgalde  at  Kief,  almut  70  miles  from 
Ita  Houri'e,  and  so  continues  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  2U00  mlleK,  following  tha  course  of 
the  river.  It  is  the  xreat  liigbway  of  Central  Kussia, 
io  many  as  fiOOO  loocloil  lH)nts  annually  descending  its 
stream ;  b«t  as  it  embi  unfortunately  in  an  Inland  lake, 
it  Is  of  no  two  fur  the  transiiort  of  other  foreign  wares 
than  tlie  produce  of  the  sandy  and  barren  regions  that 
■urround  the  Caspian. 

The  Volga  is  so  connected  with  the  other  great 
rivers  and  lakes  of  Russia  by  canals,  that  there  li  un- 
interrupted navigation  from  the  Raltic  to  the  White 
Noa,  the  Illuck  Sea,  and  tha  Caspian.  The  Don  has  a 
course  of  IHM)  miles,  liut  has  so  many  shallows  as  to  lie 
nowhere  navlgalile  for  large  or  sharp-bottomed  vessels. 
The  Dnieper,  the  next  largest  river  of  Kussia,  has  a 
course  of  IIHX)  miles,  and  is  navigable  from  Smolensk 
to  Kief;  but,  further  down,  its  channel  Is  so  olwtrncted 
witli  rocks  and  fulls,  for  a  space  of  150  miles,  that 
navigable  communication  between  the  sen  and  the 
inland  provinces  through  which  it  flows  is  completely 
out  otr.  The  Danulie  becomes  navlgalde  at  Ulm, 
IfiUO  miles  from  Its  mouth ;  but  lietween  Passau  and 
Vienna,  It  flows  among  mountains,  und  navigation  is 
rendered  difficult  iiy  the  rapidity  of  tlie  stream,  and 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  rocks,  shoals,  eddies,  and 
whirlpools;  and,  in  leaving  Hungary,  through  a  nar- 
row gorge  of  60  miles  in  length,  which  it  has  cut  for 
itself  across  the  mountains  that  inclose  that  rnimtry. 
It  falls  in  a  series  of  rapids,  the  lowest  of  whiefi  in  li'ie 
famous  Irongata,  through  which  the  stre<in>  ru.ihes 
with  great  rapidity  in  n  narrow  channel,  lietween  stu- 
pendous rocks,  ending  in  a  series  of  whirlpools,  eddies, 
and  smaller  falls.  Here  navigation  was  considered  to 
be  elfectually  stopped;  but  we  have  just  learned 
(January,  1855)  that  steamlioats  have  at  last  been 
constructed  so  as  to  lie  considered  capable  of  passing 
these  rapids  in  safety,  and  that  they  will  be  imme- 
diately put  upon  the  river.  It  is  also  proposed  to  cut 
a  channel  through  the  rocks  1200  yards  long,  40  feet 
wide,  and  6  feet  deep,  which  will  give  plenty  of  ad- 
ditional depth  fur  the  steamers  and  other  loaded  ves- 
■els.  The  numlier  of  workmen  to  be  employed  in  this 
gigantic  undertaking  Is  '2000,  and  tha  work  will  extend 
over  a  iieriod  of  6  years,  at  u  cost  of  2,000,000  of  flor- 
ins. So  numerous,  besides,  are  the  windings  of  tlie 
Danube  through  the  comparatively  level  plains  of 
Hungary,  that  between  Prealmrg  and  the  Black  8ea, 
a  d'rect  distance  of  Ii50  miles,  the  course  of  the  river 
actually  measures  1200.  The  Khine  Is  navigable 
above  the  lake  of  Constance,  but  the  navigation  Is 
(topped  by  the  Hheinfall  near  Schalf  hausen.  From 
that  point  to  Basle  It  ia  not  very  easy  or  always  prac- 
ticable; to  Straaburg  it  is  not  ttw  from  danger;  but 


further  down  tha  rlvar  bacomea  %  fine  naviipibl* 
ntrsam,  not  quit*  free  indeed  fhim  difficulty  aud  risk, 
partli'ulnrly  In  the  deep  and  narrow  gorge  which  It 
passes  through  lietween  llingem  and  Coblenta;  but 
below  Coblenta  the  channel  la  uninterrupted  and  fra« 
fMm  danger,  lietween  the  Khine  and  the  Uaaube  there 
is  a  navigable  communicatiun  by  means  of  the  rivers 
Meyn  and  Altiiiubl,  wblah  are  connected  by  the  ImA- 
wig's  canal  in  iiavitrbt.  The  fUlie,  and  Its  trIlMitary, 
the  Moldau,  are  lioth  navigable  even  in  l)uhelaU^  and 
from  their  confluenco  to  the  sea  there  la  r  o  serious  litter- 
ruptiuu.  The  Oder  ia  navigable  downward  from  HUeahi, 
and  Is  uf  the  utmost  Importance  aa  tlia  channel  of  uuii> 
vayanua  for  tha  productions  of  that  country  to  the  sea, 
itresluu,  Frankfurt,  and  Stettin,  three  uf  the  principal 
commercial  towns  of  PrussU,  stand  on  its  hanks,  aud  It 
Is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Vixtula,  the  llavel,  and 
the  Hproe.  The  Vistula  Is,  like  the  Oder,  the  principal 
channel  of  transit  lietween  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the 
Polish  provinces  of  Austria,  Kussia,  and  Prussia,  and 
begins  to  be  navigable  at  Podgorxe,  near  Cracow. 

These  are  tha  only  rivers  that  seem  to  require 
notice  aa  navigable  streams  in  a  general  survey  of 
Europe,  although  there  are  many  others  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  several  countries  in  widch  they  are 
found,  as  the  Thames,  the  Tyna,  the  Clyde,  the 
Kluine,  the  Po,  etc. 

The  islands  of  Knropu,  Including  Nova  Zembla  aud 
Iceland,  occupy  a  space  equal  to  280,000  square  miles, 
or  1-llth  part  of  tha  surface  of  the  continent;  and  of 
this  space  the  area  of  the  British  isles  amounts  to 
rather  less  than  |.  The  Black  Sea  is  the  only  Urge 
sea  connected  with  Europe  In  which  there  are  nu 
islands  worthy  of  notice. 

Hent. — Tha  Mediterranean,  the  noblest  Inland  sea  In 
the  world,  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  Kurope, 
separating  it  from  Africa,  and  partly  also  from  Asia. 
It  may  be  considered  as  the  liottom  of  a  vast  basin 
formed  by  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  Balkans,  Taurus,  Lllia- 
nus,  and  Atlas.  These  mountains  are  everywhere 
near  Its  shores,  which  are  consequently  narrow  and 
much  inclined.  Hence  there  are  no  such  extennive 
plains  us  Hungary  or  Poland  near  tlie  coast  of  thia 
sea,  and  hence,  also,  no  very  large  rivers  full  into  it 
except  tha  Mile ;  and  altogether  it  receives  a  smaller 
quantity  uf  water  from  rivera  than  the  Black  Sea  or 
the  Baltic,  though  six  times  larger  than  either.  Its 
length  is  about  2850  miles,  its  breadth  is  extremely 
various,  and  its  surface  (exclusive  of  the  Black  Sea)  ia 
nearly  equal  to  1,000,000  of  square  Knglish  miles,  or 
something  less  than  ^  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 
It  Is  generally  of  great  depth;  and  its  numerous 
islands,  which  have  uniformly  a  rocky  surface,  apfieur 
to  be  the  summits  of  marine  mountains. 

Ji<Mc. — Tlie  Baltic,  the  greatest  inland  sea  that  is 
entirely  In  Europe,  is  about  1200  miles  long,  of  verj' 
unequal  breadth,  and  presents  a  surface  of  175,000 
square  miles,  exclusive  of  islands.  It  occupies  the 
bottom  of  another  large  basin,  850  miles  in  breadth, 
and  1400  in  length,  extending  from  the  Norwegian 
mountains  on  the  north  and  west,  to  the  Carpathians 
on  the  south,  and  to  the  high  lands  on  which  the 
Dnieper,  the  Don,  and  the  Volga  rise,  on  tha  east. 
Thia  basin,  equal  to  ^  of  the  surface  of  Europe,  has 
a  very  different  character  from  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  mountains  are  not  very  elevated,  and  are 
so  placed  aa  tu  leave  a  large  tract  of  land,  very  little 
inclined,  between  them  and  the  Baltic,  over  which, 
especially  on  the  south  side,  many  consideralile  rivers 
flow  with  a  gentle  current.  Hence  the  country  round 
tha  Baltic  is  much  more  level  than  round  the  Medi- 
terranean; lakes  are  numerous  In  the  low  grounds, 
from  the  want  of  declivity ;  the  sea  Itself  Is  compar- 
atively shallow,  and  receiving  a  much  greater  quan- 
tity of  river  water,  it  is  much  less  salt.  The  commerce 
of  the  Baltic  is  annually  interrupted  by  tlie  ice,  which 
endures  4  months  in  the  gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  FinluDd, 


KUR 


m 


BUR 


Tk*  whok  ot  IkU  lalM4  m*  hM  laaMllmM  Imm  fVafMi 
or*r  A>r  •  ihort  tinw,  bvt  tkit  U  of  nia  oocumnc*. 
8m  Rai.tio. 

niaek  Kra, — Th*  HImIi   Hm,  which   halnnR*  ontjr 

alo  Kurnpt,  li  700  mllM  Inng  (nd  AMO  mllM 
.  M<1,  InrludinR  th«  8*a  of  Aanf,  prvMinli  ■  aur- 
ttfn  nf  170,000  iquara  kiIIm,  IwIiik  altiKMl  nf  th*  Hma 
miipilliiit*  M  th*  lUltle.  It  d«rtv*»  4-Ath(  of  It* 
w*t«r  ftam  Ennip*,  and  I*  (■nrlmialjr  dUtln||iiUh*d  tram 
th*  a<h*r  mm  of  thU  qa*rt«r  of  Ih*  kIoIm,  lijr  It*  Iwing 
almMl  toUlty  d**titnU  of  UUnd«. 

WkUt  ffM.— Tb*  Whil*  8**  U  4M  mil**  In  Uii(th, 
of  •  yry  Imgular  flgnr*,  and  nrrapWw  a  apan  W|ual 
to  RA,000  aqnar*  mil**.  It  mcctraa  aoni*  cnnaldarabl* 
rinra,  but  I*  ftroMn  during  alx  moniha  of  th*  y«»r. 

/xit»« Th*  lakwi  of  Kurnp*  arn  nnnwMoa,  and  an 

•f  two  kinda  :  thoa*  which  II*  In  ravltlxa  at  th*  foot  of 
hlfh  moantalna,  anil  which  am  Kcncrally  d«i>p,  aneh  aa 
th*  lakn  la  th*  Al|>a,  on  th*  anat  aid*  nf  th*  Norwe- 
gian mountalna,  and  amonff  Ih*  mountain*  of  KnKland 
and  Ncntland ;  and  Ihna*  which  ara  formail  In  l«v*l 
conntrl**  from  th«  want  of  a  anffli'lani  dm'llvitj  tn 
tury  oir  th*  water,  auch  aa  th*  laknt  In  Klnland, 
Foland,  and  lirandcnhnrK.  4-Stha  of  th*  lak**  of 
Europ*  ar*  In  th*  countrj*  round  th*  Ualtic. 

Vtgtlablt  ProtlHeiiim*. — Th*  aoll  of  Earnp*  h*a  not 
Ih*  *xtr«mca  of  luxuriance  or  at«rllity  which  Iwlnng 
to  th*  aoll  of  th*  otkvr  great  contlnenla.  If  it  doea 
not  j\*\A  th*  rich  fhilt*  of  tropical  cilmataa,  it  I*  not 
deformed  lijr  burning  aanda  like  Africa,  or  by  peatiltnt 
iwamp*  Ilk*  America.  It  da«a  not  pour  forth  Ita 
rich**  aponlaneooaly,  but,  auliclting  th*  ear*  and  th* 
labor  of  man,  It  requite*  hi*  induatry  with  what  it 
B*c«aaary  to  aupply  hi*  wanta ;  and,  by  exerciaing  and 
iharptning  hi*  power*  of  mind,  haa  given  birth  to 
thoa*  arta  which  place  th*  production*  of  th*  moat 
faTored  climatca  at  hi*  diapoaal.  Many  of  th*  pUnt* 
which  have  been  domeatleated  in  Europe  are  native* 
of  diatant  countrie*.  The  vine,  th*  olive,  and  the 
mulberry  are  taid  to  have  been  brought  from  Syria  by 
the  Greek*  t  the  Arabians  introduced  cotton ;  niaiae 
waa  received  fhim  the  Indian  tribe*  of  America  ;  the 
walnut  and  the  peach  come  from  Peraia ;  th*  apricot 
ttnm  Armenia,  and  the  augtr-cane  and  orange  from 
China.  There  are  not  very  many  plant*  belonging  to 
the  tropical  r^glona  that  abeolotely  refuse  tn  grow  in 
Kurope,  bat  an  enlightened  economy  finda  other  pro- 
ductiona  more  prolit«l)le.  lieaidea  augar  and  cotton, 
the  banana,  the  orange,  citron,  fig,  pomegranate,  and 
dale,  grow  in  the  aouth  of  Europe.  But  the  mon 
delicate  fmits  ar*  conflned  to  aoutbam  latltudea,  and 
diaappear  one  l>y  one  a*  we  advance  northward.  And 
It  la  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  xonea  in  which  they 
grow  generally  follow  the  linea  of  equal  summer  heat, 
and  run  obliquely  acroea  the  continent  in  the  direction 
of  Bouth-waat  and  north-eaat.  If  a  line  be  drawn  on 
the  map  from  Bref  t  to  Konigalwrg,  skirting  the  aouth- 
em  ahoras  of  the  English  Channel  and  the  Baltic,  the 
lonaa  that  limit  the  growth  of  different  planta  will  run 
nearly  parallel  with  thia  line.  This  holda  generally 
in  the  aouth  and  middle  of  Europe ;  Imt  in  tlie  extreme 
northern  parts,  and  eapecially  wilh  regard  to  plant* 
that  require  a  motlerate  heat  continued  for  a  conildar- 
able  time,  the  line*  that  limit  the  growth  of  certain 
vegetable*  seem  to  follow  a  different  courae,  and  de- 
cline toward  the  aouth  aa  we  advano*  eaatwnrd,  in 
conaequenca  of  the  Inereaaing  aeverity  and  length  of 
the  winter.  It  la  scarcely  neoesaar}'  to  aay  that  the 
tone*  traced  aa  proper  for  different  planta,  only  mark 
th*  limit*  within  which  their  cultivation  i*  found  ad- 
vantageouj.  Most  of  them  will  grow  beyond  these 
Umlta;  but  tliey  either  require  son.u  pe'"'iiar  advan- 
tage* of  soil  and  aituation,  or  they  ara  Icjs  profitable 
than  other  kind*  of  produce. 

The  sugar  cane,  one  of  the  moat  detirabi*  tropical 
plants,  grows  in  Sicily  and  th*  south  of  Spain,  in 
tiM  Utltude  of  87°  and  38°.     The  ouhura  of  it, 


which  waa  one*  •xlanslv*  In  th*  latter  rannlry,  hM 
not  yet  h**n  *nirslv  •h*nilnn*d,  *v*n  ainc*  augar  waf 
pnx-urod  from  th*  W*at  liidlaa.     Ciilton  I*  cultlvalaii 
in  th*  aonlh  of  Hpain  on  a  aniall  acal*  i  to  a  graatar 
•xt*nt  In  HIrlly,  Ih*  aoulh-**at  angle  of  Italy,  and  la 
lireweand  ita  iaiaa,  aa  high  a*  th*  iailtud*  of  4tt°| 
we  And  It  again  at  Aalracan,  in  th*  latltuit*  of  40°. 
The  orang*  and  th*  lemon  roine  to  perfection  in  th* 
weat  nf  Euro|i*,  only  In  tli*  ixMinlrina  to  the  mwlh  of 
the  Pyrenees  and  Afienninea,  wllhiii  the  latitude  48" 
In  H|>ain,  and  44"  in  I'aly,     The  olive  doea  not  auo- 
ceed  on  the  went  I'oaat  of  Knnce  in  the  lalltiid*  of  48°, 
bnt  growa  aa  far  north  ua  44"  or  4A°  on  the  enat  of 
France,  and  In  Italy.     Attempts  to  raiae  it  at  Aatra- 
can,  In  latitude  46°,  hav*  not  ancceeded,  nn  afoonnt 
of  th*  rigor  of  th*  winter.     The  flg  and  the  |nm»' 
granate,  which  accompany  the  olive  In  tlie  waat  of 
Euro))*,  ar*  found  in  th*  (Crimea  In  the  east,  at  tha 
latitude  of  411",  where  the  oliv*  will  not  grow,  a  proof 
that  lh*a*  trees  li«ar  the  winter  cold  lietlar,      1'he 
cilniate  pM|K>r  for  m*IM  ia  found  to  terminit*  nn  Ih* 
weat  coaat  of  Kranc*  at  4A^°  ;  on  the  Uhiae  at  4ff°  ; 
on  the  Kill*  at  tA)°  or  Al  °.     Kloe  ha*  naariy  tlin  sam* 
gvographioal  range,  but  require*  a  paculiar  aoil  and 
aituation.      Th*  culture  of  tli*  vina  *xtenda  aa  far 
north  a*  the  latltmle  of  47^°  nn  the  Atlantic  coaat  | 
on  the  Khine  to  5U^^  i  and  on  the  Oiler  ti>  !fl^.     In 
Kusaia  it  grows  aa  far  north  nearly  aa  All",  but  Is  not 
cultivated  lieyond  A0°.     Tlie  mullierr}'  generally  ao> 
companies  the  vine.     The  ilniltn  of  the  culture  of  th* 
common  cerealia  am  not  so  well  deflneil,  is  th*  iicc**- 
sities  of  man  olilign  him  lo  raise  com  under  the  moat 
unfavorable  circumstances.      In  a  general  |Miint  of 
view,  haw*v*r,   the  parallel  of  67°  or  M°  may  b* 
regarded  as  th*  northern  limit  of  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  in  Europe,      It  Is  ralseil  as  far  north  as  tiO°  or 
01°  in  Finland,  Imt  only  In  some  favored  aiHits.     In 
Russia,  generally,  It  iachielly  contlncd  to  the  province* 
under  the  latitude  of  &7°.     The  hardier  cerealin,  rye, 
oata,  and  barley,  are  cuilivateil  in  aome  Klicltered 
aitnationa  on  the  coaat  of  Norway,  aa  high  aa  the  lati- 
tude <>U°  AA'.     But  nn  thu  eaut  side  of  th*  NorwegUn 
mountalna  tbusa  grains  scarcely  ripen  in  the  latitude 
of  •);"  or  DM"  ;  and  farther  east,  In  Russia,  it  has  l>een 
found  impossible  to  carry  cultivation  of  any  kind 
beyond  the  latitude  of  60"  or  U'i°.     Barley,  wlilch  ac- 
commodatea  itaelf  lietter  than  any  other  grain  to  these 
high  latitude*,  by  ahortening  the  period  of  Ita  growth, 
ia  »nwn  and  reaped  within  the  apace  of  aeven  or  eight 
weeka.     But  the  introduction  of  potatoea  promiaea  to 
be  of  vaat  tttvantage  in  theae  cold  regions,  as  thia 
plant  thrives  and  ylelila  a  produce  of  1)U  or  U)  fold  in 
placea  where  grain  often  will  not  ripen.     I'eachea  and 
apricots  succeeil  with  much  care  on  far  north  only  aa 
the  latitude  of  641°  in  Kiissia :  melons  as  far  as  6!i°. 
The  plum  and  the  cherry  grow  wild  a*  far  north  aa 
A6°,  but  are  carried  farther  l>y  cultivation.    Fruit  tree* 
and  the  oak  terminate  in  Sweden,  at  Galie,  in  the 
latlUidaof  61°;  but  the  pine  and  the  birch  advance 
within  the  arctic  circle ;  and  the  former  gruwa  to  tha 
height  of  60  feet  in  the  latitude  of  70°.     The  black- 
berry and  the  whortloliurr}'  grow  in  Ijipland,  and  the 
gooseberry  even  in   Orernlanil.      Toliacoo  Is  exten- 
sively cultivated  over  the  greater  partof  tlir  continent 
of  Europe,  from  Sicily  to  Sweden.     Flax  and  hemp 
have  as  extensive  a  range  aa  com,  liut  they  ara  ralaed 
in  the  greatest  perfection  between  the  latitudes  of  46° 
and  60°. 

We  have  stated  that  tha  superficial  extent  of  Eu- 
rope ia  about  8,700,000  aquare  miles.  If  we  draw  • 
curved  line  fhim  a  point  in  tha  Uralian  mountains, 
alwut  the  latitude  of  60°  or  61°,  to  the  west  coast  of 
Norway,  in  the  latitude  of  69°,  passing  tlirough  tha 
Lake  Onega,  and  a  little  to  the  nortliward  of  the  Uulf 
of  Bothnia,  this  lin*  will  mark  the  extreme  limit*  of 
cultivation,  and  will  out  off  a  space  equal  to  550,000 
aquare  milaa,  or  nearly  l-7tb  of  Europe.    The  snao* 


RUR 


m 


EUR 


of  Eu. 
draw  a 
nUlm, 
laat  of 
Kh  tha 
he  Uulf 
mlU  of 
&50,000 
,e  onikM 


•ol  oir,  bowarar,  b  not  tntlnlr  umUu,  m  •  part  of  It 
limlucM  paatunaa  aait  wood.  Tha  outtlvatlna  of 
ty»,  oat«,  anil  harUy,  la  onnllnMl  to  tha  rtglnni  aouth 
of  thU  Una,  and  Inrlmlaa  iiiiira  than  Mtba  iif  Kumpa  | 
but  In  tha  northara  part*  of  thia  uma  only  a  rary 
iniall  proportlnii  of  tha  lam)  will  l>aar  com.  Tha 
ragliin  ailaptail  t»  tha  cultivation  ^it  whaat  compra- 
hanila  alM>ut  4-7tha  of  Kurop<>,  anil  Incluilaa  all  tha 
danaaly-iwoplail  parta,  Tha  raglon  of  tha  rlna  astanda 
uvar  tt-7tba  of  Kuropa. 

Hitifralt. — Ruropa,  In  propartlon  to  Ita  axtant,  la 
probalily  richar  In  minaral  waalth  than  tha  othar 
quartiira  of  tha  hIoIm.  It  contalna  all  tha  matala 
axcapt  platlna  ;  anil  though  It  alTurtla  golil  ami  alWar 
only  In  limltail  <|uantltlaa,  Inm,  coppar,  laail,  with  ooal 
and  (all,  eominmlltUa  of  graalar  value  to  aoclety,  ara 
abuniUiitly  anil  wlilalj-  diaerlliuteil.  The  mountatna, 
conalatlng  of  primary  and  tranaltiun  rocka,  ara  the 
groat  il«|ioaltarl«a  of  thaaa  mineral  traaauraa.  Iron  la 
found  In  all  tha  chalna  of  niountulna  In  Kuropa.  The 
rlrhaat  nilnea  ara  in  the  Dovrelleld,  or  Hcandlnavlan 
Alpa.  Uut  rich  minaa  are  alao  found  In  tha  Alpa  of 
Styria,  Curlnthlii,  nnil  Ilavariu  i  In  the  Pyrenaaa,  the 
Voagea,  the  Cavunuaa,  tha  coal  diatricta  of  Britain, 
tha  Urala,  the  C'arpathluna,  the  llarti,  and  many 
other  placaa.  Cupper  la  alao  widely  dlatrllmted, 
though  laaa  abundant  than  Iron.  The'rlcheat  mine* 
are  In  llungarj-,  In  the  Carpathian  mountatna.  It 
abound*  aUa  In  the  8*xan  and  Ilohomlan  mountain*, 
in  the  DuvMtlaid,  the  Ural*,  the  north  of  Knglnnd,  and 
the  Alp* ;  and  It  is  found  In  the  Vo*gea,the  ryreneea, 
and  other  niountain*  of  Spain,  In  the  north  of  Germany, 
and  in  Tuacuny. 

Lend  exiat*  In  the  Alpa,  CarpathUna,  Pyreneea, 
Cevennea,  Voagea,  the  RritUh  mountain*,  and  the 
Uraliuu  chain.  Tin  la  found  only  in  a  few  place*  in  Ru- 
rope.  The  richeat  mine*  are  In  Cornwall ;  next  to  theae 
are  the  mine*  in  the  Krigebirge.  It  la  alao  found  in 
Hungary  und  Spaniah  (iullcia.  Mercury,  like  tin,  I* 
conllnoil  to  a  few  place*.  The  mlnna  of  Idria,  in  Au«- 
trla,  which  yield  «()00  or  10,000  quintal*  per  annum, 
are  the  moat  prwluctive  in  Europe.  There  are  alao 
conaideriible  mine*  at  Deux  Pont*,  in  the  Palatinate, 
In  the  HpnnUh  province  of  Iji  Manrha,  and  In  Tranayl- 
vanla.  Gold  la  widely  diffuaed  through  Enrope,  but 
generally  In  *uch  qunntltiea  a*  not  to  repay  the  ex- 
pen*o  of  working.  It  I*  wrought,  however.  In  the 
Carpathian*,  the  Urala,  the  Itovrefleld,  and  the  Alpa. 
Anciently  there  were  rich  mine*  of  gold  In  .Spain  and 
Graece.  Silver  i*  more  uliiindant  thnn  giild,  though 
le*8  widely  di*tributed.  Thcro  are  productive  mine* 
of  thta  metal  in  the  Krzgebirge,  the  Carpathian*,  the 
Ural*,  the  Norwegian  Dovrefleid,  and  in  Sardinia.  It 
U  found  al*o  in  the  Alps,  tha  Vo*ge*,  and  the  Sierra 
Marena. 

Of  colli,  the  richeat  mine*  are  found  In  the  north 
and  weat  of  England.  It  abounds  also  on  both  aides 
of  the  middle  region  of  Scotland ;  in  Ireland  ;  in  the 
Netherliinils ;  In  one  fourth  part  of  the  French  terri- 
tory J  and  occurs  more  sparingly  in  Saxony,  Hanover, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Kuaaia,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Mora- 
via, Sildaia,  Bavaria,  Auatrla,  Kranconia,  Westphalia, 
Swabia,  Catalonia,  und  some  other  part*  of  Spain,  in 
Portugal,  and  in  SardinUi.  After  Britain,  France  and 
Belgium  are  the  countries  in  Europe  beet  supplied 
with  this  mineral. 

Salt  is  procured  from  the  water*  of  the  ocean,  and, 
in  the  interior  of  Europe,  from  numerous  salt  mines 
and  salt  springs.  The  moat  productive  salt  mines  in 
Europe  are  those  In  Poland,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Carpathians,  and  those  in  Salzburg,  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Alpa,  both  of  which  belong  to  Austria.  Then 
are  also  extensive  depositories  of  mineral  salt  in  Tran- 
sylvania and  Hungary ;  in  Valencia,  Navarre,  and 
Catalonia,  in  Spain  ;  In  Cheshire,  in  England ;  and  in 
Bavaria,  in  Switzerland.  Salt  springs  are  numerous 
along  the  side*  of  primitive  mountaina  in  most  coun- 


triaa  of  Europe.  Tha  moat  aitanalva  salt  minaa  nt 
Ruaala  ara  la  Aaia  |  but  vanr  large  quantitioa  of  salt 
ara  riillaoted  fraro  the  tutuit,  or  (all  lake*  In  tha 
Crimea. 

Antimony,  cobalt,  alno,  maagatiaaa,  (ulphnr,  alum, 
and  a  great  variety  of  other  mineral  productiona,  ara 
fiiimd  In  Kuropa  i  but  It  I*  unnacaaaary  to  apacify 
their  iocalltlea.  It  la  oliaarvad  that  tha  Alpa,  Pyren***, 
Carpathian*,  and  other  mountain  chain*  which  run 
aaat  and  waat,  ara  riekeat  In  matala  on  the  aouth  aide  | 
while  the  Dufrlnea,  llnla,  and  othan  which  run  north 
and  aouth,  ara  richest  on  the  aaal  *lda.  Of  the  mount- 
ain chaina  of  Kuropa,  tha  Apannlnea  ara  tha  poora*! 
In  matala,  tha  Carpothlana  probably  tha  richaat. 

Tha  prograsa  of  Improvement  tenda  to  level  all 
diatinotiona  among  atataa,  hut  Ihoaa  founded  on  tha 
extant  of  their  natural  reaouroaa.  Capital,  skill,  in* 
talligcnoa,  and  all  aequlrad  advantage*,  tend  to  an 
aqailibrium.  When  Europe  waa  overrun  with  burlia- 
rlam,  the  city  of  Venloa,  by  ita  commercial  wealth, 
wa*  a  coiiiitarpoiaa  to  two  or  three  of  the  gnat  mon- 
archle*  of  tha  Continent,  Tha  discovery  of  America, 
and  of  a  paaaaga  by  *aa  In  tha  Eaat  Indlea,  gave  a  new 
lUrectiun  to  commerce,  and  undermined  the  graatnaaa 
of  that  city.  The  Dotch  Kepublio  ro*e  liy  It*  ftaadom 
and  indnatry,  and  waa  able,  in  the  time  of  Charlea  II., 
to  diaputa  the  empln  of  the  *ea  with  the  combined 
imwer*  of  England  and  France.  But  England  inoreua- 
ed  her  commerce,  and  improved  her  conatltutlon  |  and 
having  a  larger  and  more  fertile  territory,  a*  well  a*  a 
greater  population,  *he  obtained  at  length  the  aacend- 
ency  over  Holland,  deprived  her  of  the  empire  of  the 
aea,  and  atripped  her  of  moat  of  her  colonle*.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  century,  Spain  and  Turkey  wera 
the  Hnt  powen  In  the  we*t  and  eaat  of  Europe,  and 
Inaplrad  their  nelghliora  with  tha  dread  of  conqneat. 
Sweden  ruled  with  undisputed  away  in  the  north  ;  and 
Ruaala,  now  *o  formidalde,  wa*  *carcely  known.  Spain, 
under  a  better  government,  might  recover  a  part  of  her 
Influence ;  but  the  Turki*h  empire  *eem*  near  it*  din- 
mlutlon !  and  the  Importance  of  Sweden  and  Holland 
Is  gone  irretrievably,  in  con*equence  of  the  growing 
etrength  of  the  nelgblioring  powen.  The  extent  of 
territory  and  the  inunenan  iial  oral  reaouroaa  of  Kuaaia 
inuat,  in  the  end,  render  tier  highly  dangerous  to  all 
the  other  powen  of  Europe,  If  the  empire  do  not  fall 
to  pieces  from  It*  own  weight,  or  get  luto  disi'ord  from 
the  vices  of  it*  government,  or  the  barbariau'  Igno- 
rance, and  corruption  of  it*  people. — E.  B. 

By  means  of  nteam-vcssola,  communication  between 
an  the  maritime  region*  of  Europe  has  been  rendered 
easy  and  certain,  while  the  sealmard  has  been  connected 
with  the  inland  regions  liy  railways  running  in  all  di- 
rections. During  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century, 
and  the  earlier  part  of  the  present,  England  was  cov- 
ered with  a  net- work  of  canals,  forming  navigable  com- 
munication between  all  her  principal  town*  and  river*. 
Belgium  and  Holland  have  long  l)een  famous  for  tlielr 
canals.  In  France,  like.;i*e,  the  great  rivers  wera 
connected  in  the  same  way ;  and  tlie  great  canal  of 
I^anguedoc  formed  a  navigable  communication  lie- 
tween  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
In  Prusaia,  likewiae,  and  in  Ruaala,  the  groat  rivcra 
have  been  connected  by  canal* ;  and  in  Sweden,  he 
Gotha  Canal  extend*  from  the  Cattegat,  at  Gotten- 
l)urg,  to  the  Baltic,  near  Stockholm,  through  the 
lake*  Wener  and  Wetter.  Theao  very  useful  means 
of  transport  have  now,  however,  been  very  much,  If 
not  entirely  *uper*edcd  by  railway*.  Of  these,  En- 
gland i*  covered  with  u  net-work,  a*  she  was  with 
canals;  and  uninterrupted  lines  of  communication  ex- 
tend fh>m  near  the  Land's  End,  through  Scotland,  to 
the  Moray  Firth.  In  Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  and 
Gonnany,  the  principal  cities  and  town*  ara  connected 
by  railways  ;  and  in  Russia,  we  understand  that  one  1* 
forming  to  connect  St.  Petersburg  with  Moscow  and 
the  Black  Sea.    In  Italy,  Milan  and  Venice  are  con- 


EUR 


022 


EUR 


necUd,  and  nnmys  an  projected  at  leait  in  other 
parts  of  the  countij.  The  later  invention  of  the  elec- 
tric tele{p«ph  is  likewiae  extending  ever}-where  acroas 
aea«  and  continents;  but  tlie  whole  system  of  tele- 
graphs and  railways  will  b«  understood  more  readily 
at  once  by  a  glance  at  a  map. 

AOSA  Aa>  POPOLATIOH  OF  EvardW  BTATia 


HuMa, 


I.  KKmn: 

Freneb. 

Austrian 

KaBsUn 

Ottoman 

II.  KmsDoin; 

Oreat  BritfJa  and  Irebnd. . 

Pmasla 

BeWnm 

Netheilaada. 

eiMia 

Portugal 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway. 

*BaTarlii 

*Haaover 

*8anMi]r • 

*Wlit«mberg. 

Sardinia. 

TwoSIclllcs. 

Hellas  or  Ore«o« 

IIL 
''Electoral  Heue 

States  of  the  Church 

IV.  OaAaD  DnoHm: 

*Baden 

'llesee-Darnistadt 

*a(eckloaburZ'8cbwerla 

•  •'  SlrtllB 

*Oldenburs 

*8nxe- Weimar 

Tuscany 

V.  Di'ouic^  AND  PamciDoiia 

•Nassau,  D 

•Brunswick,  D 

•Saxe-Coburg-OoUia,  D 

•  "     Melntngen,  D. 

•  "    Allcnbur;,  D 

•Anfaalt-DesMu-Coetben,  V.. 

•  "      Beruburg,  1> 

•Benss-Orloi,  P 

•  "      Schleh,  P 

•Watdock,  P 

•llesse-Hombuiv,  P 

•L  cbtenstcin,  I'. 

*Koiph»u.i«n 

Parma,  D 

Modena,  D 

Monaco.  P 

Moldavla,P 

Wal  lochia,? 

B«rTla,P. 

Hontencgro, 

VI.  UcpcBLios: 

•Frankfort 

•Lub»c 

•Hnjmon 

•Hamburg 

Swiss  Confcdorstlon : 

Zurich 

Bern 

Lucerns 

Bchwcli. 

UrI 

Uatcrwolden-Upper. . . . 
"  Lower.... 

Olarns 

Zug. 

Friburg. 

Boleurc 

Boscl-CKy. ; 

"     Country 

Bchaft  hatiMon 

Apponieli-Ontor. 

"         Inner 

Stfiall 

Orl-.jii» 

Aarcsu 

Thurgan 

Tesuln 

Vauil 

ValaK 

Neufcbotel 

Geneva 

Ionian  Istfliids 

Saint  Marino 


804,000 

!ST,T60 

2,000,000 

ias,748 

i8i,n» 

108,809 

18,890 

176,480 

IU,l)00 

tt,fl60 

170,840 

188,400 

.  29,000 

•  14,600 

B,705 

7,068 

89,830 

41,.";21 

1U.800 

4,488 
17,048 

(1,890 
8,761 
4,IM.'5 
767 
8,400 
Ml* 


1,767 

799 
88S 
Sin 
6«.^ 

810 

145 

448 

461 

168 

K 

17 

8,184 

8,073 

M 

16,000 

80,000 

18,000 

1,400 

91 
148 
106 
151 

647 
8,088 
600 
&V) 
480 

860 

881 

186 

,   496 

2M 

185 

116 

160 

760 
8,640 

489 

867 
1,041 
l,19i> 
1,676 

881 

91 

1,200 

»7 


Popaladon. 


86,781,688 
86^14,466 
(4,098,800 
10,600,000 

87,621,863 
16,98^490 
486»,«t0 
8487.861 
14,816,819 
8,487,086 
a,89MW7 
8,488,641 
1,888,471 
4,669,468 
1,81»,8&S 
1,987,888 
1,788,868 
4,916,084 
8,704,479 
1,008,118 

766,228 
8,006,771 

1,86«,»48 

864,814 
6«<,449 
99,028 
888,114 
808684 
1,816,680 

489.841 

871,»18 

160,418 

166,804 

188,788 

171,769 

62,641 

88,159 

79,S24 

69,697 

84,981 

6,851 

8,085 

507,881 

680,468 

6,600 

1,400,000? 

8,ooo,oonr 

1,000,000? 
100,0001 

77.971 

94.166 

79,047 

200,690 


1861 

1846 
1844 

1851 
1868 
1848 
1868 
1849 
1861 
1890 

1646 
1S62 


1848 
1861 
1858 

1658 
1880 

1858 

18M 
1861 
1898 
1^ 
1864 

1863 
1858 
lS5'.i 
185:) 
1850 
1868 

1853 

1853 

1.S43 
1S68 
ta'>8 
1860 

1844 


1852 
1851 
1848 
1852 

1860 


860,698 
458,801 
188,848 

44,168 

14.606 

18,799 

11,389 

80,218 

17,461 

99.891 

69,014 

29.698 

47,w« 

85.800 

48,681 

11,272 
16'J,625 

i*».K6e 

8H,906 

nr,7.->9 

199.675 

81,669  I     .. 

70,758       .. 

64,146       .. 
889,297     1852 
7,600  I  1861 


Considered  In  respect  to  political  constitution  and 
civil  government,  the  states  of  Europe  may  be  arranged 
in  six  classes.  The  first  class  comprises  4  empires, 
the  sovereigns  of  which  are  absolute  monarchs ;  the 
second,  16  kingdoms,  partly  absolute  and  partly  con- 
stitutional; the  fourth,  7  grand-duchies,  all  monar- 
chies ;  the  flfth,  24  duchies  and  principalities,  likewiso 
all  monarchies,  partly  constitutional  and  partly  abso- 
lute ;  and  the  sixth,  82  republii-s.  The  third  class  com- 
prises 2  nondescripts,  both  monarchies  indeed ;  but  in 
the  one  case  the  sovereign  retains  the  subject  title  of 
Elector  of  the  head  of  an  empire  tiuit  no  longer  exists, 
and  the  sovereign  of  the  other  is  at  once  the  spiritual 
sovereign  n'  the  Roman  Catholic  world  and  the  tem- 
poral sovereign  of  that  portion  of  Italy  called  the 
States  of  the  Church.  The  preceding  table  contains 
the  names,  territorhd  extent  or  area,  und  tli«  population 
of  these  several  states  at  the  dates  attaclied  to  them 
respectively.  The  grand  total  of  the  population,  as  it 
is  not  all  of  the  same  year,  can  only  be  considered  as 
an  approximation  to  the  truth. 

In  financial  importance,  Britain  stands  at  tlio  head 
of  all  these  states  ;  for  not  only  is  her  annual  revenue 
the  largest,  excepting  that  of  France,  but  site  enjoys 
besides  the  unenviable  pre-eminence  of  being  burdened 
with  the  largest  debt.  The  bad  practice  of  anticipat- 
ing revenue  by  borrowing  money  is  common  to  them 
ail ;  and,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  table,  only  some  of  the 
less  important  have  e8cai)cd  tho  ever-growing  evil. 
Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  debt  of  Austria  has 
increased  more  than  threefold,  and  the  French  emperor 
has  been  borrowing  largely  to  pay  the  current  ex- 
penses of  the  war  in  which  he  and  the  British  govern- 
ment were  engaged  with  Russia.  Tho  governments  of 
Spain  and  Greece  are  virtually  bankrupt,  being  neitlier 
able  nor  willing  to  pay  either  principal  or  interest  of 
their  large  debts.  Norway,  on  the  contrary,  tho  poor- 
est country  in  Europe,  has  set  the  bright  example  of 
puj-ing  olT  that  portion  of  the  Danish  debt  with  which 
sne  was  burdened  when  separated  from  that  monarchy 
in  1814,  while  the  Danish  portion  luis  gone  on  increas- 
ing. The  Ottoman  sultan  has  escaped,  until  lately, 
only  by  virtue  of  his  want  of  credit. 

Retenuk  Aitn  Dkbt  or  KoaorsAN  States. 


Countrief. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland. . . 

Francs. 

Austria 

Rustia 

PmssU 

Spain 

Turkey 

Netherlands. 

Belglnm 

Denmark 

Bavaria, 

T.ho  Two  Siclllos 

Sardinia 

Hanover 

Baden 

SUtcs  of  the  Church. 

Portugal  

Kingdom  of  Saxony 

bwoden 

Norway. 

Tuscany 

Greece 

Modena. 

Parma 

Wirtemborg 

Smaller  Oerin.in  States  together 
Tho  Swhs  Cantons  all  together 


AnflQAl  r,. . , 


£56.000,000 

62,(K)0,0UO 

2.5,000,000 

86,000,000 

15,000,000 

15,000,000 

6,600,000 

6,000,000 

6,000,000 

1,500,000 

8,000,000 

4,500.000 

6,000,000 

1,800,000 

1,680,000 

2,881,000 

8,8,'iO,0OO 

liOtVliOOO 

1,040,000 

650,000 

1,2,50,470 

860,000 

84O,0<IO 

76,000 

1,000,000 

6,600.000 

060.000 


£700,000,000 
27,VI<KI,(IOO 
180,000,000 
170,flOO,(XK) 
82,000,000 
180,000,000 
8,000,000 

100,000,000 

2l».000,(JflO 
18,750,000 
16,146,00(1 

io,soo,oo() 

24,000,1100 
6.474,000 
^48&,II00 
20,000,000 
18.000,000 
6,600,000 

None 

4,176,(100 

aso.WK) 
4,M2,»"rt 
17,000,0011 


Their  annual  ri!vcnuas  and  the  amount  of  their 
debts  as  stated  in  the  above  table,  in  tlio  nearest 
round  numbers,  und  in  sterling  money,  will  give  a  suf- 
ficiently near  approximation  to  sums  that  are  con- 
stantly varying,  and,  in  many  iuKtunces,  n()t  certainly 
known.  Though  there  has  been  a  general  pence  in 
Europe  for  tlie  long  period  of  forty  years,  yet  their 
mutual  Jealousies  have  made  it  seem  necessary,  to  tho 
Continental  gevcrnments  at  least,  to  maintain  large 


/v 


EXC 


Wi 


EXC 


Kona 
4.lf8,(p6o  1 

sso.iwo  I 

4  M'i,»™ 
17',0(K),U«» 


Jit  of  their 
Iho  nearest 

1  jrivC  tt  8Uf- 

Jit  lire  con- 
lit  certainly 
liil  jieuco  in 
■g,  yet  their 
Isttry,  to  tlio 
Intaln  largo 


ttandlng  anniei.  Rnula,  safe  fttim  foralgii  {nvarioB, 
has  long  been  preparing  large  annamenti  for  parposes 
of  aggreuion  on  her  weaker  neigh',  jra,  and  of  domina- 
tion over  all  the  rest ;  and  at  last  her  overt  acts  of  ag- 
gression on  Turliey  liave  provoked  a  war  with  Great 
Britain  and  France,  who  £1864]  armed  in  defense  of 
their  ancient  ally,  the  Saltan,  and  with  the  view  of 
not  only  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  in  Enrope, 
bnt  of  effectually  checking  the  undingaised  attempts 
of  the  czars  of  Russia  at  universal  dominion.  In 
these  circumstances,  with  all  Europe  arming,  or  begin- 
ning to  arm,  any  numerical  statements  of  their  militaiy 
farces,  however  approximately  correct  when  written, 
ina}'  have  become  quite  erroneous  by  the  time  they 
are  published.  The  following  table,  therefore,  con- 
tains only  the  declared  numbers  respectively  of  the 
peace  and  war  establishments  of  the  Continental  ar- 
mies, with  the  exception  of  that  of  France,  which 
gives  the  actual  number  of  men  on  foot,  as  stated  in 
the  emperor's  address  to  bis  Legislative  Conncil  in 
Decemlier,  1854. 


Cuiuitriv*. 


Austria 

Russia 

Prussia. 

Fiance 

BriUIn 

Spain 

rortngsl 

Two  Sicilies 

Sardinia 

Itelglum 

Netherlands 

DenrnsTk 

Sweden 

Norway 

Tuscany. 

Parma. 

Modena 

States  of  tbo  Church 

Smaller  States  of  the  Ocrm,  Conf. 

Swiss  Confederation 

Turkey. 

Qrcoce 


1M,(KI0 

IIS^OOO 
70,000 
»,000 
86,048 

78,098 

B7,»89 

87,043 

7,69S 

lB,is9 
8,778 
8,500 

17,8«5 
142,688 


9,848 


if^r 


670,000 

i,Bao,ooo 

^2^«00 
661,000 


101,989 

lob'ooo 


144,000 
23,484 

'4iflS3 
14,666 

m,m 

108,000 
460,000 


The  maritime  powers  that  maintain  efficient  navies 
worth  notice  arc,  Britain,  France,  Rusiiia,  Austria, 
Turkey,  Sardinia,  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway.  In  December,  1854,  the  British  fleet  in 
commission  and  actual  service,  consisted  of  142  steam- 
ers, and  104  sailing  ships,  with  63,000  men ;  that  of 
France,  of  nearly  the  same  numlier  of  vessels  alto- 
gether, though  not  BO  many  steamers,  with  62,000 
men.  The  Russian  fleet,  in  the  spring  of  1854  con- 
sisted of  52  line-of-linttle  ships,  48  frigates,  and  84 
smaller  vessels  (besides  gun-boats),  with  9000  guns, 
and  62,000  men.  Austria  possessed  104  vessels  carr}-- 
ing  742  guns ;  Turkey,  70  vessels,  witli  84,000  seamen 
and  4000  marines ;  Sardinia,  19  vessels,  with  359  guns ; 
the  Kethcrlnnds,  88  vessels,  with  2000  guns  and  6180 
men  ;  Denmark,  1'20  vessels,  with  883  guns,  and  2000 
men  ;  Sweden,  74  vessels  besides  gun-boats ;  Norway, 
19  ships  besides  gun-lioats,  with  500  men. 

In  Europe  there  are  two  great  national  conff^era- 
cles,  the  Germanic  and  the  Swiss  ;  bnt  in  neither  of 
them  is  there  so  close  a  union  of  the  sovereignties  that 
compose  it  as  there  is  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America.  In  Germany,  indeed,  there  is  no  principle 
or  feeling  of  unity  among  either  princes  or  |>eople,  and 
their  confederation,  as  such,  enjoys  neither  infiueme 
nor  respect  at  home  or  abroad.  In  Switzerland,  on 
the  contrarj',  recent  circumstances  seem  to  Imve  pro- 
duc'nd  a  closer  and  more  intimate  union,  and  given  to 
the  federative  assemlily  the  authority  indispensable  to 
the  efficient  working  of  a  central  government. — E.  B. 

Bxohauge,  Prlnoiples  of,  by  John  Ramsay 
M'Cui.i.ocH,  Esq. 

In  commercial  economy,  the  term  "  Exchange" 
is  commonly  employed  to  designate  that  description 
of  mercantile  transactions  l)y  which  the  debts  of 
individuals  residing  at  a  distance  fh)m  each  other 
are  liquidated  without  the  intervention  of  money. 


Tha  object  of  thia  article  is  to  explain  the  nature 
of  these  transact'ons,  and  the  principles  on  which 
they  depend.  This  will  he  best  effected  by  treating, 
Jim,  of  the  exchange  between  different  parts  of  the 
same  country ;  and,  iteondty,  of  that  between  different 
and  independent  countries. 

I.  ItiLAND  ExcHANOB. — SuppoM  s  merchant  of 
London  orders  his  agent  in  Qlasgow  to  send  him  a 
thousand  pounds'  worth  of  cottons,  and  that  it  doea 
not  suit  the  agent  m  commission  goods  of  equal  vain* 
ttma  his  London  correspondent,  the  latter  may,  ncV 
withstanding,  be  under  no  necessity  of  remitting  caah 
to  Glasgow  in  discharge  of  his  debt.  Among  coun- 
tries or  cities  having  a  considerable  intercourse  to- 
gether, the  debts  mutually  due  by  each  other  are  fonnd, 
in  ordinary  cases,  to  be  nearly  equal.  The  Glasgow 
agent,  who  has  shipped  the  cottons  for  London,  does 
not,  therefore,  transmit  the  bill  drawn  by  him  on  his 
correspondent  for  their  price  to  London  to  be  cashed, 
as  that  would  subject  him  to  the  expense  of  conveying 
the  money  home  to  Glasgow ;  but  he  gets  its  value 
from  some  other  party  in  Glasgow,  who  has  a  pay- 
ment to  make  in  London  on  account  of  tea  or  some 
other  article  bought  in  that  city,  and  who,  unlesr  he 
conld  procure  such  a  bill,  would  Im  obliged  to  remit  ita 
j>'ice  In  money.  The  bill  on  account  of  the  cotton  Is, 
therefore,  either  drawn  in  favor  of  the  party  in  Lon- 
don who  furnished  the  tea,  or  it  is  drawn  in  favor  of 
the  tea-dealer  in  Glasgow,  and  indorsed  liy  him  to  the 
former,  who,  on  presenting  it  to  the  purchaser  of  the 
cottons,  receives  its  value  and  consequently  the  price 
of  the  cottons,  and  the  price  (or  part  of  the  price)  of 
his  tea,  at  the  same  moment.  'This  simple  contrivance 
obviates  the  expense  and  risk  attending  the  transmis- 
sion, first,  of  money  from  London  to  Glasgow,  to  pay 
the  cottons ;  and,  second,  of  money  from  Glasgow  to 
London  to  pay  the  tea.  The  del>tor  in  one  \i  changed 
for  the  debtor  in  the  other ;  and  both  accounts  are  set- 
tled without  the  intervention  of  a  single  farthing. 

The  bill  dranTi  and  negotiated  in  such  a  transaction 
as  this,  is  termed  an  inland  bill  of  exchange.  If  the 
transaction  had  taken  place  between  London  or  Glas- 
gow and  a  foreign  city,  it  would  have  been  termed  a 
fortign  bill  of  exchange.  A  bill  of  exchange  may, 
therefore,  be  defined  to  I)e,  "  an  order  addressed  to 
some  person  residing  at  a  distance,  directing  him  to 
pay  a  certain  specified  sum  to  the  person  in  whose 
favor  the  bill  is  drawn,  or  his  order."* 

The  price  of  bills  fluctuates  according  to  their  abund- 
ance or  scarcity  compared  with  the  demand.  If  the 
debts  reciprocally  due  by  I.ondon  and  Glasgow  be 
equal,  whether  they  amount  to  £100,000,  £500,000,  or 
any  other  sum,  they  may  l)e  discharged  without  the 
intervention  of  money,  and  the  price  of  bills  of  ex- 
change will  be  at  PAR ;  that  is,  a  sum  of  £100  or  £1000 
in  Glasgow  will  purchase  a  hill  for  £100  or  £1000  pay- 
able  in  London,  and  Wee  remd.  But  if  these  cities  be 
not  mutually  indebted  in  equal  sums,  then  the  price  of 
bills  will  be  increased  in  the  city  which  has  the  great- 
est number  of  payments  to  make,  and  reduced  in  that 
which  has  the  fewest.  If  Glasgow  owe  I.«ndon  £100,- 
000,  while  the  latter  only  owes  the  former  £90,000,  it 
is  clear,  inasmuch  as  Glasgow  has  a  larger  sum  to  re- 
mit to  I>ondon  than  I.ond(m  lias  to  remit  to  Glasgow, 
that  the  price  of  bills  on  London  will  rise  in  Glasgow 
because  of  the  increased  demand,  and  that  the  price 
of  liiils  on  Glasgow  will  full  in  London,  liecunse  of  the 
diminished  demand.  A  larger  sum  would,  conse- 
quently, be  required  to  discharge  a  debt  due  by  Glas- 


•  In  mercantile  phrascoloKy,  the  person  who  draws  a  bill  ia 
termed  the  drtiwer ;  the  {htsou  in  whose  fiiTor  it  is  drawn, 
tho  remitter;  the  person  on  whom  it  is  drawn,  the  draicM, 
and  nftrr  ho  hiu  accepted,  tho  acceptor.  Those  persons  Intc 
whoso  hands  the  bill  mny  pass  previously  to  Us  being  paid, 
arc,  from  their  writing  their  names  on  tho  back,  termed  in- 
dorsera ;  and  the  person  in  whose  possesirton  the  bill  Is  at  any 
given  period,  is  termed  the  Aoldn-  or  jwswssor. 


EZO 


«84 


EXO 


gow  to  Ixindon,  and  a  1ms  som  to  diwhargs  an  equal 
debt  due  by  the  latter  to  the  fonner)  or,  which  Is  the 
same  thing,  the  excliaiige  would  be  in  favor  of  Ixin- 
don,  and  againtt  Glasgow.  BUls  on  London  would 
■ell  in  Qlasgow  at  a  premium,  and  bills  on  Glasgow 
would  sell  in  London  at  a  ditcounti  the  premium  in 
the  one  case  being  equal  to  the  discount  in  the  other. 

On  the  supposition  that  the  balance  of  ^10,000,  due 
by  Glasgow,  depresses  the  exchange  on  London  on* 
par  ctiU.,  it  appears  at  first  sight  that  it  will  cost  Glas- 
gow ^£101,000  to  discharge  her  debt  of  ^6100,000  due 
to  London ;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  ^eSSjlOO-would 
be  sufficient  to  discharge  the  debt  of  London  to  Glas- 
gow.    But  a  very  little  consideration  will  serve  to 
■how  that  this  would  not  be  the  case.     Exchange 
transactions  can  not  talce  place  between  different  cities 
nntil  debtors  and  creditors  of  the  one  reside  in  the 
other.    And  hence,  when  the  exchange  became  unfo- 
Torable  to  Glasgow,  the  premium  paid  by  its  merchants 
for  bills  on  London  would  not  go  into  the  pocliets  of 
their  creditors  in  the  latter,  but  into  those  of  their 
neighbors  in  Glasgow  to  whom  London  was  indebted, 
•nd  fh>m  whom  the  bills  were  purchased.     The  loss 
to  Glasgow  would,  therefore,  be  limited  to  the  pre- 
mium paid  on  the  balance  of  ^10,000.     Thus,  suppos- 
ing that  A,  of  Glasgow,  owes  D,  of  London  £100,000 
and  that  C,  of  London,  owes  B,  of  Glasgow  £90,000, 
A  will  pay  to  B  £01,000  for  a  bill  or  order  on  C  to  pay 
D  £90,000.     In  this  way  the  £90,000  of  London  debt 
at  Glasgow  will  be  cleared  off;  the  premium,  which 
is  lost  by  the  debtor  to  London  in  Glasgow,  being 
gained  by  its  creditor  in  the  same  place.     If  the  busi- 
ness had  been  transacted  in  London,  C,  with  £89,100, 
would  have  purchased  of  D  a  bill  for  £90,000,  paya- 
ble by  A ;  so  that,  in  this  case,  the  gain  would  have 
fallen  to  the  shore  of  the  debtor  C,  and  the  loss  to  that 
of  the  creditor  O,  both  of  London.     The  complexity  of 
real  transactions  does  not  affect  the  principles  on  which 
they  are  founded.    And  whatever  may  be  the  amount 
of  the  debts  reciprocally  due  by  different  places,  the 
only  disadvantage  under  which  any  of  them  could  be 
placed  by  a  fall  of  the  exchange  would  be  the  unavoid- 
able one  of  paj-ing  the  expense  of  remitting  the  bal- 
tmct  of  debt. 

The  expense  of  transmitting  money  from  one  place 
to  another  limits  the  fluctuations  in  the  exchange  be- 
tween them.  If  20s.  suiBced  to  cover  the  expense  and 
rislc  uttcndin);  the  transmission  of  £100  from  Glasgow 
to  London,  it  would  be  indifferent  to  a  merchant,  in 
the  event  of  the  exchange  becoming  unfavorable  to 
the  former,  whether  he  paid  one  per  cent,  premium  for 
a  bill  on  London,  or  remitted  monoy  direct  to  the  lat- 
ter. If  the  premium  were  less  than  one  per  cent.,  it 
would  be  clearly  his  interest  to  make  his  payments  by 
means  of  bills  rather  than  by  remittancee ;  und  that 
it  could  not  exceed  iine  per  cent,  is  ol>vious,  for  every 
individual  would  rather  directly  remit  money  than  in- 
cur an  unnecebsary  nxpense  by  purchasing  bills  on 
London  at  a  greate.  premium  than  would  aufSce  to 
cover  the  expense  of  a  money  remittance.  If,  owing 
to  the  business  of  roads,  distarbancos  in  the  coun- 
try, or  any  other  cause,  the  ex|iense  of  remitting 
money  from  Glasgow  to  Ix)ndon  were  increased,  the 
difference  in  the  rate  of  exchange  l>ctwcen  them  might 
also  Im  prop<irtionally  increased.  But  in  every  case  the 
extent  to  wliich  this  difference  could  attain  would  lie 
limited  by,  and  could  not  for  any  considerable  period 
exi     i|,  the  cost  of  remitting  cu«h. 

Kxehange  transactions  become  more  complex  when 
one  place,  as  is  often  the  cose,  discharges  its  debts 
to  another  liy  means  of  bills  drawn  vn  a  third  plure. 
Thus,  though  Ixindon  fthonid  owe  nothing  to  Glasgow, 


obastar  exceed  or  Is  equal  to  the  debt  dna  by  her  to 
London.  If,  however,  it  be  not  equal  to  the  latter, 
Glasgow  will  either  have  to  remit  money  to  London  to 
pay  the  balance  of  debt,  or  bills  on  some  other  placa 
indebted  to  her. 

Transactions  in  inland  bills  of  exchange  aro  almost 
entirely  conducted  by  bankers,  who  charge  a  certain 
rate  per  cent,  for  their  trouble,  and  who,  by  means  of 
their  credit  and  connections,  are  able  on  all  occasions 
to  supply  the  demands  of  their  customers.  London, 
because  of  its  extensive  correspondence  with  other 
parts  of  the  countr}',  occasioned  partly  by  its  immense 
commerce,  partly  by  its  being  the  seat  of  government 
and  the  place  to  which  the  revenue  is  remitted,  and 
partly  by  its  currency  consisting  of  Bank  of  England 
paper,  for  which  the  notes  of  the  country  lianks  are 
rendered  exchangeable,  has  become  the  grand  focus 
in  which  the  money  transactions  of  the  United  King- 
dom centre,  and  in  which  they  are  all  ultimately 
adjusted.  These  ctreumstances,  but  especially  the 
demand  for  bills  on  London  to  remit  revenue,  and  the 
far  superior  value  of  Bank  of  England  paper,  render 
the  exchange  between  London  and  other  parts  of  the 
country  invariably  in  her  favor.  Bills  on  London 
drawn  in  Edinburg  and  Glasgow  were  formerly  made 
pa}  able  at  40  days'  date,  which  was  equivalent  to  a 
premium  of  about  \  per  cent. ;  but,  owing  to  the 
greater  facility  of  commnnication,  this  prtmium  is 
now  reduced  to  20  days'  interest,  or  to  about  ^  per 
cent.  Bills  for  remitting  the  revenue  from  Scotland 
are  now  drawn  at  thirty  days ;  previously  to  1819, 
they  were  drawn  at  60  days. 

These  statements  are  sufficient  to  show  that,  how 
well  soever  bills  of  exchange  may  be  fitted  for  facili- 
tating the  operations  of  commerce,  and  saving  the 
trouble  and  expense  attending  the  transportation  of 
mone}',  mercantile  transactions  can  not  be  adjusted  by 
their  means  except  in  so  far  as  they  mutually  balance 
each  other.  A  real  bill  of  exchange  is  merely  an  order 
entitling  the  holder  to  receive  payment  of  a  debt  due 
by  the  person  on  whom  it  is  drawn.  It  is  essential  to 
the  existence  of.such  bill  that  iin  equivalent  amount  of 
debt  should  be  contracted.  And  hence,  as  the  amount 
of  the  real  bills  of  exchange  drawn  on  any  number  of 
merchants  can  not  exceed  the  amount  of  their  debts, 
if  a  greater  sum  be  owing  to  them  than  they  owe  to 
others,  the  balance  must  either  be  paid  in  money  or  by 
the  delivery  of  some  sort  of  commodities.  If,  as  in 
the  case  referred  to,  Glasgow  owe  London  £1UU,000, 
while  London  only  owes  Glasgow  £90,000,  a  reciprocal 
transfer  of  debts  may  be  made  to  the  extent  of  £90,000. 
But  the  Glasgow  merchants  can  not  discharge  the  ad- 
tionul  £10,000  by  means  of  bills  on  London ;  for,  by 
the  supposition,  Ix)ndon  only  owned  them  £90,000,  and 
they  have  drawn  for  its  amount.  This  balance  must 
therefore  be  discharged  by  an  actual  money  payment, 
or  by  the  deliver}'  of  some  species  of  produce,  or  by 
bills  on  some  third  party  indebted  to  Glasgow. 

It  is  not  meant  by  this  to  insinuate  tliut  fidilinui 
bills  (if  exchange,  or  bills  drawn  on  persons  wlio  are 
not  really  indebted  to  the  drawer,  are  either  unknown 
or  very  rare.  In  commercial  countries  IuIIk  of  this 
description  are  always  to  be  met  with ;  but  they  arc  a 
device  fur  obtaining  loans,  and  can  not  transifer  reul 
debts.  A  of  London  may  form  a  connection  with  B 
of  Glasgow,  and  draw  bills  upon  him  payable  a  certain 
number  of  days  after  date,  which  the  latter  ninv  retire 
by  selling  bills  upon  A.  The  merchants  who  purclnise, 
or  the  bankers  who  discount  these  bills,  advance  their 
value  to  the  drawcra,  who,  by  means  of  ih\*  syotcra 
of  drawing  and  redrawing,  command  a  borrowed  cipi- 
tal  equal  to  the  amount  uf  the  lictitiuus  paper  in  < 


yet  if  (ilai(;ow  lie  indebted  ^>  I.ondon,   I.onilim  to  ]  latiun.     It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  negotiaticm  ipf 
Manchester,  and  Manchester  to  Glasgow,  the  latter  i  such  bills  can  nut  assist  in  transferring  and  settling 
may  wholly  or  partiall}*  discharge  her  debt  to  London 
by  remitting  bills  on  Manchester.     She  may  wholly 
discharge  it,  provided  the  debt  dw  to  her  by  Uaa- 


the  boiui  file  debts  of  two  or  mora  places.  Fictitious 
I  bills  mutually  balance  each  other.  Those  drawn  by 
1  London  op  Glasgow  e<iit»l  tboie  drawn  by  Glasgow  on 


as  the 
dicutiv 
to  curr 
there  I 
refusi 
Wi 
to  gran 
differen 
orders 
sums 
not  pai 
drawn, 
by  whoi 
there 
hands, 
accomni 
small  I 
sorted  ( 
in  the 
ferred  b 
These 
the  mat 
parts  of 
of  exchi 
The  imif 
rendeni  i 
of  monej 
negotiat* 
the  cons 
parts  of  ( 
those  oc( 
distant 
to  be  lut 
which  f^e 


^^^ 


ESC 


62S 


BXO 


''>     / 


jiililumt 
wlu)  nro 
unknown 
\n  of  this 
hoy  arc  a 
isfcr  real 
witli  B 
a  i^ertiiin 
nnv  retire 
purt-lmw, 
mcci  their 
in  dysti'in 
well  <''I'i- 
r  in  (■'•  .'uu- 
tiution  "f 
(1  Bcttliiit; 
Fictitious 
drawn  by 
lasgow  on 


tondon,  for  the  one  set  is  druKm  to  p»jr  the  otbei^- 
the  second  destroys  the  first,  and  the  result  is  nothing. 

The  raising  of  money  by  means  of  fictitious  bills 
has  been  severely  censured  by  Adam  Smith,  who  says 
it  entails  a  niinous  expense  on  those  oni;aged  in  it, 
and  is  resorted  to  only  l>y  projectors,  or  persons  of  sus- 
picious credit.  When  fictitious  bills  are  drawn  at  two 
months'  date,  it  is  common  to  charge,  in  addition  to 
the  ordinal}'  interest,  a  commission  of  half  or  quarter 
per  cent.,  which  most  be  paid  every  time  the  bill  Is 
discounted,  or,  at  least,  tix  times  a  year.  The  total 
expense  of  money  raised  in  this  way  xiuld  not,  there- 
fore, supposing  the  transaction  to  be  always  on  ac- 
count of  the  same  individual,  and  interest  4  per  cent., 
be  estimated  at  less  than  5}  or  7  per  cent,  per  annum, 
(X  stamps  ;  and  the  payment  of  so  high  an  interest  on 
borrowed  capital,  in  a  country  where  the  ordinary  rate 
of  mercantile  profit  is  not  supposed  to  average  more 
than  from  fix  to  eight  per  cent.,  could  not  fail  to  be 
frequently  productive  of  ruin  to  the  borrower.  But  it 
seldom  happens  that,  in  the  negotiation  of  fictitiout 
bills,  the  charge  for  commission  fitlls  on  one  individual 
only.  I^ans  obtained  in  this  way  are  usually  on  ac- 
count of  two  or  more  parties.  At  one  time  a  fictitious 
bill  is  drawn  by  A  of  London  on  B  of  Glasgow ;  and, 
in  this  case,  the  latter  will,  before  the  bill  becomes 
dne,  draw  upon  A  for  its  amount,  including  interest 
and  commission.  At  another  time,  the  transaction 
will  be  on  account  of  B,  who  in  that  case  has  to  pay 
commission  to  his  iViend  in  London  ;  so  that  each  party 
may,  on  the  whole,  as  Mr.  Thornton  has  oljserved, 
gain  almut  as  much  as  be  pays  in  the  shape  of  com- 
mission. 

It  is  often  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  fictitious 
bills  from  tliose  which  have  arisen  out  of  real  trans- 
actions. Neither  does  it  seem  to  be  of  anj'  yery  ma- 
terial importance.  The  character  and  credit  of  the 
parties  whose  names-are  attached  to  bills,  are  the  only 
criteria  by  which  merchants  or  bankers  can  judge 
whether  they  ought  to  negotiate  them.  The  circum- 
stances of  an  individnal  offering  accommodation  paper 
for  discount,  ought  unquestionably,  if  it  \m  known,  to 
excite  suspicions  of  his  credit.  But  unless  in  so  far 
as  the  drawing  of  fictitious  bills  may  be  held  to  be  In- 
dicative of  overtrading,  or  of  a  deficiency  of  capital 
to  curry  on  the  business  in  which  the  party  is  engaged, 
there  docs  not  appear  to  l>e  any  very  good  reason  for 
refueling  to  discount  them. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  it  has  been  the  practice 
to  grant  money  orders,  payable  on  presentation  at  the 
different  post-offlces,  for  sums  of  £b  and  under.  These 
orders  coat  8d.  for  sums  of  £1  and  under,  and  Gd.  for 
sums  between  £2  and  £b  inclusive ;  and  as  they  are 
not  paid  unless  the  parties  in  whose  favor  they  are 
drawn,  or  other  parties  well  known  to  the  postmasters 
by  whom  they  are  pa}'able,  appear  to  receive  payment, 
there  is  no  risk  of  the  money  getting  into  improper 
hands.  This  system  has  been  foimd  to  be  a  very  great 
accommodation  to  the  public,  especially  to  those  having 
small  sums  to  remit,  and  has  beeo  very  extensively  re- 
sorted to.  In  1850  4,439,713  money  orders  were  issued 
in  the  United  Kingdom;  the  aggregate  sum  trans- 
ferred by  their  agency  being  i:8,494,498. 

These  observations  will,  perhaps,  suffice  to  explain 
the  manner  in  which  transactions  lietween  different 
parts  of  the  name  country  are  settled  by  means  of  bills 
of  exchange.  They  are,  In  general,  extremely  simple. 
The  uniform  value  of  the  currency  of  a  single  country 
renders  unnecessar}'  any  comparison  lietween  the  value 
of  money  at  the  place  where  the  bill  is  drawn  and 
negotiated,  witli  its  value  where  it  is  to  Ira  paid ;  while 
the  constant  intercourse  maintained  among  different 
parts  of  the  same  kingdom,  and  the  usual  absence  of 
those  occurrences  by  which  the  intercourse  Iratween 
distant  and  independent  countries  is  always  subject 
to  be  iutemipted,  prevent  those  sudden  fluctuations 
which  fireqnently  btIm  in  the  price*  of  foreign  bills  of 
Rr 


axebcBC*.  We  sh*!!,  (h«Nftir«i,  l«i«v*  tbb  part  of  onr 
subject,  and  pruoivd  to  IrivniitlKate  the  circumstances 
which  Influenca  tlia  MHitm  of  exitliange  between  differ, 
ent  and  indepiiduiit  iiiMtHtrl«i(, 

I(,  KoHKitiN  K«i!MANiiH,'-Thet>Hflti  of  foreign  hills 
of  exchange  i|d|i«nd4  on  two  rirciinistnnc^s  i  flrti,  On 
the  value  oC  thu  ciirrmiry  uf  tlie  place  whore  they  uro 
made  payalib,  uumimrad  with  the  value  of  the  cur- 
rency of  tlie  plattn  wlivni  thi«v  are  drawn  i  and,  mo 
on<%.  On  the  raUllon  which  tue  supply  of  bills  In  the 
market  Iteara  to  tliH  iltiitmtid. 

If  the  value  uf  tlie  itltt«iritiit  i^ulns  and  moneys  which 
circulate  In  natiiiiis  Imvliig  itttitllngs  with  each  other 
were  Invariable,  ttw  eKt'hitnge  would  lie  exclusively 
infiuencetl  by  itlriMiinatiltliws  nff«ctlng  the  supply  and 
demand  fur  bills,  lint,  In  mtdltlini  to  variations  in 
its  cost  In  partiiiuUr  iioiiutrl«s,  the  weight  and  fineness 
of  the  l>ulllon  c«iitaluMl  In  their  cuius  are  liable  to  all 
sorts  of  varlatiuMs,  And  it  Is  alinvst  needless  to  say 
that  the  price  uf  lillls,  as  uf  every  thing  else,  necessa- 
rily varies  witli  tlissM  viirlutlitns,  Increasing  when  the 
value  of  the  money  In  which  tli'  v  are  estimated  falls, 
and  falling  wlmn  it  liKtrraiiixs,  lint  these,  it  Is  plain, 
are  merely  iwmiiwl  or  tiiiitiKrIcal  varlathms.  They  grow 
out  of  uhunges  in  tllti  standard  emptuyed  to  measure 
values,  and  nut  lit  the  valtws  (bemsnlves.  It  is  other- 
wise, however,  witit  variatluns  uf  price  occasioned  by 
changes  In  the  supply  uf  lillls.  or  In  the  demand  for 
them  i  that  is,  liy  i!hang«is  In  tlie  payments  a  country' 
has  to  make  uoniparud  wICll  those  It  has  to  receive. 
These  are  real,  nut  numlimt  vurjatluns,  fur  they  affect 
the  valuej  in  lillla,  and  lint  llie  money  In  which  these 
values  are  expressed.  And  hnnoe  the  distinctions  of 
nominal,  real,  and  I'limmleil  eKctiange.  The  jlrtt  de- 
pends on  nlterallun*  In  tliti  value  of  the  currencies 
compared  togetlier  |  the  umind  d«tH<nds  on  the  supply 
of  bills  ill  the  market  >^uni|utrtid  with  the  demand ;  and 
the  third,  or  oumpiilnl  fKi'hnnge,  depends  on  the  com- 
bined eflTeuta  uf  the  utiier  twn,  Fur  the  sake  of  per- 
spicuity we  slioll  treat  uf  tlieiMi  separately. <' 

III.  Nominal  Kxciianiih.— Iliilllon  being  every- 
where recognliied  as  tliA  standard  currency  of  the 
oommerchil  wurlil,  thu  uuinparative  value  of  the  cur- 
rencies of  particular  cuuntrles  depends— /r«(,  On  the 
value  of  bullion  In  those  I'uuntrles  (  nnd,  Mcnmlly,  On 
the  qumUilij  of  l)ullluii  vuiitaiiiett  In  their  coln.-t,  or  on 
the  qiutntity  uf  liullluii  fur  which  their  pajier  money, 
or  other  circulating  media,  will  nxcliangn. 

The  value  uf  fruvly  pruduced  cummiKlltlef  being 
commonly  pru|)urtiuii«d  tu  tliti  emt  uf  their  production, 
including  therein  tlia  vust  uf  their  c<it<veynnc«  from 
where  they  hava  bean  pruduced  tu  where  they  are  to 
be  made  use  of.  It  fulhtws,  ware  Ihe  trade  In  the  pre- 
cious metals  (lerfeutly  u|i«ti,  and  tlie  cummudities  pro- 
duced in  difl^irent  cuuiitrlfis  aliuiit  eiiiiallv  well  fitted 
for  exportation,  that  the  value  of  hutilun  in  one,  com- 
pared with  its  value  In  atiuth^r,  wuiild  lie  chiefly  de- 
termined by  tliuir  re«|MU'tlvt<  dlntnnces  fruin  the  mines, 
Thus,  on  the  supiHinltluii  that  neither  Knglnnd  nor 
Poland  had  any  article  iiiii'it|it  corn  t<>  cxcfaaiige  with 
the  Americans  <ir  AuKtraliaiH  fur  biittlun,  It  Is  evident 
tlut  the  precious  iiiulals  would  lie  morn  valuable  in 
Poland  tliun  in  Kngluiid,  iHtciiMsn  at  the  greater  ex- 
pense of  sending  so  bulky  a  cummudlty  ns  com  the 
more  distant  vuyiige,  simI  uInu  of  (lie  somewhat  greater 
expense  of  conveying  tlie  gulit  to  I'uland,  Had  Poland 
succeeded  in  currying  Imr  iimiiufa<'tures  to  a  higher 
pitch  of  linprovuniiiiit  lliaii  Kiigland,  her  merchants 
might  lie  alilo,  luitwllhsluildllig  the  disadvantage  of 
distance,  by  ex|sirtliig  imiiiliiislltles  isissrssed  of  groat 
value  in  small  liulk,  the  fmlglit  itr  which  wnuld  be 
comparatively  trilling,  to  liuy  ImiIIIuh  im  clioapor  terms 

*  Hiipposlng  Avarir  eountrf  ta  be  In  ptissesiilen  of  Its  prnptr 
supply  of  bullion,  the  es<b»ii|i«  m»y  lie  s«M  <o  be  nominctly 
slfeoled  \>j  the  aiiiount  of  thu  dilftirstK'e  between  the  market 
and  mint  prloa  of  hulllan,  and  to  tw  riallu  sffeeted  by  any  do 
vlatlon  f^om  par  auuttdlng  or  fatUog  sluiri  of  that  dllfcrenae. 


EXC 


026 


EXO 


than  thoM  of  England.  Bat  when,  u  li  actaally  tha 
oaaa,  the  advantages  of  skill  and  machinery  are  on  the 
iMe  of  England,  another  reason  is  added  to  that  da- 
rived  from  our  less  distance  from  the  mines,  why  gold 
and  silver  should  be  less  valual)le  here  than  in  Poland, 
and  why  the  money  price  of  commodities  should  lie 
higher.* 

Hence,  among  nations  which  have  attained  to  dilTer- 
ent  degrees  of  excellence  in  manufacturing  industry, 
the  value  of  bullion  does  not  wholly  depend  on  their 
distance  from  the  mines.  But,  whatever  variations  a 
dilTerent  progress  in  the  arts  may  occasion  in  its  value 
In  different  countries,  it  is  always  less  valuable  in  those 
into  which  it  is  imported  than  in  those  in  which  it  is 
produced.  Like  every  thing  else,  it  is  exported  to 
And,  not  to  destroy,  its  level.  And  unless  its  value  in 
Europe  exceeded  its  value  in  America  and  Australia 
by  a  sum  sufficient  to  coverthe  expenne  of  its  importa- 
tion, including  ordinary  profits  to  the  importers,  we 
should  not,  though  the  mines  in  th«se  quarters  were 
infinitely  more  productive,  import  from  them  a  single 
ounce  of  bullion  in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade.  It  is 
obviously  incorrect,  therefore,  to  lay  it  down  as  a  gen- 
eral proposition,  "  that  the  par  of  exchange  between 
two  countries  is  that  sum  of  the  currency  of  either  of 
the  two,  which,  in  point  of  intrinsic  worth,  Is  precisely 
equal  to  a  given  sum  of  the  other ;  tliat  u,  fonlnint 
precitelff  on  equal  weight  of  gold  and  ailver  of  the  mme 
JineneM."^  For  a  given  quantity  of  gold  and  silver 
is  not  always,  as  is  here  assumed,  of  the  same  intrinsic 
value  in  different  countries.  It  may  differ  but  little 
among  nations  bordering  upon  or  near  each  other,  and 
which  are  all  destitute  of  mines.  But  though,  to  use 
a  familiar  illustration,  the  value  of  sugar  approaches 
nearly  to  a  level  in  the  great  trading  cities  of  Europe, 
it  can  not  surely  be  maintained  that  its  value  in  the 
West  Indies  is  as  great  os  in  Bordoaux  or  Liverpool,  or 
that  the  exchange  would  be  real!}-  at  par,  if  a  bill, 
which  cost  a  hundred  hogsheads  of  sugar  in  London, 
only  brought  a  hundred  in  Jamaica.  Now,  in  respect 
of  principle,  this  is  precisely  the  case  with  bullion. 
Though  the  values  of  gold  and  silver,  compared  with 
com,  labor,  etc.,  may,  and  indeed  mnst',  vary  very 
considerably  among  different  nations,  these  variations 
are  only  the  necessary  result  of  their  different  progress 
in  industry-,  and  of  the  different  quality  of  their  culti- 
vated lands,  etc.  .Such  differences  of  price  are  in  the 
natural  order  of  things ;  and  bullion  has  not  found  its 
proper  level  till  a  quantity  has  been  introduced  into 
those  countries  which  excel  in  raannfact^.ries,  sufficient 
to  raise  the  price  of  their  com  and  labor.  These  vari- 
ations have,  therefore,  no  influence  over  the  excliange. 
Notwithstanding  this  difference  of  price,  an  ounce  of 
bullion  in  one  country,  owing  to  the  facility  of  inter- 
course, is  very  nearly  equivalent  to  an  ounce  of  bullion 
in  another ;  and  supposing  the  trade  in  the  precious 
metals  to  be  perfectly  free,  the  exchange  will  be  at 
true  par  when  bills  are  negotiated  on  this  footing.  But 
when  we  compare  the  values  of  these  metals  in  distant 
countries,  especially  in  those  where  they  are  produced, 
with  those  into  which  they  are  imported,  there  are  very 
considerable  differences.  Gold  and  silver,  like  iron, 
coal,  tin,  etc.,  are  necessarily  cheaper  in  countries  pos- 
sessed only  of  extraordinarily  productive  mines,  than 
in  those  possessed  only  of  mines  of  a  secondary  degree 
of  fiirtillty,  or  where  thcj-  have  to  be  entirely  brought 
fh>m  abroad.  And  the  exchange  between  such  places 
Is  not  a  true  par,  unless  adequate  allowance  t)e  made 
for  tills  difference  of  value.  Thus  if,  because  of  the 
expense  of  carriage,  the  value  of  bullion  in  (iroat 
Britain  lie  H  per  cent,  greater  than  in  San  Francisco, 
100  ounces  of  pure  gold  in  the  latter  would  not  Im> 
worth  100  ounces  of  pure  gold  in  London,  but  S  per 


*  Rlcarda,  Prtneiplet  o/  PaUUcal  Beonomij,  ete.,  Orst  ed., 
p.nB. 
t  BulUm  Report!,  London,  p.  tt,  3vo.  ed. 


oent,  Us«|  •ii4  (h*  •MitlMnKo  wiraM  ba  at  traa  par 
wban  bllla  fur  lOA  imttMit  ulandard  bullion,  tiayable  la 
B»n  Vnneimi},  aul.l  in  liimUtn  tnt  100  ounces. 

TIm  diffaraiit  vnIims  ntlUx  |fr<Milotis  metals  in  differ- 
ent countries  tUt  mil  lUffivmi  atutiM  on  tlieir  respective 
distancas  Ifum  tlM  mIniM,  lit  im  their  d'aater  or  less 
progras*  in  tiM  »rtti.  Vm  mAnUm  furmeriy  so  very 
prevaUiit,  tliat  Kul4  and  sitvsr  were  the  only  real 
weaitli,  ItuI  wiist  luUlmm  Ui  f«it«r  and  restrain  their 
exportiitiiiii,  and  Ui  iuUi\it  n  variety  of  measures  in- 
tended to  fiti^ilttata  Itudr  lm{iurtttlon.  But  these,  even, 
when  most  vigimwsly  itnfwrcMl,  were  singnlarly  inef- 
fectual. Tha  graat  vmIim  »nii  smnll  bulk  of^he  precioui 
metals  r«n4«riNl  it  not  utily  Mlvantagemis,  but  com- 
paratively 0»i>y,  t>\miU«illnit\y  to  export  them,  when- 
ever their  raUtlvA  vnUm  dmditiml. 

"  Whan,"  my*  Adam  Mmilli,  "  the  quantity  of  gold 
and  ailvar  iltt|iort4Ml  UtUi  miy  c/iintry  ejiceeds  the 
effectual  dainaiid,  mi  vi)(tlanc«  of  government  can 
prevent  thuir  »%\>iittitt\im,  All  the  sanguinary  lawa 
a(  f^paln  mid  I'orttlKal  are  not  able  to  keep  their  gold 
and  sliver  at  liotua,  Th<*  mmt\nm\  Importations  from 
Peru  and  UnM  (tiuwixi  tha  nflW.'tHal  demand  of  those 
countries,  »nii  sink  tit*  iirUm  of  those  metals  there  be- 
low that  In  tha  liMlKlili«irl(if(  countries,  If,  on  the 
contrary,  In  any  partli'itliir  roiintry,  their  quantity  fell 
sliort  of  lliii  Kiti'i'tiial  tUiinmu\,  so  as  to  raise  their  price 
above  llmt  u(  tlio  minMmfinK  roimtries  the  govern- 
ment wuulil  liNVA  nit  iH'imnUm  tn  tske  any  pains  to  im- 
port Iheiu,  I  f  ft  wtiri*  awn  to  take  the  pains  to  prevent 
their  im|xirt«tfon,  1(  wnyld  not  Ixt  able  to  effectuate  it. 
Those  niet'tU,  whet*  tlw  Mtmrtnns  had  got  wherewithal 
to  puri'liiisu  tl)«m,  hfiiim  tfirottgli  nil  the  liarriers  which 
tha  laws  of  l.yviiritltii  npfmiim  to  their  entrance  into 
Lacedoiiuiiii,  All  tlia  mni(H\niity  taws  of  the  customs 
aro  not  iilila  to  |irwv»lit  tlin  Itntinrtatlon  of  the  teas  of 
the  liutch  and  fitrfMnbiirK  Kast  India  Companies,  l>e- 
causa  sumawbat  i^h(iNtH>r  timn  those  of  tha  British 
Company.  A  immiimI  iit  tea,  however,  Is  aliout  a  hun- 
dred tiinas  tha  bulk  of  miH  of  the  higliest  prices,  16s., 
that  is  mmmmiy  (I'tlit  for  it  )n  silver,  and  more  than 
two  thiiusutid  timioi  tlH*  bulk  lit  the  same  price  in  gold, 
and,  conieqiiantly,  iH«(  m  many  times  more  difficult  to 
smuggle,"-,,  (IVrt//*//  SiiIUhu,  \h  lilO. 

But  th»U|;li  iiiKfffi'tiMl  lo  prevent  their  egress,  the 
rastrlctloits  on  tlw  «»|Mirti((.loli  of  the  precious  metals 
have,  navarttlttlwis,  I'oMtrllilitnd  to  occasion  some  slight 
variations  in  tlixir  valiix  on  different  countries.  The 
risk  fonnariy  lufiiirrwl  l»y  the  clandestine  exporters  of 
bullion  from  Miwtn,  U  m^imm\  to  have  lieen  equiva- 
lent to  alwmt  two  iiar  twnt,  t  ot,  which  is  the  same 
thing,  ft  is  supfMHwd  that  tha  restrictions  maintained 
such  an  exi'iwa  of  gold  and  silver  in  thnt  country-  as  to 
sink  tli«in  two  |Mir  tvnt,  below  their  value  In  countries 
having  a  trim  Iritdn  In  bullion,  In  calculating  the  true 
par  of  aKi^liaiiKH  Mwcen  different  countries,  circum- 
stances of  thfs  kind  must  \m  taken  Into  account.  For, 
to  whatavur  »%Un\\,  bullloti  In  one  country  may  be 
sunk  lialow  fta  valiM  In  <hos«  with  which  It  maintains 
an  intan'otirsa,  ttia  nontlnni  exehango  will  necessarily 
Im  unfavorabla  Ui  that  «ii«t«fit,  Alf  restraints  on  the 
exportstfon  of  tlio  procloiis  metals  was  aliolislied  in 
Great  Itrltafn  lu  l«l(».  Their  effect  for  many  years 
previously  unuM  not  \m  ostlmatwl  at  alicva  one  fourth 
|ier  cent. 

It  ijjinwr|Ui>ntly  rti»Hlt#,  that  whatever  occasions  a 
rise  or  fall  In  th«  valua  of  the  pfeolmfs  metals  in  one 
country  affwls  tn  (lt«  sntnn  extent  its  nominal  ex- 
change with  oth«r  countries,  If  more  coin,  or  con- 
vertfbla  |Mi|H»r,  cfrculatod  (n  Great  llritain,  compared 
with  lliH  tiusfnaas  II  has  lo  perform,  than  in  other 
countries,  fta  rttjatlvo  value  would  lie  proportionally 
lass,  Forufgn  lillU  wouM  sell  for  a  premium,  the 
amount  of  whfidi  would  msasure  the  excess  of  the  value 
of  the  iirai'foM*  titttlals  fft  tha  foreign  market,  cansed 
by  tbeir  roluiiilitui'y  In  the  home  market.  And,  on 
the  otiitr  b«nd,  in  ibo  »VMit  of  ofir  currency  becoming 


i; 


Joccafllonfi  a 
letalB  in  one 
Tiominal  «»- 
loin,  OT  con- 
li,  compared 
Ian  In  other 
iopoTtionally 
f  emloin,  tlio 
I  of  tho  vttluo 
Irket,  caused 
It.     And,  on 
ley  beoomloil 


^  EXO 

relatively  deficient,  Its  value  would  b«  proportionally 
Increaaed ;  billa  drawn  on  foreign  countries  would  sell 
at  a  discount,  the  amount  of  which  would  equal  the 
excess  of  the  value  of  our  currency  over  that  of  other 
countries. 

IV.  Par  of  ExoiiAJiaB. — In  estimating  the  quan- 
tities of  bullion  contained  in  the  coins  of  different  coun- 
tries, a  particular  coin  of  one  is  selected  for  a  standard 
by  which  to  compare  the  others,  and  the  proportion  be- 
tween it  and  thorn,  supposing  them  to  bo  all  of  their 
standard  weight  and  Bnenesa,  is  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment. A  par  of  exchange  is  thus  established,  or 
rather  It  is  ascertained  that  a  certain  amount  of  tho 
standard  currency  of  one  country  contains  as  much 
gold  or  silver  of  the  same  fineness,  as  is  contained  in 
the  coin  or  integer  with  which  it  has  been  compoied. 
This  relation,  or  par,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  is 
considered  invariable ;  and  allowance  is  made  for  sub- 
sequent variations  in  the  coins  of  countries  trading 
together,  by  rating  the  exchange  ct  so  much  above  or 
below  par.  In  mercantile  langiutge,  that  country,  by 
a  comparison  with  one  or  other  of  whose  coins  the  par 
of  exchange  has  been  established,  is  said  to  give  the 
certain  for  the  uncertain,  and  conversely.  Thus  in  the 
exchange  lietween  London  nnd  Paris,  London  and 
Hamburg,  etc.,  London  gives  the  certain,  or  the  pound 
sterling,  for  an  uncertain  or  vuriaUe  numl)er  of  francs, 
florins,  etc.  Hence,  the  higher  the  exchange  between 
any  two  countries,  the  more  is  it  In  favor  of  that  which 
gives  it  the  certain ;  and  the  lower,  the  more  is  it  in 
favor  of  that  which  gives  the  uncertain. 

On  the  supposition  that  '25  francs  contain  the  some 
quantity  of  standard  bullion  as  a  pound  sterling  (25 
fr.  67  cent,  is  about  the  exact  par),  nnd  supposing,  also, 
that  the  value  of  bullion  is  the  same  In  both  countries, 
the  exchange  between  London  and  Paris  will  be  at 
par  when  a  bill  drawn  In  the  one  on  the  other  sells  at 
that  rate  ;  that  is,  when  a  bill  of  exchange  for  2600, 
or  25,000  francs,  payaliie  in  Paris,  sells  in  London  for 
£100  or  XIOOO,  anil  vice  versi.  It  Is  but  seldom,  how- 
over,  that  the  coins  of  any  country  correspond  ex- 
actly with  their  mint  standard.  Unless  when  newly 
issued,  they  are  either  more  or  less  worn ;  and  when- 
ever this  defect  Iwcomes  sensible,  an  allowance  cor- 
responding (0  tlie  difference  between  their  actual  value 
and  their  mint  value  is  made  in  estimating  "  the 
sum  of  the  existing  currency  of  cither  of  two  coun- 
tries which  contains  precisely  the  same  quantity  of 
bullion  08  Is  cont.iinod  in  a  given  sum  of  the  other." 
Thus,  if  our  pound  sterling  were  so  worn,  clipped,  or 
rubbed,  as  not  to  contain  so  much  l>uUion  as  26  fr., 
but  10  per  cent,  less,  the  exchange  between  London 
and  Paris  would  be  at  real  par  when  It  was  nominally 
10  per  cent,  against  London  ;•  and  it,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  pound  sterling  were  equal  to  its  mint  stand- 
ard, while  the  franc  was  10  per  cent,  less.  It  would  Im 
at  par  when  It  was  nominally  10  per  cent,  against  Paris 
and  In  favor  of  London.  If  the  currencies  of  both 
countries  were  equally  reduced  below  the  standard  of 
their  respective  mints,  there  would  obviously  be  no 
variation  of  the  par ;  but  whenever  the  currency  of 
countries  trading  together  is  unequally  deprecUted,  tho 
exchange  Is  nominally  in  favor  of  that  country  whose 
currency  Is  least,  and  nominally  against  that  whose 
currency  is  most  depreciated. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  refer  to  examples  to 
show  the  practical  operation  of  this  principle ;  and  we 
shall  content  ourselves  with  selecting  the  following, 


'  It  is  necessary  to  obaerre,  that  It  Is  here  supposed  that 
the  clipped  or  doKnidcil  raonoy  exist*  to  s&oh  a  ileKroo  of 
Abundance  as  only  to  psss  current  at  its  bullion  value.  If 
the  quantity  of  clipped  money  were  tufflcientltj  limited.  It 
might,  notwithstanding  tho  diminution  of  weight,  pass  current 
at  its  mint  value ;  and  then  the  par  would  have  to  bo  esti- 
mated, not  by  its  relative  weight  to  foreign  money,  bnt  by 
the  mint  prlee  of  bullion.  This  principle  must  be  oonstanlly 
kept  in  view. 


EXO 


(Vom  an  Infinite  number  of  •qnolly  conclusive  in- 
stances. 

Previously  to  the  great  recolnage  In  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  silver  being  at  the  time  legal  tender,  the 
exchange  between  England  and  Holland,  calculated 
by  th'<  standard  of  their  respective  mints,  was  nom- 
inally 25  per  cent,  against  England.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  English  silver  coins  were  then,  owing 
to  rubbing  and  clipping,  depreciated  more  than  26  per 
cent.  Iwlow  their  mint  value,  the  real  exchange  was 
probably  at  the  time  in  our  favor.  And  the  circum- 
stance of  the  nominal  exchange  having  become  favor- 
able to  us  as  soon  as  the  new  coin  was  issued,  tends 
to  confirm  this  conjecture.* 

The  guinea  was  so  much  worn  and  degraded,  pre- 
viously to  the  gold  rccoinage  in  1774,  as  to  be  from  two 
to  three  per  cent,  under  its  standard  weight.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  the  coins  then  circulating  in  France  were 
nearly  of  their  standard  weight  and  purity,  tho  ex- 
change between  Ix>ndon  and  Paris  was  nominally  from 
two  to  three  per  cent,  against  the  former.  We  say 
nominalti/,  for  as  soon  as  guineas  of  full  weight  were 
issued,  the  exchange  rose  to  par. 

The  Turkish  government,  during  the  past  century, 
has  made  successive  reductions  in  the  value  of  its  coin. 
Before  the  first  of  these  in  1770,  the  piastre  contained 
uearly  as  much  silver  as  tiie  English  half-crovm ;  and, 
in  exchange,  the  par  was  estimated  at  eight  piastres 
to  the  pound  sterling.  But,  in  the  interval,  the  degra- 
dation In  the  value  of  the  piastre  has  been  such  that 
it  Is  now  V(orth  only  al>ottt  2^. ;  and  the  exchange  is 
said  to  be  at  par  when  Constantinople  gives  about  109 
piastres  for  .£1  sterling.  It  Is  needless,  almost,  to  say, 
that  the  nominal  exchange,  estimated  by  the  old  par 
of  eight  piastres  to  £1,  became  more  and  more  unfa- 
/vorable  to  Turkey  with  ever}'  successive  enfeeblement 
of  tho  coin,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  real  ex- 
change, or  that  depending  on  the  balance  of  payments, 
was  not  all  the  while  In  her  favor. 

When  one  country  uses  gold  as  tho  standard  of  Its 
currency,  and  another  silver,  the  par  of  exchange  be- 
tween them  Is  effected  by  variations  in  the  relative 
values  of  these  metals.  When  gold  rises  as  compared 
with  silver,  the  exchange  becomes  nominally  favorable 
to  the  country  which  has  the  gold  standard,  and  vice 
rertd.  And  hence,  In  estimating  the  par  of  exchange 
between  countries  using  different  standards,  it  is  al- 
ways necessar}'  to  inquire  into  the  comparative  values 
of  the  metal  selected  as  standards. 

"  For  example,"  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Mushet, 
"if  34  schillings  11^  grotes  of  Hamburg  currency 
be  equal  in  value  to  a  pound  sterling,  or  20-21  of  a 
guinea,  when  silver  is  at  5s.  2d.  per  oz.,  they  can  no 
longer  be  so  when  silver  falls  to  6s.  Id.  or  6s.  an  oz., 
or  when  It  rises  to  6s.  3d.  or  6s.  4d, ;  because  a  pound 
Stirling  in  gold  being  then  worth  more  or  less  silver, 
Is  also  worth  more  or  less  Hamburg  currency.  To 
find  the  real  par,  therefore,  we  must  ascertain  what 
was  the  relative  value  of  gold  and  silver  when  the  par 
was  fixed  at  34s.  ll^g.  Hamburg  currency,  and  what  Is 
their  relative  value  at  the  time  we  wish  to  calculate  it. 
For  example,  if  the  price  of  standard  gold  was  £3  173. 
lO^d.  per  oz.,  and  silver  5s.  2d.,  an  ounce  of  gold  would 
then  be  worth  15*07  ounces  of  silver,  end  20  of  our 
standard  shillings  would  then  contain  as  much  pure 
silver  as  36s.  11^  grotes  of  Hamburg  currency.  But 
if  the  ounce  of  gold  were  £3  178. 10}d.,  and  silver 
5s.  (which  it  was  on  2d  January,  1798),  the  ounce  of 
gold  would  then  be  worth  16'67  ounces  of  silver.  If 
£1  sterling  at  par,  therefore,  be  worth  16'07  onnocs  of 
silver,  then  at  16-67  It  would  be  at  three  per  cent,  pre- 
mium ;  and  throe  per  cent,  premium  on  34s.  ll^d.  is  1 
schilling  1  grote  and  9-10,  so  that  the  par,  when  gold 
is  to  silver  as  16-67  to  1,  will  be  36  schillings  1  grotc 
and  1-10.    The  above  calculation  will  be  more  easll} 


/-> 


•  WeaUh  Cif  NaHont,  p.  210. 


EXO 


628 


EXO 


Mt-iai  t !  16-S7  :  86-1 


made  by  sUtlng,  an  16-07 
I-IO."* 

A«  it  is  their  intrinsio  wortli  in  bnlUon  which  de- 
tarminei  the  value  of  coins  in  exnhuige  transactions, 
those  of  equal  weight  and  purity  are  reckoned  equiva- 
lent to  each  other,  though  some  of  them  nuy  have 
been  coined  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  and  others 
charged  with  a  duty  or  seigniorage  on  their  coinage. 
The  latter  may,  if  not  issued  in  excess,  pass  current  in 
the  country  in  which  they  an  coined  for  their  value  in 
bullion  plKt  the  duty ;  but  thi-y  will  not  pass  any- 
where else,  except  at  their  bullion  value.f 

But  the  principal  soprce  of  fluctuations  in  the  nom- 
inal price  of  bills  of  exchange,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
varying  value  of  the  paper  cnrrency  of  commercial 
countries.  The  disorders  which  arose  in  remoter  ages 
from  diminishing  the  bullion  contained  in  coins  of  the 
same  denomination  have  since  iMien  reproduced  in  an- 
other form,  and  often  to  a  still  more  ruinous  extent, 
ia  the  deprecUtion  of  paper  currency. 

V.    Inkldkmce   oir   DErnEciATKD  Pafbb  Cdb- 
BEMcr  ON  THB  EXCHANGE. — The  impossibility  of 
retaining  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  coin  or 
bullion,  or  of  paper  convertible  into  coin,  in  a  particu- 
lar "  intry,  limited  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  England 
previously  to  the  Restriction  Act  of  1797 ;  and  it  has 
equally  limited  them  since  the  resumption  of  specie 
i)ayments  in  1821,  and  sustained  the  value  of  the  cur- 
rency on  a  level  with  gold.     Wlien  the  bank  starves 
the  circulation,  or  issues  less  paper  than  is  necessary, 
bullion  is  imported,  sent  to  the  mint  to  be  coined,  and 
thrown  upon  the  market.    And  when,  oif  the  other 
hand,  the  bank  issues  too  much  paper,  and  thereby  de- 
presses its  value  relatively  to  gold,  it  becomes  profita- 
ble to  demand  payment  of  its  notes,  and  to  export  the 
specie  thus  obtained  either  as  coin  or  as  bullion.     In 
this  way  the  vacuum  it  filled  up  when  bank-notes  are 
deficient,  the  excess  removed  when  they  are  redun- 
dant, and  the  value  of  the  currency  preserved  nearly 
equal.     But,  from  1797  down  to  1821,  this  principle 
was  suspended.    Daring  that  period,  the  bank  was  re- 
lieved from  the  obligation  to  pay  her  notes  in  gold ; 
while,  owing  to  their  being  made  legal  tender,  their 
circulution  was  insured.     Hence,  their  value  exclu- 
sively depended  on  the  extent  to  which  they  were 
issued  comjuired  with  the  demand.     There  is  no  dif- 
ference, in  ib  influence  over  the  exchange,  between  a 
degraded  metallic  and  a  depreciated  paper  currency. 
And  when  a  country  with  either  the  one  or  the  other, 
has  any  dealings  with  another  whose  currency  is  of  its 
full  v^ue,  the  exchange  is  nominally  against  her  to 
the  extent  of  the  degradation  or  depreciation.     The 
nominal  exchange  l>etween  any  two  or  more  places  is, 
in  fact,  always  adjusted  according  to  the  values  of  their 
currencies,  being  most  favorable  to  that  whose  cnr- 
rency approaches  nearest  to  its  standard,  and  most  un- 
favorable to  that  whose  currency  is  most  degraded  or 
deprccUted.     The  intercourse  between  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  sul>sequently  to  the  restriction  on  cash 
payment  in  1797,  furnishes  some  striking  proofs  of  the 
effect  which  inordinate  issues  of  paper  have  in  depress- 
ing the  exchange.     The  nominal  value  of  the  Irish 
shilling  being  raised  In  1689  from  12d.  to  13d., t  ;£108 


'An  Inquinj  tnto  the  tffteU  proAvuxi  on  th»  IfaUonal 
Curreneji  by  t)U  Bank  BMtriction  Bill,  etc.,  2d  ed.,  p.  94. 

f  PrcTiooilj  to  I41T,  no  aelcnionge  had  for  a  very  long  pe- 
riod been  deducted  from  either  the  gold  or  silver  coins  of  Great 
Britain;  But  in  the  great  reeolnageofthst  ;'car,  the  value  of 
•Uver  was  raised  from  in.  2d.  to  Bs.  6d.  an  ounce,  or  nearly  In 
the  proportion  of  «J  per  cent  The  gold  coins,  however,  are  still 
coined  free  of  expense,  and  no  variation  his  been  made  In  their 
standard.  The  proportion  of  sliver  to  gold  In  the  coins  Is  now 
as  14  S8T-1000  to  1 ;  but  their  proportion  to  each  other,  ao- 
cording  to  their  miot  valuation,  la  aa  15  WO-IOOO  to  1. 

XBfti  proelamation  of  James  II.  The  arrangement  waa 
continued  by  the  ravolutionsrf  government,  and  was  con- 
firmed by  proclamation,  29tb  September,  1T3T.  But  in  1825 
the  eorrencies  of  Oreat  Britain  and  Irdaod  ware  aaslmllstsil 


6s.  8d.  Irish  money  became  equal  to  only  ^ClOO  of 
British  money,  so  that  the  exchange  between  Oreat 
Britain  and  Ireland  was  said  to  bo  at  par  when  it  was 
nominally  8^  per  cent,  against  the  latter,  In  the 
eight  years  previous  to  1797,  when  the  paper  currency 
of  both  countries  was  convertible  into  gold,  the  ex- 
change between  London  and  Dublin  fluctuated  fl-om 
7^  to  9  per  cent.,  that  is  from  6-C  per  cent,  in  favor  of 
Dublin  to  )  per  cent,  against  it.  In  September,  1797, 
it  was  at  6  per  cent.,  or  21-  per  cent,  in  favor  of  Dul)- 
lin.  The  amount  of  Bank  of  Ireland  notes  In  circula- 
tion in  Januar}-,  1797,  was  only  ;e021,917  ;  whereas  in 
April,  1801,  they  had  increased  to  £2,286,471,  and  the 
exchange  was  then  at  14  per  cent.,  or  6}  per  cent, 
against  Dublin.  In  1803,  the  Bank  of  Ireland  notes 
in  circulation  averaged  £2,707,956,  and  in  October  of 
that  year  the  exchange  was  quoted  at  17  per  cent., 
that  is,  8f  per  cent,  against  Dublin  I 

The  fact  of  the  excliange  Iwtween  London  and  Dub- 
lin having  fluctuated  so  little  from  par  for  the  eight 
years  previously  to  the  restriction,  shows  that  the  cir- 
culating medium  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  had 
then  been  adjusted  nearly  according  to  the  wants  of 
the  two  countries.  But,  in  these  circumstances,  it 
was  evidently  impracticable,  supposing  the  value  of 
British  currency  to  remain  nearly  stationary,  that  the 
amount  of  Irish  bank-paper  could  be  more  tlian  quiid- 
mpled  in  the  short  space  of  six  years,  without  render- 
ing the  currency  of  Ireland  redundant,  and  sinking  its 
value  below  that  of  England.  Had  the  Bank  of  En- 
gland increased  its  notes  in  something  like  the  same 
ratio  OS  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  then,  as  the  currency  of 
both  countries  would  have  been  equally  depreciated, 
the  exchange  between  London  and  Dublin  would  have 
continued  at  par.  While,  however,  the  notes  of  the 
Bank  of  Irehind  were  increased  from  £621,917  to  £2,- 
707,956,  or  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  4*3,  those  of  the 
Bank  of  England  were  only  increased  from  £9,181,848 
(their  number  on  the  7th  Janiiiry,  1797),  to  £16,505,. 
272,  or  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  1-8.  But  for  this  ad> 
dition  to  its  issues  by  the  Bank  of  England,  th« 
exchange,  it  is  plain,  would  have  been  still  more  ttn< 
favorable  to  Dublin. 

In  the  debates  on  the  Bullion  Report,  it  was  con. 
tended  that  the  increase  of  Bi.nk  of  Ireland  paper 
could  not  have  been  the  cause  of  the  unfavorable  eX' 
change  upon  Dublin,  seeing  that  it  had  again  ttocome 
favorable  after  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland  had 
been  still  further  increased.  But  to  give  this  reason* 
ing  the  least  weight,  it  should  have  iieen  shown  that 
the  cnrrency  of  Great  Britain  retained  its  value  in  th« 
intenim,  or  that  it  had  not  been  depreciated  to  the 
same  extent  as  that  of  Ireland.  For  it  is  ol)vious  that 
the  depreciation  of  Irish  bank-paper  might  go  on  sub- 
sequently to  1804,  and  yet  if  English  bank-paper  were 
depreciated  still  more  rapidly,  the  exchange  wonld  be- 
come more  in  favor  of  Dublin.  This  is  merely  sup- 
posing the  circumstances  which  took  place  in  the  flrst 
six  years  of  the  restriction  to  be  reversed  in  the  second 
six.     Let  us  inquire  how  the  fact  stands. 

We  have  seen  that,  in  1808,  when  the  exchange  was 
nominally  10  per  cent,  against  Dublin,  the  issues  of 
the  Bank  of  England  amounted  to  £16,605,272,  and 
those  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland  to  £2,707,956.  And  by 
referring  to  the  accounts  of  the  issues  of  the  latter 
from  1797  to  1819,  published  by  authority,  it  is  seen 
that  in  1806-1808  they  were  rather  diminished ;  and 
that  in  1810  they  amounted  to  only  £3,261,760,  being 
an  increase  of  not  more  than  £643,794  in  the  space  of 
seven  years,  or  at  the  rate  of  2  and  6-7  per  cent,  per 
annum  ;  but  in  the  same  period  (from  1803  to  1810) 
the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  England  were  increased  from 
£16,606,272  to  £-22,541,528,  or  at  the  rate  of  6  per 
cent,  per  annnm.  And  this  is  not  all.  According  to 
Mr.  Wakefield,  there  were  50  registered  bankers  in 
Ireland  in  1804,  and  only  33  in  1810,  of  which  14  wen 
new  house*,  81  of  the  eld  eetabUabmenta  lutving  dle> 


ttori 
Coq 
Ito  I 
saml 

•00,1 

ft 


y 


EXC 


620 


BXC 


appeand ;  and  ''  I  boUeTC,"  layi  Mr.  Wakefleld  "  for 
the  moat  part  failed."  TbU  extraordinary  diminution 
of  the  countr}-  paper  of  Ireland,  for  the  reduction  of 
the  isBueii  waa  at  least  proportional  to  the  reduction  in 
the  number  of  bankfi,  could  not  fail  greatly  to  raise  its 
valne,  and  to  countervail  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  issues  of  tho  national  bank.  Now,  the  reverse  of 
all  this  took  place  in  Britain.  In  1800  there  were  886 
country  banks  in  this  country ;  and  in  1810,  this  num- 
ber, instead  of  being  diminished  as  in  Ireland,  had  In- 
creased to  721,  having  at  least  three  times  the  numl)er 
of  notes  in  ci^ulation  in  the  latter  as  in  the  former 
period  I  It  appears,  therefore,  that  when,  in  the 
period  between  1797  and  1804,  the  amount  of  paper  In 
circulation  in  Ireland  was  increased,  and  its  value  de- 
pressed, faster  than  in  England,  the  exchange  between 
London  and  Dublin  became  prnportionally  unfavor- 
able to  the  latter ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  appears, 
that  when,  in  the  six  years  subsequent  to  1804,  the 
paper  currency  of  England  was  increased  more  rapidly 
than  that  of  Ireland,  its  relative  value  was  diminished, 
and  tho  nominal  exchange  became  more  favorable  to 
Dublin. 

This  is  sufficiently  conclusive.  But  there  is  still 
better  evidence  to  show  that  the  unfavoral)le  exchange 
of  Dublin  upon  London,  1802,  1803,  1804,  etc.,  was 
entirely  owing  to  the  comparative  redundancy  or  de- 
preciation of  Irish  bank-puper.  The  linen  manufac- 
turers and  weavers,  with  the  majority  of  the  other 
inhabitant^  of  a  few  counties  in  Ulster,  being  at  the 
period  of  the  restriction  strongly  disaffected  toward 
government,  very  generally  refused  to  receive  bank- 
notes in  payment  either  of  commodities  or  wages. 
The  landlords  having  also  stipulated  for  the  payment 
of  their  rents  in  specie,  a  gold  currency  was  maintained 
in  the  northern  long  after  it  had  been  banished  from 
the  southern  parts  of  Ireland.  If,  therefore,  the  de- 
pression of  tho  exchange  between  London  and  Dublin 
had  been  occasioned,  as  many  contended,  l)y  an  unfa- 
vorable balance  of  trade  between  Ireland  ond  Great 
Britain,  or  by  remittances  from  the  former  on  account 
of  absentees,  it  would  ha\  e  been  equally  depressed  be- 
tween London  and  the  commercial  towns  in  the  north- 
em  counties.  But  so  far  was  this  from  being  the  case, 
that  in  December,  1803,  when  the  exchange  of  Dublin 
on  Loudon  was  at  16^  per  cent.,  that  of  Belfast  on 
London  was  at  5J ;  or,  in  otb^r  words,  at  the  very 
time  that  the  exchange  between  Dublin,  which  had  a 
paper  currency,  and  Ivondon,  was  about  8  per.  cent, 
against  Ireland,  the  exchange  between  Belfast,  which 
had  a  gold  currency,  and  London,  was  about  3  per 
cent,  in  its  favor.  And  this  is  not  all ;  for  while  there 
was  a  difference  of  11  per  cent,  in  the  rate  of  exchange 
lictween  Dublin  and  London,  and  Belfast  and  London, 
the  inland  exchange  between  Dublin  and  Belfast  was 
about  10  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  latter ;  that  is,  bills 
drawn  in  Dublin,  and  payable  in  the  gold  currency  of 
Belfast,  brought  a  premium  of  10  per  cent.,  while  bills 
drawn  in  Belfast,  and  payable  in  the  paper  currency 
of  Dublin,  sold  at  10  per  cent,  discount  !* 

It  is  unnecessar}'  to  refer  to  the  history  of  the 
French  aaiignati,  or  of  the  paper  currency  of  the  con- 
tinental powers  generallj',  and  of  tho  United  States, 
to  corroljorate  what  hos  been  advanced.  Such  of  our 
readers  as  wish  for  further  information  upon  these 
points  may  have  recourse  to  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
"  Cours  d'Enconomie  Politique"  of  M.  Storch,f  where 
they  will  find  an  instructive  account  of  the  influence 
of  inordinate  issues  of  paper  on  the  price  of  bullion  and 
the  exchange,  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe. 


*  Further  InformKllon  on  this  suttjeet  may  be  obtained 
Aram  the  Report,  1804,  of  the  Committee  of  the  House  of 
OommoDS  upon  the  state  of  the  circulating  paper  In  Ireland, 
It*  speda,  etc.,  from  Sir  Ilonry  Parneil's  pamphlet  on  the 
same  subject ;  and  from  the  pamphlets  of  Lord  King,  Huskis- 
lon,  eto. 

t  Paris,  1828, 4  vols.  8to, 


They  are,  In  every  case,  similar  to  tboM  now  stntod 
It  only  remains  to  determine  the  Influence  nf  flui'tuit> 
tlons  in  the  nominal  exchange  over  export*  and  lin* 
ports. 

VI.  Inflobnob  or  Fmtctdatiom*  or  RxitiMNnM 
OVER  Imports  and  ExroRTt:. -When  the  exehanK* 
is  at  par,  the  operations  of  the  marohant  are  nguhlM 
entirely  by  the  difference  between  foreign  pri<!e*  and 
home  prices.  He  imports  such  commodities  as  sell  al 
home  for  so  much  more  than  they  coat  alirusd  as  will 
indemnity  him  for  freight,  insurance,  ut«,,  and  vields, 
besides,  an  adequate  remuneration  for  hU  troulifa,  mil 
for  the  capital  employed  In  the  buslnnss  |  and  ha  «x> 
ports  those  whoso  price  abroad  is  sufflclniit  to  cover  all 
expenses,  and  to  afford  a  similar  profit,  Hut  whan 
the  nominal  exchange  becomes  unfavorable  to  a  I'liun- 
tr}-,  the  premium  which  its  merchants  receive  on  fur> 
eign  bills  has  l)een  said  to  enalde  them  to  exjKtrt  with 
profit,  in  cases  where  the  difference  lintwaen  Ilia  pri'!4 
of  the  exported  commodities  at  home  and  uliroad  nilKht 
not  be  such  as  to  permit  their  exi>ortatiiin  with  the 
exchange  at  par.  Thus,  if  the  nominal  axrliange 
were  10  per  cent  against  thU  country,  a  meri-'hnnt  wno 
had  consigned  goods  to  his  agent  abroad,  would  re* 
ceive  a  premium  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  sale  of  the 
bill ;  and  if  we  suppose  freight.  Insurance,  mercantile 
profit,  etc.,  to  amount  to  6  or  7  per  cent,.  It  would  at 
first  sight  appear  as  if  we  migiit,  in  such  circunittuiicas, 
export  commodities,  aithougli  their  price  iit  hiilita  were 
3  or4  per  cent,  higher  tiian  in  ot'icr  countries,  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  nominal  exchange  were  In  our  fa- 
vor, or  if  bills  on  this  country  sold  at  a  praniluffl.  It 
would  appear  as  if  foreigners  would  then  be  able  to 
consign  goods  to  our  merchants,  or  the  latter  to  order 
goods  from  abroad,  when  the  difference  of  real  prbaa 
would  not  of  itself  lead  to  an  importation. 

But  a  very  little  consideration  will  suffice  to  show 
that  tho  fluctnations  in  tlie  nominal  excliunge  have  no 
such  effects.  That  fall  in  the  value  of  the  purraiicy 
which  renders  the  exchange  unfavoratdo,  and  causes 
foreign  bills  to  sell  at  a  premium,  equally  Incrnaaei 
the  price  of  commodities.  And  hence,  however  irreat, 
the  premium  which  exporters  gain  by  aelllng  IiITIh  on 
their  correspondents  abroad,  merely  Indamnllies  tlieni 
for  the  enhanced  price  of  the  goods  exported,  In  such 
cases,  mercantile  operations  are  conducted  precUely  im 
they  wotdd  lie  were  tho  exchange  really  at  par  |  that 
is,  by  a  comparison  of  real  prices  at  home  uud  ahruiid, 
meaning  by  real  prices,  the  prices  at  wliU'l:  cumniiiill, 
ties  would  be  sold  provided  there  were  no  depreciation 
of  the  currency.  If  these  admit  of  exportation  or  lin> 
portation  with  a  profit,  tho  circumstance  of  the  niinilnal 
exchange  being  favorable  or  unfavorable  will  make  m 
difference  whatever  on  the  transaction, 

"  Suppose,"  says  Mr.  Blake,  who  has  very  suceess. 
fully  illustrated  this  part  of  the  theory  of  exriinnge, 
"the  currencies  of  Haml)urg  and  London  being  In 
their  duo  proportions,  and  therefore,  tho  |ibllilnal  ex* 
change  at  par,  that  sugar,  which,  from  its  abuiidani'e, 
in  London  sold  at  £60  per  hogshead,  from  Itn  suarelty 
at  Hamburg  would  sell  at  £100,  The  merchant  In 
this  case  would  immediately  export.  Upon  the  sale 
of  his  sugar,  he  would  draw  a  bill  upon  his  eoN 
respondent  al)road  for  £100,  which  be  could  at  once 
convert  into  cash  Iiy  selling  it  in  the  bill  market  at 
home,  deriving  from  this  transaction  a  profit  nf  4M, 
under  deduction  of  the  expenses  of  frelglit,  insurance, 
commission,  etc.  Now,  suppose  no  alteration  In  the 
scarcity  or  abundance  of  sugar  In  I.ondon  or  Ham- 
burg, and  that  the  same  transaction  were  to  take  plare 
after  the  currency  in  England  had  been  so  much  In* 
creased  that  the  prices  were  doubled,  and,  rnnse- 
qucntly,  tho  nominal  exchange  100  per  cent.  In  favor 
of  Hamburg,  the  hogshead  of  sugar  would  then  cost 
£100,  leaving  apparently  no  profit  whatever  tu  the  ex- 
porter.  Ho  would,  howsver,  as  iMfore,  draw  bla  bill 
on  his  correspondent  for  £100 ;  and,  a»  foreign  bllU 


EXO 


630 


BXO 


trould  baar  •  pTamlum  of  100  per  cent.,  be  would  tell 
thia  lilU  in  the  Engliih  market  for  jCSOO,  acb  tbua  de- 
rive •  profit  from  the  tran'uctlon  of  £100  depreciated, 
ur  <60,  eatimited  in  undepreciated  currency — deduct- 
ing, u  In  the  fanner  instance,  the  expenia  of  freight, 
iuaurance,  commlaaion,  etc 

"  The  caae  wuuhl  lie  preclaely  aimilar,  mulatit  mu- 
tandit,  with  the  importing  merchant.  The  unfavora- 
ble nominal  exchange  would  appear  to  occaaion  a  loaa 
amounting  to  the  premium  on  the  foreign  bill  which 
he  muat  give  in  onler  to  pay  hit  correspondent  abroad. 
But  If  the  difference  of  real  prices  in  the  home  and 
foreign  markets  were  auch  as  to  admit  of  a  profit  upon 
the  importation  of  produce,  the  merchant  would  con- 
tinue to  import,  notwithstanding  the  premium ;  for 
t  uat  would  be  repaid  to  him  in  the  advonped  nominal 
price  at  which  the  imported  produce  would  be  sold  in 
the  home  market. 

"  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  currencies  of  Hamburg 
and  London,  being  In  their  due  proportiona,  and  there- 
fore the  nominal  exchange  at  par,  that  linen  which 
can  be  bought  at  Haml>urg  for  X60  will  aoU  here  at 
£100.  The  Importer  immediately  ordera  his  corre- 
spondent abroad  to  send  the  linen  for  the  payment  of 
which  he  purchaaea  at  £50  a  foreign  bill  in  the  £n- 
gliah  market ;  and  on  the  aule  of  the  consignment  for 
£100,  he  will  derive  a  profit  amounting  to  the  differ- 
ence between  £60  and  the  expense  attending  the 
import. 

"  Now,  suppoae  the  same  tranaactlon  to  take  Q^ace 
without  any  alteration  in  the  acarcity  or  abutiJance  of 
linen  at  Hamburg  and  London,  but  that  the  currency 
it  England  has  been  ao  augmented  aa  to  be  depre- 
ciated to  half  its  value,  the  nominal  exchange  will 
then  be  100  per  cent,  agalnat  England,  and  the  Im- 
porter will  not  be  able  to  purchase  a  £50  foreign  bill 
for  leaa  than  £100.  But  as  the  pricea  of  commodities 
here  will  have  risen  in  the  same  proportion  aa  the 
money  haa  been  depreciated,  be  will  sell  linen  to  the 
English  customer  for  £200,  and  will,  as  before,  derive 
a  profit  amounting  to  the  difference  between  £100  de- 
preciated, and  £50  estimated  in  undepreciated  money, 
uud  the  expenses  attending  the  import. 

"  The  aome  instances  might  be  put  in  the  case  of  a 
fdvoratile  exchange ;  and  it  would  be  aeon,  in  the 
«ama  manner,  that  nominal  prices  and  the  nominal 
exchange  being  alike  dependent  on  the  depreciation  of 
currency,  whatever  apparent  advantage  might  be  de- 
rived from  the  former,  would  be  counterbalanced  by 
a  loaa  on  the  latter,  and  vice  rend."* 

It  appeara,  therefore,  tliat  fluctuations  in  the  nomi- 
nal exchange  have  no  effect  on  trade.  A  fall  in  the 
exchange  obligea  the  country  to  which  It  ia  unfavor- 
able to  expend  a  greater  nominal  eum  in  discharging  a 
foreign  debt  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary  ;  but 
it  does  not  oblige  It  to  expend  a  greater  real  value. 
The  depression  of  the  nominal  exchange  can  neither 
exceed  nor  full  short  of  the  comparative  depreciation 
of  the  currency.  If  British  currency  were  depre- 
ciated 10  or  15  per  cent.,  the  nominal  exchange 
would  be  10  or  15  per  cent,  against  us ;  and  we  should 
be  compelled,  in  all  transactions  with  foreigners,  to 
give  them  22s.  or  238.  for  what  might  otherwise  have 
been  procured  for  20s.  But  as  neither  228.  nor  23s. 
of  such  depreciated  paper  is  more  valuable  than  208. 
of  paper  undepreciated,  payment  of  a  foreign  debt 
would,  It  la  evident,  be  as  easily  ina'lo  in  the  one  cur- 
rency as  in  the  other ;  and  mercantile  transactions 
would,  in  such  circumstances,  be  conducted  exactly  as 
they  would  have  been  had  there  been  no  depreciation, 
and  the  nominal  exchange  at  par. 

VII.  Real  Exciuxoe. — Ilaving  thus  endeavored 
to  trace  the  influence  which  variations  in  the  value  of 
currenciea  have  over  the  exchange,  we  proceed  to  con- 
sider how  far  It  Is  influenced  by  fliutuations  in  the  tup- 


*  PatU,  ISaS,  4  volo.  8*0. 


ply  and  demand  for  bilU.  To  facilitate  this  Inquiry, 
we  shall  exclude  all  consideration  of  changes  in  th* 
value  of  money,  and  suppose  the  currencies  of  the 
different  countries  having  an  Intercourse  together  to 
b«  equal  In  weight  and  purity  to  their  mint  standard*, 
and  that  each  haa  its  proper  supply  of  bullion.  When 
two  nations  trade  together,  and  each  purchases  of  the 
other  commodtUe*  of  the  same  value,  their  debts  and 
credits  are  eqnal,  and  the  real  exchange  is,  of  course, 
at  par.  But  It  rarely  happens  that  the  debts  reclpro* 
cally  due  by  any  two  countries  are  equal.  There  1* 
almost  always  a  balance  owing  on  one  side  or  other, 
which  affects  the  exchange.  If,  for  example,  tha 
de1)ts  due  by  London  to  Paris  exceed  those  due  by  th« 
former  to  the  latter,  the  demand  in  London  for  bill* 
on  Paris  will  be  greater  than  the  demand  in  Paris  for 
bills  on  London ;  and  the  real  exchange  will,  conse- 
quently, be  in  favor  of  Paris,  and  against  I/indon. 

The  expense  of  transferring  bullion  from  one  coun- 
try to  another,  limits  the  range  within  which  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  real  exchange  between  them  la  con- 
fined. In  this  respect,  as  In  most  others,  transactions 
between  foreign  countries  depend  on  tho  aame  princi- 
ples which  govern  those  between  different  parts  of  the 
same  country.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  fluctua- 
tions In  the  real  exchange  between  London  and  Glas- 
gow can  not  exceed  the  expense  of  transmitting  money 
lietween  those  cities.  And  this  principle  holds  uni- 
versally. Whatever  may  be  the  expense  of  trans- 
mitting bullion,  which  Is  tho  money  of  the  commercial 
world,  between  London  and  Paris,  London  and  Ham- 
burg, New  York,  etc.,  tho  real  exchange  of  the  one  on 
tho  other,  can  not  for  any  considerable  period,  be  de- 
pressed to  a  greater  extent.  No  merchant  will  pay  a 
higher  premium  for  a  bill  to  discharge  a  debt  abroad, 
than  will  suffice  to  cover  the  exi)ense  of  transmitting 
bullion  to  bis  creditor. 

Hence  It  appears  that  whatever  ol>structs  or  fetters 
the  intercourse  among  different  countries,  proportion- 
ally widens  the  limits  within  which  fluctuations  in  the 
real  e.xchange  may  extend.  And  hence  the  reason 
why  It  varies  bo  much  more  in  war  than  in  peace. 
The  amount  of  the  liills  drawn  on  a  country  engaged 
in  hostilities  is  liable,  from  various  causes,  to  lie 
suddenly  increased ;  though,  whatever  may  be  the 
amounta  thua  thrown  upon  the  market,  the  depression 
of  the  exchange  con  not,  for  any  length  of  time,  ex- 
ceed tho  expense  of  coi^eying  bullion  from  the  debtor 
to  the  creditor  country.  But  during  war  thia  expense, 
which  consista  of  freight,  insurance,  etc.,  Is  sometimes 
much  augmented.  The  evidence  annexed  to  the  Re- 
port of  the  Bullion  Committee  shows  that  the  cost  of 
conveying  gold  from  London  to  Hamburg,  which, 
prior  to  the  Revolutionary  war,  amounted  to  2  or  1\, 
had  increased,  in  the  latter  part  of  1809,  to  about  7 
per  cent. ;  so  that  the  limits  within  wliich  fluctuations 
in  the  real  exchange  might  range  in  1809  were  about 
three  times  as  great  as  those  within  which  they  were  con- 
flned  in  1793.  Owing  to  our  having  the  complete  com- 
mand of  the  sea,  and  oiu  commerce  not  being  sub- 
jected even  to  the  depredations  of  privoteers,  tho  cost 
of  freight  ond  the  conveyance  of  bullion  between  this 
country  and  others,  has  not  been  affected  by  tho  war 
in  which  we  are  now  (1855)  unluckily  engaged.  Tlio 
real  exchange  between  neighboring  countries  Is  gen- 
erally, on  the  principle  now  explained,  less  likely  to 
fluctuate  than  that  between  distant  coimtries.  It 
costs  considerably  less  to  transmit  bullion  from  I^n- 
don  to  Dublin  or  Paris,  than  to  New  York  or  Canton. 
And,  oa  fluctuations  in  the  real  exchange  nro  limited 
by  its  cost,  they  may  evidently  extend  proportionally 
further  l>etwoen  distant  places  than  between  such  us 
are  contiguous.  We  have  next  to  investigate  tho  cir- 
cumstances which  give  rise  to  a  favorable  or  an 
unfavorable  balance  of  payments,  and  to  appreciate 
their  effects  on  the  real  exchange,  andoa  trade  In  gen- 
eral. 


EXO 


681 


EXO 


VIII.  JJai.ancb  or  Patmbxts.— A  very  grMt,  if 
not  the  priiiciiml,  source  of  the  erron  into  which  mer- 
ohanta,  and  the  majority  of  writers  on  exchange,  have 
been  betrayed  in  regard  to  the  balance  of  payments, 
appears  to  have  originated  in  their  confounding  the 
sum  which  imported  commodities  fetch  in  the  home 
mariiet,  with  their  cost  abroad.  It  is  obviously,  bow- 
ever,  by  tho  amount  of  the  latter  only,  that  the  bal- 
ance of  payments,  and  consequently  the  real  exchange, 
\*  Intlupuced.  A  cargo  of  corn,  for  example,  which 
cost  jI'DOOO  free  on  board  at  Odessa,  may  be  worth 
^£4500  when  imported  into  England  ;  but  the  foreign 
merchant  would  not,  unless  he  sent  hither  the  corn, 
be  untitled  to  draw  on  London  for  more  than  its  origi- 
nal coat,  or  ^£8000.  It  Is  clear,  therefore,  on  the 
slighest  consideration,  that  the  fact  of  the  imports 
being  more  valuable  than  the  ex|K>rts,  does  not  au- 
thorize the  conclusion  that  the  balance  of  payments  is 
agulniit  us.  A  favorable  or  an  unfuvuruble  balance 
depends  entirely  on  the  sum  due  to  foreigners  for  com- 
modities bought  from  them  being  loss  or  mure  tluiu  the 
sum  due  6y  them  for  commodities  bought  from  us.  It 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  prices  eventually  obtained 
for  the  Imported  or  exported  commodities. 

Tho  mercantile  system  of  commercial  jnlicy,  which 
coutlnuos  to  preserve  a  powerful  Inliuence  in  most 
countrloH,  had  for  its  grand  object  tlio  creation  of  a 
favorable  balance  of  |>aymcnts,  by  facilitating  export- 
ation and  restricting  importation.  It  la  foreign  to  our 
pur|M)se  to  qiaiie  uny  inquiry  In  regard  to  the  princi- 
ples of  this  system,  except  in  ao  far  as  they  are  con- 
nected with  exchanges.  But  it  may  be  easily  shown, 
in  opposition  to  the  commonly  received  opinions,  that 
under  ordinary  circumstances  the  value  of  the  imports 
into  commercial  countries  always  exceeds  tlie  value  of 
tiii'lr  cxpurta ;  and  that  thia  excess  or  balance  has  not, 
8pcui(ing  generally,  uny  tendency  to  render  the  real 
exchange  unfavorable. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  merchant  to  carry  the  pro- 
ducts of  din'erent  countries  from  those  places  where 
their  value  is  least,  to  tliose  places  where  it  is  great- 
ost  ;  or,  which  Is  the  same  thing,  to  distribute  them 
according  to  the  effective  demand.  Tliere  could,  how- 
ever, bo  no  motive  to  export  any  article,  unless  thut 
wliich  was  to  l)o  Imported  In  its  ateiul  were  more  val- 
uable. When  im  Kngliah  merchant  orders  a  quautity 
of  Polisii  wheat,  he  supiwses  it  will  sell  for  so  much 
more  than  its  price  In  Poland  as  will  sufSce  to  pay  the 
cost  of  freight,  insurance,  etc.,  and  to  yield,  besides, 
the  ordinary  rate  of  profit  on  tlie  capital  employed  in 
tho  transfer.  If  the  wheat  did  not  sell  for  this  much, 
its  importation  would  be  productive  of  loss.  Mer- 
chants never  export  but  in  tlie  view  of  importing  ar- 
ticles of  greater  value.  Instead  of  an  excess  of  ex- 
ports over  imports  being  any  criterion  of  an  advanta- 
geous commerce.  It  is  quite  tlie  reverse.  And  the 
truth  is,  notwitliatanding  ail  that  has  been  said  nud 
written  to  tlie  contrar}',  that  unless  the  value  of  the 
imports  exceeded  that  of  the  exports,  foreign  trade 
could  not  be  carried  on.  Were  this  not  the  cose — were 
the  value  of  tiio  exports  always  greater  tiiun  that  of 
tho  imports,  tliere  would  be  a  loss  on  every  transaction 
with  foreigners,  and  the  trade  with  them  would  either 
not  be  undertaiicn,  or,  if  begun,  would  be  speedily 
relinquished. 

In  ICnghind,  tho  rates  at  which  exports  and  Imports 
ore  ofSclaily  valued  were  fixed  so  far  back  as  1690. 
The  very  great  alteration  which  has  since  tai(on  place 
in  tho  value  of  money,  and  in  tlie  cost  of  tho  greater 
number  of  the  commoclities  of  this  and  other  countries, 
has  rendered  this  official  valuation,  though  viduable 
as  a  means  of  determining  their  quantity,  of  no  use 
whatever  as  a  criterion  of  tlie  true  value  of  the  im- 
ports and  exports.  To  obviate  this  defect,  accounts 
of  tho  reul  or  declared  value  of  the  exports,  prepared 
from  the  declarations  of  the  morchants,  are  annually 
laid  before  parliament     Thoro  is,  however,  no  such 


account  of  the  imports ;  and  it  Is,  perhape,  ImpostibU 
to  frame  one  with  anything  lllie  accuracy.  It  has  alio 
been  alleged,  and  apparently  with  some  foundation, 
tliat  mercliunts  have  fre(|uently  exaggerated  the  value 
of  articles  entitled  to  drawbacks.  But  the  extension 
and  improvement  of  the  warehousing  system,  and  the 
decrease  in  the  number  of  drawbacks,  has  very  mate- 
rUlly  lessened  whatever  fraud  or  inaccuracy  mny  have 
arisen  from  that  score.  The  declared  value  of  the  ox- 
ports  may  now  be  considered  as  pretty  uear  the  truth, 
at  Uast  sufflclently  so  fur  all  practical  purposes. 

If  perfectly  accurate  accounts  could  be  obtained  of 
the  value  of  the  exports  and  Imports,  there  can  be  no 
manner  of  doubt  that  in  all  ordinary  years  tho  latter 
would  considerably  exceed  the  former.  Tho  value  of 
an  exported  commodity  is  estimated  when  It  is  shipped, 
before  Its  value  Is  increased  by  tho  expense  incurred 
in  transporting  it  to  the  place  of  destination ;  whereas 
the  value  of  tho  commodity  imported  in  its  stead  hi 
estimated  after  It  has  arrived  at  Its  deatination,  and 
been  enhanced  by  the  cliarges  on  account  of  freight, 
insurance,  importer's  profits,  etc. 

It  is  of  little  Importance,  in  so  far  at  least  i^  the 
interests  of  commerce  are  concerned,  whether  a  nation 
carries  its  own  im|)orts  and  exports,  or  employs  other. 
A  carrying  nation  appears  to  derive  a  comparatively 
large  profit  from  its  commercial  transactions.  But 
this  excess  of  profit  is  seldom  more  than  a  fair  remu- 
neration for  the  capital  It  employs,  and  the  risk  it  in- 
curs, in  transporting  commodities.  Were  the  trade 
Iwtweon  this  country  and  France  wholly  carried  on  in 
British  Iwttoms,  our  merchants,  in  addition  to  the 
value  of  the  exiiorts,  would  also  receive  the  cost  of 
their  carriage  to  France.  This,  however,  would  be 
no  loss  to  the  French.  They  must  pay  the  freight  of 
the  commodltios  they  import.  And  if  Engilah  ships 
sail  on  cheaper  terms  than  those  of  their  own  cuuntr}', 
there  Is  no  goo<I  commercial  reason,  though  there  may 
bo  others  of  a  diOeront  kind,  why  they  should  not  em- 
ploy them  in  preference. 

In  the  United  States,  the  value  of  the  imports,  de- 
duced from  tlie  custom-house  returns,  almost  always 
exceeds  tho  value  of  tho  exports.  And  though  we 
have  been  accustomed  to  consider  the  excess  of  ex- 
ports over  imiwrts  as  the  only  sure  criterion  of  an 
advantageous  commerce,  tho  practical  politicians  of 
America  early  discovered  "  that  the  real  gain  of  the 
itnitcd  States  has  been  nearly  in  proportion  as  their 
imports  have  exceeded  their  exports."*  The  great 
excesa  of  imports  in  the  Union  la  in  part  occasioned  by 
the  Americans  generally  ex|)orting  their  own  surplus 
proiluce,  and  receiving  from  foreigners  not  only  an 
equivalent  for  tho  exports,  but  also  for  the  cost  of 
their  conveyance  to  their  markets.  "  In  1811,"  says 
the  author  just  quoted,  "  flour  sold  in  America  for  $9  50 
per  barrel,  and  in  Spain  for  $15.  The  value  of  the 
cargo  of  a  vessel  currj-ing  6000  barrels  of  flour  would, 
therefore,  be  estimated,  at  the  periml  of  its  exportation, 
at  $47,500 ;  but  as  this  flour  would,  because  of  freight, 
insurance,  exporter's  profita,  etc.,  sell  In  Spain  for 
$75,000,  the  American  merchant  would  be  entitled  to 
draw  on  his  agent  in  Spain  for  $37,600  more  than  the 
flour  cost  in  America,  or  than  the  sum  for  which  he 
could  have  drawn  hnd  the  flour  been  exported  on  ac- 
count of  a  Spanish  mercliant.  But  the  transaction 
would  not  end  hero  ;  the  $75,000  would  be  vested  in 
some  species  of  Spanish  or  other  European  goods  fit 
for  the  Amoricun  market ;  and  the  freight,  insurance, 
etc.,  on  account  of  the  return  cargo  would,  perhaps,  in- 
crease its  value  to  $100,000 ;  so  that,  in  all,  the  Amer- 
ican merchant  might  have  imported  commodities  worth 
$52,500  more  than  the  flour  originally  sent  to  Spain." 
It  is  as  Impossible  to  doubt  that  this  tninaacticjii  ia  ad- 
vantageous, OS  it  is  to  doubt  that  its  advantage  con- 
sists in  the  value  of  the  imports  exceeding  that  of  the 


•  ntkta  on  the  Cmmtret  of  (As  (Tntttd  aiuU*^  «d  ed.,  p.  380. 


■-ux,:-t.L.-k^-„.,-  ^,i^. 


EXO 


889 


EXO 


•aporU.  And  It  li  cl«u  that  Americ*  miffbt  hart  tha 
Iwlanra  nf  tha  pajrmenti  In  her  favor,  though  luch 
Iranurtloni  an  the  above  were  multiplied  to  any  con- 
ctlvaMe  extent. 

Ini<l4>ail,  therefore,  of  endearorlng  to  limit  the  trade 
whh  countrlea  from  whluh  the  importa  exceed  the  ex- 
port*, we  ahoiild  give  It  every  ponKilde  facility.  Kvery 
man  cimiilderii  that  market  as  the  Iwat  in  which  ha  ol>- 
talnn  tha  hlgheat  price  fur  hia  gwMla.  Why  then  ex- 
i'lnda  him  from  It  ?  Why  compel  a  merchant  to  aell 
•  cargo  of  mualina,  Iron,  etc.,  for  ^lO.SOO,  rather  than 
#11,(M)0  or  #13,000  ?  The  wealth  of  n  itate  U  made 
np  of  tha  wealth  of  indivldaala.  And  what  more  effec- 
tual method  of  Increaaing  Individual  wealth  can  lie 
davlaod  than  to  jiermit  buying  in  tha  cheapeat  and 
■ailing  In  Ihe  dcareat  marketa  ? 

It  would  Im  dlfllcult  tu  eatlmatn  the  miachief  which 
•baurd  n<itlona  relative  to  tho  Imliince  uf  trade  hare 
Mcaaloned  In  moat  commercial  countries.  They  have 
baon  particularly  Injurioua  to  Ureat  liritain.  The  re- 
•trlctiona  impoaad  on  the  trade  in  France  originated  In 
tha  prevalence  of  prejudicea  to  which  they  gave  riae. 
The  great,  or  rather  the  only,  argument  inaiated  on  by 
thoaa  who  prevailed  on  the  legiHlnture  to  declare  the 
Krancli  trade  a  nuiiancr,*  waa  founded  on  the  alleged 
fact,  thnt  the  value  of  the  Importa  fmm  France  con^id- 
•raldy  exceed  tha  value  of  tlio  export!*  to  her.  The 
Iwlance  wa«  termed  a  tribute  paid  by  England  ;  and  it 
waa  aagarioualy  aakad,  what  had  we  done  that  we 
•hould  1x1  obliged  to  pay  ao  much  money  to  our  nat- 
ural enemy  ?  Thoao  conaiderate  and  patriotic  peraona 
ia«m  to  have  auppoaed  that  our  merchanta  brought 
cimmmlltlea  tifim  Franca  for  no  better  reuaon  than  timt 
they  were  French,  or  to  oblige  that  ingenioua  people. 
Hut  they  were  not  quite  ao  diainterosted.  They  im- 
ported French  winea,  aiika,  and  ao  forth,  for  the  aame 
raaaona  that  they  tm|K>rted  the  augarof  the  Weat  Indiea, 
thfl  taaa  and  aplcaa  of  tha  Eaat,  and  the  tinilnr  of  tho 
llaltic  j  that  la,  liecauae  there  wna  a  demand  for  them, 
and  liecuuae  thny  wore  worth  more  In  our  marketa 
than  the  native  priKlucta  exported  in  their  atead.  The 
reaann  naaigned  for  prohil>iting  the  trade  afford*  a  con- 
rlualve  proof  of  itH  having  lieeii  advantii);ooua.  There 
ran  not,  indeed,  bo  a  doubt,  that  an  unlimited  freedom 
of  Intercourae  lietween  the  two  countrlea  would  lie  of 
great  aerviee  to  lioth,  Snppoaing  It  to  be  ao  arranged, 
doaa  any  (me  imagine  that  we  should  export  or  import 
any  commodity  to  or  from  France,  provided  wo  could 
alther  aell  or  buy  It  on  lietter  terma  anywhere  elae  7 
If  reatrictlona  on  the  trade  with  any  (mrlicular  country 
lie  not  Injuriona,  that  la,  if  it  lie  either  a  loaing  or  a 
leaa  advantagooua  trade  than  that  with  other  countrlea, 
we  may  !«  aaaurcd  that  tha  throwing  it  completely 
open  would  not  make  a  aingle  individual  engage  in  it. 
Kvery  body  knowa  that  theae  cnncluaiona  are  not 
only  theorelicany  true,  but  have  liecn  practically  ver- 
lAml.  Ttie  abolition  of  tha  diacriniinating  duty  on 
French  winea,  the  reduction  of  the  exorbitant  duty  on 
brandy,  tho  repeal  of  the  prohibition  ogainat  importing 
allka,  and  tho  opening  of  our  ports  to  French  com  and 
flour,  have  ill  lieen  advantageou".  And  though  it  bo 
true  thiit  tha  prejudices  of  the  French,  and  the  high 
dutlea  which  they  contfaine  to  impoaa  on  moat 'articles 
of  Dritlah  pro<luce,  confine  the  trade  within  compara- 
tively narrow  limits,  they  have  not  made  it  unprotitable, 
•nd  are  more  Injarioua  to  themselves  than  to  us.  It 
Is  a  curious  fact,  that  nntwithatandhig  the  great 
amount  of  our  fmjiorta  from  France,  and  our  expendi- 
ture In  that  country  on  account  of  absentees,  the  state 
of  the  excbangea  ahowa  that  the  balance  of  payments  ie 
naually  In  our  favor.  But  the  partisan^  of  the  exclu- 
sive or  mercantile  aj-atem  may  perhaps  say,  that  they 
do  not  mean  to  contend  that  It  is  profltabla  to  export 
mora  than  la  imported  ;  but  that,  by  exporting  an  ac- 
cess of  raw  and  manufactured  produce,  the  balance 


*ProUMUon  Act,  1st  William  and  Mary. 


of  payment  la  nnderad  favorable,  and  this  balano* 
(which  they  regard  as  representing  the  entire  nat 
profit  made  by  tha  country  on  Its  transactions  with 
foreigners)  la  alway  paid  In  bullion.  It  may,  how> 
aver,  be  easily  shown  that  this  statement  Is  altogether 
erroneous  j  that  a  lialanca,  whether  on  the  one  aide  or 
the  other,  is  seldom  or  never  cancelled  by  means  of 
bullion ;  and  that  it  is  rot  a  measure,  and  haa,  indeed, 
nothing  to  do  witli  the  profit  or  loaa  attending  foreign 
commercUl  tranaactions. 

If  the  premium  on  foreign  billa.  In  a  countr}-  with 
an  unfavorubte  real  exchange,  be  less  than  the  cost  of 
sending  bullion  abroati,  It  would  be  contradictory  to 
suppose  that  it  should  be  exported.  And  though  tha 
premium  on  such  bills  were  to  increase,  till  it  liecuma 
equal  to,  for  it  can  not  exceed,  the  cost  of  exporting 
tha  precious  metala,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  will 
tlien  bo  exported.  Timt  would  depend  on  whether 
bullion  were,  at  the  time,  the  cheapeat  exportalda 
commodity ;  or,  in  other  worda,  whether  a  remittance 
of  bnllion  was  the  moat  advantageoua  way  In  wliicii  a 
debt  might  lie  diacharged.  If  p  I,ondon  men^hant  owe 
jCIOOO,  or  other  aum,  in  ■'•H::,  he  endeavon  to  find  out 
tlie  choa|icat  method  of  paying  it.  On  the  auppoaition 
that  the  real  exchiinge  is  2  per  cent,  below  par,  and 
that  the  oxjiense  of  remitting  bullion  ia  alao  '2  per  cent., 
It  will  lie  indifferent  tn  him  whether  he  pays  ^£20  of 
premium  for  a  bill  of  £1000,  ]iayabio  in  Paria,  or  incur 
an  expense  of  X20  in  remitting  a  £1000  worth  of  bul- 
lion direct  to  that  city.  If  the  price  of  cloth  in  Parii 
and  I^ondon  be  such  that  It  would  require  £1030  to 
purchaae  and  send  aa  much  cloth  to  Paris  as  would  sell 
for  £1000,  he  would  no  doulit  prefer  buying  a  bill  or 
exporting  bullion.  liut  if,  liy  incurring  an  expense  of 
£1010  the  debtor  may  send  us  much  hardware  or  cot- 
ton to  Paris  as  would  sell  for  £1000,  he  would  as  cer- 
tainly prefer  paying  his  delit  b)*  ox|K>rting  the  one  or 
the  otiier.  It  woulil  save  him  1  per  cent,  mora  than 
if  he  had  liought  a  foreign  bill  or  remitted  bullion  nnd 
2  per  cent  more  than  if  he  exported  cloth.  Had  there 
liecn  any  other  commodity  which  might  have  been  ex- 
|Hirted  with  more  advantage,  he  would  have  used  it  in 
preference. 

It  la  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  trade  in  bullion  is 
govemud  by  the  same  principles  which  govern  the 
trade  in  other  thinga.  It  ia  exported  when  its  expor- 
tation ia  advantageoua ;  that  ia,  when  it  is  leas  valu- 
alde  at  home,  and  more  valuable  abroad,  than  any 
thing  else;  and  it  will  not  otherwise  lie  exported. 
The  balance  of  payments  might  be  twenty  or  thirty 
millions  against  a  countr}',  without  depriving  it  ol'  a 
single  ounce  of  bullion.  No  merchant  would  remit  a 
£1000  worth  of  gold  or  sliver  from  England  to  dis- 
charge a  debt  in  Paris,  If  he  could  Invest  £970,  £980, 
£9!H),  ur  any  sum  under  £1000,  in  any  other  apecies  of 
merchandise  which,  exclusive  of  expense,  would  sell 
in  F'rance  for  that  amount.  Those  who  deal  in  the 
precious  metals  are  as  much  alive  to  their  interests  us 
those  who  deal  in  coffee,  or  sugar,  or  indigo.  But 
who  would  attempt  to  discharge  a  foreign  delit  by  ex- 
porting coffee  which  cost  £1IN),  if  he  could  effect  the 
same  oliject  by  exporting  indigo  which  cost  only  £95  ? 
No  bullion  will  ever  lie  exiiorted  unless  Its  value  be 
less  in  the  exporting  country-  than  In  that  to  which  it 
is  sent ;  and  unless  It  lie,  at  the  some  time,  the  most 
advantageous  article  of  expert, 

2.  It  is  in  vain  to  contend  that  an  unrestricted  free- 
dom of  trade  might  render  some  unfortunate  country 
indebted  to  another  so  happily  situated  that  it  had  ii< 
demand  for  any  sort  of  ordinary  merchandise,  and 
would  only  acoeiit  of  cash  or  bullion  in  exchange  for 
its  exports.  A  cuse  of  this  sort  never  did,  and  never 
will,  occur.  It  is  not  even  possible,  A  nation  which 
Is  in  want  of  money  must  be  in  want  of  other  things ; 
for  men  desire  money  only  because  It  is  tiie  readiest 
means  of  increasing  their  command  over  necessaries 
and  enjoyments.    The  extreme  variety,  too,  in  the 


EXO 


088 


EXO 


ed  free- 
country 
,  had  ni 
and 
nge  for 
I  never 
I  which 
thin);B ; 
readiest 
:eiwarte8 
in  the 


Mfli  mA  cUniat«*— In  the  machinery,  iklll,  and  Indus- 
try of  th'  people  of  different  countriea — occaalon  extra- 
oMInary  differences  in  their  products  and  prices.  Some 
■rticlea  of  the  hi|{hpst  utility  an  |iecuUar  to  certain 
districts.  Anil  ttiere  will  ever  he  a  demand,  not  only 
for  such  articles,  l)ut  also  for  those  which,  though  they 
may  be  produced  ut  home,  moy  be  imported  of  a  better 
quality,  or  at  a  lower  price.  Nor,  till  the  passion  of 
accumulation  l>e  banished  from  the  human  breast,  will 
there  cease  to  be  a  deiire  to  send  commodities  from 
places  where  their  exchangeable  value  is  least,  to  those 
where  it  Is  greatest. 

8.  In  treating  of  the  nominal  exchange,  we  endeav- 
ored to  show  that  no  single  country  can  continue  for 
any  length  of  time  to  Import  or  export  a  greater  amount 
of  bullion  than  may  lie  necessary  to  preserve  the 
precious  metals  In  it  in  tlieir  proper  relation  to  those 
of  other  countries ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  to 
have  the  rei\l  exchange  either  permanently  favorable 
or  unfavorable.  But  though  this  principle  he  strictly 
true  in  reference  to  its  aggregate  exchange,  it  may  lie 
Incorrect  if  Its  exchange  with  one  conntrj-  only  bo  con- 
sidered. Great  llritain,  for  example,  may  generally 
have  the  exchange  in  her  favor  with  America,  provid- 
ed she  have  it  generally,  and  to  a  nearly  equal  extent, 
against  her  with  the  East  Indies,  or  some  other  coun- 
trj-.  "  She  may,"  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Rlcardo, 
"  be  Importing  from  the  north  the  bullion  which  she  is 
exporting  to  the  south.  She  may  Iw  collecting  It 
from  countries  where  it  is  relatively  abundant,  for 
others  where  it  is  relatively  scarce,  or  where,  fi-om  some 
particular  causes,  it  is  in  groat  demand.  Spain,  who 
is  the  great  Importer  of  Imllion  from  America,  can 
never  have  an  unfavorulile  exchange  with  her  colonies  j 
and  as  she  must  distribute  the  bullion  she  receives 
among  tiie  diflcrent  nations  of  the  world,  she  can  sel- 
dom have  a  favoralile  exchange  with  the  countriea  with 
which  she  trades."  See  Reply  to  Mr.  Bosquet's  Obser- 
vations on  the  Report  of  the  Bullion  Committee,  p.  17. 

On  this  principle,  Lord  King  successfully  accounted 
for  the  favorable  exchange  between  this  country  and 
Hamburg  from  1770  to  1790.  IIu  showed  that  the  im- 
portation of  bullion  from  Hamburg  and  other  parts 
was  not  more  than  equivalent  to  tho  exports  to  the 
East  Indies  and  the  home  consumption  ;  that  tho  de- 
mand corresponded  to  the  supply ;  and  that  its  volue 
remained  pretty  stationar}-.  The  extraordinary  influx 
of  bullion  into  this  country  from  the  Continent  at  the 
era  of  the  bank  restriction  in  1797,  and  the  favorable 
state  of  tho  exchange,  were  undoubtedly  owing  to  the 
reduction  in  the  issues  of  bank  paper,  and  to  the  dim- 
inution of  the  gold  currency,  caused  by  the  hoarding 
of  guineas.  In  1797  and  1798,  above  S,()0O,0flO  of 
guineas  were  coined  at  the  mint ;  and  this  extraordin- 
ary demand  for  gold  la  of  Itself  abundantly  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  verj'  favorable  exchange  of  that 
period,  and  for  the  length  of  time  during  which  it  con- 
tinued. But,  at  the  same  time  that  the  demand  for 
gold  bullion  for  the  mint  was  thus  increased,  tho  de- 
mand for  silver  bullion,  for  exports  to  India,  was  pro- 
portionally augmented. 

Ounrvl. 
In  1T95,  tho  quantity  exported  by  tho  East  In- 
dia Company  aud  prtvsto  parties  amount- 
ed to 161,795 

InlTMto. 290,777 

1T9I 9(i'2,880 

179a 8I«16091 

1799 7,297,827 

From  this  period  thu  exportation  rapidly  declined ; 
and  in  the  years  in  which  the  exchange  was  most  un- 
favoralile,  little  or  nc  silver  was  sent  to  India. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  tho  extraordinary  importation 
of  bullion  from  Hamburg  in  1797  and  1798  alTording, 
as  Mr.  Bosanquet  and  others  supposed,  a  practical 
proof  of  the  fallacy  of  the  opinion  of  those  who  contend 
that  it  is  impossible,  for  any  length  of  time,  to  subvert 
the  natural  equality  in  the  value  of  bullion  In  difTercnt 
countries,  it  is  a  striking  example  of  its  truth.     With- 


out this  tnfinx,  bntlton  In  this  country  could  not  h«Tt 
maintained  Its  proper  con'parative  value.  We  Im- 
ported It,  liecauso  tho  rec'uctlon  of  the  paiMT  currency, 
and  the  increased  exiKir^s  of  the  Ka»t  India  Company, 
rendered  its  value  higher  here  than  on  the  Continent, 
and  made  It  advantageous  for  the  Continental  mer- 
chants to  send  it  to  us,  in  the  same  manner  as  they 
would  have  sent  com,  or  any  thing  else  for  which  we 
had  an  unusual  demand.  For,  however  favoralde  the 
real  exchange  between  Hamburg  and  I^ndon  might 
have  been  tn  the  latter,  we  should  not  have  imported 
an  ounce  of  bullion,  had  It  not  been,  at  the  time,  the 
article  with  which  Hamburg  could  most  advantage- 
ously discharge  her  dolit  to  London. 

4.  In  the  absence  of  other  arguments,  it  would  l>o 
sufSclent  to  state,  that  It  Is  physically  Impossible  that 
the  excess  of  exports  over  Imports,  as  indicated  by  the 
custom-house  returns,  should  be  paid  in  bullion. 
Ever}-  countr}',  with  the  exception  of  the  United 
States,  has  its  apparently  favorable  balance ;  and,  of 
course.  If  they  really  existed,  they  would  have  to  bo 
paid  liy  an  influx  of  bullion  from  the  mines  corri>)i|iond- 
ent  to  their  aggregate  amount.  It  Is  certain,  however, 
that,  previously  to  the  discoveries  In  California  and 
Australia,  the  entire  protluce  of  the  mines,  though  It 
had  been  Increased  In  a  ten  fold  proportion,  would  have 
been  Insufficient  for  this  purpose  t  This  fact  Is  decls 
ive  of  tile  degree  of  credit  which  ought  to  lie  attached 
to  the  commonly-received  opinions  on  this  subject. 

6,  In  the  last  place,  the  profit  on  transactions  with 
foreigners  does  not  consist  in  tho  quantity  of  l)ullton 
imported  from  aliroad,  but  In  "  the  excess  of  the  value 
of  the  Imports  over  tho  value  of  the  exports."  If,  in 
return  for  exported  commodities  worth  10  or  20  mil- 
lions, wo  Import  such  as  are  worth  15  or  80,  we  shall 
gain  60  per  cent,  by  tho  transaction,  though  the 
exports  should  consist  entirely  of  nuUlon,  and  the 
imports  of  com,  sugar,  coffee,  etc.  It  Is  a  ridlculoun 
prejudice  that  would  make  bullion  bo  imported  rather 
than  any  other  article.  But  whatever  the  partisans 
of  the  exclusive  system  may  say  about  its  lieing  a 
proferaldo  product,  a  merchaniite  par  trocWfncc,  xe 
may  be  assured  that  it  will  seldom  appear  in  the  lict 
of  exports  or  imports,  while  there  Is  any  other  thing 
with  which  to  cany  on  trade  thot  will  yield  a  larger 
profit.  Tims  it  appears  that  the  excess  of  exports 
over  imports,  instead  of  tielng  any  proof  of  an  advan- 
tageous commerce,  is  distinctly  and  completely  the 
reverse ;  that  tho  value  of  the  imports  into  commercial 
countries  may,  and  almost  always  does,  exceed  the 
value  of  their  exports,  without  rendering  them  In- 
delited  to  foreigners ;  and  that  when  a  balance  of 
debt  has  been  contracted,  that  is,  when  the  sum  jxig- 
able  to  foreigners  for  Imports  is  greater  than  the  sum 
receivnble  from  them  for  exports,  bullion  will  not  lie 
sent  from  tho  delitor  to  the  creditor  countr}-,  unless  It 
be  at  the  time  tho  most  profitable  article  of  export. 

IX.  Effects  of  Real  Exciianoe  upoji  Impohts 
AND  ExpoiiTS. — Wo  have  shown  that  fluctuations  in 
the  nominal  exchange  do  not  Influence  foreign  trade. 
AVhcn  the  currency  Is  depreciated,  the  premium  which 
an  exporter  derives  from  tho  sale  of  bills  on  his  corres- 
pondent abroad,  is  barely  equivalent  to  the  Increase  in 
the  price  of  tho  exports,  occasioned  by  the  deprecia- 
tion. But  when  tho  premium  on  foreign  bills  is  not 
cansed  by  a  fall  In  the  value  of  money,  Imt  by  a 
deficient  supply  of  bills,  there  is  no  rise  of  prices,  and 
then  tho  unfavorable  exchange  undoubtedly  operates 
as  a  stimulus  to  exportation.  As  soon  as  the  real 
exchange  diverges  from  par,  the  mere  inspection  of 
price  currents  is  no  longer  enough  to  guide  tho  opera- 
tions of  the  merchant.  If  it  be  unfavorable,  the  pre- 
mium which  the  exporters  receive  on  the  sale  of  bills 
must  lie  included  in  tho  estimate  of  the  profit  they  are 
likely  to  derive  from  the  transaction.  The  greater 
that  premium,  the  less  will  be  the  difference  of  prices 
necessar}'  to  make  them  export.    An  unfavorabla  real 


EXO 


094 


EXO 


Mslwag*  baf,  la  Intth,  •ssntljr  ih*  hum  (llWct  on  »• 

rDitation  H  »  bounljr  equal  tu  tba  pnuium  oo  loniga 
IIU. 

Hat  for  lb*  waM  rwMon  that  an  unraviiraliU  rvoi 
•xcbang*  IncnoM*  axportaliun,  It  dIniinUlwii  InipiirU- 
tlon.  \VlwD  It  U  unfavoraliU,  Iht  pricni  uf  furrltfa 
pruiliicU  liroimhl  to  our  iimrkata  muit  b*  lo  much 
unil«r  thtir  prioM  n«r«,  ■•  nut  mcraljr  to  airuril,  «x- 
clutlv*  uf  •xp«nM<,  tho  unllnary  pMlIt  nn  tliair  tnie, 
but  «Im)  to  pity  tlin  premium  whlnh  tbe  lm|i<>rti>r  niutt 
kIvii  fur  a  furdifn  lilll,  If  h*  rnmit  on*  to  hU  vurra- 
■ponilvnt,  or  fur  tba  diacountatblad  to  tlw  Inruica  prka, 
If  tba  Uttar  draw  upon  bim.  A  leu  quantity  uf  fur- 
eJKn  K'xxl*  will  therefor*  euil  our  market*  when  the 
exchange  ia  raally  unfavorable  i  ami  fewer  payinvnta 
buvliiK  to  be  made  abroad,  the  comixttitiuu  fur  fun^lKU 
bllU  in  dIminUhed,  and  the  exnlianKe  rondtireil  pro- 
purtinnally  favomlje.  A  favurable  mil  excbunKe, 
GunMquontly,  operate*  aa  a  duty  on  axpurtatlou  and  a 
bounty  on  Importation. 

lUnce  it  t*  obvlou*  that  ductuatluna  In  the  rrnl  *<• 
cbang*  bare  a  necaaaitry  teuil<^ncy  to  corr*<'t  tbam- 
■elvee.  They  can  nerer,  fur  an  v  conalderiible  period, 
exceed  tbe  expente  uf  trnuimlttinK  buliiun  from  tha 
del>tor  to  tbe  oreilitor  cnuntry.  And  the  exuhanite 
can  not  continue  permanently  fiivurobleorunruvonible 
even  to  thi*  *xtFnt.  When  favorable,  it  correct* 
lt*elf  by  reetrlctluK  exportation  and  facllltntln»{  im- 
portation; and  when  unfavurabin,  It  produce*  the 
■ume  effect  by  etlmulating  ex|i<irtatlon  and  olwtruct- 
ini(  importation.  'I'be  true  rAH  forma  tha  centre  uf 
theae  oacUlutluna.  And  thuugh  tho  thouaaud  clrcuro- 
Btiinrra  which  daily  and  hourly  un<H:t  tbe  atute  of  debt 
and  cretUt,  prevent  the  ordinary  courae  uf  exchange 
Arum  Iwing  almoat  ever  precUoly  ut  |iar,  ita  lluctuo- 
tiuna,  whether  on  the  one  aldo  or  tlia  other,  are  con- 
llned  within  certain  limit*,  and  have  a  conitant  tend- 
ency to  diiiappear.  The  natural  tendency  wlilch  the 
exchange  ha*  to  correct  Itielf  I*  powerfully  aaaiatad  by 
the  operation*  of  tha  bill  merchant*. 

England,  fur  example,  may  owe  an  excea*  of  delit  to 
Amxterdnm,  yet,  aa  tha  uggrogato  amount  uf  the  debtu 
due  by  a  commercial  country,  U  guneruliy  lialunced  I  v 
the  amount  of  tlioaa  which  It  hue  tu  nu'eive,  tho  lu- 
liciency  of  bill*  on  Amatordam  In  London  will  moat 
prulittldy  be  countervailed  by  their  reilunduncy  In  aomo 
other  quarter.  And,  It  I*  tha  liuaine**  of  tbe  mer- 
chant* who  deal  In  bill*,  a*  of  those  who  deal  in  bul- 
linn  or  any  thing  elaa,  to  buy  them  where  they  are 
cheap,  that  they  may  aell  them  whore  they  are  doar. 
1['licy,  theivfore,  buy  up  tho  liUla  drawn  by  other 
ouuntrif.t  on  Amitenlam,  and  di«|H>8e  of  them  in  Ix>n- 
don ;  aad<  by  ao  doing,  prevent  any  great  fall  in  tlie 
price  of  1.1)1*  on  the  former  in  the  countrio*  in  which 
their  aiipply  exceed*  the  demand,  and  any  great  rUe 
in  (ireat  liritain  and  the  country  In  which  their  aupply 
li.'ippena  to  be  deficient.  In  our  trade  with  Italy,  tho 
bill*  drawn  on  England  generally  amount  to  a  greater 
■urn  than  thoae  drawn  on  Italy.  The  liill  merchimta, 
however,  by  buying  up  the  excea*  of  Italian  billa  on 
London,  and  aelllng  them  in  France,  Holland,  and 
other  countrie*  indebted  to  Kngland,  prevent  the  real 
excliange  from  being  much  deprvaaed. 

An  unusual  deficiency  in  the  lupply  of  com,  or  of 
auy  articl'!  of  prime  necetalty,  by  cauaing  a  audden 
augmcntal.ur.  ':  import*,  matetially  affect*  foreign 
debta  and  cred>  and  deprcue*  the  exchango.  In 
time  of  war,  tbu  .  nnce  of  payment*  I*  liable  to  be 
■till  furthoi  'liatni  A  t!i»  amount  nf  the  bill*  drawn 
on  a  country  •.•K!.-yji,'  >  foreigc  .u'stilitlca,  being  in- 
creaaed  l)y  the  wl>.>li,  ojSi  'et?  '-''its armamer.ij abroad, 
and  of  aubaidic]  to  foroi  ^i  p-j>  ens. '  Bia  neither  the 
conjoined  nor  9o;iarato  hi'ut  ace  of  lioth  oi  oit'tiT  uf 
theae  cauaes  iias  any  p.ti'<U'>nent  influence  '  ver  the 
exchange.  A  audden  inctcaae  in  the  accuatomed  *up- 
ply  of  billa  muat,  In  the  firat  Instance,  by  glutting  the 
narket,  occaiion  their  lelling  at  a  discount ;  but  tbla 


effect  will  only  be  temporary.  Tha  unuaual  faellitia* 
which  an  than  afforded  for  exportatiun,  aiul  tiM  dllH- 
oultlea  which  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  luipurtation, 
never  fail  apeedlly  tu  bring  tba  nnl  exchange  to  par. 

During  a  periud  uf  peace  we  may,  In  tha  loo  great 
ardor  of  apaculativa  eutorpriae,  export  an  excea*  uf 
produce,  overliHui  the  fureigu  uiarliet,  and  uccuKiun 
auch  a  decline  in  the  prl>'e  uf  uur  good*  abroad,  a*  to 
inalte  the  lui|xirt*  leaa  valuable  tlian  the  export*  with 
which  they  have  benu  uurchu<«il.  Uut  audi  a  atatc  uf 
thing*  can  unly  be  of  limited  duratUiu.  '1  be  diatrea* 
uf  which  It  I*  pruductiva,  aaaiated  by  the  fall  uf  the 
exchange,  uccaalona  a  diniinutiuu  uf  export*.  'I'lie 
supply  uf  uur  cunimuditlea  In  tbe  foreign  market*  I* 
rendered  mure  nearly  cuniuienaurata  with  the  demand  | 
till  in  nu  lung  lime  tlio  value  of  the  imports  again  ex- 
ceeds, aa  It  alwaya  ought  tu  do,  the  value  uf  the  ex- 
|M)rta.  Hut  wlicn  a  country  ha*  a  large  fureign 
ex|HsniUture  tu  aiiatuln,  its  ex|K)rts  art  pru|M>rtionull/ 
augmenti'il.  Wlmtever  may  have  lieen  the  foreign 
ex|iendlture  uf  (irtoat  Ilrltain  during  the  late  war. 
It  U  evident  that  It  cuuM  not  lie  defrayed  otherwise 
than  by  our  annually  exporting  an  equal  amuunt  uf 
the  prmluco  uf  uur  land,  capital,  and  labur,  fur  which 
|iayment  was  nut  received,  as  in  urdinary  cases,  by  a 
curros|Miniliiig  im|xirtutluu  uf  fiireign  comiuuditles,  iiut 
from  the  trouaury  ut  hume.  This  is  strictly  true, 
even  though  tho  ex|ieniliture  should  have  happened  tu 
lie,  in  tho  llrnt  instance,  disclmrged  by  remittances  uf 
bullion;  fur  tho  increased  supply  uf  bulltun  which  tr  t 
tbu*  required,  could  be  olituinod  unly  by  an  equally 
increa«ed  ex|Mirtatiun  of  oilier  imiducta  to  tho  countries 
poa«ea*ed  uf  mines,  or  friini  which  it  was  Imported. 
Korelgn  ux|ienditure,  by  incrouNing  ex|iorta  In  propor- 
tion tu  its  own  amount,  ho*  no  (lermanent  Inlluonce 
over  the  exchange. 

Thus  it  appears  that  an  excess  of  ex|Kirts,  Instead  of 
being  any  criterion  of  Increasing  wealth  ut  borne,  is 
unly  II  certain  Indicutluu  uf  cunimercial  luascs,  ur  of 
exi'i'i'I    ure  abroad.     "  When,"  says  Mr.  Wheutley, 

tl. :  ^jxporta  exceed  th<    iiniwrta,  ua  tliuy  must  du 

'ion  there  ia  a  largo  fureigu  expenditure,  the  equiv- 
alents tir  the  exceaa  are  received  abroad  in  lu  full  and 
ample  ii  manner  aa  if  the  produce  which  they  pur- 
chased were  actually  lmp<irted  and  ontorud  in  the  cua- 
tom-houae  booka,  and  afterward  sent  to  tbo  seat  of 
war  for  conaumptlon.  Uut  from  the  circumstance  of 
It*  not  being  in*rrte<l  in  tho  custom-house  entries  a* 
value  receivoil  against  the  produce  exported  for  iU 
payment,  the  latter  Is  deemed  tu  cunstituto  u  favoruldu 
balance,  when  It  is  In  reality  exjwrted  tu  liquidate  a 
balance  againat  us."  * 

Iiut  how  conclusive  aoever  thia  reasoning  may  ap- 
pear, it  ho*  been  aaid  to  Ih>  at  vurUince  with  tho  fact ; 
and  the  rise  of  the  exchange  at  tho  end  uf  tho  lute  war, 
during  tho  suspension  of  cash  payments,  has  been 
appealed  to  a*  showing  that  its   previous  low  rate 


eel 


of  tho 

I'll  'Jilt  '  >'  tbe 
fru;,    V ;  •  ex- 

.  I'l.      '   the 


had  not  been  occasioned  by  any 

l>: r  currency,  but  by  tho  exc.    ' 

bill  drawn  UfKin  thia  country  t' 
pendituie.  The  question,  hov 
the  excliango  recovered  from  it 
auBiienaion  of  cash  pa}-ment*,  for  lue  luUuence  ot  tliut 
measure  depended  entirely  on  the  use  made  of  It,  but 
whether  its  recovery  took  place  without  the  amount 
of  bank  paper  of  all  sort*,  or  of  tho  currency,  lirlng 
dimlnUbed  ?  The  statement*  made  In  the  article 
MoKBT  are  decisive  upon  thi*  point.  They  show  tlint 
the  currency  was  very  greatly  diminished  in  1811, 
1815,  and  181C;  and  that  this  ditninution  occasioned 
the  rise  In  Its  value,  and  in  the  nominal  exchnnge. 

Mr.  Francis  Homer,  the  well-infonnod  chainuun  of 
the  Committee  on  the  High  Price  of  Uullion,  made  tlie 
following  Btatemont  in  regard  to  this  very  iiuostion  In 
his  place  in  tbe  House  of  Common*:  "  From  Inquirie* 


•  WoKATLBT,  on  (A*  T/UOTU  <>/  Mtitty,  p.  Sit. 


,i.vy  '»•,:■.. 


BXO 


WF 


BXO 


ha  lud  BMiU,  anil  from  lb*  MmunU  oa  the  UliU,  h* 
WM  t'onrliii  mI  tuul  •  nnml»t  iinil  iiion  auiMnn  rctlui'- 
lion  <>f  lh«  I IrvulittliiK  inmlluin  hotl  navnr  takaii  (lUi* 
In  any  cuunlrx  than  Liul  occurrad  ilniM  tha  paaoa  of 
IhU  country,  with  tlia  axcaptlon  uf  IIkmu  railv^Uona 
thai  bail  taken  plana  In  Franca  aftnr  the  MImUkJ)  I'i 
•cihainr,  ami  aftar  tha  ilaitrurtlon  ut  thn  aaalgnntn 
Tha  ratluctlcin  of  tha  currcnny  had  urlglnnteil  In  tlm 
iirnvliiiM  rnll  (if  tlia  pricv*  ut  aKrluiiltural  pruilui'ii. 
That  fall  hitil  iiruduoril  a  ilnatruc.tliin  of  i'.iiiiiitry-liaiik 
pa|iartaanext«iit  whluh  wuuM  not  liava  Ix-an  thnuKht 
jwiullila,  without  mora  ruin  tluin  bad  actually  •iiauml, 
Thn  llaiik  iif  Knt(laiid  biul  iilio  raatrtctad  Ita  litUM. 
A*  appaara  iiy  tha  ancounia  racanlly  praaantad,  tha 
avarnK*  a'lioiiut  of  Ita  curranoy  waa  not,  durlnti  tha 
Uat  yaa'  moi  thai,  batwnan  £2ti,tm,*»)Q  and  ii'it),- 
00O,()(K'  '  !1>  two  yaiira  a^o  it  hail  lievn  naarar 
M  '  ,  '"  >  M  I  tt  one  tima  «van  aniountad  to  Xill,- 
'^  ''  '  '.  '  '  ut  loiikinK  to  the  diminution  uf 
^!ank  '  Eui,;>  l  paper,  tha  reduction  of  tha  coun- 
try I  aiwi  waa  am  'ii(h  to  account  for  tha  rlaa  which  had 
>  at  '  .<'a  In  tha  axchanga."  Ilrnca  It  appaara  that 
tha  I  >  ,f  the  uxuhanf(a  In  IHIA  and  iHlti  had  nothing, 
or  lint  ilf'ln,  to  ild  with  th«  ccKiintiim  of  hontllltloa,  and 
wua  untlnly ,  or  mainly,  a  oonarquvnco  uf  tho  IncroaMMl 
Talui  of  tli«  curn'ncy,  i-nuaod  liy  tlu  reduction  uf  ita 
i|Ua<-tit>  Inatead  of  liulnt(  ut  viiriunco  with  tlia  priii- 
clpl' .  wa  have  livan  pndenviirInK  to  elucidate,  tliia  fact 
atfunla  a  atrun^  ci,  illrniatiunof  their  vorrectnaaa.  And 
having  Iwiin  aanctioned  liy  the  fuUuat  ox|irrieuco,  may 
he  cimnldored  ai  lieyoiid  the  reach  of  ciivii  and  dinputo. 
An  iilijcctioii  of  a  dllTereiit  aort  haa  lieen  made,  to  an- 
othpr  iiurt  of  tho  tlieory  maintained  in  thia  auction, 
which  it  Mwiy  lie  pro|ier  to  notice. 

When  tlie  e.xchiui|;e  liecomna  unfavorahle,  the  pro- 
mluni,  procured  liy  the  aula  of  tho  hill  drawn  on  a  for- 
el);n  merchant  to  whom  liullion  haa  lioun  conalKiied,  la 
ni'  Kroatcr  than  would  be  ol>talnod  liy  conaiKninK  to 
hnn  un  e<iulvalent  amount  of  coflfoo,  tea,  au^nr,  indigo, 
etc.  An  unfavorable  real  oxchanKo  perinlta  a  iiiiir- 
chant  to  export  coniniodltlea  which  couhl  not  lio  ex- 
ported wcni  It  at  par,  or  favorulile.  Hut  tho  udvuntat,'* 
Btlll  remuina  of  ox|Hirtin){  thoae  conimoiiltica  in  profer- 
onco,  whote  prico  in  tlio  country  from  which  thuy  iire 
lent,  compared  with  their  price  In  that  to  which  they 
aro  exported,  la  lowoat.  8up|)one,  fur  oxamplo,  timt 
the  pxponse  of  trananiittinK  bullion  from  thia  country 
to  Franco  la  !)  per  cent.,  that  the  real  exchange  la 
4  per  cent,  ogalnat  ua,  that  the  price  of  bullion  U  the 
■unie  in  both  countriea,  and  that  coffee  exclualve  of  the 
axpcnaea  of  carriaKo,  ia  really  worth  4  por  cent,  more 
lit  Franco  than  In  Kngland.  In  auch  u  caae,  It  ia  obvi- 
ous that  the  exportera  of  bullion  would  realize  a  proHt 
of  only  1  ]><>r  cent.,  while  the  exportera  of  coffee  would 
realize,  indualve  of  the  premium  on  tho  aule  of  the 
foreign  bill,  a  prollt  of  7  |i^r  cent.  And  hence  tho 
oplhion  maintained  by  C'ul  sol  Torrena,^  that  when 
tho  oxchnuge  lieconioa  unfak\urablo,  thoao  commoditlea 
Ahich  contain  the  grenteal  value  in  tho  amalleat  bulk, 
ui  on  whicii  the  nxponMi  i  carriage  ia  Icuat,  are  ex- 
ported In  preference,  uppcara  to  havo  no  good  founda- 
tion. The  pricea  of  tho  commoditlea  which  nutiona 
trading  together  are  in  tho  habit  of  exporting  and  Im- 
porting, are  regulated  nut  merely  by  tho  coat  of  their 
production,  but  ala"  by  tho  expense  uf  their  carriage 
from  where  thoy  un  produced  to  wliarti  they  are  con- 
sumed. If  Great  liriluiu  were  in  the  habit  of  supply- 
ing France  with  cottuiiH  and  bullion,  tlie  average  price 
of  cottons  In  Franco,  becuune  of  tli«  ex|)enao  re<|uired 
to  convey  them  there  wiMild  priiliulily  be  from  5  to  (i 
per  cent.  Iiiglier  than  >ii  liriMiu  whilu,  beuuuso  of  the 
comparative  fiicil''v  with  which  bullion  may  b«  trans- 
ported from  the  to  to  tlie  other,  its  value  in  I'arls 
would  not,  perhaiM,  exceed  ita  value  here  more  than  1 
per  cent.     Kow,  suppose  that  when  the  pricea  uf  co(- 


t(i 


*  CbmjiaraAM  AMmoU,  eta 


.  itiid  bullion  Id  KngUnd  and  Kranoa  ara  ailjualad 
IK  '  or<liug  I'l  thair  natural  proportlona,  tha  rral  ax> 
< '  <ni{«,  Iwcui,  '  iinrjvorabla  to  ua,  U,  i<  clear  that  Ita 
r  iv.iA  ao  gfvuu  r  MlvaatB||a  to  tha  exportera  of 
I  ill' I  in  to  those  of  <:<iki«aa.  This  riaa  In  Ilia  price 
I  foreigu  liilla  doea  not  ta«rt'rt<«  llw  axpanaa  or  ttx> 
irtlng  the  uiiif       'ha  other,     it  iaavaa  the  cuat  of 

:■  reducttoH  .iiel  (r  lliaportatiun  exactly  whern  tt 
I'liuiid  it.  During  tha  ileprvsf'i'  i-'  of  Ihv  exthaikgr,  tfaa 
nxportara  of  I'uth  aitlclaa  gat  the  pr  iiti'im  '  n  Oie  billa 
drawn  on  ili.  '"  curraapundenta.  Dut  th- 1  >•  im  lu> 
ducament  to  >  |iort  bullion  in  |..«fer«nct;  tu  U  na, 
unlaaa  thu  priiu  of  bullion  Increaan  mure  raui'Uv  iu 
France,  or  ilecllaa  mora  rapidly  in  tiraat  llrltulii,  than 
that  of  cuttona. 

Whatever,  therafore,  may  bn  tho  ile|<)  salon  i  '  lb« 
oxchoiigfl,  tha  merchant  aalaota  those  cuiumoihtiea  for 
ex|Mirtatl<in  which,  exclualve  of  tlia  premium,  yielii 
tho  gmatuat  prullt  on  their  aale.  If  liulllon  be  one  >if 
theae,  It  will  of  courae  ba  axporteil;  if  not,  not.  Hut 
of  all  coninimlitlea,  bullion  la  that  of  which  tbi'  miIu* 
approaches  noareat  to  an  equality  In  dilTurl'iit  .  <iun- 
triea,  ao  that  it  la  the  leuat  likely  to  lie  r\|iiirti'd 
during  un  unfavorable  exchango.  The  denuind  f«r  It 
la  comparatively  nteuily,  and  no  great  surplus  (quantity 
could  bo  lm|H>rted  lnt<i  uno  country  without  reducing, 
or  exported  from  another,  without  ralsiug  its  value  to 
as  to  unlit  it  aithor  for  exportation  or  inijHirtiiti  n.  In 
most  casea  n  amall  part  only  of  an  unfavoriilile  '  ilunce 
is  iHtld  n  bullion.  The  uperutions  of  the  biilil<  i  mor- 
clmntx  I  ''II  confined  chiolly  to  tho  dUtrlbutiun  C  the 
fresh  supplies  olitulno<l  from  the  minea,  In  pru|  lion 
to  tho  wants  of  dilferent  countriea, 

X.  CoMfUTKIt  KXCIIANUK, — Iluving  thiia  alll'-av* 
ored  to  point  out  tho  munnor  In  which  variaition  •  In 
tho  vuluoa  of  tho  currenclea  of  nations  ti'«din^  to- 
gether, and  In  the  supply  and  demand  fur  bills,  si  pa- 
rately  affect  tho  oxclmngo,  it  nov  only  remains  to 
ascertain  thoir  combined  effect,  or  tho  computed  'r 
actual  course  of  exchange.  From  whut  bus  bcin 
already  stated,  tt  la  obvious,  that  whon  tho  nomiiin  '• 
and  teid  exchange  are  lioth  favorable  or  luith  unfuvorii- 
blo,  tho  cuinyiu^i't/ exchange  will  express  thoir  aum ;  hih: 
that  when  ono  U  favorablo  and  tho  other  uufuvurable. 
it  will  express  their  iliffereiu)*.  When,  for  example, 
the  currency  of  Great  Uritain  la  of  the  mint  standiiril 
and,  |iurlty,  while  that  of  France  Is  6  jicr  cent,  de- 
graded, the  nomittal  exchange  will  be  6  percent.  In  our 
favor.  Hut  the  retU  oxchuugo  may,  at  the  same  time, 
bo  either  favorable  or  unfavorable.  If  it  be,  also,  favor- 
ablo tu  tho  extent  of  1,  2,  !),  etc.,  per  cent.,  the  com- 
puted exchange  will  bo  C,  7,  8,  etc,  per  cent.  In  our 
favor.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if  It  be  unfavorable  to 
the  extent  of  1,  2,  S,  etc.,  per  cent.,  tha  computed  ex- 
cliuugo  win  be  only  'I,  9,  2,  etc.,  per  cent.  In  our  favor. 
When  the  rf(U  exchange  is  in  favor  of  ono  country, 
and  tho  nominal  exchango  equally  against  it,  tho  nmi- 
puteJ  exchange  is  ut  par,  and  t'i'ce  rtrid. 

A  com|iarison  of  tho  market  with  tho  mint  pricn  of 
bullion  uffiirds  tho  licst  and  readiest  means  by  which 
to  ascertain  the  stato  of  the  exchange.  AVhen  thoro 
are  no  restrictions  un  tho  trudo  In  tho  precious  metuls, 
tho  excess  of  tho  market  over  tho  mint  price  of  bullion 
alTords  an  accurate  roeastiro  of  the  depreciation  of  the 
currency.  If  tho  market  and  mhit  prlco  of  bullion  at 
Paris  and  l«ndon  exactly  corresponded,  then,  inas- 
much 08  the  real  value  of  bullion  must  be  very  nearly 
tho  same  In  both  countries,  the  nominal  exchange 
would  lie  at  par ;  and  whatever  fluctuations  the  coin- 
puted  exchange  might  exhibit,  must,  in  such  cases,  be 
traced  to  fluctuations  In  tho  real  exchange,  or  In  the 
supply  and  denumd  for  bills.  If,  whon  the  market 
prlco  of  bullion  in  Tarls  Is  equal  to  Its  mint  price,  it 
exceeds  it  2  per  cent.  In  I^iondon,  it  is  a  proof  that  our 
curroncy  is  2  por  cent.  deprecUted,  and  consequently 
i  the  iwmliml  oxchango  lietwocn  Furls  und  London  muH 
I  be  2  per  coat,  against  the  latter.    Inatead,  however, 


EXC 


636 


BXO 


ot  the  eompttted  or  ai^ual  course  of  exchange  being  8 
per  cent,  against  London,  It  may  Ije  against  it  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  or  in  its  favor.  It  will  lie  more 
against  it  provided  the  real  exchange  be  also  unfavor- 
able ;  it  will  be  less  against  it  provided  the  reid  ex- 
change be  in  favor  of  London,  though  to  a  less  extent 
than  the  adverse  nominal  exchange ;  and  it  will  he  in 
favor  of  London,  should  the  favorable  real  exceed  the 
unfavorable  nominal  exchange.  Thus,  if,  while  ISritish 
currency  is  6  per  cent,  depreciated,  anC  French  cur- 
rency at  par,  the  computed  or  actual  course  of  ox- 
change  l>etween  Paris  and  London  were  10  or  12  per 
cent,  against  the  latter,  it  would  show  that  the  real 
exchange  was  also  against  this  country  to  the  extent 
of  6  or  7  per  cent.  And  if,  on  tlin  other  hand,  the 
computed  exchange  were  only  2  or  3  per  cent,  against 
London,  it  would  show  that  the  real  exchange  was  8 
or  1  i.cr  cent,  in  its  favor,  and  so  on. 

It  has  been  already  shown,  that  in  so  far  at  least  as 
the  question  of  exchange  is  involved,  the  differences  in 
the  value  of  bullion  in  different  countries  are  limited 
by  the  cxpen.se  of  its  transit  from  one  to  another.   And 
hence,  by  ascertaining  whether  a  particular  country 
exports  or  imiiorls  bullion  to  or  from  other  countries, 
wa  may  determine  Its  comparative  value  in  these 
conntries.    Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  expense  of 
conveying  bullion  from  this  countrj'  to  France,  in- 
cluding the  profits  of  the  bullion  dealer,  is  1  per  cent. ; 
it  is  clear,  inasmuch  as  bullion  is  exported  only  to  find 
its  level,  that  whenever  our  merchants  begin  to  export 
it  to  France,  its  value  there  must  be  at  least  1  per  cent, 
greater  than  in  England ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  when 
they  import  bullion  from  J'rance,  its  value  here  must 
be,  at  le-st  1  per  cent,  greater  than  in  France.     In 
judging  of  the  exchange  Iwtween  any  two  countries, 
this  circumstance  should  always  be  attended  to.    If  no 
bullion  be  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other,  wo  may 
conclude  that  its  value  is  nearly  the  same  in  both ;  or, 
at  all  events,  that  the  difference  of  its  value  is  not 
more  than  the  expense  of  transit.    On  the  supposition 
that  the  entire  expense,  including  profit,  of  conveying 
bullion  from  San  Francisco  to  London  is  6  per  cent., 
and  that  London  is  importing  bullion,  it  is  clear,  pro- 
vided the  real  exchange  be  at  par,  and  the  currency 
of  lioth  cities  at  their  mint  standards,  that  the  nnminal, 
or,  which  in  this  case  is  the  same  thing,  the  mmpiited 
exchange,  will  be  5  per  cent,  in  favor  of  London,  but 
If  the  currency  of  London  be  5  per  cent,  depreciated, 
or.  in  other  words,  if  the  marltet  price  of  liullinn  at 
London  be  5  per  cent,  nhove  its  mint  price,  the  com- 
puteil  exchange  Iwtwccn  it  and  San  Francisco,  su|)- 
po!<ing  tlio  real  exchange  to  continue  at  par,  will  ol)- 
viously  be  at  pur.     It  may  therefore  lie  laid  down  as  n 
general  rule,  that  when  bullion  begins  to  pass  from 
one  country  to  another,  the  expense  of  transit,  pro- 
vided the  mint  and  market  price  of  bullion  in  the  ex- 
porting country  correspond,  will  indicate  how  much 
the  value  of  bullion  in  it  is  lielow  its  value  in  the 
country  into  which  it  is  imported,  and  will  be  identical 
with  its  unfavorable  nominal  exchange :  and  that  wlien 
the  market  exceeds  the  mint  price  of  bullion  in  the  ex- 
porting countrj',  the  expense  of  transit  added  to  this 
excess  will  give  the  total  comparative  reduction  of  the 
value  of  the  precious  metals  in  that  countrr.     The 
converse  of  this  takes  )ilace  in  the  country  importing 
bullion.     When  its  currency  is  of  the  mint  standard, 
the  expense  of  transit  is  the  measure  nf  its  favorable 
nominal  exchange ;  hut  when  its  curren' y  is  relatively 
redundant  or  degraded,  the  difference  between  the  ex- 
pense of  transit  and  the  excess  of  the  market  above 
the  mint  price  of  bullion,  will  mejisure  the  extent  of 
the  fuvoralile  or  unfavorable  nominal  exchange.  It  will 
be  favorable  when  the  depreciation  is  less  than  the  ex- 
pense of  transit,  and  unfavorable  when  it  is  greater. 

From  1809  to  1S15  inclusive.  Great  Britain  continued 
to  export  golil  and  silver  to  the  Continent.  During 
this  period,  therefore,  we  must  add  the  expense  of  its 


export  to  the  excess  of  the  market  over  the  mint  prlca 
of  bullion,  to  get  at  the  true  relative  value  of  British 
currency,  and  the  state  of  the  real  exchange.  Mr. 
(ioldsmid  stated  to  the  bullion  committee  that,  during 
the  last  five  or  six  months  of  1801),  the  expense  of 
transporting  gold  to  Holland  and  Hamburg,  includ- 
ing freight,  insurance,  cx|)orter'B  profits,  etc.,  varied 
from  4  to  7  per  cent.  liut  at  the  time  that  the  relative 
value  of  bnllion  in  liritaln  was  at  h^  (medium  of  4 
and  7)  per  cent,  below  its  value  In  Hamlmrg,  the  mar- 
ket  price  of  gold  bullion  exceeded  its  mint  price  10  or 
SO  per  cent.,  or  18  per  cent,  at  an  average ;  so  that  the 
currency  of  this  country,  as  compared  with  that  of 
Hamburg,  which  differed  ver>'  little  from  its  mint 
standard,  was  depreciated  to  the  extent  of  about  23^' 
per  cent.  Now,  as  the  computed  or  actual  course  of 
exchange  varied,  during  the  same  period,  from  10  to 
21  per  cent,  against  London,  it  Is  plain  the  real  ex- 
change could  not  be  far  from  par.  Had  the  computed 
exchange  l>een  less  unfavorable,  it  would  have  shown 
that  the  real  exchange  was  in  favor  of  lA>ndon  ;  had 
it  l>een  mora  tmfavorable,  it  would,  on  the  contrary, 
have  shown  that  the  re(^  exchange  was  against 
London. 

Provided  an  accurate  account  could  be  obtained  of 
the  expense  attending  the  transit  of  bullion  from  this 
country  to  the  Continent  during  the  sulisequent  years 
of  the  war,  it  would  most  likely  be  found,  notwith- 
standing the  extraordinary  depression  of  the  nnminal, 
that  the  real  exchange  varied  but  little  from  par ;  and 
that  the  exiiortatinn  of  gold  and  silver  was  not  a  con- 
sequence of  the  balance  of  payments  being  against  us, 
but  of  its  being  advantageous  to  export  liulllon,  be- 
cause of  its  being  more  valuable  on  the  Continent. 
None  will  contend  that,  in  180!l,  1810,  etc.,  gold  and 
silver  were  so  redundant  in  this  country  as  to  sink 
their  relative  value.  An}'  surh  supposition  is  out  of 
the  question.  During  the  period  referred  to,  they 
were  sent  abroad,  because  the  depreciation  of  paper 
exceeded  the  cost  of  the  transit  of  bullion ;  and  it  was 
every  luMly's  interest  to  pay  their  debts  in  tlio  depre- 
ciated currency,  and  to  export  that  which  was  unde- 
preciated to  countries  where  it  ))ussed  at  its  full  value 
us  coin,  or  in  which  bullion  was  in  greater  demnnd. 
Had  our  paper  currency  been  sufficiently  reduced,  the 
supply  of  gold  in  the  kingdom  in  1809, 1810,  etc.,  com- 
pared with  the  demand  which  must,  under  i<uch  cir- 
cumstances, have  been  experienced,  was  so  very  small, 
that  instead  of  exporting,  we  should  have  ini))orted 
the  precious  metals  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  extraordinary  exijortution  of  llritish  goods  to 
the  Continent  during  the  lutter  years  of  the  war,  has 
licKn  very  generally  supposed  to  have  been  in  great 
measure  owing  to  the  depression  i'  the  ex<liunge, 
liut,  in  so  fur  us  this  depression  was  occosioiit'd  by  tho 
redimdancy  or  depreciiition  of  the  currency,  it  could 
have  no  such  efTeot.  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  to  form 
any  opinion  as  to  the  influehce  of  fluctuations  in  tho 
computed  exchange  on  ex|)ort  and  imiiort  trade,  with- 
out previously  ascertaining  whether  they  are  a  conse- 
quence of  fiuctuations  in  tho  real  or  nnminol  exchange. 
It  is  only  by  an  Hnfavoral)le  real  exchange  that  ex- 
Iiortation  Is  facilitated  ;  and  it  may  lie  favorable  when 
the  computed  exchange  is  unfavorable,  '*  .Suppose,'* 
to  use  an  example  given  by  Mr.  Blake,  "  tho  com- 
puted exchange  between  Hamburg  and  London  to  liel 
percent,  against  thiscoimtry,  and  that  this  arises  from 
the  real  exchange  which  is  favorable  to  the  amount  of 
4  percent.,  and  a  nominal  exchange  unfavorulrln  to  the 
extent  of  5  per  cent. ;  let  tho  re:»l  price  of  bullion  at 
Hamliiirg  and  London  lie  precisely  the  same,  unil,  con- 
sequently, the  nnminal  prices  different  by  tlin  amount 
of  the  nnminal  exchange,  or  5  per  cent. ;  now,  if  tho 
expenses  of  freight,  insurance,  etc.,  on  tho  transit  of 
liullion  from  Hamburg  are  H  per  cent.,  it  is  evident 
that  a  profit  would  be  derived  from  the  imp<irt  of  that 
article,  notwithstanding  the  computed  exchange  was  X 


lei 
bar 


vt. 


EXC 


637 


£X0 


{Mr  cent,  against  us.  In  this  cose,  the  merchant  must 
give  a  premium  of  1  per  cent,  for  the  foreign  bill,  to 
pay  for  the  bullion ;  £100  worth  of  bullion  at  Ham- 
burg would  therefore  cost  him  £101,  and  the  charges 
of  importation  would  Increase  the  sum  to  £104.  Upon 
the  subsequent  sale,  then,  for  £106  of  depreciated 
Durrency  in  the  home  marlcet,  he  would  derive  from 
the  transaction  a  profit  of  £1.  This  sum  is  precisely 
the  differenco  between  the  real  exchange  and  the  ex- 
penses of  traniiit,  that  part  of  the  computed  exchange 
which  depends  on  the  nominal  producing  no  effect ; 
since  whatever  is  lost  by  its  unfavoraldc  state  is  coun- 
terbalanced by  a  corresponding  inequality  of  nominal 
prices."*  In  the  same  manner  it  may  be  shown  that, 
though  the  computed  be  favorable,  the  real  exchange 
may  be  unfavorable ;  and  that,  consequently,  it  may 
be  really  advantageous  to  export  when  it  is  apparently 
advantageous  to  import.  But  it  would  be  tedious  to 
multiply  insUnces,  which,  as  the  intelligent  reader 
will  readily  conceive,  may  be  infinitely  varied,  and 
which  have  been  sufficiently  explained  in  the  fore- 
going sections. 

The  real  cause  of  the  extraordinarj'  importation  of 
British  produce  into  the  Continent,  in  1800, 1810, 1811, 
etc.,  notwithstanding  the  anti-commercial  system  of 
Napoleon,  is  to  l)e  found  in  the  annihilation  of  the 
neutral  trade,  and  our  monopoly  of  the  commerce  of 
the  world.  The  entire  produce  of  tlie  East  and  West 
was  at  our  disposal.  The  Continental  nations  could 
neitlicr  procure  colonial  products,  nor  raw  cotton  for  the 
purpose  of  manufacturing,  except  from  England.  Brit- 
ish merchandise  was  thus  almost  indispensable ;  and 
to  this  our  immense  exportation,  in  spite  of  all  prohibi- 
tions to  the  contrary,  is  to  be  ascribed. 

XI,  History  and  Influence  of  Bu.i.s  op  Ex- 
CUANOE. — I'  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  era  when  bills 
of  exchange  were  first  employed  to  transfer  and  ad- 
Just  the  mutual  claims  and  obligations  of  merchants. 
Their  Invention  has  been  ascribed  to  the  Arabians  and 
Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  it  seems  certain  that 
they  were  in  use  in  remote  antiquity.  Isocrates  states 
•that  a  stranger  who  brouglit  sumo  cargoes  of  corn  to 
Athens,  furnished  a  merchant  of  the  name  of  Strat- 
ocles  with  an  order  or  bill  of  exchange  on  a  town  on 
the  Euxine,  where  money  was  owing  to  him ;  ond, 
because  the  person  who  had  drawn  the  bill  had  no 
flxed  domicile,  Stratoclcs  was  to  have  recourse  on  a 
merchant  in  Athens,  in  tlie  event  of  its  being  pro- 
tested. The  merchant,  says  Isocrates,  who  procured 
this  order  found  it  extremely  advantageous,  inasmuch 
as  it  enabled  him  to  avoid  risldng  his  fortune  on  seas 
covered  with  pirates,  and  the  hostile  squadrons  of  the 
Lacedemonians. — De  I'auw  Recherches  sur  let  Grecs, 
i,,  258. 

There  is  also  good  evidence  to  show  that  the  method 
of  transferring  and  canceling  the  delits  of  parties  re- 
siding at  a  distance  liy  means  of  letters  of  credit, 
whicli  are  in  effect  the  same  as  bills  of  exchange,  was 
not  unliuown  to  the  Romans.  Cicero,  in  one  of  his 
epistles  to  Attlcus,f  inquires  whether  his  son  must 
carrj-  casli  to  defray  tlie  expense  of  his  studies  with 
him  to  Athens,  or  whctlier  lie  might  not  save 
this  trouldo  and  rislc  by  obtaining  an  assignment  for 
an  equivalent  sum  from  a  creditor  in  Rome  on  his 
debtor  in  Atliens.  It  is  evident,  from  a  sulisoquent 
epistle  of  Cicero,  that  the  latter  method  liad  lieen  pre- 
ferred, and  tliat  tlie  transference  of  tlie  money  had, 
in  conseijueiice,  lieen  rendered  unnecessary.} 

Macplierson  stutes§  that  the  first  mention  of  bills  of 


*  ObBurvutioiiB,  etc.,  p.  01. 

t  Epiiit.  ad  Atticum,  xll.  2. 

t  Epift.  nd  Attimm,  xll.  2T.  "  Do  Cicerone,  ut  scrlbls,  Ita 
faelsm:  Ipst  pennlttnni  du  tempore;  nummnrum  quantMm 
opus  orlt  ulpemMetur  tu  vldiilils."  In  his  notes  on  a  paral- 
lel p»s>a(tn,  Ormvlns  remarks,  "  PermtUatio  est  quod  nimo 
Iwrbare  eombi'um  dlcltur."— iijp<«(.  ad  AUieum,  xl.  24, 

I  Attnait  of  OumnMFM,  1. 40S, 


exchange  in  modem  historj'  occurs  in  1266,  The 
pope,  having  quarreled  with  IManfred,  King  of  Sicily, 
engaged,  on  Ilenrj'  III,  of  Kiit,'iand  agreeing  to  indem- 
nify him  for  the  expense,  to  depose  ManfVcd,  and  raisa 
Henry's  second  son,  Edmund,  to  the  Sicilian  throne. 
The  enterprise  misgave.  But  the  merchants  of  Sienna 
and  Florence,  who  oiiginally  advanced  the  money  to 
carry  it  into  effect,  or  rather  to  gratify  the  pope's  ra- 
pacity, were  paid  by  bills  drawn  on  the  prelates  of 
England,  who,  although  they  protested  that  they  knew 
nothing  at  all  about  the  transaction,  were  nevertheless 
compelled,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  to  pay  tho 
bills  and  interest!* 

Capmany,  in  his  "  Memoirs"  respecting  tho  com- 
merce, etc.,  of  Barcelona,  gives  a  copy  of  an  ordon- 
nance  of  tho  magistracy,  dated  in  ISiVl,  enacting  that 
bills  should  be  accepted  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
their  presentation ;  a  sufficient  proof  that  they  were 
in  general  use  in  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  centurj-. 

But  whatever  be  the  era  of  tho  introduction  of  bills 
of  exchange,  few  inventions  have  redounded  more  to 
tho  public  advantage.  Without  this  simple  and  inge- 
nious contrivance,  commerce  could  have  made  no  great 
progress.  Had  there  been  no  means  of  adjusting  the 
mutual  claims  of  debtors  and  creditors  otherwise  than 
by  the  intervention  of  metallic  money  (for  bank  paper 
is  only  another  species  of  bills  of  exchange),  a  very 
large  portion  of  that  capital  which  is  setting  productive 
labor  in  motion  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  and 
ministering  to  the  wants  and  enjoyments  of  mankind, 
must  have  been  emploj'ed  in  eflfectlng  those  exchanges 
which  are  much  better  eflTected  by  the  agency  of  a  few 
quires  of  paper.  Instead  of  a  perpetual  importation 
and  exportation  of  gold  and  silver,  necessarily  at- 
tended with  nn  immensity  of  trouble  and  expense, 
bills,  possessing  little  or  no  intrinsic  worth,  and  which 
are  transferred  with  the  utmost  facility,  suffice  to  ad- 
just the  most  extensive  and  complicated  transactions. 
But  the  mere  setting  free  of  an  immense  productive 
power,  engaged  in  a  comparatively  unprofitable  em- 
ployment, is  only  one  of  the  many  benefits  we  owe  to 
the  use  of  liilis.  By  cheapening  the  instruments  l>y 
which  commerce  is  carried  on,  they  have  material!)' 
reduced  the  prices  of  most  articles  ;  and  have,  in  con- 
se(iuence,  increased  the  command  of  all  classes  over 
necessaries  and  luxuries,  and  accelerated  the  progress 
of  civilization,  liy  occasioning  a  more  extensive  inter- 
course and  intimate  connection  between  different  and 
independent  countries  than  would  otherwise  have 
taken  place. 

In  a  political  point  of  view  their  effects  have  lieon 
equally  salutary.  They  enalilc  individuals  impercepti- 
bly to  transfci  their  fortune  to  otlier  countries,  and  to 
preserve  it  safe  alike  from  the  rapacity  of  their  own 
governments  and  the  hcstilo  attacks  of  otiiers.  The 
security  of  property  has,  in  consequence,  been  vastly 
augmented.  And  though  we  sliould  concede  to  tho 
satirist  tliat  paper  credit  lias  "  lent  corruption  lighter 
wings,"  it  has,  at  the  same  time,  powerfully  contributed 
to  render  sulijects  less  dependent  on  tlie  policy,  and 
less  liable  to  be  injuriously  affected  liy  Hie  injudicious 
measures  of  tlieir  rulers.  In  countries  in  a  low  stage 
of  civilization  the  inliabitants  endeavor,  by  liurying 
all  the  gold  and  silver  they  can  collect,  to  preserve  a 
part  of  their  property  from  the  despots  by  whom  they 
lire  ajt^mately  plundored  and  oppressed.  Tliis  was 
universally  tlie  case  in  tho  Middle  Ages ;  and  in  Tur- 
key, India,  Persia,  and  other  eastern,  and  also  in 
some  European  countries,  the  practice  is  still  carried 
on  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Some  economists  have 
endeavored  to  account  for  the  long-continued  importa- 
tion and  high  value  of  the  precious  metals  in  India, 
by  tlio  loss  which  necessarily  attends  the  practice  of 
hoarding ;  and  undoubtedly  this  locking-up  of  capital, 
while  it  evinces  an  extreme  degree  of  insecurity,  is  a 


*  liumo's  Snglimii,  cap.  U> 


EXC 


638 


EXO 


mjn  oaiiM  of  tlia  poverty  of  tbeae  coiuitriei.  But 
the  security  afforded  by  biUs  of  exchange  is  infinitely 
greater  than  any  which  can  be  derived  from  the  bar- 
baroua  expedient  of  trusting  property  to  the  bosom  of 
the  earth.  "  Pregnant  with  thousands  flits  the  temp 
nnseen,"  and  in  a  moment  places  the  largest  fortune 
beyond  the  reach  of  danger,  Mr.  Harris  was  there- 
fore right  in  saying,  "  that  the  introduction  of  bills  of 
exchange  was  the  greatest  security  to  merchants,  both 
as  to  their  persons  and  effects,  und  consequently  the 
greatest  encourageipent  to  commerce,  and  the  greatest 
blow  to  despotism,  of  any  thing  that  ever  was  in< 
vented." 

Its  extensive  commerce,  the  wealth  and  punctuality 
of  its  merchants,  and  their  intimate  connpctlon  wiUi 
all  the  other  great  trading  cities  of  the  W'  Ii),  made 
Amsterdam,  previously  to  the  peace  of  17C3,  the  chief 
place  where  the  accounts  of  commercial  countries 
were  balanced  and  adjusted.  But  the  loss  of  foreign 
trade,  and  the  other  vexations  t  <  which  Holland  yim 
BUiijected  during  the  ascendency  o.  the  French,  nearly 
divested  Amsterdam  of  all  share  in  this  business ;  and 
it  has  not  since  recovered  its  former  superiority.  Lon- 
don is  now  the  trading  metropolis  of  Europe  and  the 
world,  univtrti  orbia  terrarum  emporium.  The  vast 
extent  of  its  commercial  dealings  necessarily  renders 
it  the  great  mart  for  bills  of  exchange.  Its  bill-mer- 
chants, a  class  of  men  remarkable  for  their  shrewdness 
and  generally  possessed  of  large  capitals,  assist  in 
trimming  and  adjusting  the  balance  of  debt  and  credit 
between  the  most  remote  countries.  They  buy  up 
bills  where  they  are  cheap,  und  sell  them  where  they 
are  dear,  and,  by  the  extent  of  their  correspondence 
and  the  magnitude  of  their  transactions,  give  a  steadi- 
ness to  the  exchange  to  which  it  could  not  otherwiie 
attain. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  usance  and  days 
of  grace  for  bills  drawn  at  London  upon  some  of  the 
principal  commercial  cities : 


t                         l*inion  OD 

U.UCf. 

1  tiftjra  uf  jrrHCA. 

Amsterdam 

1  ni.d.» 

1  m.  d. 

1  in.  d. 

1  m.  d. 

1  m.  d, 
14  d.  a. 
80  d.  d. 
14  d.  (•. 

1  m.  il. 
00  d.d. 
80  d.  d. 

2  in.  8. 
60d.d. 

a  m.  d. 

'i  m.  B. 

S  m.  (L 
14  d.  a. 

8  m.  d. 

8  111.  d. 
14  d.  a. 
80  d.  d. 

8  m.  d. 

8  m.  d. 
80  lis. 
80  d.  «. 
80  d.  d. 
'il  A.  s. 
00  d.  s. 

0 
0 
0 

13 

13 

10 

0 

4 

8 

14 

6 

14 

6 

14 

14 

0 

0 

80 

6 

8 

18 

8 

0 

8 

< 

6 

8 

8 

Hamburg 

Alton* 

Dantzic 

Paris 

Bremen..., 

Barcelona. 

Madrid 

Cadiz. 

BUboa 

Gibraltar 

Venice 

MalU 

Nwles. 

Palermu 

Oporto , 

Kio  Janoiit^. 

Dublin 

New  York 

*  m.  d.,  m.  s.,  d.  d.,  d.  i,,  d.  a.,  respectively  donate  inontlu 
after  dnU,  month*  <f/Ur  tight,  dayt  after  date,  dayi  after 
light,  dayt  <^fter  acceptance. 

In  Fnince,  days  of  grace  were  supprcs.sed  liy  the 
C"(le  ,le  ("oramerw,.  article  1,S5.  Fa  Austria,  bills  pay- 
able at  dight,  or  on  demand,  or  at  less  than  7  days 
after  sl^ht  or  date,  are  nut  allowed  any  days  of  grace. 
In  I'ctersl.urg,  bills  after  date  are  allowed  10  du^s' 
grace,  but  ofter  sight  only  3  days'  do. 

Ill  the  diitlug  of  billM,  the  d<<w  style  is  Died  in  every 
country-  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  llussiu.     A 


pro|)osition  is  noir  before  the  Itussian  government  for 
the  iidoptLin  of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

In  1/indon,  bills  of  exclmngo  are  liought  and  sold 
by  brokers,  who  go  round  to  the  priBcii>al  merchants  i  the  other  hand,  thu  direct  exchange  wore  less  than  24 


and  dlsAorer  whether  thry  are  buyen  or  Milan  of 
bills.  A  few  of  the  brokers,  of  most  influence,  after 
ttscertalnhig  the  state  of  the  relative  supply  and  de- 
mand for  tills,  suggest  a  price  at  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  transactions  of  the  day  are  settled,  with 
such  deviations  as  particular  bills,  fh>m  their  being  in 
a  very  high  or  low  credit,  may  be  subject  to.  The 
price  fixed  by  the  brokers  is  that  which  is  published 
in  Wlttenhall's  List ;  but  the  first  houses  generally 
negotiate  their  bills  on  i,  1,  I^,  und  2  per  cent,  bettor 
terms  than  those  quoted.  In  London  and  other  groat 
commercial  cities,  a  class  of  middleman  speculate 
largely  on  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  exchange ;  buying 
bills  when  they  expect  a  rise,  and  selling  them  when 
a  fall  is  anticipated. 

It  is  usual,  in  drawing  foreign  bills  of  exchange,  to 
draw  them  in  sets,  or  duplicates,  lest  the  first  should 
bo  lost  or  miscarry.  When  bills  are  drawn  in  sets, 
each  must  contahi  a  condition  that  it  shall  be  payable 
only  while  the  others  remain  unpaid ;  thus,  the  first  is 
payable  only,  "  second  and  third  unpaid ;"  the  second, 
"  first  and  third  unpaid  ;"  and  the  tliird,  "  first  and 
second  tmpaid." 

Bills  of  exchange  purporting  to  be  drawn  at  any 
place  out  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  to  be  deemed  to 
be  liable  to  the  stamp-duty  on  such  bills,  though  they 
may,  in  fact,  have  been  drawn  in  the  United  King- 
dom. (§  4.)  The  holders  of  foreign  bills,  or  bills 
drawn  out  of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  to  affix  proper 
adhesive  stamps  to  the  same  liefore  negotiating  them, 
under  a  penalty  of  .£50.     (§  6.) 

No  one  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  rules  of 
arithmetic  can  have  any  difliculty  whatever  In  esti- 
mating how  much  a  sum  of  money  in  one  countrj'  Is 
worth  in  another,  according  to  the  state  of  exchange 
at  tho  time.  The  common  arithmetical  books  abound 
in  examples  of  such  computations.  But,  in  conduct- 
ing tho  business  of  exchange,  a  direct  remittance  is 
not  always  preferred.  M'hon  a  merchant  in  London, 
for  example,  means  to  discharge  a  debt  due  by  him  in 
Paris,  It  is  his  business  to  ascertain  not  only  the  state 
of  tho  direct  exchange  between  I.,ondon  and  Paris," 
and,  consequently,  the  sum  which  he  must  pay  in 
London  for  a  bill  on  Paris  equivalent  to  his  debt,  but 
also  the  state  of  the  exchange  between  I^ndon  and 
Hamburg,  Hamburg  and  Paris,  etc. ;  for  it  frequently 
happens  that  it  may  bo  more  advantageous  for  him  to 
buy  a  bill  on  Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  or  Lisbon,  and 
to  direct  his  agent  to  invest  the  proceeds  in  a  bill  on 
Paris,  rather  than  remit  directly  to  the  latter.  This 
is  termed  the  Arbitration  of  exchange.  An  exam- 
ple or  two  will  suffice  to  show  the  prlnclplo  on  which 
it  is  conducted. 

Thus,  if  the  exchange  lictwcen  London  and  Amster- 
dam lie  aba.  Flemish  (old  coinage)  per  pound  sterling, 
and  between  Paris  and  Amsterdam  Is.  Cd.  Flemish 
per  franc,  then,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  a  direct 
or  indirect  remittance  to  Paris  would  l)e  most  advan- 
tageous, we  must  calculate  what  would  bo  the  value 
of  the  franc  in  English  money  if  ttie  remittance  were 
made  through  Holland ;  for  it  be  less  than  that  re- 
sulting from  the  direct  exchange,  it  will  obviously  bo 
the  preferable  mode  of  remitting.  This  is  determined 
by  stating,  as  35s.  Flemish  (the  Amsterdam  cunn^ncy 
in  a  pound  sterling) :  Is.  Gd.  FIemi.sh  (Amsterdam 
currency  in  a  franc) : :  XI :  lOd.  tho  proportion  or 
arbitrated  value  of  the  franc.  Hence,  if  the  English 
money,  or  bill  of  excliongo,  to  pay  a  debt  In  Paris, 
were  remitteil  liy  Amsterdam,  it  would  require  lOd.  to 
discharge  a  debt  of  a  franc,  or  £1  to  discharge  a  debt 
of  24  francs ;  and,  therefore,  if  the  exchange  between 
Limdon  and  Paris  were  at  24,  it  would  bo  iiidiffvrent 
to  the  English  merchant  whether  he  remitted  directly 
to  Paris,  or  indirectly  via  Amsterdam  ;  but  if  the  ex- 
change between  Ixmdon  and  Paris  wore  above  24,  then 
a  direct  remittance  would  he  preferable  ;  while,  if  on 


it... 


EXC 


639 


BXO 


Hw  indirect  remittance  ought  as  plainly  to  be  prefer- 
red. 

"  Suppose,"  to  borrow  an  example  frrnn  Kelly 
(Universal  Cambiat,  vol.  it.,  p.  137),  "  the  exchange  of 
London  and  Lisbon  to  \ie  at  68d.  per  milree,  and  that 
of  Lislion  on  Madrid  SOO  rces  per  dollar,  the  arbitrated 
price  between  I.ondon  and  Madrid  is  S-ld.  sterling  per 
dollar ;  for,  as  1000  rces :  68d. : :  SOO  rces  :  34d.  But, 
if  the  direct  exchange  of  London  on  Sludrld  be  89d, 
sterling  per  dollar,  then  London,  by  remitting  di- 
rectly to  Madrid,  must  pay  85d.  for  every  dollar) 
whereas,  by  remitting  tlirougb  Lisbon,  lie  will  pay 
only  34d. ;  it  is,  therefore,  the  interest  of  London  to 
remit  indirectly  to  Madrid  through  Lisbon.  On  tlie 
other  hand,  if  London  draws  directly  on  Madrid,  lie 
will  receive  35d.  sterling  per  dollar ;  whereas,  by 
drawing  indirectly  through  Lis'<on,  he  would  receive 
only  84d. ;  it  is,  therefore,  the  Intere.st  of  London  to 
draw  directly  on  Madrid.    Hence,  the  following  rules : 

"  1.  Where  the  certain  price  is  given,  cjfaw  through 
the  place  wliich  produces  the  lowest  arliitrated  price, 
ond  remit  through  that  which  produces  the  highest. 

"  2.  Where  the  uncertain  price  is  given,  drow 
through  that  place  which  produces  the  highest  arl)i- 
trated  price,  and  remit  tlirough  that  which  produces 
the  lowest."  In  compound  arbitration,  or  when  more 
than  three  places  are  concerned,  then,  in  order  to  find 
how  much  a  remittance  passing  through  them  all  will 
amount  to  in  the  last  place,  or,  which  is  the  sumo 
thing,  to  find  the  arbitrated  price  between  the  first 
and  the  list,  we  have  only  to  repeat  the  dilTerent 
statements  in  the  same  manner  as  in  tlie  foregoing  ex- 
amples. Thus,  if  the  exchange  between  London  and 
Amsterdam  be  35s.  Flemish  for  £1  sterling ;  between 
Amsterdam  and  Lisbon  42d.  Flemi^ih  for  1  old  crusade  ; 
and  between  Lisbon  and  Paris  480  rces  for  3  francs  ; 
what  is  the  arbitrated  price  between  London  ami 
Paris  ?  In  the  first  place,  as  35s.  Flemish  :  £1 :  :  42d. 
Flemish  :  23.  sterling  =  1  old  crusade. 

Second,  as  1  old  crusade,  or  400  roes  :  28.  sterling : : 
480  rees  :  28.  4'8d.  sterling  =^  3  france. 

Tliinl,  as  28.  4'8d.  sterling :  3  francs  : :  £1  sterling : 
25  francs,  the  arbitrated  price  of  the  pound  sterling 
Iwtween  London  and  Paris. 

This  operation  may  Ira  abridge<l  as  follows : 
£1  storllnit. 
£  1  storllnjt      =      Wis.  Flemish. 
8J9.  Flem.         =      1  old  crusoile. 
1  old  crusade    =      4fl()  roes. 
480  rees  =      8  francs. 

8.5  X  400x8    42(W 

Hence  ■= =25  fVancs. 

4S0x8i         lliH 

This  abridged  operation  evidently  consists  in  arrang- 
ing the  terms,  so  that  tliose  which  would  form  the  di- 
visors in  continued  statements  in  the  Rule  of  Three, 


are  multiplied  tnifMtet  tiif  it  crnnmmi  divisor,  and  tli« 
other  terms  for  n  liitmtiKiti  dividend.  The  ordinary 
arithmetical  bookii  ttliotmd  with  examples  of  suih  ope- 
rations, 

'I'ho  folliiwIiiK  iwi^oiint  fif  the  manner  In  which  a 
very  large  traiiwii-'tlim  wiw  iirtiiiilly  conducted  by  indi- 
rect remittances,  will  itilfflclnntly  lllustrote  tlie  princi- 
pies  wo  Imve  l)««n  omUiaviirlng  to  oxpliiln.  In  1804, 
Spain  was  bound  to  |i/ty  to  Franco  n  large  subsidy  j 
and,  In  order  to  du  tliln,  three  distinct  methods  pre- 
sented themselvtisi  1,  To  send  dollars  to  Paris  by 
land.  2,  To  remit  IiIIId  of  exclinngn  directly  to  Paris. 
.1.  To  authorize  Paris  to  draw  directly  on  Spain.  The 
first  of  tliusa  methods  was  tried,  liut  It  was  found  too 
slow  and  oxpetiiilvo  (  «nd  the  «ec(/nd  and  third  plans 
were  conslderod  llkuly  to  turn  tlio  exclinnge  ngainst 
Spain,  Th«  following  method  by  the  Indirect  or  cir- 
cular exciiriiige  was  tlittrcfiire  adopted. 

A  mercliiiiit  or  Imtiqiii'rr  nt  Paris  was  appointed  to 
manage  tlin  n|wtratlon,  wlilcll  ho  thus  conducted :  He 
chose  I.ondon,  Amnterdam,  Hamburg,  Cadiz,  Madrid, 
and  Paris,  as  the  iiriiii'lpal  hinges  on  which  the  opera- 
tion wiis  to  turn  (  and  he  ♦•ngiiged  correspondents  in 
each  of  tllBso  citlns  to  «up|Kirt  tlio  circulation.  Madrid 
and  flitdlz  were  the  plamm  In  Spnin  from  whence  re- 
mittances were  til  be  made  (  iind  didlars  were,  of 
course,  to  lio  sent  to  wliero  thay  bore  the  highest 
price,  for  which  bills  wwre  to  be  procured  on  Paris,  or 
on  any  other  liliics*'  Unit  might  be  deemed  more  ad- 
vantsgeoMs,  Tlin  lirilli'lplc  being  thus  "st.iblislicd,  it 
only  roiiiiiliind  to  ri<gilliitn  the  extent  of  the  opcriition, 
so  as  not  to  Uum  too  much  paper  on  .Spain,  and  to 
give  the  clri'ulutloti  IIS  miiih  siijiport  as  possible  from 
real  business,  Willi  this  view,  London  wns  cliosen 
as  a  place  to  wlllitli  the  o|i(iratloii  might  be  cl-.'-lly  di- 
rected, us  the  prli'it  of  dnUiirs  wns  tlicn  higli  In  En- 
gland I  a  clri'iimstiiiicti  which  rendered  tlio  proportional 
exchange  advaiitagiMMis  tii  Spain. 

This  biisliinss  wiis  coitimclicod  nt  Purls,  where  the 
negotiation  of  ilriift"  lusiiwl  on  Itainburg  and  Amster- 
dam served  to  ttii=iwiir  the  Iminodlnte  demands  of  the 
state  j  and  orders  were  tfrtimiiltted  to  these  places  to 
draw  for  the  ndiiibdriiitiiumis  on  London,  ^ladrid,  or 
Cadiz,  according  lis  the  course  of  exchnnfje  wns  most 
favorable,  Tim  proceoiUngn  were  nil  conducted  with 
judgment,  and  atteiide't  with  complete  shcccss.  At 
the  I  iimineiiceiiinnt  iif  the  operation,  the  course  of  ex- 
chiuige  of  ( 'iidU  on  London  wns  nilil,  j  but  by  the  plan 
adopted,  Kpillll  got  Illljd,,  or  above  8  prr  rnil.  by  the 
reiiilttaiiie  of  dollilt's  to  l,iiiidiili,  and  considerable  ad- 
vantages were  also  gnlned  by  the  circulation  of  bills 
through  tlio  si'veriil  ptnces  tm  the  continent.— Kr.i.i,Y's 
CamhitI,  vol,  II,,  p,  KIHj  Khhoht's  Ehmrnh  nf  Cmn- 
mcrce,  2d  od,,  |i,  UZH,     See  lliU»  nj' Kxchmigf. 


Tabi.r  fli'KciniNO  THK  Vauir  op  Tim  Moneys  of  Aciolivt  op  tub  psiwiiip*!,  I'i.acm  witn  Wliicit  Knoland  uas 

EXOUANUK    TEANSAOTIOXS,  TAKINd    SllVF.K    AT    5S.    AN    OUNCl!,   KHU  S1'I4C(I'»I*II    HAD  tllK   pAB  OF   KxillANIIE    WlIU 

SUCH  Places  oh  this  hypothesis.* 


Petersburg . . . 

Berlin 

Oopenhftffon .. 

..  100 
..  80 
..     90 

.  16 
..  100 
..  101) 
..  100 
..      241 

.  60 
..  100 
..  100 
..  100 
..  8 
..  1000 
..    100  . 

. .  imsi 

..    100 

copocks  

sll,  i^rosclion 
skllllnits.... 
schlllliiKS . . . 
osntlmos. . . . 
contlincs.... 

cenllines 

2  guld.  or  flor. 

kreusers 

ccntlslml . . . 
contlslml . . . 
contlsliiil . . . 

reals 

rels. 

cents 

rels 

cents 

- 

1  rouble 

■  .     it, 

B    J  Ui,.., 
•i  lOH-4,,,, 
»    2  !.«,,,, 

I    M-D 

1     H   

I     », 

»  1.11 

1    TT-N,,,, 
li    0  4-III,,, 

(fill 

9  I-'i,,,, 

T'*i 

It    1  H.4,,,, 

4    8  

4    K  

a    T 

4    fl  Ul-'tti, 

,  Kivll 
^ "   ti 

H 
J        O 

M 
[  O 
J  l» 
^        It 

'        II 
II 

[        1* 
II 

II 

I'n'iif  Kji-lmnffp. 

H  n  rmib,    40  cop 

It  doll,      Ui  f.u 

11  ilnll,      10  nk 

=-- 

fl 

1  Pruas.  dollar , , . 

1  HltJ.  dollar 

1  mark 

1  tliirln 

Ilnmb'irit 

Amsterdam. . . 

m  lilks.     lol-gwh.... 

It  II,          HI  cents 

II  II,          ti7  cents 

•ifi  ff,         fiT  cents 

t'i  M'tO  ftnldens    . .. 

Antwerp 

Paris 

1  floiin 

1  franc 

Frankfort.... 

1  mark 

Vienna 

(It),          Ml  kr 

Vonlcu 

Genoa 

I  lira  AnstilacB.. 

1  Urn  Nuova 

1  llrnTosennii.... 
1  dollar  of  Plato.. 

1  inllrels 

1  dollar. 

1  mllrels 

1  (lollu, 

211  II.          rv;  cent 

2MI,          r.7  cent 

110  II,          (W  cent 

II  dull.        2  M  teals.. 

4  foil,     *i^t  rol*. . 

Li'Bliorn 

Madrid 

Ijlsbon 

Now  York 

Klo.lanelro... 
Havana 

4  dull,      Ml  eelils 

7  mil,     777  relJ 

4  itoll,      44  cents 

•  Abstracted  from  TiiUi'i  Slodtrn  CamhiHt,  to  which  tlio  reader  Is  n-frTrml  for  further  e^plsnstlons. 


It  Is  easy  from  this  table  to  calculate  the  value  of 
any  of  the  above  coins,  taking  silver  at  5s.  2d.,  .'is,  iiil, 
an  OS!.,  or  any  other  price,  and  thence  to  deduce  the 
par  of  exchange  at  such  rates.  The  preceding  article 
•n  Principles  of  Exchange,  is  from  the  pen  of  J.  K, 


Mrl'i'i.Mii'ii,  111  the  lust  edition  Kncy.  llrit,    .See  Jiillt 
(if  /u'flmiij/i', 

BxobnilgO  slgnllies  n  pinro  In  most  considerable 
trading  cities  wliern  menbiiiils,  agents,  bankers,  bro- 
kers, Interiirutars,  and  otlter  persons  concerned  in  com- 


EXC 


640 


EXO 


nerce,  asMmble  on  certain  days,  at  a  fixed  hour,  to 
confer  together  in  regard  to  matters  relating  to  ex- 
changes, remittances,  payments,  assurances,  freights, 
etc.  In  Flanders,  Holland,  and  France,  these  places 
are  called  Bouria,  or  Place*  de  Change;  and  in  the 
Hanse  towns,  liorienhalle.  The  most  considerable  ex- 
changes in  Europe  are  those  of  London,  Paris,  and 
Amsterdam.  The  ancient  Romans  had  places  for  nior- 
chaats  to  meet  in  most  of  the  considerable  cities  of 
their  empire.  Tliat  which  is  said  to  have  \ieen  built 
at  Bome  in  the  year  b.c.  4!>d,  was  called  Collegium 
Mercaiorum,  of  which  it  is  alleged  there  are  still  some 
remains,  called  by  the  modem  Romans  Loggia,  the 
Lodge  or  place  of  St.  George, 

Exchequer  Bills  are  bills  of  credit  issued  by 
authority  of  Parliament.  They  are  for  various  sums, 
and  l>ear  interest  (generally  from  1^.  to  2^1.  per 
diem,  per  jClOO)  according  to  the  usual  rate  at  the 
time.  The  advances  of  the  banic  to  government  are 
made  upon  exchequer  bills;  and  the  daily  transac- 
tions between  the  bank  and  government  are  princi- 
pally carried  on  through  their  intervention.  Xotice 
of  the  time  at  which  outstanding  exchequer  bills  are 
to  be  paid  off  is  given  by  public  advertisenioiit. 
Bankers  prefer  vesting  in  exchequer  bills  to  any  other 
species  of  stock,  even  though  the  interest  he  fur  tho 
most  part  comparatively  low ;  because  the  capital 
may  be  received  at  the  treasury  at  the  rate  originally 
paid  for  it,  the  holders  being  exempted  from  any  rink 
of  fluctuation,  except  in  tlie  amount  of  the  premium 
or  discount  at  which  they  may  have  l)Ought  the  bills. 
Exchequer  bills  were  Arst  issued  in  1G9C,  and  have 
been  annually  issued  over  since.  The  subjoined  is  an 
account  of  the  unfunded  debt  in  exchequer  bills,  and 
of  the  annual  cliarge  thereon,  on  the  5th  of  January, 
1817,  and  the  5th  of  January  every  subsequent  year 
down  to  1855. 

In  1853,  exchequer  hands  were  issued  bearing  inter- 
est at  2}  per  cent,  for  ten  years,  and  thereafter  2^  per 
cent,  for  thirty  years,  or  till  1891,  to  such  holders  uf 
Soutli  Sea,  and  three  per  cent,  stock  as  chose  to  accept 
the  same,  a  bond  for  ,£100  being  given  for  eve>y  X'lOO 
stock  subscribed  (16th  and  17th  Vict.,  cap.  iX).  Ilut 
only  a  very  snuU  sum  (£5000)  has  been  invested  in 
such  bonds. 

This  description  of  temporary  loan  is  unknown  in 
this  countr}-,  but  is  a  favorite  investment  by  Britinh 
capitalists.  The  treasury  has  the  power,  by  act  of 
Parliament,  to  issue  ways  and  means  bills,  or  in  other 
words,  exchequer  bills,  to  the  aid  of  tho  ways  and 
means  of  the  year,  by  issuing  them  in  any  one  quarter, 
pa3'able  out  of  the  revenues  of  tho  following  quarter. 
Independent  of  these  bills  of  supply,  issues  are  made 
in  exchequer  bills  to  the  paymaster-general  for  the 
ordinary  service,  to  lie  sold  in  the  market  to  meet  the 
public  demand.  The  bills  are  signed  cither  by  the 
comptroller  or  by  the  assistant-comptroller,  and  every 
means  have  been  suggested  to  prevent  forgery,  iSomc- 
times  the  bills  are  issued  to  the  pa}'master-general,  and 
sometimes  to  the  bank ;  and  the  bank  either  curries 
the  amount  of  money  for  which  it  has  contracted  with 
the  government,  to  tlie  paymaster's  account,  or  tu  tho 
exchequer  account.  Then  the  credit  is  issued  from  the 
exchequer  account  for  the  public  accountant,  Alwut 
1500  bills  are  prepared  in  one  day,  and  they  arc  signed 
in  even  quantities.  There  arc  constitutional  reasons 
against  tlie  treasury'  having  the  issue  of  exchequer 
bills.  The  Constitution  of  England  is  founded  on  a 
jealousy  of  the  executive  government,  and  therefore 
checks  arc  rciiuired  in  dealing  with  the  actii  ,i  uf  the 
government,  which  a  commercial  company  like  tlie 
Bank  of  England  may  not  in  any  respect  require. 

From  the  1st  of  .lanuary,  1842,  to  1.5»h  June,  18-17, 
there  were  signed  by  the  comptrollor-general,  and  by 
the  assistant-comptroller,  186,707  exchequer  bills,  for 
the  amount  of  £197,983,423,  From  the  1st  January, 
1846,  to  l&th  June,  1817,  there  were  examined  and 


controllad  by  (lt«  i»H)tptrnll«r'i(«neral  and  assistants 
soroptrolUr,  t{M  niyHt  iir(1«r«  of  (lie  amount  of  £92,. 
8a5,7ilO,  and  900  Uvmuy  WMrrants  of  the  value  of 
£283,681,258,  i^rmil  (Itx  (tfsl  iif  Janimry,  1845,  to 
lOtb  June,  1817,  titvrft  wern  issued  and  supplied  to  the 
paymaster,  UO.lim  bllN  of  (lin  nmouiit  of  £54,6M,»00. 
The  prepiiratiiil)  of  HXi'lmqiier  bills  costs  the  public  for 
paper-inukliig,  i'llKHIi  sU|H<flii(etideiicfl  of  ditto,  £30; 
engraving  uml  prIiitiiiK,  A'lW) ;  superintendent,  £ilO ; 
and  couHturfNiU,  4,'IO=4irfiil,  MM.  During  1855, 
there  wera  slgiMiil  Witt  vfmWU,  i'tW  acquittances,  427 
Irish  tmnsfurs,  '<\H\'l  UUU  NCqltiltances,  32,444  ex- 
chequer blllii  of  £>'II,N;^,1)7  ;  and  i-ontndled  214  royal 
orders  of  £91,8)1,11),  iiltil  WM  treasury  warrants  of 
£178,981,985,  III  mi,  llt«re  Were  signed  22,654  ex- 
chequer boud«  of  m,m,m, 


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Th6  liitarmt  psM  wllhdi  phhU  fnr  In  ulten  In  tho  col- 
uiiin  of  ph»r|/ii,  wlijili  tiitKH'fl  tins  seflfUnd  upon  tho  capl. 
tal  sisiuil  III  tliu  |/r»'>iiMiii(  ^citr 

Till!  InUirt-ol  (wM  HIiiKiilin  elA.OM.AOO.and  upon  £l,7.'iO,- 
OOOof  lillU  l»>iii>i|  III  Aofll  lv.(,  wllllio  imWIn  1855 

Tito  lnl.ir<i«  iipiiii  Ifio  t;i7.Hil.(HI,  will  not  bo  piijrsblo 
till  InAtf,  I.  It ,  y,:nr  uiiilJHK  ilnnimtf  ti,  K>7. 

BxoUOi  (li«  ti8il)«  itivnit  to  the  duties  or  taxes  laid 
on  certain  itrtiilus  |iriiilui'i<it  niiil  consumed  at  home ; 
but,  exi'lualvtt  iif  (liPDii,  till)  diltli'S  on  licenses  and 
post-liurues  urn  wUii  iilncwj  imder  the  management  of 
the  excise,  hiiiJ  Hr*i  i'iit|ii(<i|llt^tltly  liicludmi  In  the  excise 
(liitius,  The  «Ki  Uu  nynlKM  was  established  In  England 
by  the  l,iiiig  J'/tfllmiiBiitt  ««»  continued  under  (!rom- 
well  and  l.'Imrlii'i  II,  i  ntld  Hii<  organized  as  at  |iresciit 
III  the  Wul|silu  iHllllilllttrittIdd,  It  was  first  collected 
and  uii  olli'it  iiiiKiMul  lit  llili'l,  Mhi)  was  arbitrarily  levied 
uiMin  liquors  mill  |iri'Vl«iiiii<  tn  siipiiort  the  parliament- 
ary forci'K  agjilii>l  Dinfli'H  ).  The  exclso-olTlce  was 
built  on  Ihtt  liilti  of  (irnilmm  Tollege,  In  1774,  The 
officers  of  ensliiH  nihI  iimtoins  were  deprived  of  tlieir 
votes  for  iii«tiilH'r«  uf  I'arllnnient  In  1782 //«i/(/». 

Excise  ilutl««  Imd  Ik>ph  from  an  early  pcrliMl  estab- 
lished ill  llolluiiil.  Mild  tll«  large  revenue  which  they 
aflfordail  piinttid  (Ixin)  iiUt  to  tlie  leaders  of  the  popu- 
hir  i>art/  Id  lit*  yr««t  «ivil  war,  aa  the  most  likely 


EXH 


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EXH 


..■.,124 

.'.Tim 

ii,478 
■.'>r)2 

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MR 

col- 
fripi- 

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I  laid 
homo ; 
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r  excise 
ri){lund 
(;rom- 
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Hinent- 
ce  wtts 
The 
if  their 
fdn. 

pstali- 
ih  thoy 

popu- 

llkelr 


iMMit  by  which  they  conid  nln  fundi  to  carry  on  the 
great  contest  in  which  they  had  emburlied.  They 
were  coni"qnently  introduced  by  a  parliamentar}'  or- 
dinance lu  164A ;  being  then  laid  on  the  mnkem  and 
venders  of  ale,  beer,  cidor,  and  perry.  The  royalists 
soon  after  followed  the  example  of  the  republicans ; 
both  sides  declaring  that,  the  excise  should  be  con- 
tinued no  longer  than  the  termination  of  the  war. 
But  it  was  found  too  productive  a  source  of  revenue  to 
be  again  relinquished ;  and  when  the  nation  had  been 
accustomed  to  it  for  a  few  years,  the  Parliament  de- 
clared, in  1649,  that  the  "  impost  of  excise  was  the 
most  easy  and  hidtfferent  lev}'  that  could  be  laid  upon 
the  people."  It  was  placed  on  a  new  footing  at  the 
Restoration ;  and,  notwithetanding  Mr.  Justice  Black- 
stone  says  that  "  from  its  first  original  to  the  present 
time  its  very  name  has  been  odious  to  the  people  of 
England"  (Com.  book  i.  c.  8),  it  has  continued  pro- 
gressively to  gain  ground ;  and  is  at  this  moment  im- 
posed on  various  important  articles,  and  furnishes  a 
large  share  of  the  public  revenue  of  the  kingdom. 
AuouNT  or  Till  ExmsB  RiraMnK  ur  OnsAT  Dbitaih  uc 

TRK  rOLLOWINO  ''  hAU  I 

1744  Great  Britain. £8,764,078 

178«      "  '•    B,M0,114 

1908      "  »    19,987,914 

1920      "  "     2«.8ft4,702 

1827  Cnlted  Kingdom 20,995,824 

18«0        »  "        18,644,895 

ISM       "  "        :i;,877,292 

1S87       "  x       14,518,142 

1940       "  •'       12,607,768 

1846       "  "       18,688,588 

ZIxhibitl6XI  (exhibere,  to  exhibit,  furnish,  main- 
tain, etc.),  a  showing  or  presenting  to  view  :  a  display. 
In  law,  delivery  of  writings  in  proof  of  facts ;  a  bill  of 
discover}'.  In  our  old  writers  it  is  also  used  for  an 
allowance  of  meat  and  drink,  a  pension  or  salar}' ;  and 
it  is  now  applied  to  a  benefaction  settled  for  the  main- 
tenance of  scholars  in  English  universities,  not  de- 
pending on  the  foundation.  In  this  sense  the  term  is 
analogous  to  the  Scottish  bursary.  Among  physicians, 
exhihitiun  is  a  standard  and  convenient  term  to  ex- 
press the  administering  a  medicine. 

Exhibitions  of  Works  of  Fine  Art. — A  collection  of 
works  of  fine  art,  arranged  in  some  suitable  place  for 
public  inspection,  is  styled  an  exhibition.  It  is  organ- 
ized on  a  different  principle  from  that  of  a  national 
gallery  or  museum ;  for  the  works  are  not  permanently 
conserved,  but  contributed  for  a  limited  period  annu- 
ally, new  examples  being  provided  for  every  successive 
exhibition. 

Exhibitions  are  comparatively  of  modem  institution. 
In  former  times  artists  were  chiefly  patronized  liy  the 
church  or  tho  government ;  und  the  edifices  in  which 
their  productions  were  placed  were  patent  to  the  pub- 
lic ;  but  now  artists  rely  mninly  on  private  patronage, 
and  generally  obtain  the  sanction  of  those  for  whom 
they  execute  works  to  exhibitthem  publicly  for  a  limit- 
ed |)cri(>d  as  specimens  of  their  skill ;  or  if  executed  for 
sale,  those  exhibitions  aflTord  an  opportunity  of  dispos- 
ing of  their  works,  while  they  themiiclvcs  are  improved 
in  their  art  i)y  the  opportunity  of  companng  their  own 
eflTorts  with  those  of  other  artists. 

Tlic  members  of  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
founded  at  Itome  in  ir)93,  probably  on  particular  occa- 
sions exhibited  their  works  collectively  to  the  public ; 
but  it  wus  in  Franco,  in  1737,  that  the  members  of  tho 
Itoyal  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  (founded 
in  1U4H)  first  regularly  instituted  annual  exhibitions. 
These  were  made  biennial  in  1745,  and  were  from 
their  cummencement  confined  to  works  executed  by 
members  of  the  academy ;  but  during  the  Revolution 
(by  a  decree  in  1791)  all  artists,  French  or  foreign, 
were  allowed  to  participate  in  the  exhibition,  which 
iu  179(1  was  again  made  annual. 

The  earliest  attempt  at  an  exhibition  in  England  was 
in  17(i0 ;  and  the  efforts  of  tlie  artists  were  at  length 
nnited  in  the  Bcj'al  Academy's  exhibitions,  the  first 
Ss 


of  which  was  opened  in  1769.  Since  then  they  have 
been  continued  with  Increasing  energy.  In  1760,  the 
number  of  works  exhibited  was  IBO,  contributed  by  69 
artists ;  In  1866  there  were  1668  works,  contributed  by 
918  exhibitors.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  academy 
arises  from  a  fee  of  one  shilling  from  each  visitor,  and 
now  exceeds  ;e8000. 

The  Koyal  Scottish  Academy's  exhibition  Is  the  sec- 
ond In  importance  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Though, 
according  to  its  present  constitution,  it  only  dates 
from  1826,  those  who  instituted  it  had  previously  or- 
ganized exhibitions  in  Edinburg,  which  had  been  an- 
nually continued,  with  some  few  intermptions,  since 
1808.  At  the  first  exhibition,  178  works  were  sent  in 
by  27  contributors;  at  the  exhibition  in  1866,  789 
works  wete  contributed  by  287  exhibitors.  The  an- 
nual revenue  exceeds  ^£2000.  Exhibitions  are  annually 
opened  in  Dublin  by  the  Royal  Hibernian  Academy. 
These  are  the  only  fine-art  corporations  in  Great  Brit- 
ain aided  by  government,  the  two  first  mentioned 
t)eing  accommodated  in  public  galleries,  and  the  last 
receiving  an  annual  money  grant.  Besides  the  above 
mentioned,  the  following  siicieties  in  London  have  also 
exhibitions,  namely,  the  British  Institution,  founded 
in  1806 ;  the  Society  of  British  Artists,  in  1824 ;  the 
National  Institution,  in  1860 ;  the  Society  of  Painters 
in  Water  Colors,  in  1805 ;  and  the  New  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colors,  in  1835.  There  are  also 
annual  exhibitions  in  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Glasgow, 
Birmingham,  Cork,  Newcastle,  etc.  But  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  London  and  the  Royal  Scottish  and 
Hibernian  Academies,  they  are  mainly  composed  of 
works  collected  all  over  the  kingdom,  but  principally 
in  London. 

Exhibition  of  1851— The  great  Exhibition  of  Works 
of  Industry  of  all  Nations,  held  in  the  British  metrop- 
olis, was  publicly  announced  in  October,  1849.  Prince 
Albert,  as  president  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  offered  him- 
self to  the  public  as  their  leader  in  the  undertaking : 
and  her  Majesty's  proclamation  appointhig  a  commis- 
sion to  promote  the  project  was  issued  January  3,  1850. 
The  amount  of  public  subscriptions  to  the  Cry8tr\1 
Palace  was  ^£67,399  3s.  lOd.  After  much  discussion 
relative  to  the  site  proposed,  a  vast  structure  was 
erected  oh  the  south  side  of  Hyde  Park,  from  a  design 
of  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  Joseph)  Paxton.  This  building 
(usually  called  the  CrA-stal  Palace  from  the  material 
of  which  it  was  chieflj'  composed)  resembled,  upon  a 
great  scale,  the  Victoria  Regia  plant-house,  erected  at 
Chatsworth,  after  Mr.  Paxton's  own  design.  The 
contract  with  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson  was  for 
£79,800 — a  sum  afterward  somewhat  increased  by  ad- 
ditions to  the  plan ;  or  for  £150,000,  if  the  building 
was  permanently  retained.  The  exhibition  was  opened 
by  her  Majesty  in  state.  May  1, 1851 ;  and  it  remained 
open  to  the  public  till  11th  Octolier,  shortly  after 
"^liich  time  the  Crj'stal  Palace  was  taken  down. 

This  gigantic  structure  occupied  an  area  of  21  acres, 
and  was  coni|K)8ed  entirely  of  large  sheets  of  glass  set 
in  frame-work  of  iron,  except  near  the  ground,  where 
it  was  Iwanled.  Its  length  was  1851  feet  (a  number 
corresponding  to  the  year  of  the  exhibition)  ;  and  its 
width,  in  the  broadest  part,  45G  feet ;  the  transept 
intersecting  the  building  at  riglit  angles  in  the  mid- 
dle, was  408  feet  long,  108  high,  and  72  wide.  The 
entire  structure  consisted  of  three  tiers  of  elevation, 
the  central  portion  lieing  C4  feet  high,  the  adjacent 
side  portions  44  feet,  and  the  outer  sides  24  feet  high. 
The  materials  employed  were  as  follows :  890,000  su- 
perficial feet  of  glass,  weighing  400  tons ;  wrought- 
iron,  550  tons;  cast-iron,  3500  tons;  wood,  includiii.^ 
flooring,  600,000  cubic  feet ;  nearly  2300  cast-iron 
girders,  and  358  wrought-iron  trusses  for  supporting 
the  roof  and  the  galleries  (which  extended  nearly  a 
mile  in  length) ;  30  miles  of  gutters  ;  202  miles  of  sasli- 
bars,  and  33.30  cast-iron  columns.  The  number  of 
exhibitors  wag  about  17,000 ;  of  prize  medalg  awarded, 


EXH 


flf42 


EXH 


S9U ;  of  oonncil  medaU,  170.  The  gnataat  namber 
of  visitor!  in  one  weelc  ww  in  tliit  ending  lltli  Octo- 
ber, wlieu  til*  number  of  penoni  paying  >t  the  doors 
wu  478,773.  The  total  amouDt  of  entrance  feet  dur- 
ing the  Moaon  wai  X421,418  ISs. 

The  Great  Exhibition  of  1N51  was  altogether  novel 
in  principle,  and  unparalleled  in  magnitude  and  mag- 
niflcence ;  comprehending  under  one  roof,  in  almost 
endless  variety,  specimens  of  the  Industrial  produc- 
tions, nut  only  of  Great  Britain,  but  of  tlie  European 
states  generally,  together  with  those  of  nearly  every 
part  of  the  habitable  globe.  An  account  of  these,  as 
wall  as  of  the  peculiar  mode  of  construction  of  the 
Crystal  Palace,  may  be  found  in  the  oiBcial  descrip- 
tive and  illustrated  catalogues  and  reports  of  the 
juries.  • 

Our  limits  preclude  our  entering  into  the  historj-  of 
national  industrial  exiiiliitions,  or  to  malie  more  than  a 
passing  reference  to  the  various  local  exhibitions  ot 
works  of  industry  which  have  talien  place  from  thne  to 
time  iu  the  United  Kingdom  ;  such  as  those  at  Coric, 
Sheffield,  Plymouth,  and  Salisbury  in  1852,  Dublin  in 
1863,  and  in  Birmingham  in  1849.  Similar  exhibitions 
were  organized  in  Belgium  in  18;iO,  in  the  United 
States  in  1853,  at  Munich  in  1854,  and  especially  in 
France  in  1798,  1801,  IHltt,  1806,  181»,  1844,  and  on  a 
large  scale  in  1855.  This  last  is  constituted  on  on 
entirely  different  basis  from  the  English  Exiiibition  of 
1851 ;  Iwing  set  on  foot  by  the  capital  of  a  commercial 
company  f  .rmed  for  the  purpose,  and  on  *.he  prospect 
of  remunerative  profits ;  but  the  State  also  takes  a  dis- 
tinct and  positive  share  in  the  rislis  of  the  enterprise, 
as  it  does  with  railways  and  other  works  of  public  util- 
ity. A  certain  percentage  to  the  holders  of  stock  is 
guarantied  by  the  government ;  and  in  right  thereof 
an  imperial  commission  is  appointed  whicli  exercises 
supreme  control.  By  this  arrangement  the  proprietors 
are  to  receive  whatever  surplus  may  remain  after  all 
expenses  are  paid  ;  whereas  the  ;C170,000  derived  from 
the  prices  of  admission  to  the  London  Exhibition 
stands  over  as  a  public  trust  fund,  under  royal  charter, 
to  be  applied  to  objects  in  harmony  with  those  for 
which  the  exhibition  was  held. 

The  French  Exhibition  is  not  contained  under  one 
roof,  nor  of  the  several  buildings  are  all  intended  to  be 
of  a  tcmporar}-  character.  The  buildings,  in  the  ag- 
gregate, will  probably  include  a  greater  area  than  the 
Crystal  Palace  at  Hyde  Park,  The  main  building  is 
the  Palais  de  I'lndustrie,  a  permanent  ediOce  of  rec- 
tangular form,  and  with  consideral)le  pretensions  to 
architectural  effect.  In  this  will  lie  exhibited  all  the 
higher  productions  of  manufacturing  industry.  There 
is  also  the  "  Annexe,"  a  shed  4000  feet  long,  parallel 
to  the  Seine,  for  the  exhibition  of  machinery  and  raw 
produce.  According  to  the  plan,  these  two  stru'turet 
are  connected  liy  a  gallery  running  across  the  Champs 
Elys^es,  and  having  in  its  centre  a  fine  circular  space, 
which  is  appropriated  to  the  productions  of  Sevres,  and 
the  other  national  estaldisbments ;  and,  in  udilition, 
there  is  an  extra  shed  fur  the  exhibition  of  carriages 
and  other  articles  of  great  bulk. — E.  B. 

The  British  government,  in  order  tj  secure  an  ade- 
quate representation  of  British  art  and  industr>-  in 
Paris,  corresponding  tu  the  efforts  whi<:h  the  French 
government  hod  made  in  1851,  granted  £50,000  by  a 
parliamentary  vote.     The  assistance  of  public  associa. 


Denmark,  90;  St.  Domingo,  1;  Egypt,  6;  Frankforti 
on-the-Malne,  24;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1589 1 
British  colonies,  985 ;  Greece,  181 ;  Republic  of  Ona< 
temala,  7 ;  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  18 ;  Ilanse  Towns, 
89 ;  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  74  ;  Electorate  of  Hesse, 
14 ;  Principality  of  Lippe-Detmold,  2 ;  Grand  Duchy 
of  Luxemburg,  28;  Mexico,  107;  Duchy  of  Nassau, 
69  ;  Netherlands,  411  ;  New  Granada,  13 ;  Grand 
Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  13;  Ottoman  Empire,  2;  Sand- 
wich Islands,  6  ;  Papal  States,  71 ;  Portugal  (includ- 
ing colonies),  443;  Prussia,  1313;  Principalities  of 
Reuss  (Elder  and  Younger  Branches),  2;  Sardinia, 
198;  Saxony,  06;  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  2 ;  Duchy 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  6 ;  Duchy  of  Saxo-Coburg-Gotha,  11 ; 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Meinlngen,  8 ;  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  1  ;  Principality  of  Schaumburg-Lippe,  2 ; 
Principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  1  ;  Spain, 
6G8 ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  638  ;  Switzerland,  408 ; 
Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany,  197;  Tunis,  1;  United 
States,  180;  Wurtemburg,  207.     Total,  10,148. 

New  York  Kxhibilion  nj'  the  Industry  of  ail  Nationt. — 
Although  America  achieved  some  of  the  most  signal 
and  permanently  valuable  results  which  were  brought 
to  the  knowledge  of  mankind  by  the  Exhibition  in 
Hyde  Park;  still  there  was  probably  no  American 
who  saw  our  contrilmtions  in  London  that  did  not  feel 
some  regret  that  tliey  were  not  a  more  just  and  equally 
sustaino<t  exponent  of  our  resources,  industry,  and 
arts.  But  stronger  and  more  controlling  than  this 
sentiment  was  the  desire  excited  to  afford  the  masses 
In  America  an  opportunity  to  see  the  grand  tutul  of 
the  world's  industry,  and  the  manifold  productions 
and  applications  of  the  arts  of  design  brought  in  one 
comparative  view.  It  was  seen,  that  while  no  motive 
but  a  proper  reganl  for  our  own  {losition  in  the  great 
family  of  nations  could  have  induced  us,  as  a  peopla, 
to  send  our  industrial  products  to  Europe,  where  we 
find  a  market  only  for  our  great  staple  raw  materials, 
that  the  fact  of  our  liecoming  more  and  more  every 
day  the  great  purchasers  of  the  products  of  European 
skill  and  labor,  expended,  perhaps,  upon  our  own 
products,  would  induce  all  the  manufacturing  .states 
of  the  old  world  to  embrace,  eagerly,  an  opportunity 
to  expose  their  products  in  the  New  York  Crystal 
Palace.  This  conviction,  strengthened  by  the  senti- 
ments before  alluded  to,  led  a  few  pulilic-spiritcd  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  early  in  1852,  to  contem- 
plate the  organir.ution  of  the  effort  whose  results  we 
see.  It  was  not  designed  or  desired  to  reproduce  the 
Ixindon  Ivshiliitiun,  which,  from  the  ver}'  nature  of 
the  case,  must  ever  remain  unexampled ;  but  to  draw 
forth  such  a  representation  of  the  world's  Industry  and 
resources  as  would  enable  us  to  measure  the  strength 
and  value  of  our  own,  while  it  indicated  new  aims  for 
our  enterprise  and  skill. 

There  is  no  humiliation  in  the  acknowledgment,  that 
America  has  more  to  gain  from  such  a  comparison  than 
any  other  nation  In  Christendom — and  we  believe  she 
is  also  more  willing  to  avail  herself  of  the  suggestions 
it  offers.  It  was  olivious  in  the  outset;  that  numerous 
difficulties  would  embarrass  the  successful  organiza- 
tion of  an  exhiliition  of  industrj-  in  the  United  States, 
which  should  at  once  be  universal  in  Its  scope,  and  de- 
void of  the  imputation  of  lucal  or  sectional  inttuence. 
Tlicse  difficulties  were  inherent  in  the  nature  of  our 
political  institutions.     In  England,  the  suggestion  of 


tiuns  and  local  committees  was  also  obtained  for  the  !  Prince  Albert  to  the  Society  of  Arts  was  received  with 
purpose,  and  special  reports  were  by  them  published,  enthusiasm,  and  enlisted  not  unl}'  the  cordial  support 
The  numlier  of  exhil.'iturs  from  the  United  Kingdom  '  of  the  queen,  but  every  member  of  a  numerous  and 
was  1555,  and  from  the  British  colonics  1070.  The  '  wealthy  aristocracy  joined  his  hand  In  setting  forward 
total  number  of  exhililtors  was  20,339,  viz. :  10,091  '  the  royal  project.  The  government,  however  back- 
from  the  French  empire,  and  10,148  from  foreign  [  ward  and  lukewarm  they  might  have  been  at  first. 
States,  viz. :  France,  979U ;  Algeria,  724 ;  French  col-    could  not  resist  an  Influence  with  which,  as  men,  they 


onies,  177 ;  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt,  19 ;  tlie  Argentine 
Confederation,  6 ;  Austria,  129C ;  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  88;  Bavara,  172;  Belgium,  686;  Brazil,  4; 


were  identified.  Then  thk  almost  supremo  power  of 
the  I>ondon  journals  came  in  to  swell  and  direct  the 
IHipular  sentiment,  and  to  make  every  Englishman  feel 


Duchy  of  Brunswick,  16 ;  Republic  (f  Costa  Klca,  4  ;  j  that  he  had  an  immediate  personal  stake  in  the  anc- 


EXH 


64S 


EXT 


<!•■»— ti-d  triumphant  and  overwhelming  raccen— of 
an  enterprise  to  which  the  honor  of  his  lovereign,  and 
of  the  nation,  atno<l  pledf{ed  Ixfore  all  mankind. 

Under  the  stimulus  of  such  powerful  motives,  the 
universal  intellect  of  the  United  Kingdom  organized 
Itself  in  councils,  committees,  and  Juries.  Men  whose 
names  are  identiAed  with  the  halls  of  science,  of  liter- 
ature, and  of  art,  left  their  tripods,  and  were  found 
heading  the  various  corps  of  hard-worl<ing  volunteers 
in  considering  or  perfecting  the  several  details  of  the 
colossal  scheme.  The  rooms  of  the  Royal,  the  Geo- 
logical, the  Geographical,  the  Ethnological,  and  the 
Statistical  Societies,  of  the  Institutions  nf  Civil  En- 
gineers and  Architects,  of  the  Museum  of  Economic 
Gcolog}- — and  oven  of  the  staid  and  conservative  Uni- 
versities, were  for  a  time  deserted  to  furnish  men  and 
mind  for  the  emergency.  In  looking  over  the  long 
catalogue  of  councilmcn  and  chairmen,  of  commission- 
ers, associates,  and  Jurymen,  whose  names  are  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  the  London  Exhibi- 
tion, It  is  astonishing  to  see  what  an  array  of  talent 
and  learning  was  gathered  to  secure  its  success.  Nor 
was  this  peculiar  to  Great  Britain ;  but  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  we  find  in  its  published  lists  men  whoso 
names  are  the  guaranty  of  eminent  success,  not  only 
In  their  own  departments,  but  in  whatever  they  may 
undertake.  Such  was  the  animus  of  the  London  Ex- 
hibition. Compared  with  this  royal  espousal,  and 
enormous  personal  influence  brought  to  sustain  and 
carry  forward  the  exhibition  of  1851,  the  simple  ma- 
chinery and  resources  of  an  association  of  private 
gentlemen,  however  enterprising,  might  seem  utterly 
inadequate.  Let  the  results  decide.  Such  an  asso- 
ciation was  formed,  and  stands  committed  to  the  suc- 
cessful prosecution  of  the  plan.  All  the  world  has 
l)ecn  invited  to  co-operate  in  sustaining  the  effort,  and 
the  appeal  has  met  a  response  as  cordial  as  the  design 
Is  liberal  and  catholic. 

New  York  was  selected  as  the  locality'  of  the  exhi- 
bition, because  of  its  great  advantages  as  a  commer- 
cial centre,  and  as  the  chief  entrepot  of  European 
goods.  Had  it  been  proposed  to  limit  the  exhibition 
to  the  products  of  American  industry,  some  place 
more  central,  as  Washington,  Philadelphia,  or  Cincin- 
nati, might  have  been  Justly  preferred,  Imt  in  view  of 
the  foreign  department  of  the  scheme.  New  York 
seemed  the  only  place  at  all  suited  for  the  purpose. 
The  municipal  authorities  of  the  city  of  New  York,  on 
the  3d  of  Januarj',  181)2,  moved  by  an  enlightened  re- 
gard for  the  prosperity  of  the  city,  and  the  interests 
of  its  Inhabitants,  granted  a  lease  for  five  years  of 
Reservoir-square  for  this  purpose  upon  two  condi- 
tions :  one,  tliai  the  tiuilding  should  he  constructed  of 
glass  and  iron,  and  the  other,  that  no  single  entrance 
fee  should  exceed  ,10  cents.  The  Legislature  of  the 
.State  of  New  York,  upon  application,  grahted,  on  the 
11th  of  March,  18S2,  tlie  charter  under  which  the  As- 
sociation for  the  Exhibition  of  the  Industry  of  all  Na- 
tions has  been  organized  and  carried  forword.  The 
act  -•lothcd  the  directors  with  all  the  powers  needed  to 
carry  out  its  plans,  and  the  Legislature  have  fJnce  that 
time  extended  its  privileges,  so  that  it  can  issue  stock 
to  the  amount  of  $500,000,  in  place  of  the  original 
limitation  to  t.SOO.OOO.  The  Board  of  Directors  fii-st 
mot  on  the  17th  nf  March,  1852,  and  organized  l>y  the 
election  of  Theodore  Sedgwick,  Esq.,  President,  and 
AViiliam  Whetten,  Esq.,  as  Secretary.  No  time  was 
lost  In  publishing  and  circulating  a  general  statement 
of  the  objects  of  the  enterprise.  A  call  for  sul>scrlp- 
tinns  to  the  stock  was  met  in  due  time  l>y  almut  150 
persons  and  firms  coming  forward  to  t^ke  up  the  first 
(200,000.  This  wide  distrilmtion  of  the  Interest  in  a 
large  number  of  hands  completely  avoided  the  olinox- 
ious  charge,  that  the  undertaking  was  a  speculation 
designed  for  the  benefit  of  a  few. 

The  countenance  and  co-o|)eratlon  of  the  general 
government  was  sought  with  a  view  to  the  introduc- 


tion of  foreign  goods  Into  tha  Exhibition  duty  Am, 
And  official  assurances  wen  given  by  Mr.  Maxwill, 
the  collector  of  the  port  of  New  York,  that  tha  buIkU 
ing  of  the  assoeUtlon  would  be  m4d*  •  boiidad  w«r«> 
house,  thus  entitling  tha  asiocUtlon  to  ravviva  thi 
goods  free  of  duty  while  on  exhibition,  Tha  InfluanM 
of  the  general  government  waa  also  most  chaarfully 
extended  on  behalf  of  tha  assoclatluu  tlinmuh  (lia 
kind  ofllces  of  Mr.  Wel>star,  then  Hacratary  iifHUUt, 
who  wrote  to  the  representatives  of  tha  Unltad  IMataa 
at  the  principal  courts  of  Euro|)e,  stating  to  thani  Ills 
sense  of  the  importance  of  the  enterprise,  and  tha  nu- 
merous reasons  why  in  his  view  thay  should  giva  (o 
the  association  all  the  aid  and  support  In  tliair  n»w«r. 
The  ministers  of  foreign  powers  reahlent  In  tha  lJnil«<t 
States  had  previously  responded.  In  terms  of  atitlrc 
cordiality,  to  the  general  circular  nf  the  anwiitlatlun 
which  had  been  addressed  to  them,  stating  Its  plana, 
and  soliciting  the  co-operation  of  Euro|Hian  nations. 
They  all  expressed  their  convictions  that  tliair  reii|Mi(it- 
ive  governments  would  look  with  favor  U|Hin  tha  prit* 
posed  exposition,  and  unite  In  sending  to  New  Vork 
their  most  valued  and  characteristic  objects  nf  Industry. 
The  leading  foreign  newspapers  also  manifested  a  miwt 
friendly  desire  to  sustain  the  success  of  the  undertak- 
ing, and  the  records  of  the  ofllca  contain  tha  moat 
abundant  evidence  of  their  zealous  support  |  while 
the  dally  journals  in  foreign  language!  In  tha  Unltad 
States  were  prominent  in  lending  their  sarvlcas  to  tht 
cause. 

The  organization  of  the  foreign  relation*  of  tbn 
association  was  eflTected  liy  the  appointment  of  kfr. 
Charles  Buschek,  of  London,  as  Its  general  aicant, 
through  whom  details  were  arranged.  Tills  daliiiat* 
and  important  trust,  involvinc;  the  greatest  resnonsl- 
bility,  required  talents,  knowledge,  and  exparlenea. 
The  association  was  truly  fortunate  in  finding  th«M 
qualities  combined  in  one  person,  Mr.  Uoschek  waa 
the  Austrian  commissioner  at  the  London  Kxlilbltlofl 
of  1851  and  through  him  the  co-operation  nf  tha  Kuro- 
pean  manufacturers  has  been  secured  toanun«xp«et«lt 
extent.  At  a  later  period  in  the  history  nf  tha  wntar- 
prise,  it  was  thouglit  to  be  expedient  to  send  ont  te 
Europe  Colonel  G.  W.  Hughes,  of  Maryland,  to  PO» 
operate  with  Mr.  Buschek  in  carr}  ng  nut  the  plana  of 
the  association.  This  gentleman  added  tu  tha  waigbt 
of  his  official  commission  the  Influence  of  personal 
qualities,  fitting  htm,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  for  hit 
delicate  task  of  soliciting  or  directing  the  cnuntenanea 
and  support  of  European  governments  In  favor  nf  tha 
objects  of  the  New  York  Exhibition.  Tha  result  of 
his  labors  was  the  securing  from  various  governments 
important  contributions,  which  would  otberwlta  have 
remained  unknown  in  the  United  States, 

Although  the  "  New  York  Exhibition  of  the  Indus- 
try of  all  Nations"  was,  as  a  financial  ai'lieme,  unaiio- 
cessful,  yet  its  effects  upon  the  industry  and  liiventlva 
powers  of  the  counlr}'  were  unquestiimably  ini|Nirtunt. 
These  eflfects  will  l>e  felt  for  a  century  to  eonifl,  and 
should  confer  honor  upon  those  cnterprialng  ('ltl/,ena 
of  the  metropolis  and  State  who  coiicelved  and  carrlnd 
into  effect  the  plan  now  described.  Tba  axhibitlun 
was  closed  in  the  year  1855. 

Ezotlo.  (Gr.  riuTiKticfdreign,)  Any  thing  In- 
troduced to  one  countr}-  from  some  other  country.  In 
gardening  it  is  sometimes  applied  to  plants  which  ra- 
quire  protection  in  winter,  or  to  plants  in  general 
which  are  nut  natives. 

Expectation  of  life.    See  I!(sdbani:k. 

Exploring  Expedition  (U.  H.)  consisting  of 
the  yincennet,  sloop  of  war ;  Peaenck,  do,  ;  I'Dr/Kii'iif, 
Jielie/,  Flying  Fi»h,  and  Sea  (lull,  smaller  voaaela,  un- 
der Licntonant  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.,  sailed  from  llaui|iton 
Roads,  Va.,  August  19th,  18.18.  Antarctlu  continent 
discovered,  July  19,  1889.  Attack  on  tlie  I'vjaas  fur 
murdering  two  of  the  officers,  July  25,  IM»,  Tha 
Peacock  lost  on  the  bar  of  Columbia  River,  July  JN4L 


EXP 


644 


"EXP 


The  Vinftnnet  (fl>|^ahlp)  returned  to  New  York,  tfler 
■n  ibsence  of  nearly  four  year*,  June  11,  1H42.  Cap- 
tain Wilkea's  Narrative  of  tlie  Expedition,  in  6  vola. 
Imp,  Hvo.  and  quarto,  waa  publiahed  In  lIHfi.  Tlie 
tclentlllc  reporta  of  the  expedition  form  about  20  quarto 
or  folio  vflliinica. 

Bxportatton,  in  Comment,  the  act  of  rending  or 
earr^-lng  commoditica  from  one  country  to  another. — 
See  Imi'oiitation  and  KxponTATioN. 

Bxpress.  Thoro  la  no  branch  of  buslncaa  In  thia 
country  more  extcnalva  and  Important  than  the  ex- 
preaa  aorvice.  The  ovor-buay  handmaid  of  trade,  ag- 
riculture, and  the  uauful  arts,  there  la  no  community  ao 
amall  aa  not  to  be  ausceptlblo  to  Ita  uacfulncsa.  Yet, 
while  agriculture,  art,  and  trade  aro  world-old,  the  cx- 
prcaa  la  comparatively  only  a  thing  of  to-day,  Kn- 
gland  had  no  part  in  creating  It.  Europe  has  donn 
nothing  to  eatabllah  it;  and  twenty  yeara  ago  it  was 
not  dreamed  of  even  in  America,  whore  it  la  now  ao  in- 
diapcnaable.  Peculiarly  American  In  ita  origin  and 
characteristioa,  it  has  liecomo  no  thoroughly  Interwoven 
with  the  dally  bualucsa  of  the  country,  that  it  aeenia 
to  conatiiute  an  iuaoparablo  portion  of  Its  muaclo  and 
sinew. 

The  inquiry  naturally  arlsea,  "  If  the  expreaa  service 
la  ao  indinpenaable  an  institution  now,  how  did  the 
American  people  do  without  it  prior  (o  Its  creation  ?" 
The  fact  Is,  that  the  "  cxpreasiuian"  is  only  an  improve- 
ment (a  great  improvement,  it  ia  true)  upon  the  "com- 
mon carrier"  of  olden  timea.  It  was  not  a  very  rare 
thing,  at  an  earlier  period,  to  hear  of  a  apccial  express 
run  for  a  temporary'  purpose,  such  as  tlie  transit  of 
news  of  intense  public  interest,  or  intciligunce  of  great 
private  moment,  lu  those  cases  the  enterprise  em- 
ployed one  or  more  riders,  with  the  necessary  relays 
of  fleet  horses  at  intervals  u|)on  the  road.  Browning's 
fine  poem,  "  How  they  brouglit  the  good  ncwa  from 
Ghent  to  Aix,"  vividly  describes  an  express  of  this 
kind,  bearing  news  of  peace  aud  safety  to  thai  belea- 
guered city. 

But  the  express  service,  properly  ao  caUed,  docs  not 
date  back  beyond  the  origin  of  American  railroads. 
Prior  to  that  epoch,  Htage-dri vera  hud  performed  duties 
similar  to  those  now  diacburged  by  exproasnien ;  and 
"  bngyage-waijoini"  (so  called,  though  they  carried  mer- 
chandise as  well)  servml  instead  of  freight-trains. 
With  the  innovation  of  railways,  tho  stage-drivera  and 
wagoners  found,  like  Othello,  their  "occupation  gone." 
The  loss  of  their  services  seriously  incommoded  the 
public;  but  the  railroad  6flr«red  no  remedy.  Years 
passed;  trade  and  intercoinrauiiication  between  town 
aud  country  suffering,  in  tlio  mean  while,  from  this 
cause.  At  Icugtii,  liardiy  reali/.ing  what  an  improve- 
ment he  ivas  about  to  elfoct,  William  F.  Hamden,  then 
a  conductor  upon  tlie  Itostoii  and  Worcester  Itailroad, 
started  the  express  business.  It  was  in  the  spring  of 
1839.  The  idea  was  not  original  witli  him ;  but  to 
hiiu  is  due  the  honor  of  having  l>een  tho  first  to  put  it 
into  execution. 

The  only  through  route  from  Boston  to  New  York 
at  that  time  (.March,  IMiiU)  was  by  railroad  to  Provi- 
dence, and  thence  to  this  city,  by  tho  stea.iiboat  X  11^. 
Rkhimmd.  The  Old  Line  of  steaniliouts  ran  from 
Stonington  to  New  York.  Ilarnden  had  no  paidagent 
in  this  city  at  the  outset.  The  messengers  (called, 
during  the  first  year  or  two,  emuluclun)  attended  lo  ail 
the  business,  llarndcn  liimsclf  acted  in  that  capaci- 
ty, usually  making  tho  trip  in  tho  J.  W.  Jtichmond, 
and  carrying  his  entire  express  in  an  ordinary  valise. 
Upon  his  arrival  in  New  York  qr  Boston  he  would 
hasten  to  deliver  the  parcels  intrusted  to  him  by  his 
customers,  who  were  iiiostly  Ijooksellers  anil  brokers. 

The  express  was  run  by  Hamden  some  time  before 
he  made  a  contract  with  the  Old  Line  of  boats  from 
Stonington  to  New  York.  His  messenger  paid  regu- 
lar fare,  and  carried  all  the  packages  in  •  carpet-bag 
and  trunk.   After  the  lapse  of  six  months  or  a  year,  he 


made  •  contract  with  the  Old  Company  and  the  .Ston> 
Ington  and  Providence  Kailroad  Company  to  run  a  cur 
through.  Each  nieaaenger  then  carried  a  season  tick- 
el — obtained  by  holding  a  few  share*  of  the  company's 
stock.  According  to  the  tenns  of  that  contract,  the 
Boston  and  Providence  Kailroad  Company  were  enti- 
tled to  one  thini  of  the  gross  receipts  of  the  exprens  I'ur 
fVeight;  and  the  Providence  wid  Stonington  Kailroud 
Company  (including,  wo  presume,  the  boats)  were  to 
receive  one  third;  the  residue  to  be  Hamden's,  ills 
first  contract  with  tho  owners  of  the  J.  \V.  Uirhmoinl 
was  to  convey  a  car  or  crate  for  him  Ijetween  Provi- 
dence and  New  York.  Ho  took  five  or  six  shares  of 
the  stock,  which  entitled  him  or  his  measengcr  to  a  free 
passage. 

Tho  first  opposition  express  waa  run  on  the  4th  of 
May,  1840.  Alvin  Adams  made  an  eflfort  to  contract, 
In  its  behalf,  for  privileges  on  the  Norwich  and  Worces- 
ter route  from  Boston  to  New  York ;  but  Hamden  be- 
ing at  that  time  Iwttcr  known,  the  directors  gave  his 
"well-established  expreaa"  the  preference;  so  that  bo 
was  liku  to  have  tho  monopoly  of  the  facilities  on  lioili 
routes.  Aa  Adams  was  not  to  lie  defeated  In  that 
way,  he  went  to  Mi^or  Handy,  agent  for  the  Stoniiif;- 
ton  line,  and  purchased  two  season  tickets  for  himself 
and  partner,  to  run  as  often  as  they  pleased  between 
lloton  and  New  York,  until  January,  1811 ;  with  no 
other  privilege,  however,  than  to  carry  a  trunk  and 
valise. 

In  tho  spring  of  1841,  tho  only  express  routca  in  tho 
world  were  thoao  lietween  New  York  and  Boston  ;  but, 
with  a  succeasflil  rival  competing  for  tho  business  of 
those  cities,  Hamden  &  Co.  thought  it  due  to  their 
own  credit,  as  pioneers,  to  take  another  stride  or  two, 
and  extend  their  line  south  to  Philadelphia,  and  west 
to  Albany,  in  this  State, 

An  express  was  established  23d  April,  1841,  lietween 
Boston  and  Albany,  and  another  between  Albany  and 
Now  York,  by  Hurnden  &  Co. 

About  that  time,  Adams  &  Co.  experienced  not  a 
little  annoyance  from  their  want  of  regular  express 
facilities  from  New  A'ork  lo  Pliiladelphia,  and  they 
used  an  infinity  of  "  shifts"  to  put  their  parcels  through. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  Camden  and  Anilioy  Kailroud 
directors  had  quarreled  with  Harnikn  &  Co.  for  non- 
payment of  compensation  alleged  to  lie  due  them, 
and  had  stopped  their  express  over  tliat  road.  Nor 
were  they  more  favorably  disposed  lo  make  a  simitar 
contract  with  any  one  else.  Still,  at  his  partner's  so- 
licitation, Adams  went  to  Philadelphia  to  apply  for  a 
contract,  Steveris,  who  represented  the  Board  upon 
that  occasion,  gave  him  a  very  decided  refusal  at  once, 
Adama  then  made  another  proposition ;  viz.,  to  do  the 
express  business  over  that  railroad  in  connection  uith 
the  company;  the  latter  to  allow  Adams  &  Co,  a  pur- 
tion  of  the  avails.  This  impressed  .Stevens  more  fa- 
vorably, and  tho  iinmi'illate  result  was  a  contract  that 
Adams  &  Co.  should  fill  a  certain  number  of  crates  dai- 
ly, and  deliver  the  goods,  receiving  for  their  trouble  a 
certain  portion  of  the  freight  money ;  the  railroad  com- 
pany to  have  the  rest. 

In  1S42  Harndcn  &  Co. 'a  Boston  and  Albany  K\- 
press  waa  bought  out  by  ita  .Springlield  agent,  the  en- 
terprising Colonel  Thompaon,  and  called  Thompsun  & 
Co.'s  Expreaa,  Messrs,  Mclcher  and  Johnson  are  his 
jiartncrs,  Oay  &  (!o,  (Gay  and  I.ittlclicld)  started  iiii 
express  between  Boston  and  New  York,  via  8toniii|{- 
ton,  in  1842.  They  carried  only  a  trunk  of  parols, 
and  had  no  contract.  Gay  would  run  one  way,  ami 
Littloficld  tli%o(hpr;  and  each  bad  the  profits  wliie'i 
he  happened  to  make  u|Kin  each  day's  work,  and  pock- 
eted the  same,  without  being  cx|iected  to  render  an 
account  to  liis  nominal  partner.  This  arrangement, 
apparently  so  priiiiilive  and  simple,  did  not  work  well 
in  the  long  run,  and  Littlcfield  retired  from  it.  Kins- 
ley next  joined  Gay,  and  tho  firm  waa  styled  Gay  &. 
Kinsley.   The  latter,  for  some  years  paat  president  of 


EXP 


Mpi 


EXT 


•  dank  at  Newport,  RhoUu  Island,  has  become  eminent 
as  iiu  expressman. 

In  IHI-l  there  were  expresses  between  Boston  Mid 
Lowell,  Uuaton  and  Salcni,  and  on  one  or  two  other 
sliiirt  routes  in  Massachusutts,  and  tlicy  were  increas- 
ing' I'ho  tint  express  west  of  UuUalo  was  established 
April  1,  1845,  under  the  name  of  Wells  &  Co.  The 
inunil)era  of  that  lirm  were  Henry  Wells,  W.  G.  Forgo, 
nnd  D.  Uunniug.  For  the  want  of  railroad  facilities 
(uiid  when  the  steamers  were  laid  up),  it  was  a  wagou 
express  between  UuH'ulo  and  Detroit.  In  February, 
In  17,  W.  U.  Fargo  and  William  A.  Livingston  became 
rule  proprietors  of  the  express  went  of  Ilufl'alo,  under 
the  style  of  "  Livingston  &  Furgo."  The  latter  is  de- 
serviiif;  of  honorable  nientiuii  for  his  industry,  perse- 
vurunue,  and  sound  sense.  M'ells  &  Co.'s  lino  extend- 
ed from  New  York  to  UuH'alo,  via  Albany. 

W.  F.  liarndeu  &  Cu.'s  Furtign  Kxprtu  elicited  the 
sp|ilaiiB0  of  the  community,  and  gave  an  idat,  at  home 
and  abroad,  to  their  already  well-known  name.  Still, 
it  by  no  means  contributed  to  the  advantage  of  their 
express  in  the  United  States.  It  only  served  to  divide 
and  weaken  their  energies.  The  result  was,  that  the 
more  concentrated  efforts  of  their  rivals  here  met  with 
a  larger  slmro  of  success,  and  in  18-16  Adams  &  Co.'s 
business  between  Boston,  New  York,  and  I'iiiladelpbia 
Avas  more  valuable  than  liamden  &,  Co.'s. 

Canada  was  without  an  express  until  Virgil  &  Bice 
started  one  fram  Troy  to  Montreal,  via  Lako  Cham- 
plain,  in  the  snmmer,  and  by  wagons  and  stages  in  the 
winter.  Thi8,>we  think,  was  in  1847  or  1848.  Subse- 
quently Kice  retired,  o'-.u  Messrs.  Virgil  &  Co.  con- 
tracted with  tho  n^^iMtoga  Kallroad  for  a  car.  The  ex- 
press from  New  York  to  Troy  was  owned  by  Pullen  & 
Co.,  who  in  the  year  1841)  united  with  Virgil  &  Co., 
under  the  style  of  I'nllen,  Virgil,  &  Co.  Under  the 
management  of  these  experienced  and  able  men,  the 
business  was  nursed  and  tendo<l  with  most  praisewor- 
thy perseverance,  until  it  grew  to  considerable  import- 
ance. 

In  1849  anew  order  of  express  service  was  destined  to 
spring  up.  The  "  California  gold  fever"  had  broken 
out,  and  thousands  of  young  men  were  thronging  to 
the  newly-acqidrnd  Oolconda,  when  Daniel  Ilale  IIus- 
kcll,  a  highly-esteemed  clerk  in  Adams  &  Co.'s  Bos- 
ton office,  suggested  to  his  employers  the  expediency 
of  estal>lishing  a  California  express.  With  character- 
istic prudence,  Adams  &  Dinsmore  at  lirst  opposed  the 
proposition ;  foreseeing  that  the  most  important  point 
of  operations  must  necessarily  he  in  San  Francisco, 
many  thousands  of  miles  beyond  their  supervision,  and 
they  preferred  to  have  all  their  business  where  they 
could  give  it  their  fhiqucnt  personal  inspection.  How- 
ever, they  at  length  yielded  to  Haskell's  solicitations, 
and  he  went  out  to  San  Francisco  in  the  steamer  of 
ScptemWcr,  1849,  to  act  as  their  partner  In  the  proposed 
business.  The  building  which  he  took  for  an  express- 
office  was  a  little  shanty,  of  which  I.  C.  Woods  was  ei- 
ther the  owner  or  the  owner's  agent.  As  the  business 
increased  ra])ldly,  this  building  had  to  be  pieced  out, 
or  extended  In  depth  every  few  weeks,  to  hold  the  mul- 
titudes which  thronged  to  U  to  hear  the  news,  obtain 
or  send  letters,  and  remit  their  gold  dust.  The  enter- 
prl.io  compensated  lieyond  the  most  sanguine  dreams 
of  its  sanguine  projector.  Let  us  give  some  idea  of  the 
prices. 

The  charge  made  by  Adams  &  Co.  for  freight,  from 
New  Y'ork  to  San  Francisco,  was  seventy-five  cents  per 
pound  for  packages  not  exceeding  fifteen  pounds  each  ; 
and  for  parcels  of  less  weight,  not  bulky,  such  price 
was  made  as  could  be  agreed  upon.  Three  dollars  was 
their  price  for  conveying  an  ordinary-sized  daguerreo- 
type; twelve  dollars  for  a  parcel  not  larger  than  a 
common  size  novel ;  and  this  was  always  exacted  in 
advance.  It  was  paid  cheerfully  and  without  any  hag- 
gling. Siuco  then  the  prices  have  fallen  about  60  per 
cent. 


Upon  the  arrival  of  the  steamer  at  Chagrcs  with  mo 
express,  the  freight  would  be  sent  ashore  in  buulu — a 
tedious  and  perilous  Job,  for  the  sea  usually  ran  high, 
and  the  boats  were  frequently  swamped.  At  Chagres 
it  was  transferred  to  rlver-canoes,  and  propelled  by  na- 
tives to  Ciui'os,  where  It  was  again  transferred  and 
placed  upon  the  bucks  of  mules,  which  bore  it  (by  a 
road  that  would  have  defied  the  loconu)tion  of  any  oth- 
er kind  of  beast)  to  Panama,  where  the  I'aciflc  steam- 
ship awaited  to  convey  it  to  San  Francisco.  Being 
liable  to  be  saturated  with  water  in  being  carried  ashore 
at  Chagres,  and  in  crossing  the  Isthmus,  by  reason  of 
rains  and  streams,  it  was  required  of  shijipers  to  put 
up  their  merchandise  in  water-proof  packagesi  The 
load  of  a  niule  rarely  exceeded  SOU  lbs.  Usually  he 
bore  two  oblong  boxes  or  trunks  weighing  not  over  125 
lbs.  each. 

Another  class  of  messengers  to  which  Adams  &  Co.'t 
ex))ress  in  California  gave  rise  were  wont  to  pcrfurni 
their  service  on  horseback  between  San  l-'ranelsco  (and 
other  towns)  and  the  numerous  "diggins."  Sometimea  ^ 
they  made  use  of  mules ;  but  in  either  case  the  beasts 
must  be  sure  and  swift  of  foot  and  easy  under  the  sad- 
<lle,  or  they  were  discarded  and  better  procured  in 
their  stead.  To  be  able  and  willing  to  run  fleetly  at 
a  word  from  its  rider,  was  a  sine  qua  non  In  the  steed 
uf  an  express  messenger;  and  there  are  heard  wonder- 
ful stories  of  the  time  made,  under  the  saddle,  in  this 
ser>'ice. 

The  express  companies  may  be  said  to  Influence 
the  domestic  exchanges  of  the  country,  iossmuch  as 
they  transport  nearly  all  the  specie  and  bullion,  as 
well  as  considerable  portions  of  the  bank-notes,  bills 
of  exchange,  drafts,  bonds,  and  other  securities  ;  and 
the  price  of  exchange  between  one  city  and  another 
depends  In  some  measure  upon  the  express  charges  for 
conveyance.  The  rates  paid  for  the  transportation  of 
bank-notes  is  usually  fixed  by  contract  in  writing,  and 
are  low.  For  Instance,  between  New  Y'ork  and  Cin- 
cinnati, 900  miles,  one  dollar  per  thousand.  The  total 
value  of  the  capital  employed  in  the  express  business 
was  valued  In  181)6  at  ten  millions  of  dollars.  Four 
years  ago,  the  entire  number  of  miles  of  express  routes 
in  America  was  estimated  at  'J6,0OO.  As  facilities  hav« 
been  increased,  and  express  routes  extended,  the  wholo 
distance  traveled  by  express  dally  Is  probably  not  less 
than  '28,000.  The  multifarious  lines  stretch' In  every 
direction,  crossing  each  other  like  the  threads  of  the 
spider's  web.  And  now  we  find  the  principal  express- 
men undertaking  the  enterprise  of  conveying  the  Unit- 
ed States  mail  overland  to  California.  September  15, 
1857,  Messrs.  Buttcrfield,  Dinsmore,  Fargo,  and  others, 
executed  an  agreement  to  that  eft'ect.  The  contract, 
which  is  to  run  six  years,  is  to  go  into  effect  twelve 
months  from  that  date.  Six  hundred  tl-ousand  dollars 
per  annum  is  the  price  to  be  paid  the  contractors.  The 
extraordinary  character  of  the  labor  thus  confidently 
as.iumed  can  hardly  be  appreciated  until  the  work  shall 
have  been  accomplished.  Certainly  the  establish- 
ment of  such  a  route  is  an  appropriate  reward  for 
express  enterprise. — For  a  full  history  of  the  express 
business,  SCO  Hankers'  Magazine,  New  Y'ork,  September, 
1857. 

Zlxtract,  or  Extractive  Matter.  TIic:  term 
extract  is  applied  in  pharmacy  to  the  brown  substance 
which  remains  after  the  evaporation  of  certain  decoc- 
tions or  infusions  of  vegetables ;  thus  we  have  extract 
of  bark,  extract  of  rhubarb,  ond  so  on.  These  extracts 
are  usually  mixtures  of  gum,  starch,  sugar,  or  other 
soluble  matters,  along  with  a  certain  portion  of  a  pe- 
culiar vegetable  principle  of  a  brown  color,  or  which 
becomes  so  by  exposure  to  air,  and  which  Is  soluble  in 
water  and  In  alcohol,  but  scarcely  soluble  in  ether.  It 
combines  with  alumina,  and  Is  often  the  basis  of  brown 
dyes ;  It  Is  this  principle  which  chemists  call  eittractirt, 
and  which  Is  frequently  closely  allied  to  various  fonni 
of  coloring  matter. 


FAO 


«4« 


PAd 


'.',    ,f'». 


■  t. V,Iw'  1   .       ,.  ^..  . . 

,.,..,,...  ft 

■"-  '■•^  F. 


.►■I.  )  I  ,.  i ., 


.•II,  .'•».•••■;  ;     .  ,,,i     , 
'  ■      ■       I 


rao-tlmil*  (Ijit.  factrr,  to  mako,  and  n'mi'/', 
ilk*),  txtirpuMd  In  French  l>y  fait-umblablr,  »\ga\n»» 
«n  <xact  and  flilthrul  copy  of  «n}-  writing,  engraving, 
or  ntbor  work  iif  art. 

factor,  an  agent  employed  by  aone  one  Individ- 
Ml  nr  Indlvidunla,  to  tranauct  bualneaa  on  hia  or  their 
aocnunt,  lie  la  not  generally  reaident  In  the  aume 
place  aa  hia  principal,  Imt  iiaually  In  a  foreign  coun- 
try. II*  la  authorized,  either  by  letter  of  attorney 
nr  iitherwite,  to  receive,  buy,  and  aell  gimla  and 
merchnndiae ;  and,  generally,  to  tranaact  all  aorta  of 
liuaineaa  im  account  of  hia  employera,  under  anch  lim- 
Ittitlima  and  conditiona  aa  the  latter  may  chooae  to  Im- 
(loa*,  A  ver)-  large  proportion  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
thia  and  moat  other  countriea,  la  now  <'»rrie<l  on  by 
meana  of  faitora  or  agcnta.  Kartora  and  brokera  are, 
in  aome  re,<pei'ta,  nearly  identical,  l>ut  in  nthera  they 
are  riidlcally  different.  "  A  factor,"  aaid  Mr.  Jnatice 
llolrnyd,  "  dilTeni  materially  fW)m  a  broker.  The 
fnrmer  li  a  peraon  to  whom  gooda  are  aent  or  con- 
•lgne<l  I  and  he  baa  not  only  the  poaaeaaion,  but,  in 
cnnaeqnenre  of  Ita  being  uaual  to  advance  money  upon 
them,  lioa  alao  a  apecial  pro|ierty  in  them,  and  a  gene- 
ral lien  upon  them.  When,  therefore,  he  aella  In  hia 
own  name,  it  la  within  the  scope  of  hia  authority  ;  and 
It  may  lie  right,  therefore,  that  the  principal  abould  lie 
bound  by  the  con^quencaa  of  auch  aale.  liut  the  case 
of  a  broker  ia  different ;  be  baa  not  the  poaaeaaion  of 
the  gooda,  and  ao  the  vendor  can  not  be  deceived  by 
the  clreumatance ;  and,  liealdea,  the  employing  a  per- 
aon to  aell  ^{ooda  aa  a  broker  does  not  authorize  bim  to 
a*ll  In  hia  own  name.  If,  therefore,  hn  aella  in  hia 
own  name,  he  acta  beyond  the  acope  of  hia  authority  ; 
and  hia  principal  ia  nut  bound." 

A  factor  ia  uaually  paid  by  a  percentage  or  commia- 
alon  on  the  giMMla  he  aella  or  buya.  If  he  act  under  what 
ia  called  a  M  crejrre  coinniiaaion,  that  ia,  if  he  giiur- 
on/jf  Me  price  nflhe  goods  $old  on  aecount  of  hit  princi- 
pal,  he  nieeivea  an  additional  percentage  to  indemnify 
htm  for  thia  additional  reaponalbility.  In  caaea  of  thia 
iort  the  factor  atanda  in  the  vendee'a  place,  and  niuat 
•nawer  to  the  princiiial  for  the  value  of  the  gooda  aold. 
llut  where  the  factor  undertake)  no  reaponalbility,  and 
inllmatea  that  he  acta  only  on  account  of  another,  it  ia 
clearly  eatabliahed  that  be  U  not  liable  In  the  event  of 
the  vendee'a  failing.  The  aound  maxim,  that  the 
principal  it  reaponaible  fur  the  acta  of  hia  agent,  pre- 
valla  univeraally  in  courta  of  law  and  equity.  In 
order  to  bind  the  princijial,  it  ia  neceaaary  only  that 
third  partiea  ahould  deal  butia  fide  with  the  agent,  and 
that  tjin  coniluct  of  the  latter  ahould  ie  conformable  to 
lh»  common  uinge  and  nuide  of  dealing.  Thus,  a  factor 
may  sell  gooda  upon  credit,  that  lieing  in  the  ordinary 
courae  of  conducting  mercantile  affaire ;  but  a  atock 
broker,  though  acting  bona  fide,  and  with  a  view  to 
the  lieneflt  of  hia  principal,  can  not  sell  stuck  upon 
credit,  unliu  he  hare  tpecial  inttructiout  to  that  effect ; 
that  lieing  contrary  to  the  nauul  course  of  buslnesa. 

A  aale  liy  a  factor  creates  a  contract  between  the 
owner  and  buyer ;  and  this  rule  holds  oven  in  cases 
whore  the  factor  acts  U|iun  a  del  credere  cummission. 
Hence,  if  a  factor  sell.guoda,  and  tlie  owner  give  notice 
la  the  buyer  to  pay  the  price  to  him,  and  not  to  the  fac- 
tor, the  Imyer  will  not  lie  justified  ii'  fterword  paying 
the  factor,  and  the  owner  may  bring  hia  action  aguinat 
the  buyer  fur  the  price,  unless  the  factor  has  a  lien 
therwin.  Uut  if  no  such  notice  lie  given,  u  payment 
Iri  the  individual  selling  is  quite  sufficient.  If  a  {(•.■•- 
tor  buy  gooda  on  account  of  hia  principal,  where  he  is 
accuat<imed  ao  tu  do,  the  contract  of  the  factor  binds 
the  principal  to  a  performance  of  the  bargain  ;  and  the 
nrincipal  is  the  person  to  be  sued  for  non-perfornunce. 


But  It  is  rtiled,  that  If  a  factor  enter  Into  a  charter- 
party  of  affreightment  with  the  niaater  of  a  ahip,  the 
contract  obllgea  Aim  only,  unleaa  he  lade  the  veaael 
with  hia  princlpal'a  gtHHia,  in  wliich  case  the  prln<'i|ial 
and  lading  liecome  Ihilile,  and  not  the  factor.  Where 
a  factor,  who  ia  authorized  to  aell  gooda  in  hia  own 
name,  makes  the  liuyer  debtor  tu  himaelf ;  then, 
though  he  lie  not  anawerable  to  the  principal  for  the 
debt,  If  the  money  lie  not  |>ald,  yet  he  haa  a  right  to 
receive  it.  If  it  lie  paid,  and  hia  receipt  ia  a  aalHcient 
diachargu ;  the  factY  mar,  in  auch  a  vaae,  enforce  the 
pjiyniejit  by  action,  and  tlio  buyer  can  nut  defend  hini- 
aelf  by  alleging  that  the  principal  waa  indubted  to  him 
in  more  than  the  amount. 

"Where  a  factor,"  aaid  Lord  Manafleld,  "dealing 
for  a  principal,  but  concealing  that  principal,  delivers 
gooda  In  his  own  name,  the  person  contracting  with 
him  has  a  right  tu  conaider  him,  to  all  Intents  and  pur- 
poaea,  aa  the  principal ;  and  though  the  real  principiil 
mar  ap))ear,  and  brin)  an  action  on  that  contract 
againat  the  purchaaer  oi  the  goods,  yet  tiiat  purchaser 
may  aet  off  any  claim  he  may  have  aguinat  tlie  ftctiir, 
in  anawer  to  the  demand  of  the  princi|ial." 

Itlerchanla  employing  t^ie  aume  factor  run  the  joint 
risk  of  hia  actions,  altbiiugh  they  are  atrangora  to  eiich 
other ;  thus,  if  different  merchanta  remit  to  »  factcr 
different  baies  of  goo<ls,  and  the  factor  aell  them  aa  a 
alngle  lot  to  an  individual  who  is  to  pay  one  moiety  of 
the  price  down  and  the  other  at  six  months'  end  ;  if 
the  buyer  fail  before  the  second  payment,  each  mer- 
chant must  liear  a  proportional  share  of  the  loss,  and 
be  content  to  accept  liU  dividend  of  the  money  ad- 
vanced.— Hkawks,  /,ej.  .Verr. 

A  factor  employed,  witliuut  hia  knowledge,  in  ne- 
gotiating an  illegal  or  fruuduK'it  lianauctlpn,  has  an 
action  againat  his  princi|>al.  h .  thia  ground  it  was 
decided,  that  a  merchant  who  r.  id  consigned  counter- 
feit jewela  to  his  factor,  representing  them  to  be  genu- 
ine, ahould  make  full  compensation  to  the  factor  for 
the  injury  dona  to  him  by  being  concerned  in  such  a 
transaction,  as  well  as  to  the  persons  to  whom  the 
jewels  bad  lioen  sold. 

The  office  of  a  factor  or  agent  being  one  of  very 
great  trust  and  reaponalbility,  those  who  undertake  it 
are  bound,  both  legally  and  morally,  to  conduct  them- 
selves with  the  utmost  fldclily  and  circumspection.  A 
factor  should  take  the  greatest  cure  of  his  principal's 
goods  ill  his  hands  ;  he  should  be  punctual  in  advising 
him  as  to  hia  transactions  on  his  behalf,  in  sales  pur- 
chases, freights,  and,  mure  particularly,  bills  of  ex- 
change ;  he  ahould  deviate  as  seldom  as  possible  friiiii 
the  terms,  and  never  from  the  ipirit  and  tenor,  of  the 
orders  he  receives  as  to  the  sale  of  commodities ;  in 
the  execution  of  a  commission  fur  purchasing  gooda, 
he  should  endeavor  to  conform  as  closely  as  practicu- 
lile  to  his  instructions  as  to  the  quality  or  kind  of 
goods ;  if  he  give  more  fur  them  than  he  is  authorized, 
tbey  may  be  thrown  on  his  bands ;  but  he  is  bound  to 
buy  them  fur  us  much  less  as  he  possibly  can.  After 
the  goods  are  Iwuglit,  he  must  dispose  of  them  accurii- 
ing  to  order.  If  he  send  them  to  a  different  place 
from  that  tu  which  he  was  directed,  they  will  be  at  his 
riik,  unless  the  principal,  on  getting  advice  of  the 
transaction,  consent  to  acknowledge  it. 

A  factor  who  aolls  a  comuiodity  under  the  price  he 
is  ordered,  may  be  obliged  to  make  good  the  difference, 
unless  the  commodity  be  of  a  j>erithable  nature  and  not 
in  a  condition  longer  to  be  lejit.  And  if  he  purchase 
goods  for  anoth.T  at  a  fixed  rate,  and,  their  price  hav- 
ing afterward  risen,  he  fraudulently  takes  them  to 
himself,  and  sends  them  somewhere  ehn,  in  order  to 
Moure  an  advantage,  he  wUl  be  found,  by  the  ciataia 


re< 
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m 
wi 
Ai 
to 
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PAO 


of  marchaot*,  lUbla  In  iun»if—  to  hli  principal.  If  • 
factor,  In  confurmity  with  a  marchant't  ordsn,  buy 
with  hia  money,  or  on  hli  credit,  a  romincHlity  he  la 
dIrei'Uil  tu  purchane,  and,  without  K'v'nK  advice  of  the 
tranM<'tliin,  «ell»  It  n^aln  ut  a  prullt,  approprlutlnK  that 
prullt  111  biiiiaelf,  the  merchant  nu}'  recover  It  fnjiii  him, 
and  have  hlui  amerced  for  fraud.  If  a  factor  Imy,  con- 
formably to  Ilia  InatruetlunH,  k<hxU  of  which  he  la  ivb- 
ifil,  or  which  aufler  aome  unavoidable  Injury,  he  iadla- 
charged,  and  the  luen  falla  on  the  principal.  Ilut  If  the 
Kooda  lie  tlaJen  from  the  factor,  he  will  not  l>e  ao  eually 
diacluirKe<l ;  for  the  fact  of  their  having  lieen  abairacted 
by  ilrnllh,  and  not  by  violence,  ralaea  a  atron^  presump- 
tion that  he  had  not  taken  that  reaaonalile  cure  of  thoiu 
wiiii'li  waa  Incunilient  upon  him.  if,  however,  lie  can 
prove  tiiat  the  gow\»  were  lodt(e<i  In  a  place  uf  security, 
and  that  he  had  not  been  Kuilty  of  poaltive  neKli((ence, 
nor  exerciaed  lens  care  toward  them  than  toward  his 
own  pro|ierty,  he  will  not  l>e  held  reaponsllile  even  for 
•  theft  committed  by  hia  aervants,--Jo!iK8  un  Jiail- 
menit,  '2i\  ed.,  p.  7(i ;  Uiiittv  un  Commercial  Law,  vol. 
111.,  p.  IIUH. 

If  a  factor,  having  money  In  his  hands  belonging  to 
his  principal,  neglect  to  insiira  a  ship  and  gooiis,  ac- 
cording to  order,  he  inuat,  in  the  event  of  the  ahlp  mis- 
carrying, malte  good  the  damage ;  and  if  ho  mulie  any 
compoaition  with  the  inaurers  after  inauronce,  without 
orders  to  that  eli'ect,  he  la  answerable  for  the  whole 
Insurance,  A  principal  at  the  end  of  a  very  long  let- 
ter, directed  hia  agent  thus  :  "  Observe,  the  premium 
on  this  value  la  also  to  bo  inaiired."  Ilut  the  agent, 
not  noticing  tlila  sentence,  neglected  to  insure  the 
premium ;  and  being  sued,  waa  lield  liable  for  the 
omixalMii.  If  gooda  are  remitted  to  a  factor,  and  he 
mal(e  a  fiilae  entry  of  them  at  the  cuatom-house,  or 
land  tlieiii  without  entry,  and  they  are,  in  conae- 
queni'V,  seized  or  forfeited,  he  la  Imund  to  make  good 
the  diininge  to  hia  principal ;  but  if  the  factor  make 
hia  entry  according  to  Invoice  or  letters  of  advice,  and 
these  proving  erroncoua,  thu  gooda  are  seized,  ho  is 
discharged.  It  la  now  a  settled  point,  that  a  factor 
bus  a  lien  on  gooda  consigned  to  him,  not  only  for  in- 
cidental cliarges,  but  as  an  item  of  n^utual  account  for 
the  balance  due  to  lilm  so  long  as  he  remains  in  poa- 
aesslon.  If  he  Ije  surety  in  a  lioiid  for  his  principal, 
be  has  u  lien  on  the  gooda  sold  by  him  ^n  account  of 
such  principal,  to  the  amount  of  the  sum  he  la  bound 
for. 

It  lieing  the  general  rule  of  law  "  that  property  does 
not  change  while  m  trantitu"  or  In  the  hands  of  a  car- 
rier, a  cimsignment  made  before  the  baukruptcy  of  a 
consignor,  but  not  arriving  till  after,  remains  tho 
property  of  the  conaignor,  except,  indeed,  where  the 
delivery  ia  made  by  the  onJer  and  upon  the  account  of 
tho  consignee,  and  is  a  complete  alienatio  t  fntm  the 
convignor.  In  the  case,  therefore,  of  a  consignment 
tu  ■^  factor,  the  property  remains  the  consignor's,  and 
paaaes  Into  the  lianda  of  hit  aaelgneca.  When  a  factor 
hcs  a  lien  on  goods,  be  has  a  right  to  the  price,  though 
receive<l  after  the  bankruptcy.  Where  general  or  un- 
limited orders  are  given  'a  a  factor,  lie  ia  left  to  buy 
and  sell  on  the  best  conditions  be  can.  And  if  detri- 
ment arise  to  a  principal  from  the  proceedings  of  a  fac- 
tor acting  under  such  authority,  he  has  no  redress, 
unless  lie  can  show  that  he  acted  traudulentiy  or  witli 
ffrott  nef/liyence.  A  factor  or  broker  acting  against  tile 
interest  of  ilia  principit!.  can  r  Jt  even  receive  hia  com- 
misaioii.  If  bo  pay  monay  on  account  of  hia  principal, 
without  Iwing  authorized,  he  can  not  recover  it  back. 
An  agent  can  not  delegate  hia  rights  to  another  ao  as 
to  bind  tho  principal,  unless  expressly  authorized  to 
nominate  a  sub-agent. 

For  further  information  aa  to  the  general  powers 
and  lialillities  of  factors  and  agents,  see  Kknt's  Com- 
metUariet ;  PARSONS  on  Mercantile  Contract)  i  Stohy  on 
Conlractt ;  Uka we'h  Ia-jc  Atercatoria,  arts.  Factori,  Su- 
ptrcargoet,  etc. ;  CuiTTir's  Commercial  Law,  vol.  Ui., 


e.  8.  i  Wooi.HTun  on  Commercial  Lam;  §••  alio  th* 
artlcia  UmiKKH. 

Under  the  law  witli  respect  to  the  transactions  of 
factora  or  agents  on  tiiird  partiea  that  prevailed  d'  wn 
to  the  act  U  (ino,  4,  c.  U4,  it  waa  hold,  that  a  factor,  aa 
such,  had  no  authority  lo  ftteitye,  liut  only  to  tell  tha 
gooda  of  hia  prlnci|ial ;  and  it  waa  repeatedly  decided 
that  a  principal  might,  recover  back  giHHia  on  which  a 
huiiAjide  advance  of  money  hotl  been  made  by  a  third 
party,  without  hia  being  ixiund  tu  repay  auch  advance  ; 
and  notwitliatanding  thla  third  party  waa  wlioliy  Igno- 
rant that  tlie  indiviiluul  pledging  tliu  go<Hli<  held  them 
aa  a  mere  foi^tor  or  agent.  It  uacil  alao  to  be  held, 
that  ionii  JiiUi  purchaaura  of  good«  from  factora  oi 
agents  not  vested  with  tlio  (wwor  of  sale,  nilglit  b« 
made  iialile  to  puy  the  price  of  thegiaida  n  second  time 
to  the  real  owner.  The  extreme  liiirdBliip  and  injuri- 
oua  Inlluence  of  auch  regulatlona  ia  obvioua.  It  U  tha 
buaineaa  of  a  principal  to  aatisfv  hlinaeif  as  to  the  con> 
duct  and  character  of  the  factor  or  agent  he  employs  ( 
and  if  he  make  a  false  estimate  of  them.  It  is  more 
equitable,  surely,  that  be  should  be  the  sufl'eror,  than 
those  who  have  no  means  of  knowing  any  thing  uf  the 
matter. 

"  All  agent*  who  sell  gomls  for  their  principals,  and 
guaranty  the  price,  are  said  abroad  to  act  under  a  del 
credere  commiuion.  In  tills  country,  thU  phrase  ia 
seldom  used,  nor  is  such  guaranty  usual.     Heo  \)k\, 

CUKUKHK  (J0.MMI8SIUN. 

'  (ionerally,  neither  factor  nor  broker  can  claim  their 
commissions  until  their  whole  service  be  (lerformed, 
and  In  good  fuith,  and  with  pro|)er  skill,  care,  and  in- 
dustry, liut  if  tlie  aervice  begins,  and  ia  interrupted 
wholly  without  their  fault,  they  may  claim  a  propor- 
tionate coni|iensation.  If  either  bargaina  to  give  hi* 
whole  time  to  hia  employer,  he  will  nut  lie  permitted 
to  derive  any  compensation  for  services  rendered  to 
other  persona.  Nor  can  either  have  any  valid  claim 
ag:iinst  any  one  for  Illegal  services,  or  thoae  which 
violate  inorullty  or  puldic  policy. 

"  A  principal  can  not  revoke  an  authority  given  to  a 
factor,  after  advances  made  by  the  factor,  without  re- 
paying or  securing  the  factor, 

"  The  distinction  between  f\foreigi\&ni  a  domestic 
factor  is  quite  important.  A  domestic  factor  la  one 
who  ia  employed  and  acti  In  the  same  country  with 
bis  prliici,<nl.  A  foreign  factor  ia  one  employed  by  a 
principal  who  Uvea  in  a  dlllerent  country .  And  a 
foreign  factor  la  aa  to  third  parties,  for  most  purposes, 
and  under  most  circumstances,  a  principal.  Thua 
they  oun  not  sue  tho  principal,  because  thoy  are  sup- 
posed tu  t^Mitract  with  the  factor  alone,  and  on  hia 
credit,  although  the  principal  may  sue  them ;  and  a 
foreign  factor  is  peraonally  liable,  although  ha  fully 
disclose  bis  agency,  and  hia  principal  la  known.  Uut 
tlila  doctrine  ia  nut  extended  to  cases  where  a  contract 
for  personal  aerviccs  is  made  In  the  country'  where  the 
factor  is  doing  businosa,  by  a  person  resident  there ; 
hut  the  contrmtt  is  to  lie  performed  or  executed  in  the 
country  wli  ^e  the  principal  resides.  For,  if  such  a 
contract  lie  Made  In  the  name  of  the  principal,  bo  alone 
ia  reaponsibli .  O'lo  who  deals  with  a  domestic  factor 
may  sue  the  principal,  unless  it  is  shown  that  credit 
waa  given  >  xelusively  to  the  factor.  And  for  the  pur- 
poBo  of  t!i;a  distinction,  and  the  rules  founded  upon  it, 
we  bold,  on  the  weight  of  authority,  that  our  states  are 
foreign  to  each  other. 

"  Kvor,'  factor  ia  bound  to  reasonable  care  ;  and  he 
is  liable  fur  a  loss  by  fire,  or  robbery,  or  other  accident 
occurri.  g  without  hi*  defa.'lt,  if  he  hud  previously  done 
aome  wrongful  act,  without  which  the  property  might 
have  been  safe.  And  thla  rule  would  apply  even  to 
a  gratuitous  agent." — I'ausons'  Mercantile  Law,  pp. 
1.18 -102. 

Factorage,  or  Commiuion,  the  allowance  given 
to  factora  by  the  merchants,  manufacturera,  etc.,  who 
employ  them:  it  is  a  percentage  on  the  gooda  they 


PAI 


«48 


FAI 


porrhu*  or  tail  on  >ecflnnl  nt  thdr  prinofpalii,  mmI 
mrleii  In  illtrvrviil  coiintrixn,  nii'l  iw  It  rrfi-ra  in  itllhr- 
•nt  artklda.  It  U  I'uatomar}'  fur  fki-tnra,  u  nliMirr*<l 
In  th«  proTlcmii  urtlcl*,  t<>  initiir*  lh«  dxlita  due  tn  IhiiM 
for  whom  thry  iirll  for  >n  iidillttoniil,  or  tirl  crriirrr 
ciiininliuton,  ||«n«rall.v  «v«r«Kl<>K  tntm  1^  to  2  \»t  fnt. 
KactoraK*  or  rommlulon  la  iiliio  fn«|iiFntly  rharitmi  nt 
■  crrtnln  rat*  |ier  ciiak,  or  other  parkiiK*,  inmiauro,  or 
wrlKht,  e<|)«rlally  whrn  the  furtor  ia  only  vrnployrd 
U.'  recelvii  or  deliver :  thU  onmmiaalnn  U  uaiully 
Hxed  liy  aiiecbil  •((reement  lietween  the  merchant  and 
factor. 

Factory,  in  rommen'e,  a  place  where  merrhanta 
and  fnrtora  reaiiie,  tn  n<Kiitlnte  liuaineaii  for  themaelva* 
unil  their  I'orreKpundrnIa  on  commianion. 

F«lrs  iinii  Ifarketa.  Tnean  Inatitiitiona  are  very 
cloaely  alllrd.  A  t»lr,  a«  the  term  ia  now  generally 
iiiidi'rato<Kl,  ta  onlf  a  Krviiter  aiiei'lea  of  market  recur- 
ring ut  more  diatant  Intervnla.  Ihith  nra  appnipriated 
tu  the  aale  of  one  or  more  apeclea  uf  K"<Nla,  the  hlrinif 
of  aerviinta  or  lulmrera,  etc, ;  liut  faira  are,  In  nioet 
cmea,  attendeil  liy  a  great  concourse  of  people,  for 
whuae  amuaement  vnrioua  exhililthina  an  got  up, 
Katra  ami  wakea  are  of  Sii.xon  origin,  and  were  flrat 
lnalitute<l  in  Kiigland  liy  Alfred,  A,  li.  NWI. — ,Sprlman. 
They  >  ^re  extaliliahed  liy  onier  (if  (iregnry  VII.  in 
lilW,  and  termed  Frriir,  ut  whicli  the  monka  celebrated 
tlie  foatival  of  their  |iatron  aalnt ;  the  vaat  reeort  of 
|ieople  ocuMlunvil  a  greiit  demand  for  gmiila,  warea, 
etc,  Tliey  were  calle<l  wakea  trom  the  |ie<iple  making 
infirry  during  the  vigil  or  eve.  Kaira  wen  eat«hllahe<l 
In  France  and  England  liy  Charlemagne  and  William 
the  Conqueror,  alKiut  A.  i>.  800  In  the  flrat,  and  1071 
in  thu  latter  kingdom.  Tlie  falm  of  Itaucaire,  Kalaiae, 
and  Lelpnlc,  are  the  most  famuua  In  Kurope,  8ea  K.  H, 
—Uayln. 

1.  Orij/in  of  Fain. — Inatitutlnna  of  thia  nrt  are  pe- 
culiarly •er\Tcalile  in  the  earlier  itagea  of  aociety,  and 
in  rude  and  inUnd  countrlea.  The  numlier  of  ahopi, 
and  the  comuuNlltiea  in  them,  are  then  either  compar- 
utively  limited,  or  they  are  l)Ut  little  frequented  liy 
dealera  j  ao  that  It  hi  for  the  advantage  of  all,  that 
fttira  nhoulil  lie  eatuliiinhed,  and  merchant*  induceil  to 
attend  them.  Kor  thIa  pur|Hiae  various  privilegca 
have  lieen  annexed  to  fulra,  and  numenms  facilities  af- 
fonled  to  the  diapoaal  of  iiroperty  in  tliem.  To  give 
them  a  greater  degree  of  aolemnlty,  they  were  orlgin- 
uliy,  Imtli  in  the  ancient  anil  modem  world,  assix'lated 
with  religious  festivals.  In  most  places,  indeed,  they 
lire  still  held  on  the  same  day  with  the  wake  or  feast 
of  the  saint  to  whom  the  church  is  dedicated  ;  and,  till 
I  he  [inictice  was  prohiliited,  it  was  cuatomary  in  Kn- 
gliind  to  bold  them  in  chiirehyanls ! — (Jacob't  //!■>> 
Dirt.,  art.  Fair.)  Hut  since  the  growth  of  tnwna,  and 
the  opiMirtunitie*  alTorded  for  the  disposal  and  puri'hase 
of  all  aorta  of  prrxluce  at  the  weekly  or  monthly  mark- 
ets held  in  tlipni,  the  ntllity  of  fain,  in  this  countr}'  at 
least,  liiw  very  much  diminished  ;  they  have  also  lost 
tnuch  of  their  uuciont  splendor ;  and,  though  lome  of 
them  are  still  well  attended,  and  of  real  use,  a  Koo<l 
numlier  might  lie  Bdvnntagrau!<ly  suppressed.  But  It 
is  fur  otherwise  in  inland  countries,  where  the  facllitioa 
for  .^an^-ing  on  coramerchil  transactions  ara  compar- 
atively circumscrilied.  There  it  Is  of  the  utmost  [n\- 
portaiic  ■  that  certain  convenient  places  and  sjiecifled 
periods  iihnnid  lie  appointed  for  the  bringing  together 
of  conimoditiei  and  dealers.  This  la  not  only  the 
readiest  and  liest  means  of  promoting  commerce,  liut 
also  of  softening  national  unli|uithios,  and  diffusing  a 
knowle<lge  of  the  products,  arts,  and  customs  of  otiier 
countries. 

2.  KttabluhmeiU  of  EnyliMh  Fain Ko  fair  can  be 

bolden  without  grant  from  the  crown,  or  a  prescrip- 
tion which  supposes  such  grunt.  And  before  a  patent 
ia  granted,  it  is  usual  to  have  a  writ  of  ad  quod  damnum 
executed  and  returned,  that  it  may  not  be  issued  to 
the  prejudice  of  s  Bimllar  establbhrnent  already  exiat- 


Ing.  Tha  tpnnt  wually  oontalna  •  clan**  Ikat  II  shall 
not  Im  to  the  hurt  of  another  fhir  or  market ;  but  Ihia 
cUuse,  if  omlttail,  will  he  implle<l  In  law  |  for  if  the 
franchise  oceoalon  damage  either  tn  the  king  or  a  aul»> 
Ject,  in  this  or  any  other  rea|iect,  it  will  lie  revoked  { 
and  II  perwin  whose  ancient  title  ia  pre]udlce<l  la  enti- 
tled tn  have  a  tnrffiifint  In  the  king's  name  to  re|wn| 
the  letters  |iatent.  If  his  Majesty  grant  iMiwef  to  hold 
a  fair  or  market  In  a  particular  place,  the  llcgea  can 
reaort  to  no  other,  even  though  It  lie  Inconvenient, 
liut  If  nn  place  lie  appoliilml,  Ih*  grantees  mny  keep 
the  fair  or  market  wkv'Te  they  please,  or  rather  where 
they  can  most  cimvenlertly. 

H.  Time  nf  kotilinij  Fu»ri  imH  Sfarkrti. — These  ar* 
either  determined  by  the  letten  patent  a|i|Milntlng  the 
fair  or  market,  or  by  usage.  The  statute  'i  Kilw.  H. 
enacts,  that  the  duration  of  the  fair  shall  Iw  declared 
at  Its  commencement,  and  that  it  shall  not  be  contin- 
ued lieyond  the  speclllcd  time,  liy  statute  ft  Kdw.  tt, 
any  merchant  selling  gnnds  after  the  stipulated  time 
Is  to  forfeit  double  the  value  nf  the  graida  sold, 

4*  ^^*'rtg nf  Sttt^g  in  Fiiim  nnii  \farkft», — A  b(mAjitU 
sale  made  in  a  fair  or  o|H>n  market.  In  general,  trans- 
fers the  complete  pniperty  of  the  thing  sold  to  the  ven- 
dee !  so  that  however  vicious  or  Illegal  that  title  of  the 
vendor  may  lie,  the  vendee's  Is  gnod  against  ever}' 
on«i,  except  the  king,  liut  the  sale.  In  onler  to  coma 
within  thia  rule,  must  take  place  <m  Ihr  mnrkrt  i/'i.y,  and 
nt  Ihr  pinrt  auii/itrd  fi>r  Ihr  markrt.  The  city  of  lx)n- 
don  is  said  to  lie  a  market  overt  every  day  of  the  week, 
except  Sunday  ;  every  shop  lieing  a  market  overt  for 
such  things  a*  the  ahopkeeper  profeasea  to  deal  In. 
The  pro|i«rty  of  gooda  may,  however,  lie  changed,  and 
effectually  tranaferretl  to  the  buyer,  by  a  iMithljitlr  aale 
in  a  shop  out  of  I^mdon,  whether  the  shopkee|ier  lie  th« 
vendor  or  vendee,  if  the  gooda  are  of  llie  kind  in 
which  he  trades.  A  wharf  in  Ixindon  is  nnt  within 
the  custom,  and  Is  not  a  market  overt  for  article* 
brought  there.  liut  a  sale  In  a  market  will  not  be 
binding  if  it  be  such  iis  carries  with  it  a  presumption 
of  fraud ;  aa,  for  example,  if  it  take  placn  In  a  back 
room  or  secret  place  ;  if  the  sale  lie  covinous,  and  In- 
tended to  defraud  the  rtial  owner,  or  if  the  buyer  know 
that  the  vendor  is  not  the  real  owner  of  the  gnnln,  etc. 
It  ia  very  dIfHcult  tn  transfer  the  property  of  horses, 
even  when  they  are  sold  In  nn  open  market,  without 
the  consent  of  the  real  owner. 

6.  ('our/  ifl'if  I'oudrt. — According  to  Kngliah  uaage, 
at  ever}'  fair  or  market  there  is  indilcnt,  even  without 
any  express  wortls  in  the  grant,  a  court  of  pii  i>iiiidr«, 
in  allusion  to  the  dusty  feet  of  the  sulton.  The  ntow- 
ard  or  mayor  may  |ire«ide.  It  has  cogniaance  of  all 
questions  as  tn  contracts  made  In  the  market  ras|iecting 
goo<ls  hnmght  and  drliifrrd  Iherf,  etc.  Kormerly  pii 
poudre  courts  were  held  at  every  considerable  fair,  but 
they  are  now  entirely  laid  a*ide. 

U.  Principal  Ilrilitk  Fairt, — Among  these  may  lie 
specified  Stourbridge,  in  Worcestershire.  Ilrlstol 
hoa  two  omsiderebie  faira,  one  in  March  and  one  in 
Heptemlier.  Kxeter  Decemlier  fair,  for  cattle,  horses, 
and  most  sorta  of  comnuHlities.  WeyhiU  fair.  In 
llampshira  (Ortolier  10),  has,  prolialdy,  the  greatest 
display  of  sheep  of  any  fair  in  the  kingdom,  liar- 
tholomew  fair,  in  I/ondon,  need  to  lie  of  considerable 
importance,  but  latterly  l(  was  appropriated  only  to 
shows  of  wild  lieaats,  and  such-like  exhibitions,  and 
iuu,  within  these  few  yean,  been  rery  properly  aup- 
preated.  Kt.  Fk-th's  near  Norwich  (October  17),  is 
the  principal  Kngiish  fair  for  Scotch  cattle.  They  ara 
sold  to  the  graziere  and  feedera  of  Norfolk,  Hutt'olk, 
Essex,  etc.,  by  whom  thuy  are  fattened  for  tlio  Lon- 
don markets,  where  they  are  met  with  in  f{raat  abund- 
ance. But  liesides  those  sold  at  St.  Faith's,  large 
numben  of  Scotch  cattle  are  disposed  of  at  Market 
Harlioreugli,  (Carlisle,  Ormskirk,  and  otiier  places. 
Ipswich  has  two  consblereble  fain :  one  in  August,  for 
lamb* ;  and  ooa  in  September,  for  buttor  and  cheese: 


^r^jv^k^.^iuj^'a  :^.^^ii^..  ^'iiilsk'.^^!^^t^i^i^^i^^:iHiiiL 


I  niHV  1h) 

Ilrlrtol 
|i({  iinK  in 
I,  liorxoii, 

fiiir,   in 
I  ureBtBst 
l».ir- 
|iicl«THble 

only  to 
fmn,  nnd 
kriv  »up- 
Ir  17),  i» 
Iriipv  lire 
1  HiiiiVilit, 
the  \Atn- 
It  al>un(l- 
r»,  liirue 

,  Mnrltet 

jilnrps. 

||{U!it,  for 

i  cbeeta : 


m 

H  l*'ri«1iAii«l  ttuU  »hnva  Inn,nn0  Wmha  •!«  Mnnkllr 
•iilit  ■ttlm  fnrmcr,  WixnllHimiiKh-lilll,  In  l)nri*l,  f»r 
WKat  i-ixintry  muniirarliinii,  «•  kunwy*,  ilrii)(K'ta,  «tc. 
WiMHlntm  k  Oiiolwr  fiilr,  fiir  clirMe.  Niirthainpton 
•nd  Notllngham  hiivt  ouch  wvor.il  InrKn  fiilm,  for 
bnnM,  rtilU,  cHmm,  rtr.  Ihn  Au^imt  fiilr  of  Horn- 
oaall*,  in  Mnrolnanir*,  !•  lli.'  Inr/-  .t  hnnw-ftiir  in  tli* 
klniolom,  many  thouMmi  li<.r>"  ln-InK  rxliiliitMl  for 
mIb  (InrlnK  '•"  f<>nlinuiini>«  :  it  i  niMirtnl  to  liy  rniwiti 
of  (laulara  from  all  |)»rt«  of  (in'ut  llritnln,  liy  ••r«ntl 
tr<im  til*  Continvnt,  anil  Mmirtlmvii  nvxn  fWim  North 
Amnrira.  Ilowilon,  in  Ynriialiirit,  haa,  nlaii,  •  v«ry 
|iir((«  hnra<»-fi«ir,  iiiirtii-nlnrly  for  Yiiriiaiiira  huntum. 
I)nvi|pa,  in  Wlitanlrn,  hiia  anvernl  UrK«  fiilra  for  »tio»p 
•nil  I'utlln.  Tli«r«  la  uaiiallr  s  larKu  lilapUy  of  cliMn 
■t  tli«  Oloucmtcr  A|>Til  fiiir.  A  Kiiilii,  or  Jiiliilm,  mm- 
ninnrinK  th«  laat  wiwit  of  Augnat,  U  li«lil  cvfiri'  twpn- 
tiKth  year  at  TroHton,  in  Lnnoaaliirn;  tli«  laat  wnahnlil 
In  IN-t'i,  anil  waa  wnll  atti-ndml.  Tlio  Oriolivr  fiilr  of 
MnriiPt  llarharoii|{li,  l^ii'vatcrahirfi,  liiata  II  dnya,  ami 
k  K'*'"'  'I*"!  ■>'  liuainnaa  ta  uautilly  ilon*  in  oiiltlo, 
clieran,  uto.  WooillirlilK«  Ij«ly-<lay'  fair  la  cpinliriitnii 
for  tha  ahow  of  flufrolic  lior»K«.  KnUIrk  fair,  or  tryat, 
b  nna  of  thn  inott  Important  in  Hoolliinil,  for  tlin  iinin 
of  ciittia  anil  aheap.  Tbo  Ortolivr  fair  of  llallinaaloe, 
In  the  county  Ciulway,  la  rumoiia  for  the  iliaplay  of 
cattle  anil  aheepi  liy  far  tlin  liir((i'i«t  pro)iortlon  of 
thean  anininia  ralaml  for  aula  In  ('onnaii|{ht  liein^  ilia- 
poaeil  of  at  It.  'I'lio  alionp  are  )(i>iii>rnlly  trnm  three  to 
four,  the  haifvra  h-oin  tliren  to  four,  anil  the  liullmki 
ffoni  four  to  rtv-e  yenra  of  ane.  'I'hey  nro  moKtIy 
lean  j  ami  are  kejit  for  a  year  In  Lelnater  liofore  they 
««  lit  for  the  Dulilln  or  Liverpool  mnrketa. 

7.  /Vinri/Hi/  Frem-h  Kairt. — An\onjf  theae  may  lie 
i|i«rilled  the  faira  of  SI,  <iermain'a,  I,yona,  Khnlma, 
Chartrea,  Itoiien,  llorileuux,  Troyea,  and  Iliiyonne ; 
but  they  are  niui-h  fallen  off.  The  moat  lm|)ortnnt  of 
th«  moilem  Kri-noh  faira,  la  that  of  lleaucaire,  on  tlin 
right  liank  of  the  Khone  oppoaite  to  Tnrmacon,  14 
niilea  enat  of  NIamea.  It  la  very  fuvoralily  aitiiiitiMl 
for  nn  rnlrrpdt,  hting,  exiluaivn  of  the  romniiinil  of 
Intemnl  nuvlKiitlon  alTorilcd  by  tbn  Kbone,  ronnnctoil 
by  i-anala  with  tbo  aea  anil  the  Camil  ilii  Midi,  Tbo 
fair,  which  conimencea  on  the  'iiiX  and  tliiiaheK  on  the 
SKtb  .July,  WBi  formerly  the  grenteHt  in  Kurope,  iiml, 
though  n  good  deal  fallen  off,  It  Is  atiil  atlemloil  by  n 
vast  eoni'oiirae  of  people,  nut  from  Kruiiro  only,  but 
alao  from  Hwltxerliind,  Orrmnny,  Italy,  Spalii,  and 
the  levant.  Almnat  every  aort  of  artiide,  wlietlier 
of  convenienreorluxur}',  may  then  bo  mi't  with  in  the 
town.  It  Is  anid  that  the  number  of  vinitors  still 
amounts  to  from  70,000  to  HO,(HKI,  and  the  amount  of 
business  done  to  150,000,n<N)  fr. ;  hut  we  have  littla 
doubt  that  theae  eatlmiitea  are  very  v,T%M\y  exajj- 
Kenited  ;  and  that  the  llrat  would  li«  nearer  the  murk 
were  It  redured  to  fiO.IKMl  or  (iO.OlH).  All  bllla  due  at 
this  fair  are  presented  on  the  'JTth,  and  protested  on 
the  2Htb.  A  tribunal  instituted  for  tbo  puriwae,  takes 
cu){iii;«unco  of,  and  immediately  settles  all  disputes 
(TTOwinK  out  of  transni-tions  that  take  place  at  the 
fair.  A  niilitarr  force  attends  to  preaerA-o  order,  and 
the  prefect  of  the  department,  who  la  always  present, 
entertains  the  principal  merchants  and  atran){erH. 

8.  (lermnn  Fain. — The  principal  (ierman,  or  rather 
European  faira,  are  those  of  Krankfort-on-tbc-Mnlne, 
Frankfort-on-tho-Oder,  and  Letpslc.  The  concourse 
of  merchant*  and  the  buaincas  done  at  these  fairs,  are 
generall}-  verj'  great.  They  are  copiously  supplied 
with  the  cotton  stuffs,  twist,  cloths,  and  hardware  of 
Kngliind  ;  the  silks  and  jewelry  of  France  ;  the  printed 
cottons  of  .Switzerland  and  Austria ;  tbo  raw,  man- 
ufactured, and  lileraiy  prmliicts  of  (leminny  ;  the  furs 
of  the  North  j  Turke)-  carpets  j  Caabmcr©  shawls, 
etc. ;  and  there,  also,  are  to  lie  found  merchants  of  all 
countries,  those  of  Ispahan  negotlatiiiR  with  those  of 
Blontreal  for  the  purchase  of  furs ;  and  Georgians  and 
Berriaiu  supplying  themselves  with  the  cottons  of 


PAI 

Mannkacttir  and  Ih*  Jawelry  of  PuU.  Theft,  In  fcot, 
an  met  the  repreacntativaa,  oa  It  ware,  uf  avery  [lao- 
pla  in  the  world,  ialmrlng,  though  without  Intendinn 
it,  to  pronioto  each  otlier'a  iutereat,  and  to  cxtund  and 
atn-ngthen  llm^ie  ties  that  bind  togetiiitr  tbn  great  fam- 
ily of  the  human  race.  The  fairs  at  Krankfort-on-the- 
Malnu  aiiould  liegin  the  first  on  I'jwter  Tuesday,  and 
the  second  on  tlia  Monday  nearest  to  the  Mb  of  8«p- 
temlH>r.  Tbair  iluration  is  limited  to  three  wanks,  but 
they  usually  laigin  from  el^iit  to  fifteen  duva  Iwfore 
their  legal  commencoment.  Accuunti  are  kept  in  rix- 
iloUars  ,  1  rlxdollar  of  account  ■>  1^  Horln,  or  i\  co|>> 
sticks,  or  'X'i^  liataen.  Thu  rlxdollar  »>  ils,  IKil.  |  so 
tluit  the  |iar  of  exchange  la  141  butien  |H>r  ill  •terlinH. 
lOOlli.  common  Frankfort  weight  •—  lUillb.  avairdu> 
pills.  The  foot  •>•  11'27  Knglisb  Inches,  I'he  fairs 
at  Krimkfort-on-thivOdor  are  three  in  nuinlMir,  via,  i 
Itonilniscere,  in  Keliruary  or  March  |  Ut.  Margaret,  In 
•luly;  and  .St.  Martin,  'n  Novemlier.  They  ought, 
strictly  s|Hiaking,  to  terminate  in  eight  days,  but  they 
usually  extend  to  fifteen.  'I  lie  rruaalun  govcriiiiiant 
gives  every  facility  to  those  who  attend  these  fairs. 
Ai'coiiiits  are  kept  in  I'russian  money,  that  Is,  In  rix- 
dollars  of  'Js.  ll^d.  llXHIi.  Prussian  •»  KliUli.  avoirdu- 
pois. I  he  foot  -^a  I'^i'lliitl  I'jiglish  Indies.  The  fair* 
of  l.clpsic  era  still  more  celeiirated  than  those  uf  either 
Kraiiklort.  Tliny  are  held  tbriie  a-year — on  the  1st 
of  .liinuary,  at  I'jister,  and  at  Michaelmas.  The  first 
is  the  leant  linpnrtant.  The  Master  and  .Mlibaelinaa 
fairs  are  famous,  |iartlcularly  the  former,  for  the  vast 
numlicr  of  new  pulillcutions  usually  ofl'urcd  for  sale. 
Tliey  are  attendud  liy  all  the  principal  bitoksellera  uf 
Uerinany,  and  l>y  many  from  the  aiijuining  countries, 
who  adjust  tliclr  accounts,  learn  the  state  of  trade  In 
all  parts  of  tlio  world,  and  endeavor  to  form  new  con- 
ne<alons.  Mi»t  Uernian  publishers  have  agents  In 
I.eipsic  i  which  Is  to  the  literature  of  (iermany,  what 
London  Is  to  tliiit  of  (jreat  Mritain.  As  iniiiiy  as  6000 
now  pulillcutions  have  lieen  In  a  single  l.eipslo  catiu 
logue  I  Tiioy  are  also  great  markets  for  8axon  wool- 
nns  and  other  gomls,  llritish  calicoes,  French  silks, 
and.  111  f,ii't,  for  most  descriptions  of  produce.  The 
ruin  ought  to  close  in  night  days,  but  they  usually 
continue  for  aiaiut  three  weeks.  No  days  of  grace  are 
allowed.  The  holder  of  a  bill  must  demand  |iayment 
on  the  day  it  bncnmcs  due  ;  and,  if  nut  paid,  lio  mvit 
have  It  protested  on  liiat  very  day,  and  returned  by 
the  lint  opportunity.  If  be  neglect  any  of  tiiese  reg- 
ulations, lie  loses  all  rigiitof  recourse  u|ion  the  drawer 
and  ludorsers.  Kloiicy  uf  account  at  I.eipsic  same  ai 
Frankl'ort-un-tiie-)laine.  lUOlii.  Lei|i<iu  =^  loillb.  av- 
uirilu|Hiis.  The  fiait  ■=>  11-11  Knglisb  inches. — Kbl- 
l.v's  (,'iunbitt;  Manuel  tk  ffrltfnbrecl,er  i  IIowhinu'm 
Ui'/wrl  on  Mr  I'ruaiiiin  Cifmmtrcial  Vninn,  pp.  'ibb,  209, 
etc,  Dr.  Bright  gives,  in  bis  Trarrlt  in  IJiini/iirt)  (pp. 
'-'01  32H),  un  liitore.iting  account  of  the  fairs  held  at 
Uebret/.ln  and  I'esth.  The  latter  has  becoiiie  tho 
grand  i^ntm  of  Hungarian  commerce;  most  part  of 
which  is  conduut^id  at  Its  fairs. 

'J.  Italian  Fain. — Uf  these,  the  most  celebrated  is 
that  of  iSinlgaglia,  a  small,  but  handsome  town  of  the 
I'apal  dominions,  un  tlio  Sllsa,  near  its  confluence  with 
tile  Adriatic.  Tbo  fair  commences  un  the  'Jntli  uf  July, 
and  should  terminate  on  the  last  iluy  uf  that  month, 
but  it  usually  cuiitiuues  eight  or  ten  days  longer. 
Tlie  duties  un  goods  liroiiglit  to  the  fair  are  extremely 
mwlorate,  and  every  thing  is  done  to  pnunoto  tho  con- 
venience uf  those  fre<|unnting  it.  All  sorts  of  cotton, 
woolen,  nnd  silk  gwnis,  colonial  produce,  iron  and 
steel,  lumlwiire,  jewelrj-,  brandy  and  linuors,  timber, 
drugs,  spices,  etc.,  are  bruiight  here  by  the  Kngllsh, 
French,  Austrians,  Swiss,  etc.  Those  are  oxchiinged 
for  tho  various  raw  and  manufactured  products  of 
Italy  and  the  Levant ;  consisting,  among  others,  of 
raw,  thrown,  and  wrought  silks ;  oil,  fruits,  cheese, 
alum,  so<la,  sumach,  sulphur,  etc.  The  value  of  tho 
impurta  for  the  fair  of  liMl,  wa«  estimated  at  about 


FAI 


650 


FAI 


<1,700,000.  AccuunU  are  kept  in  Bcudi  of  20  aoldi ; 
the  «cudo  =  4a.  4d.  very  nearly.  lOOIb.  SiniRoglia 
-=  78f  avoinliipolii.  The  ell  or  liracctn  measure! 
25.83  Knglish  inches. — Mmurlde  Neltenbrtchtr ;  Mao- 
ORROon's  Tariff,  Italy,  p.  121. 

10.  Ru$tian  Fair>. — Those  arc  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  are  well  attended.  The  most  important  is 
held  at  Nijnii-Novgorod,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Oka 
with  the  Wolga,  lat.  66°  19'  40"  north,  long.  44°  28' 
SO"  east.  Previously  to  1817  this  fair  was  held  in  a 
lest  convenient  situation,  at  MakariefT,  lower  down  the 
Wolga.  Hut  the  l>uildlngs  for  the  accommodiition  of 
the  merchants  at  the  latter  having  l>een  accidentally 
burnt  down  in  1816,  government  took  advantage  of 
the  circumstance  to  remove  the  fair  to  Nijnii.  It  is 
principally  carried  on  within  the  new  baiiaars  con- 
structed for  that  purpose  on  tlie  left  liank  of  tlie  Oka. 
These,  wliich  ate  divided  into  parallel  r'>ws,  or  streets, 
are  constructed  of  stone  walls  and  roofed  witli  iron, 
having  covered  galleries  in  front  supported  l>y  iron 
pillars.  They  are  built  on  piles,  and,  to  guard  against 
inundations,  the  ground  on  which  they  stand  has  been 
raised  al>out  20  feet.  Being  inclosed  on  tliree  sides 
by  canals,  and  on  the  fourth  by  a  navigable  inlet  of 
the  Oka,  there  is  every  facility  for  the  delivery  and 
shipment  of  goods.  The  establishment  is  of  great  ex- 
tent, comprising  2524  booths,  and  is  admitted  <in  all 
hands  to  l>e  at  once  the  largest  and  most  perfect  of  its 
kind  that  is  anywhere  to  be  met  with.  Uut,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  above,  no  fewer  than  2506  shops  and  liooths 
belonging  to  private  parties,  and  constructed  of  wood, 
were  occupied  during  the  fair  of  1841.  The  fair  be- 
gins on  the  1st  of  July,  and  continues  for  a  month  or 
six  weeks. 

The  total  value  of  the  various  articles  of  Asiatic  (in- 
e'uding  Chinese)  produce  exposed  for  sale  at  Novgonxl 
i  ■  1841  amounted  to  9,14G,71D  silver  roubles,  Iwiiigmore 
tlian  double  the  value  of  the  protlucts  of  western  Ku- 
rjpe  exposed  in  the  same  year.     Of  the  latter,  indigo, 
"  i  ine,  and  cottons  were  the  principal  articles. — Journal 
a'ft  Manii/ttrliirf.i,  I'el^rtburi!,  1842.      The  stationary 
impulation  of  the  town,  which  may  amount  to  aluiiit 
25,(X)0,  is,  during  the  fair,  said  to  amount  to  from  lllil,- 
000  to  lt>0,0fl0,  including  Chinese,    •  rslans,  Armeni- 
ans, Tartars,  llnkhariuns,  etc.     Theatrical  exiiiliitions, 
shows  of  wild  lieasts,  and  other  Bartholomew  fair  ex- 
hiliitions,  add  to  the  attractions  of  tlie  scene.     Another 
celelirated  Russian  fair  is  held  in  the  month  of  Decem- 
ber, at  Kiachta,  in  Mongolia,  on  the  Chinese  frontier, 
lat.  50°  21'  6"  north,  long.  106°  28'  16"  east.     The 
town  is  small,  the  population  not  exceeding  KKK)  or 
6000 ;  liut  l>y  far  the  largest  part  of  the  connnerce  l)e- 
tween  the  Kussian  and  ('hinese  empires  is  transactcil 
at  its  fair,  and  it  is  also  the  centre  of  the  ])olitical  in- 
tercourse lietwecn  them.     Tlie  commodities  l>rought 
hither  liy  the  Kussians  consist  principally  of  Kussian 
and  Oerinan  bmadclothii,  furs,  sheep  and  lamb  skins, 
leather,  coarse  linens,  worsted  stuffs,  cattle,  etc.,  with, 
for  the  must  part,  bullion.     These  Ihoy  change  with 
the  Chinese  for  tea,  raw  and  manufactured  silk,  nan- 
keens, porcelain,  sugar  candy,  rhul>arl>,  ttbacco,  musk, 
etc.,  the  value  of  the  articles,  however,  other  than 
tea,  being  compamtively  inconsideralile.     The  quun- 
tity  of  tea  purchased  at  the  Kiachta  fairs  by  the  Kus- 
sians, wliich  has  latterly  increased  verj*  consideraldy, 
amounted,  In  1850,  according  to  tlie  oHicial  returns,  to 
210  170  [HKids,  or  7, .566,444  pounds,  of  very  superior 
tea,  worth  almiit  2s.  6<l.  per  pound,  and  85,440  |)oo<ls 
(3,076,840  iiounds)  inferior  or  Idack  tea.     At  an  aver- 
age of  the  six  years  ending  with  1850,  the  total  iin- 


trade  is  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  merchants,  some  of  whom  are  very  rich ;  that  of 
the  Chinese  is  much  more  ditt\ised.  Commodities  may 
bo  conveyed  from  Kiachta  to  Kuropean  Kiissia  either 
by  land  or  by  water.  In  the  former  case  the  journey 
takes  a  year ;  in  the  latter,  it  takes  three  years,  or 
rather  three  ver}'  short  summers ;  the  rivers  being 
for  the  most  part  of  the  year  frozen  over. — Sehnifz- 
In;  atalittiquc  (Jineralt  de  V Empire  de  la  Huuie,  p, 
14'(,  etc. 

11.  Turkish  fairs. — Several  important  fain,  of  which 
little  or  nothing  is  known  in  this  courtr}',  are  held  at 
various  places  in  Kuropean  Turkey.     Among  others 
may  be  specified  those  of  Usundji,  or  Usundjovu,  in 
Koumelia ;  Joanima,  in  Albania ;  Stronga  on  the  Lake 
of  Ocrida;  Novi-Uazar,  in  Upper  Moesia;  Islivni,  in 
Thrace ;    Prelip  and  Nicop<di,  in  Macedonia ;    Kski- 
Djuuma,  in  liulgariu;  and  /eitoun  and  I'luirsalia,  in 
Thessaly.     The  largest  and  most  important  of  these 
fairs  is  that  of  Usum^ji,  held  at  the  village  of  that 
name,  on  the  Usundji,  a  tributary  of  the  Aturitza, 
about  44  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Adrianople,    It  was  visited 
by  M.  Blanqui  in  1841,  and  by  Mr.  Spencer  in  1850. 
The  latter  says  (but  statements  of  thU  sort  are  very 
apt  to  be  exaggerated),  that  it  was  attended  by  from 
80,000  to  100,0(H)  people,  who  had  journeyed'liither 
from  all  parts  of  European  Turkey  fur  the  purpose  of 
disposing  of  their  wool,  hides,  raw  cotton,  leeches,  and 
other  products  of  the  country,  and  of  purchasing  in 
return  the  manufactures  of  the  West.     The  show  of 
the  latter  is  very  extensive.     Sheds  are  erected  in  the 
village  by  government,  which  serve  as  warehouses  for 
the  merchants,  aud  every  house  is  converted  into  a  han 
for  the  reception  of  strangers.    Hut  by  fur  the  greater 
numberof  the  latter  have,  notwithstanding,  to  encamp 
with  their  camels,  horses,   etc.,  on  tlie  surrounding 
plain,    Uianqui  8|)eaks  in  high  terms  of  commendation 
of  the  good  order  that  prevailed,  in  the  absence  of  any 
thing  like  (Kilice,  among  the  motley  |K>pulution  at  the 
fair. — (Ki.ANgiii,  Voi/nge  en  lUilgarie,  p.  252;   SrKN- 
ckb's  Travelt  in  Kuropean  Turkey,  if.,  ;140,  etc.)   This 
great  fair,  which  lasts  fur  15  days  (Ulan(|ui)  is  held, 
like  the  other  fairs,    in  autumn,   immediately  after 
harvest.     Hut   though   it   bo   largely  frequented  by 
(ierman,  Swiss,  Italian,  and  Cireok  merchants,  who 
transact  a  great  amount  of  but^inoss,  it  is  very  little,  if 
at  all,  known  in  Kuglund.     This  is  the  more  surpris- 
ing, seeing  tliat  we  have  consuls  at  Adrianupio  and 
other  places  not  very  distant  from  the  scat  of  the  fair. 
And  it  might  iiave  been  supposed  that  these  function- 
aries would  have  been  anxiou"  to  send  home  the  most 
ample  details  with  respect  to  this  and  other  fairs  in 
their  vicinity  ;  dcscribuig  the  products  which  might  be   . 
most  advuntagcuusly  lioiight  and  sold  at  these  marts ; 
the  routes  by  which  they  miglit  lie  most  easily  reached, 
and  so  forth.    Hut  if  such  reports  any  wlicre  exist,  they 
have  not,  at  all  events,  lieeii  published.     And  hence, 
probalily,  the  fact  of  tlio  business  of  those  fairs  being 
mostly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 

12.  J-Mstem  /'o/;-jt.— The  most  important  fair  In  the 
ICasteni  worlii  is  that  held  at  Mecca  during  the  resort 
of  pilgrims  in  tlie  month  of  Ithalbajja.  It  used  to  ba 
frequented  by  many  thousands  uf  indiviiluals  uf  all 
ranks  and  orders,  bruught  together  from  tlic  remotest 
corners  uf  the  Mohammedan  world;  and  though  the 
numbers  nttemliiig  it  have  declined  of  late  years,  the 
concourse  is  still  very  great.  See  Caiiavan.  Hurd- 
war,  in  Ilindostan,  in  lat.  20°  57'  N.,  long.  78°  2'  IC, 
117  miles  N.IC.  from  Delhi,  is  famous  from  its  being 
one  of  the  principal  places  of  Hlmlou  pilgrimage,  and 
ports  of  all  sorts  of  tea  into  Kussia  througli  Kiachta  ;  the  greatest  fair  in  India.  The  town,  which  is  but  in- 
was  estimated  at  11,748,464  |iounds,' Kng.,  a  year.  |  cim.'iiderabic,  is  situated  on  tlie  (iangcs,  ut  the  point 
Accordi  g  to  the  same  accounts,  the  total  value  of  the  '  where  that  snored  stream  issues  from  the  mountains, 
ex|iarts  to  ('hina  through  Kiachta,  in  18,V),  amounted  |  The  pilgrimage  and  fair  are  held  together  at  the  vernal 
to  6,016,071  silver  roubles,  and  that,  of  the  imports  to  equinux ;  and  Kunipeans,  nowise  addicted  to  exaggeni- 
AlMiut  the  same.  The  customs  duty  received  at  Ki-  tion,  who  have  I  icon  rejicatedlj  present  on  these  ocoa- 
Bchto  in  1848  amounted  to  X<J23,5M.    The  Kiuiian  i  sioiu,  estimate  that  from  2U0,JUU  tg  900,000  strangers 


the 

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longiii) 

east 

tween  , 

or  in  pi 

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Broiiiid 

land  in 

West 

Ther 

Sound. 

by  8  to 

group 

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rugged 

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:iiir  In  the 
;he  resort 
jscil  to  \m 
itls  of  all 
remotest 
iou|;li  the 
loars,  tlie 
Hunl- 
JH"  -i'  E., 
it)  l)«mn 
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is  hut  in- 
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lountains. 
the  verniil 

exi>(?8<""'" 
hose  occa- 
etraugers 


are  then  assembled  in  the  town  and  its  vicinity.  But 
every  twelfth  year  is  reclconed  peculiarly  holy ;  and 
then  it  is  supposed  that  from  1,000,000  to  1,600,000, 
and  even  2,000,000  pilgrims  and  dealers  are  congre- 
gated togetlier  ftnm  all  parts  of  India  and  countries  to 
the  north.  In  IKI!),  which  happened  to  bo  a  twelfth 
year,  when  the  auspicious  moment  for  bathing  in  the 
Ganges  was  announced  to  the  impatient  devotees,  the 
rush  was  so  tremendous  that  no  fewer  than  430  persona 
were  either  trampled  to  death  under  foot,  or  drowned 
in  the  river!  The  foreigners  resorting  to  Hurdwar 
fair  for  commercial  purposes  only,  consist  principally 
of  natives  of  Nepaul,  the  Punjob,  and  Ueshwaur,  with 
Afghans,  Usbeck  Tartars,  etc.  Tliey  import  vast  num- 
bers of  Iiorses,  cattle,  and  camels  j  Persian  dried  fruits, 
shawls,  drugs,  etc. :  the  returns  are  made  in  cotton 
piere  goods,  indigo,  sugar,  spices,  and  other  tropical 
productions.  The  merchants  never  mention  the  price 
of  their  goods,  but  conduct  the  bargain  by  touching 
the  dilTerent  joints  of  their  fingers,  to  hinder  the  by- 
standers gaining  any  information.  During  the  Hah- 
ratta  sway,  a  kind  of  poll-tax  and  duties  on  cattle 
were  levied ;  but  all  is  now  free,  without  impost  or 
molestation  of  any  sort.  Owing,  also,  to  the  precau- 
tions adopted  by  the  British  government,  the  most 
perfect  order  is  preserved ;  much  to  the  surprise  and 
satisfaction  of  the  natives ;  for,  antecedent  to  our  oc- 
cupation of  the  country,  the  fairs  usually  ended  in 
disorder  and  l)lood8hed.---</ViW«  Information,  and  the 
excellent  account  of  Hurdwar  in  Hamilton's  Gazet- 
teer.) 

Tiio  fairs  of  Portobello,  Vera  Crux,  and  Acapulco, 
onco  so  famous,  are  now  totally  deserted ;  that  of  the 
Havana  is  also  much  fallen  oft'. 

In  the  United  States,  fairs  are  principally  confined 
to  exhibitions  of  agricultural  and  mechanical  articles, 
and  also  for  the  sale  of  fancy  articles  for  charitable 
purposes,  under  the  control  of  private  companies,  and 
not  subject  to  especial  restrictions  or  laws.  In  the 
western  States,  especially  in  the  stock-growing  dis- 
tricts of  Kentucky,  fairs  are  held  in  each  county,  at 
the  county  towns,  once  every  month,  for  the  sale  of 
live  stock,  etc.,  suliject  only  to  local  restrictions. 
These  fairs  or  sales  are  of  great  convenience  to  the 
fanners  or  drovers,  by  bringing  them  together  at 
stated  times.  As  an  instance  of  their  usefulness,  in 
Paris,  liourlxm  county,  Kentucky,  a  town  of  1500  in- 
habitants, live  stock  to  the  amoimt  of  $100,000,  on  an 
average,  changes  hands  cverj'  court  day. 

Falkland  Islands  (Kr.  Malouine/,  Sp.  Mdlrimu), 
a  group  of  islands  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  be- 
longing to  (ircat  Britain,  and  lying  alm^vI^O  miles 
oast  of  the  nearest  mainland  of  South  America,  be- 
tween .■il°  and  5il°  S.  lat.,  and  !>7°  and  (!2°  W.  long., 
or  iu  precisely  the  same  latitudes  south  as  Ix)ndfln  and 
the  midland  counties  are  north.  The  group  consists 
of  two  principal  islands,  Kast  and  West  Falkland,  with 
several  hundred  others  of  dilt'erent  sizes  clustered 
arouiiil  anil  in  the  strait  lietween  them.  Kast  Falk- 
land is  about  (<5  miles  in  length  l)y  40  In  breadtli,  and 
West  Falkland  80  miles  long  liy"-i.')  to  80  miles  wide. 
Ther  are  separated  from  each  other  liy  Falkland 
Sound.  The  other  islands  range  in  size  from  16  miles 
by  8  to  mere  islets  of  half  a  mile  across.  The  whole 
group  is  dee])ly  indented  by  numerous  harbors  and 
creeks,  which,  if  they  diminish  the  area,  produce  more 
than  lounterlmlancing  advantages.  Verj*  little  is 
known  of  West  Falkland.  It  Is  uninhabited,  but  at 
certain  seasons  it  is  visited  by  whaling  and  other  ves- 
sels. ICast  Falkland  is  nearly  divided  into  two  unequal 
portions  by  the  estuaries  called  Breton  Sound  and 
Choiseul  Sound,  the  two  parts  of  the  island  lieing  con- 
nected by  an  isthmus  not  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half 
across.  The  northern  portion  is  crossed  by  a  chain  of 
rugged  hills,  called  the  Wickham  Heights,  extending 
due  oast  and  west  fhim  Port  William  to  Port  Sussex, 
•nd  Yaryint;  ii  height  from  800  to  2000  foet. 


There  are  few  wild  animals  indigenoug  to  the  Falk- 
lands.  The  only  quadruped  is  the  warrah  or  wolf- 
fox  (Canit  JUctgellanicua),  rather  taller,  but  not  much 
heavier,  than  our  fox.  The  other  animals  which  are 
found  in  a  wild  state  are  those  which  have  been  left 
there  by  Kuropeans,  as  horned  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
wild  hogs,  and  rabbits,  all  of  which  are  very  abundant. 
There-  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  excellent  fish  in  all  the 
creeks,  and  of  small  trout  in  the  lakes  and  rivulets. 
Hair  and  fui'  seals  abound,  and  the  black  whale  is  still 
numerous  about  these  coasts.  The  wild  fowl  are  also 
numerous,  as  swans,  geese,  ducks,  snipes,  etc.  There 
are  few  land  birds  or  insects,  and  no  reptiles.  A 
gigantic  sedgy  grass,  called  tussac,  of  the  genus  Carcx, 
is  very  common  on  most  of  these  islands.  Its  blade 
averages  seven  feet  in  length  by  about  three  quarters 
of  an  Inch  in  width,  is  extremely  nutritious,  and  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  fattening  cattle.  Tuniips,  car- 
rots, potatoes,  and  vegetables  thrive  well,  and  barley 
and  oats  have  been  successfully  cultivated.  Furze 
and  other  shrubs  grow  well,  but  there  are  as  yet  no 
trees.  Peet  is  abundant,  and  some  of  it  is  highly 
bituminous.  Coal  has  been  discovered,  but  whether 
it  can  be  profitably  worked  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. 

The  discovery  of  these  islands  has  been  by  many 
attributed  to  Amerigo  Vespucci,  in  1502 ;  but  it  is 
more  probable  that  they  were  first  discovered  by  Davis 
in  1592.  In  1594  Hawkins  soiled  along  their  north 
shore ;  and  in  1090  Strong  sailed  through  the  channel 
which  separates  East  from  West  Falkland,  and  called 
it  Falkland  Sound,  whence  the  group  afterwa*^!  took 
its  name.  During  the  earlier  parts  of  the  eighteenth 
century  these  islands  were  frequently  visited  by  French 
vessels ;  and  in  17G4  a  French  colony  wus  ostalilishcd 
at  St.  Louis,  on  East  F'alldand.  Two  years  later  tho 
English  planted  a  colony  at  Port  Egraonton,  West 
F'alkland.  In  1707  the  Spaniards  took  possession  of 
the  French  settlement,  and  three  years  liter  of  the 
English.  In  consequence  of  this  step,  some  negotia- 
tions were  entered  into,  the  result  of  which  was  that 
the  sovereignty  of  these  islands  were  ceded  to  the  En- 
glish, who,  however,  some  time  afterward  abandoned 
them.  Though  frequently  visited  by  whaling  vessels 
and  others,  they  ontinued  without  permanent  inhab- 
itants till  1820,  when  they  were  taken  possession  of 
by  the  republic  of  Buenos  Aytes.  A  settlement  was 
formed  at  Port  Louis,  which  rapidly  increased  until 
18B1,  when,  in  conse<iuence  of  a  dispute  with  tlio 
United  States,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Americans. 
In  18:i:i  the  English  again  assumed  possession  of  the 
Fulklands,  and  stationed  an  oflficer  and  boat's  crew  at 
Port  Louis.  In  1840  tho  government  resolved  to 
colonize  these  islands,  and  sent  out  for  that  purjiosc  a 
governor  and  a  small  establishment,  who  settled  at 
Port  Louis.  A  more  advantageous  situation  for  a  set- 
tlement was  sul>sequently  found  on  the  south  side  of 
Stanley  Harbor,  where,  in  1844,  n  town  was  laiil  out. 
Mr.  Lafone,  a  wealthy  merchant,  obtained  from  gov- 
ei-nment  an  extensive  tract  of  land,  ond  jiossession  of 
all  the  wild  cattle  and  other  wild  stock  for  six  years) 
from  1st  .lanuary,  1848,  in  consideration  of  a  payment 
liy  installments  of  i:UU,000.  Mr.  Lafone's  interests 
have  recently  l>een  purchased  by  a  chartered  com|>any, 
which  now  |mssess,  in  Kast  Falkland,  all  the  southern 
peninsula  called  Lafonia,  consisting  of  ul)out  000,000 
acres,  besides  138  islands  and  islets,  with  an  aggregate  * 
area  of  about  200,000  acr«s,  until  January,  18oi;.  The 
company  possesses  absolute  right  to  all  the  wild  cattle 
or  other  wild  stook  which  may  Iw  found  upon  any  of 
the  islands,  but  aftec  that  period  tiiis  right  ceases  ex- 
cept as  to  stock,  etc.,  then  in  actual  possession  of  the 
company.  In  1847  the  i)opulati<m  of  the  colony  was 
270.  The  governor  of  these  islands,  in  .lanuary,  1853, 
re|K>rts  the  colony  to  lie  steadily  pn>gressing.  In  1851, 
the  number  of  tons  of  shipping  that  entered  the  port 
of  Stanley  was  17,688,  and  in  1852  it  was  22,024,  being 


FAL 


es9 


FAN 


tn  increMe  of  4,486  tons.  This  etcessarily  produces 
a  demand  for  produce  and  labor.  Unskilled  laborers 
earn  from  Hs.  to  6s.  a  day,  and  skilled  ftam  6a.  to  lOi. 
Provisions  are  abundant,  and  at  rpnnonable  prices. 
"  The  transference  to  the  Falkland  Inlands  Company 
of  the  large  interests  held  by  Mr.  Lafone,  and  the 
commencement  by  that  corporation  of  a  more  compre- 
hensive system  of  operation,  supported  by  a  large  cap- 
ital, gives  me  very  favorable  hopes  of  benefit  to  the 
colony,  and,  I  trust,  to  the  shareholders."  {Rtport.) 
In  1849,  twelve  allotments  of  one  acre  each,  near  the 
town,  ware  put  up  for  sale,  and  were  sold  on  an  aver- 
age at  £6  per  acre ;  and  eleven  similar  allotments,  sold 
in  1863,  brought  on  an  average  £Vi  per  acre,  or  six 
times  the  usual  government  price.  "  The  master  of  a 
barque,  the  Kecord,  lately  in  the  harbor,  publicly  nc- 
tiAed  that  he  would  take  passengers  to  the  gold  dig- 
gings in  Australia  at  £10  per  head,  and  it  gives  me 
much  pleasure  to  add  that  not  a  person  could  be  found 
i""  the  colony  to  accept  his  proposition."  {Report.)  Be- 
ing chiefly  dependent  upon  the  ships  that  call  here  to 
refit  or  for  refreshments,  the  opening  of  a  ship-canal 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Paciric  Ureana  would  affect 
this  settlement  very  much,  and  might  probably  lead  to 
its  almndonment. — E.  n. 

Except  as  commercial  and  military  stations,  these 
islands  possess  no  importance.  There  is  no  tonnage 
duty  levied  on  vessels  entering  the  ports  of  these 
islands ;  nor,  indeed,  any  charges,  except  for  storage, 
which  is  effected  in  bulk,  and  for  which  there  is  a 
charge  of  fVom  tS  'o  ^10  per  day.  In  a  recent  officinl 
communication  ad'  r^ssed  by  the  present  governor  of 
the  Falkland  IslaVids,  that  functionary  oliserves :  "I 
beg  to  state  that,  as  regards  the  precise  limit  to  which 
Great  Britain  will  limit  the  right  of  fishing,  I  have  no 
instructions.  I  will,  however,  communicate  with  her 
tiajesty's  government  on  the  Bul>ject  by  the  first  op- 
portunity." As  American  captains  cruising  aliout 
thnse  islands  have,  on  one  or  two  recent  occasions, 
been  8nl>jected  to  considerable  inconvenience  and  ex- 
pense by  the  executive  authority  of  the  Falkland 
Islands — so  much  so,  indeed,  as  in  one  instance  to  ren- 
der the  interposition  of  a  United  States'  vessel  of  war 
necessar}' — it  becomes  a  matter  of  some  importance  to 
American  whaling  Interests  to  have  the  question  set- 
tled as  speedily  as  possil>le.^.<7c>«.  Rrl.  U.  S. 

Fall,  the  name  given  :n  Scotland  to  a  measure  both 
of  length  and  superficies.  As  a  measure  of  length, 
the  fidl  is  equal  to  six  Scots  ells,  or  6*1764  English 
yards ;  and  as  a  measure  of  supenideii,  to  86  square 
•Us. 

Fall,  the  sea  term  for  the  rape  of  any  pulle}-  or 
system  of  pullej-s,  to  fall  aboard  signifies  to  run  foul 
of  another  vessel. 

Fallitu;  Home.  The  term  applied  to  the  timlwrs 
or  upper  parts  of  the  sides  of  a  ship  when  they  curve 
inwanls.  The  old  ships  fell  home,  or  tumbled  in  (a*  it 
is  called),  much  more  than  the  iiiwlnm  ones,  which 
approach  more  nearly  to  lieing  wall-tided. 

Fall  River,  Mossarhusetts,  46  miles  8.  of  Boston, 
situated  on  the  Fall  Kiver,  at  its  junction  with  the 
Taunton,  which  falls  into  Mount  Hope  lluy,  a  liranch 
of  Narraganset  Hay.  The  harbor  on  Taunton  Kiver  Is 
•afe  and  ensy  of  access,  and  has  depth  of  water  sufH- 
eient  for  the  largest  ships.  Fall  iiiver  has  n  largo 
coasting  trade,  and  is  engaged  in  the  wliale  and  other 
'  flsheries.  It  has  extensive  cotttm  and  woolen  foe-  i 
torics,  bleaching- works,  fuunderies,  etc.,  and  nommu-  • 
Bicates  regularly  with  New  York  by  stnnmera,  and 
with  Boston  l)y  railway.     Pop.  (Wtb)  \i.m». 

Falmouth,  a  seaport  town  of,  England,  on  a  liriinch  | 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Falmout'h,  14  m.  N.N.E.  the 
Liiard  Point.  \M.  50°  K'  8"  N.,  long.  5°  l''  7"  W. 
The  barlxir  is  formed  liy  the  estuart-  of  the  Falmouth, 
has  numerous  creeks,  and  is  about  five  miles  In  length 
and  one  mile  in  lireadtK.  The  entrance  is  defenile<l  liy 
Pendennis  and  St.  Mawe's  castles,  both  built  in  reign 


of  Henry  VIII.,  ond  the  former  containing  large  bar« 
racks,  magazines,  etc.  Its  position  at  tlie  entrance 
of  the  English  Channel,  has  rendered  Falmouth  for 
the  last  160  years  a  principal  station  for  the  foreign 
mail-pockets,  and  the  great  rendezvous  for  fleets  pro- 
ceeding to  the  south  and  west. 

False  Keel,  the  timber  added  below  the  main 
keel,  both  to  serve  as  a  defeniie,  and  also,  by  deeijen- 
ing  the  plane  surface,  to  enable  the  ship  to  hold  a  bet> 
ter  wind. 

Fan,  a  simple  and  well-known  implement  employed 
to  pmluce  coolness  by  agitating  the  air.  Upward  of 
3000  yean  ago  the  artist  of  ancient  E^fypt  piiiiitud  the 
fan  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs  at  Tfielici,  wliure  the 
Pharaoh  sits  surrounded  l)y  his  fan-benrnrs.  These 
officers  acted  as  generals  or  marshals,  using  their  funs 
OS  standards  in  war,  and  in  peace  they  assisted  the 
Pharaoh  in  the  temple,  and  waved  their  variegated 
fans  Iwth  to  produce  a  ca<ding  breeze,  and  to  guard 
the  sacred  offerings  from  the  contamination  of  noxious 
insects.  The  fan  is  mentioned  liy  Euripides,  und  ita 
Grecian  forms  were  fur  more  lieautiful  than  the  Egypt- 
ian. The  wings  of  a  bird  joined  laterally  und  at- 
tached to  a  slender  handle,  formed  the  simple  yet 
graceful  fan  of  the  priest  of  Isis,  when  Isis  l>ecan)e  a 
Grecian  deity.  It  was  sometimes  formed  of  feathers 
of  different  lengths,  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  semi- 
circle, but  pointed  at  the  top.  This  fan,  the  precise 
t)'pe  of  the  state-fan  of  India  and  China  of  the  present 
day,  was  waved  by  a  female  slave.  The  fan  U  men- 
tioned by  Terence  and  Oviil ;  ami  was  termed  iiidid'er- 
ently  "  ftaljellum"  or  "muscurium."  When  the  Ko- 
mans  wero  at  meals,  it  was  the  duty  of  certain  slaves, 
when  the  weatlier  was  warm,  to  cool  the  ronui  witli 
fans  and  drive  away  the  flies.  Tlie  modern  (ireck 
church  places  a  fan  in  the  hands  of  ita  deacons  to 
guard  the  officiating  priest  and  tlie  elements  from  dese- 
cration. When  the  fan  was  lirought  to  Kriiiiee  by 
Catherine  de  Me<lici8,  it  was  so  constructed  tliiit  it 
could  l>e  folded  in  the  manner  of  those  used  in  the 
present  day.  Fans  in  tlie  luxurious  reigns  of  I.ouis 
XIV,  and  XV.,  shone  witli  gilding  and  geni.s,  and 
wore  ornamented  with  the  pictures  of  Uoui  !:"r  und 
Watteau,  At  that  time  no  toilet  was  esteenieil  com- 
plete without  a  fan,  the  cost  of  which  was  frciiuently 
as  high  as  from  $60  to  $70. 

In  fan-making,  the  Chinese  and  French  are  the  great 
rivals,  and  may  Iw  said  to  monop<dize  the  supply  of 
the  wliole  world.  In  the  lacquered  funs  the  superior- 
ity of  the  natives  of  China  is  fully  admitted.  These 
are  unrivaled  lioth  in  lowness  of  price  and  in  origin- 
ality of  dwrign,  brilliancy  of  coloring,  and  in  general 
correctness  of  workmanship.  In  China  the  manufac- 
ture of  fans  is  almost  entirely  conlinetl  to  I'anton, 
Soutchou,  Ilang-tchoo,  and  Nankin.  The  funs  of 
ivory  and  bone,  and  of  featliers,  are  made  exi'iiisively 
for  exportation  to  Europe  or  America.  Those  used  by 
the  CliinesA  are  of  bamlxio,  iwiished  or  jupu.jneil,  and 
covere<i  with  (taper.  They  are  sold  at  from  Ji)  cents 
to  $3  per  dozen,  according  to  tlie  quality  of  the  frame 
and  the  design  of  tlie  leaf.— E.  It. 

In  France,  fun-muking  hvs  arrived  at  a  higli  degree 
of  perfection,  and  presents  a  remarkable  inst  ime  of 
the  sulidivlsion  of  lalwr.  Alnut  twenty  din'orcut 
operations,  performed  by  as  miiiiy  pairs  of  liumls,  aro 
necessary  to  the  production  of  u  fun  which  t'clis  for 
less  than  one  halfiienny.  The  processes  ure  nut  ail 
carrie<l  on  in  the  some  inanufactorv,  liut  form  I'luir  dis- 
tinct brandies  of  trade,  directed  liy  distinct  masters  ; 
but  the  operatives  usually  work  at  liome  iit  their  own 
houses.  The  frame-work  of  funs  is  mostly  niadi  in 
the  di'|iartment  of  Olse,  wliere  2UO0  men,  woiiuii.  and 
chiiilri^n  are  tlius  employed.  The  wooils  eiuidnyed 
are  chiefly  plum,  eliony,  lime,  and  aandal-wcHul;  and 
the  plereiiigs  which  form  such  a  general  deeoralion  to 
funs,  are  iierforme'l  by  minute  saws,  which  tli<>  work- 
man makes  for  himself  out  of  pieces  of  wutch-i>pring. 


ibar- 
onue 
for 
reign 
I  pro- 

main 

iepea- 
ubot- 


\ 

* 

PAR 

Mt 

FAS 

in  oAo  fan  then  are  in  some  gpecimena  1600  taw- 
ptercinijs  in  a  sqnare  inch  of  mother-of-pearl.  The 
printing,  the  coloring,  the  mounting,  and  the  fininhing 
of  fans  are  mngtly  conducted  nt  Paris,  where  the  fan- 
facto>'ie<i  are  on  a  consideralile  scnle, 

"  The  number  of  fan-malcers,  or  evfiUaillutet  (those 
'^ho  finish  the  funs  which  have  tieen  roughly  made  in 
tlio  provinces),  in  Paris,  in  1827,  was  15,  who  em- 
ployed 1010  worlc-people  (B-ll  men,  BOO  women,  and 
106  children),  and  sold  alrout  1,010,500  francs'  worth 
of  fans.  According  to  the  Statisti'qne  mr  I'lnduHrie  a 
Pariii,  it  appears  that  in  1847  there  were  122  fan- 
mnkers,  comprising  chamhcr-masters,  as  mounters, 
feuillistes,  pointers,  and  colorers.  The  value  of  the 
fans  made  was  2,626,!116  francs.  These  masters  em- 
ployed 575  worlc-peoplp  (202  men,  264  women,  29 
youths,  and  20  girls).  The  worl<men  on  the  average 
earn  4  francs,  ond  the  women  2J  francs  per  day.  Thii 
men  were  for  the  most  part  coppcr-piate  engravers 
and  printers,  lithographic  draughtsmen  and  printers, 
painters,  and  colorers ;  the  women  were  mounters, 
iliuminiitors,  painters,  colorers  and  overloolcers.  Thus 
in  twenty  years  it  appears  that  the  produce  in  fans 
had  increased  in  value  nearly  threefold,  while  the 
number  of  worl(-peoplo  had  diminished  one  half.  This 
change  is  attributed  to  the  employment  of  machinery, 
especiuliy  of  the  fly-press,  in  stamping  out  and  em- 
bossing the  ribs,  and  the  extensive  employment  of 
chromo-lithography,  an  art  not  practiced  at  thi^  former 
period.  By  these  means  the  French  have  lieen  en- 
abled greatly  to  increase  their  exports  '  y  the  produc- 
tion of  cheap  fans,  to  compete  with  those  made  by  the 
Chinese. 

Farlr-B.  (I-at.  far,  com,  of  which  it  is  made.) 
Meal  or  flour,  ol)taincd  by  grinding  and  sifting  wheat 
and  other  seeds ;  hence  the  term  fnrinaceonsf mi, 

Faroe,  or  Feroe  (Danish,  FSrdeme),  a  group  of 
islands  belonging  to  Dcnmaric,  in  the  North  Sea,  be- 
tween Iceland  and  the  .Shetland  Islands,  about  200 
miles  north-west  of  the  latter,  between  N.  lat.  61°  20' 
and  62°  25',  and  I)etween  W.  long.  6°  10'  and  7°  40'. 
The  group  consists  of  17  inhabited  and  ■!'*veral  unin- 
habited islands,  the  former  having  an  area  of  4ilO 
square  miles,  and  (in  1850)  81.50  inhaliitants.  The 
principal  islands,  with  tlicir  populations,  in  1845,  were 
Strflmo.  2102;  OsterO,  1909;  SOderfl,  1156;  Vaagfi, 
6'9;  SundO,  628;  ond  IJordfi,  804.  They  consist 
throughout  of  roclts  and  Iiills,  rising  to  a  constderal)le 
heiylit,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  narrow  val- 
leys, or  rather  ravines.  Although,  however,  these 
hills  rise  abruptly,  tliero  are  often  on  their  summits, 
or  at  different  stages  of  their  ascent,  plains  of  consid- 
eralde  mognitnde.  They  everywhere  present  to  the 
sea  perpendicular  cliffs,  brolcon  into  a  thousand  fantas- 
tic fonns,  presenting  to  those  wlio  sail  along  the  coast, 
at  every  turn,  the  most  picturesque  and  varied  scenery. 
The  liigliest  peak  is  that  of  Skellingfeil,  in  the  island 
of  Slrrmu"),  which  rises  to  nl)out  ,B(KH)  feet  al)ove  the 
sea.  The  rocks  consist  generally  of  trap,  and  exhibit 
little  variety  of  composition,  though  they  present  some 
striking  geological  phenomena.  The  zeolites  and 
chalcedonies  here  collected  have  long  supplied  the  l)e«t 
specimens  of  these  minerals  to  the  cal)inets  of  ICuro)ie. 
Coal  is  found  in  SilderS  and  some  of  the  other  Islands, 
and  turf  is  abundant. 

The  climate  is  moist  and  foggj",  and  violent  storms 
arc  frequent  at  all  seosons.  .Tuij-  ami  August  ore  the 
only  summer  months,  Imt  the  winters  are  not  very 
severe.  It  seldom  freezes  for  more  than  one  month, 
and  the  harl>ors  ore  rarely  ice-bound.  The  only 
grain  crop  is  liarley ;  and  on  account  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  weather,  it  is  frequently  reaped  in  a  half- 
ripe  condition.  Agriculture  is  In  a  very  Imckward 
state,  the  infield,  or  cultivated  land,  l>eing  calculated 
to  be  to  the  outfield,  or  uncultivated,  in  the  proiwrtion 
1  to  00.  The  plow  is  seldom  used,  being  in  fact  III 
salted  to  the  rugged  and  uneven  surface  of  the  land. 


The  gronnrt  U  lh*r»tim  turtilKl  tip  with  ths  apada, 
care  baing  takan  niit  to  il«stniy  tfa«  roota  of  the  grass. 
Horses  and  cow*  art)  f«w  In  nutnlrar,  and  the  latter 
give  very  llttia  milk,  In  lioliMMiMsnce,  prolmbly,  of  the 
very  coarse  bay  u|Hm  wlileli  they  are  fed.  Sheep  are 
numerous,  and  fiiriu  thti  chief  rlidies  of  the  Islanders — 
soma  inillvliluaU  Imvliig  flc/cks  of  from  tliree  to  five 
hundred.  Tim  nhovp  Nr«  never  housed  either  in  sum- 
mer or  wintar,  aiitt  In  iwvere  seasons  they  suffer  con- 
siderably, TliD  woul  la  KttMfally  coarse,  and  is  torn 
oflrtbs  anlmaU  In  au  timgU  a  manner  aa  often  to  lacer- 
ate tha  skin,  Th«  mUMnif  of  tha  numerous  birda 
which  bullil  tlieir  tiasts  upim  tha  face  of  the  cliffs, 
forms  a  great  suurve  of  aitlislstence  to  the  Inhabitanta. 
Tha  iiersuns  employed  In  tills  liaMrilous  iraile  display 
groat  ingenuity  and  tha  most  adventurous  spirit. 
Hometlmes  the  fowler  Is  let  down  from  the  top  of  tha 
cliir  by  a  ro|Mi  tmtUmntl  Up  bk  walat)  at  other  times, 
where  tbare  la  any  fiaitiiif(  at  all,  h«  cllmba  the  steep- 
est rocks,  or,  wliara  that  in  lin|iosBlblfl,  he  la  pushed 
upward  by  (lolaa  made  fur  tha  purpose.  The  puiBn 
(/I /fa  aretim)  ia  tha  iiUMt  eommim  of  these  birds,  and 
the  eliler-diick  Is  liarn  often  s|M;t  for  food.  The  fisher- 
ies are  lin|Hirtttnt  ond  viiliinMe, 

The  niunoiKily  of  tli«  trii  of  ths  Faroe  Islands  was 
for  aoina  tlina  in  tlia  hands  vf  a  mercantile  houae  at 
Co|)enlmgen  |  but  it  lias  now  lieen  aasumed  liy  gov- 
ernment, and  neltti«r  Dane  nor  foreigner  Is  allowed  to 
interfere.  The  trada  la  carried  on  between  Copen- 
hagen and  Thorsliavn.  The  ohief  exports  are  hoaiery, 
tallow,  dried  anil  salt  llsb,  traln-oll,  feathers,  skins, 
and  butter,  Tluirsbavn,  the  capital  of  these  islands, 
is  situated  on  tim  soiitli'east  side  of  the  island  of  Str5- 
mii,  upon  A  narrow  tongue  of  land,  having  creeks  on 
each  aide,  wberii  uhllM  may  li«  safely  moored.  Popu- 
lation alwiut  l/KMI,  tIw  lionsas  are  built  of  wood,  and 
roofeilwlth  birch  lairk  covered  with  turf,  the  greenness 
of  which  makaa  It  linjiotsllite,  at  a  very  short  distance, 
to  dlstingnlsb  tha  tilaee  fnmi  the  surrounding  fields. 
The  charat^tar  of  thfl  |ieople  Is  generally  marked  by 
great  simplicity  of  ninnners,  kindness  and  hospitality. 
They  ore  well  ftal  and  clotlied,  and  seem  to  be  kindly 
treated  by  tha  Itanlsli  government.  The  average 
duration  of  Ufa,  as  stated  by  l)r.  Panum,  is  44  2-6 
years;  while  in  l>emiiark  It  is  only  30.  The  language 
of  the  people  is  a  rainnant  of  the  old  Morse,  but  that 
of  the  courts,  oburclms,  and  schools  is  the  modem 
Danish,  Haa  /'wwa  utul  t'irrim  JUierala,  by  Lucas 
.lAi'onHKif  Ukiim,  translated  from  the  Uanish  into 
Knglisb,  l6Vfl  I  Ilrnvriptiim  n/l/ie  Faroe  ItlanJi,  by  the 
Kev.  (I,  I.ANliT,  UmiUm,  IHIO)  an  account  of  their 
geoUigy  and  niliiarakigy,  In  th*  Trans,  ij^tke  Royal 
Hoi;,  VA\n,,  vol.  vil.,  by  ttir  U.  8.  Mackenzik,  Burt,, 
ami  Tkiihah  Ai.I.KM,  Vm\,  t  l>fn  iJantke  8tats  Sttilis- 
tit,  vol,  Iv,,  IHftili  >j,  NliilKil.'a  Account  of  Iceland, 
(IreeiJitml,  imil  Ihn  t'crnr,  /*/(■#(  Or,  Pawdm's  Official 
UcfHirt  im  l/ir  Itinutm  of  t'rroc,  1849,  of  which  an  ol)- 
struct  In  vol,  vll,  of  the  Atciticih^hinirffical  Jicview, 
The  si'enerv  iif  these  Islands  Is  well  illustrated  in  a 
work  cntitiail  fniiuft  of  the  Yacht  Maria,  London, 
IHftfi.-t!.  II, 

FKrtbingi  a  small  Kngllsh  copper  coin,  amounting 
to  \  of  a  |H*nMy,  It  was  anciently  called /ourt/iin^?,  as 
Iteing  the  fourth  of  the  Integer  or  penny.  A  farthing 
of  gold,  equal  in  valiia  to  the  fourth  part  of  a  noble,  or 
2iJ<l,  III  silver,  Is  mantlone<i  In  statute  9th  Henry  V., 
cap.  7. 

Fuoinas  (fiDcli,  n  bundle),  In  fortification,  fag- 
gots, or  biinilles  of  nsis,  or  shmII  branches  of  trees, 
boiiinl  togetlinr  In  several  places,  They  aro  used  for 
variirus  piirjMiites,  such  as  raising  botteries,  filling 
ditches,  forming  parapets,  etc.,  and  vary  in  dimensions 
aci'itriling  to  tli«  puriKises  to  which  they  are  to  be 
applied.  Ka«cliies  illpiieil  in  pitch  are  sometimes  em- 
pIoy<>d  t^i  lira  tlia  ananiy's  Ixlgments  or  other  works. 

FMbiOU  (l''r.  f Of  on  I  originally  from  the  Lat. 
facurt,  t»  makn  or  form),  »  term  used  to  signify  th* 


FAY 


tit 


FAY 


preTailing  mode  or  taste  in  any  ooantry,  the  only 
recognized  quality  whicli  it  po«s«B»ea  being  mutability. 
It  may  safely  he  averred  that,  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
fluence  which  fashion  exercises  in  any  countr}'  may  Its 
claim  to  civilization  be  vindicated — nothing  being  so 
characteristic  of  a  rude  and  barbarous  state  of  exist- 
ence as  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  customs  of  nntiquity. 
The  term  faMon  has  generally  been  considered  as 
applicable  chiefly  to  the  adornment  of  the  person,  in 
conformity  with  the  prevailing  taste  as  introduced  by 
some  individual  of  consideration  in  society ;  but  it  ha* 
,  •  much  wider  signification,  l)eing  applied  to  tlie  most 
trivial  kind  of  conventional  usages,  a  disregard  or 
ignorance  of  which  is  sufficient,  in  the  eyes  of  the  vo- 
taries of  this  tyrannical  goddess,  to  banish  the  offender 
beyond  the  pale  of  civilized  society. 

Fat,  an  oily  concrete  substance,  contained  in  the 
cells  of  the  adipose  or  cellular  membrane  of  animal 
bodies.  Fat  also  denotes  a  measure  of  capacity,  but 
indefinite.  Thus  a  fat  of  isinglass  contains  from  8^ 
cwt.  to  4  cwt.  J  of  yam,  from  220  to  221  l>nndi«s,  etc. 
Fat,  or  vat,  a  large  woo.ien  tub  or  vessel  used  in 
breweries  and  tanneries ;  also  as  a  measure  for  malt, 
containing  eight  bushels. 

Fathom,  a  measure  of  length,  six  feet,  chiefly  used 
for  measuring  the  length  of  cordage,  and  the  depth  of 
water  and  mines. 

Fayal.  The  Azores,  or  Western  Islands  form  a 
range  situate  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  extending  In  an 
olilique  line  from  north-west  to  south-east,  between 
37°  and  40°  N.  lat.,  and  25°  and  32°  W.  long.  It 
has  iteen  a  sutiject  of  some  controversy  among  geog. 
raphers,  to  what  division  of  the  gIol>e  theyouf^it  to  be 
referred ;  )>ut  the)'  are  now  generally  considered  as 
pertaining  to  Europe.  It  does  not  appear  that  the 
ancients  had  any  icnowledge  of  the  Azores,  or  of  any 
group  in  this  tiea,  except  the  Canaries,  to  which  they 
Anally  applied  the  celebrated  appellation  of  the  Fortun- 
ate Islands.  But  tlie  Aral)ian  geographers,  Edrisi  and 
Ibn  al  Vardi,  describe,  after  the  Canaries,  nine  other 
islands  in  the  Western  Ocean.  That  those  were  the 
Azores  is  highly  probable,  since  their  numlwr  is  ex- 
actly nine ;  and  because  a  species  of  hawl(  is  speciall)' 
noticed  by  these  writers  as  existing  there  in  great 
abundance — a  circumstance  that  afterward  ap|>eared 
to  the  Portuguese  so  remarica1>le,  that  they  gave  them 
the  name  of  Azores,  or  Hawk  Islands.  The  climate 
in  which  they  are  placed  also  makes  them  north  of  the 
Can.iries.  Some  other  <<olnrldences  also  might  be 
pointed  out ;  and,  upon  the  whole,  tliere  appears  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  the  Azores  are  really  the  nine 
islands  enumerated  by  the  Arabians.  The  Araliian 
writers  represent  them  as  having  been  populous,  and 
as  having  contained  cities  of  some  magnitude ;  but 
the}-  state  that  the  Inhaljitants  had  l)een  greatly 
reducc<l  by  intestine  warfare.  At  the  time  oi'  their 
discover)'  they  were  uninhabited,  and  covered  with 
forests  and  underwood,  which  have  now  entirely  dis- 
appeared. 

The  first  European  discover)'  of  this  group  is  ( luimeil 
by  the  Flemings.  A  Flemish  merchant  named  Van 
der  Berg,  is  reported,  in  sailing  from  Lisbon,  to  have 
been  driven  upon  these  shores  in  the  year  1489,     The 


commsiul  of  which  hi  ((av*  to  Captiin  Whlddon. 
Having  takan  lm»  ut  llitim  ptitn,  they  fell  in,  off  St. 
Michael,  with  tltx  groat  Itxet  of  Mpanlsh  galleons,  con- 
sisting of  24  sail,  two  (it  ttiotii  carracks  of  1000  or  1200 
tons.  'i'JMiy  nltm'Utui  llMrtn,  however,  without  hesita- 
tion, hoping  Ut  nut  lilt  uMim  striigglln^  member  of  this 
great  boily,  liut  warn  unal/)*  to  make  any  impression 
uimn  it.  Ill  IAM7,  hir  I'rstlvis  l)rake,  after  having 
swept  tlta  barlnir  ut  Titdl)!,  sailed  for  the  Azores, 
where  \m  tmk  an  Kwst  IiiiIIa  carrack,  richly  laden,  and 
the  Unit  that  hifl  fvnr  fa  lion  Into  the  hands  of  the 
English.  Ill  ViW  thi*  Karl  ut  (Cumberland  fitted  out  a 
squadron,  salliiil  tut  tlm  Aitores,  and  made  ntiincrous 
prizes,  I'liitiir  tliA  fu  (lv«  administration  of  Ponibal, 
considnrubla  «iii«rtli'n>i  w«r«  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  tlia  Apirn*  I  hut  the  stupid  and  bigoted  gov- 
ernniHiit  whitrh  tii\Ummi  rath<^  tended  to  destroy  these 
benefits,  ami  tu  nwkN  the  Islands  take  a  retrograde 
course, 

I'hyiiad  Atpei'l.-^-'t'im  Ajtorea  within  a  recent  period 
attrat^ted  uiiiih  aUvHtlmi  as  th«  theatre  of  contest  be- 
tween the  partlnn  i'iilit«tldltig  for  the  crown  of  Portu- 
gal, The  adhfroiit*  ut  (hn  (lonsf  Itutlon,  who  supported 
against  MIgUf  I  tha  rights  ut  Maria  da  (tloria,  obtained 
IMsaessioii  ut  'IVn^oirs,  whxre  they  succeeded  in  main- 
taining tlifnisalfus.  After  various  struggles,  Queen 
Maria's  wuth'trtty  was  ovenlually  established  over  all 
tliesa  Islands, 

The  ai|xint  ut  M  tlM  Islands  Is  very  similar  in  gen- 
eral L'bNriiut<>rii>(l''/«,  nrfstitllng  an  elevated  and  undu- 
lating oullliia,  with  lltth)  or  no  talile-land,  and  rising 
into  (leaks,  of  tthdh  Hw  lowest  (that  of  St.  Marj-'s)  is 
imi  fttxt,  anil  IIm  hlghxst  (that  of  Pico)  7013  feet 
above  tlia  lyvnl  ut  the  sea.  Their  lines  of  sea-coast 
are,  with  faw  «iii'i>|)tl(ilis,  high  and  precipitous,  with 
lias«s  of  M('<'UlilMlat«d  innsses  of  fallen  rock,  in  which 
o|wn  imy»,  or  waffcly  mute  Inclosed  Inlets,  form  the 
harlwra  ut  tha  trading  towns,  The  climate  is  particu- 
larly t<ilii|i«r«t«  ami  cqiiable,  the  extremes  of  sensible 
heat  and  im\i\  latlng,  however.  Increased  by  the  degree 
of  bunil<llty  prfooiit  In  Ihe  atmosphere.  The  range  of 
tha  therinuiiiftor  it  from  4!P  ViiUt,,  tlie  lowest  known 
entreina-^ir  4M''  ilia  ordinary  lowest  extreme  of  Jan- 
uary—to  »i"  tlia  ordlitary,  of  (IC^  the  highest  known 
eatreina  of  iluly,  and  near  the  level  of  the  sea.  Be- 
tween IhasM  two  (loilits  (IkHIi  taken  in  the  shade)  there 
is  from  liiuflth  Ui  ttlonth  s  pretty  regular  gradation  of 
im^rease  or  (Utntmnv,  aitioiintlng  to  somewhat  less  than 
four  dugriwii,  llh'i'imiiliirid  Jiiurruil,\o\.xv.')  They 
have  an  aggrxgul"  >r>'«  of  700  square  miles,  and  in  1841 
had  a  iwpulatiotl  of  'iM.tm,  f4t,  Michael,  tlie  largest 
and  most  iMipul«ils  ut  lliesr  Islands,  has  an  area  of  224 
•quaru  iiillas  and  ( la  10;  mi.nin)  Inlmliltants.  Proceed- 
ing from  *«»t  Ui  WKsl,  this  Ifiland  presents  a  consider- 
able variaty  ut  i>Uftitvi>,  The  east  end  rises  from  a 
bluff  •aOH^Iilf  of  UtW(>en  1200  and  MOO  feet  elevation, 
to  a  hifty  iiilanit  (m»k  from  which  a  central  ran,?e, 
varying  in  h«ight  from  2000  to  2&00  feet,  runs  to  the 
westward,  toriiilitatlllg  In  tlie  Merra  de  Agua  de  Puo, 
ilOiiO  fuat  al/iiva  lh«i  sfii,  Tlie  sea-coast  gradually  de- 
clines In  approai'lilng  thn  hist  (Nrfnt,  where  it  is  not 
mora  than  alatiit  loil  feet  high.  The  part  next  seen  is 
lower,  and  lis  oMillHe,  as  presented  by  the  summits  of 


intelligence  soon  reached  the  court  of  Lislmn,  where  it ,  numuroMn  viiU'»niif  monticules  of  alioiit  1300  feet  eleva- 
excited  considerable  Interest;  and  the  navigator  Ca-|tiun,  unllul  In  a  ivfitrnl  Miff  more  undulating;  the 
bral  was  sent  to  prosecute  the  discovery.  In  14.'i'.)  the  |  wttsfrn  aatminlty  Iwlii)^  marked  liy  the  conspicuous 
islands  began  to  lie  planted  and  colonixed,  und  in  so  |  Herra  <iiirda,  Vi'i  fast  aliove  the  sea ;  and  its  shores  on 
fertile  a  soil  the  inhabitants  rapidly  multiplied.  In  ;  laith  siditit  arn  tow,  broken,  and  rocky.  Of  the  remain- 
1580  they  fell,  with  the  other  Portuguese  territories,  ,  Ini,  part  ilia  a«|(ci  t  Is  that  of  a  vast  truncateil  cone,  ir- 
onder  the  dominion  of  Spain.  At  this  time  the  i  regularly  i  ut  off  at  an  elevation  of  about  8U0  feet,  and 
Azores  were  the  grand  rendezvous  in  the  voyage  ;  falling  »n  th«  north,  south,  and  west  siilcs  to  a  per- 
homeward  of  the  fleets,  which  came  laden  with  tha  |iendii:ulitr  loast  of  between  iVlO  and  MIO  feet  high, 
waalth  of  Imth  the  Indies.  Hence  they  liecame  a  I  The  outline  !■  varlxd  liy  the  Intervention  of  peaks, 
theatre  of  that  maritime  warfars  which  was  carried  on  |  thrown  up  on  tha  summit  and  flanks,  and  round  the 
with  si'^h  spirit  by  the  English  under  Queen  Kllzalieth  i  foot  of  tha  moitntalH.  In  the  higher  parts,  the  surface 
against  the  peninsular  powers.  In  li>S6  Sir  Walter  |  is  guiiorally  covnrad  with  an  undergrowth  of  heaths, 
Raleigh  equipped  two  pinnaces  of  86  and  40  tjna,  tha  |  uedar,  laurel)  laurastlnus,  and  other  evergreen  shrubs 


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wMcn  give  the  mountains  an  exceedingly  rich  and 
■wooded  appearance.  Like  all  volcanic  countries,  the 
face  of  the  island  is  uneven  and  irregular,  being  deeply 
excavated  by  numerous  ravines  and  roughened  by 
streams  of  semi-vitrified  and  scoriaceous  lava  that 
resist  all  atmospheric  influences  and  repel  vegetation. 
Heav}-  rains  fulling  on  the  mountains  afford  a  constant 
supply  of  water  to  four  kites  at  the  bottom  of  extinct 
craters  or  subsidences,  and  a  numlier  of  minor  reser- 
voirs; and  through  them  to  small  streams  running 
rapidly  down  on  all  sides  into  the  sea. — Geographical 
Journal,  vol.  xv.  See  Hunt's  March.  Mag.,  1855-6; 
Com.  Rfl.  V.  S.,  pp.  233,  2iJ4 :  pub.  by  Dcp.  of  State. 

In  the  year  1591  a  most  tremendous  earthquake  ap- 
pears to  have  Iwen  felt  all  over  the  Azores,  and  to 
have  shaken  St.  Michael  for  twelve  days  without 
intermission.  Since  that  period,  there  is  no  record  of 
any  such  great  convulsion,  except  one  in  1767,  of 
which  we  have  no  particulars,  and  it  was  probably 
much  less  formidable;  ncr  are  any  of  its  volcanoes  at 
present  in  a  state  of  action.  Hot  springs  abound  in 
every  part  of  the  island,  and  from  almost  eveij'  crevice 
vapor  is  seen  issuing,  llut  the  most  remarkable  phe- 
nomena are  the  Culdeiras  or  Iralling  fountains,  which 
rise  chiefly  from  a  valley  called  the  Furnas,  near  the 
■western  extremity  of  the  island.  The  water  oscends 
In  columns  to  the  height  of  about  12  feet,  after  which 
It  dissolves  in  vajmr,  forming  clouds  of  various  shapes 
and  colors.  The  heat  is  sucli  as  to  boil  an  egg  in  two 
minutes,  tliough  tlie  sulphureous  impregnation  unfits 
it  from  being  employed  in  culinary  purimsos.  The 
ground  in  the  immcdiute  vicinity  is  entirely  covered 
with  native  sulphur,  like  hour  frost.  At  a  small  dis- 
tance is  a  remarkable  plienomennn  called  the  Muddy 
Crater,  the  vertex  of  whicli,  45  feet  in  diameter,  is  on 
a  level  with  the  plain.  Its  contents  are  in  a  state  of 
violent  and  continual  ebullition,  accompanied  with  a 
sound  resmbling  the  waves  of  u  tempestuous  ocenn. 
Yet  they  never  rise  above  its  level,  unbss  occasionally 
to  throw  to  a  small  distance  a  spray  of  the  consistence 
of  melted  lead.  The  Kumas  aliounds  also  in  hot 
springs,  some  of  which  it  is  impossilde  to  touch  witli- 
out  lieing  scalded.  There  is  almost  always,  however, 
a  cold  spring  near  to  the  hot  one,  so  that  the  water 
can  1)0  brought  to  any  tem|ierature  tliut  may  be 
desired.  These  springs,  after  being  long  negUotcd, 
have,  within  the  last  half  centnrj',  l)ccn  greatly  re- 
sorted to,  and  the  cures  i)erformed  in  cases  of  palsy, 
rheumatism,  and  similar  maladies,  are  said  to  have 
been  verj-  wonderful. 

Tlie  plains  are  fertile  in  wheat,  barley,  and  Indian 
com ;  while  vines  and  oranges  grow  luxuriantly  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountains.  Thej'  are  made  to  spring 
even  from  the  interstices  of  the  volcanic  rocks,  which 
are  sometimes  Idasted  in  order  that  they  may  receive 
the  plants.  liaised  in  this  manner,  these  fruits  are 
said  to  lie  of  superior  qualit}- ;  l)ut  the  great  expense 
originally  required  in  such  a  moilo  of  cultivation  con- 
fines it  to  persons  of  some  capital.  The  western  part 
of  tlie  island  yields  hemp,  wiiich  might  1)«  raised  to  a 
consideralde  extent.  Tiie  exports  consist  of  wine, 
fruit,  and  provisions.  Foreign  intercourse  used  to  be 
confined  rigorously  to  l.islion ;  l)Ut  since  the  emigra- 
tion of  tlie  court,  the  inhaliitants  have  assumed  tlie 
privilege  of  trading  directly  witli  Kngland,  America, 
and  other  countries.  The  principal  town  on  the  isliind 
is  Ponta  Delguda,  which  contains  about  20,000  inhab- 
itants. It  is  liuilt  with  toleraiile  regularity,  the  streets 
lieing  straight  and  broad.  The  religious  edifices  are 
numerous  and  elegant.  Wlien  visited  liy  Captain 
Bold  in  1831,  it  had  six  churches,  eight  monasteries, 
and  four  convents ;  l)ut  tliese  last,  which  were  noted 
for  the  irregular  lives  of  their  vestals,  have  since  lieon 
suppressed.  Tlie  harlmr  receives  only  small  vessels : 
those  of  any  magnitude  must  anchor  in  an  open  road, 
which,  though  not  dangerous,  can  not  be  occupied 
during  the  prevalence  of  southerly  gales.     Its  other 


towna  are  Villa  Franca,  Ribetra,  Grande,  Alogos, 
Agoa  de  Poo,  etc. 

St,  Mary, — St.  Mary  is  a  small  Island  immediately 
adjacent  to  St.  Michael,  through  the  medium  of  which 
its  trade  is  conducted,  as  it  has  no  good  harbors  of  its 
own.  It  has  an  area  of  3C  square  miles,  producing 
wheat  in  abundance,  of  which  a  considerable  quantity 
is  exported.  It  is  of  trap  formation,  and  contains 
beds  of  marine  shells.     Population  in  1840,  4GGG. 

Terceira, — ^Terceira,  though  smaller  than  St.  Mi- 
chael, yet  being  placed  in  .1  more  central  position  with 
respect  to  the  other  islands  has  been  chosen  as  the 
seat  of  government.  The  port  of  Angra  is  also  supe- 
rior to  any  of  those  in  St.  Michael.  This  island  does 
not  exhibit  nearly  tlie  same  extensive  traces  of  vol- 
canic action ;  and  the  summits  of  its  mountains  aro 
generally  level.  It  is  represented  liy  Adanson,  how- 
ever, as  entirely  composed  of  volcanic  products.  The 
lava,  he  says,  is  of  a  thicker  grain  than  that  of  Ten- 
eriffe.  It  abounds  in  grain  and  cattle ;  \.\.i  the  wines 
are  inferior,  and  the  fruits  are  raised  merely  for  inter- 
nal consumption.  The  residence  of  the  government 
renders  the  society  somewhat  superior  to  that  which  is 
found  in  the  other  islands.  The  number  of  inhnbitanta 
is  estimated  at  50,000. 

Fayal. — Fayal  is  the  most  frequented  of  all  the 
islands  after  St.  Michael,  as  it  has  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors in  the  Azores,  and  lies  directly  in  the  track  of 
vessels  that  are  crossing  the  Athintic  in  any  directicm. 
Its  principal  town  is  Villa  de  llorta.  Captain  Cook 
found  that  all  sorts  of  fresh  provisions  might  bo  oli- 
tained  tliere :  the  bullocks  ond  hogs  are  good,  but  the 
sheep  small  and  poor.  The  town  is  defended  l)y  two 
castles  and  a  wall,  both  in  decay,  and  serving  rather 
for  show  than  strength.  The  city  contains  two  con- 
vents for  monks  and  three  for  nuns,  with  eight 
churches.  These  are  the  only  good  buildings  in  it,  no 
other  Having  glass  windows.  Tlie  ba\  is  two  miles 
in  length  and  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  lireadth,  and 
the  depth  of  water  from  6  to  20  fathoms.  Though  a 
good  road,  it  is  not  altogether  free  from  danger  in 
S.S.W.  and  S.K.  winds.     Population  23,000. 

Pico. — A  consideralde  quantity  of  wine  is  shipped 
from  Fayal  under  the  appellation  of  Fayal  wine,  Imt 
really  tlio  produce  of  Pico,  one  of  the  most  remiirlialdo 
of  the  Azores.  This  island  i  oniposed  of  an  immense 
conical  mountain,  rising  to  ■  lieight  of  7613  feet, 
ond  bearing  every  trace  of  v.  inic  formation.  The 
soil  consists  entirely  of  pul  -izcd  lava,  and  tlio 
ground  has  even  lieen  said  t^  ound  hollow  when 
struck.  All  the  lower  parts  of  f  mountain  are  in 
the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  aiul  rovered  with  vine 
and  orange  plantations.  The  wine,  which  forms  a 
sort  of  inferior  Sladcira,  is  in  considerable  demand. 
Pico  produces  also  a  valuable  species  of  wood,  resem- 
bling and  equal  in  quality  to  mahogany.  Populotion 
26,000. 

Graciosa  and  St.  Ooorge  aro  two  small  islands,  sit- 
uated between  Fayal  and  Terceira.  Graciosa  is  chiefly 
noted  for  the  extreme  lieauty  of  its  aspect  and  scenery. 
About  fifty  years  ogo  St.  George  suffered  from  one  of 
those  awful  visitations  to  wliich  tlifc  Azores  are  subject. 
In  1808  a  caldeira,  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  island, 
was  observed  to  be  in  a  state  of  violent  fermentation. 
It  continued  during  several  days  to  emit  suliterrancan 
noises,  and  to  cause  violent  convulsions  throughout 
every  part  of  the  island.  At  length  the  great  crisis 
came ;  vast  streams  of  fire  issued  forth  in  every  direc- 
tion, with  clouds  of  smoke,  which,  but  for  tlie  volcanic 
light,  would  have  involved  every  tiling  in  midniglit 
darkness.  The  principal  stream  took  itsi  direction 
towar<l  the  beautiful  town  of  Ursula,  which  it  seemed 
on  the  |M)int  of  swallowing  up  ;  but  suddenly  changing 
its  direction,  it  rushed  into  the  sea  liy  a  different  ciian- 
nel ;  a  happy  event,  which  suiierstition  ascrilied  to  the 
prayers  of  the  Ursulino  nuns.  Many  hundred  acres 
of  fertile  land,  however,  were  covered  with  scoriai  and 


FAY 


666 


FAY 


MhM ;  MBM  UvM  w«n  lost,  and  gentnl  gloom  «nd 
consternation  diffused  throughout  the  island.  The  in- 
habitants, however,  soon  applied  themselves  to  repair 
the  injur}'  which  their  land  hod  sustained.  Popula- 
tion about  20,000. 

The  two  small  and  most  westerly  islands  of  Corvo 
and  Flores  seem  but  imperfectly  to  belong  to  the 
group.  They  lie  also  out  of  the  usual  tracit  of  navi- 
gators; but  to  those  who,  missing  their  course,  are 
led  hither,  Flures  affords  goa<l  shelter  in  its  numerous 
bays.  Its  poultry  is  said  to  lie  the  tlnest  in  the  world ; 
and  the  cuttle  ore  numerous,  but  small.  The  surplus 
produce  of  these  islands  is  not  of  much  importance. 
Population  above  16,000. 

Commerce  of  ik»  Azorta  with  the  Vruted  States, — 
A  communication  to  the  Department  of  Statu,  dated 
Fayal,  April  3d,  18&7,  laments  the  inability  to  an- 
nounce any  improvement  in  the  commerce  between 
the  Axores  and  the  United  States.  The  vintages 
of  1855  and  1856  were  so  much  injured  by  the 
"  odium,"  both  in  regard  to  quantity  and  quality, 
that  no  wine  has  been  shipped  abroad,  and  the  quan- 
tity yet  remaining  of  former  vintages  is  exceedingly 
small.  From  the  Island  of  St.  Michaels  there  were 
shipped  last  season,  just  ended,  an  amount  equal  to 
800,000  Sidly  boxes  of  oranges,  about  40,000  from 
Terceira,  and  about  5,60i)  from  this  island ;  and  of  ail 
that  qiuntity  only  about  1,600  boxes  were  shipped  tc 


the  United  States.  Shipments  have  been  made  on  a 
larger  sculo,  but  the  results  have  been  unfavorable ; 
the  vessels  having  to  contend  with  almost  constant 
gales  of  contruiy  winds,  and  the  fruit  being  of  a  more 
perishable  nature  than  ttuit  of  Sicily,  Spain  and  Portu-  . 
gal.  The  Importation  of  cereals  will  swell  the  amount 
of  imports,  but  it  will  be  very  ephemeral,  and  the  ports 
will  be  closed  at  soon  as  circumstances  will  permit. 

The  seat  of  government  of  the  Azores  is  at  Angra, 
in  Terceira.  Vrnta  Dolguda,  in  St.  Michaels,  is, 
however,  the  chief  commercial  city.  The  exports  of 
com  from  the  Azores  from  1R35  to  1841,  principally  to 
Portugal,  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


YMn. 

QtuuUllu. 

Vaiitt. 

1885 

Mai  >•.        Wnaruin.        UiKhnli, 
11,175  =  a9,0'i5  =  290,200 
11,0W  =  88,240  =  26fl,9'20 
A.AC'S  =  10,695  -  188.560 
9fi»<)  =  28,740  =  229,920 
4,S90  =  14,670  =  117,860 
12,1.58  =  86.469  =  291,672 
9.000  =:  27,000  —  2la,(MH) 

299,280 
272.S6B 
189,710 
24fl,7s6 
1 12,6*5 
811,029 
286,000 

1986 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1S40 

IMl 

The  oranges  exported  in  1801  amouuted  in  value  to 
$60,000  i  in  1820,  to  $125,000;  and  in  1840,  to  $460,- 
000.  For  five  years,  ending  with  1840,  the  average 
annual  value  of  exports  to  Portugal  was  $215,646  ;  to 
foreign  countries,  $260,815.  Average  annual  value  nf 
imports  during  the  same  period,  from  Portugal,  $266,- 


6U0 ;   from  foreign  countries,  $397,110. 
CoMHKXoi!  or  Tna  UNmtD  States  wrrn  Fatal  and  oriiia  Aiobks,  raoH  Octorkb  1,  1S20,  to  Jult  1,  1868, 


I 

1            Tekra  eBdloff. 

E>F.rtk 

Ini|>orti. 

Wli>rwr  Iheni  wm  In  JJuUloa 
ud  Specie. 

Toniuve  Cleared. 

Donulk. 

Foralfn. 

L     Toi.1. 

T..I.I. 

ElIK)rte<l. 

Intporlfd. 

Aoirrifan. 

Vonign, 

Sept  DO,  1^1 . . . 

«^U7 

111,168 

•87,996 

•  187,982 

.  • .. 

•  1,070 

2,688 

'                   1822 

88,160 

10,464 

48,614 

202.416 

2,n.'.9 

124 

1                   1828 

27,941 

15,7(V4 

48,545 

41,429 

•8,500 

1,2,i1 

l,9«a 

261 

1S24 

i7,468 

4,028 

21,486 

4M08 

t  •  •  • 

4,9V9 

989 

905 

1925 

88,421 

4,695 

a9,116 

61,768 

8,407 

1,751 

266 

ISMy 

16,976 

2,495 

19,471 

86,261 

t  •  •  • 

^76ll 

7.'i8 

1827 

18,487 

4,961 

19,349 

»t,203 

8,000 

21,299 

9.89 

1»23 

1»,56» 

4,719 

24,278 

70,8»9 

12,778 

1,984 

, 

1S29 

7,94» 

79 

8,027 

21,802 

.  .  ■  • 

8,000 

679 

137 

1880 

Total... 

6649 

1,524 

9,178 

82,912 

11,810 

241 

187     . 

t20S,8ta 

•69,711 

•263,058 

•788,728 

91t),&00 

•M,854 

18,t>90 

1,780     1 

Sept  80,  lS3t 

«10.M9 

•6.049 

•16,599 

•82,092 

•8.200 

475 

251 

'            1982 

28,402 

11,868 

81,765 

45,424 

...* 

7,894 

812 

1988 

18,897 

8.629 

21,915 

26,291 

8,2JO 

910 

1884 

9,669 

8,911 

18,469 

19,491 

.  t  • 

2.707 

760 

1985 

12,088 

6,400 

19.488 

26.678 

•5,000 

4,786 

1,179 

1S8« 

7,191 

460 

7,081 

K374 

482 

691 

lesT 

18,409 

8,.58t 

16,989 

29,028 

2,.964 

496 

1889 

7,556 

l,«sl 

9,287 

82.746 

609 

69 

1889 

9,180 

4,789 

13,969 

15,222 

819 

1840 

ToUl... 

10.475 

6.628 

16,094 

89.189 

.... 



7,089 

1191,676 

•47,275 

•169,960 

•291,469 

$5,000 

t24,0»8  ~ 

7,780 

819 

Sept.  SO,  1941 

•18,187 

•6.788 

•  19,922 

•16,093 

$2,000 

l,(i6S 

l*t« 

49,198 

19,600 

69,798 

41,049 

•1,000 

1,6;>2 

100 

»  mos.       1>4:) 

8.669 

621 

9,190 

12,798 

742 

June  80,  l-i44 

19,246 

6,998 

26.229 

29,570 

!l,900 

1,515 

1,110 

1                   19tS 

2,881 

61 

2.892 

29.578 

194 

, 

!                   1846 

4,226 

4,225 

41,297 

1,000 

1.52 

151 

1                   1947 

9,466 

625 

9,991 

84,.W4 

10,.W0 

1.108 

1848 

8,660 

8,660 

11,489 

815 

1946 

14,204 

1,889 

16,048 

17,062 

8,600 

1,294 

1880 

Total... 

14,421 

2,162 

16,578 

10,.')2.9 

908 

161 
412 

It89,94i 

•87,566"^ 

•  176,499 

•249,747 

•4,200 

•  17,615 

8,489 

Jane  80,  1S,M 

120,240 

(1,04? 

921.285 

•.f2.962 

•4,867 

1.M2 

728 

1S52 

17.766 

1,*I6 

19,152 

29,846 

.... 

i,as2 

1,447 

696 

IS.M 

21,807 

4,440 

2.5,747 

10.X92 

1,777 

1964 

10,080 

440 

10,470 

21,,%->4 

560 

468 

18S6 

18.972 

593 

14,660 

199.111 

.... 

1,562 

1,890 

18M 

16.969 

490 

16,449 

22,898 

.... 

1,713 

The  harbor  of  Fayal  is  the  best  in  the  Azi>rv8,  and 
greater  facilities  are  offered  to  ships  in  dlHtruHs,  by 
affording  refuge  or  supplies.  American  whalers  fre- 
quently visit  Fayal,  and  deposit  large  quuntitie»  ■( 
oil,  to  1)0  tninahippod  to  other  ports,  amounting  ami  i- 
ally  to  a  value  of  upward  of  $.900,000;  most  of  wli  i  li 
is  forwarded  to  the  markets  of  the  rnitcil  .Statts. 
The  direct  im|M)rts  from  the  I'niti-d  Stutv!i  to  the 
Azores  consist  chiefly  of  timlier.  staves,  heads  for 
hogsheads,  etc.  The  duties  on  liiniljcr  and  staves  are 
moderate.    On  cut  noils  they  exceed  100  per  cent.. 


and  (in  window-glass  they  rise  over  300  per  cent. 
American  cotton  manufactures  are  in  good  demand, 
and  during  the  past  few  years  have  competed  udvan- 
thgeously  with  those  of  Great  Britain.  The  commer- 
cial regulations  differ  but  little  from  those  of  the 
mother  country.  Foreign  vessels,  bringing  the  pro- 
ductions uf  the  country  to  which  they  belong,  iind 
coming  from  the  ports  of  the  same,  are  admitted  nn 
the  same  f<Miting  as  PortU)/':cso  vessels.  When  liilcii 
with  the  produce  of  other  luntrles,  they  are  subject 
to  a  difforeatiol  duty  of  10  per  cent.    There  are  no 


FBA 


657 


FEB 


124 
261 

266 


1«T 
187 


1,180    j 
«6l 


819 

ioo 

"iM 


468 
1,8S0 


lonnag*  dutlw,  light,  or  boapital  duea,  lerkd  on  ahip- 
ping  at  the  AEona.  Tlie  entire  cliargea  to  which  a 
veaael  ia  aubject  amount  to  #19  80,  which  ia  roiaed  to 
t2S  40  if  the  veaael  liaa  croaaeil  the  equator.  The 
navigation  of  theae  iaiauda  employa  alMiut  8,000  torn 
in  foreign  and  ocaating  trade.  The  latter  ia  carried 
on  with  Liabon,  Madeira,  and  the  difleront  porta  of  the 
ialanda,  and  ia  reatricted  to  national  veaaeU.  In  iS&i, 
77  veaaela,  with  a  tonnage  of  8,780  tona,  entered  theae 
lalanda  |  of  which  number  8  were  American,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  1,800  tona. 

The  chief  inconvenience  to  which  fbreign  tonnage  ia 
Bubjected  in  theae  iManda,  ariaes  from  the  Inoonalatent 
and  arl>itrar>-  aanitary  regulationa,  which  emanate 
trom  the  home  government  at  Liabon,  and  which  pre- 
clude all  discretionary  power  en  the  part  of  the  local 
authoritiea.  For  inttance,  ahould  the  Portugueae  con- 
sul at  New  Orleans  notify  his  government  that  the 
yellow  fever  prevails  in  that  city  (aay  in  the  month  of 
September),  nrdera  are  immediately  forwarded  by  the 
Board  of  Ilealth  at  Liabon  to  the  authorities  of  the 
islands  to  consider  that  city  as  infected.  Theae  or- 
ders, l>3'  the  ordinary  mode  of  conveyance,  will  not 
reach  the  islands  until  the  following  January ;  and 
notwithstanding  it  ma}'  In  notorious  that  the  fever 
ceased  in  Octolwr  or  November,  a  vessel  that  should 
arrive  at  Fay al,  having  left  New  Orleans  in  Januar}', 
or  later,  would  not  be  admitted,  oven  should  she  be 
provided  with  a  clean  bill  of  health,  certilied  with  all 
formality,  by  the  very  same  consul  who  hod  reported 
to  his  government)  the  existence  of  the  sickness  I  This 
regulation  frequently  exposes  American  captains  to 
great  inconvenience  and  considerable  loss, — Com.  Xd. 
U.S. 

Feather*,  Bed-feathen  (Fr.  Pluma,  Pluma 
It  lit ;  (Jer.  Fakrn,  lifttfeilem ;  Du.  Bedvfem,  Pluimai  ,• 
It.  J'iiime ;  Sp.  I'lumai),  make  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce ;  particularly  those  of  tlii!  ostrich,  goose, 
heron,  swan,  peacock,  and  other  poultry.  The  feathers 
of  the  ostrich  have  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation 
tram  antiquity  downward,  and  h&ve  furnished  favorite 
decorations  for  the  fans  and  head-dresses  of  ladies,  the 
helmets  of  warriors,  and  the  most  splendid  processions. 
Many  parts  of  Great  Britain  supply  feathers  for  l>eds ; 
and  an  inferior  sort  is  brought  from  Ireland.  Eider- 
down, the  finest  variety  of  its  class,  is  im|iorted  from 
the  north  of  Europe ;  the  ducks  that  supply  it  being 
inhabitants  of  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  Norway.  The 
eider-duck  breeds  in  the  islands  on  the  west  of  Scot- 
land, Imt  not  in  sniOcient  numl)ers  to  form  a  profitable 
branch  of  trade  to  the  inhabitants.  Hudson's  Bay  fur- 
nishes very  tine  feathers,  especially  for  quilla.  The 
down  of  the  swan  is  brought  from  Dantzic,  as  well  as 
large  quantities  of  superior  feathers. 

Ottrich  and  other  Plumti, — The  long  feathers  of  the 
wings  and  the  tail  constitnte  the  ordi  .ary  ostrich 
plump.  Tlie  animul  is  captur,!d  and  kill  id  with  much 
care,  to  prevent  any  injury  to  the  plumage.  The 
feathers  are  sorted  into  various  qualities,  scoured  or 
cleaned,  lileached,  dried,  "'.uken,  and  opened,  the  ribs 
scraped  with  a  bit  of  glass,  the  filaments  made  to  as- 
sume a  curly  form  by  scraping,  dyed  or  not,  according 
to  circumstances,  and  adapted  for  the  adjustment  of 
military  hats  or  other  garments.  Those  in  England 
who  are  versed  in  the  heraldry  of  pomp  and  formality 
would  know  the  ostrich  plumes  worn  by  the  Knights 
of  the  Garter  or  the  Kniglita  Grand  Crosses  of  the 
Bath  from  the  court  plumes  adapted  for  ladies,  and 
the  black  plumes  for  officers  of  tho  Highland  regi- 
ments. In  recent  years,  means  have  been  devised  for 
imparting  brilliant  dyes  to  ostrich  feathers,  several 
different  ralors  to  one  feather,  gradually  shaded  or 
blended  one  into  another.  Then,  liosides  tho  ostrich, 
we  have  tho  feathers  of  tho  maraliout,  the  ibis,  the 
bird  of  paradise,  the  vulture  or  rhea,  the  emu,  tho 
heron,  the  plotiia,  the  egret,  the  pheasant,  the  peacock, 
the  turkey,  the  swan,  the  eagle,  and  some  other  blrda 
Tt 


— all  applied  ai  ornaments  to  drsai.  Soma  of  (hfM 
are  very  costly :  aome  are  used  almost  axcluslvuly  fur 
one  particular  purpose,  while  others  liava' their  fltiill> 
ionable  and  unfashionable  period*  In  tb*  publlo  favor, 
Some  of  the  marabout  feathers  are  knotted  with  guM, 
to  ipaka  a  costly  trimming  for  dreisas.  Tba  «iuu 
feathers  are  more  worn  on  the  Continent  tluta  In  Kn> 
gland.  The  heron  feathers,  worn  by  tlio  Knights  iif 
the  Garter,  frequently  cost  SO  guineas  the  plume,  ainl 
sometimes  above  100  guineas,  on  account  of  ttl«lr 
srjucity.  The  large  egret  feathers  are  worn  by  tb« 
Hussars. 

Feoamp,  a  seaport  town  in  Francs,  departrn«nt  of 
Seine-InfOrieure,  situated  on  the  English  Cliannal,  jt( 
the  mouth  of  a  small  cognominal  river  23  miles  N.N,  V„ 
of  Havre.  Population  about  10,000,  It  occupies  tli« 
bottom  and  sides  of  a  narrow  valley  opening  out  toward 
the  sea,  between  two  cliffs,  on  one  of  which  vtands  a 
light-house.  Its  port,  though  small,  is  onu  of  the  lixst 
on  the  Channel,  and  haa  lately  been  greatly  improveil 
by  the  construction  of  an  inner  port,  with  »  line  quay, 
etc.  It  carriaa  on  a  conalderable  trade  in  Itultlu  uuil 
colonial  produce,  brandy,  aalt,  etc. ;  and  sends  out  v«ii' 
sels  to  the  whale,  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  lUbiirlas, 
The  river  affords  abundant  water-power  for  numerous 
cotton,  oil,  and  other  mills.  Fecamp  has  also  sugar  ro' 
fineries,  tanneries,  building-docks,  and  manufui:lurfl« 
of  hardware,  candles,  soda,  etc,  The  town  coiisUU 
almost  entirely  of  one  street  upward  of  two  mils*  III 
length. 

Feejee  Islanda,  These  islands  constitute  a  group 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  favorably  situated  fur  tlia 
whaling  Interests  of  the  United  States,  if  the  habits  uf 
the  natives  did  not  render  it  unsafe  for  whale-«hlps  to 
enter  any  of  their  ports,  unless  under  the  proteutluu 
of  a  man-of-war.  The  group  consists  of  IM  IslaniU  In 
all,  65  of  which  are  inhabited,  and  contains  a  popula* 
tion  estimated  at  134,000  souls.  Tho  principal  inmniis 
are  Viti  Levu  and  Paou,  or  Sanilal-wood  Island) 
others  are  Vuna,  Kandaboo,  OvoUu,  Bau,  Mathuatu, 
and  Goro ;  each  of  the  islands  containing  from  0,000 
to  18,000  inhabitants.  Sandal-wood  was  formerly  a 
leading  production  of  this  group,  but  it  has  now  an- 
tirely  disappeared.  The  great  fertility  of  the  soil, 
however,  and  tho  low  price  at  which  vessels  could  racruit 
their  stores,  and  obtain  supplies  of  fresh  provisions  and 
excellent  water,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  that 
the  whaling  interests  of  citizo.is  of  the  United  Htutus  In 
that  quarter  involve  annually  from  seven  to  eight  llilU 
lions  of  dollars,  show  how  important  tills  group  might 
become  to  American  whalers,  if  they  were  only  strong 
enough  to  prevent  or  resent  acts  of  piracy  and  pluniUr, 

An  official  communication  to  tho  State  Department, 
under  date  of  January  1, 1854,  says:  "  The  chief  and 
inhabitants  of  Bau  (at  present  the  controler*  of  this 
group),  causing  the  destruction  of  property  at  Lavuka, 
live  by  the  fruits  of  begging,  theft,  and  robbary—oiie 
unbroken  serica  of  robberies  and  butcheries,  In  de< 
fault  of  justice,  these  men  escape."  When  our  whal- 
ers are  fortunate  enough  to  escape  from  the  atrocities 
above  described,  they  can  obtain  a  full  supply  of  all 
descriptions  of  vegetables,  pork,  poultry,  etc,,  for  an 
entire  crew  for  about  f&G,  in  trade.  The  same  com- 
munication further  informs  tho  Department,  that 
American  vessels  are  actually  driven  away  front  this 
archipelago,  the  natives  being  emboldened  in  the  per- 
petration of  these  acta  by  tho  absence  of  American 
vessels  of  war  in  any  of  their  ports.  During  the  past 
year  (1855)  an  American  ship  of  war,  the  John  Ailnmi, 
visited  the  Fccjeo  Islands  for  the  purpose  of  Inquiring 
into,  and  demanding  reparation  for,  tho  cruelMes  and 
acts  of  plunder  and  piracy  committed  by  the  natives 
upon  American  ships  trading  and  fishing  in  the  Fuejee- 
an  archipelago.  Tho  result  of  this  visit,  it  is  bellavad, 
will  put  an  end  to  the  atrocities  of  these  savages,  and 
secure  a  safe  and  oommodlous  retreat  for  Ainerleait 
whalers  in  those  dUtant  seas.    It  ia  undorstood  tbiit 


FEL 


668 


FER 


thb  Ncnrlty  b  gnanntied  hy  a  eoBTcntkm  or  treaty 
■gTMd  to  by  Tui  Viti,  th«  king  of  tha  island*.  Tliera 
are  no  quarantine  rvgulationa  oluf  rved  at  any  of  tliese 
ialanda,  and  conseijuently  no  bills  of  health  are  re- 
quited. Passengen  are  subjected  to  no  port  or  land- 
ing requirements,  and  are  at  liberty  to  go  ashore  when 
and  as  they  please. 

There  are  no  custom  duties,  nor  are  there  any  light, 
hospital,  or  other  dues  or  taxes  exacted.  For  pilots, 
the  charges  are  such  as  can  be  agreed  upon.  It  has 
been  already  stated  that  this  group  of  islands  affords  a 
convenient  and  excellent  stopping-place  for  our  whale- 
shlpa  engage<l  in  their  hazardous  and  !ahoriuus  toil  in 
the  South  I'aciflc  sras.  It  should  he  added,  that  our 
trading  ships  generally,  in  that  quarter  of  the  globe, 
could  beneflrially  call  at  these  islands,  particularly  if 
freighted  with  miscellaneous  cargoes  of  cotton  goods, 
weapons  of  war,  cutlery,  and  other  similar  wares  suit- 
ed to  the  barbarous  and  semi-civilized  natives,  could 
they  but  be  taught  to  pay  proper  respect  to  the  Ameri- 
can flog.  During  the  three  years  ending  with  1858, 
the  exports  trom  the  I'nited  States  to  the  Feejee  Isl- 
ands amounted,  in  the  aggregate,  to  ;|1!)<>,()00,  viz. :  in 
1861 ,  to  $83,000 ;  in  1852,  to  #64,000 ;  in  I8&S,  to  $60,000. 
The  merchandise  receired  in  baiter  for  American 
imports  consist  of  biche-de>mer,  tortoise-shell,  gums, 
arrow-root,  and  cocoanut-oU.  The  exports  from  the 
United  States  consist  of  assorted  cargoes,  and  the  an- 
nual value  may  lie  estimated  from  the  preceding  fig- 
uies,  as  the  trade  is  almost  exclusively  on  i  of  liarter, 
in  which  the  American  shippers  usually  realize  260 
per  cent,  profit  on  their  merchandise.  During  the 
last  six  months  of  1865,  there  arrived  at  the  port  of 
Lanthala  Ave  American  vessels,  inrluding  two  ships  of 
war  (the  John  Adam*  and  the  St.  .l/nry's),  measuring, 
exclusive  of  the  two  latter,  an  aggregate  of  1124  tons. 
Three  whale-ships  also  touched  nt  the  Islands  during 
the  same  period.  The  inward  cargoes  of  two  of  the 
merchant  vessels  referred  to,  amounting  in  value  to 
(4000,  consisted  of  general  cargoes,  of  which  was  land- 
ed, in  value,  (3000.  The  remaining  vessel  was  lailen 
with  outfits,  stores,  ?id  whaling-lines,  valued  at 
$30,000,  none  of  which  was  landed  at  the  islands. 
The  outward  cargoes  consisted  of  biche-de-mer,  1600 
peculs,  and  shells,  1000  pouds,  valued  at  $41 ,000.  One 
of  these  vessels  made  a  voyage  to  Sydney  with  yams, 
cocoanut-oil,  and  live  stocic,  while  the  natives  were 
colter' '.ng  her  cargo  of  biche-de-mer. — C.  D. — Com. 
Rel  U.  S. 

Felt,  a  kind  of  stuff  resembling  coarse  cloth,  made 
of  hair  or  wool,  without  weaving.  The  fnr  of  the  hare, 
rabbit,  seal,  beaver,  and  the  wool  of  the  sheep,  are  the 
materials  chiefly  used  for  making  elt.  The  hairs  and 
loose  flocks  of  wool  are  thorsnghly  mixed  together  liy 
an  operation  called  boieing,  which  depends  on  the  vi- 
brations of  an  elastic  string;  when,  in  consequence 
of  their  anatomical  straeture,  they  become  matted  to- 
gether. 

Felted  Cloth.  This  woolen  fabric  is  ma<le  with- 
out spinning  or  weaving.  Vamuktd  or  Japanned  Fell 
Is  made  liy  imbuing  the  stuff  of  coarse  hat  Indies  with 
drying  nil,  prepared  by  boiling  50  lbs.  of  linseed  oil 
with  white  lead,  litharge,  and  umber,  of  each  one 
pound.  The  felt  is  to  tie  dried  in  a  stove,  and  then 
polished  liy  pumice-stone.  Five  or  six  coats  of  oil  am 
required.  The  surface  is  at  last  varnished.  When 
the  ol>ject  is  intended  to  be  stiff,  like  visors,  the  fal<rie 
is  to  be  impregnated  first  of  ail  with  flour-iMUte,  then 
stove-<lrlcd,  cut  into  the  desired  sha|ie,  next  imbued 
with  the  dryinj-oil,  and  pumiced  repeatedly;  lastly, 
placed,  to  the  number  of  20,  in  a  hot  iron  mold,  and 
exposed  to  strong  pressure.  JapanYied  hats  made  In 
this  way  are  sold  in  France  at  Is.  Sd.  a  piece ;  and  they 
will  stand  several  years'  wear. 

Felting  (Fr.  Feutrage ;  Ger.  Fihen),  Is  the  process 
by  which  loose  flocks  of  wool,  and  hairs  of  various  an- 
nimals,  as  the  beaver,  rabbit,  ham,  etc.,  are  mutually 


interlaced  Into  a  compact  textile  flibrie.  Tha  fint 
step  toward  making  felt  is  to  mix,  in  the  propor  pro* 
portions,  the  different  kinds  of  fibres  intended  to  form 
the  stuff;  and  then,  liy  the  viliritory  stmkes  of  tha 
liowstring,  to  toss  them  up  in  the  air,  and  to  causa 
them  to  fall  as  irregularly  as  possible  upon  the  table, 
opened,  spread,  and  scattermi,  Tha  workman  covera 
this  layer  of  loose  flo<-ks  with  a  piece  of  thick  blanket 
stuff  slightly  moistened ;  he  presses  it  with  his  hands, 
moving  the  hair  backward  and  forward  in  all  direc- 
tions. Thus  the  different  fliires  get  interlaced,  by 
their  ends  pursuing  ever  tortuous  paths ;  their  ver- 
micular motion  being  always,  however,  root  foremost. 
As  the  matting  gets  denser,  tlie  hand  pressure  should 
lie  increased,  In  order  to  overcome  tho  ircreusing  re- 
sistance to  the  decussation.  A  first  thin  sheet  of  soft, 
spongy  felt  being  now  formed,  a  second  is  condensed 
upon  It  in  like  manner,  and  then  a  third,  till  the  requi- 
site strength  and  thickness  lie  obtained.  These  differ- 
ent pieces  are  sncct-ssiveiy  brought  together,  dis|>osad 
in  a  way  suitable  to  the  wished-for  article,  and  united 
by  continued  dextrous  pressure.  The  stuff  must  ba 
next  subjected  to  the  fulling-mill. 

Felling  Timber.  In  arboriculture,  when  a  full- 
grown  tree  is  cut  down,  it  is  said  to  be  felled  ;  liut  this 
term  is  never  applied  to  young  trees  or  bushes,  under- 
growth, or  hedges,  which  are  said  to  be  rootetl  out  or 
cut  over.  Much  has  lieen  written  res|)ectini;  tho  proper 
season  fnr  felling  trees  ;  some  arguing  in  favor  of  raid- 
winter,  and  others  in  favor  of  midsummer.  The  ques- 
tion principally  turns  upon  the  quantity  and  the  value 
of  the  soft  or  outer-woiHl  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  be 
felled,  known  liy  foresters  and  carpenters  as  the  sap. 
As  this  sap  iir  outer-wood  is  tho  only  portion  of  the 
trunk  in  which  the  sap  or  Juices  of  the  tree  circulate, 
it  is  evident  that  if  no  value  be  set  upon  it  the  tree 
may  lie  cut  down  at  any  season,  because  the  truly  val- 
ualile  part  of  the  trunk,  the  mature  timber,  is  imper- 
mealile  to  the  sap  in  its  ascent  through  the  soft  wood, 
and  Is,  therefore,  in  the  same  state  at  every  season  of 
the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  where  much  value  is 
attached  to  the  soft  or  outer-wood,  where  this  outer- 
wood  is  wished  to  lie  made  as  valuable  as  possible,  oi 
where,  as  in  the  case  of  comparatively  young  trees, 
the  greater  part  of  the  tnmk  consists  of  sap-wood, 
felling  onght  to  take  place  when  there  is  least  sap  in 
the  course  of  circiilution.  This  season  !s,  without 
doulit,  midwinter,  which,  all  other  circumstances  be- 
ing equal,  is  unquestinnalily  the  liest  season  fnr  felling 
timber;  tho  next  liest  lieing  midsummer,  when  the 
sap  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  young  shoots,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  soft  wood,  and  tha  bark ;  as  the  worst 
Is  the  spring,  Just  before  the  development  of  the  buds, 
when  the  tree  is  fullest  of  sap,  and  receiving  con- 
stantly fresh  supplies  from  the  root ;  and  in  autumn, 
immedlntely  before  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  when  there  is  a 
suiierabundance  of  sap,  from  its  being  as  it  wens 
thrown  out  of  employment  liy  the  falling  of  the  leaf. 
In  general,  all  the  soft  woods,  snch  as  the  elm,  lime, 
poplar,  willow,  etc.,  should  be  felUd  during  winter; 
hard  :voods,  like  the  oak,  beech,  ash,  etc.,  when  the 
trunks  aro  of  large  size,  and  valued  chiefly  for  their 
heart-wood,  may  be  felled  at  any  time.  See  articles 
Dht  Rot  and  Wood. 

Felucca  (Ital.  /elura),  a  little  vessel  with  oars 
and  lateen  sales,  common  in  the  Mediterranean.  It 
has  a  rudder  at  the  stem  una  another  al  the  stem,  to 
lie  applied  as  occasion  requires. 

Ferment  (lMt._fmfo,  I  boil),  the  mbatance  which 
is  essential  to  the  process  of  fermentation.  It  is  either 
naturally  present  in  the  fermentable  Juice,  as  In  the 
grape,  or  it  is  added,  as  in  tho  manufacture  of  liecr, 
where  ynut  constitutes  the  ferment.  Ferments  are  of 
an  albuminous  or  !;V.:t!nnus  character ;  the  presence  of 
nitrogen  ^ceius  essential  in  their  composition,  hence 
they  are  classed  bj*  chemists  among  azotlzed  com- 
pounds.   Their  modoa  operandi  is  still  unexplained. 


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Fermentation  (Lat.)  When  cnrtatn  vegetablo 
lubRtunces  nra  dUfiolved  in  water,  and  tulijected  to  a 
due  temperiiture  (lietween  (55°  and  fi5°),  thpy  undergo 
a  Heriea  of  changes  which  terminate  in  the  production 
of  alcohol  or  Hplrit ;  theie  changes  constitute  the  phe- 
nomena of  rim»i»  frrmenUUiim.  Sugar  and  some  fe.  ■ 
roent  are  essential  to  the  process ;  and  during  Mm 
formation  of  the  alcohol  the  sugar  disappears,  and 
carbonic  acid  is  more  rr  less  aliundunlly  evolved.  The 
simplest  case  of  fermentation  is  that  of  mu»t,  or  of  the 
expressed  juice  of  the  grape,  which,  when  exposed, 
either  In  c'ose  or  open  vessels,  to  a  temperature  of 
almut  70",  soon  logins  to  give  off  carbonic  acid,  and 
to  become  turbid  and  frothy  ;  after  a  time  a  scum  col- 
lects upon  the  surface,  and  a  sediment  is  deposited ; 
the  liquor  which  had  grown  worm  gradually  cools  and 
clears,  lose'  its  sweet  taste,  and  is  converted  into 
wine.  The  chief  component  parfs  of  must  are  water, 
sugar,  mucilage,  gluten,  and  tartar.  During  the  fer- 
mentation carbonic  add  escapes,  the  suga'  disappears, 
and  with  it  the  greater  part  of  the  mucilage ;  the 
gluten  chiefly  forms  th«  scum  and  a  portion  of  the 
sediment;  and  the  tartar,  originally  in  solution,  is 
thrown  down  in  the  form  of  u  colored  deposit.  It  op- 
penrs,  therefore,  that  the  new  products,  which  are 
alcohol  and  rnrionic  acid,  are  principally  formed  at  the 
expense  of  the  sugar ;  and  Gay  Lussac's  experiments 
have  shown  that  ■15  pounds  of  sugar  are  resolved,  in 
the  process  of  fermentation.  Into  2.1  of  alcohol  and  22 
of  carbonic  acid.  Sugar  and  water  alone  will  not  ftr- 
ment ;  the  ingredient  requisite  to  the  commencement 
of  the  change  Is  the  gluten,  which  absorl)s  in  the  first 
instance  a  little  oxygen  from  the  air,  becomes  insolu- 
ble, and  induces  the  subsequent  changes.  The  reason 
wliy  grapes  never  ferment  till  the  juice  is  expressed, 
seems  to  depend  upon  tlio  exclusion  of  air  t)y  the  husit 
or  membranes  j  and  If  grapes  !«  bruised  in  a  perfectly 
close  vessel,  carefully  excluding  oxygen,  the  juice 
undergoes  no  change ;  so  that  the  mere  breniiing  down 
of  the  texture  of  the  ft'uit  is  Insufficient.  But  a  very 
short  exposure  of  the  pulp  to  air  is  sufficient  to  induce 
that  change  in  the  juice  which  leads  on  to  fermenta- 
tion, and  -Arhlch  is  afterward  independent  of  the  further 
contact  of  air,  the  evolution  of  curb<mie  acid  l)elng  ex- 
clusively referalde  to  the  decomposition  of  sugar.  In 
beer  the  alcohol  is  derived  from  the  sugar,  original  and 
produced,  of  the  malt.  When  wine  is  exposed  to  air 
and  a  due  temperature,  a  second  fermentation  ensues, 
which  is  called  acrioiu  fermentation,  and  which  termi- 
nates in  the  production  of  vinegar.  During  this  pro- 
cess oxygen  Is  absorbed,  and  more  or  less  carbonic 
acid  in  most  cases  evolved  ;  but  the  apparent  cause  of 
tlie  formation  of  vinegar  Is  the  abstraction  of  hydro- 
gen from  the  alcohol,  so  as  to  leave  the  rei.  ilng  ele- 
ments in  such  proportions  as  to  constitute  acetic  aciil. 
Th^s  alcohol  is  theoreti<-uliy  constituted  bf  charcoal, 
water,  and  hydrogen,  and  acetic  acid  of  charcoal  and 
water  only  ;  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  therefore,  converts 
the  hydrogen  of>the  alcohol  into  water,  and  soflffects 
the  change  into  vinegar. 

Fern,  or  Farn  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islets 
or  roclis,  17  in  number,  lying  off  the  coast  of  Northum- 
berland, but  included  in  the  county  of  Durham.  There 
ore  two  light-houses  on  these  islands.  It  was  here,  in 
1888,  that  Grace  Darling  and  her  father,  in  stormy 
weather,  rescued  the  passengers  of  the  Forjnrshint 
steamer.  The  Fern  Islands  are  frequented  by  im- 
mense numbers  of  sea-lilrds. 

'rernando  de  Noronba,  an  island  In  the  South 
At  antic,  lying  almut  70  leagues  fn-r".  the  coast  of 
Br.iiiil.  It  Is  about  20  miles  In  circumference,  and 
the.  ,-.'.7f:;ce  is  rugged  ond  mountainous.  It  has  seve- 
ral harlmrs  defended  by  forts,  and  serves  as  a  place  of 
lianishment  for  criminals  from  Brazil,  N,  lot.  3°  56', 
W,  long.  82°  28'. 

Fernando  Po,  or  Femao  do  Pao,  an  island  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  lying  in  the  Bight  of  Benin, 


alwut  20  miles  firom  the  main.and.  In  N.  Ut.  tfl  W, 
K.  long.  H°  W.  It  is  almut  44  miles  in  length  ftam 
N.N.K.  to  8.S.W.,  and  about  20  in  bnadth.  The 
coasts  are  steep  and  rocky,  and  the  Interior  is  mount- 
nous.  A  ridge  cf  mountains  toward  the  centre  of 
me  island  rises  to  the  height  of  8000  feet,  and  is  tarmU 
nated  at  each  extremity  by  a  peaked  mountain,  tha 
one  at  the  northern  extremity  attaining  a  height  of 
10,700  feet.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  island  la 
also  intersected  l>y  several  steep  mountains,  var}'ing 
from  1,000  to  8,000  feet.  These  mountains  are  cov- 
ered, most  of  them  to  their  summits,  together  with  the 
Intervening  vuUeys,  with  dense  forests  of  sbnilM  and 
lofty  trees  of  luxuriant  growth.  The  rocks  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  the  soil  Is  rich  and  fertile,  produc- 
ing rice,  s:  gar-cane,  cotton,  tol>acco,  yams,  palms,  etc. 
Sheep,  goats,  fowls,  turtle,  and  fisli,  are  abundant 
The  climate  is  salulirious,  though  the  rainy  season 
lasts  from  May  to  December,  and  Is  succeeded  by  a 
season  of  dense  fogs.  The  harbors  are  small,  the 
largest  lieing  Port  Clarence  on  the  northern  shore. 
This  island  wos  discovered  in  1471  l>y  a  Portuguese 
navigator,  whose  name  It  bears.  It  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  l>y  Spain  in  1778,  but  oliandoned  in  1782.  The 
English  In  1827  formed  a  settlement  here,  but  relin- 
quished It  in  1884 ;  the  Spaniards  resumed  ^ssesslon 
of  it  in  1844,  and  have  given  it  the  name  of  Piiertn  d« 
Iinhrl.  The  native  population  is  estimated  at  about 
15,000. 

Ferrol,  a  seapurt  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Co- 
ruflo,  and  one  of  the  first  novol  arsenals  in  the  king^ 
dom,  is  situated  on  the  N.  arm  of  the  Bay  of  Betanxos, 
12  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  CoruAa.  The  har- 
bor, which  is  one  of  the  best  In  Europe,  is  deep,  capa- 
cious, and  secure  ;  but  the  entrance,  which  is  a  strait 
alwut  two  miles  In  length  at  the  narrowest  part,  only 
admit",  one  ship  at  a  time,  and  Is  commanded  on  either 
side  by  strong  forts,  Tlie  town  Is  protected  on  the 
land-side  by  a  wall,  on  which  200  cannon  might  be 
mounted.  The  dockyard  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  outer  being  the  smaller,  and  the  whole  occupying 
a  space  of  more  than  116,000  square  yards.  Behind 
the  inner  dock  are  the  dwellings  of  the  operatives,  and 
in  the  north  angle  are  the  founderies,  rope-walks,  and 
magazines.  They  ore  all,  however,  as  well  as  the 
arsenal,  in  a  neglected  and  ruinous  condition. 

Perry  (Germ,  and  Sox.  fnhren,  to  pass  over),  in 
law,  0  right  arising  trom  royal  grant  or  prescription  to 
have  a  boot  to  carry  men  and  horses  across  a  river, 
and  to  le>7'  reasonable  toll.  The  land  on  both  sides 
ought  to  l)elong  to  the  owner  of  the  ferry-boats. 

Fescue  graaa,  a  valuable  grass  for  meadows  and 
pastures.  {Festuca  pralenait,  I.in.)  In  deep,  rich 
soils,  somewhat  moist,  it  is  considered  as  the  moat 
bulky  and  nutritive  of  all  grasses  ;  but  In  poorer  soils 
It  is  equaled,  if  not  surpassed,  by  the  rye  grass  (/.o- 
lium  perenne),  and  the  meadow  foxtail  grass  {Aleopecti- 
riii  pralentii).  The  meadow  fescue  grows  to  the  height 
of  between  2  and  8  feet ;  but  the  sheep  fescue  (>', 
ovana),  and  several  other  species,  seldom  grow  nlwve 
6  Inches  or  a  foot  in  height,  and  are  chiefly  sown  on 
sheep  pastures,  and  used  to  lay  down  lawns  and 
grassy  surfaces  to  l>e  mown  in  pleasure  grounds.  All 
the  fescues  are  perennials. 

Fes,  an  extensive  country  of  Africa,  and  at  one 
time  the  most  flourishing  kingdom  in  the  northern  part 
of  that  continent.  It  now  however,  forms  a  province 
of  the  empire  of  Morocco.  Fez,  or  Fat  the  capital  of 
this  kingdom,  was  built  in  798,  A.  D.,  by  a  prince 
named  Edris,  and  having  soon  risen  to  i>e  a  city  of  the 
first  magnitude,  became  the  capital  of  the  western  Mo- 
hammedan states.  In  tlie  12th  century  it  is  sold  to 
have  contained  700  temples  and  mosks,  und  otiier  pul>- 
llc  edifices,  a  number  of  which  wore  erected  upon  a 
magnificent  scale,  and  adorned  with  a  profusion  of 
marble  pillars.  The  manufactures  of  Fez  consist  of 
woolen  hhaiki,  sashes,  and  silk  handkerchiefs,  slippers 


no 


660 


FEL 


)f  HMNl  laatlMr,  wbkb  tlwy  Un  nmarkahly  well,  rwl 
(•It  e»pt,  •vfii*  rutm  lln«ii  cloth,  tine  <'*r|i«U,  a  euri- 
ett*  hinil  of  Milhrnwani,  waaiiunn  of  anvKral  kioiln, 
taddloni'  wan,  Jawelry,  ami  copper  utniiiiilit.  Tlie  arts 
Imiw  And  little  •nciiuriiK«ment,  ami  ar«,  inilwil,  fur  in- 
farlnr  to  thoM  uf  Kuro|i«,  except  in  the  preparatiun  uf 
Ualher,  eml  In  Ihe  fabrication  of  car|iets  and  uf  hlinlka, 
whioh  the  manufacturen  know  how  to  weavn  a>  line 
Mil  oe  trant|»nint  an  gtuM.  They  are  aleo  ex|i«rt 
worker*  In  wax,  w(ui|K>nii,  and  harnene.  The  heat 
during  Ihe  •iininier  In  very  gnat ;  but  In  other  aeo- 
ione  of  the  year,  particularly  winter,  the  climate  in 
aitreealile.  With  regard  to  the  numlwr  of  Inhaliitunti, 
munh  dllTeience  of  opinion  prevaila  anions  travrlcm. 

nbr*  (Ul./frni),  a  tine  thread  or  lilanient ;  a  One 
•lender  body,  aurh  aa  thoae  of  which  fleah,  nervra, 
planta,  rnota,  etc.,  are  compoaed.  In  our  manufao 
tnrea  veifetadle  Hlamenta  and  flbrea  are  anionir  the 
moet  Important  of  the  whole  aerie*  of  raw  produce ; 
fumlahlnK  thread,  cloth,  conlaRe,  anil  the  like.  Kor 
Iheea  purpoeea  the  tHainrntoua  porta  of  the  Oottypium 
CoHmtbu,  and  Linvm,  oi  <tl«n,  hemp,  and  flax,  are 
need.  The  Abrea  of  other .  .anta  have  peea  employed 
In  dltrerent  countriea  for  the  aame  uaea.  Putrefaction 
daairoya  the  pulpy  nutter,  and  leavea  the  touffh  tiU- 
mente  entire.  Ultfarent  kinda  of  cloth  are  pre|>ared  In 
the  Kaat  from  Ihe  lilirea  of  the  bark  of  certain  treea 
boiled  In  a  atrong  lye.  Home  of  theaa  cloth*  are  very 
line,  anil  approach  to  the  aoftnea*  of  *ilk,  but  in  dura- 
bility fall  abort  of  cotton ;  othera,  a(;ain,  ure  coaraer 
and  otronKer,  and  much  exceed  cotton  in  durability. 
Mee  Ki.Ax. 

ltd,  a  abort  bar  of  wood  or  Iroc  put  through  the 
heel  or  lower  part  of  a  topnuut,  and  reatlng  by  Ita  endu 
on  the  treatletree*,  and  on  which  Ihe  maat  1*  therefore 
•upported.  When  the  topmafit  la  to  be  got  down,  it  la 
flnt  lifted  to  take  the  pleasure  off  the  tid,  which  la  then 
withdrawn. 

Fid,  or  ■plloing-fld,  la  alao  a  aharp  cone  of  wood 
fur  opening  the  iitran4a  of  rope. 
'  Flddlaa,  or  VlolilM  (Uer.  IWi'iwfi,  iifigett ;  Pu. 
ViouUni  Fr.  Vuiloiu;  It.  Violinif  Sp.  Viuliner t  Kua. 
Skripuii),  muKical  Instrument*,  too  well  known  to 
need  any  pnrtlcular  deacription.  The  fineat-toned  vio- 
llna  are  thoae  uiiide  in  Italy;  they  are  uaually  called 
(/'remonaa,  from  the  name  of  the  town  where  they 
were  formerly  inanufactureil  in  the  higheat  perfection  ; 
$6nO  and  more  have  not  unfreijuently  been  given  for  a 
flrat-rate  Cremona  violin. 

Figa  (tin.  Frign;  Du.  Vygn;  Fr.  Figuri;  It. 
f'irhi !  Hp.  //<#»« ;  Lat.  f'ici,  Caricm ;  Arab.  Tern),  the 
fruit  of  the  lig-tree  (f'ieut  ran'ca),  a  native  of  Asia, 
but  early  Introduced  into  Europe. 

It  flouriahps  in  Turkey,  tjreece,  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  northern  Africa,  and  even  aometime* 
ripen*  It*  fruit  in  the  open  air  in  thia  ^.oinitry,  ^'.'  ^, 
when  ripe,  are,  for  the  must  part,  dried  in  ovens  to 
preaerve  them  i  anil  then  packed  very  cluacly  in  the 
amall  cheat*  and  iHwketa  in  which  we  import  them. 
The  beat  come  from  Turkey ;  those  of  KaUmata,  in 
the  Morea,  are  aaid  to  lie  the  moat  luscious. — Thum- 
Niin'e  Jjitprntatoiy, 

Dried  flga  form  a  very  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce in  I'rovenre,  Italy,  and  .Spiiin ;  lieaides  affording, 
■«  In  the  F^al,  a  principal  articlo  of  sustenance  for  the 
population.  In  Hpaiii,  tig*  are  chiedy  exported  from 
Andalusia  and  Valencia ;  but  they  are  more  or  leaa 
abundant  in  every  province.  In  the  northern  parts 
of  France  there  are  many  fig  gardens,  particularly  at 
Argentenll. 

Figure  Head.  The  figure,  statue,  or  bust,  on  the 
projoctiiig  part  of  thd  head  of  a  ship,  colled  tka  cut- 
woter. 

Flgnrea,  In  Arithmetic,  are  the  numeral  charac- 
ter*, or  ten  digits,  by  which  numbers  ore  expressed. 
They  are  aupposeil  to  be  of  Indian  origin,  and  to  hove 
been  Introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Spain  in 


the  IBIh  century ;  but  the  data  of  their  Introduction  I* 
much  diaputvd. 

Filbert,  or  Fllberd,  the  well-known  fruit  of  Ihe 
cultivated  hazel  nut,  or  Ciirylm  artllana,  U  a  aeed> 
vessel  incloaed  within  an  Involucre  or  cupule,  which  is 
the  part  commonly  called  the  husk.  This  organ  la  of 
Ihe  same  nature  aa  the  cup  of  Ihe  oak,  and  the  prickly 
cane  In  which  the  nuti  of  the  aweet  chestnut  and  the 
mast  of  the  Iwecli  are  inclosed.  In  the  filbert  it  is 
much  larger  than  In  Ihe  common  nut ;  and  it  la  this 
charui'trr,  together  with  the  lengthened  figure  of  Ihe 
dul,  which  distinguishes  the  two  races  of  nuts  and 
Hlliert*.  The  beat  known  varletle*  of  the  Hlliert  aru 
Ihe  red,  the  friialed,  and  the  white,  the  latter  being 
the  kind  moat  commonly  grown. 

File,  Fllea  (Da. /'i/« ,  Du.  lyfrn;  Kr.  £imn ;  Oer. 
Frilen;  It.  /.I'mr),  an  InatrumenI  of  Iron  or  forged 
ateel,  cut  In  little  furrows,  uaed  to  polish  nr  smooth 
metnl*,  tlmlier,  and  other  hard  liodles.  Files  are  uf 
various  forms,  size*,  and  cuts,  according  to  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  to  l>e  applied.  When  the  surface  Is  cut 
in  transverse  furrows  by  a  straight  sharp-edged  chisel 
and  mallet,  the  Instrument  la  properly  called  a  file ; 
but  when  it  Is  ralaed  by  a  triangular  punch,  it  ia  termed 
a  rasp.  ThI*  laat  kind  is  chiefly  employed  for  rubbing 
wood  and  horn.  The  larger  kind  of  files  are  maile  of 
blistered  steel ;  but  the  small  and  fine  files  of  cant 
steel.  Various  ingenious  machines  have  been  contrived 
for  cutting  the  teeth  of  tiles,  liut  those  have  not  hith- 
erto succeeded  so  well  as  to  supersede  file-making  by 
the  hand.  After  the  flie  has  Iwen  cut  It  must  undergo 
the  process  of  tempering.  This  Is  sold  to  be  well 
effected  in  the  following  manner:  A  saturated  Bolutl'.)n 
of  common  salt,  stiffened  to  the  consistence  of  cream 
with  ale  grounds,  or  with  any  cheap  farinaceous  mut- 
ter, such  aa  beaa-flour  (some  use  wcU-iIrled  chimney- 
soot),  is  to  be  spread  over  tho  file.  In  order  to  preserve 
its  Burfoce  from  oxydallon  during  the  process ;  it  is 
then  uniformly  heated  in  u  coke  or  charcoal  fire  to  a 
cherry-red  color ;  and  on  its  removal  from  the  fire  it  Is 
to  be  suddenly  quenched  in  cold  and  pure  spring  water. 
It  ia  sulMei|Uently  cleanod  with  charcoal  and  a  rag ; 
after  which  it  is  laid  up  in  wheat  bran  to  preserve  it 
from  rust.  When  the  file  ia  intended  to  cut  iron  or 
steel.  It  Is  found  preferable  to  substitute  animal  carbon 
for  tho  grounds  or  farinaceous  mutter  mentioned  above. 
Thin  will  give  even  to  iron  a  superficial  hardness  suiH- 
cieut  for  any  kind  of  file. 

Filigree,  or  FlUagree  (Ital.  filifffano;   Lut. 

filum,  a  thread,  unil  granum,  a  grain),  a  very  dellcjte 
kind  of  ornamental  work  In  gold  or  silver,  wrought  in 
the  manner  of  little  threads,  or  threads  and  grains  in- 
termixed. Filigree  work  is  of  eastern  origin,  uiiil 
was  first  introduced  Into  F.iimpe  by  the  Italians.  In 
.Sumatra,  manufactures  of  this  kind  have  lieen  carriid 
to  the  highest  degree  uf  perfection,  and  yet  Ihe  tools 
employed  ore  exceedingly  coarse  and  clumsy.  These 
are  generally  rudely  and  inurtiflciully  formed  from  any 
piece  of  old  iron.  A  piece  of  Iron  hoop  suffices  fur 
nmkiii);  the  wire-ilr,iwing  instrument;  an  old  hum- 
mer head,  stuck  in  u  liluck,  serves  as  an  nnvil ;  and 
twu  old  nails,  tied  together  at  one  end,  will  suffice  for 
a  pair  of  compasses.  The  gold  is  melted  in  a  piece  of 
preriH)  or  earthen  rice-pot,  or  sometimes  in  o  crucililo 
of  ordinur}-  diiy.  In  general  no  liellowa  are  used,  liut 
the  fire  is  blown  with  the  mouth,  through  a  Joint  of 
liamlxx) ;  and  if  the  quantity  of  metal  to  be  melted  is 
considerable,  three  or  four  persons  sit  round  the  fur- 
nace, which  is  an  old  broken  quiilleii  or  iron  pot,  und 
blow  together.  At  Padung,  where  the  manufacture  is 
most  considerulile,  they  have  adopted  Ihe  Chinese  bel- 
lows. The  method  of  drawing  the  wire  diflfers  but 
little  from  that  whicli  is  used  by  European  workmen. 
When  drawn  to  a  suflicient  frneness,  it  is  flattened  by 
Iwating  it  on  the  anvil ;  and  when  flattened,  a  twist  is 
given  to  it  by  rubbing  it  on  u  block  of  wood  with  a  flat 
stick.    After  twisting  they  again  beat  it  upon  the 


FIL 


601 


FIN 


Lilt. 
il«Uc:ite 
uui;ht  in 
;raiii»  in- 
fill, untl 
mis.     Ill 
i-arrli'il 
the  tixiU 
Tlu'sc 
from  any 
ffiies  fur 
ilil  ham- 
ivll  i  anil 
mfflco  for 
piece  i)f 
crucililo 
used,  liut 
_  joint  of 
melted  is 
the  fur- 
pot,  and 
ifacturc  is 
Ineso  bel- 
Affers  hut 
nforkmcn. 
itened  by 
a  twint  is 
with  a  Hat 
upon  the 


•nTll,  ind  thus  It  twcomm  flattmiml  win  with  InAontod 
pdgM.  The  end  of  the  wire  Ih  fnldml  down  with  a  pair 
of  plni'em,  and  thus  In  'irtnod  n  leaf,  or  element  of  a 
lliiwer,  which  ia  cut  off.  The  end  1«  attain  folded  and 
cut  off  till  they  have  a  aufflclent  nnnilMir  of  leavea, 
which  are  laid  on  nlnKly.  I'attemii  of  the  Aowem  or 
f(illa((e,  in  which  there  la  aeldom  mncli  variety,  are 
prepared  on  paper  of  the  Kile  of  the  gnUi  plate  on 
which  tho  tlli)(n>e  iit  to  lie  laid.  According  to  thene, 
tliey  liegin  to  di«|HMe  on  the  plate  the  largrr  compart- 
mentii  <if  the  foliaKe ;  for  which  they  una  plain  flattened 
wire  of  a  lar|{«r  niae,  and  fill  It  up  with  the  leavea  lie- 
fore  mcntiimcd.  In  onler  to  flx  the  work,  t  hey  employ 
a  Kelatinoua  auliatance  made  of  the  lierr}-  called  born 
Kigo,  ground  to  a  pulp  on  a  roiigh  stone.  After  the 
leave*  have  lieen  all  placed  in  onj  t,  and  ntuclc  on  bit 
by  liit,  a  aolder  in  prepareil  of  f;  .Id  filings  and  borax 
nioiatenml  with  water,  which  i'<  xtrewod  over  the  plate, 
when  it  ia  put  in  the  Are  fur  a  nhnrt  time,  and  the 
wlicile  liecomea  united,  Thia  iciiid  of  work  on  a  gold 
plate  in  called  enrrang  ptipan ;  liiit  when  the  worlc  la 
open,  it  ia  called  rnrrnng  ttimir.  In  executing  the 
latter,  the  fidiage  ia  laid  out  upon  a  card,  or  aoft  kind 
of  wmKi,  and  »tnck  on,  aa  before  dencrilied,  with  the 
aago  Ixirry ;  and  the  work,  when  lininhed,  lieing  ntrewed 
over  with  the  aolder,  ia  put  into  the  flrn,  when  the  card 
or  Boft  wood  burning  away,  the  gold  remainn  con- 
nected. If  the  piece  be  large  it  ia  noldered  at  aeveral 
times.  In  '.ho  manufacture  of  bailjoo  buttons,  they 
first  mako  tho  lower  part  flat,  and  having  a  mold 
formed  of  a  piece  tf  Imffalo's  horn.  Indented  to  several 
alios,  each  like  one  half  of  a  bullet  mold,  they  lay 
their  work  over  one  of  these  holes,  and  with  a  horn 
punch  prcits  It  Into  the  form  of  a  button  ;  after  which 
they  complete  the  up|>c.  part.  When  the  filigree  is 
finished  they  cleanse  it  '  y  boiling  It  In  water  with 
common  salt  and  alum,  or  sometimes  lime  juice  ;  and 
In  order  to  give  it  that  fine  purple  color  which  they 
called  mpo,  they  lioll  It  in  water  mixed  with  brim- 
stone. The  manner  of  making  the  little  balls  with 
which  their  works  are  sometimes  ornamented,  is  sim- 
ple. They  take  u  piece  of  charcoal,  and  having  cut  it 
flat  and  smooth,  make  in  it  a  small  hole,  which  they 
fill  with  gold  dust,  and  thia  lieing  melted  in  the  fire 
becomes  a  little  ball.  They  are  very  inexpert  at  fin- 
ishing and  polishing  the  plain  ]iarts,  hinges,  screws, 
and  the  like,  lieing  in  this  as  much  excelled  by  the 
European  artists  as  the  latter  fall  short  of  them  in  the 
fineness  and  minuteness  of  the  foliage.  The  Chinese 
also  make  filigree,  mostly  of  silver,  which  looks  ele- 
gant, but  wants  the  extraordinary  delicacy  of  the 
Malay  work.  The  price  of  the  wnrkm.inship  depends 
U|ion  the  difficulty  or  uncommonness  of  the  pattern. 
In  some  articles  of  usual  demand  it  does  not  exceed 
one  third  of  the  value  of  the  gold,  but  in  mattera  of 
fancy  it  ia  generally  equal  to  that  of  the  metal. 

In  India,  the  articles  usually  made  in  gold  and 
silver  filigree  are  bracelets,  ear-rings,  brooches,  chains, 
groups  of  flowers,  and  small  boxes  and  caskets.  Mr. 
Taylor,  in  his  "  Account  of  the  Arts  in  India,"  sa}'s; 
"  The  design  liest  adapted  for  displaying  the  delicate 
work  of  filigree  is  that  of  a  leaf ;  it  should  be  drawn 
on  stout  patier,  and  of  the  exact  size  of  the  article  in- 
tended to  be  made,  Tha  apparatuii  used  in  the  art  is 
exceedingly  simple,  consisting  merely  of  a  few  small 
crucililes,  a  piece  of  bamlioo  for  a  blow-pipe,  small 
hammers  for  flattening  tho  wire,  and  sets  of  forceps 
for  interweaving  it.  The  gold  and  silver  wire  made  by 
the  Hindoos  for  this  and  other  purposes  is  of  varicil 
cliaracter,  according  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended ;  thus,  the  goolrhatoon  is  made  at  Dacca  for  the 
cmWroidering  of  muslins  and  silks ;  gotkuo  for  caps  and 
fur  covering  the  handles  of  chowries ;  lalmnk  for  tur- 
bans, slippers,  and  hookah-snakes ;  and  hooiun  for  gold 
lace  and  brocades.  For  some  of  these  purposes  it  is 
not  strictly  wire,  but  gold  thread,  that  is,  ailk  covered 
with  silver  and  then  wHh  gold."— E,  B. 


mi.  The  sM  term  tot  bracing  a  yard  which  hod 
been  laid  aback,  so  that  the  wind  may  act  on  the  aftar 
or  proper  nide  of  the  sail. 

Flneas*  (Kr.)  may  be  defined  almply  as  •  peculiar 
aptitude  of  discovering,  in  any  business,  the  best 
means  of  attaining  the  olijeit  in  view  t  or  as  the  |Miwer 
of  embracing  In  one  comprehensive  glancn  I  he  vartooi 
interests  of  any  subject,  together  witli  iiit;pnuity  to 
devise  and  tact  t.i  carry  out  the  plan  liest  ciil>  ulatcd  to 
olitaiii  success. 

Finland,  called  by  the  natives  Snomminn,  the  He- 
giiiti  of  Lakes  and  Swamps,  is  a  government  of  Kua. 
sia,  comprising,  Iwsliles  tlie  old  SwiMlish  province  of 
Finland,  the  two  I^pmarks  of  Kami  and  Tornek,  and 
the  district  of  WilHirg.  It  iiea  between  N.  lat.  69° 
M)'  and  7t)°  6',  and  E,  long.  20°  80'  ami  nj^  45'  being 
lioiinde<l  on  the  N,  by  Norwegian  Finmark,  by  Hwedon 
W.  and  the  (lulf  of  UothnU,  8.  by  the  (iiilV  of  Fin- 
land,  anil  K.  by  the  governments  of  St.  I'ltersliurg, 
I  )lon«tz,  and  Archangel,  It  Is  aliout  78()  milcH  in  length 
from  N.  to  8.,  with  an  average  lireadth  of  ahinit  1H5 
miles.  The  sea-<'oast  of  Finland  throughout  its  entire 
extent  presents  the  same  succession  of  flonis  and  rocky 
headlands  as  characterize  the  whole  seaward  frontier 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  The  fiords  of  Finland,  how- 
ever, are  far  more  limite<i  than  those  to  the  west  of  'he 
Gulf  of  Ihithnia,  and  seldom  e  -ceed  a  few  miles  In 
extent,  although  their  mouths  contain  an  equal  nuni- 
lier  of  islands,  some  of  which,  as  the  isles  of  Svea- 
borg,  have  lieen  converted  into  fortresses  of  great 
strength.  The  coasta  of  the  Uothnian  and  Finland 
(iulfs  are  thickly  strewn  with  rocka  of  granite  and 
limestone,  presenting  in  soms  placea  a  laliyrintliine 
archipelago  of  little  islands,  rendering  the  navigation 
extremely  dangerous.  The  greater  portion  of  the  in- 
terior ia  a  vast  table-land  averaging  in  height  from  -100 
to  i300  feet,  and  interspersed  with  hilla  of  no  great  eleva- 
tion. In  the  north,  however,  are  the  Manselka  Mount- 
ains, which  attain  a  height  of  nearly  4U00  feet,  and 
stretch  southward,  though  witii  several  interruptions, 
until  they  terminate  in  lofty  clifTa  on  the  (>ulf  of 
Bothnia,  The  great  mass  of  mountains  is  composed 
of  red  granite,  and  vast  quantities  of  the  same  rock 
lie  in  boulders  on  the  lower  grounds,  and  prove  a  very 
serious  obstacle  to  their  cultivation.  Many  of  the 
heights  are  liare,  but  the  greater  part  of  them  being 
of  moderate  elevation  are  covered  with  forests  chiefly 
of  pine ;  and  in  their  combination  witli  the  va't  num- 
l>er  of  lakes  inclosed  by  their  bases,  often  form  very 
romantic  scenery.  The  extensive  forests  are  some- 
times devastated  by  the  tempests  of  winter,  which 
seem  to  find  access  to  their  rer}-  centres  in  tornadoes, 
tearing  up  liy  the  roots  or  liending  and  snapping  the 
largest  pines.  Frequently  also  ravagea  are  committed 
in  them  by  conflagration  occasioned  often  through  the 
carelessness  of  tlie  peasants.  The  interior  of  Finland 
is  also  intersected  and  broken  np  by  a  vast  numlier  of 
lakes,  throwing  out  winding  arms  and  liranclies  in  all 
directions,  which,  while  they  offer  tho  greatest  facili- 
ties for  inland  navigation,  render  land  traveling  circu- 
itous and  dangerous.  Many  of  the  high  roads  pass 
over  islands  on  these  lakes,  the  natural  strength  of 
whose  situation  has  been  taken  advantage  of,  to  cover 
them  with  batteries ;  and  some  of  them,  aa  at  Wlborg 
and  Nyslot,  are  considered  impregnable,  save  to  fraud 
or  famine.  The  principal  of  these  lakea  are  I.ad(<ga, 
tlie  greater  portion  of  which  belongs  to  this  govern- 
ment ;  Lake  Saima,  which  is  crowded  with  islands  and 
discharges  its  sujierfluous  waters  in  f.  series  of  cata- 
racts into  Lake  I.adoga,  but  which  is  now  connected  liy 
means  of  a  canal  with  the  Gulf  of  Finland  near  Wl- 
borg ;  and  I^ke  Enara  in  the  extreme  north,  covering 
above  1000  square  miles,  and  having  its  outlet  In  the 
Frozen  Ocean,  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Ulea,  which 
is  navigated  by  trading-vessels,  though  its  stream  ii 
very  rapid ;  the  Cano,  which  passes  BiOmeborg ;  the 
Aurajoki,  which  at  Abo  is  about  100  yards  broad ;  the 


FIN 


e«2 


FIN 


Rrman,  which  (Inwi  Intii  th«  mMilln  of  Ihn  Oiilf  of 
K'nlnnii ;  and  Ihn  TcirnH,  whlih  illai'harK«>  it>«lf  at  th* 
niirtharn  •xtrKiiiity  of  the  (iiilf  of  IhithiiU,  unit  rornii 
tb«  pnMnt  ImunrUry  IwlvMn   Hwotiin  aiiil  Kunila. 
TIm  cllmct*  variai  much  lu-ninilivt  to  th*  Imitllty.    In 
Lapnwrk,  in  thii  north,  it  in  poUr  «ini«wh*t  m<Mlltl«il, 
■ml  th«  nun  dlupptan  during  Dwamiwr  *nd  Jaiiuar}'. 
Kurthar  «>uth  at  rUalmrK,  winlar  li«||lnii  In  Oilolicr 
and  cimtlnurt  t<i  May,  ti)  whit'h  month  ii|irinK  U  llm- 
itnl.     Suinmar  vumninmrii  In  .fun*   anil   lantii  Ihm 
monthi,  which  am  K«n«raUy  «•  hot  ami  dry  thut  tha 
cmp»,  particularly  whxra  tha  aoil  In  iifa  nandy  nattra, 
oftan  aulTar  fmm  drouKht.     Th*  autumn,   Ilka  tha 
■P^loK,  U  cuntlniMl  to  una  month,  and  may  h«  said  to 
commanua  and  tarmlnata  In  M«pt«mli«r.    Kran  In  num- 
mar  tha  nlifhta  ani  cold,  particularly  alM>ut  tha  midilla 
of  Auguat.     During  aummar,  howuvrr.  Ilia  priiKrau 
of  r«|(atatliin  la  raniarkaldy  rapid :    and  than  hava 
baan  instanraa  iif  grain  Iwing  aown  and  n>tt|>a<l  In  alii 
waaka.    In  th*  mora  noutham  parta  tha  rllmatv  In  laaa 
aavar*  ;  tha  wintar  l>«in){  of  Hva  or  aix  mimthit'  dura- 
tion.    Uanaa  foga  ara  fra<)uant,  and  haavy  ralnii  taka 
pUca  in  autumn.     The  Mill  la  for  tha  moat  part  atony 
or  aandy  i  but  mithwlthitanding  thin  It  la  much  mora 
pnductlva  than  the  op|MMita  |i*rt  of  the  8i:andinavlan 
pantnaula,  anil  whan   In  tha  poaaamiun  of  8w«den  it 
waa  tarmpd  tha  granary  of  that  country.     Tha  princi- 
pal crupa  ara  barlay  and  ry»,  hut  owing  to  tha  natiira 
of  tha  aurfaca  and  cllmata  a  large  (Kirtlon  of  the  land 
ia  At  only  fur  paature.    In  the  north,  where  vagrtatlon 
la  aimoat  ronllned  to  the  growth  of  moaa  and  lichen, 
other  domestic  animal;*  are  iiu|i«raadiid  liy  the  reindeer, 
of  which  great  herd*  are  kept.      In  odili'iim  to  timlier 
(chiaSy  flr),  large  quantltlea  of  potoah,  |iii<'h,  and  ruain 
are  olitalne<l,  and  form  the  principal  articles  of  ex|>ort. 
The  mineral  pnxluctions  ara  chiefly  contined  to  inm, 
lead,  sulphur,  alata,  and  granite.     The   llrat   la  only 
wrought  lo  a  limited  extent  for  the  supply  of  a  few 
furnaces;   wrought  Iron  being  now   principally   inv- 
ported  fnnn  8we<len.      A  great  number  of  excellent 
granite  quarries  hate  been  opened  chleHy  on  the  lior- 
ders  of  the  lakes  or  sea-i^Msta  to  secure  the  advantage 
of  water  carriage.     From  these  are  otitalned  lilocka  of 
extraordinary  magnitude  and  Iwauty,  which  are  em- 
ployed fur  architectural  and  artistic  purposes.    Una  of 
tha  Aneat  specimen*  is  the  monolith  ulH>liak  recently 
■fccted  in  Ht.  Petersliurg  to  the  Km|)eror  Alexander. 
In  its  rough  state  it  was  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  HO 
feet  in  length.     The  manufacturea  of  Finland  are  in- 
signilicant.      Agriculture,  the  raaring  of  cattle,  and 
Ashing  are  the  princi|Hil  occupations  of  the  Inhabit- 
snla.     The  coasts  present  many  good  harbors,  but  on 
account  of  the  long  winter  tbey  can  not  l>e  extenaiveiy 
usad.     In   winter  sledges  alTord  an  easy  iind  rapid 
communication  with  diflerant   parts,  and    ev<'n  witli 
Sweden  acroas  the  (iulf  of  Bothnia.     In  Marck.  Vm, 
Barclay  de  Tolly  croaaad  over  with  a  divisiu.i  uf  the 
Rnaaian  army  from  Voaa  to  Umea  in  .Sweden. 

From  ofHciol  documents  the  returns  of  the  tnuln  uf 
Finknd  for  the  year  1848,  were,  in  silver  raaliies  uf 
the  Tolua  of  about  3a.  2d.,  oa  followa  : 

Exroara. 

To  flweden  anil  Vorway I»T,MI 

'      To  olhereonntriea 1,MMM 

Kxport  duty  on  the  same SS,TM 


Total 1,\'».HI) 

\  

iMron*, 

Trem  Sweden  and  Norway 4l)0,SM 

From  other  oountiias. S,I23,.'W0 

Deduct  Import  duty  thereon >tM,SOO 


ToUl 2,6«0,4S« 


Showing  an  excess  in  the  imports  over  the  exporta  of  .  .  ....ai.u  •••n 

476,816 rpublca,  which,  however,  woa  in  part  covered    (.'hriatianity  _ 

bjr  tba  frai){ht  aariMd  by  the  uarcbanl  shippinK.   The  I  Peter  Um  Ureat  in  V'il,  and  the  reautinder  uf  tlu 


alMiva  statamanti  Indtcala  ■  falling  olT  ■■  eompartd 
with  former  years  In  tha  ex|iurt  trade  to  Norway  ami 
Hweilen.  To  these  two  countries  tlia  laadiiig  artiilaa 
iif  export  and  thair  value  wera— liah,  'i.1,&(IV  riiulilas  i 
hides,  MIH  |  liaaf,  M.AiH  j  grain,  lA.UHU  j  tallow, 
U(),8(K)|  tar,  1I,4H.'I|  llrawixKl,  11,483.  I'ha  im|NirU 
wsr»— iMMika,  Iti.'JOU  muliles  i  Ash,  'iA,'i2H ;  iron  and 
ati'nl,  •iM,H7»;  sugar,  tM,4IH|  tobacco,  4*177  i  dy» 
wiHids  ami  atufTs,  2M,II!I0.  The  *X|iorta  to  other  coun 
tries  ware  alao  lass  than  in  former  yaara  \  the  chief 
articles  ware— (HiUsh,  lll,7U:i  roubles  ;  butter,  1n:|,4I)U  ( 
tar,  l)-.'4,7i;  |  womi  and  timber,  U2l,;i0l).  Ttte  chiiif  Im- 
ports from  other  countries  were — medicinaa,  'iU,U14 
roubles  t  cotton,  liW,aiH ;  arrack,  rum,  brandy,  in0,71>4  ; 
coffee,  MI7,7llN|  fruits,  llNI,(U'i  |  dyv-atufTs,  liM.riOt) } 
yarn,  :UII,UUIt  {  iron  and  steel,  NU,7U0  ;  salt,  &.'<1,<UU  | 
sugar,  544,48.)  |  wine,  1 10,628  ;  manufactures  wove, 
UIMI,I4&. 

In  IHJIl  KinUlid  was  divided  odmiiilstriitivaly  into 
eight  circles  or  lilm,  which  are  sulNU\iJed  into  J'oyth- 
ritr  or  districts,  and  hrr^tli  or  bailitklcka.     There  is  • 
distinct  nstiibliahuient  at  .St.  i'Htcniburg  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  this  vast  province.    The  guvemor-geiicral, 
who  reskles  at  Ileislugfors,  has  the  superintendeuuu  uf 
the  military  afl'uirs.     Finland  has  a  diet  com|iusvd  of 
the  four  oniera  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  citiuns,  and 
|ieasantry,  and  a  coilo  of  laws  and  Judicial  system  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  .Sweden,  but  the  diet  is  rarely  convoked, 
except  to  consent  to  the  imposition  of  fresh  taxes,  • 
nenate  more  recently  ostablislied  having  replaced  it  in 
the  excrciiw  of  ita  functiona.     Tile  regimenta  raised  in 
Finland  are  not   promiscuously  Intermixed  with  the 
general  forcea  of  the  Kussian  empire  ;  uud  thair  fleet, 
by  far  the  liest  manned  |iortlon  uf  the  Uusslan  navy, 
forma    a  iliatinct  ai|uailn>n  under  the   Finnish  flag. 
None  but  a  native  Finlandvr  can  hold  any  olHcu  of 
trust  in  the  country.     Almost  all  the  inhabitants  aro 
Lutherans  under  the  bislio|ia  of  Abo  and  Uorgo,  ex- 
cept in  the  circle  of  W'iborg,  where  they  belong  to  the 
Russian  church.     I'ublic  education  is  in  a  very  baik- 
warl  state.      At  llelsingfors  is  a  university,  trans- 
ferred from  AIk)  In  1828;    and  all  the   towns  have 
schools,  but  there  is  ■  great  doflciency  of  country 
schools.     The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are   Kins, 
who  call  themselves  Hwtnxalafu  or  Huonwt,  but  they 
ore  denominated  Tschuiles  by  the  Kunsiana.       They 
are  of  middle  height,  robust,  flat-fiiced,  with  promin- 
ent chieok-lMmes,  light,    reddish,  or    yellowish-brown 
hair,  gray  eyes,  little  beard,  and  it  dull  sallow  com- 
plexion.    They  nre  c<mrageiius,  hospitable,  and  hon- 
est, but  obstinate  in  the  extreme,  indolent,  dirty,  and, 
it  is  said,  revengeful.     Their  customs  and  habiU  have 
been  lianiled  down  from  time  immemorial,  and  their 
ciMtuiue  forcibly  bears    out  the   supposition  of  their 
lH^iug  of  oriental  origMi.      The   peasants    wear  lung 
lix>se  nilies  of  a  coar-ie   manufacture,  secured  by  a 
silken  cincture  like  the  kummtrbvad  of  the  Mu^»lll- 
mans.     The  eight  Una  with  their  areas  and  populu- 
tiuns  are  as  follows,  commencing  from  the  south  and 
Mst: 

Arts.  PopulAlloii. 

Wlbonr 1«,T0«  994,n)l 

W  Mli-lbaal 9,«T1  lHft,Ml 

Nyland 537«  140.714 

Tavastebaus 7,119  VHJM 

K\m 10,<!2*  S.VI  -m 

Vasa.       .  r l.^,»88  IWI.W 

Kuouk.  1T,IISII  1M,7U6 

I'loaWg 88,418  l'A114 

ToUl 145,477  1,S78,7»7 

The  chief  towns  of  Finland  are  llelsingfors,  tha 
present  capital,  Abo,  the  former  capital,  Wilwrg, 
TavestebuLU,  Vasa,  Ulealiorg,  and  Turuea,  'Vhe  Kins 
were  pagans  living  under  their  own  inite|>cndent  kings 
tilt  tlie  twi'll'tli  century,  alwut  the  middlo  of  wliich 
Finland  was  Lunquered  by  the  Swedes,  who  introduced 
The  province  uf  Wiborg  was  seized  by 


-j^'.^ijij^iikiS<tSJ.^^iii^i 


PIE 


Fffl 


wontry  wm  inrMXMl  hy  ciiai|Uttt  to  th«  HuaiUa  <iu- 
uilnlon*  In  tWM). — tiAnu'wum,  Iftth  Mari'li,  1HA4. 

rira-Arms.  I'mlKr  thU  lUaiKiutlini  U  uniiiprltwl 
■II  aorta  itt  ||una,  fuwIlnK-plw'M,  liluoilnrliiuMa,  plaliila, 
•til.  Till  umnurartura  ot  lh*a«  w(«p<ina  U  of  coiiaidnr- 
■IiIk  liiiiMirtuiicn ;  mniiliiylnK  nt  all  tiuiaa,  but  naixH  Ully 
durliitf  witr,  n  Ur^fn  nuiiilirr  uf  paraoiia.  .Sinsll  anna 
warn  I'linlrivml  liy  8chw«ft(,  A.  ii.  IMH  i  lliay  war* 
liruUKht  III  KnifUud  almul  IIWM,  Klra-arma  wara  • 
priMllKluiia  rarity  In  Iralaiiil  in  llHIl,  wlinii  alx  iniiakata 
warn  ariit  friiiii  (larinaiiy  an  •  prKaaiit  to  Iha  aul  uf 
Klldara,  wIki  wm  than  i^blrr-ncivarmir.  MualMla  wcr« 
flnt  uaail  at  Iha  alaK*  uf  Ithagan,  In  HiCt.  I'll*  H|>an- 
UrJji  wxra  tlia  Ural  nation  wbu  urnieil  Uta  fuut  uiliUar 
with  thioa  waa|Mina. — l/tliia.  Vullalm  atatua,  that  Iha 
Vanallinia  wara  lli«  tlrat  tu  uaa  KUi»i  In  an  iinxaKaniant 
«l  a«a  aKttlnat  tba  (ianuaaa,  In  lil<  7  i  liul  iiur  liiaturlana 
■lUrin  that  Iha  ICnKllah  hail  guna  at  Iha  lialtia  of 
Oaaaay,  In  1:M(I ;  anil  tha  yaar  fulluwlng  at  the  alaga 
of  C'aluia. 

Flr«-en(ln«,  •  apwlaa  of  furclnit-punip  In  whioh 
tha  wiitar  la  auhjactail  lo  prnaaura  aufllvlantly  atrung  to 
r»ia«  it  III  th«  rri|ulr<ii|  halglit.  Thuae  uf  tha  orillnary 
ounatrui'tiun  cunalat  uf  two  furcing-puinpa,  wrouglit  tiy 
tlia  raclpriH'utIng  iniitluna  of  two  Irunavoraa  lavara. 
'I'ha  Wtttar  la  furvnil  into  un  ulr-vaaaai,  liy  wlilch  maana 
tlic  incloavd  air  la  couilanaed,  and  liy  ita  raactlon  It 
forvaa  tha  walar  through  a  inovalila  plp«,  which  ter- 
minalea  In  a  conical  form,  unil  la  iliracted  U|Hin  the 
llama,  llraithwulla'a  aliiain  Hru^vnglno  la  uu  Ingenioui 
•ppliiotliin  uf  tha  moving  (Hiwiir  uf  ateani  lu  tha 
Working  of  tlre-ongiii)>a,  TJie  mpchunical  arrange- 
mant  of  tliia  mitchinu  cunKinta  uf  two  cylindvra  of 
•liout  aix  Inchea  in  ilUniatnr,  una  of  tlioni  balng  tha 
iUain-i'vlindrr,  and  the  other  thn  wuter-punip ; 'and 
Ihcy  am  plucad  huiliuntaliy,  ao  that  a  |>iirallal  motion 
la  eoxily  ulituined.  An  angina  uf  thia  kind  will  d«- 
liver  kIhiuI  IIOINI  guiluna  an  huur  to  tha  height  of  '.10 
feet.  'I'liu  time  of  gi-tting  the  engine  into  ui'lion  from 
the  miinitMil  of  Igniting  the  fuel  (the  water  lieiiig  cold), 
ta  leaa  than  ten  minutea.  Mr.  MIloa  (ireenwood,  of 
Cincinnati,  luude,  In  \Hbi,  the  llrat  auccewful  practical 
appllcallun  of  the  ateaiu  tire-engine;  and  enginrx  ^ii 
hia  conatructlon  are  now  in  uae  In  ',(:■»'  li,  8t. 
I^uia,  and  many  other  large  citiea. 

Fire-damp,  the  o.xploaive  carliureUo..  hydrogen 
of  I'lial  niinea.     Heo  .Sakktv  I.ami'. 

rirelook,  or  Fuall.  A  niu«k««  ur  «mall  gun, 
which  la  tired  with  u  Hint  and  kUk]  .  ami  thereby  dli- 
tingulalied  from  the  old  niU!<kt't  r  mtilak-lock,  which 
was  fired  with  a  match.  The  iui  >!'  the  inventiun  of 
flrelockn  la  uncertain. 

Fire-ships.  They  were  urat  uaed  In  tlie  aixteenth 
century.  Among  the  moat  turinidable  contrivancea  of 
thi*  kinil  ever  uaed,  waa  an  expluaiun  veaael  to  deatroy 
■•bridge  of  Imuta  at  thn  aiege  of  Antwerp^  in  1&8&. 
The  lirat  use  of  thrm  in  the  Engliah  navy  waa  by 
Charlea,  Kurd  lluwuni  of  KfBnghain,  afterward  earl 
of  Noltint;liam,  lord  high  admiral  of  KngUnd,  In  the 
engtgeinenl  with  the  Spaniah  Armada,  July,  1S88. — 
Xapiu. 

Fireworks.  (Fan  d'nrtijicr,  Fr.  (  Ffuerwirkf, 
Germ.)  The  rompoaltion  of  luininoua  devices  with 
•xplosive  cuinliuatiMua  la  a  modern  art  reaulting  from 
the  discovery  uf  gun|iowdar,  Tha  Unevt  Inveiittona 
of  thla  kind  are  due  to  the  celebrated  Kugglari,  father 
«nd  son,  wbu  exemted  in  Koine  and  Paris,  and  tha 
principiil  capitals  iii'  Kurupe,  the  nio«t  brilliant  nnd 
beautiful  liraworks  thiit  were  ever  seen.  Tbe  follow- 
ing description  of  their  procasaea  will  probably  prove 
interesting  to  many  of  my  readers ! 

The  three  prime  materials  of  this  art  are,  nitre,  sul- 
pbur,  and  cbareosl,  along  with  filings  of  iron,  steel, 
copper,  7,ii)c,  and  rsaiu,  camphor,  lyoopodium,  etc. 
Gunpowder  is  used  either  in  grain,  half  crushed,  or 
finely  ground,  for  different  purposes.  The  longer  the 
iroD-Ullngs,  tlie  brighter  r«d  and  wbit«  sparks  they 


give)  thuae  being  preferred  which  are  maila  with  • 
very  coarsa  Ale,  and  quite  fra«  from  rual.  Hteel-rtlinga 
anil  raat-irun  Imrltiga  contain  carlNiii,  and  alTunl  • 
more  brilliant  lire,  with  wavy  radiations.  4 Nipper- 
ftlinga  give  a  grseuinb  lint  In  Haiuei  tliosa  uf  aine  • 
line  lilue  color  \  the  aulpburet  uf  antlniuny  givaa  a  laaa 
gneniah  iiliia  than  sine,  but  with  uiuih  suiuksi  amlier 
afTiirda  yelbiw  fire,  aa  well  ua  nilii)ihiiny,  and  ciimnioit 
aalt  I  but  tha  laat  inuat  lie  very  dry,  Ijimplilai'k  pro- 
ducea  a  very  red  color  with  gun|Hiwder,  and  a  pink 
with  nitre  in  exceaa,  tl  serves  fur  making  gulden 
showers.  The  yellow  aand  or  gIMsning  inicii,  cum- 
inunicalaa  lu  Hrewurka  golden  raili.itiona.  Vanllgrli 
im|i«r< :  a  |>al«  gr*«u  \  sulphate  uf  lupiwr  and  aui-ain- 
muiiiac,  a  palm-tree  grren.  t'ampliur  yiebia  a  very 
white  Hama  and  aMiiuitlc  fumea,  which  iniuik  tbe  biul 
ainell  uf  other  aubalancea,  llenmin  and  aturax  ani 
uaed  also  im  account  uf  their  agrrnable  wlur.  I.yco- 
poilium  liuriis  with  a  rose  culur  and  a  iniignlllcenl 
flame ;  but  It  is  principally  eiiipluyad  in  thealrea  tu 
repreaent  lightning,  or  lo  charge  Iha  torch  of  a  fury. 

Firkin,  a  meaaura  of  cu|NU:lly,  equal  to  1)  ala  gal- 
luna,  or  7^  Imperial  gsliuna,  ur  ^liiiM  cubic  Inchea,   tie* 

WkiiIIITS  and  MK.iHIIHKit, 

Firlut,  u  dry  meaaure  u»ed  In  Nuulland,  Tha  Liil- 
lltliguw  wheat  llrlol  ia  tu  the  Imperial  buahel  as  'tlUt) 
lo  1 ;  and  the  LInllthguw  li.irley  llrlul  Is  lo  the  Impe- 
rial bushel  BS  1  ■'ISlI  lu  1.  itee  Wkidiith  anii  Mka- 
aUHM. 

Firmsu  (mora  properly  h'rrmAn),  In  the  Persian 
language,  signifies  a  cuinmund,  and  is  tha  name  given 
lu  Turkey,  I'ersla,  and  India,  to  mandiitea  ur  ccrtlH- 
elites  uf  the  sovereign,  issued  for  variuua  purposes. 
Those  beat  known  to  Kurupeana  are  given  tu  travelers, 
and  servu  us  piiaa|Kirts.  Tlie  Kermuii  has  placed  at  Ita 
heml  In  Turkey  the  cipher  of  the  reigning  Sultan, 
written  in  u  cumplicaled  manner,  affixed  by  the  chief 
sucretary  of  the  sign  manual.  In  the  East  Indies,  the 
term  finnan  U  used  fur  a  written  permission  to  trade. 

Flso  (l.ut.  Jucui),  lu  Cieit  Law,  the  treasury  or 
revenue  of  a  state.  Fiscus,  In  its  primary  sense,  de- 
noted a  bosket  ur  hana|ier  used  by  the  Itomana  f>" 
hulding  large  sums  uf  money,  and  hence  was  appj  i 
to  tt  money-cheat  ur  a  purse.  Under  the  cni|wrurs  tlie 
term  tiscus  came  to  be  applied  to  the  imperial  revenue 
or  privy  purse,  in  contradistinctiuu  tu  liioirruniim  or 
public  treasury.  L'ltiinately,  when  the  emperura  had 
concentrutod  in  themselves  the  whole  sovervign  pow- 
er, the  word  Dscus  lust  ita  distinctive  churncter,  and 
was  used  in  the  same  sense  as  lerurium  under  the  re- 
public, Variuus  oOicers  were  einpli>>  ed  in  the  admin- 
istratinn  of  the  flscus  ;  as  prucuraturvs,  advui  ati,  pa- 
truni,  and  prasfoctl.  Krom  flic.  Is  derived  the  v.urd 
contlacatlun,  which  signiAes  to  take  the  giMHls  of  ■ 
condemned  [lerson  and  apprupriate  them  to  the  public 
treasury. 

Fiscal  Tear.  The  fiscal  year  of  the  United 
States  formerly  ended  un  Slat  Diivniber,  and  up  to 
tbe  year  1H|:1,  on  ;UHh  Septe  •  ,  but  Cungreas  en- 
acted, August  '.'Ii,  18-12,  "Tb.;i  un  and  after  the  first 
day  of  July,  in  tliu  year  of  nur  Lord  1843,  the  fiscal 
year  of  the  treasury  uf  the  X'j  ited  States,  in  all  mat- 
ter* uf  accounts,  recei)its,  exiM*  'iilitures,  estimates,  and 
appropriations,  sluill  cummence  on  the  first  day  of 
July  in  each  year;  and  the  reports  and  estimates 
required  to  be  prepared  and  laid  before  Congress  at 
the  commencement  uf  each  session  by  tbe  Secretary 
uf  the  Treasur)-,  in  obedience  to  the  acts  of  Congress, 
of  the  2d  of  September  17HD,  and  of  May  lOtli,  18UU, 
shall  be  a  report  and  estimate  for  each  fiscal  year, 
commencing  ua  afuresaid,  and  terminating  on  the  30tb 
day  of  June,  in  the  succeeding  calendar  year." 

Fish  (Ger.  Fuchef  Du.  I'uscAeu;  I)a.  and  8w. 
I'iili;  Fr.  PoiuofU;  It,  Petci;  >•  ^.  Petcadoi  j  Port. 
J'eixe$!  Rus.  Hiih;  Pol.  Rybi;  Lat.  Piseti),  a  term 
used  in  natural  histor}-  to  denote  every  variety  of  an- 
iiual  inhabiting  sets,  rivers,  lakes,  ponds,  etc.,  that 


FI8 


664 


TIS 


tui  not  •xiat  for  any  eoniidenilile  tfane  ont  of  the 
water.  But  in  a  commercial  point  of  y{ew,  thoae 
flthea  only  are  referred  to,  that  aro  caught  by  man, 
and  naed  either  ae  food  or  for  some  other  useful  pur* 
pose.  Of  these,  herring,  salmon,  cod,  pilchard,  mack- 
erel, turbot,  lobster,  oyster,  whale,  etc.,  are  among  the 
nioet  important.  See  the  different  articles  nnder  these 
titles. 

As  the  Mods  of  a  plant  are  nomerooa  enongfa  to  In- 
sure an  Immense  progeny  if  even  a  small  percentage 
of  them  be  properly  managed,  so  do  fishes  produce 
eggs  in  such  number  as  might  siwn  overstoclt  the  wa- 
ters, were  there  not  destructive  agencies  at  hand.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  we  are  on  the  eve  of  valuable 
improvements  in  the  management  of  lish.  It  has 
been  found  that  trout  and  other  valuable  fish  have  de- 
clined in  some  of  the  French  rivers ;  and  on  carefhl 
investigation  it  has  been  made  apparent  that  not  one 
egg  In  a  hundred  comes  to  maturity — the  rest  being 
devonred  l)y  other  fish,  washed  away,  or  destroyed  iiy 
mud.  Two  French  fishermen,  observing  these  facts, 
resolveti  on  an  attempt  to  collect  some  of  the  trout- 
eggs,  and  to  secure  the  young  fish  from  the  voracity 
of  the  larger  ones ;  they  did  so,  and  placed  the  eggs 
oh  ■  layer  of  gravel,  which  they  deposited  in  a  box 
Aill  of  holes.  This  box  they  fixed  in  the  bed  of  a 
flowing  stream,  and  covered  it  with  pebbles,  thus  far 
imitating  the  practice  of  the  mother-fish.  In  due  time 
the  eggd  excluded,  and  almost  every  one  was  found  to 
be  good.  Several  hunclnd  fish  were  thus  obtained, 
which  were  kept  in  water  free  of  danger,  ami  supplied 
with  food.  Applying  this  operation  the  next  year  to 
a  great  numtwr  of  fish,  they  obtained  several  thousand 
trout ;  and  in  a  year  or  two  more  the  number  had  in- 
creased to  millions.  The  rivers  in  many  departments 
of  France  were  supplied  fVom  this  artificial  source ;  and 
the  French  government  are  now  encouraging  the  sys- 
tem in  every  way.  Not  only  trout,  but  salmon,  carp, 
pike,  tench,  and  perch,  are  thus  preserved  ;  and,  more- 
over, the  system  has  enalded  fish  of  different  specien  to 
be  naturalized  in  strange  waters,  or  removed  from 
river  to  river. 

Fisheriea.  The  fisheries  may  be  divided  into 
deep-sea  and  shore  fisheries.  The  latter  are.  of  course, 
under  the  control  of  the  nation  owning  the  shore  along 
whose  line  the  fish  are  caught.  But  the  deep-sea  fish- 
eries and  the  ownership  of  discovered  shore-lines,  have 
always  given  rise  to  disputes  and  quarrels.  It  has, 
however,  been  settled  tbst  a  nation  has  exclusive  con- 
trol and  right  over  the  shore  fislierirs  extending  three 
miles  from  the  coast ;  giving,  sometimes,  nnder  certain 
restrictions,  a  right  for  other  nations  to  use  the  shore 
for  the  purpose  of  curing  and  packing  the  fish  caught 
Iwyond  three  miles  of  the  shore. 

Although  fishing  is  an  ancient  and  honorable  em- 
ployment, fisheries  were  not  of  much  importance 
nntn  after  the  discoverv-  of  Newfoundland.  Holland 
had  fls'reries  of  some  note  in  the  15th  century ;  but 
owing  to  the  state  of  maritime  knowledge  they  were 
much  confined ;  when,  however,  Newfoundland  was 
discovered,  an  almost  magical  change  took  place.  In 
the  library'  of  Venice  there  is  a  map,  which  authorizes 
the  conjecture  that  land  was  found  before  1436.  But 
little  was  known  until  1497,  when  Cabot  made  his  first 
voyage.  From  this  time  voyages  were  made  in  pur- 
suit of  codfish  at  irregular  periods,  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  16th  century,  when  enterprise  and  capital  tie- 
came  plenty.  Colonies  were  forme<l  first  at  New- 
foundland, and  afterward  at  Acadia  which  cam*^ed 
Nova  8cotia  and  New  Bnmswick,  and  jart  of  1  Ine. 
So  much  importance  was  given  to  the  fisheries  aa  a  >  ;r- 
sery  of  seamen,  even  at  that  early  age,  that  laws  were 
enacted  in  1H.53  to  prevent  persons  from  eatinj;  meat 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  except  under  a  license,  so 
that  fisheries  might  lie  increased. 

The  great  benefit  from  the  fisheries  was  fi-om  the 
Mriy  colonization  of  this  country.     It  is  questionable  I 


whether  w*  thonld  not  hare  been  quite  a  emtory  h»i 
hind  in  this,  had  it  not  been  for  colonies  (bunded  on 
onr  coast!  by  the  flihennen.  The  first  direct  voyage 
made  by  the  Enf(lish  was  in  1G02,  and  the  vessel  catch- 
ing codfish  near  the  southern  cape  of  Massachusetts, 
gave  the  name  It  yet  hears. 

The  disputes  in  regard  to  fishing  have  disturbed 
commerce  since  this  country  was  discovered.  A  ftall 
account  of  the  disputes  and  treaties  settling  then,  can 
be  found  in  the  able  report  of  Lorenzo  Sabine,  Esq., 
to  Congress  in  lfl62. 

We  can  notice  but  one  or  two  affecting  onr  own 
country.  In  1782,  Adams,  FVanklin,  Jay,  and  Lan- 
rena  were  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  which  contained  this  article : 

"  It  is  agreed  that  the  people  of  the  United  States 
shall  continue  to  enjoy,  unmolested,  the  right  to  take 
fish  of  every  kind  on  the  Grand  Bank,  and  on  all  the 
other  banks  of  Newfoundland ;  also,  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  I^awrence,  and  at  all  other  places  in  the  sea  where 
the  inhabitants  of  Imth  countries  used  at  any  time 
heretofore  to  fish  ;  and  also,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  shall  have  lilierty  to  take  fish  of  every 
Irind  on  such  port  of  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  aa 
Britiah  fishermen  shall  use  (but  not  to  dry  or  cure  the 
same  on  that  island),  and  also  on  the  coasts,  bays,  and 
creeks,  of  all  other  of  his  Britannic  majesty's  domin- 
ions in  America ;  and  that  the  American  fishermen 
shall  have  lilierty  to  dry  and  cure  fish  in  any  of  the 
unsettled  haj'S,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Magdalene  Islands,  and  Labrador,  so  long  as  the  same 
shall  remain  unsettled ;  but  so  soon  as  the  same,  or 
either  of  them,  shall  be  settled,  it  shall  not  lie  lawfhl 
for  the  said  fishermen  to  dry  or  cure  fish  at  such  set- 
tlement, without  a  previous  agreement  for  that  pur- 
pose with  the  inhabitants,  proprietors,  or  possessors  of 
the  ground." 

Notwithstanding  the  position  taken  by  Messrs.  Ad- 
ams, Clay,  Bayard,  and  Gallatin,  at  Ghent,  that  our 
treaty  rights  were  not  abrogated  liy  the  war,  the  Brit- 
ish government  revived  their  pretension  to  the  contra- 
ry immediately  after  the  peace.  An  American  vessel 
was  fallen  in  with  by  an  armed  ship,  the  J<umr, 
Locke,  commander,  in  June,  1815,  when  about  46 
miles  from  Cape  Salile  ;  and  her  papers  wei«  endorsed, 
"  Warned  ofif  the  coast,  not  to  come  within  60  miles." 
So  extraordinary  a  procedure  was  promptly  disavowed 
as  unauthorized ;  but  discussions  ensued,  wliich  were 
terminated  in  1818,  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  that 
emlmdied  a  compromise  of  the  adverse  views  of  the  two 
cabinets,  and  which  is  still  in  force.  The  article  is  as 
follows : 

"  Whereas,  differences  have  arisen  respecting  the 
liberty  claimed  by  the  United  States,  for  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof,  to  take,  dry,  and  cure  fish  on  certain 
co.ists,  tiays,  harliors,  and  creeks,  of  his  Britannic  ma- 
jesty's dominions  in  America,  it  is  agreed  between  the 
high  contracting  |iartles,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  said 
United  States  shall  have  forever,  In  common  with  the 
subjects  of  his  Britannic  majesty,  the  lilierty  to  take 
fish  of  ever}'  kind  on  that  part  of  the  southern  coast 
of  Newfoundland,  which  extends  from  Cape  Ray  to 
the  Rameau  Islands,  on  the  western  and  northern 
coast  of  Newfoundland ;  from  the  said  ('ape  Ray  to 
the  Quirpon  Islands,  on  the  shores  of  the  Magdalene 
Islands  and  also,  on  the  coasts,  bays,  harbors  and 
creeks,  ftom  Mount  Joly,  on  the  southern  coast  of  La- 
brador, to  and  through  the  Straits  of  Belllsle,  and 
thence  northwardly  indefinitely  along  the  iwik.  t ;  with- 
out prejudice,  however,  to  any  of  the  exclusive  rights 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company;  and  that  the  Amer- 
ican fishermen  shall  also  have  liberty,  forever,  to  dry 
and  cure  fish  in  any  <if  the  unsettled  bays,  harbora 
and  creeks  of  the  southern  part  of  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland, herealiove  described,  and  of  the  coast  of 
Ijihrador ;  but  so  soon  as  the  same,  or  any  portion 
thereof,  shall  be  settled,  it  shall  not  be  lawfUl  for  the 


FIS 


9U 


WIS 


MM  flahannen  to  diy  or  onra  tsh  at  raeh  portton  bo 
settled,  without  pnvious  agreement  for  such  pnrpoae, 
with  the  inhabitants,  prnprietors,  or  possessors  of  tha 
ground.  And  the  United  SUtes  hereliy  renonnce, 
forever,  the  Iil)erty  heretofore  enjoyed  or  claimed  by 
the  inhabitants  thereof,  to  talce,  dry,  or  cure  flsh,  on 
or  within  three  marine  miles  of  any  of  the  coaota, 
bays,  creeks,  or  harbors  of  his  Britannic  majesty's  do- 
minions in  America,  not  included  within  the  above- 
mentioned  limits :  provided,  however,  tliat  the^  Amer- 
ican fishermen  shall  lie  permitted  to  enter  such  bays  or 
harbors  for  the  purpose  of  shelter,  and  of  repairing 
damages  therein,  of  purchasing  wood,  and  of  obtain- 
ing water,  and  for  no  other  purpose  whatever.  But 
they  shall  be  under  such  restrictions  as  may  he  neces- 
sary to  prevent  their  taking,  drj'iiig,  or  curing,  fish 
tlierein,  or  In  any  other  manner  whatever,  abusing  the 
privileges  hereby  reserved  to  them." 

The  distinguishing  features  of  this  article,  as  com- 
pared with  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  1788,  are 
obviously  two:  first,  that  we  gave  up  the  catchinff 
along  certain  shores ;  and,  secondly,  that  our  facilities 
of  drying  and  ctin'n^  were  increased.  The  practical 
construction  of  MA  governments  has  been,  until  a 
recent  period,  that  our  vessels  could  Jish  everywhere, 
as  under  the  tre-ity  of  1788,  except  within  three  milet 
of  certain  coiutt ;  in  other  words,  that  our  rights  were 
not  impairml  on  the  soutliern  shore  of  Newfoundland, 
between  Cupe  Kay  and  the  Kameau  Islands,  on  the 
western  and  ntfrthem  shores  of  Newfoundland,  from 
said  Cape  Raj'  to  the  Quirpon  Islands,  at  the  Magda- 
lene Islands,  lietweon  Mount  Joly  and  thn  Straits  6f 
Bellisle,  and  through  these  straits  to  an  indefinite  ex- 
tent along  the  shores  of  Labrador ;  while  tlseirhere  in 
British  America  tee  relnineil  the.  tea-Jhheriei,  but  titr- 
rendertd  the  inner,  or  ihore  Jisheriet. 

During  the  discussions  abroad,  in  consequence  of 
the  outrage  of  the  Jaseur  and  other  British  cruisers. 
Congress  was  not  unmindful  of  the  fishing  Interest, 
Ixith  to  repair  the  wrongs  of  unauthorized  captures 
and  to  afford  protection  against  foreign  competition. 
The  tariff  of  1816  impose<l  a  duty  of  one  dollar  the 
quintal  on  foreign  dried  or  smoked  flsh  imported  into 
the  United  States,  two  dollars  the  liarrcl  on  salmon, 
one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  the  barrel  on  mackerel,  and 
one  dollar  the  barrel  on  all  other  kinda  of  pickled 
flsh. 

So,  in  1817,  an  act  was  passed  which  required  that 
■11  officers,  and  three  quarters  of  the  crews  of  vessels 
employed  in  the  cod-flshcrj',  and  claiming  the  bounty 
or  allowance,  should  lie  American  citizens,  "  or  per- 
sons not  the  subjects  of  any  foreign  prince  or  state ;" 
while  no  such  vessel,  it  was  provided  liy  further  enact- 
ments, slioiilil  1)0  deprived  of  Imunty,  if  prevented 
from  fishing  tlio  full  time  prescribed  liy  law,  by  reason 
of  detention  or  seizure  by  British  ships-of-war. 

In  tlie  revision  of  the  t^iriflT  In  1824,  there  was  no 
change  in  tlie  rates  of  duty  imposed  on  foreign  fish. 
These  rates  were  continued'  also  in  the  tariflTH  of  1828 
and  1832.  Thus,  in  four  revisions,  the  principle  of 
ample  protection  was  preserved,  except  that  the  pro- 
ducts of  tlie  sea,  like  all  other  commodities  imported, 
were  subject  to  the  provisions  of  tlio  "  compromise" 
measure  intro<luced  by  Mr.  Clay.  In  the  present  tar- 
iff, specific  duties  on  fish  are  entirely  abolished,  and 
the  uniform  rate  of  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem  substituted, 
which  on  some  kinds  Li  merely  nominal,  and  on  all 
insufficient.  The  ad  vulnrem  system  haa  proved  ex- 
tremely lieneficial  to  Hritiiih  colonists.  In  fact,  hav- 
ing driven  us  from  the  markets  of  Cathcdic  Rurope, 
they  are  In  active  competition  with  us  for  our  own. 

A  bounty  or  allowance  has  been  commonly  allowed 
by  governments  In  omsidenition  of  the  fisheries  being 
nurseries  for  seamen,  and  a  chief  dependence  In  time 
of  war  to  supply  the  marine. 

In  1862,  the  bounty  laws  In  thia  country,  gave  to 
▼Mselst 


"  If  measuring  more  than  five  tons,  and  not  exceed* 
ing  thirty  tons,  (3  60  per  ton. 

"  If  measuring  more  than  thirty  tons,  $i  per  ton. 

"  If  the  above  80  tons,  with  crews  not  less  than  10 
permma,  and  having  lienn  exclusively  employed  at  sea 
in  the  cod-fisheiy  Si  calendar  months,  $8  60  per  ton, 

"  The  allowance  for  one  vessel  during  the  season, 
whatever  may  be  her  tonnage,  can  not  exceed  $3(iO. 

"  Vessels  exclusively  employed  at  sea  in  tl'  a  cod- 
flahery  the  full  time  required  to  entitle  them  to  I  junty, 
and  afterward  wrecked,  may  be  allowed  bounty  under 
the  provisions  of  the  ^t  of  26th  May,  1824,  which  re> 
quires  the  evidence  of  the  loss  of  the  vessel  to  be 
transmitted  to  the  (,'omptroller  for  his  decision  thereon. 
Under  the  act  of  March  8,  1849,  this  duty  has  been 
transferred  to  the  C!ommissioner  of  the  Customs,  to 
whom  the  proof,  certified  by  the  collector  of  the  dis- 
trict to  which  the  vessel  belonged,  should  be  sent  for 
his  official  direction  thereon. 

"  Instructions  will  be  given  in  due  season  in  regard 
to  the  mode  of  payment  of  bounty  allowances,  at  and 
after  the  close  of  the  year.  To  obviate  any  respon- 
sibility which  might  otherwise  devolve  on  collectors, 
should  such  payments  be  made  upon  proof  regarded  us 
insufficient  under  the  present  instructions,  it  will  bo 
advisable  that  probable  claimants  to  fishing-bounty 
allowances  lie  apprized,  before  the  sailing  of  vessels 
on  their  first  cod-fishing  voyage,  of  the  requirements 
of  these  instructions,  which  are  intended  to  supersede 
and  supply  the  place  of  all  former  instructions  on 
this  subject.  TuoMAa  Gorwin,  Secretarg  of  the 
Treasury." 

We  make  the  following  extracts  from  Sabine's  able 
Report  on  the  American  ti>hcries  : 

Cod-JUhery  of  France. — The  French  were  the  first 
European  cod-fishers  in  the  American  seas.  There  is 
a  tradition  among  the  fishermen  of  Biscay  that  their 
countr}-mcn  visited  Newfoundland  lieforo  the  time  of 
Columbus.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that  the  great  discov- 
erer was  informed  of  the  fact  by  a  pilot  who  had  lieen 
engaged  in  the  enterprises.  The  story,  improbable  aa 
it  is,  seems  to  have  been  treated  with  respect  by  some 
writers  of  the  16th  century,  but  may  be  dismissed  now 
as  one  which  rests  upon  no  clear  and  authentic  testi- 
mony. 

But  that  the  Newfoundland  fisheries  were  known  to 
the  Biscayans  and  Normans  as  early  as  the  year  1504, 
is  quite  certain.  When  Cabot  discovered  our  con- 
tinent, Kurope,  including  England,  was  Catholic ;  and 
during  the  fusts  of  the  church,  the  pickled  herring  of 
Holland  was  the  principal  food.  The  consumption  of 
fish  r-as  immense ;  and  the  Dutch,  having  enjoyed  the 
monopoly  of  the  supply,  had  becoint  Immensely  rich. 
The  knowledge  communicated  by  Cabot  and  the  voy- 
agers who  fallowed  him,  that  the  waters  of  America 
contained,  not  only  an  abundance,  but  many  varieties 
of  fish,  gave  rise  to  an  excitement  on  the  sulijcct  of 
fishing  hardly  less  intense  than  is  witnessed  ut  the 
present  time  relative  to  mining.  Persons  of  the  high- 
est rank,  anil  not  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits,  be- 
came shareholders  in  adventures  to  the  new  fishing- 
grounds.  And  though  the  Diitcli  refused  to  abandon 
the  particular  fishery  liy  which  they  had  obtained 
both  wealth  and  celebrity,  vessels  wearing  the  fugs  of 
France,  England,  Spain,  and  Portugal  cunio  annually 
in  search  of  the  cod  for  nearly  a  century  before  a  single 
European  colony  was  founded  in  America  north  of  the 
ancient  limits  of  the  United  States, 

We  have  seen  that  when,  in  1778,  France  embarked 
in  our  revolutionari-  struggle,  her  fishermen,  absent  at 
Newfoundlandf  were  recalled  to  enter  her  ships  of  war. 
The  same  reliance  is  placed  upon  them  now.  War 
wni  apprehended  in  1841,  and  M.  Thiers  followed  the 
example  of  the  statesman  referred  to  ;  and  M.  Kodct 
affirmed  that,  "  witliout  the  rttotirces  which  were  found 
in  the  sailors  engaged  in  the  fsheriet,  the  expedition  to 
Algiers  could  not  hare  taken  place," 


TtS 


666 


FIS 


These  Teaaons  an  not  only  lufllolent  to  jnitify,  but 
to  demand,  national  enconrageraent.  But  it  may  be 
urged,  in  addition,  that  the  open  or  deep-sea  cod-fishery 
differs  from  almost  every  other  employment ;  thai  in 
war  it  is  nearly  or  quite  destroyed ;  that  in  peace  it 
can  not  be  pursued  for  more  than  four  or  five  months 
in  a  year ;  that  often  sltill  and  industry  are  insufficient 
to  insure  good  fares ;  and  that,  when  success  attends 
severe  toil  and  exposure,  the  fishermen  barely  subsist. 
The  effects  of  a  "  bad  catch"  are,  indeed,  sad  and  ca- 
lamitous. The  disasters  of  1847  afford  a  recent  and  a 
forcible  illustration.  In  that||-ear  the  French  cod- 
fishery  proved  a  failure.  The  quantity  of  fish  caught 
was  scarcely  a  sixth  part  of  that  of  former  seasons ; 
and  the  fishermen,  discouraged,  abandoned  the  busi- 
ness as  early  as  the  middle  of  August.  The  labor  of 
the  summer  and  the  expenses  of  repairs  and  of  outfits 
lost,  the  actual  want  of  food  and  clothing  until  another 
year  came  round  was  alone  prevented  by  the  bounty 
allowed  by  the  government. 

The  manner  of  fishing  is  now  the  only  topic  that 
need  claim  attention.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
principal  fishing-grounds  are  three,  and  that  on  each 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  mode  of  operations  and  in 
the  size  of  the  vessels.  First,  tlie  fishery  on  tlio  coatts 
of  Newfoundland,  which  has  alwa}'s  been  considered 
the  most  important,  as  being  more  certain  and  employ- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  men.  The  vessels  are  of 
all  sizes— from  30  to  200,  and  even  800  tons.  The 
latter  size  is,  however,  rare.  When  the  vessel  arrives 
on  the  coast,  which  is  generally  early  in  June,  she  is 
dismantled.  Her  boats,  wiih  two  men  and  a  boy  in 
each,  are  sent  out  every  morning,  when  the  weather 
will  permit,  to  fixh  until  night.  On  the  return  in  the 
evening,  the  fish  talien  are  split,  salted,  and  put  in 
"imcAu"  or  piles;  remaining  in  piles  a  few  days, 
they  are  "  washed  out"  and  dried  until  they  are  fit  to 
ship.  These  processes  are  repeated  from  day  to  day 
until  the  fare  is  completed,  or  the  season  has  passed 
away.  Toward  the  close  of  September,  fishing  is  sus- 
pended, and  the  vessels  depart  for  France  or  the  West 
Indies. 

The  Grand  Bank  fisher}*  is  pursued  in  vessels  of  I)e- 
tween  100  and  200  tons'  burden,  with  two  strong  cha- 
loupes,  or  lioats,  to  each.  From  10  to  iO  men  compose 
a  crew.  The  vessels  proceed  first  to  >St.  Pierre,  land 
the  shore  fishermen  and  "  curers,"  and  thence  take 
position  on  the  banks,  anchoring  in  70  or  80  fathoms 
of  water.  Every  thing  in  readiness,  the  chaloupes 
•re  launched  and  sent  out  at  night  to  place  the 
"ground-lines,"  to  which  are  attached  some  four  or 
five  thousand  hooks.  When  not  too  boisterous,  these 
lines  are  examinai  every  day,  and  the  fish  attached  to 
the  hooks  split,  salted,  and  placed  in  the  hold  of  the 
vessel.  Meanwhile,  the  fish  caught  on  Ixiard  by  the 
men  not  assigned  to  the  boats  are  treated  in  tlie  same 
way.  The  first  fare  is  usually  secured  in  June,  and 
rairied  to  St.  Pierre  to  be  dried.  The  second  fare  is 
cured  at  the  same  place ;  but  the  third-'if  fortunately 
there  lie  another — is  commonly  carried  to  France 
"  green." 

This  fishing  Is  difficult  and  dangerous.  It  requires 
expert  and  daring  men.  It  is  prosecuted  in  an  o|ien, 
rough,  and  often  a  stormy  sea,  and  frequently  involves 
the  loss  of  lioats  and  their  crews. 

The  third  fisberj',  at  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  ia 
liniilar,  in  some  respects,  to  that  between  Cape  Kay 
and  Cape  John,  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland.  Boats, 
instead  of  vessels,  are,  however,  employed  in  it.  The 
boats  of  the  two  islands  are  between  three  and  four 
hundre<l  in  numlier,  and  requirtj  tvr»  men  to  each. 
Tliey  go  out  in  the  morning  and  return  at  night, 
Thns,  as  in  alt  shore  fisheries,  the  fishermen  always 
sleep  at  their  own  homes.  As  this  ia  the  only  business 
of  the  islands,  nearly  all  the  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren are  engaged  in  catching  or  curing.  The  season 
opens  in  April,  and  clotti  usually  in  OctotwTi 


W«  have  seen  the  Importance  attached  by  France  to 
her  immense  American  drmains,  and  with  what  per. 
tinacity  she  maintained  her  pretensions  to  the  monop- 
oly of  the  fishing-grounds.  It  remains  to  speak  more 
particularly  than  has  yet  been  done  of  the  two  lone, 
bare,  and  rocky  islands  that  remain  to  her  as  monu- 
ments of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  human  condition  and 
of  national  humiliation. 

The  situation  of  St,  Pierre  and  Miquelon  commands 
the  entrance  of  the  (iulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The 
growth  of  wood  is  insufficient  even  for  fuel.  They 
producu  no  food,  and  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  on 
France  and  other  countries  for  supplies.  The  popula- 
tion of  St.  Pierre  in  1847  was  2030,  of  which  about  <me 
quarter  was  "  floating,"  or  non-resident.  The  popii> 
lation  of  Miquelon  at  the  same  time  was  6i6, 

There  are  several  Catholic  churches  and  schools, 
priests,  monks,  and  nuns.  In  1848  a  hospital,  suf- 
ficiently commodious  to  receive  upward  of  100  sick 
persons,  was  erected.  The  dwellings  are  of  wood. 
The  government-house  is  of  the  same  materUI,  and 
plain  and  old-fashioned.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
short,  and  dirty.  The  official  personages  are  a  gover- 
nor, a  commissary  or  minister  of  marine,  a  harbor  mas- 
ter, and  some  inferior  functionaries.  The  military, 
limited  by  treaty  to  50  men,  consists  of  about  80  gem 
d'annes.  Upon  the  station  is  a  single  armed  ship, 
though  other  armed  vessels  are  occasional  visitors. 
The  present  light-house  was  erected  in  1845,  at  a  cost 
of  80,000  francs,  and,  Tell  built  of  brick,  is  a, substan- 
tial edifice. 

Such  are  the  two  islands-^two  lsaoubs  is  ex- 
tent— which  remain  to  the  power  that  once  possessed 
the  whole  country  liordering  on  the  Mississippi,  the 
limitless  regions  penetrated  by  the  St,  Lawrence ; 
Acadia,  from  Canseau,  in  Nova  Scotia,  to  the  Kenne- 
bec river,  in  K^Sne ;  the  island  of  Cape  Breton ;  and 
the  hundred  other  isles  of  the  bays  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  possessions. 

The  extent  of  the  French  cod-fishery  may  be  esti- 
mated from  the  following  statisticti : 
Fbknou  Cod-Fishkbt, 


;   Y..r.. 

No.  of 

Tcinnjige. 

Nuidl«r  of 
HMD. 

QulBUU  of 

Value. 

IMU 

IMT 

"ii 

•  >•■ 

1577 

ISO 

.... 

1518 

150 

161B 

100 

. .., 

ITill 

400 

.... 

1744 

tM 

.'. .  • 

27,500 

I,44V,500 

!!!! 

1745 

lltO 

1T6S 

259 

24.420 

'f>i722 

Ko,m 

•Mi'.m 

1778 

S64 

24,996 

lu.128 

1774 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

16,187 

t7S« 

•  ■.» 

•  •  •  • 

7,000 

426^400 

1787 

.... 

«,0fl0 

128,890 

... 

i8!a 

.  ,  ,  . 

ao,954 

8,108 

.••■ 

l^«8 

184 

10,258 

3,655 

..  .* 

lt>«4 

US 

80,999 

8,672 

I.St 

18i« 

ma 

86,172 

6,311 

*..  . 

1826 

841 

8S,9S8 

T,fl«S 

t  ... 

1847 

887 

44,^^)8 

8,288 

1  ..• 

1»2S 

«Ml 

45,094 

7,957 

•    Ci 

1S2» 

414 

60,574 

9,428 

.... 

1830 

877 

4^088 

8.174 

1S81 

801 

85,180 

6,148 

aoblouo 

',.,', 

ll«88 

»  «  »  ■ 

.  •   1  ■ 

10,000 

>..• 

ks84 

•  •  •  1 

10,000 

•  t    ■ 

.... 

1<.H8 

800,000 

18i» 

•  •  .. 

HWB 

11,499 

.... 

IMl 

400 

,  .  ,, 

11,900 

»... 

.... 

1N8 

400 

t  ■  •  t 

1S47 

.... 

12,000 

400.000 

;:::  i 

Oxt-jUherg  iif  iy;<(un,-^Participating  in  the  excite. 
ment  which  prevallfd  in  Europe  on  tho  discovery  in 
the  American  seas  of  varieties  of  fish  not  previously 
known  or  used  in  the  fasts  of  the  Human  church,  Spain 
was  an  early  oompctitnr  with  France  and  England. 
Vessels  of  her  flag  were  certainly  at  Newfoundland  aa 
soon  as  the  year  1517,  00  years  later,  the  number  of 
her  vessels  employed  in  the  fishery  there  is  estimated 
•(  100,    Tb«  number  rapidly  Uiuiialsbed.    SjrWectei 


h.:  iitv-iCJ-  fcJirt  L. 


V  .'.^Jf^B.'lUSk^W, 


FIS 


667 


FIS 


Wykt,  of  Bristol,  England,  who  mad*  a  voyage  to 
the  St.  lAwtenct)  and  Newfoundland  in  1693,  found 
only  eight  Spanish  ships  in  a  fleet  of  upward  of  80  sail 
of  French  and  English  vessels.  From  the  remarks  of 
Smith — who  Iwcame  the  Father  of  Virginhi — it  would 
BH'itn  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  the 
(Spanish  fishery  wag  pursued  with  greater  vigor  tluui 
at  the  time  last  mentioned.  But  the  greater  wealth 
to  bo  acquired  in  the  gold  regioua  of  South  America 
soon  lured  the  Spaniards  from  an  avocation  of  so  great 
toil,  and  of  so  uncertain  rewards.  No  controversy 
l)etween  Spain  and  Knglund  as  to  their  respective 
rights  to  the  fishing-grounds  ever  arose. 

Spain  retired  from  our  waters  in  peace,  and  at  bar 
own  pleasure.  Little  is  hoard  of  her  in  connexion 
with  our  subject  for  quite  a  centur}',  and  until  the 
peace  of  17C3.  Her  claim — resting  on  dixcovory— ever 
vague  and  uncertain  at  the  north,  had  liecome  almost 
as  obsolete  as  that  of  the  King  of  England  to  the  title 
of  King  of  France.  Still,  in  the  definitive  treaty  cou- 
eluded  at  Paris,  she  formally  renounced  "  all  preten- 
sions which  she  has  heretofore  formed,  or  might  form, 
to  Nova  Scotia  or  Acadia,  in  all  its  parts,  and  guaran- 
ties the  whole  of  it,  and  with  all  its  dependencies," 
and  ceded  and  guarantied  to  England,  "  in  full  right, 
Canada,  with  all  its  dei)endencle8,  as  well  us  the  islanii 
of  Cape  Breton,  and  all  other  islands  and  coasts  in  the 
Gulf  and  River  of  St.  Lawrence;  and,  in  general, 
every  thhig  that  depends  on  the  said  countries,  lands, 
islands,  and  coasts,  with  the  sovereignty,  property, 
possession,  and  all  rights  acquired  by  treaty  or  other- 
wise." \Vtth  this  treaty  the  history  of  the  Spanish 
llpiiei  V  rica  terminates.     Spain  relinquUlied 

her  k;„''  <  ' '  peace  of  1763,  with  reluctance,  though 
she  hr  I  :  '  wd  to  exercise  them.  A  letter  of  Sir 
Josep.  ,  quoted  in  the  correspondence  of  I  lur- 

acn  VValpole,  in  which  it  is  said:  "By  what  I  hear 
from  Paris,  my  old  acquaintance,  Grimaldl,  is  tlw 
cause  of  the  delay  in  signing  the  preliminaries,  Insist- 
ing u|ion  points  neither  France  nor  England  would 
ever  consent  to  grant,  such  as  the  liberty  of  fislilng  at 
Newfoundland — a  point  we  should  not  dare  to  yield,  as 
Hr.  Pitt  told  them,  though  they  weru  masters  of  the 
Tower  of  London." 

Cwl-Jithery  of  P  ■rtugal.~-kn  account  of  this  flshen- 
may  be  embraced  in  a  single  paragraph.  If  materials 
exist  by  which  to  a'<certain  its  progress  and  final 
extent,  I  have  not  l)een  able  to  find  them. 

Portuguese  vessels  were  at  Newfoundland  as  early 
as  those  of  Spain ;  and  in  1577,  the  number  employed 
there  is  estimated  at  50.  These  two  facts  comprise 
the  substance  of  my  information  upon  the  subject, 
except  that  Portugal,  like  Spain,  soon  abandoned  all 
attention  to  the  cliiims  derived  from  the  voyages  of 
her  navigators  to  the  northern  parts  of  our  continent, 
and  devoted  her  energies  and  resources  to  colonization 
In  South  America,  and  the  acquisition  of  wealth  In  the 
mines  of  Braxil.  The  rivers  and  coasts  of  Portugal 
abound  in  fish ;  but  the  flflherles  are  neglected  by  the 
government.  The  whole  number  of  sailors  and  fisher- 
men who  l)elonged  to  the  kingdom  in  1820,  was  only 
18,700.  I  find  in  an  ofllclal  document  a  statement 
which  shows  that  during  the  24  years  ending  In  182A, 
the  quantity  of  dry  codfish  imported  into  Portugal 
was  7,520,000  quintals,  of  the  value  of  more  than 
939,000,000!  As  late  as  the  year  18.S9,  certainly,  the 
government  pursued  the  policy  of  levying  a  tax  or 
duty  on  the  produce  of  the  domestic  or  coast  fisherj'- 
a  fart  which  enables  us  to  account  for  the  mlseral)le 
conditl(jn  of  the  kingdom,  as  regards  iU  maritime 
strength  and  resources. 

Enijlkh  Cod-jiihffy —  Nfiijouudlanil,  —  Newfound- 
land is  the  oldest  oniony  of  England  In  America.  It 
is  said  that  in  the  public  library  of  Venice  there  U  a 
map,  constructed  by  Andrea  Bianco,  in  1480,  which 
•uthorizes  the  conjecture  that  it  was  known  to  fisher- 
nea  b«fore  (ba  voyage  of  Cabot,  in  1W>    'i'li«  tUtry, 


(o  itato  It)  *ubftMie«  (n  •  wiml,  Is,  that  the  island  Sco- 
rnflita,  or  Hlofn/Ua,  on  the  map,  and  the  island  of 
KewfuundUiul,  Mr*  IdentlcHl,  because  the  codfish  Is 
culled  iliiel^flth  in  tll«  northern  languages.  The  En- 
glish rusortwl  to  Iiwland  fur  the  cod,  previous  to  the 
vuar  HIA,  but  tlitr«  Is  no  account  of  their  fishing  at 
N«wrounillttii4  yi\ut  Ut  lfil7.  Some  writers  suggest 
that  the  f  ninth  «»mm«fl(!«d  «t  the  same  time.  But 
the  fact.  g«n«r«lly  admitted,  that  the  ships  from  En- 
gland, Fraiiee,  Hpalii,  «rw1 1'ortuuial,  to  the  number  of 
fifty,  were  «niiiliivmt  In  lfil7,  Is  alone  sufficient  to 
s'low  that  tlif  llidilii)('gr(>iinds  had  been  visited  for  sev- 
eral y»ikt*,  \nA»m\  Ut  MinAAvt  that  the  French  went 
to  NawfouwtUnd  tut  lh«  flmt  time  In  1604,  and  that  in 
thirteen  y»»l»,  hikI  in  tli«  infancy  of  distant  and  peril- 
ous voyages,  th«lr  itdv(>ntlires  hnd  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  tlirtiH  other  imtlonK  to  the  extent  Just  stated, 
is  to  allow  »n  IniTttimn  of  flags  and  of  vessels  so  rapid 
as  to  still  tm\u\t»  tixpianatlon,  without  a  knowledge 
of  the  fishing  «litliii«lasm  uf  the  period.  Besides, 
somo  forty  or  fifty  houwes  for  the  accommodation  of 
fishermen  w«ra  built  at  M«wfoundhind  as  early  as 

v>n. 

A  faw  Millos  back  from  Oie  coast,  Newfoundland  Is 
almost  an  iinbroki'ii  wildprneas.  The  inhabitants,  as 
a  body,  ara  as  IgnorNNt  of  the  Interior  of  the  Island  as 
are  others,  'I'o  Ihi'in,  and  to  all  the  world,  the  colony 
is  known  for  Its  ll*liitrl«s,  and  for  these  alone.  To 
snumHr»t«  Mt.  JolinV,  Ferrylaml,  Fugo,  and  Burin,  and 
tlia  setthmisnts  on  the  bays  of  Conception,  Trinity, 
Uonttviata,  Vitttum,  Hull's,  llacentia,  and  St.  Mar}-'s, 
is  to  recall  almofit  evpry  place  of  note.  There  was  no 
free  |sirt  until  1X28,  anil  no  lionk  until  eight  years  later. 
Frvni  the  dl>>i'(iv«ry  of  I'mIm^  to  tlie  arrival  of  a  l)ishop 
of  the  cliuri'h,  was  iMfl  yearn.  The  population  in 
]8U<i^itlNiut  two  Mild  a  quarter  centuries  after  the  at- 
tempt lit  i>olonl>!Nti(in  bv  lillbert— was  leas  than  26,000. 
It  was  less  tlMll  74,00«l  In  18,10 1  nnd  but  »6,fi0C  in  1845. 

It  remains  to  j<|i«itk  of  the  fishing-grounds  ;  of  tho 
manner  of  vtAi'Mn^  and  curing,  and  of  the  habits  of  the 
(lerions  wlui  aril  vrnployxd  In  the  fishery.  As  the  vessel 
or  "  bank"  llsliMry  Ims  been  abandoned  by  the  English, 
an  account  of  it  is  reaerved  for  tho  thinl  part  of  this 
report,  Tltd  bouts  Uned  for  the  shore  fishery  require 
from  two  Ui  four  men  encli,  The  number  of  boats  in 
18118,  WAS  (tUiOj  and  In  18'I6,  !ltl89.  The  fishing  Is 
p«>rform(Hl  within  the  harbors,  and  early  In  the  season, 
naar  tho  lunil.  The  men  stand  while  at  tlier  toil,  and 
each  Is  ablti  to  t«nil  more  than  one  line.  At  times  the 
fish  fasten  to  th«  liooki)  so  rapidly,  that  the  fishermen 
dlsjiluy  grant  a«tU'ity,  A  boat  Is  often  tilled  in  two 
or  tlirati  hours.  On  the  fihores  are  "  stages,"  or  build- 
ings «riu-t«<l  on  )Nmts,  and  projecting  into  tho  sea,  to 
allow  iHiats  t<i  I  lime  to  tliein  as  to  wharves  or  piers. 
Tlw  fish  «r<i  Ciirflcd  to  tlie»e  "  stages,"  where,  in  the 
hands  of  tint  " cut  throat,"  the  "header,"  the  "split- 
ter," and  thn  "  wtlter,"  as  four  classes  of  the  "  shores- 
men" aro  i'nIM,  they  are  l/fopnrod  for  tho  "dryer." 
When  sutHclcntly  salted,  they  are  waslied,  nnd  trans- 
|Hirt«<l  on  "  hanil'liiirtows"  to  the  "  flakes,"  where 
they  are  spreiol  and  dried.  Once  cured,  they  are  piled 
III  w«r«luiu««s  to  itwflit  nnlfl  or  orders  for  shipment. 
The  "  salfar"  and  the  "  dryer"  should  be  careful  and 
I'xjstrt  mmi  t  thx  on"  to  distrlliute  the  suit  with  a  skill- 
ful liiin<i'>tlie  other,  that  damps  and  rains  do  not  in- 
jure tlia  Hull  while  exptised  In  the  air.  Three  quali- 
ties are  usually  sorted  for  exiwrtation,  and  a  fourth, 
coMsl'tIng  principally  uf  broken  and  discolored  fish,  U 
retained  for  t^nsiittipthm,  Women  and  children  are 
sonietlin«s  umployed  In  the  hoots,  and  very  frequently 
assist  tliH  iiurem  on  stiora.  t)uring  the  fishing  season 
them  aril  no  Idlitrs  of  either  sex, 

Tlw  hilsirs  uf  the  fishermen  and  shoresmen  are  al- 
most iMiwssflllt.  The  time  devoted  to  sleep,  under  cir- 
cumstancus  that  uftcn  uccur,  is  Insufliclcnt  for  the  de- 
mands uf  iwtiirn )  white  lung  abstinence  fk'om  food  Is 
Bvt  uucvmiwmi 


*1S 


668 


FTS 


The  flsbermen  formeily  lived  in  the  nidert  of  rtnict- 
arei;  bnt  they  now  occupy  comfortable  dwellingi. 
Their  food  Is  coane,  uid  their  manners  rough.  Intoxi- 
cating drinks  were  once  as  common  among  them  as 
tea  or  water.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  seiisilile 
change  for  the  better ;  and  a  'arge  class  are  moral  and 
temperate.  Their  habits  rf  life  are  irregular,  f^m  the 
necessities  of  their  posit.'  but  in  hospitality  and 
acts  of  kindness  they  at  )t  excelled  by  men  of  the 
higher  walks  of  society.  They  are  to  be  Judged  in 
mercy,  for  tlieir  opportunities  to  improve  are  few,  and 
their  temptatious  to  err  are  many. 

Exousn  CoD-FisnisT,  NawromiDLAND. 


Tw. 


Nfcofi 

VCSMlt. 


1577 
1«0S 
K15 
16i» 
1<M 
1«70 
1674 
1701 
1716 
17M 
1783 
1790 
176S 
1769 
1770 

ini 

1778 
1774 
17S6 
1786 
17S7 
17M8 
17S» 
17W 
17»1 
17I>S 
I  17B8 
1709 
1800 
1805 
1814 
1K15 
1820 
1826 
1880 

i(«i 

loss  j 

18S4 

1885 

1838  ! 

1840 

1841 

184S 

1843 

1S44 

1S45 

1847 

1848 

1649 


iToni 


SO 
900 
950 
400 
160 

80 
270 
121 
161 


15,000 


7,991 
9,193 


28S  38,912 
177  17,268 
854 


806 

254 

292 

280 

806 

886 

804 

299  816(4 

145  !  34,166 

876  .... 

....  13,838 

806  88,508 


HMD. 


r.'o.  of      Oulatkl*  of 
boMo.    Iba  oiporlod 


10,000 


6,000 

ibisoo 

2,727 
2,119 


4,103 
2,581 


23,653 


1,268 
2,410 


6,1.'W 


9,989 


106,952 
111,000 
210,000 


759,877 
691,276 


684,421 


458,887 

882  000 

520,380 

1,200,000 

l,l8n.t»1 

899,720 

978.4€l 

760.177 

01  P.  r  77 

688,686 

674,988 

712.5S8 

7i),6I,'. 

915.795 

1,009,725 

1.007,980 

086.2111! 

852,162 

1,000,188 

887,978 

920,866 

1,175,167 


112,000,000 


2,420,0)10  I 
2,880,0(10  I 
8,f«6,U0»  i 
2,806.000 
2,660,000  i 
2.410,000  I 
2,'J!iO,000  I 
2,4511,000  I 
2.456,006 
2,940,000 


ExoLiSH  HaaaiHa-FiBUKaT,  NxwroiiifDi4)i». 


J  B*mU  pickled  oip^rttj. 


18S.^... 

1889... 
IS40... 
1841  .. 
1*42... 
1848... 
1844... 
184S... 
1847... 


16,276 
90,806 
14.686 

9,965 
18,889 

9,649 
18,410 
20,90« 

9,907 


V«lii«. 
$68,615 
60,200 
45,180 
81.806 
8.'i,5»S 
22,Si.'/0 
88,829 
96,170 
25  5U 


carry  fVem  <lft«*n  to  fnrty  tiimi  etioti.  They  leave 
N*wfoiiwltati<l  ■!)  Marrh,  atid  |irm^<wl  to  sea  until  they 
meat  th*  Urn,  wttd  on  fNllltiu  In  with  It,  are  forced  into 
It  as  far  as  |Kts«ll*t«,  )iy  lltitiictnonts  which  are  nrmnged 
for  the  puriKMMa,  Viuil  Iftttmilitml  In  the  vast  and  seem- 
ingly llniitlaiNi  ^kUU  '  It'll  (he  rrtrws  disperse  In  every 
direction  In  searcli  ir  mnIs,  which  are  Inactive,  and 
are  generitllv  aaaily  I'MiiKht,  They  are  killed  with 
flre.ar:nt  and  with  »IiiIm,  ami  itften  while  asleep.  Otv 
casiunally  the  Ur((ti  (in*s  resist,  The  moiins  of  the 
young  durtn({  tli«  r'atiutittn'  are  plt.<iolis. 

The  flaah  (if  »«kii(  is  iinflt  for  food,  and  they  are 
only  valuablu  f>tr  litfir  ftit  antl  skin?.  The  common 
roetbod  Is,  to  strlti  itlf  lht<  tikltts  and  fat  together,  and 
to  carry  thtiwi  \mHii  to  the  vessels,  leaving  the  re- 
mainder uiMiti  tli«  Itw )  I'lll  when  the  weathur  or  other 
fircuiiutuiK'vs  will  itttt  ptiftnlt  this,  th!>  carcass  Is 
tranufHirtiMt  wltwl((,  and  (lie  valuable  parts  are  stripped 
off  t(iil)«»i(UBntly,  Htdtl-fatchltig  closes  toward  the  end 
of  April,  Tll»  Ittost  fdrtiittate  vessels  make  two  voy- 
ages in  A  Miaaun,  After  the  arrival  of  the  vi^Ksels  in 
port,  the  fat  M  sttiMfated  frotn  the  skins,  cut  Into 
places  and  put  lii(«  vnt*.  where,  by  (be  warmth  of  the 
sun,  the  nil  (Mtws  (itlt.  The  skltis  are  spread  and  snlted 
In  plh»s,  and  wlltm  (tntjiefly  ctifed,  are  packed  in  Iran- 
dhis  of  I'OHveiilHttt  »(/,(!,  Iti  the  whole  (Hrcle  of  human 
empUiyinentii,  few  (if  iintM  «fe  more  exciting  and  peril- 
ous than  (lifl  catchlnt;  nf  seats,  A  storm  of  sleet  and 
snow  in  the  tii((lit  U  Icrrtlde,  and  the  stoutest  hearts 
quail,  While  the  vta^^oln  are  absent,  the  greatest  anx- 
iety prevails  tn  tbti  (mrt*  of  def.arture,  and  the  most 
dUtressiiig  ritiiiors  (imvall  i  at  times,  n  full  nnnth 
elapses  iMfitrii  tlia  arrival  iit  a  single  vessel,  ami  every 
imaginable  imn**  U  aMlgned  by  elarmed  families  and 
friends  for  tli»  dalay  of  (Idln^^  from  (he  sealing- 
ground,  !<(»«•'•#««(  gain  drive  the  Ice  toward  the 
sliore,  and  fr(«)iMintly  tirndiice  fearful  dlsn.«ter«  to  lioth 
life  an  I  \ir< 'tftiy  In  IMS  the  loss  of  vessels  waa 
very  (.msldoraMe,  and  »«ver«i  entire  crews  iicrished. 
Home  vessels  wffa  wrecked  In  1H19. 

'I'be  ymr  l<«27  was  t(ii(!(ittimonly  prosperous.  Forty. 
one  veswls  laden  with  seals  arrived  at  St.  .lohn's  in  a 
single  week,  (bey  ciitigjil  tifl,HU  (tt  the  objects  of  their 
saarcli,  (tn»  of  tlle««  vessels  took  npwnrd  of  3000 
in  »\k  days,  and  amitlier.  stilt  more  successful,  almut 
(INK)  In  the  sxilt*  ti(H«i,  '/lie  lntelis<i  excitement  which 
attended  the  slatlgliter  of  s(.  large  numbers,  in  so  short 
a  B(HM!«,  can  I*  readily  itnaglned, 

*T4TI»TI«(  (If  THK  ffSWrot'Htlt.SWn  HKAI.-risni!Bt.* 

fc*W('(".tMi  [ ElporU, 


The  yvtfountUand  Seal-FUkert/,  so  oj/M.— This  ' 
business  is  of  recent  origin.     The  tirst  aroount  of  it  Is 
In  1795,  bnt  it  was  not  prosecuted  to  any  extent  until 
the  general  peace,  in  1814.     Heals  frequent  the  coa«ts 
of  Xewfoundland  in  the  spring.     They  go  upon  tha 
Ice  in  the  polar  seas  to  bring  ^rth  their  young,  and  | 
are  swept  along  by  the  currents  to  milder  regions,  \ 
where,  still  u{ion  the  ice,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  | 
them  are  annually  killed.     During  the  passage  fVoin 
the  remote  north,  they  apparently  liv'3  without  much 
food,  but  yet  are  quite  fat  when  seen  h}-  those  who  oil- 
venture  in  pursuit  of  them.     The  vessels  engaged  In 
'atching  seals  are  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  tolu,  and 


Vosr, 



V.-.I., 

,.,. 

ll>«0 

ti,f 

tm 

,  ,  ,  , 

im 

im 

M 

1881 

ll« 

1889 

IM 

1     I8IM 

lOll 

1864 

VKi 

:    18(« 

\m 

i    I>i86 

m 

1    IWT 

i«i 

,     INK8 

no 

■     (WW 

K 

IMO 

!     IMI 

r» 

1     Ii>«« 

74 

18W 

1    mM 

!.1 

1    t«4A 

\m 

l>»M 
IWT 

m 

law 

%m 

I8W 

ills  , 

'    l».'l(l 

1 

«,tM 
t),t)46 
11/462 

a,6V. 
lUiSto 
11,167 
ll,4«6 
lo,M< 
Vfiini 
9M1 
6,190 

tijm 

vm 
ILisw 
li,*79 

*l^«il« 
16,44t 


l,WiA 

i/flK 
H,2P4 
2,964 
2,910 
2,«I3 
I,W 
3.940 
2JW6 
2,029 

(.(iflH 

tfltn 

8,177 
8,779 

n,9m 

V.'M, 
9,Jts8 


SMlaUm. 


4,900 
141,874 
321,884 
331,516 

2^1,618 
559,842 

442,688 
501.486 
860,195 
557,494 
881,041 
Jft2,910 
879.861 
4R7.50I 
6111,815 
417,116 
SI4.688 
651,870 

862,202 

486^881 
521,01)4 
8(16,072 
400,000t 


8,226 
1,224 
7,808 

l'2',871 

ib^oio 

»,l'l30 
11,780 


•  'I'lw  vessels  wsfe  hum  llis  port  nf  fit.  John's,  oxespt  In 
I»f7,  Ills,  awl  ls«* 

t  Ksilmatu'l  ttiim  Ihu  sevtal  aeootitits  of  the  catch  of  that 
yu»r 

lUlefencB  t/i  (h*  tnble  of  stallslles  will  afford  infoN 

nwtioH  a*  ill  (h«  guntfal  stat«  of  this  branch  of  Indus- 


hi 


Novi 


J'i.'^- 1.^-^. :  1.. ./ .  ■"- 


i-.*-r-.>jie;;....i^-. 


vm- 


069 


FIB 


S,228 
-.244 


liy  (inoe  tLa  v'^r  1830.  It  wUl  be  aeen  that  the  re- 
turn of  veaaels  fitted  out,  is  ftom  the  port  of  St.  John's 
klone.  The  number  from  Ooncepcion,  Trinity,  and 
Bonavtsta  Bays,  and  from  other  parts  of  the  island,  is 
known  to  be  considerable,  and  in  1846  to  have  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  capital,  but  I  have  been  unable  to 
procure  accurate  accounts  for  any  other  year. 

Fulurit*  of  Nova  Scotia. — The  original  grantee  of 
that  half  fabulous,  never  defined  country,  Acadia,  was 
Pierre  de  Gast  Sieure  de  Monts,  a  Protestant,  and  a 
gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber  of  Henry  the  Fourth 
of  France.  In  1608,  his  royal  master,  by  letters  pa- 
tent, gave  hira  the  territory  between  the  40th  and  46th 
degrops  of  hititude,  and  in  the  following  year  De 
Monts  came  in  person  to  explore  and  take  possession 
of  his  liomnins.  Sixteen  years  before  the  landing  of 
the  pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  he  wintered  upon  an  island 
in  the  Kiver  St.  Croix,  which,  since  the  adjustment  of 
the  boundary-line  between  the  United  States  and  New 
Bmnswicic,  has  been  considered  within  the  limits  of 
Maine.  This  island  is  claimed  by  the  heirs  of  the 
late  General  John  Brewer,  of  Robbinston.  Relics  of 
De  Monts'  sojourn  upon  it  continue  to  be  found.  An- 
napolis—the Port  Royal  of  the  French— was  founded 
before  his  return,  and  is  the  oldest  settlement  in  Nova 
Scotia.  The  "  lieutenant-general  of  Acadia,  and  the 
oiroumjacent  country,"  accomplished  i)ut  little.  His 
patent  allowed  him  to  "  carefully  search  after  and  to 
distinguish  all  sorts  of  mines  of  gold  and  silver,"  and 
gave  him  the  mono|)oly  of  the  trade  in  furs.  He 
seems  to  have;  oonfir.ed  his  attention  to  measures  to 
secure  the  latter ;  yet  fish  were  caught,  cured,  and 
carried  to  France.  A  permanent  fishery  was  estalv 
Itshed  at  Canseau.  Acadia  soon  passed  from  Da  Monts 
into  Catholic  hands,  while  the  English  grant  to  Sir 
William  Alexander,  in  1C21,  embraced  .i  large  part  of 
it.  As  the  events  connected  with  our  subject  at  thib 
time  nppear  in  the  nc-ount  of  the  French  fisheries, 
there  in  nothing  to  demund  our  attention  until  after 
Nova  Scotia  was  permanently  annexed  to  the  British 
crown,  l)y  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1718. 

Down  to  the  period  of  our  Revolution,  Novn  Scotia 
was  hardly  known  except  for  its  fisheries.  The  resi- 
dent English  population  wat.  so  smsU  in  1719,  that 
Phillips,  the  military  governor,  was  compelled  to  se- 
lect the  council,  required  by  his  instructions,  from  his 
garrison.  Thirty-six  years  later,  the  whole  number 
of  inhabitants  was  eicimated  at  only  50OO.  In  1760, 
the  township  of  Liverpool  was  settled  l)y  persons  from 
Massachusetts,  who  designed  to  prosecute  the  salmon- 
fisheiy  and  who,  successful  in  their  labors,  caught  a 
thousand  Imrrels  in  a  season.  They  were  followed  in 
1763  by  about  one  huni'red  and  sixty  fumiiius  from 
Cape  Cod,  who  selected  the  spot  called  Harrington, 
transported  thither  their  stock  and  fishing  vessels, 
and  founded  one  of  the  must  consideralile  fishing  towns 
at  present  in  the  colony.  The  whole  value  of  the  im- 
ports at  this  period  was  ess  than  five  thousand  dol- 
lars. In  truth,  the  House  of  Assemlily  asserted  in 
1776,  that  the  amount  of  money  in  Novii  Scotia  was 
f  1200  (or  a  !•"•),  of  which  one  fifth  was  in  the  hands 
of  furmor».  .Such  was  tlie  general  condition.  The 
settlement  of  Halifax,  the  capital,  requires  a  more 
particular  notice.  Thomas  Coran,  a  famous  prnjector 
of  the  time,  whose  name  occurs  often  in  the  history  of 
Maine,  engaged  in  a  scheme  to  commence  a  town  on 
the  site  rf  tills  city  as  early  as  the  year  1718,  and  his 
petition  for  a  grant  of  land  received  a  favorable  report 
from  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations ;  but  the 
agents  of  Massachusetts  opiiosed  his  plans,  because 
they  interfered  with  tiie  freedom  of  the  fisheries,  and 
bo  was  compelled  tu  aliandnu  his  purpose.* 


'  It  Is  aatil,  In  Burke's  Commonpra  of  Knglsnd,  that  M^jor 
WUIIam  Msrkham  (of  the  family  of  Markhain,  of  Beccs 
Halt),  who  waa  bom  In  1680,  built  the  flrai  house  hi  Halifax, 
Mora  Scotia. 


At  the  restoration  of  Cape  Breton,  in  1748,  th« 
founding  of  a  capital  for  Nova  Scotia  was  undeitaken 
as  a  government  measure.  "As  a  substitute  for 
Louisbonrg  restored  to  France,"  aaid  Mr.  Hartley  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  "  you  settled  Halifax  for  a 
place  tTarmet,  leaving  the  limits  of  the  province  as  a 
matter  of  contest  with  Franco,  which  oouid  not  fail  to 
prove,  as  it  did,  the  cause  of  another  war.  Had  you  kept 
Louisbourg,  instead  of  settling  Halifax,  the  Americans 
could  not  say,  at  least,  that  there  would  not  have  been 
that  pretext  for  imputing  the  late  war  tc  their  ac- 
count." The  new  city  was  n."  aed  in  honor  of  the 
Earl  of  Halifax,  the  president  of  the  Loids  of  Trade 
and  Plantations.  "  The  site,"  says  Halihurton,  "  about 
midway  between  Cape  Canseau  and  Cape  Sable,  was 
preferred  to  several  others,  where  the  soil  was  better, 
for  the  sake  of  establishing  in  its  neighborhood  an  ex- 
tensive cod-fishery,  and  fortifying  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors in  America."  Thus,  Halifax  was  designed  as  a 
fishing  capital,  and  "  as  a  substitute  ibr  Louisbourg." 
Liberal  grants  of  land  were  made  to  officers  and  men 
who  were  dismissed  from  the  land  and  naval  service  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  and  Edward  Cornwallis  was  ap- 
pointed military  governor.  Horatio  Gates  then  an 
officer  in  the  British  army,  and  subsequently  the  vic- 
tor at  Saratoga,  was  among  the  first  who  landed  at 
Halifax,  in  1749.  The  project  involved  the  govern- 
ment in  serious  difficulties,  and  the  expenditure  of 
enormous  sums  of  money.  The  amount  first  appro- 
priated was  ^40,000.  In  a  few  years  the  cost  to 
the  nation  was  nearly  two  millions  of  dollars  1  The 
fieheries  were  neglected,  and  the  colonists,  unable  to 
suppo:t  themselves,  petitioned  Parliament  for  addi- 
tional relief,  even  after  so  large  an  amount  of  money 
had  been  disbursed  for  their  benefit.  Omitting  de- 
tails, we  may  state  that  five  millions  of  dollars  of  pub- 
lic money  were  expended  finally  in  the  colonization  of 
Nova  Scotia,  according  to  the  plan  devised  by  the 
Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations. 

United  States, — Our  continent  was  discovered  in 
1497,  ny  Ciabut ;  and  from  the  moment  that  the  chron- 
icler of  bis  voyage  made  known  to  the  people  of  En- 
gland that  our  waters  teemed  with  fish — that  here 
"  were  great  seals,  and  those  which  we  commonly  call 
salmons ;  and  also  soles  above  a  yard  in  length,  but 
especially  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  that  kind 
which  the  savages  call  baccalos  ur  codfish" — down 
to  the  year  16*20,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  first  and 
second  parts  of  this  report,  the  intercourse  of  the 
French  and  English  with  the  northerly  seas  of  Amer- 
ica was  constant ;  and  of  all  this  were  not  th>;  Puri- 
tans as  well  informed  as  others  ?  Wore  they  ignorant 
of  what  transpired  in  the  Now  World  in  the  ten  years 
immediately  preceding  their  flight  from  England,  and 
during  the  ten  years  of  their  residence  in  Holland  ? 
While  among  the  Dutch  they  were  neglected,  if  not 
unkindly  treated,  and  became  poor  and  unhappy. 
Many  places  to  which  to  emii^Tate  were  mentioned, 
and  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  were 
amply  discussed.  As  soon  as  the  decision  of  the  Uttle 
fluck  was  made,  some  were  dissatisfied  and  withdrew. 
The  question  arises,  why  did  they  decid(«  to  come  to 
America  ? 

I  have  no  space  to.ar,{ue  a  question  which  involves 
so  many  inquiries,  but  can  not  for'jear  to  state  that,  in 
a  ft  ■  words,  some  of  the  principal  incidents  which 
attended  their  coming  to  their  "wilderness  home." 
C  mitting  to  notice  the  accounts  of  Amidas  and  Barlow, 
who  explored  the  southern  coast  of  the  United  States 
in  1584,  under  the  auspices  of  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh,  and 
what  is  said  of  Sir  Itiohard  Grenville';;  expedition  tc 
the  same  region  the  year  following,  as  well  as  tiie  va- 
rious other  enterprises  which,  in  several  particulars, 
are  pertinent  to  the  sulijct,  we  come  at  once  to  the 
voyage  of  Gosnold,  in  the  year  1602.  He  was  the  first 
Englishman  who  sailed  directly  across  the  ocean,  and 
the  flrbt  who  attempted  to  moke  a  settlement  within 


PIS 


010 


FI8 


litt  llmha  of  Vew  EngUnd.  Tbe  ito'ry  of  liia  tdrm- 
turai  wu  written  by  two  of  hia  OMOcIater,  Archer  and 
Btereton,  and  published  In  linden*  immediately  after 
liis  return.  Of  Breretnn  little  iiecms  to  Im  known; 
but  Gosnold  and  Archer  were  subsequently  prominent 
unong  the  early  settlers  of  Virginia,  and  between  tbe 
latUir  an<l  the  celebrated  Smith  there  was  a  long  and 
a  desperate  quarrel.  From  Brereton'a  narrative,  as 
well  OS  from  the  tracts  appended  thereto,  it  appears 
that  Baleigh  was  the  patron,  perhaps  the  original 
mover,  of  the  enterprise.  As  containing  the  earliest 
information  of  Massachusetts  printed  in  England, 
these  papers  are  of  great  value.  The  uttention  of 
merchants,  of  fishermen,  and  of  those  interested  In 
colonization  hitherto,  and  for  nearly  a  century,  di- 
rected exclusively  to  Newfoundland,  was  now  to  be 
diverted,  in  some  measure,  to  New  England.  The 
reaults  will  appear  as  we  progress. 

Arrived  on  our  const,  Gosnoid  anchored  near  land 
which  he  called  "  Shool  Hope ;"  but,  catching  a 
"  great  store  of  codfish,"  he  changed  the  name  to  Cape 
Cod.f  While  there,  says  Archer,  "  we  saw  sculls  of 
herr!rg,  maciiirel,  and  other  small  fish,  in  great 
abundance."  Brereton,  whose  account  is  more  exact 
and  definite,  remarks  with  much  earnestness  upon 
most  matters  connected  with  our  inquiries,  "  Surely, 
I  am  persuaded,"  he  observes,  "that,  in  the  months 
of  March,  April,  and  May,  there  it  uywn  Ihit  coiul 
bttler  Jithiftg,  and  in  at  great  plentg  at  in  Neir/ound- 
land;  for  the  sculls  of  mackerel,  herrings,  cod,  and 
other  fish,  that  we  dally  saw  as  we  went  and  came 
from  the  shore,  were  wonderful ;  and,  besides,  the 
places  where  we  took  these  cods  (and  might  in  a  few 
days  have  laden  our  ship)  were  but  seven  fathoms 
water,  and  within  less  than  a  league  of  the  shore, 
wher  in  Newfoundland  they  fish  in  forty  or  fifty 
fathoms  water,  and  far  off." 

To  pass  the  observations  which  wen  recorded  as 
they  continued  their  explorations,  we  find  in  the 
tracts  appended  to  Brereton  the  prediction  thiit,  "/i>r- 
aimuch  at  merchants  are  diligent  inquidlort  after  gaint, 
theg  will  toon  remorc  their  trade  fnrni  Xetr/oundland" 
to  ffev)  England,  where  there  is  a  l)ctter  climate, 
greater  security  against  the  depredations  of  pirates, 
and  less  expense  for  outfits,  shorter  voyages,  and  safer 
harbors.  The  wrKer,  anticipating  that  a  eolunj-  would 
soon  tie  founded.  pi.-^Mcted  further,  tliat  the  ships  of 
(i//the  nations  that  "  have  Iwen  accustomed  to  repair 
unto  the  NewfuundUnd  for  the  commodity  of  fish  and 
oils  alone,  will  henceforth  forsake"  that  island,  "  when 
once  we  have  planted  people  in  these  parts ;  by  whose 
industry  shall  be  provided,  for  all  commerce,"  the 
products  of  the  sea,  "and  many  commmlities  besides, 
of  good  importance  and  value."  Eighteen  years 
elapsed;  the  Pilgrims  anchored  oflT  the  same  "  Shoal 
Hope,"  and  nettled  this  very  countr)-. 

Pring  followed  Gosnoid,  and  explored  the  waters  of 
Maine,  in  IflO.').  Ho  saw  and  named  the  Fox  islands, 
in  Penobscot  Bay,  and  /onnd  good  mooring  and  fish- 
ing. Like  Gosnoid,  he  considered  the  fish  which  he 
took  superior  to  those  of  Newfoundland.  He  made  a 
second  voyage  three  years  later ;  and  Gorges  remarks 
that  his  discovery  of  the  eiistem  part  of  New  England 
waa  perfect,  and  his  account  of  It  accurate.  Way- 
mouth,  under  the  patronage  of  se\'eral  Englinh  noble- 
men, and  other  persons  of  rank,  came  in  KiOo.  "A 
True  Belntion"  of  his  adventures  was  written  by 
Jamex  Ko»ier,  "a  gentleman  employed  in  the  voj-- 
age,"  and  printed  in  Lomlon  in  the  same  year.  He 
agrees  with  those  who  had  preceded  him  In  every  es- 
sential particular.  As  they  departed  for  England, 
thuy  caught  verj  largo  fish ;  and  he  sa'ys  that  those 


*  RepnblUhed  in  Collectiona  of  lUMaohoaetU  Hbtorical 
Boeloly,  roi.  8th  of  Sd  serica. 

t  Prince  Cl.arles  changed  the  name  to  "  Cape  James,"  In 
honor  of  his  father ;  but  Ooanold'a  appellation  baa  been  pre- 
•ervad  to  the  present  tbnaib 


on  l)oard  of  the  ship,  who  were  familiar  with  the  bnsi- 
ness,  "  would  warrant  (by  the  help  of  God),  in  a  short 
voyage,  with  a  few  goodjhhert,  to  rnaie  a  more  pmJUabIt 
return  from  hence  than  from  Nevfoundland ;  tht  Jiih 
being  to  much  greater,  better  fed,  and  abundjnce  mlk 
train,"  etc.* 

The  f'isheriet  from  the  eommenctmmi  of  the  Bevola. 
tionary  Controveny  to  the  Peclaralion  of  Independence, 
— In  tracing  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  fisheries  of 
New  England,  we  have  seen  that  they  funished  our 
first  articles  of  export,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  our 
navigation  and  commerce.  It  was  so  in  Europe.  Of 
the  present  maritime  powers  of  the  Old  World,  there  ii 
scarcely  one  that  does  not  owe  much  of  Its  commercial 
prosperity  to  the  same  branch  of  Industry.  Some  fUgi 
ti  ves  trom  the  wrath  of  the  monster  Attila  fled  to  the  islet 
of  the  Adriatic,  where,  of  necessity,  thoy  adopted  the 
avocation  of  fishermen.  By  this  employment,  steadily 
continued,  Venice  in  a  few  centuries  Iwcame  renowned 
for  her  wealth,  commerce,  and  naval  strength.  The  ori- 
gin  of  the  republic  was  celebrated  fov  a  long  period, 
and  the  omis^icn  or  refusal  of  a  Doge  to  provide  the 
customaky  lianquet,  and  to  submit  to  the  fishermen's 
embrace,  rllowetl  by  his  predecessors  on  this  national 
festival,  made  tho  name  of  Oontarini  hateful,  und  well- 
nigh  caused  the  sul>verslon  of  all  legal  restraint,  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  reigning  family.  Genoa,  too, 
grew  rich  and  powerful  by  tho  same  means,  and,  not 
content  with  her  own  limite<l  tishlng-grounds,  undeiv 
took  the  conquest  of  others.  Usurping  the  tisberles 
of  the  regions  of  the  Bosphorus,  she  capturcil  and  for 
a  while  awed  into  submission  their  rightful  owners. 
Amsterdam,  from  a  village  of  herring-catchers,  cabins, 
and  curing-sheds,  rose,  bj-  the  skill  of  the  inmates  of 
these  frail  structures,  l>y  the  fame  of  their  commodi* 
ties  in  foreign  countries,  and  by  the  Immense  con- 
sumption of  them  at  home,  to  unexampled  affluence 
and  grandeur;  and  the  sayings  everywhere  current 
two  centuries  ago,  that  "  Amsterdam  is  (bunded  on 
herring-bones,"  and  that  "  Dutchmen's  bodies  are 
built  of  pickled  herrings,"  were  hardly  more  than 
quaint  expressions  of  historic  truth. 

So  stcidily  and  snccessfully  were  the  fisheries  pur- 
sued by  tbe  people  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  Naw 
Hampshire,  and  Maine,  that  nnly  fifty  years  elapsed 
from  the  landing  iif  the  Puritans,  before  an  English 
«r!U;i  of  high  authority  In  matters  of  trade,  expressed 
his  apprehension  a?  to  the  events  likely  tu  result,  in 
the  following  remarkable  words :  "  New  England," 
said  he,  "  Is  the  most  prejudicial  plantation  tu  thia 
kingdom."  And  why?  Because,  "of  all  the  American 
plantations,  his  majesty  has  none  so  apt  for  building 
of  shipping  as  New  England,  nor  any  comparably  so 
qualified  for  the  breeding  of  seamen,  not  only  by  roo- 
Kon  of  tho  nati'  ti  Industry  of  that  people,  but  princi- 
pally b}'  reaso..  of  their  cod  and  ~nackerel  f.sherlcs ; 
and,  in  my  poor  opinion,  there  is  nothing  more  preju- 
dicial, and  in  procpect  more  dangerour  to  any  mother 
kingdom,  than  the  increase  of  shipping  in  her  colonies, 
plantations,  or  provinces."  Sir  Josiah  C'hild  was 
alarmed  too  much,  prolial>ly,  at  what  really  was  in  his 
own  time,  but  still  saw  with  a  prophet's  eyo  what  was 
to  be.  But  the  policy  of  England,  from  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuarts  down  to  the  Kevolutlon,  was  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  apprehensions  expressed  by 
him,  and  she  not  only  neglected  and  declined  all  sup- 
port to  tho  navigation  and  commerce  of  Now  ICngiund, 
but  directly  oppressed  and  restrained  them.  Omitting 
notice  of  tho  acts  of  I'arliument  which  do  not  relate 
specially  to  the  subject  licfore  us,  tho  first  law  to 
claim  our  attention  was  pas!<ed  in  17il3,  after  a  discus- 
sion of  two  years.  This  act,  by  imposing  duties  on 
rum,  molasses,  and  sugar,  imported  into  the  colonies 
from  any  West  India  islands  other  than  British,  was 
designed  to  break  up  an  extensive  and  valuable  trade 


*  With  larger  Utert—ot  course  affording  more  oil. 


Kliod( 
j  Conn 
Vernv 
Now  ' 
I  Now  , 
Penn? 
DoIhm 
Mary  I 
VlrRlr 
North 
South 
Ooorg 
Alsbai 
Missis 
Louli'l 
Tonne 
Kontu 
Ohio.. 
India 
Illlnol 
MI»»oi 
Arkuii 
Mii-hl: 
KInrlil 
Wlwo 
,  Iowa. 
I  I)lctri< 


ii!!^^^ij:i.«,-j'..I.Lri!L;^^Sij  L-vii'^i>iglZ,.^;!;k*kil^^^ 


FIS 


OVl 


FIS 


with  tht  Frefich,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  islandi,  when 
thnse  product!!  of  the  plantatiom  were  exclunged  for 
flah.  It  la  said  that,  prevlcua  to  the  compnencnincnt 
of  the  trade  to  then  Inland),  molassea  was  i,hrown 
away  l>y  the  planters,  and  that  this  article,  which  Ii 
now  so  extensively  (U«d  In  food,  was  first  saved  and 
put  Into  cauks  to  b«  brought  to  New  Kngland,  to  be 
distilled  into  rum.  Certain  It  Is,  that  on  the  posso/^ 
of  the  act  of  1788,  the  people  of  the  northern  colonies 
insisted  that,  unless  th«y  could  continue  to  sell  llsh  to 
the  planten  of  the  foreign  islam'.i,  and  to  Import  mo- 
lasses fruin  thenci]  to  be  man'ifactured  Into  ^^.irit,  for 
domestic  consumption  and  for  trade  with  the  Indians, 
they  could  not  prosecute  the  flsherieu  without  rulnoi'.i> 
losses.  Thp  penalty  for  violating  the  act  was  the  for- 
feiture of  vessel  and  cirgo.  Yet  New  England  never 
Nubmitted,  though  a  fleet  Tins  ttent  to  enforce  obedi- 
ence ;  an4  the  Intenlicted  trade  with  the  French, 
Dutch,  and  Spanish  islands,  did  not  cease  until  a  late 
period  nf  the  controversy  which  terminated  in  the 
Revoimion,  In  fact,  therefore,  a  measure  which 
threatened  to  ruin  the  cod-fishery  of  ^'-<»  ii.ii(jl:<id, 
produced,  as  I  Incline  to  believe,  nr  .terious  injur}-  to 
it,  for  quite  thirty  years. 

But  in  17C4  the  act  was  renewed  md  the  collection 
of  the  duties  it  imposed  on  ivT.:,  moia/>8es,  and  sugar, 
was  attempted  by  the  officers  of  thii  crown,  in  a  man- 
ner to  create  the  most  anxious  concern  ;  for,  the  juris- 
diction of  the  admiralty  courts  was  enlnrged,  and  the 
people  were  deprived  of  the  trial  by  jury  in  all  cases 
arising  between  th<'ni  and  the  government  under  this 
law,  and  the  trade  and  navigation  laws  generally. 

The  most  nlannlng  discontents  followed  the  collis- 
ions and  quarrels  which  constantly  occurred  between 
shi|>-nia8ters  and  merchants,  on  thb  one  hand,  and  the 
officers  of  the  customs  on  the  other.  In  various  parts  of 
New  Englnnd,  and  especially  in  Boston,  Salem,  Glou- 
cester, Fulmouth,  and  elsewhere  in  Massachusetts ; 
and  the  impression  became  general  among  commercial 
men,  tliat  their  business  and  prcp<!rty  were  both  to  be 
sacrificed  to  appease  the  clamors  of  the  planters  of  the 
Bri'ilsh  islands,  and  to  test  the  ability  of  the  mother 
countr}'  to  "  raise  a  revenue  in  America"  under  the 
"sugar  and  molasses  act,"  as  this  odious  law  was 
called  in  the  politics  of  the  duy. 

These  incidents  will  serve  lo  show  the  connection  of 


the  fltheriei  with  tb«  queationi  which  canted  •  duk 
memberment  of  the  British  empire.  It  rumain*  to 
(peak  of  the  act  of  Parliament  passed  In  1770,  wlilcli, 
by  depriving  the  people  of  New  England  of  thu  right 
of  fishing,  was  designed  to  "  starve  them  into  aulimll- 
■Ion."  Tue  trade  arlsUig  from  the  cod-fiahery  alini*, 
at  that  period,  furnished  the  northern  colonlaa  witil 
nearly  half  of  their  remittances  to  tlin  mother  oimntl)', 
in  payment  for  articles  of  liritisli  manufacture,  ana 
waj  thu3  the  ver}'  life-blood  of  tlieir  commerce,  Th* 
fishing  townr  had  be<  ume  populous  and  rich.  Marlila* 
heai.,  for  example,  next  to  lioston,  was  th*  most  lai- 
portant  place  In  Massachusetts,  and  was  saonnd  to  th* 
capital  only  in  population  and  taxable  f  nparty,  A 
fearful  change  awaited  all.  The  dispute  waa  now  to 
be  determined  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  and  every  mari- 
time enterprise  was  to  be  interrnpted  and  ruined. 

We  have  already  given  in  this  article  a  short  bin- 
torlcal  account  of  the  fishery  of  the  United  Htatas,  and 
of  the  treaties  now  or  hitherto  in  force  respectlnif  tbo 
fisheries ;  so  the  remainder  of  this  article  will  li«  onii- 
flned  to  the  statistics  of  our  fisheries  alnca  our  Mp- 
aratloii  from  Great  Britain, 

STAvu-ncs  or  Tiia  Cod-Fishkry  or  Htsaikoiiusarrs  riOM 
Ti'a  YiAa  1765  to  1776,  and  raoH  1784  to  1790, 


'ifWIU, 

From  HIS  lo  1111. 

rromllMlollW.      1 

ViueU 

iWD'llr 
«mpl'd. 

Toniug*. 

No,  of 
nifn. 

V«M«I> 

Ron'lly 
•m|il>il, 

Tunniiff*. 

Nn.or 

.W5, 

MarbleUead. . , 

Gloucester 

Manchester,.. 

Beverly 

Salem 

Mewburypcrt. 

Ipswich. 

Plymouth 

CohiiSJet 

lUngham 

Scltuato 

I)u\bnry 

Kingston 

Yarmouth 

Welltleot 

Truro  

Provlncctown, 

Chatham 

Nantucket 

Weymouth  . . . 
In  Maine 

ToUI 

160 

146 

25 

15 

80 

10 

60 

») 

6 

6 

10 

4 

6 

80 

8 

10 

4 

80 

8 

2 

60 

7,600 

^6«0 

1,.VK) 

760 

1,600 

400 

•  900 

2,400 

MO 

240 

400 

160 

240 

900 

90 

400 

160 

900 

820 

100 

1,000 

1,200 

888 

200 

120 

240 

60 

190 

43C 

42 

42 

70 

28 

43 

180 

31 

80 

83 

340 

64 

16 

280 

90 

160 

16 

19 

30 

10 

64 

84 

6 

4 

8 

9 

4 

80 

ii 
so 

6 
R 
80 

6,400 

8,400 

900 

1,286 

1,800 

440 

84U 

1,440 

WNI 

1W) 

90 

840 

140 

»00 

"860 
900 
30' 
160 
800 

TIKI 
«W) 
130 
167 
l«0 
Ml 
>4H 

m 

H6 
14 

180 

"ii 

•m 

40 

n 

130 

665 

2.\680 

4.406  1    8110 

19,INA 

Statistics  or  tiii  FisuEuiiis  or  tuk  Umtkd  States  ix  1840,     Oknrral  Vikw  showino  tiix  PaoouoR,  Maw,  Aim 
Capital  bmpioi'kd  m  bach  Statb  and  T>!BaiTORY. 


lore  oU. 


SUil«)  »nd  Territorial. 

Numb«rafqulii- 

IkUorimokcdor 

<lry«.h. 

Num>ter  of 

barrel!  of 

pickled  Slh, 

Vumbcrofiralloiu 
oraponnaaetloll. 

Number  of  nlloiu 

ofwfaftleuiduUier 

Sik  oil. 

Value  of  whale- 
bone and  other    Nunilier  tl  men 
;)rodurtloni  of  ibe       euil>liiyed. 
Aaherlee. 

r«[ilialbi«Ml«l 

MMno 

Now  llanipshiro 

MaMAcliiisctts 

Khoile  Mftiid 

279,166 
28,257 

889,(15 
4,084 
1,884 

"5 

2,885 

•■■'a 

9 

64,071 
1,714 

134,785 
2.908 
4,898 

22''}24 

1,184 

2,018 

28.0(H) 

71,292 

1KI.8I8 

711,8,'iO 

428 

14 

1,014 

8,680,973 

.    487,268 

188,207 

400,281 
12,000 

49,704 

"262 

117,807 

16,284 

8,844,725 

638,860 
1,909,047 

1,269^641 
80,000 

142,875 
2,887 

■"i4 

"'28 

"'60 
V,800 

»3,86l 

442,974 
46,628 
187,873 

S44',a66 
74,000 
15,240 

7,987 
13,167 

4,150 
23,800 

V,i60 
166 

D.illO 

899 

16,000 

1,160 

2,216 

l',238 

m 

88 

166 

7,814 

!M 

''Z 

4 

" 't 

"166 

"488 
67 
188 

69,H«I 

ll,728,*fiO 

l,ii77,IM 

9i9,m 

911,376 
111,4110 
170,0110 
M8,»4T 
8H,ittlfl 

1,411 

"343 
l'3',3i» 

i»,m 

0,000 
41,800 

44^)1) 
I4,4«»,«3U 

New  York 

New  JiTscy 

Ponnsylvaiita 

Delaware 

Vtrglnin 

North  Carolina 

Boutb  Carolina 

Alabama. 

Misstsaippt 

■"97 

8.m 

Kontuckv 

Ohio 

14 
1 

;;!!        18^585 

49,000                    T8 
9,021 

!!".;                34",800 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Klorlila . .   

Wisconsin . . . . 

Ulctriot  of  Columbia., 

18,800      1           637 

Total 

778,947            472,859      |      4,764,708      ]      7,886,778      |      1,158,284      ,       84,884 

BIS 


073 


VIS 


ItATiana  »w  m  OaD-Fiuuai  or  th(  Unitid  BtaWi 

C,    ■XUIBrrlKO  THI  ToDHAa,'  aUrLOTBD:   BODNTT  PAIDTO 

^   Viiiiina  Vmiu :  iMPOin  >rSAiT,  BxroinorOniD 
Fun,  AND  Tua  VALoa  or  i  <a  iahb. 


Tmt. 


1790 
1701 
17W 
1718 
17M 
17»5 
17M 
17»7 
17»a 
17W 
1800 
1801 
1801 

leoa 

1804 
180R 
180« 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1811 
1818 
18U 
18tS 
18te 
1817 
1818 
I8lt 
1820 
1821 

im 

1818 
18S4 
1821V 
ISM 
1817 
1818 
18W 
1680 
1881 


ToMaga. 


1»,18S 

18,848 
8.i,M2 
82,n«0 

ao,i«s 

18,671 
80,084 
84,988 
40,1X9 
41,740 
29,978 
19,417 
89,881 
41,U1 
61,813 
51,014 

n7,4«« 

IMI.188 
09,808 
M,998 
84,488 
84.828 
48,288 
S0,4.'i9 
20,S73 
17,886 


48,126 
64,S07 
69,107 
76,076 
72,040 
tl.198 
69.226 
7M.V) 

n,44« 

81,461 


94,766 
101,797 

98,529 
106,188 


1882    in2,4.'U 
1888  {111,446 


1884 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1848 
IS44 
1846 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 
1861 


117,4.S6 

(n|8n6 
80,662 
70,064 
72,148 
76.(186 
66,iWl 
V.,8n8 
61,228 
a6,224 
70,990 
79,818 
78,280 
89,866 
81.696 
08,S06 
»i,616» 


Nam. 


171,966  81 

98,768  91 

64,280  47 

76,889  68 

80,476  76 

»4,<84  80 

128,606  87 

87,868  46 

74,6M»1 

104,447  91 

117,178  67 

146,986  78 

I61,MT  Tl 

161,191  W 

161,264  17 

141,91!  89 

47,166  11 

8  406  44 

Mooe. 


1,811  74 
84,786  26 
119,919  61 
148,916  66 
161,618  86 
197,8.84  68 
170,061  91 
149,897  88 
17«,7IM  04 
108,924  08 
108,724  97 
tl.V850  01 
206,IS6  66 
289,146  10 
161,069  M 
197,641  18 
100,418  89 
219,746  17 
24.M81  40 
21S2I8  76 
228,784  98 
llK.OOl  08 
160,181  OS 
814,149  00 


R«l 


~iaiihali. 
1,«M,1B5 
9,866,760 
1,860,479 
l,n9,810 
1,017,888 
1,968,411 
1,888,186 
8,97^929 
1,674,161 
1,891.468 
1,471,969 
8,096,807 
8,181,0«4 
8,664,608 
8,862,804 
8,479.878 
8,662,177 
(,941,816 
4,671,628 
1,800,177 
No  roturna 


888,844 
2.010.181 

6,864,421 
2.884..'KU 
8,678,526 
8,874.862 
4.711,8-W 
8,948,727 
4,087,881 
6,127,6.17 
4.4«)1.:^ 
4,674.202 
4.664,720 
4,S:».489 
8.962.9.17 
^94^.^t7 
^874,IW6 
4.181.840 
^041.424 
6,812.672 
6,(188.076 
6.876.864 
6.088.666 
6,848,706 
7,108.147 
6,061.608 
8.188.20!) 
8,828,946 


Prixiaik 

•lpi>K«4. 


{11,621.168 

111.124.186 
8,681,176 


<)lltllMll. 


t  >1 
Sir...  il8 
871.816 
488,907 
400,818 
877.718 
406.016 
411,176 
41S496 
892.7M 
410,948 
440,916 
461,870 
667,828 
614,649 
687,467 
478,914 
1.18,808 
84.1,648 
280.864 
214,8>*7 
169.019 
68,616 
81.810 
108.261 
119.991 
207.AI4 
808.747 
280.866 
821.419 
267.808 
241.228 
262.766 
810.189 
8181,8.17 
260,'i(« 
247.821 
16M17 
194.761 
229.796 
280.877 
18n..144 
249,689 
2.VI.I82 
287.721 
240.76? 
1S8,»48 
206.028 
208,720 
111.426 
2.12.199 
2.16,(183 
174,220 
271,610 
28,8.880 
177,401 
2.18.870 
106.649 
197.467 
168.600 
161.068 


V>l«  of 


bollsn. 


1,61(1^000 

1,400,000 

1,058,000 

1.I60,0«0 

1,896,000 

628.000 

1,128,000 

918,000 

7,17,000 

691,00C 

210,000 

118,000 

494,000 

986,000 

1,008,000 

1,081,000 

1,061,000 

964,000 

708,778 

784.0*4 
878,686 
880,886 
667,741 
747,171 
819,916 
747,641 
680,690 
626.898 
749.90k 
718.817 
630Ji86 
788,896 
746,464 
688,606 
626,246 
709,118 
641,008 
602,810 
667,781 
881,176 
699.888 
803,868 
699,669 
669,629 
6»9,is2 
419,092 
86,1,349 
867,729 


•  MaIdd,  48,628;  New  Hsmpihire,  1,916;  Maauobimetts. 
89,982:  Rhode  I.il»nd,  871;  Connecticut,  6,786;  New  York, 
1,084;  Total,  9.1,616. 

The  Mitckerrl  Fuherg,  from  the  letllemenl  of  Nero 
KngUmd  to  the  year  1862. — It  U  frequently  wid  that  the 
mackerel  tiithery  \i  of  very  recent  ori^^in,  or  that,  at 
least,  vetsrit  were  not  employed  in  it  until  Hbout  the 
clo(W  of  the  la!>t  or  the  beginninjt  of  the  present  century. 
lioth  nuppnfiitions  are  entirely  erronenux.  The  Indians, 
reKsrdles*  of  the  beautiful  form  and  color  of  the  fiiih, 
called  it  wamcunneieteoff,  on  account  of  its  fatness. 
There  is  mention  of  it  in  the  earliest  records  of  the 
country.  Winthnip  relates  that  in  ICM,  the  ship 
Griffin,  two  days  Iwfore  her  arrival  at  Boston,  lost  a 
passenger  hy  drowning,  as  he  was  casting  forth  n  line 
to  catch  mackerel.  The  first  settlers  must  have 
commenced  the  fishery  soon  after,  since,  to  omit  sev- 
eral minor  incidents,  we  have  the  fact  tliat  AUerton, 
one  of  the  Pilgrims  who  came  over  in  tlie  Mayiflinrer, 
teceived  mackerel  for  sale  at  New  Haven,  on  "  half 
profits,"  in  the  year  16AS.  That  the  business  was 
prosecuted  with  lUCCMt  ii  evident  <iroin  the  "mitW^Hl 


fiiot,  thai  in  1660  the  oommUsIonwa  of  tlie  ooloniei  of 
New  EpgUlul  ncommended  to  the  general  courts  of 
the  confadenuiy  to  regulate  it,  "considering"  that 
"  the  fish  la  the  most  staple  commodity  of  this  couii' 
try."  The  mackerel  llsbery  at  Cape  Cod  was  held  by 
the  government  of  the  colony  of  I'lymouth  aa  publio 
property,  and  its  profits  were  appropriated  to  publio 
uses.  The  records  show  that  it  was  rented  from 
time  to  time  to  individuals,  who  paid  stipulated  sums ; 
and  that  a  part  of  the  fund  to  mppori  the  jirit  free- 
school  eHabluked  by  our  J'ilgrim  fathen  vat  derived 
from  it. — Sabink'k  Report  to  Congreu,  1868. 

The  proposition  to  found  and  endow  a  school  of  thii 
dsscxiptlon  seems  to  have  been  made  in  1608,  but  not 
to  have  been  adopted  until  seven  years  later,  when  the 
general  court,  "  upon  due  and  serious  consideration, 
(Hd  flreely  give  and  grant  all  such  profits  as  might  or 
should  annually  accrue  to  the  colony,"  from  this  and 
the  liass  and  herring  fisheries,  at  the  same  place.  In 
ICSO,  the  "  rent  of  the  Capo  fishery  was  added  to  tha 
appropriation  for  magistrates'  salaries  for  that  year." 

Htatutios  or  tub  Mackeul  FiamaT  or  raa  UMrian 
States. 


Ymh. 

ToiUMf* 

imployed. 

Mukaral  liitpwM. 

MhucIiiihHi. 

la 

In  M«lii«. 

Hwnh. 

BwnU. 

rwrtu. 

1804 

.... 

8,079 

1806 

.... 

8,986 

*>•> 

•    .A. 

1.808 

.... 

8,478 

•  >*• 

.... 

1807 

.... 

10,904 

•  •  •  • 

1808 

.... 

7,783 

•  <•■ 

>.*• 

1609 

.... 

8,865 

•  >•• 

.... 

1810 

...  * 

18,058 

•  ••  • 

,    .    .    , 

1811 

. .  .* 

19.688 

•  .*  > 

1812 

.... 

^()!8 

•  •■• 

•    .•■ 

1818 

.... 

8,882 

...* 

1814 

.... 

l.»t» 

•  .*• 

1816 

.... 

16,894 

.    ..* 

1818 

.... 

80,011 

.... 

.... 

1817 

.... 

87,982 

.... 

1818 

.... 

47,210 

1819 

10^4S8 

1820 

..>• 

186.248 

.... 

.    ..* 

1821 

111,009 

..• . 

.... 

-821 

.... 

160,294 

..A* 

.... 

16-M 

.  •  • . 

14^006 

•   •  t  • 

1824 

. .  *• 

191.650 

.... 

18'J6 

.... 

264,3H1 

^065 

lii26 

.... 

188,740 

*.*• 

.... 

1827 

. , , , 

190,810 

.... 

1828 

237,824 

.  .  *  . 

...• 

1829 

.... 

12.1,881 

...• 

1830 

.... 

808,462 

&(^s6o 

.... 

1881 

888,869 

ai,4fto 

.... 

1882 

112,482 

SlJtiO 

.... 

1888 

48;726 

112,946 

1M76 

1884 

.... 

262,SS4 

lf*,200 

4b;661 

1886 

104,460 

lft.800 

1886 

176,981 

».4ao 

2is;228 

18.87 

4«,8ii 

138,187 

6,220 

22,462 

1888 

&6,64l> 

1()S688 

8,420 

24,812 

1889 

7.8,018 

TOO 

1840 

!»;26» 

60,992 

680 

1841 

11,811 

6.\687 

i.lOO 

1842 

1^09« 

7.1,548 

1,050 

1818 

11.778 

04,481 

1.175 

18-14 

10,170 

86,181 

1,«40 

1846 

21,418 

202J)ir2 

1,075 

1846 

86,468 

174,0M 

1,869 

1847 

81.461 

232,881 

2,008 

1848 

43,858 

m\\m 

9,400 

1848 

48.(MS 

281,866 

3,8«T 

18,10 

68,112 

•  •  *• 

8,1S5 

18.11 

60,689« 

«2»,242 

8,078 

81,471 

1882 

1»7,7«8 

2,140 

.... 

•  Maine,  9,858;  New  lUinpabIro,  481;  Massachnsotts, 
89,410;  Bhodc  Island,  190;  Connecticut,  694;  Total,  60,539. 

Exact  statements  as  to  the  progress  and  extent  of 
the  mackerel  fishery  previous  to  the  Revolution,  are 
hardly  to  be  found ;  but  it  is  still  certain  that  the  pco- 
|ile  of  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  as  well  as  those 
of  Massachusetts,  were  "  lar^^cly  concerned  in  it ;"  nnd 
that  fleets  of  sloops  cmplovi^d  in  it  were  often  seen 
upon  the  coast  and  in  the  harbors.  It  is  certain  also 
that  alwut  the  year  1770  the  town  of  Scituate  alone 
owned  upward  of  80  vessels  that  were  annually  fitted 
out  as  "  mackerel  catchers  ;"  and  that  the  whole  num- 
ber of  veaselt  in  Mastachiuetta  wsa  not  lesa  than  100, 


PIS 


678 


FIS 


:^ 


Boon  »tt»t  the  p«ac«  of  1788,  •  writer  In  >  Boaton  newi- 

pap«r,  In  a  Mriefi  of  Riticlea  on  American  ciymmerca, 

laid  that  the  mackerel  flaher}-  ■■  voa  of  more  value  to 

MasHochuaettg  than  would  b«  the  poari  flahoriei  of 

Ceylon." 

Annual  Kktdin  np  Tiia  numrki  or  DARaEui,  IlALvn, 

(jVARTKIIK,  AND  KlOUTHa  or  UaRRKMI   or  MACKtRKL  AND 

ornna  I'irKi.(i>  Kiaii,  ihtiiiatru  in  nAaaitM,  iNiii'ECTin) 
IN  MAaaAciiuaiCTTa,  roa  tiik  Yiar  kniiino  Drcbmbrr 
81,  18S2,  A*  I'KR  Tiia  Brtvrns  or  tiik  Drpiitt  In«p«ot- 
oaa,  NOW  IN  TiiR  Orrica  or  tiii  iNsrxttOR  Grnrral. 
Wh«ra  Iniixeltil,  No,  of  Barnlk 

Bonton 8«,S8ll 

Olouccstor 48,0191 

Beverly 866} 

Rockport . . , , 6,S46} 

Newburyport I1,H06 

I'rovlnceCowo 17,(40 

Truro S,540 

Wellfleot 11,867 

Chatbani BT,64S 

Harwich 9,147 

Dennis 10,21)0 

Tarniouth S,ia5 

Barnntablo 8,igg| 

Illnghnm 18,lSSl 

Cohandot 11,6161 

riymouth 67 

Baleiii 14 


ToUl 106,768^ 

Ibe  abuvo  Includes  all  except  two  returns 
from  I'rovlncotown  and  one  from  Scltuate, 
estimated  at 1,000 


Total  I881J 197,76IH 

—  ,771} 


Belnapected  at  Boston 19,7711 


Total 817,U0| 

All  other  kinds  of  pickled  flah 9,m^ 

ToUl  amount  of  mackerel  Inspected  In  1859  197,768^ 
Total  amount  of  mackerel  Inspected  In  1861  899,'i!78 


Decrease  of  18S9  ttom  18S1 181,11091 

Btatistior  or  roaaiON  Mackrrxi.  importkd  into  and  ix- 

PORTED    IROM    TIIR   UNITED  STATES,   AMD  Or  DRIED   CoD- 


risu  I 

MPORTRD   INTO  TIIR  SAMR. 

Yw. 

Maekaral. 

Codflih.                   1 

Imporud  !ato 

fCipuft*'!  from 
tbi  United 

Iha  UDlud 

laiportHl.                  1 

SUUia. 

StRtea. 

Iterralt, 

BArrvU. 

Qulnlali. 

VaIm. 

1821 

7 

None. 

1829 

887 

** 

1828 

67 

u 

1H24 

790 

u 

1H26 

949 

H 

ln26 

87 

u 

1827 

89 

it 

1S23 

S8 

4t 

1829 

95 

U 

1880 

891 

H 

1881 

4,559 

U 

•  •    . 

1882 

89 

u 

1888 

90 

u 

1884 

298 

188S 

8,158 

850 

1886 

8,087 

987 

1887 

1,266 

BflO 

1888 

189 

1889 

7,046 

•  ■ .  • 

'4,9M 

•94,808 

1840 

11,828 

4,061 

19,855 

1841 

10,881 

2,438 

19,269 

1849 

•  •  t  • 

184B 

1844 

1*15 

1816 

1S47 

1848 

1849 

1&S606 

88,295 

92,590 

48^769 

18A0 

7^491 

18,577 

95,115 

45,961 

18Bt 

103,68s 

18,940 

14,705 

97,769 

There  is  little  of  interest  relating  to  this  branch  of 
industry-  for  several  years  after  the  period  last  men- 
tioned, A  highly  re.ipectalilo  shipmaster,  who  is  still 
living,  entertains  the  opinion  that  the  flBhor)-  in  ve»$tU 
was  commenced  within  60  years ;  and  that  "  ho  was 
personally  engaged  in  theyirat  regular  mackerel  voyage 
ever  made  in  New  England."  His  account,  as  related 
to  me  by  himself,  would  occupy  too  much  room.  Its 
lubtUnce  Is,  that  h«  engaged  in  the  coasting  business  for 
Uo 


some  time  between  tiaasanhusetts  and  Maine ;  he  com- 
monly saw  and  caught  \  .^keiel  during  the  summer 
months  in  the  vicinity  of  the  island  of  Mount  Desert ; 
that  believing  that  they  might  be  taken  in  quantitii>a, 
ha  resolved  finally  to  lit  out  a  vessel  for  the  expraaa 
purpose ;  that  his  success  was  even  greater  than  he 
had  expected,  and  that  others  wor«  induced  to  follow 
his  example.  The  mistake  of  thU  gentleman  proliably 
is,  that  what  he  conaiderad  the  origin  of  the  veaael 
fishery  was  only  a  rtvival  ''.  :\  since  we  can  easily 
imagine  that  repeated  losses  anil  discouragements  had 
caused  a  suspension  of  it. 

Tk»  Herring  Fitkery,from  its  cvmmtnc  -ent  to  th»year 
18&2. — We  hear  of  this  flshery  among  the  Pilgrims. 
In  1641  they  rented  the  herring  wtar  at  I'lymouth  for 
three  years  to  three  men,  "  who  were  to  deliver  tlie 
shares  of  fish,  and  receive  Is.  Od.  per  1000  for  their 
trouble."  We  hear  of  it  on  the  coast  of  Maine  alco  a 
few  yeurs  afterward.  Jusselj-n  says  that  the  "  herrin" 
were  "  so  numerous,  they  take  of  them  all  summer 
long.  In  1G70,"  ho  continues,  "  they  were  driven  into 
Black  Point  harbor,  by  other  great  fih  that  prey  upon 
them,  so  near  the  shore  that  they  tl  irew  themselves  (it 
being  high  water)  upon  dry  land  ir  such  inflnito  num- 
bers that  we  might  have  gone  half  >.  ay  the  leg  among 
them  for  near  a  quarter  of  a  mile,"  He  repeats  the 
account  in  his  "  Chronological  Observations  of  Amer- 
ica;" where  he  states,  tliat  so  "  wonderful"  was  the 
quantity,  that  "  they  w'.»  half-leg  deep  for  a  mite  to- 
gether." Of  the  m'.iine.  f  cooki  .g  at  that  period  he 
remarks,  that  "  we  used  to  qualify  n  pickled  herrin  by 
boiling  of  him  in  milk."  These  incidents  are  su6flcient 
to  show  tlie  early  origin. 

From  the  fragmentary  notices  of  the  fishery  which 
are  to  bo  met  with,  it  seems  probable  that,  for  a  long 
time,  as  the  aeou^i  of  herrings  came  to  our  coasts,  the 
inhabitants  on  the  sea  and  rivers,  from  Maine  to  thv, 
Carolinas,  generally  secured  sufficient  for  consumption 
fresh ;  that  the  more  careful  provided  themselves  with 
salt  to  cure  quantities  for  future  use ;  and  that  some, 
becoming  regular  fishermen,  caught  and  cured  the  fish 
for  sale  to  their  neighbors  of  the  interior.  And  that 
the  practice  was  continued,  substantially,  without  in- 
terruption, until  the  waters  resorted  to  by  the  herring 
for  the  deposit  of  its  spawn  were  obstructed  by  dams 
and  mills,  is  hardly  to  l>e  doubted.  It  is  certainly  true 
that  on  some  of  the  rivers,  whore  the  fishery-  is  now 
nearly  extinct,  the  supply  at  the  revolutionary  era 
was  considered  inexhaustilile ;  and  that  farmers  and 
Ishermen  were  in  the  constant  habit  of  filling  wagons 
und  boats  with  scoop-nets  and  other  simple  implements. 

The  Ualibiit  Fithery. — The  halibut  fishery  on  George's 
Bank  is  a  new  rntrr|)riso.  It  was  commenced  within 
a  few  years  by  the  adventurous  fishermen  of  Cape 
Ann.  Pursued  in  mid-winter,  it  is  as  hazardous  an 
employment  as  can  well  be  imagined. 

While  the  fisherj-  was  conflnu''.  to  the  coast,  the  con- 
sumption of  the  fish  was  very  limited.  In  April,  1848, 
the  NorfM  Herald  announced  that  "  our  market,  yes- 
terday morning,  was  enriched  with  a  delicacy  from  the 
nortliern  waters,  tlie  halibut — a  strange  Jish  in  these 
parts,  knoum  imly  to  epicures  and  natnralisti." 

The  New  Orleans  Picayune,  in  May  of  the  same 
year,  contained  a  similar  paragraph.  At  present,  the 
fish,  packed  in  boxes  with  ice,  is  sent,  sound  and  sweet, 
by  railroads  and  vessels,  to  the  most  distant  sections 
of  the  country.  Vessels  employed  on  the  Bank  are 
absent  fVom  port  from  six  to  fourteen  days.  The  av- 
erage catch  of  halibut  is  perhaps  200  to  a  vessel,  though 
some  olitain  doulile  that  number.  The  weight  of  the 
fish  is  from  SO  to  200  pounds.  [For  nearly  tho  whole 
of  this  article  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Sabine's  valuable 
Report  on  Fisheries,  1863.] 

For  .Homo  time,  dealers  in  Boston  purchased,  packed, 
and  shipped  the  fish  almost  exclusively ;  but  a  com-  - 
pany  was  finally  formed  at  Gloucester  for  the  purpose 
of  transacting  this  pact  of  the  business  as  well  as  the 


FIS 


674 


FIB 


oriMr.  Tk«  flihoniMa,  howavor,  nmrt  afcaln  to  Bon- 
tan  I  for  IbU  company.  *ft«r  lining  »  cniuildenbl*  part 
of  tbalr  caiilul,  nllmiuliihed  tlx-ir  dimiKn. 

Th«  Kmwih  of  th«  ttilMr}'  hiu  l>eeii  npid.  Tb* 
naffltnr  of  vmuIii  employml  In  it,  owned  at  Ulooceib 
Ur,  wu  DO  In  ltM4  ;  611  In  IIHH  ;  and  about  7A  in  April, 
IBM.  Tha  praaent  fleet  eontaina  many  new,  well- 
modtled,  and  faat-Mlllnft  vesMla.  The  value  of  the 
ballliut  cadKht  in  IHftl  wan  upwarl  uf  fl'iO.OUO. 

I  can  nut  forbear  to  old,  that  had  our  ntataamen 
•t4NMi  hj  the  doctrine  which  waa  aanerted  and  main- 
tained at  (Ihent  by  the  American  romminiiuneni,  <m» 
■ouri''  of  calamity  at  leaat  would  have  been  t]mnd  to 
oar  Huharmen.  The  righta  guarantied  to  us  formetl  a 
part  of,  and  in  their  very  nature  were  aa  p^'r)"*'"*'  »», 
our  independence  aa  a  nation.  Tha  flmt  article  of  the 
convention  of  IHIH  should  never  have  l)«en  aKreeil  to 
by  our  Kovrrnment.  The  third  article  of  the  treaty 
of  178i1  ought  never  to  have  Iwen  utrii^ken  fWim 
that  Inatmment.  It  la  now  too  late  to  romict  the 
mlataka. 

The  eamin);!!  of  the  veaaeln  aent  to  tha  Bank  are 
generally  ample  i  but  the  lliihery  la  not  profitable,  in 
con*e<|uence  of  the  extruordinar}'  wear  and  tear  of 
•alia  and  rigging,  and  the  frequent  lose  of  cableii  and 
anchors.  Store  than  all,  hardly  a  leiuitm  paaaea  with- 
out apiwiling  dlMUten.  Whenever  a  veaael  la  lout  on 
Qaorge'a,  ail  on  Imard  perish. 

An  American  citicen  may  contend,  if  he  will,  for  the 
rapeni  of  our  Iwunty  laws  ;  he  may  favor  a  low  dutj-, 
or  no  duty  what«ver,  on  foreign  tiah  ;  hut  be  la  lK)unil 
to  honor  the  courage  and  persevenince  of  the  halibut 
catchers  of  Cape  Ann,  who,  mid  the  atorma  and  galea 
of  a  northern  winter,  procure  for  him  the  luacioua  najKs 
»tuijltu  which  garnish  his  lioani. 

The  statistica  of  the  produce  of  the  United  Htntes' 
flsherlcs  fur  1M65  and  186tf  are  shown  liy  the  following 
table,  taken  from  the  Report  on  Commerce  and  Mavi- 
faliiin  : 

STATKMRaT  siiowiNo  TUK  DowiMTio  KxpoaTs  or  Fiiii  raoM 
THa  raiTiD  HTATia  roa  Tua  YaAa  aaDiitu  ,)i>aa  80, 
1SB8.  ^ 


WkKhtr  •Iporlnl. 


I  Dried  or  MBokMl. 


8,4M 


I     Cwl. 

HweiUsb  Wpil  Indl«s . . '    .... 
Danlsk  West  Inilles. . .      1,188 
ttalekWMt  Indies....      1,18A 

lialch  Oulana >  18,MI) 

Knaland [ 

OlbralUr j 

Canada. 

Otbvr  Hrillsh  N.  Amor-| 

Iran  Powu-sslons. . 
BritMi  Wpm  Inillos 
Biitliih  Honiluraa... 

British  Oulana 

Bril.  I'oaa.  In  AfHca 
British  AuMralla. . . 
Hritlnh  Kast  Ir.illfS.     . 
VranM  on  Ibo  Atlantic 
Vrencb  Wast  Indies . 

Krcneb  Onlana 

Cuba., , 

P(frto  Ukw 

Ma<l<'ira, 

Cape  lid  Ycrd  Islands 

Turkrr  In  Asia, 

«Hh>'r  Porta  In  Africa 

llayll 

I*an  lloinlngo 

McJlcn 

CVintral  Rnpubllc { 

Nnwdrrnada 

Vrnniui'la 

Braill 

t'rniiaay.  or  C'lspiatincj 

ll«putillo I 

Buenos  Ayri^s,  or  Ar-, 

If  ntloa  Kcpulllc. . 
CSIII. 
Peru. 
Kqaailar 
Handwicli  IslaniK 

China. 

Wbaie  FMiariea. 
Total 


ll,a7»,   «9.10« 


184^ 

«14i     1. 
84,131, 14M21 


ItarraU.!  K«f>.   Dulbn.  1 


186 


888 
IM 

»S8^ 
.1,1491 


110 


l«i),l>71  678,011 


188 


» 


18 

mr»o» 
is!  1,100 
64|   8sa 


ISVl 

"isi 

1,880 


OanaaaL  STATamaT  or  DoHasTio  Kxpoan,  aaaANsn 
aT  llMTaion,  raiiM  Tua  Uairau  ttTAtaa,  roa  tub  VaAB 
aauiNU  Juna  80,  l<iM, 


l)b«ri<tow 

OiM  w  mmM. 

riakM.             1 

rMMmaquoddr. 

B*th...^ 

Owl. 

808 

8H(V 

10,176 

171 

^478 

11,711 

8,718 

K4,*» 

16 

"ii 

H 

8» 
688 

V,ifl4 
IHO 
ISR 

•ioi 

88,789 
l',4i4 

^88« 

l',(Ml 
■■"17 

""9 
8,HH6l 

«l 
110 

■■ii4 

16N,WI 

IMUn. 

1,711 

a«rr«l«.  K»ai. 
8**  . ... 
«6  .... 

tlullSf.. 

189 

HOO 

l,IIHH 

10,864 

8,7«.'> 

8,691 

1,471 

T8,H41 

lIMl 

68 

■  "79 

478 

1,694 

4M 

1,886 

V,»76 

58,407 
1,191 

V,8»R 

"m 

48 

"860 

10 

110 

"oin 

620 

689 

110 

4.6,'I8 

J7«,98» 

[Port land  A  ir»lmoulh. 

1».8'«Si      17«    600 

im   i,iKi .... 

'  Ni'wbaryport 

16,IUl!      WM 
H0.888'    1,848 

\i.<m     «>* 

ll7(),!/7Si  14,806 
68,          7 
• 
4»|   .... 
8141          9 
161{      110 
1,840       4(W 

19,718       111 

m,  .... 

»7I        141 

914'          6 

'14»,80N<  10.166 

ts« 

'"40 
471 

::;: 
■... 

"io 

■  '■'.'. 
■■■"i 

■'184 

'(iloiin'»'«'r 

S»lrm 

Hoftton  A  OlurlMtown. 

r»ii  KivoT 

Hrlfitol  and  Wwivn. . . . 
Ni'Wport 

ilenrsve 

Onwogo 

Nlamrfc 

'Now  V*»rk 

1H,76,J 

'8^879 
686 

"m 

!J8,(V41 

17 

410 

i'.iiii 

.■iiN,oir 

418 

"iso 

6 

■■ » 
1 

17 

""t 

160 

Capo  Vlnivnt 

PhlIa<WpMii. 

Pretquo  UIm 

Daltlmorr 

Ah'xandrla. 

Itichinoiid 

ItcAuibrt.   

KuyWcat.   ...6 

Ni«w  Orleans. 

lli'trott 

»8|.... 
161.... 
111,488 
80,801' 4,0<l& 

Pugot's  Hound 

Han  Francisco 

Total ^. 

A  couPAaATn  »:  Viuw  or  Tiia  Tiixnaok  or  tub  I'Muan 
HTATaa  Kui'Liivitn  in  Tua  WUALa  Kisuaav  ;  aij«>  Tua 
Proi'dktion  orriiR  unrom.fh  ano  I.iijiinsku  Tu.mnaok 
tm-Loraii    in    tiik    I'oabtino    TaAua,    c'dd   Fishkkt, 

MACXaKKI.   FlSIIIKY,  A.NU    WilALR    FiSIIEaV,   rROH    IHI6 

to  1S66,  iNCLiaiva. 


Yw 


jR*ffl*t'd*lTi>nnsc<> 
I  lunitAff*   Miiploy^d 
I    Inlh" 
whs'e 
I  Bihvry, 


i§is;i,«»ii,m 

1816  1,871,219 
lS17'l.«91»,9ll 
1818  l.ll^l)^ 
1819,1,20(1,761 
1820il,2'*«,186 
lN2l'l.29,S.969 
1»li;  1,324.899 
1  slit  II. «.'((!.?)«« 
1S24  l,«Sl(,18H 
l'<26tl,41.),lll 
1H28  1,.'VM,I9I 
I.'«27l1,(i20.68.s 
l»lH;i,74l,8ltl 
lS2»;i,2(«l,7»N 
ISSull. 191,778 
1H81il,167,S4fl| 
l»82il,4H9,4.'i(l 
1W«I|,«(K1,1.VI| 
lH*4,1.76s.l>07( 
18«'l,H2 1,9401 
188(1  I,SH2,I0S 
198T  1,1^,818 
1MIh||,»»,%840 
1 1NS9  9,098,479 
1 1^41)12,1811.784 
1S41 12,1.10.744 
1<.I22(!M?.'IU1 
llH4H|2,I.^^(lo.•l 
;1^44;2,lS(p,ll9.^ 
llH46ll.4n.iHW 
lM0il,662,(M6 
;1S47|2,S3»,(>J6 
1848  8.1,Vt.(V(2 
'184918.884,016 
l^dOISAA-tM 
1W1  1),772,4J» 
IW.!  4,l:tN,44« 
IS,'i8'4,4((".(llO 
IS644.HI  12.908 
18W  ,Vil2,(l01 
lF<A4l,4,it71,8Slj 


4,871 
18,186 
81,700 
a.\891 
20,1171 
46.449 
H9,»1S 
88,186 
86,879 
41,767 
4A.6,'i8 
64,621 
67.2M 
aH,9t2 
S2,8i6 
71, '^9 
101,16'< 
108,080 
97,840 
144.0i41 
I27,24."l' 


In  iU>iMii 

nsviifs- 

lluD. 


tVulIni  I     Cm) 

trsd«.      '   '  ' 

4)«,087 
479,979 
♦'-1,46s 
608.140 
62H,M« 
M9,080 

67.t.iPsO 
600.409 
n>.9,22.S 
,1'*7.27M 
800,420 
7«2,9.lH 
76'<.922 
6llH.H,'>S 

M0.1I7N 
!M,;u 
0«|I,(I17 
744,1911 
7X.S.019 
792..')0I 

sr8.o2« 


I  '■■■'T-  flTh^ 


8^97g 
40,111 
47,421 
4N725 
0l,OS2 
04.448 
04,42.1 


24.h79 
11,610 
28,001 
67,069 
40,19N 
89,418 
64,087 
64,472 
»4,48b 
90,Sl4i 

I22,''l6! 

IH.HI.I 

l.M,TO,'il 
il9,0|«i|  |U8,414'I,(MI,>II6 
181,H4.^|  204.9HM  l,I,'rt,,W2 
18fl,927i201,itH)|l,17li,iW4 
l.'>7,4<v'i  176,0.^  1,1(p7.o6h 

161,618!  21».flO||l,(U.\768  54,,H04  ll!."97 

l»2,!irf>i  2:(6.'<0«jl,07ll,l.'Xi  01.224  11.776 

10^2B4  278.179,1,10(1,014  SS,226  10,171 

11Ml,0»fli  820,1119  I, IffO.XllK  R»,S20  21,418 

lHll,i»»0;  847,i<l(8  l,lHl),s71  71,610  !t0.40.s 

19:i,'W9  404,HI2  |,4.'.2,M1  7(i,17-<  81.4.11 

192,1-in  427.191  l,020,ll'«  N2,0.%2  4.t..Vi» 

ISO.lHOl  402,894  1.78ll,4lll    42,97(1  7M.S.H 

140,017!  626.!i47l.7.')6,79fli  s6,04fl  ti\]\i 

lHf.tl46:  6'«),0O7  l.S.V4.H17i  87.470  ."Kl.f^Sl 

1»3,79h;  (W>"t,241  2,iKV1,(i2r  Ift2,fl."i9  72.,Mfl 

1911,202:  614.098  2.184.268  109,227  60,860 

181,9011  670,007  !,178,»0O  102.194  8.V141 

18«.778|  77(i,2s5il,4»l,10i  102,«2»  21,626 

189,218  078,07.'<, 2,2 11,986  06,SW  19,8S7 


20,610 
87,H79 
68,990 
6S„Vj1 
a^l^6 
60,  MS 
61,8.M 
6^406 
67,621 
8-*,4l9 
70,626 
88,781 
74,049 
74,94s 
10.,T97 
81,.'>66 
6(1,97H 
M,(12.S 
62,721 
61.404 
72.074 
02.80" 
S0,.'i»2 
70,064 
72,2.W 
70.li.'IO 
0fl,M2 
54,.H04 
01.224 
S5,226 
O9,s20 
71,610 
7(1,17 
N2,6"i2 
42,97(1 


MKk. 

■n,\ 


Wljslt 
lUbiry 

1,280 

1,188 

»,M1 

016 

OSi 

1,(164 

l.!l24 

8,184 

6s6 

IHO 

'227 
829 

180 

'798 
481 
877 
47s 
8(U 

1.678 
40,slll  |,s94 
68,IV49i  6,280 
8.\9S4l  440 
•>>,209 
ll,!121 


8-71 
1481 
821: 
20Y1 
4401 

488 


70 
248 


£^-e*  ^x^^i±iVA^ti3P*lt9S^X..,£k.iM±,^!/f^Jt^S^*li»^'^    . 


J..  ^ 


Hi' 


els 


FIS 


IffiO. 

■MM. 

ruiwHM. 

CkpNtl. 

T«lM*fraw 

HwHiaidirkiyad. 

Knlln  «•(••  fn  wmOt. 

Malt, 

r<wk. 

tUt. 

r«Mi.. 

OoaiMtleai 

Flortita 

Halna 

IB 

MM 

008 

(W 

M 

11 

|I,«N«,8IIII 

I8,>7K 

4M,»10 

s,Mi,m<) 

4S,7(tl) 

4'):,ion 
»«,iiii 

It.lM 

ti,nao 

4U,B64 
10,140 

»l»,&f4 
19,187 

4,»7> 
11,0M 
81,»41 

1,W 

mi 

1,7'W 

11. AIM 

144 

ROO 

AW 

1,N48 

88 

IW 

Its 

47 

"b 

"414 

.... 

"'44»" 

iii.W 

1,085 
BB,110 

1M),IMI 
N474 

«,a«o 

11.8M 
44,A7H 
l,«8l 
»,70H 
«,«H7 
1,010 
lil^LBIM 

|1.7l)4.4Ni 

Ml               IS,II7« 

B«»,N7t 

«,aiNi,H49 

7ll,77B 

4H4,ii4B 
4,998            IA<l,atn 
«7,A«B 
(H,M) 
«A,U01 
111,876 

rii,o8ii  r?n!:<ioo,iw 

MaMAchniottt. 

MIoliInn 

New  TlunpiihlN 

N«w  York^ 

North  OtKillnt. 

Ohio, 

Khixia  Iiilind 

VIrKlnlt. 

Wln'onsln 

Totol .'.' 

i,«M 

4A,M«,()44 

"  t»t),Mt 

tO,704 

For  a  complota  icconnt  of  tha  political  hlntnry  and 
preaent  itata  of  tha  Flaherian,  nee  Hakink'^  Rrptiri  to 
Cmgnu,  1HB8.  For  more  extended  tnfnrmntlon  In 
nganl  to  the  Tarloua  liranrheA  of  the  flnherias,  see 
artlclea  (!oD  FinnEiir,  llnnRiwo  Fihiieiit,  and 
WiiAi.R  FiMir.iir;  see  also  N.  A.  Rev.,  Ivil.  and  Ixil. 
(by  L.  SAninK);  Qum:  Rev.,  Ixlx,,  2'i6,  Ix.,  2ii«, 
xxxvll.,  IMS;  Kdin.  Rrv.,  Ixxvlll.,  4fi,  xclll.,  171  i 
Merck.  Mag.,  xlx,,  145  (IIai.kouu)  j  Hlacheood, 
litl,  frIO;  Am.  Whig  Rtv.,  vl.,  490  (C.  Lanman)  ; 
Nii.KH'a  Register,  xxlx.,  877  (Lloyd's  Rep.);  Eney. 
Am.,  Kncy.  lirit.,  1880-7.     Cennit  Rep.  fT.  S.,  1884. 

Rrriprocilg  Treaty  between  the  United  Slatet  of  America 
aitd  her  Jlritannic  Mnjettg :  cmuiudeii  Itth  June,  1854 ; 
ralijied  by  the  United  State*  iWA  August,  WA;  ejc- 
changed  M  Sejtlrmber,  1S,>1;  and  proclaimed  \UK 
September,  1864. 

AuTKi.K  1.  It  Is  n)(reed  by  the  hl(;h  cnntractinR 
parties  that,  in  addition  to  the  lihcrtj'  secured  to  the 
I'nitcd  States'  flshermen  by  the  uliove-mentinned  con- 
vention of  Octolier  20,  1818,  of  taking,  curing,  and 
dryiuK  fish  on  certain  coasts  of  the  British  North 
American  colonies  tlierein  defined,  the  Inhabitants  of 
the  United  States  shall  have,  In  common  with  the  snb- 
jei'ts  of  her  Britannic  majesty,  the  liberty  to  take  fish 
of  everj-  kind,  except  shell-flsh,  on  the  aeo-coasts  and 
shores,  and  in  the  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Canada, 
Now  lirunswick.  Nova  Scotia,  I'rince  Edwanl's  Isl- 
and, and  of  the  several  Islands  thereunto  adjacent, 
witliout  being  restricted  tn  any  distance  from  the 
shore,  with  permission  to  land  nynn  the  coasts  and 
shores  of  those  coUmies,  anil  the  islands  thereof,. and 
also  upon  the  Magdalene  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of 
drying  their  nets  and  curing  their  fl.ih ;  provided  that, 
in  so  doing,  they  do  not  Interfere  with  the  rights  of 
private  property,  or  with  British  fishermen,  in  the 
peaceable  use  of  any  part  of  the  said  coast  In  their  oc- 
cupancy for  the  same  purpose. 

It  is  understood  that  the  ulmve-inentioned  liberty 
applies  solely  to  the  sea  fishery  ;  and  that  the  salmon 
and  shad  fisheries,  and  all  fisheries  in  rivers,  and  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  we  hereliy  reservu.l,  exclusively,  for 
British  fishermen. 

And  it  Is  further  agreed,  that  in  on'er  to  prevent,  or 
settle  anj-  disputes  ua  to  the  places  to  whuli  ihe  reser- 
vation of  exclusive  right  to  British  fishermen,  con- 
tained in  this  article,  and  that  of  flshermen  of  the 
United  States,  contained  in  the  next  succeeding  arti- 
cle, apply,  each  of  the  high  contracting  parties,  on  the 
application  of  either  to  the  other,  sliall,  within  six 
months  thereafter,  appoint  a  commissioner.  The  said 
commissioners,  before  proceeding  to  any  business,  shall 
make  and  subscriira  a  solemn  declaration  that  they 
will  impartially  and  carefully  examine  and  decide,  to 
the  best  of  their  judgment,  and  according  to  justice 
and  equity,  without  fear,  favor,  or  affection  to  their 
own  countrj',  upon  all  such  places  as  are  intended  to 
be  reserved  and  excluded  from  the  common  liberty  of 
fishing  under  this  and  the  next  succeeding  article,  and 
luch  declaration  ahall  be  entered  on  the  record  of  their 
proceedings. 


The  cummlaaionara  ahall  name  some  third  peraon  to 
act  aa  an  »rliitrator  or  umpire  in  any  caae  at  caaea  on 
which  thi'j  may  themselvea  differ  In  opinion.  If  they 
should  nut  lie  able  to  agree  U|>on  the  name  of  such 
third  (lerson,  they  shall  each  name  a  peraon,  and  it 
shall  be  determined  by  lot  which  of  the  two  persona  ao 
named  ahall  lie  the  arbitrator  or  umpire  In  cases  of  dif- 
ference or  lilsagrecment  lietween  the  two  comnilsiiim- 
ers.  The  is'rson  ki.  Io  be  chosen  to  be  arbitrator  or 
umpire  shall,  before  proceeding  to  act  an  snch  in  any 
case,  make  and  subscribe  a  sidemn  declaration  in  n 
form  similar  to  that  which  shall  already  have  been 
I  lade  and  subscribed  by  the  commissioners,  which 
shall  be  entered  on  the  record  of  their  proceedings. 
In  the  event  of  I  lie  death,  absence,  or  Incapacity  of 
either  of  the  commlBsInners,  or  of  the  arbitrator  or 
umpire,  or  of  their  or  his  omitting,  declining,  or  ceaa- 
ing  to  act  an  such  commissioner,  arbitrator,  or  umpire, 
another  and  diflbrcnt  person  shall  be  appointed  or 
named  as  aforesaid  to  act  as  such  commissioner,  arbi- 
trator, or  umpire,  in  the  place  or  f^tcad  of  the  {wrson  so 
originally  appointed  or  named  as  aforesaid,  and  shall 
make  or  subscribe  such  declaration  as  aforesaid. 

Such  commissioners  shall  proceed  to  examine  the 
con»ts  of  the  North  American  provinces  and  of  the 
United  States  embraced  within  the  provisions  of  the 
first  and  secimd  articles  of  this  treaty,  and  nhiill  des.'g- 
nate  the  places  reser\-ed  by  the  said  article  from  the 
common  right  of  fishing  therein. 

The  decision  of  the  >  iimmlsioners  and  of  the  arbitra- 
tor or  umpire  shall  be  given  in  writing  in  each  caae, 
and  shall  bo  i     led  by  them  respectively. 

The  high  contracting  parties  hereby  solemnly  engage 
to  consider  the  decision  of  the  commissioners  conjointly, 
or  of  IliK  arbitrator  or  umpire,  as  the  case  may  be,  as 
absolutely  final  and  conclusive  In  each  case  decided 
upon  by  them  or  him  respectively. 

Artulr  2.  It  is  agreed  by  the  high  contracting 
parties  that  British  ubjects  shall  have,  in  common 
with  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  the  lilierty  to 
take  fish  of  ever}'  kind,  except  shell-flsh,  on  the  east- 
em  sea-coasts  and  shores  of  the  United  States  north  of 
the  ilfith  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  on  the  shores 
of  the  several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  and  in  the 
bays,  harliors,  and  creeks  of  the  said  sea-coasts  and 
shores  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  said  islands, 
without  being  restricted  to  any  distance  from  the 
shore,  with  permission  to  land  upon  the  said  coasts  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  islands  aforesaid,  for  the 
purpose  of  drjMng  their  nets  and  curing  their  fish . 
provided  that,  in  so  doing,  thej-  do  not  interfrre  with 
the  rights  of  private  projierty,  or  with  the  flshern'en 
of  the  United  Stales  in  the  peaceable  use  of  any  part  o 
the  said  coasts  in  their  occupancy  for  the  same  purpose 

It  is  understood  that  the  above-mentioned  liberty 
atiplles  solely  to  the  sea  fishery  ;  and  that  salmon  and 
shad  fisheries,  and  all  fisheries  in  rivers  and  mouths  of 
rivers,  are  hereby  reserved  exclusively  for  flahemien  of 
the  United  States. 

Akticib  3.  It  Is  agreed  that  the  articles  enumerated 
in  the  schedule  hereunto  annexed,  being  the  growth 
and  produce  of  the  aforesaid  Britlsli  colonies  or  of  the 


FIS 


m 


fLk 


Unltwl  flUtM,  •h*ll  Im  admltud  Inlo  —A  Miwlry  r*- 

*p«rllvfily  frvD  of  duly  : 

ttwiniTLa  or  Autk-lu  rmn  iir  Dutt   m    Kiiipbooitt 

TmitTt   WITH  Tiin  lUiTitn    I'BoTiNoan  or  H.  A.  tun 

Tna  Ukitkii  MTArn. 


QiAii,   Kinfii,  ami  llaatn 

trtTrm,  of  all  ktntlii, 
AaiMtLaofall  klnila. 
t'aaaH,  rtvoaan,  and  Haltid 

MaAiK. 
CorroN-woni^    Haaoa,     and 

TaorraaLai. 
Uapaiau      Kaiim,      Dtilv 

Fai'rra, 
Pun  of  all         la. 
I'aonirr.iK  ^>i  Kmn,  and  nf  all 

otlwr  RmMurM  IItIr^  In  Iha 

water. 
PolJLTar,  Ko<i«, 
llipn,  Ki'w.  ■^Kin.orTalLa,  I 

undnatnt. 
BTunaor  MAHMLa.  In  Itacrndv 

or  unwron^ht  ttata. 
8(.ATa, 

llcnii,  Oiiaaii,  Tallow. 
LAaD,  lloaxa,  MaNraaa. 


COAU 

jl'iTi'H,  Ta»,  TvaraNTtaa, 
I    Aiiiaa. 

Tmaaa  and  I.i'Maaa  ot  ill 
I  klndR^  rttutid,  hrwod,  and 
I    wwud,  unnianuflwtUMd  In 

wliuU  or  In  part. 
Kiaa-wiMiu. 

I'l.AiiTa,  Hiiauaa,  and  Taaaa. 
I'ai.TK,  Wool™ 

KlSH-OlU 

Kioa,  UauoM-raaa.aaJ  lUaii. 

lltniiM,  (round  or  unKronnd. 

Ilflwn    or    wrought,    oi    an- 

wruoaht  BvM  or  Uai!<u- 

■TONKA. 

Ilva-aTurra. 

Fi.iT,  II(iii>,  and  Tow,  an- 
nianufltrlnred. 

rNMANirAOTVBBD  ToaACOO, 

UAua. 


OanofMaTAUi,  ufall  kind*. 

A  HTICLB  4.  It  U  aKro«Hl  that  tb«  citliena  and  inhab- 
ItuiitA  of  tha  United  Mtataa  ahall  hava  tba  rlKht  tu  iiav- 
ig»t»  tha  Kivar  St.  Ijawranca,  and  tha  canala  in  CaniuU 
uaad  aa  tba  mviiiin  of  cuminuiiicatinK  brtwmii  tha Kii'nt 
Ukaa  and  tha  Atlantic  Ocean,  with  their  voMali,  liouta, 
and  crufta,  aa  fully  and  frealy  aa  the  aulijvcta  of  bar 
Uritannic  luiijasty,  aulijact  only  to  tha  aame  toll*  and 
Other  aaaeiuinieutA  M  now  am,  or  may  hereafter  iia,  ex- 
■ctwl  of  bar  mi^eaty'a  aaid  (ubjacta ;  it  bcinK  undar- 
itood,  however,  thitt  tha  Itritiah  t(ov*mi»"»t  retiilna 
tba  right  of  >u>|>vnding  tliia  privileKe  on  k'^'^K  ''"o 
notice  thereof  to  tha  Kovemment  of  the  United  Htatea, 

It  ia  further  agreed,  that  if  at  any  time  tha  Uritiuli 
govemmeut  Khould  exerclte  the  wld  renorved  right, 
the  KoveminiMit  of  'he  United  Statea  Hhiill  hn\'e  tha 
right  of  auspending,  if  it  think  lit,  the  o|)«rikti»u  of 
Article  a  of  the  (iroaent  treaty,  in  no  far  aa  the  pmvluro 
of  Canada  ia  affevtad  thereby,  for  no  long  ■«  the  itu»- 
lianaion  of  tha  free  navigation  of  the  liiver  St.  Law- 
rence or  the  canaU  nuy  continue. 

It  U  further  agn-cd  that  liritiiih  aulijecta  nhall  have 
the  right  freely  to  navigate  l^ke  Michigan  with  their 
vetaela,  iMHita,  and  crufta,  ao  long  aa  the  privilege  of 
navigating  the  lilvar  8t.  Lawrence,  secured  to  Amer- 
ican citizens  liy  the  above  clauiie  of  the  prenent  article, 
thall  continue ;  and  the  govenimcnt  uf  the  United 
'  Statea  further  engagen  to  urge  upon  the  State  govem- 
menta  to  aecure  to  the  iiubjecta  of  her  Uritannic  maj- 
eity  the  uae  of  the  aeverol  State  oanala,  on  terma  of 
equality  with  the  inbabitoota  of  the  United  Statei. 

And  it  U  further  agreed,  that  no  export  duty,  or 
other  duty,  ahall  be  lovied  on  lumber  or  timber  of  any 
kind  cut  on  that  portion  of  the  American  territory  in 
the  State  uf  Maine  watered  by  the  Kiver  St.  .lohn  and 
ita  tributariea,  oud  floated  down  that  river  to  the  aea, 
when  the  aame  ia  ahipped  to  the  United  Statea  from 
the  pruvinco  of  New  Urunawick. 

riah-taoolu  (JIamrcont,  Fr. ;  J'ithangcln,  Ger.) 
•re  constructed  with  simple  tools,  but  require  great 
manual  dexterity  In  the  workmen.  The  iron  wire  of 
which  they  are  made  should  be  of  the  beat  quality, 
smooth  and  sound.  A  bundle  of  such  wire  ia  cut  in 
lengths,  either  by  shears  or  by  laying  it  down  upon  an 
angular  wedge  of  hard  ateel  tlxed  horizontally  in  a 
block  or  anvil,  and  striking  off  the  pro|)cr  lengths  by 
the  blows  of  a  hammer.  In  fashioning  the  barbt  of 
the  hooka,  the  straight  piece  of  wire  la  laid  down  In 
the  groove  of  ao  iron  block  made  on  purpose,  and  U 
dexterously  struck  by  the  chisel  in  a  slanting  dlrec- 
tbn,  across  oo  much  of  the  wire  aa  may  be  deemed 
necessary.  A  sharp-pointed  little  wedge  is  thus  formed, 
whose  Inse  graduates  into  the  aulistancu  of  the  metal. 
The  end  of  the  wire  where  the  line  Is  to  be  attached  is 
DOW  flattened  or  screw-tupped ;  the  other  end  ia  abari^ 
pointed,  Md  the  proper  twisted  curvature  li  giveo. 


The  soft  Iron  li.ioka  (re  next  rase-hardaneil,  tn  giv* 
thsni  tha  steely  •tilTneu  and  ela.dl'  Ity,  by  Imlwdilliig 
them  In  animal  chiin  ':il  contalneil  In  an  eiirtlieii  >ir 
Iron  l>ox  ;  after  which  they  are  brightened  liy  heiiling 
and  agitating  them  with  bran,  and  linally  t<>m|>eriil  )>)' 
exposure  to  a  regulatetl  tsni|ierntum  u|Min  a  hot  Inm 
plate.  Hooka  for  aalt-water  tlshlng  are  fmiuently 
tinned  to  (irevent  them  wearing  rapidly  awny  in  nut. 
Fish-ponds  are  pomla  nioile  by  art,  In  wbb'h  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  tlih  are  bred  and  fattened.  In  general 
thix  i»  only  attemptml  with  frenh-wnter  flah  ;  but  In 
some  places  |>ouils  have  been  formed  on  the  sea  shore, 
and  so  contrived  as  to  biive  their  waters  renew  e<l  every 
tide,  and  In  these  sea  llsh  have  lieen  kept  for  use  for  a 
considerable  time.  The  fresh-water  Hsh  which  Is  the 
most  successfully  managed  In  ponds  is  the  carp. 

rtom*,  a  seaport  town  of  Austria.  The  coinmer 
clal  movements  In  the  port  uf  b'lume  in  IHAO,  including 
coasting  traile,  were:  imports,  ](J,U04,0<M)  fruncH ;  ex- 
|M)rls,  17,HI).'l,INjl)  francs.  The  coasting  trade  of  Flume, 
»t  ull  times  more  Important  In  the  general  commence 
of  that  port  than  the  foreign  trade,  amounted  In  the 
year  IHoU  to  <i,H-(0,UOO  franca  foi  iiii|xirt«,  niMl  H,473,iKH) 
fVancs  for  exports;  leaving  a  total  f<'r  foreign  com- 
merce of  10,0114,1)00  francs.  The  latter  trade  was  dis- 
tributed l«tween  the  I'ontillcal  states,  Naples,  lonliin 
Isles,  Turkey,  Knglund,  and  France,  Total  tonnugn 
employc<l,  :ir.',l!i<'l  tons;  of  which  i  mre  tliiin  two 
thirds  under  the  Austrian  fl>ig. 

Flag,  an  ensign  or  cdlnrs;  a  cloth  on  which  am 
usually  displayed  certain  devices,  and  attached  to  u 
staff.  In  the  army,  it  aignilirs  a  small  Imnner  by 
which  one  regiment  Is  distinguished  from  another ;  in 
the  marine,  a  certain  banner  by  which  an  atlnilral  Is 
distlngulahud  from  the  other  hIijis  of  bis  squudtun,  or 
by  which  the  ships  of  one  nation  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  another.  The  flag  acquired  its  present 
form  in  the  sixth  century  in  Spain ;  it  was  previously 
small  and  si|uare. — Ahiik.  The  dug  Is  suid  to  have 
been  Intniduced  tliere  by  the  Saracens  ;  liefore  which 
time  tha  ensigns  of  war  were  extended  on  cross  pieces 
of  wood. — I'akuo.v,  The  term  flag  is  more  particu- 
larly used  ut  sea  tu  denote  to  what  country  a  ship  l>e- 
longs,  and  the  qiutllty  of  its  commander.  The  honor 
of  tile  Hug  salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  Kngland  from 
ver>'  early  times;  but  It  was  formally  yielded  by  the 
Dutch  in  A.l>.  107:1,  at  which  |)erlod  they  huil  been 
defeated  in  nuny  actions.  lA>ui8  XIV.  obliged  tlin 
Spaniards  to  lower  their  flag  to  the  F'rench,  llixo, — 
IIknadlt,  After  an  engagement  of  three  hours  be- 
tween Tourville  and  the  Spanish  Admiral  Tupachln, 
the  latter  yielded  by  firing  u  salute  of  nine  guns  to  tho 
French  flog,  Juno  '2,  l(m.—IJrm. 

To  lotrtr  or  Mtrikt  Ike  Flag,  In  the  navy,  is  tu  pull  it 
down  upim  the  cap,  or  to  take  It  in,  as  a  token  of  the 
respect  due  from  all  ships  or  fleets  to  those  which  ur« 
undeniably  their  superiors.  To  lower  or  strike  the 
flag  In  an  engagement  Is  a  sign  of  submission  or  sur- 
render. The  method  of  leading  a'  ship  in  triumph  Is 
to  attach  the  flags  to  the  shrouds,  or  the  guller}'  in  the 
hind  part  of  the  ship,  letting  them  bang  down  towurd 
the  water,  and  to  tow  the  vessels  by  the  stem.  Mvy 
relates  that  this  was  the  mode  in  which  the  Komans 
used  the  ships  of  Carthage. 

To  hmve  out  the  Flag,  it  to  display  or  put  abroad  the 
flag. 

Tu  hang  out  the  While  Flog,  h  to  ask  quarter ;  or, 
when  a  vessel  bos  arrived  on  a  coast,  it  shows  tliat  it 
has  no  hostile  intention,  but  comes  to  trade,  or  tho  like. 
The  red  flag  is  a  sign  of  defiance  and  battle. 

Flag  Officers  are  those  who  command  the  several 
squadrons  of  a  fleet. 

Flag  of  the  United  iS<<rtf»,— The  act  to  establish 
the  flog  of  the  United  Statea  was  enacted  by  Congress, 
April  4,  1H18,  viz, :  "  That  from  and  after  tho  4tli  diiy 
of  July  next  the  flag  of  the  United  States  bo  thirteen 
horizontal  itripei,  oltenukte  red  and  white ;  that  tb« 


FIA 


til 


FliA 


Ibroad  the 


lie  neveral 


■nioii  h»  (wmity  (tun,  while  In  •  lilue  AMil.  ThU  on 
the  uiliiilMliin  of  evrry  new  HUte  Intu  the  ITiiInn  on* 
•tvr  he  mldecl  tii  the  uiilon  iif  the  fliiK  ;  nnil  that  mirh 
•ililltliiii  ■hull  lake  vlTiu  t  cm  the  4th  lUy  of  July  then 
noxt  •urt'eeilinn  nurh  udiniulnn." 

Flail,  iin  liintruninnt  fur  thrmhlnK  cum,  ronnliillng 
nf  the  hitnd-KtiilT,  or  |ilere  held  In  the  threaher'n  hnn<l ; 
the  twlple,  or  thnt  pArt  whlih  utrlkea  the  rorn ;  the 
cii|ilinii,  utrontt  letthem  thonge  which  iinllo  i  Im'  hand- 
•UIT  and  (wlplei  uiid  the  nilddle-liand,  ■  Ifiilhem 
lhiim(  or  lUh-akln  thnt  tlen  the  capllna  together. 

rfambcau,  n  kind  of  torch  made  of  thli  k  wlcka, 
eovereil  with  wiix,  and  uaed  In  the  •trerta  at  nl)(ht,  at 
Uluinlnatlonii,  and  In  prm'eaatona.  VUmheaux  naually 
oonalut  of  four  wlcka  or  hranclieo,  almut  un  Inch  In 
Ihickncaa,  and  three  feet  l»ni{,  niade  of  roann  half- 
twlati'd  hempen  yarn  ;  and  theae,  Ijclnif  anapendrd  liy 
one  end,  are  coated  with  white  or  yeUow  wax,  which 
U  poured  over  them  from  a  ladle  until  the  rn(|ul»ite 
thickneaa  Im  olitulnod. 

Flannel,  a  woolen  ntuff,  cnmpnaed  of  n  woof  and 
warp,  anil  woven  after  the  manner  of  linl/.e,  Pr. 
lilack  ixm\gn*  aa  a  reason  why  flannel  and  other  anl)- 
alanoea  of  the  aunia  kinil  keep  the  liody  warm,  that 
they  conipone  a  riire  and  ajjonuy  ma««,  the  flhrea  of 
which  toiii'h  each  other  ho  lightly  that  the  heat  movi-a 
alowly  through  the  InterHtlcea,  which  licln|{  tilled  only 
with  uir,  and  Hint  too  in  a  ntngnnte  *tate,  give  little 
aaiiiiitani'e  in  comluctin^  the  heat.  From  the  ex|H)rl- 
nicnta  of  Count  Itumford,  It  appcnra  thnt  thero  In  no 
relution  lietween  tha  power  which  the  sulMtuncea  usu- 
ally worn  an  cl(itliin|{  have  of  aliHorlihiK  mulature,  and 
that  uf  keeping  the  Imdy  wunn.  Ilavln)(  provided  a 
quantity  of  (leverul  of  thoao  aulmtancea  (aa  mentioned 
below),  he  exposed  them,  spread  out  upon  clean  china 
plates  for  the  space  of  twenty-four  hours  to  the  warm 
nnil  dry  uir  of  u  room  which  hud  hern  heated  liy  a 
(lerninn  stove  for  several  months,  and  durlnf;  the  pre- 
cwlluit  six  bourn  he  hud  raised  Hie  thermometer  to 
85°  of  Kubrenhelt ;  after  which  ho  weighed  cquol 
({uuntitics  of  the  dlfTerent  sulmtuncra  with  a  very  nc- 
uarato  liulaiice.  They  were  then  spread  out  ii|)on  u 
china  plate,  and  removed  into  a  very  InrKo  nninhah- 
Itcd  room  U|Min  the  second  floor,  where  they  wore  ex- 
posed forty-eight  hours  up<m  a  table  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  room,  the  uir  of  wlilch  was  45°  of  Fahrenheit. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  they  were  weighed,  and  then 
removed  into  a  damp  collar,  whoro  they  wore  placed 
on  u  table  in  the  middle  of  the  vault,  the  uir  of  which 
wus  at  the  temperature  of  45",  and,  by  the  hydnv 
motor,  seemed  to  be  fully  saturated  with  moisture.  In 
this  situation  they  were  sutTered  to  remain  three  dnys 
and  three  nights,  the  vault  lieing  all  the  while  hung 
ruund  with  wet  linen  elotha,  to  render  tlie  air  as  com- 
pletely damp  as  possilde.  At  the  end  of  three  ilays 
they  were  weighed,  and  the  weights  at  the  difTe'rent 
times  were  found  aa  in  the  following  tal)lo : 


IWdyht  slUi 
tiring  tIrieU 
In  Ibfl  hot 


Bhutp's  wool 

Ilettvor's  ttr 

The  t»t  ofa  Kaaslsn  liaro. 
Eliler-ilown 

(Raw  single  tlireoil.. 
lUvollnga  of  white 
tnlTuty 

1  Fine  Lint 

Linen  vKavellngaof  Hue 

I     linen 

Cotton  wool 

RavellnKS  of  silver  looe.. . 


I'Stl.. 

1,000 


Mr«liihl>n>r,W>l>hlsft>r| 

oinilna  uul  irtfDtklnlnif  19 

of  lh«  rokl  I  bourt  In  lh« 

rtwui.  vault. 


l.OM 
1,072 
l,ll«S 

i,n«7 

l,tP6T 

1,0M 

1,046 

1,04t 

1,04a 
1,(K)0 


1,163 
1,1M 

1,ll,t 
i.U'i 
1,101 

1,103 

1,104 

1,081 

1,0R9 
1,000 


In  regard  to  these  experimcnti  Count  Rumford  ob- 
serves, that  though  linen,  from  the  apparent  ease  with 
which  it  receives  dampness  from  the  atmosphere, 
seems  to  have  a  much  greater  attraction  fur  water  than 
any  other,  yet  it  would  appear,  from  what  is  related 
•bove,  that  those  bodies  which  receive  water  Id  its  un- 


elaatle  fbrm  with  tha  Kreateat  ease,  or  am  mnai  aaaity 
wet,  are  not  those  which  In  all  raaaa  altrart  the  Im. 
nildity  of  the  atmosphere  with  tha  gi^utest  avidity. 
"  I'erhapn,"  aays  he,  "the  apparent  dampness  of  linen 
to  the  touch  arlaea  mora  fnmi  the  ease  with  which  llinl 
suhatancn  parts  with  the  water  It  cnntalna  than  fnim 
the  (luantlty  of  water  it  actually  holds ;  In  tha  aam* 
manner  as  a  l>ody  appears  hot  to  the  touch  In  cons*. 
((Uence  of  Its  parting  freely  with  its  heat  g  while  an- 
other body  which  Is  really  at  tlia  same  temperature, 
but  which  withholds  Its  heat  with  K'eat  obatlnary, 
aflTects  the  sense  of  feeling  much  less  strongly.  It  la 
well  known  that  wimlen  cloths,  such  as  llannela,  etc., 
worn  next  the  skin,  greatly  promote  Insensible  per- 
spiration. May  not  thla  aria*  principally  f^om  the 
alrong  attraction  which  auhaists  between  wool  and  the 
watery  vn|ior  which  is  rnntinually  Issuiag  fh)m  Ihn 
human  body  ?  That  it  does  not  depend  entirely  nn  the 
warmth  of  that  covering,  la  clear ;  (br  the  same  degree 
Iif  warmth  produced  by  wearing  n  re  idothing  of  a 
dilferent  kind  does  not  produce  the  iine  ofl'ect.  Tha 
|M>rspirutlon  of  the  human  bmly  lieing  absorlied  by  a 
covering  of  flannel.  It  Is  immediately  distributed 
through  the  whole  thickness  of  that  auliatance,  and  by 
that  menus  ex|Kised,  by  a  very  large  surface,  to  Iw 
carried  olV  by  the  atmosphere ;  and  t  e  lusa  of  tl  , 
watery  vu|i<ir  which  the  flannel  suatains  on  the  out 
side  by  evaporation,  being  immediately  re  itored  from 
tlie  other,  in  consequence  of  the  strong  nttrnctlon  be- 
tween the  flannel  and  this  vuixir,  the  port>s  of  the  akin 
are  disencumbered,  and  they  are  contlnuoUy  sur- 
rounded by  a  dr)- and  snlo'Tlous  atmosphere."— • 
loiophical  Trantacliimt,  No.  IH,1. 

Flannels  are  much  more  luxurious  production'*  'lan 
they  were  In  years  gone  by.  We  knew  them  form,  riy 
only  as  woolen  or  worsted  goods  ;  but  mwlern  Ingenu- 
ity has  devised  flannel  inacle  of  mingled  wool  and  silk 
Its  Inventors  claim  for  it  a  superiority  over  ordinary 
flannels,  In  being  less  Irritating  to  the  skin ;  it  shrinks 
less  in  washing ;  the  silk  increases  the  strength  and 
durability  of  the  texture,  and  renders  it  loss  liable  to 
tear.  Such  flannels  have  even  been  embroider'd, 
niid  used  for  ladies'  opero  cloaks.  Then  we  h.ivn 
choice  "Thibet"  flannels,  made  from  the  finest  wool ; 
and  flax  flannels,  in  which  flax,  preporcd  on  Claussen's 
process,  is  mixed  with  wool ;  and  fancy-ccdored  flan- 
nels—pink, rose-color,  cherry,  crimson,  blue,  orange, 
and  other  dainty  tints.  The  philosophy  of  cheapness 
has  also  visited  the  flannel  regions,  for  some  of  the 
low-priced  flunncls  contain  a  portion,  mure  or  less,  of 
cotton.  There  are  striped  flannels,  end  cricketers' 
flannels,  and  "  anti-rlieumatl  "  flannels,  and  many 
other  special  and  oddly-nnraeU  i   .n.  . 

Flax  (l!er.  Fhehf;  Uu.  IV  ,.i^  i't.  Am;  It.  and 
Sji.  Lino;  Riis.  /.CM,  I.on;  Pol.  /.•','  l-"*.  /.iBwm),  an 
important  plant  (Linum  utilaiuiimum)  that  has  been 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  ugea  in  (ireut  llritaln  and 
many  other  countries ;  Its  fiores  lieing  manufactured 
Into  thread,  and  its  seec'  .  lUshcd  for  oil.  Russia  sup- 
plies by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  flax  imported 
into  Knglnnd,  the  pn.icipal  sorts  being  I'ctersburg, 
Nurvu,  Riga,  itevel,  Pcmau,  Liehau,  Mcmel,  and 
Oborland.  Petersburg  and  Nnrva  flax  are  nearly  of 
tho  same  quality,  the  latter  lieing  but  little  inferior  to 
the  former,  llulli  sorts  cmno  in  bundles,  of  12,  9,  nnd  8 
beads.  The  Riga  flax  seems  to  deserve  the  preference 
uf  any  imported  from  tho  Baltic.  It  is  the  growth  of 
tho  provinces  of  Marienburg,  Druania,  Thisenbbausen, 
and  Lithuania.  The  best  Marienburg  is  called  simply 
Marienburg  (Af),  or  Marienburg  clean ;  tho  second 
quality,  cut  (GM)  ;  and  tho  third,  riattii  drat/band 
(RO)  J  of  tho  three  other  provinces,  the  first  quality 
bears  tho  name  of  rakilzer ;  as,  Itruania  raJcitser  (DB), 
ThieginlmuMn  rahitzer  (TR),  and  Lilhuania  rakilter 
(I,R).  The  cut  flax  of  these  three  provinces  is  the 
second  quality  ;  and  to  the  third  quality  belongs  the 
badttub  and  baJtlub  cut  (B  and  Bti) ;  the  patemotttr 


FLA 


618 


FLA 


(FN);  and  h(fft  thrti  band  (HD).    Baiihib  and  pa. 
temoiter  are  the  refuse  of  the  rakUzer  flax,  and  the 
three  band  again  the  refuse  of  the  former  sort,  and  con- 
sequently very  ordinary.     The  Revel  and  Penau  con- 
sists, of  Marienburg,  cut,  rilzen,  ha/t  three  band,  and 
three  band.    The  Liebau  and  Momel  growths  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  denomination  otjuur  and  three  band. 
These  two  sorts,  as  well  as  the  Oberland  flax,  come 
from  Kdnigsberg,  Elbing,  etc.,  and  are  little  esteemed 
in  the  British  marlcet.    Flanders  or  Dutch  flax  is  well 
dressed,  and  of  the  finest  quality.    Flax  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Egypt.  Of  lute  years,  some  of  the  Italian 
ports,  which  used  to  be  supplied  from  Russia,  have 
been  fully  supplied,  on  lower  terms,  from  Alexandria. 
The  Phomuum  tenax,  or  New  Zealand  flax,  has  been 
Puid  tu  exceed  every  otlicr  species  in  strength  of  fibre 
and  whitene^i;  qualities  which,  if  it  really  posesses 
them  in  the  degree  stated,  must  make  it  peculiarly 
well  fitted  for  being  made  into  canvas  and  cordage. 
In  point  of  fait,  however,  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  its  real  merit.n,  and  it  letches  at  present 
but  a  low  price.     In  1831  and  18.12  the  imports  uf  New 
Zealand    flax  amounted  respectively  to  15,725  and 
15,867  cwts.  i  but  they  fell  off  in  1835  to  7812  cwts., 
and  since  then  only  trifling  quantities  have  been  im- 
ported.   It  is  alleged  that  this  is  in  consequence  of  the 
imperfect  preparation  of  the  flax,  which  has  hitherto 
been  entirely  intrusted  to  the  native  women.     But 
without  presuming  to  say  whether  the  defects  with 
which  it  is  charged  l>o  inherent  in  the  flax  itself,  or  de- 
pend f^r.  its  preparation,  it  is  abundantly  certain  that 
unless  it  be  furnished  of  a  superior  quality,  it  will  not 
suit  our  markets.    When  flax  is  brought  to  the  princi- 
pat  Russian  ports  whence  it  is  shipped,  it  is  classified 
according  to  its  qualities,  and  made  up  in  bundles  by 
sworn  inspectors  (brackera),  appointed  by  government 
for  the  asjortment  of  that  and  all  other  merchandise. 
These  functionaries  are  said  to  perform  their  task  with 
laudable  impartiality  and  exactness,     A  ticket  is  ut- 
tuohed  to  ever}-  buudle  of  assorted  flax,  containing  the 
name  of  the  inspector  and  owner,  the  sort  of  flax,  and 
the  period  when  it  was  selected  or  inspected.     See 
Hemi*.     Good  flax  should  be  of  a  fine  bright  color, 
well  separated  from  the  tow,  codila,  or  coarser  portion 
of  the  plant ;  and  of  a  long,  fine,  and  strong  fibre.    In 
purchasing  flax,  it  is  usual  to  employ  agents  wholly 
devoted  to  this  peculiar  business, 

AoooVNT  or  Tns  QtrANtiTiES  op  Flax  and  Tow  impohtbd 
ixtoKnulani)  unaiNO  each  or  tue  fitk  Ykars  kno- 
i»o  wrrn  1S51,  distisuuisiiini.  the  Covstriks  wiiknce 

THEY   WEE*    IlllVETBD,   AHD  THE   QOAIfTITIEl    BROVOHT 
raOH  EACB, 


Russia S8M'67|l,(Hfi,';i32|l 


I'ru5*la, 
Ilaose  Towns. 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Italy  and  the 
It-lltnlsls.. 

JrU.  ferrit.  in 

tue  E.  Ind.. 

...nited  States. 

kMber  parts 


141,»4V 
84.493 

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SD.IHIl) 

6,1171 


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f«i».    I 
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J4,»25 
88,121 
7&,«78; 

8,*^ 

1,885' 
48,U88j 

48' 

8 

7,8851 


,82«.»lnill,ltf4,184! 


Flax  has  been  but  little  cultivated  in  the  United 
States,  and  only  for  home  consumption,  KiTorts  are 
now  being  made  to  increase  the  pn)duction.  Linen 
mills  have  Ikcu  erected  in  Fall  River  and  other  places ; 
•nd  the  demand  will  after  this  equal  the  supply. 

During  the  last  half  century  various  attempts  have 
been  mode  to  effect  tlie  separation  of  the  fibrous  flrom 
the  woody  portion  of  the  flax  stem  by  chemical  and  me- 
chanical means.  In  several  cases  the  results  at  first 
appeared  to  be  very  promising,  hut  in  every  instance 
It  was  soon  found  that  there  were  insuperable  practical 
objecUona.   Among  chemical  a^nts,  solutions  uf  sul- 


phuric acid,  cangtic  potash,  caustic  soda,  quicklime 
and  soft  soap,  were  all  in  tarn  tried  and  discarded 
and  among  mechanical  processes,  the  ingenious  con> 
trivances  uf  Mr,  James  Lee,  and  Messrs.  Hill  &  Bundy, 
shared  the  same  fate.  Wliatevor  may  have  been  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  two  processes  of  these  rival 
inventors,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  both  were  re- 
linquished and  forgotten.  Various  other  ingenious 
mechanical  arrangements  have  been  devised,  but  hith- 
erto they  have  had  very  little  success, 

Schenck's  process,  for  which  he  obtained  a  patent  in 
184C,  is  undoubtedly  a  very  important  improvement.  It 
consists  merely  in  steeping  the  flax  stems  in  warm  water, 
heated  artificially  to  the  ti'mperature  best  suited  to 
fermentation.  In  this  simple  way  the  operation  is 
rendered  rapid  and  certain,  all  imcertainty  from  fluctu- 
ation in  temperature  and  weather  is  avoided,  and  the 
whole  process  is  entirely  under  the  command  of  the 
manufacturer.  The  temperature  best  suited  for  this 
purpose  is  about  80°,  or  from  80°  to  nearly  90". 
Above  this  poiut  the  process  proceeds  too  rapidly,  ond 
the  fibre  is  utmost  sure  to  be  more  or  less  injured.  The 
time  required  is  from  ubout  70  to  90  hours.  It  appears 
to  be  generidly  admitted  that  the  warm-water  steep- 
ing increases  the  percentage  of  fibre  obtained  from  thu 
flax,  stem  over  that  obtained  by  the  old  modes  of  ret- 
ting by  nearly  one  fifth ;  and  that,  while  the  fineness 
and  spinning  qualities  of  the  fibre  are  increased,  the 
strength  is  in  no  way  weakened  or  diminished,  unless 
the  process  bo  permitted  to  proceed  too  far — an  acci- 
dent that  need  iiever  happen,  from  the  complete  con- 
trol over  it  which  the  manufacturer  has  thrtfughoul. 
Although  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  practical  value  of 
the  use  of  warm  water  in  flax  retting,  yet  the  introduc- 
tion of  Scbenck  e  ,  'ocess  is  far  from  removing  all  the 
difliculties  of  the  flax  manufacturer;  much  st-ll  re- 
mains to  be  effe>;ted ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  imprubable 
that  ere  long  a  yet  more  perfect  process  may  be  de- 
vised. 

it  is  interesting  to  observe,  that  the  use  of  warm 
water  in  the  preparation  of  vegetable  fibre  is  not  alto- 
gether new,  it  having  been  employed  by  the  Malays, 
and  by  the  natives  of  Rungpoor,  in  Bengal.  The  process 
adopted  at  Bencoolen  is  stated  by  Dr.  Campbell  to 
consist  of  steeping  the  stems  of  the  hemp  in  warm  wa- 
ter, in  which  it  is  allowed  to  remam  for  two  days  and 
nights.  The  old  German  process,  called  "  Molken- 
rOst,"  sometimes  used  in  preparing  the  finer  sorts  of 
flax,  is  also,  to  some  extent,  an  application  of  the 
same  principle.  In  this  mode  of  retting,  the  flax  was 
steeped  for  four  or  five  days  in  a  warm  mixture  of  milk 
and  water,  and  thus  the  desired  degree  of  fermentation 
in  the  flax  stems  was  produced.  This  peration  must 
l>e  distinguished  from  the  more  modem  one,  in  which 
sorr  milk  was  used  in  order  to  give  a  good  color  to 
linen — a  process  introduced  by  the  Dutch  toward  the 
middle  of  the  last  contiir^-.  The  linen  was  boiled  in  a 
weak  alkaline  \ye,  and  sul>sequently  treated  with  sour 
butter-milk,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  ii)  -emoving  the 
alkali,  and  dissolving  the  earthy  impurities  present  in 
the  fibre.  Ocasionaily,  also,  suit  of  sorrel  was  used 
for  the  sumo  purpose ;  and  in  1775  Reuss  states  that 
sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  might  be  used  for  the  same 
end ;  but  that  Ijeing  too  costly,  they  had  not  as  yet 
come  into  general  use.  Of  course  all  processes  in 
which  boiling,  or  even  hot,  water  is  used,  are  quite 
different  in  tlieir  mode  of  action  from  those  in  which 
only  warm  water  is  empIoye<l.  When  boiling  water 
is  used,  it  is  with  a  view  uf  dissolving  and  removing 
the  ut^less  matters  which  incrust  the  fibrous  parts  uf 
the  plant ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  warn  water  is 
used  to  soften  them,  und  to  aid  in  their  putrefaction  or 
decomposition,  through  the  agency  of  fermentiition. 
In  1787,  much  interest  was  excised  in  Ireland  by  the 
publication  of  a  plan  fbr  improving  the  retting  of  flax 
by  the  action  of  hot  water.  In  this  scheme  it  was 
proposed  to  scald  the  flax-stems  iu  boiling  water  to 


-:^^-'i-- 


FLA. 


679 


FLA 


in  a 
Hour 
the 
nt  in 
»cd 
tliat 
8ame 
yet 
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oving 
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tor  \» 
ion  or 
jition, 
the 
if  flax 
was 
tcr  to 


•often  them,  utA  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  extraneous 
vegetable  matters  which  they  contain;  and  it  was 
conceived  that  after  this  treatment  the  subsequent  ret- 
ting of  the  flax  would  be  more  rapid,  certain,  and  man- 
ageable ;  so  that  time  would  be  saved,  the  noisome 
process  of  pond-retting  be  obviated,  and  the  result  be 
to  yield  a  stronger  and  whiter  fibre.  The  minute  and 
careful  experiments  of  Uermbstaedt  on  the  chemical 
principles  involved  in  the  rotting  of  flax  (made  about 
the  Ijeginning  of  the  present  century)  threw  much 
liglit  on  the  whole  subject,  and,  to  some  extent,  indi- 
cated the  influence  of  temperature  on  the  success  of 
the  operation. 

Flax-cotton  is  a  material  prepared  from  flax, 
hemp,  and  other  vegetable  fibres,  and  which  very 
rnarly  resembles  the  fibre  of  the  Goa.it/pium  or  cotton- 
plant.  M.  Claussen's  ingenious  process  for  making 
flax-cotton  (patented  August,  I860)  consists  essentially 
in  Iwiiing  the  cnt  and  crushed  stems  of  the  flax,  hemp, 
ur  other  plant,  in  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
containing  about  l-2000th  part  of  alkali.  The  fibrous 
matter  is  then  removed,  and  plunged  into  a  bath  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  containing  l-500th  part  of  acid, 
in  which  it  is  Iwiled  for  about  an  hour.  It  is  next 
transferred  into  a  solution  containing  aliout  10 1  >  cent, 
of  carbonate  of  soda ;  and,  lastly,  when  it  has  i<  mained 
in  the  latter  for  an  hour,  it  is  pUinj;ed  into  a  weak  so- 
lution of  sulphuric  acid,  consisting  of  one  part  of  acid 
to  200  or  50O  parts  of  water ;  in  this  it  is  left  for  about 
lialf  an  hour,  and  the  process  is  completed.  The  ef- 
fect of  these  several  processes  is  "  to  divide  and  split 
up"  the  fibre  in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  so  us  com- 
pletely to  alter  its  character.  Flax  thus  treated  is 
converted  into  a  substance  very  nearly  resembling  cot- 
ton. It  is  probal)le  that  flax-cotton  can  be  i.dvantage- 
uusly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mixed  fabrics,  as  it 
iippcnrs  capable  of  being  spun  with  wool,  silk,  and 
other  fibres ;  it  may,  therefore,  perhaps  hereafter  lead 
to  several  new  and  important  practical  applications. 

The  idea  of  modifying  the  fibre  of  the  flax  and  hemp, 
so  as  to  convert  it  into  a  kind  of  cotton,  is  l)y  no  means 
now.  In  1747,  Lilljikreuzes  and  Palmquist  described 
a  mode  of  converting  flax  into  "  cotton,"  liy  boiling  it 
for  some  time  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  and  snlj- 
sequcntly  washing  it  with  soap.  In  1776,  consider- 
able qnantitie"  of  refuse  flax  and  hemp  were  converted 
into  "  flax-cotton"  by  Lady  Moira,  with  the  aid  of  T, 
H  Bailey,  of  Hope,  near  Mancliester.  The  full  details 
of  the  process  employed  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
published ;  but  from  Lady  Moira's  letters  in  the 
'J'mnmcliima  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  1775,  it  appears 
that  the  fibre  was  boiled  in  an  alkaline  lyi?,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  kelp,  containing  carlmnate  of  soda,  and  subse- 
quently scoured.  The  result  of  this  was  that  "  the 
fibres  seem  to  be  set  at  lil)ert'y  from  each  other,"  after 
wliich  it  may  lie  "  carilcil  on  cotton  cards."  It  appears 
tliut  nt  this  time  flax-cutton  "  was  made  and  sold 
at  3d.  per  pound ;"  and  Lady  Sloira  states,  that  she 
believes  that  it  takes  colors  better  than  flax.  It  is 
curious  to  oliserve  the  fate  of  Lady  Moira's  scheme : 
she  says :  "  I  have  no  reason  to  be  vain  of  the  samples 
I  have  sent  yon :  they  merely,  show  that  the  material 
of  flax-cotton,  in  able  hands,  will  bear  manufacturing, 
though  it  is  my  ill  fortune  to  havi  it  discredited  by 
the  nrtizans  who  work  for  me.  I  had,  in  Dublin,  with 
great  difficulty,  a  gown  wove,  and  three  waistcoats ; 
but  had  not  the  person  who  employed  a  weaver  for  me 
particularly  wished  to  oblige  me,  I  could  not  have  got 
it  accomplished." 

Subsequently  to  this,  several  attempts  were  made  in 
ricrmiiny  to  convert  flax  into  a  fibre  resembling  cot- 
tiiii.  In  1777,  Uaron  Meldinger  proposed  to  convert 
flux  into  a  sort  of  cotton,  by  the  action  of  alkaline  so- 
lutions, etc.  In  1780,  a  factory  was  established  at 
Ueri'htoldsdarf,  near  Vienna,  for  the  practical  working 
of  this  process ;  and  similar  jilans  were  subsequently 
brought  forward  by  Kreutzer  in  1801,  Studler  and 


Haupftaer  In  1811,  by  Sokou  in  1816,  and  by  seTeimi 
others.  At  the  factory  at  Bercbtoldsdorf,  not  only  wat 
flax  converted  into  cotton,  but  also  a  useful  cotton- 
like fibre  was  prepared  from  tow  and  refuse  flax ;  and 
the  seme  is  said  to  have  been  done  by  Hagg,  near  Prea- 
burg,  in  1788,  by  Gobell  in  1803,  and  SegaUa  in  1811. 
Whether  these  various  plans  failed  from  the  effects  of 
jealousy  and  opposition,  like  that  which  prevented 
Lady  Moira  from  introducing  her  "flax-cotton,"  it 
unknown ;  but  it  does  not  appear  tli.i:,  n;iy  of  them 
were  long  persevered  in.  It  is  prcibaUe  tiiatinmost 
cases  the  neighboring  manufacturers  set  themselvei 
against  the  introduction  of  flax-cotton ;  for  Beckman, 
who  speaks  of  its  manufacture  near  Brunswick,  state* 
that  the  work-people  determined  not  to  use  the  new 
material;  though  at  the  same  time  he  observes,  that 
exceUi  n'.  fustians  were  made,  which  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  manufactured  with  ordinary 
cotton.  The  extreme  similarity  of  flax-cotton  to  ordi- 
nary cotton  is  also  remarked  by  Des  Charmes  (1799), 
who  states,  that  if  the  staple  be  cut  before  it  is  carded, 
it  is  not  possible  to  distinguish  it  from  cotton,  either 
in  its  raw  state  or  when  manufactured.  The  matter 
was  subsequently  investigated  by  Berthollet,  by  Gay 
Lussac,  and  by  Giobert,  who  employed  alternately 
steepings  in  hot  solutions  of  soap,  alkali,  and  sulpburio 
or  muriatic  acid.  Berthollet  observes,  that  equally 
fine  cotton  is  obtained  from  the  commonest  refuse  tow 
as  from  the  best  flax. 

For  some  valuable  information  on  fibrous  mato- 
rials,  the  produce  of  India,  which  may  be  cheaply  and 
usefully  substituted  for  Russian  hemp  and  flux,  see 
"  The  Fibrous  Plants  of  India  fitted  for  Cordage, 
Clothing,  and  Paper,"  by  J,  Forbes  lioyle,  M.  D., 
F.R.S. :  London,  1856;  and  also  an  article  entitled 
"  Indian  Substitutes  for  RussUn  Produce,"  in  the 
Edinburg  Review  for  July,  1865. 

In  1616,  M.  Girard  found  means  to  apply  machinery 
and  to  substitute  the  spindle  in  the  spinning  of  flax. 
To  France,  then,  belongs  the  honor  of  the  discovery, 
but  England  was  the  first  to  profit  by  it  and  put  it  in 
practice,  and  her  example  was  followed,  at  the  inter- 
val of  some  years,  by  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany, 
in  the  order  indicated.  The  progress  of  this  industry 
was  rapid,  and  the  following  table  presents  its  present 
position  (July,  1866) : 

RHndles. 

Great  BriUin  and  Ireland 1,480,000 

Franco 540,000 

Germany  (including  Austria) 171,000 

Belgium 182,000 

Russia 60,000 

Other  European  States 40,000 

United  States  of  America 81,000 

Total 2,400,000 

^Hiile  the  progress  of  machine-spinning  ii;  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  independent  of 
all  kinds  of  protection,  except  in  the  case  of  Prussia, 
certain  premiums  paid  by  the  government  to  those 
who  have  established  factories,  its  extension  in  Franca 
and  Belgium,  and  more  especially  in  the  former,  is  due 
to  legislative  interference.  Let  us,  then,  direct  our 
attention  to  France,  where  an  extreme  import  duty 
exists.  Although  the  duty  was  made  high  in  1826,. 
the  import  of  English  yam  was  progressive,  but  slow, 
until  1836,  when  the  rate  was  considerably  reduced. 
Immediately  afterward  the  quantity  increased  rapidly. 
In  1830  France  received  but  7,500  lbs,  of  linen  yarn 
from  England.  In  1835,  in  spite  of  a  high  tariff,  the 
import  had  increased  to  11,700,000  lbs.  Under  the  re- 
duced duties  it  went  on  augmenting  until,  in  1842,  it 
reached  24,750,000  lbs.  Then  came  the  establishment 
of  the  present  excessively  protective  scale  of  duty ; 
its  consequences  are  manifest  in  the  rapid  extension  of 
flax-spinuing  in  France.  lu  1840  there  were  90,000 
spindles  ;  in  1845,  the  number  was  127,000 ;  in  1860, 
275,000  ;  in  1855,  490,000.  In  the  nuun  time  the  im- 
port of  yams  from  (jl  countries  fell  from  24,750,000 


FLA 


980 


FLA 


Ibi.  to  1,693,000  Iba.  If  we  lud  only  to  do  with  th« 
eatablUbment  of  a  great  ipinniog-trade  in  France,  and 
tlie  monopoly  of  tlie  supply  uf  yam  at  Iiome,  theae 
figures  woald  be  triumphant.  But  unfortunately  for 
the  consumer,  as  well  as  for  the  wealth  and  resources 
of  the  nation,  the  operation  of  the  tarilf  has  l)een  a 
costly  affair.  While  the  capitalists  who  had  placed 
their  money  in  the  spinning-factories  rejoiced  at  the 
results  detailed,  and  in  the  large  profits  which  their 
government  had  given  them  a  legalized  right  to  derive 
fkvm  the  mass  of  consumern,  we  may  inquire  whether 
every  one  was  equally  satisfied  with  such  a  system  of 
political  economy.— /icpoH  to  the  Reform  Congreu  of 
BnuteU,  by  Mr.  J.  Macadam,  of  Belfatt,  1866. 

Mr.  Macadam's  conclusions  were  as  follows :  I,  In 
nil  cases  I  would  advocate  the  free, entry  of  the  raw 
materials,  flax  and  tow.  Where  natural  and  social 
facilities  exist  for  the  cultivation  of  flux,  no  protection 
is  required,  as  it  only  renders  the  growers  careless  of 
Improvement.  Where  these  elements  of  success  are 
wanting,  it  is  evident  that  the  culture  should  lie 
abandoned.  A  nation  should  never  be  subjected  to  a 
tax  simply  to  supply  itself  with  a  material  which  it 
can  have  better  and  cheaper  from  elsewhere. 

II.  I  would  urge  a  moderate  fixed  ad  valortm  duty 
for  the  exorbitant  ones  now  levied  in  many  States, 
and  fix  it  for  10  per  cent,  on  the  present  value  of  En- 
glish yarns.  If  to  this  rate  of  duty  be  added  the  cost 
of  packing,  transport,  commission  and  other  charges, 
the  rate  of  protection  would  really  amount  to  15  per 
cent.  French  and  Belgian  spinners  may,  perhaps,  say 
that  this  duty  would  be  inadequate  to  protect  them, 
but  I  can  not  admit  this.  It  is  true  that  the  cost  of 
fuel  is  higher  in  France  and  Belgium  than  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  I  con 
prove  that  in  Ireland  we  pay  more  in  proportion,  as 
compared  with  Great  Britain,  than  France  or  Belgium 
does,  as  compared  with  us.  For  example,  while  at 
Leeds  coals  cost  -Is.  8d.  per  ton,  and  at  Dundee  8s., 
they  cost  in  Belfast  lOs.  to  lis.  6d.  per  ton,  making  a 
difference  in  favor  of  the  English  spinners  of  140  per 
cent.,  and  of  the  Scotch  of  30  per  cent.  At  Ghent, 
coals  cost  at  present  14s.,  and  have  l>een  much  cheaper. 
At  I.illo  they  cout  Lis.  6d. ;  the  diflfercnce,  therefore, 
in  favor  of  the  Irish  spinners,  as  compared  with  the 
French  or  Belgian,  is  50  |)er  cout.  We  might,  conse- 
quently, at  Belfast,  just  us  well  demand  protection 
from  the  English  and  Scotch  spinners,  as  the  French 
and  Belgians  ask  it  against  us.  As  to  the  cost  of  la- 
Iwr,  the  factories  of  Ghent  ami  Mile  are  in  a  lietter 
position  than  ours.  On  what,  then,  do  the  spinners 
of  France  and  Belgium  liase  their  claim  to  protection  ? 
On  the  8uperir)rity  of  English  machinery  ?  But  these 
machines  may  enter  Belgium  free  of  dut}' ;  and  lately. 
In  Franco,  great  advantages  have  been  accorded  in 
their  import.  Or  is  it  on  the  great  capital  of  England, 
and  the  smaller  rate  of  Witerest  of  money  ?  As  well 
might  we,  in  poor  Ir<  ud,  ask  protection  .against 
these,  ond  yet  in  the  face  of  them,  we  have  progressed 
more  rapidly  than  either  England  or  Scotland.  Further, 
how  does  it  bapp<!n  that  Prussia  and  Austria  have  pro- 
gressed to  such  an  extent  In  their  spinning  without 
this  immediate  protection  ?  The  first  named  had,  in 
1846.  Imt  47,000  spindles,  and  has  now  96,000.  The 
second,  which,  in  1845,  had  but  21,000,  now  numbers 
82,000.  And  10  per  cent,  duty,  I  repeat,  is  abundantly 
anfOcient  to  protect  the  llflgian  and  French  spinners, 
while  it  would  prove  of  ,;-iat  lienefit  to  the  mannfac- 
tnrera  of  linen  in  those  ccinutriea. 

III.  A  duty  of  20  per  cent,  on  unbleached  linens 
might  be  proposed.  When  it  is  remembered  that,  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  Continent,  weaving  at  pntsent 
costs  less  than  in  the  United  Kingdom,  it  will  Iw  rec- 
ognized that  the  linen  manufacturers  of  the  Continent 
have  an  advantage  over  ours.  There  was  a  time 
when  weaving  cost  as  little  in  Ireland  as  in  any  other 
coontry,  and  less  than  in  many.     But  the  thinning  of 


the  population  by  the  disaatroua  yean  bf  fkmlne  whleh 
followed  the  potato  disease;  the  large  emigration 
which  subaequently  took  place;  the  recruitment  of 
able-bodied  men  for  the  army ;  and  other  causes,  have 
led  to  different  results. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  where  the  manu- 
facture of  linen  is  on  an  extremely  small  scale,  and 
the  whole  Union  only  contains  30,000  spindles,  a  duty 
of  20  per  cent,  existed  on  yams  and  linens  up  to  July, 
1867.  The  annual  import  reaches  ;ei,600,000,  so  that 
the  nation  pays  a  tax  of  £820,000  on  its  yearly  con- 
aumption.  Originally  at  6  per  cent.,  the  duty  was 
raised  to  87}  per  cent,  in  1812.  In  1832  it  was  abol- 
ished, but  in  1842  was  re-established*  at  26  percent., 
and  reduced,  in  1846,  to  20  per  cent.  In  1853,  the 
revenue  of  the  United  States  hud  so  much  increased, 
and  the  cash  in  the  Treasury  was  of  so  groat  an 
amount,  that  Mr.  Guthrie,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, issued  a  circular  to  merchants,  in  which  he  pro- 
posed to  reduce  or  abolish  the  duties  on  many  articles, 
and  he  requested  their  opinion  as  to  those  on  which 
such  a  change  might  most  beneficially  take  pkce, 
specifying  that  it  should  be  on  such  articles  as  were 
generally  consumed  by  all  classes  of  the  population, 
and  yet  not  leading  items  of  native  manufacture,  and 
the  remission  of  the  duty  on  which  would  tend  to 
lighten  tlie  labors  of  the  custom-house.  Mew,  there 
could  scarcely  be  an  article  more  fully  answering  to 
these  requirements  than  linen ;  largely  consumed  by 
all  classes,  the  native  manufacture  was  quite  insignifi- 
cant, while  the  disputes  as  to  value,  in  levying  the 
duties,  between  the  custom-house  and  the  importers, 
gave  endless  trouble. 

The  following  table  shows  the  nnmber  of  bushels  of 
flax-seeds,  and  the  number  of  pounds  of  flax  produced, 
in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1850 : 


statu  ud  Territorin. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Conni'OttouL 

Polawaro 

Oooricia 

Illinois. 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Maine 

Maryland 

MasMochusotts. . . . 

Mlohlfran 

Mlssbslppt  

Mismiiri 

Now  Ilsmpshlro. 

Now  Jersey 

Now  York 

North  Carolina... 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania..... 
Boulh  Carolina... 

Tonnossoe 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin , 


Flasaeed, 


Utuliali. 
69 

821 

708 

904 

(»3 

10,787 

86,8S.S 

1,9.^9 

75,801 

6tiO 

2,446 

78 

619 

26 

18,696 

189 

16,fi2S 

S7,968 

88,1»6 

18H,sS0 

41,728 

SS 

18,904 

20' 

989 

62,818 

1.191 


Totol I     662,307 


Flu. 


Pound  H, 

8,900 

12,200 

17,900 

11,100 

6,300 

100,000 

684,400 

62,000 

2,100,100 

17,000 

86,000 

i.ino 

7,100 

600 

627,100 

7,«K) 

182,900 

940,600 

698,700 

446,900 

680,800 

800 

808,100 

1.000 

20,800 

1,000,400 

6a,800_ 

7,806,809 


We  have  also  compiled  the  comparative  imports  of 
flax  and  linen  goods  into  the  United  States  from  for- 
eign ports  during  the  last  three  years  : 


Fuic tttt: 

Linons,  blochJ.  &  nnblecbd. 
lloslory  anil  articles  made 

on  Barnes 

Lacos,  thread  L  It  "—■ tlnp. 
jArtlclea  tarabf  urmt  <-\  om-l 

broidcred     I 

Lliions  not  .jc.'ilod. 


$280,891] 
9,487,846 

2.281) 


t28«,Hli9 
7,662,866 

1,409| 
818,611 


_  ""«■  ,' 
tlH2.46t 
9,849,600> 

4,921! 
410,691: 


69,6241        92,749|       164,8631 

1,868,808     1,062,S9I  |     1,884,9421 

TtAtX  ^>11,482,286|  ♦9,818,284,?rr596,¥03' 

Flu  sije'i,  or  I  ^  iteed  (Fr.  Lin,  Graim  de  Lin ; 
Ger.  Mr  i- .•  T>.i.i7-'-.a«kI;  It.AiiMetw!;  Sp.  tinata; 
Port,  ill,  V  III  •  V"l    'iitmie,  Iniatte;  Rub.  Semja  1<H- 


gla 


for 
ligl 


pre 

tele 

suH 

the 

imi 

giv 

of 

siti 

fuQ 


yet 

resi 


VLt 


m 


PLO 


4,02t! 
410,601! 


JanOt  t  I^t.  Lmi ««»!««),  the  seed  of  flax.  It  contain* 
a  great  deal  of  oil,  irhich  it  yields  by  exprestlon  |  and 
ia  cnltlvated  either  that  it  may  be  used  in  «owinK,  or 
sent  to  the  crushing-mills  to  \>e  converted  into  oil.  As 
the  quality  of  the  crop  depends  much  on  the  seed  em- 
ployed, a  good  deal  of  care  is  requisite  in  solectliiK  the 
best.  Generally  speaking,  it  should  be  chosen  of  a 
bright,  brownish  color,  oily  to  the  feel,  heavy,  and 
quite  fresh.  Dutch  seed  is  in  the  highest  ettimatloii 
for  sowing ;  it  not  only  ripens  sooner  than  any  other 
that  is  imported,  bnt  produces  larger  crops,  and  of  the 
quality  that  best  snits  our  principal  manufacturen, 
American  seed  produces  fine  flax,  but  the  produce  Is 
not  so  large  as  from  Dutch  seed.  British  flnx-seed  Is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  Dutch  ;  but  the  risk  of  the 
crop  misgiving  is  so  much  greater,  "  that  those  only 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  consequences,  or  who  are  com- 
pelled from  necessity,  are  chargeable  with  this  act  of 
ill-judged  parsimony." — Loudon't  Kite.  nfAgrtndture, 
Crushing-seed  is  principally  imported  from  Russia,  but 
considerable  quantities  are  also  brouglit  from  India, 
Italy,  and  Egypt. 

Zieeoe,  the  covering  of  wool  shorn  from  a  sheep, 
See  Wool. 

Fleet,  a  navy  or  a  squadron  of  ships  of  war ;  or  u 
number  of  ships  in  company,  whether  ships  of  war  or 
of  commerce. 

Flint,  siliciouB  mineral.  It  consists  of  08  silica, 
0'50  lime,  0-26  alumlno,  0-25  oxyd  of  Iron,  and  I'O 
loss.  This  mineral  occurs  of  various  colors,  but  gen- 
orally  yellowish  or  dark  gray,  and  usually  in  a  com- 
pact amorplious  body,  c  /arious  shapes.  It  is  widely 
dispersed  over  the  world,  occurring  chiefly  in  the  clialk 
formations,  but  especially  in  limestone.  Its  princlpnl 
use  is  for  gun-flints,  and  for  striking  light  with  i<t«<'l  \ 
and  it  also  forms,  when  reduced  to  powder,  an  ingre- 
dient in  porcelain  and  glass.  The  manufacture  of 
gun-flints  is  vcrj'  simple,  and  is  performed  with  an 
iron  mnllet  and  chisel.  A  dexterous  workman  will 
make  1000  in  a  day. 

Fllnt-Glass,  or  Crystal,  a  species  of  glass  whicli 
derives  its  name  from  flint,  because  tliat  substance 
was  formerly  employed  in  its  manufacture.  It  Is 
very  extensively  uaed  for  domestic  purposes ;  but  is 
chiefly  interesting  to  the  philosopher  on  account  of  the 
property  which  it  possesses  of  causing  a  greater  dis- 
persion ji  the  raj'8  of  light  which  pass  through  a  pricm 
or  lens  formed  of  it  than  any  other  of  the  vitreous 
compounds.  This  property  renders  it  invaluable  In  the 
manufacture  of  the  olijcct-glasses  of  telescopes  and 
microscopes ;  for,  by  coml)ining  a  concave  lens  of  flint ' 
glass  with  one  or  two  convex  lenses  of  crnirn-glnaa, 
which  possesses  a  much  less  dispersive  power,  a  coiiv- 
pound  lens  is  formed,  in  which  tlio  priBrantlc  colors 
arising  from  a  simple  refraction  are  destroyed,  and  the 
lens  rendered  achromatic.  Tliia  construction  of  olijcct- 
glasses  was  first  discovered  by  a  Mr.  Ilnll,  a  country 
gentleman  in  Worcestershire,  alraut  1729 ;  liut  tiio  dis. 
covery  was  forgotten,  and  no  further  notice  taken  of  it 
for  nearly  30  years,  when  it  was  again  lirought  to 
light  l>y  John  DoUond,  after  a  long-continued  course 
of  experiments  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  perfect- 
ing the  telescope.  It  is,  however,  very  diflicult  to 
prepare  flint-glass  fit  for  the  purposes  of  achromntli 
telescopes.  This  difBculty  arises  not  from  the  want  of 
sufficient  dispersive  power  in  the  substance,  liiit  from 
the  want  of  purity  or  homogeneity ;  the  sllgliU'st 
impurity  or  inequality  of  composition  of  the  gl.iss 
giving  rise  to  a  streaked  or  imperfect  Imago  by  reason 
of  the  unequal  refraction  of  the  rays.  'Hie  coni|io 
sition  of  pure  flint-glass  long  remained  a  secret  In  the 
fumil}'  of  the  Dollonds,  and  its  manufacture  formed  a 
very  profitable  article  of  exportation ;  for,  till  about 
the  l)eginning  of  the  present  century,  no  flint-glass  of 
good  quality  was  made  on  tiie  Continent.  Of  late 
years,  however,  a  great  change  has  taken  place  In  till* 
respect,  and  gloss  of  the  best  quality  \x\xi  been  manu- 


factunut,  both  in  France  and  Qennany,  in  nlnch  larger 
masMis  than  KnKllsh  artists  have  yet  succeeded  in  ob- 
talnlllK.  'I'lils  result  has  lieen  mainly  produced  by  tho 
exiwriirivntal  researches  of  D'Artigucs,  Fraunhofer, 
(.'auclioix,  (lultinnd,  and  Komer.  Formerly,  an  ob- 
JRct-glaiM  itx«««tdlnf(  five  inches  in  diameter  could 
scarcely  bit  produced.  Fraunhofer  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing lli«iil  of  W,  and  even  U  inches.  The  object-glass 
of  tint  large  pHrallnctlfl  telescope  belonging  to  Sir 
ilanuis  Mouth,  at  (!ninpden  Hill,  was  manufactured  by 
('aui'hotxi  It  exceeds  13  inches,  and  Is  throughout  of 
tlui  utmost  liurlty.  The  exact  proportion  of  the  ingre- 
dlentt  wliii'lt  enter  Into  theno  choice  specimens  is  not 
known,  and  probaliiy  their  excellence  depends  in  part 
onsonin  Hccldimtnl  circumstances  in  tho  preparation. 
Kor'ter  priHluced  strniu  of  his  best  specimens  by  em- 
|))oylnKtliH  following  Ingredients :  100  parts  of  quartz, 
ilrst  treNt«d  with  muriatic  add ;  80  parts  of  litharge, 
or  red  lead  \  and  !I0  parts  of  the  bitartrate  of  potash. 
Flliit-nlrtss  for  cotnmim  purposes  is  usually  made  of 
Vlt)  iinrt*  of  fine  white  sand,  40  parts  of  well-puritied 
|MMrlnsh,  'Ml  parts  litharge  or  minium,  13  parts  nitre, 
and  a  small  (piantlty  (rf  the  lilnckjoxyd  of  manganese — 
the  lattftr  Ingredient  licing  used  to  correct  the  green 
color  owaslowed  by  the  presence  of  oxyd  of  iron  in  tho 
sand.  The  (irltn^lpnl  dlfl°cronce  between  this  and  tlio 
glass  used  fof  (ijitlcnl  ]iiir]ioses  consists  in  the  much 
greater  (|Uaiitlty  of  lead  In  the  latter,  and  which  is  in- 
trodui'wd  for  tho  purpose  of  Increasing  its  dispersive 
jiower.  'Illere  U  «  valualile  paper  on  the  manufacture 
of  glitiw  for  ojitlcal  purfioses,  containing  the  results  of 
an  axtoilltlvn  series  of  exjieriments  upon  the  subject, 
mndfl  In  the  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution,  by 
Mr,  Faraday,  In  the  I'hilotnphical  Traiuactioru  for  the 
year  lHiM>,  vol,  cxx,     Hee  Gt.Asa. 

Flouting  Breakwater.  This  marine  contriv- 
ancH  may  consist  of  a  series  of  square  frames  of  tim< 
Iter,  conntH'ted  Siy  mooring-chains,  or  cables  attached 
to  anchors  or  lilocks  of  morlile.  The  framework  may 
lie  niadtt  tif  logs  of  yellow  pine,  from  30  to  SO  feet  long, 
and  from  )H  to  id  inches  sqaare,  liolted  together  very 
Arnily,  and  Increased  In  height  as  the  situation  ma}'  be 
iKiUtarolis,  In  order  to  break  the  violence  of  violent 
waves,  and  to  allow  the  vessels  riding  within  these 
quadrnngtilar  Imslns  more  safety  and  protection.  Such 
hrfahi'ntin  are  admirably  adapted  to  bathing-places 
and  Nwlninilng-statlons,  since  they  will  always  produce 
smooth  water,  and  protect  the  machines. 

FlOfging,  According  to  an  act  of  Congress 
pasM'il  Mc|itt'mli«r  BHtli,  1860,  it  Is  provided,  "That 
(logglni?  In  the  navy,  and  on  board  vessels  of  com- 
nierc«,  Is  hereby  alKillshed  from  and  ofter  the  passage 
of  this  act," 

Floor  Oloth,  This  useful  and  ornamental  manu- 
factiiro  orl(;ltiatcd  In  (Ireat  Dritnin  about  the  year 
17<0,  when  n  nmniifflctorA-  of  it  was  established  at 
Knlglitsbrldge,  near  Londnn,  by  Mr.  Smith.  It  was 
orlglimlly  mada  of  narrow  ■  nnvaa  sewn  together  like 
sail-cloth,  Ui  which  succesxivo  coats  of  paint  were 
applied  I  but  the  seams  proving  inconvenient,  a  can- 
vas was  wove  for  the  purimse,  about  four  yards  wide  ; 
It  WHS  then  extended  to  seven  yards  In  width,  and 
afterward  to  nine,  which  is  the  widest  at  present  made. 
The  manufactory  at  Knlghtsliridge,  now  carried  on  by 
Mr,  Italier,  Is  the  largest  estatilishment  of  the  kind — 
thn  common  dimensions  of  the  oil  cloths  producea 
there  being  iiO  yards  by  8,  and  BO  yards  liy  7,  giving 
therefore  entire  pieces  of  100  and  210  square  yards 
without  seams,  These  canvases  are  strotclicd  upon 
franiea,  aird  arcesstblo  over  their  whole  surface  by 
stages  erci-lcd  for  tho  purpose :  these  are  the  circum- 
stiinces  which  render  the  large  dimensions  of  tho  manu- 
factory requisite.  The  canvas  lieing  duly  strained, 
',»  rutilied  over  with  pumice-stone,  which  renders  its 
surface  sitiootli  and  even,  and  then  brushed  over  with 
a  weak  solllHim  of  sl/,n  (  when  this  is  dry,  the  first  ooat 
of  oil  I'olur  Is  Uld  on,  not  with  brushes,  but  with  trow< 


FLO 


6S3 


FLO 


«■•,  ■ometUngin  the  manner  of  pluteringi  wbsn  tbli 
is  dry  a  second  coat  follows  it ;  and  in  this  wiy  wvtin 
coats  of  paint  are  usually  applied  in  succewlon,  tbnia 
on  the  back  and  four  on  tbe  front.  When  iba  clotb  in 
tbis  state  and  of  one  color,  is  suffif^iently  dry,  It  i« 
removed  from  its  frame  upon  a  lar^e  roller,  and  car- 
ried  to  ^he  upper  part  of  tbe  building  to  Im  pritUed, 
tbat  is,  to  receive  its  pattern.  Tbis  was  orlgiually  ef. 
fected  by  a  process  of  penciling ;  but  in  the  year  17f>0, 
Mr.  Smith  introduced  the  groat  improvement  of  bliiek- 
printing,  by  which  the  colors  are  more  correctly  luiil 
on,  and  in  greater  body  and  variety.  The  printing- 
table,  which  is  about  80  feet  long,  4  wide,  and  2  UH 
6  mches  high,  is  very  firmly  constructed  of  d«ul  tini' 
hers  laid  edgeways,  and  clamped  together,  the  surfaca 
being  truly  i^.  led ;  the  roll  of  painted  clotb  is  plumed 
underneath  it,  and  as  it  Is  unrolled  it  gradually  pssiws 
over  the  table,  where  it  is  piinted,  and  is  thru  drawn 
forirard  so  as  to  hang  perfectly  free  while  drying,  the 
height  of  the  building  being  such  as  conveniently  to 
admit  of  this,  without  rolling,  doubling,  or  folding  tbe 
material,  which  in  these  stages  would  of  couraa  injur* 
it.  The  colors,  which  are  the  usual  oil  colon  very 
carefully  piepa:red,  are  put  on  in  euccassioD  witit 
wooden  blocks,  which  are  made  of  pear-tree,  box,  or 
holly-wood,  and  on  which  the  patterns  are  cut  in 
relief;  they  are  almut  18  inches  i^quare,  and  are  »\h 
plied  in  succession  over  the  whole  of  the  surfuco  of  tiia 
cloth  lying  upon  tbe  printing-table.  Every  u)lor  ia 
put  on  by  a  separate  block,  and  much  dexterity  U 
required  in  so  placing  ihem  that  the  pntterns  may  cor' 
rectly  interli:'  i  and  johi  each  other,  without  in  any 
case  overlapping  or  interfering.  To  effect  thin,  tbe 
workman  is  aided  by  guide-pins,  ot  pitcAti,  u  tbay  are 
termed,  wliioh  direct  him  in  placing  tiio  lilook.  Tb« 
colors  are  first  brushed  or  tiered  upon  hard  cuablonn, 
from  which  they  ate  transferred  to  tbe  lilock  and 
thence  to  the  cloth  ;  and,  though  many  are  often  re- 
quired, it  is  astonishing  bow  much  effect  is  sometimes 
obtained  by  the  judicious  errangemcnt  or  mixture  of 
two  only,  upon  a  third,  which  forms  the  grouml.  It 
will  ije  obvious,  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  tlia 
weight  of  tbe  finished  cU-cloth,  as  compared  with  tbe 
nuked  canvas,  ia  no  unimportant  criterion  of  its  gixul- 
ness — each  square  yard,  when  finished,  weigliing  fri.tii 
8^  pounds  to  4  or  4^ :  thij  distinguishes  a  ifootl  uil. 
cloth  from  those  which  are  vamped  up  and  stiffened 
with  size  and  other  perishable  materials. 

Independent  of  the  common  application  of  uil-clotli, 
it  is  not  nnft«quently  advantageously  employed  as  » 
rooting  material,  especUlly  for  covering  verandas  and 
other  light  structures.  When  uted  for  thU  pur|MU, 
the  canvas  should  he  made  of  picked  long  fbx,  aini 
thoroughly  saturated  with  good  oil  paint ;  it  will  tbon 
stand  our  climate  and  lost  for  14  or  16  years. 

Florida,  one  of  the  southernmost  Sfat«s  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  lies  between  24°  H2'  and 
81°  N.  1st.,  and  betweon  81°  30'  and  87°  86'  W.  long. 
It  is  385  miles  long,  and  from  liO  to  260  wide,  contaiU' 
Ing  fi9,268  square  miles.  Population  in  1880,  was 
34,723  i  in  1840,  54,447;  and  in  1660,  87,401.  Tb<i 
State  was,  in  1850,  divided  into  28  counties, 

Harly  Uiitory  of  Florida. — The  name  whii^^b  tbe 
country  to  the  north  of  Cuba  hod  among  the  Indians 
of  tbeLucuyan  Islands  was  "  Caulio,"  the  signilicatiiin 
of  which  is,  as  Horrera  gives  it,  rather  oliscura,  'I'Im 
Spaniards  he&rd  tbis  country  "  Caulio"  already  siiukiin 
of  liefore  they  saw  it.  They  heard  also  of  tim  famous 
and  fabulous  fountain  of  youth  of  which  tlie  ln<IUn4 
hod  a  tradition,  and  which  was  called  tbe  fuunta  u  of 
Bimini,  From  tbis  fountain  tlie  country  to  tha  north 
itself  was  sometimes  calietl  "  Himlni."  On  son  a  of 
the  first  maps  of  the  16th  century  it  is  also  li«I|<i4 
"  Terra  d3  Cuba"  (the  countr}'  of  Cuba),  as  If  Hiura 
were,  1st,  an  idand  of  Cuba,  and,  2d,  a  emitiHii-t  u( 
Cuba.  Wlien  I'oncede  i.eon,  iu  tlie  spring  of  1)12, 
diicovered  tbia  ooast,  Ite  gave  to  it  tli*  nwiM  ut "  t'luf' 


Oh"  (tba  ilfffld^,  frntn  two  reasons,  as  Herrera  sayat 
ut  iJrst  MiiNMMi  tbn  c<>ttntry  (xresented  a  very  flourish* 
ing  at»4  {ilfAMlNt  flstxirt,  and  then  because  ho  saw  tbe 
coast  at  tbat  frntttval-day  which  the  Spaniards  call 
"I'aieiM  t'luriik,  whl«h  corresponds  to  our  Palm  Sun- 
day. 'I'bia  iMitiA  has  since  that  time  always  remained 
to  tba  UfM  twitlnsnla  which  we  to  thbi  day  call  Flor- 
blii,  tbougii  tilt)  name  was  sometimes  taken  in  different 
wwuis,  aiKl  th(iii(<b  tiometimes  there  have  been  at- 
t«Ml|>ls  Klii'la  '|li<t<'  to  do  away  with  it.  At  first,  so 
bmg  an  (Florida  Wiii  sii|rtiosed  to  be  an  island,  tbe  name 
ba<i  only  «  vnry  limited  application.  When  the  Span- 
larita,  niUil  ihn  ymkt  1620,  discovered,  however,  the 
cwntiltiwllon  nf  tbe  coasts  on  both  sides  of  Florida, 
liioy  >ipi(li«<t  tills  finmn  to  tbe  -.rbole  western  half  of 
North  Ant#rl(«.  from  tbe  boundaries  of  Mexico  and 
front  CftiKi  -ff  Klorlda,  toward  the  nortli,  in  indefinitum. 
'Iliu  do-ifrtllml  "  (Imernrrtml  of  Florida"  was  often 
glvan  t<>  diff«f«i)t  Mpnnlsh  governors  within  the  said 
limits,  TIlM  "  nil)  do  lot  J'almat"  (Palm  River)  in 
Mu%k»  was  Iho  Mtith-westem  lioundary  of  this  govern- 
ing tit. 

Wa  s«a  tti«  fiiim«  of  Florida  on  many  maps,  with 
Urga  li>t(«rs,  writtm  throngh  t'le  whole  Mississippi 
valUy,  IbrouglK/ut  tli«  whole  area  of  the  United 
K'atas  I  HtKi  uyvn  nn  Itite  as  tbe  year  1723,  the  Spanish 
liiatorfutt  Ibtfrtd  in  it«l,  In  tbe  work  which  he  colls 
''  'J'/ia  lliiliti^  iif  FinriiUt"  also  of  Canada,  and  even  of 
tlia  Knglinb  tm^iWiStim*  tnt  n  discovery  of  the  nortb- 
waat  \i»mm»,  This  kttar  passage  tlie  Spanish  au- 
Khtm  yitty  (liUm  rAyU  "a  ttrail  through  Florida." 
Ilarrara,  Itmcfivtir,  nlrnady  remarks  tbat  tbe  name  of 
l^riiJa  was  taken  in  two  senses  >  it  had  a  mere  exten- 
eiva  iin4  N  nnnnwrt  tneaning.  In  the  latter  sense  the 
IMiiiiiisula  was  failed  "  Flitrida  par  excellence."  Some 
author*  liiiiktid  upon  tbis  peninsula  only  as  upon  a 
btrgti  Umitw  *>r  trromtmtor}-  attached  to  the  great  Flo- 
riillitit  l^oittlllMlt,  and  named  it  the  "Promontory  of 
Ftori'ih"  ( I'rorminlnrium  Floridai).  On  many  old 
limiM  wo  niw*  tltli  name  cover  the  whole  peninsula. 
Htlit  ifilixr  imtiies  for  tbe  whole  peninsula  grew  out,  as 
It  Wfru,  from  Its  tirni  or  from  its  southern  point.  At 
tlia  tltttn  of  tbe  Spanish  governor,  Don  Pedro  Mcnen- 
'Ux,  in  lli«  year  IMC,  tbe  Spanbrds  discovered  near 
tbfl  (,'a|M  lit  Florida  an  Indian  village  called  Tequ?.ita, 
or  'IWlttiati ,  mImi  wrliten  Toi;;esta.  This  often-spoli  en- 
uf  vlllnga  tlin  ma|i-makers  put  down  on  their  -mipB, 
atffl  «.'(;:jti«(id  It  to  A  "  I'rovinciu  de  Tegesta"  (a  province 
of  'iVgustv;,  Hutne  authors  applied  this  name  to  the 
wbota  pninsulA  of  Florida:  thus,  for  instani-e,  did 
f/ii£t,  III  bis  work  as  well  as  on  bis  maps  (a.d.  1C33). 

Wli«'fi  tbe  FrencW  discovered  and  settled  tbe  Missis- 
•lp|il  valltiy,  and  named  it  I.ouisiana,  they  extended 
till*  llMlii«>  and  tbiilr  pretensions  as  far  as  possible  ;  and 
im  "lie  I'Vewili  map  by  Nic.  de  Fer,  of  the  yeui  1713, 
we  nee  the  name  "J'eninmte  tie  Louitiane"  uvco  given 
Ui  iiuf  petiiiisiila  of  Florida.  This  was,  I'owcver,  only  a 
Klitgle  and  unfi/rtnnato  attem|>t,  which  had  no  further 
L'oniH«|iK<ttvc4,  either  In  geography  or  politics.  The 
K|.'»ttiardf<,  on  their  side,  gave  not  up  their  pre!enBions 
t'l  i^btlin,  under  the  name  of  Florida,  much  more  than 
tltnlr  nelgliliors,  tbn  llritlsb,  to  tbe  north,  ind  the 
i^'ri'iK'b,  to  tbe  west,  would  allow  them.  But  the 
HpHiiUrds  extftided,  Itefore  17r>3,  their  actual  posses- 
'UiH  Mill!  government  in  Florida,  toward  the  east,  not 
further  than  Mol<lle  Hay  and  Biver,  and  to  tbe  nortli 
not  fiirllier  tfann  the  St.  Mary's  Biver.  When,  in  the 
year  I7>it),  the  KInridas  were  ceded  to  Great  Britain, 
and  abfi  all  tba  French  dominions  east  of  the  Missis- 
si|i|ii,  tllett  tbe  Ixiundarles  of  the  name  Florida  were 
eateiebwl  again.  Orent  Britain  established  two  prov- 
IliKwa  of  Florida,  "  Fui.1  and  Weil  Florida  "  The  first 
Katelide4  «»  far  north  as  tbe  St.  Mar}''s  River,  or 
alwMl  tbe  illst  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  the  latte: 
as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi  Delta,  tu  tbe  Lukes 
I'lnil'dmrtrnln  and  Maure|.»s,  In  the  year  1783  Great 
Urit«ii«  fetroMdad  the  Flvridna  to  cipaio,  and  Spain  at 


i  i-.  i/.^'jiiiiTritiKi^ii 


FLO 


683 


FLO 


the  Mino  time  received  the  poiseuion  of  the  whole  of 
French  Louis'ana  to  the  west  of  the  MUsIsaippi. 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  Spain  held  in  actual  possession 
all  the  fhofi  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  all  the  cuun- 
triea  lyiuj;  around  it.  Spain  adopted  the  English  di- 
vision in  Eastern  and  Western  Florida — Florida  Ori- 
ental and  Ocriilental — and  retained  also  the  extension 
of  this  name  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  Delta.  The  81st 
degree  of  north  latitude,  which  runs  not  much  further 
thnn  10  mil»8  trom  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mexican 
Gulf,  and  is  parallel  to  it,  was  agreed  upon  as  the  north- 
orn  boundary  of  "  the  Floridas"  toward  the  United 
Stat  S9.  So,  since  the  year  1703,  the  name  of  Florido  ex- 
ten:'ted  again  over  half  the  circuit  of  the  shores  of  the 
Uexican  Gulf.  Rut  soon  after  the  cession  of  Louisiana 
to  '.he  United  States  Florida  was  curtailed  again.  The 
United  States  claimed  the  western  part  of  it  as  far 
cast  as  Perdido  River,  received  the  possession  of  it  in 
tlio  year  1811,  and  joined  it  to  their  "  Territory  of  Mit- 
aitsipf.',"  and  afterward  of  "Alabama."  Since  this 
time  (1811)  the  d'^minion  of  the  name  of  Florida  has 
not  changed,  though  the  so-called  country  changed, 
till  1821,  its  masters,  when  Spain  ceded  it  to  the 
United  States.  It  was  then  at  first  called  "  the  Terri- 
tory of  FLnda,"  and  since  1815,  "  the  State  of  Florida." 
But  the  limits  remained  (with  some  slight  exceptions) 
unchanged— Perdido  Kiver  in  the  west,'and  St.  Mary's 
Elver  and  the  81st  degree  north  latitude,  in  the  north. 
The  division  into  East  and  West  Florida  disappeared 
uni'er  the  American  government. — Kohl, 

Physical  Feature!,  etc.— Tho  face  of  the  country  is 
uneven,  but  nowhere  elevated  over  800  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  whole  extent  of  the  coast  is  indented  with 
bays  and  lagoons.  A  large  portion  of  the  countrj'  is 
covered  with  pine  forests,  the  trees  of  which  standing 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  each  other,  without 
brush  or  underwood,  afl'ord  an  opportunity  for  the 
grass  and  flowers  to  spread  with  luxuriance  over  the 
surface  of  the  earth  during  the  whole  year.  The 
borders  of  the  streams  are  usually  skirted  by  ham- 
nocks  of  hard  timber  entangled  with  grape  and  other 
vines.  A  large  portion  of  Florida  consists  of  what  are 
usually  denomidated  "pine  barrens,"  and  much  of  it 
is  sterile,  though  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  table 
land,  himmock,  and  swamp  of  the  richest  soil,  and 
v^ell  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  rice,  cotton, 
Indian  com,  tobacco,  and  fruits.  A  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  pine  land  is  equally  rich,  and  even  the  bar- 
rens afibrd  extensive  ranges  of  growing  land,  usually 
intersected  with  streams  of  pure  water.  Many  parts 
of  the  State  abound  In  yellow  pine  and  live  oak  tim- 
ber. The  sea  coast  is  generally  healthy,  and  in  parts 
remarkably  so,  and  the  interior  is  equally  healthy, 
unless  it  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  extensive  marsheb. 
The  peninsula,  which  is  the  southern  portion  of  the 
State,  presents  a  singular  alteni.'ion.  of  savannahs, 
'Mammocks,  and  lufoona,  called  coii'\'.tivi'ly  the  Ever- 
glades, which  extend  into  the  heart  of  the  country  for 
200  miles  north  of  Cape  Sable.  They  are  drained  on 
the  north  by  the  St.  John  River,  and  on  the  Keet  by 
Macac  or  Charlotte  River. 

There  were  in  this  State  in  1850,  849,049  acr,:  ,  " 
land  improved,  and  1,246,240  unimproved  in  fat i its. 
Cash  value  of  farms  $6,82:1,109,  and  the  value  of  un- 
plemcuts  and  machinery  $658,795. 

Live  slock,  etc Hors-.^,   10,848 ;  asses  and  mules, 

6002;  milch  cows,  Ti,<:G;  working  oxen,  6794; 
other  cattle,  182,415 ;  sheep,  23,311 ;  swine ;  209,453. 
Voluo  of  live  stock,  $2,880,058  j  of  sUughtered  an- 
imals, 514.686. 

Agricultural  Products,  etc. — Wheat,  1027  bushels; 
rye,  1152;  IndUn  com,  1,996,809 ;  oats,  66,586;  buck- 
wheat, 55 ;  peas  and  beans,  135,369 ;  potatoes,  7828 ; 
sweet  potatoes,  767,226;  rice,  1,075,090  pounds. 
Value  of  products  of  tlie  orchard,  $1280 ;  produco  of 
market  gardens,  $8721.  Pounds  of  butter  made, 
871,498 ;  of  cheese,  18,015 ;  sugar,  hhda.,  2760 ;  mo^ 


lasses,  862,898  gallons;  beeswax  and  honey,  18,971 
pounds;  wool,  pounds  produced,  28,247;  cotton, 
46,181 ;  flax,  60 ;  silk  cocoons,  6 ;  hops,  14  pounds ; 
tobacco,  998,614;  hay,  tons  of,  2510;  and  were  made 
10  gallons  of  wine.  Value  of  home-made  manufac- 
tures, $75,682. 

Itivers,  Bays,  etc. — Thero  arn  many  bays  on  the 
western  side  of  the  peninsula,  some  of  which  form 
good  harbors.  They  aru  Perdido,  Pensacola,  Choctaw- 
hatchee,  St.  Andrew,  St.  Joseph,  Apalachicola,  Appa- 
lachee,  Tampa,  Carlos,  and  GaUivains.  On  the  east 
coast  of  the  peninsula,  the  inlets  afibrd  harbors  for 
coasting  vessels.  The  St.  John  is  the  principal  river 
on  the  eastern  coast;  it  often  spreads  from  three  to 
five  miles  in  width,  and  at  other  places  it  is  not  more 
than  one  fourth  of  a  mile  wide.  It  is  exceedingly 
winding,  and  flows  through  a  beautiful  and  licalthy 
country,  St.  Mary's  River  rises  in  Okcfinoke  Swamp, 
Georgia,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  between  Cumberland 
and  AmelU  Islands.  Of  the  rivers  which  enter  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Apalachicola  is  the  principal.  It 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  Chattahoochee  and  Flint 
Rivers,  about  100  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
Chattahoochee  branch  of  this  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  280  miles  to  Columbus,  Georgia.  'The  other 
principal  rivers  are  EacambU,  Suwanee,Withlacoochee, 
Oscilla,  Oclockony,  and  Choctawhatchee.  Perdido 
River  forms  the  western  boundary  between  Florida  and 
Alabama.  It  is  navigable  about  seven  miles  above  the 
bay,  is  a  fine  mill  stream,  and  its  banks  are  covered  with 
superior  yellow  pine  timber.  There  are  in  this  State 
several  streams  of  limpid  water  which  sink  into  the 
earth  and  disappear,  and  several  which  rise  suddenly 
from  the  earth:  one  in  particular  (the  Wakulla)  i» 
navigable  from  its  very  source.  The  quantity  of  lum- 
ber shipped  from  the  St.  John  River  annually  u 
estimated  at  50,000,000  feet.  Total  tonnage  of  the 
State  hi  1853  amounted  to  12,124.25  tons. 

The  principal  places  in  the  State  are  Tallahassee, 
the  capital.  Key  West,  St.  Augustine,  Jacksonville, 
Pensacola,  and  Apalachicola.  On  the  1st  of  January, 
1856,  tiiere  were  26  miles  of  railroad  in  operation. 
May,  1856,  Congress  granted  to  railroads  lands 
amounting  to  over  1,000,000  acres,  which,  if  rightly 
managed,  will  build  all  necessary  railroads. 

Manufactures,  etc. — There  were  in  the  State  in  1850, 
1  cotton  factory,  with  a  capital  of  $80,000,  employing 
28  males  and  67  females,  producing  624,000  yards  of 
sheeting,  etc.,  valued  at  $49,920;  8  flouring  and  grist 
mills,  48  saw-mills,  4  tanneries,  10  printing-offices,  1 ' 
semi-weekly,  and  9  weekly  newspapers  published. 
Capital  invested  in  manufactures,  $547,110 ;  value  of 
manufactured  articles,  $668,435. 

Principal  Ports.  -Key  W  ■:,  i-  built  on  an  island  of 
the  same  name,  sixty  miles  >  i  ^-west  of  Cape  Sable, 
lot.  24°  32',  and  long.  81°  62  W.  It  is  a  port  of 
entry,  and  one  of  the  few  populous  towns  in  the  State. 
Its  position  commands  the  Florida  Pass,  and  hence  it 
is  important  also  as  a  naval  ttation ;  but  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  people  at  tho  present  time  is  "  wreck- 
ing," and  hero  is  located  a  special  court  for  the  ajj"di- 
oation  of  salvages.  From  fifty  to  sixty  vessels  aro 
wrecked  in  the  vR-'nity  every  year,  and  upward  of 
$250,000  are  paid  r  <  ..i^lvages.  Salt  and  sponges  nrn 
the  principal  expor  .,  but  there  is  a  large  import  tr<  .is 
for  the  supply  of  the  military  stationed  here.  Steaia- 
ers  plying  between  the  Atlantic  ports  and  Havana 
generally  call  here.  The  town  contains  alwut  4000 
inhabitants.  The  tonnage  of  the  port  in  1856  was 
3668  tons. 

Pensacola  is  a  town  and  port  on  the  west  side  of 
Pensacola  Bay,  ten  miles  from  the  Gulf,  and  has  a  fine 
harbor.  The  United  States'  government  has  here  a 
first-rate  naval  station  and  a  marine  hospital.  The 
i  trade  of  Pensacola  is  principally  in  cotton.  The  ton- 
I  nag  of  tho  port  in  1H56  was  1960  tons.  A  railrood 
I  from  Pensacola  to  Mobile  is  in  course  of  constructioo. 


»*'\ 


FLO 


684 


FLO 


FouiSR  OoMituoB  or  tok  StiTi  or  Fmiida,  fboh  OoTonn  1,  18M,  to  Jvlt  1|  ISIMl 


THn  aidlof . 


Itpi.  W,  1N21 

18«l 

1818 

IBM 

1896 

1«M 

1811T 

1888 

18S9 

1880 

ToUI.. 


Sept  80,  1881 

1982 

1888 

1884 

1985 

1886 

1S87 

1888 

I'm 

.'MO 

ToUI... 


$1,;  ■• 

1,61') 
810 

a,8«s 

MM 
84,110 
80,881 
88,188 


■iporta. 


roralffn. 


IS-l.SZl 

''im 


1186,744    '    |M,8M 


128,493 

12,008 

68,686 

8,M0 

6(,618 

198 

190,1  -S 

88,640 

49,mi9 

12,701 

68,076 

9,586 

74,878 

98,804 

71,988 

50,549 

89l,l>M 

48,713 

1,880,709 

8,141 

»•!,74^171 

»19«"W 

Total. 


TuUl. 


Soil,  80,  J.'tll 

rtii..  .. 

(mon,    1*M> 

Jnoe  80,  l'M4 

)(i»..  .. 

IS46 

H17 

1.J48 

1840 

ISM 

Total.. 


Jii■(^80,  IIM.. 
IKi'i.. 
ISN... 
18M.. 

1(s-'6.. 


•.'.^V*7 

«jii8,w; 

8..iA'7,»t^ 

2,.->n,9V« 
J,fi»R,20fl 
3,96(,«fl7 
l,4l»S,Mit 
1,976,82.1 


I  ■ '^ 

a'.:l 

19.7:-Kf 

■■■,'■* 

!IW1 


$i,777 

"i,.')iO 

216 

8,865 

809 

..1,486 

«4 1.821 

K,086 

'.570 

tlsX,U40  ' 

F',49S 

0>.^..5 

228,,*!.'. 

6l,ni; 

7.'.«.1J 

ioB,«r7 

122,583 

884.606 

1,S.^^830 


118,870 

6,877 

4.808 

6,986 

8,818 

ld,««0 

857,994 

168,898 

158,648 

88,688 


(268 


»2,r'42,07j 

186,822 

83884 

760,688 

1,011,416 

nu/„f; 

i,8e3,IW!' 
i       'ASISiOi!? 

I  f '2,882,188 


».i,940,17? 
2,.M  1,070 
1.69'<,i!ft6 
8,a64,ft97 

1,1113,5:4 


1664,86^ 

115.710 
107.787 

85,380 
1B5,7U8 

98,17,1 
121,745 
490,784 
16.S,690 
879,898 
19(V788 
« i,7Si;094~ 

•145,181 
176,980 
1I5S,6S2 
1.15,695 
107,868 
140,584 
14.8,298 
64,267 
68,211 
95,709 


Tonnaca  Cl«ar«d. 


I 


IMtlrint  Toniutffe. 


AnMrieu.        roralga. 


190 

988 

668 

177 

828 

196 

11,010 

7,857 

6,059 

1,866 

""!i8,I78 


52 


8,M7 

1,248 

7,048 

206 


tl,831,42S 

$94,997 
.W,718 
65,4-84 
28,969 
4,'k9U3 


20,3.54 
24,170 
in,8»7 
12,895 
41,9!W 
5.'>,2M 


1  ,696 

610 
-   1 

1.2(>;' 
1,1126 
045 
1,520 
8,781 
.289 
^845_ 

'h,m 

.!.78! 

•,o«w 

.'.509 
1,1)99 
6,722 
1,413 
9,.'i34 
7,.M8 
10,922 
18,134 

"60,78,5 

9,019 
11,509 
10,811 
9,488 
7,'!8.-i 
10,520 


R<|l>Ur«l. 


88.) 


64«, 


1,810 


8,<i61 


&,88ll 


8,754 


5,610 


*  Nine  nicnths  to  Jnno  SO,  and  the  flscnl  yeiw  tmm  this  time  begins  July  1, 


Plorin,  a  coin  vrst  made  liy  the  Florcntini-!.  A 
Jlnren  was  issued  l:j  Edward  III.,  'vhich  wii?  ciirrtnt 
in  Kiiglaud  at  tlin  value  of  G.i.  i."  1837. — CvMnKV. 
This  Knj^lish  coin  w:i9  called  floren  after  tlio  Floren- 
tine cnii),  Iwcause  th«  latter  was  of  the  best  {jultl. — 
A.si.'s.  The  florin  of  Germany  is  in  vainn  2».  Id. : 
\h^\  of  Spain  4s.  IJd. ;  that  of  Palermo  and  f'icilv 
2».  'd.;  that  of  Holland  29.— .VYt-VFKK.  By  mini 
vili'.Bf'on  the  florin  of  the  southern  stitos  of  Gi'mi*nr 
ts  ".v.jrth  40  cents.  Tho  florin  of  An»tria  and  tae  city 
of  A.ifj'sbnrir,  48}  cents. 

\  new  Kn^lish  coin,  bj*  the  name  of  florin,  was 
au'.hori?;oa  by  acts  if  Parliament,  18-19-18,il,  of  tho 
value  of  two  shillings,  or  one  tenth  of  the  sovereign  or 
pound  !>terUng.  This  ij  the  lirst  practical  attempt  at 
M  decimal  currency  in  Oreat  Dritain.  Up  to  thi.i 
tine  (IS.")?)  {aw  of  the  coins  have  been  issued  or  put  in 
clr:"ulati()ii,  and  then'  seems  some  doulit  of  its  Irecom- 
inij  urie  of  general  use.  TT*  obverse  of  tho  new  florin 
has  an  exquisitely  graceful  bust  of  Queen  Victoria  in 
Ie(t  profile — tho  favorite  sido  in  all  the  cofns  of  the 
pr('s',nt  reign.  Unlike  all  the  pre',  lous  coins  of  this 
reign,  however,  the  eiSgy  is  crowned — the  coronal 
"  ro.ind  and  top  of  Bovereignt3""  of  the  kinj^dom  being 
faithfully  copied,  witii  its  Iwn^ers  of  jewels,  its  rim  of 
flruif-de-lit  and  jfaltese  crosses.  Tiie  legend,  in  bold, 
broad  capitals,  is  "  VicroniA  Reoisa,  1849." 

Floaa-Silk  {FilottUf,  Bourrr  de  noic,  or  jirurtt, 
Fr.),  -s  the  name  given  to  the  portior  s  of  raveled  silk 
broken  oft'  in  the  filature  of  the  jocoons,  which  Is 
carde<l  like  cotton  or  wo<.!,  and  'nto  i>  soft  coarse 

yam  or  thread,  for  making  ban.)  ,wls,  sucks,  and 
other  common  silk  fabrics.  T'  ,  i  or  flcuret,  as 
first  obtained,  must  be  steep.  ,  i  .ater,  and  then 
subjected  to  pressure,  in  order  to  extract  the  gummy 
matter,  which  renders  it  too  harsh  and  short  for  the 
(pinning--  iieel.  After  being  dried  it  is  made  still 
mor*  pUt,  .>  by  working  a  little  oil  into  it  with  th« 


hands.   It  is  now  ready  to  lie  aubmitti-d  to  the  carding 
engine.     See  Cotton    MANUFAcrncK.     It   is   spun 
upon  the  flux-wheel.     The  female  priLsanty  of  Lom- 
bard;- generally  wear  clothes  of  homespun  Hoss-ailk. 
Of  irtte  }'ears,  liy  improved  processe.",  pretty  Hno  fat>- 
;  rics  of  this  material  have  Iwen  priKiui-^d,  Iwith  in  Kn- 
I  gland  and  France,     M.  Ajac,  of  Lyons,  presented  at 
I  one  of  the  French  nation»l  exhibitions  of  the  objects 
of   industry,   a  great   variety  of   scarfs  and   sqn.ire 
shawls  of  hourre  de  miV,  clawly  resembling  those  of 
cachfmin. 

Flotn,  a  name  given  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  ships 
that  formerly  sailed  together,  or  under  convoy,  from 
Cadiz  and  the  othct  (lorts  of  the  Peninsula  authorized 
to  trade  directly  with  the  transatlantic  possessions  of 
Sp&ii.. 

Flotilla  (Sp.\  literally  a  little  fleet;  in  which 
sense,  however,  it  is  seldom  used,  being  applied  almost 
invariably  to  a  fleet,  how  large  soe\'er,  compi.sed  of 
small  vessels.  Thus  tho  term  flotilla  was  given  to  tho 
immenee  naval  force  with  which  Napoleoii  meditaied 
the  invasion  of  (ireat  Itritain,  and  which  consisted  of 
2,866  vesssis  of  ever)'  description,  was  manned  by 
^bont  17,000  jailors,  and  carried  ltiO,i)()0  soldiers,  and 
10,!)00  horses.  In  Spain  the  name  flotilla  is  given  to  a 
nu'nber  of  vessels  appointed  to  •"  .ou';c«  to  the  hi,me 
go\emnient  the  departure  and  in.  irc  of  the  cargo  of 


the  flota  "T  mercantile  ships  tr 
homeward  voyage. 

Flotsam,' Jetatun,  and  T 
stitute  a  legal  wreck,  the  g 
If  they  continue  at  w      .''"  :■ 
the  foregoing   imconV.    j-/' 
Jloltam  is  when  the  ,.    :  )*  ./■ 
surface  of  the  wtivf    ;     ■.'«■  .■ 
under  the  surface ,  f  th«-   .   -  ?  i 
are  sunk,  but  tied  io  i-  . ,      .i 
— (Blm'khtohb,  book  .  ,  c,  ri 


•li^n  ports  on  their 

Tn  onler  to  con- 

'.  I  come  to  land. 

•tinguishes  them  l.y 

barous  sp|Hdlation.4 : 

, ')  ue  Bwimniiug  on  the 

is  when  thev  are  simk 

uii  lagan  is  when  they 

un(iy  to  be  tuund  again. 


(Export 
|B<  ton.. 
Now  Yorl 
Phll»,|o/p| 
Bgltliiiurt' 
New  orli., 
8t.  Utah. 


Newro", 

[    BaltJnior 

I'hiliKlol 

I    Now  Ori, 

Bostoo.. 

I    Rlchmon 

8»n  Ft  111, 

Other  jior 

(_ Total 

flour  ..J 
flrst  meth(K 
added,  whi 
vessel  whie 
contain  one 
Uon  of  tliia 


i/^rt;Jil*»- 


FLO 


686 


FLO 


I  In  which 
led  almost 
lipi)8e<\  of 
Iren  to  the 
(neditaied 
aainteil  of 
j\iinei\  liy 
[rtlerK,  iind 
ttiven  to  » 
|th«  hf.ms 
J  eiiTiJo  nf 
Wi  (in  their 

fii't  to  oon- 
to  lunil. 
|<i  ttiein  liy 
■iplliitions; 
liutC  on  tiie 
"  aro  8>inl5 
when  they 
La  again- 


Flour  (Ger.  Feints  mehl,  StmmelmeUi  Du.  Bloem) 
Pt.  f'Irur  lie  Farine ;  It.  Fiore ;  Sp.  Flor),  the  meal  of 
wheat  corn,  flnoly  ground  and  sifted. 

The  imports  of  broadstafTs  Into  Great  Britain,  our 
best  ciiidtomer,  is  fully  shown  by  the  following  table. 
It  will  be  observed  that  three  fourths  of  the  flour  im- 
ported into  ICngland  were  obtained  from  the  United 
States,  iu  addition  to  three  lifths  of  the  quantity  of 
Indian  com,  and  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  quantity 
of  wheat. 

IHI-OBTS  or    liBEAbSTUm    INTO    EXQLAND  K>8    Till  Y«AB 

1856. 


CotmtrlM  wheor*  Imported. 


Russia,  Nortbom 

llusala,  Soatliorn 

Swtuion 

Norway. 

Denmark 

I'rusals 

Mockli'iiburg-Scbworln. 

Hanover 

Ilanxatlc  Tuwiu 

Iklland 

DolKlum..  

France 

Portugal 

Bjpaln 

Tuscany . 


Papal  Tarrttorlcs 

Naples  an.l  Sicily 

Austrian  Tcrrltorloa 

Oreocti 

Turkey  Propi-r 

Wallachla  and  Mulciavia. 

Syria  and  Palestine 

P«pt 

Morocco 

Brillsb  Kost  Indies 

Hrltlsli  North  America  .. 

UnlteilHUtes 

Chill 

Other  parts, 

Total 


Whul. 


Qniin«,ri.* 

4«),«17 

291,842 

10,708 

4.483 

177,216 

222,681 

62,625 

8,917 

187,326 

28,179 

24,988 

'0,007 

14,800 

40,719 

2,106 

47,974 

21,600 

86,6*4 

9S,184 

112,326 

124,671 

36,196 

684,6(13 

4,569 

90,963 

111,819 

1,279,160 

1,084 

9,480 


S4i860 
689 


8,014 

256 

190 

2 

188,014 

2,918 

2,470 

69,872 

6,763 

460,823 

12,850 


4,072,838 


239 

309,826 

2,902,707 

3i<,626 

11,272 


8,991,367 


tiuRrters. 

61,886 


872 

10 

2,191 

1,622 

27,668 

1,417 

'4'4«7 


67 

1,001 

80,776 

210,427 

6,819 

62,711 

196,706 

6,298 

100 

441 

9,169 

26 

61,257 

28,317 
1,000,971 

82,960 


1,777,818 


*  Quarters=8  moasnrod  bushels,     t  Gwts.=112  lbs. 


Bread^t^ffi,—^he  foUowlnv  olDcUl  staUliMtil  ft* 

hibits  the  aggregate  value  of  breadstulfii  niiil  |iruvl«l(mi 
exported  annually  from  tlio  United  St«t«s,  for  ••oh  ll»* 
cal  year,  from  1821  to  186d : 


Amoiitit, 

1821 $12,841,901 

1822 18,886,856 

1828 13,787,817 

1824 16,ll6'.l,484 

1825 11,684,449 

1826 11,303,496 

1B2T 11,685,556 

1828 11,461,144 

1829 18,181,858 

1880 12,076,480 

1881 17,6118,227 

1882 12,424,708 

1883 14,809,128 

18»4 11,524,0m 

1886 12,009,899 

1836 10,614,130 

1837 9,688,359 

1888 9,636,660 

1889 14,147,779 


Amitmu 

1840 tltt,U«T,MI» 

1MI lT,lllfl,l(l» 

1H42 ll>,U(IV,i*T« 

tm 11,204,124 

1844 IT,9r(»,IM 

1846 I«,T4»4»1 

J846 auoi.jgj 

1847 68,101  92  j 

1S48 117,472  T»i 

1849 IHlBftBOT 

18S0 26,061,1)74 

1861 2I,U4N,|)()| 

1862 26,867,027 

1B5II «'J,9«BJM« 

1864 6A,V4I,IKM 

1856 38,896,844 

1866 77,lN7,«»l 


Total,.,.  ♦7(W,flM,g« 

EXI'OKTS    OF    BRISAnSTUPKS    ITRUII    TIIK    1'NIT«I(    HfATIM  10 

Orkat  Britain   and   Irrlamii,   ymm   Mki'thmhrh  1. 
1856  TO  AuoosT  81,  1866. 


From 

Flour. 

Hisl. 

Wlinl, 

Oiin, 

Burreh. 

Il>rr«li, 

lli»lul<. 

l)ii<iiiit>, 

Now  York 

1,106,058 

B08 

6.1)07,374 

ll,llt9,IIW 

Now  Orleans. . . 

96,366 

688,601 

»,42»,ftl2 

Phlladolpbla... 

199,258 

4,195 

47»,6»ll 

6911,478 

Baltimore 

1«'<,288 

1,100 

U74,6>i2 

423,841 

Boston 

8n,8s2 

1,018 

,  ,  ,  , 

20/tA9 

Other  ports,. .. 

21.468 

107.226 

116,862 

ToUl  1866 

1,641,265 

6,816 

7,966,406 

i,t.fi,ii)r 

"      1855 

176.209 

4,768 

324,727 

6,679,|))H 

"      1861 

1,»  16,920 

41,746 

6.033,403 

«,049,«7I 

"      1853 

1,600,449 

KM) 

4,823,619 

1,462,874 

"      IS.W 

1.427.442 

l,e_i 

2.72H.H2 

I,4l7,))98 

•'      1861 

1,569,684 

6,620 

1,406,1)56 

2,206,121) 

"      1850 

474,757 

6,411 

461,276 

4,7fi«,l;6H 

"      1849 

1,187,656 

82,940 

140,194 

I2,l)>i6,260 

"      1848 

184.583 

108,&M 

211,1)09 

4,1199,224 

''      1847 

Total  10  years 

3,1M.'*H 

844,167 

4,INHI,369 
29,210,290 

I7,I67,i:M) 

18,201,609 

l,102,Wr 

Flour  EX'OSTrd  fro«  tub  Unitid  Statks  to  South  American  Ports,  fob  tub  past  nixk  Tiiaiis, 


DnUiialloD. 

18U,        {       IStS.      ■ 

IBM.              1S>3. 

ISSI. 

1861. 

im, 

16fl,«i^' 
88,286 
28,159 
28,064 
8,048 

2VU,I09 

IMII, 

216,872 
86.277 
211,118 
1)7,314 
26,913) 

RIo  Janeiro 

ia.\\M  211,278 
82,028  46,662 
26,889  26.431 
44,»16         81,485 

113,820         22,716 

156„^60       251,276 
48,021         72,207 
26,415         27,387 
35,828          46,378 
22,855         66,465 

218.674 
68.212 
23.452 

28,N82 
40,784 

249.230 
08,442 
18,188 
32,316 
25,699 

146,806 
66,187 
28,096 
81,626 
8,490 

270,OM 

Babia ,.... 

Rio  Grande 

Blyir  Plato 

Total 

550,466       888,751 

283,877       483,782       880,004 

893,825 

Btateuxnt  suowino  tub  annual   avebaqb  Export   Prick  op  Flour  from  tub  United  Status,  FBUM  IMO  TIl.t 

Junk  80tii,  186,'). 


Export  ..icu. 

Bi-ton 

Now  York ... 
Phlladolpbla. 
Baltimore.... 
Now  Uricans. 
St.  Lonis 


1»  ,;•. 

$6  87 

6  61 

6  17 

6  22 

6  00 

4  93 

4  03 

IS4!     '   1B4J. 


(5  m  |6  00 

5  77  6  67 

6  89  6  67 
6  34  5  47 
6  31  6  20 
6  83  4  M 
4  75  4  66 


\St\   I  tSM.  I   IMS. 


(4  u )  t4  76:  t4  61 


4  S! 
6  07; 
4  60 
4  36 
4  18 
3  76 


5  13 
4  61 
4  841 
4  31 
444 
460 


6  82 
6  00, 
4  69 
4  68 

4  as 

4  93' 


1IUS.   { 

1841. 

184S. 

t6  18  $6  96 

(6  22 

558 

7  17 

8  48 

6  19 

6  80 

6  71 

4  7ti 

6  02 

6  87 

4  6*! 

6  21 

6  62 

4  8.< 

5iU 

4T6' 

450 

4  03 

6  25. 

ISW.       1850.       1811. 


|5  85  t6  00 


6  OO, 
4  961 
4  84 
4  83 
4  61 
6  48 


8  00 
4  88 
4  97 
4  89 
6  31 
6  26 


»4  7T 
6  25 
4  19 
4 
4  18 
4  00 
4  88 


1811, 


|4  2t 

6  20 
4  98 
4  23 
4  26 

4  10 

5  23 


lit:). 


t6  80 
6  27 
6  61 
6  47 
6  39 
6  48 
6  08 


KM,  I  IMi, 
■   ■■    10  261 


9  25 
8  02 
N  14 
8  13 
T  60 
6  09 


» 
0  )I4 

7  8^ 


The  exports  of  flour  from  the  United  Stales,  during 
the  year  ending  June  80th,  1866,  were  a^  follows ; 


Now  YorV     . . , 

Baltimore ,, 

Phila<lol,<hla.. 
New  Orlop 
Boston.. 
Rlchmoi  i.  y:, 
Han  F:  ui  -i  ico. . 
Otbur  poi>. 

Total  


r- 


314,846 
261,.V)1 
17.\508 
150,821 
1 1  ifiU 
266,318 


8,61l},826 


y«tu«. 
|llS.692,94r" 
4,776,175 
2,496,908 
:  ''07,372 
1  .-|6.987 
1,.'>26,032 
l,f70,121 
e.249.802 
"P»;275,148 


Flour  of  Wheat,  mlulitt  Jions  of,  to  delect. — Tie 
first  method  is  liy  spedflc  gravity.  If  potato  flour  be 
added,  wliicli  i.  frciji  .itly  done  in  France,  sines  a 
vessel  which  contains  one  pound  of  wheat  flour  will 
contain  one  pound  and  a  half  of  the  fecula,  the  propor- 
tioB  of  thia  adulteration  m^y  be  easily  estimatod.     If 


gypsum  or  ground  bones  be  mixed  with  tlia  flour,  thay 
will  not  only  increase  its  density  still  mure,  liiit  thxy 
will  remain  after  burning  away  tlie  iiieul. 

The  second  method  Is  by  ascertaining  the  i|iiuntity 
of  gluten  which  the  suspected  sample  will  nfTuril,  liy 
i  the  process  prescrilied  under  the  article  liRl^Ati,  'I'hg 
two  following  chemical  criteria  inny  nlso  be  Binployud  t 
1st  Ni'.  'c  acid  has  tlie  property  o'  eolnrlc.;  vhcat 
flour  f  a  fine  orange  yellow,  whereas  It  i!fl'«i<tii  l|i« 
color  leithcr  of  fecula  nor  starch.  2d.  I'urn  miirlntlfl 
acid  C(drrs  good  wlieat  lluur  of  a  dceii  vUilet,  but  dis- 
solves fecula  or  starch,  and  forms  witli  It  it  light,  poI- 
orless,  viscous  fluid,  decomposable  liy  nlkiiliea.  It  may 
also  bo  ohsurved,  '.hat  as  fecula  uliMirba  lnss  watur 
than  flour,  tl:is  affords  a  ready  moans  nf  detestton. 
The  adulteration  with  liean  or  pea  flour  may  lia  de- 
tected by  pouring  boiling  water  upon  It,  wllUih  doVfU 
opi  the  peculiar  smeU  of  theae  two  aubatanc«i. 


FLO 


6§6 


W^ 


Tabu  ■■ownio  ma  Pwim  or  Fuioi,  HarriiLr,  m  PBitAnnrmi,  noif  ITM  to  IMM,  ■■niAoimi  a  Pouob  or 

Birnrrr-Two  Tiam. 


ITSS. 
ITM. 
1I8T, 

tm. 

ITS*. 

im. 

1T»1., 
ITM.. 
ITM.. 

jSS:: 

ITN.. 
ITW.. 
ITM.. 
ITM.. 
IMO.. 
1901.. 
1801.. 
1908.. 
1804.. 
1M».. 
IwW.. 
1807.. 
laoi*.. 
180».. 
1810.. 
1811.. 
18U.. 
1818.. 
1914.. 
18IS.. 
181«.. 
181T.. 
1918.. 
1919.. 
18S0.. 
1831.. 
1S«.. 
ISM.. 
1824.. 


19iG. 

IMT. 

IH18. 

19». 

1S80. 

1881. 

1H82., 

1888., 

1884.. 

19». 

1886. 

188T- 

1888.. 

18N.. 

1840.. 

1841.. 

1841.. 

1848.. 

1844 

194A.. 

I84«.. 

184T.. 

1848.. 

1S4«.. 

1850.. 

lW)t.. 

18U.. 

lOfil.. 

1904 


Jmtarj, 


46 


ib    0 


«S 
44 

4fi 
8T 
45 


lit  00 

10  00 
8B0 
»B0 

It  Bo" 
T  00 
(IM 
7  BO 

11  «0 
T  BO 
T80 
600 
RfiO 

7  75 
11  00 

11  oo" 

8  00  "" 

9  00 
13  BO 

9  IS— 10 
9  00 

6  00  — B 
4  00 
<S3 
6S0 
6  Oft 
4  87i 
4  75 

&95  — 6 
n  00  —  4 
8  15 

4  61H-4 
6  25  — 6 

5  50 

6  76 
616 

4  Ml 
6«l} 

11  00  —11 
8  llj— 8 
8  16-8 

5  75 
466. 
<  0«i 
8»S 
460 
4  16 

6  8U 
4  884 
<0«I 
6  11 
6  00 
464 
41S 
B37J 
TBO 
»  tS| 
8M 


rtbnurjr. 


00 
87i 

7  00 


15 

9  60  { 
6  16  ' 


■.     d. 

45  0 

41    0 
40    0 

84  "o 

48"0 
87    6 

46  0 
46    0 


118  60 
10  00 
8  60 
«60 


Ibnil. 


•.     i. 

46  0 

41  6 

40  0 

85  0 

85  0 

4o"o 
87    6 

49"l 

$16  00»" 
10  00  —  «  1 
8  60 
t  26 


April. 


11  16 

11  60^ 

-960 

TOO 

TOO 

660 

660 

760 

TOO 

, 

11  00- 

-18  00 

TOO 

T  00- 

-6  76 

7  60 

T25 

5  75 

5  T5 

TOO 

T  00 

800 

815 

10  50 

10  60 

10  11 

9T5- 

-9SS 

10  60 

980 

9  no 

T76 

9  ftfl 

8  no 

18  75 

14  no- 

-14 76 

IDM- 

-10  75 

lo  50 

8  75 

8  no 

6  50  - 

-5  Hi 

600- 

-4  75 

4  no 

♦8  62- 

-8  75 

616 

626 

650- 

-TOO 

T  00 

«  00 

600  - 

-650 

6  12 

6  12 

4  02 

4  50 

6  00  - 

-6T6 

6  75  - 

-6  12 

4  9TJ- 

-4T5 

4  76 

826- 

-  8  00 

son  - 

-760 

460 

460 

600 

8  25- 

-  700 

6  SO 

696- 

-  600 

500- 

-6  19 

6  25 

4  8T 

461 

5  00 

6  00 

6  75 

TOO 

10  50  - 

-11  00 

10  50- 

-10  76 

T60- 

-8  06t 

760- 

-  S  00 

850 

750- 

7  62 

6  50 

5  00 

459  - 

-5()6J 

4  50  - 

-  4  »8 

6D0- 

6  Hi 

5  62  - 

-5  91 

8  76  - 

892 

8  79- 

-8  91 

480 

4  76 

4  .tli 

4  811 

4  9» 

468 

6  U 
6  87) 

5  98] 

606| 

! 

600 

4  76- 

-6  13 

4  78 

4  79 

415- 

4  66) 

4  42 

tn 

4  181 
4  m) 

8  11 

7  45* 

8(4 

ton 

TBI 

TOO 

48 
40 
40 
86 
U 

88' 
87 


'860 
760 


-700 


•  T  00 
-10  00 


76 
114  00 
9  00  - 
850- 
916 
950 

U  00 
TOO 
6  00 
TOO 

1100 
660 
T26 
6  18} 
016 

8  15 
10  60 

9  00  ■ 
9  T6- 


T  T5 

7  75 

V.  iW  —14  26 
M  00 

7  15 

4  76 

4  00 
660 
TW 
6  11 

5  00 
4  25 

6  11  —  8  00 
4  .'5 

7  50 

4  no 

6  .17 

5  2.'S 
5  25 

4  75 

5  191 

6  91} 

9aij 

7  6f)  ■ 
7  87  ■ 
4  97 

4  02  - 

5  62  ■ 
4  22 
4  OS 

6  88 
4  81 
687 
6  93} 
4  60 
B  00 
460 
4  06) 
4  90 
R  09 

10  25 
6  6Ti 


Mv- 


<  75 

6  00 

7  00 
660 

—  625 


•  9  00 
7  60 


•  5  no 

■  6  so 


46 
40 
40 
8T 
40 

40' 
8T 

BO* 


114  00 
9  00 

T  no 
9  60 
0  76 

11  60 
7  00 
600 
660 

U  78 
7  no 
7  26 

6  00 

7  00 
9  00 

10  26 

7  26 

8  50 
750 

9  60 
7  97 

14  50 

10  no 
0  87 
4  87 
4  no 
7  12 
7  87 
6  00 
6  00 
426 
6  00 
4  75 
650 

4  75 
6  60 
6  50 

5  50 

6  15 
600 
660 
9  00 
T  Tl 
T  00 
4  62 

4  65 

5  75 
4  25 
4  87 
446 
4  81 
T  90 

6  9T 
4  69 
6  18 
4  26 
4  20 
4  09 
9  69 

10  T5 
6  06) 


—  800 


■  8  50 
726 

■  T  00 


-14  00 

-4  87 


-6  71 
—  660 

-660 


-  T  90 

-  7  60 

-  600 

-  4  40 
-4  67 


46 
48 
41 
87 
41 

40' 
87 
•I,'. 
Ml 
96 
•I9  60 
850 
6  76 
•  6« 

10  00 

11  60 
TOO 
600- 
660- 

11  00 

8  00 
726- 
600 
660- 

9  00 

10  11 
850 
8  00 
6  75 
8  50 
8  76 

11  50 
10  16 

6  00 
450- 
4  00 
6  75 
TOO 
6  00  . 
650  ' 
425- 
6  00 
4  50 
6T6 

4  75- 
6  75  • 

5  75- 
660- 
550 

6  16 
6  8U 
900- 
760- 
6  12  - 

4  75 
^  00 

6  no  - 

5  00  - 
4  10  ■ 
4  25- 
8  91 
8  25 
644 
455 

6  17 
426 
4  10 
4  61 
8  71 

10  61 
694 


660 
■7  76 


7  00 
TOO 


-860 

—  9  00 
—10  60 
—11  00 


4  76 

I  00 

6  75 

5  on 
4  75 


615 
450 

5  25 

6  25 
5  75 


9  87 
7  76 
0  81 


—  5  63 

—  6  12 

—  4  80 

—  4  40 

—  840 


890 


•  HIgheat  pri'e. 

The  grain  ut  wheat  has  for  a  very  long  time  coustl- 
tuted  an  important  article  ct  fuod,  and  bu.«,  fcr  al>aut 
three  centurieK,  been  the  ntaple  grain.  The  kind  mu- 
all}'  cultivated  is  the  triticum  tatirum.  A  bushel  uf  it 
should  weigh,  if  very  good,  about  CI  |>oundK.  Wheat 
in  the  form  uf  tlour  i^  sometimes  inauufat^tured  as  mac- 
ai.'ini  and  vermicelli;  but  its  Almost  'iniversol  use  is 
as  bread.  (Sc^e  Bakinu.)  The  following  is  the  com- 
position of  first-class  whoaten  flour :  'Vator,  140 ; 
■'•buDiiuous  coni|>ounds,  11-6  ;  oil,  ° '  ;  sa  icharini. 
compound.'),  G(i-'J  ;  cellulose,  1'7 ;  .^ih,  Iti.  The 
greater  part  of  the  ash  is  mado  up  of  pliosphorus,  po- 
tassium, and  magnesia.  The  brati  contkina  much  lees 
saccharine  matter,  but  absolutely  more  oil  and  more 
alkiuniuous  matter ;   and  "  seconds"  in  this  respect 


+  I/>'>>'«t  price— 1,000  barrels  sold. 

stand  Interniciliato  between  flno  flour  and  bitin.  The 
dieajier  pried  of  seconds  and  bran,  therefore,  appears 
to  be  somewhat  arbitra-y  ii.'il  improper,  and  brown 
bread  is  prubii  .ly  more  economical  timn  that  mada 
from  lino  Hour.  The  ol>j«i'tlon  to  it  is  probably  that 
bran  does  not  Iciiven  particularly  well.  'I.  OtX»(lvena 
ttUivd).  In  Scotl.ind,  the  climate  and  soil  of  which 
seem  particularly  adapted  to  \U  cultivation,  this  cereal 
has  long  constitutc.i  the  staple  aft.  i«  of  diet.  This  U 
also  the  case  In  the  high-lying  land  In  'I'  ''  >-tt  Riding 
of  Vorkshiro  and  the  adjacent  parts  o'  f  •  lr».  A 
bushel  of  g'Hjd  oati  weighs  about  io  tr  u  .  '.>  Oat* 
are  made  into  flour  or  meal,  and  before  '  .  minlit- 
ted  to  the  mill  they  uru  always  kiln-dric  '  .  liitate 
the  separation  of  the  husks.     The  propoui.     of  husk 


vw 


687 


tfJiU) 


Tabu  imirnra  trr  Pmoi  ov  Viiova,'  MommtT,  in  Pniiisn,nnA,  tmm  1786  to  liSI, 

SirixTT-Tiro  YiAU.— OmitnuMi, 


■uraAoiira  A  Pmiod  «r 


Ywr. 

J»l)r. 

Aujuit. 

OetilMr. 

Nsvimbw. 

OMMaUr. 

1786 

1.    il. 
44    0 
48    0 
48    6 

86  0 
88    8 

4o"o 

87  6 



84    0 
86    8 

111  75 
860 

6  76 

in  00  -  9  60 

10  25 

11  60  -11  00 
728 

7  00 

7  75 

10  t5  —  9  00 

8  OO 
6  76 

5  00  —  8  76 

6  18  —  7  00 
10  00  —11  00 
10  00  -U  00 

8  60 
760 

7  00  — T15 

9  96  -  8  78 
It  00 

10  60  —11  60 

10  26 
600 

4  60  —  4  76 
4  no  —  4  50 
6  75  —  6  25 
700 
626 

6  50  — 450 
487-460 
6  00 

4  60  -  4  78 
6  00  —  6  00 
4  50  —  5  25 

8  87  —  4  76 
600 

6  00  —  6  80 

8  25  —  6  60 

6  81 

7  on 

9  80  -  9  96 
6  48  -  7  12 

8  69  —  6  11 
616 

6  25  —  8  50 

6  60  -  5  87 

B  25  —  6  87 

4  no  —  4  87 

4  811—  4  63 

«84 

6  91 

888 

486t 

806i 

4  25 

4  11 

800 

806  —  829 

9  81 
686} 

1.     d. 

44    0 
48    0 
86    6 

86  0 
41    n 
68    4 
88    0 

87  6 
48    6 

88  0 
60    0 

111  OO 
860 

600  —  860 
960 

10  78 

11  00 
7  85 

7  no  -  7  78 

8  00 

900  — 8  00 
T  60  —  6  78 
6  75 
8  811 

6  76 

11 00  —11  no 

10  78  —10  00 
8  25  —  9  00 

7  00  —  8  00 

7  88  — 8  60 

8  62 

10  75  —  9  60 

11  50  —10  no 
10  60  -10  76 

6  no  —  6  26 
460 

4  63  -  8  00 
688-700 
6  60 

686 

6  no 

450 

5  00 

600-860 
600  —  660 

5  26  -  6  75 

4  76 

0  87  —  6  25 

6  13  —  6  00 
660 

6  06} 
8  87 

900-868 
6  13  —  7  12 

5  75  —  6  12 

6  00 

6  06  —  6  81 
6  25  —  6  4,^ 
4  75  —  5  W) 
8  91  -  4  19 

4  IS} 
8S8 
608 

5  23 

4  87  —  6  18 
8  13  -  B  87 
8  97 
4  20 

6  88 

8  18  —  8  68 
8  81 
6  62} 

1.     d. 
48    6 
41    6 

88    0 

88  0 
41    0 

46  0 
86    0 

89  0 

47  6 
61    • 

90  6 
119  00 

860 
860 
960 
10  80  —  9  75 

10  00  —  9  60 
7  00  —  660 

7  76  -  7  60 
9  75  -10  OO 

8  00 
7  M 

7  18  -  7  50 

5  no  —  600 

6  75  —  7  25 

11  00  —10  76 

9  00 

9  00  —10  00 

8  26  -  8  75 
860 

8  75 

9  76 
9  50 
9  76 
680 
460 
628-860 

7  00 
O.W 

8  12  —  B  80 
800 

460  —  800 
6  00  —  6  28 
660  —  7  no 
6  50  —  5  75 
6  80  —  6  36 

8  26  —  5  50 
6  87  —  6  60 
600 

580  —  888 
6  13 

9  37 

8  00  —  860 

6  90  —  8  45 

8  87  —  6  12 

8  00 

6  62  —  0  Si 

4  561 

4  44 

a  B9  —  4  88 

4  60 

8  83  -  4  12 

6  50 
8  67 
601 
800 
8  96 
444 
8  70 

8  89  —  8  81 

7  47 
6  49 

1.     d. 
48    6 
41    6 

88    0 
84    6 
41    6 

48   a 
86    0 
88    6 
47    « 
66    0 
lis  00 
18  00 
860 

8  60 

9  60  -10  00 
960 

938 
660 
T60 
900 
8  00 
•  76 

7  86  —  •  76 
6  00 

718 
10  78  —11  60 

8  60 

10  88  —10  00 
0  88  -  8  36 

8  78 

9  00 

10  00  —11  00 
9  00 
C  78 
6  60 
4  28 

860-760 
6  08 
6  76 
6  13 

6  00  —  6  11 
8  no  -  6  33 
8  a) 

6  26-700 
'     '    —  600 
.5  —  8  00 
.•160 

860-600 
8  87  —  8  78 
686 
6  nil} 
V  8. 

8  83  —  9  00 
8  25  —  8  40 
6  87  —  6  00 
.■5  00 

6  12  -  6  80 
4  40 

4  26  —  4  80 
400  —  460 
6  06} 
8  18 
648 
6  43 
8  10 
483 
4  12 
4  48 
6  61 

838  —  888 
8  87 
6  69 

■.   4, 
48    0 
41    0 

h"o 

40    0 

46  0 

87  6 

88  « 

47  0 
69    0 

118  OO 
11  00  -11  60 

800 

860-960 
10  50  -11  00 
10  80 

900 

680 

760 
10  00  —10  60 

8  00  — »80 

TOO  — 760 

700 

600-860 

T80  — 800 

10  88 
960 

11  60  —10  60 
8  60  —10  00 

8  76 
960 

11  80  -11  60 

9  50  -10  00 
9  25 

6  11 
426 

7  00  — 600 
6  60 

6  62 
680-600 

6  13  -  6  00 
680 

688  —  860 

7  85  -  9  00 
BOO  — 6  28 

8  OO 

6  60  —  8  25 
6  85  -  6  11 
6  75 

B  25  -  6  12 
6  87 
10  61 

9  81  —  9  81 
8  00  —  8  12 
618 

6  00 

6  46)—  6  96 

4  12  —  4  RJ 

4  28  ~  4  87 

4  87 

8  91 

6  10 

6  81 

615 

8  06} 

488 

8  91 

490 

6  90  —  7  48 

8  68  —  890 

0  81 

6  62 

•.    i. 
41    0 

40  0 

8b"o 

41  6 

46  0 

87  « 

88  6 

47  6 
69    0 

118  76 
11  60  -10  80 
860 
9  60  —10  00 

10  00 

11  00 

800  — 660 
660 
760 
1100 
885 
1  60 
6  76 

86O-80O 
780 

11  23 
10  00 
10  28 

10  00  —  T  60 
800 

983 

12  80  —18  60 
9  78  —  9  00 
9  00 

6  00  —  688 

480 

6  00  — 6  60 

6  50 

6  25  —  6  00 

4  76  -  8  00 

4  87 
8  27 
6  0(1 

I  76  -      8.^ 

5  28  —  ♦  ■^l 

8  00  —  6  «• 

6  26 

B  75  —  6  60 
680  —  626 
6  00  —  4  80 
6  75 

11  no 

9  60  —  0  76 
8  81  —  a  60 
6  6fil-  5  90 
4  75  -  6  26 
6  42 

4  87  -  4  63 

425  —  450 

4  89 

606} 

4  76 

6  49 

8  14 

487 

4  71 

4  15 

B  16 

1786 

1787 

1788 

1789 

1790 

1791 .... 

1791 

1798 

1794 

1798 

1796 

1797 

1798 

1799.. .» 

1800...' 

ISOl 

1808 

18U8 

1804 

1,806 

1806 

1807 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1813.... 

1818 

1814 

1816 

1816 

1SI7 

1SI8 

1819 

1880 

1831..*. 

1822 

1838 

1824 

1826 

1826 

1887 

1818 

1829 

1S80 

1S81 

1883 

1h88 

1884 

1888 

1886 

1S87 

1888 

1889 

1840 

1841 

1848 

19J8 

1814 

1848 

1846 

1847 

1818 

1849 

1860 

IMl 

1858 

1868 

f  71'—  .  :".• 

1884 

1)  I2,t-    1  -^1 

1855 

8  SJ' 

1866 

V  60 

Is  p«rhap8  nboiit  n  quarter  p«r  cent.  Whca  'ho  litiak 
it  separated,  but  before  the  grain  !a  ground,  the  seeds 
receive  the  name  of  groats.  When  ground,  the  dust 
constitutes  011^' Ileal,  and  it  is  found  in  practice  that 
oats  affoid  uli  mt  half  their  original  wcip'i*  of  mc'i), 
the  loss  being  the  water  expelled  by  the  kiln-dr}-ing, 
the  hUslc,  and  the  chaff.  The  following  is  Nort'i,'i 
analysis  (the  arrar-  nt  beirj  altered)  of  oat;  .■..<'.. 
had  been  dried  :  '•  ■■  Perhaps  in  this  drj'ing  t'u 
loss  of  water  w  )'    about  20  per  cent.     .Mlmn'  - 

nous  compound ^  m  i;  e'.i'  irine  do.,(i8'(iS  j  olea;,i- 
nous  do.,  7'a;( ;  husl.,  ^-28  j  asi.,  2'60.  The  proportion 
of  ash,  principally  phosphate*  ind  snlpliatcs  of  lime, 
potassa,  and  magnesia,  is  sruiutimcs  in  mucli  1arg->r 
quantity.  Oatmeal,  therefore,  coatains  considerably 
mora  nutritious  ui\W.t  than  the  samo  weight  of  whea*^ 


flour.  The  husicg  consist  mainly  of  cellulose,  and  are 
almost  never  used  as  human  food.  8.  Kye  (Secttle 
cereale)  has  lieen  cultivated  fh)m  time  immemorial, 
and  was  for  a  long  time  much  used  for  bread-making 
in  this  country,  as  it  still  is  (constituting  the  staple) 
In  Russia,  many  parts  of  Germany,  etc.  A  bushel  of 
rye  weighs  aliout  M  pounds.  Rye  grain  Is  very 
coarsely  powdered,  and  the  mixture  of  flour  and  bran 
made  into  fermented  bioid,  which  is  distinguished 
from  other  bread  by  its  uiuck  color.  Tlie  following  is 
an  aniilysis  of  rye  flour,  the  water  having  l)een  prev- 
iously rtpelled:  Album!  lous  compounds,  10*5 ;  sac- 
oliarinc  do.,  78'0;  oil.  .i  5 ;  salts,  6'0,  principally 
;ii  isphates  of  potassa,  -iVi,  and  magnesia;  loss,  2*0= 
lOn-0.  These  three  cereal  grains  constitute  the  baaif 
of  the  food  0 1  the  modem  European  nation*. 


X 


FLU 


088 


FOG 


Flowara  (FItvrt,  Fr. ;  Blumn,  Oar.)  of  Iwniolo, 
of  miliihur,  of  zinc,  rtc,  i<  the  npiielliition  dlvrn  !>}'  the 
olilitr  chfinlKtii  to  auch  auljiitancea  uii  were  olitained  in 
■  putvnriitdit  or  rather  minutely  eryitiilllne  form  l>y 
Iheprncena  of  nulilliiiatlun, 

nnwera,  Artlflolal,  Manufaotnn.  •><     Ihr 

irt  of  rvprmenllnK  hy  Howem,  leaven  ,  ;.  i  ,  v  •  , 
ttal>l«  nature  In  her  ornamenul  |>  lu'tit/n  ,  <  '' 
tulen  the  liufllnemi  of  the  artiflci  .•  .,  rlitt,  Thd  Ualii  m 
a|i|<«ar  to  hnvo  lieen  the  flrrt  ixoplv  In  £uri>|Hi  wliu  ox- 
cellod  In  the  art  of  makinR  f-rtillcial  flowern;  liut  of 
lata  yeara  the  French  have  Itcii  niont  InKcninua  In  thiM 
branch  of  Induatry.  Ribhona  lolitecl  in  ditferi'iit  forniK, 
and  of  'liflerent  color*,  were  ori)(in»liy  enip'oyed  fur 
IniitatlnK  flnwera  Ity  being  attached  to  wire  nlemn. 
Thii  Imitation  noon  Riive  wiiy  to  that  l>y  feathora, 
which  are  more  delicate  in  texture,  and  more  capable 
of  aaaumlng  ■  variety  of  flower-lilie  tl)(ureK.  liut  a 
great  difficulty  v\  nii  cnrounterod  In  dyeing  tlieni  with 
due  vivacity.  The  navugea  of  South  America  manu- 
facture (wrfeC  roalhiir  flowera,  <icrived  from  tiie  lirli- 
llant  pluma^'o  r.f  their  lilnln,  whicli  cloi<oly  renciniile 
the  pro<luclK  '  >-i  gatatiun.  The  bloaaoma  and  loavca 
are  odniiraldi  rilln  the  colora  never  fade.  The  Itnl- 
lana  employ  t.i'  juontly  the  cocoona  of  the  ailk-worm 
for  thia  pur|M>i'  ;  these  talie  a  brilliant  dye,  preserve 
their  coi(M,  and  pjaaeaa  a  tranaparent  velvety  appear- 
ance, aui  .iliU  for  petala.  Uf  lute  ypura,  the  Krcnch 
have  adopted  the  finest  cambric  for  making  petiii.i,  and 
the  taffi'ta  of  Florence  for  the  leavra.  M,  du  llernnr- 
dlere  employs  wh:ilelione  in  very  thin  Icavea  for  arti- 
flclul  I'owers ;  and  by  bleaching  and  dyeing  them  of 
variuiia  hui'S,  he  baa  gv  >  eded  in  making  his  Imita- 
tlona  of  nature  to  lie  very  remarkalile. 

The  coloring  matters  iiaeil  in  tlower  dyeing  ure  the 
following :  For  red  ;  earn  ine  dinHolved  in  a  aidution  of 
rarlioniite  of  potaxh.  For  blue;  indigo  di»s4)lved  in 
sulphuric  ncid,  diluted  and  neutralized  in  part  by 
Hpaulah  whitening.  For  briglit  yellow ;  a  solution  of 
turmeric  in  spirit  of  wine,  t'reum  of  tartar  l)rightens 
•11  thi'Hc  colom.  F'or  violet;  archil,  and  il  Idue  bath. 
For  lilac;  arcldl.  8omo  |>et»1a  are  made  of  velvet, 
and  ar«i  colored  mcrE./  by  the  a,  jlication  of  tbo  flnger 
dlfiped  in  tlie  dye. 

Flute,  a  wind-instrument  of  great  antl(|uity,  the 
older  varieties  of  which  arc  descrllwd  by  I'iire  Mer- 
senne  in  his  llarmonie  l^Hitertrlle,  I'arls,  WM.  The 
fliifr-a-l/er  (disused  for  more  tinin  a  centurj-)  t  ,.'  of 
various  dimensions.  The  largest  was  a  l)ass-flute, 
with  a  compaxs  Oom  F  in  the  I>a88-clef,  Iwlow  the  first 
line,  up  to  I)  iMtlow  the  first  live  nf  the  trelile  clef. 
The  next,  a  tenor-flute,  extendeii  i  -m  H  Hat  on  the 
aecond  line  of  the  boas  clef  up  to  (i  on  the  secimd  line 
of  the  trelde  clef;  and  each  of  these  largo  Hutes  was 
Rounded  through  a  lient  tuht,  like  the  8  of  u  basscHin. 
The  alto-flute  reached  from  V  on  the  fourth  line  of  tlie 
bass  cli  I  up  to  I)  on  tlie  fourth  line  of  llio  trelde  clef. 
The  tr'blc-Hute  extended  from  F  in  the  first  space  of 
the  treble  clef  up  t  i  F"  two  octaves  alnive.  These  two 
bail  hinh,  like  tlie  bill  of  a  cock.  Uut  all  these  flutes 
gave  way,  early  in  the  lust  century,  to  the  (ierman 
flu'B,  which,  however,  was  then  very  imperfect  in  its 
intooation,  liaving  only  one  tinger-kcy.  liy  the  ail- 
dltlon  of  various  finger-keys,  for  semitones,  the  G<",- 
man  flute  hau  l>een  much  improved  In  the  present  ce 
tury.  I.ik<-  the  life,  it  U  blown  by  nn  ovnl  slde-liole. 
ft  consists  of  four  separable  tubes,  and  iias  a  compus" 
<  f  nearly  three  (wtaves,  from  the  lowest  C  in  the  trebh 
.1  iipwanl.  Smaller  flutes  of  tlii-  kind  are  call  :d 
third,  fourth,  ami  octave  flutes.  'Ih.'  octave  flute  is 
the perrvly,  used  in  malem  orchestras  and  in  military 
music. 

Fluke  is  applied  in  navigation  to  the  broad  part 
of  the  anchor  wliich  takes  hold  of  the  ground. 

Flux  (Fxg.  and  Fr. ;  t'lutu,  <jer.),  signifies  any 
loliiitanee  capable  of  promoting  the  fusion  of  earthi  or 
OMtaillc  orti  tif  haat.    White  flux.  U  the  retiduum  of 


the  deflagration  In  •  rad  hoi  crucible,  of  a  nilslura  of 
two  parta  of  nitre,  ami  one  of  cream  of  tartur.  It  la 
In  fact  merely  a  carlMmatH  of  |H>taHh.  lllack  flux  ia 
oblaiiied  when  equal  parts  of  nitre  and  tartar  are  de- 
flagrated. It  owea  Its  odor  to  the  carlH)iiaceous  mat- 
ter of  the  tartaric  acid,  whlih  remains  umonsumed ; 
il  e  quantity  of  nitre  I'eing  too  small  for  that  pur|Miso. 
1  lie  presence  of  the  charcoal  renilem  this  preparation 
a  con>eiiient  flux  for  reducing  calcined  or  oxydlzcd 
ores  to  the  metallic  state.  Llmest^me,  fluor-s|uir, 
liorux,  and  several  earthy  or  r'otalUc  oxyds  are  em- 
ployed as  fluxi's  in  inetuilurgy. 

Flylug  Fish,  a  name  given  to  severid  speces  of 
fishes  which,  by  means  of  limg  fins,  can  sustain  them- 
selves for  some  time  in  the  air.  The  common  Hying 
fish  of  tlie  Mediterranean  Is  thus  able  to  raise  itself  so 
far  aliove  ^»j  !•'  of  tiie  sea  us  frequently  to  throw 
il-t'T  I  0.1  .  u.'.k  of  a  ah'-  liut  ttie  extreme  limit 
of  Its  tllglit  Is  confined  to  uii  arch  <'Mendliig  alMiiit 
r.'O  feet,  when  the  drying  of  its  fins  necessitates  Its 
return  to  ''s  pro|ier  .dement.  Hue  Index  to  liirniY- 
oi.oov,  In  AVy.  Brit.,  185(i  7. 

Fodder  (Uer.  falter),  in  agriculture,  the  foo<l 
given  to  <|uudru|>eds,  which  consists  of  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  plants,  such  as  the  ciilmiferous  stems  of  the 
gra^ses,  the  haulm  of  legumes,  potatoes,  etc. ;  or,  in 
short,  whatever  is  given  us  the  ordinary  food  Is  desig- 
nated fodder;  whereas  corn,  beans,  and  other  articles, 
which  present  noiirisliinent  in  a  more  concentrated 
form,  are  not  Included  under  the  term  fu<tder,  but 
rather  known  as  solid  fiHsl. 

FinliUr  Is  the  name  of  a  weight  formerly  used  In 
the  weighing  of  lead :  it  wius  of  various  magnitudes, 
liut  most  commonly  amounted  to  uIhiuI  2100  li>s. 

FoK  (Uan.  fug).  In  meteorology,  a  dense  vapor 
near  tie  surface  of  the  land  or  water.  F'ogs,  in  gen- 
eral, are  tho  i^onsequence  of  the  nocturnal  cooling  of 

the  atmosphere.     The  air,  liy  its  rapid  c .    .   I>e- 

conii's  surcharged  with  moisture;  a  jstrt  oi  which 
lieing  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  cloud,  gives  rise  to 
the  ordinary  fog.  During  the  day  tho  heat  of  the  sun 
generally  disperses  the  fug,  because  the  quantity  of 
!nui^<tiire  which  the  air  Is  capable  of  holding  liecomes 
more  considerable  In  proportion  as  Us  temperature  Is 
increased. 

In  culm  weather,  the  surfaces  of  rivers,  lakes,  etc., 
are  frequently  in  the  morning  covered  with  fog.  The 
usun  is  this.  During  tlio  niglit  tlie  air  U  colder  tiiun 
ti.e  water;  the  strata  uf  air  in  cuntact  witli  the  water 
are  cons'  ipiently  heated,  anil  become  saturateil  with 
mol.ttuiv.  The  mixture  of  the  vapor  with  the  aii',  to- 
getlicr  ith  its  elevation  of  temperature,  renders  the 
air  8|H'ciiii'ally  lighter.  It  rises  in  consequence,  and 
mixing  with  the  cold  air  In  the  superior  strata,  is 
cooled,  and  precipitati-s  its  moisture.  The  cloud  or 
fog  resulting  from  this  precipit.<tlon  can  only  rise  to  a 
smell  h 'ight,  becaiLse  the  uniformity  of  temjH'rature  is 

soon  1.  stored.     Hence,  ii  is  easy  to ■  how  winds,  or 

a  great  agitation  of  the  air,  prevent  the  formation  of 
fogs  over  the  sur/ace  of  water.     In  the  equmoctial 
regions,  fog'*  sometimes  continue  during  a  considerable 
pi  rt  of  llic  }-ear.    Humboldt  relates  that  Li.iia  is  often 
ered  with  a  fog  half  the  year,  cspocially  in  the 
rolngs   I  lid  av<>nings;  and  that  along  the  whole  of 
■  coast      igs  supply  the  place  of  rain,  which  is  ex- 
tri'iiiely  r      .     In  the  polar  seas  thick  fogs  often  pre- 
vail, eveu'   iring  tho  warmest  months;  and  they  ure 
so  dense  tliut  objects  frequently  can  not  Iw  distin- 
guhihed  at  the  distance  of  a  fuw  yards. 

8ometimes,  though  rarely,  fugs  occur  of  which  the 
cause  Is  IK  t  very  well  understood.  In  1783,  tho  whole 
of  FIui\)|ie  was  covered  wltli  a  dense  fog  during  nearly 
two  months.  On  the  2;i<l  of  Hay,  1822,  about  five 
o'clock  in  the  aftenumn,  a  fog  covered  I'arls  and  the 
ceighlxirhood,  which  had  the  odor  of  nitrous  gas ;  it 
continued  ab'  at  an  huur.  Dry  fogs,  or  those  la  which 
no  molature  u  present,  are  BuppMod  to  b«  the  vapon 


aa.Al^    1_»It>*,.' 


FOO 


«8& 


FOO 


fhich  the 

be  whole 

ig  nearly 

bout  live 

and  the 

)  gai;  it 

in  which 

be  vapon 


>nd  uhwi  oJ»i  titil  \>y  Tolcanoeii,  »nil  illiniii»l  In  tho  at- 
miwpheni  hy  thn  winds. 

Toll  (Kr.  fMullln,  or  l.iit.  folium,  n  Ira/).  ThU  term 
In  K<^iwr»lly  appllpil  to  viirniaheil  mi>tiil.  Comiuon  full 
i«  iiiuniifiu'turecl  n»  fiilliiwK :  a  <'o|i|iKr  plntK,  covcrml 
» Itli  II  thin  layer  -if  silver,  U  roll«il  out  Into  iihoetii  iimlflr 
th'  l.iltlnft  mill ;  thr  ullver  «urfHc«  i*  thnn  hlKlily  pol- 
Ulifd  or  covi-rml  with  »  colorlenn  vamliili.  Tim  rnlortd 
/•'lit  are  almllurly  prp|uir<«l  with  rolorod  variil»h<n. 

Fold  (Hax.yViiWr),  a  temporary  ImloiiurK  for  kn>p- 
Inx  cattle  or  olh«r  agricultural  nnlnmlM  tonctlier,  nither 
for  tho  purpoie  of  protritlon  during  night,  or  Jointly 
I'lir  p'otfilinn  and  feeding.  SoniPtimrM,  alno,  »heep 
lire  fiildrd  for  tlie  purpoHu  of  manuring.  The  harrier 
of  which  fold*  are  conitructed  in  commonly  wockIoh 
hurdicK ;  liut  Mimetimeii,  when  tho  fold  In  only  to  con- 
tain CM  OH  and  liiriilm,  netting  Htretclied  hctwurn  (xnts 
In  made  u»e  of,  th.  ro  l»>liig  a  ntrong  ropn  fixed  to  the 
lower  iMiriM  of  tiie  |M»tii  close  to  the  gniund,  to  which 
tlic  under  ciigo  of  the  limiting  in  attaclied,  while  ita 
up|K'r  edge  is  attiichiid  to  a  ro|)e  stretched  along  the 
top.i  of  the  Hamn  pout!.  The  practice  of  .'oldiiig  nhoep 
on  naked  fullown,  with  a  view  to  manuring  tlieni,  In 
Htill  common  in  rteverul  parts  of  Kngland;  liut  the 
more  Improvi'd  nhccp  funuen  consider  that  it  deterio- 
rateB  tho  wool,  and  inipedca  the  fattening  of  the  sheep, 
l>y  keeping  tiiem  for  thn  greater  part  of  the  night 
wliidly  without  f(Hid. 

Folio  (It.  n  ti'<t/),  In  account-liooks,  signitlcs  page. 
ThuH  folio  7— written  uliridgeilly  fo.  7— donotes  the 
seventh  page;  Folio  recto,  or  F"'R°,  signllies  tho  llrst 
page ;  Koiio  vorso,  or  P'  V°,  the  second  page  of  a  leaf.  A 
lHX)k  In  folio,  or  simply  a  folio,  is  tli.it  where  tho  sheet 
In  only  folded  in  two,  each  li^uf  making  half  a  sheet. 

Foo-Cllow,  Fou  Tohow  Fou,  or  Fuhobau 
Pu,  a  city  of  China,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ko-kien, 
and  one  of  the  live  ports  recentlj'  opened  for  commerce, 
st:inds  on  tho  north  side  of  tlio  MIn  Kiver,  !14  miles 
from  its  month,  niid  9  miles  from  I'agoda  Island,  where 
ships  anchor.  '  rth  hit.  '.'(i"  5',  east  long.  119°  20'. 
The  walled  city  n  aliout  three  miles  from  the  river, 
liut  extensive  suhurlis  stretch  along  hoth  its  hanks. 
They  are  conn>  cted  with  each  other,  and  witli  a  small 
i  ''  t  in  the  river  hy  u  st(mo  bridge  120  paces  long, 
i  icl  with  shops  and  resting  on  sidid  stone  piers,  40 
nu  thf  northern,  and  9  on  the  southern  side.  Several 
'  lokiuit  houses  are  placed  over  the  streets,  or  upon  the 

ofs  of  Imildio  .  ono  of  which  Immediately  attracts 
'III'  attention  .  •  the  visitor  from  its  height,  and  its 
rl  'ik-<llal  with  ll'xuan  characters.  Few  vacant  spaces 
oi .  iir  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  which  is  every- 
wiiore  equally  well-built.  Serpentine  canals  divide 
tho  ciumtry  around  into  plats  of  greater  or  less  extent, 
and  help  to  drain  the  city,  us  well  us  provide  channels 
for  lioats  to  cime  up  from  tho  river.  These  parts  of 
the  landscape  ore  dotted  with  hamlets  and  cottages, 
<ir,  where  the  gniund  is  higher,  with  graves  and  tomb- 
stones. The  maritime  commerce  of  the  city  is  very 
considerable,  and  its  manufactures  of  cotton  goods  and 
porcelain  ware  are  extensive.  The  population  of  F'ou 
I'chow  Fou  and  suburbs,  is  estimated  at  aliout  000,000. 

This  port  has  no  direct  trade  with  foreign  coun- 
tries. Vessels  enter  at  other  ports,  pay  duties,  and 
receive  a  permit  to  land  goods  at  Foo-Chow.  Tho  ar- 
rivals ami  departures  of  foreign  vessels  during  the 
year  18'),')  were  over  100,  showing  a  lorgo  increase 
over  the  year  immediately  preceding — including,  how- 
ever, coasting  vrwi  Is  in  the  opium  trade,  all  of  which 
were  under  the  llrilish  flag.  Tho  trade  of  the  |x)rt  is 
said  to  lie  rapidly  increasing,  bidding  fair  to  tender  it 
tho  second  port  in  China  as  regards  foreign  trade, 
Shanghai  being  tho  lirst.  It  already  surpasses  Canton 
in  commerce  with  the  United  States.  The  number  of 
American  vessels  arriving  at  Foo-Chow  during  the 
lust  six  months  of  1865  was  13,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  10,640  tons  ;  clearances  20,  with  a  tonnage 
of  18,026  ton*,  and  with  16,106,070  lb*,  of  tea;  of 
XX 


which,  7,"7  l,H0O  lbs.  were  for  New  York,  61.1,200  Iha, 
for  Hostou,  and  ll,l)0M,.'i7(l  Hih.  for  I    ndon. 

A  corres|Mindent  residing  at  Fih>-<  !how  writes  to  the 
State  Department,  U,  H  ,  that  the  le*  ex|Hirtna  in 
American  ships  visiting  this  |Kirt  during  the  last  i|Uar- 
ter,  anmuutud  to  4,H'.>4,19M  llis.,  valued  at  $716,000. 
"  The  entire  numlier  of  Anierh'»n  ships  which  arrived 
In  1N60  wan  n4,  and  one  nlii|Mif--'  ir,  the  llnltetl  Ntatef' 
ship  /.rvnnl.  To  give  an  idea  >f  the  hurease  of  for- 
eign trad*  at  this  po[A,  I  would  remark  that  In  the 
year  1H&3  (the  year  the  port  was  openeil  for  trade) 
there  were  only  (i  American  ships  ;  In  1N64,  there  were 
12  American  ships ;  in  1X66,  27  ;  and  in  1H6II,  ai.  The 
whole  numlier  of  foreli,^n  ships  which  entered  this  port 
in  186H,  was  14 ;  in  IHM  there  wero  60;  In  IH.'i.'i,  117; 
and  in  1H6U,  175.  I'here  is  very  little  done  In  the  way 
of  lm|)orts,  except  in  opium,  (n  this  article  there  la 
un  immense  trade,  a  singln  llrm  selling  in  one  month 
more  than  i|200,000  worth.  Nearly  every  llrni  in  the 
port  Import  opium  with  the  full  sanction  of  the  (.'lil- 
neso  authorities,  T'heni  Is  starcely  a  day,  and  never 
a  week  in  the  year,  wlien  opium  I'  not  landed  In  open 
day,  within  10  feet  of  the  door  of  the  custom-house, 
and  of  course  In  full  view  of  the  ofDcers.  There  is,  I 
beliove,  an  understanding  between  the  importefs  of 
this  article  and  the  olHcials,  that  the  latter  are  to  ro- 
ceivo  liilo  on  each  chest  landed,  which  amount  goes  to 
tlie  ciistoin-iiouse  ofllcers,  and  is  divided  among  tliom 
from  tho  collector  down  to  the  custom-house  boatmen, 
each  receiving  according  (o  his  rank." 

Food.  All  sulistances  susceptiliie  of  digestion  and 
assimilation  may  come  uwler  the  denomination  of 
J'liml ;  but  the  proximato  principles  of  organic  bodies 
on  which  their  nutritive  powers  depend  are  compara- 
tively few.  Hence,  altliough  the  articles  employed 
In  diflerent  countries  for  tho  support  of  anlinsl  life  ars 
almost  intluitely  various,  their  sustaining  powers  may 
be  referred  to  certain  substances  capable  of  being  sep- 
arated and  identified  by  chemical  analyses  and  testi. 
Among  the  proximate  elements  of  vegetable  food  glu- 
ten and  its  nimlificutions,  starch,  gum,  sugar,  and  llgnin 
or  woody  fibre,  arc  by  far  tho  most  important  j  and 
among  those  of  animal  food,  alliumen,  gelatin,  and 
tlieir  raodilicatlons,  together  with  fats  and  oils,  which 
are  common  to  botli  kingiloms  of  noturo. 

To  illustrate  tho  actual  simplicity  of  our  food  aa 
compared  with  its  apparent  multifariousness  an/1  com- 
plexity, it  may  suffice  to  state,  that  wheat  and  almost 
nil  the  esculent  grains  ccmsist  principally  of  starch  and 
gluten  ;  that  the  same  Ingredients  are  found  in  many 
fruits  and  roots ;  that  sugar,  gum,  or  a  relation  of 
gum  which  is  culled  vegetable  jelly,  together  with 
minute  traces  of  aromatic  principles  which  give  flavor, 
and  more  or  less  abundance  of  water,  and  of  vogetalile 
acids,  are  the  chief  component  parts  of  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  currants,  gooseberriei*,  w.A  '>'i  analogous 
tribes  of  fruits  ;  a  very  few  also,  coutnin  ( ii.  Then, 
aa  regards  animal  food,  the  muscular  filri-.'r  oi  various 
animals  closely  resemble  each  ot!i<  r  in  t  ociposition 
and  nutritive  power;  in  some  cai-'n  f^ioto  merely, 
and  in  others  minute  lulilitions  of  foieign  mutters,  con- 
fer upon  them  their  relative  digestibilities,  and  their 
different  as|)ects  and  flavors :  albumen  or  fibrin,  and 
gelatin,  small  pro|xirt!ons  of  saline  bodies,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  water  are  found  in  them  all. 

It  often  happens  that  the  truly  nutritious  part  of 
food  is  so  combined  with,  or  protected  by  indigestible 
matters,  as  to  escape  the  solvent  powers  of  the  stom- 
uch,  unless  previously  prepared  and  modified  by  vari- 
ous chemical  and  mechanical  agents.  Indurated 
woody  fibre,  for  instance,  or  lii/nin,  as  chemists  cull  it, 
will  often  resist  the  joint  action  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  and  pass  tlirough  the  alimentary  canal  with 
scarcely  any  alteration.  The  htiska  of  many  seeds 
and  fruits  are  composed  almost  exclusively  of  tbia 
material.  This  is  the  case  with  the  kemela  of  the  ap- 
ple, pear,  etc. ;  the  leeda  of  the  cunant,  gooaabarty  . 


POO 


flOO 


FOO 


OMlnn,  Mil  lo  on  i  lh«  ikln,  or  hiuk  of  pau,  iMani, 
•tc.,  iinil  (if  whxnt,  lisrUy,  anil  niiU  ;  m  that  unlnia 
tha  wimmIy  part  U  aithar  lintkan  cinwn  l>y  Iha  l»ath,  or 
pnvlniiiily  mnnvad,  the  fiaiit   which    It    anvalii|>«    la 
pMtnlml  fpiin  tha  nolvnnt  arlloii  of  the  necretloiK  of 
tha  ■tomach.      ThU  l«  in  noma  m>|ioi  la  n  wita  anil  cu- 
rioua  pnivlaiim  In  iialiiro;  for  hlnla  In  Ihlaway  liormne 
tha  carriora  nf  ai>eita,  whlrh  |uiaa   lhnMi)(li  Ihrm  not 
only  uniljgratail,  hut  even  retalnInK  thrlr  vaK«tatlv<i 
pnwam;  and  in  thia  way,  unlnlMliiteil  anil  atrrlla  |ior- 
tlona  of  Ihv  kIhIm  may  ((railiially  lieonnin  linthiKl  with 
vanlura,  ami  ahrulM,  and  traca.      Iliinea  arr  highly  nn- 
trltivK  i  hut  iinlaaa  hniken  Into  very  amnll  I'raffuitnita 
l>y  the  inaatli-atiiry  |Hiwera  of  tha  animala  which  e«t 
thani,  they  too,  would  etiida  illKeatlun.     In  refervnro, 
howarar,  to  the  fiMxl  of  miin,  niut'h  of  ita  diK«atll>lllly 
and  nuiritioua  |Hi»i'r  ia  rrfnrahle  to  the  im|i<>rtant 
rbamloal  op<>ratlona  preparntor>'  to  Ita  uae  which  are 
carri«<l  on  in  the  kitchen  :  In  other  wonia,  i-ookery  la 
eaarntially  n  ehemlcal  art ;  and  anliatancea  totnlly  un- 
lit, in  their  raw  at  ate,  for  rotepllon  Into  the  atomnch.  ara 
rendered  paUtalde,  iliK«atlble,  and  nutrltioua  liy  the 
•kill  of  lha  cimk.     And  here  aait,  and  a  varlfty  atentuU- 
mrntt,  aa  th«y  are  called,  and  which  are  iironiatic  and 
■tiinultint  auliatuncea,  chiefly  of  vi>^talil«  origin,  play 
an  iin|Mirtiint  part ;  nor  muat  the  nixra  rlTect  of  heat  l>« 
overliMikml,  for  It  la  moat  important.     Meat,  liy  IwilInK 
and  roiutln){,  la  not  only  anftuned  In  ita  tlliro,  hut  new 
auluitancca  are  Keoeratad  In  it.    Anion;;  the««  a  (hv  ulijir 
extractive  miiltur,  and  n«ina:i>air,  or  the  prim  Iple  whhh 
gWeti  an  u^reeulde  flavor  and  odor  to  dreaaed  meat,  iiri- 
eappclally  recognized.      Xiir  are  the  cliangea  which 
vegotalilea  auffor  under  the   influence  of    heat    leaa 
obvioua. 

There  la  another  lm|K)rtiint  point  in  the  hiatory  of  oar 
food,  namely,  ita  ullimUn  romixwliim.  Wo  have  apoken 
of  atarch,  augur,  gam,  alliumen,  and  other  auliataneea 
aa  the  pntjiauilr  principlea  u|H)n  which  we  live  ;  hut 
what  1.1  the  lUtinuttr  conatitution  of  theae  aecondary 
^>ro(lu<  t«,  what  are  their  true  rlrmniny  It  la  curioua 
that  four  rlrmrnlt  only  are  princiiuilly  concemed  in  the 
pro<luctlon  of  our  fiMal.  Theae  aro  cnrlion,  hydnigen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Among  vegetaliln  auhatuncea, 
gluten  (.including  vegetable  albumen)  la  the  only  one 
whii'li  abuiinda  in  nitrogen ;  gum,  augar,  atarch,  and 
the  reat  are  i'<inttitute<l  of  curlion,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen imly  ;  and  what  la  very  remarkable  la,  tliat  In  all 
theae  im|N>rtiint  principlea,  and  alao  in  Ilgnin,  the  oxy- 
gen and  hyiin>gen  Iwar  to  each  nthpr  the  aame  relative 
proportiotia  aa  in  water,  ao  thiii  tliey  may  l>e  figura- 
tivclj"  deai-rllieil  aa  com|H)unda  of  rhnrrnnl  and  iratfr. 
Now  there  are  two  very  curioua  |H>lnta  in  referenre  to 
that  fwrt  of  the  chemical  history  of  our  fooil,  which 
haa  iieen  advurted  to :  the  one  ia,  that  no  animal  can 
(ubaist  for  any  longth  of  time  upon  fimd  which  ia  dea- 
tituta  of  nitrogen  ;  and  the  other,  that  a  certain  mix- 
ture of  different  kinda  of  food  ia  abaolutely  eaaentiul. 
An  animal  fed  ejr/iui're/y  on  atarch,  or  augar,  or  albu- 
men, or  Jelly,  aoon  (wgina  to  auflTer  in  health ;  ]>«culiar 
diaeaava  make  their  ap|>e:iranue,  and  hi*  exiatence  ia 
piinful  and  brief;  but  mix  theae  together,  and  occo- 
•liinidly  mialify  their  pro|iortiona,  and  lie  then  thrlvea 
ami  r.ittena.  Magendie'a  experlmenta  on  thia  aubject, 
together  with  thoae  of  Tiedomann  and  Omnliti,  well 
illiiitrute  thia  fact.  Thua,  geeae  fed  upon  gum,  died 
on  the  llJth  day,  thoae  feil  up<m  atarch  on  the  24th,  and 
those  fed  on  ImiltHl  white  of  egg  on  the  40th  ;  in  all 
theae  cases  they  dwindled  away  and  died  as  if  of  star- 
vation. 

Habit,  aa  ia  well  known,  will  do  much  in  accnstom- 
<ng  the  stomach  to  particular  descriptions  of  food ; 
many  peraons  live  exclusively,  or  almoat  so,  on  veget- 
able, others  on  animal  matters,  and  particular  kinds  of 
diet  are  farced  on  the  inhabitants  of  many  regions  of 
the  globe  ;  but,  as  far  us  we  are  <'oncemed,  a  due  mix- 
ture of  vegetable  and  animal  n  ilter  is  not  only  most 
pkUtable,  but  most  conducive  tu  health.     Nothing  is 


lit  for  fowl  which  hoa  nut  already  umlargnna  organlsft' 
til  II,  and  wiiirr,  though  an  eaaenllal  part  of  tlia  AaMliif  all 
animals,  ia  iibvkiualy  not  In  itaalf  nutrltioua,  though  It 
|ierfiirms  the  extremely  lni|Mirtniit  function  of  dlsaidv. 
Ing  nutritive  matter,  ao  aa  to  raniler  It  convayabia  by 
the  lai'taala  and  othar  abanrlienta  into  the  blniHl.  No 
i'oin|iaund,  than,  of  nitrogen,  hyiirogi-n,  iiirlxin,  and 
oxygen,  which  can  lie  fnrnieil  artillclnlly,  run  conatU 
tiite  fiHMl.  Air,  water,  and  charcoal,  though  Invoiv 
Ing  the  rlrmrnlt  of  our  nutriment,  are  themaelvea  unlit 
fur  our  support^  and  it  la  only  by  passing  through  tlie 
hidden  proiasaea  wMch  ara  carried  on  In  the  voaals  of 
living  things,  that  tliny  are  a<i  rernmbineil  and  miHl. 
Hied  as  to  lie  rendareil  capable  of  Bup|Kirtliig  animal 
Ufa.  It  la  tha  vegetable  worhl  which  comniciK  ea  tlila 
wimilerful  o|ieration.  I'lanta  aliaorb  their  nulrliiiint 
from  tha  air  and  from  the  soil  j  they  aasliullate  luor- 
ganlu  as  well  as  organic  nuitter  i  tliey  beconia  the  fniMi 
of  the  grumlnivoniua  tribes,  and  from  these  man  de- 
rives the  graat  bulk  of  his  animal  food. 

In  s|M-aklngof  lite  eoni|aialtiiin  of  fiHxl,  thiitof  miU, 
lha  niiKt  im|airtaiit  of  all  food,  muat  not  lie  rurgotten  ; 
in  it  nature  haa  wmiderfully  pmvldiid  n  mixture  wliich, 
though  secreted  by  an  animal,  partiikea  alao  of  tlio 
nature  of  vegetable  food,  and  it  preaenta  u  (a-rfect 
analogy  to  that  coinbinuthin  of  vegetiibin  and  animal 
inalt4ir  which  liaa  lieen  mentioned  as  most  congenkl  to 
tho  paiute  and  stomach.  'Hie  albumen  ax  runt  of  nilik 
is  a  highly  elalmruted  animal  princlpli',  alHiunding  in 
nitrogen,  yet,  from  ita  attenuated  and  auliilda  atiite, 
easy  of  diigestlon.  A  second  principle  of  milk  la  what 
ia  termed  lUyHC  of  milk  i  in  coinponitlon  und  priipertioa 
It  resembles  a  vegetabio  priaiiiit,  und  la  intermediate 
between  gum  and  sugar.  Tlie  thini  coin|M>nent  of 
milk  is  tmitrr,  (wrtuklng  of  the  nature  of  vegetable 
nil  and  animal  fat ;  tliero  are  ccrtiiin  saline  and  acid 
Hubatuncea  in  sinaii  pni|airtlon  :  and  ail  tlieau  matters 
ara  either  dissolved  or  suapondod  in  a  large  rclativo 
pr«|iortion  of  wuter, 

I.  Taiiir  anowiNO  rna  xvKsAiir  (JitAXTixYor  NiiTairiva 
Mattrr  in  1,000  Parts  ov  atvaaAL  VASiiTiKa  or  An- 

IHAL   AMD    VsutTAHIN    KwiU. 


Hlixal 1I& 

Il«ef 8«ll 

Vcsi «no 

Mutton «n 

I'ork «« 

Brain IWO 

Chicken 210 

cikI am 

lladduok IMI 

Nole 1!H 

BoMoa 510 

Milk 74 

White  of  eKx 140 

Wheat V,V> 

like 880 

Barley t» 

Kye TM 

Oats 141 

roiato«8 i«0 


CarrotiL tn 

Turnips 41 

I'abbagu 78 

Beet-root t4H 

Htrawborrfos too 

Puars 160 

Apples 170 

Oooseborrlos 1(0 

Uherrles IM 

I'iuins no 

AprlcoU MO 

Peaches. MO 

Orapet (70 

Melon M 

Cuouiiib<-r. 85 

Tamarind WO 

Almoads (fio 

Morels DM 


The  abovo  tablo  rnprcaonts  the  relative  pro|H)r- 
tion  of  solid  lilgestibli)  matter  contained  in  lUlM) 
jiarts  of  the  different  articles  of  foo<l  which  are  onu- 
ineratud.  When  blotal,  for  instance,  is  evaporated  tu 
dryness,  at  a  tem|ierature  not  exceeding  212°,  the 
residue  amonnts  to  215  parts  in  1000,  and  may  Ihi  re- 
garded UH  almoat  entirel.v  composed  of  digestible  mut- 
ters :  it  consiati  of  albumen  and  coloring  matter,  with 
small  projiortiuns  of  saline  substances.  The  different 
kinds  of  meat  wenJIried  in  the  same  way.  The  loss 
of  weight  during  their  desiccation  ia  almost  wholly 
reforablo  to  water ;  and  the  dr}'  reaidun  compnaed  of 
albumen  or  fliirin,  with  some  gelatin,  and  |ieriiaps 
traces  of  fut  and  saline  matters,  represents  tlie  true 
nutritive  value.  Upon  an  average,  therefore,  the  nu- 
tritive matter  in  a  pound  of  meat  is  not  more  than  four 
ounces.  This,  however,  only  applies  to  raw  meat ;  for 
when  dressed,  u  considerable  |M)rtion  of  its  constituent 
water  U  often  dissipated.  The  nutritive  matter  of 
wheat  ia  chiefly  atarch  and  gluten,  and  iu  this  species 


o'gMlnll 

tlon  to  III 

rlca  thera 

tia  doubt  I 

'ood,  depe 

nilrogenou 

the  vegeU> 

"ucli  as  ca 

•ha  leadiiiff 

<'»nialn  siig 

nether  wllh 

<"  IlKnIn,  w 

The  fiilloi 

of  those  pni 

"ilverted  to  i 

"•    r«ni,.  ,„ 

arriuN   m 

I'aiaDiri.i 

Albnmsn,. 
P'llalln,.. 
•'at.... 
Cum  of  Milk 

"iiltarofMUk 

HIareh 

Oluten...," 

<luin " 

"nwr  II 

LlgDlo ,, 

)>iir/y  fooa 
diet  acules  of 
arc    baaed   up( 
nuinliera  of  mc 
'H  [Hiunda  av( 
•lulred  fur  «nch 
are  vegetable,  i 
entire    year    th 
''^numerating  u 
drinka— t'oflee, 
•luantity  is  ala.t. 
the  air  receive* 
(Hiiinila.     With 
i'-al  World,  we 
Tho  food,  water 
In  the  iiggregat 
"lat  Is,  to  aliou 
w^'Kht.     Thia  e 
Hllention  to  the 
»ii|)portliig  life, 
reaentation  of  ch 
J-'iMiil,  Atiiillfr 
that  very  fraudi 
"onie,  adultoratio 
liut  until  l«t,.|y 
nounce  decidedlv 
lieen  rommittcil. 
niicroaco)),!  and  t 
difflcully  in  so  do 
have  by  tlialr  u.se 
London  /.anrei  a,, 
accomplishod  of 
•lay)  to  thorotighl 
IHirts  have  api>cai 
«1I<"'I.     As  he  p, 
tradcs-people  from 
tcroted  articles  of 
ceeded   In  diaprov 
ventured  to  contr 
tliorough  accuracy 
«nd  the  facts  in  tl 
though   Dr.  Haass 
that  he  examined 
can  lie  no  doubt  t 
<'ound  in  the  provi 
tors  are  the  wholes 
nately  London  and 

L   Al>UI,TKRATIC 
AVOWKD/.r   OF  A 


FOO 


m 


FOO 


of  grain  tha  dtuton  It  in  much  pmtar  raiMir*  pmpiir- 
lioii  to  llin  nUrt  h,  th*n  in  l>«rU)-,  niitn,  nr  Ty».  tn 
rio*  tlmru  Ik  lltlln  nUii  lh*n  aUn'h.  TliorH  ran  \m  llt- 
tU  ilnulit  llmt  till  ifrrat  viilu«  of  wliMt  M  iin  artli-l«  of 
fcMMl,  iliip«nil«  U|M>n  thU  cxrtu  of  ^luUn,  whiili  la  • 
nitniKanaut  aulMtuni's,  and  h«a  not  innptly  l«cn  tvrniml 
tli«  vtK«tn-*nlnul  prlnrlpl*.  In  Ilia  aaciilcnt  ro<>t>, 
KUrli  aa  camiU  etc.,  but  rapcrlaliy  tuml|w,  aU|tar  It 
tlia  |p«ilinK  nutrltiva  matter ;  and  tlie  I'uninion  fl-uitt 
■  imtain  auxur,  Kuni,  alliumlnuua  mattxr,  ami  arlilt,  to- 
tiathar  witli  a  lil^thly  attnnualtil  form  iif  wimly  lllir*, 
iir  ilKnln,  wliiili,  In  Ibat  atata,  ia  (irolialilj-  illKuatllila. 
Tha  fi)llowing  talila  abowt  tlia  ultlniutn  compualtiiin 
nf  thiiaa  iimximata  nrlDcl|il»a  whleh  havo  iMvn  abova 
advnrtail  to  at  conatUutlug  the  nutritive  |Mrt  of  fuud. 

II.  TtBi.a  tiiowiNO  Tlia  I'LTiMAra  KicMiiiTtar  Oiiiro- 
aiTiuK  (ir  1,000  I'taTt  ur  Tua  roiuiwina  raoniiiATa 
PaiaoiruM  or  Aniuii.  aau  VauKT4Hi.a  Kunu. 


cvi».«. 

llyitr.>pj.. 
T« 

Oijipn, 

NUffn. 

Albanian 

Ml) 

«AH 

ISO 

Mxlatlii 

4Ha 

NO 

1IT» 

1(1 

fat 

in 

V4 
1l« 

"iije 

Cunt  nf  Milk.. 

HuinrufMUk. 

4M 

«i 

48S 

Slarch 

BAT 

TH 

UN) 

148 

Oluten 

4IM 

fl'J 

nofl 

(luin 

411 
444 

M 

MB 
4M 

Kawir 

Ltgnln 

MO 

M 

M4 

.... 

)>or/y  >'i«iii  o/One  Mnn. — From  the  army  and  navy 
divt  ai'uiet  of  Pxanco  niid  Kngland,  whirh,  of  courie, 
lire  bailed  U|ion  the  riM'nKnUnd  nneeaaltlea  of  lar^a 
numliera  of  men  In  actlvn  llfi',  It  \»  infprred  that  ulxiut 
'H  (louniiH  avoirdupolt  of  dry  foo<l,  |ier  day,  are  re- 
<|uirpd  for  enoh  Individual ;  of  tlila  alwut  throe  fourtht 
are  voKCtable,  and  the  rent  nniinai.  At  the  cloae  of  an 
entire  yenr  the  amount  la  upward  of  H(H)  |)ounda. 
ICniinieratInK  under  the  title  of  water  all  the  varloua 
drlnkn— I'oflee,  tea,  iilcohtd,  wine,  etr. — ita  eatlinated 
quantity  ia  alKiut  I5U0  pounda  per  unniini.  That  for 
the  air  recelve<i  by  breuthlnK  n»y  '"  taken  at  ROO 
IHiunda,  With  i\\ne  flf;uroa  liefore  ua,  aiiya  the  ifrtl- 
inil  World,  wo  lira  nblo  to  aee  liow  the  cuae  atanda, 
The  fond,  water,  and  air,  whlchamanreceivea,  amount, 
In  the  ii((Kre)(tite,  to  mom  than  lUHM)  pounds  a-ycar ; 
that  ia,  to  alHiiit  1^  tona,  or  mure  than  20  tlniea  hia 
weight.  Thia  e normnua  iiuantity  may  wi-ll  attriut  our 
iittentlon  to  the  exiicndltiire  of  material  re(|uired  for 
suppiirtInK  life.  A  llvin)(  liolng  ia  the  reault  and  rep- 
reoentatlon  of  change  on  n  prodlgioua  acale. 

f'liiiit,  AJullfraliiHU  of. — It  has  lonR  lieen  known 
that  very  fniudident,  and  aomctimea  very  unwbole- 
tome,  adnlterationa  of  food  are  extenalvely  practired  ; 
but  until  lately  It  waa  not  eaay  in  all  caaes  to  pn>- 
nounce  decidedly  on  the  nature  of  the  Oaud  that  had 
licen  commlttod.  Now,  however,  by  nieana  of  the 
niiuroaco^e  and  the  chemlat'a  te«t-tnl>o,  there  ia  little 
dlfSuiilty  in  ao  doing,  and  many  Important  diacloaurea 
have  by  tliair  uae  been  made.  The  proprietora  of  the 
London  Lnnret  emplo}-ed  Dr.  Ilaaaall  (one  of  the  moat 
accnmpilBhod  of  thn  niicroacoplcal  ubaervera  of  our 
day)  to  thoroughly  inveatigate  the  subject,  and  hia  re- 
IHirta  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  that  peri- 
odical. Aa  he  published  the  names  of  the  differont 
tradca-people  from  whom  he  bought  apurioua  or  adul- 
terated articles  of  food,  and  aa  none  of  them  have  suc- 
ceeded in  disproving  (and,  indeed,  very  few  have 
ventured  tn  contradict)  any  of  the  statements,  the 
thorougli  accuracy  of.  the  report  may  be  relied  upon, 
and  the  facts  in  this  article  are  based  upon  it.  Al- 
though Dr.  llassall  purchased  the  articles  of  food 
that  ho  examined  from  I..ondon  shop-keepers,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  adulterations  will  lie 
found  in  the  provinces.  Indeed,  the  great  adultera- 
tors are  the  wholesale  houses,  who  supply  indiscrimi- 
nately London  and  country  shop-keepers, 

I.  Adulteration!)  ok  Akticlm  ok  Food  hot 
AvowBDi.T  or  A  MANuPACTuaBD  Natcrb.— MUk, 


uiually  supposed  to  ha  mu(<fi  adultarated,  la  eomp«n> 
tlvely  llltia  ao.  In  towns,  water  It  generally  added  to 
It,  and  a  (lortion  of  tha  cream  ia  llkewlae  abatraitwl i 
lint  chalk,  gum,  ate.,  an  very  rarely  emphi}'«d  (aa  hat 
often  lieen  allaged)  to  give  the  ap|M>arance  of  greater 
strength.  Halted  butter  la  fr«i|U«ntly  melted,  and 
when  In  that  state  haa  water  added  tn  It,  In  Ihia 
manner  fi<)  |ier  cent  of  water  may.  It  la  tald,  Iw  Incor- 
imrated.  I.anl  la  mixed  up  with  water,  potato  Hour, 
and  refuse  mutton  fat,  and  the  amount  of  tha  potato 
stan'h  has  sometimes  lieen  known  to  amount  to  'io  |i«r 
cent.  Oatmeal,  In  London,  and  perhapa  elsewhere.  It 
extensively  mixed  with  barley  meal ;  the  latter,  aa  II 
cnntaini  an  min'h  mrre  water,  only  selling  for  almiit 
half  tha  price  of  the  former ;  but  wheat  Hour,  unless  It 
contains  alum,  aa  It  perhapa  does,  seems  quite  pure. 
Arrowroot  Is  adulterated  to  a  large  extent.  Of  BO 
samples  iHiught  from  London  sliopa.  Dr.  llassall 
found  Tl  to  be  Impure  j  of  these,  10  ncarcely  contalnad 
any  armwriHit  at  all,  but  were  made  up  of  aag^' 
tapioca,  and  |iotato  starch  ;  while  in  thn  others  there 
was  n  considerable  admixture  of  these  cbeii|ier  articles. 
lUw  sugar  haa  many  Impurltiea,  ami>ii^>  which  the 
iinmenae  number  of  acarl  with  which  It  swarms  ara 
the  most  disgusting;  but  It  la  also  extensively  mixed 
with  flour,  apparently  to  make  Impure  dark  sugar  ap- 
pear like  purer  and  lighter-colored,  and  |ierliaps  with 
other  foreign  Ingredients.  Loaf-sugar  seema  suffi- 
ciently pure.  'IVa  Is  In  a  lamentable  state,  for  It  is 
meddled  with  by  both  the  Chinese  and  those  through 
whose  handn  It  imaaes  here.  With  reganl  to  black 
tea,  l>lcksnn  maintains  that  the  ('hineae  mix  with 
their  ex|)ortatliins  of  ten  to  this  country  many  mill- 
hina  of  |>ounds  of  leaves  of  other  plants,  which  they 
mix  with  genuine  tea  plants.  In  other  respects,  how- 
ever, and  even  [lerhaps  In  this,  the  Thineae  do  not 
adulterate  the  common  black  teaa,  aa  Congou,  Sou- 
chong, and  ordinary  I'ekoo ;  but  other  deacrlptions, 
aa  arented  Orange  I'ckoe  and  Caper,  are,  almost  with- 
out an  exception,  Impure  ;  the  former  by  being  glazed 
with  black-load,  and  the  (?aper  liy  being  extensively 
mixed  with  I'adily  and  Lie  tea,  i.  e.,  an  imitation  of 
tea  leaves  obtained  from  other  plants  ;  or  by  not  con- 
taining any  tea  loavoa  at  all,  but  altogether  other  leave* 
sprinkled  with  tea  dust,  and  made  up  into  little  maasei 
by  means  of  gum,  and  which  masses  are  glazed  with 
plumbago,  turmeric  or  Prussian-blue,  and  the  whide 
sprinkled  over  with  mica,  etc.  Hut  the  Imitation 
black  teas  are  also  entirely  made  up  of  the  leaves  of 
Indigenous  plants  of  this  country,  as  those  nf  sycamore 
and  horse-chestnut,  broken  down,  sprinkled  with  cate- 
chu (to  communuuito  tannin),  dried,  and  coated  with 
gum.  Hut  s  still  more  common  Imposition  is  to  pur- 
chase exhausted  tea  leaves,  which  are  sold  at  about 
ltd.  a  lb.,  from  hotel-knopers  and  the  like,  and  attempt 
to  imitate  fresh  tea  by  admixture  with  catechu,  gum, 
sulphate  of  iron,  to  strike  a  dark  color  with  the  cate- 
chu, I'russian-biue,  logwood,  black-lead,  talc,  etc. 
■Some  of  tliose  adulterations,  as  the  I'nisslan-hlue,  for 
example,  are  calculated  to  have  serious  effects  upon 
the  health.  Green  teas  are  more  adulterated  than 
black  ones,  a  really  unadulterated  specimen  lieing  verj* 
rarely  to  be  met  with.  They  are  mixed  in  China 
with  leaves  of  other  plants,  and  are  subsequently 
glazed  with  gum,  Prussian-blue,  turmeric,  and  vari- 
ous other  substances,  some  of  which  are  verj'  unwhole- 
some. Imitatinn  green  teas  of  home  mannfticture  at« 
also  occasionally,  (icrhaps  even  often,  exposed  for  sale. 
Coffee,  until  the  government  interfered  to  prohibit  the 
sale  of  a  mixture  of  coffee  and  chicory  as  "  coffee," 
almost  invariably  contained  n  large,  and  sometimes  an 
amazingly  largo,  admixture  of  chicorj'.  Several  con- 
tained, in  addition,  roasted  com,  lieans,  potatoes, 
sometimes  red  ferruginous  earths,  and  other  impuri- 
ties, (iround  chicorj*  itself,  so  much  employed  to  se- 
cretly mix  with  coffee,  is  Itself  an  article  extremely 
adulterated.   Nearly  a  half  of  the  specimsna  examined 


ti  VV 


POO 


602 


FOO 


were  largely  so,  the  sabstances  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose being  roosted  wheat,  ground  acorns,  mangel- 
wurtzel,  carrots,  mahogany  sawdust,  and  feiTuginous 
earths,  the  two  latter  for  the  purpcse  of  communicat- 
ing color.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  no  bettor,  the 
preat  majority  of  samples  of  them  being  largely  mixed 
with  sugar,  and  with  potato,  and  other  starch ;  but  a 
worse  adulteration  is,  that  they  a!sa  contain  coloring, 
earthy  matter,  usually,  probably,  ot  a  ferruginous  na- 
ture, but  which  sometimes,  perhaps,  have  for  ingredi- 
ents red  load  and  vermilion,  two  ver}*  dangerous 
ingredients,  and  tallow  and  other  fats  seem  to  be 
sometimes  mixed  with  them.  The  acknowledged 
substitutes  for  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  ns  Revalenta, 
Semola,  Prince  of  Walet't  Food,  etc.,  etc.,  are  verj'  fa- 
miliar substances.  Du  Barry's  much  vaunted  "  Rt .  • 
alenta"  is  a  mixture  of  pounded  lentils  and  barle}- 
meal,  and  the  s}'mp  that  accompanies  it  is  treacle. 
Bullock's  "  Semola"  is  the  gluten  of  wheat  with  a 
little  starch  ;  and  "  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Food"  is  po- 
tMo  flour. 

Ground  ginger  is  very  commonly,  and  very  largely 
adulterated.     Dr.   Hassall  found  three  fifths  of  his 
samples  to  be  so,  the  sulntances  admixed  being  sago- 
meal,  potato  flour,  common  flour,  ground  rice,  cayenne 
pepper,  and  mustard  husks,  and  these  generally  con- 
stituting the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  powder. 
Mustard,  i.  e.,  ground,  is  almorit  invariably  adulte- 
rated, the  articles  employed  for  the  purpose  I)eing 
flour  and  turmeric,  and  these  sometimes  constitute 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  article.     Pepper  is  likewise 
verj-  frequently  mixed  with  linseed  meal,  pea  meal, 
|x>wdered  mustard,  and  other  substances  chca)>er  than 
itself.     Cayenne  pepper  is  scarcely  ever  sold  pure ; 
and  as  the  adulterations  employed  are  bisulphuret  of 
mercury,  red  lead,  and  other  mineral  coloring-matter, 
cayenne  pepper  is  often  a  pretty  active  poison.     In 
like  manner,  curry-powder,  of  which  four  samples  out 
of  Ave  were  found  to  be  adulterated,  fre<juently  con- 
tains red  lead-  and  is,  thnrefore,  very  deleterious.     Of 
>'*  9  other  spices,  cinnamon  and  mixed  spices  are  often 
in  pure;  but  pimento,  mace,  cloves,  and  turmeric,  are 
almost  always  pu.e.     Vinegar  was  found  by  Ur.  Has- 
sall to  vary  a  good  deal  in  strength,  and  also  in  the 
r-uan'ity  of  sulphuric  acid  that  most  of  it  contains  ; 
many  samples  containing  more  of  this  than  was  for- 
merly allowed  when  the  vinegar-makers  were  under 
the  control  of  the  excise  ;  but  some  specimens,  an*? 
these  very  pood  vinegars,  wera  found  to  contain  none 
of  it,  and  this  is  a  satisfactory  pro<'f  that  the  addition 
of  sulphurin  acid  is  by  no  means  necessar}'  to  >-inegar. 
11.  Adulterations  OF  Articles  of  Food  avow- 
edly   OF    A    Masufactokkd    Naturk. — .Although 
some  of  the  above  adulterations  communicate  poison- 
ous properties,  yet  most  of  them  are  frauds  merely ; 
some  of  which,  however,  must  press  very  severely 
upon  the  artisku,  to  whom  a  nominally  cheap  article 
is  almost  irresistible.     But  the  adulterations  now  to 
be  noticed  are  all  of  a  deleterious  ntture,  and  probably 
produce  an  immense  amount  of  chroi  !c  disease,  and 
sometimes,  indeed,  speedy  death.     Every  sample  of 
bread — 49  in  number — examined  by  Dr.  Ilassall,  con- 
tained alum.     Indeed,  the  sale  of  "stufT,"  which  is  a 
mixture  of  alum  and  salt,  to  the  bakers,  is  carried  on 
on  a  ver>-  large  scale.     The  object  of  tho  l)aker  in 
using  it  is  to  take  advantage  of  the  aSInity  that  it 
has  for  water,  and  thereby  make  tlie  bread  retain 
more  water  than  it  otherwise  would,  and  thus  give 
his  loav'js  an  artificial  weight,  and  also  to  whiten  luid 
and  aiscolored  flour,  and  make  it  pass  fur  that  of  su^/e- 
rior  quality.     Each  four-pound  loaf  contains  on  an 
average  82  grains,  and  a  person  consuming  two  such 
loaves  a  week,   intro<luces  into  his  system  in  that 
period  2  drachms  and  '14  grains  of  alum — a  quantity 
which,  as  alum  is  a  powerful  astringent,  must  be  very 
injurious,  and  which  probably  produces  a  great  deal 
of  the  dyipeptU  of  large  towns.    Tba  unnacesMry 


quantity  of  salt  employed  by  bakers  Is  also  for  the 
purpose  of  retaining  water  among  the  bread  in  unnec- 
essary abundance.     Tho  pickles  cold  in  bottles  in  the 
shops  are  ver}'  bad  indeed.     In  the  first  place,  few  of 
them,  if  we  take  the  definition  of  pickle  as  given  in 
the  article  Food,  are  pickles  at  all.     Tho  vegetables 
ore  greened  with  copper,  preserved  with  salt  and  wa- 
ter, and  packed  into  buttles,  l.ito  which  some  ver}' 
weak  vinegar  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid  are  poured. 
Even  the  vegetables  are  not  always  genuine,  and 
white  cabbage  is  dyed  to  pass  for  red,  slices  of  turnips 
made  to  look  like  cucumliers,  etc.     Of  20  specimens 
examined  by  Dr.  IIoksoII,  the  suppc^ed  vinegar  never 
contained  the  proper  amount  of  acetic  acid,  and  in 
general  only  about  half.     All  contained  oil  of  vitriol, 
and,  which  is  still  worse,  oil  (16  wore  tested  for  this 
purpose)  salts  of  copper — two  in  small  quantities  only, 
eight  in  much,  one  in  considerable,  tbree  in  var}'  con- 
siderable, one  in  highly  deleterious,  and  two  in  imme- 
diately poisonous  amount.    Of  the  extremely  injurious 
cfTeets  u|ioa  tho  health  of  those  who  daily  eat  these 
pickles  thus  contaminated  with  copper,  there  cnn  lie 
nn  doubt.     Among  the  symptoms  produced  by  the 
continued  use  of  cupreous  preparations  in  small  doses, 
are  paralysis,  chronic  inflammation  of  tho  respiratory 
and  digestive  apparatus,  slow  fever,  and  wasting  of 
the  body.     The  store  sauces  are  extensively  adulte- 
rated.    Of  28  samples  of  anchovy  sauce,  2B  contained 
Armenian  bole,  a  ferruginous  eartli  of  a  full  red  color. 
All  the  samples  of  soy  were  found  to  consist  of  treacle 
and  salt,  or  at  least  nearly  so.     Six  out  of  seven  bot- 
tles of  tomato  sauce  contained  coloring  matter.  In  all 
cases  save  one  Armenian  bole ;  and  a  very  extensivoly- 
u.ied  fish-sauce  contains  acetate  of  lime  and  chips  of 
charred  wood.     None  of  the  sauces,  however,  were 
found  to  contain  load  or  copper.     Tais,  however,  is 
not  the  cose  with  prcsen-es  and  Jams,  ami  33  of  the.'«e 
out  of  35  that  were  tested,  were  found  to  bo  adulterated 
with  copper,  and  some  of  them  in  very  large  amount. 
Fruits  preacrvi'il  in  bottles,  tuo,  nearly  all  had  copper, 
and  Frencli   ulives  in  particular  cuntained  a  large 
amount.     As  in  preparing  Iwttlcd  fruits  no  copper 
utensils  ore  employed,  the  poison  must  lie  deliberately 
added.     This,  too,  must  oftun  be  the  case  witli  pre- 
serves.    Articles  of  sugar  confectionery  are  perhaps 
most  deleterious  of  all.     Besides  often  containing  sul- 
phate of  lime,  which  is  not  wholesome,  the  grcator 
proportion  of  the  colors  employed  are  virulent  piiaons. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  red  oxyd  of  Icail,  car- 
bonate of  lead,  and  the  chromate  of  lead,  carbonate  of 
copper,  arsenito  of  copper,  and  bisulphuret  of  mercury. 
Accordingly,  from  time  to  time,   cases  of  virulent 
poisoning;  follow  the  use  of  these  colored  articles  of 
sugar  confectionerj'. — E.  B. 

It  is  probably  generally  understood  that  organic 
substances,  that  is,  those  of  vegetable  or  animal  deri- 
vation, .'an  not  lie  distinguished  from  eacli  other  by 
chemical  .intilysis,  as  mineral  substances  can  lie. 
They  ore  composed  of  few  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen  ;  but  these  combine  together  in 
complicated  forms  among  themselves,  producing  suit- 
stances  of  very  different  properties,  even  when  the 
elements  in  the  aggregate  continue  t!ie  same.  More- 
over, some  subtle  essence,  that  chemical  skill  can  not 
detect,  often  gives  peculiar  charocterr  to  organic  su)i- 
stances.  But  Nature  does  not  leave  herself  without 
witnesses  In  the  organic,  any  more  than  in  tlic  mineral 
world ;  and  if  those  are  not  brought  out  by  chem- 
ical resea.x;hes,  they  must  be  by  some  other.  But 
what  these  could  be  has  been  so  little  suspected,  that 
as,  lately  as  the  year  1850,  when  repeated  rcmon 
strances  were  aildruKSed  to  tho  British  government  to 
prohibit  the  adulteration  of  coflTee  with  chicory,  the 
cliuni^ellor  of  the  exchequer  urged  in  the  House  of 
Commons  non-interference  with  the  matter,  on  the 
grrund  that  neither  by  chemistry,  nor  by  any  other 
muiiu,  could  the  adulteration  be  detected.    And  thU 


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plea,  sustained  by  the  report  of  three  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguUfaed  chemUta  of  the  day,  was  successful.  But 
Dr.  Hassall  finds,  liy  the  application  of  poworful  mi- 
croscopes, that  the  identity  of  organic  substances  can 
be  detected,  and  tliut  even  when  these  are  ground  up 
and  mixed  together,  as  different  Iiinds  of  flour,  for  ex- 
ample, each  kind  can  be  recognized  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty l)y  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  fine  particles. 
The  principle  was  known  before,  and  was  applied  in 
fossil  botany,  especially  to  the  determination  of  genera 
and  species  of  plants.  Even  when  convert  -1  into 
stone,  the  delicate  organization  still  remains,  and  what 
is  more  wonderful  than  all,  when  fossil  organic  sub- 
stances, like  anthracite,  are  consumed,  the  ashes  re- 
veal to  tlio  microscope  the  peculiar  forms  of  the  family 
of  plants  which  produced  the  coal.  Thus  faithfully 
and  indelibly  does  Nature  record  end  preserve  the  evi- 
dences of  her  operations  in  the  re  niotest  geological 
epochs.  By  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Hassall,  the 
mioroacope  has  become  a  most  convenient  and  efficient 
aid  to  organic  onalysis,  and  while  greatly  adding  to  its 
precision,  wonderfully  simplifies  and  reduces  the  cost 
and  Inlwrof  tlie  process.  Illustrating  tlie  completeness 
and  accuracy  of  liis  investigation,  we  find  throughout 
tlio  book  numerous  diagrams  ro))resenting  tho  appear- 
ance under  the  microscope  of  the  various  substances 
sul)niittod  to  his  examination.  Wo  see  the  genuine 
ground  coffee  and  tho  genuine  chicory  root,  and  the 
mixture  of  these  and  roasted  wheat,  Ijoans,  and  pota- 
toes, plainly  exposed  in  samples,  that  had  been  pur- 
chased witli  such  high-sounding  names  as  "  Delicioui 
Family  Coffee"— reaWy  one  fourth  coffee  and  three 
fourtlis  chicory  ;  "  Coffee  as  in  France" — principally 
chicory  ;  "  Fine.  Ceylon  Coffee" — very  little  coffee,  a 
great  deal  of  chicory  with  some  roasted  com  (wheat  ?) 
"  Celebrated  Jamaica" — very  little  coffee;  principally 
chicory.  "  Fiiie  Java  Coffee" — much  chicorj-  and  some 
rousted  potato;  vcrj'  little  coffee.  And  so  through 
the  various  articles  of  diet,  as  tea,  cocoa,  sugar, 
milk,  flour  and  Isread,  liutter,  arrowroot,  condiments, 
pickles,  confectionery,  bottled  fruits,  liquors,  and 
drugs.  In  many  of  tlicm  tho  results  of  chemical  as 
well  as  microscopic  e.xaminntions  are  given,  each 
serving  to  aid  tlio  other,  und  together  leaving  little  to 
be  desired  in  tho  thoroughness  and  exactness  of  th) 
researches. 

Coffee. — Tliirty-four  samples  of  this  were  examined 
by  Dr.  Hassall,  of  which  tliirty-onc  were  adulterated 
— all  of  tho  thirty-one  with  chicory — twelve  with 
roasted  wheat  in  addition ;  one  of  them  contained  bean 
and  one  potuto  flour.  In  many  instances  the  coffee  was 
present  in  very  small  quantities ;  in  some  it  amounted 
to  one  flfth,  one  third,  und  so  on.  But  coffee  is  also 
adulterated  with  other  substances.  In  ISftl  there  were 
offered  for  sale,  at  about  two  cents  a  pound,  by  a 
Scotch  house,  eighty  tons  of  "co_fiina,"  a  sulistunie 
imported  expressly  for  the  adulteration  of  (.olTee,  and 
dcwribed  as  (he  highly  nutritious  seed  of  a  Turkish 
plant.  It  proved  on  examinution  to  consist  of  the 
rciastcd  seeds  of  some  leguminous  plant,  probniily  a 
lentil,  and  was  no  doulit  prepared  from  an  importa- 
tion of  100  tons  of  lupine  seeds,  which  arrivcil  a 
little  before  at  (Jlosgow  from  Kgypt.  The  same  firm, 
it  appears,  was  oflored,  about  tho  same  time,  .100  tons 
of  foreign  acorns,  at  about  a  cent  per  lli  for  the  same 
purpose,  no  douiit,  of  adulterating  coffee.  Ouk  bark 
tun  and  exhuusted  tan  are  also  used,  ami  the  baked 
livers  of  horses  r.nd  cattle.  Horse  liver  appears  to  be 
preferred  for  coffee  to  ox  liver,  and  brings  ii  higher 
price.  In  London,  there  are  men  whose  business  is  to 
l>ake  und  grind  theso  articles.  It  is  stated  that  these 
animal  mixtures  make  tho  coll'ee  go  furtlujr,  and  thus 
increase  its  value.  Chicory  is  a  harmless  sort  of 
mixture,  unless  it  operates  to  produce  diarrhea ;  it  is 
thf!  root  cf  a  plant  of  the  dandcllcn  family,  contains 
no  active  elcuicnt  like  that  of  coffee,  and  no  doulit 
greatly  diminishes  tho  evil  effects  attributed  to  the 


free  use  of  coffee.  Perhaps  for  thig  reason  its  use 
ought  to  be  encouraged ;  but  as  it  is  worth  only  one 
fifth  or  a  quarter  as  much  as  coffee,  the  purchaser 
would  naturally  prefer  to  buy  the  articles  separately, 
and  mix  them  to  suit  himself.  Sir  Charles  Wood,  the 
chancellor  already  referred  to,  appears  to  have  a  high 
opinion  of  its  nutritive  properties ;  but  the  value  of 
his  opinion  is  somewhat  lessened  from  the  question 
having  been  raised,  whether  he  was  not  largely  inter- 
ested in  the  great  crops  of  chicory  grown  in  York- 
shire, as  well  as  from  his  zealous  efforts  to  sustain  the 
practice  of  this  adulteration.  But  Professor  Beer,  an 
eminent  oculist  of  Vienna,  is  of  opinion  that  the  con- 
tinual use  of  chicory  seriously  affects  tho  nervous  s}-s- 
tem,  and  gives  rise  to  blindness  from  amaurosis.  In 
this  city  there  are  man}-  liKe  Sir  Charles  Wood,  who 
rather  prefer  chicory;  but  it  is  not  so  extensively 
used  for  adulterating  coffee  as  a  small  variety  of  dried 
pea.  In  the  great  coffee-roasting  establishments  this 
may  be  seen  in  large  quantities,  openly  exposed,  just 
as  if  the  mixing  a  cheap  and  inferior  article  with  one 
of  considerable  value,  to  sell  at  nearly  the  cost  of  the 
latter,  was  an  honest  business.  It  is  a  singular  fact 
that  chiccory,  used  to  adulterate  coffee,  is  itself  adul- 
terated with  still  cheaper  materials.  It  is  sold  iu 
powder,  and  this  is  found  to  consist  in  part  of  other 
matters  used  for  adulterating  coffee,  not  excepting  the 
baked  livers.  Carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  and  mangel 
wurtzcl  ure  roasted  and  ground  for  the  same  purpose. 
One  witness  before  the  Parliamentary  committee  tes- 
tified to  having  manufactured  in  one  year  700  tons  of 
carrots  into  chicorj'.  Burned  sugar  and  Venetian 
red  are  used  to  give  the  proper  color  of  coffee. 

Tea. — Tea  is  extensively  adulterated  in  China,  in- 
ferior qualities  being  made  to  resemble  closely  th'. 
most  valuable,  l>y  mixtures  of  highlj-  deleterious  in- 
gredients, and  foreign  sulistunces  introduced,  as  leaves 
of  trees  of  various  kinds,  to  take  the  place  of  genuine 
tea  leaves.  Some  of  theso  are  candidly  sold  bj-  tho 
Chinese  with  the  name  of  "  l,ie  Teas,"  or  when  mixed 
with  other  teas,  the  proportion  is  stated  of  each.  The 
Souchongs  and  C!ongous  imported  into  Kngland  are 
said  to  bo  rarely  adulterated  ;  but  the  black  Gunpow- 
ders, Capers  or  Chulons  and  scented  Orange  Pekoe, 
arc  rarely  otherwise  than  adulterated.  In  detecting  tho 
?trange  leaves  and  determining  ther  names,  the  mi- 
croscope is  particularly  useful.  The  green  color  of 
the  Twankay,  Hyson-skin,  Young  Hyson,  Hyson,  Im- 
perial, and  Gunpowder  imported  into  England,  is 
stated  to  bo  imparted  without  exception  bj'  artificial 
coloring  mutters,  such  as  fcrrocyanide  of  iron,  Prussian 
blue,  tu.  merle,  and  Cliina  clay.  Indigo  and  sulphate 
of  lime  are  also  used,  tho  lust  for  fixing  the  color. 
The  Chinese  exhil...  great  skill  in  the  mixture  of  the 
coloring  matters  to  produce  tho  desired  shade,  End  also 
a  remarkable  readiness  to  execute  the  orders  for  any 
tea  recpilrcd,  though  it  amounts  to  many  times  the 
quantity  of  all  this  tea  grow.  It  must  be  admitted 
also  that  they  arc  ni;t  mucli  more  restruined  by  any 
conscientious  scruples  as  to  the  consequences  that 
may  result  from  their  poisonous  coloring  mixture,  tiiai 
those  "outside  barbarians"  who  priictico  similar  nrts 
in  Christiun  countries.  In  England,  besides  the  poi- 
sonous prussiates,  it  appears,  from  some  seizures  that 
have  been  made  liy  tlie  excise  ofBcers,  that  for  tlie 
facing  of  tea,  or  givin,;  the  outside  gloss  to  the  leaves, 
the  highly-poisonous  s-.ibstanees.  carbonate  and  nrse- 
nite  of  copjicr,  und  ch.oinutc  of  lead  ure  used.  Of 
the  teas  pureliused  in  LfMidon  and  examined,  it  is 
found  that  some  are  i.:-.le  up  of  exhausted  tea-leaves 
l)y  the  use  of  puni,  and  tliese  ure  artificially  glazed 
and  colored ;  tliat  the  eolnring  matters  ure  more  in- 
jurious thun  those  used  by  tlie  Chinese,  und  tliat  it  is 
not  uiii'iiiiimiin  for  tcu,  both  black  and  green,  to  be 
fabriintod  from  Itrltisb  leaves,  which  [misscss  mme  of 
the  i)r<)|)ertiis  of  tea  leaves.  The  detection  of  the 
adulterations  of  tea  is  not  very  difficult,  some  being 


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made  bf  the  microscope,  and  gome  by  chemical  pro- 
cesses. Sand,  which  is  added  to  the  Lie  tea,  is  de- 
tected by  the  increased  weight  of  the  ashes.  These 
should  amount  to  only  ftrom  fire  to  six  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  weight  of  the  tea,  but  they  are  found,  in  some 
impure  articles,  to  weigh  nearly  one  half  of  the  whole. 
Sugar. — Sugars  are  verj'  little  adulterated,  even 
with  sand,  as  is  supposed  to  t>o  the  case.  This  is  easily 
detected  by  dii^solving  the  sugar  in  water,  which  will 
also  expose  uny  other  insoluble  foreign  substance. 
But  though  not  mixed  with  other  matters,  the  brown 
sugars  of  commerce  are  stated  to  Ite  in  general  unfit 
for  human  consumption,  from  the  numerous  acari,  or 
small  mites,  which  infest  them.  The  magnified  repre- 
sentations of  these  upon  the  pages  of  Dr.  Hassall's 
'lOok,  are  pictures  of  an  animal  that  can  he  called  ex- 
tremely hideous  and  disgusting ;  and  our  impressions 
of  it  do  not  Iwcome  any  mote  favorable,  when  we 
learn  that  this  acarui  lacchari  is  of  the  same  family  as 
the  acanii  tcabei,  or  itch  insect,  only  larger  and  pos- 
sessed of  a  more  formidable  organization  than  his 
brother ;  and  further,  as  those  grocers,  who  are  em- 
ployed in  "  handling"  sugars,  are  said  to  l>e  subject  to 
a  peculiar  affection  of  the  skin,  a  disease  that  is  conse- 
quently called  the  "  grocer's  itch,"  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  the  family  traits  run  through  all  the  members, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  sugar-loving  acarus  does 
not  belie  hi.s  qualities.  Sugar  would  seem  to  lie 
thickly  populated  with  them,  for  it  is  stated  that  they 
may  "  lie  seen  of  all  sizes,  that  is,  in  all  tlie  stages  of 
their  growth,  and  in  KVcry  condition ;  some  alive, 
others  dead;  some  entire  ni;''  others  broken  into  frag- 
ments ;  bodies  here,  legs  there."  Happily,  in  the  i>ro- 
cess  of  refining  these  sugars  and  the  more  impure 
molasses,  such  substances,  if  they  do  not  all  turn  to 
sugar,  are  removed  with  the  scum,  and  nut  a  trurp  of 
their  existence  is  det'!cted  in  the  pure  white  aiticle. 

Jfilk. — The  adulterations  of  milk  are  of  a  more  seri- 
ous character  than  any  of  those  we  have  noticed ;  and 
there  are  few,  but  those  who  profit  by  the  sinful  prac- 
tice of  contaminating  the  food  given  to  infants  and 
Invalids,  that  will  not  welcome  any  new  niethixl  of  de- 
tecting and  exposing  the  inijw.sture.  It  is  now  some 
years  since  pulilie  attention  in  this  city  was  directed  to 
this  suhjcct,  and  a  general  ho])C  was  entertained,  that 
by  the  hydrometers  ^nd  lactometers  then  introduccil, 
the  adulterations  might  be  cxp<rsed  and  prevented: 
but  from  the  difference  in  the  comiiosltion  and  spc-iflc 
gravity  of  natural  milk  in  its  different  conditions,  the 
suliject  was  found  to  be  attended  with  serious  difHcul- 
ties,  and  we  believe  the  use  of  the  instruments  was 
given  up ;  at  least  we  liave  heard  notliing  of  the  sub- 
ject for  a  long  time,  and  the  public  appear  to  have  re- 
lapsed into  a  state  of  hopeless  indifference  and  suliniis- 
sion  to  the  evil,  which  appears  irremediable.  .\nd  this 
when,  if  we  were  to  judge  from  the  quality  of  milk 
served  to  us  at  some  of  the  eating-houses  of  respecta- 
ble reputation — stuff  of  tliln,  bluish  consistency,  that 
sends  a  sickly  scum  over  the  surface  of  the  ten  or 
coffee  it  is  poured  upon — we  might  well  doubt  whether 
we  are  in  any  better  condition  than  the  inhabitants  of 
London,  when  it  was  estimated  that  all  the  cows  sup- 
plying it  with  milk  were  InsuiHcIent  to  give  to  each 
i)crson  more  than  almut  a  table-sp(Mnful  per  day.  For 
if  this  is  noticed  in  houses  of  rcs|)n utile  rept:tation, 
how  is  It  likely  to  Ije  in  those  of  the  jioorer  class  ?  and 
what  sort  of  milk  ilo  the  children  of  the  poor  proliably 
get,  that  is  bought  In-  their  parents  at  those  corner 
groceries  where  it  can  be  had  the  chuaiwst  ? 

Thi'  difHeiilty  of  detecting  the  degrees  of  adul- 
teration in  milk  is  owing  to  its  complex  nature  and 
the  different  properticn  It  |>ossessrs,  .as  its  ingredi- 
ents 'hange  their  condition  or  are  removed,  as  the 
cream,  for  instance,  Is  taken  oflT  when  it  rises  to  the 
surface,  and  the  bklm-niilk  is  lefl  proportionally  heav- 
ier than  when  this  lighter  substance  was  mixed  with 
It.     If  water,  which  is  as  heavy  as  or  heavier  than 


the  cream,  be  now  made  to  replace  it,  the  substitution 
can  not  be  detected  by  any  difference  of  specific  grav< 
ity.  This  test  must  therefore  be  employed  with  an- 
other to  determine  the  quantity  of  cream.  This  ii 
effected  !"■  the  use  of  a  graduated  tube  called  a  lac- 
tometer, 1.  which  the  cream,  b}'  standing  some  time, 
collects  in  the  upper  end,  and  its  proportion  is  at  once 
seen  to  the  milk  at  the  lower  end.  Good  milk  should 
show  about  O-lOOths  by  measure  of  cream,  and  tested 
by  the  hydrometer  should  indicate  from  1026  to  1030 
specific  gravity,  water  being  1000.  To  those  tests  and 
the  more  complicated  ones  of  chemical  analysis,  are 
now  added  those  of  the  microscope,  by  which  an  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  relative  richness  of  different 
samples  by  comparison.  Cream  is  seen  to  be  full  of 
globular  fatty  bodies,  which  are  of  large  size  and 
closely  collected  together;  good  milk  has  similar 
globules,  but  smaller  and  not  to  closely  united  ;  wlille 
in  adulterated  milk  they  are  scattered  like  the  stars  in 
a  clear  night.  Foreign  substances,  as  sheep's  brains, 
are  indicated  by  appearances  like  nebulie  among  the 
stars,  intermixed  with  a  multitude  of  comets,  liut  to 
follow  out  this  subject,  one  should  turn  to  the  l)Ook 
itself,  in  which  it  is  fully  treated.  The  result  of  the 
examination  of  twenty-six  samples  of  London  milk 
was  that  tirelve  were  genuine,  but  of  these  two  showed 
a  deficiency  of  cream ;  and  that  fourteen  were  adul- 
terated, principally  with  water,  which  ranged  from  10 
to  50  per  ci  nt.  It  would  be  curious  to  ha ve  a  scries 
of  such  examinations  of  New  York  milk  to  compare 
with  this  of  the  London.  We  ar?  strongly  inclined  to 
the  opinion  that  Yankee  ingenuity  would  be  found  as 
far  ahead  of  the  Dritish  in  tlii.i  res|>ect  as  the  British 
were  ahead  of  the  Chinese  in  adulterating  tea.  Cer- 
tainly, we  need  such  an  investigation,  and  we  hope  it 
will  lie  had. 

flour. — Flour  is  proba'o!/  much  more  adulterated  in 
England  than  it  is  in  this  country.  In  this  article  we 
are  more  likely  to  suffer  by  short  weight  than  by  sub- 
stitutes of  Inferior  Ingredients.  It  is  possible  that 
damaged  flour  mu^-,  however,  be  mixed  with  good,  or 
by  adulterations  with  varlou.4  metiers  be  made  to  as- 
sume the  apiwarance  of  good  flour.  The  imwise  pref- 
erence, so  universal,  for  flour  extremely  white,  leads  to 
the  mixture  of  nlum  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the 
appearance  ;  and  the  baker  frequently,  ignorant  that 
the  miller  bad  anticipated  his  worthy  object,  ai'.d.^  a 
second  Jose  of  alum  to  improve  the  ap|)earance  of  the 
loaf.  The  effect  of  alum  Is  to  make  the  bread  indi- 
gestible, causing  acidity  and  dyspepsia — besides,  It  en- 
ables the  baker  to  add  other  articles,  wliicli  are  them- 
selves cheap  substitutes  for  flour,  and  cause  the  bread 
to  take  up  more  water,  thus  adding  to  Its  weight. 
Lleliig  remarks  upon  the  Indlgpstlhle  (piallty  of  London 
bread ;  and  he  noticed,  when  in  the  alum  works  at 
Glasgow,  quantities  of  finely-ground  alum  [ircpared 
for  the  I^ndon  bakers.  Aware  of  its  iiijurlons  effects, 
ho  recomniendeil  n  substitute  of  lime  water,  which 
wouls:  produce  the  useful  without  the  injurious  ef- 
fects; and  his  recommendation  has  been  to  some  ex- 
tent adopted.  V  p  know  nothing  of  the  [iractices  of 
our  baki'rs  in  these  matters,  but  the  thing  might  be 
easily  investigated.  Ii.  the  country,  particularly  in 
New  England,  where  the  bread  is  almost  universally 
bad,  the  greatest  evil  Is  probably  In  the  free  use  of 
carlKinatc  of  iiotash  or  saleratus.  Flfty-tbrco  samples 
of  London  bread  were  examined  by  Dr.  Ilassall,  all 
of  which  contained  alum.  Fraud  was  detected  almost 
as  universally  In  the  weight  of  the  loaves.  In  I'din- 
burg  an  excellent  |>olire  act  prevails,  requiring  the 
bakers  to  stamp  tiie  weight  upon  all  the  loaves  they 

U.     The  magnified  representations  in  Dr.  Ilassall 
work  of  the  different  flours  and  their  aiiultented  mix 
tures,  as  they  ap|)ear  under  the  microscope,  are  lijghly 
Interesting  und  instructive. 

Various  preparations  of  farinaceous  urtieles  for  the 
food  of  invallda  Iw  vo  been  largely  introduced  into  tho 


gland, 
pure,  the 
ta[)io('a,  \i, 
mustard  h 
majority  o 
tliC  iirtiele 
Iiard,  tasti 
gennine  ( 
'I  hn  is  til 
as  that  ,. 
very  inferl( 


FOO 


60ff 


FOO 


for  tbo 
Ito  tbo 


Kngltsh  market  of  late  yean,  and  many  of  them  have 
fornid  their  way  to  this  country,  -with  the  hlgh-aound* 
ing  names  they  -were  christened  with  there.  The  nioit 
famous  and  highly  esteemed  of  these  are  Whtrton'i 
Erralnita,  and  Du  Parry' t  Revalenla  Arabica,  They 
sold  in  Kngland  at  2s.  9d.  per  pound,  or  about  67  cents. 
These,  examined  under  the  microscope,  prove — the 
former  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  French  or  German  lentil, 
which  is  almost  precisely  the  sa;ne  thing  as  the  com- 
mon pea,  and  the  remainder  a  substance  resembling 
Indian-corn  meal,  but  possibly  the  meal  of  the  Sor- 
ghum. The  latter  was  composed  of  the  red,  or  Ara- 
bian lentil,  and  barley-flour.  Another  sample  of  It 
showed  some  sugar,  and  a  third  some  salt,  and  also  ap- 
peared to  bo  flavored  with  celery  seed.  IMwardu 
Brothers'  Arabian  Revalenta,  at  Is.  (21  centx)  per 
pound,  was  ascertained  to  consist  of  lentil  powder — 
probably  of  the  red  and  yellow  lentil  mixeil.  Lentils, 
It  seems,  being  somewhat  cheaper  than  ./cbh,  are  sup- 
plied to  the  work-houses  for  the  prep,  'ion  of  soup 
for  the  paupers.  It  is  certainly  a  much  more  priilita- 
blo  operation  to  convert  them  into  Keralenia,  anil  sell 
them  at  (i7  cents  per  pound,  or  export  them  In  tliU 
form  to  this  country,  where,  we  believe,  by  our  own 
experience,  when  acting,  some  time  since,  under  nied- 
leal  advice,  they  cost  half  a  dollar  for  n  small  paper, 
possibly  weighing  half  a  pound.  In  London,  wlicrn 
these  valuable  lentils  can  be  easily  procured  at  S  ctnis 
per  quart,  the  preparation  may  be  made  by  mixing  to 
anniform  powderred  or  Arabian  lentil  flor  2  pounds! 
Imrley  flour,  1  pound ;  salt,  3  ounces.  This  prepara- 
tion will  contain  all  the  valuable  properties  of  the 
Rfralenta,  and  cost  four  cents  per  pound.  Unfortu- 
'.ately,  we  have  no  Araliian  lentils ;  but  Dr.  Ilussall 
has  given  another  recipe,  equally  good,  designed  for 
such  coiitingences,  and  of  wliicli  we  can  easily  avail 
ourselves,  viz. :  Pea  flour,  2  llis.  j  Indian-iorn  flour, 
1  lb. ;  salt,  3  oz.  Mix  as  before.  We  do  not  know 
whether  such  choice  preparations  as  Prince  Arlhii  t 
Faritmccnns  Food  and  the  Prince  of  Walr  *V  Foml^ 
would  ever  be  allowed  to  come  to  this  country  to  nour- 
ish rc'puliiican  babies ;  but,  by  great  good  luik,  we 
possess  the  materials  of  this  royal  diet,  as  Dr.  lias- 
sail's  microscope  proves  the  one  to  be  composed  en- 
tirely of  baked  v/iiat  Jhiiir,  and  the  other  of  jmlalo 
four,  Afni'lman'n  Xiitrilioiit  Farina  consists  c'ntlrely 
of  potato  flour,  artificially  colored  of  a  rosy  (int. 

,«.■.-„ — Cayriine  |>epper  is  very  generally  adulterat- 
ed, and  froquently  with  red  lead,  in  consideralilc  quan- 
tity. Vennilion,  or  the  sulphuro*  of  mercury,  is  some- 
times used  for  the  same  purpose.  Af  mineral  poisons 
arc  apt  to  accumulate  In  the  system,  und  finally  produce 
very  serious  consecpiences,  if  taken  frci)uently,  even  In 
sma'l  quantities,  this  adulteration,  as  the  similar  treat- 
ment if  inlored  confccticncr)',  is  one  of  the  most  re|,re- 
hensibie  forms  of  fliis  •  ilo  system.  Instances  of 
poisoning  from  these  rau^es  are  known,  and  also  from 
cheese  poisoned  by  red  lead,  which  was  Introduced 
into  the  unriotfo  vised  to  color  the  cheese.  This  color- 
ing ingredient  in  cheese  and  butter  is  an  entirely  use- 
less addition  to  tlicse  articles,  possessing  no  g.')ud 
properties  of  its  own;  but  being  frequently  made  the 
vehicle  of  introducing  Its  different  adulterating  mix- 
tures, its  use  ought  to  be  abandoned. 

Spices  are  to  a  considerable  extent  adulterated, 
and  probably  as  much  so  in  this  country  as  in  Kn- 
gland. Of  21  samples  of  ginger,  l.""  wen  thus  im- 
pure, the  mixtures  consisting  of  the  meal  of  sago, 
tapioca,  potatoes,  wheat,  rice;  also,  Cayenne  pepper, 
mustard  husks,  and  turmeric  powder,  whi'h,  in  the 
majority  of  tbo  cases,  constituted  the  principal  part  of 
the  article.  Kvery  one  has  noticed  in  cinpamon  the 
hard,  tasteless  bark,  thicker  than  that  which  has  the 
genuine  flavor,  but  otherwise  much  resembling  It. 
This  is  tli  bark  of  the  cassia,  a  tree  of  the  same  genus 
as  that  .ilch  produces  the  cinnamon  bark,  but  of 
very  Inferior  quality.     It  is  largely  mixed  with  cinua- 


mOR,  but,  AVAi)  In  tti«  ((fonnd  state,  is  easily  detected 
by  th«  nil('ri»i<'(i|K<,  Of  13  samples  of  whole  cbina- 
mon  exRltiiiHid,  Mten  ffoved  genuine,  and  five  were 
notlilnif  but  ciiMJai  and  of  10  samples  of  the  ground 
article,  only  six  were  genuine — three  consisted  entirely 
of  cnw)|a,  three  iifcnssln  ndiilterated,  and  seven  of  cin- 
namim  ndulterntml,  The  adulterating  mixtures  were 
baked  wlieut  (limr,  nagn,  meni,  potato-flour,  and  arrow- 
riHit,  In  hU  exatnlnntlon  of  the  nutmeg.  Dr.  Ilassall 
doe*  not  apptinr  to  have  found  any  of  the  famous 
wooden  Imllwtlims )  but  it  French  author  he  iiuotes, 
«t»t»«,  that  "nutmegs  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
riddled  iitltn,  eaten  tiy  Insects,  and  become  brittle  ;  the 
sniull  MprrtMr«s  are  tlien  closed  with  a  kind  of  cement, 
formed  of  Hour,  oil,  and  the  jiowder  of  nutmegs.  This 
paste  ImN  dVfin  served  to  faliricate  false  nutmegs,  ino- 
dorouH  and  Insipid,"  These  qualities  without  doubt, 
cli«ract«rl/,w  tint  (iimnecllcnt  article  also,  and  will  en- 
itlile  iitiy  0M(i  to  detect  It.  Dr.  llassall's  advice  to 
souk  them  in  water,  when,  of  course,  they  would  read- 
ily break  down,  would  not  njiply  to  these. 

To  prenpnt  till*  subject  In  its  most  revolting  features. 
It  would  be  neci'Rsary  to  carry  out  this  description 
through  thtt  long  ll>t  of  li(|uors  and  drugs ;  and  the 
data  for  tlll»  inlglll  easily  be  furnished  to  considerable 
extent  from  miltcrlnls  already  at  hand  of  our  owu 
operations,  wlllimit  drawing  upon  those  so  abundantly 
provided  in  tim  book  before  us.  Hut  enough  has  al- 
ready lieen  sitid  to  convince  the  most  incredidous  (if 
there  Ira  anyv/hern  liicfedullty  on  this  subject),  that 
V  IibJivbi  w«  jilifclidsii  to  eat  or  to  drink,  cr  to  admin- 
isier  us  mmllcliie,  we  have  no  security  tliat  we  obtain 
tilt  article  wii  aniii  and  pay  for.  The  chance  is  decid- 
odl.'  ttgiiliiat  ll«  In  all  articles,  wblih  skillful  ingenuity 
can  biiltate  •iicci'ssfully,  even  If  It  bo  necessary  to  re- 
sort !o  dangeroini  |silsotious  suljstances.  The  laws 
a(V/rd  IIHlo  protection,  though  they  recognize  the  ex- 
istence of  the  evil. 

Hut  b««lile«  Ihd  repiignnncp  we  naturally  feel  to  being 
cheated  and  poisoned,  (here  are  evils  of  greater  conse- 
qiienie  brought  ii|km!  (lie  coniniiinlty  t.y  the  toleration 
of  thcKo  prill  tjcei,  Midi  should  roo«e  a  high'  r  indigna- 
tion, TlienB  arc,  Mint  loose  ntate  of  morals  the  system 
cncouri'ijes,  itnil  (Im  lowi  ,lng  of  the  respect  wnich 
should  iittiich  fii  (he  mercMtidle  profession.  The  en- 
courageni'itr,  (oo,  of  (he  imscrupidoiis  trader,  by  the 
uilvandiges  i,(  (ifoftt  J(  jcves  him  over  the  hincst : 
thus  Ariiiiiff  the  hid.  r  out  of  a  bii-iness  in  which  com- 
petition Is  not  open  (olilin.  Then,  .ngain,  it « evil  effects 
i||»in  the  jsior,  who,  iunornnt  of  tlic.«e  frauds,  fall  help- 
lessly Into  the  stiari  1  of  (hose  who  sell  at  the  lowest 
rates.  .)iidglii„  i'  in  the  qiinlitiis  of  articles  i.nld  'uy 
"  resjiecdibli."  tfildxrs,  It  Is  probable  we  have  li'tlo  idea 
of  what  In  |i(ilii(«l  o(f  upon  (he  great  bulk  if  the  popu- 
lation of  a  I'Uy  'dfcn  this,  In  (he  cheap  shops  frcqucnSe^ 
by  the  pnorwr  cl»J»e>,  tint  newspapers  mak  •  frequent 
nieiition  of  the  iiiorn  pnmiliient  (rmah  coniinitted  upon 
unsosphloux  --traii)4ers  by  the  emliiraot  roooer-;;  imt 
of  th'i  liwU't.iiirf'nl,  whii'h  Is  fllchin)^  without  cessa- 
tion thu  hard  ertrnhigs  of  (he  multitudes,  poisoning 
health  and  iiioriilii  alike,  reducing  (he  stam'ard  of  mef 
cantiln  Integrity,  and  (aklng  from  th?  mouths  of  the 
sick  and  of  the  liif«ii(«  those  nios(  nutritious  foods  na- 
ture has  kindly  prov'ih'd  for  their  benefit.— of  this  we 
hear  little  menthill,  The  disease  lies  too  deep  and 
works  too  IntliH'Miaiy  for  l(«  ^rndlcnlion  to  be  hoped 
for.  ll.il  llii<  I"  not  so,  There  Is  a  cure  for  it ;  and 
(his  run  U  th^-  one  adopted  by  Dr,  Hassall.  I,et 
those  wi,  I  have  the  "hill,  and  the  time,  and  the  taste 
for  smh  purnult',  adotit  the  course  he  followed.  Let 
purchaM'.  of  articles  likely  to  be  adulterated  be  made 
In  varloii-'  places,  and  (he  results  of  their  examination 
be  expo!icc|,  together  with  (he  names  of  tlie  tradesmen 
selling  them,  Thefe  Is  no  fear  but  one  would  bo  sus- 
tulnnd  III  (Ilia,  All  hnticat  dealers  would  enconrago 
it  i  for  It  Would  restore  them  to  their  rightful  position. 
'i'he  dishimett  eoilld  not  help  themselves.      Such  a 


ill 


FOR 


«O0 


FOB 


eouKs,  ateadily  puniud  by  s  few  individuals,  wouUi,  f 
n  '1  believe,  soon  produce  aa  marked  a  clian)(a  in  tbU ' 
k.uy  as  it  has  done  in  London.  If  one  wou'd  under- 
take it,  others  would  be  likely  to  follow.  The  field  Ij* 
large,  and  will  accommodate  many  lalwrnr-.  Wii 
wish  n  commencement  might  soon  be  made  ujxin  mitir, 
—See  Adhlteuations  Dktkctk.i  ;  or,  Plain  Imlruc- 
tiimsfiir  the  Ducovety  oj"  frauds  in  food  ami  Medn'iiw, 
By  Artiicr  Hili.  IIassall,  M.  D.  :  I»ndon,  WS7. 
II.  Uuilliere,  New  York. 

Foot,  a  measure  of  length  derived  from  the  length 
of  the  human  foot,  and  consisting  of  12  linear  iucliea. 
For  its  length  in  different  countries,  see  WKioiiTa  AHU 
Mka.'^ures. 

Fore.  The  sea  term  for  the  part  of  the  iMp  near 
the  head. 

Fore  and  JlA  implies  lying  in  tlie  direction  of 
the  houd  and  stern ;  also,  the  whole  of  the  vessel  gen. 
orally . 

Forecastle,  that  part  of  the  upper  deck  of  a  bIiI|i 
forward  of  the  foreniastj  also,  In  merchant  vessels, 
the  forward  part,  of  the  ship,  under  the  deck,  wli«ra 
the  sailors  live. 

Foreigner,  the  natural-boru  anbject  of  a  foreign 
state. 

Forelock,  in  nautical  language,  a  flat  wedgii  of 
iron,  driven  through  the  eud  of  a  bolt  to  prevent  Its 
dniwing, 

Foremast,  the  forward  mast  of  all  vossels. 

ForeBtalling,  in  late,  Is  desorilied  to  bo  llie  i>uytiig 
or  'ontracting  for  any  merchandise  or  victual  coming 
in  the  way  to  market ;  or  dissuading  iwrsons  from 
bringing  tlieir  goods  or  provisicms  there ;  or  persuail- 
ing  them  to  enhance  the  price  when  there.  This,  as 
well  as  engrossing,  which  is  the  liiij  ing  up  of  large 
quantities  of  corn,  or  other  dead  victualu,  with  lnt*nt 
to  sell  tliem  again,  and  rrgrnlinij,  tlie  l)Uj  ing  up  of 
such  commodities  in  any  market,  and  selling  them 
again  in  the  same  market,  or  witliin  four  miles  of  it, 
was  looked  up  m  as  injurious  ti>  llic  pulilic,  by  nnnei  cii- 
sarily  tending  to  raise  the  price  of  provisi.ins  ;  and  «i- 
conlingly  several  statutes  were  passed  in  (ireat  llrjtalii 
prohibiting  forestalling  under  severe  penalfies.  Ktatutu 
31st  ICdw.  I.  enacted  that  "  no  firestaller  shall  be  euf- 
fcred  to  dwell  ii  any  town  who  niunif"stly  Is  an  op- 
pressor of  the  poore,  a  publike  eneniie  uf  tbe  wlnii"' 
conilnaltic  and  countrie,  who  neeting  grain,  fish,  her- 
ring, and  other  things  coming  liy  land  or  by  water  to 
bee  solde,  doeth  make  haste  to  buy  them  liefore  oilier, 
thirsting  afior  wicked  gaine.  iipprcniiiii  the  poore,  and 
deceiving  the  rich.'  In  Orcat  Hrll.iin,  liy  the  statute 
of  Gdw.  VI.,  it  was  enacted  that  wlioever  t-lioilbj 
buy  any  corn  or  grain  with  intent  to  sell  it  again, 
should,  fc  tlic  first  offense,  suffer  two  uKuitlis'  Im- 
prisonment, for  the  second,  six  nionllis'  Imprls/m- 
ment,  .mil  forfeit  double  its  value,  and  {nr  th<'  third, 
bo  set  Ml  the  pillory,  suiTer  imprisonnien*.  during  the 
king's  pleasure,  and  forfeit  all  his  goo<ls  and  cliatlels, 
This  statute  fiythor  enacted,  tliat  no  one  ( oul  \  trans- 
port '  orn  from  one  part  to  another  witliout  a  license, 
sscctiining  his  qualifications  as  a  man  of  probity  and 
fair  deeding. 

The  verj'  imperfe<:t  knowledge  of  political  dcononiy 
that  then  prevailed  led  to  the  bidief  that  the  int«rven> 
tionofn  third  part.v  l)etweenthepr(Hlucerandcim«uinfr  i 
tended  to  raiie  the  prioe  of  provisions ;  and  that  corii  \ 
would  1)0  iKjught  from  the  farmer  cheaper  than  froiii 
the  corn-merchant.     It  may  seem  somewbat  strange  I 
that  though  the  law  thus   compelled  the  t'tmnt  Ui  I 
deal  directly  with  the  consumer,  yet  it  in  many  cimuj 
prohiliited    the    manufacturer   from   selling   bit   own 
wares  by  retail,  in  order  that  thti  shopkeepers  ntlgltl  '' 
not  tie  undersidd.   The  farmer  was  thus  forced  to  c»rr)  1 
on  two  trades;  and  part  of  the  capit.il  Hhl^h  ultonld 
have  been  employed  in  the  improvement  and  rultiva- 
tlon  of  the  land,  was  oliliged  to  be  kipt  in  his  graiwries  | 
(od  stock-yarl ;  whereas  the  com-merehaiit,  hy  ilfoinl'  > 


Ing  •  ruiWtr  nMflot  tut  the  farmer's  produce,  enahld 
him  Ut  wttpl/t"  bis  whole  c  iipitnl  in  cultivation  ;  and 
tlte  Hiiikt<ini'«<  itf  It  free  competition  obliges  the  com- 
inurcJiMiit  tt  f  W  hU  cirtt  as  iheap  us  the  .trmei  could 
afford  til  An,  'llir  |irlltcipl«  h«re  is  the  same  as  in  man- 
ual Uktur  'lint  workman  vbo  is  vliolly  eintloyed  In 
ou«  upvrMtt"))  iw!e(xii|ilisbes  n  greater  ((oantity  of  work, 
and  can  »iriir4  Ut  it'i  It  at  n  rtieaper  rate,  than  one  who 
liiia  (II  carry  im  msetaS  o|ieratl(ins ;  and,  in  tlie  same 
fi>y,  llw  dnaler  wllo>e  whole  stock  h  •■inployed  in  a 
single  l>ra«''ll  of  blMlfieax  acquirer  so  easy  and  ready  a 
iiietliixl  ,4  tratisaetlng  Imuiuess  that,  with  tlie  same 
I'apllal,  III)  eitn  carry  nti  n  mutdi  larger  Inisiiiess,  and  so 
dixposa  t,t  l|f«  nomh  chn»p«r  tlian  if  his  capital  and  at- 
taiitlim  wwd  cntp1<i)'(t<t  In  »  greater  variety  -f  ol>jects. 
"  If,"  wiyii  Ada  <f  Htnllh,  "a  inerchant  ever  l)uy8  up 
corn,  oltllAr  «"i,ig  to  <i  particular  market,  or  in  a  par- 
H4'«lar  Ittiirknf,  m  nuUt  to  sell  it  again  soon  after  in 
Ilia  saniH  niitrM,  It  must  bo  liccauso  he  judges  that 
th«  nmrliftt  nlll  not  be  sc  liberally  supplied  through 
the  wliolii  iteiidon  in  iiiKin  tliat  particular  occasion,  and 
that  Hill  price  tiillsf,  (llefe/ofe,  soon  rlse."~E.  H, 

ror«-tMkl« ;  tachi'  on  the  f«.-ema.-f,  and  also 
ImVii  lietiil  fur  stowing  the    nchor. 

For«tO!,)-inan ;  men  stalloned  In  the  foretop,  In 
reiulliMies  to  >i'(  ii:  take  ill  the  smaller  sails,  and  to  keep 
the  ii|i|«r  flgglMg  III  order. 

Forge,  «  UifMiv  where  wrought  Iron  or  other  metal 
la  hanimiired  ami  fashioned  with  tlic  aid  of  heat.  This 
Is  lallnij  a  nil''  ,,'»  forge,  In  ships  a  very  convenient 
kind  la  ll'  (dirtalite  tr'iik  forge.  Forge  is  also  ap- 
plbti)  to  ill«  tillist  Umtlti'f,  \u  wliYih  iron  ore  Is  smelted  j 
alto,  »|ii«r»itll(t  pf.rtluctlon  of  the  Idast  furnace  isfu.sed, 
and  afterwariti*  beaten  with  enormous  hammers,  or 
drawn  (lirongli  cjilliidefs  of  different  diameters,  in  order 
to  renittir  flin  inetiil  soft,  pure,  and  more  malleable  and 
d((<ltl(i,  Mi/i  ll  great  workshops  are  otherwise  called 
iMni/lln//  iiillli,     Mee  Jliojf-MAKiMd. 

An  onllnaf)'  sllillh'i!  forge  consists  of  the  hearth  or 
flreplaie,  wliltdi  1«  tneiely  n  cavity  in  masonry  or  brick- 
*iiirU,  liiiwl  with  flre-clay  or  brick,  and  containing  igni- 
ted fiinl,  i||Miii  whl(  (l  a  (Hiwf'rful  Idnst  of  air  is  driven 
lliroiigli  fliti  tHi/,/,lfl  (if  a  doiilile-liellows,  worked  by  a 
liaiid  IkviT  Tliefn  are  aUo  portable  forges,  of  small 
dllll«n»loni,  but  answefing  all  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
a  sinltli'ii  fiifga,  Milch  are  (lie  traveling  forges  of  ar- 
liibw,  t/liaie  Used  on  board  ships,  etc. 

ToiKtty  Itfiitn  the  ftetxU  f<vi/ir,  signifving  ocn;- 
ihri-J'Jifl'Wr,  ill  lieat  oti  an  anvil,  forge,  or  fi,rm)  may 
111!  lUr(liiei)  n(  ( iimmon  law  to  be  the  fraudulent  making 
or  uUi-nilUiD  of  n  writing  or  seal,  to  the  prejuiMce  of 
another  tnail's  tight  i  ur  it  Is  the  crime  of  imitating 
(||H  iinli>i'r||i(|o|i  of  anolher,  adhiliillng  it  to  a  deed, 
and  putting  that  liffii  lo  iise  by  acting  under  it,  re- 
ceiving pr(i|*rly  fn  virtue  of  it,  founding  on  it  as  a 
title  to  nun  lit  til  d'-fetid,  or  transferring  it  to  anotlier. 
tu  iwinlilfrtllg  titritpry.  it  Is  necessary  to  oftend,  first. 
In  tim  minU  of  prr^of  by  which  tlie  crime  is  estab- 
ll>h»'d  I  «n(t  SI  I  ortdly,  to  the  punishment  which  is 
infli'-tod  (in  the  jierpelfnfor  thereof. 

T(w  ijffmt  proof  consifis  in  the  examination  of  the 
wrll«r  of  thd  deed,  and  of  (he  witnesses  wlio  sign 
th<(  lined  and  attest  the  subscrlptiim.  As  the  sut)- 
«i  ri|/thin  of  wlfnesses  Is  an  attestation  to  wliich  the 
law  glvei"  effect  (o  the  ejtlent  of  receiving  it  on  their 
death  M  «<»lil"ncn  of  the  regularity  of  tlio  deed,  f.nd 
«■>  wvii^lit  Is  given  to  the  suliscription  of  a  witness, 
li¥»n  Wliefw  Ut  does  not  recollect  having  adliibite.l  it  ; 
» ),  t«  cut  i|<iwn  a  deed  regularly  attested,  the  instrn- 
W'ntary  trltneoses,  a^  they  are  called  in  Scotland, 
mUDl  b«  I'f might  to  nwear  (oclrcunrtances  of  sufllcient 
(nnn  Ui  Invalidate  the  evidence  given  by  their  sub- 
»<'rl(it|(Xn I  a  species  of  proof  whbh  the  law  docs  not 
and  Indeed  can  not  reject.  The  indin  ct  mode  of  proof 
conol't*  In  ,-<n  Investigation  of  all  the  circunistances 
iVinn  wtileli  H  mty  hs  lnf«rr«d  that  the  person  by  whom 


Tlia  pr'sif  of  forgery  Is  either  direct  or  indire(!t. 


FOR 


«»7 


FOR 


»  d««d  la  said  to  be  executed  actnally  did  not  sub- 
KTibe  ;  aa,  for  instunce,  an  error  In  the  dnte,  an  alibi, 
the  stamp,  the  contextare  of,  or  date  Imprentied  upon 
the  paper,  or  a  comparatio  Uteranim.  The  comparison 
of  tlio  handwriting  is  made  with  genuine  subscriptions 
of  the  same  date  as  that  aliened  to  have  been  forged ; 
and  where  the  real  subscriptions  differ  materially  from 
the  one  founded  on,  the  forgery  of  the  latter  may  be 
pronounced  on  with  a  considerable  degree  of  certainty. 
It  is  an  established  rule,  however,  that  the  proof  of 
forgery  by  a  mere  compariiion  of  handwriting  is  not 
admissible. 

Fori  ertj  m  Kngland The  forging  of,  or  giving  in 

evidence  forged  deeds,  etc.,  made  punishable  by  fine, 
by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off, 
the  nostrils  slit  up  and  seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land, 
and  perpetual  imprisonment. — 6  Et.iZAiiETil,  1B62. 
Forgerj-  was  first  punished  by  death  in  lfi.S4. 

Forgery,  Remarkable  Executions  /or.— The  unfortu- 
nate Daniel  and  Robert  Perreau,  brothers  and  wine- 
merchants,  were  lianged  at  Tyburn,  .lunuary  17, 17(«i. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  Dodd  was  found  guilty  of  forging  a 
bond,  in  the  name  of  Lord  Chesterfield,  for  .£4200 :  the 
t'reati^st  interest  was  made,  and  the  highest  influence 
was  exerted  to  save  him,  but  when  the  case  came  be- 
fore tlib  coiincii,  the  minister  of  the  dav  said  to  George 
in.,  ''If  > our  majesty  pardon  Dr.  iJmld,  you  will 
have  murdeicd  the  I'erreaus  ;"  and  he  was  hanged 
aecordingh-,  June  •/.!,  1777.  Mr.  Henry  Fountleroy, 
a  London  ')a»icpr,  wns  hanged  Novemlier  .SO,  1824. 
Josc|:h  IIu-  .n,  a  Qualtcr  mercliant,  suffered  death, 
December  »,  i8i8.  The  ia.st  criminnl  Imnged  for  for- 
gery at  tlie  Old  Bailey,  was  Thomas  Maynnrd,  De- 
I'omlierai,  1829. 

Fiirtiery  i]f  Sea-TMeri Congress  enacted  the  fol- 
lowing law,  March  2,  1803:— "That  if  any  person 
shall  /.riowlngly  make,  utter,  or  pulilinh  any  false  sea- 
letter,  Mediterranean  passport,  or  eertiflcnte  of  regis- 
try, or  sinil  Itnowingly  uvnll  himself  of  any  such 
Mediterranean  passport,'  s  .i-Ietter,  or  eerfilicnte'of  reg- 
istry, ho  shall  forfeit  and  pay  a  sum  not  exi  eeding 
f  f)O(M)  to  he  recovered  liy  actinn  of  (iel.t,  in  tlio  name 
of  the  United  States,  in  .my  court  of  rompetent  juris- 
diction, and  if  an  ofticer  of  the  ITnited  States,  \y  shall 
ever  'hereafter  lio  rendered  ineapalile  of  '-oldlng  any 
oflJee  of  trust  ,ir  profit  under  tlic  authority  of  tlic  tlni- 
teJ  Slates." 

For  '  a  weli-liuown  instrument,  consistlni;  of  a 
liandir  nnd  a  shaft  terminating  in  two  or  more  points 
or  prongs,  Tlie  tdlilf.furk  did  not  come  into  use  in 
Kngland  till  fiie  reign  of  .lames  I.,  as  wo  learn  from  a 
remarl<al]Ie  passage  in  ('or>at,  who  thus  solemnly  re- 
lates the  history  of  its  introduction: — "Hero  I  will 
mention  a  thing  tliat  might  Imve  Ijeen  ppiilfrn  of  Ije- 
fore  in  discourse  of  the  tirst  Italian  townes.  I  oli- 
served  a  custom  in  ail  those  Italian  cities  onil  townes 
tlirough  the  whieli  I  passed,  that  is  not  used  in  any 
otlier  country  that  I  saw  in  my  trav  el'<,  neitlier  ilo  I 
tliinl(  any  otlier  nation  in  Christendonie  doth  i:se  it, 
Imt  only  Italy.  The  Italians,  and  also  most  strangers 
tiiat  are  coramo'  ,it  in  Italy,  doe  always  at  their  meals 
use  ;!  ittle  forke  when  tiiey  i.at  their  nicate  ;  for  wiiilo 
with  tlieir  Itnife,  wliieh  tliey  iudd  in  one  liand,  they 
cut  the  meato  out  of  tiie  disii,  tliey  fasten  the  forlte, 
whieii  tliey  hold  in  tlie  other  iiand,  upon  tlie  same  disli, 
so  that  wbatsor  ;er  ho  lie  that  sitting  in  tiie  company 
of  any  otliers  at  nieaie  shall  unadvisedly  touch  tlie 
disli  of  meato  witii  Iiij  fingers  from  which  ai!  tlic  laljle 
doe  cut,  he  will  give  occasion  of  ofi'ence  unto  the  com- 
pany as  having  transgressed  the  lawes  of  good  man- 
ners, instniueh  that  for  his  error  he  shall  lie  at  least 
lirowbcateh,  if  not  reprehended  in  wordcs.  This  form 
of  feeding,  I  understand,  is  generally  ii?od  in  all  parts 
of  Italy,  their  forlis  for  tlic  most  part  being  made  of 
yromi,  stceb ,  and  some  of  silver,  liut  tlioso  are  used 
only  liy  genticincn.  Tlio  reason  of  this  tiieir  curiosity 
it,  because  the  Italian  can  not  liy  any  means  indure  to 


have  hia  dish  touched  with  flngera,  seeing  all  mm'a 
fingers  are  not  alike  cleane.  Hereupon  I  myself 
thought  good  to  Imitate  the  Italian  fashion  by  this 
forked  cutting  of  meate,  not  only  while  I  was  in  Italy, 
but  also  in  Germany,  and  often  times  in  England  since 
I  came  home :  being  once  quipped  for  that  frequently 
using  my  fork,  by  a  certain  leo  rued  gentleman,  a  fa- 
miliar friend  of  mine,  Mr.  Lawrence  Whitaker,  who 
in  his  merry  humor  doubted  not  to  call  me  a  table /nr- 
cifer,  only  by  using  a  forke  at  feeding,  but  for  no 
other  cause." — E.  B. 

Formona  (Chinese,  Taeimn,  !.  e..  Terrace  BeacK), 
an  island  lying  about  90  miles  uT  the  coast  of  China, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  channel  oi  Fo-kien. 
It  is  about  260  milea  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and 
80  in  breadth,  lying  between  north  lot.  22°  and  25° 
30'  and  east  long.  120°  30'  and  122°.  A  volcanic 
mountain  chain,  rising  to  the  height  of  upward  of 
12,000  feet,  traverses  the  centre  of  the  island  from 
north  to  south,  and  separates  the  Chinese  portion  of  it 
on  the  west  from  the  independent  portion  on  the  east. 
Some  parts  of  the  coast  present  bold  headlands  ;  liut 
all  the  west  shore  is  flat  and  surrounded  with  rocks 
and  qiiicki.ands,  presenting  no  good  harbors,  witii  the 
exception  of  K61ung  at  its  northern  extremity.  Tiie 
Chinese  portion  of  it  is  fertile  and  well  watered,  and 
possesses  a  very  salubrious  climate.  Almost  all  grains 
and  fruits  may  he  produced  on  some  part  of  the  island, 
which  is  familiarly  known  aa  the  granary  of  tlio  mar- 
itime provinces  of  China.  The  rice-trade  alone  with 
these  provinces  employs  more  than  300  vessels.  Among 
its  otiier  articles  of  trade,  are  maize,  tobacco,  sugar, 
fruits,  timlier,  salt,  sulphur,  camphor,  cotton,  hemp, 
silk,  etc.  Of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  little  is 
known ;  the  inhabitants  boar  no  rcsemldance  to  the 
Chinese,  but  are  apparently  allied  to  the  Malay  or  Poly- 
nesian frilies.  They  are  of  a  slender  form,  olivo 
complexion,  we.nr  long  hair,  and  blicken  their  teeth. 
They  have  no  written  language,  and  their  religion 
seems  to  be  confined  to  a  superstitious  lielief  in  demons 
and  soreerers.  Many  of  tlie  aboriginal  inhabitants 
are  still  tr  lie  found  on  the  western  portion  of  tlio 
island,  living  in  independent  villages;  others,  how- 
ever, have  liecoiiie  incorporated  with  the  ('hinese  set- 
tlers, or  live  in  villages  of  their  own,  under  tlie  gen- 
eral supervision  of  ('hinese  officers. 

Formosa  wan  unknown  to  tiie  Chinese  till  about 
140(1.  About  lOfff  the  Dutch  established  tiienisolvcs 
here,  and  built  Fort  Zealand  on  a  small  island  com- 
manding the  harljor  of  the  capital  Taewan.  After  re- 
taining possession  of  it  for  28  years,  tlicy  were  ex- 
pelled liy  the  famous  Chinese  reliel  Coxinga,  whose 
successors  ruled  in  tlie  i.iland  till  1683,  when  it  was 
taken  liy  the  Chinese,  'laewan,  the  capital,  stands 
on  (ho  west  coast  in  north  lat.  2.1°,  east  long.  120°  32'; 
but  the  entrance  of  its  harbor  is  now  clioked  up.  The 
porulation  of  Formosa  is  estimated  at  from  2,000,000 
to  3,000,000. 

Fort,  a  small  fortified  place,  environed  v,  ith  a  ditch, 
rampart,  and  parapet,  'fho  use  of  forts  is  to  secure 
some  liigh  ground,  or  the  passage  of  a  river,  to  mako 
good  an  aiivantageous  po.st ;  v^  defend  the  lines  and 
(luarters  of  a  siege,  and  the  like.  Forts  are  liuilt 
of  diftcrent  (igiires  and  dimensicms,  according  to  the 
exigences  of  tiie  case.  Some  are  provided  with  bas- 
tions, others  with  domi-liastions  ;  some  are  of  a  square 
form,  otlier-  penlag<iual,  and  otliera  again  are  stellated, 
having  live  or  seven  angles. 

Forth,  one  of  tiie  largest  rivers  in  Scotland.  It  is 
first  formed  of  several  small  streams  rising  on  the 
nortli  of  Hen  Lomond,  or  flowing  from  Loch  Katrino 
and  tlie  other  lakes  in  the  adjacent  country.  It  pro- 
ceeds easterly  in  a  direct  course  for  above  100  miles, 
receiving  in  its  progress  the  triliutary  waters  of  thfi 
(ioodie.  t'.io  Teitli,  and  the  Alluii  aliovo  Stirling,  and 
below  it  tho  Devon,  tlio  ('arron,  the  Avon,  tlio  Al- 
mond, tlie  I.cith,  tlie  £sk,  the  Leven,  the  Tyne,  and 


FOR 


FOR 


oth«r< ;  and  it  dlscbar^^os  itself  into  the  German 
Ocean  in  about  66°  10'  of  north  latitude. 

The  Forth,  like  other  atreams  connected  with  the 
ocean,  ebb*  and  flows  twice  in  24  houm,  but  the  flood 
and  ebb  run  about  two  hours  lunger  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  shore.  The  tide  flows  4^  milea  above 
Stirling  shore.  At  this  harbor  spring-tides  rise  7  feet 
9  inches,  and  at  A'ioa,  1!>^  feet. 

It  was  high  water,  according  to  Captain  Thoir.a8's 
observations  in  1816,  at 


n.  M. 

Elle  Harbor S  II  p. 

Lclth  <fc  Burntisland  8  15    " 
Uopotouu  IIouso ...  2  30    " 


SrrlniTidn  NairTldii 

14  foot.       6  foet. 
16i  "  7   " 

IT     "  flt  " 


The  tides  at  Leith  and  Kinghom  ri^ie  sometimes  as 
high  as  10  foet  above  low-water  uiiirl<,  the  average 
being  17J  fet<t. 

There  arc  in  the  Forth,  as  elsewhere  ir  sluular  riv- 
ers and  anus  of  the  sea,  particular  curreiiis.  Among 
'III'  iiioat  remarkable  are  those  known  bv  the  name  of 
/■  nk.a  above  the  Queensferry,  which  ar»  particularly 
observed  from  Cuirass  to  Alloa.  These  consist  in 
an  intcrmi8:iion  of  the  tide  at  certain  places  during  the 
6ooi,  and  before  high  water  the  sea  ebbi^:.  On  the 
"  itrar}-,  while  the  sea  ebbs,  aud  befuro  low  water, 
the  ebb  intermits,  and  a  flow  commencing,  continues 
Bume  time  ■  after  which  the  ebbing  it  resiumed  until 
low  water.  This  is  seen  during  two  hours,  aud  the 
irregularity  occupies  more  or  less  of  the  river  acconl- 
iii^  a'  it  is  spring  or  neap  tide . 

'■  ,  rincipal  obstructions  to  the  navigation  of  the 
yoriUt  between  Allou  and  Stirling,  have  hitherto 
arisen  in  a  great  measure  from  the  two  fonts  of  the 
river,  the  one  called  the  Town  Ford  and  the  other  the 
Abbey  Ford,  and  from  the  channel  )j«ing  rendered 
shallow  partly  by  larga  boulders  and  paitly  lij^  accn. 
niulations  of  peat.  The  peat  accumulation?  have 
arisen  chiefly  from  the  proprietors  above  Stirling 
clearing  several  tbuiuand  acres  of  tlieir  lands  for  cul- 
tivation, by  removing  the  peat  wliich  covira  them, 
and  moving  it  into  the  river  in  order  to  l>e  carried 
away  bv  the  current  to  the  sen.  Tl.i:  practice  has 
btten  followed  since  17.SJ.  The  moss  covering  tlie  soil 
varies  in  depth  from  11  to  4  or  5  feet,  but  the  greater 
proportion  is  10  feet.  Mr.  Drummond,  of  Ulair- 
I>rimimond,  from  l7H'i  to  MiAS,  floated  away  upward 
of  l.iiOO  acres  of  this  su'  stance. 

The  principal  sand-banks  which  obstrurf  the  navi- 
gation further  down  tlie  firth  are  the  Drum-snnds, 
near  Crar.iond,   and  the   Sand.«ni!,   on   the  east  of 
Uumtisland  harbor.     The  principal  rocks  which  re- 
quire to  be  avoided  by  the  mariner  ^m  the  .South  Carr 
Keef,  lying  X.N.W.  frorn  Dun'  ar,  tlia  North  f 'arr, 
alwut  a  mile  and  a  quarter  cast  of  Fifeness,  the  lilao 
to  the  west  of  Kiaghom  Ness,  ti.e  Commons  to  the 
west  of  Uumtis'and,  Craig  V  ugh  S.  E.  one  half  K. 
of  ImJikelth,  and  the  ljiunn.it  Itnck,  PaUim  Uock,  Long 
Craig,  Briggs,  and  Ilarwit  in  it.%  ncl^hliorhood  ;  and 
several  miles  further  west,  and  neurtT  Inchcolm,  the 
Oxcarei,,  Carcraig,  and  Slickry  Stone.    Slany  of  these 
rix^ks  are  seen  at  tho  lowest  eb'js ;  their  position, 
together  with  the  dilferenl  land-mark^,  which  urr.  nec- 
essary to  |Miint  them  out  to  tha  mariner,  are  delineated  i 
on  the  admiralty  cluirts,  and  the  sai'.ing  directions  for  | 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  containnl  in  tlic  Coa*,i'~'<i  Astint- 
atU,  which  is  publisLed  in  I^ith.     To  show  their  posi- 1 
tion  still  better,  heating  buoys  have  Iwon  placed  upon 
Craig  >Vaugh,  the  (iunnet,  the  Ilarwit,  .md  the  Pallas 
Kocks ;    and  traacons  have  liecn  erected  on  the  Ox 
cares,  the  North  Carr,  ami  on  tho  J.<mg  Craig,  and  on 
most  of  the  ether  dangerous  ^ocks,  and  on   i<evcral 
shoals  anil  sand-lianks.     IlesMvs  the  provisions  for  , 
aiding  the  navi,';3tion,  there  are  two  Mght-b"  >ef'  en  ! 
the  isle  of  May,  ime  on  the  island  of  Inclilvuiih,  and  < 
variouH  other  light-housec  am  now  erei-tcil  on  nil  the  | 
barboria  and  Linding-pluccn  uf  importani-c  in  the  firth. 

The  uchorsge  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  is  excellent. ; 


Mr.  Osborne,  in  a  ra|iort  to  tho  I>orda  of  tho  Admi- 
ralty on  '2d  May,  1863,  says  of  it :  "  Between  the  Hum- 
ber  and  the  Frith  of  Cromarty  there  is  no  other  harbor 
or  anohorage  into  which  largo  sliips  of  war  can  safely  run 
for  shelter  or  rendezvoiui  other  than  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
and  more  particularly  in  the  reach  above  the  Queens- 
teiry,  where  tho  shelter  is  complete.  Uut  as  the 
F'rith  of  Cromarty  is  away  from  all  important  inter- 
ests, tho  Fritli  of  F'orth  must  be  considered  the  only 
war  port  north  of  the  II umber,  rnd  therefore  a  most 
fitting  place  for  a  naval  arsenal."  But  besides  tho 
great  and  important  anchorage  at  St.  Margaret's 
ilope,  in  tho  reach  aliove  the  Queensferry,  which  is 
more  particularly  referred  to  in  this  Admiralty  im- 
port, Leith  Konds  to  the  west  of  Inchkaith  is  another, 
which  is  capable  of  holding  a  large  fleet  of  ships  of 
war  of  any  size.  Tho  minor  anchorages  in  the  firth, 
which  are  also  vcrj'  good,  are  at  Abcrludy  Hay,  the 
westeni  part  of  I.argo  Bay,  Burntisland,  St.  Davids, 
Limekilns,  etc. 

Tho  landing-places  or  harbors  in  the  Forth  are,  on 
the  south  side  the  harbors  of  Dunbar,  North  Berwick, 
I'ort  Seton,  Morrlsou's  ilaven,  risherrow,  Leith,  New- 
haven,  Trinity,  (iranton.  South  Queensferrj-,  Bor- 
rowstowness,  Grangemontli,  and  Stirling  Shore,  and 
on  tho  north  side,  Crail,  Anstruthor,  Klie,  Pitten- 
wcem,  Leven,  Metliel,  Wait  Wemyss,  Dysart.  Kirk- 
caldy, Kinghorn,  Pettycur,  Burntisland,  Slarleylmm, 
,\lierd«ur,  St.  Davids,  Inverkeithing,  North  (/noens- 
ferry,  Charleston,  Cromliio  Point,  Culross,  Kincar- 
dine, and  .Xlliva,  Great  improvements  and  new 
erections  have  lately  been  iiuide  at  most  of  these 
harbors  wliich  are  of  any  notn  ;  and  in  particular,  the 
Duke  of  Uucilcnoh's  magnificent  liurlior  in  progress  of 
formntiiin  nt  Granton,  and  the  extension  of  Leith  Pier 
into  ileep  w.iter,  may  be  referred  to.  Of  less  magni- 
tude is  the  deepening  of  tho  channel  of  the  F'orth  be- 
tween Alloa  and  Stirling  by  commissioners  acting 
under  the  act  of  Parliament  Gth  and  7th  Victoria,  cap. 
47.  Since  the  passing  of  this  act  in  184.?,  a  channel  of 
utiout  6(K)  yards  in  length  has  been  formed  through 
the  Abl)ev  Konl,  giving  about  it  feet  (i  inches  greater 
depth  of  water  than  formerly.  A  channel  about  1.  iOO 
yuMs  in  length  has  also  been  formed  through  the 
Town  Ford,  which  is  not  yet  fully  completed  a  t  re- 
gards its  depth  of  water.  In  these  operations  /uany 
tliou.xands  of  largo  boulder-stones  and  the  peat  accu* 
niulations  wliidi  formed  olistructions  to  the  naviga- 
tion bnve  been  removed,  and  no  doubt  is  entertained 
by  the  hispiectors,  who  have  reported  to  government 
on  this  subject,  but  a  depth  of  16  or  17  feet  at  spring- 
tides will  lie  ol>tuined  up  to  Stirling  when  the  works 
in  progress  uro  cumplotcd.  ITpward  of  je!>,0(H»,  includ- 
ing tho  cx|>ense  of  the  net  and  of  erectiur;  a  quay  at 
Stirling,  have  already  been  expended  by  the  llnrlior 
(Commissioners  on  these  operations,  and  £7,000  more 
is  ulKiut  to  I'M  expended  upon  them.  This  sum  is  to 
be  |>aid  to  tho  commissioners  by  the  Town  Council  of 
Glasgow  for  damage  likely  to  arise  to  tho  Improve- 
ments in  progress  on  the  F'orth,  from  tho  lilierty  oli- 
tained  l>y  the  city  of  ( ilssgow  to  draw  n  large  (juantity 
of  water  from  IjOch  Katrine.  In  addition  to  these 
sums,  the  revenue  of  the  Forth  Commissioners,  which 
in  considerable,  will  enable  them  still  further  to  ex- 
tend their  works. 

Further,  the  low-water  ferry  bnding-place  nt  Burn- 
tisland, belonging  to  the  FUlinburg,  Perth,  and  Dun- 
dee Hallway  Company,  Is  a  grcit  improvement  at  that 
jiort ;  and  at  Kirk<'alily,  Buckhaveii,  and  other  h-ir- 
liors,  uxtensive  works  are  in  progr»(ss  iMider  Harbor 
C  >minissioiierK. 

Thn  coasting  and  foreign  trade  of  tho  Forth  Is  car- 
ried en  III  vessels  varying  in  size  from  18  to  ."iOO  tons, 
'i'bn  friiicipul  [lort  to  which  they  Itelong  is  l.uith  ;  liut 
then?  are  several  whalers  and  large  vessels  engaged  in 
thn  Australian,  American,  Mediterranean,  and  Baltic 
tfades,  which  belong  to  other  ports  in  the  Forth. 


FOU 


60Q 


FOU 


Tha  traffic  in  goodx  and  pauengera  between  the  porta 
in  tlie  Forth  and  London,  Qresnock,  Gloagow,  Liver- 
pool, Hull,  Newcaatie,  Dundee,  Perth,  Aberdeen,  In- 
verness, Peterhead,  and  alinoat  every  coneiderable 
8ea-|H)rt  in  Scotland,  la  conducted  chiefly  by  veuela  of 
joint-HtocIs  ^  jmpaniea,  which  vesaela  sail  periodically. 
Joint-stoclc  companies  are  also  engaged  in  the  Leitb 
trade  with  Hamburg  and  Kottenlam.  The  Glasgow, 
Qroenock,  and  Liverpool  trade,  is  chiefly  conducted 
through  the  Forth  anil  Cfydo  canal. 

The  number  and  tonnage  of  the  vessels  belonging 
to  the  ports  in  the  Forth  in  IHbb  are  as  follows  : 

„      At  Alloa,  InclnilliiK  the  nroeks  of  Kincardine 

and  Stlrllni;,  74  vi^ssitlit,  with  a  tonnnKe  of  12,402 
At  llorniwHtowniiudfl,  litcludliig  thu  crooks  of 
Chitrluston  and  Limekilns,  47  Teasels,  nith 

a  tonna^^o  of S,781 

At  QranKoinouth,  .S4  voaeols,  with  a  tonna^o  of    11,288 
Atlnvorkoltlilng,  28va8sols,wltha  tonnaKo  of    2,301 
At  Kirkcaldy,  Includlnit  tlio  cracks  of  LnrKo, 
LoTcn,  Woinyss,  Dysart,  Klnnliorn,  Burn- 
tisland, and  Abordour,  00  vessels,  with  a 

tunnsgo  of. 7,037 

At  Lcltli,  luolU(llnf(  the  crocks  of  (iranton, 
FIshcrrow,  Cockenzic,  and  Dunbar,  178 
vel»l«l^  with  a  tonnofto  of 26,404 


is  cnr- 
)  tons, 
but 
fffld  in 
llaltic 
Forth. 


Total  434  vussels,  wllb  a  total  tonnage  of  00,sas 

E.  B. 

Fortified  Island,  an  island  in  the  India  seas, 
lying  oil'  the  const  of  Canara,  about  a  mile  from  the 
land,  a  little  way  north  from  the  entrance  to  Lake 
Onore.  The  island  abounds  in  cocoa-nut,  palm,  and 
plantttin-trocs,  and  has  plenty  of  fresh  water.  It  pro- 
duces the  best  kind  of  curi,  which  is  used  by  the  na- 
tives in  painting  their  houses.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  its  fortilications,  which  were  great'y  strength- 
ened by  Tippoo  Saib,  from  whom  it  was  taken  in  1792 
by  three  British  frigates.  It  is  upward  of  a  mile  in 
circuit.     Long.  74"  27'  K. ;  lut.  14°  Ifi'  N. 

Fothering,  a  |)Oculittr  method  of  endeavoring  to 
stop  A  leak  In  tlie  bottom  of  a  ship  while  she  is  afloat, 
cither  «t  sea  or  at  anchor,  which  is  |>crformed  by  fast- 
cnin^r  u  sail  at  the  four  comers,  letting  it  down  under 
the  ship's  bottom,  and  then  putting  a  quantity  of 
chopiwil  rojMi-yarn,  oakum,  wool,  cotton,  etc.,  I>etween 
it  and  the  ship's  side.  By  repeating  the  latter  part  of 
tills  operation  several  times,  the  leak  generally  sucks 
in  u  portion  of  the  lonso  stulT,  and  thereby  becomes 
partly  and  soii-otimos  wiioUy  stopped.  Some  persons 
prc/er  thrMmmiiig  the  sail,  instead  of  letting  down  the 
loose  stutT;  but  in  this  mode  the  sail  is  soon  chafed 
through  by  the  hole  if  the  leak  is  considerable,  with- 
out ad'ording  sufficient  sul)Stanco  to  stop  it. 

Foul,  a  sea  phrase  that  is  used  in  distinction  from 
clour,  and  implies  entangled,  enil)arrassed.  Hence, 
foul  anchor,  when  the  cable  is  twisted  round  tlie  stock 
and  tluLes  ;  foul  lH>ttom,  when  a  bay  is  covered  witli 
weeds,  grass,  shells,  liltli,  and  rocks.  Foul  hawse 
means  that  the  cables  arc  turned  round  each  other 
by  the  ship  having  swung  the  w-A)ng  nay  when 
moored,  Foul  rope,  a  rope  entangled  and  unlit  for 
immediate  use.  Foul  water,  is  wr.ter  trouble'l,  and 
rendered  turbid  by  the  ship's  liottom  rubbing  on  the 
ground,  F'oul  wind,  is  used  to  express  that  the  wUid 
is  unfivorable,  or  coutrary  to  the  ship's  course,  as  op- 
posed to  large  ot  fair, 

Foundery,  or  Foundry,  the  art  of  meltiug  and 
casting  metals.     See  Coi-i-er  ;  luox. 

Foundtry  of  Small  Wvrkt,  or  Caiting  in  SanJ. — The 
sand  commonly  used  for  castiug  small  works  is  at  first 
of  a  pretty  soft,  yellowish,  and  clammy  nature ;  but 
it  Ipoinf  necessary  to  strew  charcoal  dust  in  tli"  mold, 
it  at  length  becomes  of  a  quite  black  color.  T'le  sand 
is  worked  o\-er  and  over,  on  a  Imard,  with  a  roller  and 
a  kind  of  knife ;  and  is  placed  over  a  trough  to  re- 
ceive It,  after  it  has  by  thiiso  means  been  sufficiently 
prepared. 

'This  being  done,  the  workmen  take  a  wooden  board 
«f  » length  and  breadth  proportional  to  the  things  to 


be  cast,  and  putting  a  ledge  round  It,  tlMV  lilt  It  with 
sand  a  little  moistened,  to  maka  It  duly  iiuli«n>  'i'lioy 
then  take  either  wood  or  metal  mmUtU  of  what  lli«y 
intend  to  coat,  uiid  apply  them  to  the  mold,  and  prtwo 
them  into  the  sand  so  un  to  leave  tlialc  InipriiiMlon 
there.  Along  the  middle  of  the  mold  In  kill  lltflf  n 
small  brass  cylinder,  us  tha  uliluf  iiaiial  for  the  liuitui 
to  run  through,  when  melted.  Into  tha  iniidtU  ur  pat- 
terns; and  from  thU  chief  canal  uru  pluuvd  MiVMral 
others,  which  e\tond  colluterully  to  uach  utiiilid  or 
pattern  placed  in  (ho  frame.  After  tlih  framii  l«  llti- 
ished,  they  take  out  the  |>atturns,  by  llmt  lon*rnhif( 
them  all  round,  that  tho  sand  may  not  kIv«  way  i  then 
they  proceed  to  work  the  other  liutf  of  tlm  itiidd  witll 
the  some  patterns  in  Just  such  unotluir  frame,  uiity  tiMl 
it  has  pins,  which  entering  into  liolns  co.*riiii|M>iiiUHg  to 
it  in  the  other,  make  the  two  cavities  of  tint  pattern 
fall  exactly  on  each  other.  Tliu  fruinii,  thim  niutdnd, 
is  carried  to  the  mclter,  who,  after  extuudiii|{  tlm  cliWf 
canal  of  the  counterpart,  and  adding  the  crims  (^aniili 
to  the  several  mmlels  in  both,  and  strewing  tullUdilsi 
over  them,  dries  them  in  a  kind  of  oven  preoarsd  fur 
tho  puqiose.  Both  parts  of  the  mold  ladiig  dry,  titey 
are  joined  together  liy  means  of  the  pins  |  anit  to  |ire> 
vent  them  giving  way,  by  reason  of  ttiu  mulleil  niiitiil 
passing  through  the  chief  cylindrical  canal,  lliey 
are  screwed  or  wedged  up  us  ii  a  pruon.  W'liiln  tliv 
molds  are  thus  preparing,  tlio  metal  hi  fusing  In  n  crii- 
cilde  of  a  size  projiortioiial  to  thu  i|imnllty  of  nitital 
intended  to  be  cast.  When  tliu  molds  liuvu  i^uolcd,  the 
frames  are  unscrewed  or  unwedged,  and  the  cast  work 
is  taken  out  of  the  sand,  which  sand  la  worktit  over 
again  for  another  casting. 

founder;/  of  SUttuii. — The  casting  of  iitalUiiN  d». 
fiends  on  tho  due  preparation  of  tlm  pit,  lliu  corp,  tlia 
wax,  the  outer  mold,  the  Inforlur  fiirnai-'fl  to  limll  (iff 
the  wax,  and  the  upper  to  fuse  tlm  metal.  Tlia  pit  la 
a  hole  dug  in  a  dry  place,  somewliat  d«u|Hir  Hum  tliti 
intended  figure,  and  made  according  to  the  |irolutMPUC« 
of  certain  parts  of  it.  Tliu  Inside  of  tliu  pit  is  coin* 
monly  lined  with  stone  or  brick ;  but  when  tho  llguru 
is  very  large,  they  sometimes  work  on  tlio  |{round, 
and  raise  a  proper  fence  to  resist  thu  iinpuliiluu  of  tlm 
melted  luetul.  Tho  iniwr  mold,  ur  core.  Is  a  ruilu  ina«8, 
to  whicli  is  given  tho  intended  nttitudu  and  ■  unlourfi, 
It  is  raised  on  an  iron  grating  strung  cnimgli  lu  ttuntalu 
it,  and  is  strengthened  within  by  suyural  liiirit  of  Iron, 
It  is  generally  made  either  of  (Kitters'  clay  iiilxod  with 
cow-hair,  or  of  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  brlck-dusl, 
Tile  use  of  the  core  is  to  support  the  wax  am',  tliu  uli'dl, 
and  lessen  the  weight  of  thu  metal,  Tliu  Irult  burs  and 
the  core  are  taken  out  of  the  brinis  llgurM  through  uu 
aperture  left  in  it  for  that  |iuriioso,  wtiicli  Is  suldvred 
up  afterward.  It  is  necessary  to  leave  milim  of  tlm 
iron  bars  of  tha  core,  which  coulrlbutu  to  tlio  iit«aili< 
ness  of  tho  projecting  part,  within  thu  brans  iigiirn, 
The  wax  is  a  representation  of  the  intuiiili'd  slutuii  If 
it  )m!  a  piece  of  sculpture,  the  w»K  should  bo  all  friiin 
the  hand  of  tho  sculptor  himself,  who  u«ilally2f"i'>i>'' 
it  on  the  coro ;  though  it  may  be  wrought  nepiiratoly 
in  cavities,  molded  on  a  model,  unit  afterward  Mr- 
ranged  on  tho  ribs  of  iron  over  the  gratlllKi  llllillt(  tllfl 
vacant  space  in  the  middle  with  liquid  planter  itiid 
lirick-dust,  by  which  means  tl:e  inner  cor"  U  propor 
tloned  ns  tho  sculptor  carries  on  the  wax.  When  the 
wax,  which  is  of  the  intended  thickness  of  tliu  niutnt, 
is  linislied,  small  waxen  tubes,  (leriieiidlcular  to  It  from 
top  to  liottoti,  are  tilled,  to  serve  Ixith  as  lutiuli*  for 
the  convoyancw  of  the  metal  to  «l!  piirt*  of  tliu  work, 
and  OS  vent-holes  to  give  passage  to  the  air,  which 
would  otherwise  occasion  great  disorder  wliun  tlin  hut 
metal  came  to  encompass  it. 

Tho  «ork  being  brought  thus  far,  iiilii»t  l<P  (uvereil 
with  its  shell,  which  is  u  kind  of  criint  hild  over  tlm 
wax,  and  which  being  of  a  soft  mutter,  viwlly  reiMivtM 
thu  impression  of  every  part,  which  Is  uftorwuril  euut- 
muuicated  to  the  metttl  upon  Us  taklug  til's  ptuua  of 


POTT 


700 


nji 


tka  wlx,  between  the  •hell  and  the  mold.  The  mat- 
ter of  thU  outer  mold  In  varied  nccordlnjj  nn  dlflV<rent 
layers  are  n|iplied.  The  first  Is  gunorully  a  composi- 
tion of  clay  and  old  white  orticihles  well  ground  and 
sifted,  and  mixed  up  with  water  to  tho  consistence  of 
a  color  At  for  painting ;  and  it  is  applied  with  a  lirush, 
by  means  of  which  It  is  laid  on  seven  or  eight  times 
»uccos«ively.  For  the  second  Impression  horse-dung 
and  natural  earth  are  added  to  the  former  composition ; 
l)ut  for  tho  third  impression  only  horse-dung  and  earth 
are  used.  Lastly,  the  shell  Is  finished  liy  laying  on 
several  more  impressions  of  tliis  lai^t  matter,  made 
vorj-  thick,  with  tho  hand.  Tho  shell,  thus  flnlslied,  is 
secured  liy  several  iron  girths  l)ound  round  it,  at  alwut 
half  a  fiHit  distant  from  each  other,  and  fastened  at 
tho  bottom  to  the  grating  under  the  statue,  and  ot  top 
to  a  circle  of  iron  where  they  all  terminate. 

If  tho  statue  be  so  large  that  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  move  the  nioldi  with  safety,  these  must  lie  wrought 
on  the  spot  where  it  Is  to  lie  east.  This  Is  porfornieil 
in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  a  square  hole  is  dug 
in  the  ground,  much  larger  than  tho  mold  to  lie  made 
therein,  and  its  inf<lde  is  lined  with  walls  of  freestone 
or  liriclt.  At  the  liottom  is  made  a  hole  of  I  lie  same 
materials,  witli  a  kind  of  fiiniacc,  having  its  aperture 
outward  ;  an<l  in  this  a  fire  is  made,  to  dry  the  mold, 
and  afterward  melt  the  wa^.  Over  tliis  furnace  is 
placed  the  grating,  and  upon  this  the  moid,  formed  us 
alKive.  l.:i!<tly,  at  one  of  the  edges  of  tlie  M|iiare  pit 
is  made  anollier  largo  furnace,  to  melt  tlic  metal.  In 
tlic  other  tiiiY,  it  is  suftlciiiit  to  work  tlio  mold  above 
ground,  liut  witli  tlic  precaution  of  a  furnace  and 
grating  underneatli.  When  finished,  four  walls  are 
run  around  it,  and  liy  its  side  a  melting  furnace  is  pre- 
pared. Kor  the  r<!st,  tlie  metliod  is  tlie  same  in  liotli 
cases.  Tho  moM  heing  finished,  and  inclosed  us  dc- 
scrilied,  wliether  lielow  ground  or  aliove  it,  a  moderate 
fire  is  lighted  in  the  furnace  under  it,  and  tiie  whole 
covered  with  planks,  that  tlie  wax  may  melt  gently 
down,  and  run  out  ut  pipes,  contrived  for  that  purpose, 
at  the  foot  of  the  moid,  wliidi  are  afterward  exactly 
closed  with  earth,  as  soon  as  tiie  wax  is  nil  i'arried  ott. 
When  tliis  is  done,  ti»e  wh(do  is  filled  up  witli  bricks 
thrown  in  at  random,  and  the  lire  in  tiie  furnace  aiig 
uientcd,  until  iMith  bricks  and  iiiold  become  reil-hot. 
The  lire  is  tlien  extinguished,  and  every  thimr  1  eing 
cold  again,  the  brii  ks  arc  taken  out,  and  tlieir  place 
filled  up  witli  earth,  moistened,  and  lioaten  a  little  at 
the  top  of  tho  mold,  in  order  to  render  it  the  firmer. 
These  preparatory  measures  lieing  duly  taken,  tliere 
remains  notliing  but  to  melt  tho  metal,  and  run  it  into 
the  mold.  This  is  done  liy  means  of  tlie  furnace  iiliovc 
dc.scrilieil,  wliich  is  commonly  ni:ule  in  tlie  form  of  an 
even,  with  tliree  apertures,  onn  to  put  in  tiie  wood, 
another  for  a  vent,  and  a  third  t<i  run  the  metal  out  at. 
From  this  last  aperture,  whicli  is  kept  vert'  close  wliile 
the  metal  is  in  fusion,  a  small  tube  is  laid,  liy  which 
the  molten  metal  is  c(mveyed  into  a  large  earthen  lia.sin, 
over  the  mold,  into  the  bolfoni  of  whicii  all  tho  largo 
branches  of  the  jets  or  en  ts,  wliich  are  to  convey  the 
metal  into  ttie  different  parts  of  tlie  mold  arc  inserted. 
Fnundenj  •</  /W/<.— The  metal  for  casting  bells,  it 
is  to  lie  observed,  is  diflTerent  from  that  employed  for 
ca.«tiiig  statues ;  there  being  no  tin  in  tlie  statue  metal, 
whereas  in  the  liell  metal  tlierc  is  a  liftii  or  more. 

The  dimensions  of  the  core  ai.il  the  wax  for  liells, 
csfiecially  a  chime,  are  not  left  to  chance,  but  must  he 
measured  upon  a  scale,  or  diapason,  which  gives  tile 
height,  the  ajierture,  and  the  thickness  neiessary  for 
the  several  tones  re([uired.  It  is  on  the  wax  that  the 
several  moldings  and  other  ornaments  and  inscriptinns, 
to  be  represented  in  relief  on  the  outside  of  tlie  liell, 
are  to  lie  formed.  The  clap|>er  or  tongue  is  not  prop- 
erly part  of  the  lieil,  but  is  furnished  from  other  hands. 
In  Kupnie  it  is  usually  of  iron,  witii  a  large  knob 
at  the  extremity  ;  and  is  suspendcil  in  tiio  middle  of 
the  bell.     In  China  a  WuoJen  mallet  1.1  used,  which  is 


struck  b}'  the  hand  against  the  hell ;  and  hence  ths 
("hliiese  bells  can  have  comparatively  little  resonance. 
The  Chinese  have  a  method  of  increasing  the  sound  of 
their  bells,  by  leaving  a  hole  under  tlie  cannon ;  but 
this  our  bell-founders  would  reckon  a  defect. 

Tho  proportions  of  our  bells  differ  very  much  from 
those  of  the  Chinese.  In  ours,  the  modern  proportions 
are,  to  make  the  dioineter  fifteen  times  the  thickness 
of  the  brim,  and  tho  height  twelve  times.  The  parts 
of  a  bell  are,  first,  tho  sounding  bow,  terminated  by  an 
inferior  circle,  which  grows  thinner  and  thinner ;  sec- 
ondly, the  brim,  or  that  part  of  a  bell  whereon  tho 
clapper  strikes,  and  wiilcli  is  thicker  than  the  rest ; 
thirdly,  the  outward  sinking  of  the  middle  of  tho  liell, 
-  the  point  under  which  it  j^rows  wider  to  tho  brl.n  ; 
loutbly,  the  waist  or  furniture,  and  the  part  that 
grows  wider  and  thicker  iiuito  to  tlio  brim  ;  fifthly,  tho 
upper  vase,  or  that  part  wliich  is  above  tlie  waist ; 
sixthly,  the  pallet,  which  supports  tlio  staple  of  the 
clapper  witliin  ;  and,  seventhly,  the  lient  and  hol- 
lowed branches  of  inet^il  uniting  with  the  cannons,  to 
receive  the  iron  keys,  bj-  which  the  bell  is  hung  up  to 
the  lieam,  and  which  forms  its  support  and  counter- 
poise when  rung  out. 

Fountain-tree,  or  Til-tree,  i»  very  extraordi- 
nary tree  said  to  have  existec'.  formerly  In  tlio  island  of 
Ilierro,  one  of  the  Canaries,  and  to  have  distilled  v:.- 
ter  from  its  leaves  in  siicli  abuidance  n...  to  satisf .  tho 
reiiuireiiientfl  of  those  wlio  lived  near  it.  Whctiier 
such  u  tree  ever  existed  is  questionable  ;  yet  vaiiiius 
writers  have  mentioned  tho  fountain-tree  of  lliern  in 
apparently  giMid  faitli.  (ihisse,  in  liis  llnlonj  of  the 
( '<;nnry /«/i7n(/.<,  published  at  l^indon  in  1701,  alludes 
to  it  in  the  following  terms ; — "  Many  writers  have 
made  mention  of  tliis  famous  tree,  some  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  it  appeir  miraculous ;  others, 
again,  deny  the  existence  of  any  such  tree,  among 
whom  is  Father  Feyjoo,  a  modern  Spa  lisli  uutlior,  in 
ills  Ti'dlro  I'ri'liro.  Hut  he,  and  tliose  who  agree  with 
him  in  this  matter,  are  as  much  mistaken  as  tliose  wlui 
would  make  it  appear  to  lie  miraculous.  'I'liis  is  tho 
only  island  of  all  the  Canaries  whicli  I  liave  not  been 
in;  but  I  have  8»iled  with  natives  of  Ilierro,  who, 
when  questioned  about  the  existence  of  this  tree,  an- 
swered in  tlie  afllrmative." 

Frankincense,  or  OUbanum  tree  (HiwrrUia 
.wrni/ii)  is  indigenous  to  tho  mour.tains  of  central  In- 
dia, where  it  Is  known  under  the  name  of  Sal!,  ami  as 
producing  the  olibanum  <if  commerce,  or  the  gum  frank- 
incense of  the  ancients.  It  is  a  lofty  tree,  with  tho 
foliage  crowded  at  the  extremity  of  the  branche.s,  and 
is  frequent  in  the  forests  lietween  the  Sone  anil  Xang- 
piir,  from  whic'u  circumstance  it  may  be  inferred  tliat 
it  would  be  ada]ited  to  the  soil  and  climate,  in  favor- 
able locations,  in  some  of  our  southern  States. 

Olilianuin  distills  from  incifions  made  in  the  liurkof 
the  tree' during  the  summer  months,  occurring  in  tbo 
form  of  semi-transparent  masses,  or  tears,  of  a  pale- 
yellowish  or  pink  color,  solid,  hard,  and  brittle.  It 
has  a  bitterisli  acrid  taste,  and,  when  chewed,  sticks 
to  the  teeth,  and  renders  the  saliva  milky.  When 
heated,  it  bums  brilliantly,  and  diffuses  an  agreeable 
(Mlor,  in  consequence  of  wliich,  in  the  early  ages,  it 
was  much  used  as  Incense  in  tho  sacriilccs,  and,  in 
modem  times,  the  fjreek  and  Homan  Catholic  ciiurchcs 
still  retain  the  use  of  frauliincen.se,  in  some  of  their 
ceremonies.  It  is  seldom  emplojed  for  other  puposes, 
except  as  a  perfume  in  the  rooms  of  the  sick,  althoiigli 
other  gums  jiearing  that  name  are  in  more  general  use, 
and  are  by  many  regarded  as  ideiiti  il  with  It ;  for  in- 
stance, Lamarck  design. ites  the  gum  of  tho  .\iiiyris 
gileadensis  by  this  name  ;  Forskal  and  .Spreiigei,  that 
of  the  Amyris  kataf ;  while  l.innicus  erroneously  thus 
denominates  tlio  resin  of  the  .luiiiperui  lyi  la. — I'nItrU 
OJfiir  Iti/hirl,  IH.'i,'). 

Franc,  a  Krem^h  coin  of  tho  value  of  U  cents  and 
six  mills,  by  mint  fuluation. 


PRA 


701 


FBA 


I  Imrk  of 
;  in  tt'O 
la  pale- 
ItU.     It 
h,  Bticka 
When 
'rcoal)lo 
la^c!i,  it 
iinil,  in 
lluirilii's 
lot'  tlu'ir 
l|ni|n>»e», 

■nil  use, 
;  for  In- 
Anivrls 
el,  thiit 
Islv  tllllH 
-I'liInU 

tsata  aad 


Fnuio*.  tbta  important  part  of  continental  Eu- 
rope extendi  from  the  4M  to  the  Slot  degree  of  north 
lat.,  and  from  long.  8°  25'  aaat,  to  long,  4°  43'  we»t. 
The  greHteHt  length  of  Fruncu,  exi  cii'ding  Gdb  mlleH,  In 
from  east  to  west— from  AUaco  to  llrittany,  which  p^>- 
nu(8  Into  the  Atlantic  like  a  wedge,  and  v.  ithi  .it  whU h 
Krancn  would  approac'  in  form  to  a  ■,,■■!.  Its 
breadth  from  north  to  south  Ih  about  biC-  .:(  f.i  |  and 
it«  Hupertlclal  extr'nt,  aa  stated  in  the  ililati>'<  ado  la 
France,  is  62,768,018  hectares,  equal  to  '204,.>6j  square 
miles,  or  180,787, 100  Knj,  ih  acres— nearly  twice  the 
total  area  of  the  Uritish  lales. 

Though  in  point  of  extent  of  coast  and  ready  access 
from  tlie  interior  to  the  sea,  France  is  fur  inferior  to 
Ureat  liritain  and  Ireland,  she  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
morn  fv  rtunate  in  these  respects  than  the  vast  inland 
territories  of  Austria  and  Uussia.  She  has  the  ad- 
vantage over  these  countries  likewise  in  strength  of 
natural  liarrlors,  the  Pyrenees  forming  a  great  bul- 
wark on  the  south-west,  ti.e  Alps  on  the  south-euHt, 
and  the  Jura  and  the  V'osges  Mountains  on  the  euxi. 
The  Belgian  is  the  only  open  part  of  the  frontier. 

France  enjoys,  upon  tlie  wliolo,  greater  natural  ad- 
vantages than  any  other  country  in  Europe.  Her  ter- 
ritory is  above  a  half  lai  than  that  of  tireat  Hritain 
and  Ireland,  and  '  f  Iht  soil  and  climate  are  better— 
the  climate  being  equable  indeed,  but  there  being  a 
greater  amount  oi  •  m  mer  heat  to  bring  the  fruits  of  the 
earth  to  i>orfcctioii.  .She  has  a  greater  proportion  of  nra- 
l>le  land  than  any  of  her  ncightiorn  ;  the  natural  means  of 
communkatioii  throughout  lur  jiiovinccs ar3 abundant 
and  easy  ;  she  is  ivcH  provided  with  all  the  useful 
metals  except  tin ;  und  is  l>etter  supplied  with  coal 
than  any  other  country  of  Kurope,  but  liritain.  Even 
during  the  distractions  of  her  groat  Kevolution,  though 
her  foreign  trade  was  annihilated,  her  agriculture  and 
manufactures  were  extended  and  improved,  her  |M>pu- 
lation  was  increased,  and  its  condition  ameliorated. 
The  surface  of  France  contains  about  130,000,000  of 
acres.  It  U  estimated  that,  of  this  (|uantlty,  the  waste 
land,  indudin,;  roads  and  rivers,  amounts  to  an  eighth 
part;  the  aralile  land  to  near  u  half;  tlie  wood-land 
and  pasture-land  and  meadows,  each,  to  a)>out  a 
seventh ;  the  vineyards  to  a  2rith  part ;  wild-land, 
quarr'ps,  buildings,  orchariis  gardens,  olive,  and  bther 
plantations,  making  up  the  remainder,  in  addition 
to  the  vegetable  productions  that  grow  in  F^ngland,  tlie 
climate  of  France  enables  her  to  raise  vines,  olives, 
mulberries,  and  chestnuts.  Wine  and  olive  oil  are 
tivo  of  her  most  valuable  productions.  The  cotton 
trade  has  been  for  some  tin\o  rapidly  extending  over 
the  northern  and  eastern  provinces  ;  awl  Lyons  has 
been  long  famous  as  the  centre  of  the  silk  trade  of 
Europe,  a  branch  of  manufacture  that  has  lieeii  brought 
to  great  |)erfection  in  that  city.  The  manufactures  of 
woolen  cloth,  linx,  hemp,  and  iron,  are  also  very  ex- 
tensive, and  have  been  carefully  fostered  under  the 
protective  system,  which  still  prevails  here,  as  elsc- 
wlii-re  on  the  (.'(Uitlnent,  notwithstanding  the  example 
which  has  Iweii  sot  by  Ureat  liritain.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  ITtli  lenturj ,  the  terrltiiry  of  France,  then 
equal,  or  very  nearl_\  c(iual,  to  Its  present  extent,  ap- 
pears to  tiave  contalni-d  aliout  20,000,01)0  of  Inhal)- 
itants.  In  17'.)1,  it  was  fi>uu(l  to  be  above  20,000,000, 
and  in  IH.'.l  nearly  aii,0U0,001l.  The  government  al- 
ways maintains  a  large  standing  army,  amounting  on 
the  |H'Uce  establishniKiit  to  alhiut  350,000  men,  but  nct- 
milly  in  Decenilmr,  InVI,  to  .Wl.OOO.  Her  armed  licet 
on  scrvi'e  is  aliout  equal  in  number  of  ships  to  that  of 
liritain,  with  «2,(jOl)  aien. 

Sur/iin . — -The  euiface  of  France  exhibits,  in  i;en- 
oral,  un  advantageous  succession  of  lugh  aud  low 
ground.  Less  level  IImii  I'ulanil,  the  north  of  (jer- 
niany.  or  the  greater  part  of  Kuro|>ean  tiussin,  It  is, 
on  the  whole,  less  mnuntainous  than  Spain  or  Italy, 
and  may  with  great  propriety  be  compared  to  England, 
witli  thin  diittiuctiun,  that   while  in  the  latter,  the 


mountainous  tracts  are  In  the  north  and  west,  in 
France  they  are  In  the  south  and  east.  Passing  aver 
lofty  ridges  which  form  the  frontier  line  of  France  on 
the  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  .Jura,  and  the 
Vosges,  und  confining  our  attention  to  the  interior,  we 
iind  throughout  i'landers,  Picardy,  Normandy,  und  the 
countries  to  'lie  north  and  south  of  the  Loire,  a  level 
tract,  diver)  iwed  occasionally  by  bills,  either  insulated 
or  in  succesHlon,  but  by  none  of  the  massy  elevations 
entitled  to  the  name  of  mountains,  Th  .so  wo  do  not 
meet  until  reaching  tlie  south  of  Champagne  and  north 
of  Uurgundy,  near  the  sources  of  the  Mouse,  the  Mo- 
selle, the  Saonc,  and  the  Seine.  F'rom  this  bleak 
quarter  (lat.  47°  and  48°),  a  very  long  range  of  moMiit- 
ains  proceeds  Trom  north  to  south  in  a  direction  ))ar- 
allel  to  the  course,  flr^tof  the  Saone,  and  subsequently 
of  the  Kh6ni ,  until,  nn  approachUig  the  Mediterranean, 
they  hi,  1  ^!  ,,i\  ,  '  e  south-west  and  join  the  Pyre- 
nees. Their  gie,  ;st  height  is  in  Auvorgno  (about 
hit.  45°),  where  this  chain,  or  more  properly  a  lateral 
branch  of  it  attains,  ut  tho  mountains  called  Cantal 
and  I'uy-de-I)dme,  an  elevation  of  fully  G355  feet,  and 
hi'  I  its  ii'ghcst  ri'lge  covered  with  snow  during  the 
;  eater  (.art  of  the  year,  Another,  but  a  much  less 
lofty  range,  extends  from  Bordeaux  to  the  south-east, 
a  distance  of  0  miles,  nntll  it  reaches  the  Pyrenees. 
Tho  smaller  .  iiains  are  iiuincioiis  in  the  east  and 
south-east  of  the  kingdom — in  Lorraine,  tho  Nivernois, 
Dauphine,  Provence  ;  also  in  part  of  the  interior,  pur- 
ticnlurly  the  Limousin  and  (iuirnne.  They  are  Inter- 
spersed with  extensive  plains,  but,  on  the  whole,  the 
south  and  east  of  I'ranco  are  rugged  und  elevated 
tracts,  and  may  be  snid  to  be  to  that  counry  what 
Wales  and  Scotland  arc  to  Great  liritain. 

Kirfr». — The  course  of  the  great  rivers  is  easily  con-v 
nccted  with  this  view  of  the  surface  of  the  territory  of 
France.  The  Mo.  idle,  the  Meuse,  the  Marne,  tho  Aube, 
tho  Seine,  tli  '  oiine,  taking  their  rise  on  the  nurthern 
side  of  the  mouii'^iii  chain,  between  lat.  17°  and  IH", 
iiow  all  to  tho  nonli  or  north-west,  until  reaching  tho 
sea  or  quitting  ihe  territory  of  France.  From  tlie 
southern  slope  of  tho  same  range  proceed  the  .Saone, 
tho  Doiibs,  and  the  AIn.  These,  along  with  many 
smaller  streams,  are  all  received  by  the  Ithonc,  wliicli 
flows  almost  di'i-  •  luth,  with  a  full  and  rapid  current, 
until  it  reache  "' •  Meuiierrancan.  The  Loire  has 
much  the  longi ■>'  ■  mrse  of  any  river  in  France.  It 
rises  to  the  south-  ;i  '  of  lat.  45°,  tlyws  In  a  northerly 
direction  above  'iOn  m..  ■i;  turns,  near  Orlijan,'',  to  tho 
west ;  is  joined  ;■  the  Clicr,  (ndre,  and  Vieiine  from 
the  south,  and,  utter  reccivin>;  the  Sarthe  iroi.i  luv 
north,  fulls  into  the  Atlantic  below  Nantes.  The 
Ciuronne,  a  river  of  less  length  of  course,  but  of  u 
greater  volume  of  water,  descends  from  the  French 
side  of  the  Pyrenees,  llows  northward,  and  after 
receiving  from  these  inountuins  a  number  of  trUnitiirv 
streams,  of  wnlc  th :  chief  is  tho  Arricge,  turns  to  the 
westward  nearJi.ntiiubnn  (lat.  44°),  aud  falls  Into  tho 
Atlantic  after  belm;  augmented  by  the  waters  of  tho 
Tarn,  Av-.iyron,  i'  and  linally  the  Dordugne^all 
flowing  from  tho  western  face  of  tho  mountains  of 
Anvergno. 

F'nmce  has  very  few  lakes,  either  in  the  mountain- 
ous districts  of  the  south,  or  in  the  great  levels  of  the 
noi;th  and  west,  it  "ontulns,  however  a  number  of 
maritime  Inlets,  for  ...g  Inland  bays,  und  communi- 
cating with  the  sea  only  by  a  channel  of  gre:iter  or 
less  width.  These  occur  partly  in  the  south-west  coa^t. 
In  (iascony ;  •  liut  more  In  the  south  and  soutlwast, 
in  Langueiloc  und  Provence.  Tleir  want  of  dcptli  pre- 
vents them  from  serving  as  roadi  teads  for  shipping,  and 
they  are  usjiful  chiitiy  for  lishi  ig,  or  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  bay-Kslt. 

J-'urmU. — France  has  much  lass  of  artiilciul  or  oma- 
mcnt.j'.  p!nji  -i  •  than  England,  and  much  more  of 
natural  40  •  '  .0  total  extent  of  ground  covered  by 
wood  '<«.i       ,    -••♦ed  ut  17,000,000  of  acres,  or  one 


i'li 


VBA 


702 


FRA 


•li'J'«tl  of  tha  territorial  aurfsce  of  the  "  .     For- 

Mi  »n  found  in  almntt  every  dopa  't''  .  Tx)wer 
Nomunily  contalnit  MvernI  of  rnnniilTaliln  extniit, 
Thcni  U  ■  \»lg»  one  ai  K'  .u.iirtili'iiii  nly  4A  miles 
from  Ptrla  ;  anJ  ■  \aTr-.  une  to  tlienorti,  <if  the  Ix>lre, 
In  tlio  vicinity  of  Orleans.  I'hono  iiltnated  In  tlie 
nelghliorhooil  of  the  nea,  or  of  naviitnlile  river.*,  or  of 
jrent  workn,  such  as  glass-hounes  and  Iron-fuMiideries, 
nave  l()n){  heen  sulijected  to  an  improvident  consump- 
tion, which  is  likely  tu  be  incrauaed  l>y  the  still  lienvy 
though  reduceil  duties  im|M)sed  on  forel^^n  coal,  nml  liy 
(he  undue  encouragements  given  to  the  smelting  of 
iron  Iiy  the  heavy  duties  which  were.  In  IHH  nnd  In 
1122,  laid  on  the  importation  of  foreign  iron  ;  no  that 
at  present  the  principal  forestn  are  at  A  dlntnnce  Inland, 
particularly  In  the  east.  In  the  department  of  Ar- 
dennes, and  in  the  long  moimtainons  tract  that  forms 
the  lioundary  of  France  on  the  side  of  Switzerland, 

Cfimalr. — In  a  country  of  so  great  extent,  and  of 
inch  diversifled  surface  as  France,  It  is  difllcult  to  con- 
denso  a  description  of  the  climate  under  a  few  com- 
prehensive heads.     The  most  natural  division  is  Into 
the  north,  south,  and  centrol  regions.     The  north, 
comprehending  Flanders,  I'icardy,  Nomwitidy,  Brit- 
tany, and  In  general  nil  that  part  of  France  which 
Would  Iw  liouniled  on  the  south  liy  a  diagonal  line  from 
Int.  47"  on  the  west  to  Ittt.  4!)"  on  the  east  fW)n»ier, 
liears  a  great  resemldance,  lioth  in  temperature  and 
priKliicc,  to  the  siiutli  of  England,  rain  occurring  tre- 
(jMciitly,  and  the  country  being  consequently  (it  for 
pasture.     There,  as  with  us,  the  predominant  culture 
is  wheat,  hurley,  oats,  rye, 'and  such  fruit  as  apples, 
|)enrs,  cherries  ;  alto,  hemp,  flax,  nml  riipeseed.     It  Is 
hern  only  in  France,  that  the  natural  pastures  are 
rich  und  extensive ;  here,  also,  the  species  of  wood, 
oiik.  ash,  dm,  l>t(ir  a  close  resemldance  to  ours.     The 
central  region  may  he  said  to  c  u-i  .chend  the  country 
to  the  south  of  the  I.oIro,  or  r  ■.i,i>r.  ,  f  ;he  diagonal  line 
wn  have  mentioned,  until  tcacli'iti:;  ■•  similar  line  in 
lat.  45°  on  the  west  an')  '■' '   ,;a  tit  cast  frontier. 
Here,  with  the  excepi'v.'    "'  Cif  tnoimtninous  parts, 
the  winter  Is  s. '■«lldy  ■'■•rtr  iw!    milder.     Wheat, 
l/arley,  oats,  and  n-e,  are  i-'.\'.'  I'rI'ivatcd,  l>ut  miiize 
liegins  to  apjK-ar,  and  vines   ; ,  .me  general.     The 
weather  in  this  great  inland  tract  is  much  more  steady 
than  In  the  north.     In  the  summer  months  there  is 
little  rnln,  and  stonns,  when  they  occur,  are  frequently 
accompanied  with  |iail ;  liut,  on  the  whole,  the  tem- 
lieniture  is  perhaps  the  most  pleasant  in  France,  l)eing 
exemjit  equally  fmm  the  oppressive  heat  of  tlio  south 
and  the  frequent  humidity  of  the  nortli.     The  third 
region,   comprehending    the    whcde    breadth    of   the 
French  territory  from  lat.  45°  and  4G'  to  lat.  -18°,  and 
In  some  parts  to  42°  ?>0',  approaches  in  climate  to  the 
heot  of  .Spain  and  Italy,  rendering  it  necessary  In 
the  summer  to  suspend  all  active  exertion  during  the 
middle  of  the  day,  and  to  reserve  it  for  the  morning 
and  evening.     A  shaded  «ituati<m  Is  hero  the  ilindera- 
liim  for  a  dwelling,  and  a  supply  of  water  for  agricul- 
ture.    In  this  region  the  heat  invarialdy  produces  an 
exul)erant  crop  where  an  lrrig,ition  can  l)e  supplied  ; 
hence  the   frcfjuency  of  wells,  which  are  generally 
worked  l>y  a  wheel  and  some  rude  machinerj-.    Wheat 
Is  partially  cultivated  ;  barley,  oats,  and  rj-e,  only   in 
the  high  grounds  ;  maize  is  very  general,  and  vines 
supply  not  only  the  main  article  of  export,  but  the 
n*ual  drink  of  the  inhaliitants.     The  common  fruits 
are  olives  and  mulberries,  ami,  in  u  few  very  warm 
situations,  oranges  and  lemons.     Pasturage   is   goml 
only  on  mountainous  or  irrigated  tracts.    To  pulmonic 
Invalids  the  climate  may  l>o  advantageous,  but  in  this 
respect,  also,  material  distinctions  occur  from  locality, 
the  winter  in  the  south-east  of  Fnincc  being  ut  inter- 
vals very  cold,  from  the  rfnt  <le  biaf,  a  piercing  wind 
that  blows  from  the  Alps  and  the  mountains  of  Au- 
verguo.     Here,  notwithstanding  the  latltiplc,  the  cold 
•f  winter  is  intense.     Brittany,  projecting  Into  the 


Atlantic,  Is  u  rainy  m  Ireland  or  romwall,    Kon 
mandy,  with  part  of  P'cardy  and  French  FUnden, 
may  be  compared  to  our  inland  counties.      In  tha  In- 
terior of  Franco  the  rains  ire  less  tn(\^'  '      but  far 
more  heavy  ;  so  that  there  is  much  laai    nf:   '«  iice  In 
the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  rob  >'    >l    '.o  ytia 
than  in  the  number  of  rainy  days.    The  atmosphere  of 
France  is  much  less  cloudy  than  that  of  Britain.     The 
most  frequent  wind  in  the  north  of  France,  as  in 
Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland,  Is  the  south-west;  it  pro- 
vnils,  also,  but  to  a  less  degree.  In  tha  central  part  of 
tliii  kingdom.     In  the  south  of  France  tlie  more  com* 
mon  winds  are  fmm  the  north.     The  dilferonce  of 
temperature  lietween  London  ami  Paris  Is  not  consid- 
erable, nor  Is  the  degree  of  heiit  found  to  be  intense 
along  the  west  coast  of  France,  until   reaching  or 
rather  passing  Poitou.     In  the  interior  it  is  much 
more  )ierceptible,  being  strongly  felt  at  Lyons,  Borw 
deaux,  Toulouse,  and  still  more  in  the  latitude  of 
Nlmes,  Alx,  Marseilles,  and  Toulon.     Un  tlie  whole, 
the  variations  of  climate  lietween  the  north  and  '    uth 
of  France  are  conslderaldy  greater  than  between  the 
north  and  south  of  Britain,  where  the  elfect  of  dilTer- 
ence  of  latitude  is  so  much  moditle<l  liy  the  viiinity  of 
the  sea,  and  where  no  such  variation  is  known  as  the 
very  material  one  indicated  by  the  diagonal  line  from 
east  to  west,  the  latter  being  two  degrees  colder  in 
consequence  of  the  breezes ^nd  vap<irs  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  harvest  liegins  in  tlin  north  of  France  lietween 
the  20th  and  25th  ,luly,  in  tlie  central  port  aliout  the 
middle  of  that  month,  in  the  south  about  the  end  of 
.lune.     September  and  Octolier  are  the  moiiths  of 
vintage.     The  great  hazard  to  tiie  corn  of  the  central 
part  of  the  kingdom  arises  from  violent  stonns  of  rain 
and  hall ;  in  the  south,  from  the  want  of  rain  in  tha 
spring.     In  the  winter,  the  rmt  ile  hit*  often  proves 
destrii  tivo  to  the  olives.     The  great  heats  are  in 
tluly,  August,  and  September  ;  a  time  of  much  annoy- 
ance in  tlie  south  of  France,  from  musquitovs,  gnats, 
tiles,   and  other  insects ;    while  even  sciirpiiins  are 
found  in  that  warm  latitude. 

Soil. — To  exhiliit  a  classilication  of  tlie  ilifferent 
kinds  of  soil  Is  a  tusk  of  diflieuity  in  any  extensive 
country,  and  in  none  more  s<i  than  in  France,  where  a 
striking  difference  prevails,  not  only  in  coiitigiioiis  de- 
partments, liiit  in  adjacent  districts  of  the  same  depart- 
ment. In  Flanders,  I'icardy,  Artois,  Normandi .  and 
the  Pays  de  lleauce,  a  fertllo  tract  to  the  soutli  of 
Paris,  the  soil  consists  frequently  of  a  loamy  mold  | 
in  the  central  and  s<iuthem  parts  of  tlie  kingijom  it  ia 
often  lighter ;  while  the  greater  part  of  Ilrittany,  and 
of  the  departments  alon|(  tlie  western  coast,  have  s 
iieathy  soil,  naturaii}-  unproiiuctivc,  but  cupalilo  of 
considerable  improvement.  But  these  collective  esti- 
mates are  liable  to  great  deductions  {  and  the  iittempts 
ni-ide  by  Arthur  Young,  und  other  statistical  writers, 
til  culculate  the  proportion  of  tlio  ditfcrent  descriptiona 
of  soil,  whether  loam,  heath,  chalk,  gravel,  or  the 
like,  are  considered  by  the  French  as  far  from  suct^ess- 
ful ;  even  the  more  systematic  etlbrt  made  by  their 
own  government,  in  the  beginning  of  this  centur;',  t» 
compute  the  value  of  land  by  mattea  de  ciilliirf,  tha. 
is,  by  classing  all  kindred  soils  under  one  head,  )irovea 
altogether  aliortive.  We  sliull  forliear,  therefiire,  all 
such  vague  calculations,  and  proceed  to  state  the 
value  of  annual  produce  in  the  dilferent  departments, 
endeavoring  to  cast  the  latter  in  lots,  according  to 
their  |iO!<ition  and  relative  proiluctiveness. 

Iliirbom,  Rifrrs.  I'lnuilt,  Jivadt,  Jiri<l</fa. — In  thig 
imp<irtant  (loint  France  is  consideruldy  inferior 
to  Kngland,  her  long  tract  of  coast  washeil  liy  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Hay  of  Byicuy  lioing  Indilferently 
provided  with  sea-ports,  and  those  on  tlie  southern 
shore  of  the  (channel  forming  a  striking  contrast  to  tha 
spacious  maritln.:.  inlets  on  tlie  Knglish  side.  To  begin 
from  the  north-east,  Dunkirk  has  a  small  liartior,  but 
improved  in  the  interior  of  the  town,  approached  on 


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*  Th 


FRA 


109 


PRA 


thA  Dnteh  plan  by  a  ransl  leading  ttnm  tha  km. 
Boulogne  hnn  it  riiailitteiKl — whli'h,  however,  liim  lieen 
much  deepened  and  im|iriivril — Indelited  for  Itii  ocIcIh 
rlty  under  Hnnnpurte  to  the  fiiclllly  of  Klvln^  protec- 
tlnn,  liy  lund  hutteriii*  near  it*  entriinru,  to  a  numeruiifi 
M«emlilKK«  of  '<iiiull  craft.  The  port  uf  Dieppe  U  ox- 
poned,  and  of  roume  un«ultahln  for  winter t  that  of 
St.  Malo  In  l)etter;  while  (MierlMiurH,  on  which  ini- 
menao  iMtn-"  have  l>een  expended,  U  now  n  port  und 
araenal  of  rent  oHllty  and  im|K)rtnnco  to  the  linperlal 
nav}'.  Un  douldln«  the  projecting  part  of  Itrittiiny, 
we  And,  In  the  acuth-wcnt  of  that  province,  I.'Orlciit 
Brittany  iilan  imaaeaneii  llreat,  the  great  maritime  imm  ? 
of  the  Atlantic  for  the  novy.  Proceeding  further  to 
the  aouth,  we  find  Um-hefort,  at  I.a  Kochdle,  a  small 
but  aecure  harlior,  and  ot  Dordeaux  a  river  nearly 
equal  In  width  to  thn  Thamea  at  London.  From  thla 
there  la  no  aea-port  until  we  reach  llaynnnc,  a  place  of 
no  eaay  occeaa.  l)n  the  tledlterrancnn,  Kriinco  baa 
the  (lorta  of  Otto  ond  Maracillea,  the  latter  apiidoua 
anil  aecure,  and  the  great  inarltlmo  port,  aracnui,  and 
dockyard  of  Toulon,  which,  with  Chcrliourg.  lln'ht, 
l.'Orlent,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon,  ore  culled,  in  ordi- 
nary iinrlance,  ptirln  mililairr». 

Xante.'*,  though  a  large  commercial  town,  adjoina  a 
shallow  part  of  llio  Loire,  and  vcKaela  of  Inirden  are 
obliged  to  loud  and  unlonil  at  PuinilKiiiif.  The  great 
dockyards  and  naval  atutlnna  of  the  kingdom  are  at 
Breat  uid  Toulon,  both  excellent  hftrlM)r»,  nnd  at 
Itochefort,  which  la  aituated  on  the  Uivcr  (Minrente, 
near  ita  nioinb.  In  all  tiieao  the  occomniiMlution  for 
■hipping  ia  the  gift  of  nature  ;  hut  lit  CiierlMiurg  the 
caae  la  very  different,  that  port  containing  works,  of 
which  the  lalmr  und  expenae  (aee  tlio  article  1lun.\K- 
WATKii,  Etuyflo.  Ilrit.)  have  been  verj'  greiit.  Ita 
roiid'.teud,  extenaivo  but  open,  haa  u  aca-wall,  nlford- 
Ing  protection  from  the  awcU  of  the  acu ;  und  ita  apa- 
clous  dock,  excuvotcd  ainco  tho  beginning  of  thia 
centurj',  ut  mi  expense  of  £3,0(10,000  atorling,  la  capa- 
bio  of  containing  fifty  sail  of  the  line.  I,o  Havre  ile 
(irace,  tho  licst  mercantile  hiirt>or  in  the  nortli  of 
France,  baa  alao  been  formed  at  a  largo  expenae. 

Inland  jVdrlgalion. — Tlio  aquarc  form  of  France, 
favorable  as  it  ia  for  military  defenac,  siilijecta  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  to  tho  want  of  tlioae  ready 
and  ec''u(imical  means  of  tranaport  liy  aea  which  form 
tho  great  phyaiiul  advantage  of  (ireut  Itrituin  ami 
Irelum).  Unluckil)-,  thia  wunt  ia  very  imperfcitiy 
aupplied  by  the  inland  waters,  canala  being  very  little 
extended,  ond  tho  navigation  of  tlie  great  rivi-ra  aub- 
jcct  to  many  obstructions ;  occurring  in  one  part  from 
rapidity,  in  another  from  abullownesa ;  at  ono  aeaaon 
from  ilrought,  ot  another  from  overflow.  The  appll- 
catiim  of  steam  to  navigotion  has  com'cted  In  part 
thia  most  inconvenient  tanlinesa ;  Imt  tiie  ai'c'ommmla- 
tlon  which  ia  afforded  by  tho  Loire  in  the  interior,  the 
Rhone  in  tho  south,  the  Seine  in  the  nortli,  and  tlio 
Gafonne,  with  ita  Canal  du  Languedor^  in  tho  south- 
west, is  hut  a  email  portion  of  what  la  furnished  iiy 
our  numerous  intersections  in  Knglund,  or  of  wiiut  ia 
wanted  for  .ao  extensive  n  territory  as  that  of  France. 
The  Canal  of  Langucdoc,  or  tlio  ('mini  ilti  Midi,  m  it 
la  now  generally  called,  liegun  in  tlie  'eign  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  completed  in  the  year  ICfiH,  was  tho  first 
example  in  lOurope  of  inland  navigation  on  a  great 
scale.  It  is  the  moat  atupendoua  undertaking  of  the 
sort  that  has  been  executed  in  France.  Its  general 
breadth  is  sixty  feet,  ita  depth  six  and  a  half  feet.  It 
has  114  locka  and  sluices,  and  in  ita  highest  part  it  ia 
(iOO  feet  uliovo  the  level  of  the  aea.  Aa  a  acieiitilic 
work,  it  did  honor  to  an  age  as  yet  little  advanced  in 
engineering;  liut  in  a  p?'"'iniary  point  of  view  it  was 
unproductive,  tho  tolls  never  having  paid  the  interest 
of  the  very  largo  sum  (upward  of  i."l,'200,000  sterling") 
expended  upon  it.*     The  canal  begins  at  Toulouse  on 


*  Tha  coat  of  the  oaiud  wu  17,000,000  franca,  reprcscnling, 


the  Oaronni,  remounts  the  valley  of  tha  IJian,  tr*- 

veraea  lli>t  chain  of  tlie  Monta  (!orbiirea,  whli  h  Jolni 
the  (,'evennei  to  the  I'yrenuei,  deacendi  the  vullx)  of 
the  Aude  at  Curcaaonne,  which  It  leave*  at  (jineatua 
to  poas  by  Ilizlera,  where  it  travcraea  the  Ulved'Orl). 
Fasaing  through  lli'rault  above  and  near  Agdat,  it 
enila  at  I'litang  ile  Thau,  at  tho  place  called  le  I'ort 
ilea  Ongloua.  Tha  navigation  ia  however  eoutlniicd 
to  the  port  of  t'etta  by  the  canal  of  Cette,  and  tliu* 
tlie  Atlantic  uiwl  Mediterranean  are  united. 

The  canal  <>t'  ItrUre  U  of  larlier  date,  and  of  much 
loa  extent.  tlie  ulijcct  hero  was  i  i  open  e  naviga- 
tion from  tl'r  iiit,  on  the  aoiitli  to  tlie  Heine  on  thn 
north,  l>\  <-<inning  olnioat  due  north,  a  ilistanca 

of  forty  '  'len  lacelvei  from  tiie  «<  .i   the 

canal  of  un  i-iioed  In  1(175,  and  pnxeeding 

alao  from  th'  -er  which  tho  canal  is  inntiii- 

ued  to  il"   '  KM  ihg  name  of  (.'anal  de  I'Dlng, 

till  it  .  Seine.     This  canal  wM  l>egun  in 

Kio.^.  in     !.•  1  "  nrl  IV.,  and  wua  completed  in 

KM'i!,  UU'    r  I  1'here  are,  beaidea  tlila  great 

work,  acM-riil  >riunt  and  extensive  canuia  in 

Franco.  Thi-  ..iiai  mi  Centre  unitoi  tlio  Haono  and 
the  Loire  in  tlie  upper  part  of  the  courao  of  the  latter. 
It  ia  72  Kngliah  miles  in  lengtli,  and  was  completed 
in  17U1,  at  an  expense  of  Xiriil.Odfl.  Ita  aummit  level 
is  almut  '.MO  feet  uliove  tlie  level  of  the  Loire  at 
IXgoin.  It  hiia  HI  locks,  .'i^  feet  of  water,  IM  of 
breadth  at  tlie  water'a  eilge,  und  ilU  feet  at  tlie  bottom. 
Tho  Cnnal  of  St.  ({uentin,  ix  Fngllsh  miles  in  length, 
wua  completed  in  INK),  Imt  tiie  navigation  wua  far 
from  perfect.  In  ]N'J(I  the  neceaaar^-  expeiisea  to 
render  tlio  canal  perfect  wore  eatiiiiutid  ut  4,110(1,000 
francs.  A  concesaifin  of  the  cunal  wua  made  to  a  Sieur 
Hono^!7,  in  IN27,  for  u  period  of  t«onty  years.  On 
tha  11th  of  .luly,  1817,  tho  atate  entered  into  full  and 
entire  posaeasion  of  tho  lino  wliich  It  had  conceded. 
It  joina  the  .Scheldt  and  the  Soniine.  The  Canal  of 
Desancon  ia  extensive.  It  joina  tho  Saone,  and  con- 
sequently the  Khono,  to  the  Khine.  From  tlie  .Saone 
it  atrctcliea  a  little  aliove  .St.  .lean  de  Loanc,  liy  iJi'ilo, 
Ileaaiicon,  and  Miilhauaen,  to  Strasbourg,  a  diatanco 
of  2('0  niilea,  where  it  joins  tlie  Ilhine.  'I  he  lanai  of 
Hurgiindy  joins  tho  Rhone  to  tho  .Soino.  Tiiia  canal 
waa  opened  along  ita  wliole  lino  in  HiTcinlier,  iMliJ,  liy 
way  of  trial,  and  in  tho  past  year,  IKVl,  it  wua  com- 
pletely 0|)ened.  Tho  canul  of  the  ()iirc(|  wua  dug, 
not  for  a  commercial  purpose,  but  to  convoy  tho  wafer 
of  that  little  rivorto  I'uris  forthe  conauniption  of  tlie  in- 
liubitonta.  At  a  village  called  La  Villette,  on  tlio  north 
aide  of  I'nria,  there  waa  some  years  ago  excavated,  nt 
tho  coat  of  i  million  aterling,  n  basin,  approaching  in 
size  to  our  London  docks,  and  adapted,  wlien  tho 
necessary  cnnala  ahoil  lie  completed,  for  tho  degiosit  of 
mercliandlst'  limught  from  Havre  and  Rouen  cm  tha 
ono  side,  an  1  Flanders  and  t'hanipagne  on  the  other. 
In  tlio  aoutli  of  France  there  is  a  abort  canal  jiroiteeil- 
ing  from  tho  Rhone,  neiir  Tarnacon,  in  a  aouth-Hest 
direction,  to  tho  Meiliterruneun,  called,  from  ita  vicin- 
ity to  a  well-known  unniinl  fuir,  Canal  iln  Beauinire. 
Thia  canal  traveraea  a  greut  extent  of  marsh,  wtiich  it 
hua  had  tho  olVcct  of  draining.  This  water-way  was 
o|iened  to  supply  tlie  imperfect  navigation  of  tlie  leaser 
Rhrmc,  nnd  of  the  two  canals  by  wliicb  tho  communi- 
cation from  tlio  Garonne  to  the  Rhone  was  forniorly 
carried  on,  Theae  are  among  the  chief  canala  of 
Franco.  In  tho  year  IHiM!  there  were  soventy-four 
canala,  having  a  total  len(;th  of  3,G09,Ul;i  metres, 
nearly  equal  to  iiHO  Knglish  miles.  Hut  since  then 
largo  auma  have  been  allocated  by  the  state  for  canal- 
ization. In  the  fifteen  years  between  tlic  12tli  t'uly, 
WWl,  nnd  the  2Hth  March,  ]8,V2,  M.  Ernest  Grangez, 
cliiof-de-liureau  ut  the  ministry  of  commerce  and  pub- 


uccording  to  M.  Krncst  OrnnKcz  (see  Precis  HMoriqae  ft 
Statisfpie  des  roi>a  navigables^  p.  404),  according  to  the  prca* 
ent  value  of  money,  a  sum  of  80,000,000  IVanea. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


|25 


US 


Ml    12.0 


IIJ5  i  1.4 


6' 


1.6 


;--iS;r 


Photographic 

Sdaices 

Corporation 


33  WtST  MAIN  STRUT 

WMSTM.N.Y.  14580 

(716)S72-4S03 


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% 


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FBA 


704 


ERA. 


Mo  iroikt,  telb  a»  that,  for  this  pnrposa,  eztraoidlnujr 
endiu  hara  bean  taken  for  241,986,861  tnnet.  Of 
thta  ram  S27,69(,600  flranes  had  been  expanded  on  Slat 
Decambar,  1868.  In  1864,  a  credit  of  8,000,000  flranes 
had  bean  granted. 

The  eanallaatlon  of  the  Ua^renne  from  Laval  to 
Mayenga,  of  the  Vire  fh>m  the  Pont  de  Gourfaleur  to 
Tin,  of  Rhaims  to  the  Hama,  of  Bouc  to  Martiguea, 
irom  Caen  to  the  sea,  tiom  the  Charanta  to  Marennes, 
from  La  BoohaUe  to  Marans,  and  from  Saint  Th6banlt 
to  the  Utaral  canal  of  the  Loire,  is  in  course  of  execu- 
tion. But  it  is  proliable  tliat  this  improved  mode  of 
oommnnication  may  be  superseded  by  the  still  greater 
improvement  of  the  railroad,  which  bad  to  a  consider- 
able degree  engrossed  the  public  attention  in  France. 
There  are,  however,  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  these 
Improvements,  arising  partly  fh>m  tiie  mode  of  man' 
agement  adopted,  and  partly  also  from  the  high  price 
of  the  materials  required.  All  great  worics  for  the 
iMnefit  of  the  community  at  large,  such  as  canals, 
railroads,  doclu,  and  the  Uke,  are  carried  on  at  the  ex- 
pense, for  the  benefit,  and  under  the  contivl  of  the 
government.  Plans  and  estimates  must  be  made  out 
and  laid  Iwfore  the  minister  of  the  interior,  who  refers 
them  to  other  public  functionaries,  namely,  the  prefect 
uf  the  department,  and  afterward  to  the  bureau  det 
ponU  tt  del  chauiiia ;  and  when  all  these  persons  are 
satiafled,  a  public  officer  is  then  appointed  to  superin- 
tend the  work.  The  tedious  officiiU  routine,  through 
which  all  public  undertakings  have  to  pass,  tends  to 
discourage  individual  enterprise,  and  accounts  perhaps 
for  the  comparatively  few  worlu  of  this  description 
which  have  been  undertaken  in  France.  The  liigh 
price  of  iron,  in  consequence  of  the  tax  on  foreign 
iron,  has  likewise  operated  as  a  great  discouragement 
to  the  construction  of  railroads  in  France ;  and  thus  we 
have  an  additional  illustration  of  the  ruinous  effects 
of  this  tax  in  obstructing  the  domestic  improvements 
of  the  country. 

Jioadi. — ^The  great  roads  in  France  are  managed, 
not,  as  with  us,  by  county  commissionera,  but  by  gov- 
ernment bureaux,  or  boards,  the  chief  of  which  are  at 
Paris.  These  boards  are  all  un^Ier  the  direction  of  the 
minister  of  public  worlu.  The  extent  of  road  under 
their  direction  is  almut  80,000  miles ;  and  the  annual 
expenditure  from  £1,800,000  to  £1,600,000,  the  whole 
of  which  is  defrayed  without  one  toll  or  turnpike.  An 
attempt  was  made  under  Bonaparte  to  levy  tolls ;  but 
this  excited  so  much  clamor  in  a  country  where  com- 
mercial intercourse  is  carried  on  almost  wholly  b}- 
land-carriage,  thav  it  was  found  indispensable  to  seek 
the  necessary  funds  ft'om  another  source — a  tax  on 
salt.  The  great  roads  in  France  are  in  general  in  tol- 
erable condition ;  but  no  epithet  can  convey  an  idea 
of  the  wretched  state  of  the  cross  roads  in  almost  every 
department ;  full  of  hollows,  encumbered  with  stones, 
or  inundated  with  water,  they  receive  hardly  any  re- 
pair, but  are  abandoned,  year  after  year,  to  the  effects 
of  the  weather.  Notwithstanding  the  little  done  by 
government  to  favor  locomotion,  the  traffic  on  roads 
increased  tenfold  in  the  thirty  years  between  1811 
and  1841. 

The  great  roads  in  France  are  much  wider  than  in 
England,  exhibiting  frequently  a  long  straiKbt  avenue 
lined  on  each  side  with  chestnut  or  other  large  trees. 
Roads  in  France  are  classed  under  three  categories — 
imperial  roads  14  metres  in  breadth,  departmental  roads 
alwnt  11  metres  broad,  and  the  chemiiu  tHcinaux. 
They  are  often  paved  like  a  street  for  many  miles  in 
succession ;  the  art  of  road-making  being  as  yet  too 
little  understood  to  prevent  material  injury  from  the 
heavy  wagons  and  ill-constructed  wheels,  without  re- 
■ofting  to  this  unpieaaant  alternative.  Traveling  is 
thus  much  less  agreeable  than  in  England,  particularly 
aa  the  villages  want  neatness  and  cheerfulness,  while 
most  of  the  towns  along  the  road  are  disfigorod  by 
narrow  crooked  atnata,  in  whioh  new  stone  buUdiuga 


are  often  mixed  with  antiquated  wooden  stmctiirw, 
such  aa  have  diaappearad  from  our  provincial  town* 
for  nearly  a  century  past.  The  mails  are  now  con- 
veyed as  with  us  by  the  railroad,  but  where  tliere  is  no 
raU,  in  a  kind  of  chariot  called  a  tnaUt-potte.  Tha 
diligences,  though  somewhat  improved  in  structure, 
are  stiU  clumsy  and  lumlieting. 

Xailroad: — tluiing  the  twenty  years  between  1828 
and  the  24th  February,  1848,  the  railroad  conceded  to 
private  companies  in  France  amounted  to  2287  milea. 
The  revolution  of  February  put  a  sudden  stop  to  all 
enterprises  of  this  kind.  There  was  not  a  single  con- 
cession made  in  184f,  1849,  or  1860.  Indeed,  soma 
companies,  unable  to  carry  on  the  irort^  confided  to 
them,  were  either  sequestrated  or  taken  possess!  n  of 
by  the  stat  -.  The  concession  of  the  Una  ficom  Paris  to 
Rheims  in-  made  on  the  16th  July,  1861,  of  the  line 
round  Paris  on  the  11th  Decemlier,  1861,  of  the  line 
from  Paris  to  Lyons,  6th  January,  1862,  of  the  line 
from  Lyons  to  Avignon,  8d  January,  1862.  These  and 
other  concessions  in  1862  added  205O  miles  to  the  ex- 
tent of  rail.  In  1863  the  progress  continued,  and 
concessions  to  the  extent  of  1326  miles  were  granted. 
The  year  1854  has  l>een  consecrated  to  the  execution 
of  the  works,  and  more  than  372  miles  have  been 
opened  between  the  Ist  January  and  the  Slst  Decem- 
ber, 1864.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  February  rev- 
olution, the  concessions  for  r&ilways  amounted  to 
2237  miles ;  in  1854  they  amounted  to  more  than  6214 
miles.  At  the  end  of  1866,  3728  miles  additional  were 
opened  to  the  public;  The  length  of  lines  conceded, 
and  executed  have  thus  increased  threefold  in  the 
space  of  a  few  years.  About  £80,000,000  havo  been 
expanded  on  these  enterprises.  The  credit  required 
in  the  budget  of  1856  for  railways  is  equal  to  that  of 
1855— namely,  55.435,999  francs.  At  present  (1865) 
the  branch  roil  from  Strasbourg  to  Rheims,  from  Bee 
d'Allier  to  Clermont,  with  a  branch  to  Kevers,  from 
St.  Germain  des  Fosses  to  Roanne,  from  Mens  to 
Laval,  from  Marseilles  to  Toulon,  from  Caen  to  Cher^ 
bourg,  from  Bordeaux  to  Bsyonne,  and  from  Narbonne 
to  Perpignan,  are  in  course  of  construction.  Some  of 
these  lines  are  to  be  opened  this  year,  some  in  1867, 
and  some  in  1858. 


BAILWAT  RiTDBIia. 

1858.  .Talao  received,  83,634,886  tr. 
18S4..  "  40,146,682 


Ew.  HIlM. 
LengtV2,4T8 
»       1,664 


Bridge!. — The  French  have  few  cast-iron  bridges, 
all  their  great  structures  of  this  description  Iwing  ot 
stone.  Of  these,  the  chief  are  the  bridges  over  the 
Loire  at  OrUaps,  Tours,  and  Xantes ;  those  on  a 
smaller  scale  over  the  Seine  at  Paris ;  and  those  over 
the  Saune  and  Rhone  at  Lyons.  The  Font  du  St  Es- 
prit above  Orange,  over  the  Rhone,  is  a  long  structure 
of  16  arches.  At  no  great  distance  from  it  is  the  Pont 
du  Gard,  one  of  the  most  entire,  stupendous,  and  beau- 
tiful monumente  of  Roman  architecture,  composed  of 
a  triple  tier  of  arches,  erected  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
ducting an  aqueduct  over  the  river  Garden.  This 
magnificent  structure  is  167  feet  in  height,  530  feet  in 
length  at  the  bottom,  and  872  at  the  top.  Of  the 
lately-erected  bridges  in  France,  the  most  remarkable 
are  tl  m  over  the  l^ine  at  Neuilly  near  Paris,  and 
over  the  Oise  at  St.  i>Zaixent,  with  two  of  larger  di- 
mensions, viz.,  one  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux,  the 
other  over  the  Seine  at  Rouen.  Bridges,  as  well  as 
roads,  and  all  other  means  of  intercommunication 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  minister  of  public 
works ;  a  special  school  for  the  formation  of  engineers 
of  bridges  and  roads  is  established  at  Paris.  The  ter- 
ritor}'  of  France  is  divided  into  16  inspectorsliips  of 
ponU  tt  chauuiet.  The  telegraphic  commimications 
are  principally  made  l)y  means  of  the  electric  tol». 
graph,  of  which  the  government  reserves  to  itself  a 
monopoly,  but  private  persona  »(•  allowed  to  avaU 
themselves  of  it.       -.fnv^^itfigi  ■,s«fl«»*«lW^M•!*•nar-'i 


1 
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o 

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a 


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in 
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m 


ma 


io» 


FRA 


Jpriniftim.— Hm  tgrienltaw  of  Vvmm  It  Ik  • 
fvry  dilTerant  iUt«  fttnn  that  at  KagUad  or  Soot* 
Uod,  being  nuriud  by  i  dagtrM  of  bMkwwdiMM  Mt 
•  little  taiprtoiag  la  »  conntty  m  for  •dvanood  in 
many  dcputmenta  of  ut  and  wlaaoe.  Tha  oaum  of 
this,  however,  an  not  of  diiBonlt  aspk4atioB.  Fnmoa 
eqjoyed  for  scarcely  more  than  8S  ;rear«,  i. «.,  firon 
1814  to  1848,  the  advantage  of  a  lepreeantatlT*  bodjr  | 
and  the  condition  of  the  peaaantry  wat  long  ikr  Mli> 
rior  to  that  of  the  same  olaaa  in  England.  STo  eedaal- 
aatlcal  reformation  had  talun  plaoa  to  remova  a  Tala> 
able  part  of  the  national  tarrltoijr  out  ol  the  handl  ol 
indolent  life  oeonpanti ;  and  tha  yrmuU  ttigntmr*,  tha 
other  great  l)ody  of  landhnMara,  daroted  tbei?  tMUh 
tlon  to  Parb  and  VereaiUas,  without  beetowlBg  a 
thoDght  on  their  lands  or  their  tenantry,  except  to  •»• 
tract  from  them  the  meant  of  defhtring  their  aspanaat 
in  the  capital.  To  thif  waa  added  a  ayitem  of  lasa- 
tlon,  leu  heavy,  Indeed,  than  that  to  which  wa  U% 
rabjected  in  England,  i>at  extremely  crude  and  lin> 
politic,  a<  evlnc^  in  tiie  gabtUt,  or  tax  on  lalt  mad  to 
private  families,  and  in  the  eorr^,  or  obligation  on  tha 
peasantry  to  labor  on  the  high  roads.  To  these  ware 
joined  the  humiliating  enactments  of  the  game-lawi, 
and  the  moio  sabstantial  injury  of  tithes ;  for  tha  olar> 
ical  body  in  France  levied  this  pernicious  assessment 
as  in  England,  though  poseaasing  in  property,  lands  of 
the  computed  rent  of  Ave  millions  sterling. 

Another  gnat  drawback  on  French  a^iooltura  waa 
the  insigniflcont  size  of  the  occupancies,  whether  held 
as  farms  or  as  property.  A  French  agriculturist  on  a 
small  scale  has  little  idea  of  nelling  bis  paternal  acres, 
and  converting  the  amount  into  a  capital  for  a  fltfm. 
He  is  much  mora  lilcely  to  go  on  as  tpe'proprletor  of 
eight  or  ten  acres  of  land,  and  VM  eultivator  of  at 
many  mora.  Tbe  mode  of  paying  rent  was  aquallr 
singular;  money  rents  wera  general  only  in  tbe  nortb 
or  most  fertile  parts  of  France  ;  they  did  not,  on  tha 
whole,  exist  in  more  than  a  fifth  or  sixth  of  the  king- 
dom before  the  Revolution.  A  more  frequent  speoles 
of  tenure  was  by  a  gr^nt  made  under  the  reservation 
of  a  flue,  of  a  qultrent,  or  of  certain  servitudes,  of' 
which  the  least  burdensome  were  sending  com  to  the 
mill,  or  grapes  to  the  press,  of  the  proprietor,  But  of 
all  indications  of  poverty  and  backwardness,  the  roost 
striking  was  the  system  of  nUtmn  (rent  In  kind)  i  a 
practice  by  which  a  tenant,  having  little  capital  of  hli 
own,  receives  tmm  the  proprietor  the  live  stock  and 
Implements  necessary  for  cultivating  his  petty  tenure, 
and  divides  with  him  Its  produce.  This  wretohe<I 
method  was  and  still  is  common,  not  Indeed  in  the 
north  and  north-east  of  France,  but  In  many  of  tii4 
poorer  districts  of  the  centr-<  and  south,  There  ar;i, 
it  is  to  be  refnarked,  several  diatlnctlnns  In  this  sys- 
tem ;  the  landholder,  in  some  parts,  providing  only 
half  the  cattle  and  seed,  and  in  others  the  whole. 
Then  Is,  of  course,  a  cOTrespondlng  dllTeronoe  In  the 
apportionment  of  the  produce. 

Effects  of  the  Revolution. — La  lUmtutiim  a  Mi  fait* 
pour  le  cultlvaleur  is  a  common  saying  In  Franca,  In- 
deed, that  great  convulsion  Improved  so  much  the  sit- 
uation of  the  agriculturists,  by  canceling,  at  one  de- 
cisive blow,  the  tithes,  the  game-laws,  the  corvie,  and 
other  relics  of  feudal  servitude,  that,  after  all  the  boN 
lors  of  Jacobinism,  and  all  the  tyranny  of  Bonaparte, 
a  strong  attachment  to  the  Revolution  survives  among 
this  pacitlc  class.  Farther,  the  sale  of  the  church 
lands  transferred  a  valuable  mass  of  property  from 
Indolent  into  fictive  hands.  But  with  this  must  ter- 
minate the  eulogy  on  the  Revolution,  the  further  prog- 
ress made  by  agriculture,  having  been  caused  less  by 
any  political  change,  than  by  the  gradual  effect  of  ex- 
perience, and  the  diffusion  of  Information.  The  de- 
gree of  agricultural  improvement  In  France  since  tha 
first  Revolution  has  certainly  been  less  than  In  En- 
gland and  Scotland,  and  in  one  very  materUl  point 
that  memorable  convulsion  haa  tended  t9  retard  U  i 
Yy 


wa  BMMi  by  tha  kw  ioagaatad  by  m  Jealousy  of  tha 
■soradaney  of  tba  mMwm,  wUob  obliges  the  owner  of 
prepettjr,  whether  la  land  or  money,  to  make  an  al- 
moat  aqtial  dlviskw  of  It  among  hia  ebildrsn.  The 
fumH  of  two  obOdfan  baa  the  tnt  disposal  of  only 
ma  third  of  bli  property,  and  the  parent  of  three 
ohildrw  of  only  one  fourtb,  tha  residua  being  shared 
aqnUljr  among  all,  Tha  cUlm  of  primogeniture  is 
tfiua  a  •  manner  annulled  t  and  a  law  which  ia  appo- 
lantly  wlia  and  actable,  proves  tba  sowce  of  great 
Injarjr  to  agrtoultnra,  by  multlpl}-iag  tha  petty  plots 
of  land  throngbont  a  country  where  they  wera  pre- 
viously fttr  too  Mimaroua. 

Tba  MIowIng  table,  taken  tiom  ofBcfad  docnmenta 
publlahad  Inr  U,  VwbIM,  exhibits  in  hectares  the 
physical  and  •grlcnltural  division  of  tha  French  ter- 
ritory, wblah  BM  not  materially  changed  witUn  tbe 
last  80  yaars. 


OaltlraUalaad.,.  ICMMm 
Meadows. 4,8B4,M1 


Vlnsrai 

Woods. 

Orobards  and  gi;r< 


l,184,8n 
T,4n,814 


Wlllew  and  slm 

pltatathins,  eta. 
Fools  and  water- 

Ingplaeee aw,4»l 

Downs,   pastures, 

tndhsaths T,TW,«T1 

Navliabls  canals,        1,481 
Shrsneealtiirss.,     t«,«84 


HtetafM. 

OrooDd  oeonpted 

by  bondings. . . .  Mlfia 
Beads,  paths,  pbe- 

es,et«... 1,215,115 

Blrers,  lakes,  and 

brooks... T;....  454,8«S 
Forests  tnd  nnpro- 

dnettvedomstns  l,10t,48S 
Oemeterfes, 

ehnrebta^     and 

Bublio  establish- 

iaenta„ lT,m 


Total... ea,im,as 


rAerss,  llM,nS,4T<>.> 
8TATIIMIKT  or  TNI  Arxa  or  Fbamcb,  DtsTiHOunniiia  ap- 

VNOXIMATILY  Hn  VASIOOB   XtSIlS   OT  SOIL  OP  WUIOII 
TUN  BvnrAOM  IS  COMPOSKD. 


MouBlaiaoos  eonn- 

try. 4,M8,TS0 

Keathr    ditto,   or 

IsndM 6.IT«,188 

Hell  ofrtsh  molds..  T,«T0,M8 
8oll   of  ohalk  Of 

llmeitono f.TM.lDT 

8ollof«rav«l MIT.SRS 

Blonysoll «,«l<,848 


BsndvsoU S,tBl,8n 

Boll  of  clay S,1SS,8S5 

Marshy  and' 

swsmpy  soil. . . .  184,445 
Boll    or    various 

Unds..., 7,284,942 

Hectares,  B8,T62,<93 
(Aons,  180,TT2,47&) 

The  surprising  proportion  of  land  in  France  under 
tillage  Is  owing  to  the  smallness  of  tbe  occupancies, 
tha  cheapness  of  labor,  and  the  general  use  of  bread 
Instead  of  animal  food  by  the  humbler  orders.'  The 
last  Is  connected  with  another  remarlcable  circum- 
stance t  the  very  slender  proportion  of  land  under 
pasture,  of  which  the  main  cause  is  the  dry  climate 
of  the  Kouthem  aad  central  part  of  the  Idngdom.  In 
tho  proportion  of  poor  and  unproductive  land  France 
Hnd  England  are  nearty  on  a  par,  but  the  French  in- 
cur a  very  heavy  disadvantage  by  using  wood  Instead 
of  eoal  for  fuel,  and  covering  with  forests  many  tracts 
which  might  be  made  available  for  either  pasture  or 
tillage.  All  France  In  1840  gave  1314  hectolitres 
per  hectare.  The  total  value  of  cereals  in  1813  was 
1,780,478,(100  fr,,  or  0887  fr.  per  hectare,  or  59  fr.  per 
bead.  In  184U  (which  was  the  last  account)  it  was  cal- 
culated at  2,565,388,000,  at  18,900  ft-,  per  hectare,  or 
77  per  head,  In  1840  there  were  6,686,787  hectares  in 
wheat.  In  England  2,180,900  hectares.  The  wheat 
product  In  1840  was  8-07  for  1.  In  England  It  is  9  for 
1,  The  total  value  In  the  United  Kingdom,  978,600,. 
000  fr,  at  25  fr, ;  In  France,  1,400,000,000  ft:,  at  20  fr. 
the  hectolitre.  The  arable  land  of  France  In  1840  was 
22,340,090  hectares.  The  value  of  tbe  cereals,  fal- 
lows, and  artificial  meadows  in  France  reaches  2,361,- 
A1N,IN)7  tr.,  and  their  mean  value  106  fr.  per  hectare. 
The  vines  In  1H40 covered  1,972,840 hectares.  Thetotal 
return  of  French  cultivation  in  agriculture  reaches  i    - 

Ftmaca.  i. 

Cultivated  Rronnd,  to  the  value  of.. . . .  ^0t2,n4,^20  ;^ 

I'BStnrago,  Ota 646,794,905  .. 

Woods  and  fttrosts 288,258,828  '* 

Total •.., «,022,ie»,4li0 

In  order  to  presen|  this  subject  mora  fully,  we  add  \ 
tha  following  condensed  tabMs  of  prinury  and  second- 
uy  oropa  t^ugbout  Franco  in  tba  year  U&S : 


c 


PauuBT  Omn  n  INa  I^ 


T0« 


iRtatMi 
WbMl.. 
BmK.... 
MmIId... 
Bockirkiat 

Br*.... 

Biria/, 
Oite 


Tom. 


wMhSI*.       HTtew.' 


i,m,oM 

<,M«,18« 


asisnjBi 


4-98 
4^ 

4'n 

811 
4«T 
6'4» 
4'M 


e-116 

»-T0» 

1-4(1 
I'W 
l-fflS 
1-SM 
1.TW 


T»Ulrn*MllM. 


4S,«Be,8«-a 

l,4t4|l8M 
«.TW,44« 


£in,fS4,lM<4 


BiooxoAST  iHTBOvro  Cloi*  ni  18B>> 


Via«l>Bd... 
OvdMA.... 

Palw 

ICMigel-wnrUel 

noM «.••• 

Sn- 

Hamp 

Hamp-ieed.... 

I'UZ'aeed 

Ifadder 

TobMM 

OHVM 

CbMtanM, 

Paatare  Mtada. 
Total 


,  Acnt. 


4,87S,9M 

wi,sn 

T88,T4S 
14a,4«8 

4«8,TB1 
48ll,«8 

86>MI 

1*,«M 

S»,IIM 

l,1S^8i4 

HITT^ 

28Ul,Qt 


IM 

i-io 

M18 
•144 
1-80 

1« 

1-05 

■8T'«) 
S4-84 
M-T6 
4'08 
18-«8 


Val« 


48M8 

i-ns 

T-WVT 
18-A41 
4-T06 

T-7* 

»-T«8, 

1(HI80 
lOflS 

l'8m 
-476 

l-tM 


Toltl 


«H,M8,41S 
(.814,588 

f.» 

8»,BSS 

*,018,Tn> 

1,480,000 

>iSIM,8M 
fl68,lB0 
187,818 
87t,888 
804,188 
18,788,188 


Tine 


San  RnuBR  or  Lakb  ik  FBAmm,  ■■okokkd  bt  ibb 

SneUlB  AOBB,  AHD  OALOOLATCp  FBOM  omclAL  SVBTBTS. 

•.     4. 

n«ge(BTcra(««f  poor  tad  fertile  loib) 11  0 

Inee V7  0 

Headow  hod 87  0 

N«tBnlputan«,ehirV»<»at<>looiu. 8  8 

fToode 7  8 

Obeitnnt  pUntatloiiiL 7  8 

Oreberdi. .' IB  0 

Kitchen  garden 45  0 

Tarlooi  kfnde  of  cnltore,  tIi.,  nutertes,  hop- 

(ronnda,  olIve-Krounde,  et« 18  8 

General  aTerage  of  all  France,  per  English  acre   8  1 

We  piDcead  to  add  a  few  renuuiis  on  French  agri- 
culture, with  reference  to  articlea  less  known  or  lesa 
generaUy  raised  in  England.  Bucliwheat  is  coltivated 
extensive]}'  in  Brittany,  Normandy,  and  the  north  of 
France,  partly  as  green  food  for  cattle,  partly  for  the 
diet  of  Um  paasantrj' ;  it  is  generally  sown  in  June 
and  reaped  in  the  end  of  September.  Wheat  and 
meslin  are  principally  cultivated  in  the  north,  but  the 
produce  of  the  south,  though  less  abundant,  is  gener- 
ally preferred.  Barley  and  oats  are  also  more  common 
in  the  north.  R]re  is  raised  pretty  equaKy  in  all  parts 
of  France.  Bape-aoed  is  very  genert.i  iu  French 
Flanders  and  Kormandy ;  it  sappUes  oil  IVr  the  mar- 
kat  and  food  for  cattle,  either  when  green  or  in  caliaa. 
Colsa  (coleseed)  is  raised  for  the  Bsme  porpoees.  To- 
bacco would  be  generally  cultivated  iu  Franco,  were 
it  not  monopidized  for  the  benefit  of  the  State ;  hence 
its  oolkivation  is  confined  tn  certain  licensed  districts, 
wtiioh  are  chiefly  in  Alsace  and  Picardy.  Tho  quali^ 
of  the  article  produosd  under  tlie  royal  monopoly  is 
greatly  inferior  to  that  pmdnoed  by  private  cnltiv»> 
ton  abroad,  while  the  price  being  400  per  cent,  higher, 
tha  latter  I*  amuggled  into  France  in  great  quantities, 
notwithstanding  all  attempts  to  prevent  it.  Flax  is 
raised  very  generally,  not  merely  in  French  Flanders, 
Alsace,  and  Normandy,  but  in  the  provinces  of  the 
west  and  sonth,  where  the  family  of  almost  every 
peasant  rears  a  little  stock  annually  to  be  spun  by  his 
wife  and  daughters.  Hops  are  almost  exclusively, 
grown  in  those  parts  of  France  bordering  on  Belgium. 
Hemp  also  is  raised  in  many  parts  of  France,  particu- 
larly in  the  north.  Maize  is  a  plant  of  great  import- 
ance, whether  for  the  food  of  man  or  of  cattle ;  when 
intended  to  stand  for  harvest,  it  is  planted  in  rows  with 
vary  little  seed,  and  yiaUs  mora  ^n  twice  the  quan- 
tity of  wheat  that  Woulft  be  produced  on  tha  same 
space.    Daring  its  growth  tha  leavea  *rs  stripped  ng> 


tdariy  In  tha  ftiad  of  eattia;  aail  la  i«ma  distriota*  M 
sawn  thick  and  mown  manly  ftar  that  purpose.  Mala* 
and  arillat  an  cUafly  grown  In  tha  toatk  and  south-east.! 
Such  valnaMe  snbatitataa  hare^  aayet,  pravantad  turt. 
nipafhmi  being  generally  bttrodocadfaitaFrBBoe.  Evan: 
poUtoas  wen  hrog  very  little  known,  and  it  is  only 
during  tha  last  b<^  oantniy  that  the  dislike  to  thia 
tubar  has  disappeared,  Potatoaa  an  man  ooltivatsd 
hi  the  east  than  in  any  other  district.  Chastaats  an 
most  common  in  tha  oantral  part  of  Franca,  where  they' 
supply  no  inconsldenbla  paitlon  of  the  fbod-  of  thiti 
peasantry.  In  tha  south  tlia  fruits  an  chiefly  oUv4s^ 
almonds,  mnlbarrlea,  Ags,  and  prunes ;  oanges  an: 
pu^ally  colttvatad  in  the  sonth-eastem  extremity  ot> 
the  Ui^dom^  on  tha  verge  of  Italy,  bat  with  great  un>j 
certainty,  fitr  a  seven  winter  is  fatal  to  thus  treea^i 
and  in  soma  measnn  also  to  the  olivea. 

Irrigath>n  is  little  nndentood  fat  the  north  of  France, 
bat  bi  the  sonth  the  want  of  fVaquent  rain  randers  it 
a  primary  otjact  of  attention  |  tt  in  fact  determines 
the  ratio  of  prodnctiveness,  siiice  tlis  warmth  of  the 
sun  seldom  fails  to  ripen  whatever  has  nceived  an  odk 
eqnata  sapply  of  moistun.  According  to  H.  9«cqua* 
nl,  then  hais  been  a  progressive  annual  increase  in. 
tha  number  of  hectolitns  produced  thioe  1818.  Then 
has  been  a  very  decided  progress  in  agricultural  im- 
provement in  every  part  of  France,  but  notably  in  the 
west  and  south-west.  Tbs  increase  in  productiveness  ia. 
all  manner  of  grains  is  estimated  at  2,141,217  hectolitres. 

The  onltme  of  tlie  vine  extends  more  or  less  ovet 
ftilly  the  half  of  France,  beginning  as  far  north  as 
Chuipagae,  and  spreading  over  thia  country  to  thet 
south  and  Ilia  weet.  This  oultnn  is,  however,  very 
limited  in  Champagne,  and  vrvA  in  Burgundy;  in 
Provence,  and  the  kwer  part  of  Languedoc,  'he  cli- 
mate is  wanner,  and  Um  oultnn  general,  thou^..  not 
managed  with  such  sidll  as  along  the  banks  of  the 
Qaroune,  when  the  spirit  of  improvement  is  excited^ 
by  a  demand  for  fonign  markets.  As  vines  succeed 
in  light  and  unproductive  soils,  their  cultun  gives  • 
value  to  much  ground  which  would  otherwise  Iw  use> 
less ;  5  '  *he  petty  subdivisions  of  land  are  here  lesa 
iojui  r.  in  the  cose  of  com.    From  the  great 

VB.:'  v^  and  climate,  the  quality  of  French 

wihc^  .  ery  various.  The  amount  produced  haa 
been  considenbly  increased  since  1790,  as  well  from 
tl!#  division  of  many  large  estates,  as  from  the  quan- 
tity of  waste  land  which  has  been  brought  into  culture. 
It  is,  however,  remarked  by  M.  Moreau  de  Jounte 
(Statitlique  de  V Agriculture  de  Franee,  1848)  that  the 
consumption  of  wine  in  France  has  remained  stationary 
since  1791,  and  that  the  quantity  consumed  by  each 
individual  is  not  more  than  it  was  half  a  century  ago. 
Considering  the  increase  of  wealth  and  population, 
M.  Jounte  calculates  that  the  consumption  should 
have  increased  60  per  cent.  It  is  computed  that  nearly 
6,000,000  acres  of  land  an  planted  with  vines,  and 
that  the  value  of  the  annual  produce  is  ttom  ^£28,000,- 
000  to  £80,000,000,  of  which  about  a  tenth  or  twelfth 
part  only  is  exported.  It  is  very  dificult  to  say  to 
what  extent  the  vine  disease  and  the  excision  of  vine 
bnnohes  in  consequence  thereof,  has  affected  the  pro- 
duction of  wine  either  in  quantity  or  quality.  It  haa 
unquestionably  had  the  effect  of  raising  the  price  of 
the  finer  wines  from  26  to  86  per  cent.,  and  of  raising 
the  price  of  brandy,  during  the  last  two  years,  nearly 
800  per  cent. 

QoAxnTT  or  Wins  PBOotrcBO  tn  Fbahcb  Dnmxo  rna 
roLLowiHO  scriN  Ybabs,  in  Iupxbiai,  Oallohs. 


Imp.  Oillt. 

1848. 1,18S;<S7,844 

1848. 788,214,684 

18S0. 888,786,188 

186U 887,848,068 


Imp.  GbIIi. 

1859 686,7»8,98tS 

1858. 488,567,774 

1854. 887,877,118 


Average  annual  prodnce  befon   the  oldium  ap- 
peared, 984,000,000  gaUoa8,  worth  mifil'i,tiO  tHw- 

tt 


tt 


01 


F 
tl 


-un:-^;: 


\ 


i 


FRA 


lai 


m 


HirnnB  «i  ImrauAL  04i.iom  or  yfm  diitiluid  bub- 
no  THB  roLLowiMO  nvnr  Tiam  imo  Brnn  or  Wim 
t      AMD  Bbamdt,  TBI  FioromoiK  uine  about  two 
, .    noBB*  BriBiT  or  Wwb  ahd  oxb  thud  Bbaxdt. 


wni. 
'''  ''      Imp.OaU«. 

1848 .i'.Ui.'U..  1B1,800,000 

1848 108,800,000 

18SA 1T8,MO,000 

1851... Sl^aao,o«o 

1888. 811,880,000 

18B& 110,000,000 

18M. 88,400,000 


Imp.  Galb. 
U,l00j00O 
84,80^080 
88,100,000 
88,800,000 
87,800,000 
18,480,000 
11,880,000 


The  export!  of  wine  aad  brandy  from  Franco  for 
Ilia  following  four  yean,  are  aa  follow* : 


18BI 

18B8 T,488,448 

1888 6,886,184 

18S4 8,418,448 


'      ISn.. ......  88,881,180 

.      1858 44480,488 

1804 28,806,818 

It  U  a  curioui  fact  that  the  effect  of  the  oidium  or 
Tine  diseate  ha«  for  the  laat  few  yeara  earned  an  im- 
portation of  foreign  wine  into  France  for  home  con- 
iumption.  The  following  ia  an  account  of  the 
importa  of  foreign  win .  and  apirits  into  France  for 

the  years  1862-4: 

mEm. 


iB».aidii. 

1888. 78,484 

18S8. 88,484 

1854. 8,870,580 


1808. ffi0,»78 

1803. 880,808 

1864. 1,888,456 


,  It  will  be  observedf  that  the  import  immenaely  in- 
creased during  the  last  year,  owing  to  the  large  quan- 
tities used  for  the  supply  of  the  French  army  in  the 
Crimea. 

Of  the  spirits  in  the  above  table,  802,019  gallons 
were  rum  imported  from  England. 

A  quantity  equal  to  about  a  sixth  of  the  wine  is 
made  into  brandy,  for  brandy  is  distilled  wherever 
vines  are  grown  ;  ai)d  of  it  also  the  best  in  quality  is 
in  the  vicinity  of  t^e  Garonne.  This  important  and 
atapl  branch  of  French  industry  has  been  very  se- 
riously injured  by  the  prohibitory  system  of  custom- 
house laws,  which  were  extended  and  increased  in  rigor 
during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X., 
and  were  not  much  mitigated  during  the  18  years' 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe.  Many  of  the  leading  states- 
men of  France  still  evince  a  most  mistalien  partialit}* 
to  the  prohibitive  system.  France,  by  excluding  the 
produce  of  othei  nations,  virtually  deprives,  or  greatly 
limits,  by  the  same  laws,  the  reception  of  her  own 
produce  into  foreign  countries.  It  is  clear  that  they 
must  pay  for  the  wines  of  France  with  their  own 
produce,  wluch,  if  France  refuse  to  receive,  they  have 
no  other  equivalent  to  give  her  in  return  ;  they  must 
procure  an  equivalent  ftt)m  foreign  countries,  and  the 
effect  of  this  Is  to  restrict  the  trade,  by  raising  the 
price  of  French  wines.  Accordingly,  it  appears  that 
while  France  exported  to  England  from  16,000  to  W,- 
000  tuns  of  wine  when  the  population  was  only  6,000,- 
000,  this  supply  had  fallen  off,  partly  owing  tu  the 
heavy  duties  imposed  in  Great  Britain,  and  partly  to 
the  prohibitory  duties  imposed  in  France  on  British 
produce,  to  1,800  tuns,  while  the  population  of  the 
country  had  in  the  mean  time  greatly  increased ;  a 
melancholy  illustration  of  the  effects  of  that  illiberal 
policy  which  pretends  to  improve  commerce  by  prohib- 
iting the  tree  intercourse  of  commercial  countries. 

France  is  the  largest  producer  of  beet  sugar  in  the 
world.  The  origin  of  the  manufacture  must  be  traced 
ttom  the  year  1807,  but  40  years  elaped  before  (he 
manufacturer  of  this  article  was  enabled  to  cope  suc- 
cessfully with  colonial  sugars.  From  France  the 
culture  spread  through  the  different  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, even'  into  the  interior  of  Russia ;  and  it  is  calcu- 
lated that  then  is  now  produced  of  this  kind  of  sugar 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe  not  less  than  8r)0,000,000 
pounds,  nearly  one  half  of  which  is  manufactured  in 
France.  In  the  vicinity  of  Lille,  the  average  yield  of 
the  sugar  is  16  tons  per  acre,  and  at  Valenciennes,  19 
tons ;  In  some  localities  26  tons  are  produced.    The 


annual  mannlkotnre  of  angar  is  ahont  40,000  tons,  ud 
the  non-crystallixed  matter  extneted  fitom  tha  lees  and 
diegs,  fuinishes  enormous  qnantitim  of  aweeteoing 
matter  to  breweries,  and  also  to  the  wine-doctors  and 
wlne-falsiilera  of  Cette  (uid  the  Gironde.  Nor  ia  this 
the  only  use  to  which  beet  is  tnmsd,  as  •  large  qnao- 
tity  of  spirit  Is  distilled  fam  it. 

The  minuteness  of  the  Cadastral  survey  has  led  to^ 
official  calculations  in  Franoe  of  products  which  havit. 
not  yet  engaged  the  attantion  of  other  government*,' 
Madder  is  cultivated  on  a  small  scale,  partly  in  the 
north,  partly  in  the  sonUi  of  France ;  its  chief  use  i* 
in  dyeing  woolen*  and  cottons.  Woaid  ia  uied  for  yel- 
low and  green  colon ;  aaffron,  cultivated  formerly  to 
a  great  extent,  ia  now  confined  to  one  district  (the 
Gatinois)  in  the  south  of  France ;  hops  are  ndsed  only 
in  Picardy  and  French  Flanden. 

Subjoined  are  the  value*  of  the  following  articles 
produced  annually  in  France : 

Wine. £23,000,000     „, 

Bawsllk. ,        800,000       ' 

Hemp 1,800,000       ( 

Flax , 800,000      it 

Madder 800,000      ,1 

Wood  ibr  fkiel,  and  timber  of  all  kinds. . .      6,800,000 

Oltre^oU,  rape^eeed,  and  coleseed 8,800.<>00      " 

Tobacco 800,000      1 

Cbit^nts. 800,000     ,, 

i^T!)?'    Total*,1804 £84,800,000       f 

Of  the  pasturage  ground  of  France,  occupying  ona 
eighth  of  its  territory,  the  chief  part  Is  in  Normandy, 
Brittany,  and  other  humid  quarters  of  the  north  and 
west.  In  the  south,  f  d  natural  pasture  is  confined  to 
particular  districts,  chiefly  mountainous;  in  the  low 
grounds,  the  grass,  whether  natural  or  sown,  is  brought 
forward  only  by  means  of  irrigation.  Clover  and  sain- 
foin are  cultivated  in  France,  but  chiefly  in  the  north 
and  north-east ;  lucerne  is  much  more  general,  being 
raised  not  merely  in  the  north,  but  in  the  central  and 
southern  provinces,  wherever  irrigation  is  practicable 
and  the  soil  and  climate  are  favorable.  The  art  of 
improving  cattle  by  breeding  is  little  understood  in 
France,  nor  is  there  much  judgment  shown  in  gradu- 
ally fattening  them  by  a  removal  to  richer  pastures. 
Still  the  beef  and  mutton  of  the  north  and  west  are 
very  good,  more  especially  what  is  called  the  prtis 
sall6  mutton,  i.  e.,  sheep  fed  on  the  salt  marshes. 
Their  price  varies  from  province  to  province,  but  very 
seldom  from  year  to  year ;  the  general  rate  was  30 
per  cent,  less  than  in  England,  but  within  the  lost 
four  or  five  years  the  price  of  meat  has  risen  much  in 
France,  and  closely  approximates  to  the  price  in  En- 
gland. Butter  is  made  and  used  throughout  the  chief 
part  of  France,  as  in  England,  but  cheese  compara- 
tively little.  In  the  south,  however,  even  butter  is 
little  known,  and  its  place  in  cooking  is  supplied  by 
olive-oil,  which  is  largely  used  throughout  southern 
Europe.  One  of  the  latest  novelties  in  French  pus- 
turago  is  the  introduction,  in  1819,  of  a  large  flock  of 
Cashmere  goats,  which  were  sent  to  browse  in  the 
easterly  Pyrenees,  and  are  said  to  experience  but 
little  inconvenience  from  the  change  of  cUmate, 

Ilortea. — In  the  number  of  horses,  as  well  as  in 
their  size  and  beauty,  France  is  greatly  inferior  to 
this  country.  In  the  performance  of  labor,  however, 
the  Inferiority  is  much  less  conspicuous ;  large,  oldi- 
fashioned  carriages,  drawn  by  four  or  six  horses,  are 
seen  proceeding  along  a  paved  road  much  more  easily 
than  we  should  anticipate  Arom  the  weight  of  the 
vehicle,  the  knotted  harness,  and  the  diminutive  siz.» 
of  the  animals.  The  same  observation  is  applicable 
to  the  plows,  the  carts,  and  the  wagons  of  France, 
which  are  awkwardly  built,  but  all  dragged  on  with 
expedition,  the  strength  of  the  horses  surpassing  the 
promise  of  their  appearance.  A  French  diligence,  ia 
the  provinces  in  which  such  carriages  still  run,  per- 
form!' only  five  miles  an  hour ;  but  this  is  owing  IcM 
to  iniuriority  in  the  horses  than  to  the  state  of  th* 


FRA 


708 


wu 


rotdi,  and  to  th*  general  want  of  dltpatch  at  poat- 
koaara.  Of  th«  aggragata  of  hoiMi  in  France,  mare 
than  half  belong  to  the  northern  provlneei — Nor- 
mandy, Brittany,  Ploardy,  Aliace,  and  the  Itle  of 
France.  In  the  central  and  touthem  rte]>artnient«  a 
great  proportion  of  the  work  In  done  l>y  oxon,  which  are 
more  •ultable  to  petty  ftmu  itud  mountalnoui  dUtrlcta. 

M«rp.— Sheep  are  reared  in  almost  ever}'  province 
of  France,  the  gentle  elerationa  of  the  north  and  the 
mountain*  of  the  nuth  being  alike  favorable  to  them. 
The  mutton  is  good ;  but  in  the  art  of  improving  the 
fleece,  the  French  have  aa  yet  much  to  learn.  Me- 
rinoet  were  flnt  brought  trom  Spain  in  1787,  and 
formed  into  a  loyal  flock  iit  Rambouillet.  The  con- 
anmption  of  meat  In  the  country  then  waa  muill,  and 
coniequently  the  flnt  desire  waa  to  improve  the  wool. 
The  quality,  originally  good,  has  been  progressively 
Improved,  and  distributlona  of  HeVinoea  have  been  auc- 
oeisirely  made  to  proprietors  of  sheep  pastures  in  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  consequence  has  been, 
that  in  many  districts  the  weight  of  the  fleece  has  been 
nearly  double<i.  The  shcp-farming  of  France  ap- 
pears just  now  to  l>e  in  -.  cransition  state ;  its  ptul 
histoiy  oflkrs  many  poinU  of  instructive  deduction, 
while  flrom  its  future  we  may  expect  very  lieneflcial 
results.  These  imported  sheep  were  uami  for  crossing 
with  the  native  breeds,  to  which  but  little  attention 
had  been  paid  either  aa  regarded  the  carcaas  or  the 
fleece.  Aa  time  advance<l,  these  crossed  breeds  in- 
creased with  varied  success;  in  some  districts  the 
wool  produce  was  permanently  improved  )>y  continu- 
ing to  introduce  pure  blood ;  iq  others  it  was  t'uund 
more  advantageous  to  develop  the  physical  organiza- 
tion of  the  animal.  The  result  has  been  that,  not- 
Withstanding  the  laudable  endeavors  of  the  flnck-mns- 
ters  to  obtain  a  breed  associating  both  weight  and 
quality  of  wool  with  the  production  of  meat,  that  enJ 
haa  not  been  satisfactorily  obtained ;  the  flocks  still 
remain  in  an  Intermediate  ooniiitlon,  neither  producing 
the  flne  quality  of  wool  of  the  Saxon,  nor  the  weighty 
fleece  or  carcass  of  the  Knglioh  sheep.  To  encourage 
the  rearing  of  sheep,  a  duty  of  20  per  cent,  was  in 
1B2S  laM  on  foreign  wool. 

Mulf*. — Mules  are  almost  as  little  known  In  the 
north  of  France  n.<  In  England ;  but  In  the  central  and 
southern  parts  they  are  vnty  generally  reared.  Toul- 
tiy,  in  'France,  ar?  Ix>th  larger  in  size  and  more 
abundant  than  In  Kngland,  more  esiecialiy  In  Nor- 
mandy and  the  department  of  La  Sarthe. 

TALua  or  PaoDuorioxs  or  Tua  Soil  jlt  DirraasKT  ErooHS. 


Tmi*.  ln)MbltiinU. 

ITflO W.TOO.OOO 

ITM 11,000.000 

1T88 HflOa,00« 

1818 80,000,000 

ISM 8MM0,a00 


Krur*.  FnMt  mr  hMd, 

i,mo,aflo,ooo  n 

l,aM,00O,000  T8 

$,(181,983,000  85 

8,886,971,000  ]|S 

«.02t.l««,000  180 


with  the  domMtIo  anlma)^  T,IK»,«O^O0O  and  194. 
Even  in  the  north  and  north-east  of  France,  the 
farms  are  of  small  extent.  To  occupy  200  acres,  or  to 
pay  a  rent  of  £2W  a  year,  plaoei.  ore  in  the  foremost 
rank  of  formers.  Larger  posaesslons  are  common  in 
pasture  districts,  that  department  of  agriculture  ad- 
mitting, In  France,  as  in  England,  of  a  greater  con- 
centration of  capital  and  extension  of  business  than  in 
the  cose  of  tillage.  But  such  districts  are  rare ;  and 
in  by  far  the  greater  part  of  Frane«  the  farms  under 
tillage  are  of  flfty,  forty,  thirty,  and  often  as  small  as 
twenty,  or  even  ten  acres,  there  being,  it  Is  computed, 
no  fewer  than  throe  millions  of  such  occupancies  in  the 
kingdom.  In  the  south  of  France  the  system  of  mMairie 
(paying  rent  in  kind)  Is  still  prevalent,  and  nearly  on 
the  same  footing  as  in  Lomhardy  and  Tuscany.  That 
such  insignificant  occupancies  are  adverse  to  all  en- 
larged Idea*  of  farming,  is  sufficiently  obvious ;  and 
to  their  many  disadvantages  there  can  only  be  opposed 
this  single  benefit,  that  no  (pot  of  tolerable  soil  is 
neglected,  even  the  space  given  by  ua  to  hedges  being 
reaerred  for  culture.        ,,  .    j. '  ,     .       .. 


The  beneficial  effect  of  long  lease*  I*  a*  little  nndei^ 
stood  in  France  as  it  atill  unfortunately  is  In  a  groat 
part  of  England.  Th*  common  method  Is  to  let  land 
for  period*  of  three,  itx,  or  nine  yean.  The  peasantry, 
though  Illiterate,  are  not  slow  or  phlegmatic.  They 
exhibit,  as  Fnnchmen  In  general  do,  no  small  share 
of  Intelligence,  of  sprightliness,  and  of  activity  In  the 
Individual,  with  very  little  concert  or  combination  In 
the  mass.  They  are  content  to  hand  down  the  family 
occupancy  from  father  to  son,  without  any  Idea  of 
altering  their  mode  of  life.  The  dwellings  of  the  farm- 
ers, and- atill  mora  of  the  cottagen,  are  like  those  of 
our  forefiithen  half  a  centurj-  ago ;  the  outside  having 
frequently  a  pool  of  water  in  its  vicinity,  while  the  in- 
side la  miserably  bare  of  furniture.  In  the  compara- 
tive trials  that  wen  made  at  the  French  Exhibition  of 
18SA,  the  superior  character  of  the  English  agricul- 
tural Implements  over  those  of  France  was  made  very 
evident— In  none,  perhaps,  more,  than  In  the  plowing 
trials,  when  the  dynometer  showed  that  while  it  re- 
quired only  a  force  equal  to  17'01  to  turn  over  a  ceiw 
tain  quantity  of  earth  in  a  certain  time  with  the  best 
English  plow.  It  required  a  force  of  more  than  27  to 
do  the  same  with  the  best  French  one.  The  diet  of 
the  French  peasantry  is  exceedingly  simple.  Bread 
und  cider,  with  soup,  peas,  cabbage,  or  other  vegota- 
Ides,  form  its  chief  ingredients  in  the  northern  prov- 
inces ;  while  In  the  central  and  southern  ones  the  same 
aliments  an  In  use,  with  the  substitution  of  thin  wine 
(rin  du  pagi)  fur  cider,  and  of  chestnuts  for  the  pean 
and  apples  of  the  north.  Butcher-meat  is  reserved 
for  the  tables  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes. 

The  landholders  in  France  give  little  or  no  attention 
to  beautifying  the  country ;  its  aspect  is  consequently 
monotonous,  without  plantations,  seats,  or  cheerful 
cottages.  The  peasantry  live  In  villages,  frequently 
ill  built  and  inconveniently  situated.  The  purchase 
of  land,  however.  Is  the  favorite  mode  of  investing 
money  in  France.  It  sells,  in  general,  for  twenty-Hvo 
yean'  purchase ;  while  the  public  funds  seldom  fetch 
above  sixteen  or  eighteen.  There  Is  at  Paris  a  society 
similar  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  England,  and, 
forming,  llkn  it,  a  central  point  fur  corresponding  with 
the  different  agricultural  societies  in  the  kingdom.  It 
holds  Its  sittings  twice  a  month,  and  a  public  meeting 
annually  for  the  distribution  of  prizes.  The  French 
have  also  (since  IRIO)  a  com  law,  permitting  import* 
and  exports  only  when  the  home  market  shall  he  above 
or  below  a  specific  rate.  The  chief  difllculty  the 
French  government  have  to  contend  with  in  regard  to 
the  com  trade,  is  the  popular  prejudice  that  i^edom 
of  export  raises  the  home  price. 

Timbrr.—Ot  the  18,3.10,093  acres  which  are  covered 
with  wood,  in  1830,  there  belonged  to  govemmont 
2,S47,800  acres,  which  were  divided  into  1473  for- 
ests. A  ver}-  small  part  <'f  this  is  allowed  to  grow 
into  large  timlier.  Tiio  rest  is  subject  to  an  annual 
cutting  and  sale^  fur  fUel  j  coal  being  \ety  little  used 
in  France,  except  for  forges,  glass-houses,  and  other 
large  works.  In  tlie  govomnicnt  forests  gross  mis- 
management took  place  during  the  disorders  of  the 
first  Kevolutton.  Extensive  tracts  were  sold  for  an  in- 
significant consideration,  while  in  those  that  remained 
timber  was  felled  with  a  lavish  hand,  and  without  any 
regard  to  the  ultimate  cfToct  on  these  valuable  proper- 
ties. In  1801,  however,  a  special  board,  appointed  for 
the  can  of  the  forests,  introduced  the  most  benellcial 
ragulatlons.  In  the  yean  of  financial  pressure  (1815, 
1816,  and  1817),  it  was  proposed  to  efifect  sales  of  these 
great  domains;  but  a  fair  price  being  unattainable, 
govemment  continues  to  keep  them.  During  the 
monarchy  the  revenue  derived  from  the  wood  annually 
cut  and  sold  amounted  to  £700,000  or  X800,000  ster- 
ling. 

The  administration  of  the  forests  Is  (1855)  placed  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  miniator  of  finance.  The 
French  territory,  comprising  Algeria,  is  divided  into  30 


FRA 


700 


FRA 


arrondiittmmUi  firtstun,  it  tha  head  of  which  U 
placed  •  mntrvaleur  who  comipondi  with  tha  adniin- 
■•trativn,  and  who  has  under  hli  orden  a  number  of 
inspectors  and  sub. Inspectors.  Under  theae  are  the 
gardet  gMraux.  Every  one  employed  in  the  forests 
muat  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  but  this  provision 
may  ba  dispensed  with  If  the  employ^  be  a  pupil  of  the 
£eok  fontliire.  There  are  (1865)  82  coiuerviUturt, 
300  ii^teeleurt,  100  tout  intpecleuri,  and  600  gardtt 
gMraux  of  forests  in  France. 

Fuel  being  comparatively  little  wanted  in  tha  south 
of  France,  the  forests  are  confined  to  remote  and  rug- 
gej  aitustions.  These,  Ulie  most  of  the  forests  of  the 
kingdoDi,  harbor  a  multitude  of  wolves,  which  are  fre- 
quently destructive  to  the  sheep  and  lambs.  Regular 
olflcars,  called  lieulenantt  de  louvttrie,  an  appointed 
for  wooded  districts ;  and  on  occasions  of  heavy  loss, 
recourse  is  had  to  a  general  battue,  which  seldom  re- 
sults in  any  sensible  reduction  of  the  numlier  ot 
wolves.  Bears  also  are  found  in  the  forests ;  but  they 
are  much  more  rare,  lieing  conllned  to  the  elevated 
districts  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

ifmn  and  Quarriei. — France  yields  in  this  essential 
article  of  produce,  not  only  to  Britain,  but  to  Ger- 
many, to  Russia,  to  Sweden,  and  to  Hungary,  Ac- 
cording to  the  moet  approved  worics  recently  pul>- 
lished,  the  mines  of  France  may  lie  .Massed  Into  Ave 
groups,  namely,  the  mines  of  the  Vosges  and  the 
Black  Forest;  those  of  the  central  provinces  of 
France ;  those  of  Brittany ;  those  of  the  Pyrenees ; 
and  those  of  the  Alps.  It  is  not  many  years  since  the 
mines  of  the  Vosges  yielded  above  flOJOOO  cwt.  of  lead, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  silver,  besides  copper  mixed 
with  silver.  The  produce  did  not,  it  Is  probable,  re- 
pay the  expense,  as  they  have  since  been  abandoned. 
There  are  now  a  ver}*  few  copper  mines  in  the  Vosges. 
In  the  central  part  of  France  there  are  numerous 
mines  of  lead,  but  they  are  not  productive.  They  are 
chiefly  situated  in  the  department  of  La  Lozere ;  and 
they  yield  annually,  along  with  tho  lead,  1600  marcs 
of  silver.  The  only  metallic  mines  of  any  conse- 
quence in  Brittany  now  am  the  three  great  mines  of 
ffolire  argtntifln  of  Poullaouen  and  IluelgOet ;  and 
there  is  one  mine  of  what  is  called  in  the  divisional 
nomenclature  of  the  minister  of  commerce  and  public 
works,  plotiA  argetUiftrt.  In  the  chain  of  the  Pyre- 
nees there  is  only  one  mine  of  copper,  which  has  long 
since  lieen  abandoned.  There  are,  however,  numerous 
iron  mines,  which  furnish  materials  for  more  than  100 
forges.  The  chain  of  the  Alps  contains  many  mines 
of  iron,  but  is  not  rich  in  otiier  metals ;  it  possesses 
some  unproductive, mines  of  lead,  and  one  of  silver, 
which  has  long  been  alumdoned.  There  are  some  ap- 
pearances of  gold  in  the  department  of  the  Isire,  but 
not  such  as  to  encourage  any  trial  of  their  value.  If 
there  are  few  other  mines,  those  of  iron  are  in  great 
abundance,  Iwing  thirty-eight  in  numlter,  scattered 
throughout  the  country,  and  of  these  the  produce  is 
every  day  improving.  The  whole  value  of  the  metallic 
produce  of  France  was  estimated  in  1828  to  be  equal 
to  £8,199,695.  The  number  of  mines  was  estimated 
in  October,  1864,  at  824,  viz.,  448  of  coal,  177  of  Iron, 
190  of  other  substances ;  and  the  number  of  workmen 
they  employed  in  1861,  at  83,684.  (Tmvaux  Statit- 
tiqutt  del  ^finet  de  1847  h  1862,  Imprlmirie  Impe- 
rlale,  Octnbre,  1854.)  The  working  of  mines  is  im- 
peded in  France  by  the  want  of  good  roads  and  canals 
by  which  to  convey  the  ore  and  tha  coal  for  smelt- 
ing it.  The  production  of  iron  has  been  encour- 
a(^  by  the  heavj-  duties  on  foreign  iron.  In  1814  a 
duty  was  imposed  of  fifteen  fTancs  per  fifty  kilo- 
grammes, or  12a.  Cd.  per  110  lbs.  imperial,  on  all  foreign 
iron  imported,  which  was,  in  1822,  Including  the  decime 
or  the  tenth  added  to  all  duties,  raised  to  £1  2s.  lid.  on 
all  coal-worked  foreign  iron.  But  this  prohibition  did 
not  bring  prosperity  to  the  trade,  though  by  these  duties 
the  price  of  iron  in  France  was  £28  9s,  2d.  per  ton, 


while  Kngllsh  lion  wa*  sold  at  £9  Ss.  8d.     It  Is  atU- 
mate<l  that  these  heavy  duties  on  foreign  Iron  cost  tha 
agriculturists  of  France,  in  tho  additional  expense  of 
plows   and  other  Implements  of  agriculture,  a  sum 
varying  from  £1,500,000  to  £2,000,000  a  yaar.     (Sea 
Firil  Rrport  on  the  Commercial  Relatiimt  betitetn  Frano* 
and  Great  Britain,  p.  28.)   Estimating  tha  annual  coo- 
sumption  of  Iron  in  France  to  be  160,000  tons,  and  tha 
difference  of  price  lietween  French  and  English  iron  to 
be  £10  per  ton,  the  law  of  1814,  which  Imposed  a  duty 
on  foreign  Iron,  and  the  law  of  1822  which  increased 
that  ^uty,  can  not  have  cost  the  French  people  less 
than  £80,000,000  sterling  of  direct  loss ;  while  it  Is 
scarcely  possible  to  calculate  the  Indirect  evil  of  this 
monopcdy  or  protecting  duty  in  favor  of  the  iron-mas- 
ters.    One  reason  of  the  high  price  of  French  iron  I* 
tho  want  of  coal,  an  evil  which  is  aggravatod  by  tha 
heavy  duty  on  foreign  coal  In  consequence  of  which 
the  French  are  compelled  to  employ  wood  In  their 
forges ;  and  it  is  calculated  that  one  fourth  part  of  tha 
wood  cut  down  in  the  forests  Is  consumed  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  iron.    Coul  has  been  discovered  in  more 
than  half  the  departments  of  the  kingdom  (in  forty- 
five  departments),  und  would  doubtless  ba  traced  in 
others ;  but  the  want  of  water  communication  limits 
the  consumption  of  this  article  almost  to  the  place 
where  It  Is  produced.    In  a  report  to  the  prasent  Emp- 
eror of  the  French  in  1854,  by  the  minister  of  commerce 
and  public  works,   that    functionar}-  attributes  tha 
high  price  of  native  coal  in  Franco  not  to  the  method 
of  working  the  mines,  or  to  the  Insufficiency  of  tha 
machiner}',  but  to  the  want  of  better  intercommunica- 
tion both  by  land  and  water.  {Reiumi  dtt  Travaux  Sta- 
tittiquet  det  Minet  de  1947  Juiqu'a  1852.)  It  is  a  fact  that 
mora  than  half  the  departments  that  consume  the  coal 
of  the  liolre  pay  for  it  a  price  four,  five,  and  six  times 
higher  than  it  costs  at  the  mouth  of  the  pit,    {Rapport 
addreui  li  VEmpereur  par  U  ftiniitre  ou  department  de 
V Agriculture  et  du  Commerce,  1864,)    One  fifth  part  of 
the  coal  consumed  in  France  Is  used  in  the  department 
Du  Nord,    At  St,  Etienne,  near  Lyons,  are  excellent 
coal  mines ;  but  there  being  no  iron  mines  in  the  vicin- 
ity, nor  of  course  iron-works,  then  is  no  consumption 
of  fuel  on  a  large  scale.    The  coal  is  only  used  for 
domestic  fuel,  and  for  the  manufactura  of  hardwara. 
M.  Costaz,  In  an  estimate  contained  in  his  work  on 
the  agriculture  and  commerce  of  France,  makes  tha 
coal  produced  in  France  to  amount  to  15,810,687  metri- 
cal quintals ;  the  value  of  which  he  estimated  at  be- 
tween £700,000  and  £800,000.     The  quantity  of  coal 
imported  from  Great  Britain  amounted  in  1881  to 
40,000  tons,  though  subject  to  a  heavy  duty  of  one 
franc  sixty-seven  centimes  per  hundred  kilogrammes, 
or  Is.  4Jd.  per  220  lbs.  Imperial ;  and  there  wera  Im- 
ported mm  Belgium,  the  duty  being  thirty-three  cen- 
times per  hundred  liilogrammes,  440,000  tons.     The 
importation  of  cool  in  1853  rose-  to  2,824,556  tons,  of 
iron  (fonte  brute),  to  73,689  tons.   In  December,  1863, 
the  importation  of  iron  went  on  increasing.      Tha 
heavy  duty  on  coal  operates  most  injuriously  on  the 
industry  of  France.     It  Is  a  most  serious  impediment 
to  the  working  of  the  Iron  mines,  for  the*  encourage- 
ment of  which  such  heavy  duties  are  Imposed  on  for- 
eign iron.     But  such  Is  always  the  effect  of  tha  pro- 
hibitory system.    It  pulls  down  with  one  hand  what  it 
builds  up  with  another.     The  Iron-masters  and  the 
coal-owners  have  nach  a  monopoly  of  the  home  mar- 
ket.   But  is  it  not  clear  that  these  two  pionopolies  run 
counter  to  each  other,  and  that  the  iron  trade  is  en- 
couraged by  the  one,  while  it  is  most  seriously  dis- 
couraged by  the  other,  and  the  whole  inhabitants  of 
France  are  taxed  in  a  much  higher  price  for  fuel  by  tha 
heavy  duty  laid  on  the  importation  of  this  useful  arti- 
cle ?   Steamboat  navigation  is  also  discouraged,  so  that 
no  steamboats  ply  regularly  between  any  of  the  Atlantic 
ports  of  France.   A  steamboat  which  in  England  could 
be  navigable  at  an  expense  of  £2280  for  coal,  would 


FBA 


tlO 


TTH 


evrt  in  Tiucw  45700^  >boat  U  |Mr  cant,  on  the  oaptUl 
employed.  It  If  th«  uwnan  of  fonat  property  who 
u«  the  moet  leeiow  lupporten  of  thU  duty,  •■>  Im- 
p«ct  which  beneflti  tl\eni  at  the  expenie  of  the  whole 
of  France,  and  indirectly  depreuee  the  national  com- 
matee  and  in'duitry  In  iti  moat  Important  hranchei. 
For  many  yean  only  a  aniftll  portion  of  Taria  waa 
lighted  with  gaa,  which  la  aavrlbed  to  the  hljih  price  of 
ilttB  pipes;  and  the  aupply  of  water  la  alao  impeded  by 
the  aame  caosa.  (An  imperial  decree  of  the  22d  No- 
Timbef,  186S,  materially  reduces  the  cnatoms  duties 
en  the  importation  of  coal  and  iron.  Coal  paid  with 
the  tUcime  66  centimes  per  100  kllogranimes  upon  the 
mater  part  of  the  French  frontier  lyom  the  Sables  d' 
Olonne  to  Dnnklric ;  upon  the  remaining  portion  of 
the  frontier  it  paid  83  centimes,  by  the  land  fh>ntter, 
except  In  certain  places,  by  the  Heuae,  and  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Moselle.  Henceforth  the  great  zone 
nom  the  Sables  d'Olonne,  and  fkom  that  by  land  to 
Ilelluin,  is  to  have  but  one  duty — amounting  to  83 
francs  for  French,  and  to  88  Arancs  for  foreign  Teasels. 
The  rest  of  the  maritime  ftwntler  is  aaalmiUted  to  th^ 
principal  part  of  the  Und  (Vontier.  A  double  duty  to 
that  levied  on  coal  was  charged  on  colie.  Ilenceforth 
coke  Is  only  to  pay  a  half  beyond  what  Is  levied  on 
coal.  Aa  to  Iron,  ^m  the  lat  of  Janunr}-,  1865,  there 
is  no  distinction  between  Iron  smelted  by  coal  or  wood. 
The  fcmte  bnle  Is  to  pay  4  francs  40  centimes  the 
larger  bara,  11  fhinca  the  smaller  bara,  and  steel  33 
flrsncB.  Rails  for  railroads  are  to  pay  132  franca. 
The  greatest  reduction  Is  on  steel.)  The  mines,  like 
other  large  Undertakings  in  France,  are  under  the  di- 
rection ofoovemment,  being  superintended  by  a  board 
at  Paris  (Cotuea  GMral),  and  having  an  £col«  Int. 
periale  with  public  teachers,  the  whole  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  minister  of  the  home  department.  This, 
however,  does  not  prevent  their  machinery  being  In 
general  very  clumsy  and  antiquated. 

Turf  fit  for  ftael,  or  peat,  la  found  in  various  parts  of 
France,  and  will  be  more  nsed  as  wood  liecoraea  pro- 
gKssively  scarcer.  This  article  is  produced  In  the 
departments  of  Oard,  laire,  the  I.ower  Rhine,  the 
Somme,  Pas  de  Calais,  Loire-lnferieute,  I'laere,  Seine- 
et-Olse,  0l<ie,  Aisne,  Douba,  Mame.  The  cutting  and 
preparation  of  turf  Is  computed  to  occupy  the  Ubor  of 
trom  50,00s  to  S5,000  workmen  on  an  average  of  40 
days.  The  greatest  turf-producing  department  in 
Fran     IS  La  Somme. 

Salt  is  made  in  various  parts  dt  the  kingdom.  The 
works  corresponding  to  the  aalt  minea,  or  rather  to  the 
brine  aprings  of  Cheshire,  are  called,  ftom  their  poalt|on, 
Salinet  de  t£tt,  and  are  altuated  In  the  small  toini  of 
Salina  in  Franche  Cumti ;  they  are  wrought  by  under- 
taken on  lease,  yield  about  20,000  tons  a  year,  and 
altbrd  a  considerable  nvenne  to  government.  The 
heat  of  the  climate  on  the  aouth  and  aouth-west  coast 
of  France  is  favorable  to  the  evaporation  of  aalt  water, 
and  conaeqnently  to  the  formation  of  bay  salt,  the 
name  given  to  salt  made,  not  by  the  action  of  Are,  hut 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  operating  on  sea  water  Inclosed 
in  a  shallow  bay.  The  duty  raiaed  ftom  salt  in  France 
is  nearly  £2,000,000,  a  snm  of  great  Importance  to  the 
traasnry,  but  attended  with  ftilly  as  much  injury  to 
the  productive  powen  of  Fnince  as  waa  formerly  our 
aaU  tax  to  those  of  England.  Since  1818  the  droiU  on 
salt  have  been  reduced  two  thirds.  The  flrat  Revolu- 
tion began  by  abolishing  entinly  the  odious  gabdle ; 
and  salt  being  soon  afterward  made  in  gnat  quanti- 
ties, and  told  very  cheap,  became  the  object  of  a  most 
extensive  consumption,' being  given  to  cattle  as  food, 
mixed  with  manura  on  the  fields,  or  scattered  as  a 
stimulant  to  vegetation  at  the  foot  of  ollve-tteea.  But 
this  extended  use  of  salt  was  of  short  duration.  No 
sooner  was  the  power  of  Bonaparte  conaolldated,  than 
lie  ventured  to  Impose  a  tax  on  salt,  less  Impolitic  and 
oppressive  indeed  than  the  gabelk,  but  which  had  the 


that  tba  ralq*  of  hay  salt  oonsnmad.  Instead  of 
amounting  to  £1,000,000,  dU  net  la  1888  exceed 
£100,000.  It  was  thonght  that  a  considerable  Inoraas* 
In  the  consumption  of  salt  would  take  place  ftttm  the 
year  1849.  There  has  no  doubt  been  a  certain  increase, 
bnt  It  hss  in  no  degree  corresponded  with  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  duty. 

In  1847  the  quantity  of  salt  produced  waa  8fiO,210,80O 
kilogrammes;  fai  1848,  466,488,700;  in  1840,  479,- 
488,400;  in  1860,  496,188.900;  in  1861,  699,176,200; 
but  in  1862  the  quantity  produced  fell  to  428,087,600 
kilogrammes.  The  price  of  the  metrical  quintai  of 
salt  In  1847  was  8  ftrancs  47  cen.  In  1861  it  fell  to  1 
fksnc  66  cen.  The  amount  of  salt  produced  from  all 
the  salt  mines  and  aaline  aoureet  in  Fnnbe  In  1863 
waa  724,002  metrical  quinUls,  valued  at  2,866,666 
fnncs.  The  consumption  Is  conflned  to  domestic 
purposes,  and  to  a  trifling  export ;  yet  the  few  cattle 
which  still  receive  salt  as  a  part  of  their  food  are  vis- 
ibly in  better  condition  than  those  that  are  deprived 
of  it. 

France  Is  in  general  much  better  snpplied  with 
quarries  than  England.  The  vicinity  of  Paris  abounds' 
In  quarries  of  fVeestone.  The  case  is  similar  In  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  even  in  several,  such  aa 
Lower  Normandy,  that  are  comparatively  level.  The 
houses  are  consequently  built  of  atone  in  those  cities 
which,  llko  Parla  or  Caen,  are  In  the  vicinity  of  quar- 
ries. 

Fine  variegated  marbles  are  quarried  at  Campan,  in 
the  Upper  I^mnees.  It  appean.from  official  docu- 
ments published  by  the  government  that  in  the  year 
1846  there  were  22,000  quarries  In  course  of  working, 
which  employed  75,890  workmen.  The  value  of  the 
material  «ent  into  the  market  waa  41,047,619  francs. 
In  1849,  86,879  persons  were  employed  in  quarrying ; 
and  in  1860,  87,486. 

Mamtfaeturti. — Oor  historical  notices  of  French 
manufactures  are  very  imperfect  until  toward  the  year 
1600,  when  the  ware  of  religion  were  brought  to  a 
close,  and  peaceful  Induatry  received  encouragement 
from  Henri  IV.  and  hia  minister  Sully ;  a  miniater, 
however,  who  had  a  horror  of  inxur}*  of  all  kinda,  and 
who  waa  much  more  favorably  diapoaed  to  agriculture 
than  to  manufactnrea.  It  was  under  the  "  roi  vail- 
lant,"  however,  that  the  patronage  of  government  was 
extended  to  the  manufacture  of  silk,  glass,  Jewelr}', 
gold  and  silver  tiasnes ;  alao  of  the  finer  woolena  and 
iinena,  the  coaner  kinds  having  been  established  many 
centuries  before.  But  the  great  extension  of  the  finer 
manufactures  of  France  took  place  after  1668,  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  ministry  of  Colbert. 
It  was  then  that  workmun  were  invited  from  Genoa, 
Venice,  and  Holland,  and  induced  to  settle  at  Sedan 
and  Abbeville,  places  still  celebrated  for  thoir  woolens. 
In  the  south  of  France  also  establishments  were 
formed  for  making  the  light  cloth  suited  to.the  Turkey 
market ;  so  that  toWard  the  year  1700  the  manufao- 
turea  of  France,  as  well  of  woolens  as  of  other  articles, 
had  made  considerable  progress.  Cloth  serges  wen) 
iiftproved  under  Colbert,  and  point  dt  Gina  and  point 
de  Venite  introduced.  In  1666,  stocking-weaving, 
which  had  been  Introduced  Into  France  fh>m  England 
by  two  manufactnren  of  Nimes,  was  extended  and 
Improved.  The  mannal  labor  of  the  French  woriimen 
was  Ingenious,  the  machinery  extremely  imperfect. 
The  linen,  the  paper,  and  in  some  measure  the  wool- 
ens and  hardware,  found  their  way  abroad,  because  In 
the  nat  of  Europe  theae  manufactures  were  verj' 
backward,  and.  In  particular,  because  the  exports  of 
England  were  then  very  limited.  The  repeal  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  was  a  very  Impolltie  measure,  bnt  ita 
consequencea  have  been  overrated,  for  England  has 
profited  very  little  by  the  extension  of  her  slUc  fabrics ; 
and  Brandenburg,  the  chief  resort  of  the  French  emi- 
grants, has  never  become  an  exporting  manufacturing 


JB^Hiet  of  Uniting  the  use  of  this  article  to  such  a  degree,  J  country.    Another  and  a  more  hnportant  error  is  Um 


» 


FRA 


FRA 


veTj' 
irta  of 
of  th« 
rotita 
id  hu 
ibrics; 
1  emt- 
torlng 

IstlM 


oanmt  noMoa  tkal  FrMdi  mMrafactoNt  w«r*  for> 
mtrijr  (frcm  16M  to  litO)  nor*  axtaMira.snd  flonN 
lihtng  thaa  at  pnunt,  alto  thai  th<y  undarwant  an 
alnoat  total  ajrtlnotion  daring  tba  Rarolulloii.  Thaaa, 
Ilka  many  othar  Impraaalona  ia  raRard  to  Fiaaoa,  nU 
on  mara  looaa  allcgatloiii.  Offlclal  data,  for  from 
aanctioning  luoh  flaetnatloni,  aro  daakladly  In  favor  4f 
a  progreMive  though  alow  incraaaa. 

Wooimi.—To  ficgln  with  tha  oldaat  and  moat  widaly 
dUTsMd  branch,  woolena,  wa  flnd<that  the  ralatLve 
Dombcn  of  workmen  at  thrae  dlatioct  Intartrala,  and  in 
vary  dlflferant  parta  of  tha  oonntiy,'  waia  aa  foUowi, 
via.: 


4,400 


t^ 


1,000 


CaicaMonn* 

Uinoux,  Cbalabra,  ate. . . . 

Clermont,  IliJnnIt 

liOcMva,  Hinialt 

Bt,  AfHqna,  Arayroo,  ato. 

CbaUuroiu 

KouImIii,  Mord alternatoly  In  wool  and  ootton, 

Elboenf "  "  " 

lionvlen u  «  u 

Sttdaii,  Ardenn«c^^ " "  " 


UN.     IMO.     Illl 


t,T0O 


8/100 


I 


10^000 


LMeu,  alao,  In  the  north,  had  nearly  the  aame  num. 
tier  of  workman  (5000)  throughout.  The  flneat  qualU 
tiaa  of  black  woolana  are  made  at  Sedan,  in  Ardennes, 
and  at  I^uvlen,  in  Normandy.  In  tbeae  the  only 
material  is  merino  wool.  At  Elboouf  and  Dametal, 
and  in  Normandy,  the  qualltiea  are  very  varioua,  the 
price  being  from  6s.  to  38b.  the  English  yard.  Car- 
cassone  and  Ltmoux  owed  the  origin  of  their  extensive 
manufactures  to  the  abundant  supply  of  wool  fVom  the 
pastures  in  the  Pyrenees.  Since  the  reduction  of  their 
exports  to  the  Levant,  an  alteration  In  the  quality  of 
their  cloths  has  opened  to  them  •  market  In  the  Inte- 
rior of  France,  The  mountainous  districts  in  Langue- 
doo  contain  great  numbers  of  sheep,  and  are  the  seat 
of  the  manufacture  of  serges,  tricots,  ind  other  coarse 
woolens,  most  of  which  are  made,  not  by  workmen 
collected  in  a  factory,  but  In  the  hamlets  or  villages  of 
the  departments  of  the  Tarn  and  Aveyron.  Almost 
every  house  has  its  loom ;  and  during  the  evenings  In 
winter,  or  in  the  daytime  when  the  weather  is  adverse 
to  country  labor,  the  women  employ  themselves  in 
spinning,  and  the  men  in  weav'.ng.  A  highly  flnii  hed 
species  of  tha  woolen  manufacture,  viz.,  shawla,  vails, 
ladies'  cloth,  etc.,  has  been  introduced  in  the  present 
nge  into  France.  Rheims  is  the  seat  of  this  Important 
branch,  and  employs  in  the  town  and  neighborhood  no 
less  than  20,000  workmen.  Similar  articles  are  made 
at  Paris.  The  bounties  granted  on  Jilt  el  titttu  de 
lame  in  1852  amounted  to.  7, 600,000  franca. 

Shawb. — Shawls  became  fashionable  in  France  as  an 
indispensable  article  of  female  apparel  after  the  expe- 
dition of  Bonaparte  to  Kgypt.  The  Ant  lady  in  France 
who  wore  one  (in  1801)  was  Madame  Oaudin,  the 
beautiful  Duchess  of  Qaeta,  a  Oreek  by  birth,  whose 
hunliiind  was  then  a  high  functionary.  Many  of  the 
officers  who  were  attached  to  the  army  brought  back 
presents  of  shawls,  and  they  were  imported  In  great 
quantities  from  Constantinople,  Moscow,  Vienna,  and 
London.  These  shawls,  however,  brought  on  enor- 
mous price  when  imported  into  France,  which  neces- 
sarily limited  their  eonsumptk>n  to  the  richer  classes. 
The  great  demand  turned  the  attention  of  manufactni^ 
en  to  this  Important  article ;  attempts  were  made  to 
imitate  the  Cashmeres,  and  specimens  were  exhibited 
at  the  Krpoiitum  of  1W)1.  Ordinary  shawls  are  now 
made  of  merino  and  other  wools.  But  this  was  only  a 
step  in  the  progress  of  the  manufacture  ;  and  a  finer 
species  of  wool  having  been  imported  ftrom  the  coun- 
tries to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  ingenious 
manufacturers  with  these  materials  at  last  produced 
shawls  which  rivaled  In  beauty  those  of  the  Kost,  and 
in  which  it  required  the  moat  practiced  and  skiilfal 
eye  to  discern  any  difference.  In  1819  M.  Jaubert 
proceeded  on  the  part  of  the  shawl  manufacturer,  Tw- 


aaax,  to  the  oonntriei  between  the  Dlaok  Soa  and  tk« 
Caspian  to  buy  a  numerous  flock  of  Astroean  goats, 
(br  tha  purpose  of  using  the  wool  fur  shawl-making. 
The  speculation  was  a  complete  failuiat  and  the 
Fimch  govemmant,  which  woa  interaalad  In  it,  loat 
800,000  franca. 

Two  towna  very  remote  from  each  othar,  Lodiva  In 
tha  south  and  Vlra  la  the  north-west  of  France,  maau* 
(kctured,  under  Bonaparte,  very  luigely  for  the  army, 
French  woolens  an.  In  general,  much  thicker  than 
ours.  In  tha  fine  qualltiea  tha  raw  material  forms 
(Chaptal,  vol.  ii.,  p.  181)  somewliiit  mora  than  holt 
the  oost.  In  ordinary  quolitiaa  it  is  somewhat  less  | 
but  It  Is  only  in  tha  slight  qualities  that  the  price  of 
labor  goes  considerably  beyond  tliat  of  the  materials. 
The  computation  for  the  whole  country  is,  that  a  value 
of  jC4)000,(MO  sterling  In  wool  liecomes  oonverted  into 
a  manufactured  value  of  ^9,000,1)00,  of  which  a  tenth 
only  is  exported.  The  cloth  in  France  which  oorra- 
spends  to  our  superfine,  and  wiiicb  is  worn  In  general 
liy  the  upper  ranks,  is  very  fine  and  durable,  but 
lieavy,  with  the  exception  of  the  superfine  block. 
The  price  of  the  cloths  produced  at  Sedan  varies  so- 
cording  to  a  graduated  scale,  from  16  to  60  francs  the 
yard,  and  of  kerseymeres  from  7  to  24  francs.  The 
duty  on  foreign  wool  has  been  very  Injurious  to  the 
French  woolen  manufacturers;  because,  by  compel- 
ling the  French  to  pay  a  high  price  for  the  raw  mate- 
rial, it  prevented  them  manufacturing  woolen  cloth  aa 
cheaply  as  their  English  competitors,  to  whom  the 
fomigu  market,  where  the  raw  material  had  now  CdlaS 
to  a  low  price,  was  open.  J.%iU 

Wool  and  Woouhs  lapoaTXD  iirro  FaAMoa,        'i 

KlIofframnM*.  frwnu, 

18S0...    4,»ia,000    CoosuDipUon  In  value    8,851,000 
1S80...     T,«14,000  "  "  U,97«,000 

18M...  14,S4S,000  "  "  84,Slt,000 

1840...  18,46«,000  "  "  S»,08T,000 

Belgium,  Spain,  Germany,  Turkey,  Barbery,  Al- 
giers, and  England  send  wool  to  France.  The  export- 
ation of  woolen  goods  in  1889  reached  60,600,000 
francs.  In  1838  the  exportation  was  2,&78,487  kilo- 
grammes, valued  at  65,828,846  francs.  The  wool  pro- 
duced in  France  amounts  to  20,860,000  kilogrammes  of 
fine  wool ;  20,0<lO,000  of  common ;  total,  44,860,000— 
about  half  thr>'  i-i'  England. 

The  wool  i  .  1  >d  (Vom  England  In  186S  was  21,687 
quintals,  in  vaii-'  9,481,886  fhincs,  and  the  cloth 
281,419  kilogramm  !S,  valued  at  6,795,882  francs.  The 
worsted  or  thread  was  19,630  kilogrammes,  valued  at 
385,844  francs.  The  importation  of  the  Thibet  fur  or 
hair  was  In  value  in  1830  8,676,480  fhincs,  but  hat 
since  declined  to  2,058,920  francs.  This  material  ii 
spun  in  Paris,  employing  600  or  600  persons.  The 
wool  of  France  is  of  an  inftrior  quality.  Its  an- 
nual value  averages  about  120,000,000  fhincs,  being 
60,000,000  kilogrammes.  There  are  6,600,000  sheep  of 
a  superior  breed,  Saxons,  Merinoes,  and  those  imported ' 
from  England ;  and  24,000,000  of  indigenous  race. 
Since  182U  the  French  sheep  have  increased  nine  per 
cent.  The  manufacture  of  merinoes  and  bomliazinet 
employs  17,000  hands  :  6000  are  employed  at  Amieni  - 
in  the  manufacture  of  olispines,  and  alwnt  86,000  pieces  ^ 
are  made  there,  about  a  third  of  which  are  ezportell.  - 
The  bonneterie  In  wool  employs  16,000  workmen, 
800,000  kilogrammes  of  colored  wool,  worth  8,000,000 
francs,  and  returns  17,600,000  francs  in  manufactured 
goods.  Coverlets  are  made  at  Rheims,  Rouen,  Beau- . 
vais,  Lille,  Lyon,  Orleans,  and  at  Sommiires  (Oard). 
This  fabric  is  valued  at  20,000,000  francs,  and  employa 
10,000  hands,  besides  auxiliary  assistance  to  the  ex- ' 
tent  of  26,000  more. 

Carpet: — Carpets  are  mode  to  the  annual  value  of 
8,600,000  francs,  the  larger  part  at  Aubusson  and  Fel 
letin,  two  towns  in  the  department  of  the  Creuse,  em 
ploying  1800  hands,  and  producing  goods  to  the  valu* 
of  1,500,000.  Carpets  are  also  made  at  Abbeville,  at 
Amiens,  Turcoing,  and  Besanfon.    The  finest  and 


FRA 


713 


iMtMt  t«It«M  Mrpali,  ealbd  "d*  laTOBBnU,"  «• 
mad*  at  BMBvab,  and  at  tba  Oobalin*  In  Parte. 
ThaM  an  onljr  mad*  lo  ordar,  and  an  not  artlolaa  of 
traflo.  Tba  axporU  of  woolen  ipMMla  nach  on  an 
avanc*  tha  ram  of  6A, 600,000  or  M,()00,000  (Vanci,  cnn- 
iumlng  1,678,487  kllogrammci  of  wool.  Thajr  conilat 
(if  oorarlaU,  earpali,  elotb,  caadmarai,  and  marlnou, 
variad  tlnih,  ihawli  wovan  or  made  bj  band,  ban- 
nataria,  ribbon  of  wortlad,  and  ilmllar  light  gooda,  and 
•luflk  ofmlnglad  matariali.  Macblnary  ba*  baan  uaad 
fter  ipinnlna  wool  In  plaoe  of  tba  band  nnir  Mnea  1800. 
Rbalma  la  the  gnat  centn  of  Fnnch  wool-aplnnlng,  It 
being  aitaatad  In  that  part  of  tha  country  when  iheep 
an  moat  Anmaroui.  Then  an  at  Rhaima  275  eatab- 
llibmanta  fbr  aplnnlng  carded  wool,  and  nearly  65,000 
aplndlaa,  or  60  ertabliihmenta  for  oombad  wool.  The 
number  of  workmen  b  60,000.  Fnnea  annnally  ax- 
poiti  woolen  yam  to  tha  value  of  3,000,000  Aranea  and 
upward.  Neapolitan  flannali,  Engllth  flannela  or 
"  bollran,"  olroaMlena,  laatlnga,  clotha,  eaailmena, 
merinoaa,  mouuellne-de-lalne,  eulr-de-laine,  made  at 
Cartrea  drat  In  1819,  and  popllni,  ara  noted  manufao- 
tuna.  ' 

Colton,— Tba  cotton  manubcton  waa  introduced 
Into  Amiena  In  1778,  tha  nw  material  being  auppllad, 
not  from  America,  but  fhrni  the  Levant,  with  maohinaa 
procured  fh>m  England.  In  1784  a  privilege  waa  con- 
ferred on  an  inhabitaat  of  Seine  and  Oiae  for  a  manu- 
factory ;  and  toon  afterward  the  manufactun  paiied  to 
Rouen,  8t.  Quentin,  Paria,  Lille,  and  other  paita  In 
the  north,  extending  with  a  npMity  aarpaaiad  only  b}' 
that  of  England.  At  pnsant,  aa  for  many  yean  paat, 
the  great  import  of  cotton  la  from  tha  United  Statea. 
In  thte  great  department  of  manofactun  the  French 
have  only  followed  In  the  footsteps  of  Great  Britain, 
whose  machinery,  after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  time,  the 
Fnneh  maaufactunn  have  imitated ;  and  though  they 
bare  equaled  the  British  manufactun  In  durability, 
they  have  generally  been  inferior  in  cheapness.  This 
la,  In  a  gnat  meaaun,  owing  to  tha  centn  of  the 
mannflMtun  being  at  Rouen  and  Paris,  places  when 
the  support  of  workmen,  including  the  extra  price  of 
fuel,  is  not  leaa  expensive  than  in  Lancashln.  The  dis- 
tricts moat  nmarkable  for  the  cotton  manufactun  an 
Alsace  and  Normandy.  The  manufactun  of  coUtm 
tehtt  waa  begun  at  Amiena  so  early  as  176S ;  and  in 
1784  U.  Martin  of  Amiens  obtained,  under  the  title  of 
"  the  lint  importer  (kom  England  of  machines  invented 
then  for  spinning  cotton,"  the  authority  to  establish 
•  cotton  factory,  with  apecial  privilegee,  Nimea  te 
celebrated  for  its  8ne  but  not  vary  durable  cotton 
stockings.  Then  are  also  manufactoriea  of  honiuterit 
de  cotton  at  Basan9on,  Vitiy,  Bar  le  Due,  etc. 

The  cotton  manufactun  la  proaecutetl  In  many 
paita  of  France,  and  presents  a  great  variety  of  fab- 
rica  and  an  extensive  division  of  lab  r.  In  one  place 
the  waaving  alone  la  fidlowed;  in  other  places  the 
manufactun  of  threads,  which  ara  aold  to  those  who 
weave  them  into  cloth.  Such  Is  the  case  in  the  de- 
partment Dn  Nord,  which  exports  a  great  quantity  of 
thread  to  the  cloth  maaufactunn.  In  other  plaoea 
they  bleach  the  linens,  which  an  afterward  dressed 
and  stamped.  The  workmen  employed  In  the  cotton 
mannfactun  wan  estimated  20  )'ean  ago  at  260,000, 
and  they  now  amount  to  865,000.  Still,  however, 
flrance  is  decidedly  Inferior  to  Great  Britain  in  almost 
arery  braoch  of  the  cotton  manufactun ;  and  the  con- 
aaquenee  la,  that  as  the  Importation  of  English  cotton 
guada  is  prohibited,  they  an.smuggled  Into  the  coun- 
try in  great  qaantltiee.  Among  these,  the  introduc- 
tion of  cotton  twist  is  most  extensive;  and  aa  the 
Fnneh  mills  can  net  manufacture  the  higher  num- 
ben,  from  170  to  200,  whieh  an  required  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  bobbhiet,  it  baa  baan  found  impossible  to 
npress  tha  contrabaad  Importation  of  this  artlole. 
"  It  irakas  its  way,"  say  the  writen  of  the  Report  on 
tba  Commercial  Relatioas  between  Gnat  Brit^  and 


Fnaea,  "  bath  by  land  and  aai^  la  aplta  of  all  intti>> 
dktioas,  and  to  a  eontinnally  laoraaaing  amount." 
Ilia  RnglUb  can  ba  soM  also  U  half  tha  price  of  tba 
Fnnch  article,  which  presents  an  additional  indue*- 
ment  to  tha  smuggler.  The  annual  value  of  tha  nisnu- 
(ketuna  thua  illicitly  introduced  was  estimated  in 
1888  at  £600,000  atariing  t  but  smuggling  has  been  re- 
duced mon  than  a  fourth  since  that  time.  It  is  diflU 
cult  to  estimate  tha  amount  introduced,  but  very 
experienced  peraona  In  tha  trade  doubt  if  it  much  ex- 
ceeds ^60,000.  English  bobblnet  was  also  smuKKl'^ 
20  yean  ago  into  Franca  to  tha  aatimated  annual  value 
of  iCa26,0OU  sterling;  but  It  Is  questionable  whetlier 
the  amount  of  illicit  traffic  now  amounts  to  jC800,000, 
though  English  Imbbinet  sells  at  tma  seven  to  eight 
per  cent,  alrave  the  price  of  Fnnch  goods  of  the  same 
nominal  quality.  Quiltings,  cambrics,  and  muslins 
an  also  largely  introduced  by  the  illicit  traders  j  and 
the  delivery  of  these  goods  Is  insured  at  a  pnmlum  of 
ttom  18  to  50  per  cent.,  according  aa  the  risk  is  greater 
or  less  In  the  rate  of  heavy  or  of  light  goods.  In 
1862,  l,7(iO,()00  francs  wen  paid  in  bounties  oajUttt 
tutu*  d»  colon.  The  average  wages  of  men  employed 
In  the  cotton  trade  Is  2  ftancs  50  per  centimes  per  day ; 
of  women  1  franc  20  centimes ;  chlldnn  an  paid  60 
centimes.  The  value  of  the  cotton  fabrics  of  Nor- 
mandy U  106,000,000  francs,  that  of  Ahiace  80,000,000 
fhmcs.  In  the  last  district  70,000  hands  ara  employed 
in  weaving ;  from  12,000  to  16,000  in  printing ;  and 
1000  In  the  bleaching  grounds.  In  Normandy  and 
vicbiity.  Including  a  part  of  tba  Somme,  Pas  de  CalaU, 
Atene,  Eun,  and  Hanche,  120,000  hands  an  em> 
ployed,  namely,  60,000  weaven  for  the  Rouenneria, 
20,000  for  tha  calicoes,  and  49,000  in  other  divisions 
of  the  labor.  Alsace  produoea  principally  cotton 
clotha  for  printing,  and  exporta  a  part  into  Switzer- 
land. Tha  number  of  piecea  of  printed  cotton  and 
muslins  made  te  calculated  at  1,100,000,  valued  at  40,- 
000,000  francs.  They  an  of  thrae  kinds  and  prices, 
but  an  unable  to  cope  in  cheapness  with  the  Englteb, 
Tulles,  at  first  made  only  in  Normandy,  an  now  manu- 
factured whenver  cotton  fabrics  an  made;  to  the 
extent  of  32,726,000  francs,  of  which  20,000,000  franca 
is  the  cost  of  the  embroidery.  The  most  important  of 
this  branch  of  the  manufactun  te  carried  on  at  and 
near  Calate,  when  (Vom  600  to  700  looms,  and  4800 
men,  women,  and  childran,  an  in  constant  employ- 
ment. The  manufactuns  of  muslins  ara  most  In 
aman  of  all,  owing  to  tha  fineness  of  the  thread  re- 
quired, whi«sb  is  not  yet  made  in  France,  but  imported 
for  the  purpose.  Tarart  is  the  seat  of  this  manufoo- 
ture,  valued  at  20,000,000  franos.  These  muslins  ara 
generally  embroidered.  Blonda  and  lace  ara  made  at 
Caen,  Bayeux,  and  above  all,  at  Chantilly  (Oisa) 
when  70,000  persons  ara  employed.  Cotton  bonnetf 
rie  te  made  at  Xroj'es  to  the  value  of  7,000,000  franci^ 
employing  10,000  looms,  and  tiom  10,000  to  12,000 
hands. 

In  1803  the  import  of  coiton  wool  bad  nached  10,- 
711,666  kilogrammes,  and  In  1820  bad  doubled  that 
amount.  The  cost  of  the  raw  material  in  France,  and 
its  manufactun,  an  enhanced  by  the  expense  of  fuel 
and  carriage.  The  profits,  deducting  all  outlay  and 
wear  and  tear  of  naahinary,  and  making  allowance  for 
every  expense,  an  considered  to  b*  about  80,000,000 
fhmcs.  It  appean,  that  prior  to  the  legal  permtesion  to 
import  cotton  thread  fkee,  when  above  No.  143,  not  less 
than  6,000,000  kilogrammes  wen  smuggled,  when  tha 
duty  waa  from  70  to  80  franos  tda  kilogramme.  Thte 
tnfRe  has  not  yet  ceased.  The  spinners  number  from 
80,000  to  90,000,  and  the  mean  wages  of  adults  and 
childran  an  I  friwo  50  centimes  per  bead,  who  attend 
to  8,600,000  spindles.  No.  182  of  the  French  throad 
corresponds  to  120  of  the  Englteb,  because  of  the  dif- 
fennce  betweea  tlie  Englteb  {lound  weight  and  tha 
French  demi-kilOi^mifte.  In  the  year  1806  the  ut- 
most degree  of  fineaesa  attained  in  cotton  thread  waa 


FRA 


»1« 


FICA 


in 


ilO,- 

I  Uut 

,and 

(ml 

'  and 

for 


Vo.  IM,  III  Mm  ym  IMW  U  kud  mchcd  Vo.  180. 
In  MMcnl  Ihii  IfNiish  thN«d  nnulni  mneh  Mow  tha 
KaiilUb,  liul  It  mmtlnuAlljr  improTM.  No.  INO,  which 
in  PrMM  nII*  M  m  friHPi  or  40  rvtnct,  cnmi  in  Ka> 

tiMll  »lll)r  IN  tnitn.  In  lh«  Hclna  InrArlaura,  at 
^u*n,  knit  vlxlntt)*,  Ihan  in  •bout  l,noo,(X)0  of  ipln. 
<!••  Nt  wnrb,  Ih  tha  armndUMmant  nf  UiU  000,000 
■ra  witrbait  liy  M  tlaam-anglnn,  of  MO  hona-powar 
In  all,  Mt,  l^ianlln  worka  110,000  iplndlaa  with  MO 
b<irM<M)Mfar  nl  ataam,  haatdaa  watar-powar.  Tha  ipin- 
■Intf  In  Aiim»  ampioya  111,000  panona  of  all  agai. 
Tha  dyalfltf  uT  cntltm  oocuplaa  87  aiUbliahmaata  at 
l(4iuan  and  It*  vMnltjf  alrnia.  Tha  principal  part  of  tha 
waaylnif  Ukaa  plaaa  In  Momiaady,  Aliaoa,  Amiani, 
Ml  Uuantlll,  and  Trnraa,  Tha  looma  ara  above 
tTOiWIi  aad  mtpkiy  Ml(,MO  handi,  tha  moan  of  whoaa 
wafaa  It  7A  aaNllmaa  par  day.  Many  of  tha  loomi 
IbaN  an  wnrbad  by  hand.  Tha  principal  product! 
■M  aallaoaa  Air  printing, 

In  liia  daiiartffianta  nt  tha  Halna  Inftrlaura,  Somma, 
Pat  da  Oalala,  Alma,  Kura,  and  Im  Mancha,  tha  tnin- 
n»n,  waavar*,  dyan,  munlln  fabricatora,  maoblnitta, 
aanliaabam,  amuunt  In  107,000.  The  Indtvidoala  onn- 
naalad  with  tha  manufa«tura  In  othar  way*,  the  whole 
aoinprinlnM  IAO,000  flimlilaa,  carry  the  toUl  number 
wmaanuNl  up  In  400,000,  Of  the  workman  immedi- 
ately daitl||nal«<l,  tha  number  la  107,000,  employed 
tbiMi— 


HmIiIi 


hlalM*,,..., , 

Mill  woavvi't. ,,,, 

jMrHtiti  Mil  'I''  tiiiii 

u»lliilltlm«*NU,,,,,,, 
brdinakafiaNitnilMMi, 


11,000 

alooo 

60,000 
0,000 
«,000 
*,000 


Iplnnan). .  i , 1T,0( 

LMinwaarar*..... 

PrlHlara,,,,,,...,,., lg,oi 

llaMliMN 


The 


104,000 


II  plaiMDi  for  tha  manufacture  of  yam  in 
AlMwa'ttra  tMiimaMMin 


Tirial. 107,000 

In  Aluiaa,  IwiludlHK  Iba  Haul  and  Baa  Bhin,  the 
Voagan,  Iha  Mauriha,  llauta  Saona,  and  Douba,  above 
100,000  parwtit  aw  awplayed  i 

r,ooo— i(i,o«o 

....     70,000 

11,000—10,000 

1,000 

Total.. 
IimI 

WeanilinKi  Ht.  Mary  aux 
Mined,  and  Oiialiwlllar.  In  the  other  parts  of  France 
tha  prlMi'i|ii«l  ara  Nl,  CJiiotitln,  Kouen,  Caen,  Amient, 
lUr  la  ttllK,  l.llla,  llnuliai)!,  Turcoln)(,  I.yona,  Paris, 
Darnatal,  lliillitut,  Truras,  Olnore,  etc.  The  yam 
mada  In  the  Halna  Inf^rin.ira  >-.^ueedi  the  whole  mado 
in  Al«»4i«i  tn  tha  dapani  leuU  of  the  Homme,  Pas  de 
Ualaia,  Aiana,  Kura,  and  Manolie,  there  are  OO.oco 
waavarn  of  Himcniwrli',  10,000  nf  calico,  and  40,000  in 
Iba  ntlier  lirHHiiltas  iif  ilia  manufacture. 

/.^nnM.->ln  tha  aiitent  of  ber  linen  manufacture, 
Fran**  I*  ((rmitly  luparlor  to  KnRlond  i  not  that  her 
•all  la  Iwttar  adaniad  to  Ilia  orowth  of  hemp  and  flax, 
ItuI  liaaamw  Kn)(ii*nd  dapands  on  importations  of  linen 
froni  IraUnd  «m  Otrmany,  and  the  spinning  of  flax 
doa*  not  furoi  tb«  iHloiipatinn  of  our  female  peasantry. 
In  Framia,  itNitlnularly  In  tha  north,  every  fanner, 
■nd  almo«t  avary  i<(iltatt«r,  covert  a  little  spot  with 
banip  or  (i»n  In  amiiloy  ills  wifti  and  daughters  In  spin- 
nlng  IbroiiKbituI  Iha  year  i  a  stuck  of  linen  being  the 
nsnal  dowry  «f  Ihasa  humbia  occupants  of  the  soil. 
Tba  manwfai'tiira  nf  this  arilola  Is  not  exclusively  con- 
oantratwl  In  llta  towns,  like  that  of  the  other  fabrics: 
many  of  llii>  waavars  raslda  In  villages  and  hamlets ; 
and  tha  li«>mp  and  Iha  flax  ara  spun  by  the  hand. 
Tbli  U  ft  HiimI  vallialda  lirnnoh  of  domestic  industry, 
wbliib  iiWaa  *w|ibiynit>Ht  to  hmalea  under  the  roof  of 
tbair  naranta  i  but  It  Is  destlnnd,  In  the  progress  of 
oapltal  and  Industry'.  In  Iw  superseded  by  machinery 
and  (treat  astalillshtnents.  In  Normandy,  Msleux, 
UlapiNi,  tha  lialtflilNirliu'Hl  of  Mavra,  Yvc'tot,  Uolbcc, 
iwd  tba  nuira  illTand  towns  uf  VImolrtiers  and  Dom- 
Aront,  art  all  rawarkkliie  fur  one  ur  more  branches  of 


tha  linan  manuAictnra.  The  mora  baekwaiv)  provtnea 
of  Brittany  manufkcturas,  at  Rannes,  8t.  Maio,  and 
VitrA,  qaaotities  ofcoarve  linan,  canvas,  and  sacMigi 
but  Anjou  aflbrds  a  much  superior  article  |  the  loiu* 
d*  ImviU  have  long  lieen  In  repute,  and  gave  employ- 
ment. In  Laval  and  the  oontlguoua  towns,  to  nearly 
25,000  workmen.  Ulle  and  lU  populous  district  hav* 
very  extensive  mannfaetures  of  hemp  and  flax  i  for 
the  number  of  workmen  so  employed,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, in  this  part  of  French  tlanders.  Is  not  short  of 
00,000.  Since  1700,  line  linen  haa,  in  France  as  In 
England,  been  In  a  great  maaaure  replaced  by  flne 
cotton !  and  the  two  together  employ,  at  8t.  Quentin 
(in  Plcardy)  and  the  neighborhood,  more  than  80,000 
workmen.  In  another  part  of  the  kingdom,  the  prov- 
ince of  Dauphini,  there  are  carried  on  linen  manufac- 
tures of  various  qualities,  the  pricea  being  from  1 
franc  10  centimes  to  0  fr.incs  the  yard.  The  value  of 
the  line3  manufucture  of  France  of  everj'  kind  is  no 
less  than  626,000,000  fhtncs.  The  raw  material  grown 
In  Franco  is  valued  at  80,041,840  fritnes  for  the  hemp, 
and  19,000,000  francs  for  the  flax.  The  hemp  Im- 
ported, and  the  thread  together,  give  80,099,008  francs 
value.  About  1 ,000,000  ft-ancs  is  the  worth  of  the  flax 
imported.  Total,  20,000,000  fhnics.  The  manufac- 
ture gives : 

Fraafl. 

For  the  hemp. 107,OtT,not 

•*      flax 70,000,000 

AtoUlof 1 18a,09T,00» 

The  manufactures  of  hemp  and  linen  employ  000,- 
000  workmen.      The  exports  of  linen,  principally  to 
England,  were.  In  1840,  nearly  0,107,781  kilogrammes. 
The  manufacture  has  doubled  since  the  first  Kevolu- 
tlon.     Lille,  Dunkirk,  Essonne,  Pont  Remy,  lioUais, 
Veraon,  and  Aleni;on,  are  noted  places  for  their  linen 
manufacture.      Normandy  sends  to  Piiria    annually 
20,000  pieces  of  linen.     The  linens  of  Brittany  nre 
mostly  consumed  at  home.      The  fine  linen  cloths 
called  <oiVm  ife  mulquinerie  are  principally  made  in  the 
departments  of  tlie  Alsne  and  Nord.     St.  Quentin  was 
once  noted  for  them;  now  that  town,  Cambray,  \'a- 
lenclennes,  and  Solesmes,  produce  cloths  so  fine,  culled 
balirte  and  {inon,  that  70,000  pieces  are  exported  to 
England.     The  beautiful  batist  embroider}'  employs 
18,000  persons  at  Nancy.      CoutiU,  a  cotton   cloth 
crossed  with  thread  of  linen,  are  woven  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Mayenne,  where  4600  looms  are  employed 
upon  this  article.     French  linen  differs  In  quality  ac- 
cording to  the  place  of  manufacture ;  but  in  general 
it  is  thicker  and  stifferthan  Irish  linen,  while  In  white- 
ness It  is  inferior  to  the  linen  of  Flanders  and  Holland, 
It  is,  however,  a  sabstantial  and   durable   article. 
Cambrics,  thread,  gauze,  and  lawn,  rank  among  the 
leading  manufactures  of  the  north-east  part  of  France. 
They  are  made  at  St.  Quentin,  Valenciennes,  Cam- 
bray, and  to  a  smaller  extent  at  Douai,  Chauney,  and 
Uuise.      Ijice  is  still  more  general,  being  made  in 
quantities  at  Valenciennes,  Dieppe,  Alen^on',  Caen, 
Bayeux,  and  Argnntau.     Machinery  had,  up  to  1820, 
been  very  little  applied  to  this  manufacture  in  France, 
and  the  number  of  women  employed  in  it  was  Very 
great.    There  are  considerable  manufactures  of  printed 
linens ;  and  the  dyeing  of  llnon  thread  gives  rise  to 
an  extensive  commerce.     At  Rouen,  and  in  the  sur- 
rounding districts,  this  branch  of  industry  is  carried 
on ;  and  many  stuffs  of  great  variety,  and  for  which 
there  is  a  brisk  demand,  are  produced.     In  1822  tha 
duties  on  foreign  thread  and  linen  were  raised  by  the 
French  government  till  they  wore  nearly  prohibitory ; 
and  thr  annual  Importation  from  Germany  and  Bel- 
glum,  which  formerly  amounted  to  a  million  and  a 
half,  almost  entirely  ceased.     The  price  of  home-made 
linen  rose  26  and  30  per  cent.;  the  consumers  had 
recourse  to  cotton  as  a  substitute  ;  the  French  dyeing 
trudo  foil  ofl*,  and  also  the  entrep6t  trade  in  foreign 
linens,  both  of  thorn  sources  of  great  business. 


.^;'i^i;:-j-»-iiSii;4.  ■ 


nu 


tt« 


FRA 


Tk«  T«hw  of  Ik*  IMM  MBMlljr  gMw«  !■  rnaM 
Mgr  b«  wni|>iUa4  aiCl,MO,OW,  Ik*  fiMiUlly  Im|aftt4 
•I  A00,«iO0t  logallMr  41,4M,<MW|  •  «■!■•  wblak  te 
dokblwl  In  tk*  oMfM  ■HuAHitMfM,  Mid  irtiM  In  tk« 
BnM.     Of  IkU  quMMiljr  W  baMp,  Ik*  kalf  U  ni 


Into  oani-M  ud  tkimA,  ■  Iklnl  Into  i-*nlaM,  and  lh« 
lamalnikr  Iota  elotk  for  domwlia  um.  Ot  tlia  Man 
uniully  (m|ilo]r*d,  lb«  vnlu*  la  •biiiil  Mm»,(HM>t  • 
■um  wkkih  U  Irlplail  wkan  It  li  ommU  np  Into  Ilinia4, 
llnan,  and  mlzad  itafk,  and  muck  mora  than  triplMi 
In  tha  dnar  qualltUa. 

/ran.— rnuM*  bad  ia  MM  abont  6W  rnniaaat,  id 
wbloh  mofn  Iban  800  an  lald  to  ba  bbwt-rurnacai.  It 
b,  howarar,  alaMMt  tmpoatlbU  to  •tuartain  Ik*  a*a«l 
numbar  of  blaat-flinuMMi,  Ik*  paaltion  tit  wblab  I*  rB||> 
ulalad  by  tbal  of  tha  Itoa  mina*.  Tkay  ara  .hlaNy  In 
Iba  nounUlnuua  daf^rlmanta  of  tha  Uonhitfna  In  lb* 
•oulb-wait,  and  of  tha  Ilaut*  Mama,  lb*  llauta  H*. 
6na,  and  tba  C6la  da'Or,  in  Iba  aaat  of  Iba  lilni|4i>in. 
Of  forga*  for  maUaaUa  Iron,  oallad  /iirgti  i  la  C'ata- 
Imt,  Ibara  ara  aigbtjr-ils  aaattarad  tbronnbonl  dlllbrini 
dapartoMnti,  but  cblafl.r  In  tba  bllljr  part  of  LanifU** 
doc.  Tbcra  an  alao  a  nnmliar  uf,  wln-wnrki  In 
t'ranoc,  in  wbicb,  a*  in  tha  bUat-ftimacaa,  titcra  hai 
baan  ainca  1780  a  pmnnialvn  but  vary  ilnw  Inonaaa, 
altogetbar  dllTarant  from  tha  rapid  ailvanua  of  lb* 
Iron-workiof  England  pravlouily  to  IHIA, 

Tha  (tatfenary  charactar  of  thana  worka  ba*  avl> 
dantly  baan  owing  to  tba  deflolancy  uf  fual  and  of  w*> 
tar  oommnnieation  i  dlladvantagaa  wbiiih  pnrant  tba 
bardwan  manuAutaraa  from  iwlng  oonoanlntlad  In 
dllaa  or  populoua  diitricta,  and  cauM  tbam  to  lia 
•pnad  ovar  tha  country  ia  petty  townn  iir  vlllagaa, 
with  a  vary  liinltad  divitlon  of  labor,  and  a  eonaaquant 
infariority  of  axacution.  Tba  naull  la,  that  Kranca 
dua*  not  export  bardwan,  and  that  in  nothing  It 
tha  inferiority  of  domattio  aooororoodatlon  In  that  noun- 
try  Dion  oonipicuout  than  In  artlcbi*  wblub  lia- 
long  to  the  provittc*  «f  the  lookainith  and  eutlar.  Tb* 
amount  of  pig.iroa  annually  maiia  In  Kranua  a|ipaan 
to  be  about  100,000  toni.  The  value  of  lb*  bardwan 
of  the  kingdom,  including  cutlery,  aruia,  and  other 
•rtiolaa  of  nice  workmanthip,  ia  eomputail  at  XM.UOO,- 
000  or  <9,000,000  sterling.  Fine  cutlery  In  fiirmar 
tlnaa  wat  burgaty  anugglad  into  franca,  Imt  now  to  a 
■ucb  aroallar  extant.  Tba  annual  lni|)<irl  of  Iron  alid 
at'  ol  is  only  from  XS,000,000  to  48,000,0<N).  Tha  high 
price  of  iron  it  a  graat  obatmotion  to  tha  pmgni*  of 
the  bardwan  manufactuna;  and  Ibit  circumttanoa 
placea  bi  a  ttrong  light  lb*  impolicy  of  lb*  liaavy  ilu- 
tlM  on  fonign  iron,  by  which,  nutwitkttanding  Ilia 
change  In  tba  acala  of  duty  in  188H,  all  tbota  ltn|iort- 
ant  branchea  ef  industry  in  which  iron  It  utud  nn 
ttnnted  in  their  growth.  In  copper,  tb*  Imiiurtatlont 
greatly  exceed  Ik*  bom*  piodace.  From  Una!  Ilrl^ 
ain  the  quantity  impoited  for  the  last  ton  y*art  hai 
Increaied  from  800  to  20,000  bundf«d  weight.  Of 
|**d,  alto,  tb*  cbiaf  part  ia  imported.  Tba  manuAw)- 
Inn  of  tteel  bat  only  lieen  lately  Introduoad  Into 
Fnnc*.  Prior  to  1786  there  wa*  no  manufactory  of 
this  useful  articia;  and  it  wat  only  after  aui'imiits  had 
been  publithed  by  iclentific  peraont  uf  the  cuiii|>o>ltlon 
•f  that  article,  and  after  repaatad  asparlmantt,  tlwl  In 
1809  manufadoric*  of  tiael  wen  *ttBblltk*d,  whlsb 
have  been  tino*  *xt*nded  to  aavaral  dtparlmento,  *t> 
p*oially  to  tboee  of  the  Loin. 

SM — Am  ngarda  lilk,  France  poaaaaa**,  Uitb  from 
physical  cauaes  and  tiom  the  long-cttablltbad  mann* 
iactun,  a  decided  tnperbrity.  Nalbarry-traa*  wart 
introduced  In  tbu  fifteentb  centut.  ,  and  wan  flnt 
planted,  not  in  the  south,  but  in  the  uentnil  part  of  the 
kingdom,  n^ar  Tours.  That  town  was  the  seat  of  tb* 
earliest  silk  nianufactuns,  and  it  was  niH  till  IWNI  thai 
Ik*  cultun  of  the  mnlb*rry  was  carried  toiitliwani, 

Tb*  mnllwrry  tbrivai  In  a  Tariaty  of  tolls,  and  may 
b*  plantad  with  tnooaat  in  n*gl*ctad  boriUn  or  In 
waste  land*. 


Tk*  BMilfhaMn  of  tUk  I*  o*natdend  a*  an  bnporl< 
ani  bramb  of  Vnnek  Iwlnalry,  not  only  on  accoaai  of 
Ik*  v*rl*ty  and  lieantv  af  tha  fbbrlct,  but  bavanaa  tk* 
nw  matorial  Is  an  Indigansu*  product  of  Ike  couatry. 
II  wa*  **tlnMt*d*  W  vean  ago  tkal  the  amount  of  tb* 
aaanal  talet  to  (bnlgnert  w*«  tO,OM),(Nii)  fr. »  thai 
Ik*  ham*  runaumMbin  af  lb*  kbigdoui  amoonla  to 
4I,«H,8M|  and  Ikal  Iba  whole  annual  value  of  tha 
tUk  manuAuilun  waa  aqaal  to  4:4,&0H,INt».  The  niaau. 
AmImm  of  silk  la  net  conlln*d  to  any  iiarticniar  spot. 
It  It  carried  iw  In  dlffiiranl  parti  of  tk*  country,  ia  aU 
of  wkkik  ildUfuaat  protperity.  It  baaenrioked  tk* 
poor  of  Mbnaa,  of  Avignon,  and  of  Tours.  HI.  <;kans< 
und  and  Hi.  Klianna  owe  a  great  part  of  their  pn>spai«> 
ily  lo  tlie  nianufttitun  of  riblmns,  and  tb*  town  of 
(iangas  to  bunnstorl*.  I'arit  derivee  iminente  prollta 
froM  her  manufaclun  uf  silk  stockings,  and  utker 
ralirlos,  aither  of  silk  with  a  mixtun  of  silk,  or  of 
wiNil  anil  I'litton.  Hllk  in  also  the  great  staple  menu* 
hctun  of  Ijvimt,  In  wbk'b  It  la  carried  on  In  all  it* 
biMMtka*  witn  aatanishlng  succ**s  j  and  sine*  tha  Kevo- 
lulkw,  In  •ddlllon  In  fabrics  of  silk,  all  totit  of  atulfa 
mined  wllk  illk,  and  with  cotton  and  wool,  have  lieen 
maaufautarad  ■  and  lo  these  manufacturaa  Lyont  la  ln« 
dable<l  fur  Ita  riches,  having  ritan  not  only  to  be  tba 
seconU  town  In  Franca,  but  one  of  the  moat  oppulent 
and  Aourisbing  cillea  In  tb*  world.  It  was  'iO  yean 
agu  asllmttad  that  aliout  00,000  or  70,000  liiilividuals, 
young  and  oM,  wen  supported  liy  the  silk  raanufitcture 
In  Lyons  iml  the  adjacent  dittrict ;  but  the  number  bat 
InunuMad  'ib  |ier  cent,  tine*  IHSfi.  The  dyeing  of  allk 
liaing  an  Important  branch  of  the  manufoctun,  many 
*x|i*rlm«nlt  were  made  lo  bring  it  to  perfection  t  and, 
In  iwrtivulnr,  a  dye  uf  perfect  black  that  would  ntain 
Ita  color  wat  a  desideratum.  Tbia  dye  wat  invented  by 
a  romniun  dyer  at  Lyont,  who  ncelved  a  penakin,  be- 
sida  lielng  made  a  memlwr  of  the  I.egion  of  Honor. 
I'rior  to  tilts,  the  black  dye  which  waa  used  changed 
In  a  liw  ibiyt  to  a  liruwn,  and  came  oiT  the  stuff  wii«n 
It  wa*  hsnl  preaaeil  liy  the  bend.  Another  Improve- 
ment whirh  was  made  conalsted  In  producing  a  sUk  of 
a  parnianeiit  white  colur.  The  eggs  of  the  worm  which 
proilave<l  this  silk  were  brought  from  t^hina,  not  how- 
ever with  tha  desired  success.  The  worm  wa*  after- 
ward purrliitseil  from  a  merchant  of  Aluis,  and  dlt- 
trlbut*<t  In  tha  nurthem  d*partm*nt  of  the  country  \ 
and  lb*  produoe  of  while  tUk  b  now  very  coniidenble, 
and  of  great  bntwrtance  In  tb*  manuftdun  of  gauiet, 
unpes,  and  tulles.  Other  Invention*  ware  d*vis*d 
fur  saving  lalwr  n  tin  various  stages  of  the  silk  manux 
factun,  by  which,  In  this  branch  of  industry,  Franc* 
wat  long  enabled  to  outetrip  all  her  naigkbon,  though 
uf  lata  yean  the  tilk  manufactun  hat  mad*  immant* 
advances  In  Ureal  Hritaln. 

Th*ra  wen  In  l«m  no  let*  Ikan  9,681,814  mulberry 
lr*«t  In  k'tmm-m  for  Ih*  nonrlahment  of  tb*  tllk-worm. 
Ih***  lupplM  food  for  cocooni  producing  in  1819,  ac- 
eoNlIng  to  Ckaptal,  (,147,609  kilogramm**  of  cocoont. 
In  1N86,  lb*  prmluct  bad  inorcaied  9,000,000,  yielding 
■i78,0U0  kllitgrammea  uf  tUk  grJige,  and  161,000  kilo- 
grammes organElne.  At  pnsent  (1866)  the  quantity 
uf  silk  furnished  amounts  lo  1,600,000  kilogrammes ; 
wbleh,  at  66  fr.  per  kilogramme,  Ike  average  price, 
glvei  a  sum  of  88,000,000  fr.  at  the  value  of  the  amount 
itnidiuied,  In  1810  tha  amount  waa  only  4,078,198 
klbignnimea  of  cocoons,  at  8  fr.  46  cen.  per  kilo- 
gramma.  In  1811U  it  bad  riaen  to  9,007,967,  at  3f^. 
Mt  c*n.  I  while  lb*  wound  tilk  (grig**  liUes),  which 
In  1810  only  rcanhed  860,629  kib>f^mmet,  at  46  fr.  12 
cen.,  In  1NH6  had  Increuted  to  876,016  kilogrammes,  at 
68  fr.  (I-I  cen.  per  kilogramme.  But  the  home  growth 
nut  being  enough  to  meat  the  demand,  importiition* 
took  place  to  the  extent  of  1,164,966  kilogrammes,  val- 
ued at  68,781,688  fr,,  and  tkay  still  inonate.    Italy, 


ini 

J 
inl 


Je, 


Itor 


•  8*e  Oottaa,  tw  fAgrkuUun  tt  lat  JfonHfaeturtt  d* 


FRA  I 

8wlti*rl«nil,  Tarlity,  and  Urcoca,  iiipply  Ih*  larger 
DMt.  A  inwU  quantity  li  ulitaiuMl  from  Auatrla  and 
Sanllnia.  Tha  axiwrtatlon  of  tlllu,  plain  and  ftowarad, 
from  17M7  to  1789,  oa  a  maan  uf  10  yaara,  waa  AT^  mil- 
Ibni  uf  rranclln  valuii.  In  10^8  it  waa  Ill,no0,00««,  an<l 
In  IMIIil  30«>  milllona  of  franca,  conaUtlnii  uf  3,7.10,014 
kllagrammaa,  undar  'M  diffarant  ilanonilnalluna  uf 
tfuwia.  Tha  tJnltad  Slataa,  England,  <;«rman)-,  than 
llalgiuro,  and,  laatly,  Spain,  ara  tha  principal  uutlata 
for  tha  ailki  of  Franca  |  but  South  Amarica,  Huula, 
•ad  Hwltxarland,  ars  alio  coaaldaraUa  purchaaan. 
Franca  axporti  allka  to  a  larga  amount  In  tha  way  of 
trannit,  I.yoaa,  Avignon,  Toura,  and  NImaa,  ara  tba 
principal  Mat*  of  tha  nunufactura  of  allk  atuffa ;  and 
St.  Ktianna,  Ht.  Chainord,  and  Tarin,  for  that  of  rib. 
iKms.  In  tha  arrondiaacmant  of  I.yona  and  Villa 
Francha,  thare  ara  81,0^1)  laoma.  The  manulhoture 
of  ribbona  at  8t,  Etienna  amploya  20,000  workman  and 
80,000  loom*,  ptoduoing  2'',47B,00O  fr.  value  annnally. 
The  fabrication  U  divided  Into  the  manufiictnrea  unit 
and/afonn^<.  Under  tha  flrit  head  are  thunx  nllh  the 
preAx  ffrot  i  ai,  groi  Jo  Naplti ;  thone  called  pou  ilf  toie, 
funtoril,  cripn,  which  liuit  are  aulMllvidefl  j  then  nntlnii 
and  the  like.  Hie  ribbons  am,  In  like  mnnnnr,  ilintln- 
gulahcd  by  differont  appallationa,  after  tha  nature  of 
the  fkbrlc.  St.  F:tienne  employe  In  all  270,000  tpin- 
dlea  (brocktt)  \  of  which  106,000  work  organzlnes  and 
Iramea,  and  114,000  work  the  allk  Intended  for  crapei 
and  gauia  ribbona.  Tho  number  of  lonma  haa  been 
eatimated  In  all  at  65,000  for  weaving  allkt,  and  80,000 
for  ribbona. 

The  raw  allk  or  ailk-wool  coninmed  In  France  In 
1«40  waa  valued  at  63,7.11,586  fr.  j  while  the  volue  of 
the  ailks  in  transit  reached  40,184,001  fr.  Plain  and 
flowered  allk  contumed  at  home,  •=  6,200,490  tr. ;  that 
which  posaod  in  traniit  =>  87,204,483  fr.  |  being  a  total 
of  136,869,810  fr.  A  decree  of  tha  18th  Auguit,  1862, 
permits  tho  free  exportations  of  allk. 

The  silk-wool  of  French  production  exported  In  1840 
waa  valued  at  8,798,103  fr, ;  the  fnrclijn  grown  silk- 
wool  exported  at  47,491,164  fr.  TJie  value  of  the  ex- 
?)rt  and  Import  together  was  thua  380,250,696  fr. 
he  following  are  the  most  important  districts  of  the 
mulberry,  with  the  growth  respectively,  and  tha  oo- 
coonj  produced  In  1840 : 


Dbiriiti. 

HaaUrM, 

Oard 

14,l>4t 
Mil 
B,«Oti 

«,0T8 

1,B4< 

1,8I» 

8S< 

T8T 

89,TT0 

Drl^me, . , 

AidAflha 

Uirault..., 

I««ro 

Bouchea  du  Rhdne 

RMne , 

AIn :.. 

Vor, 

Total 

CoMaiw. 


s,<rM,aoo 

i,S8ft,IIM 
1,T<M1I 

6«o,«no 

l,248,ffn 
6«»,B0T 
54S,IH0 
471,660 
T4,T1« 
4»l.TfiO 
11,068,868 


About  600,000  kilngrammea  of  cocoons  are  produced 
In  the  other  departments.  The  importation  of  Eqglish 
woven  silk  into  France  in  1869  waa  62,703  kilogrammes, 
in  value  6,464,699  fr. 

Articles  of  leather  are  In  France  much  cheaper  than 
in  England. 

Jewelry,  Porcelain,  etc. — Jewelrj'  Is  made  In  Paris  to 
the  value  of  60,000,000  fr.  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Bor- 
deaux, Clermont,  and  Strasbourg  are  also  famous  for 
Jewelry.  Watch  and  clock-making  are  carried  on  to 
a  great  extent  in  France,  particularly  In  Paris,  A 
time-piece  is  there  a  much  more  frequent  article  of 
ornamental  furniture  than  in  England ;  and  tho  number 
of  clocks  and  watches  made  annually  in  the  kingdom 
it  not  lets  in  value  than  80,000,000  fr.,  employing 
10,000  hands.  The  works  In  bronze  are  chiefly  manu- 
fticturcd  In  the  capital,  and  reach.  In  their  diiTerent 
branches  and  stagei,  of  which  gilding  is  the  chief,  a 
ftarther  annual  value  of  37,000,000  fr. 

Paris  ia  remarkable  for  other  fabrics  of  taste  and 
Inxurr ;  iA  particular,  the  porcelain  of  Sevres,  near  St. 


Cloud,  and  tha  liaaultful  but  vary  axMHialva  lapaattr 
of  the  Gobellnes.  The  materiala  of  th«  latter  arc  stlk 
and  tha  Anait  woiden  thread ;  the  suhjecla  wovvn  Inta 
tba  work  ara  taken  fr>m  paintings  aieiutad  on  puN 
ptiae.  tbith  the  establinhmentii  hare  lieea  long  con- 
ducted  b}'  government  at  a  sairltlre,  and  Imth  ara  now 
on  a  reduced  srale,  the  articles  lieing  far  tiN>  coAtly  Air 
ordinar)'  fortunes.  Tha  articlea  mure  frequently  puN 
chased  are  pnttemtnlerit,  by  which  is  understood  artl> 
flclal  flowers,  fringes,  gold  und  silver  laca,  with  a  va- 
riaty  of  trifling  but  tasteful  articles,  all  sufflclentlf 
adapted  to  a  city  where  so  muoh  mora  la  tluiught  of 
display  than  of  utility. 

iSoap. — The  value  of  all  the  toap  made  In  France  U 
computed  at  80,000,000  fir.  The  main  Ingredient  ll 
olive  oil ;  and  Haraellles  was  formerly  the  leat  of  thit 
manufacture  fur  almost  all  France — an  advantage  ow- 
ing iKith  to  the  extent  of  the  oltve-grounda  In  tht 
south-east  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  vicinity  of  Maiv 
seilles  to  Italy,  tha  Levant,  and  Spain,  whence  so<ht 
and  olive  oil  were  Imported  in  vast  quantities,  A  mlU 
lion  of  francs  were  paid  for  Iwuntles  on  thx  export  of^ 
soap  in  1862.  The  export  of  soap  from  France  in  1838 
WAS  2,011,681  kilogrammes,  valued  at  2,941, 6.'ll  fr. 
The  disorders  of  tho  flrst  Rrvolutlun,  and  the  establish' 
ment  of  similar  manufactures  in  other  parts  of  (Yanca, 
have  caused  to  Harseilles  the  loss  nf  a  third  of  its 
soap  works)  they  are  still,  howev  '  ery  extensive. 
Of  the  oil  used  in  France,  whale  oil  forms  a  very  small 
pro|Mirtion:  the  great  supply  Is  of  vegetable  oil,  via., 
that  extracted  from  the  rape  and  cole-seed  of  tha 
north,  and  the  olive  oil  of  the  south. 

Beer,  formerly  little  drunk  in  France,  haa  becoma 
of  extended  consumption  since  1790 ;  but  even  at 
present,  the  quantity  used  does  not  exceed  412,000,000 
sterling,  Ita  place  being  supplied  by  cider  In  the  north, 
and  by  wine  in  the  south.  Within  the  lost  few  years 
there  Is  a  considerable  consumption  of  F.ngllsh  bottled 
stout  and  porter,  and  a  lesser,  though  increasing,  con- 
sumption of  English  ale.  The  breweries  have  increased, 
and  are  increasing,  In  Purls,  as  well  as  In  the  northern 
departments.  The  consumption  which  corresponds 
h)  that  of  English  home-made  spirits  and  rum.  Is  in 
tirandy,  (if  which  the  value  annually  made  Is  between 
^,000,000  and  X3,000,000  sterling.  The  distillation 
varies  in  amount  with  the  season.  The  brandies  of 
Cognac,  Jamac,  and  Angoultme,  are  most  in  esteem. 
The  best  brandy  Is  miut''  In  a  district  eoUed  Cham- 
pagne, comprehending  a  pint  of  Saintes  .lonzac  and 
Cognac  territory.  In  Franche-Compt6  and  Alsace,  a 
brandy  called  KIrsch  Is  made,  but  little  of  which  is 
exported.  The  H6rauU,  Aude,  and  Oard,  supply  the 
largest  quantity  of  spirit  of  wine.  The  best  Is  called 
that  of  troit-ur.  The  amount  varies  from  40,000  to 
80,000  pipes  of  80  veltes,  Ave  of  which  form  a  quintal, 
A  velte  Is  7-01  litres  =  1-676  gallon.  Beer  is  brewed 
in  the  northern  and  eastern  departments,  viz. 


QuMillly. 
HwtnlllrM. 

Word  OrlonUl 8,llfi,ei5 

Nord  Occidental 6«T,879 

Midi  Oriental 160,94!3 


V.l...'"^''' 

r<.     '  >t 

41,419,489 
0,429,281 
6,44I,n» 


Cider  is  made  everywhere ;  In  largest  quantity  In  the 
Nord  Occidental,  and  the  best  In  La  Mancha  and  Cal- 
vados. Some  is  distilled  for  '  randy.  The  quantity  ti 
estimated  at  11,000,000  hectolitres,  at  7  fr.  76  cen. 
Normandy  furnishes  half.  The  whole  Is  worth  84,- 
000,000  fir.  There  is  also  a  considerable  distillation 
of  spirit  from  potatoes,  "  which,"  says  Chaptal  (vol.  ii,, 
p,  197),  "  has  liecn  generally  approved,  and  has  been 
brought  into  competition  with  brandy, 

I^iser  Afanu/actures. — Of  hats,  the  manufactures, 
formerly  concentrated  at  Lyons  and  Marseilles,  are 
now  dilTused  throughout  several  towns  ;  and  the  value 
annually  made  Is  about  24,000,000  fir.  The  ht.t  manu- 
fucture  of  Paris  is  estimated  at  an  annual  production 
of  1,200,000,  of  the  average  value  of  five  francs  each, 
and  employing  2000  men  and  2600  women.    Superior 


FRA 


Tie 


FRA 


qnalttles  of  itlk  bats  are  sold  to  the  retail  tradeamen  at 
iVom  9  fr.  to  11  tt.,  for  which  the  latter  obtain  iVom 
16  tr.  to  18  tr.  The  hat  manufacture  in  France  em- 
ploys 17/100  hands,  and  yields  a  value  of  19,600,000  tt., 
in  1159  workshops.  The  second  order  of  hatters,  who 
flnish  the  hats  according  to  the  diflerent  tastes  re- 
quired, elevate  the  value  of  the  trade  tn  24,876,000  tr. 
The  manufacture  of  gloves — principally  made  at  Greno- 
ble, though  called  "Paris  gloves"— employs  26,000 
persons.  In  1889,  the  value  of  the  gloves  made  in 
France  was  9,436,000  fr. ;  in  1840,  6,666,000  fr.  The 
tanneries  prepare  88,286,004  kilogrammes  of  leather, 
valued  at  82,864,706  fr.,  for  boots,  shoes  saddlery,  etc. 
Perfumery  is  made  extensively  in  Paris,  .'■1  in  the 
south,  chiefly  at  Montpellier,  where,  trom  the  mildness 
of  the  climate,  aromatic  plants  are  abundant.  The 
value  of  the  manufacture  is  about  18,000,000  fr.  Pa- 
per being  exempt  flrom  the  heavy  duties  of  England,  la 
sold  in  France  upon  verj-  reasonable  terms,  while  in 
qnalitj'  it  is  equal  to  our  own.  The  value  annually 
used  in  printing  and  in  wHing  is  computed  at  26,000,- 
000  of  francs ;  and  the  paper  employed  in  the  hanging 
of  rooms  is  estimated  at  an  equal  value.  Of  glass,  the 
manufacture  has  been  much  improved  and  extended 
during  the  present  age.  Whether  for  mirrors,  for 
windows,  «r  for  bottles,  this  article  in  Franco  is  good, 
and  of  a  moderate  price.  The  number  of  glass- 
houses in  1818  was  185,  and  is  now  over  220.  Small 
mirrors  are  manufactured  much  cheaper  in  France 
than  in  England.  Bohemia  is  the  country  with  which 
the  French  manufacturers  state  they  can  not  compete. 
As  to  earthenware,  i*'  is  only  since  1790  that  English 
potter}-  has  l>een  successfully  imitated  in  France.  It  is 
now  made  to  the  value  of  29,000,000  fr. ;  while  the 
coarse  earthenware,  fabricated  in  almost  every  prov- 
ince of  the  kingdom,  is  computed  at  lb,900,621  fr.,  em- 
ploying 10,433  hands.  French  earthenware  is  very 
inferior  to  English.  .Saltpetre,  till  lately  a  monopo- 
lized manufacture,  is  now  unrestricted.  Sulphuric 
acid  has,  since  the  Iwginning  of  the  present  century, 
been  greatly  lowered  in  price  and  increased  in  quantity. 

Sugar The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  l)eet-raot 

was  introduced  into  France  during  the  reign  of  Na- 
poleon Bonaparte,  when,  tlie  coasts  of  France  Iwing 
blockaded  by  the  fleets  of  Britain,  the  importation  of 
foreign  articles,  and  among  others  that  of  sugar,  was 
rendered  dangerous  and  difficult ;  and  its  price  was  so 
high  as  entirely  to  preclude  its  consumption  by  the 
middle  classes  of  society.  Various  articles  were  re- 
sorted to  aa  substitutes,  such  as  honey,  and  juice  of 
raisins,  etc.,  but  they  were  not  relished  l>y  the  taste 
of  the  people ;  and  in  this  case  experiments  were  tried 
by  eminent  chemists  to  extract  from  iMet-root  the 
sugar  which  it  contained.  These  experiments  were 
successful.  There  were  in  1831  more  than  200  cs- 
talilishments,  from  which  were  produced  annually 
7,480,000  pounds  of  raw  sugar;  an;!  there  were  in 
1854  303,  pro<luclng  62,205,000  pounds.  The'  largest 
sum  paid  by  tlie  administration  of  the  customs  has 
been  for  refined  sugar.  It  amounted  in  1852  to  16,- 
000,000  fr. 

Afachinery. — The  manufacture  of  machiner}'  has 
greatly  increased.  Steam-engines  have  been  intro- 
duced into  France  from  Great  Britain,  where  they  are 
now  employed  in  ever}'  department  of  industry.  It 
was  in  the  year  1779,  at  the  village  of  Challlot,  near 
Purls,  that  the  first  steam-engine  was  established  in 
France ;  but,  owing  to  prejudices,  and  attachment  to 
old  custdins,  it  was  long  liefdrc  these  engines  came 
into  verj'  general  use.  Prejudice,  however,  gradually 
faded  away  liefore  the  productive  powers  and  manifest 
utility  of  this  extraordiiiary  application  of  science  to 
the  business  of  life,  and  there  are  now  many  estulilish- 
ments  for  the  manufacture  of  these  machines.  The 
scarcity  of  coal  is  a  great  olntruction  to  the  extensive 
use  of  steam-engines ;  and  the  tax  on  foreign  coal  is, 
In  this  view,  peculiarly  impolitic,  and  injurious  to  the 


general  intensta  of  the  community.  Tha  tax,  tlmngh 
lately  reduced  by  the  Imperial  government,  requires 
still  further  reduction. 

In  1886,  of  1749  steam-engines  in  France,  1398  were 
home  made.  In  1889  the  import  surpassed  the  export. 
Since  that  year  the  reverse  has  been  the  case.  The 
metallic  castings  in  France  are  itill  very  inferior  to 
those  of  England.  Paris  is  the  principal  seat  of  the 
mannfa(ture  of  French  machinery,  then  Arras,  Creu- 
lot,  Rouen,  Mulhausen,  and  Nantes.  Locomotive  en- 
gines are  made  at  BItschwiller,  in  the  department  of 
the  Haut-Rhin ;  machinery  for  steam-vessels  at  In- 
dret.  The  value  of  French  industry  has  t>een  esti- 
mated in  the  mean  product  as  follows : 

mm». 
Iron  ttom  the  ore  to  the  perfect  state, 

minerals,  etn 124,000,000 

Copper,  (Inc.  and  lead 2(liA0fl,a00 

Glass,  crt'stal,  and  looklng-glasies 4T,S00,00O 

Tiles,  briolis,  llmo,  plaster M,0O0,00O 

Porcelain,  pottery,  otc 27,000,000 

Chemical  manufavturcs,  tlio  products. . . .    23,000,000 
Hemp  and  Flax  (supposed  to  bo  no  less 

than  825  millions  of  tnaoD 860,000,000  - 

Cotton 800,000,000 

Wool 400,000,000 

811k 280,000,1100 

Leather  and  skins 800,00p,000 

Sugar. 48,000,000 

Paper,  colored  and  figured 28,000,(100 

Printed  paper,  books,  etu 28,000,000 

Machinery 10,000,000 

Clocks  and  watches 80,000,000 

Bmnies. 2^(IOO,a0O 

"     plntodwore 6,000,000 

"     J(>»  I'Iry  and  goldiimlth's  work.. . .    60,000,000 

Distilleries,  breweries. 208,0011,000 

DllTorcnt  branches  of  Industry 186,000,000 

Hechaaic  and  domostto  arts 280,000,000 


£1 16,440,000= 2,211,000,000 

"  Lalwr  in  Paris  is  as  much  dearer  relatively  to  thfi 
provincial  towns  of  France,  as  lalior  in  London  is  rela- 
tively to  those  of  England,  It  still  remains  for  us  to 
remove  from  our  capital  some  manufactures  which 
liave  been  most  injudiciously  estuidishcd  there ;  but 
the  French  have  carried  this  false  calculation  much 
further,  Paris  l)eing  the  centre  not  only  of  ornamental 
fabrics,  such  as  jewelry,  bronze,  sculpture,  ciibinet- 
making,  and  the  vast  variety  of  elegant  trifles  com- 
prised under  the  term  "  articles  de  Paris,"  but  of  a 
number  of  coarser  employments,  which  a  very  slight 
change  of  plan  might  transfer  to  a  cheaper  quurter. 
Periodical  exhibitions  of  French  manufactures  are  lield 
at  Paris  every  three  or  four  years,  at  which  are  pres- 
ent the  sovereign,  the  princes,  the  nobility,  and  all 
eminent  men  of  science.  In  1855  was  opened  in 
Paris  an  Exhibition  of  the  Industry  of  all  Nations, 
similar  to  that  which  took  place  in  London  in  1851, 
and  in  Dublin  in  1853.  The  Parisian  exhibition,  lik« 
the  Dublin  one,  contained  a  branch  dedicated  to  tha 
fine  arts.  This  exposition  continued  open  from  May 
till  the  middle  of  November.  It  was  twice  visited  by 
her  majesty  Queen  Victoria  lietween  the  20th  and  25th 
August  in  her  nine  days'  visit  to  France.  There  is 
also  in  that  capital  a  Contenatoire  Jet  Arts  et  dtt 
Mftieri ;  a  collection,  on  a  large  scale,  of  models  of  all 
instruments  or  machines  that  relate  to  arts  and  manu- 
factures. It  is  more  the  practice  also  in  France  than 
in  Britain  to  encourage  ingenious  inventions  in  the 
mechanical  arts,  by  premiums,  orders  of  merit,  and 
other  honorarj-  marks  of  distinction.  Yet,  with  all 
these  advantages,  industry  has  not  made  the  same 
progress  as  in  this  country. 

"  To  prescribe  th'>  mode  of  manufacture  was  formerly 
a  favorite  course  with  government  in  England  as  in 
France.  From  the  time  of  Coliiert  (1600)  the  French 
ordonnancet  prescribed  peremptorily  the  length  and 
breadth  of  serges,  of  druggets,  in  short,  of  every  kind 
of  cloth  calculated  for  export,  under  the  plausible  Idea 
that  ail  these  jjrecuutions  were  necessary  tn  establish 
a  reputation  for  quality.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that 
these  rules  were  desired  l>y  the  maoufacturors  theio- 


/.: 


FRA 


nt 


mIvm,  and  wen  long  considered  u  the  gafegnard  of 
French  lnduitr;f .  A  change  was  introduced  iu  1779, 
and  pennlaslon  given  to  every  manufacturer  to  follow 
his  own  method,  provided  he  distinguished  the  goods 
*hus  made  from  those  which  were  in  conformity  with 
the  regulations.  But  this  was  of  verj*  short  duration. 
The  power  of  habit  and  prejudice  prevailed.  New 
onbnnancM,  issued  the  succeeding  year,  revived  the 
former  limitations ;  and  the  manufacturers  of  France 
were  not  put  on  an  unrestricted  footing  till  the  Revolu- 
tion. Much  inconvenience  had  also  been  sustained 
from  the  absurd  law  which  prevented  a  workman  from 
settling  in  business  in  any  town  excepting  that  in 
wliii'h  he  had  served  an  apprenticeship.  Tliis  law  was 
abroKiited  in  1707. 

"  The  manufacturing  industry  of  France  is  confined, 
far  more  than  ours,  to  the  home  market,  whether  we 
look  to  the  supply  of  the  raw  material,  or  to  the  export 
of  tlie  finished  articles.  Her  imports  are  large  only 
in  cotton  and  silk ;  in  woolen  and  iron  they  are  not 
considerable ;  white  in  flax,  hemp,  and  leather,  they 
may  l)e  termed  insignificant.  In  exports  the  limita- 
tion is  stiii  more  striking,  her  hardware,  her  linen,  her 
wooiens,  her  cotton,  her  leather,  and,  in  a  gTeat  meas- 
ure, her  silk,  being  confln.i  tn  the  liome  market;  a 
restriction  owing  partly  to  n'  manufacturing  supe- 
riority but  more  to  the  capital  of  our  merchants,  their 
ability  to  give  long  credit,  and  to  deal  with  foreign 
traders  and  merchants  in  a  iiljcral  and  not  in  a  petty 
retail  spirit.  The  productive  industiy  of  France  is  con- 
sequently much  less  subject  tlian  ours  to  sudden  fluc- 
tuation. It  follows  nearly  the  same  routine  year  after 
year.  On  the  occurrence  of  a  war,  or  other  politic.il 
change,  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  our  neigh- 
bors, to  borrow  a  phrase  of  Talleyrand  (Letter  to  Mr. 
Fox,  Ist  April,  1806),  »e  replien'  sur  mxfaime>."—'E,.  B. 

Commerce,  Colonies,  Fisheries,  Shipping. — In  no 
country  in  Europe  has  trade  been  laid  under  such 
galling  restrictions  as  in  France  ;  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  this  system  of  restriction  has  in  a  great  measure 
been  the  creation  of  mo<lem  times.  The  ancient  legis- 
lation of  the  kingdom  was  rather  friendly  to  Atreign 
trade.  It  encouraged  importation  in  preference  to  ex- 
portation. This  latter  privilege  of  export  was  in  1677 
claimed  by  Henri  III.  as  his  royal  and  «eignorial 
right ;  and  he  regulated  by  his  ordonnances  the  export 
duty  on  a  variety  of  articles,  while  the  produce  of 
foreign  countries  was  admitted  on  payment  of  an 
ad  valorem  duty  of  2  per  cent.  Louis  XIV.  intro- 
duced a  sort  of  navigation  act,  by  which  he  levied  a 
tax  of  50  sous  on  all  foreign  ships.  In  IRCt!  further 
restrictians  were  introduced ;  and  In  1C87  the  exclu- 
sive system  was  estaldishcd  in  its  full  rigor.  The 
statesmen  of  France  seem  to  have  imagined  that  a 
flourishing  commerce  could  he  created  bj'  legal  au- 
thority, and  that  domestic  industry  could  only  l>e  en- 
couraged by  the  exclusion  of  all  foreign  competition ; 
and  hence  all  the  vices  and  obsolete  maxims  of  the 
mercantile  system  will  still  be  found  in  the  commer- 
cial policy  of  our  neighbors.  The  extension  of  the 
restrictive  system  was  promoted  by  the  authority  of 
Colbert,  a  minister  who,  though  he  introduced  order 
into  the  finances,  and  improved  in  many  particulars 
the  system  of  taxation,  ami  was  indeed  a  great  master 
of  detail,  adopted  the  most  erroneous  maxims  of  com- 
mercial legislation.  It  is  justly  observed,  in  tlie  re- 
port of  Viliiers  and  Bowring  on  the  commercial  rela- 
tions between  Great  Britain  and  France,  that  the 
"  whole  of  the  Iwunties  by  which  he  induced  adven- 
turers to  enter  into  remote  speculations,  as  well  as  the 
excessive  duties  which  lie  imposed  on  cheaper  foreign 
articles,  were  almost  uncompensated  sacrifices ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  of  the  manufactures  which  he 
'.ransplanted  into  France,  and  which  he  protected  by 
the  exclusion  of  rival  productions,  scarcely  one  took 
permanent  root ;"  and  even  those  which  he  intended 
to  aupport  by  fpeclal  encouragement  would  all  of 


them  have  been  more  prosperoui,  but  for  the  regul*. 
tions  with  which  bis  mistaken  aeal  retarded  the  prog- 
ress of  manufacturing  industry.  His  whole  system 
was  an  attempt  to  regulate  by  law  what  wopld  have 
been  better  left  to  the  sagacit}*  of  Individuals,  and  to 
give  a  forced  and  artificial  direction  to  the  national 
capital.  Thus  he  encouraged  a  trade  to  the  West 
Indies  by  granting  a  imunty  of  26a.  on  every  ton  of 
goods  exported,  and  of  41s.  8d.  on  every  ton  imported. 
He  boasted  of  setting  up  40,000  looms  by  virtue  of 
legal  enactments,  without  considering  that  the  capital 
employed  in  these  establishments  would  have  taken  a 
more  natural  direction,  and  been  more  profitably  em- 
ployed, but  for  hU  interference.  The  restraints  also 
which  were  thus  laid  on  domestic  industry  were  often 
enforced  by  the  despotic  authority  of  government. 
Many  of  the  absurd  and  pernicious  regulations  of  Col- 
bert were  broken  down  by  the  first  French  Revolution ; 
but  others  remained,  and  the  tariff  of  1791  was  from 
lieginning  to  end  a  system  of  prohibition,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  encourage  the  home  manufacturer  l>y 
freeing  him  from  all  foreign  competitors.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  England  set  the  example  of  ilUberality ; 
and  it  was  no  wonder  that  the  French  of  that  day 
should  be  jealous  of  a  country  which  excluded  her 
silks  and  cambrics,  and  laid  a  discriminating  duty  of 
83^  per  cent,  on  French  wines ;  and  whose  Parliament, 
under  the  reign  of  William  III.,  declared  the  trade 
with  France  to  be  a  nuisance.  The  commercial  treaty 
concluded  with  France  in  1786  by  Mr.  Pitt  wts  the 
earnest  of  a  better  system.  Since  this  perio<?  the 
legislature  of  this  country  have  been  impressec'  with 
the  injurious  tendency  of  all  commercial  restrictions. 
But  in  France  the  progress  of  improvement  has  been 
slower,  and  it  has  besides  been  retarded  by  political 
events.  The  long  and  sanguinary  war  waged  between 
Great  Britain  and  France  subjected  tie  latter  to  the 
maritime  hostility  of  her  powerful  oppci-ent,  the  con- 
sequence of  which  was,  that  her  trade  with  foreign 
countries  was  interrupted,  and  the  supply  of  many  of 
their  staple  articles  of  produce  greatly  diminished,  and 
raised  enormously  in  price.  It  became  a  great  o)>ject, 
in  this  case,  to  produce  these  Articles  at  home.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  existing  restraints  upon  the  importation 
of  foreign  nunufactures,  special  encouragements  were 
given  to  the  production  of  articles  for  which  neither 
the  soil  nor  the  climate  of  France  was  peculiarly 
fitted.  Thus  when  the  maritime  blockade  of  Franco 
was  raised  by  the  peace  of  1814,  her  industr}-,  partly 
from  ancient  and  mistaken  maxims,  partly  from  the 
pressure  of  war,  received  a  very  artificial  direction, 
and  was  oppressed  by  ruinous  and  complicated  re- 
strictions. At  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814, 
the  tariff  of  1791  was  the  law  of  the  land.  It  had 
undergone  a  few  modifications,  but  these  were  mostly 
in  the  restrictive  and  prohibitory  spirit,  and  were  ac- 
commodated t«  the  hostile  position  which  Fnince  occu- 
pied in  regard  to  surrounding  nations.  When  the 
barrier  to  a  free  intercourse  with  foreign  nations  was 
at  length  thrown  down  by  the  peace  of  1814,  the  ex- 
clusive provisions  of  the  tariff  of  1791  were  brought 
into  full  operation;  and  when  the  obstacles  to  tlie 
commercial  intercourse  of  France  with  foreign  nations 
raised  up  l)y  the  war  were  withdrawn,  a  no  less  eflTect- 
ual  line  of  circumvallatlon  was  drawn  around  her 
commerce  by  the  restrictions  and  prohibitions  of  her 
own  erroneous  policy.  It  is  remarkable,  Indeed,  that 
a  committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  reporting 
on  the  budget  in  1832,  enters  into  an  exposition  and 
defense  of  the  restrictive  system,  the  principle  of 
which  is  to  encourage  domestic  industi)'  by  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  cheaper  and  better  manufactures  of  foreign 
nations. 

The  tariff  of  1791  either  excluded  from  France,  or 
laid  under  heavy  duties,  almost  all  the  great  staple 
manufactures  of  other  countries.  Manufactured  iron 
in  every  shape,  manufactured  steel,  copper,  tin,  cut- 


Ma 


fl8 


MA 


lerjr,  aaii  au  •rUoWt  muiufactnnd  fipom  any  of  the 
metaU ;  all  fabrlct  of  wool,  cotton,  silk,  or  tisauea  of 
hair,  aaddleiy,  ipirituons  liquora,  grain,  reflned  augar, 
tolMcco,  toys,  and  varioo*  other  inconaiderable  articlea, 
'  are  included  in  this  pharta  of  domestic  commerce. 
The  inconalatency,  and  the  fallacies  on  which  this  ays- 
tern  Is  founded,  are  well  exposed  in  the  report  of  Vil- 
liers  and  Bowring.  The  passage,  though  somewhat 
long,  ii  replete  with  instruction. 

'Ut  reqalraa  merdy  to  state  some  of  the  objaetlons  to  Im- 
portattoBS  in  order  to  show  their  narrow  and  antl-  comBterclal 
spirit.  The  Introduction  of  manufaotured  tin,  for  example, 
Is  opposed  because  it  might  beneflt  England,  which  Is  rich  In 
tin  mines,  aa  If  the  Importation  Into  France  oolM  take  place 
without  eqnall]r  benefiting  her.  The  reasons,  loo,  which  are 
groanded  on  the  superlorltj  of  other  countries ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, ■  dangerooa  riralrjr'  In  the  case  of  raanniketnred  steel ; 
'  oheapncas'  of  Ibreign  artleica  In  the  ease  of  shipping ;  threat- 
ened 'anulbUation  of  the  Franeh  manofltctore'  In  that  of  cut- 
lery ;  ■  extra  adranlagea  of  the  English'  in  plated  ware ;  '  ap- 
prehenilon  of  the  English'  In  articles  uf  pottery ;  *  Imprudence 
of  admitting  English  saddlery,'  as  so  many  persons,  regard- 
less of  price,  prefer  It ;  '  adTantages  of  machinery'  In  works 
of  Iron ;  all  are  modes  of  announcing  the  superiority  of  the 
foreign  artldes,  and  the  power  which  foreignen  possess  of 
supplying  them  on  eheaper  terms  than  they  can  be  produced 
at  home. 

"  There  are  other  grounds  of  prohlbltiou  by  wlileh  particu- 
lar French  manufactures  are  aroiredly  sacrlflced  to  the  Inter- 
est of  other  branches  of  French  Industry.  The  luiportation 
of  extractfi  of  dye-woods  Is  disallowed  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
oonrsging  the  Importation  of  the  dye-woods  themselves ;  the 
Interest  of  the  dyer,  the  mannfscturer,  the  consanier,  being 
nholly  forgotten.  The  Importation  of  Iroll  of  certain  sixes  Is 
prohibited,  lest  smsll  manufiMturers  should  establish  fabrics, 
and  supply  the  markata  at  a  leas  cost  than  the  larger  estab- 
Ushmenta  Woolen  yam  Is  not  allowed  to  be  imported  because 
It  can  be  produoed  In  France,  though  the  high  price  roust  be 
a  great  detriment  to  the  woolen  manufacturo :  and  east  Iron 
of  a  great  rariety  of  sorts  Is  prohibited,  on  the  ground  that  a 
sufflcleney  may  be  obtained  at  home,  though  the  cost  Is  noto- 
riously more  than  double  that  of  many  articles  of  foreign 
eaat  iron.  Molasses  is  not  allowed  to  be  Introduced,  because 
the  ptlee  far  France  Is  so  low,  and  the  exportation  so  large,  on 
the  ground  that' Importation  will  lower  the  prices  still  more, 
though  the  lowaeas  of  price  would  obviously  make  Importa- 
tion unprofitable ;  and  the  fact  of  considerable  exportation  is 
the  best  crldenee  th>t  the  average  prices  are  low  In  France. 
Rock  salt  was  prohibited  In  17B1,  and  the  prohibition  Is  now 
Justified  on  the  gronnd  that  mines  have  lately  been  discov- 
ered. The  prohibition  of  refined  sugar  was  supported  on  the 
gronnd  that  lla  admiaaion  wouM  not  beneflt  the  treasury ; 
but  It  Is  dear.  If  the  Interest  of  the  treasury  were  kept  In 
view,  tluit  ail  prohlbltlona  would  be  snppreKscil,  or  super- 
seded by  a  system  of  duties.  While  some  articles  are  pro- 
hibited because  the  production  is  small  In  France,  and  re- 
quires protection,  others  are  prohibited  (dressed  skins,  for 
example)  because  the  production  la  great,  and  engages  a  large 
Dumber  of  hands." 

There  is  another  branch  of  the  French  legislation 
regarding  commerce,  which  Is  equally  exceptionable 
with  t'  prohibition  to  import  fore', »«  manufactures; 
namely,  the  sj-stem  of  drawhaclis  and  bounties  on  the 
exportation  uf  domestic  produce.  Having  by  speciiil 
encouragements  created  a  surplus  of  certain  articles  at 
home,  and  which  the  high  price  prevented  from  being 
sold  to  foreigners,  the  public  were  called  upon  to  pay 
the  diiference  lietween  this  high  price  and  the  price 
abroad ;  and  thus  they  were  taxed,  by  the  exclusion 
of  the  foreign  article.  In  a  higher  price  for  what  was 
consumed  at  home,  and  also  tuxcd  for  all  that  was 
consumed  abroad,  in  the  Imunty  which  was  paid  on 
the  exportation  of  the  article.  Thin  is  a  double  in- 
iquity, which  has  gone  on  InQreasing  in  France.  In 
1817,  the  whola  amount  of  what  was  conceded  on  this 
account  amounted  to  XilSOO  per  annum,  while  in  1830 
it  amounted  to  XGOO.OOO,  nearly  one  fifth  of  the  nett 
amount  of  the  whole  custom-house  revenues  of  France  ; 
and  as  it  was  going  on  progressively,  it  might  soon 
have  absorlMd  the  whole  custom-house  income,  without 
in  the  least  Iwnefiting,  but  rather  Injuring,  the  gen- 
eral interests  of  commerce.     During  the  first  nine 


months  of  Out  year  1882  pnrnioiiu  or'fin^ittet  nfMt 
paid  to  the  amount  of  24,448,876  tnncs,  or  Xl,018,682. 
The  commerce  of  France,  obstructed  by  these  re- 
strictive duties,  has  not  made  the  same  advances  as  her 
agriculture  and  manufactures.  The  Internal  produc* 
of  every  country  necessarily  increases  with  Its  popiu 
lotion ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  France  having  increased, 
since  1780  to  1855,  to  full  36,000,000  (for  the  census  of 
1851  makes  the  popnUtlon  85,781,628)  from  24,800,000 
must  produce  as  well  as  consume  more.  Bnt  in  the 
mean  time  her  commerce  has  not  kept  pace  with  this 
increase  in  her  population.  The  value  of  the  imports 
Into  France  amounted  in  1787  to  631,790,700  francs,  or 
about  £25,000,000  sterling,  and  engaged  888,868  tons 
of  shipping ;  and  lier  whole  imports  only  amounted  in 
1830  to  £25,500,000  sterling,  and  employed  1,009,464 
tons  of  shipping,  which  is  far  trom  being  an  increas* 
corresponding  to  her  augmented  population.  Accord- 
!ng  to  the  lost  accounts,  the  value  of  imports  was  in 
1853  £65,240,000,  of  which  to  the  value  of  £44,120,000 
remained  for  home  consumption,  and  engaged  4,605,000 
tons  of  shipping.  The  whole  trade  of  France  with  its 
own  coloniea  and  foreign  powers  amounted  for  the 
year  1863  to  an  official  value  of  8,448,000,000  of  francs, 
which  was  an  increase  of  12  per  cent,  on  the  year  1852, 
and  an  increase  of  82  per  cent,  on  the  average  of  the 
years  between  1844  and  1848.  The  foreign  commerce 
of  England  was,  in  the  year  1787  altout  7,000,000  less 
than  that  of  France,  or  about  £18,000,000  sterling, 
and  employed  1,349,419  tons  of  shipping.  Iler  popu- 
lation was  9,000,000.  In  18<10  her  foreign  trade  had 
increased  to  £69,700,748,  including  £17,127,764  to  the 
colonies,  which  employed  2,866,616  tons  of  shipping. 
Thus,  while  the  official  value  of  the  commerce  of  En- 
gland had  nearly  quadrupled,  and  her  shipping  nearly 
doubled  in  forty-three  years,  not  above  one  fiftieth  part 
was  added  to  the  foreign  commerce  of  France ;  a  fact 
which  strongly  illustrates  the  pernicious  influence  of 
monopolies  in  damping  the  energies  of  individual  en- 
terprise, and  thus  obstructing  tlie  national  prosperity. 
OrririAL  Value  of  luroan  add  Ezpohts, 
ImporU. 
TMn.  Frnnr*. 

1849 i,m,ooo,«oo 

1850.,.. 1,174,000,000 

1981 .  .•. I,l!i8,000,000 

1SR2 1,488,000,000 

18&S 1,682,000,000 

ToUI 6,.M4,000,n00     ....     8,120,000,000 

The  intercouri'e  of  France  with  its  colonies  and  for- 
eign St.ites  in  1858,  exports  and  imports  united,  formed 
a  sum  in  official  value  equal  to  3,493,000,000  francs, 
being  an  augmentation  of  373,000,000  francs  over 
1862.  The  actual  value  of  the  imports  In  1853  was 
1,217,000,000  francs  against  1,006,000,000  francs  in 
1852,  and  of  the  exports  the  actual  value  was  1,572,- 
000,000  francs  against  1,278,000,000  francs  in  1862. 
The  ocean  imports  were  in  actual  value  1,070,000,000 
fhinc.i,  and  those  by  land  626,000,000  francs.  The 
exports  by  sea  were  1,633,000,000  franca  actual  value, 
and  those  by  land,  420,000,000  flrancs. 

Obserratimt  on  rradc— During  the  four  years  tiom 
1850  to  1854  inclusive,  the  value  of  French  commerce 
has  augmented  .303,329  franca,  and  the  numl)er  of  sea- 
men employed  has  Increased  19,046.  The  exports  to 
Russia,  owing  to  the  war,  were  reduced  In  1864  to 
three  ouward-bound  vessels.  The  commerce  with 
England  has  increased  with  great  rapidity,  having 
nearly  doubled  the  amonnt  in  1850.  With  Sweden 
and  Norwiij-  the  increase  has  also  been  considerable. 
With  Austria,  on  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  a  di- 
minution, and  also  with  tlio  Roman  States.  With 
China  there  Is  an  increasing  trade,  as  well  aa  with  the 
United  States  of  America,  but  with  Rio  de  la  Plata 
and  Ecuador  there  has  been  a  falling  off.  Most  of  the 
other  States  with  which  France  carries  on  a  commer- 
cial intercourse,  exhil>ited  an  increase  which.  If  small, 
augmented  the  general  commerce  to  mnch  as  to  show 


EiporU. 

¥nne.». 

1,428,000,000 
1,581,1100,000 
1,629,000,000 
1,(82,000,000 
1,861,000,000 


MA 


710 


VRA 


tiki  iBa  coihrtiy  was  •ntaring  tipoii  s  iaoN  Mtirt 
career  of  traffic. 

The  tables  on  the  fonowtng  page  contain,  firom 
official  docaments,  a  comprehenrire  view  of  the  ralne 
and  extent  of  the  commerce  of  France  at  dlflTerent 
period).  The  trade  between  France  and  Bwitatrland 
u  carried  on  by  land  by  Colmar,  Straabourg,  St.  Lonlf, 
Belfort,  Nantua,  Beygael,  Mortean,  Pontarllar,  Lea 
Rouues,  Montbellard,  etc. 

iMPoan  or  Faixoa. 


BreadstnUk , 

Co»l 

Cotton...... 

Eawallk.... 

Wool 

Iron 

ToU... 


isti. 


£80,0001 
1,480,« 

<i<o,aool 

8,680,000 

i,s«o,o-' 
Mo.r 


£MO,000| 
6,180,000 

^8«o,r"' 

£,600,( 
MO.I 


£10,«(IO,000  £1&,0«0,000  £18,110,0^ 


KxpoBTs  or  FaANoi. 


Breadatallli 

Cotton  manofli^tnru. . 

Bilk  niennliwitures 

Woolen  inanufocturos. 
Linen  mtnnflKtnres.. . 
aiOTOB  and  hoeierr. , . . . 
WInea. 


IMl. 


I8n. 


Total. 


£8.800,000 

6,eoo;ooo 

8,120,000 
8,280,000 
1,080,000 
8i200,(KJO 

l,4^l,l)(IO 

£88,A6U,UU0,' £26,600,000 


£2,880,000 
6,000,000 
9,040,000 
6,120,000 
1,200,000 
8.400,000 
1,480,000 


MM, 

6,660,0001 
11,610,000 
6,840,000 
1,860,000 

1.800,000 
£81,iiT0,0U« 


Imports  or  Coal  amd  Ibon  ih  1862, 


OoaK 

Coke 

Iron,  nig.. 
Iron,  bar.. 
Steel 


From  EofflMid. 


Ton*. 

664,682 

2,782 

16,002 

1,841 

270 


From  B«l|1qmi 


Tom. 
1,792,166 
169,898 
86,41« 


Returns  of  the  customs  dnties  levied  on  the  princi- 
pal merchandise  imported  into  France  during  the  nine 
months  of  1855  ending  on  the  let  of  October,  give  an 
amount  of  XS,927,0a0.  Compared  with  those  of  1864, 
they  show  an  augmentation  of  £1,728,976.  The  re- 
'  ceipts  during  the  month  of  Septem))er  were  £466,088, 
or  £40,388  less  than  in  the  corresponding  month  of 
last  year.  The  salt-tax  produced  during  the  nine 
months  of  1855,  £930,891. 

The  value  of  exports  in  1853  reached  £74,640,00(1, 
of  which  £54,<''>20,000  represented  French  produce,  and 
£20,620,000  was  foreign  produce  re-exported.  The 
imports  for  home  consumption  showed  an  increase  of 
£4,680,000,  nnd  the  exports  of  French  produce  an  In- 
crease of  £5,200,000  alnve  1852. 

The  following  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  trade  of  France 
with  other  countries : 

The  com,  the  hemp,  the  flax,  the  tallow,  which 
form  such  important  articles  of  export  from  the  north 
of  Europe  to  England,  are  comparatively  unnecessary 
to  Kriince.  Their  timber  and  pitch  are  imported  there, 
but  the  quantities  required  by  a  people  where  ship- 
building is  so  limited,  are  necessarily  of  little  conse- 
quence. It  would  appear,  however,  that  in  the 
progress  of  the  recent  war  against  Kuxsia,  many  arti- 
cles imported  from  the  north  of  Europe  have  become 
more  necessary  to  France,  and  by  a  decree  published 
in  the  Moniteur  on  the  20th  October,  1866,  building- 
timber,  woo«l  for  cabinet-making,  of  a  certain  thick- 
ness, rough  castings,  bar  and  sheet  iron,  hemp,  etc., 
may  Iw  imported  for  three  years  free  from  import 
duty.  Pitch,  tar,  and  tallow,  when  employed  in  ship- 
building, may  be  imported  at  a  duty  of  10  per  cent,  if 
it  can  be  proved  they  have  been  used  bona  tide  for  the 
purpose  within  a  year.  The  further  articles  of  im- 
port are  iron,  copper,  lead,  salt  flsh,  all  likewise  on  a 
small  scale.  The  returns  from  Franco  are  no  longer 
in  the  sugar  and  coflTee,  which,  before  the  loss  of  St. 
Domingo,  furnished  an  annual  export  to  the  north  of 
ftally  £2,000,000  sterling.  Tbey  are  limited  to  wine 
and  brandy,  luxuries  of  which  the  consumption  is  cou- 


flnad  to  •  (liw  Utgi  \emti»,  tuoh  u  fetaribitrg,  HHb> 
burg,  I<ubeo,  Stockholm,  and  Oantilo. 

with  Oamunjr  tha  axohaBMi  of  France  are  now 
oarried  on  by  itaam,  canal,  ana  land-oMTriage,  and  for 
lighter  artlulet  nnd  artkh*  dt  Pari*  by  ralltoad,  and 
rirer  navigation. 

From  Holland  are  Imported  iplrltaoiu  liquors,  spicei, 
butter,  shaeae,  The  return*  from  France  conaist 
chiefly  of  wine,  illka,  brandy,  and  dried  fruit.  When 
the  Ketberlands  wore  subject  to  Ifrance,  this  Inteiy 
course  was  very  active. 

From  Italy,  France  imports  raw  silk,  com,  lice, 
ollve-oU,  and  ft-ult,  chiefly  lemons,  oranges,  flgs,  and 
ralalns.    The  returns,  various  in  kind,  hut  small  in 

auantlty,  consist  of  wine,  brandy,  cattle,  woolens, 
nen,  leather,  hats,  stockings,  Jewelry,  glass,  hard- 
ware. From  the  Levant,  the  Imports,  though  less  than 
formerly,  atlll  consist  of  raw  silk,  cotton,  wool,  com, 
dried  fruit*!  the  exports,  manufactured  silks,  wool- 
en*, (looking*,  and,  In  a  small  digree,  hardware,  pa- 
per, liquors,  linen*,  lace.  With  Spain  the  intercodrse 
is  mora  extensive  i  the  exports  from  France  consiiit  of 
cum,  flour,  salt  flsh,  win**,  brandy,  also  woolens,  cot- 
tons, silk*,  leather,  linen,  laoe,  hats;  all  articles 
which  have  passed  through  some  process  of  manufac- 
ture, and  liear  testimony  to  the  Indnitry  of  the  French. 
Tha  Spaniard*,  an  the  other  hand,  true  ^  their  char- 
acter, make  no  return*  except  In  produce  and  raw  ma- 
terials, vI/m  I  wool,  silk,  fruit,  sweet  wines,  alon<;  with 
some  Inm  and  copper.  During  the  years  1854  and 
1B6S  there  have  Imon  considerable  exiKirtations  of 
Spanish  wina  Into  France  for  the  use  of  the  French 
troop*  aervlng  In  tho  Crimea.  With  Portugal  the 
trade  of  France  I*  not  considerable,  the  staple  prod- 
uct*, wine  and  brandy,  being  the  same  in  both  coun- 
tries. 

Tho  Intercourse  Itetween  tho  French  and  Americans 
should  be  great,  but  the  Americans  require  long 
credit,  and  to  givo  credit  exceeds  the  means  uf  the 
French.  Tho  cotton,  tobacco,  and  rioe  of  the  United 
State*  are  paid  partly  liy  wine  and  brandy,  but  in  a 
slight  degree  by  manufactures.  This  branch  of  trade 
will  Increase  with  tho  population  and  wealth  of  the 
United  State*.  At  pn^nent  the  Intercourse  with  En- 
gland Is  more  cunslili-raiilo  than  with  almost  any  other 
country ;  but  a  reduction  of  the  custom-house  duties 
would  extend  greatly  tlie  mutual  trade  of  tho  two 
countries.  Oreat  llritain  would  supply  France  in 
greater  (|uantltle*  with  import*,  consisting  of  cottons, 
hardware,  cartlienwitre,  copper,  tin.  Iron,  coals,  etc. ; 
while  a  corrim|Hindliig  Increase  would  take  place  in  the 
French  ex|Hirt«,  uf  wlilcli  the  staple  articles  are  wine 
and  brandy,  the  smaller  silks,  olive-oil,  fruit,  butter, 
poultry,  corn,  and  butcher's  meat. 

The  chief  commercial  business  of  Paris  is  necessa- 
rily inland ;  but  It  Is  tho  centre  of  exchange  trans- 
actions for  France,  Airelgn  as  well  as  inland  ;  as 
London  Is  for  Kngland,  and  Amsterdam  for  Holland. 
Havre  da  Orace  la  tlin  cliannol  for  the  maritime  inter- 
course of  the  capital,  the  outlet  for  its  exports,  and 
the  medium  through  which  It  receives  colonial  prod- 
uce, raw  materials,  nnd  foreign  manufactures.  Kur- 
deanx  is  a  sea-port  of  great  activity,  as  well  for  the 
ex|>ortutlon  of  wInn  nnd  brandy,  as  for  the  importation 
of  sugar,  cofl'flo,  and  cotton.  Marseilles,  u  larger  but 
a  less  hustling  city,  continues  the  emporium  for  the 
trade  with  Italy  nnd  tho  I/«vant.  Mantes  has  suf- 
fered greatly  by  the  loss  of  Ht,  Domingo,  as  well  as 
by  tho  alH)lltlon  of  the  slnvo-trade,  of  which  it  was  the 
centre.  It  ttlll  exports  to  Martinique  and  Oaudaloupe, 
linen,  hardwurt',  printed  cottons  t  and,  like  Uordeunx, 
receive*  hi  return  sugar,  ciifl'i'c,  and  raw  cotton. 
Kouen,  though  accessible  *o  vessels  of  burden,  is, 
like  Lyons  and  Llllo,  chiefly  remarkable  for  manu- 
factures, 

The  mercantile  marine  of  France  recently  presented 
the  following  results,  which  are  remarkable  while  Eo 


FRA 


720 


FRA 


gUad  aod  AimtIm  ue  boUdlng  vwmIi  of  luoh  inp«< 
rior  tonnage : 

MnoAKTiLiMABiiia— 18S8, 


T0O-60O 
«0O-70O 
EOfr-MM 

400— BOO 

aoo— 400 

900-800 


1 
8 

4 

as 

ISO 


TmX 

TnMlg*. 


T17 

1,881 

9,0»1 

HMW 

B0,8M 

180,899 


Touact. 


100—900 

00—100 

80—  80 

SOandbctow 

Totia.., 


MM 

1,M1 

1,801 

10,»4T 


1^«00 


'  Toul 


19p4T 
198^140 

B8,T40 
81.081 

attfiw 


Manned,  including  the  men  of  the  fiiheriea,  l^y  88,000 
men  and  boys. 

The  steam  and  sailing-vessels  of  France  and  the  na- 
tions trading  with  her  from  1848  to  1853  were  as  follows : 

NATIOATIOil  FOB  l&tS  TO  1SS8  IMOLUSIT*— FaCNOn  ADD 

Foanoir. 


Yttn.    \rniKh.  Fowlfiil  TuUl. 


1848 
1849 
18M 
1861 
ISM 
18P8 
Mean  of 
flist  flro 
years. 


18,194 
143«4 
lS,a84 
1N8S9 
18,996 
1^886 


14,866 


18,890 

14,Tr 

l«,8l 

19,947 

19,808 

90,496 


98,614 
99,189 
81,998 
84,886 
8^09S 
8«,9«0 


1^80«  81,481 


8«lUaff  tnmU  only. 


YwTfc     |rwnBh.|fowls«|  Total 


1848 
1849 
1860 
1861 
1869 
1868 
Mean    of 

flrst  flre 

years 


11,808 
19,818 
19,984 
18,491 


18,484 


19,761 


9,8*8 
10,978 
19,064 
18,868 


18,176  14,996 


14,764 


11,971 


98,69* 
96,888 
97,060 
98,171 

98,I8Si 


96,08! 


^mf. — The  superiority  of  tho  English  navy  over  the 
French  exi^M  when  her  pecuniary  means  wero  far 
inferior  {  aM  though,  during  the  middle  of  the  reign 


of  Loult  XrV.  the  French,  by  flnaneial  lacriflaes,  olv 
tained  a  nnmerioal  superiority,  one  great  battle,  that 
of  La  Uogue,  In  1692,  was  sufficient  to  ohaaga  the  as- 
cendancy. The  war  of  1741,  however  successful  on  the 
part  of  France  by  land,  was,  particularly  toward  its 
doae,  unfortunate  to  her  at  sea.  In  the  succeeding  in- 
terval of  peace,  great  eflbrta  were  made  to  reinstate  the 
French  navy ;  but  the  war  of  1756,  though  the  French 
admiral,  De  la  Galissoniir,  boasted  of  a  success  ovei 
Bjug,  proved  doubly  disastrous,  and  at  last  swept  it 
almost  entirely  from  the  ocean.  A  very  different 
scene  opened  1^  the  war  of  1778,  when  France,  unem- 
barrassed by  a  continental  struggle,  was  enabled  to 
direct  all  her  disposable  resources  to  her  marine,  an 
object  of  great  care  and  solicitude  to  Louis  XVI.  She 
was  then  enabled  to  keep  in  an  effective  state  about  70 
sail  of  the  line,  the  crews  of  which,  added  to  those  of 
the  iHgates  and  corvettes,  formed  a  total  of  60,000  Ktt^ 
men.  The  injuries  sustained  by  this  force,  toward  tho 
end  of  the  war  were  repnired  with  great  diligence  dur- 
ing the  peace ;  and  to  prepare  young  officers  for  the 
sea  in  preference  to  the  land  service  became  a  favorite 
object  in  several  of  the  government  schools.  In  1791, 
an  official  report  stated  the  effective  French  navy  at 
74  sail  of  the  line,  02  frigates,  and  29  corvettes ;  a  state 
of  preparation  which  accounts  for  tlie  resistance  made 
by  the  revolutionary  government  under  all  the  dis- 
advantages of  an  unparalleled  continental  struggle. 


Tbadk  aho  MAViOATioit  or  FaAKOi  wirn  FoBuaH  NATtoifS— Actual  Valvo. 


Xalloaa. 


BnisllL 

Sweden , 

Norway 

Denmark 

Bngland , 

German  Association. , 

Hanae  Towns. 

Netherlands. 

Belglnm 

gwltxerland. 

Portngal 

Austria 

Spain. 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Boman  States. 

Two  Sicilies 

Greece 

Turkey 

Egypt 

Barbary...  

AMoa,  West  Coast... 

Manrltliu. 

AfHca,  East  Coast.... 


Engllsb  E.  Indies,  Including  Java,  I 
Sumatra,  and  Now  South  Wales.) 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Philippines 

China  and  Cocbln-Chlna | 


Yoan. 


1860 
1864 
1860 
1864 

1860 
1864 
1860 
1864 

1860 
1851 
1860 
1864 
1860 
1864 
1S60 
1864 
1850 
1864 
IWO 
1%4 
1860 
1864 
1850 
1884 
1850 
ltl64 
1S50 
ISiM 
1860 
1864 
1S50 

laM 

18.10 
1864 
1850 
1S.M 
1860 
1864 
1860 
1854 
1860 
1854 
1880 
1B64 
IS-V) 
1864 
18S0 
1851 
1850 

ISM 

1860 
1864 
1860 
1864 
1860 
1854 


Importo. 

Valiia. 


97,966,1*5 

68,868,979 

Bt840,«97 

7,707,164 

18,896,660 

19,914,908 

77,709 

7,889,998 

111,181,981 

901,490,681 

47,894,489 

108,6*1,686 

6,654,094 

7,099,584 

98,801.018 

88,984,969 

166,690,184 

967,680,168 

198,777,710 

991,690.684 

9,414,166 

4,808,981 

6.089,909 

6,74.1,678 

48,861,889 

88,911,169 

91,946,671 

117,648,989 

19,931,181 

16,981,118 

8,^10,914 

2,601,096 

29,681,489 

84,969,548 

1,081,081 

8,895,181 

54,966,664 

60.189,958 

9,686,161 

17,486,988 

91,808.651 

8,679,194 

4,609,614 

9,989.298 

79,947 

682,969 

987,008 

9,154.867 

88,274,810 

G{t,469,749 

5,849,007 
10,064.«20 
1,706.667 
1,168,617 
1,685.970 
9,798,684 


Eiporto. 

Vdut. 


FnMMt. 

90,146,640 

8,862,690 

1,96^16S 

9,678,«04 

9,184,180 

1,986,981 

1,289,077 

4,066,140 

812,119,098 

586,648,810 

60,988,890 

laJMfin 

1^640,264 

18,891,908 

14,911,980 

99,279,058 

118,690,647 

158,690,899 

•8,047,946 

194,488,776 

8,898,683 

9,460,068 

10,367,666 

10,996,986 

86,699,188 

79,606,786 

71,781.977 

87,141,008 

94,688,660 

98,689,080 

6,264,172 

6,612,6*1 

17,097,089 

20,691,960 

8,886,596 

4,000,0*1 

81,677,194 

40,*08,896 

10,689,807 

7,685,460 

4,987,086 

4,498,767 

2,198,676 

8,964,868 

6,067,189 

6,669,609 

508,619 

8,819,823 

4,287,420 

5,767,690 

1,8.88,228 

1,706,440 

190,881 

889,78* 

8M,8S7 

8,858^897 


8U|». 


18* 

48 

29 

99 

16 

49 

* 

4 

9,878 

8,082 

16 

6 

96 

«4 

80 

25 

78 

66 


64 
186 

17 
* 
861 
889 
606 
698 


68 
61 
170 
183 

4 

842 
810 
08 
103 
909 
05 
89 
112 


6 

72 

(98 

191 


Tl 

8 

6 

12 

8 

1 

8 

9 

8,911 

1,646 

19 

8 

187 

76 

98 

89 

1« 


18 

48 

90 

11 

125 

2*8 

5S9 

646 

813 

926 

97 

99 

*8 

86 

15 

7 

200 

950 

54 

»S 

111 

62 

49 

48 

'  17 

9 

6 

18 

46 

8 


17 


Tonnaft. 


Kim  ring.  |   ijutwrrt.  i    InwrJ.    Ouiwardi 


19,274 

8,980 

2,986 

9,796 

1,620 

4,147 

412 

820 

993,918 

801,590 

1,516 

6»1 


6,119 
10,227 
1,864 
6,279 
4,088 


*,81« 
17,826 

9,0.88 
649 
80,198 
68,225 
86,018 
68,160 
18,289 
88,907 

4,141 

4,28* 

94,641 

88,6.<)4 

609 

71,898 
76,980 
'.U,899 
91,20* 
99,278 
14,927 
14,081 
28,165 

l',i49 

2,246 
23,2i6 
84.0  a 

«,9;i0 


879 

"m 

9,206 


9,296 

7»5 

857 

1,181 

269 

101 

*61 

097 

910,040 

11.1,626 

1,914 

285 

14,048 

6,461 

12,865 

10A14 
6,971 


1,876 

7,818 

2,118 

1,841 

8,4*5 

21,983 

8,1,826 

«3,728 

19,188 

86.634 

1,978 

2,27.') 

11,236 

7,192 

1,781 

9*6 

47,846 

70,386 

18,400 

13,966 

14,021 

9,289 

9,558 

9,418 

6,798 
627 
2.368 
6,786 
17,663 
8,682 


799 


6,600 


1,266 

468 

199 

190 

102 

934 

86 

26 

21,990 

27,983 

104 

41 

990 

890 

1,830 

168 

468 

845 


410 
1,869 

138 
43 
9.869 
5,658 
4,286 
6,928 
2,141 
4,091 

821 

346 

2,020 

2,476 

81 

6^886 
^609 
1,696 
1,665 
1,911 
1,698 
891 
1,166 


819 


49 


86 


758 

69 

42 

81 

19 

T 

60 

64 

93,880 

15,806 

128 

20 

1,207 

474 

1,519 

949 

819 

615 


170 
076 
141 
95 

708 
1,899 
8,711 
6,066 
9.023 
8,226 

16'J 

240 
1,221 
1,038 

116 

89 

4,072 

6,029 

087 
1,112 
1,869 
1,111 

Ml 

486 

"261 
24 

101 

284 

(740 

Un 


I 


a 


2*9 


1831 
cor\'i 
four 
anne 
1864, 
■iste< 


10 


FRA 


»21 


FRA 


^'~ 


Tbasi  aiib  NATisATioa  or  Fbahos  win  Fonnw  NAnon— Aotvai.  Talum— ObnMmMA 


42 
81 
19  ! 

T  I 

BO 

64 

13,880 

15,D0« 

148 

20 

1,20T 

474 

1A">« 
249 
819 
BIO 


no 

07B 

95 
708 
1,829 
8,711 
6,066 
2.fl28 
8,226 

loa 

2tO  I 
1,221 
1,0I»  1 
US 
89 
4,072 
B,629  I 
987  > 
1,112  1 
1,8S9 
1,111  1 
5M  I 
486  I 

24  \ 
KPl  I 
284  I 
(740 

uai 


I 


43 


269 


HMUm. 


HnlM 

rnltod  8UlM  of  Anuriom  SMt.  ■  ■  ■ 

United  Btatti,  WMt 

Onatcnula. 

NtwOnuda 

TaBonete 

BruU 

Craimj. 

Bio  de  la  puts 

Eonador 

P*ra 

BoUtU 

Chill. , 

HajrU 

Bpan,  Amer.  PoaMMlons,  late.,  ot«. 
En^  PoiMH,  la  Amer.,  lala.,  eto. 
Dntch  PosMnlont  In  America. .  .>. 
DanUh  PoMoisloiu  In  America. .... 

Isle  of  Boarbon 

Frencb  Onlaaa. 

Ifartlnlqne 

Onadaloape. 

Algiers 

Senega) 

French  India, 

8l  Pierre  and  Mlqaelun,  eto. . . 
Hayotte,  et&,  and  Uadi^;aacar. 


ron. 

'~>C2:- 

vSwT 

.«.-         1 

Tnm 

"■^ 

Otam.          1 

1.. 

Out. 

ImriM. 

Ovtwftri.      Inww<d.  L 

OM«wl. 

*««;.■' 

rru.1. 

■ 

1880 

8,61t.78S 

11,119,798 

48 

88 

8,986 

9,989 

489 

671 

18S4 

4,01^878 

3819,946 

48 

U 

9,780 

8^648 

618 

iS 

lUO 

ias,iao,8M 

9T8,8e4,96« 

60 

86 

18,179 

7,910 

6(8 

S8S 

IWM 

U0,7Tl,<4t 

6(9,090,948 

84 

98 

9,669 

8,1(1 

414 

S66 

1880 

44,906 

7,886,188 

88 

19,906 

671 

18B4 

714,988 

9,668,986 

• 

16 

6(9 

6:667 

84 

864 

1880 

kW 

408,164 

18M 

1,16«,T* 

981,671 

4 

9 

1,148 

686 

M 

■■« 

1880 

•81,186 

^04•,7«5 

8 

19 

1,(84 

9,251 

K 

164 

1884 

1,14T,T41 

8,494^101 

6 

6 

1989 

1,108 

T8 

«7 

1880 

9,987,081 

8,497,616 

16 

14 

9,848 

1,488 

194 

161 

18B4 

6,49>,tl6 

M9l,St8 

M 

91 

4381 

8,418 

171 

999 

1860 

1T,087,T8S 

17,184,488 

87 

90 

18378 

10,401 

1,084 

1,199 

UM 

97,970,169 

44,048,800 

96 

87 

99,644 

11,767 

13(1 

1,147 

1860 

987,881 

il!;K 

8 

16 

1,(61 

8,814 

Vi 

908 

1884 

6,991,940 

16 

48 

8,(66 

11,776 

116 

(88 

1880 

10,768,88* 

18,880,718 

68 

68 

11360 

18388 

(M 

719 

1884 

10,890,020 

98,610,6a 

96 

46 

*>HS 

11,864 

886 

688 

1860 

890,990 

(16,691 

1 

1 

898 

699 

17 

81 

1884 

997,498 

192jn9 

,, 

1 

, 

144 

11 

18B0 

6,881,944 

11,(06,849 

90 

14 

(390 

4,618 

818 

116 

1864 

7,868,988 

18,789,998 

84 

1( 

16,118 

T,11T 

(29 

IM 

1880 

49,880 

*  •  •  > 

'  .... 

.... 

•  ■•• 

•  *  •  . 

..*. 

1884 

*  •  •• 

879,161 

.... 

,         , 

•  .  •• 

,, 

•  •«» 

1880 

4,978,190 

14,018,118 

6 

10 

1,((9 

^797 

71 

806 

1864 

4,987,804 

11,421,197 

8 

99 

2911 

9,984 

141 

485 

1880 

8,280,901 

8,480,770 

69 

98 

11,806 

4,114 

640 

844 

1884 

10,180,198 

8,881,788 

78 

89 

14,488 

6,«» 

807 

817 

1880 

90,894,979 

10,880,914 

198 

89 

29,174 

8,417 

1301 

440 

1884 

99,910,484 

17,989,209 

118 

40 

28,(41 

10311 

1,428 

887 

1880 

199,880 

(12,(26 

e  •  •  • 

9 

•  ■  •  ■ 

(M 

•  ■>  • 

19 

18M 

988,687 

8,089,669 

9 

4 

9,619 

1,40( 

188 

(8 

1880 

158,646 

16^09e 

1 

.  •  •  • 

8(0 

•  .  *  • 

16 

.... 

1884 

8,121 

68,(68 

■  t  .  • 

•  ••. 

•  *.• 

1860 

105,014 

8,008,481 

9 

17 

189 

^((l 

14 

919 

1884 

191,764 

6,400,481 

4 

18 

890 

1,8(4 

48 

186 

1880 

18,809,419 

11,891,(98 

80 

88 

1^419 

94,141 

747 

1,251 

1884 

99,908,188 

18,819,000 

81 

106 

96,918 

**S^ 

1,887 

1,677 

1860 

1,811,401 

9,099,849 

18 

91 

9309 

8,776 

1(1 

281 

1884 

1,186,196 

4,871,800 

10 

98 

9,01T 

^781 

190 

817 

law 

11,046,108 

14,805,110 

81 

104 

18,489 

14,180 

994 

1,989 

1884 

18,987,406 

10,144,117 

lis 

119 

1S31( 

18,481 

1,481 

1,488 

1880 

9,899364 

11,181,741 

81 

88 

11346 

18,594 

689 

974 

1884 

17,114,818 

16,976,198 

116 

110 

11,189 

14,881 

1,996 

1,878 

1880 

6,268,989 

67,871,988 

704 

1,071 

74,7(9 

11M28 

6,940 

9,(80 

1884 

49,499,096 

90,918,8n 

\m 

948 

188,188 

121,156 

11,9(9 

11,868 

1880 

8,990,746 

6,891,651 

48 

•9 

8,970 

8369 

487 

5«9 

IRM 

6,981,896 

8,744,816 

78 

84 

11,7(9 

184,098 

784 

879 

1800 

8,888,849 

474,896 

6 

8 

1,(87 

2,097 

84 

101 

1854 

10,869,487 

446,716 

19 

4 

^890 

1,187 

979 

69 

1880 

19,981,116 

M»4,6n 

e>*'* 

>.  •  • 

•  ..* 

•  •  ■  • 

1884 

18,901,978 

«'*S-1SI 

.... 

.•>• 

..*. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1880 

.»». 

90,086 

,      , 

*■  .. 

.... 

.... 

•  .  •  * 

•  *■• 

1854 

404,741 

929,786 

1 

.4 

SOS 

1,140 

IS 

(6 

(hhx. 

Total  Air  )  Ontward  bonnd,    7,540 
1850...  f  Inward        "         7,494 


Tonium«.  M.a. 

787,860       76,946 
887326       74,9n 


Total 18,084     1328^08»     180,898 


Sblpfl.  ToBMNK...           M«n. 

Toul  for )  Ontward  bound,    6,726  796^18  78,186 

1854...  f  Inward         "        9,807  T,181J09  98,418 

Tetat 16,08a  1328,416  169369 


Tho  proud  naval  force,  however,  cKsappeared  pn>- 
greasively  .at  the  capture  of  Tonlon,  the  victory  of 
tie  let  June,  1794,  and  stilt  more  in  the  victory  of 
Abonliir ;  so  that  Bonaparte,  on  his  accession  to  power, 
found  the  French  marine  Id  a  very  reduced  state.  He 
labored,  however,  to  reinstate  it.  The  yexrs  of  conti- 
nental peace,  1801,  1802,  1803,  and  1804,  were  favor- 
able to  his  efforts;  and  in  1805  he  boasted  of  havihg 
in  equipment  60  sail  of  the  line,  »  force  dtstined  to  an 
early  diminution  at  Trafalgar  and  St.  Domingo.  The 
Bourbons,  on  recovering  their  erswn,  found  little 
more  than  half  the  foree  which  existed  previously  to 
the  Revolution.  It  has  since  been  augmented,  and  in 
1831  it  iimounted  to  35  ships  of  the  line,  40  frigates,  28 
cor^'ettcs,  57  brigs,  29  galliots  and  cutters  of  eight  and 
four  guns,  12  steamboats,  16  armed  8tor»«hips,  82 
armed  transports,  and  two  yachts ;  total,  284 ;  and  in 
1854,  according  to  the  hut  autheitic  account,  it  con- 
glgted  of 

BS  TCSiMslB— 9  carrying   120,  74=100,   19=90, 

Il:=80or82gun8.    Totsl 8,n(W 

68fHgstes-42=80to60,andl6=40tu46.....  8,955 

89  oorvottea 868 

101  briga,  schooners,  and  cutters 1,066 

89  corvette*  do  charge  and  gaberres 788 

no  11,7I» 


StauarhM. 

8  vesaeh  of  the  line,  I 
90IHgates, 
80  corvettes, 
(4  other  vessels,        J 


Amonntllag  togetlter  to  18,760  , 
guaa, 


407       Ct886) 

In  the  present  year(lSS6)  14  ships  of  fro*  (alDe  be- 
ing vessels  of  the  line)  have  been  launched,  and  32 
new  vessels  are  on  the  stocks. 

On  the  1st  Januar}-,  1855,  the  officers  of  the  French 
navy  consisted  of  two  amirals,  17  vice-amirals,  87 
contre^mirals,  108  capitaines,  238  capitaines  de  freg* 
ale,  658  lieutenants,  and  614  ensigns. 

Fitheriu. — The  bounties  paid  for  the  cod-flsheries 
in  1852  absorbed  between  6^,000  and  7,000,000 
of  francs,  which  was  deubla  the  sum  paid  ob  the  aver- 
erage  of  the  Ave  years  between  1820  and  1830.  The 
vessels  equipped  for  the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  St. 
Pierre,  Mlqueloo,  etc.,  proceed  from  the  potts  of  St. 
Malo,  St.  Brieuc,  and  Granville.  The  vessels  proceed- 
ing to  Iceland  sail  from  Dunkirlc.  The  French  fish 
are  of  very  inferior  quality  to  those  caught  by  tho 
Americans,  the  latter  selling  at  47  francs  85  oentimes 
per  quintal,  while  the  French  cod-fish  only  bronght 
26  francs  95  centimes.  With  all  this  expense,  how- 
ever, the  French  fisheries  an  not  adequate  to  the  lup 


^A. 


732 


fRK 


ply  of  the  cMOalM,  which  rec«tv«  eonaiderable  quan- 
tities of  flab  from  foraignera,  u  will  ba  laen  from  th« 
following  table : 

f  uuiiT  AND  KxpoiT  or  GoD^  raox  1848  TO  18S8. 


r«n. 

SMp.. 

Mm. 

b£||i|4ii(.    jlVvmalllnna!      prnMl. 

1848 

854 

11,141 

£18,981 

Cwtk. 

811,T8» 

£I1M40 

1849 

tM 

]0,IIM 

10,000 

888,788 

lilt(,«04 

1980 
18SI 

^ 

11,710 

sa,«N 

804,080          117,4S8 

18,049 

84,140 

408.851         154,981 

18A3 

419 

18,048 

15,994 

400,154         145,174 

1858 

421 

ia,S88 

15,847 

871,716         188,190 

Statement  of  the  whale-flshery  from  the  Fnncb 
porti— Havre,  6  ▼easclo,  of  2045  tons  and  127  men  | 
return  of  product,  22,142  cwt.  of  oil  of  the  whale ;  80 
cwt.  of  the  cachalot ;  1C08  cwt.  of  whalelwne. 
FaiNnii  Con-KiHuaaY  iHpoarAnoNt  aud  ExpoRTATioRa— 
Fiiraii,   Dbixd,    Oil,    no.  i     Ain>    Impobtatiomb   or 

WlIALI-FiaillCBT. 


Ymh. 

Cod-rMmy. 

Wb>1«.rUli«ry. 

Upctltd. 

iCxptirtlHl. 

ImiwrtMl. 

Owtt. 

Ctrl.. 

Cwt  a. 

1W8 

411,481 

82,9M 

10,711 

1849 

888,874 

88,251 

19,047 

1S60 

8T«,139 

82,070 

20.157 

19.M 

408,877 

85,410 

17,477 

1859 

878.862 

54,400 

8,889 

1858 

845^11 

65,807 

12,091 

The  mean  of  the  tint  6vo  yean  is  almve  891,91fi 
quintals.  Vessel*  of  France  employed  in  the  fisher- 
ies generally— 1848,  849 ;  18-19,685;  1860,  838;  1851, 
925 ;  1852,  959 ;  1863,  94.1.  The  mean  of  five  years  is 
851  vessels.  The  total  amount  of  codfish  exported 
in  1853  ftom  all  the  ports  of  France  amounted  to 
1,637,971  kilogrammes,  or  65,307  quintals.  See  arti- 
cle FiSHERIKS. 

M'hale-Jithery. — The  whale-fishery  wag  established 
in  Friince  in  1784,  \fy  means  of  encouragements  held 
out  by  Ix>nis  XVI.,  who  ordered  that  no  duty  should 
be  collected  on  the  articles  exported,  and  that  the 
produce  of  the  fisheries  should  pay  no  import  duty. 
He  guarantied  the  adventurers  against  loss,  and  ulti- 
mately paid,  in  addition  to  .£12,300,  which  he  ad  vanced 
without  interest,  an  additional  sum  of  4VG95,  being 
the  balance  of  loss  on  17  voyages.  Notwithstanding 
these  encouragements,  the  whole  project  was  aban- 
doned in  1787.  In  1816  the  offer  of  Iraunties  attracted 
new  adventurers  into  this  branch  of  trade.  The  pre- 
mium offered  by  the  government  was  50  francs  (.£2) 
per  man,  and  two  thirds  of  the  crews  were  allowed  to 
be  foreigners.  In  1819  40  francs  were  allowed  to  for- 
eign vessels  having  a  crew  half  French,  6^1  francs  when 
the  captain  and  one  third  of  tlie  crew  were  French; 
the  premium  to  he  doubled  if  the  vessel  passed  Cnpe 
Horn.  In  1829  a  new  ordonnance  granted  90  francs 
per  ton  on  vessels  wholly  equipped  by  Frenchmf-n,  40 
francs  when  only  two  thirds  were  Frenchmen,  .ind  ,30 
if  the  captain  was  a  foreigner.  The  premium  was 
doulded  if  the  vessel  passed  Cape  Horn.  A  supple- 
mentary premium  was  allowed  to  vessels  fishing  to  the 
aoutli-cast  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  douldo 
premium  was  given  to  all  vessels  fishing  at  a  higher 
northern  latitude  than  60° ;  and  as  the  fishing  is  sel- 
dom or  never  prosecuted  at  a  lower  latitude,  this  pre- 
mium of  180  francs  per  ton  (£7  48.)  was  invariably 
paid.  The  law  of  1832,  which  regulates  the  whale- 
iisherj'  of  France,  established  a  bounty  of  70  francs 
per  ton  from  March  1832  to  Morch  1833,  if  the  whole 
crew  were  French ;  the  liounty  to  \te  diminished  four 
ft'anes  yearly  till  it  reached  54  francs.  If  one  third  of 
the  crew  ho  foreigners,  the  bounty  to  he  48  francs  p<ir 
ton,  to  diminisli  two  francs  yearly  till  it  reached  40 
ft'anes  per  ton.  A  supplementary  bo'unty  to  be  given 
of  50  francs  per  ton  if  the  crew  be  French,  decreasing 
three  francs  per  annum  ])er  ton  ;  anil  24  francs  if  one 
third  be  foreigners,  decreasing  one  franc  per  annum, 
to  iie  paid  to  vessels  douiiling  Cape  Horn,  or  reaching 
63°  of  south  latitude.  If  returning  with  lets  than  half 


a  cargo,  or  after  an  ahaence  of  16  months ;  600  tons  to 
be  the  minimum  for  a  single  whaler. 

With  these  e.xtraoTdinary  encouragementa,  capital 
waa  attracted  to  this  new  line  of  industry ;  and  in  1881 
three  reaaels  cleared  out  for  the  Greenhmd  whale- 
fishery,  and  13  for  the  South  Sea  fishery,  wMch  am- 
f\oy»d  6412  tons  of  shipping,  and  were  manne<l  by  551 
men.  Notwithstanding  all  the  bounties  given  to  the 
whale-fishery,  France  has  very  few  vessels  engaged  in 
it.  There  were  only  17  ships  in  the  trade  in  1849, 
and  7  only  re-entered  French  ports.  There  were  but 
5  veasela  left  Havre  In  1863,  of  a  tonnage  of  2045  tons, 
and  with  a  crew  of  127  men.  The  return  of  the  pro- 
duct was  112,486  kilogrammes  of  the  whale,  1589  of 
the  cachalot,  and  81,710  kilogrammes  of  whalel>one. 

It  waa  estimated  by  the  minister  of  commerce,  in 
his  report  on  this  subject  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
more  than  20  years  ago,  that  the  650  seamen  employed 
in  the  whale-'fishert-  do  not  cost  the  State  less  than 
1,000,000  frimcs,  at  "the  rate  of  X72  12s.  per  man,  or  ;£6 
a  month.  The  wages  granted  by  the  budget  to  sea- 
men employed  in  ships  of  war  amounted  to  £1  per 
month  ;  so  that  the  allowance  to  the  seamen  employed 
in  the  Greenland  fishery  is  six  times  the  ordinary  al- 
lowance of  seamen  in  the  public  service.  It  is  re- 
markable that  France  was  granting  these  extravagant 
allowances  for  the  encouragement  of  the  whide-tishcry 
exactly  at  the  time  thiit  (Jreat  Britain  was  withdraw- 
ing  the  bounties  by  which  she  had  formerly  endeav- 
ored tov  promote  this  branch  of  trade  as  a  nursery  for 
seamen.  Yet,  in  1880,  the  number  of  vessels  that 
cleared  out  for  the  fishery  in  England  was  123,  con- 
sisting of  40,166  tons,  navigated  l)y  5044  seamen  ;  be- 
ing thus  about  eight  times  the  quantity  of  the  tonnage 
employed  by  France.  The  government  of  l^^ouis  Phil- 
ippe, alarmed  at  the  large  outlay  in  Imunty,  endeav- 
ored to  lessen  it,  and  to  render  it  transitory  and  tem- 
porarj"  only.  M.  d'Argont,  the  minister  of  commerce, 
insisted  that  these  liounties  exhausted  the  resources  of 
the  State,  and  decreasing  Iraunties  were  after  a  period 
adopted,  but  M.  Cunin  Gridaine,  who  was  minister  of 
commerce,  relapsed  into  the  old  error  by  introducing 
supplemental  liounties.  The  provisional  government 
of  1848,,  by  one  decree  augmented  the  liounties,  and 
by  a  second  extended  the  term  of  the  law  to  31st  De- 
cemlier  1861.  On  the  22d  of  July,  1851,  the  National 
Assembly  voted  for  the  continuance  of  the  bounties  to 
1861. 

Shijtpinff. — France  seems  destined,  by  the  natural 
advantages  which  she  possesses,  to  become  u  maritime 
power  of  the  first  rank.  Her  sea-coost  excenls  in  ex- 
tent that  of  any  other  continental  State.  On  the  At- 
lantic she  has  130  leagues  of  coast,  130  on  the  Chan- 
nel, and  90  on  the  Slediterranean  ;  while  her  position 
between  northern  and  southern  Europe,  and  her  numer- 
ous ports  and  navigable  rivera,  are  eminently  fiivurable 
to  the  extension  of  her  navigation.  But  in  this  as  in 
all  othfi'  branches  of  the  French  trade,  the  prejudicial 
effects  of  the  restrictive'  system  have  been  abundantly 
manifest.  France,  in  forcing  a  trade  with  her  colo- 
nies, containing  less  than  half  a  million  of  inhabitants, 
has  sacrificed  her  trade  with  other  tropical  countries 
and  their  numerous  population,  to  the  great  injury-  of 
her  shipping  interest.  A  great  increase  has  taken 
place  in  the  tonnage  employed  in  the  coasting  trade  of 
France,  a  fact  which  affords  clear  and  convincing  evi- 
dence of  the  extending  resources  of  the  country,  which 
would  have  equally  occasioned  an  increase  in  tlie  ship- 
ping employed  in  the  foreign  as  well  aa  the  domestic 
trade,  if  this  important  liranch  of  industry  liad  not 
lieen  stunted  in  its  natural  growth  by  the  mon<ipi)Iizing 
system.  The  navigation  of  France  no  doubt  sulTereil 
grievously  during  the  laat  war,  under  the  maritime 
hostility  of  Great  Britain.  But  in  the  course  of  nearly 
20  years  it  would  have  recovered  from  tliis  state  of  de- 
pression, if  the  natural  energies  of  the  country  had 
been  allowed  free  scope  in  this  lino  of  industry. 


^A 


<f$8 


FRA 


nnturnl 
iiritime 
in  ex- 
the  At- 
Chan- 
xisition 
numer- 
rorable 
lis  as  in 
juilicial 
ndantly 
•T  colo- 
bitants, 
luntries 
ijiin-  of 
tiilion 
trade  of 
ng  cvi- 
_  wliich 
lie  ahip- 
lomestic 
im1  not 
.oUzint; 
iufforeil 
iritlmo 
jf  nearly 
|te  of  il«- 
itry  had 


pul 


Butcher'i  J/«d/.— The  lUvolutlon  of  1880  did  not 
•Iter  the  Byotem  prevailing  antecedently  with  respect 
to  the  trade  in  Imtchor'i  meat,  hut  modified  it.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  It  did 
not  change  the  ayatem  but  modlfled  under  certain 
head!  the  practice  of  the  trade.  The  droilt  tToctroi  et 
de  eauie  d»  PoUiiy  were  at  flmt  suppresaed,  then  re- 
establiahed,  but  with  a  radical  change  in  this  reapect, 
that  the  duty  waa  levied  l)y  the  wtigkl  of  the  cattle, 
and  not  at  so  much  per  head,  as  before.  This  altera- 
tion had  long  been  ineflTcctnuliy  demanded  by  the  ag- 
ricultural breeders.  Butchers  from  the  interior  of 
France  were  also  to  provide  stock  and  meat  for  the 
Paris  market  as  well  as  their  brethren  of  the  capital. 
These  regulations  and  modiflcatlons  satisfied  neither 
Rgricultnrlats  nor  butchers.  In  the  month  of  January, 
18,51,  the  National  Assembly  directed  an  inquiry  into 
the  production  and  consumption  of  butcher's  meat. 
TIio  commission  charged  with  this  inquiry  serionaly 
engaged  in  it,  but  the  events  of  the  2d  December,  1861, 
prevented  it  from  finishing  its  task.  From  the  portion 
of  the  report,  however,  that  has  been  printed,  we  know 
that  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  there 
should  be  liberty  of  commerce  In  meat,  and  that  the 
looil  authorities  should,  under  no  pretext  whatsoever, 
be  allowed  to  Interfere  with  this  cardinal  principle. 
The  committee  considered  meat,  like  spice,  silk,  or 
cloth,  a  mercantile  commodity,  and  were  of  opinion 
that  the  police  should  only  interfere  as  to  frauds  In 
reference  to  quantity  or  quality,  or  as  to  the  whole- 
somenoss  of  the  victual  as  an  article  of  food.  This 
was  only  returning  to  the  principle  professed  in  the 
laws  of  the  14th  and  17th  .June,  1791,  and  the  1st  Bru- 
molre  An.  VII.  On  the  question  of  the  octroi  they 
were  of  opinion  that  it  interfered  with  the  price  and 
consumption  of  food,  and  that  it  should  be  abolished 
from  the  1st  January,  18(50.  Since  this  report  was 
pul)lishcd  tho  price  of  butcher's  meat  has  Increased, 
and  the  supply  has  diminished  at  Poissy,  the  great 
market  which  supplies  Paris.  In  consetiuence  of  this, 
recourse  was  had  to  an  expedient  which  sound  politi- 
cal science  has  proved  to  be  utterly  Ineffectual.  An 
ordonnance  appeared  in  the  Mimitmr  of  the  11th  and 
12th  October,  1855,  of  which  the  following  Is  the  sub- 
stance : 

"On  and  after  the  Ifith  of  the  present  month, 
butcher's  meat  shall  be  sold  at  prices  taxed  by  the  au- 
thorities. The  prices  shall  be  fixed  every  fortnight 
for  every  kind  of  meat,  according  to  the  returns  made 
at  the  Caiase  de  Poissy,  and  to  the  weight  of  meat  as- 
certained to  have  tsen  sent  from  the  putilic  slaughter- 
houses of  Paris  during  the  preceding  fortnight.  In 
tho  sliops  estalilished  in  the  markets,  meat  shall  im 
sold  nt  10c.  at  least,  per  kilogramme  (al)eut  a  half- 
pcni\y  per  pound)  below  the  fixed  price." 

Tills  decree,  which  violates  everj'  sound  principle  of 
political  economy,  appears  to  have  l)een  well  received 
by  tlie  poorer  classes  of  the  population,  who  had  long 
complained  of  the  doamess  of  meat,  and  of  the  ex- 
orbitant profits  of  tho  lintchers.  But  tho  way  to  re- 
duce the  profits  of  the  butcher  is  to  destroy  the  monop- 
oly, and  to  render  trade  in  meat  free. 

Rrmnue  ami  Kxpendilure. — In  France,  the  ancient 
system  of  taxation  and  finance  was  extremely  un- 
eciual  and  oppressive.  Her  various  provinces,  though 
tlioy  were  united  under  one  head,  retained  many  of 
their  own  peculiar  laws  and  privileges,  which  were  ali- 
surd  in  themselves,  and  opposed  to  tlie  general  inter- 
ests of  the  empire.  Among  these  was  an  exemption 
from  certain  imposts,  to  wliich  some  were  sulijected, 
and  consequently  over-taxed  ;  ond  others,  again,  con- 
tributed a  certain  quota  of  revenue  to  government, 
which  they  rai«o<l  liy  tuxes  Imposed  by  their  own  local 
autliiirities.  The  consequence  was,  that  no  uniform 
system  of  taxation  could  lie  established  throughout 
the  country.  Tlie  taxes  on  many  commodities  were 
higher  in  one  province  than  in  another;  and  custom- 


honsea  were  accordingly  eatabllalMd  on  thatr  retpeetiva 
fyontlera,  to  prevent  the  importation  of  gooda  until 
they  had  paid  the  duties.  In  this  manner,  owing  to 
the  inequality  of  taxation,  commodities  could  not 
fy«ely  pass  from  one  district  of  the  country  to  another ; 
and  the  kingdom  was  thus  broken  into  separate  divis- 
ions, to  the  great  interruption  of  trade.  The  partial- 
ity shown  to  the  privileged  orders  was  another  serious 
grievance  to  the  ancient  system  of  French  taxation. 
"The  taxes  by  which  the  publio  revenue  was  raised 
were,  first,  the  taitte,  s  tax  on  real  property,  or  on  in- 
come derived  fVx>m  commerce  and  industry.  From  this 
tax  the  lands  of  the  noblesse  and  clergy  were  exempt. 
"  The  tax  was  called  tailtt,"  saya  Borel,  "  because  the 
peasant  collectors,  not  knowing  how  to  write,  marked 
down  what  they  had  received  on  a  wooden  tally." 
Secondly,  the  vsngtiime  was  the  tax  of  l-20th  on  prop- 
erty, from  which  the  clergy  alone  were  exempted. 
This  tax  was  estalilished  in  1760,  and  was  levied  upon 
all  property  of  whatever  description.  In  1751,  it  was 
taken  off  the  amount  of  income  arising  from  personal 
industr}-.  Thirdly,  a  poll  tax  was  levied  on  all  classes 
indiscriminately.  Many  of  the  taxes  were  farmed  by 
rich  capitalists,  called  farmers-general,  or  fermien- 
genrraur,  who  paid  annually  into  the  treasury  a  fixed 
sum,  and  collected  the  taxes  fVom  the  people.  Those 
farmers-general  held  the  monopoly  of  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  tobacco  and  salt ;  and  also  the  octroi, 
which  was  a  duty  on  all  articles  entering  Paris  and 
other  large  towns.  The  power  delegated  to  these 
contractors,  was  the  source  of  grievous  oppression  to 
the  people.  The  duties  called  aidet  were  imposed  on 
spirituous  liquors  and  other  articles  of  consumption  ; 
they  also  Include  duties  on  all  articles  worked  in  gold 
or  silver,  on  wrought  Iron,  playing-cards,  leather,  pa- 
per, starch,  etc.  These  duties  levied  by  collectors  for 
the  lienefit  of  government  were  abolished  by  the  Na- 
tional Assemidy  in  1790.  The  corrie,  which  consisted 
In  so  many  days'  labor  annually,  of  men,  horses,  oxen, 
carriages,  etc.,  was  nominally  applicable  to  the  main- 
tenance of  roads.  The  tax  was  payable  either  in 
money  or  in  labor.  The  system  of  taxation,  so  pre- 
judicial to  internal  commerce,  was,  to  a  certain  extent, 
reformed  by  CoHiert,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  who, 
though  his  views  in  regard  to  the  principles  of  com- 
merce were  narrow  and  illiberal,  yet  improved  in 
many  particulars  the  system  of  taxation,  by  rendering 
it  more  uniform,  and  thus  breaking  down  the  l>arriers 
which  otntructed  the  free  interconrso  between  the  dif- 
ferent provinces.  Under  his  administration  tho  public 
revenue  of  France  amounted  in  1682  to  X5,000,000. 

The  long  and  expensive  wars  of  l/ouis  XIV.  pro- 
duced a  great  accumulation  of  delit  (nearly  £100,- 
000,000  sterling),  which,  after  his  death,  was  lessened 
liy  an  appeal  to  a  singular  privilege,  of  which  advan- 
tage has  often  been  taken  in  France,  viz.,  that  a  new 
sovereign  is  not  Ixiund  to  pay  the  debts  of  his  predeces- 
sor in  full.  During  the  18th  century,  the  revenue  of 
France  increased  progressively,  but  more  slowly  than 
that  of  England :  the  vicious  system  of  farming  the 
taxes  still  continued.  Necker,  appointed  to  office  in 
177C,  endeavore<ll|o  teach  the  French  court  the  value 
of  publicity  in  financial  statements;  and  exhibited 
the  rare  example  of  a  war  conducted  for  several  years 
without  new  taxes,  the  supplies  being  found  by  loans, 
the  interest  of  which  was  provided  for  by  successive 
retrenchments  In  tho  pUblic  ex|)enditure.  His  succes- 
sor, JI.  de  (Ittlonne,  pursued  a  very  different  course, 
and  was  found  altogether  incapulile  of  the  measures 
necessary  to  remedy  an  annual  deficiency  of  £2,000,000. 
The  revenue  of  France  was  then  alKiut  £22,000,000 
sterling,  Tlio  sum  required  for  payment  of  the  inter- 
est of  the  pulillc  delit  was  nearly  10,000,000  (Iteport 
nf  Camus  to  the  National  Assembly  in  .September, 
1790),  leaving  only  £12,000,000  for  the  army,  navy, 
civil  list,  and  other  public  expenses. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  French  finances  at  the  era 


FRA 


784  FRA 


« Ito  RtrelmlDB  oT  UN,  wUeh  wu  followad  bjr  larft- 
■ioa  oa  th*  tnaOtt,  aad  ia  th*  InUrior  by  all  tha  con- 
ftuion  eaoMquant  on  tba  raign  of  tarror.     In  thii  *n 
of  conlwation  and  Jodklal  muidar,  tba  national  dubt 
could  baldly  ba  mpaoted.      It  waa  not,   howaver, 
opanljr  canoalad,  but  tba  intarait  waa  itaued  In  ai- 
algnata  of  no  valua  except  for  purcbaaaa  of  national 
piopertx.    At  laat,  in  1708,  on  an  approximation  to 
regularity  In  the  nunagemant  of  publlo  builneu,  there 
was  paiaad  a  law  declaring  that  ona  third  of  the  old 
national  debt  tbould  be  Mcred,  and  the  Inteieit  on  It 
payable  In  boiu,  or  paper  receivable  In  dlicharge  of 
taxea.    Thi*  third  was  called  la  lier$  provitoin,  but  ita 
price  in  the  market  continued  very  low  until  Bonaparte 
■ucceeded  to  power,  and  placed  Guadin,   afterward 
Duke  of  Oaeta,  at  the  head  of  the  treaiury,  when 
means  were  found  to  redeem  the  public  fbnds  from 
their  depieadon,  and  to  resume  tlie  payment  of  the 
dlrktenda  in  cash.     The  amount  of  the  revenue  was 
greatly  Impaired  by  the  general  confusion  of  the  Rev- 
olution.    In  1799  the  expenditure  exceeded  the  receipt 
by  ^,000,000  sterling.    (Gaudia,  \otiee  Hutonque  des 
Unancudelafrmct.)   A  partial  reduction  of  axpend- 
Itare,  and  improvements  in  the  collection  of  the  taxes, 
bronght,  In  1808,  the  reoeipU  to  ;ei9,r>00,000,  while 
the   axpenditare  was  ^£20,000,000.      In    subsequent 
yean  both  received  a  progressive  augmentation ;  and 
in  1818  the  revenue  derived  from  France,  exclusive  of 
conqoersd  territory,  waa  about  37,000,000.   O.'  the  res- 
toration of  the  fiourlwns,  in  1814,  the  public  debt,  fund- 
ed and  unftandad,  did  not  exceed  133,000,000  vbignon, 
lUpoti  Comparatif  d»  la  France)  ;  Ite  interest  ^7,900,- 
000.     France  had  thus  a  fair  prospect  of  financial 
prosperity,  when  the  return  of  Bonaparte,  and  a  second 
invasion  by  the  allied  troops,  overthrew  public  credit, 
aad  produced  a  national  loss  and  a  general  derange- 
ment of  trade.     It  has  been  estimated  that  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  which  led  to  the  second  inva- 
sion of  France  by  the  allied  troops  occasioned  a  loss  to 
the  country  of  4,000,000,000  of  francs.      The  direct 
loss,  which  Included  the  expenses  paid  to  the  allied 
powers,  and  those  incurred  by  the  maintenance  of 
their    armies,    placed    in    cantonments    throughout 
Franca,  may  be  estimated ;  but  the  indirect  evils  occa- 
sioned by  the  ravages  inseparable  from  the  invasion  of 
a  hostile  army,  by  the  confusion  and  derangement  of 
all  commercial  relations,  and  the  impossibility  of  col- 
lecting the  nvenne  in  such  a  time  of  trouble,  can  not 
ba  summed  up  in  money.     At  the  same  time  then  an 
scarcely  any  national  difficulties  which  may  not  be 
overcome  by  the  energies  and  industry*  of  a  free  and 
intelligent  people  such  as  the  French.    With  an  incon- 
siderable addition  to  her  debt,  France  has  defrayed  all 
these  heavy  expenses,  the  contributions  imposed  on 
her  by  the  allied  powers,  the  expenses  of  the  tempor- 
ary maintenance  of  their  armies,  and  her  own  warlike 
expenses.      For   this   purpose,    however,   It    became 
neceasary  In  1816  to  impose  additional  taxes.     In  1817 
a  loan  was  required  of  392,g8!),000  francs ;   and  in 
1818,  to  defray  the    extraordinary  contribution   of 
676,807,197  francs,  paid  in  that  year  to  the  allies,  the 
minister  had  recourse  to  another  lo^  of  220,610,718 
francs ;  while,  by  the  taxes  which  had  been  imposed, 
the  ravenue  of  that  year  was  carried  to  £86,000,000. 

Ukah  Bsvikui  or  Fsakcr  in  tiik  Tek  Yxabs  anwnx 
1883  AND  18<3. 


ISil.        1         ISM.         1 

Direct  Tsxes 

Fnuiei. 
841,88<tl&7 
181,108,061 
27,080.178 
lSa,88S,S*0 
!  1*8,188,061 

4»,4<8,948 

14,018,S0» 

Fnnci, 

401,900385 

SaO,8M,780 

84,700,000 

181,ln7,S8« 

940,648,8)1 

47,096,600 

4,849,089 

19,197,979 

9,890,000 

19,619,749 

Regtstretloii,  8lamp^  etc . . . 

Forests,  etc 

Cantoms  and  Salt 

Post  Office 1 

Alyerlaa  Revenue 

Prod.  Unireidtalres 

Prod.  Xrentaels,  etc 

Divers  SjDrccs 

ToUl 

»94,106,7»1 1 

1,174,684,976 

The  axpaadltura  af  1868  wai  ••  follows  I 

lateNst  on  PnUle  Debt,  ete 879^114^    '^ 

Dotatleas-Olvll  List,  eto U,9«,689'    t 

bpsBssa  of  varloaa  MlDlsirlea— Justice,  • . 

Fofelgn  AHUia,  ete. T87,S68,61« 

Kxpense  ofCollectlnf  end  PaylufTaxos, 

etc 1  Jl,(Mv8l6 

Dnwbaeks,  Discounts,  Bounties,  eta. . .  88,949J«t     ^ 

Total 1,419,974,991     "• 

IVavanx  Kxtrordlnatres  or  Addllloasl  > 

Works. 79,79a,U4     .. 

Total 1,486,018,895      ' 

Bealdee  the  public  nvenue  of  tba  ampin,  the  com- 
munes raised  a  nvenue  for  their  own  local  expenses. 
According  to  the  latest  published  accounts,  this  nv- 
enue arises  partly  from  oclroit,  which  amount  through- 
out France  (then  being  1486  octrats)  to  06,178,603 
francs,  and  partly  ftom  other  sources,  the  whole  of 
which  amounted  to  280,638,309  francs  in  1860.  The 
total  of  the  ordinary  ways  and  means  of  France  in  tba 
Budget  Provitoire  of  1865  amounted  to  1,628,110,288 
francs.  During  the  administration  of  M.  Vilile  the 
fl"e  per  cents,  in  France  wen  converted  Into  a  three  per 
cent,  fund,  at  the  rata  of  183-83  cents,  for  every  100  of 
the  five  per  cent,  stock ;  so  that  the  whole  Ave  per 
cent,  stock,  bearing  an  annual  interast  of  80,674,116 
francs,  was  converted  Into  a  thna  per  cent,  fund,  of 
which  the  capital  was  incnased  one  third.  The  effect 
of  this  transaction  was,  in  nality,  to  nduca  the  inter- 
est on  the  five  par  cent,  stock  to  four  per  cent.,  by 
which  he  saved  annual  intenst  to  the  amount  of 
6,000,000,  though  by  a  very  useless  complexity  In  his 
operations.  The  interast  on  the  public  debt  of  Franca, 
thus  nduced,  may  be  stated  aa  follows :  it  amounted 
in  1866  to  418,870,442  francs.  The  sinking  fund,  or 
cai«e  tTamortutement,  ceased  altogether  Its  operations 
on  the  14th  July,  1848.  In  the  32  yean  of  its  opera- 
tion the  coiMS  {Tamortifement  lilwrated  the  country 
from  liabllitlea  to  the  amount  of  1,633,474,090  Ihincs,  and 
placed  at  the  dispoMtion  of  the  treasury,  fh>m  1888  to 
1848,  1,016,693,866  francs. 

Taxatiim. — The  ancient  system  of  taxation  in  France 
waa  subverted  by  the  National  Assembly  in  1791,  and 
new  taxes  wen  substituted  In  lieu  of  those  formerly  in 
force.  These  consisted  of  direct  and  indirect  taxes. 
The  direct  taxes  an,  1.  CoHtnbution  fonciirt,  or  land- 
tax;  3,  Contribution  penonelle  et  mobiliire;  8.  A  tax 
on  doors  and  windows ;  4.  Droitt  depatente,  or  a  license 
duty  on  particular  trades  and  professions,  and  a  duty 
on  mines. 

The  coHlribulion  foncdrt  Is  ra||ed  equally  on  all 
lands  and  hoases,  in  proportion  to  their  nett  ravenue. 
Then  an  no  longer  any  exemptions  in  favor  of  the 
nobility  since  the  first  Revolution,  in  1789.  The  Im- 
perial domains  and  the  property  of  the  State  an  alone 
exempted.  The  contribution  perionelle  et  mobiliire  is 
divided  into  two  parts.  Tlie  tint  is  a  species  of  poll 
tax,  rated  at  thne  days'  labor,  calculated  in  money 
value  to  be  from  10  to  80  sous  per  day,  and  levied  on 
all  males  above  18  yean  of  age.  The  con<rt6u<ion  mo- 
biliite  is  a  house-tax,  levied  on  nnts  from  200  to  3600 
francs.  For  the  coii(n6ii<i'on  per»oneUe,  the  octroi, 
which  Is  a  custom-duty  on  all  goods  entering  a  town. 
Is  substituted  in  Paris  and  other  large  cities.  The  tax 
on  street-doon,  gateways,  and  windows,  varies  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  town  in  which  the  house  is 
situafed,  and  also  In  proportion  to  the  size  and  value 
of  the  house,  and  the  number  of  windows.  It  Is  regu- 
lated by  a  tariff,  in  which  an  two  divisions.  The 
droitt  de  patentet,  or  license  duty,  is  levied  on  every  per- 
son following  a  profession,  trade,  or  business ;  and  Is 
divided  into  two  heads — the  proportional  tax  or  the 
fixed  tax,  which  depends  on  the  extent  and  population 
of  the  town  when  he  exercises  bis  profession.  A 
merchant  pays  from  40  to  6000  francs  per  annum,  ac- 
cording to  tba  population  o^the  place  where  he  resides, 
and  an  additional  10  per  cent,  on  the  nnt  of  bis  dwelt 


FRA 


726 


ntA 


inum,  ao 
|e  resldei, 
idwalk 


Ing-honM.  Baaktri  in  all  omci  pay  610  franca  a-y«ar  i 
and  there  ii  in  lilt*  manner  a  fixed  rate  for  other  in- 
frrtor  tradea  and  profeatloni,  The  duty  on  mine* 
i«  In  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  surface,  and  also 
to  their  iiett  produce. 

The  law  which  fixes  the  amount  of  the  direct  taxes 
also  determines  the  quota  which  each  department  Is 
required  to  pay.  This  is  announced  by  the  minister 
of  finance  to  the  prefect  of  the  department,  who  com- 
municates it  to  his  sous-prefect  and  to  the  mayors. 
The  sum  thus  assigned  by  the  prefect  to  each  arron- 
dlssement  is  nubdirkled  by  the  councils  of  the  arron- 
dtiuement  and  by  the  communes;  and  the  amount 
allotted  to  each  is  apportioned  among  the  inhabitants  by 
persons  appointed  for  that  purpose,  called  rtpartilairi 
or  assessors.  These  assessors  regulate  the  amount  of 
taxable  property,  and  they  fix  the  scale.  The  land-tax 
is,  however,  ver}-  unequally  assessed,  amounting  in 
some  departments  to  six  per  cdnt.,  while  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine  it  is  seventeen  per  cent.  The  equali- 
zation of  the  land-tax  has  always  Iwen  accounted  a  cap- 
ital object  In  the  financial  policy  of  France ;  and  with 
this  view  a  Vijry  minute  survey  and  measurement  of  all 
the  landed  property  in  France  (termed  the  cadoiin) 
was  begun  In  1808,  and  finished  in  1847.  The  catUuIrt, 
accurate  as  it  generally  is,  can  not,  however,  be 
considered  as  the  expression  of  actual  facts.  The 
pntpriittt  impotable,  or  taxable  property,  consists,  ac- 
cording to  the  cadattre,  of  26,68I,<U8  hectares  of  cul- 
tivalile  land;  6,169,226  hectares  of  meadows;  2,090,- 
633  hectares  of  vines ;  628,286  hectares  of  orchards, 
nurseries,  and  gardens ;  4,176  hectares  of  mines ;  and 
17,400  hectares  of  lakos,  ponds,  etc.  The  Inequality 
of  the  land-tax  has  long  been  a  subject  of  loud  and 
Just  complaint ;  and  various  plans  have  been  adopted 
for  a  more  accurate  classification  of  the  land.  But 
these  have  generally  proved  inefficient  and  unsatisfac- 
tory. 

The  Indirect  taxes  consist  chiefly  of  fourteen  prin- 
cipal kinds — of  the  droits  riunit  or  excise  duties  on 
articles  of  consumption,  of  stamp  duties,  registration 
duties,  duties  on  carriages,  on  canals  and  ferr^'-boats, 
on  gold  and  silver  plate.  A  revenue  is  raised  from 
the  monopoly  of  tobacco  and  gunpowder;  from  the 
post  office ;  the  octroi,  or  cuntom  duty  on  all  articles 
entering  large  towns,  one  tenth  of  which  goes  to  the 
imperial  treasury,  the  remainder  being  applied  to  local 
expenses.  The  customs  form  an  important  branch  of 
the  French  revenues.  The  droiti  riunit,  or  excise 
duties,  are  laid  on  wine,  brandy,  etc.,  which  pay  1) 
fi'ancs  per  hectolitre  of  120  English  quarts,  on  being 
removed  from  one  place  to  another.  Wine  in  bot- 
tles pays  10  francs  per  hectolitre  on  its  removal; 
elder,  perry,  and  mead,  pay  80  centimes  per  hectolitre. 
Ten  per  cent,  of  the  atwve  duty  is  paid  on  their  re- 
moval from  the  wholesale  warehouse.  Prior  to  1880  a 
duty  distinct  tnm  the  octroi  was  levied  on  the  entiy 
of  all  wine  or  spirituous  liquors  into  communes  the 
population  of  which  amounted  to  1600  and  upward. 
Ait  communes  whose  population  does  not  amonnt  to 
4000  are  exempted  from  this  tax ;  and  a  new  tarifT  has 
l)een  established,  rising  progressively  from  4000  to 
6000  inhabitants,  in  proportion  to  the  estimated  wealth 
of  the  departments,  which  are  divided  <nto  four  sepa- 
rate classes— a  very  vogue,  as  we  should  suppose,  and 
uncertain  standard  of  taxation.  There  is  a  further 
duty  on  wine  and  liquors  sold  by  retail,  which  since 
1830  has  been  reduced  from  16  to  10  per  cent.  A 
reduction  of  8  per  cent,  on  this  duty  is  made  to  deal- 
ers, and  of  26  per  cent,  if  the  wine  l>e  grown  by  the 
retaQerbimself.  Strong  beer  pays  a  duty  of  2  ft'ancs 
40  centimes,  and  small  beer  a  duty  of  12  sous,  per 
hectolitre.  Retailers  of  liquon  must  take  out  a  dis- 
tinct license,  which  varies,  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  town,  from  6  to  20  francs.  Proprietors  of 
piililic  carriages  pay  one  tenth  of  the  price  of  each 
place  for  passengers,  a  third  being  deducted  for  w 


cant  placet,  and  on*  tenth  of  Um  pric*  rtcalved  for 
merchandise.  Privata  carriages  are  subjected  to  a 
moderate  duty,  accordbig  to  their  site,  of  40  fk'anoa 
per  annum  for  a  carriage  with  two  wheels,  and  hold- 
ing two  parsons ;  and  of  160  francs  per  annum  for  a 
carriage  with  four  wheels,  and  holding  nine  persons. 
The  tnrtgittrtment,  or  regiatratiun  duties,  embraces  • 
variety  of  transactions,  where  property  is  conveyed 
or  given  away  l)y  marriage-settlement  or  otherwise. 
There  Js  a  duty  on  gifts  inter  vivot,  which  increasea 
with  the  distance  of  the  relation  lietween  the  parties. 
It  was  modified  by  an  ordonnance  of  lx>uls  Philippe  in 
1882.  The  duties  payalile  on  registry  are  either  fixed 
or  ad  valortmi  the  fixed  or  certain  duties  apply  to 
common  certificates,  those  of  life  or  residence,  account- 
books,  bills  of  lading,  appointments  of  arbitrations, 
valuations  of  furniture,  and  the  like.  The  ad  valortm 
duty  applies  to  all  bonds  or  olillgations,  discharges, 
Judgments,  deposits  or  releases  of  sums  of  money,  and 
for  every  transfer  of  property,  etc.  The  stamp  duty 
applies  to  receipts,  bills  of  exchange,  newspapers, 
handbills,  playbills,  admission  cards  to  pulilic  places, 
and  upon  paper  used  for  civil  and  Judicial  aelet. 

The  total  received  from  the  impot  direct  in  1864  was 
411,278,000  francs.  In  1863  the  sum  received  was 
420,064,000  francs,  which  shows  a  deficit  of  nearly 
9,000,000  of  francs  in  1864.  The  total  receipU  of 
the  impAti  indirectt  in  1864  were  817,260,000  franca. 
The  imp6t  on  salt  produced  in  1864  a  sum  of  88,270,- 
181  francs.  The  total  of  "droits"  received  in  1864 
amounted  to  149,887,610  ftancs. 

Vrsnea. 

Land  earrlaffo  or  roulsge  81,non,OflO  of 
tons,  tlio  moitn  transport  st  IS  leagues, 
at  the  mosD  price  or  1  truus  per  ton .  460,000,000 

The  public  roltures  which  travel  18 
.  leagues  per  <Uy,  In  pltco  of  the  com- 
mon carrlsdes  of  8  or  10  Ictgnes, 
yield,  per  annum (0,000,000 

The  duty  on  the  public  cunTsysnces  re- 
turns «,0(i0,0uii  A-ancs;  three  fourths 
are  dcrlvcu  from  the  psasenfrers,  and 
one  flourth  from  the  goods  they  con- 
vey. 

The  share  capital  of  the  French  railways  in  1848 
was  £49,044,000  sterling.  The  total  merchandise  con- 
veyed per  transit  in  1814,  was  in  value  229,820,796 
francs.  In  1864=64,926,840  francs  official  value. 
Value  of  wine,  spirits,  lieer,  and  cider  consumed  in 
France,  reckoned  at  600,000,000  ft'ancs,  give  811,000,- 
000  francs  wine,  64,000,000  francs  brandy,  69,000,000 
frsncs  beer,  and  76,000,000  francs  cider. 

The  duties  levied  on  this  branch  of  the  Fiv'ach  rev- 
enues produced  ;e6,483,766  in  1862  and  £6,6<>''^,686  in 
1853.  In  France  these  duties  are  laid  on  in  many 
cases  mora  with  a  view  to  restriction  and  monopoly 
than  to  revenue.  France  sacrifices  a  large  revenue 
for  the  encouragement  of  the  colonial  monopoly ;  pay- 
ing for  the  produce  of  the  colonies  an  exorbitant  price, 
and  afterward,  as  in  the  case  of  sugar,  the  staple  arti- 
cle that  is  imported  from  the  colonies,  giving  a  great 
portion  of  the  duty  as  a  bounty  on  its  exportation  to 
foreign  countries,  to  indemnify  the  exporter  for  the 
loss  that  he  would  incur  If  he  were  selling  the  sugar 
at  its  ordinary  price  in  the  markets  of  Europe.  In 
1830  the  gross  receipts  from  the  sugar  duty  amounted 
to  .£1,897,340,  of  which  one  third,  namely,  ^£420,908, 
were  paid  back  in  bounties  on  the  exportation  of  the 
surplus.  Thus  the  nett  duty  only  amounted  to  £976,- 
437,  while  in  1822,  though  the  quantity  of  sugar  con- 
sumed was  only  1,086,596  cwts.,  or  281,076  cwts,  less 
than  in  1830,  the  nett  amount  of  the  duty  was  £1,234,> 
653.  The  consumption  of  sugar  in  France  in  1847 
only  reached  to  aliout  2,670,000  cwts.  It  is  by  means 
of  heavy  custom-duties  that  the  French  legislators  en- 
deavor to  preserve  the  monopoly  of  the  liome  market 
to  their  own  manufacturers,  by  which  policy  they  com- 
pel the  French  community  to  buy  at  a  high  price  the 
inferior  articles  of  their  own  manufacture,  rathor  than 
the  l)etter  articles  of  the  foreigner  at  a  lower  price.    The 


FEA 


199 


FRA 


InerMMd  mnmiMn  aad  lupariw  viKiluea  of  th*  cu»- 
toiB-huOM  ofltMn  h«T«  been  itUl  counteraetcil  by  the 
ntw  (xpaditnU   iind   poneraring    tn|{raulty  of  the 

Th«  ftnntior  of  Franca  Is  tha  ncana  of  thU  paneeu- 
tliin  aKitinit  eommarca,  when  all  tha  lllagal,  lUrlnK, 
and  lnK«nloiu  ranourua*  of  Iha  contralHind  truilara  ara 
uallod  Into  p.i'tlvity.  Anions  other  expeillant*,  thuy 
trulned  packiof  duga,  arconlliiK  to  Meiara,  Villiem  and 
U<iiirtr>-,  tu  carry  prulill>lt«<l  gondii  ucnxui  tlie  frontier, 
'l^aaa  dogi  lieing  cundiictud  to  the  frontier,  ure  kept 
without  food  for  inuny  bouri)  they  are  then  liaatitn 
and  ladan  with  goodn,  and  are  itarted  on  their  travel) 
when  It  beglni  tu  grow  darii,  and  reach  the  aUxlea  of 
their  maatari  as  soon  as  they  can,  where  they  ara  well 
treaind,  and  receive  a  full  meal.  Areonllng  tu  the 
accounts  of  tha  French  cnstoni-house,  40,27)1  of  these 
dogs  were  destroyed  in  the  year  IHilO,  on  which  ao' 
count  premiums  were  )>uM  to  the  custom-house  olllcers 
to  the  amount  of  4U,27H  francs.  That  the  trade, 
though  It  may  be  obstructed.  Is  nut  prevented,  is  evi- 
dent Aram  the  circumstance  that  there  ore  regular 
rates  of  insurance  on  the  conveyance  of  contraband 
goods  Into  France,  vuylng  from  10  to  70  per  cent.  A 
revision,  and  If  passible  a  reduction,  of  these  heavy 
duties  would  be  tha  true  policy  of  France.  Monopoly 
was  never  yut  the  soa.va  of  commercUl  greatness  In 
any  country. 

Xaiional  Jncome  ami  Capital. — Population.— fit  the 
official  surveys  of  the  French  territory,  by  fur  the  most 
minute  and  accurate  is  tha  cadatirt,  a  survey  which  be- 
came Indispensable  from  the  time  it  was  determined  to 
exchange  the  tuxes  on  consumption  for  taxes  on  pn>- 
duce.  A  return  of  the  rent  of  land,  such  as  was  made 
under  the  pra|>«rty-tax  act  in  Kngland,  would  not  have 
been  practicable  in  France,  where  so  many  thousands  of 
petty  lots  are  cultivated  by  their  proprietors.  At  flrnt 
the  ciulatlre  proceeded  on  the  plan  of  an  estimate  )mr 
moMta  (If  culture,  or  continuous  valuation  of  extensive 
tracts ;  but  this  proving  unsutisfactor}',  it  has  been  con- 
ducted since  1807  on  u  plan  of  such  minute  detail,  as  to 
give  the  value  of  every  separate /Kirrf</e  or  patch  <>f  land, 
i'he  progress  of  this  minute  survey  of  the  landed  prop- 
erty in  France  has  been  retarded  by  many  causes ;  and 
in  IHSO  not  above  two  thinis  of  the  land  had  been  sur- 
veyed. It  was  estimated  in  the  report  of  ona  of  the 
committees  of  the  Chumlwr  in  1832,  that  it  would  still 
require  from  that  period  uliout  eight  years,  and  an  ex- 
pense of  almve  i;2,(IOU,UO()  sterling,  to  complete  it. 
They  had  only  surveyed  81,000,000  of  hectares,  or  68, 
000,lM)0  of  acres,  The  annual  expense  of  the  survey 
U  .£130,000. 

The  wages  of  mechanics  are  so  fluctuating  and  vari- 
ous, that  a  satisfactory  statement  of  them  can  scarcely 
be  produced.  It  may,  however,  be  assumed  that  tliey 
are  generally  20  or  DO  per  cent,  lower  than  in  England. 
The  rate  of  wages  of  the  agricultural  population  was 
thus  estimated  in  1861 : 

Vr.  eanu.  Frsnca. 

6  millions  of  men,        at    1  60  per  dlom  l,<<iiO,'KXl,0(M 

"  •       "       of  women,     "  T6        "  »0n,OiK),000 

■   6       »       ofchllilren,    "  M        "        .     8,000,000 

18       "       ofagiicnl.  laborers  paid  yearly.    8,000,000,000 

Eipnue  of  lAving. — A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the 
difference  in  the  expense  of  living  in  France  and  in 
England  was  about  a  third  lexs  in  favor  of  Kngland. 
As  fur  OS  regards  provisions,  this  difference  was  some- 
what greater;  but  it  received  a  counterpoise  in  the 
greater  cost  of  fuel.  Paris  la  now  as  expansive 
compared  to  the  reat  of  France,  as  London  la  compared 
to  the  rest  of  England.  In  1855  prices  were  generally 
on  a  par  with  prices  In  London,  and  In  house-rent  and 
tha  prices  of  lodgings  and  fuel,  Paris  exceeds  London. 

In  tha  end  of  tha  seTenteenth  century,  the  territorj' 
of  France,  when  very  nearly  equal  to  its  present  ex/- 
tent,  appears,  from  tha  report  of  the  intendants  or 
provincial  goveinori,  to  have  contained  about  30,000,- 


000  of  Inhabitants.  This  namber  was  found,  by  tha 
census  mods  by  order  of  tlie  Nutiunal  Assembly,  to 
have  Increased  nearly  a  tlilrd  in  tho  course  of  a  centu- 
ry |  tba  amount,  in  1791,  being  3(i,8<i3,ri00,  a  number 
which,  by  computation,  maile  In  1H17,  bad  further  In- 
creased to  above  20iUO<),000.  In  tlia  year  1820  the 
pcpultttion  WIS  110,451,187 :  and,  according  to  tha  ordon- 
nanca  of  January  1MU2,  It  uniounteil  to  a2,Ci!l,(!78,  liy 
tha  census  of  1851  it  ap|io.irs  that  the  |M)pulatlon  of 
France  was  M5,781,G28.  Tlie  miirrlagea  in  1882  and 
l8;ia  were  annually  about  23U,a<.)0,  and  the  deaths 
about  785,208,  of  which  8V5,2uO  were  males,  and  888,- 
018  females.  The  births  were  007,588,  of  which  there 
were  408,707  iKiys  and  408,820  girls.  Tha  niunlier  of 
illegltimata  children  was  then  08,081.  In  1852,  twen- 
ty years  aftsr  the  period  here  s|iokcn  of,  the  total  num- 
lier  of  births  was  0U5,l'4IU,  of  which  806,280  were 
legitimate,  and  00,844  lllegitlniata.  Tho  number  of 
children  stlll-lwm  in  1852  amounted  tu  37,001,  the 
nunilter  of  deatlis  to  811,005,  and  the  number  of  mar- 
riages to  281,800. 

The  estimates  of  population  in  France,  subsequently 
to  1791,  are  fomced,  not  by  actual  survey,  but  by 
udiling  for  the  »',rlod  ivhich  has  intervened,  tlie  births, 
and  deducting  the  deaths,  of  which  an  accurate  record 
is  kept  in  the  public  offices. 

Pori'LATioN   iir  Towns   witu  18,000   iNniBiTAMn  and 

IIVWAaD    IN   1881  AMD  IN    IHAI. 


IVb 

Marseilles... 

Lyons. 

Bonli'SUX. . . . 

Kouen 

Nantes 

•Line 

iToulouae 

Strasbourg.. . 

Amiena 

McU 

Nlinos. 

Cscn 

Rhctms     ... 
Montpelllor. . 

AuKors 

Avifinon 

Brest 

Nancy 


TT4.WWI 

m,nm\ 

7T,9!MI 

oi),u;8 

60,880 
411,712 
4A.(I0I 
44,4111 
41,2811 
80,1411 
86,971 
8i»,S!i.'i 
8l!,74« 
29,«*(9 
M,8«n 
19,188 


,II68,««2' 
lH,%082i 

IJS.OS.'i' 
01,612 
81,808 
88,188, 

88,841 
40,189 

48,4H4' 

4!i,4'<n, 

4n..189 
48,8*8 
48,222 
48,1*1 
81,811! 
88,402 
4I»,1S» 


TOWM. 


Uennes 

Hesancon  .... 

Versalllos 

Tonlon 

ClormontFor 

rsnil 

LliiioKos.. .  ■ .  ■ 
Montauban... 

Dunkirk 

Orenoble 

Hnvre  de 

Mroce... 

Troycs 

Tocrs... 
rnlllors     . 

AU 

BnuloKno. , 
St.  Ouior. . 
L'Urient... 


t«.s6r;  8<i,6<8 

27,urU|  87,010 
iWW  18,814 
24,0871  28,8S8 
14,8881  28,961 

28,816!  2^41(| 
18.T40l  2^8!18l 

28,r"" 


28.I2.S 
22,,^76 
20,868 
1».)U4 
18.R21 


28.81  ^ 
•i4.2.V. 
29.41'* 
19,228 
22,681 


The  ratio  of  the  increase  of  iwpulatlon  in  France  Is 
greatest  in  the  lower  classes ;  the  middling  and  upper 
ranks  have  seldom  large  families.  In  that  country 
tha  population  evidently  increases  faster  since  the 
adoption  of  vaccine  inoculation. 

French  Weiyhta  and  ifeoMurei, — Tha  weights  and 
measures  of  France  were  reduced,  as  b  well  known,  to 
a  very  simple  and  unifonn  scale  soon  after  the  tint 
Revolution ;  but  there  has  been  much  difficulty  in  ac- 
customing the  inhabitants,  particularly  in  country 
districts,  to  the  adoption  of  the  new  system,  which 
unluckily  preserved  none  of  the  lumea  with  which 
the)'  were  familiar.  In  1812  a  kind  of  compromise 
took  place— government  sanctioning  the  retention  of 
the  old  names,  such  as  pounds,  ounces,  ells,  and  bush- 
els ;  but  requiring  that  their  contents  should  be  calcu- 
lated by  a  reference  to  the  new  standard.  It  is 
accordingly  on  this  footing  that  business  is  now  trans- 
acted in  Franc*.  The  new  weights  and  measures  uro 
in  general  larger  by  a  fraction  than  tho  old,  and  the 
use  of  the  latter  is  prohiliited  by  law. 

The  fundame  ital  stjindard  adopted  lu  France  for  tho 
metrical  system  of  weights  and  measures,  is  a  quadrant 
of  the  meridian — that  is  to  say,  the  distance  from  tho 
equator  to  the  north  pole.  This  quadrant  is  divided 
iiito  10,000,000  of  equal  parts,  and  one  of  these  parts  or 
divisions  Is  called  a  metre,  which  is  adopted  as  the  unit 
of  length ;  und  from  it,  by  decimal  multiplication  uud 
division,  all  the  otiicr  measures  are  derived. 

The  length  of  this  qwidntnt  was  ascertained  b)- 
MM.  Delambre  and  Mechoin,  by  measuring  un  arc  of 
U>«  meridian  between  the  paralleli  of  Dunkirk  and 


¥nK 


191 


VRA 


8fi|  ' 

lli.'J'irtl 

■ii.m\ 


ttmUmt,  cM  hM  Immhi  ftmnd  to  miitala  5,1110,740 
Vrani'h  IiiIm),  m  WJ.WM.mn  Rnglliih  (*«t.  Thla  num- 
lur  iIIvIiImI  liy  in,(Nl(l,()liO  kIvm  n'Wmm  Knullth  fMt, 
dc  lH)'n707l)  Knullali  Ini'hM  vtry  nairly,  fur  tha  tru* 
Itnifth  ift  lb*  Krvnch  niiitn), 

In  iintar  In  *ii|ifiiM  tti«  dmimiil  firfiiHirtlnnn,  tha  toU 
IwwIiiK  viM'iltuUry  nf  nitmiia  liiw  limm  ii(l(itit«l  i 

y»r  niMUIullnrii  llm  vrvfl*  I**''*  tnp»ni      10  timti, 
»  «  llnmii     "        1(10    " 

"  »  Kill.       '•       1,<l«»     » 

"  "  Mt«M     "     lO.IKW     " 

fof  illflMiril  lit*  iiriiAl    MM  I  iiaprMiMi    '1    put 

u         ,r        (iHPiti    '•       ■oi    •' 
"  «  Mii.1       "         ■Wt   " 

II  m»y  nail'l  (lit  mi>mnr:r  lo  nlM«rv«  ihtt  lh«  pre- 
Hxf»  Air  niiilllptylnii  itrti  ((nhiIi,  niiiI  Ihimc  for  illvldinff 
l<allii|  tint*  il«iiitmtilrx  moNttf)  in  niMlrM,  nnd  dccl- 
nu'tr*  I'llltll  iif  N  Mtrtrvi  hciiniiKitr*  maana  100 
malraa,  and  i'«nllm«tr«  MO'lth  iif  n  mrtr*  i  kllomfitre 
inaitiu  |(NK)  iiixtraa,  aitd  mlllliiiKtra  l-ttKOtthof  a  metra. 
Tlie  niiitrn  fan  Imfiirf  niiiffd )  l« »(«<  (^liimont  nr  prinie  unit 
of  liin|{  inaaauni,  and  la  Ki|tlNl  tn  Illl'll7l)7tf  Kngllab  Inchaa. 

'|'h«  lira,  wlili'li  la  n  aiiilNrx  d)>(<nm(4rit  (nr  100  aquarc 
mrlrea),  U  tim  tilKmanlHl  ttnil  tif  m|iiars  or  aaperticlal 
manaiira,  II  la  ai|iMl  tn  Itlt'flOHH  aiiuarc  yarda,  or 
vary  nearly  ».N|  parta  iit  iiti  ai'f*. 

'I'ha  alxra,  wlili'h  la  m  i'hIiIi'  matra,  la  tha  elamentsl 
unit  of  aidld  maaaiira,  nnd  '■•(iial  In  IIA'lllOfl  cubic  feat 
Knullali,  or  naarly  IIA|  iMildi'  fKCt. 

Tim  lllrx,  wlili'li  la  Him  ctililti  dacimdre,  ia  tha  ale- 
mental  ni|l|  of  nil  ||i|uld  tttanaurra,  nnd  nf  alt  other 
maiiauraa  nf  I'ltpni'lly,  t(  la  i>i|iimI  tn  HM)270A  cul>ic 
Incliaa,  nr  la  yvry  nawrl)'  il-AOtha  or  SS-lOOtha  of  an 
liniiurlitl  Kiiltnn. 

I.aally,  Ilia  iftumm*.  wltk'tl  la  tha  walxht  of  a  cutdo 
cantlmxtra  of  dUllllai)  WHtaf  at  Ha  tamparature  of 
Kreiileat  I'lindanMllnili  I*  tlin  ctamantal  unit  of  all 
w^||{hla,  and  la  aqiiai  tn  lAMHSA  ^nilna  troy,  or  18-!t»da 
of  an  aviilrilu|Mda  drmn  tiaitrlyi 

Tahi.jui  iir  I^NHai'H  VVNiitHta  Aan  Ma*fvaaa,  with  Tuut 
\im  IN  TUN  K,iiiil,l»n  iMi'aaUL  MAaDAans. 


i.jia  iir 
VALua 


Mllllniutra 
lluntlMiutra 
liuulinatra 

MatHH 

p«iiani»tra 
jluiittiiiititra 
Klloniiilru 
MIrlainatra 


OaHtlara 
puvlara 

Ahh 
Danara 

Ilui'tara 
Ellllare 
MIrlara 


laaNAI.  MNAallNN. 


m     MItTlrtft      = 
-    iWa'iialK) 


ta-di. 

•     iimtm 

\n-mm 

-  m-mtn  =  ti-xomiie. 

KHaidiM    =  la-mt    " 

-  lilWM'iW      r=«  8-14  mllea. 


Ht'H^INI'M'Uli  MNAal'NN, 

Nil.  Variiii  Na<  F"!*,         Na.  fnrh^i. 

I'IIMWWb    I'i'tMS    =  IMO-OW 


■  iiinmM 

■  IIWHUM 

■■  liuwiii'f 

i||ti«INt' 


-  'iMTIl4 

r^       ««I14 

-  «41114 
^147114 


Canllalora 
ll«c|>Ura 
Hturi) 
Papatera 


ftiM.in  MNAal'aN, 
l>«M>  IfflMUi         I'tMi  t'Ni. 

-  IliilfftiA    e 

-  DliM'tilA     =    fl'MIM 
^    DIlMT'llft       ^  Hft'ltllttt 
=^  MliWTH'ft        -HM'IM 

Ma^aiiNN  t>»  OAfAoltf, 

V»W  ffi^tiiit, 


Acrfl. 

1-40  n'rly. 
=       1-4      " 
=    9  l-i      " 
=  84  7-10     " 
=»47  1-9      » 


Ciibln  Tardf. 


-  vnmn 

=  IS'OSOI 


n«ntllltr*  >        <^\m«\^ 

Uuulltira   -      iVtWTiiA 

LriitN        ^      DliMruA    r,       ll-AOgtlloiia  nearly. 

llmuillira  ^  HllHI'TlM       ^  ««  ■■  " 

MIrtalltra  ^DIMIT'iM        -<m   MOO   "         •• 


OantUrtniina 

Polvntmiita 

niiAUMa 

lleaafniinma 

Daetoirtmma 

KllugrtmuM 

HlrlagnMMHta 


MNtaifHN  i>*  WainHfi 

UHAh*  VfUft 

^     i'ft4i«r 

-       1(I4^» 

iff 


•W978  01.  av. 
I-MHB      •< 


Tha  fotlowtnK  aia  aoiua  naarar  appnitAiaUotu  to 
the  valuea  (if  the  walghta  and  maoauraa  of  moat  fre- 
quent occurrence : 

.Maraa     *  about   1  yard  8  lnol«r  "..""'J  I*""  "  ' 

Dai'AHiraa  "     lljranit,                                    >  viv 

ItiioTiiMaTaa  "     1-ltf  mile.                                        ,| 

KaiiMKiaa  "     ft-S  or  mora  nrarly  19-99  mile. 

One  of  tha  old  niaaaurea  fraquantly  uaed,  tha  tolta, 
ia  equal  to  2  yarda  fi  tnchee. 

Aaaabeut l-4ilaer». 

DaciAai. 1-4  aera  nr 

HaoTAaa. 11-1  arrca. 

llaniaraaa 8  1-1   cable  fkat 

BTaaa I  9-8   oublo  yarda. 

DiOAaraaa 18  MO     "       " 

I.iTaa about...         1-5   or  11-flO gallon. 
llacAMTar.....      1  1-ft  galluna, 
HacToLiTaa...      99 

8  11 
ft-9 


MVKIALITIK. 

llNAUIir 

Dai'AiiaAMMa.. 
llairriKiaAMiii. 

KlLiMUAMUR. 


I  rood.  , 

;.* 
.    .  :) 

-    .<  .-,  %: 

»i  .<fml 
iiallonaorl  8-4buahel«i;  |     ,  , 

•    -jl^i-KI.'l 


1-8   n«. 

8  1-9     " 

9  1-fi   Iba. 


Suartera. 
ram  avolrd. 


'"iin^mnr  }'•»»•»  "'-'-"'«"'<"'•» 


■I 


Frenrh  Monri/.—Tht  French  monetary  unit  of  mine 
ia  the  franc,  which,  in  tho  ((old  cuinngo  of  20  unit  40 
franc  plcitoa,  ia  eciual  in  value  to  t)'62A  |)«nce  atcriing, 
and  In  tha  ailver  coinage  of  friinca  and  ttvp-franc 
piacea,  ia  equal  tn  0*700  pence ;  but  the  coinmun  rate 
of  exchange  ia  2A  franca  for  1  sovereign,  which  givea 
tho  value  of  a  franc  equal  to  0  &-5  pence  sterling. 

■.    ■).  (1.  farth.        fiirrli. 

»'00« -U  0'884:i:0    9-ft  nearly. 
0-98  1=0  H-S4  =8  iUa 
» «    =9  8-fi 
0 

0  ,..s,:t-. 


Centime =  0 

Deehiie =  0 

Fkanc c  0 

FIvo-fVano  ploco..  .=  4 
Napoleon   or  "'■l—ij 


(fano  place. 

In  reducing  French  money  to  English,  fW>m  any 
nnmlier  of  frtincs  subtract  their  fifth  part,  and  the 
remainder  will  lie  their  value  in  shillings.  Or  mul- 
tiply the  francs  liy  four,  point  off  the  two  right  hand 
flgures  of  the  pro<luct  for  decimals,  and  the  result  will 
be  their  value  in  pounds  and  decimals  of  a  pound  ster- 
ling.—E.  B. 

Commercial  Rfhitiona  of  the  United  Statei  with  Franct. 
— Prior  to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  the  6th  of 
February,  1778,  we  have  no  reliable  account  of  the 
value  of  our  trade  with  France.  The  navigation  acts 
and  other  regulations  imposed  upon  the  colonies  by 
the  mother  country,  strongly  tended  to  fetter  and  em- 
barrass their  intercourse  with  other  nations ;  but,  In 
tplte  of  tliom,  irregular,  illicit  commerce  was  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  exten|.  liy  the  treaty  alluded 
to,  the  high  contracting  parties  reciprocally  Imnnd 
themselves  to  grant  to  each  other,  in  respect  to  com- 
merce, all  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  either 
of  them  might  thereafter  grant  to  the  most  favored  na- 
tions ;  to  cliarge  no  more  in  imposts,  port  duties,  or 
other  customar}-  burdens  of  trade,  to  the  sulijects  or 
citizens  of  each,  respectively,  than  should  be  charged 
to  tlie  subjects  or  citizens  of  other  powers ;  and  to 
protect  the  vessels  of  each  other  when  within  their  re- 
spective Jurisdictions.  The  subjects  or  citizens  of 
either  were  excluded  from  the  fisheries  of  the  other, 
and  the  United  States  became  bound  not  to  disturb 
the  sulijects  of  the  King  of  France  when  fishing  at  the 
Banlis  of  Newfoundland.  The  citizens  of  the  United 
States  were  exempted  fW>m  the  droil  cTmibaine,  and 
were  empowered  to  devise  real  and  personal  property, 
and  their  heirs  were  permitted  to  inherit  without  be- 
coming naturalized  in  France  ;  and  corresponding 
privileges  were  secured  to  French  M)l>Jects  residing  in 
this  country.  The  doctrine  that  "  free  ships  mutce 
free  goods"  was  recognized,  and  the  articles  to  be 
deemed  contraband  of  war  were  enumerated.  The  re- 
maining stipulations  refer  exclusively  to  contingen 
cies  of  war,  and  need  not  be  enumerated.  On  the  14tb 
of  Kovemlwr,  1788,  a  convention  was  entered  into  and 
ratified,  defining  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  consuls 
of  the  liigh  contracting  parties.    This  convention  vaf 


FRA 


1U 


FRA 


InlMdtd  Um  mm*  tAMtaaUjr  lo  tMata  tk*  (UlbM 
ntMarraaM  ot  IIm  Inaly  ■UpalalloM. 

TImm  •imnictnMnU  w*r*  nlllUd  wblk  IIm  I'oa* 
llnanUl  I'anRraM  bad  no  autborlljr  lo  n||ulal«  tiit- 
elipi  eommarca ;  and  Iba  rallltsallon,  tbarafura,  only 
amouatad  to  a  pladna  thai  tba  Hiatal  would  runAirm 
lo  It*  proTUIuni,  tbty  havInK  tha  mU  powar  to  \»yf 
Impoat*  aid  pott  and  lonnana  dotlai.  Tha  arranKa> 
manti  eontlnuad  In  furea,  howavtr,  and  wara  oliaarvad 
for  laora  than  90  /aara,  and  nntll  annullad  hy  Iba  ael 
of  Iba  7th  Jnljr,  17M,  on  tha  gfonnd  uf  rapaalad  viola- 
Hum  of  Iraaljr  •tlpnlaUoaa  bjr  tba  luecauWa  ravaln- 
tiunary  gorarnmanti  of  Kranca.  Manjr  of  Iha  Mian 
uf  trada  wara  ramovad  by  thla  Iraaly  |  and,  allliuuKh 
ImportatloM  and  axportationt  wara,  for  a  tlina,  aa- 
poaad  lo  tha  dapndatlona  of  Britlih  orulMra,  tba  an- 
tarprlM  of  our  saaman  opanad  a  commarea  of  no 
Inconaldarabia  valua.  It  waa  aitimalad  tbal,  durlntf 
tba  tbraa  yaan  Immadlataly  nracadlnff  tha  Vrani'li 
RaTolutlon,  tha  araraifa  annual  ralua  of  our  axportt 
to  Franca  waa  01,fttO,SOO,  and  of  our  Importa  fnini 
tbanca,  $880,000 1  ibowInK  an  txe.tu  of  axporta  of 
tha  value  of  (1,140,000.  Th«  (inp<>rt>  and  axporti  up 
to  tha  data  of  tha  annulmant  ut  tba  traaly  of  177lt, 
wtN  aa  fbUowa  i 


a,lTt.TM 

i,f)iA.ini 


t,IM,IM 
TTf,4M 


This  •lalamant  Indlcataa  that,  from  17D6,  than  waa 
a  rapid  decraaaa  of  Importa  and  axpnrta,  and  a  da- 
rrcaaa  of  tha  axoaaa  of  our  axporta,  attribulalila,  no 
doubt,  partly  to  tha  fcablaoaaa  of  fadaral  authority,  but 
I'hiafly  to  tha  convulaad  condition  of  tha  Kranoli  na- 
tion, tha  continuance  of  war  In  Europe,  and  tba  0OM«> 
quant  dlangard  of  treaty  obllgatlona. 

Pnvloua   to  -Iba   annulmant  of  Iba   eommarulal  i  imallle  t4i  her. 


traaly,  Congni*  paiiad  an  act  "  to  luipand  tba  ooi 
mercUl  Intereouraa  between  the  United  Slalaa  ">< 
Fimnca,  and  tha  dependenchM  thereof,"  approviid  .;  uiia 
18,  1798.  It  waa  provoked  by  rapaalad  groM  ,  Iota- 
tioiu  of  tha  traaly  by  the  French  govammaiil  and  it* 
citiaan*.  The  act  provided  that  no  vaaael  ahould 
clear  from  the  port*  of  tba  United  Htataa  fur  Franca  ur 
it*  dapandenoiea ;  thai  no  Fnnoh  vaaael  ahould  enter 
our  porta  without  a  paa«port  from  the  Praakiant,  unlai* 
In  diatraaa ;  that  Frauah  veaaela  found  In  our  porta, 
and  nfUiing  to  depart,  ahould  be  aalied  and  detained  | 
aud  that  the  Pnaldant  might  diaaolve  the  prublliltlon 
of  Iha  act  whenever  be  became  aatlaAad  tbal  tba 
Krenrh  govemmanl  and  all  under  ita  authority  ware, 
In  good  faith,  endeavoring  to  pravent  her  citlun* 
(Vom  iBtermeddling  with  our  oommarc*.  Tliia  act 
waa  aanUatted  in  force  until  the  end  of  tba  anauing 
Maaion  of  Congnia,  when  it  expired  by  II*  own  limit- 
ation. Two  day*  *ubee<iuent  to  the  annulment  of  tba 
treaty,  anotbar  act  wa*  approved,  "  further  lo  protai ' 
tha  conuperca  of  the  United  State*."  The  Preildanl 
waa  Ihenby  antborixed  lo  Inatruct  tba  eommandar*  of 
tba  naval  force*  of  tba  United  State*  to  captura 
French  arroed  vaaaal*,  which  wen,  by  tba  act,  t«  lia 
forfeited,  and  to  grant  latter*  of  marque  and  reprlaal 
to  priiTita  cilizena.  Tba<e  acta  had  the  daaind  alTael, 
TIm  Fi«i:c*<  government  waa  in  no  ciinditiun  to  aafuina 
aa  attitude  >.     rsra  boatility. 

Ob  tiie  9X>  '  Ptpt«mUr,  1800,  a  convention  wa* 
algnad  Lr  the  p  .  n''ratlxri4«  of  tba  United  Stat** 
and  Frao'.f:.  '*2'''  'af  ratlfed  in  dna  tl>M,  for  tba 
a4Ju<tmeBt  of  til  .i  Ttnu. :''.,  lod  lb*  ragttlatlon  ot 
their  fuluiTi  commero  *1  Intcrconn*.  B;'  It"  term*.  It 
waa  to  oonUn;\e  in  fr-Ti»  ior  aight  yearn,  la  raapaet 
to  commenw,  It  pro-'iki  that  the  citl;,dn*  of  aacb 
country  tkould  enjoy  in  the  porta  of  the  other  all  tba 
priyilage*  and  Immunitlet  of  Uie  moat  favored  nation*  | 
that  the  citUcn*  of  either  leaidant  la  tha  oUwr  ib«ul4 


hdva  Iba  rigkt  lo  davtaa  their  praparty  wUkoat  beiag 
nalurallaad,  and  Ibair  bein  the  right  of  biberitanoa  | 
thai  il*  Month*  ehoald  ba  alb>wad  for  Iba  ramoval  of 
praperly  In  aaaa  of  war  i  tbal  debt*  ahould  aot  lie  *«. 
qu*al«rad  or  I'lmllwiatail  In  oanaa<|uanca  of  war )  lh«( 
ruaaul*  and  otiwr  aganl*  *ho«ld  lie  appointed  i  thai  t*in 
trader*  of  aaah  might  buy  and  tall  of  iJie  eaemiea  ol  \.\  ^ 
other,  aava  In  porta  liliM:kail*d  i  tbal  certain  BpaclAad 
artlcUa  only  wara  lo  be  aonaliUr*<l  contraliand  i  that 
free  ablpa  aboulil  make  free  kimmI*,  and  the  ihlpa  of 
aitbar  might  rarry  enemy'a  property,  aave  only  con- 
traliand arlbilea  I  that  property  uf  either  founil  In  ena- 
my'a  vaaaata  ahould  lie  eonflariteil ;  that  ahlpa  under 
convoy  aliould  never  Im  examined ;  and  that  varlona 
mln<ir  |imvialona  enumaratad  In  tba  treaty,  aa  meana 
for  Iba  execution  of  ita  provialuna,  ahould  lie  ubaervod. 
Thla  wa*  followed  by  the  treaty  of  the  SOth  of  Auril, 
IMW,  for  the  seaaion  of  l.oui*Una,  by  which  the  right 
of  navigating  Ilia  MlaalaalppI  and  It*  trllmlarlr*  waa 
raaarved  In  Franca  for  It  yeara  t  and  auotbar  cunven- 
llon  of  Ibe  aame  dal(>,  providing  fur  tba  payment  by 
Franc*  of  dalita  due  our  citiiena. 

The  ennventlon  of  1M)0  ragulatad  our  oommercla 
inlareouraa  with  Franca  until  the  !i4tb  day  of  June, 
lN!i'i.  A  few  facta  will  abow  how  our  trade  with  that 
natbin  pnigraaaed  during  that  important  perln>t.  II 
niual  Ita  Imm*  In  mind,  that  nearly  all  Kuropu  waa 
conililned  for  thrae  fourth*  of  that  apace  of  time  la 
waging  war  upon  tba  Franch  empira  and  >t  <  alllee, 
and  that,  fbr  a  conaMarabla  period,  the  whole  of 
Fran**  wa*  daotarad  by  Uraal  Hrltaln  to  be  In  a  *tata 
of  likN'kada.  Il  muat  alao  be  raroenibere<l,  that  In 
INI'J  the  I'ongnxa  uf  the  United  Htatea  declarad  war 
agalnat  (Iraal  Itrltain,  and  that  tbi*  war  waa  waged 
with  gnat  vigor  on  both  ablea,  until  brought  to  • 
triumphant  rloae  In  IHIA.  The  vaat  auperlority  of  tha 
naral  (broa  of  F.ngUnd  randered  Intercourae  of  Kunv 
[laan  nallona  with  their  colonix*  ver)-  bazardoui,  If 
Tbeae  nallona  were  hence  compolled 


rely  upon  noutraN  to  carry  on  this  branch  of  trade. 
For  a  time,  the  tiriMluctlona  of  the  Franch,  Spaniah, 
and  Dutch  colonlea  could  be  carried  to  their  mother 
G  intrlea  only  under  a  neutral  flag.  Our  vicinity  to 
the  Weal  India  lalanda  enabled  ua  to  monopolize  moat 
of  thla  carrying  trade  \  and,  era  tba  war  cloaed,  auch 
waa  our  llicreiiaa  of  tonnage,  that  we  ulitained  a  con- 
*ltl«ralil*  p<irtlun  of  the  carrying  trada  to  and  from  tha 
F.aal  Indlia.  fbime  colonial  productlona  wen  carried 
In  American  liottoma  diractly  to  Europe.  The  greater 
|iait,  however,  wa*  bmught  Into  our  porta ;  whenoa, 
after  ncelving  a  drawback,  It  waa  abipped  to  Kurope 
In  our  own  veaaela.  The  nuinufacturaa  of  Europe,  a* 
well  aa  thoaa  of  (}hlna  and  the  FjibI  Indlea,  wera  alao 
lmp<irt«<l,  and  agnln  *xp<irted.  In  large  quantltle*,  to 
the  Weal  Indie*  and  Mouth  Amarlra.  From  1793  up 
l<i  1107,  lb*  pniflti  of  tbeie  advantage*  wera  enor- 
nioua.  The  exigenclea  of  tl' '  -  *r,  ^'J  the  natural 
Jealnualea  angeniierart  by  ai.  ,  «.  .unn  i.f  thing*, 
'  ivolved  ua  in  dlnpute*  both  Hi'h  V,,.i.'o'  and  En- 
gland. The  latter,  tberal  -  <(u  '-tinted 
Ordara  In  (Niuncll |  In  ret  au  ,  tha  for- 
mer, or  rather  her  emperor,  hmuou  ula  Berlin  and  Mi- 
lan lleoraaa,  which  wera  ao  Injurlon*  to  our  trade  m  to 
Cruvuke  the  adupllon  of  the  embargo,  which  waa  n>l- 
iwed  by  Ibe  non-lntercour*e  act,  and  ultimately  bjr 
Ilia  dN4iluratloii  of  war  agalnat  Oreat  Britain.  Thli 
annihilated  iiur  carrying  trade.  On  the  return  of 
peace,  we  again  enjoyed  aome  of  It,  hut  to  a  much 
mora  lltnlled  extent  than  furmerly, 

Tba  tablea  of  axfinrtf  and  Importa  ftally  iUoatrata 
tba  ofieratlon  of  the  cauaaa  anumeratod.  In  171)9  our 
Import*  from  Franca  wara  of  the  value  of  •901,018. 
Tha  valua  uf  ex|iort»  I*  not  known.  The  following 
table  exbllilt*  our  exfKirt*  to  France  from  1804  to 
lH!tO,  We  have  no  data  on  which  to  estimate  tha  im- 
l«rta  for  that  lirtiod,  The  contra*!  between  $6,461,000 
111  ItttO^od  $91,638,000,  In  tha  amount  of  ov  domeai 


FRA 


r«t 


FRA 


En- 
mted 

for- 
idMi- 
)  u  to 

i«T)i- 

ay  by 
This 
im  of 
much 


1  \—n. 

DMMMb 

Yon. 

l>wn«IH 

I«ki 

IMItJit 

48.ftM,Mt 

ftir 

ir.t*.  -I  . 

1106 

t,07».MI 

•.M.M 

l<*U 

»N.U    .1 

im 

l,«M,«H 

«,1»I,»M 

mift 

AiMMHt 

HOT 

>  1,71M4I 

IO.SIMT* 

itit 

T,IIM.«T« 

im 

TOi,*)T 

1,IM,IM 

1«IT 

T.IKIMW 

IN* 

M»<l*ta. 

imi 

ll,TI*.MA 

UIO 

IfTU 

l.«7« 

IHIt 

MI1I,4M 

lilt 

nii,7uN 

t.llMwi 
l,4Mt,tl3 

IIIK) 

^4«l,8a• 

III! 

«N,tl« 

IM  MporU  la  T^aaaa,  U  llattwinii  •vU*ii««  «f  th«  r»p- 
Mly  grnwIiiH  i>aniuin|itlnn  of  out  prinrlim .  siitplM, 


fml fn4—' 


10,1)18 
l,UH,lM 
«,'/W,lMA 
l.miA.WM 
(,M«,ftTT 

l,IIM,»< 


For  lh«  rtmainlnii  two  y»n  of  tha  pariod  of  Iha 
nparitlim  of  tha  convention  nf  IMUO,  tha  Importa  wara, 
in  Itn,  of  tha  valua  of  #4,0NU,IM0 ;  and  tha  axportt  of 
il  iviaitki  prodiusa,  $a,I<IM,(IUH,  and  furalipi  proiluca, 
t  <  "  161.  In  lai'i,  tha  import*  wan  (tl.MU.IHO  In 
Vol  ;  1 1  axporta  of  domaatlo  produoa,  $4,744,400,  and 
fbi'lRn  pralura,  #1,>M0,N;U. 

iil/out  tha  yaar  17U'i,  cotton  bacama  •  atapla  prod- 
net  of  tha  loutharn  Htataii,  Tha  quantity  axportad  to 
France  fhim  17U0  to  IWM,  waa  lft,7V4,HOO  pounda. 
Tha  followinff  tabla  axhiblta  tha  export*  of  tha  ataple 
to  that  eonntr}'  for  the  yaar*  enumerated : 

Ytiirf.  r«nii4a, 

IMW-ta Nona  direet 


lUI. 
IM. 


Mi,TM 
1.9IIT,M» 
a.MI.MO 

._    4,8(H,B» 

IIM. .......  T,om,l1f) 

1I0T....X...  <,II4,IIM 

IMN, f,08T,4M) 


1DII lo 

inly. •is,4i« 

I8I» io,iao.M« 

1814, t,«6I.OW 

WiR. IM7«,I4« 

IHK l8,0t4,MT 

IMIS— I8S0...  No.daU.* 


*  Tha  Impiirta  of  cotton  Into  France  fhim  all  coantric* 
dartac  tbU  period  wore:  In  IRIT,  IS.VTo.HDH  klloKramme* 
(eaehl'on  pound!);  In  1S18, 1II,VT4,I6»|  In  IHI».  I7,ii|0,4iil. 

In  18'il  the  export*  of  cotton  were  -iUS,?!!:)  |Miund* 
of  u»  talund,  and  2A,943,27S  pound*  of  upland,  the 
Ttlua  of  the  whole  belnu  $4,531,801,  Tha  fluctuation* 
in  quantity  duriuK  thl*  period  are  plainly  traceable  to 
Iha  wan  and  confuaion  in  Europe,  and  to  our  U*t  war 
with  Great  Dritain.  From  1822  to  1834,  the  exporU 
of  cotton  to  France  wen  a*  follow*  (the  nguni  are 
compiled  from  the  United  State*'  Tnuury  Iteport*  on 
Commerce  and  Navigation) : 

YMri.  PduiuI*, 

INS, »).«on,ooo 

ina M.ssi.8«o 

18K 8t,(lt7,S(W 

IMS. M^SS'K) 

in*. 4H,w«,«(io 

inr. 4«,i8«,ooo 

leaa. 47,iu7,oou 

Tobacco  became  an  important  export  of  thia  ,u>nn- 
try  al  the  cloae  of  the  laat  century.  The  following 
talile  exhibit*  our  exportation*  of  tlii*  article  to  France 
during  tha  period  we  an  now  conaMerinK.  The  regu- 
lation* of  the  two  <^untriea  in  re«pect  to  it  will  be 
elucidated  In  anothr  r  part  of  thia  digaat. 


Yi>iir«.  Pontda. 

10M S«,6m,WM 

INAO 4«,i)fi«,noo 

iHsi 6<\ni,(ioo 

IWJ M),S41,(I00 

\fM{. <8,4A1,MM 

1N84. W,tn,400 


IMO. 
IWl. 

im. 

1800. 


148 

l«.91« 
»,8III 


U04 14.S28 

IWB 19,li» 

180« 9,181 


Ymh. 

ISOT 

1S08 

Ho«kM4l. 

»,8T6 

&S6 

1811  

sat 

1«19 

149 

1SI8 

189 

1S15 

1816 

9,«4a 

4,076 

In  1800  nnd  INIO  then  wn*  no  exportation.  The 
laroe  circuni»<«ncc  occurre<I  in  1814.  If  any  wa«  ex- 
ported, it  wa~  ao  inconaideralde  a*  not  to  have  been 
noticed  by  Ktatiatician*.  From  1817  to  1820  we  have 
no  atatialical  data.  In  1821,  .1,478  hogakead*  wen  ex- 
ported to  Fran<-e.  Thea«  cotton  and  tobacco  table*, 
like  thoae  vf  general  impurt!)  and  export*,  are  marked 
In  their  character  '  v  the  .uurse  of  political  and  mili- 
tary event*  Anoluar  perKHl  of  our  trade  with  France 
eommenc«»  'Ith  the  ''  Convpntion  of  Navigation  and 
Commerce,  algned  l>y  the  ploni|Hitentiarle*  of  the 
two  powers  on  the  24th  of  .lune,  1822,  and  ralirted  and 
declared  in  operation  by  the  United  .Stittea  on  the  12th 
Febnury,  1828.  That  convention  proviil^j  that  aril, 
clea,  the  growth  produce,  or  innuufiivture  of  the 
United  State*,  when  exported  tu  France  in  veB««U  of 


III*  ITnltMl  (Mala*,  »kall  pay  an  adilMonal  duty,  mI 
axrm^lln,^  10  rninra  ($11  7A)  par  ton  uf  menlmn" 
over  amt  a'n'  •■  tlia  duliaa  paid  on  the  lllir 
•■»IK>rted  to  Kranca  in  French  vii»«»la  |  thai  artli  Im, 
till'  iir^wlh,  pmduea,  or  miiniifkiituni  of  Fr«K^,  Im- 
ported into  t^"  I'niteil  Htater  in  French  raaaala,  '•lult 
pay  an  additional '  nl.t  not  "xveediag  $.i  7tV  per  ti'O  uf 
nierchandiia,  over  and  atMj  ,~  tb«  dutle*  pakl  on  '  ika 
irtlclea  im|Mirt«d  in  vmaela  of  tlin  MJIeil  Nlatoa  ;  thai 
no  dl'crlmlnatliiK  (Intiea  ahall  Iw  leviwl  upi'ii  ill*  pro- 
ductiiina  of  Kriiii<n  lni|iort*<i  in  French  iHittoma  liitu 
our  port*  for  re-axpnrtatkm  ;  that  a  llk«  ■•Iviinlaga 
*hall  lie  given,  and  la  gfvsn,  to  the  I'nltcd  Ht«ta*| 
that  tha  following  quantltie*  *hall  Iw  laaiderxd  »  tcm 
fbr  tha  article*  apccitlnl,  via.  t  4  Ol-^nllun  hoKKheada, 
or  244  gallon*  of  2111  ciiliin  inchea  m'  wmx,  Xmerican 
meoaun  i  244  gailim*  of  brandien  «uil  lUI  nlb><r  llfjuor* ; 
M  cnblo  feet  nf  tilk,  American  lonMun,  In  th*  ('nited 
8tat**  {  and  42  cuiiio  feet,  Fnnrh  nieaaurr.  in  Franc*  | 
H04  pound*  avolrdU|M>i*  of  cotton  :  1,000  |Miiind*  avolr- 
dupol*  of  toliacco ;  2,240  pound*  avolrtiupoi*  of  pot 
and  p*arl-«th«*t  1,000  pound*  avoinlupoi*  of  rice) 
and  for  all  weighable  article*  not  nixrlAed,  2,240 
|x)und*  avoinlupola  |  thnt  the  diitie*  nf  tonnage,  light- 
money,  pilotage,  port-chargea,  '^nikeraga',  and  hU 
other  dulic*  on  foreign  ahipping,  i  «r  miil  ivAiove  tho*a 
paid  bv  the  nationu  ahipping  In  the  two  countrie*, 
other  than  thn«e  above  •pecitlml,  til  not  exceed.  In 
France,  for  veaeel*  of  tha  I'nlted  jte*,  A  fTunc*  (04 
cent*)  per  ton  of  the  vea*el'*  Ab>i-  ii-an  rcgiater,  nor 
for  ve**el*  of  France  in  the  t'nitiwl  ."^  >te«  iM  cent*  per 
ton  of  the  veatel'*  Fnnch  iiaaapctrt ;  '  'oit  the  conven- 
tion ahall  nmain  in  force  two  yeara  :^)m  tlie  lat  of 
Octolier,  1822,  and  after  that  time  unth  the  concluaion 
of  a  deflntte  treaty,  or  until  one  of  tl>  partle*  *haU 
have  deoland  it*  intention  to  nnouncc  t.  wliich  dec- 
laration ahall  pncetle  tha  nnunciatiiui  ix  month*; 
and,  Anally,  that,  in  ca*e  thi*  copventliiii  -liall  not  be 
dUcontinued  by  either  party,  the  dutiea  f  "illiod,  ex- 
cluaive  of  tonnage,  light-money,  pilotage,  pi  rt-charge*, 
etc.,  laid  upon  article*  of  the  growth,  pro<liii:>-.  »r  miinu- 
factun  of  either  country,  aliall,  at  the  ex|i  ution  of 
two  yean,  be  raduced  one  fourth  of  the  wiiol'  nmount, 
and  afterward  by  one  fourth  of  aald  amount,  i  "m  year 
to  year,  *a  long  aa  it  i*  not  ranounced  by  eitli  r  party. 
luroan  fxom,  aim  axiwBTa  to,  FiAttna,  ar  Tm  U.  8. 


Ymr. 


Import!. 


I8'Z5 «IO,MV8a 

ISiO 8,Sill,B'iU 

ISiT I  »,!>'i7,t»i 

I8.'8 0.310,964 

I8W '  M38,9T9 

1831 1,7^9,198 

1831 14,I>0»,74» 

18.19 1'>1TB,7IW 

1888 1H,48t,8T8 

1934 11,141,17.11 

183.% li2,lMR,176 

18T0 30,616,417 

1837 gJ.i'SJ.OU 

18:>8 1T,T7I,71I7 

I8:l0 89,631,391 

1840 lT,.'S-«,976 

1H41 !  23,03.1,819 

l»4i I  l«,n74,0B8 

1813 ;  7,867,081) 

1844 ,  17,649,484 

1815 91,606, 4'.>6 

18411 1  93,'>11,a3i 


184T 
1841 
1849 
1853 
1861 
186] 
1»58 
18.'>4 
1866 
1856 
18.t7 
1868 


24,900,941 

28,1106,1131 
24,333,713 
97,63S'«6 

8l,7l^^^^ 

95,8  '0,266 
33,4'«,"49 
86,481,308 
31,00ft,t»l 
40,249,808 
49,000,868 
!>&,  530,643 


Kiporti.                       1 

llontMlli  ProduM. 

Pertl(n  f'*v4ue: 

»T,526,9B6 

$a,Bf.-'.4iiT 

0,848,1190 

1,T»(i,«5 

0,lS7,ViS 

8,83i;,M6 

t,im8,8.17 

8,37r,  -13 

8,904,046 

9,864..'.IM) 

V,ti01,140 

I,(W,--3 

^636,484 

8,520,:    S 

0,04?,676 

2,677,;   - 

10,800,683 

2,1'86,0 

1*,TI^764 

2,793, 'i^. 

18,037,014 

1.7U,'J:, 

in,60S434 

l,:i:iO,0i-.' 

17,860,014 

2,:i.ii),«f.  • 

t^7l6,46t 

1,200, 1(1-/ 

16,066,108 

•.',V64,S41 

18,910,327 

2,«22,»27 

18,410,367 

3,350,888 

16,016,9^8 

1,100,559 

11,67l),879 

6i^279 

19,000,919 

2,372,188 

12,830,171 

8,170,933 

13,601,060 

1,6.'8,025 

18,609,631 

816,087 

16,874,886 

4,444,4'i6 

19,623,763 

2,080,8  4 

17,060,977 

1,8^.1,070 

95,809,086 

2,050,0(11 

22,190,070 

1,S(K),575 

28,190,800 

l,46O,0IK 

80,»0S,262 

1,1T»,7J» 

31,628,808 

1, •.'64, 2.10 

42,604,1168 

712,621 

.'!8,l7ii,2'i7 

1,066,123 

89,»96,'.>2I 

1,267,572 

The  coDvenlion  with  France  of  July  4,  1631,  only 
tlightly  modificB  the  convention  of  1822.     The  wine'i 


FRA 


780 


FRA 


6t  France,  from  the  rattflcation  of  that  conTention 
until  the  pasMge  of  the  tariff  act  of  1846,  were  im- 
porte<l  at  duties  not  exceeding  the  following  ratei  by 
the  gallon.  United  States'  measure,  viz, ;  For  red 
wines,  in  casks,  6  centa ;  for  white  winoi.,  in  caslcs, 
10  cents ;  and  for  all  kinds  of  wines,  in  bottles,  2'J 
cents.  This  stipulation  was  limited  to  10  years, 
and  consequently  expired  on  the  4th  of  July,  1841. 
Our  trade  has,  therefore,  been  since  regulated  by 
the  convention  of  1823,  and  guarded  by  the  powers 


and  privileges  secured  to  the  consuls  of  each  nation  b^ 
the  consular  convention  of  the  28th  Feliruury,  1858. 
The  results  of  the  operation  of  tlie  stipulations  of  these 
conventions  uiay  l>e  traced  in  the  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing tables  of  imports  and  exports. 

The  preceding  tal)le  is  made  up  from  the  annual 
Treasury  Keports  on  Commerce  and  Navigation  of 
the  United  States.  It  will  not  prove  unintcjfosting, 
however,  to  subjoin,  for  comparison,  a  similar  state- 
ment put  forth  by  the  French  government. 


YALUK    or    CO.MMEKCE    BETWKEN    THE    ITnITIID    STATKS    AND     FrANCR,   roa    TUK    TkARS    BPECiriKD  J    TAKElf    rBOH    TUI 

OmciAi.  Reports  I'lTiii.isnED  iiv  th«  Fresch  Mimistry  or  Cdmuerce. 


TiAmi. 

VArUI  or  IHnillTIt  peoh  thx  vnitid 
VTATKH   mm   FKANCt. 

VALUE  OP  KxroKn  ysoM  rHANi-i 

INTO  Tll«  UHlTtD  MTATU. 

TOTAL,                                   1 

(Ifliiiinil  coiiiini.n'D 

8|i«cUil  cuiiiaMna. 

(leiiiTftl  c.iinuiflrre 

Sp.-- IrI  fomni.'n-e, 

(IpiwrRi  coninwrcc 

Sp«otiil  fimmirin'tf. 

1881 

Kp«iif.. 

5I,4«S,000 

89,860,000 

99.079,000 

97,186,IK)0 

89,48'2,000 

110,T70,«)0 

117,788,(HI0 

182,796,000 

99,206,000 

175,829,000 

167.071,000 

176,067,000 

174,028,000 

142,600,000 

172.000,000 

158,700,000 

187,60.1,000 

71,888,000 

127,100,000 

182,176,000 

116,8.8:),000 

190.089,000 

179,786,000 

Vrnnei. 

47,;i28,0fl0 

64,927,000 

78,8S«,000 

76,,164,000 

71,515,000 

81,464,000 

80.720,000 

101,'24a,000 

ai,s88,000 

117,970,000 

121,491,000 

18,1.046,000 

144,259,000 

183,600,000 

140,700,000 

141,200,000 

110,434,000 

60,9S6,0(» 

105,779,000 

12'2,10.1,000 

109,8.13,000 

167,721,000 

157,921,000 

Vtttnat. 

13«,-9a,(H)0 
87,681,000 
184,966,000 
113,094,000 
196,042,000 
288,874,000 
98,615,000 
170,698,000 
2M,691,000 
186,120,000 
183,662,000 
8^),846,000 
96,689,000 
I6I,400,(KW 
148,000,000 
1,10,100,000 
185,684,000 
165,749,000 
282,661»,000 
285.941,000 
242,626,000 
263,040,000 
328,992,000 

KPKllCli. 

110,180,000 

58,.M9,fl00 
107,984,000 

78,186,000 
145.2,11,000 
158,788,1100 

58,611,000 
119,724,000 
120,016,000 

80,760,000 
12l,2»l,00O 

48,106,000 

6,1,808,000 
102,00O,IH)0 

90,,100,000 
10tf,400,(KW 
ll'A414,000 

99,480,000 
148,.164,000 
198,511,000 
14-1,584,000 
154,618.000 
209,196,000 

KrBno.. 
1S6,'2.16,000 
176.991,000 
•284,044,000 
21O,'28O,000 
28.1.624,000 
849,6*1,000 
216,858,000 
80;t,494,000 
808,797,000 
811,949,000 
840,633,000 
258,408,000 
271, '207,000 
808.900,000 
31.1.000,000 
803,800,000 
828,289,000 
287,362,000 
869,769,000 
418,116,000 
8.19,.109,IKI0 
4.13,129,000 
508,778,000 

167,70.8,000 
128,486,000 
181,870,000 
154,-00,000 
216,7116,000 
240,202,000 
145,38I,(NI0 
220,972,000 
2n6,8'2n,000 
198.780,000 
442,725000 
183.152,000 
210,067,000 
28.1,600,000 
287,!iOO,0OO 
241,600,060 
22'2,84VI00 
156,416,oiH) 
254,848,000 
3t.1,616,iHiO 
!!5»,487,000 
822,834,IK)0 
377,116,000 

1982 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1836 

188T 

1883 

1889 

1840 

1841 

1S42 

1818 

IftU  

1849 

1846 

]84T 

1S48 

1849 

1860 

1851 

1S82 

1863 

In  these  tal>leB  it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  the  efTects 
of  the  conlroversy  relative  to  the  re-charter  of  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States,  the  temporary  expansion 
of  the  paper  currency,  the  necessary  contraction  fol- 
lowing tlio  re.storutidn  of  the  constitutional  currency, 
and  tlie  addition  to  the  gold  circulation  of  the  world 
mode  liy  the  mines  of  California,  All  these  historical 
facts  are  of  too  recent  occurrence  to  need  comment  in 
A  work  such  as  this.  In  like  manner  may  be  traced 
the  effects  of  the  French  revolution  of  1880,  the  18 
j'ears'  policy  of  Louis  I'liilippe,  the  convulsions  of 
1848,  the  temporary  ascendancy  of  republican  princi- 
ples, and  the  re-establivliinent  of  the  empire.  Causes 
like  these,  which  affect  commerce  without  a  chimge  of 
international  obligations,  would  require  mora  space  for 
their  elucidation  in  detail,  than  can  lie  accorded  to 
them  in  this  digest.  They  are,  however,  alluded  to 
for  the  pur|Hise  of  awakening  suggestive  trains  uf  rea- 
soning. From  1831  to  1841  the  general  commerce  be- 
tween the  two  countries  increased  154,i<77,IH)0  francs, 
or  aliout  8il  per  cent.  This  augmentation  falls  espe- 
cially iipon  the  products  of  the  United  States  imported 
into  France,  the  amount  of  which  has  tripled  in  this 
period.  In  t"ic  following  yours  the  effect  of  the  high 
tariff  of  1842  will  be  perceived,  especially  on  the  value 
of  ex|)ort3  from  France  into  tlie  United  States,  The 
article  of  cotton  has,  for  a  number  of  years,  consti- 
tuted in  value,  upon  an  average,  three  quarters  of  all 
our  domestic  exports  to  Franco.  The  average  annual 
value  of  our  exports  of  home  products  to  France  from 
1830  to  1833,  WHS  $9,000,000  ;  and  the  exiwrts  of  cot- 
ton for  the  same  period,  $7,000,000,  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  quantities  of  cotton  ex|>orted  to 
France  for  the  years  enumnral<  I,  viz. : 


The  tables  from  which  wo  extract  do  not  give  the 
values  of  our  cotton  exports  for  the  years  stated  uVove, 
but,  as  in  some  preceding  years,  we  learn  from  other 
data,  they  have  been  equal  to  the  value  of  three  fourths 
of  our  exports  of  home  products.  It  may  be  added, 
that,  with  the  exception  of  185-1,  the  above  figures 
have  been  compiled  from  French  custom-house  returns. 
They  are  considerably  below  those  given  in  the  annual 
reports  prepared  by  the  United  States'  Treasury  De- 
partment, and  are  not  so  reliable.  The  following 
table,  compiled  from  these  annual  reports,  will  show 
the  exports  of  cotton  to  France  for  six  years,  ending 
with  June  80th,  1850,  and  the  value ;  as  also  the  total 
value  of  domestic  exports  to  France  during  the  said 
years,  respectively : 


YB»Pt. 

Poundi. 

Vulii..          1 ,  ■'"''"''  '•''"' 
wur.          j  j„n„,,(|p  export* 

1850 r25JI<4,091 

18.11 189,164.571 

18,12 186,214,270 

18.18 1    189,226,918 

1854 ;    141,428,860 

1S59 '    210,113,809 

114,895.449 
18,124,512 
15,488,586 
19,248,076 
14,632,712 
19,0.15,428 

»i:.9.-i.2;tr 

25,8n'2,0S9 

'.'3,190,070 

25.120,806 

80,908,252* 

31,628,898 

Ymrt.  Peoadi, 

1836 71,110,600 

1836 80,009,600 

1887 80,281,800 

1888 96.816,000 

1889. 76,68!).400 

1840 106,878,200 

1841 110,700,000 

1848 116,180.400 

1848 128,497,000 

1844 119,845,«00 


1847.'. 
1848. 


Vrnn.  Poimdf. 

1846 124,610,400 

1846 121,518,000 

,  125,628.800 

.  ie7.417,40« 

1849. 107.1.S-2,8O0 

1860 109.479.8oa 

1851 113,9ia,!i'24 

18.12 167,429,900 

1858 174,639,940 

18M }4t,4S8,8(W 


*  The  export  of  cold  and  silver  coin  and  bullion  was 
unusually  large  this  year,  amounting  to  $6,609,000. 

Tobacco. — Our  other  chief  cx|)ort  to  France  is  to- 
bacco. In  that  country,  the  trade  in  this  article  is 
monopolized  by  the  government.  Information  on  this 
subje"t  is  derived  from  a  recent  publication,  from  the 
pen  of  a  gentleman  who  has  analyzed  and  studied 
our  I'.uropoan  tobacco  trade  in  the  principal  markets 
of  the  eastern  continent.  The  e.xclusive  right  to  pur- 
chase imported  and  indig,enous  tobacco  is  invested  in 
the  regie,  or  coniinission — an  association  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Minister  of  Finance,  This  rvgia 
alone  can  authorize  its  manufacture,  fix  the  prices  at 
which  it  is  to  bo  sold  to  retailors,  and  the  prices  ut 
which  the  latter  shall  sell  for  consumption.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  regie,  consisting  of  houses,  offices,  nuichin- 
ery,  and  tobacco  in  store,  is  of  the  value  of  aljout 
$46,000,000.  There  is  usually  kept  on  band  a  supply 
of  tobacco  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand  for  three 
yean.    This  enables  (he  regie  to  puiiufaotuTa  it  morf 


ilinp; 
(itul 
said 


ulue       I 


>,S06 

J,S«8    I 


tod  in 
the 

icea  at 
ices  ut 
le  cap- 
aehin- 

ftlrout 
lupply 

tbrea 
tmotf 


FBA' 


731 


FBA 


perfectly,  and  to  provide  agalnat  accidental  failnres  of 
the  supply,  No  one  can  purciiase  at  wtiolesale  of  any 
one  but  }.lie  regie)  and  no  one  can  retail  without  a 
licenM,  which  compels  the  purchaser  to  sell  at  prices 
fixed  by  that  commission.  Of  late  years,  however, 
the  system  has  been  so  far  relaxed  as  to  allow  an  im- 
portation, for  personal  use,  of  a  certain  quantity  by 
Individuals,  upon  the  payment,  by  the  importer,  of 
duties  equal  to  the  profits  reaped  by  the  regie  upon  its 
sales.  One  fact  is  encouraging :  while  the  consumption 
is  constantly  increasing,  tlie  culture  remains  in  France 
at  a  st:ind.  It  remains  at  a  stand,  because  it  is  also 
under  the  supervision  of  the  regie,  which  prescribes 
the  metliods  of  cultivation,  and  conflnes  its  pro<iuce  to 
cert.tin  departments,  and  even  to  certain  individuals. 
There  is  nothing  to  stimulate  enterprise,  or  to  secure 
the  concurring  energy  of  individual  interest. 

Up  to  1817  purchases  were  made  upon  the  oflers  of 
merchants  sulimitted  to  the  director-general,  and  com- 
munidated  l)y  him  tc  the  Council  of  Administration, 
The  numl)er  of  competitors  created  embarrassment, 
and  thu  present  system  was,  after  some  years,  adopted. 
The  sj'stem  is  this :  I'roposala  are  puldished  by  the 
regie  to  maico  contracts  for  tlie  supply  of  certain  qual- 
ities and  certain  quantities  of  s|)ecitied  liinds  of  to- 
bacco. Samples  of  the  l<in(ls  and  qualities  are  »\xb- 
mitted  to  the  inspection  of  those  who  desire  to  contract, 
and  tliey  thereupon  suljmit  their  offers  to  supply  at 
certain  prices  within  a  time  specified.  Tlie  samples 
submitted  to  the  contractors  are  carefully  preserved ; 
and  when  the  cargoes  arrive  at  tlie  various  ports,  sam- 
ples of  tlicm  are  forwarded  to  Paris  and  compared  with 
the  model  samples,  and  the  acceptance  or  refusal  de- 
pends upon  this  comparison. 

It  requires  but  little  reflection  to  perceive  that  this 
system  is  seriously  injurious  to  our  trade.  It  is  a 
moderate  estimate  to  make,  to  suppose  that,  if  tobacco 
were  admitted  into  France  as  other  products  are  ad- 
mitted, we  should  export  ten  times  as  much  as  we  do 
at  the  present  time.  The  abolition  of  tbe  system 
would,  therefore,  seem  to  be  an  object  constantly  to  be 
kept  in  view  by  our  government.  It  has  stood  so 
many  years,  however,  and  under  so  many  forms  of 
government,  and  is  so  productive  to  the  revenues,  and 
80  important  to  the  government  itself,  in  the  number 
of  persons  thus  brought  under  its  direct  influence,  that 
we  cim  not  hope  to  see  it  soon  muterially  changed.  In 
addition  to  the  facts  already  detailed  on  the  sulgect  of 
this  important  staple,  the  following  extracts  from  offi- 
cial dispatches,  commnnicated  to  the  Dei)artmcnt  of 
State,  arc  presented  as  pertinent : 

"  Tobacco  is  only  permitted  to  be  cultivated  in  six 
.  departments  as  a  staple,  and  this  cultivation  is  under 
the  most  rigid  sunciHance  of  the  government.  In  the 
other  departments  ogricultnridts  are  allowed  to  grow 
/our  jilants  for  each  tenement  for  medical  uses.  On 
the  tobacco  disposed  of  l)y  the  regie,  whether  imported 
or  produced,  the  profit  realized  amounts  to  -W  jier 
cent.  The  retail  dealers  in  the  article,  numbering  about 
80,000,  are  under  the  control  of  the  regie  inspection, 
and  arc  allowed  a  commission  on  their  sales  of  from  10 
to  1'2  per  cent.  There  are  only  ten  manufactories. 
The}'  are  located  at  Paris,  Havre,  Lille,  Strasbourg, 
Uorhiix,  Tanneins,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Toulouse,  and 
Bordeaux.  Kach  lias  its  circle  of  departments  to  sup- 
pl.v,  and  is  restricted  to  trcnsactions  therein.  The 
manufactured  article  is  deposited  in  magazines,  of 
which  there  areliST.  In  tlie  departments  adjoining 
Switzerland,  tiermany,  and  Belgium,  the  price  estab- 
lished is  vastly  below  that  which  rules  in  the  interior. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  prevent  smuggling.  Where 
frontier  facilities  are  afforded  for  illicit  importations, 
the  ratu  is  comparatively  moderate.  Where  none  ex- 
ist, it  is  enormous.  Tims,  at  Strasbourg  a  p  ind  is 
worth  only  15  sous  (cents),  while  at  Orleans  it  is  worth 
8  francs  (il  OG),  Last  year  (1818)  the  receipts  from 
ih.«  customs   only  nmounted   to   about  116,000,000 


flranci— «6,000,000  of  which  were  derived  tVom  to- 
bacco,  neiirly  all  grown  In  the  United  States — under 
the  workings  of  the  regie.  Were  this  regie  abolished, 
and  a  moderate  import  duty  substituted,  instead  of  a 
market  of  16,000  or  18,000  hogsheads  of  tobacco  per 
annum,  France  wonld  take  (tam  us  doable  that  quan- 
tity immediately  thereafter." 

At  the  present  time,  we  export  about  two  fifths  of 
all  the  tobacco  consumed  in  Europe.  Strict  attention 
to  its  proper  culture  will  enable  us  to  furnish  a  ninch 
greater  proportion.  From  1827  io  1836,  our  exports  to 
France  amounted,  annually,  on  an  average,  to  6,727,- 
900  pounds.  For  many  years' wo  have  exported  from 
three  fourths  to  four  fifths  of  the  toliacco  consumed  in 
France.  From  official  reports  of  the  French  authori- 
ties, we  gather  the  following  statiitics  of  our  exports 
and  sales  to  the  regie  in  the  years  specified : 


Yriira.  Ponnill. 

1846. lT,T»8,n00 

184T 1^B6«,90T 

1848, ia046,S05 

1849 16,86«,180     , 

1880. 18,612,628 

laM 12,0S8,S7«'^ 

1852 82,ao^240 

1858*. 9,741,600 


Y«an.  Poiinda. 

1887 10,622,108 

18,18 11,648,710 

1889. 18.089,n8« 

1840 17,846,618 

1841 21,046,924 

1842 19.148,800 

1848 27,771,788 

1344. 2ll,s91,000 

1»it>. 24,818,800 

♦  United  States'  Treasury  reports  (dve  tlie  qnantttfes  of 
tobacco  oxportoil  to  France  for  the  flseal  years  ondInK  June 
80,  ls54  and  185.%  respoctlveir,  as  follows:  1854,  l,M62.i>iKi 
lbs. ;  185,5, 40,860,11011  lbs,  besides  2,9ij5  esses,  and  879  bales, 
Tlio  excess  of  the  latter  year  was  probably  for  the  army  in  tlio 
Crimea-  The  French  flwal  year  ends  with  that  of  the  calendar. 
No  values  are  attached  to  these  quantities,  but  they 
may  be  estimated  by  the  aid  of  other  data.  The  cost 
of  American  tobaccocs,  on  deliver}'  at  the  factories  of 
the  re^ie,  all  expenses  included,  is  given  by  a  French 
legislative  report  as  follows,  on  an  average  for  several 
years :  Maryland  tobacco,  9.5  cents  per  lb. ;  Virginia, 
8.2  cents ;  Kentucky,  7.7  cents ;  Missouri,  7.6  cents. 
The  f(dlowlng  statement,  also  derived  fi-om  French 
authorities,  shows  the  nett  profits  of  the  regie,  which, 
after  paying  all  expenses  of  purchase,  transportation, 
manufacture,  and  sale  of  tobacco,  it  has  paid  over  to 
the  State  treasury,  annually,  from  the  1st  of  July,  1811 
(commencement  of  the  monopoly  with  the  regie},  to 
the  1st  of  January,  1853: 


Yfart.  Fnino. 

1811 6,1100,000 

1812 20.000,000 

19i:i 29,85.'i.S42 

1814. 82,000,000 

1S15 88,128,808 

1816 82,865.321 

1817 89,182,994 

1818 41,7«),801 


1819.... 

1820 

1S21 

1822 

1S28 

1824 

Is25 

1V26 

1827., 


41.413,893 
42,219,604 
42,279,004 
41,950.997 
,  41,534,489 
.  4.<l,  1 29,723 
44,080,4.58 
44.998,11,57 
45,723,988 


1828, 46,88,5,61 

1829 45,6:)2,490 

18;!n 46,782,418 

1831 45,920,980 

1832 47,751,597 

French   official 


Tenn.  Frann, 

1888. 49,280,280 

1884 50,848,714 

1885 51,7(M),181 

1^86. 5^629,.540 

1887 59,026,912 

1888. 61,682,425 

18-39 66,001.841 

1840. 70,111,157 

1841 71,989,095 

1842 78,8114,142 

1848 77,808,7-35 

1844 79,499,379 

1845 ,,,  82,884.494 

1sl6 85,961,080 

1847 86,891,193 

1848 85,271,0,58 

1849 85,186,106 

1860. 88,915,000 

1851 92,2.38,729 

1852 95,344,082 


Total.... 2,828,201,725 
documents  furnish  the  following 
facts  relative  to  our  cotton  trode  with  that  empire. 
Hy  the  custom-house  returns  for  1865,  it  appears  that 
there  were  received  for  that  year,  from  all  countries, 
167,200,000  lbs. ;  against,  for  1864,  157,620,000  lbs. ; 
1853,  165,000,000  lbs. ;  1862,  168,400,00  lbs. 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantities  of  cotton 
imported  into  Havre,  from  all  countries  for  a  period  of 
four  years,  ending  with  1856 ; 


Yuar*. 

Kr..iii  Iha 
Utiltml  SllitM, 

i'Tom  Brftill, 

From 
«Uewhiire. 

ToUI. 

1865 
1861 
1858 
1869 

406,600 
411,000 
874,500 
874,900 

Balci. 
2,800 
2,000 
2,800 
6,000 

9,000 
12,000 

12,200 
14,400 

llalM. 

418,100 
425,000 
869,500 
806,800 

y 


FRA 


732 


FRA 


Tabu  isownra  nni  QvAimrtM  or  Oonon  awniTBD  at 
Tni  OTHM  Po«i«  or  Fbamoi  DOBina  *iii  lAita  Yiab*. 


Y«.. 

FnnillM 
DalMSIUM. 

From  BruU. 

rromEfjT'. 

From 
•lMwh<r«. 

- 

iili 

BiUm. 
12,000 
19,800 
14,000 

None. 

H 
U 

B.1... 
80,700 
11,400 
88,000 
8<,T0O 

8,800 

4,800 

17,000 

19,600 

The  pracflding  tsblea  exhibit  •  total  importation  of 
cotton  into  France,  Tii. ; 

BaUi. 

In  18BB 468,600 

"  1884 470,000 

"  1868 4M,000 

"  1869 462,8(J0 

The  document  from  which  the  preceding  tables  are 
translated  and  condensed,  adds:  "We  may  further 
remark,  that,  while  England  imports  from- the  East 
Indies  annually  400,000  bales  of  cotton,  and  thus  finds 
profitable  enfployment  for  her  commercial  marine, 
France  is  deprived  of  the  advantages  of  this  trade. 
The  fault  is  found  in  the  apatliy  of  our  cotton  spinners 
and  in  our  custom-house  regulations.  Cotton  from  the 
Indies,  imported  in  the  direct  trade  in  French  vessels, 
ought  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty ;  and  the  impost  on 
cotton  introduced  from  the  entrepots  of  Europe  should 
be  extremely  moderate." 

The  articles  of  domestic  produce  usually  shipped 
from  the  United  States  to  France,  besides  cotton  and 
tobacco,  are  hops,  flsh,  pot  and  pearl-ashes,  whale-oil 
and  wiulebone;  and  those  of  foreign  produce  are 
principally  sugar,  coifee,  teas,  cocoa,  pepper,  and  other 
spices.  The  principal  articles  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  France  are  wines,  brandies,  silks,  olive-oil, 
jewelry  of  all  kinds,  and,  latterly,  some  cotton  !;oods. 
An  examination  of  the  details  of  the  trade  iu  these 
articles  cculd  add  nothing  to  the  inferences  which  the 
general  tables,  already  presented,  suggest. 

In  the  year  1798  an  act  was  passed  by  the  National 
Assembly,  interdicting  direct  commercial  intercourse 
between  foreign  nations  and  the  French  republic. 
This  act,  although  never  formally  repealed,  has  been 
practically  abrogated  l>y  the  introduction  of  numerous 
modifications.  Even  foreign  goods  actually  prohibited 
are  admitted  to  entrepot  for  re-exportation  at  the  ports 
of  Marseilles,  Bayonne,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  Havre, 
and  Dunkirk,  on  payment  of  specified  duties ;  and 
these  goods  may  l>e  transferred  from  one  bonded  ware- 
house to  another.  Goods  not  prohibited  may  he  thus 
transferred  by  land,  on  the  terms  of  the  transfer,  free 
of  duties.  Aries,  Port  Vend6e,  and  Strasbourg  ure 
points  where  merchandise  not  prohibited  is  received  in 
Imnd,  and  from  which  it  can  lie  exported  by  sea  only. 
There  is  also,  at  Lyons,  a  special  d^put  to  which  all  the 
(mrts  of  bonding  depots  may  transmit  merchandise  for 
consumption  or  exportation. 

By  the  terms  of  the  convention  of  the  24th  of  June, 
Id'li,  the  time  for  levying  dist^iminuting  duties  has 
long  since  expired.     The  only  chart's  upon  com- 
merce, in  articles  of  home  produce,  whicli  can  be  made 
liy  either  country,  are  duties  upon  tonnage ;  and  they 
are  specifically  limited  to  ,^  francs  (or  1)4  cents)  per  ton 
on  the  vessel's  measurement,  which  is  to  be  calculated 
according  to  the  American  vessel's  register,  and  the 
French  vessel's  passport.     This  tonnage  duty  exceeds 
the  amount  levied  liy  France  on  every  other  country, 
and  thus  operates  injuriously  to  American  interests. 
Vessels  of  all  other  countries,  except  Great  Britain, 
pay  77  cents.     British  vessels,  going  direct  to  Franco,  ' 
pay  20  cents ;  going  in  ballast  from  any  otiier  country,  I 
nothing.     Other  trivial  '>ort  charges,  such  as  light-  S 
money,  permits,  certificates,  etc.,  are  tlmrged  equally  I 
to  all  nations.      The  inequality   in  tonnage  duties,  i 
alluded  to,  gives  great  advantages  to  some  other  na-  : 
tions  over  both  France  and  the  United  States.     This  i 
is  the  case  as  regards  Austria,  the  llunseatic  League,  I 
and  leverBl  othsr  countries,  which,  by  the  terms  of  { 


their  treatiei  with  the  United  States,  are  permitted  Iu 
carry  on  an  indirect  trade.  The  vessels  of  these  na- 
tions, being  subjected  to  a  lower  duty  than  ours  in 
France,  and  a  lower  duty  than  French  vessels  in  our 
ports,  are  thus  enabled  to  carry  merchandise  to  and 
from  the  United  States  cheaper  than  the  vessels  of 
either  countrj'  can  do  it.  In  this  way  they  have  mo- 
nopolized no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  carrying 
trade  between  the  two  countries. 

The  reciprocity  stipulated  in  the  convention  of  1822 
extends  only  to  articles  of  the  growth,  produce,  or 
manufacture  of  the  respective  countries.  To  admit 
a  cargo  from  the  United  States  to  the  advantages 
secured  by  the  treaty,  it  must  be  certified  by  the 
French  consul  at  the  port  of  clearance  to  be  of  the 
growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  United  States. 
The  American  ship-mastw  is  subjected,  in  a  French 
port,  to  many  small  charglk  for  the  autlientication  of 
certificates,  etc.,  from  which  tho  French  master  is  ex- 
empt iif  our  ports.  Most  of  these  are,  protwbly,  sheer 
abuses,  without  authority  of  law.  They  practically 
operate  as  an  increase  of  duties,  not  warranted  by  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty.  There  is  a  stipulation  in  the 
convention  of  1822,  by  which  the  products  of  the 
United  States,  carried  in  American  vessels,  after  a 
certain  period,  are  to  become  liable  to  no  higher  rate 
of  duty  than  if  imported  in  French  vessels.  This 
does  not  include  tin,  the  products  of  the  fisheries,  or 
spermaceti,  simply  pressed.  Copper  and  lead*  are 
also  excepted ;  but,  in  point  of  fact,  are  admitted  to 
the  advantages  of  this  provision,  if  it  be  shown  that 
they  are  of  American  production, 

"The  prospects  of  future  commerce  with  France  de- 
pend upon  a  variety  of  facts  and  contingencies.  The 
facts,  of  a  permanent  character,  which  operate  upon 
them,  are  the  natural  capabilities  of  the  countries,  the 
populations,  and  the  sulMlivisions  of  their  labor ;  the 
contingencies  chiefly  arise  from  their  relations  to  other 
countries  and  their  legislation.  The  facts  bearing 
upon  the  suliject,  in  the  United  States,  are  to  be  found 
in  its  histor>'  and  its  census,  and  are  familiar  to  all. 
Those  respecting  the  French  empire,  may  be  briefly 
summed  up  in  a  suggestive  rather  than  an  elaborate 
form.  France  proper,  to  which  alone  reference  is  now 
had,  lies  between  42°  49'  and  61°  fi'  north  latitude, 
and  embraces  an  area  of  204,355  square  miles,  greatly 
variegated  by  mountains,  streams,  and  plains.  The 
soils  and  their  proportions  are  as  follows : 

Parta. 

Soil  of  Stone* 13 

sand 10 


Mountain  country.  8 
Lands,  or  plains. ..  lUi 
Boll  ufrlcli  mold...  14 

"     chalk 18 

"    gravol I 


"    clay 6 

"    marsh 0^ 

VarloassoUs 14 


Making  an  aggregate  of lOO 

One  half  the  area  of  France  is  cultivable  ;  and  of 
this,  9  parts  are  meadow ;  4^  parts  vineyard  ;  15  parts 
woods  and  forests ;  15  downs,  pastures,  and  heaths ; 
all  the  remainder  consisting  of  roads,  cities,  canals, 
vegetable  gardens,  etc.  It  presents  every  variety  of 
geological  formation,  exhibited  in  almost  every  variety 
of  known  relations.  All  tho  departments,  85  In  num- 
l)cr,  contain  mineral  substances.  There  are  HG  coal- 
fields in  30  departments.  The  most  important"  are 
those  of  the  Loire,  embracing  an  area  of  42,0(10  acres, 
lying  between  the  Loire  and  the  Rhone,  down  which 
their  proilucts  reach  markets.  Next  to  these  come 
those  of  Nord,  Saone,  Avignon,  Gard,  Cal/ado.i.  The 
remainder  are  small.  The  annual  prodi'co  of  oiml  ex- 
ceeds 3,000,000  tons.  France  is  surpassed  by  Kngland 
only  In  the  production  of  Iron.  There  arc  twelve 
iron  mine*  in  nper.ition.  Lead,  silver,  antimony,  cop- 
per, and  magnesia  are  found,  but  do  not  assume  oom- 
mcrcini  Im]iortnnce.  Salt  is  made  in  several  loeullties, 
and  has  become  a  considerable  source  of  wealtli.     800,- 


*  Circular  letter  of  the  Customs  AdminlstraUon,  Septom 
ber,  189T. 


FRA 


199 


FRA 


000  penons  ue  angaggd  in  mininf^,  and  tlieir  op«ntloni 
•bow  an  annual  vsJue  of  $80,000,000. 

The  population  of  France,  in  1851,  was  86,781,628. 
Tiie  increase  in  tlie  preceding  10  yetn  waa  nearly 
3,000,000.  A  lilie  increase  would  give  in  1856  «  popu- 
lation of  fully  87,000,000.  A  little  less  than  one  half 
are  males.  Those  of  them  who  were  old  enough  to 
vote  under  the  late  republican  constitution  were  em- 
ployed as  follows : 

Working  clus,  or  paupers (,686,000 

HaDuftcturing,  commercial,  and  agricul- 
tural capitalists MT.OOO 

Learned  profesalons,  and  Independent  In- 
comes.. ■ 416,000 

Paid  olBclals  army,  navy,  and  pensions ....     879,iKM) 

About  the  siime  distribution  of  employments  yet 
prevails.  Schools  are  provided  for  only  about  one  six- 
teenth of  the  children.  The  revenues  of  France  are 
direct  and  indirect.  The  average  aggregate  annual 
revenue,  from  all  sources,  is  about  ^00,000,000.  The 
national  debt  is  over  $1,100,000,000. 

The  number  of  acres  under  vine  cultivation  excoeds 
6,000,000,  giving  employment,  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  and  the  manufacture  of  wine,  to  nhaut  2,000,000 
of  persons  (mostly  females),  and  in  its  transportation 
and  sale,  to  250,000.  The  average  home  value  de- 
pends, as  does  all  other  produce,  on  the  supply  and 
demand;  rarely,  however,  exceeding  20  cents,  or  full- 
ing below  10  cents  per  gallon.  The  vine  disease,  now 
more  or  less  prevailing  in  all  wine-producing  coun- 
tries, has  increased  the  average  price  of  wine  from 
100  to  175  per  cent. 

The  following  statements,  showing  the  produce  of 
wine  in  France,  and  the  exports  in  1846  and  1840, 
were  furnished  to  the  Economist  from  which  we  have 
talien  them,  by  the  authorities  in  Bordeaux. 

Account  of  tri  PaonuoK  or  Wi.vi  iif  Fb^nck  in  kaoh 
Dkpartmknt,  in  tiik  Obdkb  or  thkib  lHro"''ANai. 

DaparlnwDta.  Hectolitre*. 


bptom 


Depi 

Herault 2,616,000 

Charente  Inrertenro  2,894,000 

Olrondc .  2,030,000 

Var 1,«.%,000 

Charente 1,162,000 

Oers 1,128,000 

Card 1,132,000 

Aude 1,011,000 

Meurtbe 912,000 

Tonne 856,000 

Lolret 800,000 

Dordogne 770,000 

Rhone 740,000 

Baone  and  Loire .. .     t44,lHW 
Lot  et  Garonne....     637,iK)0 

Indro  et  Loire 628.000 

Bouches  du  Bhone     626,0il0 

Hante  Garonne 604,U0U 

Aube 692,i)(  0 

Loire  Infcrleure...     B«S,0«0 

Cotod'Or 6!t«,ii00 

Loire  and  Cher 627,000, 

Puy  de  Dome 680,000 

HnutoMarnc B(i8,000 

Maine  and  Loire. . .     M(i,000 

guino  anil  Olse &II4,II00 

golne  ct  Maroe ....     616,000 

Bsslihln B-IO.onO 

Lot 446,000 

Meuse 469,IK)0 

Vlenne 459,000 

Bosses  Pj-rcnees. . .     825,000 

Land'cs 886,000 

Msrnc 881,000 

Uauto  Hnone 848,000 

Drome 806,000 

PvrcneesOrlcnUles     801,000 

Aln 888,000  I  i    Total  product(pne.86,783,000 

The  following  table  gives  a  clear  exhibit  of  the  ex- 
ports of  wine  from  France,  and  shows  what  countries 
are  the  principal  consumers  of  French  wine.  These 
statistics  exhibit  some  curious  facts,  and  opposite  to 
the  belief  of  most  pe.'aons.  Algeria  imports  from 
France  over  ten  times  ns  much  wine  as  England,  and, 
what  is  more  curious,  wine  of  a  higher  price.  The 
United  States  imports  from  France  not  qui'  ■>  three 
times  as  much  as  England,  but  in  value  more  than 
four  times  as  great. 


Departmenu,         lleelAlttrca. 

ATeyron 868,000 

Jura....M 857,000 

Vendee "819,000 

Tarn  and  Garonne  807,000 

Tarn 844,000 

Ilaut  Kliln 874,1100 

Deux  Sevres 270,000 

Correze..     268,000 

Haotes  Pyrenees.  268,000 

Indre 218,000 

here 242,000 

Loire 228,000 

Ardechc 282,000 

Vauelaso 2-38,000 

Vosgcs 212,000 

Cher 860,000 

Alsne 928,000 

Moselle 974,000 

Arrlcgo 166,000 

Alller 105,000 

Uoubs.' 174,000 

NIevre 170,000 

Basses  Alpcs 1 14,000 

Seine 107,000 

Eurc  and  Loire . . .  106,000 

Snrthe 89,000 

Hnutes  Alpes 86,0<H) 

Olse 6.\000 

Haute  Loire 62,000 


Ardennes . 
llaute  Vlenne . . . . 

Eure 

Lozero  

Morblhsn 

lie  and  Vllalnc.... 
Cantal 


70,000 

22,000 

21,000 

14,000 

6,000 

8,000 

2,000 


AooovNT  or  Till  BiroiT  or  Faancn  Winm  to  ali 

UOVNTMH  III  184B  AMD  1848. 


..     .  TSii. 

ItUMla 8,066,700 

Hwedsn 8fl8,»00 

Norway 891,000 

Denmark lilt,800 

HanMstle  Towni 18,689,900 

Otmunio  2ollvsr«ln 6,910,600 

Utnover     aad    Ueeklonbtirg 

„    Bchwarin "  748,000 

KTsthsrlinds 9,689,800 

Bslliuni 10,689,800 

Kngland 8^,eoo 

Porluml 

Auitrto 966,000 

8ptln 411,600 

SordlnU 7,810,700 

Naples 

Papal  States 877,900 

TnManjr 694,600 

BwitMrland 18,818,100 

Ortece ,,, ....   i 

Turksjr 171,800 

Egypt 186,100 

Barbary8Ut«i 

Algeria 84,679,600 

Weilem  coast  of  AfHoa 74,600 

Maurlllns 8,098,400 

Other  African  countries .... 

India 480,700 

Duteh  Indian  I'oMi'Mlons ,  489,800 

Krensb  Indian  I'osMsslons 82,000 

Pbllip|>ln«  lalands 147,100 

Cbina,Carhlu>Cklna,  and  Paolflii 

Islands .... 

Ilaytl 818,600 

UnltrdHtates d,889,600 

Iirltl>h  PosseMlons  In  America.  100,800 

BpanUh  PosMwIiias  In  America  618,700 

uanlth  PosseMlonI  In  America.  894,100 

Broill 8,061,100 

Moxloo 804,600 

0  natemala , 

Vbiiezuiila , 118,400 

New  Granada 26,600 

Peru  and  Uullvia 809,400 

Chill 1,470,800 

Rio  de  la  Plat* 8666,600 

Uruguay 1,018,600 

Texas  and  Kquodur,.,, 96,ino 

Guodaloupo 1,676,800 

Martinique 8,864,800 

Bourbon 8,016,600 

Senegal 1,181,700 

Cayenne , 689,400 

French  Newfijundland  Fishery.  678,600 

Total I47,188,106~ 


.1144. 


ISM. 


UlrtB.' 

8,669.900 

616,600 

171,700 

1,118,700 

14,697,400 

4,6M,000 

887,800 
8,776,700 
6,168,900 
8,688,000 

isii^mo 

187,400 
6,499,200 
119,099 
167,000 
148,100 
16,180,600 

16V,700 
168,800 

47,600 
6,188,600 

iso'.iio 

116,700 

183,800 

9,100 


481,900 

10,898,000 

107,800 

886,000 

192,400 

1,478,800 

818,400 

9,600 

118,800 

57,000 

207,100 

1,428,900 

85M00 

667,900 

1,888,000 
1,408,700 
8,478,800 
1,107,800 
864,900 
868,500 

186,648,189 


In  1840  therii  waro  produced  In  France,  in  round 
numbers,  926,000,000  gallons  of  wine.  This  was  an 
increase  over  the  ((iinntlty  produced  In  1839  of  115,- 
000,000  gallons  i  lint  tliero  were  hnlf  a  million  of  acres 
more  under  cultivation.  The  ((uontity  annually  ex- 
ported avaragos  about  46,000,000  guttons. 

Onllonii. 

In  1^9  there  were  osported 41,iioo,no0 

1S5(I  "  »        41,000,000 

1861  ••  "        49,600,000 

1851  "  "        68,200,000 

1858  «  »        48,500,000 

The  quantity  ex|Kirt«(l  In  1854  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. About  iK),0IKI,U0O  gallons  are  annually  dis- 
tilled Into  brandy,  the  «x|xirtatlon  of  which  is  under 
8|)eclal  govuminmit  restrictions.  139,000,000  gallons 
of  wine,  in  its  various  forms,  nro  annually  exported  to 
foreign  countries.  Th«  government  derives  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  Its  internal  revenue  from  the  manu- 
facture of  wine,  1'lifl  excise  duty  In  \Ha\\  amounted 
to  upward  of  (122,000,  Hesldes  the  00,000,000  gallons 
converted  into  brandy.  It  Is  estimated  that  220,000,000 
gallons  are  inanufai'tured  Into  other  kinds  of  spirits. 
If  this  estimate  lie  vorrnct,  there  will  be  left  for  home 
consumption  nvi>r  700,01)0,000  gallons,  or  about  21  gal- 
lons fur  each  liilmliltiint. 

The  dlMusn  of  tli«  vine,  during  the  past  few  years, 
lus  been  very  destructive  in  France,  Hpain,  Madeira, 
and  other  old  winn-pruduving  countries.  Should  the 
disease  unfortunately  continue  In  those  countries 
which  liave  hitherto  supplied  the  markets  of  the  world 


rtiA 


ni 


FBX 


with  thU  bey«n^,  the  day  may  not  be  distant  when 
the  United  States  shall  become  the  exporter  instead 
of  the  importer  of  wine.  The  vine  enlture  bos  already 
attracted  attention  in  the  western  and  southern  States. 
The  following  table  will  exhibit  the  annual  value  of 
each  of  the  chief  products  of  France,  all  which  enter 
into  or  influence  its  commerce : 


Wheat bushels 

Rye  and  mixed  oom. " 

Buckwheat •• 

Barley » 

Poss  and  Beans ** 

Potatoes, " 

Oata " 

Indian  corn ■* 

Wlno gallons 

Hemp 

Haw  silk. 

Flax. 

Modilar _ 

Kael  and  tlmoer. 

Olive-oil,  rape-seed,  etc 

Tobacco 

Chestnuts 


QMnUty. 


lBll,«K),nOO 
8S,0U0,0II0 
2a,(KXI,(M0 
88,000,000 
8,tT»,IHI0 
B«,000,0(IO 
90,000,000 
14,000,000 

80(\000,000 


Valm. 


|180,000,0()0 
TO,00O,0flO 
18,000,000 

80,(H)o,oan 

T,B00,0fl0 
11,000,000 
04,000,000 

9,000,000 

100,000,000 

8,000,000 
8,000,000 
4,000,000 
1,000,000 
18,000,000 
18,000,000 
1,800,000 

1,000,000 


Aggregate  ann'lral.  of  products) 


I  081,600,000 


The  wild  animals  are  not  numerous  enough  to  have 
any  material  influence  upon  trade.  It  is  not  so  with 
those  domesticated.  The  annual  value  of  the  wool 
grown  from  sheep  is  about  $18,000,000.  This  branch 
of  industry  is  very  inadequntelj-  attende<I  to.  There 
are  14  or  15  different  species  of  lieeves,  and  the  total 
number  of  aJl  kinds  is  uliout  12,000,000.  This  bninch 
of  husbandry  is  also  much  neglected.  In  the  southern 
departments  oliveK>il  supersedes  butter.  The  horse  Is 
not  as  well  managed  as  in  England,  nor  are  there  as 
many  horses.  Hogs  are  abundttnt,  and  so  are  domes- 
tic fowls.     The  latter  are  well  attended  to. 

Landed  property  is  more  minutely  divided  in  France 
than  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  or  oven  than  in  the 
United  States.  In  a  few  departments  may  he  found 
estates  of  200  acres ;  but  they  are  rare,  and  daily  be- 
coming more  so,  as  the  law  divides  the  realty  equally 
among  the  children.  The  greater  portion  of  the  farms 
are  now  less  than  30  acres.  Improvements  in  the 
methods  of  cultivation  progress  languidly,  and  the 
methods  of  manuring  and  rotation  of  crops,  and  of  em- 
ploying machinery,  continue  to  !»  verj'  defective. 

Commerce  and  manufactures  may  l>e  justly  said  to 
have  commenced  with  Charlemagne,  They  were  re- 
pre.tsed  daring  the  feudal  ages,  when  tlie  barons  en- 
slaved the  artisans  and  peasants.  They  were  revived 
by  the  return  of  the  crusaders,  ivho  brought  a  taste  for 
the  luxuries  of  the  East.  Ix)uis  XIV.  well  understood 
their  importance.  The  death  of  CollMrt  and  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  again  paralyzed  them, 
and  the  industry  of  France  became  subjected  to  mono|>- 
olics.  They  continued  enslaved,  in  a  groat  measure, 
until  the  Revolution  of  1789  unfettered  them.  Since 
that  period,  legislation  has  favored  them  by  keeping 
them  free,  and  giving  full  scope  to  individual  enter- 
prise and  genius.  They  have  only  Iwen  retarded  or 
disturbed  by  the  intervention  of  wars.  Their  progress 
has,  of  late  years,  been  wonderfully  accelerated  by  the 
progress  of  science  and  its  application  to  machinery 
and  the  useful  and  omamnntal  arts.  Of  scientific 
stimulants,  the  most  important  has  been  the  applica- 
tion of  steam-power.  To  science  are  also  attributable 
mctallurg)- ;  tlie  process  of  dyeing  ;  the  various  prep- 
arations of  animal  sni'.stances ;  the  weaving  of  cloths, 
cashmeres,  and  damasks;  the  making  of  pa|ier, 
watches,  and  clocks,  and  of  fine  and  common  pottery  ; 
the  manufactures  of  silks  and  tissues ;  ami  numberless 
other  useful  and  tasteful  arts,  which  h^tve  spread  wide 
the  wings  of  commerce. 

The  overage  annual  value  of  the  exports  of  France, 
from  1825  to  1833,  was  about  $iH4,lG8,lG0,  and  of  its 
Imports  t79,;8&,042.     The  official  statement  of  the 


Imports  and  exports,  for  the  yean  1844  to  1868,  estW 
mated  in  francs,  were  as  follows : 


Ttira. 

Importo. 

Kiporti.                1 

FraMb  retMU.  ¥on\$n  yttaaU, 

Krvncb  vsMeli.  Koralftn  vt)iiA«U. 

Frsoei, 

Fruio. 

Krw». 

FnliH't, 

1844 

878,900,000 

454,100,000 

888,000,000 

440,6liO,(K)0 

1840 

889,600,000 

474,00(1,000 

408,6(10,000 

464,7(K),(HI0 

l»t6 

4^600,000 

46s,6U0,0(H) 

4Oi),6(MI,0()O 

460,li>0,(MH) 

IMT 

448,000,000 

ft'>fl,IH)0,(SK) 

43.S,1 100,000 

681,I»HI,(KH) 

1848 

898,000,0(10 

2.M,(MHI,0(tO 

aKO,i(si,nflo 

476,liK),(KKI 

1M9 

401,000,000 

840,»m,(l(N) 

640,000,000 

6<i,^0(l•l,(KIO 

1980 

410,(100,000 

8«l,9cH),(HI(l 

6'iO,500,(XK) 

e8«,l)(iii,»(l(l 

1851 

8»2,100,(KI0 

841,800,(100 

.'■B(),»(K),()00 

70JI,7lKI,(H)0 

1802 

471,600,000 

487,800,I«I0     869,700,000 

7A«oo,Ooo 

IHOS 

eoT,ooo,ooo 

B22,1(PO,0(H)     61»,7ni),(KIO 

8(t9,(KIO,0OO 

The  numl)er  and  tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed  in 
the  foreign  trade  of  France  during  the  same  years  were 
as  follows : 


i 


No.     Ton'ire. 


1844!  e,!)9j 
184616,990 
1^8,188 


679,066 
746,810 

879,808 


I  Ton'ci". 


OtITWARD. 


No.   1  Ton'tn,. 


l(Vl7cill,S6»,7S9  6.809  677,(l8J 
l((,77.M,4S9,lliO  f.,789  fl51,07i 
12,113|l,C9ti,li9((|  .%690, 054,972 


Sn,   I  TonVf, 


0,1190  074,1(11 
«,81«l  7:«,>(J2 
0,628  70U,S06 


The  following  table,  made  up  from  matcri.ils  con- 
tained in  "  Annales  du  Commerce  JSxti'rieur,"  brings 
down  this  statement  of  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  foreign  navigation  statistics  of  France  to  the  year 
1863,  the  entrances  and  clearances  being  given  in 
aggregate : 

NAViaATioK  Tablk  continued  to  1868— ma  Entbancxs 

AND  Cl.EAKANCKS   UNITED. 


1847. 
1S4.S, 
1849. 
]4Vt. 
1851. 

1858. 


f  BINCn  TIMKLa. 


VORBION    TBMXLn. 


ToniMif , 

T,(sr7,(Mio 

1,049,00(1 
1,142,(KH) 
1,102,IH)() 
1,2(12,000 
1.19I),0(K) 
1,889,000 


Wi.. 

20,794 
18,820 
14,769 
10,s!)2 
19.247 
10,808 
20,425 


Ton'Mirfl. 
""CtllS^KPO" 

1.62(i,()(IO 
],721,(KIII 
2,ll(),(»0 
2,8S9,(I00 
2,.'i4«,00fl 
2,748,(H)0 


In  1850  the  arrivals  and  departures  were  thus  dis- 
tributed : 

Vhhi*!*.  T>i;m. 

Entered 25,74.'!  4,075,000 

Cleared 14,475  2,821,000 


Total 40,220 


6,890,000 


The  great  disparity  between  arrivals  and  departures 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  larger  portion  of 
imports  consists  of  bulk}-  and  cumbrous  mercliandise, 
destined  for  our  workshops  and  manufactures,  wliiia 
vessels  leaving  French  (xirts  are  usually  freigbtod  with 
manufactured  pnxlucts,  the  value  of  which  c<)n!(ists  in 
their  skillful  workmanship  sather  tlian  in  their  specitic 
weiglit  or  ttj  space  wliiili  they  occupy.  This  year 
(1850),  esimcially,  the  importation  of  cereals  wu.s  neces- 
sarily heavy. 

A  comparison  of  the  different  flags  engaged  in  this 
general  movement  forces  us  to  repeat  the  rcniark  wliich 
we  are  constrained  to  make  whenever  we  examine  tlUs 
subject — namely,  that  tlie  French  dag  is  invariably 
behind  that  of  otiier  nations  in  her  own  coiiunerce. 
How  stands  our  flag  in  1850  ? 

Vetwlf.  Ton.. 

French  Fla(j 16,a>i)  2,621.000 

Foreign  Flags 2.V.'8  8,s7.ViOO 

Total 4(1,219  0,a!Mi,(KW 

These  figures  are  <if  tliemselves  suflioient  to  show 
how  necessary  and  urgdit  it  is  that  the  IVcnch  mer- 
chant marine  should  bo  placed  in  a  better  comiition  to 
compctn  with  the  ftag.s  of  foreign  countries  in  her  own 
ports. 

The  special*  commerce  of  France  with  for- 
eign  countries   in   1853,  was  distributed   as   exhib- 


ici 


wi 
be 


♦1 

fU] 

po 


*  By  "  special"  is  meant  for  interior  consuraptlna 


v^.T 


Uk 


1SS 


FBA 


Ited  In  the  foUoirlng  toble,  estimated  from  offlelal 


ConntriM. 

Itnpona  into  France. 

ExporU  froin  Fnuica, 

Orekt  Britain 

Franca. 

»9,(K)0,000 

158.000,000 

140,000,000 

104,000,000 

44,000,000 

68,000,000 

87,000,000 

68,000,000 

61,000,000 

Kranca. 

817,000,000 

217,000,000 

128,000,000 

67,000,000 

69,000,000 

45,000,000 

64,000,000 

11,000,000 

32.000.000 

I'nltod  BUitos 

Btflglam 

ganllnlm 

Bpatn 

Bwltx«rlaD<L 

Knula 

BrBiU 

14,000,000      1        84.000.000      1 

The  following  tables  exhibita  the  values  of  the  chief 
articlea  imported  and  exported  in  1863 : 


Artlfllaa. 


oaclnl  Tnlua, 
In  fVanca. 


Cotton,  nv 

Silks,  raw 

Cvroala 

Silk  tlsaue 

Cotton  cloth . . . . 

Wool,  raw 

Woo<!,  common 

Stonocoal 

Oil  seeds 


I5.\ooo,ooo; 

149,(100,000, 
140,8(M),0O0. 
187,H0<I,(KH) 
7,1, 100,000 
68,200,000 
4.1,700,000 
44,700,000 
40,700,000 


Artldaa, 


Actral  Tftlae 
In  fninoB, 


811k  cloth 

Cotton  cloth 

Woolen  ololb 

Winet- 

Toys  ^'  other  mann- 
facturesofwood. , 

Silks 

Ceroals 

Skins,  worl(od 

Glassware 


WO,900,(KIO 
1114,400,000 
(175,400,000 
|l4A,600,000 

76,800,000 
M,700,000 
65,800,000 
68,100,000 
21,800,000 


The  manufacture  of  cotton  wna  first  introduced  in 
1770,  and  has  increased  at  an  enormous  rate.  The 
total  number  of  persona  now  employed  in  it  is  near 
800,0001  The  total  value  of  nil  the  manufactures  of 
France,  annually,  in  1,600,000,000  francs,  and  they  are 
rapidly  increasing. 

The  commercial  legislation  of  France,  which  the  tariff, 
inserted  under  its  appropriate  head,*  is  more  especially 
designed  to  illustrate,  has  undergone,  during  the  past 
few  years,  several  important  modifications.  The 
latest,  and  not  the  least  advantageous  to  the  tonnage 
interests  of  the  United  States,  is  a  (iecree  which  al- 
lows foieign-bullt  vessels  to  l>e  naturalized,  and  to 
tuke  the  French  flag  with  nil  its  privileges,  on  the 
payment  of  10  per  cent,  on  their  assessed  value. 

This  will  create  a  new  market,  and  an  active  de- 
mand for  American  vessels  of  500  to  900  tons,  and 
especially  for  steamers  of  1000  to  1200  tons.  A  decree 
has  also  l>een  promulgated  admitting  lumber,  timber, 
naval  stores,  etc.,  free  of  duty  for  three  years. 
Another  extends  to  December  31,  1856,  the  decree  of 
October  0,  185-1,  exempting  from  tonnage  duties  all 
vessels  wlioUj-  laden  with  breadstuff*,  flour,  rice,  etc. ; 
and  if  only  partially  laden  therewith,  an  exemption  of 
tonnage  dutie.i  proportionate  to  the  quantities  of  such 
cargoes.  A  decree  has  also  been  published,  reviving 
an  old  decree  of  1816,  exempting  from  tonnage  duties 
all  vessels  entering  French  ports  for  the  purpose  of 
exporting  salt,  on  which  article  the,  export  duty  has 
been  suppressed. 

Karly  in  1S55  important  movemuuts  were  made  in 
France,  indicating  an  evident  disposition  in  favor  of  the 
introductbm  arid  more  general  consumption  of  Amer- 
ican salted  provisions.  From  1S52  to  1854  the  price  of 
salt  meats  ad\  anccd  nt  the  extraordinary  rate  of  10  to 
45  |)er  cent,  'riiis  state  of  the  provision  market  imme- 
diately nrresttd  the  attention  of  the  government,  and 
various  projects  were  adopted  with  a  view,  not  onlv  to 
prevent  a  further  increase  in  prices,  but  also  to  reduce 
the  rates  already  raised  to  so  exorbitimt  a  figure.  The 
import  duty  on  foreign  cattle  was  lowered,  viz. :  from 
$10  23  to  74  cents  per  head,  on  beef  j  and  every  means 
was  resorted  to  llk«ly  to  encourage  the  use  of  salted 
beef  among  the  general  mass  of  the  French  i)eople. 
To  this  end,  the  duty  on  salted  meats  has  been  siicces- 
aively  reduced  from  $5  58  to  ^:i  72,  and  again  to 
fl  86 ;  and  in  the  month  of  September,  185.'),  it  was 
further  lowered  to  OJ  cents  per  100  kilogrammes  (220 
pounds).     The  effect  of  this  reduction  of  duty  has 


•PartU. 


been  to  open  the  markets  of  France  to  American  salted 
provisions ;  and  the  importation  has  increased,  since 
that  period,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  it  not  at  all 
improbable  that  this  article  will,  henceforth.  Income  a 
leading  staple  of  export  from  the  United  States  to 
France. 

England  is  now  almost  exclusively  supplied  with 
salted  meats  by  the  United  States  and  Ireland — the 
latter  country'  exporting  about  an  eqnal  quantity  with 
the  former.  The  supply  from  the  United  States  could 
be  made  always  to  equal  the  demand ;  and  if  France 
should  open  her  porta  to  American  salted  provisions, 
the  consumption  in  that  country  would  be  almost  ex- 
clusively supplied  from  the  United  States.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  summary'  of  the  trade  in  salted  provisions 
in  France  during  the  past  20  years  will  exhibit  the 
development  which  this  article  of  American  produce 
has  made  in  that  country. 

In  18.14,  the  importation  into  France  of  salted  meats 
reached  only  8627  quintaux,  equal  to  abotit  777,844*68 
pounds.  After  a  lapse  of  21  years— that  is  to  say,  in 
January,  1856,  ond  during  that  single  month — the  im- 
portation reached  as  high  as  3720  quintaux,  exceeding 
the  importation  of  the  whole  year  of  1H52  by  203 
quintaux,  or  44,709  pounds.  Prime  pork  is  imported 
into  France  in  barrels  of  381J  pounds  gross,  in  brine 
of  gray  salt,  and  is  usually  sold  at  from  §14  80  to  $15 
81  the  barrel.  For  the  English  market  such  pork  is 
exported  from  the  Unitud  States  in  tierces  of  804,  320, 
and  ."536  |M)unds,  and  in  barrels  of  200  pounds. 

American  mess  pork  is  too  fat  for  the  French  mar- 
ket, and  seldom  finds  a  purchaser ;  American  sugar- 
cured  hams,  however,  always  find  a  ready  market  and 
a  brisk  competition  among  purchasers.  Shoulders, 
well  cured,  and  put  up  in  iMgsheads  of  994  pounds,  are 
equally  in  demand,  and  bring  from  $18  60  to  $19  63 
per  220  lbs.  A  similar  feeling  is  manifested  in  France 
in  behalf  of  her  colonies.  By  decree  of  10th  March, 
1855,  the  duty  on  salted  meats  has  been  rediiced  as 
follows :  into  Martinique,  Guadaloupe,  Guiana,  and 
Reunion,  salted  meats  of  whatever  origin,  or  under 
whatever  flag,  pay  OJ  cents  per  220  pounds.  This 
measure  has  attracted  the  attention  of  pork  merchants 
of  the  United  States,  and  already  heavy  freights  of 
this  article  have  been  forwarded  to  those  islands, 
Vorious  other  modifications  have  been  decreed,  but  as 
they  relate  mostl';  tn  the  tariff  regulations,  they  are 
merely  alluded  to  here  for  the  purpose  of  noting  the 
tendency  to  u  more  liberal  commercial  policj-,  which 
has,  of  late  years  been,  observable  in  French  legisla- 
tion. Recent  custom-house  returns,  published  in 
France,  show  that  the  revenue  to  the  State  during  the 
first  six  months  of  1865,  upon  18  different  articles,  the 
duties  on  which  have  been  lowered,  was  ill, 181, 574 
francs,  against  18,258,808  francs,  derived  from  the 
same  dcs(!ription  of  merchandise  during  tlie  correspond- 
ing six  months  of  1854. 

.Such  figures  supply  the  best  argument  in  favor  of 
'"•ce  tradir,  especially  in  a  countrj"  in  which  a  prolilb- 
itive  and  protective  system  has  so  long  iirevailed. 
The  annexed  table  will  also  illustrate  the  wise  policy 
by  which,  it  would  np|)ear;  that  the  commercial  legis- 
lation of  France  is  henceforth  to  be  shaped. 

According  to  the  Jimrnal  dea  Kconomislex,  during 
the  first  six  montlis  of  the  year  1850,  the  commercial 
transactions  of  France  exhibit  a  satisfactory  conditiim ; 
although  the  receipts  for  customs,  compared  with 
those  for  the  corresponding  six  months  of  last  year, 
show  a  decided  falling  off,  amounting,  for  tlie  entire 
period,  to  4,304,8,'!0  francs.  This  indicated  a  decrease 
in  importations,  which  is  to  be  regretted,  but  which, 
all  things  being  considered,  should  cause  no  disqui- 
etude. The  movements  in  1858  exhibited,  in  point  of 
fact,  results  altogether  exceptional :  tliiis  the  first  six 
months,  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  in 
1864,  showed  an  increase  in  import  duties  of  21,000,000 
francs,  of  which  6,000,000  were  for  June  alone. 


FBA 


736 


FRA 


irATiainoH  BiTWUH  FiAiiaa  akd  Fouiaic  CotnmuB— 

ISOd,  18S4,  AMD 

1868,  OOMPABBab 

ream  o*  ruco. 

CNTHY  or  VCUUil  INTO  FRANCI. 

DIPARTUiUC  or  VmiLS  moH  niAMOl,      1 

mac*. 

roRIMH, 

ATAL. 

rKMCM. 

rOKIIOM. 

TOTAL. 

No.  of 

Toaaaf*. 

X".V»-n. 

No.  of  1  -.--,-. 

No.  of 
•bipa. 

ToiUMft. 

No.  of 
•hi  pi. 

TonMt«. 

No.  of 

Tooufo. 

In  the  lint  10  mouthi  of  1865; 
Murulllet 

1,914 
616 

858 
786 
890 
885 
9 
4111 
809 
3,185 

409M4 
187,889 
99,058 
87,688 
88,688 
86,880 
1,107 
4^4I6 
88,081 
169,670 

3,441 

1,889 
468 
178 
688 
710 
tt» 
871 
818 

8,486 

481,268 

888,838 

10)1,876 

97,061 

61,178 

67,878 

158,807 

114,704 

81,351 

867,957 

4,600 

2,000 

1,815 

959 

978 

''^ 

1,281 

626 

8,6»rt 

840,836 
531,117 
808,989 
114,749 
89,807 
108,988 
158,914 
160,149 

1,537 
811 
891 
167 

188 
126 

4 
403 

860,998 
79,358 
78,437 
48,787 
17,771 
12,835 
494 
46,414 
20.730 

1,889 
624 
166 
44 
168 
287 
711 
688 
246 

8,898 

316,300 

316,863 

87,688 

6,686 

18,7ia 

37,770 

118,878 
78,889 
36,879 

141,U1 

8,006 
985 
557 
308 
810 
418 
716 

1,086 
482 

8,908 

t9T,.>» 

396,l(Hi 

111,1168 
49,428 
8I,4S8 
89,1198 

118,S7! 

120,2.'i» 
47,899 

2V7,2.Vi 

Harra 

BordeAUX 

Itotien 

Dunkirk 

Boulogne 

Cdala 

Cette  

64,283     2116 

Other  ports 

SilJMl,  1.606  1  t8,ve83 

'         1        ' 

Totd  10  months  of  1886 

For  1884 

••  1858  

8,099 
8,885 
7,689 

1,047,869 
993,837 
880,898 

11,884  1,T20,S99 
9,IM8  1,878,389 
9,674  1,885,858 

19,479  2,7ns,28S 
17,828  2,878,626 
17,318  3.368.048 

4,S»0  !  780,711 
4,918    681,189 
6,840    6(I0.(U9 

6,701 
6,895 
7,67S 

888,608 
911,818 
908,001 

11,690 
11.818 
18,626 

1,694,337 
1,898,0113 
1,892,080 

■ 

The  preceding  ntatenient  exhibit*  the  navigation 
between  France  and  foreign  nations  in  1855,  aa  com- 
pared with  1854  and  1853.     The  following  sUtement 

Tablb  or  ExroaTATioNB  oi'  tuk  raiitoiPAL  Abtiolbs  op  Meroiiandisb  pkom  FaAnoa,  in  1856  and  1854,  coHPAaKP. 


exhlbita  the  exports  of  principal  manufactured  staples 
in  1855  compared  with  1854 :  by  which  it  may  be  seen 
that  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  10  months  of  1863: 


ArtklM. 


Drinks: 

Wine,  ordlnsiy 

**     de  liqueur 

Brandy,  pure  alcohol 

Spirits  of  wine,  pure  alcohol 

Machines  A  meehsnical  apparatut 

Mode^  mllllnory,  etc 

Porcelain,  line  and  common. . . 

Soap  (perfumed  tsotpUd) 

811k: 

Raw 

Dyed 

FloH  of  all  sorts. 

gggar,  refined 


Fr«n,>h  Mid  for-  Frrnoli  and  for- 

otgn  darliiir  tha  tlgn  during  the 

first  10  moollu  flril  10  monlhi 

oflS6(.  ofl8t4. 


Oalloni. 

18,386,000 

485,000 

3,108,000 

144,100 

Pound*. 
I,8!6,8.')«),000 
1,962,000,000 

7,800,000 
18,000,000 

1,808,660 

90,180 

MI.OOO 

65.57R000 


0«ll«i>. 

27,386,500 

844,100 

8,043,930 

158,000 

PouBdi. 

1,691,000,000 

1,243,800,000 

9,550,000 

10,799,000 

1,819,860 

84,450 

866,000 

46,868,000 


Freneh  and  for' 

elfpi  durlnir  the 

flnt  lOniontha 

of  IStl. 


jCotton  tissues: 

ITnbleached  and  white. . , . 

Painted  and  dyed 

Tulle 

Others. 

Flax  and  hemp  tissues: 

LInon 

Cambric  anil  lawn 

Others 

Woolen  tissues: 

Cloths,  caaslmeres,  Jc  merinos 

Others 

Silk  tissues 

iOloss  and  Crystal 


Franeh  and  for- 

■lini  during  tin- 

Snt  10  montlii 

of  IBM. 


Ponndt. 
9,898,800 
6,909,900 

128,040 
4,776,900 

4,837,700 
106,180 
204,400 

^700,83a 

6,676,600 

6,873,880 

48,117,800 


Poand*. 
7,062,000 
6,644,600 

186,840 
4,685,600 

3,920,800 
96,840 
178,860 

4,991,700 

6,280,900 

6,13^340 

41,843,000 


In  addition  to  the  numerous  tables  already  given,  I  general  direct  trade  between  the  United  States  luid 
the  following  statement  is  submitted,  exhibiting  the  |  Franco  during  a  period  of  11  successive  }-ears. 

OoMPAaATiva  Statebent  or  rna  Commkkcx  or  tiik  ITwrrED  Status  with  France,  exiiiuitino  the  Value  or  Kx- 

roXTS  TO  AND    IVPORTS    rEOH  EACH    CuCHTXT,    AND  THE    TuNNAOE    OP    AbEKICAN    ANO  FoEEION  VESSELS   ARRIVINU 
ri'OM    AND  DEPARTING  TO  EACH  COUNTEY,  DURING  THE  YEARS  DESIGNATED, 


"BtSfflHSECljr 


Douiaille 
prodn«f. 


VALDB  or   BXPOKT*. 


foralgn 
prod  nee. 


1845. 
1846. 
1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1880. 
1881., 
1882., 
1S6S.. 
18.M.. 
1886.. 


118,880,171 
18,601,680 
18,698,881 
15,S74,8« 
18,088,7.W 
17,960,877 
S6,802,0i!>6 
23,190,070 
35,130,806 
80,968,363 
81,638,898 


«X,  1 71^388 
1,589,928 
805,087 
4,444,425 
8,986,884 
1,883,070 
8,960,061 
1,900,575 
1,4.80,978 
1,179,729 
1,284,280 


Tout. 


•  1^80O,4O4 
16,180,.875 
19,097,618 
19,819.810 
16,810,.888 
19,838,847 
2S,2,52,146 
28,990,648 
26,571,784 
82,147,981 
82,878,138 


TALUS  or 

IMPOaT*. 


121,89,8,428 
28,911,882 
24,900,941 
28,096,081 
84,868,783 
27,889,028 
81,718,683 
2.%990,266 
83,488,942 
ai,79I,893 
81,609,181 


KAVTiiATTeiiS'. 
AMaaiCAN  ToMNAua.        J  roBaioN 


BntanaH  the 
TTnll«^d  Statei, 


126,417 
118,884 
189,672 
186,826 
102,017 
114,967 
142,943 
198,242 
189,916 
288,149 
199,696 


Cleand  from 
the  U.  gtalei. 


141,083 
181,679 
160,667 
182,816 

127,989 
129,747 
163,707 
214,703 
201,191 
280,062 
206,823 


Enterctl  the 
United  Htale*. 


14,104 
18,714 
29,.'V)8 
24,8.37 
8:1,917 
42,9.82 
41,184 
46,769 
87,966 
81,888 
28,765 


Cleared  from 
the  U.  Statta. 


10,690 
13,116 
28,107 
27,887 
80,898 
26,893 
88,160 
17,603 
14,983 
19,091 
16,068 


This  important  liranch  of  French  commerce  com- 
prises ail  the  foreign  merchandise  transported  over  the 
French  territories  to  other  countries.  It^  vast  increase 
may  l>e  perceived  from  the  following  statement  for 
three  3°ears : 

V— .  i        MetrfcBl  qnlBtali. 

»'•"•  I  (»»0-4lJ  lb..) 


Keal  Value,  Franet. 
(18-6  cent,  rerh.) 


1858. 
1854. 
1856. 


782,635 
760,484 


863,000,000 
877,000,000 
898,000,000 


Statement  showing  the  amount  of  precious  metals, 
gold  and  silver  (ingots  and  specie),  imported  and  ex- 
ported to  and  from  France,  during  a  period  of  26  years, 
from  1830  to  1855 : 

Imported. 


The  countries  which  supported  this  transit  trade  in 
1855,  were : 


Wlienco. 


'Swltserland. . 

IBelclum 

lEnxland 

iSolTrereln.. . . 
United  SUtos 
Batdiola... 


I 


Whither. 


Franoa. 


148,000,000 
108,000,000 
60,000,000 
A000,000 
16,000,000 
6,000,000 


I.IJnitcd  States.!  184,000.000 

llEnnland....-..;  99,000,000 

:,8ni:z.'rlnnd. . .  74.000,000 

'Bni7.ll 1  11,000,000 

'llclidnm I  11,000,000 

Sardinia. 11,000,000 

iZollvereln ....  10,000,000 

Spain,  etc I  8,000,000 


(loid. 

surer. 

Total. 

Knuirt. 

1,870,000,000 

Franc. 

4,014,000,000 

Franca. 
^914,000,000 

Kxpobted. 

Gold. 

SIIrcT.               1                  Total. 

Franc 

867,000,000 

Krftnu. 

2,289,000,000 

Franca. 

8,088,000,000 

See  article  France,  Kncy.  Jirit.,  1857;  Hint's 
Aferch.  Mag.,  viii.,  181,  xiii.,  26,  xvi.,  476,  547,  xviU., 
497,  xxii.,  269,  xxiv.,  284,  v.,  105,  vii.,  801 ;  Am. 
Ann.  Reg.,  v.,  vii.,  viii.  (by  JoiiM  Q.  Adams  and  W. 
C.K1VB8);  /'or.  Quae,  Ui.,  369;  i>em.  Aer.,  xxu.,  646. 


FRA 


m 


FRA 


OoMiiiHoa  or  tub  TTnitid  Btatbi  wrm  Franoi  on  thi 

MiDTmiAKiAir,  raoM  Ootobib  1,  1830,  K  JrLT  1,  18M. 

y>«>«idiiw 

Eiporli. 

Importt. 

Whareof  Uian  wu  In  Bullion 
•ndBpnla. 

Totnng«  CI««nd. 

DomeBtle. 

FoMlin. 

ToUU 

Tol«l. 

Eiport*]. 

Imported. 

AnMrirwi. 

Fnrvlgn. 

Boot  80,  1831 

169,856 
188,191 

110,861 

(80,706 

(496,028 

.... 

(247,884 

814 

598 

18M 

70,887 

268,538 

400,993 

14,844 

888 

868 

1M» 

838,881 

1,171,898 

l,49^769 

601,457 

(988 
4^760 

102,244 

10,247 

881 

ISM 

385,810 

750,481 

1,016,246 

460,464 

47,878 

S-**! 

.... 

182S 

187,343 

726,499 

918,741 

812,511 

20,000 

17.065 

9,488 

.... 

1924 

278,078 

488,677 

757,859 

892,163 

1,600 

86,038 

10,960 

.... 

182T 

475,847 

781,076 

1,366,638 

848,874 

1,600 

60,179 

13,064 

889 

ms 

aOB,*.*) 

979,407 

886,045 

904,426 

^362 

2,484 

10,498 

.... 

18a» 

(8«,133 

748,777 

1,684,399 

890,067 

8,880 

1,482 

18,848 

1880 

Total.... 

717,263 

480,888 

1,143,140 

891,188 

6,000 

14,517 

18,907 

1,074 

18,989,198 

15,468,841 

(9,448,089 

(6,783,686 

(45,128 

(542,366 

100,698 

8,348 

Septan,  1881 

1071,867 

1800,926 

(973,798 

(1,188,766 

(14,411 

(6,188 

}5-f2 

I'VJ 

1888 

914,091 

1,140,876 

2,084,467 

1,248,775 

12,000 

14,888 

16,486 

8,688 

1888 

1,086,898 

768,826 

l,8ai,724 

1,080,063 

800 

18,414 

14,076 

8,922 

1884 

1,083,898 

1,862,889 

2,88,1,287 

1,827,400 

4,684 

17,946 

8,775 

1885 

i,(m,»i» 

664,193 

2,678,021 

1,468,993 

74,000 

»;283 

18,200 

3,811 

i8sa 

1,951,743 

725,991 

2,677,788 

1,967,184 

1,M1 

18,614 

4,678 

188T 

1,198,847 

649,650 

l,84^897 

1,562,113 

28,988 

1,684 

10,838 

6,114 

1888 

1,488,766 

288,185 

1,716,900 

948,695 

0,820 

75,229 

17,846 

2,391 

1889 

1,048,260 

176,186 

1,222,446 

1,612,871 

.... 

6,506 

9,256 

8,681 

1840 

Total.... 

1,178,888 

224,202 

1,408,088 

879,587 

.... 

178,283 

10,806 

(12,486,080 

(6,176,278 

(18,642,808 

(18,279,833 

(140,710 

(297,248 

143,013 

81,454 

Bopt.80,  1841 

|1,.M2,460 

(140,024 

(1,6.12,484 

(1,221,580 

(1,800 

(18,144 

18,927 

2,875 

1842 

1,674,570 

78,863 

1,748,4.'» 

958,678 

8,021 

21,944 

2,147 

9  mo».     1848 

1,186,294 

88,701 

1,269,995 

609,149 

18,488 

13,107 

418 

June  80,  1844 

1,204,798 

ai,104 

1,289,897 

1,608,818 

7,478 

11,641 

17,808 

456 

1848 

979,789 

197,980 

1,177,719 

1,414,175 

1,178 

2,400 

19,217 

660 

1840 

898,678 

191,448 

1,090,126 

1,802,748 

14,000 

2,688 

14,950 

740 

1847 

1,172,146 

66,011 

1,229,187 

1,001,766 

18,078 

4,611 

1848 

1,2I5,(>S7 

166,266 

1,881,858 

1,086,817 

78,202 

8,882 

16,434 

928 

1840 

877,147 

168,521 

1,046,608 

1,183,905 

18,858 

8,227 

1850 

Total.... 

],01,\486 

]58,1,M 

1,178,641 

1,702,368 



2,698 

14,183 

8,676 

(11,786,400 

(1,821,108 

(18,057,503 

(12,004,438 

(99,955 

(52,497 

166,846 

24,488 

June  80,  18.11 

«785,018 

(185.898 

(870,411 

(1,926,429 

(3,921 

16,614 

10,627 

1853 

1,896,193 

79,184 

1,476,824 

1,694,862 

26,793 

6,617 

1888 

8.12,514 

70,881 

922,845 

2,604,898 

1,074 

.... 

16,234 

6,761 

1864 

1.21S,786 

201,374 

1,420,160 

2,889,872 

•  >■• 

.... 

17,728 

8,166 

18BS 

H,H37,804 

164,084 

8,491,688 

2,599,788 

.... 

.... 

26,880 

4,189 

1868 

8,006,482 

185,164 

8,231.596 

8,518,664 

.... 



88,152 

8,469 

OOHHKBCE  or  THB  UNITED    STAT1!8  WITH  FbANOB  ON  THK  AtLAMTIO,  rROM  OCTOBBB  1,  1820,  TO  JOLT  1,  188& 


K),000 


10,000 


.,    HtNT'8 

I47,  xvW., 
IsOl;  Am. 
Is  and  W. 

Ixxii.,  &46. 


Y«an  .Ddlng 


HeptlW,  1821.... 
1822.... 
1928.... 
1824.... 
1828.... 
1926.... 

1837 

1828.... 

1829.... 

1330.... 

Total 

BeptSO,  1881.... 
1882.... 
1888.... 
1884.... 
1885.... 
1386.... 
1887.... 
1889.... 
1889.... 
1340.... 
Total 

BeptSO,  1841.... 

1842 

9  mos.  1848.... 
June  80,  1944.... 

1346.... 

1816.... 

1947.... 

1849.... 

1849.... 

1880.... 
Total 

June  80,  1851 

1853.... 
1863.... 
1854.... 
1888.... 
1866.... 


Kiportf. 


D»mettl(. 


(5,099,848 
4,561,299 
4,677,914 
7,595,815 
7,838,693 
9,075,2.14 
8,712,011 
7,091,699 
8,008,928 
9,183,894 


(71,884,845 

(4,963,557 
9,028,498 
9,769,685 
11,693.364 
16,018,185 
17,6,14,692 
16,181,667 
18,089,649 
14,919,949 
17,788,743 


(181,012,767 

(16,897,907 
15,840.729 
10.884,579 
11,861,419 
11,850,482 
12,702,072 
17,420,895 
14,1,19,799 
11,046,612 
16,9»4,T9I 


Foreign. 


(.349,010 
1,210,588 
2,627,656 
1,095,612 
2,625.968 
1,816,178 
2,5.15.969 
8,095.926 
2,10,1,578 
661,925 


(17,544,150 

(8,929,462 
1.586,771 
2,196,912 
1,440,831 
1,160,089 

604,675 
1,690,114 

976,967 
2,0f3,6.16 
2,698,025 


(17,620,S40 

(8,216.364 
1,076,684 

441,573 
2,287,084 
2,972,253 
1,.987,477 

449,016 
4,279,159 
2,918,803 
1,724.915 


(189,699,622 


(20,601,968 


(24,567,067  (3,914,668 
20,798,8781  1,721,441 
24,268,292!  1,890,647 
29,749  444  978,855 
29,296,391^  1,090,144 
"  497,344 


(.1,447,658 

6,771,882 

7,206,570 

8,691,427 

9,964,661 

10,891,432 

11,267,830 

10,187,526 

10,114,496 

9,945,819 


(99,978,496 

(9,192,009 
10,54.1,2,16 
11,966,497 
18,12.3,697 
17,178,228 
18,261,867 
17,944,631 
14,066,616 
17,009,608 
20,481,769 


(148,688,607 

(20,114,271 
16,417,412 
10,926,156 
14,149,508 
14,322,685 
14,010,449 
17,800,481 
18,487,957 
14,404,915 
18,659,706 


(159,801,495 

(27,891,785 
22,616,819 
28,049,989 
80,727,821 
29,896,440 
89,229.377 


ImporU. 


Tolnt. 


(4,493,917 
6,699,986 
0,165,278 
6,741,118 
10,151,071 
7,687,863 
7,683,858 
8,484,427 
8,248,921 
6,881,015 
(71,178,398 

(12,976,977 
10,981,993 
12,851,626 
]8,81i),778 
21,448,379 
84,049,281 
20,521,496 
16,928,112 
80,918,450 
16,69.3,2.99 


(193,025,365 


(22,712. 
10,016, 
7,050, 
15,946, 
20,191, 
22,609, 
28.999, 
27,089, 
28,209, 
«5,836, 


(204,819,072 

(29,790,124 
24,19.1,914 
80,881,849 
82,892,021 
39,009,898 
4^600,898 


Whereof  there  iru  In  BuUloa  I 
ud  Specie. 


Tonoafe  Cleared. 


Exitorted.     \      lurwrtfd.      ]   Amerlran. 


(12,IIIH) 

519,993 
176,872 

916^580 

202,663 

1,563,098 

2,896,699 

1,620,820 

iai.111 


(7,512,530 

(2,960,669 

450,779 

60,006 

70,274 

5.16,622 

111,092 

1,020,609 

467,448 

2,017,799 

2,199,608 


(9,919,897 

(4,087,199 
1,11.3,699 
186,009 
2,029,195 
8,179,278 
1,180,886 

4,724,674 
2,988,124 
2,162,992 


(21,508,001 

(7,471,341 
^474,494 
4,291,863 
6,948,023 
8,742,4*0 
7,172,893 


*617,2»4 
90,856 
86,993 
77,289 
7,531 
159,691 
104,168 
66,889 
27,570 
47,812 


(1,214,212 

(47,949 

26,629 

46,719 

1,6.16,4.38 

616,798 
4,941.004 
1,051,508 
2,165,083 

1.10,129 

946,991 


(11,449,233 

(267,049 
232,447 

2,041,0.17 
093,192 
184,955 
109,708 

l,8.^9,472 
277,223 
241,184 
79,251 


(6,017,007 

(304.988 
759,430 
831,908 
24,564 
2,814 
188,188 


798 
.9,688 
44,401 
68,618 
47,897 
76,478 
85,451 
4^088 
78,962 
82,621 


638,446 

49,023 
79,330 
77,127 
79,820 
91,103 
96,526 
91,687 

103,056 
88,,119 

182,823 


893,012 

121,631 
180,865 
110,171 
109,327 
121,915 
119,729 
147,579 
116,062 
114,036 
114,699 


1,206,706 

147,098 
187,965 
184,947 
313,834 
239,948 
896,886 


Forelfn. 


36,392 

8^548 
4,610 
9,787 
11,270 
10,908 
8,708 
7,785 
6,014 


98,957 

8,722 
12,709 
14,707 
14,632 

9,717 
12,869 
20,032 
10,103 
14,752 
25,409 


144,807 

16,704 
16,043 
44,171 
15,989 
10,036 
11,376 
19,496 
24,495 
27,141 
17,614 


10,838 
11,086 
11,127 
14,920 
11,934 
19,0m 


AAA 


r;  FRA 

French  Savingi  Panh. — There  nre  Saving!  Banki, 
Mutual  llonoflt  Socictlci,  uiul  Soclotie*  fur  Auurliii; 
Annuitiea.  The  Hrst  Savings  Uiuili  was  estaljiishcd 
by  Barun  U.  Doleascrt,  1818,  wlio  left  a  legacy  of 
160,000  n-nncn  in  favor  of  youo  worliing  iiieu.  In  18118 
the  total  numl>er  was  27;  in  IH-lil,  UllU;  in  1863,  377. 
On  the  3lBt  of  Deconitier,  1863,  there  wore  844,040  de- 
positors in  360  Savings  llanl(S  in  activity.  Tlie  sum 
deposited  was  285,673,378  I'ruucs,  or  an  average  of  337 
francs  each.  The  number  of  Mutual  Societies  in  De- 
cember, 1853,  was  2773,  having  289,440  subscribers, 
and  a  capital  of  12,089,501  francs.  Their  income  was 
1,782,083  francs.  The  Annuity  Societioa  had,  in 
DecemlHir,  1854,  87,018  accounts,  and  a  capital  of 
42,084,822  franca. 

The  PubUo  Debt  and  Finances  of  Pmwe Tlio  history  of 

tlie  Frencli  debt  since  the  concluilon  of  the  war  In  18U  fiir- 
nUlies  a  very  itrlklng  proof  of  the  evils  of  eiceislre  oxpendl- 
ture  during  peace.  I'erhapa  there  la  no  mora  reniarkablu 
fact  In  connection  with  tho  career  of  the  flmt  Napoleon,  than 
that  at  tho  end  of  his  great  ICiiropcan  wars  the  public  debt 
of  Franco  anionntcd  only  to  £&U,ii46, 108,  the  Interest  up<in 
which  wna  £3,502, .S04.  We  do  not  protend  to  aay,  however, 
that  timt  innat  be  taken  as  the  nieaauru  of  the  Incubus  loft 
upon  Franco  at  the  cloae  of  those  itrngglea  as  their  oonae- 
quenco.  Wo  have  aeon  some  curious  calculationa,  which  pre- 
tended to  prove  that  France  aiilTcn'd  nioro  In  her  Industries 
by  tlioso  wars  than  England  did  by  lier  National  Debt.  Hut 
bo  that  OS  It  may,  at  tho  time  of  tho  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons they  found  a  d>'bt  of  only  X'.VI,U40,1U8,  iind  nn  Interoat  to 
provide  for  amounting  to  X2,532,;:n4.  As  soon,  however,  aa 
France  entered  Into  the  ei^oyniL'nt  of  a  permanent  peace,  the 
expenditure  tipgan  to  exceed  tho  Income.  Kithcr  the  pover 
of  the  ('hamber  over  the  Minister  muat  have  been  very  Im- 
perfect, or  It  muat  have  been  exerclaed  with  great  laxity. 
The  Uourbons  occupied  the  throne  for  sIxto<^n  years  of  per- 
fect peace  till  1830 ;  when  they  fell,  the  public  debt  of  France 
atood  at  i:iT7,Oas,»7T,  and  tho  annual  interest  at  ilT.llTa.OKS. 
The  expenditure  had,  thcrt^fure,  exceeded  the  Income  upon  an 
average  in  each  of  the  sixteen  yearn  by  the  sura  of  £7,900,000. 
liOula  I'hllippe  commenced  liU  reign  with  an  annual  charge 
for  debt  exceeding  that  of  1814  by  no  less  than  £0,444,334. 
He  was  aald  to  be  a  atrong-handf  1  monarch,  and  to  have  ac- 
conipllahed  and  wise  ministers.  Did  they  benefit  by  the  les- 
sen which  the  late  administration  of  the  finances  during  the 
previous  reign  should  havo  taught  them  1  I/>ula  I'hllippe  re- 
mained on  the  throne  till  1S4S.  We  have  no  precise  account 
of  the  state  of  the  capitiil  of  tho  public  debt  when  he  atMlica- 
ted.  But  on  ofllclal  account  gives  the  annual  charge  at  the 
time  as  £0,771.489,  being  an  increase  during  his  reign  of 
XI, 794,800,  which  shows  that  on  an  average  of  the  whole 
eighteen  years  the  expenditure  muat  havo  exceeded  the  in- 
come by  about  £3,400,000  a  year.  The  first  accounts  we  have 
after  the  abillcallon  of  Ijouls  I'hllippe  show  that  on  tho  lat 
January,  18&1,  the  public  debt  of  France  stood  at  £lil3,8.>6,40'2. 
From  that  time  It  has  increased  most  rapidly,  as  the  follow- 
ing table  of  the  debt  at  tho  commencement  of  each  year  ijince 
that  time  shows: 

PiTDMG    FCXDED   DEBT  OF    FR\JfOE  0:«    THl  IST  or  JaNC- 
ABT    IN    KAOIl   YE.VH    IN    rBANCB,    AND    IN    HTEBLINO    AT 

25  Fban<;b  rxB  A',  and  in  Iiollabs  at  B  Fbancs  pkb 

UOLLAB   (I'BAOTIOMS  OUITTEU). 


Ymh. 

franc. 

X 

* 

1851 

6,il4(),(ial,lKlil 

•.il3,S25,l)00 

1,009,000,000 

18.V2 

5.61li.l'l4,onO 

M(),li47.(Kp0 

1,10,3,200,000 

ms 

B,577,6..»,00fl 

iJifl.ioo.ono 

i,ii!i,r)Ofl,ooo 

18S1 

5.6«9,«.'»,000 

22(!,7S<1.0flO 

1.138.800,000 

13.'« 

(i,»S.',sT7,000 

•.'4:1.31.1,0(10 

1,230,200,000 

1<(66 

7.W>S,O10,000 

3(W,.T.'1.000 

1,511,000,000 

18.'.7 

s.oai.oiiu.oflo 

321, '279.000 

1,006,200,000 

1859 

8.42'2,(l9r>.00:) 

S3(1,8S3,000 

1,084,400,000 

This  table  shows  that  in  seven  years  the  debt  of  France  has 
increased  by  no  less  than  jC123,06?,000,  nr  at  llio  rate  of 
£17,579,000  a  year.  No  doubt  this  period  includes  the  two 
years  of  the  Russian  war;  but  even  If  we  deduct  £00,000,000 
for  the  loans  applied  to  that  punrase,  we  have  still  a  balance 
of  increa-e  for  tho  period  of  £43,068,000,  or  at  the  annual 
rate  of  £9,008,000.  Tho  Incicnse  in  tho  laat  year,  ending  the 
1st  of  January,  1868,  was  £16,fio4;000;  and  we  are  Informed 
that  for  the  year  Just  concluded  it  will  certainly  not  be  icsa. 
On  the  let  of  January,  1366,  the  annual  charge  of  the  debt  Is 
staled  at  £9,467,000;  on  the  1st  of  January,  1858,  it  was 
£12,486,000— so  that  in  three  years  the  annual  Interest  to  bo 
provided  for  Increased  by  no  less  a  sum  in  round  figuici  than 


FRA 


£3,000,000.  We  have  thus  the  broad  foci  before  ns,  that  from 
1^14  to  1858,  a  period  of  forty-four  years,  of  which  fgrty-two 
wire  yean  of  peace  and  only  two  of  war,  tho  public  debt  of 
Fnneu  lucruaaod  from  £60,040,000  to  XUlW.tMH.tNK);  and  the 
annual  Interest  to  be  provided  by  taxes  fi-oni  £2.5112,000  to 
£12,436,000.  It  la  by  this  means  that  what  is  called  tho  ei|uU 
llbrlun  of  income  and  expenditure  hai  been  attained.  And 
when  It  Is  considered  that  tho  price  of  public  stock  depends 
much  more  upon  the  fact  whether  It  l»  increasing,  or  Is  sln- 
tlonary,  or  is  decresaing  In  amount,  it  will  be  easily  under- 
atood  why  English  Consols,  which  have  been  rather  ri'ducoil 
than  Increased  In  amount  during  that  period,  mould  stand 
at  961,  while  French  Three  per  Cents,  are  only  Oj|. 

It  was  a  consideration  of  these  facts,  to  which  we  have  ad- 
verted In  detail,  and  the  knowlodgo  that  even  during  Ihu  laat 
year  a  similar  means  of  eking  out  the  Income  hml  Itccn  re- 
sorted to,  that  Interfered  with  the  anticipated  favorable  re- 
ception of  M.  Magno*s  report.  8ince  then,  no  doubt,  other 
circumstances  of  a  more  grave  character  have  occurred  to  de- 
press still  further  the  spirit  of  speculation,  and  to  lower  the 
prices  of  all  classes  of  securities.  Tho  panic  which  has  pre- 
vailed In  I'arls  since  the  Emperor's  speech  to  the  Austrian 
minister  muat  have  proved  to  him  that,  in  contenipluting  a 
war,  he  muat  consult  other  Interests  than  those  of  nn  ardent 
army  longing  for  employment  In  the  field. — Lotulmi  A'coao- 
niM,  Jamuirii,  1869. 

A  further  loan  of  £20,000,000,  or  500,000,000  francs,  was 
negotiated  in  May,  1859. 

Cmnvternal  Decrc'^a—- Brandies. —My  a  decree  of  tho  22d 
of  Heptember,  1864,  nil  furelKn  brandies  are  adniitteil  Into 
France,  by  paying  a  duty  of  16  francs  per  each  hectolitre  of 
pure  alcohol. 

H'l'iKs.— Ily  a  decree  of  the  5tli  of  October,  1854,  all  wines, 
such  as  Mndelm,  Sherry,  etc  ("vins  do  liqueur").  In  cuaka, 
leather  bottles,  or  twttlcs,  are  subject  to  the  Importation  duty 
of  26  centimes  per  100  litres. 

Poreifrn  V'esnels  loading  Salt  exempt  /rrnn  Tannag*  Dutij. 
—By  a  decree  dated  May  10,  1866,  the  dlspoaitlons  of  the 
ordinances  of  31st  July,  and  4th  December,  1810,  allowing 
foreign  veaiels  to  load  salt  in  French  ports  when  coming 
In  baUast,  free  of  tonnage  duties,  are  extended  to  veaaels 
coming  to  France  vith  cargoes.  The  exemption  from  ton- 
nage duties  shall  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  salt  ex- 
ported. 

I>aciMt-tree«.— By  a  decree  of  the  23d  June,  1865,  the  Im- 
portation duty  on  locust-trees  is  fixed  aa  follows :  By  Freneli 
slilps,  25  centimes  the  100  kllogrummes.  By  foreign  ships,  1 
franc  the  100  kilogrammes. 

Xavufation  Dues — Ezeiuption  to  31at  December^  18^. — By 
a  decree  of  the  6th  Juno,  lrt,')5,  the  exemption  of  nuvii^iition 
dues  accorded  up  to  the  31st  July,  18.^5,  on  cargoes  of  grain, 
flour,  rice,  potatoes,  and  dry  vegetables,  is  extended  to  the 
81st  December,  1855. 

By  a  decree  of  tho  14th  July,  18.W,  tho  regulation  for  tlio 
admission  of  molasses  intended  for  distillation  Is  fixed  as 
follows,  until  it  shall  be  otherwise  ordained  !  By  French  voa- 
scls,  from  French  colonies,  exempt.  By  French  veaaels,  from 
the  F^st  Indies,  exempt.  By  French  vessels,  from  t^outh 
America,  exempt  By  French  vesseU,  ft'ora  t'.nj  WcMt  Indies, 
exempt.  By  French  vessels,  fVom  elsewhere,  2  francs  tho  100 
kilogrammes.  By  foreign  vessels,  3  francs  the  100  kilo- 
gram mea. 

By  a  decree  of  the  3d  October,  1851,  the  duty  then  exl«tlng 
on  the  exportation  of  leeches,  of  60  centimes  per  1000,  was 
abolished ;  and  on  the  6th,  a  duty  of  50  centimes  per  100 
kilognunmcs  was  imposed  on  the  importation  of  salted  pro- 
TisloQS.  On  the  9th,  a  decree  prolonged  the  free  entry  of 
vessels  laden  with  grain,  fiour,  rice,  potatoes,  and  drii'd 
vegetables,  from  the  Slat  July,  1864,  to  the  Slst  July,  IS.Vi. 
Another  decree  dated  the  25th,  permitted  the  importulicm 
of  leaves  of  oranges,  ivy,  cloTes,  and  senna.  Intended  for 
medicinal  purposes,  free  of  duty.  On  the  26th  the  distilla- 
tion of  grain,  and  all  other  farinaceous  substances  whatsoever, 
was  prohibited  by  an  lmi)crial  decree,  under  that  date ;  and 
on. the  6th  November,  a  similar  decree  allowed  the  free  ad- 
mission of  quercitron  bsrk.  Imported  by  French  TCHSela  from 
countries  out  of  Euifipo,  and  reduced  the  existing  duty  of  40 
francs  on  that  article,  arriving  by  French  vessels  from  the 
entrepots  of  Europe,  to  20  francs;  and  from  60  fran.-s  to  30 
francs  when  imported  by  foreign  vessels  having  no  commer- 
cial treaty  with  France.  On  the  Idth  November,  notice  was 
communicated  by  circular,  that,  by  a  treaty  concluded  be- 
tween France  and  Belgium,  tho  former  admitted  geograplii- 
eal  and  marine  churta,  linen,  printing-ink,  types,  thread  and 
hemp  yam,  straw  plait,  slate,  stone,  and  other  raw  materials, 
without  a  certificate  of  origin— Belgium  conceding  to  France 
a  slniUar  privilege  on  charts,  ty|Kis,  printing-ink,  clothes, 
pasteboard  in  aheeto,  paper  of  all  deseriptlons  ezoept  colored 


FRA 


199 


FRA 


or  morocco,  tUtei,  prepued  pluter,  nordwoz,  Durgnndj, 
and  Champkfpie  wtnet,  *nd  iIm  thoM  of  Toun  and  B«]ranii«, 
io  cuk. 

On  th«  6th  December,  k  decltmtlon  wh  proinalfpited  be- 
tween the  Emperor  of  the  French  and  the  l'rlni"o  of  Monnco, 
bjr  which  the  former  reduced  thii  then  cxIitlnR  duty  on  olire 
oil  (not  exceeding  ISO.nOO  kllognmmei  in  quantity),  when  Im- 
ported by  French  Tceccle,  or  thoae  of  the  Prince  of  Monaco, 
•  to  a  uniform  duty  of  16  franca  per  100  kllogrammea— the 
Teiaela  of  the  principality  being  aaalmilated  to  thoie  of  Sar- 
dinia for  payment  of  tonnage  dues— the  duty  on  French 
winea  Imported  Into  the  territory  of  tho  Prince  of  Monaco, 
In  caak,  being  fixed  at  B  franca  BO  contlmoa  per  hectolitre, 
and  at  10  contimea  in  bottle  not  containing  more  than  a  litre. 
By  another  decree,  dated  the  ilOth  Decembor,  molasaca  from 
the  French  colonlei,  arriving  by  French  Toiiaela,  la  admit- 
ted free  1  when  Imported  from  countriea  out  of  Europe,  at  a 
duty  of  3  fmnca,  riiul  from  tho  entropAta  at  a  duty  of  8  franca 
per  100  kllogrammRii.  When  imported  by  foreign  vcaaola,  It 
la  Axed  at  lU  franca  per  100  kllogrammea. 

On  tho  6th  January  of  the  current  year,  three  decree*  were 
pnbllHhedi  one  permitting  tho  temporary  Importation  of 
aheet  oopper  Into  France  by  French  Tciiacla,  or  direct  from 
the  country  where  It  la  prodncwl,  free  of  dutyi  when  It  Ic 
Intended  for  the  manufacture  of  bollora  or  machinery.  Iti 
oilgin  nmat  be  certlflod  by  tho  French  conanl  at  tho  place  of 
Ita  departure.  Immediately  on  Ita  arrival,  tho  Importer  la 
bound  to  make  a  declaration  at  the  cuatom-hoaae,  of  the  num- 
ber and  weight  of  tho  aheeta,  aa  well  aa  of  thoir  length, 
breadth,  and  thlckncaa.  Tho  cuatom-houae,  after  having 
asciTtoined  tho  corrcctncaa  of  auch  dcclarntlon.  Is  enjoined 
to  cause  a  stamp  to  bo  put  on  each  sheet,  In  order  to  asaure 
the  exportation  of  tho  aame  copper  ;  and  a  charge  of  6  oan- 
tlmca  for  stamping.  Including  tho  cost  of  tho  stamp,  la  made 
for  every  shoot  ao  stamped.  Bond  must  bo  given  that  the 
wliolo  quantity  of  copper  imported  shall  bo  used,  and  re-ex- 
ported, or  placed  In  the  public  atores  (excepting  such  parts  as 
may  remain  from  cuttings  or  cornera  of  sheeto,  in  which  tho 
duty  must  bo  paid  In  tho  same  proportion  aa  If  they  were 
wl|ola  sheets),  within  six  months ;  and  the  custom-house  Is 
eiOoineil  to  assure  Itself  that  the  articles  so  manufactured  are 
oquul  in  quantity,  kind,  and  quality,  ao  that,  temporarily  ad- 
uilttod,  sheet  copper  can  only  bo  exported  from  porta  or 
places  having  public  warehouses,  or  from  places  to  which 
such  articles  are  allowed  to  bo  sent  In  trutuit.  By  another, 
the  temporary  Introduction  of  old  caat  Iron  belonging  to  for- 
eign-built Btoainboats,  which  may  put  Into  France  for  re- 
pairs. Is  also  admitted  free  of  duty— tho  Importcra  giving 
sulBcIont  security  for  replacing  in  tho  ontrepflts  of  Franco 
within  six  months,  an  equal  quantity  of  Iron,  proper  for 
Khips'  use,  to  that  which  may  have  been  employed  In  such  re- 
pairs. Iron  Imported  under  thia  decree,  and  tho  article 
manufactured  therefrom,  can  only  bo  exported  from  places 
having  govornnient  warehouses ;  and  tho  custom-houso  Is 
charged  to  see  that  the  iron  Imported  and  not  used  be  broken 
up  in  such  way  as  to  render  it  Imposalblo  of  being  used, 
otherwise- 

Tho  third  decree  subjecta  foreign  vessels  at  the  Island  of 
Scnogul  to  a  simple  tax  of  50  centlmoa  per  ton,  without  the 
additional  10  per  cent.,  but  this  is  llniltod  to  tho  port  of 
Oor6e.  A  decree  relative  to  French  and  foreign  emigration 
was  promulgated  on  tho  IBth  of  January,  a  copy  of  which.  In 
exienao,  with  a  tronslation  Into  English,  was  forwarded  by  rae 
to  tho  Department  on  the  31  st  of  that  month.  A  circular, 
dated  IBth  January,  exempts  from  tho  tak  of  ttomiage,  or 
Uatiiui,  certain  articles  of  French  origin,  or  foreign  goods  on 
which  tho  duty  Impoiied  by  law  has  been  paid,  when  they  are 
sent  by  water  from  one  part  of  tho  ompire  to  another,  pre- 
cautions being  taken  to  assure  tho  identity  of  tho  goods  on 
their  arrival  at  tho  port  of  destination,  lly  a  circidnr,  dated 
10th  January,  tho  decree  of  20th  December,  prohibiting  tho 
Importation  of  foreign  molasses,  extends  to  sucli  only  as  Is 
Intended  for  distillation  r  and  tho  exemption  from  duty  on 
French  molassea  equally  applies  to  such  as  is  Imported 
solely  for  distillation.  Molassea  so  Imported  is  always  un- 
der tho  surveillance  of  tho  customs  till  after  its  completion 
at  the  place  of  distillation. 

By  another  circular  of  tho  !!Tth  of  tho  same  month,  alco- 
hol produced  in  Corsica,  from  the  distillation  of  the  bulbs  of 
daffodils,  figs  of  the  cactus  (prickly  pears?).  Juniper  and  myr- 
tle Irerrlcs,  and  all  other  substances,  with  the  exception  of 
farinaceoua  (tho  distillation  from  which  substances  tho  cir- 
cular continues  to  prohibit),  are  added  to  the  number  of 
artltjea  admitted  free  of  duty.  A  decree  of  tho  same  date 
modifies  tho  duty  on  Juniper  and  myrtle  berries,  end  also  on 
tablc!-frults,  and  oquallzos  tho  duty  on  tho  bulbs  of  daffodils 
and  Hgs  of  cactus.  By  a  decree  of  tho  81st  of  January,  for- 
el^  wlnos  of  erery  deacription  are  admitted  into  tho  lalanda 


of  Martlnlqat,  Ouadalonpt,  Oulana,  J*  Hi'-  '  ^.  and  flanegal 
BuhJoct  to  a  duty,  when  Imported  by  F  thlpa,  of  m 

centimes  per  hectolitre,  and  to  that  of  b  ja  whan  Im- 
ported by  foreign  veaiels.  A  circular  of  the  l>t  of  February 
exempt*  from  examination,  at  the  custom-house*  ot  France, 
the  baggage  of  forelgnera  arriving  from  foreign  parts,  to  em- 
bark fur  places  abroad  s  and  a  decree  of  the  10th  allow*  the 
free  Importation  of  salt  (foreign)  Intended  for  the  mackerel 
flahery,  which  heretofore  waa  confined  to  that  of  France,  from 
the  16th  February  of  every  year ;  and  another  deoroo  of 
the  14th  extendi  the  period  for  It*  Introduetion  from  the  1st 
of  March  to  the  lOtli  of  Juno ;  previously  to  the  date  of  that 
decree,  It  wa*  only  admitted  between  the  10th  of  March  and 
the  16th  of  June.  A  decree  of  the  14th  of  February  Impose* 
a  doty  on  sperm  or  whale  oil.  Imported  In  French  ships,  from 
countries  beyond  Cape*  Horn  and  Good  Hope,  of  6  francs  per 
100  kllogrammea  on  the  gross  weight ;  from  other  countriea 
than  Europe,  T.60  francs,  and  by  foreign  vesaels,  16  francs 
per  100  kilogrammes,  lly  another  decree  of  the  same  date, 
flour  from  Algorla  la  admitted  free  of  duty  Into  all  part*  of 
tho  empire. 

On  tile  ITth  of  February  a  decree  was  Issued  granting  a 
drawback  of  S.W  franca  per  100  kilogrammes  on  white  or 
mottled  Boap,  composed  of  alkali  and  ollvo  oil,  or  from  vege- 
table oil,  entering  for  at  least  one  half  In  sucli  composition,  or 
for  less  than  half  If  mixed  with  animal  substance*.  On  soap 
made  wholly  from  animal  subataucea,  a  drawback  of  0  franca 
per  100  kllogrammea  la  allowed,  and  4  franca  per  100  kilo- 
grammes on  soap  made  from  palm  or  cocoa  oil,  mixed  with 
animal  substances  or  rusln.  A  circular  of  tho  '2nth  of  Febru- 
ary specltlus  tho  object*  which  shall  bo  considered  as  coming 
within  tliu  meaning  of  the  treaty  concluded  with  Spain  on  the 
16th  November,  1863,  which  are  books,  dramatic  and  musical 
compositions,  paintings,  drawings,  engravings,  lithographs, 
sculptures,  guographical  maps,  and  all  other  similar  produc- 
tions, with  tho  exception  of  works  of  art  applicable  tu  agri- 
culture and  Industrial  nianufacturca ;  prohibits  tho  reproduc- 
tion of  tho  works  of  either  In  tho  country  of  tho  other,  and 
indlcatea  the  porta  In  France  by  which  alone  such  works  can 
be  Introduced.  A  decree  of  the  10th  of  March  authorizes  the 
Introduction  into  Martinique,  Guadaloupe,  Cayenne,  and  La 
Biiunlon,  of  salted  provisions  of  every  kind,  from  whatever 
country  or  under  wliatuvur  flag  they  may  bo  Imported,  on  the 
payment  of  an  Inward  duty  of  60  contlnies  per  KM)  kllo- 
grammea. Tho  sanio  provisions  are  allowed  to  bo  Introduced 
Into  Senegal  (St.  Louis),  at  tho  aame  duty,  if  Imported  by 
French  vesaels,  whether  from  foreign  countries  or  from  the 
entrepAt  at  Gor^e.  No  change  la  made  In  the  law  actually  In 
existence,  with  respect  to  provisions  arriving  at  Senegal  un- 
der a  foreign  flag. 

A  decree  of  the  14th  of  April  modlflea  the  Inward  duty  on 
wools,  arriving  direct  from  countriea  altuated  beyond  Cape 
Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  Imported  by  French 
vessoia,  but  leaving  tho  duty  actually  exUllng  unchanged 
when  Imported  from  other  parts  of  the  worlJ.  Another  de- 
cree of  the  aamu  date  repeala  the  export  duty  of  6  centimes 
per  100  kllogrammea  on  lime ;  and  by  another  decree,  under 
the  same  date,  tho  duty  on  llqueura  imported  from  the  French 
colouieais  fixed  at  16  francs  per  hectolitre  of  liquid. 

On  the  iM  of  April  an  allowance  of  five  per  cent,  for  los* 
in  weight,  whether  fTom  water  or  decay,  was  authorized  by 
decree  on  refined  salt,  If  Imported  by  sea  and  shipped  In 
bulk  at  tho  place  of  production  ;  and  a  second  decree  of  the 
same  date  establishes  tho  Inward  duly  on  nitrates  of  soda  and 
potashes  arriving  by  French  vessels  from  countriea  situated 
beyond  Capo  Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  1  franc 
per  1 00  kilogrammes ;  from  places  in  Europe,  6  francs  per  100 
kilogrammes ;  from  entrepota  8  francs  per  100  kilogrammes. 

Citric  acids  of  ell  aorts  imported  from  tho  colonies  of 
France,  In  French  Bhl|/),  are  admitted  free  of  duty ;  by  for- 
eign vessels,  at  a  duty  of  11  francs  per  100  kilogrammes. 

A  premium  or  bounty  of  6  francs  Is  allowed  gn  the  exporta- 
tion of  every  100  kilogrammes  of  net  nitric  acid,  add  one  of 
tiO  centimes  on  sulphuric  acid.  On  the  !i4thof  April  a  circu- 
lar was  Issued  authorizing  the  temporary  free  admiaslon  Into 
Franco  of  machinery,  glass  (for  rcaliverlng),  bronzes,  and 
other  aimilar  works,  and  books,  when  Imported  separately, 
or  in  small  quantities,  for  the  purpose  of  being  repaired  or 
finished,  on  condition  of  thoir  being  re-exported  within  six 
months.  By  a  decree  of  tho  28th  of  April,  iron  work,  in 
bara  or  aheeta  (without  distinction  of  origin)  fit  for  the  con- 
struction of  edifices  or  dweillng-hoiisea,  is  allowed  to  be  Im- 
ported Into  Senegal  by  French  veasela,  free  of  duty,  whether 
coming  from  the  entrepots  of  the  metropolis  or  that  of  Qo- 
rt'o.  Another  decree,  of  tho  aame  date,  fixes  tho  duty  on  old 
worn-out  typo  at  6  francs  per  100  kilogrammes.  An  arreii  ol 
May  6th  orders  tho  withdrawal  from  circulation  of  ail  gold 
pleoe*  of  the  value  of  10  franc*,  bearing  the  efflgy  of  the 


FRA 


740 


FRA 


aMNirt  raiptnr,  lo  tak*  pUm  on  Ih*  15lh  of  Oetobor,  IffiB. 
Br  ardommne*  of  th«  Blit  J11I7  ud  41b  DMonihor,  ItlA,  •)! 
TCUoU  irrirlnn  In  Prmmw,  In  balUil,  to  take  In  lalt.  won  ex- 
•mplod  from  tonniRa  duel.  Bjr  *  deeres  of  the  Ittb  of  May, 
IWXI,  foreign  reeaele  nrrlving  with  wrgo  e^Jo^  the  Hme  prir- 
Urge,  but  only  In  proportion  to  the  quantlljr  of  ult  taken  bj 
tliuni :  and  hjr  a  rlrouUr  of  the  ti  of  June  the  export  duly 
on  Halt  la  aiipprraard. 

Alcohol  dlitlllcd  from  daffndlla  In  Alglera  la  admlltdd  Into 
FranM  frve  of  dntjr,  by  decrco  of  May  aid.  By  a  decree  of  the 
Id  of  Juno,  the  delay  fixed  for  the  Introdnrtianof  prorlalona 
Into  Praneo  U  prolonged  to  the  Slat  of  Deoember,  1MB;  by 
another  of  the  Mb,  the  free  admlaalon  of  ahlpa  Importing 
grain,  flour,  rice,  etc.,  la  extended  i  ami  hy  a  circular  01'  thu 
nth,  Ibe  exportation  of  theao  arllrlra  la  prohlblU-d  during 
the  aame  period.  A  decree  of  the  'i.ld  nf  Juno  accorda  the 
prlTlloge  of  Iranaportlng  grain  and  flour  between  Algeria  and 
France  to  foreign  reaaels,  baring  left  their  port  of  loading  on 
or  before  the  9I«t  Decembpr,  ISBB.  By  another  decree  of  the 
•arae  date  the  eiporUllon  if  corn  and  barley  from  Algeria, 
to  fonlxn  counlrlca  la  prohibited,  and  by  a  third  decree,  the 
Importation  of  carol  beana  by  French  reaaela  la  admitted  at 
a  duty  of  iR  centlmea  per  100  kllogranmea,  and  of  1  franc 
per  foreign  reeaeli.  A  decree  of  the  Tth  July  admlla,  free  of 
duty,  ranllla,  Imported  br  French  TRiarla  arrlrlng  direct 
ftoni  the  French  colonlcH,  Cayenne  and  Mayottel.  A  circu- 
lar of  lOth  July  Inipoaca  a  double  d^clmo  on  the  amount  of 
all  goTernment  taxca,  to  remain  In  force  till  the  I  at  of  Jan- 
uary, 1H68 :  Increaaea  the  exciae  conanmptlon  duty  on  bran- 
dlea,  aplrlta,  llquora,  and  brandy  frnlta,  from  M  fhiuci  to  BO 
franca  per  hectolitre  of  alcohol,  and  from  60  franca  to  t6 
franca,  exclualve  of  the  double  dfclme,  the  tax  on  thcM  ar- 
tlclea  nn  their  admlaalon  Into  I'aria,  and  further  impoaea  a 
Ux  of  10  per  cent  on  the  rccclpta  of  paaaenger  money  by 
railroad,  and  alao  on  the  eonreyancc  of  gooda  by  fkat  or  ex- 
preaa  tralna.  By  a  decree  of  the  Uth  July,  molaaaea  Imported 
for  diallllatlon  by  French  Tceaela  from  the  colonlea  of  France, 
India,  Houth  America,  and  the  Weat  UMet,  la  admitted 
free  of  duty,  and  from  other  porta  at  a  duly  of  2  franca  per 
100  kllogrammca.  When  imported  by  foreign  roaaela,  the 
duty  la  S  franca  per  100  kllogrammea. 

A  decree  of  the  lAth  July  makea  many  rbangea  and  modlfl- 
eationa  In  the  tariff  of  dntlcs.  They  are  too  numeroua  to  b« 
Imbudled  In  thia  communication.  They  will  no  do-ibt  be 
publiahed  In  one  of  the  aupplcmenta  to  the  neneral  tartf, 
which  ehall  be  forwarded  to  the  Department  when  publiahed, 
rrllb  any  othera  which  may  haTO  preceded  It,  or  by  which  It 
may  hare  been  followed.  The  arowed  object  of  thcae  modi- 
ileatlona  la  to  glre  additional  encouragement  to  Ita  maritime 
comnierco  by  the  total  repeal  of  duty  on  the  raw  material  of 
certain  artlclcN— the  produce  of  diatant  countriea— when  Im- 
ported direct  hy  French  veaacla,  for  the  purpoae  of  contribut- 
ing lo  the  progreaa  of  their  own  manufactnrea,  and  by  totally 
repealing  the  duty  on  certain  artlolca  of  amall  productiro 
rerenuc.  Among  the  moat  Important  of  tht'ae  modiflcatlons 
la  the  alteration  of  the  duty  on  raoiitchouc.  The  duty  on 
thIa  article  of  '20  franca  per  100  kilogrammPK  in  continued  when 
It  la  melted  aolely  for  artlelea  of  manufacture.  Until  the 
publication  of  thla  decree,  when  other  anbatancea  were  mixed 
with  caoutchouc,  or  gutta  percha,  either  for  the  purpow  of 
girlng  color  or  addint;  atrength  tu  the  article  manufactured, 
the  duty  waa  '200  franca  per  lOn  kllogrammca.  Thin  tax  la 
now  reduced  to  .V)  franca.  The  duty  of  200  franca  will  In 
future  be  payable  only  on  article*  compoied  of  caoutchouc  or 
giitta  percha,  with  whieh  other  anbatancea  are  combined, 
and  when  Intended  for  other  pnrpoaea  than  that  of  being 
melted.  A  decree  of  the  Slat  Auguat  accorda  the  free  ad- 
mlaalon of  game,  poultry,  and  ahell-fiah  (tortile) ;  and  one  of 
the  '22d  Rrplember  prolonga  to  the  Bltt  December,  ISM,  the 
exemption  from  tonnage  duty  of  all  Tcaaela  laden  with  grain, 
flour,  rice,  potatoea  and  dried  regetables. 

The  Increaae  In  the  price  of  meat*  In  Franc«  haa  been 
rcry  great  aince  1848;  ao  muc!.  ao,  that  general  complaint 
cxlata  on  the  auhjeet.  From  18SS  to  1H5i  there  haa  been  an 
Increaae  of  price  fk'om  40  to  4S  per  cent.  The  attention  of 
the  government  of  France  baring  been  called  to  thia  fact.  It* 
cffbrta  have  been  not  Only  to  prerent  a  further  Increaae,  but 
to  effect  a  diminution  from  prfuicnt  pricca.  To  thia  end  the 
Uriffa  hare  been  revlaed,  anii  very  great  reductlona  have 
b,;en  made  upon  the  importation  of  foreign  cattle,  to  wit ;  tenia 
110  '23  to  T4  centa  a  head  on  beef,  etc.  Not  only  ao,  but  the 
direct  attention  of  the  people  of  France  haa  been  called  to 
the  uBc  of  Ball  meat,  and  the  experiment  of  opi.ning  the  mar- 
ket la  being  made  with  much  anoceaa.  The  duty  upon  thla  ar- 
ticle baa  been  meceiairely  rednoed  from  fB  68  to  t8  T2,  to 
tl  80,  and  In  the  month  of  October  but,  t3  »i  centa  the  221 
ponnda,  or  100  kllogrammea.  Under  tbeie  reduetl  )na  there 
hai  b«m  ta  utonUUiig  devaiopnwnt  in  Ita  importatioa.    In 


I  MM  the  Importation  of  maata,  fl'eah  and  laH,  raadiad  only 
nnyriiulnUux,  or  TTT,844  BN.IOO  poonda;  while  In  the  Bra* 
nio.tth  of  the  proflent  yi>ar,  th«  Importation  haa  reaehad 
BT'20  qulnUux,  being  mora  than  In  the  whole  year  of  iwyj 
by  20s  qulntaux,  or  44,TW  «2-l(M  pounda.  I  tranamit  hem- 
with  an  oxtiact  from  the  Keho  iTAgrieal,  ahowlng  the  uanal 
moda  of  Imparting  aall  innate,  with  tho  reapocllTo  raluei  of 
the  aercral  qualltlea  :  "  l>rime  purk  la  tho  moat  common  kind 
In  briae  of  gray  aalt;  harrela  of  Bllliiha.  gniaa,  or  IM  DU-lOO* 
Ibr  net ;  ralue  from  tl4  80  to  |IB  HI  the  barrel.  Meaa  pork 
la  llttlH  Imported  and  doen  not  And  a  aala,  being  too  I'at. 
rrime  nieaa,  flrat  quality,  preierred  In  brinn  with  white  aalt, 
from  lean  hoga,  la  from  tl8  DO  to  |l*  68  per  barrel.  llama 
aalted,  augarrd,  and  amokcd,  auataln  a  compartaon  witli  the 
heat  we  have  lu  Kurope,  and  And  a  ready  aale.  Bhouidera, 
dry  aalted.  And  a  good  dral  of  favor  In  France.  They  come 
In  dry  barrela,  nf  UV4  40-100  Iba.  net;  valua  from  |I8  DO  to 
$1D  63  thr  221  Ibc,  or  100  kllogrammea.  Lard  cornea  In  bar- 
rela of  266 '20-100  iba.,  or  in  flrklna  of  46  02-100  lb*,  not; 
value  |i:i  ttio  110|  Iba.,  or  6U  kUog'umiiiea."  The  foregoing 
extract  will  Indicate  the  kinda,  manner  of  iinportatlon,  and 
vaiuoa,  for  the  beneSt  of  Importura.  Uy  a  decree  of  the  lOth 
of  thU  month  (March)  the  rat.  a  of  dutlea  on  aalt  meata  Into 
the  French  colonlea  have  hoen  reduced  aa  followa :  Into  Har- 
tlnhiue,  Uaudaluupe,  Uulana,  and  I-A  KAunlun,  aalt  meat*  of 
foreign  make,  from  whatever  louutry  Importnd,  and  under 
wbataoovcr  Hag,  will  pay  a  duty  of  60  centime*  tfik  centa) 
per  kllogramniu,  or  '221  Iba.  Tho  aamo  duty  la  'oquircd  at 
tit.  Louia,  Hun  >gal,  but  only  when  Imported  lu  French  bot- 
toma,  either  directly  from  abroad,  or  by  extrac'li  u  f>t)m  tho 
entrepot  of  Uorie.  TIiomi  nieata  Imported  Into  I  uegal,  un- 
der a  foreign  flag,  are  charged  the  duty  In  ff.TfK  before  the 
decree. 


f'ntich  Coloniti, 

Fniuli  ColonlM. 

*i\.  nillai. 

VopnUlloil. 

AaiA.— Ponillcliiirry,  In  tlio  C'arnatio; 

Karlkal  In  Tanjnre  ;  Maclie 

on  the  MalalmrroaHt;  tliofko- 

toriva  of  Yauinon  and  Cluui- 

dernagori'.  In  IK'iii,'al;  etc.. 

24S 

IJI.TOT 

Armio*.— Tho  cstabilnliinonta  iiii  the 

Benegal,  wllli  the  Islands  ol 

Bt  l/ouls  ami  Gorto 

.... 

19,«T8 

Tlui  Island  ilo  la  I'l^uiiloi 

(Ilonrbon),     lUO.I'W ;      8te 
Mnrio  at  .M'  ;.  riwcar,  6,000 

Inhabitants,  >.''  .  

54 

111,<32 

Algerio,   In    13.S2  — Euro- 

peans, 1IM,11B;    iik!lvoS,  In 
IHtH,  a'2,42)) 

6,000 

216,688 

Amreica.— West   Iiidlos— The    lesser 

Antilles,  Martinique,  121,146; 
Oojulaioupe.  HU  Martin,  Ma- 

rie, Ualante.  Deslroile,  and 

tho  group  called  tho  Halntea, 
1><4,,%«4. 

085 

266,880 

Routh  America— A  part  ol 
Guiana,  with  the  Island  of 

Cayenne 

North  America— The  lals. 

618 

noio 

of  HL  I'lerre  and  Mlquelon, 

near  Newfoundland 

T 

1,888 

PACino  OCKAN.— 

?Jb.r--:19:K 

S4 

20,200 

New  Caledonia.. do.  In  im 
Total 

«,488 

814,WA 

In  Africa  the  French  po§«e«8  Gor6fl  and  some  facto- 
ries near  the  mouth  of  the  Sencp^l.  In  the  ?ji>t  thry 
have  the  iHle  of  Bourbon,  and  Pondicherry,  Chander- 
nagore,  and  some  smaller  factories  on  the  mainland  of 
India  ;  and  their  vessels  are,  lilie  the  Americans,  ad- 
mitted to  trade  with  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  other  Drit- 
ish  settlements,  on  payment  of  moderate  dues.  The 
retention  of  the  Man.^itius  by  England,  at  the  peace  of 
J814,  deprived  them  of  the  great  receptacle  for  their 
privateers  in  the  East ;  and  on  the  continent  of  North 
America,  they  retiiiu  nothing  since  the  cession  of  Lou- 
isiana to  the  United  States  in  180!).  Since  1N41,  when 
the  sovereign  of  the  island  of  Mayotte  placed  himself 
under  the  protection  of  France,  thia  island,  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  the  Mozambique  Channel,  is  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  a  French  settlement.  Mayotte 
is  capable  of  feeding  a  population  of  20,000  souls,  and 
of  regularly  furnishing  provisions  to  a  squadron  of 
ihipt.    France  also  posseisei  an  establislunent  in  Aus- 


fRA 


Ul 


FRA 


20,tOO 


Inlli,  fcr  ilitM  Ih*  Sf<l  n(  Mmwh  fM4,  Captnln  no- 
Ikiiiii*!  Iiw  Ihwii  i<iiiNmNniUlit  of  Ihii  MnrcliMH  and 
liniMiiiHl  I'linirnlaaiirv  nt  lh«  Niiilnty  lalnmlit  nnd  Naw 
(!iiliiiliinlii,  'I'lturii  In  hImi  »n  uiilinpiirtiiiit  Vnmh  mt- 
tUiniuiil  Nl  MxlNKHwiiir,  itnil  iin  Mttnnitit  iit  ■  ixmil  ral- 
uny  hM  Ihwii  mihiIh  itt  IliiUnn,  wliKrn,  to  thn  dlKKriice 
ut  Ilia  yraiii'li  KHVuriHHfitit,  |hiII||<'iiI  iirlaonerii  liava 
liaan  iiiUad  witli  Ilia  rafiiM  iif  tha  KHilcyi.  In  tha 
Mua  of  Kiirn|ia,  (!iiriili<ii  U  nlmnnt  llin  only  IniiuUr  po*> 
•auiliiii  iif  Ilia  Ifraiiull,  'I'liay  liava  mi  graitl  marltlma 
turtiuntm,  Ilka  (llliraUar  ut  Mnltu,  and  nu  d«]>«n(len- 
olaa  i>;  tlia  imtura  ut  tha  limlnii  laUhila. 

Ciimmnvi;  rln, ..'t'U»  iHimitMiriw  irf  Kranua  with  har 
onliiiiliM  U  raKiiUlait  liy  Ilia  naitin  iiarruw  inaxImR  aa 
tliH  iitjiiir  liraiinhaii  iif  liar  l^ifalxii  Iraili'.  Tha  nolnnlai 
and  tliu  inolhar  lutiiilry  «ra  niiitunlly  tmund  tci  trndo 
exiiliulvuly  with  aai'h  iilht<r,  1'hn  iila|da  priidiice  of 
tha  Kraimh  Waal  llullH  oiliilllaa,  m  wall  na  tha  lata  of 
iliiurUiii  III  tha  lUal,  la  aiii^ar  i  anil  It  HpiH^nra  that  the 
|irli'a  (if  thia  arllrla  In  llii<  Kurii|inan  innrkata  will  not 
ru|iuy  tliii  imiHiiiaii  lit  lla  iiiltlvnlliiii  III  thiian  cimntrlaa. 
Tha  i»|imUta,  tliarnftifc,  lllalat  that  nil  other  aUKara 
•hall  Iw  anulmlml  hy  haiivy  illlllca  from  tha  ninrketa  of 
Fruiicu  I  that  lh«y  ahnll  liiiva  Ilia  afidlilalvH  prlvileKe 
of  aupjilyliiK  ihuaa  tMiirlii<tai  and  im  n  complaint  that 
tha  diitliia  iMipoaad  nil  foridxn  aUMnra  w<-r«  not  hlxh 
enoii|{h  to  kIvii  lliain  tha  inoiio|aily  of  thn  hoinn  market, 
un  additional  duty  waa,  In  Wi,  irt<  the  atiKKaatlon  of 
tha  dlrui'tor-KKiturul  of  Ilia  I'liatoina,  linpoaad  on  all 
furaluii  a^uara.  Ill  ralnril,  l^'ranca  piiaanaaaa  tho  «x- 
C'liialve  prlvllfKH  of  aiipplylllK  thn  lolonlca  with  all  the 
innniifui'tiirua  and  o(|ii.f  I'.iiriipaiiii  jjomla  which  thoy 
require,  (In  thia  prilii'lpla  of  miiliinl  inono|Hi1y  the 
truile  la  now  oondilitad,  'tha  ottrnf,  of  thia  ayatcm  Is 
to  lavy  A  t»»  un  the  liihaliltania  of  kranra,  tn'urdnrto 
iiidiimnify  liiu  luiioiilata  for  tha  loaaaa  whhdi  thay  incur 
In  iturryiiK  "•)  Nil  uiiprollliildn  Irnda,  Thay  can  not 
fornlah  a  aiipiily  of  aiiijiir  to  I'ffinci"  nt  thn'ordlnarj- 
rate  of  tlix  KiiroiiaaM  iniirk<<t|  and  the  price  niuat 
thi>refore  Iw  artirii'lally  ralaad  in  thn!  ooimtry,  in  or- 
der to  unaldM  lliani  U)  imtty  on  thn  cnttlvation  of  their 
eatatiia  |  wiiilu,  on  tlie  iitlii<r  hiind,  thar  are  not  ut  lili> 
erty  to  Imy  tliu  umiU  whii'li  Hii>y  rpiinirn  in  the  chea|>- 
eat  market,  Iml  inuat  tuka  tliain  Nt  whnte«er  pr!;.«  tlier 
cuii  lie  alfoi'dad  liy  tha  lllothiir  I'oii'itry, 

Another  evil  of  tlila  i'oIomIhI  monopoly  ia,  that  the 
coloniaa  aiipply  inoru  aiiKar  tlinn  l-'riiniin  I'lin  conmiine. 

Hut  It  can  not  tia  aold  In  otiiar  i ntrlea  nt  the  price 

wliivh  la  paid  to  tha  nololilaa  liy  tha  mother  country ; 
and  hence  It  lan'oniaa  nacaaaafy  to  lliid  out  the  means 
of  forcinii  a  aala  of  tha  aiirpllla  which  can  not  lie  con- 
sumed at  home,  A  limitify  la  nccordinitly  Krantod  on 
all  siiKar  eaiairted  from  I'rancai  and  i:i  IWll,  while 
the  duty  on  the  Imiatrtathm  of  aii«iif  ;iroduced  i'l.tlSfl,- 
0,10,  tliuru  waa  paid  iiack  for  lioHnllci  Xtm,\m,  widch 
was  mora  tlian  oiia  foiirlll  of  the  «roa«  receipts.  The 
loas  which  I'ranca  haa  liiciirrad  atncn  the  pence  of  1814 
by  thia  erronaoua  ayalam  la  patimntcd  in  "  llnwrlnK 
and  Vliiiara'  li«|Mirt,"  at  4.'«>,mi(MH»0  aterlhiRi  and  in 
return  for  tlieeu  Kraat  aai'iilli'aa,  llie  c(doiilc«  iilTord  luit 
nlimiutd  dMinand  for  Ilia  niaiiMf/icliih'a  of  tiie  mother 
country  i  in  INM,  it  amoiinti'd  lo  W,iwi,000  kllo«niin- 
m«si  In  iH/iil,  to  W,iH],mm  klloKrummes)  in  1«M,  to 
3!l,2il7,000  kiloKranMllKa, 

ro/i(Hi<  <,— 'I'liB  I'ldonlal  po«a«aalona  of  France  are 
qulto  unaulUit  to  iiBf  (jrcaliiaaa  In  other  roapecta.  The 
inaurrectlon  aii({«i,  jBred  liy  tha  Oral  Hevolutlon  de- 
prived her  of  the  waatarn  llalf  of  Nt,  Dominno,  a  rich 
and  imuutifui  t«rrltory,  i'oiif«lnl«K  formerly  more  ne- 
uroos,  and  «»i«irlln«  mora  produce,  tlian  all  the  llrit- 
l.sh  West  Iiidlea  t"««tlwr,  the  Krench  K<>verniiicnt 
Boema  to  liava  ralliii|ii|«|ii>d  the  hope  of  reKaininj?  this 
country,  at  laaat  liy  military  mwana,  and  to  limit  its 
anildtion  to  ihe  remaliiliiK  colonlea,  Martinique,  Ouad- 
uloupH,  t.'uyeiiiia,  In  t|,M  Waal  tiidlea,  The  Hrat  two 
are,  Ilka  moat  of  oiir  Waal  India  lalnnda,  cultivated  to 
a  conahlerahla  «»Miiii,  lm(  Mp»\i\n  ut  much  Improve- 


mml,  Tha  petty  Island  nf  Maria  Oalanta  la  In  • 
almlUr  state  ;  but  Cayenne  forms  •  part  nf  a  moat  ex- 
tensive tract,  of  whii'h  one  comer  only  U  as  yet  ren- 
ileroil  productive,  anil  which  may  eventually  liecome 
a  Kraat  settlement ;  thoUKh  on  the  acora  of  health  it  Is 
OS  unpromising  as  the  adjacent  colonies  of  Demerara 
and  Nurlnan.'.  liefore  the  lors  of  8t.  l>omin|{o  the 
annual  Import  Into  France  amounted  to  70,000  hhda. 
of  muscovado  w  brown  sugar,  60,000  lihds,  clayed, 
and  nearly  20,000  of  fine  clayed.  Of  tills  very  large 
supply  there  were  exported  nearly  10,000  hhds.  of 
brown,  and  alwvn  00,000  hhda.  of  clayed,  forming, 
excluaivi'ly  of  any  duty,  an  annual  value  of  between 
i:',t,000,000  and  410,000,000  nterling,  and  affurding  a 
most  acceptable  exchange  for  a  nunilier  of  imported 
comma<litles.  The  sugar  thus  Imported  from  St.  Do- 
mingo has  lung  lieen  lost  to  France,  no  sugar  being 
now  exported  from  that  country. 

Ali/irr; — Among  the  colonies  of  Franco  Is  Algeria, 
which  the  government  has  retained  since  its  coni|iicHt 
ill  IHIIO.  Uf  tliia  dependency  Algiera  ia  the  capital, 
the  seat  of  government,  of  a  prefecture,  and  of  a  blah- 
op'a  see  since  1888.  Algiers  also  posaesaea  a  govern- 
ment printing-oftice,  an  academy  of  puldic  iuatruction, 
a  court  of  appeal,  a  tribunal  of  first  Inatunce,  a  tribu- 
nal, and  a  chamber  of  commerce.  A  bunk  has  been 
recently  established.  Several  newspapers  are  puli- 
lislied  at  Algiers.  The  Mnnittur  of  Algiers  is  the  offl- 
clal  paper.  There  Is  also  the  Akhbar,  the  Mobacher, 
the  olHcial  Journal  In  Arabic,  the  AUas,  etc. 

The  population  of  Algiers,  according  to  the  last  re- 
turns, amounted  to  65,082  Knropeana,  of  whom  28,147 
were  French,  and  24,01)6  natives,  of  whom  17,858  wore 
MuHsulmana,  1880  negroes,  and  6758  Jews.  A  Protes- 
tant church  wos  commenced  In  Algiers  in  1848  and 
tinlslied  in  1845.  There  are  at  Algiers  four  large 
mosques  and  about  thirty  leaser  ones,  two  great  and 
twelve  lesser  synagogues.  There  are  few  inanufac- 
trries  in  the  cupltul  unless  of  silks,  carpctlngs,  woolen 
tissues,  tlrc-arins,  suddlerj',  Jowclry,  leather,  etc. 
From  tile  last  published  ofllciul  returns  there  entered 
Algiers  within  tlio  yeor  2279  ships,  measuring  209,(1-12 
tons;  of  these  255  were  government  vessels,  1184 
French  commorclul  bottoms,  and  120  native ;  the  re- 
maining vessels  were  under  foreign  (lags.  There 
Hiillcd  outward  from  Algiers,  in  the  last  year  of  which 
we  have  any  offlclul  records,  2297  ships  measuring 
.'08,.'I19  tuns.  Uf  these  249  were  gcvcrnment  ships, 
1148  French  ships,  and  117  native.  IJy  u  decree  of  the 
present  Kniperor  of  the  French,  o  bourse  was  created 
at  Aif-lers  on  the  16th  of  April,  1862.  For  a  more  de- 
tailed account,  see  Ai.oiiins. 

QKMIaAL  TaAIIE  OP  FaAN'OB  WITH  ITS   COLONIKS. 


rcilonlM. 


Martinique.. . . 
nusilsloupo  . , 

Huurbuu 

S  'ni'Kol 

('I'veiino 

In  la 

Ali'iers 

Bt  rierro4^Mlquo1on.Ac 
Ir.'ea  Mayotto  and  Mud- 
OKsscar 


':) 


■Int. 

18SS 
1HS8 
IS-VJ 
1HS3 
lliA8 
18.M 

ImKI 
1853 


Importallouf. 

£6.^441 
428,flnS 
851,547 
2ST,20(1 
M.81)3 
6«lt,7»t 

l,t82,8()4 
8'.7,031 

8,627 


EiportaUoni, 


£76,\BIT 
57(1,4:14 
a»4,94e 
8»2,309 
1!«,044 
21,384 

8,805,966 
278,687 

86,584 


The  trade  to  Dourlion  island,  Guiana,  Martinique, 
and  'iuadaloupc,  out  and  home,  employed  in  848,  492 
shlpii  In  1849,  641;  1850,  48G ;  1851,602;  1852,  677; 
18'  8,  683.  The  mean  of  the  first  five  years,  660  ves- 
s('s. 

The  trade  to  Algiers,  Senegal,  India,  Madagascar, 
out  and  home,  in  1848,  1848  ves.'<el3 ;  1849,  1988 ;  1860, 
1902;  1851,  2194;  1852,  2448;  1858,  2177;  mean  of 
the  first  live  years,  2064. 

All  aUmg  the  north  coast  of  France,  the  fisheries 
consist  of  cud,  mackerel,  herrings,  and  pilchards.  On 
the  Atlantic,  and  still  more  on  thit  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, are  caught  great  quantltir  j  of  aardines,  a  fisb 


FRA 


749 


FRA 


or  puwK*,  whicli  •ppesn  iMirimllrdly  In  •hnali,  Ilk* 
th«  herring.  Th«  Aihary  of  tanlinn  U  mIiI  tn  kIvi 
rinplo}  nieiit  to  nono  umnen,  inil  th«  •tlrii  r»ullln|| 
fniiu  th«  |iro<lui'<i  amount  to  Imtwuvn  H,iNNi,iKI<)  mirl 
4,0(N),W)0  of  tr»nv:  The  tunny,  ■  Aih  not  known  In 
northern  Utltuilea,  U  founil  In  the  Meillterreneen  In 
the  early  part  of  •uromrr.  It  varlee  In  wvldht  fnun 
10  to  '2b  pounili,  anil  li  in  like  manner  rauKht  In  •hoala. 
Then  home  Itaheriea,  little  ralrulatM  for  rornilnn 
•earoen,  have  l«en  left  to  their  natural  proKreaa,  wlille 
repeated  attenipta  have  lievn  made  hy  Kovernninnt  to 
extend  the  llahery  In  America ;  a  iIikIkii  favorod  liy 
the  early  poaeraalon  liy  Krancn  of  NewrnumlUnil  and 
Canada,  ai  well  aa  hy  the  lon({  |ieare  that  followed  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht.  Toward  the  mirlille  of  Uat  century 
Itie  French  flaheriea  In  America  eniplora<l  annually 
nlraut  MWO  aenmen  ;  hut  the  unaucceaafuf  conteat  wllli 
F.ai{lanil  In  17M  reduced  them  greatly,  anil  deprived 
them  of  their  prini'i|>al  atallon,  ('a|Mi  lireton.  The 
peace  of  17HA  waa  concludeil  uwlar  lielter  auaiilcei. 
The  lalanda  of  8t,  I'ierre  and  Mli|uelon  ware  ceiled  to 
France  liy  thn  treaty  of  Veraaillea,  and  the  righta  of 
flahlngand  of  drying  flab  from  the  ('a|Hi  Nt.  John  to 
Cape  llay.  In  the  Gulf  of  Ht.  Lawrence  her  righta 
were  auliaequently  recognized,  liy  the  Ireatlea  of  tMO'i 
and  1X14,  at  3  leaguea'  dUtance  from  the  coaata  lielong- 
ing  to  (ireat  liritain  |  liut  within  (he  gulf,  at  a  dlaliince 
of  15  leaguea  fhim  Isle  Koyale,  and  UU  leaguea  from 
Xew  Brunawiek. 
FoaaiuM  C^miiaoa  or  FaAi«ra  with  uaa  Culomim  and 

Till  FmHIMII   llANKa. 


Ymm. 


18U 
18M 
t8U 


1U3 
1S&4 
ItJDS 


VmmUJ  Toiuuf*. 


9,310 
9,80T 
t,S74 


t,<l«t,(l!M 
1,181.7(19 
l,»t7,4Al 


fl,«2S 
^T9« 
^7M 


VMMk.l  Tonaac*. 

U,M9n>>l>'V>."l> 
10,9N9  il,tK)«,N)ir 
18,449  !9,(ie;,l)IU 

CLEAREII. 

79«,I)M  I  8,8M  'l,0S8,8lft 
T9<,7I8  T,9I9  it,0M,A»9 
mjMH     »,Mi  {l,ll)«,067 


VlMll. 


90,T7U  9,7fil),M« 
9»,9H»  '9,THH,M» 
98,01(1  JM,Ni»4,7llA 

1A,4XI  |I,'<A4,MA 
li(,Ma  I.nM,8i« 
18,«t()j9,M(4^(iaA 


For  the  encouragement  of  the  French  llaheriea, 
enormoua  pecuniary  aacritlcei  have  been  mado,  Hy 
the  law  of  the  2'id  of  July  IHM,  bouiitiea  arn  gruntnil 
to  the  flaheries  tilt  1861,  at  the  rate  of  120  f^uiica  til* 
ton.  A  ship  of  CUO  tons  thus  receives  72,0iN)  fruiica 
bounty,  which  would  be  2000  to  DOOO  frunca  (wr  man. 
The  only  time  they  wore  ever  In  a  proajieroua  atate 
waa,  not  when  they  were  pratecte<l  by  the  artillclal 
rncourogement  of  the  mother  country,  but  wlien  the 
French  colonists,  being  in  possession  of  a  liirgti  tract 
of  the  American  sea-coast,  were  in  cous«i|Ueuca  ciiiii- 
pelled  to  trust  to  prudence  and  econiiiny  alone  fur  the 
success  of  their  adventures.  During  the  aeaaion  INMII 
of  the  Chamlier  of  Deputies,  a  conimittHii,  ap|ioin(«il 
to  Inquire  into  this  subject,  made  their  report. 

f'rtnck  Fuherifi, — High  liountiea  hiive,  alnce  tlie 
rear  1767,  l>een  paid  to  those  awning  aliipa,  and  tu  men 
employed  in  the  French  flaheriea.  In  purauunca  of 
ordinauce«  duted  the  24th  of  June,  and  Uth  and  12tli 
of  July,  1801,  the  following  Iwunties  were  grunted  for 
the  encouragement  of  the  French  flaheriea,  They 
came  into  i<|ieration  on  the  Ist  January,  lMft2,  and  are 
to  remain  in  force  until  the  80th  June,  INUI  : 

"  C'xl-Jukery. — Premiums  jiir  Chiirlrring  nml  F./piip- 
ping  Ve$uU. — Fur  every  man  engaged  In  the  lUliurlea, 
having  drj'ing  or  curing  grounds,  whether  on  the 
coasts  of  Nowfonndland,  Saint  I'ierre  or  Mli|Ueion,  ur 
upon  the  great  Newfoundland  Bank,  60  franca,  For 
•very  man  engaged  in  the  flaheries,  not  having  drying 
or  curing  grounds,  in  the  Icelandic  Keaa,  AU  franca. 
For  ever}'  man  engaged  in  the  flaheries,  not  having 
drying  or  curing  grounds,  on  the  great  Newfounilluiiil 
Bank,  80  fhincs.  For  every  man  engaged  in  the  flah- 
eries on  the  Dogger  Bank,  l.'i  franca, 

'^BamUiet  on  the  Produce  of  Fitkeriti.— On  tbo  im> 


|iortalloa  Into  the  French  colonies,  whatkarln  Amerie* 
or  on  the  other  aide  of  the  ('a|w  i.f  (IihuI  IIii|>)i,  of  every 
qnlntal  of  dried  ciHlllah,  the  priKluce  of  French  llaher- 
laa  on  (ha  roaata  of  Newfouiiillaod,  Haint  I'ierre,  or 
Mli|Ueliin,  or  which  may  lie  taken  from  entre|Hi(a  In 
France,  yo  tt»nn.  On  the  Importation  into  the  above 
colonlaa,  nf  averv  quintal  of  dried  .■odtlah,  the  pro> 
due*  of  French  naheriai,  If  the  llah  ahall  be  ex|Mirted 
from  the  French  porta  without  having  been  there 
warehouaed,  1(1  franca.  On  every  quintal  of  dried 
I'iKlrtah,  the  pi'aluce  of  the  French  flaheriea,  and  lin- 
iHirted  illriM't  fii'in  the  aanie  or  from  French  entre|iots. 
Into  audi  fiireign  Meiliterranean  |Hirts  ^except  thuaa  of 
Harilinia  and  Algeria)  In  which  a  French  consul  may 
reside,  1(1  franca.  On  every  quintal  of  dried  codflah, 
the  produce  of  the  French  flaheriea,  forwarded  direct 
either  from  tliiiae  flaheriea  ur  from  French  porta,  and  Im- 

IHirteil  Into  Nantlnlan  and  Algerian  |iorts,  12  francs, 
''or  every  i|ulntal  of  cod-aoonda  that  tha  flahing-veasela 
limy  bring  into  France,  the  produce  of  their  flahery, 
20  franca." 

Veaaela  departing  fur  the  flaheriea  with  drying 
gfotinda,  whether  on  the  coaata  of  Newfoundland, 
Naiiit  I'ierre,  IHIquelon,  or  tha  great  Bunk  of  New- 
foundland,  ahall  have  a  crew  whoae  iniulnium  is  to  b« 
flxed  by  a  Myal  ordinance, 

Wkiilr-iUkrr^. — Tha  liountiea  granted  in  pursuance 
of  the  laws  of  24tli  June,  and  Dth  and  I2th  July,  INlil, 
for  the  enciiiiragflnient  of  the  whalo-flshuries,  shall  Im 
flxed  as  fiiUowa,  tu  date  from  thn  let  January,  181')2, 
unit  to  continue  In  force  until  the  BOth  June,  1M(il : 

"  Jliiunliri  iin  Ihr  /Irixirturr  nj'  yntelt. — For  every 
ton  of  alilpping  outward  bound,  with  crewa  composed 
entirely  of  French  aallora,  70  francs  ;  and  fur  vessels 
with  crewa  coinpoaed  |ittrtly  of  French  and  foreign 
aallora,  agraeubly  to  the  provision  that  the  forelgncre 
exceed  not  oiin  tliint  eitliar  of  tha  ufllcers  or  crow,  48 
frunca, 

"  lliiunlim  im  Ihr  Itrtum  n/  VrueU. — On  each  toi.  ^f 
shipping  where  the  crow  Is  coni]M>sed  entlrol>  oi 
French  aallora.  At)  franca.  On  each  ton  of  sbip'|>lng 
with  a  mixed  crew,  24'6  franca." 

I'niler  the  conditions  that  thn  vessels  shall  have 
llshed  either  lieyond  ('a|ie  Horn,  or  to  the  cast  uf  the 
(,'H|m  of  (IimhI  IIo|m<,  as  fur  aa  02°  of  latitude,  and  aliall 
linvn  lieen  out  at  leaat  1(1  months.  In  addition  to  tlie 
uliove,  there  ahull  be  alluwud  tu  vessels  es|ieciully 
maiiiieil  fur  the  apemi-whulo  (rachalnl)  flshory,  in  the 
I'uclllc  ( tcnan,  after  tliey  liave  been  at  sea  for  the  space  of 
at  least  I'M)  niiintlis,  and  during  which  tTme  they  may  have 
reaehed  aa  fur  us  2H°  of  north  latitude,  an  addKlonal 
Uiiinty  of  Ih  francs  u|Nin  the  a|H<rni  oil,  etc.,  which 
they  ahull  bring  home.  The  bounty  on  the  produce 
will  only  Im  accorded  fur  an  amount  not  exceeding 
(HKI  loiia. 

(■iilimial  Tiiriffi. — The  navigation  iH'twccn  France 
Hint  lier  colonies  is  conflned  tu  French  vessels  measur- 
ing nut  less  than  40  tfina,  in  which  tho  of&cers,  and  at 
least  three  fourths  of  the  crew  are  French. 

t'rrnrk  lluiima  (f'nyfnnr). — The  tariff  of  this  colony 
Is  established  by  ilncreei  of  the  local  authority,  sanc- 
tluneil  liy  the  metrupolitan  government. 

Dulin  on  Imptnii. — French  merchandise  (with  tho 
exceptliiii  of  that  admitted  free),  imported  direct  from 
|Hirta  of  France  or  her  colonies,  in  French  liottoms, 
pays  2  |i«r  cent,  ail  valorem.  Foreign  merchandise 
(with  the  exception  uf  that  admitted  free)  permitted 
to  lie  imimrted,  both  under  French  and  foreign  flags, 
vU.  I 

"  Beef,  salted  ;*  butter  j  codflsh,  green,  dried,  and 
aulted  I  Hsh-oll ;  wheat  flour,  rye  flour,  and  com  incul ; 
lurd  I  vegetablna,  fresh  and  dry ;  lime,  slacked ;  salt 
tsirk  I  rice  i  salt  i  staves  ;  stone  conl ;  tallow,  and  tal- 
low oandlns  |  loliaccn.  in  leaves  i  whulolione  and  whale- 


th< 

cci 
pei 

toi 


*  Hy  a  late  dcrrnn,  salted  provisions  under  all  flags  and 
nruui  all  ceuntrtw  pay  60  eenUmos  per  1*X)  kllogrammel. 


.iiii^.ri^^i^^^A^J^7^ 


FRA 


743 


FRA 


od  I  woo<1,  anit  phch  t.lnn,  pay  8  p«f  e«n«.  tit  ralnrvm. 
All  artli-le*  not  •numeratnl  abovt,  10  per  emit.  «il 
v»liir«in." 

Thn  fullowlnit  iirtli'li'a  *ra  pnihililtml  lm|H>rtiitli>n 
fur  riiiiiiiim|illiin,   and  nr«  only  ailmittml  in  entrniH^t 

"  from  trmih  ''■  (MM  in  A'rrdiA  Vmrli. — ("cico*, 
clnnaniDii,  cluvw,  >  ifne  i  cotton,  raw;  IiiiIIko,  ""'I 
prxpurmt  murou  i  nil  •pirltiioiia  llqion,  with  tlin  ox- 
rpptliin  of  liranily,  Krtnch  ami  Murtlnli|un  cunUala ; 
Klrarlianwaaaor  anil  gin ;  nutinKK"i  iwpiwr  i  iUKitr, 
raw  anil  whitanail,  ami  wiml, 

"  >'/■(»»/»  Forrign  VitHHtrin  ami  in  Ft^rtiyn  Vf$$tU. — 
Cliitlivn,  really  mmlo,  coniprliilnK  hiitn  iinil  all  artirloi  for 
thii  feat ;  cotton,  apun  ;  ((iinpowiler ;  nUK't'i  leAneil  | 
tlniiuca  of  cotton,  ailk,  wovl,  anil,  hump," 

The  following  nrtlilea  are  kilniitleil  free  of  duty, 
witlioiit  reference  to  their  lourre,  iiniler  all  tliiKH  : 

"AnlmitU,  living  |  HKrIcultural  Inntrumimtii  Im- 
jHirteil  for  trial  ;  mncliinoi,  ami  limilar  urtlcica 
ntii'i'Hnitry  for  colonial  luJuatry ;  «|iocinivna  of  niit- 
unil  liiatory ;  prectoua  metitla  in  liullion  ami  coin ; 
tiulclc-IImn." 

Hij  h'rtnrk  VetirU  .1  rrivinr/  Dirfct  from  Franrr, — 
IJtciiKlU  ami  iniplemiintit  of  hualiumlry,  especially 
ihovcU,  hoeii,  batcheta,  plowa,  priinlnK-booka,  ami 
hnrrowii ;  milt  livef;  liollcn  for  i»i)(nr  fuctorioa  {  cihI- 
Hull  ami  other  anlteil  fliih;  flour  anil  nil  other  furlnn- 
ceoiia  provtHiona ;  vegetalilca,  frciih  nnil  ilry ;  unit  pork, 
rcil  herrlnjfa, 

/hilift  (in  Ftporl: — All  prmlucta  of  the  colony  (ex- 
cept thoae  which  are  free)  exporteil  to  Krnnco  or  to 
Krench  coloniea,  In  French  veaaela,  \  jwr  cent,  ail  va- 
lorem. The  aams  exported  to  forelun  countrlea  in 
French  veaaela,  2  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

The  following  producta  of  the  colony  are  luliject,  on 
ex|K>rtAtion,  to  the  following  additional  dut}',  ciilMd 
(rnnlribiitionfimeiirr)  "  ground-tax :" 

rViiamlnMlloii  of 
I         nian-liNiiill*!'. 


Nuiiit)«r,  Wright, 
in«»4Urv. 

IUuVUiia.orV'iOlba.1  |0~fift-8 


lAonattobrrouoou. 

iCocna  

jClovea,  (lowers., . , 

I      '■      aUllii. 

('uflbe ....  

Cotton 

IMolanut 

|Ox-hlile« lEach 

TaBIa  (rum) 'I.IKH) lltrc!i- KM f[al 

iHugar.raw  or  white  !tj|0  ponnilt. 

"  Foreign  prohibited  goods  having  been  seized  and 
ro-exportcd,  2  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  Foreign  prohlb- 
Ited  merchandise  on  leaving  the  "  aUrrpAl  Jiclif,"  ^  of 
1  per  cent,  ad  valorem." 

The  following  articles  are  exempt  from  all  exporta- 
tion duties,  whether  for  Franco  or  foreign  countries  : 

"  Cinnamon  j  egga,  fresh  ;  glngor-ront,  indigo,  nut- 
meg", ()epper,  pimento,  simnroiilm,  specimens  of  nntu- 
rul  history,  turmeric,  turtles,  vnnilln,  and  wood." 

Chur;it.ifor  Xalionalizini/  Fureign  Vtmeh. — For  u  ves- 
sel of  ioo  tons  and  under,  $11  23-5 ;  101  to  200  tons, 


•IB  MD  I  }01  to  nOO  tons,  •Kl  (MO  |  over  IMM  (bri  wh 
aililitioniil  100  tons,  .|2  HO  N. 

t'iKiriinif  Itulin. — For  the  lung  course  (tun\nn  v  >T> 
age)  per  vessel,  f!)  T0'3!l  j  for  tlin  great  nnil  ■laitll 
I'oaating  trade,  (2  NO'N  ;  inaerlptliin  duty  (,regli<trntion 
free)  for  dunging  the  proprietorship,  $1  110, 

/'i/i<(  />Mr<.~If  the  vessel  ancliors  in  the  n)ads  or  in 
the  harlH>r :— For  a  vessel  under  Ml  tons,  great  and 
small  coasting  trade,  (5  A.'i )  fiU  to  DC  tons,  $7  lO'T  | 
100  to  140  tons,  ft)  ilO  I  lAO  to  lOU  tons,  «!  1  2IIm  t  20O 
III  200  tons,  in  HM  ;  HOO  to  1100  tons,  tlO  000  ;  4IIII  Ions 
anil  upward,  for  each  additlonnl  100  tons,  $0  HD'ri.  If 
tiio  vessel  casts  anchor  In  the  rouils  :— I'ilots'  servicei 
in  the  rooils,  on  demand  of  the  captain,  when  not  re- 
tained for  conducting  the  vessel  into  |iort,  for  one  tide, 
$1  80;  charges  of  anchorage  In  the  h«rlK>r  of  Cay- 
enne, (1  irO;  delay  of  |iilot  on  Iward  of  u  vessel, 
either  on  demand  of  the  captain,  or  liecause  of  i|uaf- 
antine,  indep.inilont  of  iKiard,  which  Is  to  l>o  furnished 
to  him  at  the  ex|i«nsa  of  the  ship,  for  24  hours,  i^l 
II'O ;  pilotage  fnim  the  harliorof  Cayenne  to  the  I'olut 
of  Moncouria,  without  respect  to  tlie  tonnage  of  the 
vessel,  t'l  Tirio. 

The  pilot  dues  are  the  same  for  clearing  as  for  enter- 
ing the  port. 

Miiytillt  and  Depfwlencitt. — There  are  only  pilot 
dues  to  he  paid  iit  Miiyotte, 

Smegal  antl  Drprnilmciti. — Foreign  vessels  pay  In 
Senegal  4  francs,  or  (4'4  cents,  and  in  Uoruu  only  60 
centimes  per  ton.  Tliey  can,  however,  neither  ex|Mirt 
nor  import  (except  through  UoriJo),  nt  the  whole  trade 
Is  open  only  to  French  shipping  and  French  mnnufoc- 
turvs,  and  Is  prohibited  to  all  other  nations. 

Frtnch  Urttlemtntt  in  lh»  Fiul  Indifs. — The  jmrts  of 
these  dependencies  are  tree,  and  theroforo  open  to  all 
nations. — Nnrigatinn  Act  nf  Septemhtr  21,  lillH 

Tariff. — I'ondicherry,  Kiirlkal,  and  Mah6,  tonnagg 
duty,  without  distinction  of  dag,  4  cents  |ier  ton.  (1H47,) 
I'ondicherry  alone,  light-house  dues,  without  distinc- 
tion of  Hag,  B  cents  per  ton.  I'ondicherry  alone,  fer- 
riage dues,  without  distinction  of  Hag,  Mti'8  cents  for 
one  vessel, 

aS/.  J'iem  and  Afiijuelon. — Ilefore  1840,  American 
vessels  were  allowed  to  import  into  those  islanila  only 
such  goods  or  the  French  trade  could  not  supply,  and 
which  wero  n'i|uirod  by  the  necessities  of  the  |iopula- 
tion.  These  restrictions  were  abolished  by  a  decree 
of  the  governor,  of  May  7th,  184C.  American  ships 
sailing  direct  from  the  United  States  for  Miquelon  and 
St,  I'ierro,  either  in  ballast  or  loaded,  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  as  French  vessels  coming  from  the  United 
States,  and  pay  no  more  duty  than  the  suld  French 
vessels,  with  the  exception  only  of  a  compensation  for 
the  interpreter — which,  however,  by  another  decree  of 
June  26,  1N47,  has  become  entirely  optional :  that  is, 
if  the  captain  or  any  one  else  on  board  understands  the 
French  language,  he  Is  not  obliged  to  t.iko  an  inter- 
|)reter.  The  duties  for  American  vessels  are,  there* 
.lore,  as  follows : 


tVilgnttlonof  T«it«l. 

.      -.         -   jiUTiEg.-              ■-        ■       "i 

MAViaATION. 

llotplUk*  duel,  {Mr 

Ciutnm>honu  duei 

on  ihn  VAltmiloii 

otctirgit. 

TooMf*)  P«T  ton< 

PUolsf«,  {Mr  Teiic). 

Ughl-hoiiir,  p.r 

THilBl. 

Under  80  torn, , , . , 

Exempt. 

•       10  7* 

Exempt 

(2  RU'8 

4  6S 

64a 

Exempt 
i       »188 

Kxeinpt. 
$1  86 

lporcentaa\»l* 
I  percent  advftl. 

84)  to  49       "  

flOtoTO       "  

Ocranii; — The  ports  of  the  French  dependencies  In 
the  I'ttcitlc  Ocean  are  free  ports. 

Tonnage  Dulie$. — For  vessels  over  10  tons,  28-0 
cents  pur  ton ;  for  vessels  under  10  tons,  13'8  cents 
per  ton. 

Duliei  for  ffaiinnnli;ing. — For  vessels  under  100 
tons,  $1  67 ;  from  100  to  200  tons,  $8  88'3 ;  from  200 


*  '*  BntrtpJtficH/"  «  private  storehouse  where  goods  are 
nndcr  the  sole  aiipcrrlsloo  of  the  depositor. 


to  800  tons,  $4  44 ;  for  each  100  tons  additional,  (1 
11-6. 

t)utii$  far  Clearance. — Docked  vessels,  ijil  11'6; 
without  deck,  $0  18'6. 

These  are  duties  both  for  American  and  French  ves- 
sels coming  or  going  direct  from  or  to  (lis  United 
States,  in  virtue  of  the  above-mentioned  decree.  If, 
however,  trading  indirectly,  they  are  subjected  to  the 
same  duties  as  all  other  ships,  for  which,  both  French 
and  foreign,  the  duty  is  as  follows : 


FRA 


1U 

Tabiit  or  1347. 


PRA 


suravAvloif  or  rwaniM, 

suTtn, 

OMKKTATIOHa. 

PUoUge, 
per  vettel. 

Tonnji|r«i 
p«r  tuD, 

LlKhl-hooM, 
par  niMl. 

HoiplUI, 
far  TCHtl. 

Cuilom-hoiua 
dual. 

Jfr»ne\  reiueh. 

From  m — (9  tons 

From  M— 149  tons 

ISO  and  upward 

Foreign  te—tU. 

80  tons  and  loss 1 

SI— 49 1 

60—79 

11  25 
%  08 
260 

»8  70J 

6SSi 
740 

i-     »0  04J 

■   Win 

(1  86 
«18« 

•186 
1186    • 

1  per  cent,  on 
tho  valaatlon 
of  the  cargo. 

Fronch  vessels  arriv- 
ing ftom  the  ports  of 
tho  IT.  S.  are  sub- 
jected to  tho  same 
duties  as  American. 

80  and  upward 

Tabiff  Duties  cm  Impoutation  of  SpiBirs  in  Foreiojj 

VK88KL8,  BT  A  DeCRF.R  OF  NOVEHBEB  14,  1847. 


Danomlniition  of  dukIuukIIm, 


Number^welfflit 
or  meoiurv, 


Wines,  French,  In  casks jl'er  barrel . 

"  "        In  bottles Per  dozen.. 

Llquar^  cordials,  and  all  alcoholic  1  litre,  or  If 


wine,  In  casks. . 
The  same.  In  bottles. . 
Absynthe,        " 
Boer,  "       .. 


pint. 
Per  dozen.. 


Rata  of  duty, 


|1  86 
87-8 

11-25 
74-4 
1  48 

87-a 


The  game  orticbs  pay,  in  French  or  Tahitian  ves- 
sels, only  one  half  of  these  duties.  (1853.) — Com. 
Ret.  U.  a. 

French  West  Indiet. — The  French  colonial  posses- 
sions in  the  West  Indies  formerly  comprised  a  domain 
of  great  extent  and  value,  agriculturally  and  commer- 
cially. The  war  consequent  upon  the  grout  lievolution 
in  France  terminated  in  an  almost  total  destruction  of 
her  power  in  the  New  World.  Hayti  was  then  wrest- 
ed from  her.  Her  necessities  compelled  her  to  dispose 
of  Louisiana.  At  the  close  of  the  war  in  1815,  the 
naval  power  of  Great  Britain  had  enabled  her  to  seize 
ever}-  one  of  the  French  Islands,  and  drive  tho  fleet  of 
France  from  the  seas.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  consum- 
mated in  18M,  and  confirmed  in  1815,  England 
released  to  her  some  of  the  c:iptured  islands.  Her 
possessions  in  that  quarter  now  consist  of  Martinique, 
Guadaloupe  and  adjacent  islands,  and  the  north  side 
of  St.  Martin. 

The  intercourse  between  the  United  States  und  tho 
French  islands  (San  Domingo  l^eing  then  iiu'Iuded) 
was  originally  regulated  by  an  arreli  of  the  French 
government,  dated  the  30th  of  August,  1784.  Amer- 
ican vessels  of  at  least  CO  tons  were  admitted  into  cer- 
tain ports  in  these  islands,  ladeu  with  lumlwr  of  all 
kinds,  dye-woods,  live  stuck,  salt  l«ef,  salt  flsb,  rice, 
raw  bides,  peltr}',  rosin,  pitch,  and  tar,  which  they 
exchanged  for  rum  and  molasses,  und  goods  of  French 
manufacture,  paying  thereon  the  local  duties,  and  one 
per  cent,  ad  valorem  on  all  ir^^orts  and  exports.  A 
further  duty  of  three  livres  was  impoiied  on  ever  hun- 
dred weight  of  salt  beef  and  fish,  to  form  a  fund  for 
premiums  to  be  given  for  tish  from  the  French  tisheries. 
The  colonial  legislatures  were  authorized,  in  times  of 
scarcity,  to  suspend  this  law.  Prior  to  tho  French 
Revolution,  the  policy  of  France  was  in  contrast  with, 
that  of  England.  That  of  England  was  to  monopolize 
the  carriage  of  the  articles  exchanged  ;  that  of  Franca, 
to  monopolize  the  articles  themselves.  The  former 
was  willing  that  the  United  States  should  have  sugar 
and  coffee,  provided  they  were  carried  in  British  l)ot- 
toms ;  the  latter  was  willing  that  the  United  States 
should  supply  her  sugar  and  coflec  plantations  with 
certnin  articles  she  was  unable  to  furnish  herself,  but 
would  not  allow  them  td  receive  in  return,  the  most 
valuable  productions  of  the  col(mies.  Tliey  were  re- 
served for  consumption  in  the  mother  country,  and  to 
augment  tho  national  wcaltli.  Under  these  regula- 
tions, the  United  States  were  prompt  in  availing  them- 
selves of  the  advantages  of  the  carrying  trade  to  and 
fh>m  tho  French  islands. 

In  178*1,  our  exports,  domestic  and  foreign,  to  the 
French  West  Indies,  were  of  tho  value  of  18,2B8,000 
livres ;  and  our  Imports  from  thence  of  tlie  value  of 


7,263,000  livres  ;*  and  the  American  vessels  engaged 
in  the  trade  had  an  aggregate  of  5095  tons'  burden. 
Upon  the  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain,  in 
1793,  France  opened  a  free  trade  with  all  her  colonies. 
She  offered  the  United  States  the  monopoly  of  this 
trade,  on  condition  of  a  guaranty  of  her  possessions, 
which  was  wisely  declined.  Our  trade  with  the  islands 
during  the  war  was  nevertheless  much  augmented. 
Our  proximity  enabled  us  to  seize  the  advantages  in 
advance  of  other  countries.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  imports  from  and  exports  to  tho  French 
West  Indies  for  the  }-ears  designated  : 


Import!. 

»15,751,768 


Yran. 

1TK5 

1 796 16,748,774 

1707 14,080,887 

1798 15,880,091 

1799 2,022,929 

1800 9,8)«,111 

1801 18,593,266 


Kiporta. 

$4,954,953 
8,408,946 
8,566,058 
6,844,690 
2,776,694 
6,128,483 

,  7,147,972 


Tho  exports  of  our  domestic  produce  duing  the  years 
1804,  1805,  180t>,  and  1807,  were  of  the  average  value 
of  $2,800,000,  and  of  foreign  produce  l>etween  $3,000,- 
000  and  $4,000,000.  Our  imports  during  the  same 
period  were  of  much  greater  value ;  but  the  principal 
part  of  them  were  re-shipped  to  France  and  other 
countries.  About  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1807  tho 
English  had  become  possessed  of  nearly  all  the  I'rench 
islands ;  and  they  were  not  restored  to  France  until 
1814,  and  then  with  the  loss  of  the  most  iihportant 
one — San  Domingo.  Its  loss  greatly  reduced  the 
amount  of  commerce  of  those  islands  with  the  United 
States,  as  is  exhibited  by  the  subjoined  statemeni.  of 
imports  and  exports  from  1821  to  1833 : 


Year*.        Importi. 
1K21..  (900.619 


1S22. 

1«28. 

1824. 

1S25. 

18i6.. 

1827.. 


969,509 
989,618 
8'i4,0S4 
848,968 
978,270 
921,830 


Expert*. 

1396,486 
961,002 
867,,^95 
811.782 

1,011,956 
956,174 

1,040,858 


Year.. 

1928. 

Import*. 
t8»J,6M 

EiDorla. 

♦1,024,771 

1829. 

777,992 

1,072,407 

1880. 

.61\687 

805.769 

1881. 

67l,8l2 

717,877 

1882. 

57»,H57 

624.975 

1888. 

511,242 

618,719 

The  conditions  of  our  corimercial  Interconrse  with  tho 
T'rench  West  Indies  were  again  changed  by  a  roj-al  or- 
dinance bearing  date  the  5th  February,  182fi,  and  nn 
act  of  Congress  l>earing  date  the  9th  May,  1828.  By 
the  former,  it  is  ordained  that,  after  the  Ist  July  fol- 
lowing, all  vessels,  cither  foreign  or  national,  may  im- 
port into  Guadaloupe  and  Martinique  certain  articles 
of  merchandise,  s|)eciflcd  in  the  table  accompanying 
the  ordinance,  on  paying  the  duties  therein  rcquireil, 
without  regard  to  their  flagK.  This  ordinance  also  an- 
nuls all  then  existing  tarilfii.  The  act  of  Congress  ad- 
mits all  French  vessels  "  coming  directly  from  the  is. 
lands  of  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  and  laden  with  arti- 
cles the  growth  and  manufacture  of  either  of  said  islands, 
and  which  are  permitted  to  be  exported  therefrom  in 
American  vessels,"  into  the  ports  of  the  United  Stutc), 
on  payment  of  no  higher  duty  on  tonnage  or  on  cargoes 
than  are  imposed  on  American  vessels,  and  on  cargoes 
imported  in  American  vessels.  The  French  ordinance 
exempts  foreign  vessels  also,  importing  the  articles 
thus  authorized,  trom  any  oilier  duties  or  tonnage,  or 
any  port  charges,  but  those  to  which  the  vessels  of 
Fronee  are  subjected.     The  importation  of  other  ar- 


*  The  Uvre  was  a  coin  of  France  prior  to  1797 ;  81  UTres  be- 
ing equal  to  80  franca 


FRA 


745 


FRA 


tides  than  thcao  specifled  by  the  ordinance,  by  foreign 
vessels,  is  prohibited ;  and  articles  allowed  to  bo  im- 
ported can  only  be  re-exported  from  one  colony  to  an- 
other by  French  vessels.  The  imports  and  exports 
under  the  soregnlations  have  already  been  given,  up  to 
the  j-ear  1H8U.  The  following  tablo  exhibits  them 
from  the  year  1814  up  to  the  close  uf  the  year  1855, 
inclusive,  embracing  a  period  of  12  years  : 


Yean, 

Iniporta  from  French 
W«il  Indies. 

Erporrt 10  French 
Wert  Indie.. 

1844 

1874,(105 

416,082 

848,230 

.    151,806 

127,089 

71,469 

75,084 

22,009 

4«,2S7 

52,804 

161,0s5 

44,484 

(617,646 
6tW,10S 
685,021 
608,164 
489,024 
104,998 
287,668 
810,281 
4,W.444 
898,269 
612,027 
409,701 

1846 

1840 

1847 

1848 

1840 

1880 

la^il 

1852 

1858 

18M 

1865 

llTres  be- 


On  the  8th  of  December,  18-19,  the  tariff  of  182G  was 
somewhat  modified  by  sliglitly  enlarging  the  imports ; 
but  the  equal  conditions  upon  which  national  and  for- 
eign vessels  were  placed  in  respect  to  tonnage  and 
port  chargfis  were  not  disturbed.  The  prospectH  of  an 
increase  of  our  trade  with  the  French  West  IniUa  pos- 
sessions, and  the  motives  to  impel  us  to  strive  to  ob- 
tain it,  will  he  found  in  a  brief  summary  of  their 
natural  resources  and  the  conditon  of  their  population. 

The  island  of  (iuadaloupe  lies  between  15°  58'  and 
16°  13'  north  latitude,  20  miles  north  of  Dominica. 
Its  dependencies  are  Marie  Galante,  La  Dcsirude,  Les 
Saintes,  and  a  portion  of  St.  Martin.  The  aggregate 
area  of  the  whole  of  them  is  309  square  miles,  and  the 
populations  of  all  lila,000.  The  central  ridge  of  (iua- 
daloupe is  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains  3000  feet 
higlf.  From  its  base  a  multitude  of  rivulets  descend 
watering  the  lowlands  to  the  sea. 

The  Frineh  Colonies  in  1858.— 'The  colony  of  R6- 
uniun  had,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1858,  53,175  immi- 
grants, of  whom  30,141  were  Indians,  151  Chinese, 
10,509  Africans,  and  71  nalivea  of  the  different  islands 
of  Oceanica.  On  the  1st  of  .Tiinuary,  1857,  the  num- 
ber was  only  50,227.  Tliis  abundant  supply  of  work- 
men Is  explained  by  the  encouragement  which  K6- 
union  has  always  alfurdul  to  the  entrance  of  Indians 
and  blacks.  The  ordinary  premium  given  is  500  francs. 
The  wages  paid  is  about  10  francs  a  month,  and  a 
free  passage  back  to  their  country  is  always  guaran- 
teed to  each  immigrant.  The  Indians  and  Africans 
are  the  most  highly  valued  by  tho  colonists  us  labor- 
ers; the  Chinese  are  not  in  great  repute.  Prench 
Guiana,  in  1857,  only  received  250  immigrants,  and 
tho  total  ninnber  there  on  tho  1st  of  .lanvary,  1858, 
was  1315,  of  wliom  H72were  Africans  ami  143  Indians. 
According  to  a  contract  entered  into  with  a  house  at 
Nantes,  the  premium  given  for  each  adult  African  was, 
in  1857,  329  francs;  but,  from  tho  dllliculties  which 
arose  in  recruiting  them,  the  price  rose  to  500  francs. 
The  wages  paid  arc,  on  an  average,  12  francs  50  cen- 
times a  month,  witli  food  and  medical  attendance. 
Martinique,  in  June,  1858,  had  4927  immigrants,  of 
whom  4412  were  Indians  and  515  Africans.  This 
small  number  of  immigrants  is  not  sufKcient  for  the 
wants  of  tho  colony,  and  tho  colonists  are  anxious  that 
immigration  should  be  encouraged  by  every  iiossible 
means.  Ouadaloupe  is  better  off  in  this  respect  than 
Martinique.  In  .Tunc,  1858,  it  had  098  Africans, 
2800  Indians,  and  141  natives  of  Madeira,  making  to- 
gether 8646  innnigranls.  The  wages  are,  on  an  ov- 
erage, 12  francs  50  centimes,  exclusive  of  hoard,  lodg- 
ing, and  medical  attendance.  The  natives  of  Madei- 
ra, when  once  they  are  inured  to  the  climate,  make 
excellent  laborers ;  but  this  takes  place  with  difliculty, 
and  only  when  they  are  employed  on  the  high  lands 
of  tho  colony, — Uivut  C'olvniala. 


French  vessels  from  the  French  islands  of  Martin- 
ique, GuudalouiM),  ,St.  Pierre,  Miquelon,  and  Cayenne 
in  French  (iuiana,  were  exempted  from  tonnage  duty 
under  the  special  act  of  Congress  of  the  9tfa  May, 
1828,  and,  as  to  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  by  the  pioc- 
lamation  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  dated 
the  20tli  of  April,  1847,  consequent  on  tlie  removal  by 
Franco  of  the  restrictions  on  vessels  of  the  United 
States  in  s'lid  islands. 

A  French  vessel  bringing  Hsh  from  the  l)anks  of  tho 
British  colony  of  Newfoundland,  being  the  product  of 
the  waters  of  that  colony,  is  not  exempt  from  tonnago 
duties ;  the  act  of  the  Od  of  Alarch,  1845,  exempts 
from  such  duties  only  French  vessels  coming  directly 
from  tho  islands  of  Miquelon  and  St  Pierre,  either  in 
ballast  or  laden  with  articles  the  giuwth  or  manufac< 
ture  of  either  of  said  islands,  and  there  is  no  other  pro- 
vision of  law  or  treaty  authorizing  an  exemption. 

French  Colonita. — Decree  of  /Septentber  29th,  1856.— 
The  Kluperor  Napoleon,  has  decreed  as  follows : 

AiniCLE  1.  The  extension  fixed  l>y  the  decree  of 
September  19th,  1850,  for  the  operation  of  the  modifi- 
cations in  the  tariff  of  customs  in  the  colonies  of  Mar- 
tinique, Guadaloupe,  the  island  of  Keunion,  and  of 
Senegal,  in  all  that  relates  to  grains,  breadstufl's,  and 
dried  pulse,  is  continued  to  December  81st,  1857, 

AiiTici.R  2,  Our  ministers,  secretaries  of  state,  etc., 
will  see  to  the  execution  of  tliis  decree  wliich  will  also 
1)0  published  in  the  "  ISiiUetin  des  Lois."  The  United 
States'  consul  at  P.iris  communicates  to  the  State  De- 
partment, under  (hito  November  10th,  1850,  as  fol- 
lows :  "I  beg  to  jioint  out  to  your  notice  a  modifica- 
tion in  the  duties  on  wool,  as  puldished  in  the  MoniUur 
of  the  8tli  instant  (which  I  herewiti  inclose),  and  of 
which  the  foUoT/ing  is  a  translation :  '  Viewing  the 
law  of  the  27th  July,  1850,  which  has  modified  tho 
importation  tariff  on  wool  in  bulk.'  "  Considering  tliat 
it  is  necessary  to  place  the  duties  estaldished  on  the 
importation  of  combed  and  dyed  wool  in  unison  with 
the  existing  duties  on  wool  in  bulk,  it  is  decreed : 

AnTici.K  1.  The  custom-house  duties  on  the  importiv- 
tion  of  combed  wool  and  dyed  wool  are  fixed  as  follows : 

Fr. 

Coniboil  wool By  French  vessels,  per  100  kilo's  70 

"  By  foreign  vessels,       "         "       80 

Dyed  wool  of  all  sorts.. By  French  vessels,       "        "      100 
"  "  . .  By  foreign  vessels,       "        "      115 

"  8t.  Pieobe,  January  2;jil,  1867, 

"  Since  my  last  report  there  has  been  a  considerable 
change  in  the  duty  on  tobacco  imported  from  the 
United  States.  It  has  been  raised  from  20  francs,  or 
about  it'A  75  jwr  220  lbs.,  to  the  enormous  figure  of  60 
francs,  or  al>out  $11  25  per  220  lbs,,  making  an  aug- 
mentiition  of  200  jyr  cent. 

"  Some  slight  ameliorations  have  been  made  with 
respect  to  tho  importation  of  pork  and  hams,  which 
heretofore  had  to  ptuss  through  a  French  port  l)efora 
admission,  but  which  can  now  be  imported  direct 
from  tho  United  States  under  a  duty  merely  nominal. 

"  It  is  much  to  lie  desired  that  the  French  govern- 
ment should  extend  tliis  privilege  to  all  articles  indis- 
criminately that  could  be  imported  here  from  the 
United  .States. 

"  Tho  importation  of  flour  from  tho  United  States 
into  this  island  has  been  much  greater  this  year  than 
during  previous  years.  From  tho  30th  ilune  to  the 
31st  December,  1856,  upward  of  10,000  barrels  have 
been  iin|iortcd  direct  from  the  United  ^States,  and 
about  un  equal  quantity  of  United  States'  Hour  has 
been  imported  by  way  of  French  ports.  This  may  be 
accounted  for  by  tho  duty  having  boon  temporarily 
reduced,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  tho  measure  is 
not  a  permanent  one.  The  new  duty  (which  expires 
tO'  give  place  to  the  old  one  on  the  31st  December, 
1857)  is,  on  overy  220  lbs.  of  flour,  2  francs,  or  al>out 
37i^  cents,  Tho  old  one  is,  on  every  220  lbs.  of  ttour, 
20  francs,  or  about  it3  75,  a  duty  that  of  course  ren- 
dered tho  importation  of  flour  impossible  so  long  as  it 


FRA 


746 


FRA 


existed.  Ton  will  observe  from  the  retarns,  that  this 
island  exports  almost  nothing  to  the  United  States. 
The  staple  products  are  sngar,  mm,  coffee,  and  these 
are  not  allowed  to  be  exported  except  to  France. 
Some  years  ago  there  was  a  cnnHlderable  exportation 
of  molasses  to  the  United  States ;  but  this  branch  of 
commerce  has  completely  died  out,  owing  to  the  great 
extension  of  distilleries  in  the  island  and  the  conse- 
quent scarcity  of  molasses. — ComtUar  Ketums, 

In  order  to  present  an  English  view  of  the  com- 
merce and  finances  of  France  of  late  years,  we  add 
from  Tooke's  "  History  of  Prices"  (vol.  vi.,  London, 
1867)  the  following  "  Conclusions  arising  out  of  the 
Inquiry  as  to  the  Finances  and  Credit  Institutions  of 
France,"  contributed  l)y  William  Newmarcii,  Esq., 
to  the  new  volumes  of  that  work. 

"  That  the  revolution  of  Februarj',  1848,  occurred  at 
B  period  when,  by  the  operation  of  numerous  causes, 
the  finances  of  the  French  government  were  already 
seriously  embarrassed ;  that  among  the  most  important 
of  these  causes  were  the  laws  of  1841  and  1842,  under 
which  the  State  bad  taiien  upon  itself  the  responsibili- 
ties and  the  expenditure  entailed  by  the  construction 
throughout  France  of  an  extensive  net-woric  of  trunk 
lines  of  railway  ;  the  unproductive  expenditure  for  a 
long  series  of  years  of  large  annual  sums  in  Algeria ; 
the  unproductive  expenditure  of  considerable  sums  on 
public  works,  yielding  no  adequate  return  either  direct 
or  indirect ;  and  the  maintenance  for  a  long  period 
of  an  excessive  annual  outlay  on  the  army  and  ma- 
rine ;  and  that  in  immediate  aggravation  of  all  these 
causes  of  flnai  cial  disorder,  there  had  occurred  in 
France,  in  the  losing  months  of  1846,  and  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  1847,  a  commercial  crisis  (taking 
its  origin  in  the  serious  failure  of  the  harvest  of  1856) 
more  severe  and  disastrous  than  had  been  experienced 
in  France  for  20  or  30  years. 

That  the  suspension  of  cash  payments  by  the  Bank 
of  France,  adopted  in  March,  1848,  and  maintained  for 
two  years  and  a  half,  till  Augiut,  185U,  was  a  measure 
wholly  unavoidable,  in  consequence  of  tlie  prevalence 
in  March,  1848,  of  extreme  internal  discredit,  which 
admitted  of  being  met  iu  no  other  form;  tliat  the 
prevalence,  during  these  two  and  a  half  years,  of  a 
very  low  price  of  com  in  France  ;  of  a  state  of  the  ex- 
ternal trade  of  France  which  established  a  large  yearly 
balance  in  favor  of  that  country  ;  and  of  the  absence 
of  any  political  causes  which  rendered  it  necessary  for 
the  government  to  require  excessive  advances  from 
the  Uank  of  France,  rendered  the  suspension  practi- 
cally unproductive  of  any  depreciation  or  inconve- 
nience ;  and  led  to  its  removal  in  August,  1850,  by 
the  spontaneous  accumulation  in  the  Uank  of  France 
of  an  amount  of  treasure  quite  equal  to  the  amount  of 
notes  in  circulation. 

That  among  the  important  circumstances  which 
have  contributed  to  strengthen  the  position  of  the 
Bank  of  France  since  1848,  and  to  aid  the  government 
in  its  plans  for  fostering  credit,  Ims  been  the  extension 
by  ^£12,000,000  or  £14,000,000  steriing  of  the  disposable 
means  of  the  Ilauk  of  France  in  consequence  of  the 
addition  of  that  amount  in  the  form  of  small  notes  to 
the  former  average  circulation  of  the  establishment. 

That  under  the  autocratic  government,  established 
in  December,  1851,  there  have  lieen  introduced  into 
France  a  set  of  financial  principles ;  and  there  have 
been  placed  in  conrse  of  trial  a  series  of  financial  ex- 
periments, distinguished  by  a  novelty  which  finds  no 
sanction  in  any  successful  precedent ;  by  a  hardihood 
which  set  at  naught  almost  every  established  canon 
of  finance ;  and  by  a  disregard  of  the  future,  which 
purchases  present  popularity  at  any  co;t. 

That  the  earliest  purposes  to  which  the  new  finan- 
cUl  pulley  w:M  devoted  were  the  reduction,  in  March, 
1H52,  of  the  interest  on  the  French  5  per  cent,  debt ; 
the  imposition  on  the  Hank  of  France  of  a  new  char- 
ter which  compelled  iw  at  once  to  lower  the  rate  of  dis- 


count to  S  per  cent,  and  to  make  large  advances  on 
stock-exchange  securities ;  the  concessions,  on  condi- 
tions more  or  less  onerous  to  the  State,  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  lines  of  railway  j  and  the  introduction  of  seve- 
ral joint-stock  companies,  encouraged  by  every  State 
appliance  to  foster  the  application  of  credit  to  purposes 
of  speculation. 

That  between  the  early  part  of  1852  and  the  autumn 
of  1853,  the  prosperity  and  progress  which  seemed  to 
prevail  in  France  were  chiefly  the  results  of  the  artifi- 
cial measures. 

That  the  difficulties  of  various  kinds  which  hove  oc- 
curred in  France  since  the  close  of  1853 ;  and  more 
especially  the  difficulties  experience,!  liy  tlie  Bunk  of 
France  in  the  autumns  of  1865  and  1856,  have  arisen 
in  a  principal  degree — allowing,  of  course,  for  the  war 
and  the  scarcity — from  the  embarrassments  and  disor- 
ders nntailed  by  the  policy  which  has  forced  upon 
France  enterprises  and  speculations  disproportionate 
to  its  resources  of  available  capital. 

That  these  embarrassments  and  disorders  would 
have  become  altogether  overwhelming  if  it  had  not 
Ijeen  for  the  springing  up,  since  1849,  chiefly  in  the 
gold  countries,  and  in  consequence  of  the  gold  influx, 
of  a  demand  for  French  manufactures  and  produce,  so 
large  and  continuous  that,  during  the  9  years  1848-'56, 
the  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  France  has  amounted 
to  not  much  less  than  £80,000,000  steriing. 

That  neither  the  apparent  success  of  the  reduction 
of  the  French  5  per  cents,  in  March,  1852,  nor  the  ap- 
parent success  for  some  time  of  the  enforced  maintcn- 
anc3  of  a  low  rate  of  discount ;  nor  the  setting  up  of 
popular  discount  and  loan  banks ;  nor  the  apparent 
alacrity  with  which  the  subscription  lists  of  the  war 
loans  of  60,000,000  were  filled  up ;  nor  the  mainten- 
ance for  a  long  period  of  the  schemes  of  selling  bread 
at  an  artificially  cheap  price ;  nor  the  multiplication 
of  railway  companies  by  means  of  guarantied  divi- 
dends ;  nor  the  apparent  prosperity  created  l)y  public 
works  and  credit  institutions,  afford  the  smallest  sup- 
port, when  examined  minutely  and  fully,  to  the  finan- 
cial principles  and  the  financial  practices  which  have 
held  the  supreme  place  in  France  since  December, 
1861. 

That  of  the  two  great  credit  institutions  called  the 
Crfidit  Foncier  and  the  Credit  Mobilier,  the  former  is 
directed  to  a  useful  and  laudable  object,  but  is  de- 
graded and  disfigured  by  the  introduction  of  elements 
of  gambling,  empirical  and  pernicious  ;  and  the  latter, 
the  Cr6dit  Mobilier,  seeking  to  obtain  large  profits  by 
exciting  violent  fits  of  stock-jobbing,  and  to  obtain 
large  funds  by  the  issue  of  obligations  practically  not 
payable  in  specie,  approaches,  in  design  and  machin- 
ery, nearer  than  any  institution  of  recent  times,  to  the 
model  afforded  by  Law's  Bank  of  1716,  and  the  Com- 
pagnie  des  Indes  of  the  three  following  years. 

That  as  the  result  of  the  whole  investi'jation  con- 
cerning the  financial  policy  of  France  since  1847,  there 
have  been  made  apparent  three  principal  facts,  namely : 
Ist.  That  between  1847  and  1851,  it  was  the  abundant 
harvests  and  low  price  of  food  in  France,  which  con- 
tributed in  the  largest  degree  to  preserve  order,  to  re- 
store cosh  payments,  and  to  re-establish  an  equilibrium 
l>etween  the  income  and  expemiiture.  2d.  That  ))0- 
tween  1851  and  1857,  it  has  lieen  the  £100,000,000 
sterling,  made  available  to  France  by  the  economy  of 
its  metallic  circulation,  and  by  the  demand  for  its  silks 
and  wines  in  the  gold  countries,  which  has  so  far  car- 
ried it  thniiigh  the  perils  of  war,  scarcity,  and  extrav- 
agance; and,  8d.  That  the  reckless  and  Bocia'',stio 
linancial  policy  introduced  since  December,  1851,  has 
already  exposed  France  to  failures  and  |)erils  quite  as 
formidable  as  any  that  were  threatened  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  unless  subjected  to  early  and  severe 
restraints,  will  assuredly  produce  the  most  disastrous 
consequences."  See  Tookb's  Hittory  of  Pricet,  voL 
vi.,  London,  1867,  pp.  130-184. 


FRA 


Ut 


FRA 


Frank,  the  name  hy  which  the  Turks,  Greeka, 
Arabs,  etc.,  designate  a  Christian.  It  proliably  origi- 
natoil  (luring  the  crusades,  in  which  the  French  (de- 
scendants of  the  German  Franks)  particularly  distin- 
guistied  themselves.  Europe  itself,  too,  was  named 
Frankistan,  or  the  country  of  the  Franks. 

The  Frank  language,  Lingua  Franca,  is  a  jargon 
which  is  spoken  in  the  Levant,  as  the  common  medium 
of  communication  between  Europeans  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  East.  Its  chief  ingredient  is  Italian,  and 
it  probably  originated  during  the  crusades,  which 
brought  so  many  different  nations  together. 

Frankfort-on-the-Maine  (Ger.  Frankfurt  Am 
Maine),  one  of  the  four  flree  cities  of  Germany,  and  so 
called  to  distinguish  it  ftrom  the  Prussian  town  of 
Frankfort-ou-the-Oder.  It  took  its  name  (J'rankm 
Furl)  from  the  river  being  fordable  at  this  point ;  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Franks  in  the 
fifth  century. 

From  the  earliest  times  Frankfort  has  been  closely 
connected  with  the  other  free  cities  of  Germany. 
During  the  ancient  empire  the  cities  formed  together 
one  corporation  at  the  Imperial  Diet,  and  enjoyed  one 
vote  in  the  public  affairs.  Up  to  the  dissolution  of 
the  German  empire,  in  the  year  1804,  there  existed  a 
great  number  of  free  towns,  whiph  had  preserved  their 
sovereignty  and  independence  against  the  surrounding 
princes,  depending  only  on  the  empire,  and  enjoying 
various  privileges  granted  to  them  by  the  emperors. 
These  disappeared,  for  the  greater  part,  with  the  events 
of  the  Rovolution.  Of  tuose  which  had  survived  the 
German  empire  the  towns  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 
Lubec  were  incorporated  with  the  I'rench  empire ; 
while  Frankfort  became  the  seat  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  the  same,  created  by  Napoleon,  and  placed  under 
the  rule  of  the  Prince  Primat  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon. 
The  overthrow  of  the  French  conqueror  in  1818  re- 
stored these  towns  to  their  former  independence,  and 
they  were  received  as  sovereign  members  of  the  con- 
federation. The  towns  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 
Lubcc  once  Iwlonged  to  the  Hansa,  that  celebrated 
league  which  was  formed  hi  the  thirteenth  century. 
Its  real  object  was  the  prcteotion  and  extension  of 
commerce;  but  its  power  and  influence  increased  in 
sucii  u  way  that  it  at  length  included  eighty-iive 
towns ;  it  equipped  fleets,  and  declared  war  on  neigh- 
boring States.  England  and  other  powers  concluded 
treaties  with  the  Hansa,  and  were  glad  to  enjoy  its 
friendHliip.  This  league,  however,  was  dissolved  in 
1G30,  when  the  last  of  its  diets  was  held  at  Lulwc ; 
and  from  that  time  the  three  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bre- 
men, and  Lubec  remained  alone,  as  the  properly-called 
Hanse  Towns.  These,  with  Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
form  the  four  free  cities  of  the  German  Confederation. 
These  four  f^ee  cities  are  represented  in  the  German 
Diet  )>y  one  minister,  and  have  together  one  common 
voice.  Notwithstanding  this  joint  representation,  each 
one  of  the  four  cities  has  its  own  particular  representa- 
tive at  the  seat  of  the  Diet.  Hamburg  is  represented 
by  Mr.  Kirchenfrauer,  Bremen  l)y  Burgomaster  SmidC, 
Lubec  by  Senator  Elder,  and  Frankfort  liy  DeHar- 
nier,  senator  and  eldest  burgomaster.  The  joint  vote 
of  tlio  four  cities  is  alternately  intrusted  to  each  of 
the  towns  for  the  period  of  a  year.  The  free  cities 
likewise  have  in  common  a  supreme  court  of  appeal 
for  law  cases,  and  political  questions,  too,  sitting  at 
Lubec ;  and  the  control  over  which  is  alternately  ex- 
ercised by  one  of  the  four  cities.  Besides  that,  there 
exists  between  them  a  similitude  of  political  institu- 
tions. Their  form  of  government  is  that  of  a  repub- 
lic, the  basb  of  which  (excepting  the  short  period  of 
18^18  -'flO)  has,  nevertheless,  always  boon  rather  more 
of  an  aristocratical  than  of  a  domocratical  character. 
Their  Interests  are  closely  united ;  they  have  the  same 
political  friends  and  opponents. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  carpets,  table-covers, 
oU-clotb,  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  fabrics,  jeweli^',  to- 


bacco, playlng-onM*,  etc,    Frankfort  was  made  a  (Vm 
port  In  181)1,  and  Is  also  one  of  the  four  great  empo- 
riums for  supplyInK  Germany  with  merchandise.  The 
river  Maine,  which  U  navigable  to  Bamberg  In  Bava- 
ria, whore  comniencea  tlin  Diinau-Malne  Canal  leading 
to  Kelhelm  oi.  the  Danube,  and  the  numerous  railways 
which  centre  In  Frankfort,  render  It  the  Industrial  and 
commercial  centre  of  the  south-west  and  west  parts  of 
Germany.    "So  German  city,  with  the  exception  of 
Berlin,  Is  the  centre  of  sn  great  a  number  of  railways. 
Four  great  lines,  and  seven  others  of  a  more  local 
character,  meet  In  the  city.     The  Malne-Necker  rail- 
way loads  southwunl  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden, 
whence  railways  proceed  to  dwltzorland,  Wurtemberg, 
and  Bavaria.     'I'lie  Taunus  railway  leads  west  and 
north-west  to  Mayonce,  and  to  Wiesbaden.     From 
Mayence  a  railway  goes  to  Ludwigshafon,  the  harbor 
of  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  opposite  Manheim,  thence 
to  Straslwurg,  and  therefrom  to  Paris  as  well  as  to 
Switzerland,     Another   branch  from  Ludwigshafen 
meets  the  HtraslKiurg  and  Paris  railway  at  Nancy. 
From  Wiesbaden  a  line  Is  now  (1865)  in  course  of  con- 
struction to  Coblent/,.  The  Maln-Wesor  railway  passes 
through  the  ^^■   iter  part  of  the  two  Hesses  to  Cassel, 
and  cummunluutes  with  Hanover,  Bremen,  Hamburg, 
etc.    On  the  right  Its  branches  lead  to  Berlin  and 
Saxony,  and  on  the  loft  u  lino  wl^l  soon  be  opened  to 
Cologne,     The  llanaa  railway  connects  Frankfort 
with  Hanau  and  the  chief  places  on  the  Maine  to 
Bamberg,  from  which  southward  with  Nuremberg, 
AugsliurK,  Munich  and  Austria,  and  In  another  direc- 
tion with  Lelpslc,  Uresdon,  and  Bohemia.     There  are 
also  local  linos  to  OITontmch,  the  chief  manufacturing 
town  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  to   Hoden,  a  much-fre- 
quentod  bathing-place,  and  to  near  Romburg,  one  of 
the  famous  spas  of  Uormany.     Frankfort,  however,  is 
chiefly  indobtod  fur  Its  great  wealth  to  Ijeing  the  seat 
of  extensive  banking,  cimimission,  and  funding  trans- 
actions.    In  proportion  tu  Its  size.  It  is  probably  the 
richest  city  In  the  world.    There  are  about  twenty  , 
llrst-class  banking  houses  |  among  these  are  the  Roths- 
childs, Grunolius,  Motzter,  and  others,  well  known  in 
the  commercial  world.    The  number  of  those  in  the 
stock  and  exchange  business  amounts  to  at  least  200. 
A  city  bank,  with  a  capital  of  10,000,000  florins,  was 
establlshod  lust  summer,  and  has  just  (1856)  com- 
menced business  o|i«rntlons.    The  two  fairs  of  Easter 
and  MIclmelmus  are  still  much  frequented.    Goethe 
was  born  here  In  1711),  (;ivll  population  (1862)  62,361, 
lielng  47,100  Protestants,  10,001  Catholics,  and  4600 
Jews;    military,  AOrK)— 1717    being  Austrlans,  1713 
Prussians,  IHIIl  Bavarians,  and   829  natives.     The 
population  of  Frankfort  Is  but  slowly  increasing,  on 
account  of  tlio  old  lllllMral  laws  still  in  force  as  to 
admission  to  citizenship.    Only  such  are  admitted  as 
can  prove  thuir  ability  to  maintain  a  family ;  so  no 
merchant  can  be  n<lmltted  unless  he  prove  that  ho 
possesses  at  loust  AOdO  florins,  and  generally  persons 
possessing  tluit  sum,  or  even  more,  are  not  admitted 
unless  they  nmrry  a  citizen's  daughter.  In  which  case 
the  law  Is  muni  favorable.     The  ancient  law  is  also 
still  in  force,  that  none  shall  mend  a  shoe  or  drive  a 
nail  unless  hii  be  a  master  and  member  of  one  of  the 
corporations,  and  hn  can  not  become  a  member  unless 
he  bo  the  son  of  a  citizen,  or  marry  a  citizen's  daugh- 
ter.   The  restrictions  to  which  the  Jews  were  long 
subject  have  now  mostly  Imon  removed.   They  are  en- 
titled to  vote  ut  the  nlontlons  of  members  to  the  legis- 
lative assembly,  and  may  return  four  of  their  own 
numlMr;  they  are  also  admissible  lo  all  olBces  not 
connected  with  the  senate,  the  permanent  assembly  of 
the  citizens,  law,  religion,  or  o<lucatlon.    The  inhalw 
itants  of  Haclisonliauxen  am  mostly  of  Saxon  descent, 
and  distlngulsheia  from  their  feltow-oltUtns  in  man- 
ners, dress,  and  language,  as  well  as  ocoupatiooa, 
being  mostly  employed  in  gardening,  fishing,  etc. 
The  city,  witti  »  mimII  territory  of  thirty-eight 


FRE 


U9 


FRE 


■qnara  miles  lying  inuoediately  around  it,  constitutes 
tlie  fl-eu  atate  of  Frankfort.  Tlie  government  is  vested 
in  a  senate,  a  legislative  assembly,  and  a  perroment 
committee  of  citizens.  Tlie  senate,  trtiicli  exercises 
the  executive  power,  is  composed  of  44  members, 
divided  into  three  branches — ^justices,  senators,  and 
counselors,  and  having  two  presidents,  one  chosen 
from  each  of  the  two  tirst-mentioned  benches.  The 
legisUtive  assembly  is  composed  of  94  members,  of 
wliom  20  are  senators,  20  memliers  of  the  permanent 
committee  of  citizens,  45  chosen  annually  by  the  citi- 
zens collectively,  and  9  deputies  ftrom  the  rural  dis- 
tricts. The  permanent  committee  consist  of  60  mem- 
bers chosen  from  among  the  citizens  of  all  ranlcs.  The 
legislative  assembly  meets  annually  in  the  month  of 
Koveml)er,  and  sits  for  six  weeks ;  and  its  sanction  is 
requisite  to  all  new  laws,  the  budget,  etc.  With  tlie 
free  cities  of  Luliec,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg,  Frank- 
fort occupies  the  seventeenth  place  in  the  Germanic 
Confederation.  It  enjoys  one  vote  in  the  general  as- 
sembly (^Plenum),  and  furnishes  a  contingent  of  688 
men  to  the  federal  army.  Population  of  the  State 
(1862)  77,971. 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
province  of  Brandenburg,  and  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Frankfort,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Odor,  fifty  miles  east  by  south  of  Berlin,  with  which, 
since  1842,  it  has  Iwen  connected  by  railway.  The 
town  is  regularly  built,  and  surrounded  by  old  walls 
with  towers  and  ditches.  It  has  three  suburbs,  one 
of  which  stands  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  and 
copimunlcates  with  it  by  means  of  a  wooden  bridge. 
The  uiiiversity  founded  here  in  J50C  was  removed  to 
Breslau  iu  1810.  Frankfort  has  a  Roman  Catholic  and 
six  Protestant  churches,  a  synagogue,  gj'mnasium, 
obstetric  school,  orphan  asylum,  work-house,  theatre, 
ate.  Being  the  capital  of  a  govcmineut,  it  is  the  seat 
of  a  superior  and  other  judicial  tribunals,  of  boards 
of  taxation,  agriculture,  etc.  Though  inferior  to  its 
.  namesake  on  the  Maine,  it  is  a  place  of  considerable 
commercial  activity,  being  situated  on  the  high  road 
from  Berlin  to  Silesia,  and  on  a  navigable  river  com- 
municating by  canals  with  the  Vistula  and  the  E\6e. 
It  has  three  annual  fairs  in  the  months  of  February', 
July,  and  November,  attended  by  merchants  not  only 
from  Germany,  but  also  from  other  parts  of  Europe. 
It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  and  silk  goods,  stock- 
ings, gloves,  leather,  tobacco,  sugar,  lirandy,  mustiird, 
etc.  Immediately  beyond  the  bridge  is  a  monument 
to  Prince  Leopold  of  Brunswick,  who  was  drowned 
here  in  1785  while  attempting  to  rescue  an  unfortunate 
family  from  an  inundation  of  the  Oder.  At  Kunners- 
dorf,  in  the  vicinity,  Frederic  the  Great  was  defeated 
with  great  loss  by  tlie  Austrians  and  Kusslans  on  12th 
August,  1769.     Population  (1849)  29,969. 

Freebooters  (Fr.  jUbtutiera),  a  name  t,''^en  to  a 
class  of  piratical  adventurers  of  all  nations,  but  espe- 
cially of  France  and  England,  who  have  obtained  a 
place  in  history  l>y  the  courage  and  intrepidity  they 
displayed  in  executing  the  most  difficult  enterprises. 
The  origin  of  their  history  is  involved  in  oliscurlty, 
nor  has  the  derivation  of  their  name  been  precisely 
determined ;  iiut  the ^tiliiutiers  of  the  French  historians 
correspond  to  the  bucanefrt  of  our  own  writers.  (See 
BucANKKRg.)  The  South  American  islands  farmed 
the  chief  theatre  o!  their  exploits ;  and  such  was  the 
relentless  hostility  they  exercised  against  the  Hpuii- 
iards,  that  during  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  their  commerce  in  those  seaa  was  almost 
utterly  ruined.  At  the  commencement  of  the  follow- 
ing century  those  daring  adventurers  sustained  a 
series  of  disasters  which  sensibly  diminished  their  num- 
bers ;  and  their  name,  which  during  a  period  of  50 
years  hid  been  so  redoubtable  and  dreaded,  ceased  to 
be  formidable  from  that  time.  The  term  freebooter 
has  c^ea  applied  in  a  general  sense  to  robbers  and 
other  plunderers.    See  Bdcaneebs. 


Free  Imperial  Cltlea.— This  appellation  was 
bestowed,  under  the  German  empire,  on  certain  cities 
which  acknowledged  no  head  but  the  emperor,  and 
were  governed  by  their  own  magistrates.     Some  of 
these  cities,  as  Worms  and  Cologne,  acquired  various 
privileges  and  immunities  at  an  early  period,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  assistance  they  rendered  the  euipcrors 
in  repressing  the  arrogance  of  the  nobles  ;  and  com- 
merce and   manufactures   gradually  contributed  to 
their  importance.     In  this  manner  the  imperial  cities 
originated  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.     It 
would  appear,  however,  that  there  were  free  cities  In 
Germany  which  bad  existed  from  the  time  of  the  lio- 
mans,  though  possessing  little  iu  common  witli  those 
of  li'ter  times,  and  which  in  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  lost  their  most  valuable  privileges, 
and  oven  the  name  of  free  cities,  through  the  ignor- 
ance and  carelessness  of  their  magistrates.     As  to  the 
nature  of  these  privileges  It  will  lie  sufficient  to  re- 
mark that  they  were  such  as  to  constitute  them  noth- 
ing less  than  independent  republics.     The  cities  of 
Lombardy,  enriched  by  commerce  and  encouraged  by 
the  popes,  often  ventured  to  resist  their  masters  vbe 
cmjierors ;  and  their  example  was  followed  by  those  of 
Germany.     In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
two  important  confederacies  were  established  for  com- 
mon objects — the  Ilan^eatic  League  in  1241,  and  that 
of  the  Rhenish  cities  in  1246.     The  powerful  Ilanse- 
atlc  League  lasted  nearly  400  years,  and  its  dissolu- 
tion was  effected  by  several  causes  in  1630.     The 
remnants  of  this  league,  with  the  former  confederacy 
of  cities  which  had  its  representatives  in  the  German 
Diet,  as  well  as  the  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
and  Luliec,  were  Incorporated  with  the  French  em- 
pire in  1810.     As  these  cities  co-operated  vigorously 
in  the  recovery  of  German  independence,  they  were 
acknowledged,  together  with  Frankfort,  us  free  cities 
by  the  congress  of  Vienna  j  and  as  such  they  joined 
the  German  confederacy,  June  8th,  1815,  and  olitalned 
the  right  of  a  vote  in  the  '>iet.  See  also  H  ansk  Towns, 
Free  Trade.    A  nation,  iiossessing  all  necessary 
physical  resources,  but  imperfectly  develo|)cd,  like 
England  a  centur}'  ago,  like  the  United  States  now, 
may  do  one  of  two  things.    It  may  resolve  to  produce 
for  itself,  or  resolve  to  let  others  produce  for  it.     If  it 
resolve  to  use  its  own  products,  it  must  resolve  not  to 
use  the  products  of  other  nations.     Now,  what  is  a 
protective  tariff,  which  prevents  tlie  sale  of  foreign 
products,  but  this  resolution  expressed  by  legislation  ? 
Two  things  ari'  necessary :  1st.  Not  to  use  the  pro- 
ducts of  others.     2d,  To  produce  for  one's  self.     The 
first  is  protection.    Now  It  Is  true,  that  without  Indus- 
try at  home,  protection  from  abroad  will  avail  nothing, 
for  there  is  nothing  to  protect.  And  without  resources, 
neither  protection  nor  Industry  will  avail  any  thing. 
We  admit  tlio  necessity,  first,  of  natural  resources ; 
second,  of  industry ;  wo  claim,  third,  the  necessity  of 
protection. 

Protection,  then,  is  the  resolution  of  a  nation  not  to 
use  foreign  products ;  this  is  tho  negative  side  of  the 
policy  of  homo  industry.  A  resolution  to  produce  for 
itself  is  the  affirmative  side,  and  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete it.  Such  a  resolution  in  a  nation  is  like  self-con- 
trol in  an  individual,  and  protection  is  no  more  un- 
natural in  the  one  than  self-control  In  tho  other. 

It  Is  a  domestic  policy,  designed  to  keep  foreign 
goods  out  of  the  home  market.  Now,  a  nation  may 
sny  it  will  not  buy  of  others.  This  Is  protection.  It 
■:an  not  say  others  shall  buy  of  itself.  This  is  beyond 
the  power  of  protection ;  and  England  reached  this 
point  years  ago,  we  think  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  century.  During  the  European  war  she  enjoyed 
the  most  effectual  protection,  for  we  admit  the  fling  of 
the  free-traders,  that  protection  is  a  sort  of  war,  t'-.us 
far,  that  it  involves  mutual  exclusion.  England's 
fleets  swept  the  seas,  conveying  around  tho  world  her 
merchantmen  that  carried  the  raw  materials  to  her  fac- 


foui 

sisti 

ihii 

the 

proi: 

sis, 

the 

and 

nm 

wha 

ager 

men 

com  I 

pric( 

mail 


IVf 

Idly 


FRE 


749 


PRE 


i  to 


)reign 

may 

It 

pyond 

tbU 
ingot 
ijoyed 
ingof 

thus 
land's 
Idhor 
er  fac- 


tories, and  carried  it  baclc  mannfactured  to  tlie  ends 
of  tlie  earth.  Xo  otiier  nation  but  the  United  States 
pretended  to  share  the  carr^'ing  trade,  and  we  then, 
favored  by  like  protection,  iirst  began  to  manufac- 
ture. 

England  commanded  the  marlcets  of  the  world. 
What  iiad  site  to  fear  for  the  marlcet  at  home  ?  Pro- 
tection had  done  its  perfect  worlc — it  was  funcUu  offi- 
cio ;  and  yet,  when  England,  thirty-five  years  after, 
when  they  had  become  useless,  ventures  to  throw  off 
some  of  the  restrictions  that  swathed  her  industry,  we 
are  told  she  had  abandoned  the  principle,  convinced  it 
was  a  mistake. 

Oboss  Revknue  ri.ou  Customs  or  Obkat  Britaik,  after 
Dkiiuotioh  or  Drawbacks,  with  Statements  or 
Customs  Duties  repralbd,  beduokd,  or  expirki>  each 
Year,  and  those  imposed,  prom  181A  to  1S55. 


nmumn  ankual  producr  op        | 

CUITOHS 

Dunu 

T»\B. 

C17BT0M«. 

Rcpaaloil. 

Iinpoied, 

1816 

£23,488,000 

£228,000 

£(M,000 

1816 

19,845,000 

63,000 

90,000 

181T 

22,111,000 

1,000 

7,000 

1818 

22,869,000 

1819 

21,952,000 

472,000 

l,26b',66o 

1820 

22,104,000 

6,000 

1821 

22,572,000 

20,660 

.... 

1823 

2«,,'i00,000 

158,000 

.... 

1S23 

24,841,000 

211,000 

1824 

24,711,000 

1,418,000 

46,66o 

1825 

24,660,000 

2,768,000 

.  •  . 

1826 

22,8,56,000 

778,000 

189,000 

1827 

»:i,202,000 

2,000 

21,000 

1828 

21i.S66,000 

86,000 

2,000 

1829 

22,620,000 

126,000 

1S80 

22,914,000 

675,000 

86',66o 

1881 

21,612,000 

1,066,000 

626,000 

1882 

21,978,000 

248,000 

23,000 

1S88 

21,2,V),000 

847,000 

1834 

21,661,000 

806,000 

17,660 

18.S8 

22,146,000 

88.000 

1886 

28,046,000 

143,000 

i",66o 

188T 

22,068,000 

.... 

•  1  •  • 

1S!!8 

22,365,000 

•  •  >  • 

188» 

2.'i,184,000 

6^660 

1840 

2.S,842,000 

i,06o,66o 

1841 

28,516,000 

27,660 

1842 

22,628,IM)0 

1,490,000 

i6r,66o 

l^tt 

22,647,000 

171,000 

.... 

lSt4 

24,107,000 

286,000 

•    •  • 

1845 

21,706,000 

3,608,000 

.... 

1848 

22,278,000 

785,000 

2,000 

184T 

21,6,16,000 

846,000 

1848 

22,594,000 

686,000 

1849 

22,269,000 

889,000 

•  •  •* 

1850 

22,020,000 

834,(H)0 

•  •  .  • 

1851 

22,137,000 

801,000 

.... 

1852 

21,791,000 

06,000 

1868 

22,152,000 

1,600,000 

16^660 

18M 

22,017,000 

983,000 

440,000 

1855 

22,227,000 

2,226,000 

"  We  have  seen  that,  apart  from  foreign  trade,  the 
population  of  every  country  supply  their  own  wants 
to  the  extent;  of  from  90  to  99  per  cent,  of  their  whole 
consumption  ;  that  the  business  of  furnishing  this  sup- 
ply is  by  extreme  division  of  labor,  apportioned  among 
four  fifths  of  a  people ;  that  their  internal  trade  con- 
jists  in  distributing  these  products  of  industry ;  that 
this  distribution  is  substantially  an  exchange  among 
the  wliole  individuals  of  a  population,  of  products  for 
products,  or  products  for  services,  or,  in  the  last  analy- 
sis, of  liilmr  for  lalmr  ;  that  this  exchange  :s  made  l)y 
the  agency  of  merchants,  and  takes  the  shape  of  sales 
and  purchases,  that  is,  leaving  out  of  view  the  medi- 
um of  exchange,  men  pay  with  their  own  labor  for 
what  they  need  of  the  laimr  of  otliers ;  that  all  the 
Bgenry  of  merchants,  brokers,  banks,  and  credit,  is 
merely  a  means  of  effecting  this  exchange,  that  the 
commodities  or  ial<or  thus  exchanged,  are  estimated  at 
prices  expressed  in  money  of  account,  which  prices  are 
mainly  governed  liy  the  price  of  labor ;  that  upon  the 
regular  movement  of  tiiis  exchange,  mainly  depends 
the  well-l)eing  and  comfort,  the  energy  and  product- 
ivriess  of  labor;  that  if  this  movement  proceeds  rap- 
Idly  and  imdisturbed,  production  and  consumption  will 


go  hand  in  hand,  until  Individuals  reach  the  full  power 
of  both,  and  a  greater  degree  of  general  comfort  and 
competency  be  enjoyed  than  has  yet  iwen  known.  We 
have  seen  that  one  of  the  great  disturbing  causes  of 
this  s}'stem  of  domestic  distribution,  of  tlie  comforts 
and  necessaries  of  life,  was  found  in  the  occasional  de- 
rangement of  the  commercial  agencies  by  which  it  is 
effected ;  and  we  have  remarked  upon  the  necessity  of 
reforming  that  agency  with  a  view  to  the  interests  of 
humanity. 

"  We  now  proceed  to  consider  another  disturbing 
cause.     Wo  remark  first,  however,  that  neither  the 
labor  nor  the  products  of  labor,  nor  the  distribution, 
nor  the  means  by  wliich  it  is  effected  are  the  pri- 
mar)'  ol>jects  of  consideration.    The  first  considera- 
tion is  the  people,  then,  in  their  order,  their  labor,  their 
products,  and  the  distribution  of  them.     The  whole 
object  of  their  industrj'  is  their  well-being.     As  they 
can  only  purchase  by  their  own  Iaix)r  what  they  need  of 
the  labor  of  others,  it  is  abso'utely  necessary  for  all  to 
work ;  whatever  deprives  men  of  the  opportunity  of 
labor,  deprives  them  of  liread,  and  of  every  other  com- 
fort and  necessary  of  life.     Men  consume  freely  and 
largely  when  they  are  fully  paid  for  their  labor ;  that 
is,  when  they  can  purchase  for  their  labor  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  the  laI)or  of  others ;  in  this  case,  the  nominal 
rate  is  of  little  account,  liecause  it  is  labor  for  labor. 
If  the  25,000,000  of  people  in  the  United  States,  are 
consuming  $10  wortli  each  of  domestic  woolen  goods 
annually,  upon  the  manufacture  of  which  260,000  of 
the  people  are  dependent  for  their  entire  living,  and  if 
it  be  found  thot  these  same  goods,  which  cost  at  home 
$S,  can  be  purchased  at  $2  per  yard  in  Europe,  then, 
at  first  sight,  it  would  seem  but  reasonable,  that  the 
cbeaiwr  article  should  be  imported  from  Europe.     To 
import  $250,000,000  worth  is  impossible,  because  we 
can  not  pay  for  them,  as  wo  are  constantly  importing 
more  than  we  can  pay  for,  iiud  that  sum  is  the  figure 
of  our  whole  imports.     We  import,  then,  say  10  per 
cent.,  or  $25,000,000  worth  of  woolen  goods,  and  sell 
them  in  our  great  commercial  marts,  where  prices  are 
cliiefiy  made,  33  per  cent,  cheaper  than  the  domestic 
article.     Consumers  fly  to  tlie  cheaper  article,  and  the 
domestic  goods  must  come  down  to  the  same  price.  The 
annual  domestic  product  must  fall  in  price  33  per  cent., 
and  instead  of  lir!nc;ing  its  manufacturers  $250,000,000, 
it  will  only  l)riii)j    'lem  $160,000,000  ;  tlicir  consump- 
tion of  the  product     f  others  must  1)6  reduced  one  third. 
The  effects  of  this      luction  will  extend  until  tliey  are 
felt  throughout  n  \     ile  nation.     The  importation  of 
26,000,000  of  cheapo  I    .  odens,  would  thus  inflict  a  di- 
rect loss  by  reduction  ui  price  upon  the  woolen  manu- 
facturers of  $8.S,000,000,  and  this  loss  is  multiplied 
many  times  by  indirect  results  In  the  reduction  of  con- 
sumption.    The  average  consumption  of  cotton  goods 
is  about  the  same  as  that  of  woolens,  and  the  same  il- 
lustration is  applicalile.     The  introduction  of  cheaper 
goods,  of  a  kind  which  our  country  must,  after  all, 
chiefly  maniifacturo  for  itself,  is  introducing  against 
our  own  labor,  the  price  of  which  is  $1  per  day,  the  la- 
l)or  of  other  countries,  the  price  of  which  is  less  than 
60  cents  per  day.     This  can  not  but  inflict  a  serious 
blow  upon  the  whole  system  of  our  internal  industry, 
and  if  continued,  must  leod  to  the  utter  prostration  of 
the  domestic  manufacture  thus  attacked,  and  the  utter 
poverty  and  ruin  of  tlie  hundreds  of  thousands  depend- 
ing on  it  for  a  living.     TIte  eft'ect  of  this  in  the  case  of 
woolen  goods,  v;ould  be  a  reduction  in  the  average  con- 
sumption of  woolens,  of  from  $10  to  $5,  for  the  whole 
population,  and  a  rise  in  the  prices  above  the  original 
domestic  rates.     While,  therefore,  it  may  at  flrst  sight 
appear  to  l>e  very  plainly  lietter  to  import  certain  goods 
which  can  bo  offered  to  consumers  at  lower  prices  than 
the  corresponding  domestic  article,  several  questions 
must  1)6  asked  before  such  a  policy  Is  adopted.     As, 
Will  the  Importation  seriotudy  Injure  any  home  manu- 
facture i    Will  it  throw  muiy  people  out  of  employ- 


FRE 


760 


FRE 


ment  ?  It  ii  a  great  mtatake  to  Bnppose  that  anch  meas- 
nrea  affect  only  cmployen :  in  woolen  and  cotton  man- 
ufactories, there  are  hundreds  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  depending  upon  every  employer.  If  we  los- 
len  our  domestic  production,  will  not  our  increased  de- 
mand produces  peculation,  and  a  higher  foreign  price  for 
the  article  imported  ?  If  we  resolve  upon  importing 
our  whole  supply  of  a  necessary  article,  are  we  sure 
that  we  can  increase  our  exports  to  a  sufficient  extent 
to  pay  for  the  additional  importation  ?  Are  we  sure 
that  we  shall  not,  by  this  policy,  deprive  the  poor  of 
their  supply  of  a  needful  domestic  product,  and  con- 
vert it  into  a  foreign  product,  chiefly  supplied  for  the 
consumption  of  the  rich  ?  What  mode  can  be  adopted 
to  secure  a  supply  of  these  needful  articles  in  time  of 
war,  or  interrupted  commercial  Intercourse  ?  All  these, 
and  many  more  inquiries,  should  be  made  and  faith- 
fully studied,  before  any  branch  of  domestic  industry 
is  broken  up,  under  the  temptation  of  buying  cheaper 
goods  abroad.  On  the  contrary,  it  should  be  well 
understood  in  every  country,  that  many  sacrifices  may, 
i^ith  advantage,  be  endured,  to  introduce  the  manufac- 
ture of  any  article  of  general  consumption,  even  though 
it  can  not  be  made  as  cheap  as  elsewhere.  A  manufac- 
ture can  only  grow  and  flourish  in  a  countr>'  where  the 
people  are  willing  to  consume  its  products,  and  they  can 
only  consume  them  where  their  labor  will  purchase 
them.  A  people  can  consume  largely  of  a  doinestic 
product  even  at  a  high  price,  but  may  not  be  nl'Ie  to 
consume  even  a  small  proportion  of  a  corresponding 
foreign  article  at  a  low  price.  Let  any  one  think  of 
the  innumerable  articles  which  figure  in  our  internal 
trade,  and  which  go  to  pay  for,  as  well  as  to  mako  up 
our  consumption  of  home  commodities,  and  he  will 
see  the  diffcn  uce  betwen  purchasing  abroad  and  at 
home." — List's  Pol.  Ac.,  by  S.  Colweli,. 

Those  who  wish  to  examine  the  literature  ot  free- 
trade,  will  find  the  principles  fully  discussed  in  the 
following  works :  Hunt's  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  227  (S.  G. 
Arsole),  425  (II.  Greelev),  v.,  1C6  (11.  Gkeelby), 
vi.,  220  (C.  C.  Haven),  viii.,  407  (L.  Woodbdry), 
Ix.,  161  (J.  B.  Fisher),  x.,  399, 522,  xi.,  227,  xxiv.,  53 
(S.  Beman),  669,  xxiii.,  79,  110,  xxii.,  635  (IUcon), 
406  (Slllkt),  XXV.,  822 ;  N.Am.  Rev.,  xl.,  122  (A.  H. 
Eveuett);  Am.  Qaar.,  x.  444;  Dem.  Rev.,  vii.,  841, 
Ix.,  829,  xiv.,  391,  447,  xxxiii.,  97;  Dublin  Univ., 
xxix.,  785,  XXXV.,  270;  £<linb.  Rep.  xxxiii.,  831, 
IxxvUi.,  1,  xc,  70;  Am.  Whig  Rev.,  v.,  201,  xiii.,  233, 
329,  443,  xii.,  618,  633;  Nll,ES'  Reg.,  xxviil.,  186, 
xxix.,  289,  xli.,  li!5,  156;  Fraser's  Mag.,  v,,  577, 
viii.,  103,  2>2,  C04,  ix.,  856,  vi.,  693  (Galt),  vii.,  106 
(Gait), .xliii., 716;  (2i(nr.^<'r.,lxxxvi.,80;  For.Quar., 
ix.,  261,  X.,  68;  xi.,  140;  Weitmimter  Rev.,  xii.,  138, 
xviii.,  31)6,  xix.,  269,  xxii.,  220,  xl.,  1 ;  Blackwood, 
xvii.,  551,  xix.,  474,  xxL,  1,  xxiv.,  370,  xxvii.,  553, 
xliv.,  317,  Iv.,  259,  385,  Ixvii.,  94,  222,  447,  Ixx.,  106, 
123,  448,  629,  Isviii.,  123. 

Freight,  the  sum  paid  by  the  merchant  or  other 
person  hiring  a  ship,  or  part  of  a  ship,  for  the  use  of 
such  ship  or  part,  during  a  specified  voyage  or  for  a 
specified  time.  'The  freight  is  most  commonly  fixed 
by  the  charter-party,  or  bill  of  lading ;  l)ut  in  the  ah- 
sence  of  an}-  formal  stipulations  on  the  8ul>ject,  it 
would  be  due  according  to  the  custom  or  usage  of 
trade.  In  the  case  of  a  charter-party,  if  tlie  stipu- 
lated payment  Iw  a  gross  sum  for  an  entire  ship,  or 
an  entire  part  of  a  ship,  for  the  whole  voyage,  the 
gross  sum  will  be  payable  although  the  merchant  has 
not  fully  laden  the  ship.  And  if  a  certain  sum  be 
stipulated  for  every  ton,  or  other  portion  of  the  ship's 
capacity,  for  the  whole  voyage,  the  payment  mu.-t  be 
according  to  the  number  of  tons,  etc.,  which  the  -hip 
is  proved  capalda  of  containing,  without  regar  1  to 
the  quantity  actually  put  on  board  liy  the  nutrch.mt. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  merchant  h:iva  stipulated  to 
pay  a  certain  sum  per  cask  or  bait:  uf  goods,  the  pay- 
ment must  be,  in  the  flnt  place,  according  to  the  num- 


ber of  casks  and  bales  shipped  and  delivered ;  and  if 
he  have  further  covenanted  to  furnish  u  complete  lad- 
ing, or  a  specific  number  of  casks  or  bales,  and  failed 
to  do  so,  he  must  make  good  the  loss  which  the  own- 
ers have  sustained  by  hi;  failure.  If  an  entire  ship 
be  hired,  and  the  burden  thereof  be  expressed  in  the 
charter-party,  and  the  merchant  bind  himself  to  pay 
a  certain  sum  for  every  ton,  etc.,  of  goods  which  he 
shall  lade  on  board,  but  does  not  bind  himself  to  fur- 
nish a  complete  lading,  tb«  owners  can  only  demand 
payment  for  the  quantity  of  goods  actually  shipped. 
But  if  the  merchant  agree  to  load  a  full  and  complete 
cargo,  though  the  ship  be  described  as  of  less  burden 
than  she  really  is,  the  merchant  must  load  a  full  car- 
go, according  to  the  real  burden  of  the  ship,  and  he 
will  be  liable  for  freight  according  to  what  ought  to 
be  loaded. 

The  delivery  of  goods  at  the  place  of  destination  is  in 
general  necessary  to  entitle  the  owner  to  freight ;  but 
with  respect  to  living  animals,  whether  men  or  cuttle, 
which  may  frequently  die  during  the  voyage,  without 
any  fault  or  neglect  of  the  persons  belonging  to  the 
ship,  it  is  ruled,  that  if  there  be  no  express  agreement 
whether  the  freight  is  to  be  paid  for  the  lading,  or  for 
the  transporting  them,  freight  shall  be  paid  as  well 
for  the  dead  as  for  the  living :  if  the  agreement  lie  to 
pay  freight  for  the  lading,  then  death  certainly  can 
not  deprive  the  owners  of  the  freight;  but  if  the 
agreement  lie  to  pay  freight  for  transporting  them, 
then  no  frcght  is  due  for  those  that  die  on  the  voyage, 
because  as  to  them  the  contract  is  not  performed. 
These  distinctions  have  been  made  In  the  civil  law, 
and  have  been  adopted  into  the  modem  systems  of 
maritime  law.  Freight  is  most  frequently  contracted 
to  be  paid  either  by  the  whole  voyage,  or  by  the 
month,  or  other  time.  In  the  former  case  the  owners 
take  upon  themselves  the  chance  of  the  voyage  lieing 
long  or  short ;  but  in  the  latter  the  risk  of  the  dura- 
tion falls  upon  the  merchant;  and  if  no  time  bo  fixed 
for  the  commencement  of  the  computation,  it  will  be- 
gin from  the  day  on  which  the  ship  breaks  ground 
and  commences  her  voj-age,  and  will  continue  during 
the  whole  course  of  the  voyage,  and  during  all  una- 
voidable delaj's  not  occasioned  by  the  act  or  neglect  of 
the  owners  or  master,  or  by  such  circumstances  as  oc- 
casion a  suspension  of  the  contract  for  a  particular 
period.  Thus,  the  freight  will  be  payable  fur  the  time 
consumed  in  necessary  repairs  during  a  voyage,  pro- 
vided it  do  not  appear  that  the  ship  was  insufliiiont  at 
the  outset,  or  that  there  was  any  improper  delay  in 
repairing  her. 

In  the  absence  of  an  express  contract  to  the  con- 
trary, the  entire  freight  is  not  earned  until  the  whole 
cargo  be  ready  for  delivery,  or  has  been  delivered  to 
the  consignee  according  to  the  contract  for  its  convey- 
ance. If  a  consignee  receive  goods  in  pursuance  of 
the  usual  bill  of  lading,  by  which  it  is  expressed  that 
he  is  to  pay  the  freight,  he,  by  such  receipt,  makes 
himself  debtor  for  the  freight,  and  may  be  sued  fur  it. 
But  a  person  who  is  only  an  agent  for  the  consignor, 
and  who  a  known  to  the  master  to  be  acting  in  that 
character,  does  not  make  himself  personally  answer- 
able for  the  freight  by  receiving  the  goods,  although 
he  also  enters  them  in  his  own  name  at  the  custom- 
house. In  some  cases  freight  is  to  be  paid,  or  rather 
an  equivalent  recompense  made  to  the  owners,  al- 
though the  goods  have  not  licen  delivered  at  the  place 
of  destination,  and  though  the  contract  for  convey- 
ance be  not  strictly  performed.  Thus,  if  part  of  the 
cargo  be  thrown  overlioanl  for  the  necessary  pre.ierva- 
tion  of  the  ship  and  the  remainder  of  the  goods,  and 
the  ship  afterwanl  reach  the  place  of  destination,  the 
value  of  this  part  is  to  be  answered  to  the  merchant 
by  way  of  general  average,  and  the  value  of  the 
freight  thereof  allowed  to  the  owner.  So,  if  the  mas- 
ter be  coni|ieIled  by  ne  •^ssity  to  sell  a  part  of  the 
cargo  for  victuals  or  ropa.  ii,  the  owners  must  pay  to 


FRE 


761 


FRE 


the  merchant  the  price  which  the  goods  would  have 
fetched  at  the  plaoe  of  deitination ;  and,  therefore,  are 
•Unwed  to  charge  the  merchant  with  the  money  that 
would  have  been  due  If  they  had  been  conveyed 
thither. 

When  gooda  are  det<>riorated  during  a  voyaga,  the 
merchant  is  entitled  to  a  compenaation,  provided  the 
deterioration  hoa  proceeded  from  the  fault  or  neglect 
of  the  master  or  mariners ;  and  of  course  he  Is  not 
•nswerabte  for  the  freight,  unless  ho  accept  the  goods, 
except  by  way  of  deduction  from  the  rmount  of  the 
compensation.  On  the  other  hand.  If  the  deteriora- 
tion has  proceeded  from  a  principle  of  decay  naturally 
Inherent  in  the  commodity  itself,  whether  active  ':n 
every  situation,  or  in  the  confinement  and  closeness 
of  a  ship,  or  from  the  perils  of  the  sea,  or  the  act  of 
God,  the  merchant  must  bear  the  Inss  and  pay  the 
fireight ;  for  the  master  and  owners  are  in  no  fault, 
nor  does  their  contract  contain  any  insurance  or  war- 
ranty against  such  an  event.  In  our  AVcst  India 
trade,  the  freight  of  sugar  and  molasses  Is  usually 
regulated  by  the  weight  of  the  casks  at  the  port  of 
delivery  here,  which,  in  fact,  is  in  every  instance 
less  than  the  weight  at  the  time  of  the  shipment : 
and,  therefore,  the  loss  of  freight  occasioned  by  the 
lealiage  necessarily  fulls  upon  tlie  owners  of  the  ship 
by  the  nature  of  the  contract. 

Different  opinions  have  been  entertained  by  Valin, 
Pothier,  and  other  great  authorities  us  to  maritime  law, 
with  respect  to  the  expediency  of  allowing  the  mer- 
chant to  abandon  his  goods  for  freight  in  the  event  of 
their  being  damaged.  This  question  has  not  been 
judicially  decided  in  this  country.  "  The  only 
point,"  says  Lord  Tenterden,  "  intended  to  lie  proposed 
by  me  as  doubtful,  is  the  right  to  abandon  for  freight 
alone  at  the  port  of  destination ;  and  in  point  of  prac- 
tice, I  have  been  informed  that  this  right  is  never 
claimed  in  this  countrj'." — Laio  of  Shipping,  part  iii., 
c.  7.  Freight  being  the  return  made  for  the  convey- 
ance of  goods  or  passengers  to  a  particular  destination, 
no  claim  arises  for  its  payment  in  the  event  of  a  total 
loss ;  and  it  is  laid  down  by  Lord  Mansfleld,  that  "  in 
case  of  a  total  loss  with  salvage,  the  merchant  may 
either  take  the  part  saved,  or  abandon." — Abbott,  part 
iii.,  c.  7.  But  after  the  merchant  has  made  his  elec- 
tion, he  must  abide  by  it. 

It  often  happens  that  a  ship  is  hired  l)y  a  charter- 
party  to  sail  from  one  port  to  another,  and  thence  back 
to  the  first ;  as,  for  example,  from  London  to  Leghorn, 
and  from  Leghorn  back  to  London,  at  a  certain  sum 
to  be  paid  for  everj*  i  lonth  or  other  |icriod  of  the  dura- 
tion of  the  employment.  Upon  such  a  contract,  if  the 
vhole  be  one  entire  voi/aije,  and  the  ship  sail  in  safety  to 
Leghorn,  and  there  deliver  the. goods  of  the  merchant 
and  tuke  others  on  board  to  be  l)rought  to  l4>ndon,  but 
happen  to  be  lost  in  her  retrm  thither,  nothing  is  due 
for  freight,  although  the  m  erchnnt  has  hud  the  benefit 
of  the  voyage  to  X/Oghom ;  but,  if  the  outward  and 
homeward  voyngei  be  distinct,  freight  will  bo  due  for 
the  proportion  of  the  time  employed  in  the  outward 
voyage.  "  if,"  said  Lord  Mansfield,  in  a  case  of  this 
sort,  "  there  \>e  one  entire  voyage  out  and  in,  and  the 
ship  be  cast  away  on  the  homeward  voyage,  no  freight 
is  due,  no  wages  are  due,  because  the  wlwie  profit  is 
lost ;  ond  by  express  agreement  the  parties  may  make 
the  outward  and  homeward  voyage  one.  Nothing  is 
more  common  than  two  voyages :  whercrer  there  are 
two  vnyaget  and  one  i>  performed,  and  the  ship  is  lost  on 
the  homeward  voyage,  freight  is  due  for  the  first." — 
A'.  B.,  Trin.  Term.  Iti  Geo.  3. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  master  or  owner  fulls 
to  complete  his  contract,  either  by  not  delivering  the 
whole  goods  to  the  consignee  or  owner,  or  by  deliver- 
ing them  at  a  place  short  of  their  original  destination ; 
In  these  cases,  if  the  owner  or  consignee  of  the  goods 
derive  any  benefit  fivm  their  conveyance,  lie  is  liable  to 
the  payment  of  freight  according  to  the  proportion  of 


the  voyage  performed,  or  pro  raid  ilinerit  peracti :  and 
though  contracts  of  this  nature  be  frequently  entire 
and  indivisible,  and  the  master  or  owner  of  the  ship 
can  not,  from  their  nature,  sue  thereon,  and  recover  n 
ratable  freight,  or  pro  raid  itinerit ;  yet  he  may  do  so 
upon  a  fresh  implied  contract,  for  as  much  as  he  de- 
serves to  have  unless  there  be  an  express  clause  in  the 
original  charter-party  or  contract  to  the  contrar}'.  A 
fresh  implied  contract  is  inferred  from  the  owner's  or 
consignee's  acceptance  of  the  goods.  Many  difficul- 
ties have,  indeed,  arisen  In  deciding  as  to  wliat  shall 
amount  to  an  acceptance :  it  is  not,  however,  necessary 
actually  to  receive  the  goods  i  acceptance  may  be 
made  by  the  express  or  implied  directions,  and  with 
the  consent,  of  the  owner  or  consignee  of  the  goods, 
but  not  otherwise. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  owner  of  the  ship, 
who  is  originally  entitled  to  the  freight,  sells  or  other- 
wise disposes  of  his  interest  in  the  ship :  wliere  a  char 
tered  ship  is  sold  before  the  voyage,  the  vendee,  and 
not  the  vendor  or  party  to  whom  he  afterward  ossigns 
the  charter-party,  is  entitled  to  the  freight.  Uut 
where  a  ship  has  been  sold  during  the  voyage,  the 
owner,  with  whom  a  covenant  to  pay  freight  has  been 
made,  is  entitled  to  the  freight,  and  not  the  vendee. 
A  mortgagee  who  does  not  take  possession,  is  not  en- 
titled to  the  freight. 

The  time  and  manner  of  paying  freight  are  fre- 
quently regulated  by  e.xpress  stipulations  in  a  charter- 
party,  or  other  written  contract ;  and  when  that  Is  the 
case,  they  must  be  respected  ;  but  if  there  bo  no  ex- 
press stipulation  contrary  to  or  Inconsistent  with  the 
right  of  lien,  the  goods  remain  as  security  till  the 
freight  Is  paid ;  for  the  master  is  not  bound  to  deliver 
them,  or  any  part  of  them,  without  payment  of  the 
freight  and  other  charges  in  respect  thereof.  But  the 
master  can  not  detain  the  cargo  on  board  the  vessel 
till  these  pajinents  he  made,  as  the  merchant  would,  in 
that  case,  have  no  opportunity  of  examining  the  con- 
dition of  the  goods.  In  England,  the  practice  is,  when 
the  master  is  doubtful  of  paj'ment,  to  send  such  goods 
as  are  not  required  to  be  landed  at  any  purticul.r 
wharf,  to  a  puldic  wharf,  ordering  the  whurlinger  ni't 
to  part  with  them  till  the  freiglit  and  other  charges  ure 
paid.  No  right  of  lien  for  freight  cun  exist,  unlc:ts 
the  freight  be  earned.  If  the  freighter,  or  a  stranger, 
prevent  the  freight  from  becomingdue,  the  ship  owner 
or  muster's  rem'.dy  is  by  action  of  dumuges. 

For  further  information  and  details  with  respect  to 
this  subject  see  the  article  Charter-party  ;  Abbott 
(Lord  Tksterden)  on  the  Law  of  Shipping,  part  iii., 
c.  7  ;  Ciiittv's  Commercial  Law,  vol.  iii.  c.  9,  etc. 

Freight  Is  a  common  sul)ject  of  insurance.  In  com- 
mon conversation,  tliis  word  means  sometimes  the 
cargo  carried,  and  sometimes  the  earnings  of  the  ship 
by  currying  the  cargo.  The  latter  Is  the  nica^iing  in 
mercantile  law,  and  especially  in  the  law  of  insurance. 
It  includes  tlie  money  to  lie  paid  to  the  owner  of  a  sliip 
by  the  shipper  of  goods,  and  tlio  earnings  of  an  owner 
hy  carrying  his  own  goods,  and  the  amount  to  bo  paid 
to  liim  by  the  hirer  of  his  ship,  and  the  profits  of  such 
hirer,  either  by  carrying  bis  own  goods  or  bj-  carrying 
for  pay  the  goods  of  others. 

An  interest  in  freight  begins  as  soon  as  the  voyage 
is  determined  upon  and  tlie  ship  is  actually  ready  for 
sea,  and  goods  are  on  board  or  ready  to  be  put  on 
l>onrd,  or  ure  promised  to  be  on  board  by  a  contruct 
binding  on  the  owner  of  the  goods. 

If  a  ship  is  insured  on  a  voyage  which  is  to  consist 
of  ninny  passages,  and  sail  without  cargo,  Imt  a  cargo 
is  ready  for  her  at  the  first  port  she  is  to  roach  and  i<ail 
from,  tlie  owner  has  an  insurab.d  interest  in  tlic  freight 
from  the  day  in  which  he  sails  from  his  home  port. 

If  one  makes  advances  toward  the  freight,  ho  is  to 
pay,  and  this  is  to  be  re-paid  to  him  by  tlie  ship- 
owner ;  if  the  freight  Is  not  earned,  the  udvuneer  bus 
no  Insurable  interest  in  what  he  advances ;  but  If  he 


FRB 


759 


FRE 


bito  loM  without  npaymnnt,  If  the  ihip  b«  loit,  or  tho 
ftslght  notMrn«d,  he  hiia  en  ineureble  Interest. — Par- 
•ONs'fi  Mrrcantih  Ixno ;  Boston :  p.  418. 

If  the  hirer  takes  the  whole  veesel,  ho  may  put  the 
gooda  of  other  ehlp-ownem  on  lioanl  (unleaa  prevented 
by  express  stipulation)  ;  but  whether  he  tills  the  whole 
ihip  or  not,  he  pays  for  the  whole ;  and  what  he  pars 
for  so  much  of  the  ship  as  Is  empty  is  said  to  be  paid 
for  dead  fVeight.  This  is  calculated  on  the  actual  ca- 
pacity of  the  ship,  unless  she  is  agt«ed  to  be  of  speci- 
fied tonnage.  If  either  patty  Is  deceived  or  defrauded 
by  any  statement  In  the  charter-party,  he  has,  of 
course,  his  remedy  against  the  other  party. — Page  llfiH. 
The  freight  is  totally  lost  when  the  ship  Is  totally 
lost  or  made  unnavigable,  or  is  subjected  to  a  detention 
of  such  a  character  as  to  l>reak  up  the  voyage.  If 
there  l>e  a  consfrutive  total  loss  of  the  ship,  the  owner 
may  abandon  the  freight  with  the  ship ;  but  if  the  ship 
be  actually  lost,  the  freight  may  not  lie ;  for  the  mas- 
ter has  the  right,  and  is  under  the  duty,  of  transmit- 
ting the  goods,  if  he  can  ;  and  If  he  does,  the  owner  of 
the  ship  Is  entitled  to  the  whole  of  his  freight,  and  the 
expense  of  the  transmission  Is  all  his  loss.  If  the  mas- 
ter might  have  done  this,  and  fails  to  do  it,  the  esti- 
mated expense  of  transmission  is  still  all  the  lose  for 
which  the  insurers  are  responoible. 

So,  if  the  ship  can  Iw  lepulrod,  and  go  on  again  and 
finish  her  voyage,  the  owner  would  have  the  right  to 
hold  on  to  the  goods,  and  Anally  carry  them,  and  earn 
bis  fk'eight.  And  he  has  this  right  alt'iough  the  delay 
would  be  ver}'  long,  and  even  if  the  )r  jods  are  Injured, 
•nd  It  would  cost  time  and  money  to  put  them  in  a 
condition  of  safety  for  the  residue  of  the  voyge.  Still, 
the  ship-owner,  by  his  agent,  may  do  all  this,  und 
then  earn  his  freight ;  and,  therefore,  If  it  can  Iw  done, 
whether  it  is  done  or  not,  all  the  claim  which  the  in- 
sured on  freight  can  make  on  the  Insurers  Is  for  the 
ex|)en9e  nf  doing  it.  The  rule  of  60  per  cent,  ap- 
plies to  freight  also.  If,  therefore,  freight  pro  raid  Im 
paid,  it  will  be  a  total  loss  by  construction  if  less  than 
half  be  paid.  So  if  the  ship  be  injured,  and  part  of 
the  cargo  be  lost,  but  the  ship  may  be  repaired  and 
carry  the  remalnini'  goods  on.  If  that  part  would  pay 
more  than  half  of  the  whole  freight,  it  has  been  held 
not  to  be  total ;  and  otherwise,  it  is. 

Freight  is  full}'  earned  If  the  goods  remain  substan- 
tially in  s|>ecie,  and  are  so  delivered  to  the  consignee, 
altliough  there  be  a  very  great  deterioration ;  but 
fr<>igbt  is  lost,  and  the  Insurers  are  responsible.  If 
nothing  Is  left  of  the  goods  but  the  mere  products  of 
decomposition,  so  that  they  are  lost  In  fact. 

If,  after  some  freight  is  earned,  there  is  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  ship,  and,  after  the  abandonment,  more 
ft«ight  Is  earned,  the  American  cases  hold  that  the 
fl^Ight  earned  before  the  abandonment  goes  to  the 
insurtn  on  freight,  while  that  earned  after  the  aban- 
donment goes  to  the  insurers  of  the  ship.  But  the 
French  law  is  the  reverse,  and  pursues  the  rule  in  En- 
gland. 

By  the  French  law,  an  abandonment  of  the  ship 
gave  to  the  underwriters  the  benefits  of  the  freight 
pending  at  thu  time  of  the  loss.  In  the  United  States 
it  seems  now  to  be  well  settled  that  the  freight  eam<!d 
prior  to  the  loss  goes  to  the  underwriter  on  freight, 
and  that  earned  subsequent,  to  the  underw-riter  on 
the  ship.  Thus  it  has  been  decided  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Supreme  Court  (15  Mass.,  840) :  "  Until  the  loss 
happens,  tlie  property  remains  in  the  assured,  and  the 
fVelght,  or  her  earnings,  belong  to  him  till  that  time,  if 
he  stands  his  own  insurer  for  tne  freight ;  otherwise,  to 
the  insurer  on  the  freight ;  but  after  the  loss  has  hap- 
pened, the  insurers,  in  virtue  of  the  abandonment,  be- 
come the  owners,  and  are  liable  for  tb<  repairs  and 
expenses,  and  entitled  to  the  earnings  of  the  rhip." — 
Ibul,  478. 

Charitr. — There  sre  two  kinds  of  contract  for  the 
Mtriage  «f  goodi.     Fint,  The  contract  of  affreight- 


ment by  charter-party.  Secondly,  The  contract  fur 
the  carriage  of  goods  in  a  general  ship.  The  first  Is 
where  the  whole  or  the  chief  part  of  a  ship  Is  let  out 
to  hire.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  tills  contract 
from  being  verl)al,  but  in  practice  it  is  always  reduced 
to  writing,  and  the  written  instrument  contulning  the 
terms  of  it  is  called  a  charter-party.  It  may  be  un- 
der seal  or  not.  If  so,  it  takes  effect  from  the  day 
when  it  was  sealed  and  delivered,  unless  It  appear  on 
the  face  of  it  to  take  effect  from  the  day  of  date, 
when  that  is  a  different  time.  The  constiuvtiun  of  it 
is  to  he  reasonable  and  so  aa  to  give  effect  to  the  inten- 
tion of  the  parties  and  also  the  usage  of  trade,  both 
in  general  and  of  the  particular  department  in  ques- 
tion ;  and  where  terms  are  introduced  relating  to  a 
usage,  evidence  of  course  may  be  given  to  prove  what 
that  usage  is.  But  tliis  will  not  admit  of  a  construc- 
tion l>eing  introduced  which  Is  not  consistent  with  the 
plain  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  words.  The  parties 
to  it  are  the  owners  if  present  where  the  contract  is 
made,  and  generally  also  the  master,  or  the  muster 
alone  if  the  owners  are  absent ;  and  the  merchant  who 
hires  the  ship,  or  his  agent.  If  the  charter-party  is 
liy  deed  and  executed  by  an  agent,  be  should  bo  au- 
thorized by  deed,  or  letter  of  attorney,  to  sign  for  his 
principal,  and  must  sign  in  his  name.  If  the  agent 
signs  in  his  own  name,  actions  on  the  charter-])arty 
will  have  to  be  brought  liy  or  against  the  agent. 
The  merchant  hiring  is  called  the  charten  r  or  freighter. 
The  letting  is  for  one  or  more  voyages  or  some  period 
of  time :  the  money  to  l>e  paid  for  the  hire  is  called 
freight.  This  may  consist  of  one  sum  for  the  whole 
ship  or  part  let,  or  so  much  for  each  ton  or  each  piece 
of  merchandise,  etc.,  the  fiwighter  undertaking  to  find 
a  full  cargo. 

If  the  payment  !s  to  be  made  by  the  ton  there 
should  1)0  provision  for  payment  at  the  same  rate  for  a 
loss  quantity.  Again,  the  payment  may  be  by  a  sum 
in  gross  for  the  whole  time  of  the  ship's  employment, 
or  at  a  certain  rate  per  month  or  other  period  of  time. 
A  month  is  understood  to  mean  a  calendar  month. 
The  charter-party  expresses  the  register  tonnage  of 
the  ship  more  frequently  by  both  the  old  and  the  new 
modes  of  measurement ;  and  when  the  sliip  is  char- 
tered by  the  month  the  hire  is  paid  for  the  number  of 
tons,  commonly  old  measurement,  at  which  she  is  reg- 
istered. When  the  freighter  is  to  pay  l>y  the  ton, 
freight  is  to  l>e  paid  only  for  the  actual  tonnage  of  the 
goods  without  any  reference  to  the  register  tonnage ; 
but  the  goods  mnst  be  in  suitable  packages,  or  otherwise 
the  owner  can  claim  for  the  lost  room  as  dead  freight. 
The  words,  or  thereaboi'ts,  are  generally  understood 
to  mean  alwut  6  tons ;  but  in  one  case  where  a  ship 
was  described  aa  of  the  bunlen  of  261  tons  or  there- 
abouts, and  the  fftightcr  undertook  to  find  a  full  car- 
go, and  no  fraud  was  impntalde  to  the  owner,  the 
freighter  was  held  bound  to  find  an  actual  full  cargo, 
though  the  ship  carried  4(M)  tons.  Goods,  however, 
may  be  packed  according  to  the  custom  of  the  loading 
port,  and  so  may  form  a  full  car,^  although  it  may  be 
|)Ossible  to  pack  them  in  less  cumposs.  Thus  sugar 
may  be  packed  In  hogsheads  if  such  is  the  custom, 
though  it  would  take  less  room  In  tierces. 

A  charter-party  being  an  agreement  tirawn  up  at 
the  discretion  of  the  paitles,  thbv  may  of  course  in- 
troduce any  terms  they  agree  upon.  The  usual  un- 
dertakings, however,  a'  said  by  I-ord  Tenterden,  ore 
on  the  part  of  the  owners  that  the  ship  shall  be  tight, 
and  strong,  fumishsd  with  all  necessaries  for  the  voy- 
ago,  ready  by  a  day  appointed  to  receive  the  cargo, 
and  wait  a  certain  numVer  of  days  to  take  it  on  board. 
But  the  obligation  to  remain  the  whole  of  the  running 
days  may  tie  dispensed  with  by  a  distinct  intimation 
tiom  the  merchant  that  no  cargo  will  be  provided,  and 
that  it  is  useleos  to  wslt.  That  after  lading  she  shall 
set  sail  with  the  first  fair  wind  and  opporlimity,  to  the 
destined  port  (the  dangers  of  the  tea  excepted),  and 


FRE 


1M 


FRE 


Ihero  doliver  the  goodn  to  the  merchant  or  hit  aaslgna 
In  the  mimo  condition  nn  they  were  reeclvoil  on  Imard  ; 
and  further,  that  during  the  cuurae  of  the  voyuK^'  the 
•hip  iiliall  l>e  liept  tl);lit,  and  xtuuiuli,  and  furnlnhed  with 
anftlclent  men  and  utiier  ncccuHnricA,  to  the  \>f»*  of  tliu 
owner's  endeavnrH.  If  the  eliip  prove  not  ti'  'iKht, 
atiiunch,  and  flufllclent,  the  owners  will,  ne.crtholess, 
bo  liulile  although  they  them.ielvps  liidievcd  her  to  lie 
an.  The  merchant  undertakes  to  load  or  unload  with- 
in the  time  appointed,  or  within  a  roasonuhlo  time,  and 
t(.  poy  the  freight.  I'rovlsiona  are  also  often  Intro- 
duced relative  to  demurrage,  which  will  he  explained 
h"rettfter.  The  ship,  and  freight,  and  cargo,  are  also 
(>ftcn  hound  In  a  penalty  l>y  the  owners  or  master,  and 
tlio  freighter  respectively,  for  the  performance  of  their 
undertakings,  Ilut  these  clauses  seem  in  tliis  coun- 
try, at  least,  to  he  of  no  utility,  fur  in  nn  action  for 
tile  i'ailure  of  the  undertaking  the  plalntiflf  would  re- 
cover to  the  amount  of  the  injuries  he  hud  suffered, 
Slid  in  no  case,  whatever  penalty  might  lie  introduced, 
couid  he  recover  more.  Neither  could  these  clauses 
gWi;  any  direct  remedy  as  against  tlie  ship,  or  freight, 
or  cargo. 

If  either  party  lie  not  ready  by  the  time  agreed  on, 
the  other  mny  seek  a  ship  or  cargo  elsewhere,  and  also 
bring  an  action  for  the  insuftlciency ;  or  if  tlie  mer- 
chant appears  to  be  insolvent  he  may  safely  make  up 
a  cargo  from  other  quarters.  When  the  goods  have 
been  put  on  board,  bills  of  lading  ore  signed  by  the 
master.  These  are  evidence  that  the  particular  goods 
are  shipped  as  the  charter-party  is  of  tho  contract  for 
conveyance.  The  ship  owner  has  n  Hen  upon  goods 
in  respect  of  wiiich  a  (luyment  is  due  to  him,  and  may 
therefore  detain  them  till  the  payment  is  made.  Uut 
he  can  not  by  virtue  either  of  tlie  general  law  of  lien, 
or  of  the  clauses  aliovo  alluded  to,  detain  the  goods 
because  of  the  merchant's  failure  to  perform  his  under- 
takings generally,  as  for  instance  his  undertakings  tu 
pay  demurrage  or  port  dues,  etc.  Moreover,  a  party 
can  liave  no  Hen  unless  he  has  possession  of  the  prop- 
erty over  which  he  claims  to  exorcise  it.  An  absolute 
owner,  therefore,  of  a  ship  who  has  so  completely 
parted  with  the  possession  and  control  of  her  as  to 
"luse  the  hirer  to  become  the  temporary  owner,  will 
not  have  the  right  of  lien  over  the  goods  conveyed  on 
toard  his  ship.  Owners  ought  carefuU}-  to  consider 
this  consequence,  liecaiise  if  tliey  part  with  tlie  |)os- 
lession  of  their  ship,  and  tho  hirer  of  it  be  not  u  re- 
iponsiblo  person,  they  will  cense  to  have  in  their  hands 
one  very  convenient  and  direct  means  of  securing 
remuneration.  Special  terms  of  course  may  be  intro- 
duced in  the  contract  by  which  the  right  of  Hen  may 
cither  bo  entirely  released,  or  it  may  be  extended  be- 
yond what  is  conferred  bj'  the  general  rule  of  law. 
Hy  the  following  agreement  the  .  icr  was  held  to 
have  crejited  for  himself  a  right  of  Hen  for  the  bal- 
ance duo  to  him  under  tlie  charter-party  as  to  all  the 
lading,  though  part  had  lieen  transferred  by  endorse- 
ment of  a  bill  of  lading  independently  of  the  general 
rule  of  law,  or  the  question  whether  ho  remained  in 
jiossession  of  the  ship.  The  ogreoMient  between  the 
parties  was  that  ownership  of  the  ship  "should  re- 
main tirmly  and  be  fully  vested  in  the  owner,  and 
that  he  should  at  all  times  during  the  said  intended 
v(^go  nnd  service,  have  a  full  and  complete  lien 
npon  the  lading  of  the  ship  as  well  as  for  all  losses  and 
damage  which  the  said  owner  might  sustain  or  be  put 
to  in  consequence  of  non-payment  of  any  of  the  bills 
to  be  given  for  freight,  etc.,  and  should  have  full 
power  and  authority  to  hold  and  retain  the  said  goods 
until  full  payment  of  all  si>'''i  losses,  charges,  dam- 
ages, and  arrears  of  freight  paid  for  on  account  of  the 
charterer,  and  which  he  of  right  onght  to  pay  agreea- 
bly to  the  true  intent  of  the  charter-party." 

The  freighter  may  either  till  the  ship  with  his  own 
goods  or  relet  the  whole  or  part  to  others.  Where  a 
ihip  baa  been  let  to  hire  at  to  much  a  month  and  t.be 
Bbb 


freighter  lets  at  so  much  a  ton,  the  owner  has  no  right 
to  detain  the  cargo  for  the  amount  the  freighter  haa 
ag.-eed  to  give  him.  The  actuol  shippers  are  only 
liable  for  wlittt  they  have  ogreed  to  give  tho  freighter. 
The  owner,  thercfuro,  may  have  no  right  to  detain  ihe 
goods  of  tho  actual  shippers  for  tho  freight  atated  In 
tlie  charter-party,  but  he  may  for  that  which  Is  men- 
tioned in  the  bill  of  lading.  And  he  has  a  right  to 
that  In  preference  tc  the  freighter.  Tlio  bankruptcy 
of  the  charterer  or  any  pledge  or  assignment  made  by 
him  will  not  affect  the  owner's  right  of  lien. 

Sailing  with  the  first  wind,  is  held  to  mean  sailing 
without  unnecessary  delay,  "  Leave  Amatordam," 
docs  not  necessarily  mean  to  sail  thence  on  the  voy- 
age. Hut  "  final  sailing"  means  the  final  departure 
from  port  and  being  at  sea,  ready  in  all  respects  to 
p.oceed  on  tho  voyage.  (See  chapter  on  Kiarino  In- 
surance.) If  cither  party  be  not  r"ttdy  by  the  time 
agreed  on,  the  otiier  may  seek  another  uliip  or  cargo 
and  bring  action  for  the  damages  caused  by  tho  delay. 
A  deviation  on  tlie  voyage  will  not  dojirive  tlie  owner 
of  his  right  to  freight,  though  it  may  subject  him  to 
action  if  it  causes  a  loss  of  the  insurance  to  the  freight- 
er.— Mercantile  nnd  Mantime  (Itiiile,  lAinilim,  IHoU. 

Freight,  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  (ac- 
cording to  KKNT'ti  Ct>mmentitrie»—see  vol.  ill,,  diap. 
xlvii.),  means  the  price  for  the  actual  transportation 
of  goods  liy  sea  from  one  place  to  another,  but  in  Its 
more  extensive  sense,  it  is  applied  to  all  rewards  or 
compensation  paid  for  the  use  of  siiips,  including  the 
transportation  of  passengers,  Tlio  personal  obliga- 
tion to  pay  freights  rests  either  on  the  charter-porty 
or  on  tho  bill  of  ludint',  by  which  tho  payment  of 
freights  is  made  a  condition  of  delivery  ;  and  the  gen- 
eral rule  is,  that  the  deliver}-  of  tho  goods  at  tlie  place 
of  destination,  according  to  the  charter-party,  is  neces- 
sary to  entitle  the  owner  of  the  vessel  to  freight.  The 
conveyance  and  delivery  of  the  cargo  form  u  condition 
precedent,  and  must  be  fulfilled.  A  partial  perform- 
ance is  not  suflicient ;  nor  can  a  partial  payment  or 
ratable  freight  be  allowed,  except  in  special  cases  ;  and 
those  cases  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  and 
called  for  by  the  principles  of  equity, 

Tho  amount  of  freight  is  usually  fixed  by  agree- 
ment between  the  parties ;  and  if  there  lie  no  agree- 
ment, the  amount  is  ascertained  by  the  usage  of  the 
trade,  and  the  reason  of  the  case.  Ifthe  hiring  lie  of 
the  wliolo  ship,  or  for  an  entire  part  of  her,  for  the 
voyage,  the  merchant  must  pay  the  freight,  though  he 
does  not  fully  load  the  ship ;  but  if  he  agrees  to  pay  in 
pro|iortion  to  tlie  amount  of  goods  put  on  board,  and 
does  not  agree  to  provide  n  full  cargo,  the  owner  can 
demand  payment  only  for  the  cargo  actually  shipped. 
If  the  merchant  agrees  to  furnish  a  return  cargo,  and 
he  furnishes  none,  and  lets  the  ship  return  in  ballast, 
he  must  make  compensation  to  the  amount  of  the 
freight ;  and  this  is  sometimes  termed  dead  freight,  in 
contradistinction  to  freight  due  for  tho  actual  carriage 
of  goods. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  the  doctrine  of  the  case  of  Sell 
V.  Pullen,  that  tho  master  would  be  entitled  to  freight 
for  bringing  back  the  outward  cargo,  if  it  could  not  be 
disposed  of,  though  the  charter-party  was  silent  as  to 
the  return  cargo.  It  would  stand  upon  the  equity  of 
the  claim  to  dead  freight.  The  French  law,  in  such  a 
case,  allows  freight  for  bringing  back  the  cargo  be- 
cause it  could  not  bo  sold,  or  was  not  permitted  to  In 
landed.  KIr.  Justi  e  Story,  in  the  case  of  the  ship 
Hooper,  United  States'  Circuit  Oourt,  Massncliusetts, 
May,  181)9,  3  Sumner,  M'i,  laid  down  the  general  rule 
that  freight  for  the  entire  voyage  could  only  be  earned 
liy  a  due  performance  of  the  voyage ;  and  that  the 
only  acknowledged  exception  is  when  there  is  no  de- 
fault of  the  carrier-ship  to  perform  the  voyage,  and 
the  ship-owner  ia  ready  to  forward  them,  but  there  is 
a  default  on  tlie  part  of  the  owner  of  the  cargo,  or  ha 
waives  a  further  proaecution  of  the  voyage. 


FRB 


764 


FRE 


If  part  of  th«  rarg<)  lie  until  on  tlie  voyogs  fh>m  ns- 
ceuitXi  the  owii»r,  »»  we  Imvc  ieen,  |uijn  the  value  at 
the  port  of  delivery,  deiluctiiiK  the  freight  equally  a» 
If  the  t(ood(  hod  arrived.  Uut  if  the  Koode  In  prohib- 
ited on  entry  liy  the  Knvemment  of  the  countrj-,  and 
■uch  prohlliltlon  taki'x  pliice  after  the  coinmpni'enipnt 
of  the  viiy«(iP,  nnd  tho  CHrgo  Im  liroiight  Iiacic,  the 
flroi)(ht  for  tho  outward  voyiifje  hax  lieen  hold  to  have 
been  earned  ;  and  tho  cane  wait  dii<tlii)(uli<heil  (thoufth 
I  think  the  dlnlinctlon  not  vorj-  ol)viou!i)  fW)in  tliat  of  a 
hloi'kude  of  the  port  of  dentinution,  and  ilwidud  on  the 
authority  of  the  French  ordinunro  of  murine.  "  Notti- 
inK  can  lie  more  junt,"  olmerven  Valin,  "  thon  that  tho 
outward  frel|{ht  should  lie  allowed  in  such  a  cane,  fince 
tho  Interruption  proceeda  fr<iu>  an  extraordinary'  cause, 
inde|i«ndent  of  the  orilinary  marine  |ht11ii.  The  cane 
of  a  l>locknde  of,  or  Interdiction  of,  connnerue  with  the 
port  of  di«chari;e,  after  tlie  conimencement  of  the 
yoyt<({e,  is  held  to  he  different ;  for,  in  that  cane,  the 
vaya)(o  i»  held  to  l>e  broken  up,  and  the  charter-party 
dissolved  ;  and  if  the  car);n,  liy  reason  of  that  olista- 
cle,  1)0  liroUf(ht  l>ack,  no  freight  is  due.  The  same 
principle  uppi  if  the  vorage  be  broken  up  and  lost 
l>y  capturo  upor.  .e  (uixsaKe,  so  as  t;)  cause  a  complete 
defeasance  of  tlio  undertaking,  notwithstanding  thorn 
was  a  sulueipient  recapture,  as  in  tlie  case  of  the 
Hiram.  On  tlie  other  hand,  nn  embargo  ilotaining  tlie 
vessel  at  tho  port  of  <leparture,  or  in  ttie  course  of  the 
voyage,  does  not,  of  itself,  work  a  dissolution  of  the 
contract.  It  is  only  a  teni|K)rary  restraint,  which  sus- 
pends for  a  time  its  perfuriiiance,  and  leaves  the  rights 
of  tlio  parties  in  relation  to  each  other  untouched.  If 
the  ship  bo  laden,  and  l)o  ciiptured  l)efcire  she  l>reuks 
ground,  and  ulterward  recupturnd,  liut  tlio  voyage  lie 
broken  up,  the  ship-<iwiiers  urn  not  entitled  to  any 
freight,  though,  by  the  usages  bf  the  trade,  the  sliip 
was  laden  at  their  expense. 

It  is  requisite  that  the  ship  l)reak  ground  to  give 
an  inception  to  freight.  It  is  the  same  thing  with  a 
blockade  or  hostile  investment  of  the  port  of  do|>arture. 
Such  an  olistacle  does  not  discharge  the  contract  of 
freiglitment,  bccaii.io  It  is  merely  u  tenijxirary  sus|H>n- 
sion  of  its  performance  ;  and  the  ship-owner  may  de- 
tain the  goods  until  he  can  prosecute  the  voyago  witli 
safety,  or  until  the  freighter  tenders  him  the  full 
freight.  This  was  the  decision  in  the  case  of  /'aJmrr 
V.  Jjirilltii-d,  in  which  tlie  doctrino  was  extensively 
examined;  and  it  was  shown,  by  a  reference  to  the 
foreign  ordinances,  and  the  soundest  classical  writers 
on  maritime  law,  that  tho  master,  In  the  case  of  such 
an  invincilde  obstacle,  of  a  tem|H>rury  nature,  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  voyage,  is  entitled  to  Wait  for  the 
removal  of  it,  so  that  he  may  corn  liis  freight,  unless 
the  cargo  consists  of  perishaliie  articles  which  can  not 
endure  the  delay.  He  stands  U|)on  a  principle  of  equity 
which  per\'ades  the  maritime  law  of  Europe,  If  he  re- 
fuses to  surrender  the  cargo  to  the  sh"  ;•  without 
some  equitalile  allowance  in  the  shap?  of  freight  for 
his  intermediate  services. 

When  the  goods  become  greatly  deteriorated  on  tlie 
voyage,  it  has  licen  n  very  litigated  question,  whetlier 
the  consignee  was  liound  to  take  the  goods,  and  pay 
the  freight,  or  whether  he  might  not  aliandcm  the 
gowls  to  tho  master  in  discharge  of  the  freight.  Valin 
and  Piithior  entertain  diflerent  opinions  upon  this  ques- 
tion. The  former  insists  that  the  regulation  of  the 
ordinance  holding  the  merchant  liable  for  freight  on 
deteriorated  goods,  without  the  right  to  alxindon  them 
in  dis<!harge  of  the  freight,  is  ton  rigorous  to  lie  coin- 
patilile  with  equity.  He  says  tlie  cargo  is  the  only 
projier  fund  and  pledge  'or  tiio  freight,  and  that  Catn- 
rtgit  was  of  tho  same  opinion.  I'otliier,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  against  tiic  riglit  of  tho  owner  to  aliundon 
tho  deteriorated  goods  in  discliarge  of  the  freight ;  and 
this  is  the  lietter  opinion,  and  the  one  adopted  in  the 
case  of  Griitrotd  v.  the  New  Yorlc  ffummtire  Company. 
It  is  in  accordance  with  the  ordinuntiea  of  the  marine, 


and  of  RultordaiD,  and  with  the  new  commercial  code 
of  Krance;  and  the  latter  puts  an  eml  to  all  further 
doubts  and  discussion  on  the  subject  in  France.  1'lin 
ship-owner  |ierforms  his  engagement  when  he  curries 
ami  ilulivrrs  the  goods.  Tlie  right  to  his  freight  then 
becomes  ulisoliito ,  and  the  carrier  is  no  more  an  in- 
surer of  the  soundness  of  the  cargo,  as  against  the 
lierils  of  tho  sea,  or  its  own  intrinsic  decay,  tb.<n  he  is 
of  tho  price  in  tlie  market  to  which  It  is  carried.  If 
he  lius  conducted  himself  with  lldellty  and  vigilance  in 
the  course  of  tho  voyage,  he  has  no  concern  with  tho 
diminution  of  the  value  of  the  cargo.  It  may  impair 
tiie  remedy  which  his  lien  affords,  but  it  docs  not  affect 
his  |iersonal  demand  against  the  shipfier. 

If  casks  contain  wine,  rum,  or  other  liquids,  or 
sugar,  and  tlie  cimtents  lie  wiisiiod  out,  and  wasted, 
and  lost,  liy  the  |ieriis  of  the  sea,  so  that  the  casks  ar- 
rive empty,  no  freight  is  due  for  them  {  but  the  ship- 
owner would  still  bo  entitleil  to  Ills  freight.  If  tho  casks 
were  well  stowed,  and  tlieir  contents  wore  usaentiuliy 
gone  l•^'  leakage,  or  inherent  waste,  or  Imperfection  of 
the  casks. 

Should  the  cargo  consist  of  live-stock,  as  is  frequent- 
ly the  case  in  voyages  from  this  country  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  some  of  the  horses  or  cattle,  for  instance, 
should  die  in  the  courao  of  the  voyage,  without  any 
fault  or  negligence  of  tho  master  or  crew,  and  tiiere  lio 
no  express  agreement  res|iecting  the  payment  of 
freiglit,  tho  geuerul  rulo  is,  that  the  freight  is  to  lie 
paid  for  all  that  woro  put  un  board.  Hut  if  the  agree- 
ment was  to  pay  for  the  trans|Hirtution  of  them,  tlien 
no  freight  is  due  for  tlinse  that  dio  on  the  voyage,  aa 
tho  contract  Is  not,  in  that  case,  performed.  Tlie  for- 
eign marine  law  allows  freight  paid  in  advance  to  Im 
recovered  liack,  if  tlie  goixls  lie  not  carried,  nor  the 
voyagH  jierfornred,  liy  reason  of  any  event  not  iinput- 
ablo  to  tho  ship)i«r.  The  reason  is,  that  the  consider- 
ation for  luiyment,  wliich  was  the  carriage  of  the 
goods,  has  failed.  Hut  the  marine  ordinances  admit 
that  tlie  j>arties  may  stipulate  tliat  the  freight  so  )>re- 
vlously  advanced  shall,  at  all  events,  be  retained.  In 
Watiim  V.  Ihnjkinik,  tho  rulo  of  tho  i:  irine  law  was 
recognized,  though  it  was  not  applied  to  that  case,  be- 
causo  the  contract  there  apiioared  to  lie,  that  tho 
freight  was  |iaid  for  receiving  the  passenger  and  hia 
goods  on  lioard ;  and,  in  such  a  case,  tho  payment  is  to 
lie  retained,  tiiough  the  vessel  and  cargo  be  lost  on  tho 
voyage.  Tlie  general  principle  of  the  marine  law  was 
admitteil  in  the  fullest  latitude  In  Origgt  v.  Aiialin; 
and  whether  tho  price  previously  advanced  is  to  lie 
retained  or  returned  becomeji  a  question  of  intention 
in  the  construction  of  the  contract.  The  French  ordi- 
nances require  a  special  agreement  to  eniililn  the  ship- 
owner to  retain  the  freight  paid  in  advance  ;  and  Va- 
lin says  that  many  authors  on  maritime  jurisprudence, 
as  Kuricke,  Loccenios,  and  Straccha,  will  not  allow 
even  such  a  special  agreement  to  be  valid.  The  Kn- 
glish  law  is  not  so  scrupulous,  and  does  not  require 
any  such  express  stipulation,  ur^d  allows  the  intention 
of  the  parties  to  retain  the  previously  advanced  freight 
to  lie  more  easily  inferred.  In  De  Sihale  v.  Ktudall, 
tho  Court  of  King's  Itenoh  adopted  a  directly  opposite 
principle,  and  observed,  that  if  the  charter-party  was 
silent,  the  law  would  reipiiro  a  performance  of  tho 
voyago  liefore  freight  was  due ;  but  the  parties  ii^lit 
stipulate  tliat  part  of  the  freight  be  paid  in  antifl^a- 
tion,  and  lie  made  free  from  subsequent  contingency 
of  loss  by  reason  of  loss  of  the  sulisequcnt  voyago.  If 
freight  be  paid  in  advance,  and  there  lie  no  express 
stipulation  that  It  sliall  bo  rotiired  in  the  event  of 
freiglit  not  being  earned,  the  inference  Is  that  tlie  par- 
ties did  not  intenil  that  the  payment  of  the  part  in  ad- 
vance should  lio  subject  to  the  risk  of  the  reinaindor  of 
tho  voyago  ;  and  without  some  provision  of  that  kind, 
a  now  implied  contract  to  that  effect  could  not  be 
raised.  See  Kent's  Cnm.,  vol.  iii. ;  Pakhons  on  Cun- 
IracU,  lioston  j  Men;  and  Marit.  Guide,  London,  18S7. 


FIlK 


m 


FltO 


TnteO  Fulntlng.  x  m*ttl(Wl  nf  imtnttng  with 
Wtttiir-iiiliirK  iMi  friiali  iiliulKr  ttlilln  It  In  ntlll  In  n  unft 
•liitii,  liy  h'  Mi  iiii'iiii*  Ihn  I'liliirft  nti>  liirorpdrntcil  witli 
tliii  plHttiir,  kihI  lii'i'diHM  UK  iiKrirmiiPMt  nn  tlin  inntorlal  mi 
whirl)  lliuy  HMi  ii|irMiiil,  Tilt"  lliilliiiK,  fniiii  wliuni  wo 
Ipiprniw  Ihu  ii>riM,  iiill  it  /nini  (lltKrHliy  frnh),  eltlior 
liucaimii  It  la  Kkiii'iilnil  ii|iiiii  rri'ali  iilniitpr,'  or  liecaune  it 
in  iitiui  (Ml  itritlja,  iiiiiivva,  Mini  irlfior  l>uililinK>  In  tlio 
i>l<«n  Hir,  Vitriiviiii)  (vii,  4)  iniii  It  paiiitinK  nth  ler. 
(will,  j'lilntintf  III  fruai'ii  I*  n  rtry  •iicicnt  art.  li 
wiia  |iriti'lii'iii|  liy  liin  nwriy  (ifii|i|i»,  niiil  iniiy  lie  tmi'cd 
Willi  tn  ilti;  |i<>  It  U  MHllKfltlly  iDiKiiiitsil  nil  walla  iinil 
viiiilla,  lliii  |i1iivt«r  IikIiik  laid  mi  In  miicxiiiilve iMirticmx, 
i>r  wi  Miiii'li  iiiily  lit  iiiiH  ilinn  a*  tlin  luiliilcr  can  dliipateli 
iitiriiru  it  ilrlna,  'I'll*  itiiaiKii  la  iiallully  drawn  iireviniisly 
nil  iiiiper,  til  li«  cliiiliiiiil  and  ttailafi'frcd  tn tlie  wall  aliout 
liiiir  all  iiiiiir  iirtur  ilia  piaatnr  Ima  linen  liild.  From 
tlin  dlltli'iilty  iiC  iiiaiiliiK  altfltullona  on  tlin  work  rlien 
th«  colora  am  oiii »  aliMirliiol,  tiin  dp«l((ii  alioiild  lie  prc- 
vlmuly  priipiirnd  wltli  liix  ufnntt-at  iicciinicy.  When 
nil  ulturiitliill  liiiint  iiii  iiwili,  tlin  liiirl  \^  uiiuully  out 
eiillndy  away,  iiimI  fKlalit  wllli  frnali  plaster.  Tiie  nn- 
I'ii'iita  paliitKd  0)1  aliiii'iii  and  wn  may  remark  In  VI- 
triivlua  wliut  liilliilln  ram  tliey  took  in  niukInK  th« 
liiiriialiitliii)  or  iiiaatiiflnK  nf  tlielr  liiillilInK",  to  remler 
tliiMii  liiiaiilil'iil  and  laallnx  |  tliiniKh  tlin  mmlprna  And 
u  plaatnr  of  IIiiim  and  aiiiid  (in  feraldn  for  frencn  paint- 
ing, liiitli  liuuuinii  It  iloaa  tint  dry  an  liaatily,  and  oniic- 
'ount  iif  iln  aiilidiiKii  and  a«refalil(<  tint.  The  pl^- 
iiunta  liiludy  fHiployiid  in  tlila  itiiid  of  painting  arc 
I'iirtlia,  liiuailaa  Iliiiir  tuilnra  urn  nut  llulile  to  lie aflfeitiMl 
liy  the  \<\m\\ltK  i|iiailtlKa  nf  liin  limn.  White  la  niiido 
of  lliiiu  aiai'knd  miimh  tillin  lirKVlinialy,  nrnfwliltn  nmr- 
liln  duat  I  and  tllM  ntlinr  aiilialiilli'na  uaed  are  red  and 
^idl.iw  ni'lir.-,  vnrdllnl',  lapladamili,  liliick  chalk,  etc. 
riichu  niily  ivjiiirn  to  lin  «riiiiMd  and  mixed  up  with 
wiitiT,  'lliti  iiriialiaa  and  pniiclla  aliould  lie  long  and 
aoft,  ulh«rw|au  tim/  afn  apt  to  rakn  and  rnlae  the  aur- 
f.icu,  III  onlur  that  tlia  work  may  come  out  In  nil  Its 
licauty,  tll'i  inlnra  llMlat  lie  laid  on  ((ulikly,  while  the 
plaatur  la  atlii  iiinlat  |  mil'  alindtd  llinv  nver  lie  retouched 
ilry  witll  lolora  liiiktid  Up  wllll  wliitn  of  egg,  size,  or 
gmii,  aa  la  aoinetlinna  ilnim  j  iiecauae  sUch  colors  grow 
liliicklah,  and  anon  tarniali, 

Frenben,  in  aca  lanumige,  the  I.  iteased  enrrent  of 
an  I'lili  tidii  liy  inoana  of  a  llnod  nf  frcKh  water  flowing 
(lilt  Into  tlia  »<.((,  iiy  w|||i<||  ||.,  waters  iiri)  often  discol- 
ored for  a  grnal  diatani'n  ffnni  tlin  ccmat. 

Freinel,  AuguiUn  Je«n,  Thn  Invontor  of 
the  light  now  gniiarally  Hand  tlirniigli(,ul  Kurope  and 
ill  varlnua  parts  nf  tIm  I  fulled  Htalns,  for  llght-houses. 
I  In  wa«  dl'tiiigiiialied  fur  lila  imutlcal  appllciitinn  of 
optiiH  tn  thu  uanfnl  iifta  with  Willi  li  Ills  niiinp  will  ever 
lin  liniioralily  aaonelnled.  At  leiisl  as  early  as  IHIil  it 
incurred  In  liliii  that  leliana  tnlglit  Im  suristiluted  for 
niirrnri,  for  tiia  piirjiiian  nf  dlreeting  parallel  niys  of 
light  frnni  ilgiit.lioMaiia,  ailil  llllla  pfnventing  inngrciit 
iniMiHiira  lliii  iiulltral  wnaiilieso,  In  ennseiiiience  of  Its 
divorgenin,  of  light  aami  at  a  dlotflnen,  It  further  oc- 
ciirriMl  to  liliii  Hmt  If  nsca  of  Inrgn  slue,  and  of  modcr- 
iitu  tliicknixia,  liil|{l|t  ii«  hiilll  ii/i  nf  sngulents  of  lenses. 
Thia  laat  Idea  waa  not  iiMtpi<d  new,  for  llulTnn  had  pro- 
poM'd  Id  dlniiniah  thn  weight  and  thickness  nf  lenses 
liy  grinding  lliem  Into  Konns  wldeli  sliniild  hnvo  a  coiu- 
iiiiin  focus  I  and  <  'nndni'cnt  |irn|aispd  In  cnnstruct  these 
/.(ineanf  aupiiraln  angliinlila,  Hlf  llavld  llrewstersug- 
geiitud,  In  IHIJ,  n  aliiillar  enlialrintlon,  unaware,  it 
appeara,  nf  wliut  ('niidiirnxt  had  wrllleii.  lint  all  of 
tli(iM)  writora  dnaiirllind  tlleir  willtHvaiiips  as  applicalilo 
to  liunilng  inatruiiit/iila  fnc  I'liccentraling  the  snlnr 
raya.  Kruanel  apimara  to  have  linnn  unaware  of  what 
his  prndocHuaora  aiiggnated,  hill  Im  has  thn  far  greater 
merit  of  octually  H|i|il,vliig  Ilia  snggestlmi  to  the  im- 
portant purpoan  nf  llglit.jinitan  Illumination.  It  was 
limt  carrlud  into nlliii't  III  I'taHic,  whnfn  »iii/«jon«//fn»M 
w(!ro  iiiiulu  iiy  M,  Hnltill,  and  (iiivn  ((rndimfly  been  In- 
troduicd  into  otlK.f  cnimtflnn,  (Ifst  Into  Holland,  and 


then  into  Srotland.  Hen  article  LiuHT-lionaiM.  Not 
content  with  this  great  Impnivement,  Fresnel  exerted 
remarkuldu  ingenuity  in  contriving  (urtliur  iniprovn- 
menta  In  tho  mode  of  distributing  light  for  the  pur- 
(Hises  of  navigation  under  almost  every  conceivahU 
circumstance  ;  and  lie  made  copinus  use  nf  the  princi- 
ple of  the  total  reliectlon  nf  light  in  glass,  which  had 
never  liefore  lieen  applied  to  sioh  pMr)iiises,  In  IHIU 
he  was  nominated  u|M>n  the  ll^'lit-hnusu  commission  i 
and  in  duly,  IH'Jil,  thn  ('iirdumi  l.igiit-iiouse,  at  the 
mouth  nf  the  Oaronne,  was  oiiiiplcted  upon  the  new 
plan. — K.  B. 

lie  was  the  author  of  various  works  on  the  Uiffrac- 
lion  iiff.iifhl,  on  the  In0iirncr  nf  Ileal  oh  (.'iilort,  on  tha 
/iiJlMmur  iifthf  Karlh't  Moliun,  on  tlio  Muliitil  Ailiim  of 
I'liUiritui  Light,  etc.  Through  the  instruineiituilty  of 
Messrs.  K.  ami  (i.  W.  lllunt,  of  New  York,  the  Kren- 
nel  liglit  was  adopted  in  the  Uiiitol  States  in  tlie  year 
IMilX,  and  is  now  in  use  generally  in  the  light-houses 
of  tills  countr}'  orid  of  Kiiro|ie. 

Kresnel  was  liorn  May  111,  17HH,  nt  llroglle.  In  the 
departiiieiit  I'rc,  Normandy,  and  died  at  V'ille  d'Av- 
ray,  Kranco,  on  the  llth  duly,  1m27,  aged  .'I'J  years. 

Frigate  (Kr.  frigate  (f) ;  Lat.  ojikrudui,  a  long 
undecked  vussid)  ;  a  ship  of  war,  usually  of  two  decks, 
designed  for  swift  sailing.  Frigates  mount  from  20  to 
44  guns,  and  sometimes  more.  T  he  name  was  origi- 
nally applied  to  a  long  kind  of  vessel  navigated  in  tlie 
Moditerrancnn  with  sails  and  oars,  Fri'iiitoooiiy  a  Ve- 
nitian  vessel  with  a  s.inare  stern  and  without  n  fore- 
mast, having  only  a  main-most,  mizzen-maat,  and 
liow-sprit. 

Frith,  or  Firth  (I.at.  fretum,  a  narrow  sen),  la  a 
term  chiefly  applied  to  a  narrow  and  deep  inlet  of  tha 
sea  upon  u  river,  as  the  Firth  of  Forth,  in  BcotUnd. 
T'his  term  corresponds  to  the  ford  of  the  Danes  and 
Norwegians,  who,  in  all  jirobability,  borrowed  It  from 
the  Knglish.  lloth  Latin  and  Teutonic  are  derived 
not  Improbaldy  from  the  same  root,  fahren,  to  luuu 
over ;  whence  ferry,  ford,  furt  (Germ.),  as  in  Frank- 
furt, Krfurt,  etc. 

FrobUher,  Sir  Martin,  a  celebrated  English 
navigator  of  tho  sixteenth  century,  was  bom  (in  what 
year  is  not  known),  at  Doncastcr,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
WHS  the  lirst  Knglishinan  that  sailed  in  quest  of  the 
north-west  passage  to  C'liinu  and  tho  Indies.  "  lleing 
thoroughly  furnished  of  tho  knowledge  of  the  sphere 
and  all  other  skills  pertaining  to  tha  art  of  navigation, 
and  lining  persuaded  of  a  new  and  nearer  passage  to 
( 'atuya  limn  by  Cajx)  do  liuona  Speranva,  which  the  Por- 
tiigals  yearly  use,  and  knowing  this  to  be  the  only 
thing  nf  tho  world  tliat  wiw  yet  left  undone,  whereby 
a  notalilo  niiad  might  be  made  famous  and  fortunate," 
he  applied  to  various  Knglish  merchants  to  assist  him 
In  his  projected  enterprise,  but  for  15  years  witliout 
aiiccess.  At  the  end  of  that  period  he  wag  enabled, 
through  tho  assistance  of  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
and  others,  persons  of  rank  and  fortune,  to  set  out  on 
the  expedition.  He  sailed  from  Deptford,  .Tune  15th, 
1570,  with  three  small  vessels,  two  of  them,  the  Go- 
briel  and  the  Michael,  barks  of  25  tons  each,  and  the 
third  a  small  pinnace  of  10  tons.  As  they  passed 
Oreenwich,  the  Queen,  who  happened  to  be  there  with 
her  court,  "  commended  tlicin,  and  bade  them  farewell 
with  shaking  her  hand  at  them  out  of  the  window." 
After  passing  the  Shetland  Islands  they  came  in  sight 
of  "  Frceseliind"  (.luiy  llth),  where  they  were  unable 
to  land  on  account  of  tlie  ice,  and  on  the  28th  of  the 
same  month  they  reached  that  part  of  Greenland  which 
Krolilshcr  named  "  Meta  Incognita."  On  the  llth 
August  they  sailed  through  a  strait  which  Frobisher 
called  by  his  own  name.  Pursuing  their  way  they 
passed  several  islands,  to  which  they  gave  names,  and 
came  on  the  18th  to  Butcher's  Island,  where  they  lost 
a  Imat  and  part  of  their  crew  through  tho  treach- 
ery of  the  natives.  After  this  they  turned  their  prows 
homeward,  and  reached  Enj^lund  September  7th.  Fro- 


FRU 


708 


FITO 


l>Uhi>r  had  Ukm  poiMMlnn  of  tha  varinna  |ila<'aa  ha 
liiurhrd  at  In  tlin  nainn  of  tha  (Juaan  |  anil  In  liikan 
of  thla  ho  (irilitrnl  hi*  man  to  put  on  lioarcl  •lil|i  whiit- 
avtr  thry  llrnt  IhIiI  hitnila  on.      AmonK  olhar  IhlriKa 

thua  Hai'umI  wan  a  lump  of  lita< k  alonn,  whlili  mI 

l''n)liUliar  rrtuniiiil  honi«,  wat  urrlilanlally  illmiivarail 
tn    ointaln   ifiM.      Thla  illavovary    wiii  anon  iiiiUiol 
ahrrwil  mill  In  thn  fiillnwln)(  iiprInK  l''Ml>iihi>r  raiiillly 
founri  tha  nixanii  to  fit  out  anothxr  ax|Hiilltlon,  iMrlly 
•vIriUlllc'  ami  partly  with  u  vIkw  to  prouii  iiIImk  tha 
•earcli  for  nold.     The  Quaan  lent  lilni  from  Ilia  roval 
navy  a  uhlp  of  'jnt)  ton«,  with  whiih,  nml  two  »Miullar 
harkt,  ha  aailail  from  llarwirh,  May  III,  1A77.     On  nr- 
rivinn  at  tha  »ien«  of  their  forniar  ilUtovaript  thry 
founil  that  IUiIh  of  thn  kiiM  oru  rnmiilnoil,  liut  lliay 
opcnetl  forthwith  communlrutlcinii  with  thn  nullvaa  for 
the  |iur|i<Mea  of  traffic,     Ona  of  thniin,    "  a  iimn  of 
UrKii  corporature  ami  koo<I  pn)|Hirtlon,"  thay  lurriail 
away  with  them  neither  In  a  yrry  Juat  nor  haiiilaiimi< 
manner.     They  alHo  cuuxht  an  uM  woman,  "  wlmni 
they  took  for  a  ilevil  or  it  wltrh,"  anil  atrlpjieil  olT  Imt 
liuakina  "to  aca  If  aho  were  iloven-fooleil."      After 
ilincoverinK  ""■I  nkroiuK  a  gooil  niiiny  plarua,  anil  pro- 
ciirhiK  a  kixx'  <l'al  of  urn,  hn  tunieil  lila  prow  •until- 
wani,  Au^uat  '2'M,  and  marlied  home  in  thn  anil  of 
8e(itenilier.     The  ore  when  anieltvd  waa  founil  to  pay 
the  ex|ienana  of  the  vuyitge  uiiil  ninru  |  u  Ihlril  nxpiili- 
llon  waa  tilted  out  In  lA'H,  wliii'h,  liowavur,  IhriiiiKh 
atreaa  of  weather  and   other  ciri'unialiini'ea,  lind   no 
aooner  reached  the  K<>ld  country  timii  ha  wiia  iilili)(ed 
to  return  from  tha  latnneM  of  tlie  aaaaon.     Thla  wiia 
the  liiht  of  KruliiHlier'a  polur  voyii){ea.      It  la  not  known 
how  he  waa  occupied  durin^t  the  next  aeven  ynura,  hut 
in  lAXIi  he  aci'iini|)anled  Sir  Kriiin  i.i  Drake  on  hia  ex- 
pedition tu  the  Weat  Indiea,  unil  three  yeiira  later  did 
aach  (food  aervice  againat  tho  Niimilah  armuiht  ua  to  lie 
rewanli-d  with  the  honor  of  knl^litluHid  on  liourd  Ida 
own  ahip  liy  the  lord   hi^li  ailuiirul.      In  IMII,  iifter 
varioua  explolta  againat  tlio  .Spiiiiiiinla,  hn  waa  aent  to 
aariat  Henri  IV.  of  France  u^ainat  thv  Npanhirda,  and 
tho  meiultera  of  the  leajjuc.     Thn  enemy  had  fnrtllled 
thnmaelvca  atronKly  in  Croy/on,  near  llrnat  {  and  In 
un   attack  on  their  jioallloii   Froliialinr  waa   mortally 
woundml.     lie  lived  to  take  hia  fleet  aafnly  hoiitn,  and 
(hortly  after  died  at  I'lymoutli,— /^'o^,   llril.i  ll.tH- 
LPTT'h  CuUeel.  of  Voyagrt ;  Stiiw'h  .Innii/ra,  etc,  etc, 
FrobUBer  Strait,  an  nmi  of  the  aea  In  llrltiah 
North  America,  between  lludaon  .'^trait  and  Northiini- 
lierland  lulet.     It  extenda  in  u  weatnrly  dlreitloii  from 
the  entrance  to  Davis'  Strait. 

Prult(Ger.  Obtt.  ArucA/e;  Du.  ft/'.'  ••'"■•  '''"''.'  ''• 
f'rulla,  f'rutif;  Sp.  Fruta;  Kui.  Owosihltfh j  |,at, 
t'rtictum),  Thla  appellation  ia  tieatowed  by  comnicr- 
cial  men  npon  those  H|>ecie8  of  fruit,  audi  as  orttnf(ea, 
lemons,  almonds,  raiains,  currants,  apples,  etc,  whirh 
constitute  articles  of  inipiirtution  from  f>>ri'l|{n  luun. 
tries.  (lurdeninK  wua  undoulitedly  aniuiiK  thn  llrnt  of 
the  arts  to  which  the  attention  of  man  waa  direitad.  If 
we  would  ascend  into  remote  antiquity,  wa  ciiii  have 
TCcourae  only  to  conjecture ;  foraltlinUKh,  in  tha  aacreil 
writinKs,  and  in  tho  earliest  profane  jiutliura,  Hlluaioiia 
to  Karilcna  occur,  little  is  told  ua  eitlmr  of  tlieir  pro- 
ductions or  their  culture.  .liiilKinK,  though,  from  the 
liteniture of  the  present  day,  wc  hliall  scanel i  And  any 
art  which  rerrivet  more  attentimi. 

.Several  varieties  of  fruit  urn  mentioned  a>  having 
licen  iiitnidueed  into  Italy,  70  ii.  i.,  i-l  tn/,  Kmith' 
fruits  and  ftowera  of  varioua  kinds,  previoiialy  unknown 


tha  faults  whnaa  Intrwiuctlun  Into  Rngland  hai  l)<>eii 
(raiad  (llAlriis)! 


yamta,  arn. 

rr..m 

Barhary  

...Kyrla. 

North  Ainarlca.. 


tntt 

17IM 
IN|g 
ISM 

llUffl 


Almnnd-lrsa 

Applaa 

Ajipla,  Ilia  eiiilaril 
Ajipli',  llix  llugK        ..      " 

Aiirliiila Kplrna., 

I  'ni'rrv  -  Iraea I'oiilna . . 

I'ornallaii  rliarr/ Aualrla. 

t'urraiila SUiiln  . . . 

t'uirant,  the  hawthorn  t'ansila JTOJi 

KiK'Iraa Houth  nf  Knrnpe,  be  for*  IMI 

Kla.  the  IMan)>-bax...N«w  Muulh  Waloa Hit 

lliHiaelH'rrli'a Klamli'ra htturt  IfMfl 

<lra|wa.   t'nrtiiKst l.V« 

l<<'ninna Hnaln lAM 

Mines rurtuyal 1M4 

l.lliie,  thn  American brrurii  ITAt 

Mi-liina,,    ••        |(^o 

MiM'k  iiranie Hnuth  of  Kurnpe,     **       \HM 

Mu Iherrr Ilair IMO 

Miilhrrrx,  white t'hiiia,  sIhiuI IMK 

Miillmrrx,  ri'il North  Aiiierlia,  ktifure    lll3t 

MullM'rry,  paper lapaii,  beftore ITM 

NiM'iarlihi  Persia is«| 

IMUr,  lhnl'»|Hi Call* \1tt 

(III vi<,tlmsw»«t  •iwiiti'ill  hlna ITTt 

"rsMjJits. ISM 

I'eaeRas I'erala IftM 

I'aars Variiiui  eliuiaa. 

I'liieappla Ilraill 16M 

rippliia Nelhrrlands 1U5 

I'liiina Ilair lAW 

riiini,  the  ilala Harbarjr lUW 

I'miii'iiriiiiate Hpsin before  1AM 

(Jiiliiiw Auatria ISTH 

Ouliice  , . . . , Jspsn 1796 

llaa|iherr)f,  finwerliif  . .  North  Amnrloa 1700 

llitaplirrry,  Virginian..      "  "      ..before  lOM 

dtrawberr^ Klnndora l.WO 

HIrawberrv Oriental  Levant ITU 

Walnut,  the  blark North  Anierloa,  U'lbre.  ]«■.» 

Thn  art  of  Knrdenln)(  lieenino  well  understood  in 
Kii)(liitid  alioiit  A.  ii.  KiOII;  liefore  which  tiiiin  many 
of  oiir  ve«etalilea  were  lni|Hirted  frnin  Hralmnt,  Thn 
era  of  the  art  waa  thn  reign  of  Klizalielh ;  hut  thn 
iniidnrn  modn  of  KnrdenInK  was  Introduced  about  1700. 
The  following  cnmn  from  the  countries  rospectivel/ 
iiained ; 

nnora  sxn  VanrrABLaa, 

lllee Ktblopla 

llnekwiieal Asia 

lliirag fyria 

I'riiaaes I'rele 


Caulirlower I'ynrus 

A>parsgiiB Aala 

1.1'itiii'i' llriibaiit 

Atllrlioliea Holland 

llarile The  Kaat 

ahallota Mllieria 

llorae  llaillali Chirm 

kl'lney  Heaiia  .  ..K.  Inillea 
llourda Aatraean 


From 

I-entlla. Franra 

Chervil Italy 

Celery Flanders 

I'oUtoea Braxll 

Tobacco Anierlra 

Calibago Holland 

Aniae Kci  pt 

I'araley KitVpt 

I  iirrota Flanilcrs 

llrocoll Cyprus 

Bi'an^ liVtiuco 

I'eaa Spain 


Kuiwaas. 


.latMlii.... 
Khlxr-trae  . 
Tulip 
liatriMlll 
l.lly, 


.Omaaala 
..INrala 
'  appailacla 

iwAJa 


Tiibarroaa lava,  ilc. 

Carnation Italy,  etc. 

llanunruliia,,,Alps 
Haiiiaak  roae.. .  Itauiaaeoa 

llii|ia. Artols 

Uiiiiai'hi'rrli'S.. .  Flanders 
illllyltnwer*. .  .Toulnnao 
Mitak  rose Danuwons 


_  Ffrtm. 

Pink Italy 

Povence  rose. . .  Maraollles 

Convolvulus Canaries 

Arotopua Cspc 

Itvll-irowor Canartca 

PaMlonflowcr .  Ilraill 

Itiiseinary Ilsly 

I.abnrnuin Hungary 

l.aurel Iiovant 

Ijivcnilor Italy 

Weeping  Wlllowl-evaut 
Fennel Canaries 


The  damnak  roae  whs  broii«hf  hither  by  Dr.  Linacre, 
phyai'lnn  to   Henry  VIII.,  about  1540.     The  musk 


In  EngUnd,   were  brought  thither  in  the  Mfu*  of   roae  waa  lirimght  from  Itoly  by  Lord  Cromwell.     The 


Henry  VII.  and  VIII.  and  of  Mary  and  Kllnalxith, 
between  the  years  IM)  and  1.^7H.  8ee  (lAKliKNlNti, 
JCncy.  Brit,  Among  others  of  leas  note,  wem  musk- 
melons,  plum-trees,  and  i  iirrant-plaiita  of  sundry 
aotts,  the  musk  and  damask  rosea,  tulips,  etc, ;  aImi 
laffron,  wood,  and  other  drugs  for  dyeing,  but  these 
last  were  attempted  tu  li«  cultivated  witUuut  tuccesa. 
H  AKLVXT  i  LoEu  Kamks.    The  following  are  anwmg 


tamariak  plant  was  brought  from  Germany  by  Arch- 
bishop (Jrlndiil,  about  1570;  and  about  Norwiih,  the 
Kleiitiiiga  planted  fliiwcm  unknown  in  Knglund,  us 
gill}  rtowers,  carnations,  tho  I'rovcnce  rose,  etc.,  15C7. 
Woail  name  originally  from  Toulouae,  in  France ;  tulip 
risda  frniii  Vienna,  157H. 

FUOB.  Juaa  de,  .Strait  of,  Waahlngton  Territory-, 
Including  the  wotora  of  Admiralty  Inlet  Hood  Canal 


:ifit....c,.;'-:i:. 


FUE 


757 


FDI 


ItrM'illM 
Ipe 

VniJllTjr 
Ivint 

kvaut 
Inarlcs 


I  MnBcrc, 
■lie  iniiak 
MI.  The 
liy  Arch- 
Vuli,  the 
tUind,  US 
|tc.,  15G7. 
Ice;  tulip 

ferritorj", 
ICaoal 


nml  rut(xt  Soiinil,  with  the  Ar>  hlpKln)(o  nt  Arrn  up  In 
tlin  loth  puralli'l,  wrre  nil  mirvrycil  l>y  the  I'tiitml 
Htiili'n'  Kxpliiriii|(  K\|ifiilitliiii.  Thn  wlmlit  la  imniir- 
puam'il  liy  iiny  t"<tiiiiry  lu  the  worhl.  Thi>y  i'c)iit|irl«» 
nmtiy  Hun  hiirlHiM  iiiiil  Date  unrhiirii)(i>f<,  itr«  riitlrrly 
fri>«  frciin  clnii^orii,  mul  cuver  iiii  iiriM  i>t  rilxiut  WH) 
•iimirn  iiillio.  'I'lin  country  l>y  which  llipite  wittnn 
am  niirrniinilcil  \*  rcniarknlily  miliilirlimn,  ami  offer* 
nvcry  ii(lniiitiiK«  fur  the  accnmmiHliitlun*  of  »  v«»t 
I'omincrcUl  iiinj  iiiUltiiry  iiiiirliie,  with  conveiileiicen 
for  ilocki,  iiii'l  iniiiiy  iiltiu  for  towim  ami  citira,  iit  nil 
tliiion  Hell  iiippllcil  with  watiT,  nnil  cnpalilii  of  lieiiitf 
pMvlih'd  w  illi  III!  needful  suppliea  from  the  nurrounclInK 
country,  wlili'h  in  well  adapted  for  iiKricuiture.  Thia 
Htriilt  In  U.'i  inlloa  In  lenittli ;  HveriiK«  wiiltli  11  milea 
(untrunco  K  inil<'4  in  width).  No  iliiuKera  exint,  and  It 
nmy  !>«  Hiifidy  niivlKuted  thn>UKhout.  The  wind*  Idow 
for  the  nr''»'"f  purt  of  tiie  year  from  tlin  wiwtwiird, 
and  lit  thnea  AlronKly.  The  nliorca  urn  ludd,  luid  iin- 
chiira^u    ii   to  he  founil  in  liut  few  placen  ;  at  iioaie 

{lartK  no  iKittoni  in  to  lip  olitaincil,  even  within  ii  hoat'a 
en|{lli  of  the  iihore,  with  110  fattinuiit  of  line.  The 
north  nhore  (Vancouver  Inland),  In  rocky,  and  coni- 
ponod  of  I'lmKlomcrate  ami  a  rcddinh  granite.  On  thin 
hidn  there  are  ncveral  inlctn,  in  wiiicii  are  anchorajfen  : 
aiuon)(  tlicni  I'ort  .Sun  .luiin  and  Victoria.  Victoria  in 
A  nnu^  liarl»)r  and  a  niont  important  ponition.  There 
i«  an  inner  and  an  outer  lianin,  nnlliciently  commodl- 
oun  for  larjjo  nhipn  of  war.  Vancouver  Inland  rinoi 
ahruptly,  ami  In  ver}'  much  liroken  i>y  niountnin 
ran^en,  l>ut  wAll  covered  with  timlior.  It  in  'JIO  inilea 
luuK,  and  110  milen  wide. 

Tliu  (iulf  of  (ieorKia  and  .Tnhnmm  Strait  are  not 
Widl  adapted  for  navigation,  in  ronneqnence  of  the 
rapidity  of  the  tiilen,  and  Iho  many  nunken  rockn  nt 
tiiu  nortlieni  outlet.  Tlie  harliorn  within  them,  Imth 
on  the  nuiln  land  and  Vancouver  Inland,  are  unelena  on 
ui'count  of  the  grvnt  ilcptii  of  water  and  the  perpen- 
dicular liankn.  Not  n  nlioal  exintn  within  tii«  IStrait  of 
•luan  de  Fuca,  Admiralty  Inlet,  l'u((et  Sound,  or  IIoihI 
Canal,  that  can  in  any  way  interrupt  tlu'ir  navif^atUin 
hy  u  71  yuii  niiip.  The  nhoren  of  all  the  inlctn  ami 
hayn  are  remarkahly  lioM — no  much  no,  that  iiany 
placen  a  nhlp'n  nlde  woulil  ntrlke  the  ~l  |.„  iief,  ,,.  tlie 
keel  would  touch  the  ground.    Hi'^  >  of  then,  have 

rrookn  emptying;  into  them,  wit  waiter  sunioiont  to 
turn  mills.  Theno  creekn  i  '  ~  i  .■  exteunlvn  mud- 
flatn  at  their  entrancen,  witti  i  i  i  |irairien  nt  their 
lieadn  ami  ulouK  their  liaiik..  I  li  spring  tiden  rinp 
IH  feet,  thonoof  »he  neap  '  fi-et,  uffording  every  facil- 
ity for  the  construction  .i  i  v-iUvkn,  etc.  The  conntry 
on  all  thene  nalt  water  «•  w  In  naid  to  lie  remarkaldy 
healthy.  Tiie  wintei  n  represented  to  lie  mild  and 
but  of  short  duration,  and  the  ohniinein  and  harliorn 
uro  never  olwtructeil  by  ice. 

Fuel  (from  the  French/™,  (Ire,  akin  to  the  Latin 
fiifu»,  li  iienrtli  or  tire-place),  n  wonl  applied  to  certain 
suhatancen  which  are  uncd  in  the  generation  of  heut, 
such  an  wimxI,  (wat,  roal,  etc.,  and  nl-»  nometimen  ap- 
plied to  tlie  sulintances  employed  In  genoratinn  lin'it, 
iiuch  an  oil,  npiritn  of  wine,  najihtha,  etc.  In  the  pres- 
ent urticlfl  the  former  application  will  alone  lie  conniil- 
crcd ;  for  information  reapoctlnu  the  latter,  see  Uas, 
Lamt,  etc. 

The  aiiucd^ince  and  consequent  cheapness  of  fuel 
httit  a  ureiit  induenee  on  the  prosperity,  haliitn,  and 
manners  of  a  iiition.  Where  fuel  is  scarce,  factories 
lungiilnh,  and  Mimraerce  declines.  In  coM  climates 
scarcity  of  fuel  is  individually  a  jfreat  enliimity,  for  it 
aliridjtes  the  hours  of  lalmr,  causint{  persons  to  spend 
those  hours  in  sleep  which  under  other  circumstances 
would  Imvo  boon  turned  to  prolitablo  account ;  it  also 
causes  persons  to  crowd  together  for  the  sake  of 
warmth  in  a  way  tliat  is  injurious  to  health  and  morals. 
Aliundance  of  fuel,  on  the  contrary,  with  ({""d  roads  i 
and  a  system  of  inland  nnvljration  for  its  distriliution,  j 
forms  the  basis  of  national  prosperity,  not  only  minis-  I 


terlUK  10  the  useful  arts,  but  anahlinK  the  m-euplrr  of 
every  house  to  ireatn  an  artiflilal  cliniata  suited  to  tils 
wants  and  wishes. 

The  most  connnon  ami  n  ideiy-distrlliuted  dencrlplion 
of  fuel  in  inuii/,  a  term  applied  to  the  trunk,  roola,  ami 
iariter  liranches  of  trees.  Ueiently-felled  wikmI  con- 
sists chieliy  of  woody  lllire,  sup,  and  water.  I  he 
woody  niire  in  »  ciim|Hiun(l  of  cnrlsin,  hydroifen,  and 
oxyKen,  and  formn  the  chief  bulk  of  plants  |  both  l( 
and  the  nap  are  comliustilile'  -that  In,  are  capable,  at  A 
hi)(h  temperature,  of  comlilniuK  rapidly  with  tlie  oxy- 
gen of  the  atmosphere  anil  forming  t("*<'iiiin  com- 
pounds. It  In  ill  llie  act  of  thin  foniiallon  that  iinut  la 
Kenerati'd.  The  nap,  which  forms  only  a  nmall  priv 
|Hirtioii  of  tlie  bulk  of  wikmI,  varien  in  dilfereiit  kinila 
of  treen  :  the  sup  of  the  pine  trilie  contains  renin  ;  that 
of  the  oak,  tannin  ;  that  of  the  beech  and  birch,  ex- 
tractive. The  ipiniitity  of  water  in  wmal  varies  greatly 
with  the  kind  of  tree,  and  willi  thn  time  of  year  when 
it  in  felled.  It  lieinK  least  in  winter.  As  tho  water  is 
not  conUiustilile,  liut  must  be  ^ot  rid  of  nt  the  expense 
of  tlie  heut  generated  liy  the  parts  whicli  are  so,  it  Is 
obvhiiisly  ilesiraliie  to  store  tiie  wo<id  in  a  dry  and  airy 
situation  before  \\»\n](  it  as  fuel.  Ily  this  means  1(KI 
|Miunds'  weight  of  wood  have  been  known  to  lose  'iU 
piiuiidn'  wei^lit  in  10  or  12  monlhn.  Wood,  an  com- 
monly used  for  fuel,  contains  about  one  third  of  itn 
wei){lit  of  water.  Wood  also  contains  eartiiy  and 
alkaline  salts  in  the  prii|Hirtion  of  l-.'Klth  to  1-70th,and 
these  remain  as  an  incomliiistible  anh. 

Wood  in  distiiiKuislied  from  nil  otiier  fuel  liy  the 
vnliiable  property  of  reproiluctioii,  and  nlno  by  the 
fact  that  it  often  passes  tliroU|{li  the  varimin  stuKon  of 
beauty  and  utility  to  man  before  it  liei^omes  converted 
into  fuel.  Tile  heatinij;  |Hiwer  of  wood  is  conniiluralde. 
In  consequence  of  itn  excenn  of  hydrogen,  which,  in 
burning;  and  forming  water,  requires  for  equal  weights 
tiiree  times  as  nincii  oxy^fen  as  the  carlion  does  in 
formin);  carbonic  acid  ;  and  it  ((iven  out  in  liurnini{ 
nearly  four  times  more  heat  than  the  carlion.  The 
lighter  woods  contain  more  hydnigon  thanlli'  lieavler, 
so  that  thev  burn  with  Hume  longer  than  -y  incan- 
desce as  charcoal ;  they  also  liurn  more  easily  and 
give  out  their  lieat  more  quickly  than  the  liard  woods 
Uuriiig  the  combuHtion  of  wood  its  volatile  parts  un- 
dergo some  complicated  clieuiioul  ehiin'.i«s.  When 
wood  is  liurnt  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  the  carlion  is 
preserved  in  the  form  of  charcoal  ^seo  Cii.vufoAl.), 
wiiicli  is  a  very  useful  fuel  when  :in  incandescent  heut 
free  from  tiaiiio  and  smoke  is  rcquireil :  but  when 
some  of  the  vidiitilc  products  are  to  lie  collected,  tho 
wuihI  is  placed  in  iron  retorts,  whirli  ;iri'  griiduully 
raised  to  a  rod  heat.  Tlie  volatile  prodiu  ts  form  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  c.irlionic  acid,  carbonic  oxyd,  and 
otlier  gases,  ami  als.>  certain  vapors  wiiiili  condense 
into  Hquid  or  solid  products.  Some  of  tli-«  liquids  are 
solulde  in  water,  such  as  pyro\ylic  spirit,  pyridigneous 
acid,  etc. ;  the  insolulii"  !■'-•  ducts  form  tar  and  cortala 
oily  substances. 

In  most  countries  deposits  ofpen^  occur  of  greater  or 
less  extent.  In  llollail,  the  north  of  (iermany,  Ire- 
land, etc.,  pent  deposit  are  of  immense  extent.  Tlie 
origin  of  peat  li  is  been  .•  counted  for  in  those  districts 
where  clay  ociurs  ne.ir  tlie  surface  by  supposing 
muddy  pools  to  have  formed,  round  tho  edges  of  which 
aiiuutic  plants  have  taken  root  and  gradually  extended 
themselves  into  the  centre,  tlius  forming  n  bod  where 
mosses  accumulate,  and  now  plants  tako  growth,  while 
the  old  are  decaying  and  liecoming  compressed  into  a 
solid  mass  below.  This  process  goes  on  until  the 
pools  are  (lllcil  up  with  vogetalilo  matter,  and  the  sur- 
plus water  is  discharged  over  tiie  noighlwring  lands, 
where  tho  process  is  repeated  until  a  peat  bug  is 
formed.  Kven  in  mountain  districts,  where  tho  soil  is 
impervious,  clouds  and  mists  may  supply  muistore, 
and  a  bog  bo  formed  by  the  growth  of  one  generation 
of  vegetable  mutter  on  the  ruins  of  its  preilecessor.    Af 


PUB 


UB 


FUB 


tlie  plants  which  form  the  p«st  are  in  diflfbrent  stages 
of  decomposition  at  various  depths,  the  character  of 
the  peat  varies  greatly.  Near  the  surface  it  is  light- 
colored,  spongy,  and  the  vegetable  character  but  little 
changed ;  lower  down  it  is  brown  and  dense  j  while  a. 
the  base  of  some  bogs,  which  may  be  as  much  as  40 
feet  in  depth,  the  poat  is  black,  almost  as  dense  as 
coal,  and  resembling  coal  in  chemical  composition. 

On  the  banl<i  of  the  Rhine,  peat  is  cut  liy  means  of 
a  spade  into  blocks,  and  exposed  to  the  air  to  dry,  the 
upper  layer  being  first  separated  from  the  lower  and 
denser  portion.  In  Holland  the  peat  is  scooped  out  by 
means  of  spades ;  or  if  a  considerable  quantity  of  water 
be  present,  an  instrument  is  used  consisting  of  a  sharp 
iron  ring  attaclied  to  a  handle,  a  net  or  cloth  being 
'ubtenod  to  the  ring  for  draining  off  the  water.  The 
muddy  peat  thus  collected  is  trodden  out  by  the  feet  of 
men,  raked,  and  the  stones  picked  out;  it  is  then 
thrown  into  shallow  wooden  boxes,  strewed  with  hay 
to  prevent  the  peat  from  adhering,  and  the  remaining 
water  is  allowed  to  drain  off.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
days,  when  the  mass  has  attained  a  certain  consist- 
ence, women,  witli  flat  boards  strapped  to  their  feet, 
stamp  down  the  peat  until  it  has  attained  such  a  con- 
sistency as  not  to  take  an  impression  from  a  common 
tread.  It  is  next  stamped  with  l)eater9,  and  the  cake, 
which  is  eight  or  nine  inches  thick,  is  divided  by 
means  of  long  laths  into  squares  of  about  four  inches, 
which  are  removed  a  few  at  a  time  from  each  box. 
The  cakes  are  then  dried  by  placing  the  first  taken  out 
transversely  on  the  second,  the  third  upon  the  fourth, 
revprsing  the  order  when  the  pieces  are  piled  up  in 
'  store. 

The  value  of  peat  depends  greatlj-  upon  its  dryness, 
density  and  firmness ;  if  porous  an(i  ()rittle,  it  cnimldes 
during  carriage  or  after  it  is  stacked,  and  thus  l)ecomeB 
nearly  worthless.  In  many  cases  the  value  of  peat 
depends  on  its  capability  of  l)eing  alternated  with  the 
substances  to  be  heated.  Porous  an',  almost  valueless 
peat  has  l)een  rendered  valuable  l)y  being  passed 
through  a  press,  in  which  case  a  lump  of  peiit  may 
lose  as  much  as  one  fourth  of  its  weiglit  of  water. 
Peat  may  be  nearly  valueless  as  a  fuel  from  the 
quantity  of  ash  which  It  affords,  consisting  of  vege- 
ta!)le  suits  and  the  earthy  matter  of  peat,  and  amount- 
ing in  some  cases  to  one  tliird  of  the  woiglit  of  the 
pest.  When  this  large  quantity  of  ash  occurs  in 
peat  it  renders  the  fuel  very  dusty,  and  in  smelting 
processes  it  is  ol)jectional)le  on  account  of  its  chemical 
action.  It  is  remarkalile  that  the  carbonates  of  the 
alkalies  are  nut  found  in  this  ash,  Imt  phosphates,  sul- 
phates, etc.  In  some  large  towns,  peat,  or  tiirf,  as  it 
is  also  called,  is  imitated  by  employing  tlie  refuse  liark 
of  the  tan-yard,  which  is  made  into  flat  cakes,  and 
chiefly  used  ns  fuel  by  tlie  poor. 

In  the  sandy  plains  of  the  East,  camels'  dung  is 
dried  and  used  as  fuel ;  it  was  from  the  use  of  such 
fuel  in  Egj-pt  that  sal  ammoniac  originated,  the  salt 
subliming  during  comlmstlon.  Ilakluyt,  in  his  >'oy- 
afftt,  vol.  i.,  p.  84«,  says,  "  We  wore  forced  to  use  for 
fewell  the  dung  of  horses  and  camels,  whicli  we  bought 
deare  of  the  pasturing  people."  A  substance  in  the 
form  of  long  sticks,  said  to  Iw  made  of  camels'  dung, 
is  sometimes  imporle<l  from  the  East  under  the  name 
of  ektitm-e,  and  is  occasionally  used  insteotl  of  the 
ordinary'  match  for  lighting  pijws  and  segars.  It 
bums  slowly  without  flame,  and  gives  out  an  cnlor  not 
unlike  that  of  the  burning  cuttings  of  trees  and  shrubs. 
Other  descriptions  of  excrement  are  also  used  as  fuel. 
The  Chinese  have  long  Iwcn  accustomed  to  mix  cow 
dung  and  other  refuse  vege;  le  matter  with  soft  clay 
•nd  the  dust  of  coal  to  form  i .  'is  which  when  ilried  in 
the  sun  Iiecomo  a  cheap  and  UHef^l  fuel,  burning  with 
very  little  smoke.  These  balls  are  largely  manufac- 
tured in  the  coal  districts  of  ('hina,  and  are  distrilmtod 
over  the  empire  liy  mean.-,  of  the  canals.     It  is  a  curi- 


ous fact  that  Sir  Hugh  Piatt,  in  16B4,  indicated  a 


method  of  making  cool  balls  with  loam,  and  that  Ray, 
in  1668,  observed  this  kind  of  fuel  at  Li6ge  (Journey 
through  the  Low  Countries,  etc.,  1673,  p.  68),  where  they 
were  called  hot  thott,  serving  to  slake  the  heat  of  a  fire 
and  keep  the  coals  from  burning  out  too  fast.  Wo  are 
informed  that  in  some  parts  of  Wales  stone  coal  culm 
is  made  into  balls  with  clay,  and  is  a  common  form  of 
fuel  in  Feml>rokeshire,  The  combustion  is  Aovi,  and 
a  long  steady  heat  is  kept  up,  well  adapted  for  lima 
burning.  In  1863  a  patent  was  taken  out  in  England 
by  M,  Dudaylu  of  Bordeaux  for  the  manufacture  of 
fire-ba!'3  of  such  materials  as  cinders  or  ashes,  wood  or 
lignite,  anthracite  coal,  pit  coal,  animal  black,  calca- 
reous earth  or  clay,  mold,  etc. 

The  fuel,  in  every  respect  the  most  interesting,  and 
one  of  the  chief  sources  of  wealth  and  prosperity,  is 
coal.  The  very  abundance  of  this  article  causes  it  to 
be  used  in  so  lavish  and  extravagant  a  manner,  that 
any  general  attempts  to  economize  it,  and  to  fix  its 
value  as  a  fuel,  scarcely  interest  the  public.  There 
are,  however,  particular  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable 
to  economize  cool  as  far  aa  possible,  as  in  the  case  of 
a  steamship  of  a  thousand  horse-power,  a  single  jour- 
ney of  which  may  require  upward  of  2000  tons  of  coal, 
or  more  than  80,000  cubic  feet.  Hence  it  is  obvious 
from  the  details  given  of  the  various  descriptions  of 
coal  in  the  article  Coal,  that  some  varieties  of  coal 
are  better  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  steam  navigation 
than  others.  A  few  years  ago,  when  the  Ilritish  gov- 
ernment was  establishing  a  steam  navy.  Sir  II.  de  la 
Beche  and  Dr.  Lj-on  Playfair  were  requested  to  ex- 
amine and  report  on  the  coal  suited  to  the  steam  navy. 
The  inquiry  was  conducted  with  great  al>ility,  and 
has  resulted  in  two  reports  published  in  18-18  and 
18^19,  wiiich  the  reader  interested  in  the  suliject  will 
do  well  to  consult.  We  will,  however,  state  a  few  of 
the  chief  points  elicited  l>y  this  inquiry. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  object  of  the  inquirj-,  the  com- 
missioners considered  that  the  cliief  test  of  the  value 
of  any  coal  sul)mitted  to  their  examination  was  its 
power  of  converting  water  into  steam,  so  tlmt  if  a 
given  weight  of  coul  in  a  certain  time  converted  a 
larger  proportion  of  water  iuto  steam  than  the  same 
weight  of  another  coal  in  the  same  time,  tlie  evapora- 
tive power  (if  tlie  one  would  be  greater  than  that  of 
tlic  other.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  coal  l)cst 
adapted  to  steamships  of  war,  should  also  combine 
other  qualities ;  for  example,  the  fuel  should  lium 
quickly,  so  that  steam  may  be  raised  in  a  short  time ; 
it  should  not  lie  bituminous,  lest  its  smoke  should  be- 
tray the  iKisition  of  the  ship  when  it  might  be  desira- 
ble to  conceal  it ;  it  should  have  such  a  cohesive 
power  as  not  to  be  broken  into  fragments  by  the  roll- 
ing motion  of  the  vessel ;  it  should  have  such  a  density 
and  structure  ns  to  liear  stowing  away  in  a  compar- 
atively small  space  (a  condition  which  in  coals  of  equal 
eva|)orative  value  was  found  to  involve  n  difference  of 
more  than  20  per  cent.) ;  lastly,  the  coal  should  not 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  sulphur,  nor  lie  sulijcct 
to  rapid  decay,  or  it  might  in  either  case  lead  to  spon- 
taneous comliustion.  But  it  was  not  found  possllile  to 
unite  all  tliese  conditions  in  the  same  coal.  Anthra- 
cite, for  example,  has  high  evaporative  jiower.  but  not 
igniting  easily  its  action  is  not  quick  ;  it  is  not  easily 
liroken  liy  the  motion  of  the  ship,  but  not  licing  a 
caking  coal,  it  would  not  cohere  iix  the  furnace,  and 
would  escape  through  the  grate-bars  during  tho  roll- 
ing of  the  ship  in  a  gale ;  it  gives  off  no  smoke,  but 
from  the  intensity  of  its  combustion,  it  causes  the  iron 
of  the  grate-bars  and  of  tlio  Ixiilor  to  oxydize  rapidly  ; 
hence,  witli  many  advantages,  anthracite  has  a  few 
defects  sufHeiently  prominent  to  preclude  its  use  under 
ordinary  circumstances.  It  was  thought  that  a  patent 
fuel  might  be  formed  with  some  of  the  anthracites  of 
Wales,  wliich  should  combine  tlie  advantages  and 
elude  the  defects  above  referred  to ;  but  it  was  found 
that  the  cementing  tar  of  the  patent  fuel  burnt  so 


In 
thi 


phi 
sul 
nis 


Ch 
the 
cvi 
nsh 
plo 
tho 
aft< 


PXJE 


760 


FUB 


much  more  rapidly  in  the  fnrnace  than  thn  anthracite, 
that  the  latter  accumulated  on  the  bars  nnd  obstructed 
the  draft,  or  escaped  through  the  grate  unbumt. 

The  commlsxionera  found  that  the  qualities  which 
distinguish  particular  kinds  of  fuel  are  very  varied,  so 
that  it  is  difficult  to  deduce  general  results.  But  the 
data  furnished  by  their  experiments  enables  us  to  con- 
trast the  actual  value  of  a  particular  coal  with  its  the- 
oretical value,  supposing  its  combustion  to  lie  attended 
with  no  loss  of  heot.  The  actual  duty  obtained  by 
one  pound  of  coal  from  the  boiler  employed,  may  be 
expressed  by  the  numlier  of  pounds  raised  to  the 
height  of  one  foot,  a  result  which  may  be  olitained  by 
the  fonnnia  yVv+966-7y782==r,  In  which  W  repre- 
sents water,  of  which  ri  pounds  are  evaporated  by  one 
pound  of  coal.  This  formula  is  deduced  from  the  fact 
that ;/  pounds  of  coal  multiplied  hy  966-7,  or  the  co- 
efficient for  the  latent  heat  of  steam  at  212°,  indicates 
the  number  of  pounds  of  water  which  would  be  raised 
1°  Fahr. ;  and  the  number  782  arises  from  experiment 
on  tlio  mechanical  force  denoted  by  the  elevation  of 
one  pound  of  water  1°  Kahr. ;  that  force  being  equal 
to  7Hi  pounds  raised  to  the  height  of  one  foot,  accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Air.  Joule.  The  best  Corn- 
ish engines  are  said  to  be  capable  of  raising  1,000,000 
pounds  to  the  height  of  one  foot  for  every  pound  of 
coal  consimied,  but  this  is  only  oliout  one  eighth  of  the 
actual  force  generated,  and  only  one  eleventh  or  one 
twelfth  of  the  theoretical  force.  Kxperimcnta  on  the 
evaporative  power  of  coal  made  by  different  oliservcrs 
give  vet-y  dissimilar  results,  Smeaton,  in  1772,  evapo- 
rated "SH  pounds  of  water  from  212°  with  one  pound 
of  Newcastle  coal ;  Wall,  in  X788,  evaporated  8-62 
pounds  J  AVicksteed,  in  1840,  evaporated  9-493  pounds 
of  water  from  80°  with  one  pound  of  Merthyr  coal, 
which  is  equal  to  10-74G  ponnds  from  212°.  In  some 
experiments  made  at  the  United  Mines  in  Cornwall,  it 
was  found,  after  a  trial  of  six  months,  that  everj- 
pound  of  coal  evajiorated  10'29  pounds  of  water  from 
212° ;  nnd  according  to  some  experiments  made  in 
Cornwall,  «t  the  request  of  the  commissioners,  it  was 
found  tliat  11-42  pounds  of  water  were  evaporated  bj- 
every  pound  of  AN'cish  coal  of  similar  chemical  compo- 
sition to  that  of  Mynydd  Newydd. 

At  ordinary  temperatures  coal  undergoes  a  slow 
combustion  under  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere, evolving  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  nnd  infinm- 
malile  gases,  and  in  some  cases  lending  to  dangerous 
explosions.  This  alow  comliustion  is  facilitated  liy 
the  higher  temperature  of  Iiot  climates,  and  by  the 
presence  of  moisture.  If  the  coal  contain  much  sul- 
phur or  iron  pyrites  the  chemical  action  may  become 
so  intense  as  to  ignite  the  coals.  In  stowing  coals  it 
is  therefore  important  that  they  .  !iould  be  as  dry  as 
poRRil)le,  and  such  a  variety  should  be  selected  as  is 
least  liable  to  this  progressive  decomposition.  When 
coal  is  kept  in  iron  bunkers,  and  in  lialile  to  be  wetted 
with  sea-water,  the  iron  rapidly  corrodesfrom  the  car- 
Ism  or  coal  forming  a  voltaic  circuit  with  the  iron,  and 
thus  promoting  oxydation. 

In  the  great  exhiliition  of  1851,  Messrs.  Berard  & 
Co.,  in  the  French  department.  No.  61,  exhibited 
"  small  puriDed  coals,  ond  residue  of  the  same,  the 
produce  of  a  system  for  purifying  coals,  patented  in 
France,  Knglaud,  Belgium,  and  (Jermany."  This 
plan  appears  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  purilicntion  of 
RulpliurouM  coal,  or  coul  containing  much  iron  pyrites  ; 
also  wliorc  the  coal  deposits  are  in  numerous  small 
seams,  and  can  not  l)e  got  out  without  lieing  mixed 
with  slaty  and  stony  matter.  The  coal  used  on  the 
Cheniin  de  Fer  du  Nord  was  so  sulphurous  as  to  injure 
the  locomotives  ;  but  by  using  the  puritied  coal,  the 
evil  was  for  the  most  part  remedied  ;  the  quantity  of 
ash  was  also  greatly  reduced.  The  apparatus  em- 
ployed for  purif\-ing  the  coal  is  similar  in  principle  to 
the  jiggliig-machino  used  in  dressipg  ores,  which, 
after  l>eing  stamped,  in  order  to  separate  stony  mat- 


ter, are  agitated  in  water  and  ollowtd  to  rest,  when, 
the  various  portions  become  arranged  in  layers,  ac- 
cording to  their  specific  gravities.  This  puritied  cual 
yields  a  very  pure  coke. 

Mr.  Grace  Calvurt,  of  Manchester,  ha*  taken  out  a 
patent  for  purifying  coke  flrom  sulphur.  It  consists 
in  mixing  the  coal,  before  coaking,  with  from  1}  to  6} 
per  cent,  of  common  salt,  the  proportion  varying  with 
the  qtuintity  of  sulphur.  The  coking  is  then  cnudueted 
as  usual.  By  this  contrivance,  coal,  wliicli  was  for- 
merly unserviceable  in  smelting  operations,  can  now 
be  used  with  effect. 

The  following  table,  by  Dr,  Ure,  shows  the  quantity 
of  water  raised  from  32°  to  212°  by  one  pound  weight 
of  the  different  combustibles  enumerated  in  the  first 
column ;  it  also  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  boil- 
ing water,  which  the  same  weight  of  fuel  will  evapo- 
rate, and  the  quantity  of  atmospheric  air  absolutely 
consumed  during  combustion.  The  quantity  of  air, 
however,  as  given  in  the  last  column,  is  much  lets 
than  would  be  necessary  in  practice,  where  much  of 
the  air  passes  the  fuel  without  coming  into  contact 
with  it  so  as  to  have  its  oxygen  consumed.  The  heat- 
ing power  also,  as  represented  by  this  table,  can  seldom 
be  practically  attained. 


Combiutiblc. 


IPoandaofwit«r|Pouuilt  of  boU-I  Welsht  of  sn- 
whlch  a  )miind  InK  WAter  evnp-  mo«f>liflrl(^  nir  ftl 
can  mUfl  from  orat«d  by  one  88"  ruqiilred  to 
22'' to  219**.  poniid,  burn  one  pouud. 


Dry  wood 

Cummon  wood 

Charcoal 

Pit  coal 

Coke 

Turf 

Coal  gas 

Oil,  wax,  or  tallonr. . 
.\lcohol 


85-00 
2000 
78-00 
60-00 
66-00 
80-00 
76-00 
78-00 
5S-00 


6'8« 

4-72 
18-27 
10-90 
11-81 

6-4S 
18-Sl 
14-18 

6-S6 


6-96 

4-47 
11-46 

9-26 
11-46 

4-60 
14-51 
15-00 
11-60 


As  various  kinds  of  fuel  afibrd  different  amounts  of 
heat,  and  as  heat  can  not  be  measured  or  weighed, 
and  its  quantity  ascertained  by  direct  experiment,  the 
relative  values  of  fuels  are  ascertained  by  comparing 
them  with  each  other  under  similar  circumstances. 
The  heating  power  of  a  fuel  is  the  quantity  of  effect 
produced  by  it  in  a  certain  time,  and  this  in  conjunc- 
tion with  its  market  price  gives  its  value  as  a  fuel. 
One  fuel  may  produce  a  certain  greater  or  less  effect 
than  another  fuel,  and  thus  its  relative  superiority  oi 
inferiority  may  be  accurately  ascertained,  although 
the  actual  amount  of  heat  furnished  by  it  may  be  en- 
tirely unknown,  Lavoisier  and  Laplace  fixed  these 
values  by  making  the  suDstance  under  examination 
act  on  ice,  and  the  quantity  of  ice  melted  gave  the 
value  in  each  case.  Count  Rumford  measured  the 
value  of  fuel  by  the  increased  temperature  which  it 
produced  in  a  given  quantity  of  water.  Now,  as  the 
same  quantity  of  heat  which  melts  one  pound  of  ice  at 
0°  Cent,  is  sufhcient  to  raise  the  temperature  of  as 
much  water  79°  Cent.,  or  0-79  lb.  of  water  100°  Cent., 
so  also  an  equal  weight  of  aqueous  vapor  of  any  given 
temperature  and  elasticity  is  always  formed  from  the 
same  amount  of  heat,  and  always  contains  the  same 
quantity  of  heat,  and  the  quantity  of  heat  which  water 
at  100°  ('ent.  renders  latent  in  order  to  become  steam 
is  &-6  times  sufficient  to  heat  tlie  same  weight  of  water 
from  0°  to  100°  Cent.,  hence  the  water  converted  into 
vapor  by  the  beat  required  to  molt  one  pound  of  ice 
is  the  6-,')th  part  of  the  same  pound,  that  is,  it  can 
convert  into  vajtor  0-154  lb,  of  water. 

It  was  found  by  Despretz  and  Welter  that  the 
quantities  of  fuel  which  require  equal  amounts  of 
oxygen  for  combustion,  give  out  equal  quantities  of 
heut;thus,  1  lb.  of  oxygen  in  comltining  respectively 
with  hydrogen,  charcoal,  alcohol,  etc.,  raised  29  lbs. 
of  water  from  32°  to  212°,  A  given  woiglit  of  the 
different  combustibles  has  its  heating  power  repre- 
sented by  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  raised  in 
temperature,  as  in  the  following  table,     (See  Journal 


FUE 


760 


FUE 


of  the  FranUtn  Tnttilute,  Phllad.,  1856-7  j  also  Silm- 
mas'h  Journal  of  Science,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1864-6.] 


Ibi. 

1  lb.  of  puro  oharcoal  rained . . . 

"      common  wood  charcoal 

"      baked  wood 

ofwatflr. 

78«h)m82°- 

78 

86 

27        '• 
60 
5-80 
68 

90        " 
80        " 
236 

-ai2» 

"      wood   holding  20 
**         cent,  of  water . . . 

per 

t( 

tl 

"      turf 

"      alcohol 

...2 

(1 

K 

"      other 

4i 

"      hydrogen 

t* 

More  recent  researches  have,  however,  cast  consid- 
erable doubt  upon  the  law  that  any  given  quantitj-  of 
oxygen  evolves  the  same  quantity  of  heat  with  what- 
ever combustible  body  it  may  combine.  From  a  series 
of  tabulated  results  given  in  Gmrmn's  Ifand-Book  of 
Chemistry,  vol.  i.,  p.  292  (Cavendish  Society's  transla- 
tion), it  would  rather  appear  that  oxygen  develops  a 
lAger  quantity  of  heat  the  stronger  its  affinity  for  the 
combustible  substance. 

Such  experiments  as  the  above  tend  to  confirm  the 
modem  view  of  combustion  which  regards  oxygen  as 
a  combustible  as  much  as  the  fuel  with  which  it  com- 
bines (see  CiiEMisTiiY,  vol.  v., En.  Br);  so  that  when 
oxygen  burns  by  means  of  any  fuel,  the  heat  evolved 
increases  with  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed.  It 
was  on  this  view  that  Berthier  based  his  process  for 
detecting  the  quantity  of  oxygen  reciuired  for  com- 
bustion, and  the  heating  power  of  the  combustible  in 
one  experiment.  His  plan  is  to  heat  tu  redness  a 
known  quantity  of  the  combustitle  with  a  considerable 
excess  of  i)ure  litharge  until  the  combustible  is  en- 
tirely consumed  by  the  oxygen  of  the  oxyd  of  lead. 
On  weighing  the  lead  reduced  by  this  process  the 
amount  of  oxygen  consumed  is  ascertained,  and  alsr 
the  heating  power  of  the  fuel  under  examination.  In 
calculations  of  this  kind,  it  will  be  rememl>ered  that  (! 
parts,  or  1  equivalent  of  carimn,  require  16  parts,  or  2 
equivalents  of  oxygen,  for  combustion  ,  that  1  part  of 
hydrogen  requires  8  parts  of  oxygen  ;  that  by  sub- 
tracting from  the  hydrogen  a  quantity  corresponding 
to  the  oxygon  in  the  coal,  the  calculation  can  be  made 
for  the  carbon  only.  Now,  1  part  of  pure  carbon  re- 
quires for  combustion  2'6fi(>  of  oxygen,  and  is  capable, 
according  to  Despretz,  of  heating  78'15  parts  of  water 
from  freezing  to  boiling.  By  multiplying  each  part 
of  lead  obtained  by  2"26.'),  the  weight  of  water  is  ob- 
tained which  is  capable  of  l>eing  heated  lietween  these 
temperatures  by  a  unit  of  the  coal  used  in  reducing  the 
litharge. 

The  heating  power  of  a  particular  fuel  is  the  same, 
however  that  fuel  may  lie  burnt.     It  is  true,  that  the 
power  may  bo  more  or  less  economically  applied  ;  the 
power  may  be  expended  with  greater  or  less  rapidity, 
greater,  for  example,  in  a  furnace  than  in  an  open 
grate,  but  as  the  fuel   during  combustion  combines 
with  e<|uivalent  portions  of  oxygen,  the  same  amount 
of  heat  is  liberated  whether  the  combination  Iw  ra])id 
or  slow.     Tho  rapidity  of  combustion  depends  not 
only  upon  the  mode  of  arranging  the  draught  or  sup- 
ply of  air  to  the  fuel,  but  also  on  the  state  of  division 
of  the  fuel  itself.   A  given  weight  of  wood  in  the  state 
of  shavings  will,  from  the  large  extent  of  surface  ex- 
posed, bum  rapidly,  and  produce  its  full  heating  ulfect 
in  a  few  minutes,  while  the  same  weight  of  wood,  in 
the  form  of  a  log,  may  kce|)  up  a  moderate  tem|>era- 
ture  for  some  hours.    The  division  of  a  fuel  may,  how- 
ever, l)o  carried  so  far  that  the  air  necessary  for  its 
combustion  can  not  penetrate  it.     .Such  is  the  case 
with  saw-tlust,  powdered  charcoal,  or  peat,  slack  coal,  I 
etc.     If  the  powdered  coal  be  of  caking  quality,  it ; 
may  be  burnt  into  com|iact  coke,  and  thus  be  more  i 
useful  than  a  fuel  which  in  its  first  form  is  compact,  | 
but  which  falls  to  powder  on  being  heated  in  tho  fur-  I 
nacp.     Small  fuel  may  sometimes  lie  advantageously  | 
applied  by  covering  the  fumace-bars  with  pieces  of  i 


aand-stone  or  lime-stone  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  fuel  from  falling  through,  and  for  distributing  tho 
supply  of  air  among  it.  In  the  roasting  of  copper 
ores  in  South  Wales  a  flaming  coal  is  necessary  in  tho 
reverberatory  fumace  where  the  operation  is  carried 
on.  But  as  the  flameless  anthracite  is  much  more 
abundant  in  this  district  than  the  bituminous  coal,  it 
is  turned  to  account  in  an  ingenious  manner.  When 
burnt  under  ordinary  circumstances  it  crumbles  to 
powder,  as  already  noticed,  and  either  slips  through 
the  bars  of  the  grate,  or  chokes  them  up.  But  when 
anthracite  is  raised  to  a  very  high  temperature  it  foruia 
a  vitreous  scoria  or  clinker,  which  in  the  ordinary 
fumace  combines  with  the  iron  of  the  bars  and  chokes 
up  the  grate.  In  the  Welsh  furnaces,  the  clinkers 
themselves  are  ingeniously  arranged  so  as  to  perform 
the  office  of  grate-bars,  namely,  to  support  the  fuel, 
and  to  limit  the  supply  of  air  from  below.  Tho 
clinkers  are  supported  on  iron  bars  placed  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  apart,  and  are  arranged  in  a  layer 
12  or  16  inches  in  depth.  Above  this  layer  the  fuel 
of  the  fumace  is  in  full  cumbustion ;  this  fuel  consists 
of  anthracite  mixed  with  about  one  fourth  of  its 
weight  of  small  bituminous  coal,  and  also  forms  a 
layer  of  a  depth  about  equal  to  that  of  the  clinkers : 
it  is  in  this  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire  that  fresh 
clinkers  are  being  continually  formed,  and  while 
forming  they  cake  with  the  numerous  fragments  of 
bituminous  coal  heaped  up  above  tbeni.  As  fresh 
portions  of  the  fuel  come  into  operation  the  clinkers 
descend  toward  the  bottom  of  the  grate,  where,  meet- 
ing with  the  numerous  jets  of  air  which  stream  up 
through  the  bottom,the  vitrified  mass  splits  and  cracks 
in  all  directions,  farming  new  channels  for  the  ascent 
of  the  draught,  but  not  large  enough  to  allow  the 
small  coal  to  escape.  As  the  calciner-man  heaps  up 
fresh  fuel  above,  he  hooks  out  a  few  clinkers  from  the 
Imttom  to  make  way  for  the  descent  of  others.  Under 
this  arrangement  the  oxygen  of  the  air  traversing  tho 
multitude  of  channels  formed  by  the  cracks  in  the 
clinkers,  combines  with  a  portion  of  the  fuel  and  forms 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  uninflammable,  but  before 
reaching  the  vault  of  the  fumace  it  is  deprived  of  a 
portion  of  its  oxygen,  and  becomes  converted  into 
carbonic  oxyd  which  is  inflammable.  But  in  order 
that  this  gas  may  undergo  combustion,  air  is  admitted 
through  apertures  in  the  sides  of  the  fumace  just  above 
the  ore,  and  in  this  way  the  whole  surface  of  tho  ore, 
occupying  an  area  of  nearly  23  feet  square,  is  played 
upon  by  a  thin  sheet  of  flame,  produced  from  fuel 
which  gives  scarcely  anj-  flame  at  all. 

Common  coal  gas  is  sometimes  used  as  fuel,  in 
which  case  it  is  calculated  that  1  lb,  or  24  cubic  feet 
thereof,  in  buming,  will  raise  76  lbs.  of  water  from  tho 
temperature  of  freezing  to  that  of  boiling.  Extending 
this  comparison  to  the  other  forms  of  fuel,  it  is  stated 
that  1  lb.  of  dr>'  wood  will  similarly  heat  !!6  lbs.  of 
water,  but  only  26  lbs.  if  the  wood  l)e  not  dry,  or  con- 
tain moisture  to  the  extent  of  from  20  to  'in  per  cent. 
One  lb.  of  good  dry  charcoal  will  similarly  heat  73  lbs. 
of  water,  but  if  exposed  to  the  air  it  absorbs  at  least 
10  per  cent,  of  moisture,  and  in  buming  gives  a  flame 
of  carburetted  hydrogen  (or  rather,  probalilj-,  a  mix- 
ture of  carbonic  oxyd  and  hydrogen),  arising  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  moisture.  One  lb.  of  good 
pit  coal  is  said  to  raise  60  lbs.  of  water  fnim  freezing 
to  boiling,  1  lb.  of  coke  65  lbs.,  and  1  11).  of  turf  or 
peat  from  2.5  to  .10  lbs.— B.  E.    See  Coal. 

Fuelf,  Artifrial,  —  It  is  curious  to  note  how  many 
new  "  patent  artificial  fuels"  there  now  are.  As  ex- 
perimenters tell  us  that  different  kinds  of  coal  and 
other  natural  fuel  jmisscjis  different  ijualitios,  an  In- 
ducement is  offered  for  the  exereise  of  ingenuity  In 
devising  various  imitative  com|>ositions.  The  liyilrau- 
lie;  press  is  brought  into  singular  requi'<ition  in  this 
art.  Thus,  Azalay's  hard  shining  blocks  of  artillcial 
fuel  are  simply  formed  of  coal-dust,  sul^jected  to  In- 


'"':m. 


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in 


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fuel 

in 

;  feet 
I  the 

nding 

itotcd 
of 
con- 
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ezing 
arf  or 

miiny 
U  ex- 
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tense Gomprestion,  Warllch's  patent  fuel,  In  large- 
sized  bricks  weighing  about  12  pounds  each,  ii  made 
by  mixing  together  the  dust  of  various  Idnda  of  coal  | 
the  briclcB  are  dense  and  well  made ;  the  fuel  kindles 
slowly,  but  gives  off  very  little  smoke  while  burning. 
Warlich's  series  comprises  Welsh  steam  fuel,  nortli- 
country  fuel,  household  fuel,  and  locomotive  coke-fuol 
— differing  in  the  kind  of  coaUlust  used,  and  In  the 
amount  of  tar  with  which  the  dust  is  agglutinated. 
Warlich's  patents  are  worked  by  a  company,  who  have 
establishments  at  Deptford,  Swansea,  and  Middles- 
borough.  The  Bideford  Anthracite  Company  makes 
artificial  fuel,  in  brick-form  pieces,  by  a  particular 
mode  of  treating  anthracite.  Oram's  patent  fuel  Is  a 
condensed  mixture  of  small  coal,  bitumen,  and  sand. 
Williams's  fuel  is  a  mixture  of  dried  pnat  and  bitumen. 
So  of  n\imerous  other  kinds ;  small  coal,  l)itumen,  or 
peat,  or  two  out  of  the  three,  are  mixed  with  various 
other  substances  to  form  a  compost  fuel.  It  must  be 
owned,  however,  that  such  fuel  is  not  yet  much  used, 
even  in  places  where  natural  fuel  ^s  scarce. — /ntien- 
timu  in  Arts, 

Fuhohau,  or  Fou-tohow-foo.  Sea  Fou 
Chow. 

Fullen'  Earth  (Ger.  lVM.^rde;  Du.  Volilardei 
Fr.  Terre  afoulon;  It.  Terra  da purgatnri i  Sp.  Tii'ira 
de  batan ;  Rus.  Schiffemaia ;  Lot.  Terra  fulloimm),  a 
ifpecies  of  clay,  of  a  greenish  white,  greenish  gray, 
olive  and  oil  green,  and  sometimes  spotted  color.  It 
is  usually  opaque,  very  soft,  and  feels  greasy.  It  Is 
nsed  by  fullers  to  take  grease  out  of  cloth  l)cfi>re  tliny 
appi}'  the  soap.  The  Iiest  is  found  in  Hucklngliam- 
sliire  and  Surrej-.  When  good,  it  has  a  grennUli 
•^•hite,  or  greenish  gray  color,  falls  into  powder  In 
water,  appears  to  melt  on  the  tongue  like  butter,  com- 
municates a  milky  hue  to  w.iter,  and  deposits  very 
little  sand  when  mixed  with  lioiiing  water.  The 
remarkable  detersive  property  on  woolen  cloth  de- 
ponds  on  the  alumina,  which  should  bo  at  Irast  one 
tlfth  of  the  whole,  but  not  much  more  than  one  fourth, 
lest  it  become  too  tenacious. — ^Tho.mson's  Chemiatry  i 
Jameson's  Mineralogy. 

Fulling,  the  art  of  cleansing,  scouring,  and  press- 
ing cloths,  stutfs,  and  stockings,  to  render  tliem 
stroni^er,  closer,  and  firmer.  It  is  otherwise  culled 
milliiij,.  Pliny  (vii.  66)  relates  that  one  Nicias,  the 
son  of  Hermias,  was  the  first  inventor  of  tlio  art  of 
fulling ;  and  it  appears  l>y  an  inscription,  c|uuted  by 
Sir  G.  Wheeler  in  his  Travels  through  Greeee,  that  this 
same  Nicias  was  a  governor  in  Greece  In  the  time  of 
the  Komitns.  The  asperities  upon  the  surface  of  woi<l 
render  the  spinning  of  it  and  the  making  it  into  cliith 
difiicult  operations.  In  order  tn  spin  wool,  and  after- 
wnnl  convert  it  into  cloth,  its  (ll)res  must  Iw  eovornd 
with  a  coating  of  oil,  which,  filling  the  cuvitios,  ren- 
ders the  asperities  less  sensible ;  in  the  same  way  that 
oil  rubbed  on  the  surface  of  a  very  fine  file  renders  It 
loss  rough.  When  the  piece  of  cloth  is  finished.  It  Is 
carried  to  the  fulling-mill,  where  it  is  beaten  with 
hea\-y  stampers  in  a  trough  full  of  water  in  which 
Bomo  fuller's  earth  has  ))een  mixed,  for  the  purimse 
of  cleansing  it  from  the  oil.  The  clay  combines  with 
the  oil,  which  it  separates  from  the  cloth,  and  both 
are  washed  away  together  liy  the  fresh  water  which  Is 
brought  to  it  by  the  machine.  Uut  the  scouring  of 
the  cloth  is  not  the  only  object  in  view  in  fulling  It, 
The  alternate  pressure  given  by  the  stampers  to  thu 
piece  of  clith  occasions  (especially  when  the  scouring 
is  pretty  far  advanced),  an  efifect  analogous  to  that 
which  is  produced  u|K)n  felt  by  the  hands  of  the  hut- 
ter.  The  fibers  of  wool  which  compose  one  of  tlio 
threads,  whether  of  the  warp  or  the  woof,  assume  a 
progressive  movement,  introduce  themtclvcs  among 
those  of  the  threads  nearest  to  them,  then  into  those 
which  follow;  and  thus,  by  degrees,  all  the  threads, 
both  of  the  warp  and  the  woof,  I)ecome  felted  together. 
The  cloth,  after  having  by  this  inuans  become  short- 


ene<l  in  all  Its  dimensions,  partakes  both  of  the  natuN 
of  cloth  and  of  that  of  felt,  and  may  be  cut  without 
iMiIng  sulijrct  to  ravel.  Lastly,  the  cloth  has  acquired 
A  greater  degree  of  thickness,  and  forms  s  wfirmer  ^ 
clothing.  Knit  worsted  also  may  thus  be  rendered 
less  a|rt  to  run  In  case  a  stitrh  happen  to  drop. 

The  fulling  of  cloths  and  other  stuffs  is  performed 
by  n  kind  of  water-mill,  thence  called  a  fulling  or 
sniiiring  mill.  These  mills,  excepting  In  what  relates 
to  the  mill-stones  and  hopper,  are  much  the  Bam<'  with 
curn-mllls|  and  there  are  even  some  which  serviin- 
dllTerently  for  both  purposes.  The  principal  parts  of 
the  fulling-mill  are  the  wheel,  with  its  trundle,  which 
gives  motion  to  the  tree  or  spindle,  whose  teeth  com- 
inunl<!atn  St  to  the  stampers,  which  are  thereby  raised 
and  made  to  fall  alternately,  as  Its  teeth  catch  or  quit 
a  kind  of  latch  In  the  middle  of  each  stamper.  The 
stamiNirs  and  troughs  are  commonly  of  wood;  but 
•onietltnes  the  stampers  are  made  of  polished  iron, 
and  till?  doth  I*  exposed  during  the  process  to  the  ac- 
tion of  piteam  ;  by  which  means  the  appearance  of  the 
cloth,  when  finished.  Is  said  to  be  greatly  improved. 
Tlieso  Improvements  formed  the  Bubje> ,;  of  a  patent  in 
iH'ib,  In  the  course  of  the  operation  the  fuller  some- 
times niukes  use  of  urine,  sometimes  of  fuller's  earth, 
and  sometimes  of  soap.  To  prepare  the  stuffs  to  re- 
ceive the  first  Impressions  of  the  stamper,  they  are 
usually  laid  In  urine,  then  In  fuller's  earth  and  water, 
and  lastly  In  sonp  dissolved  In  hot  water.  Soap  alone 
would  do  very  well,  but  it  Is  expensive,  and  fuller's 
ourtll  Is  scarcely  Inferior  to  It ;  but  then  it  must  bo 
well  cleared  of  all  gritty  particles,  else  it  is  apt  to 
make  holes  In  the  stufi'. 

Method  nffnlliiii)  cloths  and  woolen  stuffs  with  soap, 
~A  colored  cloth  of  oliout  'IS  ells  is  to  be  laid  in  the 
usual  nuiimvr  In  the  trough  of  a  fulling-mill,  without 
first  soaking  It  In  water,  as  Is  commonly  practiced  in 
many  places.  'I'o  full  tlils  trough  of  cloth,  15  pounds 
of  soap  urn  reipilred,  one  half  of  which  is  to  be  melted 
In  two  palls  of  river  or  spring  water  made  as  hot  as 
the  hunil  can  well  licar  It.  This  solution  is  to  bo 
poured  by  di'grces  upon  the  cloth,  os  it  is  laid  in  the 
trough  i  and  thus  it  Is  to  be  fulled  for  at  least  two 
hours,  nttnt  viWh  It  Is  to  be  taken  out  and  stretched. 
This  dime,  the  cloth  Is  Immediately  returned  into 
the  same  trough,  without  any  new  soap,  and  there 
fulled  two  hours  more.  It  is  then  taken  out  and 
well  wrung,  to  express  all  the  grease  and  dirt.  Af- 
ter thu  seconil  fulling,  the  remainder  of  the  soap  is 
dli.solvud  as  In  the  former,  and  cast  four  different 
(liiiiis  on  the  cloth,  which  Is  taken  out  every  two  hours 
to  stretch  It,  and  undo  the  plaits  and  wrinkles  it  has 
aiijulred  In  tlio  trough.  When  it  Is  perceived  to  be 
sufllrlently  fulled.  It  Is  well  scoured  in  hot  water. 
With  regard  to  white  cloths,  these  full  more  easily 
and  in  less  timu  than  colored  ones,  and  thus  require 
only  a  third  part  of  the  soap. 

Fulminating  Compounds.  — Fulminates  are 
of  suviiral  klniln,  being  detonating  compounds  of  the 
futmlnic  ai'ld  with  various  bases.  Such  are  the  fulmi- 
nates  of  gold,  mercury,  silver,  etc.  The  old  fulminat- 
ing |H)wiliir  Is  a  mixture  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  |X)tash. 
The  fulminate  of  mercury  Is  largely  used  os  a  prim- 
ing to  the  |M'ri!Usslon-caps  for  guns.  See  Chemistry, 
vl.,  p.  171. 

Fulta,  M  large  village  of  HIndoostan,  province  of 
Itcngnl,  im  llic  niist  bank  of  the  Ilooghly,  20  miles 
S.H.VV.  Ill  u  straight  line  from  Calcutta,  but  much 
mom  by  thn  windings  of  the  river.  It  has  safe  an- 
chorage for  ships,  where  they  are  protected  from  the 
swell  of  thn  sea,  and  whore  the  anchors  hold  fast,  the 
bottom  belr.g  stlirdoy.     Ijit°  22'  18.,  long.  88°  10'. 

Fulton,  Robert,  n  distinguished  American  engi- 
iionr  and  itieirlianUlnti,  among  the  first  who  success- 
fully applied  stenill  *.o  the  |ir(ipulsion  of  vessels,  was 
a  niitlvu  of  the  Htato  of  I'ennsy  Ivanla.  At  a  very  early 
age  lie  gave  decided  Inulcatlons  uf  mechanical  geriiua. 


FtJL 


wr 


FUL' 


While  Ml  >  mere  youth  ha  begin  life  In  the  city 
of  Philadelphia  as  a  portrait  and  landscape  painter ; 
and  in  his  22d  year,  with  a  view  to  improving  him- 
self in  art.  he  visited  England,  where  he  remained 
for  several  yearo  under  the  roof  of  his  countryman 
M'est.     He  states  that  in  1793  he  had  conceived  the 
design  of  propelUng  vessels  by  steam,  bat  his  numer- 
ous engagements  prevented  him  from  carrying  it  into 
effect  at  tbr    'ime.      His  time  was  completely  en- 
grossed in         'sing  a  plane  of  double  incline  that 
should  super„  xie  the  locks  on  canals,  for  wliich  he  ob- 
taine<l  a  patent  fh)m  the  British  government  in  1794. 
In  the  same  year  he  obtained  patents  for  flax-spin- 
ning and  rope-twisting  machines,  and  various  other 
mechanical  inventions,  bearing  chiefly  upon  the  con- 
Dtraetion  of  >  anals,  on  which  latter  subject  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise.     In  1797  he  removed  to  Paris,  and 
remained  for  seven  years  in  the  house  of  Jiiel  Barlow, 
the  American  minister  at  the  court  of  Napoleon  I., 
prosecuting  bis  scientific  studies.     During  that  period 
he  projected  the  first  panorama  ever  exhiliiteil  in 
Paris,  and  made  important  ex|)eriments  on  submarine 
explosives.     It  was  also  at  this  tir<.e  that  he  first  suc- 
ceeded, after  repeated   trials,  in  propelling  a  boat 
through  the  water  by  the  aid  of  stiam.     In  1806  he 
returned  to  America,  and  re|>eated  the  experiment  on 
a  larger  scale  and  with  more  decided  success.     In 
1809  he  took  out  his  first  patent,  and  seemed  to  be  on 
the  high  way  to  wealth  and  prosperity,  when  his  rights 
were  disputed,  and  he  lierame  involved  in  legal  pro- 
ceedings, which  embittere<l  the  remainder  of  his  exist- 
ence, and  prevented  him  from  reaping  the  rich  harvest 
to  which  his  industry  and  genius  fairly  entitled  him. 
Fnlton  died  February  24, 1815.     A  minute  account  of 
his  life  and  inventions  is  given  in  his  biogrnphy  by 
Cadwallader  D.  Colden,     See  Stbam  Navigation. 

Fulton  has,  perhaps,  contributed  more  than  any 
other  man  of  the  present  century,  to  the  progress 
of  commerce  througbont  the  world.  The  impetus 
gi^'en  by  his  genius  to  the  adoption  of  steam  naviga- 
tion, has  been  equally  extended  (if  not  more  no),  to 
the  increase  of  sailing  vessels  At  the  present  day 
the  stock  of  mechanical  and    practical    knowledge. 


ance  to  circumstances  of  birth,  and  took  pride  In 
being  the  maker  of  his  own  fortune.  Except  so  far  as 
eli^mentar}'  education  was  concerned,  he  was  und^r 
little  obligation  to  his  progenitors ;  lieing  left  without 
i)atrimouy  at  the  death  of  Us  father,  when  three  years 
old.  A  "'are  that  he  was  to  trust  to  his  own  exertions, 
even  foi  neans  of  subsistence,  he  cultivated  from  an 
early  age  a  taste  for  drawing,  in  the  hope  of  qutllf)'- 
ing  himself  for  the  profession  of  a  painter.  From  a 
familif.r  acquaintance  with  his  nerformances  as  an  art- 
ist at  a  later  date,  when  he  applied  to  tlie  easel  merely 
as  r  relaxation,  it  may  Iw  stated  that  there  is  little 
doubt  that  had  he  devoted  himself  to  the  profession  of 
painting,  he  must  have  become  highly  distinguisiied 
OS  a  professor  of  that  art.  At  the  early  age  of  17 
he  went  to  Philadelphia,  for  the  purpose  of  prac- 
ticing as  a  pain'.er  of  lanrmcapeB,  and  was  so  successful 
as  not  only  to  support  himself,  l)Ut  to  lay  up  sufficient 
funds  to  purchase  a  small  farm  in  Washington  county, 
Pennsylvania,  and  to  aid  his  widowed  mother.  Hie 
patrons  in  Philadelphia  were  at  first  among  tlie  hum- 
bler classes,  l>ut  afterward  he  formed  acquaintances  who 
were  both  able  to  appreciate  his  promise  as  an  artist, 
and  to  facilitate  his  plans  of  improving  hin-.self  as  a 
painter,  U^'  their  advice  he  went  to  England,  and 
througli  a  favorable  introduction  to  West,  he  wu^ 
treated  by  that  great  artist  with  even  more  than  his 
usual  liberalit}-,  and  iMcarae  an  inmate  of  his  house; 
and  remained  his  guest  and  pupil  for  several  years. 
After  leaving  the  family  of  West,  Fulton  proceeded  to 
Kxeter,  wliere  he  lived  two  years,  during  which  time 
his  intelligence  and  ability  gained  li:m  many  useful 
acquaintances.  Among  theaa,  t.h>'  most  important 
were  the  Duke  of  Brii'gewater  and  Earl  Stanhope.  It 
appears  to  have  been  at  the  instance  of  the  former  that 
he  abandoned  painting  as  a  profession,  and  entered 
tiiai  of  a  civil  engineer.  We  find  him  next  residing 
in  Birmingham,  engaged  in  tlie  construction  of  canals, 
liiough  prolwbly  in  a  sulwrdinate  station.  Fulton's 
residence  in  Birmingham  lirought  him  Into  communi- 
cation with  Watt,  who  hod  just  succeedeil  in  giving  to 
his  steam-engine  that  perfect  form  which  fits  It  for 
unlrersal  application   as  a  prime  mover.     While  in 


banded  down  by  tradition,  or  preserved  Ijy  means  of  {  Birmingham,  Fulton  issued  a  number  of  patented  in- 


the  press,  has  become  sc  enormous,  that  me  must  bril- 
liant discovery  in  the  useful  arts  liears  but  a  small 
proportion  to  the  whole  e:.len>  of  human  knowledge. 
In  remote  times,  the  lide,  n-hich  modem  inventors  de- 
rive from  the  records  of  the  reasonUigs,  and  combina- 
tions, and  even  the  aliortive  attempts  of  others,  were 
wholly  wanting ;  and  if  no  on?  of  the  inventions  of 
antiquity,  when  taken  l>y  itself,  can  rank  in  apparent 
importance  with  some  of  modem  date,  the  former  were 
in  many  instances  far  more  conspicuous  as  steps  in  the 
progress  nf  human  improvement.  In  the  dawn  of  civil- 
ization, invjntions  were  usuall}' unexpected,  and  though 
often  calculated  to  supply  the  most  pressing  wants, 
excited  surprise,  because  the  wants  themselves  had 
not  been  perceived.  At  the  present  day  discoveries 
often  appear  as  the  almost  inevitable  result  of  pre- 
vious improvement.  The  highest  degree  of  merit  is 
to  l)e  awarded,  in  the  present  age,  to  those  who,  aware 
of  the  wants  of  the  conmiunity,  or  of  the  world  at 
large,  set  to  themselves  as  a  task  the  discoverj'  of  the 
means  of  supplying  these  wants.  If  we  consider  Ful- 
ton as  an  inventor,  it  may  be  difiicult  to  say  in  what 
exact  particular  his  merits  consist ;  hut  If  we  contem- 
plate him  in  the  llglit  of  a  civil  engineer,  confidently 
building  a  finished  and  solid  structure  upon  the  iu- 
'vmplete  foundation  left  by  others,  we  must  rank  h'.m, 
in  the  extent  of  his  usefulness  to  mankind,  as  second 
to  Watt  alone.     See  Life  o/l'uUnn,  by  J.  Kknwkr. 

Koliert  Fulton  was  bum  at  Little  Britain,  in  Lan- 
caster county,  Pernsylvania,  in  the  year  17(>f).  His 
patents  were  respectable,  though  far  from  affluent ;  hit 
father  a  native  of  Ireland,  his  mother  descended  from 
M  Irish  family,     Fulton  hUnsolf  attached  no  iinport- 


ventions  and  several  pulilisbed  works.  In  179.)  he 
took  out  a  patsnt  for  the  introduction  of  the  Inclined 
plane  in  Inland  navigaiioD,  and  tbreo  years  later  em- 
bodied it,  with  other  projects  of  a  similar  nature,  in  a 
work  on  Inland  Navigation.  This  work  con  lie  quoted 
as  exhibiting  a  high  degree  of  uriglnalily,  ingenuity, 
and  talent,  but  as  inapplicable  to  any  n!<eful  purpose. 
To  his  instrument  for  destroying  vessels  of  war,  be 
gave  the  name  of  the  Torpftlo.  It  consisted  of  nn 
oval  copper  case,  charged  with  gunpowder.  To  this 
lie  pro|iosed  to  attach  a  lock,  regu'  'M  by  clock-work, 
wliii  li.  after  any  required  time,  miglit  cause  the  lock 
to  spring  and  tlius  commnnleute  tire  to  the  charge. 
But  Fulton  n<ot  witli  so  much  opposition  in  bringing 
this  into  pr,  <  during  the  war  with  Cireat  Britain, 
that  the  onit  nifs  of  Its  value  we  can  cite,  were  the 
sleepless  niglus  and  anxious  days  of  many  Brltlsli 
commanders,  who  felt  that  the  vicinity  of  Fulton's 
operations  was  attended  with  danger  which  could  only 
be  prevented  by  unremitting  diligem'e  and  attention. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  more  important  subjects 
which  attracted  tlie  attention  uf  Fulton,  we  havo  to 
mention  some  other  fruits  of  his  ingenuity.  In  17U4 
li^  took  out  patents  for  a  mill  for  sawing  marble  ;  u 
method  of  spinning  flax  and  making  rc|)es ;  and  of  ex- 
cavators for  digging  canals,  Tlie  latter  object  miiy 
still  renuin  a  desideratiim  In  practical  mechanics  ;  tiia 
two  former  at  least  served  us  steps  in  the  career  of  Im- 
provement, and  have  been  guides  and  landmarks  to 
subsequent  inventors,  Fulton  undertook  the  con- 
struction nf  a  vessel  whlcli  might  move  either  at  or 
lipneatli  the  surface  of  (he  water,  and  made  tlie  p'^tsage 
over  the  estuary  of  the  Linn  with  ease  and  safety. 


PtTL 


1M 


FUIT 


"f  he  art  trtth  wUch  Fulton's  name  is  inseparably 
connected  as  the  principal  agent  in  its  creation,  is  that 
of  navigation  liy  steam.  Ills  application  of  steam  was 
founded  on  the  pro|ierties  of  Watt's  double-acting 
engine,  and  could  not  be  used  until  that  instrument 
had  received  the  last  flnishing-touch  of  the  inventor, 
When  the  properties  of  this  engine  became  known  to 
the  public,  many  liastened  to  apply  it  to  navigation. 
Among  others,  were  Miller,  of  Dalswinton,  aided  l>y 
Symington,  who  put  a  Iwat  in  motion  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde,  in  1801.  In  the  United  States,  experiments 
were  made  by  Fitch  and  Rumsey ;  and  in  1791,  John 
Stevens,  of  Hobolcen,  commenced  his  researches, 
which  he  engaged  in  for  nine  years,  when  he  became 
the  associate  of  Chancelor  Livingston  and  Nicholas 
Roosevelt ;  to  this  association  wai  added  Brunei,  the 
Inventor  of  block  machinery,  and  engineer  of  the 
Thames  tunnel.  The  efforts  of  this  association  were 
unsuccessful,  and  were  broken  up  by  the  appointment 
of  Livingston  as  embassador  to  France,  where  he  be- 
came intimate  with  Fulton,  and  offered  to  provide  him 
with  funds  necessary  for  an  experiment,  and  to  aid  in 
introducing  the  method  in  the  United  States,  if  the 
experiment  were  successful.  Fulton  had  conflnned  his 
original  impression  of  the  superiority  of  the  paddle- 
wheel  over  any  other  means  of  propulsion,  and,  lute 
in  the  year  1803,  commenced  Imilding  a  vessel  66  feet 
in'length  and  8  in  breadth.  To  this  an  engine  was 
adapted,  and  the  experiment  so  satisfactorj-,  as  to  leave 
little  doubt  of  final  success.  Measures  were  imme- 
diately taken  to  construct  a  steamboat  on  a  larger 
scale  in  the  United  States.  An  engine  wcs  ordered 
from  England,  from  Watt  &  Bolton,  in  1803 ;  its  form 
varied  from  their  usual  models  in  conformity  io 
sketches  furnished  by  Fulton.  At  the  same  time,  an 
application  made  to  tte  Legislature  of  New  York  for 
an  exclusive  privilege  of  navigating  the  waters  of  that 
State  t>v  steam  wag  granted.  Before  the  engine  or- 
dered from  Watt  was  completed,  Fulton  visited  En- 
gland, and  directed  the  construction  of  it  in  p.!rson.  It 
was  completed  at  last,  and  rcoclied  New  York  in  1806 ; 
tlie  vessel  was  finished  and  fitted  witli  her  machinery 
in  August,  1807.  An  experimental  excursion  was 
made,  and  a  few  mi  :ntes  served  to  convince  the 
most  skeptical  and  dnulitful  that  the  long-desired  ol>- 
ject  was  obtained.  Within  a  few  days  of  the  first  ex- 
periment, a  voyage  was  undertaken  in  it  to  Alliaiiy. 
This  f  ity  is  distant  from  New  York,  by  the  channel  of 
the  river,  nearly  150  miles.  In  u  few  remarkable  in- 
stances the  sloops  which  navigated  the  Hudson  had 
performed  the  passiige  in  l(i  hours ;  but  the  average 
time  was  four  days.  Fulton's  steamboat  went  up 
in  36  hourn,  and  returned  in  30.  Fulton,  comply- 
ing with  the  wishes  of  the  public,  made  regular  voy- 
ages until  the  end  of  the  season.  Many  of  the  mi- 
nor arrangements  for  tlie  conven!once  of  passengers, 
tlie  facility  of  working,  and  safety  from  accident  of 
tlie  machii.  iry,  were  yet  wanting ;  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties were  removed  at  the  time,  and  otliors  remained 
until  tlie  lioat  should  bo  laid  aside  for  tlie  winter.  The 
next  winter  of  1807-8  was  occupied  in  remodeling  and 
rebuilding  the  vessel,  to  which  tiie  name  of  Clermont 
was  given.  Fulton  provided  such  accammo<lationii  for 
pissengers,  as,  in  regard  to  convenience  and  splen- 
dor, had  never  been  approached  in  other  ■•  scls  of 
transportation.  This  was  almost  improvident  lilier- 
alitj- ;  for  a  debt  was  contracted  which  nev  demands 
never  permitted  him  to  discharge.  The  Clermont,  thus 
converted  into  a  floating  palace,  cominenopd  her  course 
of  passages  fur  the  month  of  April.  The  first  voyage 
was  a  complete  failure ;  the  tioiler,  provided  by  Watt, 
was  not  suitable,  and  Fulton  had  l)een  persuaded  to 
replace  it  liy  one  jilanned  by  Livingston,  composed  of 
wood  and  copper,  which  emitted  steam  from  the  joints 
»oon  after  leaving  New  York,  and  gave  way  com- 
pletely, on  the  return  passage,  near  that  city,  after 
•  vuyogo  prolonged  for  56  hours.     Bit  a  few  weeks 


sufficed  to  build  a  new  boiler,  and  in  June,  the  CTwv 
mont  was  again  under  way.  In  the  hour  of  depart- 
ure from  New  Y'ork  or  Albany  the  utmost  regular- 
ity was  observed,  vjhich  required  no  little  persever- 
ance and  resolution  at  first ;  but  the  benefit  of  this 
punctuality  was  soon  perceptible,  and  the  same  system 
was  copied  by  other  steamboat  lines.  At  the  end  of 
the  second  summer  the  boat  became  far  too  small  for 
the  iiassengers,  who  crowded  to  avail  themselves  of 
this  new  mode  of  tra.ni,pflrt,  and  Fulton  begun  a  sec- 
ond boat,  ca'  ed  Ths  Car  of  Neptune, 

The  roost  formidable  opposition  made  to  the  priv- 
ilege of  Fulton,  for  the  exclusive  navigation  of  the 
waters  of  New  York,  was  founded  upon  the  discoveries 
of  Fitch,  who  had  constructed  a  boat  which  traveled 
between  Trenton  and  Philadelphia.  Fulton,  assailed 
in  his  exclusive  privileges,  took,  for  further  pivtection, 
a  patent  trova  the  general  government  'n  1809,  and 
another  in  1811.  tirants  were  made  to  Fitch  by  the 
State  of  New  Jersey,  and  as  a  compromise  could  not 
be  agreed  upon  by  the  two  contending  parties,  the 
controversy,  which  often  interrupted  the  communica- 
tion by  steam  between  Philadelphia  and  New  York, 
was  not  adjusted  until  the  gran.;,  made  to  Fulton  by 
the  State  of  New  York,  was  declared  unconstitutional, 
A  form  of  ferry-boats  was  soon  after  invented  by  Ful- 
ton, which,  with  the  substitution  of  a  single  hull  for 
the  twin  iioat,  has  in  its  arrangement  and  distribution 
undergone  little  or  no  change.  The  steamboats  on  the 
Hudson  were  increased  ui  number,  before  Fulton's 
death,  to  five.  A  sixth  was  built,  under  his  direction, 
for  the  Sound,  which  plied  for  some  time  on  the  Hud- 
son. In  the  construction  of  this  boat  he  had,  in  his 
opinion,  exhausted  the  power  of  steam  in  navigation- 
having  given  it  a  s|)eed  of  nine  miles  an  hour. 

When  deatli  arrested  Fulton  in  his  great  career,  he 
was  engaged  in  constructing  an  improved  fonn  of  sub- 
marine vessel,  but  as  he  Imd  made  no  one  a  confidant 
in  his  plans,  at  his  death  no  person  was  found  willing 
or  al>le  to  undertake  the  completion  of  tiie  vessel.  By 
exposure  in  his  visits  to  the  TSu-yy  y.ird,  in  BrooUyn, 
he  took  a  severe  cold,  which  hi^  constitution,  enfeebled 
by  constant  labors  and  anxieties,  could  not  resist.  He 
died  on  the  24th  of  February,  181.').  Rarely  has  it 
happened  that  tlie  natural  death  of  any  citizen  excited 
so  general  mourning  as  that  of  Fulton.  Cut  off  in  the 
very  height  of  his  usefulne.^",  and  in  the  zenith  of  his 
reputation,  his  eountrj'mcn  felt  it  as  u  loss  almost  irre- 
parable. See  Life  of  Fui.tos,  by  Jamrs  Henwick, 
LL.D. ;  Anal.  Mag.,  v.  391,  x.  177 ;  Sr.VRKS's  Am. 
liiog.,  X.  3  ;  Qiiar.  Hei:,  r.ix.  347 ;  Littell's  Mus., 
xx.xiii.  340 ;  Niles's  liey..  xiii.  61 ,  xxxiii.  15 ;  IIust's 
Mer.  Mag.,  xv.  468.  A  siiitablo  monument  to  the 
memory  of  Fulton  has  not  yet  Ixusn  erected  either  by 
the  United  States,  by  imy  one  State,  or  l)y  any  asso- 
ciation. It  yet  remains  for  his  naiive  State  (I'ennsyl- 
vania),  or  for  the  State  which  fostered  his  early 
efforts  (New  York),  to  |)lace  in  some  great  thorough- 
fare, an  appropriate  column  in  memory  of  one  who  hag 
so  largely  contributed  to  the  growth  of  commerce 
throughout  the  civilized  world. 

Fumigation  is  the  employment  of  fumes  or  va- 
pors to  purify  articles  of  apparel,  and  goods  or  apart- 
ments supposed  to  be  imbued  with  some  infectious  or 
contagious  poison  or  fumes.  The  vajHjrs  of  vinegar 
tlie  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  and  explosion  of  gun- 
powder, have  long  been  prescribed  and  practiced ;  but 
they  have,  in  all  probability,  little  or  no  efficacy. 
The  diffusion  of  such  powerful  agents  as  clilorin  gas, 
muriatic  acid  gus,  or  nitric  acid  vapor,  should  alone  be 
trusted  to  for  the  destruction  of  morbific  effluvia. 

Funds.  To  the  Venetians  is  ascribed  the  orign  of 
the  funding  system,  in  A.  ».  1171.  Public  funds  were 
raisoil  by  the  Medici  family,  at  Florence,  in  1340,  The 
English  funding  system,  or  the  method  of  raising  the 
supplies  for  tlie  public  service  in  England,  by  anticipa- 
tion of  the  public  revenues  (the  origin  of  the  national 


FUN 


764 


FUR 


debt),  was  introdnced  at  the  Revolution,  1689. — Morti- 
mer's Brokfr.  The  funding  system  is  coeval  with  tlie 
commencement  of  the  Hank  of  England. — Anukiisun. 
The  three  per  cent,  annuities  were  created  in  1720. 
The  three  jwr  cent,  consols  were  created  in  17.11  j  the 
three  per  cent,  reduced,  1746;  three  per  cent,  annui- 
ties, payable  at  the  South  Sea  House,  17r)l ;  three  and 
a  half  per  cent,  annuities  created  1758 ;  long  annui- 
ties, 1761 ;  four  |)er  cent,  consols,  1762  ;  live  per  cent, 
annuities,  1797  and  1HU2;  five  per  cents,  reduced  to 
four,  1822.     See  National  Debt. 

Tba  following  table  has  been  calculated  in  order  to 
show  in  which  of  the  puldic  fuuds  money  may  be  m- 
vested  so  as  to  yield  the  greatest  interest.  It  gives 
the  prices,  differing  by  one  per  cent,  i'rom  50  to  i»3  for 
three  per  cents.,  etc.,  at  wiiicli  they  all  must  be  to 
yield  the  same  interest ;  so  that  supposing  the  three 
per  cents,  to  l>e  at  80,  a  sum  invested  in  them,  or  in  tliu 
3}  per  cents.,  will  yield  the  same  iutor«st,  provided 
the  latter  \m  at  98^ ;  if  the  .S^  per  cent,  be  litlaw  tliis 
sum,  it  will,  of  course,  l>e  more  advantageous  in  so  far 
at  least  as  interest  is  concerned,  to  invest  in  tliem  than 
in  tlie  three  per  cents, ;  while,  if  they  be  above  9'H,  it 
will  be  less  advnntageous. 

To  get  the  true  mine  of  the  different  funds  at  any 
particular  period,  in  order  to  compare  them  accurately 
together,  it  is  necessary  to  deduct  from  each  the 
amount  of  interest  accruing  upon  it  from  the  payment 
of  the  last  dividend, 

TAOI.!!  SlIOWIXO  TlIK   P«ICII8    THK    DirFEKKXT  KrXl«   MUST 

BR  AT  TO  raoDiTci:  AN  cqitAi.  Intkk^xt;  and  ai.so  thp. 

ANNCAL    InTRREST    PKODrCKP     IIY  £100    HTKKLINU    ] 
VESTRD   AT  ANY  or  THOSK   PrU'KS. 


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S7 

101  10    0 

116    0    0 

145    0 

0 

8    8 

11 

8S 

102  18    4 

117    6    8 

146  U 

4 

8    8 

2 

88 

108  16    8 

IH  18    4 

14s    0 

H 

8    7 

4 

80 

lOf.    0    0 

120    0    0 

150    0 

0 

3    0 

8 

»l 

106    8    4 

121     «    8 

151  13 

4 

3    5 

11 

M 

107    6    8 

122  18    4 

163    6 

S 

3    ft 

2 

»S 

108  10    0 

124'  0    0 

l.W    0 

0 

3    4 

0 

The  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  wliich  amount- 
ed, at  the  close  of  tlie  last  war  with  (ireat  Britain,  to 
l|158,71.S,049,  was  entirely  [laid  off  in  1835.  This 
proceeding,  so  honorable  to  the  United  States,  nat- 
urally tepded  to  raise  tlin  character  of  Amerifun : 
securities  in  the  English  market,  and  enabled  the  gov- 
ernment to  contract  the  loans  required  to  carry  on  the 
Uto  war  with  He^cico  on  veiy  favorable  terms,     Tb« 


debt  of  the  Union,  existing  on  the  20th  November, 
1851,  amounted  to  $62,660,895,  and  is  at  present  (1866) 
about  $-16,000,000, 

Uut  in  addition  to  thu  debt  of  the  Union,  most  part 
of  the  States,  und  several,  also,  of  the  principal  cities, 
huvi  contracted  ])eculiar  debts  of  a  less  or  greater 
amount.  In  most  cases  these  were  incurred  to  pro- 
mote the  execution  of  some  public  undertaking,  such 
as  the  construction  of  canals  or  railways,  tlio  excava- 
tion of  docks,  the  erection  of  buildings,  tiiu  establish- 
ment of  banks  or  insurance  ''ompanies,  and  so  forth. 
Some  of  the  debts  so  "ontructed  have  been  advan- 
tageously laid  out ;  but  a  large  portion  borrowed  ia 
1885,  and  other  periods  of  wild  excitement,  were  con- 
tracted on  very  disadvantageous  tenns,  and  expended 
on  projects  some  of  which  have  turned  out  extremely 
ill,  Tliis,  however,  was  the  affair  of  the  States  them- 
selves, and  did  not  afford  so  much  as  t,\ie  shadow  of 
an  e.xcuse  for  the  conduct  of  those  States  wliich  have 
declined  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  their  debts.  It 
was  not,  indeed,  to  be  wondered  at  that  <n  t!ie  distress 
into  n'hich  the  Union  was  tlirown  by  the  crash  of  1887, 
and  the  depression  following  thereon,  some  of  the 
States  should  havo  been  com|>eilcd  to  suspend  pny- 
ment  of  their  debts ;  but  a  necessity  of  this  sort  could 
be  teinpornry  only.  The  indebted  States  a'e  all  rich, 
and  eminently  flourishing  and  prosperous  communities, 
und  it  might  have  been  expected  tliat  they  would  have 
■nude  every  effort  to  resume  payment  in  full  of  their 
debts  at  the  earliest  possilde  moment.  But  this,  we  are 
sorry  to  say,  bus  not  lioan  the  case  with  some  of  tlicm, 
Fundy,  Bay  of,  un  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  sets  up 
lietwcen  Vayte  Sable,  the  south  poiut  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Mount  Ue.sert  Island,  in  Maine,  a  distance  of  150 
miles.  From  I'jistport  to  St.  John,  N.  B,,  is  fiO  miles. 
The  bay  is  divided,  in  its  nortli-cast  (utrt,  into  two 
bruiu'lics,  tiie  north  called  Chiguccto  Buy,  the  heud 
of  which  is  170  miles  from  Eastport,  The  soutli-cu^t 
part  is  called  the  Busin  of  Jlines,  150  miles  from  ICiist- 
port,  I'ussamaquoddy  Bay  opens  into  it  on  the  north- 
west, rear  its  mouth.  Gypsum  is  obtained  on  tlio 
Basin  of  Mines,  and  grindstones  on  Chignectn  Buy, 
This  b.'.y  is  veiy  peculiar ;  itt  shores,  on  iioth  sides,  are 
rocky  and  abrupt,  while  near  its  head,  the  tide,  pressed 
und  conlined  witliin  diminisiied  limits,  rusiics  with 
much  violence  over  extensive  and  wide-spread  mud- 
lluts,  and  rises  goneially  bO  feet  or  more.  Its  lisliories 
are  valuulile  und  extensive.  (See  Pkiilky's  vuluublo 
ro|xirt  on  its  fisheries,)  There  are  16  iijjht-houses  on  the 
(wasts  of  the  Buy  <if  Fundy,  viz,,  eight  on  the  New 
Brunswick  side,  and  eight  on  the  Nova  Scotia  hide. 

Furl,  in  navigation,  to  roll  the  sail  up,  and  con- 
fine it  liosely  to  tlie  yard  :  the  sail  licing  gathered  up 
by  the  men  on  the  yard,  the  leech  or  edge  ii  passed 
along  the  yard  to  the  middle  or  buni,  where  the  liody 
of  the  sail,  the  foot  and  clews,  are  collected.  In  this 
way  <  I  sails  of  a  man-of-wur  are  removed  nearly  out 
of  vie  .1  in  an  almost  iucr^ilible  short  space  of  time. 

Furlong,  an  Knglish  niei-sure  of  length,  contuin- 
iug  the  eiglitli  part  of  a  mile. 

Furs,  ill  commerce,  tlie  skins  of  different  animals, 
covered,  for  the  most  part,  with  thick,  line  hair,  the 
inner  side  being  converted,  by  u  jieculiur  process,  into 
a  soit  of  leuther.  Furs,  previously  to  their  undergo- 
ing this  process,  are  denominated  peltry. 

lleuver  fur,  from  its  extensive  use  in  the  hat  niunu- 
fucture,  is  a  very  important  co'iimerciul  article.  That 
mode  use  of  in  this  country  U  almost  entirely  brought 
from  Nortli  America.  It  is  grudually  liccoming  scarcer 
und  deurer,  lieing  now  obtaiiiuble  only  in  considcniblo 
(luantities  from  the  most  northerly  and  inaccessible 
districts.  The  fur  of  the  middle-aged  or  young  iini- 
inul,  culled  ciilr-lwaver,  is  most  esteemed.  It  is  tho 
finest,  most  glossy,  and  takes  the  best  dye.  Fitcli,  or 
the  fur  of  the  litchct  or  [lolecat,  is  principally  imported 
from  Germany  ;  it  is  soft  und  warm,  but  the  unpleuB« 
aot  smell  which  adheres  to  it  depresseg  its  vulu«. 


FUR 


765 


FUR 


bntaia- 

kiinals, 
lir,  tho 
\i>,  into 
lilergo- 

Iniiinu- 
That 
|rouj;ht 
Icarcer 
Icmblo 
k's^iblo 

iff  "ni- 
ls tho 
rll,  or 
^ported 
Jpioas- 
Ivulua. 


Marten  and  mink,  n  diminutive  apecies  of  otter,  are 
principally  imported  fh)m  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. The  fur  of  the  muaqunith,  or  muslcrat,  a  diminu- 
tive BpociDS  of  beaver,  i»  imported  in  vnit  quantitfes 
from  our  posaesaionn  in  North  An-.erica,  which  also 
supply  U8  with  considerable  quantities  of  otter-skins. 
Nutra-skins  are  principally  1)rought  from  Buenos 
Ayrcs.  The  more  valuable  fnrs,  as  ermine,  table, 
etc.,  como  prii.cipally  from  Russia. 

Fur  Trade Tliere  is,  perhaps,  no  branch  of  com- 
merce that  has  drawn  forth  a  more  dariri;  and  adven- 
turous spirit,  or  given  rl  e  to  a  more  patient  and  cour- 
agf^ous  endurance  of  personal  danfcers,  privations,  and 
hardships,  than  the  fur  trade,  as  is  manifest  through- 
out its  whole  history.  '<y  its  moans  we  have  become 
accurately  acquainted  wiih  nearly  three  fourths  of  the 
continenf  of  North  America.  Tlio  indefatigable  exer- 
tions of  the  fur  merchant,  stimulated  by  tlie  )>rospect 
of  large  gains  from  his  hazardous  pursuits,  have  made 
known  numerous  triljes  of  men  and  nations  partially 
acquaintvid  with  tlie  aria  and  refinements  of  civilized 
life,  who  otherwise  might  have  remained  many  ages, 
or  forever,  immersed  in  heathen  darkness,  and  sunk 
In  barbarity.  Nor  are  tlie  general  advantages  derived 
from  the  fur  trade  confined  to  a  more  p-t  trato  geo- 
graphical knowledge  of  a  vast  range  o'.  couiilr_,,  and 
tho  ext-'nsion  of  the  arts  of  peace  ar.d  social  happi- 
ness. Tho  adventurods  fur  trader  h'.s  often  been  the 
precursor  of  the  gospel  niissionarj',  and  has  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  important  labor  i  with  comparative 
security  und  succesn. 

iVhftice  furs  were  Introduced — The  use  of  furs 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  nto  Europe  by  the 
northern  invaders  of  the  Koman  en  pire.  In  the  sixth 
century  tho  skins  of  sables  were  'irought  to  Kome 
from  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  thiui.,rh  tho  inter- 
vention of  numerous  parties,  so  that  the  cost  to  the 
consumer  was  very  high.  During  sever  .1  centuries 
after  that  time,  furs  were  not  ot  oil  comr  ion  in  west- 
ern Europe.  In  1252,  A.i).,  Marco  Polo  mentions,  as  a 
aulrect  of  curiosity,  that  he  found  the  tents  of  the 
khan  of  Tartary  lined  with  the  skins  of  saldes  and 
ermines,  wliich  had  liecn  brought  from  countries  far 
north,  "  from  tlie  land  of  darkness."  In  less  than  a 
centur)-,  however,  from  that  time,  the  wearing  of  furs 
as  a  part  of  fashionable  dress,  Ii..d  liecome  rather  prev- 
alent in  England,  since,  in  tit37,  Edward  III.  com- 
manded that  all  persons  among  his  sulijeets  should  be 
prohibited  the  use  of  furs  unless  they  could  spend  jCIOO 
per  annum. 

Arctic  Regiont. — Early  in  the  17th  century  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  seas  were  found  tenanted  by  furred 
animals  of  great  value ;  and  the  idea  of  forming  a 
settlement  was  suggested  by  Groscliei,  a  Frenchman. 
Tho  suggestion  was  made  first  to  his  own'govemment, 
but  as  it  was  coolly  received,  lie  olitained,  tlirough  the 
English  embassador,  nn  interview  with  Prince  Rupert, 
before  whom  ho  laid  his  plans.  The  prince  wannij- 
entere<l  into  the  project,  and  assisted  in  fitting  out  a 
vessel,  which  reached,  in  Scptemlier,  16G8,  tlio  river 
then  culled  Nemisco,  to  which  tlie  adventurers  gave 
the  name  Itiipert,  in  Imimr  of  tiie  prince.  After  win- 
terin,5  tlicrc,  witli  less  difficulty  and  suffering  tlian 
thej-  had  anticipated,  they  returned,  and  gave  so  fa- 
vorable a  report  that  Prince  Kiipert,  the  l)uke  of  Al- 
bemarle, tiie  Earl  of  Craven,  I*rd  Ashley,  and  otiiers, 
formed  tiicniselves  into  a  Company,  and  siiliscriliad 
ilOj.'JOO  for  tho  purpose  of  coniniencing  a  traffic  in 
furs.  A  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted  by 
Charles  II.  in  1070,  gii-ing  to  the  Hudson's  JJay  Com-, 
pany  full  possession  of  "  all  tho  lands  and  territories 
upon  the  countries,  coasts,  and  confines  of  the  seas, 
bays,  lakes,  rivers,  cn^eks,  and  sounds,  in  whatsoever 
latitude  they  shall  be,  that  lie  witl\in  tlie  entrance  of 
the  straits,  commonly  called  Hudson's  Straits,  that 
ue  not  already  actually  iiossessed  by  or  granted  to 
ony  of  our  lubjecta,  or  possessed  by  the  subjects  of 


any  other  Christian  prince  or  state."  And  the  charter 
proceeds  to  grant  further,  that  "  the  whole  and  entire 
trade  and  traffic  to  and  ftvim  all  havens,  bays,  creeks, 
rivers,  lakes,  and  seas  into  which  they  shall  find  en- 
trance by  water  or  land  out  of  tho  territories,  limits, 
or  places  aforesaid  ;  and  to  and  with  all  the  natives 
and  people  inlialiiting,  or  which  shall  inhabit  witliin 
the  territories,  limits,  and  places  aforesaid  ;  and  to  and 
with  all  other  nations  inhabiting  any  of  the  coasts  adja- 
V  .t  to  thi>  said  territories,  limits,  and  places  which  are 
not  already  possessed  as  aforesaid,  or  whereof  the  sole 
liberty  or  privilege  of  trade  and  traffic  is  not  granted 
to  any  other  of  our  ubjects."  On  Rupert's  River 
the  Company  Immediately  formed  a  settlement ;  and 
in  1674  stations  were  settled  on  Moose  River,  and  a 
few  years  later  on  the  Alliaiiy,  and  soon  after  two 
more  on  the  Nelson  and  the  Severn, 

French  Sttllementt  and  Sekuret. — By  these  vigorous 
measures  the  French  court  was  awakened  to  a  sense  of 
its  neglect,  and  Grosseliez,  already  detached  from  the 
English  service,  was  sent  out,  in  the  year  1G82,  to 
found  a  factory  on  the  River  Haj'es,  which  he  aocom- 
plished,  and  also  surprised  the  British  factor^'  on  the 
Nelson.  After  this  time  hostilities  became  frequent 
between  the  French  and  the  English  settlers ;  yet  not- 
withstanding immense  losses  sustained  by  the  Com- 
pany from  1682  to  16S8  (amounting  to  ;£118,014),  tliey 
were  aide,  in  1684,  to  pay  to  tlie  shareholders  a  dividend 
of  50  per.  cent.  Again,  in  1688,  an  equal  dividend 
was  made,  and  in  1689,  one  of  25  per  cent.  In  1090, 
witiiout  any  call  being  made,  the  stock  was  trebled, 
while  at  the  same  time  a  dividend  of  25  per  cent,  was 
paid  on  the  increased  or  newly-created  stock.  By 
jther  captures  of  their  factories  by  the  French  in  the 
j-eara  1692,  1694,  1696,  and  1697,  the  Company  suf- 
fered further  loss  to  the  amount  of  $97,500.  At  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  however,  these  captured 
factories  were  restored  to  the  Company,  who,  by  1720, 
had  again  trelded  their  capital,  with  a  cuU  of  only  10 
per  cent,  on  the  shareholders.  Now  they  strength- 
ened the  old  fons  and  formed  several  new  ones  In  the 
interior ;  but  in  1749  a  que  ition  arose  in  Parliament 
concerning  the  rights  of  the  Company,  wliieh  was  de- 
cided in  their  favor.  Again,  in  1782,  several  of  their 
factories  were  taken  by  the  French  under  La  I'erouje ; 
still  their  traffic  seems  to  have  continued  very  lucra- 
tive until  the  invasion  of  their  rights  and  territories 
l>y  a  strong  rival  association,  designated  tlie  Nortli- 
west  Company,  wliose  fierce  competition  caused  much 
animosity  and  l>l<Hidshed.  This  was  not  only  very 
destructive  to  tiie  fur  trade,  but  most  injurious  to  the 
Indians. 

Management. — Tlie  North-west  Company  "-"nsisted 
of  23  partners,  comprising  some  of  tlie  mosi  >  calthy 
and  enterprising  settlers  in  Canada,  and  employed 
about  2,000  persons  as  clerks,  interpreters,  guides,  and 
boatmen  (voyageurs),  who  were  stiitioned  over  tlio 
vast  regions  of  Canada  ceded  in  1763  by  the  French  to 
tlio  English.  Shareholders  who  engaged  actively  in 
the  trade  were  called  agents,  some  of  whom  resided  at 
the  different  ports  estalilished  by  tlie  Coni|>any  iu  the 
Indian  territory,  and  others  at  Quebec  and  Montreal, 
eacli  attending  to  the  afiuirs  of  the  Company  in  Ids  ap- 
pointed district.  These  active  partners  met  annually 
at  Fort  William,  one  of  tlieir  stations  on  Uikc  ISiipe- 
rior,  wliere  they  discussed  matters  ciiniicctcd  with 
tlie  aflairs  of  the  association,  and  arranged  future 
plans.  Tho  clerks  of  tho  North-west  Company  were 
mostly  young  Scotchmen,  of  respectalde  families,  who 
were  willing  to  undergo  the  hardships  attendant  upon 
a  residence  of  some  years  in  these  inhospitable  re- 
gions, in  order  that  tliey  might  thus  secure  the  advan- 
tage of  Buccecding  in  turn  to  n  share  of  the  profits  of 
the  undertaking,  the  custom  being  to  take  from  among 
the  clerkc  as  partners  those  who  had  acquired  tlie  ex 
perience  necessary  for  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness.  The  hunters  of  this  Company  crosied  the  Bocky 


FUR 


160 


FUR 


Monntalni  rbont  the  year  1806,  and  Mtabllahed  ats- 
tioiM  on  the  northern  head-vrnters  uf  the  Culuiiibin. 
Jn  181B  they  {.'iichated  Astoria  on  thin  river,  which 
wan  relinqL'Ifhed  liy  Mr.  Aetor,*  of  New  \otr.,  a-.id  his 
partners,  in  ccn^equenre  of  the  war  brtwenn  the 
United  States  and  Great  Dritain,  At  length  the 
]IudM>n's  Bay  Company,  bolng  rouaod  liy  the  activity 
of  the  North-west  Assr  '  .un,  exercised  for  the  first 
time  its  chartered  right  >.»  colonize,  and  sold,  in  1812, 
a  tract  of  land  on  Lake  Winnipeg  and  the  Kod  Klver, 
to  I^rd  Selkirk,  who  Introduced  a  considernlile  nam- 
ber  of  persons  f^om  Scotland.  The  conseqnencs  was 
an  u|)en  war  between  the  partliana  of  tho  rival  Compa- 
nies. After  a  war  of  two  years,  the  Kcd  Klver  settle- 
ment was  destroyed  by  the  massacre  of  the  f^nvernor, 
Mr.  Semble,  and  many  of  his  associates,  while  tho  sur- 
vivor? were  driven  away.  But  this  melancholy  and 
ImrlHtrous  state  of  matters  was  put  an  end  to  liy  the 
union  of  tho  rival  Companies  in  1821,  since  which  the 
tnide  haa  lieen  peacefully  and  successfully  prosecuted. 
When  the  partnership  of  the  North-west  Company 
wns-aliout  to  expire  in  1821,  tlie  tliree  I.ondon  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Arm  offered  to  merge  their  interests 
In  those  of  the  Hudson's  liny  Company.  Tills  was 
agree<l  to,  and  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  (1st 
and  2d  Geo.  IV,,  cap.  6(1),  under  which  the  crown 
grants  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and  to  the  three 
representative  partners  of  the  North-west  Company  In 
I^ndnn  and  Montreal  a  license  of  exclusive  trade  for 
21  years  In  the  "  Indian  territories  ;"  that  is,  over  all 
those  tracts  that  niijht  not  lie  Included  in  tho  charter 
given  by  Charles  II.,  and  also  over  those  tracts  which 
by  mutual  consent  were  oiien  to  tho  subjects  of  En- 
gland and  to  those  of  the  ITnited  States.  The  three 
North-west  Company  agents  merged  into  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company ;  tho  exclusive  trading  license 
was  surrendered  in  18118  ;  and,  after  careful  investiga- 
tion on  the  part  of  tho  government,  the  cwwn  granted 
on  the  .SOth  of  May,  lMi)8,  another  lioi>nse  for  21  years 
of  exclusive  trade  over  the  Indian  and  ii^  •'tral  territo- 
ries. 

The  affairs  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  C<impuny  are  at  pres- 
ent conducted  by  a  governor,  deputy-governor,  and  a 
committee  of  seven,  elected  by  2;W  proprietors,  repre- 
senting a  capital  of  f  100,000.  '  Of  the  2:10  proprietors, 
fl5  have  more  than  two  votes,  f  900  of  stock  must  lie 
held  for  six  months  by  each  voter  previous  to  voting, 
except  such  stock  be  acquired  by  lioquest  or  nisrriugc, 
and  each  memlier  of  the  committee  must  hold  not  less 
than  ^11,800  stock.  The  mode  of  election,  oaths  to  Iw 
administered,  government,  etc.,  are  prescribed  by  the 
charter  of  Charles  II.  already  referred  to.  Accord- 
ingly, the  Company  has  established  nt  the  Ued  River 
settlement  a  governor,  council,  recorder,  sherilT,  coro- 
ner, etc.,  for  the  proper  government  of  tho  alTairs  of 
the  Assiniboia,  or  Ked  River  Territory,  and  for  tlie 
careful  and  legal  administration  of  justice  throughout 
Rupert's  Land.  Though  not  enjoined  liy  the  charter 
of  1670,  trial  by  jurj'  was  introduced  by  Sir  (ieorge 
Simpson  under  the  direction  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  au- 
thorities in  England.  Crime  is  comparatively  rare  In 
Rupert's  Land  ;  and  justice  is  administered  under  the 
same  safeguards  that  exist  In  England. 

Traffic. — The  traffic  of  the  Company  in  furs  and 
peltrj-  is  regulated  by  a  Deed  Poll,  dated  March  26th, 
1821,  when  the  North-west  Company  and  it  united ; 
and  by  another  Deed  Poll,  dated  .lune  tjth.  1834,  "  for 
ascertainiu);  the  rights  and  prescribing  the  duties  of 
tho  chief  factors  and  the  chief  traders,  and  for  con- 
ducting the  trade."  Tho  Imsiness  of  the  Comp.any  Isi 
superintended  by  the  25  chief  factors  at  the  respe"tive 
stations  ;  and  under  them  the  28  chief  traders  carry  on 
tho  traffic  with  the  Indians.  The  clerks  servo  imder 
both  the  factors  and  the  traders ;  and  the  very  hum- 


*  A  most  interesting  account  of  the  North-welt  Fur  Corn- 
pan/  Is  given  bj  Washington  Irving  In  his  Abtokia. 


blest  clerk,  by  good  conduct,  may  rtaa  to  the  cht«f 
positions  in  the  service  of  the  Company,  The  salaries 
of  the  clerks  range  from  i;20  to  .£100  per  annum. 
Three  chief  factors  and  two  chief  traders  are  allowed 
to  leave  the  country  annually  for  one  year, 

Frte  Trad*  in  ^'iir». — The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
have  no  monopoly,  as  some  suppose,  of  the  importation 
<if  furs  into  England  t  they  have  to  compete  with  the 
furs  of  the  ITnlted  States,  of  Russia,  of  Norway,  etc; 
and  If  other  traders  can  undersell  the  Company  tho 
puOlio  have,  of  course,  tho  benefit.  Beaver  and  other 
skins  are  now  much  lower  in  price  than  formerly, 
when  so  much  used  in  the  manufactare  of  hats  ;  and 
the  gradual  reduction  In  price  of  foreign  furs  has  been 
chiefly  brought  about  by  the  steady  supply  from  Hud- 
son's Bay  territories.  Hence  London  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive fur  market  in  the  world.  The  fall  in  the  pri- 
ces of  all  furs  has  been  very  groat ;  but  as  lieavor 
constitutes  the  largest  Item  in  value,  the  reduction  of 
profit  to  tho  Company  will  lie  seen  by  comparison  with 
the  prices  and  amount  of  sales.  In  1880  a  be^iver 
skin  was  worth  278.  ChI.  ;  in  1816,  89.  6d.  The  nuin- 
I  r  of  skins  sold  In  181)0  was  S5,186  for  £76,»12  ;  those 
sold  in  1840  45,380  for  4:7850.  There  Is  also  great  va- 
riety in  the  prices  of  articles  of  similar  denomination ; 
bat  tho  Company  arc  obliged  to  pay  the  same  price  to 
the  Indians  for  nil  skins  accordingTo  tariff;  whether 
the  skins  are  good  or  bad,  the  Company  must  buy 
them.  Hence  the  profits  of  tho  shareholders  are  not 
to  be  estimated  by  tho  dllTerenco  In  price  between  tho 
cost  of  a  skin  at  one  of  the  Company's  forts  In  tlie 
interior,  and  its  sale  price  in  London,  The  annual 
dividend  Is  (1855)  aliout  6  per  cent. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  now  aliout  140 
establishments,  l>esldes  hunting  expeditions  and  ship- 
ping, employing  25  chief  factors,  28  chief  traders,  162 
clerks,  1200  regular  servants,  besides  employing  in 
occasional  labor,  tho  serviics  of  a  large  numiwr  of  the 
natlvos ;  a  steam  vessel  and  five  sailing  vessels  of 
from  100  to  ,S00  tons,  all  armed.  Their  forts  or  stock- 
aded positions  extend  fnini  tho  coast  of  I,abrador  to 
the  Pacific,  and  from  the  northern  boundaries  of  ('an- 
ado  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Oce.in.  At  every  largo 
trading  establbhinent  there  is  an  "Indian  Hosfiltal,'' 
from  which  the  natives  derive  the  greatest  benefit ; 
and  several  me.iic::!  ni.on  are  maintained  liy  the  Com- 
pany ut  different  ftirts.  iMlnisters  of  the  gospel  of 
evory  dcmominatlon  are  encouraged  and  protected  by 
the  Company,  and  a  bishop  of  tho  Church  of  England 
now  presides  over  the  diocese  of  Rupert's  I,and. 

Tho  fur  trade  Is  prosecuted  In  the  north-wostcni 
territories  of  the  United  States  liy  an  association 
called  the  North  American  Fur  Company,  of  which 
the  chief  managers  reside  at  New  York.  Its  princi- 
pal station  is  Mlchilimacklnac,  to  which  are  brought 
all  the  peltries  collected  at  the  other  iwirts  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri,  and  Yellowstone  Rivers,  and  all 
over  tho  vast  mnge  of  country  extending  thence  to 
the  Rocky  Jlountains.  TIih  Company  is  admiraldy 
organized  and  managed :  it  employs  steamboats  for 
ascending  the  rivers,  which  also  penetrate  with  ease  to 
regions  which  could  formerly  be  explored  only  throiigh 
the  most  painful  efforts  in  barges  and  kcel.lioats,  or 
by  small  parties  on  foot  or  on  horseback.  A  great 
many  packages  of  furs  are  now  brought  from  that  sec- 
tion of  the  country,  and  from  what  Is  called  the  Red 
River  of  the  north,  bj-  way  of  St.  I'aul  in  Minnesota, 
and  thence  by  way  of  river  to  St.  Louis  and  other 
cities.  It  has  been  proposed  to  build  a  railroad  from 
St.  Paul  up  the  valley  of  the  .Saint  Croix  to  the  valley 
of  the  Red  River;  and  for  this  purpose  lar(;o  grants 
of  land  have  been  set  aside  sufficient  to  build  this 
railroad.  A  road  once  built  to  this  region  would 
make  a  wonderful  and  complete  revolution  in  the  fur 
trade. 

Fur  Sh'tit  Imported. — About  5,000,000  skins  of  an- 
bnali  applicable  as  furs,  are  annually  imported  into 


the 
sin 
St< 
pai 
a  IS 
Ma 
fou 
qui 
gei 
tri( 


FUR 


767 


PUR 


Britain.    The  lubjolned  table  glvu  the  Import*  and 
vj^porti  of  fur-iikina  in  the  year  1861 1 


1 

AiUnali. 

Tntal  lni|Mirt*il 
lolu  Kngluul. 

"■"«•'•  |X»1'° 

526,000 

00,000 

H6,000 

l»,600 

11,000 

60,(J00 

4,500 

1,000 

1,500 

20,000 

55,000 

120,000 

245,000 

1,000,000 

17,800 

18.(NI0 

15,000 

120,000 

8,000,000 

6,MI91 

511,410 

197,104 

120,0<K) 

1,200 

1,200 

100 

525,000 

12,000 

1)0,000 

H,00O 

11,000 

00,(K)0 

4,600 

1,000 

800 

1S,000 

60,000 

18,000 

7.^000 

180,000 

17,500 

12,500 

16,000 

5,000 

100,000 

li.H,l'7fl 

200 

None. 

1,200 

1,200 

100 

Nono. 
4(<,(K)0 
58,000 
1,600 

Nono. 

1,000 
2,1100 

t.ooo 

108,000 
IKMHKI 
850,000 
None. 

2,500 
None. 

118,000 

2,1100,000 

fl«,81,5 

5H,2I0 

1S7,1M 

120,000 

Nono. 

"          1 

B«av«r 

Ohinohllls. 

Boar 

Flahcr 

Fox,  Kod 

"    Cross 

"    SIlTor 

"    Wlilto 

^"    Oray 

Lvnx 

Marion 

Mln.x 

Otter 

Heal,  Kur  

Wolf 

Mf-  .en,  Htono  and 
mum 

FItoh 

Kullnktkt 

Krinlnc. 

Kttljblt, 

Wolvorino 

Skunk 

80B-()tter. 

/■'lO'-.s'iiHNcf/ .Inj/nn/a.— The  nortliem  nnd  iirctlc  re- 
glors  alioiind  with  races  of  uiiimiilii,  whiili  aro  thickly 
covered  with  line  hiilr  n\  I'ur,  and  whoso  skins  aro  very 
beautiful  nnd  VHliinblo  as  nrticlcH  of  dothlnn.  The 
aniiniil^  that  are  captured  for  their  fur,  are : — Tl 
Kussimi  Siihlc,  Mimlela  zibdllmi.  This  rich  nnd  beau- 
tiful skin  has  Ion)?  been  esteemed  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable and  useful  furs  that  have  been  brought  to  onr 
country.  About  'ib,WXl  are  annually  collected  in  the 
Hiissian  territories,  of  which  only  n  small  numlicr  U 
imported  into  Kngland.  The  fur  is  brown,  with  kumc 
gray  spots  on  the  head.  The  darker  varieties  are  tlu- 
most  highly  valued,  a  single  skin  being  freciuentlj- 
sold  for  £9,  though  the  average  value  does  n<it  exceed 
.1'2  or  413.  Naturalists  aro  not  agreed  whether  to  con- 
sider the  animal  from  which  tlio  skin  is  procured  as  a 
distinct  npocies.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  Kus- 
siai\  Sable,  the  Stcme  and  I'ine  Martens,  as  well  as  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Sable,  arc  but  one  species,  on  which  the 
dilforoncea  of  food  and  climate  liavo  produced  sinne 
slight  variations  in  fonn  and  color.  To  the  furrier, 
however,  the  Kussiun  Sable  is  easily  distinguishable, 
from  the  length  and  fullness,  as  well  as  the  darker 
color  of  the  fur.  The  use  of  this  choice  variety  is 
necessarily  i'mited  to  the  wealthy,  on  account  of  its 
scarcity.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI IF.,  Iiy  n  law 
which  sought  to  rcgul.itp  tl',;  expenses  of  the  difterent 
classes,  ,:''d  to  distinguish  them  by  peculiarity  of  cos- 
tume, the  use  of  the  Sable  was  conrined  to  the  nol)ility 
above  the  rank  of  viscount. 

Maiiin The  Iluibion's  Bay  Sabfe(.U«,i/f/«Cn(«ir/in- 

«M).^The  sable  skins  next  in  repute  to  the  Itussinu  arc 
those  imported  by  the  Hudson's  Hay  Company,  of  which 
no  less  than  l'iO,000  are  annually  biought  into  Ureat 
Britain.  As  the  natural  color  of  the  skins  is  mucli 
lighter  than  the  prevailing  taste,  it  is  the  praetici-  to  dye 
many  of  them  a  darker  color,  and  the  furs  thus  treated 
are  scarcely  inferior  to  the  natural  saiile.  The  llaum, 
or  I'ine  Starten  (^Afiiflila  ablilum). — The  Sables  im- 
ported under  this  name  aro  tlie  produce  of  Kurope. 
The  animal  is  found  in  extensive  forests  remote  from 
the  halpittttions  of  man,  and  preying  on  birds  and 
inialler  animals.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
Stone  Marten  by  the  j'ellow  color  of  the  throat ;  other 
parts  of  the  skin  are  l)rown.  When  dyed,  they  have 
a  similar  appearance  to  the  best  sable.  The  Htoi\o 
Alaiten  {Muslela  snrvrnm), — This  Marten  is  generally 
found  In  mountainous  nnd  stony  places,  though  a  fre- 
quent visitor  to  farm-yards  and  homesteads.  It  is 
generally  distributed  through  most  European  coun- 
tries.   'The  under  fur  b  a  bluish-white,  with  the  top 


hairs  A  dark  brown.  The  throat  of  '.his  variety  ii 
usuttll'-  of  u  pure  while,  by  which  char  ctnr  It  is  gen- 
erally .iistinguished.  'I'he  French  manufacturers  ex- 
cel in  dyoinK  this  fur,  from  which  circumstance  it  Is 
frei|uently  called  French  8able.  It  is  also  dyed  in 
this  country,  the  excellent  qualities  of  the  skin  uilapt- 
ing  it  to  u  g^-eat  variety  of  puqwsea  to  which  furs  are 
applle<l.  The  Flshor.— There  are  ulmut  ll,IIU(i  of  these 
skins  annual' V  brought  to  this  country  from  North 
America  j  Hioy  are  larger  than  the  sables,  and  Hi  fur 
Is  longer  ii.i<i  fuller.  The  tail. Is  long,  round,  and  full, 
gradually  tapering  to  a  point,  and  quite  black ;  a  few 
years  since  it  formed  the  common  ornament  to  a  na- 
tional cap  worn  by  ;'  i  Jew  merchants  of  Poland,  and 
at  that  time  was  worth  from  6s.  toOa.,  but  its  present 
value  doea  not  exceed  6<l,  to  '.Id. 

j1/i;ix,— -The  Minx  {Mutlela  rinon). — There  vere 
245,0(10  skins  of  this  little  animal  brought  to  .his 
country  In  1860  from  the  iiossessiuna  of  Hudson's  W  \y 
Company  and  North  America.  The  fur  resemul 'S 
the  sable  in  color,  but  is  considerably  shorter  ani 
more  glossy.  It  la  a  verj-  durable  nnd  useful  fur,  an( 
Is  exported  in  l<  ge  quantities  to  the  Continent.  The 
Krniine  (.l/uji(<'/(  enn/ncn). — This  uuimal  is  similar  In 
form  and  habit  ro  the  common  weasel  of  this  country ; 
but  in  Siberia,  liussia,  and  Norway,  from  whence  the 
skins  are  iniporteil,  the  little  animal,  during  winter, 
becomes  us  white  as  tho  snowy  regions  it  inhabits, 
and  is  esteemed  as  the  whitest  fur  known,  though 
it .  nimor  dr-'s  is  a  dingy  brown.  The  tidl  of  tho 
ski),  of  which  the  lower  half  is  jet  black,  is  generally 
intrixluccd  us  an  ornamunt  to  the  purely  white  fur.  It 
is  worn  on  state  occasions,  and  in  the  reign  of  ICdwurd 
III.  its  use  was  restricted  to  the  royal  family.  The  Kitch 
or  Polecat  (^Miistela  puturiuii), — These  skins  ore  pro- 
duced throughout  Kurope,  and  in  no  place  of  better 
quality  than  in  Great  Ilritain.  The  ground  of  the  fur 
is  a  rich  yellow,  while  tlie  top  hair  is  u  jet  black.  This 
fur  is  at  present  very  little  used  in  (.ireat  Itritain,  but  is 
niucli  worn  in  America.  It  is  very  ilurable,  liut  the 
natural  smell  of  the  fur,  which  Is  rather  unpleasant, 
is  dilHcidt  to  counteract.  Tho  North  Americiin  Skunk 
{Mrphitis  Atneriianii). — The  skins  known  under  this 
nntuc,  are  imported  by  tlie  Hudson's  Hay  (!omp;iny.  Tho 
animal  from  which  they  are  taken  is  nlliod  to  tiie  pole- 
cat of  Kurope,  and,  from  the  fetor  it  emits  when  at- 
tacked, which  has  been  known  to  att'ect  persons  with 
sickness  at  KtO  y.irds'  distance,  has  received  tiie  sou- 
briquet of  "  I'Knfnn  du  I)ial)lc."  It  has  a  soft  black 
fur,  witli  two  white  stripes  running  from  the  heail  to 
the  tail,  which  is  short  and  bushy.  The  skins,  though 
imported  into  Kngluiid  in  small  numbers,  are  usually 
re-exported  to  the  continent  of  Kiinipe.  Tho  Kolink- 
ski  ( Miiileh  tSiUricit). — Tho  Kolinkski  or  Tartar  sable 
is  of  a  bright  yellow  cidor,  and  is  sometimes  used  for 
ladies'  dress  in  its  natural  state,  but  it  is  more  fre- 
quently dyed  brown  to  imitate  other  sable,  to  whicli  it 
bears  a  strong  resenililnnce.  It  is  remarkable  for  tho 
uniformity  of  its  C(dor,  having  no  s|)ot  or  dill'erence  of 
shade  in  any  part  of  the  liody.  The  tail,  which  is  of 
tlie  same  color,  is  exclusively  used  for  tho  best  artists' 
pencils. 

Muskrat. — The  )Iusi|u.'isli  or  Muskrat  {Film'  zlbrth- 
inix), — Tho  animal  known  under  this  name  is  found  In 
great  numbers  in  North  Americii,  frequenting  swamps 
and  rivers,  and,  like  the  beaver,  building  its  habita- 
tions of  mud  with  groat  ingenuity.  Dr.  liichardson 
states,  that  it  has  three  litters  of  young  in  the  course 
of  the  suinnier,  producing  from  three  to  seven  at  a  lit 
ter.  Tho  animal  has  a  peculiar  smell,  similar  to  that 
of  musk  ;  but  it  must  not  bo  mistukcn  fiu'  the  aidnial 
from  wliich  the  musk  of  counnerce  is  procured,  which 
is  a  native  of  Thibet.  About  1,000,000  skins  are 
brought  into  Knglund  annually;  the  fur  resembles 
that  of  tho  beaver,  and  la  used  by  hat  manufiu-turers. 
Tho  skins  are  also  dyed  by  tho  furrier,  and  manufac- 
ttired  into  many  cheap  and  useful  articles. 


FUR 


768 


PUR 


ffulriii.—Tht  Nutria,  or  Coypou  (Afyofmlnmui  foy- 
;>im).— Till"  rwlent  quxilruiwd  is  an  expert  nwimmer, 
■n(l  fraqiiontii  the  neighlmrhmHl  at  wkter,   wliern  it 
liven  In  liurrowa ;  it  Ij*  mnaller  than  the  lioavvr,  and 
cunniJeralily  larger  than  the  muaquimh,  Itiit  has  a  re- 
■•nil>Unre  to  liotli  thene  animalx  In  ItH  natural  haliiti, 
and  in  the  qualities  of  Its  fur.     Until  lately  llils  fur 
was  very  much  used  by  hat  nianufactnrerii,  ami  as 
many  as  G()0,00()  skins  have  Iwen  annually  iinporteil 
from  Huenus  Ayres  and  Chill,  In  which  countries  Ih.' 
animal  alwnnda.     Owing  to  the  wars  that  c(mtlnue  t.i 
be  carried  on  lietween  the  difforent  States  of  Uuenos 
Ayres,  and  the  consequent  withdrawal  of  the  truiipcrs 
from  their  accustomed  occupations,  the  Importnlicms 
have  fallen  to  3000  skins,  which  are  dressed  and  dyed 
aa  a  sulistitute  for  the  costly  fur  seal.     The   Hamster 
{CrU-rtiis  lulgarit) — About  100,000 of  the  skins  of  the 
hamster  are  annually  collected  In  central  (iermany, 
where  the  animal  almunds;  it  has  a  poor,  short,  and 
coarse  fur,  ami  is  almost  e.Tclu9lvely  used  for  cloak  lin 
Ings  liy  the  Greeks;  the  color  of  the  back  is  a  red(li,-li 
brown,  the  belly  black,  with  a  few  light  s|>ots      Tlio 
animal  Is  about  nine  inches  in  length,  and  lives  under 
ground,  forming  several  apartments  for  storing  grain 
separate  from   its  own  hyliemaculum.      It   is  so  in- 
dustrious and  )>rovident,  tlut  when  tlie  peasants'  go 
"  hamster  nesting"  in  the  winter,  they  possess  them- 
••dves  not  only  of  the  skin,  but  of  tho  valuable  store 
of  g(MKl  grain,  which  Is  said  fre(iu<>ntly  to  exceed  two 
bushels.     The  Perwitzky.— The  skin  of  this  animal  is 
Iwautifully  marked  like  tortoise-shell,  and  is  brought 
from  the  south-eastern  territories  of  Asiatic   Kussia ; 
the  fur  Is  short,  giving  little  warmth,  and  Is  chietly 
made  into  cloak  linings  and  used  by  thu  Russians. 
Tho  Beaver  (^Castor  Amfrinimin). — Heaver  skins  are  im- 
ported by  the  Hudson's  Hay  Company  in  less  (juanti- 
tles  than  formerly ;    tho   lise   of  the  fur  in  our  hat 
manufactories  has  greatly  diminished  since  tho  intro- 
duction of  silk  hats,  and  a  considerable  depreciation 
has  taken  place  In  their  value.     This  Iteautiful  fur  is 
sometimes  used  for  articles  of  dress,     Fn  order  to  pre- 
pare tile  skin  for  this  appropriation  the  coarse  hairs  are 
removed,  ond  the  surface  is  very  evenly  cut  by  an  in- 
genious macliine,  somewhat  similar  to  that  used  in 
dressing  cloth.     The  fur  thus  prepared  has  a  lieautiful 
apjwarance,  not  unlike  the  costly  South  Sea  otter,  and 
has  the  advantage  of  lightness,  with  ('.uralillity  and 
cheapness.     The  white  wool  from  the  under  part  of 
the  beaver  still  obtains  a  high  price,  an<l  is  largely  ex- 
ported to  France,  where  it  is  manufactured  info  ladies' 
lionnets.     There  is  no  doulif  that  tlie  boaver  wa;i  for- 
merly an  inhabitant  of  the  Hritish  Isles,  ami  Pennant 
remarks  that  two  or  three  waters  in  tho  principality  of 
Wales  still  bear  the  name  of  Llyn  yr  afangc,  or  the 
Beavers'  I^ke. 

Ottrr.—Tbe  Otter  (f.iilra  nilffarin,  I.utra  CatrnJetmlt). 
— The  largo  supply  of  otter  skins  used  by  tho  Kus  ilans 
and  Chinese  is  derived  principally  from  North  America. 
The  quality  of  the  fur  Is,  In  most  respects,  similar  to 
tho  otter  of  the  British  Isles,  of  which  there  are  aliout 
500  skins  collected  annually.  This  animal  has  fre- 
quently been  tamed,  and  from  its  extreme  agility  in 
the  water,  has  l)een  rendered  serviceable  in  catching 
fish  for  the  use  of  its  owner.  Tho  American  otter  is 
much  larger  In  size  than  the  Kuropean,  licing  about 
five  feet  from  the  nose  to  tho  tip  of  tho  tail ;  a  sniallct 
variety  almunds  in  the  East  Indies,  the  fur  of  which 
b  very  short.  The  Sea  Otter  {Kndhudrn  marina). — 
The  sea  otter  has  a  very  thick,  soft,  woolly  fur,  and  is 
most  highly  prixed  by  tlie  Hussians  and  Chinese,  to 
whom  most  of  the  skins  am  exported.  In  its  habits 
It  Is  allieil  to  the  seal,  but  has  never  been  met  with  in 
large  numliers.  It  is  found  in  the  North  Pacific,  from 
Kamschatka  to  the  Yellow  .Sea  on  tho  A.siatic  coasts, 
and  from  Alaska  to  (.'alifomia  on  the  American  coast. 
The  annual  production  U  aliout  1000  skins,  of  which  100 
are  imported  into  Qr«»t  BriUin  by  the  Hudaon'a  Bay 
Oompany, 


>^e«ii  (Pkoeti). — There  am  numaroua  varieties  of 
these  animals,  some  of  which  are  found  on  the  western 
coasts  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  They  fre- 
quent, in  immense  numbers,  the  coasts  of  NewfouniU 
land,  Oreenland,  and  Lalirador,  and  the  im|M)natlons 
Into  this  country  froiincntly  exceed  500,00(1  in  one 
season.  The  younj;  seals  of  some  s|nM'les  Increase  in 
slie  with  great  rapiiiity,  and  it  is  asserted  l>y  the  seal 
fishers  that  they  double  their  bulk  in  right  duv-i.  The 
greater  |K>rtiou  are  tanned  and  enameled  with  Ijlack 
varnlHh  for  ladles'  shoes ;  other  descriptions  are  well 
adapted  for  fur,  es)i«cially  the  seal  of  the  Houtli  .Seas 
and  tiie  nortli-west  iciast  of  America.  Before  tlioy 
can  be  uieii  lut  a  fur,  it  Is  necessary  to  remove  the 
very  coarse  hairs  wiiich  cover  a  lieautlfully  line  and 
silky  fur,  The  roots  of  these  hairs  are  deeply  seated 
in  tile  siilistance  of  the  thick  pelt,  while  the  fur  is 
strongly  atfaibed  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  skin. 
Ily  shaving  tlie  pelt  to  half  its  natural  suljntanie  the 
riHits  of  tho  coarse  hairs  uro  cut  through,  and  they 
easily  fall  out ;  but  tho  same  ell'ect  is  produced  by  a 
natural  process  of  feriiiniitation,  which  ensues  when 
the  skins  ure  pro|H'riy  pre|)ared  and  allowed  to  remain 
together.  The  soft  curly  fur  of  tlic  seal  Is  now  rorely 
Hied  in  its  natural  state,  but  is  dvi!d  a  deep  Van- 
dyke liniwn,  and  has  thu  appearance  of  tho  richest 
velvet. 

T/ie  Fox. — Of  foxes'  skins  brought  into  Kuglund 
tliero  are  many  varieties ;  tho  blaci<  an<l  silver  foxes 
({'iil/ini/ulniii,  var.  ari/mlaliia)  from  tho  antic  regions 
are  the  most  valuable.  Many  of  tho  skins  when 
highly  dressed  are  worth  from  10  to  40  guineas.  Tliny 
are  purchased  for  the  Kussian  market,  being  liiglily 
priy:ed  in  that  country,  llio  cross  and  red  fo.\os 
(I'til/irii  fulnm)  are  used  by  the  Russians,  Turks,  and 
(i  recks  for  chiak-llnings  and  collars.  The  Idue  and 
wliiie  foxes  are  used  in  this  and  other  countries  for 
ladies'  dresses.  The  white  foxes  (  VuljM-a  litjinpua)  are 
represented  by  arctic  voyagers  as  uxceeiliiigly  numer- 
ous, and  migrating  in  troops  over  tho  frozen  seas  at 
the  approach  of  tlie  rigorous  season.  They  are  eas- 
ily caught,  lifteon  having  liecn  taken  from  one  trap 
in  four  lioiirs.  The  Wolverine  (JliiUi  Imriii). — This 
animal,  which  is  only  met  with  in  North  America, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  is  now  generally  eonsMcred  by 
zoologists  us  identical  with  tho  glutton  of  old  writers. 
It  is  extremely  mischievous  to  the  fur  trader,  and  will 
follow  the  marten-hunter's  path  round  a  line  of  traps 
extending  tO  or  M  miles,  merely  to  come  at  the  baits. 
The  fur  is  generally  dark  nut-brown,  passing,  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  almost  into  black,  and  is  chiefly  used 
in  (iorniany  and  other  northern  countries  for  cloak- 
lining. 

The  Hear  (tVsi/s). — There  are  several  descriptions 
of  bear-skins  used  by  the  furrier.  The  skin  of  tho 
black  bear  of  North  America  (tVjiis  .-1  mcricafii/s)  is 
useil  iu  this  countr>'fi>rinilitary  purposes,  for  rngs,  and 
carriage  hamiiiercloths.  In  Kussia  it  is  frequently 
manufactured  for  sleigh  coverings,  and  the  skin  of  tho 
cub  liear  is  highly  valued  for  trimmings  and  coat- 
linings.  That  of  the  grizzly  liear  (^Urstu  ferox)  is  up- 
plied  to  similar  uses.  That  of  the  w  liito  jiolar  bear, 
of  which  the  supply  is  very  limited,  is  frequently 
made  into  rugs,  bordered  with  the  black  and  grizzly 
liear  skiiia.  'The  fur  of  the  brown  or  Isabella  liuar 
(Urma  laabellimu)  luis  fre<|Uently  licon  very  fashiona- 
ble in  this  countr>',  when  its  value  has  Iwen  tenfold 
the  present  price.  It  is  still  considerably  used  for 
various  articles  of  ladies'  dress. 

The  /tare. — The  wool  or  under  fur  of  the  European 
gray  hare  (/.epns  timidu/i)  is  extensively  nsed  for  man- 
ufacturing felt  hats,  both  in  Euroiie  and  America.  A 
few  of  these  are  dressed  fur  the  purjxise  of  beiug  worn 
aa  a  protection  to  tho  chest.  The  white  hare  of  Rus- 
sia and  the  polar  regions  (lA-pua  glaciali*)  was  formerly 
much  worn  in  its  puru  white  state  a«  a  lining  for 
ladies'  cloalu,  and  as  a  subatitute  for  the  white  fox, 


FlIR 


Mt 


FUR 


i-riters. 

will 

trupB 

liuiU. 

the 

\i9«d 

ilouk- 


urupean 
or  mun- 
ica.  A 
[i^  worn 

RUB- 

iirmeriy 
ling  for 
lite  fox, 


iMltiM  Ma  Mn$  •■cMNllngl/  tarnUir,  iu  um  for  UiU 
pHrpuM  liM  liMM  diMimtlniMMf.  TIm  whiu  hara  U  sIm 
rrMiiiKiilly  ilymli  It  ItNikii  txcmHllniiljr  rich,  but  U  nut 
vir^  iluntliU, 

/'*«  MiMril  (Ujmt  ifMKiffM/M*)— The  KnKliab  rabbit, 
both  III  It*  Willi  «Nil  (tiiniMlId  itaU,  alTurili  a  vary 
pUnlirill  iiM|>|ilv  lit  MMiful  fur.  Whan  dr«Md  and 
ilyad  In  liiiltalliiii  iif  nlh«r  nklnn,  It  l«  m*nufactur«l 
liitu  I  tfmal  varli.lv  iiT  rhaaii  am!  uiwful  artlilu  for  tha 
IiiIiIjIU  iiInvmi*,  iba  WiniI  hai  rwantly  bmn  inanufac- 
lurad  InIii  a  imiillar  nbith  adapted  for  laillaa'  uaa,  but 
by  far  iIik  ^r«at•r  Mitmlwr  iif  alilna  ara  itlll  ua«l  for 
lutlara'  pur|WM«,  I'lwi  Kn||llah  allvar-tiray  rabbit  waa 
urlKliially  a tiranl  iimiullarlo  UiHtdnahlra,  whera  graat 
•ttaiitlim  waa  paltl  l<>  It  |  but  warrana  liava  ainca  baun 
fwriiiail  In  varliiua  |iarta  of  lli*  nmntry.  Skina  of  tbia 
varUty  ara  KiiHllnually  aNiNiHad  t«>  c;hlna  and  Kuaaia, 
wltara  lliay  ara  inui'li  «aU«in«d  and  conmiand  a  wm- 
pirallvaly  liluh  iirlia.  Ilia  lludaima  Day  rabbit  in 
liMUtlful  In  tlia  laiiKth  and  taalurc  of  Ua  fur,  but  the 
»kln  la  mt  (r»tfi\»,  and  tli«  fur  ao  liable  to  fall  off  with 
alliflit  wear,  that  It  li««  little  ralua  aa  an  article  of 
draaa,  'Ilia  wjilla  I'lillali  rablilt  la  a  breed  peculiar  to 
tkal  uouiitrt  i  Ua  akin  M  often  matia  into  llnlnKa  for 
ladiaa'  ii|iiak>,  and  ^mU\n  tlia  ilieaneat  and  moat  uaeful 
tut  tut  tliat  iMiriKiaa,  tlia  anlinol  la  e«|K.rted  In  ureat 
niiiiilMira,  file  Ni|Ulrral  (*(«r«»  vuti/nritX—ThU  at- 
tra4!|lva  llltia  animal  aboui.da  In  inont  coiiotrlea,  eape- 
elally  In  NIlMirIg  and  tha  north  of  Kiirope.  It  la  from 
tlia  ItuMlaii  domlnbiiia  Ibut  we  derive  our  prliitlpal 
•Uplily  lit  tltn  akllia  of  tliU  iiKJle  vreature,  which  ex- 
oaada  in  nmnlwr  Ihitt  of  any  of  the  fur-producln«  unU 
maU,  It  It  khM  lliat  IA,(WO,(NM)  are  every  year  i  np- 
lurad  ill  KllaaU,  our  aupply  from  thence  exceodInK 
U,OOM,ltU<l  annually,  Tli«  fur  of  the  aqnlrrel,  of  which 
tliara  ara  aavaral  varlallxa,  la  IlKht,  warm,  and  durable  ; 
aonia  of  tim  lighter  color*  iir«  dyed  in  Inilutiun  of 
•aldu,  't'lta  color  of  the  Mlberlan  aqulrreU  variaa  from 
a  paarUtfray  l^i  a  dark  blua-uray  i  the  under  parta, 
wlilcli  aru  wlllta,  ara  rr«i|Ueiilly  cut  out  and  made  into 
aloaklllilMtfa,  fNinarkable  fur  their  llKhtneaK  ;  the  Uila 
•ra  niaiiufaiitiirad  Into  boaa  for  forelKn  niurketa ;  they 
•r«  alau  vHUnalvaly  uaed  In  the  manufacture  of  urtiata' 
IMinulU, 

Tkr  t'htni'hillii  (fhliivliilln  /rtfl///<To).— There  are  two 
chlaf  varlMtlaa  of  clilncbllla,  the  proilm  "  of  .South  Anier- 
ilia  I  tlioaa  from  l.lnm  are  abort  In  the  fur,  and  inferior 
In  HUalUy  fi  llioaa  from  tliicnoa  Avrea  and  Aricaj  thr 
color  U  »  allvary  uray,  Arlia  prmluclnn  the  darkct 
Mid  iMaLxulonni  aklNB,  'l'h«  fieueral  appearance  of  the 
•niuml  jiUtiaa  it  lietweeli  the  /ii|uirr<0  and  tlie  rulil>it : 
in  \t*  natural  alHKiiia  It  hna  the  aiflllty  of  the  former, 
and  ruaeinbliia  tha  rablilt  In  living  in  holea  and  bur- 
rowa,  Ilia  HKlroitii.  aoftiiena  and  delicacy  of  the  fur 
adapt  it  only  for  ladloa'  iiae.  ThouKh  much  admired 
and  fraiiMnntly  mirn  In  llila  country,  It  l«,more  exUn- 
»W»iv  conauiiHid  In  t-'rame,  (lerinHtiy,  and  Kuaalu. 

Thr  lUi'iiiin  (l>riii'[/iHi  tal(,r),-~'l'hi  raooon'ia  an  in- 
habitiiiit  of  North  Alnorbni  tlio  akina  are  imported 
Into  thU  country  In  Imnicnae  numliorai  but  meeting; 
with  no  dviimno  for  mir  home  trade,  are  exported  by 
marcjiuiita  who  |iiifchila<i  tllt^oi  m  the  periodical  aalea. 
TMy  ara  moid  tliroi'KhoNt  Oermany  and  Kuaaia  for 
linillVl  allillina  and  ciiata,  laid,  belnx  of  a  durablo  nature 
and  iiiodarata  in  prlco,  ar«  rnteeiued  amoni;  the  moat 
Utefol  furi,     ilia  I'liliiniiin   IMuet  (Atrln  mlnarin); 

Anwriciiii  Um\ni>fl,Uplp»  hilirwlnnit) The  aklii  of  the 

Kuro|Hi»ii  \m\{i»t,  from  the  wiry  nature  of  ita  hiiir,  ia 
ganarully  u»«il  for  Ilia  niannfacldre  of  aujierior  kinda 
of  abaviiiK  \<f»»\\»»i  liut  the  akina  exported  from 
North  Aiiiarlca  Imve  a  aofi,  fln«  fur,  which  remiera 
them  auitabia  fur  iniiny  purpura  for  wbicli  the  larger 
fur*  nr«  unod, 

Tht  (iil,^ln  lltdlHIld,  tlin  oat  (yelli  (fiimftliait)  in 

bred  for  lU  fur  l  it  l<  fxil  on  llah,  and  carefully  tended 

until  tlia  fur  arrivaa  at  Ita  Krenteat  perfectkm ;  large 

Uun'WM  u»  iIm  uvtl««l«d  In  England  and  many  other 

Coo 


rountrlea.  The  wild  cat  (f'tlU  ealut)  la  much  larger 
and  longer  in  ita  fur,  and  la  met  with  in  extenaive  for- 
aata,  particularly  in  Hungary ;  the  color  ia  browniah- 
gray,  mottled,  and  •|M>tted  with  black.  Tlia  aoftnaaa 
and  duralilllty  of  the  fur  render  it  very  auitabia  for 
cloak-llnlnga,  and  it  la  alao  nuide  Into  wrappcra  for 
open  carrlagea  and  railway  traveling.  The  ''anada 
I.ynx  if'tlit  Canadeiuu);  I.ynx  Cat  (,Ftlu  rufa).-— 
The  fur  of  the  lynx  ia  long,  aoft,  of  a  graylah  color, 
and  aometimea,  aa  In  tha  Norway  lynx,  covered  with 
brown  apota ;  thr  belly  ia  white,  aliky,  and  not  unfre- 
i|uently  apotted  with  black.  The  change  of  faablon 
baa  for  aome  time  diacanled  it  from  thU  countr}- ;  but 
it  la  dyed,  prefiared,  and  exported  in  conaMarable 
quantitiea  for  the  Amarican  market,  where  it  ia  much 
valued  and  admired.  It  ia  generally  uaed  for  cloaka, 
llninga,  and  facing*,  for  which  purpoaaa  it  ia  very  ap- 
propriate, Iwing  exceedingly  aoft  and  light. 

Frfirrvalum  it/Furi. — Tlie  fur  of  moat  animala  ia  in 
ita  greateat  perfection  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and 
before  the  animal  baa  attained  ita  greatest  age.  It  ia 
the  object  of  the  furrier,  by  dyeing  the  inferior  akina, 
to  Iniitute  the  more  perfect  apecimena.  Some  difficulty 
haa  u'tended  thia  proceaa,  aa  the  nature  of  the  akin 
will  ailmit  of  dyea  being  uaed  only  in  a  cold  atata  ;  but 
the  method  which  haa  Iieen  practiced  in  Paria  and 
London  haa  lieen  ao  fur  aucceaaful  that  the  permanence 
of  the  color  in  the  dyed  auble  ia  frequently  found  of 
equal  durability  to  that  of  akina  of  the  natural  color, 
Connideralile  excellence  haa  been  uttuiiied  alao  in  dye- 
ing rubliit  and  inferior  fura  of  thoae  colora  which  are 
more  auitable  to  the  prevailing  taate. 

The  Drat  proceaa  of  the  fUr-dreaaer  la  to  prepare  thr 
akina  from  the  raw  atute,  and  render  them  flt  for  orna- 
mental dreaa.  In  thia  country,  the  uaual  practice  ia  to 
trample  them  in  closed  tuba  with  a  little  aalt  butler, 
turning  them  over  and  over  for  aeveral  boura.  By  ' 
thia  meana  the  akina  ure  made  into  aoft  and  plialile 
leather.  The  next  proceaa  la  to  rut-  them  on  the  lieaL 
aide  over  a  blunt  iron  in  order  to  remove  looae  plecea 
of  integumenta,  and  to  reduce  the  aubatance,  after 
which  it  ia  necesaary  to  cleanaa  the  fur  and  akin  com- 
pletely fkvm  the  greoae.  For  thia  purpoae  it  la  again 
trampled  with  aaw-dust — uaually  that  from  mahogany, 
whicli  lii>ing  lieaten  out  and  repeated  several  timea, 
conduce,-  tn  render  the  fur  glotsy  and  clean,  and  to  fli 
!*  for  tlie  cutter  to  fuabion  into  any  shape  that  may  be 
oceaaary. 

Fura  ara  atiltject  to  injury  by  aeveral  apeciea  of 
moths,  whoae  inatincta  lead  them  to  depoait  their  eggs 
at  the  roota  of  the  tine  baira  of  animala.  Linnasua 
mentiona  <ive  apeciea  that  prey  upon  cloth  and  tun,  of 
which  Tinea  ptiliontlla,  T.  vettionella,  and  T.  InpttielUi 
are  the  most  destructive.  No  sooner  is  the  worm 
hatched  than  it  eata  its  way  through  the  fur,  and  ('<>n- 
tlnuea  increasing!}-  deatructive  until  it  arrivea  at  its 
full  growth,  and  forma  itself  a  allken  covering,  from 
which  in  a  short  time  it  again  emerges  a  perfect  moth. 
Anotlier  eauae  of  the  decay  of  furs  ia  the  moisture  to 
which  they  are  frequently  exposed ;  the  delicate  struct- 
ure of  the  fine  under-fur  can  not  be  preserved  when 
any  dampness  Is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  akin.  This 
fact  ia  well  known  to  the  leather  manufacturer,  whc, 
having  wetted  his  akins,  allows  them  to  remain  in  a 
damp  cellar  for  a  few  days  for  tho  purpoae  of  removing 
the  hair,  which  is  pulled  out  with  the  greatest  facility 
after  remaining  only  one  week  in  a  moist  condition.  It 
follows  from  these  oliservatious,  that  to  preserve  fun 
it  U  necessary  to  keep  them  dr}',  and  to  protect  them 
from  motha ;  if  ex|iosed  to  damp  or  lain,  they  must  l>e 
dried  at  a  moderate  distance  from  the  fire  ;  and  when 
put  by  for  the  summer  should  be  combed  and  beaten 
with  a  email  cane,  and  very  carefully  secured  in  a  dry 
brown  paper  or  liox  into  whicli  moths  can  not  enter. 
During  the  summer  tlicy  should  be  examined  once  a 
{  month,  to  be  again  l>eaten  and  aired,  if  the  aituation 
I  in  which  they  have  been  placed  be  at  all  damp.  With 


FtTR 


m 


FITR 


th«*  prtcaationa,  tha  moat  riliuht*  fura  m»y  b*  pn- 
Mrv«il  III!  injured  for  many  ystr*. 

Slimn/iulurr  ./  Furt  fnr  ffUiug  l'urpo**t.—tn  lh» 
manufacturing  of  fur*  fur  tha  maklnit  of  but*,  lb* 
principal  klntli  of  iklni  uhiI  am  tlm  hir»,  ralililt, 
liaartr,  ami  nutria.  All  llw««  klniU  of  iklna,  In  tha 
nnrtbam  |iart<of  Kuropa,  u  wall  ■•  In  Amarli-a,  tru  dlvbt- 
•d  by  furrirra  Into  twu  dintlmt  aurta,  via.,  lb*  inmm'4 
and  viufrnimrtl  ikini.  Tb«  fcinnir  ara  thoM  whirb 
ar«  taknn  utf  tha  animal  In  winter,  whan  th*  fur  U  at 
ltd  full  (rniwth.  and  In  tha  hiKhof  aUta  nf  |H<rf«i'tliin 
ar  .1  flmnaan;  tha  luttar  ara  tbonv  olitalnad  In  aprlng. 
k  iinar,  and  »utumn.  Tba  fur  In  ilir  unMaMwaij 
■kin<  la  aKort,  cnaraa,  and  balry,  ami  la  axnarall)'  n»t 
worth  mora  than  a  third  of  tba  viilua  o7  fura  uul  off 
tha  Iwat-aaaaonail  akina.  Tba  niuda  nf  iiianunti'turlnu 
btitti  dncrlptlona  la,  howavar,  tba  aaina ;  nt  whlnh  wa 
•hall  now  andaavor  tn  give  a  lirlrf  ai'connl. 

nnrt-tlt'iHt. — Tha  Drat  mnihiiniial  o|i«r«tliin  |iar> 
fbrmad  cm  tha  har«-akln,  la  tn  np<<n  it  with  a  knifa  down 
batwaan  tba  mlddla  nf  iba  tnn\v^»,  lakinn  |(raat  t'ara 
tbat  tba  akin  be  not  torn ;  for  thara  la  a  i'»n>ldarabta 
waata  nf  tba  fur  If  tbia  praraution  lia  nut  attanilcd  In, 
Tha  akin  muat  now  l>«  rublird  with  what  la  ratlad  a 
rtiit,  which  rcaamblaa  a  rnmmim  dlnn«r-kiilfa,  with 
laatli  lika  a  aaw.  TbIa  la  uard  furtlix  |iur|M»a  I'laarlnn 
awuy  all  Inipurltira  and  drird  ldn<Hl  whbh  may  happan 
to  lift  upon  tba  akin.  Tbia  liaarinK  la  of  vary  tfraat 
impurtanca  ;  fur  the  amalleat  purticln  nf  dirt  nr  lilimd 
will  greatly  bijura  tha  fur  fnr  falting  puriHiart,  Tha 
operation  requlrea  to  be  carefully  and  Judlrinualy  |iar- 
fanne<l  fur  another  reaaon.  If  tha  wiirkman  lia  nnt 
attentive,  h«  will  tear  up,  along  with  tlm  liliKaly  and 
dirty  porta,  a  conaidaralde  part  of  tha  good  I'laaii  fur, 
and  thua  great  loaa  will  lie  inrurrad. 

Ilare-akina,  after  being  thua  opened  and  clainad, 
muat  lie  (l.imiml  on  the  iirit  aide  with  a  llttia  water, 
and  pUceil  under  a  hpavy  weight,  pelt  In  |iaU,  in  praaa 
tbem,  ao  tbat  all  ridgaa  and  inaqiulltlaa  In  tha  |ialt 
may  Iw  removed.  The  akina  ara  now  fit  for  wbitt  la 
called  thtarimg.  Their  outaldea  are  all  rovarad  over 
with  a  kind  of  bair,  wbicb  poaaaaaea  no  felting  pro|iar- 
tlea  whatever;  and  tbia  muat  lie  taken  off  with  band 
abeara.  Tbcae  are  nf  two  klnda)  the  one  the  riimmun 
aheara  uaed  fnr  clipping  the  wool  off  ahaap ;  tha  nthar 
kind  reaemblcs  the  cutting  aheara  nf  tallnra,  nnly  tba 
bowl  is  made  equally  large  on  IkiIIi  aidea  for  tha  ad> 
mlaaion  of  all  the  flngera.  S<ime  furriera  iirefi>r  una 
kind  of  Hheara,  and  aome  annthar,  Tbiiaa  Ilka  talbira' 
abeara  make  the  neateat  work  when  akillfully  uaed  | 
but  the  othera  require  leaa  time  fur  tbrir  iiiiiiiiigatnnnl. 
The  ahenring  of  the  akina  fnrnia  a  very  im|uirtant  part 
of  their  manufacture  ;  for  if  one  cut*  tno  fnr  iliiwti,  ha 
will  aerUmsly  dcalmy  Imtb  qiiiillty  and  quantity  "f  tha 
fur,  aa  well  aa  diatlgure  ita  ap|ieariini'e.  ')ii  llila  ac- 
count many  furriers  conflnn  ii  part  »f  their  wnrk  |n>iipla 
to  tbia  liranch  of  the  Imalncaa  iilone ;  fnr  tha  i(ri  .iti-r 
part  of  the  pmHta  of  a  maater  de|ienda  upon  tlm  miiiu 
ncr  in  which  the  abeuring  prncena  la  |ierfnnneil, 

After  a  bnre-akin  haa  liecn  aubmltted  to  th«  pr(Hi>aa 
of  abearing,  it  prcaenta  an  appeurance  altogether  diffi-r- 
ent  from  what  it  did  liefore.  .\  nuvica  would  not 
know  it  to  be  the  aame  skin.  Prevloiialy,  It  was  nf  a 
uniform  brown  color;  now,  it  Is  down  tha  whole  nf  the 
back  of  a  moat  beautiful  jet  lilai'k,  wlilch  griidually  lia- 
coniea  fuintc^r  aa  it  approachea  tlm  slilea  of  tlia  akin, 
After  it  undergooa  the  proceaa  nf  niumUng,  wblih  con- 
aiata  in  taking  off  all  tire  irregular  or  anKular  placea 
of  akin,  and  muling  the  pelt  smooth  and  even.  It  U 
than  lit  for  the  cutting-lHiard. 

Tho  cutting-lioards  of  fiirriora  are  niiiibs  nf  tho  wil- 
low-tree, and  are  commonly  aUiut  twenty  Inrhaa  wide, 
and  from  two  to  three  feet  liroud.  They  ought  to  lie 
moistened  with  water  at  short  Intervala,  when  uaad,  to 
make  the  wood  aoft,  and  prevent  the  edge  nf  tha  i-ut- 
ting-knifa  from  being  taken  off  too  anon.  Tliaaa 
knivea  are  sometimes  made  of  common  ah*«t-lrun,  but 


mnr*  frsquantly  of  steal,  which  ara  tn  ha  prahrra^  to 
tha  Airmar,  nn  acmunt  nf  keeping  Ihair  «dga  longer, 
and  halng  in"<'h  llghtar  fnr  the  band.  A  Dne  edge  will 
nnt  rut  tha  fur  off  the  akina ;  It  muat  lie  a  niugh  a<*ga, 
whb'h  la  obtained  from  rubbing  tha  knih  atmul  every 
two  nr  thraa  miniilaa  upon  a  place  nf  common  fraa> 
aiana,  nf  nnl  tno  Ana  a  grain.  Thaaa  knivea  are  fTnm 
live  t<i  alK  Inchta  In  length  and  three  In  liNndth, 
and  raaambia  In  anme  maiiaara  tbnaa  knivea  uaed  liy 
gmcera  fnr  tha  cutting  up  of  rheraaa.  1'ha  akina  »r« 
nil,  liafnre  rutting,  split  down  tha  mlddla  of  tba  back 
Into  halvaa,  The  rutting  than  cnmmenraa  at  the  head 
or  chaaka  nt  tha  akin,  and  alwaya  in  tha  Una  of  dlrap> 
tinn  In  which  tha  fur  Ilea.  Tb«  rnttlng-knlfe  la  ran 
quickly  backwaH  and  AirwanI  agalnat  the  Drat  Joint 
i<t  tha  finger  acmes  tha  akin :  while  at  every  two  or 
three  atrokaa  tba  band  muat  lie  lifted  np,  In  gather  In 
the  fur  that  baa  lieen  cut,  and  (ireaerve  it  in  aa  Hcecy 
a  form  aa  imaallile.  Care  muat  lie  taken  agalnH  rhnp. 
pint/  the  fur ;  liecauae,  when  tbia  takea  place,  the 
felting  principle  In  all  tnn  la  cnnslderably  weakened, 
and  In  aoma  entirely  destroyed. 

An  Important  pnlni  In  the  gelling  up  of  fura  fbr 
aata  la,  to  keep  them  In  aa  iinlimken  or  Heecy  conaiat- 
enry  aa  pnaallita,  Tbia,  abstractly  considered,  is  nf 
nil  rnnaei|uen>'a  to  their  felting  power ;  but  the  prac. 
lice  nf  the  trade  as  In  tbia  ii>  itter  has  nriacn  from  a 
deairn  tn  keep  the  dilfrrent  l>  iiida  of  fur  fmin  being 
mixed  with  one  annther,  and  thereby  In  amitc  degree 
to  prevent  adulti-rntlon.  From  tbia  cause  the  almva 
mmla  nf  culling  the  bare-akin  boa  lieen  long  ainra 
much  Improved  by  the  uaa  of  liiatrumcnta  made  nf 
tin,  agnlnat  which  the  cuttlng-knirea  run,  and  which 
are  an  mntrlved  aa  to  gather  In  the  whole  fur  off  tba 
largest  nkln  with  aa  iiurh  ease  as  the  fur  of  n  calf 
akin  could  lie  gathered  liy  the  hand  when  the  knifn 
runs  ngalnat  the  fingers.  This  simple  inrentioii  pre 
serves  nil  the  most  viiliiable  parts  nf  tho  akin  in  one 
lump  nr  fleece,  and  enables  the  workman  to  sort  tba 
fur  with  mora  ease  and  readiness  than  before, 

niMil-tkini.—Thn  rabblt-skln  la  cut  in  preclaety 
tha  aume  manner  aa  that  of  the  bare,  only  there  la  a 
cnnalderalita  diffkirence  In  the  mode  of  dressing  or  pre- 
paring the  former.  The  rablilt-skin  is  covered  over 
on  the  pell  side  with  large  quantities  nf  grease  or  fut, 
fmm  which  the  bare-akin  Is  comparatively  fiee.  This 
muat  lie  removed  when  the  rabliit-skin  Is  first  opened. 
The  knife  uaeil  In  opening  the  skin  muat  li«  preseed 
down  ii|Hin  that  purl  nf  the  pelt  where  the  fatty  sub- 
sliince  la,  till  It  gets  lienenth  tho  cuticle  nn  whb'b  It 
reals,  when  the  whole  of  the  greasy  matter  may  be 
removed,  and  n  little  whitening  rubbed  on  the  spot. 
If  this  o|ieratlnn  lie  nnt  well  attended  to,  the  grease 
will  get  mUed  with  the  fnr,  nnd  damage  it  considera- 
bly, The  rnblilt,  like  the  bare  akin,  is  covered  over 
with  linir  U|Kin  the  top  of  tho  fur;  but  Ibis  bair  can 
not  lie  tiikcn  off  by  abearing,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
fiimier,  but  must  lie  removed  by />N///tt,7  it  out.  Tbia 
la  done  with  a  short  knife  about  three  Inches  long, 
which  Is  held  ao  na  to  grnap  the  hair  between  the 
thumb  and  It,  which  la  secured  from  Injury  by  having 
a  piece  of  litirkskin  leather  placed  over  it.  Tlie  hand 
nf  the  workman  nught  In  full  lightly  upon  the  skin, 
nthcrwlse  the  bnir  will  be  cut  and  the  fur  pulled  out 
ulao,  which  will  deteriorate  its  quality  and  diminish 
Ita  quantity  very  conslderalily. 

Ilnirrr-tkinii. — The  skin  if  the  beavor  Is  manufac- 
tured III  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  rabbit.  The  fat, 
hiiwavpr,  In  the  former  is  much  greater  in  quantity 
and  ninre  firmly  lmbc<lded  in  the  pelt  than  in  the 
latter;  and  nf  coiirae  greater  caro  and  trouble  are  re- 
quired to  remove  It.  Fullers'  earth  mixed  with  whit- 
ening Is  uae<l  to  linbllifl  the  fatty  particles.  The 
liiilling  the  outside  bnlr  off  is  of  great  importance. 
The  cutting  of  the  lieaver  has  been  for  H<ime  years 
lierformed  by  marbinos ;  the  thickness  and  regular- 
ity In  the  pelt  affording  facilities  for  tbia  m<^e  of 


FUR 


in 


PUR 


fat, 
llilS 


(ler»- 
ov« 
•can 
'  the 
ThU 
lonn, 
the 
iving 
hand 
okln, 
dont 
ilnith 


intlty 

the 

Iro  re- 

Iwhit- 

The 

tance. 

I  years 

ijuUr- 

de  of 


ttpi>r«(^n,  witteh  the  gtnenllty  nf  other  iktn*  do 
nut. 

The  fur  of  the  tiearer  la  iorted  Into  lhri>e  er  four 
dl(r>-r»nt  kinda  i  liut  that  wMrh  In  cut  off  thn  cheek  of 
the  akin  liean  the  hlifbent  prlre.  White  heaver  la 
rniii|iaratlv«ljr  •rarrc,  and  la  miuh  cateemni  for  tine 
drah  hata. 

Nutriit-tkini. — Theite  are  iUvmA  like  rahhit-aklna, 
only  the  hnir  on  thn  oiitaldc  "f  the  akina  l«  much 
atron^er  than  In  the  rahhit,  iiml  i-eqiilrea  a  tharper 
knife  and  ((nater  utrenifth  to  move  II.  Niitrljt-aklna 
•re  full  of  flit  j  and  before  they  are  auhmttted  to  the 
pulling  priK-eita,  they  mUit  Iw  well  wanhed  with  aoa|i 
and  liollInK  water.  The  nkhi  U  laid  with  the  prlt 
downward,  and  well  •c.rublied  on  the  flir  aide  with  a 
bruah,  till  the  t(r*'>'«  '■  entirely  removed.  They 
muit  than  lie  widl  wiinhed  in  coM  uprlng  water,  which 
la  extracted  fWini  amoni;  the  fur  liv  a  piece  of  wood 
madK  for  the  pur|ifliie.  After  thin  tnny  are  placed  lie- 
fnre  n  rttovo  or  hot  fire  to  dry,  iinil  am  then  (It  to  jjo 
through  the  other  manufncturin;;  procesncn. 

Both  the  lieaver  and  nutria  fur*,  liefure  they  are 
uae<l  for  hat  pur|)oaeK,  muat  go  tliroHt{h  the  operiitlon 
of  hliiiring.  Thi«  la  done  for  thn  purpoie  of  clearing 
them  of  thoae  alinrt  black  haira  which  remain  among 
the  fur  after  It  la  acparatcd  fhim  the  |ivlt.  A  blowing 
machine  conaiata  principally  of  a  cylinder,  Into  which 
the  fur  la  placed  ;  and  liy  meana  of  a  fly-wheel,  altu- 
•ted  within  It,  the  atulT  la  thrown  up,  and  the  haIra, 
by  reuaon  «<  their  greater  apeclAc  gravity,  fall  to  the 
liottiuu,  and  li-ave  all  the  line  fur  upon  the  top,  Ilure 
and  rabbit  fura  are  alau  partially  uaed  In  ■  blown  atate 
fur  the  nap  or  outalde  covering  of  hata. 

Though  the  hare,  rabbit,  beaver,  and  nutria  fura 
aru  the  staple  artiolea  of  hat  manufacture,  yet  there 
are  other  fura  nccaaionally  uaed  in  their  atead,  or  In 
conjunction  with  tlieni.  These  are  the  fura  nf  the 
otter,  the  seal,  musquash,  and  the  mole.  The  otter 
is  fully  as  fine  us  the  beaver  itself;  but  the  principal 
objection  hatters  have  to  ita  use  is,  that  It  dues  not 
retain  a  goo<l  black,  but  acquires  a  brown  or  copper}- 
sliadn.  The  seal  Is  not  so  flne  as  the  otter.  It  fin- 
ishes dull  upon  a  hat,  and.  In  consequence,  is  not 
much  used  at  present.  Musquash  is  a  useful  fur. 
The  mole  la  the  only  sklu  known  to  furriers  which  for 
felting  purposes  needs  no  preparatory  dressing  before 
cutting.  Its  fur  Is  alike  fine  throughout.  liut  not- 
withstanding its  fineness,  it  Is  so  very  short  as  to 
prevent  Ita  being  extensively  used  in  the  hat  manu- 
facture. 

Within  the  laat  century  many  attempts  have  Iwen 
made  to  apply  machiner}-  to  the  cutting  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  fur,  hut,  with  the  exception  of  the  Iteaver 
fur,  these  attempts  have  hitherto  been  but  partially 
successful.  The  great  difficulties  In  the  way  of  ma- 
chlnarv  for  cutting  purjioaes  are,  the  unevennesa  on 
the  surface,  and  the  Inequalities  In  the  thickness  of 
the  pelt  in  difTiirent  skins.  The  smallest  particles  of 
the  licthy  part  of  the  skin  getting  among  the  fur  will 
injure  It ;  so  much  so,  that  a  piece  of  pelt  not  larger 
than  a  pin's  head  will  destroy  the  finest  hat.  This 
ciniimstancc  luia  greatly  Increus.  il  the  difficulty  of 
bringing  niachinery  to  Iwar  upon  the  fur  trade.  There 
ore,  however,  at  this  moment  some  machines  employed 
In  the  cutting  of  hare  and  rulibit-skins  in  England ; 
but  until  they  undergo  numerous  Improvements,  they 
arc  nut  likely,  from  the  obstacles  above  adverted  to, 
to  realize  the  expectations  of  gain  at  first  entertained 
by  those  employing  them,  either  in  the  saving  of 
lalior,  or  in  the  superior  manner  in  which  the  fur  is 
manufactured. 

Many  experiments  have  also  been  made  to  dispense 
with  the  usual  processes  of  cutting  the  different  kinds 
of  fur  with  knives,  by  applying  chemical  substances 
to  the  pelts,  so  as  to  loosen  the  roots  of  the  fun,  and 
make  \:  leave  the  pelt  up<m  a  slight  application  of 
force.     Lime  has  often  been  tried  for  this  pur^iose,  by 


using  it  In  the  sama  manner  aa  aklanan  do  la  th* 
niansgement  nf  aheep-skina.  Home  hiniers  have  also 
tried  a  partial  state  of  putrefkctinn  i  but  this,  aa  writ 
aa  the  lima  preparation,  has  ptnved  abortive.  The 
fur  obtained  off  different  kinds  nf  sklna  by  anch  means 
looks  In  every  respect  aa  well  to  the  eye  aa  If  It  had 
lieen  manuflictured  in  the  usual  manner ;  but  the  (kilt- 
ing principle  Is  by  all  anch  means  entirely  deatroyrd. 

Varroitd  fur.-  .Sulphuric  add  has  the  property  of 
increasing  the  felting  power  of  moat  kinds  of  ftir. 
When  this  la  applied  th*  fur  la  called  camtrd,  from 
the  color  which  the  achl  gives  It.  The  most  common 
kind  nf  fkir  sulimttted  to  this  process  Is  that  lielonging 
to  the  rabbit-skin  ;  and  it  is  generally  employed  In 
small  quantltlea  fbr  the  manufacture  of  alt  flne  atiilf 
hats.  Carmted  coney  wool  Is  made  In  the  fe'lowing 
manner: — Mix  one  part  of  sulphuric  arid  with  two 
parts  of  pure  spring  water,  In  a  dish  of  stone-ware  ; 
then  take  and  wet  '  le  rabblt-skin  with  a  liri  ih  all 
over,  making  the  I'  lid  penetrate  as  near  to  the  li«t- 
toni  of  the  fur  aa  possible ;  care  lieing  iiaed,  In  this 
pmcass,  not  to  touch  the  skin  with  the  fingers,  lest 
they  be  burned,  but  with  a  piece  of  imii  hoop  doubled 
so  as  to  resemble  a  pair  of  tongs.  Woen  the  sklna 
are  thus  wet,  they  mus'  ht  placed  o-.  •  a  very  hot  fvi 
to  dry;  but  they  must  not  lie  placed  too  near, ''it 
they  take  fire,  which  they  are  very  apt  to  do  from  i  •;•.; 
application  of  the  acid.  Instead  of  dr^-lng  t^'  ir  i*m 
fore  the  fire  in  this  manner,  some  run  a  hatter's  'n'sU- 
Ing  Iron,  heated  to  a  certain  degree,  over  the  skins, 
and  allow  them  to  dry  gradually  ir.  '  un.  This  ta 
found  to  be  M  very  good  plan,  V  <.^ti  >  e  skins  are 
dry  they  ought  to  b*  gently  bc.it  n  wit.'i  a  rod,  and 
moistened  on  the  pelt  side  with  vrater,  previous  to 
their  being  put  under  the  pressing  stone.  They  are 
then  cut  In  the  usual  manner.  Skins  prepared  In  this 
way  attract  a  great  quantity  of  moUturo  from  the 
atmosphere ;  and  carrnted  fur  always  feels  to  tho 
hand  as  If  partially  wet. 

The  fur  off  tho  rabblt-skln  Improves  In  its  felting 
capabilities  by  being  kept  a  modern'e  length  of  time 
after  lieing  taken  off  tho  skin  ;  but  hare  fur  does  not. 
(Ireat  attenthm  ought  to  be  paid  by  .  it  manufactur- 
ers, who  keep  considerable  stocks  of  fUr  on  hand,  as 
to  the  place  In  which  they  are  dep<isitcd.  If  It  be  too 
damp,  they  will  rot ;  If  too  dry,  they  will  diminish  in 
weight ;  therefore  a  moderately  drj-  and  cool  pla™ 
ought  to  be  chosen.  The  groat  enemy  to  all  furs  Is 
tho  common  moth.  This  destroys  the  felting  princi- 
ple. Whenever  the  slightest  appearance  in  the  fur 
indicates  the  se  "re  lodgment  of  this  little  creature, 
It  ought  lmme.i.  w  ..  o  lie  used ;  or,  If  this  can  not 
bo  done,  It  sho'.'  .  i .  ..iken  out  of  the  paper  bags,  and 
broken  all  over  wUi-  a  small  switch  rod,  or,  what  will 
answer  the  purpose  still  lietter,  a  hatter's  bow.  Tho 
same  rules  apply  to  the  keeping  of  skins  in  good  con- 
dition as  to  fur.  The  situation  ought  to  be  cool,  dry, 
and  well  .■jcei.  They  will  seldom  keep  longer  than 
twelve  cr  eighteen  months  without  running  great  rink 
of  suffering  injury  from  the  moth  or  black  beetle, 
"i  oo  many  ought  not  to  be  heaped  together,  and  par- 
ticularly If  they  be  rabbit-skins,  because  the  fat  or 
grease  about  these  skins  will  get  heated,  run  among 
the  fur,  and  become  of  such  an  acrid  nature  us  to  cor- 
rode the  very  pelt  Itself.  It  was  formerly  the  prac- 
tice to  keep  bare  and  rabbit  skins  a  long  time,  under 
the  idea  that  the  fUr  upon  them  will  Increase  In  length 
from  the  moisture  left  In  the  pelt.  This  Is  an  entirely 
erroneous  opinion.  Any  one  who  will  moke  the  ex- 
periment will  find  that  the  amount  of  fur  olitoined  oft 
any  given  ([iiantity  of  skins  is  much  greater  in  weight 
when  manufactured  immediiitcly  after  they  are  taken 
off  the  animal,  than  oflor  having  been  kept  for  six  or 
twelve  months. 

Tho  qualities  of  all  kinds  of  furs  differ  verj-  con- 
siderably, from  climate  and  other  local  circumstances. 
Tho  best  rabbit  fur,  used  for  the  manufacture  of  the 


FUR 


772 


FUR 


flneit  iMaian  hats,  is  commonly  coniidend  as  the 
produca  of  the  east  coast  of  England,  particularly 
from  Lincolnshire  to  Berwick  incliuively.  The  ral>- 
bit  fur  is  always  stronger  in  the  Yelting  principle  when 
got  off  rabbits  bred  on  the  sea-coast,  than  in  thosa 
found  in  inland  places,  however  favorable  in  other 
respects  these  places  may  be  for  the  rearing  of  the 
animals.  The  skins  along  the  tract  of  coast  already 
mentioned  seem  all  of  the  same  size  and  quality. 
North  of  Berwick  the  rabbit-skin  becomes  smaller, 
and  the  fur  weaker  and  shorter;  and  the  further 
north,  along  the  coast,  the  more  inferior  it  is  found. 
Hara  fur  in  Great  Britain  is  superior,  for  bat  purposes, 
to  any  in  the  world. 

The  skins  and  furs  imported  by  or  for  oui  manufac- 
turers are  more  varied  and  more  numerous,  perhaps, 
than  would  generally  be  supposed.  When  we  consider, 
too,  how  many  countries  must  be  ransacked  to  produce 
this  variety — the  beaver,  the  bear,  the  ermine,  the  ot- 
ter, the  racoon,  the  chinchilla,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the 
musquash,  the  sable,  the  marten,  the  squirrel,  the 
6trh,  the  mink,  the  seal,  and  others — it  will  be  plain 
that  the  commerce  in  furs  must  be  considerable.  In 
1850,  the  squirrel  furs  imported  exceeded  2,000,000 ; 
the  musquash,  1,000,000 ;  the  racoon,  600,000 ;  while 
the  rest  made  up  the  total  number  to  nearly  6,000,000 — 
not  hides  for  tanning,  be  it  remembered,  but  skins 
imported  for  the  sake  of  the  fur.  The  beauty  of  a  fur 
does,  most  unquestionably,  in  the  eyes  of  a  purchaser, 
depend  largely  on  the  price  he  pays  for  it ;  and  this 
price  depends  on  the  scarcity  in  the  supply.  Why  else 
should  a  black-and-silver  fox  fur  command  a  price  of 
80  or  40  gaineas,  or  a  sea-otter  skin  still  more  ?  It  is 
true  that  fashion. also  tends  to  determine  the  price; 
and  it  seems  that  the  different  tastes  of  different  coun- 
tries curiously  illustrate  tbis.  Thus,  the  black-and- 
silver  fox  skins  are  mostly  purchased  for  the  Russians 
and  Chinese ;  the  red-fox  skins  are  in  demand  in  the 
East  for  cloak  linings  and  dress  trimmings ;  the  otter 
skin  is  used  in  the  same  regions  for  caps  and  collars ; 
the  beaver  fur,  now  getting  out  of  use  for  hats,  is  be- 
ing made  available  as  a  beautiful  kind  of  !-.loth  for 
•Iresses ;  the  Ij-nx,  now  out  of  fashion  in  England,  is  a 
favorite  in  America.  Tho  wolf  yields  a  coarse  fur, 
which  the  Russians  employ  for  cloaks  and  coats.  The 
sable  has  long  been  a  favorite  in  England,  and  when 
dark  in  color  commands  a  high  price ;  tlio  minx  (the 
choicest  specimens)  Li  said  to  be  now  in  high  favor  in 
Paris ;  the  musquash  is  largely  used  in  England,  it  be- 
ing made  to  do  duty  for  more  costly  furs  by  a  little 
"  doctoring ;"  the  fur  of  the  block  liear  is  chiefly  appro- 
priated by  military  men,  for  caps,  holsters,  rugs,  ham- 
mer-cloths, etc.  j  the  sea-otter  fur  is  a  royal  fur  in 
China,  itnd  a  noble  fur  in  Russia,  and  hence  commands 
high  prices  in  those  counti  ics. 

Most  of  the  furs  named  in  the  above  paragraph  are 
procured  from  North  America,  through  the  medium 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company ;  but  there  are  some 
European  furs  wliieh  command  on  extravagant  price. 
The  Russian  soble,  foi'  instance,  will  sometimes  sell 
for  as  much  u  10  guineas  a  skin  ;  and  so  many  of  these 
are  employed  to  form  a  lining  for  a  cloak,  that  such  a 
lining  has  not  unfrequently  involved  a  cost  of  1000 
guineas.  The  corporation  of  London  display  their 
sable-furred  gowns  or  robes  oti  official  occasions.  The 
fur  called  French  sable  is  really  that  of  the  stone  mor- 
ten,  which  the  French  sliow  miich  skill  in  dyeing.  The 
ermine  or  minever,  from  Russia  and  Sweden,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  furs,  naturally  as  well  as  so- 
cially. Its  beautiful  and  delicate  white  tan  only  lie 
insured  by  killing  the  animal  in  winter,  when  all  is 
white  except  the  tip  of  the  tail.  In  social  dignitie's,  the 
ermine,  perhaps,  takes  the  lead  of  all  furs ;  for,  not 
only  in  many  countries  of  the  Continent,  but  in  less 
despotic  England,  tbero  is  a  sumptuar}'  law  or  custom 
respecting  the  ermine  ;  tho  sovereign,  the  royal  fam- 
iiy,  the  peers,  the  r^eresses,  and  tin  Judges,  all  wear 


ermine  on  state  occasions ;  and  this  ermine  Is  '  pow> 
dered'  (as  the  heralds  term  it)  with  small  blaci  spots 
or  stripes  of  some  other  fur ;  the  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  spots  and  stripes  being  indicative  of  the 
rank  of  the  wearer,  and  no  deviation  thereOom  being 
permitted.  For  the  squirrel  fur,  which  is  used  in 
larger  quantities  in  England  than  any  other,  wn  are 
chiefly  indebted  to  Russia.  It  Is  cheaper  than  any 
other  equal  to  it  in  appearance ;  and  some  of  the 
white  portions  are  admired  for  their  beauty.  The 
fitch,  with  its  strong  and  durable  fibres,  has  latterly 
been  passing  out  of  favor.  The  lamb-skin,  at  a  tender 
age,  has  all  the  beauty  of  fur ;  and  some  of  the  foreign 
specimens  command  a  high  price.  The  cat-skin  is 
now  used  largely  in  England  as  a  fur,  greatly  to  the 
danger  of  the  domestic  "  puss"  in  general,  Tho  rab- 
bit is  also  an  extensively  used  fur;  and  tho  whito 
varieties  are  made  to  do  duty  as  substitutes  for  ermine. 
The  little  chinchilla  yields  a  soft  and  delicate  fur,  much 
used  in  England  and  France.  Angora  goat-skin  was 
at  one  time  worn  extensively  as  a  fur ;  but  it  is  now 
more  customar}'  to  remove  the  hair  or  wool,  and  manu- 
facture it  into  cloth.  Seal-skins,  when  to  be  worn  as 
furs,  have  tne  long  coarse  hair  removed,  and  the  rich 
silky  down  which  lies  beneath  it  is  dyed  of  a  brownish 
color. 

When  these  various  furs  are  gathered  together  from 
every  quarter  of  the  globe,  and  consigned  to  the  hands 
of  the  furriers,  they  undergo  certain  processes,  which 
transform  them  from  quadrupeds'  attire  into  bipeds' 
attire.  The  "  pelt,"  or  under  surface,  of  each  fur  has 
to  be  converted  into  a  kiqd  of  leather,  by  greasing, 
and  pressing,  and  scraping,  and  other  processes ;  and 
the  hair}-  or  downy  surface  has  to  be  dyed  and  pre- 
pared in  various  ways,  to  develop  all  the  beauty 
which  nu.^rally  belongs  to  it,  and  sometimes  tx>  im- 
part extraneous  beauty  to  it. 

When  the  light  flocculent  down  trom  birds  is  em- 
ployed as  a  fur,  it  requires  much  patient  labor  to  ad- 
Just  all  the  little  fibres  to  their  places,  since  there  is  no 
natural  "  pelt"  or  skin  attached  to  the  down  when  re- 
moved from  the  unimal.  As  instances  of  this  kind  of 
work,  we  may  adduce  the  Persian  muff  and  boa  lately 
made  from  the  down  of  a  bird  called  the  egret :  their 
value  was  160  guineas.  There  had  been  only  three 
similar  sets  previously  made — for  the  Empress  of 
Rus9-<t,  the  Princess  Adelaide  and  the  Duchess  de 
Berrie. 

Actual  Ihfobt  into  Londuh  or  Fobs-  and  Skins,  froh 

SKPTSMDEB  1,  ISSO,  TO  SXPTKHDSK  1,  1851 — COHPaiSINU 
TUR  BXTIRK  COLLSCTION  OF  TUB  IIUDSUN^  UaT  CuM- 
PANT,  AND  THN  BNTIBE  CoLI.BOTIOH   PBOM  CANADA  ANI> 

TUB  United  Htatks  (bicept  Smii-ments  hadb  dibevt 
FBOH  Tiir  United  States  to  Oehvant,  and  small 

lUlTS  USED  rOB  HOMP.  Co  SUllPTION,  WUICII  CAN  NUT 
BB  ASCBBTAINED).  TiIIMB  B.HTIRB  IhPOBTS  were  BUM) 
AT    AUOTION     IN    LonDON,    IN    JANUARY,    MaBCU,    AND 

Bbptxmbeb,  1351. 

CttOAdaud 


DMCrlplluD  of  ikliw. 


Bcavor . . . . 
Huskrat... 

Otter 

Fisher. . . . . 
Marten.... 
Minx 

iiTHX 

Silver  Fox. 
Cros»  "  . 
Ked  "  . 
Orsy  "  . 
White  •'  . 
KiU  "  . 
Black  Bear. 
Bniwn  "  . 
Racoon . . . . 

Wolf. 

Wolverine. 
Wildcat... 


Htdioo*!  Bay 
Company. 

«,686~ 

1HMS 

8,910 

6,2»T 

M,8S7 

21,141) 

iJ0,8S8 

A8T 

1,980 

5,5«1 

none, 

8*9 

1,608 

4,828 

1,803 

1,808 

9,T4B 

1,498 

S40 


tlnlud  Statu, 

cktofly 
Unlud  SralH. 


1,294 

894,200 

8,9<8 

fi,0l« 

21,1M 

210,120 

0,(48 

8T« 

1,(HI 

84,M1 

18, 4M 

MT 

non>. 

8,682 

IB 

fiSl,i4« 


10,00T 


Total. 


£0,929 

1,088,702 

12,884 

11,818 

8&,B0T 

381,2«0 

25,fi81 

908 

8,641 

40,222 

18,4eo 

1,476 

1,608 

«,8SS 

1,817 

068,064 

9,766 

1,481 

10,847 


Tht  North  Amtrican  Fur  Company,  the    leading 
directors  of  which  reside  in  the  city  of  New  York,  have 


PUR 


773 


PUR 


11,884 
11,8)«    I 
86^1 

2&,fi8t 
903 

8,641 
40,291 
18,480 

1,476 

1,608 

«,8S8 

1,81T 
S(»,054 

1,481    1 
10,84T_, 

leading 


long  enjoyed  the  princlpil  part  of  the  Indian  trade  of 
the  great  lakea  and  the  upper  Mississippi.  But,  with 
the  exception  of  the  muslmkt,  most  of  the  fur-clad 


animals  are  exterminated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakai. 
The  sl(ins  of  racoons  are  of  little  value ;  and  the  liaavei 
is  now  scarce  on  this  side  of  the  Roclcy  Mountains. 


An  Account  or  Tin  QuANTmrj  or  Tua  raiNoiPAL  TAanmn  or  Fua  iMroano  into  OaaAT  BariAiN  in  18S1,  arm- 

.  ryiHO  Till  CODNTBIU  WUKNCE  TIIRT  WEEK  BEOUOUT,  AND  TIIK  QirANTITY  rUENISHED  BY  XACU  CUUNTBT. 


Marten  a 

1 

Countriu. 

IlMV«r, 

Emiiii. 

FItok. 

Qoil. 

Kid. 

Lunb. 

MaHen 
talU. 

Mini. 

Miuqnadi. 

Rmooo. 

Stal. 

SkMp. 

Sfdml. 

No. 

No. 

.No. 

No. 

No, 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

'tto. 

No. 

Ruulo. 

188,11E 

11^70 

6 

10,610 

.... 

19,769 

1141,848,«H 

Norway 

>  ■•> 

.  .  •  . 

14,148 

481 

•  >•> 

81 

.... 

•  ••• 

8,888 

80«:          .... 

iDenmark 

16 

468 

9008 

89.801 

16l      .... 

HinseaUo  Towns. 

4S 

91,480 

86,184 

1^787 

176 

68,698 

96,616 

5,856 

40,698 

VM    87,991 

1,718  l,719,66i 

Holland. 

.... 

8,784 

161,878 

80«i         800 

7,198     8,8901       ....  1 

Jlelgiam 

.... 

7,98! 

7,168 

16,019       .... 

1,206 

.... 

48 

88 

•  ••• 

France 

t  •  •  • 

7,87J 

88,478 

617,7511     84,888 

1^806 

141 

18^ 

.... 

10,180 

4i 

Italy 

97.1941.271.868 

1,824 

Tar'klshDomlnlons 

1 

...• 

.•>■ 

88     i;i97 

188,214 

1,040 

16,641 

.  •  .• 

Morocco 

.... 

.... 

7,860     .... 

>.  .  . 

.... 

.... 

.  ■■■ 

.  .  •. 

18.188 

British  S.Africa.. 

.... 

118,666^     .... 

t.  .. 

.... 

•  ••  . 

4,488, 116,577 

...» 

Brit  Tor.  In  E.I. . 

,  ,  ,  , 

884,081    62,480 

961 

.... 

.... 

....    814JS74 

4 

Britlah  N.  Amer.. 

69,691 

819 

.... 

18     .... 

2 

86,249 

is,m    828,811 

1,764  198,669,     .... 

4,141 

United  States 

184 

18 

89,759     .... 

.... 

7,496 

180,4081,168,879 

457,6711     1,918     .... 

Rio  do  la  Plata.... 

*  •<• 

.... 

.... 

... 

.... 

66,474 

I    11,008    76,118 

Greenland        and 

Davis's  Straits.. 

.... 

.... 

....      97,826     .... 

Other  parts 

89 
«9,9A» 

86;»i4     .... 

4,M8 

116           8 

T     l,117l  4.%916'         1441 

Total 

280,480  65,899  789,965  616,7041,600,109 

210,069  191,719:1,641,168(466,840  769,756  786,1044.631.619! 

The  Fur  Trade  in  Mifmuota. — Four  or  five  jxars  ago 
the  fur  trade  was  the  paramount  rommercial  and 
industrial  interest  of  the  Territory  Two  or  three 
years  further  liaclt,  and  it  was  not  inily  the  paramount 
l>ut  the  sole  buBine!>s  interest.  The  (lopulation  of  the 
Territory  was  composed  almost  entirely  of  its  employ- 
ers and  attaches.  St.  Paul  derived  its  whole  import- 
ance (a  small  importance  then)  from  being  the  depot 
of  the  Winnebago  and  Chippewa  outfits ;  while  Men- 
dota,  the  seat  of  the  Sioux  outfit,  gave  laws  to  the  im- 
mense region  occupied  by  the  Dalcotas  and  chains  of 
trading-posts  as  fur  as  Lac  qui  Pbjle  on  the  Minnesota ; 
and  Pembina,  on  the  Red  River,  held  the  whole  coun- 
try like  a  dependent  child  at  the  feet  of  the  magnates 
of  the  principal  agencies  of  Pierre  Choteau,  Jr.,  &  Co. 
The  profits  of  the  fur  trade  even  then  had  tiegun  to 
decline.  The  influx  of  a  white  population  consequent 
upon  the  establishment  of  a  Territorial  government — 
the  increase  of  competition  in  the  Indian  trade,  con- 
curring with  the  gradual  decrease  of  its  products,  and 
causes  that  lay  beyond  these,  and  that  have  been 
gradually  but  surely  promoting  the  decline  of  the 
western  fUr  trade  in  general — all  contributed  to 
wec'.-en  the  eflicienc}'  of  the  Fur  Company's  organiza- 
tion in  our  Territor;-,  and  to  render  it  undesirable  to 
maintain  its  expensive  establishments  any  longer  than 
was  suflicient  for  settling  its  affairs.  It  has  accord- 
ingly had  no  practical  existence  since  the  consumma- 
tion of  tlie  Sioux  treaty  in  1862,  from  which  the 
traders  received  a  parting  token  of  several  hundred 
tliousand  dollars  in  payment  of  the  accumulated  back 
debts  of  some  thirty  years;  Since  then  the  trade  has 
been  carried  on  entirely  by  private  individuals,  fore- 
most among  wliom,  however,  are  some  of  the  old 
traders.  Two  houses  alone,  Messrs.  Forbes  &  Kitt- 
son, and  Messrs.  Culver  &  Farrington,  are  connected 
at  this  time  with  the  fur  trade  in  this  city.  The  dis- 
organization of  the  Indian  trade  on  the  Minnesota 
River,  and  the  diversion  of  the  Indians  from  hunting, 
by  the  pernicious  system  of  annuities,  has  vastly 
diminished  the  productiveness  of  the  ftar  trade  on  the 
Minnesota  River. 

The  trade  is  almost  entirely  limited  at  present  to  the 
Pembina  or  Red  River  regions,  and  around  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mississippi.  The  bulTalo  rolies  come 
almost  entirely  from  this  source,  the  buffalo  ranges 
being  restricted  to  the  region  north  of  the  Cheyenne, 
And  west  of  the  James  River.  The  Minnesota  River 
country  has  fallen  off  in  buffaloes  very  considerably— 
the  whole  receipts  for  export  tnm  that  region  not 
amounting  to  more  than  1200  rolies.  This  does  not 
include,  however,  the  large  numliers  reserved  for  home 
ounsumptiou.    The  table  given  below,  for  which  we 


are  indebted  to  K.  W.  Kittson,  Esq.,  exhibits  the 
total  exports  of  furs  teom  St.  Paul  for  the  present 
year :  64,292  rats,  $11,672  66 ;  8276  minx,  (18,621 ; 
1428  marten,  $8,670;  1046  fishers,  $4702  60;  876  red 
foxes,  $1096 ;  3400  coons,  $2660 ;  10  wolverines,  $25 ; 
364  badgers,  $91;  2,032  wolves,  $3048;  406  otters, 
$1417  60;  6»6  beaver  (pounds),  $882;  2542  kit  foxes, 
$1271;  610  bear-skins,  $6700;  20  cross  fox,  $100;  8 
silver  fox,  $400 ;  60  lynx,  $126 ;  7600  robes,  $41,200. 
Total,  $96,760  60.  A  notable  feature  of  the  fur  trad* 
for  the  several  years  past,  is  the  gradual  but  sui«  de- 
cline of  its  productiveness — corresponding  with  a  grow- 
ing demand  in  Europe  and  our  own  country  for  fun. 
Each  of  these  causes  haa  assisted  the  other  to  enhance 
the  price  of  furs — and  they  have  grown  expensive— 
and  all  these  causes  concurred  to  advance  prices  last 
}'ear  to  a  sum  they  never  before  reached  in  the  American 
market.  Nevertheless  it  will  not  do  to  calculate  too 
surely  on  last  year's  prices  for  the  products  of  the 
present  year,  as  the  consumption  of  furs  is,  after  all, 
entirely  dependent  on  the  evanescent  caprices  of 
fashion. 

Before  closing  this  article,  we  will  devote  a  few 
lines  to  the  character  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  fur 
trade.  The  character  of  the  hunters  and  trappers  en- 
gaged in  the  fur  trade  throughout  the  extreme  north- 
west is  peculiar  and  original.  The  trade  is  not  carried 
on  now,  as  in  former  times,  by  means  of  batteaux  and 
canoes,  which,  under  the  old  French  and  English  sys- 
tems, enlivened  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  our  old  North- 
western Territory.  The  fur-bearing  animals  have  been 
driven  fh>m  a  great  portion  of  their  borders  by  the  ad- 
vance of  emigration,  and  their  sho.v..  hnve  Income,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  sites  of  substantial  farm-housea 
and  prosperous  settlements.  The  canoe  has  given 
place  to  the  steamboat,  the  trading-post  to  the  city. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  trade  has  been  transferred  to  the 
region  of  the  mountains,  whose  wild  recesses  contain 
no  lakes  where  they  can  disport  their  canoes,  no  streams 
which  can  float  their  furs  to  market.  These  traders 
and  trapiiers  transport  their  goods  or  furs  upon  pack- 
horses,  or  carry  them  on  their  own  backs  to  a  naviga- 
ble stream.  They  move  from  place  to  place  on  horse- 
l>ack,  sometimes  conveying  their  traps  upon  their 
shoulders  through  deep  ravines,-  up  steep  precipices, 
inaccessible  to  tlie  horse,  in  search  of  places  which 
contain  their  favorite  game.  The  life  of  the  trappar 
Incomes  a  scene  of  toil  and  privation,  and  yet  of  paa- 
sionate  excitement.  His  views  are  exaggerated,  hia 
habits  unsettled,  his  sentiments,  generally,  noble  and 
generous,  like  those  of  a  sailor,  for  the  causes  wbich 
act  upon  him  are  similar  in  their  character;  and,  Uka 
the  lailor,  he  is  nowhere  contented  except  when  lead- 


FUS 


11* 


FUT 


lug  hit  Vta  of  dan^r  uid  excitement.  Snch  ii  the 
life  and  oluuwoter  of  the  active  agents  of  the  fur  trade, 
the  atordy  hunter*  and  ttiippera  of  the  north-went. 
See  Hdnt's  ^fer.  Mag.,  iii.,  185  (J.  H.  La»ma!*),  iii., 
252  (H.  MnBRAY),  xiv.,  532  (W.  Stcrois)  ;  Journal  of 
ScieHce,  xxv.,  311 ;  Sdin.  Kev.,  I.,  142. 

Fur-skln    DreMing.     Fur-sltins   are  usually 
dressed  by  placing  them  in  their  dried  state  in  tubs, 
wheie  they  undergo  a  treading  operation  with  men's 
feet,  until  they  are  sufficiently  soft  and  bend  easily. 
The  skins,  if  large,  are  sewn  up,  the  fur  bein^;  turned 
inward ;  but  if  small  sldns,  such  as  ermine,  are  being 
dressed,  they  require  no  sewing.     This  sewing  is  pre- 
paratory- to  the  greasing  with  butter  or  lard,  and  is 
intended  to  protect  the  fur  from  the  grense,  and  to  pro- 
mote tlie  softening  in  the  succeeding  treading  operation. 
The  8l(ins  are  next  wetted,  and  their  flesh  is  removed ; 
or  they  are  fleshed  and  then  hung  up  to  dry.    Tbey  are 
again  subjected  to  treading  in  tubs  containing  saw- 
dust, and  afterward  In  tubs  containing  plaster  of  Purls, 
or  whitening,  sprinkled  between  the  skins.     Tbey  are 
then  )>eaten  with  a  stick  and  combed :  when  the  dress- 
ing is  completed.     M.  Pierre  Thirion  proposes,  in  his 
patent  of  June,  1845,  to  soften  the  skins,  not  by  tread- 
ing, but  by  beating-stocks,  of  a  construction  like  the 
fUlling-niUl.    They  are  next  sewn  up,  and  again  fulled 
in  a  strong  vessel,  where  they  are  forced  upward  by 
the  beaters,  turned  over  and  over,  and  thus  speedily 
softened.     They  are  now  fleshed,  and  then  returned 
to  the  beating-stocks,  and  mahogany  or  other  sawdust 
is  sprinkled  upon  the  fur,  before  the  beating  is  renewed. 
They  are  next  placed  in  a  heated  barrel,  famished 
within  with  radial  pins  for  turning  the  goods  over  and 
over,  in  order  that  they  may  be  acted  upon  by  various 
dry  substances,  which  are  thrown  into  the  barrel,  and 
absorb  the  fat  from  the  skins.     Through  the  hollow 
shaft  of  the  barrel,  steam  is  introduced,  which  heats 
the  skins,  softening  the  fat,  which  is  then  absorbed  by 
sand,  flour,  rr  any  other  desiccative  powder.     It  is 
proper  to  take  the  skins  out  of  the  barrel  from  time  to 
time  to  comb  them.     Such  as  have  been  sufficiently 
acted  upon  may  theb  l>e  set  aside.     They  are  lastly 
fteed  from  the  dust  by  being  subjected  to  a  grated 
cylinder  in  a  state  of  rotation,  and  then  combed  l)y  hand. 
Faa«l  Oil  is  the  German  name  of  the  oflfensive 
■melling  oil  which  exists  in  alcohol,  as  distilled  from 
the  fermented  infusions  of  malt,  and  com  meal  of  all 
kinds,  as  also  from  the  fermented  wash  of  potatoes, 
and  of  beets,  etc.    A  like  oil  occurs  in  the  alcohol 
distilled  from  the  fermented  must  of  grapes,  and  the 
juices  of  many  sweet  fruits.     This  oil  is  not,  however, 
identical  from  theiie  several  sources ;  as  may  indeed  be 
inferred  from  the  diversity  in  the  flavors  of  the  differ- 
ent liquors.     But  they  all  agree  in  lieing  somewhat 
less  volatile  than  water,  and  therefcire  make  their  ap- 
pearance chiefly  in  the  spirits  toward  the  end  of  the 
distillation  process.     It  is  to  the  presence  of  this  oil 
that  the  milkiiinng  of  the  last,  and  also  sometimes  of 
the  first,  portii       of  the  spirii  that  come  over,  railed 
feints,  owe  their  opalescence  and  their  pdH'-trating 
odor.     When  the  milky  fluid  is  redistilled,  alcohol  and 
water  first  pass  over  with  very  little  oil,  but  if  the 
heat  of  the  itUl  be  moderate,  the  oil  may  be  made  a 
raslduum,  and  obtained  in  a  tolerably  concentrated 
itata. 

Fostian  (Ger.  Barekent;  Du.  Funlein;  Fr.  Fu- 
lame;  It  f'ntlagno,  fniftai/no;  Sp.  Futtani  Rut. 
Biimatea;Vo\.  Harekan)  is  a  species  of  coarse,  thick 
tweeled  cotton,  pnd  is  generally  dyed  of  an  olive, 
leaden,  or  oilier  r.irk  color.  Besides  tbn  common  fus- 
tian, which  is  known  by  the  name  of  pillow  (probably 
pUaw),  the  cotton  stuffs  called  corduroy,  velverett, 
velveteen,  thicksett,  used' for  men's  wearing  apparel, 
balong  to  the  laiiM  fabric    The  corainonest  kind  ia 


merely  a  twael  of  four,  or  sometimes  five  leaves,  of  » 
very  close  stout  texture,  and  very  narrow,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding 17  or  18  inches  in  breadth.  It  is  cut  from  the 
loom  in  half  pieces,  or  ends,  as  they  are  usually  termed, 
about  35  yards  long,  and  after  undergoing  the  subse- 
quent operations  of  dyeing,  dressing,  and  folding,  is 
ready  for  the  market. 

Of  velvet,  there  are  properly  only  two  kinds,  that 
with  a  plain,  and  that  with  a  tweeled,  or,  as  it  is  here 
called,  a  Genoa  ground,  or  back.  When  the  material 
is  silk,  it  is  called  velvet ;  when  cotton,  velveteen ; 
and  this  is  the  sole  difference.  In  the  same  way  a 
common  tweeled  cloth,  when  composed  of  silk  is  called 
satin ;  when  of  cotton,  fustian  or  jean ;  of  woolen, 
plaidihg,  serge,  or  kerseymere ;  and  in  the  linen  trad* 
is  distinguished  by  a  variety  of  names  according  to  the 
quality  or  fineness,  or  the  place  where  the  article  if 
manufactured. 

FuatloCGer.  Gelbholz,  Futtic ;  Du.  Geelkout;  Fr. 
Boiajauttt  de  Britil;  It.  Ij'gno  ffiallo  de  Bratilio;  Sp. 
Palo  del  BraaitamartUo),  the  wood  of  a  species  of  mul- 
berry {Morus  tinctoria),  growing  in  most  parts  of 
South  America,  in  the  United  States,  and  the  West 
India  Islands. 

It  is  a  large  and  handsome  tree;  and  the  timber, 
though,  like  most  other  dye-woods,  brittle,  or,  at  least, 
easily  splintered,  is  hard  and  strong.  It  is  very  exten- 
sively used  OS  an  ingredient  in  the  dyeing  of  yellow, 
and  ia  largely  imported  for  that  purpose.  Of  10,800 
tons  of  fustic  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1850, 3896 
tons  were  l>rought  from  Kew  Granada,  207C  from  the 
British  West  ladies,  1G39  from  Cuba,  945  from  the 
United  States,  750  from  Mexico,  and  C69  from  Brazil. 
Fustic  from  Cuba  fetches  full  30  per  cent,  more  in  the 
London  market  than  that  of  Jamaica  or  Colombia. 
At  present  the  price  of  the  former  varies  from  £9  to 
£9  10s.  a  ton,  while  the  latter  varies  from  £o  5s.  to  ;£6 
a  ton.  The  consumption  amounts  to  about  6,000  tons 
a  year.     The  duty  on  fustic  was  abolished  in  1845. 

Zante,  or  young  fustic,  is  really  a  species  of  sumach 
{Shut  coiintu,  Lin.),  and  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
Aforut  liacloria,  or  old  fustic ;  the  latter  being  a  large 
Americu'.  \r<>i:,  while  the  former  is  a  small  Euro|>ean 
shru').  !t  ^.<jv,'s  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France, 
but  is  princi{:iilly  exported  from  the  Ionian  Islands 
and  Putras  in  the  Morea.  It  imparts  a  beautiful  bright 
yellow  dye  to  cottons,  etc.,  which,  when  proper  mor- 
dants are  used,  is  ver}-  permanent.  It  is  conveniently 
stowed  among  a  cargo  of  dr}'  goods,  as  it  may  be  cut 
into  pieces  of  any  length  without  injury.  Only  a 
small  quantity  of  this  species  of  sumach  is  Imported. 
Iti  price  fluctuates  considerably. — Trtet  of  America. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  fustic-trees  which  might 
be  formed  intc  a  peculiar  group,  from  their  baccate 
seeds.  The  trau  fustic  of  dyers  (J/oriu  tincloria)  is  a 
large  tree  60  feet  in  height,  bearing  sweet,  edible 
fruit  about  the  size  of  a  nutmeg,  and  is  a  native  of 
Central  America,  Yucatan,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  etc.  The 
whole  plant  abounds  in  a  slightly  glutinous  milk,  of  a 
sulphureous  color.  The  wood  is  yellow,  and  is  much 
used  in  dyeing,  for  which  purpose  it  is  chiefly  importei} 
into  Europe  and  the  United  States,  under  the  name  of 
/uttic-twoj.  There  is  a  variety  of  this  species,  called 
Bastard  Fuatic,  a  tree  smaller  in  stature,  and  less  val- 
uable OS  a  dye,  and  is  found  from  Yucatan  to  the 
southern  parts  of  Florida  and  the  Bahama  Jslunds. — 
Browmk'h  Treet  of  America,  p.  460. 

Futtooka,  in  a  ship,  the  timbers  raised  over  the 
keel,  or  the  oncomiiatsing  timbers  which  form  her 
breadth  and  capacity.  Futtack  plate*  are  iron  plates 
croa^ir^;  'he  sides  of  the  top-rim  perpendicularly.  The 
dea :  '.'.'.  LH  <'f  the  topmast  rigging  are  fitted  to  their 
vy<:'  -  tinii,  aad  the  futtock  shrouds  to  their  lowo( 
.•.ii}-,.~lHv\'i  Smntaa't  Manual. 


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Gaff,  in  nautical  language,  ■  spar  to  which  tht 
bead  of  a  fore-and-aft  soil  is  bent.  Gaff-loptail,  a 
small  sail  set  over  a  gaiT,  which  serves  to  spread  the 
foot  of  the  sail. 

Oage,  a  pledge  or  pawn  given  (jy  way  of  security, 
II.  Gage,  a  challenge  to  combat ;  that  U,  a  gauntlet, 
glove,  cap,  or  the  like,  cost  on  tlie  ground  by  the 
challenger,  and  taken  up  by  the  accepter  of  the  chal- 
lenge. III.  Gage,  in  nautical  language,  the  depth  of 
water  a  vessel  draws,  i.  e.,  the  number  uf  feet  she  sink* 
in  the  water.  In  a  different  sense,  when  a  ship  is  to 
windward  of  another,  she  is  said  to  have  the  wealhir- 
gage  of  such  vessel.  IV.  Gage,  among  letter-found' 
crs,  a  piece  of  hard  wood  variously  notched,  used  to 
adjust  the  dimensions,  slopes,  etc.,  of  th«  diffisrent 
sorts  of  letters.  In  joiner}-  it  denotes  an  instrument 
to  strike  a  line  parallel  to  the  straight  side  of  a  board, 
Sliding-gage,  among  mathematical  instrument-iualiera, 
a  tool  for  measuring  and  setting  off  distances,  V.  The 
term  gage,  implying  measure,  as  of  depth,  lielglit, 
force,  quantity,  etc.,  is  frequently  used  in  eonii>o«ltlon 
to  denote  particular  kinds  of  instruments)  as,  sea- 
gage,  tide-gage,  wind-gage,  rain-gage,  etc. 

Oalaoz,  or  Galatz,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  between  the  confluence  of 
the  Sercth  and  Pruth  with  that  river.  Lat.  46°  2fl' 
K. ;  long.  28°  E.  It  is  ill-built  and  dirty,  though  in 
these  respects  it  has  latterly  been  much  improved. 
Population  supposed  to  amount  to  25,000,  The  traile 
of  the  town  is  chiefly  carried  on  liy  Greek  mercliants ; 
but,  within  the  last  few  years,  various  English  anil 
other  foreigners  have  formed  eatal)iishnients  la  It, 
Though  at  a  considerable  distance  inland,  Galacz  Is  In 
the  best  position  for  becoming  the  port  of  tlie  Danube, 
At  present,  however,  it  is  little  more  than  tlie  port  uf 
Moldavia,  Ibraila,  or  Brahilow,  about  12  milei  further 
inland,  being  the  port  of  Wailachia.  The  commercial 
importance  of  these  ports,  and  indeed  of  the  Danulie, 
dates  only  from  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1620. 
Previous  to  that  epoch  the  trade  of  the  principalities 
laliored  under  the  most  oppressive  restriction*,  and 
was  principally  carried  on  by  land.  But  all  articles 
of  native  produce  may  now  )>e  freely  exported  either 
by  sea  or  land,  on  paying  moderate  duties  ;  and  the 
duties  on  imports  are  also,  for  the  most  part,  compara- 
tively moderate.  The  probability,  indeed,  seems  to 
be  that  Golacz,  "the  Alexandria,"  as  it  has  been 
called,  "  of  the  Scythian  Nile,"  will  at  no  very  distant 
period  liecome  a  first-rate  emporium.  The  rescuing 
of  Moldavia  and  Wailachia  from  Turkish. mUgnvem- 
ment  has  been  of  signal  advantage ;  and  It  Is  to  lie 
hoped  that  they  may  never  again  1)0  subjected  to  Its 
paralyzing  influence.  The  establishment  of  a  regular 
intercourse  by  means  of  steam  packets  lietween  Vienna 
and  Galacz,  and  thence  by  the  Black  Sea,  with  Con- 
stantinople and  Treiiizond,  has  already  done  ■  great 
deal,  and  will  ever}'  day  do  more,  to  introduce  a  spirit 
of  improvement  into  the  vast  and  fertile,  hut  long 
neglected,  countries  traversed  by  the  Danulie  In  the 
lower  part  of  its  course.  The  capacities  of  this  great 
river  as  a  commercial  highway  are  certainly  unequaled 
by  those  of  any  other  Euro|)ean  stream ;  and  their  full 
development  would  be  of  immeasurable  advantage, 
not  merely  to  tlie  countries  on  its  bunks,  hut  to  all 
commercial  nations. 

Exports  and  Imports. — Moldavia  and  WallachU  are 
very  productive  provinces,  being  fruitful  both  of  corn 
and  cattle.  The  high  prices  of  com  in  Franc*,  Italy, 
and  England,  in  1M6  and  1847,  gave  an  extraordinary 
stimulus  to  the  export  trade  of  Galacz  ami  IbraiU, 
The  exports  of  wheat  from  both  |)ortB,  in  18(7, 
•mounted  to  no  fewer  th-tn  670,978  quarten,  worth  on 


board  ship,  £1*76,009 )  the  exports  of  Indian  com  dur- 
ing th«  same  years,  were  937,720  quarters,  worth 
4Cl,17Si,lAO  I  and  among  the  other  exports  were  about 
820,000  quarters  of  barley,  and  42,000  owt.  of  tallow, 
with  a  variety  of  Inferior  articles.  The  total  value  of 
tb«  axiiorta  from  the  two  porta  during  the  above  year, 
amounted  to  the  verj'  large  sum  of  .£2,308,472,  of 
which  about  two  thirds  were  from  Iliraila.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  wheal,  which  is  partly  hard  and  partly  soft, 
was,  a  few  years  ago,  very  inferior,  being  generally 
damp,  and  having  an  earthy  smell  from  its  being  kept 
In  pit*  dug  in  the  ground.  Latterly,  however,  it  has 
b««tt  much  Improved )  and  the  finer  samples  now  fetch. 
In  Marnellles,  Genua,  and  Leghom,  within  from  3  to  « 
|i*r  cent,  ut  the  price  of  Odeiisa.  wheat.  In  1852,  we 
imported  H0,MO  quarters  of  Wiillachian  and  Moldaviim 
wluiat,  with  nu  fewer  than  (i2ti,714  do.  Indian  com. 
Doth  provinces  fatton  large  herds  of  cattle,  particu- 
Urty  Moldavia,  which  annually  sends  great  numbers 
to  the  Austrian  States,  Tuiiow  may  be  had  in  large 
quantities,  Ite  annual  produce,  in  Wailachia  only,  be- 
liijl  estimated  at  aliout  8,000,000  okes,  or  8,500,000 
IKiunds.  Until  within  these  few  years,  the  tallow 
shipped  at  Galarr,  was  burdened  with  a  heavy  export 
duty,  which  cliecked  Its  sale,  and  consequently,  also. 
Its  growth.  Happily,  however,  that  duty  Is  now  re- 
duced to  8  per  cent,,  and  the  exportation  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  quality  of  the  Danubian  tallow  is 
excellent.  Among  the  other  articles  of  exports  are 
wool,  timber,  hides,  and  skins,  lard,  butter,  bristles, 
lionas,  jerked  beef,  linseed,  barilla,  yellow-lierries, 
coarse  clicese,  etc.  Timber  of  the  finest  quality  may 
lie  hutl  in  any  quantity ;  but  as  it  can  only  be  advan- 
tageously exported  In  large  ships,  which  can  not  when 
laden  make  their  way  over  the  bar,  the  trade  in  it  has 
hitherto  Ixen  confined  within  comparatively  narrow 
limllff.  One,  however,  would  be  disposed  to  think 
that  tills  dimculty  might  be  obviated  by  sending  down 
the  timtier  In  rafts  and  loading  outside  the  bar.  Xot- 
wlthstandlng  the  recent  period  at  which  the  naviga^ 
tkm  of  the  Danube  has  tieen  opened,  and  the  barbarous 
state  of  the  countries  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course, 
the  value  of  the  exports  from  Galacz  and  Ibraila 
probably  In  1863  exceeded  £1,800,000  a  year,  of  which 
from'  X7$0,000  to  ^£800,000  may  be  from  the  former. 
But,  conaideralil*  as  this  is,  it  is  nothing  to  what  it 
certainly  would  Ixi  were  civilization  to  mak^  uny  con- 
sldarabU  progress  In  the  countries  traver  ed  tiv  iiie 
Danube  after  it  leaves  the  Austrian  don:-.aious,  ind 
•till  mora  were  the  river  to  become,  as  it  natiiraliy  is, 
the  printilpal  channel  for  the  conveyance  of  pixmuote 
tuand  from  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  The  great 
urtli^les  of  InifKirt  are  manufactured  cotton  goods,  and 
cotton  twist,  |irincipaiiy  from  England,  the  demand 
for  which  is  r.ipldly  Increasing;  with  sugar,  coffee, 
and  other  colonial  products ;  olives  and  olive-oil,  iron 
and  steel,  hardware,  etc, 

KiUranrf.  to  Oalaez.—Ot  the  three  principal  mouths 
of  the  river,  the  Soutineh  (middle)  mouth,  in  latitude 
46«  10'  no''  N,,  l»ng,  29°  41'  20''  E.,  is  the  only  one 
ac(!esslbl«  liy  vessels  of  considerable  burden.  The 
depth  of  water  on  the  bar,  at  Its  entrance,  half  a  mile 
from  (lin  shore,  varies  from  10  to  13  and  14  feet,  ac- 
cording to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  direction  of 
the  wind.  When  the  latter  blows  from  the  east,  it  is 
opposed  by  the  current  of  water  flowing  from  the 
west,  SI)  that  the  bar  Is  rapidly  increased  by  the  de- 
posit th*r««n  of  the  mud  brought  down  by  the  river ; 
and  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  current  and  the  wind 
colnclda,  the  mud  Is  carried  out  into  the  sea,  and  the 
depth  of  water  on  the  bar  is  progressively  augmented. 
Th*  assistance  of  a  powerful  dredging-machtne,  ot 


'^■-: 


GAL 


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GAL 


machine  fitted  to  itlr  np  the  mud,  or  other  depotit 
fonuing  the  bar  daring  the  prevalence  of  westerly 
winds,  world  be  of  great  Importance ;  and  it  Is  be- 
lieved that  with  its  agency  the  channel  might  \m  very 
materially  deepened.      Great  complaints  have  l>enn 
made  of  the  atatr  of  the  navigation  of  the  Danube 
during  the  present  year  (18S3).     It  appears  to  have 
been  occaaloned  partly  by  difficuhies  ari«ing  out  of  the 
disputes  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  partly  by 
the  prevalence  of  easterly  winds.     But  it  would  be 
eaiy,  by  erecting  a  light-house,  to  mark  the  entrance 
to  the  river,  and  employing  ■  dredging-machine  and 
steam-tugs,  to  obviate  the  physical  obstructions  to  the 
navigation.      From  the  bar  to  Oalaci   and   Ibraila, 
there  is  nowhere  less  than  18  feet  of  water,  and  in 
many  places  fh>m  60  to  70.     Vessels  of  800  tons  lie 
cli  ;  to  the  quays  at  Galacz.      The  shores  at  the 
mo  Ah  of  the  river  being  low  and  bordered  with  reeds 
and  shoals,  vessels  intending  to  enter  the  river  gene- 
rally make  the  rmall  rocky  islet  of  Pbldonisi,  or  Ser- 
pent's Isle,  in  Ut.  45°  15'  15"  N.,  long.  80°  10'  80" 
E.,  whence  the  Sonlineh  mouth  beurs  wi>st  by  south, 
distance  28  miles.     According  to  Mr.  Cunningham, 
the  flrst  objects  seen,  on  nearing  the  shore,  are  the 
masts  nf  vessels  in  the  river  and  the  houses  in  the 
town  of  Sonlineh,  which,  however,  ar«  veiy  low. 
Hageroeister  says  that  there  Is  a  wooden  tower  en  the 
south  shore  at  the  entrance  to  the  river ;  but  thongit 
the  contrary  has  been  often  affirmed,  and  its  position 
given  in  Arrowsmith's  map,  there  is  certainly  no 
light-house.    When  a  ship  approaches  the  entrance,  a 
boat  from  the  Russian  ca|:tair.  of  the  port  goes  jS,  mCt 
by  nn-riug  a  red  flag  indicates  the  course  to  te  kept. 
Lighters  are  generally  stationed  withont  the  bar,  into 
which  large  shipe  discharge  a  part  of  their  cargoes ; 
and  pilots  may  generally  be  obtained  from  them  or 
other  vessels.      As  the  current  is  sometimes  very 
strong,  and  difficolt  to  stem,  a  proper  establishment  of 
steam-tugs  at  the  month  of  the  river  would  be  a  grant 
advantage.     An  E.S.E.  wind  carries  a  vessel  from 
Sonlineh  to  Galaci  through  all  the  diflierent  teaches 
of  the  river ;  but  otherwise  the  navigation  is  difficult, 
and  towing  is  in  parts  necessary. 

Frost  usually  sets  in  on  the  Danube  in  the  month  of 
December,  and  continues  till  the  month  of  March ;  ic 
1888,  however,  there  was  no  frost.  Freights  in  the 
ports  of  the  Danube  are  always  from  ?0  to  2ft  per  cent, 
higher  than  in  Odessa ;  premiums  of  insurance,  on  the 
contrary,  are  not  higher  than  at  the  latter,  except  >.<n 
such  vessels  as,  on  account  of  their  size,  are  obliged  to 
discharge  outside  the  bar. 

J/naey,  WeigStt,  and  Meaturet. — These  are'  mostly 
the  same  as  at  Constantinople,  which  see.  Accounts 
ars  kept  in  piastres  and  paras.     1  pla6tre=40  paras. 

Galoot. — Ducat  blanc— pia.  44.  Silver  ruble^^^lS 
pla.  Spr.niah  dollar=10  pia.  32  paras.  Tutkish  yer- 
melik,  old  coinage=19  pia.  32  paras ;  Turkish  yermelik, 
new  ooinage=°I7  pia.  15  paras.  Austrian  swanzikers 
^•3  pia.  6  parau.  It  is  to  be  observe<l  that  when  ex- 
changes are  so  high  that  It  is  requisite  to  remit  in 
specie,  luiy  of  these  coins  may  go  to  a  premium,  ac- 
cording as  it  suits  better  than  others  for  the  remit- 
tance ;  and  just  now,  owing  to  the  want  of  bills  to 
remit  to  Austria,  the  ducat  blanc=44  pia,  20  paras. 

Ibmila  has  two  rates  of  currency;  the  one  for 
charges,  which  is  the  same  as  In  Galacz,  and  the  other 
for  the  purchase  of  merchandise,  as  follows : — Ducat 
blanc=32  pia. ;  Spanish  dollar=>14]^  pia. ;  Turkish 
yermelik,  old  colnagesll)  pia. ;  Turkish  yermelik, 
new  colnageaal2  pia.  28  paras ;  swanxik  'r::=i2  pla. 
12  paras.  A'o(e. — The  same  as  in  Galacz,  any  of  these 
col'is  may  go  to  a  premium.    . 

Galacz  and  /braila. — All  duties  are  paiid  in  both 
places,  in  the  course  of  the  Treasur}*,  as  follows : — 
Ducat  blancaaSl^  pla. ;  silver  ruble^t^lOJ  p. .. ;  Span- 
ish dolUr^l4  pia. ;  Turkish  yermelik,  oii.-wili  pla. ; 
»wanzlkern2i  pla. 


The  dnert  blanc  weighs  1  Turkish  drachm. 

£icA<m^(.— Bills  can  generally  lie  sold  on  the  fbU 
lowing  places,  and  the  present  (1842)  rates  are  aa 
noted :  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  these  rates 
are  very  high;  and  when  a  great  deal  of  paper  la 
offering,  they  may  go  4  per  cent,  lower. 

Vienna 8m.  (date., 

Tr1e*u> " 

Maraollles " 

Oapoa " 

Levhorn " 

London " 

Odessa lOd  fst 

ConstaotlDople,  11     "     ,.., 

Weightt.—Qalact  and  IbralU, 
44  okes^it  cantar. 

Meaturet. — Galacz    and    Ibroila.      20  banniza=^1 
kilo.     8  kilo  of  0Blacz=^2  kilo  of  Ibraila. 

CannroKDKxoB  or  Waionn  and  Mkabvrbs  or  Oalacz 
WITH  TuosE  or  roaaioN  Places. 


PlH 

.  P>nu. 

» 

36 

|Mf 

florin. 

« 

18 

u 

florin. 

8 

it 

u 

ftaac 

8 

M 

u 

fhinc. 

8 

4 

u 

lira. 

80 

20 

u 

pound  Iter). 
100  roubles. 

410 

00 

M 

119 

00 

" 

lOOorOa^aca 

400  dramg=l  oke. 


M)  okes. 

78       "  ., 


18|      "  

100    kilo  of  Galacz. 

100 

100  •■ 

100  " 

100 

100 

fiS 

US 

1 


okcs  Unseed. . 


1 
100 
100 

1 

IfiO 

480 

4!.') 

600 

280 

1 

1 

1 


cwt.  Kngllsb, 
klloKnunmos. 
ftand  of  Vienna. 

rnC  of  Russia, 
mpertsl  quartem 
hcriolltrra. 
sU^onf  Venice. 
sool'iS  of  leghorn, 
chetwerts  or  Odessa- 
Imperial  quarter, 
beetolltre. 
ebetwert. 


kilo  of  Brabllow. .     =       Si  Imperial  qaarteis. 
Aotf.— These  measures  generally  measure  out  somewhat 
less. 

Nora  or  Exroan  raou  Oalacz  bt  Ska  in  1851,  ix  En- 
OLisn  WxiouTS  AND  Measuirs,  and  Value  or  lua 
SAME  IN  Stebuno  Money,  fbee  on  Boahd. 

ArtlcUi.  QiujUly.  Valoa. 

^aeat qnartoia  1UMT4  £141,108 

IndUnoom ■*  890,083  280,545 

Bye "  71,024  4»,71« 

Tallow  and  chervlca cwt  4,849  7,898 

Oxhides pieces.  1,541  778 

Wine gallons.  86,400  9,380 

Flanks  and  deals pieces.  429,615  7,158 

Masts  and  spars rsHs.  5  ft,600 


Destination  or  Vkssei^s  depaetino  loaded  from  Qalacz, 

AND  CAHOOn  or  SAME,   IN   1851. 


DuttlnAtlon. 


iConstantlnopIe. 
TriesteAVenlce 
Ionian  Islands. . 
Leghorn,  Genoa 
and  Marseilles 
England.... 
North  of  Europe 

Olessa. 

Total 1 


Ho,  of 


17< 

87 
S 

85 

2M 

14 

6 


019 


44,084 


14 

80,4'<r 
85,868 


90,407 

26,071 

4,882 

8,816 

395.200 

1,SS0 


Ry.. 


'I-'. 
6.2(16 
!n,«S2 


840 
15,664 
10,608 


Otru. 

2,424 


1,925 


I34i074  :  850,6u2  j   71  «-/4  |     4,84^ 


Note  or  Exports  raoM  Ibraila  by  Iea  in  1851,  in  Eii- 
OLiSH  Wbiqiit<i  and  Mkascbrs,   and   VALita  or  Tnn 

BAIIE  IN  BTEBLINO    MdNEY,  TKH  ON  BOABD, 


DUrckudlK.  (jauUlr. 

Wheat qoarteffl  288,104 

Indtancom "       646,6<7 

Barley "       10,\5»7 

Wool lbs.  129,806 

Tallow  and  cherrice cwt.    80,038 

Butter,  or  inaiitecca "  428 

Cheese,  or  caskaval »        1,164 

Staves plrcef  550,089 

Bone-ash tons        706 

Bundrie* 


Vdn. 

£254,796 

404,186 

«!,799 

4.880 

45,>'57 

8A« 

768 

9,167 

S,2»l 

,3.9GS 

778457 


ToUl 

Port  Chargfi. — In  Galacz  anchorage  is  30  pla., 
and  a  guardian  for  6  days'  obsorvatton,  fi  pla.  per  day. 
In  Ibraila  anchorage  is  17^  pia,,  and  guardian  for  6 
days'  observation,  5  pla,  por  day, 

QuarmUtne. — Vessels  genenilly  remain  in  quaran- 
tine during  their  stay,  as  Ititle  or  no  advantage  is 
gained  by  taking  pratiqnn. 

Vessels  wishing  to  take  pratique  may  obtain  it  In 
14  to  21  days  according  to  the  stnte  of  health  in  T«|w 


comi 
and 
tine  I 
previ 
Isi 
Bessi 
but 


OAL 


111 


GAL 


key,  Iby  taking  a  Health  Office  gnard  on  board ;  or 
the  captain  alone  may  take  pratique,  the  tame  as  any 
passenger,  by  going  into  the  lazzaret.  During  the 
la!<t  year,  as  the  health  was  good  in  Constantinople 
and  along  the  Danube,  the  quarantine  was  only  seven 
•lays. 

I>ESTIHATION  Or  TkSSEU  DXPAKTIifa  LOADED  mOH  IbRAILA, 

AK»  CAaaocs  or  nil  saiiic,  in  1861. 


OaillluiUon. 

No.  of 
VoimU. 

WhMt. 

Indlu 
ton. 

B«rU7. 

Oonatantlnople 

490 

188 

16 

85 
820 

Qn. 

108,144 
H108 
18,278 

26,998 
100,698 

18?3S0 

172,105 

lj«97 

4,908 

2.S«,882 

104^669 
1,028 

Trieste  and  Venice 

Ionian  Islands.. 

Leghorn,  Oenoo,  and  I 

Marseilles ( 

KngUind 

Total 

1,049 

288,106 

646,617 

105,567 

The  total  number  of  vessels  departing  from  Oalacz 
and  Ibralla  in  1851  was,  1,668,  with  au  aggregate 
tonnage  of  300,846.  Of  these,  634  were  Greek,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  112,438 ;  352  were  Turkish, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  60,234 ;  and  304  vessels 


were  English,  with  an  aggregato  tonnage  of  6S,62fi, 
There  was  one  vessel  from  Buenos  Ayres. 

The  export  of  grain  constitutes  the  leading  com* 
mercial  movement  of  the  port  of  Oalacz.  The  follow 
Ing  table  exhibits  the  grain  export  trade  of  the  porta 
of  Oalacz  and  Ibralla,  during  three  consecutive  years : 


aniliu. 


FROU  OALATZ. 

Wheat 

Indian  corn 

Eye 

Total 


FBOH  IBRAILA. 

Wheat 

Indinn  corn 

Kyo 

Total 


1B4(. 


IMO. 


QaArtori. 

178.797 

258,768 

60,617 


498,177 


117,488 
885,582 
72,986 


Quvlort. 

140,663 

122,875 

68,776 


816,808 


288,290 
149,782 
44,594 


536,904      I     577,616 


Qiikrterf. 

134,474 

850,682 

71,024 


656,180 


283,106 
616,617 
106,597 


1,086,820 


The  ports  to  which  these  vast  quantities  of  grain 
are  shipped,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  return  of 
the  export  trade  during  the  same  years : 


TBARi. 

CONSTAIinNOPLK.                     )                TKItJTI   AMD  VBNICt,                |MAllllllIJ.n,  GINOA,  A  LUHDHN. 

OaSAT  BRITAIM.                      | 

No.  nfvi!««li.|         Uiisrtin.        1  No.  ..f  vn.el«.  i         (Imrlmi.        i  No.  of  vei^U.  |         QuarMn. 

No.  of  vetielf. 

iltimrun. 

Illl 

493 
620 
447 
666 

829,032 
404,815 
294,607 
466,789 

1»7 
126 
104 
276 

175,515 
180,976 
111,026 
294,876 

160              117,280 

101                71,656 

70        r        60,006 

70        1        66,479 

280 
297 
253 
606 

264,691 
889,774 
816,019 
688,707 

The  port  of  Oalacz  is  the  outlet  for  the  produce  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  And  its  Imports  in  1660 
amounted  to  $2,175,000,  Its  exports,  consisting  of 
grain,  tallow,  preserved  meat,  wine,  and  linseed, 
reach,  annually,  about  $3,877,660.  How  far  Amer- 
ican interests  might  be  promoted  in  the  foreign  trade 
of  the  Danublan  and  other  porta  of  the  Turkish  do- 
minions,  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  table, 
exhibiting  the  articles  of  foreign  and  colonial  produce 
exported  to  Turkey  in  the  year  U51.  The  table  In- 
cludes, also,  the  imports  into  Wallachia,  Moldavia, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Eg}-pt : 

DoKription  of  marehandiM.  Qtuuitltlet. 

Fernvlan  bark owts.         60 

Cassia  llgnoa pounds    17,620 

Cloves "         89,108 

Cochineal cwts.      1,946 

Cocoa pounds     2,908 

Coffee "       620,502 

Olnger owta.         97 

Qumshellaa "  15 

Indigo "         5,927 

Iron "  61 

Cotton  mamilaotnres (value)   14,210 

Iiogwood tons  76 

Nutmegs pounds     8,621 

Opiam "  5,406 

Pepper "       478,504 

Pimento cwts        720 

Quicksilver pounds        42i) 

Khubstb •'  1,286 

Elco, owta.      5,049 

Bilk. : pounds     l.iW 

Tuffetles pieces      6,978 

Spirits gallons    66,961 

Bngar. cwta. '   e.-Sol 

Tea pounds  197,485 

Tobacco "       169,022 

Wine (tallons     6,786 

Wool pounds     4,511 

Duties. — An  ad  valorem  duty  I  :'  ,jtr  cent.  Is  levied 
on  all  articles,  except  provisions,  imported  into,  or 
exported  from,  the  principalities  of  Moldavia  and 
Watlaclila  Government  reserves  to  itself  the  power 
of  pn'ml/.ting  the  exportation  of  any  article,  hut  it 
has  to  give  a  month's  previous  notice  of  any  such  pro- 
hibition. 

Oalacz  Is  a  free  port ;  that  Is,  a  port  at  which  all 
commodities  may  bo  landed,  warehoused,  re-exported, 
and  consumed  in  the  town,  free  of  duty.  Quaran- 
tine regulations  are  strictly  enforced,  unless  performed 
previously  to  entering  the  river. 

Ismail  and  Keni,  ports  of  the  Russian  province  of 
Bessarabia,  are  situated  on  the  Danube,  and  are  both, 
bat  especially  Ismail,  a  good  deal  nearer  its  mouth 


than  Oalacz ;  but  they  are  much  less  considerable  In 
point  of  commercial  importance.  Having  little  im- 
portation, their  trade  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the 
exportation  of  com,  and  even  in  this  respect  they  are 
very  inferior  to  Galacz  and  Brahilow.  They  are  sub- 
ject to  the  Russian  duties  and  regulations.  We  have 
gleaned  these  particulars  from  a  variety  of  works,  but 
principally  from  the  valuable  Report  by  Mr.  Cunning- 
ham, now  vice-consul  at  Brahilow,  printed  at  Galacz 
In  1841 ;  the  work  of  Hagemelster,  On  the  Commerce  of 
the  Black  Sea,  Eng.  trans,  pp.  83-95,  etc. ;  Purday't 
Sailing  Directions  to  the  Black  Sea,  p.  193,  etc. 

Account  or  the  Quantities  and  Values  of  tue  peinoi- 
PAt  Aeticles  impurted  into  and  exported  prok 
Var.na  in  1847. 


.cwta 


imports. 

Almonds 

Carobs. " 

Coffee » 

Cotton  twist packeta 

Cloths,  woolen bales 

Cloths,  cotton 

rigs cwts. 

Iron tons 

Olive  oil cwts 

Olives... 

Popperai  '    "IsorBplccs. pounds 

lislslns  

Sugar 

Soap 

Bait tons 

Tin  (In  bars) bands 

Snlrita gallons 

Miscellaneous 

Total 


CTi'^tt quarters 

.ricy. 


Iti'ios number 

Tallow owta 

Buuar " 

Cheoso " 

WalnntB .bushels 

Wool pounds 

Dried  beef  or  pastnrms. .  .cwta. 
MiMcllaneous,  lucludlng  poul- 
try and  eggs 

Total 


qiiantltlai. 

Valuoin 
£  fllarllnir. 

24 

60 

10,808 

6,no<, 

14,263 

80,000 

180,000 

82,000 

200 

10,000 

200 

7,000 

8,000 

1,400 

600 

7,000 

2,107 

6,067 

8,000 

2,400 

14,600 

1,613 

10,686 

6,822 

6,266 

11,665 

1,875 

4.135 

923 

1,800 

7»7 

24100 

600,000 

75,000 

10,000 

.... 

£214,861 

877,600 

£471,000 

10,1.1 

,\000 

•..t'.Ol»l 

84,466 

■'•,»'' 

176,800 

1',..? 

21,816  , 

24,w)fl 

68,636 

10,0'JO 

1  y"} 

112,000 

"..i.ii:. 

66,817 

' 

2u,i,>lO 

£876,708 

The  port  of  Varna  is  situated  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
Black  .Sea,  at  the  bottom  of  a  rather  small  bay,  about 
3  miles  N.W.  Cape  Galata,  the  latter  being  In  lat.  43^ 


•  '>*'^ym 


QAL 


118 


OAL 


10'  N.,  long.  17°  68}'  E.  TL«  ortiiaiy  uichonig* 
is  to  the  S.F  of  th«  town,  in  7  or  8  iuthoDM,  bottom 
Band  and  oaxe .  It  la  open  to  all  winda  between  E. 
and  8.S.E.  VamieU  load  and  unload  by  means  of 
IlKhters,  it  being  dangerous  to  approacli  within  le5s 
than  one  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  shore.  r<  th  hard 
and  soft  wheat  are  shipped  from  Vamu,  the  value  of 
the  former  being  .  rom  80  to  ■10  per  i  cr.t.  greater  than 
that  of  the  latter.  An  export  dir-y  is  charged  on 
wheat  when  exported,  and  being  a  (JTid  duty  of  about 
2s.  8d.  1  quarter,  it  ia  high  when  pn  en  are  low,  and 
low  whon  they  are  high. 

Steam  to  Galact. — Stea  i  lavlgatioii  wan  first  estab- 
lished on  the  Danube  in  IKiO,  since  w.'i.L'h  the  under- 
taldng  h.ia  gone  on  iirospcring,  so  murh  so,  that  the 
communication  between  Vienna  and  Ci'istantlnopla  is 
now  ni.i.ntalned  by  a  line  of  7  or  8  .'i.im  vessels. 
The  AMtrian  Steam  Company,  which  wi.s  \\\:-  first  in 
the  field,  have  ext.nded  their  scliome  liy  st.irti.ig  ves- 
sels between  Vienna  and  Unz,  aud  a  B<(Viiii^^:i  Com- 
pany comun'nced  in  1838  running  vessels  between 
Ratis'oou  uikI  Liuz.  At  present  (ur  ver,>  recently) 
steamboats  ply  on  t'iie  T)anul>e  as  long  a.s  tlio  r'w  -r  is 
free  from  ice  (usually  trom  1  e'>ruary  tir  M,irch  t.i  No- 
rember),  fr->m  Rstisbon  t(.  i  in/.,  once  a  wck  ;  Linz 
t')  Vletiua,  jt)  ]ii':'i'., ,  rcc  a  w  .i^if ;  Vienna  to  Pio.^ljurg 
and  {'■ratli.  .'-■;ri' ■  Puth  to  Tifiincova,  once  awo3li; 
(rWovn  to  0  .'•••.•,  t)ivo  a  wnk  •,  Galact  to  f  iiiJian- 
tinojp^e,  (iTiee  )  '.I'l'^'^liV  ^'iin  voyap<  *>■"">  Vicima 
to  Constantinople,  in  I  !■]',. 5  ^tofipagct.  i*  riciilom  p«r- 
>unn«d  in  ie'(»  tlfi'.'i  Vl  'i:i;'i,  a:  d  soinetinii'j  occupies 
17  ;  \u  i-«iu;iiin<  OjH/  '  rlis  >,l.rca:i:  it  talte')  at  least  a 
ic-'ri.t?l,  iiiiudini;  10  ■!-.;  ■ '  quarantii..3  at  Orsova.  The 
f«<«  wtt«  hv.cly,  v,v't  j/iaoe,  134  fi.rins,  about  .£13; 
•eot ' ':  »(!"''•',  Pt  Elori.id. 

Tb?  .'la*  igation  of  the  Danube  liy  steamers  is  unfur- 
tutjteJyiHterruiited  for  about  50  miles,  lietwccn  Dren- 
cova  I'ud  (iladova,  l)y  roclts  and  rapids,  the  lowest  and 
most  considerable  of  which  !■■  s  sort  of  cataract,  called 
the     'lonj^ate,"  about  3  miles  below  the  Hungarian 
frontier.     It  is  worttiy  of  remark  that  tlie  most  illus- 
trioua  of  t'le  Koman  emperors,  Trajnn,  alive  to  nil  the 
advantaji-cT  to  be  derived  from  the  easy  navigation  of 
•he  Daniil>«,  had  with  e^ual  industi-j'  i<nd  srgncity 
formed  a  road,  or  towing  path,  alon^  the  iriver'.i  edge, 
fbr  facilitating  the  operation  of  towing;,  of  whicli  the 
remains  are  still  extant,  with  un  imcriplion  commem- 
orative of  the  completion  of  the  woriis.     It  has  been 
proposed  to  overcome  the  difficultiei  in  tlio  way  of  the 
n.ivigation  by  renovating  the  old  Kiman  ro.M',  and 
deepening  the  channel  contignouf  to  it.     But  it  rarely 
happens  that  attempts  to  improve  the  n.ivii;n>!on  in 
the  lied  of  a  river,  under  any  thing  like  simi'.ar  oir- 
cumstuoces.  are  even  tclerably  successful.     The  bet- 
ter way  undoubtedly  would  be,  were  it  practicable,  to 
constru'.t  a  lateral  conal,  or  rather  a  canal  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rereska  to  I'ulanka,  which  would  not 
only  avoid  the  rapids,  l>ut  a' so  shorten  the  navigation 
by  getting  .-id  of  the  bend  of  the  river  b/  Orsova. 
But  the  diflicultles  in  the  war  of  such  an  undertak- 
ing, from  the  nature  of  thd  ground,  jra  said  to  l>e 
insuperable;  and  it  is,  therefore,  piobeble  that  the 
distance  of  50  miles  along  'he  rapids  will  continue,  if 
not  alvrays,  at  least  for  some  considerable  time,  a  j.o'i- 
age.     The  inconvenience,  however,  of  this  break  in 
t)<.e  nai  igation  has  betn  diminished,  as  far  as  possilvle, 
by  the  construction  of  an  admiral>le  carriagn  roai ,  at 
great  expense,  by  the  Hungarian  diet,  from  Moldova 
to  Orsova.     In  tne  extent  of  excavutiumi  ir.  the  rock, 
atid  tei  races  of  masonry,  npjn  wliich  it  is  carried,  it 
U  not  inferior  its  a  specimen  of  engi.iecring  to  the 
finest  rouds  ove/  tho  A\        Several   iteamers  have 
been  transported  down  rapids  at  the  season  of 

floodi,  small  barges  p?  ■•.u  at  all  times,  and  little 
boat«,  laden  with  wax  u..i  ^tKti,  are  towed  up  by  Dion 
and  oxen.  The  paaiengers  and  goods  conveyed  ty 
the  t(«aman  are  tmufeirad  from  Moldov*  in  row- 


boata,  to  GUdova,  below  the  Irongate,  where  they 
embark  on  another  steamer. — Gtog,  Vict,  art.  Danube. 
A  railroad  Is  completed  from  Uruon,  the  capital  of 
Moravia,  to  Vienna ;  another  railroad  diverges,  from 
the  Danube  at  Linz,  north  to  UudweU  in  UohemUt, 
where  it  reaches  the  bnnksof  th"  Vulilmi  .n<!  through 
it  communicates  with  the  £!l>v. 

Junction  of  the  JJanube  -"hi  /i';  SAinr. — 'I'-.c  long 
projected  canal  to  nnitf  •:c,-s  Diiniiti?  an<i  Rl  i»c',  the 
favorite  scheme  of  Charl"hui|i,'ne,  .lut'ug  been  nndfr- 
taken  by  the  Btvarlan  ,;i(veriiiv  .  ,  was  cnrpleted 
and  opened  in  1846.  It  (-.itundi  I'roin  Bamberg,  by 
Erlanfjen  and  'Turomberc,  to  Nourarr'..  jf.in!'  •  thu 
Danuiie  at  K  Iheim,  a  It  mileu  :.  ivo  Riii --bon. 
The  distance  ts:tween  the  M.-ine  near  Uaiiibeig,  «'  r, 
the  iJ.\imbe,  is  about  112  mii-  •  :  but  the  actual  extent 
.>f  Lu.ml  is  less,  iiie  commuii  cation  being  in  part 
ofFiitoi  tiy  the  Regnit. ,  s  tributorj-  of  tho  Maine,  an4 
t'l.-  jtiliiiuhl,  a  tilbutary  of  the  Danube.  There  is 
now,  I.  inseqaenth',  an  intern  .il  rommunication  by 
water thningh.'i.t  all  the  vast  luiintiy,  Btretc)iln^  fn  1 1 
the  shorta  of  I'  Nithe. .  .nils  to  the  Bltik  Seii ;  .-lo 
that  piiiiii-e  8(iipp«d  .'>v  Rotti'fdam  of  at  Giilacz  11!  y 
be  conveyed  ft'  a  tl).^  una  to  tho  othtv  t'.  thu  s-im.! 
vessel. 

Qalangal  <(  cr.  Ha'gaM;  T> ..  and  I'r.  '  danga; 
Rus.  A'algati t  l.i.i.  (mtcnga;  AruL,  Kii$3Uuik;  Chin. 
Ixmundutt),  the  rout  of  the  gaUinsn,  brought  from  China 
and  the  East  Indies  in  pieces  about  an  inch  lon^,  and 
hardly  half  an  inch  thirk.  A  larger  root  of  tho  same 
kind  (greater gatangal),  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness, 
is  to  be  rejected.  It  has  an  aromatic  smell,  not  very 
grateful ;  and  an  unpleasant,  bitterish,  extremely  hot, 
biting  taste.  It  should  be  chosen  full  and  plump,  of  a 
bright  cclor,  ver>'  firm  and  soimd.  12  cwt.  are  allowed 
to  a  ton. — Lewis's  Mai.  Med. ;  MKLBmt!«'s  Orient. 
Com. 

OalapagOB,  a  group  uf  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
BO  called  from  tho  Span'tJi  galnjmgo,  a  land  tortoise, 
from  their  abounding  in  tiiAt  animal.  They  consist  of 
six  principal  and  seven  siuiiller  islands,  Iving  between 
1°  N.  and  2°  S.  hit.,  anil  li.^tween  89°  and  92°  W. 
long.,  about  700  miles  fnnii  ^he  continent  of  South 
America.  The  largest,  Albemarle  Island,  is  60  miles 
in  length,  by  about  19  in  breadth.  The  highest  part 
is  4000  feet  above  the  ten.  They  are  all  of  volcanic 
origin ;  and  along  their  shores  black  dismal-looking 
heaps  of  broken  lava  overj'where  meet  the  ej-e.  In 
many  places  the  lava  cliff's  are  very-  liigh,  while  close 
to  them  the  water  is  so  deep  tliat  a  ship  can  not  anchor 
even  in  a  calm.  In  the  interior  are  some  valleys  and 
plains  of  moderate  extent  and  of  great  fertility.  The 
land  tortoises,  called  the  great  elephant  tortoises, 
their  feet  <M.'ing  like  those  of  a  small  elephant,  are  nu- 
merous, and  grow  to  a  groat  size,  frequently  weighing 
several  hundred  pounds.  A  small  colony  has  been 
established  on  Charles  Island,  in  a  plain  about  1000 
feet  above  tho  sea.  They  cultivate  bananas,  sugar, 
tanes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  Indian  com,  and  sup'  '.y 
with  these  articles  thu  wtialera  wlio  resort  to  the  isl- 
and. The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  heat  nkoderate, 
considering  the  geographical  position  of  these  islands. 
CHalats.     See  Gal,\cz. 

OAlbanum  (Fr.  Ualbanum;  Ger.  Mutterharz;  H. 

(ialbann ;  hat,  Oaibmtum  ;  Arab.  Lanud),  a  sfieciei)  of 

.:rei  niiJ  plant ( i?n/<a»«<i« o/l 

i.  rcB'thcCapeof  (ioodllope, 

..  ii,  brought  to  this  country 

O'.'iits  containing  from  100 

ill  ductile  mas.sea,  com- 

..]  agglutinated  together 

'  uib  substance.     It  is  gener- 

>!ks,  seed.s,  and  oiLer  impuri- 

'  are  considered  as  tho  best. 

orown  or  blackish,  it  ia  to  lie 

..rong  peculiar  odor,  and  bitterish, 

"m  >:^isoti's  ItUptntatorj/. 


gum  resin  obtained  from  ^ 
^/iciuVe)  growing  in  Aff'i   1 
and  in  Syria  and  I'erei-. 
Irom  the  Levant  in  c: 
tc  300  lbs.  cuch.     Tb 
posed  of  distinct  wli.i-^ 
by  a  pale  If   "     or  > 
ally  much  ttu..',-    ■■■ 
ties.     The  i<  i  .ixi,  i 
When  the  0.'  t  h  U''.. 
rejected,    it  h? ■ 
worn,  acrid  it  ..vc 


OAL 


^9 


GAL 


iiee  of 

Hope, 
(untry 
>mlOO 

com- 
jether 
^ener- 

ipurl- 
best, 

to  ll« 

teiUh, 


Oaltt  of  Wind.  Th«  sea  term  for  a  continued 
ttorm  of  wind :  the  lowest  degi  ae  \»  the  fresh  gnle,  the 
next  •  arong  gale,  and  the  next  a  heavy  or  hard 
«ale. 

Oalena,  a  city  of  Jo  Davlesa  county,  Illinois,  230 
miles  north-west  of  Siiringtield,  situated  on  Fever  or 
Bean  Uiver,  and  on  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Bailroad, 
and  the  metropolis  of  the  great  lead  region.  It  is  six 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  tlie  river,  which  is  navigable 
to  this  place,  at  all  stages  of  the  water,  for  the  largest 
eteambo<;ts.  It  has  an  intercourse  by  steamboat  witli 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and 
other  places  on  the  Misaissippi  and  Ohio  Rivers.  The 
amount  of  lead  shipped  from  Oalena  and  vicinity  an- 
nually ia  42,000,000  of  pounds,  valund  at  itl,78O,0OO, 
employing  about  2000  persons.  The  most  productive 
ores  of  zinc  and  copper,  aulphuret  and  carlwnate  of 
line  and  sulphnret  of  copper  everywhere  abound  in  this 
region.  Thousands  of  tons  of  Kino  lie  upon  the  sur- 
face, and  aro  neglected,  because,  in  the  abaonce  of  coal, 
it  can  not  be  profitably  smelted.  It  is  popularly  known 
there  as  Dry  lionet  and  Black  Jack.  Sulphate  of  iron 
i>i  found  in  sheets  of  larger  extent,  ranging  from  a  few 
inches  to  several  feet  in  thickness. 

Oalena  (Kr.  Plomb  mlfure ;  Ger.  Bteiglant),  ia  a 
metallic-looking  substance  of  n  Icad-gruy  color,  which 
crystallizes  in  the  cubical  system,  r.nd  is  susceptible 
of  cleavages  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  cube ;  specific 
gravity,  7'7692;  cannot  be  cut;  fusible  at  the  l>low- 
pipe  with  exhalation  of  sulphurous  vapors ;  is  easily 
reduced  to  metallic  lead.  Nitric  acid  first  dissolves  it, 
and  then  throws  down  sulphate  of  lead  in  a  white  pre- 
cipitate ;  the  solution  affording,  with  plates  of  zinc, 
brilliant  laminie  of  lead  (arbor  Saturni).  It  consists 
of  sulphur,  13 ;  lead,  86 ;  with  a  little  iron,  and  some- 
times a  minute  quantity  of  silver.  This  is  the  richest 
ore  of  lead,  and  it  occurs  in  almost  every  geological 
formation,  in  veins,  in  masses,  or  in  beds.  It  is  almost 
always  accompanied  by  aulphuret  of  zinc,  different 
salts  of  lead,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar,  eta  Galena  In 
powder,  called  alquifoux,  ia  employed  as  a  glaze  for 
coarse  stonework. 

Galipot  is  a  name  of  a  white  semi-solid  viscid  rosin 
found  on  fir-trees ;  or  an  inferior  sort  of  turpentine, 
poor  in  oil. 

Oalleona.  Certain  Spanish  treasure-ships  with 
three  or  four  decks,  formerly  employed  in  communi- 
cating with  Peru. 

Qalley  (Fr.  galire),  a  low-built  vessel  propelled  by 
rails  and  oars,  either  on  a  single  tier,  or  on  tiers  of 
lienches  one  above  the  other.  The  war  vessels  of  an- 
tiquity were  all  galleys.  Among  the  Greeks,  those 
chiefly  mentioned  are  the  pentecontori,  which  appear 
to  h  'e  h.t'!  50  oars  disposed  in  a  single  tier ;  and  the 
trieres  (Lat,  trirfmes),  vessels  witli  three  binks  of  oars, 
concerning  tlie  di.poaition  of  wliich  much  controversy 
has  taken  place.  Jt  is  commonly  supposed  that  a 
trireme  hud  three  bankx  of  uare,  one  above  the  other ; 
but  tills  is  rendered  improbable  by  the  circumstance  of 
Pliny  making  mention  of  galleys  liaving  30,  40,  and 
even  50  I)ank8  of  oars ;  for  it  seems  hardly  credible 
that  so  many  could  hava  been  arranged  directly  above 
each  other.  Some  liuve  suggested  that  the  rows  of 
oars  in  the  trireme  were  disposed,  not  horizontally, 

t  ob  iiuWy ;  iu  vh!  -h  case  nn  increase  in  the  nuni- 
<  1  i.j.  '■»  f  osn  would  augment  the  length,  and 
;  .i>oulily  tlie  i.  'jilt  v.'ould  be  increast^d  in  proportion. 
See  ifeibomiui,  l)t  F.u  r'.'ca  relr.rum  T:  ieremium. 

Galleys  were  liktwiiii  ,  liiofly  employed  by  the  mari- 
time nut!  >ns  of  the  middle  ages  in  the  A  rditorrunean. 
Their  use  in  naval  war  Irirdly  ceased  u:..  1  the  end  of 
the  17th  centur}- ;  and  the  Venetian  repuulic,  down  to 
the  |>eriod  of  its  extinoiion,  alwcys  maintained  a  nun;- 
ber  i.f  ar-galleys.  The  Venetlin  galleys  had  a  single 
tier  only,  and  ail  modern  galleys  followed  the  samn 
ri.  ^struction.  These  were  formidable  vessels  in  a  calm, 
l)Ut  anfit  for  aea,  and  accordingly  found  chiefly  iu  the 


Medlterranen.  The  Venetians  had  also  a  large  bigh< 
pooped  sort  of  galley  culled  geleazza,  whence  the  word 
galleass  and  galliott  in  old  English  writers. 

The  Iteal  galley  is  a  long  narrow  bout  used  by  the 
Deal  boatmen,  and  managed,  on  the  most  hazardous  oc- 
casions, in  saving  the  crews  of  stranded  vessels,  with 
consummate  skill.  It  is  also  used  by  smugglers,  on 
account  of  its  velocity.  The  galley  is  also  the  kitchen 
of  a  ship. 

The  punishment  of  the  galleys,  i.  e.,  the  employment 
of  condemned  criminals  in  the  toilsome  employment  of 
rowing  them,  ia  said  to  have  originated  under  the 
Greek  empire,  as  well  as  the  name  Ta^capoi,  or  galley- 
slaves — in  French,  galMetn,  It  was  used  by  all  the 
nations  wrdoring  on  the  Mediterranean.  In  France, 
under  the  old  jurisprudence,  the  punishment  of  the  gal- 
leya  waa  the  severest  after  that  of  death.  About  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  when  galleys  them- 
selves began  to  be  disused,  the  galley-slaves  were  em- 
ployed in  hospitals,  public  works,  etc. ;  and  the  name 
of  the  punishment  was  changed  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly  (1789)  to  travaux  forcit,  compulsory  labor, 
whence  the  word  format  fur  a  criminal  so  condemned. 
Under  the  code  of  the  empire,  the  punishment  was  ac- 
companied with  forfeiture  of  property,  infamy,  and 
branding.  By  an  alteration  of  the  law,  effected  in 
1832,  the  brand  was  abolished ;  and  the  criminals,  who 
had  hitherto  b^en  intermingled  in  the  three  penal  fort- 
resses (Toulon,  liochefort,  and  Brest),  were  classified. 
Toulon  is  now  appropriated  to  those  condemned  for  10 
years  and  under,  Brest  to  those  from  10  to  20,  Roche- 
fort  to  the  condemned  for  life.  The  name  Bagne, 
wliich  is  applied  in  France  to  prisons  in  which  those 
condemned  to  compulsory  labor  are  confined,  is  derived 
from  the  famous  Bagnio  prison  at  Constantinople,  so 
culled  on  account  of  some  baths  situated  there.  The 
principal  crimes  now  punished  in  this  manner  by  the 
French  law  are — some  acts  of  violence  against  the 
government  or  public  law,  coining  and  forgery,  as- 
saults, followed  by  death,  on  legal  ofiicers,  murder,  un- 
less under  such  aggravated  circumstances  as  are  pun- 
ished by  death,  cutting  and  maiming,  rape,  abduction, 
burglar}',  highway  robbery,  burning  of  insulated 
buildings,  threatening  letters,  perjury,  etc. 

Oallipoli,  a  seaport  town  of  south  Italy,  king- 
dom of  Naples,  province  Terra  di  Otranto,  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  on  the  rocky  islet  at  the 
west  extremity  of  a  narrow  peninsula,  to  which  it  is 
joined  by  a  bridge ;  let.  40°  3'  N.,  long.  17°  68'  E. 
It  is  fortified,  has  u  castle,  and  is  well  built.  Popula- 
tion about  7000  (670!)  in  1843).  It  is  the  principal 
port  of  the  Mediterranean  for  the  shipment  of  olive 
oil,  and  hai^,  in  consequence,  a  considerable  trade.  It 
is  indebted  for  this  distinction  partly  to  its  being  situ- 
ated in  a  country  where  oil  is  produced  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  but  more,  perhaps,  to  the  circumstance  of 
the  cisterns  cut  in  the  limestone  rock  on  which  the 
town  is  built,  being  peculiarly  well  fitted  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  oil.  They  do  not  diflTer  much  in  ap- 
pearance from  a  common  water-tunk.  They  are 
usually  under  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants  ;  are 
arched  over,  with  the  exception  of  a  circular  hole,  into 
which  the  oil  is  poured,  and  through  which  it  is  again 
drawn  up.  It  will  keep  in  these  cisterns  for  an  indef- 
inite period  ;  and  is  materially  improved,  not  only  in 
clearness,  but  also  iu  flavor.  When  the  oil  is  to  be 
shipped,  it  is  drawn  off  from  the  cisterns  into  ut-ri,  or 
skins,  which  are  carried  on  men's  backs  to  the  bUure, 
where  the  casks,  being  filled,  are  conveyed  in  lighiera 
to  the  ships, 

Gallipoli  has  no  harbor,  but  a  bay  or  roadstead 
north-eubt  of  the  town.  The  latter  has  from  10  to  12 
fathoms  water ;  but  it  shoals  toward  the  shore ;  and 
vessels  of  considerable  burden  should  not  come  within 
less  th  i:n  a  musket-shot  of  tlie  land.  Those  that  come 
nearest  to  the  shore,  moor  with  their  hi  \ds  to  the  north- 
:  west,  with  two  cables  out  ahead  and  two  astern,  in 


■m^i 


QAL 


911 


OAL 


ftvm  18  to  30  tktt  of  water.  The  only  danger  In  en- 
t«ring  or  leaving  the  roada  la  a  blind  rocli  at  their  en- 
trance, about  600  yards  N.N.E.  from  the  fort.  It  haa 
only  about  from  Ave  to  Mven  feet  of  water ;  and  aa  it  is 
not  mariced  by  any  buoy,  pilots  should  I*  employed  liy 
foreigners.  A  tunny  fishery  is  carried  on  iimido  the 
buy  i  but  the  nets  are  easily  avoided.  Winds  from 
the  north  and  north-west  throw  in  a  heavy  sea.  About 
1}  miles  west  from  the  town  is  the  low,  flat  island  of 
8t.  Andrea.  It  is  said,  in  Nontt'$  Sailing  Directiont 
for  th»  Mediterranean,  that  there  is  a  ilght-house  on 
this  island.  But,  though  a  light-house  on  it  wou'id  be 
of  great  service  to  ships  malting  the  port,  and  though 
it  be  laid  down  in  some  of  the  charts  of  this  sea,  the 
truth  is  that  none  such  really'  exists,  nor  is  there  even 
a  tower  on  the  island  !  There  aro  some  lesser  islands 
between  St.  Andrea  .and  the  main-land.  There  is  deep 
water  between  the  former  and  the  nearest  islands,  hut 
not  between  the  latter  and  the  town.  A  dangerous 
•boal  lies  about  half  a  mile  south  of  St.  Andrea. 

Oallipoli  Oil  is  a  coarse  olive  oil,  containing  more 
or  less  mucilage,  imported  from  a  seii-|inrt,  so  named, 
of  the  province  of  Otranto,  in  the  itingdom  of  Naples. 
Galls,  or  Oall-Nnta  (Fr.  Galles  Soir.  de  dalle ; 
Ger.  Gallapfel,  O'alliu ;  It.  (latic,  (lalluze ;  I.at.  ll<,l(t ; 
Arab.  Afit;  Hind.  Afajouphal;  Per.  Mazu),  are  ex- 
crescences produced  by  the  attacks  of  a  small  insect, 
which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  tender  shoots  of  a  spe- 
cies of  oak  (^Quercut  infectoria  I.inn.),  almndiint  in 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Persia,  etc.  Galls  are  inodorous, 
and  have  a  nauseonsly  bitter  and  astringent  taste 
They  aro  nearly  spherical,  and  vary  in  magnitude  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  hazel-nut.  When  good, 
they  are  of  a  black  ov  deep  olive  color ;  their  surfucr 
is  tubercular,  and  almost  prickly ;  they  are  heavy, 
brittle,  and  break  with  a  flinty  fracture.  They  are 
known  in  commerce  by  the  names  of  tchite,  green,  and 
blue.  The  white  galls  are  those  which  have  nut  lieen 
gathered  till  after  the  insect  has  eaten  its  vay  out  of 
the  nidus  and  made  its  escaiie.  They  are  not  so  heavy 
as  the  others,  and  are  of  a  lighter  color,  and  do  not 
fetch  BO  iiigb  a  price.  The  green  ami  liiue  galls  are 
gathered  before  the  insect  has  encaped ;  they  are 
heavier  and  darker  than  the  former,  and  a;e  said  to 
afford  about  one  third  more  of  coloring  matter. 

Galls  are  of  great  importance  in  the  arts,  being 
very  extensively  used  in  dyeing,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  ink,  of  which  they  form  one  of  the  principal 
ingredients.  They  are  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
vegetalile  astringents ;  and  are  frequently  used  with 
great  effect  in  medicine,  (iaih  consist  principuli}'  of 
three  substances ;  tannin  or  tannic  acid  ;  yellow  ex- 
tractive ;  and  gallic  acid.  The  decoction  has  a  very 
astringent  and  unpleasant  liittor  taste.  Tlie  an-icnts 
reckoned  the  gall-nuts  of  l^vri.i  su|ierior  to  every 
other,  and  they  still  retain  their  pre-eminence.  They 
are  principiilly  exported  from  Aleppo,  Tripoli,  Smyrna, 
and  Said  ;  those  brought  from  the  first  come  chiefly 
from  Mosul,  on  the  western  Imnk  of  the  Tigris,  about 
ten  days'  journey  from  Aleppo.  The  real  Mosul  galls 
are  unqucstionalily  the  liest  of  any ;  but  all  that  are 
gathered  in  the  surrounding  country  are  sold  under 
this  name.  Those  from  f.'aramania  are  of  a  very  infe- 
rior quality.  Tlic  gulls  met  with  in  India  are  carried 
thither  from  Persia  l)y  Araliian  merchants.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  dye  the  whitish  gall-nuts  Idue,  in  order  to 
increase  their  value.  The  fraud  is,  however,  detected 
by  the  deeper  Idue  tinge  that  is  thus  imparted  to 


air,  though  losing  Its  leaves  in  the  antanm.  It  dnahtless 
would  bfl  adapted  to  the  climate  of  our  middle  and 
southern  States.  On  this  shrub,  it  may  lie  unnecessary 
to  state,  is  found  the  well-known  "  gall-nuts"  of  com- 
merce, which  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  writing-ink,  and  in  dyeing.  Tl'ese  excrescences  are 
the  product  of  the  gall-fly  (Cj/nipt  tfriplontm),  a  small 
insect  of  a  pale-brown  color,  which  may  often  lie  fouid 
Inclosed  in  the  galhi  sold  in  the  shops  of  the  drug- 
gists, collected  liefore  the  fly  had  made  its  appearance. 
Oalvanised  Iron,  is  the  name  given,  to  iron 
tinned  by  a  peculiar  patent  pmccss,  whereby  it  resist* 
the  rusting  InAuence  of  damp  air,  and  even  moisture, 
much  longer  than  ordinary  tin-plat''  The  following 
is  the  prescribed  process:  Clean  the  surfiice  of  ths 
iron  perfectly  liy  the  Joint  action  of  dilute  acid  and 
fri<'tion,  plunge  it  into  a  bath  of  melted  zinc,  covered 
with  sal-ammoniac,  and  stir  It  about  till  it  be  alloyed 
superficially  with  this  mekil ;  when  the  metal  thus 
prepared  is  exposed  to  humidity,  the  zinc  is  said  to 
oxyilise  slowly  by  a  galvanic  action,  and  to  protect  the 
iron  from  rusting  within  it,  whereby  the  outer  surface 
remains  for  a  long  period  perfectly  white,  in  circum- 
stances under  which  iron  tinned  in  the  usual  way 
would  have  been  superficially  lirowned  and  corroded 
with  rust. 

(lalnmized  Tinned  Iron. — One  of  the  most  remaric- 
able  advancements  in  the  iron  manufacture  in  re- 
cent years  has  iieen  the  introduction  of  galvanised 
tinned  iron  for  an  almost  innhmerable  variety  of  pur- 
poses. This  material  consists  of  iron  plate  coated 
witl>  tin,  not  by  the  ordinary  tin-plate  process,  but  by 
galvanic  deposition.  It  serves  as  a  substitute  for  plain 
iion,  for  tin-plate,  for  zinc,  and  for  lead,  under  certain 
special  circumstances.  It  is  stronger  and  more  dur- 
able, for  many  purposes,  than  lead  or  zinc  ;  it  ix  lietter 
than  plain  iron  wliere  rust  is  to  be  avoided  ;  it  is  su- 
lierior  to  lead  or  zinc  in  warm  climates,  inasmuch  as  it 
does  not  expand  and  contract  to  so  great  a  degree. 
Withinside  a*  house  and  without,  in  vessels  and  in 
utenbils,  in  towns  and  in  the  countr}',  in  manufactures 
and  in  domestic  economy,  we  now  And  this  sulistanca 
empliiycd.  We  have  galvanized  tinned  iron  corrur 
gated  plates  for  rooHng,  and  for  the  sides  and  doors  of 
houses  ;  in  another  form  tliere  are  plain  plates  for  the 
same  purpose ;  roofs  for  sheds,  roofs  and  sides  for 
store-houses,  and  many  similar  purposes.  Then,  be- 
sides tlie  Hlieet  form,  there  are  round  and  square  bars, 
hoop-iron,  wire,  tulies,  and  pipes,  nails,  rivets,  bolts, 
screws — all  formed  of  iron  thus  jirotected  by  the  gal- 
vano-tln  process.  There  is  this  a  'i/bntage  also,  which 
is  unattainalile  liv  the  ordinary  tin-plate  proces.s,  that 
articles  can  lie  tinne<l  after  they  are  made  in  tlie 
proper  form  of  iron,  priivide<l  they  arc  of  small  dimen- 
sions. The  plates  are  really  a  combination  of  three 
metals ;  for,  in  tlie  first  place,  a  layer  of  tin  is  precip- 
itated on  the  iron  plates  from  a  solution  of  elilorld  of 
tin  tiy  the  galvanic  process ;  and  then  a  layer  of  zinc 
is  obtained  liy  dipping  the  sheets  into  molten  zinc, 

Oalveaton,  city,  jiort  of  entry,  nnd  capital,  Gal- 
veston countv,  Texas,  S60  miles  from  the  S.  \V.  Passage 
of  the  Mississippi  Itiver.  I,at,  29°  IH'  82"  N.,  long. 
r,"-'  U'  88"  W.  It  is  situated  on  the  east  end  of  Gal- 
veston I  land,  and  is  the  great  commerciK)  emporium  of 
Texas.  It  was  settled  in  1837.  It  contains  a  liank, 
capital  tiKiO,<K}(>,  a  steam  foundery.  4  printing-olhcea 
issuing  i!  tri-weekiy,  1  semi-weekly,  and  1  weekly 
newspaper,  H  eotton-pre8s,'s,  ftO  stores,  and  population, 


them  i  and  by  their  lieing  perforated  and  lighter  than 
the  genuine  Idue  galls. — Baniroit  on  Colon;  Aiss- 
lie'ii  Hal.  Ind'tca,  etc. 

The  Gall-nut  Oak  (Quorcus  infectoria),  a  native  of 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Kgypt,  Morocco,  and  Al- 
geria, in  its  natural  haliitat,  is  s  evergreen  shrub, 
with  a  crooked  stem,  and  seldon    uttains  six  feet  in 

height.     From  the  circumstince  of  its  growing  near  I  as  fur  that  of  almost  all  the  other  \ic^n 
Paris,  where  It  bears  the  winter  qni>3  well  in  the  open  i  and  east  sides  of  thd  golf,  the  tV&-:'.^jcj 


in  ISM,  nl.out  fSTKlO.     Tonnage  in  1853,  6173  tons. 

The  liar  oiitsiJe  fialveston  harbfir  and  Imy,  lioween 
the  north-enst  end  of  the  island  and  Point  llollvir  ou 
the  mainland,  has  not  more  t'>  tn  VA\  feet  of  w  iter  at 
the  highest  springs,  and  Imi  i  >  feet  nt  ebb ;  hence  tho 
smaller  class  of  vessels,  or  those  'iH)  or  260  tons 

are  most  suitalile  for  the  trade  ,/i  i'      i^irt,  as  well 

■   :,he  north 
of  water 


QAL 


rti 


GAM 


batng  all  but  tinlver»l.  Though  the  land  b«  low,  tha 
bouaea  of  Galvaitorj  may  be  aeen  from  the  nutt-lMtd 
•t  a  dlKtince  of  aevtral  milea.  Veaaela  drawing  eight 
feet  of  water  and  upwanl  ahuuld,  however,  not  ap- 
proach the  bar  nearer  than  nix  fathnma,  without  hoav- 
Ing-to  and  making  the  algnnl  fur  a  (lilot,  which  is 
promptly  attended  to,  Veaaela  drawing  leaa  than  eight 
feet  of  water  may  npprooch  tlie  bar  till  the  water 
ehoala  to  four  fathoma  before  heaving-to.  VeaieU 
malting  the  port  In  the  night  ahould  Invariably  anchor 
in  five  or  six  fatlioma ;  and  the  holding  ground  being 
excellent,  thoae  who  nre  well  found  In  anchors  and 
cables  have  nothing  to  I'ear.  PUot-boata  are  conataotly 
on  the  looli-out ;  und  iihlps  should  on  no  account  at- 
tempt crossing  the  bar  till  they  have  got  a  pilot  on 
board,  (n  the  harbor  there  Is  from  IH  to  80  feet  of 
water.  The  liay,  which  stretches  almur  86  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  from  12  to  18  miles  from  east  to 
west,  has  not  generally  more  thon  nine  feet  of  water, 
and  Is  intersected  by  a  bar,  on  which  there  Is  only 
from  Ave  to  six  feet  of  water. — Kfimedij'i  Ttzas,  p.  20. 
Several  very  considerable  rivers  have  their  embouch- 
ures in  the  l>ay,  so  that  the  town  has  a  considerable 
command  of  Internal  navigation. 

The  present  year  (IH56),  closes  an  epoch  in  the 
growth  of  sugar  in  Texas.  The  almost  total  destruc- 
tion of  the  plant  by  the  unprecedented  cold  of  last 
winter  will  reduce  the  product  of  the  coming  year  to 
almost  nothing.  Should  all  who  have  heretofore  pro- 
duced sugar  determine  to  go  on.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  growing  crop  of  cane  will  afford  much  more  than 
seed  sufficient  for  a  re-oommimcement.  The  receipts  of 
Texas  sugar  and  molasses,  ut  this  port,  for  the  calen- 
dar years  named  below,  wert'  as  follows : 

Yeftr,                                                   MoUaifli.bbtl. 
1860 2,4«T 

1861 1,909 

1862 2,676 

1868 6,086 

1864 6.898 

1856 6,728 

For  the  commercial  year  ending  August  81,  1855 
the  receipts  of  sugar  were  5375  hhds.  against  767 
hhds.  for  the  year  Just  closed ;  and  the  receipts  of 
molasses  were  then  7504  bbls.  against  8G68  bbls.  frr 
the  year  last  past.  We  apprehend  that  two  years  will 
be  required  to  bring  the  production  again  up  to  these 
figures 

The  following  is  a  com|)aratlva  statement  of  ship- 
ments of  the  leading  articles  uf  export  from  Gklv<  >- 
ton  for  each  calendar  year  since  1853  : 


Suffar,  hhdi. 
2,782 
1,088 
1,88» 
4,076 
4,764 
4,781 


ArUclef. 

I8U.             I8U.              lua. 

Cotton,  balca. 

00,892  84,178  68,868 
4,078  4,764  4,781 
0,086  6,898  0,729 
2,703           6,937           4,801 

14,148         18,224         20,617 

Siiftsr,  lihfia  

MoIas&,.'9,  bbls 

Bocf  Cattle 

Hides 

Statekknt  or  tuh  Quamtity  and  estimaxsd  Valve  of 
AuTicLKS  or  Mkiicuandme  of  domestic  Orowtii  and 
Mani-pactiike,  exported  fbom  Oai.vesto.h,  Texas,  in 
TUE  Year  endino  Decrmiiek  81,  1866. 


Uattio number 

Cotton bales 

Hides number 

Molasses gallons 

SuKsr.  cane pounds 

Total 


ToUl. 


4,861 

7«,».^8 

^ll,.^u• 

84,016 
1,984,710 


Arur*^ 
prlcti. 


ValuitloD. 


«10  00 
.85  00 

4  no 

26 
T 


(69,770 

2,693,855 

82,008 

21,280 

186,429 

118,001.864 


and  foreign,  «770,248— total,^^418,408u  Texas  ha* 
not  had  a  f|ivorabla  season  for  cropi  since  1858;  and 
185«i  will  add  another  to  the  years  of  short  crops, 
though  an  improvement  over  the  last  two  Is  antlcU 
pated. 

The  numlwr  of  vessels  which  arrived  at  this  port, 
from  beyond  the  district  of  Texas,  during  the  year 
IH&a,  was  26U,  vis. : 


VhmU. 

Coulirlw. 

rorttgn. 

Totol. 

ISM. 

fltesmshlpi. 

Bhtpa 

97 
11 

40 

98 

oo 

6 

T 

18 

1 
1 

9T 
18 
(4 
19 

81 

90 
14 

Barks. 

69 

Brl({» 

22 

Schoouers  

Total 

4S 

M2 

87 

209 

■    988  " 

"he  value  of  domestic  produce  f-xported  from  this 
port  during  the  past  two  years  affords  a  highly  favor- 
able contrast  m  favor  of  the  season  just  closed.  The 
amount  "'' shipments  was,  Augusf',  3>     :  follows: 

Y»-  CoMtwIu.  Foralfti.  Total. 

....  $2,860,770     11,492,841     »4,«48,015 
...     2,012,604  ("84,811"       9,647,240 

..         $888,166        «S6S,029     «1,096,196 
The  va'.ue  of  t.b«  exports,  for  the  year  just  past,  is 
less  than  that  o!  tbe  year  ending  with  Aujust,  1864, 
when  the  value  of  exports,  coastwise,  ir. "  ^,U87,266, 


Increase — Steamships,  7  ;  ships,  4 ;  barks,  6 ;  brigs, 
7 ;  schooners,  12.     Total  increase,  86, 

Of  Vessels  belonging  to  the  port  of  Galveston  the 
custom-house  books  of  the  present  year  (1856),  show 
that  there  are : 

Ya»rradlii(Aiis.  81.  IIM.  ItU. 

Bhipa 1  0 

Barks 8  1 

Brlgt 1  8 

Sclioonors 08  (4 

Steamboats IS  IT 

Sloops 18  11 

Totol 99  90 

The  amount  of  tonnage  of  vessels  cleared  at  this 
port  for  the  year  just  ended  was  106,670  tons  against 
94,118  the  year  previous.  The  number  of  persons 
employed  on  board  was  3407 — of  whom  but  two  were 
boys — being  on  increase  of  but  two  employed  during 
the  year. 

There  is,  we  belitive,  no  article  grown,  for  human 
consumption,  in  any  State  of  the  Union,  which  is  not 
already,  or  may  not  Is  produced  in  some  portion  of 
Texas,  such  is  the  variety  of  soil,  climate,  and  gen- 
eral circumstances.  In  the  production  of  thd  great 
staples  of  wheat,  com,  beef,  c  C".i,  and  sugar,  no 
State  in  the  Union  approaciies  ii,    j  great  is  the  ex- 

nt  and  productiveness  of  the  soil  .  'lapted  to  these 
articles.  It  is  estimated  that  the  sugar  ..,  -  i..  apa- 
ble  of  producing  a  crop  of  8,000,000  of  ho  rr  l-.i  .  j,  or 
much  more  than  is  r<  umaxy  to  supply  thi  i:ib.  ibiiants 
of  the  whole  Union.  60,000,000  of  acres  of  the  lands 
'f  the  State  are  8ituate(l  within  t'le  cotton-producing 
region,  and  one  third  of  this  number  are  believed  to  be 
well  adapted  in  point  of  soil  to  the  growth  of  that 
plant.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  capacity  of  the  coun- 
try to  produce  a  much  larger  crop  than  is  now  yielded 
by  the  whole  South,  while  the  ex^^nse  of  production 
is  much  '.;:<'"  than  the  general  average  in  other  States. 
— (Inlrtiton  Price  Current  and  Centus  Reporli. 

GtalvrsLy,  the  county  town,  formerly  designated 
the  T  iberties  of  Galway,  and  a  count}'  in  itself,  hav- 
ui|^  an  exclusive  local  jurisdiction,  extending  two 
miles  on  every  side  except  the  south.  It  stands  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Bay  ol  Hnlwa  y.  Ireland,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  cf  M.,  ;■  .  Mmc.  It 
is  supimsed  by  some  to  be  tl.n  -J.,  i.i'.  of  Ptolemy. 
It  certainly  was  considered  u  pot! '.ion  of  much  import- 
ance from  the  earliest  period,  aj  in  the  divisions  of 
the  island  into  north  and  south,  at  first  made  by  the 
descendants  of  Ileremen,  and  afterward  repeated  by 
Conn  and  Eogan,  it  was  tixed  upon  as  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  line  of  demarcition,  which  proceeded 
eastward  to  Dublin.  Galway  is  likely  to  become  a 
place  of  some  note,  being  the  proposed  eastern  termi- 
nus of  the  submarine  telegraph  communication  be- 
tween Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Gama,  Viuioo  da,  the  flrst  European  who  reached 
India  by  it.  .uliag  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was  bom 
at  Sines,  a  small  sea-port  of  Portugal.  Of  his  early 
history  so  lit'le  has  been  recorded,  that  even  the  date 
of  his  birth  .a  unknown.  On  attaining  manhood,  he 
found  tha'  tha  success  of  Columbus  had  given  a  pow- 
erful Impulse  to  the  spirit  of  maritime  adventure. 


aAti 


?83 


GAK 


On  th*  4th  of  Jaly,  1497,  Vmco  da  Gsmk  mIM  fVom 
LUbnn  with  a  mjuadron  nf  thrr«  v«itiM(|n  manntd  liy 
iiizty  lalloni,  bent  on  making  lita  way  to  India  round 
the  Cape  of  Oond  Hope,  then  known  u  the  Caho  Tor- 
mentoM),  or  Stormy  Ca|>«.     1'lie  hiinlahlpa  ami  dan- 
gers to  be  enrounterrd  were  appallInK,  and  led  to  n 
mntlny,  whirli  waa  with  difficulty  quelled  by  the  flnn- 
neas  and  pruilence  of  thn  coninip'i'*        He  doubled 
the  Cape  nt  length,  and  reii       '  'i,     /)i'T'  i!  ,    niall 
town  of  Motlndn,  where  he    "  tir».  ^'      i>   <  ,>!i  of  an 
Indian  pilot.     In23dii  .   Uh/  vachei  /liinuar,  an  1 
on  the  20th  of  May  1404  tVcv  citnn-  to  anchor  at  Cali- 
cut.    (Inma  wan  well  ri  >  pjvod  by  the  zamarin ;  whom, 
though  not  without  iMttuulty,  he  ronvlnced  of  the 
advanbigea  that  would  acrruo  to  his  country-  by  the 
eatabliahment  of  a  commercial  treaty  with  PnrtUKal. 
Ganiathsn  turned  hln  prown  homeward  ;  and,  having 
touched  at  various  point*  on  the  Asiatic  and  African 
coasts,  he  once  more  cast  nnclior  !n  the  Tagns  In  the 
Soptembrr  of  1 1!)9,  after  an  absence  of  1  years  nn' '. 
months.     I'mmanuel  received  him  wllli  great  buucrs, 
ennobled  him,  and  gave  him  tho  title  of  ud,.iiral  of 
the  Indian,  I'ersian,  and  Arabian  seas.     The  elTect  of 
Oama's  >oy  ig«  waa  soon  visible  in  the  ruined  trade  of 
the  It^r  ,ii  commercial  republics,  which  had  hitherto 
mono|)o.l.  d  the  traffic  of  tlie  Kust.     In  prosecution 
of  Gni.        discoveries,  another  fleet  was  sent  out  to 
rtidin,  U' J  iter  Cabral,  who  accidentally  discovered  the 
Brazils  au  I  on  reaching  Ills  destination  established  a 
fai  I  orv  at  Calicut.     Tile  natives,  Instigated  by  the 
Mi'oriuh  merchants,  who  were  Jealous  of  the  I'ortn- 
guesn,  rose  up  In  arms,  and  murdered  all  whom  Ca- 
bral had  left  behind.     To  avenge  this  cruelty,  the 
Portuguese  fitted  nut  a  powerful  armament,  of  which 
chn  command  waa  clven  to  Gama.     The  admiral  set 
snil,  and  devastate'    tho^ie  parts  of  Africa  and  India 
whore  he  had  formerly  been  received  in  a  hostile 
ipirit.     He  executed  especial  vengeance  npon  Calicut, 
whii.'h  he  bombarded  and  reduced  to  ashes,  at  the  same 
time  hanging  the  sailors  of  the  vessels  In  the  harbor 
which  had  fallen  into  his  bands.     He  then  tailed 
away  to  Cochin,  where  he  established  a  factory,  from 
wMch  the  power  of  Portugal  radiated  over  India,     In 
150.'}  he  returned  home,  and  as  before  was  welcomed 
with  honors  and  titles,  but.  was  not  immeiliately  re- 
appointed to  the  command  in  India.     He  remained  at 
homo  in  inaction  during  nearly  20  years  ;  but  in  1624 
(some  years  after  tho  death  of  the  great  Albuquerque, 
who  had  been  consolidating  the  Portuguese  power  in 
the  East),  Gama  waa  appointed  viceroy  of  "^Ttug^    w 
India.     Not  long  after  arriving  at  Cochin,  Gama  died. 
In  1S2S,  and  was  buried  there ;  but  13  rears  later  his 
bones  were  disinterred  and  conveyed  to  Portugal  by 
order  of  John  III.,  king  of  i  i.  '  conntrj-. 

Vasco  da  Gama  was  a  man  jf  great  ability,  conr- 
agc,  and  enterprise  ;  but  he  possessed  none  of  these 
qualities  in  a  higher  dej'ree  than  many  others  of  his 
cotemporaries  who  have  long  since  passed  into  ob- 
livl'-n.  He  owes  no  small  portion  of  his  fame  to  the 
fact  of  hla  being  the  hero  of  ♦he  national  epic  of  Por- 
tugal. The  moment  of  his  doul>ling  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  seeing  in  the  clouds  the  Spirit  of  that 
stormy  region,  has  been  often  seized  by  painters  as  a 
striking  subject  for  pictorial  delineation.  One  of  tin 
most  rcmarkal)le  of  these  pictures  ib  that  by  th«  1  ' 
Uavld  Scott,  of  Edinburg.— E.  B. 

OambogA  (Fr.  flomme  ijulte ;  Gcr.  Oummiyu  ■ 
Comma  ^utla ;  Lat.  (lummi  rpiltni,  Vambogia  :  Aidb, 
Ot'aranwuu  i' ;  Si;imese  and  Cambojun,  Hong),  u  r>n- 
crete  vegetable  juice,  or  gum  resin,  the  produce  of  the 
Cara'nia  Cambogia,  a  forest-tree  nf  the  genus  '.vlilch 
affords  the  mangostein,  the  most  exquisite  fruit  of  the 
East.  Tlic  districts  which  yield  gamlw^fe  lie  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Sium,  between 'the  latitudes 
of  10°  and  12°  north,  comprising  a  portion  of  81am 
and  the  kingdom  of  Camboja,  whence  its  English 
name.     It  is  obtained  by  maUug  Ucisloni  in  the  bark 


of  tha  tna,  from  which  it  exudti,  and  la  •ollaotad  ta' 
vatsala  placed  to  receiva  it.  In  thao*  It  asaumaa  » 
Arm  oontlttanca  |  and  being  formed  into  orbiuuhir 
maaaoa,  or  moi*  ftequentiy  cylindrical  rulls,  It  la  at 
one*  At  ftir  tha  market,  It  la  of  a  liright  yellow  color, 
opaque,  brittle,  breaks  vltraous,  has  no  smell,  and 
vet}'  Uttia  taste.  Speclllc  gravit^'  1'22.  When  Ukan 
Internally,  it  oiwratea  as  a  moat  violent  iwthurtic.  It 
forms  a  Iwaut'ful  yoilow  pigment,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  principally  used.  The  Uutidi  lH>gan  to  ini|Hirt  It 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Tha 
greater  part  of  the  gamboge  of  commerce  lir^t  llnda 
its  way  to  Bangkok,  th  Siamese  capital,  or  to  8aigon, . 
the  capital  of  lower  Coohin  China ;  fium  then<.'a  It  la 
carried  by  Junks  to  Singapore,  whenue  it  is  shippsd 
for  Rum|M.  its  price  at  Singapore  varijs,  according 
to  quality,  from  HO  to  80  dollars  per  ploul.  Uark-coll 
ored  ptecea  should  ha  rejected.— CHAWtronn'a  tJm' 
b<,  "■  ■  p.  426;  Tiiomson'h  CA«mw(ry. 

<'  ,  iftdrf, 'beprir  '  alrivbrnflllndoostan,  through 
the  north  part  of  which  it  IKiws  from  west  to  east, 
traversing  the  centre  of  the  British  presidencies,  Ilciw 
ga)  and  Agru,  almost  in  their  entire  li  ngth.  it  rinua 
by  two  principal  heaiis,  Bhagirathi  and  Alakanauda,  . 
in  lat,  81°  N,,  and  long.  7°  K,,  from  an  hnniensa 
mass  of  snow  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet ;  Hows  at 
first  S.W.  to  Ilurilwar  and  thenceforward  moHlly  K. 
S.K.  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which  it  enters  b}'  numer- 
ous mouths,  its  eoatniost  arm  uniting  with  the  Megna 
or  Brahmaputra,  and  its  weat  branch  lieing  the  lloogb* 
ly  River.  Total  course  estiniatetl  at  1600  miles,  la 
its  course  it  receives  11  affluents,  some  of  which  arc 
equal  to  the  Rhine,  and  none  smaller  tlian  the  Thames ; 
the  principal  are  the  <)umna,  Kamgungu,  Uoomty, 
Goggra,  8one,  Gunduck,  Kooso,  Malianuddy,  and 
Teeata,  which  have  courses  varying  from  300  to  COO 
miles  in  length.  On  its  banks  are  numerous  cities 
.nd  towns.  Between  Ilurdwur  and  Ailuhal)ad  it  is 
usuall}-  from  1  mile  to  1^  miles  across  ;  i  dow  which 
its  breadth  increases  frequently  to  3  lui'  ,  and  at  6(10 
miles  from  the  sea  It  Is  80  feet  In  depth,  and  so  con- 
tinues to  near  its  mouto,  where,  however,  the  quan- 
tity of  deposit  It  brings  down  often  forms  bars  and 
shoals.  In  the  annual  overflow  of  thn  river,  when  it 
is  at  its  height  in  July  and  August,  the  waters  rise  to 
32  feet.  The  annual  deposit  of  mud  at  its  delta  is  es- 
timated at  0,000,000,000  cubic  feet.  It  U  crossed  by 
no  bridges  after  it  leaves  tho  mountains.  The  Gangea 
is  the  sacred  river  of  tho  Hindoos,  and  is  so  railed  a* 
flowing  through  Gang,  the  earth,  to  heaven. 

Gangway,  a  narrow  platform  or  range  of  planks 
laid  horizontally  along  the  upper  part  of  a  t-liip's  side 
from  the  quarter  deck  to  tho  forecastle,  peculiar  to 
•li  1  that  are,  waivtod,  for  the  convenience  of  walking 
more  ezpeditiousiy  foro  and  aft  than  by  descending 
Into  I  lie  waiat.  It  is  fenced  on  the  outside  by  iron 
stanchions  and  ropes  or  roils,  and  in  vessels  of  war 
with  a  netting  in  wliich  part  of  tho  hammocks  aro 
sto.ved.  In  merchant  ships  it  i»  culled  the  gangboard. 
iiangway  is  also  that  part  oi  a  ship's  side,  both 
within  and  witiiout,  by  which  persons  en  er  and  do- 
part.  It  is  provided  with  a  sUiHcient  numl)er  of  steps 
or  c'eat<.<  nailed  upon  the  ship's  side  :'.~  triy  as  low  as 
the  surface  >f  the  water,  and  sometimes  furnished 
with  n  railed  accommodation  ladder  resemlding  a 
stairs  projecting  from  the  ship's  side  und 
y  iron  braces. 

ty  is  also  used  to  signify  a  narrow  passage 
left  in  tiio  hold  whon  a  ship  Is  laden,  in  order  to  enter 
any  particular  place  as  occa»ion  may  require,  whether 
to  examine  the  situation  of  the  provisions  or  cargo,  to 
discover  and  stop  a  leak,  or  to  bring  out  any  article 
that  is  wHnted.  Finally,  gangway  implies  a  thorough- 
fare or  narrow  passage  of  any  kind. 

To  bring  to  (he  ganguray ;  a  phrase  signifying  to 
pnnii  h  a  seaman  by  seizing  him  up  and  flogging  him 
with  a  cat-o'-ninetails. 


flight 
secun 


OArt 


IM 


QAS 


Intel 

It  her 

p,to 

iicla 

to 
Ihin 


ChintUti  ur  0«noU«t  (fr.  ganteltt,  froni  gam.  a 
kI<)V«;,  n  klnil  nf  Iron  |(lnri,  with  llniivn  covanol  with 
•mill  \tUi»»  I  riirmiirly  wurn  lir  ckvalUn  whan  aniMd 
•t  all  iiiiInId,  anit  wlilih  iinml  tn  he  thrown  down  aa 
liikan  »t  I  hnllvtiKx,  Uniinllxtn  were  Introduced  alwnt 
Uia  ttMhKantilff, 

Oarnat,  Oaraati  (Kr.  (Irmatu  <ier.  (Imnnlm, 
l/nmuhliini  It,  (Irnmilii  l,iit.  (Intmli .  Hnn.  (Imnal- 
mii  hamm  /  Up,  //ciinrti/in).  There  are  two  «i)ei'leii  of 
(aniat,  Iha  |ifi>i>loH>,  ami  the  rmnmnn.  Tho  color  or 
(ha  )tr>l  la  rait  i  and  heme  the  nnma  of  the  mineral, 
friiiii  1(4  iiU|))KMKil  reneinldanre  to  the  Howor  of  the 
|)o|il«KranMa  I  (Nuaea  from  Coliimlilne  red,  to  oherri- 
•nidlirdwiirad)  I'omnKmly  rryiitatllKed.  External  luiitni 
KlUl«nln|{,  lri(arnal  ohlnlnii,   vltreoua;    trumparent, 

• llmaa  imlv  (Mnnliicenl;  nynUW  KniTlty   lOH  to 

i'tUi.  'I'lia  ( iiliir  of  ihH  I'ominon  Kirnet  U  of  varioua 
•htiil  ^  of  lir'iwii  and  ureen,  DIITereut  colore  often 
aitpMir  In  ill*  lame  mnfiKi  trnnalurent ;  Muck  varletlea 
naarly  o|iiti|M«  I  i<|h>iHI<i  (jrnvlty  from  »■««  to  H-7ft.— 
'I  lliiNaiin'N  I'hmltlry.  Tlie  (In'ent  varlellet  conio  from 
indlh,  itMil  Mima  kihhI  »|«iclutenii  hiivo  lieen  received 
from  (inoiiiland,  WImmi  lartfe  and  free  fnmi  fliiwe, 
Uiirnata  ara  worth  from  *il  to  su  or  £(\,  and  even  more  j 
hut  DtOMMit  of  (hia  value  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and 
alwaya  in  demand,-  -Ma wk  m  DinmomU,  etc.,  2  ed., 

i>.  m. 

Otaa.  't'hU  iMftammaliln  aeriform  tluld  wu  flnit 
•volvad  from  coal  ht  I  If.  Clayton,  In  171)0-1789.— 
/'hll.  Turn,  It*  a|i|dl<'fltlon  to  the  porpoaea  of  lUu- 
niinatloii  *»«  (Irrt  tried  l.v  Mr.  Murdoch,  In  Corn- 
wall, In  \!\n.  'Ilia  Hrat  dlnplny  of  ({B«-ll«hta  waa 
made  at  Itoiillon  and  WaH'n  fonndory.  In  Ulnnlngham, 
on  the  o<'iiM»|on  of  the  rejolilu^a  for  peace  in  1802. 
(lua  waa  liurniMnenliy  lined  to  tbn  exclusion  of  lamps 
aiKl  i'4n<ll«a  a(  (ha  i<ir((nn  mllla  of  Phillips  and  I.«e, 
Maimhaatar,  witafa  1»»0  Imrnera  were  lighted,  1808. 
<l«.-ll«li(a  ware  ltrB(  Introduoed  In  Undon,  at  Oolden- 
liina,  Am«m»1  1(1.  Xmrt,  'lh*y  were  Used  in  lighting 
Pall  Mall,  I,  IMMIi  and  ware  Kenenil  throu«h  London 
In  ill  I.  \\\ity  w«r«  drat  used  in  Ouldin  In  IHIH,  and 
(ha  atruala  tbara  K'nemlly  lighted  In  (Jctoher,  1826. 
The  i|a«-iil|i«a  lit  and  round  Undon  extend  to  1100 
nill*>,_tUviiM, 

Kvory  iinu  mint  have  remarke<l  thnt  most  species 
Ofeoal  wlM<n  iKnltxd,  kIvc  out  lar^e  quantities  of  km, 
whioh  hurna  with  mtlch  lirllllancy,  yielding  li  K'ent 
(|U»ntily  of  lliflK  «a  well  as  of  beat.  Dr.  ('luvton 
•Mm*  I 'I  hava  Iwan  (h«  first  who  attempted,  almut 
I7H0  I  /  W,  to  Niiply  this  hm  t"  the  ptirposet  of  urtiflcial 
lllumln:>tluii|  fiiil  hl4  axperiinents  were  upon  >  very 
llinitrd  liiiitla,  and  ti»  fiirtlier  attentlim  waa  paid  to  the 
auiijKi't  (III  mora  (Itaii  half  a  centiirv  afterward.  At 
Unutli,  howavar,  Mr.  Murdinh,  of  Holm,  instituted  ii 
aarluM  of  Jiidii'loitit  ")i|M<rlincnt«  on  the  oxtrioiition  of 
Kua  troill  iiiwt  i  a«.l,  liy  his  ln«enuity  and  siiBncitv 
aut'vwlad  In  aat«ldi«hl«i(  one  of  the  mos(  cipltiil  liii- 
provttiiMiiil»  avar  IMiula  In  llle  uti%.  >\t.  JIurdoch  found 
(hut  tha  t*»  Mtlxllt  lie  I'ollacted  In  reservoirs,  purllled, 
convuVKil  liy  (il|M<s  (<i  a  Mrent  distance  from  the  furnace 
whara  l(  was  x»ii«<rrtti<d  i  and  (liiit  it  affords,  l)y  Us 
alow  tioinlMiadiiii,  wlieii  iillowdl  (o  oscupe  throu({h 
email  iirllitiaa,  a  liaaiidfiil  and  stoudv  light.  This  jjreat 
dUiiovarv',  wllluli  |iti«'e»  Mr,  Murdoch  in  the  llrot  ranic 
mmn\i  (Im  latnufatitor*  of  tnankind,  was  (Irst  brought 
lut<,  jiivitli'B  at  Itadruth,  in (iornwall.  In  \m>,  it  was 
applied  to  ll|{li(  Mr,  Murdoch's  mnnufoctorv  at  ,Soho ; 
In  IW6,  it  W4a  Hitil|i(eil  \,\-  Messrs.  I'lilllips  and  Ue,  of 
ManuhesU  I,  in  (tin  llKlilInx  of  (heir  groitt  cotton  mill ; 
and  U  miw  «iii{do)fid  in  (lie  llifhttng  of  the  streets, 
theatraa,  and  iitliar  piilillc  liulldlnHs,  fuctoriea,  etc.  of 
all  the  nm>|,lttralila  towns  of  the  empire,  and  also  in 
moat  I'liiMlilaritlila  towns  of  Klirotie  and  America. 

(iua  llKlit  la  lldUlded,  for  Its  rapid  dKTusion,  not 
mora  to  i(a  liauiilUr  miflness,  tteamess,  and  unvarying 
Intenaity,  tliaii  (<)  \U  I'oiiiparallve  cheapness.  Accord- 
ing (a  Uf .  TiMiHwm  {Kwyo.  JJrii.,  irt.  Gas  Liuiits),  If 


we  valiu  the  quantity  of  l|gh(  given  \ty  1  II).  of  (allow 
In  oandlea  at  la.,  iii>  equal  quantity  of  li|(lit  from  coal 
giM  will  not  cost  more  than  '.'IkI.,  b«iii|<  li'"  •  than  njhtitik  ' 
fmi  of  tha  iiAst  of  the  former.  Oil  .ind  other  aulv 
stances  have  Iwen  used  In  furnishing  ga»  for  the  puN 
|i«sH  of  illumination,  but  none  of  them  hiii  anawered 
so  wi'Il  as  coal.  Must  of  tha  oil  gas  eiitalilishmenta 
have  been  aliand<  led.  The  construction  of  gas  worka 
on  a  large  scale,  and  the  carrying  of  pi[ies  through  tha 
streeta  and  Into  houses,  etc.,  is  very  extensive,  and 
in!i(uires  a  large  outlay  of  capital.  Hence  most  of  tht 
giu  lights  in  the  ililferent  towns  urn  supplied  by  Joint- 
stock  companies.  Many  of  them  have  turned  out  to 
lie  very  proflable  concerns. 

Tbn  Hnt  attempt  to  supply  .  itiea  In  (he  I'nitad 
.StatcH  with  gas  wok  made  at  Ilaltlmoro  in  IH-'l,  ao'l  at 
New  York  In  1  H'.>!).  Iloth  of  these  attemptsi  were  un- 
successful. The  New  York  Uoa-Ught  (Joinpany,  with 
a  capital  of  i!lI,(X)0,0OO,  was  incorporated  March  2Bth, 
lH'>y.  It  was  r«organl2ed  in  1^27,  and  then  com- 
menced tt  succeKsfiil  buainesa.  The  Manhattan  Ooa- 
l.ight  Company  was  incorporated  with  a  capital  of 
a'i,OUO,000,  February  2Uth,  IHHO.  Up<in  these  two  Com- 
p.inies  the  city  of  New  York  is  now  entirely  depondent 
for  gus.  Tho  former  Company  supplies  all  that  portion 
of  the  city  which  i-i  below  Grand-street,  and  the  latter 
(Company  nil  that  |)ortkin  which  is  between  Grand- 
street  and  Seventy-ninth  street.  The  New  Y'ork  Qom 
Light  Com)Mny  has  liiO  milea  of  pipes  laid  through 
the  streets  of  tho  city,  ranging  from  4  to  IH  Inches  In 
diameter.  In  IKoA  this  Company  made  800,000,01)0 
cubic  feet  of  gas,  consuming  about  45,000  tons  of  coal, 
it  furnished  gas  to  3,200  street  lampa,  and  to  11,000 
private  consumers. 

The  Manhattan  Gas-Light  Company  has  200  milei 
of  pipe  laid  through  the  streata  of  the  city,  ranging 
from  8  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  In  1M5.^  this  Company 
made  470,000,000  culiic  feet  of  gas.  It  lighted  7,148 
street  lumps,  and  furnished  gas  to  17,800  private  cun- 
sumen.  'fhese  Companies  jointly  light  and  keep  in 
order  for  the  city  about  10,loO  street  lamps,  for  which 
they  are  paid  $26  per  annum  for  each  lump.  This  pay- 
ment nets  the  Comp.jnlcs,  according  to  their  estimate, 
only  $1  60  per  1000  cubic  feet  of  gua  consumed  in  the 
lamps,  which  la  just  one  half  the  sum  charged  to  their 
private  customers  for  gas,  but  is  doubtless  proHtable 
even  at  that  low  rate.  The  gas  Is  manufactured  from 
rich  bitumlnoua  coals,  such  as  Caiinel  coal,  Newcastle 
coal,  and  the  Alliert  coal  of  Nova  ScotLi.  A  chaldron 
of  Newcastle  coul,  weighing  27  cwt.,  will  yield  : 

Oss 8,(1S0    cublofoet 

Coko 14    cwt. 

A  innionlacal  liquor 12^  gallons. 

Thlcktar 19 

A  chaldron  of  Cunnel  coal  will  yield  an  average  of 
12,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  "i  hn  gita  coal  used  in  New 
Y'ork  costs  uliout  $10  perc!>il(lf«i\  The  coke,  or  shell 
of  tho  co;il  after  the  gus  i'  exr.c'-'d,  is  worth  about 
$4  |ier  chaldron,  and  inuxos  u  <  ci y  pleasant  fire  tn  a 
grate.  Tho  bituminous  .iml  in  thrown  in  a  hot  iron 
cylinder,  or  retort,  as  it  is  tnlUtd,  whose  mouth  U  cloaed 
and  sealed  tight  witii  soft  clay.  The  vapor  of  the 
coal,  distilling  in  tho  retxirt,  passes  through  a  tube,  by 
which  It  escapes  Into  a  series  of  vessels  called  the  con- 
den.^er,  whore  It  cools  and  deposits  all  Its  tar  and  other 
condonsible  impurities.  Thence  it  passes  through  an- 
other series  of  vcMsols  called  the  purlHer,  containini; 
ipiicklime,  of  tbn  consistency  of  cream,  which  cleanses 
tlie  vapor  of  its  sulphurous  intermixtures.  From  tho 
limo  the  purilicd  vapor  of  tha  coal,  or,  in  other  words, 
tho  gas,  now  flows  Into  the  gasometer,  and  la  reody 
for  use.  I'rom  the  gasometer  it  Is  driven,  through 
main  and  service  pipes,  into  the  consumers'  burners. 

The  machinery  of  all  gas  manufactories  Is  the  same  in 
principle,  ami  seems  now  to  be  almost  perfect.  The  chief 
improvemente  made  lately  in  tho  machinery  consist  in 
the  manner  of  applying  to  the  gasometer  the  pressure 
which  regulates  the  force  of  the  gas. 


QAB 


714 


0.iV 


Tia  roLLowiMu  t4iii) 

Tm  OhITII)  |tT4TM 

t'wn  or  •  OAi,  tNB 


LAI  Viiw  raMHTi  Tim  mitPAiitTiTa  cntr  im  Paioi  or  a«i  at  iiTiaAL  uamm  Oitih  nr 
■unwiiio  AI.HI  tii>  Via*  (ir  ImmRmaATiM  M «■■  Oomvaiit,  Dam  wmm  Oai  waa  nan  ■•■», 

(HWIMAtT  A««V4I,  riMiUMMlnK.  ITS. 


rtaM. 

"US 

II 41  «nt 

•M.I. 

rauiuuf 
('•ii.|i«ir 

IM,il>l« 

I'll..  ../  IIM 
ulllMKail 
V.ll,  lam 

('Ml  mJ 
j"-»  t'rti 

Alio 

AliMal  llaa. 

■  UWhllHN  tl 
llM 

■llMrf 
MiiaalaU. 

Dflnilt,  Mich 

V...  ^ 

IM) 

"~V.« 

IMt 

10,1 11,000 

IN 

MInaral   Kldn,   Drtar 

Hill,  eta. 

Whofllnit,  V» 

ItM) 

IWl 

iniflo 

inn 

140 

m.wn.noo 

T88 

Hiift  hlliiRilnona  «mL 

Clnehinall,  Ohiu  .... 

UOT 

|x«l 

rnni.im 

«mi 

««(V 

ts.ooo.iioo 

*J 

VnlnhloKtlfnir,  OT 

rittabiirKh,  aoal. 

UiilnllU,  Kr 

l>W 

IMO 

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ion 

4  8.t 

M,IM,0(K) 

lu 

Kanawha  rannal   anil 

YiHiKliloKhcny, 

(;UT<<Un<l,  Ohio 

1«4I| 

\nm 

IIKI.IIAO 

inn 

4no 

m.onn.nm) 

1400 

rlttiibiirKl)  roAl, 

Albanjr,  N.  Y 

Ikt.) 

iitf 

|I»,IIIIU 

IWll 

1 1  m 

4o,ooi\iion 

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Canr.al,  til  90. 

llorhert<.r,  N.  Y 

)*»•( 

IIIM 

tMi,om 

n  lA 

Ann 

9T,000,IIOI) 

IT40 

IIUuniinoiiBcoai. 

at.  I^iiili,  Mo 

iH.il 

mtr 

ikin.iiou 

IIUI 

TM 

an.Bno.iKK) 

4n 

I'iltabiirtih  r<ial  unlr. 
l-ltlabariih   and    Vlr- 

l>hltAdel|itilii.  Paiiii. . . 

IRIH) 

\»)» 

t.ooii.om 

g  III 

ton 

4n4,iion,a<N) 

114 

Klnla  euala. 

Wublngton  OUf.... 

INU 

luM 

4IM,IW0 

titn 

•  00 

M.ouo.ooo 

8(1 

Kiiiillih  tann«l  anit 
Virginia  (.'lo«rrIllU. 

Maw  York  Uu  Uu.  . . 

inn 

UU 

TW.ono 

300 

10  00 

480,000,000 

l'.'B 

KiiRllnh  ramiel  ami 
Nnwraillr  principal. 

'' 

ly,  coilliiK  f*  to  *>* 
per  liin 

MMbkttu  Co.,  N.  Y, 

IMO 

I«1I0 

ll.TTO.MO 

IM 

Nonia 
in  IK) 

em.ooo.noo 

900 

KiikIUIi  riinnti  and 
Newrantlff. 

BoMOOiIlM. 

inU 

...  1 

i.oiio.ffn 

i»i 

•  IM)  to 

BOOob. 

100,000,000 

10 

I'trtoa  ooal,  $».  Kn- 
Kllah  cnimi'l,  i|l«  l.ii 
|wr  chalclrun  uf'JliO 



--..... 

-  _  ,_^^ 



poiinili. 

A  v«ry  (wrxfiit  and  accurata  aiialyaU  anil  pliato* 
metrie  exaniinulliin  of  wikkI  ^aa  liavo  Iwitii  inmln  l>jr 
two  emlnrnt  analytiinl  rliaiiiUla  (l>r,  Wiili'nII  Ollilia, 
or  Nkw  York,  anil  Dr.  V.  A.  Oaiith,  of  l'lillailnl|ilila), 
ivhote  ropiirt  of  tln'lr  I'liniiili-al  raaiilu  fiiriiUliaa  a  lil((h- 
ly  iatiAfact'iry  nxplanallnn  uf  i-i<r(alii  rurliitia  plinnotn- 
•na  that  accompany  thii  cninliuallon  nf  llila  gu. 

They  cxaiiilnuil  two  varlmii'A  nrKai,  imn  Mtailo  from 
olil  flelil  piiiH,  the  other  finiii  •mall  •iiciiHi|<Krowlh  oak, 
with  the  fullowiiig  reiulta  i 

Urn  Inm  fi—.  Urn  Am  Oak. 

gpeclflo  (raTlly OMI  OMtO 

COMrOllTION, 

Hyilrogon B'iTI  0044 

Mght  rarbonlr  hyilroKi'n 91  A<l  IKII'i 

Olaf.  itaa  anil  hydro  carbon  vapora  ,  lOfif  0  44 

Carbonic  niyd ,..,,.,,,,  IT'li  SO  II 

Carbonic  arid MO  (141 

Oxygen , ,,  O-M  Nomo, 

Mltrogcn tRO  nil) 

liwlxi         TiiiHiJt 

Tliets  ffamii  w«ra  eolledad  at  tlio  Ninth  Ward 
Worka,  and  liken  to  N«h  York  for  analyaU,  Their 
illuniinaliiiff  puwer  naa  tnatiid  and  fuiilid  to  Ixi  over 
16  candle*  C  .  i  rtvr-r«et  liunier. 

Mr.  Murdoch  In  t7U7  exhililted  puldlily  tlia  rcaiiUa 
of  his  mora  niiturod  plana  for  ihn  preparation  nf  cual 
gaa.  The  rnllowiiiK  year  (lii'ln){  then  i^onniiiUod  with 
ifoasra.  Hnulton  and  Wutl'auiiKliiHurlii){  Hiirk-ahup)ho 
eonstriicted  an  apparntua  at  the  Hnho  foiindnry  for  light- 
inK  thatestaldJAhment,  with  kiiltahln  arranKpniimla  fur 
the  piirlHcatiiin  of  the  Hfaa !  and  theanrxpi-rlinenta.  Dr. 
Henry  atiiti'ii,  "  were  continued  wllli  uri'iialiinal  Inler- 
ruptiona  until  the  epoch  of  the  piiare  of  IHO'J,  when  Iho 
illumination  of  the  Koho  inanufiu'lory  airiiriled  nn  op- 
portunity of  maktnft  a  puldic  diaplay  of  Ihn  nnw  lli;hta ; 
•nd  they  were  made  to  conatituta  a  prlnelpat  fnatiiro 
In  that  exhihition." 

In  180l-'.'>  Mr.  Murdoch  had  on  opporlnnlty  of  rar- 
rying  his  plans  Into  elTui't  on  n  alill  larger  senln,  liv 
means  of  the  apparatui  erected  under  hi*  anperintnnii- 
enre  In  the  extensive  cotton  iiillla  of  Miiaarn.  I'lilllps 
and  Son  of  Manchester. 

It  has  lieen  alleged  that  Kas-llKlils  wiira  itand  In 
France  before  they  were  known  In  Kniiland  i  hut  as 
the  earliest  exhibition  of  tlinae  llnhts,  on  which  thn 
claim  of  priority  of  discovery  Is  founded,  look  place  at 
Paris  in  1803.  it  Is  evident,  from  Ihe  foreKnliiK  state- 
inents,  that  the  exhibllloii  alludud  In  was  len  years 
tnbsequent  to  tha  first  exporiinent  of  Mr,  Murdoch  on 
the  subject. 

The  practicability  of  Il((htin((  by  meant  of  coal  ras 
having  been  deinoiutratad  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  a  number 


of  sclantlllc  men  applied  their  talents  to  (he  further 
ilnvelnpmsnt  of  the  art.  Dr.  Henry,  the  celebratid 
chenilat,  lectured  on  the  subject  in  IXOI  and  IHUu,  nnd 
funilshed  many  hints  for  the  iinprovenient  of  the  niun- 
iifacturf.  Mr.  CIcgKi  an  engineer  In  the  employment 
of  lloulton  and  Watt,  was  a  worthy  successor  of  Mur- 
doch, and  for  many  years  was  the  most  eminent  »■■ 
eiiKlnrer  of  Kiiffland.  A  good  deal  of  the  machinery 
of  the  f(as-housa  in  its  present  form  was  contrived  by 
Mr.  Clegff,  and  to  him,  also,  we  are  Indeliled  for  the  in- 
Kcnlous  wet  Ras-mcter.  In  IHUI  Westminster  llridKO 
was  Ural  llithted  with  gas,  and  in  the  fnllowinK  year 
thn  atrccia  of  Westminster  were  thus  lighted;  and  in 
INK)  gas  became  common  in  London.  So  rapid  wns 
tlie  progress  of  this  new  mode  of  illnmlnation,  that  in 
tha  course  of  a  few  years  after  It  was  llrst  introduced, 
it  was  adopted  by  all  Iho  principal  towns  in  the  kiiig- 
dnni,  for  liKhllng  streets  as  well  as  shops  and  publio 
edifices.  In  private  honscH  it  found  Its  way  mora 
slowly,  partly  from  an  apprehension,  not  entirely 
Rmundless,  of  (he  danger  attending  the  use  of  it,  nnd 
partly  from  the  annoyance  which  was  experienced  in 
many  cases  through  the  carriers  and  imperfect  manner 
In  which  Iho  sorvlco-pipcs  were  at  first  fitted  up.  These 
Inconveniences  have  lieen  in  a  great  measure,  if  not 
wholly,  removed  by  a  more  enlarged  knowledge  of  the 
management  of  gas ;  and  at  present  there  are  few  pri- 
vate houses  in  largo  towns  which  are  not  either  par- 
tially or  entirely  lighted  up  by  It.  As  the  demanij  for 
gas  Increased,  various  Improveinenls  were  from  time 
to  timo  Introduced,  both  in  the  mechanical  arrange- 
ments and  in  the  chemical  operations  of  the  manufac- 
ture. The  rapid  increase  in  the  population  of  the 
metropolis,  nnd  of  all  largo  towns,  has  naturally  led  to 
an  Increased  consumption  of  gas;  and  the  application 
nf  gas  to  the  purposes  of  warming  and  cooking  has  also 
further  increased  the  demand  for  it.  Hence  it  has  been 
not  only  necessary  that  new  gas-works  should  be  erect- 
ed for  the  supply  of  new  districts,  but  that  the  re- 
sources of  old  works  should  bo  enlarged.  It  is  only  a 
few  years  ago  that  a  gas-holder  capable  of  storing 
2riO,000  cubic  feet  of  gaa  was  regarded  as  of  enormous 
site;  at  the  present  time  gas-holders  are  made  of 
double  that  capacity,  and  we  occasionally  hear  of  them 
of  the  capacity  of  upward  of  n  million  cubic  feet.  There 
Is  one  such  at  Philadelphia ;  it  is  140  feet  in  diameter 
and  70  feet  in  height.  Nor  will  such  dimensions  as 
tlieso  be  regarded  as  superfluous  when  it  la  stated  that 
some  of  the  large  metropolitan  works  send  out  each 
from  a  million  to  a  million  and  •  half  cubic  foot  of  gai 
In  one  night  in  mid-winter. 


not 
tho 
prl- 
pnr- 
for 
tlmo 


led  10 
■cation 
I  also 
I  been 
erect- 
ile re- 
«n1y  a 
toring 
rmous 
ide  of 
rthem 
There 
imcter 
ons  as 
id  that 
each 
of  gas 


flEB  i 

OKaglai,  th*  art  nf  Di«aaurin||  Um  eoaUnta  of 
catki  or  vu»U  of  any  fiirin.  (lauKlnK  furni*  »  part 
of  inviiimralliin,  Imt  U  fraquanlly  praitli-ml  by  (wrmina 
unacqii«lnti*il  with  It*  thporvtlciil  principle,  who  work 
liy  uartatn  riilaa,  with  Ihit  nlil  of  a  Kiiii|;liiK-ro<l,  anil  by 
III*  iiUilln|(  ruU.  Tha  orillnarv  Kiiut(liiK-ro<l  iciiuUta 
of  fi)ur  rule n  niailo  of  Imx^wiKMl,  aai'h  .k  foot  lonid  anil 
unltcil  by  bruna  Jolnta,  wi  that  It  may  b«  fiililml  to- 
fiather.  Thn  tarni  jriui/x  or  gag*  la  applieil  In  varloua 
waya,  but  alwaya  with  rafornnce  to  maaaura  or  propor- 
tlon  ;  or,  In  tha  literal  aenaa  of  tha  won),  to  that  which 
bounila  or  cunllnra  aoniathInK  elae.  Thua,  In  phyatca, 
it  la  applied  to  aavaral  Inatrumenta  or  apparatua  for 
nieaaurintt  the  alnte  of  a  phenomenon  |  auch  oa  tha 
wliii|.Ka|(H,  raln-Ka^'i  the  lmmiiietvr-t(aKe  for  meaa- 
urluK  the  degree  of  pre«aur«  of  the  ulr  within  the  re- 
ceiver of  an  air-pump,  etc.  i  In  nrchitecturn,  to  the 
length  of  a  alata  Iwlow  the  lap )  In  railway  engineer- 
ing, to  tha  apaca  Iwtwoan  tha  ralla,  and  the  like,  8ee 
Gaiik. 

OaaOtta,  a  paper  of  pulillo  intelligence  and  newa 
of  ilivera  countrlea,  lirat  printed  at  Venice  al>out  the 
year  lfi2<),  and  ao  called  (aoma  any)  liecuune  umi  gmrtin, 
a  aniull  piece  of  Venetian  ciiln  waa  given  to  liiiy  or  read 
It.  Uthera  derive  the  name  from  giua,  Italian  for  niitg- 
ple,  I.  r.  chatterer. — TRimi.Kii.  A  gniette  waa  printed 
In  France  in  lOlll ;  and  one  in  (jermany  in  171/).— 
A'oMr.  Diet.  Ilitt. 

Oauas.  Ilraaa  wlro-gnuzo  or  cloth  la  now  made 
of  aurh  exi|ulalte  flncneaa  that  tho  aepariite  tlireoda 
can  only  be  detected  by  cloen  Inapection.  Meaara. 
Rativant,  who  carry  on  the  braaa  manufacture  on  a 
aciile  of  great  magnitude  In  France,  produce  wire  of 
remarkable  minuteneaa.  There  were  in  the  French 
department  of  the  late  exhtl)itlon  aeverul  apeclmena  of 
braaa  gauie,  each  ahowing  the  limit  of  finenena  to  which 
the  manufacturer*  had  attained  at  the  date  of  the  aev- 
eral  Induatrial  ex|ioaitloiM  in  France,  Kach  date  dla- 
playeil  a  degree  of  flneneaa  greater  than  that  of  any 
previouK  date;  and  tho  •pecinien  for  Wil  waa  the  tin- 
eat  of  all.  It  almoat  exceeda  belief  that  metal  could 
bo  wrought  to  auch  an  oxquiaite  degree  of  minuteneaa 
as  In  tliia  web,  Thero  were  )I7,(IIX)  mealiea  In  one 
aquare  inch  of  thia  I)raa8  gauze,  or  '2tlO  parallel  threada 
in  one  linear  inch.  The  wire-drawing  In  tho  tint  In- 
atani'p,  and  th«  weaving  ofterwanl,  must  hare  been 
very  carefully  conducted. 

0«aIong,  a  townahip  of  Victoria  colony,  South 
Auatrnliu,  compriaing  Ave  contiguoiia  villugea,  at  the 
head  of  the  weat  arm  of  Port  I'hiiip,  -II)  milea  aouth- 
weat  iif  Melbourne,  with  which  it  haa  conatant  com- 
munication by  ateain,  Populutiiin  in  IH 16,  2,0«,'),  It 
haa  an  Increaaing  trado  in  won!  and  grain,  though 
large  veaaela  ran  not  approach  it  within  aoven  milea. 
The  River  Barwon  flows  paat  ita  west  border  to  the 
Southern  Ocean, 

(.'iiusii/nert,  MatliT),  and  Lighlfrt  at  (leelong. — Wo 
And  the  following  declaration  on  the  rejpective  rights 
and  duties  of  oonaigneea,  mastera,  and  lightermen,  in 
the  procoodingB  of  the  Geolong  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, Tho  motion  of  which  notice  had  been  given 
by  Mr,  McKellar,  "  that  the  committee  consider  tho 
sulijrct  of  the  delivery  of  goods  by  lighters,"  was 
brought  under  dlscuasiim,  and  after  careful  examina- 
tion of  tho  law  relating  thereto,  it  was  cioarly  ascer- 
tained that  it  is  the  duty  of  tho  master  of  the  vessel, 
as  aoon  as  the  arrival  of  the  ship  has  l>ecn  reported,  to 
give  notice  thereof  to  tho  owners  or  eimsignees  of  tiio 
goods  on  board  ;  that  he  can  not  escape  from  his  lia- 
bility by  immediately  landing  goods  at  a  pulilic  wharf, 
-without  giving  sircii  notice,  liecnuse  the  delivery  at 
the  wharf  Is  not  a  dnlivcry  to  the  consignee  j  that  if 
they  are  landed  without  such  notice  lieing  given,  and 
are  destroyed  upon  the  wharf  i>y  an  accidental  tire  be- 
fore the  consignee  haa  had  an  opportunity  of  taking 
them  away,  the  sliip-owners  will  be  responsible  fur  the 
'o8B,  but  that  the  lighterman  or  maater  of  the  vessel  is 

UUD 


bonnd  to  kaap  tha  goods  on  hoard  or  on  tha  wtiarf  at 
hia  own  riak  fur  a  reaaonabla  time,  to  anabia  tha  con- 
aignm  or  hia  aaalgna  to  come  and  fetch  them  i  and  that 
tha  llghtarmnn  la  not  relaaaad  from  lila  rMponatblllt} 
until  h«  haa  ulitained  a  roi'«lpl  for  the  goods  upon  thalf 
delivery  tii  the  innalgnen. 

OtoUtin*  (I'jig,  and  Fr.  i  (litlUrt,  I.rim,  derm.)  la 
an  animal  priNliict  which  la  never  found  In  tha  hu- 
mora,  but  it  may  be  obtained  by  iKiliIng  with  water 
the  aoft  and  aolid  parts  |  aa  tha  niuaclna,  the  akin,  tha 
cartiiagas,  bonea,  ligaments,  tendons,  and  membranaa, 
lalnglaaa  conalata  almoat  entirely  of  gelatine.  This 
aulutanca  la  vary  aolulde  In  Ixiiling  water  \  the  solu- 
tion forma  a  tremuloua  maas  of  Jelly  when  it  co<da, 
('old  water  haa  little  action  u|H>n  gelatine.  Alcohol 
and  tannin  (tannic  acid,  aea  (iAi.i.-NUT>)  preclpitata 
gelatine  from  ita  solution  i  tha  former  by  abatract< 
Ing  tha  watnr,  the  latter  by  combining  with  the  sulw 
atance  Itaalf  Into  an  inaoluble  com|iound,  of  the  naluro 
iif  leather.  No  other  acid  except  the  tannic,  and  no 
alkali,  jxiaaeaaea  tlie  prii|>crty  of  precipitating  gelatine, 
Hut  chlorine  and  certain  aaits  render  ita  aoliillon  mora 
or  leaa  turbid  ;  as  tha  nitrate  and  biclilorlde  of  mercury, 
the  proto-chliirido  of  tin,  and  a  few  uthera.  Hulphu- 
rio  add  converts  a  aolutiun  of  gelatine  at  a  liolting  heal 
Into  sugar,  (ieiatlno  consists  of  uarlton,  47'M  )  hydro- 
gen, 7'01 ;  oxygen,  'il''il, 

(leUaifui  tW»,— The  beautiful  may  often  be  cre- 
ated out  of  mero  refuse  ;  an  example  of  this  is  afforded 
by  tho  articles  now  made  uf  gelatine,  Tlie  French 
show  peculiar  tact  in  procuring  gelatine  from  the  waste 
remnants  of  tlie  skins,  liones,  tendons,  ligaments,  and 
other  golatinoua  tissues  of  animals.  The  well-ordered 
aballoirt  of  Turis  and  othor  large  towns,  afford  facill- 
tioR  which  we  do  not  possesa,  for  the  sconouiical  ap- 
plication of  all  the  waste  parts  of  tha  slaugUtemd 
animals,  M,  (irenet  has  lieen  the  flrst  to  fabricate, 
on  a  large  scale,  out  of  various  residues  of  animiU 
liodlea,  lieautiful  and  diversified  products  which  have 
hitlicrto  lieen  made  of  the  more  costly  material  Isin- 
glass. He  protluces  different  kinds  of  gelatine,  lA 
thin  sheets;  pure  and  white  tllms  cut  intothrea>  for 
the  use  of  the  confectioner;  very  thin,  wh  id 

trun»|>arent  sheets,  called  "papier  glac6,"  <'.  ii:t-|>u- 
|>er,  for  copying  drawings;  dyed,  gilt,  ani*  iDn'rul 
gelatine  sheets,  adapted  to  the  fabrication  or  ^.  iiiri  lI 
flowers  and  to  the  prixluctiun  of  an  almost  ■  O'l)  "  i  vit- 
riety  of  ornamented  articles  ;  and  suv"tf  "inlu'^-'ii  or 
stamped  with  elegant  patterns,  Tli'  c  ti  ic  i^  u'ft.l, 
to<i,  us  a  material  in  the  dressing  oi  "<Ui  i/n  ■■!',  ui\ 
also  as  a  refining  ingredient  in  the  ciu    '"ich;  •  n  •>'  wn  ». 

Oem  (I.at,  gemnui),  in  sculpture,  a  p.'ec  J  •''.hi\ 
used  fur  tho  purpose  of  sculpture.  The  pr  ..i 
carving  gems  is  of  remote  antiquity,  though  't  in 
doubtful  whether  they  wera  able  to  cut  tiie  diamoni' 
or  use  the  emerald  and  topaz  for  sculptural  purposes. 
The  stunes  usually  selected  are  rock-crystal  of  difTer- 
ent  colors,  jasper,  chalcedony,  onyx,  cornelian,  and 
blooil-stone.  Among  tiie  Greeks  tlio  art  was  carried 
to  great  perfection  ;  but  having  fallen  with  the  other 
arts  into  disuse,  its  revival  was  effected  in  Italy  in  the 
15th  century,  and  mo<lern  masters  have  more  than  ri- 
valed some  of  tlie  ancient  pniduotions, 

Geneva  (Uu,  (,'enerer ;  Fr,  (Ifni'eere ;  Ger.  Gaucl, 
O'enever ;  It.  A  cqua  di  Ginepro ;  Lat.  Junipera  aqua ; 
Sp.  Affitii  de  JCuebm),  a  spirit  obtained  by  distillation 
from  grain,  rectifled  with  the  addition  of  juniper  lier- 
ries.  The  latter  gives  to  the  spirit  that  peculiar  fla- 
vor by  which  it  is  distinguished,  and  are  also  said  to 
render  it  diuretic.  Geneva  Is  a  comiption  of  gfniivre, 
tho  French  terra  for  the  juniiwr  berry.  By  far  the 
iiest  geneva  is  made  in  Holland,  where  its  manufacture 
is  curried  on  to  a  very  groat  extent.  The  distilleries 
of  Schiedam  have  long  been  famous,  and  are  at  pres- 
ent in  a  very  prosperous  condition,  Schiedam  geneva 
is  made  solely  of  spirit  obtained  from  rye  and  barley, 
flavored  with  juniper  berries.     It  becomes  milder,  and 


GEN 


786 


GEN 


Ik." 


aeqaires,  an  it  .gets  old,  an  oily  flavor  disliked  b^  Hol- 
landers ;  hence  noarl}-  the  whole  of  the  "  Schiedam" 
Is  exported,  principally  to  the  East  Indies.  There 
■Tb  no  fewer  than  100  distilleries  In  Schiedam, 
200  in  other  part*  of  Holland,  and  not  more  than 
40  in  Belgium.  The  entire  annual  produce  of  the 
distillery  in  Holland  is  estimated  at  2,000,000  ankers, 
or  20,500,000  wine  gallons,  of  which  about  two  thirds 
are  exported. — Clobt,  Detcription  Gioffvaphique  cki 
Payt  Bat,  p.  32. 

Qanoa,  a  maritime  citj'  of  Italy,  once  the  capital 
of  the  famous  republic  of  that  name,  now  of  a  province 
of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  ex- 
tensive gulf  to  which  it  gives  its  name ;  the  light- 
houtto  being  in  lat.  44°  24^  18"  N.,  long.  8°  54'  24" 
E.  Population  in  1848, 100,382.  Genoa  is  one  of  the 
finest  cities  of  Europe,  and  noted  as  the  birth-place  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  in  the  year  1441.  In  general, 
the  streets  are  inconveniently  narrow ;  bat  some  of 
the  principal  ones  are  moderately  wide,  and  consist 
almost  entirely  of  public  buildings  and  private  palaces 
erected  during  the  period  of  her  prosperity.  Being 
built  on  a  rising  ground,  in  the  form  of  an  amphithea- 
tre, the  appearance  of  the  town  from  the  sea  is  most 
magnificent,  and  Justifies  the  epithet  given  to  her  of 
"  la  mperba." 

Its  ancient  mhabitants  were  the  Ligueres,  who  sub- 
mitted to  the  Koman!<,  115  B.C.,  and  und>!rwent  the 
revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till  a.d.  950.  The 
Genoese  revolt  against  their  count,  choose  a  doge  and 
other  magistrates  from  among  their  nobilit}',  and  be- 
came an  aristocratic  republic,  1080  to  1034.  Several 
revolutions  occurred  up  to  1528,  when  the  celebrated 
Andrew  Doria  rescued  his  countr}-  from  the  domin- 
ion of  foreign  powers.  Bombarded  by  the  French 
in  1684,  and  by  the  British  in  1688  and  1745. 
Genoa  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  December  8th, 
1746;  but  their  oppression  of  the  people  was  such, 
that  the  latter  suddenly  rose  and  expelled  their  con- 
querors, who  again  l>esieged  the  city  the  next  year, 
August  17,  without  effect.  Genoa  lost  Corsica,  1780. 
The  celebrated  bank  failed  1750.  Tho  city  sustaine<l 
a  siege  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian  army,  until 
literiJly  starved,  and  was  evacuated  by  capitulation. 
Hay,  ISOO ;  but  it  was  surrendered  to  the  Frencli  soon 
after  their  victory  at  Marengo,  The  I.igurlun  repub- 
lic was  founded  upon  that  of  Genoa,  in  1801,  and  the 
doge  solemnly  invested,  August  10,  1802.  Genoa  was 
annexed  to  the  French  empire.  May  25,  1806.  It  sur- 
rendered to  the  combined  English  and  Sicilian  army, 
April  18,  1814 ;  and  was  transferred  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  in  1816.  Insurrection  against  \  ictor  Em- 
manuel, .\pril  1st;  subdued,  April  11,  1849. 

Port. — The  harlwr  is  semicircular,  the  diameter 
being  ulwut  1000  fathoms.  It  is  artificial,  leing 
formed  l)y  two  gigantic  moles  having  opposite  direc- 
tions. That  on  the  east  side,  culled  the  old  mole  {mtUo 
mcchio),  projects  from  the  centre  of  the  city  west  l)y 
south.  It  is  about  260  fathoms  in  lengtii,  anl  has  a 
batter}'  near  its  middle.  The  new  mole  (moto  rmoto), 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  port,  adjoins  the  southern 
extremity  of  tlie  suburb  of  St.  Pietrod'Arena,  project- 
ing aliout  210  fathoms  from  tho  shore  in  an  E.S.E. 
direction.  The  mole  heads  l>ear  from  each  other  N.E. 
by  E.  and  S.W.  by  W.,  tho  distance  between  them, 
forming  the  entrance  to  the  harlior,  being  about  850 
fathoms.  The  light-house  is  without  the  port,  on  the 
west  side,  near  the  extremity  of  a  point  of  land,  and 
contiguous  to  the  bottom  of  tlie  new  mole.  It  is  a  lofty 
square  tower ;  and  as  it  stands  on  a  high  rock,  and  is 
painteil  white,  it  is  visible  in  clear  weather  at  a  great 
distance.  There  is  also  a  harlior  light  at  the  extrem- 
it}'  of  the  new  mole.  There  is  no  difiiculty  in  enter- 
ing the  hartwr ;  the  ground  is  clean,  and  there  is 
plenty  of  wat  •,  particularly  on  the  side  next  the  new 
mole ;  care,  however,  must  be  taken,  in  coming  from 
the  T.'oit,  to  give  the  light-house  point  a  good  ofBng. 


The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  ressela  that  ar- 
rived in  tlie  port  of  (ieiioa,  proceeding  from  British 
dominions,  during  the  year  1868: 

Slilp«. 

Urltlah  veiBols  (satlliiu) \Wi 

Urltish  steamers M 

Total wis 


Turn. 
88,061 
SI,91T 


FORXIUN  VlS^LS, 

STilM.  Tont. 

Sardinians 146  8T,I68 

8vmllsh  and  .Norwegian 40  18,239 

Dutcli 25  8,?81 

Fruncli 20  0,114 

Pniaslsn IS  B,(W8 

NeapollUn «  g,138. 

RiiMisn T  ifiti 

Anicrlc»n T  !,491 

Varlons  nntlmis 86  7,889 

Tot.I SliB  IT,80l 

Total  from  Bi'ltlsli  domlnliii  ,  niiilcr  all  tittfrt.  B39  alilpy, 
14T,18»  Ions. 

STATf  HUNT  OF  Tna  ENoi.isn  Vbssklb  that  IKTKBED  Till 

I'ORT  or  (IKNUA    I  OKINO  Tlitl    VlABS   I^Bl-'6Si 


Ylan. 

s.llinrr 

VaxU. 

Tom. 

4s»ftr 

f.T,ll9 
4«,0'<l 
.".«,•  179 
38,iHiT 

suani- 

jn. 

Tom. 

ToUl 
Veuali. 

Tot.I 
Torn. 

1S5> 

I8r>& 
mw 

I8BT 

I8r>8 

iilT 
1S1 
1M 

in 

-•3 
Tit 
51 

ll,IS2 
8t),BS:l 

;)i,siT 

'iM 
244 
234 
22« 
240 

01,124 
flS,.')01 
0S,T91 
5T,M8 
U'.i,8S4 

Fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago  tho  number  of  vessels 
annually  arriving  in  that  port  from  UritiNli  dominions 
could  nut  be  reckoned  at  mora  than  109  to  120,  most 
of  tliem  of  small  toniiuge.  Steamers  now  arrive  from 
London  and  Liverpool  with  considerable  regularity, 
generally  about  two  or  three  a  month,  eacli  steamer 
bringing  from  800  to  1000  tons  of  mercliuiidise,  at  very 
high  freights.  The  iin|iort  from  Great  Britain  of  iron 
(wrought  and  pig),  and  coals,  and  coke  has  greatly  in- 
creased of  lute  years,  especially  silica  so  many  rail- 
ways have  liecn  made  in  Piedmont.  Tho  figures  giv- 
en above  present  several  noteworthy  paints.  They 
show,  in  the  first  place,  a  greatly  increased  substitu- 
tion of  steam  fur  sailing  power  ii:  the  British  mer- 
chant service,  as  far,  at  least,  as  tho  port  of  Genoa  is 
concerned.  In  1851  the  tonnage  of  sailing  vessels 
coming  to  that  port  was  nearly  11,000  tuns  larger  than 
in  1858 ;  but  in  1858  the  tonnage  of  tho  steamers  that 
arrived  there  was  19,650  tons  mora  than  in  1854.  One 
also  observes  the  tendency  to  the  employment  of  larger 
steamers,  the  54  of  Mi'i  licini;  more  than  2^  times  the 
tonnage  of  the  28  of  1854,  The  increase  in  the  trade 
in  British  bottoms  lietween  British  ports  and  Genoa  is 
shown  to  havo  licen  steady  mid  considerabin  during 
the  last  five  years.  In  1x54  it  amounted  to  61,124 
tons,  and  in  1858  to  69,881,  showing  an  increiise  uf 
8760  tons  in  fuur  years.  The  high  figure  of  68,500 
tons,  to  wliicli  the  tonnage  jumped  in  1855,  is  doubt- 
less to  lie  attrilinteil  to  the  war,  tliat  living  the  year 
in  which  the  Sardinian  troops  went  to  the  Crimea. 
Tlio  increase  in  the  nuinl  r  and  tonnage  of  Sardinian 
vessels  arriving  from  British  ports  has  also  been  very 
considerable  of  late,  as  apiiears  from  the  following 
statement : 

Bakuinias  Vissrls  f«om  naiTisii  noMimoNS  that  ab- 

«1T«I>  AT  UlIfOA   IM  TIIK    rOI.I.OWIHO    YEARS. 
V«tTi.  VmmIi.  Tom. 

1S61 60  13,790 

IS.S5 40  ii.TSl 

1880 Rl  16,82* 

1887 9T  8I,4S9 

1888 146  87,lta 


Genoa  is  tiic  entrepot  of  a  large  extent  of  country. 
Tier  commerce  is  conalderaliie,  and  has  latterly  been 
increasing.  The  imports  principally  consist  of  cotton 
and  woolen  stufl's;  cotton  wool,  mostly  from  Egypt; 
corn  from  the  Black  Sea,  Sicily,  and  Barliary ;  sugar, 
salted  fish,  apices,  coffee,  cocliincal,  indigo,  hides,  iron, 
and  naval  stores  from  the  Baltic;  hardware  and  tin 
platei  from  England;  wool,  tobacco,  lead  (principally 


mcr- 
noA  ia 
sseU 
tliun 
that 
Oils 
larger 
the 
trade 
noa  is 
luring 
61,124: 
use  of 
G8,500 
[Imibt- 
e  year 
imea. 
iliiiian 
very 
owing 


lintry. 

Iieen 

fcotton 

1  Iron, 
U  tin 
Ipally 


GEN 


181 


am 


tnm  Spain),  wax,  etc.  Com,  barilla,  OallipoU  oil, 
cotton,  valonia,  aponge,  galla,  and  other  products  of 
the  countries  adjoining  the  Black  Sea,  Sicily,  the  Le- 
vant, etc.,  may  in  general  be  had  here,  though  not  in 
so  great  abundance  as  at  Leghorn.  Tho  abolitiog  of 
the  various  duties  and  custom-house  fees  formerly 
charged  on  the  transit  of  goods  through  Genoa  and  the 
Sardinian  territories,  has  bad  a  ver}-  beneficial  influ- 
ence on  the  trade  of  this  port,  particularly  as  regards 
the  importation  of  raw  cotton  fur  Switzerland  and  Mi- 
lan, as  well  as  of  the  different  descriptions  of  colonial 
produce. 

AoooDST  oir  IBB  raiNoiPAi.  Aaiiotra  or  Exfogt  non 
Oknoa,  wrrn  Tiicia  Paten,  tbm  om  Boabd,  im  Ital- 
JAK  AMD  Enolish  Momkt,  Biu  Joni,  1858.* 


Artioltl. 


FriMa  lo  lUlUa      Prices  Is      -Ml"* 
money.        |En«U.l.  mon.y|"^J,7„* 


Llvi«a. 
—130 


0 

s 

0 

— 10£ 
—105 


0 

*M 

7  44 

8 

S 

S 


lb. 


80— 


T    6 

8  11 

8  4 
4«  13 
4.5  19 
41  ID 

89  15  10 

88    0  9 

28    6  0 

59  19  0 

2    4  3 

1  19  8 

1  19  8 

8  IS  7 

2  fi  6 
0  6  9 
0  2  4 
2    2  0 


0  11 

88    8  0 

!»    8  0 

58    4  0 

55  18  0 

71    4  0 

0   8  n 

0    ft  2 


owt 
lb. 


ewt 
ton. 


imp.  qr. 

u 

ewt 

lb. 

cwL 

lb. 

253  gal. 


476  shts 


Cheeso,  Pannossn..60  kll.  13S 
Citron,  preserved. . .     "        7B      — 
Cri-am  of  Tartar....     "        80      — 
Essences:  lomon....ikil      6  60 — 

bcrgamot "        8  50 — 

omnge "       3  50— 

Oalls;  Turkey,  blue 

*bIuo*  green... 60  kll.  170     — 
Gum  Arabic :  plokcJ .  i  kll     1 

Inserts. 50  kll.  76 

Hemp:  BoIogi:a...l00kll.l«« 

Sdandlst "      104 

cordage,  Ist "       96     —98 

"        2d «       91—93 

Forraro  cordage.      "       76—88 

Plodioont,  1st...       "       66—0 

combed «      180      —140 

Linseed,  Sicily  and 

Sardinia "       28  60—29 

Black  Sea "        25—26 

Eg.iptlan "       25—26 

LIquorlcu  paste,  Ca- 
labria  50  kll    36     —88 

Sicilian "       52—68 

Manna,  In  flakes Jkll.     7  50—    0 

Inserts "        8-0 

Madder  roots,  Levant    "50—0 

Opium,  Turkey "      15-0 

Oil.  Ocnoa,  super bar.  115     —    0 

Oalllpoll "     72      —    0 

Tunis "     75      —76 

Sicily "78      —    0 

Saidlnia "92—98 

Papcr,Floretta,14lbs.  p  10 

roams  44     —  47 
Paper  —  Al   Masso,  p.  10  80     —  88 

17  lbs.  reams 

Quicksilver ^  kll    72     —74 

Kags,linon,  iBt. 5ukil.     4  25—    0 

"      2d "        81  90—    0 

■'         "      8d "        2l>  2,'>—    0 

F'.io,  lUllan "      22  20—    0 

Silks,  raw  Genoa  and  IS     —  18 

Piedmont i  kll. 

white  and  yellow    "      88—84 

OrganzlnsIS— iO..     "      40     —41 
I  "         211—23..     "      88—39 

22— 26..     "      86      —  iW 

Trama,  l9t "      M     -84 

"      2dand8d..     "      80       -83 

"owing,  block "      26—0 

a«»orted "      27-0 

Waste,  Ist  end  2d.     "        8  50—    6 
Wool  ,  \iz: 

Morocco,  washed  .M  kll.  100     —110 

Tunis "      127      —181 

Tansarock&Odessa  "        95      —102 

Un.la       merinos 
half  washed....    "      114     —126 

HongasI "       64—78 

Morocco  unwashed   "       66     — 68 

Tniils "       67     —61 

Groins,  vl/. ; 

W  heat  Polish  soft.,  hcot,   16  50-1? 

(iiilaoiondl'.ralla..    "       I.")      —  IS 

Ilarlctta "       18  .V)-  19 

lioineltt "      14  60—15 

hanl  Tangnrock...    "      17      —17 

Mirlnno(>le "      16  60—    0 

Indian  Cforn.OalaM  "      12      —12 

*  From  tho  Circular  of '}rants,  Ralfour  &  Co.,  Leghorn. 

Oentian  (Gor.  Enzian  ;  Kr.  Gentiane ;  It.  (lenziana; 
S\t.  Jeneimta !  KuB.  Knzian.;  ',nt.  (lenlinna),  the.  roots 
of  two  iilpino  plants,  Ointiawi  I'llea  and  (lentiimn  pur- 
^mrea  found  grc  ring  in  Switzerland  and  Austria,  the 


0  6  3 
0  3  8 
8  0  8 
0  0  258 
0  0  1  86 
0  15  11 


17    8 

1  12    9 

1  11    6 

1  VI    6 

1  I    0 

1  16    8 

1  II  10 

1  1    7 

0  4    1 

0  0  Ii.  10 

0  1    0  06 

0  0    9  38 

0  0  11  30 

v)  0    637 

0  0    6  69 

0  0    6  86 


3    0  4 

1  16  10 

2  6  3 

1  16  7 

2  1  6 
I  19  3 
1    9  7 


cwt. 


lb. 


imp.  qr. 


Apennines,  the  Pyreneas,  »Mt  In  Unftit  hmsfim,  HmM 
brought  to  this  country  cotm  fm»  Qfifmmf,  thtv 
•re  in  pieces  of  various  lengths  miA  thiftHUD*,  iwiiitta, 
and  wrinided  on  tba  ontsidA.  »P»4  (WWW  *itll  It 
brownish-gray  cuticle.  TMy  l(»V«  m  pSfttf  8ll»f  «!«( 
and  the  taste  is  intensely  hitter,  wfttwMt  MttH  HHUMI* 
oua. — Thomson's  Dupentalopf/, 

Oeode«7  (Gr.  yi/,  and  imu,  I  liMit),  WUttuWf  »(«= 
nifies  the  division  of  the  earth,  in  whMt  <««H<>«  H  h 
synonymous  with  hind-survayms  i  J»Ht  ft  (s  MsImH^ 
employed  in  a  more  general  Mtm  U>  i»mt«  tll«(  ftrt 
of  practical  geometry  wblcb  has  (m  iis  t)^A$d  MlH  4(1= 
termination  of  the  magnitude  »b4  fijJHfS  m\mf  ttf  the 
whole  earth,  or  of  any  given  uurlWf)  iif  ih  ((Hff««e, 
In  this  sense  it  comprehends  all  (hA  g»iilWifUiil\  tli 
trigonometrical  operations  that  Wf  iwcstsry  (lit  iHtn^ 
structing  a  map  of  a  country,  HtaftSHriHJJ  tti«  l«llf$til!i 
of  degrees,  etc.  In  order  t«  coiistfiMit  ^n  ikmir»l« 
map,  or  determine  the  form  81)4  dlnU'Hsi'mii  itf  »  (WUfM 
tr}-,  it  is  necessary,  in  tba  first  fUm,  U)  (i^Ultmim  iUn 
absolute  distances  between  tlia  mv»flt\  ^tUiHtl  §t 
points;  secondly,  to  determine  i\m  mUmtilS  fljf  tlie 
lines  thus  measured,  that  is,  tb«lr  nHUniUm  with  f»> 
apect  to  the  meridian ;  and  thirdly,  tba  dlffwitflraii  (tt 
latitude  and  longitude  of  the  stjttiwn**,  'flw  tftWftl' 
tiona  necessary  for  determining  tlje  fi)/e«)M((i  rt(st«fl««*i, 
comprehending  tlia  measurement  of  A  l/*i«',  tll«  «(*» 
servation  of  angles,  the  computstlw  »f  tlw  sl^tcs  «rf 
the  triangles,  and  their  redifctlun  U)  tbs  mm  kvel^ 
arc  called  the  geodesical  or  geodelicol  nmf ii^i\imi>  i  white 
those  which  are  required  for  detarmfnmji  i\w  smiHHtb* 
and  Utitudes  are  culled  the  astrummlml  n^Ui\im, 
The  determination  of  the  figure  and  dimsmWll^  "f  tlM 
earth  is  a  problem  of  very  great  im))orMH»i«  Ul  «'tf(W= 
omy  and  geography,  and  has  ttccordinijly  »t  »)i  ti»B*S 
been  a  subject  of  much  interest  U)  nwihmuii-hm  f 
but  it  is  only  since  toward  the  mid4l^  u(  (b*'  If4<i(  i^n= 
tur}'  that  operations  on  an  adequaM  Swl<3  fnr  \U  MtU' 
tion  have  been  undertaken  in  different  )*f(t'(f*  </f  (iM 
world.  For  the  results  of  the  niora  importont  «rf  ii%m 
operations,  see  Deoree. 

Gteography.    Tlie  first  correct  rB«>r4  w?  bsvs  et 

geographical  knowledge  is  from  \\i»mf,  lU  4#Wfil(«(l 
the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing  Wm  Wfth,  ftHf- 
ronnded  by  the  sea. — Iliad.  Ha  wucHratPly  dc^ribss 
the  countries  of  Greece,  islands  uf  tbA  Aff'bilK'k^M, 
and  site  of  Troy.  The  priests  taught  ib»t  Hi#  tCHIuls 
of  Apollo  at  Delphos  was  the  centre  of  tll«  WW(1< 
Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  tba  inventor  uf  f{gti'- 
gruphical  maps,  alwut  568  B.  c.  HipiwrtlMW  »tt*ini|H» 
ed  to  reduce  geography  to  matlieinatii'^l  \m>>i'^  »\miii 
135  B.  c.  It  was  first  brought  U>  l'^HriM)«  \&  (Im 
Moors  of  Barbar}-  and  Spain,  about  a.  i'..  VUi\  ,~itt^mi' 
LET.  The  invention  of  the  mariner's  «win))A<><i  (<*  %\v* 
important  connectinn  link  between  am-'lKnt  MlA  1W|i^= 
em  geography.  The  modern  maps  am)  f>b4ft<i  WCf0 
introduced  into  England  by  I)arttuiU)H>«W  ('iiltini'iM 
to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  res|)ecttng  tt  WC<itcrn 
continent,  A.  u.  1489. — Havun.  TbefcurnjriwiijfKpJiy, 
derived  from  two  Greek  words,  yen,  the eaflh,  »ll4  fli'li^Mj 
I  write,  signifies  a  description  (\fthe  earllt,  'fll^  4^<H'fi^ 
tion  to  wbicli  this  title  is  applied  may  be  nuifs  i>f  U*i 
general ;  either  embracing  such  truths  as  unly  iifUltig 
to  the  earth  considered  as  one  wboU,  ur  e>l«nt1iH(4  ^' 
particulars  which  belong  to  and  distinjjyiftb  (Imj  n«¥= 
eral  countries  spread  over  its  surface,  In  wbij>b<>S: 
ever  of  these  two  aspects  the  subject  iia  rt'ijftrik'd,  H 
vast  field  opens  to  tho  view  of  tlie  ulii-erveri  In  liflmt 
to  |;ive  n  full  and  accurate  de«cri|itiun  n(  tb"  fDtlU,  it 
would  be  requisite  to  consider  it  in  refisr>fn<<'  Ut  il^ 
motion,  figure,  and  niagiiltuda  ;  in  referen* x  t''  IN  f^\H-' 
tion  to  tlie  other  bodies  of  the  universe,  uiii)  muff  ^K- 
pecially  to  the  planetary  system  uf  wbifb  it  foffH!)  H 
part ;  in  reference  to  its  surfai'e,  us  diversilimit  tiy  iitni\ 
and  sea,  mountains  and  valleys,  lakes  and  rivfffi  i  in 
reference  to  the  materials  wliiih  I'oinposu  its  i.'rH«-i,  »fl4 
to  its  internal  structure  ;  in  re  fe'euca  Ui  t\w  iwAstitUti^ls 


GEO 


m 


GEO 


of  ths  ■tmosphera  with  which  tt  ia  aarrounded,  and  the 
•ITcicta  arising  from  the  Tarlationa  In  atmospherical 
preaaure,  temperature,  and  humidity.  Nor  would  It 
be  rnou|{h  to  consider  the  earth  only  as  a  mass  of  In- 
ert and  unorganl  1  matter ;  It  would  be  ncccssarj- 
to  regard  it  in  Its  relations  to  vegetable  and  animal 
life ;  and  to  trace  the  phenomena  which  these,  In  their 
endless  variety,  present  In  Its  various  divisions  and 

{)rovinces.  It  would  still  further  be  necessary  to  view 
t  as  the  alHKle  of  man  himself,  and  as  modified  by  his 
existence  ;  divided  into  states  and  kingdoms ;  adorned 
with  cities,  and  all  the  noble  monuments  of  civilized  life. 
Such  Is  an  outline  of  the  picture  which  geography, 
in  the  most  unlimited  meaning  of  the  term,  should 
exhibit  of  the  globe.  To  fill  up  this  picture  in  all  Its 
parts.  It  would  evidently  be  necessary  to  call  in  the 
aid  of  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  But  the  de- 
■cription  Is  uauully  of  a  less  extended  character,  being 
conflned  chiefly  to  the  more  obvious  and  striking 
features  of  the  various  regions  and  countries  of  the 
earth. 

In  the  wide.range  which  the  sulijeet  presents,  sev- 
eral divisions  and  snt)divI»Ions  nro  sugjjcstcd  by  the 
different  views  in  wliicb  the  earth  may  Iw  consliiercd. 
The  three  following  divisions  are  the  most  important : 

1.  ifaihematiial  (Ifniirnphy,  which  illustrates,  on 
astronomical  principles,  the  figure,  magnitude,  and  mo- 
tion of  the  earth  ;  teaches  how  to  determine  the  posi- 
tions of  places  on  its  surface ;  explains  the  construction 
of  globes,  with  their  appliciitiow  to  the  solution  of 
problems  ;  and  shows  how  the  whole  or  any  portion  of 
the  earth's  surface  may,  on  the  principles  of  projection, 
be  delineated  on  a  map  or  chart. 

2.  Phyglcal  Geoyniphii,  whii'h  treats  of  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  diver.,itlp(l  objects  found  on  the  surface 
of  (he  earth,  includinj'  the  atmosphnre  liy  whicli  It  is 
aurrounrted ;  and  explains  the  causes,  whether  of  a 
chemical  or  mechanical  dcncrlption,  that  produce  the 
modifications  and  "hanges  whicli  arc  continually  taking 
place  in  them. 

3.  J'oliliciil,  or  Uist'irirnl  (irnf/rnpii/,  which  descrH)es 
the  earth  as  divided  into  countries,  occupi,'?d  by  vari- 
ous nations,  and  improved  1)V  human  art  and  Industry. 
It  traces  the  circumstances  and  character  of  the  differ- 
ent races  and  tribes  of  mankind,  explaining  their 
social  Institutions,  and  ascertaining  the  place  whicli 
each  occupies  iv  the  scale  of  civilization. 

From  this  gciieral  amingeinent  of  the  subject,  it  is 
evident  that  geography  depends  for  its  rank  us  a  sci- 
ence on  its  intiiniitc  connci  tlon  with  various  lir.mclies 
of  knowledge,  wtiich,  taking  their  rise  from  Investiga- 
tions institatcd  in^efereiicc  to  the  nature  and  mutual 
relations  of  the  objects  on  the  earth,  or  connected  with 
it,  furnish  those  accurate  views  which  must  be  obtained 
before  any  thing  like  a  precise  description  can  l)e  given 
of  the  globe  we  inhal)It,  or  of  any  portion  of  it.  U'ith 
regard  to  what  belongs  to  Physical  fJeography,  we 
musf  refer  the  rcailcr  to  the  articles  I'llYsic.M.  (iKOO- 
BAJiiy,  .MiSKKAi.oc.Y,  MicTKOiiot.oiiY,  etc..  In  the 
new  edition  of  the  /•'m-i,t:  Ilril.  What  lielongs  to 
Political  or  Historical  (Jeogr.iphy  will  l>e  found  under 
the  names  of  the  respective  countries.  The  fidlowing 
article  will  be  limited  to  a  view  of  the  progress  of  Geo- 
graphical Discovcrv. 

I'mgreii  nf  deni/rirplimil  nlfcnrenj. — There  ire 
many  circumstances  in  tlie  condition  of  man  which 
connect  him  so  closely  witli  tlie  globe  which  he  Inlialt- 
Ita,  as  to  render  absolutely  necessary  to  his  existence 
a  knowledge  of  at  least  the  neighborhood  of  the  fpot 
where  his  lot  is  cast.  It  's  from  the  certh  that  he 
must  derive  the  means  of  sul-'I.Utncc  and  aconiinoda- 
■  lion,  the  materials  on  which  his  Industry  Is  to  be  ex- 
erted, and  those  olvjocts  In  the  exchange  of  which 
commerce  consists.  In  every  stage  of  his  piogress, 
therefore,  from  barbarism  to  civilization,  he  must  em- 
ploy some  attention  and  observation,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover In  what  respects  the  ol>jects  with  which  ho  Is 


anrronnded  are  qualified  to  contribute  to  the  anpply  of 
his  wants,  and  to  hia  comfort  and  convenience.  Even 
while  he  roams  Ihe  forest  In  the  savage  state,  he  must 
make  himself  acquainted  with  many  circumstances,  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  either  to  give  him 
success  in  the  chaae,  or  to  direct  him  in  retracing  his 
steps  to  the  place  where  he  has  fixed  his  dwelling. 
But  it  is  not  until  men  have  united  In  society,  and 
that  neighboring  communities  have  begun  to  hold  mu- 
tual Intercourse,  that  those  feelings  and  passions  are 
effectually  aroused  which  stimulate  to  the  arduous 
pursuits  of  geographical  discovery.  Commerce  and 
war,  with  the  spirit  of  adventure  which  usually  ac- 
company them,  have,  without  doubt,  been  among  the 
first  causes  of  geographical  research.  In  the  train  of 
these  have  followed  the  workings  of  avarice  and  the 
aims  of  ambition.  As  the  human  mind  has  advanced 
in  its  career  of  improvement,  curiosity,  with  an  eu- 
largement  of  views  and  desires,  has  been  called  into 
action  ;  and  voyages  have  been  undertaken  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  discovering  now  countries  and  explor- 
ing unknown  seas. 

In  tracing  the  effects  which  these  causes  have  pro- 
duced ill  tlie  gradual  inci-ease  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge, it  will  contribute  to  distinctness  to  keep  In  view 
a  threefold  division,  which  the  sulijeet  naturally  as- 
sumes, namely,  anrieni  geography,  extending  from  the 
earliest  period  of  history  down  to  the  time  when,  the 
Koman  empire  having  been  overrun  by  barbarous  na- 
tions from  several  quarters,  Kurope  was  overwhelmed 
in  the  darkness  which  ]irecedGd  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing ;  the  geography  o/the  middle  ages,  extending  from 
the  revival  of  letters  to  the  f'.ftrcnt'.i  century,  when 
the  discoveries  of  the  I'ortiigiiese  be  ^;u  to  lay  a  wider 
foundation  for  the  science;  ami  mmhm  geography, 
which  embraces  the  most  recent  discoveries,  and  ia 
progressively  improving  by  the  accessions  which  It  Is 
receiving  from  the  labors  and  science  of  modem  travel- 
er.4  and  navigators. 

The  I'hreniclans  are  thn  earliest  commercial  peojile 
of  whoso  discoveries  we  have  any  correct  accounts. 
This  people  seem  first  to  have  explored  the  coast  of  tlic 
Mediterranean.  Their  navigators  at  length  extended 
their  voyages  through  the  Straits  of  (jades,  now  called 
the  Straits  of  (jlbraltur,  entered  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  visited  tlio  western  ciiast,H  of  Spain  and  Africa. 
In  many  places  to  which  they  resorted  they  planted 
colonies  ;  and  sought,  by  Instructing  the  luhal.'tants. 
In  some  measure.  In  their  arts  and  iiiiproveincnts.  t'l 
open  a  wider  sphere  for  their  commerce.  The  learned 
lloeliart,  led  by  the  analngy  between  the  I'hcenielan 
tongue  and  the  orioutal  languages,  has  endeavored  to 
follow  the  tracks  of  the  I'hccniclans,  both  along  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  those  of  the  Atlantic. 
These  analogies  are  not  always  sure  guides  ;  but  there 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Cadiz  was  originally  a 
I'hdnlcian  colony,  and  it  Is  not  likely  that  this  was 
tl.i  only  one  formed  liy  that  enterprising  people. 

The  Arabian  (iulf,  or  lied  Sea,  offered  to  the  Phco- 
nlclaiis  another  Held  of  naval  and  commercial  exer- 
tion, to  the  improvement  of  which  the  distance  of 
Tyre,  the  emporium  of  their  trade,  was  the  only  oli- 
staclc.  This  induced  them  to  make  themselves  mas- 
ters of  Rhlnoerura  or  Kiilnocolura,  the  port  in  the 
.Mediterranean  nearest  to  the  Ked  Sea.  Commodities 
purchased  in  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  an<l  India,  were  lauf'^d 
at  F.lah,  the  safest  harbor  in  the  Ued  Sea  toward  the 
north  ;  theme  they  were  conveyed  overland  to  Rhlno- 
colura ;  ami  being  there  reshipped,  they  were  carried 
to  Tyre,  wheni'o  they  were  distributed  over  the  world. 

The  wealth  and  power  which  accrued  to  the  Plianl- 
cians  frcun  their  lieiiig  in  the  sole  possession  of  tlie 
lucrative  trade  of  the  I':ast,  Incited  th-i  Jews,  their  nelgh- 
iMirs,  under  the  prosperous  reigns  of  David  and  .Solo- 
mon, to  desire  a  participatlim  in  its  advantages.  Their 
conquest  of  Idumea,  which  stretches  .ong  the  llc('. 
Sea,  put  it  la  the  power  of  Solomon  tu  lit  out  a  fleet ; 


OBO 


789 


GEO 


ni'cl 

ian 

t(i 

tire 


of 

;il>- 

1118- 

the 
iticB 
id 

tho 
inii- 
rii'd 
.rid. 
ini- 

tlie 

I.U.- 
hoir 
Hod 


wblla  bU  •UUdc*  with  Iltram,  king  of  Tyre,  enabled 
him  to  command  the  nklll  »t  tlin  T'hu'nlcliinH  fur  the 
conducting  of  the  voyuge.  l'»it>lng  thniiiKh  tlie  Straits 
of  lialwlmandal,  thoy  carrlod  on  cominerun  in  the  In- 
diun  Ocean  (  and  no  dlitant  were  the  cnuntrlea  to  which 
they  traded,  that  the  voyage  occupied  no  leM  than 
three  yeira.  But  tliouitli  the  .fnwit  Ihut  fur  a  time  en- 
K»K''l  in  tha  punuitH  uf  trndn,  yrt  tlin  tendency  of 
thoir  inntttutlonit,  which  wnrn  nx|iruiiidy  denljfned  to 
preserve  them  a  •e|uiriitn  [wople,  wim  unfiivoruble  to 
tho  development  of  the  I'liiPinerclal  iipirit  wliicli  their 
monurcbs  wlahed  tu  fiMter  aiiiiinK  thcin.  Tbl;,  Joined 
with  the  division  of  the  kingdom  on  the  death  of  Sol- 
omon, proved  fatal  to  their  rUiiig  grnatncnn  an  a  com- 
nierciiil  people,  and  excluded  them  from  ranklnj;  amon)( 
the  nutioHH  who  have  Mintriliuted  to  the  advancement 
of  )(eoi;rapbicul  knowledife,  It  In  iwrhapa  lm|>o8Kiblo 
to  fix  with  ct-rtalnty  the  liniltK  wblrli  iHiunded  thcgeo- 
f{rapblculri^iii'iiri'lieii«fthu)'h(i!nlclami,(maccountofthe 
dilHcuity  there  iitof  amilgnliig  the  preclmi  places  marked 
out  liy  the  names  then  given  tii  the  I'oimtrtss  to  wbicli 
they  traded.  The  length  of  time  occupied  In  tho  voy- 
otfB,  and  the  nature  of  the  cargoes  brought  homo,  with 
a  few  otlier  cjrciimiitajii'eii  of  the  some  vague  kind,  are 
the  only  purtUulars  afforded  to  direct  us  In  tbo  deter- 
mination. 'I'hiis,  the  country  of  Opiilr,  to  which  the 
Phoenicians  navigated  the  ships  of  Solomon,  must  bo 
ascertained  by  tl)«  facts  that  the  vriyagc  thither  iind 
homeward  oci^upled  three  years,  anil  that  the  cargo 
consisted  of  "  gobl,  and  sliver.  Ivory,  and  apes,  and 
peacocks."  Among  tlie  various  opinions  which  have 
been  entertained  respecting  the  posltlcm  of  this  distant 
c.iimtr.>  tho  most  probable  appears  to  be  thot  it  was 
situated  in  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  iis  far  south  as 
Sofala.  To  this  quarter  every  Inillcatlon  seems  clearly 
to  point ;  ind  whatever  objections  may  appear  to  stand 
1 '.  tho  wuj  ,  in  consldi-ratloii  of  the  remoteness  of  the 
region,  ii.id  the  dinicultles  to  be  eucouiilered,  these 
admit  uf  being  answered  by  n  reference  to  tlie  length 
of  "ime  reipilted  for  the  voyage,  and  to  the  wealth, 
naval  skill,  and  ample  re»ourie»,  nt  tho  command  of 
tbo  monari'lM  engaged  In  tfie  trafltc. 

The  regicjiiB  always  ijioken  of  lu  Scripture  ns  the 
most  remote  with  which  the  Hebrews  ind  I'bdTMans 
were  acqua'ntad,  are  Tarslilsh,  Opblr,  the  fsles  Shoba 
and  Dedun,  the  r'vcr*  (log,  Mag^ig,  and  the  North, 
Without  entorlni/  Into  any  disciissiiiti,  we  may  give 
what  appear  to  b.-  the  must  probable  concluslcns  with 
regard  to  tho  positions  of  the  (  iiinliles  to  which  thcM- 
iionics  wore  ap|ilied.  iarnhlsli  !s  »  country  from 
wlilcli  two  voyai^es  are  Sfikfo  of  In  Scripture  n«  being 
made ;  one  by  the  MedltcrMneun,  bringing  iron,  sif- 
vor,  lead,  ami  tin,  ''lo  produce  of  Spain  and  flritaln  j 
tho  other  by  tiio  l.r  i  Sea,  brlnglii;<  gold,  l-ory  and 
otlier  p.i)duction»  '•(  tropical  Africa.  Thc^'  two  '.ly. 
■a;;es,  though  at  first  they  apisar  Imongruous,  if  sup. 
piiscd  to  be  iiiode  to  ihe  s«  '  e  country,  may  bo  reconcile! 
by  supposing  that  Tarshlf  n  Is  fundamentally  ('ari(ir.j.;e, 
wfiich  monopoll^^ed  a'lii.idt  entirely  th"  (■  imnicrcc  of 
Spain  and  Ilritain,  and  vmu  the  inedliirii  ihroiigh  which 
tho  com.nodlties  of  the  We«t  were  dlslnbufedj  and 
tliat  the  name  of  this  gr'ut  African  metropolis  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  Afrlc!,  The 
Isles  are  Hie  wli(do  southern  coasts  of  Fiir-ppe,  consist- 
ing citlier  of  real  Islands  or  peninsular  tracts,  Shoba 
is  tlie  southern  [wrtlon  if  that  part  of  the  coaot  of 
Arabia  which  borders  tm  the  lied  Sea ;  while  Ilednn 
lies  u|Kin  the  opposite  coiuit,  that  tsirders  on  the  Pernian 
(iulf.  These  countries  rose  to  commercial  Importance 
in  conseqileiico  of  the  viibiiilile  cnyimodltlps  which 
were  lnipor,ed  Into  the  former  from  the  African  coast, 
und  Into  the  hitter  from  India,  'i'hence  arose  the 
trafllc  carried  on  by  "the  com|inniei  of  Slieba,"  or 
caravans,  aad  by  "  tho  traveling  companliis  of  Oedii- 
iilm."  The  Ulver  was  the  name  always  applied  to  the 
KuphratcH.  ^iog,  Magog,  and  the  North,  appear  to  Ij« 
the  high  liible-land  in  tlie  Interior  and  north  of  Asia 


Minor,  Phrygia,  Galatta,  CappadocU,  und  Papblogo- 
nla,  regions  in  which  may  be  recognized  the  peculiarly 
rude  and  formidable  aspect  which  belonged  to  the 
countries  to  which  in  ancient  times  the  names  In  ques- 
tion wore  applied.'  See  Encyclopcedia  of  Geography,  by 
H.  MuuRAY,  Esq. 

Tho  Carthaginians,  a  Phmnlcian  colony,  retained  In 
full  vigor  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  parent  State. 
They  did  not,  however,  attempt  to  divide  with  Tyre 
tho  wealth  and  power  wbb'h  she  derived  from  the  mo- 
nopoly of  tho  trade  carried  on  in  the  Arabian  Gulf. 
They  directed  their  eflTorts  to  the  opposite  quarter,  and 
sailing  through  the  Straits  of  Gades,  pushed  their 
researches  far  beyond  tho  bounds  which  had  been 
reached  by  the  mother  country  in  this  part  of  tho 
glot>e.  They  vl.sited  not  only  all  the  coast  of  Spain,  but 
likewise  that  of  Gaul,  and  penetrated  at  length  as  far 
as  the  south-western  coast  of  Britain,  where  they  ob- 
tained tin  from  the  mines  of  Cornwall  or  in  traffic  with 
tho  natives.  Nor  was  it  only  toward  tlie  northward 
that  they  directed  their  efforts  ;  tliey  explored  also  the 
regions  southward  of  the  Straits,  and  sailing  along  tho 
western  const  of  Africa  almost  as  far  as  the  northern 
tropic,  they  planted  i.olonies,  as  tlie  Phoenicians  of 
Tyre  had  formerly  done,  with  a  view  to  prepare  the 
natives  for  carrying  on  commercial  intercourse.  The 
Atlantic  Ocean  was  destined  to  conceal  for  ages  from 
tho  inhabitants  of  the  old  world  the  immense  regions 
which  lie  lieyond  it.  But  tho  Carthaginians  extended 
the  boundarj-  of  navigation  westward  by  the  discoverj" 
of  the  Fortunate  Islands,  now  known  \iy  the  name  of 
the  Canaries. 

Tlio  enlargement  of  views  gradually  generated  by 
this  spirit  of  rommcrcial  enterprise  led  at  length  to 
voyaf;es  of  which  discovery  was  the  .ipecial  object. 
The  circumnavigation  of  Africa  was  one  of  tlie  earliest 
attempts  of  tliis  kind  made  Iiy  the  ancients.  The  di- 
rection whi,)li  the  iiiiisttakea  beyond  the  Mediterranean 
on  tho  one  hand,  and  the  Red  Sea  on  the  other,  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  a  peninsula  which  it  might  be  pos- 
silde  to  sail  round.  This  voyage  was  first  undertaken 
by  the  Kgyptians ;  a  people  cscccdingly  averse  to 
engage  in  naval  affairs,  but  who  at  this  time  were 
ruled  01  er  liy  Nei  ho,  a  monarch  whose  active  spirit 
prompted  him  to  engage  some  Phoenicians  to  d-.«cend 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  and,  coasting  along  Africa,  to  en- 
deavor to  return  by  the  Straits  of  Gades,  Herodotus 
narrates  in  a  few  word.i  the  result  of  this  enterprise, 
which  was  undertaken  ulioiit  004  years  before  the' 
Christian  era.  lie  says,  "the  I'liirnlclans,  setting 
sail  from  the  Kcd  Sea,  made  their  way  Into  the  south- 
em  sea  J  and  when  autumn  approachc '  thoy  drew 
their  ves.«els  to  land,  sowed  a  crop,  and  waited  until  It 
.v»s  grown  ;  when  they  reaped  it,  and  agoin  put  to  sea. 
Having  spent  two  years  in  this  manner,  in  the  third 
year  they  reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  ond  returned 
'"  ^M^  P'l  reporting  what  does  not  find  belief  with  me, 
liut  may  perhaps  with  some  other  person  ;  for  they 
said  that  in  passing  Africa,  they  had  the  sun  on  their 
right  hand,  in  Ihis  niunri'jr  Libya  was  first  known." 
This  passage  has  given  ri.«c  to  inu,  h  controversy  among 
the  learned.  Hut  the  voyage  bere  .«o  liriefly  descrlbeil 
does  not  seem  to  involve  any  impossibility,  not  with- 
standing the  then  infant  state  of  navig'ition  \  and  the 
circumstances  which  the  historian  objrcts  to  as  incred- 
ilde,  is  the  very  point,  which,  frim  Its  coincidence 
with  what  we  know  .should  have  happened,  renders  the 
story  more  worthy  of  belief, 

Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  according  to  Herodotus, 

gave  a  similar  commission,  atiout  480  years  before 

the    Christian    era,    to    one    of  his    satraps,   named 

I  Sataspcs,    who,    for    0    heinous    offense,    had    lieen 

condemned  to  die.     If  successful  in  the  ncioinpllsti- 

'  ment  of  this  voyage,  Sataspes  was  to  escape  a  cruel 

death.       But  the  difTiculties   were  too    great    to  lie 

\  sunnoiinted  by  a  navigator  iirouglit  up  amid  the  lux- 

i  ury  and  indulgence  of  the  Persian  court.      Having 


GEO 


m 


GEO 


procured  from  Eg)'pt  a  Teasel  and  crew,  lie  paused 
tlirnugb  the  Straits  of  Gsdes,  ontered  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  und,  liending  Ills  course  toward  the  south, 
eoojited  tbn  continent  >(  Africa,  until,  after  rfoveral 
months,  he  probably  reached  the  cott<4t  of  Saharii. 
The  frightful  and  desr'.ute  shores  along  which  lie 
sailed,  and  the  tempestuous  ocean  vhich  beat  against 
them,  combined  to  fill  his  mind  with  alarm  ami  to 
■hake  his  ■-eaolution.  He  retraced  hia  course  t.i  the 
Straite  ;  and  hoping,  perbaps,  thac  the  labors  lie  lind 
undergone  in  the  partial  acconipliiiiment  of  the  tiisk 
imposed  on  him  would  be  accepted  by  his  royal  master 
as  a  sufficient  atonement  for  hir?  offense,  or  that  the 
oAcnse  itself  might  in  a  great  measure  be  forgotten 
he  returned  home  and  presented  himself  before  Xerxes. 
Tlie  cause  which  he  assidiied  for  the  failure  of  the 
ultimate  object  of  his  missicn  was,  that  he  hod  er  coun- 
tered a  sea  so  full  of  herbage  that  bis  passage  was 
completely  obstructed.  This  r  janon  (the  grounds  of 
which  have  never  been  satisfactorily  explained,  thougli 
it  h(M  been  alleged  that  obstacles  of  this  description  ociiir 
in  that  part  of  the  sea  which  lies  between  the  Cape 
Verd  Islands,  the  Canaries,  .  nd  the  coast  of  Africa) 
appeared  so  ridiculous  to  Xerxes,  that  iia  ordered  tli>i 
■entence  of  death  by  cvucifixion,  which  had  been  pro- 
nounced upo«  Sataspes,  to  bt  immediately  executed. 

But  the  most  celebrated  voyage  of  antuiuity  under- 
taken for  the  purpose  of  discovery  was  the  expedition 
under  Hanno,  fitted  out  by  the  authority  of  the  Senate 
of  Carthage,  and  at  the  )>•  ,iic  expense,  and  that  with 
a  view  of  attempting  a  omplete  survey  of  the  wcutcrn 
coast  of  Africa.  Of  ail  the  voyages  performed  by  the 
Phnenlcians  and  Carthaginians,  this  is  the  only  one  of 
which  we  have  an  Authentic  narratiue.  Mercantile 
Jealousy  prevented  these  two  great  commercial  states 
fh)m  communicating  to  other  nations  the  knowledge 
which  they  acquired  of  the  remote  regions  of  the  earth  ; 
and  from  this  cause,  when  the  maritime  power  of  the 
fonnor  wos  annihilated  by  Alexander's  conquest  of 
Tyre,  and  the  empire  of  the  latter  was  overthrown  liy 
the  Koman  arms,  all  monuments  of  their  great  skill  in 
nuvul  otfairs  «ppc.ir  In  a  great  measur;:  to  have  per- 
ished. Even  the  account  of  tliu  voyage  of  Ilanno 
(I'rripliit  Iltmmmit)  has  been  considered  by  its  learned 
editor,  Mr.  Dodwell,  as  a  spurious  work.  Hut  the 
arguments  of  M.  de  Montesquieu  .ind  of  M.  de  Hou- 
galnville  appear  fully  to  establish  its  authenticity, 
.which  the  learned  world  ik  w  generally  admit. 

Ilanno  set  sail  with  a  fleet  of  GO  vessels,  so  con- 
structed that,  according  to  the  mode  of  ancient  navi- 
gation, he  coulil  keep  close  in  with  the  coast.     We  are 
told  that.  In  twelve  days  ofter  leaving  the  Straits  of 
(todes,  he  reached  the  island  of  C'erne ;  that  proceed- 
ing thence,  and  following  the  direction  of  the  coast, 
be  arrived,  in  17  days,  at  a  bay,  which  he  culled  The 
We»l  Horn.     From  this  he  advanced  to  another  bay, 
which  he  named  The  Smith  Horn.     The  objects  which 
nre  descrified  as  having  been  seen  by  Hanno  in  his 
progu'ss  belong  to  tropical  Africa.     But  hi  atlcnrjting 
to  ascertain  the  places  which  he  visiteil,  or  (lie  utmost 
distance  which  he  sailed  southward,  much  difficulty 
and  uncertainty  are  experienced.     Bougainville  hup- 
pests  Hanno  to  have  reached  the  Gulf  of  Benin,  and 
contends  that  this  limit,  di.stant  as  it  is,  can  not  he 
regarded  iss  lieyond  what  may  be  conceived  to  have  I 
been  accomplished  by  the  .iiost  skillful  navigator  of  i 
antiquity.    Major  Rennell  shortens  the  distance  con- 
siderably by  conceiving  the  voyage  to  have  oeen  ex- 
tended no  further  southward  than  Slierbro  Sound,  u 
little  oeyond  Sierra  Leone.     He  thus  obtains  tlie  ail- 
vantage  of  avoiding  a  difficulty  involved  in  the  by-  : 
pothesis  of  M.  de  nougainvillc,  namely,  the  supjiositioii  } 
of  ancient  ships  having  sailed  upwa.d  of  70  geograpb-  ; 
ical  miles  in  a  day.     At  the  lame  time,  the  arguments  | 
which  «u|)|>ort  the  our  hypotbesiB  are  equally  appli-  i 
cable  to  ihe  other.  j 

According  to  tha  rIewB  of  M.  tiosselln,  however,  I 


I  the  voyage  must  be  confined  to  much  narrower  lim- 
its southward  than  oven  those  assigned  by  Major 
Pc^nnell.  He  supposes  it  to  have  terminated  alwul 
tlie  Kiver  Nun — an  opinion  which  he  supports  by  al- 
j  leging  that,  hi  such  a  voyage,  the  progress  mtist  neces- 
sarily have  been  slow.  The  Carthaginian  navigator 
hid  to  encounter  all  the  obstacles  and  dangers  incident 
to  a  course  held  along  a  shore,  and  in  a  sea,  which 
were  squilly  unknown.  Me  must  have  found  him- 
self impeded  by  the  requisite  examination  of  every 
part  uf  the  coast,  as  well  as  by  the  many  precautions 
which  the  sattty  of  the  fleet  under  his  commari  mnst 
!  have  rendered  coi'rtaiitly  necessarj-.  WItli  regard  to 
I  the  circumstances  given  in  the  narrative  which  iippear 
to  (joint  to  tropical  Africa,  Sf .  Gosselin  supposes  that 
the  same  aspect  of  life  and  nature  may,  at  that  dis- 
tant iieriod,  have  belonged  to  M(.rQcco,  then  thinly 
(jeoplcd  by  the  rude  native  trib^  ,  which  is  now  spo- 
<ially  chari'.cteristic  of  the  moro  southern  regions. 

Amid  such  diversity  of  opinion  among  the  learned, 
it  is  not  easy  to  decide  in  reference  to  a  culijcct  beset 
with  so  many  difficulties.  If  wo  assume  cither  of  the 
more  remote  distances  assigned  for  the  termiwation  of 
the  voyage,  (,'erne  must  be  identlHcd  with  the  islo  of 
Arguin  J  and,  on  Major  Kennell'- '  ■  -athesls,  the  Oulfs 
of  Bissago  and  Sherbro  presc'  umenus  islards 

described  by  Hanno,  to  ft.'ii'  ;  no  islands  coi- 

responding  im  any  other  pjn  co.ist.     On  the 

whole,  however,  the  most  limited  distance  seems 
preferable,  if  wo  admit  th.i  art  of  M.  Gosselin's  hy- 
pothesis wiiich  assigns  to  M  .  leatures  of  man  and 
of  nature  that  are  usually  held  lo  be  characteristic  of 
tropical  Africa. 

The  circuirnavigatlon  of  Africa  was  an  enterprise 
which  in  ancient  times  not  only  called  forth  the  naval 
efforts  of  the  most  powerful  maritime  States,  l>ut  which 
also  awakened  the  ambition  of  private  adventurers. 
Kudoxus,  a  native  of  C'yzieus,  being  sent  (-n  a  mission 
to  Ale::andria,  at  that  time  the  seat  of  naval  enterprise 
and  geographical  knowledge,"  his  ardent  mind,  natu- 
rally biased  to  these  pursuits,  was  aroused  to  action 
liy  the  .spirit  which  prevailed  in  that  city.  He  began 
his  career  under  the  auspices  of  Ptolemy  I'^.iergetcK, 
the  reigning  Egyptian  monarch,  who  fitted  out  a  fleet, 
and  placed  it  under  his  command.  According  to  the 
destination  assigned  him,  Eudoxus  descended  the 
Arabian  (iulf,  and  proceeded  probably  a  far  ,s  the 
southern  shore  of  Arabia.  Thence  be  appears  i  ?  have 
returned  after  o  prosperous  voyage,  with  a  valuable 
cargo  of  aromatics  and  precious  stones.  But  of  this 
wealth  lie  appears  to  have  been  deprived  by  Euergetes. 
After  the  death  of  this  monarch,  which  in  a  short  time 
took  place,  his  widow  Cleopatra  sent  Eudoxus  on 
another  voyage,  in  the  course  of  wliich  he  was  driven 
liy  unfavoralde  winds  on  the  coast  of  ICthiopia,  w'lcro 
he  was  kindly  received  l)y  tlie  inhaliitants,  and  carried 
on  with  them  an  advantageous  trafflc.  After  other 
vicLssitudes  of  fortune,  he  was  induced  by  circum- 
stances which  occurred  in  his  adventurous  life  to  leave 
the  court  of  Egy,it,  and  rcp,i.r  t  the  commercial  citj- 
of  Cadiz,  in  Spain,  and  there  to  fit  out  an  cxvedition 
for  the  purpose  of  African  discovery.  At  .ifassilia 
(Marseilles),  und  other  maritime  places  which  ho 
passed  on  his  waj'  to  Cadiz,  he  took  care  to  make 
known  his  views  and  hopes  of  success,  and  to  invito 
all  who  were  actuated  liy  any  spirit  of  enterprise  to 
nccoaipany  him.  He  succeeded  In  fitting  out  a  ship 
and  two  largo  boats,  on  board  of  which  he  carried  not 
only  goods  and  provision.^,  but  artisans,  medical  men, 
and  even  playeri  on  musical  instruments.  This  was 
no  doubt  proceeding  on  a  magnificent  scale :  but  his 
crew  was  ill  calc  dafi  d  to  second  his  lio'.d  undertaking. 
To  avoid  the  ilangerof  stranding,  Eudoxus  was  an.xious 
to  keep  the  o|>en  sea.  His  companions,  however, 
alarmed  at  tiic  swell,  i'urccd  him  to  adopt  the  usuai 
mde  then  followed  of  saiiing  along  the  shore— -a 
meuauru  which  led  to  the  disaster  which  Ke  had  antict- 


GBO 


m 


GJflO 


patad.  With  one  y«uel  of  >  lighter  construction,  on 
boanl  of  which  wu  put  the  mora  valuable  part  of  the 
cargo,  Endoxut  pursued  hia  voyage  until  be  reached  a 
part  of  the  coast  inhabited  by  a  race  of  people  that 
appeared  to  him  to  speak  the  same  language  with 
those  whom  he  bad  found  on  the  oppns  te  sidf  of  the 
I'tontlnent.  Judging  from  thin  circumBtiinc  ■:  tuat  he  bad 
ascertained  the  main  object  of  his  voyage,  he  returned 
and  endeavored  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  Bocchus, 
king  of  Mauritania.  Suspecting,  however,  treachery 
on  the  part  of  that  monarch,  he  again  had  recourse  to 
Spain.  Here  he  was  again  successful  'n  equipping 
another  expedition,  consisting  of  one  largo  vessel  lltted 
for  the  open  sea,  and  another  of  smaller  size  for  the 
examination  of  the  coast.  This  was  a  judicious  prepa- 
ration for  the  accomplishment  of  the  oliject  in  view ; 
but  with  ragard  to  the  issue  of  the  voyage  no  accounts 
of  any  authority  have  been  preserved. 

Such  are  the  leading  circumstances  connected  with 
the  V  >yages  of  Eudoxus,  which  are  narrated  by 
Strabo ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  skepticism  and 
severe  criticisms  of  that  geographer,  there  is  really 
nothing  to  which  the  cundid  reader  can  reasonably 
refuse  his  Iwlief.  Frejudices,  founded,  for  the  most 
part,  on  hii  own  want  of  information,  led  Strabo  to 
treat  likewise  as  faliulous  the  relation  of  the  only 
ancient  voyage  having  Europe,  and  more  particularly 
the  British  isles,  for  its  object,  of  whicli  we  have  any 
detailed  account. 

Pyt'ieas,  a  Mossilian  navigator,  undertook  an  expe- 
dition al)out  320  years  before  the  Christian  era.  He 
■tucred  northward ;  and  after  examining  the  coasts  of 
Spam  anil  (iiitil,  he  sailed  round  the  inland  of  Albion ; 
and,  stretching  still  further  to  the  north,  he  discovered 
an  island,  the  Ultima  Thute  of  the  ancients.  What 
island  tills  was,  the  learned  are  nut  agreed.  It  has 
been  supposed  to  he  the  modern  Iceland;  tut  this 
implies  too  great  an  extent  of  open  sea  for  an  ancient 
navigator  to  traverse ;  and  besides,  six  days,  the  pe- 
riod during  which  lifl  is  said  to  have  navigated  to  the 
northward  of  Allilm,  lefore  he  made  his  discovery,  is 
too  short  a  time  In  iilniit  of  his  reaching  Iceland. 
Others,  among  whom  id  Malte-llrun,  have  considered 
Julliiiij  ns  Ultima  Thulc.  Hut  it  should  bu  kept  in 
view  that  Pytlicus  uiiifcirmly  regarded  Thule  as  Brit- 
ish, a  character  wliich  he  I'luild  scarcel}'  conceive  to 
belong  to  Jutland,  nnulng  be  rould  have  reached  that 
peninsula  only  liy  a  long  coMr«e  along  the  coasts  of 
Germany,  which  inunt  have  impressed  on  his  mind  the 
idea  tlint  he  had  left  far  behind  him  every  thing  be- 
longing to  Britain.  (In  the  wliole,  Shetland  seems 
best  entitled  to  beconsidered  as  tl  e  ancient  Thule,  and 
suits  well  witli  the  appellation  which  I'ytheos  gives  it, 
when  he  expressly  cal)^  it  the  "  furthest  of  the  Brit- 
•ins.' 

Strabo  pndea  ors  to  throw  discredit  on  the  state- 
ments of  I'ytheas,  by  starting  objections  long  known 
to  lie  of  the  most  groundless  description  ;  and  it  is  un 
advantage  which  the  traveler  and  ni'vigatur  ))ossoi(ri 
who  describe  faithfully  the  grand  features  of  nature, 
that,  however  prejudice  may  dim  their  rep'tation  for 
a  time,  yet  will  their  accuracy  us  well  as  veracity  at 
lengtii,  \n  the  progress  of  knowledge,  appear,  and 
■ecure  for  them  the  respect  aiid  applause  of  mankind. 
At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  in  describ- 
ing what  hu  saw  beyond  his  LUtimn  Thuh-.  the  state- 
ment given  by  I'ytheas,  as  reported  by  .strabo,  as- 
sumes a  somawhat  fabulous  cha>'acter,  lie  asserted, 
tt  seems,  that  beyond  Thule  there  conmienced  what 
was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air,  but  a  confused  blend- 
ing of  all  the  three.  But  even  here  some  allowance 
b  to  be  made  for  the  workings  of  iinaginatiou  under 
very  |iecuUar  eircumstuiices,  and  a  readiness,  not  un- 
natural, to  Udievft  reports  wliich  reprtseiittd  him  to 
have  reached  the  extremity  of  the  habitalile  globe.  If 
bis  language  is  nut  t(<o  literally  iuterpretcJ,  it  will  Imi 
fuund  to  I'onve}  a  strongly  figurative,  but  not  alto- 


gether imperfect,  description  of  the  state  of  tha  mw 
and  sky  in  those  climes,  which  have  been  ao  little 
favored  by  nature, 

The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  making 
known  the  East,  enlarged  the  bounds  of  geographical 
knowledge.  Though  the  course  of  his  expedition  was 
for  the  most  part  by  land,  his  mind  was  equally  intent 
on  commerce  and  maritime  discovery.  Checked  as  ho 
had  CO  long  been  in  the  career  of  his  victories  by  the 
opposition  and  efforts  of  the  republic  of  Tyre,  he  bad 
an  opportunity  afforded  him  of  observing  the  vast 
resources  of  a  maritime  power,  and  at  the  same  time 
of  forming  a  judgment  respecting  the  immense  wealth 
to  be  derived  from  commerce,  es|>eciaUy  from  that 
carried  on  with  India,  which  he  found  to  be  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  the  Tyriuns.  With  a  view  to  secure  this 
commerce,  a^  soon  as  he  had  completed  the  conquest 
of  Egypt,  he  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria,  and  thus 
established  for  it  a  station  preferable  in  many  respects 
to  Tyre.  After  bis  final  victory  over  the  Persians, 
his  march  in  pursuit  of  Bessus,  who  had  carried  off 
Darius  into  BactriaPu,  often  led  him  near  to  Indk, 
and  among  people  accustomed  to  much  intercourse 
with  it,  from  whom  he  learned  mauy  things  concerning 
the  state  of  the  country,  that  served  so  to  confirm  and 
inflame  a  desire  which  he  had  long  cherished,  of  ex- 
tending his  dominion  over  those  regions,  that  he  was 
induced  to  conduct  his  army  from  Bactria,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  invasion,  across  that  ridge  of  mountains  which 
form  the  northern  barrier  of  India.  After  passing  the 
Indus,  Alexander  directed  his  march  to  the  Ganges, 
which,  from  the  accounts  he  heard  of  it,  and  of  the 
countries  through  which  it  flows,  he  was  eager  to 
reach.  The  route  which  he  found  it  necessary  to  fol- 
low, in  consequence  of  being  successively  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  various  native  princes,  led  him  through 
one  of  the  richest  and  best-peopled  countries  in  India, 
now  called  Punjab.  In  his  ultimate  object,  however, 
he  failed.  His  march  being  performed  during  the 
rainy  season,  his  troops  had  already-  suffered  so  much, 
that,  notwithstanding  the  high  degree  in  which  he 
possessed  all  those  qualities  that  secure  an  as':cndancy 
over  the  minds  of  soldiers,  he  was  unable  to  persuade 
them  to  advance  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Hyphasis, 
the  modem  Beyah,  which  was  accordingly  the  utmost 
limit  of  Alexander's  progress  in  India. 

By  this  expedition,  Alexander  first  opened  the 
knowledge  of  I  ndia  to  the  people  of  Europe  ;  and  as 
he  wag  accompanied,  wherever  he  went,  by  skillful 
surveyors,  Oiognetes  and  Baeton,  who  measured  the 
length  and  determined  the  direction  of  every  route 
taken  by  the  army,  he  furnished  a  survey  of  an  exten- 
sive district  of  it,  more  accurate  than  could  have  been 
expected  from  the  short  time  he  remained  in  that 
country.  The  memoirs  drawn  up  by  his  oincers  like- 
wise afforded  to  Europeans  their  first  authentic  in- 
formation respecting  the  climate,  the  soil,  the  produc- 
tions, and  the  inhabitants  of  India. 

Though  Alexander  did  not  penetrate  to  the  Ganges, 
his  expedition  prej)ared  Ih.  way  to  the  knowledge  of 
that  magnificent  stream.  For  soon  after,  Seleucus, 
one  of  bis  successors,  sent  Megasthenes  as  his  ombos- 
sador  to  Palibothra,  the  capital  of  a  powerful  nation 
on  the  b,inks  of  the  Ganges.  The  site  of  Palibothra 
was  probably  the  same  us  that  of  the  modem  city  of 
Allahabad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Biver  Jumn..  with 
the  Ganges,  This  embassy  brought  new  and  opulent 
provinces  of  India  into  view,  an  acquaintance  with 
which  served  to  raise  still  higher  the  idea  generally 
entertained  of  the  value  and  importance  of  the 
country. 

The  island  Tiiprobane,  so  celebrated  among  the  an- 
cients, which  appears,  notwithstanding  some  great  mis- 
takes with  respect  both  to  its  extent  and  position,  to  be 
the  modern  Ceylon,  seems  not  to  have  been  known  in 
Europe  even  by  name  betore  the  age  of  Alexander.  In 
consequence,  huweve'-,  of  the  enlightened  and  active 


/ 


GEO 


19t 


GEO 


enrioslty  with  wMcli  be  explored  erery  conntiy  which 
he  anhdued  or  visited,  dome  knowledge  of  it  was  nt 
length  obtained ;  and,  after  his  time,  it  la  mentioned 
by  almost  everj'  ancient  Rcogmplier.  While  Alexan- 
der was  attempting  to  penetrate  Into  India,  a  numerous 
fleet  was  assembled  by  officers  whom  he  had  left  on  the 
banks  of  the  Hydaspes,  the  modem  liehat  or  Ohelnm, 
with  orders  to  build  and  collect  as  many  ships  as  they 
could.  The  destination  of  this  fleet  was  to  soil  down 
the  Indus  to  the  ocean,  and  f*om  its  mouth  to  proceed 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  with  a  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication between  India  and  the  centre  of  his  do- 
minions. 

When  Alexander  reached  the  banks  of  the  Hydas- 
pes on  his  return,  he  committed  the  conduct  of  this 
expedition  to  Nearrhus.  The  voyage  down  the  Indus 
derived  splendor  from  the  greatness  and  magnificence 
of  the  armument,  which  consisted  of  an  army  of  120,000 
men,  and  200  elephants,  and  of  a  fleet  of  nearly  2000 
Teasels.  Alexander  himself  accompanied  Nearchus  in 
his  navigation  down  the  river,  with  one  third  of  the 
troops  on  boani ;  while  the  remainder.  In  two  divisions, 
one  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  W.  of  the  river, 
accompanied  them  in  their  progress.  Kavlng  reached 
the  ocean  after  the  lapse  of  nine  months,  Alexander 
left  Nearchns  and  his  crew  to  pursue  their  voyage,  and 
conducted  his  army  back  by  land  to  Persia.  A  coast- 
ing voyage  of  seven  months  brought  Nearchua,  with 
the  fleet,  in  safety,  up  the  Persian  Gulf  into  the  Eu- 
phrates. It  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  thut  the 
Greeks  witnessed  for  the  first  time,  ond  that  with  as- 
tonishment and  terror,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea ;  a 
phenomenon  scarcely  jjerceptlble  in  the  Mediterranean, 
to  which  their  navigation  had  formerly  been  confined. 
In  the  progress  of  the  voyage  they  were  also  struck 
with  surprise  on  observing  phenomena  belonging  to 
the  midsummer  of  the  tropics.  At  noon  objects  were 
observed  to  project  no  shadows,  or  to  project  small 
shadows  declining  to  the  south.  Their  attention  was 
still  further  attracted  by  the  new  appearance  of  the 
aky.  Stars  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  see 
high  in  the  heavens  were  now  seen  near  the  horizon. 
Some  stars  to  the  north  disappeared,  while  other  stars 
formerly  invisible  were  seen  In  the  south. 

The  opening  of  a  communication  1>etween  the  Red 
Sea  and  tha  Persian  Gulf  was  with  Alexander  another 
great  object  of  ambition.  But  though  with  this  view 
he  seems  t«  have  sent  expeditions  down  both  seas, 
he  failed  in  his  attempts  to  accomplish  this  project. 
AmoHij  the  Romans,  navigation  and  commerce,  the 
handmaids  of  geographical  science,  were  never  made 
objects  of  pursuit,  except  in  so  far  as  they  w«re  found 
to  be  ncccsrarj-  to  forward  their  schemes  of  universal 
dominion.  Their  eontiuests  opened  indeed  the  West, 
as  those  of  Alexander  had  made  known  the  Kast ;  and 
it  might  be  truly  said  of  that  great  people,  that  as  they 
were  the  conquerors,  so  thej'were  the  surveyors  of  the 
world.  Everj'  new  war  produced  a  new  survey  and  Itin- 
erary of  the  countries  which  were  the  acenea  of  action ; 
so  that  the  materials  of  geography  were  accumulated  by 
erery  additional  conquest.  Some  fragments  of  the  itin- 
eraries thus  composed  still  remain.  The  most  mem- 
orable Is  that  whi^h  bears  the  name  of  Antoninus,  and 
which  may  t)e  described  as  a  mere  skeleton  road-l>ook, 
arhibiting  nothing  more  than  the  names  of  places, 
and  their  distances  from  each  other.  The  .Jerusalem 
Itinernry,  which  details  minutely  tl.e  route  from 
fiordeauTt.  to  that  bolv  city,  is  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion. 

A  more  remarkable  monument,  however,  is  the 
PenlingeriitH  Tal/'f,  which  forms  a  map  of  the  world, 
constructed  oi:  the  most  singular  principles.  The  map 
la  twenty  feet  long  snd  only  one  foot  broad,  so  that  we 
ct  riO.Hiiy  conceive  how  Incorrectly  the  proportion  of 
the  dlfferunv  pirts  Is  exhibited.  Along  the  hlgfi  rfiad 
which  traverscM  the  Roman  empire  in  the  general 
direction  of  east  and  wi'.st,  objects  are  uihmtely  and 


ncenrately  represented ;  hut  of  those  objects  wbiah  11* 
to  the  north  and  south  of  it,  only  soma  general  notion 
is  conveyed.  The  Peuttngerian  Table  serves  aa  m 
apeclmen  of  what  are  called  ftifura  Pieia,  tha  "  paint* 
ed  roads"  of  the  ancients,  Intended  for  the  clearer 
direction  of  the  march  of  their  armlea. 

While  tha  Romans  by  their  aurveys  contributed 
much  to  increaae  the  masa  of  materials  out  of  which 
the  structure  of  geographical  science  was  to  be  reared, 
they  never  attempted  themselves  to  combine  these 
materials  Into  one  harmonious  system.  They  Imbibed 
In  no  drj<ree  (he  commercial  spirit  of  tha  great  mari- 
time Stati'n  rf  the  ancient  world,  Carthage,  Greece, 
ana  Egy;il,  which  their  valor  and  discipline  obliged  to 
submit  to  their  dominion.  But  while  the  trade  of  the 
Minquered  countries  continued  to  be  carried  on  through 
nearly  the  former  channels  after  they  were  reduced  to 
the  form  of  Roman  provinces,  the  wealth  accumulated 
in  the  capital  of  the  world  gave  rise  to  a  demand  for 
luxuries  of  ever)'  description.  This,  combined  with 
the  comparative  peace  and  security  which  for  a  long 
time  prevailed  after  the  complete  establishment  of  tha 
Roman  dominion,  gave  new  vigor  to  commercial  enter- 
prise. Alexandria  continued  tlie  great  centre  of  naval 
aflTairs.  Olistacles  which  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
were  Seemed  insurmountable,  were  completely  over- 
come. Trade  with  1  ndla  through  Eg}'pt  acquired  new 
energy',  and  was  carried  on  to  a  greater  extent.  Oon- 
tinued  Intercourse  with  the  shores  of  India  at  length 
made  known  to  navigators  the  periodical  winds  which 
prevail  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  taking  advantage 
of  these,  pilots  were  emboldened  to  abandon  the  slow 
and  dangerohs  course  along  the  coasts,  and  to  make 
the  oi>en  sea  their  highway.  This  course  was  from 
Ocells,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  to  Nelkunda 
(Nelisuram),  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Indian  conti- 
nent (the  coast  of  Malabar),  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  utmost  limit  of  the  ancient  navigation  in  that  quarter 
of  the  globe.  The  extensive  regions  which  stretch  be- 
yond this  to  the  east  wore  very  imperfectly  known  by 
the  reports  obtained  from  a  few  adventurers  who  vis- 
ited them  by  land. 

If  we  now  bring  into  one  view  the  amount  of  in- 
formation possessed  by  the  ancients  respecting  the 
habitable  globe,  wo  shall  find  that  it  was  extremely 
limited.  It  was  at  those  places  on  the  earth  where  the 
human  mind  displayed  greatest  activity  and  enterprise 
that  this  knowledge  was  naturally  accumulated.  Pro- 
ceeding from  these  stations,  the  boundary'  which  sep^ 
rated  the  known  from  the  unknown  part  of  the  world 
was  gradually  enlarged ;  but  the  regions  comprehended 
within  It  constituted  still  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
whole.  lu  Europe  the  extensive  provinces  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  Germany  were  but  little  known,  while  the 
whole  of  that  vast  territory  which  now  forms  the 
countries  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Poland,  and 
Russia,  was  buried  ir  the  deepest  obscurity.  The  in- 
hospitable and  drear)'  climes  within  the  arctic  circle 
were  yet  unexplored.  In  Africa,  little  was  known  be- 
yond the  countries  stretching  along  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  those  bordering  on  the  western  shore  of  tha 
Arabian  Gulf.  In  Asia,  the  rich  and  fertile  countries 
beyond  the  Ganges,  whence  the  commerce  of  modern 
times  has  drawn  the  most  valuable  commodities  for  the 
comfort  and  embellishment  of  civilized  society,  were 
known,  if  known  at  all,  only  by  the  most  vague  and 
uncertain  report.  The  immense  regions  on  the  noith 
occupied  by  the  wsndering  tribes  called  in  ancient 
times  by  the  general  names  of  Sarmutians  or  Scy- 
thians, and  which  are  now  inhabited  by  virious  tribes 
of  Tartars,  and  by  the  Asiatic  subjects  of  Russia,  seem 
never  to  have  lieen  penetrated.  Add  to  this,  that  the 
fertile  and  populous  regions  within  the  torrid  zona 
were  imagined  to  be  uninhabitable ;  and  we  have  am- 
ple proof  that  the  geography  of  the  ancients  was  very 
Imperfect. 

Having  thu.s  fur  given  a  succinct  view  of  the  pn^ 


GEO 


m 


GEO 


gmatre  steps  by  which  the  e&rth'n  axatnce,  eontldored 
merely  as  tructt  of  territory  inhabited  liy  men,  gnulu- 
aily  liei^ame  known,  it  wili  lie  proper  next  to  trace 
briefly  the  ailvnnces  made  toward  urranKioK  '"'"  "  'y^ 
tematic  form  Mie  materials  accuniulatod.  Science  re- 
quired that  (lie  relative  pimitions  of  plac-vx,  with  their 
distances  from  eocli  other,  nhoiild  IJo  aBccrtaine<l  in 
such  a  manner  aa  to  fumisli  fixed  principles  on  which 
the  whole,  or  any  portion,  of  the  surface  of  the  earth 
ml);ht  be  repreAentml  cr  delineated  with  due  regard  to 
its  figure  and  dlmensioiis. 

The  ilrst  rude  attempt  mado  by  the  early  geogro- 
phers  to  determine  the  position  of  places  appears  to 
have  depended  on  tho  division  of  the  earth  into  cli- 
matet,  distinguished  l>y  the  species  of  animals  and 
plants  produced  in  each.  Thns  the  appearance  of  the 
negro,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  elephant,  suggested  to 
them  the  line  of  division  where  the  torrid  zone  began 
toward  the  north,  and  ended  toward  the  south.  But 
instead  of  this  vor}'  vague  method,  another  was  soon 
adopted,  which  consisted  in  observing  at  places  the 
length  of  the  longest  and  shortest  day.  This  was  de- 
termined with  some  accuracy  by  means  of  a  gnotmm,  a 
metliod  of  observation  much  used  by  the  ancients.  An 
upright  pillar  of  a  known  height  being  erected  on  a 
level  pavement,  bj'  observing  the  lengths  of  the  me- 
ridian shadows,  they  were  enabled  to  t.  ice  the  progress 
of  the  sun  from  tropic  to  tropic.  The  most  ancient  ol>- 
tervation  with  the  gnomon  which  we  meet  with  is  that 
of  Pytheas,  in  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Py- 
theas  observed  at  the  summer  solstice  at  Marseilles, 
that  the  length  of  the  meridUm  shadow  was  to  the 
height  of  the  gnomon  as  2iai  to  600 ;  an  observation 
which  makes  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun  at 
Marseilles  on  that  day  70°  27'.  The  merit  of  the 
invention  of  the  gnomon  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  the 
astronomical  school  of  Miletus,  and  particularly  to 
Anaximander  and  Anaximencs.  Thera  is  reason, 
however,  to  Iwlieve  that  this  method  of  observation 
was  originiilly  invented  by  the  Egyptians ;  and  that 
Thales,  who  traveled  into  Egj-pt,  carried  thence  the 
knowledge  of  it  into  Greece.  It  has  even  been  con- 
jectured that  the  Egj'ptian  pyramids  and  oi)eli3ks 
were  intended  for  the  same  purpose  with  the  gnomon  ; 
and,  though  it  would  Iw  extravagant  to  imagine  that 
this  was  their  sole  uso,  this  opinion  ap|>ears  to  l>e  coun- 
tenanced l)y  the  fact  of  their  Iwing  placed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  four  cardinal  points. 

Tho  determination  of  the  length  of  the  meridian 
shadow  at  the  solstices  for  different  parts  of  the  oa-.th, 
by  observations  made  with  tho  gnomon,  is  important 
as  l)eing  the  iirst  step  toward  connecting  geography 
with  astronomy ;  and,  when  combined  with  just  con- 
ceptions of  tlie  globular  figure  of  tlie  earth,  leads,  by 
a  simple  train  of  thought,  to  the  motion  of  latitude  by 
which  the  position  of  a  place  is  fixed  relatively  to 
north  and  south.  The  position  with  regard  to  east  and 
west  is  tho  only  other  element  necessary  for  fixing  the 
absolute  situation  of  the  place  on  tho  surface  of  tlie 
earth.  It  might  have  licen  supposed  not  to  be  more 
than  a  reflecting  mind  could  easily  accomplish,  to  reach 
the  conception  of  botli  these  elements,  and  to  apply 
them  to  use.  Yet  so  slow  was  the  progress  toward  the 
apprehen8i{m  of  tho  prmciples  on  which  an  accurate 
system  of  geography  ndght  be  founded,  that  from  tho 
days  of  Thales  and  Ids  immediate  successors,  who 
flourished  in  the  sixth  century  before  the  (,'hristian 
era,  there  appears  to  have  iieeii  little  done  f.ir  the  im- 
provement of  geography,  as  a  scienop,  until  the  estal)- 
lishment  oC  the  famous  astronomical  school  of  Alex- 
andria,  Pythagoras  liad  ir'deed  maintained  the  true 
system  of  the  world,  by  placing  the  sun  in  the  centre, 
and  giving  the  earth  both  a  diurnal  and  annu'il  revo- 
lution ;  but  this  doctrine  was  so  ni\i.;h  in  advaooe  of 
the  age  in  which  he  promulgated  it,  tliat  it  wa.«  soon 
lost  siglit  of. 

Eratosthenes  was  the  first  who  reduced  gflography 


to  •  TvgtiUr  system,  and  laVl  its  fonndntions  on  olear 
and  solid  principles.  Under  the  patronage  of  the 
Ptolemies,  he  had  access  to  the  materials  collected  by 
Alexander,  his  generals  and  successors,  as  \i(i]\  as  to 
tho  immense  mass  of  documents  accumulated  in  th« 
Alexandrian  library.  At  an  early  [wriod  of  the  liis- 
tory  of  astronomical  science,  the  vulgar  opiniim  that 
the  earth  is  a  flat  surface,  with  the  heavens  resting 
upon  it  as  a  canopy,  was  rejected ;  but  it  was  nut  at 
once  that  distinct  conceptions  of  its  globular  flguro 
weVe  acquired.  It  was  only  as  astronomical  observo^ 
tions  increased  that  the  doctrine  of  its  sphericity  was 
fully  est.ildishod.  Tliis  ))oint  had  been  gained  when 
Eratosthenes  began  his  laliors;  and  what  ho  endeavor- 
ed to  accomplish  was  to  delineate,  in  strict  conformity 
with  this  principle,  tlie  known  parts  of  the  earth's 
surface, 

AVith  this  view,  founding  his  system  on  the  use  of 
the  gnomon,  he  supposed  a  lino  to  lie  traced  tlirough 
certain  places,  in  all  of  which  the  longest  day  was 
known  to  be  exactly  of  the  same  length.  This  lino 
would  evidently  be  n  parallel  to  the  equator.  But 
though  his  method  was  correct  in  principle,  the  want 
of  accurate  observations  rendered  it  uncertain  in  prac- 
tice. The  line  was  supposed  to  comprise  all  the  lead- 
ing (wsitiona  which  lay  near  it,  though  tliey  did  not 
actually  come  within  its  range.  Its  western  extremity 
was  the  Sacred  Promontory  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent) ;  thence  it  pa.ssed  through  the  straits  of  Gades. 
Proceeding  eastward,  it  passed  tlirough  tho  Slciliaa 
Sea,  and  near  the  southern  extremity  of  tlie  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  was  continued  through  the  island  of  Kliodes, 
and  the  Bay  of  Issus ;  whence  entering  C'iliuia,  and 
crossing  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  it  was  extended 
to  the  mountains  of  India,  and  terminated  at  the  re- 
mote city  of  Thina!,  situated  on  tlie  Eastern  Ocean. 
Tho  parallel  thus  drawn  was  understood  to  pass 
through  all  those  places  where  the  longest  day  was 
14J  hours.  It  stretched  the  whole  length  of  what  wos 
supposed  to  be  the  haliitaldo  world,  and  measured 
about  70,000  stadia;  a  distance  corresponding,  accord- 
ing to  tho  estimate  of  Eratosthenes,  to  about  140  de- 
grees, which  is  nither  more  than  one  third  of  the 
circuit  of  the  glolie. 

This  first  parallel  drawn  through  Rhodes  was  ever 
afterward  preferred  as  tho  basis  of  aiioieiit  maps ;  inas- 
much as  it  was  traced  through  the  middle  of  the  Med- 
iterranean, along  the  coasts  of  which  were  situated  the 
principal  nations  of  antiquity.  Following  out  tho 
same  happy  thought  wliicli  he  had  thus  succeiisfully 
made  the  groundwork  of  his  system,  Eratostiieues  was 
induced  not  only  to  trace  other  parallels  at  certain 
intervals  from  tho  fir^t,  as  one  through  Alexandria, 
another  through  Syone,  and  a  third  through  Meroe ; 
but  also  to  trace,  at  right  angles  to  these,  a  merulian, 
passing  through  Khodes  and  Alexandria  southward  to 
Sycno  and  Meroe.  As  the  progress  which  he  thus 
mado  toward  the  completion  of  what  ho  had  so  skiU- 
fully  conceived,  naturally  tended  to  enlarge  \nii  ideas 
conceniing  geograpliical  acioiice,  he  attempted  what 
seemed  a  8till  more  diiKcult  unilertakiug,  namely,  to 
determine  the  circumference  of  the  globe  by  the  actual 
measurement  o^  a  segment  of  one  of  its  great  circles. 
The  method  he  pursued  has  been  clearly  pointed  out  in 
the  article  AsnioNoMV,  Iluci/.  llrit.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence among  ancient  authors  respecting  the  result  ob- 
tained by  Eratosthenes.  Tlie  great  majority,  however, 
state  it  to  lie  252,000  stadia,  which  give  exactly  700 
stadia  for  a  degree  of  the  equator,  and  hoi  stadia  for  the 
degree  of  longitude  upon  thu  parallel  drawn  through 
Khiides. 

The  knowledge  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth  is 
a  necessary  element  in  the  construction  of  maps ;  and 
hcuce  the  most  emhicnt  of  the  ancient  astrrnomioal 
geographers  made  ropeated  endeavors  to  detennine  it 
with  accuracy.  Possidonius,  by  an  astronomical  ob- 
servation, determined  the  urc  of  tho  mcriilian  between 


1/ 


GEO 


fW 


GEO 


Bhodu  ud  Alexandria  to  be  a  forty.«lghth  part  of  th« 
whole  circiimferenre.  With  regard  to  the  distance 
lietween  thene  two  place*,  MOO  stadia  were  the  rvputed 
distance ;  hut  Kratnslheno*  had  made  It  only  SifiO 
stadia  upward  of  170  years  l)efiirfl,  and  Iwtwixt  these 
two  Possodonlus  had  to  make  rholce.  The  former 
uamber  gives  2-10,000  stadia  for  the  whole  circumfer- 
ence, the  latter  180,000  stadia.  Of  this  last  result, 
which  gives  SOO  stadia  ftor  a  degree  of  tho  equator, 
Possldonius  is  reported  hy  Straho  to  have  apjiroved. 
For  want  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  length  of  the 
stadium,  it  is  now  impossible  to  judge  of  the  actual 
quantity  assigned  either  by  Knitosllienes  or  Possldo- 
nius as  the  measure  of  the  earth's  <'lrcumr«ronce ;  hut 
the  great  uncertainty  almut  the  distance  between  the 
points  of  observation  In  the  case  of  the  determination 
of  the  liittnr  astronomer  renders  Ills  conclusion  of  no 
value. 

Notwithstanding  the  soundness  of  the  principles 
which  had  now  been  laid  down  for  tho  de'linention  of 
the  glol>e,  much  remained  to  lie  done.  In  tlie  wnyof  ob- 
Bervatior,  Iwfore  an  accurate  representation  of  tho 
whole,  ur  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  could  be 
given.  Doth  the  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  on- 
clonts  are  erroneous ;  more  especially  the  latter.  This 
is  what  might  lie  expected  at  that  early  period,  nut 
in  setting  out  from  tho  Sacred  Promontor-  of  Ilieria, 
the  meridian  of  which  the  ancients  mai'e  their  lirst 
meridian,  the  hours  in  longitude  accumulate,  as  we  ad- 
vance eastwuni,  with  a  regularity,  as  well  as  rapiJit)', 
which  is  very  surprising.  Tho  regularliy  of  tlieir  in- 
crease induced  M.  (iosselin  to  conclude  that  they  were 
to  bo  attributed,  not  to  the  imporfectiim  of  independent 
observations,  but  to  some  general  cause,  which  he  en- 
deavored te  assign  by  inuigining  that  Krutosthenei 
had  access  to  some  early  map,  found  probalily  hy 
Alexander  or  his  generals  in  sonic  country  In  the  Kast, 
where  atilronoiny  had  lieen  sHcTen»fully  cultivated ; 
and  that  misappreheni^ions  respcetiiijt  the  principle  of 
delineation  employed,  which  M.  (iosselin  supposes  to 
have  been  that  on  whii'h  the  plane  chart  is  constructed, 
had  led  him  into  a  regular  system  of  errors.  In  the 
plane  map  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  sup- 
posed to  lie  the  same  ot  all  distances  from  the  equator, 
liy  taking  for  granted  that  Eratosthenes  took  hln  dis- 
tances fnim  a  map  of  this  kind,  on  which  the  parts  of 
the  globe  had  lieen  occurately  laid  down,  liut  tliat  ho 
divided  the  stadia  expressing  these  distances,  not  iiy 
700,  the  number  of  stadia  In  a  degree  at  the  equator, 
as  he  ought  to  have  done,  liut  b)-  .ViS,  the  number  corre- 
sponding to  the  parallel  of  Khodes,  M.  (iosselin  ol>- 
tains  results  which  liave  a  wonderful  coincidence  with 
the  positions  actually  given  by  l''ratosthenes.  These 
results,  however,  are  deduced  from  a  hypothesis  which 
is  unsupported  by  any  evidence,  except  what  may  1k' 
supposed  to  arise  from  this  coincidence.  A  more 
proliable  solution  seems  to  lie  that  Eratosthenes  deter- 
mined his  longitudes  fr<im  the  itinerary  measures, 
which  he  reduced  to  degrees  at  the  rate  of  TOO  stadia 
to  a  degree  at  the  equator,  and  of  .^SS  to  a  degree  at 
the  parallel  of  Rhotles ;  and  that  tlio  errors  are  the 
consequences  of  the  exaggerated  act  mints  which  mer- 
chants and  travelers  of  that  age  gave  of  the  distan- 
ces over  which  they  passed ;  their  exaggerations,  of 
course,  bearing  some  proportion  to  the  length  and 
hardships  of  the  journeys  undortakim. 

The  knowledge  as  yet  [mssBSSeil  by  geographers 
with  regarl  to  the  outline  of  the  habitable  globe  was 
far  ft'om  being  such  as  to  enable  them  to  delineate  it 
■with  amy  degree  of  precision.  This  circumstance, 
eomblael  with  tho  unavoidable  errors  in  latitude  and 
longitude,  prodaced  very  greirt  distortions  In  the  i  »pre- 
■entations  given  of  the  countries  on  the  surface  of  the  | 
gIol>q,  Under  the  guidance  uf  sound  principles  of 
iclence,  however,  it  was  now  certain  that  these  inper-  | 
fectiona  would  grat'iially  disappear. 

The  improvements  introduced  into  geography  by  | 


KratostheOM  wvre  perfected  In  principle  hy  Hippaiu 
chus.  This  celebrated  astronomer,  who  flourished  l«. 
tween  IGO  and  1!<A  years  li«fare  the  (>'hristian  era,  was 
the  first  who  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  forming  a 
catalogue  of  the  stars,  and  Axing  their  relative  |hmI> 
tions.  Ills  object  was  to  transmit  t<i  posterity  it 
knowledge  of  the  state  of  the  heavens  at  the  |ieriod  of 
his  observations.  The  extremities  of  the  imaginary 
axis  round  which  the  heavens  perform  their  diurnal 
revolution  suggest  two  Hxed  points  by  which  tlie  p<Mii. 
tlon  of  the  great  circle  of  tbe  celestial  aphare  called 
the  equator  ts  determined.  If  a  great  Hrule  be  aup- 
IHised  to  pass  through  these  points  and  any  star,  the 
position  of  the  star  will  be  ascertained  if  we  measure 
in  degrees  and  parts  of  a  degree  the  arc  of  the  merid- 
Ian  circle  intercepted  between  tho  star  and  the  equa- 
tor, and  also  the  arc  of  the  e(|uator  inteneyted  be- 
tween a  given  point  in  it,  and  the  meridian  circlo 
passing  through  the  star.  Upon  this  principle  did 
Hipparchus  arrange  tho  stars  according  to  their  place* 
in  the  heavens,  a  work  in  which  ho  ap|ieurs,  h<i\vever, 
to  have  been  in  some  measiiro  anticipated  by  Timo- 
charis  and  Arlstillus,  who  liegan  to  observe  about  296 
years  before  the  (Christian  era.  Tho  groat  improve- 
ment which  he  introduced  into  geography  consisted  in 
this,  that  he  applied  to  the  deteriuining  of  the  position 
of  any  point  on  tho  surface  of  the  earth  tho  samo  arti- 
fice which  he  had  already  so  iiapplly  Introduced  in  thi 
arrantr.  inent  of  the  constellations  ;  and  thus  funilshc. 
the  means  of  ascertaining  the  relative  situations  m 
places  with  a  precision  whicli  no  itinerary  measuii  - 
ments  could  possibly  attain.  If  we  suppose  the  eartli 
to  lie  u  globe  nincentric  with  the  celestial  sphere,  and 
intersected  by  the  planes  of  the  celestial  equator  and 
meridian,  the  principle  on  which  the  application  of 
this  artillce  to  tho  terrestrial  sphere  dc|ionds  bocomea  at 
once  obvious.  Hipparchus  made  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  observations  of  latitude,  niid  )Hiinted  out  how 
longitudes  might  lie  deterinined  by  observing  the 
eclipses  of  tho  sun  and  innoii.  (ireat  us  this  improve- 
ment was,  its  import4iiice  seems  not  to  have  been  duly 
estimated  until  the  days  of  Ptolemy  {  for  none  of  the 
intermediate  authors,  such  as  Strabo,  V'itruvius,  and 
I'liny,  have  given  the  least  hint  of  tho  latitude  and 
longitude  of  any  one  place  in  degrees  and  minutes, 
though  all  <if  tlieni  have  given  minutely  tbe  geographi- 
cal i>ositioiis  of  places  according  to  th  length  and 
shadows  of  tho  gnomon.  Strabo,  indeed,  even  justilies 
hia  neglect  of  the  astronomical  principles  introduced 
by  Hipparchus.  "  A  geographer,"  says  he,  "  is  to  pay 
no  attention  to  what  is  out  of  the  earth ;  nor  will  men 
engaged  in  conuucting  the  afTaini  of  that  part  of  the 
earth  which  is  Inhabited,  deem  the  distinction  and  di- 
visions of  Hipparchus  worthy  of  notice." 

The  true  principles  of  geogniphy  being  pointed  out 
by  the  application  o'  lutituile  am'  '.  ingitude  to  places 
on  the  earth,  the  wny  was  opened  U  the  improvement 
of  maps,  which,  with  the  single  ex.  option  of  the  map 
drawn  by  Eratosthenes,  had  hitherto  been  little  more 
than  rude  outlines  and  topographical  sketches  uf  the 
different  countries.  No  ma|ia  more  ancient  than  those 
formed  to  illustrate  Ptolemy's  geography  have  reached 
modem  times;  but  the  earliest  of  wliicli  there  is  any 
account  are  those  oi'  Sosostris,  of  whom  it  is  said,  that 
having  traversed  great  part  of  the  earth.  Iiu  caused  his 
marches  to  be  recorded  in  maps ;  anil  that  he  gave 
copies  of  these  ninps  not  only  to  the  JCgy  ptlaiis,  but  to 
the  Scythians,  whose  astonishment  ho  thus  greatly 
excited. 

Some  have  imagined  that  tho  ,Tews  made  a  map  of 
tho  Holy  Land  when  they  gave  the  di  Jcwnt  portiona 
to  the  nine  tribes  at  Shiloli.  Tor  on  that  iR'cusion,  im 
we  are  informed  by  tho  sacred  historian,  men  were  sent 
"tj)  walk  through  the  land,  <ii>d  to  dusoribe  it;"  and 
when  they  had  acoompUshed  the  oliject  <if  their  mis- 
siun  by  descriliing  "  it  hy  citi'->  into  seven  jiarts,  in  a 
book,"  they  returned  unto  Jushuu.   Whut  is  here  said, 


OEO 


m 


GEO 


bow«Ter,  do«i  not  fiiUy  deiennln<i  whether  their  men- 
■urutidn  of  the  Inuil  v»»  only  rocordcd  in  numberH,  or 
regularly  projected  and  dlgented  into  the  form  of  n 
map.  'ilia  flrst  (irecian  map  on  reoonl  la  that  of 
Anaxlmander,  mentioned  liy  Striibo,  which  xome  have 
con  lectured  to  have  been  a  )(en«<''>l  ninp  of  the  then 
kn<  wn  world.  It  huH  further  Ijiieu  imagined  to  lie  the 
Bunin  with  that  rofernd  tn  liy  IIipp:irchuK  under  the 
deniKuation  of  Th'  indent  Map,  ami  which  in  8ome 
few  paitlculara  he  preferred  to  that  of  Kratosthencfi. 

Hut  some  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  mapn  t:'  those 
early  days  will  ho  lest  obtiiliied  from  the  map  of  Aris- 
tanoras,  kin^  of  Miletus,  which  is  minutely  described 
liy  Ilenidutu.H,  Thti  historian  tells  us  that  this  map, 
which  was  traced  on  brass  or  copper,  Aristagoras 
showed  to  Cleomenen,  king  of  Spartu,  in  order  to  in- 
duce him  to  attack  the  king  of  Persia,  even  In  his  pal- 
ace at  Susa,  for  th  purp<ise  of  restoring  the  lonlans  to 
their  ancient  r.  »<  11  ".  contained  the  Intermediate 
countries  to  be  tiu/erit  in  that  march.  We  must 
not  interpret,  however,  the  words  of  Herodotus  too 
lit  rally,  when  he  describes  it  as  containing  "the 
wliole  clrcumfuronce  of  he  earth,  the  whole  sea  or 
ocean,  and  all  'he  rivers,"  Keeping  in  view  the  state 
of  geoi. '  uphy  .  that  period.  It  may  justly  be  con- 
cluded, that  notwithstanding  this  pompons  form  of  ex- 
pression, the  tea  ni  int  only  the  Mediterranean,  and 
therefore  Ma  earth  <■■  land  the  coasts  of  that  sea,  and 
moro  particukrly  Asia  Minor,  extended  toward  the 
middjo  of  Persia;  by  the.  rivere  must  lie  meant  the 
Huiys,  the  Ku,ihratos,  and  the  Tigris,  which  Herod- 
otus mentions  as  necessary  to  lie  crossed  in  the  expe- 
dition in  question.  The  map  contained  one  straight 
line,  called  the  royal  hiyhwnij,  embracing  nil  the  sta- 
tions or  places  of  encampment  between  Sardis  and 
Susa,  so  that  it  was  projiorly  an  itinerar}-. 

The  principle  on  which  Eratosthenes  constructed  his 
map  wo  have  already  'onsiderrd.  With  regard  to  its 
e.xtcnt,  it  seems  to  h  'vu  contained  little  more  than  the 
States  of  Greece,  and  the  dominions  of  the  successors 
of  Alv.xanuor,  digtsti'  \  from  the  surveys  of  the 
marches  of  that  gre.  "  general.  He  had  some  faint 
Idea  respecting  the  western  parts  of  Kuropo,  which  he 
hud  aciiuired  from  the  voyage  of  I'ytheas ;  but  not 
■uch  a  conception  us  to  enable  him  to  delineate  their 
outline  on  a  chart.  Ai;cording  to  the  report  of  Strabo, 
ho  was  (juit'i  unai  ...intcd  wltli  Spain,  Gaul,  Ger- 
many, and  Uritain ;  .•••  vas  equally  ignorant  of  Italy, 
the  coasts  of  the  Adf , . .  •,  Pontus,  and  of  all  tho  coun- 
tries toward  the  nortli.  '  "»  errors  with  regard  to  the 
distances  of  places  v  'ire  in  f  ome  instances  enormous. 
The  di.stance  of  Ca  Mage  from  Alexandria  ho  r-'-^ra- 
Bents  at  15,000  stadia,  instead  of  0000. 

It  was  not  until  Pt(demy  coinmenced  his  labors  that 
the  improvements  pointed  out  by  llliiparchiis  were 
effectually  applied  to  poi  feet  tho  system  which  Eratos- 
theni-'s  liad  so  happily  be^un.  Ptolemy  composed  his 
system  of  geography  which  escaped  mnid  the  general 
wreck  that  consume  so  many  otiier  ancient  books  of 
science,  in  tlie  reign  ot  -'.utoninus  Piu.s,  about  l.'iO  5  ears 
after  the  opening  of  t''i;  Phriatian  cm.  At  this  period 
the  Roman  umpire  hu  !  1  ..chcd  Its  utmost  extent,  and  all 
the  provinces  had  been  surveyed,  and  were  well  known. 
The  materials  then  in  existence,  and  in  the  possession 
of  Ptolemy  for  eoniplcting  his  great  work,  were  the 
proportions  of  the  height  of  the  gnomon  and  Its 
shadow,  at  the  time  ■  '  t  he  equinoxes  ar. "  solstices, 
taken  by  different  astr.  (.niers  ;  calculatliins  foundoil 
on  th  ■  length  of  tho  longest  days  ;  the  measures  or 
compute '1  distances  of  tho  principal  roads  contained  in 
the  survey*  and  itineraries;  and  the  various  reports 
of  travelers  and  navigators,  whoi  f  determinations  of 
the  distantcg  of  places  often  rest'  d,  however,  on  no 
better  foundation  tha:.  iiearsay  and  i.oiijecture.  Among 
these  various  purticnlarN,  there  evidently  existed  con- 
BideraliJ'  diifc  >e,M  i„  point  of  authority.  Hut  Pto- 
lemy un      >u'.  diBlcult  and  luborious  task  of 


comparing  and  reducing  Into  one  A}'lt«m,  which  ilionld 
possess  the  order  and  beanty  uf  science,  this  appar- 
ently incongruous  mass.  He  converted  and  tranl- 
lated  the  whole  into  a  new  mnth  imatical  language, 
expressing  In  degrees  and  minuten  the  latitude  and 
longitude  of  each  place,,  accorillng  to  the  principle) 
laid  down  by  Illpparchiis,  butwhicli  had  been  allowed 
by  geographers  to  lie  useless  for  upward  of  2A0  years. 
It  Is  in  IHolemy's  work,  which  consistti  of  eight  Iwoka, 
that  wo  find  for  the  Hrst  time  the  matlieniatlcal  prin- 
ciples of  tho  construction  of  maps,  Iniih  general  and 
particular,  as  well  as  of  several  projections  of  tha 
sphere. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  light  of  accurate  science 
thus  directed  the  steps  of  the  Hrst  geographer  of  an- 
tiquity, he  was  far  from  reaching  the  precision  at 
which  he  aimed.  This  arosft  from  tho  imporfectlon  of 
the  original  materials  upon  which  hia  work  Is  based  111 
reference  to  its  details.  With  regard  to  the  remoter 
Imurdaries  of  the  then  known  world,  In  all  lt»  quarteri', 
a  wonderful  advancement  In  knowledge  had  been  made 
sinie  the  days  of  Eratosthenes  and  of  Stralio.  But 
still  that  additional  information  was  not  fitted  to  make 
up  for  the  want  of  astronomical  observations,  by 
which  alone  accuracy  could  be  secured.  Besides,  In 
relation  to  places  situated  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  therefore  out  of  the  range  alike  of 
astronomers  and  surveyors.  It  was  almost  Impossible 
for  Ptolemy  not  to  ccmmit  mistakes.  Thus  his  errors 
arose  from  the  ignorance  of  the  age ;  and  are  of  such 
a  character  as  to  admit  of  being  removed  only  au  op- 
imrtunities  are  afforded  of  obtaining  the  requisite  ilata 
l>y  the  strict  application  of  the  princlplet  derived  from 
mathemntical  and  astronomical  science 

Ptolemy'  adopted  the  measure  of  a  degree  at  500 
stadia,  according  to  tho  standard  of  Possidonius,  in- 
stead of  following  the  measurement  of  Eratosthenes, 
which  gives  700  stadia  to  a  degree.  But  H.  Gosselin 
has  accused  him  of  an  error  of  a  more  serious  kind  ; 
because,  if  really  committed,  it  wonVI  have  indicated 
a  strange  neglect  of  what  a  geographer  should  make 
his  first  care.  This  error  consists  In  assuming  ona 
measure  for  the  degree  of  latitude  (the  measure  of 
Eratosthenes,  700  stadia)  and  another  for  tlie  degree 
of  longitude  at  the  equator.  Such  a  hypothesis  would 
ovidently  be  Inconsistent  with  the  globular  figure  of 
the  earth.  It  maj'  reasonably  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  M.  Gosselin's  accusation  is  well  founded  ;  for, 
though  it  seems  supported  by  the  fact,  that  while 
Ptolemy  has  changed  materially  all  the  longitudes  of 
ICratosthenes,  the  latitudes  along  the  great  line  remain 
the  same,  and  are  in  general  correct,  this  circumstance 
111.  ^  lie  accounted  for  eufT.ciently  from  other  causes. 
Rhodes,  and  several  other  jioints  of  this  great  line, 
were  fixed  witli  regard  to  latitude  by  observations  ap- 
proximating to  the  truth,  while  tho  elements  for  de- 
termining tlie  longitudes  were  derived  entirely  from 
the  itineraries.  To  the  north  and  snutli  of  tho  great 
central  line,  which  alone  was  fixed  upon  sound  data, 
errors  in  latitude  accumulate  as  rapidly  us  those  in 
longitude  are  found  to  do  in  proceeding  eastward. 

Due  of  the  most  remarkable  errors  in  tlie  geograph- 
ical work  of  Ptolemy  is  the  great  length  assigned  to 
the  Mediterranean.  Reckoning  from  the  Straits  of 
Gades  to  the  bottom  of  the  Bay  of  Issus,  where  Alex- 
andrettii,  or  Scandcroon  now  stands,  he  maltes  the  dif- 
ference of  longitude  no  less  than  G2  degrees,  which  is 
upward  of  20J  degrees  above  the  truth.  This  amazing 
error,  which  affected  all  our  maps  more  or  less  until 
tho  beginning  of  the  last  century,  was  produced  in 
consequence  of  his  having  put  too  n)uch  confidence  in 
tho  supposed  surveys  of  different  persons  of  reputation 
recorded  by  Stralw,  and  who  appeared  to  confirm  the 
accuracy  of  each  other's  computation.  According  to 
their  united  testimony,  the  whole  length  of  the  Mcdl 
terranoan  was  about  2C,.^00  stadia,  which,  being  con- 
verted into  degree!  of  longitude  accoraing  to  the 


GEO 


7oe 


np/i 


nwthfld  of  IHoUmj',  ot  illowing  400  lUilla  to  a  dcRren 
of  lon|{ituilii  on  the  puraHnl  of  Ithndnn,  kIvs  about  W° 
1«'.  Thin  Ik  4"  Ifi'  miini  timn  what  «re  nWon  by  M». 
rinii!!,  whom  tu  thU  partlruUi'     tolnmy  itriotly  fnl- 

I'llny  qiiot#«  from  A^rlppa  a  r.impiitatlon  o;  In- 
Irnifth  of  the  Mrilltrmindtn,  which  mnkea  It  ■  '  'r 
Homnn  mlli-" j  liiit  in  qiotinK  it  h»  aildii  s  iiUK|<iclon 
thdt  thore  m  Hn  error  in  the  numtirm.  When  con- 
verteil  Into  deKree*  of  lnn|{ltude,  the  ri««iilt  of  thin 
computation  Klven  58°  20'.  An,  however,  the  I<'n(rth 
given  hy  Stmho  amounted,  an  we  have  neim,  to  (18° 
15',  I'tolemy  neemn  to  have  choeen  ii  mldillo  piith  l>e- 
tween  the»«  two  erroneoue  romputatlonii,  and  to  liavn 
adopted  fl'i*^  for  the  differenre  of  longitude  in  quention. 
Mut  there  ia  another  ancient  coniputntioii  quoted  also 
hy  Pliny  from  Polyl)iuK,  arronllnx  to  widoh  the 
length  of  the  Mediterranean  i«  Htatcd  to  he  'i,AiO  Ilo- 
man  mllea.  Had  Itolemy  followed  thia  eiitinmte,  he 
would  have  obtained  for  a  ronult  41°  4',  which  la  not 
far  from  the  truth.  Thus  wo  «e«  thiit  tho  circum- 
atiinccfi  imder  which  Ptolemy  wrote,  rendered  it  im- 
po»»il>Ie  for  him  to  avoid  miatakea,  and  that  ho  might 
tx)  misled  even  when  more  accurate  rcaulta  wore 
within  hia  reach. 

The  gro:it  olmtacle  with  which  the  ancients  had  to 
contond,  was  the  finding  of  the  longitude  with  accu- 
racy, a  prol)lem  for  the  scdution  of  wliich  it  was  long 
before  there  was  discovered  any  method  sufficiently 
exact.  This  accounts  for  the  erroneous  longitudes  of 
Ptolemy,  and  more  eApecially  for  the  length  of  time, 
even  many  centuries,  during  which  the  remarkalde 
error,  with  regard  to  the  length  of  the  Mediterranean, 
remained  undiscovered  and  uncorrected. 

We  have  now  traced  the  history  of  geography  from 
the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  information, 
to  the  time  when  It  assumes  a  sclentllic  character. 
We  shall  conclude  our  account  of  ancient  geography 
by  shortly  noticing  the  principal  geographers  of  an- 
ticjuity,  some  of  whom  have  not  yet  liccn  mentioned, 
w;dle  others  have  only  been  quoted  In  tracing  tho  rise 
and  progress  of  the  science. 

The  intimate  connection  lietwecn  geography  and 
tho  science  of  geometry  and  astronomy,  rendered  the 
former  im  object  of  attention  to  many  who  anciently 
cultivated  the  latter.  AVo  have  already  mentioneil 
Anaximander  and  Anaxhncnes,  of  the  school  of  Mi- 
letus. I>emocritus,  Kudoxus  of  (^niilus.  and  Parme- 
nldes,  are  also  rcimrtcd  to  have  improve<l  geography ; 
and  to  the  last  is  attributed  tho  division  of  tho  earth 
Into  ».ones.  Those  were  followed  by  Eratosthenes, 
who  lived  ttlwut  240  years  before  the  Christian  era : 
by  Ilipparchus,  al>out  HO  years  afterward ;  by  Poly- 
biue,  (ieminus,  and  Possidonius.  Kratosthenes  wrote 
throe  tiooki  on  geography,  some  passages  of  which 
Struiio  criflclces,  though  he  frequently  defends  him 
against  Illpiiarchus,  wlio  appears  to  oppose  his  opin- 
ions with  some  degree  of  affectation.  Pol3-liius  also 
wrote  on  geoj^raphy  ;  as  did  likewise  rieminus  and 
Possidonius,  who  are  frequently  quoted  by  Strals). 
Polyldus,  according  to  (ieminus,  argued  with  consid- 
erable acuteness  for  tho  |iossibility  of  the  torrid  none 
being  inhaliited  ;  and  ho  even  niMuced  pluusilde  argu- 
ments to  prove  that  the  countries  under  tho  equator 
enjoj-  a  mure  temperate  climate  than  the  eoimtiies  do 
that  are     tuated  near  the  tropics. 

We  miKt  not  hero  omit  a  geographer  and  geometer 
who  lived  aliout  the  time  of  Alexander  the  (treat. 
This  was  Diccarchus  of  Messina,  a  dinciplo  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  who  wrote  a  descripti<m  of  (ireece  in  iaml>ic 
verses,  of  which  some  fi-agments  yet  remain.  Hut 
what  chiefly  renders  him  remarkable  is,  that  he  meas- 
ured geometrically  heveral  mountains,  to  which  an 
excessive  height  had  l)oen  before  assigned.  With 
Picearchus  we  may  notice  another  geometer,  Xeiia- 
goras,  a  disciple  of  Aristotle,  r'.entioncd  liy  Plutarch 
in  his  life  of  Paulus  i£mllius,  who  occupied  himself  in 


the  measurement  of  mountains.  Ila  found  Ihs  lislghl 
of  Mount  Olympus  to  he  ]S  stadia.  In  loma  iif  til* 
latter  periods  which  prcieiled  tho  (Christian  era,  tliura 
were  several  writers  on  geography,  as  Artnnildorus  of 
Ephesus,  who  wrote  a  geugraphlccal  work  of  i>i«y«i| 
'ooks,  of  which  nothing  remains)  Ncymitus  of  Chin, 
'Uthorof  adescripllcm  of  the  earth  In  lainldc  v«rs»>, 
which  remain  In  a  very  mutilated  state  |  fsldorus  of 
Charax,  who  gave  a  description  of  tha  Parthian  enu 
pire  ;  and  .Scylax  of  Caryades,  author  of  «  voi  <)(« 
round  the  Mediterranean,  which  la  itlll  astanl, 

The  works  of  all  these  geographers  are,  howavar, 
but  small  In  comparison  with  the  geography  of  Ntralm  | 
a  work  in  17  Imoks,  which  has  conindown  to  us  eiillra, 
This  is  one  of  thu  most  valualde  works  of  intiquily, 
lH>th  fnun  the  spirit  of  discussion  which  runs  through 
it,  and  tho  numl>er  of  curious  particulars  which  Ilia 
author  has  c(dlectcd  from  dlfTerent  geographers  Nli<t 
navigators  who  preceded  him,  and  of  whose  worki 
nothing  remains  except  these  extracts.  Ntrul>o  livsil 
in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tllstriiis,  and  was  nearly 
cot',  nporary  with  Pomponlus  Mela.  This  latter  geiig, 
rapl.or  wrote  a  work  Dr  Niln  Orbit  whlili,  Ihoiigli  iillU 
more  than  a  bare  suuuiiary.  Is  vuluulile,  aa  It  givua  us  • 
sketch  of  what  was  known  In  his  time  reipactlMg  tli« 
state  of  the  haliitnlde  globe.  Ileslili'^  Mala,  Konia 
produced,  in  the  most  flourishing  era  of  Its  lltarutura, 
another  eminent  geographer,  Pliny.  I(a  davnl«d  tw» 
books  of  his  I'xtcnsive  work  on  natural  history,  ton 
system  of  geography.  Ills  intimate  connection  with 
the  imperial  family,  and  with  many  of  tha  most  «ml> 
nent  commanders  of  tho  time,  ap|iears  to  liavo  glv«i| 
him  access  to  all  the  military  nieusurcnmnt',  as  w«ll 
as  to  tho  general  survey  of  tho  Itoman  empire.  Thus 
furnished  with  a  greater  store  of  authentii:  muterlula 
than  any  former  writer,  ho  bus  introduced  a  great 
numlier  of  itinerary  details,  Hhich  are  for  tho  iriiMl 
part  accurate  and  valuable,  .iulius  Holsnua  has  alsii 
treated  of  geography  in  his  I'u/i/hiilnr,  a  compiliilion 
"ufllciontly  valualde  from  the  number  of  curious  pur. 
ticulars  wliiili  are  there  c(dlectcd.  Murinus  of  Tyro, 
was  another  geographer  who  appears  to  have  liceii  rlia, 
tinguished,  though  his  works  have  periiihed.  Kv«n 
under  the  Iloman  empire  Tyre  continued  to  lie  itia 
seat  of  an  extensile  commerco ;  indeed  the  coiiiiuer> 
cial  relations  of  her  citizens  ap|iear  to  hav«  exlinded 
over  a  wider  |iortion  of  the  earth's  nurture  tli m  ever, 
The  enlarged  materials  furnished  liy  thn  leiigthttli«i| 
journeys  of  his  countrymen,  which  l>rought  tiiein  evan 
to  the  confines  of  China,  Marinus  collected,  and  Hoiiulit 
to  apply  to  them  tho  astronomical  principles  of  ifllt' 
parchuB,  so  that  he  mi^ht  give  to  geography  a  iihm' 
and  more  accurate  form.  Ptolemy,  whom  Itfarlniia 
preceded  by  a  short  time,  employs  a  groat  part  of  his 
lirst  Iwok  in  disoussin;;  the  meaus  employed  by  Ilia 
Tyrian  geogmpher  for  lixing  tho  relativa  |Mpailioii  of 
places;  and  from  tho  references  and  extrmlK  it  ap> 
pears  that  the  system  of  Mariniis  partook  largely  of 
tho  imperfections  of  a  first  effort. 

The  enlarged  and  scientific  views  of  Pfidcmy  W« 
have  already  considered.  .Some  time  after  I'tofeiiiy 
lived  Dionysius,  commonly  called  the  Prrirf/tlio,  from 
the  title  of  a  work  in  verse  composed  by  hini,  ii;i(nc|y, 
his  Perie{ir»i>,  or  Survey  of  the  World.  This  work 
was  translated  into  I.utin  verse  iiy  PrlHcianim,  and 
aftenvurd  by  Avienus.  There  is,  besides,  a  dcsirlp. 
tion  by  Avienus,  of  the  maritime  coasts,  in  iaiiildo 
verses,  of  which  there  remiiin  almut  700.  The  iWKi, 
culty  of  procuring  tho  small  and  scattered  pliM««  of 
must  of  these  authors,  with  those  of  a  few  otiixrs  not 
here  enumerated,  induced  the  learned  IIiuUoii  ti  r//|, 
lect  them  Into  one  work,  consisting  of  four  voiiinixa 
octavo,  which  were  published  in  the  years  )«0X,  170'i, 
1712,  under  tlio  title  of  (leni/raphiai  rrlrrit  Hei'ifilnret 
Ortrci  mitiiirft.  The  originals  aro  accompanied  with 
I^atiii  translations,  and  notes  and  dissertations  on  eaub 
by  Dodwell.     This  Is  a  very  valuable  cullectlou 


of 


191 


GEO 


I  III! 

I'llf 


<irt( 
n4 
I,.. 
Ilia 

r 

not 
III. 
Ill* 

0/. 

Iff) 

m\ 


,  W*  now  pmctol  to  ronaider  th«  pmiirciiii  of  km>S- 
nphy  ilurinif  tht  mMdle  *|(ra.  Kn>m  tho  lUj-fi  nt  I'to- 
Umy  until  the  ravival  of  inttani  in  Kuropv,  Mttlx  wim 
don*  fur  it!  Milld  Impruveinunt.  Thn  ealumitivii  thitt 
•r«  liinn  ovcrwhelmnd  thn  Kumnn  omplrn,  were  foU 
luwnl  by  •  gtnaMl  iiitollectuiil  ilnrkneiifi  which  iiettl<>d 
down  iin  th«  wand  and  xxtinKuiiihed  oven  the  lm|i«r- 
fert  Itnnwiedge  poiiiu>iiwd  liy  the  ancient  Keiigrapherii. 
While  liiirbaroua  uatioiijt  poured  in  from  nevernl  qiiar- 
ter<,  iirt  and  aclence  cciiiumI  to  lie  cultivated,  Tho  union 
by  which  the  Kotnan  pnwer  had  liuund  together  niim- 
klnd  111  iijt  now  di»i>ni\    li,  Kurope  wan  dividt-d  into 


imali  mid  indep«nd< 
cominiinitii-ii,   whii 
•ptH-tlng  the  kituiil 
coiirn'  aulml.ited  lietwt' 
to  rcinota  rogiooK  uli  ^ 
tioiiA,  thrir  cumiM' 
Uniinuwii. 

Amid  tl'^t  ;n(ii  .nce 
0|>eii  througli  tvlii  i  It 
One  clraumatunce,  lioW' 
tercoiirau  with  foreign 


for  the  inont  part,  lioa'lle 

'    vague  conceptiona   re- 

ther,  while  no  inter- 

itiera.   With  regard 

'1  loat ;  their  aitua- 

mosc  their  namea,  were 

'  lint  few  rhannela 
iild  lie  obtained. 

ited  commorclnl  in- 
iHi-i  liom  lieing  altogctiier 
aiiajiended.  The  opulence  and  luxury  of  Imperial 
Itonie  had  long  giviin  life  iind  energy  to  commercial 
enterpriae;  that  atimulua  wna  now  withdrawn;  hut 
Conataiitiiiople  atlll  ri'initiiipd,  the  lii'<l  refuge  of  an- 
cient arta,  and  tuate,  und  olcgiince,  wliun  tho  roat  of 
Europe  \»a«  overiprciid  with  iiiirliurlani.  Fortunately 
that  city  had  oacapcd  tlio  destructive  rage  of  the  tierce 
Invodera  j  and  there,  under  tiui  ciioriahing  influenco 
of  u  demand  for  foreign  productions  and  luxiiriea, 
coininerce  continued  to  tloiiriah.  Alexandria  con- 
tlnuixi  til  he  the  eiii|ioriuiii  wiience  wore  imported  the 
commoiiitleM  of  the  ICuat  Indica,  until  Egypt,  falling 
under  tho  power  of  the  Araliluna,  coaacd  to  lie  a  prov- 
ince of  the  Koniun  empire.  After  this  event  tlie  in- 
duatry  of  tlie  Oreelia  iiuci  eeiicd  in  discovering  a  new 
channel  liy  which  Constantinople  might  still  be  sup- 
plied with  the  productions  of  India.  These  were  first 
conveyed  up  tho  Indus  as  far  as  that  river  is  naviga- 
ble, tlu'iice  by  liind-carriago  they  were  lirought  to  tho 
OxuM,  and  were  carried  down  tho  river  to  tho  Caspian 
8ca.  Kntering  liiere  the  Volga,  they  were  nonveycil 
up  it,  and  thence  were  again  transported  by  land  until 
they  reached  the  Tanala,  down  which  tiiey  were  con- 
veyed to  the  Kuxine  Sea,  where  vessels  from  Con- 
Dtantinoplo  awaited  their  arrival.  Ily  this  circuitous 
route  was  a  channel  of  intcrcourso  liept  open  witii  tho 
most  distant  countries  of  the  Kast ;  and  an  extensive 
knowleilgc  of  remote  regions  was  still  preserved  in 
the  capital  of  the  (treok  empire,  while  tlic  rest  of 
Europe  was  sunk  in  tiie  grossest  ignorance. 

The  missions  sent  for  tlio  conversion  of  the  northern 
pagans  to  Chrlstianitv.  .<ervod  somewhat  to  illustrate 
the  geography  of  Kui.ijioj  tiiough  there  is  sufTlcient 
proof  that  tho  monks  employed  were,  in  many  in- 
stonees,  themselves  grogaly  ignorant,  some  not  even 
knowing  tho  capital  of  their  own  countrj-,  or  the  cities 
nearest  to  their  own.  Sonietiiing  was  also  done  by 
the  grout  sovereigns  of  Europe  toward  dispelling  the 
prevailing  ignorance  of  tlio  age  on  matters  connected 
with  geography.  Nor  did  the  piratical  exploits  of  tiie 
Danes  und  Norwegians  under  their  great  sea-kings 
fail  to  make  them  acquainted  with  tho  seas  and  mari- 
time coasts  where  they  carried  on  tlieir  devastations. 
Hut  it  was  in  tho  Kast  that  a  gleam  uf  light  und 
knowledge  began  now  to  apjiear,  which  was  the  Iiar- 
liinger  of  the  noon-day  splendor  of  science  that  was 
destined  to  succeed  the  darkness  of  ignorance  which 
had  so  long  oppressed  the  human  mind.  Under  tho 
Influence  of  a  fanaticism  whieli  promiited  them  to  own 
no  law  liut  tiio  Koran  and  tiio  sword,  the  followers  of 
Mohammed  had  rusiied  from  the  heart  of  Araiiia,  and 
had  carried  their  conquests  over  half  the  world.  At 
length,  however,  under  a  race  of  humane  and  polished 
princes,  having  contracted  a  relish  for  the  sciences  of 


the  (lei'ple  whose  empire  they  h*<l  contriliuted  to  drer- 
turn,  they  atntxl  for  some  time  diatlngniahed  u  the 
niii'it  learned  of  nations.  They  Iranaiatfd  Into  their 
own  language  the  hooka  of  aeveral  of  the  (ireek  phi- 
loMiphen.  The  raluable  work  of  i'tolemy  woe  one  of 
the  Hrst ;  end  hence  the  study  of  geography  liucame 
an  early  object  of  their  attention.  Hut  the  advance- 
ment which  tl>e  science  made  in  their  hands  toward 
preciel*n  woe  alow  )  for  they  copied  and  retailed  all 
I'tnleniy's  priiicl|ial  errori.  Htlii,  in  ail  the  countries 
that  were  under  MohanimiMiiiit  dominion  numemui 
oliseri'ations  were  maile,  whuli,  tliough  not  always 
strlctiv  corrct,  were  entitleil  to  iie  cons'  '  m  « 

stfp  l«yoiid  the  cnl.  uiationa  made  in«r> !;  I'ci  $!•• 
Itinerarieeby  the  Alexandrian  geograpb".'»  r  i/'i  I  •- 
ginning  of  the  ninth  century,  under  I-  iiii,->i.  V- 
mainon,  who  may  rank  among  the  i  ii:»r:n.>.  injlei 
patrons  of -iclniire  that  ever  Hlled  a  til  ine,  tb>\  !.»;<• 
ured  a  det;reH  of  latitude  on  the  plains  of  Hlujar,  or 
Hhinjar,  near  Ualiylon,  with  a  viuw  to  determine  the 
circumferenco  of  the  enrth.  The  tallies  of  Aiiulfuda 
and  lUug  lleg,  and  of  Na/,ir  Eddin.  edited  by  (iruivlus, 
and  repuliiished  by  Hudson,  fumlah  materials  that  are 
still  of  use  In  tile  construction  of  the  maps  of  the  inte- 
rior of  Asia. 

Thn  progress  and  success  of  the  Moslem  arms  re- 
moved the  oliscurity  In  which  many  countries  had  until 
then  lieon  concealed,  as  well  as  tlie  barliarlsra  in  which 
tiiey  had  been  sunk.  And  even  lieyond  tiie  limits  of 
the  Mohammedan  worM  they  pushed  their  researches, 
liy  sending  missions  Imth  to  the  east  and  to  the  west, 
which  they  explnri  \  to  tiicir  remotest  limits.  At  that 
time  Europe  remained  ignorant  of  the  Improvements 
made  by  tiie  Arabians,  though  she  was  destined  in 
suliaequent  ages  to  perfect  their  discoveries. 

At  length  the  long  |ieri(id  of  barbarism  which  ac- 
companied and  followed  tli"  fall  of  the  lioman  empire, 
during  which  tlie  traces  of  whatever  had  embellished 
society,  or  contriliuted  to  tho  comfort  and  convcnienco 
of  life,  were  almost  entire  v  effaced,  drew  to  a  close. 
Industry  began  again  to  sued  its  blessings  on  man- 
kind ;  and  Italy  was  tho  country  where  its  benign  in- 
fluences were  Hrst  perceptible.  Having  from  the 
operation  of  various  causes  again  obtaineil  liliurty  and 
independence,  the  Italians  soon  liegan  to  feel  tlie  im- 
pulse of  those  passions  which  serve  most  powerfully 
to  arouse  men  to  activity  and  enterprise.  The  reviv- 
ing demand  for  tho  comforts  und  luxuries  of  life  led  to 
the  revival  of  foreign  commerce.  Tiie  vuluublo  com- 
modities of  the  Eost  were  at  first  obtained  at  Constan- 
tinople. But  the  exorbitant  price  demanded  at  that 
mart,  in  consequence  of  the  circuitous  route  by  wliich 
they  were  conveyed  thither,  induced  the  Italians  to 
resort  to  other  ports,  as  Aleppo  and  Tripoli,  on  tlio 
Syrian  coast,  and  at  length  to  Egypt  itself.  After  the 
Soldans  had  rnvlved  the  commerce  with  India  in  its 
ancient  channel  by  the  Arabian  Gulf,  Venice,  (icnoft, 
and  Pisa,  rose  from  inconsiderable  towns  to  wealthy 
and  populous  cities.  Their  trade  extended  to  all  the 
ports  ill  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  beyond  the 
Straits  to  the  towns  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Franco, 
tlie  Low  Countries,  and  England ;  and  from  tiieao 
points  they  diffused  through  Europe  a  taste  for  the 
luxuries  and  enjoyments  of  civilized  life,  which  they 
at  tho  same  time  furnished  the  means  of  gratifying. 

It  was  not  long  ere  an  event  occurred,  the  most  ex- 
traordinary, perhaps,  in  the  history  of  human  society, 
which  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  European  mind,  and 
forcibly  directed  its  view  eastward,  to  the  regions  of 
Asia.  Under  the  influence  of  a  high-wrought  enthu- 
siasm, the  martial  spirit  of  the  Europeans  was  aroused, 
and  vast  armies,  composed  of  all  tho  nations  of  Cliris- 
tendom,  marched  toward  Asia  on  tho  wild  enterprise 
of  delivering  tlio  Holy  Land  from  the  dominion  of  In- 
fidels. The  crusades,  liowovcr  blind  the  zeal  from 
which  they  took  their  rise,  had  a  very  favorable  influ- 
ence on  the  intellectual  state  of  Europe,  and  prepared 


»  ■  I 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


t!ii 


1.0 


I.I 


2.0 


us 

lU 

u 


14.0 


u& 


FliolDgraphic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


^   ^ 

^^/v 


4^ 


1-25  III  1.4      1.6 

^5     lilies        ^ 

4 

< 

6"     

► 

23  WEST  MAIN  SIMET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  USSO 

(716)  172-4903 


if. 


:^,iT 


GEO 


708 


GEO 


it  (br  NoelTing  tha  light  of  acimee  which  w«i  aoon  to 
dawn  upon  it.  Interesting  regiont,  Imown  hitherto 
only  by  the^fcantf  reports  of  ignorant  and  crtdulons 
pilgrims,  were  now  made  the  object  of  attention  and 
research.  Not  only  was  the  way  opened  for  the  Eu- 
ropean nations  acquiring  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
Holy  Lund,  with  the  kingdoms  of  Jerusalem  and  Edes- 
sa,  founded  by  the  Vtctorions  crusaders,  but  the  exten- 
sive regions  over  which  the  Saracens  and  thftTurks 
iiad  extended  their  empire  liegan  to  lie  explored. 
Search  was  now  made  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient 
geographers ;  nor  is  it  improbable  that  some  light  was 
dorived  even  from  the  Arabian  writers.  Religious 
real,  the  hope  of  gain,  combined  with  motives  of  mere 
curiosity,  induced  several  persons  to  travel  by  land 
into  remote  regions  of  the  East,  far  beyond  the  coun- 
tries to  which  the  operations  of  the  crusaders  extended. 
Prompted  by  superstitious  veneration  for  the  law  of 
Hoses,  and  by  a  desire  of  visiting  his  countrj-men  in 
the  East,  whom  he  hoped  to  find  possessed  ot  wealth 
and  power,  Benjamin,  a  Jew  of  Tudela,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Navarre,  set  out  from  Spain  in  the  year  1160, 
and  traveliug  by  land  to  Constantinople,  proceeded 
through  the  countries  to  the  north  of  the  Euxino  and 
Caspian  Seas.  He  then  journeyed  tov.-ard  the  south, 
and  traversed  various  provinces  of  the  further  India, 
until,  having  reached  the  Indian  Ocean,  he  embarked 
and  visited  several  of  its  islands ;  and  at  length,  after 
18  years,  returned  by  the  way  of  Egypt  to  Europe. 
In  his  progress  he  had  acquired  much  information 
respecting  a  large  portion  of  the  globe,  until  then  al- 
together unknown  to  Europeans. 

Various  missions  were  sent  l>y  the  pope  and  by 
Christian  princes,  for  purposes  t.}i>"1i  kd  tliem  to  tra- 
verse the  remote  provinces  of  A'iu.  Father  John  de 
Piano  Garpini,  at  tho  head  of  a  mission  of  Franciscan 
monks,  and  Father  Ascolino,  at  the  Iicsu  of  another 
uission  of  Dominicans,  were,  in  the  year  '246,  sent 
by  Innocent  IV.  to  enjoin  Kayuk  Khan,  the  grandson 
of  Zengis,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  the  Tartar 
empire,  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  to  cease  from 
desolating  the  world  by  his  arnis.  In  fulfilling  the 
commands  laid  upon  them  by  the  head  of  the  Christian 
church,  the  mendicants  had  an  opportunity  of  visiting 
a  great  part  of  Asia.  Carpini,  having  taken  his  route 
through  Poland  and  Rursia,  traveled  through  the 
northern  provinces  as  far  as  the  extremities  of  Thibet, 
while  Ascolino,  who  appears  to  have  landed  some- 
where in  Syria,  advanced  through  the  southern  prov- 
inces into  the  interior  parts  of  Persia, 

Father  William  de  Rnbrnquis,  a  Franciscan  monk, 
having  been  sent  in  the  year  1263  on  a  mission  t>y  St. 
Louis  of  France,  in  search  of  an  imaginar}-  personage, 
a  powerful  khan  of  the  Tartars,  who  was  reported  to 
have  embraced  the  Christian  faith,  made  a  circuit 
through  the  interior  parts  of  Asia  more  extensive  than 
that  of  any  European  who  had  hitherto  explored  them. 
He  had  the  merit  of  being  the  first  modem  traveler 
tliat  gave  a  true  account  of  the  Caspian,  which  had 
been  correctly  described  by  the  early  Greeks  as  an  in- 
land separate  sea;  but  a  notion  afterward  prevailed 
that  it  was  connected  with  the  Northern  Ocean.  .liu- 
brnquis  ascertained  that  it  had  no  connection  with  the 
ocean  or  any  other  sea.  The  account  of  his  journey 
was  so  little  read,  however,  that  the  old  error  was  re- 
peated in  books  oi*  geography  long  after  his  time. 

While  the  republics  of  Italy,  and,  above  all,  the 
State  of  Venice,  were  engaged  in  distributing  the  jew- 
els, the  spices,  and  the  fine  cloths  of  India  over  the 
western  world,  it  was  impossible  that  motives  of  curi- 
osity, as  well  as  a  desire  of  commercial  advantage, 
should  not'be  awakened  to  such  a  degree  as  to  impel 
some  to  brave  all  the  obstacles  and  dangers  to  be 
encountered  in  visiting  those  remote  countries  where 
those  precious  and  profitable  commodities  were  pro- 
duced. A  considerable  number  of  persons  according- 
ly an  recorded  as  having  penetrated  a  greater  or  less 


depth  into  the  Interior  of.  Asia.  But  the  fame  of  all 
the  other  old  travelera  is  eclipsed  by  that  of  Marctf 
Polo,  who  has  always  ranked  among  the  greatest  dis- 
coveren  of  any  age.  This  extraoidinary  man  was  • 
noble  Venetian,  whose  family,  according  to  the  custom 
of  his  country,  engaged  in  extensive  commerce,  Noc- 
olo  Polo,  and  Mafleo  Polo,  the  foiler  and  uncle  of 
Marco,  were  merchants,  who,  in  partnership,  traded 
chiefly  with  the  East ;  and,  in  pursuit  of  their  mercan- 
tile speculations,  had  already  visited  Tartar}',  The 
recital  of  their  travels  en  their  return  fired  the  youth- 
ful imagination  of  Marco,  then  l>etween  17  and  18  yeara 
old.  Having,  When  in  the  East,  gained  the  confidenc ) 
of  Kublai  Khan,  the  great  conqueror  of  China,  at 
whose  court  they  had  resided  for  a  long  time,  they 
were  sent  back  by  him  to  Italy,  accompanied  by  an 
ofiicer  of  his  court,  that  they  might  repair  to  Rome  as 
his  emluissadon  to  tho  pope,  of  whom  and  the  poten- 
tates of  the  western  world,  they  had  given  him  an 
ample  account.  After  many  delays,  they  were  now, 
about  the  year  1266,  to  set  out  on  their  return  to  the 
coiht  of  Kublai,  Iiearing  the  papal  lettera  and  benedic- 
tion ;  and  it  was  resolved  that  young  Marco  should  ac- 
company them.  After  a  journey  that  occupied  no 
less  than  three  and  a  half  years,  and  in  the  progress  of 
which  they  passed  through  the  chief  cities  in  the  more 
cultivated  parts  of  Asia,  they  reached  Yen-king  near 
the  spot  where  Pekin  now  stands,  where  they  were 
honorably  and  graciously  received  by  the  grand  khan. 
Struck  with  the  appearance  of  young  Marco,  the  khan 
condescended  to  take  him  under  his  protection,  and 
caused  b<m  immediately  to  be  enrolled  among  his  at- 
tendants of  honor.  By  prudence  and  fidelity  Marco 
gained  so  high  a  place  in  the  esteem  and  confidence  of 
his  protector,  that  for  17  yean,  during  which  he  re- 
mained in  his  service,  he  was  employed  in  confidential 
missions  to  every  part  of  the  empire  and  its  dependen- 
cies. He  made  more  than  one  voyage  on  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  traded  with  many  of  the  islands.  Besides 
what  he  learned  from  his  own  observation,  he  collected 
from  others  many  things  concerning  countries  which 
he  did  not  visit.  Considering  the  very  favorable  cir- 
cumstances in  which  he  was  placed  for  geographical 
research,  as  well  as  his  passion  for  traveling,  which 
seems  to  have  increased  with  his  opportunities  of  grati- 
fying it,  it  is  not  surprising  that,  after  the  long  period 
of  his  wanderings  in  Asia,  he  should  have  returned  to 
Europe  possessed  of  the  knowledge  of  many  particu- 
iara,  until  his  time  unknown,  respecting  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  world.  Marco,  being  afterward  made  a 
prisoner  by  the  Genoese,  was  induced,  with  a  view  to 
beguile  the  tediousness  of  his  confinement,  to  dictate  a 
narrative  of  his  travels.  His  information  was  so  far 
In  advance  of  the  age,  that  his  veracity  was  exposed 
to  the  most  injurious  suspicions.  But,  if  We  make  al- 
lowance for  some  tincture  of  credulity,  characteristic 
of  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  his  narrative  is  sup- 
ported in  all  its  essential  points  by  modem  informa- 
tion. 

While  great  accessions  were  thus  made  to  the  stock 
of  knowledge  possessed  by  the  nations  of  Europe  re- 
spectin,'-  the  habitable  globe,  there  ideas  were,  at  the 
same  time,  gradually  C;  :.irged;  and  an  adventurous 
spirit  was  generated,  which  prepared  them  for  at- 
tempting further  discoveries.  Still  their  efforts  were 
limited  by  certain  bounds,  in  consequence  of  the  im- 
perfect state  of  navigation.  Whatever  conceptions  a 
daring  mind  might  venture  to  form  respecting  the 
existence  of  unknown  regions,  separated  from  the 
known  continents  by  the  mighty  expanse  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  mankind  had  not  yet  so  obtained  the  domin- 
ion of  the  sea  as  to  lie  able  to  bring  such  conceptions 
to  the  test  of  experiment.  It  was  not  until  ttie  for- 
tunate discovery  of  the  polarity  of  the  magnetic  nee- 
dle, and  the  consequent  construction  of  the  marinen' 
compass,  that  man  was  enabled  to  visit  every  part  of 
the  globe  which  he  inhabits.    This  important  diacoY 


.  ..   -X:- 


199 


GEO 


/ 


eiy  yna  mad*  bjr  Fltvlo  OM*,  •  eMuan  it  AflMlfl,  • 
town  ofconaidanble  trads  in  tb*  klRgdom  of  NupMi 
about  the  year  1802.  Eneooragad  hy  lh«  poHaMion  «r 
this  aure  guide,  bv  which,  at  all  tima*  an4  in  alt 
places,  he  conid  with  certainty  ataar  III*  timitim,  iba 
navigator  gradually  abandoned  th*  Iiml4  »nA  alow 
method  of  sailing  along  the  ahora,  and  lN*l4ly  mnt' 
mitted  his  barit  to  the  open  aea,  At  tha  luminHmaaflMWt 
of  the  16th  eentur}-,  however,  navigation  ap(Man  Ut 
have  advanced  vet}-  little  twyond  tn*  atata  whiiih  It 
had  reached  before  tha  downfall  of  tha  Roman  amtiirt. 
But  it  was  now  destined  to  mall*  rapi4  nvograa*.  Tha 
growing  spirit  of  enterpriaa,  eomblnad  with  lit*  In* 
creasing  light  of  science,  had  praparad  tha  Mataa  of 
Europe  for  entering  upon  that  great  oaraar  of  ditHioV' 
•I}',  of  which  the  details  conatftut*  tha  matariala  for 
the  history  of  modem  geography, 

Portugal  took  the  lead  in  this  new  and  Inilliint 
path.  Her  ftrst  attempt  was  to  diacovar  tha  Hnltnown 
countries  situated  along  tha  waatam  ooast  of  Afrloa. 
Notwithstanding  the  vicinity  of  that  great  oontlnant, 
and  the  strong  Inducement  affbrdad  In  tha  fartility  of 
the  countries  already  known  In  it,  to  Its  furtbar  ouplo* 
ration.  Cape  Xon  bad  hitherto  llmitad  tha  rasaafflha* 
of  the  Portuguese,  and  had  Iwen  regarded  as  an  ImptM' 
able  barrier.  In  the  year  1412,  howavsr,  »Mf»  MWt 
out  for  discovery  doubled  thia  formldaliia  promontory, 
and  reached  Cape  Bojador,  100  miles  to  tha  southward, 
which  became  in  its  turn  the  Imundary  of  PoftUHH«M) 
navigation  ;  and  it  continued  to  be  so  for  U()W«rd  of  IM 
yebrs.  Under  the  coasting  syatam,  whiob  atlll  AOfl(ln< 
ued  to  be  practiced,  it  waa  not  likely  that  tlia  oIw(mI<m 
presented  by  its  rocky  cllflra,  whii'h  stratob  a  «OflsM' 
erable  way  into  the  Atlantio,  would  soon  hava  \mn 
overcome.  But  a  sudden  squall  of  wind  bavifl({  ilrlvatt 
out  to  sea  the  vessel  next  dispatched,  tills  xvant  fof' 
tunately  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  small  Inland  t'ofto 
Santo ;  whence,  in  a  little  tima,  Madslrik  waa  tUmity- 
ered,  being  first  mistaken  fbr  a  small  l)la«k  cloitd  III  tlm 
horizon ;  and  at  length,  when  the  l'ort)l|{Uaaii,  iiy 
their  voyages  thither,  had  gradually  bao^mia  ««««*• 
tomed  to  a  bolder  navigation,  (Ia|ia  Hoiiwlof  was 
doubled.  Thus,  by  repeated  eSliirts,  tlia  I'ortHglMMI 
navigators  gradually  approached  tha  nortliam  lioHn4< 
ary  of  the  torrid  zone.  Here  their  progroM  waa  fof 
some  time  arrested,  not  by  any  physloal  diAloHltlai*, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  inftusnca  wbiob  tbo  opinion 
of  the  ancient  mathematicians  and  gaofffapliars  wliom 
they  had  hitherto  followed  as  their  gtuitaa,  ha4  ttpoti 
their  minds,  by  leading  them  to  Iwllav*  that  tiNiwiMlva 
heat  rendered  the  middle  regions  of  tha  earth  Hninhalt* 
Itable'.  Experience,  however,  at  length  aualilaii  tlmm 
to  triumph  over  ignorance  and  prejudice,  A  \mwvtl\l\ 
floot,  fitted  out  in  1484,  after  d^coverlng  tlio  kingiloms 
of  Benin  and  Congo,  advanced  about  tMMI  mliHa  \myimii 
the  equator.  Their  intercourse  with  tha  nittlv«a  «tt' 
abled  them  to  obtain  information  wmtwriling  tlioao 
parts  of  tlie  country  which  they  liad  not  vNitWl,  Not 
only  had  they  detected  the  error  of  tlio  o;iMiiint<l  III 
reference  to  the  torrid  zone,  but  they  founrf  also  tliNt 
the  direction  of  the  coast  was  very  dilfiirailt  from  wliat 
the  description  given  by  Ptolemy  had  lad  tliam  to  «»• 
pect.  They  saw  reason  to  cmiciuds  that  tha  t»iHtili«lit 
gradually  became  narrower  as  they  nrnisemM  WHtll- 
ward;  so  that  there  was  room  to  fwliiiva  that  tlm 
ancient  accounts  respecting  tiie  c|reuiHnavi)iiltloii  lit 
Africa  were  really  founded  in  trutli,  Kuw  ami  mm 
extensive  prospects  were  tlius  oiHUied  to  •liaitl  i  ami 
the  finding  of  a  passage  to  India  by  satllMg  nmitrf  tll« 
southern  extremity  of  Africa  baoanie  a  favorlta  iifo* 
ject.  In  the  year  1488,  the  lufty  prmwmtorv  wlili^h 
terminates  that  continent  was  dasnriad  by  llartliol' 
ometi  Diaz ;  but  it  was  not  until  aliout  10  yaars  afl«r« 
ward  that  it  was  douliled,  and  tha  oaast  of  Malabar 
reached,  l)y  Vosco  de  Oama. 

Mean  while  the  Cape  da  Verd  Islands,  wblob  ara  salil 
to  have  been  known  to  the  anclar.ts,  but  »f (orward  imt 


light  «f,  had  bMO  dis<ov*r«d  In  1446 ;  and  soon  aA*»> 
ward  tha  Aaore*  IsIm.  When  we  consider  the  dia- 
|MM««  at  which  the**  two  groups  of  islands  lie  from 
th«  land,  the  former  being  upward  of  800  miles  from 
tb«  «oa«l  of  Africa,  and  the  latter  distant  900  miles 
A'om  any  continent,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  Por- 
tMHU«s«,  when  they  entered  so  Imldly  Into  the  open 
s«aa,  had  made  no  inconsiderable  progress  in  the  art 
«f  navigation, 

ItMt  brilliant  a*  is  tha  lustra  which  these  discoveri** 
«b«4  arottttd  th*  Purtugue**  name,  their  glory  would 
have  iMMt  still  more  dazaling  had  they  seconded  tha 
ttrofonnd  view*  of  Christopher  Columbus,  which  led 
Mm  to  the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  That  illns- 
(riottg  man  and  skillful  navigator,  by  revolving  in  his 
mind  the  principles  on  which  the  Portuguese  ha<l 
fonnded  their  schemes  of  discovery,  and  carried  them 
into  VMcution,  was  led  to  conceive  that  he  conid  im- 
pfova  on  their  plan,  and  accomplish  discoveries  which 
tb«y  had  hitherto  attempted  in  vain.  From  the  time 
that  tb«y  had  douliled  Cape  da  Verd,  the  great  object 
at  whien  the  Portuguese  aimed  was  to  find  a  passage 

XMa  to  th*  East  Indies.  The  direction  in  which 
Ir  afforta  were  made  implied  necessarily  a  long  and 
haaardons  voyage,  should  they  even  be  successful 
In  accomplishing  their  design.  But  as  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  stretches  westward  to  an  unknown  distance,  was 
It  not  puBslhle  that  it  might  reach  the  shores  of  those 
V«rv  countries  to  which  it  was  thought  so  desirable  to 
Ami  a  naval  route  ?  This  supposition  was  perfectly 
eonslstent  with  the  known  globular  figurti  of  the  earth ; 
and  It  was  evident,  on  the  same  principle,  that  the 
further  India  stretches  to  the  east,  the  nearer  it  must 
approach  to  the  western  shores  of  Europe  and  Africa. 
Much  was  the  idea  suggested  to  the  mind  of  Columbus, 
liy  the  knowledge  which  he  possessed  of  navigation 
and  geography,  both  in  theory  and  practice.  While 
ha  found  his  views  confirmed  by  a  careful  comparison 
of  the  oliservations  of  mo<lern  pilots  with  tiie  hints  and 
COflJeiitMres  of  ancient  authors,  ho  became  thoroughly 
(iimvlnced  that  tiie  navigator  who  should  have  the 
lioldness  to  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  would  have  hia 
toils  rewarded  by  the  most  important  discoveries. 

These  Ideas  had  presented  themselves  to  the  mind 
of  Columbus  as  early  as  tlie  year  1474 ;  but  it  was  not 
until  th*  year  1492,  after  several  years  of  fruitless 
aoiicltt'tlon,  and  of  discouragements  and  disappoint- 
ti|<ii>li  of  the  most  vexatious  kind,  that  he  obtained 
'iifi  patronage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isalwlla,  who  then 
ffiiverned  the  united  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon, 
ami  was  liy  them  put  in  possession  of  the  means  of 
carrving  his  schemes  of  discover)-  into  exf.cution. 
With  no  more  suitable  an  armament  for  his  great  en- 
t«r|irls«  than  three  small  vessels,  having  90  men, 
mostly  sailors,  on  iioard,  and  victualed  for  12  months, 
he  sailed  from  ttie  port  of  Paios  in  Andalusia  on  the 
ikl  (Uy  of  August,  and  steered  for  the  Canaries.  Tak- 
ing then  his  departure  from  Gomera,  one  of  the  most 
westerly  of  these  isiiinds,  he  stretched  into  unknown 
s«Hs  I  and  holding  his  course  due  west,  reached  Guon 
ahani,  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  on  the  12th  day  oi 
Ootolier,  After  employing  some  time  in  making  fur 
ther  discoveries,  he  returned  to  Spain  to  announce  the 
success  of  his  undertaking,  the  fume  of  which  soon 
stiread  over  Europe,  and  excited  general  attention. 
It  was  no  easy  mutter  to  determine  what  relation  the 
liewly-dlscovered  countri's  itore  to  the  regions  former- 
ly known.  Columl)us's  own  views  on  the  sul>ject 
were  In  strict  conformity  with  the  idea  which  liad 
taken  so  Arm  a  hold  of  his  mind,  namely,  that  India 
might  lie  readied  liy  sailing  toward  the  west.  He 
Imagined  that  the  islands  he  had  visited  were  some  of 
those  which  were  said  to  lie  contiguous  to  the  remote 
shores  of  Asia,  In  this  opinion  he  was  confirmed  by 
thii  coincidence  which  he  thougiit  lie  could  trace  l>e- 
twaen  certain  names  given  to  places  by  the  natives 
and  the  appellattoni  known  to  belong  to  countries  sit. 


GEO 


800 


4119 


utod  in  Indi*.  H«  thoogbt  ha  could  iMOgulM,  in 
tha  Answer  given  to  U*  Inquiries  after  the  iltomtfon  of 
MM  mtnei  which  jrielded  gold,  the  nam*  Cijmtge,  hj 
wldch  Marco  Polo  and  other  travelers  in  the  East  des- 
ignated the  island  Japan.  Ignorant  of  their  langaoge, 
and  unaccustomed  to  their  pronunciation,  be  even 
supposed  that  they  spoke  of  the  great  khan;  and 
hence  concluded  that  the  kingdom  of  Cathay  or  China, 
dascribed  by  Marco  Polo,  was  not  far  oiT.  The  same 
erroneous  opinion  was  stljl  further  riveted  in  his  mind, 
by  what  he  supposed  an  Identity  lietween  the  animal 
and  vegetable  productions  of  the  East  Indies  and 
those  of  the  countries  wliich  he  bad  dUcovered. 

His  second  voyage  led  to  the  discovery  of  several 
more  of  the  group  of  islands  now  called  the  West  In- 
dies, a  name  given  them  In  conformity  with  the  orig- 
inal notions  of  the  discoverer.  It  was  on  his  third 
voyage  that  he  discovered  the  vast  continent  of  Amer- 
ica. Having  unexpectedly  found  the  island  of  Itlnl- 
dad,  with  the  neighboring  land,  he  encountered,  before 
ha  was  aware  of  danger,  the  adverse  currents  and 
tumultuous  waves  occasioned  by  the  resistance  which 
the  waters  of  the  Orinoco  oppone  to  the  tides  in  the 
ocean.  His  attention  was  thus  forcibly  called  to  the 
Immense  body  of  water  which  Is  here  poured  into  the 
Atlantic.  This  he  was  convinced  was  vastly  too 
great  to  be  supplied  by  any  island ;  and  hence  be  con- 
cluded that  he  had  now  reached  the  continent  which 
he  had  sought  through  so  msny  dangers. 

The  American  continent,  in  its  noithem  portions, 
Iiad  been  discovered  in  or  before  the  eleventh  century. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  a  Norwegian 
pirate,  while  attempting  to  reach  the  Faroe  Islands, 
which  had  already  been  visited  l>y  the  Iribh,  was  driv- 
en by  storms  to  the  coast  of  Iceland.  This  led  to  the 
flrat  settlement  of  the  Norwegians  in  Iceland  in  876. 
From  that  time  the  Faroe  Islands  and  Iceland  may  be 
regarded  as  intermediate  stations  and  starting-points 
for  attempts  to  reach  the  northern  shores  of  America. 
Greenla:id  was  early  seen;  but  it  was  not  until  983 
that  it  was  peopled  from  Iceland.  Colonization  was 
carried  through  Greenland  in  a  south-western  direction 
to  the  new  continent,  and  for  some  length  of  time  an 
inconsiderable  intercourse  was  maintained  with  the 
newly  colonized  countries.  But  a  strong  line  of  sep- 
aration must  be  drawn  between  this  early  discovery 
of  some  parts  of  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  Amer- 
ica, and  the  discover}'  of  its  tropical  regions  by  Co- 
lumbus in  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In 
consequence  of  the  uncivilized  condition  of  tb't  peo- 
ple by  whom  the  former  discover}-  was  made,  M  well 
as  the  nature  of  the  countries  to  which  it  was  lit.^ited, 
it  produced  no  important  or  permanent  results  in  rela- 
tion either  to  commerce  or  science  ;  tho  latter,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  been  attended  with  events  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  mankind,  as  it  has  proved  the 
opening  of  a  new  source  of  wealth,  glory,  and  knowl- 
edge. The  discovery  of  the  new  continent  in  the 
west,  like  the  original  discovery  of  its  northern  re- 
gions, may  be  said  to  be  accidental,  inasmuch  as  the 
object  which  Columbus  bad  in  view  was  to  find  a 
western  passage  to  India.  But  the  expedition  under 
Columbus  possessed  this  distinguishing  feature,  that 
it  manifested  the  perfect  character  of  being  the  fol- 
lowing out  of  a  plan  sketched  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  science,  and  intelligently  conducted  to  a 
successful  issue. 

The  tenacity  with  which  an  ingenious  and  enter- 
prising mind  adheres  to  a  scheme  which  it  has  once 
proposed  to  itself  as  an  object  of  pursuit,  was  strik- 
ingly evinced  by  Columbus,  whose  thoughts  still 
dwelt  with  eagerness  on  his  original  and  favorite  plan 
of  opening  a  new  passage  to  India.  It  was  not  enough 
that  he  had  astonished  mankind  liy  finding  a  new  con- 
tinent; he  conceived  the  idea  that  beyond  It  there 
might  lie  a  sea  extending  to  the  coasts  of  Asia,  and 
that  by  diligent  search  soma  strait  might  be  found 


wUeh  woaU  eondnot  blm  into  tbli  im,  or  mm  imw 
row  nock  of  land,  by  oroMlng  wbleh  It  mlgbt  b« 
reached.  To  datafmliw  tU«  importaat  poini,  though 
hitherto  his  services  had  mat  with  tho  nott  uawortny 
returns,  though  years  cropt  upon  him,  though  won 
out  by  fatigue  and  brokan  with  inflrmltiM,  bo  atlU 
undertook  with  alacrity  another  voyago,  By  •  lucky 
conjecture  be  directed  bla  oflTortt  lowonl  tho  oast  wf 
the  Gulf  of  Darlon  |  but  bo  soarobod  In  vain  for  o 
strait ;  and  though  ba  frequently  went  on  shoro  and 
advanced  into  the  country,  ho  novor  ponotrotod  to  fal 
as  to  enable  him  to  descry  the  groat  noutbom  Ocean. 

After  the  first  steps  had  boon  taken,  tbo  pmgroM  ol 
discovery  over  the  globo  was  aotonUblngty  rapid. 
No  expense  or  danger  daterrod  ovon  private  adven- 
turers flrom  fitting  out  flaoti,  erosaing  ooaons,  and  on- 
countering  the  rage  of  savage  nation*  In  tho  most 
distant  parts  of  tha  earth.  lioforo  Colnmlius  had 
reached  the  continent  at  tbo  mouth  of  tho  Orinoco, 
Newfoundland  had  been  diacovorod  b)'  CalKit,  a  V«no« 
tian  by  descent,  but  sailing  undsr  tho  auspices  of  Kn« 
gland.  He  had  also  coasted  along  tho  proiont  territory 
of  the  United  States,  perhaps  a«  fltr  oo  Virginia.  In 
the  next  two  or  three  years,  tbo  Oortoroals,  a  daring 
family  of  Portugoeso  navigators,  began  tho  long  and 
unavailing  search  of  a  passage  round  tho  northsrn  ox* 
tremlty  of  America.  Tbay  sailed  along  tha  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  entered  the  spacious  iiiUrt  of  Hudson's 
Bay.  Two  of  them  unfortunately  iwrlslied  In  thU 
enterprise.  In  the  year  IMl  Alvarac  (.'sbral,  a  T-.tr* 
tugnese  navigator,  destined  fur  India,  having  stood 
out  to  sea  In  order  to  avoid  the  variable  brooxos  and 
frequent  calms  which  he  was  sure  to  most  with  on  tlio 
African  coast,  to  his  surprise,  cama  ujiun  the  shores  o. 
an  unknown  country,  the  coast  of  llravll,  which  ho 
claimed  for  Portugal.  Aroerigu  Vespucci,  a  Klorcn' 
tine  gentleman,  who  bad  already  sailed  aWng  a  great 
part  of  Terra  Firma  and  Guiana,  now  made  two  ex- 
tensive voyages  along  tbe  Urazltlaii  coast,  Hoon  after 
his  return  he  drew  up  and  transmitted  to  one  of  i\\f 
countrym<>c  -ccount  of  his  adventitrM  and  discov- 
eries, in  >^  i.isinuated  that  to  him  lielimi^sd  th« 
honor  of  '  *irft  discoverect  the  continent  In  the 
New  Wor.. ..  lis  performance,  which  was  tha  first 
description  published  of  the  new-discovered  countries, 
circulated  rapidly,  was  read  wltli  admiration,  and  bO' 
came  the  means  of  procuring  for  its  author  tho  bigli 
honor  of  giving  his  name  to  tha  wliole  continent. 
Not  many  years  elapsed  l»ifore  the  conjecture  of  </'o- 
lunibus  respecting  tlie  exisUmce  of  an  ocean  lieyond 
the  continent  which  lis  boil  dlscovertul  was  found  to 
be  true ;  and  his  favorite  project  of  oponing  n  passage 
to  India  by  steering  westward  was  actually  ncc<im« 
plished.  By  crossing  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
Nufiez  Balltoa  reached  the  Pacific  Ocean  In  the  year 
1613;  and  in  1631  Magellan  discovered  and  sailed 
through  the  famous  straits  wlilcli  liear  his  name.  Af- 
ter 20  days  occupied  In  navigating  this  dangerous 
cliannel,  he  lielield  spread  out  liefuni  liim  tlio  bound- 
less expanse  of  the  (^at  Southern  Ocean,  Directing 
his  course  to  the  N.VV.,  be  continued  his  viiyagn  for 
nearly  4  months  witliout  discovering  land.  From 
want  of  provisions  and  from  sickness,  he  and  his  cmw 
suffered  dreadful  distress.  But  when  almut  to  sink 
under  their  sufferings,  they  fell  In  with  the  Liulnme 
Islands,  where  they  found  refreshments  In  almndance. 
From  these  isles  he  proceeded  on  hhi  voyage,  and  was 
not  long  in  discovering  the  Pbltippinos,  1 1  ore,  in  un 
unfortunate  quarrel  wltli  tbe  natives,  ho  was  slain, 
with  several  of  liis  princl|ial  oflicsrs.  Hut  Ills  surviv- 
ing companions,  pursuing  tlieir  voyage,  and  returning 
to  Europe  liy  the  Cupa  of  Ui<iid  llo|Mt,  solved  the  great 
problem  of  tlie  circumnavigation  of  the  earth. 

After  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Dalboa, 
the  investigation  of  tha  western  coasts  of  America 
went  speedily  forward.  Kxpeditiuns  were  soon  sent 
out  both  northward  and  southward  t  w  that  nearly  • 


GEO 


801 


GEO 


ftiU  ybw  WM  obtainad  of  th«  Immense  nnge  of  eoMt 
irbich  the  American  continent  presents  to  the  Psclflc 
Ocean,  and  at  tlie  same  time  of  its  great  interior 
breadth.  On  the  other  hand,  discovery  in  the  East- 
ern World  was  no  less  rapid.  Within  20  years  ftom 
the  time  that  Qama  reached  India  by  the  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  all  the  coasts  of  Hindoostan, 
those  of  eastern  Africa,  of  Arabia,,  and  Persia,  had 
boen  explored.  Navigator*  had  penetrated  to  Ma- 
lacca and  the  Spice  Islands.  They  bad  learned  the 
existence  of  Siam  and  Pegu;  and  it  was  only  the 
characteristio  jealousy  of  the  rulers  of  the  Celestial 
Empire  that  prevented  them  flrom  entering  the  ports 
of  China. 

The  scientific  geographer  had  now  abundance  of 
materials  to  arrange  and  digest  into  one  systematic 
whole.  He  was  now  called  upon  to  give  such  a  de- 
lineation  of  the  earth's  surface  as  should  connect 
together  the  ranges  of  eastern  snd  western  discovery, 
and  should  exhibit  the  true  outline  and  relative  posi- 
tions of  countries,  as  these  had  bron  demonstrated  by 
the  astronomer  andmavigator.  The  ancient  system 
of  geography,  to  which  the  Arabs  seem  closely  to 
have  adhered,  was  founded  on  the  idea  of  the  whole 
earth  being  surrounded  by  an  ocean  as  by  a  great 
lone.  This  the  Arabians  characterized  as  the  "  Sea 
of  Darkness,"  an  appellation  most  usually  given  to 
the  Atlantic ;  while  the  northern  sea  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  as  inspiring  still  more  gloomy  and  mysterious 
ideas,  was  styled  the  "Sea  of  Pitchy  Darkness." 
Such  notions  could  not  now  keep  possession  of  the  hu- 
man mind,  though  it  was  only  by  degrees  that  man- 
kind could  be  expected  to  be  enlightened  by  doctrines 
which  were  not  only  new,  but  seemed  likewise  to  be 
contradicted  by  the  evidence  of  sense.  The  funda- 
mental principles  of  a  systematic  arrangement  had, 
•s  we  have  already  seen,  been  known  from  the  time 
of  HipparcLos,  and  had  been  reduced  to  practice  by 
Ptolemy.  But  the  want  of  astronomical  observations, 
or  even  of  accurate  surveys,  which  navigators  sel- 
dom furnished,  and  for  which  science  hod  not  indeed 
yet  provided  suitable  instruments,  placed  it  still  be- 
yond the  resources  of  modern  geography  to  give  any 
thing  like  a  just  representation  of  the  two  hemi- 
spheres. The  Venetiar  geographers  were  the  first  who 
attem|j(bd  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  immense 
legions  recently  discovered,  adjusting  them  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  mass  of  information  previously  pos- 
sessed. But  a  serins  of  Venetian,  maps,  preserved  in 
the  king's  library-,  show  how  much  their  skill  was 
counteracted  by  the  difficulties  with  which  they  bad 
to  contend.  Instead  of  exhibiting  the  vast  ocean 
which  separate.^  the  east  coast  of  Asia  from  the  west 
coast  of  America,  the  two  continents  are  represented 
either  as  meeting,  or  as  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
strait.  The  vnyage  of  Magellan  across  the  Southern 
Ocean  had  not  shown  with  sufficient  distinctness  the 
preseatation  of  the  opposite  coasts,  to  enable  the  geo- 
graphers of  the  time  to  avoid  this  error.  Wlien  maps 
of  different  dates  are  compared,  we  find,  as  we  descend 
toward  modern  times,  a  gradual  progress  towanl  accu- 
racy in  tlie  representations  given  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. This  is  what  might  l>e  expected ;  for  all  maps 
should  1)e  considered  as  unfinished  works,  in  which 
there  will  always  be  sometMng  to  be  corrected,  or 
sometluag  new  to  be  inserted. 

At  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters  in  Europe, 
the  latitudes  and  longitudes  as  given  by  Ptolemy  were 
universally  received  with  implicit  confidence.  When 
checked,  however,  by  actual  observation,  they  were 
found  to  diflfer  materially  from  the  truth.  The  lati- 
tudes in  many  instances  were  found,  very  erroneous ; 
that  of  Byzantium,  for  example,  exceected  the  trutli 
by  two  degrees.  As  nearly  the  same  excess  was 
found  to  exist  in  some  other  cases,  many  geographers, 
nnwilUng  to  renounce  the  authority  of  Ptolemy,  con- 
cluded that  this  difference  had  arisen  from  a  change 
Ebb 


having  taken  place  in  the  poaitloa  of  th«  aarth't  asl% 
in  consequence  of  which  the  latitudes  of  all  the  plaoH 
in  Europe  were  Increased.  The  progress  of  obeerva* 
tion  showed  that  this  opinion  waa  untenable,  and  that 
before  geography  could  rest  on  a  sure  basis,  a  general 
revision  of  ancient  graduation  was  indispensably  nac< 
essary.  The  only  observations  employed  by  the  aa 
cienta  for  determining  longitudes  were  those  of  the 
eclipses  of  the  moon ;  but  it  was  found  that  the  results 
derived  from  this  source  could  not  be  depended  on.  In 
the  year  1610,  Galileo,  having  discovered  three  of  Jupi- 
ter's satellites,  pointed  out  the  use  which  might  be  made 
of  their  eclipses  for  finding  longitudes.  But  this  meth- 
od, which  gives  the  greatest  degree  of  accuracy,  was 
turned  to  little  account,  until  16S8,  when  Cassini  pul>- 
lished  his  tables  of  the  revolutions  and  eclipses  of 
these  satellites.  Three  years  afterward,  by  means  of 
simultaneous  observations  made  by  him  and  Picard  at 
Pari),  and  by  Tycho-Brahe  at  Copenhagen,  the  differ- 
ence of  longitude  of  these  two  important  points, 
which  had  been  long  a  matter  of  dispute,  was  finally 
determined.  Since  that  time,  other  accurate  methods 
of  finding  the  longitude  have  been  discovered ;  and 
the  instruments  employed  in  observation  have  been 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The  refine- 
ments and  improvements  of  modem  science  have  been 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  great  problem  of  determin- 
ing the  figure  of  the  earth,  which,  though  nearly,  is 
not  exactly  spherical.  (See  Fiovrb  or  thb  Earth.) 
The  labors  of  scientific  men  to  obtain  accurate  results 
on  this  subject,  have  contributed  much  to  the  improve- 
ment of  geography.  The  expeditions  sent  out  under 
Maupertuis  to  the  arctic  circle,  and  under  Condaniae 
to  the  equator,  afforded  an  opportunity  of  makinj; 
various  observations  of  latitude  and  longitude  in  re- 
gions of  which  no  delineation  resting  upon  proper 
data  had  hitherto  been  given.  Within  the  last  60 
years,  trigonometrical  surveys  of  France  and  England 
have  been  executed,  which  have  nearly  completed  the 
delineation  of  these  countries. 

Much  advantage  has  accrued  to  geographical  science, 
in  point  of  accuracy  and  precision,  from  the  application 
in  modem  times  of  a  sound  and  judicious  criticism  to 
the  immense  mass  of  materials  which  had  been  accu- 
mulating for  ages.  The  labors  of  M.  d'Anville,  in  the 
18th  century,  were  employed  with  great  success  in 
this  department.  He  undertook  the  revision  of  the 
whole  system  on  which  the  delineation  of  tlie  world, 
and  of  the  countries  into  which  it  is  divided,  had  hith- 
erto been  made ;  and  by  unhesitatingly  rejecting 
ever}'  particular  that  did  not  rest  on  positive  authority, 
he  removed  many  false  or  uncertain  feotureu,  and 
clearly  distinguislied  the  known  from  the  unknown 
parts  of  the  globe.  Major  Rennell  has  slullfully  ar- 
ranged and  illustrated  the  important  materials  collected 
respecting  India,  Various  authors  have  in  modem 
times  cultivated  another  interesting  field  of  inquir}', 
the  comparison  between  ancient  and  modem  geog- 
raphy, and  the  tracing  of  the  rise  and  progress  of 
early  discovery.  These  researches  were  diligently 
pursued  by  Vossius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  men  of 
the  17th  century,  and  with  still  more  success  by  Ken- 
nell,  Vincent,  and  Mannert,  who  appear  to  have 
pushed  them  as  far  as  they  admit,  though  much  dark- 
ness still  rests  on  some  parts  of  the  inquiry.  Gosselin, 
notwithstanding  that  he  has  applied  to  the  8Ul)ject  a 
great  extent  of  investigation,  as  well  as  much  skill  and 
force  of  criticism,  has  failed,  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
views  in  which  he  indulged,  to  make  any  solid  ad- 
dition to  the  science. 

The  discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese had  greatly  increased  the  stock  of  geSgraphiciil 
information.  Still  much  remained  to  be  done.  The 
desire  of  finding  a  short  and  convenient  route  to  Indio 
continued  to  supply  a  stimulus  to  exertion  in  the  way 
of  discovery.  The  English  and  Dutch  made  extra- 
ordinary efforts,  and  encountered  fearful  dangers  and 


(3B0 


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tfMwton,  irith  tha  •zpaefotian  of  flndhig  •  puaag*  by 
flia  B«(th-eMt,  along  the  northarn  shores  of  Asia.  A 
coast  beset  wtth  the  ieea  of  the  polar  seas  prssented, 
however,  obstacles  too  fbrmtdable  to  be  overcome; 
though  recent  researches  show  that  no  barrier  of  land 
Intervenes.  But  there  was  still  another  quarter 
where  an  attempt  might  be  made ;  and  to  this  point 
the  commercial  nations  of  Europe  Mled  not  to  direct 
their  efforts.  The  jealonsj-  of  Spain  long  prevented 
the  other  European  States  from  visiting  the  north- 
western coa«t  of  America,  so  that  they  remained  igno- 
rant of  the  vast  breadth  to  which  the  continent  spreads 
out  as  it  advances  toward  the  north.  They  adopted, 
Indeed,  the  opinion  that,  like  the  southern  extremity, 
the  northern  terminated  in  a  point  or  cape.  This  left 
room  to  hope  for  a  north-western  passage  Into  the 
Paciilc  Ocean,  by  sailing  round  the  imaginary  cape. 
The  English  took  the  most  decided  lead  in  the  explor- 
atory voyages  to  which  these  views  gave  rise.  In  the 
reign  of  Queen  Eliiabeth,  Frobisher  and  Davis  were 
sent  out  OB  three  successive  voyages,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  entrance  into  Hudson's  Bay  by  the 
former  navigator,  and  of  the  entrance  into  Baffin's 
Bay  by  the  latter.  These  two  capacious  basins  were 
afterward  discovered  by  the  intrepid  navigators  whose 
names  they  bear.  In  sailing  round  tlio  great  sea  which 
he  had  discovered,  Baffin  mistook  the  great  opening 
Into  Lancaster  Sound  for  a  mere  gulf— a  misapprehen- 
aion  which  checked  for  a  time  any  further  attempts  in 
that  quarter,  as  navigators  were  led  to  expect  success 
only  through  the  channel  of  Hudson's  Bay.  In  1631 
Fox  explored  a  part  of  that  great  opening  on  the  north 
of  Hudson's  Bay,  called  Sir  Thomas  Roe's  Welcome, 
which  seemed  now  to  hold  out  almost  the  only  ho'pe  of 
accomplishing  the  object  sought.  The  assertion  of 
Middleton,  an  officer  in  the  service  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  that  he  had  discovered  the  head  of  the 
Welcome  to  be  completely  closed,  and  the  circumstance 
of  two  other  navigators,  who  were  sent  out  the  follow- 
ing year,  failing  to  effect  any  thing,  produced  an  im- 
pression on  the  public  mind  that  the  passage  so  long 
■ought  had  no  existence. 

The  discoverii  s  of  Cook  in  the  North  Paciflc  Ocean, 
where  he  found  the  American  coast  stretching  away 
In  a  north-westerly  direction.  Joined  to  the  circum- 
stance that,  when  he  penetrated  through  the  strait 
discovered  early  in  the  last  century  by  Behring  and 
Tchirlkof,  which  separates  America  .'rom  Asia,  the 
coast  appeared  there  to  extend  indeflnitely  to  the 
north,  seemed  not  only  to  conflrm  the  conclusion  that 
no  passage  into  the  North  Paciflc  Ocean  was  here  to 
be  expected,  but  also  that  the  American  continent 
extended  northward  in  one  unbroken  mass,  perhaps 
even  to  the  pole.  The  groundlessness  of  these  views 
became  apparent  when,  in  the  year  1771,  Mr.  H"ame, 
who  had  been  dispatched  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany to  explore  the  limits  of  the  coast  in  this  direction, 
sailed  down  the  Copper-mine  River,  and  discovered  its 
entrance  into  the  sea ;  and  again,  v  her,  in  1780,  Sir  Al- 
exander Mackenzie  traced  also  to  the  sea  another  river 
about  20  degrees  further  to  the  west.  Thus  were  there 
fhmlshed  strong  grounds  to  believe  that  the  pole  was 
■nrronnded  by  an  ocean  which  separated  the  northern 
coasts  of  Asia  and  America,  nuking  these  two  conti- 
nents altogether  distinct  from  each  other ;  and  that 
through  this  ocean  lay  the  long-sought  course  which 
would  certainly  conduct  the  navigator  who  should  suc- 
ceed in  forcing  his  way  through  the  ice  and  storms  of 
the  polnr  regions,  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  North 
Paciflc  Ocean. 

The  determination  of  this  great  geographical  ques- 
tion, so  long  agitated,  has  recently  called  forth  the 
utmost  efforts  of  the  British  government.  In  181R  an 
expedition  wts  sent  out  to  Baffin's  Bay  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Ross,  without  leading  to  any 
important  result,  as  he  was  led  to  conclude  that  no 
npenhig  existed.     Laneaster  Sound  had,  however. 


foroibly  attracted  the  attention  of  the  late  Sir  EdwaWl 
Parr}-,  at  that  time  lieutenant  and  second  In  command ; 
and  on  returning  with  a  new  expedition  under  hia 
immediate  command,  he  succeeded  in  penetrating 
through  Lancaster  Sound,  which  he  found  gradually 
to  widen  till  It  opened  into  the  Polar  Sea.  He  found 
a  chain  of  large  Islands  to  lie  parallel  to  the  American 
coast ;  and  among  these  he  continued  his  navigation 
until  the  accumulation  of  ice  in  the  straits  and  chan- 
nels through  which  he  had  to  pass  stopped  his  further 
progress.  This  circumstance  induced  him  to  make  hia 
next  attempt  through  Hudson's  Bay,  by  the  channel 
of  the  Welcome,  which  had  as  yet  lieen  but  imper- 
fectly explored.  Here  he  succeeded  in  reaching  a  point 
considerably  beyond  that  at  which  Middleton  had 
represented  the  bay  aa  terminating.  He  found  at 
length  a  narrow  strait  communicating  with  the  Polar 
Sea,  but  so  incumbered  with  ice  as  to  preclude  the 
hope  of  its  ever  affording  an  open  passage.  He  was 
therefore  again  sent  out  to  renew  his  efforts  in  the  first 
direction,  where  he  hod  already  obtained  partial  suc- 
cess. But  the  ol>stacles  which  ^  had  formerly  been 
unable  to  overcome  still  continued,  and  prevented  him 
fW>m  making  any  material  addition  to  his  former  dis- 
coveries. While  these  skillfully-conducted  voyages 
were  In  progress,  Sir  John,  then  Captain  Franklin, 
was  sent  ont  at  the  head  of  two  successive  expeditions 
by  land,  and,  by  actnal  survey,  ascertained  three 
fourths  of  the  Iwundarj-  coast — ^hls  operations  termin- 
ating at  a  point  lieyond  the  149th  degree  of  west  longi- 
tude. On  the  other  hand,  an  expedition  nnder  Cap- 
'tain  Beechy,  sent  to  meet  Captain  Franklin  on  his 
second  toilsome  Journey,  passed  the  Icy  Cape  of  Cook, 
and  penetrated  nearly  as  far  as  the  lS6th  degree  of 
west  longitude,  leaving  only  seven  degrees,  or  160 
miles,  between  the  farthest  point  t'liis  reached  and  the 
utmost  limit  reached  by  Captain  (''ranklin.  The 
results  of  this  investigation  appeared  to  prove  that 
the  whole  of  the  northern  uoost  of  Ami^rica  extends  in 
a  line  not  varying  much  from  the  parallel  of  the  70th 
degree  of  north  latitude.  The  problem  of  a  passage 
l)etween  the  Atlantic  and  Paciflc  Oceans,  to  the  north 
of  the  American  continent,  has  now  been  finally  solved ; 
but  this  discover}',  so  well  fitted  in  Itself  to  afford  sat- 
isfaction to  the  British  nation,  which  has  alwiyrs  takeh 
the  lead  in  such  enterprises,  has  been  made  under  cir- 
cumstances of  a  very  saddening  kind.  In  1845  Sir 
John  Franklin  and  Captain  Crazier  were  sent  out  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery  to  the  Aretic  Seas.  No  tidings 
having  been  received  of  this  expedition,  it  became, 
after  two  or  three  years,  a  subject  of  painful  anxiety 
and  suspense.  Hence  various  expeditions  were  .fitted 
out  and  sent  in  search  of  the  missing  voyagers,  to  suc- 
cor them  if  still  within  reach  of  human  aid,  or,  if  oth- 
erwise, to  ascertain  their  fate. 

In  the  course  of  these  praiseworthy  endeavqrs.  Cap- 
tain M'Clure  was  appointed  to  command  the  Inreati- 
ffotor,  under  Captain  CoUinson  of  the  Enlerpriie,  and 
proceeded  with  that  officer  to  Behring's  Straits  in  the 
early  part  of  1850.  When  on  the  eve  of  sailing.  Cap- 
tain M'Clure  emphaticall}''  declared  that  he  would  find 
Sir  John  Franklin  apd  Captain  Crazier,  or  make  tho 
north-west  passage.  The  latter  part  of  this  pledge  he 
has,  geographically  speaking,  redeemed ;  but  the  im- 
penetrable mystery  which  firom  the  first  enveloped  the 
fate  of  these  gallant  commanders,  remains  the  same. 
Captain  CoUinson  failed  in  his  attempts  to  penetrate 
the  pack  Ice  that  season,  and  so  was  separated  fh>m 
Captain  M'Clure,  who,  notwithstanding  a  signal  of 
recall  fram  Captain  Kellett  of  the  Herald,  the  chief 
officer  on  that  station,  dashed  onward  with  a  Iwld 
determination  to  force  a  passage  to  the  north-east — 
taking  on  himself  all  the  responsibility  of  disobeying 
orders.  Fortunately  his  daring  has  been  crowned 
with  success.  He  rounded  Point  Barrow  on  the  6th 
August,  1850;  continuing  his  course  eastward  along 
the  co»st,  he  reached  Cape  Parry  on  the  6th  Soptem- 


OBO 


803 


080 


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bar,  whMM  he  (tMTvd  throngh  a  elunnal  cdlad 
Prince  of  Welei't  Stnit ;  which,  running  noith-eut, 
■ppaared  a  meet  promiilng  coune  for  reaching  the 
■e>  louth  of  Melville  laUnd.  Near  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  this  ttrait,  the  Invettigalor  waa  frozen  in 
from  the  8th  of  October,  and  remained  stationary 
during  the  winter.  Partiea  being  sent  out  to  explore, 
tl  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  channel  opened  into 
Barrow's  Strait;  and  thus  was  the  existence  of  a 
north'Weat  passage  esUblished.  On  the  14th  July, 
1851,  the  Inveitigalor  waa  again  fairly  afloat,  the  ice 
having  opened  without  any  pressnie.  The  great 
object  now  to  Ira  gained  was  to  pass  through  the  strait ; 
but  notwithstanding  their  utmost  exertions,  the  expe> 
dition  was  completely  arrested  by  strong  north-east 
winds,  driving  great  masses  of  ice  to  the  southward. 
Thus  baffled.  Captain  H'Clnre  resolved  on  running  to 
the  southward  of  the  island  forming  the  western 
boundary  of  Prince  of  Wales's  Strait,  which  he  had 
named  Baring  Island,  and  then  to  sail  northward  along 
its  western  side.  This  navigation,  in  which  he  was 
subjected  to  many  delays  and  encountered  many 
formidalile  obstacles,  he  accomplished,  and  succeeded 
in  reaching  the  north  side  uf  the  inland  on  the  24th  of 
September.  Had  open  water  existed  to  the  east  the 
rest  of  the  passage  might  have  been  easily  performed 
in  this  way,  for  Barrow's  Strait  lay  before  them,  the 
navigation  of  which,  from  their  position  to  I^ncaster 
Sound,  was  known  to  be  practicable.  The  hopes  of 
this  intrepid  navigator  were  destined  again  to  be  dis- 
appointed. On  the  night  of  the  aliove-montioned  day 
the  Invtstigntor  waa  frozen  up,  and  at  this  point,  in 
latitude  74=  6'  N.,  and  longitude  117°  54'  W.,  they 
had  tiieir  winter  quarters  in  1851,  1852,  185.9.  In 
April,  1852,  a  party  crossed  the  ice  to  Melville  Island, 
and  deposited  there  a  document  giving  an  account  of 
their  proceedings,  and  of  the  position  of  the  Invetti- 
gator.  This  document  waa  happily  discovered  by  the 
officers  of  Captain  Kellett,  who  had  l)een  the  last  per- 
son with  whom  Captain  M'Clure  held  communication 
when  he  entered  the  ice  on  the  west,  and  was  now, 
singularly  enough,  the  person  to  rescue  him  at  the 
expiration  of  three  years  on  the  side  of  Melville  Island 
on  the  east.  Steps  were  immediately  taken  to  com- 
municate with  the  party  in  their  ice-prison.  Lieutenant 
Pirn  lieing  appointed  by  Captain  Kellett  to  the  service. 
Eventually  it  was  found  necessary  that  Captain 
H'Clnre  and  his  gallant  companions  should  abandon 
their  ship,  however  unwillingly ;  so  that  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  north-west  passage  has  not  yet  been  accom- 
plished. 

The  discovery  of  a  new  continent  greatly  enlarged, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  views  of  mankind  respecting  the 
constitution  of  the  globe.  But  imagination,  no  longer 
limited  in  its  range  by  the  nation  of  a  circumambient 
ocean  that  could  not  lie  passed,  soon  gave  rise  to  the 
belief  of  a  southern  continent,  which  was  supposed 
necessary  to  baliince  the  land  in  the  northern  regions 
of  the  earth.  The  immense  body  of  water  that  was 
found  to  occupy  so  large  a  portiim  of  the  known 
regions  of  the  southern  liemisphere  gave  ample  room 
for  supposing  this  unknown  continent  to  be  of  vast 
dimensions.  It  waa  imagined  that  it  might  eqnal  in 
e.xtent,  as  well  as  in  wealth,  the  American  continent. 
Nor  was  it  considered  necessary  to  exclude  it  from  the 
map  of  the  world  till  its  existence  should  be  proved. 
It  appears  in  all  the  early  maps  as  an  immense  mass 
of  land  surrounding  the  south  pole,  and  presenting  to 
the  ocean  one  unbroken  coast.  The  discovery  of  cer- 
tain great  insular  tracts  in  the  South  Seas,  which, 
(h>m  ignorance  or  their  true  nature,  navigators  might 
mistake  for  continental  promontories  or  portions  of 
coast,  no  doubt  at  first  gave  some  countenance  to  the 
belief  of  the  existence  of  antarctic  land.  But  the  de- 
lusion was  gradually  dispelled  before  the  light  afforded 
b}'  further  discovery.  The  Portuguese,  in  less  than 
20  years  after  their  passage  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 


pnabed  their  luearchas  to  the  most  nmola  islanda  In 
the  Indian  Ocean,  including  Jitva  and  the  Molnccaa. 
They  appear  also  to  have  observed  soma  part  of  the 
coast  of  New  Guinea.     The  Spaniards,  during  their 
early  and  adventurous  career,  put  forth  strenuoua 
exertions  to  explore  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  several 
of  the  groups  of  islands  scattered  over  Its  surface  were 
discovered  by  their  navigators.     In  1607,  the  Dutch 
having  wrested  Java  and  the  Spice  Islands  firom  tha 
Portuguese,  established  in  them  the  centre  of  their 
Indian  dominion.    A  great  maritime  power  being  thus 
placed  so  near  to  the  northern  shores  of  the  largest 
portion  of  land  on  the  globe  that  is  regarded  as  un 
island,  it  became  almoet  Impossible  that  New  Uollaud 
could  long  remain  unknown.     It  was  discovered  early 
in  the  17th  century,  and  was  long  supposed  to  form  a 
part  of  the  great  southern  continent.     Van  Diemen, 
the  Dutch  governor  of  India,  sent  out  several  vessels 
succcHsivoly  to  explore  its  coasts,    Hertog,  Carpenter, 
Nuytz,  and  Ulaming  made  very  extensive  observa- 
tions on  the  northern  and  western  shores,  but  found 
them  so  dreary  and  uninviting  that  no  settlement  waa 
attempted.     In  the  year  1642  Abel  Jansen  Tasman 
was  commissioned  to  proceed  on  a  voyage  to  ascertain 
its  extent.     On  the  14th  August  he  sailed  fro>n  Uata- 
via,  directing  his  course  first  toward  the  Isle  of  France 
He  again  set  sail  on  the  8d  October,  and  proceeding 
southward  and  eastward,  beyond  the  limits  reached  by 
his  predecessors,  he  discovered  and  doubled  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  to  which  ha 
gave  its  name ;  but  he  failed  to  discover  that  it  is  a 
separate  island.     Pursuing  afterward  his  course  east- 
ward, having  reached  about  42°  10'  S.  lat.,  and  170° 
E.  long.,  he  found  himself  in  view  of  a  high  and 
mountainous  counti?',  which  he  named  Staaten  Land, 
but  which  is  now  known  as  New  Zealand.     He  sailed 
along  the  coast  toward  the  north-east,  and  after  being 
detained  l>y  the  variableness  of  the  weather,  he  re- 
sumed his  voyage  and  returned  home  by  the  Friendly 
Islands,  discovering  many  islands  in  his  progress.    He 
arrived  at  Batavia  on  15th  June,  1643.      Tasman's 
voyage  proved  that  New  Holland  was  no  part  of  the 
southern  continent,  even  if  such  a  continent  should  be 
found  to  exist.     Cook,  who  had  been  appointed  in 
1767  to  conduct  a  voyage  into  the  South  Pacific  Ocean 
for  astronomical  and  geographical    purposes',   sailed 
southward  in  1709  in  quest  of  the  unknown  continent. 
Lofty  mountains  were  seen  on  the  fith  October,  and  it 
was  supposed  that  the  oliject  of  their  search  was  found. 
But  the  land  proved  to  be  New  Zealand.     This  land 
he  circumnavigated,  and  found  that  it  consisted  of  two 
large  islands  separated  by  a  narrow  channel.     After 
six  months  employed  in  this  manner,  be  directed  his 
course  westward,  and  reached  the  eastern  side  of  New 
Holland  early  in  1770.     By  his  extensive  operations 
in  that  quarter — ^having  run  down  the  coast  from  lat- 
itude 38°  to  its  northern  extremity  at  Torres  Strait — 
he  left  little  more  to  be  done  there  in  the  way  of  dis- 
covery.   Passing  down  New  Holland  and  New  Guinea, 
he  continued  his  voyage  by  Timor  and  the  south  coast 
of  Java  to  Batavia ;  whence,  after  repairing  the  ship, 
he  sailed  for  England,  and  reached  the  Downs  on  the 
12th  June,  1771,  with  his  crew  weakened  and  reduced 
in  number  by  the  fatigue  and  hardships  of  their  long 
voyage.     By  this  voyage  it  was  proved  there  was  no 
such  continent  as  that  supposed  to  exist  to  the  north- 
ward of  40°  south  latitude.     But  as  many  ingenious 
and  well-informed  men  still  adhered  to  tlio  opinion 
that  there  did  exist  a  southern  continent,  government 
determined  to  send  out  a  second  expedition  under 
Cook,  to  make  such  an  exploration  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
in  the  higher  southern  latitudes  as  should  finally  and 
satisfactorily  settle  this  much  agitated  question. 

Cook  was  instructed  to  circumnavigate  the  globo  in 
high  latitudes,  prosecuting  his  researches  as  near  to 
the  south  pole  as  possible,  and  to  traverse  every  part 
of  the  Southern  Ocean  where  the  supposed  continent 


GBO 


804 


GEO 


Mold  pomiblr  Ik.  Tb«  •xpodMon  nnad  from  r\y- 
month  Itth  Joljr,  1773,  (nd  qalttod  Um  Cap*  of  Oood 
Hop*  Kd  Novambtr.  Pnrraing  hia  eonra*  aaitward, 
Cook,  during  thna  yaara,  amplo^ud  tha  atammar 
montha  In  thoae  ngioni  (oorrMponding  to  onr  win- 
tar  month)),  in  navigating  liigh  latitodaa  toward  the 
South' pole,  and  the  winter  montha  in  adding  to  hIa 
diacoveriea  in  the  South  Paclflc  Ocean.  Notwithttand- 
Ing,  however,  that  he  raried  hia  eourae,  and  tra- 
Teraed  in  every  direction  which  he  thought  afforded  the 
alighteat  likelihood  of  finding  land,  and  actually  got 
ao  far  aonth  aa  71°  10'  of  latitude,  he  waa  unnuocesa- 
fill.  Having  thua  acrupulonaly  anii  completely  ac- 
compliahed  the  object  for  which  he  waa  sent  out,  he 
directed  hia  ooarae  homeward.  He  had  encompaaaed 
the  globe  In  high  latitude*,  and  waa  led  to  conclude 
that  the  aouthem  pale  la  surrounded  only  by  ialea  and 
Arm  flelda  of  ice,  to  that  the  hypotheala  of  an  anatral 
continent  had  no  foundation.  He  reached  the  Cape 
of  Qood  Hope  22d  Blarch,  177&,  and  anchored  at  Spit- 
head  on  the  80th  July,  having,  in  the  apace  of  8  years 
and  18  days,  sailed  30,000  leagues,  mostly  In  inhos- 
pitable cllmatea  and  unknown  aeas.  In  the  course  of 
thia  and  his  former  voyage  the  aame  great  navigator 
saonred  glory  to  hia  eountr)-  and  to  himself  by  llke- 
wia*  completing  the  survey  of  the  great  Pacific  Ocean. 
Soma  of  the  intereating  groups  of  Islands  scattered 
over  Ita  vast  surface-had  already  bean  made  known  by 
the  previous  voyages  of  Byron,  Wallis,  and  Carteret. 
Cook  fully  traced  tha  great  chain  of  the  Society  Isl- 
ands and  the  Friendly  Islanda.  He  determined  also 
the  form  and  relations,  not  only  of  New  Zealand,  but 
of  New  Caledonia  and  other  lands  and  islands  in  that 
region  of  the  globe. 

The  extensive  island  of  New  Holland  has  recently 
become  daul>ly  interesting  from  the  important  relations 
which  now  subsist  lietween  it  and  Europe.  In  the 
year  1788  the  establishment  of  a  British  colony  on  the 
east  coast  paved  the  way  for  a  more  complete  survey. 
By  the  different  expeditiona  undertaken  from  1795  to 
1799,  chiefly  under  the  direction  of  Bass  and  Flinders, 
the  east  coast,  together  with  Van  DIemen's  Land 
and  Baaa's  Strait,  which  separates  tbat  island  from 
New  Holland,  were  adetjiuitely  explored.  In  1801  an 
expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  British  government 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Flinders,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  surveying  a  large  portion  of  the  coast.  These 
surveys  were  prosecuted  with  unremitting  ardor  and 
perseverance.  At  the  same  time  that  Captain  Flin- 
ders waa  carrying  on  his  survey,  the  French  captain 
Baudin  was  employed  on  the  aame  service,  and  in  some 
parts  the  discoveries  of  these  navigators  intermingle. 
Some  additional  oliservatlons  have  more  recently  been 
made;  and  by  these  various  expeditions  the  whole 
coast  of  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen'a  Land  has 
been  accurately  surveyed,  the  position  of  every  point 
has  been  ascertained,  and  every  inlet  and  bay  has  been 
traced  to  it.i  termination. 

The  strong  presumption  which  the  researches  of 
Captain  Cook  in  the  Southern  Ocean  furnished  of  the 
non-existence  of  an  austral  continent,  seemed  to  leave 
no  room  to  expect  that  any  further  doubt  would  be 
entertained  on  the  subject.  Lieutenant  C.  Wilkes, 
commander  of  the  expedition  fitted  out  In  1838  by  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  for  the  exploration 
of  the  antarctic  regions,  has,  however,  claimed  for  his 
oountrj-  and  for  himself  the  honor  of  at  length  discov- 
ering a  continent  within  the  antarctic  circle.  While 
this  claim  is  pertinaciously  adhered  to,  no  distinct 
and  unequivocal  proof  is  produced  that  the  continent 
alleged  to  have  been  seen  by  tha  American  expedition 
has  a  substantial  existence.  No  continent  or  island 
was  landed  on;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  British  expedition,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  James  C.  Ross,  sailed  over  the  very  spot  in 
south  latitude  66°,  and  east  longitude  168°-166°, 
where  Lieutenant  Wilkes  anpposed  he  saw  mountain- 


oua  land.  Thia  latter  axpadltlon  waa  fitted  out  by  tM 
British  govanuaant,  (tor  aclantlfle  purpoaaa,  in  1880, 
and  arrived  in  Van  Dieman'a  Land  In  Auguat,  1840. 
Tha  Fnnoh  government  had  Ukawla*  sent  an  expedi- 
tion into  the  southern  saaa,  under  tha  command  of 
Captain  Dumont  d'Urville,  about  the  aame  time.  To 
avoid  intarfeiancaa  with  this  Vrench  and  American  dia- 
coveriea, Sir  Jamaa  Roaa  determined  on  a  more  east- 
erly meridian— that  of  170°  £.— in  which  to  endeavor 
to  penetrate  to  tha  aouth.  Tha  expedition  sailed  Awm 
Hobart  Town  on  18th  November,  1840,  and  on  37th 
December  encountered  a  chain  of  Iceberga.  On  tha 
6th  January,  1841,  they  entered  the  pack-Jca,  through 
which  having  forced  their  way,  the  ice  having  at  the 
same  time  somewhat  slackened,  they  found  themselves 
on  the  7tb  January  again  In  a  clear  aea.  Soon  after 
2  o'clock,  A.  M.,  of  the  11th  January,  they  diacovered 
land,  which,  as  they  advanced  southward,  waa  found 
to  extend  continuously  ftom  the  70th  to  the  79th  degree, 
with  several  adjacent  Islands,  This  land  they  called 
Victoria  Land.  It  presented  to  their  view  rangea  of 
mountains  whose  lofty  peaks,  covered  with  eternal 
snow,  rose  to  elevations  from  7  to  10  or  even  12  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  The  inter- 
vening valleys  were  filled  with  glaciers,  which,  de- 
scending from  near  the  mountains'  summits,  projected 
in  many  places  several  miles  into  the  sea,  and  ter- 
minated in  per|)endicular  cliffs.  The  rocka  breaking 
through  iu  a  few  places  their  covering,  afforded  the 
only  indication  that  land  formed  the  nucleus  of  thia, 
to  appearance,  enormoua  Icelierg.  On  the  28th  Janu- 
arj',  when  they  had  nearly  reached  their  highest  lati- 
tude, about  78°  S.,  they  found  that  what  appeared 
when  first  seen  at  a  distance  to  lie  a  high  Island,  was  a 
mountain  12,867  feet  in  height  emitting  flames  and 
smoke  in  great  profusion.  This  volcano  lies  in  lati- 
tude about  771°  S-1  ond  in  longitude  about  167°  E. 
From  the  most  eastern  point  of  land  at  a  cape  not  far 
from  the  foot  of  this  mountain,  an  icy  barrier  waa 
found  to  extend  eastward  as  far  as  the  eye  could  dis- 
cern. This  barrier  was  a  perpendicular  wall  of  ice 
fh>m  160  to  200  feet  in  height,  and  stretched  260  miles 
In  one  unbroken  line,  as  was  found  on  a  second  visit  to 
the  same  interesting  locality  in  February  1842 ;  nor 
were  they  able  to  turn  its  extremity,  so  as  to  reach  a 
higher  latitude.  At  a  point  where  tha  height  of  tha 
barrier  diminished  to  about  80  feet,  they  perceived 
from  the  mast-heads  that  it  gradually  rose  to  the  south- 
ward, presenting  the  appearance  of  very  lofty  mount- 
ains perfectly  covered  with  snow,  but  with  a  varied 
and  undulating  surface.  And  hence  Sir  James  Ross, 
with  nearly  all  his  companions,  felt  assured  that  the 
presence  of  land  there  amounts  almost  to  a  certainty. 
Still,  Sir  James  is  of  opinion  that  the  recent  discoveries 
In  the  antarctic  regions  made  by  the  French  and  Amer- 
ican navigators,  and  b)-  himself,  do  not  prove  the  ex- 
istence of  a  great  southern  continent,  but  rather  of  a 
chain  of  islands. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  geographical  discovery,  it 
can  not  fail  to  be  observed  that  while  discovery  by  aea 
admits  of  being  pursued  with  great  advantage,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rapidity  of  its  progress  and  the  extent 
of  its  range,  it  does  not  supersede  the  slower  and 
more  confined  operations  of  the  discoverer  by  land, 
which  are  no  less  necessary  to  make  known  the  inte- 
rior features  and  circumstances  of  the  different  coun- 
tries. 

The  British  dominion  in  India  has  led  to  much  addi- 
tional information  respecting  the  interior  of  Asia ;  infor- 
mation which  is,  however,  in  many  respects,  only  the 
revival  of  ancient  knowledge.  The  great  mountainous 
chain  which  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  India,  has 
been  traced  and  found  in  many  places  to  tower  to  such 
heights  as  to  exceed  the  Andes,  long  supposed  to  be 
the  highest  mountains  in  the  world.  The  source  of 
the  Ganges,  and  that  of  the  Indus,  with  the  early 
couraes  of  these  great  rivers,  have  been  found  to  be 


OBO 


805 


GBO 


•/ 


■MuM  qutt*  dllhnntljr  fW>in  what  had  bmn  MppoMd 
to  bt  Ihalr  pOiltlon  hy  modern  geoKraphera.  The 
0wuilt«ln<iui  torrllorlu  of  C'abul  itnit  Cashmere,  the 
hliih  Inltrlor  lahlt-land  of  Thilier,  and  the  vait  sandy 

Iilllni  of  Mtekran,  hava  all  Iwen  more  or  leas  explored, 
nftirmallon  of  an  authentic  character  has  also  been 
reaentljr  oMalned  respectInK  the  formerly  celebrated 
sapltals,  lloiihara  and  Hamaroand.  But  a  wida  fleld 
■tilt  nmalns  for  future  renearch. 

Tha  I'onllnent  of  Africa,  however,  li  the  qnarter  of 
tha  Klolia  which,  mom  than  any  other,  haa  baffled  the 
ttlfurts  of  IhoM  who  would  explore  Its  Interior.  The 
vast  Mndy  deserts,  high  mountains,  and  impenetrable 
fortils  which  ocour  en  Us  surface,  Joined  with  the  un- 
minlttlnK  w*'"  o'n'ltd  on  tietween  the  petty  tribes,  as 
well  a*  tha  da«ply-raate<l  antipathy  of  the  African 
Muhammadana  toward  the  Franks,  have  preaenteil  ob* 
•tAcle*  of  tha  most  fbrmldable  kind.  The  ancients, 
wbflsi  knowladKe  of  the  African  coasts  was  very  im- 
parfMit,  axeept  where  they  Iwrder  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  tha  Ked  M«a,  were  accustomed  to  penetrate 
Into  tha  Inlr.id  provinces,  and  ar»  said  to  have  been 
Kai|ualnt«4  with  mimy  parts  of  it  which  are  now  alto- 
tfatlier  unknown,  At  nn  early  period  of  modem  his- 
tory, reports  that  Preater  John,  the  Christian  I'rince, 
who  had  iMwn  sought  for  in  vain  In  the  East,  was 
to  ha  found  In  the  Interior  of  Africa,  induced  the 
I'ortuguaaa  to  explora  Abyssinia;  but  the  accounts 
whioh  they  gave  of  tha  extent  of  that  country  were 
greatly  exaggerated.  From  tho  western  coast  they 
dispatched  embasslrs  Into  tha  interior  in  quest  of  the 
object  of  their  search  i  and  on  one  occasion  they  appear 
to  hava  raached  the  city  of  Tlmbuctoo,  and  to  have  ob- 
taluad  at  lianln  some  Information  concerning  the  great 
Interior  kingdom  of  Ohana.  The  maritime  nations  of 
■outh'Westem  Kurope  early  formed  settlements  on  the 
west  nnaat  of  Africa,  and,  for  commercial  purposes, 
ware  naturally  prompted  to  seek  a  knowledge  of  the 
neighboring  nations.  But  It  was  not  until  the  forma- 
tion of  the  African  Association  in  17H8  that  any  well- 
•ustalnad  atTorts  were  made  In  the  prosecution  of 
discovery  In  the  Interior.  There  were  two  objects 
connected  with  the  Interior  of  Africa  which  had  for  a 
long  tlma  flxed  the  attention  and  awakened  the  curi- 
osity of  tha  nations  of  Europe.  These  were  th>  city 
of  TImbuotoo  and  tha  great  central  river,  the  N.^^r. 
TImbuctiio  has  been  for  many  centuries  the  grand  em- 

Kirlum  of  the  central  trade  of  i\litca,  and  hence  there 
\»  prevailed  throughout  Europe,  ever  since  the  rise 
of  discovery  anil  commercial  enterprise,  a  strong  de- 
sire to  visit  It,  and  to  establish  with  it  a  Mendly  Inter- 
course, The  discovery  of  the  luurse  and  mouth  of 
,  tha  Nlgar  has  now  o|)ened  up  to  commercial  specula- 
tion what  It  Is  hoped  will  give  a  ready  access  to  Tim- 
biietiK)  »»  welt  as  other  places  of  traffic.  The  in- 
terest with  which.  III  a  geographical  point  of  view, 
however,  the  Niger  has  bean  regarded,  has  arisen  from 
tha  ramarkalila  nature  of  the  regions  through  which  it 
Hows,  and  still  more  from  our  Ignorance,  combined 
with  the  various  and  contradictory  riuBors  which  were 
so  long  abroad,  respecting  Its  course  and  termination. 
Herodotus  la  the  earliest  author  who  affords  any  Ideas 
Appllnabla  til  this  subject.  He  mentions  an  expedition 
Into  the  Interior  of  Africa,  undertaken  by  some  Nassa- 
nioiilan  youths,  who,  lielng  made  prisoners,  were  car- 
ried to  a  grant  city  luhaltlted  by  negroes,  and  situated 
on  tha  banks  of  a  river  which  flowed  from  west  to 
east.  This  stream  he  conjectures  to  be  the  remote 
aourse  of  tha  Nile,  but  the  particulars  given  appear  to 
leave  llttin  doubt  that  It  was  the  Niger.  A  simitar 
byputhasU  was  adopted  by  Strabo,  Mela,  and  Fllny, 
likntlfylng  the  waters  of  these  two  great  rivers.  But 
PtoUniy,  whose  residence  in  Alexandria  afforded  him 
ample  means  of  Information,  rejects  altogether  the 
Idea  of  any  communication  between  them.  He  do- 
scriliei  the  Niger  as  terminated  on  tho  west  by  Mount 
liiMdrui  ^Mandlngo),  and  as  giving  rise  to  taveral  ex- 


tensive lakaa  aa  It  proceeds  In  Ita  oouraa.    Hla  stata- 
inenta  do  not,  however,  involve  any  thing  positive  aa 
to  the  direction  In  which  It  flows.     The  Saracens  or 
Arabians  are  the  next  great  xiurce  of  information ; 
for,  in  the  course  of  the  disacnsions  which  took  placa 
among  their  dynasties  in  northern  Africa,  large  iHidles 
crossed  the  desert  and  founded  kingdoms  on  the  east- 
em  part  of  the  shore  of  tlie  Niger,  of  which  the  king- 
dom of  Ghana  was  the  most  splendid.     According  to 
their  testimony,  the  Niger  flows  from  east  to  west, 
and  discharges  Itself  Into  the  see,  liy  which  they  un- 
derstood the  Atlantic,  or  great  circumambient  ocean. 
With  regard  to  its  source,  they  generally  regarded  It 
as  the  same  with  that  of  the  Egyptian  Nile,  identifying 
the  two  rivers  in  the  early  part  of  their  course.    Some 
were  of  opinion  that  the  waters  of  the  Niger  did  not 
reach  the  eea ;  so  that  they  must  have  supposed  them 
to  lie  discharged  into  a  lake.     The  system  adopted  by 
modem  Euroiieans  was  derived  from  Leo  Africanus, 
who  retained  the  delineations  of  the  Niger  as  flowing 
from  east  to  west,  and  falling  into  the  ocean  ;  but,  in- 
stead of  deriving  it  from  the  Nile,  supposo<l  It  to  rise 
from  a  lake  lying  deep  in  the  interior  of  Africa.     Fol- 
lowing this  hypothesis,  ail  the  early  European  naviga- 
tors, when  they  saw  tha  two  l>road  estuaries  of  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  concluded  that  one  or  Iwth  gave 
egress  to  the  waters  of  the  Niger.   In  the  lieginnlng  of 
the  17th  century,  the  French  and  English,  having  each 
formed  a  settlement,  the  one  on  the  Senegal  and  the 
other  on  the  Gambia,  were  induced  by  the  hope  of  gain 
to  seek  a  route  up  tliese  rivers  to  the  city  of  Timl>uctoo ; 
and  in  this  enterprise  they  proved  the  falsity  of  the 
opinion  which  had  been  so  long  held.     The  streama 
were  traced  so  near  to  their  source  as  to  become  little 
more  than  rivulets ;  while  the  explorers  were  still  far 
from  the  great  central  emporium  of  Africa,  and  from 
the  great  plain  through  which  the  Niger  was  under- 
stood to  flow.     This  result  led  the  two  great  French 
geographers,  Dellsie  and  D'Anville,  to  construct  maps 
in  which  the  Niger,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages, 
was  again  represented  as  flowing  to  the  eastward.   In- 
stead of  a  single  stream  pursuing  a  course  across  the 
whole  breadth  of  Africa  and  falling  into  the  Alantic, 
D'Anville  distinguished  three  rivers — the    Senegal, 
flowing  westwai'd  ;  the  Niger,  flowing  eastward  into  a 
lake  in  Wan)< '  r:: ;  and  another  river  still  further  east, 
and  flowing         '  t  opposite  direction.     The  data  on 
which  this  schciii-  rests  were  never  fully  made  public. 
Still  new  doubt  was  thrown  around  this  subject  by 
the  reports  collocte<l  by  Mr.   Lucas,  who  traveled 
under  the  auspices  of  the  African  Association,  and  who 
was  assured  at  Tripoli,  by  a  native  merchant,  that  the 
river  flowed  with  rapidity  in  a  westerly  direction). 
The  time,  however,  at  last  arrived,  when  these  con- 
flicting opinions  were  to  be  silenced,  and  when  now 
light  was  to  be  thrown  on  the  subject,  by  the  labors  of 
our  illustrious  modem  traveler,  Mr.  Mungo  Park.     In 
his  flrst  expedition,  in  1795-96,  he  proceeded  from  the 
west  coast  in  the  direction  of  the  River  Gambia,  until  at 
Medina  he  left  it,  and  turned  to  the  north.     Having 
passed  through  the  kingdoms  of   Bondou,   Kasson, 
and  Kaarta,  he  reached  Sego,  the  capital  of  Bam- 
iwrra,  where  he  beheld  "  the  long-songht  majestic  Ni- 
ger glittering  in  the  morning  sun,  aa  brood  oa  the 
Thames  at  Windsor,  and  flowing  slowly  to  tha  east- 
ward," directing  his  course  Into  the  depths  of  the  in- 
terior of  Africa.    This  stream,  he  found,  was  called  by 
the  natives  the  Jolibo,  or  Great  Water.     Park  ad- 
vanced Iteyond  this  point  to  another  town  called  Silla 
on  the  same  river,  and  acquired  also  some  valuable 
information    respecting   the    further   course   of  the 
stream  which  was  the  object  of  his  research,  as  well  oa 
respecting  the  position  of  Tlmbuctoo,  which  he  was 
told  was  not  more  than  200  miles  from  Silla.     Follow- 
ing upward  the  course  of  the  Joliba  until  he  reached 
Bammakoo,  which  was  stated  to  he  about  ten  days' 
Journey  from  its  source,  ha  returned  to  the  Gambia  by 


OBO 


80fl 


GEO 


•  nort  Muthtrljr  tnei.  In  1006  thli  idTtntnraui 
iMrtUr  WH  Mnt  out  *t  tha  pulilln  exiicnM  nn  hli  mo- 
omi  •xptdltion.     Aftpr  nrnrhlnn  ''*lll<>i  hit  <imlHtrk«il  •! 

•  ptac*  In  hi  nulKhlHirhiMHl  on  the  J(illha  or  Niger, 
with  lh«  dvtcmiiniitlim  iif  uillnK  ilnwn  thu  ntnam 
until  h«  thuulil  ranch  lla  mouth,  whithcmxiver  ita 
couiM  might  conduct  him,  He  I*  Mcartalniid  tn  have 
MiMd  auccMtivelj  the  cttlei  of  JennA,  Tlmliuotno, 
Vkuur  or  YmuiI,  and  to  have  reached  Rouana,  a  nhnrt 
dirtance  further  down,  when  be  waa  killed.  No  part 
of  hli  Journal,  however,  after  he  emharkod  on  the 
river,  ha*  been  recovered.  In  the  mean  time,  a  atmng 
and  general  Intereat  iMing  now  excited  in  reference  to 
African  geography,  Inforiualion  Howed  in  from  varl- 
ova  iourcea  reapecting  the  regiona  In  the  Interior,  aa 
well  B(  Mma  part*  nearer  the  coaat.  Many  partlculara 
hecame  known  concerning  the  conntriea  to  the  eaat  of 
Tlinlmotoo,  eapeclally  the  kingdom  of  Bomou,  then 
tha  moat  powerful  Mtate  of  central  Africa.  The 
knowle<lge  poaa«aH«d  of  the  people  of  the  Interior  waa 
•lao  canald«nil>ly  increaaed.  Theae  circuniatunrea  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  more  auoceaaful  attempt  than  any 
hitherto  made  to  explore  the  interior  of  AfHca,  when 
Major  Uenham  an<l  lieutenant  Clapperton  were  aent 
out  In  1833.  Setting  out  flrom  Tripoli  with  a  caravan 
of  Arab  merchanta,  theae  travelera  cmaaed  the  daaert, 
•nd  reached  the  gnat  inland  aea  or  lake  called  Tvliuil, 
which  la  the  receptacle  of  immenae  volumea  of  water 
eollecte<l  from  the  moat  diatunt  raceaaea  of  inner  Af- 
rica. Major  Denham  examined  the  coaata  of  thia  lake 
In  the  eaat  and  aouth  ;  while  Lieutenant  (Mapperton 
directed  hia  reaearchea  weatward,  through  the  king- 
dom of  Bomon  and  the  country  of  the  Kellataha,  until 
ha  arrived  at  Suckatoo,  aituated  on  a  atteam  which 
prolmbly  flowa  into  the  Joliba.  In  the  conrae  of  thia 
Jonmey,  Clapperton  obtained  a  great  maaa  of  Informa- 
tkin  concerning  thoae  hitherto  unvialted  regiona  which 
lie  eastward  of  Timbuctoo ;  but  with  regard  to  the 
conrae  of  the  unexplored  part  of  the  River  Niger  (or 
Quorra,  aa  it  waa  culled  at  Sackatoo),  ho  heard  little 
that  could  be  depended  upnn.  Having  returned  to  Kn- 
gland,  he  waa  again  aent  ont  by  the  government  In 
command  of  a  new  expedition,  with  tnatmctlona  that 
he  ahould  endeavor  to  penetrate  to  tha  acene  of  hIa 
former  adventurei  fhim  the  coaat  of  Guinea.  In  the 
•xecution  of  thia  plan  of  reeeareb  he  reached  the  Ni- 
ger at  Ilouasa,  where  Park  periahed ;  and,  after  tra- 
reralng  aome  of  the  adjoining  regiona  on  the  further 
(Ida  of  the  river,  aa  fur  aa  the  great  commercial  city  of 
Kann,  the  capital  of  Houaaa,  where  he  had  been  in  hia 
former  Journey,  he  turned  again  to  the  weat,  and  hav- 
ing reached  Sackatoo,  there  died.  Ilia  aervant, 
Richard  Lander,  with  a  pralaeworthy  leal,  embarked 
on  one  of  the  branchea  of  the  Niger  for  the  purpoae  of 
fltully  determining,  if  poaallde,  its  termination  by 
aaillng  down  the  atream  ;  but  he  waa  atopped  by  the  na- 
tlvea,  and  compelled  to  turn  back  The  city  of  Tim- 
buctoo waa  in  the  mean  while  raac  .ed  by  Major  I  jiing, 
who  succeeded,  in  Augnat,  1826,  In  making  hia  way 
thither  across  the  desert  from  Tripoli.  In  this  famous 
city  ha  spent  some  weeks,  but  ha  waa  murdered  in  tha 
desert  on  hia  retom ;  nor  did  the  resulta  of  hia  in- 
quiries and  observations  ever  reach  Europe.  Such 
•re  tha  formidable  difllcultles  and  dangers  which  have 
hitherto  encompassed  the  path  of  discovery  in  the 
interior  of  AfHca.  Still,  by  renewed  aflbrts,  the  ob- 
ject of  research  has  been  gained.  The  grand  ques- 
tion of  the  termination  of  the  Joliba,  Quorra,  or  Niger, 
tias  at  length  been  fully  resolved — a  discover}-  which 
Is  the  result  of  the  fortunate  and  well-conducted  enter- 
priae  on  which  Richard  Lander  and  his  brother  were 
lent  out  in  1880.  Having  followed  nearly  the  same 
route  which  had  lieen  taken  by  Clapperton  in  his  sec- 
ond Journey,  th^sa  two  travelers  reached  Bonssa  on 
tha  17th  Junek  They  first  ascended  the  river  aa  far  as 
Yaouri,  and  then  returned  to  Boussa.  After  reniain- 
Ljg  there  for  some  time,  they  embarked  en  the  river  to 


follow  tha  stream  In  ita  course  downward,  hoping  thai 
It  would  conduct  them  to  the  aea.  In  thia  expectation 
they  were  not  diaappointeil ;  for  they  reached  the  llluht 
of  Benin  by  tha  iaf^r  branch,  which  ia  there  called 
the  River  Nun.  There  ia  another  great  branch  a  little 
further  to  the  aouth  ;  aiul  by  theae  two  outlets,  with 
aeveral  amaller  channela,  the  river  known  In  Europe 
hy  the  name  of  Niger  diacharges  ita  water  Into  the  At- 
lantic. 

The  aaal  for  diacovary  in  Africa,  which  has  liaan  ao 
active  during  the  laat  aix  yeara,  has  sent  forth  a  sue- 
caaaion  of  travelera  (miaalonariea  anri  others)  to  ex- 
plore the  aouthern  regions  of  that  vaat  rontinani  AVe 
can  mention  hrisHy  only  the  aosi  remarkable  results 
of  their  reaesrrhea. 

It  Is  now  ( IHM)  about  six  yean  since  Intelligence 
was  received  In  Europe  of  tha  discovery  of  snowy 
mountains  in  eaatem  Africa,  The  diacovery  was  In 
itself  ao  remarkable,  that  tha  report  waa  not  at  Hrat 
universally  craditatl.  It  waa,  however,  subsequently 
confirmed.  The  mountains  in  queallon  are  Kiliman- 
jaro, in  about  latitude  8)°  8.,  and  longitude  87°  E. ; 
and  Kenia,  in  about  latitude  1°  8.,  ami  longitude  »H|° 
E.  They  wore  diai-overed  by  the  miasionariea  Ite|v 
mann  and  Krapf,  atationad  near  Mombaa,  Kiliman- 
jaro Is  an  isolated  and  very  conaplcuoua  peak,  probably 
connected  on  Its  wentem  side  with  the  table-land  of 
inner  Africa.  The  missionaries  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  its  eiiatem,  aouthern,  and  northern 
aspects ;  but  Mount  Kcnin  has  been  seen  only  fn>m 
the  aouth,  at  a  distance  of  six  days'  Journey,  or  about 
80  geographical  miles. 

Another  important  discovery  made  in  the  interior  of 
Africa  within  the  same  time  ia  that  of  Lake  N'OamI, 
by  tha  missionary  tha  Rev.  Dr.  Livingston,  accompa- 
nied  by  Mr.  Oswell  and  Mr.  Hurray,  It  seems  to  be 
situated  alMut  10°  south  latitude— about  &60  miles 
N,N.W.  of  Kolobeng,  tha  acene  of  Dr.  Livingston's 
missionary  labors,  and  the  head-quarten  of  the  Ra- 
qualn  tribe.  These  and  other  explorers  have  made  us 
in  some  measure  acquainted  with  an  extensive  aystem 
of  rivera,  between  10°  and  22°  S.  latitude,  running 
eoatward,  which,  when  further  research  ahull  have 
made  tham  ftolly  known,  may  be  found  capable  of  l)e- 
ing  rendered  subservient  to  commercial  intereourse 
with  the  surrounding  countries,  and  to  their  conse- 
quent civilization.  Dr.  Livingston  haa  lately  returned 
(h)m  his  explorations  to  the  north  of  I^ke  N'Gumi. 

An  important  expedition  to  central  Africa,  headed 
by  Mr.  James  Richardson,  left  Tripoli  In  Manh,  1860. 
It  was  sent  out  under  the  orders  and  at  the  expense  of 
the  British  government.  The  object  of  thia  miasion 
was  to  survey  Lake  Tchad,  and  to  explore  tha  neigh- 
boring countries.  Tba  scientific  interests  of  the  expe- 
dition were  intrusted  to  two  German  gentlemen.  Dr. 
Barth  and  Dr.  Overweg.  Instead  of  traveling  from 
Tripoli  across  tha  desert  with  the  great  caravan,  the 
mission  formed  a  small  caravan  of  Its  own,  amounting 
to  almut  100  persons,  nnd  as  many  camels.  The  jour- 
ney from  Tripoli  to  Murzuk  and  thence  to  Ghat  is  less 
interesting  than  that  from  the  latter  place,  where  they 
entered  on  entirely  new  ground-  But  even  in  the  for- 
mer part  of  tha  maroh  many  important  discoveries 
were  made,  as  the  travelere  selected  new  routes  not 
before  explored,  and  thus  rendered  every  part  of  the 
Journey  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  the  mission. 
At  Ghat  their  personal  danger  was  increased  to  such 
a  degree  that  they  found  it  necessary  to  trust  for  pro- 
tection to  the  friendship  of  the  sultan  of  the  KeloCs,  in 
whose  country  they  ware  detained  about  three  months, 
during  which  time  Dr.  Barth  made  an  interesting 
Journey  to  Agadez,  while  much  vaiualile  information 
was  also  collected  by  Mr.  Richardson  and  l>y  Dr. 
Overweg,  who  had  remained.  At  tha  close  of  1860  the 
party  reached  Zinder,  where  the  three  travelers  sep- 
arated, each  proceeding  with  his  foilowen  by  another 
route.    Mr.  Richaidaon  took  the  direct  way  to  Kukm, 


GEO 


807 


GSO 


/ 


■•t  far  from  lh«  khorM  of  I^a  Tchsd,  and  th«  eapiul 
of  the  •Diplrs  of  Uornou.  At  Kuki  all  tha  thna  hii|Miil 
anain  to  iiiaat  vary  •imn  aftarwanl,  liut  tliU  hnpn  wa* 
diaappointed.  Mr.  Kkchardann  wmi  of  a  weak  conttl- 
tution,  yat  hli  health  appoareU  t(>  •uflVir  little  from 
the  fatigue  of  rnMiInK  "i<  dnaert ;  but  ha  aunk  before 
ha  raachtd  Lake  Tuhad,  whlrh  wuk  the  termination  of 
hia  mlHlon,  aad  from  which  ha  wa*  to  return  by  diraci 
road  to  Irlpoll,  Ila  dle<l  In  the  country  of  Uornou  at 
Ungurutua,  a  place  tlx  days'  >iurney  from  Kuka,  dur- 
ing the  night  intervening  between  the  8d  and  4th  of 
March,  It4.il.  Thuii  waa  added  another  name  to  the 
large  numlwr'  of  thoM  who  have  fallen  a  iaorillca  to 
the  oauM  of  African  dlicover)-. 

The  two  aurviving  travelora,  undaunted  liy  the 
proapect  of  danger,  propoaed  aa  the  plan  of  their  ope- 
ratluna  to  approach  the  Upper  Mile,  aa  soon  aa  they 
bad  explored  the  vicinity  of  I^ke  Tchad,  provided 
they  ware  aupportad  by  the  Brltlth  and  Pruaalan  gov- 
ammonta ;  and  to  lie  ready  even  to  puraue  their  re- 
aearvhea  from  Kuka  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  route 
in  a  straight  line  to  Mombaa  lies  nearly  aouth-eaat ; 
but  from  all  they  could  learn,  the  route  more  to  thn 
aouth.  In  the  direction  of  Luke  NyaasI,  seemed  more 
practicable.  The  gigantic  Journey  which  they  thus 
aontemplated,  lay  through  many  powerful  kingdoms, 
densely  peopled,  Intersected  by  numnrous  rivers,  very 
fertile,  and  abounding  in  foreata,  but  where  the  roost 
formlilalile  oli«tacleii  were  to  be  «xp«uted  from  the  war- 
like diii|io»itlon9  of  the  sumiuniling  nations. 

In  the  mean  time  they  proMCCuted  with  zeal  the  Im- 
mediate objects  of  the  mission,  embracing  every  op- 
portunity of  collecting  information.  On  the  '39th 
May,  1861,  Dr.  Barth  started  from  Kuka  to  visit  the 
kingdom  of  Adamana,  which,  from  the  accounta  he 
had  received,  he  judged  to  be  the  most  beautiful  coun- 
try of  central  Africa.  Ha  reached  Yola,  the  capital, 
on  the  22d  June,  where  he  was  permitted  to  reman  only 
throe  days.  He  whs  kindly  received,  however,  lioth 
by  the  sultan  and  by  the  inhaliitants,  and  at  his  de- 
parture waa  treated  with  consideration  and  honor 
four  days'  Journey  before  roachhig  Yola,  he  had  to 
orosa  at  the  point  of  their  junction  the  two  principal 
rivers  of  Adumana,  the  Benueh  and  the  Faro,  the  lat- 
ter lielag  a  tributar}-  of  the  former.  The  Benueh  he 
describes  as  the  largest  and  most  Impoaing  stream 
which  be  bad  seen  since  leaving  Europe.  He  found 
it  half  a  mile  broad  ami  alM)ut  10  feet  deep.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  source  from  the  point  at  which  he  crossed 
it  was  said  to  be  nine  days'  Journey.  This  magnifi- 
cent river  is  In  fact  thi  upper  course  of  the  Tchadda, 
which  itself  falls  inci  t).'>  Quorra  or  Niger,  not  far 
from  ita  mouth.  TIic  discovery  thus  made  of  the 
'  identity  of  the  two  streams,  the  Benueh  ■>;:<  the 
Tchadda,  has  opened  up  a  way  of  access  to  the  very 
heart  of  inner  Africa,  which  seemn  destined  eventually 
to  become  the  line  from  the  west  along  which  the 
blessings  of  commerce  and  civilization  are  to  flow  to 
the  surrounding  nations.  The  consideration  of  the 
immense  importance  of  following  up  this  discovery, 
and  of  the  advantages  which  might  be  expected  to  ac- 
crue from  it,  suggested  the  idea  of  sending  out  a  steam- 
boat expeditk>n  from  England  to  ascend  the  Tchadda. 
Former  attempts  to  reach  central  Africa  by  ascending 
the  Quorra  hud  been  attended  with  very  disastrous 
consequences.  But  the  expedition  which  left  the 
British  shores  in  May,  18i)4,  to  ascend  the  Tchadda 
waa  eminently  ancccssful,  while  not  a  single  life  was 
lost.  It  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Quorra  in  the  be- 
ginning of  July,  and,  entering  the  Tchadda,  ascended 
the  stream  to  within  about  60  miles  cf  the  confluence 
of  the  Benueh  and  the  Faro.  Thus  it  baa  beeen  fully 
prored  that  this  important  river  la  navigable  to  Yola, 
the  capital  of  Adamana. 

While  Dr.  Borth  was  prosecuting  this  journey  bis 
IbUow-traveler  was  employed  in  surveying  Lake  Tchad. 
Tbi*  lake  it  described  aa  an  immense  marsb,  the  only 


portion  lit  for  navlgatloa  being  a  deep  channel  foruad 
by  the  Klvar  Shary,  which  pours  into  tha  lake  a  vast 
volume  of  water.  What  Major  Denham  boadewsribed 
as  nmali  islands,  were  found  to  be  extensive  meadow- 
lands  of  much  greater  aurfaca  than  the  lake  ItMlf. 
Tha  explorations  of  Dr.  Overweg  led  to  resulta  con- 
siderably at  varianra  with  whut  had  baan  reported  by 
Denham  i  but  tha  discrepancies  ara  perhaps  mora 
apparent  than  real,  and  may  Huil  thair  explanation  In 
the  fact  that  tha  lake  U  augmented  during  the  rainy 
season  to  an  tmmensa  Ixxly  of  wuter ;  but'dutlng  tlie 
season  of  drought  is  so  much  redui'ad  by  evaporation 
as  to  appear  at  times  to  be  almoat  dried  up, 

In  the  course  of  the  summer  v(  18A2,  Dr.  Ilarth, 
setting  out  f^om  Kuka,  mode  a  Jnumey  hi  a  aouth- 
eaatorly  direction  toward  the  Nile  i  and  ao  near  did  he 
approach  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  tha  basin  of  that 
great  river,  that  he  waa  able  to  collect  Information 
likely  to  throw  light  on  soma  Intricate  queatioua  con- 
nected with  it.  Ho  succeeded  ulso  in  exploring  u  |)or- 
tlon  of  UaglrmI,  a  powerful  kingdom  between  Ijtke 
Tchad  and  the  Upper  Nile,  which  hud  never  before 
been  vialtod  by  any  European.  In  uniting,  by  means 
of  his  Itineraries,  Baglrmi  with  Oar  FOr,  he  has  com- 
pleted a  line  of  direct  routo  across  central  Africa  from 
the  Quorrrn  to  the  Nile ;  and  thus  fkom  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean, 

Dr,  Overweg  left  Kuka  at  the  sumo  time  with  Dr. 
Barth,  but  took  a  south-westerly  direction  toward  tha 
Quorra.  Between  the  end  of  March,  the  time  of  hia 
setting  out,  and  the  end  of  May  when  be  returned,  he 
successfully  performed  an  Important  Journey,  which 
brought  him  within  ISO  English  miles  of  Yacoba,  tha 
great  town  of  the  Feliataha.  Dr.  Barth's  Journey  oc- 
cupied a  considerably  longer  time ;  and  it  appears  that 
Dr.  Overweg'a  anxiety  to  await  the  return  of  his  com- 
panion, which  was  not  until  the  '20th  August,  Induced 
him  to  remain  at  Kuka,  notwithstanding  the  danger  to 
l>a  apprehended  from  too  long  exposure  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  unhealthy  season.  The  consequence  was, 
that  his  constitution  became  so  seriously  affected  that, 
though  he  set  out  Immediately  after  Dr,  Barth's  ar- 
rival, on  an  excursion  to  healthier  regions,  yet  the 
advantage  derived  proved  only  temporary.  He  died 
on  the  '27th  September,  18&'2,  at  Madu&ra,  al  ut  tea 
miles  east  of  Kuka,  and  near  Lake  Tchad, 

As  It  was  known  that  the  travelers  had  expected  to 
be  ready  to  start  from  Kuka  toward  the  Indian  Ocean 
in  August  or  September,  18&3,  it  was  intended  by 
their  friends  In  England,  that  before  they  left  Kuka 
they  should  be  Joined  by  an  additional  fellow-laborer 
to  take  a  part  in  their  arduous  undertaking,  Dr,  Vogel, 
an  astronomer  and  botanist,  was  accordingly  sent  out 
accompanied  by  two  chosen  volunteera  from  the  corps 
of  the  Sappers  and  Miners.  By  a  singular  coincidence, 
on  the  very  morning  on  which  Dr.  Vogel  and  his  com- 
panions went  on  board  the  vessel  which  was  to  take 
them  to  Malt<i  on  their  way  to  Tripoli,  letters  from 
Dr.  Barth  were  received  in  London  announcing  the 
death  of  Dr.  Ovetweg. 

Though  now  left  alone,  as  being  the  only  surviving 
member  of  the  mission.  Dr.  Barth  continued  to  prose- 
cute with  zeal  the  work  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
Up  to  the  23d  Novemlier,  1852,  he  waa  still  at  Kuka ; 
but  he  had  fixed  on  the  26th  of  the  same  month  to  leave 
that  place,  and  to  enter  on  his  Journey  to  Timbuctoo. 
All  his  Journals  and  papers,  arranged  and  completed 
up  to  thc.t  date,  he  intended  to  forward  to  Tripoli, 
th«Te  to  be  deposited  with  the  English  consul.  By 
the  beginning  of  March,  1868,  be  had  performed  more 
than  one  third  part  of  his  Journey,  and  had  reached 
the  capital  of  the  territories  of  the  Feliataha,  whose 
friendship  and  assistance  he  had  secured.  After  being 
sulijected  to  the  disappointments  and  delays  incident 
to  the  traveler  In  that  part  of  the  world,  he  reached  at 
length  the  termination  of  his  perilous  Journey.  Du- 
ring hjs  stay  at  Timbuctoo  his  life  was  expoaad  tc 


OBO 


801 


\ 


fTM*  daagar,  Armn  th*  InflnMiM  of  anhvorKhU  ell- 
■•to,  »nf  miirh  mora  lo  fhnn  Um  HmIIU  dbtxnltlon 
toward  (IhrintlMt  nf  Ih*  ■■«!  hiMtlral  MohunnMNUn 
pepaUtlon  of  nnrtham  AMm.  IU  thai  drnwritiM  hU 
dlttrmlnK  ■Ituallon  duriaK  hU  Mijouni  In  Ihiil  in<«iil- 
Ac«Rt  clly— tha  "  gaMii  of  tha  ItaMrt,"  aa  It  U  Juatly 
callad  hj  tha  natWaa  i— ■■  l.lka  a  halplau  vanMl  on  tha 
ocaan  waraa,  am  I  thrawn  about  on  a  naa  of  uncar- 
Ulnty,  hotwaxn  tha  powar  and  pauion  at  cnnlanding 
partlaa.  Brary  day  brinfa  iomathlnn  naw— now  of  a 
aalUflwtofy'klnd,  than  attain  of  tha  ravaraa.  I)aath, 
captivity,  aah  ratarn  homo,  ara  my  vlalona  by  turn*, 
and  It  U  yat  Impoailbla  to  aay  which  ahall  ha  my  fate." 
To  hava  lafl  Tlmhuctoo  without  aufflrlant  protat-tlon, 
would  hara  liaan  to  axpoaa  hlmaalf  to  certain  daalh. 
Hanca  hli  atoy  In  thta  plaea  of  danger  waa  unarnld- 
ably  prolraetad  to  naarly  a  yaar,  whan  ha  waa  at  laat 
auceorad  by  AnAb,  tha  ehlaf  of  a  Toarick  triba  Inhab- 
tting  tha  ragloni  aaat  of  TImbuctoo,  along  tha  Quurra, 
who  caiAa  with  an  aacort  of  a  hundred  horaaman,  and 
conducted  him  In  aaftty  through  hia  domlnlona,  on  hla 
way  liack  to  Backatoo. 

The  nawa  of  Dr.  Vogel'a  haTing  been  diapatrhed  tttim 
Europe  to  Join  him  had  reached  TImbuctoo  liefore  Dr. 
Berth  left  that  place.  On  the  lat  December,  IflM, 
be  had  the  inenpretalble  pleasure  nf  meeting  him  at 
Bundl,  aamall  town  aituated  at  about  200  geographical 
mllaa  due  weat  of  Kuka.  Once  more  ha  looked  upon 
the  face  of  a  Kuropean — hit  countryman — and  graaped 
tha  hand  of  a  friend  In  whom  ha  could  place  Implicit 
confidence.  Exactly  alx  yean  had  elapae<l  ainca  he 
left  Europe,  In  oompany  with  Mr.  RIchardaon  and  Dr. 
Overweg.  SInca  the  decaaaa  of  the  latter  he  had  lieen 
laolatad  tnm  clvillicad  aodety,  and  had  been  left  to 
contend  alngle-haaded  with  manifold  hardahlpa  and 
danger*.  To  rerialt  Europe  he  now  conaldere<l  India- 
pmtabla  for  the  preaarvatlon  of  life  and  health ;  and 
accordingly  he  moved  on  to  Kuka,  whence  he  Intended 
to  proceed  homeward  without  ftarther  delay.  We  are 
happy  to  aay  that  ha  arrived  at  Haraeltlea  early  In 
Saptembar,  1855. 

Tha  llmlta  of  tha  great  unexplored  region  of  AfHea 
may  b«  roughly  indicated  as  extending  between  the 
parallela  of  10°  north  and  aonth  of  the  equator,  and 
from  Adamana  in  the  weat  to  the  Homauli  conntrj-  In 
the  eaat.  Thia  axtenaive  region  haa  Juat  been  touched 
by  the  routea  of  recent  travelera.  But  In  all  parta  of 
the  habitable  globe  the  spirit  of  reaeareh,  which  has 
already  done  so  much,  is  still  active ;  nW  Is  It  directed 
only  to  the  determining  of  the  outlines  nf  continente 
and  eonntrioa,  orto  the  marking  of  the  leading  features 
of  mountains,  rivers,  and  cities,  with  their  relative  po- 
aitlons  and  distances.  These  are  regarded  by  the  geo- 
l^phical  inquirer  merely  aa  alfording  a  proper  basis 
on  which  to  rest  tha  description  of  the  earth  oonsidered 
as  the  habitation  of  man,  and  as  affording  him  amply 
the  meana  of  improvement  and  happiness.  The  pic- 
ture can  be  completed  only  by  the  continued  labors  of 
the  scientiflc  observer,  who  makes  the  earth,  with  its 
various  productions,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  the 
treasures  hid  in  ito  bosom,  the  animals  found  upon  Its 
surface,  and,  above  all,  the  human  beings  who  people 
ito  different  reglona  (and  these  in  all  their  mutual 
bearings  and  relations),  the  objects  of  attentive  exam- 
ination and  study. — E.  B.  See  Coast  Sdrvby— Lat- 
iTtn>B— LoMoiTCDB— Tub  Earth. 

Ocorgetown  (formerly  StabrDtk),  the  capital  of 
Britlah  Guiana,  la  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  !)»■ 
merara,  at  ita  month,  which  la  there  abont  three  miles 
wide,  in  north  lat.  6°  49'  80",  west  long.  68°  U'  80". 
The  town  Itself  is  one  of  the  prettiest  in  the  West  In- 
dies ;  and  its  streete  are  wide  and  straight,  intorsecting 
each  other  at  right  angle*.  The  houses  are  of  wood, 
with  open  verandahs  in  fh)nt,  and  neatly  painted  In 
cool  and  quiet  coloi^;  they  are  shaded  and  almost 
hidden  by  trees  and  shrubs,  and  look  more  like  a  4ol- 
lection  of  villas  than  a  town.    The  street  aloag  tha 


river  sM*>-whera  all  tha  atorsa  and  aha|ia  an  slt«ata4, 
and  whera  buainaaa  la  ehlafly  Iranaactad — forms,  Iriw> 
aver,  an  exeepllon  |  Ihaia  every  thing  la  phtia,  hara, 
and  baalneaa-lika.  The  ships  lie  alongside  the  whaifli 
or  at  a  abort  diat^nca  In  tha  atraam,  which  la  ala« 
crowded  with  numerona  amallar  veaaala  engaged  In  tha 
bland  trade,  or  In  bringing  prodaoa  firom  the  mora 
diatont  ealataa.  Tha  hall  of  tha  leglaktlve  coannil, 
courts  of  Juatlce,  enstom-bouse,  treasury,  and  all  tha 
other  public  oMees,  ara  In  one  bnUdIng  of  ooasldarabla 
extent  and  archlteetaral  iMaaty,  with  shady  pnrtiooa, 
and  marble-paved  galleries  or  verandaha  auppurted  oM 
caat-lnm  columna.  The  chief  uf  the  other  public  edl» 
flcea  ara  the  cathedral  and  nhurchaa,  aaveral  liberally 
malnteiuad  hoapltela,  liarranka,  market-place,  and  ica- 
houae.  Bolow  tha  town  la  tha  "  Kort,"  as  It  la  called, 
but  which  looka  more  like  a  green  field,  with  a  fow  gna* 
pointing  toward  tha  aaa,  and  a  honae  or  two  fur  • 
aingia  ofHoer  and  a  doaan  artillerymen,  rupnktion, 
(IHAl,)  Sft.SOfl. 

0«orii«,  lies  between  80°  80'  and  85°  north  Ut., 
and  liatween  N0°  AO'  and  l«l°  6'  west  long.  Iwmk 
Oraenwicb,  and  between  3°  51'  and  8°  47'  wea* 
long,  ftrom  Washington.  It  la  800  milea  long  flrom ' 
north  to  aouth,  and  'IV>  broad,  contoining  58,000 
aquara  mllea.  Population  In  ITIH),  wua  8'i,684|  ia 
7800,  l«!l,(Wtl  I  In  INK).  '.IA'i,488 1  in  1H30,  848,»«9 1  |« 
IHIIU,  AIU,.'>(I7  j  ill  IMU,  A<)1,8»2;  and  In  INAU,  000,644. 
Tha  8tote  In  1860  waa  divided  Into  VA  countlea. 

AVir/y  llutotyo/  Uiorgia.—Vnttt  tha  year  17IIS,  tha 
torritory  of  the  Htate  of  Georgia  waa  Included  In  tha 
namea  of  Camlana  and  Carolina.  Kor  promoting  It! 
aettlement,  King  Oeorge  II.  aeparatad  from  Carolina 
the  territory  lietween  tha  Kivers  Savannah  and  Alli^ 
maha,  and  erected  thia  territory,  by  a  charter  of  tha 
9th  of  June,  1782,  into  an  independent  and  aeparata 
government,  which  waa  called  in  honor  of  that  king, 
tha  province  of  "  (Irorgia."  It  waa  probably  fhim  tha 
beginning,  tha  intention  that  thia  colony  should  gu  aa 
far  down  aa  the  8t.  Mary's  Kiver ;  for  the  patent  aaya 
"  It  should  go  so  far  south  as  tha  southernmost  hranch 
of  the  Altumaha  Klvar."  And  on  the  maps  of  that 
time  we  see  that  it  was  then  believed  that  Altemaha 
Klver  had  a  aoutliern  branch  which  conducted  into 
.St.  Mary'a  Kiver,  and  the  mouth  of  thia  river  waa 
therefore  conaidered  also  to  be  tha  mouth  of  the  Altiu 
maha.  The  boundarlea  were,  however,  in  later  timet 
actually  conducted  so  fkr  south.  With  this  exception 
the  limite  of  the  province  of  Georgia  suffered  no 
changes  on  the  coast,  though  in  the  interior  tha 
changes  were  great.  Theae  interior  changes  have, 
however,  no  relation  with  our  hydrographical  ra> 
searches. — Kohi.. 

From  tha  ocean,  for  a  diatanca  of  seven  mllea,  thera 
la  a  chain  of  Islanda  intorsscted  by  river,  creeks,' and 
inlete  communicating  with  each  other,  and  forming  an 
inland  navigation  for  vessels  of  100  tons'  burden  along 
the  whole  coast.  These  Islands  consist  of  salt  marsh 
and  land  of  a  gray  rich  soil,  which  produces  sea-iaiand 
cotton  of  a  superior  quality.  The  coast  on  the  main 
land  for  four  or  Ave  miles  is  a  salt  marsh.  Back  of 
this  there  Is  a  narrow  margin  of  land,  nearly  reaero- 
bllng  that  of  the  islands  j  these  are  partially  or  wholly 
overflowed  at  the  ratum  of  the  tide,  and  conatitnte  tha 
rice  plantetlons.  Then  commence  the  pine  barrens, 
which  reach  fVnm  00  to  90  miles  from  the  coaat.  Beyond 
this  is  tha  country  of  sand  bills,  80  or  40  miles  wide, 
intorsperaed  with  fertile  tracts,  and  extending  to  tha 
lower  falls  of  the  rivers.  Black  walnut  and  mulberry* 
trees  grow  abundantly  in  this  soil.  The  foreate  pro- 
duce oak,  pine,  hickor}-,  and  cedar,  Deposite  of  iron 
ore  are  widely  difTused  throngbont  the  8tote  ;  gold  ia 
found  in  the  northern  part ;  granite,  marble,  lim^ 
stone,  are  quarried  in  many  plaoea. 

There  «-ere  in  this  Stote  in  1860,  6,878,479  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  16,443,900  of  unimproved  land  ia 
fvms  I  eash  value  of  farms,  #96,758,445,  and  tha  valna 


I 

\ 


\ 


ORO 


sot 


QIO 


of  iBpUmrali  m4  aiMhliHiry,  #>,M4,150,  MMrdlag 
tu  lb*  olHoUl  nport  of  lh«  (Itnana,  V.  H. 

I.iv*  /lltxk,  llnr—4,  He. — llonai,  Iftl.Ml  |  mm*  mi4 
mulM,  07,879)  mlleli  m>wi,  BM,9'in|  working  oam, 
7fl,9M  I  othtr  oatlU,  AHD.OIU  i  »h—f,  000,480  |  (wlnt, 
3,iaM,t)l7|  Tolntof  llv*  ■tnek,  #9A,7im,4ltt  i  oriUufli' 
larwl  anlmoU,  ^,»tW,U2. 

AgrieuUmnl  I'rodyft:  ore'.— WhMl,  I,OM,SM  bwlt- 
•In  I  rjra,  68,760 1  IndUn  rnrn,  IIO,<MM),nM  |  oMo,  »,nm,- 
044 1  httUy,  11,601 1  hui'kwhMl,  IM  |  {MM  •nd  Iimm, 
l,141l,()ll|  imtaUMi,  9*i7,H7»|  (WMt  piUiiMa,  A.WM,- 
4';h  I  riM,  M,96U,(W1  pound!  |  valu*  or  the  pnduot*  of 
th*  orohard,  9t>'i,77fl  i  prodnno  nf  raarkat  Kardma, 
$70,600  I  iMunda  nf  liulter  mada,  4,040,660 1  of  ohaaM, 
40,976  I  auftar,  hogahaada,  1*49  |  mapla  augar,  60  Iba,  | 
iii(dMa«a,  310,160  gallonai  liMawax  ond  honay,  7m,. 
M4  poonda  i  wool,  pounda  produced,  98O,0ltf  |  sotton, 
4!il>,001  balaai  flax,  &,IW7  pounda  |  allk  ooooona,  HIH  | 
liopa,  861  pounda  |  tolHU'on,  498,IM4  t  liay,  lona  of,  911,  ■ 
449 1  elovar-aaad,  iWi  huahaU  g  nihor  grumi  iMdl,  49N  | 
lliix-a««d,  (im  huahala  |  and  war*  maila  7tMi  gallona  of 
wina.    Valua  of  homa-mada  manufaoturaa,  41,HHH,tNM, 

Tha  rivara  ara  th«  Havaniiali,  6(8)  niilaa  long,  Uiund' 
Ing  tha  HUta  on  Iha  nnrth-aaat,  navlgalda  Air  ahlpa  17 
miiaa  to  jtevannab,  ami  a  part  of  tha  year  for  •laom* 
lioati  !t60  mllaa  to  Auguata  \  tha  Altaniiiha,  which  la 
navigahia  for  large  veaaala  19  mllaa  to  llurian,  la 
formad  tiy  tha  Junction  of  tha  OvonM  and  tha  Ocniul- 
gea,  and  la  navigahia  for  ainopa  nf  HO  tona  by  Ilia 
former  to  Uublln  BOO  nillMi  fn>ni  the  noun  i  the  (>gee> 
chM  iHX)  mllaa  long,  and  navigable  for  aloopa  40  mllaa. 


ninl  Wver,  whioh  rlaM  In  Um  MTth-waal  part  of  Ik* 
Male,  and  after  a  oouraa  of  mora  than  9(M)  mllaa,  Jola* 
IIm  Chatktiioocliee,  (brraing  tha  Apalaihliwla.  'I'h« 
CluUahau<'hne,  on  the  waal  Imrderof  ths  N«al«,  whIoh  It 
nevlaahla  »)8I  nillM  by  ataainboat  to  (;<duni)iu<  i  th« 
M.  Mery'a  HIvar  la  In  thx  aouth-waat  partnr  tha  .SUta, 

Ueorgia,  In  IN6*l,  had  lOIU  nillea  of  rallrtMd  tnilll. 
and  about  8(8)  In  oonntructlon,  lieliig  In  advaniM  of  all 
tha  aoutham  Htatan  axisipt  Virginia. 

Afani(/)ir^iirc<,  •<«.— 'I'hare  ware  In  tha  Htate  In  1860, 
80  notion  faotorlea,  with  a  capital  Invattad  of  •l,786,« 
166,  amptoylag  H7A  malaa  and  1,801)  famalaa,  an4 
prtidMoIng  7,9Ut»,l»9  yarda  of  abaatlnga,  and  4,1UH,8A1 
imjnda  of  yam,  valued  at  99,1110,044  |  B  wmdrn  facto* 
riaa  with  a  capital  of  (i(M,0UO,  aniplnylng  40  nialaaand 
IM  famalaa,  maniifaiturinK  IVIl),('i(I0  yunla  iif  cloth,  vaU 
ued  at  #tM,760  i  H  attabllahmanta  making  pig  Iron, 
with  a  capital  of  #96,(8)0,  employing  IBM  paraona,  pro- 
ducing INJO  tona  of  iilg  Iron,  etc.,  valued  at  #67,300 ;  i 
aalabllahmenta,  with  a  capital  of  #H6,flO(),  employing 
no  paraona,  and  making  416  tona  of  caatlngn,  valued  at 
#40,900 1  H  eaUldUhmanU,  with  a  capital  of  #0,900, 
employing  97  peraima,  anil  manufacturing  UU  tona  of 
wnmghl  Iron,  valued  at  #16,1184  i  HIM)  (louring  and 
grlat-nillU,  IIHU  aaw-HillU,  4S  prlntluM-onicaa  ;  &  dally, 
.'I  tri  ntid  •flinl-wnakly,  U7  weeklv  i'«w*pa|iera,  and  6 
monthly  publlcatbna.  Capital',  -ited  In  manufao- 
turaa, #6,U7H,4U0 1  value  of  manufactured  artlclaa, 
#7,0M,&MA.  On  the  lat  of  Januar}-,  1864,  there  wen 
16  r*llr<Nula,  HtH  mllaa  of  which  were  completed  and 
in  operation,  and  446  mllaa  In  courao  of  conatructlon. 


FoaaiuN  Oouuaaoa  or  ma  Btati  ur  flaoRuu,  rRUM  Ooroaaa  1,  1890,  to  Jult  1, 


1NA0. 


rM»M4i>c 

*^ 

hafwta. 

TMHMf*  OUana. 

OlUriil  Toniuf*.         1 

OdwmU. 

roNlaa, 

Tulal, 

Total. 

AaMriiaa. 

riinl|«. 

RilbUrad. 

KorulM  aid 

Sept  to,  1091 

1899 

1898 

1894 

1890 

1890 

189T 

1898 

1899 

1880 

ToUl 

BaptSO,  1881 

1889 

1888 

1884 

1880 

1888 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total 

BaptSO,  IMl... 

1849 

Omoa.,     1348» 

June  80,  1844 

1840 

IMO 

184T 

1848 

1849 

1860 

Total 

June  80,  1801 

1869 

1868 

1864 

18SB 

1886 

60.979,990 
^4Na,919 
4,970,880 
4,0I9,TM 
4,990,989 
4,800,OIUI 
4,20<l,iOt 
8,10»,4'M 
4.980,049 
6,880.090 

640,(U9,978 

«9,9,')T,t4n 
^0U.8NI 
0,970,040 
7,007,897 
«,SB(l,e74 

10,791,700 
8,98^041 
8,808,889 
6,970,4«8 
0,809,909 

1,000 
18,781 
4,999 
1,894 
1,874 
691 

"784 
~$60,1M 

$»,on8 

1,9U9 

"lioo 

iO,OI  1,810 
6,4iM,800 
4,91)8,000 
4,098,I)S9 
4.999,888 
4,808,h>4 
4,9i)l,f'M 
8,104,1/0 
4,981,810 
^8a6,090 
$46,089,10* 

$8,909,818 
^015,>(88 
6,970,040 
1,507,897 
8,s|tO,074 

lli,7?9,9fl() 
8,9l1^04t 
8,8(ttl,HH9 
^970,4»a 
0,809,959 

~ir00(,6lH 
989,591 
670,700 
001.888 
848.806 
880,998 
819.009 
8118,009 
880.490 
9x9.480 
$6,178,994" 

$899,940 
958,417 
818,990 
540,iO9 
898,049 
078,999 
774,849 
770,068 
418,987 
491,498 

41,468 
8B,n6() 
86,404 
80,797 
98,898 
87,905 
41,019 
90,514 
47,408 
eu,894 
874,687 

48,«« 
49,7^1 
_    40,099 
9    40,916 
88,109 
48,k78 
41,090 
96,801 
01,604 
44,070 

14.066 
9,746 

11,079 

19,064 
6,047 
8,068 

10,04* 
9,589 
9,7M 
9,4x6 

8,985 

0,046 

101,161 

99,048 
91,5*7 
98,989 
91,760 
90,970 
U,09» 
99,868 
90,750 
19,408 
48,966 

4,899 

9,188 

178,498,949 

$8,690,017 
4,999,151 
4,699,401 
4,988,800 
4,057,480 
9,7lM,U08 
9,719,149 
8,070,416 
0,807,806 
7,561.948 

$8,696,018 
4,800,907 
4,599.401 
4,988,805 
4,507,485 
9,70'<,IKW 
9,719,149 
8,070,410 
6.857,806 
7,661,948 

$9,109,980 
4,999,090 
7,871,888 
4,808,875 
7,818,019 
8,091,088 

■H,I>H,969 

$449,007 
841,704 
907,489 
800,084 
9IHI,8«)1 
9U.\496 
907,180 
917,114 
871,094 
686,904 
$8,147,916' 

$791,547 
474,990 
008,981 
8110,951 
978,710 
074,940 

899,017 

90,196 
81,450 
48.IIOn 
98,574 
40,410 
18,498 
1M57 
17,871 
81,150 
91,089 
"960,896 

84,968 
99,888 
88,084 
95,896 
60,140 
68,491 

900,986 

80,980 
80.909 
49,088 
88,901 
8^960 
44,748 
87,661 
81,891 
68,718 
"1,594 

9,809 
.1.. 

6,888 

$44,869,196 

$9,188,879 
4,999,010 
7,871,888 
4,807,075 
7,510,519 
8,091,088 

$1,609 
$1,1,0 

"fOo 

409,840 

84,748 
40,0(9 
48.448 
40,404 
89,998 
88,810 

19,869 

11,898 

*  Nine  montbi  to  June  SO,  and  the  flical  year  flrom  thii  time  beglna  July  1, 


Principal  Porti  of  f>«orgia.— Rninawlok,  city,  and 
port  of  entry,  Ut.  81°  10^  north,  long.  81"  86'  weat. 
It  hu  a  (pacioua  and  commmUovis  harlwr,  having  18 
feet  of  water  on  the  bar  at  the  loweat  tide*.  It  la  alt> 
uiited  on  Turtle  River,  14  mllea  alwva  the  bar.  The 
eummerca  of  the  port  io  amall,  la  1060  being  only  754 


tona,     It  la  prupoaed  to  make  this  a  naval  stntinn,  and 
tn  oonatrunt  a  railroad  from  tbia  oity  to  Pensacola. 

Hnviinnuh,  oity,  nnd  port  of  entry,  aituated  on  the 
right  bank  of  tha  Savannah  River,  17  miles  ftom  its 
mouth,  lut.  IW°  4'  60"  north,  long.  81°  8'  18"  west. 
The  barbur  li  good,    Veasels  drawing  14  feet  water 


GER 


810 


OBR 


some  up  to  the  city  and  Urgar  Temela  anchor  at  Five 
Fathom  Hole,  four  milea  below  the  city.  The  com- 
merce of  the  place  ranka  next  to  Mobile,  and  is  the 
most  important  port,  except  Charleston,  from  Bal- 
timore to  tlobile.  The  greater  part  of  the  trade  of 
Oeorgia  centers  at  Savannah,  the  principal  articles  of 
which  are  cotton,  rice,  and  lumber.  The  Savannah 
Kiver  affords  great  facilities  for  internal  commerce; 
and  this  river  is  connected  with  the  Ogeechee  Kiver  by 
a  canal  16  mile«  long,  which  terminates  at  Savannah. 
The  tonnage  of  the  port,  in  1866,  was  81,686  tons. 
See  Strvbns's  Hut.  Geo. ;  DsBow's  Jiev.,  viii.,  SO, 
X.  65,  248,  876 ;  Ab.  Am.  Sev.,  xxiU.  211  (by  An- 
DRKw  NoxTos),  xxiv.  466  (J.  Sparks)  ;  Ixvil.  291 
(by  C.  W.  Upham)  ;  So.  Quar.  Sep.,  xiii.  '•70,  xviii. 
34,  iii.  40 ;  Ck.  Kxam.,  xxlx.  118. 

Oormany. — This  name  was  given  by  th^  Romans 
to  a  country  inhabited  by  various  tribes  of  different 
names,  but  nearly  alilie  in  manners,  customs,  language, 
and  religion.  But  they  comprehended  under  it  not  only 
the  country  now  called  Germany,  but  also  DenmarlCj 
Norway,  Sweden,  Finland.  Livonia,  and  Prussia.  The 
modem  inhabitants  call  themselves  Dtultch,  and  their 
countr}-  DeutseUand ;  but,  as  to  the  origin,  meaning, 
and  primar}'  application  of  both  names  (German  and 
Deutsch),  German  antiquaries  are  far  ttom  being 
agreed,  though  most  of  them  seem  to  be  of  opinion 
that  German  is  a  genuine  Ueutsch  word,  compounded 
of  gtr,  or  gerra,  a  spear,  and  man,  and  consequently 
meaning  spearman,  or  warrior.  Deutach  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Carlovingians,  and  it  first  occurs 
in  a  document  of  the  year  813 ;  but  it  is  only  since 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Otto  I.  (a.d.  936-7.S)  that  it 
has  been  in  use  as  the  general  name  of  the  German 
nation. 

The  Rhine  on  the  west,  and  the  Vistula  on  the  east, 
seem  to  have  been  generally  considered  as  the  bound- 
aries of  Germany ;  while  on  the  north  it  extended 
along  the  ocean  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  on  the  south 
was  terminated  by  the  Rivpr  Danube.  But  Huch 
boundaries  were  by  no  means  definite  ;  for  many  Ger- 
man tribes  inhabited  the  southern  banks  of  the  Rhine 
as  far  as  the  Scheldt. 

Siliiation  and  boundaries. — Germany  may  be  con- 
sidered in  two  points  of  view,  either  politically,  as  the 
country  included  within  the  limits  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation ;  or  ethnologically,  as  the  countr}-  in- 
habited by  the  {wople  who  speak  the  various  branches 
and  dialects  of  the  Deutsch  or  German  ninguage.  In 
the  latter  respect,  the  Deutsch  or  German  nations  are 
found  to  extend  in  a  compact  mass  along  the  shores  of 
the  German  Ocean  and  the  Baltic  or  Kast  Sea,  from 
a  point  between  Cuinis  and  Gravelines,  near  the 
Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  and  from  that 
long  line  of  boundary  soutliward,  with  dimensions 
continually  narrowing  to  the  Alps  and  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  Politically  considered,  Germany  is  situate  be- 
tween 45°  and  54'  60"  N.  lat.  and  6°  43'  and  20° 
60'  E.  long.,  bounded  north  by  the  German  Ocean, 
Denmark,  and  the  Baltic  Sea  ;  east  by  West  Prussia, 
Posen,  Poland,  Gallicia,  Hungary,  and  Croatia ;  south 
by  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  Italy,  and  Switzerland ;  west 
by  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  Its  whole  extent, 
including  rivers  and  lakes,  is  abont  246,770  square 
English  miles,  which  is  about  the  16th  part  of  Europe, 
the  216th  part  of  tlie  whole  dry  land,  and  the  800tb 
part  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe. 

face  of  Ike  countri/. — The  southern  and  the  central 
parts  of  Germany  are  occupied  ))y  numerous  ranges 
,  of  hills  B.id  mountains,  sometimes  separated  only  by 
narrow  valleys,  and  elsewhere  forming  largo  elevated 
plains  or  table-lands,  while  tlie  northern  portion  of 
the  country  sinks  into  a  wide  sandy  moorish  plain, 
but  little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Tyrol  and  the  south-eastern  provinces  of  Austria  are 
occupied  by  liranches  of  the  Alps,  which  present  long 
narrow  valleys,  dismal  precipices,  cataract*,  and  gla- 


ciers ;  and  the  northern  border  of  <Mt  alpine  region 
may  be  defined  by  the  towns  of  b.vgens,  tiuuthofen, 
Fuessen,  Trannsteln,  Salzburg,  Gmunden,  Steinr,  St, 
Polten,  and  Baden.  Immediately  to  the  northward 
lies  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  which  stretches  almost 
across  the  breadth  of  Germany,  declining  fh>m  an 
elevation  of  about  2200  feet,  near  the  source  of  the 
river,  to  alwut  860,  on  the  borders  of  Hungary.  In 
passing  through  Bavaria  the  valley  expands  into  a 
plain  oi' consideralile  extent,  which,  at  Katishon  on  its 
eastern  bo.der,  has  an  elevation  of  about  1000  feet, 
and  gradually  rises  as  it  approaches  the  mountains 
that  surround  it.  Further  north  the  middle  region  of 
Germany  is  occupied  by  various  ranges  of  hills,  ter- 
miiuting  northward  in  a  line  drawn  through  the 
towns  of  Aachen,  Duren,  Krefeld,  Dortmund,  Soest, 
Paderbom,  Bielefuld,  Teklenburg,  Benthcim,  Furste- 
nau,  Behburg,  Hanover,  Braunschweig,  Magdeburg, 
Dessau,  Halle,  Weissenfels,  W'urzen,  Meisseu,  Baut- 
zen, Goerliti,  Liognitz,  Breslan,  Ramsluu,  and  Ro- 
senberg. These  hills  form  a  series,  o^  elevated  valleys 
and  table-lands,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the 
valley  of  Bohemia,  which  has  all  the  appearance  of 
having  hmn  a  lake  liefore  it  was  drained  by  the  burst- 
ing of  its  mountain  barriers.  This  region  is  much 
diversified  by  picturesque  scenery,  and  aliounds  in 
verdant  and  well-wooded  valleys,  watered  by  clear 
streams.  The  banks  of  the  Meyn,  the  Fulda,  and  the 
MoscUe,  are  remarkable  for  their  varied  scenery,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Rhine  unites  the  grandeur  of  a  tine 
landscape  with  the  appearance  of  a  highly  fertile 
country.  To  the  northward  again  of  the  hilly  region, 
the  country  sinks  into  plains,  which  full  very  gradu- 
ally from  an  elevation  of  almut  800  feet  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills  to  the  level  of  the  sea.  These  plains  extend 
through  Lower  Silesia,  Lusatia,  Brandenl>urg,  Po- 
merania,  Mecklenburg,  Holstein,  Hanover,  and  the 
lower  part  of  Westphalia.  To  the  west  of  the  Elbe 
the  flat  country  is  almost  entirely  destitute  of  trees, 
and  presents  only  a  succession  of  level  tracts,  covered 
with  heath  and  Juniper,  and  of  moors  consisting  chiefly 
of  deep  beds  of  turf  intersected  by  rivers  which  flow 
in  depressions  from  100  to  200  feet  l>elow  the  general 
level  of  the  plains.  To  the  east  of  the  Elite  the 
country  is  more  sandy,  but  the  sandy  trscts  are  cov- 
ered with  pines,  and  interspersed  with  fertile  spaces 
of  sometimes  considerable  extent.  The  beds  of  the 
rivers  also  are  generally  wider  and  less  deep  than  in 
the  western  part  of  tho  plain.  Through  the  northern 
part,  of  this  plain  a  higher  tract  may  be  traced  fVom 
west  to  east,  from  Oldeslo  in  Holstein  to  Schwedt  on 
the  Odor,  aliout  70  miles  from  the  sea.  Eastward  of 
the  Oder  it  continues  for  some  distance  due  east,  then 
gradually  approaches  the  sea,  terminating  on  the 
l>anks  of  the  Nieracn  near  Grodno.  It  seems  to  have 
formed  at  one  time  the  shore  of  the  sea,  and  it  is  on 
its  northern  sides  that  are  found  those  numerous 
erratic  blocks  or  Iwulders  that  have  attracted  so  much 
of  the  attention  of  geologists.  Though  it  does  not 
rise  into  hills,  it  forms  the  water-shed  IJetween  a  num- 
ber of  small  streams  that  run  direct  to  the  Baltic,  and 
others  that  run  southward  to  the  Elbe,  tho  Oder,  and 
the  Vistula.  To  the  Alpine  region  belong  the  terri- 
tories of  Liechtenstein,  Tyrol,  southern  Bavaria,  Sty- 
ria,  Salzburg,  Curinthia,  and  Iliyria ;  to  the  middle 
region,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Hohenzollem,  the  great- 
er part  of  Bavaria,  the  northern  portions  of  Austria, 
including  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  Hessen,  Nassau, 
Luxemburg,  Schwartzburg,  Reuse,  Saxony,  and  An- 
hult ;  tc  the  lo<v  country,  Hanover,  Oldenburg, 
Braunschweig,  Lippe,  Ilolstoin,  'Mecklenburg,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  Prussia. 

The  coal  measures  are  widely  distributed  in  many 
parts  of  Germany,  as  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Silesia, 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  and  Rhenish  Prussiii,  from  the  last 
of  which  Holland  is  supplied  with  coals. 

No  part  of  Europe  yield*  a  greater  variety  or  abniid* ' 


fei 


,  --7 


OER 


811 


GER 


•noa  of  minanl  prodactlont,  and  in  no  part  of  the  world 
are  tlis  mlnai  worked  with  lo  much  ikiU  or  lo  much 
•conomy .  Preclou*  »Umm  tn  dlncovarad  In  many  parti  i 
rock  cryital,  emrthyiit*,  Ui\mxm,  «ra  found  In  Bavaria ; 
chalcedony,  agaie,  |ietchiit«ln,  and  porcelain-Jaaper,  in 
Uoheinla ;  buryte*  in  many  part*  |  marlden,  gypsum, 
and  aiubaater,  in  liuhaniiai  uiuni,  near  TOplltis ;  rook- 
•alt  and  Olaulwr  *alt«  In  vnrlouH  parta ;  and  abundance 
of  the  earthr  calculated  fiir  mokinK  earthenware,  from 
the  eoameat  deitcrlption  to  the  llneat  porcelain.  Fotall 
coal  li  found  In  many  dlntrictn,  and  muih  of  it  is  con- 
sumed ;  but  the  cheapness  of  wood,  and  the  prejudices 
of  the  people  against  the  use  of  It  In  their  houses, 
have  operated  to  prevent  the  mines  from  being  com- 
pletely explored  or  worked  to  any  thing  approaching 
the  extent  uf  which  they  are  capable.  Gold  is  pro- 
cured, though  in  very  small  quantities,  by  washing, 
in  Salzburg,  in  ii<ibeniln.  In  the  Kaninielnberg,  nnd  in 
Siieiiia.  Kilver  and  rlnnalmr  are  ralitod  from  the 
mines  of  the  Krr.geblrgs  In  Haxony.  Iron,  copper, 
tin|  loud,  calamine,  blmnuth,  cobalt,  nickel,  titanium, 
arsenic,  and  almost  every  other  mineral,  is  more  or 
less  raised  Aram  the  mines.  The  abundance  of  min- 
eral sultstances  everywhere  scattered,  and  which  it 
would  l)e  dllBcuit  to  enui^-rato,  has  promoted  the 
study  of  mineralogy,  and  tW^^  birth  to  the  school  of 
Kreyburg,  whence  the  pupt^.,  of  Werner  carried  the 
science  to  everj' piirt  of  the  world. 

Soil.— The  toil  Is  generally  productive.  The  plains 
In  the  north  have  Indeed  much  arid  sundy  land ;  but 
nature  has  provided  some  rich  and  fruitful  solis^long 
the  borders  of  the  rivers,  where  the  most  abundant 
harveHts  are  gathered.  The  south  has  also  on  \U 
mountains  much  liarren  or  sll(;htly  productive  land ; 
but  the  iMautlful  valleys  and  plains  among  the  hills 
rival  Id  fertility  the  liest  alluvial  lands  on  the  banks 
of  the  northern  rivers.  In  general  the  soli  in  the 
north  is  heavy,  and  in  the  south,  light ;  the  former 
most  adapted  for  com,  and  the  latter  for  wines.  The 
best  soil  is  in  the  middle,  between  the  mountains  and 
the  sandy  plains.  In  liohemla,  Hllesia,  Franconia, 
Saxony,  and  on  the  Ithlne,  the  proportion  of  good  soil 
is  muith  greater  than  In  the  north  or  the  south. 

Rwer: — (Jermany  has  seven  large  rivers  wlilch 
pass  through  it  to  the  sea,  and  in  their  course  receive 
about  fiOO  smaller  streams,  about  60  of  which  are  nav- 
igable, either  naturally  or  by  means  of  artlHclal  im- 
provement. These  are  the  Danube,  Khine,  Weser, 
kll>e,  Oder,  Ktsch  or  Adige,  and  Rms,  some  of  which 
will  Im)  found  deicritied  under  their  own  names. 

lAkn. — The  chief  of  the  (ierman  lakes  la  tbe  Roden 
Set,  or  Lake  of  l/'onstance,  <m  the  borders  of  Switzer- 
land. (See  Unrj/,  Mrit.)  To  the  onstwurd,  among 
the  valleya  of  the  A1|m,  aro  several  lakes  of  inconiild- 
eralde  dimensions,  ns  the  Waichen,  Kochol,  Ammer, 
Wurm  or  Mtarenlierger,  Tagcrn,  Hchleier,  Chiem, 
Grundol,  Ilaiistadter,  Traun  or  Omunden  See,  Mond, 
and  Kummer  or  Alter,  lakes.  Along  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Ilaltle  or  Kast  Sea  there  Is  a  number  of 
lakes,  which  form  the  western  portion  of  an  innum- 
erable series,  extending  through  Prussia  into  Kussia 
and  Finland,  and  occupying  comparatively  higher 
ground  than  the  adjoining  plains  and  river  channels. 
Some  of  these  are  of  ciinsldcrable  extent,  as  the  luke 
of  Svhwerin  In  Mecklcnliurg  and  the  Hpirding  See  in 
East  I'ruHsia,  the  latter,  however,  twyond  the  p<diti- 
cal  limits  of  Germany.  At  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Hartz  are  the  salt  and  the  sweet  lakes  (Salzige  and 
BOiie  Htm),  and  to  the  north  of  MInden,  to  the  east 
of  the  Weser,  Is  a  considerable  sheet  of  water  called 
the  filrinhndtr  Mrrr;  and  to  the  west  of  tho  Weser  is 
a  smaller  lake  called  the  liiimmri'  flm. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Germany  is  veiy  uniform 
In  res|)«et  uf  the  degrees  of  i^dd  or  heat  experienced 
in  its  dilTerent  regions  i  for  though  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  0"  of  latitude  itetween  Its  southern  and  north- 
•m  borders,  that  dilTerenM  Is  compensated  by  the 


different  elevations  of  the  aonntry,  the  northern  part 
Iwing  lowland  on  the  sea,)  while  the  midland  and 
southern  regions  rise  to  «  considerable  elevation. 
This  is  Indicated  by  the  following  table  of  places  from 
north  to  south. 


FIm«. 

utitmn. 

Bleratlon 
Hbov«  the 
MtlnfMt. 

(r.Unk.U.) 

M«an  MoilMnitur*  or  Uw 

clInuiM. 

Ytsr. 

WInu-r. 

Hummer, 

Stralsund 

ftflO' 

61 

4T'' 

80- 

OS" 

Berlin 

69  80 

140 

48 

81 

u 

Ootha 

60  6T 

1,010 

4« 

29 

60 

Buireuth 

49  ST 

1,119 

46 

29 

61 

Ratlsbon 

49    1 

1,26U 

48 

81 

64 

Munich 

48  10 

1,788 

48 

84 

65 

Innsbraok 

47  la 

1,906 

60 

29 

64 

In  the  intelligent  practice  of  agriculture  some  of 
the  Germans  are  not  behind  the  moat  advanced  of  the 
other  countries  of  Europe.  Mecklenburg,  in  partic- 
ular, and  Ilolstein  are  distinguished  for  their  excellent 
hu8l>andry ;  and  in  Uanover,  Brunswick,  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  and  some  parts  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  it  is 
scarcely  inferior.  Generally  speaking,  agriculture  is 
the  rrinclpal  occupation  of  the  Germans,  particularly 
In  Bavaria,  Wurteml)erg,  Baden,  Hesse,  Nassau, 
Hanover,  Brunstviek,  Oldenburg,  Prussia,  Anhalt, 
Hulsteln,  and  Mecklenburg ;  while  in  the  Saxon 
duchies,  Schwartzburg,  and  Rcuss,  some  districts  of 
Prussia,  Bohemia,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  manu- 
factures employ  at  least  an  equal,  and  in  some  cases 
even  a  greater,  number  of  the  people.  Tbe  greatest 
contrast  in  respect  of  agriculture  is  to  t>e  seen  in 
Mecklenburg  and  Wurtemberg.  In  the  former,  farm- 
ing is  conducted  on  a  large  scale ;  in  the  latter,  as 
well  as  in  other  provinces,  the  land  is  divided  into 
small  parcels,  cultivated  by  small  proprietors  or  ten- 
ants, who  follow  ancestral  usages,  and  are  unprovided 
with  means  to  make  any  improvements,  by  draining 
or  otherwise.  In  the  former  the  S:hlagwirthKhnJi 
prevails,  according  to  which  one  imuiCise  Held  is  cov- 
ered with  wheat,  while  another  is  covered  with  oats, 
a  third  with  clover,  a  fourth  is  being  |dowed  and 
harrowed,  and  a  fifth  is  feeding  b°rds  of  cattle,  the 
common  size  of  farms  being  bo  much  as  500,00U  square 
ruthe,  or  almost  2000  acres ;  in  the  Utter,  every  thing 
is  grown  checkerwise,  in  small  patches,  more  like 
gardening  than  fanning,  the  usual  size  of  Wurtem- 
l>erg  farms  being  only  from  6  to  20  square  rathe,  or 
from  l-40th  to  1-lOth  of  an  acre. 

There  are  three  systems  of  husbandry  at  present 
practiced  in  Germany.  In  the  first,  called  the  three- 
field  huslHtndry,  while  one  field  is  sown  with  winter 
corn,  and  another  with  summer  com,  a  third  lies  fal- 
low ;  but  sometimes,  instead  of  a  fallow  the  third  field 
is  sown  with  green  crops,  peas,  potatoes,  etc.  In  tho 
second  system,  called  tho  four-field  husbandry,  the 
principle  is  that  the  same  field  shall  not  be  occupied 
two  years  together  with  corn,  without  at  least  one 
fallow  intervening;  as,  for  exomple,  one  year,  rye; 
second,  clover;  third,  outs,  or  barley;  I'liurtli,  pota- 
toes ;  fifth,  again  winter  com.  This  is  also  called  the 
rotation  system  (^Frmhlirechselwirthnchnff).  Tho  third 
system,  called  the  Schlnif  or  Koppelirirthachaft,  prac- 
ticed in  Holstein  and  Mecklenburg,  divides  a  farm  into 
a  number  of  iar^fe  parcels  of  equal  size  (^stuche,  koppeln, 
or  tchlige),  which,  after  several  years'  continuous 
l)earing  of  grain  or  other  prmluce,  are  allowed  for  sev- 
eral years  more  (8  to  7)  to  lie  fallow,  or  in  grass  for 
summer  pasture.  Fur  these  two  countries  this  system 
is  found  ver}'  suitable,  fur  tho  population  there  is  com- 
paratively thin. 

In  the  different  provinces  of  Germany  different  kinds 
of  com  obtain  the  preference,  und  are  most  cultivated, 
as  in  the  following  list,  where  the  different  articles 
follow  each  other  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
named.  Bavaria— :K,ye,  outs,  barley,  spelt,  wheat. 
WurtetiAerg  and  Hadett — Spelt,  oats,  burley,  rj-o, 
wheat,  maize.  Uette — Rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  spelt, 


QER 


812 


OER 


matw.  J/eoUMiwy—Whftt,  barley,  lye,  oato.  Brutu- 
mek — Bariejr,  lye,  wheatJoats. 

In  Geimany  gtnerally,  and  in  HecUanbnrg  in  pai^ 
tioular,  the  production  of  grain  ia  greater  tlian  the 
conaumption.  Assuming  the  productiveness  of  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony  as  a  standard,  Germany  could 
maintain  abont  64,000,000  of  inhabitants,  or  12,000,000 
more  tlun  at  present.  The  cultivation  of  the  potato 
ia  now  largely  extended,  patticuiarly  in  Prussia.  In 
the  north-east  of  Germany,  buclcwheat  is  also  culti- 
vated ;  but  the  cultivation  of  oil  plants,  peas,  beans, 
turnips,  and  other  roots,  flax,  hemp,  and  hops,  is  not 
lai^  enough  to  dispense  with  the  importation  of  these 
articles.  About  three  fourths  of  the  Germans  are  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  ;  and  many  parts  of  the  countrj' 
are  crowded  with  small  proprietors  or  tenants,  who 
necessarily  live  in  a  state  lower  than  that  of  hired 
lalrarers.  Of  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  the  food  is 
of  the  poorest  kind — rj-e-bruad  or  potatoes ;  and  it  is 
chiefly  owing  to  this  general  misery  tliat  Germany  can 
export  com  in  most  years.  In  bad  seasons  the  dis- 
tress ia  sometimes  dreadful ;  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion having  no  means  of  procuring  foreign  supplies — 
nothing  to  give  in  exchange  for  bread. 

Naturally,  in  accordance  with  climate  and  other 
physical  circumstances,  the  production  of  wine  and 
fruits  (Obst-und-  Wtinbau)  is  greater  in  the  south  and 
west  than  in  the  north  and  east.  The  districts  on  the 
Rhine,  the  Lower  Maine,  and  the  Neckar,  are  the  best ; 
but,  even  in  the  south  of  Germany,  there  are  districts, 
as  in  Old  Bavaria,  between  the  Inn  and  the  Leech,  that 
are  less  productive  of  fruit  than  even  Mecklenburg 
and  Brandenburg.  In  both  quantity  and  quality, 
however,  the  south  excels  the  north,  where  the  best 
kinds  of  fhiit  only  ripen  with  difficulty.  The  principal 
places  for  the  production  of  wine  have  been  already 
noticed.  The  quantity  is  estimated  at  about  8,000,000 
of  timert,  worth  about  18,000,000  of  Ihalert  =  about 
^£3,000,000  sterling  yearly.  The  cultivation  of  forest 
trees  is  now  more  scientifically  practiced  in  Germany 
than  in  any  other  country',  and  the  care  of  the  govern- 
ment is  now  directed  to  the  restoration  of  the  forests, 
which,  till  recently,  were  completely  neglected  and 
left  exposed  to  every  kind  of  destructive  agency.  In 
all  the  States  likewise,  institutions  for  the  promotion 
of  agriculture,  in  all  its  branches,  have  been  or  are 
being  formed.  The  relative  proportions  of  ground  oc- 
cupied in  agriculture  and  other  natural  productions  in 
the  diflierent  States  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


BUM. 

tura. 

WiM. 

Qirdn. 
ln». 

d",;-;.  •^~ 

Wo.«l 
ruid 

WhU. 

AostrU 

Prussia 

BararU 

Wartomberv. 

Baden 

ilease. 

Uecklenburg. 
,i  answIelL . . 
Nataau 

Baxony 

Ilanorer, 

84-0 
48-0 
41-0 
M-O 
8S0 
60-0 
780 
85'0 
WO 

1-3 

0-5 
0-4 

1-6 
I'S 

IT 

1-0 
1« 
8-0 
2-6 
0.2 
0-2 
2H) 
1-4 

fii 

6-5 
14-0 
12-S 

9T 
11-0 

9-0 

6-0 

1&'5 
110 
60 
6'2 
6'4 
12 
2'S 
80 
60 

26-0 
24-0 
80-6 
80-8 
82-0 
88-6 
80 
82-0 
40-0 

26-0 
16-0 

18-5 
9-0 
T-0 
8'0 

11-7 
80 
6-0 
2-0 
2-8 

40 
460 

TO 

Germany  is  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  all  the 
kinds  of  useful  plants  that  belong  to  the  temperate 
zones ;  and,  owing  to  the  equality  of  the  climate,  they 
are  spread  over  all  the  country.  The  highlands  of 
the  middle  region,  as  well  as  the  northern  lowlands, 
grow  the  different  species  of  cereals  ;  and  in  the  east- 
em  part  of  the  latter  region  there  are  tracts  of  land 
which  will  bear  comparison  with  those  that  are  called 
theigranary  of  Europe.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats 
are  the  cereals  most  generally  cultivated  ;  but  in  some 
districts  to  these  are  added  spelt,  buckwheat,  millet, 
cmmer  (Triticum  dicoccum),  einkom  {Triticum  mnno- 
(Mcciim),  and  maize.  The  potato  is  largely  cultivated, 
not  merely  for  food,  but  for  the  purpose  of  diatUlation 
mto  brandy. 


The  following  table  shows  the  absolute  qnantltlas 
(in  English  acres)  of  the  ground  so  occupied : 


Meadoira. 

luid. 

WIlM.   I  Wood!  Wd 

land.         Koraata. 

Austria 16,822,812 

8,217,162 

802,110 

416,782 18,S6fl,887 

Prussia 118,867,681 

8,074,181 

498,9Se 

88,421  8,S66,86S 

Bavaria 

8,826,«41 

2,689,024 

218,86« 

79,4871  6,622,17(1 

Wnrtemberg. 

2,048,H8» 

686,869 

He28 

64,847 

1,498,86S 

Baden 

1,444,62.') 

801,129 

84,896 

88,807 

1,227,641 

Elect.  Hosao. 

876,22s 

28fl,7.^7 

447,90t 

78f 

04S168 

0.  D.  Iloase.. 

976,861 

266,881 

866,898 

28,841 

«8,^107 

Nassau 

488,»9< 

121,128 

4,416 

9,462 

498,827 

Saxony 

1,S88,989 

412,876 

104,09(1 

4,416 

1,181,121 

Weimar. 

4H944 

81,88(1 

18,294 

478 

22.%214 

CobufKOoths 

278,887 

84,696 

T,6Tfl 

t  •  •  . 

140,046 

Altenbnrg.. . . 

212,697 

28,972 

10,124 

•  >•  • 

66,889 

Melnlngen. . . 

249,187 

48,628 

18,247 

226,476 

Hanover 

2,752,418 

1,600,184 

168,488 

1,802,08! 

Brnnswick. . . 

840,08« 

74,440 

18,771 

299,666 

OWonbnrit... 

464,989 

186,190 

27,126 

.... 

282,099 

Mecklonb'K 
tichwurlii 

2,242,261 

28T,088 

40,874 

872,834 

Mock.  Strclitz 

42.5,S2(I 

48,628 

7,87C 

18,\888 

Luxemburg. . 

l!Hl,«60 

61,828 

10,098 

ijw 

199,294 

Llmburg..... 

182,666 

164,022 

8,201 

82,804 

UoUteIn 

1,40,S,79.S 

816,686 

28,284 

.... 

167,807 

Lauenburg. . . 

178,481 

29,660 

4,418 

29,660 

Other  States. 
Total... 

1,186,686 

287,201 

86,827 

1,198 

.•)92,727 

90,861,61816.174,454 

2,318,944 

692,787 

40,841,488 

Great  attention  has  been  paid  for  the  last  30  or  40 
years  to  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  all  sorts  of  useful 
animals,  and  every  encouragement  and  facility  have 
l)een  given  by  the  governments  to  the  improvements 
of  tlie  breeds.  The  following  table,  fVom  Winder- 
lick's  De.uttchland,  shows  the  number  of  the  prin- 
cipal tiindg  of  stock  in  the  German  States,  in  or  about 
1848: 


Btitei. 

Iloraei. 

Cillle. 

Sfceep. 

Rwln«. 

Austria 

Prussia 

Other  BUtes.. 

|P 

ofofof 

4,774,800 

11,866,400 

9,082,800 

1,2116,200 
1,271,000 
8,044,800 

Total.... 

2,726,000 

1^976,000 

26.168,000 

6,601,000 

Mttali  axui  Afineralt. — The  whole  Austrian  territory 
produces  yearly  alwut  7000  marks  of  gold,  whereof 
Ave  sixths  in  Hungar}'  and  Transylvania;  silver, 
180,000  marks,  whereof  three  fifths  in  Hungary  anil 
Transylvania ;  copper,  16,000  centners,  whereof  four 
fifths  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania ;  iron,  2,(JU0,000 
centners,  whereof  only  one  seventh  in  Hungary  and 
Transylvania ;  quicksilver,  6000  centners ;  lead,  110,- 
000;  cinnabar,  1000;  zinc,  12,000;  tin,  960;  coal, 
7,500,000;  salt,  6,600,000;  cobalt  and  nickel,  '<;0,000; 
arsenic,  1800;  sulphur,  18,000;  alum  and  vitriol, 
160,000;  graphite,  85,000;  and  about  as  much  sul- 
phuric acid.  Of  the  German  provinces,  Bohemia 
produces  silver,  tin,  iron,  vitriol,  and  coal,  tlic  last 
equal  to  three  fifths  of  the  products  of  the  whole  em- 
pire; Austria  and  Styria  produce  half  of  the  whole 
quantity  of  iron ;  lUyria,  the  quicksilver  and  raa«t  of 
the  lead ;  and  GalUcia,  most  of  the  salt. 

Prussia.— No  gold;  23,000  marks  silver;  40,000 
centners  of  lead ;  86,000  of  copper ;  280,000  of  zinc ; 
7000  of  smalt;  8860  of  arsenic;  86,000  of  vitriol; 
4,500,000  of  iron;  46,000,000  of  stone-coal ;  11,000,000 
of  brown  coal ;  1,760,000  of  salt ;  and  stone  quurries 
to  the  value  of  1,600,000  thalers,  ■»<  ^£240,000.  Silesia 
produces  zinc,  iron,  coal,  arsenic,  vitriol,  and  sulphur; 
Saxony,  silver,  copper,  iron,  etc. ;  the  liliine  provinces, 
iron  and  coal ;  Westphalia,  coal,  and  some  metul  ami 
salt.  Nearly  8,000,000  tons  of  coal  are  extracted 
yearly  from  the  coal-lleld  on  the  bankn  of  tlio  Uulir ; 
end  4  miles  above  Bonn  are  the  large  brown  coal 
mines  and  alum  works  of  Friesdorf.  The  produce  of 
the  other  States  amounts  to  al>out  60  marks  of  gold, 
and  125,350  marks  of  silver;  1,200,000  centners  of 
iron ;  and  the  various  otiier  articles  above  mentioned 
in  comparatively  small  quantities. 

ifanufacturet In  many  branches  of  manufacturing 

industry  the  Germans  have  reached  a  high  degree  of 
excellence.    QemMn  linen  is  knowa  to  the  whoU 


GEB 


818 


GEB 


world ;  and  the  llneni  of  BUltfald  and  HllaiU  In  p«r> 
ticnlur  are  eqnally  valued  in  Amartoa  ai  In  Kun»|M, 
Of  late  years,  however,  the  introdufitliin  of  aolUm, 
and  tho  high  pricea  obtained  for  corn,  hava  ton'laii 
greatly  to  lessen  the  cultivation  of  lUii,  wliiitb  wat 


ff*rm«i1y  •  pHnolpal  staple  of  agricultural  industry, 
and  th«  linen  manufacture  has  suffered  in  consequence. 
'I'll«  fiillinf  Ing  tabta  is  given  as  a  sumnuury  of  the 
trad«  iit  the  Cuntoms  Unioa  in  each  of  the  six  years 
IMtttlMMd,  via, ! 


T«ui. 

POP^U- 

Vdiuof 
lupiirti. 

Vslwrf 
t/MM 



Total 

VtlM. 

Rate 
l^ad 

Colbn 
iBpnUO. 

Cdlton  Yarn 

lmp«rl«l  at  1I9)< 

par  100  PouDda  ol 

Colloa. 

1860 

29,800,066 
29,876,768 
20,989,649 
80,402,882 
82,682,178 
32674,265 

UMut. 
18l,«n«,IS4 
186,604,781) 

lu«;48l,«;iT 

208,9UI,U89 
269,110,058 
81bT»4,»TB 

iT'f,u4iriiA 

l<>0,OM),»O| 

m,m,m 

8»4,tA0TIIA 
no*  607  411 

iJUkt,. — 
T4,««4,440 
M,T!I7,»S0 

|OA,%!l^40l» 
l2l(lT«i7(Ki 
l«7flM>0 

Uullan 
4tW,«H  1,700 
447,739,840 
471,106,001 
r.*l,<l22,124 
736,367,406 
191,808,386 

hollar. 
1482 
16 '83 
16-71 
18-38 
23'IB 

CnlMn. 

Bl'5,010 
1,088,272 

589,216 
618,398 
609,286 

1S81 

1863 

1868 

1884 

1868 

34-33 

983,888 

During  the  war  of  1854-1860  large  quantltla*  of  mU 
ton  wool,  as  well  as  cotton  manufitcturea,  W6)it  lo 
Bussiu  and  Poland,  so  that  from  tbo  consumption  m\l\u 
in  the  Customs  Union  there  would  bav«  t<i  In)  dvillK't' 
ed  the  quantity  smuggled  into  Russia,  TIta  wolgllt 
of  the  cotton  wool  which  romalnsd  within  tlw  IJllTon 
was,  in  1853,  408,211  centners;  in  18ft(,  7W,4)0  ««iit. 
ners ;  in  1855, 648,908  centners ;  while  liaforo  (ha  ifinr 
1845  it  seldom  reached  3U0,0II0  oantnara,  Tltll  U 
proved  by  the  Increuso  of  the  tierman  cotton  tllilli, 


wtltsh  In  1940  numliered  only  1,000,000  spindles,  but 
In  INRA  fenohed  1,250,000  spindles;  In  1846  produced 
(mly  IKl  Dm,,  In  1865  about  60  lbs.,  per  spindle,  besides 
lll«  great  Increase  in  the  quantity  of  cotton  used  for 
WNdilltigs  within  the  last  few  years. 

(fall  in,-^tht  number  of  large  establishments  for 
tb«  iplnnlng  and  weaving  of  cotton  has  of  late  years 
\mn  much  Increased  by  means  of  joint-stock  compa- 
tliPM.  particularly  In  Southern  Germany.  The  fol- 
lowing eitabtlshments  are  enumerated,  viz. ; 


Augsburg 

Augsburg 

Baireuth 

Bamberg 

Bleybach 

Ohemnitz 

DOBseldorf 

Ettlingeu 

Hanover 

Oladbach  

Haunitetten 

Ileldenhelm 

Hof 

KalseraUntem  . . . 

Kempten 

Cologne..... 

Linden  (HanOTer) 
Ludwlgshafen .... 

Lulienthal 

Regonaburg  

Varcl 


attjaat, 


II It  1 1 


Spinning  and  woavlng 

1' Ina aulnnlug  ,,,, ,,,,,,,.. 

Spinning  and  wasvliig,.,,,,,,,. 
Hplnnlng  and  wosviiig, , , , 
Hplnntng  and  waavint;, 

8|ilDntng .,,,.,,, I 

Hpinnlog  and  w«avlN||.  ,!,,,.>,• 
Splriulng  and  wuavtng, . . , , , , , , , 
Spinning  and  weaving. .,..,.,. . 
Hplnning  and  waaviog, , , , , .  1 , , , 
Weaving  ...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
Calleu  nianufiwiturit, .,,,.,,  ,1,/ , 

Spinning ,,,,,, 

Spinning  and  wosf  ing 
Spinning  and  waaving, , ,, , 
Spinning  and  weaving. ,,,,,,,./ 
Hplnning  and  weaving, ,,,,,,,, , 
Hplnning  and  weaving, ,,,,,,,,. 
Hplnning,  weaving,  and  prIhIiHg, 

Spinning..,,, ,,,.,,,,.,,,. 

Hplnning  and  weavlon, ,.,,,,.,, 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 II 1 1 1 

1 1  III  I 


WamiiH 


tio,onn 

30,000 
«0,OIIO 

M,nnn 

12,000 

(M,ooo 

80,000 

««,oon 

80,0)10 
IHI,000 

13,000 

WJm 


4,000 

16,000 


Marnttarof 
Waavlaa 
l.ootnfl. 


1100 


9TS 

'mo 


26" 


Caaiui 
of  Sharia 

tuutd. 


Klorlai. 

1,200,000 

660,000 

1,08S,000 

B,Ono,flOO 

604,000 

$1,200,000 

1,600,000 

1,20(1,000 

$1,00(1,000 
1,000,000 

600,000 
2,000,000 
700,000 
620,000 
700,000 
$1,000,000 

1,060,000 

$1,200,000 

400,000 

$600,000 


Capital 

of-ohleli 
paid  up. 


Par  Can  I. 

All 

All 

All 

IB 

All 
Projected 

60 
All 
All 

BO 

20 
All 
All 
All 
All 

20 

80 

28 

AU 


Dlvldandi 

in 

iflss-'se. 


0 

ViV 


None 

"t 


14t 


Cammmtrce. — The  commerce  of  Qarmany  has  alwuya 
been  extensive ;  Ijut  tlie  abolition  of  tlm  liiiiiiiiiitrahlM 
state  custom-houses  and  tolls,  and  tlw  luilg'UOlltiniUtil 
peace,  have  given  an  iininenso  impulse  U)  Its  aottvitv, 
Germany  exports  corn  and  tiniiier  tu  Kngliind  and  tlw 
Netherlands;  linen  to  Spain,  Portugal,  i'uland,  Uu*' 


»l«i  America,  and  Africa;  woolen  cloth  to  Western 
Aalrt,  (tnd  even  to  China;  iron  wares  to  every  port  of 
Ktimps ;  and  lead  to  France.  Tlie  exportation  of  fat 
iJAtlle  to  Kngland  is  also  becoming  a  great  trade. 

Large  fairs  are  held  twice  or  thrice  a  year  in  Leipzig, 
tlw  two  Fraiikforts,  and  Brunswick.     See  Fairs. 


An  Accoust  suowiho  thk  I'iioi'obtiom  oc  tuk  l(8»w»ifM  ii¥  TUB  (l»SM/m  Customs  Union  raibid  in  tok' Dii'rBKEn 

BTATM  HE8PECTIVFLV,  IS  THR   Yb»B  1851,    AVP  TH8    llMlf «iai)tl(ll»  YUnHROV  AOCOSmKU  TO  1'OPUI.ATIOK.* 


StAlei. 

Popalallan, 

Amount  of 

«<,mm»n  aroai 

moipla. 

li»twn4iiU««, 

lElport  And 

IraiMll  iliill<-i 

flatahl*  1"  ^a.-h 

1(at«  afr.irillnir 

lo  lla  papulation 

[mport,  Alport, 

and  transit 

dutlvipavable 

tn  piwh  Htalp, 

arronlinK  lo  tto 

pfiitutntion. 

Balance  dn«  to  or  from  the 

common  tnai  which  each 

Stale  hai  had 

To  pay. 

To  receive. 

Prussia 

16,669,153 

189,788 

4,620,6.10 

1,804,431 

1,803,M8 

],8«fl,599 

781,684 

862.917 

1.014,9.'>4 

247,070 

425,686 

29,728,885 

Tlial«n.» 

16,572,020 

77,114 

1,210,680 

2,119.847 

848.,Vi7 

K/lfiif, 

488,046 

412.808 

801,798 

880, 14J) 

T4,8»9 

861,4*3 

32,545,687 

ThaNrj, 
W,IMT,47« 
l»,4tfl< 
«iM,«tfl 
J,Wft,3aT 

HM,4>>a 
(1411,266 

mm 

tWI,7»il 

iM«;>iiA 

TI,»lo 
"    gO,flfl«,«4rt 

\iimm 

fl,OMAI« 
1,274,161 
1.214,8^7 

«lft,llfi 
mm 

166.176 
»1fl.«0» 

-rhalcra. 
344,208 

8,341 
68,468 
39,786 
31,825 
16,070 

8.611 
10.193 
16,981 

8,684 

6,038 

-DiAlan. 

11,455,686 

129,816 

8,099,009 

1,808,897 

1,286,712 

981,185 

500,693 

690,576 

698,671 

169,709 

391,889 

Thalera, 

8,111,161 
TSis'toi 

<»°289 
649^541 

Thaleri. 

186,oil 
3,166,031 

899J66 
6H009  ' 
157,434  1 
191,871 
806,489 

219391 
4,610,763  1 

i 
...       ,1 

Luxemburg 

Saxony 

Wurtemborg 

Iloasc-Cnssol 

IIosse-Dnrnistadt. 
Thurlntilan  States. 
Brunswick 

Frankfort,  t 

Total  

~4i6.8<U 

30,406,169 

4,610,762 

•  Compiled  from  the  offlclal  "Contrslblatt  d«r  AhgalisH,"  did,,  llcfllfi.  IHM,    By  it.  O.  Flilael,  U.  S,  Consul,  Leipxig. 
t  Tho  tlmler  is  vory  nearly  wnrlli  70J  oniita  iif  our  iiMiimyt  lilofd  mmUy,  It  Is  sqoal  to  TOW  oentl. 
t  Frankfort  Is  roEulnteii  by  a  hpqcIHu  arraiigeinBUt,  and  Mot  \)jf  ptfplllstlon, 
I  A  special  payment  by  Prussia,  on  account  of  tiM  UnltfU, 


QEH 


814 


GKR 


'  The  prindpd  oomnwKUl  iM-pofti  are  Hamburg, 
Bramen,  and  Embden,  on  the  North  Sea;  Lnbec, 
Roitock,  Stettin,  Dantilg,  KAnlgaberg,  and  Memol, 
on  the  East  Sea ;  and  Trieste  on  the  Adriatic.  Ham- 
burg ia  one  of  the  principal  commercial  towns  of  Eu- 
rope, and  with  its  neighlwri  Altona  (in  Ilolstein), 
Bramen,  and  Embden  and  the  Baltic  ports,  connects 
Germany  with  the  countries  of  the  north  and  west, 
and  with  America,  India,  etc.  Trieste  fomis  the 
communication  with  the  south  of  Europe  and  the 
Levant. 

Commerce  was  not  a  little  impeded  by  the  different 
money  systems  of  different  parts  of  Germany ;  but,  on 
the  9ther  hand,  it  was  much  facilitated  by  the  estal)- 
lishment  of  banlcs  and  exchanges  in  the  principal 
towns.  Of  late  years  also  the  postal  system  has  been 
very  greatly  Improved,  but  the  German  governments 
have  not  yet  seen  their  way  to  the  adoption  of  the 
British  penny  postage.  They  can  not  Indeed  expect, 
in  the  circumstances  of  their  country,  that  enormous 
increase  of  the  numlier  of  letters  that  would  com- 
pensate the  diminutioD  of  rates. 

The  Internal  trade  of  Germany  has  been  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  formation  of  tl;e  customs  unions  and 
commercial  treaties,  of  which  an  account  has  been 
given  in  the  articles  Europe  and  Hanhkatic  Leaode, 

The  preceding  table  shows  the  proportioni  of  rev- 
enue drawn  by  the  different  States.  , 

Political  Slate. — As  settled  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna, 
In  1816,  Germany  was  divided  'into  40  sovereign 
States,  or  portions  of  States  ;  but  the  number  is  now 
reduced  to  85,  as  stated  in  the  following  table : 

Tabic  or  Tna  Tn»TT-FiTi  Sovkrxiok  Stato. 


KUDM. 


Austrian  provinces 

Prussian  provinces 

Bavsris 

Hanover 

Wurtemborg 

Saxony 

Hesse-Oossel 

Baden 

Mecklcnburg-Schwertn . . 
Strellti. . . . 

HcsM-Dormstadt 

Oldenburg 

Luxcniburg 

Saxe-Wclmar-£lsenscb. . . . 

Cobnrg-Gotbs .... 

Mclntngon-Hlldburg- 
hanson 

Allenburg 

Uolstein  and  Lauenburg. . . 

Nassau 

Brnnsaick 

Anhault  DeB.un-Cothen. . . . 

"  *    Bernbarg 

Waldeck.... 

Llppe-Uetinold 

Schwarzburg-Iiudolstoilt . . 

"         Bondersbausen 

Renss,  elder 

"     younger 

Scbaaniburg-Llppe 

Llochtonstein 

Hesse-Iliimburg 

Hamburg 

Lubeo 

Bremen 

Frankfort 

Totol 


Araslo 
Engllih 
■q.  nillci. 


75,979 

TI,»S7 

81,898 

14.769 

7,6-Ta 

B,7T2 

4,489 

5,91  S 

4,815 

767 

8,761 

9,421 

2,808 

1,419 

T99 


510 
8,719 
1,747 
1,507 

666 

no 

461 
487 
410 
859 
145 
448 
S06 

58 
166 
151 
142 
106 

91 


Popolallon 
la  ISI9. 


12,919,»00 

12,987,828 

4,669,452 

1,819,258 

1,788.269 

1,987,882 

7W.8.V) 

1,856,943 

M2,768 

99,750 

854,814 

285,226 

804,262 

262,524 

150,461 

166,864 

182,849 

650,000 

429,060 

267,177 

111,759 

52,641 

59,097 

106,615 

69,038 

74,956 

84,896 

79,884 

29,000 

7,000 

24,941 

911,260 

48,425 

e8,(H)o 

78,150 


Tlik  or 

S«T«rclfB. 


Kaiser. 
King. 


Elector. 
Orand-Duke 


Duke. 


Prince. 


Landgrave. 
City. 


246,740  ,48,986,116  | 


The  Saxon  princedom  of  Gotha  became  extinct  in 
1820  by  the  decease  of  the  last  grand  duke,  and  his 
territories  were  divided  by  compact  among  the  col- 
lateral relatives,  the  princes  of  Coburg,  Mcinlngen, 
inA  Hlidburghausen,  the  last  of  whom  ceded  Hild- 
burghausen  to  Meningen,  and  a8!<umed  instead  the 
additional  title  of  Altcnburg,  from  the  chief  town  of 
that  portion  of  the  Gotha  territory  that  fell  to  his 
share.  The  prince  of  Coburg-Soalfeld  likewise  ceded 
Saalfeld  to  Melningen,  and  received  Gotha  In  Its  stead. 
In  1846,  the  lordship  of  Kniphausen  was  al>orbed  in 


Oldenburg  t  Iifl847,  Anhalt^Atbm  bNWM  annaxad 
to  Anhalt-Oesaau  i  and  in  184V,  tb«  two  princes  of 
IlohencoUem  abdicated  the  governmant  of  tlielr  iitatei 
in  fkvor  of  their  kinsman,  the  king  of  I'russta. 

Co)^e<Urtttion.—The»a  States  exhibit  every  form  of 
government  from  absolute  autocracy  to  deiniicracy  | 
but  even  in  those  that  are  constitutional  the  authority 
of  the  sovereign  U  but  feebly  llmlteil  liy  his  Htntes. 
They  are  all  united  into  a  bunil,  or  conftNlerttlon,  the 
object  of  which  is  the  maintenance  of  th«  exti'mnl  and 
Internal  security  of  Gennany,  anil  the  ln(1«|H<nilpnca 
and  inviolability  of  the  several  Htat<is.  Th«  <.'onf«d> 
oration  Is  represented  by  the  Diet,  wtiloh  U  cimipiHied 
of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  Stat««,  and  Is  tha 
constitutional  organ  of  its  will  and  action  |  but  tha 
Diet  has  no  power' of  self-action,  the  planl|Nit«ntlarlas 
that  compose  it  acting  only  according  to  the  special 
Instructions  of  their  rcs|>ectlvH  suverelgns  |  and  there 
is  no  central  executive  govenunent  t4)  carry  Its  reso- 
lutions into  effect.  In  fact,  It  has  Iteen  found  that 
there  is  no  power  of  Insuring  the  combined  airtinn  of 
the  members  for  any  object  or  purjiosa  wlintever,  either 
civil  or  military;  though,  having  many  Intentst*  In 
common,  and  the  territories  of  the  smaller  Htates,  In 
multifarious  parcels,  being  so  Internilnglsit  that  with 
most  of  them  separate  action  would  be  Inipimsllilc,  they 
naturally  follow  the  same  course  of  polli'y,  nidillllad 
by  the  influence  of  the  powerful  nulghbors  at  whosa 
merey  they  would  seem  to  lie.  The  management  of 
the  ordinary  business  of  the  bund  Is  Intrusted  to  an 
ordinary  and  permanent  Diet,  at  wlikh  the  plenipo- 
tentiary of  Austria  presides ;  but  there  are  only  17 
votes  to  be  divldrd  among  the  HA  Ktiitits,  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  the  larger  Htates  having  one  each,  and 
only  six  being  allotted  to  the  smaller  Htates  and  citlea. 
When  fundamental  laws  are  to  Iw  made  or  changed, 
when  measures  are  to  be  taken  that  relate  to  the  fed- 
eral act  itself,  when  changes  of  organlo  Instltutlona 
or  other  arrangements  of  general  interest  are  tn  b« 
adopted,  when  war  or  peace  Is  to  b«  made,  or  when  a 
new  member  is  to  be  admitted,  the  DIat  iHrcomei  a 
general  assembly,  h  plenum,  in  whieb  7U  votes  wen 
orginally  distributed  among  the  niemlwrs  in  classes, 
Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Haxony,  Hanover,  and 
Wurtemberg,  having  each  4  i  live  others  having  each 
3 ;  three  having  each  2 ;  and  the  smaller  Htntus  each  1 
vote.  The  Diet  holds  its  sittings  ut  l''rankfort-on-tlio- 
Maine,  and  has  ostensibly  ut  Its  dls|Hwal,  In  terms  of 
the  federal  act,  a  numerous  arniy,.of  whose  constitu- 
tion and  efficiency  we  have  already  given  an  account 
in  the  article  Kuroph. 

Da»  KumpaUche  Slaafen  Hj/item,  ate,,  Von  Dr. 
Heinbich  Bbroiiads;  vol,  iv,  of  his  Altf/emeine 
Lander  und  Volkerkunde ;  Diu  Deulufhf  ImiiiI  lind 
teine  Bewoher,  Von  Caki,  WlMliKUI,li:il,  l^lpiilg, 
1862;  DeuttchUind  uml  ilni  ubrif/e  Kumixi,  Von  l)r, 
Freiiierr  FRiGrinicii  Wii.hkim  Von  Kkiikn,  Wies- 
baden, 1854;  UnieeriiU  l^zikun,  etc,,  Von  II.  A. 
PiEnip,  Vierteb  Hand,  Altenburg,  lN5n,  articles 
DEOwciii.Axn,  etc. — W.  .1.  &  J,  I,-_ik,  See 
Ht;NT's  Afag.,  Ix.,  1)99,  xl.,  4»1,  xlv.,  159,  227,  xv., 
225;  Wettm.Rev.,  Iv.,  277;  Edinb.  Hev.,\x%\x.,  64; 
Living  Age,  xxx.,  281);  Fur.  Quar.,  xxii,,  «(«);  Hr. 
and  for.  Rev.,  iv.,  169 ;  ff.  Am.  Rev,,  II.  (K,  Kvkhktt), 
1,  vill.,  55. 

Oerman  Silver,  sometimes  called  white  copper, 
or  pakfong,  is  an  alloy  composed  generally  of  copper, 
zinc,  and  nickel,  the  proportion  varying  nccordlng  to 
circumstances.  When  tlioy  are  Intended  Ms  u  substi- 
tute for  silver,  they  are ;  copper,  60  parts ;  nickel,  26  ( 
and  zinc,  25  in  the  100.  But  the  pro|Hirtlons  in  the 
genuine  German  sliver  urn  us  follows !  copper,  40.'! ; 
nickel,  31.0;  zinc,  25.4  ;  iron,  2,0, 

Oeropiga,  or  Jerapiga,  a  factitious  liquor  Im- 
ported from  Portugal,  and  used  in  the  adulteration  of 
wine.  A  pipe  (about  106  gallons)  of  this  conitKiund  la 
said  by  Mr.  Consul  Johnston  (o  contain  about  1)6  gaW 


A;-,. 


OHE 


816 


GIB 


/ 


Ions  of  brandjr  at  25  degreea  over  proof,  the  other  con- 
(tltuenta  being  coloring  and  sweetening  mattura  and 
unferraented  grape-Juloe,  But  the  proportion  of  aplr- 
Its  and  the  description  of  the  other  ingredients  which 
enter  into  its  composition,  and  which  are  sometimes  of 
•  very  noxious  characfnr,  vary  very  ^videly  in  differ- 
ent aamplea.  Generally,  however,  giropiga  may  be 
said  to  be  strong,  sweet,  and  high-colored.  Besides 
being  mixed  with  port,  sherr}-,  and  other  wines,  it  is 
substituted  in  various  beverages,  espacially  in  the 
United  States,  for  spirits  and  sugar.  This  villainous 
compound  is  allowed  to  be  imported  at  the  same  duty 
as  wine,  provided  the  proof  spirits  in  it  do  not  exceed 
SB  per  cent,  of  its  quantity.  It  is  also  permitted  to 
be  mixed  in  the  bonded  warehouses  in  the  doclts  with 
wine  in  the  same  proportions  relatively  to  its  strength 
as  brandy ;  that  is,  when  it  is  only  half  the  strength  of 
the  latter,  double  the  quantity  may  be  used,  and  so  on. 
This  license  has  been  much,  and,  as  we  think,  justly, 
objected  to.  There  can,  of  course,  b«  no  check,  and, 
perhaps,  no  good  objection,  to  the  compounding  of  wines 
in  I'ortugul ;  but  one  nhould  think  that  the  fiicilities  for 
adulteration  in  the  shops  of  the  dealers  are  here  quite 
enough  without  legitimating  the  practice  in  the  docks. 
It  is  difficult,  indeed,  to  see  what  purpose  can  be  served 
by  this  indulgence,  unless  it  l)e  to  execute  and  facilitate 
the  commission  of  fraud.  Gercpiga  being  confounded 
in  Portugal  with  brandy  and  here  with  wine,  the 
quantity  exported  from  the  former  and  imported  into 
the  latter  is  not  easily  ascertained.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  in  1848,  481  pipes  were  sliipped  from  Oporto 
for  England,  and  1063  pipes  for  the  United  States. 
See  Parliamentary  paper.  No.  814,  Session  1855,  etc. 

Ohee,  a  kind  of  butter  much  used  by  the  natives  of 
India.  It  is  prepared  by  boiling  fresh<drawn  milk 
(generally  that  of  buffaloes)  in  earthen  pots  for  an 
hour  or  more,  and  adding,  after  it  has  cooled,  a  little 
curdled  milk  called  ti/rt,  in  order  to  promote  its  coagu- 
lation. When  this  process  is  completed,  the  curdled 
mass  is  churned  for  half  an  hour,  some  hot  water  is 
added,  and  the  operation  of  churning  continued  for 
half  an  hour  longer,  when  the  butter  forms.  Its  tend- 
ency to  become  rancid  may  be  obviated  by  boiling  it 
until  all  the  water  that  may  be  mixed  with  it  is  evap- 
orated, and  then  adding  some  tyre  and  salt,  or  betel- 
leaf,  and  excludiur  it  from  the  air  in  closed  jars.  In 
this  way  it  m>-/  be  preserved  for  many  months. 
Ghee  is  an  article  of  considerable  commercial  import- 
ance in  many  parts  of  India,  though  from  its  atrong 
smell  and  flavor  it  is  considered  unpalatable  by  Euro- 
peans.    See  Butter. 

Ohent  (Lat.  Ganda ;  Fr.  Gand  ;  Flem.  Gend;  Ger. 
Gent),  a  city  of  Belgium,  standing  on  the  Rivers  Scheldt 
and  Lys,  whose  numerous  brunches  traversing  the 
town  form  canals  in  all  directions,  and  so  intersect  each 
other  as  to  partition  the  town  into  26  islands,  which 
are  connected  by  42  largo  and  46  small  bridges.  The 
number  of  fine  promenades  forms  another  striking  and 
pleasing  feature  of  Ghent.  Of  these  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  Coupure,  formed  by  rows  of  trees 
extending  along  the  Bruges  Canal.  In  general,  the 
town  is  well  built,  and  occupies  a  larger  area  than 
most  European  towns,  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  houses  and  the  population.  The  general  aspect 
of  the  city,  without  being  highly  picturesque,  is  very 
agreeable, 

The  cotton  manufacture  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
Ghent,  employing  about  £1,800,OOU  of  capital,  engag- 
ing upward  of  20,000  persons,  and  annually  producing 
•bout  1,000,000  pieces  of  plain  and  printed  calicoes. 
Sugar-refining  is  also  extensively  carried  on.  The 
other  important  manufactures  are  common  and  talile 
linens,  flannels,  aerges,  woolen  cloths,  silks,  ribbons, 
lace,  thread,  liosiery,  wax-cloth,  oil,  chemicals,  armor, 
mathematical,  physical,  and  surgical  instrument,  hard- 
ware, bronze,  and  crystal,  carriages,  paper,  tobacco, 
blue,  atarch,  delft,  etc.    The  important  branches  of 


trade  are  in  com,  oO,  seed,  Flemish  linens,  and  Wine 
About  20,000  pieces  of  linen  are  exposed  for  sale  evei^ 
Friday ;  and  the  annual  fairs  are  very  numerously  fre- 
quented, besides  the  horse-fairs  held  in  mid-lent  and 
on  23d  July.  The  great  general  fair  is  held  in  August. 
The  governor  of  the  province  resides  in  Ghent,  which 
is  also  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  first  resort,  as  well  as 
of  a  court  of  appeal,  which  has  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  province  of  Flanders.  Ghent  also  gives  title  to  a 
bishop,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  first  of  the  four 
divisions  of  the  army  of  Belgium.  From  1792  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  power  of  Napoleon,  Ghent  was  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  the  Scheldt.  In  1814 
Flanders  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands ;  and  the  same  year  the  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  here  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  which  put  an  end  to  the  war  of  1812-16.  In 
1815,  on  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  Louis 
XVIII.  took  refuge  in  Ghent;  and  in  the  revolution 
of  18!)0,  tids  city,  with  the  rest  of  Flanders  was  com- 
prised in  the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium.  The  cit}'  seems 
now  a;  prosperous  as  ever,  and  is  increasing  in  popu- 
lation as  well  as  in  all  the  elements  of  wealth  and 
power.  Ghent  is  in  lat.  51°  3'  12"N.,  long.  3°  43'  51" 
E.,  at  the  intersection  of  the  railways  connecting  Lille 
with  Antwerp,  and  Ostend  with  Malines,  from  which 
towns  it  is  respectively  distant  42, 32,  38,  and  38  miles. 
The  population  in  1851  waa  106,704. 

Gibraltar,  a  famous  fortress  near  the  southern- 
most extremity  of  Spain,  and  contiguous  to  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  Strait,  to  which  it  gives  its  name, 
joining  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  Lat.  36° 
6'  80''^N.,  long.  5°  21'  12"  W.  It  is  situated  on  tlie 
west  aide  of  a  rocky  mountain  or  promontory,  the 
Mont  Calpe  of  the  ancients,  projecting  into  the  sea,  in 
a  aontherly  direction,  about  three  miles,  l)eing  from  one 
half  to  three  quartera  of  a  mile  in  width.  The  south- 
ernmost extremity  of  the  rock  is  called  Europa  Point. 
Its  northern  side,  fronting  the  isthmus  which  connects 
it  with  Spain,  is  almost  perpendicular,  and  wholly  in- 
accessible ;  the  east  and  south  sides  are  so  rugged  and 
precipitous  as  to  render  any  attack  upon  them,'even  if 
they  were  not  fortified,  next  to  impossible  ;  so  tliut  it 
is  only  on  the  west  side,  fronting  the  bay,  where  the 
rock  declines  to  the  sea,  and  the  town  is  built,  that  it 
can  be  attacked  with  the  least  chance  of  success.  Here, 
however,  the  strength  of  the  fortifications,  and  the 
magnitude  of  the  batteries,  are  such,  that  the  fortress 
seems  to  l)e  impregnable,  even  though  attacked  by  an 
enemy  having  the  comnund  of  the  sea.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  in  1704,  but  the  fortifications  were  then 
very  inferior  to  what  they  are  at  present.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  American  war,  it  was  attacked  by  a 
most  formidable  armament,  fitted  out  jointly  by  Spain 
and  France ;  but  the  strength  of  the  place,  and  the 
bravery  of  the  garrison,  defeated  all  the  efforts  of  the 
combined  powers.  Population  about  16,000,  exclusive 
of  the  troops,  which  usually  amount,  in  time  of  peace, 
to  about  3,000. 

Ti-ade. — Gibraltar  is  of  considerable  consequence  as 
a  commercial  station.  Being  a  free  port,  suliject  to  no 
duties,  and  few  restrictions,  she  is  a  convenient  entre- 
put  for  the  English  and  other  foreign  goods  destined 
for  the  suppi}',  principally  through  illegitimate  chan- 
nels, of  tlie.  contiguous  Spanish  provinces.  Its  im- 
portance, in  this  respect,  increased  rapidly  during  the 
10  years  ending  with  1840 ;  so  much  so,  that  while  the 
declared  value  of  the  various  articles  of  British  pro<luce 
and  manufacture  exported  to  Gibraltar  in  183S  amount- 
ed to  only  jt'385,460,  they  amounted  to  £1,111,176  in 
1840,  and  to  £1,053,367  in  1841.  But  since  a  more  lib- 
eral  system  began  to  be  introduced  into  Spain,  the  ex- 
ports of  British  products  to  Gibraltar  have  declined. 
In  1851  they  were  valued  at  £481,286.  Enghind  also 
sends  to  Gibraltar  considerable  quantities  of  foreign 
and  colonial  merchandise,  most  part  of  which  are  des 
I  tined  for  the  supply  of  Spain. 


GIB 


819 


COS 


Btftrenca  to  Plan.— A,  point  knd  llght-houM  oi'  Tarlfb,  lat  36*  0'  30"N.,  long.  BO*  85  IB"  W.  The  IlKht-honae  vai 
creetod  in  1813,  ud  the  light  rerolTea.  B,  Cabrila  Poini;.  G,  Enropa  Point,  the  extremity  of  the  reek  of  Oibraltnr.  D, 
townandfortKiwof  Ceuta,on  the  AMeaneout.  E,  Little  Centa  Bay.  F,  Point  Leoua.  O,  Bpint  Uireo.  The  aoundinga 
and  the  direction  of  the  currenia  are  marlied  in  the  oliark    Variation  in  the  Straits,  22'  81'. 


The  Bay  of  Gibraltar  is  spacious ;  and,  being  pro- 
tected from  all  tlie  more  dangerous  winds,  alfords  a 
convenient  station  for  ships.  Two  moles  bare  been 
constructed,  at  a  vast  expense,  for  the  protection  of 
the  shipping.  The  old  mole  projects  from  the  north 
end  of  the  town,  N.W.  bj-  N.  1100  feet  into  the  ses  j 
the  new  mole  is  i\  miles  more  to  the  south,  extending 
outward  alraut  700  feet;  it  has  an  elbow  formed  by 
the  shore,  and  in  winter  large  vessels  anchor  inside ; 
the  farthest  out  in  from  Ave  to  six  fathoms.  The  plan 
gives  a  better  idea  of  the  position  of  Qlbraltar,  as  well 
as  of  the  Straits,  than  could  be  derived  from  any  de- 
scription. It  is  taken  from  Captain  Smyth's  ciuut  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

Gibraltar  is  of  great  importance  to  Great  Britain  in 
a  military  and  naval  point  of  view,  (wing,  in  fact,  the 
key  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  aflfoniing  a  convenient 
and  secure  station  for  the  outfit,  refreshment,  repair, 
and  accommodation  of  many  ships  of  war  and  merchant- 
men. The  revenue  collected  in  the  town  amounts  to 
from  £30,000  to  i;40,000,  which  is  about  sufficient  to 
defray  the  public  civil  expenditure  of  the  place.  The 
expense  annually  incurred  in  Great  Britain  on  account 
of  the  garrison,  in  time  of  peace,  amounts  to  about 
£900,000 — a  small  sum  compared  with  the  important 
political  and  commerdtl  advantages  it  is  the  means  of 
Mcoring. 


Monet/. — The  eSective  or  hard  dollar  =:>  (1  06 ;  the 
current  dollar  being  estimated  at  ^  hard  dollars  =  70 
cents.  Keals  and  quarters  of  both  hard  and  current 
dollars  an  the  same,  being,  the  former,  =4^,,  and 
the  latter  1  l-12d. 

Accounts  are  kept  in  current  dollars  (pesos),  divided 
into  8  reals  of  10  quartos  each ;  12  reals  currency 
make  a  cob  or  hard  dollar,  by  which  goods  are  bought 
and  said ;  and  8  of  these  reals  are  considered  equal  to 
5  Spanish  reals  vellon. 

Gibraltar  draws  on  London  in  effetive  dollars  of  12 
reals,  and  Tx>ndon  on  Gibraltar  in  current  dollars  of  S 
reals.  The  exchange  of  Gibraltar  and  Cadiz,  and 
other  cities  of  Spain,  is  in  hard  dollars  at  a  per  centage, 
which  varies  considerably,  and  mostly  in  favor  of  Gib- 
raltar. 

Weightt  and  ifeamret  are  those  of  England,  except 
ing  the  arrolxi,  =  26  lbs.  English.  Grain  is  sold  by  the 
fanega,  6  of  which  moke  1  Winchester  quarter.  Wine 
is  sold  by  the  gallon,  100  of  which  are  equal  to  109'4 
English  wine  gallons. 

Tlie  commercial  relations  lietween  the  United  States 
and  Gibraltar  are  regulated  by  enactment  of  tlie  im- 
perial Parliament,  and  are  bunlened  with  but  few  re- 
strictions, beyond  the  usual  port  charges,  harbor  and 
police  regulations,  quarantine  laws,  and  a  tariff  of 
duties  wMch  comprehend  not  more  than  five  or  six  ar 


.:.v.^: 


'.'!'4lC^^^  .'jira'jiii"**.- 


OIB 


•ir 


Gm 


.ax 


except 
I  by  the 
Wine 
[>  109-4 

SUtes 
the  im- 
few  re- 
Mr  and 
,riff  of 

sixar 


tides  of  Import.  Of  late  yearn,  the  general  navigation 
and  commerce  of  Gibraltar  have  gradually  decreased, 
owing  mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  Mediterranean  and 
I^evant  marlieta,  which  heretofore  chiefly  supplied  their 
wants  from  Gibraltar  importations  of  Kast  and  West 
Indian  and  United  States'  produce,  now  import  direct 
from  the  places  of  growth ;  thus  diverting  from  that 
port  the  large  importations  which,  in  former  years, 
constituted  Gibraltar  the  great  d6p6t  for  all  foreign 
produce  destined  not  only  for  these  markets  but  also 
for  the  markets  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Other  causes 
have  also  contributed  to  bring  about  this  general  de- 
cline in  the  trade  and  commerce  of  Gibraltar.  In 
former  years,  the  commercial  prosperity  of  this  fortress 
depended  largely  on  the  success  of  smuggling  into 
Spain  ond  Portugal — a  business  which  for  many  years 
gave  brisk  and  highly  remunerative  employment  to  a 
great  number  of  small  vessels  under  100  tons'  burden, 
and  augmented  the  amount  of  foreign  importation 
largely  beyond  the  ordinary  demands  for  home  con- 
sumptions or  legitimate  commerce.  This  trade  having 
become  too  hazardous,  is  now  altogether  abandoned,  so 
that  the  commerce  of  Gibraltar  may  be  said  to  be  lim- 
ited to  the  actual  retail  wants  of  the  fortress,  and  the 
demands  of  an  unimportant  trade  with  the  adjacent 
coast  of  Barbary,  The  following  tablo  exhibits  the 
tonnage  and  number  of  vessels  from  the  United  States, 
arriving  at  and  clearing  from  Gibraltar  during  the 
years  1852,  1863,  and  1854 : 


TIASS. 

INWARD, 

OUTWARD,   DIRECT   FOR 
THK   UNITED  ITATES. 

V«ueli.        Tonnft(;e. 

Viiaittli.     '    TuniUMre, 

1858 

;  1868 

18M  . 

80 
65 

7,321 
5,242 
12,189 

61        i     19T6T 
None,    1     None, 

1       1         197    1 

Total 

110       1     24.753 

68       1     19,964    1 

The  value  of  the  exports  and  imports  from  and  to 
the  United  States  and  Gibraltar,  during  two  years, 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 

Import*  from  OlbrRlur. 

|61,7St 

69,678 


Yran. 

1858... 

1864... 


Eiportl  to  OlbrRlUr. 
(236,014 
627,772 


Total, 


768,7S6 


121,457 


It  will  be  perceived  from  the  above  tables  that  our 
exports  in  1854  more  than  doubled  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding year.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  increasing 
demand  for  articles  of  American  produce  and  manufac- 
ture, to  keep  up  the  supplies  for  the  coasting  trade  of 
Gibraltar,  chiefly  with  the  Barbary  States  and  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 
The  merchandise  which  constitutes  the  groat  bulk  of 
our  exports  to  Gibraltar  is  of  the  growth  and  produce 
of  the  United  States,  and,  with  the  few  exceptions  al- 
ready adverted  to,  is  admitted  free  of  duty.  Yet,  not- 
withstanding this  exemption  from  all  import  duties, 
and  the  great  increase  of  our  exports  in  1854  over 
those  of  1853,  the  United  States'  consul  at  Gibraltar,  in 
a  recent  dispatch,  informed  the  Department  of  State 
that  "  Gibraltar  does  not  offer  any  greater  advantages 
to  the  merchants  of  the  United  States  in  the  sending 
out  of  produce,  merchandise,  or  articles  of  any  kind, 
than  other  markets  of  Europe ;  indeed  it  has  been  of 
late  years  a  very  insignilicant  market,  and  offers  very 
little  encouragement  for  any  extensive  operations." 

Navigation  and  Commerce. — The  number  of  sailing 
vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  the  port  of  Gibraltar  in 
1864,  either  for  commercial  operations  or  for  supplies, 
was  8017,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  698,718  tons. 

In  1853,  this  general  movement  comprised  4899  ves- 
sels, with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  801,976  tons,  show- 
ing a  decrease  for  1854  of  482  vessels  and  103,262  tons. 
Compared  with  1853,  the  increase  was  chiefly  with 
Spain,  Morocco,  Sardinia,  the  United  States,  and  Tus- 
cany ;  and  the  diminution  with  all  other  countries,  but 
more  notably  with  England,  Russia,  and  Turkey. 
Thn  increase  in  the  movements  between  Gibraltar, 


Spain,  and  Portugal  was  owing  to  the  tact  that  man^ 
vessels  being  unablo,  by  reason  of  political  diflicultiei, 
to  prosecute  their  voyage  to  the  Black  Sea,  entered 
the  ports  of  these  two  kingdoms  freighted  only  with 
salt.  Besides,  the  exportation  of  grain  ftom  the  porta 
of  Spain  was  larger  than  in  former  years.  The  In- 
crease with  Morocco  was  attributed  to  the  privilcg* 
then  granted  of  exporting  grain  from  that  regency. 
The  decrease  with  England,  Russia,  and  Turkey,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  interruption  which  the  war  occasioned 
to  the  general  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea.  Vessels  of 
the  United  States,  as  well  as  those  of  all  other  na- 
tions, are  exempt  from  tonnage  duties  or  taxes  in  the 
port  of  Gibraltar.  They  are  subject  only  to  a  small 
impost,  called  "■  light  daties,"  of  60  cents  each  vessel, 
for  support  of  the  light-house  erected  on  Enropa  Point, 
and  also  to  the  following  rates  of  anchorage  dues. 
[Vessels  of  war  of  all  nations  are  exempt  from  all  port 
charges]. 

Btinsrc-riKied  Toasol,  with  three  mssts  ..each  $10  00 

Brlg-rlj[go(I  voMol "         8  00 

Schooner,  nloop,  etc. "         600 

Small  coostlnjf-vossel "        4  00 

A  particular  description  of  the  merchandise  import- 
ed from  the  United  States,  with  a  corresponding  tabla 
of  duties,  will  be  found  annexed.  Hum,  whisky, 
spirits,  etc.,  in  casks,  whether  in  bottles  or  otherwise, 
if  the  full  contents  of  the  casks  shall  exceed  10  gal- 
lons: 

CtnU. 

Botasss each  60 

Pipe,  or  butt,  or  puncheon .. . .  "  43 

Hegahead .                      "  SH 

Tloroe "  14 

Quartnr-cask <*  lOi 

Cask  loss  than  a  quarter-cask,  being  liable  to 

the  wbarbge  toll "  5} 

Tobacco,  in  hogsheads  or  kegs,  as  commonly  im- 
ported from  the  United  States  of  America,  or  in  rolls, 
as  imported  from  Brazil,  viz. : 

Hogshead each  48 

Keg  or  roll  not  exceeding  H  cwt "        8i 

Boil  or  keg,  ftom  IJ— a  cwt "        5i 

Koll  or  keg,  from  2—5  cwt "  18^ 

Kegs  exceeding  2  cwt.,  nnd  rolls  exceeding  6  cwt., 
to  pay  wharfage  each  ns  hull'  a  hogshead ;  and,  in  case 
of  disputes,  the  tobacco  is  to  be  weighed  at  the  expense 
of  the  merchant. 

Gibraltar,  Bai/  of,  or  as  it  is  sometime  called,  Alge- 
cina  Bay,  is  bounded  by  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  head-land  of  Cabrita  on  the  other. 
Its  greatest  length  is  about  eight  miles  from  north  to 
south,  its  greatest  width  about  Ave  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  its  circuit  nearly  40  miles.  Its  depth  in  the 
centre  is  about  110  fathoms.  In  spring  tides  the  wa- 
ter rises  in  the  bay  about  four  feet.  Algeciras,  from 
whose  name  the  bi^y  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  fortified 
Spanish  town  on  the  west  side  of  the  bay,  over  against 
Gibraltar.  Near  it  is  the  beautiful  little  island  called 
Isla  Verde,  Green  Isle. 

Gibrttltar,  Straits  of,  the  narrow  channel  which  sep- 
arates the  south  of  Spain  from  the  north  of  Africa. 
The  width  at  the  narrowest  part,  between  Cabrita 
Point  and  the  opposite  shore,  is  13  miles.  We  have  an 
excellent  chart  of  the  Straits  by  Don  Vincente  Teftno 
de  San  Miguel,  with  the  additional  observations  of 
Captain  II.  W.-  Sm}-th,  K.  N.,  from  which  it  appears 
that  there  is  a  continual  current  ffowing  from  the 
ocean  in  the  middle  of  the  Straits,  which  has  a  velocity 
var}-ing  from  three  *o  six  r^iles  per  hour,  and  is  3^ 
miles  in  breadth.  There  are  t>ro  lateral  currents, 
which  have  a  mean  breadth  each  oi  2\  miles  ;  but  they 
change  their  direction  with  the  changes  of  the  tide. 
At  the  time  of  ebb  tliese  lateral  currents  have  a  veloc- 
ity equal  to  that  of  tlie  central  one.  The  depth  of  the 
Strait,  in  the  meridian  of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  is  100  fath- 
oms ;  but,  in  passing  upward,  the  channel  regularly 
and  rapidly  deepens,  until,  opposite  to  Europa  Point  at 
Gibraltar,  the  depth  of  water  Is  1000  fathoms.    It  is 


•vl 


OIL 


818 


GIL 


Nmarkable,  that  thongh  ths  oceanic  camnt  at  the 
Stralta,  and  that  of  the  Boiphorua  at  the  UardanallM, 
oontiniully  pour  their  waters  into  the  Mediterranean, 
ita  level  ia  not  ralaed.  But  Dr.  Ilalley,  long  ago, 
■hov:ed  that  the  evaporation  trom  iti  lurface  wai  fully 


equal  to  maintain  it  at  the  iama  level,  notwithstand- 
ing those  additions,  and  timt  of  tho  rivers  it  received, 
Tlie  current  is  sufflcientiy  strong  to  lje  dangerous  to 
vessels  sailing  Into  the  Atlantic,  and  ran  only  ha  over- 
come by  a  brisk  wind  from  the  Levant. 


CoMMiaoa  or  tri  Uhitmo  Htatis  with  Oiisaltab,  raoM  OcToaia  1,  1810,  to  July  1,  18M, 


Tiara  <»llD( 

Iiportb 

ta|iorU. 

Wkaraof  Uim  ww  In  Bullloa 
ud  l|iaoU. 

Toanaf*  Clffand. 

OomuUr.     I      roNlfa. 

Tout. 

Tolsl. 

(iporM. 

ImporM. 

AamUu. 

Fnralga. 

Bept,80,  1831 

1821 

1818 

1824 

181S 

1816 

1827 

1898 

1829 

1880 

Total.... 

BeptSO,  1881 

1882 

1988 

1834 

1886 

1886 

188T 

18t8 

1880 

1840 

Total.... 

BeptSO,  1841 

IMl 

linos     1848 

JanaSO,  1M4 

1S46 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1949 

1860 

Total.... 

June  80,  18.M 

1869 

1868 

1854 

1886 

1866 

$966,111 
696,708 
876,604 
034,401 
861,788 
692,896 

1,010.999 
899,411 
801,181 
818.148 

$818,688 
6i^074 

1,028,272 
0M,446 
941,981 

l,06^826 
864,387 
606,719 
160,180 
870,160 

$1,469,746 
1,160,781 
1,908,876 
1,868,847 
1,808,714 
1,747,911 
l,90^886 
1,406,180 
461,962 
888,898 

$1,134,268 
490,878 
477,769 
693,844 
748,646 
677,806 
828,963 
666,678 
347,471 
90,028 

W9,l»0 

^ooo 

8,804 

1,110 

146,187 

10,800 

8,000 

86,000 

10,671 

69,880 

$608,810 

88,661 

181,698 

811,871 

101,704 

89;378 

87,891 

68,708 

7,880 

20,984 
1^847 
22,988 
17,288 
30,863 
24,148 
20,790 
26,446 
8,701 
18,480 

V.ioi 

684 
931 
68 
91 

$7,60(S7M 

$429,087 
428,833 
678,076 
606,708 
668,681 
686,198 
861,081 
609,818 
802,347 
643,»t4 

$7,000,318 

$166,786 
18^074 
164,670 
188,786 
966,000 
99M77 
108.870 
162,871 
148,887 
267.110 

$14,601,061 

$894,873 
618,907 
787,616 
790,488 
818,681 
860,876 
664,901 
761,189 

1,060,684 
900,464 

$6,168,686 

$160,817 

270,868 

182,608 

100,691 

160,200 

246,978 

107,178 

1^614 

99,178 

89,867 

$809,343 

$30,000 

88,616 

800 

74,988 
6,697 

17,034 
9,698 
9,866 

$1,689,8(16 

$8,600 
8,320 
3,800 

94,947 
4,460 

■"888 
"460 

206,469 

11,703 
14,989 
18,811 
12,998 
1M94 
14,523 
10,887 
11,496 
18,861 
11,813 

2,766 

"481 

1,870 

690 

400 

1,120 

1,873 

1,911 

3,164 

877 

$8,642,919 

$1,020,931 
466,987 
318,861 
602,462 
426,107 
463,141 
866,860 
810,4)10 
728,819 
186,807 

$2,061,180 

$08,989 
11^9A1 
88,197 
77,421 
168,664 
130,661 
M,0S6 
61,646 
78,467 
60,481 

$7,691,049 

$1,119,920 
682,898 
366,448 
679,883 
689,671 
893.892 
420,886 
871,946 
802,286 
946,789 

fiiiiliil  1 

$171,484 

$liS3i8 

8,460 
47,890 
44,648 

9,790 
16,920 
18,038 
41,088 

$49,676 

$20,878 
18,471 
13,331 

184,771 

17,868 
13,118 
6,941 
13,873 
11,691 

'8!3i9 

9,836 

13,139 

7,660 

10,780 

791 
1,76S 
1,668 
2,413 
1,097 

ijis 

779 

1,840 

806 

13,461 

1,063 
1,802 
1,380 

624 
1,802 

118 

$4,688,816 

$177,004 
329,802 
169,414 
446,448 
328,868 
372,623 

$62,629 
49,167 
06,670 
81,827 

128,879 
66,403 

$6,668,118 

$230,433 
27^769 
186,014 
627,772 
848,744 
429,016 

$398,886 

$73,604 
106,9.^3 
61,784 
60,678 
66,641 
88,126 

$196,086 

$6,,'SS0 
16,000 
44..'i00 
12,741 

26,400 

$46^671 
V,876 

101,033 

8.900 
7,679 
6,242 

12,189 
S,063 

10,MO 

Olid,  or  Oulld,  a  company  of  merchants  or  man- 
afacturers,  whence  the  halls  of  such  companies  are 
denominated  Gild  or  Guild  Halls.     See  Guild. 

Oilding.  First  practiced  at  Rome,  about  145  B.  c. 
The  Capitol  was  the  flrat  building  on  which  this  en- 
richment was  bestowed I'linii.     Of  gold  leaf  for 

gilding,  tho  Romans  made  but  750  leaves,  4  fingers 
square,  out  of  a  whole  ounce. — Pliny.  It  consequent- 
ly was  more  like  onr  plating. — Truster.  A  single 
grain  of  gold  may  now  be  stretched  out  under  the 
hammer  into  a  leaf  that  will  cover  a  house. — Dr.  Hal- 
ley.  Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  boh  fimmomac  was  first 
introduced  by  Margaritnne,  in  1273.  The  art  of  gild- 
ing on  wood,  previously  known,  was  improved  In 
leSO.— Haydn. 

Gilding  is  the  application  of  a  superficial  coat  of 
gold  on  wood,  metal,  and  other  materials.  The  beau- 
ty and  durability  of  gold  render  it  the  most  valuable 
of  all  ornamental  substances ;  but,  on  account  of  its 
weight  and  high  price,  its  nse  in  these  respects  wonld 
be  exceedingly  limited,  were  it  not  the  most  extensi- 
ble and  divisible  form  of  matter,  so  that  it  may  be 
made  to  cover  a  larger  surface  than  an  equal  quantity 
of  any  other  body.  Metals  are  usually  covered  with 
gold  liy  the  process  of  tnater  gilding.  It  consists  in 
perfectly  cleaning  their  surface,  and  then,  in  the  case 
of  silver,  for  instance,  rubbing  it  over  with  a  solu- 
tion of  gold  in  mercury,  called  amalgam  of  gold :  the 
vessel  is  then  heate<l  over  a  clear  charcoal  fire,  by 
which  the  mercury  is  driven  off,  and  the  gold  left  ad- 
hering to  the  silver  surface,  upon  which  it  is  after- 
ward burnished.  The  surface  of  copper  or  brass  is 
usuiilly  prepared  by'cleaning  and  rubbing  it  over  with 
•  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury*,  which  amalgamatei 


the  surface,  and  enables  the  gold  amalgam,  when  8ul>- 
sequently  applied,  to  adhere ;  heating  and  burnishing 
are  then  resorted  to  as  before.  Brass  and  copper  but- 
tons are  gilt  in  this  way;  and  tho  requisite  quantity 
of  gold  is  so  small  that  twelve  dozen  buttons  of  one 
inch  diameter  may  be  completely  gilt  upon  both  sur- 
faces by  five  grains  of  gold.  Other  kinds  of  gilding 
are  performed  by  gold  leaf,  which,  if  intended  for  out- 
door work,  is  laid  on  by  the  help  of  gold  tize,  which  is 
drying  oil  mixed  with  calcined  red  ochre ;  or,  if  for 
picture  and  looking-glass  fVames,  they  are  prepared 
by  a  size  made  by  boiling  parcliment  clippings  to  a 
stiff  jelly,  and  mixed  with  fine  Paris-plaster  or  yellow 
ochre.  The  leaves  of  books  are  gilt  upon  the  e<Iges 
by  brushing  them  over,  while  in  the  l)inder's  press, 
with  a  composition  of  four  parts  of  Armenian  bole  and 
one  of  powdered  sugar  candy  mixed  up  with  white  of 
egg ;  this  coating,  when  nearly  dry,  is  smoothed  by 
the  burnisher,  then  slightly  moistened,  and  the  gold 
leaf  applied  and  burnished.  To  impress  gilt  figures 
on  book  covers,  the  leather  is  dusted  over  with  finely, 
powdered  mastic :  the  iron  tool  by  which  the  figure  is 
made  is  then  moderately  heated  and  pressed  upon  a 
piece  of  leaf-gold,  which  slightly  adheres  to  it ;  l)eing 
then  immediately  applied  to  the  leather  with  a  certain 
force,  the  tool  makes  an  impression,  and,  softening 
the  mastic,  transfers  and  fixes  the  gold.  In  gilding 
glass  and  porcelain,  powdered  gold  is  blended  with 
gum-wntcr  and  a  little  Iwrax,  and  applied  by  a  camel- 
hair  |iencil ;  the  article  is  then  put  into  an  oven  or 
furnace ;  the  gum  bums  off,  and  the  borax,  by  vitri- 
f^'ing,  cements  the  gold  to  the  surface,  upon  which  it 
may  afterward  be  polished  by  the  burnisher.  Within 
the  last  few  yean  nearly  all  the  gilt  articles  manufoc- 


OIN 


810 


GIN 


Inrtti  «t  nirmlngliMi,  inch  u  buttona,  nsck-ehahu, 
Mr-rin|{«,  anil  m>  forth,  tmrit  been  gilt  by  a  proceia  in 
Whlnh,  after  th*  artlclM  have  lienn  properly  cleansed 
by  a  w«ak  asld,  thoy  are  Immerneil  In  a  hot  solution 
or  nitnvmurlata  nf  Knid,  to  which  a  considerable  ex- 
e«H  of  bluarhonata  iif  potash  has  lieen  added ;  In  the 
OOUfM  ut  n  ftiw  seconds  they  thus  receive  a  beautiful 
and  pemMnent  coat  of  itotd. 

OUaad-trM,  tha  Balaun  of  (Amyria  gllead- 
«nal«),  la  a  native  of  Arabia,  and  growi  spontaneously 
In  thw  mountalna  nf  Yemen.  Although  not  indige- 
nous to  Judea,  It  was  cultlvate<l  with  great  perfec- 
tion many  yeara  beibre  Christ,  in  the  gardens  of 
Jnrlnlio,  on  the  lianks  of  the  Jordan ;  and  it  is  from 
(lllaiid,  In  that  country,  whence  the  merohants  brought 
tlio  rtalnoua  nnnlurt  to  Kgypt,  that  Is  derived  the  ap- 
pellation of  ''  lialaam  of  (Ulead."  This  shrub,  or 
tra«,  whiidl  seldom  exceeds  14  feet  in  height,  has  a 
trunk  8  or  10  Inches  In  diameter,  with  many  spread- 
InK,  iiMciked,  purplish  branches,  having  protul>er- 
nnt  buds,  loaded  with  aromatic  resin.  The  great 
value  set  upon  this  drutf  In  the  East  is  traced  to  the 
oarlltiat  agv*.  Whim  Aloxnndur  the  Great  was  in 
iTudeii,  a  spoonful  of  the  balsam  was  all  that  could  be 
oalleiited  on  a  summer's  day  i  and.  In  the  most  plenti- 
ful year,  the  ((rent  royal  park  for  these  trees  yielded 
only  six  Kniliins,  It  was  consequently  so  dear  that 
It  mild  fur  double  Its  weight  in  silver.  That  of  the 
liest  iiuallty  la  aald  to  exude  naturally,  but  the  infe- 
rior kinda  ut  the  present  day  are  extracted  by  boiling 
tim  branchaa.  It  la  at  tlrst  turidd  and  white,  of  a 
•trong,  pungent,  ngreoable,  aromatic  odor,  and  of  a 
•llgtitiv  liltter,  ncid  toate ;  upon  being  kept.  It  becomes 
lliln,  limpid,  of  a  greenish  hue,  then  of  a  golden  yel- 
low, iind  nt  length  of  the  consistency  of  honey.  This 
tiiilaiim  Is  lilgliTy  prltrd  among  eastern  nations,  par- 
tli'ulitrly  liy  tiio  Turks  titiA  Aralis,  both  as  a  medicine 
mid  nn  odorlfvraua  unguent  and  cosmetic.  It  has 
b««n  highly  extolled  aa  a  powerful  anti-septic,  vul- 
nerary, and  provontlvo  of  the  plague.  Its  great 
•carclty,  huwevar,  has  prevented  it  from  coming  into 
use  niniing  K.iirnpean  and  American  practitioners.  It 
is  «xtr(<mely  liable  to  adulteration,  and,  from  its  high 
price,  imd  dllllcuUy  to  be  obtained,  it  is  believed  that 
not  a  single  ounce  of  the  genuine  article  can  l)e  found 
in  tills  iHiuiitry,  nor  even  in  Kiirope.— U.  J.  Browne's 
Jimifl,  If,  H.  J'nient  Offlee,  1856. 

vUi,  a  moaaure  of  capacity.    See  Weights  and 

MMAHUnM. 

Oimbtla  (Lat.  jfnmllut,  twin),  the  two  brass  rings 
or  lioiipa  within  which  a  ship's  compass  is  suspended 
in  Its  liox.  In  I'riler  to  counteract  the  elfect  of  the 
ship's  motion  and  keep  the  card  horizontal.  These 
rings  move  one  within  the  otiior,  each  peqiendicularly 
to  Its  )iliitlii,  nliout  two  axes  placed  at  right  angles  to 
ench  otllori  lly  this  cantrlvance  the  compass,  liaving 
a  fren  motion  In  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  nmlntalna  a  vertical  position,  and  oonseqiiently 
thu  card  la  hurl)lotit«l.  Olinbnls  are  also  applied  to 
other  Instruments,  such  as  the  portable  or  mountain 
bnroiiiiitiir,  etc, 

OlmletlllK  tha  anohor.  Turning  it  by  the 
Huv.'i  riiutid  Its  ahank  as  an  axis,  like  a  gimlet. 

OHmp.  Silk  twist,  Interlaood  with  brass  or  other 
wire. 

Oln.  (fr.  i/rmiWe,  juniper.)  Ardent  spirit  fla- 
vorml  by  the  aaaential  oil  of  Juniper.  It  was  origi- 
nally mndii  by  the  Dutch,  and  is  hence  distinguished 
in  this  country  by  tho  name  of  Hollands.  The  liquor 
lieurliig  tlin  alinve  name  in  this  country  is  of  British 
ninniifactiiro,  and  la  frequently  flavored  by  oil  of  tur- 
iwntlnii,  and  rendered  lilting  upon  the  palate  by  caus- 
tic potaah.  In  Holland,  the  linest  gin  bears  the  name 
of  Hchli'ilam,  the  principal  place  of  Its  manufacture, 
and  wliMre  there  are  many  distilleries. 

The  Kngllah  net  for  laying  an  excise  upon  gin 
iNuaeil  July,  14th,  1780 1  It  had  been  found,  in  the 


preceding  year,  that  in  London  only,  7,044  houaeo 
sold  gin  by  retail ;  and  it  was  so  cheap  that  the  poor 
could  intoxicate  themselves,  and  be  disaliled  from 
lalmr  for  one  penny.  The  heavy  excise  of  6  shillings 
per  gallon,  and  obliging  all  retailera  to  take  out  a 
license,  in  a  great  measure  put  a  stop  to  this  depopu- 
lating evil.— nWmon.  Aliout  1,700  of  these  houssi 
were  suppressed  in  London  in  1760. — Clarke. 

The  l)utch  have  been  long  famous  for  their  manu- 
facture of  an  anient  spirit  llavorod  with  Juniper,  and 
known  by  the  names  of  lloUamU,  Schiedam,  Uin,  and 
Geneva  I  the  last  being  derived  from  the  word  "^- 
niivre,"  the  juniper  lierr}',  and  the  word  gin  being  a 
contraction  thereof.  The  distillers  at  Schiedam  seem 
for  the  last  60  years  at  least  to  have  followed  very 
much  the  same  practice  in  the  manufacture  of  this 
spirit,  most  of  the  accounts  published  during  that  pe- 
riod by  individuals  who  hoive  gone  over  to  study  the 
manufacture,  agreeing  in  the  details.  Generally  112 
lbs.  of  malt  of  liig,  weighing  alKiut  37  Ibe.  per  bushel, 
and  228  lbs.  of  best  unmalted  rye  from  Riga,  weigh- 
ing about  5-1  lbs.  per  bushel,  are  mashed  in  about  100 
gallons  of  water  of  the  temperature  of  162°.  The 
tun  is  then  carefully  covered  and  left  undisturbed  for 
about  2  hours.  The  contents  ore  then  well  stirred 
up,  when  the  clearest  part  of  the  spent  wash  of  a  pre- 
vious distiiintion,  and  as  much  cold  water  as  will 
reduce  tho  strength  of  the  wort  to  about  83  of  Dicas's 
hydrometer,  and  lower  the  temperature  to  aliout  80° 
are  added.  About  half  a  gallon  of  good  yeast  is  then 
added ;  active  fermentation  is  thus  excited,  the  tem- 
perature rises  to  90°,  and  the  whole  is  over  in  two 
days.  The  whole  wort  (grains  and  all)  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  the  still,  and  the  distillation  is  continued  till 
spirit  ceases  to  come  over.  A  very  weak  spirit  is 
thus  obtained,  as  used  to  be  the  cose  in  this  country 
with  the  old  form  of  still.  This,  or  the  low  rvinet  as 
it  is  termed,  is  subjected  to  a  second  distillation  after 
having  mixed  with  it  some  Juniper  berries  and  hops. 
Old  Juniper  berries  are  preferred  for  this  purpose,  and 
they  are  added  in  the  proportion  of  2  lbs.  of  berries  to 
the  100  gallons  of  low  wines ;  a  quarter  pound  of 
salt,  and  a  handful  of  hops,  are  often  also  added. 
These  ingredients  give  the  spirit  that  peculiar  flavor 
which  has  led  it  to  be  styled  geniuvre — geneva — gin. 
The  quantity  of  spirit  obtained  varies  from  18  to  21 
gallons  per  quarter  of  grain,  a  quantity  fully  as  great 
as  is  yielded  by  tho  best  conducted  distilleries  in  this 
country. 

Aocording  to  recent  examina^'on8  and  experiments 
to  detect  the  adulteration  of  liquors,  gin  appears  to  be 
generally  diluted  for  the  purpose  of  lowering  the  price, 
and  various  decoctions  are  subsequently  introduced  to 
supply  the  peculiar  properties  supposed  to  belong  to 
tho  pure  spirit.  Many  of  these  articles,  however, 
although  "  possessing  very  terrifying  names,  as  oil  of 
vitriol,  or  sulphuric  acid,  can  not  in  the  proportions  in 
which  they  are  used,  be  looked  upon  as  poisons."  It 
is,  for  instance,  believed  that  pure  gin — that  is,  alco- 
hol flavored  with  Juniper-berry,  is  not  to  be  met  with, 
inasmuch  as  all  rectiflers  appear  to  use  "  gin-flavor- 
ings," made  from  various  aromatic  and  carminative 
substances,  such  as  orange  peel,  coriander,  etc.,  which 
please  the  palate  of  the  consumer  better  than  pure 
gin,  of  which,  indeed,  the  public  scarcely  know  the 
taste.  If  a  retailer  "never  sold  any  thing  but  abso- 
lute alcohol,  it  could  not  be  drank  by  the  public, 
without  their  being  greatly  injured.  'The  publican 
would  then  have  to  dilute  it  with  such  a  quantity  of 
water  as  would  render  it  suitable  as  a  beverage," 
The  publican  does  not  profess  to  sell  absolute  alco- 
hol, and  the  public  knowing  nothing  of  the  nature 
of  the  manufacture  of  gin,  aro  content  with  what 
is  usually  sold  under  that  denomination;  the  term 
gin  being  merely  conventional,  and  applying  equal- 
ly to  the  mixture  sold  by  tho  publican  as  to  the 
spirit  sent  out  by  the  distiller,  and  is,  la  fact,  more 


GLA 


820 


OLA 


gaiKinlly  undentood  to  repreiuint  the  inlxturt.  For 
th«  Mine  reuon  the  revnniie  d<i«»  not  nuntaln  loim,  be- 
eauac  no  man  could  drink  proof  iipirltii,  and  if  the 
publtoan  did  not  dilute  the  iplrit,  he  "  muiit  fall  back 
U|)on  the  wholeaale  dealer  and  have  it  made  up  to 
the  Mrangth  he  requlrea,  iweetened  and  all." — Tfe/mrt 
to  Houie  nfCumnumt,  July,  1858.  8oe  I.konic  IvKVI'h 
Anmih  <if  Urititk  /^githlum,  Part  Ix.,  I  tec,  18(M). 

Oln,  In  Mtrhaniet,  a  oontrlvanco  for  raiaing  heavy 
welghta,  driving  piloa,  etc.,  which  ronalata  of  three 
ipara  >et  up  In  a  pyramidal  form,  and  fumialied  at  top 
with  a  tackle  wlilcli  la  worked  by  n  windlaaa  beneath. 
The  name  gin  la  alao  applied  to  a  machine  with  which 
the  flbrea  of  cotton  are  dlaentnnKM,  by  meana  of  a 
ierloa  of  revolving  apikea.  Thla  operation  la  termed 
ffinnlng.    Sue  Cottom  MANurAcrunis. 

OHngar  (der.  Inwrr;  Du.  (Irmher;  Vr.  Gngembn; 
h.  Xrnten) ;  Sp.  Jtnjihrf ;  Agtngibre ;  Kua.  Inhiv ;  Lot. 
Xlttj/iberi  I'era.  Zungfottlj  Arab.  Zingibetl),  the  roots 
of  a  plant  (^Amomum  Zingibtr),  a  native  of  the  Eaat 
Indlea  and  China,  but  which  raa  early  carrle<l  to  and 
aiioceeda  very  well  in  the  Weat  Indiea.  After  the 
niota  are  dug,  the  beat  are  aelected,  acraped,  woahed, 
and  dried  in  the  ann  with  great  care.  Thla  ia  calli>:l 
while gingrr  i  while  the  Inferior  roota,  which  are  acalded 
in  boiling  water  before  being  dried,  aro  denominated 
blofk  ginger.  Preserved  ginger  la  made  by  acalding 
the  green  roota,  or  the  roots  taken  up  when  they  are 
young  and  full  of  sap,  till  they  are  tender ;  then  peel- 
ing them  in  cold  water,  and  putting  them  into  a  thin 
•yrup,  from  which  they  are  ahtfted  into  the  Jan  in 
which  they  come  to  us,  and  a  rich  syrup  poured  over 
them.  Dried  ginger  has  a  pungent,  aromatic  odor, 
and  a  hot,  biting  taste.  It  is  imported  in  bags,  each 
containing  al)Out  a  cwt.  The  white  bringi  the  higheat 
price,  Iwing  more  pungent  and  lietter  ltavore<).  The 
external  characters  of  goodness  in  lioth  sorts  of  dried 
ginger  aro,  soundness,  or  the  being  free  from  worm 
boles,  heaviness,  and  llrmnesa ;  the  pieces  that  are 
■mall,  light,  and  soft,  or  very  friable  and  fihroUs, 
should  be  rejected.  The  liest  preserved  ginger  is 
nearly  translucent ;  it  should  be  chosen  of  a  bright 
yellow  color;  rejecting  that  which  is  dark-colored, 
flbrous,  or  stringy.  — Milbuhm's  Orient.  Commerce! 
TllOMSON'a  Ditpentatorg.  The  ginger  plant  could 
without  doubt !«  grown  to  advantage  in  many  of  the 
southern  States,  The  amount  uf  ginger  annually 
Imported  into  the  United  States  Is  valued  at  upward 
of  «<K),000. 

Olnseng  (Du.  Gimeng,  Ginsem;  Fr.  Ginieng ; 
Oer.  Kn^ftverzel,  Ginieng ;  It.  Ginteng  i  Sp.  Jinseng ; 
Chin.  Vantam;  Tart.  Orhola),  the  root  of  a  small 
plant  {Panax  quinque/olinm  Lin.),  growing  in  China, 
Tartary,  and  several  parts  of  North  America.  The 
latter  Is  what  we  generally  see  in  England,  and  Is  an 
article  of  trade  to  China,  which  is  its  only  market. 
Large  quantities  were  formerly  exported  from  this 
country  j  but  it  is  now  carried  direct  to  China  by  the 
Americans.  It  is  lometimea  exported  crude,  and 
sometimes  cured  or  okrifled.  Within  these  few  years. 
Is  has  been  discovered  in  the  Himalaya  mountains, 
and  small  quantities  have  been  thenoe  sent  to  Canton ; 
but  the  speculation  has  not  succeeded.  It  is  only 
almut  40  years  since  it  began  to  be  sent  from  America 
to  China.  Previously  to  the  present  century,  the 
Chinese  drew  their  supplies  from  the  wilds  of  Tartary, 
and  the  root  brought  an  exorbitant  price.  Crude  gin- 
seng now  sells  in  the  Canton  market  at  from  60  to  70 
dollars  per  plcnl,  and  prepared  at  from  70  to  80  dol- 
lars. In  1862,  there  were  sent  from  the  United  States 
to  .Chins,  168,455  lbs.  ginseng,  valued  at  102,078  dol- 
lars.— Paperi  laid  before  Congreu,  January  1st,  1853. 
Olaoler,  a  name  given  to  masses  of  ice  which  de- 
scend from  snowy  mountains  into  the  adjacent  valleys, 
whan  they  obtain  a  level  often  far  l>elow  the  upper 
limit  of  the  •urToanlUng  Tegetation.  The  following 
•ft  Um  irnonjniu  for  •  gladw  io  aoine  diffenitt  Un- 


guages  and  dUlacta:  In  French,  glacier  /  Oerman, 
glelKheri  Italian,  ghiaccityaf  Tyrolese,  ferni  in  (Ja- 
rinthia,  il:>]<a ;  in  the  Vallais,  bitgno  i  in  part  uf  Italy, 
vedrelto  i  in  Piedmont,  ruize  i  In  the  Pyreneua,  err- 
neillei  In  Norway,  iithr—  or  iitbrtiU;  In  Lapland, 
geikna  or  jegim  i  in  Iceland,  jokuU  or  fall-jikull. 
The  characteriatlu  appearance  uf  a  glacier  can  In 
nowhere  l>cttcr  atudiod  than  In  Switxerlund  and 
Savoy.  The  icy  niaas  of  the  glacier  of  Iloaaons  ut 
Chaniounl — which  deacends  immediately  from  the 
highest  part  uf  Mont  Illanc,  liut  lies,  aunmiur  and 
winter,  in  the  valley  at  a  height  of  no  more  lliun  II500 
Engliah  feet  (the  height  of  perpetual  anow  living  alwut 
UOOO  feet),  where  it  Is  emlwsomed  among  luxuriant 
wood,  and  is  almost  iu  contact  with  com-flelda — exhib- 
its a  apectacle  which  nime  who  have  once  seen  it  can 
forget,  and  which  attracts  mure  iniereat  and  curiosity 
the  mure  carefully  it  la  cuiiaidored.  The  lower  glacier 
of  (irindnlwalil,  deacending  to  IMOO  feet,  U  another 
familiar  example  uf  the  aame  phenomenon.  In  the 
arctic  regions  true  glaclora  alao  exiat,  which,  descvnd- 
lug  the  valleya  (often  uf  groat  width  and  little  inclina- 
tion\  enter  the  sea,  and,  breaking  off,  supply  the 
"■outing  Ice-islanda  or  icelierga,  wliich  frequently  drift 
into  comparatively  low  latitudes.  These  glaciers  do 
not  essentially  differ  flnim  tlinae  of  Alpine  countries. 

The  diniinutiun  uf  temperature  as  we  ascend  the 
blopes  of  mountains,  is  indicated  by  successive  tones  of 
veget.ition,  and  Anally  by  the  occurrence  of  perpetual 
anow,  Thoa  in  the  high  mountains  uf  the  AnJea  and 
Himalaya,  littwoon  the  tropica,  the  commencement  of 
perpetual  snow  la  found  at  (Vom  15,000  to  18,000,  or 
even  19,000  feet,  according  to  circumatances  ;  while  In 
aouthera  Europe,  the  level  la  from  8UU0  to  0000  feet, 
and  in  Norway  (Vum  6500  tu  UOOO  feet,  according  to 
the  latitude  and  the  diatunce  from  the  aea.  It  was 
first  shown  by  Ilaron  Humboldt  and  Vun  Uuch  that 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  depends  principally  un  the 
temperature  of  the  summer,  and  not  upon  that  of  the 
wliole  year.  It  has  been  ulraady  explained  that  an 
accumulation  of  snow,  oven  ftro  .en  anow,  dues  not 
constitute  properly  a  glacier.  A  glacier  is  a  mass  of 
ice,  having  its  origin  in  the  hollows  of  mountains 
where  perpetual  snow  accumulates,  but  which  makes 
its  way  down  tuward  the  lower  valleys,  where  it 
gradually  melts,  and  it  terminates  exactly  where  tho 
melting,  duo  to  tl:e  contact  of  the  warmer  air,  earth, 
and  rain  of  the  valley,  compensates  fur  the  bodily 
descent  of  the  ice  fmni  the  snow  reservoirs  of  the 
higher  mountains.  From  this  it  is  evident,  without 
any  formal  measurements,  thiit  A  olacikr  is  iub  ix 

MOTION. 

Geographical  Dittribution  o/ Glaciers, — Glaciers  aro 
not  peculiar  to  any  countr}'  or  region  of  the  earth.  It 
may  be  that  there  are  extensive  snowy  mountains 
wholly  devoid  of  them,  as  is  supposed  to  lie  the  case 
in  tropical  South  America;  but  oven  this  exception 
requires  confirmation.  There  are  peculiarities  in  the 
form  of  mountains,  and  still  more  in  climate,  which,  as 
we  shall  see,  favor  the  formation  of  glaciers,  or  may 
even  totally  prevent  it. 

«}laagO«r,  a  great  commercial  and  manufacturing 
city  uf  Lanarlishire,  in  Scotland,  situated  ontlie  north- 
em  bank  of  tho  River  Clyde.  According  to  the  deter- 
mination uf  Dr.  Wilson,  the  latitude  and  longitude  of 
the  Macfarlane  Observatory,  in  the  college  garden  of 
Glasgo*,  are  65°  51'  82''  N.,  and  4P  17'  61"  W. 
Glasgow  is  therefore  nearly  eight  miles  further  south, 
and  1°  1'  further  west.  The  diflference  between  the 
clocks  in  Edinburg  and  Glasgow  is  4°  27'  4". 

Glasgow  owes  its  present  greatness  to  its  advan- 
tageous situation  on  a  fine  river,  in  one  of  the  richest 
coal  and  mineral  districts  of  tho  empire.  Originally, 
however,  the  Clyde  was  much  incumbered  by  funis 
and  shallows,  and  for  a  lengthened  period  it  served 
rather  to  excite  and  disappoint  expectation,  ttian  to 
confer  any  real  commercial  advantage  on  the  citv 


OLA 


821 


GLA 


advan- 
richest 
ginuUy, 
\y  funis 
served 
than  to 
le  citv 


In  1663,  after  Mveral  other  schemeo  had  fnllod,  the 
muKliitrates  of  Olnii|[nw  purchaud  the  K'ound  on 
which  I'ort  Glasgow  (16  miles  down  the  river)  now 
stands,  where  they  formed  a  hnrhor  and  a  graving 
dock,  the  flrst  work  of  Its  kind  In  Scotland.  For  a 
conalderalde  period  the  intercourse  Iwtween  Glasgow 
and  its  newly-acquired  port  was  principally  carried  on 
by  land  carriage ;  but  from  1065  attempts  were  every 
now  and  then  made  to  deepen  the  Mver.  In  lflH8  a 
quay  was  formed  at  the  Droomielaw  i  but  even  so  late 
OS  1775  no  vessel  drawing  six  fact  of  water  could  reach 
Glasgow,  except  ot  spring  tides.  At  length,  however, 
a  plan,  proposed  In  17C9  by  Mr.  Oolburn,  engineer  of 
Chester,  for  deepening  the  river  to  seven  feet  at  neap 
tides,  was  adopted,  since  which  time,  by  the  continued 
use  of  numerous  dredging  machines  a  depth  of  tmm  16 
to  18  feet  of  water  at  high  water  neaps  haa  been  ol>- 
talned.  In  the  year  ending  the  noth  June,  186-1,  25 
ships  drawing  18  feet  of  water,  and  ■!  drawing  10  feet, 
camo  safely  to  the  Broomlclaw,  while  the  largest 
steam  vessel  afloat,  the  Periia,  of  6,600  tons'  liurden, 
was  launched  In  1855  into  the  river,  alraut  one  mile 
below  Glasgow,  and  came  up  to  the  liarlwr  to  receive 
hor  machinery.  The  work  of  deepening  and  straight- 
ening the  river  Is  still  vigorously  prosecuted.  Six 
dredging  machines  and  two  diving  bells  are  in  constant 
employment.  The  river,  for  seven  miles  below  the 
city,  is  very  much  widened,  and  fonns  nearly  n  straight 
line — the  sloping  bunks,  formed  of  whinstone,  being 
constructed  in  imitation  of  ashlar.  The  accommoda- 
tion for  shipping  at  the  Kroomlclaw,  or  harbor,  is  now 
also  very  greatly  extended.  It  comprises  about  48 
acres  of  water.  The  quays  extend  al>out  two  miles 
In  length,  are  amply  furnished  with  sheds  for  goods, 
cranes,  etc.,  and  have  the  important  advantage  of 
being  directly  connected,  by  means  of  the  General 
Terminus  Line,  with  the  various  railways  that  centre 
in  the  city.  The  parllumentiir}'  tnistccs  for  manag- 
ing the  river  have,  also,  acquired  ground  on  the  north 
side  of  the  harbor,  on  which  they  have  power  to  con- 
struct extensive  docks.  They  ma}',  also,  construct  a 
basin  on  the  south  side. 

The  total  expenditure  on  the  river  and  harbor,  In- 
cluding works,  purchases  of  ground,  etc.,  down  to 
1854,  wos  above  X2,000,000,  of  which  about  .£1,600,000 
has  been  raised  as  revenue.  The  influence  of  these 
improvements  on  the  shipping  and  trade  of  Glasgow 
has  been  most  striking.  At  present,  a  greater  num- 
ber of  sailing  vessels  ond  of  steamers  belong  to  Glas- 
gow than  to  any  other  Scotch  port,  and  the  harlior  Is 
constantly  crowded  with  ships  from  foreign  ports, 
coasting  vessels  and  steamers.  The  steam-packets 
belonging  to  the  Clyde  that  ply  to  Liverpool,  Dublin, 
and  Belfast,  are  among  the  finest  \essel6  of  their  class 
In  the  empire.  In  all,  there  belonged  to  Glasgow,  on 
the  3l8t  DecemlMsr,  1854,  601  vessels  of  the  aggregate 
burden  of  192,895  tons. 

The  Clyde,  upon  which  the  city  of  Glasgow  Is  situ- 
ated, is  one  of  the  principal  rivers  in  Scotland,  and  has 
Its  rise  among  the  mountains  that  separate  the  conn- 
ties  of  Dumfries  and  Lanark.  The  length  of  this 
stream,  from  its  source  to  its  junction  with  the  western 
sea,  is  about  100  miles.  Along  its  whole  course  it  is 
beautified  by  magnificent  natural  scenery  and  embel- 
lishments of  art.  Its  banks  are  crowded  with  the 
abodes  of  industry  and  a  thriving  population.  The 
site  of  Glasgow  occupies  both  sides  of  the  river ;  and 
though  at  the  distance  of  above  80  miles  from  the 
influx  Into  the  sea,  the  tide,  which  flows  a  consider- 
able way  above  the  towe.  gives  it  a  command  of  trade 
and  means  of  ready  conve}'anco  for  commercial  pur- 
poses to  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  See  articles 
Clyde,  Great  Bbitain,  and  Scotland. 

The  first  steam-engine  in  Glasgow  connected  with 
cotton-spinning  was  erected  in  1792 ;  but  it  was  not 
till  the  beginning  of  the  present  centnrj-  that  any  con- 
aiderable  quantity  of  yam  was  spun  in  Scotland,    In 


1860  the  number  of  spindles  •roplnyed  In  cotton-spln< 
ning,  connected  with  or  depemlent  on  Glasgow, 
amounted  to  1,686,096,  and  the  cotton  oonsuuied 
amounted  to  alxiut  46,000,000  pounds,  or  120,0<M)  bales. 
At  present  (1H56)  the  consumption  does  not  appear  to 
have  Increased.  The  |)ower-loom  was  first  Introduced 
into  Glasgow  in  179.1  by  Mr.  James  Robertson,  who 
brought  two  from  the  Hulks  In  the  Thames.  In  the 
following  year  40  looms  were  fitted  up  at  Milton,  and 
in  IHUl  Mr.  John  Montelth  had  200  looms  at  work  at 
I'ollockshaws,  near  Glasgow.  In  IHUl  the  power- 
looms  in  or  (lopendent  <m  Glasgow  had  Increased  to 
15,in7  ;  in  1H5()  they  amounted  to  2.1,6111,  unci  produced 
the  dally  average  of  625,000  yards  of  duth ;  at  present 
(1866)  there  are  aliout  2)1,000  or  27,000  power-looms, 
and  consequently  the  daily  produce  la  not  only  greater 
from  this  cause,  Imt  also  from  an  increase  in  speed. 
The  numl)er  of  persons  employed  in  the  cotton  factories 
throughout  Scotland,  and  which  may  be  said  to  bo  all 
ecinnoctod  with  or  dependent  on  Glasgow,  in  1860  was 
8797  males,  and  27,528  females,  total  <1l!,U25 ;  whils 
the  rantlve  power  was,  steam,  71,005  horse-power; 
water,  2812.  In  addition  to  the  cotton  spun  for  weav- 
ing, there  aro  several  very  large  manufactories  of 
sewing  thread;  and  to  that  of  power-loom  weaving 
there  must  bo  added  all  the  beautiful  fabrics  that  are 
still  made  by  the  hand-loom,  and  which  employ  a  voft 
number  of  persons  and  a  largd  capital.  These  consist 
of  muslins,  plain  and  fancy  bamess-curtiklns,  jaconets, 
cambrics,  ginghams,  checks,  and  colored  tinxues  of  all 
kinds  ;  while,  of  late  years,  mixed  fabrics,  consisting 
of  cotton  and  silk,  cotton  and  linen,  and  cotton  and 
wool,  have  all  been  manufactured  to  a  great  extent. 
To  the  many  thousand  hand-loom  weavers  thut  still 
reside  In  Glasgow,  must  lie  added  those  who  reside  in 
all  the  villages  for  many  miles  round,  and  even  in 
some  of  the  more  distant  towns  in  Scotland  and  north 
of  Ireland,  to  form  an}'  adequate  Idea  of  the  extensive 
and  wide-spread  toxtlio  manufacturing  interests  of 
Glasgow.  See  articles  EMDituiDEitr,  Clyde,  and 
Steam  NAVioATioy. 

The  next  great  branches  of  Industry,  of  which  Glas- 
gow is  the  central  mart,  are  its  coal  and  iron  trades. 
Although  coal,  from  a  pretty  remote  period,  has  been 
wrought  round  the  city  chiefly  for  domestic  uses,  it  has 
only  been  since  the  Introduction  of  the  steam-engine, 
and  still  mora  since  the  discovery  of  the  economical 
mode  of  smelting  iron  by  the  hot  blast,  tliut  the  vant 
and  closely-packed  mineral  wealtli  of  its  neighboring 
districts  has  been  at  all  fully  developed  anJ  turned  to 
profit. 

Steamship^uilding. — Of  all  the  branches  of  indus- 
try belonging  to  Glasgow  and  its  harbor,  there  is  none 
of  modern  data  which  has  made  such  rapid  progress  us 
that  of  steamboat-building,  and  marine  engine-making. 
From  the  first  start  of  the  little  Comet,  In  181'2,  till 
1820,  there  were  at  the  most  only  one  or  two  river 
steamers  launched  yearly,  and  of  a  tonnage  so  small 
as  to  be  scarcely  worth  notice.  Al>out  that  period  this 
manufacture  received  a  new  impulse,  and  began  at 
once  fairly  to  develop  Itself.  From  1821  to  1830  there 
were  88  steamers  built,  with  a  tonnage  of  4,200 ;  from 
1831  to  1840  there  were  94  steamers,  with  a  tonnage  of 
17,623 ;  from  1841  to  1860  there  were  167  steamers, 
with  a  tonnage  of  81,447 ;  while  during  the  three  years 
from  1851  to  1853  there  were  206  steamers,  with  a  ton- 
nage of  141,713.  The  present  magnitude  of  this  in- 
dustry may,  however,  ijo  I)e8t  appreciated  from  the 
fact  that  during  the  years  1853  and  1854,  the  then 
82  ship-builders  on  the  Clyde  had  constructed  or 
contracted  for  no  fewer  than  266  vessels,  including 
both  steam  and  sailing,  having  an  aggregate  tonnagt 
of  168,000,  for  which  also  marine  engines  were  con- 
structed or  in  progress,  of  29,000  horse-power;  the 
average  of  these  veascla  being  630  tons,  and  involving 
the  enormous  cost  of  nearly  ^£6,000,000  sterling. 

The  whole  number  and  tonnage  arriving  at  the  har- 


9LK 


Mt 


GLA 


bar  of  Olugow  darlac  Iha  jtmui  ISM-iaM,  wm  m 

follow!  I 


r"~  ~iTal».i  viiiVu; 

■fl4M 

tmttm. 

1  Tmk. 

N«. 

TMUf>. 

■•'"M,. 

Ti'RMf*- 

1    lAM 
1    IMO 

-  -4.4.iir— iu.«u- 

T.tMl 

4hI,»M 

^W 

ri,»4« 

It.lM 

MHIWT 

1    tW) 

^H»T 

Mt.caM 

(.ItM 

*iTII,tM 

IWi 

(^           B04,OM 

ll,^>10 

1,0(K),*>4 

Tb*  profnm  and  piMtnt  onndttlon  i>r  Ih*  river  mil 
harbor,  howerxr,  ar«  probably  Iwtt  •xbllilUil  by  tha 
following  al)ntraot  of  tha  rav«nue  of  tba  truat  at  ilx 
dillkrant  parloda  i 


IMO.. 

im.. 

isno.. 


w,w« 


IMO tvt,m 

lUO 64,MH 

1W4 H6,ll«0 


/  aaraArr  ArroOMT  or  trr  tot*i,  Nvaaaa  or  AaaiVAU 
nr  HAiuxa  and  HTaAH  Vmhu  AKiiraD  at  tiia 
liAauoa  ur  Olaauow,  Kkiiiun  and  CoAnwiia,  m 
Toa  YiAa  iMDiitn  Jena  SOtii,  1804. 


r«MU> 

iaWlif 

iWMI 

V«Mb< 

aalllil 

IMU|», 

vhmIi. 

▼•■Mil. 

toMMf.. 

vmmU. 

f*M«tl. 

I7n.l.r'£j' 

^,W4 

'ii:n« 

««»— HJK) 

01 

*6 

40-  an 

l,4IW 

m 

(IN)— tfO 

M 

S7.1 

60- HI) 

M» 

l.MM 

4110—480 

U8 

7« 

w— UN) 

Ht» 

l(,4l)« 

4M)— AMI) 

M 

fi 

lOO-IBO 

SNA 

i,M 

BmV-flOO 

4M 

1 

1BO-*)0 

»W 

•iW 

(KH)— TOO 

84 

6 

100-lAI) 
W)-800 

BO 

Ml 

TOO&upwd. 

Total 

84 

« 

Ifitt 

u,m] 

I'ort  Cknrget,  llarhor,  or  Qiiny  l)uu. — On  all  vra- 
■ala  arrlvinK  at  the  harbor  of  OlaaKow,  Vd.  p«rreKl*tcr 
ton  I  except  on  iteam-vpuala  trading  on  the  Hiver 
Clyde  within  thu  ('umbraen,  or  naviKBtiiiK  the  Criiinii 
Canal,  which  are  charged  Id.  per  r«KUter  tun.  Un 
all  vesieli  remaining  in  the  harlwr  for  any  period  ex- 
eeedinit  24  lawful  daya.  Id.  pvr  ton  per  week. 

Wt'ighmif-diift. — Each  cart,  wagon,  or  other  carriage* 
load,  or  wi>ight,  not  exceeding  I'i  cwt..  Id.  each;  ex- 
ceeding 12  cwt.,  M.  each.  N.  II.  WolghlnK-duea,  not 
exigll)le  when  the  correct  weight  of  the  gmul^  la  fur- 
nlahad. 

Crani;  Dun, — Kach  holnt  not  exceedlri;  12 cwt.,  8d. ; 
ftwm  18  to  16  cwt.,  4d. ;  from  15  to  3o  .«t.,  6d.  Each 
ton  of  machlner}',  and  other  articli-<  exceedii,;  1  ton, 
le. ;  hemp  per  ton,  6d. ;  marble  uii.,  la. ;  tlml)flr  do., 
(M.  Taking  out  and  putting  In  machlner}',  etc.,  of 
•teamlmatii,  fhim  .£3  2i.  to  i,'H  li».,  according  to  the 
number  of  hoiita  and  trouble.  Cranesmcn'a  time  per 
hour,  or  part  of  an  hour,  6d.  Chargua  fur  water  sup- 
plied by  the  Clyde  Truateea  to  vesaela  in  the  harlwr, 
viz. :  Veaaela  under  25  tons  regiater,  (kl.  each  ;  26  tone 
and  under  60,  la.  each ;  60  tnna  anil  under  KM),  la.  I)d. 
each ;  lOO  tona  and  under  160,  8a.  isach ;  lOO  tona 
and  under  20O,  &a  each ;  200  tona  and  under  300,  8a. 
each  ;  BOO  tona  and  under  400,  0s.  each  ;  400  tons  and 
upward,  10a. 

N.  U.  Steam-Teasels  regularly  auppliod  oftener  than 
once  n  week,  to  be  charged  half  the  alH>ve  rates.  Maa- 
ters  of  Teasels  requiring  water,  will  obtain  orders,  on 
application,  at  the  weighlng-boxea  on  i'^  quays. 
PUmki  and  Slagt$, — For  loading  or  diachuit;lng  ves- 
sels, la,  each  pUnk  or  stage  per  week.  Rhonet. — One 
penny  for  each  wagon  of  coal  loaded,  with  la.  extra  on 
each  cargo  for  removing  the  rhone  to  and  fVom  the 
vessel.  Halltut. — The  Clyde  Trustees  remove  ballast 
from  vesoela  on  either  aide  tlie  harbor,  at  a  rate  not  ex- 
7e«ding  la.  '|ier  ton,  and  anpply  clean  atone  ballaat  at 
''s.  per  ton.  The  Kiver  Clyde  is  divided  into  three 
.  ifea,  and  th«  f.illowing  are  the  tonnage  Uuea  exigible 
U>  >  >eh,  via. :  The  first  stage  extenda  from  Stockwell- 
litRK.  indge  to  (I':  Old  Ferry  &*■  Henfrew,  being  alwut 
iW:  ;>  -  '«  to  tl.M  eistof  tha  jiresent  ferry,  and  the  duea 
OBr;o'«t'  \;Ar',<-i  or  conveyed  thereon,  ore  two  tbinla 
of  tne  lOT-Oige  dues  exigilile  I.'/  the  trustees.  The 
aecood  t-'.tffi  extends  ftom  :>ia  Old  Ferry  at  Renfrew 
to  the  mo  ith  of  Dalmuir  Uum  ;  and  the  dues  exigible 
thereon  are  one  aixth  of  the  tonnage  duea ;  and  the 
thM  atage  extends  from  Uolmuir  Uum  to  Newark 


Castle  I  and  the  dues  exigible  Ihanon  tN  oaa  aisih 
part  of  the  liinnaga  dues. 

Tha  abovo  la  tlia  whole  charge  unm  Ikr  mMji  fur  tha 
voyage  la  and  iml  U  a  ship  mII  m  baliiixt.  tr  aha 
lootls  an  outwani  cargo,  the  tonn«,<>i  ilima  thrm.it  will 
lie  charged  acconllngtu  the  rates  arwlliel  above.  ]'4« 
rkaryu /or  lighli  are  aa  follows,  vu. .  ni'rthori)  lights, 
t4<l.  par  raglatar  ton  i  Cambraa  lights,  M.  prr  reglatsr 
tun.  The  charge  tor  unloading  and  taking  lii  a  cargo 
ia  per  agreemant  with  llcsna«<i  lumpers  or  (mrtora  who 
ply  on  the  quay  for  hire.  There  are  no  llxed  rates, 
but  the  foUowIng  chargea  may  b«  cuntldonul  pretty 
near  tha  mark  :  unloading  cotton,  Ida.  per  UN)  l)alea, 
or  alwul  lid.  per  ton,  and  fur  taking  In  iron,  Od.  per 
ton.  The  other  Items  of  charge  of  a  publio  kind 
affecting  the  ship  are,  towing  up  and  down  tha  river, 
planks  and  stages  for  iliscbarging  and  loading  the  oar- 
goitii,  supplying  the  ship  with  water  and  the  rxmoval 
of  ballaat,  If  any  un  boani,  and  ahipa  louduii  with  cut- 
ton  usually  luvD  Ijallast.  The  fullowlng  in  a  pru 
forma  account  of  the  charges  on  a  ahlp  of  600  *  lu 
arriving  with  cotton,  remaining  in  the  harbot  Ct r  a 
month,  loading  Iron,  and  leaving : 
AnchuroRo  or  harbor  iluea,  Mt)  toun,  at  ><l.  pur  *  t 
Hirer  nr  tniinatio  iluos  Inward,  say  8011  tuM  cotluii, 

at  Is.  4il.  por  Ion In    0    0 

Hhoil  dues  oil  do.  at  l^il,  pi<r  ton U    8    *) 

I.uiiipof'a  clisrxo  fur  unliiadlnir  rargo,  do.  at  Vd 11    S    U 

Blviir  or  toiinsKo  d una  outward,  sav  on  TOO  tona  Iron 

atTd »0 

Shod  dues  on  do.,  at  1  (d 0 

I.uniner'a  charKu  flir  Ivadlnir,  at  V<l 90 

Nortnorn  IlKlita.    In  and  out,  on  ship  AOO  tona,  at  a 

ft-Ai'tlun  iiiiiliirDd IT  10 

Clydf- ll|(lll^  lnandont,an  do.  at  Id i    I 

Towlnic  aldp  up  and  down  river,  Ud.  each  war,  at 

H.(M tl  10 

riaiika  Slid  alaKo^  dUcliarKlnK  and  loading,  say....     I  10 

Hii|i|il/lnK«lilp  with  watiT  In  harbor 0  10 

DlwbarKlng  and  rijiiiiivliiK  ballaat T  10 


H  4 
19  U 
A    0 


Total £1A4  18    8 

On  all  ahips  arriving  at  the  Droomtelaw,  either  from 
foreign  \iorta  or  couatwiae,  2d.  per  regUter  ton  ia  paya- 
ble to  the  Kiver  Truateoa  In  name  of  harlmr  or  quay 
duty,  over  and  al>ovo  the  river  or  tonnage  rates  on  the 
cargo. 

AWronre  tn  the  Jlivtr. — Aa  a  guide  to  marlnera,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  vessel.^  of  19  feet  draft  of  wa- 
ter can  arrive  at  the  harbor  of  (iluNgow,  and  that  vea- 
aela drawing  17  feet  are  considered  regular  traders, 
Veaaela  drawing  16  to  Id  feet  may  always  arrive  and 
depart  without  touching  the  bottom.  At  the  ontruuca 
to  the  river,  veaaela  are  placed  under  the  charge  of 
pilots,  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  channel, 
which  ia  well  marked  with  beacona  and  buoys.  It 
may  be  considered  that  the  river  ia  deepening  at  the 
rate  of  one  foot  in  orory  five  years.  A  ahlp  on  reach- 
ing the  mouth  of  the  river  bod  beat  commence  as- 
cending at  half-tide.  Tliero  are  no  particular  uaagoi 
connected  with  th>  i  rbor  ,t  Glasgow  beyond  tboaa 
adopted  on  moat  i'  '  '  ori<  viid  barboia.  Lights 
are  permitted  in  the  lu.  i-ir  .'  ;ii<  0  a.m.  to  10  r. 

Glasgow  may    <  Hvi't  t<>    'i  .   litan  in  hi        ..i- 

merce  and  rnani  '■.^.v  m  ottoj  icuhin  herself  the  bus- 
nesses  and  tradta  ui  almost  every  other  town  and  city 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  hence  follows  that  while  one 
branch  of  nunufacture  or  trade  may  be  dull,  another 
may  be  prosperoua,  and  accordingly  Glasgow  duea  not 
feel  any  of  thoao  depresaiona  which  so  fk'equently  oc- 
cur in  places  which  have  only  one  or  two  brunches  of 
manufacture  or  commerce.  The  great  industrial  oc- 
cupations of  Glasgow  are  its  cotton-spinning  and 
weaving ;  Its  collieries  and  Iron  manufactures ;  its 
iron  ahip-building  and  machine-making,  and  ita  chem- 
ical manufactures.  According  to  Dr.  Strang,  the  con- 
sumption of  raw  cotton  in  Glasgow  in  1864  was  almve 
1,900  bales  per  week,  of  from  4ii0  to  440  |)ound8  each, 
and  the  number  of  |)owor-looina  dependent  on  Glas- 
gow wtt«  from  20,000  to  27,000,  producing  daily  al«out 
700,000  yard*  of  cloth,    In  the  west  of  Scotland,  ot 


nt\ 


898 


OLA 


wkUib  Oluffiiw  b  lh»  Mni  I  mart,  th«r«  mn,  U 
IMM,  (l,44N,l)IM)  lim*  ut  riwl  '  "    from  Ih*  piU,  ^ 

wlilrh  J,lAi,M)U  liins  wnrii  '  nauiii.  I  In  lh«  m«nafbi>. 
turn  iif  piK  iniii,  mi,2lli>  in  Mia  ciinvvriinu  "f  \M  Itnn 
Inlii  initll««l>l«  Imh,  nikkiu^  in  all,  |,NM,IMO  lon'i  i*miI 
In  I'linnai'tlon  with  tha  man  ifMlOn  of  Iron,  whllt 
nn.'til  tuna  wan  alil|i|H'it,  ami  l«N,MI'i  Inn*  Mnl  )>•. 
yiinil  tha  liouniUrlaa  l>y  ralUaya,  laavlnK  for  tlix  manu- 
fai'liirlnK  cnnaumptlon  ttnil<luiiii>»tUniiiniiri  ><  (llaaguw 
ilUtrlr't  'i.H/ill.i'J?  tuna.  'Ihn  priHluoa  ut  \<\n  mill  In  tha 
riiiinllaa  of  Laniirk  anil  Avr,  In  1M.VI,  ninniintail  In 
717,1100  tiina,  lr2,ttM  tonau/whirh  warn  alilp|iai|illraol 
tnriirul|{n  coiiiitrlaa,  'iU4,IU4  tuna  wara  aant  viMalwUa 
rruiii  tliii  (!|yila,  I'lirt  UuniUa  anil  tha  waatarn  (mrta  nf 
thu  I'lyila  aatiwry,  whil*  'i'i,NII,'i  tuna  wura  aant  away 
l<y  railwaya,  imil  171, IMU)  tuna  wara  ninvartail  Into 
niallaalila  Imn,  laavUiK  tha  ranialnInK  )<MI,  11)7  tuna  fur 
fiiiinilKry  anil  iithnr  piirpuara  of  th«  illatrli'l,  Mnlli<it> 
lilii  Iriin  iliirln|{  Ihn  aiiina  ynitr  wua  niiiniiriirtiirail  tii  tha 
dxti-nt  iif  rj'i,'ttHI  tuna,  Tha  valiin  iif  tha  wlmln  riiitl 
iinil  Iron  liualiiaaa  to  thu  iliatrlct  In  W>i  iiiiiy  l>n  rai'k- 
onril  ut  alxmt  i:4,N7'i,INH),  of  which  i'l-,U7:i,0()0  wua 
|«iil  In  wnK«a  In  tUI,IHlO  parnuni, 

Tha  i-huuili'ul  iiriKlui'ta  of  (ilikai;i)w  ara  miiltiriirlmia, 
cnniiUtlii)(  of  aulphurlt',  nmrliitli!,  nitrli',  ami  iii'Ktln 
Bclila  anil  thair  viiriiiua  aalta  |  lilaai'lilnK-iKiwilttr, 
•oilu,  Hiiiip,  I'Uilliaiir,  liluhniinatit  uf  potiiah,  aiixitr  of 
liMiil,  lixlinii,  aiilta  of  animoniii,  alum,  priiaalata  of 
|Hituah,  niipthii,  pitch,  oil,  animitl  rhiirriml,  liono  tnr, 
cri'iini  of  turtur,  nti.',,  oto.  Thu  wiirka  of  Nt,  Kulliix, 
altiiiilti  in  the  north-tiaat  quartar  of  (tlna){iiw,  ninalitutn 
perhiipa  th»  InrKiiat  vlieinioul  aatiililiahinont  In  thii 
worlil.  Tliey  cover  ulKiut  Vl  iicraa  of  Krounil,  ainploy 
nlaiva  IDIM)  men,  conainnlnK  anniliilly  ulioiit  3(),l)0<l 
tuna  of  common  aalt,  unil  80,I)(N)  tona  of  coiil,  unil  prA- 
ilucln|{  of  aixU,  lileuchln({-|Kiwilnr,  aulphiirin  iiciil,  anil 
Houp,  etc.,  nlHiiit  'iR,WO  tons.  The  lofly  chimnaya  of 
Ht.  Iliillnx  are  amoiiK  the  ''nrloaitlea  of  tha  city,  una 
of  thorn  lie ln)(  l&U  feet  lii|{h,  Til)  feet  ilUmeter  lit  tha 
boae,  luiil  11  feet  nt  the  top.  While  comnierce  unil 
miiiiiifiicturoa  hail  tliua  K'ven  the  city  n  atiinulHtiiiK 
imii  onwnril  pro)(re.i«,  ailence  anil  art  hail  ulao  mlileil 
their  mighty  niil  in  elVectinK  iinpnivemont.  Aa  a 
proof  of  thia  it  iniiy  lie  lie  mentioneil  thiit  In  1761)  the 
lint  net  for  deepening  the  Kiver  Clyilu  waa  olilitineil  | 
nnil  tliiit,  in  17111,  Jamoa  Watt  mailo  In  (lluat(ow  hi* 
tint  niiiilel  of  a  atciim-t-nKine, 

l\>l>ulation. — If  tlie  fore^oInK  talilea  ^tve  aoniu  lilea 
nf  the  advance  of  GluaKow  aa  a  ciimmorclul  anil  nianil- 
fttcturin)(  city,  the  foUowin^t  talilo  of  ita  prottreaaivu 
IMipulation  during  the  preaent  century  will  ruiiiler  thia 
more  apparent : 


Iha  ampir*.  Mng  In  Ihia  raipart  anr|ia«aad  r>afy  by 
IJvarpoitl,  (.ontlon,  and  Hull. 


Y..r>. 

Halai. 

r«iMiM. 

Tiilat. 

IHII    

..•* 

. . .  ( 

~     AijW 

W      

, , 

1111,400 

1ti»l 

(W,lt9 

TS,B84 

UT.IVtS 

l^l 

IM,T»t 

lOMjIlll 

«l»ll,4'ifl 

I>^l 

ll).S,8ia 

U7.H9U 

9sll,ll-.'J 

KM 

UVSl 

l»;l,ii'» 

WT.IHIl 

In  1Hd5  tha  eatimiited  population  of  (llaaKow  and  Ita 
snlmrliii  waa  aliout  400,000,  havlntf  lioon  nearly  quintu- 
ploil  in  60  years ! 

Ci'sToMB  DiTipji  coiLKorro  AT  (Jlahiiow,  and  Tiia    NllM- 
iir.n  \\\>  Tii^^iAOa  or  tun  Siiii-a  iiki.onuiki>  to  tiir 

I'liHT  IX  Tna  V.<IOia>iKNTIO!(IB   YKAKa, 


All  "I  ot  or  tua  iiaoi.Aarn  V 

MAaiirAiiTiiaaa  ur  tih.  \t,,,  w 
raoM  lll.Aailow,  I'oier  <||.amiiiw.  a 
l«MI,  msa,  ARD  I'M,  ii^wpai'Tivai  < 
aaooifi  or  OuaToaa  KuiirA  >,.i 
tHM  P<»n  IN  TM  AMiva  Y>Aa 


l*BOl.M;ra   AXM 
■■f<t     «ArtMVM> 


•iiir»iM«  AiavtM 
>•  rail  At  aACN  or 


I  W  •■] 


ilHirU 
if  iiiitri' 


(ii»»«<iw,    .  .  HUflCW 

I'lirl  Dlaafow  Tri.iilll 

lUruiiuiwIi.  ■  4la,il»; 

Trial I  M,o«,aw 


.r  11.  > 

ir..<i>,i 


.  il^tn 


lA^liiitl 


i  lrl«tl  pyru4i« 


•>r>,4M 


Nn,  nf  Rlilpi. 


Titimaa*. 


an 

i2,0tlO 

B» 

4,Kyu 

BS 

e,iio4 

111 

HIIN4 

SHli 

4(I,»TS 

m 

R4,H«5 

Ml 

TI,M7U 

4Ta 

111, Alio 

ft«I 

w.mya 

mil 

WiMM 

hiK  ••  Ika 

Cl,.l., 

lllaatfiiw.  ,,T 
I'oi't  (lliia^ow 
iDkuiiihIi.... 


TiiUI 


AaMaat  •#  •uti«w»  .f«tli 
"ti»«. 

•<•»,*!  I       I 
■(*).«l»l 

Kl.tiKifl  '       il 


•  '■■■;, II 

M«.UA4 
4311, 1 M) 

,'i  1 11,1)74 


'*4  wn  tmlH>Tl«<l  *iii'  l«4.j 
llM. 


IKI.HMI 
I        MT,7M 

'  r21,mift,4M 


OlaM  (.Oar.  and  Uu.  Hint ;  Kr.  riVni,  I'apni  i  (t. 
IVfni;  Up,  I'iilrm;  Kiw.  Hirllti  i  Lat.  Vitmm),  * 
tranaparant,  lirlttle,  facllllima  l«<dy.  It  ia  formtd  \>y 
mixhiit  tiiKiiiliKr  amvie  Hurt  nf  Hilicaoua  i-arth,  ai  Ano 
aanil,  or  |Kiunilail  Hii  ,  witli  mn  alkali,  niii'li  aa  ainta, 
pot-aah,  or  |iaarl-aali.  nil  Hiilijiwlliift  them  In  a  atronK 
iieat,  lly  Ihia  nmaiia  'lixy  are  inidted  Into  a  triinapa- 
rant,  aoft,  lenacloiia  i  ^a,  thai  may,  whi-n  hot,  Im 
funned  Into  tliin  plate  iiciit  and  aliaped  in  every  |ioa> 
aliiln  way.  Whan  '  »<'  it  lieioinna  lirlttle,  and  la  de- 
noinlnaled  Klaaa.  Lithu  s-e,  minium,  Imrax,  Ihe  lilaok 
oxyd  of  inunKancack,  etr.  irn  Kiimelimaa  uaed  in  tha 
inanufucturfl  of  itUaa,  ai  >r>lin^  tu  the  pur|iuaea  to 
which  it  la  III  lie  applied. 

Tha  kliida  "f  xluaa,  anil  leir  Ingredienta.  iiro  atated 
liy  Dr.  I're  aa  followa  i 

"  There  arn  Are  illallni-t  klml" 
liirvil  t  I.  KIlut  irlaaa,  or  K'aaa  ni 
uf  pure  aiiita  i  II,  I  Irowii  ulaaa,  tin    ■• 
Iflaaa,   a  euaraii  winiluw  i(l«aai     ' 
lllaaa. 

"  1.  flint  (llau,  to  tiaiiinil  limm 
waa  iirlKliialty  imiployeil  In  thii  fi 
now  iiinile  of  Ihe  fiilliiwlnK  ninipiiKi 


r  Ktaaa  at  preaant  mannflie- 
uii  \  i.  I'late  Klaaa,  or  Kloaa 
oat  window  Klaaa;  4.  Itroail 
'.  Ittiltlc,  or  coarae  iffoan 

thii  alllcooiia  InKrudli'tit 
ul  uround  lllnta.    It  Ii 


The  riialon  la  ae- 

f  soda,  procured  bjr 
.  Ia  euiployed  aa  tlio 


Ulaagow  now  miika  as  the  fourth  exporting  jiort  In 


raru. 

rurllled  Lynn  aand 11)0 

liUliartie,  or  red  lead 60 

I'urine.l  I'earloah 80 

"Tnenrreel  IhoKreen  eiili>rdnrlT<-l  from combnallblo mal. 
I«r,  or  ixyil  ef  Iron,  a  little  black  -vd  of  inanKniioae  la 
lidded,  ntid  aonietlinea  nitre  and  arw' 
noinplialied  iiaiinlly  In  alnml  lln  boura 

"t.  /Vrt/il  Ulllu (Imid  cnrbonale 

dernnipoaliiK conininn  anlt  wlili  iMiarln' 
Hiix.     Tile  propnrllon  of  the  u.AtorlalH     , 

Pure  aaiiil 48'0 

Dry  aubcarhiinate  of  loila — SA-5 

I'uru  iiulcklline 40 

Nitre I'B 

Krokoti  plate  iilaaa .  251)— 1000 

Abniit  7U  parte  of  Kood  plate  gluaa  may  I  'im  off  from  thcae 
luaterlala, 

"II.  fmipn,  or /Ilia  ITfnrfotp  f//oa« Tli  -  la  made  of  aand 

vllrltled  by  Ihe  Impure  biirllln  inanufaetiir  i|  by  Incineration 
nf  aea-weed  on  the  Meotoh  and  Irlah  ahon  «.  The  moat  ap- 
proved oonipoaltlon  la, 

By  liw.««ara.    By  w«lf  bU 

Kino  and  pnrlHcd i  SOO 

Heat  kelp  Kroiind 1 :  850 

"  4.  llnad  ndiaa,— Tbla  la  made  of  a  n-inlure  of  aoap- 
bollera'  waate,  kelp,  and  aand.  The  flrat  Inirrcdient  conalata 
uf  llinu  uaed  fur  renderlnH  the  alkali  of  Ibe  »  np-boller  caus- 
tic, the  Inaiiliiblo  matter  uf  ttila  kelp  or  baril  i,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  aalt  and  water,  nil  In  n  puaty  atate.  1  ie  proportions 
nereaoiirlly  vary.  Two  of  the  wnato,  one  of  y.  p,  nnd  one  of 
aaiid,  form  a  pretty  good  broad  glass.  Tli  y  are  mixed 
together,  dried,  and  fritted. 

"  n.  IMIlf  IHiwt  la  the  iioarscat  kind.  It  la  mado  of  soap- 
era'  waate  and  river  aand.  In  proportions  which  practice  must 
deterniinu  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  waste;  soma 
aonp-bollers  extracting  more  aallne  matter,  and  othera  less, 
from  their  kelpa  Oommon  aand  and  lime,  with  a  little  com- 
mon olay  and  sua  salt,  form  a  cheap  nUzture  for  bottle  gtaia." 


GLA 


824 


GLA 


Historical  Notice)  with  rttpeet  to  Gltut. — The  mann- 
fiictnre  of  glass  is  one  of  the  very  highest  beauty  and 
ntilitr .  It  is  most  probable  that  we  are  indebted  for  this 
wonderful  art,  as  we  are  for  the  gift  of  letters,  to  the 
Phccnicians.  According  to  Pliny  (//it.  ffat.,  lib.  xxxvi. , 
c.  26),  glass  had  l)een  made  for  many  ages,  of  annd  found 
near  the  mouth  of  the  small  River  Belus  in  Phoenicia. 
"  The  report,"  says  he,  "  is,  that  the  crew  of  a  mer- 
chant ship  laden  with  nitre  (fossil  alkali)  having  used 
some  pieces  of  it  to  support  the  kettles  placed  on  the 
fires  they  had  made  un  the  sand,  were  surprised  to  see 
pieces  formed  of  a  translucent  substance,  or  glass. 
This  was  a  sufficient  hint  for  the  manufacture.  Inge- 
nuity (aatnta  et  ingeniote  solertia)  was  immediately  at 
work,  to  improve  the  process  thus  happily  suggested. 
Hence  the  magnetical  stone  came  to  be  added,  from  an 
idea  that  it.  contained  not  only  iron,  but  glass.  They 
also  used  clear  pebbles,  shells,  and  fossil  sand.  Indian 
glass  is  said  to  be  formed  of  native  cr}-stal,  and  is  on 
that  account  superior  to  over)'  other.  Phoenician  glass 
is  prepared  with  light  dry  wood,  to  which  copper  and 
nitro  are  added,  the  last  being  principally  brought 
from  Ophir.  It  is  occasionally  tinged  with  dilTerent 
colors.  Sometimes  it  is  brought  to  the  desired  shape 
by  being  blown,  sometimes  by  being  ground  on  a 
lathe,  and  sometimes  it  is  embossed  like  silver."  Si- 
don,  he  adds,  is  famous  for  this  manufacture.  It  was 
there  that  mirrors  were  first  invented.  In  Pliny's 
time,  glass  was  made  iii  Italy  of  fine  sand  on  the  shore 
between  Cumas  and  the  Lucrine  liay.  If  this  bo  a 
correct  description  of  the  glass  of  India  in  the  age  of 
Pliny,  it  has  since  frllen  off  verj'  much  ;  Indian  glass 
being  now  about  the  very  worst  that  is  made.  At 
present,  the  Hindoos  manufacture  it  of  fragments  of 
broken  glass,  quartz,  and  impure  soda,  an  article 
found  native  in  many  parts  of  India,  particularly  in 
the  south.  The  furnaces  ate  so  bad  that  they  can  not 
melt  our  common  bottle  glass. — Hamilton's  Mysore, 
vol.  iii.,  p.  370.  The  glass  of  China  is  much  better 
than  that  of  India,  though  still  very  inferior  to  that  of 
Europe. 

The  general  term  glasi  is  emploj'ed  by  chemists 
to  denote  all  mineral  substances  which,  on  the  ap- 
plication of  heat,  pass  through  a  state  of  fusion  into 
hard  and  brittle  masses,  and  which,  though  not  al- 
ways transparent,  exhibit  a  lustrous  f'-acture  when 
broken.  The  glass  of  commerce,  however,  to  which 
our  remarks  are  restricted,  or  the  transparent  and  arti- 
ficial substance  whicli  is  usually  distinguished  by  the 
generic  name.  Is  produced  by  the  igneous  fusion  of 
silicocius  earth  with  certain  alkaline  earths  or  salts,  or 
with  metallic  oxyds.  The  etymologj'  of  the  word  has 
been  much  disputed.  It  is  derived  by  some  from  the 
Latin  glories,  ice,  its  resemblance  to  which  is  thought  to 
have  suggested  the  title.  Others  have  remarked,  that 
the  common  Latin  designation  of  this  substance  is 
vitrum  ;  and  as  the  Romans  applied  this  term  in  com- 
mon '.f  1th  the  word  ghntum,  to  the  plant  which  wo  call 
wood,  they  have  deduced  it  from  the  latter  of  these, 
either  liecausc  the  ashes  of  this  plant  were  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  or  Iwcause  it  exhibited  some- 
thing of  the  bluish  color  which  is  procured  from  woad. 
Glassum,  the  name  given  to  amlier  l)y  the  ancient 
Gauls  and  liritons,  has  also  been  assigned  as  the  origin 
of  the  word.  But  none  of  these  etymons  ap|)ear  very 
satisfactory.  The  most  plausilde  theory  is  that  which 
derives  the  tenn  from  the  Saxon  verb  glis-nian,  or  the 
the  German  ghissrn,  sp'  .ilere,  which  are  probably  con- 
tractions of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ge-lijran,  to  shine,  to  be 
bright.  This  view  is  in  a  great  degree  contirmed  by 
the  sense  in  which  the  term  glass  and  its  derivatives 
are  employed  l)y  our  older  writers,  who  frequently 
apply  it  to  shining  or  glittering  substances,  without 
reference  to  color  or  transparency. 

In  the  most  remote  ages  the  art  of  blowing  glass 
into  bottles,  making  it  into  vases,  coloring  it  to  imi- 
tate precious  Btones,  melting  it  into  enormous  masses 


to  make  plUors,  rolling  and  polishing  it  into  mirron, 
and  tinting  it  into  parts,  were  all  perfectly  well  known. 
For  its  origin  we  must  look  to  Egypt,  the  parent  of  so 
many  collateral  arts.  The  stoi}'  of  the  Israelites  hav- 
ing set  fire  to  a  forest,  and  the  heat  becoming  so  in- 
tense that  it  made  the  nitre  and  sand  melt  and  fiow 
along  the  mountain  side,  and  that  they  afterward  did 
artificially  what  had  been  the  result  of  accident,  may 
be  set  down  as  equally  fabulous  with  the  story  of  the 
pirates,  who  are  said  to  have  landed  on  the  sea  beach, 
and  wishing  to  make  their  cauldron  boil,  piled  up  some 
vitreous  stones  and  placed  on  them  a  quantity  of  sea- 
weed and  blocks  of  wood,  causing  so  strong  a  heat 
that  the  stones  were  softened  and  ran  down  on  the 
sand,  which,  melting  and  mixing  with  the  alkali, 
became  a  diaphanous  and  glassy  mass.  The  fictitious  . 
character  of  both  these  stories  is  proved  by  the  simple 
fact  that  it  requires  the  most  intense  furnace  heat  to 
insure  the  combination  of  the  sund  with  the  nitre. 

Under  these  circumstances  we  ore  justified  in  be- 
lieving that  glass-making  had  its  origin  at  the  same 
time  with  the  baking  of  bricks  and  pottery.  Tho 
smelting  of  ores,  too,  required  a  furnace  sufficiently 
intense  to  fuse  tho  silicates  analogous  to  glass,  and 
hence  it  may  be  safely  inferred,  that  in  the  age  when 
melting  and  working  metal  was  known,  the  art  of 
making  glass  was  also  practiced.  In  the  book  of  Job 
the  most  precious  things  are  compared  to  wisdom,  but 
still  more  precious  are  gold  and  glass.  The  Hebrews 
must  have  become  acquainted  with  glass  while  in 
Egypt,  and  in  consequence  of  their  proximity  to  the 
Phoenicians ;  and  it  is  now  generally  believed  that 
these  two  nations  had  the  merit  of  originating  and 
establishing  its  manufacture.  The  Athenian  embassa- 
dors, in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  m^^rfuiticence  dis- 
played at  the  court  of  the  great  king  of  Persia,  said, 
that  they  drank  in  cups  of  glass  and  gold.  Some 
writers  affirm  that  the  Egyptians  in  some  instances 
sealed  up  their  dead  in  a  coating  of  glass,  and  glass- 
houses are  said  not  to  have  been  uncommon  in  that 
wonderful  countrj'.  Some  outhors  ascribe,  with  very 
plausible  reason,  the  discovery  of  glass-making  to  the 
priests  of  Vulcan  at  Thebes  and  Memphis,  the  greatest 
chemists  in  the  ancient  world.  The  Egyptians  aru 
also  known  to  have  made  enamels  of  divers  colors 
which  they  applied  on  pottery,  magnificent  specimens 
of  which  arc  still  extant,  and  are  called  Egyptian  porce- 
lain. Those  uro  chiefly  covered  with  l>eautiful  blue  or 
green,  and  groups  of  flowers  or  designs  are  traced  in 
black.  Glass  beads  and  other  ornaments  mat'io  of 
that  substance,  skillfully  manufactured  and  beautifully 
colored,  have  been  found  adorning  mummies,  which 
are  known  to  be  upward  of  iiOOO  years  old.  It  is 
certain  that  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Alexandria,  were  long 
celebrated  for  their  glass,  and  furnished  the  greater 
proportion  of  that  used  at  Rome.  Under  thn  Roman 
empire  the  Egyptians  still  preserved  their  superiority 
in  the  art  of  glass-making,  and  it  is  said  that  Aurelian 
caused  them  to  pay  their  tribute  in  that  manufacture. 
Adrian  mentions  that  he  hud  received  drinking-glasscs 
of  various  colors  from  a  priest  of  a  famous  temple  in 
Egypt,  and  gives  instructions  that  they  are  not  to  be 
used  but  on  tlio  greatest  occasions,  and  on  the  most 
solemn  feast  days.  To  these  places  the  art  was  ex- 
clusivcly  confined  for  some  centuries,  and  was  an  article 
of  luxury,  being  chiefly  in  tho  form  of  urns  or  drink- 
iug-cups  of  the  most  elaborate  workmanship,  and  ex- 
quisitely embellished  with  raised,  chased,  orornamonted 
figures.  The  Ilarlierini  or  Portland  vase,  composed 
of  deep  blue  glass,  with  figures  of  a  delicate  white 
opaque  substance  raised  in  relief,  is  a  splendid  speci- 
men, and  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  Alexander  Severus, 
who  died  A,  D,  '28.^, 

The  art  of  glass-making  seems  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Italy  by  tho  Romans  after  their  conquests 
in  Asia  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  and  tho  first  glass-works 
there  were  said  to  have  been  near  the  Flumiuian  Cir 


OLA 


825 


GLA 


CM.  It  It  highly  probable  tlut  thcM  workmen  were 
imported  from  KKypt.  The  um  of  glnns  aeemn  rapidly 
to  have  Inereaited,  and  to  have  bernmo  very  common, 
for  we  And  an  emjieror  In  the  third  century  of  the 
ChHitian  era  uylng,  that  he  was  diagnsted  with  ao 
low  and  vulvar  an  objeirt  aa  t(Um,  and  that  he  would 
only  drinli  from  veaaela  of  gold,  liy  thia  time  the 
manufacture  of  gluaa  wa*  ao  conaidorable  that  an  im- 
post waa  luid  on  it,  iind  It  was  extensively  employed 
in  the  decoratluna  of  liiiiidinga,  while  In  glusa  mosaics 
were  combined  the  most  brilliant  colors. 

Uluai  was  manufactured  at  Home  Into  variona  arti- 
cles of  convor.ieiico  and  omamrnt.  lliny  mentions 
that  Nora  gave  fKHM)  aostercea  (i'0O,0OO  according  to 
tho  ordinary  method  of  reckoning),  for  two  giaas  cups, 
each  having  two  hanillns  I  These,  however,  must 
have  been  of  an  imnienae  shie  and  of  oxciiiisite  work- 
manship; for  glass  was  tlien  in  common  use  for  drink- 
ing vessels,  and  waa  used  oven  In  tlio  form  of  iHittles 
In  which  to  keep  wine. — Afart.,  Jipiff.,  lib.  ii.,  22,  40, 
and  lib.  Iv.,  NO. 

From  tlie  circumstance  of  colored  glass  licoda  and  am- 
uleta  having  lieen  found  among  Uruidical  remains  in  this 
country;  It  liaa  benn  argued  by  I'ennant  and  others  that 
tho  art  of  making  giana  wna  known  in  Ilritain  before 
its  invasion  \>y  the  Itomans.  It  can  liardiy,  however, 
bo  believed  tiiut  a  people  who  had  made  very  trifling 
advancea  in  civillzatiim,  and  who,  it  is  known,  were 
entirely  unaci|uainted  with  any  other  art,  should  bo 
found  not  only  'unversant  with  the  manufacture  of 
glaas,  a  complicated  and  lilghly  ingenious  process,  but 
sliould  excel  In  It ;  for  thn  licnds  and  amulets  spoken 
of  aro  of  exquisite  workmanship,  and  Ijeautifully  col- 
ored in  imitation  of  tlie  rarest  and  most  precious  stones. 
There  seems  little  doubt,  therefore,  that  tlie  ancient 
liritons  procured  these  In  thu  course  of  trafBc  with  the 
Syrians,  who  visited  the  Island  as  we  do  those  in  the 
South  Seas,  to  drive  a  trade  with  their  savage  inhaidtants 
in  toys  and  trinkets,  giving  them  tiiese  in  exchange 
for  skins  or  otiier  natural  productions.  By  whatever 
means,  Imwevcr,  tliese  oniaments  came  into  Britain, 
it  is  certalu  tluit  they  were  In  extensive  use,  thougli 
principally  for  religious  purposes,  long  prior  to  the 
Uoman  invasion,  as  they  are  found  in  barrows  or  tu- 
muli of  a  niucli  older  date.  One  at  Stonehcnge,  in 
particular,  on  Iwing  opened  was  found  to  lie  filled  with 
them. 

Glain  Ncidyr,  or  Druidical  glass  rings,  generally 
aliout  half  as  wide  as  our  tingcr-ringa,  but  much 
thicker,  hiivo  freituently  licen  found.  The  vulgar 
superstition  regarding  tlinse  was,  that  they  were  pro- 
du(!cd  l)y  snakes  Jiiining  tlieir  heads  together  and  hiss- 
ing, wiien  a  kind  of  bubble  like  a  ring  was  formed 
round  tho  head  of  them,  which  tho  others,  continuing 
to  hiss,  blew  on  till  it  caino  off  at  tho  tall,  when  it  im- 
mediately hardened  Into  n  glass  ring.  Success  was 
thought  to  attend  any  (me  who  was  fortunate  enough  to 
find  one  of  those  snake-stones.  Tliey  were  evidently 
Iwoda  of  glass  em[>loycd  by  the  Druids,  under  the 
name  of  ciiurma,  to  deceive  tlie  vulgar.  They  ore 
usually  of  u  green  color,  but  S(min  of  tlicm  aro  blue, 
uud  otiicrs  variegated  with  wavy  streaks  of  blue,  red, 
and  white, 

(iluBS  utensils  have  been  found  in  Hcrculaneum, 
which  city  was  destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  In  tlie  relgu  of  'I'ltna  (a.  d.  711).  A  plate  of 
glass  also  foimd  there  has  occasl(med  mucli  speculation 
as  to  its  uses.  Slitillur  iilatos,  to  which  Pliny  gave  the 
name  of  t'lVccm  rimerin,  seem  to  have  been  employed, 
in  a  nuinuer  not  very  well  understood  by  us,  as  panel- 
ing for  tlieir  rooms.  It  is  disputed  whether  or  not 
glass  was  used  in  llerculaneum  for  windows. 

Dion  C'ttsslus  and  I'etroniua  Arlilter  concur  in  their 
account  of  tlio  discovery  of  nmliealdo  ^  ductile  glass 
by  a  celebrated  Roman  architect,  whoso  success  in  the 
restoration  to  liji  |iosItion  of  a  ]mrtico  which  leaned  to 
one  side,  had  rouaod  tho  envy  and  Jealousy  of  Ti- 


berius, and  occasioned  his  banishment  tiom  Borne. 
Thinking;  that  his  dUcovery  would  disarm  the  empe- 
ror's wrath,  the  artist  appeared  before  him  bearing  a 
glass  vessel,  which  he  dashed  upon  the  ground.  Not- 
withstanding tho  violence  of  the  blow,  it  was  merely 
dimpled,  as  if  it  had  been  brass.  Taking  a  hammer 
from  his  breast,  he  then  beat  it  out  into  its  original 
shape ;  but  instead  of  giving  him  tho  reward  which  he 
had  expected,  tho  emperor  ordered  the  unfortunate 
artisan  to  be  beheaded,  remarking,  that  if  his  discovery 
were  known,  gold  would  soon  be  held  of  as  little  value 
as  common  clay.  This  is  probably  another  version  of 
the  story  told  by  Pliny,  of  an  artificer  who  made  the 
same  discovery,  and  whose  workshop  was  demolished 
by  those  who  had  an  interest  in  preventing  the  intro- 
duction of  an  article  which  would  lower  the  value  of 
gold,  silver,  and  brass.  Although  it  might  not  be  justi- 
fiable to  give  unqnuliticd  disbelief  to  these  stories,  yet 
the  knowledge  we  at  present  possess  would  restrict  the 
possibility  of  such  a  discovery  within  the  narrowest 
limits.  The  union  of  the  properties  of  malleability 
and  vitrification  seems  to  be  incompatible.  Some  me- 
tallic substances,  by  the  application  of  intense  heat, 
are  reduced  to  the  state  of  glass,  but  at  the  same  time 
lose  their  malleability  ;  which  fact  would  seem  to  im- 
ply that  it  is  impossililo  to  communicate  the  latter 
property  to  glass.  The  extraordinary  stories  above 
mentioned  have,  however,  been  rationally  enougli  ex- 
plained by  modem  chemists.  It  has  been  observed  by 
Kunckel,  that  a  composition  having  u  glassy  appear- 
ance, and  sufficiently  pliant  to  be  wrought  by  the 
hammer,  may  be  formed ;  and  by  Neumann,  that,  in 
the  fubion  of  muriate  of  silver,  a  kind  of  glass  is 
formed,  which  may  be  shaped  or  beaten  into  different 
figures,  and  may  be  pronounced  in  some  degree  duc- 
tile. Blancourt  in  his  VAH  de  la  Verrerie,  mentions 
an  artist  who  presented  a  bust  of  ductile  glass  to  the 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  minister  of  Louis  XIII.  But  he 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  more  fortunate  than  his 
predecessors  ;  for  ho  was  doomed  to  imprisonment  for 
life,  for  "  the  politic  reasons,"  as  Blancourt  with  much 
simplicity  observes  (we  quote  from  the  translation 
published  in  1G99),  "  which,  it  is  believed,  the  cardinul 
entertained  from  tlic  consideration  of  the  consequences 
of  that  secret,"  which  no  doubt  led  him  to  fear  lest 
tlie  established  interests  of  French  glass  manufacturers 
might  be  injured  by  tho  discover}'.  F'rom  expressions 
used  l)y  Blancourt  in  other  parts  of  his  work,  we 
think,  that  by  malleable  glass,  such  as  was  produced 
by  this  artist,  he  understood  some  composition  similar 
to  those  which  Kunckel  and  Neumann  discovered,  and 
was  not  very  exact  in  limiting  the  term  to  tliat  vit- 
reous substance  which  wo  now  generalij'  understand 
when  we  speak  of  glass. 

Tho  precise  period  at  which  the  making  of  window 
glass  came  into  practice  is  not  nuw  certainly  known. 
The  Roman  windows  were  filled  with  a  semi-trans- 
parent substance  called  lapis  specularis,  a  fossil  of  tho 
class  of  mica,  which  readily  splits  into  thin  smooth 
laniinie  or  plates.  This  sulistance  is  found  in  masses 
of  10  or  12  iiiclies  in  breadth,  and  three  in  thickness  ; 
and,  wiien  sliced,  very  much  resembles  horn,  instead 
of  which  it  is  to  this  day  often  employed  l)y  lantern- 
makers.  The  Romans  were  chiefly  supplied  with  this 
article  from  tlio  island  of  Cyprus,  where  it  abounds. 
So  good  a  substitute  for  glass  it  is  sold  to  have  been, 
tliat,  besides  being  employed  for  the  admission  of 
light  into  tlio  Roman  houses,  it  was  also  used  in  the 
construction  of  hot-houses,  for  raising  and  protecting 
delicate  plants  ;  so  that,  by  nsing  it,  tlie  Emperor  Ti- 
berius had  cucumbers  at  his  table  throughout  the 
whole  year.  It  is  still  much  employed  in  Russia  in- 
stead of  glass  for  windows. 

There  is  no  positive  mention  of  the  use  of  glass  for 
windows  before  the  time  of  Lactantius,  at  ttie  close  of 
tho  third  century.  But  tlie  passage  in  that  writer 
1  which  records  the  fact  (fie  Of\fs  bei,  cap.  8),  also 


GLA 


826 


GLA 


Rhowa  that  the  hpU  iptcularu  atill  retained  its  place. 
Glass  windows  are  distinctly  mentioned  by  St.  Je- 
rome, as  being  used  in  bis  time  (a.  d.  422).  After 
this  period  we  meet  with  ftvqnent  mention  of  them, 
Joannes  Phiiippinns  (A.  D.  680)  states  that  glass  was 
fastened  into  the  windws  with  piaster. 

The  Venerable  Bode  asserts  that  glass  windows 
were  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  year  674, 
by  the  Abbot  Benedict,  who  brought  over  artificers 
sicilled  in  the  art  of  malting  window  glass,  to  giuze 
the  church  and  monastery  of  Wearmouth.  The  use 
of  window  glass,  however,  was  tlien,  and  for  many 
centuries  afterward,  confined  entirely  to  buildings  ap- 
propriated to  religious  purpDses  ;  but  in  the  14th  cen- 
tur}'  it  wns  so  much  in  deniaml,  though  still  confined  to 
sacred  edifices  and  ornamental  purposes,  that  glazing 
had  become  a  regular  trade.  This  appears  from  a  con- 
tract entered  into  by  the  church  autliorities  of  Yorli 
Cathedral,  i.>  1338,  with  a  glazier,  to  glaze  the  west 
windows  of  that  structure ;  a  piece  of  worlc  which  he 
undertook  to  perform  at  the  rate  of  sixpence  per  foot 
for  white  glass,  and  one  shilling  per  foot  for  colored, 
Oliiss  windows,  however,  did  not  l)ecame  common  in 
England  till  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  Until  this 
period  they  wore  rarely  to  be  found  in  private  houses, 
and  were  deemed  a  great  luxury,  and  a  token  of  great 
magnificence.  The  windows  of  the  houses  were  till 
then  filled  with  oiled  paper,  or  wooden  lattices.  In 
cathedrals,  these  and  sheets  of  linen  supplied  the  place 
of  glass  till  the  8th  century  ;  in  meaner  edifices  lat- 
tices continued  in  use  till  the  18th, 

The  glass  of  the  Venetians  was  superior  to  any  made 
elsewhere,  and  for  many  years  commanded  thu  market 
of  nearly  all  Europe,  Their  moit  extensive  glass- 
works were  established  at  Munmo,  l<  .small  village  in 
the  neighliorhood  of  Venice ;  but  the  produce  was  al- 
ways recof^ized  by  the  name  of  Venetian  glass.  Bo- 
ron von  Lowhen,  in  his  Analyiit  of  NMlity  in  its 
Origin,  states  that,  "  so  useful  were  the  glass-makers  at 
one  period  in  Venice,  and  so  great  the  revenue  accru- 
ing to  tlie  republic  from  their  manufacture,  that,  to 
encourage  tl<o  men  engaged  in  it  to  remain  in  Munino, 
the  senate  made  them  all  burgesses  of  Venice,  and 
allowed  nobles  to  marry  their  daugliters ;  whereas,  if 
a  nobleman  married  the  daughter  of  any  other  trades- 
man, the  issue  were  not  reputed  noble." 

The  skill  of  the  Venetians  in  glass-making  was 
especially  remarkable  in  the  excellence  of  their  mir- 
rors, Beckman,  who  has  minutely  investigated  the 
subject,  is  of  opinion  that  the  manufacture  of  glass 
mirrors  certainly  was  attempted,  but  not  with  com- 
plete success,  in  Sidoa,  at  a  very  curly  period ;  l)ut 
that  they  fell  into  disuse,  and  were  almost  forgotten 
until  the  13th  century.  Previously  to  this  period, 
plates  of  polished  metal  were  used  at  the  toilette ; 
and  in  the  rudeness  of  the  first  ideas  whicli  suggested 
the  substitution  of  gias",  the  jdatcs  were  made  of  a 
deep  l)iack  color  to  imitiife  them.  Black  foil  even, 
was  laid  Iwbind  them  to  iii  rease  their  opacity.  The 
metal  mirrors,  however,  reiuuined  in  use  long  after  the 
introduction  of  their  fragile  rivals,  but  at  length  they 
wholly  disappeared;  a  result  effected  chiefly  by  the 
skill  of  the  Venetians,  who  improveil  their  manufac- 
ture to  such  a  degree  that  they  speedily  acquired  a 
celebrity  which  secured  an  immense  sale  for  them 
throughout  all  Europe, 

Italy. — From  Italy  the  art  of  glass-making  found  its 
way  into  France,  where  an  attempt  was  made,  in  the 
year  1634,  to  rival  the  Venetians  in  the  manufacture  of 
mirrors.  The  first  essa}'  was  unsuccessful ;  but  an- 
pther,  made  'n  1866,  under  tlie  patronage  of  tlie  cele- 
brated Colbert,  in  which  French  workmen  who  had 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  at  Slurano  were  em- 
ployed, had  lietter  fortune.  But  a  few  years  after- 
ward, this  estaidishment,  which  was  situated  in  the 
village  of  Tonrlaviiie,  near  Cherbourg  in  Lower  Nor- 
mandy, was  also  threatened  with  ruin  by  a  discover}- 1 


or  rather  improvement  in  the  art  of  glass-making, 
effected  by  one  Abraham  Thevart.  This  improve- 
ment consisted  in  casting  glass  of  much  larger  dimen- 
sions than  it  had  hitherto  been  deemed  possible  to  do. 
Thevart's  first  plates  were  cast  at  Paris,  and  astonished 
every  artist  by  their  magnitude.  They  were  84  inches 
long  and  60  inches  wide,  whereas  none  previously 
madu  exceeded  46  or  60  inches  in  length,  Thevart 
was  Iround  by  his  patent  to  make  all  his  plates  at  least 
60  inches  in  length  and  40  in  breadth.  In  1696  the  two 
companies,  Thevart's  and  that  at  TourlavUle,  united 
their  interest,  but  were  so  unsuccessful,  that,  in  1701, 
they  were  unable  to  pay  their  debts,  and  were,  in  con- 
sequence, compelled  to  discharge  most  of  their  work- 
men, ami  abandon  several  of  their  furnaces.  Next 
yeor,  however,  a  company  was  formed  under  the  man- 
agement of  Antoino  d'Agincourt,  who  re-engaged  tlie 
discharged  workmen ;  and  the  works  realized  con- 
siderable profits  to  the  proprietors,  a  circumstance 
which  is  attril>uted  wholly  to  the  prudent  management 
of  D'Agincourt, 

France. — Early  in  the  14th  century,  the  French 
government  made  a  concession  in  favor  of  glass- 
making,  by  decreeing  that  not  only  should  no  dero- 
gation from  nobility  follow  the  practice  of  the  art, 
but  that  none  save  gentlemen,  or  the  sons  of  noblemen 
shonld  venture  to  engage  in  any  of  its  branches,  even 
as  working  artisans.  This  limitation  was  accompa- 
nied by  a  grant  of  a  royal  charter  of  incorporation, 
conveying  important  privileges,  under  which  the  occu- 
pation became  eventually  a  source  of  great  wealth  to 
several  families  of  distinction. 

England. — It  has  l)een  said  that  the  manufacture  of 
window  glass  was  first  introduced  into  England  in  the 
j-enr  15')7.  But  n  contract,  quoted  by  Horace  Wal- 
pole  in  his  Anecdotes  of  Painting,  proves  that  this  arti- 
cle was  made  in  England  upward  of  a  centurj'  before 
that  period.  This  curious  document  is  dated  in  1439, 
and  bears  to  be  a  contract  lietween  the  Countess  of 
Warwick  and  John  Prudde  of  Westminster,  glazier, 
whom  she  employed  with  other  tradesmen,  to  erect 
and  embellish  a  magnificent  tom)>  for  the  earl,  her  hus- 
l)and.  John  Prudde  is  therel>y  bound  to  use  "  no 
glass  of  England,  but  glass  from  beyond  seas ;"  a  stipu- 
lation whicli,  besides  showing  that  the  art  of  making 
window  glass  was  known  and  practiced  in  England  in 
the  15th  century,  seems  also  to  indicate  that  it  was 
inferior  to  wliat  could  be  olitained  from  abroad.  The 
finer  sort  of  window  glass  was  made  at  Crutched  Friars, 
I^ondon,  in  1557.  In  the  year  1035,  Sir  Bobcrt  Max- 
well introduced  the  use  of  coal  fuel  instead  of  wood, 
and  procured  workmen  from  Venice  ;  but  many  years 
elapsed  before  the  English  manufactories  equaled  tlie 
Venetian  and  French  in  the  quality  of  these  articles. 
The  first  flint  glass  made  in  England  was  manufac- 
tured at  the  Savoy  House,  in  the  Strand ;  and  the  first 
plate  glass,  for  looking-glasses,  coacii-windows,  and 
similar  purposes,  was  made  at  Lambeth  liy  Venetian 
workmen,  lirought  over  in  1070  by  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham. From  that  period  the  English  glass  manu- 
factories, aided  l>3'  the  liberal  bounties  granted  them 
in  cash  upon  glass  sold  for  export,  became  powerful 
and  successful  rivals  of  the  Venetian  and  French  manu- 
factories. The  bounty  on  glass  exported,  which  the 
government  paid  to  the  manufacturer,  was  not  derived 
from  any  tax  by  impost,  or  excise,  previously  laid  j 
for  all  such  were  returned  to  the  manufacturer  to- 
gether with  the  liounty,  thereliy  lessening  the  actual 
cost  of  the  article  from  ih  to  .lO  per  cent.,  and  enabling 
the  English  exporter  to  compete  successfully  in  foreign 
markets.  This  bounty  prjvision  was  annulled  during 
tlio  prcmiersliip  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  together  with  all 
thu  excise  duty  on  homo  consumption, 

Scotland. — The  art  of  glass-making  was  introduced 
into  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  James  VI.  An  exclu- 
sive right  to  manufacture  it  within  the  kingdom,  for 
the  space  of  31  years,  was  granted  by  that  monarch  to 


OLA 


S97 


OLA 


Lord  Georg*  Hay,  in  the  yw  1610.  TbU  ri«bt  M» 
lonUhip  transferred  In  1627,  for  a  conf  likmlila  num,  Ut 
Thomas  Robinson,  mercbant-tsllor  In  hmiUtit,  wIm) 
again  disposed  of  it  for  i,'2M,  to  Hir  Uiihurt  UnnimW, 
vico-adrairol  of  England.  The  flnt  nmimtim^ry  nl 
glass  in  Scotland,  an  extremely  ruds  one,  WM  *»• 
tabliahed  at  Wemyss  in  Fife.  Ilsguliif  works  Y/ffit 
afterwards  commenced  at  Preatonpans,  l.<iltli,  ait4 
Dumbarton.  Crown  glass  is  now  munufiWituriwt  »t 
Warrington,  St.  Helens,  Ecoleston,  Old  Kw«n,  »iv\ 
Newtown,  Lancashire;  at  Blrroingbam,  liimslxt  n«itr 
Leeds,  and  Bristol.  It  is  also  manufiu.'tura4  iif  »*■ 
cellont  quality  on  the  Tyne  and  Wear.  <lr»itt  IBM 
prorements  haye  recently  been  made  Is  lh«  mmtufiut- 
ture  of  r.'i.iwnglass;  and  we  believe  tliU  «rtl«l«,  H# 
made  in  ]!;ngland,  is  superior  in  quality  to  Ihitt  of  »ny 
other  nation. — E.  B. 

Colored  GUut. — It  has  already  been  stated  timt  tb« 
Komans  combined  the  most  l)rillinnt  colors  111  tb«lr 
mosaics ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  tlttnw  MUi* 
sales  gave  the  first  idea  of  painted  or  stained  ({lass  fitf 
windows  in  the  early  Christian  churches,  \n  itll  tltn 
early  specimens  of  Norman  glass,  similar  coloring  Hti4 
design  are  to  be  traced.  Starting  from  tiM  fourth 
centur}',  there  is  frequent  mention  of  iiulorMl  hUm 
windows  by  Greek  and  Latin  autliors,  Hi,  .lubn  (.'liry- 
sostom  and  St.  Jerome  talk  of  "win'hiws  of  dlvffs 
colors ;"  and  Lactantlus  says,  "  that  the  soul  \mt- 
ceives  objects  through  our  bodily  eyes  as  tbrotiijb 
windows  garnished  with  transparent  glasn,"  'I'll* 
early  basilicas  were  all  adorned  with  colored  (jluss, 
and  the  early  Christian  poets  sung  In  ecstacles  of  tlw 
effect  produced  by  the  windows  at  sunrise,  In  tli«i 
sixth  century,  Ihrudentia,  speaking  of  niia  of  tbttSA 
structures,  says !— "  The  magnilicence  of  this  tBHipbi 
is  truly  regal.  The  pious  prince  who  conseeratud  ft  Ims 
caused  the  vaults  to  be  painted  at  great  enpuniw,  m\A 
has  clothed  it  with  golden  walls,  so  that  the  light  of 
day  may  repeat  the  (ire  of  the  morning.  In  th«  wItt' 
dows  is  placed  glass  of  various  colors,  which  »llilt«  like 
meadows  decked  in  the  flowers  of  spring,"  \n  ltt< 
scription  on  Sta.  Agnese  states,  that  timt  lwtllli!it,  ('<•• 
built  by  the  Emperor  Ilonorius,  was  decorated  with 
glass,  which  produced  the  most  magnificent  ii|fe)4,  In 
the  sixth  century,  Santa  Si'iiliia,  at  Conatitlltlmmk, 
also  received  painted  windows,  which  I'aul  tlw  Nilcnt 
praises  highly,  Procopius  says,  tliat  day  seeniod  to 
be  bom  under  the  vaults  of  the  temple  |  und  after  nuith 
glowing  descriptions  it  can  not  be  iU)ubti'4  timt  tito 
glass  was  stained,  not  colorless.  'I'be  use  of  ,Ai\»t>>A 
glass,  however,  w^^  not  conlined  to  (Jreace  iiiMt  Itrtly, 
It  rapidly  appeared  in  Gaul.  Gregory  of  Tours,  In  tfio 
sixth  century,  also  tells  us  that  tlie  church  of  Mt.  <l<t' 
lien  de  Brionde,  in  that  town,  had  coU)rfd  glass  wilt' 
dows ;  and  the  Bishop  of  Polctlers,  ibiscrlhlng  N/»tr« 
Dame  of  Paris,  admired  tlie  effect  produced  by  tlw 
light  fulling  upon  the  vaults  and  wulU  afler  pasailiK 
through  the  painted  glass,  and  compares  it  to  (be  llri>t 
tints  of  the  rooming  sun.  Tliere  are  niiuiy  gijod  ruiiiMtlls 
for  supposing  that  tlie  art  of  coloring  glaxs  Is  lumvtiS 
with  the  art  of  glass-making  itself.  It  is  certttill  thitt 
the  art  was  known  in  Egypt  at  least  IXI'M)  years  «go, 
Wo  have  already  mentioned  the  Iteaiitifiil  litiitittiims 
of  precious  stones,  found  adorning  uiumiiiius  wbirit  M» 
known  to  have  existed  for  that  time.  We  meet  with 
frequent  mention  of  specimens  of  eiisterii  workmitn. 
ship  of  consummate  beauty,  upon  whii'b  grunt  vmIiih 
was  placed.  The  works  of  Coylus  and  Wjiikelliiaiili 
furnish  some  striking  instances  of  ancient  skill  in  thn 
formation  of  pictures  l)y  means  of  delicate  glass  llbms 
of  various  hues,  wliich,  after  lieing  littad  togidhlf 
witli  the  utmost  nicety,  were  conglutinated  liy  fusion 
into  a  solid  moss.  The  art  of  coml)inlng  tba  VMrbtilit 
colors  so  us  to  produce  pictures,  audi  as  is  now  |>rN<'< 
ticcd,  is  comparatively  of  recent  date.  The  Narlifst 
■pecimcns  of  tliis  kind  of  work  iliscovur  it  llclltbilis 
oiuing  of  different  pieces  of  gUis,  dllfarwnti/  iU%«A, 


ind  •miiff«d  so  aa,  by  a  BpecleR  of  mosi^c  work,  to 
|ifMtilo«  the  figure  or  figures  wanted.  The  various 
pliMiM  Mrs  held  together  generally  by  a  vein  of  lead, 
rim  Upon  the  bock  of  thu  picture,  precisely  at  their 
Jlimdlon,     Nee  article  Glass,  En.  Brit. ;  Ube's  Diet, 

falnlttl  Oltui,— In  England,  Et.  Wilfred,  who  lived 
tmrty  In  the  8th  oentur}-,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  hitrtKliice  painted  glass  windows,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose IiimI  workmen  brought  from  France  or  Itoly.  The 
llrst  iittlnted  glass  executed  in  England  was  in  the  time 
»f  King  ,lohn  j  previously  to  this,  all  stained  or  paint- 
wi  glass  was  Imported  from  Italy.  The  next  notice  of 
It  (luuiirs  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  The  treasurer  of 
that  tnnnnrcli  orders  that  there  be  painted  on  three 
glass  windows  in  the  chapel  of  St.  John,  a  little  Virgin 
Mary  holding  the  child,  and  the  Trinity,  and  St.  John 
ttlK  Afiostle.  Some  time  after,  he  issues  another  man- 
dato  for  two  painted  windows  in  the  hall.  Even  at 
tills  onrly  period,  however,  England  boasted  of  em- 
inent native  artists  in  glass  painting,  among  the  first 
"f  whom  wss  John  Thornton,  glazier,  of  Coventrj'. 
This  person  was  employed  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV., 
W  ih«t  dean  and  chapter  of  York  cathedral,  to  paint 
tlin  OAstem  window  of  that  splendid  edifice  ;  and  for 
(hw  Imntltlful  and  masterly  workmanship  which  he  cx- 
hllilt4<d  In  this  specimen  of  his  skill,  he  received  four 
shillings  per  week  of  regular  wages.  He  was  bound 
to  flnlsh  the  work  in  less  than  three  years,  and  to  re- 
ckIvb,  over  and  aliove  the  weekly  allowance,  lOOs.  for 
pfW'h  yenr  \  and  If  the  work  was  done  to  the  satisfaction 
of  Ills  employers,  he  was  to  receive,  on  its  completion, 
ft  further  sum  of  £10.  From  tins  period  downward 
tliM'e  have  been  many  skillful  native  artists,  although 
thfl  lleft^matl'm  greatly  impeded  the  progress  of  tlie 
art,  by  banishing  tlio  ungodly  ostentation  of  oma- 
mfnted  windows  from  churches ;  indeed,  so  serious 
was  this  Interruption,  that  the  art  hud  nearly  alto- 
KKtlier  disappeared  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

The  Importations  of  glass  and  glass-ware  into  the 
llnllwl  States  for  the  year  1867-'58  (ending  June  30), 
Were  ait  follow  i 


I'xrcelalii  kIhss 

Mlvcreil  itlsiia 

I'sttilliiK"  on  glass 

(''illnlmil  plate 

inlier  inaiiiifacliircs 

Ilalli  g\nm,KHTi! 

I'lit  Kla<s-wnr<i 

Wslrli  etyalals gross. 

iMtlrs, gross, 

llpiirllohos No. 

Wlllrfoif-Klsss fcot. 

Tolnl,  1867-'6S.... 


QouUtiM. 

V«lM. 

, , , . 

$;i,276 

1I8,I0;P 

23, 10.-; 

.  >  • . 

3'.7,H10 

13S,L'49 

l):i,fl-il 

101, 4J0 

22,f.81 

r*,i4i 

7,fi6;i 

2!i,>i4l 

151,740 

,^2,010 

11>,754,43'.I 

0.'i;,747 

$l,0t8,li0'J 

MAMVf  AOVonitis  or  (Ilasb,  ito  ,  in  thk  .''tate  of  Kew 
ifomt  IK  Tn«  Yr,AO  1S65.— [Official.] 


Olaai- 

ruttlnff 

Kil.b. 

Ibhm«nt8. 

Glan 

Macufac. 

lorlol. 

GUn- 

slainitiFT 

Kslnb- 

lisbtiienU. 

^lOnlicr  iif  oslnljlislimciits 

7 

T 

$04,000 

14,440 

52,000 

131,000 

106 

20 

88 

7 

21 
3 

$47.5,450 

70,500 

802,000 

080,000 

890 

57 

100 

25 

2 

$86,'(io"o 

2,,'>00 

22,700 

57,000 

B5 

■■■■9 

•  liipllal  In  fcsl  estntn,,.. 

Usellal  In  tool»,  cir 

Value  (rf  raw  mntiTl»la , , 
Vnlae  nt  maniifsctiircs  , , 

Women  einplojreil 

liirts  employed 

Unitfil  fHiilrn. — The  manufacture  of  glass  was  intro- 
diKied  Into  the  American  States  in  1790  by  Bobert 
lltiwes,  n  cltl/.cn  of  Boston,  who  erected  a  factory  in 
the  tlien  forest  of  New  Hampshire.  The  chief  aim  of 
Mr,  (lewes  was  to  supply  window  glass,  but  he  did  not 
BiK'cced,  Anotlier  attempt  was  made  in  1800,  when  a 
ht'Utty  was  liiiilt  in  Boston  for  making  crown  window 
tflas^  t  but  tlil^  wm  also  unsuccessful,  till  a  German 
littiuod  Lint,  in  IHua,  took  charge  of  the  works,  vfA 


GLO 


828 


GLU 


the  State  of  MassacbuMtts  agreed  to  pay  the  proprie- 
tors a  bounty  on  everj-  table  of  window  glass  they 
made ;  after  which  the  manufacture  was  carried  on 
snccessfully,  the  glass  steadily  improTing  In  quality, 
and  becoming  famed  through  all  the  States  as  Boston 
'window  glass.  The  same  Companj',  in  the  year  1822, 
erected  new  and  more  extensive  works  at  Boston,  The 
mystery  attached  to  the  art  of  glass-making,  followed 
it  into  America.  The  glass-blower  was  considered 
a  magician,  and  myriads  visited  the  newly-erected 
works,  looking  on  the  man  who  could  transmute 
earthy  and  opaque  matter  into  a  transparent  and  bril- 
liant substance,  as  an  alchemist  who  could  transmute 
base  metal  into  gold. 


Since  the  manufacture  of  flint  gIsM  wa*  introdnced 
into  the  eastern  States,  there  havu  lie«n  above  40 
companies  formed  from  time  to  thnn,  nearly  flO  of 
which  have  proved  failures.  There  are  now  10  In 
operation,  two  of  which  are  at  Kant  (,'iiHilirldgn,  throe 
at  South  Boston,  one  at  Sandvtliili,  throe  nmt  Now 
York  city,  and  ono  at  Phlludol|>lilu,  -IHiOOO  tons  of 
coal,  0500  tons  of  sllex,  2A0M  tons  Nth,  nitri<,  ntc,  and 
8*00  tons  of  lead  are  annimllv  consiinicd  In  the  iimnii- 
facture  of  flint  glass.  In  tbo  vicinity  of  I'lttsliiirg, 
in  the  western  States,  are  nine  inanufucturles  of  Hint 
gloss  and  10  of  window  glass,  and  In  the  river  towns 
are  15  window  glass  factories,  Tlia  following  stHto> 
mont  of  the  Imports  of  glass  Is  from  oflkial  sources, 


Impoktations  op 

Olass 

AND  MaNUPAOTURES  OP 

Glass 

INTO 

TUB    U 

SITED 

States  pob  tiir  pisoAb  Viiam  KniiixU  ttOTM 

Junk,  1S56. 

WhuiM  Imporliiil. 

SilTtred. 

PalnUngi 
on  kUsi. 
porcelaiM, 

and 
colorwi. 

PoHihcd 
plat.. 

.Manufae- 

rurei  of, 
not  iMcl- 

Glau  ware. 

Watch  eryalali. 

Dolllai. 

Daniljiiluu, 

Bruwl,  Frown,  and 

Col. 

Plain. 

DoIIan. 

DoUari. 

Dollan. 

Dollan. 

Oollari. 

Dollar!. 

Gros«. 

Uollara. 

Uroii. 

IMIan, 

No, 

Doilari. 

"R(,  Inf. 

ISiRr.. 

Danish  W.  Indies 

56 

.... 

Hamburg 

28,607 

iKiso 

""s 

8,298 

l'7;9i7 

12,017 

128 

"688 

■b',791 

'r,M7 

mim 

V,i29 

Bremen 

260,940 

8,620 

200 

40,515 

80,110 

9.847 

9,007 

"225 

"720 

4,287 

11,294 

46,910 

1U,HN2 

61,1)19 

2,860 

Holland 



883 

178 

778 

.... 

805 

1,692 

i^mHirn 

Belgium 

1;S? 

46S 

87,871 

1,044 

88,487 

22,799 

.... 

19 

126 

..», 

1  •  i , 

m,m 

Kngland 

23,067 

130,816 

88,746 

4181 

11,496 

16,042 

26^939 

1,881 

«,77il 

\^»,»^^^ 

6A,U12 

Scotland 

821 

68 

40 

'661 

2,442 

,     , 

>., , 

Canada 

499 

60 

.... 

15 

120 

1 

1 

,>,, 

British  N.  A.  Poss 

^ 

.... 

77 

.... 

10 

» 

,  i ,. 

British  W.  Indies. 

"iB 

.... 

""7 

'"24 

(•II 

■  111 

, , , , 

,  • .. 

British  Honduras, 

7 

80 

, ,» , 

France  onAtlantlc 

16,2fl2 

V,i68 

2H995 

29,188 

l'0J85 

18,789 

"827 

'im.  11,682 

69,808 

82,927 

'6,S8I 

a«S,12A 

80^074 

FrancoonModlt.. 

*  •  •* 

.... 

25 

....  i      61b 

1,976 

,  ,  ,, 

,,,, 

t  t  •  1 

Pbllipninolsla... 
Cnba 

•  •  •  * 

•  •  > . 

56 

.... 

' 

1  t  t  • 

,  ,  ,, 

, , , , 

,  ,  ,  , 

t  •  t  • 

.... 

"is 

.... 

.... 

•  t  •• 

•  •  •  • 

12,5811 

501 

Porto  Rico 

182 

.... 

.... 

•  .  .  I 

,  ,  ,  , 

,,  ,  , 

1  1  «  1 

Portugal 

.... 

.... 

"60 

426 

fill 

1  *  . 

Tuscany 

* 

'"io 

■■"6 

42 

406 

•  .  ., 

,  .  ,  , 

1110 

10 

Austria 

.... 

4,m 

■  •  •  • 

.  1  . 

If, 

Turkey  In  Asia. . . 

.... 

185 

,.  .  , 

•  >•• 

XII 

,,,. 

, , , , 

Hsytl 

""s 

Mexico 

.,.. 

!!!! 

•  •     • 

""8 

"■j» 

,  ,  ,  , 

,  ,  ,  , 

'..',, 

.... 

Now  Granada.... 

.... 

78 

.... 

"ioo 

"'io 

■"27 

J      , 

,  ,  ,  , 

■  III 

(Ill 

, , .  • 

Venezuela 

.... 

"  "2 

7 

,  ,  ,  , 

1    F    >    1 

•  •  1  • 

, 

Chill 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1,&6<) 

«46 

,  ,  ,  , 

. . . . 

Ecuador. 

, 

■  • .  • 

.... 

'"12 

•  .  .  • 

,  ,  ,  , 

till 

, . , . 

China. 

64 

16 
108,410 

19,414 

iB;M7,9a4 

4Hi*M^ 

Total 

8S0,T2O 

43,67S  1 478,205 

80,978 

74,976 

16,104 

•80,036 

1S,902 

O.ViW 

87,lSii 

Gloves  (Ger.  Ilandschuhe;  Fr.  Ganiz;  It.  Guanti; 
Sp.  Guantes;  Rus.  Riikainzii,  Pertschatki,  Golizii), 
well  known  articles  of  dress  used  for  covering  the 
hands,  usually  made  of  leather,  but  frequently  also 
of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  etc.  The  leather  u.scd  in  the 
manufacture  of  gloves  is  not,  properly  speaking,  tan- 
ned, but  prepared  by  a  peculiar  process  that  renders 
it  soft  and  pliable.  Some  sorts  of  leather  gloves  ail- 
mit  of  being  washed,  and  others  not.  It  is,  however, 
impossible  to  obtain  any  trustworthy  accounts  of  the 
numbers  produced.  Gloves  are  sometimes  sowed  by 
machinery ;  but  this  is  done  only  to  improve  the  work 
by  rendering  the  stitches  more  correctly  equidistant, 
as  it  is  not  cheaper  than  manual  lubnr,  I.imcrick 
used  to  be  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  a  soit  of 
ladies'  gloves,  called  chicken  gloves.  I.iirge  quanti- 
ties of  cotton  gloves  arc  made  at  Nottingham  and 
Leicester. 

The  use  of  gloves  is  of  Iiigh  antiquity.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  the  ancient  Persians  wore  them, 
since  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Cyrojvrdia  of  Xenophon 
that  on  one  occasion  Cyrus  went  witliout  his  gloves  ; 
and  we  know  they  were  used  by  tlie  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans in  certain  kinds  of  manual  labor.  During  the 
middle  ages,  gloves  weri  worn  l)y  ecclesiastical  digni- 
taries and  others  as  a  mark  of  distinction  ;  but  as  civ- 
ilization advanced  they  gradnalij-  Ijecame  common  to 
all  classes  of  the  community.  The  glove  manufac- 
ture has  long  been  an  important  branch  of  industry. 
The  materials  employed  are  very  various,  including 
the  skin  of  the  chamois,  kid,  lamb,  lieaver,  doc,  elk, 
and  other  animals,  besides  cotton,  wool,  silk,  linen 
thread,  etc.  Glove-leather  is  prepared  by  curing  the 
■kins  with  alum,  which  renders  them  soil  and  pliable. 


The  kid  gloves  of  Franco  continue  to  nirtliitnin  tliclr 
superiority  over  tlic  kid  gloves  of  llrltlsli  iiiakc,  and 
are  verv  l.irgely  lni|iort«d  Into  tills  country.  This 
also  holds  true  of  the  ordinary  Freiicli  Ifatlinr,  the 
durability  of  which,  combined  wIlli  superiority  of 
style  and  fitting,  has  occasioned  the  ■■'reiicli  iKiots  and 
shoes  to  bo  preferred  to  those  of  British  maniifai'tliro. 
Machinery  is  sometimes  employed  lij  sewing  and  jHilnt- 
ing  leather  gloves,  though  only  on  a  very  lliiiltiid  nciila 
In  this  country,  almost  the  whole  being  made  by  llio 
iiand,  and  for  the  most  part  by  fenialits ;  but  In  I'aris 
it  is  much  used,  and  is  said  to  Imvn  liml  the  elTcct  of 
reducing  the  price  of  gloves  110  pur  (tunt.  below  thell 
former  wholesale  prices. 

Olue,  inspissated  animal  jelly,  much  used  as  a  ce< 
ment,  especially  for  wood.  It  Is  iiiiidB  from  various 
animal  substances,  according  to  ttiu  uscil  for  wlih'li  It 
Is  designed,  (^'oinmon  glue  Is  prepared  from  the  par> 
ings  of  hides,  hoofs,  and  other  olfal,  which  are  llrst 
digested  in  llmcwatcr  to  free  tlioiii  from  griinso  and  all 
extraneous  matter,  then  washed  In  water,  and  after- 
ward l)oiiod.  Tlio  viscid  solution  tiiiis  obtained  Is 
first  strained  through  u  wicker  basket,  and  then  gent* 
ly  evaporated  to  a  proper  .consl«ten<!M.  The  heat  Is 
generally  so  regulated  as  to  keep  thn  liquid  near  the 
boiling  point,  without  entering  Into  eliiillltliiii.  Tha 
liquid  glue  is  poured  Into  fliit  molds ;  nnri  when  It  has 
become  firm.  It  Is  cut  up  Into  a<|uur«  (ilnces,  and  plaicd 
on  a  coarse  net  to  dry.  Glue  Improves  liy  ago,  and 
that  Is  considered  an  the  best  whlih,  If  sti'timd  In  cold 
water  for  f)  or  4  days,  swells  witliout  melting,  and 
resumes  its  former  dimensions  after  being  dried.  Tlio 
clear  pale  brown  glue  Is  the  beat,  though  the  darker 
and  less  pur«  U  often  Ignorantly  jireferrcil.    A  trntii* 


GLT 


829 


GOL 


ptreat  tnd  beautiful  glue  is  mode  of  the  sbreda  and 
parings  of  vellum,  fine  white  leather,  or  of  isinglass. 
See  also  Oelatimk. 

A  preparation  of  glue,  convenient  on  account  of  the 
facility  with  which  it  is  rendered  fit  for  immediate 
use.  Is  made  by  adding  a  small  portion  of  any  good 
spirit,  or  of  wood  naphtha,  to  melted  glue.  It  is  to 
be  kept  in  a  well-corl(cd  Iwttle,  and  when  required  for 
use  may  readily  be  liquefied  by  placing  the  bottle  in 
hot  water.  It  answers  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary 
glue. 

Indian  Glue,  as  it  is  called,  consists  of  common  glue 
melted  with  a  little  sugar,  and  molded  for  convenience 
into  small  flat  cakes.  When  used,  the  edge  of  the 
cake  is  moistened,  and  rubbed  upon  the  surfaces  to  be 
united.  It  is  a  slight  cement,  used  only  for  such  pur- 
poses as  mending  prints,  etc. 

Jeffery't  Marine  Glue. — This  powerful  cement  has 
been  successfully  used  as  a  substitute  for  pitch  in  the 
seams  of  decks,  as  well  as  for  strengthening  large 
timbers  for  naval  purposes.  It  is  said  to  consist  of 
caoutchouc  dissolved  in  coal  naphtha,  to  which  shellac 
(previously  dissolved  in  wood  naphtha  ?)  in  proper  pro- 
portions is  afterward  added.  The  joinings  of  built 
masts  secured  with  this  cement  are  said  to  have 
resisted  separation  by  the  wedge  after  ten  }-ears' 
service. 

Liquid  Glue.  — Un.'.er  this  name  is  frequently  sold  a 
cement  consisting  of  shellac  dissolved  in  wood  naph- 
tha.—K.  n. 

Oluten,  a  viscid,  elastic,  grayish-colored  substance 
which  exists  in  greater  or  less  quantity  in  most  plants 
that  afford  farina,  as  well  as  in  the  leaves  of  many 
esculent  vegetables  (such  as  the  cabbage  fur  instance), 
but  morn  particularl}-  in  wheat,  which  of  all  the  cere- 
alia  appears  to  contain,  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  the 
greatest  amount  of  nutrimeni',  a  property  derived  from 
its  abounding  in  this  substance.  Gluten  may  be  read- 
ily obtained  from  wheaten  flour  by  making  it  into 
a  paste,  and  then  working  the  mass  with  the  hands 
below  a  Btream  of  water,  when  the  starch  and  other 
soluble  matter  are  carried  away,  and  the  gluten  re- 
mains in  a  pure  state.  In  its  properties,  gluten  bears 
a  strong  resemblance  to  animal  substances ;  and,  in- 
deed, it  is  found  by  chemical  analysis  to  contain  a 
large  portion  of  nitrogen.  Hence  it  may  be  conaid- 
ored  as  the  most  animalized  of  vegetable  products. 

Olycerln.  Oils  and  fats,  wliether  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin,  are  compounds  of  certain  acids,  such 
as  the  stearic,  margaric,  and  oleic,  with  a  base  named 
glycerin.  (See  Oil.)  Fatty  substances  may,  in 
fact,  be  represented  as  salts  of  glycerin,  and  as  such 
are  capable  of  being  resolved  into  their  proximate 
elements  like  other  salts.  Thus,  in  the  process  of 
8oai)-making,  u  fat  or  an  oil  is  saponified  l)y  means  of 
potash  or  soda ;  that  is,  tlie  r'austic  alkali  unites  with 
tlie  stearic,  margaric,  or  oleic  acid,  and  glycerin  is 
set  free.  If  for  example,  the  stearate  of  glycerin  be 
treated  with  caustic  soda,  the  stearic  acid  unites  with 
the  soda,  and  forms  stearate  of  soda,  while  the  glycer- 
in is  liberated.  A  fatty  body  may  also  lie  decom- 
posed l)y  means  of  oxyd  of  lead,  as  in  the  process  for 
making  diachylon  plaster  {Kmplastrttm  plumhi).  Uy 
boiling  a  mixture  of  finely  pulverized  or  newly  pre- 
cipitated oxyd  of  lead  in  water  witli  any  ordinary  fat 
or  oil,  tlio  lead  unites  with  tlie  fatty  acids,  and  forms 
a  solid  compound,  while  the  glycerin  dissolves  in  tlie 
water.  The  solution  contains  a  considerable  portion 
of  load,  which  may  lie  separated  by  passing  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  through  it,  and  filtering ;  the  solution 
is  then  evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup,  and 
the  evaporation  is  completed  <»  vacuo,  in  the  presence 
of  sulplmric  acid,  until  it  ceases  to  lose  wciglit. 

The  uncr}'stullizablo  inodorous  s3-rup  thus  obtained 
has  a  sweet  taste,  and  was  hence  termed  by  Scheolo, 
who  discovered  it  in  1789,  the  sweet  principle  of  oils, 
or  gljicerin,  from  /Xvtcvf,  sweet ;  but  it  was  not  until 


Chevreul  undertook  the  investigation  of  fatty  sab- 
stances  in  general  that  the  true  chemical  relationa  of 
this  body  were  understood. — E.  B. 

Oobelln  Tapeatry.  Tapestry,  so  called  from 
a  noted  house  in  Paris,  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Marcel ; 
formerly  possessed  l)y  famous  wool-dyers,  whereof  the 
chief,  called  Giles  Gobelin,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.,  is  said  to  have  found  the  secret  of  dyeing 
scarlet,  which  was  from  him  called  the  scarlet  of  the 
Gobelins;  the  house  and  river  that  runs  by  it  also 
took  the  same  name.  This  house  was  purchased  by 
Louis  XIV.,  for  a  manufactory  of  all  manner  of  curi- 
ous works  for  adorning  the  royal  palaces,  under  the 
direction  of  Monsieur  Colbert,  especiall}'  tapestry ;  de- 
signs for  which  were  drawn  l)y  the  celebrated  Le 
Brun,  hy  appointment  of  the  king,  A.  D.  1CG6. — Du 
Fre»noy. 

Gold  (Ger.  Gold;  Du.  Goud;  Da.  and  Sw.  Guld) 
Fr.  Or;  It,  and  Sp.  Oro;  Port.  Oim,  Ouro;  Bus. 
jS'ofoto ;  Pol.  Zloto ;  Lat.  Aurum;  Arab.  Tibr  and 
Zehf^ ;  Sans.  Swarna ;  Malay  Mdt),  the  most  precious 
of  all  the  metals,  seems  to  have  been  known  from  tho 
earliest  antiquity.  It  is  of  an  orange  red,  or  reddish 
yellow  color,  and  has  no  perceptible  taste  or  smell.  Its 
lustre  is  considerable,  yielding  only  to  that  of  platinum, 
steel,  silver,  and  mercurj*.  It  is  rather  softer  than 
silver.  Its  specific  gravity  is  19-3.  No  other  sub- 
stance is  equal  to  it  in  ductility  and  malleability.  It 
may  bo  beaten  out  into  leaves  so  thin  that  one  grain 
of  gold  will  cover  5(>}  square  inches.  These  leaves 
are  only  1-282000  of  an  inch  thick.  But  tho  gold  leaf 
with  which  silver  wire  is  covered  has  only  l-12th 
of  that  thickness.  An  ounce  of  gold  upon  silver  is 
capable  of  being  extended  more  than  1300  miles  in 
length.  Its  tenacity  is  considerable,  though  in  this 
respect  it  yields  to  iron,  copper,  platinum,  and  silver. 
From  the  experiments  of  Seckingen,  it  appears  that  a 
gold  wire  0'078  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  weight  of  lo0'07  lbs.  avoirdupois  without 
breaking.  It  melts  at  32°  of  Wedgwood's  pyrometer. 
When  melted,  it  assumes  a  bright  bluish  green  color. 
It  expands  in  the  act  of  fusion,  and  consequently  con- 
tracts while  becoming  solid  more  than  most  mctuls ;  a 
circumstance  which  renders  it  less  proper  for  casting 
in  molds. — Tiio.mson'8  Chemistry, 

Gold  is,  next  to  iron,  tho  most  widely-diffused  metal 
on  the  '  ce  of  the  earth.  It  occurs  in  granite,  the 
oldest  rock  known  to  us,  and  in  all  the  rocks  derived 
from  it ;  it  is  also  found  in  the  vein-stones  which  tra- 
verse other  geological  formations.  From  other  metals 
it  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  reddisii-vcllow  color, 
and  from  metallic  compounds  of  a  similar  tint  by  its 
high  specific  gravity,  which  varies  from  19'2  when  it  is 
fused,  to  19'4  or  19.5  when  it  is  hammered.  Its  chemical 
equivalent  on  the  hydrogen  scale  is  generally  taken 
as  08-iJ,  but  some  prefer  to  double  this  and  make  its 
atomic  weight  197,  Its  symbol  is  An,  from  the  Latin 
A  uiiim.  Unlike  the  great  majority  of  tho  metals,  it 
docs  not  rust,  i.  c,  oxydize  in  the  air,  neitlier  does  it, 
if  pure,  tarnish  by  exposure.  In  this  respect,  it  con- 
trasts strikingly  with  silver,  which,  tliough  indifierent 
to  tho  rusting  action  of  oxygen,  is  rapidly  blackened 
by  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  of  tho  atmosphere.  Ex- 
posed ,{ilding  tarnishes,  but  only  because  it  is  alloyed 
witli  silver  and  copper,  on  which  this  prejudicial  gas 
can  act. 

Gold  is  readily  crystallizable,  and  always  assumes 
one  or  other  of  the  symmetrical  shapes,  such  as  tho 
cube,  or  regular  octahedron,  which  characterizes  the 
simplest  cryatallographic  system.  It  is  softer  than 
silver,  and  nearly  as  soft  as  lead,  so  that  in  tenacity  it 
is  inferior  to  copper,  silver,  iron,  and  platinum,  and  a 
wire  1-lOth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  will  support,  with- 
out breaking,  only  191  lbs.  On  tho  other  hand,  it  is 
the  most  ductile  and  malleable  of  tho  metals.  One 
grain  can  be  hammered  into  leaves  sufBclent  to  cover 
66f  square  inches,  and  the  thickness  of  the  gold-leaf 


GOL 


830 


GOL 


win  not  then  exceed  1.283000  of  an  Inch.  When  of 
this  temper  it  ia  transparent,  and  tranaraita  a  faint  but 
l)eautiftU  bluiah-green  light.  Gold  mclta  nt  a  high 
white  heat,  and  remains  unchanged  in  the  hottest  fur- 
naces. In  the  focus  of  a  lens,  however,  it  is  vaporized 
by  the  sun's  rays ;  and  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  or 
a  large  voltaic  battery  can  also  develop  heat  sufficient 
to  volatilize  it.  It  contracts  in  the  act  of  solidifying 
from  a  state  of  fusion,  and  can  not,  in  consequence,  be 
made  to  receive  sharp  impressions  by  casting  it  in 
molds.  Coins,  accordingly,  and  plate  are  stamped  or 
embossed,  and  afterward  ebased  and  carved,  if  neces- 
sary, by  catting  tools. 

Gold  does  not  dissolve  in  any  of  the  ordinary  acids, 
such  as  the  nitric,  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  or  acetic, 
but  a  rare  acid,  the  selenic,  can  dissolve  it.  Its  best 
solvent  is  a  mixture  of  hydroclilorio  acid,  with  some 
oxydlzing  agent  like  nitric  acid  or  oxyd  of  manganene, 
which  causes  the  hydrochloric  acid  to  part  witli  its 
chlorine.  If  the  gold  be  in  leaf,  chlorine  at  once 
unites  with  it,  and  the  resulting  chlorid  is  readily 
soluble  in  water.  Bromine  acts  in  the  same  way  on 
the  metal ;  ar,i  it  may  also  be  dissolved  by  boiling  it 
with  sulphur,  -(jutash,  and  water.  The  older  chemists 
speculated  on  the  possllillity  of  Moses  having  dissolved 
the.golden  calf  of  the  Israelitos  in  this  way.  Gold  is 
also  joluble  in  mercurj-,  and  advantage  is  largely  taken 
of  this  property  of  quicksilver  to  dissolve  the  precious 
metal  from  its  ores.  The  gold-amalgam  resulting  ftwm 
the  union  of  the  meMls  is  also  extensively  employed 
In  gilding.  The  most  important  chemical  compounds 
of  gold  are  the  following,  in  referring  to  which  the 
equivalent  of  gold  is  taken  as  !)a-fl. 

The  chlorids  are  two  in  number.  The  sesqni- 
chlorid,  AujCls,  is  prepared  In  the  mode  above  men- 
tioned. It  forms  orange-red  crj-stals,  but  in  aqueous 
solution  appears  yellow.  It  is  very  easily  decomposed 
by  heat,  light,  organic  substances,  and  all  dooxydizing 
or  reducing  agents.  A  solution  of  this  salt  in  sul- 
phuric ether  is  sometimes  used  for  gilding  steel.  The 
aqueous  solution  is  employed  in  photography,  and 
from  it  nearly  all  the  other  useful  preparations  of  gold 
are  made.  When  this  salt  is  heated  cautiously  to 
about  892°  Fohr.,  it  loses  two  tliirds  of  its  chlorine, 
and  becomes  the  6ul)-ciilorid  AuiCI. 

The  oxyds  correspond  to  the  ehlorids,  and  are  ot)- 
tained  from  them.  The  only  important  one  is  the 
sesquioxyd  Au,0],  prepared  liy  precipitating  the  cor- 
responding chlorid  by  magnesia,  and  washing  the 
precipitate  with  nitric  acid  and  water.  This  oxyd  is 
of  a  yellow  or  brown  color,  and  by  solution  in  potash, 
in  cyanide  of  potassium,  or  sulphite  of  sodn,  forms  a 
liquid  which  is  used  in  gilding.  A  solution  of  the 
oxyd  in  hj-posuiphite  of  soda  is  employed  to  pro- 
tect and  make  more  visible  daguerreotype  portraits 
on  silver.  The  sulphnrets  of  gold  are  not  important. 
Gold  is  readily  identified  by  chemical  tests.  When 
its  color  and  specific  gravity  can  not  he  appealed  to  as 
means  of  identification,  its  liehavior  with  the  stroniJiT 
liquor  re-agents  is  had  recourse  to.  It  resists  the 
solvent  action  of  the  most  powerful  acids  or  alknlies 
taken  singij',  but  at  once  dissolves  in  nqtm  rei/in  (a 
mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids'),  or  in  any 
similar  liquid  containing  free  chlorine.  The  resulting 
solution  is  tested— 1.  By  adding  to  it  a  solution  of 
prntofuiphate  of  iron.  This  causes  the  gold  to  sepa- 
rate in  the  condition  of  a  verj*  fine  powder,  which  re- 
mains for  hours  suspended  in  the  liquid,  although  it 
is  more  than  nineteen  times  heavier  than  watar.  The 
finely-divided  metal  appears  t)rown  liy  reflected,  and 
bluish-green  liy  transmitted  light,  and  if  dried  and 
lublied  liy  any  smooth  solid,  acquires  the  characteristic 
color  and  lustre  of  the  metal  In  mass.  2.  By  neutral- 
izing the  solution  \iith  carbonate  of  potass  or  soda,  and 
iHiiilng  with  excess  of  oxolic  acid,  when  the  gold  sep- 
arates in  highly  characteristic  splendent  flakes  8.  By 
adding  to  the  loludon  diluted,  a  few  drops  of  solution 


of  protoohlorld  of  tin,  when  a  rich  purple  preoipttato 
falla.  Very  minute  traces  of  gold  may  be  discovered 
in  this  WB}-.  The  precipitate,  which  has  gone  for  cen- 
turies by  the  name  of  Purple  of  Cassiug,  appears  to  bo 
a  compound  of  oxyd  of  gold  and  oxyd  of  tin  (AuiO, 
SuiOf).  It  is  used  to  stain  glass  ruby-red,  and  to  give 
to  porcelain  and  enamel  a  rose-pink,  crimson,  and  pur- 
ple color. 

Gold  is  found  only  in  the  metallic  state,  sometimes 
crystallized  in  the  cube,  and  its  derivative  forms.  It 
occurs  also  in  threads  of  various  sizes,  twisted  and  in- 
terlaced into  a  chain  of  minute  octahedral  crystals  |  oa 
also  in  spangles  or  roundish  grains,  which,  when  of  a 
certain  magnitude,  are  called  pepitai.  The  amatt  grains 
are  not  fragments  broken  trom  a  greater  mass ;  but 
they  show,  by  tlieir  flattened  ovoid  shape  and  their 
rounded  outlines,  that  this  is  their  original  state.  The 
specific  gravity  of  ii  itive  gold  varies  from  13-3  to  17'7. 
Ilumboldt  states  that  the  largest  pepita  known  was 
onb  found  in  Peru  weighing  about  12  kilogrammes 
(26)  lbs.  avoirdupois) ;  but  masses  h.ive  been  quoted 
in  the  province  of  Quito  which  weighed  nearly  four 
times  as  much.  Another  ore  of  gold  is  the  alloy  with 
silver,  or  argental  gold,  the  electrum  of  Pliny,  so  called 
from  its  amiier  shade.  It  seema  to  be  a  definite  com- 
pound, containing  in  100  parts,  64  of  gold  and  86  of 
silver.  The  mineral  formations  in  which  this  metal 
occurs  are  the  crystalline  primitive  rocks,  the  compact 
transition  rocks,  the  trachytic  and  trap  rocks,  and  al- 
luvial grounds.  It  never  predominates  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  constitute  veins  liy  itself.  It  ia  either  dis- 
seminated, and  as  it  were  impasted  in  stony  masses,  or 
spread  out  in  thin  plates,  or  grains  on  the  surface ;  or, 
lastly,  planted  in  their  cavities,  under  the  shape  of 
filaments  or  crystallized  twigs.  The  minerals  com- 
posing the  veins  are  either  quartz,  calc.  spar,  or  sul- 
phate of  barj'ta.  The  ores  that  accompany  the  gold 
in  these  veins  are  cliiefly  iron  pyrites,  copper  pyrites, 
galena,  blende,  and  misplckel  (arsenical  pyrites). 

In  the  ores  culled  auriferous  pyrites,  this  metal  oc- 
curs either  in  a  visible  or  invisilile  form ;  and  though 
invisible  in  the  fresh  pyrites,  becomes  visible  by  its 
decomposition  j  as  the  hydmted  oxyd  of  iron  allows 
the  native  gold  particles  to  shine  forth  on  their  reddish- 
brown  ground,  even  when  the  precious  metal  may  con- 
stitute only  the  five  millionth  part  of  its  weight,  as 
at  Rammelsberg,  in  the  Hartz.  In  that  state  it  Ivis 
been  extracted  with  profit ;  most  frequently  by  amal- 
gamation with  mercury,  proving  that  the  gold  was  in 
the  native  state,  and  not  in  tliat  of  a  sulphuret. 

Gold  exists  among  the  primitive  strata,  disseminated 
in  small  grains,  spangles,  and  crj'stals.  Brazil  alfords 
a  remarkalilo  example  of  this  species  of  gold  mine. 
Beds  of  granular  quartz,  or  micaceous  specular  iron, 
in  the  Sierra  of  Cocaes,  12  leagues  beyond  Villa  Rica, 
which  form  a  portion  of  a  mica-slate  district,  include  a 
great  quantity  of  native  gold  in  spangles,  which  in  this 
ferruginous  rock  replace  mica.  Gold  has  never  been 
observed  in  any  secondary  formation,  but  pretty  abund- 
antly in  its  true  and  primary  locality  among  tUo  trap- 
rocks  of  igneous  origin  ;  implanted  on  the  sides  of  the 
fissures,  or  disseminated  in  the  veins. 

The  auriferous  ores  of  llungarj-  and  Transylvania, 
composed  of  tellurium,  silver  pyrites,  or  sulphuret  of 
sliver,  and  native  gold,  lie  in  masses  or  powerful  veins 
in  a  rock  of  trachj-te,  or  in  a  decomposed  feldspar  sub- 
ordinate to  it.  Such  is  the  hicality  of  the  guld  ore  of 
Kiinigslierg,  of  Telkebanya,  between  Eperies  and  To- 
kay, in  Hungar}',  and  prol>ably  that  of  the  gold  ores 
of  Kapnick,  ieisoiiaiiya,  etc.,  in  Transylvania;  an  ar- 
rangement nearly  the  same  with  what  occurs  in  equa- 
torial America.  The  auriferous  veins  of  (iuanaxuuto, 
of  KenI  del  IMonte,  and  of  Villiilpando,  are  similar  to 
those  of  Schemniti!,  in  llungar}',  as  to  magnitude,  rel- 
ative position,  the  nature  of  the  ores  tliey  include,  and 
of  the  rocks  they  traverse.  These  districts  have  im- 
pressed all  mineralogists  with  the  evidence  of  th« 


GOL 


831 


GOL 


action  of  volcanic  Are.  BrelsUk  and  Hacqnet  have 
(lencribed  the  gold  mine*  of  TrnnBylTania  as  situated  In 
the  crater  of  an  ancient  volcano.  It  is  certain  tiiat  the 
tracliytes,  which  form  the  iirlnctpal  portions  of  the 
rocks  Including  gold,  are  now  almoat  univeTually  re- 
garded as  of  Igneous  ur  volcanic  origin.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  primary  source  of  the  gold  ii 
not  in  these  rocks,  but  rather  in  tlie  slenltes  and 
greenstone  porphjTJes  below  them,  which  In  Hungary 
and  Transylvania  are  rich  in  great  auriferous  deposits ; 
for  gold  hus  never  been  found  in  the  trachyte  of  the 
Kuganean  Mountains,  of  the  mountains  of  the  Vlcen- 
tin,  of  those  of  Au"ergno ;  all  of  which  are  superposed 
upon  granite  rocks,  barren  in  metal. 

Finally ;  If  It  be  true  that  the  ancients  worked  mines 
of  gold  in  the  Island  of  Ischia,  it  would  lie  another  ex- 
ample, and  a  very  remarkable  one,  of  the  presence  of 
this  metal  in  trachytes  of  an  origin  evidently  volcanic. 

Gold  Is,  however,  much  more  common  In  the  allu- 
vial grounds  than  among  the  primitive  nnil  pyrogenous 
rocks  just  descrilied.  It  Is  found  disseminated  under 
the  form  of  spangles.  In  the  sllicious,  argillaceous,  and 
ferruginous  sands  of  certain  plains  and  rivers,  especially 
in  tneir  re-entering  angles,  at  the  season  of  low  water, 
and  after  storms  and  temporary  floodx.  It  has  l>een 
supposed  that  the  gold  found  in  the  beds  of  rivers  liud 
l)een  torn  out  by  the  waters  from  the  veins  and  primi- 
tives rocks,  which  they  traverse.  Some  have  even 
searched,  but  In  vain,  at  the  source  of  auriferous 
streams,  for  the  native  l)ed  of  this  precious  metal. 
The  gold  in  them  l)elongs,  however,  to  the  grounds 
washed  by  the  waters  as  they  glide  along.  This  opin- 
ion, suggested  at  first  by  Delius,  and  supported  by  De- 
Iwrn,  Guettard,  Robitant,  Balbo,  etc.,  Is  founded  upon 
just  observations.  1.  The  soil  of  these  plains  contains 
frequently,  at  a  certain  depth,  and  in  several  spots, 
spangles  of  gold  separalile  by  washing.  2.  Tlie  beds 
of  the  auriferous  rivers  and  streamlets  contain  more 
gold  after  storms  of  rain  upon  tho  plains  tiion  In  any 
otlier  circumstances.  3.  It  happens  almost  always 
that  gold  is  found  among  tho  sands  of  rivers  only  in  a 
very  circumscril>ed  space ;  on  ascending  these  rivers, 
their  sands  cease  to  alFord  gold ;  though,  did  this  metal 
come  from  the  rocks  alwvc,  it  should  1)6  found  more 
abundantly  near  the  source  of  the  rivers.  Thus  it  is 
known  that  the  Oreo  contains  no  gold,  except  from 
the  Pont  to  its  junction  with  tlie  Po.  Tho  Ticino  af- 
fords gold  only  lielow  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and,  con- 
sequently, far  from  the  primitive  mountains,  after 
traversing  a  lake,  where  its  course  Is  slackened,  and 
Into  which  whatsoever  it  carried  down  from  these 
mountains  must  have  been  deposited.  Tho  Rhine 
gives  more  gold  near  Strasliurg  than  near  Basle, 
tliough  the  latter  be  much  closer  to  tlie  mountains. 
The  sands  of  the  Danul)e  do  not  contain  a  grain  of 
gold,  while  this  river  runs  in  a  mountainous  region  ; 
that  is,  from  the  frontiers  of  tiie  l)ishopric  of  Passau 
to  Efferding ;  but  its  sands  become  aurit'crous  in  the 
plains  below.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  tho  Kms ; 
the  sands  of  the  upper  portion  of  this  river,  as  it  flows 
among  the  mountains  of  Styria,  include  no  gold  ;  but 
from  Its  entrance  into  the  plain  at  Stcyer  till  its  em- 
bouchure in  tho  Danulie  its  sands  liccome  auriferous, 
and  arc  even  rich  enough  to  1)6  washed  with  profit. 

Tho  greater  part  of  tiie  auriferous  sands  in  Kurope, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  are  lilack  or  red,  and  con- 
sequently ferruginous ;  a  remarkable  circumstance  in 
tlio  geological  position  of  alluvial  gold.  M.  Napoiiio 
supposes  that  the  goiil  of  these  ferruginous  grounds  is 
due  to  tho  decomposition  of  auriferous  pyrites.  Tiie 
auriferous  sand  occurring  in  Hungary  almost  always 
in  tiie  neighliorhood  of  the  l)e(ls  of  llijnitea,  and  the  pet. 
rlrtcd  wood,  covered  witii  gold  grains,  fouml  buried  at  a 
depth  of  65  yards  in  clay,  in  the  mine  of  Vorospatak, 
near  Abral)anya,  in  Transylvania,  might  lead  us  to 
presume  that  the  epoch  of  the  formation  of  the  aurif- 
erous alluvia  is  not  remote  from  that  of  the  lignites. 


The  same  association  of  gold  ore  and  fossil  wood  ocean 
In  South  America,  at  Moco.  Near  the  village  of 
Moro  have  been  discovered,  at  the  depth  of  20  feet, 
large  trunks}  of  petrified  trees,  surrounded  with  frag- 
ments of  trap-rocks.  Interspersed  with  spangles  of 
gold  and  platinum.  But  tlie  alluvial  soil  affords  like 
wise  all  the  characters  of  the  basaltic  rocks  ;  tiius,  in 
France,  the  Ctizo  and  the  Qardon,  auriferous  rivers, 
where  they  afford  most  gold,  flow  over  ground  appar- 
ently derived  from  the  destruction  of  the  trap  rocka, 
which  occur  in  »Uu  higher  up  the  country.  This  fact 
had  struck  Reaumur ;  and  this  celebrated  ol)server  had 
remarked  that  tho  sand  which  more  Immediately  ac- 
comimnios  tlie  gold  spangles  in  most  rivers,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  Rhone  and  tiie  Rhine,  is  composed, 
like  that  of  Ceylon  and  Kxpuilly,  of  black  protoxyd 
of  iron  and  small  grains  of  rubles,  corindon,  liyacinth, 
etc.  Titanium  has  liecn  observed  more  recently.  It 
has,  lastly,  been  remarked  that  the  gold  of  alluvial 
formations  is  purer  than  that  extracted  from  rocks. 

Principal  Gold  Mines, — Spoin  anciently  possessed 
mines  of  gold  in  regular  veins,  especially  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Asturia- ;  but  the  richness  of  the  American 
mines  had  made  thom  to  be  neglected.  The  Tagus, 
and  some  otlier  streams  of  that  countr}-,  were  said  to 
roll  over  golden  sands.  France  contains  no  workulde 
gold  mines  ;  but  it  presents  in  several  of  Its  rivers  au- 
riferous sands.  There  are  some  gold  mines  in  Pied- 
mont ;  particularly  the  veins  of  auriferous  pyrites  of 
Macugnagna,  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Rosa,  lying  in  a 
mountain  of  gneiss ;  and  nltliough  they  do  not  con- 
tain 10  or  II  grains  of  gold  in  a  cwt.,  they  have 
long  defrayed  the  expmise  of  working  them.  Un  the 
southern  sIo|)e  of  tlie  Pennine  Alps,  from  the  Simplon 
and  Slonte  Rosa  to  the  Valley  of  Aoste,  several  aurife- 
rous districts  and  rivers  occur.  Such  are  the  torrent 
Kvenson,  which  has  afforded  much  gold  \>y  washing ; 
tho  Oreo,  in  its  passage  from  the  Pout  to  the  Po ;  the 
reddish  grounds  over  which  this  little  river  runs  for 
several  miles,  and  the  hills  In  the  neighlwrhowl  of 
Chivasso,  contain  gold  spangles  in  considerable  quan- 
tity. 

Ireland, — In  the  county  of  AVicklow,  in  Ireland,  a 
quartzose  and  ferruginous  sand  was  discovered  not 
long  ago,  'ontaining  many  particles  of  gold,  with  prp- 
ilas  or  solid  pieces,  one  of  which  weighed  22  ounces. 
No  less  tiian  lOOU  ounces  of  gold  were  collected. 

Strilseriimd. — Tliere  are  auriferous  sands  in  some 
rivers  of  Switzerland,  as  the  lieuss  and  the  Aar.  In 
(jermany  no  mine  of  gold  Is  worked,  except  in  the 
territory  of  Sal/.liurg,  amid  the  cliain  of  mountains 
which  separates  the  Tyrol  and  Carinthia. 

Hungary. — The  mines  of  Hungary  and  Transylva- 
nia are  the  only  gold  mine.s  of  any  importance  in  Eu- 
rope ;  they  are  romarkal)lo  for  their  position,  tho 
peculiar  metals  that  accompany  them,  and  the  prod- 
uct, estimated  at  about  1,430  pounds  avoirdupois 
annually.  Tlic  principal  ones  are  in  Hungary.  1. 
Those  of  Konigsberg.  The  native  gold  is  dissemi- 
nated in  ores  of  sulphuret  of  silver,  which  occur  in 
small  masses  and  in  veins  in  n  decomposing  feldspar 
rock,  amid  conglomerate  of  pumice,  constituting  a 
portion  of  the  triicl'.vtic  formation.  2.  Those  of  IJor- 
son,  Schmeitz.  And,  3.  Of  Felsobany ;  ores  also  of 
auriferous  sulphuret  of  silver,  occur  in  veins  of  sienito 
and  greenstone  porphyry.  4.  Those  of  Telkelianya,  to 
tlie  soutli  of  Kaschau,  are  in  a  deposit  of  auriferous 
pyrites  amid  trap  rocks  of  the  most  recent  formation. 
Ill  Transylvania  the  gold  mines  occur  in  veins  often  of 
great  magnitude,  six,  elgiit,  and  sonietiines  forty  yards 
I  thick.  Tliciw  veins  liavc  no  side  plates  or  wall  stones, 
I  liiit  aliut  without  intermcdiato  ganguea  at  the  primi- 
'■  tive  rock.  They  consist  of  carious  quartz,  ferriferous 
i  limestone,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar,  and  sulphuret  of 
silver.  The  mine  of  Kapnik  deserves  notice,  where 
the  gold  is  associated  with  orpiment,  and  that  of 
Vorospatak  in  granite  rocks ;  those  of  Ofl'enbanya, 


QOL  8 

ZklatAA,  and  ^agy-Ag,  where  it  ii  uaoclated  with 
tellurium.  The  lait  ia  in  a  sienltio  rock  on  the  limlta 
of  the  trachyte. 

Northern  Europt.—la  Sweden,  the  mine  of  Kdolfon 
in  Smoland,  may  lie  mentioned,  where  the  gold  occura 
native  and  In  anriferoua  pyritea;  the  veins  are  a 
brown  quartz,  in  a  mountain  of  foliated  homatone. 
In  .Silierin,  native  gold  occura  In  a  hornutone  at 
Schlttiigonbcrg  or  Zmeof,  and  nt  Zomelno-garak  in  the 
Altai  Mountains,  accompanied  with  many  other  ores. 
ifM»«a.— The  gold  mine  of  Berezof  In  the  Oural 
Mountains  haa  i)een  long  known,  consisting  otparlinlly 
deeumpoted  auriferous  pyritet,  dlasomlnatod  in  a  vein 
of  greasy  quartz.  Ahout  1820,  a  very  rich  deposit 
of  native  gold  was  discovered  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Oural  Mountains,  disseminated  at  some  yards' 
depth  in  an  nrgillaceous  loam,  and  accompanied  with 
the  tltbrii  of  rocks  which  usually  coni|iose  the  aurife- 
rous alluvial  soils,  as  greenstone,  serpentine,  protoxyd 
of  iron,  corundum,  etc.  The  rivers  of  this  district 
possess  auriferous  sands.  The  product  of  the  gold 
mines  of  the  Oural,  in  1845,  was  11,808  pounds  avoir- 
dupois, and  in  184B,  11,827  pounds ;  that  of  Silwria,  in 
1846,  87,576  pounds,  and  In  1846,  48,868  pounds.  In 
these  accounts  the  pood  haa  been  reckoned  at  86  Iha. 
It  is  Iwlieved  that  in  1847  and  1849  the  yield  was  still 
larger,  hut  it  must  since  have  materially  fallen  off,  aa 
it  is  stated  in  JSrman't  Arrhiret  that  the  yield  In  1861 
will  not  exceed  20,000  pounds  troy. 

In  Asia,  and  especially  in  ita  southern  districts, 
there  are  many  mines,  streams,  rivers,  and  wastes, 
which  contain  this  metal.  The  Pactolus,  a  small 
river  of  Lydia,  rolled  over  such  golden  sands  that  It 
was  supposed  to  contain  the  origin  of  the  wealth  of 
Croesus.  But  these  deposits  are  now  poor  and  for- 
gotten. Japan,  Formosa,  Ceylon,  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  the  Philippines,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  are  rich  In  gold  mines.  Those  of 
Borneo  are  worked  hy  the  Chinese  in  an  alluvial 
poll  on  the  western  coast,  at  the  foot  of  a  chain  of  vol- 
canic mountains.  Little  or  no  gold  comes  into  Eu- 
rope from  Asia,  l>ecause  its  servile  inhabitanta  place 
their  fortune  in  treasu.e,  and  love  to  hoard  up  that 
precious  metal.  Numerous  gold  mines  occur  on  the 
two  slopes  of  the  chain  of  the  (Dallas  Mountains  in  the 
Oundfcs,  n  province  of  Little  Thilict.  The  gold  ilea  in 
quartz  veins  which  traverse  a  verj-  crumbling,  reddish 
granite. 

Africa  was,  with  Spain,  the  source  of  the  greater 
portion  of  gold  possessed  by  the  ancients.  The  gold 
which  Africa  still  brings  into  the  market  is  always  in 
dust,  showing  that  the  metal  is  obtained  by  washing 
the  alluvial  soils.  None  of  it  ia  collected  In  the  north 
of  that  continent ;  three  or  four  districts  only  are  re- 
markable for  the  quantity  of  gold  tlicy  produce.  The 
first  mines  are  those  of  Kordofan,  between  Darfour 
and  Abyssinia.  The  negroes  transport  the  gold  in 
quills  of  the  ostrich  or  vulture.  These  mines  seem  to 
have  l)een  known  to  the  ancients,  who  considered 
Ethiopia  to  abound  in  gold.  Herodotua  relates  that 
the  king  of  that  countrj-  exhibited  to  the  emiiassadors 
of  Cambyses  all  their  priMoncrs  bound  with  golden 
chains.  The  sccon'.  and  chief  exploitation  of  gold 
dust  is  to  the  south  of  the  great  desert  of  Sahara,  in  the 
western  part  of  Aft-ica,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal 
to  the  Capo  of  Palms.  The  gold  occurs  in  spangles, 
chiefly  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  tlie  bed  of 
rivulets,  and  alwayn  in  a  ferruginous  earth.  In  some 
places  the  negroes  dig  wells  in  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
almut  40  feet,  unsupported  by  any  props.  They  do 
not  follow  any  vein  ;  nor  do  they  construct  a  gallery. 
By  repeated  washings  they  separate  the  gold  from  the 
earthy  matters.  The  same  district  furnishes  also  the 
greater  part  of  what  Is  carried  to  Morocco,  Fez,  and 
Algiers,  by  t!ie  caravans  which  go  from  Timbuctoo  on 
the  Niger,  across  the  great  desert  of  Sahara.  The  gold 
wnich  arrivei  by  Sennaor  at  Cairo  and  Atoxsndria 


12  GOL  ^ 

comes  from  the  same  qturter.  From  Mnngo  Park's 
deacriptlon,  it  appears  that  the  gold  a|)angles  are 
found  usually  in  a  ferruginous  amall  gravel,  buried 
under  rolled  pebblea.  The  third  apot  in  Africa  where 
gold  is  collected  ia  on  the  south-east  ouast,  between 
the  25th  and  the  2'2d  degree  of  south  latitude,  opposite 
to  Madagascar,  In  the  country  of  Sofala.  Some  per- 
sons think  tliat  this  was  the  kingdom  of  Uphir  whence 
Solomon  obtained  his  gold. 

There  is  little  gold  lu  the  northern  part  of  America. 
In  IHIO,  a  mass  of  alluvial  gold,  weighing  28  pounds, 
was  found  in  the  gravel  pits  t,S  thu  creeks  of  Kockhole, 
district  of  Lebanon,  in  North  Carolina. 

South  America. — PrevloBsly  to  the  Important  dis- 
coveries in  Caiifoniia,  Brazil,  Choco,  and  Chili,  were 
the  regions  which  furnished  most  golil.  The  only 
contributor  of  Chilian  o(>jecta  to  the  great  exhibition 
waa  one  who  forwarded  a  lump  of  gold  ore  weighing  U 
cwt.,  which  waa  brought  up  from  a  deep  mine  on  the 
back  of  a  miner,  from  a  depth  of  45  yarda  beneath  the 
surface. 

The  gold  of  Mexico  ia  in  a  great  measure  contained 
in  the  argentlfenma  veins,  so  numerous  in  that  coun- 
try, whose  principal  localities  are  mentioned  under  the 
article  Silver.  The  silver  of  the  argentiferous  ores 
of  (fUanaxuato  containa  one  860th  of  ita  weight  of 
gold  ;  the  annual  product  of  the  mines  being  valued  at 
from  2,640  to  8,800  llis.  avoirdupois. 

Oaxaco  contains  the  only  auriferous  veins  exploited 
as  gold  mines  in  Mexico ;  they  traverse  the  rocks  of 
gneisa  and  mica  slate. 

All  the  rivera  of  the  province  of  Caracas,  to  ten  de- 
grees north  of  the  line,  flow  over  golden  sanda, 

Peru  is  not  rich  in  gold  ores.  In  the  provinces  of 
Iluaiias  and  Pataz,  this  metal  la  mined  in  veins  of 
greasy  quartz,  variegated  with  red,  ferruginous  spots, 
which  traverse  primitive  rocks.  The  mines  called 
paces  de  oro,  consist  of  ores  of  iron  and  copper  oxyds, 
containing  a  great  quantity  of  gold. 

All  the  gold  furnished  by  New  Grenada  (New  Co- 
lumbia) is  the  product  of  washings  established  in  allu- 
vial grounds.  The  gold  exists  in  spangles  and  in 
grains,  disseminated  among  fragments  of  greenstone 
and  porphyry.  At  Choco,  along  with  the  gold  and 
platinum,  hyacinths,  zircons,  and  titanium  occur. 
There  has  been  found,  as  already  stated,  in  the  auiif- 
erous  localities,  targe  trunks  of  petrified  trees.  Tho 
gold  of  Antioquia  is  20  carats  fine,  tliat  of  Choco,  21 ; 
und  the  largest  lump  or  pepita  of  gold  weighed  about 
27|  pounds  avoirdupois.  Tho  gold  of  Chill  also  occurs 
in  alluvial  formations,  Brazil  does  not  contain  any  gold 
mine,  properly  so  called ;  for  the  veins  containing  the 
metal  are  seldom  worked.  It  is  in  tho  sanda  of  the 
Mandi,  a  branch  of  the  Itio  Dolce,  at  Catapreta,  that 
the  auriferous  ferruginous  sands  were  first  discov- 
ered in  1682.  Since  then  they  have  been  found 
almost  everywhere  at  the  foot  of  the  immense  chain 
of  mountains,  which  runs  nearly  parallel  with  tlie 
coast,  from  the  5th  degree  south  to  the  <80th.  It  is 
particularly  near  Villa  Rica,  in  the  environs  of  th« 
village  Cocites,  that  the  numerous  washings  for  gold 
are  established.  The  pepittis  occur  in  difiercnt  forms, 
often  adhering  to  micaceous  si>ecular  iron.  But  in 
the  province  of  Minas  tierues,  tho  gold  occurs  also  in 
veins,  in  beds,  and  in  grains,  disseminated  among  tho 
alluvial  loams.  It  has  been  estimated  in  annual  prod 
uct,  by  several  authors,  at  about  2800  pounds  avoir 
du|ioi8  of  fine  metal.  We  thus  seo  that  almost  all  the 
gold  brougiit  into  the  market  comes  from  alluvial 
lands,  and  ia  extracted  by  washing.  The  gold  coin 
of  the  ancients  waa  made  chiefly  out  of  alluvial  gold, 
for  in  those  early  times  the  metullurgic  arts  were  not 
sufiicientiy  advanced  to  enable  them  to  purify  it.  Thu 
gold  dust  from  Bamlrauk,  in  Africa,  is  of  22^  carats 
fine,  and  some  from  Morocco  is  even  23,  The  gold  of 
Giron,  in  New  Grenada,  is  of  28}  carats — being  the 
purest  from  America.  "  For  thoie  who  traffic  in  gold," 


GOL 


GOL 


uy»  ilnmtiolitt,  tl  li  •nfflolmt  to  know  the  pUoa  when 
iht  mntiit  hM  Ixnn  oolUotad,  to  know  its  titlt." 

iMrniiTATioKii  or  MAXitrAarnin  or  Hold  and  Siin* 
iN'ru  Tim  Ukitii)  Mtatm,  rua  tui  Ysae  mouia  Jvnt 

«wm>im. 


VKHII  llinWTIIi, 


n»inbiir|| , 
nminmi , . 


iminmi 
irallmiit,... 
lliliiliiin,,, 
Knitlniiil,,, 
Monilmiil,., 

OmimU,,,, 

Kriiinti  (Ml  Atlmi. 
VrMinitiiiiMwIlli 

Hardlnlk 

TuMimiy ,,,,,, 
AuatrU,,,,,,, 


•wOriinitiLi.'!! 

OMn» 

Totil 


MAUVMrniM  or  auu 

AMD  IILfAM. 


(•II, 
Ihi, 


DTillnn. 

I, 'inn 
1II,IITIV 


n,ta» 


IMM 


N,n4 


and 
•ll>ir 

i»r. 


ln,6»7 


4,V4A 


Jcwalrjr, 
real  or 
ImlU- 
llou  of. 


Tililui 


1^9 

89,140 

198 

N 

331,848 

70 

MM 

1V8,4«II 

It 

189 

i,hi 


1,786 
B04 


itSM 


DolUn. 


Dolli 
68 

1441  60,488 
98 


1,933 


S,1M 


60 
78 

1,907 


T,96S 


OIkor. 

win. 


119,989 


198,911 

■■"6 
1,SS4 
9,671 

"iss 

877 


868,966 


AMIuroa 
of,  not 


IMUrt. 
977 

4,980 
41 
80 

41,968 
96 
90 

91,890 

"904 
867 

"u 
■lit 

9,188 
77,748 


NlW    (liil.li  —  NlNll  YiiAiui    1849-1B68.      rBonucno.H 
UALiriiKNiA,  ViimmiA,  anu  Nkw  Sourn  Walu. 

I'HOIIIIOTIIIH  or  OOID  IK   VlCTOBIA. 


IN 


)*VM 
1HA4 
INMI 
IHM! 

Tiitnl 


(iNlHiatt  Troy, 

'    ijiWki 

1,7Wl,IKIII 
9,478,IMIO 
y,HIIII,llllti 
H,9lHi,illHI 
lt,lllll,IIIK) 

ll),fiftJ,IH)(r 


AiMrUlnatl 
tClpHHi, 


C440,IKKI 
fl,t8A,n(MI 
8,1164,11011 
8,9A^II90 
11,808,  IMN) 
12,648,000 


TT,Ho;ouo 


Marfrlnal 

AdJillmi  of  10 

|irr  rrnt. 


£41,000 

614,1100 

866,000 

R96,i)00 

1,180,000 

1,9M,000_ 

'4,743,000 


Valuo  of 
Total  Produce, 


X484,UO0 
6,748,000 
9,680,000 
0,080,1100 
12,W8,000 
18,007,IWO 
62,189,000" 


PHdlMinTlott  or  Ooti)  ii«  Nbw  South  Waim. 


V»Ar*>    (MiMaa  Troy, 


1869 
1868 
IWH 
IN6A 
1866 

Total 


Y.ara, 

"liar 
18A0 

1861 
im 
1NA8 
1«M 
INM 
1866 

T6titl 


I84,INK) 

09M,(HI0 

l,AOl>,IMHI 

990,011(1 

ftV.lNMI 

g»,OOII_ 

wOiijiiir 


Aacorlalnfil 
KaiHirli. 


£468,000 

8,600,000 

1,781,000 

778,000 

910,000 

100,000 


'iJisapoo' 


MariHnal 

addition  of  10 

(Mr  rent. 


£47,000 

860,000 

178,000 

77,000 

91,000 

_  lo.two^ 

£698,000 


Value  of 
Totol  Produce. 


£616,000 

8,9*0,000 

1,969,000 

860,000 

931,000 

110,000 


£7,696,000 


I'koutxmoN  OP  UoLD  IN  Calipornia. 


OHHeet  Troy, 

'  4*V*'0^ 
1,480,1810 
9,l|A7,ll<MI 
8,lMll,raN) 
8,671.000 
4,.8W,I8NI 
A,NMO,000 
4,(810,000^ 


Awerlalned 
KtporU. 

fiiiStSMioir 

6,iian,(Kio 

8,960,000 
11,7181,000 
19,600,000 

14,liN),iNm 

18,400,000 
14,IHMI,000 


£80,669,1881 


Mantin«l      I 
■ddillon  of  to 
per  cent.      I 


Valne  of 
Total  Prodoee. 


£161,1X10 

600,000 

826,000 

1,170,000 

1,960,000 

1,410,000 

1,810,W8) 

1,400,000 

£S,056,00O 


£1,778,000 
6i600,000 
9,076,000 
12,S70,000 
18,760,000 
16,610,000 
14,740,0110 
16,400,000 


£&8,018,0(K) 


'I'OTAIA— 0AUPa8f<tA   ANU  AV8TIIAI.IA  COMBINED. 

Ymti, 


IHAII 
1861 
1869 
1868 
1864 
1866 
IhM 

Tot«l 


(Irineea  Troy, 

""iSl^tMHI 
1,480,11181 
9,817,000 
6,ri8,tHNi 

«,6fifl,IKK) 

6,l|(  17,0181 
7,1111,11181 
7,649,iHHi 


A^ccMatned 

tStporta, 


£1,6I9,'KK) 
6,INKI,IHKI 
»,lBt,(HK) 
91,4^16,0011 
22,1116,000 
98,128,000 
94,918,18)11 
96,718,000 


Klar,riaal 

addition  of  10 

per  cent. 


Value  of 
Total  Produce, 


£161,000 
600,000 
916,000 
2,148,000 
2,294,1810 
9,812,000 
2,491,000 
2,074,000 


£1,778,000 
6,600,(8)0 
10,074,000 
28,678,000 
96,289,000 
96,440,188) 
27,404,000 
29,417,(810 


HH,flhlt,li(Hri£|H4,l)iU,000   £18,491,1100   £148,425,000 

()t  till*  Kcnornl  rnmilt*  ariiiin)(  from  tiie  lurge  increase 
in  the  iiniillli'tlnn  ofKuliI  lam-e  1849,  Mr.  Tooke,  in  liis 
llinldi'ji  i\f  I'l'ii'in  (18f)7),  rniyn  ; 

"(1,)  'I'lint  rrnm  llrnt  to  liint  th«  wliole  of  the  mani- 
foltl  mil)  iHiworflll  vffmtn  prudiirutl  liy  the  new  gold  in 
thn  itoiiiilrli<8  (if  k»  proitiiution,  n^nolvo  thentselves  into 
•cimiiiillittti  t!hAli){(i8  nprlnging  in  rapid  succesiion,  and 
in  *n  Inlinltililfl  nf  fornm,  from  the  expenditure  of 
tnbltd  ur  iiuiutrilplod  tmiomos  obtained  by  the  labor- 


•n.  And  (2.)  That  bit'  v.*  who!*  of  tha  eonrU. 
oated  proceiMt  oy  whio).  ,  new  gold  has  IwoonM 
distributed — in  the  first  instance,  among  the  population 
of  the  gold  regions,  and  in  the  second  instance,  over 
considerable  portiuns  of  the  commercial  world — are  to 
b«  explained  by  the  application  of  one  simple  principle, 
viz.  I  That  the  distribution  has  taken  place  in  the  pre- 
cise proportion  in  which  the  extended  demand  for 
commodities,  originally  proceeding  from  tha  earliest 
laborers  who  picked  up  the  gold,  has  gradually  set  in 
motion  increased  numbers  of  laborers  and  increased 
amounts  of  capital,  to  supply  the  reiiulrements,  not 
merely  of  the  population  of  the  gold  countries,  but 
also  more  or  less  of  the  population  of  all  the  countries 
producing  raw  materials  or  manufactured  goods  upon 
which  incomes  are  at  present  expended. 

"Springing  up  around  these  two  general  results, 
there  are  a  multitude  of  subsidiary,  which,  if  we  could 
thoroughly  pursue  them  to  tha  end  of  their  course,  we 
should  discover  to  be  tributaries  and  offshoots  of  the 
two  greater  principles. 

"Foremost  in  this  second  category  are  the  proofs 
and  illustrations  which  meet  us  everywhere,  that  the 
changes  flowing  iVom  the  gold  diacovories  are  princi- 
pally indebted  for  the  rapidity  of  their  effects  to  the 
single  circumstance,  that  of  all  known  substances 
(silver  in  some  respects  excepted)  gold  is  the  only 
commodity  which  admits  of  being  extracted  from  the 
soil  in  a  perfectly  marketable  state ;  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  by  the  rudest  labor ;  and  of  being  at  once 
employed  as  a  universal  instrument  of  purchase  of  in> 
trinslc  value.  A  suddenly-increoard  supply  of  no 
other  commodity  would  produce  effects  so  decided  and 
rapid,  for  the  simple  reason  that  (say)  a  tenfold  quan- 
tity of  no  other  commodity  could  find  an  inntuataneous 
ai\d  impatient  market.  The  llnrra-Burra  copper  mine 
in  South  Australia,  for  example,  might  have  become 
ten  times  as  productive  as  it  had  been  prevk>usly, 
without  producing  any  effects  more  violent  or  rapU 
than,  first,  an  increase  of  dividend  to  the  shareholders  ; 
and,  gradually,  a  fall  in  the  price  of  the  kinds  of  ma- 
chiner}-  and  hardware  in  which  copper  is  the  i^ncipal 
metal. 

"In  the  next  place  the  rise  of  two  or  three  hundred 
per  cent.,  which  occurred  at  once  in  the  gold  countries 
in  the  prices  of  all  kinds  of  foreign  commodities,  was 
speedily  corrected  by  the  impulse  imparted,  almost  in 
a  single  day,  to  the  resources  available  for  increased 
production  in  those  foreign  countries.  And,  after  the 
first  excitement  had  abated,  the  increased  production 
has  continued  year  by  year,  because  the  effective  de- 
Dund,  in  the  form  of  new  gold,  has  continued  in  the 
gold  countries,  yeur  by  year.  ]3ut  tliere  has  been  this 
most  im|)ortant  collateral  effect,  viz.,  that,  year  by 
year,  the  circle  within  which  the  demand  for  commo<> 
itids  goes  on  increasing,  is  a  circle  of  rapidly-expand- 
ing area.  Originally,  but  for  a  short  time  only,  it 
included  merely  the  gold  countries ;  it  then  embraced 
those  particular  districts — Lancasliire  and  Birmingham 
for  example — best  able  to  meet  the  most  urgent  de- 
mands for  special  articles ;  it  then  became  extended 
to  the  distrkts  which  supplied  tlte  raw  materials  of 
those  articles ;  and  pursuing  the  same  order  of  pro- 
gression, the  area  of  the  incTea.sed  demand  for  com- 
modities, or  what  is  a  better  term,  the  area  within 
which  increased  incomes  are  expended,  is  necessarily 
wider  in  each  succeeding  month.  The  same  general 
reasoning  applies  to  the  process  by  which  the  wages  of 
labor  have  been  reduced  in  the  gold  countries  by 
means  of  immigration. 

"The  discovery  of  the  new  gold  was,  in  its  imme- 
diate region,  the  same  thing,  practically,  as  rendering 
lulior  four  times  as  effective  as  it  had  been  in  the  pro- 
duction of  those  commodities  not  merely  possessing 
intrinsic  value,  but  instantly  exchangeable  all  over 
the  world  for  all  other  commodities  possessing  intrin- 
sic valoe.    The  immigianta  drawn  to  the  gold  coun* 


(K>t 


•M 


GOL 


Mm  by  th«  prMpwti  of  high  wagti  and  luddtn 
Ibrtanc,  ti«n«f«md,  In  lonMi  npedflc  proportion,  the 
hmaftti  of  thli  IncrrsHd  efflrai'y  of  l*hor  to  th«  conn- 
Mm  fVom  irhcnr*  they  atarted ;  and  In  two  roo<lM, 
moMly :  in  th*  flnt  pUte,  by  ««t«bllfihln|{  at  once,  a> 
Wat  Men  In  thin  coantry  In  IRAS-lft&fl,  a  prndlglouoly- 
Increaied  price  for  emigrant  veaiioiii,  anil  therefure  for 
the  lervtres  of  all  parionii  cnnnectfil  with  iihlp-linlld- 
Ing ;  and,  in  the  lecond  place,  by  leavInK  Iwhind  them 
racanclea  which  could  only  be  aupplied  by  the  alxorp- 
llon  of  lalKir  previously  a  burden  in  lome  form  to  the 
eommnnity,  a*  was  alao  teen  in  1HA2  and  186A  by  the 
diminution  in  the  number  ofdettitute  {lenona  relieved 
under  the  Poor  I^w. 

"  We  aeem  to  arrive,  then,  at  a  further  generaliiia- 
lion,  namely;  (1.)  That  within  the  gold  couptriea 
the  elTectt  of  the  dlncoveriea  have  Iwen  to  create,  rap- 
idly and  largely,  acciimulationaof  real  wealth  and  real 
Ntonrcea.  The  adult  population  of  thoae  countriea 
baa  been  tncreaaed  three  or  fbur  fold  whhln  at  many 
yeara.  The  erection  of  houaea,  the  cultivation  of  the 
■oil,  the  reclamntiona  of  waate  landa,  the  rnnatructinn 
'»f  railwiiya,  the  embeilinhment  of  towna,  the  provition 
cf  harlKira  and  docka,  the  foundation  of  achoola  and 
nniverxltiea,  and,  more  conapicuniia  than  all,  the 
ealabtlKhment  olmoat  at  a  aingle  stride  of  an  ennrmoua 
foreign  trade — in  a  few  worda,  the  vigorous  prosecu- 
tion of  everj*  enterpriae,  and  the  swift  advancement 
of  every  art  which  can  render  a  country  opulent  and 
ttowerfui — are  results  which  havo  been  nearly  all 
W!comptiahc<l  In  the  gold  countries,  by  the  exportation 
to  other  countries,  year  by  year,  of  the  aupplics  of  now 
gold.  (2.)  That  within  thoao  other  countriea  to  which 
the  gold  has  been  sent  In  exchange  for  commmlities, 
the  continuous  effective  demand  for  commodities  has 
produced  the  same  effects,  but  in  a  limited  degree, 
which  have  taken  place  in  Australia  and  California. 
In  the  United  Kingdom,  for  example,  the  continu.ince, 
year  by  year,  of  an  effectivB  demand  for  commodities, 
has  led  to  improvements  and  extensions  in  the  meana 
of  production ;  has  led  to  accumulations  of  capital  as 
•avings  out  of  the  larger  Incomes  of  capitaiista  and 
laborers ;  and  hiis  diminiaiicd  within  the  country  the 
pressure  of  unemployed  and  destitute  peraons. 

"  It  Is  miinifcat,  then,  that  the  influx  of  the 
ill74,OnO,OOOof  gold  aince  1848,  has  accomplished  some- 
thing very  different  fh>m,  and  something  very  mnch 
beyond,  the  liarren  addition  of  a  considorable  percent- 
age to  the  previously-exiating  amount  of  metallic  clr- 
eulatlon  in  this  and  other  countriea,  and  haa  alao 
iccomplished  changes  far  more  important  than  any 
barren  increoao  (merely  by  reason  of 'enlarged  quan- 
tity) In  the  pricea  of  cnmmoditiea.  It  is,  moreover, 
manifest,  unleaa  all  the  previous  facts  and  reaaiminga 
are  erroneous,  that  the  real  and  vital  changes  which 
have  taken  place,  are  additions  to  the  real  wealth  of 
the  world,  liy  means  of  greater  production  and  more 
active  enterjiriae  ;  and  that  the  elementa  of  cir<Milation 
and  price  have  ao  far  not  been  ultimate  results,  but 
inferior  and  intermediate  agencies  employed."  8ee 
TooKn'a  Hiftory  of  Priera  (tendon,  1857) ;  aee,  alao, 
Coins  and  PRKClors  BIetals,  post;  Hankeri'  Mag., 
1851  1857. 

Oold-beatlng.  The  art  of  goid-lieating  la  of 
great  antiquity,  being  referred  to  by  Homer ;  and 
Pliny  atatea  that  one  ounce  of  gold  was  extended  to 
75<)  leavea,  each  leaf  1>eing  four  ftngera  square,  which 
Is  three  times  the  thickness  of  the  onlinary  leaf  gold 
of  the  present  time.  The  ancient  Peruvians  made 
very  thin  slier •  of  gold,  and  nailed  them  together  on 
the  walls  of  their  temples  of  worship ;  on  the  rtilllns 
of  the  Tlieban  mummies,  specimens  of  original  leaf- 
folding  are  met  with  where  the  gold  Is  in  so  thin  a 
(tate  that  it  resembles  modem  gliding.  Tim  art  ae^ms 
to  have  been  practiced  In  India,  judging  from  the  rude 
ipecimena  of  gilding  at  TIppo  Saib's  palace  at  Ban- 
nlore.    In  modem  times  it  haa  bet  n  practiced  la  the 


eapitala  of  tb«  priDolpal  oomniOTaUl  oooMriat  tt  En. 
ro|Mi.  In  England  It  waa  coaHiiad  to  J<«mdon  untU 
within  the  present  century.  It  hat  been  introduced 
into  HootUnd  and  the  United  Stales  of  America  within 
tliat  period.  It  la  now  practiced  In  several  towna  In 
Kngland,  and  to  a  small  extent  In  Imland,  at  Dublin 
only.  The  manufacture  being  attendant  u|H>n  an  ail- 
vanced  atata  of  the  arts.  It  is  only  found  In  old  estalc 
llahad  countriea,  and  la  not  yet  practiced  in  any  of  the 
British  colonlea.  From  the  ixlttence  here  of  soma 
now  obsolete  tools,  almilurto  thoae  at  preaent  In  uae  at 
Paris,  It  would  appear  to  have  traveled  to  Fngland 
tnxa  that  quarter.  The  art  lias  nowhere  lieen  ao  per- 
fected aa  in  I^ndon ;  but  of  late  yeara,  from  inter- 
course with  English  gold-beaters,  efforts  liave  been 
made  on  the  continent,  with  the  aid  of  Knglish  gold- 
baaten,'  skin,  to  rival  the  extreme  llnauest  of  tlio  En- 
glish product. 

The  ordinary  size  of  a  leaf  of  gold  la  Ol  inchea, 
for  the  production  of  2000  leavea  of  which  from 
18  to  19  dwta.  of  gold  wera  allowed  to  the  workmen 
fifty  years  since  in  London,  but  now,  owing  to  the 
improvement  in  the  quality  uf  the  skin,  and  superior 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  not  mure  tliau  an 
average  of  16  dwts.  are  required,  and  with  very  skill- 
ful workmen  R  la  aomeilm>-?  accomplished  with  14 
dwta,  'I  his,  however,  la  noi  o  lie  taken  aa  any  teal 
of  the  extreme  nialleablllf  y  i<r  gold ;  It  U  only  the 
ixiint  to  which  it  la  dealri^ble  to  attain  for  commercial 
purposea. 

Exiwrlments  have  lieen  ;;aade  to  ascertain  to  what 
degree  uf  thlnneaa  gold  and  allvtr  could  be  reduced  : 
it  waa  found  that  one  grain  of  gold  waa  spread  to  the 
extent  of  75  square  inchea,  and  the  same  weight  of 
silver  to  the  still  more  extraordinary  dimensions  of  08 
square  Inchea.  Taking  one  cubic  inch  of  gold  at  4900 
grains,  it  will  be  found  that  the  gold  was  the  3ti7,C60th 
part  of  an  Inch  in  thlckneaa,  or  about  1200  times  thin- 
ner than  ordlnrr}-  printing  paper.  Thua,  If  this  num- 
ber of  '  lavi'.i  of  gold  were  placed  on  one  another,  they 
would  I  >r  litute  a  pile  an  Inch  high  ;  the  same  number 
of  leav4"  of  paper  would  form  a  pile  half  the  height  of 
the  Monument  ot'  London.  The  silver,  though  apnad 
over  a  much  larger  suface,  was  thickest,  owing  to  tlia 
difference  In  Its  speclilc  gravity;  but,  calculated  by 
weight,  ailver  is  the  moat  malleable  metal  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  considerably  exceeding  that  of 
gold.  Thia  experiment  does  not,  however,  determine 
the  extent  of  the  mulleulMlty  of  either  metal,  as  the 
means  employed  to  test  It  were  found  to  full  before 
there  was  anv  appearance  of  the  malleability  of  the 
metala  being  exhausted. 

The  gold  uaed  by  the  gold-beater  is  variously  alloyed 
according  to  the  variety  of  color  required.  Fine  gold 
is  commonly  supposed  to  be  Incapable  of  being  reduced 
to  thin  leaves.  This  is  an  error.  It  la  objectionable 
for  commercial  purposes  on  account  of  Its  greater  coat. 
It  alao  adheres  on  one  part  of  a  leaf  touching  another, 
thus  caualng  a  waste  uf  labor  by  the  leavea  being 
spoiled ;  Imt  fur  work  expoaed  to  the  weather  It  Is 
much  preferalile,  as  it  is  more  durable,  and  does  not 
tamlsh  or  change  color.  The  specimens  of  gold  leaf 
exhiliited  by  Mr.  E.  8.  Marshall,  gold-lienter  of  Ix>n- 
dun,  at  the  great  exhibition  of  1851,  and  for  which  the 
prize  medal  waa  awarded  to  him,  were  twelve  in  num- 
l>er,  and  embraced  a  regular  gradation  in  color  flrom 
red  down  to  nearly  white,  viz.,  red,  pulo  red,  extra 
deep,  deep,  orange,  lemon,  deep  pule,  pale,  pale-pale, 
deep  party,  party,  and  tine  gold.  The  deeper  colors 
were  alloyed  with  from  12  to  Ifi  gra.  of  copper  per  oz., 
but  without  any  silver,  as  any  aWoy  uf  silver  with  this 
quantity  of  copper  would  considerably  impair  the  mal- 
leabllit}'.  The  middle  colora  contained  from  12  to  20 
gra.  of  ailver,  and  from  6  to  8  grs.  of  cupper  to  the 
ounce ;  the  paler  golds  contained  from  2  to  20  dwts.  of 
ailver  to  the  ounce,  but  no  copper,  fur  the  same  reason 
that  the  lUver  wat  omittad  in  the  red  golds. 


GOL 

Tkf  proMH  of  (old-bcatiog  i>  tbui  condoctcd.  Tb« 
gold  luving  baeo  dluytd  according  to  the  color  d«- 
«lrad,  it  U  m«lt«d  In  •  crucible,  at  a  higher  temperatura 
than  la  aliuply  neccMary  to  fuse  it,  as  itn  malUablUty 
la  Improved  by  ex|)09ure  to  a  greater  heat ;  luddeil 
cooling  duel  oot  interfere  with  ita  malleable  pruper- 
tlea,  diOerlug  in  thia  property  from  tome  other  metult. 
It  ia  then  caat  into  an  ingot,  and  flattened  Into  a  ribbon 
of  1^  inch  wide  and  10  feet  in  length  to  the  ounce. 
After  being  flattened  it  la  annealed  and  cut  into  amall 

{tiecaa  of  about  6  gr^,  each,  and  placed  between  the 
eavea  of  a  cutch,  which  la  about  half  an  Inch  thick 
and  3|  InvheA  aquare,  containing  about  IGU  leaven  of  a 
tough  pa|>er  manufactured  in  France,  Komierly  fine 
vellum  waa  uwd  furtbia  pur|>oae.  The  cutch  ia  beaten 
on  for  about  20  udnutea  with  a  17-puund  hammer, 
which  relwunda  by  the  elaatlclty  of  (he  aliln,  anil 
luvea  the  Ubor  of  lifting,  by  which  the  gold  ia  spread 
to  the  aiie  of  the  cutch  {  eucli  leaf  is  then  taken  out, 
and  cut  Into  four  pieces,  and  put  lietwein  the  skUia  of 
a  sliiider  H  inches  square  and  fths  of  an  Inch  thick, 
containing  about  700  skins,  which  have  been  worn  out 
In  the  tiiilshiug  process.  The  shoder  requires  about 
two  hours'  beating  U|Hm  with  n  i)-|K)UDd  hammer.  As 
the  gold  will  spread  unequally,  the  shoder  is  beaten 
u|>on  after  the  larger  leave*  have  reached  thu  edges. 
The  eifect  of  this  it,  tliat  the  larger  leaves  come  out 
of  th«  edges  In  a  state  of  dust.  This  allows  time  for 
the  smaller  leaves  to  reach  the  full  size  of  the  shoder, 
thus  producing  a  general  evenness  of  sUe  in  the 
leaves. 

Each  leaf  Is  again  cut  Into  four  pieces,  and  placed 
between  the  leaves  of  a  mold  composed  of  o^ut  000 
of  tlio  llnest  skins,  6  inches  square  and  {ths  of  an  Inch 
thick  j  this  is  the  Inst  and  most  difficult  stage  of  the 
process ;  and  on  the  fluenea*  of  the  akin  and  Judgment 
of  the  workman  the  iierfection  and  thinness  of  the  leaf 
of  gold  depend.  During  the  flrst  hour  the  hammer  is 
allowed  to  fall  principally  upon  the  centre  of  the  mold. 
This  causes  gaping  tiacks  upon  She  edges  of  the 
leaves,  »he  sides  of  which  readily  coalesce  and  unite 
without  leaving  any  trace  of  the  union  aftor  being 
boatan  upon.  At  the  second  hour,  when  the  gold  is 
about  the  l&0,000th  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  it  for  the 
flrst  time  permits  Ihe  transmUsion  of  the  rays  of  light. 
In  pure  gold,  or  gold  but  slightly  alloyed,  the  green 
rays  are  transmitted ;  and  In  gold  highly  alloyed  with 
silver,  the  pale  violet  rays  pass.  The  .nold  requires 
in  all  about  four  hours'  beating  with  a  /-lb.  hammer, 
when  the  gold  will  have  arrived  at  the  ordinary  thin- 
ness for  the  gold-leaf  of  commerce.  It  is  theo  taken 
out  of  the  mold,  and  the  rough  edges  are  cut  otf  by 
slips  of  the  rattan  flxed  in  parallel  grooves  of  an  in- 
strument called  a  wa^on,  the  leaf  being  laii'  upon  a 
leathern  cushi(m  for  that  purpose.  The  leaves  thus 
proiwred  are  placed  into  a  book  capable  of  holding 
2b  leaves  each,  which  have  been  rubbed  over  with  red 
ochre  to  prevent  the  gold  clinging  to  the  paper,  and  is 
used  for  gilding  picturo-frumes,  books,  and  IVr  numer- 
ouH  c'her  ornamental  purpose?. 

The  dryness  of  tlie  cutch,  shoder,  and  m'.ld,  is  a 
matter  of  extreme  delicacy.  They  require  ( j  be  hot- 
pressed  every  time  they  are  used,  although  they  may 
be  used  dully,  to  remove  tlie  moisture  which  tliey  ac- 
quire from  the  atmosphere,  except  in  extremely  frosty 
w  father,  ■vhen  they  acquire  so  little  moisti'rs  hat  then 
a  diinculty  arises  from  tbclr  ovcr-dryness  j  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  gold  is  diminished,  and  it  sf  reads  very 
slowly  under  the  hammer.  On  the  cont.'ar}',  if  the 
cutch  or  shoder  be  damp,  the  gold  will  become  that 
which  is  technically  termed  hollow  or  sieve-like  ;  that 
is,  it  is  pierced  with  innumerable  small  microscopical 
holes  ;  and  in  the  moUls  in  its  more  attenuated  state  it 
will  become  reduced  to  a  pulverulent  state.  Tills  con- 
dition is  more  easily  produced  in  alloyed  golds  than  in 
fine  gold.  It  is  necessary  that  each  skin  of  the  mold 
should  Im  rubbed  over  with  calcined  gypsum  (the 


GOL 

flhrlnated  variety)  each  time  tba  mold  mar  b«  um4.  In 
order  to  prevent  tha  atlheaion  of  the  gold  to  tba  sur- 
face of  the  akin  In  the  process  of  beating. 

IhntUl  (IM  ia  gold  leaf  carried  no  further  In  the 
proccifa  tlian  that  of  the  cutch,  and  shoulil  be  perfectly 
pure  gnld.  Uy  the  alwve  process  silver  Is  lieuten,  but 
nut  BO  thin,  the  inferior  value  of  tha  .iietal  not  render- 
ing it  conimerciully  desirable  to  bestow  so  much  lal>or 
upon  It,  Copper,  tin,  line,  palladium,  leatl,  cadmium, 
platinum,  and  aluminium  can  be  beaten  into  thin 
leaves,  but  nut  to  the  extent  of  gold  or  silver. 

iShrll  (lold,  used  In  painting  and  illumhiating,  U 
made  by  grinding  golil  leaves  with  honey,  and  after- 
ward aeparathig  the  honey  from  the  powdered  gold  by 
means  uf  water.  When  the  honey  is  washed  away, 
the  gold  may  be  put  on  paper  or  kept  In  shells.  When 
used,  It  is  commonly  diluted  with  gum  water.  The 
(iemian  gold  powder,  prepared  in  this  manner  from 
the  Dutch  gold  leaf.  Is  generally  used ;  and  when  It 
Is  well  secured  with  varnish,  it  answers  the  end  in 
Japunners'  gilding  tolerably  well. 

OdIJ  Size,  for  burnished  gilding,  is  prepared  of  li 
puunds  of  pl|io  clay,  \  an  ounce  of  red  chalk,  i  of 
an  ounce  of  black  lead,  40  drops  of  sweet  oil,  and  8 
drams  uf  pure  tallow.  The  cluy,  chalk,  and  black 
load  are  to  be  ground  very  flne,  separately.  In  water, 
theu  mixed  together;  the  oil  and  tallow  are  next 
added,  and  the  mixture  is  ground  to  a  due  con- 
sistence. 

(lold  Thread  is  formed  of  flattened  gold  wire  wrap- 
ped closely  over  a  thread  of  yellow  sUk,  by  means  of 
a  wheel  and  iron  bobbins. 

Gold  Wire  is  made  by  taking  a  cylindrical  ingot  of 
silver  which  has  been  su|ierflclally  coated  with  gold, 
and  drawing  it  successively  through  a  series  of  holes 
in  a  hardened  steel  plate,  each  of  which  is  a  degree 
smaller  than  the  preceding  hole,  and  proceeding  thus 
until  the  requisite  degree  of  fineness  is  attained.  It 
may  be  observed  that  in  this  process,  however  flne  be 
the  wire,  its  gilded  surface  exiilbits  no  flaw  even  when 
viewed  by  the  microscope.  Flattened  gold  wire  \»  t\M 
same  wire  after  it  has  been  passed  between  rollers  of 
polished  steel. 

Gold  Cooat,  coast  of  Africa.  The  wiiole  coast 
has  been  arbitrarily  divided  into  Ave  parts :  1.  The 
Sierra  Leone  district,  from  Cape  Verga  to  Cape  Me- 
surado.  2.  Malugueta,  Pepper  or  Grain  Coast,  from 
Cape  Mesurado  to  Cape  Palmas.  3.  The  Ivory  Coast, 
from  Cape  Palmas  to  Cape  Three  Points.  4,  The 
Uold  Coast,  from  Cape  Three  Points  to  the  River 
Volta.  5.  The  Slave  Coast,  or  Benin  district,  from 
the  liiver  Volta  to  the  Cameroons. 

Gold  Coast,  a  country  of  Guinea,  west  Africa,  ex- 
tending along  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  from  the  River 
Volta  on  the  east,  to  Cape  Lahu  on  the  west,  and 
bounded  north  by  Ashantee,  It  was  discovcrod  by  the 
Portuguese,  who  founded  an  establishment  at  Foit 
Klmina  in  1482.  The  English  first  settled  hero  in 
1KC4.  The  countr}-  is  fertile ;  deer  are  plenty  in  the 
interior,  and  fish  along  the  coast.  Legislature  of  the 
British  settlements  composed  of  a  governor  and  a 
legislative  council  r.f  four  members.  Salary  of  lieu- 
tenant-governor, XiW.  The  principal  European  es- 
tablishments are  C.^pe  Coast  Custle,  Accra,  Axim, 
Dixcove,  Elmina,  and  iho  establishments  lately  ceded 
by  Denmark  to  Great  Britain. 

The  following  returns  to  Parliament  (as  published 
by  th«  I.andon  Shipping  and  Mercantile  Gazelle'),  show 
the  increase  of  e::ports  to  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
and  of  importations  from  the  same  coast : 


Ynri, 

EtporU. 

Iniportt, 

T..1.I. 

1850 

1S51 

i!63U,429 
654,.%48 
NS8,725 
901,401 
958,809 

£605,a.'>8 
704,810 
707,034 
749,878 
905,6U4 

£1,'J45,887 
l,41»,!i53 
1,440,749 
1,680,776 
1,861,448 

1S52 

K%3 

1854 

flOL 


898 


aoL 


ThU  U  indopandtnt  nf  lh«  BrIlUh  mlonU*  of  Hlnmt 
l.«on«,  the  tnii*  nf  which  amnnnlMl  in  lf)M  In  11,-1 'il,- 
MA,  »m\  of  thii  Britlnh  pou«ulnni  nn  Iha  Oulil  CimiI 
•nrt  th«  Rtvtr  OrnnliU,  ■mounting  to  #l,M7,'iMA  mora  i 
and  nf  IhoM  at  th«  Caps  of  ()on<l  llop«  and  In  aouth 
Afrlna,  awiillInK  thn  amount  tH,IW.1,()(MI  mora  i  maklnK 
In  all  an  aKKr*K<>t<>  "f  ov«r  #-Jfl,Onn,000  In  IHM,  for  the 
wantiirn  i-oant  of  Afiira  pnlira. 

It  haa  nf  lat*  b«i<n  urKfid  that  a  Una  of  itcamar* 
ahould  Iw  aatalilUhcd  l>«tw»«n  tha  llnltad  Htatca  and 
the  WMtcrn  roa*t  of  AfHra,  tn  affoni  Kraatcr  fai'llltlaa 
fur  rommarolal  Intarcnurra  ;  and  the  pUntln^  of  a«tt)«- 
mrnta  In  th«  Intrrlnr,  aa  now  prnponml,  romnia  fron< 
tha  malariona  lnttu«ni-«  of  tha  rnaal,  fUmUh  atldltioojil 
rvaaona  for  (laniavaring  In  lliia  laudalila  daal|;n. 

Ok>ld  Dlsoovary  m  tVi/omi'ii.  In  Naptmihar, 
1H47,  ona  Captain  Hiitar  or  fliittar  waa  a  Im>I(I,  proapar- 
oui,  cntcrprlnlnK,  lnl«lli)(ant  aattlar  In  l.'ppar  Califor- 
nia. Ila  waa  a  SwUa  hy  l>lrth  ;  ha  had  aarvcd  Charlaa 
X.  aa  ona  of  tha  HMm  fluanl  at  tha  Tulllarlaa  ;  ha 
•mlifrated  to  Mlaaourl  aftar  tha  Iloiirlion  revolution  of 
1N80 ;  ha  ramovrd  thani-a  to  the  ( tragon  territory  In  IMIMI ; 
ha  made  a  further  advance,  In  IHilO,  tn  California, 
where  he  liulll  a  fort  named  New  lli>lvatU  on  the 
River  Hacraniento;  ha  Kradually  acruinulatad  around 
bim  4U0U  oxen,  lAOII  horara  and  mulea,  'JIMM)  aheap,  a 
vaat  acreage  of  land  undar  ({'oin  cropa,  and  two  trad- 
InR  veaaela  In  the  river ;  he  had  hU  fnrt  aupplled  with 
12  place*  of  artillery,  ami  defondad  liy  a  Karriaon  of 
70  men ;  and  ha  wua  thua.  In  all  prohiililllty,  the 
wealthleat  and  moat  Influential  man  liayond  the  KiM'ky 
Mountain*.  The  mnnth  aliova  named  waa  an  Import- 
ant one  to  thia  lM)ld  raptiiln,  and  to  the  world  at  larfta. 
He  contractail  witi  a  Sir.  Marahall  tn  conatrui't  a  aaw- 
mlll  near  a  pine  foi<>at.  The  aupply  of  water  to  thIa 
mill  waa  ao  altuateil  as  tn  woah  down  much  mud  and 
gravel  from  tha  higher  couna  nf  tha  atreani ;  and  Mr. 
alarahall,  watehinK  the  prngreaa  of  hia  worka  one  day, 
■aw  aome  glittering  partlclaa  in  thia  mud.  He  forme(l 
hIa  own  conclualona  of  the  nature  of  theae  ahlning 
mnnela  ;  and  having  ahown  anma  of  thom  tn  the  cap- 
tain, it  waa  agreed  tn  keep  tha  matter  a  accret  fnr  a 
time.  Such  aecrets,  however,  do  not  keep ;  they  trill 
not  keep ;  It  waa  aoon  nolaed  abroad  that  nni.ii  huil 
bean  diacovermi  at  the  American  fork  of  the  Sacra- 
mento, and  a  gnld  fever  thereupon  tiprang  up.  A  few 
lalmrera  collected  aome  of  the  gold-duat,  and  took  It 
for  sale  to  Sun  Kranciaco,  at  which  town  the  .Sacra- 
mento enters  the  PaclHc ;  hundred*  flocke<l  up  the 
river ;  Indian*  were  hired,  soldier*  and  aallura  de- 
serted, 8hnp-kce])cra  cloaed  their  shops,  and  San  Kran- 
cUcn  l>ei-auie  ahnt)Ht  uhundnned. 

Ck>lden  Fleece,  In  Mi)tl>alogy,  the  fieere  of  the 
ram  upon  which  I'hrixiia  and  Helle  croaaed  the  sea  to 
Colchis,  and  which,  lieing  sacrillccd  to  Jupiter,  was 
hung  upon  a  tree  in  the  grove  of  Mars,  guarded  l>y 
two  brazen-hoofed  bulla,  and  a  monstrous  dragon  that 
never  slept.  The  fleece  wa*  carried  off  by  .laaon  anil 
the  Argonauts.  Many  authors  have  endeavored  to 
ehow  that  this  fable  is  an  allegorical  representation  of 
some  real  history ;  while  others  explain  It  by  the 
profit  of  the  wool  trade  to  Colchis,  or  the  gold  which 
was  gathered  in  the  rivers  of  that  country  by  means 
of  fleeces. 

Oold-Laoe.  Gnld-lace  is  a  thin  covering  of  gold 
applied  to  a  surface  of  silver,  which  again  has  a  found- 
ation of  silk.  The  silken  threads  for  making  tills 
material  are  wound  round  with  gold  wire,  so  thi(  kly  as 
to  conceal  the  silk ;  and  the  making  of  this  gold  v.  '.re 
is  one  of  the  most  singular  mechanical  operation*  Im- 
aginable. In  tha  first  place,  the  rcllner  prepares  a 
solid  ro<l  of  silver,  about  an  inch  in  thickness ;  he  heats 
this  md,  applies  upon  thn  surface  a  coating  of  gold-leaf, 
Luniishes  this  down,  applies  another  coating,  bumishes 
this  down,  and  so  on,  until  the  gold  is  about  one  hun- 
dredth part  the  thickness  of  the  silver.  Then  the  rod 
U  subjected  to  a  train  of  processes  which  brings  it 


down  to  the  state  of  a  flna  wire  i  it  is  paaaad  thfougn 
holts  In  a  steal  plata,  lasaaning  step  by  atap  In  diam- 
alar.  Tha  gold  never  daaaris  Iha  allvar,  but  adheres 
rioaaly  to  it,  and  shares  all  iti  routallona  |  It  waa  ona 
hundredth  part  tha  thicknaaa  of  the  allver  at  Iha  lie- 
ginning,  and  it  nialntaint  tha  aama  ratio  to  tha  and. 

Aa  to  Iha  thinnaaa  to  which  the  gold-cnatad  ro<l  nf 
allvar  can  lie  hrnught,  tha  limit  ilapanda  on  Ilia  iteilcacy 
nf  human  ajiill ;  hut  tha  moat  wnndnius  example  avnr 
known  waa  brought  forward  by  Iha  lata  Dr.  Wollatton, 
a  man  rf  extraordinary  tact  in  minute  ex|ierlments. 
This  waa  an  axampla  of  a  aolld  gidd  wire,  without  any 
allver.  lie  procured  a  small  nul  nf  silver,  bore<l  a  hole 
thniugh  It  from  and  to  and,  and  Inaartad  in  thia  hole 
the  amallaat  gold  wir*  ha  couhl  procure  ;  ha  iiibjai'tnd 
tha  silver  to  tha  uaual  wire-drawing  priM-aaa,  until  hn 
had  brought  It  to  the  finest  attainable  state  ;  It  was.  In 
fact,  a  allvar  wire  a*  flna  as  a  hair,  with  a  gnld  wire  In 
ila  centre.  Ilnw  tn  isolate  this  gnld  wire  waa  the  next 
point ;  he  aubjectad  It  to  warm  nitrona  acid,  by  which 
tha  allver  was  distoivetl,  leaving  a  gold  wire  one 
thirty-thouaandth  of  an  Inch  in  thickness — perhapa  the 
thinnest  rounil  wire  that  the  hand  of  man  has  yet  pro- 
duced. Hut  thU  wire,  though  beyond  all  comparison 
flnar  than  any  employed  In  manufactures,  does  not  a|H 
proach  In  thinness  the  film  nf  gold  on  the  surface  nf 
the  silver  In  gnld-lace.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
the  gnhl  nn  the  very  flnast  sliver  wire  for  gnld-luc«  la 
n<it  mora  than  imr  Ihirti  of  nnr  milliimlh  part  of  an  inrh 
in  thickneaa  ;  that  la,  not  aUive  one  tenth  the  thick- 
iicNs  of  ordinary  leaf-g<ild  ! 

Oold-Leaf  Is  an  extremely  thin  tlaaua  of  gold, 
pre|iar«ri  by  beating  the  gold  metal  until  the  requlaite 
dpgn\a  of  ftnenesa  has  been  obtained.  It  is  found  that 
a  minute  |iercenlage  of  silver  and  capper  is  necessary 
to  give  the  golil  for  gnld-leaf  a  prnper  malleable  qual- 
ity— a  |iercentaga  of  perhaps  one  in  70  or  80.  The  re- 
flner  manages  thii  alloy,  and  brings  the  costly  product 
to  a  certain  stage  of  completion ;  ha  malts  the  gold 
and  tha  cheaper  alloys  in  a  Iduck-lead  crucible ;  I  e 
pours  the  molten  metal  into  an  Ingot  mold,  six  or 
eight  Inches  long ;  he  removes  the  sidid  fl«.)  and  cooled 
ingot  from  Its  mold,  and  passes  it  repeitedl^  lic'.ween 
two  steal  ndlers  until  It  assumes  the  thickness  of  h 
riblmn  ;  and  this  ribbon,  aliout  nne  eight  hundredtli  of 
an  inch  in  thickneaa,  and  presenting  a  surface  of  almut 
r>(N>  square  Inches  to  an  ounce,  pasaa*  next  into  tha 
hands  of  the  gold-lieater. 

The  worklng-to<ds,  the  process,  and  tha  products  of 
a  gold-lieater,  are  all  remarkable.  That  puzsling  mii- 
terlal,  "  gold-lieater*'  skin,"  is  an  indis|iensable  aid 
to  him ;  it  I*  a  membrane  of  extreme  thinness  and 
delicacy,  but  yet  tough  and  strong,  procured  from  the 
Intestine*  of  the  ox  ;  800  pieces  of  this  skin,  I'oiir 
inches  square,  constitute  a  luickct  with  which  the  gold- 
beater labors  ;  and  thus  he  proceeds :  160  hits  of  rili- 
Imn-gnld  an  inch  square,  are  interleaved  with  as  miin>' 
vellum  leaves  fniir  inclios  square  ;  they  are  beuten  for 
a  long  time  with  a  ]Minderous  hammer  on  a  snimitli 
marliie  slab,  uiitit  the  gnld  ha*  thinned  and  expanded 
tn  the  size  nf  the  vellum.  How  the  workman  manages 
so  as  to  beat  all  the  pieces  equally,  and  yet  beat  none 
into  hnlas,  he  alnne  can  answer ;  it  i*  one  of  the  mys- 
teries nf  hia  craft.  The  gnld  is  liberated  from  Its  vel- 
lum prison,  and  each  piece  cut  into  four ;  the  150  have 
thus  liecome  tiOO,  and  those  are  interleaved  with  (iUO 
pieces  of  gold-beaters'  skin,  which  are  then  packed 
into  a  compact  muss.  Another  beating  then  tukcs  place 
— mora  careful,  mure  delicate,  more  precise  than  the 
former— until  the  gnld,  expanded  like  the  silk-worm, 
as  fur  us  it*  envelop  will  admit,  requires  tn  be  again 
released.  The  leaves  urn  nguin  divided  into  four,  by 
which  the  <i(Kl  bccnine  'i'lOO;  these  are  divided  into 
three  parcels  nf  800  each,  and  each  parcel  is  subjected  to 
a  third  beating.  Heavy  as  the  hummers  are.  there  are 
yet  degress  of  heaviness :  first,  a  sixteen-pounder 
gives  ita  weighty  thumps,  then  a  twalva-pounder,  and 


OOM 


Mf 


(JOO 


In  IkU  laat  opcnlion  a  hunmcr  of  tun  pnundi  li  tm- 
|iV>;-«(l.     Hm  (ini.D  Dbatimo. 

Oold-w«l|hlng  Maohln*.  Mr.  (^oitnn'i  nut' 
chlue  Mrm«,  Ivy  gtnanl  cununi,  to  Im  ilii«m«il  th* 
mmt  (Idlt'iitii  aver  y*t  coiMtrurtail  for  wi'IkIiIdii  ki>M 
coin.  Ita  |inclalim  la  Initeail  moat  axqiilalla.  In  tha 
traiiaactiona  liatwaan  tha  Hank  iit  KnKlunil  knil  tha 
nulilic,  tha  walKhInK  iif  kdIiI  coin  liaa  Iman  *  moat  anx* 
l»ii>  ail  <  tailloua  pnii-aiia.  Aa  liatwaan  tha  liank  ami 
thi<  mint,  tha  Uhor  ia  not  ao  mlnuta  i  for  'ton  aovar- 
xiKna  haInK  D'at  aci-urataly  walKhail,  all  tha  ri<at  ara 
walKhail  In  Kfoiipa  of  V<Kl.  Tha  mint  oHlcarii  ara  al- 
liiwrd  a  ilavUtlon  of  12  K'alni  In  alHiiit  ItO  aovaraltfna  | 
liut  th«y  K'narally  work  to  within  half  of  thia  amount 
of  arror ;  and  If  tha  ^roupa  of  aovaralnna  ara  eorrai't 
within  tha  praarrllmi  llmlta  nn  cluaar  wi'lKhlnK  la 
ailoptail.  In  tha  tranaactlona  liatwaan  thn  liank  anil 
thw  public,  huwavar,  maltara  muat  lia  traatail  In  mora 
(letiill.  Each  ruatomar  ilaiiinniU  that  hU  aovaralKn 
ahiiuld  li«  of  pn)p«r  walftht.  llanca  arlaaa  an  Import- 
ant part  of  tha  dully  roiitlna  at  tha  liank.  Hovar- 
el)(na  which  war*  lanuad  from  onn  coiintar  at  tlin  bank 
aa  IwInK  of  full  wa l^ht,  wara  rafuiiad  at  anothar  counter 
a«  IwhiK  IlKht.  Tha  acalaa  may  not  h»va  Iwm  i>i|Ually 
dellcata,  or  tha  liability  to  arror  on  tli«  pirt  of  tha 
w«ighori<  may  not  have  Iwen  exactly  ci|ii'il.  An  ax- 
|M>rt  waiithar  could  \i»lgh  about  700  aovi<ri<l|(na  In  an 
hour  by  tha  old  lialanca  ;  but  the  BKltutiiin  of  tha  air 
by  the  auddan  o|ianinK  "'  •  ''""r,  tlie  braatliiuK  of  |)ar- 
aona  near  tha  appnralua,  the  fiitlKUed  atata  of  tha 
hand  and  eye  of  the  welKher — all  Icil  to  nilnule  errora, 

The  machine  la  a  pretty,  delicate,  liKlit  alTalr. 
Them  la,  In  the  flrst  place,  a  aniall  vartlcnl  tuba,  In 
which  a  pile  of  'iO  or  80  aovrralKna  ia  placed,  In  ilnKle 
column.  The  lowermoat  aoverel|{n  reata  upon  a  mov- 
able plate ;  when  a  handle  la  turned  by  tint  attendant, 
the  plate  moves  aldewaya,  and  the  aoverelKii  la  lirouKht 
upon  an  exquialtely  aanaltive  balance ;  if  llin  weiKlit  la 
correct,  a  little  lever,  arm,  or  puiiher,  Klvea  the  edK« 
of  the  loverelKn  a  amart  Impulae  and  drivea  It  olf  into 
a  box ;  but  If  the  weight  be  dulklent  even  In  the  moHt 
minute  degree,  another  puaher  attueka  tha  aovurelgii 
an  a  dilTerent  aide,  and  drivea  it  Into  another  box. 
Aa  tha  handle  ia  continued  in  motion,  *i  or  H  aover- 
elgns  may  lie  in  dlRerent  atagea  of  tha  weighing  pro- 
cesa  at  one  time. 

Aa  the  Dank  of  England  doea  not  take  cognUance 
of  gold  coins  which  are  too  heavy,  thia  machine  mere- 
ly aeparatea  aovereigns  Into  two  groups,  the  full  and 
the  light ;  and  it  doea  not  Indicate  by  how  much  the 
light  sovereign  la  deficient.  It  la  therefore  only  by 
actual  trial  that  tha  delicacy  of  the  machine  liaa  been 
t«ated ;  if  a  difTerence  of  even  a  hundredth  of  a  grain 
existed  lietween  2  aovereigns  It  la  aaid  that  thia  ma- 
chine would  detect  it.  On  a  rough  average,  nO,flOO 
sovGtclgna  pass  over  the  bank  counter  every  day) 
each  machine  can  weigh  10,00(1  sovereigns  In  fl  hours  j 
and  there  am  6  machines ;  ao  that  the  bank  can  weigh 
all  Its  issues  nf  gold  by  these  means,  and  have  reserve 
)Kiwer  to  apare.  One  of  the  machinea  is  adjusted  fur 
half  sovereigns.  Between  IH-U  and  1848  there  were 
48,000,000  gold  coins  weighed  by  these  machines  at 
the  bank ;  and  banker*  and  private  parsons  place  un- 
doubting  reliance  on  the  correctnesa  of  the  process. 
Each  machine  requires  an  hour's  cleaning  once  u 
week ;  the  machines  cost  about  £iM  each,  and  are 
said  to  be  peculiarly  free  from  liability  to  dinurrangn- 
ment.  Besides  satUfying  tha  bank,  the  bankers,  and 
the  public,  these  mauhinei  save  .£100*J  a  year  tu  the 
bank  In  weighers'  wages. 

Oomutl,  or  Ejoo,  a  species  of  palm  (Jtnrnitui 
Gomulut),  growing  In  tha  Indian  Islands.  A  valua- 
ble product  Is  obtained  from  thia  palm,  roaambling 
black  horte  hair;  it  U  found  between  the  trunk  and 
branches,  at  the  Insertion  of  the  latter,  in  a  matted 
form,  Interspersed  with  long,  hard,  woody  twigs  of 
the  tome  color.    When  freed  from  tba  Utter,  it  U 


manufactured  by  tha  natlvaa  Into  cordage.  Its  llliraa 
ara  slningnr  and  mora  durabln,  but  loa  plUnt,  than 
IhfMa  of  tliH  cocoa  nut,  or  coir  (see  Com))  «ud  is, 
Ihararore,  tlttar  for  cables  and  utiindlng  rigging,  but 
laaa  III  fur  running  rigging,  'i'lm  native  ablpplng  of 
tha  aaatarn  islands  of  all  kinds  am  chlafly  equipped 
with  ciirilaga  of  tlie  giimull ;  and  llie  lirgeat  KuM- 
|>aan  ahlpptng  In  the  indlas  use  cubit's  of  It.  It 
undergoes  no  pr«|iiirntbin  but  that  of  spinning  and 
twisting  I  no  material  aliniiar  to  our  tar  and  pitch.  In- 
diapenaabia  to  the  preservation  of  hain|>en  c  <rd«go, 
being  necessary  with  a  substance  that,  in  a  rnniurka- 
ble  il'gree,  |MiBsesses  the  quality  of  rcKlatlng  altarna- 
liona  of  heat  and  moisture.  The  gomuti  of  AmiKiyiia, 
and  the  other  Spice  islands.  Is  the  best.  Timt  of  Java 
has  a  coarse  llgiiaous  libra,  Onmutl  Is  get.  rully  sold 
In  twisted  shrads  or  yams,  often  as  low  us  1  dollar  a 
picul,  and  seldom  more  than  'i.  Were  European  Inge- 
nuity applied  to  tha  iiiiprovemrnt  of  this  material, 
there  seems  little  doubt  that  It  might  be  rendered  more 
extensively  useful.— <!nAwrl•Hll'H'AVu^  Arcki'p.,  vol. 
ill.,  p.  43A. 

Otolldola,  a  kind  of  barge  used  chiefly  on  tha 
ciinals  (if  Venice,  where  gondolas  au|iply  the  place  of 
carriages.  Th*  gondola  Is  tlat-bottnmed,  very  long 
and  narrow  (averaging  about  lUI  feet  by  4),  and  Its 
two  shar|ily-|Hiinted  er.tremitirs  are  curved  upward 
(o  the  full  lielglit  of  a  man.  It  is  also  pnivlded  with 
a  small  chamlHir  placed  near  its  centre,  and  elevated 
to  a  convenient  height  aUive  the  line  of  the  gunwale. 
It  Is  propelled  by  oars  or  a  |Mile,  by  the  gondolier,  who 
stiinds  at  the  stern.  The  word  gondola  is  derived  by 
Du  ('ange  from  the  modem  Oroek  xoi  I'rr^ac,  abarb 
or  Huh  iMp  I  I.ancelot  again  deduces  it  from  yuvih',  a 
term  In  Athenotus  for  a  sort  of  vase.  The  gondolier* 
of  Venice  wara  formerly  an  Intcresling  part  of  tlia 
population,  and  were  noted  for  tlu'  pructico  of  whtling 
away  time  by  singing  alternately  stanzas  of  |Hiema, 
particularly  of  Tasso's  Jerutulem  Dtliirml,  though 
with  great  changes  from  the  original ;  but  this  cus- 
tom liua  become  almost  entirely  olisolete. 

Ooni,  a  ('hinese  musical  instrument  of  percussion, 
formed  entirely  of  metal,  which  yields  a  very  loud 
and  peculiarly  harsh  sound  when  struck  with  force. 
It  Is  made  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper,  and  In  form 
it  nearly  resembles  the  commun  tambourine,  (longs 
are  much  used  In  China  for  making  loud  sonorous  sig- 
nals, particularly  on  the  canals,  as  well  as  for  adding 
to  the  clangor  of  martial  instrument.'*. 

Oood  Hope,  Cap*  of.  strictly  speaking,  a 
small  promontiiry,  nearly  the  most  southern  point  of 
Africa,  liut  It  gives  Ita  name  to  the  large  tract  of 
country  which  forma  the  most  southern  part  of  that 
continent,  and  Is  now  a  colony  of  (treat  Britain.  It 
Ilea  fur  th*  most  |>art  lietween  S.  lat.  'iO°  and  34^', 
and  K.  long.  18°  and  '.28',  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Orange  and  the  (iarlcp  lllvers,  on  the  east  by 
the  Kivor  Keiskamma  and  Kafraria,  on  the  south  by 
the  Houthern  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
Its  extreme  breadth  is  fron\  north  to  south  about  450 
miles,  anil  Its  length  from  east  to  wcxt  about  6U0 
miles,  Ita  area  ccntainlng  ulHiut  '230,000  fiquuro  miles. 
The  country  rises  from  the  sea  by  a  series  of  terraces, 
of  which  the  supporting  walls  arc  nearly  parallel 
chains  of  rugged  and  barren  mountains  Intersected  by 
deep  ravines,  the  beds  of  streams,  feeble  or  dry  in 
the  summer,  but  rushing  down  in  torrents  in  the  win 
ter,  Tlio  nrst  of  these  mountain  ranges  of  which 
Drackeniitein,  Hottentots'  Holland,  and  Langc  Klouf 
fiirm  a  part,  nms  from  the  north-west  round  the  colo- 
ny toward  the  oast,  whore  It  tnrminutes  in  the  pro- 
montory of  Ca|ie  8t,  Francis.  Between  It  and  the 
seu,  on  the  west  coast,  the  country  is  sandy  and  ster- 
ile, but  on  the  south  and  cast  coast  It  possesses  .some 
good  aoll,  ond  la  clothed  with  vegetation.  The  sec- 
ond great  chain,  containing  tho  Karroo  Berg,  011- 
pliaut'i   River,  Cold   Bokkeveld,   and   Zuurbergen 


GOO 


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000 


MoantaiiM,  luni  parallel  to  tba  ilnt  and  termlnateii 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Groat  Fish  River.  Its  average 
height  ia  alwut  4000  feet,  and  its  greatest  about  6500. 
Between  this  chain  and  the  first  the  surface  is  varied, 
some  parts  consisting  of  arid  plains  and  hills,  others 
uf  good  arable  soil  with  a  large  portion  of  excellent 
grazing  land.  The  third  great  range  ulso  runs  nearly 
parallel  to  the  others,  and  includes  the  Kammies  Ber- 
gen, Roggeveld  Bergen,  Nieuwveld,  and  Sneeuw- 
Bergen  Mountains.  This  is  the  highest  part  of  the 
colonjr,  and  from  it  tho  land  gradually  descends  to  the 
Orange  River.  Between  this  range  and  the  second  is 
the  vast  desolate  plain  called  the  Gi«at  Karroo,  near- 
ly 300  miles  in  length  east  and  west,  and  about  90  in 
breadth  north  and  south.  Its  soil  is  a  sand  mixed 
with  clay,  and  particles  of  iron :  all  soil  of  a  similar 
character  in  other  parts  of  the  colony  is  called  karroo 
ground.  These  mountain  chains  are  mostly  composed 
of  sandstone  resting  upon  a  base  of  granite,  which  are 
the  prevailing  roclis,  the  next  in  abundance  being 
clay  slate,  grauwackis,  quartz  rock,  and  dnlerito.  In 
some  parts  the  ironstone  is  traversed  by  veins  of  red 
iron  ore.  Deposits  of  coal  are  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Kaiirland  and  Victoria  division,  and  copper 
ore  has  been  found  in  some  abundance  in  Namaquo- 
lond. 

The  Rivers,  with  exception  of  the  Orange  River,  are 
small ;  they  all  more  or  less  partake  of  tlie  character 
of  mountain  streams,  having  numerous  falls,  and 
being  low  and  feeble  !u  the  dry  season,  but  swollen 
and  rapid  in  the  rainy  weather.  Tliej-  aro  of  course 
not  navigable,  and  their  mouths  are  mostly  l>arred 
with  sand.  The  Knysna,  the  Cowe,  and  tho  Briede 
are  however  accessible,  for  a  short  distance  from  their 
entrance,  to  small  vessels.  The  chief  rivers  are,  on 
the  west  coast,  the  Orange,  the  Elephant,  and  Great 
Berg  Rivers  ;  on  the  south  coast,  the  Briede  Knysna, 
Sunday,  Cantoos,  Groat  Fish,  and  Keiskamma.  The 
only  one  of  them  deserving  special  notice  is  the 
Orange  River,  which  rises  in  Kutlilamba  or  Dracken- 
l)erg  Mountains,  flows  for  nearly  1200  miles  generally 
in  a  westerly  direction,  and  discharges  itself  into  the 
Atlantic,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  the  col- 
ony. It  is  on  the  whole  a  noble  stream,  and  in  some 
parts  its  banks  are  shaded  by  huge  willows. 

The  Soil.— It  is  considered  that  about  two  fifths  of 
the  colony  consist  of  arid  mountain  ridges  and  sandy 
^ains,  unfit  either  for  agriculture  or  pasture.  The 
remainder  is  not  generally  fit  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, although  it  contains  some  very  fertile  spots ;  a 
large  portion  of  it,  however,  especially  in  the  eastern 
part,  affords  excellent  pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  coast  is  indented  by  various  bays  and  inlets ; 
few  of  them,  however,  afford  convenient  harbors. 
Saldanfaa  Bay,  on  the  west  coast,  is  one  of  the  most 
extensive  and  secure  havens  in  this  part  of  the  world, 
but  it  is  rendered  comparatively  useless  by  the  want 
of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  water  near  it  for  the 
supply  of  shipping,  Simon's  Bay,  hear  tho  bottom 
of  False  Bay,  is  a  good  harbor,  and  is  used  as  a  sta- 
tion for  the  royal  navy.  Table  Bay,  though  some- 
what protected  by  Robben  Island,  is  little  better  than 
an  open  roadstead.  It  affords  shelter,  however,  to 
ships  during  the  summer  months,  but  in  the  winter, 
from  May  to  September,  it  is  very  unsafe.  Algoa  Bay 
is  an  open  roadstead,  but  it  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
eastern  province,  and  is  much  frequented  by  ships, 
wliich  in  certain  winds  can  lie  in  it  safely.  Mossel 
Bay  and  the  Cowie  are  also  resorted  to  by  small  ves- 
sels, but  they  a:«  little  better  than  open  roadsteads. 

The  climate  is  generally  milder  and  drier  than  that 
of  England.  December,  Januarj-,  and  February  are 
the  summer  months;  June,  July,  and  August  the 
winter.  In  the  western  part  the  summer  is  dry  and 
clear,  but  in  the  east  it  is  wet  and  stormy.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Cape  Town,  the  highest  temperature  is 
abont  84°,  the  lowest  about  40°,  and  the  mean  of  the 


year  about  68°.  In  the  motmtainoM  districts  and 
elevated  plains,  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of 
winter  are  greater. 

Tlie  vegetation  of  the  colony  Is  remarkably  rich 
and  varied.  Some  of  the  finest  botanical  specimens 
that  now  adorn  thd  gardens  of  Europe  have  been  de- 
rived fh>m  this  region.  In  no  other  place  do  bulbous 
plants  and  heaths  exhibit  so  many  beautiful  varieties. 
Besides  a  number  of  other  ornamental  tribes,  there 
are  some  plants  which  might  be  used  in  medicine  and 
dyeing.  The  aloe,  however,  is  the  only  one  which 
has  been  Made  an  article  of  export.  The  most  re- 
markable trees  are,  the  silver-tree,  which  only  grows 
in  the  vicinity  of  Table  Mountain ;  the  Protea ;  and 
in  the  eastern  province,  the  Euphorbia.  Thei«  is  on 
the  whole  a  scarcity  of  indigenous  timber,  though 
there  are  In  some  parts  extensive  forests.  Some  of 
the  native  woods  furnish  materials  for  nimlture  and 
the  wood-work  of  houses.  The  oak,  fir,  and  other 
European  forest  trees,  have,  however,  been  long  since 
introduced,  and  thriven  very  well ;  some  of  them  have 
attained  a  great  size,  and  their  wood  is  extensively 
used.  There  are  few  Indigenous  fruits,  but  most  of 
the  fruits  both  in  the  north  and  south  of  Europe,  such 
as  grapes,  figs,  oranges,  mulberries,  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  nectarines,  and  others,  are  grown  in  abund- 
ance ;  but  strawtftiries  rarely  come  to  perfection,  and 
the  gooseberry  can  not  be  raised. 

In  regard  to  the  zoology  of  the  Cape,  there  is  little 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  rest  of  Africa,  under  the 
head  of  which  will  be  found  sofficient  Information  on 
this  subject ;  we  may,  hdwever,  notice  the  domestic 
animals  of  the  colony.  Sheep,  cattle,  and  dogs,  of 
an  inferior  breed,  were  all  possessed  by  the  natives  on 
the  discovery  of  the  country.  Horses,  asses,  mnles, 
goats,  and  Inferior  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  have 
been  introduced,  and  thrive  well.  The  Merino  sheep, 
in  particular,  has  proved  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the 
colony.  Among  the  game  birds  are  the  bustard, 
called  bj'  the  Dutch  the  pouw,  and  a  smaller  kind 
called  the  coran,  wild  duck,  teal,  snipe,  and  partridge. 

niiiory. — This  Cape  was  discovered  by  Bartholo- 
mew Diaz,  the  Portuguese  navigator,  In  149R,  who 
first  landed  at  Algoa  Bay,  having,  after  exploring  the 
west  coast,  been  driven  out  to  sea  by  a  storm,  and 
thus  accidentally  doubling  tho  Cape  which  he  saw  on 
his  way  back,  giving  it  the  name  of  the  Cape  of 
Storms  (Cabo  Tormertoso).  The  King  of  Portugal, 
however,  gu'e  it  the  more  auspicious  name  it  still 
bears,  as  its  discovery  afforded  a  hope  of  a  new  and 
easier  way  of  reaching  India,  the  great  object  of  all 
the  maritime  expeditions  of  that  age. 

The  great  navigator  Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the 
Cape  in  1497,  and  carried  the  Portuguese  flag  into  the 
Indian  seas.  His  countr^'men,  however,  attracted  by 
the  riches  of  the  East,  made  no  permanent  settlement 
at  the  Cape,  although  they  frequently  touched  there 
on  the  voyage  to  India.  But  the  Dutch,  who,  on  the 
decline  of  the  Portuguese  power,  established  them- 
selves In  the  East,  early  saw  the  importance  of  the  place 
as  a  station  where  their  vessels  might  take  in  water 
and  provisions.  They  did  not,  however,  colonize  it 
till  1650,  when  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  directed 
Jan  Van  Rleheeck,  with  s  small  party  of  colonists,  to 
form  a  settlement  there.  The  country  was  at  that 
time  Inhabited  by  a  people  called  Qualquae,  t>ut  to 
whom  the  Dutch  seem  to  have  given  the  name  of  Hot- 
tentots. Tlie  Kiebeeck  settlers  bad  at  first  greut  diffi- 
culties and  hardships  to  endure,  and  their  territorj-  did 
not  extend  beyond  a  few  miles  round  the  site  of  the 
present  Cape  Town,  where  they  first  fixed  their 
abode.  They  gradually,  however,  extended  their 
limits,  by  driving  the  natives  back  or  reducing  them 
to  serfdom.  These  colonists,  although  under  Dutch 
authority,  were  not  wholly  of  that  nation,  but  con- 
sisted partly  of  jiersons  of  various  nations,  especially 
Germans  and  Flemings,  with  a  few  Poles  and  Portu« 


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game.  Thajr  war*  for  tba  matt  pert  people  of  low 
station  or  indlfftrant  character  |  thara  wu,  howevar, 
a  small  number  »f  a  lilKlier  claaa,  from  whom  waa 
aalectad  a  council  to  aniilit  tha  goremor.  About  the 
year  168U  tba  European  populatkm  waa  increaiad  by  a 
number  uf  the  French  r«fuKK««  wholaft  their  country 
on  the  revocation  of  tlie  edict  of  Nanteii.  Our  limits 
forbid  our  attempting  Ut  tra<:a  the  hlntory  of  the  Cape 
Colony  during  tha  leni^thened  parlud  It'remained  un- 
der tba  Dutch  government.  We  may,  however,  men- 
tion aome  of  It*  pniminent  Incldentu,  the  effects  of 
which  are  viiiil)la  in  the  eolimy  to  this  hour. 

lat.  The  Dutch,  partly  tiy  ao-valled  contracta,  p,irtlr 
by  force,  gmdually  de|irlve4l  the  Hottentot*  of  their 
country.  2d.  They  reduced  to  alavery  a  large  part  of 
that  unfortunate  people  whom  tliey  did  not  destroy. 
Sd.  They  iutruduccd  a  nunilxtr  of  Malay*  and  negroes 
as  slsvea.  4th.  They  (.■stalilistied  that  narrow  and 
tyrannical  sy*t«m  of  poli<!y  «liich  they  have  adopted 
in  other  colonies,  pretcriliing  to  the  farmer*  the  nature 
of  the  crop*  they  were  to  grow,  demanding  from  them 
a  large  part  of  their  produce,  and  harassing  them  with 
other  exactigns  tending  to  discourage  industry  and 
enterprise.  We  are  of  opinion  that  to  this  mischiev- 
ous policy  is  due  the  origin  of  those  unsettled  habits, 
that  dielike  to  orderly  government,  and  that  desire  to 
escape  from  Its  control,  which  chararterlsse  a  con*idcr- 
oble  part  of  tlie  Ho-cuilcd  Dutch  Iwcrs  of  the  present 
day,  qualities  so  utterly  at  variance  with  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Dutch  in  their  native  country,  but  which 
were  strongly  manifested  at  the  Vipe  long  before  they 
came  under  British  rule,  and  under  those  iiifluences  to 
which  sumo  exclusively  attrliiute  the  insubordination 
of  those  men.  The  att«m|it*  of  the  boers  to  escape 
from  the  Dutch  |Kiwer,  and  so  form  an  independent 
government  lieyond  tiiu  liorders  of  the  colony,  espe- 
cially In  the  district  since  called  Oraatr-Reinet,  are 
strikingly  similar  to  their  proceeding*  at  n  latar  date 
under  the  Urltlsh  government.  Ctli.  The  Oamtoos 
River  formed  tha  isiundary  iictween  the  Hottentot 
and  Kalir  races,  and  was  early  adopted  iiy  the  Dutch 
as  their  eastern  limit  j  but  aiN.nt  the  year  1740  they 
began  to  pass  thU  river,  and  came  Into  collision  with 
the  Kalirs,  and  In  17MU  extendvil  their  frontier  to  the 
Great  I'ish  Itiver. 

In  17'JS  the  colonists,  having  imbibed  the  revolu- 
tionary principles  then  prevailing  in  Kurope,  attempted 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  Dutch,  uixm  which  the 
British  sent  a  fleet  to  supjwrt  the  authority  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
In  his  name.  As,  however,  it  wa«  evident  that  Hol- 
land wnuld  not  be  aide  to  hold  It,  and  that  at  a  general 
peace  it  would  be  mode  over  to  Kngland,  it  wa*  ruled 
by  British  governor*  tilt  the  year  1802,  when,  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  again  restored  to  Holland. 
In  1800,  on  renewal  of  tlie  war,  It  was  again  taken  by 
tha  Urltlsh  under  Hit  David  Italrd,  and  has  since  re- 
mained in  their  |iossesslvn,  having  been  finally  ceded 
by  the  King  of  the  Netherlands  at  the  peace  of  1815. 

PopuliUion,— tha  total  [wpulation  of  the  colony  is 
stated  In  the  returns  a*  V!17,()21,  of  which  118,088  are 
persons  of  color.  The  latter  consist  of  Hottentots  (so 
called)  Malays,  Negroes,  and  Kafirs.  The  white 
population  is  chiefly  composed  of  colonial  Dutch  and 
British. 

The  alioriglnat  of  tba  countrj-  bad  originally  the 
generic  name  of  QuaMju*,  and  received  the  name  of 
Hottentots  from  tha  Dutch,  Owing  to  intermarriages 
with  Malays,  negroes,  and  others,  and  Illicit  inter- 
course with  witites,  the  raite  boa  lost  much  of  Its  dis- 
thictive  character.  Indeetl,  a  pure  Hottentot  is 
acarcely  to  Im  found  In  tlie  cokiny,  although  the  peo- 
ple, in  whom  the  ldoo<l  of  that  race  preponderates,  are 
atlll  known  by  that  name.  There  Is  no  return  of  their 
number,  but  wa  do  not  think  It  can  exceed  35,000. 
The  Malays  were  Introduced  by  the  Dutch  as  slaves ; 
Uieii  dascemlouta  itUl  reUtio.  tlta  Mohammedaa  relig- 


ion, and  most  of  the  distinctive  habits  and  customs  of 
their  race.  We  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  their 
number,  but  it  can  not  be  large.  They  reside  for  the 
most  part  in  the  Cape  division.  The  negroes  are  mostly 
from  the  eastern  coasts  of  Africa.  The  KatIra  resid- 
ing within  the  colony  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  seo- 
tioii  of  them  called  Flngoes,  who  originally  came  from 
Natal  and  its  vicinity,  whence  the}'  were  driven  I)}' 
Chaka,  king  of  the  Zulus,  end  took  refuge  with  Kaflrs 
on  the  frontier  of  the  Cape  colony,  by  whom  they  were 
reduced  to  serfdom,  from  which  they  were  lil>er«ted  by 
Sir  Benjamin  D'Urlmn,  and  have,  up  to  this  time,  re- 
mained faithful  allies  of  the  British.  Their  number 
may  be  about  26,000. 

The  exact  proportion  which  the  wliite  papulation  of 
Dutch  descent  bears  to  the  British  is  not  known  ;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  still  greatly  preponderates. 
We  have  called  the  people  Dutch  for  sake  of  conve- 
nience, as  they  speak  that  language,  but  many  uf  them 
are  descended  from  Europeans  of  other  countrie»^-a 
considerable  number  from  the  French  refugees.  The 
latter  have  lost  the  language,  but  still  retain  the 
names  of  their  forefathers,  such  as  Du  Plesais,  De  Vil- 
llers,  Marais,  and  others.  The  British  and  their  de- 
scendants require  no  special  remark. 

Trade. — The  following  table,  giving  the  amount  of 
imports  and  exports  in  several  years,  taken  at  inter- 
vals, exhibits  the  progress  of  the  commerce  of  the 
colony : 


y.«ri. 

iDiporu. 

Ex|N)ru. 

shlppU.,. 

1886 

£541,038 

732,^94 

944,036 

1,277,101 

1,651,691 

985,266 

£862,280 
77.^,060 
694,920 
637,252 

1,004,884 
691,352 

ig|i|| 

1840 

1849 

1850 

1868 

1864 

These  exports  do  not  entirely  consist  of  colonial 
produce,  but  partly  of  goods  re-exported.  The  value 
of  colonial  produce  alone  exported  during  185.S  was 
f  732,245,  of  which  f  297,846  was  from  Cape  Town, 
and  ^£435,899  from  Port  Elizabeth.  The  amount  of 
tonnage,  however,  of  vessels  entering  Table  Bay  is 
much  greater  than  that  entering  Port  Elizabeth,  on 
account  of  the  larger  number  of  Indiaraen  and  other 
vessels  calling  at  the  former  for  provisions ;  but  the 
actual  trade  of  the  latter  is  much  greater,  as  shown  by 
the  exports. 

The  fidlowing  is  a  table  of  the  chief  articles  of  col- 
onial produce  and  manufactures  exported  during 
1863,  from  Cape  Town  and  Port  Elizabeth  respect- 
ively : 


p.  Ell>. 


Aloes 

Argol 

Beef  and  pork 

Batter. 

Copper  ore. . . 
Corn  and  roesi 

Barley... 

Beans  dc  peas 

Bran 

Flour 

Oats 

■Wheat 

Feathom 

Fish  (cured).. 
FralM  (dried). 


2^250 


2,.S09 
1,860 


1,519 


Ca|M 
Town. 

£1,546 

1,161 

3,709 

642 

8,463 


1,061 
1,577 

2,865 
29,7K> 
18,709, 
2.50 
3,809 
898  9,876 
20,274! 


1 

Port 

1 

Ellubeth 

iHldos 

£9,186 

Horns 

1,022 

iHorses 

, 

ilvory 

12,148 

Mules 

OIL 

jOost  skins 

'iik 

Soal  skins..... 

Sheep  skins... 

2,827 

Spirits,  brandy 

Tallow 

1,887 

Wlnc.Conston- 
tla ...;.. 

.... 

Ordinary.. .... 

IWool 

890'687 

Cspe    I 
Town. 

£7,304! 

1,8831 

8,414 

75 

894 

666 

12,626 

69 

11,969 

8,852 

494 

66 
26,799 
110,498 


The  most  important  export  is  woi.1 .  and  the  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  progress  of  the  expo.t  nf  this  arti- 
cle:  . :  • 

Port  EUuib«th.         Cam  Town. 

1838 S9,758Ibs.        78,8»»  lbs.       • 

1843 1,«20,880  6.<M,377 

1853 6,160,916  1,708,692 

There  were  imported  into  London  from  the  Cape 
torritories  22,706  bales  of  wool  in  1858;  22,602  fai 
1864;  and28,087inl85e. 

By  the  summary  of  an  official  table  in  tha  Cape 
Govemmtnt  Gazellt,  the  custom-house  returns  of  gooda 


GOO 


840 


GOO 


imported  for  the  first  aix  mboths  of  1854  and  1866  give 
th«  following  ntults :  For  tha  first  six  months  of 
1864,  goods  imported,  £879,788 ;  for  the  same  months 
of  1856,  £622,218,  ninleing  for  those  12  months,  £1,- 
602,006.  Goods  entered  for  consumption  for  the  first 
six  months  of  1864,  i:827,702 ;  for  the  same  months  of 
1866,  £648,486— for  those  12  months,  £1,471,187.  The 
exports  of  articles  the  produce  of  the  colony  for  the 
first  six  months  of  1864  were  valued  at  £816,679 ;  for 
the  same  months  of  1866,  at  .£140,816— for  those  12 
months,  £756,896.  The  excess  of  imports  for  con- 
sumption over  the  estimated  value  of  colonial  produce 
exported  during  the  12  months  referred  to  is  thus 
shown  to  be  £714,792. 

In  these  returns  we  have  the  amount  of  customs 
duties  collected  only  for  the  first  six  months  of  1866. 
They  amounted  to  £81,770  for  the  first  quarter ;  and 
to  £86,106  for  the  second ;  total  for  six  months,  £66,- 
876.  The  two  chief  articles  of  export  are  wool  and 
wine.  On  both,  the  increase  has  l>een  very  great. 
The  wool  exported  during  the  first  six  months  of  1864 
was  \-alued  at  £221,866.  In  the  same  months  in 
1866,  at  £297,886.  The  wine  for  the  same  months  re- 
spectively was  valued  at  £13,426  and  £88,169.  Wine 
was  once  the  staple  export,  amounting  in  seven  yrars 
to  between  £80,000  and  £100,000.  The  quantity  pro- 
duced is  supposed  to  be  as  great  as  ever  it  was,  but  it 
has  found  a  more  profitable  market  within  tha  colony. 


Tha  wool  of  the  eastern  and  middle  districts  is  indU 
rectly  exchanged  for  the  wines,  dried  fruits,  and  flour 
of  the  western  division. 

Copper  ore  is  a  new  article  of  export.  For  the  first 
six  months  of  1864  this  export  was  valued  at  £4,720 ; 
In  1866,  at  £14,179. 

The  revenue  of  the  colony  is  derived  chiefly  from 
the  customs  duties,  stamp  and  auction  duties,  and  a 
direct  tax  called  transfer  dues,  at  the  rate  of  4  per 
cent,  on  the  purchase  money  of  all  landed  property 
sold,  whether  I>y  auction  or  privately.  The  expendi- 
ture is  for  payment  of  snlnries  of  the  officials  and  other 
disbursement!)  incidental  to  the  support  of  the  civil 
government.  The  military'  expenditure  is  at  present 
borne  l>y  the  imperial  treasury.  The  subjoined  table 
shows  the  progress  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure : 

R«r«nii«.  Eipandllnr*. 

1839 £130,808  £126,889 

1842 226,261  226,026 

1852 289,482  252,495 

1868 808,472  268,111 

The  construction  of  good  roads  of  late  years,  by  the 
judicious  employment  of  the  convicts,  the  establish- 
ment of  road  boards,  and  other  measures  for  the  same 
object  by  the  late  able  Colonial  Secretary,  Mr.  Mon- 
tagu, have  tended  greatly  to  develop  the  resources  of 
the  colony,  and  to  increase  its  commerce  and  revenue. 
— E.  B. 


CoKHiBCK  or  TUX  Umitid  Statis  with  tiik  Caps  or  Oood  Hopc  and  Bsitisu  South  AmKiaAH  Possxssioiis,  rBOH 

OcTOBia  1,  1820,  TO  JuLT  1,  1866, 


VMntDdlor 

Ktporta. 

Import!. 

Wharoof  Ihera  wh  Id  BuIIIoi 
•nd  gpMie. 

ToDlMfe  CIoftNd. 

DomeXle. 

Fonlgn, 

ToW. 

ToUl. 

Eiportnl. 

Imported. 

Amerlr«a. 

Fonlgi. 

Sept  80,  1821 

1822 

1828 

1824 

1896 

1826 

"          1897 

1898 

1899 

1880 

Total.... 

BeptSO,  1881 

1832 

1888 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888 

188* 

1840 

Total.... 

Sent  80,  1841 

1842 

*mo*.     1843 

JnneSO,  1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

184* 

1860 

Total.... 

June  80,1851 

1852 

.      1868 

'"  .    1861 

1886 

1866 

$M60 
91,154 

tiik 

$"6;i80 
97,587 

$68^875 

46^669 
^186 

$8;66o 

"iss 

800 

"482 
425 

:... 

$27,804 

$7.668 

M,S65 
86,218 
28,898 
92,718 
88,879 
83.81* 

$6,483 

$2,521 
4,6i7 

197 

$88,787 

$7,862 
2,521 
60,666 
90,736 
28,898 
22,718 
93,899 
86,018 

$116,620 

$l8j6o 

4'l',760 
28,736 
98,799 
12,084 
48,069 
89,8*4 

$5;090 

$8,500 
$766 

1,295 

"207 
1,600 

716 
1,650 

465 
1,064 
2,278 

660 

"i89 
"160 

$880,166 

$51,824 

8bl053 

82,988 

83,748 

28,718 

106,172 

100,388 

H429 

143,219 

$12,256 
$1°9;9S9 

$842,411 
$51,824 

sb'ms 

82,988 
88,743 
93,718 
106,179 
190,277 
M,429 
148,219 

$966,401 

$17,166 
98,815 
81,199 
29,166 
26,439 
81,686 
86,041 
60,431 
71,298 
72,206 

$6,020 

$4;6oo 

l'6;c>89 

$766 
'1919 

8,420 

958 

"406 
1,68* 
498 
2,296 
9,287 
1,670 
9,728 
1,919 

299 
153 

152 

827 
613 
9S8 
881 
664 
902 

$665,924 

$161,891 
224,236 
867,231 
992,628 
443,476 
896,780 

$19,989 

$l',7i8 
8,141 
7.880 
8,887 

81,471 

$685,868 

$161,891 
223,964 
870,873 
999,968 
4»2,811 
418,251 

$419,429 

$123,228 
190,790 
802,803 
448,903 
418,688 
488,694 

$19,589 
.... 

.... 

$919 
$1,800 
87;io9 

11,631 

14,444 

2,501 
4,848 
4,706 
8,869 
^65« 
7,078 

The  commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
the  Cape  of  Oood  Hope  colony  are  now  dependi^nt  on 
the  regulations  of  a  legislative  council  and  a  house  of 
assembly.  Those  Iwdies  assembled,  for  the  first  time, 
duriiTg  the  past  yecr  (1H64),  under  the  name  of  the 
Colonial  Parliament  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Ex- 
ports fVom  this  colony  consist  principally  of  aloes,  ar- 
gol,  hides,  horns,  whale  oil,  goat  and  sheep  skins, 
wine,  and  wool.  Chief  imports  fh>m  the  United 
State*  are  spuits,  soap,  stationery  and  books,  sugar. 


timber,  wine,  tobiicoo,  hardware  and  ironmongery, 
sundries. 

Nnmlwr  of  American  vessels  entered  the  ports  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  18fi8 :  Vessels,  45 ;  tannage, 
16,278.  Number  of  American  vessels  cleared  from 
the  same  ports  in  18.53 :  Vessels,  22 ;  tonnage,  2,180. 

Port  Regulntloiu,  Dutiea,  etc Kntrance  or  clearance 

of  a  vessel,  (1  44  ;  landing  or  shipping  cargo  of  a 
vessel,  f  3  60 ;  clearance  of  a  coaster,  $0  86 ;  manifest 
of  export  c.irgo,  ifO  36 ;  permit  to  land  or  ship  meiw 


GON 


841 


GOS 


ehandise  under  rolne  of  ^86,  fO  18 1  slmv*  |M,  |0  M, 
A  wharfage  duty  is  also  charged  on  all  good*,  w»r«it, 
or  merchandise  landed. 

An  export  duty  is  charged  on  all  ttapUi  llllptNWl 
from  any  of  the  ports  of  the  Cupa  |  but  tba  ewporUir  i)f 
any  quantity  of  good  Cape  wine  shall  ha  «utltl«4  Ut 
enter,  duty  free,  one  gallon  imperial  meaaura  itf  tiAfiin 
of  the  strength  of  Skye's  hydrumatar,  In  r«a|Met  »( 
ever}'  ten  gallons  imperial  measure  of  wiiia  m>  *K' 
ported.  For  the  accommodation  of  shipping,  tank' 
boats  are  always  in  readiness  with  (orca-jtumfm  mtd 
hose,  carrying  from  20  to  40  tons  of  watar  A  priK 
tective  duty  in  favor  of  British  produce  and  nmnufmi' 
tures  exists  at  the  Cape  porta ;  and  the  aJ  viUurtm  of 
12  per  cent,  on  all  goods  to  which  no  apaciAi!  Auiy  U 
assigned,  is  reduced  to  6  per  cent,  in  favor  of  CIraat 
Britain.— Com.  Digett  U.  8.  See  Cai>k  oV  iit)Mt 
Hope. 

Good^vln  Sanda,  a  range  of  sand-banlM  \y\n% 
about  four  or  five  miles  oflT  the  east  coast  of  Kunt,  IM- 
tween  the  North  and  South  Forelands,  Tltay  M» 
about  ten  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  an*l 
vary  in  breadth  from  one  and  a  half  to  thraa  iiiiUtfi, 
They  are  divided  into  two  portions  liy  a  narrow  t'\\m\- 
nel,  navigable  by  small  boats.  Thay  are  in  many 
places  dry  at  low  water,  and  from  their  shifting  ftiui 
loose  nature  are  very  dangerous  fur  shipping,  liit< 
teen  them  and  the  mainland  Is  tlie  roailsttiad  («rMM4 
the  Downs.  These  sands  are  said  to  have  at  nm  tluw 
formed  part  of  the  Kentish  land,  and  to  have  htmn  sul** 
merged  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Williain  Ituflis, 
or  the  beginning  of  that  of  Henry  I.  Hevaral  ligllt* 
vessels  are  fixed  here  as  beacons  |  and  during  foggy 
weather  gongs  are  sounded  every  ten  minutas, 

Oontdves,  a  sea-port  of  Ilayti.  'VUan  ent«rwt 
this  port  in  1849  and  1860,  182  vessels,  niuaoMriog  in 
the  aggregate  29,801  tons ;  and  thera  claarad  )M7, 
with  an  aggregate  of  30,19G  tons.  TIta  forinar  \mm- 
perity  of  this  port  resulted  from  the  imniansa  ipMnti' 
titles  of  ebinisterre  (cabinet-maker's  wood)  aiMt  dj'O' 
woods,  which  accumulated  at  the  mouth  of  tlw 
Artibonite  from  ever>'  [wint  of  its  coursa,  prior  to  tlw 
independence  of  Dominica ;  but  such  is  tlia  iilmilgo 
that  has  taken  place,  that,  to-day,  it  8xbil)itl«  w'.ir^HTy 
the  shadow  of  its  former  commerco.  Its  u»|Mrtii, 
with  their  average  quantities  and  valuus,  ara  i->lM»iiil)it4 
as  follows : 

QlWllttlsl, 
Ezporta,  Kll'fi. 

Coffee 6,m,<m 

Cotton JBO,i)()0 

Acajou ■4,B(»,000 

Campcche,Onyac(llgnum-vlta))  3,600,000 


y»ii(f, 

rmiti. 


Formerly  large  quantities  of  wax,  pitre,  and  lumm, 
were  exported  from  Gonaives  ;  but  tItU  trada  M*  of 
late  year.4  greatly  declined.  The  exports  at  proscMt 
consist  of  cereals  and  coffee,  not  only  from  tItu  naigll' 
boring  eommunet,  but  from  the  whole  arruiuliittmntil 
of  St.  Marc,  which  is  a  closed  port.  The  toffifu  of  tllifi 
port  is  of  the  ver}-  best  quality,  and  commands  tiM  htglk 
est  price.  Hence  it  is,  that  vessels  whii'h  mn  not  miilMi 
up  their  cargoes  of  coffee  at  Port-au-I'riuca,  toni^h  «t 
this  port  for  such  quantities  as  tliey  can  olitain,  Tilt 
imports  in  1860  reached  a  value  of  alwiut  fl,(KM,0(KI 
franca.  Of  this,  the  United  States  suppllad  provisions, 
lumber,  and  cotton  goods  to  a  value  of  »u»rly  l,VM,im 
francs  ($279,000),  or  one  half  of  the  wliola,  Kligkiid, 
France,  and  the  German  States  figure  chiafty  |h  tll« 
other  half— the  trade  of  the  two  latter  seaming  rit(ll«r 
on  the  decline.  There  are  at  Gonaives  24  foreign 
merchants ;  and  of  the  commercial  housna,  niltfl  M» 
French  and  four  English,  while  hut  one  Is  Km»l\m\\, 
The  following  summary  of  the  trade  liatwavit  tlio 
United  States  and  the  port  of  (ionuivas  during  tlia 
first  aixmonths  of  1856  is  made  up  from  otiiiiiiil  rcturfia  i 
Number  of  vessels  (American)  entered  and  'daarii't,  M, 
with  an  aggregate  of  4,317  tons.  Value  of  mt^tm  lt|. 
ward,  not  given  in  ojBoial  returns ;  vii)iM  «f  vw§m 


OHtWdfd,  l|2,088,420  96,  Haytlen  currency— about  16 
llNXtinn  dollars  being  equal  to  1  American.  Cargoea 
ittward  consisted  of  provisions  and  lumber.  Several 
v«MMll»  touched  at  the  port,  laden  in  part,  to  complete 
<!Argo«s,  Outward  cargoes  consisted  of  coffee,  mahog- 
Mfty,  aiid  logwoo<l, 

(lordenia.  (Oordonia  L<uxanthu$).  A  tree  known 
1(1  Vtmua  as  (Uirdtmia  it  feuillei  glabret,  in  Germany 
»«  /Miimltetif/e  (limlonie,  and  in  the  United  States  as 
l^ililidlj)  liny.  The  Gordonla  Lasiantbus,  in  its  native 
KOMotry,  la  a  iMiautiful  sub-evergreen  tree,  growing  to 
tlw  liolght  (;f  M  or  UM  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  18  or  20 
IlKihos,  This  tree  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  mari- 
tittw  pari*  vt  the  United  States,  from  Virginia  to  lower 
f/Olllsi«n«,  According  to  Michaux,  tracts  of  60  or  100 
miit%  are  met  with  In  the  pine-barrens,  which,  being 
lowpf  tlwti  the  adjacent  ground,  are  kept  constantly 
moist  by  the  waters  collected  in  them  after  great  rains. 
TlwMi  Kpirts  ate  entirely  covered  with  this  species,  and 
Mrs  nailed  hay'nmmpi. 

't'hs  wood  ot  the  Gordonia  Lasiantbus  is  extremely 
light,  «  cubic  foot  of  which,  when  dry,  does  not  weigh 
\wm  tlrim  20  pounds.  In  trunks  of  these  trees  which 
ftMWdil  iiore  than  16  Inches  in  diameter,  four  fifths  d 
tlw  wood  Is  heart  \  it  is  of  a  rosy,  or  mohogany  hue, 
«H(1  of  n  One  silky  texture,  which  render  it  very  pro- 
|wr  for  the  Inside  of  furniture,  though  the  cypress  is 
gMllcMlly  preferred.  When  seasoned  it  is  exceedingly 
Iffittld,  and  rapidly  decays  when  exposed  to  the  alter- 
ltMtimi<)  of  moisture  and  dryness.  The  bark  may  be 
tMk«H  off  tills  tree  during  three  months  of  the  year, 
which  shows  that  the  sap  is  in  vigorous  motion  a  much 
li/llg«r  jMf  lod  than  It  is  in  most  other  trees.  The  value 
of  tllB  bark  In  tanning,  compensates,  in  some  measure, 
for  the  usclessness  of  the  wood,  for  which  purpose  it 
loot  Imcn  employed  In  times  past,  throughout  tlie  mar- 
ItltiW  ports  of  the  southern  States  and  Florida.  Al- 
though this  branch  of  industry  was  never  so  exten- 
sively practiced  in  the  southern  as  in  the  northern 
p«fts  of  the  United  States— the  regions  where  this 
tr««  Abounds  do  not  afford  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
lotrk  tifopor  for  tanning,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
lfllMl(ltatits,  Hence,  nearly  all  the  leather  and  arti- 
cle* fnanufiictured  therefrom,  consumed  in  the  southern 
HtHl<M,  are  carried  from  the  north.  A  bark  suitable  for 
th«  purpose  of  tanning,  is  more  valuable  in  the  United 
Mtat«»  than  at  first  sight  might  be  supposed.  Although 
tlwfe  arn  a  great  variety  of  oaks,  and  many  of  the 
S(/«cl«s  profusely  multiplied,  yet  there  are  but  a  very 
f«W  of  them  that  are  sufficiently  rich  in  tannin  to  be 
worth  using, — Ilroicne't  Trees  of  America. 

(tOtpOtt,  tk  fortified  sen-port  and  market  town  of 
Ktlglatld,  county  of  Hants,  on  the  western  side  of 
I'ortitffloMth  harbor,  near  its  month,  directly  opposite 
and  alxmt  n  mile  from  Portsmouth,  with  which  it  is 
('(»fin«i't«d  by  a  flouting  bridge  moved  by  a  steam- 
ttngllld  working  un  two  fixed  chains.  It  forms  no 
pftft  WT  the  liuruugh  of  Portsmouth,  but  is  governed  by 
trusttes  under  an  old  act  of  Parliament.  It  is  forti- 
fi«d  0(1  the  bind  side  by  a  line  of  bastions  extending 
frirtll  Wwvll  to  Alverstoke,  and  having  the  appear- 
rttM'H  of  lielng  a  segment  of  tbe  fortifications  of  Ports- 
tnoutll,  IVltbln  the  fortifications  is  the  Koyal  St. 
(ililfflOcB  VIctuallng-yard,  with  brcwerj-,  cooperage, 
IKiWiler^magaitines,  biscuit-baking  establishment,  and 
st</fP'hoiise9  for  various  kinds  of  provisions  for  the 
royal  imvy,  To  the  south  is  the  magnificent  Haslar 
KiltAl  lfos|ittal,  capable  of  containing  2000  patients. 
Gospoft  has  also  an  extensive  establishment  for  the 
matlllfiicttire  of  anchors  and  chain  cables.  It  communi- 
I'dtcs  with  I,ondon  by  the  South-western  Railway.  The 
»'Ort»tllig-trade  Is  considerable.  Population  (1851)  7,414. 
OoSSMtner,  a  fine,  filmy  substance,  like  a  cobweb, 
ol>si<rvnd  boating  in  the  air,  especially  in  autumn.  It 
often  seen  In  stubble-fields,  and  upon  furze  and 


M 


ollwr  low  bushes,  and  is  probably  produced  by 
s|)««i«s  of  Dpldsr. 


CM)T 


$» 


GOT 


Ootha  Canal  The  following  iafonnatlon  relative 
to  the  Gotha  Canal  is  extracted  from  Macoreqor'b 
Commfrciat  Tariffi  and  Regulaiiotu  of  Noneag  and 
Stoeden :— "  The  inleta,  lakes,  and  rivers  of  Sweden 
have  always  afforded  great  fiicilities  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  tlie  produce  of  her  forests  ond  mines.  A  canal, 
to  avoid  the  long  and  tortnous  navigation  of  the  Sound 
and  Sound  dues,  was  projected  at  an  curly  period  hy 
Sweden.  The  Haeler,  a  deep  inlet,  enters  Sweden  at 
Stoclcholm  from  the  Baltic,  and  branchps  north  to  Up- 
sala,  and  west  70  miles  among  a  multitude  of  islands, 
to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Lake  Hielmar.  The  Ar- 
boga  Canal,  opened  during  the  latter  end  of  Che  last 
century,  is  navigable  between  the  Maeler  and  that 
lake ;  and  it  was  then  considered  that  it  might  be  con- 
tinued ttom  the  Hielmar  to  the  Wettern  Lake,  but  the 
project  was  found  impracticable ;  the  distance  between 
the  Maeler  and  Sodree  Barker,  near  the  confines  of 
Dalecarlia  and  the  mining  districts,  was  opened  at  the 
same  period  by  mcanr,  of  the  Stroemsholm  Cnnal  and 
the  Lake  Fredra,  and  rivers.  The  Ootha  Kiver,  which 
runs  from  Lake  Wenem  (the  largest  in  Europe  except 
the  I^oga)  into  the  sea  of  Gothenburg,  though  in 
many  parts  deep  and  navigable,  was  interrupted  by 
falls  and  islands.  These  were  finally  surmounted, 
after  extraordinary  difficulties  (the  whole  of  the  gi- 
gantic works  having  been  once  swept  off  by  the 
impetuosity  of  the  water),  by  the  execution  of  the 
Trollhaetta  Canal  in  1800.  It  is  three  miles  long, 
and  has  eight  sluices  to  ascend  and  descend  112  feet. 
At  one  place  it  was  cut  70  feet  deep  through  the  rocks. 
The  whole  expense  was  about  £80,000.  The  Lake 
Wenem  was  afterward  joined  by  a  canal  to  the  Lake 
Wettern,  and  finally  the  canalization  of  the  whole 
distance  to  Soderkoping  and  the  Baltic  was  completed 
In  1832." 

Rtgulatiotu  for  Shipt passing  through  the  Cotha  CoimI, 
— See.  1.  Ships  and  cargoes  from  all  countries,  and 
coming  from  or  going  to  whatever  place  or  places,  are 
permitted,  without  obstruction,  to  pass  through  the 
canal,  unless  the  nation  or  nations  to  which  the  chips 
or  cargoes  belong  are  known  to  be  in  open  hostilit}' 
with  Sweden ;  and  the  canal  transit  dues,  lioth  on 
vessels  and  cargoes,  shall  be  equal  for  all  nations.  2. 
The  canal  dues  on  all  shipping  are  to  be  paid  according 
to  their  tonnage,  making  no  difference  whatever 
whether  laden  or  empty.  8.  The  canal  dues  on  ves- 
sels are  to  be  paid  at  the  rate  of  12  skillings  Swedish 
banco  per  last,  equivalent  to  10  skillings  Swedish 
banco  per  commercial  last  of  2  English  tons.  In  this 
charge  is  not  included  pilotage  on  the  lakes,  nor  pay- 
ment for  the  trailing  by  oxen  or  horses  on  the  Gotha 
Canal,  which  charges  are  specially  fixed  by  the  direct- 
ors. 

4,  In  calculating  the  tonnage  of  vessels  passing 
through  the  canal,  and  also  the  quantity  of  merchan- 
dise, it  is  to  be  observed,  with  regard  to  the  first 
named,  that  such  vessels  as  are  provided  with  Swedish 
measure-bills  will  pay  the  dues  according  to  the  bur- 
den stated  in  said  l)ills  ;  but  sncli  as  arc  without,  will 
be  charged  pursuant  to  a  table  reduced,  conformaldy 
to  usual  practice,  ftrom  the  foreign  lasts,  tons,  etc.,  to 
Swedish  lasts ;  and,  further,  ds  relates  to  goods,  that 
the  wsights  and  measures  stated  in  the  tariff  of  pounds, 
ship-ponnds,  barrels,  etc.,  are  meant  Swedish  pounds, 
and  ship-pounds  commercial  or  victuals'  weight  (ex- 
cepting Iron,  and  other  metals,  by  which  are  meant  Swe- 
dish staple  weights),  and  Swedish  barrels  containing 
82  kapps  solid  measure  ;  and  farther,  that  such  foieign 
poiVids,  ship-pounds,  barrels,  lasts,  etc.,  as  may  be  in- 
serted into  its  bills  of  lading  and  ship's  papers,  are  to  be 
reduced  to  Swedish  weights  and  measures,  in  con<brm- 
|ty  to  a  fixed  table  to  be  made  out  for  that  purpose. 

6.  With  respect  to  tare,  or  the  weight  of  the  case 
Or  outer  covering,  no  charge  will  be  made.  The  canal 
dues  are  to  be  paid,  according  to  the  tariff,  only  on  the 
quantity  in  weight  or  measure  as  inserted  in  the  bill 


of  lading  or  ship's  paport,  whethor  tiNMMMl  In  ffttu 
or  net.  A  barrel  of  grain,  salt,  etc,,  shipped  In  liulk, 
or  barrels  or  bags,  are  charged  allka  |  plp<MiUy,  unalg, 
etc.,  in  bulk  or  packed  in  casks,  tlia  sam*  |  ««  also 
wines  and  other  liquids,  whether  in  targiir  or  smiillM' 
casks ;  and  only  in  snch  cases  wlier>i  tlin  la«t-nntniid 
are  in  bottles,  then  the  additional  duty  niuiit  Im  piilft 
for  the  bottles,  according  to  the  tariff,  tti«  saina  as  if 
they  were  shipped  empty,  for  themselves, 

6i  If  any  vessel,  entered  at  the  inward  cusltmi' 
houses  at  Gothenburg  or  Soderkoping,  only  to  pntM 
through  the  canal  from  sea  to  sea,  sliiiuld  dls«liarg* 
any  part  of  her  cargo  witliout  tlie  most  (trdsalng  nfl< 
cesstty,  either  in  the  Klver  Getha-Klf,  or  any  of  the 
lakes,  or  on  the  canal,  such  vessel  to  be  fiirfailpd,  and 
the  master  subjected  to  the  penalty  of  the  law  for  tho 
unlawful  importation  of  goo<Ut  and  further,  to  ho 
fined,  according  to  the  circumstances.  In  the  sum  of 
100  rixdalers  to  600  rixdalers  banco,  Ths  somo  law 
will  be  put  into  execution  against  all  veMiala  receiving 
other  cargoes  or  mora  goods  on  board,  daring  thn  pass- 
age to  and  from  one  or  other  of  the  ports  of  Giithni' 
burg  and  So<lerknpin^.  Kliipa'  husluinds,  nr  owners  of 
goods,  convicted  of  knowing,  abetting,  and  aiding  In 
the  illegal  loading  or  iinlnuding  of  gMMls,  as  aforesaid, 
will  be  subjected  to  the  siima  itenaltles,  Tho  valuo  of 
the  confiscated  vessel,  which  shall  Ixi  dutiirmlred  by 
sale  by  public  auction,  will  Im  responsilila  for  thn  full 
payment  of  all  dues  which  ths  vasael  anil  <-argo  would 
have  been  subjected  to,  according  t»  the  tariff,  for  tha 
whole  passage  from  sea  to  seu  |  and  the  nurpliis  of  tho 
proceeds  then  remaining  to  !>•  divldwl,  two  fifths  In 
equal  shares  to  the  informer  and  thus*  who  prnVH  tho 
illegal  fact,  and  three  fifths  to  the  canal  (imslon  fund 
and  the  board  of  customs,  also  In  eqnnl  aharos. 

There  are  other  regulations,  exemptions,  iind  prIvU 
leges  applicaljle  to  vessels  iMssing  tlirough  tho  (jlnthlt 
Canal,  between  the  lialtic  and  the  North  Ht»,  which, 
as  they  are  given  in  full  in  tho  "  Dif/fil  iflh  Kfiftinff 
Commercial  Rfgulations  of  Forrign  t.'niinlri's,"  trans> 
mitted  to  Congress  from  tlie  Treasury  !>e|wrtment  In 
1888,  and  have  been  modified  liut  slightly,  if  at  all, 
since,  ar«  not  inserted  in  tills  volume.  They  may  li« 
found  in  that  work,  under  tli«  caption  "  Hwmlen." 

The  whole  length  of  this  canal  is  thus  estimated  I 

„  ^  Hwfdfiilt  hiIIm. 

From  Gottenburi  to  tho  Lska  iif  Wetioni, 
through  tbo  Kt\«r  (lutlisKir  and  tlia 

Canal  of  Trollhacllr. HJ         | 

Across  tho  Lakeof  Wcimrn ,,,  11 

Throufih  tho  Ootha  ('anal S) 

Tbrouxh  tlio  Ijikos  of  Wlkan,  Buttensjoo, 

and  Wottcm ,,,    A|         i 

From  tlio  Luko  of  Wotu-rii  to  the  Hsltlfl, 
and  throngh  tho  Lakes  of  lloren,  Boxen, 
and  Asplongon , , , ,    44       A 

Total  liver  1R<I  lakos Wk 

Total  canal  lino ^ 

Togethor. ,,,,,        m\~ 

Oottenburg,  or,  more  properly,  Ootbaborg,  on 

the  south-west  coast  of  Sweden,  at  the  head  of  a  fiord 
near  the  Cattegat,  which  receives  the  Klver  OMhn, 
Ittt.  57°  42'  A"  N.,  long.  11"  67'  46"  K,  I'.rpwiatlon 
29,000,  and  increasing.  Vessels  do  not  mmt  eK>s«  to 
the  city,  but  lie  In  the  river  or  hartior,  *i  » short  dis- 
tance from  the  shore,  go(/<ls  lieing  i-nnveymt  from  and 
to  them  by  lighters  that  navigate  the  canals  by  which 
the  lower  part  of  the  town  is  intersected.  Tho  depth 
of  water  in  the  port  is  17  feet,  and  there  Is  no  tide,  bar, 
or  shallow.  A  vessel  entering  the  Gitlia  must  take 
a  pilot  on  board,  whose  duty  It  is  to  meet  her  half  • 
league  west  of  Wliigo  beacon.  After  Ntockh^lffl, 
Gottenburg  has  the  most  extensive  comniime  of  any 
town  In  Sweden.  Iron  and  steel,  tli*  firmof  exeotlent, 
but  the  latter  Inferior  to  that  mwte  In  Kngland,  form 
the  principal  articles  of  ex|iort.  They  am  lirnnght 
trma  the  rich  mines  of  Wernieland,  distant  alMiut  200 
miles ;  being  conveyed  partly  by  tlio  l«k«  W«n«ra 


GOT 


848 


GRA 


pitrtl}-  by  the  TrollhBetta  Canal  (see  Canam),  and 
partly  by  the  River  Ootha.  The  exports  of  iron  in 
1847  amounted  in  all  to  27,447  tons.  The  original  cost 
of  iron  is  supposed  to  be  increased  alwnt  five  per  cent, 
by  the  exi)ense  of  Its  conveyance  to  Gottenburg  j  and 
the  shipping  charges,  inclusive  of  the  export  duty,  are 
about  10  per  cent,  additional.  The  next  great  article 
of  export  is  timber,  particularly  doals,  which  are  also 
furnished  by  Wermland.  Of  these,  the  exports  in 
1847  were  227,000  dozen,  but  this  is  above  the  average. 
The  other  articles  of  export  are,  linen,  sail-cloth,  tar, 
copper,  alum,  glass,  cobalt,  manganese,  linseed,  oak 
barli,  I)onc9,  junipBr-berries,  cranberries,  roclc-Aioss 
for  dj'oing,  etc.  Qrain  is  sometimes  imported,  and 
sometimes  exported.  The  principal  articles  of  import 
are  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton  yam  and  twist,  salt, 
indigo,  and  dye-woods.  South  Sea  oii,  rice,  herrings, 
winu,  spices,  etc.  There  belonged  to  the  port  in  1847, 
exclusive  of  river  craft,  120  vessels  of  the  aggregate 
burden  of  13,254  Swedish  lasts,  oratiout  30,000  English 
tons ;  and  ship-building  has  since  been  going  on  brisk- 
ly. The  opening  of  the  Gotha  Canal,  by  which  Got- 
tenburg  conimutiicates  with  a  large  portion  of  the 
interior  of  Sweden,  has  exercised  a  powerful  and  bene- 
ficial influence  over  her  commerce.  She  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade  with  England,  and  English  is  gener- 
ally understood.  Steamers  run  once  a  week  between 
Gottouburg  and  Hull  for  eight  months  of  the  year ; 
but  in  winter  the  intercourse  with  England  is  kept  up 
by  the  tedious  route  of  Lubec  ani  Hamburg.  The 
opening  of  the  Gotha  Canal  has  greatly  benefited  its 
commerce,  by  bringing  it  into  communication  with  a 
large  portion  of  the  interior  of  Sweden.  In  1819,  718 
vessels  entered,  and  14G2  cleixred  in  the  coasting  trade ; 
and  1018  vessels  entered  and  1011  left  for  foreign 
ports,  exclusive  of  steamers,  of  which  the  number  that 
entered  and  claared  out  at  the  port  were  88.  See 
GoTiiA  Canal. 

Herring  Fishery. — Gottenburg  used,  at  no  distant 
pericil,  to  be  one  of  the  principal  scats  of  the  herring 
fisher^' ;  but  at  present  this  branch  of  industry  is  quite 
extinct,  and  it  has  always  been  very  capricious.  From 
155G  to  1588  great  quantities  of  herrings  were  taken ; 
from  1588  to  1660,  they  left  the  coast;  during  the 
next  15  years  they  were  again  abundant;  but  from 
1675  to  1747  they  entirely  disappeared.  From  1747 
to  1770  they  were  abundant,  186,014  barrels  being 
taken  in  1763,  and  151,483  in  1768.  From  1786  to 
1799  the  fishery  was  verj-  good,  from  110,000  to  190,- 
000  barrels  being  annually  exported.  In  1804  the  ex- 
piort  was  79,512  barrels.  In  1808  and  1809  fish  were 
verj"  scarce ;  and  In  1812  thej-  entirely  disappeared, 
and  have  not  hitherto  returned ;  so  that  Gottenburg, 
instead  of  exporting,  at  present  imports  considerable 
supplies  of  herrings. 

Both  iron  and  timber  pay  duties  on  exportation,  but 
they  are  not  heavy. 

Custum-houae  Regulaliont  and  Port  Charges. — On  ar- 
riving  in  port,  no  pe/Son  is  allowed  to  board  or  to 
leave  a  vessel  till  she  be  in  custody  of  the  officers ; 
who,  having  inspected  the  manifest  and  papers,  send 
them  to  the  custom-house.  An  officer  is  appointed  to 
superintend  the  unloading,  and  also  the  loading.  The 
public  charges  of  all  sorts  on  a  Swedish  ship  and  on  a 
foreign  ship  not  privileged,  each  of  800  tons'  burden, 
unloading  and  loading  mixed  cargoes  at  Gottenburg, 
would  be,  on  the  former,  £24  5s.  7d. ;  on  the  latter, 
jC49  5s.  7d.  On  a  privileged  foreign  ship  the  charges 
are  the  same  as  on  a  Swedish  ship. 

Warehousing  System. — Goods  may  l)e  bonded  for  any 
length  of  time,  on  paying  one  half  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
for  the  lirst  two  years,  and  one  half  per  cent,  annually 
thereafter. 

Commission,  Credit,  etc The  usual  rate  of  commU- 

(ion  is  2  per  cent.  Goods  are  commonly  sold  on  credit. 
Raw  sugar  at  9  months'  with  3  months'  interest  to  the 
ieller.    Other  goods  at  8,  4,  and  6  months. 


Bankmff,  e<o.— There  are  no  pablio  or  private  bank- 
ing  establiahments  at  Gottenburg  for  the  issue  of 
notes ;  but  the  national  bank  has  two  offices  here 
which  advance  limited  sums  of  money,  at  Ave  per 
cent.,  on  security  of  goods,  and  in  discount  of  bills. 
Some  of  the  lOnglish  insurance  companies  have  agents 
here,  who  do  a  good  deal  of  business. 

Sea  Storti,  Water,  etc. — These  may  be  had  here  cf 
excellent  quality,  and  cheap.  Beef,  1^.  per  lb.,  best 
rye  bread,  2)d.  per  lb.,  and  butter,  6d  per  lb. 

Money,  Weights,  Measures,  etc.,  same  as  at  Stock- 
holm, which  see. 

In  compiling  this  article,  we  have  made  nia  of  Con- 
sular Returns,  Coxb's  Travels  in  the  North  of  Europe, 
vol.  iv.,  pp.  267-276,  and  some  valuable  private  conk' 
munications. 

Oraoe,  Day*  of,  in  commercial  law  are  certain 
days  allowed  by  the  custom  of  merchants  to  be  added 
to  the  time  requiclla  for  presentment  of  a  bill.  Thus, 
if  an  instrument  drawn  in  this  country  l>e  payable  "  a 
certain  time  after  date,"  tliree  days  of  grace  are  added : 
a  bill  drawn  on  the  27th  of  August,  payable  "two 
months  after  date,"  is  therefore  due  on  the  BOth  of  Oc- 
tober. So  if  a  foreign  bill  be  drawn  at  one,  two,  or 
more  "  usances,"  the  days  of  grace  are  added  to  the 
usance.  The  usance  between  London  and  Paris  is  one 
calendar  month.  A  bill  drawn  in  London  on  Paris 
"at  one  usance,"  on  the  2d  Januaij',  is  consequently 
due  on  the  6th  February.  The  number  of  days  of 
grace  varies  in  different  countries.  In  France  none 
are  allowed.     See  Dayb  of  Grace. 

Orain,  the  name  of  the  smallest  weight  in  com- 
mon use  It  is  the  24th  part  of  a  pennyweight 
troy,  and  the  20th  part  of  the  scruple  in  apothecaries' 
weight 

Grain  Markets.  There  were  received  at  Balti- 
more during  the  j.ast  year  (1856)  3,440,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  4,081,000  bushels  of  com,  847,300  bushels  of 
oats,  228,200  bushels  of  rj-e.  926,000  barrels  of  flour 
were  received. 

At  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  the  receipts  of  flour  were  1,143,- 
085  barrels ;  of  wheat,  8,848,117  bushels,  and  of  com, 
9,846,790  bushels. 

At  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  114,143  barrels  of  flour,  8,437,927 
busli  U  wheat,  3,548,621  bushels  of  com. 

At  liicago  the  receipts  of  grain  of  all  kinds  were 
24,00'  00  bushels,  and  the  shipments  about  20,000,000 
busher 

We  f  ve  below  a  table  showing  the  comparative 
Importaii'  of  the  principal  depots  of  the  world ;  from 
which  it  will  be  seen  that  Chicago  and  Bufl'alo  rank 
nearly  equal,  allowing  for  the  increase  of  one  year  in 
the  former  place.  Enough  is  shown  to  make  evident 
the  greater  importance  of  some  of  our  new  prairie 
cities  over  the  old  established  grain  d^pdts  of  Europe. 
Chicogo,  in  1823,  was  described  by  Major  Long,  In  his 
"  Expedition  to  St.  Peters,"  as  a  "  village  presenting 
no  cheering  prospect,"  and  one  not  promising  much 
in  commercial  importance. 


Wb«.t. 

IndUn  Cora. 

ns:;:""!  Toll. 

Uiuhell. 

Uu>Ucj]>. 

Uiikh«l». 

lluihoU. 

18M. 

Odessa 

^000,000 

.... 

1,440,000 

7,040,000 

Oalacz  &  ]]ralla 

2,400,000 

5,fi00,000 

3211,000 

8,320,000 

Daiititc 

8,080,000 

1,828,000 

4,409,000 

Sr.  Pstombnrg. 

7.200,000 

Archangel 

RIU« 

8,«44,360 

6,88V,899 

3,419,.551 

9,528,000 
4,000,000 
12,902,310 

Chicago 

Chicago  ..  .IStW  7,115,260 

7,517,026 

2,000,03S 

in.fiiw.sis 

BoUlmore..l8.'S6l  8,440,000 

4,081,(K)0 

1,075,500 

S.58l),500 

Buffalo....    "      8,*11),117 

9,846,790 

.... 

16,088,907 

Oswego....    "      8,488,000 

3,643,,'.20 

11,931,520 

Oralna  of  Paradise,  hot,  acrid,  aromatic  seeds, 
produced  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  supposed  to  he 
derived  from  two  distinct  species  of  plants,  viz.,  the 
Amomum  Grana-paradisi  of  Linnseus,  and  the  /4.  Mele- 
ffuetta  of  Roscoe ;  perhaps,  also,  from  others.    They 


GRA 


844 


ORA 


•r*  of  a  gimay  dark-brown  color,  are  longer  and 
rounder  than  the  aeeda  of  the  true  cardamom,  and 
have  a  alight  flavor  of  camphor.  Theae  aeeda  are 
much  esteemed  sa  a  apice  among  the  Africana,  but  are 
chiefly  employed  to  give  a  flctitioua  atrength  to  tjeer 
and  spirits.     Aroheu's  Economic  Botany. 

Oranada,  a  town  of  Central  America,  State  of 
Kicaragua,  on  the  north-weat  banic  of  the  Lalie  of 
Nicaragua.  By  meana  of  the  Lake  and  the  River  San 
Juan,  it  communicatea  with  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
thus  carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  Population 
about  12,000. 

Granary,  a  building  to  atore  com  In.  Granaries 
are  generally  built  of  brick,  with  quartera  of  timber 
^vrought  in  the  inside,  to  which  the  boards,  with  which 
the  inside  of  the  granary  must  be  lined,  or  nailed  so 
cloae  to  the  bricks  that  there  may  be  no  space  left  for 
vermin  to  harbor  in.  There  is  an  advantage  in  having 
many  stories,  because  the  shallower  the  com  lies  the 
bettor  and  more  easily  it  is  turned. 

The  two  great  requisites  in  the  erecting  of  granaries 
are— to  make  them  sufficiently  strong,  and  to  give 
theni  an  exposure  to  the  most  drj'ing  winds.  In  many 
parts  of  England,  particularly  in  Kent,  com  is  treated 
in  the  following  manner:  To  separate  it  from  dust 
and  other  imparities  after  it  is  threshed,  it  is  tossed 
with  shovels  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  a  long  and 
large  room ;  the  lighter  substances  fall  down  in  the 
middle  of  the  room,  and  the  corn  only  is  carried  from 
side  to  aide,  or  from  end  to  end  of  it.  After  this,  the 
com  is  screened  ;  and  being  then  brought  into  the  gran- 
ary, it  is  spread  about  lialf  a  foot  thick,  and  tumed  from 
I  Ime  to  time,  about  twice  a  week ;  the  screening  of  it 
is  also  repeated  once  a  week.  This  sort  of  manage- 
ment is  continued  about  two  months,  after  wh.ch  it  is 
laid  a  foot  thick  for  two  months  more ;  and  during  this 
time  it  is  tumed  once  a  week,  or  twice  if  the  season  be 
damp,  and  now  and  then  screened.  After  about  live 
or  six  months,  it  is  raised  to  two  feet  thickness  in  the 
heaps,  and  then  tumed  nnce  or  twice  in  a  raontli,  and 
screened  from  time  time.  After  a  j'car,  it  is  laid  two 
and  a  half  or  three  feet  deep,  and  turned  once  in  three 
weeks  or  a  month,  and  screened  proportionally.  When 
it  has  lain  two  years  or  more,  it  is  tumed  once  in  two 
months,  and  screened  once  a  quarter ;  and  however 
long  it  be  kept,  the  oftener  the  turning  and  screening 
are  repeated  the  better  will  the  grain  be  preserved.  It 
is  proper  to  leave  an  area  of  a  yard  wide  on  every  side 
of  the  heap  of  com,  and  other  empty  spaces  into 
which  the  com  may  be  turned  and  tossed  as  often  as  re- 
quired. In  Kent,  two  square  holes  are  made  at  each 
end  of  the  floor,  and  a  round  one  in  the  middle,  by 
means  of  which  the  com  is  thrown  out  of  the  upper  in- 
to the  lower  rooms,  and  so  up  again,  that  it  may  l>e 
the  better  tumed  and  aired.  The  screens  are  made 
with  two  partitions,  to  separate  the  dust  from  the  corn, 
which  fulls  into  a  bag;  and  when  suliiciently  full,  this 
is  thrown  away,  while  the  pure  and  good  corn  remains 
behind.  Corn  hiis  by  these  means  been  kept  30  years  ; 
and  it  has  been  observed,  tliat  the  longer  it  is  kept  the 
more  flour  it  yields,  in  proportion  to  the  corn,  and  the 
purer  and  whiter  the  bread  is,  the  superfluous  humid- 
ity alone  evaporating  in  the  keeping.  At  Zurich,  in 
Switzerland,  corn  has  been  kept  80  years,  or  longer, 
by  methods  of  similar  description. 

The  public  granaries  at  Dantzic  are  seven,  eight,  or 
nine  stories  in  height,  and  have  a  funnel  in  the  midst 
of  each  floor,  to  let  down  the  com  from  one  to  another. 
They  are  built  so  securely,  that  though  every  waj- 
snrrounded  by  water,  the  corn  contracts  no  damp,  and 
the-vessels  have  the  convenience  cf  coming  up  to  the 
walls  to  be  loaded.  The  Kussiann  .ind  others  preserve 
their  corn  in  subterraiu'iiii  gninurit's  of  the  figure  of  a 
sugar-loaf,  wide  l>i>|ow  and  narrow  at  top,  the  sides  be- 
ing well  plastered,  and  the  top  covered  with  stones. 
They  are  careful  to  iiaVe  the  com  well  dried  before  it  is 
laid  into  theae  store-houses,  and  often  dry  it  by  meana 


of  ovens,  especially  T7here  the  anmmer  dry  weather  i* 
too  abort  to  effect  thia  sufBciently.  This  method  of 
storing  grain  has  been  practiced  in  many  countries 
from  'emote  antiquity  ;  and  in  Sicily,  in  particular,  at 
the  present  day,  many  of  the  granaries  are  simply  ex- 
cavations in  the  calcareous  rock. 

Some  recommend  that  the  roofs  of  granaries  should 
be  composed  of  tiles,  because  in  the  worst  seasons, 
when  the  regular  apertures  can  not  be  opened  with 
safety,  there  will  always  be  a  considerable  inlet  for 
fresh  air  at  their  joinings,  and  also  an  issue  for  the  ex- 
halations given  out  by  the  grain  ;  while  others  prefer 
a  very  close  roof,  as  of  lead  or  zinc,  for  the  perfect  ex- 
clusion of  insects  and  vermin.  If  there  happen  to  be 
any  windows  to  the  south,  care  must  be  taken  tu  shut 
them  in  moist  weather^  and  in  the  time  of  the  hot 
southern  winds.  There  must  be  no  cellar  or  other 
damp  place  under  a  granary,  nor  should  it  ever  be 
built  over  stables ;  for  in  either  of  these  cases  the  com 
will  certainly  suffer  by  the  exhalations — be  rendered 
damp  in  the  one,  and  ill-tasted  in  the  other. 

M.  Duhamcl  and  Dr.  Ilailes  have  recommended 
various  contrivances  for  ventilating  or  blowing  fresh 
air  through  com  laid  up  in  granaries  or  ships,  in  order 
to  preserve  it  sweet  and  drj',  and  to  prevent  its  lieing 
attacked  by  weevils  or  other  insects.  This  may  be 
done  by  nailing  wooden  bars  or  laths  on  the  floor  of 
the  granary,  about  an  inch  distant  from  each  other, 
when  they  are  covered  with  hair-cloth  only ;  or  at  the 
distance  of  two  or  three  inches,  when  coarse  wire-work, 
or  basket-work  of  osiers,  is  laid  under  the  hair-cloth, 
or  when  an  iron  plate  full  of  holes  is  laid  upon  them. 
These  Uths  may  l>e  laid  across  other  laths,  nailed  at 
the  distance  of  16  inches,  and  two  or  more  inches  deep, 
that  there  may  be  a  free  passage  for  the  air  under  them. 
The  under  laths  must  come  aliout  six  inches  short  of 
the  wall  of  the  granary  at  one  end,  on  which  a  l)oard 
is  to  be  set  edgewise,  sloping  against  the  wall ;  for  by 
this  disposition  a  large  nir-pipe  is  formed,  which  hav- 
ing an  open  communication  with  all  the  interstices  be- 
tween and  under  the  bars,  will  admit  the  passage  of 
air  l)elow  forciblj-  through  a  hole  at  the  e.\tremity, 
and  consequently  carry  off  the  moist  exhalations  of 
the  com.  The  ventilators  for  supplying  frosli  air 
may  be  flxed  against  the  wail,  on  the  inside  or  outside 
of  the  granary,  or  under  the  floor,  or  in  the  ceiling ; 
but  wherever  they  are  fixed,  the  liandle  of  the  lever 
that  works  them  must  bo  out  of  the  granary,  otherwise 
the  person  who  works  them  would  be  in  danger  of  suf- 
focation when  the  corn  is  fumigated  with  burning  brinv> 
stone,  as  is  sometimes  done  fur  destroying  weevils. 
Small  movable  ventilators  will  answer  the  purpose  for 
ventilating  com  in  large  bins  in  granaries,  and  may 
easily  be  moved  from  one  bin  to  another.  If  the 
granary  or  corn-ship  lie  very  long,  the  main  air-pipe 
may  puss  lengthwise  along  the  middle  of  it,  and  con- 
vey air  on  both  sides  under  the  com.  In  large  gran- 
aries, double  ventilators,  laid  upon  each  other,  may  be 
fixed  at  the  middle,  und  near  the  top  of  the  granary, 
that  they  may  l)e  worked  by  a  windmill  fixed  on  the 
roof  of  the  building,  or  by  a  water-mill.  The  uir  is 
conveyed  from  the  ventilators  through  a  large  tmnk 
or  trunks,  reaching  down  through  the  several  dours  to 
the  bottom  of  the  granary,  with  branching  trunks  to 
each  floor,  by  means  of  which  it  may  bo  made  to  pass 
into  a  large  trunk  along  tho  adjoining  cross-walls  ;  and 
from  tliese  trunks  several  lesser  trunks.  al>out  four 
inches  wide,  brunch  off  at  tho  distance  of  three  or  four 
feet  from  one  another,  and  reach  through  tlic  whole 
length  of  the  grun.iri',  their  further  ends  being  closed. 
Seunis  of  one  tenth  or  one  twelfth  of  an  iucli  should 
also  be  left  open  at  the  four  joinings  of  the  lioards, 
whei-e  they  are  nailed  together,  that  the  air  may  pass 
through  them  into  the  com.  In  some  of  these  lesser 
trunks  th  «  may  be  sliding  shutters,  to  stop  the  pas- 
sage of  the  air  through  those  trunks  which  are  not 
covered  witb  iron,  or  to  ventiUte  one  part  of  the  gran> 


ORA 


849 


GRA 


•T7  more  bfiakljr  than  othera,  u  then  may  be  occa- 
iloD,  There  ahonld  also  be  wooden  shatters,  hung  on 
hinges  at  their  upper  part,  so  as  to  shut  close  of  them- 
selves ;  and  these  should  be  fixed  to  openings  In  the 
walls  of  the  granary  on  their  outside ;  by  which  means 
the}'  will  readily  open  to  give  a  free  passage  for  the 
ventilating  air,  which  ascends  through  the  com,  but 
will  instantly  shut  when  the  ventilation  ceases,  and 
thereby  prevent  the  admission  of  damp  from  the  exter- 
nal air.  The  ventilation  should  Im)  made  only  in  the 
middle  of  dry  days,  unless  the  com,  when  first  put  in, 
be  cold  and  damp. 

Granite,  a  compound  rock,  constituting  the  lowest 
of  the  geological  formations,  according  tr  older  g-eolo- 
gista ;  but  it  has  lately  been  found  resting  even  on 
secondary  formations  in  the  Alps.  It  (essentially) 
consists  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica.  Its  great  dnra- 
bilit}'  ns  a  material  for  Imildiiig  is  attested  l>y  many  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments,  in  which  the  stone 
exhibits  no  appearance  of  decay  even  after  a  lapse  of 
8000  years.  There  are  some  granites,  however,  which 
shako  and  crumble  down  in  a  very  few  years,  particu- 
larly those  in  which  feldspar  predominates.  This  rock 
becomes  refractory  to  work  after  it  has  l)een  some  time 
quarried ;  and  it  is  usual  to  keep  it  for  some  time  under 
water  before  It  is  wrought  into  ornamental  objects. 

Oraiiulation  of  metals,  an  operation  simply  per- 
formed by  slowly  pouring  the  melted  mass  through  an 
Iron  cullender  into  water,  which  is  kept  in  agitation  by 
means  of  a  bundle  of  twigs.  By  this  method  metals 
may  be  reduced  to  minute  grains. 

OranviUe,  the  ancient  Orannonum,  a  fortified  sea- 
port town  of  France,  department  of  La  Manche,  at  the 
foot  of  a  steep,  rocky  promontory'  projecting  into  the 
English  Channel,  30  miles  south-west  of  St.  L6.  It 
is  surrounded  by  strong  walls,  and  the  streets  are  nar- 
row and  steep.  The  only  remarkable  building  is  the 
parish  cburi'h,  a  venerable  Gothic  edifice.  The  harbor 
is  spacious  and  secure,  but  dry  at  low  water.  Works, 
however,  are  now  in  progress  for  the  improvement  of 
the  harbor  generally,  and  for  the  construction  of  wet 
docks.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en|;aged  in  the 
coasting  trade,  or  in  the  cod  and  oyster  fisheries.  Ship- 
building is  also  carried  on.  It  has  a  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, a  hospital,  public  baths,  and  a  naval  school. 
Granville  was  bomljarded  and  burned  by  the  English 
in  169,'),  and  partly  destroyed  by  the  Vendean  troops 
in  1793,     Population,  8347. 

Orape-shot,  in  Artillery,  consists  of  a  quantity  of 
shot  piled  round  an  iron  spike  which  is  placed  in  a 
strong  canvas  bag,  the  whole  being  firmly  corded  to- 
gether so  as  to  form  a  cylinder  adapted  to  the  calibre 
of  the  cannon.  It  differs  from  canister  or  case-shot 
in  that  the  latter  kind  is  composed  of  balls  packed  into 
a  tin  canister  ^ith  a  wooden  bottom. 

drapes ',jer.  rraaifn ;  Fr.  Haitini;  It.  Grappoli, 
Orappi  j  Sp  Ubaf,  Hacimos ;  Lat.  Uvai),  a  well-known 
fruit  produced  from  the  vine.  France,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, and  Italy,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  Germany  and 
Hungary,  produce  grapes  which  yield  wines  of  various 
qualities  and  flavor,  many  of  them  excellent.  We  im- 
port green  grapes  from  Lisbon,  and  other  parts  of  Por- 
tugal, Malaga,  etc.  They  are  brought  packed  in  jars, 
and  secured  from  damage  by  means  of  sawdust,  plen- 
tifully strewed  between  the  layers  of  fruit.  The 
grapes  grown  in  Great  Britain  in  the  open  air  are 
much  smaller,  and  by  no  means  so  luscious,  as  those 
of  foreign  countries ;  but  those  raised  in  hot-houses  are 
quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  latter.  Grapes  are 
imported  not  only  in  tbeir  natural  state,  but  dried  and 
preserved,  in  which  latter  state  they  are  denominated 
raisins.'  [See  Raisins,]  The  most  valuable  grapes 
grown  in  the  United  States  are  from  the  Catawba  and 
Isabella  vines,  which  are  natives  of  America.  Those 
grapes  are  of  a  purple  color,  and  have  as  luscious  a 
taste  as  the  best  grapes  of  Europe,  A  smaller  grape 
also  abounds,  called  the  fox  grape,  which,  although 


not  OS  pleasant  to  the  taste,  i*  very  mnch  tued  in  a 
dried  state,  and  is  also  preserved  in  large  quantities. 
See  Wine, 

Graphite  {ypa^u,  I  vrrito),  otherwise  called  j)/i/ni- 
bago,  and  often  improperly  black  lead,  is  a  mineral  car- 
bon with  a  slight  admixture  of  iron.  It  may  be  made 
artificially  by  exposing  iron  with  excess  of  carbon  to 
a  violent  heat  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  when 
a  real  carburet  of  iron  will  be  formed ;  whereas  in  the 
native  specimens  the  iron  :ind  charcoal  are  only  me- 
chanically combined.  The  finest  graphite  occurs  at 
Borrodale  In  Cumberland,  and  is  appropriated  exclu- 
sively to  the  manufacture  of  pencils.  The  coarser 
varieties  are  used  for  making  crucibles  and  portable 
furnaces,  for  which  purposes  this  substance  is  peculi- 
arly fitted  from  its  infusibility ;  and  it  is  also  much 
used  for  giving  a  gloss  to  the  surface  of  cast-iron 
goods,  as  well  as  to  diminish  friction  between  rubbing 
surfaces  of  metal  or  wood  in  machinery. 

Grapnel,  or  GrapUng,  a  kind  of  small  anchor 
with  four  or  live  6ukes  or  claws,  chiefly  used  to  secure 
small  boats. 

Grass  Clotb.  The  following  extract  from  the  Re- 
port of  Mr.  Nathaniel  Wilson,  curator  of  the  Botanical 
Gardens  at  Bath,  in  .Jamaica,  describes  the  successful 
introduction  into  that  island  of  the  China  grass-cloth 
plant  (Me  Rhee  of  Ataain),  and  the  propriety  of  turn- 
ing to  profitable  account  their  numerous  indigenous 
fibrous-yielding  plants,  which  are  at  present  quite  neg- 
lected: "I  have  now  the  happiness  of  recording  my 
entire  success  in  the  cultivation  of  the  China  grass- 
cloth  plant  (Jioehmeria  nii-ea),  introduced  in  1854,  and 
a  more  valuable  introduction  could  not  have  been 
made.  I  find  the  plant  thrives  here  with  a  luxuriance 
equal  to  any  of  our  native  plants,  and  probably  with 
more  «'igor  than  it  does  in  its  native  clime.  This  plant 
(as  is  now  well  known),  produces  the  best  fil>re  for  tex- 
tile purposes  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  and,  ac- 
cording to  undonbted  authority,  is  worth  in  the  Lon- 
don market  from  jCSO  to  ill20  per  ton ;  which  is  surely 
sufficlent  to  render  the  plant  worthy  of  all  the  atten- 
tion we  can  bestow  on  It,  If  new  staples  for  general 
and  profitable  cultivation  be  desirablj,  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying,  that,  by  its  spontaneous  and  lux- 
uriant growth,  a  more  desirable  and  appropriate  plant 
for  tropical  culture  has  never  before  been  submitted  to 
the  notice  of  the  public.  I  have  86  of  those  plants 
ready  for  distribution,  and  could,  by  a  small  expendi- 
ture, increase  the  number  to  any  reasonable  extent. 

Gravesend,  a  municipal  borough,  river-port, 
town,  and  parish  of  England,  county  of  Kent,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Thames,  20  miles  E.S.E.  of  London. 
Area  of  borough,  including  Milton  parish,  1541  acres. 
Population  of  Gravesend  and  Milton,  16,G33.  The 
older  part  of  the  town,  near  the  river,  has  narrow 
streets,  the  upper  town  is  more  open,  and  has  many 
tasteful  rows  of  houses  and  detached  villas  ;  the  sum- 
mit of  hill,  on  which  it  is  built,  is  crowned  by  prospect- 
towers,  commanding  views  of  the  Thames,  and  is  a 
favorite  holiday  resort.  Former  trade  consisted  in 
supplying  ships  with  stores,  vessels  from  London  being 
obliged,  until  lately,  to  clear  out  here.  Its  mora  re- 
cent, and  still  rapidly  increasing  prosperity  dates  from 
the  establishment  of  steamboats,  which  run  to  London 
in  two  hours,  and  during  summer,  especially  on  Sun- 
days, bring  immense  crowds  of  visitors.  Many  also 
of  the  wealthier  class  of  tradespeople  reside  here.  A 
railroad,  to  unite  with  the  London  and  Greenwich 
line,  is  in  course  of  formation,  and  will  unite  with 
one  which  passes  through  a  tunnel,  upward  of  two 
miles  in  length,  and  connects  the  town  with  Roches- 
ter, distant  ab"ut  seven  miles.  There  is  a  ferry  across 
the  Thames  to  f  ilbury  Fort.  Market,  Wednesday  and 
Saturday.  The  borough  is  a  polling-place  for  West 
Kent.  The  town  was  burnt  by  the  French  in  the 
time  of  Richard  II.  On  its  west  side  are  the  garden 
and  suburb  of  Boshervillc. 


GRE 


846 


GRE 


'  Oreat  Britain,  the  mmit  connMnrahla  ot  all  the 
European  iiland«,  !■  situatml  Iwtween  60  and  58}  dr- 
groes  of  north  latitude.  It  \n  Iwunded  on  the  north  by 
the  North  Sea,  on  the  eaat  by  the  German  Ocean,  on 
the  south  by  the  Knglleh  Channel,  and  on  the  west  by 
St.  George'*  Channel  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Prom 
north  to  Miuth  it  extends  almut  ft80  miles  in  length  | 
Hi  greatest  breadth,  from  the  North  Foreland  in  Kent, 
to  the  Und's  V.nd  In  Cornwall,  is  almut  870  miles  \ 
and  its  superficial  area  is  computed  at  87,500  square 
miles.  The  figure  of  this  island  is  IrmKular,  soma- 
what  resembling  that  of  a  wedge,  to  which  indeed  it 
was  compared  by  the  ancients,  from  its  gradually  nar- 
rowing toward  Its  northern  extremity ;  and  Its  whole 
line  of  coast  Is  deeply  Indented  by  bays,  creeks,  and 
estuaries,  which,  notwithHtanding  its  boldness  and  mg.- 
gedness  in  many  parts,  afford  safe  and  commodious 
harbors.  From  its  geographical  position,  therefore, 
no  less  than  from  its  natural  advantages,  this  island 
teems  to  have  been  destined  by  nature  to  become  the 
seat  of  a  great  and  powerful  nation. 

Its  eastern  coast  forms  a  waving,  continuous,  and 
rarely-broken  line,  bat  the  western  coast  Is  extremely 
Irregular,  and  deeplj-  indented  with  many  bays  and 
arms  of  the  sen,  interspersed  with  numerous  Islands. 
The  south-east  part  of  Britain  Is  a  level,  alluvial  sur- 
face; the  centre,  undulating  and  hilly;  the  western 
and  north-western,  mountainous  and  irregular.  In 
the  north  and  west,  pri'nari'  strata  and  granite  rocks 
prevail ;  In  the  middle  districts,  coal,  lime,  salt,  and 
ironstone  are  abundant;  and  these  are  sucoeoded  in 
England,  on  Its  east  and  south-east  valleys,  by  oolite 
chalk  and  the  newer  geological  formations.  A  mount- 
ain range,  mor4  or  less  elevated,  extends  from  south 
to  north  of  tho  island,  running  through  Cornwall, 
Devonshire,  Somersetshire,  and  thence  through  Wales, 
varying  In  elevation  from  1600  to  8600  feet.  Another 
branch  extends  ftwm  the  Cotswold  hills,  Gloucester- 
shire, and  runs  through  Derbyshire,  Staffordshire, 
Yorkshire,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  North- 
umberland, with  elevations  from  2000  to  8000  feet. 
Sue  Mding  these  are  the  Cheviots,  the  Lammermoors, 
and  the  great  Grampian  range,  which  intersect  Scot- 
land, and  whose  extreme  altitude  is  measured  by  Ben 
Nevis  on  the  west,  and  Ben  Hacdhui  on  the  north- 
east, both  attaining  an  elevation  of  upward  of  4800 
feet.  The  most  considerable  rivers  are  the  Severn, 
Medway,  Dee,  Mersey,  Clyde,  on  the  west  coast,  and 
the  Thames,  Trent,  Humber,  Tyne,  Forth,  Tay,  and 


Spey,  on  the  east  coaa t.  The  prinoipol  Ukes  are  thoM 
of  Cumlterlond  and  Westmoreland  in  Enghmd,  and 
Lochs  Ixiround,  Tay,  Murce,  etc.,  in  8(wtlau('.  The 
principal  bays  and  estuaries  are  the  Bristol  Channel, 
Canligau  Bay,  Lancaster  Bay,  the  Solway  Firth,  Firth 
of  Clyde  ott  the  west,  and  the  Thames'  mouth,  the 
Wash,  the  Humber,  the  Firths  of  Forth,  Tay,  Mur- 
ray, and  Cromarty  on  the  east,  while  on  the  south 
there  are  Falmouth,  Plymouth,  rortsmouth,  and  other 
important  bays  and  harbors, 

7'he  JiritiiA  ItlamU  include  Ireland,  the  Isles  of 
Wight,  Anglesea,  Man,  the  Scilly  IsUnds,  Bute,  Ar- 
ran,  the  Hebrides,  Orkney,  and  SJietland  Islands. 
The  climate  of  Britain  is  greatly  modified  by  its  insu- 
lar situation,  the  extreme*  both  of  summer  and  winter 
temperature  being  much  less  than  that  of  corretipoud- 
ing  latitudes  on  a  continental  surface.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about  49°  Fahrenheit.  The 
extreme  summer  heat  seldom  exceeds  80°  Fabr.,  and 
the  winter  cold,  with  rare  exceptions,  does  not  extend 
beyond  '25°  to  82°.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  averages 
al<out  82  inches.  Most  loin  falls  on  the  west  side  of 
the  island  (ihim  86  to  40  inches),  the  east  coaat  being 
comparatively  dry  ('26  hicbas),  but  a  cold  north-east 
and  east  wind  prevails  more  on  the  east  coast,  while  a 
warm  west  and  south-west  blow*  on  the  west ;  from 
this  reason,  joined  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  surface,  the  eastern  half  of  the  island  is 
more  on  agricultunj,  while  the  west  is  more  a  grazing 
country.  Though  variable,  the  climate  of  bntain  is 
found,  from  tables  of  longevity,  to  be  one  of  the  most 
salubrious  in  the  world,  while  the  very  general  culti- 
vation and  drainage  of  the  soil  have  removed  those 
maladies  that  originate  in  marsh  elHuvia.  Within  the 
last  century  the  average  longevity  of  the  population 
has  been  greatly  increased.  In  1800  the  average  mor- 
tality in  England  was  1  in  32,  in  1847  1  in  46.  The 
area  of  Britain  is  U0,088  square  miles  ;  including  Ire- 
land, the  total  area  is  122,660  square  miles,  or 
78,482,648  acres.  In  1710  the  population  of  England 
and  Scotland  amounted  to  6,116,887 ;  in  1801  to 
10,042,646;  in  1821  the  population  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  including  Ireland,  was  21,202,066 ;  in  1881, 
24,410,429;  in  1841,  27,019,658;  and  iu  1861,  27,676,- 
824. 

The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  the  area  in  statute  acres  and 
square  miles,  also  the  number  of  acres  to  a  perscn ,  and 
the  number  of  persons  to  each  square  mile : 


Kni;land 

Scotland 

Wales 

Islands  In  the  British  Seas 

Army,  navy,  and  merchant  seamen 

total 

Ireland 


Milei. 


8,'281,T84 

1,875,479 

499,491 

ga,8M 

16'A490 
10,888,048 
8,1T«,T2T 


Fcmftlea, 


8,t4n,IM 
l,ni8,i<S 

fioe,e8o 

7t,i72 

10,7S9,6i9 
8,889,0«T 


is;9ai,a88 

2,888,742 

1,006,781 

14>l,li« 

102,490 

81,121,967 

«,&58,8&7 


III  MlllUl«  Al*.   I     In  « 


82,.')9(l,429 

20,047,402 

4,784,486 

262,000 

67,824,877 
20,9()fi,«71 


AerM  to  m 
pcrtoii. 


P«raoiM  10  • 


60,922 

at,824 

7,898 

894 

90,088 
82,612 


Total  Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland' 


18,602,776    I  18,974,ta<    ■"87,676.824    i  7&48ii;b48    '   192,560 


IJS 
6-9 
4-7 
1'8 

S-7 
8-9 


382 
92 
18S 


Ha 

21 


The  British  population  Is  spread  over  a  great  mul- 
titude of  islands  which  rise  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  the  North  Son,  the  large  Island  of  Great  Britain 
being  the  chief  of  the  group.  This  Island  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  Isle  of  Man,  Anglesea,  the  Scilly 
Islands,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  outlaying  Channel 
Islands,  the  Shetland  Islands,  the  Orkneys,  and  the 
Hebrides.  600  Islands  have  been  numbered,  but  Inhab- 
itants were  only  found  on  one  hundrtd  and  tevenly-fivt 
islands  on  the  day  of  the  census  in  1861.  The  British 
Isles  extend  over  11  degrees  of  latitude  and  10  degrees 
of  longitude ;  consequently,  in  the  most  northerly  of 
the  Shetlands,  the  night  in  the  summer  solstice  is  three 
hours  shorter  than  in  Jersey ;  and  the  sun  rises  and 
sets  on  the  east  coast  of  England  47  minutes  before  it 
rises  and  sets  on  the  West  coaat  of  Ireland. 

In  the  earliest  period  of  our  written  hlstorj',  these 
islands  were  peopled  by  Celt* ;  Britain  was  their  holy 


island,  and  the  seat  of  their  schools  and  most  sacred 
groves.  The  isles  of  Anglesea  ami  Man,  both  known 
under  the  name  of  Mona  to  the  Romans,  were  the 
seats  of  tht  Druidic  hierarchy  and  worship,  loua,  or 
Icolmkill,  a  small  Island  in  the  Ilebrities,  now  contain- 
ing 604  inhabiunts,  is  celebrated  as  an  early  seat  of 
Christianity.  It  wcs  the  station  of  St.  Columba,  who 
founded  an  order  of  missionaries  there,  and  thus  con- 
tributed to  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  over  Britain. 
The  celebi  .ited  ruins  on  the  island  consist  of  a  cathe- 
dral, a  nunnery,  and  St.  (.Iran's  chapel,  together  with 
many  ancient  lombs  and  crosses.  This  island  is  often 
visited  by  tourists  to  the  western  Highlands,  and  is 
only  10  miles  from  the  far-famed  Staffa. 

The  population  of  the  Island  of  Great  Britain  in 
18S1,  was  20,636,867  ;  Ireland  contained  6,653,867  in- 
habitants ;  Anglesea,  the  next  most  populous  in  the 
group,  had  67,818  inhabitants ;  Jersey,  67,020 ;   the 


ORB 


84T 


ORE 


Iain  ftf  M«n,  iJ.M  \  th«  (old  of  Wight,  S0,334 1 
OimrnMy,  !>V,7A7|  Lcwit,  22,nlH;  Skye,  -21,A2Nj 
HliiitUiiil,  miUldi  Orknxy,  Ifl.OflN;  UUy,  12,8»4| 
lliitM,  Wm  t  Mull,  7'IHA  i  and  Ar '  ,  AMA7  ;  17  iRlanda 
I'oliUiniil  II  pdiiiilutlixi  rHiiKlriK  .  ..  4008  to  lOat ;  &2 
limt  It  iHttiiiliitliin  riiiiKliiif  fniin  IM;  to  lOA ;  ami  the 
rMiiuliiinK  11';  lnli»lilt«il  l^laiiils  ranKod  friini  a  popula- 
tliiii  of  \>'i  itownwnril,  until  iit  liiiit  we  come  to  an  laland 
inhiililtiiil  by  linn  aiilltnry  man. 

/'iV/iAinf,— 'I'lio  nhlre  la  nn  important  lulMllviaian 
nf  till)  klngdnm  i  eiivh  baa  a  lord-lieutenant,  who  It 
itUii  kmiitir  lit  llin  iiruUlvea  \  a  nhorifr,  an  under-Bheriir, 
mid  Juatliieii  iif  Ijin  peace,  all  appointed  )>}'  the  crown ; 
•ai'h  alilrn  linii  nUo  a  oounty  trcanurer  and  a  clerk  of 
thN  (WMi'ii,  •Ni'li  appointed  liy  the  lord-lieutenant;  and 
•  ciilmty  fiiirntinr,  nltcted  l>r  the  freeholder*.  The 
nveniin  of  the  nlilrta  la  chiefly  derived  from  rates 
atruuk  liy  t*i*  Jiiatlnea  of  the  peace  in  countiea  at 
quartar  aeaalima,  niirf  la  for  the  moat  part  appropriated 
III  liinlntiiliiln)(  lirldifea,  lunntio  aayluma,  Juili,  pria- 
(innra.  mid  iKilliie.  Tim  tcrma  "hundreds"  and 
"  tylliliiKi"  hod  tlieir  origin  in  n  aystcm  of  numeration, 
•lilt  wlmthfr  Ihi'y  reprrsonted  iienona,  fumiliee,  or 
tioldlnuN,  la  dintcult  to  determine.  In  process  of  time, 
whiit  wiia  (inre  n  nnmhir  became  n  fwim<>,  and  for  a  long 
pnrliHl  tlin  teritia  have  cenaed  to  nieusure  either  area 
or  popiiliithm,  as  U  evldoncod  liy  the  fact  that  the 
hlinitreda  In  th«  survey  after  the"  Conquest,  and  the 
liUiiilriMla  stilt  reiialning,  illirer  widely  in  both  ele- 
mtint',  and,  moreover,  the  present  hundred  is  dlRemnt 
In  extniit  In  the  various  counties ;  for  instance,  in 
(lldlKwsterslilrn,  the  hundred  contains  on  an  average 
2I»,«U0  Avtmn  (  In  Herefordshire,  40,000;  and  in  Shrop- 
ahlrii,  (l»,IMm.  The  h(da  was  the  lot  or  share  of  the 
first  antlier, 

't'hii  SKSsliinal  dlvlalona  eristinir  In  all  the  counties 
iif  Knulimd  and  Wales,  for  the  purposes  of  special  and 
petty  aiiaainna,  are  In  general  based  on  the  hundrtda 
and  iiUinr  ttnclent  county  sulMlivlsions.  The  Justices 
Imvn  |Hiw«r  to  niter  those  divisions  for  the  convenience 
of  liiilitltiK  anaslons,  but  they  have  no  authority  to  olter 
tliii  iini'itttit  hundreds,  There  are  fiOO  sessional  divls- 
lulia  In  K.ngland  and  Walea,  end  for  the  purpose  of 
oaaixii  and  Jiill  delivery,  cl;(ht  circuits,  beside  the 
JiirUilk'tlon  of  the  ventral  criminal  court.  A  Saxon 
liiiryli,  or  borough,  was  a  hundred,  or  an  assemblage  of 
kunilri'da,  surnninded  by  a  moat  or  wall.  As  ancient 
bornilgha  ftdl  Into  decay,  new  ones  sprung  up,  and 
mnny  t^iwna  not  formerly  boroughs,  havu  l«en  created 
iHiriMighs  for  piirtxisea  not  very  intelligible.  The 
afTiiIrs  nf  munlclpiil  boroughs  are  administered  by  a 
niayiir,  niderniei, ,  and  other  functionaries.' 

Tim  lIHI  refnrme'  boroughs  in  Kngliind  and  Wales 
Pimtiilii  II  tdtiil  piipi.liitlon  of  4,8'1.'),'2(;9  inhabitants; 
Hill  uiipiilMtlun  of  «l  range  under  5000 ;  43  from  5000 
tii'lO.OOO  (  AH  from  10,000  to  M.OOO;  14  from  60,0(10  to 
1(111,0(10,  4  from  100,000  to  20(1,000;  and  3  above 
21)0,0011,  The  I'lV//  of  London  is  still  unrcformed,  and 
therefore  nut  Included  in  these.  Scotland  contains  8.1 
riiynl  iitiil  municipal  burghs,  having  a  total  papulation 
(if  7/12,777  luliiibltnnts ;  Bfi  have  a  population  under 
MMKIi  10  from  6(MI0  to  10,000;  11  from  10,000  to 
70,000;  iindl,  MH.OflO. 

The  nilniir  aiib-illvislons  of  townships,  parishes,  and 
mitnnrs,  were  re'dlstrlbuted  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
Hftiir  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  apportioned  among 
the  I'hieftalna  In  hia  ormy.  The  ecclesiastical  districts 
and  dliiceses  wore  designed  exclusively  for  spiritual 
p«r|i«si<s  I  tlii'lr  boundaries  are  quite  ignored  liy  the 
gtilii-riit  pubii;',  and  rarely  known  by  any  secular 
odii'ura,  while,  In  many  cases,  even  the  clergy  thcm- 
aelves,  unprovided  with  maps  or  plans,  are  uncertain 
lis  til  the  limits  of  their  reppectlve  cures.  The  division 
(if  the  I'diintry,  cccleglastlcally,  in  Dioceses,  Archdia- 
cuwin,  and  JJeanrriet,  took  place  at  a  very  early 
Mrliid.  Most  of  the  jiresent  bishoprics  were  founded 
In  Saxon  times.   The  dioceses,  on  their  firs^t  formation, 


had  their  limit*  co-«xtenalv«  with  the  bnundariea  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  sovereigns  who  formed  them  ;  but 
aub-divlslona  were  aoon  discovered  to  be  neceseary, 
and  various  princes  subsequently  made  repeated  alter- 
atlona,  until  at  length  the  whole  arrangement  settled 
Into  Its  existing  shape. 

The  iniligenous  vegetation  of  llrituin  partakes  of  the 
character  of  that  of  the  contiguoua  parts  of  Europe, 
All  the  grain*  und  grasses,  and  the  common  European 
frulta,  grow  In  almost  all  districts  and  situations,  not 
too  elevated,  and  lioth  agriculture  and  horticulture 
have  bei'n  brought  to  a  great  degree  of  perfection. 
The  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  useful 
animala,  are  also  of  the  l>est  description.  Of  wild 
animals,  the  fox,  badger,  wild  cat,  (toat,  martin,  otter, 
squirrel,  hedgehog,  donnouse,  mole,  mouse,  hare,  and 
rabbit,  are  the  principal.  The  wolf,  bear,  beaver,  and 
wild  ox  have  liecome  extinct  fur  several  centuries. 
The  stag  and  fallow  deer  are  still  abundant  in  mveral 
localities.  The  great  bustard  and  capercailzie  are  the 
only  birds  known  to  have.  Iiecome  extinct  In  Ilrltaln. 
The  bittern,  eagle,  and  other  liirds  of  prey  are  becom- 
ing dally  more  rare.  Groat  liritain  is  the  most  favored 
country  In  the  world  for  the  development  of  mineral 
Industry-.  Fuel,  the  indispensable  agent  In  the  treat- 
ment of  metallircrous  ores,  and  the  most  powerful  ele- 
ment In  the  production  of  motive  force,  is  distributed 
unequally  throughout  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
The  coal  formation  in  those  three  divisions  of  the  Brit- 
ish empire,  occupies  rich  and  widely-spread  basins, 
several  of  which,  especially  those  of  NewcastleMin- 
Tyne,  Scotland  and  Wales,  lieing  near  the  sea,  are 
en.tbled  to  export  the  coal  to  those  places  where  the 
metalliferous  ores  ^xist  in  aliundance,  but  where,  a* 
in  Cornwall,  the  absence  of  fuel  renders  their  being 
worked  both  costly  and  dilHcult.  The  ores  of  iron, 
abundantly  distributed  in  several  of  the  coal  basins, 
add  greatly  to  the  value  of  these.  Each  one  so  cir- 
cumstanced has  become  the  centre  of  a  metalliferous 
district,  where  numerous  works  produce  iron  at  a  |irico 
80  moderate  os  almost  to  defy  competition.  The  insu- 
lar position  of  Great  Britain,  which  facilitates  the 
shipment  of  coal  to  the  places  where  it  is  required,  i* 
equally  important  in  tran.sporting  the  iron  by  sea  to 
any  of  the  sea-ports  of  the  world.  These  highly-favor- 
able causes  have  given  great  development  to  the 
operations  of  coal-mining  und  the  manufacture  of  Iron, 
and  especially  since  the  application  of  cast  iron  for  the 
purposes  of  constructing  railroads.  The  quantity  of 
cast  iron  produced  in  1850  was  2,260,000  tons.  The 
quantity  of  coal  raised  was  estimated  at  34,750,000  tons. 
These  sources  of  wealth  in  coal  and  iron,  which  are 
alone  sufficient  to  place  a  country  at  the  head  of  min- 
eral Industry,  are  not  the  only  ones  possessed  by  Brit- 
ain. Nature  has  given  it  m'.nes  of  copper,  tin,  and  of 
load,  of  great  richness.  The  annual  production  of 
copper  is  12,000  tons ;  of  tin  ore,  11,000  tons ;  and  of 
load,  ,')8,701  tons.  The  coal-beds  of  England,  con- 
tained in  the  carboniferous  system,  arc  found  in  North- 
umberland and  Durham,  South  Yorkshire,  Nottingham 
and  Uerliy,  South  Lancashire,  StalTordshire,  Warwick- 
shire, Anglesca,  Flint,  Salop,  Worcestershire,  Glouces- 
tershire, und  the  northern  part  of  Somerset,  South 
Wales,  and  near  Whitehaven  in  Cumiierland.  Iron  is 
found  in  inexliaustible  quantities  in  all  the  formations. 
Lead  is  found  cliicfly  in  the  mountain  limestone ;  cop- 
pet  'n  the  gnmit  i  and  older  primary  stratified  rocks ; 
tin  in  (Cornwall  and  Devon.  Salt  springs,  yielding 
large  quantities  of  salt,  are  found  In  Cheshire  and 
Worcestershire.  An  to  mineral  treasures,  the  eastern 
counties  of  England,  to  the  south  of  Yorkshire,  are 
remarkble  for  containing  no  mines,  either  of  coal  or 
metal.  These  valuable  deposits  are  found  in  the  more 
uneven  districts  of  the  north  and  west. 

The  following  table  presents  at  one  view  territory 
belonging  to  Great  Britain,  its  area  in  square  miles, 
and  the  last  census  in  every  portion  attainable : 


! 


ORE 


848 


ORE 


TllsnOIT  ■■LOHOIRO  TO  GlIAT  BUTAIH. 


llaUt,  proTlHM,  «r  «olo«l«l. 


ItniUnd 

W.1.II 

BcollMiil    

Iiiludi  In  Brltbh  uu 

Th*  ■rniy,  a%ty,  and  Brifib 

M>ain«n 

Iri>Und 

lltllitoltAd 

nibralUr 

M«ll». 

Goto 

Tutal  Kuropean  ponMUlons 
l\.—A/iHenn  Poutiilom. 

Blcrr*  Loono 

Oold  C'oMt  •ottleiiitut 

Cornando  Po  

H«UI(!iiionU  on  Iho  Qunbl*. . . 

ftt,  Hrlona 

Aacennlon 

(!«pe  or  Oood  Hope 

NaUl „ 

«*    'rillm 

Til.    '>)rchellM 

Total  Afyinn  pOMtulona. .. 
Ill,— AiiaUc  Poututoiu. 

Cejrlon 

lloncKong  (treaty In  1849)... 

India. 

Bengal  and  Arra  pretldonelos. 
Hrrar,  ceded  to  Bongal,  18S8. . 

Madnu  prealdency 

Bombay  preildenoy 

HuiJab... 

Vtttlements  In  .'^artber  India, 

Hlnfanorp,  cte 

Btatet  dependent  on  Bennl. . . 

Mailraa.. 

"  Bombay 


XrtA  TnXitg. 


81,894 
894 


n,44S 
5 

ll 

97 


itn,«ii| 


87S 

6,000 

400 

19 

H 

44 

1I0,9M 

10,000 

7M 

80 

18tl,4&l 


<«lt»IU,       Iwl  MMUI. 


lesi 
iwi 

IHfil 
18A1 

18S1 
18M 

\m 

1847 


I^buan 
Aden . . 


Total  Aalatlc  poueaslona  I 
and  dcpoudencles 


l\ .—American  Po—uriont. 

ilndion's  Bay  Territory 

Canada  East 


Canada  West 

New  Brunswick  

N.  Scoila,  Includ.  Cnpo  Breton 
I'rlnro  Kdward's  Island. 

Newroundlmid 

Labrailnr  (attached  to   New- 

(bnndlandl 

Vancouver's  Island 


Wttt  Indian  Pottettlon*. 

Ilondunu. 

Bermudas 

Jnmnlcn 

The  Bahamas 

Barbadoos 

Orenada 

«t.  Vincent 

St.  I.ncia 

Tobago 

Antigua 

Montscrrab 

Barbuda 

Dominica. 

Ht.  Christopher 

NliTlS. 


The  Virgin  Inlands. 
Turk's  fslnnds 


14,448 
80 

808,000 
78,489 
144,t>*l» 
19(l,li«» 
T8,4t7 

1,875 

477,»M 

80,887 

56,890 

95 

8 


1,858,910 


9,4S0,000 
991,989 
147,889 
97.700 
18,748 
9,184 
85,918 

6.000 
8,000 


«3,T0O 
47 

8,400 

6,500 

168 

109 

181 

195 

140 

108 

47 

10 

975 

70 

90 

90 

484 

9,090 

900 

98.600 

600 


1849 


18,991,888 

1,«U^791 

9,8SH,T49 

148,196 

189,490 

8,588,867 

9,180 

16,008 

108.140 

15,180 


97,798,891 


40,471 
17^000 


l,411,(iSl 

98,87J 

71,768,869 
4,850,0(10 
16,aS0,496 
10,48.\017 
4,100,988 

901A10 
89,685,476 
4,691,980 
4,818,099 


Trinidad 

Bay  Islaiids 

British  Oulana. . 
Falkland  Islands 

Total  American  possessions. '9,998,068 
X.—Atutralian  Potstetioiu. 

New  South  Wales. 

Victoria. 

Western  Australia. 

Hoolhcrn  Australia. 

Van  DIcmon  I.and 

New  Zealand 

Auckland  Islands 

Norfolk         "      

Total  AastralUm  possessions 
I      Grand  Total 


1859 
1H59 
1851 
1851 
1»«8 
1861 


1848 
1851 
iMO 
1861 
1S51 
IS44 
IWI 
1860 
1H44 
1S50 
1850 

1848 
WW 
1861 
18U 

laM 

1818 


84,500 

100,000 

800,000 

l-Nnoo 

86,000 


1861 
1869 
1860 
1860 
1860 
1850 


M.\500 
4,181,888 


169,019,078 


180,000 
890,261 
96J,0(H 
198,  SOO 
978,117 
69,678 
101,006 

100,000 
9,000 


11,066 
11,092 

379,690 
9^399 

186,980 

2M,997 

2T,ii48 

94.688 

18,027 

88,190 

7,800 

1,600 

28,900 

28,183 

10,200 

56,089 

6.122 

69,814 

400 

127,695 

_JMH» 

"8,488,877 


19T,16S 

200,000 

7,000 

at,N83 

70,164 
22,400 


^S0,705 


194,997,280 


Aa  AoaoDRT  or  tib  DioLaaao  Vaici  or  rai  Kxroan 
TO  aAOii  O01.011T  ANii  DaraNniRCT  or  Tita  Bamsii 
OaowN  iR  lAmi  or  riia  Tiiau  YiAaa  u>dko  6th 
jANIIAaT,  1N50,  1861,  AKO  1859. 


Brlllik  ooioiiUa  • 


Heligoland 

t.'hannul  IslamJa. 

(Illinillar 

Malta  and  Ooio . 
Ionian  Islandi^.., 


Kurnp*. 


I'ossesslons  on  R.  Gambia 

^ii'rra  Ix-ono 

(loM  Coast 

Fernando  To. 

l>o»s4<sslona  In  Houlb  Africa 

Ascension 

8t  Helena 

Maurltlua 

AAlca 


Aden ._. 

Territories  In  the  E.  Indies 

Singapore 

Ceylon 

Uong-Kong 

Asia 


DmIumI  Vsin  of  bpoHs, 


lUI. 


4 
807 
884,198 
588,481 
8N7,744 
16^800 

1,791,680 

86,770 

60,990 

184,091 

8,197 

080,961 

4,99T 

18,815 

984,099 


1,019,148 

14,664 

6,14»,M2 
494,080 
169.869 
661,069 


Wi'St  Australia. . . . . 

Houth  Australia 

Now  8(iuth  Wales. . 

Victoria 

Van  Dli'mcii  Land. 

New  Zealand 

Australia 


Sett,  of  Hudson's  Bay  Co. 

Newfoundland 

Canada 

Now  Brunswick 

I'rincn  Kdward'slsland... 

Nova  Hcotla. 

Antigua 

Barbadoes 

Dominica 

Orenada 

Jamaica 

Montserrat 

Nevis. 

8t,  Christopher 

St.  Lucia 

8t  Vincent 

Tobago 

Tortilla 

Trinidad 

Bahanins 

Bermudas 

Demcrara. 

Bcrbico 

Honduras,  British 

Falkland  Islands 

America.... 

Aggregate  value  of 
Brit  and  Irl>h  prod- 
uce and  manufactures 
cxiwrtcd  to  the  Brit- 
ish colonies  and  de- 
pendencies.  


7,469,807 

19,618 

816,648 

1,880,847 

81K62I 

108^484 

9,080,468 

61,798 

997,860 
1,894,981 

979,280 
41,121 

978,106 
YIM94 

819,668 
99,484 
29,.<MS 

626,085 

409 

1,098 

45,448 

16,679 

58,968 

14,887 

46 

148,218 
K,709 
47,18« 

278,0(19 
17,919 

206,244 
6,178 


J 
HO 
006,415 
888,141 
814,896 
186,911 


4,813,716 


18,597,714 


1,84SJor 

48,700 

70,980 

87,871 

8,668 

796,600 

8,868 

36.6(0 

868.726 

1,400,858 

18,711 
7,242,194 

569,189 

919,382 

698,191 
8,884,567 

86,981 
417,809 
1,006,469 
589,279 
440,566 
119,106 

9,601,958     9,807,806 


618,794 
491,996 
801,448 
998,096 

i,6ig,f8T 

47,197 

94,458 

lfl*,a«6 

81,506 

752,89.1 

7,807 

28,949 

989.965 

1,196,884 

17,184 

7,022,296 

60M,996 

176,414 

ttJ'i.W 

8,456,119 

84,796 

875.11115 
l,20l,'.t61 
604.408 
490,992 
171,009 


102.235 

848,120 

1,9U8J)II 

411,151 

56,967 

828,177 

85,787 

8Hl,.')e4 

90,474 

86,796 

791,574 

03 

1,541 

48,667 

15,000 

57,870 

18,641 

221 

241,930 

88,1918 

89,527 

809,974 

21,019 

188,852 

1.145 

5,4»9,777 


72,817 

884,780 

3,451.684 

449,198 

67,1011 

4.'»,mi9 

91I.7IW 

419,479 

HJt,696 

•   45,103 

700,990 

173 

9,209 

69,604 

2'.',ll7t 

78.201 

16,8'.J0 

27Ki85 
82,088 
82,485 

801,718 
94,386 

289,688 
9,841 


6,250,218 


19,483,659  ,10,480,360 


Tim   Piimio  FuniiKD  DunT  or  Grkat  Bkitair  ard  lai- 

LAXU  oil   TiIXStII  <Ia!<UAHV,  1S64,  IN    PoUNOa  BTiaURO 
ANII    U«ITKD  STATIta'  CUBRKSCV. 


Orrat  Britain. 

Now  annuities 2{  percent 

Old  sea  annuities 8      "      " 

DcbtdueB'k  ofKng,8      "      " 
Consolidated  annulls.. 8      "      " 
Ueduced  annuities... 8      "      *■ 
Total  Great  Britain.... 

Ireland, 

Now  annuities ii  percent. 

Consolidated  annults.8  "  " 

Reduced  annuities... 8  "  " 

Annuities Si  "  " 

DebtduoB'kof  Irel.sJ  "  " 

New  annuities 5  "  " 

Total  Ireland 


Piundaaler. 


1,81M28 

2,746,077 

11,016,100 

86T,960,6.M 

114,586,508 

714,860,864 


Total  United  Kingdom,  1854. 


8,280 

6.049,860 

118,768 

81,728,424 

2,680,789 

2,000 

40,532,54f 


DulUn. 


9,flT.\515 

1S,78.8,.is8 

M,07.'>,6flO 

l,8;l»,8S8,260 

_572,fi77.790 

8,571,804,970 


40.150 

80,247.180 

iV-W,790 

169.617.120 

11,958,945 

10,000 


■203,662,786 


704,898,400  { 8,774,465,0001 


ORB 


84t 


ORB 


Th*  national  dabt  at  the  Ravolntlon  In  1AM  amount- 
ad  to  .£AA4,3<I8 ;  at  tha  commencement  of  th*  American 
war  In  177S,  It  amounted  to  i;l28,n00,000.     In  1M17  It 
(    counted  to  £840,000,000. 
Nrrr  Ptini.Ki  iNnoMi  ANii  Khprkdititii  or  Tna  Uwrrao 

KmunoM  rua  Tua  YiAa  kkuii>6tii  jAXUAar,  1868, 

MOOMa. 

Ouitomi Ci«,1S7,190 

KxclM 1^7»1,78B 

Htamni 6,921,198 

Taiei 8,669,M7 

Propertrtox B,«52,7:» 

Potrofflce «,44»,827 


Crown  Laudi. 

Hinall  branrhot  nf  h«reilltarT  rarenne . . . 

Hurpliii  fi>«a  of  rfffulatoil  oflAoea 

Honey  rvroivml  from  the  Eut  India  Com- 

£any,  and  linprew  uioneye,  ete 
ler  eoureea. 


8AH,2«S 

14,861 

110,097 

lB«,n6 
618,704 

Total £67,75(^570 

axpanniTvaa. 

Public  debt £27,994,688 

Cl»llll«t 898,688 

Diplomatic  Mrrlca 161 ,666 

OuurU  ofjoatlce 1,089,878 

Nary..... 6,62.\»44 

Army 7,018,166 

Ordnance 2,491,798 

Annultlei  and  pendont 868,709 

Balarlea  •n<l  pontloni 279,408 

Olvll  MTVIcea 8,797,818 

Mlacelltneoua 281,014 

Kaffir  War 870,000 

Charge!  of  Collections 4,486,860 

ToUl £66,229,861 

KxceH  of  Income 2,526,204 

ToUl £67,766,870 

Tha  rtvenua  for  the  year  ending  1864  amounted  to 
jeSl,784,n8. 

Great  Britain  la  less  fertile  In  grain  than  France, 
mt  affbrda  l>attar  poaturage,  posaeasea  an  extenaiva 

AoooDNT   or  TUB  KxTaNT  or  Land  in  rnr.  Unitcd  Kinodoh  uiioaa  thi  raiHcirAL  

1862->t3:  Tna  ATxaAoa  Uatb  or  Paoonoa  rea  Aoaii  thr  total  I'aoDuci;  Tua  Ahocnt  or  8bcd;  Tna  I'aonvcr 
VNDaa  DauiroTioN  or  BtcD ;  and  Tna  total  Valvb  or  auon  I'aouuca, 


Um  of  aaki^oat,  with  numeroua  harhora,  a  natural  an4 
wali-deflned  frontier,  which  no  InvaiiinK  army  van  |iasa 
on  foot,  a  g<Kid  commen-lal  poaitlun,  and  the  largeat 
Aalda  of  coal  in  Kurope ;  liut  all  thene  ailvaiilagaa  liava 
oontrlbuted  leaa  to  her  a)(Krandlaement  than  tha  as- 
callenee  of  her  Uwa  and  political  conaiitiiklon,  Tht 
pnigraaa  of  Itritain  within  tha  laat  hundred  yean,  and 
eapecially  within  the  lut  half  century,  haa  l>aen  won- 
derfully great.  Tlin  llritiah  ialea  contain  aliout  76,- 
WKI.OOO  of  acrea,  i>f  whirh  uliout  two  thinla  ara  in 
cultivation,  and  mor<^  than  one  third  waata  or  uncul- 
tivated. Alxuit  hull  iif  the  waste  land  ia  in  Scotland, 
where  the  cultivattui  aoli  fciruia  litlio  more  than  a  fourth 
p«rt  of  the  total  area  of  tha  country,  while  in  Kngland 
it  forma  about  07  per  rent.,  and  in  Ireland  70  jMr  cent, 
of  tha  aurfaoe.  So  great,  however,  haa  baan  the  prO)(- 
rasa  of  agricultural  improvement,  that,  though  the 
population  has  doubled  itaelf  within  tha  laat  fifty 
yeara,  the  production  of  foo<l  h.a  fully  kept  pace  with 
it.  The  prograaa  of  Ilrltain  in  manufacturing  indnatry 
haa  baan  still  morn  rapid  and  mora  remarkable  than 
even  in  a|(ri(!ultura ;  and  in  this  respect  her  natural 
advantages  are  mora  exclusive.  She  haa  a  good  sup- 
ply within  heraelf  of  the  raw  material  of  her  staple 
manufactures  of  woolen  cloths,  iron,  and  linen;  and 
her  means  of  procuring  silk  and  cotton  are  equal  at 
least  to  those  of  her  neighbors.  In  enterprise  and 
commercial  activity,  her  merchanta  take  tha  lead 
among  tha  nations  of  Kuropa ;  and  tha  removal  of  all 
restrictions,  and  the  full  lntro<luctlon  of  tha  principles 
of  free  trade  have  given  such  a  stimulus  to  their  ex- 
ertions as  transcends  all  former  example.  The  num- 
l)er  of  ships  employed  in  her  foreign  and  colonial  trado 
in  1868  was  86,903,  with  a  burlen  of  7,7tr7,630  tone ; 
and  the  numbar  of  registered  British  seamen  waa 
258,896. 

DicsoRiPTtoNS  or  Caora  in 


Oop*. 

Acnt  In  crop. 

Produe*  p«r 

eert. 

ToUl  produei. 

8t«l  l-Iih  of 
product. 

Prodnea  undor 
dodiKlloBor 

■Md. 

Priet  per 
qutritr. 

ToUl    •AllM. 

KxOLAND. 
Wheat 

8,000,000 

1,000,000 

«,00(),000 

600,000 

»,600,000  1 
1,800,000  f 

800,000 
60,000 

'.80,000 

Quarttrt. 
8 

4 
4 
8 

£7  per  acre. 

£15  p«r  aero. 
£15  per  acre 

Qiuirtcri. 

6 
8 

£7  per  acre. 

QuArten. 
11,250,000 

6,40l),000 
9,000,000 
1,876,000 

<iuArt«ra. 

1,607.148 
771,428 

1,286,714 
267,867 

Sood  |.<lh. 
189,588 
800,000 

l.OOo.OdO 
26,000 

8<«l  Mlh. 
200,000 
186,606 

1,838,888 

9,642,867 
4,628,572 
7,714,286 
1,607,148 
28,692,858 

947,017 

1,600,000 

^000,000 

126.000 

46s. 

27s. 
20a. 
28s. 

48>. 

2ea. 
20a. 
28a. 

40a. 

2l9. 

aos. 

1             M.      4. 

20,696,428    6    0 
6,248,672    4    0 
7,714,286    0    0 
2,250,000    4    0 

26,000,000    0    0 

78o',6flO    0    0 
8,760,000    0    0 

Barley 

Oats  and  rye 

Boans  andpeaa 

Potatoes,  tumlpa,  and  rape 
Clover 

27,625,000 

1,187,500 

1,800,000 

6,0CHI,000 

150,000 

Fallow 

Hops., 

Gardens 

Scotland. 
Wheat,      

11,400,000 

860,000 

460,000 

1,200,000 

60,000 

100,000 
200,000 
460,000  . 
450,000 

«7,48>,388  18    0 

2,088,021  It    0 

l,»,V),i)0O    0    0 

6,000,000    0    0 

175,000    0    0 

7,700,000    0    0 

7^000    0    0 
625,000    0    0 

Barley    

Oats.      

Beans  and  peas 

Fallow 

9,087,600 

1,200,000 

1,120,000 

11,000,000 

7,572,917 

1,000,000 

988,884 

9,166,667 

11,100,001 

Putatoea 

Turnlpi 

Clover. 

Flax 

6,000    [£16  per  aero. 
85,000    £16  per  acre 

Oardena 

Ireland. 
Wheat 

8,290,000 

400,000 

820,000 

2,200,000 

1,400,000 

800,000 

140,000 

25,000 

Qii«rt«r«. 
8 

£8  per  acre. 

£16  per  aero. 
£12  per  acre. 

17,468,021  11    0 

2,000,000    0    0 
1,119,999  12    0 
9,166,667    0    0 

11,200,000    0    0 

2,100,000    0    0 
800,000    0    0 

Ilarloy 

Oats.. 

Potatoes 

18,820,000 

Fallow 

Flax 

Oardons 

Total 

4,785,000 
19,475,000 

^^8S6,66e  12    0 

49,982,600 

7,666,724 

42,265,776 

110,788,974  16    0 

Maniifacturei. — In  tho  order  of  their  importance,  we 

begin  with  cotton.     The  history  of  this  manufacture, 

which  now  employs  more  hands  than  any  other  within 

Britain,  and  furnishes  above  one  third  in  value  of  the 

Huu 


whole  exports,  is  remarkable.  The  raw  material  is  of 
vegetable  origin,  and  ia  obtained  from  the  internal  coat- 
ing of  the  pod  or  seed  of  tho  goisypium,  of  which  there 
aie  several  varieties — some  growing  as  a  tieo  or  shmb, 


ORE 


960 


ORE 


Mui  othirt  ■■  *n  annual  b*rt>ac«oii>  plant.  It  la  from 
Iha  laltar  that  Iha  far  Rraatar  part  of  tlia  aupnl^  It  oik 
talntil  I  anil  far tkia  lupply  Itrltalii  In  aiitlraly  (ia|itnil«nt 
on  othar  ciiunlrlM,  Outlun  ifriiwi  In  India,  ami  wnulil 
undoulitailly  thrlva  wall  In  many  of  the  rulimlai ;  liut 
tha  praianl  lupply  it  ilarlvcil  from  Ilia  Uiillail  Hialaii 
of  AmarUa.  In  lo  far,  thnrarura,  at  ranarilf  tha  raw 
niatarlal,  Uritain  hat  nu  advantaga  In  IIm  markat  ovar 


othar  eompatllora  I  but  har  luparlorlty  linratoriirc  haa 
Iwan  In  Ilia  adinlralila  parfnctinn  of  Ihn  marhlnarj'  ain- 
ployml.  Tha  Invanlloni  of  Arkwrluhl,  llarKrtnvai, 
Cuniptcin,  anil  I'artwrlKliI,  havn  u\v»n  iirlvtnltKi-a  lo 
a  vuuntry  poairitinK,  "l>*  Kritulii,  cxh«u»lli'»  llililt 
iif  roal,  vatt  arcuniiilatlunt  of  nipllal,  ami  a  itunun  iiinl 
iniluitrliiua  popiilallon.  For  axlcmlnl  liifiirnialliiii  In 
r«t{ar(l  to  tbota  Invantlont,  tot  (.'oTToy  and  Wiioi.. 


AocovKT  or  Tua  aa*i.  oa  naiii.Aaan  VAi.va 
I'NiTan  KiMoiHiM  ixrokTKU  to  KoaiKi 
ISM,  INST,  arioirviau  Tui  <  ovrtbiu 
aairrao  roa  aAim. 


or  Tua  TAaioiia  AatKiLia  nr  Tna  MAnrrAiiTtiaa  ann  laoDcca  or  tni 
I  CuuNTBiia  nuaiaa  aaoii  or  Tua  YaAat  INU,  IfttT.  INr>l.  lNf>4.  ixfiA, 
to  wHiuii  TUBT  wiu  airoaTais  a«i>  tub  Valoi  ur  Tuoai  AaasALLt 


Rttula,  Niirtham  porta 

"       Hflulhrm  porta 

<<«  vlananil  Norway 

Itoaniarii , 

PiuHia 

llaiMnrar 

llanaaTiiwiM 

Ilollanil 

Java  and  Runutra 

Haliclam 

t'rauc* 

Aticerla 

Rent^Kauibla 

Portilaal 

AaorM  and  Mailolra 

Spain  and  thu  llalaarla  Ulanda. 

('anary  iHland*  

Faniando  I'll 

tlulw 

Hililpplna  liUnda 

RardlnU 

Austria 

Tiiaraay 

Papal  HUtaa 

Twumolllaa 

<}rP4<ra 

Turkdjr 

Wallarlila  anil  M'lldavla  . . 

Syria  and  I'ali'^ilno 

Efmt 

Momrro 

I'nllrd  Htatea  and  California  . . 

Mi*ilro , 

llayll 

Now  (ininada 

Veneiiiela 

Kruador  

Hraall 

UniRiiay  (MonlaTldao) 

Biianiw  Ayrat 

(;hlll 

IVrii 

t'hlna  (rxrIudtnK  HonK  KonK). 

Wmt<*m  CtMuit  of  Africa 

Other  roiintrfPH 


Brlllnh  VoMtiuion*. 

Cliannrl  lalandt 

Olbraltar 

MalU 

Ionian  blanda 

North  Auinrlran  ColonlM 

llundiiraM  (HrltlAh) 

Weitt  Indloii  and  (hdana 

Aiixtnilla 

lloDK  Kung 

Kant  IndiM 

MaurltluH 

Cape  of  Qood  Hope 

<»old  <;oa»t 

IVMMM'na  on  the  Klvar  Gamlila 

Hlrrra  Iamhi^ 

Other  INiM6«i<lonK - 

Porta  of  tha  Olniua  

Total  of  llrlthh  PaoKcwkina. 

Total  forelf(B  and  colonial . . 


M4,HTI 
IM,ill)« 
KA77I 
nos,o!U 
mki,m:i 
wa.i/tiT 

I 

1,T«9,7TT 

I 

«7,47i 

S,oni,M4 

60n,M7 

»«,'J(K» 

-    fl7t,Ml 

S,140,lDa 

700,416 

OAsnno 
iifie,ofli 
7i»,iwa 
iiai.V)! 
:ii7,:iiii 


lUI 


«,MH,nn4 
r  iiiM,oH.'i 
I    \t*\M\ 

(UKI,K|4 

7ii:soH« 
2><7,<M.1 
7IMW 


ni'i,liift 
1,1711,737 

'JS4.N40 

127,.V>« 
l,7ftl,*ll 

304,  siO 

a,ftr7,«2i 

l,uirj,4f(9 
79«,4«7 

«,4n4,M9 
'i.Vt,()14 
IKW,577 
161,B(t7 

1IW,TO7 

O'AIW) 


M2,1DI 
4()A,Htn 

l»^,s.'!(^ 
I4:i,4«i 

S,»:i,014 

1-11,1)47 

2,li'-.',(i77 

l,fH4,170 

^47»,ll« 
«!l,f>«3 

Sfi,aM 
4'AR11» 
»B,ni9 
4&,i05 


ToUl  of  foreign  countrlM.     ,IU,-i41,o;il      4li,U'Jh,blt<     M,U4U,M8     01l,UU.>,rj'^8     WI,lllb,'^lU     K.,Ma,MO     fib,l)mi,VliU 


f.l3,7S4 

48I,'.'>«1 
8fll.44!l 

«2ii.,iHin 
a,st.s7ri7 

'/.■^i7,»fia 

7,MM,M)<I 

75'.',!)iia 
in7.flfta 

47,1U7 

94,ry|A 

GU,H1H 


l^•M'l^»7l 


IW,«««,447 


lut. 


T 


4S0,3.W 
7M,:OT 

4i:t,'j>^ 

l'JSIi7ft 
fs»s(i,K7(l 

l!l7,*ii« 
1,N70,«74 

li,(>iii.:if.a 

40H,O77 

lo,(l^^()(l9 
it.s:i,'j|« 

»!il,llh7 
117,419 

nMifis 

98,m2 
2fl,fi71 


l,nnj,7M 

7NI,(mH 
1,l(MI,ll'il 

n!)7,iiM 

R,IIMi,'i'iH 

4,fi6N,'iUl 

r>VI),NlA 

t,707,(mn 

a,HrAiiA'* 

'ii,«H 

11,V70 

l,3ftll,7!M 

lK4,n«'j 

1,IM,MNI 
lln.iim 
ll\Rlrt 

1,0IH,(1IH1 

miN,(iu7 
t4rwi,uiii 

717,7111 

«'j«,mi7 

147,0111 

iivi.wn 

1K2,4«0 

4^lta7 

ll4(l,ltlM 
1,4M,II71 

i:i:i,»ii7 
l7,!iiN,nfi<) 

(iSf,,X!)N 
IMI,1«N 

a7S,401 

8,m'.',7'^H 

W4,lia8 
74«,44!l 

l,8IIO,a«5 

l,^'^^,loo 

K»«,«7» 

«w,Kai 

l,0H«,19a 


i,' 

I,4«I,M1 

l4^<Nlft 

l,IIMN« 

1,01)4,914 

i)aa,7ift 
l,ii';i,4M 

l»,tll4,>*IS 

6,7llNVr.ll 

1<I4,4M 

l,«H9,ll7f( 

e,4a2,iiAn 

1,4»,7M 

Nll.fHM 

1,734, 4«1 

lt-<,V4a 

13,41)9 

l,nl7,»<l'i 

02 1, 94ft 

l,l4!l,fl)W 

iiivi,i4n 

73(1,548 
811,114 

l,2(ri,lNIi 
«<ll,777 

4,41(l,il1ifl 
14V,[IM 
7ft7,774 

l,Mi7,lim 

i:ii,n4'j 

21,918,  t»« 

SS7,N<1'.' 
lHI,tM17 

4sM,r>N9 
aM,Min 

22,878 

4,n84,M7 
1191,323 
9«I8,32« 

i,3»ti,44a 

1,(140,011) 

l,4in,478 

B<MI,!174 

1,  IPO,  229 


4fl8,n7H 
H21i,;iM 
«2A,'*i3 
211,ss(t 

!,8Wi,;i.'ii 

10S,M(I 

1,811,.TO« 

6,278,9(10 

n8n,'.'(Ift 

10,l)27,fl!14 

308,173 

701,313 

111,1S2 

47,«41 

147.'.'71 

62,M4 

403,3118 


20,«»s,S34     »:i,M>'.',r98    '.'fl,i,.'.'.i,tK    ;ia,:in(i,4:m    37,ll.\247 


T4,448,72«  I  97,1KI,T'.'0     i■r,lis^,llS.'>    lin,HiM,948    122,1.^^,2.H7 


133,310 

800,479 

Ml, (107 

3M,344 

4,120,377 

2n,'i,(IO(l 

1,873,397 

»,9U',ft7B 

H0n,04ft 

ii,ao7,4a» 

420,18(1 

1,844,338 

93,44n 

4n,ri8ii 

1(A444 
71),(W> 
13ft,72ft 


■  •If 
£ 

«,W2,I72 

200,3119 

l,(K)l.|i(HI 

hh(l,:i4(( 

l,7rift,ii8 

1,0»8,2M 
»,0(HI,2I2 
fl,37f,ir^fl 

74fl,:p79 

l,7Vft,32B 

6,199,792 

2II,><78 

10,1S7 

l,4/iN,imo 

IKI.AOti 

2,(aio,34r> 

107,104 

l(i,sl(l 

l,714,oiin 

M4,232 

l,;ifi0.076 

l,lo\7in 

t"'(l,'.'s(l 

II  i:.,|(i8 

1,"  ii.iiia 

■.iio.'.'iin 

8,10(1,108 
202,408 
093,348 

1,899,017 
14s,  MKI 
19,182,(131 
f)7o,022 
2H9,02ft 
M'<,(KI9 
870,750 
23,731 

B,  447,666 

riir>,97a 

l,2!l7,ll.V8 

i,rv^'i,i(ia 

1,171,'<00 

1,73«,H1I6 

7(lfl,M7 

1,01^,1168 


M7,44n 

orir>,i2o 

440,300 
2M,321 

4,3'.rs04n 

lf8l.4"l 

2,3«i,7H7 

11,020,146 

72nj71 

18,060,109 

004,211 

1,803,128 

91,748 

Mi,.%76 

223,4115 

8ri,8S0 


SuMiiAXT  or  THX  iHrotT  Tbaiii  axi)  ExroBT  or  PaonirriB  and  MANi-rA<TCBBa  nr  tub  rnrrKo  KixanoH,  akd  or  roBxtON 

AMI!  Cni/ixiAk  Pboduuk 


ACti«ffAM  of  Traila 
wUh 

iMpnKT*. 

KtpoRm.                                                              1 

KM 

\H1. 

l«M. 

nut. 

KM 

IWT.                                     1 

Computtd 
r«al  V*lu«. 

('nniltulol 
ra»l  VaIh.. 

Total  Fial 
Valu<  of  Ki- 

ToUl  rtal 
Valoa  of  Ki- 

Tolal  rail 

Valu«  of  Ki- 

(Kjrta. 

Prnriuc*.  #tr., 

oflh.  I'niKil 

Klnidom. 

roninn  and 
CoIobUI 
PnHluf*. 

Ti^al  nal 

Value  of  Bl- 

poru. 

Foreten  rountrlei 

BrltMi  poaaeat'oa  . 

Total 

£ 

10»,0K),I»D 
I8,BW,811 

£ 
141,aAl,24n 
40. 183.1 '81 

£ 
78,979,177 
36,HfV4,M7 

£ 

87.s.ll,9no 

28,889,141 

£ 

102,524,675 
B<1,09N078 

£ 

84,911,419 
87,lM,(ls8 

£ 

2n,8.;7,281 
3,280,918 

£ 
10^  73  8,700 
40,4."„\6(ll 

i4iSM2,8liU  1  187,844,441 

ll&,«il,7<>4  1  1I«,701,(M1  1  18»,i20,aiS8 

122,060,107 

24,l«8,tiM 

140,174,»0) 

(fKft 


ROl 


HUE 


(Kuu/ru.— ThU  U  th*  mntt  •nolcnl,  tnii  wm  fhr  I 
nntiirloK  thii  gnti  itapli  miiniifai'tur*,  Tlia  tlni'lit  of 
llrltiiin  furnialiMl  woo)  iif  iMiulUr  nxi'iilUiiiK,  anil  In 
■liunilani'ii  fur  horn*  iliMiuml,  ami  «  \»tg9  aiiriiliia  for 
ax|Mirti>tlon.  Though  ttm  ■nuniir.ic  tiir*  i  iii  nut  Uiaat 
of  an  itxlenilon  Uko  that  of  rniioti,  It  Imlil*  Iha  iiaat 
|>Uoa  tu  it  i  anil  Iwlilm  workliix  ■<!>  '''*  )(■"<*'*'  I"*" 
ofthawmil  )(rown  in  llriLiiii,  ilruw*  lartc'ly  on  ntlinr 
roiintrirn  fur  aililitloiml  iiu|i|>ili-»,  In  tlii>  llnnr  liruail- 
elothi,  llrltalii  liiti  foriiiiitalilu  c  uiiipiitlturii  in  tb«  lli'l- 
(lana,  from  wIiuku  forrfntliam  llm  llritnni  may  Iw  uiiil 
to  hava  Uarntil  thia  l>run>-li,  an>l  nlno  In  tha  Haxona  i 
liut  In  othnr  l>rancbKH  uf  tha  wuhIkii  munufactura  tlia 
UritUli  aiiparlority  la  daclilwl.  Tha  rhixf  •oala  of  thn 
Woolan  munufartiira  In  KnHlanil  ara  Yurkahira,  l.an- 
caahirr,  (iloui-aatarahlrv,  ami  Wlltahlra,  Iha  lattar 
IwinK  th«  niuat  ili»linKiilahi>il  fur  liruaili'lotha  |  Nor- 
folk for  wuratail  atiitVa;  l^iraati'rahira  ami  NuttlnK- 
hamahira  fur  woolen  hiMli*ry  ;  liiiinkata  ami  llnnnala 
bava  uumaroua  liKUilitlpa;  hut  for  tha  llnnr  qiialitlaa 
Iba  w«at  of  KaitUnrt  ami  aavflnil  uf  tha  \V»l>li  iiiiintiaa 
•ra  moat  it^ahratnl.  ('Hriwla  of  iivrry  i|Uiillty  anil 
pattern  arn  axtenalvaly  miula  at  Klililarniinatar,  (!ln>ii- 
ceatcr,  Wori'i-atar,  H<\,  hut  thimn  of  Wilton  anil  Ax- 
minatxr  urn  ao  auperlor  aa  to  aulfur  llttln  liy  coinpar- 
iMm  with  tha  caloliratril  fnhrlra  of  Turkey  ami  I'arala, 
•n<l  tlitt  niuti'blaaa  (iolitiliu  Tiipcatiy  uf  h'ninra,  A 
purtlcuUr  a|iarlca  of  wcioirn  niunufiirtiira,  III  which  Iha 
rtaourcea  of  mwlorn  lnt(«nulty  iiro  ai|{niilly  diaplaynil, 
li  that  of  ihmlJi/.  Ita  raw  iniitnrial  la  wiHilm  riiKa, 
wlilvll,  nftor  variuua  purlfyInK  proi:«aaiia,  iiru  raitilcail 
to  their  uri)(inal  wuiil,  than  rn-apun,  rr-ilyail  anil  ra- 
manufiK'turail.  Kormnrly  thn  artlclii  proiluinil  waa  ao 
coarae  aa  to  Iw  tit  only  for  paiMInK  ami  aiinllar  pur- 
poaea  ;  but  now,  sithor  alone  or  with  it  partial  mUtiirn 
of  raw  wiK>i,  ihuddy  la  made  Into  fluahlnKa,  druKK«t, 
pilot  anil  other  Kraut  I'oata,  curpi'ta  and  tiililn  I'uvcra— > 
■ome  nf  the  hiat  ut  KFiat  Imauty.  1'ha  prinripiil  aeat 
of  the  ahiHidy  trade  la  Dewaliury,  alnnit  elifht  nilloa 
from  I.eeda,  The  woolen  munufiictiiha  uf  Ireland  la 
on  a  very  limited  arnle,  Itring  cunllned  t<>  ii  few  liroad- 
cloth  factorlea  neur  Dulilin  und  Cork,  ami  a  few 
klanketa  and  flunnela,  the  furnuT  in  Kilkenny  und  tha 
Utter  ut  WIckluw.  S  >rM..  Ii «»  made  uuiidi  more 
progreaa.     The<lii'  i,  of  i  im  Htutrh  wuolona  are, 

Aberdeen  for  cli  hiell/  civirae,  and  the  aplnnluK 

of  worsted;  Ki'i.iurnock  for  carpeta,  lionnota,  and 
•hawlai  Mil'  '"i  <'id  ita  nel|{hliorliuod  for  nirpela  and 
Urtant;  <•:<'.  >~  li'iiliuri;,  ami  alau  u  numlier  of 

tmall  tonii~  il'i,,^  tlio  f(n)t  uf  the  Oulilla,  fur  narrow 
cloths  if  vi'virnl  varictiea,  tartuna,  aliawla,  plulda,  etu,  | 
Invi'rnn-    fir  TartanH ;  and  Huwii'k  for  honlery, 

t.iwit  in  Kntflund  the  apinnin)(  uf  flax  la  carried 
on  to  a  gteiLt  extent,  but  ita  manufui^ture  Into  cloth  la 
comparatively  limited.  A  cunsldurnble  ipiuntlty  of 
diintask  und  diaper  in  made  ut  llarnaley,  I.inen  la 
the  )(ruat  staple  uf  Ireliinrt,  und  wim  lonK,  in  regard  to 
textile  fubrica,  the  atuplu  alao  of  Ncotlund.  In  the 
former,  extraordinary  mcuna  were  employed  to  fimter 
it.  It  early  flxed  ita  seat  in  the  north,  purticulitrly 
near  lielfuat,  and  there  the  gmd  chiini;ea  whli  li  have 
taken  place  In  the  mode  of  in  imifucture,  by  the  aiib- 
utitution  of  apinning-miila  and  fucturlea  fur  the  iIuiiii'k 
tic  wheel  and  loom,  appear  only  to  have  lixed  it  mur. 
permanently.  Almost  the  only  form  Into  which  fl.i\ 
Id  muDufuctured  In  Ireland  ia  plain  linen,  chinlly  aiiirt- 
Inga.  In  Scotland  the  manufacture  uaauinca  greater 
variety.  Iteaidea  plain  linen,  it  hua  mamifucturva  of 
Oitnaburgha,  aheetinga,  aull-cloth,  aacking,  etc.,  prin- 
cipally at  Dundee  ;  and  of  diaper  und  duiniiak  ut  Duin- 
fermllno.  The  staples  of  both  tuwiia  are  by  far  tha 
most  important  uf  their  kind  in  llritain. 

Silk. — Here  the  raw  matcriiil  is,  like  cotton,  entirely 
of  foreign  production.  Tliia  is  a  great  brunch  of  maiiii- 
facturs,  in  which,  at  least  in  liner  fabrics,  llrltuin 
niust  yield  the  palm  of  superiority  tu  ttie  Krcti'  li  and 
liolgiuns.     The  number  of  BUk-milla  ia  cunaidurublu, 


and  conflnad  chiefly  to  Knuland.  Paialay  la  almost 
tha  only  town  In  Scotland  wliera  It  ia  curried  on  tu  a 
great  eatxnl,  and  even  there  tha  shawls  uf  unrlv.iieil 
I  xci'ilrnia  are  gxnxraily  a  inixad  faliric  uf  allk  aud 
wool.  The  I  liliif  sxata  of  tha  silk  trade  In  K.ngland 
are,  the  ill>lrl<  t  of  .Spltalatlaid  in  Londun,  Manchsaltr, 
and  Covantry. 

Ilaalilaa  the  miiniifai  tiirea  nlreiuly  tnantionml,  thar* 
la  a  great  niinilier  tthli  h,  tliuugh  separately  uf  leaa  iui- 
purtanca,  aliaurb  lininanse  sums  of  capital,  exhibit 
many  uf  the  moat  wonderful  a|iei'liuaiia  of  human  in- 
genuity, and  give  aubalalence  tu  mllliuna  uf  tha  |Hipu- 
latlun.  VV'n  can  du  little  iniirn  than  name  tha  most 
proinlnant.  Of  Irnn,  tlie  lirat  priiceaa  ia  convarting 
oraa  Into  inelals  ;  and  thence  the  adilltiunal  atep  of 
convarting  It  frum  Ita  llrat  smelted  state  Intu  inalleabia 
Iron,  whanie,  by  undergoing  a  new  process,  steel  ia  pro- 
diicuil,  Vast  pMceases  riiniain  behind,  and  constitute 
nuinaroua  brumbes  of  tnunnfuctnre  under  the  general 
nam*  of  hardware.  Snverul  uf  the  articles  produced 
arn  nf  grant  bulk  and  magnitude,  and  many  of  Ihsm 
ara  an  aniiiii  ua  tu  be  uiinost  inicruscupic.  Tu  the  fur- 
nier  claaa  belong  iron  bridges  -no  longer  auapenaion 
only,  but  tubular— una  of  the  structurea  of  this  kinil 
now  apana  thn  Menul  Ntralt ;  Immense  steam  engines, 
and  machinery  of  every  kind,  adapted  tu  ail  tha  lin- 
priivamenia  of  the  age.  t  )f  thn  minor  articles  of  hard- 
ware, tha  artisans  of  Nhellleld  and  nirmingham  pm- 
iluce  a  great  variety  |  and  uf  the  precloua  metala,  plate, 
Jewelry,  and  watchea  are  made  extenaively,  but  no- 
whera  mure  perfect  than  in  I.ondun.  I'im'oiain, 
claaalc  In  ahapea,  gurgeoua  In  colors,  and  exquisite  in 
liaalgna  |  and  thn  |Hitleriiia  uf  Htuil'ord  are  fur-famed. 
The  nninufucturea  uf  glaaa,  too,  wrought  into  nuine- 
roua  forms  uf  beuuty  and  utility  in  the  establishment* 
ut  Nawcastln  and  South  Shields,  excite  the  admlru- 
thin.  Another  manufuctura  ia  that  of  paper,  of  vast 
extent,  and  Its  processes  exhibit  some  of  the  highest 
triumpha  which  human  Ingenuity  has  yet  attained. 
In  cunnectbin  with  it  are  various  manufacturoi  of 
which  It  iniiy  be  considered  aa  directly  or  Indirectly 
the  source— type-fuunding,  printing  hooka,  etc.  The 
manufacture  uf  leather,  in>  1  'iling  ita  variuua  aubdi- 
vislona  of  tanning,  curryin^  hufl,  glove,  and  harness, 
milking,  with  numerous  minor  branchea  In  which 
leather  la  employed. 

The  value  of  tth*  prodiiri*  auil  mauufUcturoa  of 
the  llnUi'il  Klnifiluiii  ixportcil  tVuin  (Ireat 
Brll/!ii  aiiil  IrulamlloriirelKn  parts,  acrarillrig 
tu  ',10  real  or  ilwlarml  value,  amounted  In 

IHl'Jto jei)Sffll,nOi 

In  ixr.l  tliey  bail  rtiiii  to.   T^.Ma.TiW 

or  which  wore  si>ni  to  the  I.'.  Status. .  i:U,8li<,9T6 
Tu  tbii  varlnns  llrlitsh  ilepenilcncjes..  IV.filHsVdO 
Tu  llraill  BM'I  South  Anurlcan  Status.      8,tM9,nS 

i>H,liWl,9(H 

"  I'rum  which  il  appears  that  the  United  States  of 
America  cimsunio  nearly  one  lifth  of  our  ex)H<rted 
proilucn  and  nianufacturcs,  and  that  the  countries 
culunlzed  by  (Ireat  Ilrllnin,  and  those  dependent  on 
ber,  are  bcr  customers  for  nearly  half  of  uU  the  pru- 
ililci  inanufiu!turea  which  she  sells  to  the  world. 

Tlici  IS  every  reusun  lo  expect  that,  under  the  wise 
and  liberal  cunstitution  granted  tuthe  Kritish  colonies, 
iinn  uigly  popuhius  and  prosperous  nations  will  cx- 
tcnil  crtiie  present  unexplored  wildenies.sea  ;  and  as 
tlio  \  ntted  States  of  America  are  rapidly  enlarging 
their  lamndaries  tu  the  west  and  the  south,  und  us  their 
Increasing  population  has  been  uniformly  attended  with 
u  proportiunute  increase  of  trade,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
prosperity  of  llrltain  is  especially  liound  up  with  the 
prus|ierlty  uf  her  colonies  and  with  that  of  the  United 
States,  ilritiiln  is  not  less  interested  in  the  increasing 
wealth  and  prua|ierity  of  the  other  countries  of  tlie 
world  ;  for  the  richer  and  more  pros|)erous  they  are, 
the  better  customers  will  they  tie  for  our  goods,  nnd 
the  more  will  thoy  be  able  to  cuutribute  to  our  comfort 
und  enjoyment  by  thn  produce  which  they  will  be  ubla 
tu  ux|H)rt  to  our  shores," — Kitcy.  Brit. 


QBE 


862 


TaIiITI  or  iHTOvn  nreo  Ouat  Biitaih  ahd  Ieilahd  rioa  Fosmaif  FAmn,  CALOULAtm  at  tbi  Oifioial  Batm 
or  Taloatiox,  tob  tbb  Tbam  bndino  Stb  Jahuaet,  ISSS^SM, 


BpteUi  of  Importo. 

Almondi  of  til  aorta 

Anlnuls  living :  viz. : 

Oxen,  bolls,  cows,  tnd  CBlrea. , . . 

Bheep  tnd  Itmbs 

Annttto 

Aahea,  petrl  tod  pot 

Btoon 

Btrlllttnd  tlktll 

Btrk,  for  ttnning  tnd  dyeing 

'•    PeroTlan 

B«e<l  atlted  or  fresh 

Bones  oftnlnitls  tnd  flsh 

Books,  bound  or  unbound 

Boots,  shoes  tnd  gtlocbes. 

Bortx 

Brimstone 

Bristles 

Butter 

Ctoutobouo 

Ctssit  llgnet  

Chees* 

Clnntmon. 

Cloeks 

Cloves 

Coeblnetl,  grtnlllt.  tnd  dust 

Oooot  tnd  cbocoltte 

Coffee 

Copper  ore  tnd  regulns. 

Copper,  nnwroaght  tnd  ptrt  wrought. . 

Cork 

Corn,  metl,  tnd  flour 

Cotton  mtnuftctures  of  Indit  tnd  Cblnt 

»  "of  Europe,  etc 

Cresm  of  Ttrttr 

Cnrrtnts. 

Dye  tndbtrdwoods:    Barwood 

"  "  Itrull  wood 

"  "  Fustic 

"  **  Logwood 

"  "  Mtlioganjr 

"  "  Bosewood. 

Embroidery 

Figs 

Flax  tnd  tow 

Olnger i 

Glass,  except  bottles 

Outno 

Gum,  Anlml  tnd  Copil 

"     Artblc f. 

"     Lto  Dye 

"      Bhelisc 

"     Senegal 

Hair,  mtnubeturo  of 

Htir,  horse 

Iltms. 

Hemp 

Hides,  rtw  or  ttnnod 

Indigo 

Iron  In  btrs,  unwrought 

Islngltss 

La«o 

Ltrd 

Lead,  pig  tnd  sheet 

Leather  gloves 

Linens 

Liquorice  Juice  tnd  paste 

Mace 

Madder  tnd  gsrtnclne 

Nutmegs 

Oil,  ctstor 

"    cocoa  nut 

"    olive 

"    ptim 

"    rtpe  seed 

"    blubber 

Oil  seed  ctkes.' 

Oranges  tnd  lemons 

Pepper 

Pimento 

Pork,  stited  or  fk'esh 

Potatoes 

Quicksilver 

Ilags.  etc.,  for  paper 

RsLilns 

Rhubarb 

Rice 

Rosin 

Stfllower. 

Stgo 

Btltpetre  tnd  nitre 

Beoor  olover 

"     flax  tnd  Unseed 

"     Rtpo 

Continued  p  868 


•MAT  ■BITAIII. 


VPITBD  aUttDvlf. 


m. 

._'»»*■ 

lats. 

IM4. 

ISIS, 

Mt«. 

£«»,916 

£65,805 

£689 

£476 

£69,906 

£66,781 

188^ 

'»»^ 

.... 

188,880 

192,608 

M,B8S 

67,611 

.**• 

S 

60,888 

67,618 

40,101 

61,411 

■  ••• 

40,101 

61,421 

1(9,081 

101,181 

.... 

199,081 

101,181 

1««,40S 

♦"fSSI 

•  .  •  . 

164,408 

418,667 

1,«M 

i,ait 

4b°662 

89,418 

48,826 

41,049 

8»,4«1 

79,770 

8,716 

9,494 

91,176 

89,164 

i6*m 

192,784 

.... 

89 

264,896 

191,818 

1M,T10 

167,6m 

8 

898 

114,718 

168,024 

881,907 

179,804 

1(0 

186 

182,197 

179,489 

41,78T 

J^Wi 

11 

90 

41,798 

44,800 

>0,U8 

18^610 

10 

81 

(0,678 

18&,6«2 

in,091 

287,761 

•  .  .  • 

171,0(1 

287,761 

878,04T 

*•*•!!! 

11,187 

9,415 

889,184 

472,187 

86,698 

<0,<95 

<•>• 

86,628 

60,6(6 

410,1T7 

680,980 

1 

.  ••  . 

410,178 

6(0,980 

54,900 

48,486 

61,900 

48,486 

."■?I2 

16,881 

•  ... 

87,270 

16,681 

443,181 

608,887 

15 

4 

442,197 

608,8(1 

108,871 

144,866 

•  •  >  • 

108,871 

144,866 

??•!«? 

116,690 

98 

(28 

89,856 

117,813 

78,634 

120,989 

1 

.... 

78,686 

110,989 

l,9n,819 

910,986 

9,174 

.... 

l,979,6t8 

910,986 

151,086 

191,406 

4,419 

4,488 

166,606 

196389 

8,417,019 

8,469,787 

148 

1,786 

8,417,167 

8,471,479 

107,608 

1AW8 

.... 

.... 

107,609 

195,988 

684,281 

638,021 

.... 

684,281 

688,091 

57,189 

67,409 

10,618 

14,196 

67,767 

81,604 

'•?!*''^ 

10,659,120 

4,848,477 

4sl76,284 

11,972,042 

14,886,864 

461,171 

588,097 

461,171 

688,097 

ai^iss 

478,404 

26 

26 

865,161 

478,479 

95,200 

181,295 

724 

68 

96,924 

181,848 

868,628 

179,86» 

1,291 

1,469 

864,916 

281388 

59,777 

10,089 

.... 

69,777 

10,089 

8,850 

146,198 

.... 

8,860 

146,198 

48,045 

49,298 

.... 

48,046 

49,2(3 

124,166 

286,701 

6,661 

8,864 

280,818 

240,066 

403,488 

241,109 

1,586 

1,146 

406,024 

142,256 

82,475 

118,000 

.  >  .. 

.... 

82,476 

118,000 

74,317 

108,678 

1 

6 

74,819 

108,688 

24,772 

81,899 

66 

.       66 

24,828 

81,447 

1,818,469 

8,889,587 

141,114 

144,774 

2,964/t88 

4,084,861 

26,872 

17,678 

.... 

.... 

26,871 

17,678 

166,887 

146,581 

T 

28 

166,844 

246,564 

1,296.200 

1,281,666 

1,695 

.... 

1,298,896 

1,281,656 

70,886 

90,646 

.... 

.... 

70,886 

(0,646 

104,084 

182,637 

.... 

1(0 

104,084 

182,927 

74,062 

75,811 

.... 

.... 

74,062 

76,811 

68.69S 

119,711 

.... 

•  ... 

88,696 

119,712 

9,844 

16,008 

.... 

9,844 

16,008 

287,559 

146,246 

.... 

287,659 

245,245 

62,274 

86,118 

t  ..  . 

e  .  •  • 

62,274 

86,118 

16,810 

84,906 

70 

200 

16,880 

SM06 

910,098 

1,158,706 

10,288 

18,968 

940,886 

1,172,674 

1,701,866 

1,461,209 

9,256 

18,848 

1,711,112 

2,474,662 

1,286,169 

972,752 

1,286,169 

972,762 

814,168 

466,006 

1,0(1 

826,249 

466,006 

14,678 

20,761 

.... 

.... 

24,678 

20,761 

65,768 

91,930 

1 

66,760 

91,930 

92.986 

177,621 

92,986 

177,621 

198,767 

260,825 

68 

i,68« 

198,826 

262,611 

66,898 

86,910 

.... 

.... 

66,898 

86,910 

50,669 

66,890 

294 

883 

60,858 

66,663 

46,986 

68,917 

877 

892 

46,868 

68,609 

88,.V11 

61,889 

1 

88,662 

61,889 

1,919,757 

2,842,674 

160 

861 

1,919,917 

2,843,626 

71,784 

60,828 

1 

.... 

71,786 

60,323 

341,910 

258,089 

.*•> 

.... 

841,910 

268,082 

804,3;  7 

490,586 

.... 

804,817 

400,686 

298,259 

888,980 

1,686 

12,424 

800,794 

846,864 

623,812 

686,581 

.... 

87 

623,811 

686,668 

12S,746 

186,489 

8,912 

128,746 

189,894 

873,S01 

888,071 

849 

80 

874,160 

883,161 

260,707 

860,692 

40 

61 

260,747 

850,753 

87,077 

99,719 

8,169 

2,641 

90,246 

102,264 

110,623 

91,605 

16 

87 

110,689 

91,6t2 

M,156 

88,379 

.... 

64,165 

88,879 

90.476 

14»,657 

T8 

.... 

90,648 

1H667 

886.104 

666,077 

T 

160 

886,111 

666,227 

422,087 

878,624 

.... 

422,6.37 

873,624 

38,601 

62,345 

664 

1,005 

89,265 

58,360 

238,749 

804,979 

4,761 

6,628 

248,610 

310,607 

68,867 

88,778 

68,867 

88,773 

770,677 

1,161,686 

6 

1,861 

770,681 

1,158,986 

113,310 

188,987 

1,696 

622 

114.906 

186,6<i9 

184,!529 

72,897 

1 

134.619 

71,898 

144.881 

191,607 

2,039 

144,881 

193,M6 

867,060 

422,458 

6 

867,060 

422,463 

81,351 

128,928 

961 

1,706 

82,802 

180,684 

729,949 

fr06,421 

106,398 

171,487 

886,842 

1,187.90S 

161,101 

88,257 

2,074 

161.104 

90,831 

ORB 


853 


ORE 


Tiitfa  or  Iwoat*  imo  Omat  BinAiw  ado  Iiilahd  nou  Fonron  PAin,  oAionLA-ns  at  thi  OmoiAL  BAtn 
or  Talvahov,  rot  thi  Yiau  CHDiHa  6tii  Jahuaet.— OmMniMdL 

irMto..(tar»t.. 

oaUT  BaRAIK. 

IHB1.AHD. 

VlitTBD   KIHaDOII.                    | 

lUI. 

1864. 

I8U. 

1864. 

IB». 

1164. 

Oontlnatd 

H>T1 

69,666 
2,729,843 
660,817 
829,866 
1,398,489 
848,886 
926,268 
684,006 

18,914 

470,241 

9,789,237 

868,872 

1,070,668 

129,404 

6/i60,183 

54^896 
116,069 
287,215 
460,089 
340,788 

66,646 
146,970 

68,694 

64,206 
702,602 

246,613 

900,116 

66,884 

80,811,094 

2,469,143 

719,7!»6 

61,428 

4,664,187 

14,660 

6K624 

8,308,717 

1,064,880 

82^122 

1,902,941 

860,099 

1,170,923 

666,251 

24,619 

865,908 

10,822,872 

618,419 

1,236,216 

144,216 

7,118,482 

69,709 

90,»:7 

248,702 

638,816 

196,824 

93,122 

199,729 

65,661 

72,607 

1,178,689 

806,703 

1,142,296 

94,920 

28,881,818 

8,111,708 

1,210,678 

128,886 

6,840,466 

'l°,447 

"sos 

82 

'6,142 

76 

647 

722,991 

44 

45,664 

8,246 

76,870 

•     ■9 
19,292 

461864 

40,863 

146,886 

1,974 

14,478 

8,896 

61 

76;8,W 

1,684 
6,444 

'14 

80 

^741 

264 

766 

720,469 

2 

14,188 

4,892 

83 

1,887 

■■i«6 

160 

10,787 

169 

«!\m 

47,620 

166,185 

1,703 

1,004 

2,359 

85 

110,467 

24,971 

64,113 
2,729,848 
660,317 
830,174 
1,898,621 
848,386 
9^^268 
689,147 

18,989 

470,788 

10,482,218 

868,416 

1,116,282 

132,660 

6,686,053 

64,896 
116,069 
887,215 
460,048 
240,788 

86,988 
146,970 

63,694 

64.206 
749  966 

287,874 

1,046,600 

67,303 

80,825,572 

2,46.3,038 

719,777 

01,423 

4.730,740 

14,660 
71,168 

?:M 

326,122 

1,902,966 

360,179 

1,170,928 

671,993 

24,888 

866,658 

11,042,341 

618,421 

1,260,849 

148,608 

7,118,514 

69,709 

92,164 

248,703 

639,013 

196,484 

111,90* 

199,898 

66.661 

73,607 

1,246,908 

868,238 

1,297,461 

96,622 

28,832,817 

8,114,567 

1,210,758 

128,886 

6,460.938 

8«aiut , .,,,.,, 

Bilk,  tww  Md  wMto 

"    tbrown , 

■*   maiiuCMturaoriiKtlsMutCblns.... 

»            "        ofKuroiN),«ta 

SUM  (nd  fun ..,, 

Spelter 

Spirit*,  brtndr 

"     Oon«Ti , 

"     rum ....,,,, 

^*   '  niolMiei.. ...... )...««*«...«.... 

Tdlov , 

T«r , 

Tet^ 

Tcatb,  eleplunU' 

Till..., 

Tobiooo  And  enDir. 

Turpentine 

VilonlA 

Wateliee 

Wu,  beei' 

Wlula-flni 

Winea 

Wood  And  tlmbar,  yli, ; 

Teatc  itATea 

Tarn,  woolen  or  allk. 

All  other  artlclat 

Tottl  ofllefakl  TAlue  of  Import*  ttom  1 
(toraign  ptrta 

£108,408,896 

£117,281,764 

£6,987,014 

£5,905,071 

£109,845,409 

£12.%186,886 

A>  AccoDHT  or  TUi  Vaidc  or  Tua  Ixroin  ixto,  and  or  tui  Expobts  nou,  Obeat  Bbitaiii  and  lBirf.AifD, 

tlVRINO   KAOn  or  TUB  THBBI  TbABS  BHDINO  Tni  6tu  Or  JaMUABY,   1863. 


aRKAT  8KITAIN, 


UNITED  KINODOM. 


ValMof 
iMaorti  tali) 

ant 

BfiUlii. 


1868108,408,895 


TALva  or  aaroan  rsoM 
aaaAT  aaniia. 


PfiNliif.  m4|    Forolan 

mantirii'tuft*  ao4  rMmla) 

uftiM  (Inll«<lj  BMnliaii' 

ltlafd«m.         dis«. 


Total  .iporu 


ValM  of 
ImporU 

Inlo 
Iralud. 


/  /  I         /  i 
1861  •6,262,084 176,147,09521,882,977  197,080,072 
-  — 108,67*,6«»  I90,4»T,476  28,726.872  214,188,848 
l»9,8<6,«8«,28,8204»»4  219,1 36,690  6, 


FroduM 
and  oiADu- 
flieturai  of 
Ih.  Unlud 
Klngdotn. 


Kur«lpi 

«nd 

eolonUI 

merahan- 

dlie. 


6,308,349 
7,099,648 
',987,014 


290,008 
260,688 
850,974 


10,190 
6,331 
8,135 


Total 
eiportf. 


Vain  of 
ImporU  Into 
the  United 
Kingdom. 


300,198 100,460,438 
257,169:110,679,125 
359,109,109,345,409 


Prodneo  and 

nuinuraetures 

of  the  Unltad 

Kingdom. 


Foreign 

and  colonial 

mercbaa 

din. 


Total  azporta 


176,437,098  21,898,167 197,810,2661 
190.653,814'28,782,703  214,891,017 
196,216,610,28,829,069  219,645,699 


Export;  Imporit,  «fe.— In  1800  the  annnal  exports 
of  the  Britlab  ind  Iriah  produce  amounted  to  £86,903,- 
000 ;  the  export!  (it  tun\ffn  and  colonial  produce  to 
£7,271,000,  belRK  >  total  of  i;'t!l,174,000.  The  imports 
for  the  same  year  amounted  to  £24,060,000.  In  1862, 
the  British  and  Iriah  ex|inrts  to  forel^^j  countries  were 
£72,049,367;  to  the  colonies,  £20,430,869 ;  total,  £92,- 
479,736.  The  imports  for  the  same  year  amounted  to 
£109,346,409.  The  total  number  of  vessels,  their 
tonnage,  and  numtier  of  persims  navigating  the  same, 
were,  in  1862,  84,402  veisels,  1,226  of  which  were  pro- 
pelled by  steam;  tonnage,  4,424,392;  nivigated  by 
243,612  men  and  boy*.  The  total  length  of  railroads 
authorized  by  ParlUimont  up  to  the  31st  December, 
1851,  amounted  to  11,062  miles ;  capital,  £368,428,000. 
The  total  length  of  railroad*  completed  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  at  tha  end  of  the  year  1863  was 
7774  miles;  cost  of  conttrnctkm,  up  to  July,  1863, 
£263,636,320,  e«|ual  to  (1,816,000,000.  An  almost  in- 
stantaneous communication  by  electric  telegraph  has 
alio  been  eitablUbed  bhroughoat  great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  Of  other  asaociated  industrial  companies, 
the  Investment*  are,  In  mining  companies,  £0,978,747 ; 
go*  companies,  £6,41 6,295  ;  insurance  companies, 
£6,000,000,  The  gross  revenue  of  the  post  office  for 
the  year  ending  January  6tb,  1862,  wo*  £2,422,168 ; 
the  cost  of  management  was  £1,804,168 ;  the  net  rev- 
enue, £1,118,004.  The  total  number  of  letters  in 
1861  wo*  860,647,187,  of  which  36,612,640  were  in 
Scotland,  and  ii6,0S2,782  la  Ireland,    The  payment 


made  to  the  various  railroad  companies  for  the  convey- 
ance of  mails  for  work  done  within  the  j'ear,  was 
£166,676,  and  £87,272  for  work  done  In  previous 
years.  The  total  number  of  money  orders  issued  in 
the  year  1851  was  4,661,026 ;  the  amount,  £8,880,420. 
In  1851,  the  persons  employed  were,  in  England  and 
Wales,  13,912;  in  Ireland,  1927;  in  Scotland,  2190, 
and  in  the  colonies,  939.  The  total  amount  paid  to 
these  persons  waa  £727,120. 

BrUith  Ezporti  in  1868, — A  return  has  been  issued  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  of  the  declared  values  and  official 
values  of  British  and  Irish  produce  and  manufactures 
exported  from  tiie  United  Kingdom  in  the  year  1858, 
specifying  tlie  amount  to  each  country  and  colony. 
From  this  document  the  following  tables  have  been 
compiled,  showing  the  order  in  which  the  various 
communities  of  the  world  rank  as  her  customers.  The 
total  is  £116,631,998  rea'  value  for  the  year  1868,  against 
£122,006,107  for  1857,  and  £115,826,948  for  the  year 
1856.  The  progressive  advance  in  the  foreign  export 
trade  for  each  year  from  1801  to  (he  year  1858  is  fully 
shown  in  the  copious  table  on  page  856.  From  1843 
to  1857  the  exports  to  the  United  States  had  increased 
from  £6,013,000  to  £19,182,000;  and  to  ten  foreign 
markets  from  £24,016,000  to  £58,237,000.  The  tabu- 
lar returns  (pages  858, 854, 855)  show  important  results 
for  the  years  1853,  1854,  and  1855.  With  regard  to 
foreign  countries,  the  eflfects  of  the  chronic  pressure 
which  has  continued  to  prevail  in  the  New  York  money 
market  have  again  been  shown  in  a  diminution  of  tha 


6RE 


854 


ORE 


7alvi  or  THi  Pkodvoi  jlko  If  ANinrA<rnniu  or  tdi  Cxitid  Kihqdoh,  EzroiraD  noa  Okat  Bbitaik  asd  InLAiw 

TO  FOBUON   PaKTS,  ACCOIDIItO  TO  TUB  »AL  OB  DXCIABBD  VaLVB  TUBBEOr,  rOB  THB  YbaBB  BHDINO  Am  jARtTAKT, 


SpteUt  of  ftlxporU. 


uREaT  bklTAlN. 


ISU. 


I8H. 


I  AirrlcuUarai  Implcmeoto 

I  AlkBH  of  all  Korls 

Alum 

I  Apodioearjr  warea 

Apparel  and  alopi 

Arma  and  ammnnltloii 

Bacon  and  bamt 

Uaga,  empty 

Beef  and  pork,  salted 

Beer  and  ale 

BlehroDiate  of  potasb 

Bleaching  materials 

Books,  printed 

Btaas  and  copper  manufactures  

Bread  and  biscuit 

Briclu 

Butter  and  clieese 

Cabinet  and  upholstery 

Caoutchouc  and  gutto,  uiauufactures  of. . 

Carriages  of  all  sorts 

Cement. 

Coals  and  culm 

Confectionery 

Cordage 

Com,  meal,  and  flour 

Cotton  manufactures 

"      yarn 

Karth«nware  of  all  sorts 

Fish  Of  all  KOrts 

Fishing  tackle 

Fuel,  Dmnufactured 

QIass  of  all  sort<. 

tlaberdaslicry  and  millinery 

Hardwares  and  cutlery.    

Hats,  beaver  and  felt 

"     of  all  other  sorts 

Hemp,  dressed 

Hops 

Hones 

Iron'and  steel,  wrought  and  unwrought. 

Lard 

Lead  and  shot 

"     red  and  white 

Leather  and  saddlery 

Linen  manufactures 

"     yarn 

Machinery  and  mill-work 

Mathematical  instruments 

Molasses 

Musical  instruments 

Oil,  hemp,  linseed,  and  rape 

"    train  and  spcriimcetl 

Painters'  colore  and  materials , 

Perftamery. 

Pickles  and  sauces 

Plate  ware,  Jewelry,  etc 

putting  for  bats  of  straw,  etc 

Potatoes 

Provisions,  not  described 

Halt. 


Saltpetre,  rcftned  In  United  Kingdom. 

Seeds  of  all  sorts 

Silk  nianufiiotnres 

Soap  and  candles 

Spelter,  wrought  and  unwrought 

Splrita 

Stationery  of  all  sorts 

Sugar,  reflncd 

Tin.  unwronght 

Tin  and  pewter  wares 

Tobacco,  manufactured 

Toy* 

Turnery  and  turners'  wares. 

Twine 

Umbrellas  and  parasols 

Wool,  eheep's.  and  other  sorts, 

Woolen  ana  worsted  yam 

Woolen  manufactures , 

All  other  articles 

Total  exports 


1,M«,1W 

8(8,408 

47,aaft 

14»,TT1 

88,678 

T48,Sbe 

2&,<24 

107,609 

SS»,888 

1,TI>I,0M 

SO.ilO 

4&,8»4 

2*4,845 

181,719 

44,014 

T0,188 

49,888 

l,869,6iS 

46,476 

144,068 

148,407 

28,2SI.0i» 

e,eM,6SS 

1,1M,790 

849,406 

46,064 

89,741 

879,418 

2,074,117 

2,691,242 

4S,(«0 

92,400 

8i,S72 

29.726 

98,490 

6,606,148 

6,208 

808,160 

,«,079 

84li,S»« 

4,280,126 

1,140,100 

1,248,860 

44,222 

02,409 

122,919 

484,899 

49,710 

249,099 

44,029 

146.830 

42^705 

67,970 

6.849 

06,488 

221,101 

01,895 

19,898 

1,001,846 

81^649 


68,618 

411,090 

800,184 

88,604 

1,080,720 

12,601 

26,788 

80.142 

04,770 

79,n7 

T92,2N9 

1,4-XI40 

8,729,609 

1,S61JS87 

£77.780.091" 


£77,809 

478,082 

20,089 

038,087 

2,760,094 

048,927 

187,021 

187,118 

60,287 

1,280,628 

28,867 

94,230 

401,711 

1,808,641 

41,961 

67,300 

446,844 

849,660 

72,687 

109,626 

64,212 

1,602,762 

97,424 

221,626 

870,740 

20,307,986 

6,890,608 

1,887,911 

406,008 

60,010 

48,664 

017,8(2 

4,106,189 


87,888 

174,788 

17,801 

89,691 

8S,S87 

10,802,090 

6,082 

872,940 

66,708 

1,676,208 

4,706,889 

1,104,989 

1,980,817 

69,441 

48.038 

17.\870 

616.311 

00,005 

824,169 

69,627 

8.82,448 

727,301 

M,877 

1.812 

189,999 

271,129 

48,960 

23.74,'i 

2,044.289 

412.260 

97.828 

204.141 

618,498 

301,627 

140,859 

1,213.612 

19,669 

46,82ff 

40,1194 

07,037 

119,906 

488,812 

l<4.'i6,7S6 

10,iro,7S8 

2.342,467 


IRELAND.' 


UNIfU)  KINuImM.' 


£16 


617 

889 

2,207 

028 

4,361 

6,081 

"284 
45 
29 

"719 

98,474 

770 

"782 

29 

2,4.S9 

2 

12,088 
2,847 

"i07 
940 

"i46 

409 

68 

455 


872 

28.128 

2,466 

10 

V,487 

1,660 

410 

8,000 

1 

"'■io 

60 

"si 

26 
00 


410 

40 

2,870 

"T77 

20 

8,795 


128 


08,480 

V,825 
R2.3.'IA 


I8U. 


ISM. 


£70 

£69,241 

899,286 

27,648 

79 

880,808 

1,602 

1,246,677 

1,547 

898,847 

1,470 

49,012 

218 

160,294 

.'638 

87,929 

6,784 

754,627 

.... 

20,624 

681 

107,898 

851 

289,488 

690 

1,704,088 

20,110 

463 

46,613 

75,812 

898,819 

486 

132,494 

,  , 

46,014 

180 

70,865 

6 

49,862 

1,829 

1,872,114 

66 

46,478 

4,776 

14^924 

10,920 

100,446 

9,263 

28,228,482 

6,654,6.'» 

409 

1,101,897 

10 

800,896 

46.066 

89,887 

693 

878,827 

800 

2,074,180 

1,800 

2,691,697 

161 

48,000 

92,460 

81,872 

29,726 

80 

98,867 

42,782 

6,684,276 

1,171 

8,718 

858,180 

60,079 

2,842 

844,709 

1,098 

4,281,786 

88 

1,140,060 

219 

1,251,860 

44,528 

62,40* 

26 

122,908 

17 

434,959 

49,715 

676 

249,130 

279 

44,055 

14 

116,880 

85 

4'A705 

67,970 

072 

6,764 

1 

66,628 

1,0M 

828,976 

61,890 

20,670 

72 

1,661,866 

7,614 

824,444 

88,366 

4,800 

66,548 

884 

411,718 

800,184 

8.3,604 

18 

1,080,726 

.... 

12,661 

26,788 

19 

80,142 

86 

64,TTB 

■79,m 

TOO 

840,769 

1,480,140 

1.894 

8,780,904 

83.428 

1,418,921 

£77,879 

478,082 

26/)8* 

688,616 

2,766,696 

000,474 

188,491 

187,886 

61,676 

1,2*1,867 

2836T 

»4,911 

402,062 

1,8&4,881 

41,961 

•7,818 

620,606 

8.19,996 

72,687 

169,790 

64,21T 

l,604Jt91 

»7,489 

226,402 

891,666 

25,817,249 

6,895,608 

1,338,370 

466,018 

60.016 

48,664 

518,540 

4,156,494 

8,665,061 

87,649 

174,788 

17,851 

89,591 

8.\967 

10,846,422 

7,758 

872,940 

66,708 

1,678,090 

4,75?,432 

1,154,977 

1,980,586 

69,441 

48,033 

170.890 

616,828 

60,006 

824.845 

69,906 

8.32,462 

727,886 

M,87T 

1,684 

140,000 

272.178 

48,966 

28,746 

2,044,861 

419,879 

97,828 

208,441 

618,882 

801,627 

14<>,869 

1,218,680 

19,669 

46,820 

40,113 

07,062 

119,900 

484,512 

1.466,788 

10,172,182 

a870,890 


1'98, 709.618  '£2»6;268  I  £224,098  '  £78.076,864    £98,988.781 


exports  to  the  United  States.  In  1854  there  waa  a 
decreaae  of  i:2,248,0o8,  and  a  further  falling  olT  of 
£4,092,28.3  is  now  oliecrvable.  The  amount  to  Ger- 
many baa  been  swollen  by  the  overland  trade  to  Rus- 
sia, the  augmentation  being  £1,222,776.  France  ex- 
hibits the  extraordinury  increaae  of  £2,8i)7,368 — equal 
to  9b  per  cent.— b  result  due  partly  to  the  purchase  of 
war  materiala  in  this  country,  and  partly  to  moditina- 
tions  In  her  tariif.  To  Turkey,  as  might  have  Iraen 
expected,  the  exports  have  more  than  doubled.  Rus- 
tla  ii  of  oouna  antiraly  nut  of  the  lift,  but  tba  coo- 


signments  to  Balaklavaand  the  other  ports  In  her  own 
possession  amounted  to  nearly  £600,000.  Among  the 
countries  which  show  an  improvement  are  Sweden  and 
Norway,  Brazil,  and  New  Uranada,  the  difference  in 
each  of  these  cases  being  large.  The  trade  with 
Syria  and  Palestine,  in  consequence  of  the  war,  has 
experienced  a  great  development.  The  exports  direct 
to  the  DanubUn  Principalities,  which  declined  from 
£179,010  in  18&3  to  jtl6,402  in  1854,  stand  in  the  pres- 
ent  return  at  £46,387,  Belgium,  Greece,  Italy,  Mex- 
ico, Peru,  VtnezueU,  and  China,  are  oU  on  the  favur- 


GRE 


H6S 


GRE 


kble  side.     Spain  slinwa  a  fulling  off.    Th*  Rlv«r  I  AytM  «nd  llrnguajr  liotii  preaenting  •  great  decline. 
Plate  trade  experienced  a  lieavy  reaction,   lltMmM  |  I'wrtugll  and  benmaric  liuvo  been  stationary.  , 

IiiroRTS  INTO  AKP  lUpoiTS  tunu  THN  I'NiTKti  KiNolioM  fanM  Ignl  to  186^  imoldsiti. 


Vtan. 

Oflilal  ValiK,                                      1 

Real  V.lua.                                            | 

ImpoTli. 

KiporM,                           1 

tmpatU, 

Kipona.                                 1 

FriHluc*  Mil 
MMufAC(HrM 

'(•-/(•I 

Hroduca  And 
M«niir«<^(ur«i 

Ponign  wid 

Colunlal 
KarclmiidUa. 

Total 

uf  Iha  L'lli(«4 
Kingduni. 

H6,ltW>,IN)4 

al  (ha  VnlOd 
Kinitdom. 

Eiporta. 

1801 

BI,7S6,262 

24,921,61*4 

io,m,u(> 

....     •] 

t 

tiMordi  not 
romplelo  for 
lliew  xtara. 

X 

t 

1802 

I»),82«,2iO 

2B,6S2,M» 

;»."«,(•<» 

S*'!'*'*!! 

....      1 

.... 

180S 

26,622,6:16 

20,467,631 

••S'K'ill 

*''2il'JK5 

,,,.       f 

.... 

.... 

1804 

21,819,632 

22,«ST,8«0 

1!'*S!'JW 

ltl,«10,M» 

....     J 

.... 

.... 

1806 

28,561,270 

23,878,941 

T,«8T,6fil 

»i,im,m 

88,077,144 

.... 

1806 

20,3:Kt,«5S 

26,861,879 

T.TK/.Mfi 

»H,M4,I44 

,  J   ,  , 

40,874,'  S3 

.... 

180T 

26,734,425 

2S,3'J|,2I4 

T.«7ltJ»« 

H\,IMi4,V4n 

4  4  1  t 

87,246,8.7 

.... 

ISOS 

26,T!IB,640 

24,011,215 

e,88T,i>«l 

m^\m 

If 

87,'-7C,102 

.... 

1809 

81,75(1,667 

!I3,64.',274 

i'/.i>«4,(  Ml 

4»,mi,m 

4  «  •  < 

47,371,89.1 

1810 

89,801,612 

84,061,(101 

V^MtkM 

4«,BW*,tM 

4  4  f 

4«,438,68i) 

.... 

1811 

26,610,180 

22,681, 400 

«,««il.T<» 

•in,m,m 

f  >  '  4 

82,890,712 

.... 

.... 

1818 

1813* 

1814 

26,163,431 

29,608,508 

e,T(T,n6 

mtm^m 

«444 

41,710,964 

.... 

.... 

83,766,264 

84,207,281 

)e,M8,««i 

IM^MM 

t*   4* 

48,494,219 

.... 

•  .   •  > 

1818 

82,987,896 

4.',8«0,ii17 

)6,T4«,Wil 

M,«tti<,»ri 

4   4    ,   t 

61,610,480 

.... 

1810 

27,431,6114 

86,714,681 

i3,m>,l¥) 

*<,Hift,*tl 

•    •    <4 

41,(63,980 

.... 

.... 

1817 

30,834,299 

40,111,167 

|ll,«'.i«,(«4 

Ml,4WI,MI 

.    ,    .    , 

41,817,640 

.... 

*  .   .  • 

ISIS 

8tf,SSB,182 

4',702,0(W 

tO,«A0,>«IT 

IMMm,M)A 

.    •    •    • 

4fl,470,86!J 

1819 

3(1,776,810 

83,634, 176 

li,«04>llt 

4»,4ti«.#Wl 

<    •    <    1 

16,211,4"! 

.... 

1820 

8-.',47 1,766 

38,393,76'* 

|n.«XI,1l2 

4»,t4(»,»<0 

#<    .    . 

86,428,'  69 

IS21 

30,837,712 

40,''»2,49'.) 

10,6'i:>ft 

AL'^ilM 

4  i    .    . 

86,6,V.,8(i2 

.... 

•  •   .   > 

1832 

30,631,141 

44,'242,632 

«,227,WIT 

tiii,m,iMi 

4   .   4   • 

86,966,023 

1823 

36,71)8,438 

43,826,607 

S.im.mili 

rfiAmiti.it 

4   4    14 

86,(;67,(i41 

.... 

1S24 

87,468,279 

48,780,4(17 

iu,mi,im 

W,(if(/,,«fti( 

1,44 

88,422,404 

1825 

44,208,803 

47,18(),6'.iU 

9,160,4m 

rKl^1'^,\^■l 

14   14 

8S,870,'46 

.... 

.... 

1826 

37,3I8,«)0 

40,966,736 

Ii(,<r76,2»7 

r.l.«4'/.if;i4 

t   .    44 

81,6B(I,728 

.... 

.  .   .   • 

182T 

44,908,  KB 

62,221,934 

»,«IKI,<*2I 

(C/,(lM,Tf<6 

4    14    4 

87,181,836 

.  t  .   > 

182S 

48,167,443 

8'i,786,08U 

»,»W,Mli 

M,^M,mh 

1,44 

86,8  2,767 

1829 

43,996,286 

66,217,' 62 

|0,6'iO,l«> 

M,«iM,tn 

«    •    •    • 

86,842,6.3 

.... 

.... 

1830 

46,300,473 

61,18  ,3(4 

«,A48,»U4 

m,v»ui# 

4    t    ,4 

88,271,6  r 

1881 

4'.>,7i7,8a8 

60,t86,3li4 

10,T4B,I2« 

TI,4»i,4W) 

t4   4   4 

87,164,372 

.... 

.  .   .  • 

1882 

44,610,646 

6  ,0-;6,278 

ll,044,«0 

T6,(»T«,(4«l 

t   4    t   . 

86,46n,6:'4 

.... 

1833 

AO'14,426 

6I,9»7.367 

»,«8!UM 

WAf  M« 

If 

80,667,848 

.... 

.   •   .   • 

18H4 

4'.i,3(14,7a3 

73,836,'.'8I 

U,B»2.«ST 

w>,m,'im 

14   4   4 

41,649,1I<1 

.... 

.... 

1S35 

49,02:>,334 

78,360,(iM 

I2,W.T24 

{it,\m,uii 

If 

47,872,'/70 

.... 

lS3a 

67,2 '6,048 

86,220,144 

lif.IWI.TI* 

BT.JI1,*rt 

4   4    14 

68,2{>8,979 

.... 

183T 

61,762,288 

72,64(,(l71 

IU,eil6,40T 

«8,fT«,A» 

f    1 

42,000,248 

.... 

.... 

183S 

61,268,(113 

92,48  ,967 

12,711,612 

m,m,m 

4  4   4   1 

6o,061,7.'i7 

.... 

18^9 

6-2,048,121 

97,3114,666 

I«,7(«,t»0 

ll«,((*(»/M 

4    .    »   . 

58,288,680 

.... 

1840 

«7,49-2,710 

10'2,T(I6,850 

I3,TT4.I6A 

(i«,*»),«ift 

414, 

81,406,480 

.... 

.  •   •  • 

1811 

64,444,268 

102,179,614 

14,TVB,»T» 

ll«,«0«,«KlT 

«   <    .   I 

81,684,623 

.... 

•  .  •  ■ 

1842 

65,263,286 

1(10,266,380 

|;i,fiW>,42« 

((»,»4IV«« 

4   14    4 

47,891,028 

.... 

1S13 

70,214,912 

1 17,876,(69 

IB,IA«,2iM 

»»(,<IIW,»47 

4    •    •    . 

6 ',2711,700 

.... 

1844 

76,449,874 

131,668,477 

l4,ft»MTT 

ur>,mm 

4   <   •   « 

68,894,292 

.... 

1S45 

85,297,8 18 

134,r>»8,684 

!«,2T9,8l"i 

(W»,<ttT,»M 

4   1   <   • 

60,111,092 

.... 

1846 

75,984,022 

132,312,894 

l»,*«,ft|l» 

l4»,»IMf(l 

14   4   4 

67,780,876 

.... 

.... 

1841 

00,921,886 

126,181,029 

W,(t«0,VT» 

I4h,\u,nim 

,,    ,, 

89,84'i,3;7 

.... 

.  t  •  • 

1848 

93,617,184 

132,619,164 

t8,8Til,8«i 

\tiit,w,i»,m 

,   ,   ,    , 

62,849,448 

.... 

1849 

10.5,884,263 

164,627,763 

«.^,«/,).«TH 

IWM»»7,4»» 

14    4   4 

68,696,025 

•  .   .  • 

1851 

100,469,067 

176,427,008 

21,«H,2r/ 

IM,»I  l,i)l« 

1.41 

71,867,996 

.... 

.... 

1S51 

110,484,997 

190,688,314 

«3,7*',«f6 

H4,',ni,mi 

4    <    •    • 

74,449,722 

.... 

•  •  .  • 

185! 

ln9,S3I,1^8 

19(I,I7<,60I 

28,S2«,»<i8 

m,m,m 

14   4    4 

79,07(1,951 

.... 

.... 

1S53 

113,om),313 

214,B'27,482 

27,744,7X2 

m,ifii,'tu 

,   ,    ,    , 

9S,983,7S1 

.... 

1S.')4 

124,338,478 

214,(I71,84S 

i'iMW,m 

'W.t.X^/Ji:-* 

ira,wi,6ia 

!i7,19j,7-'6 

18,618,r.78 

lll5,8.-)3,704 

1865 

117,402,36(1 

2'«,020,i«» 

81,ft<M,)i« 

imiyii.'m 

14»,fl<10,H»6 

!'6,«9S09B 

21,()12,'.66 

lli),701,»»t 

1S56 

131,037,7(18 

268,606,663 

»H,4Vlt,724 

m,mi',ii>'i 

172,844,161 

lin.8iia,n48 

23,393,406 

130,220,383 

1S5I 

136,215,849 

266,1)96,713 

80,m,»W 

!M«>4,f>itl 

MT,n4«,838 

122,066,107 

23,853,765 

145,410,872 

I85S 

.... 

,.., 

.... 

. .  /. 

110,631,9('8t|        .... 

.... 

"  Kecorda  deatroyed  by  Are. 

t  Tliia  Rmoiint,  aa  thii  <>>|iarta  for  1888,  la  d«i1v«4  Umn  (Iw  t«l0St  returns  for  eleren  moDtbs,  and  adding  thereto  a  sum 
equal  to  the  exporta  for  November. 


Tlie  commercial  clianges  in  Great  Britain  during 
tlie  ycnr  1858  were  not  very  important.  Antuflg  Hw 
prominent  clianges  were:  I.  "An  act  to  HmHn4  (Im 
lawa  of  Eiiftiand  ami  Ireland  affecting  Ufv\a  mv\  itmu 
mcrcc."  The  object  of  this  act  U  to  assiniilittx  tlw) 
lawd  of  England  and  Ireland  to  thos«  of  Ki^xtlitMil, 
and  thereby  remedy  the  inconveniencs  now  fuit  \iy  lit* 
commercial  community  in  matters  of  cuniniuil  ui^t'tir* 
rcnce  in  the  course  of  trade.  II.  "Treaty  of  cmiiI' 
mcrce  and  navigation  between  tlie  United  KiimdtXIl 
and  the  republic  of  Cliili."  III.  "  liaiurns  uf  lriwt<« 
and  business  to  bo  made  up  to  the  3lst.of  MHrxh,  tl*« 
terminus  of  the  financial  year,  instead  of,  as  iMtrntft' 
fore,  to  the  Slat  of  December."  "  Treaty  of  lunmrntm 
between  the  United  Kingdom  and  tlia  Swia*  <'uiifi>4' 
erMtion."  "  Differential  duties  on  the  trade  and  idil|i' 
ping  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  be  aboliahed." 

I'rogret*  nf  the  Uritith  AfercimliU  ifi'rlti'  tim'H 
1849.— In  1849  there  were  9298  auillng  VMS«U  migmvA 


iti  (h«  home  trade,  6612  In  the  foreign  trade,  and  1897 
(Mrtly  In  one  trade  nnd  partly  in  the  other.  In  1856 
tht>  linme  trade  employed  9390  sailing  vessels,  tho  for- 
eign irmU  WIfiO,  while  tliose  engaged  partly  in  one  tradd 
nnii  partly  In  tlie  other  numliered  but  970.  This  gives 
an  Increase  of  92  in  the  first  class,  and  of  1447  in  the 
mii'imi],  while  In  the  mixed  class  there  was  a  decrease 
lt(  1*37,  or  fiearly  half.  The  8tati.itics  of  the  steam 
Iritdi"  give  results  very  different.  In  1849  the  home 
trade  i!lii|>lnyed  312  steamers  (exclusive  of  river  ves> 
M>ls),  tlie  foreign  trade  82,  and  of  those  engaged  in 

fmrl  In  Itoth  trades  there  were  20.  In  1856  the  nuni- 
wrs  were  respectively  817,  42'2,  and  42,  showing  that 
whilt  the  liiinie  steam  trade  had  increased  scarcely  2 
|M<r  (^enl.,  llie  mixed  class  had  doubled,  nnd  the  for- 
(dgtl'giilng  steamers  had  been  multiplied  l)y  six.  There 
r«iins(;ia  for  notice  the  table  giving  the  numtier  and 
Idfiimiin  of  the  sai'iiig  and  ^team  vessels  built  and 
rtitflsfwed  In  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  fifteen 


GRB 


858 


cnns 


A  BaiDiH  ov  raa  Baimiia  citFioTmi  in  m  T&adb  or  m  UNiraD  KmanoM,  uiii»iti«»  mi  Xvnan  *no  Tm 

■AS!    or    VnUU   TUAT    EnTUKD    InWAID    and    ClEAUD    OuTWABD   (iKOLDPIItt   TN»I*    Hr«ATi»    VoVAai<*> 

MFABATt.^a  BuTua  moM  FoBUOH  ViMEU,  A-.JC  Steah  rEoM  Bailimo  Vmieu,  ANn  nnniNSVMMiiiw  tn«  Teade 
wrru  EAcn  Codntet,  in  the  Yeab  ISSB  (in  oonitnuatiun  or  rAELiAMEXTAEY  PAr«E  Nu.    *9,  uf  l)lk.":./K  iHAtM), 


8«    i*n 

^     •■•7 

DeaniEik 

FmHla 

Oernuny 

UollEOd 

Belflum 

CbEnnel  IslEnda 

Fnoee 

PortngEl,  AEorea,  *nd  Madeln. . 

BpElB  End  CEDErtei, 

OibralUr 

ItElUn  StstcE 

MeIU 

IodIed  IsUnds 

Oreec* 


Turkejr 

WEllEcbIa  snd  HoldEvU. 
8yrU. 

AMcE.. 

AeU... 
Amerte*: 

BrltUh  Northern  Colonies. 


BriUih  Wut  Indies. . 
Foreign  Weit  Indltr 
United  SUtee 


OiitrEl  End  Socthern  BtEtes. 

FElklEnd  lelEiids 

Arctic  Beglon*. , . . . . 

Wl»l«  FlEherlea 

Tot»J 


Btenm.. 
SEUIng. 
BteEin., 
BEtllng. 
SteEm.. 
SElllng., 
BteEin . . 
SElllng., 
SteEin.. 
BEtllng.. 
BteEm.. 
SElllng., 
BteEm.. 
8«Ulng.. 
BteEm.. 
SElllng.. 
BteEm.. 
SElllng.. 
SteEDi . . 
SElllng., 
BteEm . . 
BElllng., 
SteAm . . 
SElllng., 
BteEm . . 
BElllng., 
BteEm . . 
SElllng . 
SteEm . . 
SElllng.. 
SElllng.. 
BElllng.. 
Stenm.. 
BElllng.. 
BElllng.. 
Btenm.. 
BElllnp., 
Stenm.. 
SElllng.. 
SteEm.. 
SEUlng.. 

SteEm., 
BElllng. 
Btesm . . 
SElllng.. 
Bt«*m., 
Bal'Ing.. 
Bteam . , 
SElllng., 
SteEin . , 
BElllng.. 
BElllng., 
SElllng.. 
SElUng.. 


INWARD. 


Bblp.. 


« 

1,T90 
88 

m 

18 

no 

101 

84 

"ms 

432 

1,li« 

82S 

«58 

»0 

84S 

816 

1,026 

1,076 

a,m 
t» 

607 
1 

S16 
86 
S4 

ss 

464 


48 
6S 
01 

17a 

941 

a 

98 
47 

068 
16 

884 

4 

1,877 

600 
15 

150 
7» 

441 
16 


61 


11,618 


18,4i, 

8»7,V76 

11,888 

44,814 

8,185 
18,614 
44,188 

T,M6 

1H8S5 

158,0(6 

101,124 

146,617 

188,800 

8^515 

40,441 

61,5M 

111,608 

1(0,168 

80S,44( 

(,856 

61,886 

408 

05,450 

14,M7 

8,766 

14,111 

16,087 

6^888 

^778 

10,268 

80,674 

66,815 

41,106 

(68 

5,877 

86,410 

168,438 

14.179 

476,(88 

1,7(1 

776,446 

811 

184,017 

88,517 

48,114 

86,854 

166,408 

11,781 

n»,dn 

662 

liiiiis 


^055,84S 


8Upi. 


1,881 

1 

1,089 

1,765 

1( 

1,120 

11 

2,578 

124 
1,788 

184 
1,146 

126 

480 


10 
4,867 

"i7( 

12 

251 

""8 

"267 

"16 

6 

28 

"277 
815 

"'i4 

"sii 

■"68 

"448 

"'42 

1 

28( 

27 

889 

"l71 


21,248 


ToilMf*. 


877,764 
1(0 

100,187 

4,7(( 

157,789 

2,488 

41^194 

41,«6( 
164,150 

Ufit 
S16,6M 

1(,2I8 

70^(67 

'8,648 

1,697 

410,180 

22,644 

1,610 

82,1(8 

"iio 

67,265 

°8.490 
1,111 
4,867 

6^600 
'8^146 
81,698 
44^ 


226,758 

HOOg 

250 

60,N« 

873(0 

6(7,807 

n.sso 


118 


8,P87,768 


KvrwAnit, 


M 
1,858 

164 

1« 
126 
W 

406 

"iJT 

419 

1,146 

606 

9I« 

189 

271 

810 

1,166 

1,491 

2,651 

28 

«26 

I 

1,014 

»T 

174 

18 

108 

1 

ITO 

40 

SI 

60 

246 

V8 

a 
•• 

44 

681 

41 

1,516 

f 

1,819 

611 
96 

904 

86 

860 

16 

690 

8 

9 

67 


tm* 


12.925 
996,M7 
l»,)tT9 
11,916 
8,990 
]9,80« 

ii,imi 

76,7T» 

150,954 
908,794 
176,06« 

iiwa 

65,779 

i8.m 

68^819 

T4,T9« 

97540* 

801,791 

8,451 

6)*,7R» 

600 

174,401 

I5,tT« 

9l,7t« 

14,877 

iKfim 

766 

41,600 

M,IW 

8,740 

no,408 

fi8,4R« 

I2.4W 

1,766 

7,944 

87,4« 

178,109 

96,RM 

789,49* 

)«M 

587,167 

8*1 

168,748 

44,854 

66,949 

88,4m 

470,lt4« 

17,9fH 

189,989 

l,8t« 

574 

ujm 

5,ll»^ 


I 

i,ow 

"i»T 
t'Jm 

1,708 
117 

l,9ii4 
185 
612 
121 
200 


15 
4,061 

"648 
II 

m 
* 

67 

1 

575 

"ii* 

ill 
65 

"oil 
50 

"'» 

"*60 

"408 

"'92 

"'44 

"m9 

M 

1,175 

"«M 
1 


ri«,io» 


Jt»MHf«, 

T,io6 
900,010 

14»>iT 

(,804 

599,(57 

2,860 

(0(,T*6 

81,860 

1(5,484 

88,484 

47,740 

17,8«« 

28,695 


1,597 
I41,«9t 

94,0** 
1,97* 

llt,««l 

«0 

1I,9M 

150 

180,129 

44,657 
8,686 
17,680 

1M,994 
tfi» 

'1,997 

6r,Ml 

kJm 

l'l',M 

in,n» 

4(,8(7 

9n,(o* 
11* 


4,284;iir 


jrean  "ince  1842,  In  that  year  914  vesaels,  having  an 
aggre);Ete  tonaagaof  129,929  tons,  were  built ;  in  1866 
the  number  was  1160,  and  the  tonnage  244,678  tons. 
la  184£  the  sailing  vessels  numbered  95<t,  and  the 
steamers  68 ;  in  18.'<6  the  former  were  921,  and  the 
latter  229.     SteAmers,  therefore,  have  been  nesrly 


quadrupled,  w  jile  the  inc-raaw  of  iviUng  vsusel*  was 
only  alioat  7  per  cent. 

The  following  returns  er-brave  vssssts  lielonging  to 
the  Channel  Inlands,  but  ~U  vsuscti*  r«i(liil«rril  In  the 
British  plantations.  The  niarkeU  Incitsse  In  steam 
vessels  should  cluiin  the  attantlcn  of  our  sbipliullders. 


L— KncBif  or  Tan  Mdmber  and  Tonnasb  or  BEmsR  Kioi' 
Bnin,  IN  raa  Teabe  184(,  I860,  1851,  1851,  a^d  1858,  wui^ 
Baiuno  Teeseu  rkOM  Btbamees. 


"KCD   Vessels  eiipi.oted  solelt  as  llnKS-TBADl 
':  NoiiEEB  or  Men  BMrM>viui   iiwriNuifisMixa 


yw*. 

a^DS  ValMll. 

EMM)  V>H<I<.                                             1 

If  gMb«r  of  VlHeli. 

TonDxe. 

Monitor  of  M«a 
employad. 

NaBlMrorVmali, 

T«mf. 

\m.... 

(,K9 

6,880 
8,898 
8,n6 

666,(57 
(85,641 

40,208 
88,617 
8A(06 

812 
810 
868 
868 
874 

mil 

4,412 
4,491 

6,IMt 

1800 

1851 

1851 , 

7«1,()08                   85,798 
68(,84)                   88.051 

1808 

' 

L— BBTrBN  or  tbb  Ncmbee  and  Tonnasb  or  BBrrniH  Bboistkebd  Tbssbis  ehplotbd  paetlt  as  IIome-teadb  Mitlhl 
AND  rABTLT  AS  FoBEioN-ouiiio  Bbips.  IN  THE  Yeabs  1849,  1850,  1851,  1852,  and  1808,  wini  thb  Nvmsik  or  Mem 
XHPLOrEB;  DISnNOUISIIIEU  Saiuno  Viesku)  rsoH  Steahees. 


Tmr. 

8alll>t  VMHh. 

«<««  V>wl>. 

IflBlxrorVMMll. 

Tottoaf*, 

NiimWr  of  Mm 
ijnrlojrid. 

NiuakarofVaawb, 

TofUM^f, 

*e* 

IN 

**• 

»44 

560 

184( 

1,S«T      " 

1,487 

148( 

1,0*8 

(70 

281,(51 
911,841 
94«,656 

147,867 
156,800 

12,716 

10,291 

8,670 

6,876 

7,184 

90 

42 

1» 

ilifl 

1800 

1801 

1861 

Ig0( 

6RE 


867 


ORE 


VESSELS  EMPIX)YFD  IN  THE  FOREIGN  AND  COAemNO  TRADE  OP  TIIE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 
An  Aooount  ov  tiir  Nuhiiir  and  Tonnaoe  or  VnsiLa,  niaTiNouiBiiiNo  tiir  CouNTMn  to  which  tiiit  iiilonokd,  kdteiikd 

INWASI)  AND  ri.KAWIII  ODTWARIS  WITH  OAKIIOM  (IMmDniNO  TIIIIII  RKnCATED  VOTAOBa),  IN  Tilt  SIX   HoMTlM  ■NDIMa  SMa 

Jimt,  186S,  DOMPABni  WITH  Tuc  ootBUPONDiNU  PnuoM  or  THE  Yrahs  18M  Ai<n  185T. 


To  or  fwn 


rnited  kingdom  and  dep. 

Kuuia 

Hwoden 

Norway 

IViHnark 

FriKMla 

Otiier  Ocrman  8Ut«a  , . . 

Holland 

Ilclgliira . .  

France 

Spnin 

Portugal 

Itnllan  fjtatoa 

<  )th«r  Kiiropean  Statea. . 

I'nitfld  Htalea 

Africa  or  Aila 

Total 


CIcArad  from  BrilUb  Porta. 


8hlp« 


U,«IT 

T 

219 

816 

1,047 

401 

1,001 

0S2 

U2 

1,849 

124 

60 

»8 

M 

AS!) 

13 


m*. 

TuntiBKA. 

ii7TW,oo4 

1,000 

17,109 

165,909 

»7,8S7 

113,189 

144,094 

101,19ft 

33,891 

170,477 

20,802 

14,06(1 

28,470 

l«,tf«S 

4,771 


4,894,260 


ahl|i« 


69 

269 

795 

1,382 

024 

1,860 

880 

177 

1,728 

121 

01 

330 

8 

(Ml 

0 


i0,«89 


12,269  B,(I72,SI2 

"       16,496 

67,702 

109,170 

141,320 

142,907 

192,672 

166,511 

45,662 

189,l(r9 

28,372 

10,630 

107,240 

2,738 

637,867 

8,022 


4,071,466 


lua. 


Ilhlin. 


11,491 

84 
837 
673 

1,200 
475 

1,443 
8M 
131 

2,140 
126 
72 
381 
105 
605 
8 


20,026 


Toiin«ao 


9.,«24,688 
28,501 
67,810 
116,868 
121,446 
110,40s 

22r,r 

136,'J23 
81,987 

224,456 
82,664 
10,233 

120,449 
27,808 

676,414 
2,7S5 


4,76.'1,0£S 


Enlorad  BrItUh  Potto. 


IflU. 


Ptitpo.  I  Tonnogt 


7,i»U 

16 

160 

760 

761 

394 

6S5 

491 

96 

452 

UN 

70 

68 

86 

683 

IS 


2,086,7011 

3,008 

29,006 

187,810 

68,(104 

b4,4'.is 

04,497 

67,475 

24,102 

27,105 

2<l,027 

12,277 

19,8f!0 

9,844 

628,918 

4,692 


i.i,(l44 


3,827,902 


IMT. 


Hhipt  I  Tonnago. 


7,66tl 

2,147,M2 

42 

8,875 

ISO 

80,729 

722 

183,801 

1,208 

1 12,669 

573 

128,^27 

1,056 

163,776 

586 

79,099 

136 

40,866 

466 

84,529 

134 

80.0611 

87 

6,696 

79 

23,011 

8 

2,711 

583 

588,688 

14 

4,962 

13,878 


19,W8 
Note.— Trauiporta  with  government  atore^i,  etc.,  are  not  Included  In  thia  return. 


aiilpi. 

8,312 

51 

800 

791 

1,149 

N)8 

777 

46B 

94 

1,405 

185 

70 

222 

77 

640 

11 


fonnago. 

^204,478 

14,812 

47,676 

156,457 

110,500 

125,060 

160,657 

06,474 

20,761 

116,976 

32,462 

11,460 

67,626 

19,904 

809,778 

4,276 


8,624,8081 16,040|3,767,9S6 


Britith  Kxporl  Trade  in  1867  and  1858.— A  return 
lias  been  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  of  the  declared 
vnluo  o'  Rritish  and  Irish  produce  and  manufactures 
e.\ported  from  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  year 
1858.  From  this  document  thb  following  list  has  been 
ci'mpiled,  showing  the  order  in  wliich  the  various  com- 
munities of  the  world  ranli  as  our  customers : 


1. 


I8S7. 

DrttiKh  Poflfesilona:  •£ 

India 11,866,714 

Auntralia 11,«32,624 


Ilrltlnh  N.  America. 

West  Indies 

C'lipe 

Ilong  Kong 

Singapore 

OibralUr 

Manritlu 

Channel  Islands 

Ceylon 

British  Guiana 

Malta 

Ionian  lalanda 

Wc8t  coast  of  Africa  . 

Ilondu^*as 

Natal 

Aden 

St  Helena 

Asconalon 

Falkland  Islands 

Heligoland 


4,329,03li 

l,S30,4ia 

1,720,092 

731,097 

890,282 

655,061 

663,^'M 

639,768 

616,667 

618,028 

4S8,r-47 

263,202 

870,814 

186,877 

140,546 

37,367 

29,207 

13,374 

4,269 


I8S8. 

£ 

16,782,515 

10,4(U,I98 

3,159,055 

1,791,981 

1,602,607 

1,146,356 

901,034 

863,733 

601,899 

603,443 

540,700 

461,768 

432,979 

833,011 

263,193 

130,706 

100,770 

36,899 

34,960 

6,917 

33 

282 


United  SUtea: 
Porta  on  AUontle 18,582,867 


87,154,683      40,224,994 


California , 


S.  Germany: 

Hnnsc  Towns. 

Fnisala 

Hanover 

Mecklenburg , 
■     Oldenburg  . . . 


South  America : 

llrazil 

Chill 

Peru 

llneno«  Ayrea, . 

Uruguay  

New  Granada. . 

Venezuela 

Ecuador  


14,013,983 

'433,082  496,633 

18,085,930  14,510,616 

0,508,962  9,024,435 

1,741,044  1,976,437 

1,687,741  1.682,842 

71,S06  60,353 

51,910  61,583 

13,098,468  12,753,056 


6.  Holland 

6.  France 

7.  Turkey 

8.  RushIh 

9.  West  Indies,  Haytl,  etc. , . 

10.  Spain 

11.  Egypt 

15.  llelglum 

13.  China  (excl.  of  Hong  Kong 

14.  Portugal 

18.  TwoSlclllea 

16.  Austrian  territories 

17.  Sardlula 

15.  Tuaeany 

19.  Java 


6,641,710 

1,620,678 

1,171,864 

1,287,006 

5'6,902 

550,730 

377,711 

28,731 

10,"  "v  "155 
6,8<44,394 
6,213,368 
8,107,401 
8,098,819 
8,079,603 
2,120,538 
1,899,289 
1,727,204 
1,7;S,RS8 
1,86!>,0<1T 
1,089,982 
1,112,583 
1,350,210 
8O7,06n 
744,492 


3,981,264 

1,117,573 

1,189,485 

1,008,444 

818,656 

608,730 

816,722 

26,883 

8,634,036 
5,45:1,423 
4,861,5^8 
4,286,406 
3,n!16,'27S 
2,B'n,e53 
2,178,958 
1,986,823 
l,Sl2,fi.16 
1,730,782 
1,548,361 
1,6<19,29» 
1.'.>II7,S5'> 
1,174,430 
036,619 
631,871 


535,870 

691,425 

760,528 

641,670 

428,161 

295,281 

414,811 

409,478 

893,074 

249,792 

175,981 

84,(156 

67,485 

20,506 

14,725 

4,520 

8,997 

-    i,525 

830 

1,927 

23 


46S 


20.  Denmark 886,760 

21.  Western  coast  of  Africa. . .  787,520 

22.  Syria  and  Palestine 703,875 

23.  riiillppinc  Islands 634,234 

24.  Sweden 850,699 

26.  Norway 441,7M 

26.  Mexico 667,311 

27.  Papal  State* 818,797 

2a  Central  America 813,371 

29.  Greece 200,666 

80.  Wnllachia  and  Moldavia..  201,466 

81.  Morocco 148,809 

32.  South  Sea  Islands 01,827 

S3.  Algeria... 19,406 

84.  Capo  Verd  Islands 16,540 

85.  TunU 1,08!J 

86.  Porila 626 

87.  African  porta  on  Red  Sea. .  5,232 

38.  French  poaaessions  in  India  8,060 

39.  Eastern  coaat  of  Africa  . . .  2,072 

40.  Tripoli 893 

41.  Ijidrono  Islands 830 

42.  Uourbon 175 

43.  Celebes .... 

44.  All  other  places 140 

Total  1S67-'6S «T22,006,107  X116,0U,33t 

Dtcline  in  the  real  Vnlue  of  the  Expotii. — The  great 
increase  in  the  official,  and  the  comparative  decline  ia 
tlie  real  or  declared  value  of  the  exports,  since  1816, 
has  given  rise  to  a  great  deal  uf  irrelevant  discussion. 
It  has  been  loolced  upon  as  a  proof  that  English  com- 
merce is  daily  becoming  less  prosperous,  whereas,  in 
point  of  fact,  a  precisely  opposite  conclusion  sliouid  be 
drawn  from  it.  The  rates  according  to  which  the  of- 
ficial values  of  the  exports  are  determined  were  Hxed 
as  far  bacli  as  1G9G ;  so  that  they  have  long  ceased  to 
1)6  of  importance  as  affording  any  criterion  of  the  act- 
ual value,  their  only  use  being  to  show  the  fluctuations 
in  the  qunntities  exported.  To  remedy  this  defect,  a 
plun  was  formed  during  the  earl}-  part  of  Mr.  I'itt's 
administration  for  keeping  an  account  of  tlie  rcnf  val- 
ue of  the  exports,  as  ascertained  bj*  the  detlaraticns 
of  the  exporters.  The  circumstance  of  a  manufactur- 
er or  a  merchant  selling  a  large  or  a  small  quantity 
of  produce  at  the  same  price  affords  no  criterion  by 
which  to  judge  as  to  the  advantage  or  disadvantage 
of  the  sale ;  for  if,  in  consequence  of  improvements 
in  the  arts  or  otherwise,  a  particular  article  may  now 
be  produced  for  half  the  expense  that  its  production 
cost  ten  or  twenty  years  ago,  it  is  obvious  that  dou- 
ble the  quantity  of  it  may  l)0  a.Torded  at  the  same 
price  without  injury  to  the  producers.  Now  this 
is  the  caso  with  some  of  the  most  important  arti- 
cles wliich  arc  exported  from  England.  Cottons  and 
cotton-twist  form  a  full  third  or  more  of  her  entire 
exports;  and  since  1814  there  has  iicen  an  extraor- 
dinary full  in  the  price  of  these  articles,  occasioned 
partly  l>y  cotton  wool  having  fallen  from  about  1*.  6rf. 
per  lb.  to  about  5<f.  per  lb.,  but  more  liy  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture.  Hence,  while  the  official 
value  of  the  exports  of  cotton  goods  and  twist  has  in- 


ORE 


868 


dRE 


cfaued  trom  (boat  X18,000,000  In  1814,  to  sbout  £100,- 
000,000  In  1863,  their  declared  value  has  risen  only 
IVum  about  £20,000,000  at  the  fonner  period  to  about 
£88,000,000  at  the  latter.  Surely,  however,  thia  U, 
If  any  thing  can  be,  a  proof  of  increasing  prosperity ; 
it  shows  that.she  can  now  export  and  sell  with  a  profit 
(for  unless  >.ach  were  the  cose,  does  any  one  imai;ine 
the  exportation  would  continue  7)  nearly  four  times 
the  quantity  of  cotton  goods  and  yam  which  she  ex- 
ported in  1814  for  about  the  same  pricu.     See  Cotton 

UAKDrACTURB. 

The  commercial  interests  of  England  long  suffered 
ftt>m  the  inextricable  confusion  of  her  maritime  laws. 
From  the  Revolution  down  to  1786  some  hundreds  of 
•eta  were  passed,  each  enacting  some  addition,  dimiii- 
ution,  or  change  of  th"  duties,  drawbacks,  bounties, 
•nd  regulations  previously  existing  in  the  customs 
Mr.  Pitt  has  the  merit  of  having  first  int vmluced  soma' 
thing  like  order  into  this  chaos.  Under  h\i  auspices 
•II  the  separate  custom-duties  existing  in  1787  were 
repealed,  and  simple  and  intelligible  ones  substituted 
in  their  stead. 

In  the  report  of  the  Lords'  Committee  on  Foreign 
Trade  in  1820,  it  is  stoted  that  the  laws  under  which 
the  commerce  of  the  country  was  regulated  amounteU 
to  upwanl  of  2000,  of  which  1600  were  in  force  in 
1816.  After  this  report  was  printed,  Mr.  Huskeyson 
introduced  great  reforms  into  the  laws  afTocting  ship- 
ping and  navigation.  And  since  his  time  the  repeal 
of  •  vast  number  of  custom-duties  and  the  many  Im- 
portant and  beneficial  changes  effected  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  have  vastly  simplified  the  commercial  legisla- 
tion of  England.  Various  improvements  have  also 
been  introduced  by  the  late  chancellor  of  the  excheq- 
uer, Mr.  Gladstone ;  and  the  Customs  Consolidation 
Act  of  1863  has  brought  the  various  laws  relating  to 
the  cu.itoms  into  a  concise  and  simple  form.  It  com- 
prises tlie  whole  law  respecting  the  importation,  ex- 
portation, warehousing,  smuggling,  etc.,  of  goods, 
with  the  regulationf  to  be  observed  in  the  coasting 
and  colonial  trades,  etc.,  and  is  at  once  brief,  compre- 
hensive, and  so  clear  as  to  be  level  to  tne  comprehen- 
sion of  those  least  acquainted  with  such  matters. 
Besides  condensing  and  simplifying  the  vaiHous  laws 
respecting  the  customs,  this  act  has  also  introduced 
some  most  important  changes.  The  merchant  is 
now  no  longer  obliged,  when  successful  in  a  suit, 
to  pay  his  own  expenses,  as  was  formerly  the  case ; 
i.->r  are  goods  in  dispute  now  detained  till  the  point  be 
inquired  into  and  decided,  but  are  given  up  on  the 
amount  claimed  lieing  deposited.  If  the  claim  is 
found  to  have  l)cen  unjust,  the  sum  overcharged  is 
returned,  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent.,  and 
the  expenses  of  the  auit.  The  merchmit  may  also,  if 
he  consider  himself  aggrieved  by  the  decision  of  the 
board,  have  the  case  brought  into  open  court  before  ■ 
commissioner,  where  he  may  meet  the  officer,  »■ 
learn  by  examination  the  real  facts  of  the  case.  The 
evidence  so  taken  is  reported  to  the  board,  who  may 
thereupon  confirm  or  modify  their  decision ;  it  being 
optional  with  the  merchant  either  to  abide  by  it,  or  to 
carry  the  case  before  a  competent  tribunal.  If  the 
duty  or  penalty  olaimod  be  under  £100,  or  the  case  be 
of  a  simple  kind,  it  may  be  tried  before  magistrates, 
county  courts,  or  other  inferior  tribunals. 

Skipping — In  order  to  promote  the  shipping  inter- 
est in  Britain  the  navigation  laws  we^-.  passed,  which 
were  long  cousidered  the  safeguards  of  British  com- 
merce. By  these  laws  certain  enumerated  itrticles, 
which  in  fact  comprehended  every  thing  that  was  of 
importance  in  commerce,  could  be  brought  to  her  shores 
only  in  British  ships,  or  in  the  ships  of  the  country  of 
which  the  goods  were  the  produce,  or  in  ships  of  the 
country  from  which  the  goods  were  to  be  brought. 
Experience  proved  that  these  restrictions  which  were 
intended  for  tho  lienefit  of  British  commerce,  operated 
only  as  fetten  upon  trade.    By  the  act  passed  in  1849, 


the  restrictive  provisions  of  the  old  acts  were  repealed, 
from  and  afterthe  Ist  of  January,  1860.  Great  alarm 
was  created  among  the  shipbuilders  and  others,  by  the 
change,  which,  as  they  apprehended,  was  fraught  with 
ruin  to  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  country ;  but 
instead  of  that,  the  trade  increased  more  rr.pii'ly  than 
before.  The  amount  of  tonnage  built  in  1849  was 
121,266,  in  1861  it  was  149,609,  and  in  1868  it  was 
203,171. 

The  increase  has  been  more  remarkable  in  steam 
than  in  sailing  vesseL  :  in  1850  the  number  of  steam- 
vessels  built  wa.  86,  and  their  tonnage  8886 ;  Id  1863 
the  number  of  steam  vensela  built  was  168,  and  their 
tonnage  46,216.  Another  circumstance  which  is  le- 
markable,  is  the  recent  extraordinary-  substitution  of 
iron  for  wood  in  the  construction  of  steam  vessels. 
Of  the  168  built  in  1863,  no  less  than  117  were  iron. 
Pr.  Strang,  in  a  communication  made  to  the  British 
Association  in  1862,  states,  that  during  the  last  7 
years  there  have  been  constructed,  or  were  construct- 
ing, in  Glasgow  and  neighborhood,  123  vessels,  122  of 
which  were  iron.  At  Greeaock  and  Fort  Glasgow, 
during  the  same  period,  there  were  constructed  66 
steam  vessels,  18  of  which  were  of  wood  and  68  of 
iron. 

The  "  merchant  shipping  act,  1364,"  which  came 
into  operation  May  1st,  1856,  contains  some  import- 
ant changes  in  commercial  I'egulations.  Sections 
20,  21,  22,  23,  and  2t,  institute  new  modes  of  meas- 
uring ships ;  and  as  all  American  ships  hcroaftcr  to 
be  measured  in  that  country  must  be  measured  uc- 
cording  to  one  or  other  of  its  provisions,  and  pay 
dues  (in  the  tonnage  thus  ascertained,  it  Is  a  change 
largely  affecting  our  vessels.  As  far  as  the  present 
short  experience  of  it  denotes,  the  effect,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  will  be  favorable  to  such  as  are  sharp  or 
with  fine  lines,  and  unfuvnralde  to  such  us  are  full 
built ;  but  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  that  most 
new  vessels  will  belong  to  the  former  class,  and  it  will 
bb  seen  (section  27)  that  the  measurement  of  ships 
already  measured  is  not  compulsory,  but  may  be 
made  rn  application  therefor.  By  the  29th  section, 
the  commissioner  of  customs,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Treasury,  may  alter  or  modify  the  modes  of  measure- 
ment. Section  102  requires  from  every  master,  clear- 
ing outward,  a  declaration  of  the  nation  to  which  the 
vessel  claims-  to  belong,  and  authorizes  the  detention 
of  the  vessel  until  it  is  made.  Section  329  contains 
important  provisions  respecting  the  shipment  and  car- 
riage of  dangerous  goods.  Section  853  renders  the 
employment  of  duly  qunlified  pilots  compulsory ;  but, 
under  section  332,  any  pilotage  authority,  by  by-law, 
made  with  the  consent  of  her  majesty  in  council,  may 
exempt  the  master  of  any  ships,  or  classes  of  ships. 
from  l>eing  compelled  to  employ  qualilird  pilots.  Part 
8  remodels  the  law  relating  to  wrecks  and  salvage, 
and  contains  sor'-e  important  provisions,  particularly 
as  regards  foreign  vessels,  and  salvage  services  by 
government  vesself  The  remainder  of  the  act  is 
composed  of  laws,  or  parts  of  laws  previously  in  force, 
the  object  being  "  not  so  much  a  change  of  laws  as 
bringing  existing  laws  into  a  consolidated  shape." 
The  last  of  the  series  of  acts  which  completely  changed 
the  commercial  system  of  this  country  was  passed 
March  2.')d,  1854,  and  opened  the  coasting  trade  to  for- 
eign vessels  ;  and  England  has  obtained  by  treaty  the 
concession  of  the  coasting  trade  of  Tuscany  and  Sar- 
dinia. By  a  minute  of  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury-,  in 
September,  1856,  it  was  announced  that  the  transfer 
should  then  take  place  of  the  control  of  the  Commiaion- 
ers  of  the  Customs  to  that  of  the  Lords  of  the  Admi- 
ralty. Since  that  period  the  control  has  vested  in  the 
Admiralty. — U.  S,  Consular  Neturm. 

The  subjoined  tables  give  a  complete  view  of  the 
shipping  belonging  to  the  different  ports  of  the  Brit- 
ish empire,  and  of  the  navigation  with  foreign  coud* 
t'ies,  in  1862  and  1868. 


GBE 


8d9 


ORE 


A.  BniTiic  or  tni  Ndhmb  amd  ToMif  aoi  or  Bailixo  Vimiiu  Riohtiiiid  at  eaoii  or  tub  CoLOMin  or  nil  Unitio 

KiNODOM     (mPIOTIVKLT  i     DIITmUUIBIIINU    TUOSB    UNDH    AND    TUUtH    uBOTI    FiriT  ToMI   BUOMTIB,  OH  Till  tlsT 

DEvKimiiH,  185B:  A  •luiiAi  Kktukm  ur  Stkah  Vuuru  add  Tiima  Tomnaoc. 


Totlr. 

uiuNa 

rUBBU. 

■TBAU    \ 

BMBU. 

1 

UmlarM-ona. 

AboxMloni. 

Unil.rloiom. 

Abo.eMIOM.           1 

V.mli. 

ToDllAg*. 

V.imU. 

ToDiumt. 

VaueU. 

ToonftfA. 

V«imU. 

ToniUMia. 

A/Hoa. 
Bathurat 

49 
11 

r 

60 

169 
65 

106 
88 

117 

468 
257 
429 
1,107 
213 

80 
26 
16 
46 
75 

11 

18 
12 
85 
8 
84 
81 
185 
14 
88 
17 

928 

270 

228 

1,747 

8,805 
1,684 
8,778 
884 
2,400 

18,774 

8,628 

10,668 

62,999 

6,003 

1,191 
626 
888 
484 

1,798 
18 
Hi 
246 
838 
628 
228 
205 
836 

8,900 
421 
868 
878 

14 

8 

46 

49 

141 
55 

221 
38 
89 

490 
487 
375 
1,778 
188 

4 

9 

4 

""» 

1 

7 
1 
8 
4 
81 
80 
9 
8 

1,270 
746 

6,8ai» 

7,844 

86,821 
7,827 

31,088 
6,844 
1,918 

49,780 

78,181 

108,029 

135,989 

19,881 

411 

788 
219 

1,054 
69 

"m 

656 
97 
182 
80S 
2,615 
2,754 
670 
188 

.... 

« 

1 

8 

1 

83 
10 

8 

191 
44 

69 

40 

T89 

858 

96 

■■'48 

0 
6 

1 

1 
69 
14 

'■"l 

"in 

1,48T 

460 

68 

g« 

8,664 
1,688 

"'B7 
■■■«9 

Blorra  Loono.  

Capo  of  Good  llope 

Mi»iirltl"« 

Aiutraliii: 

Melbiiirne 

Holiart  Town . . . , 

AmfriC'U 

(SritiAh  Xorthsi ..  JoUmiM,) 

New  Brumwtok 

Nova  Hcotla  and  Cape  Dreton .... 

BMUh  WeH  InOUt. 
Antlfiiia 

Barbadoca 

Montsorrut 

Navis 

8L  Chrl'itODhor.            

St.  Lucia 

St.  Vincent 

Trliiiilai' 

Buhaiiioa. .   ... 

B^rlileo      

A»  Account  or  the  Nukbeb  (  r  Vmseib,  with  the  Amount  or  their  Toknaoe,  and  the  Number  or  Men  and 

Bova    U8UAI.I.T   tMPLOVED    IN    >  .  . 'OATISO  THE  SAME,  THAT   BELONGED  TO  THE  SEVERAL  PoET»  Or  THE  BbITISH  Km- 
rlEE,  ON  THE  81ST  DECEMiIER,  1861.   1S62,  AND   1863,  EEaPECTIVELT. 


On  I  je  aut  Dmrnbtr,  1801. 


En^ar.d .....[  I9,4(U 

Scotland 3,.%S7 

Irolcnd 2,2i)3 

819 
8,201 


Isles  of  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Ic  Man 

British  Plantations 

Total 


84,244 


2,808,052 

586,266 

262.411 

60,615 

669,741 


Men. 


145,222 
29,.^S7 
14,155 
5,798 
46.166 


On  ttio  Slit  PeMmber,  1B6S. 


V.s.el). 


19,600 
3,460 
2,1'C 

863 
8,316 


240,928  I   84,402 


ToniiaK,^. 


Men. 


2,907,999 

63,"),008 

2.M,997 

61,274 

665,114 


4,424,39^ 


147,2,52 
89,612 
18,902 
6,978 
46,868 

213,518 


On  the  31it  Deceoilwr,  IRSS. 
Vesieii.       TonnitfB.  Men. 


80,073 

8,451 

3,819 

660 

8,701 


8,160,653 

559,141 

269,384 

61,046 

734,218 


85,8U»  {  4,764,428 


162,181 

89,563 

14.083 

5,701 

62,366 


253,896 


A  BrruBN  or  the  Nuvber  or  Vessels,  with  tuiib  Ton- 

NAOE,   DISTINOniSUlNQ     StEAM   rRO.M    SaILINO    VESSELS, 

that  WERE   Built  and  Kgoisteked  in  the  United 

klNIIIIOM,  DISTINUUIBHINU  TiMOEB  FROM   IrON  VESSELS, 

IN  the  Year  1868. 


TtMBRR.              i                 IKON.                  | 

V«U<1>. 

TonnBfTe. 

Vouli. 

Tunimge. 

Sailing  vessels 

SteaiD  vessels 

68.5 
36 

671 

146,330 
3,306 

10 

11T 

8,676 
a,910 

Total 

149,686 

127 

63,486 

Thro  following  table  is  an  abstract  of  the  number  of 
vessels  and  tonnage  entered  inward  and  cleared  out- 
ward at  ciK'h  of  tlio  12  principal  ports  of  the  United 
Kingdom  during  the  year  1854,  and  also  a  return  of 
the  declared  value  of  British  and  Irish  produce  and 
manufactures  exported  from  the  respective  ports  to 
foreign  roiintrios  and  British  possessions  during  the 
lomo  year. 


Port.. 

IHWASD. 

OVTWABO. 

Vf*»fl«.  j   ToniiRKe. 

VeiKeti.  1  Ti.nnBjte. 

10,943  'i.llBt.SM 

8,174   2.127  410 

Liverpool 

Hull,. 

4,403 

2,7s9 
694 

8,048 
878 

1,0S6 
614 
877 
837 
401 
204 

2.19.\4M 

5114,348 

162,5.38 

441,193 

262,27<1 

180,586 

126,482 

141,162 

71,608 

.S7,«28 

53,837 

4.M1 
1,884 
296 
6,671 
861 
808 
914 
179 
148 
825 
128 

2,161.266 

374.S89 

101.278 

1,122,126 

279,663 

V1,r>46 

266,619 

•71, .578 

44,793 

62,671 

33,988 

Bristol 

Newcastle 

Southampton 

Lelth 

Dublin 

Cork 

Belfcst 

Total 

26,814 

6,846,,VH 

24,524 

6,697,0^ 

An  analysis  of  the  calculations  upon  which  these 
tables  are  based  would  doubtless  show  that  the  real 
difference  between  Liverpool  and  London  is  much 
less  thou  it  appears  above,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
trade  of  London  being  carried  on  by  coasting  vessels 
making  short  trips.  The  export  returns  are  thus 
stated : 


London £22,880,278 

Liverpool...  46,719.177 

Hull 10,003,122 

Bristol 761,718 

Newcastle...  1.6.>1,C61 

Southampton  2,334,141 

Lelth 627,697 


;  Glasgow £4,906,657 

Oreoiiock.. . .  664,608 

Dubll  , 41,478 

Cork      148,096 

Bellasi 23,765 


Total £89,860,073 


Showing  that  considerabl}-  more  than  one  half  the 
entire  foreign  trade  of  the  12  principal  ports  of  Great 
Uritain  goes  from  Liverpool. 

From  the  statistics  of  Glasgow,  published  by  Dr. 
Strang  in  1855,  we  learn  that  the  tonnage  of  steam- 
boats built  on  the  Clyde  during  30  years,  from  1820  to 
1860,  amounted  to  103,270,  while  in  the  3  years  1851, 
1852,  1853,  it  amounted  to  141,713  in  206  vessels 
which  were  almost  entirely  of  iron.  And  to  show  the 
magnitude  of  this  great  department  of  Scottish  indus- 
try, he  adds  that,  during  a  period  of  12  months,  em- 
bracing the  greater  part  of  1863,  the  tonnage  of  all 
vessels  built  in  the  ports  of  the  Clyde  was  U4,1M  tons, 
whereas  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels  built  in  London 
m  1853  was  only  62,745,  and  in  Liverpool,  45,682.  In 
the  years  1853-4,  there  were  no  less  than  260  vessels 
built  at  Glasgow,  including  both  steam  and  sailing 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  168,000  tone. 


ORE 


8«0 


GSJR 


A  Bnvm  or  mi  Nrntan  ahd  Tomhaoi  or  BAiuiia  Tnaiu  RuuT»n>  at  aAan  or  tui  Pom  or  U»at  naiTAnr 

AKD   IllLAHO,  INOLUniXa  Tn*  ISL*  Or  Man    and  TIIR  OHAMNDL  ItLANM;   DltTINaUiaillKU  TUMI  VNDKI   AND  TUCIM 

AioTi  firrr  Tomb  Kiuutrb,  oh  thi  81aT  Uiokubii,  1858:  auo,  a  similab  KirURN  or  Htiau  Ytwiu  and 

.1UIB  TlXNASI. 


'    rorU. 

•Aama 

V«u«li,     ;     TwiHtf. 

>nuu. 

Abon  M  lou, 
VimYt.     1    TonMg.. 

■TIAN 

t—MU, 

Wloiu.' 

I'Ddtr  M  lou. 

AbOTC 

V<M.I.. 

Tonnaffe, 

VmmIi. 

Toniiftg*. 

KNOUUiD. 

Ab«ryrtwl'.li...        

HI 
60 
51 

189 
80 
60 

111 

56 

8 

16B 

114 
28 

123 
12 
41 
59 

191 

126 

166 
19 
48 
41 
50 

215 

16 

88 

7 

6 

175 

116 
74 
8 
72 

218 
51 
86 

181 
40 

749 

40 

T 

55 

til 
19 
78 
7 
10 
19 
69 
17 

160 
88 

170 
79 
95 

814 
81 
68 
62 
15 
17 
M 

186 
21 
98 
78 
2 
11 

120 
29 
48 
14 
25 
80 
8 

828 

4,084 
1,872 
1,724 
4,286 
1,015 
1,891 
4^176 

124 
4,974 
8,788 

614 
8,819 

898 
1,155 
1,219 
8,981 
8,259 

T. 

1,8<>> 
1,197 
1,898 
4,986 

480 
1,865 

18T 

257 
T,687 
8,824 
1,151 
17 
1,170 
8,228 
1,458 
1,889 
8,019 
1,098 
14,611 
1,098 

117 
1,769 
8,196 

561 
1,979 
8,164 

116 

766 
9,658 

698 
7,894 

871 
4,221 
81007 
2,564 
10,091 
1,848 
1,880 
1,767 

408 

546 
1,027 
3,688 

578 

2,776 

2,116 

60 

431 
2,614 

818 
1,649 

401 

980 
1,008 

88 
9,88'} 

128 
44 
19 

118 
29 
77 
49 
69 
14 

129 

298 
86 
92 
20 
18 
69 
69 
47 

268 

""21 

146 
78 
81 
14 

109 

T 

6 

74 

896 
14 

124 
64 

218 

111 
68 
1,786 
86 
2,109 
18 
18 

112 
48 
88 
70 

695 
15 
69 
64 
68 

200 
75 
T4 
41 
87 
62 
45 
98 

184 
45 

768 
62 
85 

186 

881 
94 
14 
S8 
79 
65 

341 

181 
79 
83 
90 

280 

11,247 
5.901 
8,800 

17,880 
8,111 
9,061 
8,286 

11,476 
1,848 

61,854 

28,506 
6,128 
8,742 
1,488 
1,096 
4,068 
7,907 
M86 

28,201 

'im 

19,688 

7,864 

10,885 

8,424 

10,096 

900 

868 

15,200 

26,041 

1,251 

1«,777 

M71 

48,488 

11,180 

5,479 

704,841 

8,819 

654,694 

1,861 

1,754 

18,669 

4,741 

16,088 

8,494 

147,789 

1,406 

li,878 

(.,846 

U97 

86,759 

18,429 

8,885 

8,929 

8,485 

7,745 

4,657 

11,088 

82,079 

6,216 

101,104 

11,177 

10,744 

27,880 

108,891 

14,801 

2,688 

8,881 

7,226 

6,487 

69,274 

81,859 

10,796 

2,718 

18,894 

82,991 

"  "l 
1 

"ii 

1 

T 

"■'l 
1 
7 
1 
1 
1 

"  "l 

1 

""l 
1 
1 
4 
6 

""ii 

6 

"m 

8 

116 

1 

'"l 

""l 

1 
89 

••••j 

"4 
1 

4 
5 
1 

4 

"m 
""a 

IS 

88 

6 

1 

""1 
1 
8 
1 
8 

""1 
6 

""is 
11 

"aoe 
49 

179 

"'88 
17 
140 
13 
22 
19 

"u 

9 

"■49 

54 

27 

71 

114 

"ill 
191 

"878 
61 

3,759 
17 

"'26 

"'84 

48 

1,624 

"'67 

"iws 

22 
142 
145 

10 
154 

1,646 

"265 
556 

671 

141 

19 

"so 

81 

65 
87 
70 

■"is 

87 

""1 

1 

"m 

1 
1 

""1 
1 

4 

"  "1 

""8 

""i 

""7 
3 

"to 

4 

7 

101 

"m 
5 

""1 
••■•, 

""1 
""1 

""8 

4 

""1 
""4 

"is 

1 

"  "6 

""2 

"  "4 
2 

""a 

"iii 
74 

8^718 

88 

187 

"isi 

58 
907 

"u 

"904 

"807 

"680 
1,080 

'i,m 

4*1 

1,035 
14,825 

109;598 
2,123 

"iw 

1,226 
"■52 

"266 

"iso 

768 

"ei 

■  726 

1,864 
68 

"eii 
"122 

"879 

481 

"282 

Arandel 

Banittabia 

BmuniBrU 

Berwick 

Bldeftord 

Boaton 

Bridgewitar 

Bridport 

Briatol 

Ctemarron 

Cardiff.... 

OaidlgKi. 

Ourllale 

Chepatow 

Cheater 

Colobeater 

Cowea 

Itertmontb 

Deal 

Dorer 

Eieter 

Falraonth 

FtTeraham 

Fleetwood 

Fowoy 

Folkatone. 

Oalnaborough 

Oloueeater 

Ooole 

Hartlepool 

Harwich 

Hull 

llancaater 

Liverpool 

Llanelly 

Lyme 

Ibldon 

Mllford 

Newcaatle 

NewbavoD 

Newport. .   . 

I'adatow 

Plymoatb. 

Pdole. 

Portamoath. 

RocheUer. 

Bye 

Halnt  Ives. 

Bcllly 

Bhielda  

Bhoreliam 

BoathaiuDton 

Btookton 

Truro 

WelU 

Wbilby 

WUbeMh 

WoMlbridve 

Worklfiffton 

Tarmouth % 

Total,  England 

6,588 

19 
18 
17 
16 
49 
29 
26 
78 
84 

904,195 

689 

884 

704 

486 

1,C66 

942 

888 

1,817 

1,161 

12,448 

211 
61 
94 
26 
96 
44 
1 
51 

284 

2,771,806 

46,411 
18,698 
18,409 

4,471 
11,848 

4,891 
576 

8,487 
65,466 

604 

1 

1 

11,514 

41 
25 

■94 

648 

7 

4 

""1 

""2 

""7 

102,138 

8,116 
802 

"m 

"259 
'1,886 

SCOTLAND. 
Aberdeen 

Alloa 

Arbroath 

Ayr. 

Banff. 

DamtHea 

Dondee 

1                  1 

GRB 


861 


ORE 


A  Iwviw  or  THi  Mviitii  amd  Tokvioi  or  Baimno  Tm'  •  Bkomtiiid  at  iack  or  thi  Font  or  Omat  BuiTAni 
Ann  Unlanii,  iiioi,vbik»  tiii  Uli  or  Man  amd  tbi  C  anhki.  Iilaxm;  DiniiiasiaiiiNa  tuo«iuiid»  ahd  tuoii 
.:ii.'>ii  Virrv  Tooi  HiHintii,  ox  Tin  Sin  Dmbhbu,  tU8i  auo,  a  tiiiiLAB  Urdek  or  Btiam  Vwiiu  AHD 
TiiKiii  TiiKKkaik—OonUniMd. 




lAILIMS 

VMalu. 

nuM  V 

mil. 

AboT.MIou. 

rmt. 

Undtr  U  l«u. 

AbuTa 

MU'U. 

Ui4>r 

Wlou. 

V»«li. 

Tonoao. 

Vt»U. 

Toomg*. 

VmmU. 

Tonufi. 

V.<nl>, 

to.n.i..   1 

Ilrouibi  Ibrwird 

T8 

9,744 

889 

■■eajMs 

IT 

610 

91 

96,961 

OIhiiiiw 

8 
940 

997 

6,209 

88 

18J 

7,966 
60,677 

4 

a 

81 
4T 

B 

13 

747 
1,966 

1  iMnnnck 

iiv*rniiM 

169 

4,198 

It 

6,686 

9 

686 

rvliin 

41 

1,194 

77 

17,714 

•  •.  . 

8 

476 

KIrkMlilr 

KlrkWdlf, 

as 

9,020 

86 

7,0»6 

•  •  •  • 

•  t  •  • 

1 

63 

29 

660 

91 

1,926 

«llh 

79 

9,850 

103 

39,007 

18 

374 

i^ 

8,673 

Mrwlok 

Inn(rii«« , 

M 

1,281 

8 

766 

,, 

10 

487 

SS 

14,869 

•  •  .  • 

1 

76 

•erlh 

10 

816 

44 

4.263 

1 

19 

> 

116 

'nlurliPiiit, 

8 

246 

40 

9,486 

.... 

'■■A  Oliiaiinw 

m 

1,449 

16 

4,897 

1 

U 

19 

3,181 

Hliiriiiiway 

49 

1,181 

14 

1,477 

•  ••> 

.... 

•  .•1 

Htmtiriwr,.,  <i 

6 

M.S 

18 

866 

.... 

.... 

•  •  ** 

>..■ 

Wink 

28 

MS 

Id 

1,981 

.... 

Wl»t<iwn    

88 

1,288 

16 

1,648 

.... 

.... 

1 

816 

ToMl,  Muoltaml 

lUKLANi). 

1,197 

86,418 

S,M8 

478,981 

48 

1,306 

164 

42649 

Ulllim 

3 

88 

1 

116 

>  .  .  . 

Mm 

159 

B,428 

829 

76,^'W 

3 

38 

10 

3,1  W 

(lolnralim . . . , 

11 

279 

•  •  .  • 

•  ••• 

•  •  • 

Ciirk 

1S8 

8,696 

228 

41,626 

7 

314 

16 

i^l 

Driiiihiiilit 

Duliiln 

7 

198 

41 

6,166 

•  1  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

6 

1,73  r 

291 

8,407 

127 

21,688 

8 

119 

48 

"•K! 

liiiiiil.Mk, ,.,,....., 

A 

181 

18 

1,431 

1 

24 

3 

841 

Minicrfii'k,'.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

19 

8S9 

8 

•^ 

.... 

B9 

1,761 

40 

lC.ul6 

1 

801 

iMniliinilnrry 

10 

2oC 

14 

4,171 

8 

126 

4 

1,881 

Nowry 

73 

2,401 

89 

6,298 

.... 

•  •  •  • 

8 

871 

Kuw 

9 

69 

16 

6,786 

.... 

.... 

HklliUitriii<n 

94 

2,288 

8 

202 

... 

.  .  >• 

HIlKit 

18 

401 

19 

8,789 

1 

44 

1 

67    1 

HtrniiKl^iril 

83 

1,068 

21 

2,406 

•  •  • « 

.... 

Trull 

12 

806 

4 

729 

.... 

WntorAiril ,.. 

60 

1,621 

94 

19,964 

■  ■  •■ 

19 

6,701 

Wemiwrt 

WullfllMl,,, 

4 

87 

1 

190 

*  I  •  t 

2S 

1,006 

70 

7,660 

.... 

TdUl,  Inland 

1,087 
818 

29,721 
7,423 

1,()61 
80 

109,419 
2,947 

6M 

104' 

29,670 
1,197 

M»  lit  Mnti 

6 

OliAniiul  liliiidft 

907 

6,449 

286 

48,748 

1 

01 

4 

271 

Cummfrmd  /nifmnurie  bflween  Great  Britcun  and  the 
Vnilnl  flliileii,~'f\t»  (teflnlte  treaty  of  peace  between 
til*  Unltiul  HtAtdit  and  Urant  Britain,  in  1783,  contains 
only  (mil  Ktlpiilutinn  In  any  manner  relating  to  com- 
m«rvliil  Intorcdunn,  Article  vlii.  provides  that  the 
MvlKitdiin  nt  ttia  Mlnsisalppl,  from  its  source  to  the 
oilman,  KJliilt  forever  remain  free  and  open  to  the  sub- 
UiutD  hC  Ornat  llrltain  and  the  citizens  of  the  United 
ntHt*i4,  It  wan  not  until  Vft  vhnt  commercial  inter- 
eournfl  li«lW(i«n  the  two  riaf'ons  v.  as  deflncd  by  treaty 
dtlpwItiHimii.  Tii«  trrn'y  of  that  year  regulates  trade 
iMtVi  <iiii  tlin  high  cimtraoting  parties,  on  the  continent 
nf  Antxrli'U,  in  the  Kant  Indies,  the  territories  of  Great 
llrltain  In  Kiirnpe  and  In  those  of  the  United  States. 
It  prnvJiliiH  that  au  other  or  higher  duties  shall  be  paid 
liy  tliH  ship*  nr  tnorcbandlse  of  the  one  party  in  the 
|Hirt«  (if  the  other,  than  such  as  are  paid  by  the  liko 
vomiiilii  nr  merchandise  of  all  other  nations ;  that  no 
otl^or  or  higher  duty  shall  be  Imposed  in  one  country 
on  tlm  ImiHirtatlon  of  any  articles,  the  growth,  prod- 
un«,  nr  maiiufai'ture  of  the  other,  than  are  or  shall  be 
puyalilt)  on  the  Importation  of  the  lilie  articles  being 
of  tllH  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  any  other 
for<<lgti  I'lmntry  i  nor  shall  any  prohibition  be  imposed 
on  tint  exportation  or  importation  of  any  articles  to  or 
from  tlin  territories  of  the  two  parties  respectively, 
whioll  shilll  not  equally  extend  to  all  other  nations  ; 
tho  llrltisli  government  reserving  to  itself  the  right  of 
imiMmlng  on  American  vessels  entering  into  the  Brit- 
Uli  |Ntrts  In  Kuropo  "  a  tonnage  duty  equal  to  that 
wlili'li  shall  litt  payable  by  British  vessels  in  the  ports 
of  Amtirlcn,  and  also  such  duty  as  may  be  adequate  to 
enunt«rvHll  the  difference  of  duty  now  payable  on  the 
Importation  of  t'/Urn|)ean  and  Asiatic  goods  when  im- 
ported Into  till)  United  Htates  In  British  or  in  American 
VHhIi."   I'lto  6(h«r  stipulations  respecting  commerce 


relate  chiefly  to  the  trade  -with  the  West  Indies.  Tho 
duration  of  this  treaty,  so  far  at  it  regulates  the  com- 
merce between  the  United  States  and  the  European 
possessions  of  Great  Britain,  is  limited  to  12  years. 
During  the  interval  which  elapsed  from  the  treaty  of 
peace  in  1783  to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  amity, 
commerce,  and  navigation,  in  1794,  tho  commercial 
relations  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
were  regulated  by  the  separate  and  distinct  legislation 
of  the  several  States  on  the  one  side,  and  by  general 
orders  in  council  on  the  other.  See  articles  Colonies 
and  United  States. 

The  navigation  laws  of  Great  Britain,  immediately 
after  the  proclamation  of  peace,  were  enforced  against 
the  voc^hIs  and  commerce  of  the  United  States.  The 
tirst  in  the  series  of  these  laws  was  tho  act  of  1651.  It 
provided  that  no  goods  or  commodities  whatever,  tiie 
growth,  production,  or  manufacture  of  Asia,  Africa,  or 
Americii,  should  be  imported  either  Into  England  or 
Ireland,  or  any  of  the  plantations,  except  in  Engllsh- 
bullt  ships,  and  belonging  either  to  England  or  to  En- 
glish plantation  subjects,  and  of  which  the  master  and 
three  fourths  of  the  crew  were  also  English  ;  and  that 
no  goods  of  the  growth,  production,  or  manufacture 
of  any  country  in  Europe  should  be  imported  into 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  or  the  plantations,  except  in 
British  ships,  or  in  such  ships  as  were  the  real  property 
of  the  people  of  the  country  or  place  in  which  the 
goods  were  produced,  and  from  which  they  could  only 
be,  or  were  usually  exported.  This  act  was  never  en- 
forced, nor  intended  to  be  enforced,  in  the  British 
North  American  colonies.  It  was  especially  aimed  at 
the  Dutch,  who  were  at  this  period  the  great  carriers 
of  the  world.  Having  but  few  staples  of  their  own  to 
export  to  foreign  countries,  tbelr  merchant  ships  were 
found  In  every  port,  and  were  even  employed  in  bring- 


ORB 


8fl9 


ORB 


Ing  home  th«  prodacta  of  %hv  Brltbh  coIodIm  to  th« 
inothar  cotiDtty. 

After  thn  Unatoration,  tha  nnvlKotiim  act  wan  rp- 
enacted  g  with  nuoh  smendmcnta,  howover,  an  a««med 
•till  nerpixary  to  give  mora  effective  |m>tertlnn  to 
Urilliih  IntKrenta,  and  curb  the  IllUi'h  yet  further. 
Among  the  proviaiona  uf  the  new  net  of  lUtiO,  it  woa 
declared  that  no  "  auKor,  ti>l>ai'co,  cuttdn,  wool,  imligo, 
Klngar,  funtic,  or  other  dyeing  w<hhI'<  uf  the  growth  or 
nianufurtura  of  our  Ai>lan,  African,  nr  Amxricim  colo- 
niaa,  ahull  lie  ahipiied  from  the  miiil  rdlimiea  to  any 
place  but  Englanil,  or  to  iir>mo  other  of  hia  mujcHty'rt 
auid  plantationn."  Wbutvver  rvluxntionH  woru  per- 
mitted in  the  operation  of  tlieiio  nnvi^ntifm  luw»  in  the 
Murth  American  colonirn,  the  rnitvd  Statoa  iMcame 
iulijected  to  them  in  all  tliolr  rigor  immediately  on 
aaaumlng'an  independent  exiatoncp.  In  the  langiingn 
of  Lord  l^vrrpool,  "  The  connection  which  had  ao  loi';} 
aulialated  lietween  Oreut  Itritiiln  anil  the  countripa  now 
forming  tho  United  Slatea  of  Ampricu  wan  finally  dlH- 
•olved  liy  tho  acknowledgment  of  their  lii'U'peiulence 
In  the  year  17t<3  j  the  ancient  cominerclid  »yKtnm  arlit- 
Ing  out  of  that  cimnection  <>f  coiinir  ended  with  it ;  and 
tha  Uwa  liy  which  the  trade  of  thexe  countrlcH,  con- 
•Ideid  aa  colonlea,  bad  hitherto  l)oen  regulated  i-eoaeil 
to  have  effect,"  Tho  king,  liy  and  with  the  advh( 
and  conaent  of  U»  privy  council,  waa,  however,  vested 
with  authority  to  regulate  tlie  future  commerce  lic- 
twaen  (treat  Ilrituin  and  tlie  United  Statea.  Tlie  llmt 
order  in  council  issued  after  the  independence  of  the 
United  Stute.H  hud  lieen  acknowleilged  liy  (iroat  Urit- 
■In,  estalill«hed  the  following  regulutioni : 

f'irtl.  That  any  gooda,  the  iin|iortation  of  which  into 
this  kingdom  is  not  pnihiliited  I13'  luw,  being  tho 
growth  or  production  of  any  of  tho  territorio.H  of  the 
United  Stotp»  of  America,  may  be  imported  directly 
from  thence  into  any  of  the  ports  of  the  kingdom,  not 
only  in  Drltish  ahipa,  owned  by  llritish  aubjecta,  and 
navigated  according  to  law,  but,  uUo,  in  sbipa  built  in 
the  countriea  lielonging  to  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, and  owned  by  the  subject!!  of  tho  aaid  Statea, 
and  whereof  the  maater  and  three  fourths  of  the 
marinea,  at  leaat,  are  subjects  of  the  United  States. 
HtcomUy.  That  any  goods,  being  unmanufactured 
(except  flsh-oil,  blublier,  whale-tins,  and  H|iermacoti), 
and  also  any  pig-iron,  bar-iron,  pitch,  tar,  tur|)entlne, 
rosin,  potash,  (leiirl-ush,  Indigo,  masts,  yards,  and  Itow- 
iprlts,  being  the  growth  or  production  of  any  of  the 
territories  of  the  United  States  of  America,  may  lie 
imported  diractly  from  thence  into  any  of  the  porta  of 
Great  Britain,  upon  payment  of  the  aamo  dutiea  aa  the 
like  sort  of  goods  aie,  or  may  be  sulijected  to,  if  im- 
ptirted  from  any  Itritish  island  or  plantation  in  Amer- 
ica i  and  that  the  excepted  articles,  ns  well  as  all  others 
not  enumerated,  the  growth,  production,  or  manufac- 
ture of  the  said  United  States,  shall  lie  admitted  on 
tho  payment  of  tho  same  duties  as  aru  levied  on  sim- 
ilar articles  when  imported  from  the  most  favored  na- 
tion, except  such  nations  only  with  which  treaties  of 
re<'iprocity  have  lieen  established.  Thirdly.  It  was 
ordered  that  goods  and  merchan<lise,  being  the  growth, 
prmluctlon,  or  manufacture  of  the  torritoriea  of  the 
I'nited  States,  though  imparted  in  ships  belonging  to 
the  subjects  of  the  aaid  States,  should  be  exempted 
from  the  alien's  duty.  Fourthly,  It  was  permitted  to 
be  im|iorted  into  the  other  American  and  We^t  Indian 
possessions,  from  the  ports  of  the  United  Staten,  in 
llritith  ihipi  only,  such  a/ticlea  of  the  growth,  produc- 
tion, or  manufacture  of  any  of  the  Raid  States  (ex- 
cept aalted  provisions  and  the  produce  of  the  Usher- 
ies),  as  might  iiy  law,  before  the  independence  of  the 
United  States,  have  been  imported  from  the  said  States ; 
but  'prohibiting  all  intercourse  between  the  United 
Statea  and  the  said  American  and  West  Indian  posses- 
sions in  ships  belonging  to  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
The  flrat  three  orders,  it  will  be  perceived,  auipend, 
ill  favor  of  the  United  Statea,  that  proviaion  of  the 


ita  I'nlKxl 

Olhnr  r-r«lgn 

Kim,,*, 

CdUiitrUl. 

Froi), 

inM 

Free, 

II  M 

Froe. 

1H  4S 

I'i  04 

'i  m 

a  M 

i  »T 

003 

0  1«{ 

0  BO 

osT 

navigation  law*  of  Oraat  Dritain  which  enaota  "  thai 
no  goods  nr  cominodities  whatsoever,  of  the  growth, 
production,  or  manufacture  uf  any  part  uf  America, 
ara  to  be  imported  into  any  of  hia  majesty's  Kumpean 
dominions  In  any  other  ship  or  vessel  than  such  as  lo 
truly  btUmij  to  hia  majesty's  subjects,  and  nuvlgiiiod 
according  to  law,  in  the  manner  therein  descrllied,  un- 
der the  (lenalty  iil'  forfeiting  all  such  goods  nnd  the 
ship  or  vessel  In  which  they  are  brought,"  The  com- 
merca  of  the  United  States,  with  respect  to  certain 
articles  enumerated  (and  it  is  admitted  tliat  tlieso 
firliclea  formed  a  principal  jiortion  of  the  American 
export  trade  ut  tliiil  period),  was  also  ullowud  tlie  sunici 
preference  as  was  grunted  to  the  remaining  Amerieim 
|HisneBsions  of  Qrout  Ilrituin.  The  privileges  conferred 
on  American  commerce  by  thla  order  are  shown  in  tha 
following  table : 

DulUa,  if  Imported  from 
MarchandUf, 

Putasb pur  cwt, 

I'earl-asli " 

Iron,  bor *' 

I'llrli per  last 

Tar " 

Hklns,  lieaver each 

Tobacco per  pounil 

Tlie  last  reguli.tion  o|ieratcd  to  exclude  United  States' 
vessels  from  the  ports  of  llritish  possessions  in  America, 
including  tho  West  Indies,  and  to  restrict  the  importa- 
tion of  tho  products  or  manufactures  of  the  said  States 
ill  such  poiisessions  to  llritish  thipa  only,  navigated  tc- 
cording  to  law.  The  order  was  dictated  by  u  spirit  of 
illilierallty  and  sclliKhness,  univemallv  condemned  both 
in  England  and  the  I'nited  States ;  and  furnished  a  pro- 
lilic  subject  of  diplomatic  discussion  between  the  two 
govprnments,  until  the  question  was  delinitely  nnd  sat- 
isfactorily settled  toward  tho  close  of  the  year  18U0, 
Tho  following  summary  exhibits  a  brief  abstract  of 
the  separate  acts  of  the  dltrcrciit  State  legislatures, 
aff'ecting  llritish  commerce,  passed  lietween  17H8  and 
1781) :  liy  laws  passed  in  New  Hampshire,  Mnssachn- 
setts,  and  Itbode  IsUmd,  vessels  owned,  in  whole  or 
'.a  (lart,  by  the  subjects  of  Ureal  Britain,  were  prohib- 
ited from  taking  on  board,  in  these  provinces,  any 
goods  or  merchandise  of  >he  growth  or  manufacture 
of  these  States,  or  of  any  other  of  the  United  States  ; 
and  such  vessels,  so  loaded,  were,  together  with  their 
cargoes,  made  subject  to  seizure  ond  condemnation. 
The  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  vested  in  Congress  a 
power  to  prohiliit  for  16  years  the  importation  or  ex- 
portation of  all  merchandise  in  vessels  belonging  to  or 
navigated  by  tho  subjects  of  any  nations  with  which 
Congress  shall  not  have  formed  treaties  of  commerce. 
By  laws  passed  in  Massachusetts  and  Hhode  Island, 
Congress  was  empowered  to  prohibit  the  importation 
of  British  M'ast  India  produce  in  British  vessels. 
Another  law  was  enneted,  in  Pennsylvania,  imposing 
a  duty  of  4e.  (id.  (currency)  per  ton  on  the  vessels  of 
every  nation  with  wliich  Congre'^s  had  not  made  treaties 
of  commerce.  In  Mar}'lund,  a  duty  of  Is.  per  ton  was 
imposed  on  all  foreign  sliip|iing  except  British,  and  on 
British  a  duty  of  6s.  |)er  tun.  In  17H8  Virginia  passed 
a  law  imposing  a  duty  of  (js,  |)er  ton  on  British  vessels, 
and  half  that  amount  on  all  other  foreign  vessels.  In 
North  Carolina  the  discrimination  was  still  greater ) 
the  duties  on  British  vessels  entering  the  pons  of  that 
State  being  6s.  per  ton,  while  that  on  all  other  foreign 
vessels  was  only  Is.  )ier  ton. 

The  import  duties  of  the  diff'erent  States  on  British 
cargoes  were  equally  characterized  by  a  similar  spirit 
of  retaliation.  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Virginia,  Marj-lund,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia  imposed  discriminating  duties,  varying  from  6U 
to  100  per  cent,  on  British  cargoes  over  those  levied  on 
aimiUr  merchandise  imported  in  other  foreign  vessels. 
The  effect  of  these  countervailing  nnd  retaliatory 
measures  can  be  traced  in  the  following  tables  ; 
Value  of  British  exports  into  the  United  State*, 


ORE 


898 


ORE 


vpnn  M  vrtfff  of  ilx  ywn  hernra  th«  war  of  Imlo- 
|Mnil«nu«.  andliiK  with  1774,  4>in,llil,77U  ;  iif  nix  ytntn 
■ndlnK  with  17N0,  tll,201,4H(l ;  annuul  ilecraaM  tinea 
th*  war,  ti,\>Vi,'M.  Annual  vuliin  iif  oxjiortii  ftmni 
tli«  Dnitril  ^italell  to  Oroat  llrltiiin,  U|u>n  an  nveraKn 
of  nix  }-«ara  iMfiire  tho  war  nf  Indaimmlenue,  ending 
with  1774,  $H,4in,2Nl  I  of  alx  yeufii  ilnre  Ilia  war  of 
inile|>«ndcnp«,  #4,1)01 ,4A'i2 ;  annual  daorvaa*  alnca  the 
war,  4>4,04H,HW. 

A  cloM  analyain  iif  tii«  nfBi'ial  raturiia  of  trade  dur- 
Inx  thia  perhnl  will  ahow  that  tobacco  and  rice  warn 
the  artlclaa  upon  which  tbia  decmaaa  chiefly  fell.  The 
quantity  nf  tnhuroi  ex|iort«d  to  Kniflund  derreaaed 
annually,  upon  an  average  of  alx  yearM,  44,774,46M 
irnunda,  valued  at  i)'i,708,HtlU  t  and  the  annuul  decraaae 
In  rice  exported  to  Kn){land  from  the  Unlte<l  fltatea 
waa  )irtO,nX>  cwt.,  valued  at  $IVI3,»2II ;  makinK  a  total 
decreoae  In  toltacoo  and  rice  of  9!l,741,71l>  The  ton- 
nn|{n  emplorod  In  the  trade  during  the  <  wo  perlo<la 
oliovo  dealf^iitttcil  can  not  he  uacertulncd  wliii  aciuracy. 
We  are  npaldeil,  however,  to  aupply  from  llrltiah  au- 
thorltlea  the  nunihnr  and  tonniige  of  veaaela  employed 
In  the  trade  between  the  two  countrlea  for  two  perlo<lH 
— of  three  yenra  before,  and  aubiiMiuont  to,  the  war  of 
inilrpendence : 

Numlier  and  t<>t>naf{e  of  veaaeli  annually  clearing 
from  (ireat  Ilrltuin  for  the  United  Htatea,  (jn  an  averuKe 
of  the  yeara  1770,  1771,  and  1772,  628— «l,!)fil.  Num- 
ber and  tonnage  of  voaaola  annuxlly  entering  Britlah 
porta  from  the  Tnited  Statca,  on  »  like  average,  69!) — 
1)1,540;  total,  1327— 178,41)1.  Nuuilierand  tonnsfjeof 
Britlah  veaaela  clearing  from  llrltiah  port*,  annually, 
on  an  average  of  the  years  17H7,  17HR,  nnd  17H9,  272 — 
66,7Hri.  Number  and  tonnage  of  United  States'  vea- 
leU  clearing,  annually,  from  Britlah  porta,  on  like 
average,  1&7 — 25,726.  Number  and  tonnage  of  Britlah 
veaaels  clearing  from  the  United  States  for  Britlah 
porta,  annually,  on  an  average  of  the  years  1787,  17R8, 
and  1789,  201 — 52,595.  Nuralwr  and  tonnage  of 
United  States'  vessels  clearing  from  the  United  States 
for  British  ports,  annually,  on  o  likn  average,  16.1 — 
26,504;  total,  853— 160,060.  Showing  a  decrease,  dur- 
ing the  periods  compared,  of  474 — 12,822. 

Thus,  In  the  very  Infancy  of  our  commerce,  the  dis- 
astrous effects  of  restrictions,  and  of  the  retaliatory 
measures  which  they  provoked,  were  exhibited  as  well 
in  the  spirit  of  conmiercii.l  llliberality  and  antagoniioii 
which  tliey  engendered  between  the  two  cou'  '-loa,  as 
in  the  gcneial  decrease  of  navigation  and  t'  ..^.  That 
the  object  as  well  as  the  effect  of  the  vnrljus  orders  in 
council  relative  to  the  trade  between  (ireat  Britain 
and  this  county,  Usued  from  1783  to  17^4,  was  to  par- 
alyze the  efforts  even  then  mrde  in  the  United  States 
to  comjiete  for  a  portion  of  that  trade  which  England 
had,  long  anterior  to  thia  period,  wrested  from  II"'- 
lund,  and  now  seemed  to  regard  as  legitimately  lur 
own,'cun  not  lie  doubted.  A  British  statesman  (Ix)rd 
Liverpool),  in  a  work  on  thia  subject,  published  in 
1792,  remarks  : — "That  this  Increase  in  our  shipping 
is  to  be  ascribed  to  our  naviyalion  tystem  may  be  made 
to  appear  from  recent  experience  in  the  application  of 
It  to  the  trade  of  tbo  United  States.  When  those 
countries  were  part  of  our  plantations,  a  great  portion 
of  their  produce  was  transhipped  to  Great  Britain  and 
our  West  India  Islands  in  American  bottoms  ;  they  hud 
a  share  in  the  freight  of  sugars  from  those  islands  to 
Great  Britain.  But  since  the  independence  of  those 
States,  since  their  ships  liave  been  excluded  from  our 
plantations,  and  that  trade  Is  wholly  conjineil  to  Hritlsh- 
built  tbipt,  we  have  gained  that  share  of  our  carrying 
trade  fTom  which  they  are  noiv  excluded,  and  we  more- 
en er  enjoy  a  considerable  proportion  in  the  carriage  of 
the  produce  of  the  United  States." 

The  commercial  policy  of  the  United  States,  from 
the  very  infancy  of  the  government,  has  been  to  en- 
coarage  reciprocity,  and  freedom  of  commerce  with  all 
nations  willing  to  adopt  a  aimilar  principle.     In  the 


report  from  the  Treasury  Departmaet  on  the  anhjaol 
of  commerce,  aubniltted  todongresa  In  ITDI,  the  ba- 
als  of  a  commercial  system  waa  suggested,  in  which 
the  Secretary  argueil  that  duties  lm|Hiaed  u|ion  im- 
p4irta  would  be  iliaailvantageous  In  bulliling  up  trade. 
"  Instead, "  llie  r«|H>rt  aiUlt,  ■■  of  emliarraaaing  com- 
merce under  pile*  of  regulating  laws,  duties,  and  pro- 
hibitiona,  it  should  be  relieved  from  all  its  ahacklat,  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Would  even  a  single  nation 
liegin  with  the  United  States  thia  system  nf  free  com- 
merce, It  would  Iw  advisable  to  liegin  It  with  that  na- 
tion." In  the  spirit  of  thia  suggestion,  the  United 
States,  soon  after  the  peace  of  1783,  pro])osed  to  enter 
into  treaties  of  commerce,  not  only  with  Great  Britain, 
but  also  with  Krance,  Spain,  ami  I'ortugal.  Kvery 
overture,  however,  to  that  end,  was,  uniler  varloua 
pretexts,  rejected;  and  It  wa.i  nut  imtll  Ave  yeara  after 
the  adoption  of  our  present  (Ninstitutlun  that  Graat 
Britain  could  be  induced  to  lialen  to  any  propoahlona 
on  the  part  of  the  United  .States,  having  in  view  the 
equalization  or  reciprocity  of  commercial  relations  b«- 
twecu  the  two  nntluns, — Sr.YnKiiT'.s  Statinlicnl  .Inno^, 
page  58.  Under  the  operation  nf  their  navigation 
laws,  the  pnMtuctlcms  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America, 
could  only  be  importoil  direct  from  the  places  of  their 
growth  in  British  vessels.  As  res|iects  the  United 
States,  this  restriction  was  sua|iended,  as  already  oli- 
served,  by  orders  in  council,  and  proclamations  issued 
in  pursuance  thereof,  until  the  treaty  alread}'  cited 
was  ratlAed. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  the  details  nf  the  Im- 
port and  export  trade  between  (iroat  Britain  nnd  tho 
United  States  fniin  1795  to  1807,  and  from  the  latter 
year  to  1815,  when  a  convention  of  reciprocity  waa 
entered  Into  and  ratlfled  between  the  two  governments : 




ICi|HirU  from  1  Import*  Into  [ 

Eip«'rtl  from 

Imnortttnto 

Yurt. 

Ur.  .1  Hrllalii 

tjrrat  Urtlain 

Y<an. 

Uml  Britain 

(IrrU  Briltin 

17115 

to  ihd  U.S. 

♦8(l,2Tft,riO<l 

trouilli.U.8. 

»8,7(kiri)sr) 

1801 

to  lb.  U.  S.    rroiii  thtU.a. 

|87,AH7.«Ao  ;(i»,iw:,rivo| 

UW 

«(l,27ll,16»l 

ln,404,H8() 

IH02 

2(l,rt47,4R« 

U,617,.ViO 

\m 

li,^2S«,99,1 

r.^77,.V.i 

I'lim 

2fl,mH,056 

»,57l>,4WI 

179M 

li7,9(II.R45 

s-.uiit.imo 

IhiM 

81,9«a,l!ll) 

N,»7,H»8 

17»B 

m,toa,7B() 

o,flU4,J().^ 

1805 

88,788,828 

S,8SS,T80 

1800 

«»,4a7,»70 

1I,T89,«16 

181  IS 

48,065,610 

l).BU»,4'J0 

The  preceding  table  is  derived  from  British  author- 
ities; and  though  it  exhibits  a  varlinico  in  almost 
every  instance,  more  or  less,  from  the  United  States' 
iifliciiil  reports,  it  is  believed  to  approximate  the  actual 
value  of  the  imports  and  exports  in  the  Knglish  mar- 
ket. Krom  1803,  when  the  stipulations  of  tlie  treaty 
of  17'.)4,  relative  to  commerce,  expired,  there  waa  no 
treaty  regulating  the  commercial  intercourse  between 
the  two  countries  until  1815.  It  Is  true  a  treaty  was 
agreed  to,  December  31,  1806,  between  RIessrs.  Mon- 
roe and  I'iuckney  and  tho  commissioners  appointed  by 
Great  Britain  for  that  purpose ;  but  so  restrictive 
were  some  of  its  stipulations,  especially  ns  respecting 
American  commerce  with  the  East  Indi.-!,  that  it  was 
rejecteil  by  the  President,  witliont  hav mg  been  sub- 
mitted to  the  Senate,  notwitlistandiiig  it  contained 
a  stipulation  for  an  e(|iialization  of  tonnage  and  other 
duties  in  tho  intercourse  between  the  Uniteil  States 
and  the  dominions  of  Great  Britain  in  Europe,  This 
principle  was  recognized  and  odmitted  in  tho  commer- 
cial convention  of  July  iW,  1815,  entered  into  between 
tho  two  countries,  with  the  limitation,  however,  on  the 
part  of  England,  to  her  dominions  in  Europe,  Prior 
to  tho  adoption  of  thia  treaty,  the  United  States  passed 
an  act  repealing  all  the  discriminating  duties  of  import 
and  tonnage  in  regard  to  the  vessels  nf  such  nations 
as  should  extend  similar  favors  to  the  shipping  and 
produce  of  the  United  States ;  thus  carrj'ing  into  prac- 
tical working,-  and  recommending  by  legislative  e  x- 
ample,  the  suggestion  of  Sir.  Jefferson  already  quoted, 
that  if  "  even  a  single  nation  would  begin  with  tha 
United  States  the  system  of  free  commerce,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  begin  It  with  that  nation."  We  recur, 
however,  before  proceeding  to  trace  the  operation  ol 


GRK 


864 


ORE 


IU«  ooarMtlon  In  lb*  luhMfiuaDt  raturnt  of  irtda,  to 
IIm  UbiM,  rtaumlnn  at  the  ymtt  IMM  i 


RtMrti  ftffin  1  Importe  lalti 

Yliait.     Iiri«4  HffltalM 

llrffM  NttlalM 

U.ik.  v.» 

InuallMll* 

IWM  ;»««,niA,(IO 

l»,ttM,l«0 

U*H7.)lin 

iwn 

l)«,MI,aOII 

IHIM 

i«,Mi,ii*n 

4,l>ll,7|ll 

IM« 

U,tWt.ll« 

I !,»««,  AM 

imu 

N,IM«,IMA 

tll,or«,(MB 

IKBp«*rt*  IVnm 
UriM  Nrllala 
la  lti<  I'.  1. 


tilt 

mil 

INIH 

ItIS 


I  M,«77,IMtt 

IM,AIA 
I  N,«H«,AOA 


Imin.ti    ■ 
fittu  H'ifaiN 
ftnailtnl.'  • 

III^T.OTB 
«,47U,7(IU 

iivmI  hv  ir«. 
IIMIIA 

ll,l«ll,4«i 


In  flcylMrt'i  atalMi-nl  Aunali  wt  llnil  •  mlniiU 
•nalj-aU  uf  tha  lr«d*  li«twMii  ilia  Unltatt  8Uta«  and 
Oraat  Uritain  during  tha  yaan  daalgnatad  In  tlia  pra. 
Tloua  taldta. 

In  thu  y>*r  17011,  i>x|xirta  fWim  tha  ITnltod  Sutai  Ui 
Qraat  llritain  wrra  anliniatvd,  In  a  re|Mirt  iif  tlin  H«o- 
ralary  uf  tlin  Tnaiiury,  uiid»r  data  Oacainlier  211,  179S, 
at#l>,.1l!;i,llil,  and  Ilia  imports  Into  tlia  United  Ntutn* 
/rum  OriiMt  liriuin  at  ^\!>,-l»h,Vin,  Iraving  a  UUnco 
In  farur  of  Uraat  UrIUin  of  ta,»tt,OI2.  From  17011 
to  IHOO,  tha  amount  of  manufarturaa  iiii|Kirted  into  tho 
Unitad  Htatea  rnim  (iraat  llrituin  axi'rudad  In  valua 
tha  amount  nf  ■iinllar  ax|)ort<  to  all  tha  nationt  la 
Kurupa,  aa  will  ba  uan  (Vuui  tha  fidlowtntf  tabl«,  taken 
firom  Uritlih  ratunu : 


jiufk«liir»i  •■parlad  U»m  Qraat 
Brtlala  la 


1: 


vm. 
una. 


Natlnna  In  RnriM, 

..|i7,ivw,iiaii 

..  !N,W1.»tA 

..  <l,IIK,»ll) 

..  W,4M,4IA 

..  ls,ll«4,IA() 

. .  l»,tNM.«ll) 

..  IN,1(N,I>«0 

. .  in,5MI,SIA 


Tb«  <'n>i>4  llaltt 

tlil.'W*,AtA 

I7,I>44,44A 

I4,44<.'<<M 

W,I7H,«)0 

9«,A«MMn 
M,4f4l,l(lA 
M,»47,aaA 


Tha  annual  valua  of  merchandlaa  exported  from  the 
United  Staleo  to  the  Kuropean  duininiona  of  Ureat 
Britain,  un  an  averaxe  of  the  yean  1HI)2,  IHOll,  ami 
1804,  amounted  tn  tlN,)JHA,777 ;  and  on  a  almilar  iiv 
•raga,  tha  annual  value  of  tha  merchandlaa  imported 
into  the  United  Htatea  from  (ireat  llritain  amounted  to 
#IU,797,030;  ahowinti  an  annual  balance  of  #17,071,- 
SA3  aKuinut  the  I'liiteii  Htiiteii.  The  annual  value  of 
British  pnwlui'e  and  manufuctures,  and  of  forelKn  and 
colonial  merchandise,  distinKuislied  in  aoparate  rol- 
umna,  exported  from  (Jreat  llritain  to  the  United 
8tatas,  and  to  all  parts  of  th«  world,  during  the  years 
deaignate<l,  will  b«  seen  In  the  following  tables : 
Valdx  ur  THa  Kxpoata  raoii  OaaAT  BaiTAiN, 


Twn. 

vo  Alb  raais 

larLuniHu  tms 

DV   TMM  WitKLD, 

uatTio  araTU.I 

Ull.k  i»>a. 

faftura*  and 

produea. 

rortlfa  aiMl 

•olunlal 
aurrkaullM. 

j|j,177,«5n 

K.Stn.HlA 

l,'iA7,t4A 

8UA,IIHS 

l.nn.ivM 

1,4M,M6 

iaft,i»a 

BrtlUh  raanu- 

flMluraiaad 

VriMluea, 

l^wrt-lsn  aiHl 

ecilualal 
marchanitlM. 

»fto,*)o,wa" 

4.S,lll)i).ft2fl 
AO,01H,»H0 
4A,4*),H78 
7S,H74,7AB 
(W,6iUl,H75 
46,11  ;,6»A 

IWIA 
It)!!) 

1107 

1S(I8 
ISO* 
JNIO 
1811 

|Afl,(lft7,mA 
ril.|IH7,440 
M),«M.A«A 
W.tm,m& 

64,IIOII,7(KI 
»,!W6,«6A 

♦*lflJM4,710 
216,lilO,SHO 

so'j.inra.iisA 

1(04.4(IM.HM 
2AI,ila,N)A 
M»,H7'<,17i) 
174,AHfl,4(»A 

The  aggregate  vali'e  of  British  manufactures  and 
produce  pxporte<l  to  the  United  States  during  the  seven 
years  designated  above,  was  t30'i,&88,'270,  making  an 
annual  average  of  $4.'l,°i2(i,8!)6 ;  the  aggregate  value 
of  British  produce  and  nianufiicturos  exported  to  all 
parts  of  the  world,  including  the  United  States,  during 
the  same  perioil,  was  tl,'>04,041,G5O,  making  an  an- 
nual average  of  t214,HU;i,0!).'l.  Tho  aggregate  value 
nf  foreign  and  colonial  merchandise  exported  from 
Great  Britain  to  the  United  Status  during  the  samo 
period  was  t8,78°2,070,  making  an  annual  average  of 
$1,2&4,&82 ;  the  aggregate  value  of  similar  ox|)orts  to 
all  parts  of  the  world,  including  the  United  States, 
woa  #382,209,160.  The  preceding  Hgures  exhiljit 
many  interesting  facts  relative  to  the  trade  between 
the  two  countries,  during  the  period  which  intervened 
between  1703  and  1816.  The  exports  of  foreign  and 
colonial  merchundiso  from  Ureal  Britain  to  the  (Inited 
SUtei  show  that  England  enjoyed  but  a  small  share  of 


our  carrying  trade  |  while  a  comparison  batwaan  th* 
totals  of  doniaslli-  inanufacturaa  axportail  to  the  Uiiltmt 
Htatas,  and  to  all  other  parte  of  tha  worbl,  will  ex- 
hibit tha  lm|iortaai-a  to  (Iraat  Itrltain  of  unraatrlvtoil 
comroanlal  liitoniiursa  with  Iba  Unitad  Htatas. 

The  affact  of  tha  raalrlntlve  and  ratalUlory  maoaurst 
which  war*,  at  thia  pariiMl,  adopted  by  both  countrim, 
isVvan  mora  fully  lllustratrd  in  Iba  tonnage  emplnyinj 
in  thia  trade  by  each,  ni»|i«ctiv<ly,  from  I7IM)  to  IHttl. 
The  nuinlier  of  Itritiah  «i*aarls  which  rntarMl  aiicl 
cleared  Intween  the  United  States  and  (Ireat  llritain 
amountail  to  171i^,  with  an  aggregat*  tonnnga  of  IM2,- 
ttb't  tons.  The  nuoibar  of  American  vesaals  whiith 
snterad  and  claareil  in  tlia  saina  trade,  during  the  eaiiia 
parioil,  waa  8246  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  616,702  tone.  In  I.IM,  667  British  vessels  were 
employed  in  the  nimiiierca  between  lb*  two  countries  | 
In  IMUO  this  nuniUr  was  raducad  to  130.  In  17V0  Ihs 
Ainarlcan  vessvla  employed  in  this  trad*  amountml 
only  to  464  i  in  INOO  this  nurolier  reached  as  lilgb  as 
1067.  In  17NH,  2A3  British  vessels  angagail  in  this 
trad*  enured  British  porU  from  th*  United  btates, 
whll*  B6M  v*ssels  cleared  in  Iba  same  trade.  In  a  pe- 
riod  of  10  years,  up  to  17V0,  lb*  aumliar  that  entemd 
from  tha  l'nite<l  Slates  was  railucad  to  42  vassela, 
while  the  niiulMr  that  cleared  fell  to  67.  In  IHOB,  6lil 
vessels  enipbiyed  in  the  trade  with  th*  United  States 
entered  llritlah  |K>rts  ;  of  these  only  60  were  under  th* 
British  flag ;  and  uf  the  676  vessels  that  cleared  from 
British  ports  in  thi-  same  trade,  only  3U  were  British, 

These  statlstica  which  ar*  rhietly  compiled  from 
Seyliert,  show  an  augmentation  of  toniiug*  in  th* 
Unitoil  States,  and  a  diminution  in  the  tannage  of 
(iri<at  llritain  engaged  in  tlie  trade  between  tho  two 
countries,  well  calculatml  to  excite  alarm  among  the 
ship-owners  in  Kngland,  and  even  to  arrest  the  atten- 
tion of  thn  British  government.  And  when  it  is  con- 
sidered tliiit  It  waa  at  that  (lerlod — if  it  liiis  nut  always 
been — the  policy  of  (ireat  Britain  to  sairllh  e,  if  neces- 
sary, the  interests  even  of  uominerce  ami  trade  to  tho 
great  object  of  strengtli'iiing  her  nuvul  power,  it  will 
not  be  a  subject  of  surprise  tliat  orders  In  council  and 
acts  of  Parliament  were  isaueil,  in  i|uick  suocession, 
avowotlly  designed  to  check  this  rapid  progress  of 
American  navigation,  and  drive  Americun  ships  from 
the  carrying  trade,  even  as  respected  the  i'X|)ortution 
of  the  prmlucts  of  the  United  States  to  ni  her  countries. 
"Trade,"  said  th*  report  of  the  privy  xiuncil,  to 
whom  the  subject  was,  at  this  time,  nrvrrrd  by  his 
majesty's  orders,  "  was  considered  |iriiiclpally  as  the 
means  of  promoting  the  employment  of  ships,  and 
was  encouraged  chiefly  ns  it  condiiced  ia  the  one  great 
national  object — the  naval  strength  uf  the  country." 

It  was  the  universal  prevalence  throughout  Kngland 
of  this  sentiment,  exhibited  upwanl  of  a  century  in 
her  navigation  laws,  in  her  prohibitions  and  restric- 
tions, in  her  difTurential  duties,  and,  above  all,  in  her 
colonial  system,  that  emlioldcned  the  privy  council  to 
recommend  to  his  majesty  "  that,  notwithstunding 
tlieir  (the  United  States')  extreme  anxiety  for  nn  ar- 
rangement on  the  principle  of  reciprocity,  if  Congress 
should  propose  (as  they  certainly  will)  that  the  princi- 
ple of  equality  should  lie  extended  to  the  ports  of  our 
colonics,  and  that  the  ships  of  tho  United  States  should 
l>e  there  treated  as  llrilish  ships,  it  should  be  answered, 
that  this  demand  can  not  be  admitted  even  as  a  sub- 
ject of  negotiation,"  Hence,  but  little  could  be  ex- 
pected from  the  treaty  of  1704,  In  which  this  principlo 
woa  carried  out  to  the  fullest  extent  of  rigorous  re- 
striction ;  and  hence,  also,  the  series  of  regulating 
orders,  acts,  and  counter>act8,  which  were  mad*  tlie 
instruments  of  commercial  wurfurv  between  tho  two 
countries  for  upward  of  a  quarter  of  a  century.  It 
would  lie  a  tedious  task  to  jiresent  even  a  synopsis  of 
the  difTeront  restrictive  and  retaliatory  measures 
adopted  by  the  two  governments  during  this  long 
period.    Were  it  ev«n  otberwi»e,  it  would  b«  auper- 


ORB 


868 


ORB 


Inouii  to  go  Into  rolnuta  itnUtln,  *•  th*  laglaUtlon  of 
Ixilh  gnvrrnnianta  iliiring  thia  parlml,  m  wkII  ••  lla 
•ITcrta  upon  th«  rommarcit  of  the  two  ■■oiinlrl«a,  iir* 
(iii'i'lni'tly  a«t  forth  In  tli«  formnr  Mimrta  laaiiml  ttnm 
thIa  Depnrtmanl. 

It  will,  tlii>r«for«,  aiifflpit  tn  ritftr  tn  thu  laliUa  of 
trmlx  unci  tonni>K«  tlrrmly  ulv»n,  na  th*  Ixat  llluatra- 
tinn  tlut  ran  )>•  olTnml  of  thn  ii|H<riitlcm  of  th*a«  maaa- 
uraa,  and  of  tha  lotiil  lniicli<c|iiit('y  of  raatriitlona  anil 
prohlliltinna  n»  n  nnnv-  iry  iiiKuna  of  fnatxrinK  I'ommar- 
rlal  Iniliiatry,  or  of  iiiiK'ioinllnK  tha  naval  |Hiwc<r  of  a 
niitlon.  Thi*  iililrat  )ioii<  In  KnitUnil  hava  liaan  xm- 
ployail  In  ilKmonntralInK  iliiii  It  la  to  other  cauaoa  than 
tha  navlKutlon  lawa  that  (iraat  llrltain  owaa  har  vaat 
cuinniarciiil  )(r«atn«aa,  uml  that  naval  aaoamluncy 
whii'h  Mha  liaa  ao  lung  malntnlnoil  (Mt'OiiKiiiiii,  Part 
lA,  vol.  II.,  p.  1970)  anil  It  la  a  i|Uaatlou  atlll  iinaattlail 
whnthnr  tho  aihiptlon  liy  tlii<  I'nitail  Ntataa  iif  thn  nnvl- 
lintiiin  lawH  itnil  tha  reatrlrtlvp  piilliy  of  Oniiit  Itrltiiln, 
aven  aa  u  inaana  of  proti'itlon  or  aalf-ilafanaa,  wiia  aa 
liannlli:liil  In  Ita  ultlninlo  romilta  u|Hin  thn  niniiiiorilal 
pniaiwrlty  of  thn  rountry,  iia  wmilil  hava  Iwan  a  atrli't 
atlharvni'O  to  tha  maxim  of  Mr.  .lafTaraon,  alroiuly 
elteil,  thiit  "  ronimttrcn  nlmulil  lia  ralliivail  from  all  Ita 
•harklaa  in  all  parta  of  tli«  worlil."  Ro  thIa  aa  It  may, 
thn  unli^'itflned  poliry  wlilih  now  rulaa  tha  I'ounillaof 
(ireiit  llrltain— a  polli'y  wlilrh,  lit  thIa  illatant  anil 
roinotii  purlffll  In  llrltiah  hUtory,  nti'nlvail  thn  i'o-ii|Mira> 
tion  uml  support  of  two  of  KnKlunil'a  |{riinti<at  atatna- 
mi>n,  Mr.  I'Itt  anil  NIr  Kolinrt  I'nel— hua  illaaiputail  tha 
fiillaclna  upon  whii'h  paat  InKlalutlon  waa  liiiaoil,  nnil 
liua  iliMiiiinntratpil  almuily,  In  th«  lirliif  pnrloil  uf  llvn 
yearM,  thiit  Kn){liinil  ran  boat  cotnpnta  with  thn  innr- 
chuiit-iiiarinn  of  tha  world  liy  plucInK  tlia  trmUi  of 
ovpry  port  In  h«r  vaat  domlnlima,  l''uro|Hiim  and  ludo- 
nlul,  for  thn  ahlpa  of  all  enuntrlea,  u|Mm  tha  footing  uf 
an  unroNtrli'ted  rouatlng-tmdn, 

A  lllwrul  tarltr  of  itutlea,  oaprclally  u|Hin  artlrlna  uf 
prime  neceaalty  among  tho  grrat  maaaea  of  her  iwopla, 
oven  ihould  they  lie  cluaaeil  In  the  category  of  luxu- 
riea,  la  ull  that  seem*  now  wanting  to  |ierfei't  the 
prcaont  commercial  code  of  thIa  {mworful  kingiliiin. 
Thn  proaent  duty  on  raw  toliaci'o  la,  at  leaat,  l(MH)  per 
cent,  aliove  prime  coat.  The  commercial  I'linvnntion 
of  IHV),  iM-tween  Great  Britain  and  thn  United  Ntatea, 
wua  limilt'il  to  four  years.  The  aocond  article  of  thia 
treaty  provides  for  an  equality  of  dutlna  on  lm|)orta 
and  tunniige  in  tho  porta  of  the  I'niteil  Htutea  and  the 
porta  of  the  lirltUh  territorlaa  in  Kuro[ie.  With  re- 
RfMict  to  im|iorta,  thIa  equality  of  dutlna  appliea  only  to 
artlclea  lieing  the  growth,  produce,  and  mnnufuitiire 
of  the  reapectlve  countries.  The  liiteruourHo  between 
the  United  States  and  the  liritlxh  West  Iniliea  and 
American  colonies  Is  not  to  he  alTectnd  liy  any  provis- 
ions of  the  convention  ;  "  but  each  party  la  Ui  remain 
in  complete  posaesalon  of  Ita  rightu  with  rna|iei't  to 
such  Intercourse."  Under  the  atipulatlona  of  this 
convention,  the  vessels  of  Ciroat  llrltiiln  are  exempted 
from  the  payment  of  the  rxlra  tonnage  ami  lin|Hirt 
duties,  only  when  they  arrive  fhiin,  and  their  cargoes 
are  of  tho  growth,  produce,  or  maniifucturo  of,  thn 
Britiali  dominions  In  Europe ;  and  tlio  veaaela  of  the 
United  States,  In  like  manner,  aru  adnilttml  Into  llrit. 
Ish  |Mrts  on  terms  of  equality  as  to  tonnage  .inil  im- 
port duties,  with  British  vensela,  only  whmi  their 
cargoes  consist  of  merthiiiiillHe  the  growth,  produce, 
or  mniiul'acture  of  tho  United  States.  The  elTei't  uf 
this  convention,  espedally  of  its  restrictive  cluuana, 
upon  the  shipping  interentH  of  (ireat  Britain,  formeii 
no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  that  all  shackles 
upon  commerce  ultimately  recoil  upon  those  by  whom 
they  are  imp<i8ed. 

In  the  practical  consequences  of  this  arrangement, 
OS  was  stated  by  the  celebrated  Iluskisson,  In  u  a|MtiH'li 
delivered  in  Parliament,  tho  adherence  of  (ireat  Brit- 
Un  to  another  part  of  her  navigation  laws,  Inatewl  of 
Mrving,  appeorod  to  that  statesman  to  have  tlucUed 
In 


the  ahlpping  Intaraata  of  that  conntry.  And  ha  thua 
lliualratea  hia  [MMiUion  :  "  An  Amarlcan  vassal,  un  har 
voyage  til  Kngland,  la  fralghtad  with  a  ciirgo  wholly 
pnHluiia<l  In  the  (Tnlted  .Slataa.  Kor  har  rntum  to 
America,  aha  may  linid  In  llrltiah  porta,  with  a  cargo 
(tartly  tha  priMlucn  ur  manufacture  of  any  other  coun- 
try. ThIa  a  llrltiah  ahlp  nut  not  do ;  for  if  a  llrltiah 
ahin  warn  to  bring  to  the  (.'nited  Ntalna  a  aingin  caak 
of  lirandy,  or  a  pipe  of  wina,  aha  would  lia  liabla  to 
aalaura  and  forfeiture."  Anil  yet,  at  this  wry  period, 
and  lip  to  Ihn  year  INIMI,  thn  repnaenlatlvea  of  tha 
American  giiverninent  were  praaalng  upon  tha  cahl 
net  of  Kngland  tha  Juatlcw  as  well  aa  the  |Hilicy  of  un- 
raatrlited  commerclHl  Intercouran  lietwneii  all  thn  (wrts 
uf  tha  two  oountries,  but  without  aucceaa. 

In  INIM  another  convention  waa  rutlHed  between 
the  two  goviirnmaiita,  liy  thn  Mi  artlcin  of  wlilch  that 
of  IHIA  wua  roiillnued  In  force  for  the  term  of  10  years 
from  that  date  |  ami  in  IH'iT  It  wua  Imlnllnltnly  ex- 
tended and  ciiiitlnued,  eithai  party  li<  Ing  ut  liberty, 
on  giving  Vi  montha'  notice  to  thn  other,  to  annul  and 
termlnato  the  «»ld  convention.  No  terms,  however, 
would  lie  ai  >dpd  to  by  the  British  K.vnrnment  ra- 
a|iactlng  thi<  trade  with  her  American  colontea.  A 
recapilulatiim  of  the  varloua  ac  a  of  Purliiiinent  and 
ordera  in  council,  us  well  as  the  general  hlatory  of  the 
commercial  untagonlam and  reci  rm-ul oxiluainn  which 
inarkiiil  Ihia  pei'iid,  belonga  more  properly  to  the  di- 
gest of  our  ciM'  inorcial  re  ona  with  I'  Kngllali 
cidonint  iHiaaeaaiona.  It  la  true,  it  would  iF  be  difll- 
cult  to  tracn  thn  inHucncn  of  thia  contro  '  in  the 
cuniinercini  legialution,  more  (lartlcul  'i  rnliitlon 

til  Ibii  tnrrlir  reguliitiona  of  iKith  counti  s  liurlng  the 
entire  |ierloil  of  Ita  contli«iince.  Still,  tho  general 
aiiliM't  belonga  to  a  r«vle<  >  .r  trade  with  the  rnlo. 
niea  of  (Ireut  llrltain,  ami  li  tlmi  portion  of  this  digest 
refnrencn  la  inailn. 

It  has  been  already  stilted  that,  In  thn  convention 
of  tMVI7,  It  waa  agreed  thut  the  provisions  uf  the  con- 
tention of  IHl/i  should  lie  Imlnllnitely  extended  and 
continued  {  but  that  It  ahniild  bo  competent,  neverthe- 
leas,  to  eithnr  of  the  purticx,  on  giving  12  months'  no- 
tice, to  annul  and  iibrogute  the  said  convention.  No 
auch  notice  haa  been  given  by  either  party,  and,  con- 
aequently,  thn  conveution  III  remains  In  force.  Since 
that  periiHl,  however,  the  lominercial  {lolicy  of  (treat 
Britain  has  totally  changod.  The  vast  pile  of  naviga- 
tion laws  which  I'ontriliutod  to  build  up  her  naval 
IMiwer,  and  extend  her  (commerce  to  every  corner  of 
the  globe,  has  lieon  swept  away  by  tho  reforming 
hand  of  a  i.iorn  lilierul  legislation  ;  the  whole  frame- 
work of  her  turill'  |iollcy  has  been  demolished ;  tho 
heavy  duties  on  the  various  classes  of  raw  material 
hava  lieen  removed ;  und,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  n  'i-a  on  which,  for  revenue  pur|M)ses  only,  heavy 
dutlea  !■■  ■■■  '"'  \  retained,  the  raw  produce  of  the  world 
la  lm.il,,".'  :ii  tho  store-houses  of  her  manufacturers, 
uninouiiUn'red  with  those  custom-house  charges  which, 
before  this  period,  absorbed  ho  largo  a  share  of  the 
prof's  of  their  iniluatry  und  skill. 

The  act  of  \'l  and  lit  Victoria,  chapter  29,  pu.ised  on 
liin  2lltli  .lune,  INID,  introduced  this  new  eru  in  the 
ctiinineroial  liUtory  of  (ireat  Britain.  The  leading 
provlaliina  of  this  net,  as  well  as  of  the  various  acts, 
orders  in  council,  proclamations,  etc.,  which  it  super- 
seded, will  be  found  at  length  in  a  report  from  the  De- 
partment of  State  In  IHfi.'),  entitled  "  Ex.  Doc.  No.  52, 
Heniito,"  pages  0  1(1.  Section  21  of  this  act  declares 
that  It  hIihII  come  Into  operation  on  the  1st  day  of 
Jumiary,  IXAO.  Thus,  at  length,  the  limbs  of  British 
commnrco  wore  freed  from  the  pinions  by  which  it 
was  fettered  for  upward  of  two  centuries.  The  vis- 
lona  uf  Mr.  Pitt  were  realized  in  the  lilieral  policy  of 
Sir  Roliert  Peel's  enlarged  and  enlightened  statesman- 
slilp.  This  act  establishes  the  comprehensive  princi- 
ple uf  admitting  Into  tho  ports  of  (ireat  Britain,  or  Into 
«ny  BritUh  poHiMlona,  gooda  of  anj-  sort,  in  a  ahlp  of 


IT 


■:•■: 


if 


GRE 


866 


ORE 


any  countr)',  from  an}-  part  of  the  world.  Such  pro- 
hibitions and  reatrictioni,  however,  aa  were,  before  the 
paMoge  of  thiH  aot,  deemed  necesBary  either  for  the 
safety  or  for  the  protection  of  revenue  and  mercantile 
interests,  still  remain  in  force.  The  following  are  the 
prohibitions  and  restrictions  which  affect  the  commer- 
cial relations  of  the  United  States  with  Great  Britain  : 
Books,  wherein  the  copyright  sliall  be  first  subsist- 
ing, flrsv  composed,  or  written,  or  printed  in  the  United 
KingdoiJi,  and  printed  or  reprinted  in  any  other  coun- 
try, OS  to  which  the  proprietor  of  such  copyright  or  his 
agent  shall  have  given  to  the  commissioners  of  cus- 


toms a  notice  in  writing  that  such  copyright  subslsla, 
such  notice  also  stating  when  copyright  shall  expire. 

Coin,  viz. :  False  money  or  counterfeit  sterling ;  sil- 
ver coin  of  the  realm,  or  any  money  purporting  to  be 
such,  not  being  of  the  established  standard  in  weight 
or  fineness ;  extracts,  essences,  or  other  concentrations 
of  coffee,  chicory,  (ea,  or  tobacco,  or  any  admixtures 
of  the  same ;  malt.  Prints,  indecent  or  obscene ;  paint- 
ings, books,  cards,  lithograpliic  or  other  engravings,  or 
any  other  indecent  or  obaouue  articles.  Snuff-work : 
tobacco-stalks  stripped  from  the  leaf,  whether  manu- 
factured or  not  I  tobocco-stolk  flour. 


RiaisTiBSO  ToNNAOB  or  Tua  Britibu  Kmfibb,  1801  TO  1867. 


HBW   TnalLS   BDILT  AHB   ■BOlaTBKBO.                                                                                                                                | 

Ymn. 

Total  in 
BrilUh  Kmpira. 

Veiir 

•ndini!  llh 
jKQUiiry. 

tnilod  Kingdom. 

Ch.n„.),.).„a.,    1         p,J„1''J,-^.         1       erKEllX,™. 

VeiaU. 

Tom. 

Vaualt. 

Tom. 

Voii«eU.  .     Tom. 

VhmU.    1      Tont.      1  VmmIi. 

Tona.        1 

1801 

1802 

1808 

1804 

1806 

1806  

1807 

1SII8 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1826 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1066 

1281 

1402 

991 

1001 

772. 

T70 

663 

606 

685 

870 

864 

1183 

1274 

10S3 

1059 

1126 

8S3 

872 

78:) 

847 

1I7S 

1639 

1719 

1440 

1.".21 

1160 

122,693 

187,603 

1S^849 

»5,079 

86,584 

69,198 

68,000 

67,140 

61,390 

84,8:il 

116,(l;)8 

97,949 

128,.')4!) 

117,4110 

104,429 

101,367 

112,173 

84,582 

74,847 

07,144 

8(1,028 

14:1,741 

204,1124 

207,083 

168,946 

14'),013 

116,872 

1831 

1832 

1833...... 

1834 

1836 

1836 

1837 

1883 

1839 

1840 

1S41 

1812 

1343 

1844 

1345 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1349 

1S50 

1361 

185-2 

18.-)0 

1864 

1356 

1866 

1857 

730 
743 

783 
711 
780 
860 
079 
036 
1039 
1217 
1370 
1111 
914 
693 
639 
St>3 
S'lO 
933 
847 
730 
639 
672 
713 
798 
803 
1008 

ms 

76,632 
83,8)2 
90,130 
83,212 
100,367 
116,636 
86,509 
181,171 
1.57,2,55 
131,301 
21I,S8:< 
16:>,67S 
129,920 
8.1,096 
94,9.15 
123,2.10 
l-.6,35) 
14b,8;i4 
122,.V)2 
117,9,53 
133,695 
149,637 
167,491 
203,171 
196,942 
823,200 
2,V),472 

20 
IS 
26 
IT 
20 
66 
110 
69 
63 
61 
T8 
81 
87 
83 
42 
87 
83 
48 
iU 
41 
86 
80 
30 
82 
2-1 
28 
46 

1879 
1858 
2785 
2969 
2343 
6087 
812T 
4751 
4204 
0603 
8775 
8731 
8346 
2276 
1881 
1630 
2143 
4000 
3383 
8313 
R838 
2926 
2983 
4067 
4761 
S894 
5065 

367 
876 
886 
^ll 
426 
465 
Mi 
610 
006 
703 
771 
008 
668 
4'.-4 
826 
083 
745 
T66 
0.')6 
601 
714 
Oso 
077 
723 
7.52 
714 
721 

82,719 
34,290 
4i),8i7 
52,476 
65,317 
03,230 
60,604 
7), 308 
711,947 
109,026 
143,'2,«8 
lB-2,8.57 
7.'i,6i)2 
6.5,904 
69,857 
90,606 
118,559 
165,313 
101,983 
12S,8ii4 
124,1 83 
141,116 
138,830 
15.  -50 
188,272 
104,968 
I67,!>41) 

1117 
1186 
1146 
1169 
1231 
1371 
118:1 
1518 
17W 
1981 
2219 
1860 
16'20 
1230 
1286 
1528 
1686 
1787 
1533 
1462 
1439 
1383 
1419 
18.53 
15 -.2 
1370 
2045 

11(1,130 
1 19,9.17 
18'I,8I3 
114,047 
Uk3,527 
184,'62 
166,240 
407,328 
241,4(16 
295,928 
803,3,52 
801,11)6 
203,937 
141,277 
166,733 
21.'i,fll5 
241,0,'i0 
10^237 
227,928 
24,5,130 
262,48:1 
298,670 
809,304 
889,788 
889,975 
492,002 
433,477 

NoTC— Till!  Navlgatluii  Laws  were  rcpenled  on  January  1,  1^50. Tho  presont  Keciatry  Act  cuiuo  into  oiniistiun 

May  1,  1856. 

>OOBBaATB   NUHBIR  OF   RBUI8TBBKD  ▼BHBka   BXISTINd   ON   TUB   KBOIHTBY. 

ViBr 

eiidloit  Sill 
IHNmtMr. 

TnUI  In 
Brillili  Kmplra. 

Your 
•iiilinK  Slit 
D«««nilMr. 

Unliad  Kingdom. 

,„ ii.i.„.i.     1               Brlllnh               1               Tolnlln 

VmuIi. 

Tom. 

Venolt.    1        Tom. 

VM«b.       Tom.    I   VMMb.   1     Tons. 

VoNseU,   1        Tom.        | 

18(11 

1303 

18(15 

1817 

1808 

1309 

1810 

1811 

1812 

1818 

1814 

1S15 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1826 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

19,711 
20,893 
2-2,a'il 
22,290 
22,646 
28,070 
23,703 
24,10(1 
24,107 
23,640 
24,418 
24,860 
28, 8M 
26,.'!48 
2.\507 
26,492 
26,374 
26,0.T« 
24,643 
24,642 
24,776 
24,'280 
24,626 
23,119 
24,(t9r. 
23,4'i3 
28,721 

2,038,2Ki 
2,167,863 
2,2S:;,442 
2,281,621 
2,324,819 
2,S(18,468 
2,426,014 
2,474,771 
2,473,799 
2,514,4S4 
2,6]  6,965 
2,6S1,276 
2,733,940 
2,634,'.i8« 
2,674,468 
2,666,396 
2,  ""•,59.1 
J,.'!6l),203 
•2,5 1(1..  144 
2,5)6,;6I 
2,8.W,5S7 
2,5M,6SS 
2,635,644 
2,4611,690 
2,518,191 
2,517,000 
2,681,810  ! 

1S31 

1832 

18.33 

1831 

1835 

1836 

18.37 

1338 

1339 

1840 

1841 

1342 

1848 

1844 

1848 

1846 

1847 

1843 

1340 

18.50 

1851 

1S62 

1883 

1864 

15BS 

1386. 

ia57 

18,942 
19,143 
19,158 
19,417 
13,737 
19,823 
19,930 
20,300 
21,0.17 
21,938 
22,747 
23,207 
2.1,162 
23,2.53 
':3,621 
24,0112 
24,409 
24,832 
25,071 
28,138 
2.\194 
25,228 
26,748 
2.%9S6 
2,^115 
25,3,15 
26,219 

2,190,457 
2,236,980 
2,283,8,W 
2,274,702 
2,320,067 
2,312,846 
2,296,227 
2,383,484 
2,5.11,006 
2,724,1(17 
2,386,1)26 
2,990,349 
2,957,437 
2,904,166 
8.073,M7 
8,143,323 
3,261,^53 
3,344,764 
8,427,140 
8,.504,94( 
3,601,729 
3,6:is,flfl4 
8,969,158 
4,184,686 
4,28'!,  908 
4,304,460 
4,491,377 

6118 
521 
Ml 
62£ 
6J8 
665 
600 
612 
6.T3 
671 
714 
747 
746 
703 
767 
76J 
791 
806 
S3t 
846 
819 
853 
860 
873 
333 
343 
878 

83,399 
35,330 
37,448 
87,653 
.19,6.16 
36,903 
37,294 
37,276 
89,630 
44,166 
48,773 
60,671 
50,144 
60,226 
49,643 
51,462 
53,668 
8!),045 
63,318 
60,1  Si) 
60,618 
61,274 
61,046 
04,066 
62,426 
62,496 
67,863 

4792 
4771 
4I1S6 
8080 
6211 
6433 
6601 
6697 
6078 
«30S 
0831 
6,361 
T088 
7804 
74'2» 
7729 
7783 
8034 
8188 
3804 
3201 
8!I16 
8701 
9101 
9744 
9316 
(".(91 

857,608 
8.56,203 
803,276 
403,745 
423,468 
442,897 
4.57,497 
469,342 
497,798 
848,276 
6T7,081 
B73,4.'iO 
531,806 
59.>,3J59 
B90,,331 
617,327 
644,603 
651,.T51 
668,157 
60f,S}^ 
669,741 
665,114 
734,218 
794  520 
901,219 
946,4,30 
973,147 

24,/42 
24,435 
24,335 
2,\0,55 
25,611 
25,320 
26,037 
26,609 
27,746 
28,|i63 
.10,0.V2 
:  1,816 
80,983 
81,820 
81,317 
32,499 
32,933 
88,672 
84,090 
84,2*3 
84,244 
84,402 
85,803 

.^^9.io 

8^692 
86,012 
87,08^ 

2,681,904 
2,618,068 
2,rt:i«,577 
2,716,100 
2,733,761 
■>,792,640 
2,791,018 
2,390,601 
3,01)3,433 
.1,311, '.18 
3,512,480 
.';,619,>iBn 
3,.5,S8,387 
3,637,231 
3,714,061 
8,317,112 
8,959,624 
4,082,160 
4,144,115 
4,232,962 
4,332,035 
4,424,393 
4,764,4^2 
6,(143,270 
5,250,6'i3 
8,31.',433 
5,531,a37 

These  tables  contain  an  account  of  the  number  of 
ships,  with  the  amount  of  their  tonnairt,  built  nnd  reg- 
istered in  each  year,  from  1801  to  18.77,  belonging  to 
the  British  empire,  the  colonics  Included,  and  of  tho 
number  and  amount  of  tonnage  existing  on  the  01  st 
of  December  in  each  year  during  that  period.  At  the 
present  tiini!  these  tables  have  a  very  special  Interest. 
In  1801,  1802,  and  1803,  the  quantity  of  shipping  built 
was  greater  than  In  any  three  years  up  to  1820  and  tlie 
two  succeeding  years ;  but  in  the  following  five  years, 


up  to  1832,  there  was  again  a  great  decline.  From 
that  time  there  was  a  slow  but  steady  increase,  hut 
with  considerable  fluctuations  down  to  1848,  tlie  last 
year  before  tho  repeal  of  the  Navigation  Laws.  Froin 
that  time  tho  increase  has  liecn  most  rapid,  tlie  quan- 
tity built  In  each  year  hoving  risen  from  227,028  tons 
in  1849  to  423,477  tons  In  1857.  The  repeal  of  the  Nav- 
igation I-aws  took  effeci  on  tho  1st  of  .lanuary,  1850. 
Including  1857,  we  have,  therefore,  had  eight  years' 
experience  under  that  law.     The  aggregate  amount 


ORE 


867 


ORE 


of  BHttih  uhlpiifng  hullt  dnrini;  that  period  hai  been 
2,775,898  tons,  at  •  yearly  nrerigo  of  846,!)87  tons ; 
while  In  the  eight  precedlnK  years  the  ships  ballt  were 
only  1,807,049  tons— a  yi^arly  average  of  226,8«1  tons. 
The  most  strlliin((  feature  In  these  tables  Is  the  sta- 
tionary character  exhlhlted  for  the  first  thirty  years. 
Tlio  second  table  shows  the  <|nantlty  of  shipping 
owned  In  each  year,  and  the  number  of  men  cmploye<l. 
In  IROl  the  tonnage  ownc<l  was  2,088,2oa  tons,  and 
the  men  employed  were  Hft,7<l5.  Notwithstanding 
the  long  war,  the  quantity  had  incrensvd  In  1810  only 
to  2,788,910  tons,  and  the  men  to  178,820.  From  that 
time.  In  spite  of  the  strict  monopoly  of  the  home  and 
colonial  trade  which  nur  shipping  enjoyed,  the  qnanti- 
ty  fell  year  by  year  until,  in  1826,  It  amounted  only  to 


2,6S8, 682  tons,  and  the  men  to  166,188;  and  It  was  not 
until  1885  that  the  quantity  of  shipping  and  the  num- 
ber of  men  employed  came  up  to  the  figures  of  1816. 
From  that  time  a  steady  increase  tools  place  until  1843, 
when  the  sliipptng  was  8,588,887  tons,  and  the  men 
218,077.  But  it  has  been  since  this  date  that  the  great 
increase  has  ensued.  In  fourteen  years  the  amount  of 
British  shipping  owned  has  risen  to  6,531 ,887  tons,  and 
the  number  of  men  employed  to  287,853,  on  the  81st  of 
December,  1867 ;  and  this  enormous  increase  has  taken 
place  in  spite  of  the  great  increase  of  foreign  tonnage 
employed  in  our  trade,  and  of  the  ■;  'at  number  of 
steamers,  which,  of  course,  are  fur  more  tiffcctive  for 
work  In  proportion  to  their  tonnage.— i.ORdtm  Econo- 
milt,  January,  1859. 


An  AnniiNT  nr  TUi  TnnnMiK,  iiisTiRMDisitraa  IlRiTisn  rBO.«  Fobkion,  amd  oivino  nm  total  or  bacd  (enrn  entkbid  In- 

WAItU   AND  ULKAKKD  UUTWAHII),  r(;H  TUI  YeAIW  1814  TO    1357  INULUSIVK,   AND  TUE  AOOBHIATE  TONHASI    FOB   TUB  SAVB 

Fkkiuim. 


Vans. 

Knl«r«l  Inwiird 

. 

CtaarailOu  w'.rd.                      | 

Total. 

Hriiifli, 

Kurolidi.    J 

Tl8«l. 

Brlllih. 

roreltD.     I 

Total.         1 

Drillili.        \ 

Koreiim- 

Total. 

Tw»«. 

~  --Xm 

Tirfii, 

Ton>. 

Toni. 

Tom. 

T.in.. 

Tom. 

isu. . . . 

l,lMfl,«T(» 

niMi,i>iii 

2,4111,180 

t,875,8M 

571,418 

2,447,208 

3,722,5^6 

1,137,929 

4,8(in,4!M 

181ft,... 

1,INI8,IMI 

fl(i«,2Tl 

2,0411,421 

2,105,070 

071,0110 

2,777,300 

4,0118,828 

1,327,961 

6,426,787 

mn.... 

i,uiia,wm 

(I17,MT 

2,2M,4«7 

1,1)87,704 

32!1,!)42 

2,317,730 

3,954,0»l 

647,519 

4,002,203 

\m.... 

2,iMO,«7ft 

401,7112 

2,IM2,4(I7 

2,24!),'.'0« 

«!IC,lfl4 

2,04.'),370 

4,499,881 

797,9.')0 

6,287,8.37 

IRIS.... 

2,4n7,7T« 

7«4,MI 

a,1fl2,21ift 

2,401,007 

071,842 

3,<I72,409 

4,858,840 

l,3-5,8f.3 

0,234,699 

1811).... 

2,413,018 

478,'«0 

2,Hni,2llll 

2,203,000 

401,405 

2,7rA056 

4,070,069 

969,026 

6,04)1,294 

18!iO. . . . 

2,270,400 

408,401 

2,07^»01 

2,2»7.fi08 

800,901 

2,59S,Ck54 

4,478,068 

799,892 

5,277,465 

ih;i..,. 

2,20U,8|» 

WA,\m 

2,0:10,2  in 

':     ;i.88!) 

3r>l,283 

2,6T.'),1.^2 

4,487,082 

717,080 

5,206,302 

1*.'2.... 

I,li«),ll27 

4AI/,iril 

2,1:12,77s 

.;ii,2flO 

4.^7,.142 

1,9911,802 

3,202,887 

926,693 

4,129,580 

1*2S.... 

l,74n,KM» 

r.82,)KHI 

2.»2.1,8frf> 

l,r^lo,»7fl 

503,571 

2,110,547 

8,287,835 

1,146,567 

4,434,402 

18M  ... 

1,7»7,IIHB 

7r/.l,(172 

2,000,701 

1,0r.7,27O 

740,729 

2,403,990 

3,451,360 

1,500,401 

4,970,760 

lmt>. . . . 

2,I4«,{II7 

iir/.i,:ii2 

11,102,021) 

1,7113,842 

90«,n«6 

2,099,903 

3,937,169 

l,8flf>,378 

6,802,637 

isao. . . , 

),tlR(l,iliin 

A;it,im 

2,044,740 

l,7a7,42r> 

092,440 

2,429,805 

3,llS8,(ir>5 

l,3S0,5,'i6 

5,074,011 

Wil.... 

2,08(1,8(18 

7(tl,8<V» 

2,838,702 

I,s87,ns2 

707,821 

2,056,503 

8,974,680 

1,519,086 

5,494,205 

1828. . . . 

2,<W4,llft7 

(IHt,A2n 

2,728,(177 

2,000,81)7 

008,118 

2,014,515 

4,100,754 

1,242,7.18 

^848,49^ 

18W. . . . 

2,184,Kt5 

7i»,mi» 

2,'«I4,838 

2,008,179 

7:10,250 

2,7!i3,42!» 

4,247,714 

1,440,663 

8,688,267 

ISM, . . , 

2,180,042 

7D8,828 

2,038,870 

2,102,147 

7f>S,3fl8 

2,800,615 

4,292,189 

1,517,196 

6,799,385 

IMl..,. 

2,nHT,!122 

874,Win 

3,241,027 

2,300,731 

89(1.061 

3,190,782 

4,009,063 

1,770,G.W 

6,438,709 

1882  ... 

2,l«H,|i*l 

fl!HI,07(i 

2,820,!iti0 

2,22!),2«(l 

O.'il.iiO 

2,880,492 

4,41N«49 

1,291,202 

6,700,461 

ii«i;i.... 

2,l8.'l,8|.i 

7tt2,(P8n 

2,1)4(1,8110 

^244,274 

7.'K8,fl()1 

8,002,876 

4,428,083 

1,520,686 

6,948,774 

Wi. , . . 

2,2U8,Wlli 

a'i8,iii)ri 

8,132,108 

■J,21)fl,326 

8f.2,827 

.3,149,152 

4,,W4,588 

1,080,732 

6,281,320 

laift,,.. 

2,442,7:14 

8flfl,mm 

3,300,724 

2,410,041 

90,'.,270 

8,.3-2.5,211 

4,802,075 

1,772,260 

0,034,935 

18:16... . 

2.Wlft,t7ll 

(IW.HWI 

3,41)4,372 

2,r,31.W7 

1,0.16,120 

8,r)«fl,B97 

6,0.37,060 

2,024,019 

7,001,069 

IKtT, , . . 

2,)tl7,llW 

l,00f.,MO 

3,r/i3,infl 

2,M7,227 

1,030,788 

3,1>S3,966 

5,104,893 

2,942,678 

7,207,071 

I8:t8. . . . 

2,78:s«s7 

1,211,(100 

3,mi7,0.'.1 

2,870,280 

1,222,803 

4,099,039 

5,661,628 

2,484,469 

8,096,092 

Il-iW. . . . 

3,llll,f).'jO 

l,33l,ll«fi 

4,433,0ir, 

8,01)0,011 

l,il99,090 

4,494,707 

6,198,201 

2,729,401 

8,927,722 

1*^10. . . . 

.1,l!)7,Ml 

l,4(10,2(t4 

4,rtf.7,7itn 

3,2»2,3M 

1,4RS,8SS 

4,781,872 

0,490,485 

2,949,182 

9,439,067 

1*41.... 

8,IWII,2lt 

1,201. ion 

4,002,310 

3,420,279 

I,;t30,sn2 

4,70»i,171 

6,790,490 

2,028,057 

9,418,547 

1812. . . . 

8,W4,72f> 

I,20f.,»0!l 

4,000,028 

8,370,270 

l,'Ji2,17fl 

4,027,446 

6,609,996 

2,467,479 

9,127,474 

1843. . . . 

»,ft4&,:i4U 

I,ll01,lifi0 

4,847,21)0 

3,636,833 

1,.341,4:!3 

4,977,200 

7,181,179 

2,043,383 

9,824,602 

1844... . 

3,(J47,4li;t 

1.402.1118 

B,Otl),flfll 

3,802,822 

l,444,:i40 

5,297,109 

7,.'.(10,2S5 

2,R40.494 

10,340,769 

1*1,%.  , . , 

4,3I0,IIIK> 

l,7;'li,07« 

fl,04r.,71S 

1,230,451 

1,790,130 

0,031,587 

8,540,090 

8,631,215 

12,077,305 

18411..,. 

4,2(t4,7II» 

l,8(«,282 

0,101,015 

4,808,410 

1,921,166 

6,314.571 

8,68);,148 

3.727,488 

12,415,586 

184T.... 

4,I»42,IIIH 

2,2r>!l,li!l» 

7,11)0,0311 

4,770.370 

2,312,793 

7,083,103 

9,712,404 

4,506,732 

14,279,196 

1818,,., 

>,Mn,f.;i3 

1,11(10,412 

o,rrtr),!)«i 

4,724,027 

2,060,054 

6,780,081 

9,289,660 

4,917,066 

13,300,020 

'<R|fl.  ,.. 

4,881,210 

2,0,'in,(«(0 

fl,l)11),!)()0 

4,78.'s42S 

2,299,0«0 

7,084,488 

9,069,038 

4,334,750 

14,004,888 

ISCiO,... 

4,7<KMTO 

«,4<SI,277 

7,100,470 

4,742,845 

2,002,243 

7,404,888 

9,442,544 

5,fl62,.'i20 

14,505,004 

18.M.... 

4,!>H8,38fl 

2,lKm,70H 

7,872,004 

4,882,400 

8,225,614 

8,108,104 

9,820,870 

6,159,322 

15,980,198 

1*2.... 

4,U:t4,8iU) 

2,(IW.f.*» 

7,887,447 

5,061,100 

3,191,.S96 

8,242,702 

9,986,909 

0,144,180 

16,130,140 

iwi:), , . , 

r.,(W,,ll4!l 

«,887,7(i:i 

^n43,100 

5,212,1)80 

4,234,124 

9,447,104 

10,268,323 

8,121,887 

19,390,210 

^•tyl.... 

r.,S74.f)ftl 

B,780,i'lft 

1),  10 1,300 

5,870,208 

4,i:t7,428 

9,607,721 

10,744,810 

7,924,238 

18,609,087 

ISM, . . . 

ft,27«,7!l2 

»,fl8(l,4.17 

8,0M,2iin 

^,«4^«4o 

8,889,31)1 

9,538,231 

10,919,733 

7,569,788 

18,489,470 

ISfitt,... 

rt,»!io,7ir> 

4,102,4111 

io,rioa,i;i4 

0,555,060 

4,480,869 

11,036,915 

12,945,771 

8,648,278 

21,689,049 

1*)T,... 

u,8^'l,7ll^ 

4,1)21,4114 

11,47M!H) 

0,840,402 

4,803,101 

11,703,593 

13,694,107 

9,4S4,066 

23,178,793 

From 

ific,  hut 
lie  Inst 

From 

e  quiiu- 

i2H  tons 

ic  Nftv- 

,  1850. 

years' 
imount 


ItETtMlNB'  HIIOWIMK   Tllr  Tc>T»l,    NltMim   OK    HamSII    BKOISTKBED  VESSUB   UMPLOTSP  IS    TBAmNG   IW,    FROM,   AND  TO  GbKAT 
illllTAIN   ANII  IHKI.AIIII,  18  TIIC,  YkAIM    18.M,  18,M,  1855,  1860,  ANO   1857,  WITH  TIIEIB  TONNAOF.  AND  NUMIJEB  OF  MEM. 


18f>3  . . , 
18f4  . , 
l.W)  . . 

18.56.. 
1867.. 


MI'lllll  Vawla. 


Nnnibor  of      «.„„.,„ 


17,507 
10,809 
17,074 
18,419 
18,429 


3,511,827 
3,510.450 
H,7()I,214 
3,H'W,022 
8,480,119 


Numtiar  of 
Mm, 


in5,(NKI 
140,523 
147,288 
151,080 
•.M,4S4 


Bleam  Vaanela.  * 


NfltiilMtr  af 
Vinelt. 

039 

t>38 

7r4 
«fii 

899 


TonDagfl. 


218.200 
212,0:17 
28S,9.')fl 
B31,0,'>5 
831,.3fl8 


Number  of 
Men, 


17,619 
1.^894 
21,249 
22,838 
24,953 


Total  Sailing  Vaaiela  and  Stoaniara  togathar. 


Nnmbar  of 
Vesiela, 


18,206 
17,407 
17,828 
19,270 
10,328 


Tonoaga. 


3,730,087 
3,729,093 
3,990,170 
4,156,077 
4,211,482 


Numbar  of  Mao  am. 

ployed,  ezrhuiva  of 

Maitera. 


172,625 
102,410 
168,637 
173,918 
176,887 


*  Itlvor  alcnmen  are  not  incluiled  in  this  return. 


If  gooda  bo  roniovod  from  any  ship,  quay,  wharf,  or 
otiicr  place,  previous  to  the  examination  thereof  by  the 
proper  officer  of  the  customs,  iiiiloss  under  the  core  or 
autliority  of  such  oDli'cr  j  or  If  goods  entered  to  bo 
wiirchouseil,  or  re-war«hnnsed,  shall  bo  carried  Info 
the  warehouse,  unless  with  tho  autllnrlty  or  under  the 
cnre  of  the  proper  ofllror,  and  In  such  manner,  by  such 
persons,  wi'liiii  such  time,  and  by  auch  mads  or  ways 
as  the  olHcar  shall  direct,  such  goods  shall  bo  forfeited. 


All  goods  warehoused  shall  bo  deposited  in  the  pack- 
ages in  which  they  shall  have  been  imported,  except 
such  goods  ns  nro  permitted  to  be  sliippod*  on  tho 
quay,  or  bulked,  sorted,  lotted,  packed,  or  repacked 
in  the  warehouse  after  the  landing  thereof,  In  which 
case  tliey  shall  be  deposited  in  tho  packages  iu  whii-h 
thcv  shall  bo  whon  the  account  thereof  is  taken  by  the 


'  'I'ho  temporary  transfer  of  gouds  from  one  package  to 
anolller. 


ORE 


808 


GRB 


proper  officer ;  end  if  auch  goods  are  not  ao  deposited, 
or  if  any  alteration  shall  afterward  be  made  in  them, 
or  in  the  packing  thereof  in  the  warehouse,  or  if  they 
shall  be  removed  without  the  presence  or  sanction  of 
tho  proper  officer,  except  for  delivering  under  the 
proper  warrant,  order,  or  anthority  for  that  purpose, 
they  shall  be  forfeited. 

AH  goods  deposited  in  warehouses  shall  be  cleared, 
either  for  home  use  or  exportation,  at  the  expiration 
o'  Ave  years  from  the  date  of  warehousing,  or  within 
such  further  period  and  in  such  cases  as  the  Commis- 
sioners of  the  Treasury  shall  direct,  unless  the  owner 
or  proprietor  of  such  goods  be  desirous  of  re-ware- 
housing them ;  in  which  case  they  shall  be  examined 
by  tho  proper  officers,  and  the  duties  due  on  any  defi- 
ciencies or  difference  l)etween  the  quantity  ascertained 
on  landing  and  the  quantity  then  found  to  exist,  sub- 
ject to  such  allowances  as  are  by  law  permitted  In  re- 
spect thereof,  together  with  the  necessary  expense 
attendant  thereon,  shall  be  paid  down,  and  the  quan- 
tity so  found  shall  be  re-warehoused  in  the  name  of  the 
then  owner  or  proprietor  tjiereof,  in  the  same  manner 
as  on  first  importation. 

If  any  warehoused  goods  shall  not  be  duly  cleared, 
exported,  or  re-warehoused,  and  the  duties  due  on  the 
deAciencies  shall  not  he  paid  down  at  the  expiration  of 
five  years  from  the  previous  entry  and  warehousing, 
or  within  such  further  period  as  shall  be  directed,  the 
same,  if  worth  the  duty,  after  one  month's  notice  to 
tho  warehouse-keeper,  shall,  with  all  convenient  speed, 
he  so'd  either  for  home  use  or  exportation,  with  or 
without  tht!  consent  of  the  warehouse-keeper,  and  the 
proceeds  thereof  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  du- 
ties, warehouse  rent,  and  charges,  and  the  surplus,  If 
any,  be  p»ld  to  tho  owner  or  proprietor,  if  known ;  but 
If  he  can  not  he  found,  the  surplus  shall  be  carried  to 
the  crown's  account,  to  aliide  the  claim  of  such  party  on 
his  appearing  and  making  it  good ;  and  if  such  goods  \>e 
not  worth  the  duty,  then,  after  one  month's  notice,  the 
same  may  be  exported  or  destroyed,  with  or  without 
the  concurrence  of  tlie  owner  thereof,  or  the  proprietor 
of  the  warehouse,  as  the  commissioners  shall  see  fit ; 
and  the  duties  due  upon  any  deficiencies  not  allowed 
by  law  shall  be  paid  by  the  proprietor  of  the  ware- 
house. 

The  commissioners  of  customs  may  ]>ermit  any 
goods  to  be  taken  out  of  the  warehouse  without  pay- 
ment of  duty,  for  such  purpose  or  for  such  period  as 
to  them  shall  appear  expedient,  and  In  such  quanti- 
ties, and  under  such  regulations  and  restrictions,  and 
with  such  security,  by  l)ond,  for  the  due  return  there- 
of or  the  payment  of  the  duties,  as  they  may  direct. 
No  warehoused  goods  shtiU  b<>  taken  or  deUvered  from 
the  warehouse,  except  upon  due  eMry  for  exportation, 
under  tho  care  of  the  proper  officers,  or  upon  due  en- 
tr^-  and  payment  of  the  full  duties  for  home  use,  ex- 
cept goods  deUvered  into  the  charge  of  the  searchers 
to  be  slilpped  as  stores.  In  such  quantities  as  the  col- 
lector or  comptroller  shall  allow,  sutijcct  to  the  regu- 
lations of  the  commissioners. 

Upon  the  eIlt'-^■  of  goods  to  be  cleared  from  the 
warehouse  forhi  .iie  vtre,  tlie  person  entering  the  same 
shall  deliver  u  bill  of  entry  and  duplicates  thereof,  in 
like  manner  and  form,  and  containing  the  same  par- 
ticulars, as  are  herein  before  required  on  the  entry  of 
goods  to  be  delivered  for  home  use  on  the  landing 
thereof,  as  far  as  the  same  may  bo  applicable,  and 
shall  pay  down  to  the  proper  officer  of  tho  customs 
the  full  duties  thereon,  not  l>elng  less  In  amount  than 
according  to  the  account  of  the  quantity  taken  by  the 
proper  officer  on  the  first  entry,  except  as  to  the  fol- 
lowing goods,  vi<..  tobacco,  wine,  spirits,  figs,  cur- 
rants, raisins,  and  .-<ii^ar;  the  duties  whereon,  when 
cleared  bom  the  warehouse  for  home  use,  shall  be 
charged  upon  the  quantity  ascertained  by  weight, 
meainre,  or  strength,  at  the  time  of  actual  delivery 
tlMNoi',  uUm  thm  if  nuontble  ground  to  anppoN 


that  any  portion  of  the  deficiency  between  the  weight 
ascertained  on  landing  and  first  examination,  and  that 
ascertained  at  the  time  of  actual  delivery,  has  been 
caused  by  illegal  or  improper  means ;  in  which  case, 
the  proper  officer  of  customs  shall  make  such  allow- 
ances only  for  loss  as  he  may  consider  fairly  to  have 
arisen  ft^m  natural  evaporation  or  other  legitimate 
cause.  When  any  deficiency  occurs  in  goods  charge- 
able to  pay  duty  according  to  value,  the  value  thereof 
shall  be  estimated,  as  nearly  as  conveniently  may  be, 
by  the  officers  of  customs,  according  to  the  market 
price  of  the  like  sort  of  goods.  Mo  duty  shiill  be 
charged  in  respect  of  any  deficiency  in  goods  entered 
and. cleared  from  the  warehouse  for  exportation,  un- 
less the  officers  of  customs  have  reasonable  ground  to 
suppose  that  such  deficiency  or  part  thereof  has  arisen 
from  illegal  abstraction. 

No  entry  for  home  consumption,  from  and  after  the 
passing  of  this  act  (customs  consolidation  act,  lf>  and 
17  Vict.,  chap.  107),  shall  be  received  for  any  timber 
or  wood  goo(ls  In  bond,  for  a  less  quantity,  at  any  one 
time,  than  5  loads,  unless  such  wood  goods  shall  be 
delivered  by  tale,  in  which  case  the  entrj'  may  be 
passed  for  any  quantity  not  less  than  240  pieces  ;  and 
no  less  quantity  shall  be  delivered  In  virtue  of  any 
such  entry,  at  any  one  time,  than  1  load  of  such  tim- 
ber or  wood  goods,  or  than  90  pieces,  if  delivered  bj' 
tule.  No  pack  or  parcel  of  playing-cards  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom  shall  be  sold  or  kept  for  sale, 
without  being  separately  inclosed  In  a  wrapper  pro- 
vided by  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue,  with 
such  device  thereon  as  they  may  direct,  and  securely 
fastened,  so  that  such  wrapper  can  not  be  opened  with- 
out being  destroyed ;  and  persons  selling  or  offering 
for  sale  any  pack  or  parcel  of  playing-cards  not  separ- 
ately inclosed,  etc.,  shall  he  liable  to  a  penalty  of  £10 
($50),  and  the  goods  to  seizure. 

The  first  and  immediate  effect  of  these  lilwral  re- 
forms, introduced  by  the  acts  and  regulations  Just 
cited,  and  briefly  condensed  so  far  as  they  relate  to 
foreign  commerce.  Is,  that  a  large  bulk  of  our  trade 
with  France  is  now  caaried  on  by  means  of  traniit 
through  English  ports.  This  branch  of  trade  in  1851 
increased  the  commerce  and  shipping  of  England  to 
the  exten  m"  '»ii,41.9,195  (£2,282,6,19),  and  in  18.52  to 
tho  extern  .)t  ■?!  2,822,145  (£2,564,429).*  The  in- 
crease in  Bruitii  tonnage  in  4  years  after  the  passage 
of  the  act  (12  and  13  Victoria,  chap.  29),  was  as  high 
as  700,000  tons,  and  the  number  of  sailors  was  aug- 
mented to  the  amount  of  at  least  20,000.  Thus  Great 
Britain  herself  derived  the  first  fruits  of  a  policy  so 
comprehensive  and  liberal.  The  only  restriction — if 
we  except  her  tariff  duties  which  bear  with  special 
rigor  upon  one  of  our  leading  staplesf — which  the  act 
of  1849  has  left  untouched,  was  that  which  related  to 
the  coasting  trade  of  Great  Britain  an'',  her  colonial 
dominions. 

Tn  1864  (March  16),  Lord  Stanley  Introduced  in  the 
House  of  I^iords  his  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  regula- 
tions which  then  governed  the  coasting  trade  of  Groat 
Britain.  He  was  of  opinion  that  it  would  be  a  narrow 
and  foolish  course  of  reasoning,'  to  make  tho  commerce 
of  Great  Britain  In  any  way  dependent  on  the  fears  or 
inexperience  of  other  nations.'  "  We  should,"  he  re- 
marked, "goon  fearlessly  and  Independently  In  our 
course  of  Improvement,  and  show  our  confidence  In 
the  principles  we  advocated  by  the  sincerity  and  ener- 
gy with  which  we  enforced  them.  By  the  repeal  of 
tha  laws  of  this  country  with  reference  to  our  coast- 
ing trade,  there  was  no  doubt  that  America  would, 
in  time,  see  that  it  was  to  her  advantage  to  hold  out 
to  us  the  same  l>eneflts  we  extended  to  her,  and  other 
countr<i<-.  viold  f.o  the  same.     With  regard  tn  tho 


*  ciK  !.h  dcUvot?  1  by  Mr.  Cardvell  to  the  House  of  Com- 

p-  i.l«,  ;'af:fl;  ry  ,h'.,  18M. 

,  Boi.  V.cr^iMi-,:' '  •  Tariib,  Great  Britain,  artlola  TWoom, 


GRB 


Nt 


GRE 


in  the 
regula- 
)f  Great 
narrow 
mmerce 
fears  or 
he  re- 
in our 
ience  in 
id  ener- 
peal  of 
r  coast- 
irould, 
lold  out 
id  other 
to  tho 

of  Com- 
TbtaoM. 


bill,  he  had  no  doubt  It  would  evratwilly  tm  tmnd  Ui 
contribute,  in  mot  important  renpectt,  to  (Im)  iMUMflt 
and  advantage  of  all  claMeH  (uiniteiteit  with,  tit  Alt' 
pendent  in  any  way  on,  the  sbtppliiK  lnt«rH»tii." 

The  preceding  extract  ia  given  tiit  Um  [lurftiiim  lit 
exhibiting  the  motivea  and  viewa  of  ItrilUb  fiikUimmn 
In  admitting  foreign  vesaeU  to  th«  (!0««t(ntf  trw<1«  i4 
European  ports  of  Great  Britain,  TIm  bill  tiMt  with 
but  little  serious  opposition ;  and  by  tJM  tu^  »l\\\t\»i\ 
17  Victoria,  chapter  6,  foreign  sblp*  «ra  ll4lMitt«il  Ui 
the  coasting  trade,  subject,  as  to  »Uir»»  fur  tli«  MM) 
of  their  crews,  to  the  same  laws  and  r>igulitti<fM<i  M 
British  ships.  The  regulations  fur  tlliit  ttiuU  Htn  tirm 
scribed  in  sections  1,  2,  S,  and  4  of  tba  lu.'t,  'Chn  ftnt 
section  empowers  her  majesty  to  eiwrcliM  In  r«)i|MM!( 
of  ships  and  merchandise  employed  and  eimviiym  In 
the  coasting  trade,  lilce  powers  as  are  eimfiitrm  Ut  tit- 
spect  of  foreign  ships  and  merchandi>>a  «iM|i|j)y<<it  *n(1 
convoyed  in  the  over-sea  trade,  Hecti'in  tuu'.m>A  utth* 
jects  foreign  ships  engaged  in  the  umstiiiK  tr«w1«,  In 
respect  uf  stores  and  as  to  other  custuiU'lfmiM  r»^u\^ 
tions,  to  the  same  laws  to  which  liritinb  »M\i»,  wlictl 
so  employed,  are  now  Bul)Ject.  Hactiun  third  mimWmt 
foreign  with  British  ships  as  to  all  du£s,  dtttM'S,  Mini 
charges  whatever,  the  employment  of  pihtt",  mu\  «»  Ui 
all  restrictions  or  extra  charges  whatovar  uf  |(riv«t« 
persons  or  bodies  corjiorate.  Hoctiuii  fourth  NUhJActi* 
foreign  steam-vessels,  carrying  pa«ii«ii{[;srs  In  tin* 
coasting  trade,  to  tho  provisions  of  tiM  «it«AnMMVit(/t' 
tion  act.  The  fuliowing  is  a  summary  of  th«  fiAmn 
applicable  to  British  vessels  engaged  in  tlw  *!OHfillHf( 
trade,  and,  by  virtue  of  the  act  uliuvs  cit<i4,  »\mi  Ut 
foreign  vesselii  which  may  avail  tliaiMMlVAS  ut  tiMt 
privileges  granted  by  the  act : 

"  All  trade  by  sea  from  one  part  of  tlw  ktngdutn  Ui 
any  other  part  thereof  shall  ho  deenii!4  bi  \m  n  unutU 
ing  trade  and  all  ships  employed  tliorvin  ahull  \m 
deemed  coasting  ships ;  and  if  doubt  bhull  »l  Any  tfmA 
arise  as  to  what  or  to  or  ttim\  what  part"  of  tint  umiA- 
shall  be  deemed  a  passage  by  sea,  the  Connnlai«i(nHtra  lit 
the  Treasury  may  determine  in  what  cases  th«  triwbt  by 
water  from  one  place  to  another  in  tlw  l.'nilMii  Kln)(' 
dom  shall  or  shall  not  be  deemed  a  trade  l)y  m»," 

Coatting  ihipi  confined  to  coaitiny  Mi/aye,--tlu  aiHhitl 
shall  be  laden  on  board  any  ship  in  tlis  IJnltwl  KUlW 
dom,  to  be  carried  coastwise  until  all  giKxIa  \millnUt 
in  such  ship  from  parts  l)eyond  the  aeaa  almll  h»vn 
been  unladen ;  and  if  any  goods  shall  be  titkon  Uitii 
or  put  out  of  any  coasting  ship  at  sea  or  nvnr  tint  imn, 
or  any  such  ship  deviate  from  her  voyNgit  uuUnii 
forced  by  unavoidable  clrcumstauces,  aitd  in  «ith(tr 
case,  if  the  master  shall  not  declare  tlui  saina  In  writ* 
ing,  under  his  band,  to  the  collector  or  ('iHn|itriilh'r  Mt 
the  i)ort  where  such  ship  shall  afterward  lirtt  «rriv*i, 
he  shall  forfeit  £100  (|5U0). 

Times  and  placet  for  landiiu/  iiiul  ihii>jHny,^t  gninl* 
shall  be  unshipped  from  any  sliip  arriving  I'liuatwiia, 
or  be  'shipped  or  water-borne  to  Iw  ahip|w4  on  Hun- 
days  or  holidays  to  \m  carried  coastwise,  or  unUa*  In 
the  presence  or  with  the  authority  of  tha  \m)Wf  uffi* 
cer  of  the  customs,  or  unless  at  tite  timas  «im(  |ilH<'«a 
appointed,  the  same  shall  be  forfeited,  an4  tha  nwalar 
of  tlie  ship  shall  forfeit  .€50  (it25()). 

Af otter  to  keep  a  cargo-book,  aiul  pe.miltUi  fiir  /iiIm 
entriet. — The  master  of  every  coasting  ship  anitll  lt<«<(i 
a  cargo-book,  stating  the  lutmes  of  tha  ship,  tlia  niila- 
ter,  the  port  to  which  she  belongs,  uml,  on  uiU'.U  voy. 
age,  of  the  port  to  which  she  is  bound  i  nnii  at  itwry 
port  of  lading,  an  account  of  all  gixxla  taknn  on  iMxtrfi, 
stating  the  descriptions  of  the  packages,  tha  ijnontl' 
ties  and  descriptions  of  the  goods,  whatltar  |M<'ki«l  iir 
stowed  loose,  the  names  of  the  ahipiwrs  and  mm- 
signees,  so  far  as  such  particulars  are  known,  «tn<t  m 
uvjry  nort  of  discharge  shall  note  the  days  on  which 
any  are  delivered,  and  the  times  uf  il«p«rtu'«|  mui 
such  master  shall  produce  such  hook  on  daw«n4  of 
■ny  officer  of  cuatonu,  who  may  make  »ny  r«nwrk 


t1i«r«ln )  Md  If,  upon  examination,  any  package  en- 
t«rw1  In  the  cargo-book  as  containing  foreign  goods 
shall  Im  foimd  not  to  contain  such  goods,  that  pack- 
af(fi.  with  Its  oontents,  shall  be  forfeited;  or  if  any 
IMH'iinge  shall  be  found  to  ccntatn  foreign  goods  not 
«nt«rnd  In  auoh  book,  such  goods  shall  be  forfeited  ; 
and  If  the  master  shall  fail  to  keep  such  cargo-book. 
If  In  prn<1uc«  it,  or  If  at  any  time  there  be  found  on 
Ixmrd  goods  not  entered  in  such  book  as  laden,  or  any 
HiunU  not  noted  as  delivered,  be  not  on  board,  the 
m«»l«r  shall  forfeit  £20  ($100). 

Afitovnl  previimt  to  departure  to  be  delivered  to  col- 
tmltir,  and  commiiiionert  may  grant  general  traiuiret. — 
ll«for«  any  coasting  ship  shall  depart  from  the  port 
of  lading,  an  account,  in  duplicate,  signed  by  the 
master,  shall  be  delivered  to  the  collector  or  comj)- 
(riiller,  and  he  shall  retain  the  duplicate,  and  return 
thfi  original,  dated  and  signed  by  him,  and  such  ac- 
I'lrtmt  shall  lie  the  clearance  of  the  ship  for  the  voy- 
»!(•),  and  the  Iraniire  (pass)  for  the  goods  expressed 
InKTcIn  t  and  if  any  such  account  be  false,  the  master 
shall  ffrrfelt  £20  (tlOO). 

t'rovlded  that  the  Commissioners  of  Customs,  when- 
ev«r  It  ahnll  appear  expedient,  ma}'  permit  general 
Irmtirm  to  lie  given  for  the  lading  and  clearance,  and 
tilt  the  entry  and  unlading  of  any  coasting  ship  and 
KikhIs, 

Siillre  o/nrriral,  excite  goodt  andforfeiture. — With- 
in ii  hinira  after  the  arrival  of  any  coasting  ship  at 
lh«  p<rrt  of  discharge,  and  before  any  goods  be  un- 
liMl«n,  the  Irantire,  with  the  name  of  the  place  where 
the  lading  Is  to  be  discharged  noted  thereon,  shall  be 
delivered  to  the  collector  or  comptroller,  who  shall 
note  therecm  the  date  of  delivery ;  and  if  any  goods 
Mi  hoard  be  subject  to  any  duty  of  excise,  the  same 
ahall  not  lie  unladen  without  the  authority  or  permis- 
niim  iif  the  proper  officer  of  excise;  if  any  goods  shall 
h«  laden  or  unladen  contrary  to  any  act  relating  to 
the  cnstmna,  such  goods  shall  be  forfeited. 

OJ/tceri  maji  go  on  board  and  examine  any  coatting 
Mp, — Any  officer  of  customs  may  go  on  board  and 
mMiM  any  coasting  ship,  and  examine  all  goods  on 
iNmril,  and  all  goods  then  lading  or  unlading,  and  de- 
mand nil  documents  which  ought  to  be  on  board  such 
•hlpt  nnd  the  collector  or  comptroller  may  require 
that  such  documents  shall  be  brought  to  him  for  in- 
SMctlon  I  and  the  master  refusing  to  produce  such 
dimnments  on  demand,  or  to  bring  the  same  to  the  col- 
\m'Uit  lit  comptroller  when  requited,  shall  forfeit  £20 
(•100;, 

Kremplioiui  from  coasting  regulations. — Steum  v^s- 
aela  «nd  aalling  vessels  employed  in  the  conveyavice 
lit  passengers  and  their  baggage  coastwise,  are  .o  'le 
|ila««d  precisely  on  the  same  footing,  and  in  n.'ither 
I'ltm  are  the  baggage  and  effects  of  passengers  to  Ua 
sdhjected  to  coast  regulations,  or  the  vessels  to  ton- 
nuKK  duty  t  and  all  articles  of  apparel  and  hbusehold 
furniture,  ll(|Uor!>.  and  provisions,  taken  by  passen- 
gers fi;r  tliclr  priviite  use,  or  small  quantities  of  shop 
UimiU  taken  by  tradesmen,  passengers  on  board  such 
tcaaela,  are  to  lie  considered  as  baggage,  and  exempt 
ttiim  coast  regulations ;  as  are  also  exempt  packages, 
live  llsh,  chipplnga  of  granite,  cobble  stones,  whin 
nUilUM,  help,  Kentish  rag  stones,  flints  picked  off  land, 
pebbles,  gravel,  and  chalk,  faggots  or  bavins  for  bak- 
ers' Mse,  hay,  straw,  fresh  meat,  soap,  ashes  for  ma- 
nure, ('4ial-«shfls,  iron-stone,  and  all  stone  quarried  in 
the  country,  hones  for  manure,  brinks  and  British 
tiles,  slates,  native  timber,  and  wood  fur  pit-props  and 
aleejiefa,  also  china  clay.  It  is  not  known  positively 
bow  in»ny  nations  have  so  far  reciprocated  the  coast- 
ftiK  trade  tirivtieges  thus  granted  by  Great  Britain  te 
foreign  nations.  On  the  6th  day  of  February,  1865, 
'I  Mwany  entered  into  a  convention  with  Great  Brit- 
ain for  Ihnt  purpose.  The  first  article  of  this  treaty 
stllitilates  that  the  subjects  and  ships  of  each  of  the 
Mifh  Mrtitracting  parties  shall  enjoy  in  the  dominions 


m 


ORB 


610 


GRB 


and  torritoriei  of  the  other  thp  same  tighti  with  re- 
spect to  the  coarting  trade  and  shall  be  treated  in 
every  case  with  roi;anl  to  that  trade  in  the  same  man- 
ner aa  native  lahjects  and  national  vetsela.  A  sim- 
ilar treaty  was  negotiated  with  Sardinia,  March  22d, 
1856.  So  long,  however,  as  the  restrictioi.  s  with 
respect  to  the  colonial  coasting  trade  contmue  in  force, 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  great  commer- 
cial niitlons  of  the  wc-ld  will  \te  disiwsed  to  abolish  or 
relax  their  present  coasting  trade  regulations.  A« 
respects  tlie  United  States,  there  would  b«  no  equiva- 
lent whatever. 

The  fffeet  of  Ae  act  of  1854,  opening  the  coarting 
trade  of  Great  Britain  to  foreign  oe/iM/*.— During  the 
month  ending  July  6th,  1852,  the  tonnage  entered 
ipward  (in  all  British  Eutopean  ports),  in  the  coasting 
trade  was  I,044,8C2  tons.  For  the  same  month  in 
1858,  it  reached  1,097,472  tons,  end  in  the  correspond- 
ing month  of  1854,  it  was  1,009,884  tons.  The  clear- 
ances outward  (in  the  salne  trade),  for  July,  1852, 
were  1,181,561  tons)  for  July,  ]8.'i8,  1,196,188;  and 
tor  the  same  month  in  1854,  1,1!j9,513.  With  but  one 
or  two  exceptions,  the  whole  of  the  tonnage  giveu 
above  was  British ;  a  fact  which  a  comparison  of  the 
figures  representing  this  trade  during  the  same  month 
In  8  consecutive  years,  as  given  in  the  British  official 
returns  of  tmdo,  will  at  once  exiiibit. 

The  following  condensed  summary  will  explain  the 
regulations  which  must  be  complied  with  by  every 
vessel,  from  the  i>eriod  of  arrival  in  port  until  her 
discharge  is  completed ;  and  with  respect  to  exporta- 
tions,  the  necessary  proceedings  fVom  the  entry  out- 
ward until  the  vessel's  final  clearance,  will  alsc  be 
indicated.  They  are  presented  son:ewhat  at  length, 
so  that  a  comparison  betireen  them  and  tne  United 
Ststes'  custom-house  regulations  and  laws  may  be  the 
mote  easily  made. 

Importation,  as  legally  defined,  takes  place  imme- 
I'iately  the  importing  ship  comes  within  the  limits 
of  the  ]>ort,  and  the  "time  of  a  ship's  arrival"  is  that 
at  which  the  report  thereof  shall  or  ought  to  have  been 
made.  Exportation  is,  in  like  manner,  determined  to 
be'the  time  at  which  goods  shall  Im  shipped  on  board 
an  export  vessel ;  and  final  clearance,  tbe  time  of  her 
departure.  Tho  master  of  every  merchant  vessel, 
within  24  hours  of  entering  tlio  port  of  arrival,  is 
bound,  under  a  penalty  of  £100  ($500),  to  report  his 
cargo  tn  the  chief  ofHcer  of  customs.  The  chief  officer 
of  any  ship  in  commission  from  her  majesty  or  any 
foreign  State,  having  foreign  gooda  on  board,  is  re- 
quired, in  like  manner,  to  deliver  an  account  in  writ- 
ing under  his  hand,  and  to  tho  best  of  his  knowledge, 
of  the  description  and  particulars  of  such  goods.  Be- 
fore, however,  the  master  is  allowed  to  report,  he  must 
declare  before  some  person  duly  authorized  by  the 
postmaster-general,  that  he  has  deliv>-red  at  the  post- 
office  all  letters  that  were  on  l>oard  his  ship.  And, 
likewise  he  must,  under  a  penalty  of  £20  ($100),  and 
the  further  snm  of  £10  for  each  alien  not  included  in 
the  dsclamtwn,  truly  declare  to  the  number  of  aliens 
on  lioard,  or  landed  from  his  ship.  At  the  time  of 
making  bii*  rtpoit,  the  master  is  to  deliver,  if  re- 
quired, to  the  collector  or  comptroller,  the  bill  of 
lading,  or  a  copy  thereof,  for  every  part  of  the  cargo, 
and  to  answer  snch  questions  as  shall  be  put  to  him, 
as  to  the  ship,  cargo,  crew,  and  voyage.  The  master, 
officer,  crew,  or  passengers  retaining  letters  after  the 
delivery  of  the  ship's  letters  at  the  post-office,  shall 
forfeit  £5  ($25)  for  each  letter;  and  fir  detaining 
letters  alter  demand  by  the  officer  of  customs  or  per- 
son authorised  by  tbe  postmaster-general,  £10  ($50) 
each. 

So  soon  as  a  vessel  has  reported,  the  importers, 
a^nts,  or  consignees  of  the  cargo,  having  been  ad- 
vifeU  by  receipt  of  bills  of  lading,  or  other  iatimation, 
may  each  enter  their  several  goods.  A  LiMtude  of  14 
days  ia  allowed  by  law  for  this  purpose ;  bt  t,  in  order 


to  clear  the  vestal  more  tpeedilg,  ,|((ht  entries  nra  pwi 
mitted  to  the  master  or  owiu-r  of  uriy  ship  lying  alung- 
aide  the  legal  quays,  or  sulferaucv  wluirvoa,  south  of 
the  Thames  from  London  bridge  eastward  to  Ifi.ck- 
head— the  reguUtlons  and  kigaT  provisions  given  In 
the  summary  ara  those  that  aie  fulidw«ri  at  tbe  |iort  of 
London,  but  the  general  re^ulatlous  are  the  same  nt 
other  ports — und^r  such  general  il4>ii;:i'iptliin  as  Is  con- 
tained in  the  report,  fur  any  giKxIi)  lliut  nlmll  not  liaVk 
lieen  entered  by  the  owners  tlmreuf  withbi  fnrty*«l({ht 
hours  from  the  day  of  tbe  r«|Hirt  ''iir  sarlhir,  If  u  briefer 
limit  cf  time  be  set  forth  in  the  bill  i/f  iadlnf;;,  uinn 
condition  that  perfect  entry  be  uuiila  by  tho  proprietor 
within  one  month  from  tlis  iUt«  nf  landing,  (ioods  so 
circumstanced  are  only  IbtbU  to  wii/ur*  from  Inaccu- 
racy of  '3ntr}'  after  tlie  bi|M«  of  •  mulitli.  When  u 
value  is  required  to  be  stutvil,  tba  Importer  or  bis  ax'^t 
is  to  subscribe  a  declaration  vvrlfyhig  «U(ili  value; 
iind  false  dculurutions  remler  the  party  making  iliem 
liaUe  to  :»  pendty  of  JiW)  (♦&00). 

The  foUuwing  tibnlar  stattiuieiit  exlilblts  tbo  pott 
charges  at  tbe  principal  |)orts  of  KngUnd,  Hcotland, 
and  Ireland,  condensed  from  ofUcUl  authorities  i 
Ijonr  Dtrm. 


NiDiM  and  nutnlMr  ol 
llfbu. 


8«llly 

Eddvatone 

Mllfiri! 

I'ortlaiul 

St.  B«CB 

Fuolness 

Csskets 

Nore 

W.ill 

FIstholm 

Lizard 

Nvcdics  &  Hurst. . 

Offers 

Halsbro' 

iQooilwln 

Sunk 

[Klsmbro' 

jSouth  Slack 

[Fern 

[Burnham 


jLowestoft. . 
Alrt 


Lundy 

Spurn  

{Lldeford  Bar., 

Bardfcy 

I'sk 

Lynn  Well... 
Boacby  Uood. 

raldy 

Nssh 

Halsbro' 

North  end 

South  Sand 

Head 

Forelands. 

Falmouth  harbor, . 


$0  tM  pervesMi, 
0  «       " 
0  24       » 
0  24       •• 

0  UOIprr'lon.. 


INHllfl)  nn4  farwin 
|ir1vti«f«il  f  •MffU 
((C»r  Ma. 

..((Tontnurton. 
. ,'  «  <il 
,,\t)0\       " 
..  0  01 
I)  04 
..I  0<NI| 


Vr-' 


0  IK   ver  vtmtfi , . ,'  0  "I 

0  'U    per  UK)  tons.  tO  ti  tier  100  trm 

u  uii  pur  Ion i>  (mi  pet  ton, 


0  !M  iisr  viW'Ol. 
0  4H  •■ 
0  2t  '■ 
0  24  »  ,. 
0  0«lp«rtim,.., 
0  24  per  yvim\, 
0  iio|  p«r  Ijjii,,. 
0  00*     " 

0  iiui    »      , , , 

0V'\      •'         ,,, 
0  Vi   p»r  vtiMtil,  st 
llrldf^Hwatort.. 
0  OOJ  pur  ton 

0  04       » 


0  00*     » 

0  ml    » 

II  24  pjr  yoyitica  on 

tluiuntonu  vu««<iU 

0  not  pur  ton 

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0  02       '•       

0  24   psr  v«M«,l,,, 

0  02   pur  ton 

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0  00*      ••        

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0  01 

0  01 
0  01 
0  004 
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0  01 
0  00( 
0  00{ 

0  01 

1  IKI  pcrTcs-el. 
nt  lMnge*/iiirr.i 

0  oiii  psr  t<in, 
0  M  un  vomulii 
miU'rliiK  ttifi  port 
of  (;)iii»(i'r, 
0  004  per  f  MS. 
0  00*      - 

('  m     " 

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uw\    " 

0  02 

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BlDCo  Iho  1st  of  Jiinuary,  VIM,  a  rnlueiloN  of  'ift  psr  ennt. 
Id  the  light  duos  of  the  iraltuj  Klr^d^im  balk  tHiun  allowod. 

•  Vessels  ent«rlnf!  the  hsrirtrs  of  Wbl(«l><tv«n,  I'srton,  nnd 
Workington,  ami  imna  other. 

t  But  not  chnrjioahlo  on  any  uscuns  aborn  (lOO  ( iiis, 

i  At  Bristol,  Vi  nunU  pur  vuwul. 

I  At  Bristol,  under  IilO  Una,  79  itsntc  psrvaWNil)  100  tons 
and  under  2Si)  tons,  (1  2')  |wr  vuMi-'  i  2riO  tons  anil  upward, 
tl  80  per  vessel,  ^  And  ht:ny»  In  the  Hire?  J),  e. 

Besides  the  preciidhig  list  of  llghl-bouMs,  all  of 
which  arc  under  th.o  Jurisdivtiou  of  tlik  Trinity  lifiuse, 
there  are  others,  undi-r  the  control  nf  privuta  Individu- 
als, who  have  generally  obtaiiu-d  a  li;Ha«  of  the  same 
from  the  crown  for  a  definite  nuinUr  of  yiinrs,  with 
authority  to  charge  ocrtalu  f««a  no  Klilppln,(.  These 
fees,  however,  ua  tbu  same  on  Anierioan  »s  on  British 
vesiiels, 

Tho  Scotch,  or  northern  V.xHn,  an:  under  the  nian< 
agement  of  •  board  of  ptrUoMentary  vommUwiuaen. 


ORE 


m 


GRB 


The  act  of  6  and  7  William  IV.,  chapter  79,  enacta 
that,  from  the  first  of  January,  1887,  all  Britiah  and 
foreign  privileged  vessela,  not  wholly  in  ballast,  which 
bIiuII  paaa  any  Scotch  light-house,  or  derive  any  bene- 
fit tnerefrom,  shall  pay  one  cent  per  ton  for  each  time 
of  paaaing, 

Iriih  Lights. — Foreign  vessels,  one  cent  per  ton  for 
each  light  passed,  except  harbor  lights,  which  are  only 
cliargeable  to  vessels  entering  the  ports  within  wiiich 
tliey  are  situated.  British  and  Irish,  and  equalized 
vessels,  half  a  cent  per  ton  (quarter  cent  if  in  l>allu8t) 
for  each  light,  except  as  above,  with  a  duty  of  2-4  cents 
on  every  "  entry,  cocltet  (a  duplicate  shipping  bill),  or 
warrant,"  when  from  foreign  porta,  but  not  otherwise. 
The  charters  of  most  of  these  private  light-houses 
authorized  the  levying  of  higlier  fees  from  foreign  than 
from  British  shipping.  When  England,  therefore, 
entered  into  reciprocal  treaties  with  foreign  powers, 
the  government  bad  to  mal(u  these  light-houses  com- 
pensation for  the  diminution  that  consequently  toolc 
place  in  the  charges  on  foreign  ships.  The  Trinity 
comoration,  however,  has  long  since  surrendered  its 
right  to  such  compensation,  and  the  act  6  and  7  Wil- 
liam IV.  forbids  such  compensation  being  made  there- 
after. 

Pilotage, — Pilots  are  estal)li8hed,  in  various  parts  of 
the  Icingdom,  by  ancient  charters  or  by  particular 
Statutes.  The  most  important  of  those  are  those  of 
Trinity  House  of  Deptford  Strand  ;  the  fcllowstiip  of 
the  pilots  of  Dover,  Deal,  and  the  Isle  of  Thanet, 
commonly  called  the  Cinque  Ports  pilots ;  and  the 
Trinity  House  of  Hull  and  Newcastle.  A  corporation 
for  the  regulation  and  licensing  of  pilots  in  Liverpool 
was  established  by  6  George  IV.,  chapter  73.  The 
law  provides,  also,  that  no  vessel  in  the  coasting  trade 
is  to  pay  for  less  than  eight  feet  of  water,  nor  any 
vessel  to  pay  for  odd  inches  under  half  a  foot.  No 
coasting  vessel,  inward  or  outward  bound,  of  the  bur- 
den of  100  tons  and  upward  (unless  she  be  in  ballast), 
is  to  refuse  a  pilot,  at  option,  as  thn  master  or  owner  is 
to  pay  full  pilotage  if  one  be  offered. 

Harbor  and  Dock  Sues — Foreign  Trade.  (Per  act  51 
George  III.,  chapter  &.) — All  parts  of  Europe  to  the 
northward  of  Cape  Finisterra  and  to  the  westward  of 
tlie  North  Cape,  and  without  the  Cattegat  and  Baltic 
Sea,  and  including  tlie  islands  of  Guornsej'',  Jersey, 
Aldemey,  and  Sarlc,  the  Faro  Isles,  and  Iceland,  18 
cents  per  ton. 

All  ports  within  the  Cattegat  and  Baltic,  including 
the  whole  of  Sweden,  tiie  White  Sea,  and  all  ports  to 
the  eastward  of  tlie  North  Cape  ;  all  ports  in  Europe 
to  the  southward  of  Cape  Fiuisterre,  without  the  Med- 
iterranean, Newfoundland,  Greenland,  Davis's  Straits, 
Cinaries,  Western  Islands,  Madeira,  and  Azores,  24 
cents  per  ton. 

All  ports  on  the  east  coast  of  North  America,  the 
West, Indies,  the  enst  cuast  of  South  America,  to  the 
no.il\ward  of  Rio  il'  la  l^lata,  inclusive;  all  parts  of 
the  west  coast  of  A  f  i  ica,  and  islands  to  the  northward 
of  the  Cupe  of  Good  Hope ;  and  all  porta  within  the 
Mediterranean,  including  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Seas 
and  Archipelago,  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the 
islands  of  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  ar"!  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands,  36  cents  per  ton. 

All  ports  in  South  America  to  the  south  of  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  Africa  and  Asia, 
to  the  eastward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  3G  cents 
per  ton. 

For  more  complete  information  respecting  the  port 
charges,  etc.,  of  the  varions  countries  above  mentioned, 
see  articles  under  the  heads  of  those  countries. 

AtKhorage — Municipal  Corporation  Grant  by  Purchase 
from  King  Charles  the  First. — On  classes  one,  two,  and 
three,  24  cents  per  vessel.  Classes  four  to  seven,  30 
ccntu.  Vessels  wind-bound,  exempt  from  dock-dues 
only.  The  preceding  table  will  be  better  comprehended 
by  giving  a  pro  forma  statement  of  port  charges  for  a 


vessel  of  600  tons,  entering  at  and  clearing  from  th« 
port  of  Liverpool : 

Inwabd. 


0 


ri1atage,1Troet,at9s £T  18s.0d. 

Row-boat  hire  In  the  river  and 

warping  Into  dock 1    B   0 

Lights,  Sjd.  per  ton 11  18 

Dock  duos,  Is.  4)d.  per  ton 84    T 

Discharging  cargo,  about 20    0 

Total £75    (is.  Id. 

Odtward. 

Loading  cargo,  supposing  ship  to 

carry  7f)0  tons  (from  lid.  to  Is. 

per  ton),  say  Is.  per  ton SXt  lOs.  Od. 

Lights,  Sjil.  per  ton U  10    T 

riToUgc,  IT  foot,  at  4b.  per  foot ...  8    B    0 

Clearance 110 


«88Ttl 

800 

ISSOO 
98  00 

$861  n 


Total £68  188.  7d. 


1180  00 

5TG0 

1A8II 

S04 

t2&8  86 

Port  of  London — Tonnage  Sates.  (Act  4  and  5  Wil- 
liam IV.,  chapter  82.)  First  Cliiss. — For  every  vessel 
trading  coastwise  between  the  port  of  I^ndon  and  any 
place  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  Orkneys,  Shet- 
land, or  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland,  for  every 
voyage  both  in  and  out  of  the  said  port,  one  cent  per 
ton. 

For  every  vessel  entering  inward,  or  clearing  out 
ward,  in  the  said  port,  from  or  to  Denmark,  Norway, 
Lapland  (on  this  side  of  the  North  Cape),  or  from 
Holstein,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  or  any  other  port  of 
Germany  bordering  on  or  near  the  Germanic  Ocean, 
or  from  or  to  Holland,  or  any  other  of  the  United 
Provinces,  or  Brabant,  Flanders,  Antwerp,  or  other 
ports  of  the  Netherlands,  or  from  or  to  France  (within 
Ushant),  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Aldemey,  Sark,  or  the 
Isle  of  Man,  for  every  voyage,  both  in  and  out  of  the 
said  port,  one  cent  per  ton. 

For  overj'  vessel  entering  inward,  or  clearing  out- 
ward, in  the  said  port,  from  or  to  France  (between 
Ushant  and  iSpain),  Portugal,  Spain  (without  the 
Mediterranean),  or  any  of  the  Azores,  Madeira,  or 
Canarj-  Islands,  or  any  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, or  of  the  British  provinces  or  colonies  in  North 
America,  or  Florida,  there  shall  be  paid  for  everj-  voy- 
age in  and  out  of  the  said  port  one  cent  and  a  half  per 
ton. 

For  every  vessel  entering  inward,  or  clearing  out- 
ward. In  the  said  port,  from  orto  Greenland,  Gibraltar, 
France,  or  Spain  (within  the  Mediterranean),  or  any 
country,  island,  port,  or  place  within  or  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean  or  Adriatic  Seas,  or  from  the  West 
Indies,  I/iuisian.-t,  Mexico,  South  America,  Africa, 
East  Indies,  China,  or  any  other  country,  island,  or 
place  within  or  bordering  on  or  near  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
or  from  any  other  country,  island,  or  place  wlmtseiver, 
to  the  southward  of  25  degrees  of  north  latitude,  for 
every  voyagu,  <  <^:h  in  and  out  of  the  said  port,  one 
cent  and  a  ha'  "T  ton. 

Among  otiio  i  ■  emptions,  this  charge  does  not  apply 
to  vessels  going  in  or  out  of  the  port  of  London  wtien 
in  ballast. 

Tonnage  Dues  charged  by  the  Londor.  Dock  Company, 
First  class. — Vessels  from  any  port  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  Isle  of  Man,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Aldemey, 
Sark,  or  other  European  ports  outilde  the  Baltic,  be- 
tween the  North  Cape  and  Ushant  (Haralmrg,  Bremen, 
and  'mbden  excepted — see  second  class),  with  liberty 
to  V.      d  Cor  any  port,  12  cents. 

Second  class. — ^Vessels  from  H  ni'  "-  :  Bremen, 
and  Embden,  with  liberty  to  reload  >•  , my  port,  12 
cents. 

Third  class. — ^Vessels  from  any  port  iu  the  Mediwi- 
ranean,  with  liberty  to  reload  for  any  rort,  18  cc  U 

Fourth  class. — ^Vessels  from  all  other  ports  or  \  V-.-.'-.n 
whatsoever  (with  the  exceptions  after  mentioneu); 
with  liberty  to  reload  for  any  port,  18  cents. 

Vessels  loading  for  any  ports  or  places  in  the  third 
or  fourth  classes,  not  having  discharged  their  cargoes 
in  the  docks,  18  cents. 


G)m 


872 


GRE 


PS 


asft  '"ass  '-»'» 


•  rl     .  t-i  »H  Ft  rt  r-l   ^     _      -  ^,  .      . 

_'b-     «o  to  rH -<i  ■*•  eo  t-i  I-  -  -4  ^ «  o  00 1- ta  ^  Ilk  *4>  4 


e  o  c.  ?^  3>  to  o  Ok »  r;  «i  00  ^  o  n  <e  « «o  o  ci 

H<-i     <oaoeio«{X)»i-i40'.:>f*t»t^in«oi*cor-  nee 

^     ""^  ^  w ri 


^lOWI-lOtOaOAHtftA 


>  n  h>  »•  9*  b- CO 


cn«ioc9c.  :v^«9oemeieiotoc'«>o»<;9»o» 

(••  e  ^  03  9'  T   £  00  OD  00  »«  O  S»  C^  »«  A  00  W  UO  00 
■■*  M  f»  ;  -  f^        t-i*  1-^  ^  •■■  ,-.        w^  r^ 


ill 

si  ^ 


■1" 


90  ;:-  4.  $  ■?  .':»<.>  00  oi  ea  '   ■:  to  tc  to  V"4»  to  ■«  o» 

■>■;  ©  i.    •    :  I-  ;■.  «*  oc  ■;■  vM » *  i'.  ■  ,■«  M  o  c»  f-1  o»  uo 


<<    r   -  tp-*  _:,  »c 

r>«9teo.<9  99tosc<eok<ote 

»  -   «fl'»HT^4*fl»lA 

;;0-ogc>rHtfi'^»-i©«o« 

Tfi  .n  ^.  D  «■*■*"  ic 

.-•»oO'*«*ieo»oo*-iK5rt 

PlLOTAai. 

I'mmorlo  To  or  from  Mrfbol* 

HoLb— The  dlituim  it  M*  whar*  1  lUwke  Koiwl*  or 

the  North  Mua  of  Dtmllng-        - 

ton  bein  west  toiith-wost 

to  the  northward  of  Kllnsot 

North  Olllf 

The  (lUt«nco  >t   (e*   whnro) 

Kllnsc*  North  Cliff  boors    Tls-^ko  Roads  or 

west  norih-w<  sL     i,:       ii,.  i     <'irliiiitby  Koads. 

northward  of  t!io  .icw  sanrf    '.Vhitc  llooth  UM» 

buojr.orthe  tiorJnu  liibt-  ;  Thc>.<'''"f  Kli._ 

vosselatth;   ■vitmi'i'i;  oi  the       toi  -.ijii'U-Hiili.. 

RlvorIIU!:ii'?> .J 

Outcranl— British  ii\:\  frUa 


Orlnwby  Roads.  |0  60 
Whito  Booth  KMs.  0  84 
ThoportorKlnn- 

ton-upoo-HuU. .    1  BO 


Oflt 
U  60 


0  00 


reasolii  hi  brUlast (■  H 

'*  '.'Ith ear)'3es.    "(I 

There  aro  other  InoiintMoraMr  i-hurafps  levl«d  at  tlil  ij '.  t .  ■; 

buoyai. t  and  beacorniM,  wMcU  m?  s   In:  ';■.■  i  loant  \r.  nuu  n.  t, 

andai'  .  qually  lev     i  'ipun  Br<i'tau"VOi'  Ibtclgn  vt'&i'',a, 

tlist  tl.  >  aro  omttt^.l. 

S. GOTLAND. 

■  LOT  DUES. 

OLAsnow  A  p  ftitKsooK.— From  any  place '.lotwoen 
^  f  theCmnbray  ilKht  and  the  Glocho't  llh'ht,  or  from 
r,  I  aiiehoni(;e  at  Faudln  Rolld^  Kootbesay  Bay,  or 
1-.  Quarantine  Station,  lit>ly 'ock  or  Greenock  Hoaus 
'j  ard  moorln,<8,aml  tcfllio  <iiiayorb?ir»h'!,i.',p.;  lou  <0  It 
g  I  I'ruTn 'iironoik  to  rnrt  Glasgow, per  Vjfl 8 


!  T  Eini.  ■  ViiSBoIs"  turtund  under,  per  fo<:t. 


lil 

\i 
W  tfdt, 

,4 

',* 

CI 

M 

and  ab.'V. - 

IRELAND. 

M 

M 
M 

ts 

80 
M 
M 


TOTAOI!. 

Dpblim.— 7V(/  AVahjiw— There  being  no  fixed  rates, 
the  master  iiiukes  the  best  terms  he  can,  aocordlr^' 
to  the  state  of  the  weather,  etc.,  as  follows :  From  » 
Kingston  !l:irbor  or  the  Bay  of  Dublin  to  Custom 
Ilonso  Quay,  tl!S  to  fSO;  from  the  light-house  at 
the  entrancu  ^'ftfao  river  to  quay,  |1S  to  IDS,  and 
in  proportion  for  shorter  distances. 

rlLOTAOE. 

Dciu.ix.— British  ui>  I  foreign  privileged  vessels  from 

outside  of  til :  'inks  over  bar per  foot  $0  tH 

From  Innldc  bank.t  over  bar "  ^^ 

From  bay  over  bar. "  8li 

From  I'oolbeg  to  banin "  11 

Outward "  44J 

Vessels  In  ballast, aul  vessels  under  SO  tons  register,  ara 
exempted  There  aro  "tlior  charges  and  dncs  payable  to  tho 
corporation  f>r  prosorvliii^  and  Improving  the  port;  but  u 
they  are  small  In  amount,  and  equally  applicable  to  Brltisb 
vessels,  they  are  omitted. 

PILOT  miw. 
CoKK.— /"/'COT^pri.'!  io  Octobtr  1.— Vessels  under 

8«  tons la  88 

Vessels  fi-on;  »0  to  120  tons 8  84 

120  •'  160    "  4  80 

"        190  "  220    "   6  28 

The  largest  vessels  mav  gut  to  Passage;  vessels  draw- 
ing II  feet  may  get  up  to  Black  Rock  or  Cork  at  spring  tides ; 
vessels  ilmwl:ig  11  to  12  feet  get  Into  Cross  Haven,  wblch  Is 
within  tho  entrance  of  Cork  Haven. 

Larger  vessels  must  remain  at  Cork  or  Passage  for  pilotage, 
to  "Ahlch  points  the  same  rates  aro  levied  on  Aiuertcan  as  on 
British  vessels. 

PILOT  DVVH. 

Forelga  linde.    Cowtert, 
BuLrAST. — From  JJef^at  to  GarmoyU  or 
WMttlMUM  JttMdt,  or  vic«  vtrta. — 

Vessels  under  100  tons tS  <^ 

Vessels  of  lootousandnnder  198 10  So 


»7  20 
840 
9  60 
12  00 
14  40 
IB  80 
1»  20 

21  60 

22  80 
20  20 
26  40 
28  80 

10 
8 
.0  are  sundry  wharf  and  other 
'  ;tre  equally  levied  on  British  as  on 
1. 

\«8  give  the  principnl  charges  on 

' '.  vessels  entering  ai  or  departing 

fromthfj'Oi    '^■  'i^uated.  For  minor  details,  reference 


12a  "       "         180 12  00 

ISO  "       "         200 14  40 

200  "       "         280 16  80 

280  "       "         800 19  20 

800  "       "         880 21  60 

880  "X         400 24  00 

400  "        "         480 28  20 

480  "        "         100 -JS  SO 

800  »       '  o60 n  20 

680  tons  an(.  o,  its  .1 88  60 

.    .  ..VAOE. 

1,  oer  ton 


On  vessels  from  fin . 

Coastwise 

Besides  the  tmti 
minor  p  "'  charge': 

(breign  yr     .,    • '. 

The  p'    ■■■•I 
British  f  ,■.  i.f!v!! 


ORE 


873 


ORE 


b  made  to  the  cooaular  returns  from  the  dilTerent  ports 
raspactlvely.  The  foreign  trade  of  Great  Britain,  dur- 
ing the  year  ending  January  6, 1H64,  employed  !i6,;<08 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  7,797,660  tons,  I'ho 
grons  amount  of  custom  duties  received  the  same  year 
was  £22,410,808  ($112,0«6,5'10).  The  exports  of 
British  and  Irish  produce  and  manufactures  during  the 
same  period  amounted  in  value  to  £87,367,806  (iii486,- 
786,580).  The  official  returns  for  1854  exhibit  the  fol- 
bwing  facts : 

Imports  to  snd  from  flroat  Britain 

and  Ireland  In  1884 £1.62,691,618=  |7<2,957,6«6 

Szports  to  aud  from  OreatBrltaln 

■»nd  Ireland  in  1884 116,888,704=    579,168,820 

ImporU  to  and  fk-ora  tlio  U.  B.  In  1881  and  1856. .  1261,448,520 
Kxnorts  lYom  the  United  States  of 

fbrelgn  goods $26,158,868 

Exports  Aom  the  United  Htates  of 

domci.tlo  manufoctnre 80,427,187 

Exports  ^om  the  United  States  of 

otiier  produeo 142,828,948 

Exports  from  the  United  States  of 

specie  and  buUlon 54,247,348 

Total 1276,164,844 

The  largest  amounts  of  British  imports  from  foreign 
countries  were  from  the  United  States,  viz.,  £29,796,- 
690  («148,977,960)  j  from  France,  £10,684,727  (i»63,- 
178,685)  ;  from  China,  £9,125,040  (#45,625,200);  from 
Russio,  £9,055,603  (#45,277,616);  from  IloiUind,  £6,- 
788,172  (#33,665,860)  ;  and  from  Spain,  £3,694,601 
(#17,972,605).  The  largest  amounts  exported  to  for- 
eign countries  were  to  the  United  States,  viz. :  £21,- 
127,631  (#105,638,155).  In  this  amount  are  included 
onl}'  such  articles  as  are  the  produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  exclusivo  of  colonial  and  foreign  products. 
The  lilce  exports  to  France  amounted  to  £3,176,290 
(#15,876,450)  ;  to  Holland,  £4,578,084  ($22,865,170)  ; 
to  Hanse-towns,  £7,418,715  (#37,068,576)  ;  to  Bra-;il, 
£2,891,840  (#14,459,200) ;  to  Victoria,  £6,741,315  (#28,- 
706,675) ;  to  New  South  Wales,  £3,648,072  (#18,240,- 
860) ;  to  South  Australia,  £1,146,113  (#5,730,565) ;  and 
to  the  East  Indies,  £9,127,656  (#45,637,780).  The 
principal  imports  were  grain  and  flour,  cotton,  wool, 
wood,  timber^  deals,  and  staves ;  wine,  butler,  tea,  and 
tallow.  The  principal  exports  were  cotton  goods, 
cotton  yam,  woolen  goods,  linen,  silk,  woolen  yam, 
millinery  and  haberdasher}',  apparel,  hardware  and 
cutlery,  iron,  unwrought  and  wrought,  earthenware 
and  potter^',  cools  and  coke,  and  tin.  The  number  of 
vessels  entered  at  ports  in  England  during  the  year 
1863  was :  British,  10,345,  with  an  aggregate  of 
1,933,711  tons ;  foreign,  16,609,  with  an  aggregate  of 
2,958,048  tons.  Of  the  above,  there  entered  the  port 
of  London  8033  British,  measuring  an  aggregate  of 
661,842  tons ;  and  6058  foreign,  with  an  aggregate  of 
910,662  tons.  The  entries  at  Liverpool  were :  British, 
lu..>  veaaols,  measuring  488,405  tons;  and  foreign, 
1682  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  787,003  tons.  The 
number  of  vessel"  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  entered 
at  ports  in  Scotland  during  the  year  1853  was :  British, 
1863,  with  an  aggregate  of  402,872  tons ;  foreign, 
2503  vessels,  measuring  in  all  289,752  ton?.  The  total 
number  of  vessels  that  entered  the  ports  of  Ireland 
during  the  year  1853  was :  British,  1169,  measuring 
284,892  tons;  and  foreign,  1195,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  237, 19!^  tx>ns.  In  the  ports  of  the  Isle  of 
Man  nnd  ihe  Ciia.it  rl  islands,  there  entered  during  the 

.tiiv  _  ur:  in  tlif  urmer,  British  vessels,  7;  aggre- 
^  .to  toii  ..-;■".  9tt;j:  foreign,  31;  I'^'gregato  tonnage, 
8494;  in  tht>  lattcr  British  vess'tls,  1072,  with  an  ag- 
gregate tonnage  i^  )  .141;  foreign  vessels,  213,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnago  of  14,862.  The  i  utai  i  imber  of 
steam- vostt'ls  that  entered  the  porti-  it  the  United 
Kingdom  during  the  year  1853  was  :  Bi '  ish,  3&68,  witli 
an  aggregate  of  1,171,911  tono;  foreign  >ressels,  5°il, 
with  tn  aggregate  of  158,81^  tons.  The  numbev  of 
steaio-vessels  that  cleared  f;om  all  the  ports  of  the 

!Jnited  Kingdom  in  1853  was :  British,  3694,  with  ^a 
aggregate  of  1,067,381  tons;   foreign  vessel,  507, 


measuring  In  all  168,184  tons.  In  1864,  the  oflloial 
value  of  imports  into  the  United  Kingdom  was  £124,- 
888,478  (#621,692,890)  ;  and  of  exports  from  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom  £29,821,656  (#140,108,280). 

A  new  system  has  l)ccn  introduced  Into  Great  Brit- 
ain of  giving  in  the  annual  relums  of  trade,  the  "  real" 
Instead  of  the  "  oRlciul"  value  of  imports  and  exports. 
The  standard  of  the  latter  having  obtained,  without 
any  change  or  alteration,  for  a  period  of  more  than 
200  years,  could  be  of  but  little  benefit  in  computing 
the  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Great  Britain,  and 
has  been  adhered  to  so  long  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  data  for  general  comparison.  The  real 
value  of  the  imports  and  exports  above  given  is  thus 
8tat"d :  import,8,  £152,591,618  (#702,957,5«5) ;  exports, 
£115,833,704  (#679,108,620). 

In  the  preceding  pages,  the  laws,  regulations,  nnd 
customs  of  a  permanent  character,  which  constitute  the 
commercial  legislation  of  Great  Britain  as  respects  her 
intercourse  with  the  United  States,  have  been  suc- 
cinctly stated.  Various  modifications  In  tariff  duties, 
navigation  laws,  etc.,  have  necessarily  resulted  from 
such  changes  in  commercial  legislation  as  are  in- 
variably incident  to  a  state  of  war.  These  have,  in 
substance,  been  noticed  elsewhere,  so  far  as  they  have 
come  to  tlie  knowledge  of  the  Department.  They  are, 
however,  generally  limited  in  iheir  duration,  and  are 
designed  either  for  financial  or  protective  purposes 
during  tlie  continuance  of  the  present  difSculties  with 
Russia.  It  is  not  deemed  necessar}',  therefore,  to 
lengthen  this  digest  by  any  detailed  enumeration  of 
such  modifications,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  to  be  an- 
ticipated* that  all  such  temporary  modifications,  de- 
manded by  the  exigencies  of  war,  will  ere  long  have 
been  superseded  by  the  permanent  commercial  legisla- 
tion of  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  1787  there  were  imported  into  Great  Britain 
22,600,000  pounds  of  cotton,  obtained  from  the  follow- 
ing sources : 

BritUh  West  Indies 6,600,000 

Froncli  and  Spanish  Colonies 4,000,000 

Dutch  and  Portuguese  Colonies. 4,200,000 

East  India,  procured  from  Ostond 100,000 

Smyrna  and  Turkey 5,700,000 

From  tho  United  States 

The  following  tables  have  been  compiled  from  the 
officml  reports  of  the  United  Stetes'  Treosury  Depart- 
ment, and  are  submitted  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
the  commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britffin,  especially  with  reference  to  our  leading  sta- 
ples, during  a  period  of  26  years. 

The  first  talile  exhibits  the  quantities  and  value  of 
cotton  exported  from  tho  United  States  to  Great  Brit- 
ain during  the  period  indicated.  Generally  speaking, 
the  imports  of  cotton  into  Great  Britein  are  concen- 
trated at  the  port  of  Liverpool.  This  is  shown  by  the 
annexed  table,  exhibiting  the  importe  of  cotton  into 
Great  Britain  in  1852 : 


iDtO 


Liverpool 

London 

Hull  and  Bristol. . 

Scotland 

Total 


2,205,733 

48,700 

27,200 

76,700 


2,867,888 


Tuns. 


86.\000 
8,000 
6,000 

_  mooo_ 

~89TuoO 


The  imports  into  Liverpool  of  raw  cotton  during  a 
period  of  10  years,  ending  with  1852,  were  as  follows : 


Yt.r,. 

B>1m. 

Toiu. 

Year.. 

llalai. 

TODI. 

1848 
1844 
l£t5 
1844 
1847 

1,857,697 
1,490,984 
1,652,7^1 
1,181,194 
1,087,068 

260,000 
248,000 
970,0  ..0 
130,000 
182,000 

1848 
1840 
1*«0 
i''>l 
1852 

1,548,000 
1.7)«.;i«1 
1,578,100 
1,748.946 
2,205,783 

'!f2.000 
288,000 
263,000 
291,000 
865,000 

The  countries  from  which  the  cotton  was  imported 
in  1862  are  given  in  the  following  talde,  which  will 
also  serve  to  show  the  relati^'o  importance  of  Liverpool 


*  This  bu  been  retlUed  stao?  U)«  »hoT«  ww  rrittaa. 


.■i^ 


cnxB 


874 


GBB 


U  e«mp«i«d  with  other  Rritiah  portii,  m  the  gnat  em- 
porinm  of  the  cotton  trade : 


Iniportad  (Vora 

Into      1      Ititu 
Iiv«qio*),i   LoiMlr.tl, 

Into 
Hull. 

"  11,700 
14,000 

"uoo 

8<u4|«ihJ. 

Tolal. 

ITllltodMUttia.. 

Kut  Indlos 

Mc(lltcrnin»n . 

llnull,  «to 

West  Indloa... 
Total 

t,7it,ua 
uo,eiS 

188,088 

144,01)7 

10,8«0 

ll,W»,7h8 

1,MM> 
4MW) 

"ioo 

«flO 
48,700 

00,111)0 
11,000 
8,(KH) 

"aoo 
moo 

I,7«9,'il8 

a21,4l8 

189,S»S 

1H1>7 

12.A80 

^807,888 

Before  giving  the  general  talile  of  exports  uf  this 
staple  to  Oreat  Uritain,  the  fallowing  summary,  con- 
densed fn)m  n  troatlso  on  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States,  etc.,  recently  puhllacd,  will  prove  interesting. 
Previous  to  17»1,  Great  Itritiiin  olitiiined  her  supplies 
of  cotton  fi-ora  the  West  Indies,  South  Ameiica,  nnd 
the  countries  around  the  eastern  parts  of  the  McdltiT- 
ranean.     In  1784,  there  were  71  bags  shipped  from 

Oknioal  Biiumabt  or  tob  Total  Ihtoht,  Expodt,  and 
ISM,  1889, 


the  Unltad  States  to  Great  Britain,  ssd  then  soiiM.  on 
the  ground  that  America  could  not  produce  so  much. 
See  (^nrroif. 

In  18SH,  Great  Britain  exported  upward  of  147,000,- 
000  pounds ;  of  this  upward  of  82,000,000  were  derived 
from  the  Unltad  Hlater,,  and  over  60,000,000  from 
India. 

llie  returns  of  trade  for  18S6  show  tliat  notwith- 
standing the  war,  the  consumption  of  cotton  in  Great 
Britain  from  1st  January  to  lUst  August  was  1,449,1)80 
bales,  against  1,28U,20()  for  the  same  period  in  1864, 
giving  the  large  Increaso  of  1GU,7R0  bales.  The  stock 
In  Liverpool  on  illst  August,  IHfiS,  was  269,320  bales 
less  than  on  the  illst  Augait,  18&4. 

From  the  Kast  Indies,  (iicit  Britain  Imported — 

PmitldR. 

In  1S80 ia»,2no,(HHt 

"  ls8a H4,Wi,i»i 

"  1H63 180,481,496 

Stock  or  Cottox  ik  Tns  Uhitid  Kinodoii,  Droimbiui  81, 

AND  1881. 


Stork,  Due.  81, 1S62. 
Import  In  1883 


Export  In  1SS8. 


Stock,  Doc.  31, 1833 

Shou-lni;  the  (IoIItctIcs  fbr~| 
liouioronsumptlonfrom  I 
the  porta  of  (It.  BrItalD  ( 
to  bavg  boiu,  In  1k83.  . .  J 

Or,  por  week  in  lS.t8 

"      mvj 

"  "       IRfll 

"  "       18M 

•■  "       1849 


OBtAT    aEITAIN. 


Tulnl. 

B«i«i. 

6S7„tS0 

2,2fry_U 

i,m,i»i 

849,000 


Arufrloui.  I       ftnrat. 


HalM. 

860,770 
1,888,842 


it,872,6al 
717,8X0 


170,000 


1,888,081 


85,070 
80,770 
81,970 
39,140 
80,820 


l,7ls,812 
80S,870 


llaUi. 

183,910 

488,897 

618,787 

181,600 

270,680 


1,409,442 


27,110  I 

29,030 

24,400 

20,710 

24,010 


196,887 


rj8o 

8,1/90 
8,740 
8,410 
2,420 


And  from  Liverpool . 


Or,  per  week  In  18,U. 

"  "  1888. 

"  "  1881. 

"  »  IMO. 

"  "  1849. 


LiriarnoL. 


ToUI. 


Silei. 
877,810 

2,028,824 

2,A00,'084 

ii59,600 


2,847,084 
897.600 


1,149,884 


88,640 
88,100 
80.140 
20,670 
28,840 


Alliorlri 


Blliil. 

888,820 
1,461,186 
l,T»9,»8a 

172,100 

1,827,!<86 
280,170 


l,841,u86 


28,800 
27,980 
28,880 
19,180 
22,980 


8)I8,M7 
176,870 


162,477 


8,120 
2,030 
8,080 
2,490 
1,940  I 


Takiic  KxmBrnxo  thk  Quantities  ano  Vai.ck  or  Haw 
CJoTTON  expohtxd  rBoM  tub  United  States  to  Oreat 
Britain  and  Ireland,  from  1880  to  1888,  uoTil 
Years  inclusive. 


Iron. 

Qutnllly. 

V»lae. 

1  Yetri. 

Qiuuitlty.          V«lue. 

1180 

Pouniln. 

209,830,421 

Dc.llnn. 

20,678.083 

I  1843 

Ppiiiid..       !      r>..IUn.. 

884.84.'S,604!  ftV^M'T 

1831 

220,81 0.ftlO 

20,117,885 

;  1844 

480,729.2221  89,r.9I.aM 

lS8i 

229.0O7.272 

■fi.iiU.aiO 

1  1848 

OO.').  141.786'  35.fii-8,V''.t 

1888 

28S,241,74« 

20,284,970 

1  1840 

340,188,007j  27,707,717 

18.'U 

2.HT'2't,'iOa 

8«,007,6M 

•  1847 

351,268,7119  ,Vi,841,2C,"i 

1885 

270,0S4.4(l0l 

4.vn  1,411 

1.84,8 

t<Tl,(m.m\  41,2!i5,2.',s 

laio 

2»2,«H,707 

48,010.840 

1849 

789,ll4l,9f).'j   47,444,H99 

1887 

821,.'i7'J.«88 

44.s^7.ll•^ 

18I50 

4J(l/j.11,0»l,  4'.i,^>l,15» 

1888 

441,887,948!  45,787,087 

1S51 

«7n,«4,^,120 

49,7,^(1, -.'i4 

1889 

aiO,7,Vt,9BO   46.074,579'     18,V3 

752,878,780 

6».fl00,209 

1840 

494,9I.'),090   41.948,8f>4'    !«« 

708,890,49,81 

74,6*1.210 

1841 

849,.W0,248  85,«84,00.')^  1884 

090,W7,Ol7 

04.736,401 

1U2 

«7»,C17/U9   .10,11)2,417 

1885 

07,8,498,259 

57.610,749 

the  annual    consumption  of  tobacco  in  the   United 
Kingdom,  tnd  duly  levied  on  the  samu : 

lured  and 
tuni. 


Tobacco  Trade  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Hritain. — It  is  ascertained,  by  British  statisticians  that 
the  yearly  consumption  of  tobacco  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  amounts  Ui  '.f'),U00  tons,  .about  one  half  of 
which  it  is  supposed  is  smuggled,  owing  to  the  exces- 
sive duties  (upward  of  1000  per  cent.)  levied  on  the 
article  under  the  tariff  system  of  that  kingdom.  The 
quantity  of  segars  and  snuff  imported  does  not  exceed 
two  or  three  hundred  weight  per  annum.  The  follow- 
ing table,  compiled  from  parliamentary  returns,  shows 
tlie  Import.s  of  toliacco  into  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
tlio  quantities  entered  at  each  port,  during  the  year 
1860: 


roTU, 


London 

Liverpool 

IlrlstuI 

OIa.i»ow 

Dublin 

Belfast 

Nowcastle.  . . . 

Cork 

Llinorick 

Lelth 

Preston 

Chester 

Bhlelds 

Watertbrd 

Londonderry : 

Southampton 

Other  places,  lesi 
than  100  tons  each 


Vol. 


Tvin. 
4,762 
2,766 
780 
631 
604 
877 
841 
270 
iRS 
288 
179 
1881 
1471 


8 


1471  .. 

182  .... 

lift  .... 

a  « 

4.1  ioiv 


Tolal. 


Duty. 


Ti.iii.  I   Pound>.  I    l>ull>n. 

4,881 1,7.VJ,9SS  8,704,940 


2,70al  980,082 
780|  27,\488 
6H2|    228,701 

007    - 

S7T 
841 
270 
288 
239 
179 
188 
147 
182 
116 
18 


907 


Total..  . . . . .  12,000'      90      !  12,780 


4,903,160 

1,877,428 

1,1,  -.,806 

1,077,838 

666,688 

602,230 

476,810 

488,030 

422,670 

316,.^60 

279,810 

260,125 

2.88.860 

204,960 

40,976 


21,^867 
lH8,ni 
120,444 

98,862 

91,004 

84,814 

68,312 

66,908 

62,028 

48,070 

40.999 
8,198| 

820,7n{  1,603,886 


4,500,741  22;8(I8,705 


PorU. 

Utt. 

Muufvtr'd 
and  Msari. 

ToUl. 

London 

Tom. 

T,6SS 

6,8T0 

4SS 

414 

200 

140 

8 

Tom. 
433 
148 

■"t 

"66 
4 

Tons. 
8,120 
7,016 
436 
431 
200 
196 

Bristol 

ftlasgow , .  i  ,  . 

Lelth 

Southampton... 

Other  places 

Total 

1.'  ,00'  '1 

694 

10,894 

The  following  return,  t    iismitted  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  for  the  year  endini^  January  6,  185n,  thows 


The  following  table,  exhibiting  the  exports  of  toliac- 
co from  Great  Britain  Air  IS.Vi,  will  sliow  the  quanti- 
ties and  destination  of  I  hat  article  supplied  by  England 
to  foreign  countries,  relativel}'  to  the  quantities  iin- 
portpd.  Total  quantity  imported,  15,700  tons,  or  86,- 
168,000  ll0^nd.^, 

Total  QnAMTiTT  Expoitbd. 

Hhdii. 

W.  ".oast  of  Africa.  1,726  II 
Uolland 927 


2faat«. 

Ran  So' ,i)^t!»n . . 

Alexaudrla. 

Bahia 

Antwerp 

Bio  do  .'snelio. 
Olbraltar. 


134 

110 

63 

61 


86 


Ilraamsn 81 


Hhdi. 

Cbrlstlana 20 

Oronthotm IT 

Soneira] 15 

Ouornscv 14 

Liberia 10 

ysloofMan 84 

Sundry  places 23 


Total. 


.2,603 


The  foregoing  ta' '  ^hows  that  in  18.52  there  were 
exported  ft-om  Great  Uritai-  'out  2,602,000  lbs.  (al- 
lowing 1000  lbs.  to  tae  Wiu.  '  the  a5,108,000  lb« 

imported,  showing  the  onJii-.i "^d  for  consult;. 

tion  to  be  82,5fl«,W0  IbJ. 


ORB 


9tB 


GRE 


lUn. 

1,940 
,160 
,486 

,806 
,886 


irere 
(aJ. 
lb. 

in;'. 


Taili  i.'<in»i<rn(a  inn  QvAXTiTin  aho  Talui  or  Ft^dk,  Bur,  Tallow,  nton,  and  Natal  Sroin  HroimD  nam 
TMli  Vmrtio  Htath  to  Hkcat  BnrrAiii,  noii  1880  to  1856,  «oTii  YiAU  uiaLViiv*. 


8311, 1S2 

8711,480 

yn,958 

29,207 

19,fl-(7 

6,876 

1(11 

167,586 

620,919 

20<4,9->4 

2(18,024 

19,426 

1II7.2V0 

115,1150 

1,015,244 

9,467,076 

9&'i,744 

96H,Ht6 

869,777 

1,601,788 

1,581,994 

1,878,«65 

2,0-iO,121 

lS9,71'i 


Valuo. 
iv.ll.n. 

1,.'>M,194 
4,981,951 
479,821 
121,169 
96,884 
25,841 
1,184 

69',5io 

1,886,647 

1,887,848 

1,008,466 

1,242,787 

84,815 

74^4S6 

152,882 

M  86,677 

15,104,574 

6,119,876 

6,077,220 

1,779,862 

4,673,009 

6,808,878 

^79^818 

18,715,111 

1,58,1,089 


Ilo«r. 


Itarnili. 

too 

96 
117 
608 

"ii 


8,610 

2,001 

6,H86 

4V1T 

41,188 

8<l,820 

66,478 

47,061 

72,8.10 

60,520 

54,750 

81,828 

8O,.')70 

78,687 

8,79T» 


T>ll«w, 


i*OUIM|l. 

6,787 
864 


86^161) 


29,580 
2.Vi2i 
1,716,820 
8,0,^1,014 
4,6.'.7,20O 
5,289,440 
6,12,1,462 
6,1124,156 
8,899,409 
5,598,227 
«,2.H618 
4,19,1,806 
2,421,486 
1,481,876 
6,800,288 
7,612,622 


llldM. 


Nuoitier, 

28,627 

288,158 

18,420 

88,000 

89,064 

12,721 

17,976 

69,748 

2.1,069 

\616 

8,817 

4,288 

6,781 

8,8sa 

88,107 

41,179 

67,068 

34,481 

7,008 

1,083 

861 


8a8 

19,807 


VlllM. 


,  ,1teb,roain| 
•Dd  turptntlnfl, . 


V>lii. 


Uillan. 
140,4IM 

Burrfli. 
128.125 

r>..ii.n. 
261,726 

40,766 

159,190 

8I^964 

66,080 

172,062 

400,064 

m,.m 

171,888 

408,260 

182,(186 

181,921 

4.14,669 

56,866 

151,407 

489,811 

90,566 

197,824 

781,288 

189,642 

218,180 

788,881 

78,444 

2111,794 

679,076 

18,696 

176,721 

606,218 

17,924 

191,448 

470,460 

88,507 

201,789 

482,870 

168,697 

918,568 

675Ji74 

881,769 

145,006 

871,686 

777,906 

270,817 

618,184 

8.14,2.14 

£H(i,26S 

6^9,364 

1,864,341 

80.1,2.14 

968,275 

1,269,976 

245,779 

632,810 

806,804 

282,026 

686,739 

l,8lt(l,6S7 

817,417 

724,680 

828,780 

866,980 

911,981 

896,788 

28,1,786 

761,408 

764,848 

846,417 

945,284 

1,84»,8«8 

841,518 

1,099,682 

1,(H4,426 

461,528 

1,60.1,683 

9,900,907 

421,118 

l,llli),860 

*  Also,  In  1866,  67,149  tlcrcct. 

A  Vmw  or  Tim  T8am<  butwrkn  Obeat  Bhitais  and  that  Poktios  or  iir.R  North  Amkiiioak  CoLO.MEa  Kow  is- 
•K.t'liKn  in  TnK  Vinru  Stathi,  fehu  1697  to  1774;  and  hetwdek  Okkat  Britain  and  tii«  Unitkd  Btatm, 
rNoM  1776  rii  1820 — i<impii.k»  from  Uritisii  Autiiobitiek.    [W.  »i);nifloii  war  ,■  P.peaoe.^ 


¥•«•, 

liiipurU  tniia 
(l.>l  nIM 

8lAt#l, 

♦  I,l08,72(r 

Kiporti  lo  Iha 
Uolled  Slatci, 

rem. 

linporm  from 

SlAlOl. 

RtporU  to  til* 
Uull«d  Stut«l, 

Yean. 

ImtMrlfl  IVoin 

lit  United 

8tAle>. 

EiporU  to  th« 
UnlMd  StaUi. 

y/.im. . .: 

«707,766 

W.  1789.... 

♦8,757,890 

«8,479,846 

W,  1780.... 

98,815 

4,146,860 

',  m*.... 

1,180,276 

2,290.4il6 

W.  1740.,.. 

3,692,080 

4,060,910 

W.  1781.... 

499.895 

4,278,606 

'.    1699.,.. 

1,876,9^5 

2,019,696 

W.  1741.... 

4,561,016 

4,427,400 

W.  1788.... 

188,200 

1,883,660 

'.    17(1(1,.,, 

1,976,105 

1,721,705 

W.  1742.... 

8,296,140 

4,000,265 

W,  17S8.... 

851,206 

6,016,600 

'.    17(11,,,, 

1,546,676 

1,719,185 

W.  1743.... 

8,404,08.1 

4,146,026 

P.    1734.... 

8,746,645 

18,897,360 

V.    7(12,,,, 

1,618,910 

98«,060 

W.  17+4.... 

8,387,625 

8,204410 

P.    1786.... 

4.467,980 

11>»1,116 

W.  17(111,,,. 
W,  17(11,,,. 

1,021,480 

1,481,050 

■W.  1745.... 

2,772,156 

2,676.265 

P.    1786.... 

4,-116,695 

8,017,880 

1,609,170 
7M,X90 

880,4*5 

W.  1746.... 

2,797,506 

8,774.888 

''■    1787.... 

4,468,190 

10,070,560 

W,  17(111,,,, 

1,458,615 

W.  1747.... 

2,803,.170 

8,683.860 

P.    1788..., 

6,118,946 

9,430,710 

W.  1T(N1,,., 

935,875 

808,466 

W.  1748..,. 

8,583,180 

4,160,370 

P-    1789,,.. 

6,850,996 

12,626,500 

W.  17(17,,.. 

1,421,998 

2,066,886 

P.    1749.... 

8,817,620 

0,162,980 

P.    1790.... 

6,956,360 

17,158,390 

W,  17(18,,,, 

1,482,178 

1,200.928 

P.    1760.... 

4,078,848 

6,505,420 

P.    1791... 

r),971,160 

21,127,286 

W.  17(81,.,, 

1,«22,6'i0 

1,847,985 

P.    1751.... 

4,178,260 

6,166,840 

P.    1792.. 

.,198,635 

21,867,090 

W.  1710,,., 

1,849,080 

1.468,800 

P.    1758.... 

6,(120,015 

5,740,.845 

W.  1798... 

4,970,200 

17,578,405 

W,  1711,,,, 

1,628,490 

1,488,1,15 

P.    17.18... 

,  'W,700 

7,2M,780 

W.  1794.... 

..  128,006 

19,299,366 

W,  1712,,,, 

1,829,865 

1,548,455 

P.    17.14..,. 

5,038,810 

6,881,400 

W.  1796.... 

6,-,  .i(KO       "0  270,690    1 

V.    1718,,,, 

1,M6,110 

1,429,785 

P.    1756.... 

4,697,770 

6,,564,990 

W.  1796.... 

10,404,'.., 

!"   '70,160 

'.    1714,,,, 

1,978.876 

1,667.220 

W.  1756.... 

8,296,786 

6,760,890 

W.  17P7.... 

6,877,(.«" 

.  ..<8,996 

;.  [jift,,,. 

1,486,285 

2.256,810 

W.  1757.... 

8,0M,420 

8,141,750 

W.  1798.... 

8,918,C   > 

il  901,846 

'.     1716.,,. 

9,121,946 

2,010.285 

W.  1758.... 

8,8.Vi,600 

8,66;i,44i5 

W.  1799.... 

9,094,7  ti6 

Jd,2  2,790 

'.    1717,,,, 

2,130,450 

2,698.385 

W.  1T59.... 

^,199,546 

ll,727,2i:0 

W.  1800.... 

11,789,615 

89,427,970 

W,  I71X..,, 

8,287,868 

2,136,676 

W.  1700.... 

4,1.19,725 

J8,5M,785 

W.  1801.... 

18,532,690 

87,687,660 

W,  1719.,., 

2,.116.876 

1,96.1,010 

W.  1T61.... 

4,47,1,155 

8,609,485 

P.    1808.... 

9,617,520 

26,647,460 

w,   jao.,,, 

2,840,940 

1,598,526 

W.  1768... 

4,588,070 

6,9ai,080 

W.  1808.... 

9,570,490 

26,864,055 

W,  1721,,,, 

«,46li,855 

1.669,,125 

P.  ]:i8.... 

6,78.1,645 

8,898,740 

W.  1804.... 

8,267,885 

81,992,130 

1'.    I7IM,,,, 

8,1««.4Ho 

2,128,626 

p.    1704.  .. 

6,682,255 

11,865,625 

W.  1806.... 

8,882,780 

85,788,885 

'.    1728,,,, 

«,«08,810 

li,067,965 

P.     17.i5.... 

5,801,495 

9,862,565 

■W.  1806.... 

9,999,420 

48,06r,810 

'.    l7'/t,.,. 

2,318,406 

2,807,«.'K) 

V.    1760.... 

6,283,046 

9.218,916 

W.  1807... 

14,287,610 

89,606,600 

'.  mn.,.. 

2,07'<9.'.fl 

2,748.465 

P.    1767.... 

6,670,890 

9,72^,99(1 

W.  1808.... 

4,181,710 

19,960,895 

',    172(1,,,, 

8,63  ^K'^S 

8,7lW,V)0 

P.    1768.... 

6,8(M,205 

10,990,090 

W.  1869.... 

ll,026,6,Vi 

26,938,066 

'.    1727,,,, 

11,186,(126 

2,514,685 

P,    1769.... 

6,862,820 

6,864,985 

•W.  1S10.... 

18,078,025 

89,066,586 

'.    1721,,,, 

»,(«6,02fl 

8J)S9,815 

P.    1770.... 

6,477,426 

9,774,876 

W.  1811.... 

11,547,075 

7,169,146 

'.    1719,,,, 

8,620,42(1 

8,144,795 

P.    1771.... 

6,742,100 

21,007,876 

W.  1312.... 

6,470,760 

20,677,060 

'.    It80,,,. 

8,8(18,980 

2,(V87,806 

P.    1772.... 

6.8'.!v,,.-li) 

18,456,900 

W.  1818.... 

oyed  bv  flrft. 

.•!6.5I5 

'.    1781,,,, 

H,26l,815 

2,684,845 

P.    1778.... 

6,tt7 1,605 

9,987,295 

W.  1814.... 

118,105 

'.     II«2.,.. 

8,ri9S,180 

8,666,270 

P.    1774.... 

0,902,125 

12,995,880 

W.  1816.... 

11,861,440 

69,682,605 

'.    I7fl«,,,. 

8,848,176 

8,7M,460 

W.  1775.... 

9,767,005 

985,600 

P     1816..   . 

11,931,120 

88,999,5.85 

'.    1781  ,,, 

B,ilB0,75O 

2,781,876 

W.  1776.... 

628,215 

282,1,10 

P.    181V... 

.'.O'  ^  'X 

31,866.140 

'.    17H(..,,, 

8,9«1,»ian 

8,8*1.880 

W.  1777.... 

68,060 

293,966 

P.    1P13.... 

1 ,  :  ,    ,  ,V' 

41,917,180 

'■    I7IW    ,, 

8,499,880 

9,794,810 

Vf.  1778.... 

89,970 

187,920 

P.    1310.... 

■  t,!  ,   ',--H« 

21,603,476 

',    17«T,  ,, 

0,876,916 

8,412,180 

■W.  1779.... 

117,985 

1,768,500 

P.    1580..  . 

18,230,710 

19i601,810 

'.      I7IIH,,.. 

11,1(11,200 

3,756,860 

COMfAKATIVB  BfATRJIRNT  or   Till!   CoMMKROB  OF  TIIB  tjNITr.D  STATKS  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN,  XXHIBITINa  TUB  VALUK  OF 
EnI'dNtlt  TO  Attl   ImI'UR^   from   each  CoI-NTRT,  AND  THE  ToNNAOK  OF  AMERICAN  AND  FOBEION  VESSELS  ABBITINa 

mm  AWtt  DxrABTDio  TO  BACH  Country,  dorino  tub  Years  designated. 


irlaMi 

~m::: ::::.:... 

COMMERCE. 

ISAVIGAtlON.                                         1 

TALUK  or  BXPoaTM, 

VlLtJa   OF 
lUPOHTS, 

AMinK-AN  TOKNAOa. 

POHKION 

TOIfNAOa. 

ptmluf... 

'     |.-on.l«ti 
(irodnca. 

Total. 

Entered  tho 
United  Klatei. 

cleared  frou 
the  IT.  Stataa. 

Entered  the 
United  Staler, 

Cleared  from 
the  U.  Blateg, 

rffm.iw 

44,!l21,Sf,,s 
8fl,'.!fl(|,9H6 
07,768,741 
76,648,294 
68,78S,?3" 
109,581,613 
11(1,8(13,056 
117,H7S,996 
18»,»16,8H7 
132,998,861 

|4, 822,180 
1-ii"'603 
:   123 
8,ll'',l,013 
l,9Mi,876 
4,.f  ■,,648 
8,414,403 
4,7(»,P20 
8,428,275 
6,»t0,402 

a,mfiu 

♦49.0,16,459 
40,216,471 
87,295857 
76,720,758 
78,590,170 
78,178,878 
117,946,015 
115.,';.19,976 
121,.il2,2n 
146,i>5,\880 
139,592,869 

♦41.500.908 
4;!,1)57,740 
07,697,628 
61,84,1,119 
61,154,53s 

890,060 
883,827 
497,278 
460,808 

nnoTAa 

890,990 
891,120 
607,613 
608,1,13 
060,1*1 
466,865 
(M2,216 
651,460 
605,108 
690,108 
863,065 

242,761 

226,652 
444,890 
87.5,285 
665,  «39 
654,Ur,3 
631,847 
8M,164 
658,967 
696,064 
876,008 

220,718 

191,261 
417,251 
810,085 
421,006 
809,886 
80^888 
487,766 
476,74* 
47N68t 
298,610 

vm 

■  i-'-, 

1  i^h'* ,, ,,,^ 

Jg 

75,159,42i       518,766 
9,8,847,8.S6       648,299 
90,623,339       776,971 
130,267,!M(1  1     lURoal 

1«4 

UM 

146,488.637 
106,648.'.  ft 

860,996 
;    905,703 

i 


C<-f^^M. 


ORE 


876 


GRE 


Tasu  MKnmif*  ma  (iVANT)Tiii*  awd  Valpi  or  TniiAroo  (iiaw\  Ikbiah  Com,  Foii,  Bacon  An  Laid  npom* 

rHOM  Till   tfNITlin  HtATU  to   OmiAT   IUiTAIN    and   IULAND,  FIOH    1880  TO    llfiA,    HOTII    YllAM   KCIXDtlVII. 


Y.wi. 

IHiilAI 

1    4<wiiir. 

V«l»». 

Ihil'lin. 

19,110 

188,447 

IMI 

1,174 

"m 

"  io 
no 

467 
61,069 
7,186 
70,9<il 

i\m 

67.HN1 

797,176 

18,76iVllo 

8,867,  IIS 

7  <"  ■  ii-6 

.6 

i,it)4,^;') 

1,110,6'il 

9s;)  690 

4,879,187 

^4»l,410 

ruAH, 
"iWliifc 

1,100 
IM 

i,7iin 

Ml 

"ii 
"io 

4.769 

6,18)0 

8,180 

lll.lHO 

14,140 

18.1)01 

78.1140 

87,760 

111,8n0 

4.1  681 

.•:>■< 

1,6^11 
17,106 
48.664 
04,663* 

MAIM  A  u*etm 

V«lu.. 

IBM 

M,T8S 
86,8m 

18,814 
W).6M 

17,»N.' 

I»  'v.O 

'  ,  '• 

8l  :I80 
17,186 
4^1.181 
8«,9«« 
11,000 
89,181 
86,I6» 
17,948 
19,740 
13,801 
91,807 
80,916 
18.698 
17,696 
N,18< 
17,684 
14,108 

1,«ail,»TI 

1,881,886 
l,84^400 
1,109.107 
l,9H7.ii-J() 
.•',  i.i<l.ii89 

■''  -18 
'(   .'  ,*(IH 
.'4.  .,1)67 
lVi.7,S80 
M  14,886 
8.111,107 
1,161,616 
1,9(81,116 
1,980,1187 
l,418.'i'.>s 
1,OS.'1,.70 
1,160,9117 
1,771,118 
8,1110,080 
8,408,880 
1,011,110 
8,48'<,4'«) 
l,146,»«l 
8,607.760 

Iliull.li, 

01,416 

190,988 

811 

8,140 

"808 

"■« 
180 

Oil 

l()4.H4l 

11,048 

118,660 

M),oi8 

18,1,6SM 

1,191.rtMI 

10.016,010 

0,061,110 

11,896.1 1'l 

r;,i»47 1 . ; 
ii89(i7ri') 

1,608,S40 
0.96.\8,'iO 
0,980,18  i 

1,64« 
1,860 

601 
T,480 
4,994 

1,N|B 

11,461 

400 

667 

l.KI 

1,061 

16,894 

160,174 

606,818 

8.Vt,lH9 

96,18)7 

080,016 

14.867,1110 

19,ll\461 

08.1.M),460 

87,877,769 

14,710.169 

8.107,998 

18,197.879 

88,890,737 

80,140,161 

"mo 

144,1100 
8.480,781 
4,06l),4*« 
8,076.KO0 
0,6N7,678 
Mll.Bsi 
17,79N,770 
17,7''M,841 

!l,Sh«|,l|(l« 

S1,6H'J,091 

6,6'18,7»8 

8.976,114 

9,710,186 

16,710,141 

10,849,911 

fkllan. 

10,8IM 

1,888 

19,878 

10,997 

198 

114,1 

1,198 

40 

88 

141 

110 

80,117') 

187,ll'.'l 

800,'2»« 

648,700 

497,066 

7611,116 

8,471,01)7 

0,1S.H,'.>,19 

6,I«'M94 

4,8t  1,989 

1.087.1101 

1.078,199 

1,189,094 

6,198,894 

0,918,110 

I8R1 

18111 

1888 

1884 

1N8B 

1886 

1H87 , 

1888 

1889 .. 

1li40 

1841  

1841 

1848 

1N44 

iMA 

1816 

IHIf     

1««8 

1849 

I8A 

Isfil 

18A1 

I8m 

18»4 

IsAA    

•  0,679  ticrcoa  worn 
TtRi.8  KXiDntTiKn  Tim  Importd  intis  and  Kxpoktr  rRIIM 

THH  Un)TKD  KiNOlXIM  Of  OlIKAT  HrITAIN  AND  IrK- 
LAND,  rROU  1801  TU  1808,  INCI.t'nlVK,  I)R8IIINKn  TO  IHUW 
TIIK  lir.NKRAI,  FURKKIN  'I'llADE  GIT  THAT  KiNUDUil  DUR- 
ING TUB  PkHIOD  DIUHONATKD, 


r>An. 


1801 
ISOl 
1808: 

Ism 

1800 
1806 
1807 
180N 
1H09 
ISIO 
1M1 
1811 
1818 
1814 
1810 
1816 
1817 
1H18 
1HI9 
1810 
ISll 
181-.' 
1813 
1814 
IvW 
18161 
1117 


Valat   or  Ini-I 

pOTti  Inl'i  Oi«TotAl  •iliorta. 

VnlUd  Klii«d.  I 

I)na«™.       I  IVIIsri. 

108,981,8(8)1  176.1ia,l,'W) 

149,iai.n,V)  19l„'Vll),9fl() 

188.118,4sO,  141,.'iOO.n80 

189.'''7,760|  10\18O,l,V) 

14l,'    1,800,  150,1(81,1100 

184,41S.1»0  167,897,170' 

188,671,110:  l.W,()77,68n 

18S,ii77,7llOi  101,989,9.'i0 

10S,,W,7S0  281,818,1611 

I9.\008,0(10|  117,096,680 

181,MO,91<)  188,990.600 

180,817,105  19,^,107,810' 

Rerorf',    ile>lr!..,«)    h»  Hr«,    [ 

liK,71C,81ii,  167,S6.^•^.'^5 

1 114,986  tfSO,  298,lli',7.'W 

187.108,0111  140,989.100 

•54,171,490  ".'51.010,0^5 

ia4,42.\910|  J6;,S01,6»0 

1B8.R84,000  217,894,900 

161,lU8.2,'iO,  144.707,688 

1M,9611.«)10  207.807,165 

101,0M,7O0  267,800,490 

178.991.160  261,151,560 

177.811,890  194,676,160 

111.04t,i'l,'>  lSl,6OO,910 

189,069,400  liiS.llO.nO 

214,040,165  l,')0,2(k).770 


I  iViiliio  of  lin-, 

(YvAri.  iwrU  Inio  lh«'  ToIaI  eiporll. 
iVullrdKlnrl.l 


,       Dollar>.      { 

1818  120.HS7,110 
1S19  219,976,480 

1880  281,501,860 

1881  148,68i).140 
1881  118.0,")1.780; 
1*18  219.711,180, 
HUM  «4«,H28.665 
1H85  '^40,146,6701 

1886  186,4811.110 

1887  '178.811,410' 
1S8S  806,49O.06.'i 
1889  810.140,60.^ 
1840,  S37,408.,'>00 
IMi  822.111,840 
1842'  8in.26«l,4:)fl^ 

1843,  801,074,,'V60 

1844.  877,146,970 
1840  416,487,040 
1946  879.67(1,110 
1947,  461.609,830 
1948!  467,78.'..070 
1849,  ,M9,878,():i5 
]8,'y)'0'>''801,|i 
1901'0j8,:(»0,6*.  1 
18,02,  046.7'17,040;i 
1808  610,496,060' 


DollAn, 

883,678,170 
884.1181.6.80 
849,.N)8,740: 
807,1(12,4.VI, 
«9O,80O.71o: 

atfft.ioo,.'),^); 

411.  'J9l,lV4fl' 
4.V.,798.910| 
488,009,2Sll| 
418.S97,s»0 
.'.■.'0,827,89,'-| 
.'.ll',9.'W,29ll 
Oil,4O0,070; 
6il.014.480 
069,2ll».ni(l! 
609. 1(M,  78.01 
729.7.88.170 
70I.!H9,OIO| 
T'AOAISO 
780,h6O,(H(i 
704,980,100 
900,0(16.1170 
9s5.54'<.8,90 
,071,914,060 
1,097,7'.'H,495 
,110,881,120 


TaULR    KXnlRITINO    1     i;     ^M.)CNT      It    flOLO    ANll        ll.VER 

Coin  and  IIl'luon  kaiuktkd  from  tiir  Unitkd  Statib 

to  GrCAT  nuITAIN,    rROM    1980    TO    1805,  UOTU   Ykaks 
INCLUSIVK. 


TMr.. 

isao 

VaIik, 
.,..      110,104 
....      61^7l8 
....       S76.4SI 

Ymi. 

i  1818 

V«lnf. 

1881 

1889 

1  1844 

1.^^ 

'  1846 

1847 

1848. 

2,811 

!!!    1,080  ()47 

1888 ..-- 

1884 

1888 

10,000 

1886 

IS49 

1850 

tm,866 
868,667 

188T 

....      619,180 

!."!      846^790 
1,900  957 

1888 

1889 

1840 

1981 

IM 

1968 

1904 

1805 

...    11.'  1,608 

...    "       T,87» 

8,881 

.899 

1,788 

1841 

1849 

....    1,116,719  1 
....      099,491  1 

Zatci  and Regulatioru  Pelat've  to  r(u.ieniff  -s'  Uagga;r 
in  inijlaad  and  the  Untied  States,  Explain 'A  and  Com- 
partd. — The  laws  and  Treasury  orders  refijulating  the 
adnilMir>n  of  baggagp.  personal  eflTects,  etc.,  into  the 
port*  ef  Great  Britain  and  of  the  United  State*. 
respective]}-,  are  based  upon  principles  so  totally  dis- 
similar, that  a  comparative  view  of  lx)th  can  only  be 
presented  by  exhibiting  a  synopsis  of  each.    The  pol> 


alio  oipurtoil  In  19,00. 
icy  of  Groat  Itritain  would  seem  to  he  to  restrict  the 
privilege  ot  f  ire  tntry  to  such  articles  of  irearin;/  ap- 
parel HI  han  been  icom,  and  not  made  up  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  lutroduned  into  the  country,  free  of 
duty;  while  the  regulntinns  in  force  at  the  difTcrent 
ports  of  the  United  .States  e.\l[iliit  a  spirit  of  the  uU 
most  lilieraiity  in  thiit  regard,  enabling  pa.iscngen, 
whoso  "  linggngn  and  personal  clTects"  have  been  hon- 
estly made  U[i,  and  faithfully  manifedted,  to  proceed  to 
their  destination,  without  delay  or  cost,  or  being  huI>- 
Jected  to  tho  many  thousand  vexatious  aniioyniices 
which  a  less  liberal  policy,  in  regard  to  "  passengers' 
baggage,  personal  ell'ects,"  etc.,  must  Inevitably  pro- 
duce. Tho  American  policy  ov  "  is  subject  is,  lii"-lile», 
higlily  benedcent  to  the  lur^^  classes  of  eini^-.ints 
who  seek  on  asylum  on  our  shores,  lltorully  carrying 
with  tliem  their  "  bed  and  boggage,"  their  weaving- 
looms,  spinning-wheels,  and  other  articles  and  imple- 
ments of  handicraft,  all  of  which  are  admitted,  under 
the  tariff  act  of  1846,  free  of  duty. 

In  tho  United  States,  the  admission  of  personal  bag- 
gage, etc.,  is  regulated  by  scliediile  one,  Tariff  Act  of 
lH4(i,  and  of  various  decisions  of  tho  Treasury  Depart- 
ment subseqeuntly  issued.  The  several  provisi'.,ns  of 
the  almve-nnmed  schedule,  and  of  the  Treasury  decli- 
ions,  may  be  clossifled  as  follows:  1.  Household  ef- 
fects, old  and  in  use,  of  persons  or  families  arriving 
from  foreign  countries.  If  used  aliroad  by  them,  and 
not  intoided  for  nny  other  person  or  persons,  or  for 
sale,  free.  2.  Wearing  ap|>arel,  in  actual  use,  and 
other  personal  effects,  not  merchandise  ;  professional 
boolcs,  implements,  instruments  and  tools  of  trade,  oc- 
cupation, or  employment  of  persons  arri\ing  in  the 
United  States  (provided  that  this  exemption  shall  not 
extend  to  or  include  mucliinery  or  other  articles  Im- 
ported for  use  in  any  manufactur'.ig  establishment,  or 
for  sale),  free.  3.  Petjonal  and  household  effects  (not 
merchandise)  of  citizens  of  thr  United  States  dying 
al>roud,  free.  The  exemption  from  duty  contemplated 
by  law  in  the  tirst  clause,  above  cited,  must  bo  con- 
lined  to  such  articles  aa  are  generally  used  in  house- 
lieeping,  and  which  had  actually  been  In  use  liy  the  indi- 
vidual or  family  while  living  abroad,  and  not  imported 
for  sale,  barter,  or  traffic.  The  exemption  from  duty 
of  wearing  apparel,  and  other  personal  effects,  provided 
for  in  the  second  clause  quoted,  must  be  confined  to 
such  articles  as  are  generally  used  on  or  about  the 
person,  and  not  conaideied  aa  merchandise  ;  the  arti- 
cles admitted  under  this  clause  to  be  limited  to  an  ox- 
tent  not  exceeding  in  number,  quantity,  or  value  what 
is  usual  for  a  traveler,  or  other  person,  to  wear,  keep, 


ORE 


•w 


GRB 


the 

.11  not 

8  im- 
nt,  or 

9  (not 
dying 
plated 

con- 
ouse- 
indU 
rarted 
duty 
vided 
ed  to 
t  the 
I  arti- 
n  ex- 
what 
"Hkeep, 


or  Mrry  «Uh  him  (br  hia  own  u»'.  i  ne  prof«ulon*I 
booki,  lniplem«ntH,  Innrumciitt,  ain'  loola  of  trvdr,  oo- 
cu|Hitiuii,  nr  employinunt,  enumurntHl  In  (h«  Hume 
tUuM,  am  limltad  in  iiuiiilHtr,  i|iiiility,  nUil  vnlii*  tn 
what  tbn  collactor  mny  I'onxider  rcii^Hnalile  and  prupnr 
fur  llm  |i«ni»ii  to  wlinin  thvy  lirl»n)(,  in  hi«  profMaion, 
occupation,  tradn,  or  amploymeht ;  liut  the  term  "  im- 
plemnnU  and  tool*  iif  triiilc,"  uiidrr  mi  rinminatiun'n 
to  lie  conaidercd  at  rciniprelirndinK  any  muclilna  or  ar- 
tluU  lu  lie  worked  liy  other  than  manual  power. 

Hfijulntioni  <u  lo  I'lUffni/rrt'  Ihtitgagr,  J'frtimal  Kf- 
/tct;  ell-.,  in  (hull  Itritnin. — Iloura  of  attendaiim  ut 
the  different  lio^Kaffe  wurehouaeaaa  follows :  From  lat 
March  to  aiat  Orlolier,  from  tt  o'clock  A.  M.,  until  7 
o'clock  P.  M.  j  and  from  lat  Novemlwr  to  28tb  Febru- 
ary, from  9  A.  M.  until  6  ■■.  M. 

Aft'ir  all  liaKgaKe  aliall  have  lieen  landed,  tlioae  pan- 
■engera  huviuK  only  lingU  pnikniin  will  lio  rntitlml  In 
have  thorn  flrat  examined ;  the  remaining  paaM'ti^erH 
will  then  lje  culled  into  tlic  exumination-room  in 
rotation,  according  to  the  Hat  fumiahed  by  the  captain 
[pa«a<'ii)(ern  thomaidvca  muat  aco  that  thoir  namea  are 
proporly  insorted  in  the  captain'a  liatj.  All  wearing 
appurel,  after  exaniluntion,  will  lie  inimcdiutely  deliv- 
ered, provided  it  ap|i«arH  that  thfl  upparol  Aim  barn 
worn,  and  not  madn  up  fur  the  pur)H»ie  of  being  intro- 
duced into  tile  United  Kingdom  without  payment  of 
duty.  All  dutiable  artidva  forming  a  piirt  of  paaaen- 
gera'  baggage  will  be  delivered  liiimedlatoly  after  ex- 
amination, on  the  amount  of  duties  duo  thuroon  lieing 
de|»)8itc(l  with  aiich  accredited  pornon  ua  may  b«  au- 
thori/.eil  to  receive  the  aume,  and  »lii4i  a  aniull  aum  for 
paaaiiig  the  entry.  All  morchundian  brought  with 
l><'KK<'l!o  i"  lialile  to  seizure.  Such  gowla  inuat  lie  reg- 
ularly reported  and  entered,  and  tli«  regulations  of  the 
law  strii'lly  complied  with.  If  any  paasungor  ahull, 
upon  being  questioned  l>y  the  proper  otHcer  of  customs, 
deny  that  lie  or  ahe  has  uny  goo<ls  liable  to  duty  in  hia 
or  her  poaaessioii,  and  auch  goods  be  sulisequently  dis- 
covxrcd,  they  will  lie  liulile  to  aeizure,  and  the  passen- 
ger to  u  penalty  of  treble  the  value  thereof. 

I'urcign  newspapers  found  in  the  baggage  of  (lasscn- 
gera,  if  bound,  are  to  lie  charged  with  duty  as  "  giKHls 
munufactu  ed,"  lU  per  cent,  ad  valorem ;  if  unbound, 
they  are  duty  free.  Fowling-pieces,  the  pro|ierty  of 
parties  returning  to  Kngland,  may  lie  delivered  free, 
U|iou  declaration  that  they  are  of  British  manufacture, 
A  pair  of  pistols,  a  single  ritle,  or  a  single  fowling- 
piece,  brought  liy  a  passenger  with  his  baggage,  may 
bo  delivered  duty  free,  upon  a  declaration  that  the 
same  la  for  private  use  only. 

Daty  la  not  to  be  charged  on  any  quantity  leaa  than 
a  pint  of  ordinary  drinkable  apirita,  of  whatever 
Btrength  ;  or  half  a  pint  of  oau  de  Cologne,  or  other 
cordial  water,  or  any  medicated  or  perfumed  apirita  or 
liqueurs,  imported  for  private  uae.  I'aasengers  who 
are  not  J'requent  vititors,  may  include  with  their  bag- 
gage, entitled  to  free  entr}-,  an  amount  of  segara  or 
manufactured  tobacco  under  the  weight  of  half  a 
[lound.  On  half  u  pound  and  upward  the  duty  on 
the  whole  weight  is  to  be  charged.  Passengers,  how- 
ever, from  the  West  Indies  or  other  long  voyages  may 
enter  any  quantity-  of  segara  or  manufactured  tobacco 
not  exceeding  seven  pounds'  weight.  Uooka  and  mu- 
sical instruments,  though  for  private  use,  are  dutiable. 

All  packages  of  baggage  landed  by  "  sufferance," 
when  not  cleared  from  the  examining  Hoor  of  the  sta- 
tion, at  which  they  may  have  been  landed,  within  six 
working  days,  are  to  lie  forwarded  to  the  queen's 
warehouse  for  security  of  duties.  Passengers  who 
may  be  unwilling  or  unable  to  clear  such  articlea  of 
l><>ggage  as  may  be  liable  to  duty,  can  either  aliandon 
the  same,  or  they  may  be  left  in  the  queen's  ware- 
house for  six  months,  in  order  to  give  their  proprietors 
an  opjiortunity  of  taking  them  back  without  payment 
of  duty.— Bebdkll's  British  Tariff,  18M-'6,  pp.  82 
to  67. 


RtgHlationt  rtlalire  to  tMt  Kntrn  nf  ('•««*/<  info  tk4 
Pirrlt  ,)/  llrrat  Britain  and  »/  tkn  llnitnl  Htnlrt  nifit- 
parrd. — Ve««el«  entering  any  [airta  In  (Ireat  Krltaln 
are  subject  '  the  following  regulations,  via. :  H«  miiia 
aa  u  veiael  hiii  reported,  tliii  iin|M>rt«rs,  agenia,  tir  con> 
n'llfwvii  (if  the  cargo,  having  lnuii  utlvlaed  by  rec«l|it 
of  liilla  rif  lading,  or  other  Intimation,  may  each  enter 
their  several  goo<la,  A  Intltude  of  14  days  is  aUowed 
by  law  for  this  purpose  ;  but.  In  oriler  to  clear  vessels 
more  «pei'.'ily,  tiffhl  fulrirt  are  |iermitted  to  the  master 
or  owner  i  i  any  ship  lying  alongside  thn  legal  quaya, 
or  aulTerunce  wharvea,  south  of  the  Thuiiiea  from  !.<jn- 
don  Urldgc  ruHtward  )<i  Uockhead,  under  such  general 
ileacriptlon  ua  Is  contained  in  the  re|iort,  for  any  good* 
that  shall  nut  have  been  entered  by  the  owners  thereof 
within  48  hours  from  the  day  of  report,  upon  condition 
that  perfect  entry  be  niiule  by  the  proprietor  within 
one  month  from  the  ilutu  of  landing,  (iooila  so  clN 
umatuiiced  are  only  liable  to  aeizure  for  iriitccumcy  of 
entry  after  the  lapse  of  a  month,  or  after  the  proprie- 
t<ir's  iierfoct  entry  hua  been  paaied.  If  fierfect  entry  Iw 
not  iiiaile  ut  the  end  <if  a  montli,  or  a  delivery  order 
(ilitaiiu'il,  tliK  go<HU  may  then  lie  sent  to  the  <|ueen't 
wurcliouse,  and  dealt  with  aa  if  landed  by  "bill  of 
algbt.  "— I).  M.,  Ist.luiie,  1H50. 

The  master  of  every  nierchant-veaael,  within  24 
hours  of  entering  the  port  of  arrival,  la  liound,  under 
a  penalty  of  i|i&()0,  to  re|K>rt  Ilia  cargo  to  the  chief  odi' 
cer  of  cU!<toins.  Ilel'nre,  Imwever,  the  maater  is  al- 
lowed to  report,  be  must  declare,  before  aome  ixirson 
duly  uuthoriiii'd  by  the  |io.stmaster-general,  that  hu  hui 
dells  >'red  at  the  |Mist-iit!ice  all  letters  that  were  on 
board  his  ship.  AikI  likewise,  he  must,  under  a  |ien- 
alty  of  iJtlOO,  and  the  further  aum  of  i)50  for  each  alien 
not  induiled  in  tlu>  declaration,  truly  declare  to  the 
number  of  aliens  on  lioard  or  landed  from  his  ship. 
Uooda  generally  are  lialde  to  seizure  for  being  landed 
without  entry ;  and  packages  uncleared  from  the 
ipieen's  warehouse  are  sold  after  the  expiration  of  the 
following  periods,  viz. :  Merchandise,  U  months  ;  pas- 
sengers' baggage,  0  months  ;  and  shl|>8'  surplus  stores, 
12  nionthii.  If,  after  tlie  arrival  of  any  ship  within 
four  leagues  of  the  c(iiist  of  the  United  Kingdom,  bulk 
shall  be  Imiken,  or  any  alteration  made  in  the  stowage 
of  the  cargo  of  such  ship  so  as  to  facilitate  the  unlad- 
ing of  any  part  of  audi  cargo ;  or  if  any  part  lie 
staved,  destroyed,  or  thrown  overboard,  or  any  pack- 
age be  opened,  unless  accounted  for  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  cuminl.Hsloners  of  ciiatoma,  in  every  such  case 
such  master  sliuil  forfeit  the  sum  of  9&()ll.  For  will- 
fully making  a  false  report,  or  if  the  particulars,  or 
any  of  them,  of  such  report  lie  false,  the  maater  sliall 
forfeit  the  aum  of  $500.  (16  and  17  Victoria,  chap.  107,) 

By  the  act  of  Congress  of  March  2,  1799,  masters 
of  vessels  are  required  to  produce  n  manifest  of  cargo 
on  board,  on  the  arrival  within  four  leagues  of  the 
coast  of  the  I'nited  States,  to  such  ofHccr  of  a  revenue- 
cutter,  or  other  oiti  r  of  the  customs,  aa  ahull  tirst  cuiiio 
on  board  such  v.  sael.  <'>r  'lia  inspection.  Tlie  law  re- 
quires that  the  nianifif-t  'sail  lie  in  writing,  signed  by 
the  master  of  s>uii  ^  f-ael,  and  shall  contain  the  name, 
description,  biiUd,  a'ln)  true  tonnage  of  such  vessel, 
the  place  to  which  she  belongs,  with  the  names  of  tiie 
owner  or  owners,  the  name  of  the  master,  the  names 
of  the  places  where  the  goods  shall  have  been  taken 
on  lioard,  and  the  places  within  the  United  States  to 
which  they  are  respectively  consigned,  particularly 
noting  the  goods  destined  for  each  place  respectively, 
and  a  just  and  particular  account  of  uU  tiie  goods  so 
laden  on  board,  whether  in  packages  or  stowed  loose, 
of  any  kind  whatever.  The  names  of  the  passengers 
on  lioard,  specifying  the  number  and  description  of 
packages  belonging  to  each,  together  with  the  remain 
ing  sea-stores,  if  any,  are  to  be  truly  stated.  If  any 
goods  be  imported  in  any  such  vessel  without  hav- 
ing a  manifest  on  board,  agreeable  to  the  foregoing 
direction*,  or  which  thall  not  be  included  therein,  or 


ORB 


8^8 


ORK 


•h»ll  mil  iffM*  thnvvrltb,  th*  matttr  ut  tush  vawi-l 
•hitll  fiirfult  and  poy  ■  mini  nf  inoiMj  *i|iiiil  tn  tlin  vnlii* 
of  lliu  )(iiu<l«  iiiit  Incluiloil  Ihariiln ;  nnil  nil  •iiili  mar- 
ohanilinK  ncil  ImiluitMl  in  (he  tn*nlf<iit,  l>i>lon)(ln^  or 
ivnilKiiutl  t»  th*  mutar,  mati>,  olHiKrn,  or  enw  of  mn-li 
vniiul,  ahull  Im  riirfnitnl.  No  jiililitiun,  nriiiiura,  anb- 
■iltutlon,  iir  nUiirollon  whutaovcr,  oan  Im  muiln  In  th« 
manlfeat  of  thn  ciirKii  of  any  auoh  vcaatl  after  hi<r  ar- 
rival within  four  li-a|fu«<  of  lli '  coaat  of  thn  United 
Htatna,  without  aulijectlntt  tlie  mitit«r  iif  auch  v«ai«l 
to  the  iMiniilty  of  the  law.  On  any  vraiwl  arriving 
from  a  r(>riil)(ii  port,  th*  inaatrT  la  tn  report  to  the  roU 
lector  H  ilhin  'it  boiira  after  hh  iirrlvul ;  anil  within  V4 
boura  tberoaflur  further  to  r«|Hirt,  in  form,  all  the  par- 
ticiilart  requlrvd  to  Im  Inaerted  in  hia  manifaat,  and 
shall  declare  to  the  truth  of  aur'.i  manifeat.  No  v»a- 
iela  iiermitted  to  enter  until  the  muater  ahull  have  de- 
liverml  ail  letter*  diracted  to  perinna  within  the 
United  8tatoa.  Merchaii<lii<e  unladen  Mrltlioiit  |>ernilt 
from  the  proper  offloera  of  the  cuatuma  to  lin  forfi'ltml ; 
■nd  the  matter  and  mate,  each,  forfxlt  4ilil0().  ll«fora 
departure  fur  a  forci^  port,  the  manter  <if  every  vea- 
iel  muat  iluliver  to  the  rollortor  a  manlf«at  of  the 
whole  cari^  iind  the  value  thereof,  and  obtain  a  clear- 
ance, under  the  ponalty  of  tr>00. 

CiJottinl  i'ostrjtiotu  nftlrml  llrhain. — Ai  ■  neosa- 
wrj'  preliminary  to  a  olear  exponitloii  of  the  l»wa  and 
reKuUtionn  which  govern  the  exi«tin((  ronimeR'lal  rn- 
lationx  lietwern  tlio  United  Stntea  and  the  rolonlnl 
poiwjanioniof  (iroat  Britain,  it  will  lie  neceaaary  to  tnico 
•  lirief  ntruapectlTe  glance  at  the  rUo  and  pro^reaa 
of  American  commerce,  from  the  earllect  Hettlement 
of  the  colonies  down  to  thn  preai'nt  period.  AltlioiiKh 
tbnae  preliminary  nnnarka  will  be  moro  e^peciiilly 
addreaned  to  the  commercial  lnt«raoune  lietween  the 
United  States  and  tiie  colonial  poAa«Maloiia  of  (ireat 
nritnin  in  North  America,  they  will  equally  apply  to 
all  the  other  posaeations  of  that  (lOWer  thrnuKhout  the 
world,  by  reoiton  of  the  K«"iirAl  appll(^ation  of  that 
lllieriil  and  enllKbtenetl  ayatcm  of  commercial  policy 
sdoptetl  by  the  Hritiah  I'arliiinient  In  ItMU,  and  Inau- 
gurated as  the  future  commerciul  law  of  tliut  Idngdom 
on  the  lat  day  iif  January,  IHAO. 

From  the  earliest  settlement  of  thodlflTcront  colonies 
on  tJie  North  American  continent  by  the  Kovemmenta 
of  the  Old  World,  i  system  of  colonial  leKixlation, 
similar  in  effect,  and  oppressive  In  o|M>ration,  wiu  com- 
menced by  each,  respectively,  prohililtlng  nil  commer- 
cUl  Intercourse  with  any  other  than  the  mother  coun- 
try, and  rendering  the  infant  colonies  dependent  on 
her  alone  for  the  supplies  necessary  for  their  suliidst- 
ence  and  comfort.  The  effects  of  auch  a  policy  were 
soon  exhibited  in  the  anomaloua  and  destitute  i  ondi- 
tlon  to  which  the  earlier  colonists  were  reduced.  Car- 
rying with  them,  as  they  did.  Into  the  newly  di^ 
covered  wildorness  of  the  western  continent,  that 
adventuroUH  and  enterprising  spirit  vrhich  lisd  le<l 
them  to  forsake  the  homes  of  their  childhoo<l,  uiid  to 
brave  the  perils  of  s  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  It 
may  easily  be  Imagined,  that  the}'  did  not  quietly  auli- 
mit  to  an  illiberal  and  short-sighted  |mlicy,  which  re- 
duced them  to  a  condition  of  industrial  and  commerciul 
vassalage  that  hod  well-nigh  crushed  every  effort  to 
develop  the  abundant  treasures  which  nature  had  ao 
lavishly  spread  before  them,  and  which,  underadiifcr- 
ent  system,  would  soon  have  lirought  within  their 
reach  the  rich  exchanges  of  an  extensive  commerce. 
They  were,  In  the  language  of  one  well  acquainted 
■with  our  earlier  colonial  history,  "prevented  from 
manufacturing  for  themselves,  or  from  engaging 
largely  in  ship-building  or  commerce;  Isolating  them 
from  the  reet  of  tbe  world,  leaving  them  no  trade  ex- 
cept to  the  mother  conntry," 

The  selfish  and  monopollElng  spirit  which  governed 
the  British  leglslatore  in  the  enactment,  u  well  as  in 
the  rigorous  enforcement,  of  these  restrictions  on  the 
satoaiM  whioh  the  h«d  planted  in  North  America,  may 


be  understood  tWim  •  remark  elloited  fVom  XaitA  Chal> 

ham  li)'  a  rtmonttrnm:*  iiKulnat  thia  oppresaivo  imlicy, 
to  wit:  that  "the  ilrltiali  Ainnrlcun  coloniiw  had  n* 
right  t4>  mako  even  a  nail  for  a  horae-ahue. "  "  In  nnd 
out  of  I'arlianiant,"  aitys  the  'I'muaury  raport  of  18111, 
"as  a  ladliical  right  nnd  as  a  national  privilege,  an 
alisolutn  niono|)oly  wiia  deninndud  for  supplying  thn 
colonies  with  every  article  of  consumpton,  and  of 
tranajairting  tli«  wluiin  of  their  pnului*  to  Europe." 

Ill  thn  chiirter  of  Virginia  tliorn  was  an  sxpniss 
at.ipulation  «iu|iowering  the  colonials  to  earr>  on  a  di- 
rect intercoiirne  with  foreign  at.itea.  'ibis  privilege 
naturally  draw  their  attention  Ut  the  cultivation  of  tha 
soil,  and  t4)  the  produition  of  auch  artldi'H  an  would  h« 
most  likely  to  iind  a  foreign  market,  anil  yield  them 
auch  returna  aa  were  moat  suitable  to  tliuir  condt> 
ti<m  and  their  neenaaities.  Acconlingly  we  And  them, 
at  a  vary  early  period,  succeaafuily  engaged  in  th« 
cultivation  of  toiwrco.  This  article  found  a  t«m\f 
deninnil  in  the  markets  of  llollniid,  and  warrhnuans 
were  soon  eatalilialied  for  Its  rucoptlon  at  several  of  th« 
principal  porta  of  thiit  republic.  This  privilege,  how- 
ever, was  not  long  (lerinltteil ;  the  llritlah  merchants, 
atlmuUted  by  an  unworthy  spirit  of  cupidity,  auon  |iflr- 
cnlvnl  the  ailvantiiges  wliiili  tiiia  direct  trade  between 
the  colonies  and  llolland  coufurred  npon  their  com- 
mercial rival,  and  at  unco  adu|ited  active  meaaures  to 
Buppresa  It. 

Tha  intrreats  and  (Miwer  of  tlie  llritlah  government 
wore  appealed  to,  until,  with  a  total  diaregurd  to  the 
necessities  and  claims  of  tlie  colonists,  and  In  pnlpalile 
violutlnii  of  the  riglits  and  privileges  gimraiitied  to 
them  by  solemn  compact,  they  weru  forbidden  to  carry 
their  prwiuce  to  llolland  or  to  any  other  foreign  coun- 
try, and  were  compelled  to  ship  direct  to  Dritiah  ports, 
and  commit  their  commrrcial  operations  exclusively  to 
the  management  und  control  of  Uritlsh  merchanta. 

Several  acta  of  I'lirliament  followed,  proliiliiting  all 
foreign  trade  with  the  colonies,  nnd  restricting  them 
to  a  direct  intercourse  with  tho  mother  country.  The 
lirat  act  which  Indicated  the  future  policy  of  (ireat 
llritoln  toward  her  colonies,  and  bore  with  much  sever- 
ity u|Hm  their  industry  and  enterprise,  was  tliiit  of 
Iti&O,  restricting  their  trade  to  llritlah  or  colonial-built 
aliips.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the  ay.item 
begun  by  Oliver  ('romwnll,  nnd  continued  with  un- 
uliuted  rigor  down  to  the  period  of  tlio  Itovolution. 

The  acTt  of  1060  was  followed  liy  another  passed 
during  the  reign  of  Cliarles  II.  ( lliOO),  prohibiting  the 
exportation  to  any  foreign  country,  of  certain  enumer- 
ated articles,  the  |ini<luco  of  the  colonies,  and  requir- 
ing that  vessels  laden  with  such  articles  should  proceed 
direct  from  the  colonies  to  a  Dritish  port.  Non-enu- 
merated articles,  including  tish,  salted  provisions, 
grain,  flour,  etc.,  cohIiI,  for  u  [leriud,  lie  carrie<l  direct 
to  any  port  in  the  world — a  privilege,  however,  which 
was  subsequently  materially  abridged;  but,  le.«t  tha 
dependence  of  the  colonics  upon  the  mother  country 
should  lie  in  any  degree  relaxed,  the  return  cargoes 
were,  with  the  axce|ition  of  salt,  to  Ihi  relnnded  In 
England  for  reshlpnunt  to  tho  colonies. 

The  policy  which  dictated  this  rostrictivo  measure 
was  rendered  still  mora  opiireaatve  by  an  act  paa.sed  in 
1661),  providing  that  "  no  commodity  of  the  growth, 
production,  or  manufacture  of  Europe  shall  le  Im- 
ported Into  the  British  plantations,  hut  such  iis  are 
laden  nnd  put  on  board  In  England,  Wales,  or  llerwick- 
u])oiv-Twee<l,  and  in  Engliah-huilt  shipping,  whereof 
the  master  and  three  fourths  of  tho  crew  are  English." 
Under  the  baneful  influence  of  this  system  of  un- 
wise, unjnst,  and  oppressive  legislation,  it  may  seem 
almost  incredible  that  the  colonies  should  have  been 
able  to  maintain  any  advancement  in  commerce,  popu- 
lation, or  wealth ;  yet,  if  we  follow  them  in  their 
struggles  and  privations  from  the  commencement  of 
this  tUibeml  and  unjost  policy,  during  the  Common- 
wealth under  Cromwell,  down  to  the  period  of  tha 


the  I 
end,  I 
by  a  1 
Aa 
Ex 
biiseil 
the 
loaded 


declai 
jubje 

In 
Statei 
trout} 
trade, 
ity. 

Mr 
struct 
Amei 
Ixh 
retu 
ports 
effort 


ORB 


870 


ORB 


»' 


RaviilullMi,  w*  iImII  (likl  Ihcm  iUMlUy,  thauifk 
•lowly,  IntraniluK  In  all  thxw  iil«ni«nt«  of  ■  lulkin'a 
ptiMpnrUv,  TliU  wan  iiuinly  attrlliulrtlil*  t4i  tU*  |irlv- 
il«((iia  M  nnnininrc'UI  liilircDurii*  IwtwiH'U  (lin  lotunlM 
thaniMlvai,  (.■imtiiMiiUl  anil  iiuiilar,  whlrli  WM  |Mriiilt- 
leil  t<i  lliMtii  iiH  II  piirt  nf  tlin  llrltlali  iliinilliloiia.  'In  tliU 
unfuUrrnil  nnil  |iriiHlHlilii  trmla  tbn  Anxririiii  I'ulnuli'a 
ware  olilatly  Indalitril  fur  wliitlavar  ruiiiniaruUI  |in>Kraaa 
th«y  hail  inada  (irjiir  to  tha  llavululiiiii,  'I'lix  fnllow* 
Idk  tiilile  •shililta  tha  extent  nnil  valun  of  IhU  Iritila  In 
17UI):  Impiirta,  D1!I,(HIO,OUO  i  ax|Hirta,  tV2,tHm,(MH 
totiil,  i|i'.>ri,(HKl,lK)n.  or  Ihla  aKKr»Kiit«  of  trivl*.  tliat 
wllhtlm  Waat  liullaa  atMxl  thuai  Kx|Hirta,  •U,7(J0,<HM)  i 
iniporta,  4i7,(mi),(NX) ;  li>Ul,  |ill,il&0,OI)0, 

At  tlio  conimancainant  uf  tlia  rnvulutlimary  war, 
tha  (xilanlra  anjnyail  tha  prlvilnKa  of  IrailInK  with  Kn> 
gUnil,  tlin  lirltUh  Wnit  Indlea,  ami  that  part  nf  Kurii|M 
aouth  pf  ('aps  KinUterra  i  anil  thoUKJi  oppraaaail  liy 
unjuni  axartlona,  anil  burilenail  liy  llllliaral  rimtrU'tlona, 
tbay  not  only  lontrlbuteil  tu  tlia  waaltli  anil  inuturlul 
pnMpKrIty  of  tha  niothor  rountry,  liut  )t»y  awry 
proinUa  of  thrivInK,  anil  iwhiavln^  u  naina  of  tliiiir 
own,— l)K  How'a  htvif.u: 

During  the  mvnlutlunary  witr,  all  conimpKliil  u|Hiru- 
tliinx  were  iius|)enili'il,  luiil  thu  pi'iuii  of  17MJI  fiiunil  tha 
trndn  of  tha  new  thirteen  iniluponilrnt  auvaralKnthia  In 
It  mont  foiililn  iiiiil  liuiKuUhlnK  ciinilltinn.  Thalr  Inilu- 
p«nil«ni")  miiila  th«ni  a  furiilun  I'uuntry  to  tha  North 
Ainerli'au  anil  Wont  Indlii  colunloa  ;  unil  li}'  u  rlKuriiiiH 
ayateiii  of  colonial  non-inteniiurac,  tliny  waru  i:iit  ulf 
from  all  trailo  witli  those  who  were  thnir  niitiiriil  oiiin- 
inerviiil  nei|{hb<>rM,  unil,  prior  tu  the  l<«vi>lutlun,  tlinir 
moat  pn>tltal>le  ciistoinurH, 

The  oxhuuatoil  conilition  to  whii'li  the  auvi'riil  Htataa 
wore  now  rtnluceil  remlerod  the  (Imt  few  yeiira  aftor 
the  (ioao  of  the  w»r  a  purlod  of  thii  moat  IntonMi  aolU 
citude.  The  cnnfedi'ratoil  Statea  were  fully  aenallile 
of  the  abaolutu  neceasity  of  opviiinK  ii  riiriilKn  trade, 
and  eaiwi'ially  of  reviiverInK  their  liiit  intt^ioiirae  witli 
the  Uritiah  Woat  Indies ;  liut  every  pru|H>aitiun  to  that 
end,  nrf;i'd  thro.if{h  tlieir  uccrodltetl  ndiiiateri,  waa  mot 
liy  a  decided  rcfuaul, 

Aa  early  a.i  17H3,  Mr.  I'itt,  then  Clmncellor  of  the 
Rxchequer,  propnaed  a  liill  In  tile  liritlali  rurllainenl 
Imaed  upon  the  lllieriil  principle  of  "  iidiiiittiiix  to  all 
the  |Hirta  of  the  Ilritiflli  diiininiona  Ainerieun  veaaela 
loaded  with  g(>m\»,  tlie  growtii  or  producu  iirtlieHe  |tlie 
United]  Mtatea,  on  the  aauio  terina  ua  llritinli  vcKKela 
and  Kuoda,"  Imt  thu  pro|H)aitiiiii  at  once  atiirtled  tlie 
feare  of  the  Britiali  inorchiiutH,  wlin,  witii  the  aid  nl' 
Lord  Xortli,  Mr,  Fox,  and  Uird  HhellleUI,  aucceuded  in 
transferrin);  the  wbolo  auliject  to  the  diacrotinn  nf  the 
kin;;  amlliiH  council.  The  conaei|ueiice  wua,  tbiit  an 
order  wua  immediately  isaued,  nut  only  excliidiiiK 
American  veaaela  from  all  particl|iittion  In  the  ciilniilul 
trade,  but  prolilbitlni;  the  ex|iortution  from  the  United 
Staten  of  provleiona  and  flah,  even  In  UritlaU  liottuuia. 

Two  yeara  after  Mr.  I'ltt'a  uiiaucceaaful  motion  for 
reciprocal  trade  lietween  the  domiiiiuua  of  Orvut  llrlt- 
ain  and  tha  United  States,  John  Adaina,  American 
minister  at  the  court  of  St.  Jamea,  waa  inatriiuted  tu 
renew  the  propoaitinn ;  but  it  met  with  no  mora  fa- 
vorable reception  than  It  did  In  1783,  I^rd  I.iverpoul 
declaring  "  that  it  could  not  lie  admitted  even  us  a 
subject  of  negotiation." 

In  1789,  another  ofTort  was  made  by  the  United 
States  to  negotiate  with  Great  Ilrltuin  a  cummercliil 
treaty,  particularly  with  reference  to  tlie  culnnial 
trade,  bused  upon  principles  of  u  more  liberal  recipruc- 
Ity. 

Mr.  Morris,  then  in  London,  was  eapttcliilly  in< 
structod  to  effect,  if  possible,  a  negotiation  uilmltting 
American  productions,  in  American  bottoms,  Into  itrlt- 
bh  North  American  possessions,  and  bringing.  In 
return,  the  productions  of  those  colonbis  to  our  own 
]iorts  and  markets.  The  result  of, these  renewed 
efforts  was  communicated  to  the  govamment  of  tha 


Unitail  Htates  by  Mr.  Murria,  In  bla  dlapati  h  of  Hep 
tenibar  IM,  17IH),  and  was.  In  nffmi,  that  no  urruiit^e- 
inaiil  by  treaty  loiitd  be  niade, 

h'rum  thla  iwrliKl  down  to  the  year  IN'.'},  thn  port'  of 
tha  llrlllah  Aiiierlian  ndiinlea  wan  virtually  i'!ii»eil 
ilgalnat  the  nimmerre  iif  thu  United  Htiitea,  aMiiie  alight 
relaxationa  having  been  grantad,  almtlng,  however,  to 
no  imneptilda  extant,  thn  alringunry  of  thn  ineiiaiirea 
luloptiiil  by  tlie  Itritlah  riirliumiint,  with  a  view  to 
riinllnii,  within  tiie  very  nurrownat  Kmlta,  the  iniii- 
iiierrlal  entnrprlie  of  a  lountry  In  whiih,  even  at  that 
early  imrliid,  ahe  dnarrlnd  a  future  rival  for  niiiritlme 
aiiprrmuey,  Theae  roUxiitloiia  (lermiltttd  u  dlrei't 
trailn  with  llin  llrltiah  Weat  India  laliinda  in  lertiiin 
•|Hii'illiid  artii'lea,  and  under  inrtaln  ruatrlctluna,  but 
were  not  accepted  by  the  United  .Statra. 

During  the  iHirlod  whh:h  elupaed  lietween  the  yeura 
171)0  ami  M'i,  aevnrul  elforta  were  made  to  place  our 
trade  with  the  Uritiah  Ameriian  colonina  upon  u  bnala 
of  eipiulity  I  theaa  elforta  proving  frultleaa,  the  Uni- 
ted Hiiitna  ibiternilneil  to  aiilitnit  no  longer  to  u  |iolicy 
ail  detrimental  to  her  euniinercUl  pniaperity,  an  iibatl- 
nateiy  perhiated  In,  and  liitliurto  reainted  only  by  tha 
unavailing  fnne  of  dlploinutiu  runionalranco, 

ll«riiro  reanrtlng,  however,  to  any  extreme  mcaaiirea 
Tor  tlui  projier  vlndieatloii  of  our  rommercial  rights 
tlin  government  of  the  United  Stiitea,  atlll  anxloua  to 
avert,  by  ineuna  iif  coiiciliutiiry  legi^jhitinn,  a  total  aus- 
\ii'iialiin  of  trade  and  conimerru  witli  (ireut  llrlt.iin  and 
her  American  lolniilea,  unnounieil,  by  act  of  March  8, 
INKi,  the  prini'lplea  upon  wliirh  nlin  wua  dcairoua  of 
muintiiining  cuinmerciul  ri'lutiona  with  ull  foreign 
nationa. 

Tliia  ui't  re|H'aliiil  nil  diairiminuting  dutlea  of  im|io»t 
and  tiiiinugit  on  foreign  veaaela  in  regard  to  all  loiin- 
triua  whirli  sIiimiIiI  adopt  a  niinilur  policy  in  fiivor  of 
the  United  Htutea.  Tliia  fuir  and  liberal  pro|ioaitiiin 
waa  fiiilowed  liy  a  convention  between  (Ircut  lirituln 
and  the  I'nited  Htutea,  In  which  the  provialnna  nf  the  net 
referred  to  were  adopted,  ao  far  aa  they  were  applii  iililo 
to  the  trade  lietween  tlie  United  >Statea  and  the  do- 
inlnliina  of  that  piiv  er  in  Ktirope,  hut  refusing  to  place 
lier  colonial  trude  on  the  aunio  buaia.  A  more  extended 
notice  of  tiiu  iiroviaiona  of  tliia  convention,  more  jiriip- 
eriy  came  under  tlie  preliminary  remarka  on  the  coii- 
merrlul  reiatlona  of  lu  ^'nlted  Status  with  (ire.  i 
llritain.  It  will  aulllca  to  obarrve,  in  thla  pi.."e,  I'lit 
the  roatrlction  reajiocting  colonial  triido  waa  I''  I  H  ' 
aubjei't  of  a  apeclul  atipultttion.  In  the  fuUowiii  '  .i  i' 
viz,  !  "  Tile  intercnurao  liotwoon  the  XTniu  ^i 
and  his  llrltiinnii'-  mujeaty'a  puaseaaiona  in  tlie  W  < 
IniUea,  and  on  tlie  cnntinont  of  North  America,  aim. 
not  bo  iiffeeted  by  ony  of  the  provisions  of  this  article 
[article  2 1,  Imt  each  party  sbull  remain  in  poaaesdlon 
of  ita  rights  with  respect  to  that  intercounio." 

Thu  act  of  April  IH,  1K18,  was  the  commencement 
I'f  llui  meanuroa  of  retaliation  by  wliirii  the  govern- 
ment of  thn  United  States  had  now  determined  to  force 
(ireut  llritain  into  a,mare  juat  and  lilieral  ayatem  of 
ciiiiiMiercliil  legialutinn,  by  excluding  from  American 
porta  all  alilpa  iieloiigiiig  to  that  nation  cnining  from 
liny  colonies  to  which  vessels  of  the  United  States 
wore  not  admitted. 

The  aocond  section  of  this  act  required  bonds  to  be 
given  In  the  cuae  of  all  Ilrltish  vessels  departing  from 
porta  In  the  Unite<l  States,  conditioned  that  the  csr- 
goea  ahituld  not  bo  landed  in  such  colonies.  This  was 
followed  by  a  similar  act,  passed  In  18'20,  prohibiting 
tho  |iurta  of  the  United  States  to  Dritish  vessels 
coming  liy  sea,  from  any  jiorts  or  places  in  all  the 
American  poaaeaainna  of  Great  Britian ;  and  providing 
further,  that  no  produce  should  be  brought  into  tlio 
United  Stales  from  such  colonies,  unless  imported 
direct  from  the  place  of  production. 

Ylio  effect  of  these  several  retaliatory-  enactments 
upon  the  commercial  Interests  of  Great  Britain  led 
•omo  of  her  most  sagacious  statesmen  to  bestow  upon 


m 


ORE 


880 


ORE 


the  'whole  subject  their  serious  attention,  and  re- 
peated efforts  were  made  In  the  British  Parliament  to 
remove  the  restrictions  upon  colonial  trade,  of  which 
the  American  government  so  justly  complained  ;  and 
so  successiul  were  these  efforts,  that  the  United  States 
government  was  informally  advised  that  the  plan  pro- 
posed by  Lord  Goderich,  for  a  more  liberal  colonial 
polic} ,  would  be  carried  out  by  the  British  Parliament. 
To  .^movo  all  difficulty  on  the  part  of  the  government 
of  th^  Jnited  States,  in  giving  effect  to  any  plan 
based  upon  principles  of  equality,  and,  at  the  time 
time,  to  show  that  the  retaliatory-  measures  adopted  in 
1818  and  1820  were  purely  defensive,  and  resorted  to 
only  after  everj'  means  of  negotiation  had  failed,  the 
act  of  May  2,  1822,  was  passed,  authorizing  the  Pres- 
ident to  declare  the  ports  of  the  United  States  open  to 
British  Tessels  trading  to  and  from  the  colonies,  "  on 
receiving  satisfactorj-  evidence  that  the  ports  of  the 
islands  or  colonies  of  Great  Britain  have  been  opened 
to  thevessels  of  the  United  States." 

This  was  followed  soon  after  by  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment fully  meeting  the  contingency  provided  for  in 
the  act  of  Congress  above  referred  to ;  and,  in  August 
following,  tlin  President's  proclamation  was  is.iaed, 
declaring,  in  the  language  of  the  act  of  Conf^ress, 
"  iho  ports  of  the  United  States  open  to  British  ves- 
sels trading  to  and  from  the  colonies."  This  act  of 
Parl;amcnt,  however,  was  in  a  great  measure  rendered 
nugatory  by  the  insertion  of  a  clause  restricting  Amer- 
ican vessels  to  a  direct  trade  with  the  colonies,  and  by 
the  terms  of  the  Treasury  circular  of  24th  September 
following,  subjecting  British  vessels  coming  from  the 
colonies  to  heavy  discriminating  duties.  I'liis  course 
was  justified  by  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
on  tho  ground  that  it  became  necessary,  as  a  means 
of  countervailing  the  discriminating  duties  to  which 
American  produce  was  subjected  when  imported  into 
the  colonies,  or  from  the  colonies  to  Great  Britain,  in 
British  bottoms.  In  a  subsequent  part  of  these  re- 
marics,  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  effect,  this  equality, 
with  some  few  exceptions,  has  prevailed  since  the  ali- 
oliti(<n  of  imperial  duties  on  colonial  importations; 
but  the  principle  which  it  involves,  that  of  foreign  in- 
terference with  the  colonial  tariffs  of  Great  Britain, 
was  never  admitted  by  tliat  government,  nor  was  it 
ever  pressed  by  the  United  Stiites.  Indeed,  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  views  expressed  on  this  sulyect  by  the 
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  in  a  dispatch  to  Mr.  Barbour,  six 
years  subsequently  to  this  period,  has  never  been 
questioned  by  the  govemm.cnt  of  the  United  States ; 
anil  their  application  has  (jcen  continued  to  this  day, 
in  the  discriminating  duties  just  alluded  to  as  excep- 
tions, without  any  objection  or  remonstrance  on  tlie 
part  of  tlie  American  government.  As  the  policy  of 
these  countervailing  duties  involves  a  fundamental 
principle  of  commercial  law,  tho  language  of  the  I'^rl 
of  Aberdeen  in  reference  to  it  is  not  deemed  inappro- 
priate in  tliis  place : 

"It  never  could  be  intended* to  agree  that,  under 
no  circumst'inces,  should  tho  vessels  of  the  one  [the 
mother  country]  have  no  advantage  over  those  of  the 
other;  and  the  undersigned  in  no^  aware  of  any  in- 
stance in  wtiich  one  country  has  i«monstrated  with 
another  country,  having  colonies,  upon  the  terms  on 
which  it  has  regulated  its  own  intercourse  with  those 
colonies.     •     *     • 

"  The  intercourse  between  a  country  and  her  col- 
onies is  as  absolutely  out  of  the  scope  of  stipulation, 
negotiation,  or  remonstrance,  as  is  the  intercourse  be- 
tween one  island  or  port  of  the  mother  country  and 
another." 

The  object  of  Great  Britain,  during  this  protracted 
controversy  with  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
for  commercial  equality  in  colonial  trade,  was  avcw- 
adly  to  secure  to  British  navigation  all  the  advan- 
tages derivable  from  an  exclusive  trade  with  her  col- 
olonies,  even  in  the  productions  and  manufactures  of 


the  United  States — an  object  easily  promoted,  If  not 
virtnally  accomplished,  by  the  naturalization  of  Amer- 
ican prndnctions  imported  into  the  colonies,  and  their 
exportation  thence  in  British  vessels,  at  the  low  duties 
assignable  to  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  tlie  pro. 
duce  of  the  colonies. 

It  was  a  part  of  a  system  chiefly  designed  to  en- 
courage British  navigation,  and,  incidentally,  to  quote 
again  from  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  "  for  extending  the 
commercial  transactions  of  British  colonif.s,  giving 
them  the  advantages  of  a  trade  of  deposit,  and  facili- 
ties fur  collecting  a  revenue." 

Notwithstanding  these  restrictions,  equally  injuri- 
ous to  the  commerce  of  both  countries,  the  United 
States  still  maintained  an  active  and  profitable  trade 
in  supplying  the  West  IndU  colonies  with  her  staple 
productions  through  the  neutral  and  other  colonies 
with  wb<  -Ii  she  was  permitted  to  carry  on  a  direct  in- 
tercourse. The  British  interdict  of  1826  closed  the 
ports  of  all  the  British  American  possessions,  with  the 
exception  of  the  northern  colonies,  including  the  Ber- 
muda Islands,  to  American  vessels ;  still,  the  statisti- 
cal returns  of  that  period  exhibit  a  steady  and  vigorous 
indirect  trade  carried  on  through  the  circuitous  routes 
just  indicated. 

The  following  tables,  compiled  from  official  returns, 
show  the  value  of  our  exports  and  imports  to  and  from 
the  British  American  colonial  po'-sessions,  from  1821  to 
1830,  during  which  period  the  restrictive  and  counter- 
vailing measures  of  both  governments  were,  to  some 
extent,  relaxed,  and  our  trade  with  tnese  possessions 
was  relieved  from  the  onerous  imposts  of  indirect  and 
circuitous  channels.  During  a  portion  of  this  period, 
as  will  be  seen  by  glancing  over  the  following  tables, 
and  noting  the  disparity  in  the  amounts  during  the 
years  designated,  American  trade  was  barely  able  to 
struggle  through  the  rcstricticns  and  burdens  which 
pressed  upon  it.  The  remarlis  aU-etdy  sul>mitted  with 
reference  to  the  legislation  of  that  period,  both  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  will  sufHciently 
explain  the  discrepancies. 

Staiemknt  KxniniTiNo  the  Valiii!  or  Imports  and  Ex- 

I'OUra  TO  AND  KBOM  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  BkITISB 

AuEBicAN  Possessions,  diirino  the  Years  specified 


TEAM. 

BEiniH  WHT  INDIES. 

H.   AHEEICAH 

rOMIUlONf. 

Import*. 

Exports, 

Iniporti, 

Eiporti, 

1821 

|»27,84« 

«265,102 

|490,7U4 

»2,(K,»,791 

18M 

8ft>\MT 

462,141 

628,817 

1,898,878 

1823 

1,844,931 

1,827,967 

463,779 

1,827,208 

1824 

2,T.'W,06T 

1,771,008 

714,!44 

1,782,989 

1S26 

2,487,122 

1,647,U4« 

619,884 

2,56«,0»2 

1826 

a,2M,412 

2,110,802 

358,950 

2,5sa,7»5 

1827 

895,207 

690,877 

445,113 

2,830,748 

The  foregoing  tables  will  exhil)it,  at  a  glance,  the 
injurious  effects  consequent  upon  tlie  different  acts  of 
retaliatory  legislation  resorted  to  and  enforced  by  both 
nations  during  this  prolonged  and  unyielding  contest. 
Other  tables  will  tie  introduced  in  the  proper  place, 
showing  the  value  and  extent  of  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  the  British  colonial  possessions  sub- 
sequently to  the  year  1830,  when  a  policy,  based  upon 
the  just  principles  of  reciprocal  benefit  and  generous 
competition,  succeeded  the  illiberal  and  unwise  meas- 
ures iiy  which  the  commercial  intercourse  of  both 
countries  had,  for  nearly  half  a  century,  been  diverted 
from  its  natural  channels. 

It  will  be  recollected  that  by  the  act  of  Congress  of 
]  823,  passid  as  soon  as  could  be  after  the  Treasurj'  cir- 
cular of  September  14,  1822,  already  referred  to,  had 
been  issued,  the  claim  to  an  e(|uality  with  Great 
Britain  as  to  duties  on  importations  into  the  colonies 
was  reasserted,  and  the  terms  of  the  President's  proc- 
lamation of  August  of  the  same  year  were  affirmed. 
Great  Britain  could  not  be  induced  to  yield  this  point : 
her  object  being  to  enable  her  to  ' '  protect  the  staples 
of  her  own  subjects,  by  levying  discriminating  duties 
on  the  like  proaacttons  of  foreign  countries."    With- 


ORE 


881 


ORE 


ont  nneh  finpoati,  Iha  IlritUh  govcrnmrat  contended 
"  that  th«  production*  of  hnr  Nurtli  American  coloniea 
would  be  totally  excluded  from  the  market*  of  the 
West  India  Inland*,  a*  they  rould  not  poi*ltily  com- 
pete  with  aimilar  production*  of  the  United  Htates," 

Thia  deterininatliin,  and  theae  diacriminatInK  dutlea, 
led  to  the  refuaul  liy  (!on)(r«*a  to  accept  the  terma  on 
which  the  port*  of  the  Hritlah  coloniea  were  opened  to 
American  trade  \>y  the  a<'t  of  1H26. 

The  conditions  an  which  tlii*  trade  waa  offered  were 
not  deemed  ailinlaailjle,  Inuamiich  a*  they  demanded 
that  the  commerce  and  navlKatlon  of  Great  Britain, 
and  her  po**e**lon»  abroad,  with  the  United  Htatea, 
ahould  be  placed  on  the  fmitlng  of  the  moat  favored 
nation ;  while  dUcrlminationa  exiated  in  auch  colonial 
poaaessions,  not  only  unequal  aa  raapected  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  exclusively  applicable  to  the  commerce  of  the 
United  Matea. 

Theae  different  acta  are  recurred  to  for  the  purpoae 
of  elucidating  more  clearly  the  illilHiral  policy  and 
narrow  Jealouaie*  which  pr'r«<led  the  new  era  in  the 
oommercial  policy  of  both  countrlei,  upon  which  they 
at  lenf^th  entered. 

In  1829,  Mr.  Hcl>ane,  the  American  minister  at 
London,  in  purauance  of  Inatructlana  to  that  effect, 
propoaed  to  the  KritUh  cabinet  "  a  reatoration  of  the 
trade  between  the  Untied  Htatea  and  Great  Britain, 
with  apecial  reference  to  her  American  (loaaeaaions, 
upon  a  liasi*  of  reciprocal  concesaion,  and  announced 
the  willinKnes*  of  hi*  )(overnment  to  accede  to  the 
term*  prescribed  by  tlic  a<;t  of  Tarlloment  of  1825." 

In  o|)enini{  thIa  negotiation,  Mr,  McLane  Introduced 
the  propoaitiun  which  he  waa  authorl/.ed  to  aubmit,  by 
referring  to  "  the  niiauiidcriitandlnKa  and  jealousies 
which  hod  hitherto  i^haracterizcd  the  commercial  rela- 
tions of  lH>th  countrie*,"  oliservInK,  "  that  it  waa  the 
Interest  of  botli  Kovernmetits  to  extin)(nlah  theae  causes 
of  mutual  bitterness ;  to  correct  the  errors  which  may 
have  interrupted  the  harmony  of  their  past  inter- 
course ;  to  (Uscuril  from  their  commercial  regulations 
measures  of  hostile  raono|Hily  |  and  to  adopt  instead  a 
generous  aystem  of  frank  and  amicable  competition." 
Such,  in  Mr.  Mcl<an«'a  Jud)(ment,  woukl  be  the  happy 
result  of  the  propositlim  lie  waa  Instructed  by  hia  gov- 
ernment to  suliniit,  namely,  "  that  the  government  of 
the  United  Statea  would  now  comply  with  the  condl- 
tiona  of  the  ati  of  rarlianient  of  .luly  B,  1825,  by  an 
express  law  otwning  their  jHirta  for  the  admiasion  of 
Britiah  veascla,  and  by  allowing  their  entry  wi'h  the 
aame  kind  of  British  coloninl  produce  oa  might  be  im- 
ported in  American  Iwttoms,  the  veaaela  of  both  coun- 
tries paying  the  aanu)  charges;  anapending  the  alien 
dutina  on  British  vessel*  and  cargoes,  and  abolishing 
the  restrii'tiona  ilefliied  in  the  act  of  Congress  of  1823, 
on  the  intercourse  iHstween  the  United  States  and  the 
Britisli  colonies;  and  that  auch  a  law  aliouid  !«  imme- 
diately fiill-jwcd  by  a  revoi^atlon  of  the  Britiah  order  in 
council  of  thu  27tli  .July,  182(1,  the  alMilition  or  snapen- 
sion  (if  all  discriminating  ilu'.lfs  on  American  vessels 
in  tliu  llritiah  loluiilut  (Hirta,  and  th«  enjoyment  by  the 
United  Ktutes  of  the  advantage*  of  the  act  of  Parlia- 
ment of  5tli  .July,  1826." 

In  submitting  till*  profKisItioo,  Mr.  Ti-.cl.ane  dis- 
tinctly (leclareil  that,  "  whatever  may  lie  the  <llH|Kiai- 
tiun  which  hia  majesty's  government  may  now  lie 
pleased  to  nuke  >if  till*  sulijei't.  It  must  uoceaaariiy  be 
tinal ;"  u  declaration  wlilili,  iloubtless,  contributed 
somewliiit  to  the  satisfactory  nnd  liberal  art.ingement 
which  soon  followed. 

In  aiitu'lpation  of  a  final  and  satisfactory  adjuat- 
nient  uf  this  iiuestlon,  ami,  ut  the  same  time,  to  mani- 
fest the  lilM-rai  spirit  which  aiiiiiiated  the  government 
of  the  United  HltUm  in  It*  solicitude  and  willingness  nt 
all  tiiiiea  tu  tcriiiinate  a  contest  ci|ually  detrimental  to 
the  ciimmcrcu  nf  both  nations,  an  act  was  passed  in 
May,  18:10,  cliitiiiiig  the  i'rcsident  with  [lOwer,  on  re- 
oelrliiK  satisfactory  evidence  of  th«  wUllngneaa  of  the 
Kkk 


Britiah  government  to  accede  to  the  piopoaition  Bub< 
mitted  by  Mr.  McLnne,  to  faaue  hia  proclamation  rati- 
fying tho  terma  of  that  proposition,  an(t  tendering  to 
Britiah  vessela  engaged  in  the  colonial  trade  the  advan- 
tages which  it  secured. 

On  the  17th  of  August  following,  Mr.  McLane  waa 
officially  notified  by  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  that  hia 
government  was  prepared  to  accept  the  terms  on  which 
it  waa  proposed  to  relax  their  colonial  aystem,  and  per- 
mit a  direct  trade  between  the  United  Statea  and  the 
North  American  posaesaiona,  and  only  awaited  the 
neceaaary  action  on  the  part  of  that  government  to 
promulge  the  requisite  ordera  to  that  end.  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  5th  day  of  October  fallowing,  the  Presi- 
dent, by  virtue  of  the  authority  conferred  on  him  by 
the  above-mentioned  act,  issued  his  proclamation,  de- 
claring that  the  act  "  concerning  navigation,"  passed 
on  the  18th  day  of  April,  1818,  the  act  supplementary 
thereto,  passed  on  the  15th  day  of  May,  1820,  and  tlie 
act  entitled  "  An  act  to  regulate  the  commercial  inter- 
course between  the  United  States  and  certaui  British 
ports,"  paased  on  the  let  day  of  Klarcb,  1823,  were  ab- 
solutely repealed ;  and  that  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  were,  from  the  date  of  the  proclamation,  open  tx) 
British  vessels  and  their  cargoes,  from  the  islands, 
provin>'e8,  and  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  on  or  near  the 
North  American  contioent,  and  north-east  of  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

These  several  acts,  it  will  be  borne  in  mind,  consti- 
tuted the  whole  system  of  retaliatory  measures  adopted 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States,  during  the 
co'iMnuance  of  the  commercial  controversy  now  brought 
to  u  close.  Corresponding  orders  in  council  were  also 
promulged  by  the  British  government,  giving  full 
validity  to  the  arrangement,  and  placing  the  United 
States  on  an  equal  footing,  with  respect  to  colonial 
trade,  with  the  other  nations  that  bad  eompfied  witlt 
the  act  of  1825. 

The  commercial  intercourse  between  the  United 
Statea  and  the  American  colonial  fiosaessious  was  now 
established  on  a  basis,  in  some  respects,  it  is  true,  re- 
strictive, but  still  sufficiently  liberal  and  broad  to  in- 
spire -with  renewed  energy  the  commercial  interests  of 
the  nation,  and  direct  them  in  the  more  equal  compe- 
tition on  which  they  were  permitted  to  enter. 

Nearly  50  years  before  this  period,  the  policy  to 
which  uireat  Britain  now  gave  her  assent  was  si^gest- 
ed  and  urged  with  great  earnestness  bj'  Mr.  I*itt,  then 
Chancellor  of  the  British  Exchequer.  His  proposition, 
already  noticed,  was  to  the  efl!ect  that  Americua  ves- 
sels loaded  with  goods,  the  growth  or  produce  of  the 
United  States,  should  Le  admitted  to  all  the  ports  of 
the  British  dominions.  Every  administration,  from 
the  formation  of  thia  government  down  to  the  year 
'^830,  directed  its  be^t  energies  to  effect  a  negotiatioii 
with  the  British  government,  recognizing  this  princi- 
ciplc ;  but  '  hether  from  a  real  desire  to  protect  and 
foster  its  uwn  navigation  and  commerce,  as  was 
avowed,  or  to  repress  tho  spirit  of  commercial  activity 
which,  from  the  very  earliest  period,  had  characterized 
the  United  States,  every  nlistucle  that  diplomacy  could 
create,  and  every  aophiatrj'  that  ingenuity  could  sup- 
ply, seemed  interpo.'icd  whenever  the  question  was 
pressed  upon  the  attention  of  the  British  cabinet. 

How  disastrous  this  restrictive  policy  proved  to  the 
commercial  interests  of  both  countries,  and  espccially 
to  those  of  the  West  India  colonies,  which  naturally 
looked  to  the  United  States  for  the  necessary  supplies  of 
subsistence,  may  be  gatliercd  from  the  tables  already 
given.  The  increase  of  the  total  trade  of  the  United 
States  from  this  period  may  be  sliown  as  follows : 
CoMMfiRrE  or  THE  Unitkd  States. 

GxportA.  Im|)Ortii, 

IRfin »7a,849,.W8  |70.S76,920 

ISaS 121,698,.'i-7  ]4»,89.\742 

ISW 132,085,946  107,141,519 

The  progress  and  almost  incredible  augmenta- 
tion of  this  trade   under  the  new  arrangement  may 


I 


W% 


m 


QBE 


882 


M  seen  from  the  following  comparatlre  statement  of 
imports  end  exports ; 

OfnoiAL  Valuk  or  luroiin  and  Expobts  or  tub  UsmD 
States  to  and  pkcm  thk  Britmu  Noktii  Amkkioan 
AMD  WnT  India  I'ouiissiuns  roR  1880  AND  1840,  ax- 

SFIOnVELT  ;  SIIOWINO,  ALSO,  TUII  INOBBASB  or  TORHAOI 
DDBIHO  THAT  PBBIOD. 

u 


jBrlt  N.  Amor. 

pogseulons. . 
iBrtt.  W.  Indies. 


IMPOBta. 

XIPOIITC. 

isto. 

1940. 

1830, 

1S40. 

I$660,8fl8 
lS8,S7t 

»»,OOT,T«T 
1,M8,1<5 

18,786,878 
1,901 

t<,098,«!0 
2,968,584 

From  the  foregoing  table  It  will  be  seen  that  the  ag- 
gregate trade  with  the  British  American  colonies  in- 
creased during  the  period  designated  from  $4,436,676 
to  $8,601,017,  or  nearly  100  per  cent. ;  and  the  increase 
in  the  trade  with  the  British  West  Indies  in  the  same 
period  was  equal  to  2400  per  cent. 

This  vast  increase  in  the  value  of  the  trade  neces- 
sarily supposes  a  corresponding  augmentation  in  the 
amount  of  tonnage.  As  illustrative  of  the  elastic 
and  enterprising  spirit  of  American  commerce  when 
freed  from  the  sliacldes  of  illiberal  restrictions,  and 
permitted  a  fair  competition,  on  eqnal  terms,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  preceding  table,  the  following  statements, 
exhibiting  the  augmentation  in  t«mnage  under  the 
new  arrangement  of  IH.SO,  will  prove  interesting. 

The  average  tonnage  which  entered  in  the  United 
States  from  the  British,  Swedish,  and  Danish  West 
Indies  during  the  years  specified  was  as  follows : 

Tom. 

In  16S8, 1S2«,  and  1880 88,688 

In  1882. 114.661 


Increase. . 


J6,018 


The  average  tonnage  which  departed  from  the 
United  States  for  the  llritiah,  Danish,  and  Swedish 
West  Indies,  in  the  same  years,  was  as  followa  : 

Ton*. 

In  182S,  1829,  and  1880 91,485 

In  1883. 184,986 

Increase 4.3,651 

During  the  first  fjeriml.  vis.,  1828,  '29,  '30,  the  prin- 
cipal trade  to  the  itritisli  West  Indira  was  indirect  and 
circuitous;  during  the  latter  18.T2),  under  the  new 
arrangement,  it  was  direct.  Similar  results  followed 
the  liberal  policy  of  1830,  in  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  the  North  American  colonies ;  and,  as  we  are 
now  approaching  a  new  era  in  the  commercial  inter- 
course lietween  the  I'nited  States  and  these  colonii], 
the  advent  of  which  was  announced  by  the  repeal  of 
the  Brilisii  navigation  laws  in  1849,  the  following  tables 
are  intt'ixluced  for  the  purpose  not  only  of  exhibiting 
the  augmentation  in  that  trade  during  the  two  periods, 
but  also  of  indicating  its  probable  future  increase 
under  the  beneficent  effect  of  the  late  reciprocity 
treaty. 

The  average  tonnage  entered  into  the  United  iStates 
from  the  North  American  colonies  uuring  the  years 
specified,  is  as  follows : 

Tons. 

In  1R2S,  1829,  and  1880 36,804 

InlKSS 182,672 

Increase 86,868 

The  average  tonnafjo  departing  from  the  I'nited 
States  to  North  American  possessions,  the  same  years, 
WB1  as  follows : 

Ton». 

In  1828, 1829,  and  ls80 10S,.S70 

In  1838. »11,»»8 


Increase ]07,»H 

The  following  is  a  summar}'  of  the  foregoing  tsbles ; 

Ton*. 

{■crease  »f  tonnasc  enUrert  In  18.32  from  the  W.  Iiid,    26,0H 
Increase  of  tonosge  from  North  American  posseutons    86,8ils 


Increase  of  tonnage  departed  to  the  West  Indie*. . . 
Increase  of  tonnage  departed  to  the  N.  Amer.  pos. 


Teal. 
43,661 
107,978 


ToUl 112,886 


Total 151,B»» 

It  will  have  already  been  perceived,  from  the  fore> 
going  tables,  that  so  soon  as  American  commerce  was 
liberated  from  the  thralldom  of  oppressive  and  prohilv 
itory  restrictions,  it  at  once  challenged  a  competition 
with  the  flags  of  all  nations  in  supplying  the  markets 
of  the  British  West  India  and  North  American  posses- 
sions, and  in  maintaining  with  them  a  profitable  and 
an  extensive  trade. 

Indeed  the  benefits  resulting  flrom  the  measures 
adopted  in  18B0,  not  only  to  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  but  to  the  West  India  and  other  Amer- 
ican possessions,  became  so  manifest,  in  the  vast  in- 
crease of  capital,  tonnage,  and  the  value  of  trade,  and 
the  commercial  relations  between  the  two  nations  had 
become,  year  by  year,  so  closely  united  in  the  bonds  of 
mutual  interest  and  of  a  more  enlightened  policy,  that 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  British  nation  received  with 
much  favor  the  first  advance,  taken  by  Sir  Kobert 
Peel,  toward  the  system  of  free  trade,  which  now  con- 
stitutes the  basis  of  British  commercial  legislation, 
and,  in  its  results  upon  the  general  prosperity  and 
wealth  of  that  nation,  fully  vindicates  the  wisdom  and 
foresight  of  its  distinguished  uuthur. 

Prior  to  1847,  American  exports  to  the  British  colo- 
nies were  burdened  with  double  duties — those  imposed 
by  the  British  Parliament,  styled  imperial  duties,  and 
those  prescribed  by  the  local  legislatures  of  the  difler- 
ent  colonies.  The  revenue  derived  from  the  former 
was,  at  all  times,  inadequate  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
the  colonial  system  ;  and,  in  consequence,  the  British 
civil  list  was  annually  increased  by  large  appropria- 
tions for  colonial  purposes.  The  embarrassed  condi- 
tion of  the  British  finances  at  this  period  co-operated 
very  opportunely  with  Sir  Robert  Peel's  predilections 
in  favor  of  free-trade  policy,  in  inclining  the  British  gov- 
ernment to  receive  favorably  his  proposition  to  aban- 
don all  control  over  colonial  tariffs,  and  throw  their 
foreign  possessions  on  their  own  resources.  This 
measure  was  at  once  adopted ;  and  in  the  season  next 
succeeding,  the  Canadian  legislature  abolished  the 
discriminating  and  prohibitory  duties  on  imports  in- 
land, thus  placing  the  mother  country  in  the  same 
relative  position  as  foreign  nations.  The  abolition  of 
the  British  corn-laws  next  succeeded  in  this  liberal 
policy ;  ond,  in  1849,  the  crowning  net  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  life — the  repeal  of  the  British  navigation  laws — 
consummated  the  s^'stem  of  measures  introduced  by 
that  statesman,  so  far  at  least  as  that  system  affected 
the  intercourse  of  foreign  nations  with  British  colonies 
throughout  the  world. 

By  these  several  acts  of  imperial  legislation,  the 
compi  jhcnsive  principle  wa»  established  of  uilmitting 
into  Great  Briain,  or  into  any  British  possession,  goods 
of  any  sort,  in  a  ship  of  any  country,  from  any  part  of 
the  world,  subject  onl}'  to  such  prohibitions  and  re- 
strictions as  were  deeme^l  necessary,  either  for  the 
safety  of  the  State,  or  for  the  protect'-,'-  of  revenue  and 
mercantile  interests. 

Undr.  the  class  of  absolute  prohibitions,  the  follow- 
ing articles  are  included,  vh. :  gunpowder,  ammu- 
nition, nrns,  or  utensils  of  war,  except  from  the  United 
Kingdom  or  any  British  ppssession,  and  l>ase  or  coun- 
terfeit coin.  These  are  prohibited  to  be  imported  into 
the  British  possessions  in  America  or  the  Mauritius. 
Other  prohibitions  and  restrictions  will  lie  found  es- 
piclally  set  forth  in  Part  ll..  Com.  Rel.  U.  S.,  1857. 

The  only  imposts  to  which  tlie  commerce  of  the 
United  States  with  the  colonies  of  Gieat  Britain  is  now 
subject,  are  the  colonial  duties  imposed  by  the  local  leg* 
islatures  of  the  respective  colonies  ;  and  these  apply, 
with  some  few  exceptions,  which  are  noticed  in  their 
proper  place,  equally  to  Bkitish  importations  and  Brit- 
ish Ijottoms.     These  duties  are  generally  very  moder- 


ORB 


»M 


ORE 


ate,  designed  solely  to  me  t  the  neeeiMrj'  AltpMlM*  Af 
thr  colonies,  and  are  at  least  one  third  l«s«  th«n  th« 
duties  levied  in  the  United  Mates,  un  slmilur  d«Mi.>ri|*' 
tions  of  merchandise,  by  the  tariff  act  of  tftWi 

We  have  noticed  the  woni^erful  progress  fiMt  I*t«ll4/ 
increase  in  the  value  and  tonnage  of  AmerUmn  f4iltt' 
merce  with  her  colonial  neighbors  which  fotlowttd  tlio 
negotiation  of  1830,  and  the  subsequent  ai'ts  und  ri>niu 
lations  of  the  British  government.  Kuiji  su<M'«<Mi«'« 
year  brings  its  tribute  of  augmented  returns  in)6  aft- 
panding  commerce  to  illustrate  the  wiaduiii  anit  thx 
far-seeing  sagacity  of  those  statesmen,  in  Iwtli  etmO' 
tries,  who  originated  this  liberal  syHteni, 

The  commercial  intercourse  of  the  IJnit<!4  HtnUm 
with  the  West  Indies  and  the  eastern  poss«st|<4i4  ii( 
Great  Britain  remains  unchangcil  since  INM,  AU 
though  this  intercourse  is  still  dependent  on  tlm  ret^i'' 
lations  of  the  mother  country,  as  a  general  rulo,  tilt 
impost  duties  are  equal  uu  uli  liottuuis,  hut  sliglil  din- 
criminations  existing  even  in  favor  of  lirltlkh  VASnols, 
With  tlie  North  American  provinces,  however— thot  Is, 
with  "  Canada,  Newfoundland,  New  lirunswli^k,  Hitv» 
Scotia,  Prince  Mword's  Isl  -d,  and  the  imv»r»\  UU 
ands  tliereunto  adjacent"— a  8)^.>u;m  of  the  nMi«t  li'wnt 
and  unrestricted  character  has  lieen  aduptad,  wMt'h, 
to  a  great  oxtcnt,  places  commercial  inter<'/>urs<t  IW' 
tween  the  United  States  and  those  pussj'sajoiis,  rA< 
spectivcl}',  on  tiie  footing  of  an  unfetterii'l  uuitiilUlg 
trade.  The  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1(J54  e>taiilfj>h«"t  « 
free  trade  between  the  colonies  above  named  and  Urn 
United  States,  in  the  principal  raw  staples  itt  iuiiU 
countries,  and  concedes  to  the  citizens  uf  tlia  luttttf 
among  other  privileges,  "the  rigbt  to  iiiivlg»t«  tlw 
Kiver  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Cu.iaU  in  ('iina<lM,  uewt  ** 
a  means  of  communicating  lietween  the  grt*,  inhtn 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,"  as  well  as  of  "  taking ,  iitr- 
ing,  and  drying  fish  of  ever}-  Idnd  on  the  mn^nn*.  Htt4 
shoals,  and  in  the  l)ays,  harbors,  and  cree|(s  of  ( '«n«-- 
da.  New  Brunswick,  Nova  ficotia,  ''rln'«  I'-dWkfd'd 
Island,  and  of  the  several  islands  tliereuiiUi  «<iji>  ant, 
without  iwing  restricted  to  any  distan<'<t  I'rjin  thu 
shore,  with  permission  to  land  upon  tlip  mnitt*  un4 
iliores  of  those  colonies  and  tlio  islands  tUttiof,  mu\ 
also  u(H>n  the  Magdalen  Islands,  fir  the  purpoM  of 
drying  their  nets  and  curing  tlieir  tisli," 

The  third  article  of  this  treaty  provides  tiuit  th«  ur- 
tides  enumerated  in  the  following  8clieilul«.  iMing  (tin 
growth  and  produce  of  tlie  aforesaid  British  wUiiMn  "f 
of  the  United  States,  shall  l>e  admitted  InUt  HHuh  utHHi'  j 
trj',  respectively,  tree  of  duty  ; 

Schedule. — Grain,  Hour,  and  lireuilstuffs  of  all  lilM4it  \ ! 
animals  of  all  kinds ;  fresli,  Kmolced,  and  suited  \mt>l»  t 
cotton,  wool,  seeds,  and  vegetables ;  undrii-d  fruits,  MM 
fruits;  tish  of  all  kinds;  productsof  lish.anduf  alli/tbAr 
creatures  living  in  the  water;  (xiultry,  eggs ;  hijhio, 
furs,  skins,  or  tails,  undressed ;  stone  or  uiarlitM  io  it*  i 
crude  or  uuwrought  otutc  ;  slate ;  butter,  >  luunw,  tfti'  I 
low ;  lard,  boms,  manure ;  ores  of  inetsls  uf  alt  kUuU ,  | 
coal ;  pitcii  tar,  turpentine,  asiies ;  timber  iind  luiMl»<f  i 
of  all  kini'is,  round,  hewed,  and  ssweii,  unnianilfiiK!' I 
turcd,  in  whole,  or  in  part ;  tire-wood;  plant*,  shri«lM,  I 
and  trees ;  pelts,  wool ;  tlsh-<iil ;  rice,  liroon;-<  on\,  and  \ 
bark ;  gypsum,  ground  or  unground ;  hewn  or  wruMgltt 
or  unwrouglit  l)urr  or  grindstones ;  dye-stuffs  ;  ^an, 
hemp,  itnd  tow,  unmanufactured ;  unimtnufacturwl  %»• 
bacco ;  rags. 

Articles  of  manufacture,  it  will  lie  perce'veil,  «f« 
not  embraced  in  the  aliove  schedule ;  iiuUail,  th«Mt 
possessions,  l>eing  abandoned  by  the  British  Treasury, 
by  the  net  of  1847,  already  referred  to,  ar«  now  wdtt- 
peiled  to  support  themselves ;  and  tlwir  tariff  im 
manufactured  articles  is  the  principal  sourc«  of  rtv* 
enuo  nn  which  they  must  depend  to  meet  tM'  twayy 
loans  and  support  tlicir  respective  govemnuints. 

Tlie  same  tonnage  duties  are  payalde  upon  thlp«  or 
Imats  of  the  United  States  of  Ami:;'ica  im|iortinb'  gmnht 
into  Upper  or  Lower  Canada,  as  are  or  may  \m  {i4^Mbt<i 


ttt  tlM  MflM  tlm«  In  the  T7nited  States  of^Amerlca  on 
llrttish  eraft  entering  the  harbors  of  the  Sktte  from 
wltl«fh  fiiich  g(?ods  shall  have  been  Imported.  (17  and 
IM  Vt«t,,  «h«p.  cxxil.,  aec.  178.) 

Th«<  fnllfrwlng  comparative  tables  exhibit  the  value 
ff  trod*)  between  the  United  States  and  British  North 
Amnrtcafi  possessions  during  the  years  1851,  '52,  '63, 
'M,  'ftfl,  A  leferenoe  to  tables  already  given  will 
»\uim  him  largely  the  totals  since  1850  exceed  those 
M\iit  t"  that  period.  The  figures  are  taken  from  tho 
IftlllMl  Mates'  Treasury  reports  on  "Commerce  and 
N«v)((iitl(in," 

C/KfOTrl*  from  «!«n«d«  In  1«B1 $T,(IM,140 

K*|Wf  Is  louiher  Brltlsta  Amorlun  pos- 

••miImm 4,08B,T83 


Tidal 112,014,928 

\nifiniii  (torn  t'nwiSii  In  1BSI t4,9M,'ITl 

IliilmHn  ffMn  othnr  Ilritlih  American 
IWMcsnlims 1,T36,661 

Tntal 6,698,122 

thUfUn  nt  Irsde  In  favor  of  the  Unl- 
)«d  KUtfiS  In  ISei (5,321,801 

tiiUti  (rsdfl  liolween  tho  United  States  and  Brit- 
l«tl  Nvrlh  Am«rlciin  possussloiis  in  ISfil |18,T03,045 

KiDHtU  Uf  (mmAh  In  1852 (6,717,060 

«»(/««» In  other  Brlllsti  North  Amer- 
ican c/;l«(ilc» 8,791,966 

T<,t«l 10,609,016 

imprtfiii  ttnm  Csnsds  In  1802 (4,589,969 

linpiiflu  frnni  other  .North  Amerlct.n 
prmi-mionii 1,520,330 


T«t«l 

IMtntx  III  (rsde  In  fs^or  of  tho  Unl- 
l«d  Htstcs  Inl8r^: (4,3»8,71T 

Tidal  (fsdd  lidtwcen  the  V  Mr.i  States  sncl  Brlt- 
Ml  N/ifth  American  posicsslons  In  1852 

K«ttortS  t<)  ('snsfU  In  185.1 (7,829,099 

Mtpirrt*  t«  (ilhrr  llrltlsh  North  Amer- 
loiflMlf/nles 6,311,543 


6,110,299 


(16,610,315 


tirtdl 13,140,642 


Imtcirlorrnmriinadsln  1853 (6,278,116 

ttliptfTtn  frrrtii  ottirr  llrtttsh  American 
M«nl»i 2,272,602 


TMal     

(•(dafwKi  /if  trade  In  faror  of  the  Unl- 

.«1  tlUttmln  1863 (6,689,824 

f'Ml  IfS'le  Wvpon  the  United  States  and  Brit- 

M(  (*»rlh  Amerlcsn  possessions  In  1868 

Kaports  In  CaiMMia  In  H.'St (17,300,706 

KulMirt*  to    ithfir  British  At^iorlcan 

(K-l'rtil^B. . 7,«W,154 


■.',660,718 


(20,691  360 


Vnuil 24,566,860 

inifi'rrla  ironi  Canada  :'<  'UtA. .       . .  (6,721,539 
JHitmils  frnm  other  Britiafa  Aieoiean 
'u-Umtm.. 2,206,041 


Tetal 

iMtanr*  "f  tisde  In  favor  of  liic  Unl- 
U.H  O-  'fs  In  \«lii (15,639,300 

Total  Wade  bi>tw»en  thr  United  Stiles  and  Brit- 

1*  Sorlh  Amerlean  imsmissiuns  in  ISJH 

fr^pBrtd  In  l.anada  \n  1865 (lS.7-20,344 

i''.<iw>rtA  to  nihrr   Britiih  Aaerlcan 
•nfitlfiss 9,08t>,«76 


8,937,560 


•ti3,494,4a9 


Tntal 27,806,020 

tt«t)«nfts  from  Canada  in  1866 (12,182,314 

iHiUnfli.  ffnm  niher  British    North 
Aw'f'ean  poasesalons 2,954,420 


Tntal 

Halanro  nf  trade  In  favor  of  the  Uni- 
idd  Kt,»l»»  In  isryi (12,009,286 

Tntal  Irads  hstween  the  United  States  and  Brlt- 
Itti  Norin  Amerloao  possessions  In  1856 

Tntal  <f»d«  In  1851 

"      In  1866 


ir.,lB6,734 


$42,942,764 

18,708,046 
42,942,754 


ltl«r««M  In  total  trade  from  1861  to  18S6 (24,234,709 


6RE 


884 


OBS 


Gtnxnl  llttmu^u  on  ilu  Commrreial  Relatitmt  of  thf 
Umkfd  Suu'tt  mth  the  British  Coloniet.— Canada.— 'V\)<^ 
following  statement  exhibit  the  condition  of  trade 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada  ;  the  descrip- 
tion, amount,  and  value  ot  the  principal  imports  and 
exporta,  the  balance  in  favor  of  either  oountr}',  etc., 
during  the  years  1851,  18fi2,  and  1853,  together  with 
certain  commercial  regulations  in  force  at  the  dlfTirent 
ports  ii.  the  province  of  Canada.  The  figures  are 
taken  from  the  Canadian  offlciul  reports  on  "Trade 
and  Navigation."  The  fact  that  the  tiscal  year  in 
those  reports  ends  in  December,  while  that  in  the 
United  States'  Treasurj-  reports  ends  in  .lune,  will  ac- 
count for  the  apparent  discrepancy  between  this  state- 
ment and  the  general  one  which  has  immediately  pre- 
ceded. 

Ivroam  from  Oahada  ih  1851. 

Produce  of  the  mines $80,378 

Produee  of  the  seas  43,7fl4 

Proiit'CG  of  the  forest 1,48I1,BS0 

AtilmalB,  and  produce  of  uniinsls 665,884 

Vegetable  food  ilncludinu  tl,OIT,U0O  for  wheat  and 

flour) 1,909,259 

Other  agricultural  produce 8B,T88 

Manufactures 45,064 

Other  arUcles 128,032 


Broom-corn,  t)un--itan«a,  coaln,  aetl«ii>f«ni|  lbl| 
hides,  tallow,  nitre,  wool,  anndrlM |TW,V1I 

Books,  cotton  ironi,  Indian  ram,  •otttti'il'  (iMda, 
vhoat.  other  artlolai Mt,«» 


Total.   14,071,834 

ExroETs  TO  r*KAnA  i»  1881. 

Principal  Artt4;l«'* — Coffee,  suKsr,  molasses,  tea, 
tobaeco  (manufactured  and  unmanufactured), 

whisky,  irlne,  and  salt 1,083,468 

Fr.iita  (green  and  dried),  spicea 102,806 

Horses,  grains,  chec>  j,  salt  meat,  pork 49,800 

Tanned  leather,  t)II,  paper,  mesa-pork,  rice,  csn- 
dlaa,  cotton  and  leather  manufactures,  manufac- 
tures of  India-rubber,  Iron  and  hardware,  ma- 
chinery, and  wool 4,11(8,040 

Broom-corn,  burr-stones,  coals,  hides,  tallow,  other 

articles 645,560 

Books,  cotton-wool,  maize,  philosophical  appa- 
ratus, settlors'  goods,  wheat  (and  Including 
1631,000  in  bullion) 1,384,028 


Total 18,363,751 


Total  exports |8.363,75l 

Total  imports 4,071,534 


Balanee  in  favor  of  the  United  States (4,292,217 

Total  of  imports  Into  Canada  from  Great  Britain 

in  I8.M,  in  round  numbers 12,000,000 

The  same  from  the  United  States 8,000,000 


Diirerenei'  against  the  Unite'.  States $4,000,000 

Imports  into  Canada  from  sll  countries  In  1851,  in 

round  numbers 21,000,000 

Of  which  from  the  united  States 8,000,000 


pifferpnce  between  the  value  of  imports  Into  (!(in- 
ads  from  the  Untied  States,  and  from  all  other 
countries $13,000,000 

ifrom  the  foregoing  it  will  be  porceived  that  the  im- 
ports into  Canada  from  the  United  tStutes,  in  1M51, 
w  .e  only  one  third  less  than  those  from  'ireiit  Ilritaiii, 
and  nearly  two  fifths  of  the  whole  imports  from  all 
other  countries. 

Ihfobts  IK  1852. 

Produce  of  the  mines $2,U)6 

Produce  of  the  aeas fA288 

Produce  of  the  forest 1,840,106 

Animals,  and  their  pro<luce 006,200 

VegeUble  food 3,1.86,260 

Flux,  and  other  Sjed 94,8.16 

Monufactures 60,.376 

Otiior  articles 84,200 


ToUI $6,284,812 

ElPOBTg  IN   1852. 

Prineipat  Arlirltfi.—CotteL',  sugar,  molasses,  tes, 
tobacco  (maonfuctured  aud  unmanufactured), 

whisky,  wine,  and  salt $9,225,112 

Fruits  and  spices 91,!t72 

llorMcB,  grains,  cheese,  et^' 40,732 

Fish,  fur,  glass,  tanned  leather,  oil,  paper,  mess- 
pork,  rice,  candles,  manufactures  uf  cotton, 
leather,  iron,  wood,  silk,  India-rubber,  iron 
at^d  hardware,  wood  articles  (unenumerated), 
and  sundries 4,413,868 


Total , |S,418,IKKI 

Total  e:tport» MID/IM 

TJlal  Imports «,«(M,l»ia 

BaJance  m  favor  uf  the  L'liftad  litatal 9{I,1!!V,I80 

Total  value  of  imports  Into  Canada  from  (tfMt 

Britain  in  1862,  In  round  Jiumbera lUfinO,aim 

The  same  from  the  United  Hlstea S,BOO,()On 

Ulffereaoe  between  the  value  of  iiBpor*J  fiwm 
Great  ilrliniii  and  from  ibfl  Cullad  !««<<« 2,000,000 

Imports  into  (auada  from  all  uatloM  In  I'M,  In 

round  numbers $1iO,0O»,'<0n 

Of  which  from  the  United  Htatva ,     tljm,um 


Difference  between  the  valuu  of  iiii  wrta  iiH*  V»»- 
s'la,  from  the  United  Htalaa,  and  from  atlotlMr 

C3'inti!?8 11,500,000 

ilio  preceding  tablaa  will  sliuw,  llint  In  IKiVi  the 
United  .States  almost  equaled  (irnat  llritoiri  In  her  ex- 
ports tu  Canada,  and  furnished  iit«ra  tliun  twu  fifths  uf 
the  whole  Imports  into  tlut  provliii't, 

iHfOWtii  IK  14M. 

Produce  of  Ibo  mines ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,  $75,596 

P. oduco  of  the  Bc ,». .,,,,,,.,,.,,,,,,,  m,i'H 

Iroduco  of  the  forest ,,,,..,.,,.,.,.,  lAlo.fJB 

Animals,  and  pra<Iuc(j  of  animals.,,,,,,,, ,,,  I  •Hn.HTi'i 

Veg^Uibio  food , 4,K7»,4t4 

Oilier  agricultural  produui ,,,,,, ,,,,,,,•  90,786 

Manufactures .,,,.,.,.,,,,,.,,  M,^'Vt 

Other  articles 49,1120 

'.oUl "JJimgw 

Kipoin  IN  IRM, 

Description  of  mcrcliandisa  the  saws  aa  |lir  IWI 
and  1882— total  value |ll,7W,rw 

Tolol  exports $1  l,T'i!t,l  (1 

Total  importa I1,»D«,»M 

Balance  In  fa7or  of  the  V,  HUI«),  l>.  1^,..    W,<M,W 

Total  value  of  iuiporls  into  (.'auadi:  Irma  flfr««t 

Britain,  In  1853 , 1H,4S9,180 

Same  from  the  United  StaUs 1I,'(«,I4» 

DilTercnce |»,fOI,«;i> 

Importa  Into  Canada,  from  all  nttiODI,  In  lUO,  In 

round  numbers , , ,,,,...,..    A1,000,00'1 

Of  which,  from  the  United  fltatei 11,7S!(,1  W 

Difference jllO.if  7,152 

Imports  into  Canada,  in  1853,  were  tiniisiiall)'  heavy, 
exceeding  those  of  »hn  precadfng  yflar  tl2,(K)fl,f)(Ki, 
Tlie  tables  will  show  that  ffrnat  /IrlUfn  supplied  mute 
than  one  half  of  the  whole  j  whiln  thfl  exports  froi.i 
the  United  States,  though  oxreedllig  tlp( »  (if  the  pre- 
ceding year  upward  of  |'8,000,00<),  did  not  iniiltitiiln. 
with  respect  to  Great  Drllnln,  the  rathi  i.t  Wi't. 
Imports  from  Canada  up  to  .Kllli  iFuna,  1iM  (ae- 

cording  to  the  t.'nlt.  d  Htatos'  Treosiirir  refwrtl,.  $6,721,539 
Exporta  to  same  dale , 17,800,706 

Exhibiting  a  balance  In  fuvur  uf  Ilia  I,,  HUles  iit, .  ♦IO/i79,l«7 
BeTore  dusing  these  rcinurks,  It  Is  priipef  lo  ohsprvo 
that  the  preceding  tallies  and  lali'iilatinna  hitvn  \m\n 
prepared  with  miK  li  c  are,  with  a  viuw  U>  fMi;ilsh  accu- 
rate data  ill  ci<tiiiiating  the  lieiicfits  biuiirail  to  Amer- 
ican commerce  by  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  lHf/1, 
The  statement  exhibiting  (he  value  nt  fiiiports  from, 
and  exports  to  Canada,  for  1855,  when  coinparcd  with 
these  tables,  will  demonstrate  llie  wlsilmii  and  isilh  y 
of  tha*  measure. — U.  H.  Oim.  U'liiti'itu, 

Summat-y  i/llf  Regulntiiint  in  t'o, .  <■  nl  Ihr,  iJiJfennI 
I'orti  in  CanaJn. — Slenliandiiie  bImII  iikI  Iiii  unladen, 
except  after  due  entry,  at  plaiDs  ilenlpiuled  for  thai 
purpose,  under  penalty  of  fiirft  iture. 

Merchandise  shall  not  lie  liniuglit  or  tnijiorted  Into 
the  province,  whether  by  mm,  lunit,  (.'oastwU*,  or  by 
inland  navigation,  whether  dutiablit  or  not,  except  Into 
soma  port  or  place  at  which  u  cuatuiu-liousa  is,  or  may 
be   established,  under  iieualty   of  fMrft'ltiirti  ut  vcs- 


GRE 


886 


ORE 


ael  and  gnnda,  if  under  the  value  of  (lOOO ;  if  above 
that  ■urn,  then  the  vessel  and  goods  shall  be  retained 
as  security  for  the  paj'ment  of  that  amount.  This 
appllef,  mutalU  mutandis,  to  goods  brought  into  the 
province,  by  land,  in  carriages  or  other  vehicles. 

Other  regulations  have  reference  principally,  to 
frontier  smuggling,  and  to  the  duties  and  powers  of 
the  officers  charged  with  its  prevention.  The}'  convey 
no  general  commercial  information,  and  are,  therefore, 
omitted. 

Most  of  the  articles  on  which  a  discrimination  in 
favor  of  importations  from  Great  Britain  exists,  are 


CouuBEcx  or  TDis  Unitkd  Statu  with  tub  Uritisu  Noiitii  AuKBinAN  GoLOKins, 

18S6 ;  iNOLuniMa  Canada  to  Jdke  8<>,  1848. 


embraced  in  the  third  article  ("  sohedule")  of  the  Re- 
ciprocity Treaty, 

Foreign  vessels  are  not  permitted  to  carry  goods  or 
passengers  from  one  port  of  any  British  possession  in 
Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  to  another  port  of  the  same 
possession ;  though  by  the  act  17  Victoria,  chap.  6,  the 
coasting  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  opened  to  the 
vessels  of  all  nation -i. 

The  foregoing  regnlations,  etc.,  apply  with  some 
slight  modifications,  to  all  the  other  colonial  posses- 
sions of  Great  Britain  in  North  America.  They  will 
not,  therefore,  be  agiiin  referred  to, 

moM  OoTOOEB  1,  1820,  to  Jitly  1, 


Ye«n  endlnf 


Sept.  30,  Ib'il 

1822 

1828 

1824 

182» 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1880 

Total... 


Sent.  80,  1881. 
1882. 


Jnne  80,  1881 

1862 

1888 

1864 

18S6 

18M 


Rxportl. 


Domeitle. 


(2,021,449 
1,881,278 
1,818,118 
1.773,107 
3,AB8,224 
2,664,1 6S 
2,797,014 
1,618,288 
2,724,104 
8,660.031 


(23,388,763 

(4,026,892, 
8,869,802 
4,890,081 
8,477,709 
8,900,645 
2,466,415 
2,022,474 
£,484,087 
8,418.770 

|36,538,H»6" 

(6,292,290 
8,950,148 
2,617,005 
8,861,188 
i,HUMII 
0,012,666 
5,819.667 
6,899.959 
8,011,783 
8,116.840 


Furalgn. 


(2.812 

16,286 

8,847 

2,617 

1,740 

24,384 

88,660 

66,886 

40,806 

186,842 

(818,879 

(86,446 

46,0a3 

81,003 

67,567 

147.S48 

194,851 

290,512 

283.604 

144.68 

204,088 

(1,445,028 

(864,273 

240,166 

107,417 

1.8.'.4.717 

1,209,200 

1,888.767 

2.106,876 

1,9)f2,6y6 

257.760 

801,874 


(60.056,606 

(8,224,588 
2,6.')O.IS4 
8,893,575 
4,698.771 
5,8,VS,878 
7,619,909 


(B,547,S06 

(861.280 
1,181.822 
1.912,968 
2,572,;i88 
8,229.7*8 
626,199 


Totnl. 


(2,024,261 
1,897,559 
1,821,460 
1,776,724 
2,589,961 
2,588,649 
2,880,674 
1.674,674 
2,764,909 
8,786^78_ 
(23,704,147 

(4,061,888 
8,614,835 
4,471,084 
8,6a5,276 
4,047,838 
2,651,204 
8,218,988 
2,728,491 
8,868.464 
6,098,260 

(87,980,9lf" 

(6,656,568 
6.190,809 
2.724,42-2 
6.715,908 
6,054,226 
7,406,488 
7,986.548 
8,882.666 
8,869,648 
8,618,214 
(69,603,811" 

(4.W),788 
8.791.256 
5,311.848 
7,266.  IM 
9,086,676 
3,146,103 


Imports. 


ToUl. 


(491,628 
626,817 
468,874 
706,981 
610,788 
050,815 
446,118 
447,669 
677,542 
650,808 


(8,869,486 

(864,909 
1,229,626 
1,798.893 
l.,548,788 
1,436,108 
2,427,571 
2,:!59,268 
1,.%55.,570 
2,166,146 
2,007,767 


,(17,877,016 

(1,968,187 
1,762,001 
857,696 
1,468.718 
2,020,065 
1,987,717 
2,848,927 
8,646,467 
1,348,798 
2,88s  ,992 

(li;706,885 

(1.788.651 
1,820  880 
iMVl.VH 
2.206.02) 
2,954.42,0 
3.t.22,224 


Whereof  lh,;r«  wm  In  Bullion 
ftul  Specie. 


Kiported. 


(462,250 

1,021,291 

126.772 

826,2.58 

128,821 


(2,864,837 

(26,900 

16,961 

14,704 

4fl0..')00 

68,>i.733 

32,283 

160.01  >0 

480.208 

18.800 

11,600 


(1,746,144 

(198.100 
69,076 
86,334 
711,244 
489,095 
251,900 
480,276 
555,900 

38,044 
(2,864,963 

(30 

112.5.')3 

20O.,821 

48,976 

64.212 

4,000 


Imparled. 


(89,417 
158,226 
219,749 
298,840 
218,896 
221,994 
154,8C7 
179,944 
241,287 
252,279 
(2,036,083 

(277,197 
M2,745 
817,830 
652.2,88 
197,400 
546,474 
448,602 
460,712 
481,782 
780,171 
(6,146,216 

(475,891 
763,069 
408,645 
446,995 
914,461 
628,048 
868,451 
960,146 
47,630 
38.598 


Tonnage  Cleared. 


Amerlren. 


118,097 
90,977 
62,776 
68,961 
61,520 
76,191 
60,878 
68,801 
98,016 
117,171 
783,507 

79,864 
05,066 
219,408 
19,8,989 
8e<;,582 
291,981 
882,284 
261,286 
888,506 
867,078 


(5.640,726 


j,«01,874 

404,472 
828,815 
202,607 
606,365 
077.935 
868.568 
667,895 
859,791 
122,641 
7.8,298 


4,884,077 


(44,677  108.235 

56.395  122,809 

88.940  !  266.481 

68,148  I  29.8.781 

18,418  ]  276,683 

83,807  !  826,647 


ForeiKn. 


12,028 

9,180 
10,189 
10,108 
11,145 
10,658 
10569 
14,267 
88,089 

94,776 
146,292 
248,779 
828,120 
415,406 
428,191 
440,002 
i<8.3,l5« 
878,772 
401,605 


8,262,299 

417,986 
417,409 
288,092 
516,281 
612,004 
678,878 
528,515 
681,271 
409,877 
521,112 


Britith  Provinces. — Uiiiler  the  impetus  communi- 
cated liy  tlio  Treaty  of  Reciprocity,  tlie  trade  of  the 
L'nitcd  Scutes  with  the  Canailus  Iiuh  groatiy  ini  reused, 
notwithstanding  the  formidable  ilimiiiution  of  nearly 
$'",000,000  in  our  exportation  of  foreign  goods.  Tlic 
aggregates  for  the  last  two  ypurs  we  have  arranged  >  i 
follows,  for' purposes  of  comparison  : 


liiT"     ^ 

ISH. 

(18,194,788 

6,688.463 

7,619,909 

626.199 

17.488,197 

:l.822.^^4 

(60.889,770 

"Fif.STl.iir 

Domestic  produce  exported  to  1 
the  C«M  lias 1 

Forclgi.  (jcods 

Doinostlo  proiluco  o\portcd  to  1 
tho  I,<.wor  Provinces  f 

Fopt'ijtn  poods 

(9,950,764 

8.769,580 

6,8Si,.378 

8.22«.7!W 
12,182.814 
2,011.420 

(42,939.784 
(80,909,688 

Imports  iruin  tlio  Canadas 

Imports  from  thcLowcr  Provinces 

Totbi  trade ,., 

Total  trado  with  tho  Canadas 

.Total   ti-ado   wUb   tbo   Lower  1 
Provinces f 

(12,087,069  {  (11,968,382  { 

The  total  aggregates  of  trade  during  the  last  five 
years,  are  as  follows  : 

1862 (16,519.805 

1858 20,601,246 

1854 88.494,820 

1S85 42,0.89.7,84 

1866 50,830,770 


The  chief  articles  of  export  and  their  values  wer« 
for  1865  and  1P58 : 


O'.:,  soap,  and  oanules 

Fish 

Manufaotutes  of  wood 

.Vsval  stores 

Beof,  pork,  bacon,  lard,  tallow 

and  hides 

IJnrses 

Wliont,  flour,  and  corn 

Flee. 

Tobacco  and  snuff, 
Whisky. 
M.iltti^es 
Furniture 

Hats 

Bhoes  and  leather 

Glass 

Books  and  paper 

Salt. 

Manufactures  of  cotton 

"  Iron 

Coal 


GRB 


886 


ORE 


Oreat  Clrole  Balling ;  the  manntr  of  condact- 
•  iR  a  ship  in,  or  rather  protty  near,  the  arc  of  a  great 
circle  thiit  pasraa  through  the  xenlth  of  the  two  places, 
▼iz. :  fh)m  whence  she  came,  and  to  which  she  is 
bounit. 

Oreeoe.  The  continent  of  Greece,  Including  AI> 
banla  and  Macedonia,  is  nearly  shut  in  on  the  north 
by  a  chain  of  mountiiins  known  anciently  by  thu  names 
of  Khodope,  Scomius,  and  Orbelus ;  it  is  boumled  on 
the  west  by  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas,  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  east  by  the  iEj^can 
Son,  or  ArchipeluKO.  It  extends  from  30°  10'  to  42° 
40'  of  north  latitude  j  and  from  19°  -15'  to  24°  40'  of 
east  longitude  from  London.  Its  length,  from  Cape 
Mntapan  to  Mount  Orlielus,  or  Argenturo,  Is  4.')0 
English  miles ;  its  greatBst  breadth  from  Duraz.zo  to 
Cavale,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pangivus  (a  branch  of 
Rhodope),  2i)5  miles  ;  and  it  embraces  an  area  of  57,- 
"SO  square  miles,  exclusive  of  all' Its  islands  except 
Eubcea.  Hut,  as  our  ideas  of  the  extent  of  the  ooun- 
trj-  imve  always  a  refer  nee  to  those  ancient  States 
which  comprised  but  very  minute  portions  of  its  sur- 
face, it  is  necessary  that  its  dimensions  should  be  de- 
scribed more  in  detail. 

The  countrj'  recognized  as  Greece  before  the  rise  of 
the  Macedonian  ix)wer,  comprehended  the  Morea  or 
Peloponnesus,  Attica,  Kubwa,  Bccotia,  Phocis,  Doris, 
ifltolla,  Acarnania,  Thessaly,  and  Magnesia;  and 
even  several  of  the  States  included  within  these  limits 
had  little  or  no  share  in  those  splendid  actions  which 
have  shed  so  much  glorj-  over  the  country.  The  sur- 
face of  Peloponnesus,  which  included  seven  different 
States,  is  about  PJOO  English  square  miles ;  that  of 
the  countries  just  named,  without  the  peninsula,  in- 
cluding I'jibcea,  is  14,800;  and  ijoth  together  amount 
to  2S,»00  square  miles— an  extent  of  surface  not  ex- 
ceeding two  fifths  of  England,  or  one  fifth  of  the  lirit- 
ish  Isles.  If  to  this  we  add  1(:,000  bquare  miles  for 
AIlMniii  or  Epiris  (including  the  basin  of  the  Drino), 
18,000  for  Macedonia,  and  1000  for  the  Cycladcs, 
the  whole  surface  of  Greece  and  its  Islands  will 
1)6  58,800  square  milea,  which  Is  almost  exactly  the 
area  of  England.  AVhile  Greece  preser\ed  its  inde- 
pendence, however,  all  these  territories  were  never 
united  Into  one  body  polili, ,  nor  vras  their  confederated 
force  ever  applied  to  the  prosecution  of  any  common 
enterprise.  The  communities  whoso  warlike  achieve- 
ments and  brilliant  career  in  arts  and  philo.sophy  raised 
the  Grecian  name  so  high,  occupied  but  very  minute 
portions  of  the  country  ;  as  th«  following  table  de- 
duced from  measurements  will  show : 


Erj.  »l.  iiillp*. 

Attloa,  Inoladluf;  Megarl.<  and  HalBmi^  bnt  not  Eubipa.  1,1!>n 

B  intla 1,M0 

Loconla  (without  M«>sstii)i&) 1,720 

Acliala  (the  tivolvo  cities  with  thoir  territories) 1,140 

Attica,  besides  [lossess'ng  at  one  period  Gubiea,  had 
many  colonies  in  ihe  Cyclades,  Thrace,  and  other 
parts ;  and  8parta  held  Messenia  long  in  subjection  ; 
out,  in  great  stro-glei,  .iiese  colonies  and  de]jend- 
encies  ofUn  slinok  off  their  allegiance,  and  the  parent 
State  was  obliged  to  rely  on  its  own  resoiiroej.  Such 
H  J  the  energy  of  these  small  communities,  that  At- 
tica, which  scarcely  supports,  at  present,  a  population 
of  50,000  souls,  sent  out  sometimes  (.-olonies  of  10,000 
men  at  once  {Dioii.  Sir.,  lib.  ii.) ;  and  Sparta  furnished 
eo.OOO  soldleis  to  fii;ht  the  Persians  at  Platoia.  The 
territories  of  Corinth,  when  she  formed  a  separate 
State  n  ore  much  smaller  than  any  of  these  ;  her  wealth 
and  pow-ir  depending  -hiefly  on  coninicrce. 

Greece  forma  a  long  and  rather  narr!)»  peninr.ula, 
tingularly  indented  on  three  sides  by  arm>"  of  the  .-eii , 
and  having  a  greater  profiortion  of  its  suil'jce  occupied 
by  mountains  thon  any  other  country  in  Europe  of 
equal  extent,  except  Switxeriand.  It  has  been  justly 
observed,  that  those  physical  features  which  distin- 
guish EuMpe  from  tiie  other  qnarters  of  the  *  Id 
belong,  in  a  peculiar  mauaer,  to  Greocc,  auJ  -liilin- 


Kulsh  it  in  the  same  proportion' <h>ia  the  other  parts  of 
Europe,  Of  these  arm*  of  the  sea,  tha  most  consid- 
erable ore  the  Gulfa  of  (^oiitessa,  Salonica,  Volo,  vGgl- 
na,  and  Nauplla,  on  the  east ;  those  of  Kolokythia  and 
Coron  on  the  South ;  and  those  of  Lepanto  and  Arts 
on  the  west.  Of  the  mountains,  the  first  in  ordor  are 
those  which  pass  along  the  northern  frontier.  Mount 
Argentaro,  the  ancient  Orbelus,  placed  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  Greece,  near  the  49d  degree  of  latitucle, 
may  be  considered  as  the  centre  of  the  whole  system 
of  mountains  in  European  Turkey. 

Money. — The  drachm,  which  is  tha  unit  of  the  cur- 
rency, is  alKiut  8)d.  English  money.  It  is  divided  into 
100  equal  parts  called  lepta.  There  are  copner  coins 
of  10,  5,  2,  and  1  lepta,  the  only  Greek  money  that 
circulates  In  the  country.  The  silver  co'va,  of  50  and 
25  lepta  have  been  melted  down  or  oxi>orted.  Those 
of  1  drachm  are  very  rare.  Those  of  6  drachms  are 
now  only  to  be  found  in  Turkey.  The  gold  pioceu  of  20 
drachms,  called  othos,  also. have  disappeared. 

Weights  and  Measurei. — A  very  complete  scale  of 
weights  and  measures  was  established  by  the  govern- 
ment in  1836 ;  but  the  people  adhere  for  measure  of 
length  to  the  pique  =<  27  inches.  Then  for  weight— 
the  principal  nvn  known,  even  in  the  capital,  is  tho 
oke,  a  Turkish  v  eight  equal  to  2  lbs.  12  oz.,  which  la 
divided  Ipto  4(X)  dramia  =  IJ  Eng.  drams.  Tho 
cantaar  or  quintal  is  generally  44  okes  =»  121  lbs. 
The  kilo  or  quilot  of  com  is  22  okes,  or  60  lbs.  The 
land  measure  Is  the  stretna  e>iU4l  to  about  one  fourth  of 
an  English  acre. 

Cultivated  Land. — It  appears  that  nut  half  the  sur- 
face is  susceptible  of  cultivation ;  and  at  least  two  thirds 
of  the  cultivated,  and  four  fifths  of  the  uncultivated  soil 
belong  to  the  State.  One  groat  disadvantage  to  agricul- 
ture is  the  scanty  supply  of  running  water ;  but  tha 
peosants  are  very  dexterous  at  taking  advantage  of  tho 
smallest  rill  to  irrigate  their  tillage.  Money  rent  is  little 
known  ;  the  lands  being  farmed  (m  the  metayer  system, 
according  to  which  the  landlord  receives  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  the  net  produce — usually  a  third.  He  has 
frequently  to  furnish  the  seed,  and  sometimes  tho  oxen 
for  tillage,  the  cost  of  which,  with  high  interest,  is 
deducted  from  the  profits  before  any  division  is  made. 
On  this  system,  there  is  little  inducement  for  the 
proprietor  to  expend  capital  on  tmprovemeuis ;  still 
less  is  there  for  the  metayer,  who  has  no  interest  in 
the  land  bej'ond  tho  season.  Consequently,  inclosure 
and  drainage  are  scarcely  thought  of ;  and  the  stones 
having  never  been  removed,  lie  so  thick  together  that 
in  some  places  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  they  can  have 
accumulated  naturally.  The  dwellings  of  the  peas- 
ants are  extremely  poor,  consisting  of  stones  and  frag- 
ments of  tile  and  pot  terj-  held  together  by  mud.  Glasa 
casements  are  rare  even  in  provincial  towns  ;  and  in 
the  country  cottages  the  light  Is  most  frequently  ad- 
mitted only  by  the  door-way. 

Produiiimu. — The  arable  soil  of  Greece  Is  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  cultivation  of  com,  vines,  mulNrrf- 
trees,  and  fruit  trees.  Wheat,  rj-e,  barle)-,  and  maize, 
succeed  pretty  well  in  the  stony  districts  where  the 
mold  is  but  a  few  inches  deep.  Oats  render  but  a 
middling  crop,  and  the  p<jtatu  is  quite  onsuitablo.  But 
the  leguminu)  grow  well,  and  rice  might  be  raised  on 
the  wet  soils.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  cakes  of 
maize  flour  form  tha  staple  article  of  food.  (See  f'nrif, 
Brit.)  At  thn  head  of  all  the  agricultural  pniductions 
for  exportation  are  tho  Corinth  grapes,  which  we  cor- 
ruptly call  currants,  and  which  are  cultivated  from  the 
isthmus  to  Aroadia,along  almost  all  the  northern  and 
western  shores  of  the  Morea.  This  fruit  Is  of  a  violet 
eidor,  and  hangs  in  long  loose  bunches.  They  are 
gathered  at  the  same  time  as  other  grapes,  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  packed.  Very  few  of  them  are  used  in 
Greece,  few  anywhere  excojit  in  England.  The  con- 
sequence of  this  is,  that  the  effect  of  raising  a  largo 
crop  is  merely  to  lower  the  price  in  the  IjondoD  mar. 


ORB 


m 


ORE 


ket ;  wlicreaa,  If  France,  America,  and  Ruanla,  ii»e<1 
p1am-pu(l(1int;s  to  the  anme  extent  as  the  EnKlith, 
Greece  would  have  hud  in  thU  one  article  an  Inex- 
baastilUe  nsurce  of  revenue.  All  kinda  of  grapea 
lucceed  well,  and  the  Ijeat  vintaife  ia  thut  of  the  ialand 
of  Santiirin,  where  ahove  00  varietiea  are  reckoned. 
The  KusKiiina  jire  verj'  fond  of  Siintorin  wine,  and  im- 
port £20,000  worth  yearly.  The  art  of  expreaninf;  and 
fermentint;  the  juice  of  the  ({rape  ia  quite  in  Ita  infancy  ; 
and  unfortunately  the  Ureeka  have  no  winn-cellara, 
and  very  few  caaka.  The  wine  ia  kept  in  skina,  and 
roain  ia  nut  into  it  to  keep  it  from  a|>oiliiig.  It  ia  at 
firat  exceedini;ly  diaa)P'eealile  to  the  taateg  but  the 
nutivea  prefer  it  to  the  choiceat  heveragea  of  France 
and  Spain ;  and  even  foreigners  become  reconciled  to 
it  with  uae. 

Next  to  the  vineyards  aa  a  source  of  revenne  are  the 
mullwrry  plantationa.  There  la  a  demand  for  ailk  in 
every  market  in  the  world,  and  the  climate  of  Greece 
affords  facilities  for  an  unlimited  extenalon  of  this 
branch  of  industry.  The  south  of  the  Slorea  gener- 
sll)-,  and  all  the  Islands  of  the  iT.gean  Sea,  are  adapted 
for  it,  and  hero  the  houae  of  almoat  evcrj-  peasant  la 
in  part  given  up  to  the  rearing  of  the  worm.  The 
spawn  or  eggs  are  nestled  in  the  Ijoaoms  of  the  women ; 
and  the  worms  hatched  in  spring  are  ulmndnntly  sup- 
plied with  the  young  mulberry  lenvos  then  shooting. 
The  cocoons  are  placed  in  the  sun,  and  the  heat  kills 
the  worma.  In  18.'i(J  some  Greek  merchants,  who  had 
resided  in  the  ailk  diatricta  of  Italy,  introduced  Italian 
workmen  with  their  funiilies  into  the  Morea,  to  improve 
the  mode  of  winding ;  and  a  few  years  have  greatly 
advanced  this  branch  of  Industry  and  placed  it  on  a 
Arm  and  extensive  basis,  giving  promise  of  a  lucrative 
and  increasing  trade.  Two  ailk-throwing  manufacto- 
ries have  been  catabliahed  at  Athens  with  great  suc- 
cess. (I'or  further  partlcidars  aee  Aiicy.  Bril.)  The 
Monileur  of  Paris  of  l«th  and  1/th  October,  IHbR, 
pays  a  high  compliment  to  the  quality  of  the  Greek 
silk  in  the  I'aris  Exhibition,  which  gained  the  first 
prize. 

The  olive  next  clainia  attention.  Being  indigenous, 
the  trees  are  found  in  a  wild  state  in  every  direction, 
and  seem  only  to  require  grafting  to  yield  excellent 
fruit,  (irafted  olive-trees  are  very  numerous ;  and 
many  people  live  all  the  year  round  on  little  but 
olives,  indiflferently  pickled  in  l)rinc.  Tlie  oil  is  ex- 
tracted in  the  ruderit  manner,  after  which  it  is  either 
run  into  cisterns  or  jars.  There  is  a  Ijrgo  consumption 
of  it  in  the  country,  nothing  else  being  used  for  light, 
and  a  great  deal  being  consumed  in  food  and  cookery  ; 
but  still  there  remains  a  good  quantity  for  exportation. 
Cotton  succeeds  well  wherever  it  is  sown,  especially  in 
the  plain  of  Argos,  and  in  the  islands.  It  does  not  form 
an  important  item  in  the  exjwrts,  owing  to  the  large 
consumption  of  it  in  the  countrc.  Madder  thrives 
well  in  the  northern  districts.  Greek  tobacco  is  said 
to  be  of  good  quality,  and  to  have  a  delicious  perfume. 
It  is  cultivated  at  little  expense. 

The  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  might  bo  n  profitable 
branch  of  industry.  The  iigs  of  Attica  have  not  de- 
generated since  t'le  olden  time ;  the  apricots,  the 
pomegranates,  oranges,  and  lemons  are  delicious. 

I'irst  among  its  natural  productions  may  )/e  men- 
tioned vulonla,  the  cup  of  the  acorn  of  the  Qiirrnti 
A',giliips,  an  oak,  of  which  cons;deralde  forests  exist  in 
the  neiglit>orho<Kl of  Maratbonisi,  Cape  Papa,  Arcadia; 
also  in  .\ttic.a,  the  island  of  Zea  and  other  places.  The 
aeon)  is  a  powerful  astringent,  used  in  tanning  and  dye- 
ing, and  for  this  purpose  is  ship)>ed  for  England  and  It- 
aly. Anotherspeoiefofoak — the  (iuerciu  coeeij'eni,  com- 
monly called  galls — grows  in  great  quantities  on  Mount 
Tiiygetus,  and  breeds  the  insect  known  as  kermes.  In 
the  process  of  drying  the  insect  assumes  the  appear- 
ance of  a  small  brittle  bcny  partly  filled  with  powder, 
whiob,  fr^im  time  immemorial,  has  caused  some  to  Vmk 
npon  it  aa  the  berry  of  the  plant,  while  others  consid- 


ered it  to  be  a  awelling  caused  by  the  puncture  of  > 
particular  kind  of  Hy.  It  ia  used  in  dyeing  the  red 
Tunis  caps  both  of  the  Greeka  and  Turks,  and  a  good 
deal  is  exported  to  Timis  and  Alexandria,  The 
dried  leaves  of  the  lentisk,  also,  under  the  name  of 
I'voiri)  (jivyyoii,  are  uaed  by  the  tannera  In  Greece  and 
the  I^evant.  Turpentine  la  ol)tained  In  large  quanti- 
tiea  from  the  pine  forests  of  Mount  Oithieron  and  other 
districts. 

Notwithstanding  the  immense  clearances  made  by 
the  ravages  of  war  and  other  causea,  Greece  containa 
2,800,000  acres  of  forest,  filled  with  timl>er  trees  of  the 
Ixiat  quality  ;  yet  wood  is  bought  uliroad  for  house  and 
ship-building,  as  for  want  of  roada  those  forests  can 
nut  bo  worked.  The  shepherds  make  a  practice  of 
setting  fire  to  the  coppice  woods,  in  order  that  their 
docks  may  find  some  tender  sprouts  tf>  crop  in  spring. 
It  is  not  unusual  in  the  neighl)orhood  of  Athens  to 
find  large  black  (Hitches  covering  half  a  square  league ; 
and  If  an  explanation  bo  required,  the  answer  ia, 
"  Only  a  shepherd  who  has  been  making  pasturage  for 
his  ahoep." 

The  principal  places  of  trade  are  Syra,  Patras,  Pi- 
rieus,  Kalamata,  and  Nauplia.  The  trade  of  Patras 
is  ehiefiy  import ;  Hydra,  Spezzia,  and  Galaxidi,  come 
more  properly  under  the  denomination  of  ship-owning 
porta.  The  ex|)orts  are  chiefly  the  articles  we  have 
enumerated,  with  others  of  minor  importance ;  the  Im- 
ports are  chiel!-  iron-ware  and  woven  fabrics  ;  besides 
coft'ee,  sugar,  and  apices. 

The  carrying  trade  is  very  considerable,  especially 
among  the  islands.  Some  of  the  Greek  vessels  are 
between  COO  and  700  tons  register,  and  a  good  many 
from  ;!00  to  400  tons  ;  but  the  great  majority  of  them 
are  boats  of  six  or  seven  tons,  having  a  largo  hatch  in 
mid-ships.  (See  /'«c^.  Jlrit.)  It  is  customary  for  a 
slilp-owner  to  bargain  with  a  captain  and  crew,  taking 
up  a  certain  sum  at  interest,  generally  secured  on  Iwt- 
tomr}'  bond ;  with  this  money  a  carge  is  purchased  on 
the  ship's  account,  and  the  profit  is  divided  between 
the  vessel  and  the  crew,  the  latter  sharing  among 
themselves  according  to  their  special  agreements.  In 
this  way  the  Greeks  carry  on  extensive  apeculiitions 
in  corn  whenever  bad  harvests  or  other  circumstances 
present  openings  in  the  ports  of  Turkey,  Italj-,  Spain, 
or  France.  Besides  this,  they  export  the  various  pro- 
ductions of  Turkey,  Greece,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  south- 
ern Russia,  to  London,  Marseilles,  and  Trieste.  The 
great  advantage  which  the  Greeks  have  over  foreign- 
era  in  prosecuting  this  trade  is  that  of  having  relations 
and  connections  in  the  interior  on  whom  they  ran  rely 
for  the  collection  of  small  parcels ;  and  thus  they  avoid 
the  impositions  of  agents  and  the  profits  of  middle- 
men. The  Greek  trader  despises  nothing,  fand  will 
gather  a  few  bags  of  rags,  or  a  ton  or  two  of  bones  and 
horns,  while  he  is  chartering  .50  vessels  to  load  with 
com  and  tallow.  Then  the  same  vessels  supply  Tur- 
key, Persia,  and  Greece  with  the  manufactures  of  En- 
gland and  Germany.  The  extensive  Greek  establish- 
ments at  Manchester  for  purchasing,  examining,  and 
packing  goods,  attest  the  importance  of  this  branch  of 
commerce.  They  havo  almost  quite  superseded  the 
English  traders  here,  chiefly  from  their  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  countries  to  bo  aupplied,  and  their 
readinesa  to  execute  the  smallest  as  well  as  th»  largest 
commissions  for  the  shopkeepers  of  the  East.  The 
Greek  trader  slips  in  everywhere,  neglects  no  buai- 
neaa,  disdains  no  expedient,  and  changes  his  flag  as 
often  as  he  finds  it  his  interest  to  do  so. 

The  Greek  government  does  nothing  for  maritime 
tr.'vle.  There  ia  but  one  light-house  on  tho  coasts ; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  shipwrecks  that  are  recorded 
every  winter,  the  ministers  turn  a  deaf  car  to  the  ap- 
peals of  the  mariners.  A  similar  neglect  is  shown 
concerning  the  means  of  internal  communication. 
There  are  only  seven  roads,  amounting  in  all  to  a 
length  of  30  leagues,  and  this  is  in  a  countrjr  where 


gijiatiliiiii'nte  »'■• 


01^ 


881 


ORE 


tha  State  ownii  mora  thun  half  ths  land,  whnm  «vlc- 
tinni  an  nanily  olTei'ttHl,  iinti  whfira  th«  i>«uiiBntii  an 
willing  to  land  thoir  handa  ft)r  works  of  public  utility. 
Iharv  Is  no  highway  from  Athens  to  Sparta,  or  to 
Corinth,  or  to  Patrus,  which,  owing  to  the  trade  in 
cnrrants,  Is  iMcomtng  th«  romniercial  capital. 

The  banKing  and  exchange  operations  form  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  part  (if  thr  commercial  system. 
The  national  bank  was  founded  nt  Athens  in  1H42,  the 
capiUl  being  In  the  first  inst:ince  fixed  at  r>,000,00n 
drachms.  Branches  have  since  lieen  opened  at  Syra 
and  Patras.  The  exchange  operations  throughout  the 
country-  are  mied  chiefly  l)y  the  triinsitctiuns  at  Athnns, 
where  bills  on  I^ondoii,  Paris,  Marseilles,  Trieste,  etc., 
are  negotiated  with  facility.  The  most  serious  hin- 
derance  to  the  progress  of  industry  In  Greece  Is  the 
high  rate  of  interest.  The  legal  rate  is  10  per  cent,  for 
ordinary  loans,  and  12  per  cent,  in  com^iercial  busi- 
ness. High  as  this  Is,  most  of  the  loi  ■»  rie  effected 
at  still  higher  rates ;  and  the  government  can  not  sup- 
press the  usury.  From  a  statement  Inserted  in  the 
Speetatfur  d«  I'Orient  of  Athens,  it  appears  that  the 
bank  has  paid  interest  to  the  shareholders,  flmin 
1849-64,  at  8^  to  9^  per  cent,  per  annum ;  that  its  capi- 
tal amounts  now  to  6,000,000  drachms,  and  a  reserve 
fund  of  400,000  drachms  to  provide  against  emergen- 
cies.—K.  B. 

The  manufactures  of  Greece  are  few  and  simple,  the 
ralue  of  the  raw  material  being  little  enhanced  by  the 
labor ;  yet  the  peasantry  are  entirely  rlothod  In  cotton 
and  woolen  fabrics  of  their  own  manufacture.  The 
capotes,  not  only  of  the  Greeks,  but  of  the  whole  mari- 
time population  of  the  Mediterranean,  are  made  of  a 
woolen  stuff,  the  peculiar  manufacture  of  the  Wal- 
Uchs ;  and  Kalanuta  is  famous  for  a  silk  gauze,  highly 
prized  in  the  East  for  bed-curtains.  Embroider)-  in  gobl, 
■liver,  silk,  and  cottoi.,  is  brought  to  great  perfection  ; 
and  marble-cutting  and  sculpturing  have  made  great 
progress.  At  the  great  London  Exhibition  of  18.')1, 
the  embroidered  dresses  in  i«d  and  gold,  and  in  blue 
and  silver,  were  highly  praised.  The  samples  of  mar- 
bles were  not  in  a  condition  of  manufacture  to  demand 
much  notice  as  specimens  of  industry.  Commenda- 
tor}-  mention  is  made,  in  the  report,  of  lithographic 
stones  from  Messina,  samples  of  steatite  (the  French 
chalk  of  commerce),  of  u  line  natural  cement  of  puz- 
znolan,  of  varieties  of  flexible  sponge,  niid  some  other 
objects.  In  the  Ixmdon  Exhibition  of  1M51,  only  four 
medals  were  given  for  various  productions  of  art  and 
manufacture  from  Greece. 

The  following  statistics  show  that  the  progress 
which  the  Greek  nation  has  made  is  highly  credit- 
able, though  at  the  same  time  showing  that  the  pro- 
ductive powers  of  Greece  ate  not  fully  developed. 

Statistics  or  OtKtcs. 
1.— Gi'LTiVATCD  Lamo  IX  1854, 
Strvnuun.  \ 

for  Cereal 8,«4»,87o 

"    Olive-trees....     <ao,000  I 
"     Vines 1,000,1)00  i 


Siiwnarft. 

For  Mulberrv-trees     li40,0()0 
"    Fig-trees 150,000 


Total 5,«5»,87t> 


Cattle. 


Sheep  and  goats...  1,600,000 

Ozen 180,000 

BuflUoes. 3,000 

Hones «0,«oa 


Mules. 80,00U 

Aues T.OOO 


Tetal ^889,000 


PsoDuca. 


Kllu. 

Wheat a,M9.«0« 

Barley l,lit8,S0O 

Indian  com «,8ao,noo 

Malie 281,900 

Oats  ft  ether  kinds 
ofcereol 1,168,000 


Ok».. 

Oil 1,000.000 

wine 18,800.000 

811k -0,000 

Curranta. 80,000,000 

Valonia 14,000 

Wool 1,500,000 


Total 8,282,800  11        ToUl 79,884,000 

PaaSONS  tMI-IX1T<D  IN  AuuicuLTi-az. 

Proprietors' S'AdOO  1    OUior     laborers    and 

Field  laborers. 111.380,       servant* 

Bbepberds 8;,86> 


•; 


Ota*. 

l«il 48,281 

1851 60,7n 

1888 60,710 

1854 

1885 70,000 


1— BTATnticn  or  Bilk. 

Av«raf«  prtM 
pt  r  ,ik*. 
Dn,  hn. 

Ml,947  =  2ll'64 
1,999,070  =  IW-91 
1,774,068  =  8118 
1,868,018 


This  proves  not  only  an  increase  of  production,  but 
also  an  Improvonient  in  the  quality  ;  for,  though  the 
quantity  has  nearly  doubled  since  IN&l,  instead  of  i^ 
ducing  the  price,  Greek  silks  are  &0  per  cent,  dearer. 
8.— CoHMKHoiAL  Maty  Or  OKnoi. 


Viuali. 
1821..  440 
1884..  2,881 
1888..  8,870 
1888..  8,269 
1889..  8,848 
1840..  8.884 
1848..  8,4(19 


Ton*. 

61,449 


Vnnala. 
1844..  8,414 
1813..  8,884 
1H48..  8,988 
18,10..  4,016 
1851..  4.827 
1882..  4,iM 
1858..  4,148 


Tont. 

146,708 
let, lull 
268,288 
288,201 
257,093 
247,861 
247,991 


8S,602 

89.U2 
110,690 
in7,68.S 

Wo  have  no  accounts  of  IS.'il ;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
it  will  show  ac  increase  on  18SU,  in  consequence  of  the 
permission  of  the  czar  for  the  Greek  flag  to  enter  th« 
Danube. 

4.  — POPUIATIOK. 

1821 87^000  1 

1882 712,000 

1848 888,000  I 

6.— Ihpopts  and  Kxpoan  or  Okkicr. 


1882 1,002,000 

1888 1,041,000 

1884 1,142,000 


Kijportf, 

1881 W.9»8,'l95 

1882 10,s'02,212 

188* 8,9^3,'JiK) 

1884 6,799,211 


ImtNirta. 

1831 

1862 24,982.181 

186? 10,209,060 

1834 21,270,1S3 


The  minister  of  finance  states  that  the  great  du- 
cieose  in  exports  for  the  lant  three  years  is  owing  prin- 
cipally to  the  failure  in  the  currant  crops,  the  result 
of  the  disease  in  the  vino. 

Of  the  18,995,195  drs.  exported  iu  1841,  8,:)i>9,196 
drs.  were  of  (.'orinthian  currants  alone.  In  1852  the 
export  of  currants  were  2,844,058  drs.  only,  or  nearly 
6,000,000  less  than  1851 ;  in  1853  there  is  no  account 
of  the  currants  exported  inserted ;  and  in  1854  only 
the  small  amount  of  9046  drs.  are  included  in  the 
amount  of  6,799,211  drs. 

CoDNTKim  Tkadino  wirn  Gaaaor., 

Cnnntrlaa. 


England 

America 

Austria. 

France 

Turkey 

Bussla 

Italy 

Kgypt  and  Candl* 

Ionian  Isles 

Oikor  conntrloa. 

Value  In  drachmas.. 


ImpoHi. 
Dra. 

8,870,888 

142,182 

4,810,124 

1,812,482 

8,065,809 

819,497 

456,141 

674,912 

1,87^000 

2,492.770 

25.807,690 


Riporia. 


Dra. 

7,020,174 
185,478 

2,I>S<I,235 
447,880 

1,266,960 
800,985 
8A.\888 
1>  9,781 
940,184 
804,667 
18,881,202  ' 


It  will  be  seen  from  tiiis  exhibit,  that  England  h°.s 
the  largest  commerce  vUh  Greece  of  the  count' ie$ 
enumerated.  Turkey,  hoAevcr,  ranking  first  In 
amonnt  of  imports. 

The  commercial  relations  of  the  Un'wd  States  with 
Greece  are  regulated  by  treaty  of  December  10,  18i'7. 
This  treaty  is  liased  upon  principles  of  entire  reciprac- 
ity  In  navigation  and  commerce  between  the  two 
conntries.  Its  principal  stipulations  are,  that  tie  ves- 
sels of  each  nation,  whether  laden  cr  In  ballast,  from 
whatever  place  they  come,  shall  be  treated,  in  the 
ports  of  the  other,  on  their  entrance,  during  their  stay, 
and  at  their  departure,  upon  the  same  footing  as  na- 
tional vesselfi  coming  from  the  same  place,  with  re- 
spect to  the  duties  of  tonnage,  light-houses,  pilotage, 
and  port  charges,  as  well  as  to  the  perquisites  of  public 
oflcers,  and  all  other  duties  or  charges  levied  in  the 
ntme  or  to  the  profit  oi  the  government,  the  local  au- 
thorities, or  of  any  private  establishment  whatever. 
Whatever  merchandise  may  he  lawfully  impfirted  into 
either  nation  by  its  own  vessels,  may  also  be  imported 
in  the  veiieU  of  the  other,  from  whatever  place  they 


.^ai» 


'  Y 


ORB 


880 


ORE 


lUt 

re- 


ibt 
ha 
,he 


m- 
olt 

196 
;lie 
\y 
nt 

ly 

he 


°4 

93 

In 


h 


m»y  nofflu,  wittinai  piyliiK  othor  or  higher  4ut.  or 
rharUM,  of  whit^vnr  kind  or  (Iflnoniiiiiitlim,  lovlen  in 
til*  immti  iir  tn  thn  (irnflt  or  thn  Rovemment,  Mie  local 
mithorltli'i),  Ktn.,  tlinn  when  lm|Mirteii  in  national  vtn- 
mU.  Hlmllur  nqniillty  in  ntlpulnted  with  nrnpect  to 
uxiHtrtii.  Nil  {irolilliltliinn  to  be  entnlilinhed  in  either 
iiMthm  U|HiM  thn  |ir(«lii>'t<i  of  the  i>ill  or  Indiiotry  of  the 
iithnr,  iMitfiia  mii'li  priihlliil  'i'<nii  nhall  aliio apply  to idmlliir 


the  foreign  commerre  of  thin  port.  An  average  calcu- 
lation for  a  iiertea  of  6  .ir  10  yearc  would  gi%-o  the  fol- 
lowing result,  without  much  variation  : 


r«r  fml.  of, 
llu  wb.ila. 

Auatria ,.  »4'74 

Turlioy WOI 

IVanca 1»-8T 


r«r  ecnl,  of 
Ul«  whf>l«. 

KtiRland 14  «1 

Tiiacany 7'M 

Other  eounttlet..  lom 


other  country.     All  priv 

liountien  and    drawlini'i 

<'  ill   iinmi'illately  liecome 


d 

r 


irrnl'irti,  the  growtli 
ll"i(«a  (if  trnniilt,    ni:  > 
allownd  (n  either  mitli 
eummon  t<i  (he  other, 

Dutle  'n  eni'li  rountry,  on  cargoes  Imported  In  ve»- 
•fli  <if  l\i4  other,  nlinll  lie  charged  only  on  nuch  por- 
tion* thereiif  a*  iniiy  lie  landed,  ond  oraeed  from  the 
liwinlfeiit  of  tjie  lmp<irting  voKsel ;  hut  all  duties,  Im- 
pontii,  or  charKeii  whntsoever,  which  are  or  may  he- 
'••iMie  I'hargealiin  ii|mn  the  vessels  themselves,  must  lie 
paid  lit  the  first  tmrt  where  they  shall  break  bulk  or 
unlaito  part  of  their  cargoes.  It  Is  also  stipiib'-'l  I'mt 
tliH  vesiHils  of  «ach  natl<<n  arriving  in  the  (mrts  of  t'le 
other,  provided  with  n  hill  of  honlth,  granted  by  an 
officer  having  competent  power  ti'  that  effect,  ht  the 
port  whenci  such  vessels  shall  huve  sailed,  shall  be 
Mulijm^ted  to  no  other  ipiarantlne  than  such  as  may  be 
ilKcessary  fur  the  visit  of  the  health-ofl,  jr  of  -port 
where  h  vessels  shall  arrive  ;  after  which,  said  ves- 
"c's  sliAll  he  allowed  immedlKtcly  to  enter  and  nnio  d 

I I  'Ir  cargoes,  subject  only  to  such  casualties  as  nn  • 
hji,  n  oceiim  il  during  the  voyage.  The  other  atipula- 
lUtt»  relate  to  consular  privileges,  etc.  The  treaty  to 
continue  In  force  10  years,  with  the  usual  »tip  ilution 
respecting  Its  duration  after  that  period. 

Notwlthstiindlng  tiie  liberal  stipulations  of  the 
ti(i«ty,  of  which  till'  preceding  is  a  summary,  the 
tnwle  lietwecn  the  I'nited  States  and  Greece  is  very 
Inciinslderaliln— few  Anierli  an  vessels  over  making  the 
direct  Voyage  to  any  port  in  that  country.  At  the 
principal  jMirt  of  (Ireeco  (Pirieus),  no  American  vessel 
entered  from  the  commencement  of  1851  to  the  clo°«i 
of  INfi't,  During  the  ycai  first  named,  there  cntmcd 
that  [Hirt  from  all  countries,  i!M  vessels,  .iicasurin;^ 
i'iilMI  tuns  j  and  there  clcarod  2iil  vessels,  aggregatinii.' 
IMI.MH  limsj  making  a  total  of  fiOB  vessels,  nith  an 
'•({({''•'Ki'te  of  Ti,'Vl7  tons.  These  vessels  were  mostly 
under  the  (Ircek,  Turkish,  Knglish,  or  b'rench  Hags— 
thti  latter  two  numbering,  together,  only  B2  vessels 
entered  and  cleared,  During  the  same  year,  120  An 
trian  steaitl-vessels  mensiiring  an  aggregate  tonnaj..^' 
of  'i7,t)im  tons,  entered  tlio  jMirt  of  I'jrnius,  viz.,  7.' 
from  Trieste,  and  'IH  from  Turkey. 

The  value  of  Imimrts  at  the  port  of  rirojua  In  18J>1 
WW*  ti>'M,'fi(l  I  that  of  ex|Hirta  a  little  over  $RO,Oir 
In  1HM  there  entered  ;'I2!!  vessels,  measuring  '14,lG(i 
tons  I  and  cleared,  2N7  vessels,  of  'l,'i,OOH  tons  ;  mak- 
ing a  total  of  OOO  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  Hll,17'l  tons.  These  vessels  were  under  the  Greek, 
Turkish,  I'jiglisli,  or  French  flags,  ranking  in  number 

III  the  order,  resiwctively,  to  whicli  thej-  are  named, 
'I'he  lili|Hirts  of  all  kinds  into  Pineus  in  IS.'il  wci 

ti>'I^,i'ill,  and  In  the  year  1852,  i;!7&7,020;  showing  a 
decrease  In  IMfi'i  of  i|il07,'IOO. 

Tli<i  luitsifts  Into  (Jrcece  through  thia  port,  are, 
grains,  sugar,  cotfee,  yarn  of  cotton  and  wool,  silks, 
Iron  and  ollmr  metals,  timlier,  cod  and  otiier  waited 
Aah,  wines  and  spirits,  paper,  etc. 

Tlia  cuiMitrles  usually  participiiting  in  the  foreign 
traile  of  the  port  of  I'lrieus,  are — 

Tiirliey  (liiiporta  frein,  la  1S62) |2«9,9.'16 

Aiulrla  "  "      170,us 

France         •'  "      Iflfi.lHM 

Kni(l»nd        "  "      S0,(i94 

Tuseaiiy        "  "      ;o,T16 

Other  plaeei"  "      liil,60a 

I'lilttl  Imports  ••  sliown  above $757,020 

Though  Austria  lodds  but  the  second  rank  in  the 
•U)V«  table,  she  usually  enjoys  the  larij  !9t  fh  -o  nf 


The  next  port  of  importance  in  (ireece,  after  the 
port  of  Alliens,  is  Syra.  This  jiort  is  situated  among 
the  Cydadea,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  (irecian 
arciilpelago.  Its  commerce  Is  rapidly  increasing, 
owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  Its  lieing  a  principal 
station  of  the  Meditirranean  steamers  going  to  and 
from  Constantinople.  The  imports  average  annually 
aliout  t!l,600,000,  and  the  exports  aliout  ♦!, 500,000. 
The  flags  participating  in  the  foreign  trade  of  this 
nort  an  Greek,  Knglish,  Austrian,  Turkish,  and 
''.onch,  in  the  order,  as  to  rank,  In  which  they  are 
named.  The  chief  articles  of  import  ore,  cottons, 
"'  lions,  manufactures  of  iron,  grains,  cotton  yarn, 
.  ice,  timber,  sugar,  hides  and  siiina,  provisions.  Ex- 
perts of  domestic  produce  are  inconsidcraliie,  though 
an  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  in  re-exporting  to 
<>tlicr  ports  of  tlie  archipelago  tlie  imports  of  foreign 
nations.  The  numlier  of  veraela  entering  and  clearing 
at  this  port  annually,  is  about  6775  measuring  870,000 
tons.  The  merchant  marine  of  Greece  in  1R53,  was 
4.120  vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  247,616  tons. 
Of  these  there  wore — 

VeMfN,  Ten*. 

Under  80  tons 2,S8fl  19,696 

80  tons  and  ovor,  ot  wliicli  DM  t 
were  from  200  lo  SOU  tons. .  ( 


1,876  227.036 


Total  OS  above 4,280  247,001 

Pnvt  Charges. — In  the  porta  of  Syra,  Nauplla, 
Pitmus,  Marathonensis,  Pylos,  Calamalu,  Navarlno, 
and  Patraa — 

On  vessels  under  6  tons Free. 

"         of        20    "    9  llptas=U  cents. 

"         above  20    "    12     "    =2     '• 

In  the  other  ports:  I  Vron 

on  vessels  under    6  tons )  '"■''• 

of        20    "     811ptas=l   cents. 

"  above  20    "   9     "    =U    " 

Permit  of  departure :  I   ««  ii„i..      _  ai  „„„t. 

On  vessels  of  .■>-  20  ton.  f  **  "P**»      -  ^1  """t*- 
"  21— SO    "    ..    1  dra<.hma=lfl.l    " 

"  61—100    "     ..    2        '•        =831    " 

For  all  other  charges,  port  regulations,  etc.,  see 
Con»"liir  Kcturn,  "  Athens,  Greece,  February  tith, 
)  'i55." — Com.  Relations,  U.  N. 

The  average  price  at  wliich  currants  are  sold  is 
i' ,  .'  50  per  1000  |)ounds  ;  and  the  average  returns,  or 
rather  gross  receipts,  ore  annually  about  $700,000. 
The  exportation  of  olivc-ol".  '"  •<natbo'-  leading  sourcu 
of  revenue  to  tiie  Ionian  Islands,  i  lie  following  sum- 
mary gives  a  fiir  average  exhibit  of  ex|Kirts  annually : 


EilKir' 
18U, 


Total. 


I  l.ucal  I 
tnitore».|    con-    ! 

iiiumpt'nt 

[iijirn-Nj  U«rr.'U.  iUnrrHT*r  llnrreli 

|7anto 4.8111   OJ.ISi)  ,S,,">|)0    70,000 

Corfu 8,9(KII  18S,100  8,000,200,000 

Santa  Maura,  Itliaca,  Cuplia- 1            I            I  «nnfj> 

Ionia. and  Paxo (-[j--  i_^-  !  •"•  I  8"'"™ 

TNitaT;^^.. ........ .ij8,211^25(l,289_6,60fli^^ 

The  average  annual  price  is  $9  60  per  barrel,  which 
would  raise  the  amount  derived  from  olive-oil,  if  the 
whole  amount  were  sold,  to  $3,135,000  per  annum. 
Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  promote  the  cultiva- 
l''>ii  of  tobacco  in  I  .'«e  islands,  but  with  verj-  doubt- 
.  I  success,  owing  to  the  want  of  soil  adapted  to  the 
plant.  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  and  Santa  Slauni  nr«  the 
only  islands  on  which  it  can  be  raised  ;  but  the  quality 
is  inferior,  and  even  the  quantity  is  so  inconsiderable 
(hat  cargo«.<  if  tobacco  are  regularly  imported  to  supply 
tlie  consuraj  Mon  of  the  islands.  Among  the  articles  of 
inijiort,  sugar  and  coifee  are  those  in  which  American 
bottoms  could,  were  the  navigation  dues  equal,  suc- 
cessfully compete  with  the  Kuropean  flags.     In  1853 


ORE 


890 


QUE 


'  tafftrlntu  th«  liiU 

ini|K.ited  (Urert  fn)iii  llrn- 
|K>rt«cl  reached  1/200,(100 


nolUnd  ulem  imported  90( 
■ndii.     Tho  entftn  la  uiiull^ 
Cll,      III  IN^i'i  the  'lUintlt.v 
pouniln. 

The  u«iiiil  exports  of  the  United  Stuten,  whk'h 
reach  the  Inniun  repuldic,  are  cufl'ee,  miiin,  i>e)(arji, 
tobacco,  and  manufactured  articl«»,  nui^h  »»  furniture, 
cotton  ,  etc.,  the  annual  value  of  which  can  not  lie 
accurately  aacertalned.  In  1HA2,  the  vuluo  of  cnlhe, 
rmln,  nffun,  an<l  furniture,  exported  fniin  the  United 
8tatea  to  one  nf  the  Ionian  porta  (Kante),  wua  |,'>,  IIH)  02, 
on  which  the  Ionian  tren»ury  rerelved,  in  duties, 
•700  (M. 

The  exports  from  the  same  port  to  the  United  States 
wens 

Lbi.  Villus,        Eiportriuly, 

im..Cnmints 870,419         |W.1M         il\,m» 

1SW..       "      4I1,T4«  IMTil  2,T«1 

Under  a  a^-ntcm  nf  commercinl  e(|unlity  with  privi- 
leged niitlona,  the  United  Stiitea'  (1:1(5  ''""'d  auoceaafully 
compete  with  the  flags  of  all  other  nntiona  In  the  Im- 
portation of  wheat,  flour,  Indian  corn,  rice,  seii-liread, 
•alted  meat,  and  salted  (ish,  tobacco,  augur,  uoffw,  nnd 
timlier.  As  regards  the  quaiititlos  nf  these  xtnplea, 
respectively,  which  might  And  a  market  in  the  Ionian 
porta,  there  arc  no  data  acressilile  upnn  which  to  base 
■ny  calculation.  These  staples,  however,  are  always 
in  demand  in  the  dlfl'erent  ports  of  the  Ionian  ropuli- 
llc  j  and  nn  approximate  estimate  as  to  the  quantities 
which  might,  with  safety,  be  annually  exported  from 
the  United  States  to  these  markets  may  be  formed 
fVom  an  ofBeiul  return  fMm  one  ])ort  (Xante),  in  the 
ptissessinn  of  the  Department.  Tlils  return  gives  the 
aggregate  value  of  these  staples  annually  consumed  in 
that  consular  district  at  i{<l,I>:il),.'i'.'t<.  Wheat,  Indian 
com.  cured  liah,  coffee,  rice,  and  timber  occupy  the 
first  rark  in  these  s(  .jilr-;. 

In  W>'],  tliera  (^ntfi  oii  ni  the  different  porta  of  the 
Ionian  Isles  I'.if,''  ■■■■<»):•  it,  ifiasuring.  In  the  aggregate, 
163,5.52  tout;  iii;  "  >j.i,ui:l  l.WS  vessels,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  U?.  Ti.';-  tons  1  making  a  total  movement 
of  'i'i"')  vessiii,  iu'!  .'!i'ft,320  tons.  An  analysis  of 
the  Uiule  in  185:<,  ..'^  .  uipared  with  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  will  show  i:  decrease  of,  entered,  160  ves- 
mIs,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  25,U79tans;  and  of 
cleared,  101  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  22,7.50  tons. 
The  numlier  of  vessels  under  the  Ilritlsh,  Austrian, 
and  Oreek  flags  diminished ;  the  latter  showing  tlio 
greatest  diminution. 

The  value  of  imports  'a  18,58  was  as  follows : 

Fmnr*. 

For  coniumptioo. 17,0T0,B«« 

WareUoused. 8,2W,0i0 

*  Total «8,n88,20fl 

Value  of  exports ; 

Friin.M. 

Domestic  products. «,«i;..l«0 

Foreign         '•       7,S«i,lt70 

Total 15,6S2.S0O 

Compared  with  the  trade  of  1852,  the  imports  of  this 
year  show  an  increase  of  3,777,900  francs,  and  the  ex- 
ports an  increase  of  6,286,0(X)  francs ;  or  a  total  in- 
crease of  9,00-1,500  francs.  Of  this  incr'  ase,  cereals, 
logara,  and  tissues  of  cotton  and  wool,  all  from  En- 
gland, bore  the  principal  part.  In  exports,  the  in- 
crease fell  almost  exclusively  on  olive-oil  and  currants, 
if  we  except  1,695,800  francs,  the  value  of  various 
lilnds  of  tissues  re-exported  from  the  different  ports  of 
the  islands.  The  value  of  soap  and  wine,  also  products 
of  the  islands,  show  an  increase  of  356,000  francs.  In 
remarking  upon  the  chief  products  of  the  Ionian  Isl- 
ands, it  is  stated,  in  reference  to  the  soap  manufactured 
at  Zanto  and  Corfu,  that,  for  some  time  past,  they 
have  used  in  its  preparatloa  a  kind  of  chalk  imported 
from  England  in  the  vessels  of  tliut  kingdom.  The 
aae  of  this  earth  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  deteri- 
orates its  quality,  and  wil'.  result,   unquestionably, 


In  throwing  "  altogether  out  of  tbo  fbrtlga  market. 

The  trniie  of  IMM  gives  the  f  <t'tl  numlier  uf  vnsseU 
entered  and  cleiireil  iit  2,778  "  ".(ring  an  aggregate 
of  009,387  tons.  Ciimparec  ■'■{li  >HAll,  these  llgurei 
show  an  increase  -(it,  enter,  'i  uiui  cleared,  15  vessels, 
with  an  aggregate  increase  of  3,007  tons.  These  all 
onteretl,  with  the  exception  of  1  vessel  of  1,781  tons. 
In  1854,  the  value  of  trade  was : 

laroais.— For  cnnsuinptlon ID.ftJN.noo 

.      Wsrchonsed. I>,IU«,IHH» 


Total «s,»i)4,(KK) 

FraniM. 

ExroETS.— Donieslle  prodnota 0,Wll,17.t 

Foreign  "       MSm.ttIi 

Total 1T,M8,400 

The  total  trade  of  1851  was  thus  40,70,1,800  fr.iiics. 
In  comparing  this  witli  the  llgures  for  1853,  un  Increase 
Is  shown  III  imports  of  5,471,700  tti'vcf,  nnd  uf  ex- 
porta,  2,180,100  francs  J  inaklnga  total  I'lcreuso  of  7,057,- 
800  franca.  In  imports,  about  three  llfths  of  the  Increase 
In  value  fell  uixm  grains,  tbnugh  in  ipiantity  there  was 
a  decrease  of  35,000  hectolitres*  compared  with  1858. 
This  was  occasioned  by  the  high  price  of  grain  of  all 
sorts.  The  remaining  two  llfths  of  the  increase  fell  upon 
cattle,  coff'ee,  sugar,  tissues  of  cotton,  and  miscellaneous 
articles.  The  nations  that  supplied  the  islands  in  1854 
were,  chiefly,  Kngland,  (iomiany,  (irecce,  Turkey,  and 
Kussia.  France  sent  crj'stals,  lildcs,  sugar,  tissues, 
wines,  and  sundries,  to  an  amount,  in  value,  of  about 
2,000,000  francs.  The  sugars  were  shipped  from  the 
reflncries  of  Marseilles,  and  weru  liorno  under  the 
Greek  flag  to  C'orfu.  In  exports,  olive-uil,  soap,  winu, 
and  some  other  secondary  products  of  tho  soil  and  in- 
dustry of  the  islands,  were  the  cliicf  articles  which 
exhibited  un  increase  over  the  returns  of  1853.  Not- 
withstanding the  bad  yield  of  currants  in  1854,  over 
6,000  hectolitres  of  wine  were  oxportc<l  to  Triestn, 
Venice,  and  Malta.     See  Ionian  Ihlanhs. 

The  value  of  the  commerce  of  Great  llritain  with 
these  islands  is  thus  given : 

rmiH't,  Kraiifi. 

IU.1.  ISM. 

Imports «,S'JII,0flO  S.IWl.noO 

KxporUS  Urttish 2,914,1100  8,224,000 

"       foreign  A  colonial.     66!t,00O  447,000 

Total 6,479,00(1  0,208,000 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  subject  Turkey  for  the 
comparative  statement  of  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States  with  Turkey,  Levant, etc.,  exhibiting  the  value 
of  exports  to  aitd  imports  from  each  country,  and  the 
tonnage  of  American  nnd  foreign  vessels  arriving  from 
and  departing  to  each  countr)-,  during  tho  period  from 
1821  to  1856;  nnd  embracing,  in  tho  aggregate,  all  re- 
turns given  in  the  Treasury  reports  for  tho  years  de- 
signated under  the  various  heads,  in  different  years,  of 
Turkey  ;  Turkey,  Levant,  etc. ;  Turkey,  Levant,  and 
Egypt ;  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Turkey  in  Asia ;  and 
also  of  Egj'pt,  Greece,  Ionian  Islands,  and  Ionian  re- 
public. Tho  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  article  Tcn- 
KEY  for  an  account  of  the  consular  relations  of  the 
United  Statcj  with  countries  on  the  Mediterranean. 
See  also  Con.ii'I.3  and  Unitkd  States. 

Oreen  Bay,  a  large  arm  or  bay  on  the  west  side 
of  Ijike  Michigan,  forming  a  pnrt  of  tho  boundary  be- 
tween Wisconsin  and  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan. 
It  is  almve  100  miles  long,  and  from  15  to  ,15  broad. 
The  epithet  "  Green"  hag  lieeii  applied  to  it  on  account 
nf  the  color  of  the  water,  which  is  said  to  exceed  600 
feet  in  depth.  At  the  head  of  the  bay,  on  the  riglit 
bank  of  the  Neenuh,  or  Fox  liiver,  is  a  thriving  town 
of  the  same  name.  The  bay  and  river  afford  a  per- 
fectly secure  harbor,  and  the  Ifirgost  steamers  of  Lake 
Michiguii  itop  here,  making  it  tho  principal  pluce  of 
deposit  and  transit  for  the  imports  and  exports  of 
northern  Wisconsin.     Population  (185.1)  about  2500. 

*  Each  about  ii  bushels. 


ORE 


801 


CRE 


Oraanland,  nr  OroenUnd,  a  vary  Urt(e  UUnd, 
or,  |iriilmlily,  iHnitinlilnKx  of  laliinilii,  lylnK  to  tb«  north'- 
ra«t  of  North  Am«r)i'ii,  mid  for  the  miMt  iiart  I'oniprx- 
hMiilpil  within  thfl  Antic  Cirrls,  In  early  tinim  It 
wan  •ii|i|m*nrl  to  form  a  part  of  lh«  American  rontl- 
nent ;  but  th«  (llicnvnrii'it  of  mmlcrn  niivlKatora  have 
pmved,  what  Indmid  the  very  Idea  f)f  n  north-we«t 
I  1a^'c  from  the  Atlantlu  to  the  I'liciili'  <  )c«an  »up- 
po!<cd,  ii<  Innularity,  And  the  latent  dhi'overlei  have, 
moreover,  nhnwn,  nr  all  hut  proved,  the  entire  aepara- 
tion  of  the  land*  on  the  went  kIiIo  of  HjifVi  «  l>uy,  or 
rather,  what  we  wonM  now  venture  to  de»i„'nate  lln/- 
fin't  .SVii,  from  thiHW  of  the  opponite  nhoret,  n>  an  to  limit 
Oreeniimd  to  tl.n  rountry  on  the  euntern  nide  of  that 
great  ehannel.  From  Cape  Farewell,  in  Int.  ri9°  I!)' 
N.,  It  Htrctehoa  on  the  went  niile  In  a  north-nnrth- 
wentetly  direction  through  Smith's  Sound,  and  then 
mora  eanterly  Into  a  hl»(h  northern  latltuile.  On  tin- 
other  Hide,  the  Orcenland  coast  runs  limt  n<  nh- 
nnrth-eanterly,  then  north-ea-terly,  and  finally  (so  fur 
aa  yet  traced),  in  a  northerly  direction,  l>endlnK  ea»t- 
ward  in  the  76tli  and  7(ith  parallcln  of  latitude.  It 
axiHinds  from  (Jape  Knrowell,  the  southern  [Hiint,  np 
to  latitude  71)°,  where  it  attiiinii  a  width  nf  about  IXX) 
niilen,  which  In  pretty  evenly  maintained  to  the  north- 
ern extent  of  our  ronearches  on  the  enntern  side.  Tills 
side  nf  (ireenland  has  been  denominated  I'J4st  or  Old 
(Jrcculimd,  the  other  WcmI  (ircciilnnd. 

In  Kenorul,  the  discoveries  which  have  been  effected 
In  this  qu.'irterof  the  nlobe  have  renuUcd  from  attempts 
mttiio  to  discover  a  north-west  passajje  to  India  throuxh 
the  ,\rctic  Sou.  The  existence  of  such  a  communica- 
tion Is  a  subject  which  from  time  to  time  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  Uritish  Kovemment  for  the  last 
three  centuries ;  and  nlthoujth  much  valuable  infor- 
mation had  l>een  obtained  by  means  of  these  voyages, 
tbc  ureal  proldem  remained  unsolved  until  the  very 
re.  ent  researches  after  the  fate  of  tho  lamented  voy- 
aij^r  .Sir.lohn  Franklin,  when  Captain  .M'Cluro,  in  liis 
researches,  vU  l)ehrini;'s  .Strait,  eastward,  determined 
the  fact  of  a  aea  coniniimlcatiim  between  the  I'aciflc 
and  Atlantic  Oceans.  I'hls  ho  effected  by  Bailing 
till  within  sijtht  of  (Captain  Parry's  discoveries  at 
Mclvlllu  Island,  and  tlienco  cuinpletini;  tho  personal 
transit  by  Ice-traveling  nnd  voyanin({  to  tho  shores 
whence  he  had  departed.  Hut  beyond  the  dntenninn- 
tlon  of  the  (feographlcal  fact,  it  was  fimnd,  us  had 
been  confidently  predicted,  that  no  practical  use  could 
be  made  of  a  channel  so  thickly  encumliered  with  im- 
penetrable, or  all  but  impenetrable,  ices. 

Greenland  vas  first  discovered  by  an  Icelander 
natned  (iunbiOrn,  who  was  driven  l>y  storm  upon  this 
coast,  almnt  tho  beginning  of  tho  10th  centurj',  nnd 
carried  buck  iptelli);ence  of  Its  existence  to  Iceland. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  same  century — according  to 
Bome  writers  in  9H;i— an  Icelandic  clilof  named  Kric 
Raude,  or  Kric  tho  Red,  havini;  killed  another  power- 
ful chief,  and  beln){  abli);ed  to  quit  the  country,  de- 
termined to  follow  up  (iunbiorn's  dlHcovery,  After 
having  spent  two  or  three  years  In  e?:plorln(»  the 
country,  he  returned  to  Iceland,  giving  an  exaggerat- 
ed accoimt  of  the  freslmess  ..id  verdure  of  the  country, 
which  he  called  (ireenland.  In  consequence  of  this, 
a  fleet  of  25  sail  was  eciuipped  and  sent  out,  l.iden 
with  persons  of  both  sexes,  cattle,  and  other  neconsa- 
r!e»  for  forming  a  settlement.  Only  about  the  half  of 
the  vessels  reached  their  destination  ;  but  other  ad- 
vcntu^rs  setting  out,  not  only  from  Iceland,  but  from 
Norway,  the  Orkneys,  nnd  other  Islands,  in  a  few 
years  a  considerable  colony  was  formed,  nnd  a  regular 
trade  ostabllsbea.  The  real  position  of  these  early  ad- 
ventures has  been  a  suliject  of  much  learned  investi- 
gation and  no  little  controversy.  But  it  ueems  highly 
probalile  that  the  original  colony  ot  Greenland  began 
al>out  the  southern  promontory,  near  Cape  Farewell, 
and  gradually  extended  Itself  along  the  coast  in  a 
nortb<westerly  direction.   Beyond  this  first  aettlement 


another  proceedeil  further  to  the  wes|.  'I'he  formal 
was  called  iKtlrt  llyiiil,  or  the  eastern  n«ttlenient,  and 
the  latter  Vnlrr  lli/i/d,  or  the  western  settlement. 
Chrlatlanlty  having  been  introducetl  aUiut  tho  liegln- 
ning  of  till'  I  Ith  century,  numerniis  churches  and  con- 
veiiti  were  built,  and  the  co'intry  was  dl\lded  Into 
regular  parishes,  to  whicli  monks  and  other  spiritual 
liKlriK'tors  were  attaclied.  The  colonists,  although 
cnmiwiled  to  lead  a  life  of  severe  privation  and  hariU 
•lil|i.  continued  to  liurease,  and  to  extend  to  the  north. 
Thi'  I'al  with  which  the  i  irly  .Si'ar>dlnavlans  pushed 
•'  "ttlenients  to  the  northernmost  parts  of  (Ireer,- 
trlklngly  attested  by  a  ciiriinn  mor.innent 
'iscovered  In  1X'2I.  It  cniHlsf.  .if  a  stotie 
ca  .n\ti  characters,  which  wasfoimil  stand- 

in  groimil  on  the  Islaml  of  Kinglktorsoak, 

,,ar.illelof7ll°. 

in  centuries  the  commercial  Interco'irse  bo- 
t«>  !and  and    Norway   was  kept   up ;    bnt 

alH  .;iM'ilng  nf  the   l.'ith  century  all  inter- 

coii  ..       and  the  unfortunate  colonists  were  cut 

of)'  111  till  rest  of  mankind.  The  Esquimaux,  the 
natives  of  the  country,  whom  in  derision  the  Nor- 
wegians culled  .Scriellings,  or  Dwarfs,  on  account  of 
their  diminutive  stature,  attacke<l  the  western  colony, 
whlcli  was  coiiipctlcd  to  seek  assistance  from  that 
which  lay  to  tint  south-east.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  scanty  (lopulation  was  redu<'e<l  by  those 
savage  invaders  ;  but  It  was  more  effectually  thinned 
liy  that  <lre.iilful  pestllenco  called  the  biwk  ilealh, 
wliich  desolated  Kurope  from  the  year  1-102  to  1404, 
and  which  extended  its  ravages  even  to  Greenland. 
Those  who  escaped  the  plague  probably  soon  fell  vic- 
tims to  the  Ksqulmaux  ;  at  least,  nothing  Is  known  of 
them  after  the  commencement  of  the  15th  ccntur)'. 
The  terms  eastern  and  western  being  used  in  referenco 
to  the  original  settlements,  naturally  led  to  the  belief 
that  the  eastern  as  well  as  the  western  side  of  Green- 
land had  been  colonized  ;  nnd  a  notion  very  generally 
prevailed  for  a  long  time  tliat  tlie  western  settlement 
only  had  perished,  the  eastern  one  having  escaped  tho 
calamity,  but,  from  tho  vast  accumulation  of  ice,  had 
been  secluded  from  all  cnmmunicution  with  the  rest  of 
the  world.  During  the  lust  century  the  court  uf  Den- 
mark repeatedly  dispatchc<l  ships  to  ascertain  if  any 
settlers  still  remained  on  that  part  of  the  coast  whicli 
is  now  called  Kast  or  Old  (ireenland,  but  without  suc- 
cess. A  more  recent  boating  expedition  in  1829-30, 
under  Captain  W.  A.  (iraali,  of  the  Danish  Royal 
Navy,  has,  however,  in  extent  of  research  on  tho  east- 
em  side  of  Cape  Farewell,  yielded  by  far  tho  most  sat- 
isfactory Information.  He  examined  tho  coast  us  far 
north  as  0.'!°  45',  but  found  nothing  to  Indicate  that 
t  his  coast  had  ever  been  colonized ;  and  we  are  thus 
li-d  to  the  conclu.sion  that  tho  notion  of  any  of  tho  Nor- 
wegians having  settled  on  the  eastern  shores  must  be 
a  mistake ;  a  mistake  arising  from  a  misapprehension 
of  tlio  words  rntt  and  west.  In  1721  Hans  I')gede,  a 
clergyman  from  Vnagen,  in  Norway,  accompanied  by 
Ills  wife  and  family,  left  his  native  country  to  settle  as  a 
missionary  in  (jiroenland.  IIo  lumled  at  Baals  River 
in  N.  lat.  (>i°,  and  called  tho  place  Godthaul),  or  Good 
Hope.  Since  that  time  the  Danes  have  established 
numerous  settlements  upon  the  western  coast  of  Green- 
land, lying  between  80°  and  73'  N.  lat.  Tho  whale 
fisheries  luve  greatly  contributed  to  the  advancement 
of  the  colonies  ;  and  from  the  intimate  Intercourse 
which  is  now  kept  up  with  Europeans,  their  condition 
is  at  present  more  flourishing  than  at  any  former 
period.  The  seal  fishery  is  also  of  great  importance 
to  Greenland — the  flesh  of  the  seal  forming  their  com- 
mon food ;  and  from  their  skin  is  made  their  boats  and 
clothing.     See  articles  Fisheriks  and  Seals. 

There  are,  at  present,  13  Danish  colonies  in  Green- 
land, besides  some  smaller  establishments  termed  fac- 
tories. For  administrative  purposes,  they  are  formed 
into  two  inspectorships,  called  respectively  North  and 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


Ui»2^    12.5 
2.0 


us 

U 


IM 


L25  mu   IL6 


A" 

O 

Hioliographic 

Scieoces 

Cxjrporation 


¥^ 


^^ 


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'i? 


V> 


,"v 


^>. 


> 


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33  WIST  MAIN  STRUT 

WnSTIR.N.Y.  14SI0 

(716)  •73-4503 


\ 


;i    y;-" 


\ 


.,t.. 


im 


flamk  OiMnlMi.    iMUiOfNnlMaiiMMHtlifinr. 
M.  67",  ud  ««nipri«M  iilii  mImlM  u  foitoin  i 


JuHutbMb,  or  Jnllwiii'aHAM' 
rradtflMbMb,  •r|Fri>4*rii>'iiil 

GodlhMb,  or  Oao4  Imm,  , 

LnkkortopMn , 

UoUUlibarii ,,,,, 


Hop* 


TaW,. 


ItimM, 


CttblM, 


« 


8?     _ 


JuUmahMb  I*  tlw  niMt  Mttthwn  m  w«tl  m  th« 
mut  impoit«ii(  of  tlwM,  Iti  dluMfit  sstofld*  to  th« 
nort  fontbam  point  of  QrMnlMd,  Statmbuk,  Mid  \m- 
vond  It  tat  lomm  4Mmm  nlonf  tta«  M»f  iid«.  At 
Pbkniaut  til*  Dmim  enfty  m  m  «j«t«n»lvi  mmiI  flib- 
ny  by  oimim  of  iwta,  stu.  In  H»  vkbiity  It  tb«  tto- 
nviut  itatloii  of  U«bt«HW)ta,  found«4  in  i/fil.  Ood< 
thaab  if  tbo  rMld«nM  of  tiM  Innptstar  of  Mouth 
Oteanland  i  und  In  tbo  vl«lnity  !i  tb«  Mof«tliMi  s«t- 
tlenunt  uf  Ktw  UtrrnbHt.  l<ukk«ftop|««n  t«kM  Iti 
nama  from  tbr*«  polHtad  bHb  in  tha  vi«iflliy,  r«a«in> 
bUng  lagar  loavaa,  and  ba*  ona  of  tb«  lM«t  and  lafaat 
harbon  in  tba  oountiy.  North  tinanland  Itwt  north 
of  N.  lat.  67°,  and  compriM*  i«¥«n  solonia*  a*  fvl> 
Iowa  I 


EcedMoiduie,  or  Rawla'i  Vnmn 
ChrUtUiubHb,orClirt>l|u)'>  i(uM 
faeobibsTn,  or  Jwob'a  tl»v«fl 

BIttenbonk 

aodbavD,or  a«o4  iiaran 

Omanak ,,,,..,,,,,,,,,, 

ITpamiTlk.. . , ,.,,,,,,,,, 

Total ,, 


Egadearalnda,  in  DIaoo  Bay,  waa  f  mndad  \iy  C«t>" 
tain  Egcda,  and  namad  in  mamnry  of  hlit  fatbif,  Hana 
Egade.  It  eompriaaa  a  numtiar  of  lartfa  and  imnlt 
islands,  bnt  the  pronar  lattlamant  ii  on  th«  Inland  of 
Aosiet.  Batwaan  thia  und  Fox  (filsnd  ni«jVO«)  th«r« 
ia  a  vary  aacura  harbor.  K  ({f»»t  many  »Mla  are 
oaaght  hera,  aapMsUlly  in  nats  |  but  th«  lHill«otlng  of 
aldar-down  forma  tha  meat  important  Itraneh  of  Indita- 
try.  Godhavan,  or  Oood  Ha¥an,  in  tna  wmtbam  ««- 
tramlty  of  tha  iaUnd  of  Dlaeo,  N,  la>,  0®  W ,  la  th« 
aeat  of  tha  inapaator  of  Kortb  OrsBidftnd,  and  has  a 
coal  mina,  which  suppllaa  tlia  nthsr  a«tti«nMnts  on 
Diaco  Bay  with  that  artiola,  Omanak  ia  not«d  for  Ita 
ratanatva  aaal  Hahary,  wblab  la  oarrlad  on  liy  tha 
Graanlandara  In  their  baijalta  nramall  >io«t«,  and  npon 
the  ice,  and  by  tba  Uana^  with  n«ti  wbioh  aro  let 
down  the  openinc*  betwaan  tha  i«».  'Hwfg  are  hare 
ooal  minaa  which  supply  tha  Bobmy.  TTpamlvifc  Ii  tha 
moat  northern  of  theaa  sotonioa,  \w\n^  In  about  M,  lat. 
78°,  and  though  of  raeant  formatbm,  it  is  already  ona 
of  the  moat  important  In  Mortb  (Iraanland.  'fha  poptt* 
latlon  of  Oiaanland  on  tba  Slat  of  y««*tmb«r,  IMA, 
amounted  to  %,1S&,  betna  H,m  nativaa,  and  iU 
Danes;  and  in  1861,  la  fAMm  at  l),4IICt,  of  whom  3M 
ware  Danes,  This  inoludaa  only  tluMo  «ul«j««t  to  the 
Danish  crown  i  of  those  that  may  bt  suattarad  over 
tha  country,  no  oonlactnra  aan  b«  fermad, 

We  shall  now  giva  »  brtaf  ontlina  of  tba  diaoorary 
of  the  Tarions  sactbms  ot  tba  ooaat*  of  tiraanland, 
with  occasional  rafarsnoas  to  faaaar«bas  about  proxi- 
mate landa  with  wblob  tboae  on  Oraanbind  were  mare 
or  less  miaad  up.  This  will  Itiad  ua  a^aln  to  notice 
the  enterprises  of  tba  Utb  oantury  in  ««arah  of  a 
passage  by  the  north-west  from  tiM  Atlontio  Into  tba 
Paclflo  Ocean. 

During  tha  reign  of  Qnaan  KUaabatb,  VMblsbar,  a 
distinguished  English  navigator,  made  aavaral  veyagea 
to  this  quarter  of  tha  gbtna.  In  IA77  ha  disoovarad 
tha  straits  which  have  JM«n  ealiad  aftar  him.  In  the 
year  168S,  Davis,  another  abb)  saaman,  eama  In  alght 
•f  high  Und,  wbbib  ha  caiUd  Mount  Kalalgh,  sup* 
poaad  to  Us  somawhar*  on  lb*  wait  «f  tba  ttrclts  bwr> 


lag  ihadlsooverer's  name.  In  1810  Hndson  discovered 
tha  straits  and  the  bay  which  are  called  after  him,  in 
whloh  he  experienced  a  disastrous  termination  to  hia 
aaaful  career.  To  certain  rocky  islands  lying  afawit 
tha  64th  parallel,  he  gave  tha  name  of  Isles  ot  Gcd'a 
tearey.  He  also  disravered  two  capes,  one  of  which 
waa  called  Digge's  Cape,  and  the  other  Willonghby 
Cape.  In  1616  Baffin,  one  of  the  most  dlsthiguUhed  ol 
onr  Kngllah  navigators,  discovered  the  large  expanse 
northward  of  the  Strait  of  Davis,  now  known  as  Baf- 
fln'rBay.  Skiing  in  a  little  vessel  of  only  about  6S 
tons'  burthen,  he  effected  one  of  the  most  extroordt 
naiy  voyages  on  record.  Under  the  imperfect  appli. 
anaes  of  the  age  for  navigation,  Baffin,  with  one  small 
vessel,  circumnavigated  to  Smith's  Sound,  on  tha 
north  of  tliat  bay  or  sea  which,  northward  of  "  Hope 
Sanderson,  the  furthest  land  Master  Davis  reached, 
lying  between  72  and  78  degrees,"  was  an  utterly  ua. 
known  region ;  thus  adding  some  1,100  miles  of  discov> 
eries,  reckoned  by  the  mere  coasting-line,  to  the 
knowledge  of  these  ice-encumbered  shores.  His  ex- 
ploration northward  reached,  it  would  appear  from  tha 
brief  bnt  graphically-toId  story  of  his  voyage,  as  given 
among  the  PUgrimagf  of  Pnrchas,  as  high  as  aboot 
77°  47'  of  latitude,  where  he  obtained  a  clear  view  into 
Sir  Thomas  Smith's  Sound,  which  he  describes  as  run- 
ning "  to  the  north  of  78°,  and  being  the  greatest  and 
largest  in  all  the  bay," 

For  200  years  from  the  time  of  Baffin,  the  knowledge 
of  this  greet  failet  (excepting  some  limited  and  cnpub- 
llsbed  Information  obtained  by  occasional  enterprises 
of  the  whalers)  had  not  been  advanced.  In  the  year 
1818,  however,  in  consequence  of  information,  we  be- 
lieve, coinmanicated  by  Captain  Scoresby  to  Sir  Jo> 
seph  Baolca,  the  admiralty  fitted  out  two  expeditions ; 
ona  cf  which,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Ross, 
was  destined  for  the  discovery  of  the  north-wesi; 
passage;  and  the  other,  tX  the  head  of  which  waa 
Captain  Buchun,  bad  for  its  object  to  attempt  a  voyage 
across  the  pole.  On  the  western  side  of  Greenland, 
the  first-named  navigator  discovered  a  high  mountain- 
ous region  to  the  north  of  Upemivik,  to  which,  from 
national  predilections,  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Arctic 
Highlands,  It  is  little  else  than  a  mass  of  rocks,  in- 
termingled with  immense  bl(X:Iu  of  ice.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded toward  the  northern  extremity  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
which  he  explored  as  far  as  the  ice  would  permit, 
looking  from  a  distance  into  Smith's  Sound.  He  sur- 
veyed the  coast  generally,  ascertained  the  positions 
and  the  appearance  of  the  land,  the  situation  of  tha 
islands,  and  the  general  configuration  of  the  great  in. 
let,  from  the  78th  down  to  the  66th  parallel.  Th« 
discoveries  of  Baffin,  which  some  had  disputed,  wers 
thus  signall}'  confirmed ;  for  while  the  form  of  the  bay 
as  given  mainly  from  conjectural  applications  of  Baf 
fln's  descriptions,  was  found  to  be  thoroughly  errone- 
ous, the  several  deep  inlets  and  other  remarlubla 
features  of  the  coast-line,  as  noted  by  this  admirable 
voyager,  were  not  only  easily  recognized,  but  the  lati- 
tudes and  more  strildng  particularities  were  found  to 
be  characteristically  correct. 

But  the  limited  period  of  a  mere  summer's  voyage 
having  left  several  points  in  Ross's  course  defective 
and  inconclus'  .'e,  especially  »^  to  the  supposed  closing 
up  of  Lancaster  Sound  by  uuutinuous  land,  another 
expedition  was  sent  out  the  year  following  under  Cap- 
tain Parry,  who  succeeded  not  only  in  passing  through 
this  famous  inlet  of  Baffin,  but  in  discovering  %  navi- 
gable channel  among  islands  extending  far  westward, 
which  was  successfully  purxued  for  about  80  degrees 
of  longitude  lieyond  Ross's  furtlwst.  But  as  these  r». 
searches,  with  the  general  body  of  the  discoveries 
since  then  made,  fall  Iwyond  the  limits  of  our  present 
article,  we  must  refer,  for  an  abstract  of  them,  to  the 
general  account  of  the  AncTio  OcBAir.  The  chief 
additions  to  our  knowledge  of  western  Greenland 
which  remain  to  be  noticed,  consist  of  certain  como-. 


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tions  of  tha  cout-lio*  inddeaUUy  insda  by  th« 
erly  exploring  axpaditlons,  and  mora  accurate  tnfor- 
matlon  of  Sndth'i  Sound  and  the  coaati  immedlataljr 
beyond,  reanlting  from  Captain  Inglefiald'f  voyage  in 
the  summer  of  1862,  and  firom  the  very  toceeirful  and 
intereatlng  American  exploration,  still  farther  north, 
nnder  Dr.  Kane,  in  1868-{). 

Cbptaitt  Inglefleld,  in  the  Imbd,  fitted  out  by  Lady 
Franklin,  having  the  advantage  of  an  auxiliary  steam 
power,  made  an  advance  northward  of  Baffin's  furthest 
of  about  60  milea,  reaching  within  Smith'a  Sound  to 
78°  28'  N.  lat.,  and  obtaining  the  view  of  t  sea  ex. 
pandlng  again  considerably  Iwyond. 

The  exploration  of  thia  new  expanse  into  the  main 
Arctic  Ocean  (with  which  the  Greenland  Sea  in  the 
east,  and  Behring's  Strait  in  the  west,  communicated), 
by  the  second  American  search-expedition  under  Dr. 
Kane,  completes  our  sLetch  of  the  progress  of  discov- 
ery on  the  western  aide  of  Greenland.  This  hardy 
and  intelligent  adventurer,  in  a  little  solitary  vessel, 
the  brig  Adnmce,  pushed  his  way  through  Smith's 
Sound  in  the  month  of  August,  1668,  and  crawled 
along  shore  within  a  cram  of  dangerous  ices  which  all 
but  tilled  the  passage,  to  a  position  higher  in  latitude 
(about  78°  40')  than  had  ever  before  been  taken  as  a 
wintering  station  in  these  western  regions  by  Euro- 
peans, In  this  position  the  brig  was  frozen  in,  early 
in  September,  and  so  remained  throughout  the  succeed- 
ing summer,  and  with  so  little  prospect  of  release  as  to 
occasion  her  abandonment,  after  a  protracted  adher- 
ence to  her  of  above  20  months. 

From  this  high  position  in  latitude,  explorations 
(furthered  for  a  time  by  the  effective  aid  of  their  Es- 
quimaux dogs)  were  perseveringly  made,  and  reward- 
ed by  residts  of  the  moHt  interesting  nature  in 
geography,  hydrography,  and  glaciology.  The  coast 
of  Greenland,  forming  the  eaitem  boundary  of  Smith'a 
Sound,  was  traced  northerly  and  easterly,  until  the 
exploration  was  diverted  by  a  stupendous  glacier  of  a 
vast  extent,  with  a  precipitous  face  alraut  600  feet  in 
height  abutting  the  sea.  The  geographical  discov- 
eries were  pushed  still- further  toward  the  pole,  and  new 
lands  OS  high  in  latitude  as  82°  SO'  added  to  our  charts. 
The  lands  on  the  two  sides  of  this  channel  were  found 
to  be  connected  by  apparently  perpetual  ices,  having, 
•t  the  time  of  the  examination,  an  open  Bea  beyond 
entliely  free  from  visible  encumbrance,  whose  waves 
were  dashing  with  anblime  action  and  force  against 
the  face  of  the  icy  barrier.  Here  an  area  of  about 
3000  square  miles  was  seen  entirely  free  from  ice,  the 
commencement  and  margin,  as  lus  been  inferred,  of 
an  open  ut[freeising  polar  sea.  On  this  question,  how- 
ever, which  comes  in  more  fitly  for  discussion  in  our 
article  on  the  Polar  Regions,  we  here  only  remark, 
cautionarity,  against  fi  premature  conclusion,  that 
Captain  Scoresby,  in  his  account  of  the  aictio  regions, 
describes  an  open  sea,  which  he  himself  once  observed 
and  navigated,  to  the  northward  of  Spitzbergen,  run- 
ning about  E.N.E.  and  W.  S.W.  for  300  miles  within 
the  latitudes  of  80°  and  81°  80',  and  having  an  area  of 
fTom  16,000  to  20,000  square  miles,  or  from  five  to  six 
times  the  extent  of  that  traced  by  Dr.  Kane ;  yet  this 
apparently  open  polar  ocean  was  found  to  be  bat  a  mid- 
glacial  sea  t  Besides,  the  extreme  lowness  of  the  tem- 
perature in  Dr.  Kane's  case — being  the  lowest,  in  the 
mean,  ever  observed  on  the  face  of  the  globe — afforded 
suSic' ^nt  evidence  that  there  could  be  no  such  sea  re- 
maining open  to  the  pole,  beyond  an  incidental  lake. 

It  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  our  present  arti- 
cle to  dwell  on  the  particular  facts,  and  incidents,  and 
processes  of  this  admirable  research  by  Dr.  Kane,  ex- 
cept to  notice  the  falling  in  with  Esquimaux  living  in 
i,  region  further  north  than  any  they  had  before  met 
with.  Agreeing,  as  these  natives  in  their  general 
characteristica  do,  with  other  Greenlanders,  they  were 
found  to  have  incidental  peculiarities  in  their  habits 
and  mode*  of  living.    They  employ  dog-sledges  of 


808 


great  afflciency  and  speed,  but  have  no  boats  or  kayakd 
They  surround  tbemselvea  in  wiifter  with  walls  of  mosa, 
and,  at  that  season,  live  mainly  upon  raw  walrus  flesh 
—habits  of  life  which,  for  the  season,  Dr.  Kan*  and 
his  party  found  it  expeditnt,  and,  after  a  little  expe- 
rience, not  unpleasant,  to  imitate  and  adopt.  Under 
this  new  dietary  education,  raw  walma  flesh  soon  be- 
came palatable ;  and  even  tallow  candles,  when  they 
could  be  tpand  for  such  a  purpose,  were  pronounced 
by  the  chief  of  the  expedition  to  be  very  good  1  Use> 
ful  and  friendly  as  these  natives  were  in  their  inter- 
course with  Dr.  Kane  and  his  Mrty,  they  nnfortnnately 
possessed  the  infirmity  (shall  we  call  it  i)  too  charac- 
teristic of  the  Esqnfanauz,  of  an  insatiable  hal)it  of 
self-appropriation — stealing  nnscropulously  whatever 
they  could  manage  to  secrete,  equally  regaidluss  of 
the  damage  to  the  owners,  or  of  any  possible  use  of 
the  articles  to  themselves. 

We  may  add  that  Dr.  Kane,  in  the  Advaiux,  started 
on  his  expedition  fh>m  New  7ork  on  tha  81st  May, 
1868,  having  along  with  him,  in  crew  and  associates, 
seventeen  men.  Three  of  this  linmber,  the  cook,  the 
carpenter,  and  a  seaman,  died  in  the  arctic  regions, 
and  the  remainder  returned  safe  to  port  on  the  11th  of 
October,  1866.  The  party  left  their  vessel  still  fast  in 
the  ice  on  the  20th  of  May,  and  traveled  over  the  ice 
to  the  navigable  waters  of  Baffin's  Sea,  whence  by 
means  of  their  boats  they  proceeded  to  the  settlement 
of  Upemivik.  They  there  took  passage  in  a  Danish 
trader;  and  when,  in  the  progress  southward,  they 
reached  Lievely,  in  Disco  Island,  they  met  with  the 
expedition  of  Lieutenat  H.  J.  Hartsteln,  wliich  had 
been  sent  out  by  Congress  in  search  of  them. 

As  to  the  etutem  tide  of  Greenland,  all  our  accurate 
knowledge,  except  a  few  particulars  referring  to  the 
coast  near  Cape  Farewell,  is  of  recent  attainment.  A 
coast-line,  indeed,  of  the  more  southern  parallels  was  to 
be  found  in  our  charts  of  the  arctic  regions,  and  in  maps 
by  Egede  and  Crantz,  traced  to  a  consjderable  extent, 
with  an  elaborateness  of  flexure  that  would  indicate  real 
and  careful  examination;  but  subsequent  researches 
have  by  no  mea-.is  verified  the  supposed  configurations. 

Northward  of  the  70th  parallel  of  latitude,  all  the 
geographical  information  we  had  of  that  coast  previous 
to  the  voyage  of  Captain  Scoresby  (now  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Scoresby)  in  1822,  consisted  of  the  not  very  definite 
notification  of  certain  points  of  land  discovered  by  the 
adventurous  Hudson  in  1607,  with  a  few  touches  on 
the  ooast,  n  nd  notices  of  land  being  seen  by  whalers, 
chiefly  Dutca,  in  1654, 16t53,  and  1670.  In  1822,  how- 
ever, captain  Scoresby,  while  engaged  in  the  Green- 
land wliale  fishery,  and  successfully  pursuing  the 
commercial  object  of  his  voyage,  penetrated  the  ic^ 
westward,  as  he  had  previously  provided  for  attempt- 
ing, to  the  coast  of  eastern  Greenland,  But  the  posi- 
tion of  the  coast,  and  its  line  of  direction,  were  found 
to  be  widely  different  from  those  ascribed  to  them  in 
the  charts,  whether  English  or  Dutch ;  for  the  real 
place  of  the  land  in  latitude  74°  was  found  to  be  from 
8°  to  16°  of  longitude  farther  west,  and  the  line  of 
direction  from  69°  to  74°  80'  N.  by  E.,  instead  of 
KE.,  or  E.y.E.,  as  formerly  laid  down. 

The  first  land  seen  by  Captain  Scoresby,  stretching 
from  N.W.  by  N.  to  N.,  extended  to  about  74°  30'  N., 
the  nearest  headland  being  estimated  at  60  milei'  dis 
tance.  This  was  on  the  7th  of  June,  and  so  early  in 
the  season  as  to  prevent  any  near  approach  to  the 
coast,  from  the  intervention  of  a  chain  of  heavy  field 
ice  northward  of  73°.  But  after  tracing  a  proximate 
outline  of  the  mjre  northern  part  of  the  coast.  Captain 
ScoTOsby  was  gradually  enabled  to  approach  the  shore 
as,  with  the  advance  of  the  season,  he  proceeded  south- 
ward ;  and,  in  the  course  of  the  exploration,  succeed- 
ed in  landing  on  four  or  five  different  positions  between 
the  70th  and  73d  parallels.  The  coast  from  74°  80'  to 
69°  10'  was  generally  surveyed,  and  names  were  given 
to  the  more  particular  headlands,  islands,  and  inlets. 


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804 


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Two  very  ranuriubla  Inlsta  wen  ol>s«rr«d  md  par- 
tially cziiniiud,  one  in  latitnds  72°,  which  waa  named 
Ihtvg'i  Bound,  and  the  other  in  70°  16%  whieh  received 
the  name  of  SconAf't  Souml,  &n  account  of  the  flrst 
examination  of  it  erer  known  to  have  been  made 
having  juat  bem  accompliahad  by  the  navigator's 
hther.  In  this  way,  single-handed  and  without  cost 
to  the  coontiy,  some  000  miles  of  new  coast  line  (reclc- 
oning  its  various  flexures  and  Inlets)  were  added  to  our 
Greenland  ahaits ;  and  much  novel  information  on  the 
geography,  hydrography,  and  natural  history  of  those 
regions  was  communicated  to  the  public  in  the  Journal 
o^M«  Voyage,  which  appeared  in  the  succeeding  spring. 
One  circumitance  of  geographical  interest  it  may  be 
proper  more  pstticalarly  to  notice,  viz.,  the  conviction 
conveyed  to  the  mind  of  Captain  Scoresby  by  his  ob- 
servations on  the  corrent  setting  into  Davy's  Sound 
and  Scoresby's  Sound,  that  these  fine  expanses  of 
water,  which,  in  certain  westerly  directions,  were 
dear  of  ice  or  land  to  the  utmost  extent  of  virion, 
were  actual,  channels  of  communication  tietween  the 
Sea  of  Greenland  on  the  east,  and  thkt  of  BaiHn's  on 
the  west.'  Hence,  the  great  probability  of  the  supposi- : 
tion  abeady  noticed,  that  Greenland  consists  of  an 
osNmiAi^  of  Islands.  . 

In  the  ^ear  1828,  Captain  Clavering,  in  command 
of  the  Gnper  sloop-of-war.  Under  admiralty  orders  for 
pendulum  experiments,  advanced  on  the  same  coast  as 
that  first  approached  by  Captain  Scoresby ;  and,  being 
about  a  month  later  in  the  season,  was  enabled  to  get 
close  in  shore,  and  to  enter  a  considerable  luy  in  Ut. 
74°,  supposed  to  be  that  originally  discovered  by  Gael 
Ilamkes,  a  Dutch  navigator,  in  1654.  The  line  of  the 
more  northerly  part  of  the  coast,  as  laid  down  by 
Scoresby,  was  now  corrected,  ar  1  new  coast  lines,  in- 
cluding Shannon  Island,  with  dottings  of  headUnds 
reaching  from  74°  80'  to  76°,  added  to  our  charts. 
Southward  of  Gael  Hamkes's  Bay  the  coast  was  traced 
pretty  close  along  to  Cape  Parry  of  Scoresby,  and  then 
finally  left.  The  general  conflgoration  of  the  coast, 
excepting  some  10  or  15  leagues  in  the  furthest  north, 
seen  by  Captain  Scoresby  only  in  the  distant  horizon, 
was  singularly  verifled  by  Captain  Clavering's  Inshore 
researches.  For  though  the  first  explorer  was  not 
able  to  approach  the  land  between  73°  SO'  and  74°  80' 
N.,  nearer  than  from  40  to  45  geographical  miles,  the 
positions  ascriijed  by  the  two  navigators  to  the  head- 
lands of  Gael  Hamkes's  Bay,  and  other  leading  points 
(with  Jaclcson's  Island,  which  had  been  first  laid  down  at 
about  SO  miles'  distance),  proved  to  bo  all  but  Identical. 

This  coast  presents  many  remarkable  and  interest- 
ing features.  On  the  Liverpool  coast  of  Scon-oby 
there  is  a  mountainous  chain  of  3000  to  4000  feet  in 
height,  forming  precipitous  clIfFs,  which  terminate  in 
numerous  pealu,  cones,  pyramids,  or  "series  of  perpen- 
dicular serrated  points.  In  the  interior  were  seen 
peaks  supposed  to  be  almost  twice  the  elevation  of  the 
loft}'  coast.  The  coal  formation  of  Jameson's  Island, 
In  Scoresby's  Sound,  was  among  tbe  most  interesting 
of  the  geographical  particulars  observed. 

The  final  researches,  which  terminate  onr  descrip- 
tion of  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  were  those 
made  by  Captain  Graah  in  the  years  1829  and  1830, 
by  order  of  the  king  of  Denmark.  The  leading  object 
was  to  search  for  the  lost  colonies,  and  trace  the  coast, 
if  practicable,  in  tmats,  (h)m  Cape  Farewell  up  to  lati- 
tude 69°  N.,  the  southernmost  point  discovered  by 
Captain  Scoresby.  The  expedition  consisted  of  two 
women't  toatt  of  the  country,  rowed  by  women,  carrj'- 
ing  the  Danes  of  the  party  (Captain  Graah  and  three 
others),  and  attended  by  five  men  in  their  kayaks. 
From  the  sonthem  island.  Cape  Farewell,  up  to  lati- 
tude 65°,  the  coast  was  found  to  trend  about  N.X.E. ; 
and  from  thence,  for  60  to  80  miles  (as  far  as  they 
were  able  to  trace  It),  the  line  was  about  N.E.  The 
highest  point  on  Captain  Graah's  chart  extends  to  66° 
45  ,  leaving  the  interval  of  about  340  miles  (in  a  noidi- 


eaataily  diraotion)  yet  nnoertiiied  and  nnknowti.  Tkt  , 
pressing  of  the  ice  in  close  contact  open  the  land  pr» 
vented  the  ftaither  navigation  of  these  eastern  shores. 
Onanook,  a  se»-port  town  of  Benliewshire,  Scot- 
land, on  the.  south  bank  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  22 
miles  below  Glasgow,  in  N.  Ut.  55°  57'  2",  W.  long. 
4°  45'  80".  In  troat  of  the  town  there  is  a  fine  and 
extensive  bay,  formerly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Bay  of  St.  I«wrenoe,  from  a  religious  house  that  an- 
ciently stood  there.  Behind  the  town  the  land  rises 
hito  a  pictureaque  ridge  of  hills,  about  800  feet  high, 
between  which  and  the  l»y  Greenock  stretches  for  up- 
ward of  24-  miles  along  the  shore,  but  its  breadth  is 
inconsiderable;  Its  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
ttom  the  compound  Gaelic  word  OriamUff— Orion  sig- 
nifying ann,  and  Aig  port  or  bay— the  bay  being 
directly  apposite  to  the  rising  sun. 

Various  acts  of  Parliament  liaving  reference  to  suc- 
cessive enlargements  and  alterations  of  the  harlwrs 
were  Awm  time  to  time  procured  as  the  increase  of 
trade  rendered  such  necessary,  so  that  now  of  tlie 
original  erections  scarcely  a  vestige  remains.  In  1785 
a  diy  dock  waa  built  in  tlia  western  division  of  the  old 
harbor,  the  expense  of  which  waa  defhiyed  by  snl>- 
soiiption;  and  in  1818  the  magistrates  and  cooncil 
contracted  for  and  built  another,  and  greatly  larger, 
entering  iVom  what  is  now  known  as  the  East  Indi* 
Hariwr,  and  which  was  finished  in  1824  at  an  expense 
of  X20,000.  On  the  2«th  day  of  May,  1805,  was  laid 
the  foundation-stone  of  the  East  India  Harbor ;  and 
almost  cotemporaneously  with  tills  largo  addition  to 
the  dock  accommodation  of  Greenock,  a  general  im- 
provement and  renovation  of  the  quays  and  breasts  of 
the  older  portions  of  the  hariwr  were  undertaken. 
These  works,  which  were  very  extensive,  and  in- 
volved an  expenditure  of  upwurd  of  £120,000,  were 
not  completed  till  September,  1819. 

The  steadily  increasing  tnide  of  the  port  rendered  a 
furtiier  extension  of  dock  accommodation  alMolutely 
necessary ;  and  in  1840  an  act  was  procured  for  the 
construction  of  an  entirely  new  harbor  and  dock.  Six 
years  subsequently  the  work  was  commenced  on  a 
site  directly  -  the  East  India  Harbor,  and  on  the 

17th  Octol>r'.  :jie  new  dock  was  formally  opened 

Wider  the  di  .  a  of  Victoria  Hariwr.    It  consists 

of  a  tidal  basid,  covering  an  area  of  about  6  acres,  and 
exceeding  80  feet  in  depth.  The  east  and  west  walls 
are  each  i68  feet  long;  and  the  outer  quay  wall, 
divided  by  the  entrance,  160  feet  wide,  is  176  feet  long 
on  the  west,  and  60  on  the  oast  side.  The  average 
width  of  the  quays  on  the  east,  west,  and  south,  is  up- 
ward of  86  feet,  and  on  the  north,  toward  the  river,  it 
is  70.  The  depth  of  water  within  the  basin  is  26  feet 
at  high  tide,  and  14  feet  at  low  water.  The  whole 
work,  which  is  of  the  most  substantial  character,  cost 
upward  of  ^£120,000 ;  and,  as  a  tidal  harbor,  has  not, 
in  respect  of  its  size  and  depth,  its  equal  in  the  world. 
On  the  east  side  a  massive  crane,  capable  of  lifting 
from  70  to  80  tons,  has  been  erected ;  and  here  many 
of  those  gigantic  steam  vessels,  for  which  the  Clyde 
has  Iwcome  universally  famous,  are  fitted  with  their 
engines.  A  crane  has  also  l)een  erected  at  the  East 
India  Hariwr  capable  of  lifting  40  tons. 

The  old  graving  docks  having  become  altogether  in- 
adequate, the  harbor  trustees  have  recently  purchased, 
for  upward  of  .£30,000,  several  acres  of  ground  adjoin- 
ing Albert  Quay,  and  here  it  is  in  contemplation  to 
construct  a  new  harbor,  with  the  requisite  dock  ac- 
commodation for  repairing  the  largest  vessels.  The 
following  measurements  show  the  extent  ft  the  e» 
isting  dock  and  quay  accommodation ; 

Albert  qnsy  tnd  slip (M  llneaf  feet 

Vest  hartMT  and  quays 8,940  feet,  girthed.      ' 

Entrance  to  harbor 180    **     wide. 

Custom-honse  quay WO   "       " 

Eastlndlaharborandqnaya....  8,200    "     girthed. 

Kntianoe  to  harbor 170    "     wide. 

Victoria  harbor  and  qnaya. 8,900   •*    glrthi4<,,;» 

Kntrancetobatbor IBO   »    wld*^   * 


ORE 


808 


GRB 


Tht  Mrilcit  timda  imiiii  to  hsva  been  In  heninn, 
■ad  It  If  itiU  continued,  the  •mount  onnd  uinnuljr 
areraging  aboat  19,000  barrels.  Trading  in  tobaoco 
naa  idM  oafriad  on  at  a  very  early  period.  It  wai 
flrat  brouglit  from  tlie  colonies,  and  tben  exported  to 
the  continent.  The  Greenland  whale-ilshing  com- 
oiancad  as  far  bacic  as  1762,  but  it  never  rose  to  be 
of  any  importance,  and  is  now  discontinued.  The 
American  war  greatly  interrupted  the  progress  of 
OrMUock,  as  the  principal  trade  of  the  port  was  then 
with  that  country;  but  after  the  pea«e  in  1788  it 
speedily  revived,  and  within  the  seven  foUo^ving  years 
the  shipping  trade  was  tripled  in  amount.  At  present 
the  principal  intercourse  is  with  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  Australia,  and  North  America.  Newfound- 
land and  South  America  have  abo  employed  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  shipping.  The  graduid  increase  of 
trade  is  shown  by  the  following  tables : 

AcooviiT  or  Tna  oaoss  Beoiipt  or  CtrsTom  at  thb  Post 
or  OasaitoCK  dveins  1728,  ahd  vasiods  svasaounrr 

•^—  188» alt^OM 


18M asMTT 

1648 «>r,«8S 

1801 ,..,.  410,«« 

185S 429,&aS 


f       ITSS £IB,S31 

V'<  18N ,i.,..  811,087 

18M M84494 

1881 n«,008 

The  stationary  state  of  the  duties  of  lata  years  is 
ascribed  partly  to  their  reduction,  and  partly  to  the 
improvements  effected  in  the  navigation  of  the  Clyde, 
which  enable  vessels  that  formerly  had  to  load  and 
unload  here  or  Port  Glasgow,  to  ascend  to  Glasgow. 
AcoouMT  or  TBI  Ndmbib  or  Bboutibed  Vusels  bi- 

LONOIMO     TO    tub     PobT    OF     OBEINOOK     DUBIHO    TUB 

YlABS  188S,  1884,  ISa,  AMD  18SS. 

No.  Tom. 

'    law. 241  S«,OM 

1884, 8«7  40,788 

184B. 428  82,741 

1848. 418  T8,9»8 

Of  these  last,  14  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  2012 
tons,  were  steamers. 

ACOOONT  or  THB  .('iTHBEB  AlfO  TONltAOB  OF  VbHBLS  TBAT 
BBTEBED  AMD  OLBABED  FBOIC  ASD  TO  FoBEIOB  PoETS 
IH  VABIODS  Yeabs  SIHOB  1784. 


nnrABD. 

Brilbk. 

Foratgn. 

BrilUh. 

rortirk 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

ton;i. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

Toiu. 

1784 

ta 

<,8«t 

4 

880 

68 

7,227 

8 

6?0 

1804 

18A 

80,302 

2S 

6,199 

105 

81,896 

20 

^966 

1824 

188 

48,162 

11 

8,(M 

188 

46,867 

» 

2^699 

1884 

277 

69,818 

10 

2,078 

284 

71,698 

8 

2,140 

18S8 

274 

HBTB 

44 

18,764 

168    66,680 

45    11,976 

•  f 


In  1880, 684  vessels,  of  67,884  tons,  entered,  and  796 
vessels,  of  81,988  tons,  cleared  coastwise  at  the  port. 
In  1853,  674  sailing  vessels,  of  88,828  tons,  and  214 
steam  vessels,  of  89,611  tons,  entered,  and  162  sailing 
vessels  of  8662  tons,  and  102  steam  vessels  of  10,762 
tons  cleared  at  the  port.  The  opposition  to  the  mo- 
nopoly of  the  East  India  Company  originated  wtih  the 
merchants  of  Greenock  in  1812. — E.  B. 

Oreenwioh  Hoapltal,  Greenwich,  England, 
Is  a  royal  foundation,  erected  by  the  mnnificance  of 
William  and  Harj'  (originating,  as  is  generally  be- 
lieved, with  the  queen),  by  letters  patent  of  the  26th 
of  October,  1694.  The  hospital  occupies  the  site  of 
the  old  palace,  called  Greenmck  Uouu,  which  was 
from  very  early  times  a  residence  of  our  sovereigns. 
Edward  III.  had  a  palace  there.  Heuiy  IV.  resided 
much  at  Greenwich,  and  his  will  is  dated  from  his 
manor  of  Greenwich.  It  was  ^{ranted  by  Henr}'  Y. 
to  the  youngest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  reverted 
again  to  the  crown  on  his  death  (26th  Henry  VI.). 
Edward  IV.  took  great  delight  in  the  palace,  and  en- 
larged it  at  much  cost.  He  granted  it  to  his  queen, 
Elizabeth.  It  afterward  came  into  the  possession  of 
Henry  VII.,  who  enlarged  and  lieautifled  it,  and  re- 
sided much  there.  Henr}'  VIII.  was  at  great  expense 
to  render  the  palace  worthy  of  his  sumptuous  court. 
He  called  tiiis  his  manor  of  plaaaaunce,  and  held  there 
many  graat  banquet*  and  nyal  oaremoniea.    Queen 


Elhabeth  made  maay  additions  to  tha  bnlldlng,  and 
resided  much  there.  Jamas  I.  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  HoHM  <{fDtlijiht,  which  afterward  became  tha  res- 
idence of  the  governor  of  the  hospital,  Charles  I. 
resided  frequently  at  the  palace ;  and  his  queen  fur- 
nished, with  extraordinary  magnificence,  the  building 
begun  by  his  predecessor.  At  his  ileath  It  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  offlcer*  of  the  Commonwealth, 
who  excepted  it,  for  their  own  use,  firom  the  general 
ordinance  passed  July  16th,  1649,  for  the  sale  of  tha 
crown  lands;  but  upon  theb  subsequent  necessities 
for  the  support  of  the  navy,  it  was  ordered  by  the 
House  of  Commons,  November  27th,  1662,  to  be  im- 
mediately sold  for  ready  money.  Preparations  to 
give  effect  to  this  order  were  made,  and  some  small 
part  of  the  out-buildings  was  sold.  The  palace  and 
park  were,  however  (with  other  of  the  royal  pahtoes), 
assigned  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  Uie  accommo- 
dation of  the  Lord  Protector,  and  happily  reverted  to 
the  crown  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  by  whom 
the- west  wing  of  tlie  present  hospital  buildings  was 
added,  aa  part  of  an  extensive  design.  (Uastbo's 
UUlorji  of  Kent.)  The  palace  remiUned  in  the  unfln- 
iahed  state  in  which  Charles  11.  left  it,  when  it  waa 
assigned  by  the  patent  of  William  and  Mary  to  certain 
of  the  great  officers  of  the  state,  as  commissioners  for 
ita  conversion  into  a  hospital  for  seamen.  This  was 
followed  in  the  succeeding  year  by  a  patent,  dated 
September  10th,  1696,  which  recited  that  the  object  of 
the  institution  was  to  make  some  competent  pruvitiion 
tliat  seamen  who,  by  age,  wounds,  or  other  accidento, 
should  become  disabled  for  further  service  at  sea,  and 
should  not  be  in  a  condition  to  maintain  themselves 
comfortably,  might  not  full  under  hardships  and  mis- 
erias,  but  might  lie  supported  at  the  public  cliarge ; 
and  that  chUdren  of  such  disabled  seamen,  and  the 
widows  and  (Children  of  such  seamen  as  should  hap- 
pen to  he  slain  in  the  king's  service,  might,  in  some 
reasonable  manner,  he  provided  for  and  educated. 
The  patent  appointed  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
several  of  tiie  great  officers  of  state,  nobility,  bishops, 
and  others,  to  be  commissioners  for  these  purposes ; 
and  required  them  to  consider  how  they  might  be  best 
carried  out,  and  the  palace  liest  converted  for  the 
charitable  object  to  which  it  was  assigned,  and  also  to 
frame  for  his  majesty's  approval  a  charter  of  foundation. 
The  government  of  the  hospital  has  l>een  continued 
in  similar  commissions  in  8ul>sequent  reigns,  and  the 
most  distinguished  persons  have  betin  appointed  com- 
missioners. George  III.,  by  his  charter  of  Uecemlier 
6tb,  1776,  incorporated  the  commissioners,  vesting  the 
goods  and  revenues  of  the  hospital  in  them,  and  gave 
to  them  and  their  successors  a  perpetual  succession. 

The  revenues  of  the  hospital  have  l)een  derived  from 
several  sources.  William  III.,  contributed  by  grant 
£2000  a  year  toward  perfecting  the  work,  and  author- 
ized the  commissioners  to  receive  voluntary  gifts  and 
subscriptions  in  aid.  Above  £60,000  had  Iwen  ex- 
pended, on  Queen  Anne's  accession,  upon  the  build- 
ings, which  though  still  very  incomplete,  were  so  far 
in  a  state  of  readiness  that,  in  December,  1706, 100 
disabled  seamen  were  taken  into  the  hospital.  On 
the  1st  of  July,  1708,  the  numiier  amounted  to  860, 
and  the  income  was  estimated  at  £12,000  a  year;  half 
of  which  was  applied  to  the  maintenance  of  the  sea^ 
men,  and  tha  other  half  to  the  completion  of  the  build- 
ings. 

The  revenue  of  the  hospital  in  1849  (for  which  year 
the  latest  accounts  are  printed),  was — 

Nett  produce  of  the  estates £29,>T  9 

Bentsin  Oreenwioh 2,681 

Interest  on  Invested  property 82,491 

From  eonsolldstod  nind.  In  lion  of  mercbant-sos- 

men's  ■lEpenees. 20;000 

Freightage  of  treasure  10^408 

Other  siosll  contingent  receipts.  Including  sale  of 

£8,000  stock  io  purohsse  river  frontage. 8,786 

TotsL £148,888 


GBE 


M6 


GBI 


Aad  tbe  •xpeadlian  for  the  auM  jtn 

BMWhold  *ad  eoBtlnnnt  (xpcBiM,  oomprUbif  th« 

nulnUiunM,  elolhlng  and  illowuea  to  8,T10 

MBiioiMn  and  VT  nnmit,  with  mIvIm  uid  wigM 

to  the  •aboidlBtt*  ofllMrt  u4  (•rruti,  nd  ill 

works  and  npaln, SllMTU 

ObargelbrtbarajriliiartlKhoall, 18,<M 

PkrochUI  and  aliewcd  taxof 1^1 

Annolty  panoaot  to  (Mb  Oea  III^  obap.  tt,  to  Ladjr 

Mawbarc  1,000 

Paiohau  of  rlrar  ftontage  aad  proMKyfor  imptoTft- 

menu 77. ....'.... ' 19,890 

Otharamaireharfai MT 


Total «lM,9ftT 

It  ia  itatad  that  nndar  Un  anrangeniMitt  mode  por- 
■aant  to  the  acta  of  1829  and  1834,  the  hoapital  lur- 
nndeied  ^42,000  •  year  of  iU  TevanMa.— i>aW.  Sttwm, 
1860. 

Orvanwioh  OtMarratoiT'  Built  at  the  aoUo- 
iUtion  of  Sir  Jonaa  Uoore  and  Sir  Cliriatopher  Wren, 
by  Charias  II.,  on  the  aummit  of  FUmatead-biU,  so 
called  Atom  the  great  aatronomer  of  that  name,  who 
waa  the  flrat  aitonomer  royal  here.  The  EngUah  be- 
gan to  oompnte  the  longitude  from  the  meridian  of 
thi*  place,  1675 ;  some  make  the  date  1679.  This  ob- 
iorvatory  contaiaa  •  transept  circle  by  Trougbton; 
•  transit  instrument  of  8  feet  by  Bird ;  3  mural  qnsd- 
nints  of  8  feet,  and  Bradley's  aenith  sector.  Tiw 
telsaoopes  are  40  and  60  inch  acbromatics,  and  a  6  fsat 
xcflsctor ;  and  among  other  fine  instruments  and  ob- 
jects is  a  famous  camera  obacnra. 

Gto-eaade.  A  hollow  ball  of  iron  about  2}  inches 
in  diameter,  charged  with  gunpowder  and  furnished 
with  a  proper  fuse ;  it  ia  often  called  a  hand-grenade, 
being  thrown  from  tlie  parapets  of  besieged  places 
upon  the  Invaders  beneath. 

Oraaluun,  Sir  Tbomaa,  the  founder  of  tbe  Royal 
Exchange  and  of  the  college  called  by  his  name  in 
London,  was  bom  in  1619.  His  father  bad  amassed 
great  wealth  and  attained  great  eminence  as  a  mer- 
chant and  bill-broker  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII., 
and  resolved  to  train  his  son  to  succeed  him  in  his 
business.  After  a  thorough  education  at  Calus  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  young  Qresham  was  apprenticed  to 
his  uncle,  a  knight  and  a  distinguished  member  of  the 
Merchants'  Company.  Under  Edward  VI.,  Gresham 
was  employed  on  tbe  same  services  as  his  fkther  had 
performed  for  that  king's  father,  and  in  the  course  of 
Edward's  short  reign  he  made  no  fewer  than  40  voy- 
ages to  Antwerp  on  tl  ]  royal  business.  By  his  finan- 
cial skill  and  foresight  he  rendered  gt  sat  service  to 
the  revenues  of  tbe  English  crown,  which  he  rescued 
ftom  the  extortions  of  Dutch  and  Jewish  capitalists, 
and  introduced  with  great  effect  the  practice  of  rai^ 
ing  money  from  nativt  money-lenders,  in  preference 
to  foreigners,  who  exacted  a  ruinous  rate  of  interest. 
Mary  and  Elisabeth  continued  him  in  bin  employ- 
ment, and  the  latter  knighted  him  in  1559.  Ho  had 
now  amassed  an  immense  fortune,  and  built  himself  a 
splendid  bouse  in  Bishopsgste-street  (wliich,  after  his 
wife's  deatli,  was  used  as  Gresham  College,  and  the 
lite  of  which  is  now  occupied  by  the  excise  office), 
where  be  lived  in  great  state,  and  where,  by  command 
of  Elizabeth,  he  often  entertained  the  ambassadors 
and  visitors  of  rank  that  thronged  her  court.  To 
these  circamstanc^s  Gresluun  owed  bis  title  of  the 
"Royal  Merchant." 

During  bis  repeated  visits  to  Antwerp,  Qresham 
bad  seen  and  fully  appreciated  the  value  of  a  general 
place  of  rendeivons  for  the  merchants  of  the  city. 
Anxious  to  introduce  something  of  the  kind  into  Lon- 
don, be  offered  to  build  a  suitable  bouse  if  the  citi- 
sens  would  furnish  a  site.  A  piece  of  gr«nnd  was 
accordingly  Imught,  and  a  building  on  the  model  of 
tbe  Bourse  of  Antwerp  was  erected  and  ready  for  use 
In  1569.  In  the  following  year  it  was  opened  in  state 
by  EUsabetb,  who,  by  a  trumpet  and  herald,  pro- 
claimed it  "The  Royal 'Exchange."  This  building 
waa  bnnud  down  in  the  great  fire  of  London,  but 


waa  afttrwaid  labuUt  on  a  laiga r  leaU  and  at  a  eosl 
of  nearly  XM.OOO.  In  1888  this  edlflee  was  dettrmred, 
like  its  pradkoessor,  by  fire ;  but  on  tlie  same  site  a 
new  exchange,  of  tu  greater  dimaaaioas  aad  mon 
splendid  in  style,  was  opened  in  1844  by  the  Qoaon,  in 
state.— E.  B. 

Orindstoaea,  flat  circular  stone*  of  different 
dUmeters  and  thickness,  mounted  on  spindles  or  axles, 
and  made  to  revolve  with  different  degrees  of  velocity, 
employed  to  polish  steel  srticles,  to  give  an  edge  to 
cutting  instruments,  etc.  Grindstones  not  in  con* 
stant  use  an  commonly  turned  by  winch  liaadles ;  but 
at  Sheffield  and  other  places,  where  polislied  articles 
aad  cutlery  are  extensively  manufactoied,  large  nuat> 
hers  of  grindstones,  bebag  mounted  in  bulldin0i  ap- 
propriated to  that  purpose,  called  grind  or  blade  mills, 
ore  turned  by  straps,  acting  on  their  axles,  the  mov- 
ing power  being  eitiwr  water  or  steam.  The  atoua 
l)est  suited  to  form  grindstones  is  what  is  called  a 
sharp-grit,  it  being  chosen  finer  or  coarser-grained  ac- 
cording to  tbe  purposes  for  which  they  are  destined. 
The  inincipal  grindstone  quarry  in  England  ia  at 
Gatesliead  Fell,  bi  the  county  of  Durham,  where  they 
are  produced  in  vast  numbers,  not  only  for  home  use, 
but  for  exportation  to  all  parte  of  the  world.  But 
those  principally  in  use  at  Sheffield  are  mostly  quar- 
ried at  Wickersley,  hi  Yorkshire.  They  are  classed 
in  8  different  sixes  colled  /oott,  according  to  their 
dimensions,  as  in  the  following  table : 


OluMUr. 

ThlcklMh 

No.  IB  •chaldron. 

IikU.. 

iKhH. 

Ifoot 

10 

9 

at 

S  foots. 

14 

n 

97 

8      ** 

90 

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1 

A  grindstone  foot  is  8  inches ;  the  size  is  found  by 
adding  the  diameter  and  thickness  together.  Thus,  a 
stone  56  inches  diameter  by  8  thick,  making  together 
64  inches,  is  an  8-foot  stnne,  of  8  inches  each  foot. 
Besides  the  above  sizes,  grindstones  are  made,  when 
ordered,  of  any  intermediate  dimensions ;  many  are 
mode  much  larger  than  any  of  the  above  sizes ;  some 
as  large  as  76  inches  diameter,  and  14  or  15  inches 
thick,  which  are  a  great  weight,  a  cubic  foot  weigh- 
ing 1  cwt.  1.  qr.  14  lbs. — Rkes's  Cgclopotdia ;  Bai- 
I/Ey'b  Survtg  of  Durham,  p.  48.  Grinding  is  an 
unhealthy  and  dangerous  employment.  For  some 
purposes,  the  stones  are  made  to  revolve  with  an  ex- 
treme degree  of  velocity,  which  makes  tliem  occasion- 
ally fly  in  pieces.  But  the  greatest  annoyance  to 
which  the  grinder  is  exposed  is  from  bis  inhaling  the 
minute  particles  of  stone,  and  of  iron  and  steel,  that 
are  always  flying;  about,  particularly  in  the  process 
termed  dry  grinding.  Contrivances  have  been  sug- 
gested for  obviating  this  serious  inconvenience ;  but 
whether  it  l>e  owing  to  their  unsuitableness,  or  to  tbe 
carelessness  of  the  worlunen,  none  of  them  luve  suc- 
ceeded in  practice. — Treatite  on  Irim  and  Bteel,  Lakd- 
neb's  Cgdopadia,  p.  298. 

OlinncU  Ztand,  a  tract  of  Terra  Firms,  ia  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  the  south  coast  of  which  trends  in  a 
western,  and  finally  a  north-weston  direction,  was 
discovered  by  the  American  Expedition,  in  search  oi 
Sir  John  Franklin,  September  21st,  1850.  Of  this 
interesting  discovery  (which  the  British  explorers  in 
this  region  modestly  claim,  and  call  it  "Albert 
Land"),  Dr.  Kane,  the  journalist  of  the  American  Ex- 
pedition, thus  spealu : 

September,  21, 1850.— We  have  drifted  still  more  to 
the  northward  and  eastward.  A  relinble  obaervatiun 
gave  us  iat.  76°  20'  88".  Apparently  we  are  not 
more  than  7  miles  ttom  the  shore,  which  is  still  of  the 
cliaracteristio  limestone  of  the  lower  channel.  Ter. 
race*  of  shingle  are  rising  one  above  another  in  regn. 


4ftr 


897 


QUA 


lar  inoeentoa.  tbtiy  follow  the  euTTO-lIke  iiraep  of 
tha  indanUtioiu,  Eittnuted  bjr  «j-e,  the  height  of 
tba  appermoit  ih  about  40  feet  above  the  water  line ; 
bnt  I  was  of  eonne  unable  at  that  diitanc*  to  com- 
pare the  levels  of  the  luccesslre  ledges  with  those 
observed  between  Capes  Spencer  and  Innes  on  the  op- 
posite side.  About  tea-time,  we  saw  a  set  of  bill-tops 
to  the  north  b}r  west,  apparently  of  the  same  conflg- 
uration  with  the  hills  around  us.  The  coast  of  Com- 
wallls  Island  now  receded  to  the  westward,  and  an 
intermediate  space,  either  of  water  or  of  very  low 
beach,  separates  it  from  the  new  land  to  the  north  and 
east  of  us.  Whether  this  be  a  cape  from  a  northern 
Terra  Incognita,  or  a  new  bend  of  tha  opposite  shores 
of  North  Devon,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say.  We  toolc 
sextant  bearings.  From  this  date  we  may  claim  the 
discovery  of  that  land,  which  we  were  able  afterward 
to  define  satisfhctorily.  "  Grinnell  Land,"  as  it  was 
afterward  named  by  oar  commander,  was  thus  discov- 
ered nearly  8  months  before  it  was  delineated  and 
named  by  Captain  Penny  in  May,  1861. 

September  22. — This  day  of  rest  (Sunday),  which 
opened  with  clear,  cold  serenity,  gave  us  an  opportu- 
nity of  seeing  the  onvisited  shores  oi  Wellington 
Channel,  Our  latitude  by  artiflcial  horizon  was 
now  76°  26',  or  about  60  miles  north  of  Cape  Hoth- 
am.  Cape  Bowden  on  the  eastern  side  hod  disap- 
peared, and  on  the  west  a  dark  projecting  cape  from 
which  we  took  our  sextant  angles,  was  seen  bearing 
to  the  west  of  south.  To  the  northward  and  west- 
ward low  land  was  seen  having  the  appearance  of  an 
island,  although  it  may  have  been  connected  with  the 
shore  by  an  unseen  strip.  Its  eastern  termination 
was  more  elevated.  The  bend  of  the  western  shore 
was  now  clearly  to  the  westward.  It  was  rolling  with 
the  terraced  shingle  beaches  before  observed,  and 
ended  or  apparently  ended,  abruptly.  After  and  be- 
yond these  to  the  north,  without  visible  land  interven- 
ing, were  the  monntain  tops  which  terminated  oar 
view.  These  were  two  in  number,  one  higher  than  the 
other.  A  third  summit,  more  distant  than  the  others, 
was  seen  by  me  Arom  the  mast-head,  bat  the  bases  of 
all  these,  as  is  often'  the  case  with  distant  mountains, 
could  not  be  traced  to  the  horizon.  Without  the  aid 
of  a  known  height,  and  in  an  atmosphere  so  decep- 
tive, I  could  not  venture  to  give  their  distance  in 
miles.  Lieutenant  De  Haven  estimated  the  middle 
peak  the  nearest  and  most  conspicuous,  at  60  miles," 

Here  Dr,  Kane  is  direct  and  positive.  He  is  not 
compelled  to  resort  to  "  a  division  of  opinions,"  nor 
a  "  first  idea,"  nor  an  "  if,"  He  is  pUin  and  outright. 
He  says — "Grii(xbi.l  Lakd,  as  it  was  afterward 
named  by  aur  commander,  was  thus  discovered  nearly 
8  months  lAfofe  it  nas  delineated  and  named  by  Cap- 
tain Penny  in  May,  1861," 

Lieutenant  Griffin,  commander  of  the  Seteue,  in  his 
narrative  of  De  Haven's  voyage,  is  as  clear  and  pos- 
itive as  De  Haven  and  Kane,  as  to  the  discovery :  A 
succession  of  southerly  gales  occurring,  we  were 
driven,  with  all  the  ice  in  sight,  up  Wellington  Chan- 
nel, until  we  reaofaed  the  latitude  75°  26',  From  that 
position  mneh  new  land  was  seen,  A  range  of  high 
mountains  very  justly  received  the  name  of  Grinnell, 
A  channel  leading  to  the  north-west  was  named  after 
the  distinguished  gentleman  at  the  head  of  the  Na- 
tional Observatoi}-,  Mr,  Maury,  Capes  and  islets 
never  before  setn,  unless  by  the  missing  navigators, 
were  named.  By  gazing  on  that  which  was  entirely 
nnw  to  man,  the  spirit  of  enterprise  iMcame  animated 
— ^we  felt  disposed  even  then  to  load  the  sledge,  and 
toil  slowly  in  the  direction  of  the  monntain  range. 
Captain  Penny,  the  following  spring,  without  knowl- 
edge of  our  having  been  ahead  of  him,  gave  English 
names  to  the  above  land,  calling  Grinnell  Land,  Al- 
bert Land;  Uaory  Channel,  Victoria  Channel,  et«. 
The  mistake,  as  soon  as  it  Is  explabed,  I  inppoae  will 
be  comcled  on  tha  EngUali  chart*. 


Uentenant  OiUHa  erred  in  hi*  suppbsitioc.  Th* 
"mistake"  was  sufficiently  explained  liefure  Penny's, 
or  Arrawsmith's,  or  any  other  chart  of  the  Arctic  Dl*- 
ooverie*  hi  1860,  was  published.  The  Lords  of  tha 
Admiralty  received  oflicially  an  explanation  of  tlte 
"mistake,"  more  t.haa  two  months  prior  to  thedste  of 
the  Admiralty  chart,  of  April  8th,  1862.  Their  "  mis. 
take"  has  not  yet  been  corrected.  They  still  adhera 
to  the  name  of  "  Albert"  land.— Colosbl  Forcb's 
PtmpUtt  <m  Gritmell  Land. 

OMpa.  The  fore  part  of  a  ship.  To  gripe,  the 
tendency  of  a  ship  to  bring  her  head  up  to  the  wind 
when  carrying  sail  on  the  wind. 

Okoat,  an  old  English  silver  coin,  equal  to  fourpence. 
Other  nations,  as  the  Dutch,  Poles,  Saxons,  Bohemi> 
ans,  and  French,  have  likewise  their  groats,  groots, 
groschen,  gros,  and  the  like.  In  England  in  tha 
8axon  times,  no  silver  coin  larger  than  a  penu}-  was 
strucit,  nor  after  the  Conquest  till  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  who  about  the  year  1861,  coined  grosses  or  great 
pieces,  which  went  for  fourpence  each;  and  so  the 
matter  stood  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,,  who,  in 
1604,  first  oohied  shillings, 

Ohx>ats,  oats  deprived  of  the  huska 

Gkrosa,  the  number  of  12  dozen, 

OroH  ^Velght,  in  commerce,  the  weight  of  mer- 
chandise and  goods  with  the  dust  and  dross,  as  also  of 
the  bag,  cask,  chest,  etc,  in  which  they  are  contained; 
and  out  of  tliis  gross  weight  allowance  is  to  lie  mod* 
for  tare  and  tret, 

Ouadalonpe,  or  Ouadelonpe,  one  of  the  lee- 
ward group  of  isUndg  in  the  West  Indies,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  colonies  of  France,  and  situatedl 
in  north  lat,  16°'  20',  west  long.  62°.  It  uonsista 
properly  of  two  islands  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
narrow  channel,  about  five  miles  in  length,  b}' from  80 
to  100  yards  wide,  and  rith  depth  sufficient  for  vesseli 
of  60  tons.  This  channel,  called  La  Xiviere  SaUe,  or 
Salt  River,  runs  nearly  north  and  south,  and  has  a 
large  bay  at  each  end,  that  on  the  north  beuig  called 
the  Grand  CvUde-Sae,  that  on  the  south  the  Petit  Cut- 
dt'Sae.  The  western  or  larger  island,  ealled  Guada- 
loupe  proper,  or  Bane  Terre,  is  27  miles  in  length,  by 
16  in  breadth ;  the  eastern,  or  Grande  Terre  is  nearly 
30  miles  long,  by  from  10  to  12  broad.  Guadaloupe 
proper  is  of  volcanic  formation,  and  is  traversed  <h>m 
north  to  south  by  a  ridge  of  hills  having  a  medium 
hdght  of  2296  feet.  Its  principal  peaks  ore  La  Sou/- 
friire,  an  active  volcano  6108  feet  high,  and  Grotee- 
Montagnc,  Deux  ifamellet,  and  Piton  de  Bouillante,  ex- 
tinct volcanoes.  It  is  copiously  watered  by  numerous 
small  streams,  two  of  which,  the  Goyade  anU  tLe  I*- 
zarde,  are  navigable  for  small  craft.  The  soil  !a  fer- 
tile, and  the  surface  is  agreeably  diversified  by  hill 
and  dale,  wood  and  garden.  The  products,  natural 
and  cultivated,  are  those  of  the  West  Indies  gen- 
erally. The  principal  town,  Batae  Tent,  stands  on  the 
south-west  coast.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  governor, 
and  has  some  fine  public  1)uildings,  fountains,  and  gar- 
dens, and  has  about  6000  inhabitants.  Grande  Tern, 
unlike  Guadaloupe  proper,  is  marshy,  sterile,  and  flat, 
nowhere  rising  more  than  116  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
chief  town,  St.  Louii,  or  Point  ^  Pilre,  the  former 
capital  of  the  island,  is  at  the  south  entrance  to  the  Salt 
River,  and  has  an  excellent  harbor.  It  formerly  con- 
tained about  16,000  inhabitants,  but  was  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  an  earthquake  on  6th  February, 
1848,  on  which  occasion  4000  of  its  inhabit.^nta  per- 
ished. The  climate  is  humid,  and  hurricanes  and 
earthquakes  are  frequent.  The  rainy  season  last* 
flrom  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  October. 
The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  cotton, 
coffee,  dye-woods,  and  copper.  The  sugar  crop 
amounts  to  about  60,000  hogsheads  annually,  A 
considerable  quantity  of  fish  is  taken  in  the  neigb- 
borlng  seas.  The  government  consista  of  a  governor, 
with  a  (irivyoeiiBdlof  6,  and*  colonial  oooBoU of  80 


GUA 


808 


GUA 


namben.    Ttia  govcrament  of  Ouadaloape  oompriau 
bnides  that  iiUnd,  thoM  of  Mant-aahnle,  Datrmle, 
lAt  Samtu,  and  the  northarn  portion  of  81.  Martin. 
Mmw-ilalaM*  lie*  14  milM  louth  aouth-aait  of  Oaa- 
daloupe,  and  ia  aboin.  12  mllei  In  length  bjr  8  in  braadth. 
It  ii  traversed  ftom  north  to  south  liy  a  range  of  hllli 
mnning  parallel  to  the  east  coast,  where  it  presents  a 
fl«nt  of  high  and  predpltons  roclis.  The  west  and  north 
tides  of  the  island  aro  levil ;  and  parallel  with  the 
former  Is  a  narrow  lagoon,  7  or  8  miles  in  length,  sep- 
arated from  the  sea  by  a  low  narrow  tract  of  land. 
The  island  abounds  in  woods,  particularly  the  wild 
cinnamon-troe.     Ita  principal  towp,  Grmdbourpy  or 
Bau»  Ttrrt,  standi  near  the  south-w«st  point.    Du- 
tinde,  or  Dutada,  lies  about  4  miles  east  from  the 
south-east  extiamity  af  Grand  Ttrrt,  and  is  about  8 
mttes  kng  by  8  wide.    It  rites  flrom  the  sea  with  a 
steep  ascent,  and  then  extends  In  a  table-land,  which 
consist*  of  limestone  rocks,  in  which  many  carems 
occur,  but  it  it  without  water.     The  soil  fai  some 
places  is  of  a  deep  black  mold,  and  fertile  |  in  others 
It  Is  sandy  and  unproductive.    The  only  anchorage  is 
at  the  Anu-Galet,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island.    />« 
Bainttt  are  a  gronp  of  rocky  islets  6  or  7  miles  sonth 
of  Ouadalonpe,  and  consist  of  lofty  and  tteep  peaks, 
soma  of  which  are  united  by  flat  ground  and  ridges  of 
inferior  elcTation.    The  two  largest  are  called  Ttrrt 
(f'«<i  Ilaut  and  Ttrrt  d'tn  Bat.     SI.  Mariut  is  a  small 
Island  Immediately  south  of  the  British  island  of  An- 
gallla,  in  north  lat.  18°  &',  and  west  long.  68°  6'. 
Its  form  Is  nearly  that  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  each 
side  being  about  7  miles  in  length,  and  comprising  an 
area  of  aliont  88  square  miles.     It  is  deeply  indented 
with  bays  and  lagoons,  some  of  which  afford  good  an- 
tAorage.    The  surface  it  generally  hilly,  the  highest 
point  being  1861  feet  above  the  sea.     It  was  colonized 
by  the  French  and  Dutch  in  1688,   but  these  were 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards,  who  themselves  abandoned 
the  island  in  1760,  and  the  original  settlers  returned 
possession.    The  southern  portion  of  the  island  be- 
longed to  the  Dntcb.     Guadeloupe  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1498.     In  1685,  the  French  established  a 
settlement  upon  the  island,  and  retained  possession  of 
it  tni  17S9,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Engliah.    It  was 
sobeaqnently,  on  several  occasions,  taken  and  retaken 
by  these  nations,  and  was  Anally  ceded  to  France  in 
1OT4.     Populatioii  (18M)  188,810.     Slavery  was  abol- 
lahed  her;  by  a  decree  of  the  French  Republic  In 
1848,  at  which  time  about  160,000  persons  were  eman- 
cipated. 

Onalaonm  or  Ugnum  Vitas  (Fr.  Oayac,  BoU 
Bamt;  Get.  Pocthain;  It.  Guajaco;  Lat.  CiHUoctim, 
Lignum  viia ;  8p.  Guayaco),  the  wood  of  a  tree,  a  na- 
tive of  Jamaica,  Haj'ti,  and  th«  warmer  parts  of  Amer- 
iea.  It  is  a  dark-looking  evergreen,  growing  to  from 
40  to  60  fiet  in  height,  and  Arom  14  to  18  inches  in  dl- 
ametar.  The  bark  is  hard,  smooth,  and  brittle ;  the 
wood  is  extemully  yellowish,  and  internally  of  a 
Uadkish-brown  color.  Lignum  vita  is  the  weightiest 
timber  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  its  specific 
gravity  behig  1-838.  It  is  exceedingly  hard  and  dUH- 
cnlt  to  woric.  It  can  hardly  be  split,  but  breaks  into 
piecee  like  a  stone,  or  crys»jdlised  metal.  It  it  fhU  of 
a  resinous  Juice  (^mouk),  which  prevento  oU  or  water 
flrom  worltittg  into  it,  and  renders  it  proof  against  de- 
cay. Its  weight  and  hardness  make  it  the  very  best 
timber  for  stampers  and  nallets  ;  and  it  is  admirably 
adapted  for  the  sheaves  or  pulleys  of  blocks,  and 
for  friction  rallen  or  oaatora.  It  It  extensively 
used  by  turners.  The  guaiac,  or  gum,  tponto. 
neously  exudes  ftom  the  tree,  and  concretes  in  vary 
pure  tears.  It  is  imported  in  casks  or  mate;  the 
fbrmnr  containing  ftomona  to  four  hundred  weight,  the 
latter  generally  lest  than  one  hundred  weight  Mch. 
Ito  color  diflStrs  consideiably,  being  partly  brownish, 
partly  leddish,  and  partly  greenish;  and  it  always 
Uacomat  giaan  when  left  exposed  to  the  light  in  tiba 


open  air.  It  haa  a  certain  degree  of  transparency,  and 
breaka  with  a  vitreous  Aracture.  When  pounded,  It 
emits  a  pleasant  balsamic  smell,  but  has  scarcely  any 
taste,  although  when  swillowed  it  excites  a  burning 
senaation  in  the  throat.  When  heated,  it  melts,  dif- 
fusing, at  the  same  time,  a  pretty  strong  fragrant 
odor.  Ita  specifio  gravity  is  1-22S.  See  Vtgt.  Hub., 
Lib.  of  Enter!.  Knowltdgti  TBOMtOM'a  Chtmittry,  ete. 
Onano  or  HnuiO  (the  Pemvian  term  for  ma- 
nure), a  substance  used  at  a  manure,  found  on  certain 
small  isUnds  off  the  coast  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  on 
parte  of  the  shore  of  the  main  land.  It  is  friable,  and 
easily  reduced  to  powder.  Ita  color  varies  fh>m  a 
dull  red  to  a  dirty  white,  and  it  has  a  strong  smell  and 
a  fat,  unctuous  feel.  At  an  average,  it  may  weigh 
fVom  60  to  60  lbs.  a  bushel.  Humboldt  waa  either  the 
first,  or  one  of  the  first,  by  whom  this  important  sub- 
stance was  brought  to  Europe ;  but  it  was  describud  at 
a  much  earlier  date  by  Ulloa  (Koya^  au  Prrou,  i.  481) ; 
and  has  been  used  as  a  manure  by  the  Peruviana  from 
the  age  of  the  Incat  downward.  Verj-  different  opin- 
ions have  been  entertained  as  to  ita  nature  and  origin. 
Many  have  supposed  that  ij  was  a  peculiar  mineral  or 
earth.  Ulloa,  however,  wat  clearly  of  opinion  that  It 
consisted  of  the  excrements  of  the  sea-birds  which  are 
found  in  prodlgtons  swarms  all  along  the  Peruvian  and 
Bolivian  shorea ;  and  there  it  no  longer  any  doubt  that 
such  is  the  case.  The  localities  where  the  deposit  is 
principally  met  with  being  within  a  rainless  region,  it 
it  accumulated  with  a  rapidity  of  which  we  have  no 
idea.  Guano  is  of  very  different  qualities  :  some  au- 
thorities give  the  preference  to  the  whitish  varieties, 
which  are  believed  to  be  more  recent,  while  others 
prefer  the  red.  According  to  Klaproth,  a  quantity  of 
guano  represented  by  100  contained,  urate  of  ammonia, 
16  parts ;  phosphate  of  lime,  10  do. ;  oxalate  of  lima, 
12f  do. ;  ailieo,  4  do. ;  common  salt, } do. ;  sand,  28  do., 
and  water,  organic  and  combustible  matter,  28}  do. ; 
but  its  composition  is  found  to  differ  verj-  materially. 
The  best  is  that  which  contains  the  greatest  propor- 
tion of  ammoniacal  aalts. 

Guano  has  not  been  long  introduced ;  and  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  discrepancy  in  the  statements  that  have 
been  put  forth  as  to  its  operation.  There  can,  how- 
ever, be  no  doubt  that  it  it  a  moat  efficient  manure, 
and  that  about  2  to  2^  cwt.  per  acre  of  average  guano, 
mixed  with  alxiut  two  thirds  the  annual  quantity  of 
farm-yard  manure  (which  it  required  to  keep  the  toil 
loote),  will  produce,  when  applied  to  land  that  is  well 
drained,  nearly  double  the  ordinary  quantity  of  pota- 
toei.  In  turnip  husbandry,  splendid  crops  are  pro- 
duced by  the  agency  of  guano  only ;  but  in  this  case 
from  4  to  6  cwt.  per  acre  should  be  applied.  ,It  has  also 
a  powerful  influence  in  improving  crops  q[  com  and 
the  pasture  following  such  crops.  The  effect  of  guana 
is  very  materially  increased  by  Its  Iwing  covered  up  to 
soma  considerable  depth  as  soon  at  it  is  laid  on  the 
soil;  and  top-dressing  is  certainly  the  most  wasteful 
way  in  which  it  can  be  applied.— (friVate  ir{formation.) 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  most  vUuable  of  manures ;  and  under 
such  circumstances  it  liecomes  of  importance  to  learn 
the  probable  supply  of  the  deposit,  and  the  price  at 
which  it  nuy  be  imported  and  sold  in  Europe. 

Unfortunately,  however,  our  information  on  both 
theie  pointe  is  less  complete  than  might  be  desired. 
Since  it  began  to  be  largely  exported  to  this  and  other 
foreign  countries,  an  apprehension  began  to  gain 
ground  in  Peru  that  the  deposita  would  in  no  very 
long  time  be  wholly  exhausted ;  and  as  this  would  oc- 
casion the  ruin  of  those  estates  along  the  coast  of  Peru, 
and  the  department  of  Arequipa,  in  which  guano  has 
long  been  extensively  used  at  a  manure,  government 
hat  bean  called  upon  to  avert  this  cataatrophe  by  pro- 
hibiting ito  export.  We  are,  however,  well  convinced 
that  thit  apprehension  is  entirely  groundless,  and  that 
the  deposita  are  in  fact  all  but  inexhaustible.  At 
present,  guano  it  principally  obfadned  from  the  Chincha 


GTTA 


800 


GUA 


IlUndi,  oppmlta  to  PUco,  In  Lowtr  Para,  In  tbont 
Ut.  18°  fiS'^B.,  and  long.  76°  80'  W.,  and  the  Loboi 
liUndi,  oppotlta  to  Lambkyaqa*,  In  Upper  Peru,  in 
Ut.  6°  to  7^  8.,  and  Inng.  f)l°  W.  It  hu  been  lUted 
by  Sir  B.  H.  Wifion,  late  Rngllih  coniul  at  Pen,  that 
though  abont  800  tonii  a  year  are  anppoied  to  hare 
been  carried  for  centurlee  ft«m  Chlncha,  the  principal 
bland  of  the  group  to  which  it  gives  Its  name,  to  the 
opposite  coast,  there  is  still  upon  It  the  enormous 
quantity  of  17,000,000  tons ;  and,  supposing  this  esti- 
mate  to  be  tolerably  accurate,  we  may  safely  reckon 
the  entire  mass  of  guano  In  this  group  at  from  20  to  25 
millions  of  tons  I  The  stock  of  guano  on  the  l^bos 
IsUnds,  though  not  so  extensive  as  that  on  the  Chin- 
eha  Islands,  la  yet  very  large.  And,  exclusive  of 
these,  there  are  other  Islands  whence  gdkno  Is  shipped 
for  Areqntpa,  etc.  Deposits  have  also  been  discovered 
on  the  coast  of  the  main  land,  especially  near  La  Mar 
or  Cobya ;  so  that,  making  every  allowance  for  exag- 
geration, the  supply  of  guano  may,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  be  regarded  hd  Inexhaustible. 

The  Islands  where  'be  guano  Is  found  being  unin- 
habited except  .>y  those  employed  in  its  shipment,  it 
would,  but  for  the  interference  of  government,  cost 
nothing  save  the  expense  of  putting  it  on  board  and 
the  freight  home.  But  the  governments  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia  were  either  so  little  aware  ef  the  value  of  the 
article,  and  of  their  duty  to  their  constituents,  nr  so 
corrupt,  that  they  sold,  In  1889,  to  private  parties 
(Messrs.  Qniros,  Alller,  &  Co.  of  Lima),  for  a  mere 
trifle  ($60,000),  the  sole  right  to  ship  guano  for  the 
term  of  nine  years ;  so  that  these  parties  had  It  in 
their  power  to  exact  any  price  they  pleased  for  the 
article.  This  contract  was,  however,  too  ruinous  to 
be  allowed  to  continue,  and  was  canceled  by  the  Pe- 
ruvian government  In  1841,  on  the  ground  of  enormous 
public  lesion,  and  of  ignorance  of  the  value  of  the 
privilege  that  had  been  conceded.  For  some  time  af- 
ter this  the  trade  was  comparatively  free,  and  large 
quantities  of  guano  were  imported  in  1844  and  1846 ; 
but  the  monopoly  system  has  been  agnin  revived. 

There  can  not  be  a  doubt  that  the  Peruvian  govern- 
ment would  gain  largely  by  throwing  the  trade  in 
guano  open  under  the  condition  suggested  above.  And 
wo  do  not  know  that  any  thing  could  be  devised  th.'t 
would  be  more  likely  to  prove  advantageous  to  ou.' 
agrieultura  and  shipping  than  the  carrying  out  of  such 
a  plan.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  effect  an  arrangement 
of  the  sort  would  be  to  purchase  one  or  more  of  the  gu- 
ano islands  from  the  Peruvian  government.  And  if 
the  latter  should  perversely  decline  to  agree  to  such  a 
sale,  or  to  modify  the  present  monoi^oly  system,  the 
question  of  her  right  to  appropriate  such  valuable  de- 
posits, and  to.  deprive  others  of  any  equitable  partici- 
pation in  their  advantages,  will  force  Itself  on  the 
public  attention.  Should  such  be  the  case,  it  will 
probably  be  found  that  the  claim  of  the  Peruvians  to 
the  exclusive  possesion  of  the  guano  Islands  la  of  a 
very  questionable  description ;  and  that  in  grasping 
at  all  they  may  not  Improbably  lose  all. 

Lobos  de  Afuera  Is  fully  60  miles  from  the  nearest 
point  of  the  main  land.  And  it  seems  rather  too  much 
for  a  government  like  that  of  Peru,  without  any  thing 
worthy  of  the  name  either  of  a  menantile  or  warlike 
fleet,  to  pretend  to  hinder  others  from  carrying  away 
the  dung  of  wild  birds  from  an  unoccupied  rock  at  so 
great  a  distance  from  Its  territories. 

No  guano  has  ever  been  imported  equal  to  that  flrom 
Peru.  And  unless  it  come  from  a  rainless  region  it  Is 
worth  comparatively  little ;  for  otherwise  the  ammo- 
niacal  salts,  which  are  a  most  valuable  portion,  are 
either  partially  or  wholly  washed  away  by  the  rains. 

Quano  Is  found  In  the  caves  fi^qnented  by  swallows, 
pigeons,  bats,  etc.,  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and  other  places 
in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  And  not  being  exposed 
to  the  rain,  it  may  very  probably  be  of  good  quality. 

The  reader  will,  perhaps,  be  surprised  to  learn  that 


large  qnantitle*  of  gnano  havt,  of  lata  yMn,  beaa  im- 
ported into  Spain,  It  Is  principally  employed  In  ma- 
nuring the  hufrtat,  or  low  rioh  grounds  of  Murcia  and 
Valencia.  Hitherto  it  has  lieen  mostly  sent  at  second- 
hand from  England.  But  very  recently  the  Peruviana 
have  begun  to  export  it  on  their  own  account  to  All- 
cant,  Valencia,  etc.,  and  have  established  agents  In 
those  towns  for  Its  sale. 

Lboatioh  or  thr  Umitbu  States,      ) 
Lima,  April,  18,  1866.  ( 

SiR!  In  reply  to  dispatch  No.  46,  dated  the  18th 
ultimo,  I  have  the  honor  to  Inform  you  that  neither 
the  governments  of  Spanish  America  nor  their  citiient 
have  the  privilege  of  purchasing  guano  trom  the  Chin- 
ches, or  any  other  islands  belonging  to  Peru,  at  a  cer- 
tain stipulated  price,  by  tnaty ,  through  municipal  regu- 
lations or  sufferance.  All  the  guano  exported  from  Pern 
Is  shipped  for  account  of  (he  government  and  sold  in  for- 
eign markets,  under  special  contracts,  by  agents,  who 
receive  a  commission  for  chartering  vessels,  and  on  the 
sale  of  the  article.  No  exception  is  made  in  favor  of 
any  foreign  nation,  or  its  citizens,  Peruvian  citi- 
zens are  permitted  to  take  from  the  Chlncha  Islands 
and  "  Pabellon  Pica"  without  charge  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity for  the  agrieultura  of  the  country  ;  but  the  gov- 
ernment is  very  careful  to  prevent  any  portion  of  it 
being  exported.  The  following  is  a  translation  of  the 
provisions  of  the  "  commercial  regulations"  of  Pern  In 
relation  to  this  subject.  See  Dispatch  No.  98,  April 
18, 1862 : 

Chapter  1,  Article  14th.  "  It  is  not  permitted  to  an- 
chor in  any  of  the  anchorages  at  the  islands,  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Republic,  without  a  written  license  from 
the  government." 

Art.  15.  "  Vessels  which  load  with  guano  for  abroad 
will  do  so  only  at  the  Islands  of  Chlncha.  Those 
loading  it  for  the  agrieultura  of  the  country  will  take 
it  from  '  Pabellon  Pica'  or  from  the  said  islands." 

Chap.  14.  "  Exportation." 

Art.  114.  "  Guano  can  only  bo  exported  In  vessels 
chartered  by  the  government  or  its  agents." 

Chap.  28.  "  Confiscations,  fines,  and  other  penal- 
ties." 

Art.  218.  "  Vessels  anchoring  at  the  anchorages  of 
the  islands  the  property  of  the  Republic,  shall  be  con- 
fiscated; and  if  '"I'-Mes  guano  should  be  found  on 
boa'd,  their  cape  r  Lnd  craw  shall  be  dellvend  over 
to  justice,  to  betri  :  i  „  guilty  of  robber)'." 

See  also  the  decree  3t  Don  Manuel  Menendez,  act- 
ing President  of  Peru,  of  the  21st  of  Maroh,  1842,  for 
the  stringent  formalities  to  be  observed  by  Peruvian 
vessels  going  to  the  Chiuchas  or  "  Pabellon  Pica"  to 
load  with  guano  for  the  agriculture  of  the  country. — 
Documents  to  dispatch  No.  114,  dated  October  25, 
1862.  A  reference  to  my  dispatches,  Nos.  169,  164, 
172, 187,  218,  240,  and  255,  will  show  still  further  that 
no  favors  are  granted  In  the  exportation  of  guano  from 
Peru  to  other  nations  not  enjoj-ed  by  the  United  States. 
You  will  perceive,  therefore,  that  the  representation 
mode  to  the  Department  mentioned  in  dispatch  No.  46 
Is  entirely  erroneous,  and  must  have  originated  in 
mere  rumor. 

I  Inclose  a  copy  of  a  letter  fi'om  a  gentleman  In  Are- 
quipa  to  a  friend  In  Lima,  showing  the  manner  of  iisliig 
guano  in  the  agriculture  of  that  district. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,         ' '  °'     ' 
Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  Ramdolfr  Clat. 

To  Hon.  Wm.  L.  Habct,  Secretary  of  State. 

Arequipa,  Marck  20, 1856. 

Dear  Sir  :  We  here  reply  to  your  note  of  the  IStli 
instant,  asking  for  information  relative  to  the  manner 
of  using  guano  in  this  district. 

Guano  brought  from  the  Chlncha  Islands  to  Islay  is 
there  sold  to  the  chacraros  (fanners)  round  Arequipa 
at  ttom  four  to  six  reals  the  fanega :  the  fanega 


QUA 


900 


GUA 


w«igh«  Ave  MTobM,  or  about  ISS  Ibi.  Tha  prioa 
rariw  from  foiu  to  als  raali  t  at  prtMnt  tba  latter 
prloa  la  aaksd.  TbU  would  mako  tba  EnglUh  ton 
woitb  about  #18,  or  My  £3  lOi.  In  Ulay. 

It  la  applM  tu  two  crop*  only,  iiiiUxa  (Indian  com) 
and  potato*!,  carefully  by  tha  band.  The  malie, 
when  tha  pbuit  ii  about  two  inontbi  old  and  alMUt 
thrao  fourtha  vara  high,  inui  hnlf  a  handful  la  applied 
near  eaoh  root.  A  larifar  quantity  la  aaid  to  lie  preju- 
dlcUl,  by  "  burning  the  plant."  The  guano  I*  then 
covered  with  earth,  and  a  amall  quantity  of  water  (by 
itrlgatton)  la  applied  "  tu  llx  the  guano."  If  the  atat* 
of  tha  loii  doea  not  abaolutely  require  It,  no  mora  water 
la  applied  until  after  alx  or  eight  daya. 

Tba  quantity  required  fur  each  "  topo"  of  MOO  varaa 
(about  It  acre)  ii  four  fanogaa,  or  aay  fiOO  Iba.  For 
potatoea  the  quantity  raquind  la  tha  aama  and  la  ap- 
plied much  In  the  aama  nuuiner  aa  regarda  the  age  of  the 
plant,  and  a  amall  quantity  of  water  "  to  Ax  the  guano." 
The  atalk  of  tha  pikato  la  then  about  one  fourth  vara  In 
height,  and  tha  earth  heaped  up  in  ridgea  the  aanie  aa 
in  Britain.  A  peraon  inaerta  a  apade  In  the  top  of  the 
ridge  bealde  each  plant,  while  the  woman  followa  pour- 
ing about  half  a  handfbl  of  guano  into  tha  hole  thua 
made,  and  covering  It  with  earth,  lo  that  the  ridge  re- 
mahu  the  aame  aa  liefore  the  application  of  the  guano. 
To  wheat  tbe  application  of  guano  is  not  approved, 
principally,  v*  believe,  on  account  of  tbe  rankneaa  it 
producea  in  the  atalk,  thereby  delaying  the  ripening  of 
the  grain — a  point  of  great  Importance  in  landa  when 
they  count  on  obtaining  two  cropa  a  year. 

TuoMAa  Rbukct. 
The  New  Guam  Jtl<meU.—'The  following  givea  the 
results  of  an  analysis  of  guano  fhim  one  of  tha  islands 
of  the  American  Quano  Company : 

I  have  analyzed  four  samples  of  guano  for  the  Amer- 
ican Guano  Company,  taken  by  myself  from  four  fu- 
cels  in  a  box  opened  in  the  presence  of  the  Company. 
They  yield  as  follows : 

Xb.  i—Dart  SampU. 
Fboapbateofllma....    M-IO 

Suljpbste  of  ilmo M-ii 

Chloridofaodlnm....      lis 

Carbonate  of  lime S-M 

Oisanlo  matter  yield- 
ing ammonbk 11.44 

Bllica  and  alumina. . .      1-14 
Water  with  loea 1M6 


NbA-TtpPareO. 

Sulphate  of  lime 

«9S1 

rhoaphata  of  lime... 

8-00 

Carbonate  of  llmo 

1-00 

Organic  matter  yield- 

ing ammonia. 

816 

Chlorldoftodlnm.... 

1-80 

Oxyd  of  Iron 

1-n 

Water  with  loaa 

14« 

Total .' 

lOD-no 

JTo.  %~large  Piteee, 

Phaaphateor  lima... 
Snipbateofllme 

81-M 

4-84 

Chlortd  of  aodlum 

4-06 

Oxydof  Iron 

•11 

Organle  matter  yield- 

ing ammonia. 

(10 

Water 

*«) 

BiUoa  and  ahimlna. . . 

1-45 

Total 

lOO'OO 

Total KXHM 

Jfo.  4— £•«<•<  aampU. 

Balphate  of  lime M'Sft 

rhosphateofllme....  5'M 

Carbonate  of  lime 1'14 

Orgaale  matter  yield- 
ing ammonia. 4-9S 

Cblorld  of  aodlum....  S'8(l 

Silica  and  alumina. . .  8'4t 

Water  with  loss. Ull 


ToUl lOO-OO 

(Signed),         Jaxu  R.    uilton,  Chemist 

Naw  YoBK,  Saturday,  June  7,  1850, 

SirtU  Forming  Ouano. — M.  A.  Raimonds,  Professor 
of  Natural  Uistor}-  at  Lima,  was  sent,  in  1868,  by  the 
Peruvian  government,  to  the  Chincha  Islands,  in  order 
to  aaoertolir  the  qiuutity  of  guano  existing  in  these 
islands.  During  a  sojourn  of  more  than  six  weeks,  he 
nude  observations  on  the  orlghi  of  the  guano  deposit, 
and  of  the  birds  to  which  it  owes  its  existence.  In 
some  places  the  giuno  deposit  is  80  metres  in  depth. 
From  the  bodies  of  animals,  as  well  as  ftom  various 
manufaetuied  artlolea  foimd  in  It,  he  concludes  that 
the  deposit  belongs  to  tbe  present  epoch  of  the  earth's 
history.  Tba  birds  observed  during  his  vi^it  were— 
Pdecimt  nuyiu,  Molin ;  Cario  Oaimardii,  Lesson ;  C. 
Albigula,  Brandt  j  Bula  varitgata,  Tsohudl;  Sphenueut 
HumboUtii,  Heyen ;  Plotu$  anlUng,  Lin. ;  JUynoop* 
nigra,  Ltn. ;  Lanu  wKnietlui,  Tsohudl ;  Pufinaria  Gar- 
MCfn,  Lesson ;  iSterna  men,  Lasaon.  These  sproiaa  ic 
not  ril  Utc  ooDitMitty  m  tha  isluda:  nbm  of  them 


only  appear  at  tha  braading  saaaoa.  Tha  palloaMi 
do  not  appear  to  produce  much  guano,  a  a  they  aU 
moat  alwaya  inhabit  tha  cIlflTa,  andthair  sxvreinent  falls 
Into  tha  ooean.  Tha  aama  may  be  aald  uf  tba  apaclaa 
of  Carbo.  The  apeidea  uf  Hula  oonlrllNito  more  tu  tlw 
dapodt,  their  numliera  l>*lng  greater,  and  tbvir  balilta* 
tiona  being  more  In  tba  interior  uf  tlia  lalanda.  Tli* 
apeoiea  of  Plotua  and  Uhynoopa  are  vary  rare  |  tlioia 
of  Larua  mora  numerous.  The  Htomaa  only  vlait  the 
lalanda  to  lay  their  eggsi  but  their  numliera  are  «t 
var}-  great  that  they  muat  uontrlbuta  In  a  great  meaa- 
ure  to  tbe  formation  of  guano.  Tha  8|>li«nbcu« 
abounds  lo  tbe  southern  island,  whiidi  la  Inlmiiltad, 
These  birds,  not  being  able  to  fly,  liullow  out  liulilt«> 
tlona  for  themaelvea  in  tha  guanu.  The  liirda  whiolt 
produce  tbe  largeat  quantity  of  guano  are  tha  I'uflU , 
narlas:  their  number  is  iaualculaUa,— }'«ar  Uoah  r/ 
FaeU,  1867,  p.  Stll.— A'c/i'ni.  FKU.  Jmr, 

The  vast  deposita  of  guano  (called  Auano— a  term  of 
IndUn  origin— by  the  I'eruviaaa)  vn  tha  Chincha  IsU 
and',  ull  uded  to  In  the  commenoement  of  tbia  artlola,  form 
the  chief  basis  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Peru,  especially 
with  the  United  States.  It  baa  lieen  deemed  not  In*- 
appropriate,  therefuro,  to  append,  lu  dntail,  suidi  oflU 
clal  and  other  reliable  information  on  this  subject  aa  U 
In  the  possession  of  tba  Qovammant.  Acooruing  to  • 
report  mad*  by  a  vommiaalon  •specially  dfputed  by  tha 
FaruvUn  government  in  1868  to  lurvey  ttta  Chlnolw 
lalanda,  the  quantity  of  guano  In  the  depoaiU  at  that* 
iaUnds  was  13,876,100  Kruvlan  tona,  equal  to  U,> 
060,068  tons  English  |  the  northern  bdand  containing 
4,189,477  tona,  tba  middle  laland  U,60A,IM8  tons,  and 
the  aouthem  island  6,080,676  tona.  This  estimate,  If 
correct,  would,  at  tbe  present  rate  of  ex|Mirtetlon— aogr 
about  800,000  tons  \Kst  annum— uflTurd  tu  the  murkota 
of  the  world  a  supply  of  guiinu  fruni  tlie  Cblnchas  for 
about  forty  years  |  after  which  period  recourse  might 
be  bad  to  the  Loboa  and  other  lalanda,  In  view  of  tba 
fact  now  generally  conceded,  tbut  land  which  has  been 
once  manured  with  Peruvian  giiutiu,  will  always  ra> 
quire  that  stimulant,  it  may  be  Intcrcatlng  to  aauortein 
wlut  prospect  there  would  be  of  procuring  a  permanent 
supply,  sufficient  to  meet  the  agriuultural  wants  of  tha 
world,  at  other  deposits,  ur  In  other  cuuntrlna,  suppos- 
ing that  the  eflbrte  of  acienoe  may  not  auuceod  In  dis- 
covering a  aubatituto  for  that  popular  furtlllanr,  The 
facte  bearing  uponthla  inqulnure  copied  orcondented 
firom  officUl  reporte  of  tbe  Peruvian  government,  or, 
ftrom  official  communicatiuna  to  the  I)«|ittrtment  of 
Stete  of  the  United  Stetea,  and  may,  tbsrefure,  b« 
viewed  as  generally  correct. 

Guano  has  been  found  along  tba  coaste  of  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Chili  |  but  tha  princitial  dapoalta  are  upon 
the  three  islanda  of  Chincha,  near  Pluco,  and  tha  lA>boa 
Islands,  between  La.-nbayaqua  and  I'alta,  In  Pam,  ^ 
The  supply  of  guano  at  the  Chincha  Islands,  alona, 
tnm  whence  only  tha  exportetion  is  permitted,  can 
not  be  exhausted  during  the  preNnt  century  at  least. 
The  quantity  existing  at  tha  Loboa  is  estimated,  from 
a  recent  survey  made  by  an  American  onginaer,  to  b« 
not  less  than  2,000,000  of  tons,  and  of  a  quality  aqual 
to  that  of  the  Chinch*  Island*.  Quano  is  also  found 
in  many  spote  along  tba  coast  of  Bolivia.  Pacqulca, 
in  tlia  desert  of  Ataoaroa,  is  tba  prlnoi|>al  liolivlan  port 
for  shipping  it.  Tba  guano  is,  bowaver,  so  mixed 
with  sand,  or  so  buriad  and  Inaoeattlble,  a*  to  b« 
nearly  valueless.  It  is  Ilka  mining  to  gat  It  (Vom 
under  the  sand,  and  ooste  Arom  #11  to  (iltt  par  ton  to 
put  it  on  board.  Tba  flrst  cargoes  aant  froai  there 
cost  about  #7  per  ton  i  and  only  JI4,7M  ton*  have  baen 
shipped  during  tha  last  Ave  year*,  of  which  6,910  ton* 
was  the  quantity  exported  in  1817.  It  i*  baoomlng 
daily  more  scarce  and  expenaiva,  and  may  ba  sat  down 
aa  of  Uttla  importonoa,  and  not  UhaW  to  intarftra  with 
the  guano  of  Peru.  Tba  prasant  Brltlih  oontroctor* 
Trith  tha  PeruvUn  govommanl  have  oUo  an  itnaxplrad 
oontract  with  BoUria,  nndtr  wUeh  th^r  held  «a  »• 


OUA 


dot 


QUA 


,  tolM 


cintirt  prlvtlcn  ftir  the  ftirihw  ahlprnfiit  of  abont 
10,000  tonii.  Th«y  pratcnd  th»t,  If  Ihn  rnntnrt  wiire 
completed,  theiw  would  li«  nonit  left.  The  Ut«  Knllv- 
Ian  govarnmtnl,  howuvtr,  endeavand  to  olitain  a  tmall 
loan  on  Iti  guano,  hut  no  olfrr  waa  made,  upon  any 
terniai  thui  ahnwinK  the  little  entaem  In  which  the 
article  U  hrld,  and  how  little  danger  there  la,  fbr  the 
moment,  of  competition  with  that  of  Pern.  Ouano, 
It  may  h«  aald,  doea  not  exlat  In  Chill;  the  amali 
quantity  of  Inferior  quality  that  waa  Ainnd  there,  on 
the  liordera  of  the  deaert  of  Atacama,  being  ex- 
hauated. 

Coneeming  the  altuatton  and  character  of  the  de- 
poalta  of  guano  (huanenu)  In  the  repuhllo  of  Peru : 
nearly  the  whole  coaat  of  Pent,  firom  the  6th  to  the 
21  at  degree  of  aouth  latitude— the  point  at  which  the 
Rlvor  I^«  emptlna  Ita  watera  Into  the  Pacific — atforda 
depoaita  of  guano  of  excellent  quality,  In  prodigloua 
abundance,  and  promlaing  Immenae  revenue.  The 
fbrmatlon  of  the  lalnnda  and  cliffH  on  which  the  guano 
ia  accumulated  la  generally  prtmitlre  rocka,  compoaed 
of  granite,  hornblende,  gne'aa,  quarti,  and  faldapar. 
The  guano  la  found  In  layera  or  atrata,  more  or  leaa 
thick,  and  In  a  horliontal  direction,  though  aometimea 
they  are  ao  Inclined  aa  to  l>econie  nearly  vertical — a 
phenomenon  which,  aa  In  the  undulating  layera,  In- 
(lucea  the  belief  that  the  foundation  haa  undergone 
Bubterranean  changea  aubaequent  to  the  formation  of 
the  depoaita.  Aa  It  la  obaervable  In  aome  of  the  de- 
poaita, that  the  guano  Ilea  under  maaaea  of  alluvia 
iVom  2  to  B  yarda  in  depth,  containing  Impreaalona  of 
marine  ahelfa,  which,  In  their  turn,  are  beneath  auper- 
poaed  guano,  alao  covered  with  aand,  it  la  probable 
that  they  are  of  a  date  anterior  to  the  deluge,  or  to  the 
partial  catarlysma  and  commotlona  that  the  globe  haa 
aince  experienced.  The  depoaita  are,  for  the  most 
part,  covered  with  a  top-cruat  from  4  to  6  Inchea  thick, 
though,  occaaionally.  It  la  even  B  or4  feet  deep— called 
by  naturalista  "  raliche,"  compoaed  of  aalt  and  aand. 
No  experlmenta  have  been  made  to  try  the  effect  of 
thia  aubatance  upon  vegetation,  but  it  probably  con- 
talna  a  great  proportion  of  ammonia,  and  la  ao  In- 
timately connected  with  the  guano,  that,  although  thIa 
manure  la  found  In  the  depoaita  without  the  cruat,  yet 
the  caliche  la  invariably  an  Indication  of  the  existence 
of  guano.  The  color  of  guano  in  the  depoaita  variea 
fh>m  white  to  bright  red,  paaaing  through  the  inter- 
mediate ehadea  of  light  grey,  dark  gray,  and  brown ; 
the  last  of  which  ia  mixed  with  excrement  of  the  aca- 
Uon,  and  la  of  little  uae  to  the  agriculturiat.  The  ape- 
citlc  gravity  of  guano  nnums  ''o  be  In  direct  proportion 
with  ita  color  and  quant' tj,  .3  the  dark  gray  and  rcil- 
diah  are  the  heavleat.  x'or  thla  reaaon.  It  is  difficult  to 
•acertain  exactly  the  weight  of  a  cubic  vara  of  guano 
of  different  colore.  The  variation  In  the  experimenta 
having  been  fVom  1200  to  1600  pounda.  It  waa  deter- 
mined to  assign  the  weight  of  half  a  ton  to  the  cubic 
vara  of  guano.  To  facilitate  the  examination  of  the 
goano  depoaita,  It  ia  proper  to  divide  them  into  three 
grand  aectiona;  the  ^ufAem,  embracing  the  coast  flrom 
the  boundary  of  Bolivia  to  Arica ;  the  central,  com- 
prising thoae  between  Arica  and  Callao ;  and,  finally, 
the  northern,  including  the  remainder  between  Callao 
and  Paita. 

Southern  Dqmnt. — Chipana. — The  deposit  bearing 
thia  name  la  situated  in  21°  22'  8.  lat.,  and  con. 
alata  of  a  table  rock  between  26  and  80  varas  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  greatest  length  Is  367 
varas,  by  181  varos  in  breadth,  making  a  superficies 
of  46,767  square  varas.  The  vara  equals  88.38i  En- 
glish inches. 

Huaaillat Thla  deposit  Ues  In  21°  18'  S.  lat.     It 

contains  four  valleys,  or  quebrn^,  in -which  the  guano 
is  accumulated;  the  superficies  Is  168,242  square  varas, 
or  8,626,010  cubic  varos  of  guano. 

Puttia  de  Loboi.-^  salient  point  hi  lat.  21°  6'  S.  is 
called  by  this  name.     It  ia  composed  of  mica  and 


granite.  The  gnano  llei  In  the  valleya,  or  ^ehrmtru, 
in  layera,  whose  mean  height  la  (Vom  16  to  20  vnrna, 
The  length  of  the  deposit  la  about  1600  feet.  Tha 
anperflriea  la  equal  to  1IW,670  aquare  raraa,  or  2,021, • 
680  cubic  varas  of  guano. 

I'nMlim  lie  IHca. — The  tent-shaped  appearancia  and 

nximity  of  thia  hill  to  the  village  of  Pica  have  given 
hia  name.  It  la  altuated  In  lat.  20°  67'  fl.  Tha 
guano  of  thla  de|ioalt  la  found  in  crevices  of  different 
depths,  the  an|ierflclea  being  240,801  a<|uare  varaa,  or 
6,060,000  cubic  varaa. 

Puerto  IngUt  (Kngllah  POrt)  la  at  a  little  upward  of 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  lyom  the  Pabellon,  on  a  small  pe- 
ninsula, tha  form  of  which  indicates  that  it  waa  an 
Island  In  remote  ages.  The  guano  In  thla  de|Hialt 
forms  an  eminence  upward  of  600  varus  long,  by  260 
to  800  varas  In  breadth,  giving  a  superficies  of  160,261 
varas.  Taking  these  data  together,  with  the  mean 
height  of  the  bank,  the  qiuntity  may  be  estimated  at 
2,686,020  enbic  varas  of  guano. 

IilanJt  oflquique  anil  Palit'oi. — To  the  north  of  tha 
Pabellon  and  Puerto  IngMs,  in  lat.  20°  40'  south,  lie 
the  iahinda  of  Patiilos  and  Iquique— tho  latter  in  tha 
bay  of  that  name.  Both  were  important  de|>0HitB  In 
bygone  ages,  but  they  are  now  exhannted,  and,  as 
they  contain  only  the  small  quantity  dally  left  by  the 
birds,  it  la  ail  now.  Notwithatandlng  the  scarcity  of 
the  accumulation,  tho  farmers  of  the  neighborhood 
take  ail  the  guano  away  periodically ;  and,  as  the  re- 
generation of  the  depoaita,  which,  for  more  than  two 
centuriea,  supplied  the  wants  of  a  great  part  of  the 
country,  ia  thus  prevented,  It  would  be  well  to  pro- 
hibit all  acceaa  to  theae  lalanda,  and  other  laleta  alni- 
Ilarly  aitnated  on  the  coaat,  ao  that  the  blnla  may 
reaort  to  them  without  disturbance,  and  reaerves  of 
manure  lie  created  for  time  of  need. 

Punta  Grande. — The  promontory  situated  in  latitude 
20°  28'  south,  at  four  leagues'  distance  from  Iqnique, 
Is  called  "  Punta  Grande,"  and  the  guano  in  this  dc- 
poait  ia  found  in  aeveral  valleya  facing  the  sea.  The 
nucleus  of  the  locality  Is  compoaed  of  quartz,  inter- 
sected by  veins  of  feldspar,  more  or  less  compact, 
with  a  calcaerous  auperflciea.  Punta  Orande,  liein^  In 
proximity  to  the.llorro  of  Tarepaci,  which  ia  a  kii  1  of 
aandy  mountain,  the  guano  in  the  deposit  is  covered 
with  heavy  layera  of  sand,  so  that  it  would  require 
considerable  excavations  to  obtain  it.  For  this  reason, 
these  are  called  "subterranean  deposits;"  and  it  Is 
difficult,  on  that  account,  to  estimate  the  quantity  they 
contain.  Nevertheless,  in  the  opinion  of  experienced 
persons,  the  amount  must  be  immense.  There  are 
many  reasons,  also,  for  believing  that  these  deposits 
were  nscd  In  the  time  of  the  Incas ;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  extensive  excavations  made  up  to  the  present 
time,  there  are  many  deposits  still  untouched.  The 
quality  of  this  guano  is  very /air,  the  dominant  colors 
being  reddish  and  ashy. 

Other  Depotitt. — Besides  those  already  described, 
there  are  smaller  deposits  of  white,  fresh  guano,  upon 
different  rocks  and  points  between  Iquique  and  Punta 
Grande ;  and  at  Pisagua,  a  small  landing-place  to  the 
north  of  the  Funtu,  from  which  the  manure  Is  takkn 
for  the  use  of  the  coast.  There  are,  also,  localitlea 
belonging  to  individuals ;  but  the  quantity  in  them  is 
so  inconsiderable  as  not  to  merit  particular  mention. 
The  total  quantity  of  guano  in  the  southern  deposits, 
or  huanerat,  mentioned  above,  may  be  estimated  at 
16,842,814  cubic  varas,  or  7,921,407  tons  of  guano,  as 
exhibited  in  the  following  table : 


DipMlli. 

Cuble  vHH. 

Tom. 

061,804 
3,825,010 
2,921,680 
6,»»0,000 
2,^8^020 

S80,<08 
1,012,006 
l.MHi.TOO 
»,»TB,000 
1,899,610 

HuanlUas  . 

Pabellon  do  Pica 

Puerto  logics 

Total 

i3,848,8U 

T,92t,40T 

Central  DepoiU.—Tha  threa  magnificent  deposit* 


GT7A 


909 


GI7A    ' 


A)nM<l  on  th*  UUnib  of  (IhlacM,  at  13°  tli'  aoath 
latltud*— that  li  to  uy,  •!  th*  ilUUnc*  of  12  mlU> 
Avni  Pitcf) — RoniitlkuU  In  llMmMlvM  th*  mlildln  ha- 
tmTMi  for,  iillhiMi||h  nom*  mwiura  U  fuuiiil  on  th* 
cliff)  of  CiirTKlii*  and  VUJoi,  and  nn  th*  imall  UlanJ 
of  llallaata,  it  U  found  upon  piilnta  vlillil/  Inarcna- 
•IliU,  and  tha  (ntln  quantity  doaa  nul  amount  to 
10,000  tnna'  walght.  Aa  no  ona  la  Ignorant  that  tha 
lalanda  of  Chtncha  form  tha  richaa  of  I'aru,  and  that 
tha  giuno  aant  to  foralgn  niarkata  U  axtractad  from 
thani,  and  that  tha  quantity  acuuniulatad  thar*  la 
graatar  than  In  all  tha  huanrnu  rollactlvaly,  It  la 
daamad  wIniiMllila  to  enlarga  ivmewhat  upon  tha  pro- 
duo*  of  th«n  lalanda. 

Tha  Chlni^ha  Ulanda,  when  eomparad  on*  with 
•nothar,  dlffar  Tsry  lltti*  in  their  g*n*ral  character. 
They  rli*  gratluaily  ftam  tha  t«*  to  a  point  or  rldg* 
which  la  about  100  varaa  (or  100  faat)  alwv*  th*  l*v«l 
of  th*  ocean.  Th*lr  g*ologlo«l  atructur*  conalata  of 
wall  charactcriiad  Kranit*,  and  tha  guano  la  found  da- 
poaitcd  In  parallal  luyera  or  atrata,  varying  pt  timea  to 
undulating.  Tha  predominant  itolom  are  An.'*  gray, 
light  gmr,  aah  colorad,  dirty  whit*,  and  rwldiah 
brown.  Th*  oolor,  howovar,  doea  not  appear  to  b* 
Indlcatlv*  of  th*  quality  of  th*  guano,  aa  th*  aama 
fvoundatlng  principle  *xiata,  whatever  may  b*  the 
oolor  of  the  coating.  Naverthelaia,  the  llght«r-col- 
or*d  guano  contain*  the  greater  <|UiintUy  of  ammonia. 
Pun  amnioniA  haa  l>**n  found  at  the  Chinchaa,  wh  h 
aubatanc*  la  naarly  whit*. 

Notwithatanding  that  nearly  all  th*  kunntnu  are 
oorered  with  «  mechanioal  cruit  called  "  caliekt"  (ual- 
culua),  thoa*  at  th*  Chincbaa  are  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule,  aa  the  guano  la  pure,  even  at  the  aupar- 
(Icea ;  and  the  thnuaande  of  biiila  which  proiluced  theae 
Telna  of  wealth  built  their  neata  in  'excuvationa  mode 
by  them  in  the  depoaita.  The  depoaita  in  queatlon 
were  ineaaured  In  1M42,  by  Don  ionb  Villa,  and  ulao 
by  Sellor  Kivero  four  yeara  later.  The  former  calcu- 
lated the  quantity  at  &0,000,000  ton* ;  the  latter  re- 
duced thia  eatlmate  by  two  third* ;  and  to  explain  th* 
CttUi*  of  the  cnormou*  difTerence  betw**n  their  calcu- 
lation*, h*  aay* :  "  The  mean  height  of  the  eaMent 
point*  nf  the  i*land  i*  10  varaa,  and  of  the  part*  at  the 
grwktait  dlatance  ffom  the  ehore,  20  varaa ;  and  It  la 
only  in  th*  caiitral  part*  that  the  depth  of  the  guano 
la  40  varaa.  Sehor  Villa  lolioved  that  tlin  amount  of 
th*  ancGoaalv*  cutting*,  up  to  th*  principal  one,  waa  40 
varaa,  whereaa  it  did  not  exceed  IS ;  aud  to  thia  he 
added  40  more,  for  the  principal  cutting*.  A  grand 
vlatake ;  for,  admitting  it  oa  a  probable  term  on  which 
to  baa*  a  calculation,  it  were  required  that  thia  central 
cutting  ahould  extend  In  a  uniform  layer  to  the  ver}* 
ahora,  prsaanting  a  depth  of  80  vara*.  And,  not  con- 
tent with  tbta  hyperlwle,  he  added  that  there  were 
point*  *tUl  higher,  where,  according  to  hi*  opinion,  the 
guano  must  be  100  vara*  deep,  or  more,  when  the 
iaUnda  themaelvea  are  scarcely  as  high  above  the  level 
of  th*oc*anI" 

After  making  these  obierratlon*,  and  adding  that  he 
hod  excavated  at  the  Imttom  of  the  deepest  cutting  only 
three  Tama  liefore  coming  to  the  roch,  Mr.  Rivero  gives 
the  following  as  an  approxiraat*  cstimati>  of  the  qoon- 
tity  of  goono  contained  in  the  three  islamls  of  Chincha : 

Osb4i  nnu.  Toac 

Horthem  laland 18,900,000  or  7,100,000 

Mlddl* 1MOO,000  ■•  «,4Bfl,000 

eontharn 8,400,000  "  4^00,000 

Total. M,SOO,000     '•    18,280,000 

ThU  stateraant,  therefore,  shows  that  the  Islands  of 
Chlncha  contain,  upon  a  reasonable  admeasurement,  at 
leatt  18,260,000  ton*  of  guano. 

Northtm  DtpotUi. — These  are,  without  doubt,  infe- 
rior to  those  already  described,  as  they  are,  for  tha 
moat  part,  upon  amall  iaiands,  very  low,  and  con- 
stontljr  beaten  by  the  winda  from  evnry  quarter;  and 
the  Uy*rs  of  guano  or*  naoally  not  very  (ieep,  and  are 


fVequentlr  mixed  with  oond.  In  thair  present  stata, 
tha  Northam  Depoaita  would  yield  hanly  aufll'  lant 
guano  to  aupply  th*  foreign  ilfiiiand  for  a  vary  fvw 
yaar*  |  but  the  quality  I*  good  and  th*y  have  iH'i-.im* 
th*  r**ort  of  th*  innumarahle  cloud*  of  liirda  which, 
frigbtanad  from  tha  xiutb  and  centra  by  the  inrreoaea 
rommerc*  along  th*  ooaat,  have  taken  reftig*  In  thoa* 
■olltary  piaca*.  Thia  |iart  of  tha  cooat  U  ileatlnml  to 
renew  the  aouraaa  of  public  wealth,  whnn  tha  spring* 
which  are  used  tn-iUy  shall  Im>  dried  up  and  aiihauated. 
The  laland*  to  tha  north  may  li«  dlvldrd  Into  four 
hsada,  and  the  Lolwa  il*  Nlarra  am  llrat  in  Importance, 

Th*  Ia>Im)*  lie  HIarra  lie  'if>  miiea  aouth-weat  of  I.am- 
bay*qu*.  In  latitude  fi°  6'  80"  aouth.  The  group 
conalsta  of  ona  large  ialand,  and  thra*  (rocky)  email 
l*let*  ot^acant  to  it.  The  principal  Island  I*  an  im- 
men*e  oval,  narrowing  toward  tha  centre  and  north. 
The  rock*  are  only  partially  and  vory  unoquully  cov- 
ered with  guano  j  the  deposits  lieing  interrupted  by 
points  of  rock  unil  ravinea.  Katimating  togntber  all 
the  manure  found  in  different  part*  of  thn  laland,  on 
tha  polut  called  "  Punta  Oorcobada,"  and  the  point 
opposite  the  lalet  "  Felix  Gonaalea,"  tha  quantity  la 
about  1SO,000  cublo  varaa,  or  75,4AO  ton* .  A  high 
promontor}'  upon  the  ialand  i*  called  the  "  Punta  Cor- 
cobada,"  ttom  ita  peculiar  *bapa.  The  auiHirflcea  I* 
extremely  irregular,  and  contain*  a  large  quantity  of 
nhitiah  guano,  ap|iarently  of  recent  furiimtlnn ;  the 
atratuni  is  not  deep,  but  la  of  very  line  quality.  The 
structure  of  this  locality  Is  very  favorable  fur  the  ac- 
cumulation of  guano ;  and  as,  In  addition  to  this,  it  is 
protected  from  the  winds,  and  as,  moreover,  the  birds 
congrogata  to  It  In  graater  numbers  than  to  any  other 
place  in  the  section  now  being  descrilied,  there  la  every 
reason  to  hope  that  It  will  liecome,  in  time,  a  vein  of 
great  Importance.  Th*  superficial  extent  of  the  Punta 
Corcobttda  la  118,040  square  vara*,  or  224,7fH)  cubic 
varaa,  equal  to  about  112,nf)0  tons  of  guano. 

liland  <if  Btnneja. — At  th*  diatanc*  of  800  yard*  to 
tha  w*st  of  the  main  island,  and  connected  by  reofa  of 
rocks  which  are  under  water  at  high  tide,  lies  the  islet 
of  liurmeja,  In  the  form  of  a  spatula.  Ita  length  is 
406  varaa  i  breadth,  220 ;  height,  80  to  86  vara*.  It 
I*  covered  with  an  abundant  deposit  of  guano,  of 
excellent  quality,  and  has  the  crust  of  aaltpetre,  so 
common  in  the  aouthern  hnnneroM,  The  area  of  the 
Bermeja  is  62,920  square  varaa  ;  Its  greatest  depth,  86 
feet ;  and  the  quantity  of  guano  found  therein  is  about 
817,660  cubic  varaa  :  equal  to  168,778  tons. 

The  Mtt  of  Felix  Gonzalet  is  one  mile  distant  from 
the  Punta  Corcobada,  to  the  south-west.  It  Is  00 
vans  long,  70  broad,  and  16  varaa  above  the  level  of 
the  ocean,  llie  guano  found  on  it  la  of  the  very  (Mat 
quality,  from  4  to  6  varas  in  depth.  The  area  is  0660 
square  varas,  or  26,200  cubic  varas,  equal  to  18,000 
tons  of  guano. 

Ci^oraJo  IiUl.—Th\»  lalet  ia  situated  to  the  south- 
east of  the  main  island,  and  is  886  varaa  long,  180 
broad,  and  26  to  80  varas  above  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
The  rock  is  entirely  covered  with  guano,  to  the  depth 
of  89  feet.  The  color  of  the  guano,  as  the  name  of  the 
ialand  indicates,  is  reddish  ;  but  toward  the  centre  of  it 
the  layers  are  gray  and  aab-colored,  with  a  strong  odor 
of  ammonia.  Immense  flocks  of  birds  congregate  at 
the  Island,  to  build  their  nests  in  the  guano  and  in  the 
cavema.  The  superficial  measure  of  the  guano  is 
81,610  square  varas,  or  236,300  cubic  varas,  equal  to 
118,116  tons. 

The  result  of  th*  admeaiurement  of  the  principal 
island,  and  the  rocky  islets  lying  near  it,  give*  the  fol- 
lowing 08  the  quantity  of  guano  at  the  Lobos  de  Sierra : 

CuWo  varM.  "* 

Principal  blanda 1B0,M0    o 

PunU  Ooieobada a34,T«0     ■ 

blaBerm^a. 817,BM    ' 

FeHz  Ooniales. {8,900     • 

Islet  Colorado 988.800     ' 

Total 1m),T1«         4n,8M 


OVA 


901 


OUA 


gth  if 

It 

of 

petre,  io 

of  the 

pth,  30 

is  about 


l,nbo4  ik  rkwra,— Two  UlMid«,  lylna  in  7"  II'  wiHlh 
blltud*,  *n  known  Ity  Ih*  nsmx  »t  iIuInm  iI«  kuari, 
They  •»  M|)ar*lw1  from  imIi  olhar  liy  •  i<biinn*l  nM 
muni  than  IHO  ImI  In  lirwdlh.  rNnnlnM  nartli-««>l  and 
•outh'WMl.  Tha  ftirmallMl  la  lUia  |  •«|i«flliiUa  vtfv 
Irragular.  Than  la  an  aliunilaniia  ul  niiann,  In  all 
■lipoaranoa  nilxad  wllh  Iha  •■I'ranianI  iif  Ma-lkina, 
(IiiIhii),  which  ara  vary  nuiiwMua.  liiinianM  KiHilia  nf 
blriU  (rhially  illrara)  frai|iHint  lhi»a  Ulaiiila.  S»  Iha 
Uiirtharn  U  not  aaally  auuaMllila,  tlia  |iiilillii  «ni|lnaar 
could  only  iarvav  Iha  MUtham  oiia,  Ai'i'itrdlnn  In 
hia  aatlnittU,  tha  lattar  haa  an  araa  of  'illJ,IM<l  uiiiara 
varaa,  and  Iha  iKidy  of  tfuano  II  iiunlalna  la  Alli,4lNI 
eutilo  varua,  or  W),Hi  lona. 

hlamU  iijf  <luHiliip0.—Th»»»  two  Ulaiida  »f  allualad 
In  H°  U*r  aoulli  laiUuda,  al  aliniit  llva  mllta  friim  tha 
oiiaat.  'I'hay  ara  nf  uraiilta,  awl  riM  iml  of  Iha  nnaan 
to  tha  halght  iif  ItOU  faat,  Tha  iiorlhKrn  Ulaiid  I'on" 
talna  Kuaiio)  Iml  lialnii  uyraiiildal  In  fiirin,  Mraat 
quanlitlaa  ara  lilown  off  liy  tfia  wliida,  NiitwIllialaiMllnil 
tha  parloUtoal  luaa,  thara  ara  illll  aUiut  irili.iMNI  uiililn 
yaraa  uf  guano  rainalnliiii,  or  «n  aatliimlad  i|ii«nllly  of 
7D,ttU0  tona. 

JtlanJti/amla,~l[i»  UUnd  of  Naiita  llaa  In  11°  IT 
i"  aoiith,  and  vontalna  only  •  faw  loiia  nf  i|uano  of 
recnnt  foriiintlon.  Alihoui|n  It  limy  mil  Ini  InlaraalInK 
at  praiwiit,  it  la  |iniliulily  d««tlii«d  In  liwuMiia  uf  ntK*i 
Iniiiortunco.  Auuiiriliiiu  to  thu  rapnrta  maila  liy  tha 
flnhornien  who  vlall  tbla  lalaiid,  llw  «U|Mrlti'l«*  of  Iha 
Uland  waa  a  liara  rook,  unfrai|u«iitad  liy  lilrilD  Mima  lA 
or  '.'0  yaara  a||ii.  Tha  aapaat  la  dllKiranl  al  |trna«nl, 
The  Kuano  liaiilna  to  ai'i'Uiiiulata  |  nlouda  nf  lilnia 
rcHort  to  the  Uland  i  and  \t*  vaat  araa,  ind  Iomk  alum 
iileut  and  daierlail,  will,  wllliuiil  diiulit,  Sai'oilM  tha 
centre  of  new  dopoalta,  |ira|mrHd  liy  I'ruvldaniit  for 
future  generutiona. 

Itlmd  of  ferrol :  altuatad  In  Utlluda  U"  T  anulh,  of 
•  triangular  form,  and  ountalna  an  araa  of  III  ,41)0  iiulilc 
varaa. 

In  addition  to  tha  da|ioalta  alKiva  anuiiiaratad,  uunno 
la  alao  found  In  ainall  i|uantUlaa  i  t  tha  lalaild  of  Mala- 
brlKo,  in  latitude  7°  4U'  aoulli.  Nan  Marllii,  nr  l>oAi« 
Maria,  11°  4';  Mairouue,  11"  'ifi'\  IVaDatliiraa,  11 
46';  Lai  Hormliiaa,  11°  6ii'|  Kl  IVIado,  11"  IIA', 

The  (|uantltlas  of  Kuanii  cmitalilad  ill  Ilia  nuntiarn 
depoalta  la  ahown  by  tha  folliiwinK  titlila  i 


of  Ika  marhata  of  tha  llnltad  IHataa  and  KnaUnd  1^ 
•hiHit  M  yaara,'  al  tha  praaani  rata  of  axpo*talion. 

Oaaaati,  Tabu  or  iu  Oaroana  ot  Ovaro. 


Dtpoclli. 


Luboa  de  TIana 

I^iboa  lie  Foera,  or  de  AfUara. 

Ouaiiape 

Farrol 

Total 


OllM«  vmw. 

RMl',4M 

fll,4ilU 
l,7iM,ill' 


T'*it», 

7»,>NM 
Hll.TlW 
M4,l«l 


It  may  be  added  to  tha  fora|(iilii|{,  that,  mniorillnK 
to  the  report' of  a  uaw  uumiiliaaioii  H|i|iulMt«d  In  axuni' 
ine,  survey,  and  rep4irt  u|ian  Ilia  Kunnu  iImihmUii,  It 
appears  that  there  ware  not  iiMira  Ihait  M,INIII,llOn  tniia 
of  guano  remaining  at  tha  (Jhlnulias  in  INftl,  tTllls 
estiinata.  It  baa  been  stated,  waa  Ulliliirrillad  d«sl|||n< 
The  Peruvian  guvarnniaiit  ban  lint  yet  nffl 


Malhan., 


Oa«M>... 


Niirlbara.. 


Total.. 


Cklpana 

Ilvanlllaa 

HanlaiU  Loboa..., 
l>ab<ll»niUI>lea... 

Puarto  Inglv*  

N'nrth  Itlaud. 

Mlildla    "     

Hooth      "     

Loboa  (laTlarra.... 
I^iboail*  Vuara.... 

(luaAapa . 

Farrol 


l,»ltJM 
1,4«0,IM 
>,>T^000 
I,W1,AI0 
T.IHM.nM 
«,IAO,IWa 
4,«(W,II00 
«TItti 

iiiia,TM 

T9,IIIMI 


edly.J 

dally  published  tids  report,  but  Iha  liifiirmHlInn  has 

been  given  In  the  Peruvian  lie wsptt|i<ira.     IftlMitala- 

munt  lie  correct,  tlie  quantity  asiiuiiiMlatad  al  tbuM  Is*  I  anv  other  manure  that  can  be  furnished  at  ths 

lands  would  b«  only  suAcisnl  to  iiu|i|il}r  tha  d«mands  |  prloe  t 


I 

The  fbllowlng  passage,  translated  from  an  artlela  In 
Iha  "  Mrntagrrti,"  a  iiewKpaper  published  In  LIuu, 
affiinla  Interesting  inli'miutioii  on  the  subject  of  goaao 
dapoalta,  of  later  date  i 

"  Ulr.  itivero  examined,  actentlflcally,  tha  principal 
da|Mislta  of  guano  known  on  ths  coast  at  that  time ) 
and  his  statement  in  other  researchea  in  which  ha  has 
lievn  engaged  having  proved  correct,  reliance  may  b« 
placed  on  liia  report,  flince  then,  other  deposits  of 
guano  have  been  disrovared,  esperluUy  in  '  Independ- 
ence Hay,'  twyond  I'laco,  where  I'  '(uantlty  is  said  to 
equal  that  of  the  (.'hincha  lalai. .  No  regular  sur- 
vey has  liaen  made  of  this  deposit,  and  it  is  surprising 
thai  tha  government  should  b«  so  dilatory  In  obtain- 
ing minute  Infnrmntlon  In  a  matter  of  such  vital  Im- 
IMirtanua  tu  its  credit  and— It  may  be  said— to  its  ver}- 
ealalance,  Making  allowance  for  any  exaggerations 
in  Iha  re|MirtB,  It  can  lie  safely  asserted  tliut  the  quan- 
tity of  guuno  existing  in  the  deposits  on  the  coaata  of 
I'eru  la  Bufnoient  to  supply  the  demands  of  foreign 
markets  for  a  century  to  come,  particularly  aa  It  is 
proliabla  that  tha  day  Is  not  fur  iliaWt  wlien  the  rs> 
searches  of  tvlence  may  discover  in  other  substances  a 
fructifying  principle,  which  will  serve  aa  a  substituta 
for  this  singular  product." 

Tha  guano  from  the  Islands  of  Lohos  has  bean  re- 
cently anulyxed  liy  Kir.  lUymondi,  an  Ituliun  chemist 
i>inpl«,vi>d  liy  the  Peruvian  government  for  tlie  pur- 
pose. Annexed  is  n  statement  showini;  its  composi- 
tion as  nnintiHred  with  that  from  the  islands  of  Chin- 
clia,  friitn  Patagonln,  "nd  from  Saldanha  Bay.  Tha 
strengtii  and  value  of  g  ino  are  estimated  by  the  pro- 
portion of  ammonia  and  pliosphates  it  contains.  That 
from  the  I.ohos  Islands,  therefore,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  the  three  samples,  \3  more  valuable  for  og- 
riiiulturHl  purposes  than  that  of  Patagonia  or  that 
from  Haldhana  Day.  It  is  the  policy  of  ths  Peruvion 
government  to  discredit  the  I.«bos  guano,  so  that  it 
may  lie  kept  out  of  the  market  until  the  deposits  un 
tlie  (,'hiucha  Islands  shall  have  bean  exhausted.  Tha 
samples  employed  for  the  analysis  were,  consequently, 
taken  from  near  the  top  of  the  Lobes  deposits,  and  ara 
no.  a  fair  specimen  of  the  product  of  the  islands.  Tba 
lower  layers  are,  undoubtedly,  of  better  qualltj'i 
and  although,  doubtless,  inferior  to  the  best  from  the 
Islands  of  Ohincha,  it  is  stiU  more  valuable  than 


ANAin 

M  Of  OVAXO. 

raoM  Ma  unissnss, 

* 

aon  ma  ttiioi. 
8r  RarinnKll.t 

raou 

PATAOOHI*. 

HA   BAT,         1 

Ur  AailanM,* 

TaST." 

Br  AadatMO. 

by  KtfiAlnitoo 

Water 

Organic  matter  and  ainmon- 
lacal  salts ,,,.. 

M-l« 

«II-4K 

1^ 

»'I10 

AT1M 
IW'Wfl 

Sfii 

iilAO 

tl'IK) 
MINI 
II  DO 

'4^ 

1«'M 

M'flO 
41  ■« 

\tv 

9'M 

18-85 

8«'W 

11-T4 

8«'T4 

1-60 

94-8« 

IS-St 
41-87 
9-TO 
T-M 
I'M 
9-Sl 

U-4T 

T-85 
S9-M 
88>6T 
14-47 

0^7 

Phosphates. , . , 

Alkaline  salU 

Band 

Llnm , 

Sulpburlo  acid 

Fioportton  of  ammonia 

if'wj 

1    iiitr 

•  Ohsmtot  of  the  Suyal  AirtoalMral  laalaly  of  loettuid. 


t  Chemist  of  Lima. 


QUA 


904 


GUA 


The  foUowiEg  UU«  azhibit*  the  nuitob«r  of  torn  of 
PeravUn  guano  exported  to  and  mM  in  Um  UniUd 
States  and  Great  Britain  during  the  yean  1861  and 
1852,  together  with  the  ezpensei  of  agency,  ftwigbt, 
etc.,  and  the  net  proceed!  to  the  Peruvian  treaaury  i 

Baui  or  Piavviuf  Od4iio  dcuno  tub  Ybahi  1961  anu 
1859. 


Tom. 

Grou 

fa|l>M«, 

— m — 

prtif«*ili. 

In  1861. 
United  States.. 
Great  Britain.. 

ToUl 

Tit  1861. 
United  SUtes.. 
Great  Britain.. 

Total 

S2,0IS 

68,868 

11,015,485 
8,974,690 

MT9,019 
9,196,085 

$548,45t 

M4irSo6 

110,t»l 

4T,B1» 
141,«fl« 

H9»0,O75 

««,168,9«t 
8,816,186 

$9,698,704 

$946,918 
8,889,996 

$9,891,871 

$1,907,048 

9,976,140 

i4,18<,1l«8 

189,495 

$8,468,096 

$4,986,918 

The  total  importation  of  guano,  into  tliu  United 
States  during  the  eight  years  ending  June  80,  ISfifi, 
was  496,047  tons.  The  largest  importations  were  fh)m 
Peru,  and  the  smallest  from  Africa,  In  18&4,  the  im- 
portations of  guano  nearly  quadrupled  thofco  of  any 
preceding  year,  and  exceeded  those  of  18S&  by  1H88 
tons.  The  number  of  American  vessels  and  their  ton- 
nage dispatched  fVom  thb  Ohincha  Islands  each  month 
in  1853,  and  each  of  the  flrst  six  months  of  1854,  Is 
stated  as  follows : 


January.  I  ^68. . 

February 

March 

April 


April 
May.. 
June- 


Total  In  six  months.. 


July,1868 

August 

Beptomber 

October. 

November 

December 

Total  In  six  months. . 

Total  for  the  year... 


Jannaiy,  1854 

February 

March 

AorU. 

SSy 

June. 

Total  in  six  montbs. 


No,  of  rt««la. 


4 
8 
18 
16 
18 


69 

U 
IT 
1» 
80 

38 


908 

98 
99 

11 

11 

10 

0 


91 


Toimitft. 
»,(M» 

ia40 

1I\87H 
11,144 
10,850 

41,iH9~ 

14,494 
10,696 
19,896 
99,681 
16,474 
19,968 


96,968 

1^967 
16,166 
66,471 
10,004 
7,668 
4,659 
'190,718 


The  numlwr  and  tonnage  of  foreign  vessels  from 
the  Chinctia  Islands  to  the  United  States  during  the 
same  periods,  and  the  countries  to  which  they  Im- 
longed,  is  given  as  follows : 


CountriM, 

TseaT 

British 

Dutch 

CbllUn 

Bwodlsb----.. 

Hamburg 

Total  tor  year 


Wu.of 
vmmU, 

26 
4 
9 

1 
1 


Toaui^. 

12,9M 

1,018 

1,008 

846 

400 

16,695" 


CountriM, 


1864. 

BritUh 

Swedish 

Norwegian..., 

PeruTlan 

Dutch 

TotalOmo's. 


V«M*U, 


TMimiif*, 


8,416 
969 
879 

840 
645 


iri'TJts' 


Sale,  exportation,  etc.,  oj"  guano. — As  the  system  of 
exportation  and  sale  of  guano  is  complirated,  and  nut 
generally  understood  in  the  United  Stuii<s,  it  has  been 
tiiought  proper  to  condense,  from  reilulile  sources, 
chiefly  official,  all  the  facts  relating  to  the  subject 
which  are  in  possession  of  the  State  Department, 

The  expense  of  loading  guano  at  tho  Chincha  Is- 
lands is  about  2  dollars  per  ton,  including  the  cosi  of 
bags  for  a  ground  tier  in  every  vessel ;  but  this  cost 
may  increase  to  a  maximum  of  8  dolUrs,  perbnps,  a* 
the  distance  from  the  place  of  dpnoslt  to  llie  vessel 
increases.  The  freights  have  been  as  lilgli  as  110  dol- 
lars per  ton ;  but  the  increased  navigation  in  the  Pa- 
citic,  consequent  upon  the  acquisition  of  Califumta  i)y 
the  United  States,  has  reduced  this  sum  to  20  and  35 
doUars,  and  even  to  h  low  m  12  doUara. 


Th«  expoitotkm  of  tha  article  to  Kngland  flrst  com- 
manoed  in  1.190,  but  waa  tried  merely  aa  an  experi- 
ment. It  was  not  until  mora  than  18  yearn  .mbse- 
quantly  that  guano  was  oonsldered  an  article  of 
oommarca  t  indaad,  it  would  saeiii,  that  even  at  that 
period  tha  great  importance  and  value  of  this  fertil- 
iiar  ware  not  wall  understood  by  the  Femvlan  gov- 
ammant)  for  it  appaam  that  the  Chincha  IsUnds, 
•ad  all  tha  guano  found  upon  them,  were  then  sold 
for  the  ium  of  t60,000>-a  sale  which,  had  it  not  been 
■ubiaquantly  annulled  byjudichd  proceedings,  would 
have  placed  tha  agrlculturistt  of  the  world  at  the 
mercy  of  an  irresponsible  monopoly  of  individual 
ttock-Jobbers.  The  flrst  guano  contract  was  thea 
made  with  tho  Peruvian  government  by  the  same  par- 
ties whoso  purchase  of  the  islands  had  Just  been  can- 
oeladi  and  in  less  tlian  a  year  this  contract  was 
merged  in  another  made  in  February,  1842,  providing 
fur  a  loan  oi'  (626,000,  in  consideration  of  the  exclu- 
slvo  privilege  of  shipping  126,000  tons  within  5  years. 
In  July,  1847  (after  the  expiration  of  the  flrst  con- 
trnot),  another  was  made  by  the  same  parties,  provid- 
ing for  a  loan  of  $600,000  in  cash  and  $1100,000  in 
scrip  (a(|UHl  to  (015,000  in  cash)— in  all,  $700,000 
giMxl  money— in  consideration  of  the  privilege  of  ex- 
liortlng  only  to  Kurope  40,000  tons  within  six  months. 
In  Ueoomber,  of  the  same  year,  a  third  contract 
was  entered  Into  with  the  same  parties  who  had  nego- 
tiated the  two  former,  by  which,  in  consideration  of 
the  privilege  of  shipping  100,000  tons  of  guano,  a  new 
loan  was  eflfected  of  #860,000.  The  princ::'il  stipu- 
latloni  of  this  contract  were  as  follows :  The'  loan  waa 
to  bo  pold— #400,000  in  cosh,  and  the  bidance  in 
monthly  payments  of  $60,000,  the  contractors  were 
to  enjoy  the  exclusive  privilege  of  exporting  to  any 
or  all  parts  of  tho  world  100,000  tons,  register  meas- 
urement—equal to  nearly  140)000  nctnal  measure- 
ment, The  time  allowed  for  the  shipment  of  the 
100,000  tons  was  limited  to  18  months  from  June, 
1H4H,  allowing  an  extension  of  the  time  (without 
exclusive  privilege),  in  case  a  sufficient  number  of 
vessels  could  not  lie  chartered  to  convey  the  whole 
qiwitlty  within  that  period.  The  guano  was  to  be 
lioniilgneit  directly  to  the  contractors  in  England,  or  to 
their  agents  elsewhere.  The  guano  was  to  be  sold  for 
acMiunt  of  the  Peruvian  government,  the  contmctors 
Iwlng  autliurized  to  charge  tho  usual  commission  and 
guaranty  (about  4  per  cent,  on  gross  sales),  and  an 
interest  of  6  per  cent,  upon  all  expenses,  includhig 
frolghti  ndvanomi  In  Kngland  or  elsewhere.  The  pay- 
ment of  tho  loan  of  ^60,000  (the  pound  sterlhig 
lieing  computed  at  $6),  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  1 
|i«Tcent.  per  month,  is  provided  for:  flrst,  from  tho 
balances  of  account  exitting  in  favor  of  the  Peruvian 
govamment  on  the  books  of  the  contractors  (that  is, 
baUnces  urlshtK  from  tho  former  contracts) ;  and  sec- 
ond, ftam  the  net  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  guano  ship- 
ped under  the  contract ;  one  fourth  part  of  the  net 
prooeetis  to  lie  accounted  for  in  the  scrip  of  the  gov- 
ernment, at  par  value,  with  the  interest  added.  This 
■erip,  with  the  accruing  interest  added,  cost  the  con- 
tractoni,  it  Is  stated,  almut  10  cents  to  the  dollar. 

How  much  the  contractors  realized  from  this  con- 
tract of  Uecember,  1847,  can  not  well  be  known. 
The  following  estimate,  however,  has  been  made  ■ 
OroM  sales  of  180,000  tons  of  guano,  at  $60  per  ton 
($6,500,1100),  ou  which  the  commission,  at  4  per 

cunt.,  WM $260.00(1 

Kstlm;,t«(t  not  proceeds,  at  $90  per  ton,  of  which 
onelburth  partwu  accountod  fur  to  tho  gov- 
ernnient  In  Its  own  scrip,  coating  tho  cuiitrset- 
ors  (With  Interest  adilcil)  about  10  cents  per 
dollar,  IvnvliiK  a  pro'^it  of  00  per  cent  on  the 

whale  aiiiount-Huy  J«.'iO,000 685,000 

I'rubnblo  kaIm  In  oschango  (at  $6  per  pound  stor- 
lint)  St  lesst  10  per  cent,  on  total  net  proceeds 
—say  on  $9,800,000 960,000 

Total  estimated  proflL $1,106,000 

It  apiiaari,  then,  Uwt  (bo  total  loan*  on  guano,  and 


.■..i'...i:'-lj,.'i;.lL;dij£kii! 


CfUA 


006 


GUA 


tha  nnmbar  of  tons  contracted  for,  np  to  the  year 
1848,  wen : 

Tou. 

Febrnarr,  1842 tCSSfiOO,  with  privilege  Of  126,000 

Jaly.IMT 700,000        »  «  40,000 

Deeember,  lur....      880,000       "  "  100,000 

■";:';J  '  Total  loans, . . . .  |2,O7fi,O0O      Total  gaano. .  860,000 

Subseqaently  to  the  contract  of  December,  1847, 
another  was  made,  by  which  the  consignment  of  all 
guano  shipped  to  England  and  the  continent  of 
Europe  from  December  18,  1849,  to  December  18, 
1661,  was  conceded  to  the  same  parties ;  and  a  stU! 
later  contract  was  entered  into  by  the  Peruvian  min- 
ister in  England,  on  behalf  of  his  government,  guar- 
antying to  the  London  house  of  Gibbs  &  Co,  the 
consignments  of  all  guano  shipped  to  Great  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of 
France  and  Spain,  from  December  18,  1861,  to  De- 
cember 18,  1866.  By  these  latter  contracts,  loass 
were  made,  at  different  times,  amounting,  in  the  ag- 
gregate, to  about  $2,000,000;  the  last  lean  of  $1,200,- 
000  being  rt  a  reduced  interest  of  5  per  cent.  In  both 
the  last  contracts,  the  London  house  of  Gibbs  and  Co. 
were  made  the  agents  for  the  payment  of  the  Peru- 
vian l)onds  held  in  England,  amounting  in  1860,  l>ack 
interest,  etc.,  to  about  $20,000,000.  For  the  pay- 
ment of  this  debt,  one  half  the  ;  .ocneds  of  the  guano 
sold  there  is  now  appropriated.  T^.e  consumption  of 
guano  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope ia  estimated  at  about  90,000  tons  annually. 

The  first  shipment  of  guano  to  the  United  States 
was  made,  it  is  stated,  in  1845.  In  1846,  the  Peru- 
vian government  contracted  for  the  building  of  a  war 
steamer,  and  appropriated  the  proceeds  of  6,000  tons 
ti>  the  payment  thereof.  In  the  contract  with  Gibbs 
&  Co.,  of  December  22, 1847,  it  will  be  rememl>ered 
that  the  exclusive  privilege  of  shipping  guano  to  all 
parts  of  the  world  was  conceded  to  that  firm.  This 
was  the  first  contract  by  virtue  of  which  guano  was 
shipped  to  the  United  States.  Upon  its  expiration 
(December  18,  1849),  the  Peruvian  Congress,  by  an 
act  of  January  26,  1860,  authorized  the  Executive 
to  contract  for  a  loan  of  $384,000,  to  be  paid  from 
the  sales  made  in  the  United  States,  and  the  Min- 
ister of  Finance  advertised  for  proposals.  Bids  were 
immediately  sent  in  from  five  American  houses  of 
undoubted  responsibility.  One  of  these  bids  pro- 
posed the  purciiose  of  60,000  register  tons  of  guano 
at  the  Gtiincha  Islands,  at  $20  per  ton,  to  be  ship- 
ped within  6  years;  advancing  the  loan  of  $384,- 
000  at  6  per  cent,  interest,  with  the  usual  articles 
regulating  the  commissions,  exclusive  privilege,  cliar- 
tering  vessels,  etc.  This  proposal,  guarantying  to 
the  Peruvian  government  $20  per  ton  (oil  previous 
contracts  not  yielding  to  the  government  more  than 
$16  net),  was  the  most  advantageous  that  had  been 
made  so  far ;  yet  it  was  rejected,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  European  competitors,  and  the  loan  was  ad- 
vanced by  the  house  of  Gibbs  &  Co.,  at  6  per  cent, 
interest,  to  be  repaid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  sales  in 
Great  Britain. 

There  had  been  no  formal  cession,  since  the  termi- 
nation (December  18,  1849),  of  the  contract  of  De- 
cember 22,  1847,  of  the  right  of  the  market  in  the 
United  States,  until  the  contract  made  with  Barreda 
and  others.  Special  licenses  have  tieen,  from  time  to 
time,  granted  by  the  Executive  to  Gibbs  &  Co. ;  and 
this  firm  have  therefore  continued,  through  their 
agents,  to  control  the  consignments  as  much  as  ever. 
The  Peruvian  government  seems  nnwiUing  to  enter 
into  any  arrangements  either  to  sell  at  a  fixed  price 
at  the  islands,  or  that  the  article  should  be  sold  in  the 
United  States  at  a  fixed  price,  and  that  a  snfHcient 
supply  should  bo  always  in  the  market.  The  coun- 
tries to  which  guano  is  exported  from  the  islands,  by 
virtue  of  these  several  contracts,  are:  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  the  Mauritius, 


Chins,  the  West  Indies,  and  Venezuela.  In  the  Uni- 
ted States,  the  agents  are  Barreda  &  Brother  in  Bslti- 
more,  and  J.  W.  Riley  in  New  York;  Great  Britain, 
Messrs.  Gibbs  ft  Co.,  who  also  have  the  agency  in 
Belgium  and  Sardinia ;  for  the  Mauritius,  Kend^  & 
Co. ;  for  Spain,  Murrieta  &  Co,  of  London ;  for  China, 
SevUla  &  Co.,  of  Lima.  The  agency  of  the  West 
Indieii  is  intrusted  to  Barreda  &  Brother ;  and  tliat  of 
Venezoola,  under  a  recent  contract,  to  Don  Leocadio 
Guzman,  the  envoy  of  that  republic  in  Lima.  All 
these  agents  are  paid  commissions,  var^'ing  from  6  to 
7^  per  cent.,  for  selling  guano,  freighting  vessels,  etc. 
They  are  also  allowed  interest,  at  the  rate  of  6  per 
cent.,  upon  all  snms  of  money  advanced  to  the  gov- 
ernment. 

These  contracts  claim  a  general  interest  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  as  throwing  light  upon  the  complicated 
system  which  regulates  the  exportation  and  sale  of 
guano;  but  the  contract  for  supplying  the  United 
States  themselves,  possesses  more  immediate  interest 
to  the  consumers  in  this  country,  and  demands  a  brief 
additional  notice — the  facts  and  statements  1>eing 
copied  or  condensed  from  reliable  sources. , 

The  contract  between  the  Peruvian  government 
and  Messrs.  Barreda  &  Brothers,  for  the.  exclusive 
export  and  sale  of  guano  in  the  United  States  during 

5  j'ears,  was  concluded  on  tiie  22d  of  August,  1861. 
According  to  its  stipulations,  the  agents  are  entitled 
to  charge  6}  per  cent,  commission  upon  the  gross 
product  of  the  sales,  in  full  for  all  their  services  as 
agents  in  selling  the  substance,  chartering  vessels, 
guorantien,  etc.  They  are  allowed  six  months  to 
render  an  account  of  the  different  sales  made  by  them ; 
which  term  is  absolute,  unless  good  cause  can  bo 
8ho\vn  for  delay.     They  are  also  authorized  to  charge 

6  per  cent,  upon  all  money  advanced  to  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  consumers  in  the  United  States  have  com- 
plained that  the  enormous  profits  which  accrue  to 
those  interested  in  the  contracts  with  th'  Peruvian 
government  for  the  sale  of  guano,  have  ?x>rabined 
with  other  causes  in  keeping  up  the  high  price  of  the 
article.  The  chief  ground  of  these  complaints  seems 
to  be,  that  large  profits  bei/ond  those  leg'timately  in- 
cident to  these  contracts  are  realized  in  "^he  sliape  of 
interest,  premiums,  etc.,  which  are  paid  in  the  first 
instance  by  the  Peruvian  government,  but  finally  fall 
upon  the  consumer  of  guano.  These  extra  commis- 
sions amount  annually  to  a  heavj'  charge  upon  Amer- 
ican shipping,  and  must  necessarily  tend  to  keep  up 
the  cost  of  guano  to  the  consumer.  In  1860,  for  in- 
stance, the  amount  of  Peruvian  guano  exported  to 
the  United  States,  as  stated  from  Pemvian  returns* 
was  137,135  tons  register,  or  about  164,562  tons'  weight. 
The  freight  on  this,  at  $17  per  ton,  amounted  to  $2,- 
797,664.  Five  per  cent,  on  this  would  be  $139,877  70. 
This  added  to  about  $16,000  commissions,  or  port 
agency  in  Peru,  would  make  a  total  of  $166,887  70 
levied  as  extra  commissions,  not  authorized  by  the 
contract,  as  is  complained. 

These  facts  bear  materially  upon  the  consumption 
and  sole  of  this  useful  fertilizer  in  the  United  States. 
The  interest  felt  upon  the  subject  luis  been  evinced, 
as  is  well  known,  by  large  and  respectable  conven- 
tions of  citizens  concerned  in  agriculture,  which  have 
Ijeen  held  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  and  by 
propositions  introduced  into  Congress,  having  for  their 
object  such  legislation  as  would  lead  to  special  nego- 
tiations with  the  government  of  Peru  respecting  tlie 
mode  of  exportation  and  sale  of  her  great  staple,  f 

*  The  United  States'  Treasury  Report  on  Commerce  and 
Navigation  for  18S3,  gives  only  26,862  tons ;  but  for  1854, 
makes  the  number  of  tons  163,662. 

t  As  one  of  the  results  of  thcso  movements,  may  be  named 
an  act  of  Congress,  approved  August  13th,  18tS6,  "to  author- 
ize protection  to  be  given  to  oHIsens  of  the  United  Btatei 
who  may  discover  deposits  of  guano."  .^ 


QUA 


900 


GTTA 


No  dapMitt  of  gum,  wbleb  will  st  all  eotntMfe 
vtth  those  of  Paru,  Mam  uyitte  bsv«  t)««a  dl»«ov* 
end,  althougb  mart  »xUmilv»  Axptenttidiit  hiiv«  t)««n 
proMcuted ;  nor  dosi  *e[enw  WMlffl  X«t  to  tt«v«  (Hid- 
cecded,  though  Invsntlvs  akill  bi*  Iwfiti  tit«hml  to  ids 
utmoat,  in  mMuficturlntc  ft  nutwtitutfl  wbktb  would 
nnptriade  the  naa  or  Inwar  tba  iirka  of  tb«  l'«r«rtfln 
fertilizer.  Indaad,  the  v»ry  kunt  mntrtt  nnhlbtt 
rather  an  appreciation  in  it«  |*rlea,  Hn4  «  mu«  InrroHM 
In  it«  conBaniption,— 6'um,  Ao/„  U,  H, 

Ovaruity,  in  law,  an  nt4i|{Ntkin  un(1«'rt«keti  \jy 
one  party  that  another  •hall  imy  at  porfitrm  that  for 
which  he  la  or  may  Iwcoma  lf«hl«  to  ft  ihlfd  party,  tn 
mercantile  traniactiona  in  tieotland  (t  may  \m  donsti' 
tuted  in  any  way  by  whieb  tba  wmnatlt  tit  \\vt  t^muH' 
ty  obligant  is  truly  and  f^aaJv  <jiv#n  |  l»Mt  it  em  only 
be  proved  by  his  oatb  m  writing.  '11m  «*l»l()tlc«  of 
witnesses  is  Inadmiaslbla,  unUwa  tbi  etdltfation  was 
nndertaken  as  an  intavral  part  of  ft  tr«n)tH«tHm  f  elatlte 
to  moveables,  provabia  ^  wltfl«H««,  or  that  sums' 
thing  followed  on  tba  fattb  of  it,  witb  tb«  linoirledge 
of  the  guaranty  obligant,  by  wbieh  th«*  rluht^  of  par- 
ties were  nutarlally  adbctad,  (n  EHKtand  It  U  enacted 
by  statute,  that  "No  action  sball  \m  l»r»Habt  wbereby 
to  charge*  the  defendant  u|)«n  »ny  *it««l«l  prottilfs  to 
answer  for  the  debt,  etc,,  of  anotltor  ptYMtti,  ttnless  the 
agreement  on  which  such  action  sbati  \m  Itrnliaht,  or 
note  thereof,  shall  be  In  writing,  an'l  lignml  i*y  the 
party  to  be  charged  tbcrswitb,  or  mimti  otbw  person 
thereunto  by  hira  lawfully  aHthorl%«d,"  'life  con- 
struction of  all  such  obligatkma  ia  ti«v«r  «iftmded 
beyond  their  obvious  meaBing,  ftnit  th«y  Hf«  only  tm- 
derstood  to  apply  to  future,  unlass  tbay  ontintssiy  in- 
clude past  transactions,  All  th^tr  c^nflltlnns  «tid 
limitations  must  be  carefully  r«|{ar<t«<il,  (ithm'wise  (hey 
iHicome  void.  If  so  a«pr«ss«d  »t  fnt«H«ittil,  howetef , 
such  obligations  may  be  of  tba  nioKt  Uft!|i«i«Jil)pd  char- 
acter ;  they  may  !»  unlimltad  in  amiitttit,  and  indefl- 
nite  as  to  time.  Wban  tba  gturanty  oliligatit  Is  com- 
pelled to  pay,  ha  baa-  an  action  of  r«ti«f  Mgalnst  the 
principal  debtor  |  but  tbat  Mrty,  Iwing  pttnarily  lia- 
ble, must  first  be  sued  by  tba  cradltor )  and  whatever 
he  does  toward  tba  aKtInetion  of  tb«i  elaim  of  the 
creditor,  or  whatever  tba  cr)4itor  r#«#vwN  from  hlffi 
or  his  estate,  goes  so  far  to  ratlava  tb«  guaranty  obli- 
gant, who  can  also  plead  against  tita  «'rt<dilnr  any  de- 
fense which  could  m  coni|iet#ntly  |)lji«d«d  by  the 
principal  debtor.  Where  mora  narwms  than  one  are 
bound  together  in  »  guftranty  obligatbrn,  any  of  them 
seeking  relief  from  tba  otbars  <»f  A  i«bHr«  o(  his  loss 
must  communicate  to  tbent  ft  shftfa  of  any  s«curlty 
which  he  may  bold  over  tba  eiitat«  of  tb«  principal 
debtor,  or  of  any  abatamant  ba  may  hava  oMained 
from  the  creditor.  A  guaranty  obilgatiofi  tnav  be 
extinguished  by  the  eiitreme  nagtact  of  tba  creditor  g 
as,  for  example,  l)y  his  failing  to  tftita  N<lvantage  of  a 
security  in  his  power,  omitting  U>  n«igidla(«  a  Mil,  In- 
advertently giving  up  funda  of  tba  |irln<'lpat  d«t)tor 
0  ^r  which  he  bad  a  right  uf  Vsn  or  retention,  or  re- 
nouncing any  security  over  bla  a«tNt«,  In  like  man- 
ner, If  he  compound  with,  or  diacbarga  tba  principal 
debtor,  without  tba  concurreniMi  of  tba  guaranty  obli- 
gant, the  guaranty  is  at  an  and )  axc^pting  under  a 
commission  of  bankruptcy  in  England,  or  a  sequestra- 
tion in  Scotbind,  where  tlia  cradlM'  mat',  by  acquies- 
cence, allow  the  principal  debtor  t<t  Im  illscfaarged,  and 
may  accept  a  composition,  without  dliM'harglng  the 
guaranty,  provided  tba  guaranty  obligant  has  previ- 
ously been  duly  warned  and  eftflad  on  to  satisfy  the 
debt. 

ChuitiiiMU,  or  OhiUtMMlll,  one  of  the  republics 
of  Central  America,  occupies  most  of  thn  taltledsnd  of 
Qautimala,  with  tba  mountalnoHs  dlstrirt  lietween  It 
and  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  Iwsldas  a  portion  of  the 
tabla>land  of  Yucatan,  Us  axtrania  tatltudea  are  13° 
89'  and  X8°  Vi'  N„  and  longlttid«a  WC*  J»'  and  98° 
22'  W,    It  la  bounded  (m  IM  north  by  the  Heklcan 


State  of  Yucatan,  on  the  west  by  Chiapa,  on  the  south 
by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  south-east  by  the  npnblic  of 
Salvador,  east  by  Honduras,  and  north-east  by  the 
Qolf  of  Honduras,  and  the  British  Honduras,  or  Belise. 
The  total  area  of  Gautimola  Is  about  49,000  square 
miles.  It  is.  divided  into  17  Departments,  and  con- 
tained, according  to  the  returns  of  1862,  a  population 
of  972,000,  distributed  as  follows : 


D«p«rtin«iiU.       PopaUtiooi. 
Oootlnula....'..  S9,B00 

Bseatepeb 44,600 

Chlmaltenaogo..  56,400 

ganmaroo 80,100 

Bocblltepee 88,800 

Kscnlntfs 15,800 

AmatltUn 88,000 

Santa  Ross. 86,000 

MtU W.800 

Bolola 84)300    I 


DspartDMiita.         FopnUUcnu. 
Totonlcapto...    M,T0O 
Onegneteningo    64,800 

gnesaltehsngo.    66,800 
hlqntmula...    78,000 

Vera  Pax 6,200 

Salami 109,800 

Isabel 9,000 

Total •71,000 


The  surface  of  Guatimola  is  wholly  mountainous, 
the  main  chain  of  the  continuation  of  the  Andes  tra- 
versing it  from  south-east  to  north-west  at  an  incon- 
siderable distance  from  the  Pacific  shore,  and  branch- 
ing oiT  in  various  ramifications  toward  the  Atlantic  ; 
forming  many  valleys,  bat  inclosing  few  plains. 
Along  the  main  chain  occur  numerous  volcanoes,  all 
near  the  Pacific.  The  culminating  point  of  the  sur- 
face is  in  N.  lat.  16°  80',  between  the  towns  of  Toto- 
nicap&an  and  Gueguetenango.  The  eastern  border  of 
tiie  plateau  descending  to  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  is  cut 
by  deep  valleys,  which  extend  to  a  great  distance, 
and  In  some  places  advance  to  the  very  shores.  The 
country  lying  to  the  west  and.  the  north-west  of  the 
Golfo  Dulce  Is  a  low  plain,  while  all  between  the 
plateau  and  the  Bay  of  Honduras  is  a  succession  of 
ridges  and  valleys.  In  many  places  the  shore  is 
rocky,  with  rocky  barriers  lying  off  it. 

Numerous  streams  drain  this  State.  The  most  im- 
portant are,  the  Lacantun,  forming  part  of  the  Mexi- 
can boundary ;  the  Motogtia  and  the  Polochic,  which 
fail  through  the  Dulce  into  the  Bay  of  Honduras. 
The  most  important  lakes  are,  the  Dulce,  advanta- 
geous for  foreign  trading  vessels ;  the  Amatitlan,  18 
miles  south-east  of  Guatimola,  is  9  miles  by  3,  of  great 
depth,  and  is  much  resorted  to  as  a  bathing-place  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Guatimola,  from  Februar}'  till^ 
April;  near  it  there  are  several  mineral  and  hot 
springs ;  the  Atitlan,  80  miles  north-west  of  the  city  of 
Ouatimala,  is  about  20  miles  long  by  9  broad,  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  beiglits,  including  the  volcano  of 
Atitlan,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  very  greot  depth, 
and  l>eing  without  outlet,  though  several  small  rivers 
enter  it  t  the  Paten,  near  the  Avntiers  with  Yucatan, 
•bout  80  miles  long,  and  9  brood. 

The  climate  of  the  table-land  is  that  of  perennial 
spring,  the  thermometer  scarcely  varying  throughout 
the  year,  and  it  resembles  very  much  the  climate  of 
Valencia  in  Spain  in  almost  every  porticular.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  State,  in  what  is  called  Loi  Allot, 
the  highlands,  the  overoge  Is  lower  than  any  other 
part  of  the  country.  Snow  sometimes  foils  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Quesaltenango,  the  capital  of  this  Depart- 
ment, but  soon  disappears,  the  thermometer  seldom 
remaining  at  the  freezing  point  for  any  considerable 
time.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Guatimola,  the 
range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  56°  to  80°,  averag- 
ing about  72°  of  Fab.  Vera  Paz,  the  north-eastern 
Department  of  Ouatimala,  and  embracing  the  coast 
below  Yucatan  to  the  Gulf  of  Dulce,  is  nearly  10  de- 
grees wormer.  This  coast  from  Belize  downward  to 
Isabel  and  San  Tome  is  hot  and  unhealthy.  From 
May  till  October  is  the  rainy  season.  Thunder  pre- 
vails in  June,  and  terrific  storms  fTom  the  south-west 
sweep  along  the  Pacific  coast  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber.    Earthquakes  are  very  frequent. 

The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  producing  excel- 
lent rice,  and  all  the  cereals  in  great  variety  and 
abundance.  Agriculture,  however,  is  in  a  very  back- 
ward state  from  the  want  of  enterprise  and  the  igno- 


GUA 


90fl 


GUA 


nnee  ut  t'M  ueople,  as  w«U  u  trom  the  want  of  roada. 
As  articles  of  commerce,  the  most  important  products 
•re  cochineal  and  indigo.  Cotton,  racao,  sugar,  va- 
nilU,  tobacco,  and  coffee,  are  grown  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  table-land  is  almost  destitute  of  trees 
and  even  bushes,  except  on  the  decltyities  of  the  hilly 
.ranges  which  bo  extensively  traverse  it.  Trees  of 
▼ery  large  size  form  extensive  forests  on  the  lower 
lands  along  the  Pacific.  These  are  a  source  of  great 
natural  wealth.  Among  the  trees  the  most  valuable 
are  the  cedar,  mahogany,  Brazil,  Santa  Maria,  pi- 
mento, guuiacum,  etc. ;  and  abundance  of  medicinal 
plants  are  also  found  and  turned  to  some  account. 
The  vegetation  is  luxurious  and  vigorous  along  the 
low  tract  by  the  Bay  of  Ilondurrs.  Sheep  are  reared 
in  considerable  numbers,  especially  over  the  northern 
districts,  and  their  wool  is  used  for  native  manufac- 
tures. The  horse  is  small,  hardy,  and  handsome ;  and 
mules  are  numerous,  Iwing  the  cliief  beasts  of  burden. 
Pigs  and  poultry  are  very  abundant,  and  of  excellent 
quality. 

Salt  is  manufactured  along  the  coast  of  the  Paciflc. 
Jasper,  marble,  and  brimstone,  are  obtained  in  con- 
siderable quantity  in  tlie  vicinity  of  some  of  the  vol- 
canoes. Lead  is  worlced  by  the  Indians  in  Totonicap&n, 
The  manufactures  are  mostly  limited  to  those  for  do- 
mestic use.  The  cotton  manufacture,  once  extensive, 
is  now  confined  to  the  Departments  of  Guatlmala  and 
Sacatepec.  Coarse  woolen  cloth  is  now  more  manu- 
factured, especially  i/er^a,  which  is  made  into  a  pecu- 
liar blaclc  called  poncho,  in  which  much  taste  is 
displayed.— £.  B. 

Since  1847,  Guatimala  has  been  an  independent  re- 
public, and  in  1851  a  new  constitution  was  adopted,  by 
virtue  of  which  the  President  is  elected  every  four 
years;  to  whom,  in  conjunction  with  an  Assembly 
General,  composed  of  59  members,  the  powers  of  the 
government  are  confided.  It  is  divided  into  17  De- 
partments, and  its  capital  is  Nueva  Guatimala.  The 
great  commercial  staple  of  the  republic  is  cochineal,  of 
which  upward  of  20,000  bales  are  annually  produced. 
In  addition  to  these  articles,  considerable  attention  has 
been  given  of  late  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  vanilla,  and  indigo.  Gold,  silver,  and 
other  minerals  have  been  found  in  several  sections  of 
the  State.  The  exports  consist  of  cochineal,  indigo, 
segars,  sarsaparilla,  mahogany,  cocoa,  hides,  dye- 
woods,  and  some  silver.  The  total  value  of  exports 
amounts,  annually,  to  about  $1,880,000,  and  the  im- 
ports to  about  12,000,000. 

The  commercial  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Guatimala  are  regulated  by  the  treaty  of 
March  8,  1849,  and  by  the  local  legislation  of  that 
republic.  The  treaty  is  one  of  peace,  amity,  com- 
merce and  navigation,  and  stipulates  for  perfect  equal- 
ity and  entire  reciprocity  of  commerce  and  navigation. 
Each  nation  extends  the  same  privileges  to  the  vessels 
of  the  other  that  are  applicable  to  its  own.  The  right 
of  residence,  commerce,  and  trade  is  extended  to  citi- 
zens of  each  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  with  the 
same  rights,  privileges,  exemptions,  and  restrictions, 
which  apply  to  native  citizens — the  coasting  trade 
excepted,  which  is  reserved  to  the  parties,  respectively, 
according  to  their  own  separate  laws.  The  high  con- 
tracting parties  moreover  adopt,  with  respect  to  each 
other,  the  principle  that  free  ships  make  free  goods. 
The  treaty  is  to  continue  in  force  during  12  years,  and 
contains  the  usual  provision  of  one  year's  notice  after 
the  expiration  of  that  period.  The  local  regulations 
of  Guatimala  are  altered  from  time  to  time  by  decree, 
sanctioned  by  the  executive  officers,  and  promulgated 
nnder  authority  of  the  President  of  the  republic.  The 
latest  decree  of  this  character,  of  which  our  Govern- 
ment is  in  possession,  modifies  the  tariff  of  1837,  so  far 
•s  it  relates  to  tonnage  duties.  It  bears  date  May 
6,  1852,  and  Bubjolnod  is  ft  translation  of  its  provis- 
iona: 


Article  1.  Eveiy  vessel  which  shall  anchor  in  the 
ports  of  the  republic,  no  matter  whence  it  may  come, 
shall  pay  a  tonnage  duty  of  two  reals  (26  cents)  for 
each  ton  of  measurement.  This  measurement  shidl  be 
ascertained  lh>m  the  register,  the  certificate  of  natioiv 
ality,  the  patent  or  clearance  under  which  it  sails. 

Article  2.  Shall  be  flree  of  tonnage  duty — let.  Small 
vessels  engaged  in  transporting  merchandise  from  one 
port  to  another  of  the  republic;  2d.  Vessels  which 
anchor  in  ballast  to  take  in  water,  provisions,  or  fruits 
of  the  country,  provided  they  discharge  no  cargoes ; 
3d.  Vessels  of  war,  and  regular  mail  or  steam-packets, 
provided  they  do  not  discliarge  merchandise  over  20 
tons;  4tb.  Merchant  vessels  which,  exceeding  160 
tons  of  registered  measurement,  discharge  not  exceed- 
ing 20  tons  of  merchandise ;  5th,  Vessels  which  re- 
ceive on  board,  for  exportation,  produce  of  the  country, 
excepting  cochineal,  as  provided  for  in  decree  of  March 
81, 1849. 

Article  8.  This  decree  shall  take  effect  trom  and 
after  the  first  day  of  July,  ensuing. 

Guaiimala,  la  Antigua,  a  city  of  Central  America,  in 
the  re|iiiblican  State  of  Guatimala,  and  about  27  miles 
W.S.W.  from  Guatimala  la  Nueva.  It  stands  in  a 
wide  and  fertile  valley,  at  an  elevatijen  of  5820  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  place  was  abandoned  after 
the  earthquake  of  1773,  which  partly  destroyed  it ;  but 
it  now  contains  a  population  of  nearly  20,000.  There 
is  collected  here  a  considerable  quantity  of  cochineal ; 
and  there  are  some  insignificant  manufactories.  Ttie 
cit}'  is  regularly  laid  out,  but  a  great  part  of  it  is  still 
in  ruins.  Prior  to  the  earthquake  the  population 
amounted  to  alwut  60,000. 

Guatimala  la  Nueva,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Guatimala,  in  Central  America.  Its  situation  is  in 
N.  lat.  14°  86',  and  W.  long.  90°  80',  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  a  plain  22  miles  in  length  by  7  in  breadth,  with 
a  deep  ravine  on  three  sides,  and  elevated  above  the 
sea  4970  feet.  The  form  of  the  town  is  quadrangular ; 
and  the  streets  are  wide,  straight,  and  clean.  On  ai> 
count  of  the  frequency  of  earthquakes  the  houses  are 
only  one  story  in  height.  The  Plaza  or  Great  Square 
measures  about  160  yards  on  each  side,  and  is  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  colonnades.  Here  are  the 
principal  buildings  in  the  town — the  cathedral,  the 
archbishop's  palace,  the  old  royal  palace,  the  College 
del  Infantea,  and  the  various  government  offices.  In 
the  centre  stands  a  large  and  elegant  fountain.  The 
town  is  well  supplied  with  water  brought  by  pipes 
from  the  mountains  upward  of  two  leagues  distant. 
Beside  the  cathedral,  there  are  26  other  churches  and 
chapels ;  and,  beside  the  Plaza,  several  other  squares, 
each  with  a  fountain  in  the  centre.  At  the  south  side 
of  the  city  there  has  recently  been  erected  a  fort 
mounting  20  guns.  There  are  several  private  schools 
in  Gtuitimala ;  and  several  printing  establishments, 
whence  two  weekly  newspapers  are  itsued. 

Thompson,  in  his  Official  Visit  to  Guatimala,  states 
that  "  the  mean  heat"  of  the  city  of  Guatimala  "  dur- 
ing the  day,  from  the  first  6f  Januar}'  to  the  first  of 
July,  is  75°  of  Fahr. ;  at  night,  63°.  In  the  summer 
months  the  average  may  be  taken  at  10  degrees 
higher."  Fruits,  vegetables,  provisions,  and  all 
articles  of  ordinary  consumption  are  abimdant,  at 
moderate  prices,  while  many  descriptions  of  British 
manufacture  are  as  cheap  as  in  Britain.  The  manu- 
factures are  muslins,  gauze,  cottons,  earthenware, 
porcelain,  jewelry,  segars,  etc. 

The  inhabitants  are  courteous  and  hospitable  to 
strangers,  but  live  very  much  apart  from  each  other, 
their  only  recreation  being  their  incessant  religious 
processions.  The  suburbs  are  occupied  mostly  by 
ladinos  (mulattoes)  and  Indians.  The  buildings  of 
this  city  were  begun  in  1776,  three  years  after  the 
fearful  earthquake  of  1773,  which  completely  destroyed 
Old  Guatimala,  the  former  capital.  The  population  is 
variously  estimated  ttom  86,000  to  60,000. 


GUI 


d08 


Gtn 


Oaara,  the  fhilt  of  the  Fiiidium  pgriftrwm  and  P. 
p«miferum,  nat.  ord.  Myttaeaa,  the  pnlp  of  which  is 
made  into*  jelly  of  BpecaliariydalioioM  flavor.  This 
■weetmeat  i«  Imported  in  considerable  qoantitiai  tton 
the  West  ludk*. 

OnayaqaU,  a  city  and  port  of  Columbia,  on  the 
western  coast  of  South  America,  Ut.  2°  11'  21"  south, 
long.  79°  48'  west.  Population  20,000.  The  town  Is 
iituated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
about  six  or  aeren  leagues  ttom  the  Isla  Verde,  or  nine 
league*  ftom  the  Isla  Pnfia,  in  the  Gulf  of  Ooaya- 
qnil,  oppodte  to  the  mouth  of  the  riv«r.  Ships  bound 
for  OnsyaquU  generally  call  at  the  Isla  Pufia,  where 
expert  pilot*  may  be  had,  who  carry  them  up  to  the 
town  by  night  or  by  day,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
tides.     The  town  is  old;  but  as  the  houses  are  of 


wood,  and  it  ha*  fireqnently  snflbred  flrom  Ores,  much 
of  it  Is  comparatively  modem,  and  has  a  good  appear- 
ance. There  la  a  dry  dock  on  tm  south  bank  of  the 
river,  where  several  sliips  of  a  superior  construction 
have  lieen  built.  The  district  in  which  Guayaquil  is 
situated  has  for  a  considerable  period  formed  a  part  of 
the  republic  of  Ecuador  or  iGquator.  Like  the  other 
South  American  States,  it  has  been  subjected  to  per> 
petually-raourring  revolutions;  but  Guayaquil  has, 
notwithstanding,  continued  to  enjoy  considerable  com- 
merce. Its  principal  article  of  export  is  cocoa,  of 
which  large  quantities  are  shipped ;  and  next  to  it  are 
straw  hats,  timber,  tolxtcco,  hides,  Iwrk,  etc.  The 
principal  articles  of  import  are  manufactured  cottons 
and  hardware,  silks,  wfaie,  flour,  etc.  The  following 
tables  show  the  commerce  and  navigation  of  Guayaquil : 


AccoimT  or  tdk  Quaktitiu  and  Valcis  or  tux  pbincipal  Articlks  or  PaoDnoa  ixpobtio  raox  Qvataquil,  ih 

1840,  1860t  AND  1861. 


ArtlclM. 

is«a.                   1                   iBto. 

ISil.                       i 

qiiHUUn. 

Vdmi.          1       Qnantlllea. 

V«lu«i. 

Quanlltki. 

Valuaa. 

Coeos lbs. 

Straw  hata dos. 

Tanned  hides sides 

Tobacco quintals 

Timber loits 

Mangles. polos 

Flax? ?!lba 

Orchllls quintals 

Tamarinds " 

Bark '• 

Total  value 

14,020,446 

21,101 

22,867 

2,128 

8,248 

1,412 

17,166 

706 

180 

714 

£180,408 

78,866 

6,871 

0,289 

1,418 

62 

668 

1,236 

280 

1,499 

11,171.818 

26,886 

26,400 

1,622 

7,671 

8,468 

7,668 

1,240 

176 

1,046 

£111,718 

06,800 
8,400 
8,800 

\        8,610 

200 
8,100 

200 
6,600 

0,667,068 

86,864 

17,118 

2,808 

1        16,244 

1        10,027 

860 

1,188 

867 

2,688 

£100,000 

107,700 

6,100 

12,400 

16,800 

700 

60 

2,000 

600 

14,000 

.... 

£284,020 

1      £»a626 

1      £287.800       1 

. 

-.  J 

Account  or  toe  Muudsb,  Tonnaos,  Cukws,  and  Values  or  tui  Cabooks  or  tub  Yessku  or  bacu  Kation  entxbxd 

AND   OLKARKD   AT  THE   POBT  OT  OUATAqUIL,  IN  1861, 


nAM. 

SNTKUID, 

OLBAKID. 

V«Mh. 

■         *0I». 

Crewi. 

Value  ofmrKoei 

VeueU. 

Tom. 

Cr«TC. 

Value  of  e«r(fo«s 

British.    

7 

61 

88 

8 

2 

8 

10 

9 

4 

> 

8 

2,026 

2,060 

8,700 

1,266 

140 

860 

8,100 

1,800 

000 

860 

860 

107 

860 

880 

70 

11 

28 

170 

80 

66 

24 

26 

£88,000 
88,100 
20,000 
26,100 
1,200 
2,000 
66,000 
86,800 
20,000 
16,000 
18,000 

7 

61 

88 

8 

2 

8 

10 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2,026 

2,060 

8,700 

1,266 

140 

860 

8,100 

1,800 

900 

860 

860 

107 
8C0 
380 
70 
11 
28 
170 
80 
66 
24 
26 

£41,000 
26,600 
22,000 
19,000 
6,200 
8,200 
82,000 
40,000 
18,000 
17,000 
18,000 

Poraviau 

Chilian 

BDonlsh 

French 

Danish 

Total 

181 

16,061 

1,811 

£274,700 

181 

16,061 

1,811 

£287,800 

The  Guayaquil  Biver  is  the  principal  in  western 
Ecuador.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  numerous 
atrcams  flrom  the  Andes,  and  becomes  navigable  for 
commercial  purposes  at  Baybahoyo  or  Caracol,  70  or 
80  miles  from  its  mouth — river  boats  ascending  to  one 
or  other  of  these  places  according  to  the  season.  Be- 
low Guayaquil  the  channel  is  impeded  by  numerous 
rocks  and  small  islands,  while  at  its  mouth  is  the  lar- 
ger island  of  Pana.  Where  tlie  river  falls  into  the 
Pacific  it  is  known  as  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  the  ex- 
treme points  of  which  ore  70  miles  apart, 
*    QvLKymmm,  a  sea-port  town  of  Mexico.     See  Mbx- 

Ouayni,  Zia,  the  principal  sea-port  town  of  the 
republic  of  Venezuela,  province  of,  and  11  miles  north 
north-west  of  Caracas.  It  is  an  unhealthy  situation, 
and  is  closely  surrounded  by  high  mountains  and 
rocks.  The  chain  of  mountains  which  separates  it 
f^om  the  high  valley  of  Caracas  descends  almost  di- 
rectly into  the  sea ;  and  the  houses  of  the  town  are 
backed  by  a  wall  of  steep  rocks,  leaving  scarcely  100 
or  140  fathoms'  breadth  of  flat  ground  l)etween  this 
wall  and  the  sea.  The  town  is  poorly  built,  and  con- 
tains no  edifice  worthy  of  notice.  The  port  is  nn- 
iheltered,  bnt  has  good  anchorage  in  fh>m  six  to  thirty 
fiithoms,  and  is  well  defended  by  land  Iwtteries.  Its 
chief  export*  are  coS'ee,  cocoa,  indigo,  and  Mdes,  with 
•ome  oottoB  and  sugar.    Population  about  8000. 

Oolana,  Ouyuia,  or  Ohiayana,  an  extensive 
territory  In  the  north-eastern  part  of  South  America, 
comprehending  in  it*  widest  acceptation  all  that  extent 
of  country  lying  between  the  Bivera  Amazon  and  Ori- 


noco, between  hit.  3°  80'  south,  and  8°  40'  north,  and 
long.  60°  22'  and  68°  10'  west.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Orinoco  and  the  Atlantic,  east  by  the 
Atlantic,  south  by  the  Amazon  and  the  Rio  Negro, 
and  west  by  the  Orinoco  and  the  Cassiquiare.  Its 
greatest  length  Arom  east  to  west  is  about  1200  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  alwut  860  miles  ;  estimated  , 
area  700,000  square  miles.  This  vast  territorj-  is  divi- 
ded into  Brazilian  (formerly  Portuguese)  Guiana,  Ven- 
ezuelan (formerly  Spanish)  Guiana,  and  Colonial 
Guiana.  The  two  former,  comprising  about  five  si.xtbs 
of  the  entire  region,  are  now  included  within  the  limits 
of  their  respective  countries ;  while  Colonial  Guiana 
is  that  to  which  the  general  term  of  Guiana  is  now 
commonly  applied.  It  is  subdivided  into  British, 
Dutch,  and  French  Guiana. 

Guiana,  BritUh,  the  most  weiiterly  of  the  three  col- 
onies, is  l)oanded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the 
Atlantic,  east  by  Dutch  Guiana,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  the  River  Corentyn,  south  by  Brazil,  and 
west  by  Venezuela.  It  lies  Iwtween  north  lat.  0°  40' 
and  8°  40',  and  west  long.  67°  and  61°,  and  has  an 
estimated  area  of  76,000  square  miles ;  but  the  posses- 
sion of  much  of  this  has  l>een  disputed  by  Brazil  and 
Venezuela.  It  is  divided  into  three  counties,  Dome- 
rara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  so  named  from  the  three 
principal  rivers  which  drain  them.  Demerara,  situ- 
ated between  the  other  two,  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
seaboard  for  nearly  90  miles.  To  the  north-west  the 
county  of  Essequibo  stretches  along  the  coast  toward 
the  swamps  and  forests  of  the  western  frontier ;  and 
to  the  soutli-east  lies  the  county  of  Berbice, 


and 
the 
the 
Negro, 


Col- 
by the 
Is  sep- 
il,  and 
40' 
lan  an 
posses- 
ill  and 
Dome- 
) tbiee 

situ- 
of  the 
!8t  the 
toward 
ri  Wd 


cnrc 

The  entlr*  cout  of  Britlih  Gnlaiia  b  low,  and  goi- 
•ndly  bordered  with  •  uaAj  fl«t  extondhiK  Ikr  out  to 
M«,  DO  tlut  Teasels  drawing  more  than  12  feet  of  water 
Clin  not  approach  within  three  or  four  miles  of  land. 
The  rivers,  too,  deposit  at  their  mouths  large  quan- 
tities of  mud  and  sand,  and  are  thus  inaccessible  to 
vessels  of  large  size.  Extending  from  low-water  mark 
to  a  distanje  of  Ave  or  six  miles  lni^(*,  is  a  tract  of 
rich  allnvial  soil  of  recent  formation.     This  is  sno- 
ceeded  \>y  a  flat  narrow  reef  of  sand  -running  exactly 
parallel  with  the  present  line  of  coast.     Here  remidns 
of  stranded  vessels  aad  anchors  eaten  through  with 
rust  have  been  found,  indicating  that  within  a  com- 
paratively recent  period  it  bad  been  washed  by  the 
waves  of  the  Atlantic.     Running  parallel  to  this  reef, 
at  irregular  distances,  varying  from  10  to  20  miles,  is 
a  second  and  higher  range,  composed  of  coarse  white 
sand ;  and  which,  at  a  period  more  remote,  probably 
formed  the  sea  limit.     In  the  wet  seasons  the  inter- 
mediate tract  between  these  two  reefs  becomes  the 
bed  of  extensive  savannahs ;  for  the  creeks  being  then 
nnable  to  carry  off  the  torrents  of  rain  which  fall,  over- 
flow their  level  baniu,  and  inundate  the  surrounding 
country  to  the  depth  of  Ave  or  six  feet.     On  the  re- 
turn of  dry  weather  the  waters  gradually  subside, 
leaving  behind  them  a  thicic  layer  of  decayed  grasses 
and  aquatic  plants  which  had  floated  and  flourished  on 
their  surface,  and  these  in  time  produce  a  vegetable 
mold  of  considerable  thickness.     Beyond  the  second 
reef  are  swampy  plains.  Intersected  by  sand-reefs,  and 
extending  to  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  interior. 
The  high  land  does  not  rise  immediately  from  the  plain 
to  a  great  elevation,  but  begins  with  a  range  of  sand 
hills  of  from  50  to  200  feet  abov«  the  plain.     Behind 
these  the  high  land  stretches  out  In  level  or  undulating 
plains,  rising  here  and  there  into  eminences.     About 
north  lat.  6°,  a  mountain  chain,  an  offset  of  the  Ori- 
noco Mountains,  and  composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and 
other  primitive  rocks,  runs  from  west  to  east  through 
this   territory,  forming  large  cataracts  when  it  Is 
crossed  by  the  rivers,  and  rising  ftvquently  to  the 
height  of  1000  feet  above  the  sea.     About  a  degree 
further  touth  is  the  Pacaralma  chain,  which,  in  like 
manner,  runs  fiora  west  to  east,  and  is  of  primitive 
formation.     Its  highest  point,  called  by  the  natives 
Roralma,  in  north  lat.  5°  9'  80",  west  loP)r.  60°  47', 
is  7500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     Ihe  plains 
south  of  this  range  are  in  general  level,  ana  forsa  exten- 
sive savannahs,  covered  with  grasses  and  plants.  The 
Sierra  Acarai  Is  a  densely  wooded  chain  of  mountains 
forming  the  southern  boundary'  of  Guiana,  and  the 
water-shed  between  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
Essequibo.   sThis  chain  rises  to  the  height  of  4000 
feet.     The  Oonocou,  or  Cannucu  Mountains,  running 
south-east  and  north-west,  connect  the  Pacaralma  with 
the  Sierra  Acarai. 

The  principal  river  of  British  Guiana  is  the  Ksse- 
qulbo,  which  rises  in  the  Sierra  Acarai,  and  after  a 
course  of  at  least  600  miles  discharges  itself  into  the 
ocean  by  an  estuar}-  20  miles  in  width,  in  north  lat. 
7°,  west  long.  58°  40'.  In' the  estuary  of  the  Esse- 
qulbo  are  a  group  of  beautiful  Islands  partially  cul 
tivated,  the  principal  of  which  are  Varken,  or  Hog 
Island  about  21  miles  in  length  by  3  in  breadth, 
Wakenaam  and  Leguon,  each  about  12  miles  by  8, 
and  Tiger  Island,  about  half  that  size.  The  entrance 
is  difficult  and  dangerous,  even  for  vessels  of  small 
size,  on  account  of  the  banks  of  mud  and  sand.  Its 
course  lies  through  forests  of  the  most  gigantic  vege- 
tation. In  north  lat.  3°  14'  85",  It  forms  a  great  cata- 
ract, named  by  Schomburgk,  King  William's  Cataract. 
In  north  lat.  8°  67'  80",  and  west  long.  68°  8',  it 
receives  the  Bupunoony,  which  has  a  course  of  about 
220  miles.  At  various  points  of  its  course  it  forms 
rapids  and  cataracts  which  impede  its  navigation. 
About  60  miles  flrom  ita  mouth  occur  the  last  of  these, 
Um  Falla  of  Eubally,  aftar  which  it  porsiMf  ita  course 


GTJl 


through  the  low  alluvial  plain.  In  this  part  ef  Itt 
course  It  nceives  the  united  waters  of  the  Cuyunl  and 
the  Massaroony.  The  Demerara,  or  Demeiiuy  rlaaa 
probably  near  north  lat.  6°,  and  after  a  northward 
course  nearly  parallel  with  the  Essequlbo,  of  more  than 
200  miles,  it  enters  the  Atlantic  near  north  lat.  6°  60', 
west  long.  68°  20'.  It  is  navigabU  for  85  miles,  and 
at  Its  mouth  at  Georgetown  It  k  more  than  a  mile  and 
a  half  across.  Further  east  runs  the  Berblce,  whoa* 
source  is  probably  about  north  lat.  8°  40'.  It  Jolna 
the  Atlantic  by  an  estuary  flva  miles  in  width,  10  ' 
miles  north  of  New  Amsterdam,  and  in  north  lat.  6° 
21',  west  long.  67°  12'.  It  is  navigable  for  165  miles 
from  the  sea,  by  vessels  drawing  seven  feet  water. 
The  Corentyn  which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of 
British  Guiana,  and  probably  has  its  source  in  the 
Sierra  Acarai,  flows  generally  northward  and  tiklU 
Into  the  Atlantic  In  north  lat.  6°,  west  long.  67°.  It 
Is  navigable  for  boots  for  160  miles.  The  mineral 
productions  of  Guiana  ara  necessarily  bst  Imperfectly 
known.  Clays  of  various  kinds,  including  excellent 
pipe-clay,  aro  found  near  the  coast.  The  chief  rooks 
an  granite,  porphyry,  gneiss,  clay-slate,  sandstone, 
etc.  Traces  of  iron  are  found  iu  various  parts ;  and 
gold  has  been  recently  (in  1852)  discovered  in  considp 
erable  quantities  on  the  upper  Essequlbo. 

The  climate  of  Guiana  is  more  healthy  than  that 
of  most  places  in  the  West  Indies.  Its  salubrity  has 
been  much  Increased  since  the  occupation  of  the  coun- 
tr>-  by  Europeans,  the  gradual  clearing  and  cultivation 
of  the  surface  having  done  much  to  mitigate  thoso 
diseases  so  fatal  in  a  low,  manhy,  and  hot  region. 
The  hurricanes  so  destructive  in  the  West  Indies  ara 
unknown  here,  and  gales  ate  unfreqnent.  Thunder- 
storms occur  only  during  the  rainy  seasons ;  but,  like 
the  few  occasional  shocks  of  earthquakes,  an  not  at- 
tended with  danger.  The  year  is  divided  into  two 
wet  and  two  dry  seasons.  The  long  rainy  season  sets 
In  about  the  middle  of  April,  when  light  showers  be* 
gin  to  fall.  The  rain  inureases  tiU  the  middle  of  June, 
when  it  falls  in  torrents ;  in  the  beginning  of  July 
these  heavy  rains  begin  to  decrease,  and  In  August 
the  long  dry  season  begins,  and  continues  tiU  Novem- 
ber. December  and  January  constitute  the  short 
rainy  season,  and  February  and  Maroh  the  short 
dry  season.  The  winds  during  the  rains  are  gener- 
ally westerly;  in  the  dry  season  they  blow  mostly 
from  the  ocean,  loaded  with  moisture,  and  thus  render 
the  heat  less  oppressive  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
The  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  90°,  and  rarely 
falls  below  75°  Fah.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
at  Georgetown  is  81°  2';  the  total  annual  fall  of  rain 
averages  about  100  Inches. 

The  vegetation  of  Guiana  is  most  luxuriant.  The 
interior  is  thickly  wooded  with  valuable  timber,  with 
the  exception  of  the  swamps  of  Berblce  and  the  savan« 
nahs.  Tlie  trees  ara  of  great  size,  and  many  of  them 
are  valuable  for  their  timber,  or  their  fruits,  or  as  dye- 
woods.  Medicinal  plants,  including  quassia,  gentian, 
the  castor^oil  plant,  and  many  others,  are  abundant. 
Amotto,  so  extensively  used  in  the  coloring  of  cheese, 
grows  wild  in  profusion  on  the  banks  of  the  upper 
Corentyn.  The  largest  of  the  water-IUles,  the  Victo- 
ria Regia,  vras  first  discovered  here  by  Mr.  Schom- 
burgk on  the  banks  of  the  Berblce.  The  hai-arry,  an 
indigenous  plant  deserving  of  notice,  is  a  papilinaceous 
vine,  the  root  of  which  contains  a  powerfid  narcotic, 
and  is  commonly  used  by  the  Indians  in  poisoning  the 
waters  to  take  the  fish,  which  are  not  thereby  dete- 
riorated. The  domestic  animals  are  the  same  as  those 
in  England,  and  the  wild  animals  are  those  common 
to  tropical  South  America  generally.  Black  cattio 
here  attain  a  larger  size  than  In  Europe,  but  their  flesh 
is  not  so  tender  nor  so  fine  flavored.  The  wool  of  the 
sheep  is  converted  into  hair.  Game,  chiefly  deer, 
range  the  upper  savannahs.  Tigers,  little  inferior  in 
size  to  those  of  Asia,  but  diffisrent  in  ohaiacler,  beiag 


•* 


GUI 


910 


GUI 


■  nraly  known  to  attack  man,  abonnd;  at  do  alio 
Jagoan,  which  prey  upon  th«  h«rds  of  wild  cattle 
and  horsca  that  gnie  on  the  extenaive  plalna  among 
the  mountaina.  Among  the  other  animals  are  the 
tapir,  armadillo,  agouti,  ant-bear,  aloth,  and  a  great 
Tariety  of  monkej-a.  Lixarda,  anakea,  and  alligatora 
are  namerooa.  There  are  aeveral  kinds  of  pnrrots,  ma- 
caws, and  humming-blrda ;  alao  the  flamingo,  mnacovy 
dnok,  toucan,  spoonbill,  and  vampire  bat.  Trouble- 
some insects  are  numerous,  as  might  be  expected  from 
•the  swampy  nature  of  the  coast  diatrlcts.  The  rivers 
and  coast  abound  with  a  great  variety  of  flah. 

Th«  cultivated  portion  of  British  Guiana  ia  merely 
•  Barrow  strip  along  the  sea-coast,  and  for  a  few  miles 
up  the  rivers,  including  a  portion  of  the  islands  of 
Essequibo.  The  whole  surface  of  the  coast  lands  bcr 
ingon  a  level  with  high-watermark,  when  these  lands 
are  drained  and  cultivated  they  consolidate  and  b«- 
come  fully  a  foot  below  it,  so  that  the  estates  require 
to  \ie  protected  from  inundation  by  dams  and  sluices. 
Each  estate  has,  therefore,  a  strong  dum  or  embank- 
ment in  front ;  while  a  similar  erection  at  the  iMok  or 
inland  boundary,  as  well  as  on  each  side,  is  requisite 
to  keep  off  the  immense  body  of  water  accumulated  on 
the  savannahs  during  the  wet  seasons,  and  which,  if 
not  repelled,  would  rush  down  to  the  sea  carrying 
every  thing  before  it.  The  state  of  his  dams,  there- 
fore, requirea  the  planter'a  unremitting  attention ;  not 
the  slightest  hole  or  leakage  in  allowed  to  exist  in 
them,  and  by  law  their  willful  Injury  is  considered 
felony.  One  inundation  destroys  a  sugar  estate  for 
eighteen  months,  and  a  coffee  one  for  six  years.  "  The 
original  cost  of  damming  and  cultivating  is  ftally  paid 
by  the  first  crop,  and  the  duration  of  the  crops  is  firom 
30  to  60  years  ;  so  that  though  great  capital  is  required 
for  the  first  outlay,  the  comparative  expense  of  cultiva-  j 
tion  is  a  mere  trifle  compared  with  that  of  the  West 
India  Islands,  notwithstanding  that  the  expense  of 
works,  buildings,  and  machinery,  may  be  treble  or 
quadruple,  being  built  on  an  adequate  scale  for  half  a  i 
century  of  certain  production." — Geog.  Jour.,  vol.  iv.,  ' 
823.  Inalde,  and  at  the  foot  of  these  dams,  are  trenches 
12  to  18  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  deep,  running  round  the 
whole  plantation,  and  into  these,  smaller  trenches  and 


open  dnina  oonrey  the  water  that  falls  npon  the  bnd. 
These  large  trenohea  discharge  their  oontenta  Into  the 
sea  through  one  or  mora  sluices,  which  are  opened  m 
the  tide  ebbs,  and  shut  against  the  returning  flood. 

The  staple  productions  of  the  colony  are  sugar,  cof* 
fee,  and  cotton.  From  an  official  table  of  the  exporta 
of  British  Quhna  from  1826  to  1861,  we  find  that  In 
1827, 16,004  bales,  of  cotton  were  exported^  but  from 
that  period  this  ctiltlvation  gradually  gave  place  to 
sugar,  and  in  1844  ceases  to  appear  in  the  table  as  an 
article  of  export.  Since  1861,  however,  it  seems  to 
have  received  more  attention,  for  among  the  exports 
fh>m  British  Qulana  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  18M 
we  find  1008  cwt.  of  cotton.  CoflTee,  fh>m  npward  of 
0,600,000  lbs.  in  1880,  gradually  feU  off  to  only  8198 
lbs.  in  1861.  As  to  sugar,  making  a  due  allowance  for 
the  difference  of  seasons,  the  quantity  exported  re- 
mained  pretty  steady  from  1826  to  1887,  the  year  pre- 
ceding the  termination  of  apprenticeships — averaging 
about  66,000  hhds. ;  but  in  the  year  following  that 
event  it  fell  down  to  nearly  half  its  former  average, 
being  in  1839  only  88,270  hhds.  In  1846  it  had  sunk  aa 
low  aa  26,201  hhds.,  owing  in  a  great  measure  to  a  pro> 
tracted*  drought  through  a  great  part  of  that  season. 
In  1861  43,084  hhds.  were  exported.  In  proportion  to 
the  sugar  obtained  the  quantity  of  molasses  is  large, 
owing  partly  to  the  defects  of  the  common  process  of 
preparation,  liut  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  soil  ia  ao 
rich  an  alluvium,  and  so  abundant  in  alkaline  and 
earthy  saline  matter.  Little  of  the  molasses  is  boiled 
down  into  sugar  in  the  colony ;  it  is  chiefly  made  into 
rum,  or  sold  to  the  refiners,  by  whom  it  Is  much  prized. 
In  1861  the  quantity  of  molasses  exported  was  9630 
poncheons.  Although  the  rum  produced  in  this  colony 
does  not  equal  in  character  that  of  Jamaica,  it  yet  oc- 
cupies a  respectable  place  in  the  market.  The  quan- 
tity exported  in  1851  was  16,846  puncheons.  With 
respect  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane,  by  reason 
of  the  lowness  of  the  land  and  the  plan  of  drainage  in 
use — namely,  that  known  as  the  open-drain  and  round- 
bed  method— the  system  of  cultivation  remains  exactly 
as  in  the  times  of  slaver}',  ever}*  part  of  the  operations  of 
culture  being  performed  by  manual  labor.  The  follow- 
ing statistics  have  been  compiled  from  official  sources: 


ComiXBCE  or  tub  United  Statks  with  Buitisu  Guiana,  rtoH  Ootobsr  1,  1838,  to  July  1,  1866. 


ttmnilot- 

Kiporte. 

Import!, 

Whmor  Uioro  wu  la  BuUlon 
and  Spoclo. 

TomucoaMnd. 

DodimUc. 

ForalgD. 

ToUI. 

Tolil. 

EiporUd. 

Imported. 

Amorican. 

Forolsn. 

8ept80,  1884 

1636 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

ToUI.... 

Sept  80,  1841 

9  mos.     im'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
June  SO,  1844 

1848 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1860 

ToUI.... 

June  80,  1851 

1858 

1868 

1864 

1866 

1866 

•lo^2u 

64,248 
106,076 

42.886 
14^5S3 

84,906 
118,896 

1523 
218 
638 

•10^2t4 
64,348 

105,076 
42,885 

146,064 
86,124 

119,434 

•31,434 
^696 
92,019 
6,344 
86,048 
14,316 
10,978 

;::: 

•460 
198 

1,110 

M88 
21,200 

3,716 
10,100 

81988 
6,611 
4,113 
6,999 
4,892 
6,849 

"680 
749 
498 

1,763 
278 

1,283 

t016,7Sl 

1881,833 
116,901 
116.146 
807,053 
416,867 
661,668 
631.908 
695,114 
662,316 
602,776 

»1,278 

11,269 
2,462 
696 
2,1*4 
1.881 
l,6»t 
1,816 
1,366 
8,769 

92.668 

•618,029 

•882,601 
118,458 
116,840 
809.316 
418,748 
668,803 
628,719 
606,479 
666,074 
62^489 

•196,513 

•18,228 
16,004 
48,043 
9,886 
7,957 
12,661 
19,196 
34,264 
25,890 
14M1 

•ijsoo 

•41,811 

•10,767 

12,906 

41,816 

7,808 

4,900 

1,475 

18,026 

12,308 

4,679 

600 

81,890 

8,837 
^884 
6,146 
10,470 
19,826 
17,701 
18,493 
16,141 
15,064 
11.643 

6,046 

1,618 
3,946 
2,094 
2,868 
2,801 
8,664 
1,848 
1,336 
1,678 
2,637 

|4,>71,163 

1640,564 
743,986 
798,841 
718,096 
824,119 
871,766 

889,728 

•8,734 
18,381 
88,868 

1,168 
818 

8,497 

•4,810,891 

•644,288 
780,667 
887,704 
719,249 
824,989 
876,263 

•189,667 

•44,313 
43,943 
64,633 
47,488 
107,180 
161,574 

•23,800 

•eiirro 

32,600 

•108,678 

•H824 
28,000 

1,974 

68,477 

3,000 

,117,181 

12,001 
12,128 
14,426 
13.131 
18,611 
13,571 

84,008 

4,220 
3,712 
3.181 
3,161 
1,982 
8,828 

An  export  duty  is  charged  In  the  ports  of  these  col- 
onies on  their  staple  productions.  Both  in  Honduras 
and  British  Guiana,  American  vessels  enjoy  ail  the 
privileges  extended  to  the  vessels  of  the  most  favored 
nation ;  and,  as  the  following  tables  for  1864  and  1853 
will  show,  American  commeroe  is  generally  on  the  In- 


crease. In  1864  the  United  States  imported  fh>m  Hon- 
duras :  Indigo  (41,889  pounda),  valued  at  $34,842 ; 
mahogany,  $88,459 ;  dye-wood,  $11,678 ;  hides,  $8706; 
black  pepper,  $1055.  '  A  total  of  $137,740,  or  nearly 
one  half  of  the  entire  imports  from  thia  colony  for  that 
year.    From  Britbh  Guiana,  the  leading  Imports  ia 


ralgn. 


278 


1,618 
9,946 
2,094 
1,868 
i,801 


1,226 
1,578 
t,587 
1,068 


iHon- 
4,842  i 
^8706; 
oesrljr 
>Tth«t 
irts  is 


QUI 


18M  w*M  o.d  and  tcnp  iron,  coppar,  brftM,  hidai, 
•ugar,  and  rum,  amounting  to  noarly  ^,000,  of 
which  coppar  alone  reached  tlA,616.  Damarara  con- 
tains a  population  of  74,922  whites  and  frea  blacks. 
Berblce  contains  a  population  of  21,680,  of  whom 
31,000  are  ftae  blaolu. 

The  following  comparatlva  statement  exhibits  the 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  the^two  colonies, 
Demerara  and  Barbioe,  of  which  British  Qnlana  is 
composed: 


Imports  from  the  U  Biatos 

ExporU  to  the  U.  BUtes. , 

Balance  In  fltvor  of  the 

United  States 

Total  tiado  between  the 
V.  S.  4t  Brit  Oalana 


1887,704 
64,888 


1778,171 


•901,987 


1719,149 
47,489 


1671,760 


$766,788 


|8M,981 
107,180 


1717,761 


1982,112 


The  following  table  will  show  the  comparative  im- 
portance of  the  trade  of  the  three  Ouianas  with  the 
United  States  during  the  year  ending  June  80,  1866 : 


■MTMID  IRTO  V.  t. 

OLBABBD  noU  IT,  M.\ 

VaiMll. 

Tont. 

VaiMli. 

Tuna. 

British  Oulana 

9 

4 
1 

1,246 
701 
191 

28 
8 

8,888 
668 

Dutch        **     

French      "     

Dvtch  Guiana. — Dutch,  or  Surinam,  lies  between 
British  and  French  Guiana,  being  separated  from  the 
former  on  the  west  by  the  River  Corentyn,  and  from 
the  latter  on  the  tast  by  the  Maioni ;  on  the  north  it 
has  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  south  Brazil.  It  lias  be- 
tween latitude  1°  80'  and  6°  north,  and  longitude 
53°  30'  and  67°  80'  west,  being  about  800  miles  in 
length,  from  north  to  south,  and  260  in  extreme 
breadth.  Area,  about  38,500  square  miles.  In  phys- 
ical geography,  climate,  productions,  etc.,  it  differs  but 
little  from  British  Oulana.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Surinam,  which  flows  northward  through  the  centre  of 
the  terrjtor}',  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  after  a  course 
of  nearly  800  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large  ships 
for  about  four  leagues  ttom  its  mouth.  Along  the 
coast,  and  on  the  banlu  of  the  river,  are  many  settle- 
ments and  plantations ;  and  the  higher  partd  of  the 
country  are  occupied  chiefly  by  the  Maroons,  the  de- 
scendants of  runaway  negroes.  In  the  last  century 
they  were  very  troublesome  to  the  colonists,  but  they 


^i!-  GUI 

have  now  adopted  mora  settled  habits.  Slarary  liM 
been  recently  aboliaheil  here  by  the  Dutch  govern- 
mant,  hnt  in  lieu  of  compensation,  the  slaves  remain 
apprenticed,  and  work  without  wages  to  their  proprie- 
tors for  12  years.  The  colony  is  ruled  by  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a  council  elected  by  the 
freeholders.  Justice  Is  administered  by  a  supreme 
court,  courts  of  minor  Jurisdiction,  and  a  court  of  in- 
heritance and  orphans.  Tho  receipts  in  1850  amounted 
to  ^£89,486 ;  the  expenditure  to  £85,664.  On  278  planta- 
tions, consisting  of  866,648  acres,  48,815  acres  wera 
under  cnltivation.  The  chief  productions  are  sugar, 
rum,  molasses,  coffee,  cacao,  and  cotton.  Its  chief 
trade  is  with  Holland.  Imports,  in  1861,  £171,806; 
exports,  £286,162.  At  the  close  of  1850,  the  colony 
■umbered  61,080  inhabitants— of  whom  12,401  were 
Europeans  and  Creoles,  8000  bush  negroes,  1000  In- 
dians, and  80,679  slaves.  Of  the  religions  sects,  the 
Moravians  amounted  to  17,988,  and  the  Jews  to  about 
680.  The  live  stock  consisted  of  168  horses,  69  mules, 
6564  cattle,  8156  sheep,  454  goats,  and  4664  hogs. 
The  army  consists  of  610  men  of  ^1  arms  ;  and  the 
navy  of  11  vessels,  chiefly  small.  Paramaribo,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Surinam, 
about  10  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  built  in  the 
Dutch  style,  with  wide  and  straight  streets,  planted 
with  orange-trees ;  and  the  houses  are  generaliy  two 
stories  in  height,  and  built  of  wood.  Population 
about  20,000.  A  little  north  of  the  town  is  the  fort 
of  Zeelandia,  where  the  governor  resides,  and  where 
are  also  most  of  the  government  establishments. 

Surbium  was  declared  a  free  port  by  proclamation 
dated  May  1,  1848.  Accounts  are  kept  in  doUare  of 
8  reals,  or  50  stivers  (100  cents),  and  in  pounds  ster- 
ling. Exchange  on  London,  $4  80  to  $4  85  per  pound 
sterling.  Aves  island,  one  of  the  leeward  group  of 
the  West  Indies,  between  15°  and  16°  north  latitude, 
iMlongs  to  the  Dutch  government.  In  the  year  1854 
extensive  deposits  of  guano  were  discovered  on  the 
island  of  Aves,  by  two  American  ship  captains,  but  we 
do  not  as  yet  learn  that  any  shipments  have  been  made 
from  it.  Coffee,  the  product  of  a  possession  of  the 
Netherlands  direct  from  such  possessions,  or  from  the 
Netherlands,  imported  into  the  United  States  in  a  ves- 
sel of  the  Netherlands,  is  admitted  free  of  doty,  under 
the  treaty  of  August  26, 1852, 


CoMiuBca  or  m  UxrriD  Statxs  with  Dutcb  Ouiani,  raoH  Ootobeb  1,  1882,  to  Jdlt  1,  1856. 


Ymti  sDdtDir 

EipoTti. 

iRiporti, 

WbatMf  llura  wh  Id  BuUIos 
ud  Spade, 

Tonnage  Cleared. 

DonMitle. 

Foreign, 

Toul, 

Toul. 

Exported,          Imported. 

American.  ;    Foreign, 

Sept  80,  1888 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total,... 

Sept  80,  1841 

1841 

9  mo*.     1848 

June  80,  1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1880 

Total,,.. 

JaneSO,  1881 

1862 

1888 

1864 

1885 

1986 

t93,6l6 
27,228 
30,205 
59,815 
64,618 
68,776 
58,868 
.62,118 

•2;860 
1,.V96 
2,078 
2,808 

•92,515 
27,238 
80,206 
61,676 
66,113 
70,843 
61,666 
62,118 

•49,826 
67,579 
31,420 
83,471 
44,976 
64,354 
49,008 
87,766 

!!!! 

•1.744 
1,286 

"200 

8!8»4 
10,106 
6,378 
4,718 
6,637 
6,729 

2,i77 
76 

»448,687 

»    187,900 

101,066 

24,680 

66,930 

47,787 

66,846 

48,840 

11^501 

104,013 

97,014 

•8,881 

•ijw 

1,872 
1,189 
888 
1,517 
52 
5,426 

•462,368 

•87,900 
101,066 
24,680 
71,772 
49,609 
67,934 
44,228 
117,018 
104,066 
102,439 

•867,9V0 

•85,793 
74,764 
82,588 
49,144 
41,847 
88,674 
69,866 
51,297 
68,281 
71,048 

.... 

•8,180 

•400 

2,678 

276 

!!!! 

416 
1,418 

41,962 

5,496 
6,464 
8;066 
7,363 
6,740 
4,610 
4,381 
5,958 
6,369 
4,982 

2,263 
117 

"817 

1,000 

864 

•706,566 

•88.491 
88,962 

108,389 
58,746 

287,968 

818,661 

•16,186 

•5,682 
7,282 

17,694 
7,678 

10,648 
7,856 

•720,760 

•91,073 
91,284 

126,088 
61,423 

248,006 

821,616 

•607,281 

♦89,673 
66,733 
180,681 
104.286 
206,688 
262,793 

•i2,66o 

•6,087 

22,145 
8,162 

53,269 

4,027 
6,262 
6,218 
3,927 
6,114 
6,610 

1,798 

624 
944 
402 
180 

"MB 

This  colonial  territory  of  Holland  comprises  an  area 
of  10,400  square  miles,  and  contains  a  population  of 
nearly  6&,(M)0  souls.     Its  chief  products  are  sugar, 


coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  rice,  capara,  fine  woods,  gums, 
drags,  timber,  and  molasses ;  the  last  ranks  next  to 
sugar  in  value  as  an  export.    The  quantity  of  sugar 


1^ 


cm 


012 


wn 


Mmnally  •zpottod  if  lUtod  at  aboBt  36,000,000  poundi, 
•Bd  of  coflbe  at  abont  4,000,000  poundi. 

The  annual  average  production  of  the  leading  ita- 
plea  of  thii  colony  ai«  thus  given  t  Sagar,  28,018,168 
Iba. ;  coffee,  1,866,870  Ibi. ;  cocoa,  1&1,360  lb(.  |  cot- 
ton, 766,828161. ;  mm,  82,188  gall.  |  dram  (a  kind  of 
brandy),  227,96&  gaU.;  molaiaea,  1,210,468  gali.  An- 
nual average  valne  of  leading  staplei,  tl,600,000. 

The  value  of  imports  into  Dutch  Ouiana  in  1868 
•mounted  to  $810,474,  ihowing  an  increaae  over  the  im- 
ports of  the  preceding  year  of  $71,478.  Of  tho  total 
amount,  there  were  bom  the  Netherlands,  $460,482 ; 
flrom  the  United  States,  $178,286 ;  and  from  other 
countries,  $176,756.  Tho  exports  amountod  to  $1,812,- 
118 ;  showing  $101,268  increase  over  the  exports  for 
1862.  Of  this  sum,  $844,108  wen  sent  to  the  Nether- 
lands, $201,794  to  the  United  States,  and  $260,221 
to  other  countries.  The  principal  articles  imported 
into  Surinam  from  the  United  States  ara  salted  Ash, 
amountfaig,  in  1B68,  to  $68,892 ;  salted  and  smoked 
meat,  abont  $60,000  per  annum.  The  imports  into 
the  United  States  flnaa  Surinam  are  sugar  ($181,052  in 
amount  inl862),  molasses  ($68,888%  and  rocoa  ($82,026 
in  1868).  In  1868,  there  arrived  201  vessels,  measur- 
ing 86,868  tons.  Of  these,  66,  of  18,960  tons,  were 
under  the  Dutch  flag  |  and  21,  of  8196  tons,  American. 
In  the  same  year  them  olearaid  190  vessels,  measuring 
in  the  aggregate,  86,868  tons ;  of  which  66,  of  17,847 
tons,  were  Dutoh  ;  81,  of  15,150  tons,  American  ;  end 
the  others  under  the  English  and  other  flags.  An 
analysis  of  the  trade  of  Dutch  Guiana  shows  that  the 
United  States  has  about  one  fourth  of  the  whole  com- 
merce of  the  colony. 

f'tvnch  (ruiami  it  the  smallest  and  most  eastern  of 
the  three  colonies,  known  as  English  Ouiana,  Dutch 
Guiana,  and  French  Guiana.  It  lies  between  2°  and 
6°  N.  lat.,  and  61°  80'  and  64°  80'  W.  long.,  being 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the  Atlantic, 
east  and  south  by  Brazil,  and  west  by  Dnteh  Guiana. 
It  is  about  260  miles  in  length,  ftam  north  to  south, 
and  varies  in  breadth  from  100  to  160  miles.  Area, 
27,560  square  miles.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  200 
miles,  extending  from  the  Maroni  to  the  Oya- 
poc.  The  low  alluvial  tract  along  the  coast  is  of 
great  fertility.  The  mountain  chains  run  east  and 
west,  and  are  almost  wholly  of  granite,  but  do  not 
attain  a  great  elevation.  The  country  is  abundantly 
watered,  and  the  coast-lands  appear  to  be  less  un- 
healthy than  in  British  Guiana.  The  vegetation  of 
Ouiana  is  very  luxuriant,  and  the  interior  is  thickly 
CoMvasoa  or  thk  Unitrd  States  with  Fbrhou 


wooded  with  tree*  ralaable  for  their  timber,  fhnta, 
and  dye-woods.  Medicinal  plaato,  including  quassia, 
gentian,  th*  caetor^jil  plant,  and  araotto,  used  In  ool- 
oring  cheese,  ara  all  abundant. 

The  Island  of  Cayenne,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oyak, 
is  about  80  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  separated 
from  the  continent  by  a  narrow  channel.  The  road- 
stead at  the  mouth  of  the  Oyak,  though  small.  Is  the 
beat  on  the  ooaat,  having  everywhere  flrom  18  to  18 
feet  of  water.  The  capital,  Cayenne,  is  situated  on 
the  northern  side  of  this  island,  and  contains  6,220  in- 
habltanta.  The  new  town  is  well  built,  and  has  good 
streete;  the  government  house  is  in  the  old  town. 
The  harlmr  is  protected  by  a  fort  and  several  battarles. 
The  colony  is  divided  into  two  districta,  Cayenne  and 
Sinnamary,  and  14  commiines.  The  govemir^nt  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  a  privy  council,  and  a  co  onial 
council,  composed  of  16  members,  elected  by  t)  e  col- 
onists. The  cultivated  lands  are  estimated  to  be  about 
one  eightieth  of  the  whole  territoiy.  Besides  the  sta- 
ples of  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  ita  productions  com- 
prise pepper  (including  Cayenne,  which  is  so  called 
from  the  island  of  that  name),  cloves,  cinnamon,  and 
nutmegs.  Trade  Is  chiefly  with  France  and  ita  col- 
onies. In  1864,  the  official  value  of  the  imports  Into 
France  flrom  French  Guiana  was  £20,000;  exporta, 
£192,000.  The  French  first  settled  in  Cayenne  in 
1604  I  the  British  and  Portuguese  captured  the  colony 
in' 1809,  but  re8tore<l  It  to  the  French  in  1814,  in  whose 
possession  it  still  remains.  It  has  nX:enlly  been  mada 
a  place  of  banishment  for  French  political  oSienders ; 
and,  in  1852,  2,500  of  these  were  sent  out.  Popula- 
tion abont  22,000,  of  whbm  about  16,000  are  emanci- 
pated slaves. 

Cayenne,  sea-port,  town,  and  capital  of  French 
Guiana,  on  the  north-west  extremity  of  the  island  of 
that  name,  in  lat.  4°  66'  N.,  long.  62°  16'  W.  It  con- 
tains abont  600  houses,  mostly  of  wood,  and  is  divided 
into  the  old  and  new  towns,  the  latter  clean  and  well 
built.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  assize,  and  has  a 
handsome  chunh,  Jesuit  college,  government  house, 
and  several  large  warehouses,  lie  harbor  is  shallow, 
has  two  quays,  and  is  protected  by  a  fort  and  several 
batteries.     Popnktlon  about  6,000. 

French  vessels  from  Cayenne  in  French  Guiana  are 
admitted  into  the  ports  of  the  United  States  on  equal 
terms,  as  to  duty  and  tonnage,  with  vessels  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  when  direct  from  Guiana,  either 
in  ballast  or  with  articles  the  growth  or  manufacture 
of  that  country'. 
QviJOA,  raoH  OcToBsa  1,  1883,  to  JnLT  1,  1886. 


TwntMlat 

EiporU. 

,   ,            Wli«north<rawuliiBallloii 

toporti.                       »d8p«l.. 

ToDMgt  ClNrad. 

DomMUe.     1      Fonlsii. 

ToW. 

TotaL 

Bl(*rt. 

Inpon. 

AlMriMI. 

Foreign. 

Sept  80,  1888 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1988 

1889 

1840 

Total.... 

BeptSO.  1841 

1843 

Imos.      1848 

June  80,  1844 

1845 

1S46 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1880 

Total.... 

June  80, 1651 

1861 

1888 

1884 

1866 

18M 

(4,698 
1,488 

1,648 

(ioo 

(1,698 

1,488 

8,488 

V,64S 
100 

(6^01 

(988 

Mil 

8,600 
1,906 
1,806 
1,915 

*  *  *  * 

(18,807 

(45.988 
44,068 
4^874 
86,000 
67,081 
80,270 
68,287 
48,787 
46,161 
48,408 

(100 

(840 
1,080 

1,088 
444 
8,181 
1.990 
1,684 

1,881 

IlilliBli  1 

(8,801 

(5^416 
60,171 
44,411 
18,188 
89^06 
71,196 
47,778 
68,(88 
18,417 
11,681 

(988 

(18,691 
18,797 
8,700 
1467 
6,600 
8,000 
7,400 
19,741 
8,720 

1,657 

1,611 

787 

8,881 

1,808 
1,717 
1,461 
1,884 

■■289 

■■'89 

98 

(484,818 

(48,698 
64,747 
64,886 

100,148 
78,668 

148^)98 

(10,084 

(616 
1,178 
1,104 
685 
1,96« 

(4(4,847 

68,489 
100,888 

80,618 
148,098 

(463,668 

82^438 
17,717 
89,618 
8,646 
17,14T 

■  ••« 

(101,817 

(11,000 
7,486 
7,100 

'%/m 

16,191 

16,486 
1,788 

896 

GUI 


»18 


QUI 


1 1 


89 


8M 


A  dacN*  of  th«  Franob  gevaniiMnt,  Inmd  In  1833, 
•nd  contiauMt  by  a  dacn*  of  tho  govnnor  of  tlu 
eolony,  dated  th*  38d  of  Docsmbcr,  1888,  glvM  u  ad- 
Vutef*  to  Franch  good*  ihlpped  dlnctl/  from  Fnnob 
pocte  ia  Fiaaeb  vaHeli,  aiid  to  Fransh  Koodi  and 
product*  of  French  colonial  brought  in  Franch  vaaiali, 
orar  the  foreign  trade,  in  the  rata  of  dutiea  they  tm- 
poa*.  The  product*  of  the  colony  carried  to  Franca, 
in  French  veiieli,  have  alao  an  advantage  over  pro- 
ducti  oarried  to  other  oountriei  in  foreign  veHeli, 
The  only  dutiat  paid  by  French  or  foreign  toimI*  ra- 
mainlng  in  port  over  73  houra,  without  putting  out  or 
taking  in  any  cargo,  are  pilotage  and  fee*  to  the 
ouitom-houaa  guarda. 

Cayenne  is  the  moat  eaaterly  of  the  three  coloniei. 
It  extenda  along  the  coaat  from  the  River  Haronl  to 
the  Oxapuh,  the  boundary  of  BraxU.  It  liea  between 
a')  and  6°  N.  lat.  Ita  length,  flrom  north  to  loutb,  in 
3S0  mlUa,  and  the  breadth  varlea  from  100  to  IDO 
milaa,  compriaing  an  area  of  27,500  square  inllea,  and 
containing  •  population  uf  6,0S6  whites,  and  16,692 
blacka.  The  coaat  ia  an  alluvial  tract  of  great  fer- 
tility, and  the  upland*  are  abo  very  fertile.  There 
are  upward  of  twenty  river*  of  tolerable  sixe,  wHIoh 
are  navigable,  from  80  to  60  mile*,  for  amall  craft. 
About  one  eighth  part  of  the  aurfaoe  la  occupied ;  the 
remainder  ia  left  to  Indiana  and  wild  beaaU.  The 
artlclea  cultivated  ar*  the  augar-cane,  coffee,  cotton, 
cocoa,  clovea,  annotto,  pepper,  cinnamon,  nutmeija, 
oom,  etc.  There  are  about  40  large  eatabliihmenta 
for  the  manufacture  of  angar,  and  about  60  sugar- 
milla,  most  of  which  are  workeid  by  steam.  The  im> 
porta  are  chiefly  from  France,  being  about  2,675,000 
franca  in  value.  The  import*  from  other  countrle* 
amount  to  about  660,000  franca.  The  exports  are  of 
th*  value  of  8,128,000  franca,  and  are  nearly  all  ship, 
ped  to  Franca.  About  40  French  vessels,  of  the  ag- 
gregate burden  of  7000  tons,  usually  enter,  and  about 
the  same  number  clear  from  Quiana  every  year.  Some 
20  or.80  foreign  vessels  enter  and  depart  each  year. 
These  statistics  are  not  exact,  but  probably  approxi- 
mate nearly  enough  for  practical  legislation  in  refoN 
ence  to  them. 

GhlUd  (from  the  Saxon  guildan,  to  pay),  signiAe*  a 
fhUemity  or  company,  because  every  one  waa  gildare, 
that  is,  had  to  pay  something  toward  tlie  charge  and 
support  of  the  company.  A*  to  the  origin  of  guilds 
or  companies  in  Britain,  it  was  a  law  among  the 
Saxons  that  every  freeman  of  fourteen  year*  of  age 
ehould  And  sureties  to  keep  the  peace,  or  be  com- 
mitted. This  led  to  the  formation,  among  neighbors, 
of  associations,  each  consisting  of  ten  families,  which 
became  bound  for  one  another,  either  to  produce  him 
who  committed  an  offense,  or  to  make  satisfaction  to 
the  injured  party ;  and  that  they  might  the  better  do 
this,  they  raised  a  sum  of  money  among  themselves, 
which  they  put  into  a  common  stock,  and  when  one 
of  their  pledges  had  committed  an  offense,  and  fled, 
then  the  other  nine  mode  satisfaction  out  of  this  stock, 
by  payment  of  money,  according  to  the  offense.  Be- 
cause this  association  consisted  of  ten  families,  it  waa 
called  a  dectnarj/ ;  and  hence  arose  other  kinds  of  fra- 
ternities. Bnt  as  to  the  precise  time  when  these  guilds 
had  their  origin  in  England  there  is  nothing  certain  to 
be  found ;  since  they  wore  in  use  long  before  any  for- 
mal license  was  granted  to  them  for  such  meetings. 
It  seems  to  have  been  about  the  close  of  the  11th 
century,  according  to  Anderson  {llittory  of  Commerce, 
vol.  i.,  p.  70),  that  merchant-guilds,  or  fraternities, 
which  were  afterward  styled  corporations,  came  first 
Into  general  use  In  many  parts  of  Europe.  Madox 
(Firma  Burgi,  chap.  I.,  sect.  0)  thinks  they  were  hardly 
known  to  our  Saxon  progenitors,  and  that  they  might 
probably  have  been  brought  into  England  by  the  Nor- 
mans, although  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  very 
nomeroua  in  those  days.  The  French  and  Normans 
ni^  perhaps  have  borrowed  them  from  the  free  citiea 
Umk 


of  Italy,  wh«r«  trad*  and  manafaotOM*  .touiiahad  at 
a  much  earlier  period,  and  whare  snch  eonuanaitia* 
appear  to  have  been  first  in  na*.  The**  guUda  ait 
now  companki  or  a**ooiationi  having  law*  and  oidan 
made  by  themielvea,  In  virtu*  of  authority  flrom  th* 
prince  to  that  effect.     See  Uild, 

Guild  tu  the  royal  burgh*  of  Scotland,  la  atill  aaad 
for  a  company  of  merchant*,  who  ar*  fraanaa  of  tha 
burgh.  Every  royal  burgh  has  a  dean  of  guild,  who 
la  th«  next  nuigiatrata  below  tha  provott. 

Ouild,  Gild,  or  Geld,  i*  alao  uaad  by  ancient  wrltan 
to  aignU^'  a  compeniatlon  or  mulct  for  an  offenae. 

Qtliaca,  a  gold  coin  formerly  atruck  and  currant 
in  Britain,  and  ao  denominated  because  the  gold  of 
which  tha  flrat  apecimen*  were  atrnck  (lemp.  Car.  II.) 
waa  brought  from  tha  coaat  of  Guinea )  and  far  a  like 
reason  It  originally  bora  the  Impression  of  an  elephant. 
The  value  of  tha  guinea  varied  greatly  at  dlffaraat 
periods,  but  latterly  it  wa*  worth  21  ahilUag*.  It* 
weight  waa  6  dwts.  i)-412&  grs.  On  tha  latroduation 
of  the  tovtreign — first  coined  in  1817— th*  old  guiaa* 
coinage  waa  gradually  aupeieaded. 

OuinMt,  the  name  assigned  to  a  large  tract  of 
country  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  commonclag  at 
Cap*  Varga,  in  about  10°  N.  lat,,  and  terminating 
with  tha  Cameroon  Mountains  in  the  Gulf  of  Biaha, 
The*e  are  the  limits  more  commonly  given  to  what  ia 
called  Guinea;  by  aome  they  are  greatly  extended,  *o 
as  to  compriaa  tha  whole  of  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments south  of  the  equator,  under  the  name  of  Soath- 
em  Guinea,  while  the  coast  north  of  the  equator  i* 
called  Northern  Guinea. 

The  term  Guinea  is  not  of  African  origin,  or  at  least 
not  among  thoae  to  whom  it  la  applied.  There  Is,  ac- 
cording to  Barbot,  a  district  of  country  north  of  the 
Senegal  known  by  the  name  of  Genakoa,  the  iahablt- 
anta  (if  which  were  the  first  blacks  that  tha  Portu- 
guese encountered  in  their  exploration*  along  the 
coast  in  the  16th  century ;  and  they  applied  thla  nam* 
indiscriminately  afterward  to  all  the  black  nations 
which  they  found  further  south.  In  the  two  succeed- 
ing ceqturies  it  waa  applied  in  a  more  restricted  sense 
to  that  portion  of  the  coast  which  is  now  better  known 
as  the  Gold  and  Slave  Coasts ;  owing  to  the  fact,  per- 
haps, that  this  region  for  a  time  offered  a  larger  num- 
ber of  slaves  for  the  foreign  market  than  any  other 
part  of  the  country.  The  natives  here  acknowledge 
this  term  as  applied  to  themselves,  but  it  was  undoubt- 
edly borrowed  in  the  first  instance  from  the  Portu- 
guese, 

The  physical  aspect  of  the  i^uuntry,  as  might  be  in- 
ferred from  the  large  extent  Vi  o  have  under  consider- 
ation, is  very  variable,  but  is  characterized  every- 
where by  excessive  richness  of  natural  scener}*.  In 
the  region  of  Sierra  Leone,  Cape  Mount,  and  Cape 
'  Mesurado,  the  eye  rests  on  bold  headlands  and  high 
promontories  covered  with  the  richest  tropical  verd- 
ure. In  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Palmas  there  are  ex- 
tended plains,  slightly  undulating,  and  covered  with 
almost  every  variety  of  the  palm  and  palmetto.  On 
the  coast  of  Orewiss  the  countr}-  rises  into  table-land* 
of  vast  extent,  and  apparently  of  great  fertility. 
The  Gold  Coast  presents  every  variety  of  hill  and 
dale;  and  as  we  approach  the  equatorial  region  we 
are  sainted  by  mountain  scenery  of  unrivaled  beauty 
and  surpassing  magnificence. 

The  inhabitants  consist  chiefly  of  the  following 
tribes : — The  Vais,  the  Manou  or  Kru,  the  Kovakeras 
or  Avekroom,  the  Inta,  the  Dahomey,  Ashanti,  and 
the  Benin.  There  are  no  large  or  extended  political 
organizations,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the 
Idngdoms  of  Ashanti  and  Dahomey,  and  neither  of 
these  has  a  larger  popiilittion  or  greater  extent  of  ter- 
ritory than  the  smaller  kingdoms  of  Europe.  For  the 
most  part,  the  people  live  together  in  independent 
communities,  of  not  more  than  8  or  10  villages,  and 
with  an  aggregate  population  of  &om  2000  to  26,000 


VC;    ■_-a.^-:Lu>- 


mn^ 


mf 


QVh 


tf  M,QM.  In  Umm  AMbnal  tommantttM  tbi^  har* 
m  mltlM  (bflM  of  law,  bal  an  gor*ni«d  for  tha 
)  part  ky  eaf«aia  tradMooal  aMgat  thai  Imt*  baaa 
down  nroai  {MMrauon  t'*  ^auavatiiNit  ifoaU* 
Mooanky  b  tha  only  fbrm  of  goTMitmnt 
aahanyMgad  aaMmg  tliam  t  bM,  f  hm  eloaaly  leruti- 
■hwd,  tMr  inUiM  ttiow  nMMh  mora  of  tha  nopaUr 
aad  patriarcul  than  of  tbo  monarchical  aianMnl. 
Thay  ara  auaatlally  a  (lagan  ptople ;  bat  in  their  ■•• 
llglraa  Bottom  and  Idolatroni  worthip  thay  diflbr  rary 
■■ell  ftMn  each  othar.  Thar*  are  many  dacldad 
Iraoaa  of  tha  Jawiab  origin.  Amonr  thaaa  amy  be 
■paeMad  tha  rito  of  dromncMon,  whioh,  with  that  ax- 
eapthm  af  tha  Kra  or  Manoa  ihmily,  if,  wa  beliave, 
■nhrertal ;  the  dlrMon  of  the  trlbei  into  ftunlUea,  and 
la  ioma  eaaet  Into  the  number  of  It ;  bloody  ■aoriflcee , 
wHh  the  iprlnkltng  of  blood  npon  their  altart  and 
door-poite  t  the  obaanrattoa  of  new  moons  i  a  ftmnrf 
aad  tpaoMed  time  ibr  monmfaif  for  the  dead,  daring 
wbleh  parkd  they  thava  their  head  and  wear  tattered 
elolhest  demonjanl  peeeeieioni,  purlfleationi,  and 
Tarlont  other  niagei  of  pntable  Jewlih  oriifln. 

Raepeetbig  the  natural  product*  and  trading  eapa- 
blHtiea  of  the  eonntiy,  the  artielei  exported  coniiat 
ehiedy  of  ginger,  gum,  mendobi  (nuiiiea  gni'u,  * 
tpedes  of  Med),  palm-oil,  ioma  Wory,  a  wood  mttt  tor 

Sling,  called  camwood,  and  which  ii  worth  in  En- 
nd  about  £15  Meriing  a  ton.  V«>hIi  yiiiting  that 
eoait  take  on  board — it  Sierra  Leone,  or  on  the  ooaii 
of  Malagaeta,  between  Cape  Mewrsdo  and  OajM  Pal- 
mai  mme  Mack  aailon,  called  krumen,  who  ar*  of 
great  use  in  doing  the  heavy  work  on  board,  and  for 
boat  aervice ;  thus  (aring  the  European  feamen  from 
expciing  themMlrea  too  much  to  the  aun'i  rayi,  etc. 
The  earrlcei  of  these  krumen  are  recompensed  with 
two  or  three  pieces  of  cotton  cloth  per  month  each. 
Their  chief  food  Is  rice,  wh'ch  may  be  purchased  at  a 
vary  aheap  rate  on  the  coast  of  Malagneta ;  the  prioe 
of  a  "  km"  (a  meuure  of  capacity  weighing  about 
M  Iha.),  being  a  fltthom  and  a  half  of  cotton  cloth,  or 
any  other  artkle  of  proportionate  valne. 

On  the  coast  of  UalagoeU  (Grain  Coast),  tha  arti- 
cles received  principally  In  Iwrter  are  rice  and  millet ; 
also  ivory,  palm-oU,  and  camwood,  especially  at  Mon- 
rovia, tha  capital  of  Liberia.  At  Sierra  Leone,  the 
pepper-tree  (.called  malagueta),  is  cultivated  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale,  and  its  ftvit— -Guinea  pepper — after 
beittg  dried.  Is  purchased  In  large  quantities  by  the 
Aniarieans,  and  Imported  Into  the  United  States. 

English  muskets,  gunpowder,  rum,  and  tobacco,  are 
the  principal  articles  of  traffic  on  the  whole  of  the 
coast  as  far  as  Onim  at  the  bottom  of  the  Bight  of 
Benin. 

At  Jaqne  Lahoo  and  Jaqne  Jaqae,  two  considerable 
towns,  sttaated  at  the  extremity  of  the  biglit  formed 
by  Cape  Frimas  and  Cape  Three  Poiats,  commences 
the  trade  In  gold-dust ;  here  also  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  pdm-oii  and  some  ivory  are  found.  After 
passing  these  towns,  the  European  settlements  com- 
mence. The  flrst  are  Great  Bassam  and  Assine,  be- 
longing to  France,  and  situated  at  the  months  of  the 
rivers  of  tlie  same  names.  Five  leagnes  to  the  west 
of  Cape  Three  Points,  Is  the  small  Dutch  fort  of 
Axem ;  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  cape  Is  the 
English  port  of  Dick's  Cove.  From  Cape  Lahoo  to 
Acora,  and  to  all  the  Europesn  settlements  on  the 
coast,  tha  monetary  standard  is  the  "  ake"  (ackie)  of 
gold-dust,  whieh  weighs  iialf  a  dram  English,  and  Is 
worth  neariy  6s.  The  kru  on  this  part  of  the  coast  is 
almost  double  that  assigned  to  it  on  the  coast  of  Mala- 
gneta— avenging  £50,  more  or  less- 

Between  Dick's  Cove  and  the  castle  of  St.  George 
of  the  Mne  (0.  Jorge  da  Mina),  are  situated  the  tmall 
farta  of  Serunde,  Sanca,  and  Commando ;  after  which 
wa  eoma  to  the  Arat  large  European  settlement,  vis., 
the  castle  of  St.  George  of  the  Mine,  belonging  to 
Bnttaad.    The  oaatla  if  a  Portuguese  ttmetun,  and 


waa  fciMarly  the  MotI  ImpaHMl  af  tka  PoitogMM 
eatonlsa  an  this  aoaat.  Mast  t*  It  Is  Cana  Oeaat  Cas- 
tle, bahmglni  to  Rngtand,  and  titaaM  In  alghl  of  tka 
Armar.  Tha  neat  pUaa  Is  Annamabaa,  a  iinall  Kn- 
gllah  tort,  Airmariy  ahandonad,  hat  whan  for  soma 
years  past  trade  has  bean  again  hi  soma  dagraa  dara If 
oped.  To  thia  fort  saeeaad  atbara  In  ralna,  as  Wina* 
bah  and  Assam.  MUlat  Is  found  In  ahnndaneo  at  Ihasa 
plaeas,  aa  wall  aa  palm-oil  and  geM4Ml.  Proeead- 
Ing  along  the  eoast,  wa  oama  to  IIm  giMt  KngNth  set* 
tiement  of  Aaom,  where  there  ara  at  prstaat  two 
fortfaasee.  The  Arst,  that  of  Ht.  Jamas,  wai  bnllt  by 
them  many  years  shiaa  i  fha  saeand,  tNM  of  Ohilf* 
tianbnrg,  was  purchasstl  from  Deumarh.  lofctber  wMh 
all  Its  possessions  on  that  ooast.  In  tlia  year  IHAO, 
Than  follow  tha  small  settlamenis  of  NIngo  |  after 
passing  whioh.  Cape  St.  Paul,  a  llttia  to  tha  east  of 
Rk)  da  Volu  (••  Hatam  UWar"),  k  duublad. 

From  Cape  St.  Paul  to  OnIm  or  Images,  many  negro 
towns  or  vilUgae  ara  met  with  slatlanaii  along  tha 
coast.  These  oommunieata  with  aaoh  othar  by  meant 
of  the  lake  situated  at  no  groat  distance  Inland  tmm 
the  beaoh  |  and  then  tha  ford  eonvargai  to  Iha  prin- 
cl',^  points,  which  ara  Quita,  lN>po-paqneflo,  AJuiia,  - 
forto  Novo,  and  (>nhn.  Tha  trade  wbleh  formerly 
aonrishad  at  all  those  plaoaa  wa*  that  In  slave*  i  but 
for  some  years  past  that  In  palmmll,  or  tkif4m,  bat 
grsatly  davaloped  Itaalf,  the  qnantHy  prnduoad  amount-' 
ing-annually  to  mora  than  7000  Ions,  which  ara  ship- 
pe*]  to  England,  America,  and  Pranoa.  (In  this  sectlAn 
of  the  coast  there  are  no  Kumpean  aatabllahmenlf, 
properly  so  oslied ;  but  at  AJuda,  Porto  Novo,  and 
Onim,  there  are  factories  i  and  European*  are  also 
resident  in  the  country,  and  traffiii  with  vessels,  a* 
they  do  at  thoae  establlshmonU.  The  trade  of  tha 
Beaia,  Brass,  Bonny,  Calabar,  and  Cameroon  RIvtn,  ' 
Is  all  hi  palm-oil,  and  oarrlad  on  •xctutlvaly  by  tha 
English. 

Onlf  of  OhiiB*!.  Tha  Ontf  of  Guinea  fnrma  a 
oaldran  and  a  fttmace,  and  apreids  out  over  the  Sooth 
Atlanlio  aa  air-chamlxr  for  naatlng  ap  In  winter  and 
keeping  warm  tha  axtr»4rop;eal  region*  of  South  ' 
America,  Ever}'  traveler  has  remarked  npon  the 
mild  olimaU  of  PatagonU  and  tha  Falkland  Islands, 
"  Temperature  la  high  southern  latitudes,"  says  a  vary 
close  observer,  who  Is  co-operating  with  ma  In  oollsot- 
Ing  SMterials,  "  dtflhrs  greatly  ftom  tha  tamperatara 
In  northern.  In  southam  latltnd**  thert  laam  to  lia 
no  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  as  at  tha  north.  New- 
port, Rhode  Island,  for  Instanoa,  latHttd*  41°  north, 
lone^nde  71°  west,  and  Klo  Negro,  UtMuda  41°  wnth, 
and  longHuda  68°  west,  s>i  a  <iam|iarisoa  t  in  the  for- 
mer, cattle  have  to  be  stabled  and  fod  during  the  win- 
ter, not  being  aide  to  get  a  '-ivlng  In  tha  fields  on 
account  of  snow  and  lee.  In  th*  latter,  the  cattle 
feed  in  tha  fields  aH  winter,  ^her*  lieing  plenty  of  vea-  \ 
etation  and  no  use  of  hay.  On  th*  AlliUnd  Island* 
(latitude  61-M°  south),  thousand*  of  bullock*,  sheep, 
and  horsoH  are  running  wIM  over  tha  oottntry,  gather- 
ing a  living  all  through  tha  winter,"  Tlia  water  in 
the  equatorial  caldron  of  Guinea  can  not  aseap*  north 
—the  shore-line  will  not  permit  It,  It  must,  there- 
fore, overflow  to  the  south,  as  that  of  St.  Koqu*  does 
to  the  north,  carrj-ingto  Patagonia  and  tha  Falkland 
Islands,  beyond  60°  south,  the  winter  climate  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  on  our  tide  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  or  of  the  "  Emerald  Island"  on  th*  other,—- 
Maort's  /'Ay*.  Gmg. 

Oulf  of  Mexloo,  a  large  Indentation  on  the  east 
coast  of  North  America,  wathlng  tha  shores  of  tha 
United  States  and  Mexico,  maaaaring  about  lOUO  mile* 
from  east  to  west,  and  890  miles  from  north  to  south  t 
estimatiid  area,  800,000  square  mil**.  It  I*  partly 
formed  by'the  projection  toward  each  other  of  the  pen- 
Inrala*  of  Florida  and  Yucatan,  nearly  hi  •  Una  between 
which  lies  the  bland  of  Cuba,  leaving  a  uomfflunloa- 
tlon  on  It*  north  wHh  Iha  Atlantic,  through  th*  Fler> 


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Ida  Channel  and  on  Ita  south  irith  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
through  the  Channel  of  Yucatan.  The  Gulf  it  tnt 
from  banka,  and  containa  only  a  few  araall  rock}'  ia- 
lands  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan,  with  the  Florida  Reef 
near  its  eastern  extremity.  The  shores  are  low,  and 
generally  lined  with  flat  sandy  islanda,  not  far  from 
the  land,  and  numerous  lagoons.  There  are  few  har- 
bors ;  and  the  rivers  which  full  into  it  ara  obstructed 
by  lATa  at  their  mouth,  which  render  them  all,  except 
the  Mis'suaippI,  nearly  inaccessible  for  vessels  of  large 
draught,  k  current  of  water  entering  the  Gulf  (h)m 
the  Carlblwan  Sea  is  soon  divided  into  two  portions, 
the  one  running  east  along  the  coast  of  Cuba,  the 
other  west,  in  a  curved  line  through  the  middle  of  the 
Gulf,  round  toward  tho  Florida  Channel,  whera  it 
meets  the  other  current,  and  the  two  united  form  the 
Gulf  Stream  (see  Atlastic).  The  temperature  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  86°  in  summer,  and  6°  higher 
than  that  of  the  ocean  in  the  same  parallel.  At  high 
tide,  the  Pacific  rises  several  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Gulf,  and  at  low  water  it  falls  as  far  below  it. 

The  depth  of  the  marine  basin  which  holds  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is,  in  the  deejiest  part,  altout 
three  quartera  of  a  mile.  The  officers  of  the  United 
States'  ship  Albany  ran  a  line  of  deep  sea-soundings 
from  west  to  east  across  the  Gulf ;  tho  greatest  depth 
they  reported  wiis  about  6000  feet.  Subsequent  ex- 
periments, however,  induce  the  belief  that  the  depth  is 
not  quite  so  great.  AVe  should  therefore  have,  by 
stopping  up  the  channels  between  the  Gulf  and  the 
Atlantic,  not  a  sea-level  in  the  Gulf,  but  we  should 
have  a  mean  level  between  evaporation  and  precipita- 
tion. If  the  former  were  in  access,  the  level  of  the 
Gulf  waters  would  sink  down  until  the  surface  exposed 
to  the  air  would  be  just  sufficient  to  return  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, as  vapor,  the  amount  of  water  discharged  b}- 
the  rivers — the  Mississippi  and  others — into  the  Gulf. 
As  the  waters  were  lowered,  the  extent  of  evaporating 
surface  would  grow  less  and  less,  until  Nature  should 
establish  the  proper  ratio  between  the  ability  of  the 
air  to  taku  up  and  the  capacity  of  the  clouds  to  let 
down.  Tlius  we  might  have  a  sea  whose  level  would 
be  much  further  l)elow  the  water-level  of  the  ocean 
than  is  the  Dead  Sea. — Maury's  Pht/n.  Geog. 

Oulf  Stream.  There  is  a  river  in  the  ocean.  In 
tlio  aeverest  droughts  it  never  fails,  and  in  the  might- 
iest floods  it  never  overflows.  Its  banks  and  its  i)ot- 
tom  are  of  cold  water,  while  its  current  is  of  warm. 
The  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  its  fountai-.i,  and  its  mouth  is  in 
the  Arctic  Seas.  It  is  the  Gulf  Stream.  There  is  in 
the  world  no  such  majestic  flow  of  waters.  Its  current 
is  more  rapid  than  tho  Mississippi  or  the  Amazon. 

Its  waters,  as  far  out  from  the  Gulf  as  the  Carolina 
coasts,  are  of  an  indigo-blue.  They  are  so  distinctly 
marked  that  their  line  of  junction  with  the  common 
sea-water  may  be  traced  by  the  eye.  Often  one  half 
of  the  vessel  may  l>e  perceived  floating  in  Gulf  Stream 
water,  while  the  other  half  is  in  the  common  water  of 
the  sea  ;  ao  sharp  is  the  line,  and  su?h  the  want  of  af- 
finity between  those  waters,  and  the  reluctance  on  the 
part  of  the  Gulf  Stream  to  mingle  with  the  common 
water  of  tho  sea. — Maury's  Phi/n.  Geography. 

Various  causes  of  the  Gulf  Stream  have  been  as- 
signed. At  one  period,  the  Mississipiii  River;  but 
this  hypothesis  was  soon  exploded,  for  it  is  estimated 
thai  it  would  take  lOCO  such  rivers,  as  the  velocities 
of  the  river  and  Gulf  Stream  are  about  equal.  The  most 
plausible  hypothesis  yet  advanced,  and  the  one  which 
seems  to  ho  entertained  now  as  true,  is,  that  the  mo- 
tive power  is  due  to  tho  difl'erence  of  temperature  be- 
tween tlie  equatorial  and  northern  parts  of  the  ocean. 
This  dllTorence  would  give  a  cause  commensurate  with 
such  an  effect  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  is  the  only  one 
yot  advanced  where  the  cause  and  e ..  ct  approach 
equality.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  thia  is  but 
one  of  the  many  forces  lirought  to  bear.  The  forcea 
varying  from  the  potent  one  mentioned,  to  others 


"  light  as  the  nphyr."  And,  in  many  euea,  foiOM 
produced  by  the  Gulf  Stream  react  upon  it ;  as,  tnm 
the  difl'crance  of  tamperatura  of  the  north  and  south, 
aided  by  the  Golf  Stream  in  aome  caaaa,  aie  produced 
the  trade  winds,  ao  these  trade  whida  have  no  slight 
effect  upon  the  Gulf  Stream. 

To  form  aome  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  atrsam, 
we  can  take  a  croaa  aection  at  Cape  Hatteras ;  approx- 
imately, it  may  l>e  given  as  76  miles  wide  and  700  feet 
in  depth,  with  a  velocity  of  three  knots  an  hour.  The 
stream  incomes  smaller  in  its  program  north,  yielding 
portions  of  its  heat  on  its  way,  and  so  allowing  por- 
tions  of  the  stream  to  assimilate  with  the  rest  of  the 
ocean. 

As  the  Gulf  Stream  is  but  a  current  of  water  of  high 
temperature  from  the  south  to  the  north,  it  would  b« 
natural  to  suppose  its  course  would  be  from  south  to 
north.  This  would  l>e  the  case  were  it  not  for  the  ro- 
tation of  the  earth  to  the  east,  for  a  current  starting 
from  the  equator,  having  a  velocity  of  1000  milea  an 
hour  eaatward  in  common  with  the  earth,  when  ita 
current  reaches  latitude  60°,  when  the  velocity  of  the 
earth  is  only  250  miles  an  hour,  it  will  be  so  many  de- 
grees of  longitude  east  as  the  difference  of  velocities 
would  foroe  it,  minus  the  retardations.  This  would  Im 
BufHcient  to  explain  why  the  course  should  be  north- 
east, independent  of  the  effect  of  the  contour  of  the 
continent. 

The  course  and  dimensions  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
may  l>e  readily  seen  from  the  accompanying  chart  of 
Maur}''s,     (See  Plate  II,) 

The  amount  of  water  farming  the  Gulf  Stream,  and 
going  north,  must  \m  returned  into  the  fountain-head, 
the  seas  near  the  equator — and  ao  we  have  streams  or 
oceanic  currents  going  south  equally  as  important  in 
their  effect,  and  giving  as  interesting  phenomena,  but 
not  as  readily  observed,  because  they  ara  urufer-cur- 
rents,  and  not  as  appreciated  Itecauae  they  moat  afi^ct 
other  parte  of  the  world.  The  water  from  the  north 
flowa  to  the  south  in  many  comparatively  amall  under- 
currents, and  rises  to  the  surface  at  various  points, 
taking  for  their  general  course  the  African  shore,  and 
making  a  circle  uniting  with  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the 
Caribliean  Sea.  For  the  same  reason  that  the  course 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  is  north-east  the  returning  currents 
are  south-west. 

One  large  returning  current  crosaea  the  Gulf  Stream 
near  the  Banka  of  Newfoundland,  bringing  icebergs 
which  melt  in  contact  with  the  warm  stream.  The 
depoalts  have  formed,  and  are  forming,  the  Banks  of 
Newfoundland. 

The  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  like  the  distance 
of  the  fixed  atara,  can  lie  conjectured,  but  we  fall  as 
much  abort  in  one  conjecture  as  in  tho  other. 

Our  complaints  of  a  variable  climate  would  njt  be 
without  foundation  were  it  not  for  the  beneficial  influ- 
ence of  atreama  of  water  f;om  the  tropics,  giving  ns 
warmth  and  moiature;  making  the  climate  of  New 
York  in  winter  equal  to  a  place  in  a  latitude  10°  aouth, 
and  in  summer  giving  the  health  of  a  place  as  many 
degrees  north.     Maury  says : 

"  No  part  of  the  world  affords  a  more  difficult  or 
dangerous  navigation  than  the  approaches  of  our  north- 
em  coasts  in  winter.  Before  the  warmth  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  was  known,  a  voyage  at  this  season  from  Eu- 
rope to  New  England,  New  York,  and  even  to  the 
capes  of  the  Delawara,  or  Chesapeake,  was  many 
times  more  trj'ing,  difficult,  and  dangerous  than  it  is 
now.  In  making  this  part  of  the  coast,  vessels  are 
frequently  met  by  snow-storms  and  gales  which  mock 
the  seaman's  strength,  and  set  at  naught  his  skill.  In 
a  little  while  his  bark  liecomes  a  mass  of  ice,  with  her 
crew  frosted  and  helpless ;  she  remains  obedient  to  her 
helm,  and  is  kept  away  for  the  Gulf  Stream.  After  a 
few  hours'  run,  she  reaches  the  edge,  and  almoat  at 
the  next  bound  paaaea  from  the  midat  of  winter  into 
summer  heat.    Now  the  ice  disappears  from  her;  tho 


avu 


9i«; 


GUM 


MOlor  htOm  hU  itiffMMMi  UmlM  In  UtfUi  wtOtn )  fenlhii; 
kirawir  ln¥igonita4  »ii4  rwfrmlWMl  wKh  tli«  KonUl 
wannth  about  bim,  li*  nwlliMW  <mt  thrnt  ■(  Ma  the 
fkbla  of  Anteiia  swl  bl*  mothwr  K«rttt,  fla  riats  up 
•n4.  attempts  to  make  hU  fMirt  NKMin,"  And  though 
he  may  fall  again,  ha  alwaya  k««  the  »»twfl  wtoiirce. 
Nor  ia  this  all  I  it  affords  an  awe^H^nt  water  "  land- 
mark," an  enulda  sbora  itt  tha  nmniff,  nf(alnst  which 
BO  ship  Is  lost  I  liut  tfiviMtf  tU>MUt  linKltude  to  the 
storm-tssssd  roariiwr,  stid  witning  htm  that  land  Is 
near,  saves  him  often,  Cemttmim  UmU,  deflninK  It 
as  tha  InterchaRKe  of  i!omm»dlti«M,  is  h«lt  all  Imltatlnn 
of  tha  Gulf  Straam,  'fim  (M(  Ntretttn,  takhiK  the 
heat  of  the  tropics  ti)  i'n<  shivfrinK  tiMflhmt^,  and  the 
ieabargs  of  the  north  u,  tlis  favarisb  natlvo  of  the  tofrid 
■one— giTing  beat  to  soma,  f<»»d  to  fttbars,  and  In  some 
way  alfacting  all. 

OuiB«,  R«*in»,  OhtRprfffln*.  tn  oommeree, 
tha  term  i{uni  Is  not  only  «p)illad  to  gnm*  woporly  so 
called,  but  also  to  rasins,  aiid  ipinuf^finn,  Hut  thoiiKh 
these  substanoas  have  iHaiiy  t>rfiti«>rti«s  In  commnn, 
they  are  yet  suAiniantly  di«t(l«it, 

I.  Gim  is  a  thick,  transiwrant  fluid,  that  Iswes  spon- 
taneously trem  certain  »pa«l«»  of  (ilants,  paMlciilsrly 
such  as  produce  stona^^utt,  as  ptttm  Httit  ciiorrv-treeB. 
It  is  very  adhesive,  and  grmUittty  hardens  Iry  enpoo- 
OB  to  tha  atnuMpbara,  It  Is  nsHatly  ohtalned  In  dmall 
pieces,  like  Uars,  inodarittwi)'  hard  and  somewhat  Irfittle 
while  cold  t  so  that  it  ««n  Im  r«duc«d  liy  pnnmllnK  to 
a  fine  powder,  Wlwn  \mrit,  It  Is  colorleas  i  hut  It  has 
commonly  a  yelliiwiuli  tifia»  |  It  Is  mit  def^tltnte  of 
lustre  I  it  baa  no  small  t  its  tasta  Is  lttsl|di|  >  Its  speHflc 
gravity  varies  from  l'8l«l  te  l'4S17 )  It  readily  dis- 
solves in  water,  but  is  Insotttlda  In  atmhol,  Onm  Is 
eztenaively  usad  in  tha  «rt#,  pattlcidarly  In  calico- 
printing,  to  give  i>oniii»t«n«a  Ui  th«  colofs,'  and  to  hin- 
der them  from  BpraailinK,  It  is  nImi  Mwd  In  painting, 
in  the  manufsctura  of  ink,  in  ntwiifinx,  «t«, 

Tbe  only  im|)ort«nt  gUDis  In  a  ('omtnM'rIal  point  of 
view,  are  gum  Aralde  and  gtim  M«na^Hl  t  hut  Uo  is 
popuUrly,  thougti  im^afiaily,  rankwl  among  the 
l^ma.  f>  : 

1.  Gum  Arabia  (¥r,  tlmim»  ArMifUt ;  It.  Onmma 
Arabioa;  Oer,  Avablii'ht  ffiimmli  Arali,  Toth),  the 
produce  of  tha  Aeo»Ja  mra,  a  traa  ijfowinx  '"  Arabia, 
and  in  many  parts  of  Africa,  'I'lis  (jHt"  «)i«de«  natiirnlly 
from  tha  trunk-Md  lirant'has,  and  hsrdmis  l)y  expos- 
ure to  the  air,  •'1'ba  mora  sidkly  the  tfwi  appears, 
the  mora  gum  it  yields  (  and  Iha  hoWof  the  weather 
the  more  proliiiu  It  Is,  A  wat  winter  and  a  cool  or 
mild  summer  are  imfsvoralda  to  «iim,"-^JAf:KBos'« 
Morocco,  p.  84.  It  Is  in  irrsgHlHrly<«haped  pieces, 
hard,  brittle,  and  samMraniiitwrimt,  Whpn  pure  it  Is 
almost  colorless,  or  of  a  pala,  yellowish  hue  i  being 
insipid,  inodorous,  and  dl«s<dvlni(  (ximptetely  In  the 
mouth.  SpeciflE  gravity  J'fll  to  VM,  It  is  often 
mixed  with  gum  S<iii"K«I,  Kast  (»idl«  Kum  Afsliic  is, 
thouKb  a  useful,  a  spurt' <os  artlidf,  not  lielng  the  pro- 
duce of  tile  amitta  mm,  i.iit  of  othsf  sp^ples  of  pinnts. 
The  best  gum  Is  either  Imtiortt'd  dl«Mt  from  Alexan- 
dria, Smyrna,  'l'ri|»ill,  Mog/whira,  Tan«l«rs,  etc.,  or  at 
second-hand  from  titeni  tbroUKh  (lllirsltar,  Msltn.  and 
other  Italian  ports,  Tlia  prh"*  dn|wnds  princl|>ally  on 
its  whiteness  and  soluliiiil.y,  ImressInK  and  diminish- 
ing from  i,'l  Ifis.  ti)  i*  or  AM  per  «wt,.  accordinn  as  the 
article  has  moraorlasaof  (Itaseitnalltles,— TiIdmron's 
Di*pm»niitry  and  I'rmUn  /n/imntiiiim. 

The  Kgt/ptian  Hum  Amiih  Irtt  (AcwUt  r«v»)  which 
■(Tords  tlie  finest  gum  Ar/»lil«  of  fm»m«H\«,  Is  a  native 
of  tha  sandy  deserts  of  Aralda,  Ktfvpt.  and  the  west- 
«rn  u«rt  01  Asia ;  it  also  grows  ahnndantly  In  Hsrbsr)- 
and  other  parte  of  AfriiL'a,  psrtii'tilarlv  In  the  Atlns 
Mountains.  In  Mor<«'j/i,  or  iiaflMry,  where  the  tree 
is  csUed  AUiUh,  it  rises  to  a  Italght  of  several  feet, 
having  a  crookad  et«m,  I'ovarad  with  a  smooth,  gray 
bark,  wbila  that  of  the  I'rani'has  Is  of  a  yellowlsh- 
graen,  or  purpliah  ting"     At  tlw  h«M  of  the  leaves, 


there  are  two  opposite  awl-ahaped  spines,  growing 
nearly  erect,  and  having  a  slight,  glandular  swelling 
below.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  takes  a  good  polish. 
Its  seeds,  which  grow  in  a  hard  coriaceous  pod,  resem- 
ble those  of  the  lupine,  yield  a  reddiah  dye,  and  are 
used  b}'  tanners  in  the  preparation  of  leather. 

The  gum  exudes  spontaneously  from  the  bark  of  the 
trunk  and  branches  of  the  tree,  in  a  soft  or  nearly  fluid 
state,  and  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air,  or  to  the 
beat  of  the  aun.  The  more  sickly  tbe  tree,  the  mora 
gum  it  yields ;  and  the  hotter  the  weather,  the  more 
prolific  it  Is.  A  wet  winter  and  a  cool  or  mild  summer 
are  unfavorable  to  the  crop.  It  begins  to  flow  in  De- 
cember, immediately  after  the  rainy  aeason,  near  the 
time  of  the  flowering  of  the  tree.  Afterward,  aa  the 
weather  liecomes  hotter,  incisions  are  made  through 
the  bark,  to  assiat  the  exudation  of  tbe  juice.  Tbe 
gum,  when  new,  emits  a  faint  smell,  and  when  etowed 
in  the  warehouse,  it  may  be  heard  to  crack  spontane- 
ously for  several  weeks ;  and  this  cracldng  is  the  surest 
criterion  of  new  gum,  as  it  never  does  so  when  old. 
Several  kinds  of  gum,  yielded  by  different  treea,  are 
occasionally  to  be  mot  with,  but  that  which  is  com- 
monly substituted  for  it  is  brought  from  the  Island  of 
Senegal,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  is  called  "  Gum 
Senegal." 

The  Mattic  tree  {PUtacia  lentiicui),  is  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  the  Levant,  an(!  the  west  of 
Asia,  and  probably  could  be  cultivated  with  success  in 
California,  and  perhaps  in  some  parts  of  tbe  South. 
This  tree,  which  seldom  exceeds  12  feet  in  height, 
with  a  trunk  10  inches  in  diameter,  is  covered  with  a 
smooth,  brownish  b.irk,  and  produces  the  resin  known 
in  commerce  under  the  name  of  "  mastic."  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  various  parts  of  continental  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  Italy  and  Portugal. 

2.  Gum  Briluh. — ^An  excellent  artificial  gum  is  now 
largely  made  for  tbe  use  of  calico-printers  and  others, 
and  is  sold  under  the  name  of  British  Gum,  or  dextrine. 
It  is  made  by  roasting  starch,  and  tbe  manufacture  is 
very  skillfully  conducted ;  starch  has  hence  risen  in 
manufacturing  importance,  wliile  giim  Arabic  (a  much 
more  expensive  article)  has  been  to  some  extent  super- 
seded. Not  only  has  starch  become  thus  applied  to 
new  purposes,  but  the  starch  itself  is  obtained  from  a 
greater  variety  of  sources  tlian  heretofore.  The  old 
customary  mode  has  been  to  obtain  starch  from  wheat 
or  other  grain,  by  a  process  of  fermentation,  which  is 
not  applicable  to  rice  ;  but  excellent  starch  is  now  o1>- 
tained  from  rice  and  from  sago,  by  improved  chemical 
methods,  and  the  starch  is  bleached  to  a  degree  of, 
great  purity, 

8.  Oiim  Senegal,  principally  brought  from  the  island' 
of  that  name  on  the  const  of  Africa,  is  obtained  from 
various  trees,  but  chiefly  from  two,  one  called  Vereck, 
which  yields  a  white  gum ;  the  other  called  Kehuel, 
which  yields  a  red  gum  ;  varieties  of  the  acacia  gum- 
mi/era.  Gum  Arabic  is  very  often  mixed  with  gum 
Senegal.  The  latter  b  nearly  as  pure  as  the  former, 
but  it  is  usually  in  larger  masses,  of  a  darker  color, 
and  more  clammy  and  tenacious.  It  is  the  sort  of 
gum  principally  employed  by  calico-printers. — Thom- 
son's Chemitlry,  Thomson's  Dispenmtory,  Ainslie'r 
i/riteria  Indicii,  etc.  The  trade  in  gum  Senegal  is 
principally  in  the  hands  of  the  I''rench. 

II.  Iteiint,  for  the  most  part,  exude  spontaneously 
from  trees,  though  they  are  often  obtained  liy  artifi- 
cial wounds,  and  are  not  uncommonly,  at  first,  com- 
bined with  volatile  oil,  from  which  they  are  separated 
by  distillation.  They  uro  solid  substances,  naturally 
lirittle  ;  have  a  certain  degree  of  transparency,  and  a 
color  moat  commonly  inclining  to  yellow.  Their  taste 
is  more  or  less  acrid,  and  not  unlike  that  of  volatile 
oils ;  but  they  have  no  smell,  unless  they  happen  to 
contain  aome  foreign  body.  Thoy  are  all  heavier  than 
water,  their  specific  gravity  varying  from  1-0182 
1.1862.    They  differ  from  gums  in  being  insoluble  in 


.J...;,...::.. 


CIW* 


91^ 


GUN 


Wkter,  tr1l«tlMr  c«M  or  hot ;  while  the$-  »H,  with  ■ 
few  exceptiona,  solabla  In  alcohol,  especially  when  as- 
sisted b}'  heat.  When  heated,  they  melt ;  and  if  the 
heat  be  increased,  they  take  Are,  burning  with  a  strong 
yellow  flame,  and  emitting  a  vast  quantity  of  smoke. 
Common  rotin  famishes  a  very  perfect  example  of  a 
resin,  and  It  is  from  this  substance  that  the  whole 
genus  have  derived  their  name.  Rosin  is,  indeed, 
mqnently  denominated  resin.  The  principal  resins 
are  Ammi,  Elemi,  Copal,  Lae,  Labdanum,  Matiic, 
Roiin,  Sandarach,  Tacamahac,  etc, ;  which  see,  under 
their  respective  names, — ^Thomson's  Chmutry. 

Ill,  Cum-rcnfM,  a  class  of  vegetable  substances 
consistini;  of  gum  and  rasin.  They  differ  from  resins 
In  this,  that  they  never  exude  spontaneounly  from  the 
plant,  being  obtained  either  by  bruising  the  parts  con- 
taining them,  and  expressing  the  juice,  which  is  al- 
ways In  a  state  of  emulsion,  generally  white,  but 
sometimes  of  a  different  color,  or  by  making  incisions 
in  the  plant,  from  which  the  juice  flows.  The  juice, 
being  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  is  cunilcaseii 
and  Inspissated,  till  it  forms  the  gum  resin  of  com- 
merce. Gum-resins  are  usually  opaque,  or,  at  least, 
their  transparency  Is  inferior  to  that  of  resins.  They 
are  always  solid,  and  most  commonly  brittle,  and 
have,  sometimes,  a  fatty  appearance.  When  heated, 
they  do  not  melt  as  resins  do,  neither  are  they  so  com- 
bustible. Heat,  however,  commonly  softens  them, 
and  causes  them  to  swell.  They  bum  with  a  flame. 
They  have  almost  alwa}'8  a  strong  smell,  which,  in 
several  instances,  Is  alliaceous.  Their  taste,  also,  is 
often  acrid,  and  always  much  stronger  than  that  of 
resins.  They  are  usually  heav'er  than  resins.  They 
are  partiallj'  soluble  in  water,  but  the  solution  is  al- 
ways opaque,  and  usually  milky.  Alcohol  partially 
dissolves  them,  the  solution  tieing  transparent. 

The  most  common  gum-resins  are,  Aloes,  Ammonia, 
Euphorbium,  Galbanum,  Gamboge,  Myrrh,  OUbataim, 
Sagdpenum,  Scammony,  etc. ;  which  see,  under  their 
respective  names. — Loudon's  Ency.  of  Agriculture; 
Thomson's  Chemittry. 

Gum-tree  (Ifytsa  hiflora),  or  Twin-flowered  Nyssa 
— ^known  also  as  the  "rupelo-tree,  yellow  gum-tree, 
sour  gum-tree,  Peperidge-trcp,  wild  pear-tree — in  an 
uncultivated  state,  seldom  ri'ies  above  40  or  50  feet, 
with  a  trunk  15  or  20  inches  in  diameter.  The  tfysta 
bijtora  begins  to  appear  in  the  lower  part  of  New 
Hampshire,  where  the  climate  is  tempered  by  the 
ocean ;  and,  in  progressing  southward,  it  is  found 
most  abundantly  in  the  easterly  parts  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  But  in  Virginia  and 
Carolina,  it  Is  more  sparingly  produced,  and,  as  in  the 
north,  it  always  occurs  in  moist  ground  or  in  watery 
places. 

Tlie  K^sia  hijlora  holds  a  middle  rank  between  soft 
and  hard-wooded  trees.  When  perfectly  seasoned,  the 
sap-wood  is  of  a  slight  reddish  tint,  und  the  heart- wood 
is  of  a  deep  brown.  Of  trees  exceding  15  or  18  Inches 
in  diametor,  frequently  more  than  holf  of  the  trunk  is 
hollow.  The  ligneous  fibres  which  compoBe  the  body 
of  most  other  trees  are  closely  united,  and  usually  as- 
cend In  a  perpendicolar  direction.  Bnt,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  trees  of  this  genus  exhibit  a  constant  pecu- 
liarity of  organization — the  fibres  being  united  in 
bundles,  and  are  interwoven  like  a  braided  cord.  This 
property  gives  it  a  decided  superiority  for  certain  uses. 
In  the  parts  of  the  conntrj-  where  it  abounds,  it  is 
emploj'ed  for  the  naves  of  wheels  destined  for  heavy 
burdens.  It  is  also  employed  for  the  heads  of  the 
shafts  of  wind-mills ;  and,  sawn  Into  boards,  it  is  used 
for  lining  carts.  Wooden  bowls  are  made  of  it,  which 
are  heavier  than  those  made  of  the  tulip-tree  (£irio- 
dendroii),  and  are  less  liable  to  split.  From  the  irreg- 
ularity of  the  fibre,  the  "  gum-tree"  Is  not  admitted  as 
evidence  in  the  courts  of  Pennsylvania,  in  establishing 
boundaries  to  lands,  etc.,  from  t!  j  numtrar  of  years 
which  have  elapsed  since  the  trees  have  been  blazed. 


As  fuel,  this  wo«d  bams  slowly,  and  diffiuat  •  graat 
heat. — Bbownb's  Treei  of  America. 

Oun-OOtton.  Cotton  is  one  of  the  nmneroaa 
forms  of  lignlne,  a  compound  of  carbon,  oxygan,  and 
hydrogen ;  but  when  it  is  snl)jected  to  the  action  of 
nitric  acid,  nitrogen,  which  exists  In  most  explosive 
bodies,  enters  Into  its  composition.  The  action  of 
nitric  acid  on  lignlne  had  long  attracted  the  attention 
of  chemists ;  but  the  nearest  approach  to  the  formation 
of  gun-cotton  was  made  by  Pelouze,  who,  in  1SS8, 
writes  in  the  Compte*  Remdu»  of  the  properties  of  a  sul>- 
stance  named  Xylddine,  from  ^Xov,  wood,  discovered 
by  Braconnet  in  1888 :  "  It  is  very  combustible,  taking 
fire  at  866°  Fahr.,  burning  with  great  rapidity,  and 
almost  without  residue.  This  property  has  led  me  to 
an  experiment,  which  I  think  susceptible  of  some 
application,  especially  In  artillery.  By  plunging 
paper  in  nitric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1-6,  leaving  it  there  the 
requisite  time  for  the  acid  to  permeate  the  paper, 
which  is  usually  accomplished  in  two  or  three  minutes, 
then  withdrawing  it,  and  lastly,  washing  it  In  water, 
we  obtain  a  kind  of  parchment  impermealile  to  moist- 
nre,  and  extremely  combustible.  "  In  1846,  Sch<^n- 
bein  exhibited  to  the  British  Association  at  South- 
ampton specimens  of  cotton,  which  appeared  to  be  as 
explosive  as  gunpowder;  but  it  was  not  till  April, 
1847,  on  the  enrolment  of  the  patent,  that  the  method 
of  preparing  this  cotton  was  known,  although,  in  the 
interval.  Otto  of  Brunswick,  Morel  of  Paris,  and 
Bottger  of  Frankfort,  published  recipes  for  making 
explosive  cotton.  Schon'oein's  method  consisted  In 
mixing  three  parts  of  sniphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-85,  with 
one  part  of  nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-46  to  1-60 ;  and  when 
the  mixture  had  cooled  down  to  between  60°  and  60° 
Fahr.,  clean  rough  cotton,  in  as  open  a  state  as  pos- 
sible, was  immersed  In  the  acid ;  when  well  soaked, 
the  excess  of  acid  was  drawn  or  poured  off,  and  the 
cotton  pressed  lightly  In  order  to  separate  the  principal 
portion  of  the  acid.  The  cotton  was  then  covered 
over  and  left  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  was  pressed  and 
thoroughly  washed  in  running  water  to  get  rid  of  all 
free  acid.  After  being  partially  dried  by  pressure,  it 
was  washed  in  an  alkaline  solution  made  by  dissolv- 
ing one  ounce  of  carbonate  of  potash  in  a  gallon  of 
water.  The  free  acid  being  thus  got  rid  of,  It  was  pat 
into  a  press,  the  excess  of  alliallne  solution  was  ex- 
pelled, and  the  cotton  left  nearly  dry.  It  was  then 
washed  in  a  solution  of  pure  nitrate  of  potash,  one 
ounce  to  the  gallon,  and  being  again  pressed,  was 
dried  at  a  temperature  of  from  150°  to  170°.  It  was 
stated,  that  three  parts  of  the  gun-cotton  thus  pre- 
pared were  equal  in  force  to  eight  parts  of  Tower-proof 
gunpowder. 

Gun-cotton  has  also  been  employed  in  blasting, 
especially  on  the  Manchester  and  Huddersfield  railway 
in  Standedge  tunnel,  and  on  the  works  in  the  Stour 
Valley,  neur  Birmingham.  It  has  l)een  stated  that 
gun-cotton  produces  a  much  greater  effect,  weight  for 
weight,  than  gunpowder,  in  the  proportion  of  five 
to  one.  This  seems  an  exaggeration ;  bnt  the  disrup- 
tive eflTect  really  ueema  to  be  greater  from  gun-ootton ; 
and  as  It  gives  no  smoke,  in  oonfined  situations  the 
workmen  are  enabled  sooner  to  resume  their  work. 

Cotton  gains  considerably  in  weight  by  the  above 
treatment,  but  is  scarcely  changed  in  color  or  In  gen- 
eral appearance,  if  the  process  has  been  carefully  con- 
ducted ;  it  is,  however,  harsh  to  the  touch,  and  gives  a 
crepitating  sound  when  pressed  by  the  hand.  It  dif- 
fers from  common  cotton  bj-  Its  electric  excitability, 
the  slightest  degree  of  friction  causing  it  to  b«  power- 
fully attracted  and  repelled  by  other  bodies ;  and  also 
by  its  action  on  a  ray  of  polarized  light,  which  it  does 
not  depolarize  like  ordinarj'  cotton.  It  explodes  at  a 
temperature  of  from  850°  to  400°,  with  such  rapidity 
as  to  interfere  with  its  practical  application,  for,  if 
applied  to  the  purposes  of  artillery,  it  may  burst  the 
gun  before  it  has  tima  to  move  the  shot,  and  ioa.b  st 


li 


GUN 


018 


GUN 


the  products  of  its  ctmbastkni  m>ka  H  also  objection- 
able for  fir»4inns.  Among  these  products  water  may 
be  mentioned,  and,  should  not  the  cotton  have  been 
well  washed,  nitrous  acid.  Another  i^reat  impediment 
to  the  use  of  gun-cotton  in  its  hygrometric  condition, 
for  if  exposed  to  a  damp  atmosphere,  it  will  in  an  hour 
or  two  absorb  a  considerable  portion  of  moisture. 
Many  attempts  have  been  mode  to  apply  it  to  mining 
purp<  )es  on  nccount  of  its  enormous  force,  and  the 
small  quantity  of  smoke  which  it  produces ;  liut  the 
objections  tu  its  use  are  numerous,  the  most  fatal 
objection  beinj^  its  liability  to  spontaneous  ignition. 

Nevertheless,  gun-cotton  continues  to  be  an  object 
of  great  interest,  on  account  of  its  application  to  the 
beautiful  art  of  photography.  When  the  cotton  is 
prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  burn  slowly,  it  is  not 
liable  to  spontaneous  ignition,  and  in  this  state  it  is 
perfectly  soluble  in  sulphuric  ether,  which  the  more 
explosive  cotton  is  not.  If  the  etherial  solution  called 
coUodum,  be  poured  on  the  surface  of  cold  water,  a 
paper  is  produced  which  is  prepared  for  the  use  of  the 
photograplier.  This  paper  is  a  very  active  electric, 
and  is  perfectly  soluble  in  ether.  Collodion  has  also 
been  made  use  of  in  snrgeiy,  by  applying  the  ethereal 
solution  to  a  wound,  when  a  thin  delicate  artificial 
■kin  is  formed  by  it,  which  perfectly  excludes  the  air. 

In  the  preparation  of  gun-cotton,  nitric  acid  is  the 
active  agent  in  the  formation  of  xyloidine ;  the  sul- 
phuric acid  luu  no  direct  action  on  the  iignine,  its  use 
being  to  retain  the  water  abstracted  from  the  cotton, 
•nd  prevent  the  solution  of  the  compound  which  takes 
place  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  nitric  acid  alone. 
The  purit}'  and  exact  stren,<th  of  the  acids  are  matters 
of  great  importance.  Mr.  Hadow  found  that  the  best 
mixture  for  producing  collodion  wool  is  obtained  by 
mixing  89  parts  by  weight  of  nitric  acid,  »\>.  gr, 
1'424,  with  104  parts  by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  sp. 
gr.  1-833. 

On  trying  the  effects  of  various  re-agents  on  gun- 
cotton,  Mr.  Hadow  found  that  it  could  be  perfectly 
restored  to  the  original  cotton,  without  loss  of  form, 
by  means  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  hydro-sulphuret  of 
potassium.  On  this,  and  other  points  connected  with 
the  chemistrj-  of  gun-cotton,  we  must  refer  to  Mr. 
Hadow's  paper,  published  in  the  Trantactiont  of  the 
Ciemical  Society, — E.  fi. 

Ghinpowder  (Ger.  Puher,  Schieupulver;  Du. 
Btuhniid ;  Da.  Krudt,  Palver  ,•  Sw.  Krut ;  Fr.  Poudre ; 
It.  Polverti  Sp.  and  Port.  Polvora;  Bus.  Poroch  ;  Pol. 
Proek;  tM.  Pulvit  pyriut).  This  well-known  inflam- 
mable powder  is  composed  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  char- 
coal, reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed  intimately  with 
each  other.  The  proportion  of  the  ingredients  varies 
very  consiJeralilv ;  but  good  gunpowder  may  be  com- 
posed of  the  following  proportions ;  viz.,  76  parts  of 
nitre,  16  of  charcoal,  and  9  of  sulphur.  These  in- 
gredients are  first  reduced  to  a  Hue  powder  separately, 
then  mixed  intimately,  and  formed  into  a  thick  paste 
with  water.  After  this  has  dried  a  little,  it  is  placed 
upon  a  kind  of  sieve  full  of  holes,  through  which  it  is 
forced.  By  this  process  it  is  divided  into  grains,  the 
size  of  which  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  boles  through 
which  they  have  been  squeezed.  The  powder,  when 
dry,  is  put  into  barrels,  which  are  made  to  turn  round 
on  their  axis.  By  this  motion  tlie  grains  of  gunpowder 
rub  against  ^ach  other,  their  asperities  are  worn  off, 
and  their  surfaces  are  made  smooth.  The  powder  is 
then  said  to  l>e  glazrd. — Thomson's  Chemiitty. 

Dr.  Thomson,  whose  learning  is  equal  to  bis  science, 
has  the  following  remarks  with  respect  to  the  intro. 
dnction  of  gunpowder  into  warlike  operations ;  "  The 
discoverer  of  this  compound,  and  the  person  who  first 
thought  of  applying  it  to  the  purposes  of  war,  ate  un- 
known. It  is  certain,  however,  tliat  it  was  used  in  the 
fourteenth  centurj'.  From  certain  arcliives  quoted  l>y 
Wiegleb,  it  appears  that  oannons  were  employed  in 
QtnuBj  before  the  year  1872.    'So  liacei  of  it  «an  b« 


found  in  any  European  author  previously  to  the  thir- 
teenth century ;  but  it  seems  to  have  lieen  known  to 
the  Chinese  long  Iwfore  that  period.  There  is  reason 
to  lielieve  that  cannons  were  used  in  the  liattle  of 
Cressey,  which  was  fought  in  184C.  They  seem  even 
to  have  been  used  three  years  earlier,  at  the  siege  of 
Algesiros  i  but  before  this  time  they  must  have  been 
known  in  Germany,  as  there  is  u  piece  of  ordnance  at 
Amberg,  on  which  is  inscribed  the  year  1803.  liuger 
Dacon,  who  died  in  1292,  knew  the  properties  of  gun- 
powder ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  its  application  to  tire-arms." — Tuomson's  CAtnt- 
ittry. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  by  some  ascribed  to 
Bertholdus  or  Michael  Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of 
Goslar,  south  of  Brunswick,  in  Germany,  about  a.d. 
1320,  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  was  known 
much  earlier  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  say 
that  the  Chinese  possessed  the  art  a  number  of  centu- 
ries before.  Its  compositior,  moreover,  is  expressly 
mentioned  by  our  own  famous  Boger  Bacon,  in  his 
treatise  De  NuUilate  Magice,  which  was  published  at 
Oxford  in  1216 Haydn. 

Composition  oyCunpoicder. — The  present  composition 
of  the  Chinese  gunpowder  corresponds  so  nearly  with 
our  own  that  the  difference  is  nearly  insensible  ;  but 
whether  it  had  arrived  at  that  degree  of  perfection  in 
their  ancient  periods,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing. 
Neither  can  we  Judge  of  its  nature  and  power  as 
known  to  the  Arabs.  But  in  our  own  country  it  was 
late  in  arriving  at  its  present  state  of  perfection ;  nor 
do  the  various  proportions  given  by  one  of  the  earliest 
English  writers  on  the  subject,  argue  much  in  favor 
of  their  chemical  knowledge.  Peter  Whitehome,  who 
wrote  in  1573,  gives  numerous  proportions,  without 
seeming  to  be  well  aware  of  their  respective  values ; 
and,  respecting  some  of  them,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
they  wero  scarcely  fit  for  squibs,  much  less  for  the 
purpose  of  projecting  shot.  Such  is  nitre,  sulphur, 
charcoal,  equal  parts ;  while,  in  the  very  opposite  ex- 
treme, we  have  nitre  12  parts,  sulphur  and  charcoal, 
of  each  3  parts ;  and,  still  worse,  nitre  27  to  3  of  the 
other  two  ingredients;  or  nitre  48  parts,  with  7  of 
sulphur  and  3  of  charcoal.  Here,  such  as  these  com- 
positions are,  want  of  experience  can  scarce!}'  bo  plead- 
ed, as  they  are  not  better  than  those  given  by  Nye  in 
1380.  In  France,  also,  the  composition,  at  no  very 
remote  period,  was — nitre  60,  sulphur  16,  charcoal  34 ; 
from  which  it  varied  to,  nitre  67,  sulphur  18,  gharcoal 
20 ;  and  to  nitre  84,  sulphur  8,  charcoal  8  ;  these  dif- 
ferences being  supposed  to  be  necessary  for  the  larger 
cannon,  and  the  smaller  progressively,  the  lust  being 
their  musket  powder. 

But  as  we  can  not  afford  space  to  describe  the  grad- 
ual progress  of  improvement  in  the  composition  of 
gunpowder,  we  will  state  tlie  proportions  at  present  ii 
use  in  different  nations.  They  do  not  materially  differ 
from  each  other,  although  it  is  unquestionable  that 
they  are  not  all  of  equal  power. 


Nlira, 

Sulphar. 

Charcoft). 

Koyal  Mtlla  at  Walthsni  Abbey.. 
France,  NstlonsI  Establishment 

TS 
T6 

Te» 

68 

TS 

T5 

7878 

78 

76'4T 

T6 

78 

TS-7 

10 

lS-6 
9-6 

20 

12  S 

11-8 

12-63 

Ifl 

12-78 
9 

10 
9-9 

IS 

12-5 

13'& 

13 

Vili 

18-fl 

]8-fi9 

U 

10-78 

15 

14 

14-4 

French,  for  mining 

Ilnltcil  Suies  uf  America 

Prussia 

KussU  

Spain 

SwItMrland,  round  powder 

Without  any  knowledge  of  the  law  of  definite  pro. 
portions,  and  even  before  that  law  was  known  to  ex- 
ist, each  nation  had  experimentally  hit  upon  nearly 
the  best  proportions  of  the  three  ingredients,  namely, 
1  equivalent  of  nitre,  1  of  sulphur,  and  3  of  charcoal , 
Qr  76  per  cent,  of  nitre,  11-77  of  sulphur,  and  13-23  of 


GUN 


010 


GUT 


ehtteosl.  la  practice  the  proportioni  UMd  for  the 
manufacture  of  100  lb».  of  gunpowder  are — naltpetre 
77^-  lbs.,  eulphur  10|  lbs.,  charcoal  16  lbs.  =~  104  lbs., 
the  extra  4  lbs.  bring  allowed  for  waste. 

The  proportions  in  the  commercial  gunpowder  vary 
indetinitely,  according  to  the  views  of  the  manufac- 
turer res|)ecting  the  marlcets,  the  price,  and  other 
matters.  Cheapness  being  the  leading  object  where  it 
is  only  made  for  sale,  and  the  nitre  lieing  the  only  ex- 
pensive article,  the  proportion  of  this  is  diminished, 
and  those  of  the  other  two  ingredients  increased.  We 
have  uever  met  with  any  specimen  in  which  there  was 
less  than  (>2  of  nitre  ;  but  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  some  of  the  inferior  kinds  do  not  contain  more 
than  50.  For  the  use  of  miners  it  is  also  made  with  a 
low  proportion  of  nitre,  producing  advantages  in  min- 
ing not  intended  by  the  malceTs,  whose  only  oliject  is 
to  manufacture  a  cheap  article.  But  the  proportions 
of  all  the  commercial  powders  are  very  inconstant, 
even  when  furnished  bona  Jide  to  the  government. — 
£.  U. 

Ounny  (Hind.  Tdl;  Ben.  Gutti),  a  strong  coarse 
sackcloth  manufactured  in  Bengal  for  making  into 
bags,  sacks,  and  packing  generally,  answering  at  once 
the  two  purposes  for  which  canvas  and  bant  are  used  in 
Europe.  Tlie  material  from  which  thii  article  is  manu- 
factured is  tho  libre  of  two  plants  of  the  genus  Cor- 
chorus ;  viz.,  Cirrdiorua  olitoriua,  and  Corchorut  cap- 
su/aru  (Bengali  pa<);  both,  but  particularly  the  first, 
extensively  cultivated  throughout  Lower  Bengal.  Be- 
sides a  large  domestic  consumption  of  gunny,  the 
wliole  rice,  poddy,  wheat,  pulses,  sugar,  and  saltpetre 
of  tlie  country,  as  well  as  the  pepper,  coffee,  and  other 
foreign  produce  exported  from  Calcutta,  are  packed  in 
bags  or  saclu  made  of  this  article.  There  is  also  a 
considerable  exportation  of  manufactured  bags,  each 
commonly  capable  of  containing  two  niaunds,  or  about 
160  lbs.  weight,  to  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  Malacca, 
Singapore,  Java,  anil  Bombay.  In  1841-42  there 
were  exported  from  Calcutta  i),!)30,89!>  gunny  bags,  of 
the  value  of  499,426  rupees  (^£49,942),  and  Od,412  pieces 

of  gunny  cloth,  worth  483,321  rupees  (i:43,332) Wal- 

WOII,  Boxburg ;  Seview  of  the  External  Commerce  of 
Bengal  for  1841-42. 

Ouns  and  Fowliug-pieoes,  Three  European 
nations  are  distinguished  for  their  production  of  these 
arms — ^tbe  English,  Belgians,  and  French.  Small  arms 
for  war  and  for  the  chase  are  manufactured  at  Birming- 
ham, the  one  with  due  solidity,  the  other  with  refine- 
ment of  workmanship.  In  respect  to  Belgium,  Liiige 
is  the  Birmingliam  of  that  country,  and  manufactures 
guns  on  a  very  large  scale.  The  Belgians,  on  account 
of  cheapness  combined  with  good  execution,  sell  a 
great  quantity  of  small  arms  to  other  nations,  particu- 
larly to  Russia.  France,  for  the  manufacture  of  small 
arms  fur  war,  is  now  perhons  more  advanced  than  any 
other  nation.  St.  EtieQue  is  the  town  principally  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  muskets ;  but  Paris  pro- 
duces the  most  finished  weapons,  combining  all  the 
perfection  that  can  be  required  for  precision  of  firing 
and  beauty  of  ornament.  Sbarpe's  rifles  are  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States  in  large  numbers,  also  a 
variety  of  small  arms. 

QoJlter,  Edmund,  an  ingenious  English  mathe- 
matician and  iQachioist,  was  born  in  Hertfordshire 
alwut  the  year  1581.  He  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster, and  afterward  at  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated.  Tliough  he  took  holy  orders  in 
1614,  mathematics,  which  had  been  his  favorite  study 
from  his  youth,  continued  to  engross  his  attention, 
and  in  1619  he  was  chosen  to  the  chair  of  astronomy 
in  Gresham  College,  where  be  remained  till  his  death 
in  1626.  Of  Qunter's  written  works  the  chief  are 
his  Canon  Triangulorum,  a  table  of  logarithmic  sines 
ana  tangents,  extended  to  seven  decimal  places,  and 
forming  a  sort  of  complement  to  the  logarithms  of 
natural  numbers  by  bis  colleague  Brigg. 


Gunttr'i  Lint,  •  logarithmic  line,  astuUy  laid  down 
upon  scales,  sectors,  etc.  It  is  also  called  the  <hm  of 
line»  and  line  nf  numbert ;  being  only  the  logarithms 
graduated  upon  a  ruler,  which  therefore  serves  to  solve 
problems  instrumentaily  in  the  same  manner  as  loga- 
rithms do  arithmetically. 

Gunter't  QuadratU,  an  instrument  made  of  wood, 
brass,  or  other  substance,  containing  a  kind  of  stereo- 
graphic  projection  of  the  sphere,  on  the  plane  of  the 
equinoctial ;  the  eye  being  supposed  to  be  placed  in 
one  of  the  poles ;  so  that  the  tropic,  ecliptic,  and  hori- 
zon, form  the  arcs  of  circles ;  but  the  hour-circles  are 
other  curves,  drawn  by  means  of  several  altitudes  of 
the  sun  for  some  particular  latitude  every  year.  This 
instrument  is  used  to  find  the  hoiur  of  the  day,  the 
sun's  azimuth,  etc.,  and  other  problems  of  the  globe  | 
as  also  to  take  the  altitude  of  an  ol>ject  in  degrees. 

Guttier'i  Scale  (generally  called  liy  seamen  tho  Gun- 
ler),  is  a  large  plane  scale,  usually  2  feet  long  by  about 
1^  inches  broad,  and  engraved  with  various  lines  of 
numbers.  On  one  side  are  placed  the  natural  lines 
(as  the  line  of  chords,  the  line  of  sines,  tangents, 
rhumbs,  etc.),  and  on  tlie  other  side  the  corresponding 
artificial  or  logarithmic  ones.  By  means  of  this  in- 
strument, questions  in  navigation,  trigonometry,  etc., 
are  solved,  with  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  compasses. 

Ounwale  (pronounced  gunnel),  the  uppermost 
wale  of  a  ship  or  boat,  or  that  piece  of  timber  which 
finishes  the  upper  part  of  the  hull.  The  raised  work 
above  this  is  called  the  bulwark. 

Outenberg,  or  Outtemberg,  Johann  (whose 
real  name  was  Gensfleisch),  was  bom  at  Sorgenlocb, 
near  Mentz,  in  1397.  It  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  to  him  Is  due  almost  the  entire  credit  of  invent- 
ing the  art  of  printing  by  movable  types.  The 
respective  claims  of  Fust,  Gutenberg,  and  Schoeffer, 
are  fully  discussed  under  Fust. — E,  B. 

Gutenberg,  after  a  life  of  much  suffering  and  hard- 
ship, died  at  Menfz  in  1468,  in  great  poverty.  Pos- 
terity has  done  him  the  justice  denied  him  by  his 
cotemporaries.  The  statue  by  Thorwaldsen,  erected 
in  his  honor  at  Mentz  in  1837,  furnished  an  example 
which  has  since  been  followed  by  many  towns  in  Ger- 
many. The  Gutenlwrg  Society  keeps  his  name  in 
memory  by  an  annual  festival.  No  liooks  are  extant 
that  are  known  for  certain  to  have  been  printed  by 
Guten!^  rg.  The  famous  Mazarin  Bible,  Donatcs' 
Grammar,  and  the  Calholicon  of  Janua,  are  believed 
to  have  issued  from  his  press.     See  Printing. 

Outta  Fercba.  This  valuable  substance  has 
only  been  known  within  the  last  few  years.  It  is  the 
concrete  juice  of  a  large  tree  (Itonandra  gutla),  grow- 
ing in  certain  parts  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago — 
hitherto  chiefly  obtained  from  Singapore.  The  first 
specimen  of  the  inspissated  juice  which  appeared  in 
England  was  presented  to  tlie  Society  of  Arts  in  1848, 
but  two  or  three  years  elapsed  before  a  just  sense  of 
the  importance  of  the  substance  began  to  gain  ground. 
In  1846  the  importation  of  gutta  porcha  into  England 
amounted  to  only  20,600  lbs. ;  in  1848  it  had  reached 
3,000,000  lbs. ;  in  1862  it  amounted  to  30,680,480  lbs. 
— a  rate  of  increase  which  gives  serious  cause  to  doubt 
whether  the  supply  will  long  be  adequate  to  meet  the 
demcad ;  for  it  is  unfortunately  the  case  that  the  trees 
which  yield  gutta  percba  are  not  only  limited  in  their 
growth  to  certain  districts,  and  less  abundant  in  quan- 
tity than  india-rubber  trees,  but  they  have  been  sulv 
jected  for  several  years  to  the  barbarous  and  wasteful 
mode  of  cutting  down  the  trees  for  the  sake  of  the 
sap.  Whatever  European  industry  may  be  able  to  do 
in' checking  this  destructive  system,  and  extending 
the  cultivation  of  the  gutta  percha  tree,  there  is  yet 
reason  to  doubt  whether  this  slow-growing  tree  can  be 
reared  in  sufllcient  quantities  to  counterbalance  the 
havoo  alread}'  made.  The  /eonandra  gutta  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  Sapotaceee,  and  is  the  only  tree  which 
yields  gutta  percha.     It  rises  to  the  height  of  60  or  70 


GUT 


920 


GUT 


ft«t,  Md  the  trunk  ii  8  or  4  fe«t  In  di>inet«r.  The 
tree  flouriabea  In  alluvial  soils,  st  the  foot  of  hille,  and 
•WMthnM  forma  the  chief  part  of  the  Jangle  in  auoh 
•ttnatloiM.  The  foliage  la  of  a  pale  green  on  the  up- 
per part,  and  oorend  with  reddiah-brown  hain  !)•• 
Death.  The  wood  is  aoft,  Hbroua,  apongy,  pale  in 
color,  and  traveraed  by  longitudinal  receptaclea  or  rea- 
erroira  Ailed  with  the  gum,  forming  ebony-black  linea. 
Thia  gum  haa  many  of  the  propertiea  of  india-rubbor, 
but  it  has  also  special  propertiea  of  its  own  which  ad- 
mit of  ita  being  applied  to  naea  for  which  caoutchouc 
ia  not  adapted.  It  poaseases  the  same  indestructlbil- 
ky  by  chemical  agents  which  makea  india-rubber  so 
valuable,  and  it  haa  also  the  peculUrity  of  becoming 
soft  and  plastic  on  being  plunged  into  boiling  water. 
In  thia  state  it  can  be  molded  into  an}-  dealred  form, 
which  form  it  permanently  ivtains  on  cooling.  The 
great  convenience  and  utility  of  such  a  substance 
Oould  not  fail  to  strike  the  natives  of  the  countrtea  in 
which  it  is  produced ;  and  accordingly,  we  find  that, 
long  before  gutta  percha  l>ecame  known  to  Europeans, 
It  had  l)ecQ  fabricated  by  the  Malays  into  whipa,  ba- 
(ins,  jugs,  a!ioeB,  etc.,  thus  at  length  exciting  the 
attention  ol  travelers,  and  leading  to  the  introdnction 
of  some  of  these  articles  4nto  Europe  under  the  name 
of  india-rubber,  or,  earlier  still,  of  maier-tpood. 

The  honor  of  having  drawn  attention  to  ita  real  na- 
ture and  uses  ia  due  to  Dra.  U'Almeida  and  W.  Mont- 
gomerie.  The  latter,  writing  from  Bengal,  remarked 
on  the  ordinary  name  of  the  plant  thus : — "  The  word 
ii  a  pare  Malayan  one— ffutta  meaning  the  gum  or  oon- 
crete  juice  of  a  plant,  and  percha  the  particular  tree 
fkora  which  this  is  procured.  The  eh  ia  not  pro- 
nounced hard  like  k ;  but  ll^e  the  eh  in  the  English 
word  perch."  In  1843  Dr.  Wm.  Montgomerie,  of  the 
Indian  Medical  Service,  oliserving  certain  Malay  knife 
and  kria  handles,  inquired  the  nature  of  the  material 
from  which  they  were  made ;  and  ftrom  the  crude  na- 
tive manufacture  inferred  at  once  the  extensive  uses 
to  which  the  gutta  percha  might  be  put  in  the  arts  of 
Europe.  He  purchased  a  quantity  of  the  raw  mate- 
rial, sending  from  Singapore  part  of  it  to  Bengal,  and 
part  to  Europe,  and  suggesting  some  of  the  uaea  to 
which  he  thought  it  might  be  applied.  The  qiuntity 
aent  to  England  secured  to  him  at  once,  as  the  dlacov- 
erer,  the  gold  medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  The 
surgical  uses  of  guttn  percha  were  early  discovered  by 
Dr.  Oxiey  of  Singapore,  who  declared  it  to  be  "the 
l)est  and  easiest  juliatance  ever  diacovered  for  the  man- 
agement of  fracturea,  combining  ease  and  comfort  to 
the  patient,  and  ver}'  much  leaaening  the  tronble  of 
the  aurgeon." 

Outta  percha  arrives  in  lumpa  or  blocks  of  several 
pounds'  weight,  but  these  often  contain  impurities, 
such  as  stones,  earth,  etc.,  introduced  by  the  Malaya 
for  the  sake  of  increasing  tlie  weight.  The  purifica- 
tion and  preparation  of  this  substance  on  a  large  scale 
are  conducted  as  follows: — The  lumps  of  gutta  are 
aul)jected  to  the  action  rf  a  vertical  wheel,  on  the  face 
of  which  are  fixed  three  knives  which,  as  the  wheel 
revolves  at  the  rate  of  800  revnlutiona  per  minute,  cut 
the  lumps  into  thin  slices.  Theae  are  then  softened  in 
hot  water,  and  thrown  into  a  rotating  machine,  where 
they  are  further  reduced  l)j-  the  action  of  jagged  teeth. 
From  this  machine  they  agoin  fall  into  water,  and  are 
farther  cleansed.  They  are  then  kncade<l  into  a  paate 
In  hot  water,  and  rolled  between  heated  cylinders. 
The  mass  has  now  become  uniform  in  texture,  and  is 
either  rotted  out  into  sheets  between  steel  rollers,  or  is 
passed  in  the  mass  through  heated  iron  cylinders ; 
after  which  it  is  ready  for  use.  Qutta  percha  is 
scarcely  affected  by  boiling  alcohol,  bat  it  dissolves 
nearly  completely  in  benzine  and  in  spirit  of  turpentine 
with  the  aid  of  heat,  and  also  in  naphtha,  coal-tar, 
snlphnrct  of  carbon,  and  in  chloroform.  Its  solution 
in  snlphuret  of  carbon  or  in  chloroform  may  be  almost 
entirely  deprived  of  color  by  Altering,  the  prooass 


being  oondneted  nnder  a  glass  jar,  in  order  to  prevent 
loss  by  evaporation.  If  this  solution  lie  exposed  in  a 
flat  dish  to  the  air,  the  solvent  will  evaporate,  leaving 
a  solid  cake  of  white  gutta  perclu,  which  retains  all 
the  propertiea  of  the  common  gutta ;  and  it  may  lie 
melted  by  a  gradual  increaae  of  temperature  without 
acquiring  any  perceptible  color. 

The  purposes  to  which  gutta  percha  is  applied  are 
too  numetona  for  recapitulatkin.  Only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  nees  can  be  here  mentioned.  It  re- 
sists the  action  of  water,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  bad 
conductor  of  electricity ;  it  is  therefore  employed  for 
Inclosing  the  metallic  ^irea  need  in  the  electric  tele- 
graph. The  efficiency  of  the  anbmarine  telegraph  is 
largely  due  to  this  valuable  substance. 

Various  other  maritime  uses  have  been  fonnd  for  it 
in  the  construction  of  buoys,  lifc-lmat  apparatus,  etc. 
Manufacturers  und  a^triculturlsts  have  applied  gutta 
percha  to  use  in  bands  and  straps  for  machinery, 
tubes,  buckets,  etc.  Architects  have  accepted  its  aid 
in  the  interior  ornamental  work  of  houses,  such  as 
cornices,  centres  for  ceilings,  etc.  Scientiflo  men  are 
aided  in  their  electrical  experiments  by  Its  high  insu- 
lating power.  Miners,  railway  officials,  and  others, 
find  the  value  of  speaking-tubes  made  of  this  sub- 
stance ;  deaf  persons  are  also  greatly  benefited  by  its 
power  of  conducting  sound.  Stereotype  plates  have 
been  made  in  gutta  percha.  A  mold  Is  taken  by  pres- 
sure of  a  page  of  type  with  woodcuts  in  gutta  percha ; 
ftom  this  mold  a  cast  is  obtained  on  a  cylinder  of 
gutta  percha,  and  tnm  this  lost  the  printing  is  carried 
on.  The  dentist  employs  gutta  percha  in  fixing  or 
stopping  teeth.  The  chemist  is  indebted  to  it  in  the 
preservation  and  conveyance  of  acids  which  corrode 
glass  or  metallic  vessels.  It  is  also  extensively  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  waterproof  clothing,  waterproof 
shoes,  etc. 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  substitute  for  gutta 
percha  has  been  discovered  in  the  juice  of  the  mnddar 
(Aidepittt  gigantea),  a  common  plant  in  India,  which 
also  aflTords  a  valuable  kind  of  hemp.  Care  is  re- 
quired in  the  collection  of  the  milky  juice,  on  account 
of  its  exceedingly  acrid  nature  ;  but  when  exposed  to 
the  air  it  hardens  into  a  substance  cloaety  resembling 
gutta  percha,  and  having  many  of  its  valuable  proper- 
ties. It  is,  however,  unfitted  for  electrical  purposes, 
for  it  is  found  to  conduct  electricity  as  freely  as  a 
piece  of  untanned  hide. — E.  B. 

Outta  Trap,  a  substance  evidently  allied  to  gutta 
percha  and  caoutchouc,  employed  at  Singapore  in  the 
manufacture  of  bird-lime.  It  is  the  inspiasated  juice 
of  an  artocarpu» ;  and  it  is  highly  prolmble  that  there 
are  several  similar  vegetable  productions,  such  as  the 
mangegatu  (Ficui  indim),  fhim  Visagapatam,  which 
might  advantageously  be  introduced  into  commerce, 
and  employed  in  the  arts  for  purposes  similar  to  those 
for  which  caoutchouc  and  gutta  percha  are  now  so  ex- 
tensively employed. 

Otiy,  a  rope  need  to  steady  any  weighty  body 
while  it  is  being  hoisted  or  lowered  ;  also,  a  tackle  to 
confine  a  boom  forward  to  prevent  the  sail  from  gylv 
Ing.  Guy  likewise  denotes  a  large  rope  extending 
from  the  head  of  the  main-mast  to  that  of  the  fore- 
mast, to  sustain  the  tackle  used  for  loading  and  un- 
loading a  ship.  • 

Qybing,  the  shifting  of  the  lioom  of  a  fore-and- 
aft  sail  from  one  side  of  the  mast  to  the  other,  either  to 
alter  the  coarse  of  the  vessel  suddenly,  or  to  accom- 
modate the  sail  to  a  change  of  wind. 

Glypaum,  or  Sulphate  of  Lime,  is  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  Continent,  in  Derbyshire  and  Not- 
tinghamshire, and  in  Nova  Scotia,  whence  it  is  largely 
exported.  When  reduced  to  a  powder,  and  formed 
Into  a  paste  with  water,  it  is  termed  platter  of  Parii, 
and  is  much  use<l  fbr  forming  casts,  etc.  It  is  also 
used  for  laying  floors,  and  has  been  advantageously 
employed  as  a  manure. 


HAI 


ftl 


HAL 


»i>j«  Vinj.i;  ••^'iM)  ,rH^:i...i  it.  ■,,.'.    '"»  IV)      .»ii  III  Ij  ni  r 

.j|  ..iC.ll!.    .  I     .,|J  f'XrriU   ..■lll.l'j'l    I'      '  1  '      /lo-'  ■!,<  ,     rr-\ 


.■I  r  ■•'■ 


H. 


■'-'.■■  n   .vt ' 


ilso 


Haokhay  Carriages  an  carrltges  utatlontd  in 
the  streets  or  other  pulilic  places,  and  bonnd  to  cany 
such  persona  as  require  their  serrices,  for  certain  rates 
of  hire  according  to  the  distances  traveled.  They  have 
generally  been  licensed  by  authority,  and  subjected  to 
cortnin  regulations,  Intended  to  exempt  strangers,  and 
others  using  them,  from  fraud  and  imposition.  Tt  may 
be  doubted,  howeirer,  whether  these  regulations  have 
had  any  good  effect ;  and  whether  the  public  would 
not  be  as  well  accommodated,  at  least  in  nil  large 
towns,  by  throwing  the  business  open,  and  trustlDg  to 
competition  to  rectify  abuses.  Hackney  coaches  at« 
of  French  origin.  In  France,  a  strong  kind  of  cob- 
horse  (haqnenie)  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  Joume3's : 
these  were  latterly  harnessed  (to  accommodate  several 
wayfarers  at  once)  to  a  plain  vehicle  called  coche-h- 
haguenie:  hence  the  name.  The  legend  that  traces 
their  origin  to  Hackney,  near  London,  is  a  vulgar 
error.  They  were  first  licensed  in  1662,  and  subjected 
to  regulations,  6  William  and  Marj',  1G94.— Surrey  of 
London.  The  number  plying  in  rx>ndon  fixed  at  1000, 
and  their  fares  raised,  1771.  The  cabriolets  are  of 
Parisian  origin ;  but  the  aristocratic  taste  of  English- 
men suggested  the  propriety  of  obliging  the  driver  to 
be  seated  on  the  outside  of  the  vehicle.— Hatdn. 

Hainan,  a  large  island  in  the  Chinese  Sea,  lying 
south  of  the  province  of  Canton,  to  which  it  is  an- 
nexed, and  separating  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin  from  the 
Chinese  Sea.  It  is  separated  from  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  province  of  Canton  by  the  Strait  of 
Luichan,  15  or  16  miles  wide,  and  lies  between  K.  lat. 
18°  10'  and  20°  54',  and  E.  long.  108°  25'  and  111°. 
It  Is  about  160  miles  in  length  by  100  in  breadth,  and 
has  an  area  of  above  12,000  square  miles.  The  in- 
terior of  the  island  is  mountainous ;  some  parts  of  it 
rise  above  the  snow  line,  and  it  is  inhabited  by  abo- 
riginal tribes.  The  Chinese  inhal)itant9  are  mostly 
descendants  of  emigrants  tnym  Fokien,  and  are  agri- 
cultural, trading,  or  piratical  in  their  vocation,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  The  soil  is  mostly  sandy,  but 
some  of  the  plains,  particularly  on  the  west  coast,  are 
of  great  fertility.  Timber  constitutes  its  most  valua- 
ble product,  the  sides  of  the  mountains  being  covered 
with  extensive  forests  of  sandal,  rose,  brazilctto, 
ebony,  and  other  trees.  Its  other  products  are  chiefly 
rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
various  fruits.  Wax  also  forms  an  important  article 
of  export;  it  is  produced  by  an  insect  called  the 
pelatchung,  or  white  wax  insect,  when  laying  its 
eggs.  Hainan  is  divided  into  18  districts.  The  cap- 
ital, Kiungchanfu,  is  a  verj'  populous  town,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Limn  River,  on  the  Luichan,  and  has 
an  excellent  harbor.  Several  of  the  other  towns  are 
verj'  populous.  The  island  is  said  to  contain  about 
1,600,000  inhabitants. 

Hair,  Human  (.Ger.  Ifaare,  Mennehen-haar ;  Du. 
Ilair;  Vt.  CKtveur  ;  It.  Capelli  umani ;  dp.  CabeUot  ; 
Lat.  Capilli).  "  Human  hair  makes  a  very  considera- 
ble article  in  commerce,  especially  since  the  mode  of 
perruques  has  obtained.  Hair  of  the  growth  of  the 
northern  countries,  as  England,  etc.,  is  valued  much 
beyond  that  of  the  more  southern  ones,  as  Italy,  Spain, 
the  southern  parts  of  France,  etc.  Good  hair  is  well 
fed,  and  neitiiertoo  coarse  nor  too  slender;  the  bigness 
rendering  it  less  susceptible  of  the  artificial  curl,  and 
disposing  it  rather  to  frizzle  ;  and  the  smallness  mak- 
ing its  curl  of  too  short  duration.  Its  length  should 
bo  about  2fi  incliee  ;  the  more  it  falls  short  of  this,  the 
less  value  it  liears," — M. 

Uair  of  Btatli  (Ger.  ITaare,  ITnhattre;  Da.  //air; 
Ft.  PoU;  It.  and  Sp.  Ptlo;  Lat.  P<<fc»).— The  hair  of 
horses  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chairs, 


sofas,  saddle!,  etc. ;  while  the  hair  or  wool  of  heaven, 
hares,  rabbits,  etc.,  is  much  employed  in  the  mann- 
factnr*  of  hats,  etc.  Hair,  in  its  mechanical  nature, 
may  be  regarded  as  a  condensed  form  of  cuticle.  The 
feathers  of  birds  may  be  considered  as  analogous  to 
hair ;  while  the  only  two  classes  of  animals  that  are 
wholly  devoid  of  any  kind  of  hair  are  the  fishes  and 
reptiles.  The  variety  in  the  conformation  of  hair  is 
ver}'  great,  ranging  from  the  finest  wool  to  tiio  quills 
of  the  porcupine,  or  the  horn  of  the  riiinoccros,  which 
last  Is  nothing  more  than  an  assorablage  of  many  hairs 
in  one  compact  mass. 

Hair  Mami/actuiti. — The  varions  uses  to  which  hair 
is  applied  are  familiar  to  ever}'  one.  The  most  valua- 
ble kind  is  human  hair.  It  is  procured  chiefly  ttom 
the  north  of  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany.  The 
lighter  colored  hair,  which  bears  the  highest  value,  is 
the  production  of  Germany;  the  darker  shades  are 
imported  from  France,  where  a  peasant  girl  will  sell 
the  hair  off  her  head  without  any  sense  of  degrada- 
tion; whereas  in  England  this  traffic  is  resorted  to 
only  by  females  of  the  lowest  class.  Indeed  so  com- 
mon is  the  practice  in  France,  that  agents  are  env- 
ployed  to  traverse  certain  districts  annually  at  a  par- 
ticular season  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  crops 
of  human  hair  which  are  assiduouslj-  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  the  purchase-money,  or  its  equivalent  in 
gewgaws.  A  head  of  hair,  such  as  is  bought  of  the 
peasant  girls  in  the  districts  above  named,  weighs 
from  1|  to  1(  pounds. 

The  hair  used  for  weaving  consists  of  the  long  hair 
from  horses'  tails.  It  is  procured  principally  from 
South  America  and  from  Russia,  All  the  black  and 
gray  hiir  is  dyed  for  the  manufacture  of  Mack  hair- 
cloth for  covering  furniture.  The  white  is  reserved 
for  dyeing  of  the  brighter  hues,  such  as  green,  claret, 
crimson,  etc.  The  quality  of  the  cloth,  as  well  as  the 
brilliancy  and  permanency  of  the  colors,  depend  in  a 
great  deg<'?e  on  the  nature  of  the  warp,  which  may  be 
either  of  cotton,  linen,  or  worsted.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  hair-cloth,  either  plain  or  damasked,  the  weaver 
uses  a  sort  of  hook-shuttle,  which  he  passes  l)etween 
the  threads  of  the  warp,  or  shed,  toward  his  left  hand ; 
the  assistant,  or  "  server,"  places  a  single  hair  over 
the  end  of  the  hook,  and  the  weaver  draws  it  through 
the  warp.  The  placing  of  the  hairs  one  by  one  ren- 
ders this  a  tedious  operation,  and  one  that  does  not 
admit  of  the  application  of  machinery,  which  is  so  ad- 
vantageously employed  in  fabrics  wliere  the  shot  or 
weft  consists  of  a  continuous  thread. 

Hair  Pencils,  or  Brushes,  for  painting.  Two 
sorts  are  made ;  those  with  coarse  hair,  as  that  of  the 
swine,  the  wild  boar,  the  dog,  etc.,  which  are  attached 
usually  to  short  wooden  rods  as  handles;  tiiese  are 
commonly  called  brmhfa ;  and  hair  pencils,  properly 
80  called,  which  are  composed  of  ver}-  fine  hairs,  as  of 
the  mmever,  the  marten,  the  badger,  the  polecat,  etc. 
These  are  mounted  in  a  quill  when  they  are  small  or 
of  moderate  size,  but  when  larger  than  a  quill,  they 
are  mounted  in  white  iron  tubes. 

Hair  Fo'wder  (Ger.  Puder ;  Fr.  Poudre  a  pou- 
drer;  It.  Pulvtre  di  cipri ;  Sp.  Polvoa  de  peluca)  is 
used  as  an  ornament  for  the  hair,  and  generally  made 
from  starch  pulverized,  and  sometimes  perfumed. 

Hake,  a  kind  of  fish,  the  Gadut  merluccius,  com- 
mon in  the  Atlantic  seas  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
often  prepared  as  stock-fish.     See  Fisheries. 

Halifax,  a  city  and  sea-port,  capital  of  colony  and 
province  of  Nova  Scotia,  founded  in  the  year  1749. 
Situated  on  a  declivity  near  the  coast,  and  the  centre 
of  the  peninsula,  and  on  the  west  side  of  a  deep  inlet 
of  the  sea,  called  Halifax  harbor,  which  extends  sev- 


HAL 


029 


HAM 


•ml  mlUa  inUnd ;  Ut.  44°  89'  42"  north,  Innir.  68° 
85'  80"  wo«».  Including  Ita  iiul>urlM  U  In  2i  mlirn  lon(f, 
»nd  about  one  half  mile  wide.  Population  1H52, 2fl,00()  j 
1854,  80,000. 

The  bent  mark  In  aaUing  for  Halifax  ia  .Sambro 
Ught-hoiiae,  on  n  amall  Ulond  olf  the  cape  of  the  ume 
name,  on  the  west  aide  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor. 
In  Ut.  44°  80',  long.  08°  82'.  The  llifht,  which  ia 
fixed,  ia  210  feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea ;  and  a  de- 
tachment of  artillery,  with  two  24-poundera,  la  upon 
duty  at  the  light-houae,  firing  at  regular  intervala  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  donae  foga  with  which  thia 

part  of  the  coaat  ia  very  much  Infeated Coulier,  1'a- 

Uet  dfi  I'vkcipaUa  l'o$Uiont  (Irogmpkiquei,  p.  78.  The 
courae  Into  the  harbor  for  large  ahipa,  after  paaaing 
Sanibrp  light,  ia  between  the  main  land  on  the  weat, 
and  McNnb'a  island  on  the  cuat.  On  a  apit  project- 
ing from  the  latter,  a  light-houae  haa  been  conatructed  ; 
and  when  thia  ia  aeen,  ahipa  may  run  in  the  harbor 
without  fear.  The  harbor  ia  defended  by  aeveral 
pretty  atrong  forta.  Shipa  uaually  anchor  abreaat  of 
the  town,  where  the  harbor  ia  rather  more  than  a  mile 
in  width.  After  gradually  narrowing  to  about  one 
quarter  of  that  width,  it  auddenly  expanda  into  a  no- 
ble aheet  of  water,  called  Bedford  liaain,  completely 
land-locked,  with  deep  water  throughout,  and  capable 
of  accommodating  the  whole  navy  of  Great  Britain. 
The  harlwr  is  acceaaible  at  all  timea,  and  ia  rarely  im- 
peded by  ice.  There  ia  an  extenaive  royal  dockyard 
at  Halifax ;  which,  during  war,  la  an  important  naval 
«tatk>n,  being  particolarly  well  calculatnd  for  the  ahel- 
ter,  repair,  and  outfit  of  fleeta  cruising  on  the  Amer- 
ican coaat  and  in  the  Weat  Indiea.  Mr.  M'Gregor  haa 
taverely,  and,  wo  believe,  justly  censured  the  project 
for  the  removal  of  tlje  dockyard  from  Halifax  to  Ber- 
muda— Cmn.  Did.,  ISoC. 

Tratk,  rtc,  of  Halifax  ami  ffova  iSc»<m.— Halifax  ia 
the  aeat  of  a  considerable  flahery ;  but  the  British  col- 
oniata  seem  to  be,  for  what  reason  It  is  not  easy  to  say, 
leaa  enterprising  and  succeaaful  fishers  than  the  Now 
EngUndera.  Th  principal  trade  of  the  town  and 
province  ia  with  the  Weat  Indiea,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  United  Statea.  To  the  former  they  export  dried 
and  pickled  fish,  lumber,  coala,  grindatonea,  cattle, 
flour,  batter,  cheese,  oata,  potatoes,  etc.  They  export 
the  aame  artivlea  to  the  southern  porta  of  the  United 
(States,  and  gypsum  to  the  eaatorn  porta  of  New  En- 
gland. To  (Jreat  Britain  tliey  send  timber,  doala, 
whale,  cod,  and  seal  oil ;  fiira,  etc.  The  principal  ex- 
ports of  timber  are  from  Tictou  on  the  St.  Ijiwrence. 
The  imi>orta  consist  principally  of  colonial  produce 
from  the  West  Indiea ;  all  aorls  of  manufactured  gooda 
fkorn  Great  Britain;  and  of  flour,  provisions,  etc., 
ttom  the  United  Statea,  in  part  for  exportation  to  the 
West  Indies.  In  1826  a  company  was  formed  for  mak- 
ing a  canal  across  the  country  from  Halifax  to  the 
Boain  of  Minaa,  which  unites  with  the  bottom  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundj'.  The  navigation  will  lie  formed,  for 
the  moat  part,  by  Shubenacadie  Lake  and  River.  The 
legislature  gave  £16,000  to  thia  undertaking.  The 
excavated  part  of  the  canal  ia  60  feet  wide  at  top,  36 
feet  at  bottom,  and  will  admit  veasela  drawing  8  feet 
water.  It  aeenis  very  questionable  whether  this  canal, 
if  constructed,  will  he  protitalilo  to  the  shareholders  ; 
but  it  will  add  to  tho  trade  of  Halifax.  There  are 
two  chartered  luinking  companies  at  Halifax.  Ac- 
counts are  kept  in  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence.  The 
pound  being  equal  to  $4  United  States'  currency ;  the 
shilling,  20  cents  ;  and  the  weights  and  measures  are 
olao  the  same  as  in  England.  Al)0ut  120  large  square- 
rigged  vessels,  and  about  the  same  number  of  large 
schooners,  with  several  amaller  craft  belong  to  Hal- 
ifax. The  steamships  conveying  tho  mails  to  British 
North  America,  ply  between  this  port  and  Boston 
(Haas.),  semi-monthly,  and  Liverpool.  The  fare  to 
Halifax  or  Boaton  from  Liverpool,  including  provisions 
and  steward's  fee  (but  azoluding  winet  and  liquors), 


140  dollars.  On  arriving  at  Halifax,  passengsrs  wei« 
formerly  conveyed  by  coaches  across  the  peninsula  to 
I'Ictou,  whence  they  were  carried  by  ateamers  to  Quolieo 
and  Montreal.  The  only  commercial  changes  in  the 
province  of  Nova  Scotia,  during  the  year  ending  80th 
September,  1855,  were  those  caused  by  the  acceptance 
of  the  "  reciprocity  act,"  or  treaty,  made  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and  agreed  to  liy  the 
provincial  legialuture  in  December,  1854,  whereby 
many  products  of  the  Unitec)  Statea  are  now  admitted 
into  the  province  from  tho  United  States  free  of  duty. 

Hams.     See  Bacon  and  I'oiik  trade. 

Hamburg,  a  free  Ilanseatiu  city,  on  the  north 
bank  iif  the  Itiver  Kll>e,  about  70  miles  from  ita  month, 
lat.  68°  82'  61"  north,  long.  0°  68'  87"  east.  I'opMhk. 
tion  in  1886,  including  the  suburbs  of  St.  George  and 
St.  Paul,  but  excluding  tho  territory  attached  to  the 
city,  148,754.  Hamburg  ia  the  greateat  commercial 
city  of  Germany,  and,  perhaps,  of  the  Continent.  The 
Ellie,  which  may  be  navigated  by  lighters  as  fur  as 
Molnik,  In  Bohemia,  renders  her  the  entrepdt  of  a  vast 
extent  of  country.  Advantage,  too,  has  been  taken 
of  natural  facilities  that  extend  still  further  her  inter- 
nal navigation ;  a  water  communication  having  been 
established,  by  means  of  the  Spree  and  of  artificial 
cuts  and  aluicoa,  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  and 
between  the  latter  and  the  Vistula ;  so  that  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  produce  of  Silesia  destined  for  for- 
eign markets,  and  some  even  of  that  of  Poland,  ia  con- 
veyed to  Hamburg.  See  Canals.  There  ia,  also,  a 
communication  by  moans  of  the  Steknitz  Canal,  with 
the  Trave,  and,  consequently,  with  Lubec  and  the 
Baltic.  And  ahe  has  been  connected  by  means  of  rail- 
ways with  Berlin,  Hanover,  Brunawick,  Kiel,  etc. 
Vessels  drawing  14  feet  water  come  up  to  the  town  at 
all  times ;  and  veaaels  drawing  18  feet  may  come  aafely 
up  with  the  spring  tides.  The  lurgeat  vessels  some- 
times loail  from  and  unload  into  lighters  at  CuXhaven. 
The  trade  of  Hamburg  embraces  every  article  that 
Germany  either  sells  to  or  buys  Oom  foreignera.  The 
imports  consist  principally  of  cotton,  wool,  stuffs,  and 
yarn ;  wool,  woolen,  and  worsted  goods  ;  coffee,  which 
is  the  favorite  article  for.speculative  purchases  ;  sugar, 
silk,  and  silk  gooda ;  tobacco,  hidea,  iron,  and  hard- 
ware, indigo,  wine,  brandy,  rum,  dyewoods,  tea,  pep- 
per, etc, ;  very  large  quantitiea  of  coal  are  imported 
from  the  United  Kingdom.  Being  brought  from  many 
different  places,  there  ia  a  great  variety  of  quality  in 
the  grain  found  at  Hamburg ;  but  a  large  proportion 
of  the  wheat  is  inferior.  Soma  of  the  barley  ia  very 
good,  and  fit  for  malting.  The  oats  are  feed  of  vari- 
oua  qualities.  With  the  exception  of  co^il,  the  exports 
consiat  of  the  same  articlea  aa  the  imports,  Hamburg 
not  being  a  centre  of  consumption,  but  of  distribution. 
In  addition  to  colonial  produce,  British  manufactured 
goods  and  grain  of  all  sorts,  they  include  wool,  clover- 
seed,  bark,  spelter,  cattle,  butter,  salted  provisions,  rags, 
wooden  clocka,  and  toy  a,  linena,  and  all  iiorts  of  German 
manufactured  goods,  Khenieh  wines,  etc.  Moat  sorts 
of  Baltic  articles,  such  as  grain,  flax,  iron,  pitch,  and 
tar,  wax,  etc.,  may  generally  be  bought  as  cheap  at 
Hamburg,  allowing  for  difi'erence  of  freight,  as  in  tho 
ports  whence  they  were  originally  brought.  It  will 
be  afterward  seen  that  the  total  annual  value  of  tho 
import  and  export  trade  of  the  port  (including  that  of 
Altona,  the  merchants  of  which  conduct  their  business 
on  the  Hamburg  exchange),  may  be  estimated  at  above 
£50,000,000  sterling  o-yoar,  or  upward ;  and,  aa  the 
largcat  portion  of  this  immense  trade  ia  in  tlie  handa 
of  the  English,  it  will  be  neceasary  that  we  should  be 
A  little  fuller  than  ordinar}'  in  our  details  in  regard 
to  this  great  emporium, 

Hamburg  was  visited  by  »  most  destructive  fire  in 
May,  1842,  But,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  losses 
that  were  in  consequence  incurred,  and  the  paralysis 
it  occasioned  in  trade  and  industry,  the  shock  was  less 
severe  (ban  might  have  been  anticipated.    The  system 


HAM 


028 


n4M 


fire  in 
losses 
ralysU 
as  less 
system 


of  mutoal  Insunnc*  hkving  Uen  generally  adopteil, 
the  proprietors  of  houses,  uiid  other  property  were 
subjected  to  a  tux,  to  defray  the  Interest  uf  n  loan  of 
82,000,000  marcvbanco  raised  to  Indemnify  the  suffer- 
ers, and  to  enulile  them  to  reliulld  their  houses.  And 
we  are  ){I<*<1  to  hnye  to  stiito  that  all  traces  of  the  de- 
vastation have  nearly  disappeared  ;  and  that  hero,  as 
ill  most  other  places  exposed  to  a  slmllur  calamity.  It 
has  led  to  a  great  Improvement  of  the  town,  which  is 
now  lietter  liullt,  and  more  eonimodlously  laid  out  than 
formerly. 

llauiburi^  owes  its  commercial  distinction  princi- 
pally to  its  xituation.  Inilred,  the  resources  of  Ham- 
burg, as  well  as  the  other  Hanse-to>vns,  so  far  us  they 
are  dependent  on  their  terrltiirhil  llniltK,  are  of  but 
little  consequence.  Their  trade  is,  as  it  were,  passive, 
depending  entirely  for  its  maintenance  and  activity 
U|)on  the  commercial  movements  of  other  countries. 
The  city  of  Hamburg  has  but  a  very  liniiteil  territory 
surroimding  It,  comprising  tlie  adjoining  district,  the 
towns  of  Uergdorf  and  l<it/.o1iuttl«,  the  districts  of 
Vierl&nden  (the  sovereignty  of  which  is  shared  by 
Luhec),  Cuxhaven,  some  Islands  in  the  Ell>e,  and  some 
detached  portions  of  the  territory  enclosed  by  the 
Danish  and  Hnnoverinn  dominions.  These,  together, 
constitute  the  republic  of  Hamburg.  Tlie  area  is 
about  li'lT  square  miles,  and  tlie  population  188,054 
souls  ;  of  whom  116,800  live  In  tlie  city  j  ](i,781  in  St. 
George  ;  10,157  in  the  faubourg  of  St.  Paul ;  and  39,- 
800  in  the  country  around. — Cum.  Rel.  U.  S. 

Che  River  Elbe  is  tlie  chief  commercial  artery  which 
gives  life  and  energy  to  the  trad'i  of  Germany.  It 
rises  in  Kohemia,  near  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and, 
Bowing  through  that  country,  receives  the  Jloldau  and 
its  tributaries,  and  the  Eger.  I^eavlng  Bohemia,  this 
noble  river  flows  by  Dre.'<den  and  Magdeburg,  receiving 
in  its  course  the  Mulde,  Elster,  and  llaval ;  all  of 
which  rivers,  branching  off  into  different  streams, 
unite  their  waters  with  the  Elbe  immediately  below 
Hamliurg.  The  depth  of  water  admits  the  largest 
ships  ;  and,  about  75  miles  below  Hamburg,  the  Elbe 
merges  into  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  In  respect  to 
the  navigation  of  the  Elbe,  the  Stade  duties  levied  )iy 
Hanover,  at  the  castle  of  Druiishauson,  were  justly 
complained  of,  not  only  as  arliltrarv,  but  onerous  and 
oppressive  upon  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The 
principle,  says  McCuIlocli,  was  distinctly  laid  down 
by  tile  Cimgress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  that  the  naviga- 
tion iif  the  Rhine,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Weser,  etc., 
should  be  <|ulte  free  along  their  whole  course.  But, 
no  general  tariff  of  duties  being  then  estaldislied,  this 
declaration  has,  until  lately,  hud  no  practical  effect. 
On  passing  Stade  every  captain  or  master  was  obliged 
to  send  his  papers.  Including  tlie  manifest,  bills  of  la- 
ding, and  cockets,  on  shore,  that  the  amount  of  the 
duties  could  be  calculated,  and  certiflod.  These  duties 
were  paid  at  Hamburg,  where  the  Hanoverian  govern- 
ment had  an  agent  to  teceivo  them ;  and,  until  the 
receipt  was  produced,  the  vessel  could  not  proceed  to 
unload.    See  Elbe  Rivkr. 

Slaiir,  Dues. — An  intelligent  corresimndent  of  the 
State  Department  at  Hamburg,  who  has  given  much 
attention  to  the  subject,  has  furnished  the  following 
information  ooncoming  tlie  Stade  Dues : 

"  About  twenty-five  miles  below  Hamburg,  at  a 
narrow  place  in  the  Elbe,  the  Schrominge,  a  small 
river,  empties  itself,  on  the  banks  of  which,  back  a 
few  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  situated  the  town  of  Stade. 
At  this  place  a  'toll,'  under  the  name  of  Brinihauien, 
or  Stade  Duet,  is  levied  on  all  vessels  coming  from  the 
sea,  except  on  those  of  Hamburg. 

"  These  '  dues'  owe  their  origin  to  a  grant  from 
Conrad  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  in  the'year 
A.  1).  1088,  granted  permission  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
Hamliurg  to  atablith  afairormarkft  at  Stade  ;  and  he 
appropriated  the  duties  which  were  to  be  levied  there- 
on, to  the  benefit  of  the  cburcb  at  Hamburg,  which 


had  been  Mckjd  and  u  yad  by  the  Pagans,  as  all 
outsiders  were  called  in  those  days.  Notliing  lieyund 
a  market  toll,  a  duty  to  be  levied  on  goods  brought  to 
the  market  of  Stade,  was  contoniplitted  In  this  grant. 
But  the  Archblsliops,  pjirtlcularly  after  the  transfer 
of  the  see  to  Bremen,  were  nut  slow  in  converting,  liy 
an  arbitrary  and  unjust  interpretation,  llie  Stado  mar- 
ket privilege,  with  the  trifling  duty  attached  to  It,  Into 
a  source  of  lucrative  revenue  for  their  treasury,  and  in 
place  of  a  simple  right  of  hoiiliiig  a  market  at  Stade, 
they  feigned  a  privilege  of  compulsory  market,  viz., 
that  no  vessel  sailing  upward  from  the  sea  had  a  right 
to  pass,  but  should  lay  to  and  pay  a  sort  of  transit,  or 
rattier  passage  duty,  for  the  purpose,  as  It  ware,  of  buy- 
ing off  the  right  of  sale  pretended  to  have  been  granted 
at  Stade — a  right  which  could  be  easily  enforced,  from 
the  circumstance  that  vessels,  as  already  mentioned, 
were  obliged  to  sail  close  by  the  Stade  river,  Schwingo. 
On  so  groundless  a  Action  rests  tlie  origin  of  the  StJide 
dues.  Ill  the  year  A.  D.  1189  the  Gorman  Emperor, 
the  great  Frederic  Barliarosa,  granted  to  Hamburg 
the  privilege  which  bears  his  name,  besides  other  priv- 
ileges and  Immunities  In  favor  of  the  trade  of  Ham- 
liurg. The  em|ieror,  by  this  privilege,  granted  to  her 
citizens,  for  their  siiips  and  merchandise,  a  free  navi- 
gation from  tlie  sea  to  the  city,  with  an  cntlro  exemp- 
tion from  all  dues.  At  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  the 
territories  of  the  Archbisliop  of  Bremen  were  ceded  to 
the  crown  of  Sweden  ;  which  government,  in  con- 
sequence, claimed  the  right  to  levy  the  dues,  as  a 
iuiloinary  right.  In  A.  ».  1001  a  treaty  between 
Hamliurg  and  Sweden  was  farmed,  wherein  the  rights 
of  the  former  were  acknowledged  in  the  broadest 
sense ;  and  a  tariff  was  formed  by  Sweden  for  the  rest 
of  the  world,  and  fixed  the  rate  at  alHiut  one  sixteenth 
per  cent.  Soon  after  this  treaty  was  formed,  Stado, 
with  the  Duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verdun,  was  occii- 
cupied  by  the  Danes,  and  flnall}'  reded  by  them  in 
A.  D.  1715,  to  the  electorate  of  Hanover ;  which  cession 
was  brought  about  by  the  calilnet  of  George  I.,  of  En- 
gland, who,  at  that  time,  was  Elector  of  Hanover,  and 
for  which,  the  British  government  paid  Denmark 
X150,000  sterling.  These  tolls  or  dues  have  ever  since 
been  collected  by  Hanover,  except  for  some  four  or 
five  years  during  the  elder  Bonaparte's  wars,  when 
Hanover  was  in  possession  of  the  French,  none  were 
collected,  but  the  lower  Elbe  was  left  as  free  as  any 
part  of  tlie  North  Sea. 

"  For  a  correct  understanding  of  this  question  it  Is 
proper  to  premise  that  the  Lower  Elbe,  us  it  is  called, 
(that  is,  from  Hambiir^t  to  the  North  Sea),  is,  strictly 
speaking,  a  part  of  tlio  sei>,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  has 
ever  so  been  considered  by  all  the  European  nations  in 
their  oftlclul  acts  and  intercourse.  Even  at  the  great 
Congress  of  A.  d.  1815,  when  the  commerce  of  all  the 
German  r'vers  was  regulated,  the  Lower  Elbe  and 
Stude  dues  were  especially  omitted  for  the  reason  as- 
signed— that  thej'  were  neutral  lealen,  and  the  '  dues' 
were  sea  tolls.  Hence,  in  my  opinion,  it  rests  alone 
upon  the  same  foundation  which  the  Danisli  Sound 
dues  do,  or  which  the  old  Trlpolitan  trlliute  did,  and 
no  other ;  and  if  the  former  Is,  and  the  latter  was,  ille- 
gal and  unjust,  so  are  the  Stade  dues.  It  should  bo 
liorne  In  mind  that  Denmark  has  tho  territory 
on  the  right  bank  of  tho  Elbe  below  Hamburg,  and 
Hanover  on  the  left  bank,  except  at  Oiixhafen,  where 
Hamburg  owns  some  territory.  Neither  Hanover  nor 
Denmark  has  ever  contributed  one  dollar  to  tho  im- 
provement of  the  navigation  of  the  Lower  Elbo ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  have  ever  declined  to  do  so,  while 
Hamburg  has  ever  borne  the  whole  burden  of  making 
such  improvements,  and  keeps  them  up  at  her  own 
expense.  In  this  respect  Denmark  has  decidedly 
the  advantage  over  Hanover,  for  slie  has  done  some- 
thing to  add  to  the  safety  of  the  navigation  of  the 
Sound." 

A  British  writer,  of  great  commercial  experience, 


iii: 


m 


HAM 


m 


f 


HAM 


layi,  In  raferane*  to  thi*  Elba  loll,  "  In  tqnlt}*,  the  du- 1  plloUg*  (brm(lntalnln|th«  ntt  nAvlKHiInn  of  thi  R1h« 
ties  levied  ut  SUde  ihould  Im  hereifter  in  amuunt  I  and  iliould  only  lie  Inipoaed  fiir  that  |iiir|iniie  on  the  tun' 
only  equal  to  the  exp«iiMa  of  light-houiei,  buoye,  and  I  na((«afveiieli,  and  palUlnto  thi  Hanoverian  rreiiiurv," 

CoMiiiaoa  or  ll*Miivau  in  18BT.      c.    i  ,  , 

- Ar,!..!..  '"^ 

VMMh. 


AiHtnillii 

China 

Dutch  Uwl  Indlea 

Blmiah 

Singapore 

BrilUh  Eaotlndim 

Kail  Mul  of  AMea 

OapeofCkxid  llone 

Wert  cowil  of  Africa 

Canary  lalaoda 

Madeira 

KiiHlan  poiMMlona  In  America 

CallftimU 

Weil  const  of  America 

Argentine  Confeiloratlon  and  I'aragimy  . 

Rraill 

Dutch  Guiana 

Vnneiuola 

New  Omnoila 

Curacoa 

fH.  Thomaa  and  I'orto  Rico 

Havtl 

Ouoa 

JamaIcA 

West  cf«itt  of  Mexico 

United  HUtea 

BrItUh  American  Province! 

Iceland 

Rurmlan  porta  on  the  White  Sea 

Norway 

Sweden  

Ruxilan  porta  on  the  Raltlc  Hoa 

PruHlan  porta  on  the  Baltic  Sea 

Mecklenburg 

Denmark 

Schluwtg 

Ilobiein 

Heligoland 

I^wer  part  of  the  Elbe 

Bremen  and  theWeaer , 

PniBfllan  porta  on  the  Jalido 

Oldenburg 

h'Att  Frlealsnd 

Netherlandi 

Belgium 

Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland 

France 

Portugal 

Spain 

Gibraltar 

French  porta  on  the  Mediterranean 

Sardinia 

Tuacany 

Pontlflcal  State* 

Naplea 

Sicily 

Trieate 

Venice 

Ionian  iHlanda 

Greece 

KuKHlan  porta  on  the  Black  Sea 

Aala  Minor 

Total,  1857 

Of  which  there  were  {{;^=;|-: 


6 

11 

& 

S 

18 
6 
t 

IB 


T5 

T 

108 

■i 


14 
04 
48 

a 

20 
78 


2 
82 
40 
18 
43 

2 
14 

fid 
l» 

42 

583 

<!«1 

7 

SO 
103 
823 

07 

2247 

147 

43 

87 

14 
6 
9 


84 
10 


D0A7 


4306 
701 


l.aati  • 


"HnT 


809 

1,898 
870 
B42 

lk,2IIS 
404 
700 

1,220 

"is 


11,083 

Ml" 

13,418 

lUS 

2,544 


1,2M 
5,817 
4,740 
160 
2,708 
10,884 


112 

10,750 

2,007 

042 

882 

«1 

204 

1,050 

188 

4,051 

28,5110 

0,173 

120 

8i?; 
l,»' 

12,02, 

0,580 

241,081 

12,500 
2,851 
0,335 

821 
301 
488 

"92 
1,886 
1,608 

'iio 

TO 
'295 


410,888 


878,810 
38,014 


78 
171 
«7 
83 
454 
M 
W 
161 


1,*>3 
02 

1,0112 

15 

881 


152 
010 
523 
10 
270 
2,080 


14 
1,700 

M8 

120 

147 

22 

41 

IMl 

82 

575 

8,118 

1,355 

10 

107 

234 

9,075 

013 

28,888 

1,1156 

841 

874 

100 
85 
57 

12 
24C 
180 

i5 
0 

86 


_51,74« 
47,100 
4,040 


^ 


6 
2 
II 
T 
10 
1 

•i 
T 

40 

04 

119 

2 

20 

4 

I 

41 

12 

21 

■/'t 

Ti 

is 

1 

II. 

12' 

fO 

02 

111 

8 

24 

Hi 

T 

40 

42'i 

80(1 

111 

Wl 

IM 

184 

01 

2880 

182 

27 

84 

1 

0 

18 

0 

i 

'i 

0 

1 


Jmti 

8112 
1021 


l.llt 

'oi'j 

1106 

207 

MT 

1,NI0 

48 

"iiii 

1,148 
«,l«0 

5,701 

18,458 

189 

1,072 

U28 

40 

fl,f80 

<08 

1,998 

l',oi5 

20,719 

4,818 

4H 

1,542 

18,010 

0,280 

»,709 

2,029 

50 

906 

1,042 

118 

8,020 

8,mi8 

6,670 

IMI 

1,482 

1,000 

9,709 

0,500 

262,4V6 

14,005 

1,440 

8,1110 

NO 

281 

008 

118 

(Ml 

'iio 

VTT 
DO 


N 

'410,014 
27MIo( 
186,018 


264 
NO 
101 

oi 

84 

80 

87 

201 

« 

80 

108 

027 

028 

1,740 

in 

266 

38 

0 

807 
86 

288 

127 

2,188 

4H0 

5 

152 

1,092 

OM 

Nl8 

412 

10 

12H 

228 

19 

600 

1,400 

8INI 

49 

221 

866 

1,722 

020 

20,880 

2,153 

200 

460 

11 

87 

82 

to 

18 

in 

86 
7 


(.l.Kl 
1)7,100* 
18,984 


'  The  loat  la  equal  to  0000  Iha. 


"  By  a  resolution  of  the  Sennto  and  citizens,  passed 
on  tho  22d  of  December,  1856,  the  export  <liity  of  i  per 
cent,  has  bven  totally  aliotislied,  as  uIho  the  ship  duos 
on  river  boats,  and  such  sea-going  vessels  as  arrive  at 
this  port  ludcn  with  lish,  as  well  as  on  vessels  pl.'ing 
with  passengers  between  Hamburg,  Ilelignlund,  Fuhr, 
Norderney,  and  other  neighboring  sca-batliing  places. 

But,  farther,  although  by  this  resolution  the  import 
duty  of  t  per  cent,  is  granted  for  the  years  1857  and 
1658,  still,  :•■  the  listof  articlL's  alrcaily  free  from  duty, 
many  others  aro  added,  as  cotton,  wool,  yarn  mixed 
of  cotton  and  wool ;  all  luggage  belonging  to  passen- 
gers, not  exceeding  the  value  of  100  marks  banco 
(about  X8)  exclusive  of  their  wearing  apparel ;  and  all 
parcels  of  goods  the  value  of  which  may  not  exceed  '20 
marks  banco  (about  ."iO*.  sterling).  By  this  resplutlon, 
also,  goods  declared  in  tranxit,  t^ut  formerly  were  only 
allowed  to  remain  at  Hamburg  for  the  spuco  of  three  ' 


months,  free  of  charge,  and  on  which,  at  tlis  expira- 
tion of  that  time,  a  further  pvrniUslon  for  them  lo  re- 
main for  three  months  cuuld  only  bii  obtaini'd  hy  pay- 
ment of  J  per  cent,  duty,  ura  now  allowed  to  bo  woro- 
houscd  in  transit  fur  nliiu  niontlia,  subject  lo  the  pay- 
ment of  jj  per  cent,  duty  at  the  expiration  of  Ihn  (Irst 
three  months,  and  unollisr  I  |Mir  cent,  duty  at  the  ex- 
piration of  six  months,  'I'his  ntauliitlun  iilao  allows 
the  value  of  goods,  the  pricea  of  which  ore  nut  quoted 
in  the  oltlviul  prioa  current,  lo  bo  taken  nccnnllng  to 
the  cost  price,  with  Ih*  addlllun  of  tho  expenses  in- 
curred on  their  way  to  Hamburg."— iff,  J'url.  litp., 
18.W. 

I'oieiyn  Nanii/iitlim  </  ll»mhiirff,~.\.  The  most  Im- 
portant class  of  HumburK  puekel-shliM  are  those  which 
sail,  at  stated  period*,  fur  Adelaide,  M(dliourno,  ami 
Sydney  In  Auatraliu,  Valpiiral«oln  Chill,  and  Man  Kran- 
cisco  in  Ciilifornia,   'I'liey  cuiiaUl  uf  !2i)  large  class  slilpi. 


Taw.. 

. 

1864 

1887 

1838 

1889 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1 

1844 

1 

Yean. 

No. 

VBtQ 

1&47 
1»18 
1849 
1850 

51 

4^ 
84 
48 

i.'t^  ■i^b^.k-Si.^-  liLix^'i^.i^i^^S!^^ 


^•Jk\i,  t.Mt'U'.Icd&t^ci^r 


HAM 


92S 


HAM 


9.  Fonrtftn  Urge-iUwI  vuuli  ply  nguUrly  h«> 
tWMD  lUiuburg,  New  York,  Naw  Orlcaoi,  Ualveiton, 
•nd  InilUnuU, 

8.  VWe  Urga  threa-muted  aliliMi,  owned  hy  k  pri- 
vate coiiipauy,  are  engaged  In  the  direct  trade  between 
Hamburg  and  New  York. 

4.  Two  tbrea-maitail  ihlpi,  alto  owned  by  a  prlvaia 
conipiiny,  ply  Iwtween  Hamburg  and  the  porta  of  North 
•nd  South  America,  aa  they  tlnd  a  market. 

TABLI  ailOWIMU  Tilt    NnMBRB    AND  ToNNAO*  Of  VfMIU 
aaLONUIBU  TO  llAHUUaU  IN  TUB   YXARK  arKciriKii. 

Ytvn.                                                          V*»mU.  Tunnunt, 

ISM !«  «»,»?« 

Ig45 »0B  BO.OHI 

184)4 tM8  (W,M1 

ISM 408  W,«»i 

Btatburnt  bxiiihitino  thi  NATinATioN  or  IlAMaiiao  dui- 

■  NO  8BTR!<TBK!«    YRAIU,  K.NUINn   WITH   IXfi, 


Tian. 

Veinli 
•  nUnd. 

TonniBfl. 

r»ri. 

•nUrwl. 

TonnAge. 

1886 

y,4»7 

881,814 

1848 

8,990 

804,484 

188T 

8,001 

849,A0« 

1846 

8,779 

888,061 

1838 

a,70o 

S7«,ST9 

1817 

4,178 

681,890 

1889 

9,889 

418,808 

1848 

8,804 

698,0(M 

184(1 

9,98T 

448,868 

1849 

»,4.W 

1841 

8,694 

49\7H8 

lAtO 

4,094 

7m),M9 

184S 

8,!W0 

880,764 

18,11 

4,169 

744,887 

1848 

8,SS8 

888,949    , 

1888 

4,410 

**0,10» 

134t 

8,860 

484,899 

The  following  statement  exhibits.  In  continuation, 
the  number  and  tannage  of  American  veHst^la  arriving 
at  and  departing  from  the  port  of  Hamburg  during  the 
aix  months  ending  with  Juno  80,  18&5.  The  letter 
accompanying  the  consular  return  contains  the  fol- 
lowlnit  passages :  "  The  direct  Imports  to  this  port 
fkom  the  United  States  will  show  a  gnat  fulling  off 
flrom  Inst  season  ;  mcA  of  our  vessels  brought  cargoes 
(chiefly  sugar)  from  Cuba,  destined,  via  Prussia,  for 
Russia.  The  exports  have  also  been  much  less  than 
last  year.  But  few  of  our  ships  left  for  American 
ports  direct ;  most  of  them  left  in  ballast  for  English 
porta,  to  load  coal  or  iron  ;  several  took,  at  low  rates, 
long  charters  for  South  American  ports.  The  number 
of  emigrants  for  the  United  States  from  this  port  will 
hardly  reach  half  as  high  as  last  year.  There  being 
no  American  shIpphig-hoiiseB  ut  Haiiburg,  it  will  al- 
ways be  difficult  tor  our  flag,  aa  the  regular  Hamburg 
passenger  lines  must  flrst  be  flUed,  to  participate 
fairly  In  this  trade.  In  the  article  of  siltpetre,  des- 
tined for  Russia,  our  flag  had  the  preference  when 
coming  from  our  ports ;  but,  generally,  the  Hamburg 
flag  and  property  being  exempted  from  the  Stade  toll 
dues,  this  can  not  be  the  case."  Number  of  .'essels, 
barks,  i:) ;  tonnage,  A,14B.  Ships,  4  ;  tonnage,  2,iCT. 
Total  numl>eT  of  vessels,  17,  and  total  tonnage,  7,810. 
Cargoes  consisted  priiicipally  of, — 

Inward. — Arrack,  seeds,  cassio,  dyo-wood,  India- 
rubber,  rice;  sugiiT,  tamarinds,  pot-ashes,  household 
goods,  cotton,  honey,  ginger,  whalebone,  tol)acco, 
clocks,  segars,  preserves,  tortoise-shells,  guns,  rosins, 
hops,  oil,  machinery,  raisins,  shoos,  coffee,  tirpciitine, 
furs,  sarsaparilla,  piano-fortes,  and  generul  nurchnn- 
dlse.  ' 

Oulimrd. — Passengers,  pig-lead,  plates  ■}t  spelter, 
willow,  succory  flower,  cinnabar,  glue,  gypsum,  rags, 
tow,  worsted  yarn,  woolens,  wormseed,  hair  cloth, 
glass-wure,  china,  hardware,  iron-ware,  sheet-zinc, 
m'<sical  liistruments,  bristles,  slates,  dru^s.  earthen- 
ware, straw  goods,  and  general  merchandis''. 

9tati:uf.st  snowiso   Tiri!  Numbbr  of  Emi'.  iants,  with 

TUR   Nl:»BRH  or  VrSSRLS  CONVKYIKU  TIIRM,  WHICH  LKFT 
TIIR  TOIIT  or  HaMIIURU  F08  TIIR  UNITED  StATKS,  FROM 

1847  TO  1354,  BOTH  inclusive. 


Yeim. 


1M7 
IMS 
1849 
188Q 


No.  of 

vetaell. 


81 
43 
84 
48 


No.  of  eml- 
gruiti. 


6,489 
4,741 
8,777 
6,600 


Yon. 


18fSl 
1SJ49 
18S3 
1884 


No.  of 
veaseU. 


67 


75 
100 


No.  of  emt- 
gninta. 


18,886 
18,693 
80,835 


ViimU. 

Balonilnc  to  tha  port,  Dae.  11, 18SB.  184 


ToMiaa* 
ImU. 
9,980 
18M.  188       10,94« 

Tha  Uriff  la  that  of  December  29,  1851.     Mimiu 

1  marc-banco»ia  shllllng8»#U-3fi  United  Stataa'  onr- 
renoy.  IhUin  on  Imporit. — These  dutlea  amount  to 
not  more  than  )  or  1  per  cent,  ad  v.'lorem  i  and  the 
i/ufi><  on  fsports  to  not  more  than  one  eighth  of  1  per 
cant,  ad  valorem.  The  following  articles  are  exempt 
both  from  import  and  ex|iort  duties  :  apparel  of  trav- 
elers, brought  In  liy  the  respective  parties,  or  by  > 
special  permit  of  the  Director  of  Customs,  bark  uii- 
ground,  barley,  lionea,  bronze  metal,  buckwheat,  cop- 
per fur  sheathing  ships,  broaa,  old,  also  in  plates  or 
sheets,  coal,  stone,  gold  and  allver  bullion  or  coin, 
open  samplea  of  gnoda  under  70  pounda'  weight,  ex- 
ported and  then  ra-im|iorted  through  the  tame  gate, 
llnent,  with  or  without  cotton  mixture,  linen  bagging, 
malt,  oatt,  oil  cakes,  potatoes,  printed  matter,  mualciil 
and  scientiflc  maps,  rags,  woolen  or  cotton,  rape-seed, 
r}'e,  wool,  sheep's  and  lamb's  raw,  wheat,  ziuc,  crude. 
The  following  articles  are  free  of  import  duties  only  : 
articles  not  exceeding  6  marcs-banco  ((1  75)  In  value  ; 
those  also  subjected  to  excise  duties  not  over  20  marca- 
banco  In  value ;  timber,  staves,  fl  re-wood,  and  turf. 
Those  free  of  export  duties  are,  all  articles  under  20 
marcs-banco  (|7)  in  value,  regardless  of  quantity ;  all 
manufactures  of  the  city  of  llamburg;  all  provisions 
for  the  iDimndiate  use  of  vessels  lying  In  the  harbor ; 
articles  not  exceeding  100  pounds  In  weight,  and  not 
of  greater  value  than  100  niarcs-bancu.  Trantit  Vu- 
tiea. — All  goods  re-exported  within  three  months  from 
the  date  of  arrival,  are  free  of  any  transit  duty,  if  yet 
in  the  hands  of  original  Importers.^  (/.  8.  Commercial 
I)ige$l. 

Money  is  generally  reckoned  In  Hamburg  in  marcs, 
10s.,  each  of  12  pfennings  ;  and  Is  of  two  sorts,  ianco, 
and  current.  The  former  consists  of  the  sums  In- 
scribed In  the  books  of  the  bank,  opposite  to  the  names 
of  those  who  have  deposited  specie  or  bullion  in  the 
bank,  or  got  It  transferred  to  them  at  the  rate  of  27} 
niarcs-banco  to  the  Cologne  marc  of  line  silver.  The 
value  of  the  marc-banco,  taking  silver  at  6s,  an  oz., 
is,  consequently.  Is.  S)d.,  which  makes  tlie  par  of  ex- 
chauge  IB  marcs  lO^s.  banco  per  ill  sterling.  Banco 
is  worth  about  2<1^  per  cent,  more  thin  currency  ;  tha 
agio  varying  from  120  to  125f.  Speaking  generally, 
the  value  of  the  current  marc  may  be  taken  at  Is.  2^d. 
or  Is.  2d.  sterling.  The  silver  coins  current  hi  Hamburg 
are,  specie  dollars  (of  which  9^  are  equal  to  a  murc- 
Cologne,  flne  silver) ;  Prussian  current  dollar  (14  dol- 
lars to  the  marc  line) ;  new  2s,  3d  pieces  (18  to  the 
marc  lino)  ;  Danish  grob.  current,  and  Hamburg  cur- 
rent (84  to  the  marc,  fine).  The  gold  coins  comprise 
ducat9=:9s.  -Id.  sterling,  Louis  and  Frederic  dollars. 
The  agios  of  these  different  coins,  with  banco,  con- 
stantly vary.  Hamburg  has  for  many  years  censed 
to  coin  monies,  with  the  exception  of  ducuts  and  the 
smaller  coins. 

Afeaiurei  and  Weights. — A  new  regulation  of  these 
was  effected  by  an  ict  passed  on  the  lUtb  January, 
1843.  There  are  in  Hamburg  three  different  sorts  of 
pound  weighlt.  1.  The  bank  or  silver  weight  (for- 
merly the  Cologne  weight).  2.  The  commercial 
weight.  3.  The  apot'iiacary  weight.  One  pound 
bunk,  or  silver  weight,  18=2  niarcs ;  1  marc  (Cologne) 
is  233-85489  grains,  or  48G5-57  Dutch  As. =100  marcs 
'=^62'nd64  Englisli  troy  pounds.  The  old  relation  be- 
tween the  commercial  weight  and  bank  weight,  by 
which  the  commercial  pound  is  equal  to  33  6-32  oz. 
bank  weight,  I'as  been  confirmed  by  the  late  act.  1 
centner=112  com.  pounds ;  1  pou!ad=82  oz. ;  1  oz.=> 
4  drachms ;  1  drachm=4  pfennings.  By  the  United 
Slates'  Commercial  Digest  the  centner  is  made  equal  to 
119'504  avoirdupois.  100  commercial  pounds=106-838 
English  pounds  avjirdupois ;  48'4609  kilogrammes  ; 
8G'6365  pounds  Yionna;  96.9219  pounds  Qerman  cus> 


J 


HAM 


§i() 


HAM 


tomi  union.  On*  "  nrhlirpfiinil,"  In  roniinKrrc —'i) 
ccntnitrn,  or  20  "  llcupfuml"  of  M  pniinilii  nnr  h,  or  2H<I 
pnundii  I  t  lifiinil  ^  1 'Onr  |iounilii  avolnlunila.  On* 
"  •chlir^ifiinii"  liy  lanil-carrlKKa  him  !i(»  "  ilcapruriil," 
Mi'h  nfllt  prunil  j  In,  thrraforti,  ■  ,'120  pounilt.  A  pl|M 
of  oil  In  H2()  (Hiuniln  ;  1  lurrrl  of  butter  (mnall  wtlliiw 
tnd  liOfi|M>  la  Ukcn  at  'ii-i  iHiunili ;  but  with  rominon 
houpa,  kt  'JMU  iHiunila  nutl. 

/mu/  Affdtiirf.—'rhn  lUmburK  foot,  dlvldml  Into 
12  inehaa  of  H  pnrta  rm-h'»>0'2Ht)57  niKtri>»»-I'J7-0,'Hl 
PariaUn  llnM^U-2H»  KnulUh  Incbia.  Urncv,  100 
lUmburn  fMt-lV»()2l  Knullah  fwt  j  2HnS7  lT«n.h 
mutrM;  Bl'.HO?  I'ruMlnn  or  Rhrnlah  htt\  90  «li4  VU 
«nna  fxft.  Th«  lUmliurK  rll  (abort  rll)~^2  llnniliur)( 
ffet.  Oft'71114  mc.tr»«-"V>iVI072  I'nria  llnea.  100  lUni- 
buru  «I1«— (12W1  Knullah  ynnla.  Ths  nmbiint  vll 
(or  lonK  ell)  nio«t  commonly  uaed  In  lUmburK,  In 
meuurcment  of  placr-Ko<Mla^27-&flft  Kngllah  Incbai. 

l.iquiil  Mnuure. — 1  fuder-^fl  aurnn,  1^  »ura-=^4  an- 
kera  or  6  clmpra;  1  ankcr^-li  vlerteli;  1  vlertob^a 
atnbohfna  ]  1  atnb<'hpn'«2kiinn*n«;  1  kanni-n^'-'ciiinr- 
l«r«  of  ()«»«iil;  1  e|mar=-'l  vlrrtrU;  1  ho){abi'nil^  IJ 
auma,  or  (I  ankara,  or  80  viartala,  each  of  8  qimrtlora  or 
hottlea.  The'  atalichen  contain*  '266  HambiirK  rubli- 
lncha«»i»-t)2  litre*.  100  Itumburjt  vietnda-al.W'.T.) 
Knullih  Imporiiil  gallon*  i  724  IM  French  litrea ;  (in2-4S 
Pruinlan  quartera  ;  ftll-Sfl  Vienna  maaaa.  The  full 
l)eer  barrel  contain*  4H  atUbchena,  or  102  quurtlora  j 
the  amall  Immd  only  82  atnlicliena,  or  12N  qiiiirtiera. 
The  vlnexar  barrel  contnlna  80  atabrhcna,  or  120quar- 
tlcra.  The  whale  and  flah-oil  barrel  contiilna  82  atOlb 
chena,  or  128  quartleni;  2  whale-oil  barrelx^l  quar- 
tael. 

drain  Af«u«nf.— One  1aaaa>ll0  faia  ;  1  raa«T:'3  hlmp- 
tenj  1  himpten<s^4  apint.  The  wliipel  of  wheat,  rye, 
and  peaa  la  20  fuaa ;  l)ut  of  oata  and  barU'V,  80  fas*. 
The  BchefTel  of  wheat,  rye,  and  pena,  la  2  fiiaa  ;  of  bar- 
ley and  oata,  8  faaa.  The  faaa  contain*  8,n;2  llamburt( 
cubic  lnohc»=".')2-"84  litre*,  and  2fl58-15  I'nrlninn  cubic 
Inchea;  and  100  IIaml>urgfa«*'3'lH-l.'<A  lm|)eriul  quar- 
tera;  &2-734  bectolltrea ;  9&D47  rruaaian  achelfela ; 
H5.76A  AuatrUn  lietzen.  10  llamlmrK  la)>t*=10>*'81 
im|H!rial  quarter*.  The  mode  of  mca*uring  fp'ain  ha* 
hitherto  been  liy  the  metre*  throwinK  or  pitchin;(  It 
Into  the  fasa,  and  HtrikinK  "f^  tbe  aurplua  with  a 
wooden  roller  pre**ed  lightly  alon^  the  np|)er  odne ; 
bnt  an  alteration  i*  ox|)ecteil  on  a  new  com  law,  now 
projected,  coming  Into  operation ;  there  will  proI)ubly 
Iwa  new  fa*a  nicaauro  (of  40,')5  Hamburg  cubic  Inches), 
equal  to  the  I'ruaalan  acheflel.  In  practice,  1  Ham- 
burg but  la  taken  at  11  imperial  quarter*,  81  hectolitre*, 
67  Prnaaian  achelTela,  25  Daninh  l)arrel*,  and  16(  Kus- 
Hian  chetwert*.  The  coal  barnd  contain*  (when  the 
1453  Hamliurg  cubic  Inchea  of  head  or  lieuped  moaa- 
ure  i*  added)  1(S,4:)8  culiic  inchea.  The  Hamburg  ahip 
laat,  or  laat  of  commerce,  really  weigh*  (lOnO  pound*, 
or  8  tona  (not  4000  pound*,  aa  la  generally  atated). 

Navigiitinn  nf  the  Kibe,  Pilvlnr;e,  etc. — Tlio  mouth  of 
the  KI1)0  Is  covered  with  sand-bank*.  The  channel 
leading  to  Cuxhavcn  la  iHiunded  on  the  north  by  the 
Vogel  Hands  and  North  Grounds,  and  on  the  south  liy 
the  Schaarhom  Sand*  and  Neuwerk  Island.  On  tlie 
latter  there  are  two  light-house*  and  two  lieacon*,  and 
on  the  Schaarhom  is  another  beacon.  The  light-house* 
on  Neuwerk  Island  are  about  700  yard*  apart ;  the 
most  aouth<!rly,  which  1*  also  the  most  elevated,  being 
in  lat.  630  5.,'  57"  j(.,  long.  8°  29'  40"  K.  It  is  128 
feet  high,  lieing  twice  the  height  of  the  other.  The 
channel  la,  in  some  places,  hardly  three  quarter*  of  a 
mile  wide.  The  outer  red  buoy  in  the  middle  of  the 
channel,  at  it*  mouth,  bears  from  Heligoland  south- 
east by  south,  distant  nearly  20  miles.  liut  the  liest 
mark  In  entering  the  Kllie  is  the  floating  light,  or  sig- 
nal ahip,  moored  two  miles  north-west  by  north  of  the 
red  buoy,  in  11  fathoms  at  low  water.  This  vesael 
never  leaves  her  station,  unless  compelled  by  ice  in  the 
winter  a«aaon.    By  night  she  exhibits  a  lantern-light, 


W  feat  above  deck,  and  In  fbggy  weather  ring*  a  lielt 
evert-  qnarter  of  an  hour.  A  second  ilgnul  ahip  It 
atutioned  A|  mile*  aouth-«aat  by  eaat  from  the  llnil,  al 
thn  weatemmoat  |Mdnt  of  a  aand-)iankilividlng  the  fair 
way  of  the  river.  Hha  i*  rigged  like  a  galliot,  to  dl»> 
tinguish  iier  by  day  tVoni  the  Hrat  algnal  ahip ;  and 
during  the  night  aim  exhiliita  lirn  llglit*,  one  IH  fan| 
almve  the  other.  The  dlatancn  ft'om  the  outi'r  red 
liuoy  to  (Juxhaven  ia  aliout  Itl  mile* ;  thence  to  (thick- 
atatit  the  riiurae  I*  east,  28  mile* ;  fnini  tha  latter  to 
8tade  the  course  is  aoulh-eaaterly,  9  nilir*  ;  and  thi'n 
eaatarly  to  Hamburg,  18  nillc*.  'I'bc  ihannel  thn>ugli- 
out  ii  markril  with  blaik  ami  wliite  liuoya,  which  ar« 
numbered  ami  apecllled  In  the  iharl').  The  black  nnea 
are  to  be  left,  in  passing  uptlie  river,  on  the  atarlioartt 
or  right-haml  al<le,  and  tlie  white  on  the  larlKtard  alda. 

K.vcry  vessel  coining  from  sen  into  tha  Kibe,  and 
drawing  four  feet  water,  i*  directed  to  take  n  pilot 
on  Iniard,  and  must  pav  pilotage,  though  she  do  nut 
take  one.  However  well  the  signiiia,  light*,  Iwacona, 
and  buoya,  may  l>e  arranged,  an  ex|M<rlt'nced  pilot  it 
very  necessary,  in  case  of  a  fog  In  the  night,  or  of  k 
atorm.  To  take  in  a  pilot,  a  veaael  must  heaTc  to  liy 
the  pilot  galliot,  which  lies,  in  good  weather,  near  tha 
red  iiuoy,  anil  in  liad  weather  N.K.N,  from  Neuwerk, 
and  Is  known  l>y  having  at  tlie  Hagatatf  an  adiiiiral't 
flag,  and  a  long  streiimer  flying  nt  the  top.  If  tha 
pilot  Iwat  have  no  pilot  on  iHianl,  or  if  the  weatlier  lia 
so  bad  tlial  the  pilot  can  not  loava  her,  she  lower*  her 
Hag,  and  then  tlie  ve**«l  coming  in  must  tail,  witli  tha 
*lgnal  for  a  pilot  hoisted,  to  Cuxhaven,  and  heave  to 
there,  wliere  nhe  I*  certain  of  getting  one.     See  Ki.hr, 

There  are  no  docka  or  quays  at  llamliiirg  ;  nnil  it  ia 
singular,  conaldering  tlie  great  trade  of  the  port,  that 
none  have  iieen  coiiHtructed.  Veaael*  moor  in  tha 
river  outside  of  piles  driven  into  the  ground  a  short 
distance  from  shore  ;  and  in  thia  aituation  tliey  are 
not  ex|ioseil  to  any  danger  iinles*  the  piles  give  way, 
which  rarely  happen*.  There  I*  a  sort  of  inner  harlior 
formed  by  an  arm  of  the  Kllie  hhich  runa  into  tha 
city,  where  amuU  craft  lie  and  di  ,cha.'>{e  tbeir  cargoea, 
Ijirger  vessels  load  and  unload  from  tiielr  moorings, 
by  mean*  of  lighter*.  Th«*e  carry  the  goods  front 
and  to  the  warehouse*  which  front  f.lie  various  small 
amit  and  channels  of  the  river,  and  the  canal*  car- 
ried from  it  into  different  part*  of  the  city.  Tha 
charge*  on  account  of  lighterage  are  extremely  mod- 
erate. 

Port  Chiirgft. — The  charges  of  a  pulillc  nature  pay. 
able  liy  vc*sel*  entering  the  port  of  Ilamliurg,  unload- 
ing tnd  loading,  are  pilotage  and  laatage.  The  sep- 
arate items  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  table*  1 

I'ilotar/e  Earned. — 'I'lie  pilotage  fee*  are  earned  if 
vessel*  arobrouglit  as  faraa  Kreyburghor(ilOckstadt, 
and  when  from  stress  of  wind  or  weatiier,  which  sel- 
dom liap|irns,  the  Ilamliurg  pilots  take  the  ves*el  to 
Wittenberg  or  Neuniiihlen,  they  are  to  |iay,  without 
distinction. 

Mare*  riirrflney,  4.  ttir. 

To  Wltlonborg 1    0  14    rt 

Nonmnblcn 1    8  91    U 

Pilolai/e  all  the  tray, — Kor  pilotage  the  whole  way 
from  Cuxhaven  to  Hamburg  there  I*  no  talile  of  rates, 
for,  generally  speaking,  the  Hamliurg  pilot*  do  not 
take  vessel*  up  beyond  lioesche. 

Pitolngei  and  Ijitlage. — The  Ilamliurg  pilot*,  gen- 
erally speaking,  take  charge  of  vessels  only  from  the 
Ked  Iluoy  to  Kreylmrgh  or  (JlDckstadt. 

Half  Pilotage  only. — lu  case  the  Hamliurg  pilot*  enter 
a  vessel  only  within  the  lirst  buoy  beyond  the  Koas- 
hackcii.  Strungfly,  or  Cuxhaven,  half  the  aliove-mon- 
tioncd  jiiiotage  is  paid.  Also  half  pilotage  must  bo 
paid  at  all  event*,  whutlier  the  vessel  has  taken  a  pilot 
from  the  pilot  galliot  or  not. 

From  iloetche  to  Hamburg. — Vessels  are  generally 
piloted  from  Uoesch  to  Hamburg  by  Danish  or  Hano- 
verian pilots,  to  whom  It  ia  customary  to  pay  three 
marcs. 


1IAM 


997 


IIAK 


gon- 
tho 


tiMtttf  nntt  ruihm-kim—  Vhnrffi.—f^tMAi  and 
ath«r  furalKit  y»»—U  |wy  Ihn  •mil*  «■  llamtiurn  vi>»- 
••U.  t'lir  I'laArltiii  III  Hint  I'UwrlllK  nill,  tin  ii«|iHriiU 
rharK*'!  itra  iiiiiilii  i  vlallliiK  llm  |Hirl  U  I'linalilKrnl  ■> 
i»M-  vn)M|(ii,  uml  tlix  I'tiiiraiK  nil  vxiiwla  am  palil  aa  fill- 
Iowa:  V'lir  vnaaala  arrlviuT  wKli  rarniiaa  from  Ilia  un- 
dariKvntliiuad  pUuva,  y||,  i 


jrally 
Uno- 
three 


(ThaKaal  IniHaa 

|Wii>t  Imlli'i,  Nurlh  aail  Nuiilh  Aiimrlaa., 
iri)rtuval,  N|mIii,  anil  llm  Miii|lliirraiii>an. 
mil- ri'>t  of  iliu  Kiiriiiii'iiii  iiiirta.    ,   , 
llollaul,  hUal  l''rl.'>lanil,  Ilw  Wawr,  K/- 

ilrr  ami  Jiiilainl  .,..,, 

For  VL'Hiila  iinilir  W  nviiiinaralll  iMta 

I    wUhiMil  ilUlliii'llon ,,,, 

ITi<u«i«arrlvlMiianil  ilxlitrtlair  In  lialli 
\    at  upwanl  nf  ^ii  <'iiiiiiiiiiri<lal  iaala . . . 

It  Ih  illtni'uU  lo  il«ti<riiiiiia  tha  xaai'l  rallii  iif  ■  hint 
to  >  tim  ;  Ijiit  It  iiiiiy  lia  tiikmi  at  alimit  II  iir  i\  In  I, 
lliit  in  ll:iinliiirt{  nil  viiaaa|»  ara  iiiiintiireil  liv  tlm  har- 
Inir  muatcri  uml  It  U  U|i<iii  lila  r«|iiirt  tliiil  ilia  liialu((» 
la  i-ultMilati-il. 

Kur  all  vraaelt  lailun  with  I'lmla,  wihhI,  iir  turf,  tin 
laatage  la  piilil,  |iriivl>l«il  tliny  itn  Mill  laka  raliirti  car- 
giira,  VoMola  urrivlnn  In  liitllaat  amt  i1(i|i«rtltl|(  with 
a  rarKo  |iny  hiilf  thn  iiIiiivh  lHalii||a,  Hii'itnlltiK  tii  tliair 
dcatlnatliiii.  Kxi'luilvu  nftha  ahiivfl  itiiaa,  which  nrn 
all  ri>niiirk.ilily  iiimliirutii,  vaaauja  nitiilnn  '"  til"  I""*  "' 
IIiimliurK  uru  iilillgi"l  In  |iay  I'urtalM  'lliaa  In  llaiMivnr, 
ciillud  Htiiilo  or  llrunahniianii  ilima,     Haa  fmul, 

Cutliim-himm  Uri/iilultain.-lh}  II  vaaaal'a  nrrlval  at 
Huiiiliurtc  thu  lirnker  rajHirta  h«r  In  tllM  I'llatnttl-hnitaa, 
and  given  liU  guitritiity  fur  |iayiiiatit  nf  thattiitlaa,  atiil 
ilnlivrfK  hnr  |ia|Mira  i  ami,  ii|MMt  a  rai'al|it  Mnit  |iM- 
(liired  rnrtliu  Stadu  diltiaa  liy  tha  tiNtinvarllllt  aiitmir- 
itiea  at  lliiiiiliurg,  tliu  vtiaaal  U  allnwad  tn  Utilnad,  I  In 
r!i<nrlng,  a  tnuiilfaat  nf  lliH  iiiitward  I'lirun,  tn^atlirr 
with  thfl  riinaul'a  lurlilli'utii  nf  tha  ri<Kllliirity  nf  thi< 
•hip'n  piiiwra,  iiiuat  lie  prndiirail  itt  thn  ilialntn-ltnlian 
liy  tha  Imiker,  whu  nlitaliia  In  ratitrn  a  I'laiirkncN  nurtl- 
flcute,  authorliiiig  thu  veaaid  U)  gii  tn  *»», 

(iimranliiu. — Hhlpa  uru  vlalti'd  at  Citiihitvaii,  it  lliiin- 
liurg  |Hiaao»ainn  at  thu  tnniith  nf  Iliu  Kllia.  Nili>|ii<rtKd 
veaaeia  lire  generally  aunt  tn  n  ■liiljnli  ntl  thn  Nnrwn 
ginn  coael  |  hut  veaaida  wlih'li  hitvu  Utldtirgntlai|linrnn- 
tine  in  un  Kiigiiah  port,  or  I'liiita  ftnin  Imynnd  llin 
Cape  nf  (loud  llnpn  nr  Capn  llnrM,  nf  dirai't  frnin  thn 
Kiver  IMuto,  are  periiiiltod  to  I'ntiia  iUfKi'lly  tn  ttatn- 
liurg. 

Credit,  Unikfrai/f,  rti'.— Alltinat  all  gniMla  l»f«  anid  fur 
ready  money,  with  an  allnwuiii'u  nf  nna  licr  I'PMl,  for 
diKi'ount.  Knmetiniea,  hut  lint  fri<i|llaMtly,  aiilaa  are 
made  at  two  ur  three  montlia'  iTHdlt  i  iiml  In  aiii'h  caapa 
a  higher  prico  in  nlitaiiii'il  tliuil  for  niall,  Nnmatlllica, 
sugar  is  Mitil  to  thu  aiigiir-lmker  lit  Ihia  ifmllt, 

Brokers  are  pohitlvi^ly  forlilddmi  tn  iii't  in  ntcfilinnta 
or  factors.  They  are  lirmiaud  hy  Ihn  Motmtp,  and 
must  conform  tn  thu  uitalillahiMl  rugllhlllona. 

hdnkmij,  Jiuuriiiiif,  f/i'.— I'orail  aii'niitii  of  Ijin  Hank 
of  Hamburg,  see  IlANKa,  All  unrla  nf  InalirHMica  nrti 
effected  at  llauihnrg.  A  militli'IpHi  rtigiihitlnn  roin- 
pela  the  insuraneu  nf  all  hniiaua  withlti  llm  city,  the 
rate  varying  according  tn  tha  iiiiinliar  nf  llriia  iinil  the 
amount  of  Toss.  Murine  Inaiiruiicu  la  prlliilpnlly  ef- 
fected liy  joint  Btuck  compuiilua,  of  which  tllire  are 
several ;  their  competition  liua  ruiliicitil  thn  prnininma 
to  the  lowest  level,  and  thn  liuslntoii  I'  nut  tllldnratniid 
to  be  proHt  ible.  The  higli  dullfs  nil  pnllcinn  nf  liiaiir- 
ance  in  this  country  haa  led  tn  thn  liiaiirlng  nf  ii  gnnil 
many  ICngilsh  ahlns  ut  llanihiirg,  l.lfn  liiaiiraiicn  In 
not  prosecuted  In  tiormuny  tnany  lonaiilnritliln  ntilnnt  i 
but  some  of  the  Kngllah  ci.iiipHHiua  llitvn  ngntita  hnrn, 
-who  are  said  not  tu  he  vuiy  acriipulnua, 

^«niTi(;)<cy.— Coiisidoring  the  viiat  lllimhiir  of  mer- 
chants and  tradespeople  at  Hamliiirg,  hiiiikrilptcy  iln«a 
not  seem  to  he  of  frequent  ocourrDiiw).    Muvh  of  th« 


hiialnaaa  traneeeted  at  Hamburg  Iwlnit  in  eommlaalon 
and  for  accnunt  nf  houana  abnuMl,  tha  failure  of  foreign 
nirrchanta  la  a  prevalent  anurra  nf  bankruptcy.  An- 
nlhar  anurra  nf  bankruptcy  la  loaaaa  on  goiHla  linportod 
or  eapnrleil  on  aperiilatloti,  an<l  nrctininniiliy  luaaea  in 
tha  fuiida,  In  which  a  gnnl  ilaal  of  gambling  gnaa  nn 
hara.  Kx|ian>lva  living  la  not  iiaarly  an  prevalent  * 
anuria  of  liankru|itry  liara  aa  In  Uinihm  and  niher 
plarea,  Hen  l.'iim.  Hii.  I'.  H.t  IIii:«t'»  Mrr.  May., 
«»lll.,  177,  XV.,  177  !    Wtilm.  H'V.,  xxxvlll.,  tll7. 

■ammook  or  Hamao,  CNpan.  humtini—n  word 
of  Indian  orlglnX  a  kiml  of  hanging  lied,  wiilih  ia  au»- 
pcnded  lietween  troea  nr  posts,  or  twu  hooka.  The 
triia  Indian  hammock  la  a  long  narniw  net  iiiotla  of 
strong  cnni,  and  tarmlnatnd  at  each  end  by  amall 
ro|>ea  for  aus|Mnillng  it.  The  Imnnnock  usnl  on  lioard 
alilp  conalsta  of  a  pleiw  nf  stout  canvoa,  aUiut  six  faal 
long  and  three  broad,  gathered  at  the  emls  and  auo- 
|Hinded  by  corda.  The  iullor'a  haminwk  Is  an  oblong 
place  of  hempen  cloth  |  at  each  end  uro  fantenvd  sev- 
eral amall  lines,  meeting  In  a  grumniat  or  iron  ring : 
tlii'sa  form  the  r/ri/'>.  The  whole,  having  mattresnea, 
pillows,  ate,,  plucetl  In  It,  is  hoisted  up  Into  its  place  by 
amall  mpva  called  laninrJi,  lietween  two  battens  or 
aen>ws  In  tha  beams  of  the  deck  over  head,  uliout  nine 
fnat  dialant  asunder.  The  hammock  Is  a  very  agree- 
able bed,  i'S|wclally  in  cnhl  weather)  but  some  little 
practice  Is  reipilslta  at  tirst  in  getting  in  and  out  auc- 
ceasfnlty.  During  thu  d,iy,  the  huinini"  k*,  lushed  up 
tight  III  the  form  of  cater|iillara,  are  stowed  in  the 
nettings  along  the  upper  eilge  nf  the  bulwark. 

Kampton  Roaoa,  Va.,  u  branch  nf  ('h«sa|ieake 
Hay,  nff  the  mnuth  of  James  Klver,  lietween  OhI  Point 
(,'omfort  on  the  north  and  Wllioughby  I'olnt  nn  the 
smith.  It  Is  suHlcirntly  deep  for  the  largest  ships  nf 
war,  and  is  nn  important  naviil  rendezvous.  On  Old 
I'olnt  Comfort,  there  have  lieen  ceded  to  the  I'nited 
Htates  iM  acres  ; — a  fnrtlllcation  called  Kort  Mnnrne 
has  been  erected,  which  mounts  885  guns,  j^enerally 
HI  and  4N-pounders,  180  of  which  are  under  Immli-priMif 
cnvera.  On  the  np|Hmite  (lolnt,  one  mile  distant,  la 
Kort  ('alhniin.  Ihe  foundation  is  made  by  throwing 
In  stnnes,  and  it  covers  about  seven  acres.  This  fort 
Is  designeil  to  mount  litif)  guns,  'U'»  and  ',W»,  and 
nearly  all  under  cover.  These  completely  command 
Ihe  entrance  to  llamptnn  Koads.  On  thu  north  i<.de 
of  the  entrance  Is  Old  J'oitU  C'om/urt  /.iyht,  lat.  87°  (>', 
long.  71)°  IH'  W.,  showing  a  I'ixed  light  un  a  white 
tower,  and  clovatcil  10  loot  obove  the  surface  of  the 
sen.  On  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  the  W'illoiighhi/ 
flpil  l.iijhl  Vfntel  shows  fixed  lights,  elevated,  the  one 
n'l  and  file  other  41  feet  above  the  sea-level ;  and 
here  Is  n  fug-bell  also.  The  channel  Icadi.ig  from  the 
Ciipps  nf  Virginia  to  Hampton  Koads  is  reduced  ut  Old 
I'ninI  Cnm/iirl  to  a  narrow  width.  The  shoal  water, 
iiiiilor  the  action  of  the  wa  and  tlie  reaction  of  the  bar, 
Is  kept  in  an  unremitting  ripple  ;  whicii  circumstance 
has  given  to  this  place  the  name  of  the  /tip  llnp». 

MandkerohlefB.  Handkerchiefs,  wrouglit  and 
edged  with  gold,  used  to  lie  worn  in  England  by  gen- 
tlemen in  tlieir  hats,  as  favors  from  young  ladles,  tlio 
value  of  them  being  from  live  to  VI  jienco  for  each,  in 
the  reign  of  Kllzabeth,  liwH. — Stow'h  (,'hnm.  Ilund- 
kerchles  were  of  early  manufacture,  and  are  mentioned 
in  niir  oldest  works,  Handkerciefs  of  the  celelirated 
Paisley  manufucture  were  tirst  made  in  that  town  in 
17  lit. 

Handspike  is  a  stong  wooden  bar,  ii.sed  as  a  lever 
tn  move  the  windlass  and  capstan  in  heaving  up  the 
niH'lior,  or  raising  any  lieavy  weights  on  board  a  ship. 
The  bundle  is  smooth,  round,  and  somewhat  taper; 
thn  nther  end  is  square,  tu  lit  the  liolcs  in  the  head  of 
the  capstnn,  nr  barrel  of  thn  windlass. 

Hang-Chau-Fou,  an  important  city  of  China, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Che-kiang.  un  a  plain  near 
Ihe  River  Tsientang,  about  40  miles  from  its  mouth, 
•nd  140  miles  south-east  of  Nanking.  It  is  sarrounded 


If 


'PI 


■•im 


HAN 


928 


HAN 


bjr  high  and  atrong  walli,  uld  to  be  nine  mtlaii  In  cir- 
cumference ;  and  adjoining  it  are  very  oxtennlv*  nub* 
nrbs.  Tlie  Govemor-deneral  of  Clie>l(lang  and  Kit- 
Uen  reaidea  in  thla  city,  and  alao  the  governor  of  the 
province,  wliich,  wltli  their  courta  anil  troopa,  in  ad- 
dition to  \ta  great  trade,  render  tlila  una  of  the  moat 
important  and  riclieat  citica  in  the  ttmpire,  A  portion 
of  tlie  apace  witiiin  the  walla  U  divided  off  for  tliii  ac- 
commodation of  a  garrison  of  7000  troopa.  The  Uranil 
Canal  has  ita  aouthem  tarmiimtion  here,  In  a  large 
irregular  tMuin.  The  atreeta  are  well  paved,  and  the 
ahopa  and  warefaousea  are  large,  and  well  atured  with 
gooda.  There  are  numeroua  rich  templea  and  elegant 
public  buildinga ;  and  altogether,  thla  city  preaenta  the 
appearance  of  great  wealth  and  •pUindor,  it  la  noted 
for  ita  ailk  mannfacturea,  whieli  employ  a  large  portion 
of  its  inhabitanta.  The  population  ia  aaid  to  be  ubuut 
1,000,000. 

Hanover,  a  kingdom  in  Germany,  formed  out  of 
the  duchiea  which  formerly  belonged  to  aevorol  famU 
lias  of  the  junior  branch  of  the  houaa  of  lirunawlck, 
In  the  course  of  the  tevolntlonury  war,  under  the  In- 
flnenee  of  I^rance,  the  dukedoma  of  Davnria,  of  Haxony , 
and  of  Wirtemburg  had  been  raUed  to  the  rank  of 
kingdoms ;  and  when  the  overthrow  of  llonitpurte  waa 
accomplialied,  the  dukedoma  which  had  c<>nipo««il  the 
electorate  of  Hanover  were  thought  by  the  allied 
powers  of  auffleient  oonaequence  to  lie  elevated  to  the 
same  dignity,  aa,  with  the  additlona  then  made  to 
them,  they  were  nearly  equal  in  extent  and  popula- 
tion to  the  other  portiona  of  Germany  whiiae  rulera 
had  received  that  rank.  It  auoordlngly  aaaumed  that 
grade  in  1814,  under  George  III.,  and  wua  acknowl- 
edged as  Buoh  by  all  the  powers  of  Europe, 

The  kingdom  of  Hanover  lies  between  lat,  51°  18' 
and  83°  62'  N.,  and  long.  fl°  43'  and  11°  45'  K.  (  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  German  Ocean,  north- 
east by  the  Elbe,  which  aeparataa  It  from  Deinnark, 
Hamburg,  and  Mecklenburg,  eaat  and  aouth-eaat  by 
Prussia  and  Brunswick,  aoutb-west  by  Ilaaae-Caaael  and 
Piussia,  and  west  by  Holland.  The  liounilurlea  In- 
clude the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  which  ulnioat  completely 
separates  Hanover  into  two  large  portiona,  the  connec- 
tion being  maintained  liy  u  imrrow  atrip  of  land,  not  more 
than  aix  miles  in  width,  aouth  of  the  duchy,  A  amall 
porti6n  in  the  aouth  ia  separated  from  Hanover  proper 
by  the  interjection  of  part  of  liurnawiuk.  The  entire 
area  amounts  to  about  9,404,44(1  acres,  or  14,7H8  «(|uaro 
miles,  as  foliowa : 


ProvlDMt. 


I      Ettentin 
j  KnaH«h  trnt. 


HanoTvr. . . . 
Hildcabelui. 
Luneburg. . . 

SUdi- 

Osnobruck.. 

Aurlch 

Clausthal . . . 
ToUl 


1,48!i,6»8 
1,102,081) 
S,T«D,M9 
1,6T4,IM9 
l,M0,»t8 
787.968 
1M,112 


FnpuDitliMl  (q  fNiimWof 
D«c.l»»l, 


9i4<>4,44«    l" 


H40,INW 

97»,ilM 

861,»nfi 

18S,tll« 

B6,71» 

"2.8l"i)T958 


{ilWAllIni  ItrillMo 

r  4H,44ft 
ntftn 
4i<,win 

44,(IH1 

41.0-JT 

tl<>,0'J4 

H.HDII 

r  "WW,7U« 


Thje  whole  of  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  dlpa  toward 
the  north,  and  the  couraea  of  all  the  rivera  aru  In  that 
direction.  Theae  are,  firat,  the  Kllie,  which  borders  a 
large  part  of  the  dominion,  and  receives  Into  It  the 
Ohre,  which  rises  in  the  province  of  Lunoliurg  j  the 
Aland  and  Jeetze,  which  come  out  of  I'ruaaia,  and  are 
navigable  liefore  they  terminate  In  the  Kllie  ;  the  II- 
meneau,  which  becomes  navigable  ut  l.unoburg ;  the 
Eate,  which  is  navigable  to  Iluxtchude ;  the  I.llbe, 
navigable  to  Homburg ;  the  Schwinge,  by  which  vea- 
sela  reach  Stade ;  the  Oste,  which  iHiasea  Hurliurg, 
and  is  navigable  to  Kirchostera ;  and  the  Medum, 
which  runa  through  the  Hodelu-land,  and  admlta  large 
resaels  as  high  aa  Ottemilnrf;  aecoiid,  the  Weaar, 
which  enters  the  dominion  of  Hanover  ut  MOnden,  be- 
ing there  fanned  by  the  junction  of  the  Fulila  ami  the 
Werra.  It  is  navigable  fur  barges  from  the  »|iut  at 
which  its  name  commenceai  and  it  recelvea  in  Ita 
MUTse  the  Hamel,  tb«  Allar,  tba  Oertae,  tl>«  Ltilne, 


the  BOhma,  the  Eyther,  the  AVamme,  which,  in  the 
lower  part  of  Its  course,  takes  the  name  of  Leaum, 
the  Gneate,  and  the  Uunte ;  all  of  which  are  Hanover- 
Ian  rivera,  and  continue  their  united  course  till  they 
are  loat  in  the  German  Qcean,  near  Bremen ;  tlUrd,  the 
Ema,  a  river  rising  in  the  Pruaaian  province  of  West- 
phalia. After  entering  Hanover,  it  recelvea  the  wa- 
tura  of  the  Aa,  the  Haae,  the  Else,  and  the  Leda.  Be- 
fore reaching  the  sea,  it  falls  into  the  Dollart,  near 
Kmdon,  which  la  the  principal  sea-port  in  the  kingdom. 
It  la  navigable  for  flat-bottomed  vessels  from  Rheina 
downward,  and  for  acn-golng  ships  trom  Halte  and 
Wvener.  About  1,200,000  thalers  ($87,000)  have  been 
expended  In  improving  the  navigation,  and  it  has  be- 
rninn  In  conaci|uence  a  very  important  channel  for  the 
Inland  trade  of  the  countr}-.  Fourth,  the  Vecht,  a 
river  of  short  course,  rising  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Woatphalla,  and  terminating  in  the  Zuyder  Zee; 
Iti  princl|ial  importance  is  derived  from  a  navigaiile 
canal,  which  commences  at  the  city  of  Munster,  and  is 
the  channel  of  aome  trade  through  the  Vecht  to  Am- 
sterdam. 

Though  Hanover  ia  generally  a  aandy  soil,  it  has 
aome  aiuall  freah-water  lakes.  The  Dummersee,  in 
DIvpholtz,  ia  aliout  12  miles  in  circuit.  The  Steinhu- 
dernioer,  in  the  province  of  Kalenburg,  Is  about  four 
niilea  long  and  two  liroad;  and  the  Dollart,  at  t)ie 
month  of  the  Ema,  which  is  rather  an  estuary  than  a 
lake,  ia  12  milea  acrosa.  The  canala  are  all  of  short 
courae.  The  Aurich  Canal,  between  Aurich  and  Eni> 
den,  la  15  miloa  long ;  thn  Bremen  Canal,  between  the 
Oste  and  the  Schwinge,  serves  both  fur  draining  and 
fur  transport ;  the  I'apinburg  Canal,  between  Papin- 
Imrg  and  the  Ema,  is  unimportant. 

Manufacturing  industr}-  prevails  less  in  Hanover 
than  In  tlie  other  States  of  Germany.  Linen  yam  and 
doth  are  the  principal  branches.  Woolen  cloths  are 
made  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  aouthem  part  of  the 
kingdom ;  and  thla  branch  of  trade  has  lately  been 
Incroualng.  In  the  west  stockings  and  gloves  are 
made.  Cotton-spinning  has  also  increased,  but  is 
still  Inalgnlllcant,  and  the  same  may  be  aaid  of  silk. 
Potteries,  tile-works,  and  tobacco-pipe  works  are  nu- 
meroua. Tliore  are  nine  glass-houses,  and  52  paper- 
mllla,  which  produce  yearly  about  20,000  bales  of 
paper.  Wax  Is  bleachetl  to  a  considerable  amount,  and 
there  are  numerous  tobacco  factories,  tanneries,  brew- 
eries, vinegar  worka,  and  brandy  distilleries,  the  pro- 
duco  of  which  last  haa  of  late  ver}-  much  increased. 
I''ast  Kricsland  producca  gin.  The  most  thriving 
branch  of  industry  however  is  that  of  nietul  wares.  The 
whole  imputation  of  the  Hurt^  lives  by  the  mining  and 
forginK  of  metals,  excavating  coal,  and  manufacturing 
wixiden  articles.  Founderics  and  forges,  and  works 
of  Iron,  copper,  lirass,  wire,  silver,  and  lead,  vitriol  and 
sulphur,  are  in  the  utmost  activity.  These  mines  and 
associated  works  support  about  35,000  persons.  About 
20,IH)0  workmen  were  .-cry  recently  employed  in  tlie 
1  Inrt/.,  and  the  yearly  value  of  the  produce  was  5,000,000 
thulera  (4;750,000  sterling).  The  latest  returns  give 
the  following  quantity  for  one  year,  for  Hanover  and 
Brunswick  together :  gold,  82  oz. ;  silver,  !iiR,83S  oz. : 
Iron,  i)77,H12  cwt.  j  copper,  540;  vitriol.  6400;  quick- 
silver, 640;  coal,  2,100,000;  salt,  842,000. 

Aa  may  lie  supposed  from  the  small  quantity  of  sur- 
plus production,  the  trade  of  Hanover  is  not  extensive. 
The  principal  |Hirt,  Enulen,  has  some  export  and  ini- 
{lort  trade ;  but  from  the  state  of  the  roads  between 
that  place  and  the  more  populous  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
more  nf  Ita  trade  passes  through  Hamburg  and  Bre- 
men than  through  that  city.  Besides  the  more  cnn- 
aldoralile  articles  made  from  flax,  its  honey,  wax, 
feathers,  and  large  quantities  of  timlicr,  are  sent  to 
Hamburg  and  Bremen.  AVool,  horses,  and  cattle, 
wheat  and  other  grain,  liuttcr  and  cheese,  tobacco  and 
mineral  productions,  are  among  the  chief  exports. 
Uopa,  rape-aeed,  oil-cake,  fruit,  ttama,  and  sausages, 


.±'.i;J's=^4tV;j.-.i; 


HAN 


029 


HAN 


tl.e 

),000 


8ur- 
sive. 
im- 
ecn 
,om, 
Bre- 
con- 

IVU.X, 

it  to 
ittle, 
and 
urtB. 


form  aho  Articles  of  export  of  small  amonnt.  The  im- 
ports consist  principally  of  English  manufactures,  colo- 
nial produce,  fruits,  wines,  jewelry,  and  sillis.  As 
the  roads  to  the  great  fairs  of  Leipsic  and  Frankfort 
pass  through  Hanover,  the  transit  of  goods  for  these 
used  to  create  a  pretty  large  commission  trade,  and 
give  employment  to  many  wagons,  horses,  and  men, 
as  well  as  to  the  barge  owners.  These,  however,  are 
now  in  some  degree  superseded  by  railways,  the  city 
of  Hanover  having  become  a  central  station,  from 
which  these  diverge  in  different  directions  to  IIaml>urg, 
Drnnswick,  Hildesheim,  Dremen,  and  Minden.  Han- 
over has  joined  the  ZoUvfrein  or  General  Customs 
Union  from  Ist  January',  1834. 

The  commerce  between  the  other  States  of  the  Ger- 
man Customs  Union  and  the  United  States  is  not  of 
much  importance.  The  linens  of  Hanover  alwa3's 
find  a  ready  marliet;  and,  were  interposing  import 
duties  in  both  countries  modified  or  altogether  abol- 
ished, the  linens,  raw  wool,  lead,  rape-seed,  hemp,  and 
flax  of  this  kingdom  would  bo  much  more  extensively 
exchanged  fur  American  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  sim- 
ilar produce.  The  direct  exports  from  the  United 
States  to  Hanover  in  1852  were,  besides  staves  and 
flour  (in  value  i|115),  186  hhds.  of  tobacco,  valued  at 
$5,791.  The  value  of  exports  from  Hanover,  via 
Humliurg  and  Bremen,  in  1833,  was  $15,8-11,  and  the 
exports  from  the  United  States  direct  to  Hanover 
were  143  hhds.  tobacco,  valued  at  $6,290.  All  other 
American  exports  found  their  way  to  the  markets  of 
Hanover  through  the  ports  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg. 
The  value  of  exports  from  Hanover  in  1855  was  $44,- 
277,  of  whicii  there  reached  the  United  States  via  Bre- 
men $4.1,40!),  and  via  Belgium  $868.  The  tobacco 
annually  produced  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  is  val- 
ued at  about  $50,000,  from  which  about  2,500,000  lbs. 
of  smoking  tobacco  is  annually  manufactured.  Were 
the  ZoUverein  duty  on  tobacco  abolished,  as  it  has 
been  on  raw  cotton,  the  cultivation  of  tlie  inferior 
quality  produced  in  Hanover  would  not  only  cease 
altogether,  Itut  her  tobacco  manufactories  (346  in  1843), 
would  be  multiplied,  and  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  kingdom  more  profitably  developed.  The  prin- 
cipal sea-ports  of  Hanover  are  Emben,  Harburg,  and 
some  minor  ports  or  shipping  places  on  the  Weser,  in 
the  district  of  Anrich,  or  that  part  of  Hanover  west 
of  Oldenburg.  The  Hanoverian  trade  from  the  Elbe 
centres  at  Hamburg,  that  of  the  Weser  at  Bremen. 

The  commerce  of  the  port  of  Harburg,  on  the  Elbe, 
has,  within  a  few  years,  assumed  consideral)le  im- 
portance. In  1849  the  number  of  vessels  arriving 
at  this  port  was  only  49.  The  following  exhibits 
the  results  of  three  years,  ending  with  1854 :  See 
Elbe  River. 

Veueli  entered. 


Vain. 

ises. 

1888.' 
1854. 


sai 


Veuf  Is  cl«and. 
574 


1,082  1,027 

The  preceding  summary  indicates  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing commerce  of  this  port.  The  vessels  chiefly 
come  from  the  countries  of  northern  Europe,  but  some 
even  from  the  Mediterranean.  Thus,  in  1854,  there 
proceeded  from  the  Mediterranean  ports  580  vessels 
under  the  Hanoverian  flag,  152  under  the  British  flag, 
135  under  the  Danish,  81  under  the  Dutch,  and  3  un- 
der the  French  flag.  Of  these,  266  entered,  and  679 
cleared  in  ballast,  or  with  partial  fireights.  The  re- 
maining vessels  were  laden  chiefly  with  wood,  stone, 
oil-cakes,  and  sundries.  The  marine  service  of  Har- 
burg consists  of  1  three-master,  6  barks,  3  brigs,  2 
brigantines,  1  schooner,  and  6  smaller  craft ;  making 
in  all  19  sail,  exclusive  of  one  bark  on  the  stocks. 

Tlie  river  (Elbe)  arrivolg,  during  the  same  period, 
were: 

Bsltuni. 

In  IMS 2,918 

4,079 


1862.. 
1888.. 
18M.. 


Nhh 


4,226 

6jm 


Notwithstanding  this  rapidly  increasing  prosperity 
of  the  port  of  Harburg,  and  Ae  bommorcial  facilities 
which  it  receives  from  the  Hanoverian  government, 
Hamluirg,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  is  the 
principal  centre  of  .'ianovcrian  trade.  Within  the 
past  ten  years  the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  Han- 
over has  tripled  in  this  port.  In  each  of  the  years 
1852  and  1858,  there  arrived  1.100  vessels  under  the 
Hanoverian  flag,  measuring,  in  the  aggregate,  a  ton- 
naj{e  of  about  15,000  commercial  lasts,  of  6,000  pounds 
each,  or  an  aggregate  of  44,000  tons.  In  the  naviga- 
tion of  Hamburg,  Hanover  holds  the  third  rank  as 
respects  tonnage — the  tonnage  of  the  port  itself  rank- 
ing first,  and  that  of  England  second.  The  freights 
in  1853,  in  Hanoverian  bottoriis,  exceeded  those  of  the 
preceding  year  100  per  cent.,  and  many  years  the 
freights  are  threefold  greater  than  those  given  for  tlie 
years  immediately  preceding. 

The  Hanoverian  flag  participates  proportionally  in 
the  general  foreign  trade,  and  enjoys  a  considerable 
share  in  the  movements  with  trans-Atlantic  countries. 
In  1854  the  number  of  Hanoverian  vessels  in  the  port 
of  Haml)urg  largely  exceeded  that  of  any  former 
year.  It  reached  as  high  as  1,330  vessels,  measuring 
an  aggregate  of  20,336  lasts,  or  nearly  60,000  tons, 
entered,  and  1,317  vessels  cleared.  The  smaller  craft, 
exclusively  engaged  in  the  river  trade,  are  not  com 
prised  in  these  totals.  The  commercial  movements 
at  the  port  of  Emden  in  1834  present  the  following 
rciiults : 

Thalera  (j^old). 

Imports 1 ,71 8^)60 

Exports,  direct. 1,4>M,()81 

"       Indirect 596,388 

Total 8,765,489 


8,765,469  thalers  equal  to $2,965,306 

The  thaler  (gold),  or  Bremen  thaler,  equals  78J  cents. 
The  import  trade  employs  5,895  vessels,  and  4,107 
vehicles  for  the  land  trade.  The  imports  consist 
chiefly  of  cereals,  butter,  and  cheese ;  and  the  exports 
are  mostly  of  the  same  character.  These  latter  em- 
ploy, for  the  home  trade  of  the  port  of  Emden,  391 
vessels.  England,  Holland,  and  Belgium  are  the 
principal  countries  to  whicli  the  exports  from  this  port 
are  destined.  The  mercantile  bouses  of  Emden  en- 
gaged in  the  direct  trade  between  that  port  aud  the 
Russian  ports  of  the  Wiite  Sea,  the  Baltic  and  the 
Black  Seas,  own  about  3,000  tons  of  the  marine  service 
employed  in  that  commerce.  The  cultivation  and 
manufacture  of  flax,  hemp,  etc.,  yielded,  in  the  export 
trade  of  Hanover,  in  1853,  8,500,000  francs,  or  nearly 
$1,700,000.  This  sum  exceeded  the  value  of  similar 
exports  in  18.52,  namely :  of  flax  exported,  724,000 
francs ;  and  of  tissues,  1,070,000  francs. 

The  tissues  of  Hanover  are  in  high  repute  in  foreign 
markets ;  and  at  the  German  Industrial  Exposition, 
held  at  Munich  in  1854,  they  wore  favorably  noticed. 
As  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  flax  and  hemp 
constitute  the  chief  agricultural  and  industrial  wealth 
of  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  the  annexed  talile,  show- 
ing the  quantities  of  tissues  manufactured,  and  their 
values,  from  1840  to  185i) — a  period  of  14  years — is 
compiled  from  the  official  returns  of  that  government ; 


1S40., 
IMl., 
1842. 
1&48., 
1844. 
1S4S. 
1846. 
1S47. 
1848. 
1849. 
ISftO. 
1861. 
1862. 
1868. 


Tliaiies  mtinnfiictured. 


I'looc. 
214,692 
217,7m 
217.')44 

,   iiis;mi 

I  198,176 
208,785 
192,251 
228,608 
195,486 
288,609 
249,448 
241,7,^3 
219,246 
807,094 


Bill. 
18,189,174 
18,295,214 
18,848,188 
16,6:10,619 
10,667,666 
17,188,187 
:\508,626 
18,0Ut,685 
10.891, ''88 
19,228,02., 
20,800,677 
19,065,446 
17,876,866 
16,986,978 


ValiiM. 


1,4S9,S12 
1,^M,828 
1,474,730 
1,«62,.'»6 
1,2S8.622 
1,826,269 
1,811,891 
1.564,776 
1,327,726 
1,686,112 
I  768,686 
1,64(,,:'>« 
1,460,116 
l,it6,ti6S 


HAN 


930 


HAN 


Tba  ell  otitaatrnfiiM  ISntftiitb  ItK/ltM  1 13  pfennings 
wl  groaohan  |  H  grtmihtn^i  thNl«fa^78  rents. 

The  tUauss  wnd  yuma  itt  Untun/^  ntn  exported  di- 
rectly from  H«nov«rtitit  tnirtn  hir  Krlenland  and  the 
countriea  l»  lnw  the  l'4l««,  MwwtMt  Mttd  Norway,  Meck- 
lenhurg,  llulUnd,  m\A  th«>  Mt4t«i!>  of  the  /ollverein. 

From  ilraiiMi),  fur  N»w  Vofh,  Italtlmore.  Havana, 
Bt.  Dumiiigo,  I'urtu  Klco,  VntUi  V,»\m\\o,  i^guayra, 
VeneziieU,  Msxlu),  iiii4  i\m  V.mMy  \»U». 

Fropi  Hamliurg,  fur  tlw  ctthnu  ami  cotintrlea  above 
deaignatad,  and  wIm  fur  llraitti,  Mew  Orleans,  Cuba, 
and  tha  West  (ndiaa. 

Effective  merchant  miirlnti  if/"  t/mofef  In  1865.— Sail- 
ing vessels  I  tut«l,  701 1  i>t(nriif(»t«  tonnage,  64,741 
tons.  Coasting  and  rlvvr  i^niftl  total,  1,H!J9|  aggre- 
gate tonnage,  ail,l'.tl  (unit.  Meam  veeaelsi  total,  8  ; 
aggregate  tJtnnoge,  Ml  Utiu, 

Effective  merchiinl  tmflup  ijf  IMiUffi  in  1866,— Sail- 
ing veaaalsi  tot«l,  )f)|  AtfKr#({ttt«  ((mnage,  6,102  tons. 
Steam  veasoU !  Mitl,  3 1  i«|(4r«)$al«  t4WH«)^e,  810  tons. 

Adjacent  to  tba  tuwn  uf  ntaik,  on  tli«  fclt>e,  stands 
tha  caatla  of  Drunahanwn,  twM  wliirli  a  vessel  Is  sta- 
tioned to  receive  toll  mi  all  vpssets  passing  up  the 
river.  American  veaiMla  |M»»ltijj  up  to  Hamburg  are 
anbjected  to  vexattima  and  tmntmin  duties  at  this  point, 
sertoualy,  and  in  vf»U(l»m  of  lite  treaty  of  June  10, 
1846,  with  lUnuver,  iiflii(>t)n)(  American  commerce 
with  that  port.  liMnburtf  \m<\mtty  and  the  Hamburg 
flog  an  exaroiit  frwffl  any  duty  at  ilrunshausen. 


ArrandJjMBwnU, 


Luneburg. .....r 

Sttdn 

WMt  Ffiealwd! 


MT 


«%««(•*, 

"OSjirtlM 

0.|i«Jl]r. 

tM4l67 

134 

m 

Mo 

10,442 

M»C. 

i8,8oa 

Total m 

The  8d  aectUm,  urttola  i,nt  t)m  treaty  of  1846,  Is  in 
these  words  I  ''And  furrttsf,  it  Is  agreed,  that  no 
higher  or  other  toll  altnU  lie  levied  or  collected  at 
Brunshausen  or  Htiwle,  m\  tlw  Illvcr  Wl*,  upon  the  ton- 
nage or  cargoes  of  v«««#la  iit  ttw  1?ult«-d  States,  than  is 
levied  or  collected  Mjndt  tll«  t((nu«f<p  and  cargoes  of  ves- 
sels of  the  kiligduni  of  KnHuvor,"  Article  7  is  in  the 
following  words  I  "  'ffis  l(i({li  ('uMtrat*lng  parties  engage, 
mutually,  not  to  gr»Bt  «ny  partjcutar  favor  to  other 
nations,  in  rsapac't  of  nAvmatlun  and  duties  of  cus- 
toms, which  abalt  nut  Itnmii4iat«ly  become  common  to 
the  other  party  (  wbu  ati/tll  citjuy  the  same  freely,  if 
the  concession  wera  frwiy  imkik'.  or  on  allowing  a 
compensation,  «a  mm  hh  {HMsiblc,  If  the  concession 
was  conditional,"  ft  la  \irf)\<*t,  however,  to  add,  thiit 
it  is  cUlined  that  tli()  I'liwrntiim  Is  conditional,  viz : 
services  rendered  to  tba  nituoverlan  custotn-house  in 
the  computation  and  eunm-tiim  nt  duties,  etc.,  by  the 
ofBciala  of  mmhvrg,  If  (be  flag  and  property  of 
Hamburgiana  iMaa  Htade  exetn|it  trum  any  toll  or  du- 
ty, the  iinpoaitlon  of  fftber  m  American  vessels  is 
clearly  in  vjoliiUon  of  (re«(y  stipulHtlmis, 

The  duchy  of  Ubtenbur^  la  nearly  Inclosed  within 
Hanover,  having,  however,  n  w««  frontier  of  from  40 
to  60  miles,  and  lh«  Weaer  iHiuwIlna  It  on  the  west. 
The  duchy  Ilea  in  (liw  Iwaln  (it  the  Sorth  Sea,  and  is 
entirely  flat,  and  In  uiiiny  placets  marshy,  though  in 
several  |»urt8  it  |)oaa«aaea  evcetlenf  pasturage,  on  which 
horses,  cattle,  and  alteep  are  extensively  ral8e<l.  The 
soil  is  not  well  adapted  fnt  AgriiuHural  purposes ;  and, 
hence,  tlie  agricultural  iirwliif  tlims  are  not  sufficient 
for  tiie  consumption  itt  (be  inbalrftants,  Us  commerce 
with  the  I'nited  W<i(ea  U  autflll.  In  1862,  Olil.iitmrg 
sent,  via  Franc*  and  Knijland,  to  the  I'nlted  States, 
merchandlas  amimnting  to  #478,  'Mils  duchy  entered 
tha  Zollverein  [,e«gue,  ,tmmry  1,  1864,— Com.  Kel., 
U.S. 

HUMMtle  LailffU*,  »n  association  of  the  prin- 
cipal cttiea  in  the  north  iif  (lermany,  Prussia,  etc.,  for 
tba  battar  carrying  m  uf  «imtmerce,  and  for  their 
ma  ual  8«tatx  «n4  daftrnM.   'Iltia  emtmtutuiy,  k  cele- 


brated in  the  early  history  of  modem  Europe,  contrib* 
nted  in  no  ordinary'  degree  to  introduce  the  blessings 
of  civilization  and  good  government  into  the  north. 
The  extension  and  protection  of  commerce  was,  how- 
ever, its  main  object ;  and  hence  a  short  account  of  it 
may  not  be  deemed  misplaced  in  a  worii  of  this  de- 
scription. 

Origin  and  Progreu  of  the  Hanteatic  League. — Ham- 
burg, founded  by  Charlemagne  in  the  ninth,  and  Lu- 
bec,  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century, 
wcr«  the  earliest  memliers  of  the  League.  The  dis- 
tance betweeti  them  not  being  very  considerable,  and 
being  aliice  interested  in  the  repression  of  those  disor- 
ders to  whicli  mi)st  parts  of  Europe,  and  particularly 
the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  were  a  prey  in  the  12th,  13th, 
and  14th  centnries,  they  early  formed  an  intimate  po- 
litical union,  partly  in  the  view  of  maintaining  a  safe 
intercourse  by  land  with  each  other,  and  partly  for  the 
protection  of  navigation  from  the  attaclcs  of  the  pirates, 
with  which  every  sea  was  at  that  time  infested.  Thoro 
is  no  very  distinct  evidence  as  to  the  period  when  this 
alliance  was  consummated ;  some  ascribe  its  origin  to 
the  year  1109,  others  to  the  year  1200,  and  others  to 
the  year  1241,  But  the  most  probable  opinion  seems 
to  be,  that  it  would  grow  np  by  slow  degrees,  and  be 
perfected  according  as  the  advantage  derivable  from 
it  became  more  obvious.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  so  called  from  the  old  Teutonic 
word  hanaa,  signifying  an  association  or  confederacy'. 

The  Uanse-Towns  (so  called  from  the  old  Teutonic 
word  hanm,  signifying  an  association  or  confederacy), 
or  the  free  Hanseatic  republics  of  Lubec,  Bremen,  and 
Hamburg,  are  all  that  now  remain  of  the  once  pow- 
erful confederation  which  constituted  the  Hanseatic 
League.  Formed,  it  is  supposed,  about  the  year  1164, 
partly  for  mutual  protection  and  safe  intercourse  l>y 
land,  and  partly  for  the  protection  of  navigation  from 
the  pirates  who  infested  the  Baltic  and  the  coasts  of 
the  North  Sea,  this  League  bus  liecomo  Justly  cele- 
brated in  the  early  history  of  the  civilization  and  gov- 
ernments of  modem  Europe.  The  first  and  principal 
members  of  this  Confe-'Tacy  were  Hamburg,  founded 
by  Charlemagne  toward  the  close  of  the  8tli,  and  Lu- 
bec, founded  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century. 
"  The  wild,  enthusiastic  expeditions  of  the  Crusaders, 
in  the  11th  and  subsequent  centuries,  the  introduction 
of  the  distillery  into  Europe  in  the  i2th  centurj-,  and 
the  conquest  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  the  Cross  in 
Prussia  and  Livonia,  were,"  says  the  author  of  "Lex 
Mercatoria,"  "among  the  causes  which  originully 
brought  forward  the  navigation  and  trade  of  northern 
and  western  Europe,  and  combined  in  forming  this 
celebrated  association." 

The  disorders  'o  which  most  parts  of  Europe,  iind 
particularly  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  were  n  prey,  during 
the  12th  and  following  centuries,  first  invited  the  cities 
of  Lubec,  Hamburg,  anl  Bremen,  to  unite  in  this  Con- 
federacy. Soon,  however,  they  were  Joined  by  most 
of  the  trading  towns  of  Europe.  The  cities  wlilch 
were  estal)Ushed  along  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  and  in 
the  interior  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  it,  eagerly 
sought  admission  into  a  League  which  guarantied  them 
ample  protection  against  the  robber-princes  and  l>nr- 
barians  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  London, 
Rouen,  Bordeaux,  St.  Malo,  Bayonne,  Marseilles, 
Barcelona,  Seville,  Cadiz,  Lisbon,  Antwerp,  Dort, 
Amsterdam,  Bruges,  Rotterdam,  Ostend,  I.)imliirk, 
Leghorn,  Messina,  and  Naples;  Bergen  in  Norway, 
Novgorod  in  Russia ;  all  tlie  towns  on  the  Elbe  and 
Weser ;  Emden,  Cologne,  an  I  other  cities,  succes- 
sively united  with  this  fonnidable  association,  until  it 
was  able,  in  a  war  against  one  of  the  northern  powers, 
in  the  14th  century,  to  call  into  active  service  40  siiip-s 
of  war  and  12,000  troops,  exclusive  of  seamen  At 
this  period,  several  of  tlie  European  powers,  especially 
the  kings  of  France  and  of  southern  Europe,  becoming 
alarmad  at  the  extraordinary  and  fonnidable  progress 


HAN 


981 


HAN 


of  an  auooUtton,  irhose  merchanta,  tndcn,  and  emis- 
saries were  fonnd  In  every  port,  city,  and  Tillage 
thronghout  Europe,  and  whose  decrees  were  pro- 
claimed  as  the  supreme  law  in  their  respective  domin- 
ions, withdraw  their  towns  and  their  merchants  t(om  a 
League  which  threatened  to  annihilate  their  sover- 
eignty and  give  laws  to  the  world. 

It  has  been  urged,  and  with  much  force,  that  the 
decline  of  the  Hanse-towns  was  owing  mainly  to  their 
having  become  warlike,  instead  of  remaining  alto- 
gether commereial.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this 
was,  at  least,  one  of  the  causes,  and,  perhaps,  the  pre- 
dominating cause,  of  their  decline.  Everywhere  they 
claimed  special  concessions  and  special  privileges. 
They  demanded  and  obtained  the  entire  custodianship 
of  Bishopagate,  one  of  the  principal  entrances  to  Lon- 
don ;  and  when  certain  privileges  were  attempted  to 
be  withdrawn  from  them,  they  boldly  declared  war 
against  England,  and  immediately  drove  her  vessels 
Arora  the  Baltic,  until  Edward  IV.  restored  them  all 
their  privileges,  and  even  exempted  them,  in  mari- 
time cases,  firom  the  authority  of  the  admiralty  court. 
Referring  to  the  treaty  concluded  with  the  Hanseatic 
League,  at  this  period,  McCuUoch  remarks :  "  The 
privileges  of  the  merchants  of  the  Hanse-towns  were 
renewed,  and  the  King  assigned  to  them,  in  absolute 
property,  a  large  space  nf  ground  with  the  buildings 
upon  it,  in  Thames-street,  denominated  the  Steelyard, 
whence  the  Hanse  merchants  have  been  commonly 
denominated  i,he  Association  of  the  Steel3'ard,  It  was 
further  agreed  that  the  particular  privileges  awarded 
to  the  Ilanse  merchants  chould  lie  published,  as  often 
as  the  latter  judged  proper,  in  all  the  sea-pnrt  towns 
of  England,  and  such  Englishmen  as  infringed  them 
should  be  punished.  In  return  for  these  concessions, 
the  English  acquired  the  liberty  of  freely  trading  in 
the  Baltic,  and  especially  in  the  port  of  Dantzic,  and 
in  Prussia.  This  treaty,"  he  adds,  "  settled  the  difB- 
culties  with  the  Hanse-towns  on  terms  which  were 
any  thing  but  honorable  to  the  English."  In  T641, 
even  when  the  power  of  these  cities  had  declined,  and 
their  organization  had  become  comparatively  dismem- 
bered, we  again  find  them  converting  their  merchant 
vessels  into  ships  of  war,  and  disputing  with  Denmark 
her  pretensions  to  tax  the  commerce  of  the  world  at 
the  castle  of  Cronberg.  Indeed,  it  may  be  remarked, 
in  passing,  that  the  Hanseatic  League  never  quietly 
submitted  to  the  pretensions  of  Denmark  in  the  im- 
position of  the  Sound  tax  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
Baltic. 

Prior  to  the  treaty  with  Sweden  in  the  Mth  century, 
the  coltoction  of  this  toll  was  successfully  resisted  by 
the  League.  Being  then  in  the  meridian  of  its  great- 
ness, it  ol)tained,  on  its  own  terms,  a  free  passage  for 
its  ships  and  cargoes  through  the  Sound — a  privilege 
enjoyed  until  Denmark,  perceiving  that  the  Hanseatic 
League  held  her  authority  in  utter  contempt,  deemed 
it  judicious  to  invite  other  nations  to  engage  in  the 
trade  of  the  Baltic,  permitting  the  vessels  of  England 
and  Holland  to  pass  through  the  Sound  on  the  pay- 
ment of  mere  nominal  tolls.  This  was  intended  to 
strengthen  the  arms  of  Denmark  in  any  conflict  in 
which  her  abrogation  of  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the 
League  might  involve  her.  Lubec,  in  the  name  of  the 
other  Hanse-towns.  ineffectually  protested  against  this 
encroachment  upon  their  long  undisputed  sovereignty 
of  the  Baltic,  and  demanded  the  immediate  exclusion 
of  the  Dutch  Arora  that  sea.  Their  power,  however, 
was  now  declining ;  their  demand  was  refused,  and  we 
find  them,  in  1560,  submitting  to  a  convention  with 
Denmark  for  the  adjustment  of  the  question  of  the 
Sound  dues,  resulting  in  the  treaty  of  the  Odensee 
between  "the  king  of  Denmark  and  his  subjects  on 
the  one  part,  and  the  right  honorable  Hanceatlc  cities 
and  the  merchants  thereof  on  the  other  part."  So 
rapid  was  their  decline  ftvm  this  period,  that  when 
Denmark,  three  yean  after  (he  conclusion  of  this 


treaty,  made  her  war  with  Sweden  a  pretext  for  in- 
creasing the  Sound  dues  against  the  Hanse-towns,  in 
violation  of  the  stipulations  of  that  treaty,  the  latter, 
being  now  shorn  of  their  former  power,  were  compelled 
to  submit.  Toward  the  close  of  the  17th  centur}-,  the 
Hanseatic  League  may  be  considered  as  having  ceased 
to  exist  in  a  federal  capacity.  But,  about  that  period, 
individual  cities  whicli  formed  the  League,  especially 
Hamburg,  not  only  regained  their  former  commercial 
splendor,  but,  since  that  time,  have  gradually  risen  in 
wealth  and  prosperity. 

The  progress  of  civilization  in  Europe— the  (li.scor- 
eries  of  the  passage  to  India  bv  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  of  America — tlie  rise  of  Holland,  and  the  conse- 
quent rapid  commercial  progress  of  the  Dutcli — these 
causes  combined  opened  new  and  hitherto  unknown 
channels  for  navigation  and  commerce,  and  created 
changes  in  the  commercial  world  fur  which  ancient 
trading  establishments  were  neither  adapted  nor  pre- 
pared. Thus  wc  see  that  the  decline  of  tlie  League  was 
mainly  brought  about  by  that  very  progress  of  improvc- 
r    nt  which  it  had  contributed  so  much  to  prumuts. 

Ihe  Hanse  towns,  especially  Hamburg  and  Bremen, 
have  established  in  every  part  of  the  world  possess- 
ing any  commercial  importance  numerous  mercantile 
houses,  under  the  management  of  merchants  of  great 
intelligence  and  energj*.  These  establishments  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  prosperity  and  augmentation  of 
the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Ilance  towns.  Of  the 
343  houses  and  comploira  which  represent  the  com- 
merce of  Germany  in  foreign  countries,  227,  or  two 
thirds,  belong  to  Hamburg  and  Bremen. 

There  are  37  Hanseatic  commercial  houses  in  Mex- 
ico, of  which  there  are  In  the  city  of  Mexico,  11 ;  Vera 
Cruz,  11;  Tampico,  4 ;  Mazatlan,  6 ;  other  places,  6. 
In  Guatemala,  1 ;  Cuba,  14 ;  Porto  Rico,  3 ;  Hayti,  6; 
St.  Tliamas,  4;  the  other  Antilles,  G;  Venezuela,  23; 
Peru,  5;  Chili,  8;  Brazil,  29;  other  German  houses 
in  South  America,  21.  In  the  ports  of  the  La  Plata — 
Hanse  houses,  2 ;  other  German  houses,  8.  In  Ecua- 
dor— German  houses,  2,  In  China  and  Chinese  India — 
Hanse  houses,  7 ;  other  German  houses,  7.  In  African 
ports — Ilunse  houses,  9 ;  other  German  houses,  2. 

Value  or  lurooTS  and  Extoktb  or  Bbehin  in  toe  Yiab 
1867. 

ImiMrts. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland R,S83,333 


France 2'29,e»T 

Belgium I07,34S 

Holland 4S1,713 

Sumstra  and  Java 978,782 

Denmark  and  colonies ', 7,4,'>6 

PruMla , 6,411,316 

Austria »87,60« 

Other  German  States 22,006,333 

Rumlaand  Poland I,647,4n0 

Sireden  and  Norvajr 223,704 

Spain 171,508 

Cuba 8,880,072 

Porto  Rico 782,802 

Manilla  (imp.  81,947)  and  Canary)  -^  .-k 

Idlands /  ^ 

Italy 127,334 

Portugal  and  colonies 22,105 

Switzerland 8,000 

Turkey  In  Europe,  litoT*  (exp.  624)  64,760 

Levant 85,124 

United  States 18,205,688 

Mexico 665,182 

Haytl 918,753 

Venoiuela 680,242 

New  Uranada 2,186,384 

Dmzll 3,029,862 

Arpentlne  Confederation 183,064 

Chill  (SJMil),  Uruguay  (1870) 

Central  America  (imp.  4664),  Peru  116,011 

Jamaica 471,749 

Other  English  colonies 4,801 

Kngliah  Knot  Indlex 8,060,863 

Kaat  and  West  coasts  of  Africa ...  .... 

China   and    Southern  AuBtralial  onniin 

(exp.  93,088) /  >=W,11W 

Sandwich  Islands 100,978 

FlBheriea 86,648 

Eiiuipment  of  the  fleet .... 


Kipotti. 

6.'V'<,054 

116,327 

174,322 

770,867 

33,186 

70a,S0B 

0,686,029 

8,030,699 

26,283,752 

1,901,049 

1,266,026 

20,889 

572,431 

200,629 

63,916 

65,783 

28,036 

496,147 

6,298 

800 

16,610,946 

216,681 

113,448 

274,863 

14t,679 

180,040 

2.%209 

4,029 

60,462 

28,320 

60,920 

6,762 

40,797 

98,329 

76,086 

777^68 


Total  in  gold  tbalers 74,004,780    62,609,472 


HAN 


932 


HAN 


BTATmam  ■xmBmRa  tbi  NiriiaxB  or  Banbi  Vissxu 

THAT  PAaStD  TUC  BOUND  IN  1861. 


FUfl. 

Wliincd  ud  wUtkar. 

No.  of 
VMtatf. 

VaUnfli 
attb«3oaDd. 

Lubeo 

Hambnrg. . . .  - 
Bremen. 

Foreign 

From  the  North  Sea 
"      Baltic... 

From  the  North  Sea 
"      Baltic... 

From  the  North  Sea 
"      BalOc... 

From  Lubeo 

63 

60 
88 
48 
19 
16 
16 
81 
86 
IT 
8« 
100 

Fmnci. 
84,876 
18,670 
18,844 
12,863 
24,708 
6,800 

....      1 

From  Hamburg 

To  Hamburg 

From  Bremen 

To  Bremen 

From  1849  to  1861,  446  veaasls,  under  the  Hanse 
flag,  passed  the  Sound,  and  paid  196,170  francs  for  tho 
privilege  of  saluting  the  castle  of  Cronberg.  The 
number  of  Hanse  vessels  which  passed  the  Sound  in 
the  years  1862,  1853,  and  1854,  is  stated  as  follows  : 


18S9.       1        1853. 

lau. 

65 

T 

108 

88 
87 
186 

40 

84 

186 

1    Bremen , 

Lubeo 

Total 

181 

268 

803 

The  aggregate  amount  of  Sound  dues  paid  by  the 
Hanse-towns  from  1846  to  1861,  both  inculsive,  was : 
francs,  471,354  =s  $89,557;  annual  average,  francs, 
78,659  =  $14,926. 

In  conuection  with  this  subject,  it  is  proper  to  add, 
that  arrangements  are  now  being  actively  brought 
toward  consummation,  which  will  exercise  a  marked 
influence  on  the  foreign  commercial  movements  through 
the  ports  of  the  Uanse-towns.  These  have  for  their 
object  the  opening  of  a  route  between  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic:  1st.  Across  Schleswig,  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  railroad  between  Tonningen  and  Husum, 
on  the  one  side  (the  west  of  Schleswig),  and  on  the 
other,  through  Flensburg  (on  the  eastern  side) ;  and 
2.  Across  southern  Sweden,  by  steam  navigation  on 
the  Gotha  Canal. 

It  need  not  be  added  that  either  route  will  supersede 
the  passage  of  the  Sound  and  the  impost  which  is 
there  levied — yielding  to  Denmark  so  large  a  portion 
of  her  Sound^dues  revenue — and  must  necessaril}*,  to 
a  great  extent  at  least,  divert  from  the  latter  route  the 
transitage  through  the  Hanse-towns  destined  for  the 
Scandinavian  countries  and  thosn  bordering  on  the 
Baltic.  The  steam  navigation  of  the  Gotha  Can»l  has 
been  granted  to  an  English  company,  denominated 
"  Navigation  Company  lietween  Hull  and  St.  Peters- 
burg." This  company  commenced  the  construction  of 
four  steamers  in  1853,  at  the  shipyards  of  Alotala  two 
of  which  were  completed  toward  the  end  of  that  year, 
and  the  other  two  Ir  1854.  These  steamers  are  even 
now  insufficent  for  the  heavj'  freights  offered  for 
transit,  and  it  is  understood  that  others  will  soon  be 
added  to  the  line.  The  railroad  referred  to  has  also 
been  granted  to  an  English  company,  which  has  long 
since  commenced  operations.  When  completed,  it 
will  place  I.iOndon  within  80  hours'  distance  of  Flens- 
burg. 

The  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Hanse-towns  are  regulated  by  the  treaty  of 
December  20,  1827.  This  treaty  stipulates  entire  re- 
ciprocity of  trade  and  perfect  freedom  of  commerce 
l^tween  the  two  high  contracting  parties,  no  matter 
from  what  country  or  port  the  vessels  and  cargoes  may 
come.  The  sixth  article  stipulates  that  it  shall  be 
wholly  free  for  all  merchants,  commanders  of  ships, 
and  other  citizens  of  both  parties,  to  manage,  them- 
selves, their  own  business,  in  all  the  ports  and  places 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  each  other,  as  well  with 
respect  to  the  consignment  and  sale  of  their  goods  and 
merchandise  by  wholesale  or  retail,  as  with  respect  to 
the  lotdiog,  unloadlog,  and  tending  off  their  ibipii 


United  SUtes.. 

..  B-T 

u 

.  H-T 

U 

..  1-6 

tt 

,.  8-T 

(( 

..  1-a 

" 

..  1-T 

submitting  themselves  to  the  laws,  decrees,  and  usages 
there  established,  to  which  native  oitizena  are  sub- 
jected ;  "  the}-,  in  all  cases,  to  be  treated  as  citizens 
of  the  republic  in  which  they  reside,  or,  at  least,  to  bo 
placed  on  a  footing  with  tho  citizens  or  aubjects  of  the 
most  favored  nations;"  and  all  favors  granted  by 
either  party  to  other  nations,  to  become  common  to 
the  other  party  on  equal  coaditions. 

The  policy  of  allowing  to  the  Hanse-towns,  by 
treaty  stipulation,  the  privileges  of  their  flag  to  all 
vessels  owned  instead  of  built  within  their  dominions, 
as  in  the  treaty  been  the  Hanse-towns  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, has  been  a  question  of  considerable  doubt  among 
eminent  merchants  of  the  United  States.  By  virtue  of 
this  stipulation,  the  Hanse-towns  bring  to  the  United 
States  the  productions  of  the  different  States  of  Ger- 
many, and  carrj'  back,  in  return,  the  cotton,  rico,  and 
tobacco,  with  which  the  store-houses  of  these  towns, 
especially  Bremen,  are  always  supplied.  The  effect  of 
this  privilege  has,  undoubtedly,  been  to  throw  almost 
the  entire  carrying  trade,  from  the  United  States  ior 
German  markets,  into  tho  hands  of  Hanse  ship-owners. 
This  Is  more  particularly  true  %vith  respect  to  tho  port  of 
Bremen,  as  appears  lh>m  the  following  summar}*  of  the 
navigation  returns  of  that  port.  The  vessels  engaged 
in  the  trade  between  the  United  States  and  Bremen 
were; 

189»-1880     Bremen ST 

1881—1886  "     4-T 

1886—1840  "      4-6 

1841-1846  *  Hanse-towns. ....  6.T 

1846—1860  "  4-6 

1861—1868  "  6-T 

The  Cotton  Trade. — Cotton  and  tobacco  are  the  lead- 
ing imports  of  the  Hanse-towns  from  the  United 
States.  The  value  of  the  former  Imported  during  the 
12  months  ending  iTune  30, 1856,  was  nearly  $3,000,000 ; 
of  the  latter,  more  than  $2,500,000 ;  while  the  value 
of  all  other  domestic  produce  imported  into  Bremen 
and  Hamburg  from  the  United  States  was  upward  of 
$9,000,000.  The  export  of  cotton  from  the  United 
States  to  the  countries  of  northern  Europe  commenced 
some  60  years  ago.  In  the  year  1800,  Holland,  including 
the  territory  now  known  as  the  kingdom  of  Belgium, 
received  79,694  lbs. ;  in  1855  the  aggregate  quantity 
exported  to  the  two  countries  was  17,160,967  lbs.  In 
1803  Norway  and  Denmark  first  imported  American 
cotton,  amounting  that  year  to  184,193  lbs, ;  in  1856 
the  aggregate  quantity  exported  to  these  two  coun- 
tries, including  Sweden,  was  some  7,000,000  lbs.  Prus- 
sia and  Sweden  began  importing  cotton  from  the 
United  States  in  1604.  Russia,  in  1809,  received  cot- 
ton from  the  United  States,  I'or  the  first  time,  and  to 
the  amount  of  500,000  lbs ;  while  in  1853,  the  year 
prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  late  war,  the  ex- 
portation to  that  country  amounted  to  more  than 
21,000,000  lbs.  The  Ilanse-towns  received  cotton 
from  the  United  States  prior  to  the  year  1800 ;  and 
the  progress  of  the  trade  with  those  cities,  which  is 
exhibited  in  the  subjoined  statement,  strikingly  ex- 
emplifies, in  connection  with  the  remarks  which  have 
preceded,  and  the  general  statement  which  follows  it, 
the  rapid  and  powerful  advancement  of  the  king- 
staple,  not  of  the  United  States  only,  but  of  tho  com- 
mercial world.  The  following  statement  shows  the 
quantities  of  cotton  exported  from  the  United  States 
to  the  Hanse-towns  every  10  years,  for  a  period  of  51 
}-ear8,  hom  1806,  to  1856 : 

IlM. 


Iul806 182,C 

1816. 1,846,288 

1825. 877,109 


In  1886 2,683,147 

1846. ]T,204,094 

1966. 80,809,991 

Tobacco  is  borne  in  direct  voyage  from  the  United 
States;  not  so,  however,  with  cotton,  in  the  carry- 

*  The  Hanse-towns  are  given  for  this  and  the  following 
periods ;  Bremen  and  Hamburg  being  united  under  the  of- 
flcUl  data,  under  that  designation.  Bremen,  however,  aver- 
ages more  tba^  three  fourths  of  the  navigation  betwoen  tho 
United  Stitw  and  tta*  Bwtc-towni, 


f 


HAir 


038 


HAN 


Cut 

1,094 
1,991 

I  United 
carrj-- 


ing  trado  of  which  Qreat  Britain  has  b««n  for  many 
yean  an  active  competitor.  Entering  the  ports  of 
the  United  Kingdom  free  of  duty,  her  merehant  flag 
can  rcinlizc  a  profltable  trade  in  its  re-exportation  to 
the  various  ports  of  continental  Europe.  Thus  the 
Hanae-towns  receive  their  supplies  of  raw  cotton  not 
only  from  the  United  States,  in  the  direct  trade,  but 
also  in  tlio  indirect  trado,  from  English  ports  and 
otiier  entrep6ts  of  Europe.  The  annual  average  quan- 
tity of  cotton  exported  from  the  United  States  to  the 
Ilunse-towns,  including  Prussia,  during  the  four  years 
from  1851  to  1854,  both  inclusive,  was  24,811,620  lbs.  j 
wliile  the  annual  average  exported  from  Qreat  Britain 
during  the  four  years  ending  Decemljcr  81,  1864,  was 
80,663,990  lbs. 

Tile  annual  average  quantities  of  cotton  exported 
ttom  the  same  countries,  respectively,  during  the 
same  perimls,  to  other  nations  of  northern  Europe, 
exhibit  similar  results.  These  facts  are  illustrated  by 
the  subjoined  statement,  and  suggest  a  strong  argu- 
ment for  the  serious  consideration,  by  the  navigation 
interosts  of  tlie  United  States  of  such  measures  as 
would  be  liliely  to  promote  the  direct  exportation 

TaBVLAU     COJIPABATIVE     StATKMENT,     SHOWINO    TUB    AVBBAOK    QuANTITIBS    OF     COTTOS    PbODUOKD,     CONSUMED,     AKD 
EXPOBTED   BY  THE    USITED    STATES,     WITU    THE  VaIDES    0»    THE    QUANTITIES    BO    EXPOBTED  ;     AND    THB     ATEBAOE 

Quantities  op  Foreion  Cotton  iupobted  into  and  expokted  fbou  tue  United  States;  toubtiieb  with  tue 
cuERENT  Prices  op  Cotton  in  the  United  States  and  Great  ISritain,  bespkctitelt,  dueino  the  fiest  Thbeb 
Years  op  each  Decade,  for  a  Period  op  Stxtt-thbee  Years,  pbom  1792  to  1854,  both  inolbsivb. 


of  our  great  staple  ftrom  our  own  ports,  in  onrown 
vessels,  to  those  of  the  countries  by  which  it  is  con- 
sumed. 

COHPABATIVE  StATEHENT  SnOWINO  THE  QUANITma  OF  CoT 

ton  exported  to  oebtaik  countries   of  noetuebn 
Europe  prou  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 

:<EBPECTITEI.T,   FOB    A    PERIOD    OF  TuREE  YbABS,  FBUU 

1832  TO  1864,  BOTH  inoiosive. 

From  th*  U.  State*  to 

18M.         {         18il. 

IBM. 

Hanse-towns       oud 

22,188,228      23,671.732 
27,167,890      16,404,442 
10,476,168      21,286,668 
10,259,042        7,088,994 
6,989,026        0,099,617 

87,719,922 

18,980,4^0 

2,914,0.'H 

6,048,166 

9.212,710 

RoMia 

Holland 

Swodonds  Norway.. 

Total 

76,969,863  1    72,691,298 

69,870,311 

From  Great  Britain  to 

1859. 

ista. 

IBM. 

Hanso-towns       and 
Prussia 

23,146,256 
12,657,680 
46,606,840 
16,884,224 
8,691,840 

a4,6flfl,78« 
18,466,072 
48,987,892 
28,676,592 

4,414,368 

59,499,388 

14,040,763  ' 

208,544  1 

26,984,644  I 

5,806,500  ; 

Bolglum 

Rasals. 

Uolland 

Sweden  Jfc  Norway.. 
Total 

100,886,840  1  iaB.(i.'U.7iin  ;  iniiKWluu  1 

Exported. 

Foreign. 

Prieei  in        | 

In  the  yeare 

Quantltlei. 

Val'iee. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

United 

Slalei. 

Great    1 
Orltaln. 

Pound*. 

Pounds. 

Vt.Onn. 

PoundB. 

Pounds, 

Conu. 

Pence. 

iBt  period...  1792,  1798,1794 

6,800,000 

6,600,000 

743,000 

238.000 

1,900,000 

1,600,000 

31  1-3 

19  1-6 

2d  period...  1803,  130.8,  1804 

6(I,(KIO,000 

10,500,000 

&5,000,00O 

6,000,000 

3,200,000 

2,800,000 

19  1-3 

10  6-6 

8cl  period...  1812,  18in,  1311 

73,300,000 

80,000,000 

22,000,000 

2,700,000 

800,000 

200,000 

12  1-2 

20  1-2 

4th  period...  1S22,  1S2S,  1824'    208,.S00,0OO 

66,000,000 

168,500,000 

22,100,000 

1,000,000 

270,000 

14-6 

8  1-8 

6tli  period...  1332,  1888,  1334     431,000,000 

8.^,000,000 

844,000,000 

33,500,000 

1.600,000 

4.10,000 

11-28 

Tl-2 

6tli  period.. .  1842,  1843,  1844     907,100,000 

143,600,000 

630,200,000 

60,700,000 

8,000,000 

7,000,000 

7M6 

6 

7th  period...  1362,  1863,  1S&4  1,227,400,000 

270,800,000 

1,064,200,0001    97,000,000 

600,000 

14,000 

9-12    1    6  1-7  1 

This  statement,  made  up  with  c^re  and  labor,  from  I 
sources  offlcial  and  unofficial,  and  often  conflicting, 
although  not,  perhaps,  statistically  exact,  Is  yet,  prob- 
alily,  enough  so  for  those  purposes  of  general  compari- 
son for  which  it  is  submitted.  For  obvious  reasons, 
the  aggregate  of  the  exportation  and  consumption  of 
cotton  can  not  be  expected  to  balance  the  production 
in  any  single  year,  independently  of  stocks  on  hand 
from  preceding  years.  An  average,  year  with  year, 
of  some  70,000,000  lbs.  consumed  for  household  and 
other  uses,  and  of  some  8,000,000  lbs.  lost  or  de- 
stroyed, and  of  some  600,000  lbs.  of  imported  cotton 
consumed,  arc,  also,  items  to  be  considered  in  striking 
this  balance ;  as  well,  moreover,  as  the  fact  that  the 
sums  are  in  round  numbers,  and  that  the  only  figures 
in  the  statement  which  can  be  viewed  ns  at  all  statis- 
tical, are  those  giving  the  amounts  and  values  of  ex- 
portation ;  those  for  the  consumption  being  derived 
from  the  ■unofficial  declarations  of  manufacturers,  and 
those  for  the  production  being  estimated  from  all  the 
other  items  put  together.  The  aggregates,  however, 
of  consumption  and  exportation,  for  the  whole  period 
of  63  years,  Imlanco  the  production  and  importation 
within  some  6,000,000  lbs.  The  data  for  quantities, 
values,  and  prices  derived  from  the  Treasury  Roijorts, 
do  not,  it  will  be  perceived,  always  oflfbrd  results  en- 
tirely consistent.  Prior  to  1802,  foreign  cotton  was 
united  with  domestic  In  official  accounts  of  exports. 
The  capacity  of  the  bale  is  computed,  agreeably  to 
usage,  at  400  lbs.,  in  changing  bales  into  pounds,  for 
this  statement,  although  an  average  of  450  lbs,  to  the 
bale  would,  probably,  be  more  exact.  The  unusually 
largo  triennial  average  of  cotton  imported  in  1842, 
1843,  and  1844,  Is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact,  that, 
during  those  years,  Texas  was  an  independent  repub- 
lic. Foreign  cotton,  from  January,  1791,  to  1812,  paid 
a  duty  of  three  cents  per  pound ;  from  July,  1812,  to 
April,  1816,  six  cents  j  and  ftom  April,  1810,  to  July 
80,  1846,  three  cents,  when  It  was  made  free.  Tlie  7th 
decade  terminates  In  1861.  The  statement  may,  there- 


fore, be  viewed  as  embracing  a  period  of  70  vears, 
from  1792  to  1801  inclusive. 

Tariff  Regulations. — Bremen. — The  tariff  is  that  of 
December  28,  1850. 

Moneys. — One  rixdoUar  =  72  grotes  =  78J  cents  ; 
1  grote  =1 1-10  cent. 

Weights  and  Measiires.  One  centner  =  100  Uis.  = 
1 09.8  lbs.  avoirdupois  j  1  lispund  equals  14  lbs.  United 
*  ites'  weight ;  1  stone  of  wool  equals  10  lbs.  do. ;  1 
^  ne  of  flax  equals  20  lbs.  do. ;  1  scheffel  equals  2 
ti  'lels  United'  States'  measure;  1  last  equals  80 
bh     "Is  do. ;  1  Bremen  foot  equals  11.38  inches  do. 

J  :nrt  Duties. — These  duties  consist  of  two  thirds  of 
1  per  .  I  it.  ad  valorem  on  the  valuation  given  in  the  in- 
voices, including  at  the  same  time  freight  and  insurance. 

Export  duties  consist  of  one  third  of  1  per  cent,  ad 
valorem,  according  to  invoices. 

Transit  Duties. — All  merchandise  which  has  been 
entered  at  the  custom-house  as  transit  goods,  is  snl)- 
ject  to  a  duty  of  one  groat  (1 1-10  cent.)  per  centner 
(or  109.8  lbs.  avoirdupois),  if  re-exported  within  three 
months  from  the  date  of  the  entrance.  From  this, 
however,  the  following  articles  are  excepted,  and  pay 
only  one  half  grote  per  centner :  Alum,  aspiialt,  empt}' 
barrels,  coal,  bomb-shells,  boxes,  cannons,  cheese, 
copper  (crude),  earth  for  coloring,  gypsum,  hair  (cow), 
herrings,  iron  in  sheets,  castings,  bars,  rods,  and  balls, 
juniper  berries,  lime,  linseed,  manganese,  marble  (un- 
manufactured), metallic  earths,  mortars,  oak-bark 
(ground  or  not),  ochre,  clay  pipes,  pitch,  rags,  railroad 
materials,  as  rails,  wheels,  ond  axles,  gutters  (roof), 
rosin,  salts,  scraps  of  paper,  sea-grass,  succory  (or 
chicorj'),  tar,  vitriol,  waste  paper,  wrapping  material, 
common  manufactures  of  wood,  zinc  (in  blocks). 

The  following  pay  one  quarter  grote  per  centner : 
Ashes  (Icy),  birds,  bones,  bone-black,  sugar-box 
boards,  dye->voods,  fresh  fruits,  grass,  hay,  iron  (old  or 
crude),  lead  ore,  oil  cakes,  ores,  potatoes,  slates  and 
pencils,  sulphuric  earth,  timber  (hewn),  wood,  ebony, 
mahogany,  and  timber  for  carpenters. 


HAN  084  HAN 

Oomiuoi  or  tub  Unitid  Statb  with  tm  IIahbk-towns,  nou  Ootobik  1,  1380,  to  JrLT  1,  1861. 


Y<u>  mdliif 

Eiporia. 

Import!, 

WhatMf  Ihm  wai  U  BuUIob 

Toniug*  ClearM. 

DomnUc. 

Fonlgn. 

Toi.1. 

Toul. 

bport. 

Imfozt. 

AmcricMi. 

Foreign. 

Sept  80,  1881 

1888 

1988 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1837 

1888 

1889 

1880 

Totil.... 

8*1*80,1881 

1888 

1888 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

TotiJ.... 

1  Sept  80.  1841 

!                  1843 

tmoa.      1818 

Jane  80,  1844 

1848 

1S46 

lft|7 

1848 

1849 

1860 

•■•t«'    ■       TotiU.... 

JnneM,  1851 

1858 

1858 

1854 

1856 

1886 

«I,6R^606 
1,644,886 
1,588,864 

a6«,888 
1,144^474 

979,818 
l,698,9n 
1,804,888 
1,998,176 
1,649,782 

$697,088 
860,789 
1,537,086 
1,003,890 
1,976,569 
1,187,884 
1,819,214 
1,190,918 
1,278,984 
72.V48 

$8,188,644 
2,806,015 
8,169,489 
1,868,278 
8,121,083 
2,116,697 
8,018,186 
8,996,251 
8,877,160 
2,874,880 

$990,166 
1,678,767 
1,981,026 
2,587,880 
8,789,686 
3,816,548 
1,688,668 
3,644,898 
8,274,876 
1,878,878 

$i;86o 

iim 

$190,166 
59,161 
40,679 
76,980 

1,973 
88,859 

1,966 
18 

8,844 
13,488 

17,808 
16,780 
19,6M 
11,088 
17,360 
18,610 
25,274 
38,686 
81,968 
14,738 

4,091 

M67 

11,747 

9,978 

6,4.S8 

4,087 

8,707 

11,868 

10,894 

10,268 

$14,791,468 

11,818,341 
2,486.642 
2,108,110 
3,608,671 
2,771,890 
8,168,418 
2,6«8,857 
2,626,808 
2.067,6a', 
8,867,968 

$11,677,009 

$779,931 

1,662,670 

795,186 

8,066,108 

766,886 

1,211,464 

1,192,592 

665.843 

733,469 

880,496 

$26,468,477 

$2,693,172 
4,088,218 
2,908,296 
4,689,674 
8,588,876 
4,868,882 
8,764,949 
8,891,645 
3,801,067 
4,198,489 

$81,064,468 

$3,498,301 
3,86,5,096 
8,827,786 
8,355,866 
3,841,948 
4,994,820 
6,642,281 
2,847,358 
4,849,160 
2,621,498 

$61,860 

$48;«i« 

12,638 

12,108 

206 

$480,948 

$8,628 
6,880 
8,300 

17,067 
1,808 
1,807 

18,785 

10,211 

6,185 

898 

180,088 

17,147 

18,468 

9,296 

16,710 

V^ios 

6,957 

8,866 

4,803 

17,849 

60,819 

17,487 
2^778 
27,168 
27,127 

87',286 
48,666 
84,M2 
29,993 
42,324 

186,607,008 

$4,110,665 
8,814,994 
8,898,948 
8,174,488 
4,106,997 
4,P0H,816 
4,068,413 
8,s."i,),676 
2,710,248 
4,820,780 
$87,070,489 

$8,405,966 
6,195,987 
7,409,816 

10,041,596 
9,1.W,169 

18,188,985 

$10,674,680 

$460,061 
749,619 
892,984 
892,204 
888,098 
600,805 
260,226 
465,109 
604,682 
886,742 

$86,181,688 

$4,560,716 
4,664,613 
8,291,982 
8,566,687 
4,946,020 
4.608,620 
4,I8«,6.3S 
4,821,785 
8,814,930 
6,806,628 

$86,633,964 

$2,449,964 
2,274,019 
920,866 
2,186,386 
3,913,687 
8,149,864 
8,622,186 
6,898,280 
7,742,864 
8,787,874 

$68,468 

$5,800 
606 

266^786 
813,776 
118,706 

$68,161 

$89 

4,062 

285,267 

86,204 

"iis 

8.842 
48,619 

106,886 

14,123 
16,779 
13,937 
12,749 
18,016 
8,148 
12,127 
15,737 
28,386 
21,156 

890,220 

46,147 
54,060 
42,078 
50,656 
69,007 
60,807 
66,634 
80,109 
44,264 
68,016 

$5,014,924 

$641,491 
681,080 
610,788 

1,444,662 
975,081 

1,050,886 

$42,716,868 

$6,047,447 
6,876,967 
8,080,068 
12,086,268 
10,130,250 
14,289,371 

$40,289,888 

$10,008,364 
8,171,411 
13,843,485 
16,960,898 
12,360,118 
14,488,512 

$099,178 

$679,116 
932,188 
1,867,809 
8,668,819 
1,466,818 
1,442,498 

*872,186 

$2A906 
59,319 
6,144 

io,iio 

7,752 

164,163 

16,696 
27621 
26,995 
28,766 
84,686 
64,488 

547,776 

69,734 
87,500 
86,281 
108,320 
112,607 
100,844 

The  following  pay  one  sixth  grote  ()er  centner: 
Ashea  (not  ley),  birch,  brooma,  blood,  bottle  cases, 
bricks,  cement,  chaU,  clay  (brown  or  stone),  earth 
(common),  earthenware  (common),  faj-ence  (common), 
glass  (brolien),  glue,  leather,  offul  of  tanneries,  gravel, 
guano,  marl,  mill-stones,  oyster-shells,  potters'  earth, 
sliell-lime,  stones  (hewn  or  not),  sugar-bakers'  clay, 
sugar  scum,  tiles,  tombstones,  trees  for  planting,  turf, 
fire-wood,  hoops,  shingles,  materials  for  basket-makers, 
and  posts  for  fences.  Goods  not  exported  after  three 
months,  by  paying  26  per  cent,  of  the  transit  duty, 
may  have  a  further  prolongation  of  three  months. 

Hamburg — The  tariff  is  that  of  December  29th, 
1861. 

Sfoneyi. — 1  marc-banco  =  16  shillings  =  86  cents. 

Wiightt  and  Meamre». — 1  centner  >=  119.504  lbs. ;  1 
pfond  =>  1.067  lbs,  avoirdupois. 

Duties  oa  Import*. — These  duties  amount  to  not 
more  than  ^  of  1  per  cent,  ad  valorem ;  and  the  dutiei 
OH  exports  to  not  more  than  t  of  1  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 

The  following  articles  ate  exempt  both  from  import 
and  export  duties :  apparel  of  travelers,  brought  ii 
by  the  respective  parties,  or  by  a  special  permit  of  the 
director  of  customs ;  bark,  unground ;  barley;  bones; 
bronze  metal ;  buckwheat ;  copper  for  sheathing  ships ; 
brass,  old,  also  in  plate  or  sheets ;  coal,  stone ;  gold 
and  silver  bullion  or  coin ;  open  samples  of  goods 
under  70  lbs.  weight,  exported  and  then  re-imported 
thmngh  the  same  gate  ;  linens,  with  or  without  cotton 
mixture ;  linen  bagging ;  malt ;  oats ;  oil  cakes ;  po- 
tatoes ;  printed  matter ;  musical  and  scientiflc  maps ; 
rags,  woolen  or  cotton ;  rap^-seeA ;  rye ;  wool,  sheep's 
and  lamb's,  raw;  wheat ;  znic,  crude. 

The  following  articles  art- 1  ree  of  import  duties  only : 
articles  not  exceeding  5  man s-banco  ($1  76)  in  value ; 
those  also  sulijocteil  to  excise  duties  not  over  20  marcs- 
banco  in  value ;  timber,  staves,  fire-wood  and  turf. 

Those  free  of  export  duties  ore :  all  artideB  uudet 


20  marcs-banco  ($7)  in  value,  regardless  of  quantity ; 
all  manufactures  of  the  city  of  Hamburg ;  all  provis* 
ions  for  the  immediate  use  of  vessels  lying  in  harbor; 
articles  not  exceeding  100  lbs.  in  weight,  and  not  of 
greater  value  than  100  marcs-banco. 

Transit  duties. — Ail  goods  re-exported  within  three 
months  from  the  date  of  arrival,  are  free  of  any  transit 
dutj',  if  yet  in  the  hands  of  original  importers. 

Xu&ec.— The  tariff  is  that  of  December  6th,  1861. 

Moneys. — 1  marc  =  16  schillings  Lubec  courant  = 
28-79  cents. 

Weights  and  Measures. — 1  ship-pound  =  2J  cwt.  of 
112  lbs.  English,  each=280  ll>8.     1  lispound=14  lbs. 

Duties  on  Imports All  goods,  whether  of  foreign  or 

home  production,  pay  one  half  of  one  per  cent,  ad 
valorem,  as  given  in  the  invoices,  except  the  following 
articles,  which  are  free  of  import  duties : 

Transit  goods  re-exported  within  three  months  after 
entry ;  effects  of  travelers ;  household  furniture  used ; 
wool  brought  for  the  Lubec  fair,  and  delivered  at  the 
wool  warehouse ;  goods  on  board  vessels  not  consigned 
to  Lubec ;  wares  on  board  ships  entering  the  port  of 
Travemunde  in  distress. 

Goods  where  the  value  can  not  bo  ascertained  from 
the  invoices,  will  be  estimated  at  the  Lubec  market 
prices.  Articles  of  wood,  as  timber,  boards,  shingles, 
planks,  masts  and  spars,  staves,  and  fire-wood,  pay, 
always,  one  half  of  one  per  cent,  on  the  Lubec  market 
prices.  Articles  which  pay  an  ad  valorem  duty,  if 
their  value  does  not  amount  to  26  marcs  ($7),  are  free ; 
from  26  to  75  marcs  ($7  to  $21),  the  duty  is  levied  on 
60  marcs  ($14) ;  from  76  to  123  marcs  ($21  to  $35), 
the  duty  is  levied  on  100  marcs  (28),  and  so  on.  None 
but  citizens,  or  their  agents,  have  the  privilege  of 
clearing  goods  in  the  custom-house.  American  ves- 
sels, however,  are  exempted  from  this  regulation. — U. 
8.,  Com.  Bdations  ;  WCviAMCU^a  Commercial  Diclion- 
atii ;  see,  also.  Foreign  Commerce  Unitetl  States,  and 
Q^^'teri^  Smew,  vol.  vU.,  p.  180, 


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Harbor,  Havon,  or  Port,  a  pleco  of  water  com- 
municating with  the  aea,  or  with  a  navigable  river  or 
lake,  having  depth  aufflcient  to  float  ahips  of  consider- 
ablo  bunien,  where  there  is  convenient  anchorage,  and 
whore  ahipit  may  lie,  load,  and  unload,  acreenod  from 
the  wind»,  and  without  the  reach  of  the  tide, 

Qualitiea  of  a  good  Harbor. — There  is  every  variety 
In  the  form  and  quality  of  harbors.  They  are  either 
natural  or  artiflclal ;  but,  however  formed,  a  good  har- 
bor should  have  sufHcient  depth  of  water  to  admit  the 
largest  ships  at  all  times  of  the  tide ;  it  should  be  easy 
of  access  without  having  too  wide  an  entrance ;  the 
bottom  should  be  clean  and  good ;  and  ships  should  be 
able  to  lie  close  alongside  quays  or  pisrc,  that  the  ex- 
pense and  inconvenience  of  loading  and  unloading  by 
means  of  lighters  may  l)e  avoided.  Ships  lying  in  a 
harbor  that  is  land-locked,  and  surrounded  by  high 
grounds  or  buildings,  arc,  at  once,  without  the  reach 
of  storms,  tides,  and  currents,  and  may,  in  most  caoes, 
be  easily  protected  from  hostile  attacks.  Bar  harlmrs 
are  those  that  have  bars  or  lianks  at  their  entrances, 
and  do  not,  therefore,  admit  of  the  ingress  or  egress  of 
large  ships  except  at  high  water.  These  are  most 
commonly  river  harbors — the  sand  and  mud  brought 
down  by  the  stream,  and  driven  back  by  the  waves, 
naturally  forming  a  bar  or  imnk  at  their  mouths. 

The  designing  of  harbors  constitutes  confessedly 
one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  civil  engineering. 
In  making  such  designs,  the  engineer,  in  order  to 
avail  himself  of  the  advantage  which  is  to  lie  derived 
from  past  experience,  must  endeavor  to  the  best  of  his 
power  to  institute  a  comparison  between  the  given 
locality  and  some  other,  which  he  supposes  to  be  in 
pari  cam.  Perfect  identity,  however,  in  the  physical 
peculiarities  of  different  stations,  seldom,  if  ever,  ex- 
ists, and  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  select  an  existing 
harbor,  which  appears  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  sim- 
ilarly circumstanced  to  the  proposed  work. 

In  considering  the  subject  of  the  construction  of 
harbors  in  exposed  situations,  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant subject  deserving  our  attention  is  the  destruc- 
tive action  of  the  element  with  which  we  have  to  deal 
— what  are  its  energies  when  excited  by  storms,  and 
what  the  direction  of  its  forces  on  the  barriers  which 
have  been  raised  to  control  it  ? 

Smeaton,  in  his  history  of  the  Eddystone,  when 
speaking  of  the  objection  that  might  bo  raised  against 
the  necessity  for  using  joggles  in  the  masonry  of  that 
building,  says,  "  When  we  have  to  do  with,  and  to 
endeavor  to  control  ihoie  poweri  of  nature  that  are  sub- 
ject to  no  calculation,  I  trust  it  will  lie  deemed  prudent 
not  to  omit  in  such  a  case  any  thing  that  can  without 
difficulty  be  applied,  and  that  would  be  likely  to  add 
to  the  security."  This  statement  of  our  greatest 
marine  engineer,  indicates  the  propriety 
of  careful'y  collecting  any  facts  that  may 
help  uu  t  J  a  more  accurate  estimation  of 
those  fo'ces  which  be  regarded  os  being 
"  suliject  to  no  calculation."  We  shaU 
therefore  state  a  few  facts  which  have  been 
recorded  of  the  destructive  powers  of  then, 
waves  in  inland  lakes,  and  in  the  open, 
ocean. 

At  Port  Sonachan,  in  England,  where' 
the  fetch  is  under  14  miles,  a  stone, 
weighing  a  quarter  of  a  ton,  was  torn  out 
of  the  masonry  of  the  landing-slip  and 
overturned.  Mr.  D.  Stevenson,  in  hia 
Engineering  of  North  America,  describing 
the  harbors  in  Lake  Erie,  mentions  having 
seen  one  stone,  weighing  upward  of  half 
a  ton,  which  had  been  taken  out  of  its 
bed  in  the  pier  at  Buffalo,  moved  several 
feet  and  overturned.  The  Comte  ue  Mar- 
silli,  in  his  Hittoire  Phgtigve  de  la  Mer, 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1726,  states 
that  the  highest  wave  observed  by  him 


on  the  shores  of  Languedoc  in  th«  Mediterranean  Sea, 
where  the  breadth  is  about  600  mUes,  was  14  feet  10 
inches.  At  the  month  of  a  harbor  on  the  German  Ocean, 
with  a  fetch  of  about  600  miles,  the  writer  had  olwerved 
fur  him  the  height  of  the  waves  during  south-easterly 
gales,  and  on  one  occasion  the  result  was  lUJ  feet  from 
the  crest  of  the  wave  to  the  trough  of  thb  sea.  In  deeper 
water,  and  with  a  north-easterly  gale,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  waves  of  the  German  Ocean  will  attain 
a  height  considerably  greater  than  this.  In  Novem- 
lier,  1817,  the  waves  of  the  German  Ocean  overturned, 
just  after  It  had  l)een  finished,  a  column  of  freestone 
86  feet  high  and  17  feet  base.  The  diameter  at  the 
place  of  fracture  was  about  11  feet.  In  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  Dr.  Scoicsby  stated,  in  a  communication  to  the 
British  Association  in  1850,  that  during  several  hard 
gales  he  had  measured  m»ny  waves  of  about  80  feet, 
hut  the  higliest  was  43  feet  from  the  hollow  to  thi 
crest.  Waves  of  such  magnitude  could  scarcely,  how- 
ever, reach  our  urtiUcial  harbors,  from  the  shallow- 
ness of  the  water  near  the  shore.  To  these  facts  it 
may  be  added,  that  of  a  block  of  50  tons'  weight  being 
moved  by  the  sea  at  Barrahead,  one  of  the  Hebrides ; 
and  what  is  far  more  extraordinary-,  blocks  of  nine 
tons'  weight  have  been  quarried,  or  broken  out  of 
their  beds  in  $itu,  on  tlie  top  of  the  Bound  Skerry  of 
Whalsey,  in  Zetland,  which  is  elevated  85  feet  alwve 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Bound  Skerr}'  atid  neigh- 
boring rocks,  which  are  in  the  German  Ocean,  cer- 
tainly furnish  by  far  the  most  wonderful  proof  that 
has  yet  been  discovered,  of  the  great  force  which  is 
developed  by  the  billows  of  the  ocean  when  suddenly 
checked  by  opposing  rocks. 

It  has  been  stated  (in  the  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinburg") 
that,  from  observations  which  were  made  with  the  ma- 
rine dynamometer  (a  self-registering  instrument  de- 
signed by  him  for  the  purpose),  the  force  of  the  waves  of 
the  German  Ocean,  during  hard  gales,  had  been  found 
to  be  1)  tons  per  superficial  foot  at  the  Bell  Rock ;  and 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  be  3  tons  per  superficial  foot  at 
the  Skerry  vore  Light-house.  But  thesu  results  may  still 
l>e  far  short  of  the  maxima.  As  the  marine  dynamom- 
eter has  been  ofteh  found  useful  in  indicating  the  force 
of  the  waves  in  situations  where  harbors  were  to  be 
built,  it  may  be  proper  to  give  such  a  description  of  it 
as  will  enable  any  one  to  have  it  made. 

DEFD  is  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  which  is  firmly 
bolted  at  the  protecting  flanges  G,  to  the  rock  where 
the  experiments  are  to  be  made.  This  cylinder  has  a 
circular  flange  at  D,  L  is  a  door  which  is  to  be 
opened  when  the  observation  is  to  he  road  off,  A  is  a 
circular  disc  on  which  the  waves  impinge.  Fastened 
to  the  disc  are  four  guide-rods  B,  which  piss  through  a 
circular  plate  0,  which  is  screwed  down  to  the  flange 


y,t^ 


345tT8>10U     ISinehM. 

-H   I    I   I    I    I    I"  I   I    1 


Flg.1. 


EAR 


988 


EAR 


D,  Knd  (Im  throngh  tha  hol«i  In  the  imttom  E  F. 
Within  tho  cylinder  there  la  attached  to  tho  plate  C  a 
powerful  steel  ipring,  to  the  other  or  free  oud  of  which 
u  faateiind  the  amall  circular  plate  K,  which  again  is 
•ecurod  to  the  guMe-rods  I).  There  are  also  rings  of 
leather,  T,  which  slide  on  the  guide-rods,  and  serve  oa 
Indlcea  for  registering  how  far  the  nxls  have  lieen 
pushed  througli  thb  holes  in  the  Iwttoni,  or,  in  other 
words,  how  far  the  spring  has  been  drawn  out  by  the 
action  of  the  waves  against  the  disc  A. 

In  comparing  an  existing  harbor  with  a  proposed 
one,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  dimensions  which  are 
necessary  to  insure  stability,  perhaps  the  most  obvious 
element  is  what  may  be  termed  tho  line  of  maximum 
expomre,  ci.-,  in  other  words,  the  line  of  greatest  fetch 
or  reach  of  open  sea,  which  can  he  easily  moasured 
from  a  ehurt.  Hut  though  possessed  of  this  informa- 
tion, the  engineer  ftill  does  not  Icnuw  in  what  ratio  the 
height  of  the  wnvo  increases  in  relation  to  any  given 
iocreaite  in  the  lino  of  exposure. 

As  thir  inquiry  is  one  of  groat  moment  in  the  prac- 
tice of  marine  engineering,  and  haa  not  been  in  any 
way  investigated,  the  writer  haa  for  some  time  back 
been  making  occasional  observations  on  the  subject, 
when  favorable  circumstances  occurred.  These  ob- 
fervutinns  hr.vo  Iieen  but  limited  in  extent,  and  can 
not  be  regarded  aa  deserving  of  confidence  unless  in 
cases  wh<re  the  two  harbors  are  not  far  diflerent  in 
their  lines  of  exposure.  So  far  as  these  experiments 
kave  gone,  the  waves  seem  to  increase  in  height  most 
nearly  in  the  ratio  of  the  tquare  root  of  their  diitancea 
from  the  windwni  d  shore. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  tho  line  of  maxi- 
num  exposure  is  in  every  case  the  line  of  maximum 
effective  force  of  the  waves ;  for  this  must  depend  not 
only  on  the  length  of  reach,  but  also  on  tho  angle  of 
Incidence  of  the  waves  on  the  walls  of  the  harbor. 
M'hat  may  be  termed  the  line  of  maximum  effective  ex- 
pontre  is  that  which,  after  being  corrected  for  obliquity 
of  impact  of  the  waves,  produces  tho  maximum  result, 
and  this  can  only  be  taken  from  tho  chart  after  suc- 
cessive trials.  Let  j-=:tha  greatest  force  that  can 
assail  a  pier,  A=heigbt  of  waves  which  produce  (after 
being  corrected  for  obliquity)  the  maximum  effect, 
and  which  are  due  to  the  line  of  maximum  effective 
exposure.  Sin  a=:9ine  of  azimuthal  angle  formed 
between  directions  of  pier  and  line  of  maximum  effect- 
ive exposure,  radius  being  unity.  Tj^en  x  tc  h  sin'  a 
when  the  force  is  resolved  normal  to  the  line  of  the 
pier ;  but  if  tho  forco  la  rusolved  again  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  waves  themselves,  the  expression  becomes 
X  ai  h  sin*  a.* 

It  tihould  not  be  forgotten,  In  connection  with  this 
subject,  that  there  ore  various  qualifying  elements  to 
which  special  attention  requires  in  some  cases  to  lie 
given.  The  waves,  for  example,  may  often  be  no- 
ticed, when  approaching  the  land  obliquely,  to  alter 
their  direction  when  they  gc*  close  to  the  shore  (in 
consequence  of  the  depth  changing),  so  as  to  strike  it 
more  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  general  line  of  the 
beach.  In  this  way  a  swell  from  the  ocean  may  enter 
a  bay  which  is  not  directly  exposed  to  it.  It  should 
also  be  observed,  that  the  lines  of  exposure  can  not 
be  directly  compared  if  the  depth]  of  the  water  through 
which  they  pass  are  materially  different. 

Tho  tides,  too,  exert  in  many  places  a  very  decided 
effect  on  the  nature  of  the  billows,  in  some  places 
causing  waves  of  an  unusually  dangerous  character, 
while  at  other?  tbey  are  found  to  run  doom  the  sea. 
If  a  marine  work  is  situated  in  a  race  or  rapid  tide- 
way, such,  for  example,  as  those  called  "rooete"  in 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  the  masonry  will  be  exposed  to 
the  action  of  a  veiy  tr}'ing  and  dangerous  high-crest- 
ing sal.  As  an  example  of  this,  we  may  refer  to 
Port-Patrick  in  Wiftonsh're,  where  the  violence  of 


•  For  expeiimantal  results  tide  article  Htdbodtnaxios,  I:.B. 


the  waves  is,  we  have  no  doubt,  much  due  to  the  ra- 
pidity of  the  tides.  If,  on  tha  other  hand,  the  race  or 
roost  runs  in  such  a  direction  as  to  be  entirely  outside 
of  the  harbor,  and  at  some  distance  off,  it  will  have  a 
decidud  tendency  to  shelter  the  works,  rnd  to  act  as  a 
breakwater.  Thus  it  ap|)oars,  from  oliser\  ations  at 
Sumliurg  Head  Light-house  in  .Shetland  during  a  south- 
westerly storm,  tliat  so  long  as  the  Sumljurg  roost  (ono 
of  tho  most  furmidiiblo  in  those  seas),  waa  cresting 
and  breaking  heavily,  one  could  have  easily  landed  in 
a  Ismail  boat  at  a  creek  or  bay  culled  the  West  Voe ; 
liut  no  sooner  did  the  roost  diaapitear  toward  high 
water  than  there  came  in  towering  billowa  that  totally 
submerged  cliffs  of  very  considerablo  height.  The 
study  of  the  modifying  and  intensifying  effects  of  tide- 
currents  on  the  waves  of  tlie  sea  seems  to  have  been 
entirely  neglected  in  tlie  late  discussions  regarding  tho 
merits  of  vertical  and  sloping  walls,  which  will  be  re 
ferred  to  In  another  section  of  this  article. 

From  careful  inquiries,  as  well  as  ttom  actual  per« 
sonal  experience,  of  such  formidable  breaking  waters 
as  the  Uoor  of  Duncansbay,  and  the  Merry  Men  of 
Mey  in  tho  Pentland  Firth,  and  several  others,  we  aro 
of  opinion  that  the  true  cause  is  the  etivll  of  the  tea  en- 
counterinv  a  tidal  current  running  in  a  direction  more  or 
leii  ippoted  to  that  of  the  Kavee.  While  it  is  obvious 
that  two  rapid  tides  may  meet  each  other  without  any 
dangerous  effects,  it  is  also  quite  true  that  when  two 
tides  meet  each  other  in  a  rough  sea,  as  in  coming  round 
such  islands  aa  Stroma  or  Swona  in  the  Pentland  Firth, 
the  effect  of  their  union  being  to  iuoreaso  the  current 
at  that  place,  there  will  be  produced  a  highly  danger- 
ous sea ;  but  the  fact  of  their  meetiug,  though  calcu- 
lated to  aggravate,  is  not,  we  think,  the  primary  cause. 
The  races  which  occur  in  open  seas,  as,  for  instance, 
off  headlands  and  turning-points  of  the  coast,  are  cer- 
tain portions  of  those  seas  in  which  the  vaves  break  to 
n  greater  or  less  extent,  although  the  water  may  bo 
very  deep,  and  there  may  bo  no  wind  at  the  time.  At 
all  such  places  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  rapid 
tides.  The  roosts  on  the  west  coast  of  Orkney  or  ot 
the  Pentland  Firth,  for  example,  are  worst  with  ebb 
tides  and  wealerly  swells,  because  the  Atlantic  swell  and 
current  of  ebb  are  opposed.  Those  again  on  the  east 
const  are  worst  yi\t\i  flood  tides  and  easterlt/  swells  from 
a  similar  cause.  Thus  at  the  east  end  of  the  Pent- 
land Firth  the  Boar  of  Duncansbay  is  well  known  to 
rage  with  easterly  swells  and  a  flood  tide ;  whereas,  at 
tho  west  end  of  the  same  flrtb,  tho  Merry  Men  of  Mey 
are  equally  well  known  to  be  worst  with  ebb  tide  and 
a  westerly  swell,  at  which  time  no  boat  could  enter 
them  witliout  the  risk  of  being  overturned.  Tho  dan- 
gerous surf  which  exists  at  the  mouths  of  some  rivers 
is,  wu  believe,  not  solely  due  to  the  want  of  depth  at 
the  bar,  but  also  to  tho  meeting  ot  the  outward  cur- 
rent with  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

When  a  swell  encounters  a  rapid  opposing  current, 
the  onward  motion  of  the  waves  seems  to  be  arrested, 
and  their  widlh  becomes  visildy  decreased.  They  get 
higher  and  steeper,  crest,  and  at  last  breKk,  sometimes 
very  partiidl  ',  and  at  other  times  almost  as  they  wonld 
on  a  shelving  beach.  It  appears  to  us  possilde  that 
several  waves  may  ultimately  combine  in  such  dis- 
turbed waters  into  one  mountainous  billow ;  for  the 
wave  that  has  partially  broken  may  have  its  onward 
motion  so  much  checked  as  to  allow  the  wave  behind  to 
overtake  U ,  and  having  thus  coalesced,  they  may,  as  one 
lar^o  wave,  acquire  a  superior  velocity,  so  as  to  over- 
take those  in  front  and  be  further  augmented  by  the  uni- 
on of  other  wavuc  which  have  reflected  from  the  shore. 

It  U  to  thir  cause  we  are  inclined  to  refer  such  won- 
de'  lul  effects  aa  that  t.)  which  we  have  already  alluded, 
where  blocks  of  9  tons'  weight  were  quarried  out  of  tho 
soliu  rock  at  an  elevation  of  86  feet  alwve  the  sea. 
Wore  such  violent  action  common  to  all  the  shores  of 
the  German  Ocean,  instead  of  being  restricted  to  one 
or  two  similar  places,  half  of  the  eastern  sea-port 


-iJ3.i^-Ej!-L 


itrnkaitit^^^^ian^^;!,. 


HAR 


931 


HAR 


towilB  In  England  would,  without  any  doulit,  bo  wished 
into  the  tea  dnring  tha  flrxt  .atormy  winter.  An  a 
further  proof  of  the  great  eflect  of  the  tiden  in  exas- 
perating tho  woven,  we  may  mention  that  the  time 
when  molt  damage  is  do ;  to  aeo-woricii  which  are  In 
toloraldy  deep  water,  li  .  ..■  one  to  two  hours  l)efore 
and  after  high  water,  which  nearly  corresponds  to  tlie 
time  when  tlie  tide  runs  strongest  outside.  We  have 
found  this  to  hold  true  at  many  diiferent  parts  of  the 
Knglish  coast,  and  refer  to  ono  well-marked  instance. 
At  Peterhead  harbor,  which  projects  prominently  into 
the  sea  on  an  Isthmus,  tha  tides,  at  but  a  short  distance 
seaward  of  tho  harbor,  run  verj*  rapidly.  On  tho  10th 
of  January,  1849,  there  was  a  very  heavy  sea,  and  a 
crowd  of  people  were  down,  atiout  two  hnurt  be/on 
high  water,  helping  to  secur<)  the  wyilors  and  other 
vessels  tn  the  barlior,  when  three  successive  waves 
carried  away  816  feet  of  a  bulwark,  founded  9|  feet 
above  hlj;h-water  springs,  which  hiid  stood  for  many 
years.  Une  piece  of  this  wall,  woi|;hing  IB  tons,  was 
moved  60  feet.  After  this  outbreak  of  the  sea  the 
waves  became  more  moderate,  until  about  two  honri 
after  high  tcaler,  by  which  time  the  largo  whalers  had 
taken  the  ground,  when  other  three  enormous  waves 
again  swept  over  tha  barltor,  submerging  tho  quays  to 
tho  depth  of  from  6  to  7  feet  of  solid  water,  by  which 
16  people  were  drowned.  Those  waves  tilled  the  har- 
bor to  such  a  depth  as  to  get  all  the  whalore  afloat 
again,  and  they  continued  so  for  several  minutes,  until 
the  excess  of  Tvater  had  nm  out  through  tho  hurlwr 
mouth.  These  gigantic  waves  were,  in  our  opinion, 
clearly  tha  result  of  some  such  action  as  has  been 
attempted  to  be  described.  We  should  not  have  dwelt 
at  such  length  on  this  subject  wore  it  not  that  we 
might  again  refer  to  the  facts  when  we  come  to  treat 
of  tbo  8ul)ject  of  vertical  and  sloping  walls  for  har- 
bors of  refuge,  where  it  is  of  importance  to  show  that 
even  in  the  deepest  water,  the  waves  are  not  purelj' 
oscillatory,  but  that  wherever  there  is  a  tide-way  the 
waves  will  more  or  less  partake  of  the  qualities  of 
waves  of  translation. 

Relation  between  heiyht  of  waves  ami  depth  of  water. 
Another  circumstance  affecting  tho  exposure  of  any 
marine  work  is  the  depth  of  water  in  front  of  it.  The 
great  mountainous  billows  so  commonly  met  with  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  can  not  bo  generated  in  tho  shal- 
lower waters  of  the  Gorman  Ocean,  unless  perhaps  In 
such  peculiar  circumstances  as  have  just  been  advetted 
to.  It  becomes,  therefore,  of  great  consequence  to 
ascertain  the  maximum  possible  wave  in  a  given  depth 
of  water. 

Mr.  Scott  Russell,  whose  observations  on  what  may 
be  called  the  marine  branch  of  hydrodynamics  are  of 
such  great  value,  '-ts  stated  that  if  waves  be  propa- 
gated in  a  channel  whoso  depth  diminishes  uniformly, 
the  waves  will  break  when  their  height  above  tho  sur- 
face of  thb  level  fluid  becomes  equal  to  the  depth  at 
tho  bottom  below  the  surface  (p.  428  Urit.  Assoc.  Sep. 
on  Waves').  This  statdment,  the  meaning  of  which 
seems  doubtful,  Mr.  Russell  elsewhere  {histit.  Civ. 
Eng.,  p.  186),  deflnes  thus:  "The  author  has  never 
noticed  a  wave  so  much  as  10  feet  high  in  10  feet  of 
water,  nor  so  much  as  20  feet  high  in  20  feet  water, 
nor  30  feet  high  in  6  fathoms  water ;  but  he  has  seen 
waves  approach  verj'  nearly  to  those  limits."  It  is 
presumed  that  tho  datum  here  referred  to  is  tho  mean 
level  of  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Wo  have  had  no  op- 
portunities of  verifying  these  observations ;  but  as  the 
subject  is  very  important — because  the  depth  of  water 
in  front  of  a  work  may  be  said  to  be  the  ruling  ele- 
ment which  ilotermines  the  amount  of  force  which  it 
has  to  resist,  whatever  be  tho  line  of  maximum  expo- 
sure— wesholl  simply  state  what  has  come  within  our 
own  knowledge  and  observation.  AVe  have  repeat- 
edly seen  at  different  parts  of  the  coast  breaking 
woves  of  from  4'  to  5  feet,  measuring  from  hollow  to 
crest,  in  from  7  feet  8  inches  to  10  or  11  feet  of  water, 


measuring  from  tho  liottnm  up  to  the  mean  level  |  and 
on  one  occasion  we  were  told  of  waves  which  were  es- 
timated at  0}  feet  in  18  feet  water.  It  muiit,  however, 
be  lionie  in  mind  that  these  ob»ervations,  and  wo  con- 
ceive also  thoHO  of  Mr.  Itussoll,  apply  only  to  common 
waves  of  the  sea,  or  those  short,  steep,  and  suiHuHcial 
waves  which  am  due  to  an  existing  wind,  and  not  to 
the  ground  swells  which  are  almoi<t  constantly  to  be 
found  ir,  tiio  open  ocean,  and  which  may  be  the  result 
of  former  gules,  or  uro  tho  telegraph,  as  Mr,  Kussell 
terms  them,  of  those  which  are  yet  to  come, 

B'rom  what  lias  lieen  stated,  it  would  appear  that  In 
most  cas^s  tlie  heaviest  waves  shouM  assail  any  tide- 
work  at  high  water.  This,  however,  as  mentioned  In 
the  last  section,  is  not  always  the  case,  the  greatest 
damage  being  often  found  to  occur  at  the  time  wlien 
the  tide  runs  stringest.  Mr.  Leslie  found  that  the 
Arbroath  Harbor-works  were  in  general  less  severely 
tried  by  the  very  heaviest  waves  than  by  a  class  ol 
waves  somewhat  smaller  than  these,  owing  to  the  out- 
lying rocks,  which,  from  the  small  depth  over  them, 
had  tho  effect  of  tripping  up  tho  heavier  seas,  and 
thus  destroying  them  before  they  reached  the  harbor, 
while  the  depth  was  sufllciont  to  allow  the  sinHller 
waves  to  pass  over  tho  shoals  unbroken.  In  soma 
cases  of  severe  exposure  the  waves  might  to  some  ex- 
tent ho  reduced  by  dropping  vory  largo  stones  outside 
of  the  harbor,  so  us,  by  forming  an  artiflcial  shoal,  to 
cause  them  to  crest  and  break.  One  great  difficulty 
connected  with  tho  subject  of  the  generation  of  wavet 
still  remains  i'.n8olved,  viz. : — What  are  the  minimum 
line  of  exposure  and  area  of  sea  which  are  compatiblo 
with  tho  existence  of  a  ground  swell  ?  This  question, 
wo  fear,  can  not  be  answered  in  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge. 

Deep  Water  Harbors. — Harbors  of  refuge  are  distin- 
guished from  tidal  harbors  mainly  by  the  superior 
depth  of  water  which  they  possess,  and  the  larger  area 
which  they  inclose.  Tho  requisites  are  shelter  during 
storms,  and  easy  access  for  shipping  at  any  time  of 
tide.  There  has  been  much  discusslnn  as  to  whether 
piers  for  harbors  of  refuge  should  be  vertical  or  sloping. 
Col.  Jones,  R.E.,  has  especially  advocated  the  superior 
merits  of  the  vertical  wall ;  and  the  discussions  on  his 
plan  at  tho  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  the  able 
protest  by  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  will  bo  found,  from 
their  interest  and  importance,  to  merit  a  careful  pern- 
sal.  • 

The  principle  which  is  asserted  Is,  that  oceanic  wavei 
in  deep  water  are  purely  oscillator)-,  and  would  occ*- 
slon  no  impact  against  vertical  barriers,  which  would  b« 
tho  most  eligible,  as  they  would  only  have  to  encounter 
the  simple  hydrostatic  pressure  due  to  tho  height  of 
the  approaching  billow,  and  would  reflect  tho  waves 
without  causing  them  to  break.  Were  it  even  admit- 
ted that  the  waves  wore  purely  oscillator)-,  and  wero 
reflected  by  a  vertical  barrier,  would  no  force,  it  may 
be  asked,  bo  expended  when  tho  motion  of  the  parti- 
cles was  reversed  ?  The  reflection  of  a  wave  is  e({uiva- 
lent  to  the  nearly  instantaneous  creation  of  a  wave  in 
the  opposite  direction,  for  which  a  very  considerable 
force  must  surely  be  required. 

We  believe,  however,  that  from  the  effect  of  tida 
currents,  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  and  per- 
haps from  other  causes  whose  action  seems  to  have 
been  overlooked  by  tbo  advocates  of  tho  upright  wall, 
an^  form  of  bai  rior,  in  whatever  depth  It  may  have 
been  oroctcd,  must  be  occasionally  subjected  to  heavy 
impact.  AVe  conceive  that  the  possibility  of  waves 
of  translation  being  generated  in  the  deepest  water 
has  been  already  estalilished,  if  wo  succeeded  In  satiS" 
fylng  the  reader  of  tho  truth  of  tho  foi'owing  asser- 
tions : — Fimt,  That  waves  break  in  deep  water  during 
calm  weather ;  a  fact  which  is  apparent  to  tho  eye,  and 
familiar  to  all  sailors :  and,  secondly,  and  negatively, 
That  to  leeward  of  those  races  or  portions  of  broken 
water,  vrhicb  certainly  do  not  reflect  the  inoomlng 


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Wo 


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mvM,  thttt  U  comparatively  smooth  water  both  at 
ica  and  on  the  mlJolnlnK  ahorei,  until  auch  tinio  aa  the 
■trength  of  the  tide  in  exhauate<l,  and  the  rooat  haa  dla- 
appeured,  when  violent  action  Is  again  fully  mani- 
fested. 

It  may  l>e  argued  tliat  theao  arn  extreme  caaoa,  and 
that  such  high  velucltiea  In  the  currviit  of  the  tide  are 
seldom  met  with.  This  ulijn^tlon  hiia,  no  doulit,  truth 
In  It ;  but  ttlll  the  tendency  is  ahown,  unit  though  the 
relocitlea  may  lie  leas  In  other  qunrtcra,  there  may 
yet  be  quite  enough  to  destroy  the  condition  of  itagna- 
(lon  which  the  oaclllatory  theory  luiaiiniea.  The  break- 
ing of  waves  at  aoa,  and  the  exiatence  of  rayea,  aeem 
to  prove  beyond  queatiun  that  waves  of  tranalation 
are  poaaiblo  In  the  ilce|)est  water.  Is  It  not  also  a 
prolulilo  cane  that  wavca  which  have  been  roHcctod  by 
a  vortical  wall,  and  have  (irreapective  of  the  queation  of 
tide  currenta)  combined  with  tlie  advancing  waves  may 
then  become  waves  of  tranalation,  poaaesbing  all  the  ele- 
ments which  endanger  the  stability  of  a  sea-work  ?  Or, 
■gain,  how  much  more  damage  would  result  to  a  vertical 
wall  than  to  a  alopo  nf  Ickmo  stones,  from  the  sinking  of 
the  foundationa,  or  from  their  getting  underwaahcd  l)y 
the  reaction  of  the  waves  ?  It  therefore  nppeara  that 
the  mothod  generally  resorted  to  of  forming  deep  water 
barlwrs  of  masses  of  ri-lible  atone  with  long  slopes,  so 
as  to  form  an  artlllcial  beach  fur  the  waves  to  aiiend 
on,  is,  In  most  circumstances,  tha  beat  and  cheapest 
kind  of  construction.  We  incline,  however,  to  the 
adoption  of  an  upright  wall,  founded  on  the  nibble  as 
a  basis  (similur  to  that  at  Cherbourg,  about  to  be  de- 
■crlbed),  in  preference  to  long  pave<l  slopes,  as  there 
la  always  ex|M!rienced  a  great  difliculty  in  founding  the 
too  of  such  talus  walla  among  the  loose  rubble.  When 
pitched  siopsa  are  adopted,  great  benefit  will  bo  found 
to  accrue  from  leaving  at  the  bottom  or  too  of  the 
slope  a  wide  foreshore.  Bluch,  however,  depends  on 
local  peculiarities  In  selecting  the  beat  desirn  for  any 
work  ;  and  the  nature  of  the  bottom  la  all-important. 
Where  the  bottom  is  soft,  a  verticol  wall  can  hardly, 
\t  ever,  be  attempted. 

In  making  these  remarks,  we  must  not  bo  under- 
stood as  condemning  the  adoption  of  a  ertlcal  walls  In 
cases  where  the  foundation  is  good.  All  tliat  we  aa- 
aert  is  the  opinion,  that  waves  of  translation  do  exist 
in  deep  water,  and,  therefore,  that  harlwrs  of  refuge 
will  prove  failures  unless  they  are  built  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  resist  the  Impact  of  those  vwvca  of  tranahi- 
tion.  The  Cherbourg  breakwater  has  been  often 
referred  to  as  a  successful  instance  of  the  application 
of  a  vertical  wall,  and  has  been  contrasted  with  the 
Fl}'mouth  lireakwater,  which  has  a  long  slope.  But 
tills  appeal  is  quite  fallacious,  as  the  prolile  of  that 
work  ia,  as  already  hinted,  of  a  com|)oaite  character, 
oonslsting  of  a  talua  wall  sloping  at  the  rate  of  10  hori- 
(ontal  to  one  perpendicular,  surmounted  by  a  plumb 
wall ;  so  that  whatever  n'orit  may  be  supposed  to  be- 
long to  the  vertical  pi-.itu  is  entirely  nullitled  at  Cher- 
bourg by  the  strong  talus  wall  in  front,  on  which  the 
riolence  of  the  waves  is  much  broken.  Moreover, 
the  heaviest  waves  at  Cherbourg  come  from  the 
north-west,  and  do  not  assail  the  breakwater  at  right- 
angles  to  its  direction,  but  come  more  nearly  end  on  to 
the  work,  so  as  to  a  great  extent  to  run  along  the  outer 
wall.  The  north-west  waves  are  propagated  from  the 
Atlantic,  while  the  waves  which  are  most  trying  to 
the  work  come  <h>m  the  north,  in  which  direction  the 
line  of  exposure  is  only  about  21  leagues.  These  facts 
wo  obtained  during  a  recent  visit  to  Cherbourg,  under- 
taken for  the  special  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  phys- 
ical characteristics  of  the  place.  The  attempt  to  make 
out  a  parallelism  between  Plymouth,  which  faces  the 
Atlantic  directly,  and  Chorbonrg,  which  is  compar- 
atively land-locked,  can  not,  in  our  opinion,  stand  the 
test  of  a  candid  inquiry. 

Other  comparisons  may  be  referred  to  which  have 
Iwea  advanoed  on  equally  untenable  groonds.    Tbiu, 


tha  old  nier  of  DunUary,  whhih  U  varllcal,  and  hai 
stood  wall,  has  iHHin  comparml  with  tha  talna  walls  of 
Kingatown  liarlior,  which  now  protect  Dunlaary,  and 
which  have  often  rocvivvd  much  dMiiiage,  The  all- 
im|Mirtant  eUniiant  vf  depth  nf  water  haa  lipnn  In  this  in- 
stance  entirely  overlookccl ;  for  at  Kingatown  there  la  a 
depth  of  27  feet,  while  I  tuiileary  l>  all  but  dry,  An  nliie 
writer  on  tlie  aame  iiiiritio  rj-nlii,  In  comparing  dilfer- 
ent  aea  walls  In  the  Kirth  of  Korth,  has.  In  like  man- 
ner, not  Bufllcieiitly  adverted  to  the  great  dilfarences 
ill  the  depths  oppiwite  the  works  to  which  he  refers. 

An  lm|Hirtaiit  advantage  of  the  sloping  wall  Is  the 
amall  realstunca  which  It  iilTera  to  the  Impltigliig  wave, 
but  It  ahoi.ld  alio  lie  iHirne  In  mind  that  the  weight 
resting  on  tlie  face  atonea  In  a  talus  wall  la  decreaaed 
in  proportion  to  tho  aine  of  tlie  angle  of  the  alo|ie, 
If  we  supiMiae  the  wuvoa  whicli  aaaail  a  sloping  wall 
to  act  in  the  horizontal  plane,  their  direct  impulse, 
when  resolved  Into  the  force  acting  at  right  angles  to  the 
sloping  surface  of  the  talus  waM,  will  be  prop<irtional 
to  tha  sine  of  tlie  angle  of  incldnnce.  The  efrectlvc  forct 
when  estiiiiuted  In  the  horlxontal  plane,  will  be  propa^ 
tional  to  the  ai|uara  of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  incidence. 
Hut  if  wu  aasuiue  the  motion  of  the  Impinging  parti- 
cles to  bo  horizontal,  tliu  numlier  of  them  which  will 
be  Intercepted  liy  the  sloping  aurfai^e  will  be  ulao  re- 
duced In  the  ratio  of  the  ainn  of  the  angle  of  Incidence, 
or  of  elevation  of  tho  talus  wall,  linnet  tho  tendency  of 
the  waves  to  pro<luce  horlxontal  diapUoement  of  the 
wall,  on  tho  assumption  that  the  direction  of  the  im- 
pinging iiarticli's  la  horlzoutal,  will  lie  pro|iorti<mal  to 
the  culie  of  tlie  sine  of  angle  of  elevation  of  the  wall. 

If  it  furtlior  happnna  that  thnre  la  obliquity  of  action 
in  the  aiimuthal  as  welt  as  in  the  vertical  piano  arising 
from  the  relative  direction  of  tlin  pier  and  of  the  waves, 
there  will  bo  another  similur  reducthin  in  the  ratio  of 
the  squares  or  cubes  of  the  angle  of  inc^ldencn  accord- 
ing as  the  force  ia  resolved  Into  that  at  right  angles  to 
the  line  of  the  pier,  or  to  tliut  of  the  diretitlon  ofthe  waves. 

Let  ^  >»  vertical  angle  of  Incidence  or  angle  of  ele« 
vation  of  wall  | 
>/  >»  aziniutliiil  angle  of  Ir.clrtence  | 
/=  horUoiituI  forcu  exerted  on  unit  of  surface 
at  right  aiiglea  to  the  linn  of  hurlior  wall  | 
h  »  height  of  greatest  aaaalling  waves  | 
/«  A(»ln  ^ain^';». 

The  above  expression  naalgna,  wa  think,  too  great 
a  reduction,  as  tho  motion  of  tlie  particles  may  not  be 
horizontal,  and  no  account  la  taken  of  the  effects  of 
friction  againat  tho  niiigh  atirface  of  the  masimry. 
Ex|ieriiiienta  era  theruforti  wanting  to  dutormlne  the 
constant  for  correcting  the  tliooratical  results  due  to 
this  expression. 

Parabolio  J'roflle.—Mr,  Scott  liussell  recommends 
the  parabolic  curve  as  that  best  suited  for  the  profile 
where  the  oliject  is  to  breiik  tlie  waves,  and  not  to  re- 
flect them,  as  Is  the  case  in  sloping  breakwaters.  This 
curve  possesses,  according  to  Mr,  Kusaell,  the  advan- 
tages of  superior  strength,  of  economy  In  the  mate- 
rials, of  breaking  the  wavu  early,  and  uf  continuing 
an  uniform  action  over  tlia  lotigeat  period  of  time. 
When  the  tide  Is  low,  the  toe  of  tho  slope,  which 
springs  out  of  tho  foreshore  and  forms  tho  vertex  of 
the  parabola,  would4  we  fear,  b«  found  rather  weak, 
and  perhaps  difficult  to  form.  On  the  whole,  we 
rather  incline  in  suob  cases  simply  to  throw  In  the 
materials,  and  to  allow  tha  sea  to  form  is  own  slope. 

According  to  Sir  John  Itennle  (^Account  nf  Plymouth 
Breakwater),  rubble  breakwatem  with  slopes  formed 
at  the  angle  of  repose,  worn  adopted  by  the  0  reeks  In 
the  moles  of  Tyre  and  tJarthago,  and  by  tho  Itomuns 
at  Athens  and  Ilallcarnuasua.  The  same  design  was 
also  followed  at  Venice,  (Innoa,  Kochelle,  linrtelona, 
and  other  places.  In  this  kingdom  the  first  example 
on  a  large  scale  which  we  flud  Is  at  Ilowth.'  Kings- 
town, Holyhead,  and  the  noble  breakwater  at  Ply- 
mouth, were  afterward  carried  out  on  the  tame  princl- 


EAR 


989 


EAR 


EI«,  and  chiefly  nndar  th«  dlnotlon  of  the  Ut«  Mr. 
tcnnla.  The  gnat  nktinniil  hsrhnn  of  rafuff6  at 
pnaent  in  proK<r*"*  In  (inot  KriUIn,  ■cconlinx  to  Mr. 
Kfndel'n  danlKiM,  *t  Holyhead  and  I'ortUnd,  ara  on  a 
almllar  principle  ;  while  thona  under  Meurit.  Walker, 
UurKngd,  and  (!m>p«r,  at  Dover,  Aldemey,  and  Jeney, 
are  more  neurly  vertical. 

t'ormt  of  Wall)  J\tr  Tidal  Ilarbnri. — Having  now 
oonalilered  the  few  facts  of  which  we  are  In  poeneeeion, 
r«)(anllnf(  the  disputed  nature  of  the  Impulse  of  the 
waves  in  deep  waters,  we  shall  direct  the  reader's  at- 
tention to  their  etfects  In  shallow  water.  Those  In 
deep  water  were  chiefly  wholt  waves,  and  reganled  by 
many  us  lieinn  purely  oscillatory,  while  those  In  shoal 
waters  ore  bresidnft  waves,  and  therefore  ref^iirded  by 
all  IIS  waves  of  translation.  We  have  hitherto  been 
considering  brxukwaters  entcted  In  deep  water,  and 
which  were  constantly  exjiosed  to  the  waves  j  we  now 
turn  to  piers  and  sea-walls  which  nro  placed  within  the 
ran)(e  of  the  surf,  and  which  are  pxposod  to  its  force 
for  a  limited  perio<l  only,  being  sometimes  left  nearly, 
or  altogether  dry  by  the  receding  tide. 

The  impulse  of  the  waves  against  a  sea-wall  or  pier 
may  be  resolved  practically  Into  four  directions  ;— let. 
The  direct  horizontal  force  which  tends  to  shake  loose, 
or  curry  before  It,  the  blocks  of  which  the  opposing 
masonry  consists.  This  force  moy  also  blow  up  the 
pitching,  or  overturn  the  Inner  or  quay-wall  by  con- 
densing the  air,  or  pressing  upon  the  water  which 
occupies  the  interstices  of  the  mbl>le.  We  know  two 
cases  In  the  (lerman  Ocean  where,  in  consequence  of 
want  of  width  In  the  pier,  coupled,  In  one  Instance, 
wltli  Insuflicient  workmanship,  the  Inner  or  quay-walls 
were  observed  llrst  to  bulge  and  full,  before  the  sea- 
wall was  Injured.  One  of  these  piers  measured  26 
feet  4  inches,  and  the  other  24  feet,  on  the  roadway. 
2d.  The  vertical  upward  force  which  may  act  on  any 
projecting  stono  or  protuberance.  8d.  The  vertical 
downward  force  of  the  water  which  results  either  firom 
the  wave  breaking  upon  the  toe  of  a  talus  wall,  or 
from  the  wave  passing  over  the  parapet,  and  falling 
upon  the  pitching  Ijehind,  so  as  to  plow  It  up.  4th. 
The  back-draxight,  which  tends  by  reaction  from  the 
wul^  to  plow  up  the  soft  bottom,  and  thus  to  under- 
mine the  lower  eoursus  of  the  work,  or  perhaps  by 
mctim  to  pull  out  the  face-work.  AVo  may  conclude 
ftora  the  above,  that  the  points  which  require  to  be 
carefully  attended  to  are— 1st.  The  contour  and  qual- 
ity of  masonry  of  the  wall  Itself  j  2d.  The  parapet, 
which,  if  not  of  sufficient  height,  or  built  in  a  proper 
direction,  leads  to  dumage  in  the  pitching  behind  it ; 
and  8d.  The  foundation-courses,  in  the  design  and 
conHtrnctlon  of  which,  if  similar  precautions  be  not  at- 
tended to,  underwushing  of  the  bottom  may  in  some 
situations  take  place,  so  aa  to  leave  the  lowest  courses 
without  protection. 

We  shall  in  the  flrst  place  consider  how  far  those 
remarks  are  applicable  where  the  bottom  is  solid  rock. 
Such  a  supposition  will  render  unnecessarj-  any  pre- 
cautions arising  from  the  wasting  of  the  bottom,  and, 
caterit  paribut,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason 
for  preferring  a  talus  to  a  vertiral  wall.  The  question 
of  preference  in  such  a  case  will  in  the  main  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  material  which  can  lie  obtained. 
Should  the  stone  be  scarce  or  costly,  and  the  quality 
such  as  to  warrant  the  introduction  of  masonry  of  the 
best  description,  the  vertical  wall  may  be  found  to  be 
the  most  economical.  Where  freestone  is  to  be  used, 
it  is  not  only  desirable  that  it  should  be  got  in  large 
blocks,  but  that  the  face  stones  should  possess  consid- 
erable lurdnesa.  This  precaution  is  particularly  nec- 
essary in  selecting  the  stones,  for  the  lower  courses, 
and  especially  where  the  beach  consists  of  hard  gravel. 
For  the  same  reason,  it  Is  highly  important  that  all 
stones  which  are  subject  to  decay  fh)m  atmospheric  in- 
fluence should  be  either  entirely  rejected  or  assembled 
in  the  upper  courses  of  the  parapet. 


Whera  the  materials  ara  al)undant,  but  of  an  un- 
workable nature,  a  long  tulus  wall  will  generally  Ik 
found  most  economical.  Kor  such  walls  the  rate  of  slope 
must  depend  very  much  U|hiu  the  expusur*  of  tlia 
pliicn,  and  u|inn  the  pleotifuln4issof  riililile-stone  heart- 
ing. The  eunlly-dressvil  and  naturally  Hut-bedded 
nuUerlala,  wlilih  thu  strutlllud  rock.'<  of  the  secondary' 
fiirmntion  vi'iy  often  furnish,  arc  (iH|H)clitlly  u|iplii'nlile 
for  the  construction  of  vertical  wulls  i  while  the  un- 
couth blui'hii  (if  the  primary  and  igneous  I'ormntlons 
are  bettor  nuiiiil  fur  talus  walls.  Such  rocks  as  gne- 
iss, the  schJHt.i,  liiisultH,  greenstones,  aiuygdulolds,  and 
the  tougher  kinds  of  granite,  ara  lient  lltted  fur  this 
purpose.  With  soma  uf  those  rocks  the  angularity  of 
the  pieces,  and  the  excessive  difficulty  of  dritimlng, 
render  It  necessary  to  assemble  them  witliout  iiltnust 
uny  alteration  of  their  sliu|iu,  liy  an  udupt'atiou  uf  tlicir 
salient  and  rc-entrunt  ..ngles,  so  as  to  make  a  kiml  of 
rundom  rublile  face-work.  In  this  kind  of  work, 
mortar  is  very  seldom  employed.  The  parapet  gen- 
erally conainis  (if  squared  masour}',  surmounted  liy  a 
lieavy  cope,  and  it  should  in  every  case  be  set  In  good 
lime  mortar. 

Where  the  materluin  are  light  and  of  small  sixes  It 
is  desirable  to  equalize  the  action  of  the  sea  over  the 
whole  work,  and  not  to  conceutrute  It  against  any  |mr- 
ticular  place.  Mr.  Kussell  states  that  the  cycluidal 
form  was  recommended  for  this  purpose  by  Franz 
tierstner,  of  Bohemia.  The  only  instance  with  which 
we  ara  acquainted  of  the  adoption  of  this  curve  was  in 
a  sea-wall  erected  at  Trinity,  near  lidinlmrg,  by  the 
lute  Mr.  Kuliert  iitevenson,  in  1822.  It  hus  been  al- 
ready stated  thiit  Irrespictivo  of  the  quality  of  the 
masonry,  tho  two  points  in  the  structure  which  are 
weak  or  dangerous  are  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  wull. 
With  a  rocky  Ixittom  the  risk  of  failure  ut  the  founda- 
tions is  removed ;  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  shore 
consists  of  rotten  rock,  moving  shingle,  or  sund,  it  Is 
obvious  that  provision  must  be  made  for  both  those 
sources  of  evil.  In  fact,  If  wo  consult  the  hist'>r}'  of 
our  harbors,  we  shall  And  that  by  fur  the  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  damage  is  the  reaction  of  the  sea 
against  the  shoru. 

The  general  slope  of  a  fragmentary  beach  must  de- 
pend upon  the  size  and  nature  of  the  particles  and  the 
force  of  the  sea.  The  dissimilarity  between  the  slopes 
of  a  beach  near  the  levels  of  high  and  low  water,  ari- 
ses from  a  decrease  in  the  force  of  the  waves,  owing 
to  their  being  broken  before  they  reach  the  high- water 
mark.  Tho  great  object,  therefore,  is  to  design  the 
proflle  of  our  wall  so  as  to  alter  as  little  as  possible 
the  symmetry  of  the  beach.  Whore  isolated  rocks  or 
large  boulders  are  seen  projecting  above  tho  surface  of 
a  sandy  beach,  there  will  generally  be  formed  around 
them  hollows,  corresponding  in  dopth  to  the  kind  of 
obstruction  which  the  rocks  present.  The  princijial 
point  in  the  design,  therefore,  must  be  to  avoid  great  and 
sudden  obstructions  to  the  movement  of  the  water.  The 
best  form  which  could  be  adopted  in  any  situation  would 
of  course  be  the  same  as  the  cross  section  of  the  beach 
itself,  but  this  would  answer  no  possible  purpose ;  and, 
as  the  wall  is  to  consist  of  heavy  blocks  of  stone  in- 
stead of  minute  particles  of  sand,  it  is  clear  that  a 
much  steeper  slope  may  be  odopteil  than  the  profile  of 
contervaney  of  the  coast,  provided  the  lower  part  of 
the  elope  be  flattened  out  so  as  to  meet  the  sand  at 
a  low  angle.  The  action  of  a  bulwark  is  to  arrest 
the  waves  before  thoy  reach  the  general  high-water 
mark,  and  to  change  the  horizontal  motion  of  the  fluid 
particles  to  the  vertical  plane,  or  to  compel  the  waves 
to  destroy  themselves  on  an  artificial  beach  consisting 
of  heavy  stones.  To  prevent  underwasbing,  the  two 
following  requisites  shonld  therefore  be  as  far  as  pos- 
sible secured: — 1st.  The  foundation  courses  or  bot- 
tom of  the  wall  should  rise  at  a  very  small  angle  with 
the  beach,  so  that  their  top  surfaces  may  be  coincident 
with  the  profile  of  conservation  of  that  portion  of  th« 


HAR 


040 


HAR 


iMaeh  nut  at  whirh  thn  wall  aprintrii  '(I'  Th*  nnt1ln« 
of  thn  wnll  nhDIlId  Im  mirh  im  %n  itllow  thn  wnvii  tn  piiiin 
onwnril  withniit  any  kiuMi'ii  rliprk  till  It  nhnll  hnvx 
r»nrhp(l  thn  itninKC't  [iiirt  nf  thn  wnll,  whIrh  »h(iiilil 
Ixi  an  fur  frnm  thn  fiiiiinlnllon  na  |Kii<itllilit, 

Thiwn  two  rfqntaltpa  «how  clnarly  linw  liimi|illnilili» 
a  vertlcnl  w»ll muat  In mcmt  i'nai<it  li«  fur  it  mincly  Imiiih, 
Inatcnil  of  nltfrlng  tli*  itlrrrtlun  of  thn  wiiv«  iit  it  din- 
Utile  fhim  Itii  foiiniliitlon,  thn  whnln  I'lmr^fn  U  iirmlindl 
»t  thnt  vnry  |Hilnt;  and  linlnM  thn  wnll  Im  fulindnd  ut 
■  (froat  ilnpth,  lt«  dnntriir'tlnn  U  all  hut  I'nrtaln.  Whnm 
thn  inatnrlala  arn  cimtly,  liiit  admit  cif  tmlnn  oaally 
drPKBcd,  wn  am  dlii|Hi>nd  tii  think  that  a  hiirlznntiil,  or 
nnarly  hiirUmilal,  wall,  I'cmnwtnd  with  a  vi'rtli-al  imn 
by  a  i|iiadrant  of  n  ilroln,  may  lie  fiiunil  miltald*. 
Siirh  a  fiirm  will  provi-nt,  to  n  mniildi  raldn  nxtnnt, 
thn  daiiKnr  iif  martlon,  hy  iaii»lii({  an  altnratlim  In  thn 
form  of  Ihn  wnvn  nt  that  part  wlmrn  thn  wall  l«  nfronn'- 
•ut  and  at  the  ({rnatniit  dintani'n  from  Ihn  ton  or  rurli- 
coiirno.  Whnrn  thn  niatnriala  urn  almndant  and  of  a 
roiiKhnr  naturn,  n  i-yrloldal  wall,  with  vnrtlral  and 
hnrlionlul  tan)(nnta,  aoninwhat  nlmilar  tn  that  nrnrtnd 
at  Trinity,  to  whUh  wn  have  already  refnrreil,  may  Im 
■Hoptnd  with  advanta^v 

A  npnrlal  ratitlon  may  nut  Iw  out  of  plaon  mgardlnn 
elayny  liottomn.  Many  am  a|it  to  «Hppo«o  that  thnm 
can  Imi  no  Imttpr  foundation  than  clay  ;  and  It  la  Indnnd 
tniB  that  mimn  klndu  of  hanl  rlay  form  n  aatlafactorj' 
iulmdl.  Ilutthnrnamothnraof  a  >nftnrklnd,  and  p^r- 
mnatrd  liy  naiidy  Im>iI«,  which  arn  nxtmmnly  trnai'hnr- 
oua.  If  them  lin  thn  ullj^htoiit  dip  snawanl,  thnm  In 
alwaj-a  a  rink  of  any  plnr  that  may  Im  liiillt  on  auch  n 
bane  alippluK  '""Illy  into  thn  una.  Thia  hojda  pk- 
ppcially  trim  of  Inland  lorka,  wbnrn  thn  aiilea  vnry 
oftnn  alope  aiiddnnly.  In  onn  inatanen,  thn  partlciilara 
of  whii'h  wn  );  t  im  thn  aput  ahiirtly  after  the  accident, 
a  pli  r  linllt  c  a  dnyny  bearli,  alopluK  tmlow  wntnr  at 
the  riito  of  oiin  in  12J,  aiiddnnly  tm^nn  to  movn,  and 
after  two  hours  it  hud  iilippnd  acnwunl  UiO  feet,  and 
had  liy  that  time  doacendcil  liodily  a  height  of  iH  feet, 
thn  top  of  thn  pinr  lieinf(  tlien  no  lean  than  211  feet  be- 
low low- water  aprin^  tides, 

Cunntmiinn  of  Ilnrbort.—Owr  apace  will  not  admit 
of  ciiir  Kolnjj  much  further  into  the  aubjnet  of  the  con- 
•truction  of  harlmra  than  thn  fnw  remarks  wo  have 
aire  idy  made,  A  knowled)(e  of  sncli  matters  may,  to 
•omo  extent,  be  acquired  by  a  careful  peruaal  of  the 
published  histories  of  marine  works  ;  but,  after  all.  It 
must  lie  confessed  that  thn  only  valuable  teacher  In 
this  wide  practical  field  Is  fxprrimf.  It  Is,  in  truth, 
Imjioaslble  to  lay  down  any  (fenera!  rules  of  (guidance 
IS  to  matters  of  this  kind.  All  that  .in  tie  done  with- 
in our  space  is  to  notice  very  briefly  s"nie  of  the  mom 
Important  metho<l8  of  working.  And  tlr«t,  with  regnrd 
to  that  Invaluable  piece  of  apparatus,  the  diving-bell, 
we  would  mfer  to  the  article  on  thn  siiLject  in  this 
work,  and  to  S.MKArA>'«  .Icriiww  i,/ Itamt-i/dtr  Hnrbnr 
published  In  1721,  «iiere  it  wa<  lirst  applied  by  him  hi 
harbor  works.  The  dlvinp-helmet  Is  a  moat  useftil 
•nd  convenient  modltli^ation  of  the  diving-liell,  and  is 
now  verj'  generally  eiBpIoyed. 

Of  late  years,  the  use  of  btUm  as  a  substitute  for 
backing  has  Iwen  intmdiic  ed.  This  iirtlflcial  concrete 
Ib  sometimes  used  in  enormous  masses.  Wo  have  seen 
at  Chorluinrg  blo<ks  of  50  tons  pn  pared  in  boxes, 
whose  sides  and  tops  are  removed  after  tbo  concrete 
has  set,  in  order  to  l>e  again  similarly  employed.  The 
proportions  used  at  Cherbourg  liy  M.  Kelieille  were 
two  of  sand  or  fine  gravel  to  one  of  Portland  cement. 

We  may  also  mention  that  the  method  <  f  assembling 
■tones  on  their  edges,  inateail  of  on  their  beds,  which 
formerly  wai  in  use  in  some  old  Scottish  harbors  and 
aea- walls,  as  at  St.  Andrews,  Prestonpans,  etc.,  de- 
lerves  to  he  more  generally  known  and  adopted  from 
Its  superior  strength. 

Thepro|Ki8aI  of  Mr.  Bremner,  of  Wick,  for  putting 
in  th«  fcosdationa  of  low-water  piers  also  merits  no- 


tice. Mr.  Dmmner  pm|io«na  tn  eanitmci.  In  Mm*  »^. 
Joining  place  of  ahnlter,  nnonnoiis  pontoons  of  limber, 
on  which  Ihn  under  parts  of  the  work  an:  built,  iinil  af> 
terwani  floated  to  the  deaired  s|»it  in  favoraldn  weather, 
and  camfully  grounded.  Nucli  a  pliiu  might,  w«  have 
no  doulit,  be  founil  economical  and  Ulehil  In  aoinn  litii. 
atlona. 

.\tr.  Hrnilrrn  Mrlhml.—Mr.  Kenilel  has  introdiii-nd 
an  improveil  method  of  iMenililiiV)(  thn  ;i<m'..<  ;i,  r>> 
iliiit  or  rubble  used  In  thnconalrm  tlunof  large  lim>ik> 
waters;  this  inethixl  hn  employed  at  Mlllbay  I'ler,  near 
I'lymoiith,  in  1N:M,  in  a  depth  of  IW  feet ;  linil  hn  li  a| 
present  caiTyIng  out  the  same  principle  una  atlll  larger 
scale,  in  thn  construction  of  thn  breakwaters  at  Holy, 
head  and  I'ortland.  Tlie  improvement  ronaiats  in  ile> 
IHisltlng  tlio  rough  materials  fnini  stagings  elnvaled  • 
considerable  height  aliovn  high  water.  The  stones  ar« 
brought  on  thn  staging  In  wagons,  through  thn  lioltomt 
of  which  tliny  are  discharged  into  thn  sea.  Tiie  prin* 
cipin  on  which  the  stagings  arn  designed  Is  that  of 
oft'uring  the  smallest  ponsiblx  resistance  to  tlie  sea, 
thn  under-atrui'ture  consisting  of  nothing  more  than 
single  upright  piles,  tlinre  lieing  only  one  linn  of  piles 
for  each  roadway. 

Ilnrhovt  iif  Iti/iiflf.— Mr.  Kendel  itates  :  "  I  use  no 
tlmlier  braces  of  any  kind,  us  thnsn  ufTer  morn  resist- 
alien  to  thn  ana  than  strength  to  the  staging.  At  l'ort> 
land,  Kngland,  where  any  nccidunt  would  lie  a  serious 
evil,  owing  to  our  nmploving  convicts  In  the  quarries, 
w«  stay  tlin  piles  with  iron  guys,  fixed  tn  Alitchel'i 
crew  nUKiriiigs,  and  also  truss  tlie  outer  piles  in  each 
row  with  iron  rods.  (V'o  also  fix  the  piles  In  th« 
ground  with  n  screw.  At  Holyhead,  h<  wever,  wa 
only  attach  to  each  pile  boxes  tilled  with  si  nill  stones, 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  them  into  a  vorti<-al  )iosltlon, 
and  use  nu  stnys  or  guys  of  any  kind.  The  su|)nr- 
atructuni  consists  simply  of  bulks  of  timber,  with  ralll 
laid  on  thoni  to  carry  I  he  wagons.  Thn  iiiles  ara 
plucod  In  rows  !I0  fovt  upnrt ;  and  thn  ease  and  certainty 
witli  which  the  staging  is  constructed  Is  such  tliat  a 
length  of  ilO  feet,  Including  the  screwing  tn  of  the 
lilies,  the  laying  down  of  tlio  roadways,  and  all  minor 
works  necessary'  to  make  them  tit  to  carry  thn  wagons, 
never  occupies  more  thun  onn  working  day  and  a  half, 
and  often  less.  The  length  of  thn  piles  that  wn  nrs 
now  using  varies  from  H4  to  90  feet,  thn  depth  of  wa- 
ter at  tioth  Holyhead  and  Portland  lining  about  It 
fathoms. 

"  Of  the  strength  of  thn  stage  you  may  Judge  from 
its  carrying  on  cacli  roadway  as  much  as  threo  wugons, 
weighing'  in  the  gross  12  tons  each.  The  advantages 
of  thn  stiging  are  obvious.  It  contritiutes  greatly  to 
the  cunsoliilutlon  of  the  stone,  it  makes  a  greater  length 
of  breakwater  to  bo  under  construction  at  the  same 
time,  and  it  enatdcs  the  deposits  to  lie  carried  on  with- 
out interruption  almost  in  thn  heaviest  weather.  Al 
an  instance  of  this,  I  may  remark  that  my  resident  ut 
Portland  informs  mn  thnt  the  wagons  and  locomotives 
were  engaged  yesterday  ut  a  time  when  such  a  .sea  was 
running  tlint  large  liodiea  of  spray  worn  thrown  fi.'i  feet 
above  the  water-level.  As  a  proof  of  the  facilities 
which  tlie  stage  alTords  for  rapidity  of  construction,  I 
should  state  that  we  have  deposited  this  year  at  Holy- 
head, where  free  lalior  Is  employed,  nearly  1,000,000 
tons  of  stones.  The  loss  from  ucddent  to  the  stugn  Is 
comparatively  small  on  its  first  cost,  and  when  spread 
over  the  coKt  of  the  wliole  work  it  is  a  mere  trifle.  I 
find  the  sea-slopes  are,  in  the  deep  water  and  exiHised 
parts,  from  five  ami  a  half  or  six  to  one  between  six 
feet  above  high-water,  and  from  12  to  15  lielow  low- 
water,  from  which  point  they  rapidly  tiecomo  atiout 
one  to  one.  The  inside  slopes  are  never  mure  than  ono 
and  a  quarter  to  one,  and  seldom  more  thun  ono  to  one. 
The  mutcriuls  are  excellent  for  our  purjiose." 

Aldemey,JerKy,  Dover,  amll'li/inovlh. — Mr.  Wulker 
has  also  contributed  some  facts  connected  with  tha 
construction  of  the  great  works  now  going  on  at  J«^ 


lun 


041 


HAR 


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my,  AMi«m*y,  mA  lh>v«r.    At  Aliturnsy,  whii'h  U  ■ 

very  •xiiosml  |il*<'»,  tha  hili>.  up  t>i  I 'J  runt  liulnw  low- 
water,  li  riirnieil  hy  ttimaii  tiiriiwn,  iir  rallior  ilnipiMMl, 
In  rrmii  liitri(»*.  I'|<  to  lnw  «at«r,  (lie  tturk  In  all 
■lone  liv  illvlMK-lieliMnf*,  III*  wall  la  Tarixl  nllli  K"*'<- 
Itn,  liiiikiiil  with  iiliii  Ii4  lit  hrlim  iiiarlo  iif  anilil,  nlilliKle, 
ami  riirtliiiKl  i'«nii*iit.  AIhivm  |iiw-wali<r  It  |4  tinfii 
with  •tune  of  the  I'laiiil,  a  klmt  iif  inllUliiiie-nrU,  ami 
U  hai'lfil  with  lilni'li*  iif  nililile  ut  III  lliiinaii  I'nnient. 
The  lullUtniia-urlt  la  r«U»il  III  very  litru*  liliii'lia,  I'lie 
)irullla  U  to  I'oiialat  ufa  H'lHY,  •»  "aiilaiiile,  nml  a  |iari>- 
|Mt,  .Inrany  U  miii'li  III*  aaiiia  aa  Alili<riii<y,  liiit  the 
jirU.mtU  Work  la  I'arrlail  tii  lnw-wiilnr,  havltiK  nearly 
vertli'iil  wiilla  iif  roiiKhiiiiRrutK  liiillt  alHive,  Hover  haa 
nearly  vertliul  walU,  fiireil  with  tfrHiiltH  from  the  vary 
Imttciiii,  whirh  la  now  'tfl  feat  Iwlow  loW'Waler,  'I'hla 
Work  wna  iloiin  with  llvlnu-lialU.  NIr  il,  Hennle,  In 
Ma  A,r,iiinl  ii/lhi  I'li/miiHlK  /Irnihrnhi;  anyai  "  I'rom 
the  luittnin  to  within  uiKht  fuel  of  low-water  aprinHa, 
wn  lliiil  thiit  the  aiopn  la  two  ami  a  half  iir  three  lo  one. 
Here  the  ell'nrt  of  the  wavea  la  lompiirallveiy  ainall, 
lialnK  iii'iitrnliaeil  hy  Ihn  maaa  of  wulxr,  I'roiii  thenre 
to  liiw-watnr  of  aprlnK-thtua  the  aloiie  liwrenaea  from 
three  or  four  to  one,  hut  Imtwaen  low-water  of  aprinK- 
tiilea  iinil  hlt(h-wnler,  whan  the  ain<i't  of  the  wnvea  la 
i;reiit('«l,  Ihiiru  wa  foiiii<l  thai  tlia  ruhhia  would  not  lie 
at  leaa  tloin  Hva  to  one,  wlllla  oil  the  Inalile,  the  alope 
atamla  ){Hiinriilly  at  from  oiin  ami  a  half  or  two  to  one," 
The  nhovu  IntereatliiK  (tnlalla  rnMHriliiitf  tlieae  national 
worka  allow,  flniin  Ihn  variety  wlilili  they  aahihlt,  how 
dilHrult  it  la  to  lay  down  any  tfnnural  riilea  for  the 
conntrui  tlon  of  hiirliora,  ami  I'oiillrin  the  primiiple  that 
•aoii  work  nAiat  Ij«  JuilKail  of /ci'  if, 

Minnlliinriiut  Dhirrniliimi,  'Ilia  ultimate  oliject  of 
conatriirtinK  harlKira  la,  liy  hiwerltiK  the  lielKhlof  the 
wavea,  to  praaarva  thu  trMlii|illllUy  of  the  area  of  wa- 
ter which  la  iiicluaerl  hy  the  |ilnra|  ami  thia  pro|>erty 
is  varlciuitiy  poaausaeil  h)  harhora  of  ililTerelit  forma, 
anil  ilcpcmla  inuiih  upon  the  rulatlva  wliUha  of  the  en- 
trnnoii,  nml  of  thu  (nttirhir,  the  il^ptli  of  water,  the 
shn|i«  of  the  entrance,  ami  tlia  rnlalhm  helwann  the 
ilircetiiin  of  its  opaniiiK  aii>l  that  of  the  Una  of  imrimiim 
tspiwire. 

The  only  forrouhi  of  i  h  wa  ara  awafa  la  that  hy 
the  writer  In  »^  iiulo  i  illn,  Npik  I'hii.  .Imirnul, 
186H),  whicli  III)  apprtialiimthill  (<i  the  reiluHirv 

power,  or  in,  .  „thar  woriU,  a  nunierh'al  form  of  en- 
proflsin^  I  "tt  much  a  wave  of  nUnn  height  heiomes 
roduceil  ait.'i  I'  haa  enternil  a  liarliiir,  'I'lioiiKh  the 
reaultK  .i.t«in>Ml  by  lliu  formula  may  not  lie  aliaoliitely 
curre^  I  thIa  >trill  hn  no  nlijui'thin  wliern  the  ohjei't  la 
roerv,  til  o)«aln  a  foinparatlve  valuni  aa,  fur  exam- 
ple^ V.  'omparlng  one  i|ual|{n  for  a  liartaif  with  aii- 
uthiT.  When  thu  piera  are  lilijli  anoiiKli  to  aereen  the 
tuner  area  from  the  wimt,  wlieru  tha  iloptll  la  uniform, 
the  widtli  of  entrani's  nut  very  Kreat  In  comparlaon 
with  the  width  of  tha  wave,  ami  whiin  (ha  quiiy  wnlla 
are  vertkul,  and  the  diatanna  i)ot  leaa  llian  M  feet — 
let 

H  =  \w\ii\\t  in  feet  of  waves  In  the  open  aen. 

X  ^  ri'duccil  helifht  of  waves  In  ftiet  at  pinca  of  ob- 
servation In  the  liiti-rior  of  the  Imrlior. 

b  =■  lircniltli  of  entramui  to  hiirhor  In  feet, 

B=lir(!udth  of  harlior  at  place  uf  iilia«rvatl""  in 
feet. 

D  ==■  distance  from  mnutlt  uf  Imrhor  l<i  place  of  al>- 
MirvatluD  ill  feet. 

TliU  formula  baa  been  founil  to  n\yu  ifooit  a|inrof(lma- 
ttons  at  several  liarlKira  wliare  the  halifhta  of  thti  Waves 
were  registered.  When  II  la  aaauMiail  aa  unity,  ir  will 
represent  the  rtiitwtivt  jmuu  /•  of  tha  liariiiir,  in  altiia- 
tlons  whore  the  highest  waves  iroas  (ha  tiarlior  month 
at  an  oliHiiua  angle,  *  further  raitutithin  la  dun  Ui  this 
cauM.   We  have  baan  unabU  to  Unit  aujr  obMfyattoiM 


that  have  lieen  m«<t*  on  thia  sulijsct  hy  nihers,  and  fhr 
want  of  lietter,  w*  ahall  ^Ive  three  ohservstioiis  mad* 
under  our  dlrettluns  at  Latheronwhael  barlnir  i 


AnaU  *tt 
ol.ll.iMlly. 
0" 
AU 


IStUHMM 

ran  Uraash 
fcy  warM. 

lehsi 

U    " 


Halihi  ofwava 

aSpr  Mattnil 
llir.xifk  Misfa, 

IDU 
(>« 


'I'heaa  nni't  however  Ik  r«Karileil  aa  hut  approxima- 
thiiia.  It  la  olivioua  that  as  tlie  wave  may  Ihi  iletlei'ted 
IhroiiKh  more  than  lllli)^',  dm  curve  repreaeiitInK  the 
rediirtloii  miiat  lie  apiral ;  hut  mora  ohservatluna  ara 
wanted  to  ileterinlne  uf  what  kind. 

Ikiomn  are  hiKS  uf  tlmlair  piiii'eil  ai'MHS  the  mouth 
of  a  harbor,  or  the  eiitranie  to  an  Inner  liaaluoi  ilock, 
havluK  their  enita  secured  by  proJectinK  Into  KriKivea 
I'lit  In  the  masonry  on  each  aide  of  the  entrance.  The 
leioina  are  dropped  into  the  ^Movea  to  the  numlier  of 
from  10  to  '.III,  or  aa  many  more  iis  will  Inaura  cloae 
ciintiu't  of  the  hiwest  one  with  a  alli-pleie  placed  in  tha 
bottom  of  the  harlHir,  without  which  precaution  tha 
swell  Is  found  to  enter  the  harlMir  from  liehiw  tha 
liiHims.  I(y  thia  contrivance,  which  forma  a  lein|Kirary 
wall,  the  waves  are  coinplotely  checked  and  prevented 
from  apreadhiK  Into  the  interior  basin.  'I'lie  longest 
Ihioiiis  we  have  neon  are  iiliout  4fi  feet ;  and  In  soma 
placea,  as  at  Hartlepool  and  Heahniii,  in  Durliainnhire, 
they  are  taken  out  and  in  by  steam-power.  ThouKb 
perfectly  suovrssful  in  their  tramiulllixInK  elfect  (pro- 
viiied  they  are  kept  In  contact  with  the  sill-piiicv  ut  tha 
Iniltoni),  booms  are  not  suited  fur  the  niuutha  of  har- 
liora  where  there  is  much  IrulUc,  as  tlie  shlppinK  and 
unahlpping  of  so  many  lo((s  of  timber  can  harilly  take 
b'sa  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour — u  delay  which  mlitbt 
In  may  onaeii  he  attended  with  serious  conaeipieiicns. 

It  is  very  ileslrablu,  anil  In  some  cusex  essential,  that 
there  b«  cithei'  a  cunsiderablo  Internal  urea,  or  else  a 
separate  liiisin  opjuMito  the  entrance  for  the  waves  to 
destroy  or  tpmd  themselves.  Much  a  basbi  shnuhl,  If 
possible,  he  made  so  ns  to  proserva  a  portion  of  the 
iiri)(iiial  sliore  fur  thu  waves  to  break  ii)Min ;  and  when 
ciri'iimatunces  rvndcreil  f  hit  im|iossilile,  there  should  at 
louat  be  a  Hat  talus  i'  wo  or  three  to  one.  Tulua 
walls  of  one  to  one,  ,ir  steeper,  will  not  allow  tha 
waves  to  hreiik  fully,  liut  will  retlect  them  in  such  a 
manner  as  might  in  lome  cases  make  the  entrance  dif- 
ficult, or  even  iluii|,'i'rous,  of  access,  ami  the  liortluige 
within  unsafe.  I'hcre  are  many  instances  uf  harbors 
lieing  mattTiully  injured  liy  the  ea'ction  of  ii  lUiiy-woU 
across  a  lieai  b  whore  (lie  waves  wero  formerly  allowed 
to  expettil  titcir  force.  It  may  be  observed  that  when 
there  is  .111  inner  harbor  or  atilling-basin,  the  elliptical 
form  seems  to  !>•'  the  most  promising.  I-et  one  fuciia 
be  supposed  ti'  lie  on  the  middle  lino  of  the  entrance, 
and  to  coini'Mii  with  the  point  from  which  the  wavea 
i'l  expanding  into  tlie  interior  radiate  as  from  a  centre 
which  lliey  do  approximately) ;  and  if  the  other  focus 
is  sltiiiitni)  Inland  of  high-water  mark,  the  waves  will 
tend  <  raassemble  at  the  landward  focus,  and  on  their 
K  ••ill  be  destroyed  by  breaking  (ut  the  lieach. 
This  appears  from  the  well-known  property  of  the  ol- 
lliwc.  that  if  two  railii  t-ectores  bo  drawn  from  the  two 
fill  to  any  point  in  the  curve  they  will  make  equal  an- 
gl>  witli  the  tangent  at  that  point ;  and  as  the  angles 
of  incidence  and  rellectinn  of  a  wave  from  any  olistacle 
are  practicallj"  equal,  each  wave  will  bo  nearly  con- 
centrated at  the  fucus  opposite  to  that  from  which  it 
emanated. 

Inilinfriminate  Deepening. — Anotlier  causo  of  disturb- 
ance in  harbors,  w'lich  is  often  not  suAlidently  consid- 
ered, is  the  indii<criminate  deepening  of  the  entrance 
without  a  pro]iurtianate  enlargement  of  the  internal 
eren,  or  the  execution  of  other  works  for  counteracting 
the  effect.  As  the  depth  of  the  water  is  more  and 
more  increased,  waves  of  greater  height  become  po»- 
aible  at.  the  entrance,  bo  that  larger  waves  gain  ad^ 
mluiou  to  the  interior.    The  writer  hai  had  repeated 


HAR 


949 


HAR 


proob  of  ihlt  in  tba  eoun«  of  hit  pnotlot.  At  the 
port  of  SonderUnd  Mr.  D,  St«v*niion  rtcummonded 
the  removal  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  touth  stone 
pier,  and  the  aubstitutlon  of  work*  (.f  open  frame-worlc 
in  order  to  tranqutlliie  the  interior,  'I'hena  wurka, 
which  have  l>flen  quite  aucceitful,  were  rendered  noceii- 
iar>-  by  the  fVequont  dred|{lng  of  the  vliannel  ut  and 
near  the  entrance. 

Artificial  Scouring,— T\u  pretarvation  of  the  depth 
of  harbors  where  there  ia  a  tandenuy  to  du[Hiatt  In  oiten 
attended  with  great  diifliiulty  and  expenne.  Where 
the  deposit  of  silt  ia  contlned  to  the  apuva  between 
high  and  low  water  marka,  the  acuurlnK  ^y  nxotis  of 
salt  or  fresh  water  is  in  general  viimparatlvely  easy, 
but  where  there  is  a  lioi  outside  of  the  entrance  the 
cose  becomes  moat  materhilly  changed.  The  niBcacy 
of  the  scour,  so  li)ng  as  it  la  not  lin|ie<led  by  encoun- 
terhig  stagnant  water,  ia  kept  up  for  great  diatancea, 
but  soon  cornea  to  an  end  on  Its  nioetlng  the  sea, 
Probably  the  only  way  In  which  tlila  dlMculty  might 
to  some  extent  be  obvhited  would  be  l>y  conduotlog 
the  water  in  iron  pipes  to  the  Iwr,  n  plan  which  the 
author  proposed  in  1848  for  Ilynisb  harbor,  but  the 
expense  was  considerable  and  the  auoceaa  doubtful. 
When  the  volume  of  water  lilMirated  ia  great  compared 
with  the  (Unut  or  channel  through  which  It  has  to 
pass,  the  objection  baaed  on  the  atagnancy  of  the  water 
originally  occupying  the  channel  iloua  nut  hold  to  the 
same  extent  as  when  the  acouring  la  to  be  produced  by 
a  sudden  finite  momtnlum.  In  thu  one  caae  the  acour- 
ing power  dependa  almjiiy  on  the  quantity  llliornted  In 
a  given  space  of  time,  while  In  the  other  It  depnnds  on 
the  propelling  head  and  the  direction  in  which  tho 
water  leaves  the  sluice.  Mr,  Koiidei's  schema  for 
Birkenhead  was  on  tho  former  principle.  The  flrat 
example  of  artitlclul  acouring  in  this  country  acems  to 
be  due  to  Smeaton,  wlio  uaod  it  elTectuully  at  Itamagate 
in  1779. 

At  Bute  Dockti,  CardllT,  Wulea,  dealgned  by  HIr  W. 
Cubitt,  the  acceaa  to  the  outer  liaalil  la  kept  (i|i«n  most 
successfully  by  means  of  artitlclul  acouring  on  n  gigan- 
tic scale.  The  entrance  was  cut  through  mud  bunks 
for  a  distance  of  about  three  fnurtlia  of  a  mlln  seaward 
of  high-water  mark,  'i'lie  initial  dlachurgo  whrn  the 
reservoir  is  full,  ia  stated  to  lie  2fiUU  tons  |H'r  minute. 
The  writer  has  known  even  ao  limited  a  discharge  for 
an  hour  or  two  as  one  ton  a  minute,  pro<luce  very  useful 
effects  in  keeping  a  amall  tiihil  harbor  clear  of  aand. 

Floating  Breakwnieri. — Many  pro|)<iaaia  have  from 
time  to  time  l)een  made  for  nto<iring  In  the  o|M)n  aea 
floating  frameworks  of  timber  with  the  view  of  shel* 
tering  the  space  inclosed  by  them,  Tho  objectlima  to 
flouting  breakwaters  aro  »a  great  and  obvious  that 
there  seems  little  chance  of  their  ever  being  much 
used.  From  what  was  stated  on  tho  aiibjec^t  of  iKionia, 
it  will  be  recolhcted  that  It  la  a  requisite  that  they 
should  lit  closely  to  a  sill  piece  at  tho  iHittimi,  other- 
wise the  rtin  is  found  to  extend  Into  thu  harbor,  Krom 
what  will  t>e  afterward  stated  roganllng  the  llnbllity 
of  timber  to  speedy  destruction  from  tho  marine  worm, 
and  to  iron  by  chemical  action,  It  la  obvious  that  float- 
ing structures  of  wood,  connected  by  Iron  and  moored 
by  iron  chains,  can  not  possibly  bo  of  lung  duration. 
If  to  all  theae  sources  of  evil  wo  add  the  risk  of  their 
being  broken  by  the  sea,  we  think  the  case  may  bo 
utmost  reganied  aa  hopaleaa.  No  doubt  green-heart 
might  bo  employed  so  as  to  resist  the  ravages  of  the 
worm,  l)ut  its  high  specific  gravity  and  ita  great  ex- 
pense would  prove  bars  to  Ita  employment, 

Sutpetuion  Pi  «. — In  aomo  altuutiona  where  there  la 
a  long  shallow  ,.  <ch,  a  harlior  or  pier  of  timber  or 
masonry  may  be  made  at  or  near  the  lo'.r-water  mark, 
which  may  be  connected  with  the  shore  by  means  of  a 
suspension  bridge.  The  mducemcnts  to  ailopt  the  sua- 
pension  principle  are  its  economy,  and  the  frvn  passage 
it  aflords  to  tHo  currents  wlili'h  In  thle  wiiy.arn  pro- 
Tented  fh>m  forming  acoumuUtiout  cf  .saud,  allt,  or 


gravel.  These  advantages  ai«,  however,  much  n. 
duced  by  the  great  wear  and  tear  conaeqaent  upon  the 
perishable  nature  of  the  structure.  The  late  Sir  Sam- 
uel Brown  erected  two  chain  piers,  the  one  at  Brighton, 
and  the  other  at  Newhaven,  near  Edinbnrg,  both  of 
which  are  atUl  in  eziatence. 

Adixmtagti  qftwo  £tUraiice»  to  a  Harbor. — In  every 
situation  where  it  is  easily  practicable  to  moke  two  en- 
trances to  a  harbor,  it  will  be  found  well  worth  the 
extra  expense,  provided  they  can  be  so  placed  that  the 
one  shall  l>e  available  when  the  other  has  l>ecome  difil- 
cult  of  access.  In  harbors  which  liave  but  one  mouth, 
vessels  are  often  detained  for  a  great  length  of  timn  by 
the  continuance  of  the  wind  in  the  direction  which 
throws  a  heavy  sea  into  the  entrance.  Whereas  if 
there  are  two  entrances  situated  as  we  have  supposed, 
vcsaels  are  at  once  able  to  take  their  departure  by  the 
sheltered  side.  At  the  port  of  Peterhead,  the  north 
and  south  harlrars  were  some  years  ago  united  by  a 
canal,  according  to  the  writer's  plans,  and  there  the 
advantage  has  been  of  the  most  marked  description. 
Vessels  can  now  clear  out  as  soon  as  loaded,  either  by 
the  north  or  south  mouth,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
sea.  Some  caution  is  necessary,  however,  as  the  run 
la  apt  to  extend  from  the  one  harbor  to  the  other  unless 
there  lie  a  considerable  area. 

Harbor  Hepairt. — There  is  generally  much  prudence 
required  in  tho  alteration  or  repairs  of  existing  marine 
Works.  The  risk  of  having  tho  whole  structure  de- 
stroyed by  a  gale  coming  suddenly  on  while  there  is 
an  open  breach  in  the  works,  must  be  obvious ;  and  in 
one  instance,  where  the  exposure  of  the  place  was 
great,  and  the  evil  was  a  hidden  one,  the'  writer  could 
not  recommend  the  facework  being  disturbed.  The 
cause  of  failure  in  this  instance  was  supposed  to  be 
the  decay  of  the  Imcking,  which  havmg  deprived  the 
face-stones  of  support  allowed  them  to  l)e  driven  in- 
ward by  the  force  of  the  waves.  Instead  of  removing 
the  face-work,  the  only  recommendation  that  could  be 
given  was  to  Inject  the  whole  pier  with  fluid  cement, 
so  us,  if  possible,  to  render  the  mass  monolithic.  An 
alternative  of  this  kind  is  obviously  of  very  doubtful 
success,  and  can  be  regarded  as  nothing  short  of  a  last 
resort,  for  there  is  but  a  small  chance  of  getting  the 
Injected  fluid  to  permeate  the  whole  mass  of  the  pier. 
The  system  of  permeating  the  masonry  with  fluid 
matter  could,  however,  be  employed  with  more  chance 
of  success  in  thejormation  of  a  pier,  while  each  course 
lies  open  to  view.  In  1844,  at  a  harbor  that  had  stood 
for  very  many  years,  two  or  three  faulty  stones  had 
lieen  incautiously  taken  out  of  tho.  facework  by  a 
mason  who  intended  to  replace  them  by  others,  when 
a  sudden  gale  came  on,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
work  was  leveled  with  the  beach. 

As  an  example  of  the  suddenness  with  which  the 
ouatern  coast  of  England  is  visited  by  gales,  rnd  as  in- 
dicating graphically  the  relative  eligibility  of  tho  sum- 
mer and  winter  months  for  carrying  on  harbor  works, 
we  givo  the  accompanying  diagram  of  the  heights  of 
waves,  as  observed  for  the  writer,  liy  Mr.  William 
MIddlemiss,  resident  engineer  at  Lybstor  harbor.  (See 
next  page.) 

7'imber  Piert. — In  landlocked  bays,  where  a  deep- 
water  landing-place  is  all  that  is  required,  and  where 
the  bottom  is  sandy  or  soft,  timber  may  be  eniploj'ed 
with  great  advantoige.  Even  in  exposed  situations, 
timber  can  also  be  used,  but  the  fatal  disadvantage 
attending  "its  employment  in  most  places  whore  thoro 
la  no  admixture  of  fresh  water,  is  the  rapid  destruction 
occashmod  by  marine  worms.  The  damage  occasioned 
to  harliors  In  this  way  is  notice<l  by  Sempio  in  his 
treatise  On  liuilding  in  Water,  in  1770,  and  very  prob- 
ably by  much  earlier  writers.  Indeed,  the  ravages  of 
tho  Teredo  namlit  are  very  ludicrously  described  by 
Hector  Boece  in  his  Croniklit  of  Scotland,  printed  at 
Edinburg  circa  1586.  In  the  Atlantic  Oceon  the 
Teredo  navatis,  and  at  mo-iy  places  in  the  German 


HAR 


mt 


EAR 


Rboistbr  or  Hbiout  or  Waves  for  1852,  obbebviso  at  Lybstbb,  Oaitiinbsb^hibb. 
Jan,       Feb.       Much.    April      Hay.       Jane.      Jnly.      Aug.       Sept.      Oat.       Not.       Dee. 


the 


irob- 
is  of 
by 
d  at 
the 
nutn 


a  !*' 


Fig.  a. 


Ocean  the  Limnoria  terebrans,  are  the  animalx  which 
are  found  to  destroy  any  structure  of  timber  which  ie 
exposed  to  the  water.  They  are  found  to  eat  most 
rapidly  between  the  bottom  and  low-water  mark,  but 
above  low-water  the  damage  is  not  so  great ;  and  what 
is  singular,  they  do  not  appear  to  exist  at  all  below  the 
bottom  where  the  pile  is  covered  with  sand.  These 
observations  do  not,  however,  quadrate  with  Mr.  Hart- 
ley's at  Liverpool,  for  he  found  the  parts  which  were 
alternately  wet  and  dry  to  decay  faster  than  the  parts 
which  were  constantly  immersed.  Even  solid  lime- 
stone is  often  destroj-ed  by  the  persevering  efforts  of 
another  marine  animal  called  the  Pkolas. 

The  late  Mr.  R.  Stevenson  made  several  experi- 
ments on  the  ravages  of  the  Limnoria  terebrmm  at  the 
Bell  Rock,  in  1814,  1821,  1837,  and  1848,  tiy  fixing 
pieces  of  different  kinds  of  timber  to  the  rock,  and 
getting  regular  reports  on  their  decay.  From  those 
experiments  it  appeared  that  green-heort,  beef-wootl, 
and  tullet-tree,  were  not  attacked  by  the  worms,  while 
teak  stood  remurknl>iy  well,  although  suffering  at  last. 
The  kyanizing  fluid  and  other  preparations  have  been 
tried,  but  were  not  found  to  be  of  permanent  service. 
In  addition  to  these  experiments  on  timl>er,  no  fewer 
than  25  different  kinds  and  coml>inations  of  iron  were 
tried,  including  specimens  of  galvanize!  irons.  Al- 
though separate  specimens  of  each  were  tried  in  places 
where  they  wore  always  under  water,  and  also  in  places 
where  they  were  alternately  wet  ond  dry,  yet  all  the 
ungalvanized  specimens  were  found  to  oxydize  with 
much  the  same  readiness.  The  galvanized  specimens 
resisted  oxydation  for  three  or  four  years,  after  which 
the  chemical '  action  Tvent  on  as  quickly  as  in  the 
others. 

Green-heart  timber  is  now  generally  had  recourse  to 
■  in  places  where  the  worms  are  destructive.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  first  used  by  Mr.  J.  Hartley  of 
Liverpool,  who  published  in  tho  Minutes  of  Inttitulion 
of  Civil  Engineers  an  account  of  its  virtues  in  1840,  as 
ascertained  at  the  Liverpool  Docks.  Its  cost  is  con- 
siderably greater  than  memel  or  than  most  of  the  other 
timbers  generally  used.  Memel  logs  for  the  inner 
piles  of  piers  might,  perhaps,  from  their  not  being  ex- 
posed to  abrasion  firom  ships,  be  clad  with  green-heart 
planking  at  those  parti  which  arc  ox|>osed  to  the 
worm.  Copper  sheathing  and  scupper  nailing  are 
often  and  successfully  employed  as  protections  for 
piles  in  exposed  situations,  Srenminij  or  scorching 
the  wood,  and  afterword  saturating  it  with  train  oil, 
also  forms  a  partial  protection. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  timber  is  so  ex- 
pensive in  Great  Britain,  and  that  some  simple  and 
economical  specific  against  the  worm  has  not  been 
discovered  for  protecting  memel  and  tlie  cheaper  kinds 
of  pine.  The  grand  desideratum  in  the  harbor  works, 
which  is  the  want  of  continuity  in  the  structure,  would 
then  be  supplied.  It  follows,  from  the  known  laws 
of  fluids,  that  each  individual  stone  in  a  pier  which  is 
equally  exposed  throughout  its  whole  length,  is  subject- 


ed to  a  force  which  it  can  only  resist  by  its  own  inertia, 
and  the  friction  due  to  its  contact  with  the  adjoining 
stones.  The  stability  of  a  whole  hydraulic  work  may 
therefore  be  periled  by  the  use  of  small  stones  in  one 
part  of  the  fabric,  wl  ile  it  is  in  no  way  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  lieavier  stones  into  other  parts. 
By  the  use  of  long  logs  of  timber  carefully  bolted 
together  a  new  element  of  strengtii  is  ol)viou8ly  ob- 
tained. A  pier  could  be  erected  almost  free  of  sea  risk 
if  constructed  of  rectangular  or  other  shaped  prisms, 
consisting  of  logs  of  timber  treenuiled  and  bolted 
togetlier,  so  as  to  form  boxes,  say  10  feet  square  and  30 
or  40  feet  long.  The  interior  of  the  Imxes  would  be 
filled  witli  ruljble  or  beton.  The  first  layer  would  be 
arranged  across  the  pier,  so  as  to  fit  the  irregularities 
of  the  bottom,  and  al)ove  that,  they  might  be  arranged 
lengthwise  of  the  pier,  so  as  to  form  its  outer  and  in- 
ner walls,  the  space  between  being  filled  with  common 
rubble  or  beton. 

In  many  ports  the  original  depth  has  been  decreji.seu 
by  the  deposit  of  silt,  sand,  and  gravel.  This  is,  in- 
deed, a  great  evil,  and  ore  which  unfortunately  is 
most  difficult  of  cure.  So  obscur*  and  apparently  ca- 
pricious are  the  causes  whicli  lead  to  the  formation  of 
shoals,  that  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it 
would  l)c  little  short  of  gtiachery  to  lay  down  any  gen- 
eral rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  engineer.  In  fixing 
on  the  site  for  a  harbor,  all  existing  obstructions 
should  be  examined  to  ascertain  whether  there  be  a 
tendency  to  deposit,  and  the  works  should  be  kept  as 
fur  as  possible  from  places  wliere  the  tendency  is  most 
strongly  developed.  The  agents  which  occasion  Imra 
at  the  mouths  of  harbors  are  the  waves,  the  tide  cur- 
rents, and  land  streams,  where  tliey  exist,  Ifivera 
are  often  more  pernicious  than  beneficial  in  tlieir 
effects,  especiull}'  wliere  they  intersect  a  gravelly  soil ; 
but  in  some  cases  the  descending  gravel  may  l)c  suc- 
ccssfull)'  intersected  by  the  erectiim  of  weirs  from 
which  the  accumulation?  must  1)0  from  time  to  time 
removed.  We  agree  with  Sir  II,  De  la  Beche  in  be- 
lieving that  the  bars  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  are  most 
generally  formed  by  the  constant  tendency  of  the 
waves  to  preserve  tlie  continuilij  of  the  beach  profile. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered  at,  tliat  heavy 
gales  should  distort  and  fill  up  the  narrow  trench 
which  the  back  waters  cut  in  gravelly  or  sandy 
beaches.  The  erection  of  breakwaters  on  each  side 
has  undoubtedly  a  good  effect  in  protecting  the  chan- 
nel, but  still  a  bar  is  very  apt  to  form  outside  of 
the  breakwaters.  In  some  cases  the  depth  of  the  track 
might  probably  be  maintained  by  driving,  on  each 
side  of  the  mid-channel,  dwarf  piles  to  which  contigu- 
ons  wallings  should  be  attached  so  as  to  confine  tho 
current  at  low  water,  Tho  timber  frame-work  should 
not  project  more  than  a  foot  or  two  above  the  bottom, 
which  in  some  cases  might  be  planked.  This,  how- 
over,  is  but  a  hint,  and  has,  so  far  a«  the  author  is 
aware,  never  been  tried.  The  principle  on  which  th( 
proposal  is  based  is  that  of  contracting  the  low-watei 


BAB 


944 


HAB- 


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fibiutlHil,  •n4  tbtM  by  6ning  th«r  low-water  liack,  to 
pravant » tottmim  niutnmi,  The  iame  principle  waa 
uio\tM  iiy  tiM)  wribir  wttli  Rucrenit  In  eontroUbig  and 
flsiug  tba  fnniuuUrinun  ut  «  xfavelly  river,  which  la 
auhjact  U)  very  nmitlmt  tuni  hmty  frenhcts. 

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Vluuii  wuwtt  wt,Hlt  M/lcn  titu  nviUKirt  or  Uxi-rrimknt 
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awar  by  Hi"  •"«  7  Hf/nttn  «fl«f»afd. 

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Ilia  want  of  attin<^f«*tt  ftttirt/)  oncaalona  a  great  na- 
tional lota  ill  til*  ('(/ftalrw'ttftn  of  Knglish  harlwra.  The 
biatory  of  a  b*r)j«  W«j«(flty  of  lliono  ports  which  liave 
been  trracta't  liy  prlvato  of  local  enterprise,  preaenta 
but  •  raoonl  uf  Urn  IwiMlntf  «if  pbiri  at  one  period  when 
Km  fluid*  wm  mmU,  mm  «f  taUng  tima  down  at 


another  when  the  trade  had  increased  and  more  room 
and  accommodation  were  roquirod.  Want  of  funds 
often  prevents  the  original  works  from  being  carried 
within  deep  water,  and  in  consequence  the  mosi  .  a- 
pensive  part  of  the  protecting  brealiwater  is  often  ^  ill 
down  just  in  the  very  place  which  has  afterward  to  be 
converted,  at  great  expense,  into  a  deep  water  access 
or  berthage,  Sometimes,  indeed,  a  whole  line  of  pier  is, 
from  motives  of  economy,  placed  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  interfeii  most  materially  with  what  might  have 
been  by  fur  the  best  and  safest  berths  for  shipping,  so 
that  in  the  further  extension  of  the  works  a  groat  part 
of  the  old  harbor  haa  to  be  demolished.  Want  uf  a 
proper  marine  survey  haa  also  often  led  to  vert-  seri- 
ous errors  in  the  position  of  the  piers.  To  such  an 
extent  has  this  system  prevailed,  that  were  an  engmeer 
called  on  to  value  many  of  the  works  as  they  exist  at 
present,  his  estimate,  however  fairly  and  fully  made 
out,  would  fall  lamentably  short  of  the  actual  cost. 
This  estimate  would  proceed  on  a  measurement  of 
what  ho  sees,  while  the  actual  cost  would  include  the 
building  of  piers  and  jetties  which  had  long  since 
ceased  to  exist.  For  these  reasons  we  conceive  thero 
could  hardly  be  a  more  advisable  expenditure  of  the 
public  money  than  by  a  sj-stem  of  grant&for  supple- 
menting the  local  funds  on  a  liberal  scale.  With  such 
aid  the  authorities  on  the  spot  would  be  enabled  to 
protect  and  improve  the  existing  physical  advantages 
which  the  shores  possess,  by  preventing  the  construc- 
tion of  proposed  improvements  on  too  narrow  a  scale. 
But  a  comparatively  slight  increase  of  the  means  would, 
in  instances  of  which  the  writer  is  aware,  have  in- 
closed a  great  extra  area,  and  secured  a  deeper  access 
with  superior  internal  tranquillity,  the  want  of  which 
now  cripples  the  trade,  and  is  the  subject  of  lastmg  re- 
gret to  all  frequenting  the  harbors. 

For  this  article  we  are  indebted  to  the  pen  of  Thomaa 
Stevenson,  F«q.,  Civil  Engineer,  written  for  the  Mncg, 
Brit.,  8th  ed.,  1867.     See  vol.  xi. 

For  other  subjects  connected  with  harbors  vide  arti- 
cles on  Docks  and  Pobts.  Keference  may  be  made 
to  Srit.  Assoc.  Sep.,  1860,  Scoresbt  ;  Jftn.  Inst. 
Civ.  £ng.,  1848,  Kankime;  do.,  1647,  Scott  Rug* 
BELL;  Do.,  1844,  IIrbmnbr;  Smbaton's  Reports, 
passim. ;  Rep.  Com.  on  ll^at'e*  by  Brit.  Assoc.,  J.  S.  Rus- 
sell, London,  1848 ;  Researches  on  Hydrodynamics,  3. 
S.  Russell  ;  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  xiv.,  1837 ; 
Account  of  Experiments  on  Force  of  Waves  of  Atlantic 
and  German  Oceans,  Thomas  Stevenson  ;  Trans.  Roy. 
Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  xvi.,  1846  ;  On  Reduction  of  Height 
cf  Waves  after  passing  into  Harbors,  T.  Stevenson  j 
Edin.  New  I'hil.  Joum.,  1852  ;  Account  of  the  Plymouth 
Breakwater,  by  Sir  J.  Rennib,  London,  1848 ;  Beli- 
oor's  Architecture  Hydraulique,  Paris ;  Semi>le's 
Treatise  on  Building  in  Water,  Dublin,  1776;  Royal 
Tidal  Harbor  Commissions'  Reports,  Captain  Wash- 
INOTOM,  Tendon,  1846-6 ;  the  article  on  Tides  and 
Waves  in  the  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana,  by  G.  B. 
AiREY,  Astronomer  Royal;  Report  by  Commissioners 
of  Harbors  of  Refuge,  with  the  Protest,  by  Sir  How- 
ard Douglas. 

Good  harbors  are  of  essential  importance  to  a  mari- 
time nation  ;  and  immense  sums  have  been  expended 
in  all  countries  ambitious  of  naval  or  commercial 
greatness  in  their  improvement  and  formation.  British 
Harbors. — Portsmouth,  Milford  Haven,  and  the  Cove 
of  Cork,  are  the  finest  harbors  in  the  British  islands, 
being  surjiassed  by  very  few,  if  any,  in  the  world. 
Of  these,  Portsmouth  is  entitled  to  the  pre-eminence. 
This  admirable  harbor  is  about  as  wide  at  its  mouth  as 
the  Thames  at  Westminster  Bridge,  expanding  within 
into  a  noble  basin,  almost  sufficient  to  contain  the 
whole  navy  of  Great  Britain.  Its  entrance  is  unob- 
structed by  any  bar  or  shallow  ;  and  it  has,  through- 
out, water  adequate  to  float  the  largest  men  of  war  at 
the  lowest  tides.  The  anchorage  ground  is  excellent, 
and  it  ia  entinly  tnt  from  tnnkaii  locks,  sMid-banka, 


HAR 


048 


HAR 


|ow- 

bari- 

Ircittl 
witish 


■nee. 

lb  as 

Ithin 

1  the 

nob- 

gh- 

krat 

lent, 

nki, 


or  any  similar  obatructiont.  The  western  side  of  the 
harbor  is  farmed  '>y  the  island  of  Portnea ;  and  on  its 
sonth-wostem  extremity,  at  the  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor, is  situated  the  town  of  Portsmouth,  and  its  large 
and  important  sulmrb  Portsea.  Here  are  doclcB  and 
other  estnlilishments  for  the  bnilding,  repair,  and  outfit 
of  ships  of  war,  constmoted  upon  a  very  large  scale, 
and  furnished  with  everj-  convenience.  The  fortifica- 
tions that  protect  this  great  naval  d6pAt  are  superior, 
both  as  respects  strength  and  extent,  to  any  other  in 
the  Icingdom.  "  Thus,"  to  use  the  words  of  Dr.  Camp- 
bell,  "  it  appears  that  Portsmouth  derives  from  nature 
all  the  prerogatives  the  most  fertile  wits  and  most  in- 
telligent judges  could  devise  or  desire ;  and  that  these 
have  been  well  seconded  by  art,  without  consideration 
of  expense,  which,  in  national  improvements,  is  little 
to  be  regarded.  Add  to  all  tliis  the  strildng  excellence 
of  its  situation,  which  is  scch  as  if  Providence  had  ex- 
>re8sly  determined  it  for  that  use  to  which  we  see  it 
applied,  the  bridling  the  power  of  France,  and,  if  I 
may  so  speak,  the  peculiar  residence  of  Neptune." 
Portsmouth  harbor  has  the  additional  and  important 
advantage  of  opening  into  the  celebrated  road  of  Spit- 
head,  between  the  Hampshire  coast  and  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  forming  a  safe  and  convenient  retreat  for  the 
largest  fleets.  Hilford  Haven  deeply  indents  the 
southern  part  of  Pembrokeshiie.  It  is  of  great  extent, 
and  has  many  subordinate  bays,  creeks,  and  roads. 
The  water  is  deep,  and  the  anchorage  ground  excel- 
lent ;  and  lieing  completely  land-locked,  ships  lie  as 
safely  as  if  they  were  in  dock.  Cork  harbor  has  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  Portsmouth,  but  is  of 
larger  extent ;  it  has,  like  it,  a  narrow  entrance, 
leading  into  a  capacious  basin,  affording  a  secure  asy- 
lum for  any  number  of  ships.  Plymouth,  which,  after 
Portsmouth,  is  the  principal  naval  ddpot  of  England, 
has  an  admirable  double  harbor.  The  roadstead  in 
Plymouth  Sound  has  recently  been  much  improved  by 
the  construction,  at  a  vast  expense,  of  a  stupendous 
breakwater  more  than  1,700  yards  in  length.  This 
artificial  bulwark  protects  the  ship  lying  inside  from 
the  effects  of  the  heavy  swell  thrown  into  the  Sound 
by  southerl}'  and  south-easterly  winds. 

London  stands  at  the  head  of  the  river  ports  of 
Groat  Britain.  Considering  the  limited  course  of  the 
Thames,  there  is,  probably,  no  river  that  is  navigable 
for  large  ships  to  so  great  a  distance  from  sea,  or 
whose  mouth  is  less  obstructed,  l>y  banks.  London  is 
mainly  indebted  for  her  unrivaled  magnitude  to  her 
favoraldo  situation  on  this  nol)Ie  river;  which  not 
only  gives  her  all  the  advantages  of  an  excellent  port, 
accessible  at  all  times  to  the  largest  ships,  but  renders 
her  the  emporium  of  the  extensive,  rich,  and  populous 
country  comprised  in  the  basin  of  the  Thames.  The 
Mersey,  now  the  first  commercial  river  in  the  empire, 
is  tnore  incommoded  by  banks  than  the  Thames ;  and 
is  in  all  respects  inferior,  as  a  channel  of  navigation, 
to  the  latter.  Still,  however,  it  gives  to  Liverpool 
very  great  advantages ;  and  the  channels  being  well 
buoyed  and  marked,  the  largest  ships  have  little  diffi- 
culty in  reaching  the  port.  The  principal  channels 
are  laid  down  in  the  map  of  Liverpool  and  its  environs 
attached  to  the  article  Docks,  Encg.  Brit. 

Bristol  and  Hull  are  Irath  river  ports.  Owing  to 
the  extraordinary  rise  of  the  tide  in  the  Bristol  Chan- 
nel, the  former  is  accessible  to  the  largest  ships.  The 
Humlier  is  a  good  deal  impeded  by  bulks ;  but  it  also 
.s  navigable  as  far  as  Hull,  by  large  vessels.  The 
Tyne  admits  vessels  of  very  considerable  burden  as  far 
as  Newcastle.  Sunderland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Weir, 
is  the  principal  ship-building  port  in  the  United  King- 
dom and  has,  after  Liverpool  and  London,  the  greatest 
amount  of  shipping.  The  shallawness  of  the  Clyde 
from  Greenock  up  to  Glasgow  has  been  a  serious  draw- 
back upon  the  commercial  progress  of  the  latter. 
Laigs  sums  tuiv*  been  expended  in  attempts  to  con- 
tract the  oouiM  Md  to  deepen  the  bed  of  the  liTW) 
Ooo 


and  they  have  been  so  far  successful,  that  sbtps  draw* 
Ing  19  and  even  20  feet  have  come  up  to  the  city  at 
high  water.  In  1852,  74  vessels  drawing  17  feet  of 
water,  and  18  drawing  18  feet,  arrived  at  Glasgow, 
which  is  now  one  of  the  principal  commercial  ports  In 
the  empire.  Generally  speaking,  the  harbors  on  the 
east  coasts,  both  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  are, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Thames,  verj-  inferior  to 
those  on  their  south  and  west  coast.  Several  harbors 
on  the  shores  of  Sussex,  Kent,  Lincoln,  etc.,  that  once 
admitted  pretty  large  ships,  are  now  <  :ompletely  choked 
up  by  sand.  Large  sums  have  been  expended  upon 
the  ports  of  Yarmouth,  Boston,  Sunderland,  Leith, 
Dundee,  Aiwrdeen,  etc.  Dublin  harbor  being  natur- 
ally bad,  and  obstructed  by  a  bar,  a  new  harlrar  hat 
been  formed,  at  a  great  expense,  at  Kingstown,  with- 
out the  bar,  In  deep  water, — See  Tides. 

Portt. — The  reader  will  find  the  principcl  commer- 
cial harbors  described  in  this  work  (it  considerable 
length  under  their  respective  titles.  The  principal 
French  ports  for  the  accommodation  of  men-of-war  ore 
Brest,  Toulon,  and  Cherbourg.  The  latter  has  been 
very  greatly  Improved  by  the  construction  of  n  gigan- 
tic broi'.kwater,  and  the  excavation  of  iuimense  basins. 
Besides  Cadiz,  the  principal  ports  for  the  Spanish  navy 
are  Ferrol  and  Carthagona.  Cronstadt  is  the  princi- 
pal rendezvous  of  the  Russian  navy ;  Landserona,  of 
that  of  Sweden  ;  and  the  Holder,  of  that  of  Holland. 

NUMDUR  or  IlASBOnS  IN  TUB  DIFFmiBNT  STATES  ON    TH* 

Coast,  and  tue  fuincipai.  ones  on  Kivehs  to  tub  IIeai 
or  Tide. 


SUtea.  No.  of  tuirbon, 

Maine 62 

New  Hsmpshlro 8 

Massachusetts 51 

Khode  Islaud 7 

Connc.itlcut 33 

New  York 27 

Now  Jersey 14 

Ponnsylvsnta S 


StAtci.  No.  ofhu-borh 

North  Carolina 62 

Soatb  Carolina 21 

6eorf;la 15 

Florida M       > 

Alabama 4 

Mississippi 19 

Louisiana 88 

Texas li 


189 

Delaware 8 

Maryland 11  Total 488 

Virginia 22 

Table  SnowiNO  the  Suobe  Line  or  States  on  the  At- 
lantic Coast  and  OuLr  or  Mbxico. 


Maine 

Now  Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. . , , 
Rhode  IslaDd..., 

Connecticut 

Now  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. . . 
South  Carullna. . . 

GoorKla. 

Florida 

Alabama.  

Mississippi 

Lonlslana 

Texas 

Total , 


I* 

i1 


427 
18 

209 
66 
14 

114 

118 

"29 
44 

148 

2!I9 

192 

76 

1,020 

83 

42 


Mllet. 

1,699 
87 
866 
168 
289 
886 
702 

186 

1,003 

786 

1,649 

856 

410 

8,005 

234 

206 


616  1 1,696 
868  1 1,2»1 


il 
II 


MII61. 

427 

24 

882 

282 

1,074 

1,057 

161 

100 

506 

8,401 

1,090 

032 

708 

468 

860 

818 

137 

986 

432 


hi 
III 


^^ 

H 


Mllei. 

2,026 
60 

1,074 
208 
263 

1,000 
620 

"i65 

1,062 

883 

1,848 

543 

466 

4,025 

817 

248 

2,211 

1,687 


Mllri. 

2,468 

74 

1,906 

440 

1,827 

2,067 

971 

106 

671 

4,468 

2,678 

2,780 

1,260 

954 

4,885 


8,147 
2,069 


14,286  I   18,851     83,187 


Total  northern . 
Total  Bontbem. . 


Mllao. 

9,334 
28,808 


Total 83,187 

For  full  description  of  the  various  harbors  In  the 
United  States  showing  depth  of  water,  accessibility, 
shoals,  lights,  etc.,  tlia  reader  is  referred  to  the  cities 
described  separately  in  this  work.  See  article  Coast 
Sdrvbt  :  see,  also,  Hobt's  Mer,  Mag.,  iz.,  vol.  U., 
309;  South.  Tit.  ifeu.,  xz.,  p.  25,  voL  xL 
According  to  an  act  of  Congress,  1818,  tlw  Presidmt 


HAB 


94« 


HAB 


of  the  United  States,  with  the  consent  of  the  State 
anthoritlea,  ii  authorized,  for  the  di-fense  or  aecnrity  of 
any  of  the  ports  or  harbors  of  ihe  United  States  in 
time  of  war,  to  sinit  hullcs  and  other  impediments  at 
the  mouth  of  such  harlwrs,  to  prevent  ^he  ingress  of 
the  enemy.     Uohlap's  Digeit,  p.  600. 

Harburg,  a  sea-port  town  of  Hancrer,  province 
of  Laneburg,  on  the  ieft  XmnV.  of  the  southern  branch 
of  the  Elbe,  opposite  Hamburg,  which  stands  on  the 
right  banic  of  the  northern  branch  of  that  river.  The 
distance  between  Harburg  and  Ha'  \burg  is  al>out  4) 
miles,  and  regular  steam  communication  is  maintained 
between  them  at  least  six  or  eight  times  a  day.  Har- 
burg communicates  also  with  Hanover  by  a  railway, 
and  carries  on  a  conftderablo  trade,  chiefly  transit,  be- 
tween Hamburg  and  the  countries  soutn  of  the  Elbe. 
It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  hosier}',  soap,  starch,  re- 
fined wax,  leather,  etc.  It  is  a  place  of  some  strength, 
being  surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended  by  a  citi^ei. 
Population,  6600. 

Hardneu,  that  property  in  bodies  by  which  they 
resist  abruion  from  the  impression  of  any  other  suli- 
stance.  The  method  pursued  in  constructing  tables 
of  the  harduess  of  different  substances  is  by  observing 
the  order  in  which  the  articles  tried  are  capable  of 
cutting  or  scratching  one  another.  The  following 
table,  extracted  from  Magellan's  edition  of  Cron- 
stbdt's  Mineralogy,  was  taken  from  Quist,  Bergman, 
and  Kirwon: 


Sardonyx la 

Occl. smcthrat,..,  U 

Cryetal 11 

Comollan 11 

Oreonjaspor 11 

Kod.  Ycl.do 9 

Schocrl 10 

Toarniallu 10 

Qucrti. 10 

Opal 10 

ChfTSOIlto 10 

7rfollto 8 

Finer. T 

Calcareous  spar. . .    6 

Gypsum 5 

Chalk. 8 


Hftrd'  Sp«c. 
gm/. 
2  6 
2-7 
20 
27 
2-7 
211 
«'6 
%■« 
2-7 
2(1 
8-7 
2'1 
8-6 
2-7 
2-8 
2-7 


Hard-  8|i«o.| 

neti.  yniv.  j 

Diamond,  Ormus..  20  8'7 

Pink  diamond.....  10  8.4 

filnlshdo 19  8-8 

Yellowish  do 19  88 

Cubic  do. 18  i-i 

Ruby 17  42 

Pale  Ruby,  Brazil.  16  88 

Rubrsplnoll 18  8-4 

D'p  blue  sapphire.  16  88 

Ditto  paler. 17  8  8 

Tonpz IB  48 

■ftLltlsh  do 14  8'B 

Bobem<iin  do. 11  2-8 

EmenC.'  12  2.8 

Oarnet j'4  4'4 

Agate 12  2G 

Onyx 12  2.8 

A  similar  but  rhorter  table  is  now  generally  used, 
ii.  which  diamond  is  rated  at  10. 

Hardware  (Ger.  Kurze  waaren ;  Du.  Yzerkram- 
ery;  Da.  fsenkramvarer ;  Sw.  Jdmkram;  Fr.  Clitt- 
fuailleri;,  Quincailhrie ;  It.  ChincQglio;  Sp.  Quinqiil- 
leria;  Port.  Quincalharia ;  Uhb.  Mjelolzchnue  tmvarii) 
Includes  every  kind  of  goods  manufactured  from  met- 
als, comprising  iron,  brass,  steel,  and  copper  articles 
of  all  descriptions.  Birmingham  and  Sheffield  are  the 
principal  seats  of  the  British  hardware  manufactures ; 
and  from  these,  immense  quantities  ol'  knives,  razors, 
scissors,  gilt  and  plated  ware,  fire-arms,  etc.,  are  sup- 
plied, as  well  for  exportation  to  most  parts  of  the 
world,  as  for  home  consumption.  The  hard  >  manu- 
facture is  one  of  the  most  important  carried  <  i  Great 
Britain,  and  from  tiie  abundance  of  iron,  tin,  and  cop- 
.per  ores  iu  the  country,  and  the  inexliaustible  coal 
mines,  it  is  one  which  seems  to  be  established  on  a 
very  secure  foundation.  The  late  Mr.  Stevenson,  in 
his  elaborate  and  excellent  article  on  the  statistics  of 
England,  in  the  Edinbnrg  Encyrlcpadia,  published  in 
1816,  estimated  the  value  of  all  the  articles  made  of 
iron  in  Great  Britain,  at  X10,000,000,  and  the  persons 
employed  in  the  trade  at  200,000.  Mr.  Stevenson  es- 
timated the  value  of  all  the  articles  made  of  brass  and 
copper  at  4)8,000,000,  and  the  persons  employed  at 
60,000 ;  and  he  further  estimated  the  value  of  steel, 
plated,  and  hardware  articles,  including  toys,  at  £i,- 
000,000,  and  the  persons  employed  at  70,000.  So 
I  that,  assuming  these  estimates  to  be  nearly  correct, 
'the  total  value  of  the  goods  produced  from  different 
sorts  of  metals  in  England  and  Wales,  in  1816,  mtut 
uve  unonated  to  the  sum  of  £17,000,000,  and  the 


persons  employed  to  820,000.  There  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  tills  esti-nate,  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  respecti 
the  value  of  the  m>mu£aoturc,  was  at  the  time  decided- 
ly too  high ;  but  at  this  moment  it  is  most  probalily 
within  the  nu>r)r.  There  has  been  a  very  extraordi- 
nary augmentation  of  the  quantity  of  bar  and  pig 
iron  produced  within  tho  last  16  years ;  and  the  rapid 
increase  of  Birmingham  and  Sheffield,  as  well  as  of 
the  smaller  seatf  of  the  hardware  manufacture,  shows 
that  it  has  been  increased  in  a  corresponding  propor- 
tion. We  have  been  assured,  by  those  well  acquainted 
with  most  departments  of  the  trade,  that  if  to  the  iron 
and  other  hardw  re  manufactures  of  England  be  added 
those  of  Scotland,  their  total  aggregate  value  can  not 
now  be  reckoned  at  less  than  £17,600,000  a  year, 
UiTording  direct  employment,  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  trade,  for  at  least  3(M),000  persons. 

Fall  of  Prices. — Owing  partly  to  the  reduced  cost 
of  iron,  but  incomparably  more  to  improvements  in 
manufacturing-,  a  very  extraordinary  fall  has  taken 
place  in  the  price  of  most  hardware  articles  during  the 
last  13  01  18  years.  In  some  articles  the  full  exceeds 
80  per  cent. ;  and  there  are  but  few  in  whicli  it  does 
not  exceed  3C  per  cent.  In  consequence,  the  poorest 
individuals  are  now  able  to  supply  themselves  with  an 
infinite  variety  of  commodious  and  useful  articles, 
which,  half  a  century  ago,  were  either  wholly  un- 
known, or  were  too  dear  to  be  purehosed  by  any  but 
the  richer  classes.  And  those  who  reflect  on  the  im- 
portance of  the  prevalence  of  habits  of  cleanliness  and 
neatness,  will  readily  agree  with  us  in  thinking  that 
the  subst!ti''icu  of  the  convenient  and  beautiful  hard- 
ware and  earthenware  household  articles,  that  are  now 
everywhere  to  be  met  with,  for  the  wooden  and  horn 
articles  used  by  our  ancestors,  has  been  in  no  ordinary 
degree  advantageous.  But  it  is  not  in  this  respect 
only  that  the  cheapness  and  improvement  of  liard- 
ware  is  essential.  Many  of  the  most  powerful  aad 
indispensable  tool.i  and  instruments  used  by  the  la- 
borer come  under  this  description ;  and  every  one  is 
aware  how  important  it  is  that  they  should  be  at  onco 
cheap  and  efficient.     See  Cutlery  and  Iron. 

Dr.  Friedenberg  in  his  German  translation  of  Bab- 
bage'a  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures  gives 
some  curious  information  concerning  the  Berlin  cast- 
ings. Such  are  the  fineness  and  delicacy  of  the  sep- 
arate aralKtsques,  rosettes,  medallions,  etc.,  of  which 
the  larger  ornaments  are  composed,  that  it  sometimes 
requires  nearly  10,000  of  them  to  make  a  pound 
weight.  The  gray  iron  from  which  they  are  made 
may  he  taken  as  lieing  worth  about  Gs.  per  cvt  t  ; 
and  the  following  table  drawn  up  from  the  price-list 
of  a  Berlin  manufacturer,  a  few  years  ago,  will  show 
to  what  ~''  almost  incredible  height  this  value  per 
cwt.  is  increased : 


Buckles,  8i  Inches  long  by  2^  broad. 
Neok-chalna,  18  Incbiis  long  by  1  I 

broad.  In  40  pieces \ 

Bracelets,  7  Inches  long  by2  brond,  i 

In  72  pieces pairs  f 

Diadems,   7^  inches  high  by  5t 

brood 

Serliino  points,  2\  Inches  long  by 

H  broad 

Sevlgne  csr-rlngs,  3  Inches  long  by 

(i  broad,  in  24  pieces. pairs 

Bhlrt  buttons. 


NumlMr  to 
l«wl. 


2,640 
2,810 

2,090 

1,100 

9,020 

10,4S0 
88,440 


I'rice 
*aoh. 


fpercw! 


■.  d. 

2*0 

6  0 

8  6 

16  6 

4  6 

6  8 

0  8 


sao 


880 

907 

2,029 

2,748 
2,04S 


We  here  find  that  iron  in  the  form  of  shirt  buttons 
commanded  a  market  at  a  price  nearly  10,000  times  as 
great  us  that  which  it  sold  for  as  gray  iron !  And 
about  the  year  1H20,  when  the  fashion  was  at  its  heiglit, 
the  value  was  still  greater;  for  these  iron  ornaments 
then  mM  for  nearly  their  weight  in  gold.  The  great 
saleable  value  of  these  productions  has  led  to  a  result 
similar  to  that  which  so  many  other  branches  of  in- 
dustry exhibit ;  obscure  manufacturers  make  molds 
from  the  ciists  which  others  had  been  at  the  expense 


HAT 


Mf 


HAT 


/ 


(ce-Ust 

show 

uo  per 

I'rice  I 

llpcrcwftl 
X 


sso 

m  1 

1 2,029  i 

1 2,948  I 

buttons 
|mes  as 

Ami 
[lieiglit, 
ainonts 

great 
I  result 

of  in- 

molcla 
kxpeas* 


of  dealgnlng  and  modeling,  and  prodace  inferior  and 
cheap  specimens  tnm  those  molds.  The  real  Berlin 
castings  worthy  of  the  name  (snch  we  may  presume 
as  those  which  graced  the  Great  Exhibition),  mnst 
always  command  a  litgh  price  if  sold  at  all,  from  the  ex- 
traonlinaiy  core  required  in  their  production, — Dodd's 
Curiositiet  of  Induttry,  London,  1866. 

Haixttonloa,  a  musical  instrument,  consisting  of 
a  number  of  glass  cups  fixed  upun  a  revolying  spin- 
dle, and  made  to  vibrate  by  fHction  applitsJ  t''  their 
edges.  Mr.  Packeridge,  an  Irishman,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  ilrat  to  use  a  set  of  drinklng-glasses,  fixed  on 
a  table,  and  tuned  to  form  a  scale  by  putting  more  or 
less  water  into  each.  They  were  made  to  sound  by 
passing  a  wet  finger  round  their  edges.  These  were 
improved  by  Mr.  Delaval,  and  still  further  l)y  Dr. 
Franidln,  and  were  called  "the  musical  glasses." 
Their  tone  is  swee*^  and  melancholy,  and  of  a  peru'  .ar 
timbre,  which  produces  a  painful  effect  on  the  nerves  of 
some  persons.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  use  of  mu- 
sical drinking-glasses  was  described  in  a  worlc  (Mathe- 
malitche  und  Philomphische  Erquichitunden),  published 
by  G.  P.  Harsdorfer,  at  Nuremberg  in  1677.  What 
was  called  a  harpsichord-harmonica,  in  which  finger- 
kej-s  like  those  of  a  piano-forte  were  used  instead  of 
direct  contact  of  the  fingers  with  the  revolving  glasses, 
was  invented  by  Rolling  at  Vienna,  and  Klein  at  fret- 
burg.  Another  harmonica  was  invented  by  the  Abate 
Mazzucshi,  who  employed  the  friction  of  a  hair-bow 
to  produce  the  sounds  of  the  glasses,  A  stringed  har- 
monica was  invented  at  Augusta,  in  1788,  by  John 
Stein,  an  eminent  organ-builder.  It  consisted  of  a 
double  stringed  (wired)  piano-forte,  combined  with  a 
sort  of  spinnet,  to  he  used  together  or  separately.  Its 
pfTects  are  said  to  hive  been  remarkable. 

Harp,  it  {?,  traced  to  the  earliest  nat'ions.  David 
played  on  tlie  harp  before  Saul. — 1  Sam.  xvi.  28.  The 
lyre  of  the  Greeks  is  the  harp  of  the  modems.  The 
Romans  had  their  harp ;  so  had  the  Jews,  but  it  had 
ver)'  few  strings.  The  Cimbri  or  English  Saxons  had 
this  instrument.  The  celebrated  Welsh  harp  was 
strung  with  gut ;  and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the  more 
ancient  harps,  with  wire. 

Harpaginea  (apvayri),  in  Ardiqaity,  grappling- 
irons  which  were  fiung  witli  violence  ogainst  the  rig- 
ging of  an  enemy's  ship,  and,  when  entangled  there, 
were  used  to  drag  the  ship  within  leach,  so  that  it 
might  be  boarded  to  more  advantage,  or  destroyed. 

Harplnga,  the  fore  part  of  the  wales  wliich  en- 
comp.tss  the  liow  of  a  ship,  and  are  fastened  to  the 
stem,  being  thicker  than  the  after-part  of  the  wales, 
in  order  to  strengthen  the  ship  in  this  place,  where  she 
sustains  the  greatest  shock  of  resistance  in  plunging 
into  the  sea,  or  dividing  it,  under  »  great  pressure  of  sail. 

Harpoon,  or  Hprping-Iron,  a  spear  or  javelin 
\iscd  for  stril(ing  whales,  etc.  Tlie  gun-harpoon  is  a 
weapon  used  for  the  same  purpose,  but  it  is  fired  from 
a  gun  instead  of  being  tlirown  by  the  hand.  It  is 
formed  entirely  of  nietal,  and  has  a  chain  attached  to 
it,  to  which  the  line  is  fistened.  See  Scoresby's 
Arctic  Reijiom.  Ilarpooner,  the  man  that  throws  the 
harpoon  in  fishing  for  whales. 

Hats  (Ger,  Hate ;  Du,  Hoedm ;  Fr.  Chnpeaux ;  It. 
Capeiti;  Sp.  Sombreros ;  Rus.  Schlopu),  coverings  for 
the  head  in  very  gene,  • '  use.  They  are  made  of  very 
various  forms  and  sorts  of  material.  They  may,  how- 
ever, be  divided  into  t'/o  great  classes,  viz,  those  made 
of  fur,  wool,  silk,  etc.,  and  those  made  of  straw ;  the 
former  being  principally  worn  by  men,  and  the  latter 
by  women.  Hat  is  a  term  of  Saxon  derivation,  from 
haet,  a  cover  for  the  head.  It  is  sometimes  called 
castor,  from  its  being  mude  of  the  fur  of  the  castor  or 
beaver.  As  a  piece  of  dress,  the  period  of  its  intro- 
duction is  not  certain,  although  it  may  with  great 
probability  be  referred  to  the  early  distinctions  of 
Roman  Catholic  dignitaries.  Frois^art  chronicles, 
that  it  waa  "  said .  to  the  cardinals,  Sirs,  advyse  you 


if  ye  delyrei*  ns  a  Pope  Romayne,  we  h»  content,  or 
els  we  woll  maika  your  heddes  reeder  than  your 
hattes  be ;"  from  which,  and  ftrom  many  other  doco- 
ments,  it  appears  that  at  this  period,  as  well  as  for 
some  centuries  after,  hats  were  generally  of  a  scarlet 
or  red  color,  and  made  of  "  a  fine  kinde  of  haire  matted 
theglther."  A  "  hatte  of  biever,"  a'oout  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  was  worn  l>y  some  one  of  the 
"  nobcls  of  the  lande,  mett  at  Clarendom ;"  and  Frois- 
sart  describes  hats  and  plumes  which  "'ers  worn  at 
Edward's  court  in  1840,  when  the  Garter  order  was 
instituted.  In  the  diary  of  Henry's  secretar}-,  there  is 
"  ane  scarlet  beever  hatte"  presented  on  New  Year's 
day,  1448.  Even  at  this  early  period  hats  were  of 
varioni  shapes,  both  in  the  crowns  and  tb->  brima^ 
the  latter  being  chiefly  bioad,  sometim^^i  au.rowing 
toward  the  back,  and  a  little  bent  up  and  scooped  in 
front.  In  Henry's  priv}'  pnrse  expenses,  during  his 
congress  with  Francis  I.  in  1620  or  1521,  there  hi  "  peid 
for  a  hatte  and  plume  for  the  king,  in  Boleyn,  xV- ;" 
and  in  Wolsey's  inventory,  taken  on  his  resigning 
the  great  seal  to  Sir  Thomas  More,  there  are  no  fewer 
than  five  mentioned.  The  fashion  of  this  article  was 
then  much  more  diversely  capricious  than  even  now, 
as  will  appear  from  an  extract  from  Stdbb's  Anatomie 
of  Abuses,  published  about  1685:  "Sometimes  they 
use  them  sharpe  on  the  crowne,  pearking  up  like  the 
spile  or  shaft  of  a  steeple,  standing  a  quarter  of  a  yard 
above  the  crowne  of  theire  heads ;  some  mr:  ;,  some 
lesse,  as  please  the  fantasies  of  their  i.-;'onstant 
mindes.  Othcrsome  be  flat,  and  broade  on  the  crowne, 
like  the  battlements  of  a  house.  Another  sorte  have 
rounde  crownes,  sometimes  with  ')ne  kind  of  I  ande, 
sometimes  with  another ;  now  black,  now  white,  now 
russed,  now  redde,  now  grene,  now  yellow;  now  this, 
now  that ;  never  content  with  one  colour  or  fashion 
two  dales  to  an  end.  And  as  the  fashions  be  rare  and 
strange,  so  is  the  stuffe  whereof  their  hattes  bo  made 
divers  also ;  for  some  are  silk,  some  oi  velvet,  some  of 
taflfetie,  some  of  sarsnet,  some  of  wool,  and  which  ia 
more  curious,  some  of  a  certaine  kinde  of  fine  haire ; 
theso  they  call  bever  hattes,  of  xx.  xxx.  or  xl.  shil- 
lings price,  fetched  from  beyonde  the  seas,  from 
whence  great  sorte  of  other  vanities  doe  come  besides  ; 
and  so  common  a  thing  it  is,  that  every  servyng  man, 
countreiman,  and  other,  even  all  indifferently,  doe 
weare  of  these  hattes."  About  the  beginning  of  1700, 
the  crowns  of  hats  were  mostly  round,  much  lower 
than  before,  and  had  very  broad  brims,  resembling 
what  are  now  occasionally  called  Quakers'  hats,  the 
protusive  Incumbrance  of  which  soon  suggested  the 
convenience  of  their  being  turned  up  in  front ;  fashion 
dictated  the  upbending  of  another  side  or  flap,  and 
ultimately  a  third,  so  that  by  this  progress,  in  1704, 
the  regular  three-cocked  hat  became  the  order  of  the 
day,  when  feathers  ceased  to  l)e  usuall}'  worn.  Near 
the  middle  of  the  18th  centurj-,  a  round-edged  but  flat- 
topped  and  full- birimmed  hat  got  into  very  gen>>ral  use, 
and  the  flat  and  other  cocked  hats  now  dwindled 
almost  into  a  mere  distinction  of  real  or  assumed  rank. 
26  years  after  this,  a  very  near  approach  to  that  of  the 
present  times  became  fashionable,  and,  within  10 
years,  altogether  superseded  the  ordinary  use  of  the 
cumbrous  and  antique  cock. 

Plumes,  jewels,  silk  loops,  rosettes,  badges,  gold 
and  silver  bands  and  loops,  have  at  various  periods 
ornamented  this  article  of  dress ;  metal  bands  and 
loops  being  now  esteemed  proper  onl}'  to  naval  and 
military  "men  of  honor,"  and  the  humble  liveried 
attendants  on  state,  rank,  and  official  dignity.  The 
opera  or  soft-folding  hat  is  the  only  relic  at  present 
in  general  use  of  the  hats  worn  by  our  grandfathers, 
although  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  mutations  of 
fashion  may  re-introduce  the  elegant  Spanish  hat  as 
the  precursor,  perhaps,  of  various  other  styles,  as  well 
as  the  cocked  hat,  which  are  not  yet  entirely  discarded. 

In  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  several  very  novel 


m 


HAT 


fit 


HAT 


styles  of  hkt  wen  introdaced  by  exUbiton.  It  U 
remarked  in  the  Jury  Keport  respecting  them  that  "  in 
nn  article  of  fashion  and  of  auch  conatont  use  as  hat«, 
it  doea  not  appear  to  be  easy  to  cliange  the  habita  and 
taatea  of  the  wearera,  or  to  induce  them  to  adopt  a  new 
coatiuno." 

Until  recent  tlmea  bata  were  chiefly  produced  hy 
the  nrt  of  felting,  an  art  which  uome  perfonr  auppoae 
to  hare  l)een  practiced  li}  the  nationa  of  antiquity.  It 
\»  thouglit  that  Uma  coacta,  uaed  fur  aoldiora'  cloaka 
and  for  Lacedemonian  hat<<,  wna  felted  wool,  but 
uthora  atate  that  it  was  only  knitted  wool.  In  Koman 
Catholtc  countriea,  St,  Clement  is  the  reputed  inventor 
of  felt.  This  personage  is  aaid  to  have  put  carded 
wool  into  hia  sandala  to  protect  bis  feet  during  a  pil- 
grimage, and  that  the  effect  of  the  moisture,  warmth, 
nnd  friction  converted  the  wool  into  a  felted  cloth. 
The  hatters'  annual  festival  is  on  the  23d  November, 
8t.  Clement's  day. 

Hat-making  embraces  two  distinct  kinds  of  manu- 
facture, viz.,  of/elted  and  covered  bata — the  covering 
of  the  latter  lieing  generally  plush,  felted  hats  com- 
prehend two  classes,  differitig  chiefly  in  the  materials 
used  in  making — the  processor  t)eing  nearly  identical. 
The  lower  class  is  marked  by  inferior  ingredients, 
unmixed  with  boaver,  and  embraces  icoo/,  plated  and 
ihurt  nap  hats.  Wool  liaM  are  made  entirely  of  coarse 
native  wool  and  hair  etilTened  with  glue.  Before  the 
emancipation  act  these  hots  were  largely  exported  for 
negroes'  wear ;  but  the  manufacture  is  now  almost 
extinct.  Plotes  have  a  nap  or  pile  rather  finer  than 
their  body,  and  are  sometimes  waterproof  stiffened. 
Short  napt  are  distinguished  from  platei  by  additional 
kinds  of  wool,  viz.,  hare's  back,  seal,  neuter  or  nutria, 
musqiuuh  (Muscovy  cat),  and  are  all  waterproof  stiff- 
ened. 

The  second  class  may  bo  said  to  comprehend  two 
orders,  called  ttiifmi  beaver  hats.  The  first  includes 
mottled  and  stuff  bodies.  The  latter  term  is  not  used 
generally,  as  all  atiiffa  are  understood  to  Im  of  this 
sort  when  mottled  is  not  expieased.  Multl'l  bodies 
are  made  chiefly  of  line  Spanish  wool,  and  inferior 
rabbit  down  or  coney  wool .  Stuff  bodies  consist  of  the 
1>est  hare.  Saxony,  and  red  wools,  mixed  witli  Cash- 
mere hair  and  silks.  Stuff  hats  are  napped,  thnt  is, 
coveiMd  with  pile  of  mixed  seal,  neuter,  hara's  back, 
inferior  beaver,  and  musquash.  Heaver  hats  are,  or 
ought  to  Iw,  napped  with  beaver  only;  the  lower- 
priced  qualities  with  brovm  wooma  ta!<en  from  the 
back ;  the  more  valuable  kinds  with  cheei  and  tchite 
wooTtts,  such  being  the  finest  parts  of  the  fur  found  on 
the  belly  and  checks  of  the  beaver. 

The  manufacture  uf  ^t  Iwaver  hat  involves  a  number 
of  curious  and  intnre.iting  processes,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  is  feltiny,  or  the  art  of  ombining  aninial 
fibres  in  such  a  way  as  to  form,  '  thoat  weaving,  a 
thick  compact  cloth.  The  felting  property  of  animal 
fibres  dejiends  on  their  peculiar  stqicture,  which,  as 
revealed  by  the  microscope,  appears  to  be  notched  or 
Jagged  at  the  edges,  with  teeth  directed  from  the  root 
toward  the  extremity.  Wool  in  the  yolk,  or  with  the 
natural  grease  adhering  to  it,  doea  not  readily  felt, 
the  jaggod  portions  beinp;  smoothed  over  or  filled  up 
with  the  oil ;  but  wlien  the  fibres  of  clean  wool  or  hair 
are  made  to  nndergo  a  gentle  friction  under  the  influ- 
ence of  moisture  and  heat,  they  readily  felt  together. 

Several  of  the  furs  mentioned  aliove  are  used  for 
bats.  The  beaver  tias  been  so  asxiduously  hunted 
during  many  years  that  it  is  now  t)ecom!ng  a  rarity, 
and  the  fnr  of  other  animals  is  substituted  for  it.  The 
coypu  fumiabea  nutria  akin ;  the  muaquash  or  musk- 
rat,  the  hare,  and  the  rabbit,  yield  fur  for  the  nap  of 
the  hat,  while  the  body  is  made  of  lamb's  wool,  or  of 
the  woolly  hair  of  the  Ihima  or  vicuna.  A  beaver  hat, 
properly  so  called,  hoa  a  body  or  foundation  of  rabbita' 
fur,  with  «  beaver  nap,  although  the  beaver,  for  the 
reason  •bore  itated,  ia  often  mizAd  with  •  mon  com- 


mon fiir.  Snch  a  hat  has  a  pleosaat  softness  and 
plusticity,  and  readily  molds  itself  to  the  shapo  of  the 
head,  preannting  a  marked  contrast  to  the  hard,  homy, 
silk  hat,  which  has  nearly  superseded  it.  Still,  how- 
ever, there  must  always  be  (.ertjiln  peraons  who,  nut 
objecting  to  the  price,  will  continue  to  keep  ulive  tlii.i, 
the  most  interesting  branch  of  the  hat  manufacture. 
See  FuH  TnAnic. 

Btatkmkmt  or  rna  Foanoif  Expoan  or  Hats  raoH  tiii 
UjuTKi'  Statks  roa  thi  Tkab  KNDiHa  JoNc  SOrn,  18.1(1. 


Wklltar  txfottti. 


iHnlsli  West  Indies 
Dutch  Wtst  Indl  IS. 

Dutch  Uulana 

Bolrlum 

England 

Canada 

Other  Brl.  N.  A.  Pea. 
nritlsh  West  Indies. 
British  Honduras. . . . 

British  Onlano. 

Br.  Pos.  In  Africa.. . . 
British  Australia..... 
Franco  oi.  the  At. . . . 
Fiance  on  the  Mod... 
Fr.  Nor.  Am.  Pos.. 

Cuba :...-., 

I'ortulilco 

Portugal 

Madeira. 

Capo  (le  Vor  J  Isls.. 
Ports  In  AfHcs.... 

Ilaytl 

8sn  Domingo 

Mexico .' 

Control  Republic. . 

Now  Granada 

Vcnozuela 

Brazil 

Uruguay. 

Buenos  Ayros. .... 

ChllL 

Poru 

Sandwich  Islands.. 

China. 

Whole  Ftsbortes. . . 

Total 


Of  Lsffkorn, 
atriiw,  chip, 
or  yn>M,  •If. 


From  warohouso 

Not  fVom  warobonse. 


Hau,  »pi, 
■odbopneW, 
•Ml,  bnldi, 

pUlU,  ele. 


HaU  of  Air 
oriUk. 


|7M 
"260 

n,is4 

7,878 


4,444 

2,879 
160 


4»e 

709 
2,5(V1 

"760 
6,(108 
2,805 

8,821 

"295 


t(IO,176 


«27.847 
82.828 


i-fit^turtiof  Ulk. 


t206 
2S8 
80 


118,488 

2»,7M 

1,814 

1,187 

2,fifi4 
1,710 


6B 
1,680 


47 

1,494 

V,4B6 

699 

1,095 

81 

1,042 


8,947 
955 

2,853 


Hull  of 
twim-lflftf. 


t2,02« 
148 


7,678 

2,962 

645 

1,789 

80 

820 

198 


84 

19,067 

1,088 

120 

189 

1,080 

8,784 

1,478 

2T 

601 
2,866 
1.065 
1,429 
9,619 

870 

"B68 
120 

"'40 


$14,117 


llAtmnil 

boBiieU. 


120 


114,487' 


$14,117 
120 


HlATHMaNT     SnOWINQ      TIIR      FoKKIGN     lUTOKTS    Or      IIaTS 
INTO     TUK    UNITEE     STATES     FOa    THE    YxAR     VNDIXO, 

JiiMR  Sflrn,  1856.  _ 

Silk  and  manu/Aclortt  of  tllk, 


Wh«DM  Inportcd. 


.Danish  West  Indies 

Hamburg. 

Bremen 

Holland 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  OnUna 

Be    turn 

England 

Scotland 

Gibraltar 

Canada. 

Other  Brit.  N.  Amer.  Pos 

British  West  Indies. 

British  East  Indies. 

Frouce  on  the  Atlsntio 

France  on  the  Medltorranoan^ . 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Midlterranoan. . . . 

Philippine  Islands 

Portugal 

Tuscany 

Other  ports  in  AlHca. 

Mexico 

Central  Bepublio 

New  Oranada 

China. 

Total 


Ihls  and 
bonnet*. 


Hal*,  cap*,  and 
boniidt*,  flat*, 
braids,  blall*, 
ate,  of^  1*^' 
born,  straw, 
thtp,  orgrasa, 


$28 
2,881 


454 

.16,629 
275 


79,987 
282 


31 
"267 
2,558 


$16,684 

964 

51,468 

87 

101,649 

2,248 

6,468 

SSI  ,823 

1,427 

8,,'*S6 

6,262 

48 

16,965 

2(15 

887,798 

616 

149 

16,811 

3 

82 

51 

8T 

"81 

184^769 


$102.ti27    I    $221,705" 


Straw  Uatt. — It  is  most  probable  that  the  idea  of 
plaiting  straws  was  first  suggested  by  the  making  of 
basket*  of  oziert  and  willow,  alluded  to  by  Virgil,  in  hit 


HAT 


940 


HAV 


48 

m 

2S 

« 

R6 

6'i 

48 

66 

»» 

16 

49 

n 

1 

8 

1 

S8 

1 

M 

ST 

PI 

69 

95 

na 

uf 

<K 

of 

Ml 

PatforaU,  u  one  of  tha  punnlta  of  t1i«  agrlonltanl 
pcpu'atlon  of  Italy.  We  are  Ignorant  of  the  period 
vh..n  the  maniifaetnrc  of  atraw  plait  first  became  of 
Importance  In  that  conritry ;  but  It  appears  tima 
Coryat's  Crudities,  pablished  in  1611,  that  "  the  most 
Aelicate  strawen  hats"  were  worn  by  both  men  and 
women  In  many  places  of  ^edmont,  "  many  of  them 
having  at  least  en  hnnJred  senmcn."  It  Is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  art  of  straw  p'tlting  must  have 
arrived  at  great  perfection  upward  of  two  centuries 
gtt  'O ;  but  It  does  not  appear  to  have  be^n  followed  in 
England  for  more  than  70  or  80  years,  as  It  Is  within 
the  remembrance  of  some  of  the  old  Inhabitants  of  the 
etmw  districts,  now  alive,  that  the  wives  and  daugh- 
tcia  of  the  farmers  used  to  plait  straw  for  mailing  their 
own  bonnet.i,  before  straw-plaiting  liecame  established 
as  a  manufacture.  In  fact,  the  custom,  among  the 
women  of  England,  of  wearing  bonnets,  is  compar- 
atively modem.  It  Is  scarcely  100  years  since  "  hooda 
andpmnert"  were  generally  worn,  and  it  was  only  the 
ladies  of  quality  who  woro  small  slllc  hats.  See  Mal- 
colm's Manners  and  Cuttonu, 

Hatch,  in  mining,  an  opening  into  a  mine,  or  In 
search  of  one.  Tlie  terra  hatches  is  also  applied  to  the 
earthen  dams  used  In  Cornwall  to  prevent  the  water 
that  idauBS  from  the  strpom-worlts  and  tin-washes  trovci 
running  into  the  fresh  rivers.  Hatch,  or  hatches, 
properly  the  grate  or  frame  of  cross-bars  laid  over  a 
ship's  docic,  now  denominated  "  hatch-bars."  The  lid 
or  cover  of  a  hatchway  Is  also  called  hatches.  Hatch 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  opening  in  the  ship's  declc ; 
but  this  is  properly  called  the  hatchway. 

Hatchway,  a  square  or  oblong  opening  in  the 
deck  of  a  ship,  affording  a  passage  into  the  hold,  or 
from  one  decic  to  another.  Hatchway  is  also  applied 
to  the  passage  through  a  falling  door  in  the  top  of  a 
houde.  In  ships,  the  main-hatchway  is  placed  before 
the  mainmast,  and  is  the  largest  in  the  ship ;  the  fore- 


hatchway  Is  a  Uttle  abaft  the  foremast,  or  at  the  bre,i)i 
of  the  forecastle ;  and  the  after-hatchway  between  tha 
mainmast  and  tha  mizzen. 

Haul,  the  sea  term  for  pulling  upon  a  ropo  directly. 
To  haiJ  the  wind,  to  bring  a  ship  to  sail  close  by  the 
wind  after  running  in  some  other  direction. 

Havana,  or  Havannah,  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
nolde  island  of  Cuba,  of  which  It  Is  the  capital,  the 
More  castle  being,  according  to  Humboldt,  in  lat.  28° 
8'  16"  N.,  long.  82°  22'  45'^  W.  The  population  of 
the  city  and  suburl>s  Is  said  to  be  (1861),  little  short 
-)f  200,000.  In  1827,  the  resident  populatbm  amounted 
Co  94,028 ;  viz.,  46,621  whites,  8,215  free  colored,  16,847 
free  blaclcs,  1,010  colored  slaves,  and  22,890  black 
slaves.  The  port  of  Havana  is  the  finest  in  the  West 
Indies,  or,  perhaps,  in  the  world.  The  entrance  is 
narrow,  but  the  water  is  deep,  without  bar  or  olwtruc- 
tlon  of  any  sort,  and  within  it  expands  Into  a  magnifl- 
cent  bay,  capable  of  accommodating  1000  large  ships  \ 
vessels  of  the  greatest  draught  of  water  coming  close 
to  the  quays.  The  (Jty  lies  along  the  entrance  to,  and 
on  the  west  side  of,  the  bay. 

From  its  position,  which  commands  both  inlets  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  its  great  strength,  and  excellent  har- 
bor, Havana  Is,  in  a  political  point  of  view,  by  far  the 
most  important  maritime  sti:tion  in  the  West  Indies. 
As  a  commercial  city,  it  also  ranks  in  the  first  class ; 
being,  in  this  respect,  second  to  none  in  the  New 
World,  Xew  York  only  excepted.  For  a  long  period, 
Havana  engrossed  almost  the  whole  foreign  trade  of 
Cuba ;  but  since  the  relaxation  of  the  old  colonial  sys- 
tem, various  ports,  such,  for  instance,  as  Matanzas, 
that  were  hardly  Icnown  80  }'ears  ago,  have  become 
places  of  great  commercial  importance.  The  rapid 
extension  of  the  commerce  of  Havana  is,  therefore, 
entirely  to  be  ascribed  to  the  freedom  it  now  enjoys, 
and  to  the  great  increase  of  wealth  and  population  in 
the  city,  and  generally  throughout  the  island. 


JUJO/OVSaaHQXYaC 
MA^^A3S•A. 


aMtpstm  StucmSkifHurOsu  Slual  cSiaOs  smOriv 
SJomtkOiomtaCimeen  ieXOna  ShaiiHSanSllanh 

e.ClmtJ)Taf/l'ora»Jlami.-i3lilU1ir0U  Caxab^, 
XTu.  SoanauUftanflnn.inJitaiansoflmo'YarMijr 
"SJrdliDjaal/to  aluBf  K tUttnEngUsh* 


HAV 


980 


HAV 


The  iDbnrb  K«gU  U  on  tha  oppoilte  tide.  The 
Mora  and  Punts  cutlu,  tha  former  on  the  eatt,  and 
the  latter  on  thn  weat  side  of  the  entrance  of  tha  har- 
bor, are  strongly  foi>'.!!td,  as  is  the  entire  city;  the 
citadel  is  also  a  place  of  groat  strength ;  the  fortifica- 
tions have  lieen  erected  on  such  of  the  neighboring 
heights  aa  command  the  city  or  port.  The  arsenal 
•"  dockyard  lie  toward  the  western  angle  of  the 
L  .J,  to  the  south  of  tlie  city.  In  the  city,  the  streets 
are  narrow,  inconvenient,  and  filthy  ;  but  in  the  sub- 
urb*, now  aa  extensive  as  the  city,  they  are  wider  and 
better  laid  oat.  Latterly,  too,  the  police  and  cleanli- 
nesg  of  all  parts  of  the  town  have  been  materially 
improved. 

The  advance  of  Cuba,  during  the  last  half  century, 
has  iMen  very  great ;  though  not  more,  perhaps,  than 
might  have  been  expected,  from  its  natural  advan- 
tages, at  least  since  its  ports  were  freely  opened  to  for- 
eigners in  1800,  It  Is  at  once  the  largest  and  the  bent 
situated  of  the  West  India  Islands.  It  is  about  605 
miles  in  length ;  but  its  breadtl^  from  north  to  south 
nowhere  exceeds  117  miles,  and  is  in  many  places 
much  less.  Its  total  area,  exi^  «ive  of  that  of  the 
numerous  keys  aAd  islands  attached  to  it,  is  about 
88,000  square  miles.  The  climate  U,  generally  speak- 
ing, delightful ;  the  refreshing  sea-breezes  preventing 
the  heat  from  becoming  excessive,  and  fitting  it  fur  the 
growth  of  a  vast  variety  of  products.  Hurricanes, 
which  are  so  destructive  in  Jamaica  and  the  Caribbee 
Islands,  are  here  comparatively  rare ;  and,  when  they 
do  occur,  far  less  violent.  The  soil  is  of  very  various 
qualities :  there  is  a  considerable  extent  of  swampy 
marshes  and  rocks  unfit  for  any  sort  of  cultivation  ; 
but  there  is  much  soil  that  is  very  superior,  and  capa- 
ble of  affording  the  most  luxuriant  crops  of  sugar, 
coffee,  maize,  etc.  The  ancient  policy  of  restricting 
trade  to  two  or  three  ports,  caused  all  the  population  to 
congregate  in  their  vicinity,  neglecting  the  rest  of  the 
island,  and  allowing  some  of  the  finest  land  and  best 
situations  for  pi>.  th'g  to  remain  unoccnpled.  But 
since  a  different  and  more  liberal  policy  has  been  fol- 
lowed, population  has  begun  to  extend  itself  over  all 
the  I.  oat  fertile  districts,  wherever  they  are  to  be  met 
with.  Still,  however,  only  a  very  small  propirtlon 
of  the  best  land  of  the  island  is  under  cultivation,  and 
its  products  and  population  might  be  doubled  or  trtbUu 
with  the  utmost  facility.  The  first  regular  census  of 
Cuba  was  taken  in  1776,  when  the  whole  resident  pop- 
ulation amounted  to  170,370  souls.  Since  this  period 
the  increase  has  been  as  follows :  1791,  272,140 ;  1817, 
651,998;  and  1827,  704,867;  exclusive  of  strangers. 
We  subjoin  a 
CLASsincATioN  Or  THi  PoptrLATiON  Or  Cuba  AOOoaniHO 

TO  THE  Cknbvses  07  17TS  AMD  1827. 


WhIUs 

Freemulattoes 
Frea  blacks 
Slaves 

Total 


isn. 


IW,80»;Tl,0ei|  170,870 


MftW.  j  Fflin«l«.  I  Tola). 
168,8i»  14S,8«a  811,«S1 
2S,059  «9,45«  87,514 
23,904  2S,079|  4S,980 
16)).290|  108,652,  a9«.»4a 
408,»0Si  800,S8^  704,487 


Another  census  was  taken  in  1842,  according  to 
which  the  population  is  said  to  amonnt  to  1,007,620, 
viz,:  whites,  418,291;  tne  colored,  162,838;  and 
■laves,  486,491.  But  it  is  alleged  that  both  the  slave 
and  white  population,  especially  the  former,  is  under- 
rated in  this  census,  and  that  the  population  is,  at 
present  (1861),  Uttle,  if  at  all,  short  of  1,430,000  or 
1,460,000. 

The  rapid  increase  of  the  slave  population  is  princi- 
|)ally  to  be  ascribed  to  the  continued  importation  of 
■laves  from  Aftica.  In  some  years,  since  the  peace  of 
1815,  as  many  as  40,000  bladis  are  believed  to  have 
been  imported  into  Cuba  in  a  single  year.  Spain  had 
indeed  agreed  by  treaty  in  1820  to  abolish  the  trade ; 
but  thia  treaty  was  little  lietter  than  a  dead  letter, 
and  it  la  only  since  18S6,  when  a  more  efScient  treaty 


with  Spain  waa  entered  into  that  tha  trade  has  auti 
tained  any  considerable  diminutian.  But  though  It  li« 
no  longer  under  the  Spanish  Hag,  it  is  continued, 
though  to  a  much  less  extent,  under  other  flags.  At 
present,  however,  not  more  than  from  2000  to  8000 
negroes  are  supposed  to  be  annually  imported.  But 
though  it  were  to  be  wished,  as  well  fur  the  interests 
of  the  Island  as  of  humanity,  thut  the  further  importa- 
tion of  slaves  should  be  put  a  stop  to,  we  are  not  uf  tho 
number  of  those  who  think  that  it  would  !;«  good  |M)llcy 
rashly  to  agitate  the  question  of  the  emancipation  of 
slaves  in  Cuba.  Their  treatment  in  that  island,  us  in 
all  the  other  colonins  of  Spain,  has  always  been  sin- 
gularly humane ;  and  the  results  of  their  emancipation 
In  Ilayti  and  the  British  islands  have  not  been  such  aa 
to  offer  much  inducement  to  the  authorities  in  Cuba  to 
take  up  this  dIfHcult  question.  It  may,  no  doubt,  be 
forced  on  their  consideration ;  and  the  emancipation  of 
so  many  slaves  In  their  immediate  vicinity  will  mate- 
rially increase  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  the  exist- 
ing order  of  things.  Under  these  circumstances,  good 
policy  would  seem  to  suggest  that  timely  provUlon 
should  be  made  for  the  gradual  bringing  about  of  that 
emancipation  which  is,  perhaps,  inevitable,  coupling 
it,  if  that  be  practicable,  with  some  schemi  for  insuring 
the  supply  of  some  sort  of  compulsory  labor. 

Whatever  opinion  may  be  formed  of  slave<7  in  the 
abstract,  we  believe  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  show 
that  It  has  contributed,  in  no  ordinar}-  degree,  to  the 
rapid  advancement  of  Cuba,  Industry  will  always  be 
proportioned  to  the  strength  of  the  motives  by  which 
it  is  occasioned ;  and  In  countries  like  Cuba,  of  grea: 
natural  fertility  and  under  a  tropical  sun,  where  a  half 
or  more  of  the  articles  indisiHinsable  in  Europe  would 
l>e  useless,  it  wore  absurd  to  imagine  that  the  inhab- 
itants, supposing  them  to  be  free,  should  exhibit  the 
persevering  industr}'  of  free  laborers  in  the  temperate 
zone.  The  dolce  far  niente  is  in  such  countries  the 
summum  bonum ;  and  we  believe  it  will  be  found  that 
the  extensive  cultivation  of  sugar,  and  of  most  other 
commercial  products  within  the  tropics,  depends  on 
the  maintenance  of  slavery,  or  of  compulsory  labor  of 
one  kind  or  other.  The  people  of  England  may  lie 
but  little  affected,  at  least  directly,  by  these  consider- 
ations, and  may,  therefore,  on  the  principle  of  Jiatjua- 
litia-  mat  cielum,  think  themselves  warranted  in  using 
their  influence  to  enforce  the  abolition  of  slavery 
wherever  it  exists.  But  to  the  Cubans,  Brazilians, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  States  of  America, 
and  a  host  of  others,  this  question  is  of  the  lust  im- 
portance. Were  the  slaves  emancipated,  not  In  la  >v 
merely,  but  practically  and  in  fact,  the  probability  is 
that  neither  Cuba  nor  Brazil  would,  in  a  dozen  years, 
export  a  single  cwt.  of  sugar.  Why  should  they  do 
so  any  more  than  Haytl?  The  blacks,  were  they 
really  emancipated,  would  bo  able  to  support  them- 
selves in  that  state  in  which  they  wish  to  Uve,  without 
engaging  in  any  thing  like  the  severe  labor  of  sugar 
planting ;  and  under  such  circumstances  it  would  lie  a 
contradiction  to  suppose  they  should  engage  in  it.  But 
it  might  be  difficult,  perhaps,  to  show  what  good  con- 
sequences would  result  from  such  a  change.  It  Is  at 
all  events  clear  that  the  commerce  of  the  world  and 
the  comforts  of  all  civilized  nations  would  be  seriously 
impaired;  and  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  condi- 
tion of  the  blacks  would  be  sensibly,  or  at  all,  im- 
proved. Besides  slaves,  the  planters  employ  free 
lalwrers,  mostly  of  an  Indian  mixed  breed,  wiio  work 
for  moderate  wages.  These,  however,  are  little  en- 
gaged in  the  fields,  but  in  other  branches  of  labor,  and 
particularly  in  bringing  sugar  from  the  interior  to  tho 
shipping  ports.  The  articles  principally  vvported  from 
Cuba  are,  sugar  of  the  finest  quality,  coffee,  copper 
ore,  tobacco,  beeswax,  honey,  molasses,  etc.  Of  these, 
the  first  Is  decidedly  the  most  important. 

But,  exclusive  of  the  exports  from  Havana  and  Mo- 
tanzas,  considerable  quantities  sugar  la  shipped  from 


I  1847 
1S48 
1849 
ISSO 
ISfil 
IS.W 
18S8 
18&t 
1855 


EAV 


961 


HAV 


hdMa- 
froni 


Clmfuegoi,  Nuevltu,  HoIkuId,  ManL4nlUa,  and  other 
portii ;  and  ii  good  deal  U  alno  shipped  without  entry  or 
payment  of  duty.  We  may,  therefore,  safely  add  10 
per  cent,  to  the  other  quantities  for  tlie  omissions  now 
referred  to ;  whloh  will  make  the  total  expoi  U  in  1846, 
'Km.SUOiOOO  lbs.  or  180,000  tons.  Since  then  the  pro- 
duction has  considerably  Increased ;  and  the  total  ex> 
ports  may  at  present  (1856)  bo  safely  c'imated  at 
above  836,000  tons.  The  consumption  ti  tne  island  is 
supposed  to  amount  to  about  20,000,  so  that  its  total 
produce  may  be  taken  at  from  800,000  to  860,000,  tons 
Next  to  sugar,  coffee  was  the  most  valuable  vego- 
table  production  of  Cuba.  Its  cultivation  increased, 
for  a  while,  with  unprecedented  rapidity.  In  1800, 
there  were  l)ut  HO  plantations  In  the  Island ;  in  1817, 
there  were  779 ;  and  in  1827,  there  were  no  fewer  than 
2,067,  of  at  least  40,000  trees  each !  In  1804,  the  ex- 
portation from  Havana  was  1,250,000  lbs. ;  in  1809,  It 
amounted  to  8,000,000  lbs. ;  from  1816  to  1820,  It 
averaged  annually  18,180,200  lbs.;  and  in  1827  It 
amounted  to  86,887,176  lbs.  I  The  exports  fron.  the 
other  ports  Increased  with  equal  rapidity,  "hey 
amounted,  in  1827,  to  14,202,406  llis.;  making,  the 
total  exportation  for  that  year  60,039,681  lbs.  But 
the   subsequent   low  prices,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the 


greater  attention  paid  to  the  culture  of  sugar,  not  on'l^ 
checked  the  further  Increase  of  the  coffee  plantatloni, 
but  made  several  of  tliem  be  abandoned.  More  re- 
cently, however,  the  increase  in  the  price  of  coffee 
and  the  low  price  of  HUgar  has  occasioned  a  reaction, 
and  the  culture  of  coffee  Is  again  extending.  The  es> 
ports  of  It  In  1848  amr-mted  to  17,364,426  lbs.,  to 
which  10  per  cent,  may  bo  added  fur  deficient  entrlti. 

Tobacco  dilTors  much  in  quality :  but  the  segura  of 
Cuba  are  esteemed  the  finest  in  the  world,  (^e  To- 
nAt'co).  Formerly,  the  culture  and  sale  of  this  im- 
portant plant  were  motk'>polUed  by  government  t  but 
since  1821,  this  monopoly  has  been  wholly  relin- 
quished, there  being  no  lo  iger  any  restrictions  either 
on  the  growth  or  sale  of  th  i  article.  The  cultivator 
pays  a  duty,  which,  however,  is  to  a  great  extent 
evaded,  of  1  per  cent,  ad  valo  'em  upon  his  crop,  In 
consequence  of  the  freedom  t'lus  given  to  the  busi- 
ness, the  culture  and  exportati  in  of  tobacco  are  both 
rapidly  extending ;  so  much  so,  that  the  value  of  the 
produce  of  tobacco  in  1840  wai  estimated  at  above 
6,000,000  dollars,  being  considoru  ily  mora  than  double 
the  value  of  the  coffee  produced.  Molasses,  rum 
(tafia),  wax,  and  honey,  are  also  largely  produced, 
and  form  Important  articles  of  trade.     See  Cuba, 


8tateme.-(t  or  Impobts  at  tub  Port  or   Havana,   fbom  Jancary  1  to  Srptbmbrii  8(i,  1888,  somparid  witi'  tiii 
SAMR,  fob  tiik  samb  Pkrioiib,  IN  1884  AND  1868.    [Fboh  Oustom-Uocsi  Knuu:  IS.] 


Couatriet. 


United  SUtcs.... 

Hpsin 

Uther  Countries. . 
Total 


United  States 

Brlllsh  Provinces. . 

Eurnptan 

Total 


United  States... 
South  America. . 


United  States. 

British  ProTlnoes.. 
Total 

Spain 


Floub, 
Barrels. 


LUMBEB, 

M  foet. 


■I 


Lard.        J 
Quintals,     l 

Hud.   suooKB.j 
Number.      ( 


Oil.  Jars... 


a. 

11  .4. 

lau. 

8M 
109,484 

2,808 
117,610 

178 
120,882 

1  II  i 

120,827 

10,004 
888 

121,027 

8.015 
109 

10,908 

10,892 

8,124 

64,477 

68,68« 

48,636 

87,810 

46,020 

49,064 

87,819 

40,020 

49,064 

808,888 

177,786 

100,998 

Kics. 
Quintals. 


>risii,     J 
ntals.      I 


GoDrisii, 
Qui  ■  ■ 


Jerked  berf.  I 
Quintals.      1 

Box  SIIOOKS.    I 

Number.      ( 


Wine.  Pipes.. 


77,906 

98,948 

29,746 

26i;696' 

19,241 
29,188 
11,787 
60,1  W' 

188',789 

668,498 
89,287 


607,782 
26,874 


IIM. 


ItiS. 


"is;ii9F 

28,420 
1,474 


l'A892 

18,199 

28,171 

9,289 

60,629- 


180,477 

888,740 
12,788 


898,498 
28,294 


60,089 

28,488 

7,092 

96,689 

21,249 
24,940 
10,811 


66,81< 


148,477 

886,781    , 
20,091    I 


400,824 
16,408 


Number  and  Tonnaox  or  Vessels  wnicii  entebed  tue 
Port  op  Havana  pbou  Jan.  1  to  Sept.  80,  lt>S6, 


N»llon»llly. 

No.  ot 
veawli. 

fm 

8l'S 
9i 

liO 
18 
18 

Toaaagt. 
299,127 

87,827 
89,675 
29,967 
8,217l 
1,842 

Nitll..nsllty. 

,««?.' iT«»°^- 

American 

Spanish 

llrltUli 

French 

Boigl»a 

Dutch 

Danish 

Bremen 

Hombiiru 

Other  nntlonn 

Total 

12 
14 
4 
42 

8,040 

4,498 

860 

9,8191 

1,406 

482,867 

The  table  which  we  subjoin  gives  the  amount  of 
American,  Spanish  nnd  Knglish  tonnage  employed, 
with  the  per  centage  which  each  comprises  of  the  en- 
tire commerce  of  the  port : 


Ym™. 

Amerioan. 

p«r  ct. 

Spullh. 

p«r  cl. 

Urillih. 

per  CI. 

1840 

128,848 

88 

96,888 

29 

08,206 

21 

1847 

151,174 

40 

100,888 

27 

72,278 

19 

1848 

170,817 

44 

107,707 

28 

66,214 

17 

1849 

200,069 

49 

106,188 

26 

66,274 

10 

1880 

298,299 

67 

107,280 

20 

65,186 

12 

1881 

814,046 

80 

114,216 

20 

68,308 

10 

18152 

808,120 

69 

114,888 

23 

M,427 

11 

1858 

804,133 

67 

111,029 

21 

58,824 

11 

1884 

886,993 

60 

111,823 

20 

69,586 

11 

1885 

879,827 

01 

120,881 

20 

49,968 

OS 

This  table  shows  that  the  American  tonnage  em- 
ployed in  the  Havana  trade,  has  increased  threefold 
during  the  lost  ten  years,  and  that  its  amount,  rela- 
tive to  the  entire  tonnage,  has  nearly  doubled,  whila 
both  the  Spanish  and  English  proportions  have  dimin- 
ished in  relative  importance,  and  even  the  absolute 
amount  of  British  tonnage  employed  in  this  business, 
has  fallen  off  more  than  25  per  cent.  The  only  other 
nation  which  enjoys  any  considerable  share  of  thU 
trade  is  France,    The  French  tonnage  in  1646  was 


7,213  or  225  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and  in  1866,  38,- 
622  or  6^  per  cent.  It  would  appear  from  these  facts, 
that  the  United  States  are  raplilly  advancing  toward 
a  comparative  monopoly  of  tlio  carrj-lng  trade  fl-om 
Havana. 

The  rates  of  freights  for  the  last  ten  years  have 
been  subject  to  great  fluctuation,  rates  to  New  York 
varj-ing  from  4  rials  In  September  1849,  and  August 
1855,  to  19  rials  in  March  1854.  March  and  April 
seem  to  have  been  the  most  favorable  months  for 
American  freights,  and  February  and  March  fur  Eu- 
ropean. The  ^-early  averages  of  freight  show  that 
while  185-1  saw  the  rates  at  their  highest  point,  1866 
found  them  depressed  almost  to  the  lowest.  From 
March  1855,  when  the  rate  to  Cowes  and  a  market  was 
£5  123.  i»l,  and  to  New  York  19  rials,  there  was  a  reg- 
ular and  rnpid  fall,  hardly  checked  even  by  the  spring 
months,  <Mtil  in  August  1855,  tho  rate  to  Coweg  was 
£1 15s.,  .<nd  to  New  York,  -1  rials.  At  this  point  rates 
began  to  recover. 

The  price  of  sugar  has  fluctuated  ftrom  8  8-6  rials 
in  August  1848,  to  9  rials  in  December  1865.  From 
March  of  last  year  when  the  price  of  brown  sugar  was 
5  3-8  rials,  there  was  a  steady  rl<e  to  the  end  of  the 
year,  so  that  the  average  price  for  the  year,  6.65  rials, 
was  higher  than  for  any  of  the  previous  years,  the 
lowest  yearly  average  being  4.60  rials  for  1848. 

Moneys. — One  dollar=i8  reals  plate=20  reals  Vv^Uon. 
One  doubloon=^17  dollars.  The  merchants  re<:kon 
444  dollarB=f  100,  or  1  dollar=4s.  6d.  verj-  nearly. 
There  is  an  export  duty  of  1}  per  cent,  on  gold,  tnd 
2}  per  cent,  on  silver.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  no  de- 
scription of  paper  money  has  ever  circulated  in  Cuba. 


HAV 


0S2 


HAV 


Wriglttt  and  tfmunt. — One  qalntel^lOO  Ibi.,  or  4 
•rrobH  of  26  lbs. ;  100  Ibi.  Sp*nlilt<»<101|  l|j«.  Kn- 
gll«h,  or  411  kllngnimniM.  108  varai->l(K)  ysnli  ;  140 
▼■nu»100  French  dls  or  auneii ;  81  viiru»il0()  UrH> 
bant  (Us  j  lUH  v«ra»a>160  llamburK  tllii.  1  fWnnKa 
^8  IiumIivU  nearly,  or  10()  IIm.  Hpiuiish.  An  armlta 
of  wine  ur  apiritii>^4'l  KnitUah  wine  KHllon"  noitrly. 
A  ho/fihoad  of  •u^'ir-— iJltiO  Ibo, )  k  ba^  uf  coffeao-i 
ISO  Ihs,  I  a  hoKaheuit  uf  ni»lai<sn«a.llO  Kailona  ;  a  pl|)« 
of  tafla  or  rumol20  gallunit ;  ami  a  bale  of  tobaccii'' 
100  lbs. 

Th*  unal  commiuum  charged  by  men  hanta  on  th« 
Mb  of  gonda  la  6  per  cent.,  with  a  drl  crtdere  of  •i\ 
par  cpnt.  if  the  aalea  am  on  credit  and  Ktiarontied,  and 
»  further  commiitaion  of  'i\  per  cent,  for  ttie  retumi, 
whether  in  biUa  or  produce.  On  iiiirchime'i  tiM  corn- 
Mission  is  2}  iwr  cent.,  and  a  furth'r  '..'J  i*f  cent.  If 
drawn  for  in  billa  of  exchange.  For  procuring  fireight 
6  per  pent,  la  charged,  and  'l\  for  insuring  the  amount. 
For  advances  of  money  tlii'  rate  Is  .')  per  cunt,  when  no 
Other  commission  is  chnrgealdu.  Hill  bu<iiiiess  is  done 
•t  various  rates,  from  1  to  2^  per  cent,  nciordlng  to  Its 
nagiiltnde.  These  are  the  rates  of  the  foreign  houses  | 
those  of  the  Spanish  and  Creole  merchants  urn  gener> 
ally  higher.  There  is  no  oLstaclo  wliatever  to  the 
estuiilishment  of  foroignora  as  mtirchunts  In  the  island. 
The  law  says  that  those  who  are  naturalized  In  Spain 
may  ftwely  carry  on  trade  with  tlie  snnio  rights  anil 
obligations  as  the  natives  of  thn  kingdom,  and  Hint 
those  who  have  not  been  natunillzed,  or  have  a  legal 
domicile,  may  still  carry  on  trade  under  the  regula- 
tions stipulated  in  the  treaties  in  force  between  the 
respective  governments  j  and  in  default  of  such  con- 
ventional regulations,  the  same  privileges  are  to  bo 
conceded  as  those  enjoyed  l)y  Spaniards  carrj'ing  on 
trade  in  the  countr)'  of  which  such  foreigners  are  na- 
tives. In  practice,  this  last  condition  is  not  much 
attended  to;  as  foreigners  are  allowed  to  e8tal)llsh 
themselves  as  merchants  without  any  Inquiry  as  to 
the  rights  and  privileges  enjoyed  by  Spaniards  In  the 
countr}'  they  come  from.  As  to  manufacturers  and 
mechanics,  the  only  difficulty  tliat  can  arise  regards 
their  religion.  On  entering  the  island  every  stranger 
is  required  to  find  security  in  the  following  terms :  "  I 
am  responsible  and  Income  security  in  ever}'  case 
for  the  person  and  condact  of  A.  U.,  arrived  from  C. 
in  the  ship  D.,  binding  myself  to  present  him  if  called 
on  by  the  government,  and  to  conduct  him  at  my  ex- 
pense to  any  place  that  may  be  designated."  This 
security  is  easily  obtained,  and,  in  fact,  encourage- 
ment is  given  to  mechanics,  and  white  people  of  all 
classes  to  settle  In  the  island.  After  landing  It  is  only 
necessar)'  to  apply  for  a  letter  of  domicile,  and  to  pre- 
sent a  cartlflcate  that  the  applicant  is  of  a  respectable 
character,  and  professes  the  lioman  Catholic  religion. 
Free  colored  people,  however,  by  a  royal  order  of  the 
12th  March,  1837,  are  prohibited  from  landing  under 
any  pretense  whatever;  and  so  rigorously  is  this  order 
•oforced,  that  such  persons,  though  acting  as  seamen, 
•re,  on  their  arrival,  taken  out  of  the  vessel  In  which 
they  have  come,  and  are  kept  In  custody  until  her  de- 
parture, when  they  are  compelled  to  proceed  again  on 
board  and  leave  the  Island.  The  business  of  a  broker 
k  exercised  under  a  royal  license,  and  no  foreigner  is 
eligible  to  the  office  unless  naturalized  In  the  form  pre- 
torllied  by  law.  In  ever}'  commercial  town  a  certain 
number  only  is  allowed,  corresponding  with  the  popu- 
lation and  trade  of  the  place.  In  the  great  cities,  the 
business  of  merchant  is  often  combined  with  tluit  of 
planter;  and  sometimes,  also,  the  importing  merchant 
keeps  a  shop  or  storo,  where  he  sells  his  goods  liy 
ratiUl.  The  foreign  merchants  are  generally  regarded 
•8  transient  visitors,  who  go  there  for  the  purpose  of 
accumulating  such  a  fortune  as  may  enable  them  to 
live  with  soma  degree  of  comfort  in  their  own  country. 
Aa  a  class  they  are  not  considered  wsalthy,  but  they 
•re  almost  all  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  credit.    Tbe 


mnoontila  eapllal,  m  wall  aa  th«  proprietary  wealth 
of  the  island,  may  Ix  lald  to  ba  oimoantrated  in  the 
hands  of  the  Craulu.  Whan  tha  emigrants  from  tha 
Peninsula  maka  fortunes  in  tha  Island,  thay  seldom 
think  of  raturning  to  Kuro|M,    Nao  Ouma. 

H»T«n.  (iiarm.  lu^m.)  Tha  same  as  karbor. 
See  article  llAiiHiin. 

■■▼r«,  or  Havra  Aa  OH'SO*.  •  commercial  and 
atrongly-fortlllsil  Miit-|H>rt  town  of  Franca,  on  the  Kn- 
gllah  Channal,  near  tha  mouth  of  tha  Hnlne,  on  Its 
northern  Itank,  lal.  41)"  20'  14"  N.,  long.  0°  0'  8H" 
K.  Population,  In  INAI,  2M,UM,  to  which  may  l)a 
added  S,IKXI  or  tl,0U0  morn  for  the  vrawa  of  tha  ship- 
ping conntantly  In  the  port.  It  waa  a  saying  of  Na- 
poleon that  "  t'ltrii,  ItiiHtn,  //<  //oere,  ne  furmtnt 
qu'untti  imt»  I'iUn,  itiml  lit  Ntint  ut  la  fframle  rut." 
llavre  lieing,  In  fact,  tlio  sea-port  of  Paris,  most  of  the 
colonial  and  fondgn  prnlucts  destined  for  its  consump- 
tion are  lni|>ort«d  thltliKr.  Nearly  double  the  quanti- 
ty of  goods,  estlniiitad  by  weight,  Is  annually  Imjiorted 
at  Marselilas  |  but  tha  total  valuii  of  tha  lm|iorts  at 
Havre  amounts  vary  nearly  to  that  of  those  at  the 
former  jMirt,  The  principal  ltii|>ortB  am  cotton,  sugar, 
colfue,  linen  thread  and  Ihien  goo<ls,  rice,  Indigo,  to- 
liacco,  hides,  ilyswo(Hls,  snlces,  <lrugs,  timber,  iron,  tin, 
drioi',  tlih,  etc.  I  grain  ami  Hour  are  sometimes  imported 
and  soinetiinea  ax|iort«d.  The  principal  exports  are 
silks,  woolen  and  cotton  stuflTs,  tnco,  gloves,  and  shoes, 
trinkets,  iierfuniury,  champagne  and  other  winai, 
brandy,  glass,  furnitiirn,  liooks,  etc. 

The  lliirhor,  wliluli  U  the  liast  and  molt  accessitljs 
on  this  part  of  the  Frnncli  coast,  consists  of  8  basins 
soparateil  from  each  other  and  from  the  outer  port  iiy 
4  locks,  unil  capable  of  nciiomniodating  alwut  460  ships. 
A  Inrgu  body  of  water  being  ridalnod  by  a  nluico,  and 
discharged  at  ebb  tide,  diinrs  tlin  «ntran<!«  to  the  har- 
l>or  anri  prevents  tha  nccmmulatlon  of  filth,  sand,  etc. 
Cape  do  la  llavn,  forming  the  northern  extremity  of 
thfl  Seine,  lies  N.N.W.  from  Havre,  distant  about  2J 
inilos,  It  Is  elevated  liUO  fniit  almve  the  level  of  the 
son,  and  Is  surmounted  by  2  light-houses  60  feet  high. 
These,  which  urn  II2A  fiint  apart,  exiillilt  powerful  fixed 
lights.  Tlioro  Is  also  n  lirlillant  harlior  llglit  at  the  en- 
trance to  th«  port,  on  tha  oxtrnniity  of  the  western  Jetty. 
Havre  has  2  rua<Ut«ads.  The  greater  or  out  road  is 
alH)ut  a  lengna  ft-om  tha  jiort,  and  rather  more  tlian  \ 
leaguo  W.S.W.  friini  Capo  d«  l»  Hove ;  the  little  or 
Inner  road  Is  aliout  \  Icugiia  from  the  port,  and  al)out 
f  of  a  mile  S.H.K.  from  Capo  do  In  Ileve.  They  are 
separated  by  the  sand  bank  culled  Leclat;  between 
which  and  tha  Imnk  calleil  1m  Ilaulei  de  la  RmU  is 
the  north-west  passage  to  the  port,  The  Hoc,  or 
southern  passage.  Ilea  lietwoen  th«  last  mentioned 
bank  and  that  of  Amfar,  In  the  great  road  thore  is 
A'om  H  to  71  fathoms  water  at  ebb;  and  in  tbe  little, 
ttom  Stolli,  Largn  ships  always  He  In  the  former, 
Tbe  rise  of  the  tide  is  from  22  to  27  feet :  and  by  tak- 
ing udvantttgu  of  It,  tlio  largest  class  of  merchantmen 
enter  the  iH)rt,  The  water  In  the  harlmr  does  not  l)e- 
gin  |)erceptibly  to  subside  till  uliout  5  hours  after  high 
water — a  iteculliirity  ascrilied  to  the  current  down  the 
Seine  across  the  entranoa  to  the  harbor  being  suffi- 
ciently powerful  to  dam  up  for  a  whl!3  the  water  In 
the  latter.  Larga  lloets,  taking  advantage  of  this  cir- 
cumstance, ara  able  to  Isavo  tha  port  In  a  single  tide, 
and  get  to  sea,  even  thongh  tha  wind  should  be  unfa- 
vorable, Sao  Plan  uf  llavrt,  published  by  Laurie; 
Amtuairi  dii  t'immerm  Maritinai  Coulter  lur  lea 
I'harei,  p.  60,  atu.  Tha  dhamber  of  Commeree  of 
Havre  have  recetitly  (mbllshed  the  following  informa- 
tion and  instructions  fur  th«  uso  of  vessels  frequenting 
tha  port  I 

"Five  buoyt  have  been  moorad  in  the  thallowB 
Buvun,  undor  tha  designation  of  (ht  Banc  de  I'Eclat, 
and  Hautes  de  la  Rado. 

'*  These  buoy*  nra  similar  In  form,  but  of  different 
COloN,  viz.  t  Tito  lint  to  tlia  northward  la  white ;  the 


HAV 


0B8 


UAV 


lent 
ktia 


Meond,  whlt«  with  a  black  lop  t  tha  third  It  black ; 
tha  Aiiirth  I*  black  with  a  whlta  top ;  the  fifth  la  rad. 

"  Veniielii  muH  alwitvK  come  to  anchor  at  a  dlatance 
of  at  louit  live  cahlen'  length  outnide  the  line  of  thene 
buoy*,  which  they  may  nut  puMi  without  (liiiiKnr  Ixfore 
one  hour  and  a  half  prior  tu  high  water,  or  four  hount 
after  abb  i  and  thejr  miiat  at  all  timea  paae  at  a  di«- 
tanoe  of  Ave  cable*'  length  from  tha  black  aa  well 
fu  fVom  the  re<l  Imo]',  both  of  which  ar«  moored  on  the 
■halloweat  parti  of  theao  banka,  NevertheleM  ablpa 
may  at  all  houra  of  the  tide  frequent  the  north-waitem 
paaKaKo,  comprlaed  lietwenn  Capo  I^  Ilova  and  the 
two  northernmoit  tiooya, 

"  All  voa^ola  uaing  the  north-waatem  paaaa^te,  and 
bound  into  the  inner  roortrtend  (Petit  Kade),  muat  ateer 
fur  the  white  buoy,  the  furtheat  north,  and  uftur  leav- 
ing it  a  little  diatance  on  tha  atarlHmnI  hand,  ahnuld 
then  atand  toward  tha  aacoud  white  buoy,  taking  care 
never  to  coma  ao  cloae  to  the  ahora  aa  altogetlier  to 
loBo  sight  of  the  lantern  of  the  uurthemmoHt  light- 
houae  on  Cape  \m  Hove.  When  thn  light  of  the  north- 
weatem  pier  heofl  Iwora  Ity  cum|in4s  8.E.,  and  the 
llglit-houaea  on  tlie  Hove  l>earliy  ('i>iii|iaia  N.X.E.,  the 
abip  may  bo  brought  to  nn  unohor. 

"  lleaidoa  tho  live  buoya  herein  deacribed,  :)na  of 
leaser  dimonaiona  haa  been  mooted  on  the  ahallowa  of 
tlia  inner  roodate^l,  at  al)out  five  cables'  length  W.N. 
W.  of  tho  north  west  pier  head.  Veaaela  of  light 
draught  of  water  ciiining  to  nn  aii<  hor  in  that  part  of 
the  niad,  ahould  give  this  buoy  an  offing  of  at  leaat 
one  cable'a  length." 

Moat  part  of  the  gooda  imported  into  Ilnvro  are  den- 
tined  for  the  Internal  consumption  of  Franco.  The 
coaating  trade  haa  increoaed  very  largely  of  late  yenra, 
OB  la  proved  by  the  groat  incroaae  of  French  win«a, 
Boapa,  and  other  produce  imported  at  Paris  from  Havre, 
instead  of  being  aent  to  the  capital  by  land.  Tho 
ceasting  veaaela  transfer  their  cnrgnea  partly  to  ateam- 
cra  and  partly  to  lar^n  barges,  called  chalandt,  which 
are  towed  by  stoaiu  tugs  na  far  oa  Houon,  and  thence 
by  horaeq  to  Paris.  The  foreign  trade  of  the  port  is 
also  verr  extenaive.  There  annually  enter  the  port 
about  800  ahtpa  from  porta  out  of  Europe.  Lines  of 
sailing  packets  are  catabliahed  betwcin  Havre  and 
Now  York,  New  Orleans,  etc.  A  regular  intorcourao 
by  meana  of  steam  packets  la  7  tt  up  with  London, 
Southampton,  and  other  port'  The  entrances  to  the 
basina  are  too  narrow  to  oxmit  the  paaaoge  of  tho 
largest  steamera,  which  have,  in  consequence,  to  re- 
main in  the  outer  port  imperfectly  sheltered  from  the 
winds.  Indeed  the  poit  is  at  present  inadequate  to 
the  proper  accommodation  of  the  great  iind  growing 
trade  of  which  it  is  the  centre,  and  ext  naive  works 
have  been  undertaken  for  its  improvement.  There 
belonged  to  the  port,  on  the  Slat  December,  1851,  868 
sailing  vessels  of  the  aggregate  burden  of  71,363  tons, 
ana  32  steamers,  aggregate  burden  4,259  tons.  The 
onstoma  duties  which  in  1837  produced  18,123,093 
franca,  had  increaaed  in  1861  to  26,164,000  franca, 
The  Moneys,  Weighh;  and  iteasuret  of  Havre  are 
the  sitiue  aa  those  of  the  rest  of  France ;  for  which, 
see  articles  Bobdeaux,  Coins,  France,  and  Weights 

AKD  MEASnBES. 

Pilotage, — From  the  outer  roadstead  28  firancs  per 
1st  100  tons ;  26  francs  2d  do. ;  23  franca  8d  do. ;  and 
the  pilot  to  be  fed.  If  the  vessel  be  boarded  nearer 
the  port  the  charge  is  lessened  accordingly.  Boats, 
flrom  9  to  30  francs  ocoonUng  to  the  diatance. 

Port  Charge*. — With  coals,  75  per  cent,  per  ton 
In  dock ;  87^  do.  in  harbor.  Qeneral  cargo,  2  fVancs 
60  centimes  if  in  dock ;  1  franc  66  centimes  if  in  har- 
bor. Salvage  dues,  6  centimes,  and  10  per  cent. 
Tonnage  do.  66|  centir  es  and  10  per  cent  No  charge 
for  lights,  buoys,  or  beacons. 

BallaH  delivered  alongside. — Clean,  1  A'anc  95  cent- 
imes per  ton;  common  do.  1  Anne  14  centimes  do, 
The  ton  of  clean  ballast  may  be  estimated  to  weigh 


about  16  or  16  owt.  Tha  ton  of  coranion  balUit, 
about  20  cwt.  i  a  cart  marked  \  metre  la  one  tun ;  a 
cart  marked  1  metre  la  two  tana.  Coat  of  removal  of 
ballast  landed  fh<m  ship,  61  centlmea  per  ton,  without 
distinction  of  quality. 

llarhitr  Unlet. — 1.  It  la  forbidden  to  have  tire,  or 
lighttd  candle,  or  to  smoka  on  Iward  ahlpa  In  tha  haN 
l)or. 

2.  Veaaela  coming  into  and  lying  in  the  dock.)  must 
have  the  lower  and  topyania  topped  up,  Jili-linoma  and 
martingalei  rigged  in,  and  anchors  taken  in.  The 
wharf  alongsiile  the  veaael  muat  be  swept  oV'<r}'  even- 
ing. 

8.  No  gunpowder  (whatever  may  lie  the  quantity), 
la  allowed  to  remain  on  lioani,  ai  d  most  liu  doiwaited 
in  the  gunpowder  warehouae. 

4,  All  foreign  aailora  found  awa;'  ttom  their  shl|)t 
after  10  o'clock  at  night,  ttom  the  Ist  of  April  to  tha 
Ist  of  October,  and  after  0  o'clock  fhiro  the  Ist  of  Oc- 
tober to  the  Int  of  April,  shall  lie  conveyed  to  prison 
and  flned.  Sailors  are  forbidden  to  wear  Hhcathing 
knives  aKiiore. 

5.  The  manifest  of  the  cargo,  signed  by  the  captain, 
muat  be  exhibited  to  and  algned  by  the  ciiKtom-house 
officers  l)efore  lieing  taken  aahoro.  Tho  vcsaci  must 
lie  reported  at  tho  cuatom-houie  within  24  hours  after 
arrival. 

0.  Tobacco,  snufT,  aegara  looaa  or  in  boxea,  belong- 
ing to  the  cuptuin,  otHcera,  and  mariners,  to  be  de- 
clared as  exactly  aa  possible.  All  the  tobacco,  anuff, 
and  segars  declared  or  not  declared,  to  bo  exhililto<l  to 
the  cuatom-hnuae  officers,  when  they  come  and  make 
the  viait  on  board.  After  auch  exhibition,  if  any 
quantity  of  tobacco  and  segara  be  found  on  board,  it 
shall  lie  seized,  the  captain  ahall  be  condemned  to  pay 
a  tine  which  may  bo  na  high  as  600  franca,  and  the 
ship  shall  bo  conflacatod. 

I'oBT  Cuuoia, 

»•*  tt.  tor  tho  lat  hundred  ton*. 
■2A  tt.  for  tho  2d  hundreil  tona, 
,  2H  tr.  tor  tho  8d  huiKlrt-d  t(}na  and  above* 
H  per  cent  for  tho  licad  pilot. 
24  rr.  outsicio  the  banka. 
in  ly.  outiiUle  the  plora. 
9  tr  In  the  harbor, 
f.  '■. 

3  Bil  per  each  cwt 

0  60       "       "     and  one  third  more  If 
there  be  no  buoy  mpoa. 
,  0  80  per  man,  bosldea  1  IT.  SO  c.  for  tho 

hawsers, 
.  8  60  (br  etch  bridge. 
.  0  04  per  half  metre. 
.  1  14       "       "        fbraand. 
,  1  98       "       "        tbr  clean  ballast 
.  9  50  fbr  a  voaaol  of  AO  tons' 
mom'  aromont&  under. 
.6    0  fbr  a  vessol  of  ."SI  ton*' 
moatfnirenient  (knlM>vt'. 
.  10  0  for  a  vesael  from  oilier  eotintrlea. 
.  0  6fl|  per  ton  and  10  1  for  voswls  with 

p<'r  cent 
.  0  87^  iicr  ton  hni  Lor 

duea, 
.  0  T5  per    ton    dock 

dues.  J 

.  1  05  per  ton  harbor  duos,  with  other 

cargoes. 
.  3  BO  per  l^n  dock  dues  with  other  carg'a. 
.  0    A  per  ton  aalvogo  duty,  Jc  10  per  ct. 
.  1  2A  stamps. 

From  8  fr.  56  0.  t.  13  ft.  16  c.  for 
clearancos  aoooraing  to  his  ton- 
nage. 
One  third  of  the  pilotage  in  If  tho 
vessel  Is  In  ballast. 
Ono  half  of  tho  pllouga  la  If  the 
vessel  takes  good*. 

9   6 

6  80  ' 

8    0 

0  60  per  ton  of  goods  landed. 

0  36       "  "       shipped. 


Pilotage  In. 

u 

Boataofhelptn.. 


Weighing  anchors. 
Weighing  chains. . 


Haulers. . 


Bridges 

Ballast  nnahlpned , 
"      ahlpped. . . . 


Board  of  health.. 


Tonnage  dues. 


from 
?:uropo. 


cniils  only  and 
l-'iOth  of  their 
cargoes  with 
hrieks  or 

grindston  ^s. 


Pilotage  out . 


Protoat  before  the 
court 

Afflrmatlon  before 
tho  court 

Gunpowder  shipped 
and  unshipped... 

Brokerage  In 

"        out 

"  on  bal- 
last  


0  13 


measoremsBt 


m 


HAV  M4 

AOOOVNT  ur  TRi  ANxirii.  Urnim  or  Oomi  iktii  IIatbi, 
WITH  Ilia  AaniiAi.  I*ti.iii  TM»iu>r,  at<u  HtihjU  cm 
ll«Ri>  UN  Tiiii  Hint  I)>i-iiMiiiiii  i<<  *!<  II  Yitii,  ranii 
IMI  to  ml,  amu  inomtiri,  in  ♦  Kiu«».  «■  roimiM. 


HAV 


Tmm. 

iBIMtl. 

Mm. 

Itwk. 

'M,*n,NS 

itn,|iM,W(i 

lUI 

HMl.Ull 

u^'<l(^lMll 

«,fK)<),(>(W 

INAO 

<M.tOI,»N(l 

ll(l,IM;iTi> 

n,MIII,MM) 

m» 

iin,HU,iM) 

»\HWt,IIAU 

A,IW«,H4(> 

IMH 

Vll,»lA.AIO 

ll),(IM,4IO 

6,IIIA,I)00 

IW 

l«,)M<l,llll() 

M.M-'^W 

4,001,01  N) 

]M» 

iT.nnn.miii 

iH.mm.iN)!) 

«,9<I0,INI0 

IHM 

i)i.NAii,iinii 

1H,>1S0,(«I0 

B,AlKI,IMII) 

ItM 

'i«,IIUII,IMH> 

U,IUU,IHN) 

»,Mll,IK)U 

1MII 

1  II.HIHI.IKIII 

ITJIMMNM) 

ll,IKIII,IK)0 

IHM 

i»,iiMi,nn() 

IW.IWI  1,000 

H,WNt,ll<lll 

1«4I 

l7,6M),nOO 

in.tMMNM 

4J»(I,0II0 

IMO 

3a,(kKi,(X)o 

Ut,4{MI,000 

y,IIIU,U<l(> 

IM 

1  t,IIIM),INN) 

iA,nfii),iMii) 

l,TBO,000 

JH* 

i»,:iWi,iino 

8tUH4,flnil 

ti,Tno,uflo 

IMT 

iH.na».niin 

«l,4lll,8llO 

R,ll»t.l«IO 

INM 

IT.TDH.Mn 

lA.ITI.fttf 

4,il7MMU 

iMin 

1A.4«i,iino 

1».N«),WH) 

a,ii*),oo<) 

INM 

l^|y)(l,n()fl 

l:),l)N(l,()(M) 

8,7«l,0OO 

IMW 

U.onn.mm 

1.\«<III,000 

4,000.000 

IHM 

l^NA<MMln 

lH.aM,IHHI 

^n«)U,o^H) 

IMl 

N,IHIII,IKN) 

U.UNI.INIO 

1,H(K),I)<)<1 

IMO 

i«,m)«,o(H» 

1»,C)0I1,(I«M 

!l,SflO,Oi"> 

!«• 

in,iiM),()no 

1S,9HO,(H)0 

ii,imo,oi>o 

IMH 

i<,«)n,ooo 

1MI0O,U0O 

1,800,000 

AcoovNT  or  III*  AiiiiVAL  mroin  or  Cotton  into  ItATH, 
WITH  THIS  Aknitai,  Salki  Tiimidir,  and  Tna  Htoi m 

ON  IIaNII  on   Till  DliT   IlKI millEK  IN    lAUU    Y«AI  rSOM 
18B1  to   liiltl,   llnTII   INOMIIITI. 


Y«Arf. 


18M 
IWI 
IH*) 
IS4» 
1H44 
IWT 
IMd 
lH4fl 

INI4 

IH41 
\H\ 

1881 


I  Impnrt*. 

T.r..T 
89e,floi 
iio(i,«7n 

8U,Nii7 
IW7,I7H 

all7,oa^ 

2(17,ft«0 
B2ft,l»llft 
ltHl,'JS7 
li7ll,il.Ml 
8'2n,!lt\,%| 
H70,4i7, 
Ilft7,sa7| 
H70,1IW 
80S,»48 


B.i«n 

898,771 

■m.m, 

80M,41I7| 
IMM7S 
1W,485, 

2ni,.ioo 

8ft",4iW' 
»M.tf>\' 

H44,»a7 

8M, 

141, 


-»,(W7l 
0,1  B(I 
1,0481 


Bloak. 

Ymh. 

S8,8}|fl 

i<m 

M,fl<H) 

lsit7 

41,400 

fm 

8H,(IIMI 

l■«^,^ 

lll.IKH) 

|s|W 

4I,NI0 

IHIUI 

1A,MNI 

1K81 

fiO,IKH) 

u\\ 

«I,(HKI 

1H8I) 

ImVMIII 

IS'iO 

10H,IKKI 

IS'iS 

IIV'KMI 

tHa7 

77,000 

1819 

B7,000 

linport*.| 

"BiiiTl 
1»«,14(1 
'i4M,Hn«! 
llll.llHtll 
1I4,MI8 
'2l'l,411l 
Kl  'ftU.'l 
IM.'ilS 
157, Mil 
IIU.ISII 
17.M»:)» 
lll.7itf> 
1011,171 
114,U8ft 


_?.•'"■_' 
11.1".  I 
1I«,71« 
Ifll.BlM) 
l«H,As(l 
117,700 
1111,4111 

lim,n»H 

mfl,i!i>. 

1IM,NI1 

1I»,I|N|I 

1H.\4H(I 

1111,111ft 

1IM,1T4 
lti8,ft8A 


Jmk, 
ltal>i. 

mi,(sno 
mi,floo 

4A,A00 

l«,soo 

1-J,IH)0 
;  i  'W 
l.,i/<)0 
IH.IMIO 

4n,ooo 

17,(100 

17,IHI<l 
4)I,A00 
44,000 


Account  or  tiid  Annual  IxroiTii  or  Huoaii  into  Havkk, 
WITH  Tiix  Anni'al  Halm  TiiEKunr,  and  tiik  Btdcm 
OK  Hand  on  tiii  SIiit  Dioeuhkr  in  kacii  Ykah, 
noM  IWl  TO  1818,  aoTii  iNi'Limvit. 


Ywri.  1  ImporU. 

lUlM. 

RaI«. 

Y<«ri. 

ImporU. 

BaIci. 

Block. 

llhili. 

Ilh.li. 

Ilh.l.. 

Illnl<. 

Ilh.l,. 

iilid>. 

18R1 

8»,11T 

14,117 

11,400 

1889 

40,880 

Bl,'<80 

1,800 

1851 

18,106 

17,018 

,   1,400 

1888 

88,89(1 

47,190 

7,000 

ISAO 

11,740 

17,1.W 

190 

1887 

ai,7Ni 

41.  IM 

800 

I*W 

»«,4K) 

41,710 

,700 

1886 

4,Ms7 

41.7S7 

11,800 

1*48 

88,006 

19,066 

11,000 

18.16 

M,M9 

8H.M9 

»,000 

1847 

87,880 

68.880 

7,0IKI 

1H84 

69,480 

00.480 

11,000 

1H4« 

68,000 

68,600 

1,800 

1SS8 

60,800 

8l.;l(K) 

8,000 

I'MS 

60.IWO 

68,800 

8,000 

1881 

40,000 

87,000 

4,000 

1844 

49,1100 

6'*,6fl0 

6,000 

1881 

88.480 

8it.480 

14,000 

1M8 

U,100 

M,10lt 

14,000 

1880 

40,810 
Ao,8«IO 

44.S10 

11,000 

1*41 

64,000 

60,000 

14,000 

lf«10 

tVUiOO 

7,000 

1841 

84,7(10 

81,160 

14,000 

isia 

60,770 

61,170 

10,000 1 

1840 

61,900 

46,900 

9,800 

1 

Price!  of  Commoditiei,  Duty  paid  and  in  Bond,  Du- 
tut,  Tarei,  Commercial  Allowances,  etc. — Tlieu  Import- 
ant particulars  may  bo  loamed  by  the  inspection  of  the 
subjoined  price  current  for  the  2fith  of  May,  1853.  The 
duties  on  some  of  the  articles  mentioned  in  it  will, 
most  probably,  at  no  very  distant  period,  be  varied. 
But  the  other  particulars  embodied  in  it  will  always 
render  it  an  important  document. 

Duty  nUd. 
Fr.  cl.    Fr.   ct. 
Aibes,  per  tSO  kIL 

I'ot,  New  York 41    0— 4.1    0 

do.  Chu BR    0—88  in 

Fearl,  A  merino 4T    0—48    0 

Puty  on  nett  weight :  by  French  vessels  from  Eoropesn 
ports,  0  francs  90  cent. ;  flrom  elsewhere,  8  francs  16  cent. 
By  foreign  vessels,  11  firanes  66  oent.  See  exceptions  at 
Mote  A. 

Commerolal  and  eustom-hoase  tare  i  12  per  oent. 
Beeswax,  per  t  kU. 

North  American  yellow.  ...186—1    0       0    0—00 

WestlndUfalr 1  BO- 0    0       0    0—00 

lao- 1  76       0    0—0    0 


In  Bond. 
Fr.  el.    Fr.  el. 

0  0—0  0 
0  0—00 
0    0—0    0 


0  90—  1  16 
0  DO—  0  III 
0  80—  0  M 
0    0—00 


0—0 
0—  0 
0—  0 
0—  0 

1. 


1  in 

1    T 


0  B7—  0  TO 

0  nn—  0  60 

0  IW—  0  71 
0  60-  0  TO 
0  0—00 
0  0—00 
0  0—  0  0 
0  0—00 
0    o  <  0    0 


Duly  oa  peas  wslghl  i  ysllow,  by  rrsneb  vssssia  fhiu  Ea 
ropean  ports,  Bt  cant,  i   ftrsm  sIsawlMr*,  4  141  aenl.     ■•• 

NoU  A. 
l.'oromsreUl  lam  i  ri>sl. 

DMrPild.  h»MS. 

....  Fr.  cl.    Fr,  ct,       Fr.  cl.   Fr.  cl. 

(.nrnln«ai,  per  J  kll. 

•Ilrrr  (Tnm  ord.  to  Nne 0    Ol— 0    0       4  15—6    0 

hliM'k,  ditki 0    0—0    0       4  T»— 6  in 

Duty  im  nnlt  wsl|hl  i  by  Vrsnch  thhoIs  from  pUcaa  oiil 
•(f  ICiirapn,  17|  cent,  t  frnin  nlMwliiirs,  86  rititt.  Iiy  furi'lKH 
VMSt'la,  81)  cunt.     Hae  Nut*  A. 

(;ust<iin-houa«  Urg  i  In  casks,  11  p«r  csnt.  i  In  saroons,  1 
per  eant. 
ConKi'crclal  tarn  i  raal. 

Coeoe  L'arsccos,  par  )  kll 0    0—0    0 

Hk  nomlngt) 0    0—0    0 

Maranhaiii  and  Fare     by  a  French  vaaaal 

Maracallio 0    O— 0    0 

Duty  on  iicIt  walghl  t  by  French  vassals  from  the  French 
eolonlea,  H  rent,  i  from  countrlaa  west  of  l*apo  llurn,  17f 
cant.  I  from  Kuropaan  porta,  M^  canti  from  riaawhorn,  ItO| 
cant  Uy  furol^  vosaals  from  sny  port  wkalsvcr,  6T|.  Hec 
Note  A. 

Ouitom-bouss  tare  i  on  casks,  11  per  cent,  i  on  bags,  S  per 
cent 

('ommerclsl  tare  i  on  casks,  real  i  on  bags,  1  per  cent 
<'nfli>f,  per  i  kll. 

m    Domingo,  from  ordl-  loO-OO       06a_T0 

Torto  lllco 0 

llavann,  from  ord.  In  line..  0 
Ijigilyra  and  Port  Isabel. ...  0 

Klu,  unllnarr  <o  Hue 0 

Java 1 

l.'cylon,  native 1 

Do,  planUtlon I  11—  1  1« 

i'Adang  and  Humatra 1     T—  1  11 

Mocha 1  10—  1  116 

Duty  on  mtt  wnlglit :  by  French  vessels  from  the  l^st  In 
dies,  41  0-10  cent.  ;  from  Kuropnan  ports,  66  cent. ;  from 
cisvwhcrc,  81}  cent,  lly  forclipi  vcasels  from  any  port  what- 
ever, BT|  cent.    Heo  N.>te  A. 

Custom-house  tare :  on  casks,  11  per  oent  i  on  bags,  8  par 
cent. 

Cointnerrlal  tnru  :  on  caaks,  real ;  on  bags,  1  per  cent.  \  on 
Mocha  coffee  the  tare  runs  from  4)  to  Hi  kll.  upon  bales  of 
T6  to  100  kiln. 

Copper,  American,  t  kH 1  *!>—  I  ''8       0    0—00 

Huaalan  and  British 1  60— 1  66       0    0—00 

Duty  oil  groia  weight :  by  French  vossela  from  European 
ports,  1  1-10  cent ;  from  clHewhoro,  11-10  cent  Dy  foreign 
reasels  from  any  port  wtmt<;ver,  1  13-10  centa  (Deo  Excep- 
tions at  Note  A, 

Commercial  tare :  reuL 
Cotton,  per  i  kIL 

Upland OTT— ■!    0 

Mobile 0  TT—  1    0 

NewOrlesns OTT—  1    0 

Rea  Iiland 1  BO— 8    0 

I'omambuoo 1    0— 1  IB 

Duty  on  nett  weight:  on  long  or  short  staple,  by  French 
vessels  from  the  French  colonies,  1)  cent  i  from  Knropoan 
ports  (Turkey  excepted),  16)  cent :  from  the  East  Indies  and 
countries  beyond  Cape  Horn,  &|  cent ;  from  other  countries, 
11  cent .  lly  foreign  vcsseU  (except  from  Turkey),  19)  cunt. 
lly  French  vessels  from  Turkey,  8)  cent. ;  by  foreign  vus- 
icls  from  Turkey,  1.1  3-S  cent     See  Note  A. 

Cuatom-houw  tare  :  on  United  Stales'  eotton,  t  per  cent. : 
Brasll  cotton,  4  per  cunt ;  on  St  Domhigo,  In  bales,  6  per 
cent ;  on  Cumana  and  Caraccas,  T  kll.  per  leroon  above  40 
kll.,  and  6  kll.  per  seroon,  at  40  kll.  and  under. 

Draft :  1  kll.  on  Sea  Island  and  Bengal ;  3  per  cent  on 
Brazil ;  3  kll.  on  all  other  descriptions  In  bales  exceeding  60 
kll.,  and  U  kU.  upon  balea  under  60  kll. 
Flour,  American,  per  barrel ....  0    0 —  0    0 

anms,  Senegsl,  per  )  klL 0  80u- 0  90 

t^Gt  India,  copsl  scraped 0    0 

Shell-lac,  orange 0  66— Tl    0 

ditto.gamot 0  BO— TO    0 

dltto,fiver 0  BB— 68    0 

Duty  on  Senegal,  gross  weight  i  by  French  vessels  from 
Senegal,  6)  cent ;  from  European  ports,  IBf  cent ;  from 
elsewhere,  11  cent    Bytforolgn  vessels  from  any  port  what- 
ever, 16)  cent    See  Note  A. 
CommercUil  tare ;  on  casks,  real ;  on  bags,  1  per  cent. 
Duty  on  copal,  grou  weight  per  BO  kll. :  by  French  vessels 
from  the  East  Indies,  BB  cent ;  (Vom  olsewtacre,  11  ft'ancs.  By 
foreign  vessels  flrom  any  port  whatever,  16  flrancs  BO  cent. 
Bee  Note  A. 
Commercial  tare :  real. 
Duty  on  ihell-bc,  nett  weight !  bj  French  vesiols  from  tb« 


0  0—00 
0  0— 0  0 
0  0—00 
0  0—00 
0    0—00 


IT 

0—0 

0 

0 

(^-  0 

0 

0 

0—0 

0 

0 

0-0 

0 

0 

0—0 

0 

0 

0—  0 

0 

u\v 


9S5 


HAV 


0 
0 
0 

0 

0  0 
rcncli 
jpoin 

1  anil 
trloii, 
cunt. 

1  VCB* 

«nt. : 

per 

Te40 

It  on 

ng60 

.0    0 

.0  n 

,0  0 
rO  0 
.0  0 
.  0  0 
I  from 
I  from 
nrhat- 


loBBOU 

By 

I  cent. 


itbs 


■(Mt  IniflM,  VMiM  mhI.  I  frsm  tUrwhtm,  IH  nral,    Kr  f"' 

■Iflii  vhmkU  ttnm  Mif  pttt  •k»l«Tar,  «|  Mill.     Ha*  Nola  A. 

I'omiiiKri'lal  Ural  raal, 

IKii  ralil 
ft,  al,     rr.  al,       fr.  a«. 
IIM.'a,  |i»r  t  I'll- 

Miii<iii>t.ArrMiiiuiii>></'  0  *l^  "loo 


In  ll«ii«1. 

r>. 


MiiKiiit  ArrMiiii!...!....  0  MV-.  man 
I'nrnainbiim  MM  MkU,  I    n  m     n  an 


0—  » 
ft—  0 


Hill  .laiialrn.,.,., ft  IM     0  TD       0    ft— II    0 

I'trihaiiMia  anil  raramma...  fl  M- ')  TO       n    i»^  n    o 

v..*  iirlaana,  arat  •allml,   ,.  0  n       n    it  .  il    0 

llui|r  >in  vriHH  wkIkIiIi  hr  I'i'ani'h  rraarla  frmn  r.iirnpaan 
nirla,  l)t  'aiil.  I  friiin  alMwfiara  1|  aaiil.  Iljr  ftiralin  raaaala 
rmm  aR|r  pari  whalavar,  n\  aatiL     Man  Niila  A. 

PIva  bull  hlitaa  ara  ailnillli<4  aiiinn*  Inn  hlilaa  wUhoul  allow- 
atii'ii,  anil  I  kll,  la  allnwril  r>ir  ararf  liiill  hlita  alxira  tliat 
numliiir  In  lliu  aalanlnf  IK  i  »lian  mora  llinn  Itllhn  allowaiiao 
laaohilliliinal, 

llopa,  Aiiiarlaan,  IMI MM  mi— n    0       n    0- 0    n 

llnly  ml  nail  walKlill  iiy  li'rani'li  vaaaala  frnin  any  porl 
whalavnr,  lilt  fraiina  par  Ml  lill,  lly  rnrul^ii  raaaala,  DA  t-  nca 
It  aani.    Him  S.iln  A. 

Onminaralal  lara  i  nil  Imlaa,  f  par  aant. 
Iloraalialr  |wr  |  kll, 

lliiaiiiia  Ajiraa,  mliail fton     ollH      o   0— ft   o 

iiiiiau , n  n     II  0—  ft  II 

liiily  ml  ariiMi  waltflil  i  Uf  frutiah  VMaalit  M-lOO  emi.    Ilr 

llirnlilii  vuaaiila,  •t\  aaiil,     Ha*  Niita  Ai 

I'lininiiirnUI  lara  i  raal, 

Inillirii,  piir  I  kll, 

llaiilial ft    ft->  ft    n 

aiiparllna  vlulnl  *n4  bliia.ll  Un— II  Ml 

aiiii'itiia  rliilal  aiiil  uiirp,,lfl  W  -In  M) 
a..'..  ..I..I..* 1 r.    r      ,    -. 


Aiiu  vliiliit  anil  piirpia, 

Hiiiiit  vliilal 

inlililla  vIuIdIii,,  ,iiiii 

Una  rud.,,, n,, , 

tfiiiiil  rail ,, ,,  ),i, ,, 

Kniid  III  Alia  i>n|ipar  , . ,  . 
nrillnary  lii  Inir  aiippar, 

Jara , 

Xiirpali II I II i<   I 

Mulru    ,,,,,, ,,,,. 

Manlllii ,,, 

(laraniiaa  , , , . , , ,  ■ ,  1 1 1     , , 
(liialuiiiala  Hnra*,,  m,,,, 

aiiliru  wllaiita,, , 

ourtaa. , , , , , 

ordliiar)! aii4  luw,. 


II  Tft-IO  ft 
»  Ifu-v  m 
1  \k—  H   n 

,  n  To~  n  II 
t   ft-  T  III 

,  «  lit—  A  TB 
(I  Mt-  ftilft 

I  T    ft  -II  in 

,  n  ft—  a  ft 
4  Ml  ft  Tn 
4   lu.  A  nn 

,4  Ol-  T  II 
»  TfV-  T  W 
A  W  -  A  Bft 
N    ft   .  A  Tit 

,  4  «n  -  4  Tft 


ft—  ft 
ft-  0 
0-  ft 

n—  ft 
ft—  ft 
0  -  ft 
ft—  ft 
0-  ft 
ft—  ft 

0—  0 

ftl^'o 
ft—  ft 
ft—  ft 
n^  0 
ft—  ft 
ft—  n 

ft—  0 


erdo. 

■ 

(l-MW) 

B4 

0-84  60 

«—  ft 

ft 

11.1 

0— .14 

0 

ft-ft 

0 

lift 

ft— :i'2 

0 

0— ft 

0 

III 

ft— M 

n 

0—  ft 

ft 

lis 

()—  ft 

ft 

0—0 

0 

t» 

II— 111 

0 

0—0 

ft 

w 

ft— S8 

II 

0-  0 

1) 

!i» 

0— M 

0 

Iiiiljr  on  iinll  traltflil  I  hy  Kranoli  riiaiala  from  placaa  of 
growth  out  u(  Ki|rii|i<ii  HI  aniit,  i  frniii  Kiimpnan  porta,  1  franc 
M  Clint.  I  from  MaiillU  iHrant,  IH  amti  rrnin  iilaowlirre,  1 
frano  10  noiit,  ll»  furaluu  vnaaala  frmn  any  port  wliatetcr, 
9  franca  'iO  cunt,    Mm.  KimnipllniM  nt  Nntn  A. 

(Jiintoinlioiiaii  lara  I  nil  I'llaala,  iiaaha,  and  aiTonna,  real,  or 
at  lliii  opilun  of  lli»  linpiirtiir,  III  par  i<ntil,  mi  clicata  or  caaki, 
and  I)  per  emit,  on  auriiiiiiai 

t.'onimarclHl  lara  I  nil  aaaka  or  alicata,  real  i  nn  aaroona  of 
100  In  110  ktl.,  II  kll.  I  iin  dill  iif  Nfl  III  Pft  kll.,  Ift  kll.  i  on  do. 
of  Tft  to  84  kll,,  U  kll,  I  nil  An,  iif  Ml  tn  All  kll,,  T  kl'  Allow- 
ancii,  I  kll.  par  aliual, 
I.«c-dyK,  par  i  kll H    ft.^  11  10       ft    ■>  .  '■    o 

Duly  on  Halt  woIkIiI  i  liy  l^nmuli  iwnapli  from  ■..  ';ujt 
Indlea,  1 11}  cunt,  i  frmii  alanwliurn,  41 1  cniil.  Ily  fornlgii  rcnacla 
from  any  port  wliiilavur,  N)  imiil,    Hm  K«iiiiplloni  at  Note  A. 

CoiiiniiircUl  and  miaininlimiaa  tarn  i  real, 

Lead,  Aimrlean,  iii-r  lift  kll, , , , , ,  «    ft—  ft    0 

BpanUli  aii.l  llrlilali W    ft  -M    '        ft    ft— o    0 

Duty  oil  uroa*  wbIkIiI  i  liy  kraiiiili  »ii»»cIb  from  any  port 
whatever,  I  franca  TB  a«nt,  Ily  fHraliili  *.i«cla,  0  franca  85 
eent.     S«e  Rota  A, 

Pepper,  IlKht,  par  t  kll «  T8-- 0  tfl       0    ft- ft    ft 

halfli  ayy 0  T«  -  0  Aft       0    0— ft    0 

Duty  u.i  nnit  weight  I  liy  ll'raiHili  vcmcla  from  the  Ii^aat 
Indlea,  and  from  iiniiiilrtaa  woat  of  tlopa  Horn,  M  cent! 
from  claowhere,  44  iiuiita,  Hy  fnrnlKii  vitMHila  from  any  port 
whateyer,  ftT)  i;uiit,     Hea  Nnln  A, 

Ouatom-houaij  tare  i  oil  lwi|a,  A  par  wtil. 

ComiiiercUl  Ura  i  on  aliiKlK  liaita,  I  par  cent, 
riroimto,  oar  1  kll, 

.lamaloa ,,, ,,  I)    ft-,  ft    ft       0  Tft— .  0  TB 

ToUgo ,,0    ll-^inM       0B4— 0    0 

Duty  I  by  Freiuili  ▼eaaal*  Oiim  Ibn  Kaal  tnaie),  and  from 
eoiinlrioa  wuat  of  tlapa  Ham,  I4|  lm^.  |  from  elaewhere,  49+ 
cent.    By  foreign  vuaaala,  Afli  unt. 

Tarca  :  aa  fur  pepper, 
Quercitron,  Iter  BO  kll, 

Philadelphia, Jaliwrt,.,,,,, 11  (lft-)4«0       ft    0_  o    0 
Baltimore 1«  B«=^ll    0  0 

Duty  on  groM  weight  i  by  Vtmuih  vawMl*  from  Buropom 


porta,  A  franea  M  cant  i  fmrn  other  munlrlaa,  I  frtna*  W 
rnni.  Ily  foreign  raaaala  from  any  porl  wbatanr,  4  franta 
IMV  r«iit.      Nca  Note  A. 

Commarelal  tare  i  IK  par  cent  on  caakai  I  par  aanl.  on 
baga, 

lliilr  fM.  >a  ■«i>4. 

rr.  .1.    n.  a).        rr.  al.    ^t.  al. 

Qulekallrar,  par  )  kit ft    ft-  ft    0 

llnly  on  groaa  wrighl  i  by  French  yiiaaela  from  any  porl 
whateTcr,  1 1  cunt  i  by  foreign  Towela,  lH  lift  eenta,  Ihia  Kx- 
eeptlona  al  Nnta  A. 

INinimarclal  tarai  real.     , 
HIcc,  Carolina,  ISM,  par  Aft  kll.  .lA  BO— .11  BA       ft    0-  0    0 

ihmgal,  white IB    0— 1«  VA       0    0-00 

Duly  on  groaa  weight  i  firam  IndU,  by  French  Tcaaala,  i 
cent ;  by  foreign  vcaaela,  4  franca  Wi  cent  i  from  elaewhere 
out  of  F.iiropa,  I  franc  AT^  cunt,  i  fToin  Kuropean  porta,  U 
franea  BO  cent 

Commercial  Uri  I  tl  par  eant  on  oaaka,  and  1  per  oent  on 
baga.  • 

Baltnetrc,  F.  t.,  per  BO  kll f>    0- ft    0      IW    ft— AT    ft 

Nllrala  of  aoda ft    1^-0    0      S«  BB— '.'A    ft 

Duty  on  groaa  weight  i  by  French  veaacla  from  Kaat  Indlea 
or  the  Mouth  H  ",a,  65  cent  i  from  Kuropean  porta,  11  ct-.nt, 
Uy  foreign  reaai^la  from  any  porl  whaterer,  U  franca  7B  cent,  i 
by  foreign  Tefii  la  from  counlrlca  out  of  Kurope,  4  frmica  I'J) 
cant 

('omnieri'Ul  tare  :  A  kll.  per  double  b  \^^  of  the  niatomary 
form,  for  a,  .  .  etre.  For  ii'  >a  of  aoda.  'J  per  cent,  and  J 
per  eant.  allowance  for  dam    i.u  of  baga. 

HVIna,  deer,  each 00— Oft       fto_ft0 

Duty  per  Bii  kll.  on  .  -'>v^  ir.  ighl:  by  French  vcaaela  from 
any  port  whatever,  BC,  '-^ul  Uy  foreign  veaaela,  U0{  cent 
Hi'o  Note  A. 

Hpellcr,  p,"  BO  kll. 18 

Duty  11'  ,  ,.    .   rolghti  5|  cent*.  perBO  , 
Sugar,  |H    Ml  kii 

Miirt   nnd  (l.'..d.  bonne  4o.  .60 

lUvu  a,  whits 0 

yellow 0 

brown 0 

Porto  nico,  Cuba  b.  4o ft 

Uraill,  whito ft 

brown  and  yellow 0 

Manilla 0 

Duty  on  nctt  weight!  foreign  augara  by  French  veaacli 
from  the  KaHt  Indlna  almvo  typo,  81  franca  ItB  cent. ;  at  and 
under  typ,  20  franca  TO  cent  i  from  Kuropean  porta,  H 
franca  ltd  i  -nt.  more!  from  elaewhere,  above  the  typo,  1)8 
fruiicai  at  and  under  type,  81  franca  it>  cent  per  BO  kll.  IOe. 
ituiuded.  By  foreign  veaacla  above  type,  41  frnnca  SB  cent ! 
at  and  under  typo,  80  franca  0  cent ;  from  everywhere,  per 
BO  klL,  lOe  Included. 

Cu^tom-huuae  tare !  on  cheata,  12  per  cent,  i  on  alnglo  baga, 
2  per  cent :  on  double  baga,  4  per  cent 

Commercial  tare :  Havana  and  8t  Yago  cheata,  13  per 
cent. ;  Braitl,  IB  per  cent  i  on  caaka,  IB  per  eent ;  tiercea, 
A  per  cint :  barrela,  10  per  cent  i  2  per  cent  on  Uracil,  and  B 
per  cent  on  Manilla  baga. 

TuUow,  Rnialan,  per  BO  kU OO    0—64    0       ft    ft- 0    0 

New  York 0    0—00 

PlaU m    0— «0    0       0    0—0    0 

Duty  on  groaa  weight :  by  French  veoaels  from  any  port 
whatever,  11  franca.  Uy  foreign  voasela,  14  franca  30  cent 
Oee  Note  A. 

Commercial  tare :  12  per  oent 
Tom  Japontca,  per  BO  kll. 

brown 4A    0-60    0       0    0—0    0 

yellow 40    0— BO    0       0    ft- 0    0 

Duty  on  groaa  weight :  by  French  voaaelB  from  East  Indies, 
B^  cent  i  from  Kuropean  porta,  10  franca  80  cent ;  ttom  elae- 
where, 12  1-10,    By  foreign  veaacla,  2'i  cent    See  Note  A. 
Commercial  tare !  real. 

Te**,  Imperial,  per  t  kll 0    0—0 

Ounpowder ft    0—0 

Hyaon 0    0—0 

YoungHyaon 0    0—0 

Ilyaonakln 0    0—0 

Pokoe ft    0—0 

Bouehong U 

Pouohong 0 

Duty  on  nott  weight :  by  French  veaacla  from  the  Eaat 
Indlea,  824  eent. !  from  China,  66  cent :  from  elaewhere,  2 
franca  TB  cent  By  other  veaacla  from  any  port  whatever,  3 
franca  30  cent    See  Note  A, 

Cuatom-houae  and  commercial  tare :  real. 
Tln,atraltandbanca,p.B0kU.110    0—122  BO       0    0—00 

Brltlah IIB    0—120    0  

Bonth  American 100    0—110    0  

Duty  on  groaa  weight !  by  Frencb  veeieli)  ttom  th«  E«al 


0—4 
0—0 


2  10—  B  BO 
2  0—  B  60 
a  0— B  0 
1  0—  2  60 
1  80—  2  60 
S  6ft—  8  0 
1  25—4  BO 
10—20 


HAW 


058 


HAY 


Indlci,  6^  eent  i  from  olMwhara,  1  flniM  10  omi  Bjr  fonlga 
TciMla  ftrom  Rny,port  wlmtonr,  9  fnnet  SO  WBt  par,  8U  kU. 
See  Ezcepllona  at  Noto  A. 
Commerelal  tare  i  on  CMka,  reaL 

Diiljp  I'alil,  In  ll<iii(l, 

fr,  •!,    Kr,  (I,      rr,  M,   rr.  il. 
Whaleboiu,  per  i  kU. 

South 9i^-i\1      0    0>-0    0 

Polar  and  north-woat 9  fiT— il  DO       0    0—00 

Duty  on  groaa  weight  i  liy  Froneli  riiMiila  from  nnjr  port 
whateTor,  10^  cent.    Ily  forulnii  riiwiila,  lUt  eaaU 
Commcroial  tare  i  roal.    Allowanov,  U  per  cent,  on  ilulii. 

Wooda,  per  fiO  klL 

Logwood,  (JampMOllT 10    0— 10  M       0    0—00 

Ilonduraa T  M^  0    0       0    0—0    0 

St.  Domingo «  SOl.  T  00       0    0—00 

Fuallc  Cuba »    0—19    0       0    0—00 

Cartlingenit 0  BO— T  M       0    0—00 

Sta.  Martha 1«    0~m    0       0    0—0    0 

*         Pomambnco HO    0— TB    0       0    0—00 

Jacaranda 0    0—0    0       0    0—0    0 

Dntjr  on  groaa  weight  i  nraall,  hy  Frennh  tmmI*  fTnm  Kii- 
ropean  porta,  4  franca  OB  emit,  i  from  olpwwhcre,  il  franca  IS 
eent  By  foreign  Tonicli,  0  franca  AO  cent.  Other  dyo-woodi 
by  French  veaada  from  the  French  colonint,  44  cent. )  from 
European  porta,  2  franca  TB  cent,  i  from  olaiiwhore,  HH  cent. 
By  foreign  vcaicla,  8  franca  80  cent.  See  Nolo  A.  Allowance, 
1  to  2  per  cent 

ExTLANATonT  RniASKa.— The  nbOTC  diitlca  Include  the 
■nrtax  of  10  per  cent,  i  the  cnatom-hoiian  adnilti  tho  ronl  tare 
vhcnerer  the  Importer  deairea  it, 

iV'ofe  A The  treatiea  of  reciprocity  entered  Intn  with  the 

eountrioa  hereafter  mentioned,  intrudum  tho  following  do- 
Tlatlona  Trom  the  aljovu  ratea  of  duty  i 

ITnited  Stateii.—T\n>  produce)  of  tho  United  Htatea,  except 
that  of  tho  flaherlea,  direct  from  the  ITnlled  Stale*  In  t'nited 
States'  TCBsela,  paya  the  aauiu  duty  aa  If  Imporlfld  by  Fraoch 
Teaeela  from  the  United  State*. 

Bmzila  and  Afcafco.— The  prodnee  of  the  llraislli  and  Mex- 
ico, Imported  direct  In  national  veaaela,  iinjoya  nlao  the  above 
privilege. 

SngUmd.—'Ttia  produce  of  Africa,  Aula,  or  America,  Ini- 
portod  from  any  country  whatever  in  Dritlah  voaMiia,  or  from 
uiyportofthoBrltlah  dorolnloiialn  Kiimiw  nllher  In  Frpniih 
or  foreign  Tcaaola  can  only  b«  adraittod  In  Iwnd  for  re-export- 
ntlon. 

The  aame  regulation  la  applicable  lu  all  Ktiropnan  prodnoe 
(except  that  of  Oreat  Urilain  and  II*  poaaaBHloni  In  Europe) 
Imported  by  BritUb  veaaela  from  otiiar  port*  than  Uio*e  of 
Oreat  Britain  or  it*  poaaomiona  In  Kurope, 

The  weight  of  60  kilogramme*  I*  eiiiwl  to  110)  pound*  En- 
glish, or  100  pounds  Engliah  are  i»|iml  l»  in  Hfi-\n»  kllogram- 
moa,  and  the  cwt  equal  to  BO  TV-IMi  kllogranimi  a, 

Cr«(lt7.^Four  and  a  half  month*,  uxceptinn  enlTe. ,  pi- 
mento, peppera,  qulckatlvar,  attd  rUyed  tugnra,  whieh  are 
■old  at  H  moBtha,  rnd  wheat  at  'H  month*. 

CMtiO,  and  plaeu  beHotul  Iht  Numta  Itlanit Alt  natural 

produce,  r-igar  excepted,  ImixirUid  direct,  by  French  vecmda, 
from  countrlea  situatod  boyiuul  the  Strait*  and  the  Hunda 
lalands,  either  to  the  north  of  the  lid  degriio  of  northern  iutl- 
tndc,  OT  to  tho  eoat  ol  the  IflOlh  dagrcin  iif  malem  longitude, 
U  admlttod  at  four  fiftha  of  tho  lowest  rate*  of  duty  of  tlie 
tariff,  the  French  adoniol  duty  alone  exoaptej, 

Hawkem  and  PedtlUeri.  li  la  imt  vor}'  sakv 
to  distinguish  Ut .  een  hawker*  and  |i«i1(llerii,  ButU 
•re  a  ^ort  of  Itinerant  retail  dealer*,  who  carry 
about  their  wares  from  place  to  place  |  but  the  former 
are  supposed  to  entry  on  Iwilnoaa  on  «  larger  ecale 
than  the  btter. 

HB^*rse,  The  part  of  the  Imw*  cln«n  to  the  raldrs. 
The  cableg  pass  through  the  hawii'-Mni  which  are 
made  in  the  tlmben,  and  In  tlie  hau'ti>-iHfCi>  outalde. 
When  the  ship  haa  two  anchor*  down,  and  the  caliloa 
diverge  from  each  other,  the  hawse  I*  *ald  to  h«  dear 
when  crossed  by  the  ship  turning  half  niiind,  there  la  a 
erou  in  the  hawse.  Another  cruts  niaktm  an  flbme  /  then 
8  round  turn :  in  the  lost  two  itaae*  tli«  Imwae  In  said 
to  be  foul.  The  prooeea  of  disengaging  the  rabln  I* 
called  clearing  hawit.  The  danger  of  a  foul  hnwie 
Is,  that  if  it  comes  on  to  Mow  tho  cable*  can  not  he 
veered  from  their  friction  agnlnat  ea<'ti  other.  This 
term  also  denotes  any  small  distance  o-heod  of  a  ship, 
or  between  her  head  ami  the  anchors,  employed  to 
rids  her ;  as,  a  reseel  *ails  athwart  the  hawse,  or  an- 
otioii  in  the  hawse  of  anotiier  v«sm1. 


Freihemnff  haten  Is  veering  out  a  little  cabR  to  ex> 
pose  a  new  surface  to  the  iHction  in  the  hawse-hole,  or 
across  the  cutwater. 

Athwart  hawie  implies  across  the  bows  of  a  vessel  at 
anch:  r. 

BaWM-holea,  the  holes  in  the  bows  of  a  ship  on 
each  side  of  the  Bt4>m,  through  which  the  cables  pa8<i. 

Hawser,  a  large  rope,  intormediuto  between  the 
cable  II  id  tmi>4ine  of  tho  ship  to  which  It  belongs.  It 
is  used  for  various  purposes,  as  warphig  for  a  spring, 
etc. 

Hay  (Ger.  /Tew;  Du.  Homf  Fr.  Foin;  It.  Fimo; 
8p.  Ileno;  Let.  Fanutni),  any  kind  of  grass,  cut  and 
dried  for  the  food  of  cattle.  The  great  object  in  pre- 
piirlng  grass  for  hay  is  to  preserve  the  green  color  of 
the  grass  as  much  as  possible,  and  to  have  It  juicy, 
fresh,  and  free  from  all  sorts  of  mustlness.  The  hay 
and  fotlder  crops,  including  the  dried  blades,  shucks, 
and  tops  of  Indian  com,  as  well  as  of  the  succulent 
com  plants  and  other  green  forage,  cultivated  solely 
for  soiling,  or  for  drying  into  fodder,  chopped  straw, 
the  hatdm  of  beann,  peas,  potatoes,  etc,  which  are  by 
no  means  inconsiderable,  are  far  the  most  valuable  of 
nny  in  the  United  States.  The  culture  of  hay  Is  at 
present  principally  confined  to  the  eastern,  middle, 
and  western  States,  from  which  the  southern  markets 
are  mainly  supplied  in  the  form  of  pressed  packages  or 
bales.  In  the  earlier  settlement  of  the  Atlantic  States 
north  of  Virginia,  the  cattle  of  the  inhabitants  >s-ero 
chiefly  dependent  upon  the  wild,  indigenous  grasses — 
such  as  the  white  clover,  herd's  grass  (red  top),  wire 
gross,  Indian  gross  (andropogan),  and  the  coarser  harlj- 
age  of  salt  marsheE,  beaver  meadows,  and  other 
swampy  grounds.  In  the  middle  and  southern  col- 
onies they  foraged  upon  the  v> '1  herlwge  of  the  coun- 
try, In  tlie  same  manner  as  the  existing  cattle  do  on 
the  buft'ulo  grass  of  Louisiona,  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
etc,  OS  well  as  on  the  leaves  boughs,  and  fruit  of  trees. 
The  princlpol  indigenous  grosses  which  have  been  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  In  tho  United  States  arc — the  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass,  the  red  top  (herd's  gross  of  Penn- 
sylvania), the  white  clover,  and  the  fowl  meadow  (or 
bird  gross),  the  latter  of  which  formerly  (rrew  in  abund- 
ance around  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  was  much  rel- 
ished by  tho  cows,  horses,  hogs,  and  goats  of  tho  eorly 
settlors,  and  upon  which  they  thrived. 

Pboddction  of  Hat  ik  tub  UsrrBD  States. 


Alabama. 

Arkansas 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massaohusotts.  — 

Mlcldznn 

Missouri 

Now  Hampshire... 

Now  .(«  rf.oy 

Now  Yiirk 

North  CarollDs — 

Ohio 

Ponnsylvania 

Itlmie  Island 

South  (iarollna. . . . 

Tennessee 

Vorinout 

Virginia. 

Wiaconsln 

ToUI 


CloTur 
■rgd. 


Bushftlfl, 

188 

90 

18,841 


468,875 


Other     1 
leedi.     I 


H.y. 


ISM. 


Uushrli. 

MT 
486 


2,629 

1,408 

2 

428 

182 

8,427 

14,830 

18,820 

11,951 

842 

9,098 

8,280 

21,481 

2 

97 

9,097 

9,214 

16,217 

2,661 

1,002 

6,0S6 

16,»8» 

9,285 

619 

4,846 

829 

8,071 

•is.aso 

e»fs,\ 

8S,222 

96,498 

B7« 

1,276 

108,197 

87,810 

125,080 

63,918 

1,828 

8,708 

876 

80 

^096 

9,118 

760 

14,986 

2»,r«7 

98.428 

438 

6,008 

Tout, 

82,685 

8,976 

616,131 

80,159 
2,510 

28,449 
601,95» 
408,280 

89,056 
118,747 

26,752- 

756,889 

167,056 

651,807 

40i,9S4 

116,925 

6»8,S54 

435,950 

8,728,797 

146,658 

1,448,142 

l,8t2,970 

74418 

20,926 

74,091 
866,158 
869,098 
275,662 


IMO. 


416,978  ,18,805,870 


12,718 

6S6 

420,7114 

22,4S8 

1,197 

16,(170 

164,932 

178,029 

17,958 

21.1161 

6'J!,.S,'S8 

106,687 

569,895 

180,805 

49,IIS3 

496,107 

884,661 

8,127,047 

101,869 

1,022,087 

1,811,648 

68,449 

24,618 

81,233 

886,789 

864,708 

80,988 

10,248,606  I 


Among  the  foreign  cultivated  grasses  In  this  coun- 
try, the  Timothy  (herd's  grass  of  New  England), 


HAY 


'•nkg  preeminent.    It  ig  g»id  ♦„  i. 
name  Of  TimotKyttom  ifa  Zt  ^t^^"  ^^^"^^  ">« 
land,  Mr.  Timothy  Han^^n     , ', j""^!'^^' into  Mao- 
and  is  cultivated  MTfavorit,,''«""^''°^E»8"''nd, 
Parta  of  northern  EuroLrh'"  J"  .^'^'«'<'n  »»<!  othe^ 
vatiou,  among  our  forC  crol  „;?  f  •''*"'  o'^"'"- 
commonred  clover  i^.h"'^  °^  *""'«»  <"i«in,  ta  the 
»?  dUigently  oultKt'aU  lit  ""'""'"^'^rand 
o«e  periodof  it,  IntrodueUonis^f  ■.'"""■'•     '^''o  P"- 
anthority  of  Wat«,n,  in  C".  a"°'  f"","? '  but,  on  the 
John  Bartram  W  flrids  of  ^n,f ''°/^^"'^<"P''i8," 
Bevolutioni  and,  accordnK  to  tt?„'''''A"'«ri«an 
ton,  It  wn,  introduced  into  5enLi      u-'"'"™  ''""ng- 
ter  county,  Pennsylv^t^r™  """'^"""n  in  Chet 
and  1800.     ft,  congener  ;h.''"?  '''«  J-^*™  "90 
U.digenous  or  natuSS  in  £?•"'"«.  ^W**  "'"v^ 
cultivated  in  themiddle-nJ       TP*'  '»  oxtansivelv 
ported  seed.     The  other  Eut"^^"'"'"'  ^*'-"-'^  fromfm^. 
been  0  ,y  partially  St^&^^^fr*-  '^'•ich  have 
which  have  met  ^th  W  a«  ?^  'his  country,  and 
ehard  grass,  and  the  peren^K   '='^'"^'°<".  or  or. 
affords  a  tolerably  good  d«s^^«      ^  ^^"^     ^he  latter 
Bward  for  a  J-ard  or K'  but'  ,"^''  """'r  "  '"""'"me 
Wit  is  regarded  as  taferW  iS? :""^°^ 8"""  ^or 
preceding.     According  t;  the  ee„1.1    '  .'"  ""^  "'  "'« 
the  hay  crop  of  the  j^    od  C      "■*'«»»  »f  1840, 
tons;  of  I860  la  bm  k-A  States  was  10  248ina 

8,5^470  S.  '•'''•'"'  "•"«'  "howing  an  inc;!^''^'^ 

one  of  the  larm../  ?,^  ^*>mlngo,  orHlBnanlni- 


967 


HAY 


Wds,- a;r  err  °^  '^"™s 

miles,  andin  breafthfroXt^J^n"'.'  *"  ^''*-  «90 
N,twee„  lat.  17°  87'and  ?OOo'  Jf    ai^ll'^"'.^  ''"""«'' 
MI  M     ?''  '*    28'  W.     It  V  ^:i,""^^^«'«'een  long. 
Highland  country  bv  th»  „  *•      ""^"^  ^ayti,  or  the 
-f  which  it  alSin/s,"es;  Xin'r  "»«  -"-ntalns 
The  country  was  form'erif  dWdK'  "*""'.'"  ?"«• 
tords,  who  were  the  earliest  F„!        ''''*^"  '''^  Spw- 
the  French.    The  line  of  II^*'"'  colonists,  and 
these  two  divisions  coJm.nT,"""*"'  ^'"«'>  «eparat^ 
the  Pedernales  or  FlTn" Sl^d  ""!  ""J""  ^'^^  '^m 
fa«  direction  to  the  RiverM^.       ^""^^^^  in  a  wav. 
The  countiy  to  the  welt  of  f ^-    ff  ""  "'"'  ""^h  side 
f^'onch,  while  that  on^rh         ""'  ""«  helonged  to  th. 
part  of  the  island      8?^^;""  '°™""'  *^«  SP«»i«h 
ooun  ,y  was  in  the  pofsession  nfilf' ."  P""'""  "^  the 
divlsjon  being  reckoW  220  Jf    •'  ??"'""''« ;  their 
breadth,  of  which,  though  a  cTn,^ '"  1°«*''  "^120  i" 
of  mountains,  these  are  fald\„  k  "^f/^ble  part  consists 
W.ty  to  the  champaZ  eou°^     ".'  '"'""'"■■"  ^ 
eapable  of  cultivation      d^'  """^  *°  be  equallv 
extrenjei,.  irregnU^fi'lJ''''^"?"!' division  isV"^ 

trated  by  theGulf  of  G^Ve^V-"".''  '"  '^'^P'rpenJ^ 
ni'les  in  length  whil.  i  fv' """^  "  in  >ome  nartriTn 
nearly  of  thrme"a-:f««  i'  ".?'  ««     "  i» 

A  great  part  of  the  coast  of  th,  ??"''''  ^'^i«ion. 
dangerous,  affording  b«  »„  ii  i?  "'"'"' "  «>cky  and 
overtaken  by  "toHnlsC^Ptf^' 'belter  '"Vessels 
tho  southern  shore  are  notMni  *  »bipping.p,ace,  on 
which  lio  exposed  to  the  "  „!!?  "T  than  open  bays 
autumnal  months.  The  h '  k  '  T^  hurricanes  of  the 
erly  thought  so  comm^ioS^dlf'"'  \°^^Soto^- 
•hallcw  to  admit  vessel   of  lari^"!!' '""  ''«'«°'"e  too 

the  Bays  of  Neyba  and  fW.  7*'"'  «■»«»  harbors 

former  flows  thj  Bi^er  myba^^^'fi'  """V     ^nto  the 

gmdually  wldem.toneariys^  leagnes  across,  and  it 
«>"  bay  is  the  safe  and  -.        •  °"  'be  east  side  of 
On  the  ''outh.ea.Zoi"'l,fP'«"''"»  Port  of  C8,de« 
*hich,  in  point  of  ,i::ia^,  J«  ^t  B»y  0'  SamanT; 
taportaat  on  the  U^"  S^"""' «  ""e  of  the  most 

*'*P*  Safflwl,  which 


fc^rtroTpoS^-liSlTlrr  '"'"'beBayo, 
of  Samana,  the  dC^  f' 1  ?« ^^huid  or  peniSru^i 

by  bulwarks  of  rocks^aVand  U ''  ""^'^  ^  «='<««»  ^ 
mg  left  clear,  with  a  s^e  a„d'dt"  "f""™  "'^J'  b^ 
the  shore  of  Samuia  and  wve '?^'^'"''  between 
This  bay  is  about  60  mUes  lon^^^ .  ^^^^"^^  i'iands. 
eveo'  side  by  a  fertilTcoVnti'  ^"^Jf  """o-nded  on 
poses  of  trade,  WithinVi,  ■* '  '""«d  to  all  the  nn, 
«-ts  might  .^.IcTfSrp^-f  this  4  K 
«'vor  Yuna,  alter  bclna.  iL     Perfect  security.     The 

m^indering 'through  th^rct^fni'^  '^\  ""^^^^  aJd 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  «L       P^"*  »'  La  Vega  Bea] 

100  mUes.     bZ  EcosslT  "^o"  »  «°""«  "^  nfaA 
fitnated  on  the  north  sTdeof'th/n^"-"''  >'  'hlTS 
s  a  dangerous  rocky  pWe      Th'^'°'"''' "^  Samana, 
the  coast  extends  about  60  mMT*  '"  ^'"«rto  Ph,S 
f  ection,  and  in  thfa^ace  stands  ^i'  """b-westerly 
has  only  U  feet  depth  of  water  Ih'-'^'T  ^"y-  »hich 
'gation.     The  harbor  of  pl^.-    «?    "  "^  ''''^^"It  nay. 
«rod  by  Columbus?  the  entrfn"  ^  ""  '"^  «"'  <i''"ov: 
andtheneighborho^i,riI'  "*=*  "  "»"»w,  but  safe 
trees     Thefe  ^  s^er"  roth^r  S  r ^  "' '^""- 
on  this  side  of  the  island  but  f^    "'^"  «"''  bays 
roc^y  and  dangerous         '      '  ""  '"'«'  *»  in  geneil 
Ha;iS:i^7-A  countiy  0^^^^^^^^  .,„^^ 

ie.vs  of  correspoadin<r  exten?^^"'''8''''"'ithval- 
great  variety  of  Jl'^  In^^t^^T'^'^^y  comprises 
t'le  m  the  highest  degree  S'      '''\.'"'  "  «  ^r- 
by  copious  streams,  aTyieS  ?^«T''''*"  '''"'•ined 
species  of  vegetable  Drn;i,,..,?.V''  "bundance  every 
to  the  luxuo-or  comfort  nf^'"''"''""»««tereith« 
Principally    •'f  a   riS,  If  "l""-  /"«  <^-^  consi,  a 
grave  ,  lyi„g  on  a  .ubstr^^i,  of  *""«'  ^""^  *ith 
the  island  formerly  occuS.v  f  h  ^-     ^^  P""  of 
a>nous,  but  fertile  and  well  t^ ',*""'''•  *' monnt- 
mmes  both  of  silver  and  'ron'^h'''"'"^  containing 
the  island  is  mountZli^^"    ^^  ^P^n^^h  part  of 
other  part,  the  cSSX  fa  ZZT  f^'  ''bile  in 
Plams.     These  are  genmUy^n      ."l!'  """  "'"^-^ve 
ered  with  herbage,  orS  wo^      .'"  of  nature,  coy- 
and  the  most  if^S'foS'  tr"''"*«  ^'"^^ 
tersect  the  island  in  two  n^w    ,   [*"  mountains  in- 
.«est.   From  these  econKnd      -•'"/"  ^™'"  """'  "» 
•rregularly  in  differpn?^'''^  ."^  P""*"*' ""idges  diverce 
and   fertU^e  "all  y^'-^uh  Tumr'  '"""'"«  "^^^^ 
highest  mountains  of  tl  1  •  'V"^«™'»  streams.      The 

Of  Cibao,  riser  toe  *hU°t  of "J-.r;'"'"'^'  '"0- 
level  of  the  sea.     To  the  nLh    f^..  '**'  "bove  the 
valley  called  Ve™  R,  1      ^"h  of  the  capital  is  thn 
far  thi;  ,arglt':n^S  St  i^^^'.^r'  "'"■''''  ^  t 
extends  to  the  old  French  «ne  of  H   ""•     ^^''''™^''  i' 
this  part  it  is  drained  by  the  rjv«,  r^'-''''''"'  "nd  in 
where  the  River  Yuna  flows  for  tb    ""'" '  ^  «''«  «"'t, 
't  projects  to  the  head  of  the  R»„   f e '"""O  ""H 
dramed  by  numerous  smaUer  ^7  "^  ^'"°"°"'  """i  ia 
■n  various  directions      TWs  valleT""'  r*"""  ""''  " 
tend  in  length  about  140  n.'i  ^  """^  bo  said  to  ex. 

to  30.     Other  pS  Z^f]'  ■""• '"  breadth  from^ 
fertility,  and  of  easy  acce'sf 'e ?'''''°',: ''"'  "^  ^^nai 
terspersed  among   the  1,',!*  ,     *'^'"''"" ''oand  in- 
ward  from  San  r)„mf„  ""ountalnous  tracts.      West 
isthevaUeyoftheR2'^,*"?"«  "■'  «°"">em  co.' 
to  Ocoa.    HemheZ[„^'";r:,rf"?'n«'-™mNii:!; 
■a  not  so  well  watered  a   in  theltJ.  '  •""  *'"  "Country 
and;  an  incovenience  whch^!"""'.P'"*'  of  the  isl- 
eattle  during  the  dry  months      F„"rth"^7''"  "^^  'be 
ward  and  to  the  north  otoervaHr "■  '",  ""'  ^«»'- 
»hore  the  land,  as  in  this  falL?  •  ^'  "'*  '"und ;  but 
"ected  by  range's  of  mountain,  fi  /'  .«^«'rwhere  inter- 
general  sketch,  to  descrirnarilli  ?Po.''»'ble,  in  any 
auccession  of  h  U  and  d«I„  Jf-  .."^.'"'j'  'bat  continma 
the  counto-.    Eastwarf  ^i^m  theT^t'  "^  "^"^^ 
mense  plaim,  called  Usnl^t    k?!.'*'  "«  "'"^e  Im. 
avast  extent  on.  dead  loXV.'"''  ""'^^  o"'  ^ 

'"^^ »-  «••  'y^  -Si.  Sa^j-X^ 


HAY 


988 


5AY 


wM«  M|MnM  «f  WAtiflff  gnm,  which  la  occasionaUy 
Hvitnitm  by  mttttml  (Itimp*  of  ahrahg.  These  plains 
oeeHpy  itimmt  mtt  Nhlh  pntt  ot  the  Island,  extending 
nmly  t9  it»  »#H«rn  imtt,  being  a  distance  of  mora 
tiMff  00  mtt**!,  hy  nUiut  m  wide.  They  form  an  im- 
mcns*  miuni  imiXUmf  mvertA  with  paatnre  for  vast 
bsrds  of  <!4ttl«  wbt«h  twlong  to  more  than  100  diffennt 
own«rti, 

C'Ufmlt,^^§»n  Vimingtt  has  a  hot  moist  climate, 
h»t  Um  Iwitt  it  mtti{|$«t<Mt  iiy  the  ref(ularity  of  the  sea- 
breeita,  iin4  l^y  tb«  ('(mtlgaity  nf  the  mountains.  In 
tb«  pMm  (ha  timm(mu<Ust  rises  to  96°,  sometimes  to 
00^,  bHt  fn  tlM  tnMltli«tfinfls  tracts  it  seldom  rises 
»l»ov«  1i^,  In  tiM  moH  elevated  part  a  fire  is  tre- 
<|ttenUy  tmmmry,  In  thone  sltnatlona  meat  may  be 
kspt  (t>r  mvuful  A»yit,  nni]  in  the  morning  hoar-frost  is 
freamnt.  'Hw  «<#«»«<(,  ns  in  tropical  countries,  are 
il(vM«4  teto  tlw  w«t  «tid  the  dry.  The  rains  are  peri- 
odleul,  (•n4  ftW  b#«*(i!rt  l«  May  and  .June,  when  the 
rivart,  wht«b  Hi  rrthsf  tlntes  scarcely  supply  water  for 
•  emittn^md  Hrnnm,  overflow  their  hanks,  and,  with 
an  fmp«tW>«M  Ummit,  sweep  over  the  neighboring 
pbiin»,  'flie  ^Um»t«  of  fian  Domingo  is  unhealthy  to 
mfitmma,  »«rlH(j  to  the  violent  heats  and  heavy  rains ; 
Bn4  Umiy  M  meifil.>,  h(rwover  bright  their  original 
polftb,  mon  ♦'ofltffk't  a  tarnished  appearance.  This  is 
mora  i)li«ar4'»ble  im  the  sea-coast,  which  is  also  more 
wnhanltby  tbMtt  the  interior  of  the  island.  Hurricanes 
»ra  »M)t  fre<]tnmt,  but  In  the  southern  parts  of  the 
i8Un4  ylfltant  K«len  of  wind,  generally  preceded  by  a 
cb>8ena9«  itnii  fiMltrfness  In  the  atmosphere,  frequently 
oamr,  Thai*  however  are  not  attended  with  such 
ht»i  a<(»iii  HH  the  llHlTlcAnes  in  the  Windward  Islands. 

ltimfii,~\'\w  ("bind  ii(  llaytl  almunds  in  rivers  and 
smuUer  *ttmm<>,  wbb'h  f(»w  ffwn  the  raotmtains  in  the 
(ntarlor,  in  4lff#faHt  difectlons,  to  the  sea.  Of  these  the 
pr|)u.>ip«t  »t»  ttle  Ifaina,  the  Mgua,  the  Nizao,  the 
07.mm,  tlw  Kaybft,  the  Ocoa.  the  Vane,  and  the  Santia- 
go or  Bivar  nt  mmU  (^f l»tl,  Nflar  tlie  south  part  of 
the  Vf»m\i  Jina  of  demarcation  Is  the  beautiful  Lake  of 
||8nrij)Hilb),  wl»i<!H  lit  slmnt  00  miles  in  circumference ; 
and  tiwnfiH  it  in  (tbwnt  tfi  miles  from  the  sea,  its  wr.i  jr 
is  \Mfkal\y  MJt,  snd  «(f  the  same  specific  gravi  \-  . 
tbMt  of  the  rt««#n,  'fife  same  fishes  are  also  found  ii;  it, 
»wh  m  tba  Amtk,  seal,  pofMHse,  etc. 

Vtffetuljk  Pmlucitmt^he  fertile  soil  of  Ilaj-ti  U 
distiugMi«t)84  \)y  the  variety  of  its  vegetable  produc- 
tions, mimy  of  wbit^h  are  ritte  and  valuable.  The  ma- 
i$ogmy4r»»  gritwn  t<»  a  great  she,  and  is  of  very  fine 
quality,  'flta  tnftni'hineel-tree  affords  a  l)eautifnl  spe- 
cial of  ,70(4.  fi4'My  veined  like  marble,  and  snscept- 
ibla  of  tlia  (inast  IKftisll.  Several  species  of  dye-woods 
ara  ptD^mM  in  tne  forests.  There  is  a  tree  called  the 
j»g'«,  tita  frnlt  <if  which  Is  accounted  a  delicacy  by 
(ha  o«tiva«  i  HttA  uf  which  the  juice,  as  clear  as  water, 
m»l>««  •  i(j»in  on  linen  which  is  indeiilile.  Different 
kin4«  of  amimum  are  found,  as  also  of  several  other 
woods  miii  tlia  »»n,«  tufopertles,  which  grow  nnno- 
nA  ^nA  »#nialeS3  In  those  Uhexpiored  forests.  The 
^.ii>ro%yUm  m irmuwimi,  remarkable  for  hardness,  as 
ita  mmn  im|ilia<!,  i«  abwndntit )  and  the  oak  also,  which 
diAtra  in  «|«(ia«f#n*e  fnim  the  European  oak,  frequent- 
ly fMrniiltaa  Manis  of  from  80  to  70  feet  in  length. 
On  tUa  noftt*  »i/le  of  the  Island  are  extensive  forests 
of  nioa,  wbi«.'|(  l*  ntttcb  used  for  the  purposes  of  ship- 
liUlldiHKt  »n4  Kraxft'WiiiOfI  Is  found  on  many  parts  of 
tlia  emut,  fim  Mtin^wood  of  this  island  is  heavier 
than  that  of  tba  tiast  tndle.4,  and  it  takes  so  fine  a  pol- 
ish tlMt  it  d<.«a  Wit  fe((i(lfe  to  lie  varnished.  The  cot- 
f/.n-traa  {«  tha  (»ri<e<t  of  all  the  vegetable  productions, 
IR't  in  fotnmt  iriUi  the  lightest  and  most  cwv..,-.;o!;b 
canoaa,  Kvary  varlMv  of  the  palm-tree  is  ;\;\i(ni  -r: 
tha  wau4a,  of  whl<!h  tbev  form  a  principal  ■::•  .wmat.  \ 
Tlia  palnnitbt  or  motrntain-calibage  is  an  orect  nnU  ■.;■>  ; 
bla  trea,  wiiidt  grimD  to  tha  height  of  70  'ot,  ^l^tl  m.  J 
culant  la«va«  at  tlie  t*/p,  In  the  co) igent .  b<"  it',  th'  i 
ttrtUt  i»limA  Uut  «atf»M»tMf  cotton,  aad  r.<  ''<i»  f Watt,  i 


grow  in  the  greatest  luxuriance.  There  is  also  tha 
calabash,  the  fruit  of  which  serves  as  a  substitute  for 
earthenware ;  the  plantain,  the  staff  of  life  in  the  West 
Indies ;  vanilla,  which  is  found  indigenous  in  the  nn- 
firequented  woods ,  quassia  or  simarouba,  which  is  a  tall 
and  stately  plant,  waving  gracefully  in  the  wind ;  sar- 
■aparilla,  indigo,  tobacco,  turmeric,  ginger,  and  rice- 
plants.  The  fruits  and  nutritive  roots  of  San  Domin- 
go are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  Jamaica;  Imt  they 
are  more  abundant,  and  extremnly  fine.  Of  those 
may  be  enumerated  the  choux  caraib,  or  Indian  kale, 
with  a  variety  of  other  vegetables  that  come  under 
the  same  denomination ;  the  avocato  or  vegetable  mar- 
row, the  melon,  sapadillo,  guava,  pine-apple,  bread, 
and  jack-fhiit,  mango,  nuts,  rose-apple,  plums,  etc., 
of  many  different  species.  Flowers  in  endless  vari- 
ety and  splendor  adorn  the  wild  scenery  of  the  woods, 
and  exhale  their  fragrance  in  the  desert  air. 

Little  is  known  of  the  geological  structure  of  the 
island,  but  a  limestone  containing  vestiges  of  marine 
shells  is  the  prevailing  formation.  Mineral  springs 
exist  in  several  parts.  The  moat  noted  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  island  are  those  of  Banica,  Yaya,  and  Par- 
gatal ;  and  in  the  west,  the  chalybeate  of  St.  Rose, 
the  saline  of  Jean  Rabel,  and  the  alkaline  sulphur 
waters  of  Dalmarie.  The  mineral  products  are  va-ioun 
and  rich,  and  include  gold,  platina,  silver,  quicksilver, 
copper,  iron,  tin,  sulphur,  manganese,  antimony,  rock- 
salt,  bitumen,  jasper,  marble,  opal,  laznlite,  chalcedony, 
etc.  The  gold  mines  of  the  Chiboa  Mountains,  which, 
in  the  16th  centurj',  were  very  productive,  have  been 
abandoned,  and  at  the  present  day  gold  is  obtained 
only  from  the  washings  in  the  nortliem  rivers.  None 
of  the  mines,  indeed,  are  successfully  worked,  and 
hence  these  sources  of  wealth  are  reserved  for  the 
industr}'  of  future  generations. 

Animals. — The  indigenous  quadrupeds  of  this  island 
were  confined  to  four  species,  which  the  Indians  called 
Hutia,  Qnemi,  Mohuy,  and  Corj-.  Of  these,  all  are 
believed  to  be  extinct  except  the  first.  Homed  cattle, 
hogs,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  mules,  and  asses,  have 
been  introduced  from  Europe,  and  have  multiplied 
prodigiously  in  the  wild  and  extensive  pastures  of  the 
!  nterior.  Wild  fowl  are  abundant,  consisting  of  varioua 
Epeciea  of  ducks,  pigeons,  the  flamingo,  the  wild  pea- 
cock, the  mimic  thrush  or  mocking-bird,  the  banana 
bird,  the  Guinea  fowl,  the  ortolan,  and  parrots  of 
various  species.  The  rivers  abound  with  fish,  some  of 
which  are  very  delicate.  Turtle  of  all  kinds  are 
taken,  and  the  land-crab  is  much  esteemed.  The 
serpents  are  not  dreaded  r  but  the  centipedes,  which 
are  frequent  in  old  buildings,  are  large  and  dangerous. 
The  scorpion  is  rarely  seen ;  but  the  venomous  crab- 
spider,  which  is  equally  dangerous,  is  sometimes  met 
with. 

IlUtory. — This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1492,  and  was  soon  filled  with  adventurers,  who 
crowded  from  Europe  to  the  new  world  for  sudden 
wealth.  The  natives  were  reduced  to  slavery  by 
these  settlers,  who  spread  themselves  over  the  island, 
and  by  their  industry  the  colony  increased  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  prosperity.  But  as  it  was  chiefiy  by  tha 
desire  of  gold  that  settlers  were  attracted  to  this  dis- 
tant shore,  San  Domingo  was  in  its  turn  abandoned 
for  other  countries  of  greater  reputed  wealth ;  and  the 
countr}'  gradually  declined,  and,  instead  of  yielding  a 
revenue,  became  a  burden  on  the  mother  country. 
About  the  middle  of  tha  16th  century  the  island  of  St. 
Christopher  was  taken  possession  of  by  a  mixed  col- 
ony of  French  and  English,  ^vho  being  attacked  by  the 
Spaniards,  were  forced  to  fly  to  the  barren  isle  of  Tor- 
tuga,  where  they  ostablislied  tliemselves,  and  grew 
formidable,  under  the  well-known  appellation  of  buc- 
cinecrs.  They  at  last  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  San 
Itomingo,  into  which  they  had  made  only  predatory 
I  icursions;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Kvs-.vick,  that  part 
fjf  the  isluid  of  which  they  bad  obtained  possession 


HAY 


M9 


HAY 


met 


id  the 
lings 
intry. 
of  St. 

col- 
)y  the 
f  Tor- 
grew 

buo 
iSnn 
lalory 

part 
esaion 


was  cedeA  to  the  King  of  France,  who  acknowledged 
these  adventaroos  colonists  as  his  subjects.  The 
French  colony  langnished  for  a  while  under  the  galling 
restrictions  imposed  on  its  trade  by  the  mother  coun- 
try ;  but  these  being  removed  about  the  year  1722,  it 
soon  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  and  was  in 
a  very  flourishing  state  when  the  French  Revolution 
commenced  in  1789. 

The  revenue  of  Hayti  arises  chieBy  trom  customs 
and  port-dues,  territorial  imposts,  sale  of  lands,  etc. 
In  1850  the  customs'  receipts  amounted  to  jei70,000 ; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  expenditure  amounted  to 
£216,856.  The  established  religion  is  Romaii  Cath- 
olic ;  but  other  forms  of  worship  are  not  prohibited, 
Churcli  affairs  are  superintended  by  a  vicar-general. 
In  1804  there  were  in  the  State  62  schools  and  4  col- 
leges, having  in  all  about  9,000  or  10,000  pupils. 

Commerce, — The  foreign  commerce  of  Hayti  is  in  the 
bands  of  foreign  merchants,  who  are  permitted  to 
reside  only  at  certain  ports,  under  iricsome  and  injuri- 
ous restrictions.  The  foreign  commerce  does  not  now 
exceed  £1,000,000  of  annual  value.  The  exports  are 
chiefly  mahogany  and  other  timber,  dyewoods,  coffee, 
tobacco,  nnd  cotton.  The  imports  ore  British  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  hardware,  cutlery,  flre-arms,  gun- 
powder, glass,  earthenware,  etc.  From  France  are 
imported  brandy,  wines,  siilc,  and  fancy  goods.  The 
population  of  Hayti  is  estimated  at  about  740,000. 

The  emperor  hag  constituted  Cape  Haytien,  formerly 
Cape  Franf  ais,  the  capital  and  seat  of  government  of 
the  empire.  It  stands  on  the  north  coast,  in  N.  lat, 
10°  46',  and  W,  long,  72°  10',  and  contains  about 
14,000  inhabitants. 

Port-au-Prince,  the  capital  of  Hayti,  or  St.  Do- 
mingo, in  lat.  18°  33'  42"  N.,  long,  72°  27'  11"  W, 
Population  variously  estimated — probably  from  18,000 
to  20,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
island,  at  the  l)ottom  of  a  large  and  deep  gulf.  It  was 
founded  in  1749,  since  when,  with  few  intervals,  it  has 
been  the  capital  of  French  St.  Domingo,  as  it  is  now 
of  the  entire  island.  It  is  partially  fortifled — ^the 
harbor  being  protected  by  a  battery  on  a  small  island, 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  sliore.  The  country  round 
is  low  and  marshy;  and  the  heat  in  the  summer 
moiiths  being  excessive,  the  climate  is  then  exceed- 
ingly unhealthy.  The  buildings  are  principally  of 
wood,  and  seldom  exceed  two  stories  in  height.  The 
entrance  to  the  harlmr  is  between  White  island  and 
the  southern  shore  The  depth  of  water  varies  from 
aliout  18  feet  at  ebb  tide  to  about  21  feet  at  full  tide. 
It  is  customary,  but  not  compulsor}',  to  employ  a  pilot 
in  entering  the  harl)or.  They  are  always  on  the  look- 
out. Ships  moor  head  and  stem,  at  from  100  to  600 
yards  from  shore,  loading  and  unloading  by  means  of 
boats. 

The  Dominican  republic  claims  for  its  territory  the 
whole  of  the  Spanish  portion  of  the  island.  It  is 
divided  into  Ave  provinces,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
17,500  square  miles.  The  Dominicans  are  almost 
entirely  an  agricultural  people.  The  staples  of  the 
southern  provinces  consist  chiefly  of  tiie  products  of 
the  forests.  In  Seylra,  however,  the  raising  of  cattle 
is  the  chief  occupation.  But  by  far  the  most  indus- 
trious part  is  the  northern,  generally  called  the  Cibao, 


where  the.  staple  article  Is  an  excellent  quality  of 
tobacco.  The  articles  of  export  are  mahogany,  satin- 
wood,  lignum-vitiB,  and  brazil-wood,  tol)acco,  hides, 
etc.  The  imports  are  chiefly  flour  and  provisions  from 
the  United  States,  and  general  merchandi  from 
Europe.  The  constitution  of  the  republic  is  liased 
on  tluit  of  Venezuela.  The  Congress,  which  assembles 
annually,  consists  of  16  deputies — three  from  each 
province — who  form  the  Tribunado  or  I^owar  Cham- 
ber, and  Ave  senators — one  from  each  province — con- 
stituting the  Consejo  Conservador  or  Upper  Chamber, 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President,  who  is 
elected  for  four  years,  and  who  must  be  a  Dominican 
by  birth,  and  at  least  85  years  of  age.  The  ju- 
diciary is  exercised  by  a  supreme  court  and  various 
inferior  and  local  courts,  and  the  French  code  has 
been  adopted  in  legal  proceedings.  In  1852  the  rev- 
enue amounted  to  ,£76,853,  and  the  ordinarj-  expend- 
itures amount  annually  to  about  £51,300,  No  foreign 
debt  is  owing  ;  but  there  exists  a  large  home  debt,  on 
which  the  currency  is  based,  and  which  is  of  low  and 
fluctuating  value.  The  army  amounts  to  12,000  men, 
and  may  be  raised  to  16,000.  The  navy  consists  of 
three  corvettes  and  flve  schooners  equipped  as  war 
vessels,  and  mounted  with  44  guns.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  other  denominations 
are  tolerated.     Population  about  136,500. 

The  chief  seats  of  commerce  are  San  Domingo  city 
and  Samana,  a  small  town  on  a  peninsula  of  the  same 
name.  The  city  of  San  Domingo  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ozama,  on  the  southern  coast,  in  N.  litt. 
18J°,  and  W.  long.  70°,  and  is  tlie  oldest  European 
settlement  in  the  New  World,  having  been  built  l)y 
Columbus  in  1504.  The  population  Ls  about  14,000, 
and  the  town  is  defended  by  substantial  fortifications. 
The  cathedral  is  more  than  three  centuries  old.  The 
harbor  is  capacious,  but  owing  to  a  bar  at  it^  mouth, 
vessels  drawing  above  13  feet  of  water  are  obliged  to 
anchor  in  the  open  roadstead. 

Population. — In  1789,  the  French  part  of  Hayti  was 
by  far  the  most  valuable  and  flourishing  colony  in  the 
West  Indies.  The  population  was  estimated  at 
524,000  i  of  which  31,000  were  white,  27,500  people  of 
color,  and  465,600  slaves.  The  Spanisli  ;iart  of  the 
island  was  much  less  densely  peopled— tin  numl)er  in 
1785  being  estimated  at  152,640,  of  which  122,640  were 
free  people  of  all  colors,  mostly  mulattoes,  and  tlio 
rest  slaves.  The  population  of  the  entire  island,  in 
1827,  was  estimated  by  Humboldt  i.t  820,000,  of  whom 
30,000  were  whites;  but  there  nrc  goo-t  grounds  for 
thinking  that  that  estimate  was  "Xag^ei  i..i:d,  and  that 
the  present  population  does  M"t  rxcc?d  600,000  or 
700,000. 

Kxporta. — There  has  been  an  exti-ai-.tinary  decline 
in  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  articles  exported  from 
Haj-tl  since  1789.  Sugar,  for  example,  hns  fallen  off 
from  141,000,000  pounds  to  almost  nothing;  coffee 
from  about  77,000,000  pounds  to  little  more  than 
25,000,000  pounds;  cotton  from  7,00^,000  i)ounds  to 
perhaps  650,000  pounds ;  indigo  from  758,000  pounds 
to  nothing,  etc. !  Mahogany  is  almost  the  only  article 
the  exports  of  which  have  increased  of  late  years. 
The  following  table  illustrates  what  has  now  lieen 
stated : 


A  Oenkral  Tauik  of  Expoets  froh  IIatti,  dubino  thu  Txarb  1T89,  1801,  and  from  161S  to  1920,  both  inclusive. 


Yam. 

Mtueovftdo  Sugtr, 

CuffM. 

Cotton. 

Oscu, 

Dye.woode. 

Tohwoo. 

MafaoRiuiy. 

SfliTAn. 

Poundi. 

Pciudi. 

FoniKli, 

Pouiidi, 

roundi. 

Touudi. 

Feet. 

1789 

98,678,800 

76,886,219 

7,004,274 

1801 

18,618,572 

48,420,270 

2,480,840 

64is',6i8 

6,7«8',681 

■^217 

1818 

6,448.667 

26,066,200 

474,118 

484,863 

6,819,800 

V9,i40 

129,962 

1819 

8,790,148 

29,240,919 

216,108 

870,489 

8,094.409 

89,698 

141,677 

1820 

2,614,602 

8^1 87,769 

846,  sao 

M6,424 

1,919,749 

97,600 

129,609 

1821 

600,984 

29,92^961 

820,668 

264,792 

8,728,180 

70,400 

M,006 

1821 

200,464 

24,286,872 

692,368 

464,154 

8.209,080 

6SS,a&7 
887,014 

2,622,277 

279^660 

1828 

14,920 

88,802,887 

882,266 

88.\640 

6,607,808 

2,869,047 

898,800 

1824 

6.106 

44,269,084 

1,02^,046 

401,694 

8,858, 1,',1 

718,679 

2,181,747 

175,000 

182S 

2,020 

86,084,800 

816,697 

8;)9,037 

8,948,190 

6(VS,426 

2.9S0,469 

1826 

82,864 

82,189,784 

620,972 

467,692 

6,.')07,7« 

840,588 

2,186,984 

170^ 

0am  antlaoum,  In  1S29, 7,388  pounds— 1823, 18,066  pounds— 1824,  68,692  pounds. 


HAY 


f«0 


HAY 


7mpor<>.— The  prinoipal  articles  of  import  ne  pro- 
visions :  sucli  na  flour,  rice,  mess  and  cargo  boef,  fisti, 
itc,  and  timber  Arom  the  United  States ;  cottoa  goods 
of  all  sorts,  Irish  and  Sotch  linens,  earthenware,  cut- 
ler}', ammunition,  etc.,  from  England ;  wines,  satins, 
liqueurs,  jewelry,  toys,  haberdashery,  etc.,  from 
France,  and  linens,  canvas,  gin,  etc.,  from  Holland 
and  Germany. 

The  destruction  caused  by  the  excesses  which 
accompanied  the  revolution  explains  a  part  of  this 
extraordinary  falling  off;  but  the  greater  part  is  to  be 
accounted  for  l)y  the  change  in  the  condition  of  the  inliab- 
itants.  The  blacks,  being  no  longer  compelled  to  labor, 
end  regarding  with  abhorrence  the  culture  of  sugar  and 
the  other  occupations  in  which  they  had  been  princi- 
pally engaged,  sunk  into  a  state  of  idleness  and  apathy, 
The  condition  of  all  the  great  branches  of  industry 
that  were  formerly  carried  on  became,  in  consequence, 
most  deplorable,  and  the  commerce  of  the  island  was 
reduced  within  the  narrowest  limits.  Its  successive 
rulers  have  endeavored,  though  with  little  success,  to 
brfaig  aliout  a  revival  of  industry.  The  Code  Rural, 
enacted  for  this  purpose  by  Boyer,  1826,  is  exceed- 
ingly stringent,  its  pnucijial  provisions  being  in  fact 
copied  from  the  regulations  as  to  slaves  embodied  in 
the  Code  Noir.  But  even  this  code  had  little  influ- 
ence i  and  as  a  proof  of  the  low  state  of  indnstr}-  in 
the  island,  we  need  only  state  that  sugar  has  wholly 
disappeared  from  the  list  of  iixports,  and  that  tlui  ex- 
ports of  coffee  and  most  other  anicles  seem  to  he  sta- 
tionary or  dimmishing.  And  this  result  is,  after  all, 
only  what  should  have  been  anticipated.  To  expect 
that  half-civilized  Africans,  nnder  a  burning  sun,  and 
without  t^e  wants  or  desires  of  Europeans,  should  be 
equally  industrious,  is  to  expect  what  is  contradictory, 
and  all  but  absurd. 

Commerce  with  the  United  Slates.— Thne  being  no 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Hayti,  the  com- 
merce between  the  two  countries  is  governed  by  such 
local  laws  and  regulations  as  may  from  time  to  time 
be  enacted.  These  are  always  subject  to  changes  and 
alterations,  sometimes  so  sudden— decrees  of  to-day 
inpeE-seding  the  laws  in  force  but  yesterday — that 
commercial  interests,  especially  tliose  of  the  United 
States,  have  been,  in  many  instances,  most  seriously 
affected.  The  United  States'  commercial  agent,  in  a 
dispatch  to  the  Department  nf  State,  written  in  De- 
cember, 1849,  thus  refers  to  this  ruinous  uncertainty 
of  Haytien  commercial  legislation:  "There  is  one 
subject  to  which  I  beg  for  a  moment  to  draw  your 
attention ;  that  is,  the  siiddon  ciu..nf{ed  in  the  laws  af- 
fecting commercial  interests.  1.  Within  the  last  six 
months  we  have  had  the  closing  of  the  ports  of  Aquire, 
St.  Marc,  Miragoane,  Port  de  Paix,  and  IVVnsed 
Hainault.  2.  An  additional  duty  of  five  per  cent,  on 
coffee,  and  of  seven  per  cent,  oa  logwood ;  and,  lastly, 
we  have  had  those  modifications  in  the  monopoly  law. 
♦  •  *  Almost  all  these  measures  were  enforced  on 
the  day  of  their  publication,  merchants  only  being 
apprized  of  the  intentions  of  the  government  by  a 
vague  rumor.  With  such  hasty  legislation,  the  most 
careful  and  discreet  are  entrapped,  and  thug  all  calcu- 
lation defeated,  and  frequently  heavj-  loss  entailed." 

Advices  more  recently  received  represent  but  little 
amelioration  in  this  uncettled  state  of  commercial  leg- 
islation. It  is  true,  American  commerce  has  been 
placed  on  a  much  better  footing  than  it  enjoyed  at  that 
period.  Up  to  June  25,  1850,  a  law  was  in  force  suIk 
jecting  the  vessels  of  all  nations  that  had  not  acknowl- 
edged tlto  independence  of  Hayti  to  an  additional  duty 
of  10  per  cent.  The  independence  of  the  empire  not 
having  lieen  formally  reco  oiized  l>y  the  United  States, 
American  vessels  were  brjugbt  within  the  operation  of 
this  law,  and  could  not,  in  consequence,  compete  with 
the  vessels  of  such  notions  as  had  satisfied  its  require- 
ments, even  in  exporting  to  Hayti  our  own  staples. 
In  January,  1860,  the  Stol;:  Department  was  officially 


htformed  that  this  reciprocity  duty  of  10  per  cent,  ad- 
ditional, was,  by  a  law  then  lately  published,  applied 
to  American  merchandise  brought  In  vessels  of  any 
other  nation  whatever.  This  wag  an  advantage  to 
our  ship-owners,  as  one  or  two  vessels,  under  foreign 
flags,  were  then  running  as  packets  from  the  United 
States  to  Hayti,  and  also  from  the  adjacent  islands, 
bringing  American  goods  under  the  preference  of  10 
per  cent,  over  /..•••'fcan  bottoms.  It  placed  the  Amer- 
ican flag  on  an  equality  with  that  of  ather  nations  in 
the  carrj-ing  trade  of  our  staples  exported  to  Hayti ; 
and  an  increased  American  tonnage  engaged  in  the 
trade,  and  a  general  activity  in  the  commercial  move- 
ments between  the  two  countries  were  immediately 
perceived. 

StU),  American  commerce  in  this  quarter  had  to  en- 
counter a  difficulty  no  less,  if  not  even  moi'e,  foimida- 
l)le  than  the  discrimination  just  abolished.  This  was 
a  decree  and,  accompanying  tariff,  which  took  e.Tect 
January  i,  1850,  the  Sd  article  of  which  was  in  these 
words :  "  The  articles  designated  in  the  tariff,  annexed 
to  the  present  decree  can  not  be  sold  above  the  pricei 
fixed  by  said  tariff."  Articles  4,  6,  and  8  run  thus : 
"  There  shall  be  established  in  each  of  the  ports  of 
Port-au-Prince,  Aux  Clayef,  Cape  Haytien,  Jacmel, 
Gonaives,  and  Jeremie,  warehouses,  into  which  shall 
be  put  in  d6p6t,  after  having  regularly  passed  through 
the  custom-houses,  such  articles  of  merchandise  as 
are  desiguLted  in  the  tariff  annexed  to  the  present 
decree." 

*  •  *  "Coffee  shall  only  be  d.'videu  among 
importers  of  articles  included  in  the  tariff,  which 
division  shall  be  made  pro  rata,  according  to  the  uc- 
quired  rights  of  each."  «  •  *  » Xiie  government 
reserves  to  itself  the  right  of  retaining,  out  of  the 
quantity  of  ccflfea  declared  for  division,  a  certain  per- 
tion,  to  be  disposed  of  according  to  i,he  necessities  of 
the  moment ;  such  portion  shall  not,  however,  exceed 
one  fifth  of  tae  existing  quantity."  The  low  tariflf 
prices  fixed  upon  most  American  goods,  and  those  to 
the  Haytiens  of  the  first  necessit}-,  when  contrasted 
with  the  more  liberal  prices  assigned  to  the  merchant 
dise  of  other  nations,  almost  paralyzed  for  a  time 
American  trade.  A  dispatch  from  Aux  Cuyes,  writ- 
ten at  that  period  to  the  Department  of  State,  uays : 
"AVhile  the  citizens  of  France  are  scarcely  affected  in 
their  importations  to  Hayti,  the  Americans  here  im- 
port, and  our  merchants  at  home  export,  scarcely  any 
.trticle  that  is  free."  Htill,  In  the  face  of  these  anno}'- 
anccs,  and  despite  the  embarrassments  which  tliey 
must  have  occasioned,  one  half,  at  least,  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  Hayti  is  in  the  hamls  of  American  merchants. 
Naturally  indolent,  and  unhappily  deprived  of  all 
legislative  stimulus  to  in.'lustr}-  -md  labor,  the  natives 
have  lost  that  spirit  of  "emulation  and  agricultdral 
enterprise  which  conducted  them  to  a  comparatively 
high  state  of  prospetity  under  the  administrution  of 
earlier  rulers.  The  degree  of  this  prosperity,  thna 
attained,  may  be  inferred  from  'be  following  stiste- 
ment,  ei^hibitint^  the  quantities  and  values  of  the 
produce  expoited  from  St.  Domingo  to  France,  from 
January  1  to  December  81,  1790.  The  figures  and 
other  data  are  derived  from  a  rare  st&tietical  chart, 
published  in  France,  by  the  government,  that  year, 
entitled  "  Tableau  de  Donanea  et  du  Commerce  de  la 
partie  Franpoiae  de  St,  Dominmte." 

The  tree  population  of  this  portion  of  the  island  in 
1790  was :— whites,  38,3(30  j  blacks,  8370.  The  num- 
ber of  negroes  employed  in  labor  was  465,000,  The 
navigation  returns  show  tho  number  of  vessels  entered 
to  hi^vo  been  768,  with  an  aggregate  measurement  of 
56,748  tons ;  and  the  number  cleared  721,  measuring 
68,ji21  tons.  The  total  value  of  agricultural  property, 
including  negroes,  stock,  etc.,  in  the  French  division, 
in  1790,  is  stated  at  tbout  $208,297,600.  The  number 
of  coffee  pUntations  was  2810 ;  of  cotton,  705 ;  of  in- 
dlgo,  8007 ;  and  of  cocoa,  69. 


HAT 


061 


HAY 


ndin 

Inum- 

Tho 

Itered 

Jntof 

luring 

«rty, 

[islon, 

abet 

bfin- 


QvAicTRin  jutd  Talvb  or  PBCDroi  ixromD  raou  8t. 
DomNOo  (oMianT  rEOM  tuk  Poitiok  kow  cohpiiiu) 
winiiH  Till  umn  or  Bayti),  noM  Janvabt  1  to 
Daonini  (1,  ITM,  waiu  a  Cou>mt  or  Fsanoi. 


ProdMU. 


8uKsr,wblt«. pouadt 

'•     brown " 

Coffee " 

Cotton ** 

Indigo " 

Cocoa " 

Strap Jan 

Tafla kegs 

HIdea,  tanned tldea 

"     raw number 

TortolM-shell pounds 

Mahogany  and  Campocbo     " 
Value  In  colonial  cur.  (Ilrres) 

Value  In  British  money 

Value  In  dollars. 


QoMtilUi, 


98,in,MS 

68,1BI,180 

S,2S^1M 

l«0,«l< 

lfiO,000 

n,tm 

7,887 

e,18« 

^000 

1,800.000 


Viluca  Id  lIvniF 


87,070,781 

4»,041,M7 

BI,8VQ,748 

17,fi71,«)8 

10,87S,li0 

180,000 

1,947,181 

SI,B1< 

78,870 

»8,S48 

B0,000 

40,000 


l»»,401,<tM 
£A,6«5,600 
127,888,000 


In  1789  Haytl  was  a  colonial  posaesslon  of  France  ; 
in  1801  it  woa  under  the  government  of  Touasaint ;  in 
1818  and  1810  it  was  under  that  of  Chriatophe  ;  and 
during  the  residue  of  the  years  deaignated  in  the  state- 
ment, it  Tras  under  that  of  President  3oyor, 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  quantities  of 
coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  logwood,  and  tobacco  exported 
from  Hayti  from  18S6  to  1849  (1842  excepted),  both 
inclusive : 


Foinid^. 

1,«4»,717 

1,078,I»B 

1,018,171 

1,170,176 

1,63S,430 

922,575 

1,S91,4M 

448,492 

914,885 

657,480 

670,001 

626,0881 

411,4«3| 

544,126! 


Coet 


Poundi, 

897,821 

650,484 

«M,024 

453,418 

477,414 

442,865 

640,016 

708,827 

618,448 

836,004 

680,102 

,171,620 

906,895 

6M,516 


,856|18,026,547J,657,9M  498,740,279 14,886,846 


Loirwood. 


Pouada. 

18,298,787 

6,767,909 

6,036,288 

7,887,986 

26,946,068 

89,288,206 

66,071,891 

28,563,904 

47,4<  16,120 

68,181,688 

69,988,868 

89,796,670 

86,840,072 

86,282,680 


TotMceo. 


PoUIHlt. 

2,086,606 
1,222,716 

890JS69 
1,995,049 
2,102,791 
l,7^^889 
8,219,600 
1,716,816 

171,685 

6,609 

676 


The  total  quantity  of  acajou — a  species  of  mahog- 
any— exported  during  11  of  the  years  designated  was 
48,148,272  lbs.  The  exportation  of  pitre — a  species  of 
aloes,  which  furnishes  a  substitute  for  hemp  and  flax — 
appears  to  have  commenced  in  1846,  and,  in  the  four 
ensuing  years,  hod  amounted  to  an  aggregiite  of  412,- 
874  lbs.  In  1885,  8600  cigars  ;  1097  lbs.  sugar ;  24,961 
hides ;  81,192  llis.  of  rags  ;  10,998  lbs.  of  wax ;  and 
87S9  lbs,  of  ginger  were  exported ;  while  the  ensuing 
year,  the  ilgnres  were,  respectively,  38,000,  16,891, 
14,891,  275,  And  15,509— sufficiently  indicative  of  the 
great  fluctuations  to  which  the  foreign  trade  of  Hayti 
was  subject. 

A  glance  at  the  statements  presented  will  show  that  I 
a  great  change  took  place  in  the  character  of  the  ex- 
portn^icii  from  Ilaj'ti  during  the  CO  years  lietween 
1789  ..■'d  lt!!9.  Sugar,  indigo,  and  tol>acco,  which 
were  staples  of  export  in  1789,  hod  entirely  disap- 
peared from  the  table  in  1849 ;  the  exportation  of  cof- 
fee and  cocoa  had  (if  we  except  two  years)  remained 
nearly  stationarj-,  while  the  exportation  of  logwood 
had  vastly  augmented,  ^  1  that  of  cotton  bad  greatly 
diminished.  The  qnauiities  of  the  article  last  i  .med, 
imported  from  Haj-ti  Into  the  United  States  du»  '  tise 
five  years  ending  June,  1855,  was  as  fallows  : — JH51, 
12,000  lbs. ;  1852,  none ;  1853,  215,799 ;  1864, 196,127 . 
1865,  189,214;  exhibiting  an  aggregate  of  613,140  lbs., 
and  an  average,  each  year,  of  122,628  lbs. 

The  quantity  of  oolflTee  exported  in  1850  was  about 
46,000,000  lbs.,  while  in  1851  it  exceeded  50,000,000 
lbs. ;  and  In  1852  the  quantity  produced  must  have 
reached  66,000,000  pounds,  as  the  fifth  part  thereof, 
claimed  by  the  government,  amounted  to  11,200,000 
lbs.  As  regards  tobacco,  since  the  political  division  of 
the  island,  its  culture  and  its  trade  are  in  the  hands  of 
t\f»  Dominicans.      There  is,  b,.wever,  considerable 


traffic  in  this  article  at  some  of  tk«  porta  of  Hajrti ; 
but  It  is  imported  by  the  coasters  ft'om  the  ports  of  the 
republic.  In  view  of  the  stuMstlca  of  Haytl,  thus  pre- 
sented, it  is  evident  that  the  movement  of  the  countr) 
has  lieen  vastly  retrograde  nnce  it  vm  a  possession  of 
France.  In  1789  it  exported,  as  wc  have  seen,  160,- 
000,000  lbs.  v.f  sugar,  and  nearly  1,000,000  lbs.  of  Indi- 
go ;  in  1849  it  exported  none ;  in  the  former  year  it  ex- 
ported 77,000,000  lbs.  of  coffee,  and  mors  than  7,000,- 
000  lbs.  of  cotton;  in  1849  the  exportation  of  thu 
former  amounted  to  less  than  31,000,000  lbs.,  and  of 
the  latter,  to  little  more  than  500,000  lbs. ;  while  the 
total  value  of  exportations  from  Hayti,  which,  in  1789, 
ar;  given  at  206,000,000  francs,  40  years  later  were 
but  8,600,000  francs  1  A  foreign  resident  at  the  cap- 
ital of  Hayti,  in  view  of  these  facts,  writes  as  follows, 
under  recent  date : — "  This  country  has  made,  since 
its  emancipation,  no  progress  whatever.  The  popula- 
tion partially  live  upon  the  produce  of  the  grown-wiid 
coffee  plantations,  remnants  of  the  French  dominion. 
Properly  speaking,  plantations  after  the  model  of  the 
English  in  Jamaica,  or  the  Spanish  in  Cuba,  do  not 
exist  here.  Hayti  is  the  most  l)eautiful  and  the  most 
fertile  of  the  Antilles.  It  has  more  mountains  than 
Cuba,  and  more  space  than  Jamaica.  Xowhere  the 
coffee-tree  could  better  thrive  than  here,  as  it  especially 
likes  a  mountainous  soil.  But  the  indolence  of  the  ne- 
groes has  brought  the  once  splendid  plantations  tc 
decay.  They  now  gather  the  coffee  only  from  the 
grown-wild  trees.  The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane 
has  entirely  disappeared;  and  the  island  that  once 
supplied  one  half  of  Europe  with  sugar,  now  supplies 
its  own  wants  from  Jamaica  and  the  United  States." 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  general  navW 
gation  and  trade  of  the  port  of  Cape  Haytien  dnring 
the  year  1841,  and  the  sh,-ire  thereof  assigned  to  tbe 
United  States : 


NatloDi. 


United  Btetes. 

British 

Haytien 

French 

Oerman , 

Total 


No.  of 


40 
19 
8 
11 
11 


84 


Vklu€  of  ear 
Ifoea  iQward. 

"|i!88,900" 

145,480 

M4S 

186,410 

119,545 


♦662,670 


No.  of 

TOIWU. 

49 

16 

1 


Value  of  aar-i 
Soaaoatwiard 


|ini.iao 

16t,«B5 

1,120 

189,780 

856,MB 


813,850 


The  trade  of  tbe  port  of  Gonaives,  during  the  some 
year,  is  given  as  follows : 


Nalloni. 


British 

French 

Danish. 

Hamburg 

United  States. 
Total 


No.  of 
veiseli.. 


13 
10 


Valaa  of  car- 
(^oailnward 
16,996 
17,525 
Bslllut 
1.420 
49,850 


65    I  •75,790 


No.  ofiVatnaof  cap. 
tcsmIk  gooaaotward 


(91,765 
78,270 
48,490 
18,985 

161,930 


62    I  (394,8! 


rtie  British  vessels  engaged  in  this  trade  came  fttim 
Turk's  Island,  Nassau,  St.  Thomas,  Trinidad,  Barha- 
docs,  and  Demerara,  and  were  freighted  with  dr}--goods, 
hardware,  crockerj",  beer,  uricks,  and  provisions ;  but,  as 
these  islands  are  supplied  chiefly  with  the  articles  lost 
named  from  the  United  States,  it  is  evident  that,  unless, 
under  positive  prohibilions,  or  under  restrictionB  equiv- 
alent thereto,  the  United  States  can  at  all  times  control 
the  foreign  trade  of  Hayti  in  this  species  of  merchan- 
dise, which  the  natural  '  °i.  .  .::o  or  general  aversion 
to  agricultural  labor  of .  '"  .'  ^  tiens  necessitvtos  them 
to  seek  from  other  natiou",  u'.d  renders  as  in'li.'pensa- 
ble  to  their  comforts,  if  not  lo  their  ve'v  existence,  in 
1855,  as  in  1841. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  f(  "  .,'  navigation 
of  Hiytl  for  a  period  of  six  years,  1  ,mi  ..dil  to  1862 
both  inclusive : 


Yfarn. 

1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850., 
1851., 
1853. 


Ve«scl>.  Tom. 

880  180,478 

678  98,370 

1,065  16^990 

1,160  1(2,933 

897  I17,81T 

898  18»,SW 


^-:  ^ 


riAV 


ee? 


HAY 


.t..« 


Tabui  ■xinBni>'a  rtm  Natiohi  to  wbioh  biloksid  tbb 
Vmmuut  murumo  uc  tbb  Tbadb  or  IBM  amd  1880, 

—I 


MttloOL 


IHi. 


I 


lUO. 


VuuU. 

Ik 
144 
114 
S68 

10 

88 
11_ 

i,oes 


4,848 
2l),707 
il,A(l 
81,TM 
A80 
a,08« 
1,648 


186,120 


V«u<k, 

no 

18 
163 
84 
W4 
8T 
81 
19 


Tnnt. 

81,084 
1,478 
81,400 
16,T9T 
80,786 
1.688 


1,160      I   162,288 


UBitcdSUtM.. 

Belglom 

Dtnmuk. 

Frsnce 

lOrett  Britsli . . . 

iHollBnd 

Hanw-lowni. . 
Othor  eonntrle! 
I       ToUI 


)he  navlftatijii  of  1861,  campare<'>  with  thiu  <tven 
above  frr  ISSO,  ahoirs  a  fallin';  off  In  number  n'  ves- 
Mla  of  260,  m('.r..4uring  44,421  ton» ;  Hid  the  roturnt 
for  1862  show  k  like  decrease  ovir  timw  of  1860  i  T  ■  96 
vesMl!i,  of  22,4(>ii  (i)ii'.  but  aa  uicr  <rf  over  tho3«  of 
1861  of  98  ve»8elii  ami  VifiU  ton'. 

General  Aem"'/.- '. - ■  "'he  trade  ta'tii.rn  the  UnUed 
States  and  Hani  U  becoming,  every  year,  nore  Im- 
portant and  liiicessiirj'  to  both  comiirieH.  flen'  forv, 
the  imports  inlo  the  empire  from  tb'  T'riteit  States 
consIiUxl  almost  exclu/i'.alj',  of  provlsiiim:,  for  whifib 
vrrr  '.xchanged  coffoe,  lag^-ood,  mahogany,  etc.  Ar 
tide"  r,<' apparel,  eotton  mAiufactures,  and  fashi'-iablo 
good.'  .'.are  supplierf  chiefly  from  France,  Eiii^-land, 
t}err,i:".nv,  etc.  Under  the  discriminating,  or,  rather, 
l^^»  ivci;irocitv  .!otj — niiir.ely,  10  per  cent,  additional 
»<  !'.,*  nji.ji  till)  '^argu-jj  of  vessels  belonging  to  natbns 
tJiu'  h-nu  ui.t  recognized  the  independence  of  Hayti 
■  -Un  i.h<J  Mtates'  m.Tchants  offered  no  serious  compe- 
lition  to  S'iofjB  of  tho  privileged  nationf,  except  in 
Mgiiril  to  M.i'li  merchandise  as  was  Indispensable  to  tbt; 
natural  ytuhit:  of  the  Haytiens,  and  In  respect  to  which 
our  undisputed  monopoly  of  the  trade  enabled  our 
merchants  to  countervail  the  discrirainatinn,  and  still 
maintain  a  brisk  and  prcfltable  tr.ide.  In  cotton  aiii^ 
other  manufactures,  and  general  cargoes,  the  British 
and  French  held  the  flrst  rank  in  the  Haj'tijn  markets, 
With  the  aliolition  of  the  reciprocit}'  duty,  the  United 
States'  flag  enteretl  the  Haytlen  ports  on  t?rms  of  per- 
fect equality  with  those  of  other  nations  ;  and  our  mer- 
ciiants,  at  once,  disputed  the  pre-eminence  hitherto 
held  liy  »thor  nations  in  the  general  trade  of  Ilayti. 
Amevican  cotton  and  otiier  manufactures  filled  the 
warehou.«flB  at  tfle  different  ports ;  and,  from  thn  supe- 
riority of  their  i]ualiC)',  and  the  lower  price  at  which 
they  could  be  sold  were  soon  generally  preferred  and 
sought  after  by  Hnytien  purchasers.  Instead  of  occu- 
ciipying,  ae  Iiereto'.bre,  the  third  or  fourth  rank  among 
foreign  nations  vr«;,.ing  with  this  conntrj-,  the  United 
States  now  ciium  fully  one  half  of  its  entirtj  foreign 
commerce. 

The  French  authority  which  has  already  been  quoted 
in  thii  I>i,jyst,  says :  "  Favored  by  their  proximity  to 
Hayti,  the  Amerkaus  are  letermined  on  reducing  the 
price  01'  their  suit  provisions,  their  flour,  soap,  etc.,  to 
so  lew  a  flgure,  that  European  competition  is  out  of 
the  qucUion.    They  export  from  their  warehouses  at 
Kcw  Yurk,*  at  low  prices,  winee,  hardwares,  hats, 
caps,  French  silks,  I'jiglish  manufactures,  etc.     They 
also  furnish  tbe  Haytiens  with  the  oils  and  pastes 
o>  Italy,  and  monopolize  the  snle  of  candles,  tapers, 
cheese,    .ind   timber  <bi    building.      They   maintain 
the  same  superioilty  In  the  export  trade.     They  take 
three  fourths  of  the  dirf'erent  woods  cut  in  Hayti, 
(.•70  thirus  of  all  ihe  ccTee  exported,  and  are  the  ex- 
clusive exporters  of  pitre,  fustic,  and  nearly  so  of  to 
toise-stiell.      In  line,  the  .commercUil  superiority 
the  United  States  extends  over  every  part  of  the  c 
?!'i,  ond,  in  its  rapid  progress,  bids  fair  to  excl   ^ 
,'.'  ..Tether  the  vessels,  as  well  as  the  iv.i        ft- 


*  ^n  offlebl  return  o<  An.erlean  trade  at  one  - 
Baytlon,"  for  only  six  moatht,  shews  that,  iVL^vi 
riod,  A.merican  TMaels  arrived  from  IT  dUtnoot  ik- 
UnltedBkateil 


"  Among  tbe  conntriei  with  which  the  United  .Statei  ' 
hare  commercial  intercoune,  Hayti  holds  the  ninth 
rank  as  respocts  tonnage.  Ali  the  States  are  more  or 
less  intereeted  in  the  Haytlen  trade.  The  north-east- 
ern States  And  a  market  there  for  their  fish  and  other 
meri:liuikili..it ,  re<in;'y<v'tinU,  northern  VirginU,  Mary- 
land, Ohivi,  Inaltuit,  U'ffitucky,  Illinois,  and  Missouri, 
fov  -.hell  ijallwl  port;  ^  iMvnont.  .'v..'-.t  York,  Massachu- 
^.s•lI^  lllit/ii  anil  Olii';,  for  t'wr  salted  beef;  Phila- 
di-4«l'.!f  ,iu<  'ttston,  'Ni  rtb  ami  Knith  Carolina,  Vir- 
gin, t  anil  :<k>  itncky,  for  thc^c  f. 'i.iehold  furniture, 
thetf  rico,  anJ  tiiSiscco.  The  in-i  .  f.urers  of  New 
Er!;.'..iM(!  Nt*  "!■  ik,  -1  Pani)  yU:  t  j,  'lavc  already 
seared  an  (>x(«n.<v!  markc<  \v  "  i -i;  .i  for  their  cheap 
cottot.i  textiles,  and  succesrlull^  cuitipete  with  Euro- 
pean I  ir  .itiftctures." 

The  extent  and  value  of  the  commerce  of  the  Unit- 
bd  States  with  the  Inland  of  Suu  Dr.mlngo,  in  the 
year  enning  80th  June,  1856,  was  *s  follows : 

Import.i)at<j<hoUnUodetnte9 $1,024,269 

K«:'Mrts  from  tho  Uni :  ii  f.tstor 

riomestlo  produce  a'>(lini>vii>'>U!ture  (1,862,623 
Fort'lgn  proOnce  aMi  mkt  'Jticture      268,621 

2,126,484 

Total  tUu«  of  oon)-.u    ■!..... $4,080,11? 

"  The  o:^i<lal  retuv,.sof  the  f 'lilted  States  show  that 
Moxic>>,  wilh  a  population  of  8,000,000,  imiwrted  from 
the  different  ports  of  tie  Union,  in  1851,  less  by  $336,- 
607  than  Hayti.*  The  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  the  latter  country  is,  therefore,  more  profitable 
than  that  with  Mexico ;  indeed.  Americin  vessels  gen- 
erally return  in  ballast  from  Mexican  ports,  or  go  to 
other  States  in  search  of  freight ;  whilo  in  Hayti  th<!y 
always  find  cargoes.  If  not  of  coffee,  at  least  of  ac- 
ujott,  campeche,  and  pItre,  which  are  always  in  abund- 
utics.  In  1851,  the  United  States  exported  to  Hayti 
<;!itton  goods  valued  at  $296,000,  while  the  value  of 
«iniilar  merchandise  exported  to  Cuba  reached  only 
M^O.OOO.  The  soap  exported  from  the  United  Statet 
to  tho  former  country  exceeded  1, 028,682  boxes;  to 
ti.e  latter,  only  889,748.  Ha}-ti  receives  from  the 
United  States  three  times  as  much  flour  as  Cuba,  and 
six  times  as  much  salted  pork," 

With  the  exception  of  the  errora  already  noted,  and 
a  few  others  of  the  press,  the  article  in  the  French 
tta'ti.'^tical  work,  of  which  the  preceding  summary 
gives  the  substance,  presents  a  generally  accurate  re- 
view of  tbe  commerce  of  tbe  United  States  with  Hayti. 
Notwithstanding  the  United  States  has  not  yet  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  Hayti,  nor  entered  into  any 
treaty  with  its  government,  the  restrii  tions  and  petty 
annoyances  to  which  our  merchants  und  citizens  in 
that  country  have  heretofore  been  subjected  are  now 
removed,  and  the  fruits  of  this  more  liljeral  and  friendly 
feeling  are  witnessed  in  our  annually  increasing  '  "n 
inerce,  and  the  preponderance  of,  and  prefervnco  for, 
American  merchandise  in  the  market  of  Ha}-ti.  This 
liberal  state  of  things  may,  however,  at  any  moment, 
change.  In  the  absence  .'  p.ny  commercihl  treaty 
between  the  two  countrijj,  our  relations  with  Hayti 
are  dependent  on  the  will  or  caprice  of  the  emperor. 
In  this  respect,  France  and  England  are  on  a  safer 
footing  than  the  United  States. 

It  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  private  lettera  from 

Port-au-Prince,  that  the  emperor  has  recently  pub- 

r^hei'  ai\  edict  prohibiting  the  further  cutting  of  mu- 

L  .\^Bny,  and  also  tho  transportation  to  the  sea-board 

<^  iiat  wood  Is  now  cut  In  the  interior      The  reaso 

'>iied  for  this  measure  is,  that  his  inaiesty  witav 

rn  the  attention  of  bis  people  more  to  the  cult;  .'«- 


'  Tliere  Is  an  error  In  the  text  in  reference  to  our  trade 
rith  Mexico  for  1881  rho  book  from  wiiich  the  fl|{iireB  are 
taken,  makes  this  difference  $18,189  moro  tlun  Is  given 
'  Above.  Thus,  total  traJe  with  Hayti  In  V  .,  $3,737,26^ ;  to- 
tal trade  with  Mexico  In  1861,  $3,886,C,v'  Jiffcrence  In  favor 
of  Hayti,  $380,606 ;  difference  as  per  text,  $836,607 ;  errcr  In 
«zt,  $18,189. 


HAr  ^ 

~~— -^^I!l!?»"  Octoum  1    1820  ™  t 

ra- ro«iiurT~rT~-r- ^LilVort..         "''"'*'''»•'•-"  In  BullloTj ■ - 

i=  Sa  II  mm  s rwr 

Sept  SOl  Iftni  *">!n'I,iMr    »I7,068,414  fiiiniTfTSCrt— t— ^^^^-— ''^'^if  I 

3888 llUJ?  14^048        i'flllfla?        ''828,019  mUi  JI'*™       88  274 

1M0-...  ffi"*  181 294        iii?'?S        hm,762  m'?tI  '-940       17 1« 

M-«».g— •J.S     Si     a   S  *«     W  f?r« 

Nil  11  It's  lite" 

Tonnage  dntr  *  '""e.  and  as  follows  .  t    i  "'*y  "'rive  in,  naviTTTT^ ^^ — -^^^^—-^ 

AdmatrTtS;-;.-. ^   tSM  M  "^^J^'^go  tees.  "'  P"^'  '^  '""M  |  per  cent,  ami 


HAY 


964 


HAY 


■a  aitabUihed  ttrilT,  whether  they  ba  broojfht  in 
native  or  fureign  nhipa,  with  the  exception  of  those 
from  the  United  States,  which  pay  an  additional  10 
per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  the  duties.  Goods  con- 
tigued  to  native  meKhants  pay  oniy  16|  per  cent. 

The  following  articles  are  duty  free  in  all  bottoms : 
Shot  of  all  sizes,  grenades,  howitzers,  bomb-shells,  and 
other  projectiles  of  artillery ;  iron  and  bronze  cannon, 
mortars,  muskets  and  bayonets,  carbines,  pistols,  and 
cavalry  sabres,  briquets,  or  short  swords  for  Infantry  ; 
machines  and  Instruments  for  simplifying  and  facili- 
tating the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  the  preparation 
of  its  products  ;  horses  and  cattle,  mules,  asses ;  gold 
and  sliver  coin;  classical  and  elemuntury  works, 
•awed  in  bonrds,  or  bound  in  parchment,  for  the  in- 
tlruction  of  youth. 

The  following  Is  a  list  of  articles  absolutely  pro- 
hibitad,  without  reference  to  their  place  of  growth: 


Mahogany,  logwood,  llf^um  vita,  fustic,  coffee,  cot-, 
ton,  wool,  cacao,  raw  and  clayed  sugar,  rum,  tafla, 
syrup,  molasses;  canes,  whips,  and  umbrellas,  con- 
taining swords,  stilettoes,  or  other  arms ;  books  and 
other  works  opposed  to  good  morals. 

Besides  the  export,  there  Is  also  a  territorial  duty 
levied  equally  on  the  produee  of  the  soil,  whetlier  ex- 
ported In  national  or  foreign  ships. 

The  export  of  the  following  articles  Is  strictly  pro- 
hibited :  Gold  and  silver  coin,  side  and  flre-arms,  mu- 
nitions, and  other  articles  of  war ;  old  or  new  Iron, 
copper ;  horses,  brood  mares,  mules,  asses,  and  wood 
for  ship-building. 

The  coating  trade  Is  entirely  confined  to  llaytian 
citizens. 

The  following  tabular  statement  exhibits  the  foreign 
trade,  import,  and  export,  of  Cape  Ilaytien  fur  the 
year  ending  December  81,  1862  : 


Statimhnt  or  Ivroan 

AT  OaPB  IlAYTllIf, 

raov 

jAKDAar  1,  TO 

Uioaiiaia  81,  1851. 

rut. 

Whar*  from. 

1 

d 

f 

1 

wri.L. 

ABMDnt  In- 

Tolcei,  HpanUb 

curranpjr. 

Tnliil  Invotcsi, 

8p«nl«h  cur. 

Mlicy. 

Dtilln  pdd, 

SpwiUh  «ur- 

r.ncjr. 

Nokor 

?<uaU. 

Ton. 

American 

EnclUh 

UnlUd  States 

** 

u 
u 

Bremei>  

'i 

9 

1 
s 

13 

i 

4 
1 

i 
1 

14 

1 

i 

'i 

'i 

8 

1 

1 

1 
1 
9 

i 

1 

3 
8 

8 

87 

4,880 
119 
159 
150 

Ilollsn. 

311,6»1  60 
'    8,808  89 

40,910  04 
^63,06«90 

9,888  68 

2,637  00 

83,404  63 

4,000  00 

18,788  00 
30,666  15 

IXiUut. 

'  390,000  89 

[93,966  24 

66,606  88 
88,770  10 

i  84,463  IB 
840  00 

DolUn. 
46,826  80 

10,435  94 
{  18,148  46 

10,907  16 

11,868  60 

8,638  87 
816  96 

Hanover 

OMenbnrf 

CHdenliarg 

Danish 

40 

4,884 

410 
109 
887 
180 
117 

llfxmhuriz    .  . 

Uauiburg 

Danish... v.  ■.'.■.  ■.".■. 

COAltWlM 

u 

Franco 

Freneh 

u 

t 

6 
8 

8 

» 
8 

8 
1 

1 
1 

1,178 

796 
610 

Coastwise 

8t  Thomu 

M 



Mvorpool 

CoastwlM.. 

1,406 

8,079 
309 
198 
49 
887 
383 

Kncllsh 

Danish...  , 

Haytian 

Hamburg 

'    Bagllsh 

18 

1 

1 
3 

8,050 

188 
14t 
817 

Belgian 

English 

Sngllsh 

Turk's  Island 

4 
4 

691 
1«5 

Total 

« 

89 

97 

13 

88 

11,869 

.... 

443,088  76 

101,537  17 

Cape  Ilagtitn. — This  port  has  not  yet  entirely  recov- 
ered from  the  effects  of  the  earthquake  of  1842,  nor 
has  its  general  commerce  regained  the  high  rank 
which  it  held  prior  to  that  period.  Still,  its  naviga- 
tion is  not  unimportant.  In  1850  there  entered  and 
cleared  65  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  8609  tons 
more  tbun  In  1849,  In  1829  the  imports  at  this  port 
amounted  to  2,500,000  francs,  and  in  IH.'iO  to  .S,,<)43,lfi8 
francs.  The  large  bulk  ot'  this  trade  is  in  (lie  hands 
of  American  merchants,  A  French  statistical  work, 
referring  to  this  fact,  offers  two  >'  iilanations  of  tho 
great  preponderance  of  American  irude,  not  only  at 
this  port,  but  in  Ilayti  generally,  as  follows:  "The 
United  States  conduct  alKiut  one  half  of  the  f;.>reign 
navigation  of  Hayti.  In  1850  their  progress  was  k\c- 
celerated  beyond  all  precedent,  showing  an  augment i- 
tlon  over  1849  of  121  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of 
16,000  tons.  The  facility  with  which  tliey  open  with 
their  neighbors  a  credit  which  is  often  refused  them  in 
Europe,  together  with  the  efforts  of  their  propagandists 
of  diff'  'tnt  sects  scattered  over  the  island,  is  emi- 
nentl  iavondile  to  the  increase  of  American  influ- 
ence. If  there  were  even  any  plausibility  in  this 
enggeit'jn,  it  would  prove,  perha's,  more  than  the 
author  intended ;  fvr,  unibitlous  as  France  confessedly 


is,  and  has  ever  been,  to  extend  her  commerce,  and 
foster  her  mercantile  interests,  even  by  restriction.') 
and  discriminations,  which  are  now  almost  universally 
discarded,  the  assertion  of  her  statistician,  above  quoted, 
would  impl}'  that  this  source  of  American  commercial 
preponderance  in  Hayti  was  not  available  to  her ;  but 
some  other  cause  must  be  looked  for,  in  view  of  tlie 
fact,  that,  while  American  merchants  do  sometimes — 
nay,  very  frequently — "  give  credit"  to  their  con- 
signees ind  purchasers  in  Hayti,  ihey  invariably  pay 
cath,  or  its  squivalent,  for  all  their  exports.  For 
such  articles  as  are  monoflolized  by  the  government, 
the  Haytian  law  is  peremptorj*  as  to  that  mode  of 
payment. 

The  other  explanation  assigned  is  more  reasonable. 
It  is  in  these  words  :  "  Always  on  the  look-out  for  new 
sources  of  trade,  the  Americans  purchase  at  Cape 
Haytien  red-peppers,  and  orange  and  lemon  peul. 
This  new  branch  of  trade,  as  well  as  the  purchase  of 

'3,  has  succeeded  beyond  expectation.  Many  houses 
r.t  New  '  rk  receive  full  cargoes  of  these  descriptions 
of  n.  r  .  c,  actually  pr<ce/e'.«  in  T' ijii,  on  which 
they":_'.  :•■!  profits."     T   ■     ..        least,  a  more 

comm..-'^  '  ,>.anation;  and,  taking  i  to  be  true,  as 
there  i:        ".  '<touce  to  the  contrary,  it  siiows  that  our 


%■ 


HEB 


von 

sill  III  te)^  '-•'»^-     «»'.».  I  c...  I  -Jf;;..  I      „J  ,D...„pjj.. 

■ —  '  I  \  i  I        ranry. 


te.t.;--f"i?~ I  14 

jlfunover,      1        u 

BeJglan ..        

|H»jrtion....."  u 


(     Total.. 


18  I 


8o(  aal 


888,996 
4Se,0M 

fi82,sro 

»,S82 
8*1,874       108  I 


«».88«l  89,68;  j 
18.184  81,808  j 

ir,wi 


828 


•ewiAeo^*  is  applied  to"'  „^rt  f  "*™'  "^n'e  the 

v«'l.ng  plants  conai,roro„e  ^^  m  '"  V'^'^  "">  P"" 
.         'Pecie,  of  Iieath-o,/,"^"""  °' r™  "^'ho  common 

plant  covers  man,- hul^n    ?"  °^  Linn<Bu,.)    'ihis 

of  Scotian.,  inlrllanS':';  ."/sim'Ll"  f,"''  "'«'"-"^» 
Contmeiit.  It  attains  in  mnn„  i  """ates  on  the 
?  or  4  feet ,  and  is  usej'  ZTlt""^  ""  "«'«'"  »' 
I'esom,,  and  for  «  varietv  f  n»h  «^  '•'""™-  """king 
tender  tops  form  a  suh.rf  ►/*'""  P-'Tmsm.  Thf 
'and  cottages;  and  tZyTr^  lis':' ?""''""  '""in- 
dried  state  l.y  horses,  catOe  a^rK"  «"  "  ""<>  '*  • 
;^here  the  grasses  and  c  ""rs  do  „,m 'P;  '°  '='"""ri'"' 
"ate  in  the  spring         '^'o^  era  do  not  begin  to  grow  till 

4*-tt";  th:\tr;tr'"''-^-^-- '- 

anchor  by  the  capstan  otZnTj  1  'f  *«"^  "P  ">e 
«h-P.orpunheroveronore"?irt '  '"/""'*  *"^  "-o 
<»  Amw  rau^rf/  (tight)  or  turn  /h  «"  "  »  '•»'' !  «l»o 
or  chain  applie^l  it^C'om"  ligh^ '*"  «»  "">  -P« 

SooUannnsl^'^^b^utlSS'i!?."!  '•?•»«■  Of 
fwtwecr,  ,7.  lat.  fijO  „„d,oV*'/,'«n'l8  or  islets,  lying 

and  r  62".  Their  !„  .  .  "^  '  ""<•  "^^  lon<r  6° 
^i-'.fe,  «,d  the  alera«on:L  ""■"',  "'■"  '''»"'^'  or 
printer's  error  in  an  early  eSon"^?'^; '"^^  """"  «'  » 
venerable  Br  'e,  published  h,  P  :  *i!*  "'<'*'  "f  the 
return,  it  appeaie  that  fn  igj",!^!''-  ^'^™  'he  census 
"lands  in  ?fe  '^.^rWes  was  79  h?T''"''°' '"''»•'''«<« 
of  110,367;  fr,  .  OtTan^  ^^'  "'^'ng  a  population 
dnring  the'  lum^  ^  1^1°",  ""  P»«'»"y 'nhab  teS 
southern  of  the      ™f„     '^'^''S  »««»on.    n    met 

Clyde-^  But.  Ar  a"S  th"e  Cumtrf  "V'^  *'«" 
Inchmamoch.      The  g^oIoV^J^r  ^^  L«nlash,  and 
Islands  includeagranitrZ.^      /"""""on  0/   these 
and  limestone.     An^l.Z    ,1  ''."°'  ''"P-  ""^'l^tone 
ocanlst,  «nd  possesseg  high- 


I  21  . 
>.812  64  j 

I  07  I 

T,«)t  4t  I 

I  0< 


r4« 


>08 


^:!?i!^^^m'\l^r 


"  miles ,  its  a«a  i"  «)  C  F„llTh  '**  f^"""'  '•'"gth 
ogy  of  St.  Helena  is  In'tVlfi  ^^  '"' J!'''*'-  The  gcol- 
consldewd  as  the  Wgh.st  'e  "if '  r  ^^'  '"«""  """r  b« 
a  ns  traversing  the  South  Art  ?•  ''  ""'»«  <"  mount- 
«Wy  and  extinct  tertiary  votf'"'  "J." ''  """'  Pfobl 
been  unable  to  fix  "Sh'^exa.fn  "^  .^'^'osist,  have 
position.      T^.  „„,„.„  '%"'"  "»  chronological 

the  oon.fl>o„ '^.^^  '""'"'  have  prXed 

out  the  ,.;,..  ..  ■.^J't:"'"  ">  conspicuous  th,t.ugh. 

Pfriol,  as  !.  has  evilntr,etXd  ?'  »  ""^  "">»'• 
ing  conformation.  ^     '"'"'^  '^^f  "ffes  its  exist. 

S%^^rp««" « tt;,s""^r^^^ 

ritat  eto^^-ll^jf  the"\-herL"om^tr.a 
from  the  side,  0  " heViTlft'  ""  """  -«S 
the  open  country  tUt«n^l^l    "'**"  oppressive.     In 

miM,  "carcel^sTho  7n"v  ""^f  r™ V""""  »"^ 
During  some  season,  the  hi^h^f      1 " '"  ^''«'«nd. 

mometer  during  the  Humm„?r,  '^'"'  "'''•'  ther- 
■nterior;  and  the  or^.W  ra„'  ^"""'^  '^'  '"  «h, 
85°  to  56°.  ""y  ""«•  during  winter  from 


S"i% 


w 


DEL 


Mf 


HEM 


IroB  ort  bM  bean  found,  but  the  Marolty  of  fMl  pr»' 
vviiU  it  from  iMing  »in«ltMl.  (!ol<l  auil  coppar  hav* 
b««n  oliMrvsd  in  •iimll  (|iuiitlti*ii.  Concrtt*  llma- 
•tiina  in  e>iv(<ll«nt  in  i|iiiility  «nil  itbuniliint.  The  hllU 
tttv  covermi  with  fur/.H  nuil  vitriout  Inillgaiiuiiii  •lirulw 
Uiil  tr«M,  Of  tlid  Uttar  tb«  inuit  ubunduiit  ia  tbii 
gumwoud,  of  wblrh  there  ara  three  kiniU,  ttiii  t'oni- 
mop,  t!ia  lia^tdrd,  ami  tha  dwarf  guni-traa.  Otiwr 
n.it' '■  .  I  f  'riiigwo'Kl,  di>|{W(K>d  redwiHul  or 
»l.':H),  "  1  I..  I'll  i)(a-trae,  of  which  the  but  two  are 
v'V  '  dura''  u  u.  'iuIMIiik  tiiiilmr,  Onkn,  cyiircNii,  and 
pinaitcr,  have  been  intioduRed  Into  the  plantation*, 
■nd  thrivn  w«ll.  The  fernii  of  St.  II«lmm  are  nuniar- 
oua,  and  the  myrtle  groviH  to  the  b"lt(ht  of  ill)  feet, 
The  cotton  plant  ulao  thrive*  very  well.  Fruit*  rl|Mn 
beat  In  the  valley*  near  the  couat,  but  cvnry  farm  pn>- 
duvea  In  al>uiidaiii:o  the  common  fVulta  and  veKetubla* 
both  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  zonoa.  The  at- 
tempt* to  tsrnw  cereal*  hnvr  not  •""  rded.  Of  the 
7M  «peciea  of  planta  iw<r  'I'n-  '  i  ...^  laland  ('•''•  (I'l 
•re  nativvH.  The  ivntle,  alieop,  and  goata  on  the 
labind  are  of  Knt^'iah  uT\g\n. 

Ht,  Helena  was  dUcovereil  by  the  l'orlUi(Ui<*e  In 
1601,  Thuy  succeeded  In  concealing  the  |MiHition  of 
81.  Helena  from  other  Euro|ioan  nation*  till  lfi8H,  when 
It  waa  descried  and  vl*ited  by  Captain  Cavendlah  on 
Ilia  way  home  from  a  voyage  round  the  world.  M<H)n 
after  thi*  It  became  well  known  to  the  Dutch  and 
SpanUrds.  In  course  of  time  It  was  aliandoned  b}' 
the  I'ortugueae,  and  taken  po**e*slon  of  liy  the  Dutch, 
'who  In  turn  abandoned  It  on  tlie  oatalillshmont  of  their 
colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  In  llilil.  On  their 
departure  the  English  I'^at  India  Company  formed  a 
uttlement  upon  St.  Helena,  and  about  ten  years  after- 
word obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  charter  for  it*  |H>a. 
aeaaion.  In  1663  the  Dutch  successfully  attacked  the 
island,  but  In  a  few  months  were  driven  out  of  it  by 
the  Engliali.  Aguin,  in  1  ui,  the  Dutcli  recaptured 
it,  through  the  treachery  of  the  planter* ;  liut  it  was 
almost  immediately  recovered  by  an  Engliali  squad- 
ron, under  Captain  Munden,  and  again  restored  to  the 
East  India  Conipan}'.  A*  the  traile  of  the  East  I.ulia 
Company  increased,  the  importance  of  the  island  be- 
came daily  more  apparent. 

Hut  the  chief  bbtorlcal  interest  of  St.  Helena  cen- 
tres in  I^ngwood  House,  the  residence  of  the  exiled 
Emperor  Napoleon  from  1815  till  hi*  death,  May  A, 
1X21.  The  house  in  which  the  emperor  lived  haa 
IM90U  allowed  to  fall  grailually  into  decay  ever  ainca 
his  body  was  ramov  ^  to  France  in  18-11. — Uruokk'm 
liiitorji  of  this  laland  ••/St.  llrleaa;  Jon.vgoM'H  Ao- 
couuto/Sl.  Helena;  liEATitDx'g  TracU  reliUive  to  the 
JtUtud  of  Si.  IleleHo,  etc.  In  1»06,  the  population  was 
fX'ii;  in  183's  4881  (comiv  .d  of  I'JOl  white*,  UU  in 
tl  •>  civil  and  militar}'  eatalili>liments,  1074  .-laves,  7211 
free  colored,  412  Chinese,  and  24  Lascars) ;  in  1H39, 
42U6 ;  in  1849,  the  total  military  force  amounte>I  to 
•bout  1600  regular  troops,  beside*  four  volunteer  com- 
panies of  white  and  black  niHltia.  Soldiers  ore  acime- 
tin\es  pUced  at  St.  Helan  to  undergo  a  ac.soning 
previous  to  being  sent  to  India ;  and  thi*  island  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ure  the  princii>al  stations  to 
which  captured  slaves  are  brongit,  and  employed  in 
public  works. 

H«n  Oate,  Her/  Oatt, 
merly  a  dangerous  '  in  the 
River,  l>etween  C  «  im  li- 
near the  city  of  N  .  k.  I 
iui;  rocks,  which  cortiuu  tlie  v 
orooked  channel,  uiuaaioning  strong  eddy  currents, 
dangerous  to  vessels  at  certain  times  of  the  tide.  The 
oiiHunel  has  been  deepened  by  blasting  the  rocks,  so 
that  there  i*  now  21  feet  of  wat'-r  at  low  tide  through- 
out it. 

Holm,  implies  the  mechanism  of  the  steeiago, 
eapac'olly  the  tiller ;  as,  to  put  the  helm  a-ttarboarj, 
i\\  to  put  the  tiller  over  to  the  right  side ;  a-jtorl,  to  tbe 


or  HuTl-Oat«,  for- 
-  trait  called  the  East 
iid  and  Long  Island, 
s  formed  by  projed- 
1  ter  to  a  narrow  and 


left  sUa  I  «/,  to  tha  waathsr  alda  |  dmn,  to  the  Urn 
akla, 

RalmUBU.  The  man  who  steers,  A  gooil 
iMliiiaiiiau  opiwawi  In  time  tlin  tendency  of  the  ship  tu 
ilevlatii  from  h«r  course  liy  a  *niall  motion,  which  ho 
ralaxe*  aa  swin  a*  the  alTei't  U  felt,  and  thua  disturfia 
her  aailing  aa  lltMs  aa  txiaaible.  A  bad  helmsman 
giviia  her  too  nmili  helm,  anci  k>->'|M  her  (lerpetUiiUy 
yawing  from  one  aide  to  the  other,  The  stei-ruge, 
thnrHfcjrK,  I*  of  the  titmoat  conaenuence  In  chase. 

HamlOOlCi  llm  Cimiiim  mai'tdulum  of  liotiinista,  la 
an  umliellifiirou*  |iliint  (maiic'iiaing  narcotic  ami  (lower- 
ful  (HiiaonoUB  |ir>>|icrtle*.  It  in  >v  readily  be  (listin- 
giilahod  from  iiicial  other  timlieliiferoua  plants  by  the 
nunieniii*  ilark  purple  aiHit*  which  cover  It*  immilH 
Blein  and  leaf  atiNka,  and  by  the  strong  heavy  odor, 
riiaembling  that  of  mice,  which  it  exhales.  The  poi- 
sonous pro|i«rtii'S  realda  In  every  |iartof  the  plant,  iiiul 
are  owing  t<i  llm  priiaencn  of  n  fiecullar  volatile  olea- 
ginous alkaloid,  called  ckhiVi  ur  eonoine,  capable  <ii 
f<  rilling  aalta  with  aclda,  which  are  e<iually  energetic 
a*  tliii  I'oiiia  ItMilf, 

Hamp  (<li<r.  //«(/*/  Dii.  Iltnnig,  Keimip;  Da, 
lliim))!  Sw,  l/iimiui;  ft.  Chamt  It,  Ciiiuipe;  Up. 
CitmiiiKii  llua.  Kniiniili,  Kiimmeli  Pol.  Ktmope),  a  val- 
ualile  plant  (the  I'unmttiii  mliiiii  of  Mnnn^us),  nupposed 
to  be  u  native  of  India,  but  long  since  naturalised  and 
extimslvei)  cultivated  In  Italy,  and  many  countries 
of  Kuro|ie,  particularly  Ituaala  and  I'oland,  where  it 
forma  un  article  of  prhnary  coinmercliil  im|iortunce. 
It  ia  alao  ciiittviited  In  dllTernnt  part*  of  America, 
thougli  not  III  aui'h  (|unntitli's  us  to  so)  'rsede  ita  im- 
portation. It  I*  atrimgor  and  coarser  In  th  lilire  than 
llux  j  but  its  iiaea,  culture,  and  management  are  ptetty 
inueti  the  aamn,  Whan  grown  for  axed,  It  Is  a  very 
exhausting  crop)  liut  when  pulled  green,  It  Is  consid- 
ered as  a  clnunnr  of  the  ground.  In  Great  lirltain  Its 
I  ultivatlon  is  not  ilcumed  prolltulile;  so  that,  notwlth- 
Htuiidlng  t'<"  uncourageinent  it  him  ni  elved  from  gov- 
ornmuni,  ...'  the  excellent  i| 'iility  u '  i  "glish  hemp. 
It  ia  but  llt'le  grown,  I'lcept  in  tome  r<  -v  districts  of 
Hulfolk  and  Lliivolnahire,  The  ((uantlt  i*ed  in  Ire- 
land la  alao  Inconaiderabla. — Loiiihin'h  lycn/Ag- 
ricult. 

FUx  was  drat  planted  In  England,  when  it  w«« 
directed  to  lie  aown  for  llahing-nets,  A.ii,  IA  >  Boun- 
tiea  were  |iaiil  to  encourage  It*  cultlviition  in  li "ll ,  and 
ever}-  exertion  should  lie  made  liy  the  government  and 
leglalulure  to  aecompllsh  such  a  national  xkI,  In 
1786  tliere  ware  iin|i<irt«d  from  Kuaaiit  In  Ilr^tiah  ships, 
17,11110  ton*  of  lieinp  and  ilax._>Vi'r  John  Sinclair. 
The  annual  ImiHirtntiona  of  these  article*  now  amount 
t<i  aliout  ]Oa,iNHt  ton*.  More  than  180,000  Ibn.  of 
rough  hemp  ure  used  In  the  cordage  of  a  flrst-rate 
man-of-war,  Including  rigging  and  sails.  See  Fi.ax. 
—//agiln. 

Exceedingly  giMsl  hiichtliack  I*  made  from  hemp,  for 
towels  and  common  tul'leclothi.  Low-priced  hempen 
cloths  are  a  general  wear  for  husbandmen,  servants, 
.'IP''  laboring  manufacturers  |  the  better  sorts  for  work- 
ing farmer*  and  tradesman  In  the  countf}' ;  and  the 
fluei  ones,  i|  wide,  are  preferred  hy  some  gentlemen 
for  strength  and  warmth.  They  posaei*  this  advan- 
tage ovfci'  Irish  and  oilier  linen*— that  their  color  im- 
proves hi  woarliig,  while  that  of  linen  deterionites. 
but  the  groat  cun»uni|itlon  of  hemp  I*  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  •ttilcloth  and  cordage,  fur  which  purposes  it  ia 
pecullarlv  fitted  iiy  the  strength  of  it*  flbro.  English 
hemp,  wlion  pro|ierly  prepared,  is  said  to  be  stronger 
than  that  of  every  other  country,  Russia  not  excepted ; 
and  would,  therefore,  make  the  best  cordage.  It  Is, 
however,  but  llttla  used  In  that  way,  or  In  the  making 
of  sallclutb  I  being  principally  maile  Into  cloth  for  the 
uaet  already  atated, 

Hemp  Im*  lieen  cultivated  In  Bengal  fVom  the  re- 
motest aiitli|uity,  but  not,  as  In  Euro|>e,  for  the  pur- 
poH  of  beliiK  nwDufacturud  Into  cloth  and  cordage. 


Tnm  - 

'»  "•»•  HIn.),./,  lenmrnv  t»  „ 

"•«".   Hf.vorie.   ln..?,i,"T  •"""'""""•«" 

*Wch  It  I,  ,,,p„,rt  In  Kjf'i  J5  ';  ''"•,'*  »•••  «••  «o 
meret,  ,t,..  Kyp'— Mit.Bini, ',  fVtoK.  tVim- 

•nd  «h«  extent  t„  »hi,,,  ;'"«"'  '"'n  ■•«..  lnt„  um, 
•«'!  In.p„r(,t|„„  „t  h;  '"  "'m'nl-h  lh«  ron,„m,,tion 

<^»/';"  '.;mp  tr!:^/:'  tllK'^r-.  -"•>  respect 
„  ""«;•  form,  s  verv  lm.?L    .  '  ""'  '"'♦v : 

temp  ,.1,1,  |-J„  J,  ,'«'■";   '!  '■""'""rol™ 

'heir  4ent,.'"'?,r:';«"'J"  '^O-'Se.l'kc'eot, 'n'.^'T; 
"pe<.k,  pe,  bere!,:it:X  'o  "I'!'r'"«  ''4    «  fi^ 

'-Kt,lt'!^t.«£-^^^^^^ 

er,  and  owner,  and  " .e  ite """t'  "'  *■"  "e'ector,  biSi 

with  7h      ""■  "'""«  "'the  ,eleo^,'  """P*''  «"  »ne 

Sr"  K  .lis  r^v'~?^"  ™ "' 

being  of  an  equal  irreen  !^  i         '^•'  hemp  «„    it, 

«"«ter  port.o„':f'3,'';„^f '-»  ^""'-'n".'.  il 
qnalUies  and  colors.         '     ^  ''  """"over  of  mix"" 

•nd  flax  «lyt:qu^d°L'e:  """"""^  <"  »-? 
Jfon,  agents  usually  eJ",lr"'^ "^I'enence  and  atten 
to  this  business,  by  wH  1"''"  «on«t.ntly  occuZd 

«f  g«Wng  satisfaction  to  thii:^  ''?''«  'he  best  chance  ' 
«hou«hthe  hemp  issl  f  ,  .""^""'P"'' i  l^cause  .T 
•»  ng  to  the  qua^nti  y  „th'l''y  '^"^  -elector   '■ 

wh^hitmust'beeZuted  e  r'th"""  "■"  '^'^^^^ 
^v^n™**  I"  """  ""»«  "Ort,  ThS''!  "^  <"*«"  great 
WV  somewhat  increased  -but    h"  -^"S*"  "«  ''»  'his 

"I  picKea  out  in  oleanini.  h._  ,  *  "e  part  separated 
rt  is  generally  mX  un  fn?'  1  "'"**'  *«»P  «  •' 
which  are  ag^in.^l, ""  M^!!°."  ''""•''<"  »'  1  iC' 
largo  bundles,  each^!?,.!''PP*''  hound  togethiTin' 
Particular  cai  mttT'  "keVt„'^"\^  ""'^  »- 
fa  fine  drK  weather,  if  it  «»  'V^,  '"""P  """  «« 
8«t  wet,  it  heats  and  is  to- 


HEM 


wiy  •Mi«d.   Po,  ,hi,  „. 

hen-p  o,  fl„  ,.  furnUhed"    h"  V'?  '«"•''  '•'■Ing  fa. 
ting  .l„„m.     ||„n,„    1,^1' „,,  ™*'''  '"  Prevent  It.  ,-  ^ 

which  mnrt.™  the  o,H,rat^„'f   „'",?""  "'  *'"'•'••. 

hemp  are  hl^es,  In  til  rnth;'!/?,"*  '^•  I"'-'-"' 
«ml  ,h.  early  part  „r  A2"n\f*!'J' •'•'"•.  -'"Iv, 
Nort!  >"'"?  "••"  Kreu.es'^i;,"',!  "•'"•"''  «•'  thi^ 
N<'rth  America  Iwlna  nrinri^.M  .  "*P<'rtatiou  to 
■"»•  Again,  the  prices  of '^"•'"'"'''^'''' »'  "'I,  »,Z 
,"""«h„f  .Sept^mlH,',,";,"'  ''7"/re  '"west  l„  th^ 
"«-.  opulent  he„,p.„,„V,t„7,*;^"  "  ?':'' ''-  "'»'  'he 
■nonth  to  their  own  .  ountrv.  i„  ".  "'  "'"  «"''  "^  ""Is 
^ha-'s  for  the  ensuinrverr     """'"'"  """"  ""*  l-«r 

«'"*<!,  sell  the  re„,!"^„eroVth:;    7"'^  " "  '^■ 

•«I"W  the  market  price  Th.""""  """''•' 
^llne;  although  «n  umisuanLn"","/ «"""'«!  •<" 
happening  at  th.„um"  tbn.  ""'.  '"■■  'he  ar.lcl. 
rumors,  occasionally ""'^'J;""'  '"  P"""™'  events  „? 
h«rge  warehouses,  c«||"d  a"™.  "  "'"«™ry  effect.  Two 
h'TR  forth,  special  pu';^*'^"f;"™hullt  In  Petei;! 
'he  greyest  order  is  Z^Z  '"»  '"""P-  *h.T« 

northerly  „f  the  X"  1"™  "  """  «'  'he  m^ 
of  Mindanao,  In  thi  I'hlli  ,  „«;  ./hi  *  '^'"  '"'»'"' 
e  '«.  Krom  the  lll.rou,  I  irk  n,  .  '  "•<">»ive  for. 
fac  ured  a  kind  of  cloth  „  f  °  "P^ermis  I,  „„„„. 
""'  ves.  It  .1.0  affo  d,  the  ^^''T',"  "»•  ""■"•'g  the 
""hie  c„r,l.«e  which  the  Ih""' "'«  """"^"1- 
Arch|pelaBo7ield\h  !."'■'«•"""''  Pro.lucts  of  th, 
navigators  under  the  nam?„"n? '"?"' readers  and 

•q"«"ir  applicable  to  caE  «„„  ,"""  *  '"'"•  «"''  i» 
"'»«  rlggi„^..._^.     J'}ll'^«^  '«  "tandin^  or  run- 

»»mp  (Indians  o-  ^  ^"'"/"'"'/o,  vol.  i.,  „.  4.0 
°f'hafUfS:^,,::::;«Cf^^'*--Sun;'cons1;ts 
plant  from  th.  cr^nJrZ"^'''l*'!^»ymno,-,„t 
«tat«d,  is  never  uaed  by  the  ^1,  ",'"''''•   »»  already 
™rdag„.     Sunn  is  grown  ;„„"'"'<»'  'o'  cloth  or 
doostan.     The  stro.fZT  Jhl,    ."""'  P'"""'  "f  Hln- 
"P«,«ies  is  PToduc^TTcw^';, ""'."'''''  ""raWe 
periods  of  the  late  war  wheTthT  l^:      ""'"«  "-oso 
Haltio  was  interrupted,  anS  he '."""""  ""'"•  "•« 
prce   large  quantiUes 'of  ,„Srw    ""7  ""  """"'«"« 
after  the  intercourse  with  thrrw"  '™P«rted;   but 
the  importation  of  su,Tn  cea 'd  ,  "''  """"'<"^' 

»;lthi„  the  last  dozen  yea«Th/rh!'"''""'  ^'""'-   «" 

tXhr^"""  •--  ^' tho^Zenarrj 
choth  ;d';:'hu"„?cc^:::::„'-  pi-t,,  ced  th. 

,>'.;  m  fact,  the  material  of thtu     ''"*''''''"'' '■''"'«- 
I  «un  ij'  oioth  are  made.     It  fe  Jhi     »"^"J'  ''»«■'  an* 
i  'l-it-   >.  !,igh  a  price  a,  Zn      u    """'-^  "'""Kb  not 
i'"n  wita  flax,  tow,  and  Sa  i  ^^^  '"'» "'""'Pell- 
swur  and  other  carnets   ImI     '   ",""  ""nxfacturrof 
goods,  and  such Xl&'T.'^"'™"''''""'"  other 
';or  these  purposes  in  Dundee      \"A  ?""»i^elr  used 
for  cordage  and  other  articL      ."'  "  ''  """"itable 
manufactured,  from  it,  l.V;  •     "'"  *''''^h  hemp  i, 
rotting  in  water.     The  nn^^  ^'»«°  "'''ted,  and 
Prices,  have  Auctua^d  vT^"^  rtl'T"^'"' ""^  'he 
dozen  years;  but  from  flzTo  ^riV"*"*  ""  '«"' 
a  fa.r  average  price.     When  ««/  •  .*";  "PP«'"»  to  l.e 
oountrK,  in  1815,  the  ori™  ^f  .  !  ""'roduced  into  this 
£iO  a  ton.    It  was  theST  ^"'^  ^"i*-!  from  i;35  to 
did  not,  in  factTeginSi  com:!!'*"^ ''"•"  "'H  «nd 
era!  us,  as  baggi„gVl827  „r  Jsl/"^' """«  "'«'  ««°- 

;;"i!i~rdi,,,.wLii,rJ^^.°/f,~<i»i  "•«  hM 


HEM  f 

|ir«|i«rlnit  It  hn*  Uuly  liMn  ilavlwil,  Thti  malhiM 
d«|Mn<l«  I'hUlly  (in  th«  aolvrnt  iHiwam  nf  ■  hot  •nlii- 
llon  of  I'trlmimtii  »r  mhI.i,  uml  U  mi  Mtlarartiiry  that 
mlxMl  hhrif*  »rv  iinw  m«ilii  with  ('hln*-)(r«»»  u  tin* 
iif  tha  r(>m|H>iv«nt  tilirn  i  mid  thom  umiiiiii  M'lin'i'lv  iiliy 
liailt  til  th*  pnilNilil*  aupiily  nfthp  K'***  frum  liiillii. 

Vullun  in  Hiuiia.-  Nmt  t4i  tli«  i-ultiira  iif  ivniiili 
•ml  th*  raarliiK  of  ilmixiilli'  aniiiiiil*,  thn  ciiUiira  of 
flax  anil  hainp,  hoth  an  IrxtlU  plnntii  anil  a>  nlraitinoua 
gralna,  h  the  moat  im|Mirtanl  liranch  of  KuMlan  hua- 
bandr)'.  Tha  gTum  valun  of  than*  pnidiirta  anmunta, 
•t  •  vary  nuidarata  mtlmatc,  to  aUiiit  AA,A(M),nO(l  of 
iilvcr  rouiilaa  dt-dl.AdO.lMKt)  g  and  iKith  aoll  anil  cllinala 
are  rxi-ardlnKly  favorniila  to  Ihnlr  rultiirn  throughout  a 
grrnt  pjrt  of  thn  Finpini.  Aa  Ihnlr  proiluotlon  Kroatly 
•xceeda  tha  wanta  of  thn  hiimfl  nianufuHum,  th«  ax> 
lanalon  of  their  rultura  rnapntlully  il«p>inila  on  tha 
bciltty  with  which  tliay  llml  un  outlet  In  the  fonil|(n 
market.  Flax  and  hemp  have  alwaya  formed  two  of 
the  prlnH|iul  export*  ;  and,  if  to  thaae  we  add  oleaK> 
InouH  Kraiiia,  whinh  runalat  principally  of  the  leedi  of 
hemp  and  Hux,  «•  ahall  And  thut  the  export  of  these 
three  artli'lfa,  taken  aa  a  whole,  exrneda  In  value  that 
of  any  other  pnidurt.  Fn  the  rourKO  of  'H)  yeara,  from 
iW2't  to  1H40,  Incluilve,  there  wi-re  liut  four,  nanielv, 
IHiU),  18U1,  lH4ti,  and  1H47,  in  which  the  ralue  of  ex- 
ported cereal*  waa  Kreatar  than  that  of  thaae. 

From  tha  cuatnm-hcuae  returns,  we  tinil  that,  during 
the  period  In  i|ueatlan,  tha  total  value  nf  exportt  for 
Kui-opcnn  < nmmeron  amnunted  to  tl,4V7,AH<l,'^'Jfi,  alwut 
12  (A  per  cent,  of  which  waa  in  flax,  10  1-A  per  cent. 
In  hemp,  and  8  a.A  per  cent.  In  olraKinoua  teeda. 
Theae  tiKurea  forcibly  aliow  tha  lm|iortunr«  of  thn 
culture  of  these  lextliei  to  the  foreign  conimeri'e  of 
Kiissla,  aa  well  aa  for  her  domestic  manufarturra.  In 
tbia  branch  of  aHrieulture,  she  has  not  hitherto  met 
with  serious  competition,  as  the  other  countries  of  con- 
tinental EuMpc,  in  which  these  articles  are  prmluced, 
not  having  much  land  to  spare  for  that  purpose,  and 
flndiiig  it,  from  their  greater  relative  population,  more 
profitable  to  cultivate  other  crops,  do  not  raise  enough 
for  any  conaidoralile  exportation ;  for,  nowhere  in  K«- 
Mpe  can  they  be  cultivated  in  such  aliundiince  as  in 
Russia.  Of  other  countries.  It  ia  the  Kaat  Indies  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  that  furnish  Kngland  the  Urgest 
supplies,  say,  from  10,00()  to  1«,A00  tons  per  annum, 
and  the  United  States,  which  export  at  present  not 
over  AOW)  tons.  Kngiand,  moreover.  Imports  fh>m 
Egypt  and  other  parts  of  Africji  aliont  200  tons  of  flax 
and  hemp,  an  amount  comparatively  insigniflcant. 

Notwithstanding  the  heavy  blows  continuously 
dealt  out  to  it,  liy  the  increasing  use  of  cotton  goods, 
tiia  linen  manufacture  still  maintains  the  foremost 
rank  In  Russia,  in  point  of  extent  and  imporunce.  It 
la  not,  like  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Great  Britain, 
tha  United  States,  and  other  countries,  concentrated  la 
targe  establishments,  which  strike  the  eyd  by  their 
sixe,  their  mncbinery,  ami  the  numbers  of  workmen 
collected  on  the  premises  ;  but,  conducted  within  the 
modest  walls  of  the  peasants'  cottages,  it  is  diff'nsed 
over  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  There 
la  scarcely  a  villsge  within  thn  wide  limits  of  the  em- 
pire, where  the  wheel,  tha  distaff,  and  the  loom  are 
not  to  be  found.  With  regard  to  the  extent  of  thia 
species  at  indnstry,  it  is  averred  that  linen  forms  one 
of  those  articles  of  prime  necessity  which  no  individual 
in  Russia,  rich  nor  poor,  can  entirely  dispense  with. 
Reckoning  only  10  yards,  28  inches  in  width,  for  each 
inhabitant,  per  annnm,  it  would  require  for  the  popu- 
lation of  6&,000,'<XIO  (including  i'oland),  n  consumption 
of  666,000,000  j-aids.  The  culture  of  flax  for  com- 
merce is  most  extensively  carried  on  in  tha  govern- 
ments of  Wologda,  Wiatka,  Jaroslaw,  Wladotnir, 
Novgirrod,  Pskow,  Livonia,  Courland,  Smolensk, 
WUna,  and  Witebsk,  and  that  of  hemp  in  the  govero- 
menta of  Tichemigow,  Koursk,  Orel.Toula,  and  Tam- 
bow.     Thia  important  branch  of  rural  economy  hoi 


N  iif:m 

I  attract*     '>ia  apaolal  attantton  of  lh«  Rusalaa  goTan» 
I  ment. 

\  Oullur*  m  Iht  (fnllr^i  tf>ii/i>«.— During  the  iaat  half 
'  cantur)'  graal  affiirta  have  liean  made  in  KuMpa,  and, 
|tii  aimiii  extrnt,  of  late,  in  thn  I'nitrd  Htatas,  t<  in- 
\  oraasa  and  iiupniva  tha  prtHluctlmi  and  manufacture  iif 
I  flax  and  hemp.  Kiinnarly  they  were  rmisldar^d  na  in- 
dlaiieiiaable  nnipa  aninng  our  pluiiten  ami  fumiara,  Imt 
their  uae  has  iiaen  au|iers«ili<il  in  a  ineasurw  liy  thn  cot- 
tun  of  the  South.  Oomnion  flax  Is  a  native  of  Itritalu, 
where  it  haa  lieen  cultivated  frtmi  time  ininiemorlal, 
and  from  its  hanlihooil  and  adaptation  lu  a  wide  range 
of  tnmiieniture,  it  haa  liaen  grown  in  almost  every 
ctiuntry  on  the  eantcrn  continent,  fhim  Egypt  to  the 
|Nilar  I'irile,  and  In  North  America,  from  Texas  to 
Newfoundland.  Ileuip,  which  la  BUp|Miaad  to  lie  a 
native  of  liiilla,  but  loug  since  accliniatlxedand  exten- 
sively cultiviitifii  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  several  other 
couiitrla*  In  lOiimpe,  |iarticiiUrly  in  Poland  and  Rus- 
sia, as  well  a*  in  different  |iarta  of  America,  also  fonns 
an  article  of  primary  importance  In  commerce,  and  is 
of  extensive  utility.  Hoth  of  these  products  were  in- 
tnidurad  into  tile  North  American  oolunias  soon  after 
tliair  settlement  by  the  Kiiglish.  They  are  mentioned 
as  growliig  in  New  Kngluiid  prior  to  ItiS'J;  and  Imun- 
tias  were  offered  for  their  cultivation  in  Virginia  as 
early  aa  17AI.  Captaiu  Matthews  sowed  yearly  both 
hemp  and  Max,  which  be  cauaa<l  to  lie  spun  and  woven, 
prior  to  the  year  IMM.  In  IWi  an  edict  was  |iassod 
requiring  each  poll  in  Virginia  to  raise  nnniially  and 
n.anufauture  six  pounds  of  linen  thread ;  but,  from 
tiie  change  of  the  laws  and  the  cessation  of  the  iioun- 
ties,  the  culture  declined. 

In  the  lata  Kxhibitliin  at  l,ondon,  of  the  Works  of 
Iniluntr}'  of  All  Nations,  Iwth  of  theae  materials  held  a 
conspicuous  rank.  Flax  was  exhibited,  the  growth  of 
Great  liritain,  Irehtnd,  Holland,  Uelgiuni,  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Prussia,  Germany,  Poland, 
Russia,  Turkey,  Egypt,  India,  Van  Dieman'a  I.and 
Canada,  and  the  United  States,  and  hemp  from  all  of 
these  countries,  except  liritain.  Inland,  Canada,  and 
Van  Dieman's  I^nd.  The  fibre  of  flax  and  hemp  haa 
never  b«wn  prmluced  in  this  country  in  suflicient  abund- 
ance to  form  much  of  an  article  of  foreign  commerce, 
but  flax-seed  waa  formerly  shipped  to  Europe  in  large 
quantities.  There  were  exported  Oom  New  Jersey 
in  17A1,  14,000  lbs.  of  hemp ;  tiom  Savannah,  in  1770, 
I8tX)  lbs. !  (kom  the  United  Staces  in  18A0-'&1,  47ti9 
cwt.  The  amount  of  flax-seed  exported  from  Phila- 
delphia ill  1752  was  70,000  bushels;  in  1707,  84,0A8 
bushels ;  in  1771,  110,412  bushels  ;  from  New  York  In 
1766,  12,628  hhds. ;  from  the  Uritish  North  American 
colonies,  in  1770,  812,612  bushels;  from  the  United 
States,  In  1701,  202,460  bushels ;  in  1800, 280,084  bush- 
els ;  in  1810,  240,670  bushels ;  in  1820-'21,  2()4,ai0 
buaheU;  in  1880-'81,  120,702  imshels ;  in  1840'41, 
32,243  bushels ;  in  1860-'6],  9186  busheb. 

According  to  the  cenans  returns  of  1840,  there  were 
raised  in  the  United  States  9A,2All  tons  of  flax  and 
hemp ;  of  IH60,  85,008  tuns  of  hemp  and  7,716,9<J1  lbs. 
of  flax.  The  correctness  of  the  returns  aa  to  hemp,  in 
the  seventh  census,  has  not  yet  been  fully  verified. 
There  baa  been  soma  doubt  whether,  in  a  number  of 
instances,  the  marshals  have  not  written  lom  when 
they  meant  Ihi.  If,  however,  thn  returns  are  all  al- 
lowed to  stand  without  reduction,  it  would  appear  tliat 
the  cultivation  of  hemp  or  flax  has  materially  changed 
since  1840.  In  the  returns  of  that  year,  as  stated 
above,  both  of  these  articles  were  included  under  the 
same  head.  In  1840,  those  of  Virginia  gave  2o,&94 
tana  of  hemp  and  flax  together.  In  1860,  only  141 
tons  of  hemp  and  600  tons  of  flax  were  returned. 
Such  B  falling  off  would  amount  to  almost  an  aban> 
donment  of  the  culture  of  hemp  in  that  State,  which 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  has  taken  place. 

Tha  discover}'  of  new  methods  for  separating  tbo 
fibrous  from  tha  woody  parts  of  the  flax  plant  ha^ 


'" «••• « 'Mir.'i«Jl. *T."" ••'•""I'm  i„ |„  „,M,.„  ^It 

J3w,:;      ;;;; t^lXXui  ffi'^*  "eWde,,  where  the  „1       "'    "  ■  '''-"^Iv...  to  ,h. 

PMl.4,  "*"  "«t",  ««.!  1«  1»,6  ^,„  ;^X  ;"    ^"/'f'  ""'""'n*  are  often  p'nJ'-  '"■'',""'^''  »>""'  th^ 


HID 


070 


HID 


w*  hart  no  partienUr  •athorttj'  for  It,  yat,  m  rery 
few  young  barring*  ara  found  In  ou^  Mai  daring  win- 
tar,  it  aeaina  mo^t  certain  that  tlicy  muit  return  t<i  their 
parental  huunta  banaatlt  tba  Ice,  Home  of  the  old  her- 
ringn  continue  on  our  comt  di*  wbola  year."— I'sii- 
HAMt's  Hrititk  /aologi). 

The  herring  woa  unknown  to  the  andanta,  being 
rarely,  If  ever,  found  witbin  tba  Medlterrnnean,  The 
Dutch  are  aaid  to  bavt  engaged  In  tba  llNhcry  in  1104. 
The  invention  of  piobllnir  or  Miting  herringt  is  aa- 
cribed  to  one  lieukola,  or  Ueukoli  on,  of  Klervllat,  near 
Sluya,  who  died  In  1»U7.  The tr-i^iror,  Cbarlaa  V., 
viaited  bla  grave,  and  ordered  a  inagnillcent  tomb  to 
be  erected  to  hit  memory.  HInca  thia  early  period,  the 
Dutch  have  uniformly  umlntuined  their  nacendency  in 
the  herring  Itabery ;  but,  owing  to  tlie  Iteformation, 
and  the  reUx4d  olmervance  of  U^nt  in  (/atbollc  coun- 
triea,  tlie  domiind  r«r  lierringa  ufmn  the  Continent  la 
now  far  lesa  timn  In  t!iii  Hth  unci  l&th  centurioa. 

It  is  aliown  by  a  |mrliam«nt«ry  return  of  If^M,  that 
the  total  quantity  of  herring  curMl  in  Orc-ut  lirltain, 
during  18&S,  wa«  700,003  liarrela  1 1  lie  ((unntity  branded, 
280,581  barreli  i  and  tha  i|uantlty  exp<>rte<l,  442,204 
barrela — 'wing  an  increai'i  over  tiie  procedinft  year  of 
130,141  barroia  cured,  08,7117  lirancle<l,  and  80,r)07  ex- 
ported. The  quantity  cttuglit,  liut  not  cured,  amounted 
in  1855  to  8»0,75U  barrel*,  Iwirig  an  increoae  nf  20,970 
barrels  over  1854,  The  total  prwIuGa  of  the  herring 
flaberies  in  1865  aniountod  to  8U7,40ii  barrels,  being 
157,111  more  tbun  In  1854.  Uf  cod  and  ling,  during 
1855,  1111,501  owt.  was  cured  dried,  and  (tOlO  Itarrels 
cured  in  pickle  |  total  quantity  ex|iort«d  being  29,154 
cwt.  of  the  fomior,  and  25  barrela  of  tbc  latter.  Tbia 
was  an  increaaa  ua  compared  wltli  1854  of  0597  cwt. 
cured,  and  25  barraU  ex|Hirtnd.  'I'be  total  quantity 
caught,  but  not  cured,  iimiiuntiui  to  U,'t,5H9  cwt.,  Iioing 
an  iucreaxe  over  the  proceiling  ,MMir  of  5.tli7  cwt.,  and 
when  oilded  to  tlie  quantity  "ur«d,  makes  the  produce 
of  the  cimI  imd  ling  ftaliarloa  for  1855, 177,100  cwt.  and 
<i310  barrels,  Iteing  an  incnmae  over  18i>4  of  987i>  cwt. 
and  160  liarrels.  In  1856,  11,747  iKiats,  manned  by 
41,i>02  liahcrmen  and  l)uya  were  employed  in  the  shore- 
curing  department  i  ami  the  total  numlier  of  persona 
engaged  in  the  ticboriei  waa  91,155,  iieing  an  increase 


Hldaga  (flidagium)  waa  an  extraordinary  tax  pay 
able  to  the  kings  of  England  for  every  hule  of  land. 
This  tax  was  levied  \a  money,  provision,  armor,  and 
other  articles ;  and  v,  hen  the  Danes  landed  in  Sand- 
wich in  994,  King  Etbelred  taxed  all  bis  lands  by 
hidea,  so  that  every  810  hidea  furnished  one  jack  and 
one  aaddie,  to  arm  for  the  defense  of  the  kingdom. 
Sometimea  the  word  hidage  was  used  to  sifrnify  exemp- 
tion from  tbat  tax ;  and  this  immunity  was  also  called 
hidtgild,  and  interpreted,  from  the  Saxon,  a  price  or 
ranwm  paid  to  save  one's  skin  or  hide  from  l>eating. 

Hidea  (Oer. //ati/e ;  Du. //uui«»;  Fr.  Peatix;  It. 
Cuoja  I  Sp.  Pellejot,  PiUet ;  Bus.  Kothi),  signify,  gen- 
erally, the  skins  of  l)easts,  but  the  term  is  more  partic- 
ularly applied  to  those  of  large  cattle,  such  as  bul- 
locl'.s,  cows,  horses,  etc.  Hides  are  raw  or  green  ; 
tbat  is,  in  the  state  in  which  they  are  taken  oif  the 
carcase,  or  dressed  with  salt,  alum,  and  saltpetre,  to 
prevent  them  from  putrefying ;  or  they  are  cured  or 
tanned.  The  bides  of  South  America  are  in  tlie  high- 
est repute,  and  vast  quantities  of  them  are  imported. 

iHFOaTB    or    KiDIS    IMTO    THR   rnITSD    STATES    FOa   1S5(L 

ISBI,  1&'^. 


Now  York 

BoRton  and  Salem 

Hhlladclplila  and  Dalttinorc. 

Other  places 

Total...; 


IB91. 


5,368, 0-M 

1,762,862 

86T,fl!5 

107,314 


a,IISa,29:; 


«,ii),0(B  r-,c29,n29 

"  7B'.',r,82  3,2'JU,B88 
8»4.-.'J8     W)fl,t01 

ai'soasi  iC4,6(8 


10,UDII,0:;0|V,Sg4,353 


GZIKKAL    STATFMENT  OF    THE   FOBEION    l.MI'OBTS    OF    I'AW 

Hints  AND  Skins  into  the  Inited  States  for  the 
Veak  endino  June  UOtii,  {Saa. 


Whence  imported. 
I>iltllHll  Went  llld. 


t 

17,010 

llambiirB 205,805 

Itromoii 58,412 

Oiilcli  Weat  Indies  211,015 
Iltltcli  Guinnn, . ,.  5G0 

nutfh  East  Indies.         0,11^3 

IlelRlum 143,31rt 

r.ngland 3:m,TT7 

-      •     ■  5,514 

7T6 
704 

10,603 

04,171! 

10,«T8 


Scotland 

O'braltnr 

Dritlsli  N.  A.  I'OB. . 
lirltli^h  West  Ind.. 
Dritlah  Ilonduras. 


^  ^  .       _  ^.  Ilritlal)  Guiana . 

over  "the  preceding  year  of  850  lioata,  1240  flabermen  i  g"""  "•  f  •  A- 'J's. 
and  10,821  persons  in  the  totiil  numljer  employed,  j  };i:„|2'i.'a,t  Ind* ' 
The  TaiuL  of  iHiats,  nets,  and  Uiiea  amounted  in  1856    Kranre  on  the  At! 
to  i:818,4H4,  l)clng  an  liu'rwasa,  aa  compared  with  1864,    French  (inlana  . . 
of  *'J1,0C4.    See  FiailBitiKa,  i  ^''»"'  ""  "'«  *'"''■ 

Ak  ArrousT  or  Tii»  Wr.ioiiT  or  TUB  IllOB)  imtohted  ihto  England  in  each  of  thi.  Five  Tbaes  endinu  wrrrt 
19»«,  Ki-K(iiFViMO  rna  Ooiintkibi  wnaKoa  Tita  Hioes  weee  impchted,  and  the  Qitantitiks  bro-tqiit  from  each. 

I  lUdea  tuned.  Uweil.  eucrlej,  or  dreiied.  1 


4.12 

417,13a 

1,084,448 

29.279 

1,069 

l,l!>5 


Whence  imported, 
riillippine  lalandft. 


t 

54,760 

2,923 

4,042 

75,072 

286,780 

6,608 


diba. 

Porto  Rico 

Snrdlnin 

I'oTis  in  Africa. . . . 

Ilnyll 

8an  Pnniingo 41,104 

Mexico 416,000 

(Jcntral  Rrpiibllc.  '.■4,862 

New  Granada 428,446 

Venezuela 1,088,064 

Drazil 1,114,-81 

Urngniiy .Vi0,052 

Iliionos  AyrcH 1,013,0S« 

Clilll 2I(«,423 

Peru .'!9,009 

SDndwlcli  Islnnda. .  82,948 

AD  otlier  placea . . .  V.',81I3 


Total,  1867-68  f,88»,S68 


^untrlee  from  wbleb 
imporledi 


Ruaala 

Deni.iark 

Hruosit 

Hanseattc  towna.,,, 

Holland 

Belgium 

Channel  lala.,  for.  pr.xl. 

France 

Morocco 

British  Boutb  AfHea. . , 
liritlihEabtlnilies... 
Frencb  poa.  In  Inilla.., 

Java 

Philippine  lalsnda 

British  Auatralla  

Drltiiih  North  Aniuries. 
Br.W  IndloaJfcOulans 
trnltod  Htaloa  America 

U.'Xico ,,..,. 

Central  AinorUa.  . . 

New  Ursnoila 

Venesueta 

iBrazll 

jUruKuay 

iBuiMiiif  Ayres 

jChlll 

Peru 

;b«r  paria  

Total 


iPer 


MI4«*  iw»t  tanned,  liiwed,  curried,  or  In  ar.y  w»jr  dreued. 

'  \Hi.  '"  ""  ' 


Owl,, 
»,7T4 
20-i 
«,I7II 
O.lvi 
4,IWT 
I.IV* 

»4n 

» 

m 

H7D4 

1,421 

•i,m 

9,tl<«4 
1,161 

T.in 

10,Til 

6o4 

),785 

M4 

1,210 

SIMM 

'08,M9 

4,776 

T4 

1W.9 

4,686 

m 


I  Ma. 

Ml* 

706 

\m 

(1,678 
<,78« 

"772 

im 

«.T6<« 

2,01>0 
I.Mfl 

tjm 

21,106 

1.1)24 

7,i»a 

862 
41 

m 
i.jiifl 

17M41 

1I1.V8I 

114,477 

401 

t,inm 

1.668 
6i?."!WV 


_ia4»._ 

""dirl". 

ll,9«7 

I2« 
1,622 
8,492 
3,167 

2«8 

214 
12 

820 
»,7a8 
71,017 

784 
1,826 

aV,M4 

4,800 

8,889 
283 
486 
760 
710 
ill)7,IM> 

1,016 
820,947 

4.HA9 
894 

1.826 


1H60. 

18,792 

1,434 

8,008 

10.415 

6,822 

854 

28« 

1,104 

1,4<i» 

10,068 

101,198 

1,257 

926 

4,878 

20,047 

1,215 

8,690 

182 

212 

i,ao« 

488 

SO 

157,008 

8.164 

282.886 

2.286 

6,291 

2,697 


1.V>,686 

10,246 

261,668 

976 

2,014 

8,092 


1B41. 

1.1... 

184,141; 

....  I 

8,876, 

49,521 

104,960 
18,581! 
16,626: 

880,076' 


28,852 
981 


109,711 

1,879 

H8 

86^000 


28S,6M 


1S48.       I 

n- 

81,9.58 
66 

45,590 
104,316 

17,419 

4,786 

466,066 


147,168 


I8M1.       1       1861. 


Lbi. 

12,438 

4,68'- 

53',2i9! 
187,200 

28,481 

3,062l 

716,964 

■'i68 
240,866 


870,864     649,821 


44,116 


746 
296 


112 

8,586 


49,048;      4.%984 


1,040: 


Lb>. 

28,820: 
8,700 

4b",248' 

118,88* 

28,715: 

19,891  i 

619,340 

8,510 

207| 

658, 


847,591: 
11 

°5'74G 


87,189 


I 


l.b>. 

56,683! 
8,«4»: 

66,114 
107,7641 

19,8(«> 

38,832 

694,2051 

■■761I 
994,6101 

V.OTO 

981,0001 

202 

68,988 


112 

72,688 

9l986 


fl7H;962  l~M,92r  "072,107  I  1.512,208  1,271,862  1.78J.442,  1.896.798  i2,'iao,901 


:ftl 


HIO 


114 


'641 


,079 

,«ao 

202 
IT 


r.a 


»,fl»6 
6,901 


'  BiATniiirr  tHOwmn  thi  Nvmbik  asd  V^litb  or  Hidh 

SXPOBTID    FHOM    TIIR    UNITED    StATKS  FUB    TUK  YkAK 
KNIIINU  JCNK  80TII,  18A6, 


Whtthar  eiportcil. 


Rkmburg 

Bremen 

Holland 

Belffluin 

England , 

rjcotlaud 

lialta 

Canada 

Other  Dr.  North  Am.  Poa. 

British  ICast  Indloa 

Franco  on  tho  Atlantic. . . 
Franco  on  the  Medltcr... . 
French  North  Amer.  Po»,. 

Caba , 

Austria 

Austrian  Pos.  In  Italy , 

Hayti , 

Total 


DomasUo, 


843 
1,101 
20 
1.267 
8,7«1 
.   8fi2 

8)^226 

1,H86 

610 

4,757 


60 


1,000 
426 


1,806 
4,879 

ino 
6,660 
20,032 

610 

48"720 

2,836 

686 

18,256 


146 


2,000 
666 


ForelKi). 


Doll«ri:     I 


1,279 


681 

"■iso 

74,824 


1,800 
4,692 

13,170 


40,13^  I  1101,174  I  tlol,»24 


High  Seas.'  The  high  seas  mean  the  water  uf  the 
ocean  without  the  boundary  of  any  country,  and  they 
•re  within  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  admiralty 
up  to  high  water  murlc,  when  the  tide  is  full.  The 
open  ocean  which  washes  thi  se.vcoast  is  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  arms  of  the  sea  inclosed  within  tho 
fauces  terra,  or  narrow  headlands  or  promontories ; 
and  under  this  head  is  included  rivers,  harbors,  creeks, 
basins,  liays,  etc.,  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  6ow8. 
They  are  within  the  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdic- 
tion of  tho  United  States ;  but  if  they  are  within  the 
body  of  a  county  of  any  particular  State,  the  State 
jurisdiction  attaches. 

The  extent  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  district  courts 
of  the  United  States,  as  courts  of  admiralty  and  mari- 
time jurisdiction,  was  verj-  fully  examined,  and  with 
great  ability  and  research,  by  the  Circuit  Court  of  the 
United  States  for  Massachusetts,  in  the  insurance  case 
of  De  I.ovio  0.  Boit.  It  was  maintained,  that  in  vory 
early  periods  the  admiralty  jurisdiction,  in  civil  cases, 
extended  to  all  maritime  causes  and  contracts,  and,  in 
criminal  cases,  to  all  torts  and  offenses,  as  well  in 
ports  and  havens  within  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide, 
as  upon  tiie  high  seas ;  and  that  the  English  admiralty 
was  formed  upon  the  same  common  model,  and  was 
co-extensive,  in  point  of  jurisdiction,  with  the  mari- 
time courts  of  the  otlier  commercial  powers  of  Europe. 
It  was  shown,  by  an  expottion  of  the  ancient  lasos, 
that  Lord  Coli.u  was  mistalien  in  bis  attempt  tu  confine 
the  ancient  jurisdiction  of  the  adniir;  I'y  to  tlio  high 
seas,  and  to  exclude  it  from  the  narrow  tide-waters, 
and  from  ports  and  havens.  The  court  agrend  with 
the  admiralty  civilians,  that  the  statutes  of  13  R.  II., 
and  15  K.  H.,  and  2  H.  IV.,  did  not  curtail  this  ,m- 
cient  and  origiiiol  jurisdiction  of  the  o.'imlralty,  and 
that,  t'onsistMitly  with  those  statutes,  the  admiraltj- 
might  pxerc.se  jurisdiction  over  torts  ond  injuries  upon 
the  high  seas,  ai.  I  in  ports  within  the  ebb  and  How  of 
the  tide,  and  in  great  streams  below  the  first  bridges : 
and  also  over  uU  maritime  contracts,  as  well  as  over 
all  matters  of  prize  and  its  incidents,  It  appeared, 
from  o  historical  review  of  the  progress  of  tlie  con- 
troversy for  jurisdiction,  which  lasted  for  two  centu- 
ries, between  the  admiralty  anil  the  courts  of  common 
law,  that  the  latter,  by  a  silent  and  stcidy  ir.,'.rch, 
gained  ground,  and  extended  their  limits,  :!!'.tii  they 
acquired  concurrent  jurisdicti<m  over  all  maritime 
causes,  except  prize  causes,  within  the  cognijtauce  of 
the  admiralty.  The  common  law  doctrine  was,  that 
the  sen,  ex  vi  termini,  was  v  ithout  the  body  of  any 
country;  but  that  all  ports  and  havens,  and  all  nav- 
ignl>ln  tide  waters,  where  one  mi^;ht  see  fnnn  one  land 
to  tile  other  what  was  doing,  were  within  the  body  of 
the  county,  and  under  the  exclusive  juritdiction  of  the 
common  Hw  courts.  On  tlie  seu  shore  or  coast,  high 
»rd  low  water  'nark  d'''ermined  what  was  parcel  i 
.of  the  ie»,  and  what  was  the  line  of  di^'ision  between  I 


the  admlmlty  and  the  courts  of  law ;  and  it  was  held, 
that  it  ought  to  be  so  considered  by  parity  of  reason, 
where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  in  porta  and  Lavena ; 
and  that  the  admiralty  jurisdictiop  oxtands  to  all  tide 
waters  in  ports  and  havens,  and  rivers  beneath  the 
flrst  bridges.  It  was  admitted,  however,  that  the 
common  law  originally  had  jurisdiction  on  the  high 
seua,  concurrent  with  the  admiralty ;  and  that  in 
cases  manifestly  within  the  admiralty  jurisdiction, 
both  civil  and  criminal,  the  common  law  now  claimed 
concurrent  jurisdiction. — Kent's  Com.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  899, 
100. 

Crimes  on  the  high  seas,  such  as  piracy  and  rob- 
bery, ore,  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  punished 
witli  death.  Persons  charged  with  such  crimes  must 
be  tried  at  the  port  where  they  first  arrive  or  are 
brought.  Accessaries  shall  also  suffer  death.  Con- 
cealing a  pirate,  or  harboring  property  taken  by  a 
pirate,  is  punished  by  imprisonment  not  over  three 
years,  and  flue  not  over  #500.  For  revolt  on  ship- 
board, or  abetting  a  revolt,  seamen  will  be  imprisoned 
not  over  three  years,  and  fined  not  over  $1000. — Dun- 
lap's  Digest,  pp.  75,  76. 

Highway.  In  the  civil  law,  the  banks  of  public 
rivers  and  the  sea  shore  were  held  to  be  public.  Hi- 
paimm  publicus  us'ts  est ;  littorum  quoque  usus  publiciu 
est  Jure  yentium.  The  law  of  nations  was  here  used 
for  natural  right,  and  not  international  law,  in  the 
modem  sense  of  it ;  and  it  is  stated  in  the  Insti- 
tutes of  JusTiMAM,  that  all  persons  have  the  same 
liberty  to  bring  their  vessels  to  land,  and  to  fasten 
ropes  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  as  they  have  to  navi- 
gate the  river  itself.  These  liberal  doctrines  of  tho 
Koman  law  have  been  introduced  into  the  jurispru- 
dence of  those  nations  of  Europe  which  have  followed 
the  civil,  and  made  it  essentially  their  municipal,  law. 
Thus,  in  Spain,  the  sea  shore  is  common  to  the  public ; 
and  any  one  may  fish,  and  srect  a  cottage  for  shelter. 
The  banks  of  navigable  rivers  may  also  be  used  to 
assist  navigation.  In  the  French  law,  navigable  or 
floatable  rivers,  as  they  are  termed,  have  always  been 
regarded  as  dependencies  of  the  public  domain,  and 
the  lands  on  each  side  subject  to  the  servitude  or  bur- 
den of  towing  paths  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  Sir 
Matthew  Uale,  in  his  De  Jure  Marls,  concludes  that 
individuals  bad  a  right  to  a  tow-path  for  towing  vessels 
up  and  down  rivers,  on  making  a  reasonable  compeiisu- 
tion  to  the  owner  of  the  land  for  damage.  In  the  jeor 
1789  it  was  decided  in  England,  3  Term  Sep.,  "253, 
that  tiiere  was  not,  and  never  had  been,  any  right,  at 
common  law,  for  the  public  to  tow  on  the  banks  of 
navigable  rivers.  It  was  admitted,  that  on  many 
navigable  rivers,  ther')  was  a  custom  to  tow  on  the 
banks ;  but  the  privilege  in  that  case  rested  on  the 
special  custom,  and  nut  on  any  common  law  right. 
The  statutes  which  have  given  a  right  of  towing  ou 
parts  of  tlie  Severn,  Trent,  and  Thames,  ore  evidence 
that  no  such  general  riglit  before  existed.  In  New 
York  it  has  been  adjudged,  after  a  very  able  and 
thorough  examination  of  the  question,  that  the  public 
have  not  the  right  to  use  and  occupy  the  soil  of  an 
individual  adjoining  navigable  waters,  as  a  pubUc 
landing  and  place  of  deposit  of  property  in  its  transit, 
against  the  will  of  the  owner,  although  such  user  had 
been  continued  upward  of  20  years,  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  owner.  On  the  othtr  liaiid,  it  is  held  in 
Missouri,  that  navigators  and  flshcrmen  are  entitled 
to  the  temporary  usn  of  the  bunks  of  navigable  rivers 
in  that  State,  though  owned  by  private  individuals, 
for  the  purpose  of  landing  and  repairing  their  vessels, 
and  exposing  tlieir  sails  and  merchandise.  But  this 
use  is  for  transit  nt  purposes  only,  and  under  re!>trictions. 

It  is  a  settled  principle  in  the  English  law,  that  tlie 
right  of  soil  of  owners  of  land  bounded  by  the  sea,  or 
on  navigalile  water,  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows, 
extends  to  Iiii^h-water  mark;  and  tho  shore  below 
ciramoa,  brj  not  extraordinory,  highwat«r  mark, 


aiM 


912 


HIM 


hAmfflt  Ut  ttM  Mdt*  M  truniM  for  the  public ;  and  In 
Kflf(t»n/1  thd  crnwti,  and  In  thia  country  the  people, 
Imvo  (Imi  HimtUlt^  proprietary  interest  in  the  aame, 
tbnilKtt  It  m»y,  hy  gtunt  or  proscription,  become  pri- 
S»i»  \mt\mny.  The  public  have,  at  common  law,  a 
t\\iH  U)  »«vtf(«{«  oyer  every  part  of  a  common  nav- 
\H»^)U  f\<ipf,  nnA  m  the  large  lakes.  The  public,  in 
mm  wh#f«  th«  river  fs  navlgalile  for  boats  and  rafts, 
l»«v#  (in  nittmnmt  th«rein,  or  right  of  passage,  suliject 
to  tb#  jui  piMii'im,  as  a  public  highway.— Kent's 
Cum,,  ¥u\,  iU.,  ftp,  Mi-620. 

K#<eh  iitmtrUit<ir  in  entitled  to  a  larger  or  smaller 
ffOpftttUm  m  lh«  ullturlal  formation  and  shore  line, 
»mttA\»n  i»  th«  extent  of  his  original  line  on  the 
»lwf«  »»f  the  ritef.  In  the  case  of  rivers  not  nav- 
te»l4«,  U  \m\im{i»  to  the  owners  of  tlie  adjoining  land. 
"nil  PfJwHple  of  the  common  law  is  recognized  and 
mi<t»\\»  {n  the  Wates  of  Maine,  New  ITumpshire, 
M»»*»f\mmHli,  C'lmtiectlcut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
UnryUnA,  (tUa,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Louisiana. 

SinMlAyA,  «  flfltiscrtt  word,  compounded  of 
"blw«/'  f(M  Iff  tnmr,  and  "  alaya,"  plare  o/(Wil- 
mm'»  /iuiwrU  ftlellrman/),  Is  the  name  given  to  the 
r»nif0»  lit  wmmtfllns  which  tmund  India  on  the  north, 
ttinn  »(w  b#t(d  lit  the  Indus  on  the  west  to  that  of  the 
Wr*)lt««i«t(tM  im  the  east.  On  the  south  they  are 
l«)UHiW  \tf  the  plfllfis  of  India,  and  on  the  north  l>y 
tt(«  T(1*»s(B  cnrtfses  of  the  fl'><)ve-named  rivers.  A 
tuvofim  mHUm  iit  the  Himalaya  nowhere  presents 
H»«  inip*iifitni'«  lit  a  simple  range,  but  of  several  more 
ef  l*«  pnfil\M  chains,  separated  by  valleys  of  ,yerj' 
gruitt  <)(tj((h  ttnd  steepness  ;  this  is  liecause  the  sec'ond- 
Kfy  mtiiff  thiti  ramify  north  and  south  from  it  are  of 
arunt  Unifih,  lireadth,'  and  complexity,  and  fW)n:  hand- 
Wf(  til  the  Pdet  nr  to  the  west,  often  run  for  many  miles 
|»»frf)l*l  til  imn  ntiirther  and  to  the  main  range,  besides 
li»\»\t  \»Ui  emltl(*<es  loftier  than  any  on  tlie  latter, 
flit  tchlt'h  th»y  are  sometimes  mistaken.  The  axis  of 
tf»«  iWmnUy*  Is,  moreover,  not  marked  out  by  any 
i'mt\nmm  ridge  or  succession  of  peaks,  but  is"  often 
If'*!,  tumit,  imi\  low,  compared  witli  the  neighboring 
\mi\ttl-i\  ftMiweflces,  Hence  the  line  of  watershed  be- 
I'lmvi'  (he  *mly  gecgra,  hically  determinable  axis ;  and 
t()(»,  «*  In  nil  moHfitRln  chains  of  any  extent,  follows 
•n  KKtri'lrtely  sintloils  courst .  No  doulit  this  line. 
w(()<b  thrnws  the  Wiiters  in  two  opposite  directions 
tlirMM)(tt(Wt  the  whole  extent  nf  the  rnnge  (IMO  miles), 
in  nXmi  ibftt  of  greatest  elevation,  or  that  along  which 
tliit  Un4  I*  Nnlfllerriiptedly  the  most  lofty. 

lUtiif*.  however,  the  real  nature  and  geographical 
limit*  lit  th«  Himalaya,  as  above  defined,  can  be 
flxhtly  Ml(l«r«tW(d,  It  is  necessary  to  consider  this 
r»«j(«  In  lt<  felfltii.il  to  the  little  known  mountain  svs- 
t#wa  iif  {'ttttii\  Asia  of  which  it  perliaps  forms  a  less 
lm|K>rtitnt  fffjtt  ihan  Is  nsually  supposed.  On  refer- 
mum  Ui  tfm  map  iit  Asia,  the  wate.shed  of  that  conti- 
nent will  l»*  found  to  follow  a  torinous  line,  running 
4U{K»n(tll/  from  the  pen<nsuia  of  (iiij..''at  to  Behring's 
Htr«it,  Si-riion  the  plains  of  India  this  line  is  for  the 
iwi^t  \mn  Indicated  liy  the  Arawali  chain,  north  of 
**llt»'h  It  r^WMses  the  Hlrnalaya  obIif|tiely  In  a  north-east 
4trwi)<fn  (/>  the  snttrres  of  the  Indus  and  Ilrahmapu- 
U»,  whence  II  trends  westerly  to  tlie  source  of  the 
0«||«,  (tnd  then  again  north-easterly  along  the  Altai 
Ui  tUf  WMth  lit  f/*ke  Ilulkal,  till  it  l>ecomes  the  lablo- 
wA  M«Mnt«ln«,  and  finally  tenrina'es  In  the  prolonga- 
t\im  ut  that  fonge  which  traverses  tji-!  country  of  the 
T<'hMkt<'hl,  I.ate  and  interesting  Information  respect- 
Um  these  plaini  can  Ije  focmd  in  llufs  Tmreln,  184.'i. 

All  the  great  rivers  of  Asia  rise  In  this  watershei! , 
tiuHUi  hiim  h<  western  slope  flow  north  into  the  l'<dar 
H0{t,  west  Into  the  Caspian  or  Aral,  and  south-west 
ihtil  til*  Aralilan  Sea ;  those  from  its  eastern  slope 
(!'»w  hhH  and  south-east  into  the  I'uiiflc,  and  south  Into 
th«  Indian  Oi  mti.  Knormous  mountain  I'bains  Imindi 
oH  t0  tb«  tmH  (fid  vrost  at  this  main  axis,  inclosing 


the  valleya  of  the  rivers ;  and  of  these  chains  the 
southernmost  is  the  Himalaya. 

In  their  Tibetan  courses  the  Indus  and  Brahmapu- 
tra occupy  valleys  of  great  elevation,  and  the  opposite 
directions  taken  by  them  indicates  the  division  of  tlio 
Hiipala}'a  into  two  portions,  the  eastern  of  which 
stretches  from  their  sources  at  the  peak  of  Kailas  to 
the  bend  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the  western  termi- 
nates at  the  bend  of  the  Indus.  These  limits  arc 
more  natural  than  is  usually  supposed,  since  the  prev- 
alent idea  that  the  Brahmaputra  enters  Assam  through 
a  defile  caused  by  a  break  in  the  chain  is  erroneous  ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  Ilimalaj'a  gradiuilly  declines  in 
elevation  in  East  Bhotan ;  and  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Dihong  (as  the  Brahmaputra  at  its  bend  is  called),  is, 
according  to  the  best  information  hitherto  procured, 
broad,  o[>en,  and  hot — rice  being  cultivated  there  on 
the  very  confines  of  eastern  Tibet.  So  also  the  Indus 
at  the  western  extremity  of  the  chain  is  usually  de-; 
scr1l)ed  as  fiowing  through  a  defile ;  but  though  its 
valley  to  the  west  of  Kashmir  Is  contracted  and  rug- 
ged, and  overhung  by  stupendous  mountains,  it  does 
not  In  this  respect  differ  materially,  if  at  all,  from  the 
remainder  of  its  Til)etan  course ;  nor  is  the  fall  of  its 
lied  lietween  Iskardo  and  the  plains  of  the  Punjab 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  its  course  than 
it  is  above  that  town. 

The  branches  or  secondary  ranges  of  the  westeni 
Himalaj'a  are  so  long  and  lofty,  that  some  difference 
of  opinion  exists  as  to  which  of  them  should  be  most 
appropriately  considered  as  the  continuation  of  the 
chain  between  the  peak  of  Kailas  and  Kasnmir ;  and 
we  have  considered  the  line  of  watershed  between  the 
tri'iutaries  of  the  Indus  to  the  north,  and  the  rivers 
that  flow  to  the  plains  of  India  to  the  south,  to  lie  the 
axis  of  the  chain,  since  it  both  indicates  the  lino  cf 
mean  greatest  elevation,  and  Is  the  only  definable  axis 
in  a  geographical  point  of  view.  Of  thv,  secondary 
chains  we  shall  speak  at  length  in  connection  with  the 
rivers  they  inclose.  Their  direction  is  often  perpen- 
dicular to  the  main  chain,  but  they  are  so  often  ob- 
lique, and  even  parallel  to  the  main  chain,  especially 
at  their  upper  parts,  that  where  very  lofty  and  heavily 
snowed,  they  are  freqently  taken  by  local  oliservers 
fur  the  axis  of  the  Himalaya  itself;  an  error  to  wliich 
may  be  traced  that  misconception  regardii>^  vje  rela- 
tive amount  and  duration  of  the  snow  on  the  northern 
and  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya,  which  has  led 
to  BO  much  fruitless  controversy  in  India  and  F.iirope. 

The  general  direction  of  the  Himalaya  throughout 
its  length  of  UW  miles,  is  east  tnd  west,  but  it  trends 
northward  from  tlie  centre  toward  its  westei  ii  extrem- 
itv,  it«  extremes  lieing  respectively  in  N.  lat.  2S°,  E. 
long.  91')°,  and  N.  lat.  35°,  E.  long.  "8°.  Its  breadth 
varies  iii  .VBerent  parts,  but  has  lieen  accurately  as- 
certained in  the  western  portion  only,  where  It  devi- 
ates but  little  from  1!)0  miles. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  mountain  ranges  of  the 
Himalaya  and  the  Knuenlun  have  no  special  existence 
as  chains  apart  frvmi  the  general  elevated  mass  of 
Til)et,  and  that  that  rugged  country  forms  the  summit 
of  a  great  or  rainy,  interior  or  intermediate,  and  Tibe- 
tan or  arid  Himalaya.  The  tropical  bolt  extends  from 
the  Terai  to  6000,  and  even  7000  feet  in  the  humid  cen- 
tral provinces ;  and  to  8000  to  4000  in  the  extreme 
western.  It  consists  of  a  luxuriant  forest  of  Malayan 
and  insular  types  of  trees  in  the  eastern  provinces, 
which  to  a  great  extent  disappear  to  the  westward, 
where  they  are  partially  rej.iaced  liy  Persian,  Egyp- 
tian and  Afghanistan  types — among  these  trees  the 
pulnis,  plantains,  tree-ferns,  sal  (.S'Aorea  robiiatn),  sissoo 
(^lialbfrijia  siunii),  toon  (Ciilii'la  Tiiona),  ami  some 
oaks,  are  the  most  conspicuous,  and  commerr'i  liy  the 
most  important,  especially  to  the  eastward. 

The  temperate  lieit  extends  from  5000  feet  to  the 
upper  limit  of  forest,  which  varies  from  l'i,000  to  13,- 
OUO  feet,  according  to  the  dry.'iess  of  the  climate,    it 


HIM 


973 


HOG 


tho 
nee 

of 
iiTiit 
ibo- 
rom 
cen- 
eme 
yan 
iceB, 
ard, 
;yp- 

"tlio 

iSSOO 

|ome 
'  the 

Uhe 

[13,- 

It 


abounds  in  Ecropeao,  Levantine,  and  Chineae  gsnara 
and  even  species,  with  but  fevr  Mala,"an  mountain 
ones ;  of  these  the  European  are  most  abundant  in  the 
western  provinces,  and  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in 
the  eastern,  where  are  also  a  few  American  genera, 
and  some  belonging  to  the  Malayan  and  insular  mount- 
ain flora.  Among  the  most  conspicuous  plants  of 
this  region  are  oaks,  birch,  maple,  apple,  hornbeam, 
poplar,  ash,  cherry,  alder,  celtis,  pine,  juniper,  yew, 
willow,  and  pines  (^jibiet,  WMiana  and  Srunoniana), 
which  abound  throughout  the  range  ;  besides  which, 
there  are  to  the  westward  of  I.ipal,  deodar,  Pinus 
Gerardiana,  hawthorn,  cypress,  horse-chestnut,  olive, 
myrtle,  evergreen  oak,  sloe,  black  poplar,  and  many 
other  European  genera  and  even  species ;  while  to  the 
eastward,  laurel,  magnolia,  rhododendron,  larch,  Abiet 
firutumiana,  and  chestnut,  more  especially  prevail. 

The  alpine  belt,  which  commences  above  the  forest 
region,  ascends  in  extreme  coses  to  19,000  feet;  it 
abounds  in  Siberian,  Polar,  and  European  alpine 
plants  throughout  tho  whole  extent  of  the  chain,  tlie 
European  species  and  genera  being  most  prevalent  to 
the  west.  Several  himdred  common  English  plants 
are  also  natives  of  the  Himalaya,  and  especially  of 
the  temperate  and  alpine  zones ;  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  flowering  plants  inhabiting  the  whole  range 
probably  amounts  to  5000  or  7000  species.  Cultiva- 
tion in  the  Himalaya  is  carried  on  as  high  as  ti,000, 
aud  ever.  15,000  feet,  where  summer  crops  of  wl'eot 
and  barley  exist  in  Tibet,  but  quite  exceptionnll  ' ; 
also  buckwheat,  turnips,  radishes,  mustard,  potato  :s, 
and  various  pulses,  are  grown  abundantly  between 
8,000  and  12,000  feet,  as  summer  crops.  Rice,  maize, 
millet,  and  other  tropical  cereals,  are  grown  below 
GOOO  feet,  with  buckwhent,  and  various  species  of 
chenopodium,  yams,  capsicum,  egg-apple,  legumes, 
and  sugar-cane. 

The  Himalayan  fruits  cultivated  by  the  natives  in 
the  eastern  and  central  provinces  are  plantains,  or- 
anges, pine-apples,  walnuts,  inditleront  peaches  and 
apples ;  in  the  western,  excellent  apples,  pears,  apri- 
cots, iKiuches,  cherries,  mulberrle?,  grapes,  and  wal- 
nuts. The  cultivation  of  tea  is  now  successfully 
carried  on,  on  a  large  scalr>  in  the  western  Himalaya, 
at  elevations  of  2000  to  5000  feet,  and  mi^jht  probably 
be  pursued  with  more  or  less  success  in  all  paits  of  the 
chain. 

The  timber  trees  of  the  Himalaya  are  extremely 
numerous,  but  few  of  them  nre  of  great  value,  and 
some  of  the  best  inhabit  ir .^^oes-iible  regions.  The 
sal  (iSAorea  robtuta),  is  decidedly  the  most  valuable ; 
and,  from  growing  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  close  to 
water-carriage,  is  the  only  onn  much  felled  for  export. 
The  toon  (Cedrala  Toona),  and  sissoc  Dalbenjia  Sit- 
too),  are  ulso  exported  from  the  same  regions ;  and 
the  deodar  and  other  conifers  from  the  north-western 
provinces.  The  otiier  pines,  the  walnut,  oaks,  an>'i  tht) 
chestnuts,  mostly  produce  inilitTerent  timber ;  but, 
though  there  are  exceptions,  the  use  of  tliese  is  prin- 
cipally conflned  to  the  neighborhood  where  they  grow. 
Of  ornamental  woods,  few  are  known,  and  none  are  in 
general  use.  Bamboos  prevail  everywhere,  and  rat- 
tan-canoa  to  the  eastward.  Owing,  probably,  to  the 
humid  climate,  the  woods  of  European  genera  are, 
niniGst  without  exception,  inferior  to  those  of  their 
western  allies.  Teak  is  unknown  in  the  Himalaya ; 
and  the  other  woods  of  eastern  Bengal  and  of  both 
the  Indian  peninsulas  are  either  confined  to  the  mala- 
rious forests  of  Assam,  or  are  ai'.ogether  absent.  The 
vegetable  economic  products  are  also  very  few  and  un- 
important— such  as  spices,  gums,  resins,  oils,  waxes, 
fibres,  aud  other  textile  materials.  Of  drugs,  the 
baneful  aconite  and  hemp  are  the  best  known ;  infe- 
rior rhubarb,  and  a  few  bitters  of  secondarj-  iinixjrt- 
ance  in  the  pharmacopoeia,  are  al?o  collected  for  export. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  drugs  for  the 
036  of  the  Indian  medical  establishments,  but  hitherto 


with  very  limited  success.  Wild  madder  is  exten- 
sively collected  and  exported,  as  are  bamboos,  canes, 
and  a  few  other  products:  and  latterly  potatoes  in 
Sikkim,  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  vegetable  riches 
of  these  extensive  regions  are  but  very  little  known, 
and  are  capable  of  immense  extension  ;  but  hitherto 
the  efforts  have  been  limited.  On  the  northern  or 
Tibetan  parts  of  the  range  the  trees  are  extremely 
few  and  small,  and  confined  to  willows,  poplars,  juni- 
pers, elieagnus,  and  tamarisk  ;  and  of  bushes,  the  well- 
known  dama  or  furze,  that  supplies  fuel,  is  the  most 
familiar  to  travelers. — E.  H.  See  Quar.  Kev.,  xvii., 
xxii.,  xxiv. ;  We$tm.  Rev.,  xxxvii.,  294 ;  Monthly  Ree., 
xcv.,  225,  409. 

In  mineral  products  the  Himalaya  is  rem^;''kably 
poor,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known.  There  is  nothing 
which  can  compare  in  abundance  or  value  with  the 
mines  of  the  Ural,  Andes,  or  European  Alps.  Bed 
bcematite  is  worked  with  profit  in  KumaOn,  and  cop- 
per exists  in  Nepal  and  the  Sikkim  hills.  Iroif  (dis- 
seminated), occurs  in  various  places,  and  graphite  is 
common.  Salt,  borax,  and  soda  are  procured  in 
abundance  in  the  dry  climate  of  Tibet,  where  they 
are  articles  of  commerce  ;  there  also  gold-washing  is 
carried  on  upon  a  most  limited  scale.  Gold  is  known 
to  be  extremely  abundant  in  many  parts  of  eastern 
Tibet,  where,  however,  the  jealousy  of  the  Chinese 
government  prevents  its  being  worked.  Slates,  lime, 
gypsum,  lead,  sulphur,  and  magnesia,  are  also  Him- 
alayan products.  There  is  a  surprising  and  almost 
total  absence  of  gems,  or  minerals  of  rarity  or  beauty 
in  the  Himalay  r  ;  garnets,  actinolites,  and  tourm  i- 
lins,  are  porhaps  the  only  exceptions  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, and  these  are  of  the  coarsest  description. 

Hot  springs  abound,  chiefl}-  at  elevations  of  10,000 
to  18,000  feet ;  they  usually  emit  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen gas,  and  maintain  temperatures  of  100°  to  130°. 
There  is  no  active  volcano  anywhere  in  the  range,  nor 
any  traces  of  extinct  ones.  Some  of  the  districts, 
especially  toward  the  north-west,  have  been  visited 
l)y  violent  eaitbquakes,  but  these  do  not  appear  to  be 
connected  with  any  endemic  phenomena;  they  have 
generally  commenced  far  south  of  tho  Himalaya,  and 
have  been  proprgated  across  the  range.  Remarkable 
local  subsidences  and  elevations  have  occurred  in  the 
valley  of  the  Jhelam  in  Kashmir,  which  have  been 
descril>ed  by  Dr.  Thomson. 

Hobart  Town,  situated  .'n  the  southern  part  nf 
tlie  island  cf  Van  Dieman's  Land,  on  the  west  side  of 
the  River  Donnert,  near  its  jimction  with  Storms  Bay, 
in  lat.  42°  44'  S.,  and  long.  147°  28  E.  The  water  is 
deep,  and  the  anchorage  is  good ;  and  a  jetty  has  been 
constructed  accessible  to  the  largest  ship; . 

Hogs.  The  prevailing  breeds  of  swine  in  the 
middle,  northern,  and  western  States,  are  the  Berk- 
shire, the  Leicestershire,  tho  Suffolk,  the  Essex,  the 
Neapolitan,  and  the  Chinese.  Ironi  these  and  other 
varieties  various  crosses  have  been  produced,  tho  more 
important  of  which  are  the  Bylield,  the  Wobnrn,  the 
IJodford,  the  Grass,  and  the  Slaekay.  The  Neapoli- 
tans are  iiarticularly  well  adapted  for  a  southern  cli- 
mate. See  De  Bow's  Rev.,  xii.,  67;  Hu:)t'.s  Sfag., 
xiv.,  371.     See  United  States — LiVK  Stock  of. 

We  give  some  statistics  showing  the  number  of 
hogs  packed  in  the  West  in  1850-5],  also  another 
table  comparing  tho  number  packed  in  1855-56  and 
1856-57 : 


Where  racked.  1 851— 69. 

Ohio 4(11,075 

Indiana 859,761 

Illinois 174,671 

Iowa, 27,500 

Missouri 5S,16S 

Kentucky 199,800 

Oreon  and  Cumberland  liivors  8,500 


Total 1,288,076 


Total  dcUclency.lSBl-^a. 


1950-tl. 

44.S,4I8 
848,754 
257,686 

70,600 
107,274 
206,914 

24,000 

1,467,896 
1,888,976 

183,021 


H0<3 

OOMrAinoVr  or  Tire  HraBiB  op  Hoob  paoibd  in  18SS4 
wrrn  tub  Ni  mjih  packkd  in  18M-T. 


Wb«r«  Packed.  lafiw— 56. 

Oblo 088,«97 

Kentucky. •t8R,8lk 

IndUrw 488,S8t 

llllnoln 481,a8.'' 

Missouri 196,9t)4 

low* 1TO,»7« 

TenneuM :9,4O0 

WiMondn 80,UOO 


19M-BT. 

488,OtS 

849.^12 

810.(129 

MX'iOi 

148,!M4 

]0«,843 

42,811 


(hrsnd  totals. 2,489,31)9        1,818,  VIS 

'I  1,818,463 


Total  deflcleacy,  1888-5T ....    a71 ,084 

This  deficiency,  comparcil  w-:h  last  season,  U  equU 
to  about  27  per  cent. 

As  regnrfls  the  falling  off  in  wci^lit,  having  exam- 
ined the  returns  received  with  reference  to  this  point 
Terj-  carefully,  the  following  is  the  result. 

We  obtained  the  comparative  weights  from  12] 
places,  and  And  that  the  aggregates  of  similar  num- 
her  of  hugs  packed  at  these  |ilacea,  each  seodon,  are  as 
follows:  .  1  , 

'     "     '     'J'  '  ,  P..,inr|>. 

]85»-« ,.,.i , i »ll.6«I,28fl 

1868-7 M»,14«,440 


Deflclcncy,  1868-67 18  474,820 

Assuming  this  to  be  a  fair  inil'  .ition  of  the  compar- 
ative weight  of  the  whole  n'.mber  packed,  according 
to  the  returns,  we  place  the  fallin;;  off  in  weight  at  7 
per  cent.,  which  Is  slightly  less  than  the  above  figures 
Indicate.  Adding  this  to  the  falling  off  in  number,  the 
total  deficiency  is  swelled  to  31  per  cent.,  as  compored 
with  the  business  of  the  season  <if  18.'>.')  t>G. 

The  crop,  then,  as  compared  with  a  few  previous 
seasons,  stands  as  fallows :     See  Pork  TiiAi>ii. 

81  per  cent  loss  than  that  of. 1S6S-6 

6)      "         •*         "         " ISIM-.'S 

m      "         »         "         " 18,'.8-4 

4{      "         "         "         " l(j.')2-3 

The  following  figures  show  the  average  weiglit  of 
the  bogs  packed  in  Cincinnati  during  186G-57  us  com- 
pared with  last : 

.  Puiindi. 

1886-6  s\enigo  weight  204 

1886-7       "  "     286i 

The   following  table   shows  the  whole  number  of 

hogs   packed    in  Cincinnati  each  season  since  1833, 

heing  24  years 


Yean..  No 

1808 86,000 

1S84 128,000 

ISS.-) 161,000 

1836 1«8,000 

1887 108,000 

1888 182,000 

1839 190,000 

1840 95,000 

1941 itojm 

1842 S»l,00« 

1848 S50,000 

1844 840.000 

1846 196,000 


YMn.  No. 

1S46 806,000 

1847 a.'W.OOO 

1848 475,000 

1849 410.000 

1860 808,000 

1861 834,000 

1962 862.000 

1868 861,000 

1864 421,000 

18£J5 a.'i6.78« 

1866 4ilfv')96 

18.^7 811,612 


Hogshead,  a  measure  of  capacity,  containing 
B2J  g«i;.>ns.  A  hognhead  is  equal  to  j  a  pipe.  See 
Weiohts  and  Mkahi'kes. 

Holidays  are  understood  to  bo  those  days,  exclu- 
aivB-of  Sundays,  on  which  no  regular  public  business 
Is  transacted  at  particular  public  offiiH's.  'I'lioy  are 
either  fixed  op  variable.  I'anka  and  public  offices 
are  only  closed  on  fixed  holidays.  In  England,  the 
holidays  observed  generally  are,  (Jood  Friday,  Queen's 
Birth-day,  Conmaticr,  Day  Clone  'IS),  I'rincc  of  Wales' 
Birth-day  (November  9),  Christmas.  In  the  United 
States,  tlie  holidays  are.  Fourth  of  .luly.  Thanksgiving 
Day  (November),  Christmas.  At  New  York  and  some 
other  cities  New  Years'  day  is  also  observed,  end  at 
Kew  Orleans,  .lanuar)- 8th. 

■•guv,  i>r  Hague,  Cape  de  la,  e,  bold  headland 
of  f'mnce,  f,  •ii.ny  the  north-west  extremity  of  the 
Department  ii  Munche,  Id  miles  north  by  west  of 
Cherbourg.  '  iff  this  |)oint  the  combined  English  and 
Dutch  fleetJi  ilvfvated  the  French  22d  May,  1092. 


nor, 


Hold  (Sax.  hfiMan),  the  inside  of  the  bottom  of 
th*  ship.  It  is  divided  into  ccmpartments  by  bulk- 
heads  across ;  and  contains  the  ballast,  water,  coal,  and 
wood,  provisions,  anil  cargo. 

Holland  is  a  European  kingdom,  formed  In  part 
c'f  islandi>.  but  chiefly  of  that  part  of  th<)  Continent 
where  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  are  divided  into  several 
branches  before  it  enters  the  German  Ocean.  This 
district  is  said  to  have  owed  the  ancient  name  of  I  a- 
tavia,  by  which  it  was  known  to  the  Romans,  to  one 
Bu.  1 ;  but  at  what  period  he  nourished  Is  unknown ; 
and  the  name  is  now  scarcelj'  used  excepting  among 
the  poei  i  of  the  district.  By  accounts  collected  from 
the  works  of  Caisar  and  Tucltus,  we  le—n  that  the  an- 
cient tribes  who  inhabited  this  porjloi.  of  E',.T0pe  hud 
been  able  to  maintain  their  independence  In  spite  of 
tlie  attempts  made  to  subdue  them  by  the  Teutones, 
the  Cimbri,  and  other  nations,  who  had  conquered  the 
rest  of  what  was  then  called  Gaul.  The  IJutavii-ns, 
says  the  last  of  these  historians,  excelled  all  tlic  other 
people  on  the  Rhine  in  military  spirit.  When  sub. 
(lued  by  the  Romans,  they  ),pid  >''  nite  ir  sol- 

diers ;  an<I  from  them  was  toin<  !ry,  which 

composed  the  most  efficient  part ,  jn  armies. 

They  astonished  the  Dacians  by  the  ocj?terity  and 
bravery  with  which,  cnmpletr  anned,  they  swam 
their  horses  ocross  the  Danube  .,  ♦'  ■  t  those  people  ; 
and  for  n  long  period  tliey  form(-..  .«  gvaVd  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  A  body  of  Batavinns  accomponied 
Agricola  on  his  expedition  into  Britain,  and  were  of 
great  assistauie  In  securing  his  conquests  in  the 
island. 

Wiir  .m  (I.  dying  in  1849,  was  succeeded  ly  the 
present  sovereign,  William  III.,  born  10th  Fcbrnary, 
1817.  lie  was  married  on  the  18th  June,  1839,  to  the 
Princess  Sophia  Frederiker  Mathilda  of  Wurtemberg. 
They  have  two  sons,  William  Nicolas,  Prince  of 
Orange,  bom  4tli  September,  1840,  and  William  Alex- 
ander, born  25th  August,  1861. 

I'bc  kingdo^ii  of  the  Netherlands  comprises  the  ter- 
ritiiry  of  the  ancient  republic  of  the  Seven  United 
.''rovinces,  with  some  portions  of  Limborg.  It  does 
not  include  that  portion  of  Luxemburg  which  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands  ])Ossesscs,  with  the  title  of  Grai  I 
Duke,  as  a  part  of  the  (Jermnn  Confederation.  It  .a 
situated  between  N.  lot.  60°  44'  and  53°  84',  and  E. 
long,  'l^°  ill')'  and  i''  10'.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
(iermany,  from  which  it  is  not  separated  by  any 
natural  luifriers,  on  the  north  and  west  bythe  Gerniaa 
Ocean  or  North  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by  Belgium. 

The  greater  part  of  thi.i  country  bus  been  formed 
of  mud  deposited  by  rivers  in  the  same  manner  us  the 
Egyptian  Delta  is  formed  by  the  Kile.  By  tracing 
ihe  course  of  tlieso  rivers  we  oltain  an  idea  of  its 
conformation.  The  Rhine  enters  Holland  at  Lobilh,a 
little  below  Fmmcr'ch,  where  '  is  "300  feet  broad; 
and  then  divides  into  two  brandies,  the  southern  re- 
ceiving the  name  of  the  Waul.  At  Westervooi'.  the 
northern  branch  is  again  divided,  and  there  its  right 
arm  is  called  the  New  Yesel.  Then  the  left  branch, 
taking  a  westerly  direction,  is  again  separated  at  Wyk 
into  two,  and  the  left  branch  is  called  the  I.ck.  The 
rigiit  li.-aneh  flows  on  to  Utrecht,  and  bcinp  there 
divided  f;.r  the  fourth  time,  receives  for  its  right  am: 
the  name  of  Vecht ;  while  the  left,  wi'!ch  still  retains 
the  name  of  Old  Rhine,  taking  a  westerly  direction  by 
Wuerden  and  Leydnu,  finally  makes  its  way  at  Kal- 
wyk  to  the  North  Sea. 

The  Meuse  enters  the  Netherlands'  territory  above 
Eysden  in  I.lmburg,  end  flowing  northward,  unites 
with  the  Wuul,  near  I.ocvcstcin ;  then  divides  near 
Dort,  forming  the  island  Ysselmonde.  The  right 
branch  at  Krim|ier  i»  joined  by  the  I.ck,  then  lowing 
WT?stwttrd  by  Rotterdam,  div:cles  near  Flardingcn  into 
two  brunches,  and  so  form*  the  island  Rosenlurg. 
These  branches  uniting  near  Brielle,  reach  the  sot  at 
Oostvourn. 


HOL 


078 


HOL 


re- 
tlio 
hght 
Inch, 
Kvk 
'fho 
llieto 
Innr. 
knins 
In  by 
IKiil- 

|\iove 
Inites 
1  near 

|wing 
1  into 
J'urg. 


'  Ttic  Scheldt  touches  the  kinfidom  of  the  Nether- 
lands at  Fort-Dath,  where  it  divides,  foimini;  rhe 
islands  of  South  and  North  Beveland,  and  Wa'cheren. 
The  left  branch  reaches  the  sea  at  Vlissingen.  1'he 
right  branch  flows  northward  between  Zueland  and 
North  Brabant ;  dividing  near  Bergen-op-Zuuin,  it  forms 
the  island  Tholen,  and  the  left  arm  reaches  the  sea 
north  of  Walcberen.  The  right  branch  still  seiwrating 
North  Brabant  from  Zeeland,  divides  into  numerous 
channels,  l)y  which  its  waters,  mingled  with  those  of 
the  left  l)ranch  of  the  Meuse,  form  numerous  islands, 
and  Anally  reach  the  sea. 

To  establi.ih  a  Arm  footing  amid  so  many  rivers,  the 
inhabitants  have  liept  them  us  fur  as  possible  within 
prescribed  channels  by  emijankments,  and  have  farmed 
numerous  canals  to  receive  the  superfluous  waters,  and 
to  serve  as  means  of  internal  communication.  The 
countr)'  is  thus  a  net-work  of  rivers  and  canals  from 
the  one  end  to  the  other.  The  sA'stem  of  drainage,  of 
what  would  otherwise  have  been  an  immense  mud- 
bank,  well  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  land  thus  rescued  from  the  rivers 
is  nowhere  much  elevated  r.bove  the  sea,  and  in  many 
places  is  oven  below  the  sea-level,  so  as  to  require  still 
more  wonderful  defenses  against  the  ocean.  These 
defenses  are  in  part  supplied  l)y  the  operation  of  na- 
ture, casting  up  nandjiills  along  great  part  of  the 
Coast ;  iiut  where  these  have  not  been  formei],  their 
place  is  8ii|i|illni|  liy  dykes  of  vast  extent,  built  in  the 
course  of  ages,  partly  of  huge  blocks  of  granite  l)ronght 
ttom  Norway,  and  partly  of  bundles  formed  of  young 
trees,  reared  expressly  for  the  purpose.  These  dykes 
stretch  for  hutwlreds  of  miles  along  the  coast,  and  wita 
those  which  line  the  rivers  and  canals,  and  with  the 
requisite  sluicep,  drawbridges,  and  bydraulio  works  of 
avsry  kind,  are  estimated  to  have  cost  not  less  than 
£300,0011,000  sterling.  Tl'  y  form  in  so  small  a  coun- 
trj  a  most  a8fonlsliiii;j;  monument  of  human  industr)'. 
Vot  they  are  not  greuter  than  tli:'  situation  requires. 
They  are  liarcly  sufficient  »o  preserve  the  country  from 
the  >)'>minlun  of  the  wateis.  The  motto  on  the  arms 
of  one  of  tlie  provinces,  "  Luctor-«t-Kmergo,"  still  de- 
scribes the  struggles  of  tlin  invincthto  Hollanders,  re- 
(jnitite  for  maintaining  (he  ground  liicy  stand  upon. 
A  destructive  inundation  occurred  so  lately  as  March, 
1866.  The  rivers,  augmented  by  tlie  snows  of  winter, 
hurst  through  the  dykes  in  several  pmriuces.  A  fourth 
part  of  Oeldcrland  was  submerged.  The  v  liole  prov- 
ince of  South  Holl  ind  was  in  the  most  imminent  dan- 
ger. Tl<u  embankment  of  the  Rhine  having  l)urst  in 
live  places  in  (ield.Tland.  admitted  the  flood,  where  it 
had  not  extended  during  <  60  years.  In  Utrecht  and 
North  Hrabant,  the  people  of  n  uny  conuiiunes  had  to 
alwudon  their  property  to  the  waters,  and  sought  refuge 
for  thoniselvss  on  the  roofs  of  houses  and  on  trees. 
The  neigliborbuod  of  Zutphen  was  very  speedily  con- 
verted into  a  vast  hike,  and  the  villagers  hastih'  '  e- 
toking  themselves  to  boats  and  rafts,  reached  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  the  ramparts  of  the  city.  The  flood 
which  happily  subsided  after  some  days,  exhibited, 
while  it  continued,  the  promptitude  and  energy  with 
which  the  Hollanders  have  alwuys  contended  again-t 
the  peculiar  difficulties  of  their  situation.  Tho  kiiii; 
immediately  renaired  in  person  to  the  scene  of  danger, 
and  took  his  station  in  the  centre  of  the  inundated 
country,  directing  all  the  operations,  and  giving  every 
possible  assistance.  A  collection  ordered  by  tlie  king 
for  the  sufferers  produced  £41,607,  and  private  collec- 
tions reached  an  eqiiil  amount.  This  sum  was  imme- 
diately di'.tributed  among  the  distressed  families,  wh  j?o 
habitations  and  lands  had  been  laid  waste.  To  drain 
olT  the  remainder  of  the  flood,  to  rebuild  the  dykes,  to 
repair  tho  Rhine  railwsy,  a  considerable  part  of  which 
had  disappeared,  could  not  be  so  quickly  done,  but  all 
this  the  patriotism  of  the  Hollanders  has  completely 
accomplished. 
The  Biesboscb,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dort,  was 


formed  in  1491,  bnrying  72  villages  under  water,  and 
drowning  100,000  persons.  Of  these  villages,  84  have 
been  rebuilt,  as  the  progress  of  drainage  permitte}!. 
The  Dutch  method  of  draining  is  highly  ingenious.  A 
marsh  or  lake  is  inclosed  with  a  dyko  to  prevent  any 
water  from  flowing  into  it.  Wind-mills  are  then 
erected  on  the  edge  of  the  dyke,  each  of  which  works 
an  Archimedean  screw,  and  tht  water  thus  raised  is 
discharged  into  a  canal,  which  convey  it  to  the  sea. 
The  Ijike  of  Haarlem  was  the  most  celebrated  of  those 
occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  rivers ;  and  its  drain- 
age by  the  application  of  steam  is  a  great  improvement 
on  the  old  method  of  draining  by  wind-mills.  See 
Haarlem,  JCncg,  Brit.  Besides  these  inundations 
flrom  the  rivers,  Holland  has  experienced  many  others 
from  the  sea,  which  have  left  large  tracts  of  country 
submerged,  of  which  the  Dollart  and  the  I!uyder^Zee 
are  the  most  extensive. 

The  Dollart  between  Groningen  and  Gast  Friesland 
originated  in  1277,  and  was  greatly  extended  in  the 
three  following  years.  One  town,  85  villages,  and 
several  hamlets  were  overwhelmed.  It  has  from  time 
to  time  Iwen  much  reduced  by  drainage.  The  Zuyder- 
Zee  was  formerly  only  a  lake,  known  by  the  name  of 
Flevo,  communicating  by  two  channels  with  the  North 
Sea.  Subsequently  the  sea  covered  the  lowlands,  and 
the  channels  of  communication  were  multiplied.  Now 
the  expanse  of  water  is  80  miles  long,  and  from  20  to 
40  miles  broad.  Proposals  for  its  drainage  have  been 
made  to  the  government,  and  are  under  serious  con- 
sideration. As  means  of  communication  between  Am- 
sterdam and  the  North  Sea,  the  Znyder-Zee  has  long 
been  unsatisfactory,  on  account  of  the  Pampus  bank 
and  numerous  shallows.  Sometimes,  in  consequence 
of  long-continued  northerly  and  easterly  winds,  its  bed 
is  almost  dry,  and  vessels  are  everywhere  lying  on  the 
sands.  A  substitute  has  accordingly  been  provided  for 
it  in  the  great  North  Holland  Canal,  one  of  the  most  stu- 
pendous works  of  the  kind  in  existence.  It  was  begun 
in  1819,  and  finished  in  182.5,  at  a  cost  of  about  £1,000,- 
000  sterling.  It  is  about  60  English  miles  in  length. 
Its  breadth,  at  the  surface,  is  124^  English  feet,  at  the 
bottom  36.  The  depth  is  20  feet  9  inches.  Its  level  is 
that  of  the  high  tides  uf  the  sea,  from  which  it  receives 
its  supply  of  water. 

While  the  country  possesses  abundant  means  of 
communication  by  rivers  and  canals,  it  also  has  excel- 
lent roads.  The  highv/ays  in  the  central  provinces 
are  among  the  best  in  Europe.  They  run  for  miles  in 
a  straight  line  along  the  summits  of  the  dykes,  and 
are  thus  at  once  dry  and  elevated,  commanding  oxi<.a- 
sive  views.  Between  the  large  cities  they  are  broad, 
and  usually  paved  with  a  kind  of  small  hard  bricks, 
called  klinkern,  made  of  sand,  mixed  with  tlie  clayey 
mud  obtained  in  cleaning  tho  canals.  They  are  fitted 
so  exactly  to  each  other  whun  laid  I'own  that  scarcely 
tt  crevicn  is  to  be  seen ;  and  being  well  covered  with 
sea-sand,  they  sustain  little  injury  from  carriages. 
Railways  have  also  been  made,  or  are  in  progress  in 
all  directions.  Those  between  Rotterdam  and  Amster- 
dam, and  between  the  latter  cit}'  and  Arnheim,  have 
lieen  in  oiwration  for  several  j'cars.  Rotten'.am  is  also 
in  communication  by  railway'  with  Utrecht  via  Gouda, 
and  with  Antwerp.  There  is  a  branch  between  Ant- 
werp and  Breda.  Maestricht,  iu  Limbufg,  Is  also  in 
communication  with  Aix-Ia-ChapcUc. 

The  general  aspcict  of  this  country  is  diflerent  from 
that  of  any  otiier  in  Europe.  The  roads  and  canals 
are  usually  lined  with  willows  and  other  trees,  which 
afl'ord  an  agreeable  shade  and  relieve  the  uniformity 
of  the  landscape.  Innumerable  villas  arc  seen  ('.eco- 
I'ated  with  the  utnicist  nicety  of  art.  Spires,  church 
towers,  villages  admiralile  for  neatness  and  cleanli- 
ness, large  and  v.ell-built  cities,  rapidly  succeeding 
one  another;  meadows  in  vernal  green,  varied  by 
sheets  of  «  atcr,  cattle  in  largo  heitje,  barges  towed  b}' 
bnrse.s,  or  spreading  a.  sail  to  catch  a  favoring  breeze — 


HOL 


976 


HOL 


•vary  thing  and  every  place  in  the  htgheit  ordtr  and  I  in  abundance,  and  in  reipect  of  which  it  has  no  par- 
perfection ;  auch  are  the  sights  which  Holland  supplies  |  allel  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

Tna  roLiowiHO  Tabli  oivis  the  Statistics  or  Holland  as  AsoEBTAiiniD  bt  tbe  Gxifflus,  81iT  Deoevbib,  1868. 


Populsllon. 

HOIIMI. 

Acraiofcalll- 
ytM  lull. 

Aerei  of  ro«da 
and  wattn. 

Aerfi  of  oncul. 
tlriUil  lud. 

Acni  oriolal 
•itant. 

UMiIUraUd. 

North  Brsbsnt 

408,628 
887,428 
891,498 
614,788 
168,078 
16^S^4 
259,608 
227,688 
197,101 
89,944 
211,401 

8,106 
9,898 
8,067 
2,802 
1,728 
1.108 
2,184 
1,882 
1,860 
603 
1,000 

701,801 
784,811 
606,488 
421,411 
888,228 
271,887 
682,128 
480,922 
444,147 
212,669 
882,289 

97,983 

61,989 

108.G<W 

61,8f<6 

S.OM 

21.'iS4 

66,871 

20,283 

28,922 

8,219 

4,942 

488,876 

409,718 

82,286 

126.926 

48,968 

48,888 

103,248 

879,469 

100,899 

487,120 

182,862 

1,268,186 
1,268,166 
780,071 
616,834 
409,480 
849,114 
807,648 
884,460 
678,266 
660,498 
646,006 

1  :    2-78 
1  :   2-809 
1  :98'26 
1  :    4-88 

1  :  9-81 
1  :  7-82 

1  ;    7-82 
1  ;  2-os 
1  :    8-74 

1  :  1-80 
1  :    2-84 

Oelilrrlind 

Boutli  Holland 

North  Hollsad 

Zttelsnd 

Utrcclit 

Frlesland 

OvorVMScl 

Llmburft 

Totri 

8,208,282 

21,678 

8,218,418 

470,699 

2,818,846 

8,088,172 

1  ;  8-18 

The  colonlM  In  Asia— .Istb,  Amboyns,  Bands,  Ter- 
nsto.  Miicansar,  with  settlements  In  Suinstra 
and  Ilornen,  ulso  Dcslnia  In  .Isnan,  are  stated  t!> 
have  a  pojiulallnn  of. 1«,1T8,187 

The  colonies  In  Amerlc*— Surinam  and  the  Islands 

of  Cura^oa  and  8t.  EustotliluA 90.681 

The  colonlt>s  In  AMco— Elmino,  on  the  coast  of 

Oalnea 100,000 


Total 16,668,7 1  '■. 

FopulaUon  of  Holland 8,208,2f  i 


ToUl  subjects  of  the  King  of  Netherlands..  19,871,9M 

The  population  hus  increased  by  60  per  cent,  in  67 
yean  at  the  following  rotes : 

Ytrwt.  Populat'uii. 

1796—1818 166,422,  or  annually, 

1818— ISaO 880,821 

188(>— 1s4t) 28«,52J  ' 

1840—1850 187.887  ' 

1796—1858 1,101,868  ' 

The  nunilier  of  the  inhabitants  of  87  cities  in  1853 
wa»  1,11)3,559,  and  of  the  country  2,0,19,873.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  principal  cities  at  the  same  period  was 
the  following : 


8,760 
25.866 
23.652 
18,783 
19,822 


UltlM,  Pop. 

Amsterdam 247,730 

Eott«rilam 90,898 

The  Hague 75,276 

Utrecht 6fi,710 

loyden 87,106 

Orontngen 86,126 


CltlM.  Pop. 

Haarlem 27,770 

MoestrlchC 26,919 

L,euwarden 24,461 

Nlmefcuen 22,009 

Port 21,906 

Bois-le-dao 21,862 

Climate, — In  respect  of  climate,  Holland  labors  under 
many  disadvantages.  In  winter  it  is  much  colderthan 
England,  and  ihe  wntent  are  frequently  frozen  for  three 
month.1.  Even  the  Zuyder-Zee  is  sometimes  frozen 
over.  The  temperature  lias  lieen  sometimes  aj  low  as 
23°  below  jiero  of  Fahr,,  and  sometimes  as  high  as 
102°.  In  summer,  cold  nights  often  succeed  to  days 
of  intense  heat.  The  climate  generally  ii  variable. 
'tlie.  atmosphere,  especially  in  the  western  provinces, 
Is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  there  agues,  dropsies, 
pleurisies,  and  rheumatisms,  are  frequent.  Gelder- 
land  is  the  healthiest  province,  but  all  the  eastern  side 
of  tlie  country  is  comparatively  salubrious.  Holland 
is  frequently  subject  to  violent  galee  of  wind,  which, 
•when  they  blow  from  the  west  or  north-west,  are  apt 
to  cause  inundations  of  the  sea. 

Agriculture. — This  remarkable  country  largely  re- 
Trarda  the.  stciil  and  labor  of  the  agriculturist.  The 
south  and  central  provinces  are  thi  most  fertile.  As 
hae  been  shown  above  in  one  of  the  tubles,  there  are 
•till  exten.'ive  tracts  of  uncultiv.-ited  land,  although 
much  hf.f  been  reclaimed  of  late  years.  Ttie  farms  in 
th?  best  parts  of  Zeeland  vary  in  extent  from  166  to 
880  aci«8  each.  In  South  Holland  the  proportion  of 
pasture  to  arable  land  is  al>out  2  to  1.  In  Kriesland 
the  qnnntity  of  ^-  iure  is  more  than  eight  limes  that 
of  arable  land,  in  Gelderland  there  are  large  planta- 
tions of  appl'^,  pear,  and  cherrj'-trecs.  Tulips  and  hy- 
acinths are  Bxten«ively  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Haarlem  in  fields  of  several  acres  each.  I'uise  and 
garden  vegk<tables  are  everywhere  raised  in  great 
abundance,  also  woad  and  madder.  Fiax  is  largely 
cultivotK'l  in  the  south,  and  especinily  in  the  neigh- 
bvrbood  <.f  U:rt.    Utrecht  and  Uelderlaod  produce 


considerable  quantities  of  tobacco.     The  fallowing  ars 
the  statistics  of  the  harvest  of  1868 : 


Culllnlml  land 
In  Mr«i. 


Wheat. 

Rye 

Barley 

I    OaU 

Mnekwbeat   ... 
fabbag'i  seeds. . 

I'oaa 

Beans. 

Potatoes 

Carrots 

Flaxr 

Tobacco  


177,066 
448,648 
108,816 
911,218 
167,488 


28,683 

82,404 

216,074 

2,617 
61,679 

8,888 


Prvducii  la 

qiiartori. 

888,086 
435,866 
980,586 
474,085 
108,164 
78,780 
840,183 
2,604,064 


The  rearing  of  live  stock,  however,  and  dairj-  hus- 
bandry, are  much  more  important  sources  of  national 
wealth  than  tillage.  The  lean  cattle  brought  from 
Denmark  and  Germany  fatten  with  great  rapidity  in 
the  Dutch  polders,  I>arge  herds  of  beautiful  cows 
yield  great  abundance  of  the  richest  milk.  Uuttcr 
and  cheese  of  the  best  quality  are  larel}'  exported,  and 
bring  great  wealth  to  the  peasantry.  The  Dutch  horses 
are  good,  and  well  adapted  for  draught ;  the  best  arc 
those  of  Friesland.  The  breeds  of  sheep,  however,  are 
not  particularly  good. 

The  statistics  of  1853,  December  31,  give  the  follow- 
ing numbora  for  the  whole  kingdom : 


Horses 286,662  1 

Horncii  etttle.  1,286,974 


Sheep 826,061 

Bwlne. 288,900 


In  North  and  South  Holland,  Groningen,  and 
Utrecht,  there  are  made  140,000,000  lbs.  of  cheese  an- 
nually, the  home  consumption  of  which  does  not  ex- 
ceed one  twentieth.  This  large  quantity  at  its  average 
price  produces  .£1,800,000  sterling  annually.  The 
value  of  the  butter  is  about  £2,000,000  sterling  more, 
of  which  tlieir  own  consumption  amounts  to  one 
tenth. 

Butter  and  cheese  figure  among  the  great  articles  of 
the  industry  and  the  commerce  of  Holland.  It  appears 
from  one  of  the  published  tables,  that  from  18i),S  to 
1850  the  export  uf  butter  has  constantb'  increased,  so 
as  to  have  been  quadrupled  in  half  a  rentur}'.  From 
3437  tons  in  1803  it  arrived  at  11,931  tons  in  1852. 
The  export  of  cliee.'te  was  9823  tons  at  the  beginning 
of  the  century.  In  1852  it  was  19,  646  tons.  For 
1864,  instead  of  a  general  statement  such  as  the  uliovo, 
we  have  found  indications  regarding  particular  com- 
modities, the  trade  in  which  was  very  active.  '1  he 
imfiortution  of  raw  sugar  in  1854  was  108,546  tons, 
against  102,101  in  1853.  The  export  of  raw  sugar  rose 
to  55,.')36  tons,  being  4420  tons  mora  than  in  1853. 
liie  importation  of  coffee  from  Java,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  less  in  1854  than  that  of  1853  and  1852.  In  18,52 
it  was  1,073,838  bags ;  for  8353,  938,680  bags ;  and  for 
185-1,  only  928,230  bags.  The  trade  in  indigo,  how- 
ever, was  progreseing.  Tho  imports  in  1854  wore 
14,130  chests,  against  10,20u  in  1853,  8600  in  1852, 
and  55!K)  in  1851.  The  importation  of  cochineal  was 
equally  Increasing :  1535  chests  in  1854  against  868  in 
1851,  Tobacco  held  also  a  principal  place  in  the  im- 
ports of  18.H.    There  were  received  13,550  ban-cla 


of; 


HOL 


911 


HOL 


from  Maryliind,  and  8110  firoin  Virginia.  Tin  fh>m 
Bancs  funiiflhed  18?,8C4  blocks.  The  trade  in  wool 
revived,  and  that  in  cotton  assumed  consideralJe  Im- 
portance. The  trade  in  flax  waa  IGll  tonii  in  1864. 
In  1060  it  had  not  reached  !(44  tona.  Tims  it  had  been 
quadrupled  in  Ave  roara. 

The  account  of  exports  is  not,  for  the  same  period, 
so  favorable.  It  givea,  indeed,  the  first  notice  of  di- 
rect trado  with  Australia ;  but  the  result  of  this  new 
enterprise  was  not  encouraging.  Holland  exported 
its  agricultural  pnxlnce,  however,  in  groat  quantity. 
In  1864,  the  export  of  butter  was  14,244  tons  against 
13,261  in  1858.  That  of  cheese  was  nearly  26,.'>40, 
being  982  more  than  in  1H68.  That  of  cattle,  77,198 
head  of  oxen.  In  1853  there  were  83,074  oxen  and 
204,148  sheep. 

Shipping. — ^Tfae  following  account  U  given  of  the 
shipoing : 


CltMrtd  toir»rd. 


18M., 

isst., 

18S3.. 
ISSS.. 


RMpi. 

,  (Lesi 

«,960 
T.48T 
0,883 


],0»»,«71 
1,16«,U0 
l,«49,T!i8 
1,1B1,293 


CUftred  oatwmrd. 
Shtpa.  Toiuuiss. 

T.DSl  1,186,664 

7,177  l,2t6.iS68 

7,7'a  1,817.425 

7,03S  1,216,869 


The  Netherlands'  and  fomign  ships  were,  1863,  in  the 
following  proportion : 

Cletrod  inward.       ClMr«d  onlwitTd. 

?],ff.  .  . ■ , 

8hlp«.      Tom.  Hhlpi.    Turn. 

Netherlands... per  cent     *H      Uk  47i       48 

Foreign "  BOi       SBJ  m       67 

To  have  a  full  view  of  the  trade  of  Holland,  we 
must  not  only  learn  its  state  as  carried  un  by  sea,  but 
also  by  the  rivers,  which  carrj'  a  great  amount  of  it. 
Tables  Lave  been  published  of  the  merchandise  which 
arrived,  and  was  forwarded  by  way  of  the  Rhino,  in 
1864.  There  was  an  increase  above  1853  of  T2C0  tons 
from  Amsterdam  to  places  on  the  Rhine,  and  of  12,328 
tons  from  the  Riiine  to  that  city.  Coffee,  rice,  and  the 
oleajjinous  grains  are  foremost  in  this  progressive  in- 
crea«e.  The  export  of  rice  to  Germany  has  had  a  re- 
marltable  increase.  In  1842-'52  it  was  only  8fl66  quart- 
era  per  annum.  In  1853  it  was  46,459.  The  quantity 
of  grain  sent  from  Amsterdam  to  the  Rhine  in  1834 
was  15,600  tons. 

The  vessels  engaged  in  the  river  navigation  were  in 
1853: 

cleared  [nMTftrd.  Cleared  outvrttrd. 


V«mU. 

Ladon 16,978 

In  ballast..    2,213 


V'eiidli.        Tonnn^. 

9,844       787,1(18 
8,187       631,976 


Tonnwre. 

1,1.34,748 

148,680 

with  127  wood-rafta,  measuring  24,,328  cubic  ells. 

Tho  proportion  of  these  belonging  to  the  Nether- 
lands was : 


Of  laden  vessels  8,879 
4,616 


Tonnage  611,578  Inward- 
"        876,009  outward. 


The  remainder  belonged  principally  to  Belgium  and 
Prussia,  and,  in  smaller  proportions,  to  Hanover,  lladen, 
Nassau,  Hesse,  Bavaria,  Frankfort,  and  Wurtemberg. 

On  the  31st  December,  1863,  the  merchant  fleet  of 
HolUnd  counted  in  ail  2037  vessels  —  239,601  lasts 
burden.  There  were  142  frigates  =  66,142  lasts;  334 
barks  =  93,091  lasts ;  06  brigs  =  8439  lasts ;  168  schoon- 
ers =  13,4.S6  lasts ;  783  koff^  ^  46,465  lasts ;  2,'>0tjalk8 
=>  7269  lasts.  The  number  of  steamers  belonging  to 
the  Netherlands  in  1837  was  only  30  with  58  engines 
of  2201)  horse-power.  In  1863  tiere  were  100  steameis, 
with  118  engines  of  691'  ho'se-power,  not  including 
those  of  the  roj'al  navy.  It  is  stated  in  the  tables 
that,  independently  of  the  Netherlands'  trado,  there 
were  employed  during  1858  in  the  carrying  trade  be- 
tween foreign  parts,  Netlierlands'  ships  which  made  no 
less  than  2266  voyaged,  with  207,204  laiits  of  lading. 
The  Dutch  consuls  at  foreign  ports  furnislied  the  data 
cf  this  enumeration,  which  was  made  in  1853  for  the 
ilret  time.  In  connection  with  the  groat  emigration  to 
the  gold-fields  of  Australip,  more  than  50  Dutch  «liip8 
were  freighted  in  different  British  ports  for  that  dis- 
tant countr}'  during  tho  first  eix  months  of  1854. 

To  these  detaiU,  gathered  from  the  atatistical  publi- 
Qqq 


oatlons  of  tho  Dutch  government,  by  which  it  has  been 
attempted  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  present  state  of  the 
trade  of  Holland,  we  will  only  add  one  remark,  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  old  East  India  Company's 
monopoly  above  mentioned,  the  commercial  policy  of 
Holland  for  a  lengthened  period  was  mora  liberal  than 
that  of  any  other  nation,  The  same  enlightened  pol- 
icy, if  partially  departed  from  during  recent  years,  has 
been  again  cordially  entered  into  after  the  recent  ex- 
ample of  Great  Britain,  A  law  enacted  on  1st  Septem- 
1854  abolished  the  import  duties  on  a  great  numlMr  of 
articles  of  merchandise ;  and  the  Netherlands'  tariff, 
thus  modified,  equals,  if  it  does  not  even  surpass,  in 
liberality  all  other  tariff's  in  existence.  It  has  evi- 
dently been  in  consequence  of  this  enlighicned  policy, 
having  for  many  generations  been  generally  under- 
stood and  practiced  by  the  Dutch  government,  that  a 
country  not  more  oxtensivo  than  Wales,  and  iiaturally 
not  more  fertile,  recovered,  indeed,  in'  a  great  measure 
from  the  waters,  and  kept  from  beiug  again  submerged, 
by  constant  watchfulness,  and  a  heavy  uxiiunditure ; 
accumulated  a  population  of  more  than  8,000,000; 
maintained  wars  of  unexampled  duration  with  the 
most  powerful  monarchies ;  and  besides  laying  out 
immense  sums  in  works  of  utility  and  omaiuont  at 
home,  lent  hundred»  of  millions  to  foreigners.  Not- 
withstanding thoir  want  of  native  timlwr  and  iron, 
they  are  abimdantly  supplied  with  all  the  materials  of 
carpentry,  >;hip.building,  and  manufactures.  And 
though  their  commerce,  notwithstanding  its  revival  in 
later  years,  is  much  diminished  from  its  earlier  pre- 
eminence, the  Dutch,  even  at  this  moment,  are  the 
richest  and  most  comfortable  people  of  Europe. 

The  following  is  a  budget  of  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures of  the  national  revenue  for  1866 : 

KavKNux. 
Dlnict  taxes  (land  tax,  provincial  taxes,  patents) . .  £1,597,878 

Excise 1,895,871 

Stamps,  reiiilstrations,  liypotbeo  successions 968,625 

Import,  export,  and  navlgaMou  duties 852,66t 

Duty  on  pawnud  gold  and  el' vor  wares 19,1,^8 

Domains 108,975 

Post-office 120,838 

Lottery 88,888 

Sporting  and  flsblng  licenses 7,083 

Duty  on  mines. 96 

Diverse  revenues 102,476 

Interest  of  national  debt  contributed  by  Belgium..        83,883 

iDterest  at  tho  charge  of  the  colonies. 900.000 

Balance  derived  from  colonial  adnilnlst'n.  at  homo  391,667 
Derived  from  sole  of  the  national  domains 77,864 


Total  revenue,  1866. £6,099,266 

E.XrEMDITURI. 

King's  household £66,667 

High  departments  of  state. 4J5,683 

Department  of  fureign  alTalrs 40,884 

Department  I'f  juslloe 212,226 

Home  dep.irvinent 471.642 

r^hnrclu'S  and  Jewish  synagogues 141,1,<0 

Koman  ("athullc  church 49,246 

Department  of  marine 634,716 

Interest  of  national  debt 2,985,686 

Department  of  nnanco 680,159 

Department  of  war 978,750 

Colonial  department 9,646 

InoMontal  espeasea 8,833 

Total  eipendltore,  ia56 £6,119,670 

Thtj  following  table  gives  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
luie  of  the  diffierent  provincial  governments  for  1865, 
and  of  the  communes  for  1854 : 

Comlnundi,  1854. 


North  Brabant... 

Qelderlend 

South  Holland... 
North  Holland... 

Zceland 

Vtreclit 

FiicBland 

Ovorysael 

Groningcn 

Drcntho 

I.loiburg 

Total 


Provincial,  1«,6. 


I  Eijwodj. 
1     (ur«. 


Recalpta. 


£60,92»|  £60,a»8 
ll,25Si     11,366 
'-    -"      19,988 
'J0,825 
9,848 
.\««S 
28,77 
16,429 
26,721 
4,661 

_6r 

£211,060'£210.4B2 


Receipts. 

~"£96,828r 
119,670; 
866,725 
421,02s' 
76,981, 
59,71?: 
124,861' 
92,804; 
109,681^ 
19,868: 
61,171 


£l,680,a 


noL 


Mt 


HOL 


fn  conaeqiipnce  of  the  provincial  »n<l  communal 
eouncila  havln)(  a  right  to  levy  taxes  na  well  a»  the 
general  govcmmniit,  it  ia  neceHsary  tn  Kiim  up  all  the 
three  budfjets  in  onler  to  obtain  the  whole  amount  of 
tho  public  revenue  and  expenditure.  Thia  can,  how. 
ever,  only  lie  done  for  1«54,  aa  the  communal  budf^ela 
tor  1856  and  1865,  and  the  prnrincial  for  1850,  are  not 
given  in  the  lateat  atatlatlcal  publicationa  : 


National £0,ilS6,une 

ProThiolal lT6,lMfi 

Communal l,r>aa,l2'iS 


■    'al £8,866,628 


Rvp»flillliin>, 

i;6,ff86.U« 

170,6(16 

1,624,806 

£(*,(l8H,Am 


On  tlie'iVth  Auguat,  1751,  William  IV.,  Prinoo  of 
Orange,  presented  to  the  States  deneral  of  llollaml  a 
remarkable  memoir  on  tho  state  of  that  republic,  which 
la  still  preserved  In  a  work  entitled  "  /.n  Richene  de  la 
HoUandf,"  published  In  tendon  In  1788.  That  pnnce 
requested  the  opinions  of  several  leading  merchants, 
and  others  of  large  mercantile  experience,  on  the  fol- 
lowing questions.  Az. :  1st.  What  Is  tho  actual  state 
of  commirce  '  and  If  the  same  Hhould  be  found  to  be 
diminished  and  fallen  to  decaj",  then  to  inquire ;  2d. 
What  arrangements  and  means  may  support  it,  and,  if 
possible,  restore  it  to  its  former  profperlty  and  grand- 
eur? These  questions  elicited  a  statument,  or,  more 
properly,  on  clalwrate  and  longthy  report.,  on  the 
causes  by  which  the  trade  and  navigation  of  the  I'nit- 
ed  Provinces  rose  and  flourished,  Thia  report  is  ilU 
vided  into  three  heads,  viz. :  1st.  The  natural  mid 
physical  causes ;  2d.  The  moral  causes,  and,  3d.  Tho 
accidental,  adventitious,  or  external  causes. 

Under  the  lirst  head  arc  classed  the  advantageous 
altuation  of  the  countiv,  near  tho  sen,  and  at  tho 
mouths  of  large  navigable  rivers ;  its  central  situation, 
which  rendered  it  tho  general  market  to  whiih  the 
merchants  of  northern  ond  southern  Kumpc  were  ac- 
customed to  bring  their  merchandise,  and  exchange 
the  same  fur  such  gixMls  as  they  wanted.  The  slerll- 
ity  of  tlio  country,  and  the  consequent  want,  it  is  rep- 
resented, have  contributed  in  animating  tho  spirit, 
seal,  industry,  and  genius  of  the  people  to  seek  iu  for- 
eign countries  those  things  which  tliey  most  need  at 
home ;  ond  this  could  only  be  effected  by  means  of 
trade.  This  they  were  enabled  to  do  by  the  great 
•bnndun<^e  of  lish  in  tha  neighboring  sea,  which  fur- 
nished an  equivalent  for  the  exchange  of  tliose  things 
which  the  barrenness  of  their  own  country-,  and  tlieir 
limited  extent  of  arable  lands,  denied  them  at  home. 
Among  the  moral  causes,  the  report  cited  the  invariable 
maxim  and  fundamental  law  of  the  State,  which  permits 
the  free  exercise  of  all  religions,  and  regards  toleration 
in  this  respect  as  tlie  most  effectual  means  of  attracting 
foreigners  from  adjacent  countries,  and,  by  that  means, 
to  augment  the  popukiion  of  these  provinces.  The  con- 
■tont  policy,  it  is  remarked,  of  this  republic  has  been  to 
make  this  conntr}'  i^  safe  asj'lum  for  persecuted  and 
oppressed  foreigners ;  and  no  alliance,  no  treaty,  no 
lolicitatiun  of  any  potentate  in  the  world  has  ever  been 
capable  of  destroying  the  protection  and  security  ac- 
corded to  those  who  have  sought  its  refuge.  This  fun- 
damental maxim  of  the  republic  has  caused  many  peo- 
ple to  flee  from  the  oppressions  and  persecutions  exer- 
cised in  other  countries,  and  to  seek  refuge,  as  wsU  as 
employment,  bringing  w'th  them  not  only  their  money 
and  their  valualile  effects,  liut  also  their  industry. 
They  have  established  nianj' trades,  manufactories,  and 
arts,  notwithstanding  thj  first  materials  fur  the  said  i 
'  manufactures  were  almost  wholly  wanting  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  only  to^  procured,  at  great  expense,  | 
from  other  countries.  ! 

The  constitution  and  the  form  of  government,  and  the 
civil  liberty  thus  extumled,  funiish  another  cause  to  I 
which  the  growtli  of  trade  and  the  prosperity  of  com- 
merce are  attriliutcd.  Tlie  wisdom  an>l  prudoru^e  of 
the  administratiun,  the  courage  and  firmness  of  tho 
councils,  the  fidelity  with  which  contracts  and  engage- 


ments ware  xmi  to  Ix  Ailfilled,  art  also  classed  among 
the  moral  causes  under  which  their  cximmerce  had 
readied  so  high  a  degree  of  prosperity  and  splendor. 
Among  the  accidental  or  external  causes  are  enumer- 
ated the  civil  wars  In  Franca,  and  afterward  In  (Icr- 
many,  England,  and  other  countries,  whicli  contrilt. 
uted  largely  to  the  encouragement  of  the  manufacturing 
industry  of  Holhind  ;  while  the  religious  persecution  in 
Spain,  Drabant,  Flanders,  and  other  states  and  em- 
pires, also  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  its  com- 
merce. After  dwelling  at  length  on  these  tliree  lieiids, 
thia  "lelehrated  report  then  discusses  the  actual  statfl 
of  the  trade  of  the  country,  ami  shows  th'it  the  first 
two— the  natural  and  moral  caiuies — still  remain  un- 
changed; while  the  third— tho  accidental  and  external 
causes— had  almost  entirely  disap|ieared.  Persecutions 
in  other  countries  had  ceased  ;  indolence  and  contempt 
fortrade  had  given  place  to  industrj'  and  commercial 
enterprise  ;  their  own  example  had  been  imitated  by 
England,  which  for  a  century  had  been  stroiiiing  legis- 
lation to  attract  tho  trado  so  lon^  enjoyed  by  the  re- 
public, and  whirn  now  prohibited  the  exportation  of 
the  wool  which  formerly  fed  the  factories  of  Holland  j 
while  many  other  countries  had  successfully  lntr(' 
duc.i  those  branches  of  industry  which  in  former  da^  i 
h:>d  flourished  in  the  Netherlands  alone. 

The  great  niiiiilier  of  shops  which  had  been  closed  in 
the  iirincipal  towns,  especially  in  Amsterdam ;  tho 
difficulty  of  procuring  seamen  to  man  the  ships ;  tho 
flourishing  commerce  of  Hamburg  and  otl.cr  towns. 
which  now  supply  Germany  with  all  kinda  of  colonial 
produce,  of  which  Amsterdam  was  formerly  the  gnat 
emporium  ;  the  extinction  of  Dutch  commercial  houses 
in  Spain,  and  of  Dutch  trade  in  the  I.,evant :  all  of 
these  were  cited  aa  proofs  of  the  present  decline  of  tho 
trade  and  commerce  of  Holland,  This  report,  of  which 
a  lirief  sketch  has  thus  bciii  given,  closes  witli  a  recom- 
mendation to  permit  all  raw  materials  to  be  entered 
free  of  duty,  as  well  as  all  foreign  goods  placed  in  en- 
trepot, or  for  transit ;  basing  this  recommendation  up- 
on the  maxim,  that  the  lighter  the  burdens  were,  the 
greater  would  be  the  trade.  Nearly  200  years  prior 
to  the  date  of  this  report,  tho  revolt  of  iiie  Netherlands 
against  Spain  commenced.  The  Duke  of  Alva,  then 
the  Sjiunish  governor  of  the  Netherlands,  was  defeat- 
ed ;  all  the  Spanish  ships  on  the  coast  of  the  Nether- 
lands were  destroyed ;  several  Spanish  towns  were 
taken,  and  Spanish  troops  were  expelled  from  tho 
cities  and  towns  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  West  Fries- 
land,  whose  citizens  joined  in  the  revolt,  nnd  swore 
allegiance  to  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

In  1579,  the  famous  union  of  tiy  States  of  Holland, 
Friesland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht  was  formed  at  tho 
latter  pUco,  and  a  solemn  compact  entered  into  to 
unite  at  one  confederation,  and,  aa  such,  to  advise  of 
peace,  war,  and  taxes,  and  to  maintain  personal  and 
religious  lilierty.  Ovoryssel  and  Groningen  soon  af- 
ter joined  the  union  ;  and,  in  n  few  years,  these  seven 
United  Provinces  became  tho  most  powerful  repuldic 
which  tho  world  had  seen  since  the  decline  of  ancient 
Rome.  From  tills  period  until  the  treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia was  signed  (10J8),  we  find  the  Dutch  growing  ta\t- 
idly  in  power,  commerce,  and  wealth  ;  sending  their 
ships  toeverj-  quarter  of  the  glolie  ;  successfully  resist- 
ing the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  flags,  on  whatever  sea 
they  chanced  to  encounter  them  ;  capturing  tlicir  ves- 
sels ;  expelling  them  from  tlie  Molucci.s ;  forming  trad- 
ing establishments  in  the  Persian  (fulf,  and  thence 
along  the  coasts  and  isles  uf  IndiK  to  .lupan,  iiuil  es- 
pecially at  Tcylon,  .lava,  ai;d  tho  Moluccas.  In  one 
of  these  naval  encounters  (1().58),  the  Dutch  captured  a 
whole  fleet  of  Spanish  gallc<>ns,  bringing  home,  as  the 
prize  of  victc.rj',  precious  metals  to  the  value  of  10,000,- 
000  guilders.  Tlie  vessels  and  seamen  employed  iii 
these  naval  adventures  were  under  the  management 
of  tiio  Dutch  Kast  India  Company,  wliiili  frequently 
."ealized  from  the  rich  captures  and  costly  cargoes — 


HOL 


979 


noL 


■plrnn,  rlnntmon,  and  other  KMt  IndU  prod  lotloni — 
nit  hl((h  as  nzjf  per  cent,  on  the  capital  atock  !nve«t«d. 

A  Woat  India  Company  was  also  organii  1  al)Out 
tiio  year  1 021,  Grl((liuiliy  for  tho  pur|HiHe  of  di  Ing  the 
Pnrtiigiieae  out  r.  Drazll,  and  the  Spaniards  out  of 
I'tiru,  in  which  they  were  not  so  aueceiuiful  as  in  their 
Kant  India  adventures.  Tlioy  captured,  however,  the 
Spanish  fleet  In  those  seas  ,  acourcd  and  plundered  the 
cDsats  of  Cuba ;  took  pussrseion  of  Pemambuco  and 
tlio  inlands  of  CurK9oa,  3t.  Kustace,  and  others,  which 
th'jy  still  retain. 

The  first  check  ti  t1' is  extensive  and  almost  undis- 
puted dominion  of  the  sea,  which  the  Dutch  expe- 
rienced, was  the  i  jlebrated  navigation  act  of  tlie  litimp 
Parliament.  .*i'  ci '  omwell,  and  10  yenra  after- 
ward legalized  by  Cb '  i3s  II.  Tlie  Dutch,  at  this 
poriod,  enjoyed  a  profitable  carrying  trade  between 
Kigland  and  her  Amiirican  colonies.  Ily  this  act,  it 
WI18  provided  tlut  no  mm  'handiae,  the  produce  of  Aaiu, 
Africa,  or  Am  ''lea,  should  be  imported  into  England 
in  any  '  ut  Ei  jh-built  ships,  commanded  by  an  En- 
glish master,  and  navigated  by  a  crew  three  fourths  of 
whom  should  be  E'  'lUhmen  i  nor  any  fish  exported 
from  or  imported  ii '  i  England  or  Ireland,  except  of 
Engllih  taking.  As  might  have  been,  and  confessedly 
wos,  expected,  a  war  soon  after  broke  out  between 
Holland  ond  E.iglnnd,  exclusively  nnvul,  which  was 
carried  on  with  the  utmost  desperation  on  both  sides. 
After  several  fierce  and  bloody  engagements,  tlie 
Dutch  wore  defeated,  ind  wore  compelled  to  sue  for 
peace.  A  treaty  followed,  imposing  the  most  liumil- 
iatiug  terms  upon  the  hardy  repulilic ;  among  others, 
that  "  of  striking  their  flag,  and  lowering  their  top- 
ualls,  whenever  the  Dutcii  ships  thould  meet  any  of  tlio 
ships  of  war  of  the  Er  lish  commonwealth  In  the  Brit- 
ish seas."  Severn  othor  'vars  occurred  between  the 
Dutch  and  E<igli»h,  and,  in  167C,  between  tlio  former 
and  the  English  and  V  unch  combined.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  war  of  the  American  Revolution,  liostil- 
ities  were  again  declared  against  Holland  by  Great 
Hrltain,  on  the  pretense  that  the  dockyards  and  arsenals 
of  France  were  furnished  with  munitions  of  war,  and 
tho  American  troops  v  .•  supr!'"-:,  i)y  Dutch  vessels. 
A  discovery,  accidentauv  '■  ade  by  the  British  in  tho 
following  year,  that  a  '  et  treaty,  recognizing  the 
independence  of  the  United  ^  .^s,  hud  been  negotiated 
tn  1778,  between  Uollan  '  and  tho  American  Congress, 
inltumed  the  already  i  itited  animosity  of  England 
against  the  Dutch,  to  so  high  a  pitcb,  that  war  was 
immediately  declared.  During  the  existence  of  these 
hostilities  the  Dutch  lost  their  West  India  possessions ; 
and,  durhi';  the  subsequent  wars  of  tho  French  Revol'!- 
tion,  in  which  the  Netherlands  were  forced  to  co-op- 
orate  with  the  French,  t  n  whole  of  their  East  India 
possessions  passed  into  tl     hands  of  the  British. 

In  1814,  the  independence  of  Holland  was  restoreu, 
and  Belgium  and  Holland  'lere  erected  into  one  king- 
dom. In  the  convention  c'.  iSiri,  Java  and  all  the 
Dutch  colonies  were  ceded  to  Holland,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Cope  of  (iood  Hope,  and  the  settlements  of 
Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice.  The  British,  also, 
obtained  the  cession  of  the  settlement  of  Oocliin  and 
its  dependencies,  on  the  cof='  if  Malabar.  The  pos- 
sesaions  of  the  Dutch  In  th>.  l^ast  Indien  are  now  re- 
ducei'  lo  the  island  of  .lava,  the  Moluccas,  Sumatra 
(foi-  whicb  they  gave  F'ort  Slolucca  in  return).  Macas- 
sar, Celelies,  Banda,  Amboyna,  and  Ternato.  Thoj- 
possess  several  forts  on  the  coast  of  Gi.inea:  in  the 
West  Indies,  Cnra^oa,  St.  Eustace,  Saba,  and  part  of 
St.  Martin  ;  and  in  South  A.nerica,  n.  po  tion  of  Suri- 
nam, or  Dutch  Ouiniia.  The  revolution  in  Belgium 
in  1«.S0  resulted,  as  al  ads  sitated  in  tho  articbon  tlmt 
kingdom,  after   ■        •  lOntcst,  in  the  separation 

of  Belgium  from  '^  '  and  its  erection  into  an  in- 
dependent kingdo!:  .  jiua  iS.jO,  Holland  has  unin- 
terruptedly purued  the  vr  of  peaceful  commci-ce, 
indu-'irA-,  and  trade.     ii.T     uTigation   is  annually 


extending  |  «nd  her  great  commerv^tal  marts,  Amster- 
dam and  Kutterdsm,  bid  fair  to  rigain  their  former 
prosperity. 

Tie  Unilal  Statu — In  their  commercial  relations 
with  the  United  Statsa,  tlie  Netherlands  liave  always 
luanifeeted  a  spirit  of  liberality.  Several  treaties  of 
amity,  navigation,  and  commerce  liavn  been  entered 
into  lietween  the  two  countrloa — the  lant  bearing  date 
August  30,  IWi.  This  treaty  of  1N52  is  l>Baed  upon 
the  principle  of  entire  reciprocity  and  perfect  freedom 
of  commerce,  and  applies,  with  all  its  privllegej,  to 
the  intercuurae  l>atwaen  the  United  States  and  the  col- 
unlee  anil  dominions  of  Holland  lieyond  seas.  It  re- 
serves to  Holland  the  right  to  levy  dlacriminatlu^^ 
duties  of  lni|iort  and  export  in  favor  of  her  direct 
trade  with  such  colonies  and  dominions ;  but  should 
American  vessels  engage  in  such  direct  trade,  they  are 
to  enjoy  perfect  equality  with  the  national  flag.  The 
Uiiiled  States  is  also  at  lilierty  to  continue  to  bivy  the 
discriminating  duty  imposed  l>y  the  tariff  of  IH-IO  on 
tea  and  coffee,  in  favor  of  the  direct  importation  of 
these  artiides  from  the  places  of  their  growth,  but  alao 
without  diacriminatlr.g  between  the  flags  of  the  two 
countries.  This  treaty  is  to  continue  in  force  two 
years,  commencing  six  weeks  after  its  ratldcation, 
with  the  usual  Vi  months'  notice  by  either  party  will- 
ing to  terminate  its  action.  Before  the  date  of  this 
lust  treaty,  the  reciprocity  and  freedom  of  commerce  ' 
lietween  the  Netherlands  and  the  United  States  a|>- 
plled  only  to  the  direct  trade  between  tho  two  coun- 
tries. All  restrictions,  not  only  as  regards  entire 
reciprocity  and  perfect  equality  In  the  direct  trade 
between  the  two  nations  and  their  flags,  respectively, 
but,  as  It  resoects  our  trade  with  the  Dutch  colonies, 
were  by  this  treaty  abolished,  and  the  two  flags  were 
assimilated  (the  coasting  trade  and  fisheries  excepted), 
on  every  aea,  and  in  every  port. 

Navigation  Imics, — The  laws  amending  the  Nether- 
lands legislation  with  respect  to  navigation  were  pre- 
pared in  18-18,  hut  not  pro<daiined  as  in  operation  until 
tlie  year  1H50,  when  the  abolition  of  the  British  nav- 
igation acts  rendered  necessary  tho  immediate  adoption 
of  that  step.  The  now  system  agreed  to  by  both  the 
Chambers  of  the  Statea  General  is  contained  in  a  col- 
lection of  rules  embodying  the  legal  dispositions  and 
scliedules.  These  are  too  numorous  and  lengthy  here 
to  be  inserted  ;  but  the  following  summary  will  convey 
u  vicii..  .'.  idea  of  their  purport,  and  show  how  benefi- 
cially the  liberal  spirit,  which  has  of  late  year.-^  guided 
British  commercial  legislation,  enters  Into  and  molds 
tlie  commercial  systems  of  nelghlioring  countries. 
Whatever  favor  the  system  of  "free  trade"  may 
hereafter  meet  with  among  the  comme/cial  nations 
of  the  earth,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  spirit  of 
free  nuvi;;atlon  has  entered  upon  itr  benelicent  mission, 
and  already  shapes  the  legislation  of  those  nations 
whicli  have  thriven  and  flourished  most  l>y  commerce, 
Tlio  countries  of  Europe  which  still  retain  their  medi- 
eval commercial  policy — and,  indeed,  those  on  our  own 
continent  which  have  iiiherlte<l  from  their  European 
progenitors  similar  sj'stems  of  commercial  intercourse 
with  foreign  nations — must  either  abandon  their  re- 
strictive policy,  and  adopt,  in  its  widest  sense,  and 
with  all  its  privileges  and  rights,  the  common-law  de- 
finitions of  mqre  liberum,  or  find  themselves  Isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  commercial  world.  When  this 
spirit  haa  already  burst  tlinnigh  the  barriers  which, 
from  a  time  "  to  which  the  memorj'  of  man  runneth 
not  to  the  contrary,"  closed  China  and  iTapan  against 
every  approach  of  civilized  commerce,  it  can  not  be 
doubted  that  its  influence  will  soon  or  late  be  felt  and 
acknowledged  by  those  nations  which  would  erect 
finiincial  barricades  across  tho  highway  of  nations, 
and  interdict  the  importation  of  bread  to  feed,  and 
fabrics  to  clothe,  their  destitute  subjects.  The  present 
navigation  laws  of  England  are  Imt  the  commence- 
ment of  a  now  era  in  tho  commercial  legislation  of 


I 


if 


^  a 


not 


ffSO 


not 


Komp*.  Tha  «x«mp1«  of  HulUii^,  of  Btlglam,  «f  th« 
HinM-tnwna,  inil  thr  ZoUMtrein  (thnuKh,  ■•  rtg'  ' 
the  httar,  there  \n  still  much  to  lie  ilmi''),  rnn  no)  '.i 
liMten  Ihia  liberal  reformation  in  the  niivlK>tlon  I'  >» 
of  nelghhorinK  ((nvemmentii.  The  lenillnK  fealuru  of 
the  new  navigation  lawi  of  the  NetherUncln  may  lia 
^fathered  ftam  the  following  eunimary.  It  erohraota 
the  chief  banea  upon  which  they  reit  i 

1.  Unconditional  rrpaal  of  dlicrimlnating  favora 
grunted  to  the  Dutch  flag,  l>y  •upproHtion  of  tlia  rulaa 
allowing  to  thia  Hag  preference  alH>vn  foreign  flaga, 
:>..  Condlllonal  •fmllarity  of  flag  in  tlie  navigation 
to  and  from  the  Netherlanda  coloniea.  II.  Mlpulatlnna 
by  law  concerning  the  trade  and  navigation  In  the 
colonlea  of  the  realm,  carried  on  by  other  natlnnn  of 
the  world.  4.  Repeal  of  the  Intenlicilon  to  grant 
Netherlanda  reglaters  to  foreign-built  veiiela,  by  ad- 
mlttanie  for  registry  (naturaliaation)  of  inch  veaaela 
nt  a  duty  of  four  per  cent,  of  their  value.  A.  Diminlah- 
ing  of  import  dutleii  on  principal  materialii  for  ahip- 
huiUling.  6.  Sanpenaion  of  the  ihippinq  liulin  on  th* 
Rhine  and  Ynnel.     7.  Total  abolition  oftrantit  diitlea. 

The  principal  object  of  all  theae  meaaurea  i«  to  pm- 
mote  trade,  by  relieving  navigation,  na  much  aa  |hm- 
aible,  of  the  Impedimenta  agalnat  Ita  development 
which  reaulted  ttom  paat  legialation.  The  general 
ayatem  comprohenda  a  plan  of  eatabllahing,  in  one 
general  law,  inatead  of  by  complicated  treatlea  of  com- 
merce with  the  different  natlona,  the  principle  nf  Im- 
mediate and  unconditional  "free  navigation,"  and, 
consequently,  the  general  and  unconditional  asaimlla- 
tlon  of  flaga,  by  granting  to  the  veaaela  of  all  natlona 
the  privilegea  enjoyed  by  thoae  of  the  Netherlanda  ; 
reserving,  however,  the  right  of  retaliation,  ahnuld  cir- 
cumstances render  its  exercise  ncceaaary,  which,  In 
most  cases  thnt  can  happen,  will  \m  limited  to  an  aug- 
mentation of  shipping  tnxei*,  or  of  import  duties  )  and 
saving,  alao,  certain  reNtrictions  and  conditions  relative 
to  importations  from  Netherlands  colonies.  In  fine, 
the  navigation  laws  of  Holland  are  framed  so  aa  to 
open,  as  far  as  possible,  all  Netherlands  porta  for  ahlps 
of  all  nations;  "to  proclaim,"  as  announced  In  the 
official  exposition,  "  a  renewed  adherence  to  the  lilieral 
commercial  policy  which  the  Netherlanda  was  the  flrat 
nation  to  adopt,  in  order  to  stimulate  other  natlona  to 
abandon  all  ayatems  of  protections  and  prohibitions ; 
to  abolish  all  exclusive  protections  of  the  Netherlanda 
flag,  so  that  our  (their)  navigation  may,  with  good 
success,  keep  pace  with  that  nf  other  natlona,  and  our 
(their)  commerce  may  not  remain  1>ehind  In  the  newly- 
opened  competition  resulting  from  the  repeal  of  the 
navigation  laws  of  England."  Under  the  regulatloni 
condenacil  a)>ove,  as  well  as  under  the  treaty  with  the 
United  States  of  1852,  the  American  flag  \*  assimilatei] 
to  that  of  toe  Netherlands  in  the  colonial  trade.  In- 
deed, in  all  rt^apects,  without  bny  condition  or  qualifl- 
cation  whatever,  the  flags  of  both  nations  enjoy  antira 
and  perfect  equality.  On  the  6th  of  August,  1844 ,  the 
then  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  addresaeil  to  collectors 
and  naval  officers  circular  in.ttructluna,  in  which  the 
following  paragraphs  occurred : 

"  Th.'  charge  d'afhlrea  of  bla  majeaty  tlio  Kind  of  the 
Nether. anda  haa  preacnied  a  complaint  that  thn  duty  of  VA 
per  cent,  ad  valorem,  levied  upon  coffee  imiwrted  from  the 
ports  of  the  Netherlanda,  la  lu  contravention  of  the  aubUatfnK 
troattea  between  the  United  Statea  uuA  the  KlnK  iif  the  Nolb- 
erltnda ;  seeing  that,  by  llio  ninth  article  of  the  aot  of  liMl, 
coffee  Imported  In  vcasela  of  the  United  t<lat<!a,  from  the 
place  of  Its  growth  or  production,  la  exrmipt  frum  duty. 

"  By  the  flrat  article  of  the  treaty  of  WW,  between  the 
Cnlted  Statea  and  the  United  ^ethe^land^  It  la  atlpulMeit 
that  goods  and  merchandlie,  whaUner  their  ovifiin  mofl  In, 
Imported  into  or  exported  from  the  portK  of  the  (JuiteiJ  UlnUin, 
from  or  to  the  porta  of  the  Neth°rlanda  in  Kurnpe,  |u  viisMla 
of  the  Netherlanda,  shall  pay  no  other  or  higher  duties  than 
aball  be  levied  oa  'he  like  goods  and  merobsadlse  Iniportad 
or  exported  In  national  vessels,  etc 

"  As  coffee  imported  In  the  vessels  of  the  United  Htatas  Is 
exempt  from  da^,  it  foUowa,  ttom  the  traaty  befor*  nailadi 


that  eofllae  Imported  In  the  Tnesala  of  ti'ia  NtlherUnda,  from 
lli«lr  porta  In  Kuropu,  la  eaionpt  from  duty.  Therefum,  aunh 
iutlea  aa  Itave  iMaii  ao  levlrd  np<in  coffee,  ao  aa  afuri>aatil  Ini- 
i.<  <rlad.  In  v«awla  of  the  Malhurtanda,  fmra  tlielr  |wr(<  (n 
Jtwiipt,  mual  Im  rafundnl  i  and,  In  Aiture,eaffee  ao  Imported 
maat  be  admlllMl  free  of  duty. " 

From  these  Inatructions  It  neceaaarily  followed  In 
prai'tlcs,  that  whiU  the  coffee  nf  .lava,  importvl  iii 
vesaels  nf  the  Netherlands,  from  nirts  of  the  NetluT- 
lands,  has  Iwan  exemiited  frum  duty  on  Ita  arrival  In 
th*  Tnltod  Htates,  the  same  article,  when  Imported  In 
Auierii'an  veaaela,  frnm  the  same  ports  In  the  Netlicr- 
landa,  has  been  aubjecteil,  imder  tiis  proviaiona  nf  tlio 
loth  aectlun  nf  the  tariff  act  of  nOth  of  August,  1812, 
to  the  payment  of  a  dutv  of  30  per  cent,  ad  vnlnroni, 
aa  a  non-enumerated  article.     On  the  11th  of  Septeni- 
lier,  IM4A,  these  Inatructluns  were  cnuntrnnanded,  by 
Traaaury  circular  nf  that  date,  as  not  warranted  by 
the  {/rnvlainn*  of  the  treaty  of  18A1) ;  tlio  word  "  ao," 
wh  ':h  quallAed  tht  importation  or  exportation,  having 
lieen  nvnrhiuked  In  preparing  the  >  Ircular  Hrat  referred 
to,     A  dlfl'urent  cnnr.trurtlon  would  give  to  thn  veaaela 
of  Holland  an  advantage  over  Anio '-an  vessels  en- 
gaged In  the  same  trade,  aa  already  intimated,  of  20 
tier  cent,'   nn  advantage  which  could  hardly  have  been 
Inliinded  to  lie  given  by  any  treaty  with  a  foreign 
(Miwer.      All  ambiguity  or  doubt  on  this  subject  is 
removed  by  Ilia  tariff  act  nf  1840.     Dnder  the  provls. 
luna  nf  that  act,  however,  the  Netherlands  flag  still 
enjoys  an  advantage  nver  that  of  the  United  Statea  in 
the  coffee  carrying  trade.     Thus,  scheduin  1  of  thn 
act  provides,  that  "coffee,  the  growth  or  production 
nf  the  |Kiaaesalona  nf  the  Nrthcrlunda,  imported  frnm 
th*  Netlinrlnnds  In   American  veaaels,  or  in  foreign 
vnaaels  entitled  by  reciprocal  treatlea  to  be  exempt 
front    diacrlniinating    dullea,    tonnage,    and    other 
charges,"  ahall  lie  free,     'I'lie  nxpnrt  duty  on  colTee  at 
Java,  is  12  per  cent.,  half  of  which   is  remlttcil   in 
favor  of  direct    lm|inrtatlnn  to  the   NetherlnndH  In 
national  nr  nquallxoil  Iwltnms.    Consequently,  a  Dutch 
vessel,  carrying  ,Iova  coffee  from  Holland  Into  the 
United  Ht'itea,  can  undersell  the  American  Importer 
who  brings  It  Into  |i<irt  direct  from  Java,  the  amount 
of  the  differential  export  duty,  or  six  per  cent,  on  the 
value  uf  his  I'argn, 

I'lmmrn'. — liie  principal  articles  imported  into 
Holland  In  IHMI,  and  their  prupnrtlon  to  the  total 
amount  nf  importatlnns,  were  as  follows : 

Mrr<«iil.:l  p«r«Bt. 

'naauFaofallalnda  r^'fll      Oraina 6-40 

Usw  augar HM  I   Iron M» 

Yarna »(I0  ,   Haw  Cotton 8-49 

Coffee »'4T  |l  Kjo  stuffa 8M 

The  principal  exp<irta,  and  their  prnpnrtion  to  the 
total  amount  ofeximrtatlona,  were: 


i>«r  f-iitit, 

Woven  hbrlca ^■iti 

iUiUnnd  atlgkr I'M 

Varna, TIB 

Coffeu tMI 


par  cent, 

Oralns 4*4 

Raw  sugar 454 

Live  animals. 4-09 

Butter. a»9 


The  total  general  commerce  of  Holland  in  1863 
(ini|Hirts  and  eximrts  united),  amounted  to  $2.')7,000,000, 
showing  »  dlmlniillon,  when  compared  with  the  pre- 
ceding year,  of  »;,41),m)0. 

Tho  diminution  In  exports  fell  principally  upon  ali- 
mentary products  of  the  flrat  necessity,  and  was 
caused  "by  the  general  had  crops  of  the  year.  The 
slutre  nsalgnail  In  the  commerce  of  this  yeor  amounted 
to  i  lm|Mirts  by  ao»-to  the  Dutch  flag,  $49,391,732 ; 
to  the  foreign  flag,  ♦42,013,132— giving  to  the  Dutch 
flag  111  the  Import  trade,  68|  per  cent. ;  and  to  tho 
fnreign  flag  4«j^  per  cent.  In  the  expoH  trade,  tho 
Dutch  flag  had  $29,H20,014;  the  foreign  flag,  |80,- 
•70,14*— glvltigthe  Dutch  flag  49,  and  the  foreign  flag 
61  |ier  cent. 

The  total  Imports  of  the  Netherlanda  in  1854,  as 
apiMiitn  from  th«  Htatiilical  Year  Hook  ofHoUand,  for 
tliat  year,  tmounUd  to  860,484,000  florins,  or  4142,- 
60)1,000  i  itwwiog  Ml  increan  over  the  importi  «f 


HOL 


081 


noL 


Into 
total 


l*t 

154 

■■09 
1.99 

1868 
bO,QOO, 
|e  pre- 

Inn  ali- 
waa 
Tha 
bunted 
1,732; 
■Dutch 
|to  the 
|le,  the 
180,- 
ifl»g 

Jb54,«b 
Ind,  for 
1i»U2,- 
LrU  «( 


UM  of  $14,178,000,  and  over  the  Import*  of  1862  of 
#18,808,000.  The  total  export*  the  name  year,  a* 
Kiven  liy  tha  lanie  aothorltv,  amounted  to  H0N,7H(),(M)0 
tlorlna,  or  4128,A12,()()0;  shiiwinK  an  lnvreaiio(>vt<r  the 
expurti  of  1H,^8  of  |il4,801,)l64,  and  uver  tha  exporta  of 
18A2  of  $14,1)18,000. 

iHpnan  ANn  Gxpoan  or  IlaitAND  ma  IMU. 


CuualriM,                     InaporU. 

Riporti. 

Tol.l. 

Great  Britain »»'  WM.OOO 

Fianc  "f.ooo 

JSollveroln ""O 

lUnHH-towim. 

Unltml  Btatoa 

pill 

t8»,9i«,ono 

l,O»H,0flO 

Him.noo 
T,4eo,uoo 
^07^l,ooo 

tween  Holland  and 
iM  i^lven  in  the  United 

ni'nprca  and  Nuvlftatlon, 
m  that  |;iven  liy  the 

n  the  United  State* 
rice,  lireadntun*,  etc. 


The  valne  nf  the  t 
the  United  Ntat< 
Htutaa'  Tre.isiiry 
l»  »4,l!W,ti:ir.   or  .-    M, 
Uiiti'h  nfllolal  rep<>  '. 

'I'he  chief  artirlt'K  p: 
to  Ilollnnd  are  cotton, 

The  leading  imports  into  the  United  States  from  Hoi 
land  ore  gpirit*  (principally  gin),  coflee,  madder, 
•pice*,  pictureH,  puintinx*,  aeKarfl,  tin,  etc.  There 
entered  in  1858,  in  Piitch  porta,  from  foreign  countries, 
6892  vuaaels,  measuring  1,004,2118  tons ;  of  which 
number  70,  meiuiuring  26,7n.'>  tons,  bore  tlie  flag  of  the 
United  Htutos;  and  18  vessels,  under  the  Dutch  Hag, 
•ailed  direct  from  our  |H)rta  witli  American  produce. 


During  the  «im«  year,  there  cleared  from  the  Nrtha^ 
land*  tn  fbrelgn  oountrie*,  4,418  ships,  measuring 
77«,H«9  ton*  i  of  whlcli  there  were  uniler  the  Amerii<iin 
llag,  for  United  Htuiim'  (lorts,  22  vesaei*,  nioa*urlng 
11,888  tun*  I  and  for  the  *aroa  deatination,  27  ve**«U 
Iwlnnging  to  other  nations. 

In  18&3  there  entered  at  the  dilTerent  porta  of  liul- 
land  100(1  steam  vessels,  lailnn,  measuring  in  the  ag- 
gregate, aoi,H20  tons;  tll.i  steam  vessels  In  ballast, 
m«aauring  Ir.  the  aggregate,  72,hin)  tuns  '    1201 

vfs««l*,  tjunage,  ;ir  7,12ft. 

The  vessel*  in  bnliast  were  all  nn  '.'  IH"  l''i.j|ti'Jl 
flag;  thu*e  freighted  were  diatribut-  i      .'   .:.<'. 

\  II 

Under  the  l>atoh  Raff I  A 

KnifMali  nim ftiA 

"        Frnnrli  flag m 

••        Sweillshtlag 1 

ToUl l.fKW  S04,m» 

Since  the  new  navigation  lawa  of  Ilnliaml  came  into 
operation  (August  H,  IM.^O),  the  marlliiiiu  commerce  of 
that  lilngdom  has  been  distributed  asalu)wii  l)y  tha  fol- 
lowing talda : 

lUI'OETATlONS   «\   Sr.A. 


Fi>«».  i«4«.  laso.  lui. 

Dntob 5(p«rct,  SSporct  Mperct. 

Koroign 41      "  4S      "  4«       ' 

EXI'OKTATKIMH    HY  SUA. 
FllWri.  IM9.  IHIO.  lUI. 

Dutch M  por  ct.  Mperct  M  per  ct 

Foreign 4«       "  «      "  4»      " 


IBS*. 

AS  per  at 
U      '■ 


tsu. 

49  per  cl 
M       » 


l'i>UMF.RCa  OF  THK  Unitko  Htatks  witk  1IoI.la.io,  fbom  Octobbr  1,  ISW,  TO  .July  1,  l»ft6. 


Inn  •Ddlsf . 


8cpt.80,  1811 

1H^2 

1828 

18M 

1819 

1826 

181T 

1S48 

1829 

1880 

Total. 


Sept  80,  18M1 . 
1S.12. 
1H88. 
1884 
1SS8. 
1880. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1840. 


Eiporti* 


DODWlll'^. 


Fortlfs, 


Total.. 


Sept.  80,  UMl 

ISia 

0  uios      1848 

Jane  80,  1844 

1848 

1848 

1M7 

184S 

1849 

18B0 

ToUl.. 


June  80,  18.M. 
1863. 
1K68. 
1854. 
ISSS. 
1886. 


(1,9M,.M3 
2,0T7,8«S 
1,642,»II0 
l,807,r>14 
1,486,408 
1,97(),100 
3,8H9,8S1 
1,808,707 
8,()»ft,8S7 
8,8M,S51 
(28,381,M8 

11,707,21)8 
2,282,792 
1,084,883 
1,80.5,536 
2,345,030 
2,498,090 
2.035,589 
^,55^979 
1,077,852 
_8,8A2fl4 
'»22,TO8,Mir 

$2,237.44* 

1,09«,.127 
2,517,921 
2,763,780 
2,097,091 
1,88.\89S 
l.RO.^.^W 
2,tM,82S 
_2.18S^101^ 

»22;80S,778 

$1,911,115 
2,201,848 
l,08!),7a8 
2,299,710 
1.920,309 
8,501,110 


$11, 


,789,091 
514,088 
409,110 
017.831 
.800,839 
,899,857 
888  950 
809,040 
889,330 
07JS^7 
?17,67l 


$211,800 

1,870,490 
722,409 

I,2^S,I.88 
187,080 
680,479 

1.322,980 

898,209 

29.5,051 

911,0«0 

$8,405,814~ 

$277,478 
880,088 
288,140 
181,028 
268,267 
109,074 
129,9.16 
271.513 
242,027 
416,564 


$2,611,010 

$284,054 
204,651 
21.5,773 
142,950 
203,015 
89,818 


Tutsi. 

$8^094,105 
8,001,051 
5,052,140 
2,11^345 
8,798,807 
8,870,060 
8,228,831 
2,219,413 
8,98,5,187 
4,030,078 
$85,700,119 

$1,920,152 
5,103,282 
2,350,782 
3,623,074 
1,.533,010 
8.184,575 
8,358,615 
2,0.M,24S 
1,073,003 
8.850,310 
$80,868,9t7 

$2,614,922 
8,023,820 
1,986,467 
2,698,944 
8,022,047 
2,290,709 
2,01,\331 
1,800,903 
2,B97,8N5 
2,004,669 


$14,976,788 

$2,199,109 
2,497,529 
2,199,406 
2,442,666 
2,118,984 
8,530,428 


Importl, 


$11,438,698 


$989,837 
1,360,608 
1,166,860 
1,128,956 
1,590,570 
l,a2.S281 
1,886,076 
1,180,897 
2,149,732 
1,074,754 


$14,352,477 


Wtwnof  thfre  wu  lit  BulUun 
and  HpvrlH. 


740 

4,300 
16,451 


$2^,018 
$5,000 
26^178 


8,612 
260 
800 

'$86,880" 


,088,021 

,007,481,  ' 

480,823 

,810,081 

954,844 

,a59,697 

,247,209 

,417,908 

.501,048 

,680.067 




The  general  navigation  and  trade  of  Holland,  con- 
tldering  its  comparatively  limited  area,  presents  a 
spectacle  of  commercial  greatness  unequaled  in  the 
world.  In  1852,  its  general  Imports  reached  $129,087,- 
82.1,  and  Its  exports  $108,993,854.  In  1863  the  imports 
amounted  to  $128,420,691,  and  the  exports  to  $109,120,- 
660.  This  commercial  prosperity  nearly  equals  that 
which  the  Netherlands  attained  in  Its  palmiest  days, 
when  Beawes  said  of  it  in  his  Lex  Mercatoria:  "It 


$12,314,032 

$2,052,706 
1,03.5.516 
1,625,170 
1,695,970 
1,829,700 
2,420,479 


$28,900 


$28,900 


$2, 


fmJW 

1.58,051 
:i2,701 
2.  'J,551 

15,085 
151,380 

85,008 
181,283 

17,308 
J2,197 
,4^10,621 


$16,041 

4,70t 

6,440 

00,071 

60,608 

82,461 

9,512 

2,388 

466 

$182,891 


$11,720 

230 

1,.500 

2.062 

14,662 


$31,180 


Tofinic*  Cleand. 


82^112 


9,21» 
18,759 
10,302 
15,2M 
16,978 
22,567 


1,904 

8,371 

6,938 

7,171 

6,151 

11,960 

22,788 

12,029 

12,881 

11,929 


101,709 


224,091       194,181    i 


26,014 
22,918 
20,780 
19,004 
17,208 
24,977 


produces  hardly  any  thing,  and  yet  has  wherewith  to 
furnish  other  people  all  they  can  have  need  of.  It  is 
without  forests,  and  almost  without  wood.  There  are 
no  mines  or  metals,  and  yet  there  is  found  as  much 
gold  or  silver  as  in  New  Spain  or  Peru  ;  as  much  iron 
us  in  France ;  as  much  tin  as  in  England ;  and  as  much 
copper  as  in  Sweden.  The  wheat  and  other  grains 
that  are  there  sowed  hardly  suflice  for  nourishment  to 
a  part  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  it  is,  notwithstanding 


* 

1 


S     :t«' 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


I^IM  125 

■50  ^^^  n^^B 

Vi  ^  12.2 

!Sf  144  ■" 


lU 


IL25  1 1.4 


i 
i 


2.0 


1.6 


J^ 

7^^ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SI0 

(716)872-4503 


4^ 


HOL 


98> 


HOL 


Arom  hence  that  tha  gicataat  part  of  Ha  naichbota 
receWe  them,  either  for  their  aabaiatenea  or  trade,  la 
flae,  it  aeema  aa  if  the  epicei  grew  there ;  that  the  oila 
were  gathered  theito ;  that  it  nourMiad  the  precloa* 
Inaeeta  which  apin  the  (ilk,  and  that  all  aorta  of  druga, 
for  medicine  or  dyeing,  were  in  the'naniberof  ita  prml- 
ncta  and  of  ita  growth.  Ita  warehonaea  are  ao  full, 
and  ita  menAanta  aeem  to  eaany  ao  much  to  atrangera, 


orthst  atraBgeiaoometoload  in  its  porta,  that  than 
ia  not  •  iikj,  and  it  maf  be  said  a  moment,  that  ahipa 
do  not  eama  ia  or  go  ont,  and  ftaquently  entire  fleeta." 
Saeh  waa  the  pietore  dmwn  of  the  Netherlanda  is 
1670.  Ita  praaeat  oommarcial  omdition,  though  dif> 
ferent  in  every  other  reepect  from  the  Netherlanda 
of  that  period,  ia  quite  aa  proapeiona,  and  reats  upon  • 
baaia  more  aolid  and  aecnie. 

Tabu  uaiaiTuia  tbb  Tuva  or  tub  Coii«a«oa  or  ma  NnBBaLAKBa  wim  FoBuaK  KAnom  is  18S8,  m  FLoaiaa 
[Floun  TALUtD  AT  FoaTT  CaHia  DiBTOD  STAna'  OraaawoT]. 


AoiWU 

BeWam.. 

BraiU 

BrcaMo. .'..!!!! 

CaUibrnJa. 

OUaa , , 

Cuba :......;;::: 

C«a9«a......i..;........,i.., 

Benaaik. ....^., 

Franea i..., 

Oreenland,  «to 

Great  Britain 

Hambug, 

Haaarer  and  (Mdenbnnt 

JaTa,e«iL " 

Canarlea,  O.  ofO.  H.,K  IndlM,  Aala 

Boman  Btatea. . . , 

CoaatofOalnea 

LnbM 

Heckkaborg i 

The  Two  8lclll«a 

Unitwl  Stataa 

Norway 

AuatrU 

PUIIpplae  bles 

Portogal 

Bnsila 

Ruala  (Black  Beat 

SardlnU 

America 

Bnrlnam 

The  ZollTcreIn 

Toaoany 

Turkey,  Greece,  etc 

Sweden, 

Snria 

Not  known 

Wieeked. 

Total  florlna 

Or  In  dollan 


15,164,698 
4,678^ 
1,U8,S«S 

lv411,i6T 
t,81T,S8> 

m,6n 

1,M8,8I» 

i3,5n,m 

88,617 

87,8*^881 

4,819,687 

4,»S,(»5 

6I,7W,871 

a,8IW,4M 

19301 

418,945 

79,618 

in,Tn 

1,164,146 

6,746,580 

4,695,908 

1,898^581 

851,810 

611,861 

15,916,640 

2,648,668 

184,451 

686,066 

4,489,066 

64,180,663 

479,066 

1,716,488 

482,977 

687,844 

88^661 
821,061,719 


lia,410,<91  60 


80,684,9M 

2,149,148 

760,406 

8t«lin 

9,017,582 

86,408 

(,023,601 

*,186,»4 

88,617 

44,809,681 

l,9n,961 

8,687,718 

61/04,164 

2,996,908 

18,492 

418,490 

28,080 

816,881 

327,864 

4,824,610 

8,801.226 

621,960 

73,162 

407,689 

14,628,969 

1,774,889 

91,508 

204,688 

2,723,146 

27,668.881 

802,815 

1,668,286 

806,162 

101,627 

610 

82,649 


204,945,186 


81,978,054  40 


Q«Mnl  tfuu. 


Mr«HUl 


mm 

14,112,814 
40,866 


11M40 

»jm 

169,780 

812,080 

1,607,861 

11,687,690 

78,9ffi;64e 

7,814,011 

8,889>84 

81,808,7O4 

160,784 

271,966 

180,8M 

40,007 

182,906 

1,800;914 

6,877,189 

68i;441 

4,478,060 

8871676 
8,488,848 

276,886 
1,809,967 

678,612 

1,263,820 

100,146338 

1,693,898 

8,419,046 

877,669 

667,084 


272,801,666 


109,120,666  40 


468,061 

19,60«,72« 

16,78« 

766,286 

102,9*6 

1,904 

169,169 

169316 

796,085 

4,7M,066 

46,49eid78 

M74.884 

1,61B3*1 

18,481,184 

167,818 

149,148 

6^480 

17,084 

107,124 

1,718,181 

8,81«',646 

518,916 

4,284,994 

220^627 

2,170,266 

174,678 

1,716,880 

404,704 

977,579 

81,660,695 

1386,667 

8379.178 

289,862 

281,667 


154,648,180 


61,867,264  00 


TnHlt. 


181367 

4,419,091 

18380 

116358 

26,406 

688 

461 

62,716 

2II3I6 

6,988,686 

17,478378 

1,189,157 

764,628 

8,817370 

1,411 

3,718 

^462 

11.078 

l\78t 

77,808 

1,567,698 

162,616 

188,066 

niiia 

1,267,982 

1,667 

98,077 

163,908 

184,741 

68,486,138 

166,786 

89,768 

188317 

876,417 


118,168,606 


47368,40140 


The  cuttivation  of  tobacco  in  the  Netherlanda  ia  aub- 
ject  to  no  raatrictiona,  with  the  exception  of  the  ex- 
clae  duty,  to  which,  like  all  other  product*,  it  ia  liable. 
From  1800  to  1900  morgans  (equal  to  from  8600  to  8800 
acres)  are  annually  devoted  to  tobacco.  The  tobacco 
land  is  situated  in  the  provinces  of  GuUderland,  Over- 
yssel,  Utrecht,  and  Zealand.  Tha  average  quantity 
of  tobacco  produced  on  each  morgen  is  about  4600  lbs. 
The  total  crop  is  estimated  at  fhim  8,000,000  to  9,000,- 
000  lbs.  per  annum.  The  quantity  reserved  for  home 
consumption  is  about  2,000,000  lbs.,  of  which 

Smoking  tobaoco,  about 160,006 

Snatt 700,000 

Ooven  for  segars 400300 

Besides  the  above,  the  Netherlands  export  to  for- 
eign countries  about  6,000,000  Iba.  of  tobacco — in  the 
leaf,  6,000,000  lbs.,  and  manufactured,  1,000,000  lbs. 

lie  following  table  shows  the  annual  tobacco  ex- 
port trade  of  Holland : 

TheRhenlth  provtncee .7680300  ' 

Boaala  and  Great  Britain 400300 

Swdlnla. 160,000 

Horway  and  Denmark , 80,000 

Naples. 80,000 

Boman  Btatea. (0,000 

flpatn  and  Portugal 80^000 

Tha  tot«l  qOanttty  of  tobacco  grown  in  the  Nether- 
lands is  distribntad  aa  follows : 


Fer  the  maaalkotare  of  sanff  aad  ohewtag  tobaeoo.  1,875,000 
Tor  aagais  aad  segar  covers 1,776,000 

AvMig*  prioa  of  the  fonuMr,  Cram  14  to  82  florins 


for  common ;  80  to  90  florins  for  the  best,  per  100  kilo- 
grammes. Average  price  of  the  latter,  tton  14  to  83 
florins  for  common  ;  CO  to  90  florins  for  tlie  best,  per 
IC  J  kilogrammes.  The  planters  of  Ambem,  and  some 
uther  districts,  have,  during  the  past  few  years,  ap- 
plied themselves  to  the  raising  of  a  ver}-  light,  clear, 
yellow  tobacco,  for  segar  covering,  for  which  they  ob> 
tain  a  very  high  price.  For  this  purpose  they  employ 
a  very  active  fertilizer,  with  a  view  to  the  large  and 
rapid  growth  of  the  plant,  which  they  dry  by  the  sun 
with  great  akiU  and  management.  The  average  quan- 
tity of  foreign  tobacco  annually  imported  is  from  23,- 
000,000  to  26,000,000  lbs.,  chiefly  from  the  following 
places: 


Kihamntan 

Tarlnas. 120,000 

Manilla. 75,000 

Coforabia 80,000 

Brasil 80,000 

Havana. 60,000 

Tobaeee  stems....  146,000 


KlIofimMM. 

Maryland 5300,000 

Kentneky. 1,760,000 

Virginia 1,400,<KW 

Java 800,000 

Porto  Bico 860,000 

Coba. 180,000 

St  Domingo.....     110,000 

A  third  part  of  the  tobacco  imported  ftom  foreign 
countries  is  consumed  in  the  Netheriands,  the  other 
two  thirda  are  exported.  Germany  and  Belgium  re- 
ceive the  larger  portion,  which  consists  altogether  of 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  some  Java  to- 
baoco. Besidea  the  imports  above  designated,  Ham- 
burg supplies  Holland  annually  with  large  quantities 
of  tobacco  of  American  growth.  Thctobocco  menu 
faotoriea  in  Holland,  of  the  flrst  class,  are  numerous. 
They  are  chiefly  located  at  Botterdam  and  Amster- 
dam, though  many  sbnilar  factories  ore  scattered 


HOL 


988 


HOL 


IhimigtiMt  tiM  imriiiCM.  Ths  Ant-cUm  ttetoiitt 
tmfiof  vfWUA  of  1,000,000  opentivm.  The  aveng* 
•m«llM|iwni  of  tobacco  In  HolUnd  U  about  two  ktto- 

Eif  lliMM  (4.408  lb*.)  for  cwsh  indiridiial,  or  6,000,000 
iMrnmiMa,  or  npirard  of  18,000,000  Ibi.  for  the 
WtWM  tN>|tatatlon.  Osrmany  ofihn  tha  principal  mar- 
feM  fof  tm  Dutch  tobacco  trade,  though  considerable 
a««ltlif«»  ars  axported  to  tha  Levant,  Italy,  Anitrla, 
Mfftttffl,  ttonmark,  Surinam,  etc.— Com.  Hd.  U.  8. 

WtAftutnif  xkatrntina  nn  l(adino  Staplu   or  thi 
VnrftHt  llT«tM,  Ain>  Tiiaia  amraonrs  Valuu,  ax- 
■     fcmrto  TO  HoLLAHO  »  Tsa  YaAia  arEOirwD. 


^nsisoir 

whaletMiM , 

Wood,  lumber,  and  Umber,, 

natal  (tores 

PotinA  iNwrl  asbes. 


te.'r:"*. 


aod  lard. 


lire  and  other  grains. . . 

Hl««.... 

muiti 

TOMMO 

*      inaoahetored. 


titlfi'ts'o/twni'e'n'tine!. 


e,BTi 

24,4T« 

45,101 

l^«)« 

4,ai» 

1«.64S 

«,441 

62,189 

fiO,37e 

ii^HM 

fi«7,48a 

1,8S0,88« 

7,816 

4,»G0 

25,619 


H686 
1,S05 
77,468 
60,888 
84,064 
1,800 


S,66« 

88,789 

98,780 

418,488 

1,068,789 

4,829 

8,278 

71,219 


Th«  fo'lowlng  comparative  statement  exhibits  the 
«ff<)«ttv«  inmehant  marine  of  the  Netherlands  on  the 
Slot  t)l«mhtMr,  1892  and  1858,  respectively  : 

itt$, ..........  Ho.  orvessels  1,971  meunrtng  448,864  tons. 

IgM,.  „        "         "       2,087         "  479,202     " 

Yh*  following  summary  shows  the  classification  of 
|ill«  VmmIs  given  in  the  preceding  comparative  state- 
IMfltl 


'^P 

gafks.. ........... 

Brl^fllinM!!!!!! 

(Mioowsrt. 

Other  Vessels ... . 
Slesfn  boats. 

Total 


VmmIi. 


141 
»6 

56 

2 

184 

1,829 

18 


1,971 


111,176 
1*4,200 
14,412 
488 
91,564 
188,084 
8,950 


141 

112,284 

884 

186,183 

66 

16,878 

1 

488 

168 

26,871 

1,810 

189,046 

15 

4,452 

448,864    I  2,087    I  479,au2 


U.  S.  Foreign  Con. 

lloUy«tr«e.  Otogmphy  and  Jliftoty.—lb'i  Ilex 
aqHi/hUum,  or  European  holly,  is  indigenous  t<f  most 
fittt  of  tm  Middle  and  south  of  Europe,  and  it  is  said 
t«  ht  found'  In  China  and  Japan.  It  does  not  appear 
l«  Iw  a  native  either  of  America  or  of  India,  unless  the 
the  opitm  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Ilex  dipgrena 
in  tha  Himalaya*,  should  prove,  by  cultivation,  to  be 
VarlotiM  of  It.  According  to  Pallas,  it  scarcely  occurs 
wMhln  tha  ancient  limits  of  the  Russian  empire, 
tbnagh  frequent  on  the  southern  side  of  Caucasus, 
WtMtnt  It  fnrms  a  low,  branching  shrub,  about  10  feet 
bitfh.  tn  France  it  is  abundant,  more  particularly  in 
Bflttaiiy.  tn  Oarmany,  it  abounds  in  many  forests, 
MWMlaltyln  the  southern  and  middle  States;  where, 
WMfl  skeltered  by  lofty  trees,  it  attains  the  height  of 
to  f««t )  but  In  exposed  situations,  it  doea  not  exceed 
•  MHht  of  6  or  8  feet.  This  tree  appears  to  attain  a 
kftfor  slm  In  Kngland  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
gloM.  It  abounds  In  that  country,  more  or  less,  in 
tb«  wmnlns  of  all  aboi-iglnal  forests,  and  perhaps,  at 
pnNWfit,  ll  prevalla  nowhere  to  a  greater  extent  than 
III  tfuMwodd  Forest,  in  Staffordshire.  In  Scotland  it 
f#  fffVlid  In  most  uatnral  woods,  aa  an  undergrowth  to 
itM  oak,  the  ash,  and  tha  pine.  In  Ireland,  the  holly 
k  not  yoty  common  i  bat  about  the-lakes  of  Killamey 
M  altalna  a  large  siie. 

Hm  wood  of  the  holly  is  almost  of  an  ivory  white- 
fl<Mf  <«Ki«(it  near  the  centre  of  very  old  trunks,  where 
M  l«  «f  a  browiilsh  hue.  It  is  very  hard  and  compact, 
with  «  (Im  grata,  and  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of 
fetiallj  whleb  tenders  it  well  adapted  fbr  many  pur- 
ptm»  HI  tha  arts,  When  dry,  it  weighs  47^  pounds  to 
«  «mM»  fM«,  aad  It  very  retentive  of  its  sap,  in  conse- 


qnance  of  which  it  is  liaUa  to  warp,  nalaaa  it  ii  wall 
dried  and  seasoned  before  being  used.  It  readily  take* 
a  durable  color  of  almoi<t  any  shade,  and  hence  it  Is 
moch  used  by  cabinot-maken  in  forming  what  are 
technically  called  "strings  and  borders,"  in  orna- 
mental works.  When  properiy  stained  black,  its 
color  and  lustre  are  little  inferior  to  those  of  ebony. 
It  may  be  applied  to  a  great  number  of  purpoaaa  by 
joiners,  cabinet-makers,  turners,  engineers,  math*- 
matioal  instrument-makers,  and,  next  to  the  box  and 
pear-tree,  it  ia  the  best  wood  for  engraving  upon,  aa  it 
ia  compact,  and  slaixis  the  tool  well.  Among  its  prin- 
cipal uses  in  England  at  present,  is,  when  dyed  black, 
to  be  substituted  for  ebony,  in  the  handles  of  metallic 
teapots,  etc.  In  France,  the  young  shoots  and  the 
branches  are  given  to  sheep  and  deer  during  winter ; 
and  the  stronger  straight  shoots,  deprived  of  their 
bark,  are  made  into  whip-handles  and  walking-canes. 
The  bark  of  the  holly  contains  an  abundance  of  viscid 
matter;  and,  when  mascerated  in  water,  fermented, 
and  then  separated  from  the  fibres,  it  forms  bird-lime. 
Medicinally,  the  bark  of  this  tree  is  mucilaginous, 
emollient,  and  solvent,  and  is  said  to  possess  strong 
febrifugal  powers.  The  berries  are  purgative,  and 
6  or  8  of  them  when  swallowed,  will  csuse  violent 
vomiting ;  though  they  are  conridered  as  poisonous 
to  men,  they  form  the  food  of  some  birds,  more  espe- 
cially of  the  thrushes. 

The  wood  of  the  American  holly  resembles  that  of 
the  European  species,  except  that  it  is  rather  browmer 
at  the  heart.  It  is  compact,  heavy,  of  a  fine  grain, 
and  is  susceptible  of  a  brilliant  polish.  Its  principal 
use  ia  for  inlaying  mahogany  furniture,  and  for  turn- 
ing Into  smdl  lx>xes  for  druggists,  and  for  small 
screws.  When  perfectly  seasoned,  it  is  ver}'  hard  and 
unyielding,  which  renders  it  well  adapted  for  pulleys 
used  in  ships.  It  may  be  dyed  of  various  colors,  so  aa 
to  resemble  many  foreign  woods.  The  bark  may  be 
employed  fur  making  bird-lime,  in  a  similar  manner  as 
that  of  the  prece^g  species.  Medicinally  it  ia 
emetic  and  cathartic.  The  berries,  taken  to  the  num- 
ber of  16  or  20,  will  excite  vomiting,  and  will  also  act 
as  a  purgative. 

The  emetic  holly  is  found  in  moist,  shady  places, 
from  Virginia  to  the  Floridas,  and  was  introduced  into 
Britain  in  1770.  It  was  cultivated  by  Miller  in  the 
physic  garden  at  Chelsea,  and  in  several  oth  ^r  collec- 
tions in  the  neighborhooid  of  London,  till  the  severe 
winter  of  1789,  when  most  of  the  plant."  k  ore  destroyed. 
Other  plants  were  afterward  raised  from  seeds  in  that 
country,  and  have  ever  since  resisted  the  cold  of  ordi- 
nary winters  without  protection.  Tha  leaves  and 
young  shoots  of  the  cassena  are  inodorous,  the  taste 
sub-aromatic  and  fervid,  l)eing  useful  in  stomach  fe- 
vers, diabetes,  small-pox,  etc.,  as  a  mild  emetic ;  but 
the  "  black  drink"  of  the  Indians  is  a  strong  decoction 
and  a  violent,  though  harmless  vomitive.  At  a  cer- 
tain season  of  the  year  they  often  travel  a  distance  of 
some  hundred  miles,  from  parts  where  this  tree  doe* 
not  grow,  to  procure  a  supply  of  the  leaves.  They 
make  a  fire  on  the  ground,  and  putting  a  kettle  of  wa- 
ter on  it,  filled  with  leaves,  place  themselves  around 
it,  and  with  a  wooden  vessel  holding  atrant  a  pint, 
commence  by  taking  large  draughts,  which,  in  a  short 
time,  cause  them  to  vomit  freely.  Thus  they  continiM 
drinking  and  vomiting  for  two  or  three  days,  until 
they  are  sufiiciently  purified,  when  they  return  with 
large  quantities  of  the  leaves  and  boughs,  to  their 
homes.  The  leaves  and  young  shoota  of  the  Ilex  cas- 
sena and  dahoon,  and  of  many  other  shrubs,  appear  to 
be  substituted  indiscriminately  by  the  Indian*  for 
making  their  "  black  drink."  In  North  Carolina,  it 
is  said,  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea-side  swamps,  having 
no  good  water  to  drink,  disguise-its  taste  by  boiling  in 
it  a  little  cassona,  or  other  plants  of  a  siUiUar  nature, 
and  use  it  constantly  wann,  as  the  Chinese  do  their 
daily  tea.    Thi*  circumstance  gave  rise  to  tha  opinioa 


HON 


ii^ 


HON 


that  this  ipeoie*  wm  the  Hax  Paragturiensls,  and  wm 
•mneousljr  called  "  Paragoay  Tea."— Bbowmb'b  TV. 
nf  America.  >'" 

Bolm.  (Sax.  and  Danish.)  An  island,  or  fenny 
plaee  surrounded  by  water.  Two  well-known  islands 
in  the  Bristol  Channel  are  called  the  Steep  Holm  and 
Flat  Holm. 

Holy  AUlanoe,  The,  a  league  formed  by  the 
principal  sovereigns  of  Europe  after  the  defeat  of  Na- 
poleon at  Waterioo.  The  basis  of  this  alliance  was 
drawn  up  by  Alexander  of  Russia  (September  26, 
1815),  and  received  the  signatures  of  Francis  of  Aus- 
tria and  Frederic  William  of  Prussia.  Its  name, 
which  was  dictated  in  accordance  with  the  popular 
religions  enthusiasm  of  the  time,  was  fltly  expressive 
of  the  vague  principles  of  religious  charity  and  peace 
on  which  it  profbssed  to  be  based.  It  gained  strength 
by  the  accession  of  England  and  France,  but  thence- 
fvrward  became  an  alliance  simply  for  the  establish- 
ment of  existing  dynasties  in  Europe,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  declaration  of  November,  1819,  and  from  the 
results  of  the  Congresses  of  Troppau,  Laybach,  and 
Verona.  After  the  secession  of  England  and  France 
the  holy  alliance  became  practically  obsolete.  See 
jVortk  Amer.  Rev.,  xvii.  |  For.  Qiiar.,  vlii. ;  £</.  Xev., 
xxxvlil.,  xxxix.,  xl. ;  WetlmiHiter  Rev.,  1.,  18 ;  Niles' 
Reg.,  XX.,  818,  xxiv.,  866. 

Holyhead  (Welsh,  Caer  Gj/bi,  i.  <■.,  fort  of  GybO, 
a  sea-port,  and  marliet-town  of  North  Wales,  on  an 
island  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  county  of  An- 
glesea.  It  is  connected  with  the  main  part  of  the 
county  by  a  vast  embankment,  f  of  a  mile  in  length, 
and  of  an  average  height  of  16  feet,  with  a  bridge 
near  the  centre  through  which  the  tide  rushes  with 
amazing  velocity  and  force.  The  town,  formerly  a  small 
fishing  village,  has  acqu'red  importance  in  consequence 
of  its  being  the  nearest  and' most  convenient  place  nf 
embarkation  for  Ireland.  It  is  the  point  of  termina- 
tion of  the  great  parliamentary  roads  from  London 
and  Chester,  and  of  the  Chester  and  Hoij'head  rail- 
way, in  connection  with  which  steam-packets  leave 
the  harbor  several  times  a  day  for  Kingston  near  Dub- 
lin. The  vast  amount  of  lalwr  and  money  expended 
on  public  works  connected  with  the  harbor  has  mate- 
rially contributed  to  attract  and  support  an  active  and 
thriving  population.  Holyhead  has  been  selected  by 
the  British  government  for  a  harbor  of  refuge.  The 
works,  when  completed,  will  inclose  an  area  of  about 
816  acres,  with  a  depth  of  at  least  6}  fathoms  water. 
The  pier  extends  nearly  1000  feet,  and  upon  it  is  an 
arch  of  Mona  marble  commemorative  of  the  visit  of 
Qeorge  IV.  in  1821.  At  the  extremity  of  the  pier  is 
a  light-house,  exhibiting  a  white  light  50  feet  above 
■ea-levei.  On  South  Stack  an  isolated  rock  8  miles 
west,  is  another  light-house  connected  with  the  har- 
bor, and  of  essential  service  in  facilitating  the  access. 
The  light,  which  is  212  feet  above  high-water  mark, 
is  produced  l)y  21  lamps  with  powerful  reflectors.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade 
aed  in  shipbuilding.  The  coast  is  extremely  wild  and 
rugged,  presenting  numerous  wave-worn  caverns, 
which  form  the  haunt  of  innumerable  sea-birds. — E.  B. 

Holy-etone,  a  large  stone  used  for  cleaning  ships' 
decks.  It  receives  its  name  from  the  unwillingness 
of  sailon  to  submit  to  the  drudger}-  of  using  it. 

.Home,  in  naval  langnage,  is  said  of  any  thing 
that  is  close  in  its  place ;  it  is  applied  to  the  sheets  of 
tlie  sails,  the  shot  and  cartridge  in  a  gun,  and  any 
article  of  stowage. 

Homer,  or  Omer,  the  largest  dry  measura  among 
the  Hebrews.  It  was  in  later  times  replaced  by  the 
Cor,  and  is  estimated  at  7,898,000  Paris  grains. 

Hondunw,  Brltieh,  Belize,  or  Salize,  a  British 
•ettlement  on  the  east  coast  of  Central  America,  be- 
tween N.  Ut.  15°  14'  and  18°  80',  and  W.  long.  88° 
and  89'  80".  It  Is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Yuca- 
tae,  wait  and  south  by  Guatemala,  and  east  by  the 


Bay  of  Honduras.  It  has  a  coast  Ibie  of  about  SOO 
miles  between  the  mouths  of  the  Hondo  and  Sarstan, 
and  is  abont  100  miles  In  breadth.  This  coast  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  the  year  1502,  but  little 
that  can  be  relied  upon  is  known  of  its  early  settle- 
ment. The  abundance  and  flue  quality  of  the  wood, 
particularly  mahogany  and  logwood,  seem  flrst  to 
have  drawn  attention  to  it ;  and  at  a  pratty  early  perird 
it  was  occasionally  resorted  to  by  wood-cutters.  But 
the  first  permanent  establishment  of  British  wood- 
cutten  was  made  at  Cape  Catoche  by  some  adven- 
turen  trom  Jamaica,  whose  numben  Increasing,  they 
extended  as  far  south  as  the  River  Belize,  and  as  far 
west  as  the  neighborhood  of  Campeachy.  The  Span- 
iards, however,  did  not  quietly  submit  to  this  usurpa- 
tion of  their  territorial  dominion.  Several  expeditions 
wen  fitted  out  against  the  settlers,  but  they  were 
uniformly  unsuccessful ;  and  on  two  occasions,  in  1659 
and  1678,  so  complete  was  their  discomfiture,  that  tlie 
town  of  Campeachy  itself  was  taken  by  the  lugwood- 
cuttera,  with  only  the  assistance  of  the  seamen  en- 
gaged in  the  trade.  This  last  repulse  occurred  eight 
years  after  a  treaty  had  been  concluded  with  Spain, 
by  which  the  territorial  right  of  Britain  to  the  occu- 
pancy of  Honduras  was  generally,  although  not  spe- 
ciflcall)^  embraced.  The  successes  of  the  settlers 
aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  Spaniards,  and  led  to  a . 
renewed  discussion  of  their  right  to  the  territory  which) 
they  occupied.  This  would  appear  to  have  been  again 
generally  admitted ;  but  the  Spaniards  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  the  woodmen  from  the  Campeachy 
shore,  and  confining  them  to  the  limits  of  the  prasent 
settlement  An  attempt  wan  again  made  in  1718  to 
dispossess  the  Britisj  of  the  territory  on  the  Biver 
Belize ;  but  the  firmness  of  the  wood-cuttera  deterred 
the  Csstiiians  from  effecting  any  thing,  except  the 
erection  of  a  fortification,  which  in  a  few  years  the}' 
abandoned.  In  1754  an  expedition  was  undertaken 
to  exterminate  the  colony ;  but  by  a  treaty  of  peace 
concluded  in  the  year  17(iB,  the  Spaniards  were  com- 
pelled to  admit  the  right  of  occupancy  to  t}  ^'•it- 
ish   colonists,  which,    however,   they   sub.  'y 

attempted  to  annul.      In  1779  the  Spanii.'  <p. 

attacked  the  settlement,  and  after  destroying  ,.;  ,  .  rty 
to  a  considerable  amount,  they  took  a  number  of  the 
colonists  prisoners,  and  marched  them  oK  in  irons  to 
Merida,  whence  they  were  shipped  to  tiie  Ilavaonab, 
and  there  confined  till  1782.  In  1784  BriUhi  obtained 
from  Spain  a  specific  grant  of  "  the  hinds  allotted  for 
the  cutting  of  logwood;"  rnd  in  1790  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment conferred  on  Belize  all  the  privileges  of  a  Brit- 
ish colony.  The  last  attti'k  on  the  settlement  was 
made  during  the  war  in  1798,  but  the  iixpedition,  which 
consisted  of  8000  men,  was  gallantly  rapulsed ;  and 
since  that  period  the  colony  has  nmained  undisturbed 
by  foreign  aggression. 

The  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Honduna  is  low,  and  the 
shore  is  studded  with  a  number  of  low  islands  or  keys, 
which,  however,  an  verdant.  As  we  recede  from  the 
coast,  the  land  rises  into  a  bold  and  lofty  country, 
interspersed  with  riven  and  lagoons,  and  covered  with 
gigantic  forests.  The  lagoons  or  sheets  of  water,  and 
the  falls  and  rapids  of  the  rivers,  constitute  sulilime 
and  beautiful  features  in  the  general  aspect  of  the 
country.  The  Hondo  River,  which  forms  the  north- 
em  boundary,  is  a  fine  stream.  A  few  miles  south  of 
it  is  the  New  River,  which  has  its  source  in  an  exten- 
sive lagoon.  The  Belize  has  a  north-east  by  east  coune 
of  above  200  miles,  and  discharges  itself  into  the  Bay 
of  Honduras  by  two  mouths  about  8)  miles  apart,  the 
southern  branch  dividing  the  town  of  Belize  into  two 
parts.  The  river  and  lagoon  of  Manatee,  which  is  sit- 
uated 10  leagues  south  of  Belize,  is  considered  as  ex- 
tremely grand.  At  alx>ut  a  mile  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river  is  the  lagoon,  a  magnificent  sheet  of  water, 
extending  for  several  leagues  in  a  northerly  direction. 
In  many  places  lofty  hiUa  ascend  from  its  margin, 


HON 


085 


HON 


)■ 

'P. 


otwrtopping  Urge  Tallcya  and  wood  ranges  of  greet 
extent,  where  the  Jaguar,  capybara,  armadillo,  large 
weasel,  opoainm,  racoon,  and  several  species  of  deer, 
abound.  Among  the  feathered  tribes  there  arc  num- 
bers of  quails,  plovers,  pigeons,  pheasants,  and  wild 
turkeys.  The  deficiency  of  streams  among  the  mount- 
ain ridges  is  supplied  by  the  presence  of  large  marohy 
spots  or  shallow  ponds,  the  banks  of  which  are  fre- 
quented by  almost  every  species  of  water  game.  Fish 
abound  during  a  great  part  of  the  year  in  these  ponds, 
but  the  latter  dry  up  in  the  season  of  drought,  and 
then  vast  flocks  of  sea-fowl  congiegate  around  them 
to  prey  upon  the  fish  whioUiave  been  left  dr>-  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  waters.VThe  alligator  is  also  a  tn- 
qoent  visitor;  and,  to  partake  of  this  repast  thus 
jearly  provided  for  him,  he  has  been  known  to  tra- 
verse trackless  wilds,  and  make  long  journeys  into  the 
Interior,  The  rapids  of  the  Manatee  commence  about 
8  or  10  miles  ttom  the  lagoon,  and  the  high  rocky 
banks  of  the  river  assume  a  romantic  and  beautiful 
appearance.  Further  on  there  is  a  rapid  of  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  of  considerable  accliv- 
ity. A  duster  of  beautifbl  caves,  through  which  the 
river  winds  its  way,  and  beneath  which  the  traveler 
must  pass,  Is  next  reached.  They  have  been  described 
as  equally  singular  and  grand.  *■  These  magnificent 
natural  excavations  of  the  mountains  are  semiciroular 
at  the  entrance,  and  about  five  yards  in  diameter. 
Within  the  cave  the  arch  rises  to  the  height  of  100 
feet,  and  leads  to  another  low  arch,  which  being  passed, 
•  second  cavern  of  large  size  opens,  beyond  which  is 
a  third  with  a  circular  orifice,  through  which  the  river 
>.  ters.  During  the  floods  the  mouths  of  the  caverns 
art  filled  with  water,  which  boils  up  with  prodigious 
fur}',  and  thus  detains  travelers  many  days  before  they 
cau  pass  through  the  caves  or  tunnels.  In  the  rainy 
season,  as  the  water  increases  on  the  upper  <  inland 
sides  of  the  mountains,  the  river  forces  its  passage 
through  the  interstices  and  openings  in  its  sides  with 
tremendous  noise,  forming  an  indescribably  grand 
cascade  of  from  40  to  50  feet  high,  issuing  from  a 
hundred  orifices."  Of  the  other  rivers  of  Honduras 
little  is  known. 

Productioni.— The  country  is  technically  divided  In- 
to the  Pine  and  the  Cahonn  ridges.  The  soil  of  the 
former  has  a  substratum  of  loose  reddish  sand,  and  its 
iudigenous  products  consist  of  those  varieties  of  vegeta- 
tion the  assimilative  powers  of  which  are  strong  and 
perennial.  Extensive  prairies  expand  over  this  soil,  and 
the  pine,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  is  extremely 
abundant.  The  soil  of  the  Cahoun  ridge  consists  of  a 
deep  loam,  capable  of  growing  everj'  species  of  Euro- 
pean as  well  as  of  tropical  aliment.  Its  fertility  occa- 
sions the  growth  of  much  brushwood,  and  it  is  covered 
with  the  wild  cotton-tree  and  other  giants  of  the 
ftorest.  Fruits,  spontaneously  produced,  are  exceed- 
ingly abundant,  and  consist  of  oranges  of  excellent 
quality,  shaddocks,  limes,  mangoes,  melons,  pine- 
apples, water-melons,  avocato  pears,  cashew,  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  many  others.  They  are  all  found  in  the 
neighborhood  c#  Belize,  but  an  sometimes  brought  in' 
large  quantities  fkom  more  elevated  plantations.  The 
mahogany  and  logwood-trees  are  at  present  the  staples 
of  Honduras.  The  former  is  found  best  in  elevated 
situations ;  and  growing  generally  solitary,  it  is  dis- 
cernible at  a  great  distance,  from  the  yellow  hue  of  its 
foliage.  It  is  cut  down  at  about  12  feet  fkt)m  the 
ground,  and  when  felled  the  logs  are  dragged  to  the 
banks  of  the  streams  and  floated  down  in  rafts.  The 
boughs  and  limbs  are  said  to  afford  the  finest  wood, 
but  it  is  the  size  that  is  principally  looked  to  in  com- 
merce. The  logwood  is  found  in  low  swampy  grounds, 
growing  contiguous  to  ftesh-water  creeks  and  lakes, 
on  the  edges  of  which  the  roots,  the  most  valuable 
part  of  the  wood,  ramify.  They  are  felled  during  the 
dry  season,  and  carried  off  when  the  wet  season  has 
Uid  the  ground  under  water.    There  Is  another  valu- 


able tree  colled  the  Pintu  oeeidmlalu,  which  grows  ttt 
the  height  of  60  feet,  and  covers  many  thousand  aont 
of  country.  The  pine-wood  contains  an  immens* 
quantity  of  tar  and  turpentine,  and  is  consequently 
highly  inflammable.  In  this  respect  it  is  very  vala- 
able  to  the  poor,  who  make  torohes  of  it.  It  likewla* 
powerfully  resists  decay,  and  is  in  consequence  much 
used  by  builders.  The  cahoun  or  cohoon-tree  yielda 
a  valuable  oil,  which,  when  unadulterated,  is  almost 
colorless,  destitute  of  any  disagreeable  taste,  and  whan 
burned  as  a  lamp  oil  it  emits  a  beautiful  palish  flame 
without  smoke  or  smell.  There  an  various  other 
kinds  of  wood  of  beautiful  vein  and  close  texture, 
such  as  iron-wood,  clay-wood,  rose-wood,  palmaletta, 
and  the  like.  Among  minerals,  strata  of  fine  marble 
and  formations  of  alabaster  are  known  to  exist.  Sev- 
eral valuable  specimens  of  crystals  have  been  found, 
and  gold  has  occasionally  been  detected  in  some  of  the 
streams.  Lalioring  Creek,  which  lies  on  the  Belize, 
about  100  miles  inland,  is  remarkable  for  the  petrify- 
ing prope.ties  possessed  by  its  waters.  They  have 
also  a  powerful  cathartic  effect  on  strangers,  and  when 
applied  externally  to  ui  ulcer  have  a  healing  property. 
The  country  abounds  with  all  kinds  of  animals  fit  for 
the  food  of  man.  Except  in  very  rough  weather,  the 
supply  of  salt-water  fish  of  excellent  quality  is  abund- 
ant. The  common  green  turtle,  when  in  a  healthy 
condition,  is  a  staple  commodity  in  the  market.  The 
hawksbill  turtle  la  often  five  feet  long,  and  weighs  from 
200  to  250  lbs. 

Belize,  the  capital  of  the  settlement,  stands  on  a 
low  flat  shore  immediately  open  to  the  sea,  and  guard- 
ed by  numerous  small  islands,  densely  covered  with 
trees  and  shrubs,  and  so  similar  as  to  render  the  navi- 
gation extremely  difficult.  It  is  further  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  river,  which  is  crossed  by  a  substan- 
tial wooden  bridge  of  220  feet  span  and  20  feet  in 
length.  The  part  of  the  town  which  is  situated  upon 
the  south  or  right  bank  of  the  river,  along  the  eastern 
edge  of  a  point  of  land,  is  completely  insulated  by  a 
canal  on  its  western  side,  which  runs  across  from  a 
small  arm  of  the  sea,  and  bounds  the  town  on  its  south 
side.  The  houses  are  about  600  in  number,  and  are 
in  general  well  built,  spacious,  and  even  elegant. 
I  hey  are  for  the  most  part  constructed  of  wood,  and 
raised  10  feet  from  the  ground  on  pillars  of  mahogany. 
The  streets  are  regular,  and  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  main  one  runs  in  a  north-easterly  direc- 
tion to  the  bridge  from  the  government-house,  which 
is  situated  on  the  south-east  point  or  angle  of  the  island 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  bounded  on  the 
south  and  east  by  the  sea.  Behind  the  government- 
house  is  the  church,  on  the  east  side  of  the  main 
street.  The  whole  town  is  embowered  in  groves  and 
avenues  of  the  cocoa-nut  and  tamarind-trees.  Fort 
George  is  situated  about  half  a  mile  from  tlie  river, 
on  a  small  low  islet.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Belize 
the  natural  heat  of  the  climate  is  tempered  by  the  sea 
breezes  that  prevail  during  nino  months  in  the  year, 
so  that,  even  in  the  hottest  season,  the  thermometer 
seldom  rises  above  83°  Fahr.,  and  during  the  wet 
season  it  sinks  to  60°.  In  June,  July,  August,  and 
September,  heavy  and  frequent  rains  fall,  and  these 
are  the  most  unhealthy  months  of  the  year,  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter  in  the 
adjacent  lowlands  and  swamps. 

There  are  various  classes  of  society  in  the  settle- 
ment, including  Europeans,  colored  people,  Indians, 
and  Mosquito  men.  The  blacks  of  Honduras  are  dis- 
tinct from  the  aborigines  of  the  country,  being  of  Afri- 
can descent.  In  general  they  are  inclined  to  indulge 
those  low  propensities  which  are  exhibited  in  a  state 
of  iMirbarism,  Having  be<n  derived  from  various 
regions,  they  still  retain  all  their  national  peculiarities, 
and  keep  tliemselves  distinct  from  ever}'  other  tribe. 
The  blacks,  as  a  body,  have  upon  the  whole  litlie  in- 
telligence, and  their  duUnasg  of  compnben.sion  i« 


HON 


•M 


HON 


(HMrinble.  It  b  UMitcd,  hewom,  that  lom*  of 
ttmn  •xhlbll  ca  ori|^nallty  of  Uicnt  and  •  degrt*  of 
meatal  Ktirity  HMto  inferior  to  their  Xuropean  bntli- 
IM.  thtty  tn  mMh  sttMlMd  to  tb«lr  coantry,  and 
witli  a  native  of  lifti  own  land  a  Hondunu  blacic  will 
ahare  his  last  plantain.  Th«  eolortd  popnlation  hai 
nanhad  Item  tho  IntareoorM  of  Europeana  with  Afri- 
can* or  Indiana.  The}-  of  coime,  morslljr  apeaking, 
aasonw  a  raediom  atalua,  and  partaice  more  or  leaa  of 
tkt  qualittes  of  black  aad  white,  according  to  their 
diatanee  ftam  either.  -Tht  ifotguito  fntliant  abound 
1b  the  colony.  They  are  remarkable  for  a  fine  moaco- 
kr  formattott  of  body,  but  in  their  countenances  they 
exhibit  an  utter  destitution  of  intelligence,  and  their 
habits  are  most  iMriwraua.  They  acknowledge  the 
ezistanee  of  a  good  and  evil  apirit;  and  the  little 
power  of  thought  which  they  poaaess  is  diaplayed  in 
tiietr  conduct  toward  their  deities.  The  good  spirit  is 
neglected,  because,  say  they,  his  goodness  is  so  great 
that  nothing  is  to.be  feared  firom  his  wrath,  whil*  on 
the  other  hand,  the  evil  spirit  is  projdtlated,  in  order 
to  deprecate  his  malevolence.  The  whole  wealth  of  a 
Mosquito  man  consists  in  his  canoe,  paddle,  and  har- 
poon. With  these  he  satisfles  the  cravings  of  nature, 
and  his  groveling  nature  asks  fbr  no  mote.  The  In- 
iitmi,  the  real  aborigines  of  the  place,  are  a  timid, 
inoihnsive  race,  apparently  more  under  the  Influence 
of  instinct  than  of  reason.  They  perform  the  most 
aatonislilng  Journeys  through  woods,  as  tracUeaa  as 
the  sea,  and  impervious  to  all  but  themselves  with 
inlhllible  correctness  of  direction  and  amaiing  rapid- 
ity. Althoagh  free  from  vindictive  or  malicious  pro- 
pensities, they  are  addicted  to  drunkenness  to  an 
excessive  degree.  Tlie  population  of  the  colony  is 
estimated  at  about  12,000. 

Honduras  has  an  increase  of  39,600  square  miles, 
and  its  population  in  IMS  was  estimateed  at  850,000, 
exclusive  of  the  Indian  tribes.  It  is  divided  into  seven 
depart  ments  as  follows : 

EitlmAtcA  pop. 


■lUinaMli 


DMlMBop, 

DiputmMM.  In  ISO, 

Comayegoa 70,000 

Tegucigalpa. W,000 

Obolttteea 60,000 

BanU Barbara....  fiO,000 


DiputiMliU.  In  18U.' 

iclas 


Oracias SS,000 

Yoro 90,000 

Olsnobo. 46,000 

Total 860000 

The  rivers  of  Honduras  are  numerous,  and  some  of 
them  of  great  sim.  The  principal  are  the  Chameli- 
eon,  Ulua,  Aguan  or  Roman,  TInto  or  Black  Kiver, 
Patnca,  and  Wanks  or  Segovia,  flowing  into  the  At- 
lantic ;  and  the  Choluteca,  Nacaome,  and  Goascoran, 
flowing  Into  the  Bay  of  Fonseca. 

The  Bay  of  Fonseca,  the  greater  portion  of  which 
belongs  to  Honduras,  is  upwud  of  60  miles  in  lungth, 
by  about  90  average  breadth,  with  an  entrance  18 
miles  wide,  between  the  volcanoes  of  Conchagua 
(WOO  feet  in  height)  and  Coseguina  (8000  feet  fai 
height).— E.  B. 

"nie  coast  alluvions  of  Honduras  are  ganenlly 
densely  wooded,  tlie  elevated  valleys  of  the  interior 
spread  out  in  l>road  savannahs,  and  the  mountain 
plateaux  are  covered  with  forests  of  scattered  pines, 
relieved  by  occasional  clumps  of  oak.  Upon  the 
northern  coast,  in  the  broad  plain  through  which  the 
Ulua  and  Chamelioon  flew,  the  conntr}'  la  so  low  as  to  be 
occasionully  overflowed  for  considerable  distances.  Here 
grow  immense  forests  of  oedar,  mahogany,  caiba.  In- 
dia-rubber, and  other  large  and  valuable  trees,  thickly 
intarspstsed  with  palms.  Further  to  the  eastward  on 
the  same  coast  the  heavy  forests  are  confined  chiefly 
to  the  river  valleys,  and  give  place  at  short  distances 
Inland  to  sandy  savannabs,  covered  with  coarse  grass 
aad  clnmps  of  pines  and  acacias.  The  alluvions  of 
tbe  Pacific  coast  are  also  densely  wooded,  but  not  ex- 
tensive. At  short  distances  Inland  they  give  place  to 
nnmerott*  savannahs,  studded  with  clump*  of  acacias, 
and  covered  with  ^rass ;  but  the  pine  does  not  appear 
here  except  upon  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  at  an  altitude 
•r  abent  1300  Met.    The  valley*  of  the  riveia  on  both 


ooasta  are  thMdy  wooded  i  but  a*  they  aaoead  toward 
the  interior,  vegetation  diminlshe*,  and  Is  nduead  to 
a  narrow  Mnge  of  tree*  and  bushes  upon  their  imms- 
dlate  banks.  These  valleys  in  the  high  interior  coon- 
tiy  often  expand  into  broad  and  beautiful  plains— half 
savannolis  and  half  woodland — where  the  palm  and 
the  pine  flourish  aide  by  side.  The  mountains  wliicb 
rise  around  these  valleys  are  ascended  by  terraces 
orowned  with  forasta  of  pines  and  oaks,  and  covered 
with  grass.  The  summits  of  the  mountains  some- 
times rise  in  peaks,  but  generally  constitute  broad 
table-lands,  more  or  less  undulating,  and  often  spread- 
ing out  in  savannahs,  trumrsed  with  long  ridges  of 
verdure  and  green  twlta  oMraes. 

Wood».—Ot  the  vegetable  productions  of  Ilonduns 
the  mahogany-tree  stands  first  In  importance,  and, 
from  its  vast  ^ze  and  magnificent  foliage,  la  deservedly 
entitled  "  king  of  the  forest."  It  Is  to  be  found  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  Honduras  in  the  valleys  of  the 
various  streams.  It  Id,  however,  roost  abundant  upon 
the  lower  valley*  of  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  where  the  eortet  (cutting)  are  chiefly  car- 
ried on  by  the  Spaniards.  A  fixed  sum  is  paid  to  the 
government  for  each  tree  cut  down.  Rosewood  la 
common  on  the  northern  coast,  where  it  is  beginning 
to  form  an  article  of  commerce.  Lignum  vita  abouncU 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ulua,  on  the  river  banks  in  the 
plain  of  Comayagua,  and  in  other  parts.  Among  the 
numerous  dyewoods  for  which  Honduraa  is  celebrated) 
may  be  mentioned  fustic,  Brazil  wood,  yellow  Sanders, 
dragon's-blood-tree,  Nicaraugua  wood  (a  variety  of 
Braali  wood),  and  the  anotta.  Among  the  gun  and 
medicinal  trees,  are  the  gnm-arablo4ree,  copaiba-tree, 
oepal-tre«,  liquid  amber,  castor  oil,  ipecacuanha,  and 
the  Hevea  tiatlica.  Among  the  more  common  of  the 
others  are  the  long-leaved  or  pitch-pine,  cedar,  ceiba 
or  sllk-cotton-tree,  live  oak,  mangrove,  iron-wood,  cal- 
abash, various  kinds  of  oak  and  palm,  lime,  lemon, 
orange,  cocoa,  pimento,  citron,  tamarind,  and  .guava. 
Sarsaparilla  is  obtained  in  great  abundance  and  of  su- 
perior quality.  The  sugar-cane  grow*  luxuriantly  on 
the  plains  and  among  the  mountains,  at  elevations  of 
8000  to  4000  feet.  CoS'ee,  indigo,  tobacco,  maize,  wheat, 
rice,  and  potatoes  are  also  grown. 

Th»  HottduroM  Jnter-oceanie  SaUaaj/. — At  a  recent 
meeting  of  the  Liverpool  Chamber  of  Commere,  Mr. 
William  Brown,  a  member  of  Parliament,  gave  many 
interesting  particulars  in  relation  to  the  Honduras 
InteNoceanIo  Railway.  The  distance  l>etween  New 
York  and  8an  Francisco,  vi&.  Panama,  is  stated  to  be 
6234  miles,  whereas  the  distance  vi&  Honduras  is  only 
4121  miles.  Difference  1103  niiles.  The  distance 
from  Liverpool  to  San  Francisco  viA  Panama,  touching 
at  Kingston  (Jamaica,)  is  7712  miles ;  viil  Honduras, 
6881  miles;  saving  of  Honduras  over  Panama,  881 
mile*.  The  distance  from  Liverpool  to  Sydney,  vi4 
Honduras,  has  been  calculated  with  care,  and  found  to 
be  11,820  miles.  At  an  average  rate  jf  steaming  of 
12  miles  per  V^ur,  and  allowing  three  days  for  cooling 
and  trans-shipment,  the  voyage  could  be  performed  In 
exactly  48  day*  and  12  hours.  We  *u||iui'i  '^  ^^^  °f 
distances : 


MUm. 

From 
L'rpwL 

N.  York. 

Uvenmol  to  VvnX 

1,820 
1,860 
1,820 
100 
9,810 
8,960 
4,120 
4600 
9,760 
7,«80 
718» 
«,004 
9,869 
8,670 

1,901 

4,661 
(,881 
8,021 
18,541 
18,111 
11,881 
19,841 

10,««8 
T,010 
8,881 

illl 
6,861 
10,781 
10,861 
8,011 

9,060 
7,908 
4,260 
6,671 

Fayal  to  Bt  Thomas. 

Bt'Thomss  to  Puerto  Cahslios 

Puerto  Oaballos  to  llay  of  Fonseca . . 
Bay  ofFoDsesa  to  Ban  Franelieo. . . . 

"       "        "  Bandwieh  Islands. 
Bandwtoh  Islands  to  Cantoa 

"           "         "Shanghai 

»           »         "  Jeddo 

Bay  of  Fonwea  to  Melboorae 

"        "         "  Bydoer 

»       "        "Auckland 

"        »        »  Osllao 

"        »         "  Valpaialjo 

New  York  to  Bay  of  Fonseca  by  rsll- 

on 

Ulo. 

Spai 

norti 

foun 

itth 

two< 

coast 

remc 

bay, 

is  no 

depti 

■nd  I 


HON 


•It 


HON 


9,060 
7,90B 
4t260 
6,671 


The  time  MwMn  New  Tork  and  Sui  Fimnoiioo, 
ri4  Ilondaru,  U  eitinutted  at  Id  dayi  and  4  boun. 
Thli  calenlation  is  based  on  an  aMumption  cr  20  milee 
per  honr  by  rait,  and  12  miles  per  hour  by  steamer. 

Captain  Fitzroy,  in  an  official  report,  alludes  to  the 
live  distinct  lines  that  have  been  proposed,  and  thus 
proceeds  to  refer  to  that  by  way  ot  Honduraa : 

"  Lool(ing  especially  to  European  commnnioation, 
It'  may  lie  observed,  that  a  main  or  trunk  line  of 
steamers,  calling  at  Jamaica,  in  traversing  the  West 
India  Arcbipel^EO,  would  find  a  suitable  terminus  at 
Port  Calwlloa,  In  Honduras  Bay,  where  the  north  end 
of  the  railway  Will  be ;  and  that  Fonseca  Oulf,  at  the 
other  end,  is  in  tlie  region  of  steady  winds,  uid  w«ll 
situated  Tor  a  direct  track  across  the  Paeiilc  Ocean, 
either  to  China  or  Australasia.  The  climate,  produc- 
tions, and  population  of  Uonduros,  are  more  in  favor 
of  such  a  work,  as  a  railway  fh>m  sea  to  sea,  than 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  great  Isthmus,  without 
exception ;  but,  as  the  length  and  elevation  ore  great, 
these  difficulties  should  be  well  considered. 

"  1,  As  to. length.  This  is  a  question  of  160  miles 
against  40  (other  things  being  equal,  which,  however, 
they  are  not),  Involving  first  cost,  constant  expense, 
and  comparative  local  advantages.     The  continnal 


outlay  on  the  Panama  Railway,  consequent  on  th* 
nature  of  the  locality,  and  many  pileninf  ported  stnte> 
turea,  is  great ;  while  in  llundurns,  there  will  be  com- 
parative durability  of  works,  Fuel  mnst  be  carried  to 
Panama  flrom  distant  ports,  but  it  alionnds  near  Fon- 
seca Qulf.  Bain  prevails  In  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  much  more  than  it  does  in  Hon- 
duras, where  the  climate  is  such  that  European  trees 
and  fruit  thrive  on  the  higher  grounds. 

"  2.  With  regard  to  the  elevation,  which  seems  at 
first  sight  rather  deterring.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  greatest  incline  or  gradient  proposed  is  1  la 
88,  and  only  for  a  short  Interval,  In  a  county  where  Ice 
or  snow  Is  unknown;  the  general  gntdients  being 
remarkably  easy.  Also,  that  as  the  country  lies 
favorably,  the  line  running  along  vallej-a,  near  rivers, 
and  without  crossings  of  aqy  consequence,  it  is  likely 
to  be  an  economical  line  In  this  respect.  All  requisite 
materials,  as  well  as  native  labor,  are  on  the  spot ;  and 
the  Honduras  wood-cutters  are  well  known." 

A  company  has  been  taiXy  organized  in  England  with 
reference  to  this  groat  enterprise,  and  among  the  direc- 
tors are  some  of  the  most  prominent  citizens  of  Liverpool 
and  London.  For  a  comparison  of  the  advantages  of 
the  different  transit  routes,  see  Tbahsit  Routes. 


CoMmEM  or  TBI  UinraD  Statis  wna  HoNDtrau,  OAMrsAonT,  kto,  raoii  Ootobse  1,  1880,  to  JirLT  1,  1856. 


Ymtb  endlDf 

Xiponi. 

Imporli, 

WlurMf  Ihira  wu  !■  Bullloa 
ud  Spwla. 

Tonnal*  OlMrod. 

0o«sall«. 

renin. 

Total. 

TotaL 

Eiport. 

Import. 

FoKlfD. 

ADMrian. 

^•"•'^'•IIS:::::::: 

:-^ffi::::::; 

t«,-.*iK  i8jt:;:;:::: 

Ji'i-.ii'  .■-•   1888 

1   :        ,    1889 

1880 

Total.... 

BeptSO,  1881 

1888 

1888 

1884 

1886 

1886... 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total.... 

Sept.  80.  1841 

1842 

9mos.     1848 

June  80, 1844 

1815 

1S46 

1847 

1818 

1849 

1860 

Total.... 

Jane  80, 1861 

1863 

1858 

1854 

1866 

1866 

199,896 
138,115 
311,388 
167,060 
67,886 

IS^Ml 

6m 

12,698 
8I>,182 

1106,880 

127,948 

100,053 

1H866 

88,513 

•  'im 

3,871 
8,289 
6,482 

(306,725 

351,068 

811,486 

851,425 

80,839 

HS84 

8,831 

80,983 

80,564 

•216,076 

28V,885 

817,097 

348,446 

88,188 

17,947 

1,760 

64,847 

'  »6;o6o 

^S60 

•80,590 
187,664 
86,169 
61,047 
87,081 
17,488 
6,576 

46,117 
1,478 

6,009 
6,447 
7,570 
5,890 
1,801 

1,048 

808 

479 

687 

1,280 

1706,775 

146,888 

6^469 

70,622 

66,072 

184,708 

109,888 

99,694 

89,896 

181,861 

188.096 

•670,888 

•18,782 
17,897 
28,724 
89,876 
87,561 
86,016 
12,168 
19,800 
89,889 
68371 

•1,376,118 

•59,966 

82,856 

99,346 

95,448 

-  178,264 

14^888 

111,852 

109,196 

811,900 

190.466 

•1,181,140 

•44,463 
84,168 
101,615 
149,599 
174,960 
215,898 
508,684 
801,148 
161,087 
168,858 

•11,560 

•451,698 

•80,508 

68,813 
48,689 
71,780 
89,797 
79,187 

114,908 
76,481 

111,114 

36,569 

1,449 
3,677 
1,697 
4,041 
11,007 
4,236 
6,086 
9,406 
6,434 
6,048 

8,649 

•988 
97 

"807 
666 

1,818 
2,168 
1,605 
8,861 
1,708 

«I66,358 

«141,864 
18T;889 
92.378 
197,495 
188,494 
83^494 
961,898 
949,648 
191,347 
171,984 

•891,978 

•51,852 
86,648 
16,804 
41,524 
61,421 
64,688 
40,619 
44,181 
84,620 
16,551 

•1,878,881 

(198,846 
168,987 
108,683 
239,019 
839,916 
890,082 
801,917 
896,889 
336,967 
188,586 

•1,446,648 

•388.844 
808,868 
186,688 
843,843 
804,818 
807,997 
197,282 
18^684 
263,417 
178,690 

•1,600 

11,920 
7,699 
2,078 

Kooo 

(680,096 

•187,788 
98,607 
74,608 
104,189 
74,677 
80,458 
91,488 
10^439 
109,006 
46,744 

43,910 

6,409 
6,679 
7,486 
7,914 
8,869 
9,620 
6,946 
^486 
6,216 
4226 

11,687 
1,010 

"708 
807 
668 
607 
607 

1,833 
898 

1,953 

11,947,341 

•818,806 

.  893^ 

818,855 

471,488 
850,000 

•897,688 

•28,869 
69,259 
68,006 
68,728 
01,526 
88,789 

(3,346,089 

•887,168 
362,073 
881,860 
368,641 
628,950 
888,789 

•2,056,981 

•174,626 
861,646 
268,298 
288,954 
889,974 
882,117 

•28,191 

•16,610 

17,437 

8,000 

17,000 

4,995 

2,000 

•998,n7 

•15,693 
88,394 
28,887 
48,380 

lllls28 

61,788 

3,983 
5,020 
6,111 
4,168 
6,882 
4,938 

8,490 

6,186 
8440 
8,880 
8,681 

^786 

Principal  Porit. — ^The  principal  ports  of  Honduras 
on  the  Atlantic  are  Puerto  Cabello,  Omoa,  and  Trux- 
illo.  Puerto  Cabello,  the  first  port  established  by  the 
Spaniards  on  the  northern  coast,  Is  In  lat.  16°  49' 
north.  Cortez,  in  his  expedition  into  Honduras, 
founded  •  settlement  here  for  the  purpose  of  making 
It  the  grand  entrepot  of  New  Spain.  For  upward  of 
two  centuries  It  was  the  principal  establishment  on  the 
coast !  but,  during  the  time  of  the  buccaneers  it  was 
removed  to  Omoa,  because  of  the  large  size  of  the 
bay,  which  could  not  bo  properly  defended.  This  bay 
is  not  less  than  nine  miles  in  circnmfiftrettce,  of  ample 
depth — ^two  thirds  of  it  being  firom  6  to  12  fathoms^— 
ud  has  secure  holding-ground.    It  is  p>)rfectly  pro- 


tected from  the  N.N.E.  and  N,W.  winds,  which  m 
those  that  prevail  on  this  coast.  The  port  of^Omoaj 
is  small  but  secure,  and  is  defended  by  a  strong  fort. 
The  anchorage  is  good,  in  ftrom  two  to  six  fathoms. 
TruxlUo  is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  a  noble 
bay,  in  lat.  16°  55'  north.  Population  In  1842,  2500 ; 
1000  whites  and  Ladinos,  and  1500  Cariba. 

The  chief  exports  of  British  Honduras  to  the  United 
States  are  mahogany  and  varioni  descriptions  of  dye- 
woods.  Copper,  scrap-iron,  and  other  old  metals.  The 
following  statement  exhibits  the  valne  of  the  trade 
between  the  United  States  and  Hondura*'  during  the 
years  1853)  1864,  and  1850,  npto  Jan*  80tb  of  < 
year: 


HON 

lUS.  1U4.  UU. 

Import*  AromnnltodStatatllMlJIW      |Ma,Ml      |Bn,9IW 
bportitoVBlMBUlM..    M8,m        188,904        8W,fT4 

ThU  trade,  alttiongh  amtll  uid  Imgulir,  and  ap- 
panntly  fh>Di  thli  axhlbit  not  Increaaing  In  value, 
ia  very  fltvorabla  to  the  United  Statu,  aa  li  ahown 
by  lb*  exceaa  of  exporta  to  over  the  imports  from 
Honduraa. 

Hon«  or  Bonc-Blmta.  Theae  are  varloua  alaty- 
stone*  wrought  Into  the  form  of  atralght  alaba,  and 
naed  for  whetting  or  sharpening  the  edges  of  tools  af- 
ter they  have  been  ground.  They  conalat  chiefly  of 
the  following :  1.  JVormiy  rag^one,  the  coaraeat  variety 
of  the  hone-sUtes :  it  gives  a  finer  edge  than  the  sand- 
stones. 2.  ChartJtji  Fortst  itont,  which  Is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  Turkey  oil-stone.  8.  Agr  ttont,  iScoIck 
tlone,  or  tiale  stone,  used  for  polishing  marble  and  cop- 
per plates,  but  the  harder  Kinds  for  whetstone*.  4.  Id- 
wall  or  Welsh  oil-stone,  used  far  small  artlclea  of  cut- 
lery. 6,  Devonshire  oilstone,  for  aharpening  thin-edged 
broad  tools.  6.  Cullers'  green-stone,  ttom  Snowdon, 
which  is  very  hard  and  close,  and  is  used  for  giving 
the  last  edge  to  lancets,  etc.  7.  German  raznr-honf, 
used  almost  entirely  for  razors.  It  la  obtained  from 
the  slate  mountaina  near  Ratlsbon,  where  It  forms  a 
yellow  vein  In  the  blue  slate.  It  Is  sawn  Into  thin 
slabs,  and  cemented  to  a  slab  of  slate,  which  aervea 
aa  B  anpport.  8.  Blue  polishing  stone,  a  dark  alate  of 
uniform  texture,  used  by  workers  In  silver  and  some 
other  metals,  for  polishing  off  the  work.  0.  drag  pol- 
ishing stone,  somewhat  coarser  than  the  blue.  10. 
Welsh  clearing  stone,  a  aoft  variety  of  hone-alate 
naed  by  curriers  for  giving  a  fine  edge  to  their  brood 
knives.  11.  Peruvian  hone,  tor  sharpening  large  tools. 
12.  Arkansas  stone,  from  North  America.  IS.  Bohe- 
mian stones,  used  by  jewelers. 

Turkey  oil-stone  Is  superior  to  every  other  substance 
as  a  whetstone :  it  will  aurade  the  hardest  steel,  and 
is  sufficiently  compact  to  resist  the  pressure  required 
for  shatpening  a  graver.  The  black  variety  Is  some- 
what harder  than  the  white.  Theae  atonea  are  Import- 
ed from  Turkey  in  irregular  masses,  seldom  exceeding 
three  Inches  square,  and  ten  inches  long,  and  are  cut 
up  by  means  of  the  lapidary's  splitting-mill  and  dia- 
mond-powder, then  rubbed  smooth  with  sand  or  emery 
on  an  iron  plate,  inlaid  in  wood,  and  secured  by  glaz- 
ier's putty.  Sperm  or  neats'-foot  oil,  or  some  oil 
which  does  not  readily  thicken,  should  be  used  with 
them.  Oil-stone  powder  is  used  for  grinding  together 
the  brass  or  gun-metal  fittings  of  mathematical  Instru- 
ments, and  alio  Instead  of  pumice-stone  for  polishiug 
luperlor  braas-work. 

The  fallowing  analyses  throw  an  interesting  light 
on  the  nature  of  poUslJng-stones : 


HON 


OoMFAaATrra  Tabli  or  tub  PaoDoor  or  Bimwax  akd 
lIuMiT  IM  BAOii  Btat*,  1840  AKO  18M,  AOooaDMO  TO  Tub 
nniTBO  Statbs  OBNsrs. 


Aliunl- 

Ba. 

SlUe*. 

Una.  1    Iron. 

W«ler. 

•li. 

CvboD- 

Polish,  slate. 

Bohemian  St. 
rnrkoj  bone 

4-0 

10 
8'tt 

88-5 
«6'8 
TO-0 

no 

8-6 

1-0 
18-88 

8-8 
4-0 

lO-O 
14-0 

1-5 

10-88 

Honey  (Du.  Honig,  Honing ;  Fr.  Miel ;  Ger.  Ifomg  ; 
li-Uele;  Ltt.  Mel;  Rus.  J/e(f,'  Sp.  JfiW),  a  vegetable 
juice  collected  by  bees.  "  It  varies  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  flowers  from  which  It  is  collected.  Thus, 
the  honeys  of  Minorca,  Narbonne,  and  England  are 
known  by  their  flavors;  and  the  honey  prepared  in 
difiTerent  parts  even  of  the  same  countr}'  differs.  It  is 
•eparated  from  the  comb  by  dripping  and  by  expres- 
sion: the  first  method  aflbrds  the  purest  sort;  the 
second  separates  a  less  pure  honey ;  and  a  still  inferior 
kind  is  obtained  by  heating  the  comb  before  it  is 
pressed.  When  obtained  from  young  hives,  which 
have  not  swarmed,  it  is  denominated  virgin  honey.  It 
It  (omatimes  adulterated  with  flour,  which  is  detected 
bgr  mixing  it  with  tepid  water :  the  honey  dissolves, 
while  tha  flour  remoina  neariy  nnaltered."— Taox- 
MW'a /)up«iwa<oiy. 


ButM  and  TarrftoriM. 


Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

Colunibia,  District  of., 

Connrctlcut 

Delaware 

Florida. 

Oaorcla 

llllBoC: 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentnekjr. 

Louisiana 

Mitno 

Maryland 

Massaehnsetts 

lilchlcsn 

MIsslulppI 

MIssonn 

New  Ilampshlfe. 

Mew  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Otilo 

PcnntylTsnla 

Bliode  Island 

South  Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas. 

Vermont 

Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota  Territory. . . 

NewMexieo    "      ... 

Utah  "      ... 

Total 


sz;:irs,. 

Wu,ib..or. 

ISM. 

is«e. 

Mr,oii 

i»a,8(8 

fiSO 

7,079 
44 

08,804 

8,897 

41,848 

1,088 

18.H1 

76 

789,614 

19,799 

869,444 

19,178 

988,899 

80,647 

891,711 

1,181 

I'^S!-!'? 

88,448 

9«,701 

1,011 

189,818 

8728 

I)b2S 

8,674 

60,808 

1,196 

!SS'»2! 

4,688 

897,480 

6,888 

1,888,971 

66,461 

117,140 

1,846 

168,694 

10,061 

1,768,880 

61,796 

811,189 

118,928 

804,876 

88,960 

889,609 

88,107 

6,847 

168 

tl«,i81 

16,887 

1,086,671 

80,907 

880,886 

,  , 

149,423 

4,660 

I81I0O6 
80 

6^010     , 
1,474     ' 

9 
10 

.... 

14,868,800 

618,808 

Honflenr,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  Department 
of  Calvados,  and  arrondissement  of  Port  I'Evoque,  on 
the  southern  shore  of  the  estuar}'  of  the  Seine,  eight 
miles  south-east  of  Havre,  with  which  it  has  regular 
steam  communication.  The  (own  is  old  and  ill  built. 
The  harbor  Is  accessible  only  at  high  water,  and  Is 
chiefly  frequented  by  fishing  or  small  coasting  craft. 
The  herring,  mackerel,  and  whiting  fisheries  are  act. 
Ively  prosecuted ;  and  numerous  vessels  sail  annually 
for  the  cod,  whale,  and  seal  fisheries.  Honfleur  sends 
weekly  to  England  about  7000  dozen  of  eggs,  besides 
butter,  fruit,  etc.  Its  commerce,  formerly  consider- 
able, has  been  almost  entirely  absorbed  by  Havre. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  hosiery,  lace,  chemical 
products,  and  hardware.  There  are  also  ship-building 
yards,  rope-walks,  and  aaw-mllls.  The  chapel  of  No- 
tre Dame  de  Grace,  on  the  hill  above  the  town.  Is 
much  frequented  by  sailors,  and  filled  with  their  votive 
offerings.     Population  9680. 

Hong  Kong,  a  small  island,  now  a  British  colony, 
lying  off  the  coast  of  China,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Can- 
ton River,  about  40  miles  east  of  Macao,  in  lat.  22*' 
16'  80"  N.,  long.  114°  14'  46'  E.  It  is  about  nine 
miles  in  length  by  eight  In  breadth,  and  Is  separated 
from  the  main  land  by  a  narrow  strait,  varying 
from  less  than  a  mile  to  four  or  five  miles  in  width. 
The  appearance  of  the  island  Is  barren  and  unprepos- 
sessing. It  consists  for  the  most  part  of  ranges  of 
rocky  hills,  rising  sometimes  to  the  height  of  1700  or 
ISOO  feet  above  the  sea.  The  highest  peak  Is  1826 
feet  in  height.  There  are  no  trees  of  any  size  on  the 
Island,  and  few  valleys  of  any  extent.  The  rocks  of 
Hong  Kong  consist  of  granite  intermixed  with  quartz, 
mica,  and  felspar,  afTording  excellent  materials  for 
building.  Among  the  vegetable  productions  of  the 
island  are  mango,  lichee,  longan,  orange,  pear,  rice, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  yams,  A  small  quantity  of  flax 
la  grown  and  prepared  for  household  uses  by  the  vil- 
lagers. Since  the  occupation  of  the  Island  )>}■  the 
English,  the  potato  of  Europe  and  the  fruits  of  Canton 
and  Macao  have  been  introduced,  and,  lately,  many 
European  seeds  have  been  sent  out.  The  land-tortoise, 
a  few  small  deer,  and  armadiUoa,  and  several  kind*  of 
tcokea,  oro  found  on  the  island.   The  climate  of  Hong 


the 

of 

rtz, 

for 

the 

rice, 

flax 

vil- 

the 

nton 

any 

oiie, 

l»of 

long; 


HON 


9m 


HOO 


/ 


Kong,  llkt  that  of  Mmm,  it  not  ganwnlly  nnhedthy, 
though  flroni  Iho  nnmtroui  death*  that  ooourrcd  In  1843 
■nd  1848,  thtt  WM  loppoMd  to  b«  the  oue.  Suhae- 
fnent  yeara,  howeyer,  have  shown  that  the  clinute  here 
is  no  more  prejudicial  to  health  than  that  of  varioui 
other  taetem  tropical  ponaeaalona.  Hong  Kong  wai 
flnt  ceded  to  Britain  in  Janiiar)-,  1841,  and  again  by 
the  treaty  of  Nankin,  in  Auguat,  1842.  The  govern- 
ment la  administered  by  •  governor,  aided  by  an  ex- 
ecutive council  of  three  members,  including  the  com- 
mander of  the  troops.  There  is  also  a  legislative 
council,  presided  over  by  the  governor.  The  govern- 
ment offices  are  at  Victoria.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  progress  of  Hong  Kong  ftrom  1848  to  1868, 
Inclusive : 


T«Bn. 


Pepulalloi,  ti. 
eliuin  of  troops 


184« 
18B0 
18S1 
1809 
18&8 


11,SU 
2»,60T 

M,m 

W,9e8 
8T,056 
8».01T 


RcTtBM. 


1!W,0I)1 
98,tlT 

m,im 

W,T91 
S1,8S1 
«4,T00 


ParUanoBtary 

■TMt. 


£S6,noo 
8S,oao 

20,000 

l^Mo 
ia,ooo 

»,900 


EiptoaUnra. 


jm,tt» 


84,814 
»i,115 
84,T« 
8^418 


With  reference  to  these  six  years,  the  governor  re- 
marks, "  that  the  call  on  the  home  government  for 
a  parliamentary  grant  has  been  reduced  <Vom  X2S,000 
to  ^£8600  (£9200  ?)  for  the  currrent  year ;  that  the  ex- 
penditure has  been  reduced  fh)m  ^62,668  to  £86,418 ; 
that  the  number  of  square-rigged  vessels  frequenting 
the  port  has  increased  from  700  to  llOS,  while  the  ton- 
nage is  nearly  double ;  and  that  the  population  has  in 
like  manner  advanced  82  per  cent,  during  the  past  six 
years.  In  conclusion,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying, 
that  were  this  colony  taxed  in  the  same  way  aa  are  the 
settlements  in  the  Straits,  under  the  government  of  the 
East  India  Company,  it  could  in  a  year  or  two  be 
made  to  pay  its  own  expenses  without  the  efficiency  of 
the  government  being  impaired." — E.  B.  See  Huirr's 
Mer,  ifag.,  x.,  4S9. 

A  parliamentary  docament  relating  to  Hong  Kong 
has  lately  1>een  printed,  which  possesses  considerable 
Interest,  as  it  describes  the  exact  position  and  pros- 
pects attained  by  the  colony  shortly  before  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war.  It  consists  of  a  dispatch  from  Sir 
John  Bowring,  inclosing  a  copy  of  the  last  annual 
report  made  to  him  by  the  Colonial  Secretary  on  the 
progress  of  the  island.  It  appears  that  the  place  has 
benefited  not  only  by  the  increase  of  the  Chinese  trade 
during  the  past  few  years,  but  by  the  effects  of  the 
rebellion  in  promoting  emigration  from  Canton.  A 
consequent  improvement  was  observable  In  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Chinese  population ;  and  many  of  the  natives, 
growing  in  wealth,  had  also  grown  in  respectability. 
The  increasing  disposition  to  settle  on  the  island  was 
manifested  especially  among  the  better  class  of  traders ; 
and  the  general  tendency  to  prosperity  was  further 
stimulated  by  many  of  the  chief  commercUl  houses  in 
China,  l)oth  British  and  American,  having  lately  made 
Hong  Kong  their  central  point  of  establishment.  "  The 
development  of  steam  navigation,"  it  is  said,  "the 
rapid  extension  of  trading  relations  with  Australia  and 
Coliforina,  the  increase  of  trade  on  the  coasts  of  China, 
the  opening  of  Siam,  and  the  security  which  the  flag 
of  Great  Britain  offers  against  piratical  attacks,  are 
among  the  causes  which  have  led  to  these  results." 
The  population,  which  in  1848  was  only  24,000,  amount- 
ed, at  the  beginning  of  1866,  to  72,600.  Owing  to  the 
happy  fact  of  the  absence  of  any  custom-house,  there 
are  no  means  of  furnishing  statistical  details  of  the 
imports  and  exports,  but  the  signs  of  an  active  and 
rapidly-Increasing  trade  were  everywhere  visible,  and 
were  corrolwrated  by  the  rate  of  interest  being  as  high 
as  86  per  cent,  per  annum ;  although  the  latter  circum- 
stance is  partly  to  be  attributed  to  the  comparatively 
needy  condition  of  the  small  Chinese  traders.  The 
government-house  has  just  l>een  completed,  at  a  cost 
of  ^£16,000,  and  many  other  public  improvement*  were 


in  piogreu.  Although  the  existing  Jail  huUdingi  an 
pronouncad  totally  Inadequate,  it  waa  only  because  laft- 
cenie*  and  petty  offenses  had  Incnasad  with  the  influx 
of  population,  crime  of  the  more  serious  khid  being 
ran.  The  impression  as  to  the  nnheaithlnas*  of  tha 
colony  seem*  to  be  disappearing ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  Urge  Increase  In  the  number  of  inhabitant*  in  the 
year  1866,  the  town  of  Victoria  was  found  very  favor- 
able for  fonignera.  The  Chinese  consider  the  placa 
not  more  inimical  to  health  than  the  towns  on  tlM 
main  land.  Many  improvements  remain  to  be  effect- 
ed, which  would  doubtless  add  much  to  its  safMyi 
but  the  revenue,  even  at  its  recent  rate  of  increoaa, 
would  admit  only  of  moderate  undertaking*.  To 
meat  all  requlramenti,  the  Colonial  Secretary  ravived 
a  suggestion  for  the  Impoiitlon  "  of  a  differential  duty 
of,  say,  Id.  per  lb.  on  teas  shipped  for  England  from 
Hong  Kong."  Sir  John  Bowring,  however,  in  har- 
mony with  the  views  now  universally  established 
among  commercial  men,  declined  to  support  the  no- 
ommendation. 

Honlton,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
and  market-town  of  England,  county  of  Devon,  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Otter,  16  miles  north-east  of  Ex- 
eter. It  consists  of  one  wide  and  well-paved  street, 
along  which  runs  a  small  stream,  supplying  the  town 
with  water.  The  houses  have  generally  a  neat  and  re- 
spectable  appearance,  having  been  mostly  built  since  the 
destructive  flres  of  1746  and  1766.  The  parish  church, 
about  half  a  mile  trom  the  town,  was  built  by  Courtney, 
Bishop  of  Exeter,  about  1482,  and  is  remarlutble  for  a 
curiously  carved  screen.  A  modem  Gothic  churoh 
stands  in  the  centre  of  the  town.  It  has  a  free  gram- 
mar school,  national  school,  hospital,  and  several  char- 
ities. The  serge  manufacture  was  formerly  exten- 
sively carried  on  here,  but  now  its  chief  manufac- 
ture is  Honiton  lace.  Honiton  is  governed  by  a  port- 
reeve, and  ntnms  two  membera  to  Parliament.  Pop- 
ulation in  1861,  8427. 

Honolulu,  or  Honoruru,  the  principal  town  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  residence  of  the  king,  is 
situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Woahoo,  in 
lat.  21°  18'  12"  X.,  long.  157°  65'  W.  It  forms  an 
entrepot  for  European  and  Indian  goods,  whence  they 
are  reshipped  to  America,  It  is  also  a  gener  i1  <> jdci- 
vous  of  whaling  vessels  \  and  sometimes  f  "V.  of 
them,  each  fh>m  300  to  600  tons,  are  at  anchoi '  •:> .-  t> 
gether.  In  1851,  446  merchant  ships  arrived  at  :he 
port ;  in  1862,  285 ;  and  in  1853, 194.  The  imports  in 
1863  amounted  to  (1,240,976,  and  the  exports  to 
$272,588.  Population  about  7000.  See  Sandwich 
Islands. 

Hoogtaly,  an  extensive  district  in  the  province  of 
Bengal  formerly  called  Saatgong,  situated  principally 
between  the  22d  and  23d  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
extending  a  considerable  distance  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  River  Hoogbly.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  district  of  Burdwan,  on  the  south  by  the  district 
of  Hidjelee,  on  the  east  by  the  River  Hoogbly,  and  on 
the  west  by  Midnapoor.  This  district  consists  of  low 
flat  land,  vei^-  fertile ;  but  that  part  which  is  nearest 
to  the  sea  is  ver}'  thinly  inhabited ;  it  is  called  the 
Snnderbund,  is  swampy,  covered  with  wood,  and  re- 
markably unhealthy.  The  right  of  the  East  India 
Company  to  the  district  originated  in  the  treaty  con- 
cluded with  Meer  Cosin  in  1760. 

Hooghlg,  an  ancient,  and  formerly  a  large  town  in 
the  province  of  Bengal,  situated  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Hooghly,  nearly  26  miles  above  Calcutta,  and 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Portuguese 
about  the  year  1638.  During  the  Mogul  government, 
It  was  a  town  of  great  consequence,  being  the  port  of 
the  western  arm  of  the  Ganges,  where  the  duties  on 
merchandise  were  collected.  It  very  soon  drew  away 
all  the  trade  from  Saatgong,  which  hod  been  before  the 
government  port  of  Bengal.  During  the  prevalence 
of  the  Portuguese  dominion  in  India,  UoogUy  was  fwr. 


J'{v^i^d3'iif.dAt.i^^^i:<\^^£3iML{iEi;^C;«^r.~f''-- 


HOO  i 

tHM,  tad  eonllanid  lo  flouriih  tin  Ih*  fnt  IflM,  «h*a 
U  wu  attoekMl  bjr  oMar  of  th*  (mparor  Hhah  Jchan, 
and,  aflar  •  ilaga  of  thraa  monthi  and  a  half,  wat 
lakan  by  tba  Mogul  traopa,  1000  of  the  PortuffucM 
Mog  klllad,  and  4400  men,  woman,  and  ohildran, 
takan  pflionan.  Krum  thti  parM  llnoghljr  l)aoanM 
lh«  iroparial  port.  Aflar  IbU  pariod  arary  cneonraRa- 
manl  waa  (ivanto  oommar«a  t  and  Hooghly,  which  waa 
eallad  Bakbahy  Bandar,  baeama  a  graat  comnwrolal 
amportum  balwaan  Kunpa,  Penia,  Arab^,  and  India. 
In  16M  hoaUlltlaa  eommancad  bctwaan  tha  Kngllab 
and  tha  Nawaab.  An  action  aniuad,  in  which  tha 
Mawanb'a  troopa  war*  dafaatadi  and  at  tha  aame 
tima  tha  town  of  Hoogbly  wax  cannonadad,  and  AOO 
hooaaa  bninad.  In  1700  tha  liaat  India  Company'! 
(Mtory  waa  tranafbrnd  ftrora  Hooghly  to  Calcutta. 
Tha  popolation  of  Hooghlv  la  now  aathnatad  at  18,000. 
Tha  town  ia  iitoata  on  the  Una  of  railnMuI  racaatly 
conrtructed  firam  Caloutu  to  Burdwan.  E.  Ions.  88° 
ti',  N.  lat.  W>  54'. 

1/ooghlj/  River,  properly  the  Bhagirutty,  a  river  of 
Bengal,  formed  by  the  Junction  of  the  two  weatamnioiit 
branchaa  of  the  Oangeaj  the  Coaaimbaiar,  and  tha 
Jellinghy.  Thia  b  tha  port  of  CalcntU,  beint;  tha 
only  braaeh  of  the  Qangei  that  la  navlgatwl  by  Urge 
▼eimla  |  yet  the  entraaoa  to  the  river  ia  rendered  ex. 
tremely  dangerona  aad  dUHcult,  by  reaaon  of  nnmeroua 
aandbank*  in  It,'  which  are  frequently  ahifting,  There 
ia  Indeed  a  rumor  adoat  that  tha  river  it'gradnally 
lilting  up,  and  muat  eventually  ceaaa  to  be  navigable. 
Thia  would  prove  a  fearftal  lilow  to  the  trade  of  Cal- 
cutta, and  the  propoud  remedy  i«  to  connect  the  Klver 
Mutwal  with  the  capital  by  railway  or  ihip  canal. 
During  tha  prevalence  of  the  aouth-wext  monnoon, 
when  a  strong  current  leta  In  from  the  Hay  of  Bengal, 
the  extraordinary  phenomenon,  termni  by  Kuropeani 
the  "  Bore,"  occasionally  preienti  itself.  It  rises  in 
waves  13  or  16  feet  high,  and  rushes  in  at  the  rate  of 
20  miles  an  hour.  It  commences  at  Ilooghly  I'oint, 
where  the  river  flrst  contracto  itself,  and  ia  perceptible 
above  Hooghly  town;  and  though  the  distance  ia 
above  70  miles,  it  traverseii  thl^  space  In  al>aut  four 
hours,  running  along  the  apposite  dank  to  the  Calcutta 
aide,  whence  it  crosses  at  Chitpoor,  about  four  miles 
above  Fort  William,  and  rushes  with  great  violence 
past  Bamagora,  Duckingsore,  etc.,  ftwquently  over- 
aetting  boata  and  driving  ships  from  their  anchorage. 
At  Calcutta  it  sometimes  occasions  an  instantaneous 
rise  of  Ave  feet.  The  tide  does  not  rise  more  than  80 
miles  above  Calcutta ;  and  during  the  rainy  season  ita 
bflaence  Is  checked  by  the  large  liody  of  water  that 
comes  down  ths  river.  The  Iluoglily  contains  severnl 
kinds  of  good  flsii,  particularly  Ciprimn  Anjana,  the 
mango  fish,  or  Polifnemui  pnrajoxui,  and  prawns ;  and 
it  alwunds  also  in  crocodiles  and  sharks.  It  Is  alxiut 
three  quarters  of  a  mile  broad  at  Calcutta,  and  8  or  10 
miles  wide  at  the  mouth.  It  Is  only  navigable  for  ships 
as  high  as  the  tide  reaches,  and  the  upper  part  of  It  is 
neariy  dry  during  the  liot  season ;  yet  there  are  few 
rivers  that  can  boast  of  a  more  extensive  rommerco, 
ita  banks  being  studded  with  numerous  towns  and  vil- 
lages. It  is  esteemed  by  the  Hindoos  to  be  the  most 
aacred  branch  of  the  Ganges,  and  it  is  on  this  account 
that  those  who  can  not  afford  to  bnry  their  dead  throw 
them  Into  the  Hooghly.— E.  B.     See  Calcutta. 

Hookah,  an  oriental  pipe  used  chiefly  in  Turkey, 
by  which  the  smoke  of  the  tobacco  is  mode  to  pass 
through  water  in  order  to  cool  It  and  render  it  more 
grataful  to  the  mouth. 

Hoom,  a  fortified  sea-port  town  of  Holland,  prov- 
ince of  North  Holland,  on  the  Zurdcr-Zee,  20  miles 
north  by  east  of  Amsterdam.  It  curries  on  a  consid- 
erable trade,  though  in  tliis  respect  it  is  much  inferior 
to  what  it  once  waa.  The  exporta  are  chiefly  butter, 
cheeae,  cattle,  herrings,  and  other  kinds  of  pro  .Isiona. 
The  monufacturaa  comprise  woolen  cloths,  carpeta, 
at*.    SUp-baUdiog  and  the  h.jrring  fiabery  art  azten- 


HOP 


stva^  oantad  ea.   II  kaa  a  naval  aoUaiph 

la  WW  diaiiavafwt 


llaam  waa 
the  Urth-plaea  of  Bohoutaa,  who  ' 
Cape  Horn,  and  named  It  after  Ua  :  aiiva  ttiwn  |  aad 
of  Taamaa,  tha  discoverer  of  Van  Dlaawa't  Land  aad 
New  ZeaUnd.     I'opalatkm  alMWl  VOOO. 

HOMi((>er./Wrti;  V\i,llnpp»i  Vt-HauUmi  II, 
luppiJi,  BnucaiMi;  tip.  Ohlmt  Hua.  CAm*/,'  UI. 
Humutut  tupultu).  The  kiip  is  a  perennial  rwitotl 
pUnt,  of  which  thara  are  several  varialUa.  It  hto  an 
annual  twining  stem,  whieh,  whan  luppartad  on  twias, 
or  traaa,  will  reach  the  height  of  fram  lit  to  m  faal 
or  mora.  It  la  a  aatlva  of  llrilaln,  and  must  |iarU  of 
Europe.  When  the  hop  waa  first  used  tnt  praaarvlni| 
and  improving  beer,  or  eultlvated  fbr  that  |iur|HMa,  la 
not  known ;  l)Ut  Its  culture  was  Introduesil  lulu  Kii« 
gUnd  from  Ilandara  in  tha  reign  of  llanry  Vltl, 
Hope  are  first  mentioned  In  the  8talute  Hook  In  l/UW, 
Edward  VI. ;  and  it  would  ap|iaar  tnm  an  act  passeii 
in  leon  that  hope  were  at  that  tima  exlanslvaly  eultU 
vated  In  England.  Waiter  Blithe,  In  Ida  Imprttvtr  Im- 
proftd,  published  In  1040,  Iwa  a  vliapter  upon  jiiipruva. 
nient  by  plantations  of  hope,  in  which  tlicrc  la  llils 
striking  passage.  He  observes,  that  "  bops  ware  thnii 
grown  to  be  a  national  oomuiuilUy  |  but  that  II  was 
not  many  yeara  since  tlia  famoua  oily  of  l<ondoii  |iatU 
tioned  tha  Parliament  of  England  aulnat  two  nui- 
sances I  and  these  were,  Nvwoastlt  ooala,  In  ragard  lo 
their  stench,  etc.,  and  hops,  iu  regard  tbay  would  «/M«< 
Ms  liule  of  ilrink,  and  endanger  tha  people  |  and  lliiit 
the  Parliament  been  no  wiser  than  Ihay,  wa  hail  liuen 
in  a  measure  pined,  and  in  a  great  niausura  starviid  | 
which  is  Just  answerable  to  tlie  pflniilplas  uf  tliuia 
men  who  cry  down  all  devices,  or  Inganluua  disuuv- 
eries,  as  projects,  and  tberel>y  allfla  and  vkuka  Im- 
provement." After  the  hops  have  liain  pluked  and 
dried,  the  brightest  and  finest  are  put  Into  tha  |iovkaU  or 
fine  bagging,  and  tha  brown  into  uuorsa  or  liaavy  bag- 
ging. The  former  are  chiefly  used  in  the  brewing  uf 
tine  ales,  and  the  latter  by  tha  porter  brewers.  A 
pocket  of  bops,  if  they  be  gijod  In  quality,  wall  ulirtiil 
and  tight  trodden,  will  weigh  about  1|  owl.  i  mid  a  liitif 
of  hope  will,  under  the  aame  oondilions,  weigh  Mlatul 
2}  cwt.  If  the  weight  of  either  exoeads  or  falls  iiiuiili 
short  of  this  medium,  tliera  Is  reason  tu  susiinvt  that 
the  hops  are  of  an  Inferior  quality,  or  have  bavn  ImdIy 
manu£ictured.  The  brighter  tne  uulur  uf  Ilia  lliilis, 
the  greater  is  the  estimation  in  wblvli  Uiey  are  liald, 
Karnham  hops  are  eckoned  best,  Tha  BN|iense  uf 
funning  hop  plantations  in  Great  Britain  Is  vary  greal, 
amounting  in  some  instances  tu  from  .£70  Iu  i'lUO  an 
acre;  and  the  produce  is  very  uniiartain,  the  (irup 
being  frequently  insufficient  to  defray  the  expensas  of 
cultivation. 

According  to  Anderson's  Annalt  <\f  t'ummfi'd),  \m\* 
were  introduced  tfouk  the  Netherlands  InUi  ICnglaiid 
A.D.  1624,  and  were  used  In  brewing  |  but  the  ph^sU 
clans  hr  'ing  represented  thai  they  were  unwlicdesnina, 
Parlian  int  was  petitioned  against  them  as  bring  a 
wicked  weed,  and  their  use  was  |iruhllilled  In  15'^M, 
At  present  there  are  between  60,(NI0  and  (10,11011  auras, 
on  an  average,  annually  under  tliu  culture  uf  hous  III 
England.  They  ore  grown  chiefly  in  ilennird,  Kaill, 
and  Worcestershire. — Hayuv. 

llopi  produced  in  the  Umttd  Slalet,mmK  griitlfyltl|| 
increase  has  taken  place  In  the  culture  uf  tills  useful 
article.  The  gain  has  been  nearly  300  jiar  vent.  Al- 
most the  whole  of  the  increment,  however,  Ims  liean 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  which,  from  less  lliiin  half 
a  million  of  pounds  in  1H40,  now  pruiliices  ninri*  than 
two  and  a  half  millions,  which  exceeds  five  nt<vi<ntha 
of  the  whole  crop  of  the  United  Htutes.  In  ciuilliii'tkin 
with  tills  circumstance,  it  may  lie  inentiontd  that  New 
York  also  stands  foremost  in  the  production  uf  ale, 
beer,  and  porter.  In  the  roanufui^ture  of  which  III* 
larger  part  of  the  hops  raised  is  onnaumed,  Tho 
breweries  of  this  State  produced  045,000  Imrrels  of  ale, 
etc.,  ia  1850,  being  more  than  a  third  of  tb«  qunullly 


HOR 


991 


UOR 


MM  to  iM  prodootd  !■  the  whob  UbIob.  Sm  ftHtitl 
qgh*  Km.  U.  a. ;  Hiiirr'»  Afag.,  xlv.,  8»&.  8m  ako 
MtlolM  Ai.a  >nd  Haan  Hbbwino. 


AU 

li««n 
I  half 
[thitn 
until! 
kctloD 
jNeW 
If  hIo, 
Ki  th« 
Tho 
bf  »!«, 
]inlUr 


tiktoi  Mi  Ttrrllerlct. 


"AWHM«i.T7rr.T:::::r. 

ArkMHt V 

Oolginbl*,Dlttrletor., 

OonnMtlent. 

Dclawtrt , 

omki*. : 

IlllDoV 

Indlu* 

lew* 

Kontuoky ,, 

LouUUnt 

Uilne 

MtrrUnd. 

lltMMhUMtU 

Mlahliui, 

MlulMlppt... 

MlMoan....! 

Maw  IIusiwUn. 

New  Jonay 

Now  York 

North  Ctrollm 

Ohio 

I'oniMylrinl* 

Bho<la  hianil 

South  Cirolln* 

T«nD«Mo« 

Varmont. 

Vlnclnla 

'WlHoniln 

Total 


»f. 

tmli. 

IIW. 

IM). 

■m 

"  m 

IBT 

•  >  ■  • 

15 

M 

H4 

tfin 

BM 

14» 

Mt 

m 

SA)t 

17,741 

M,TM 

S8,M1 

S,M1 

88 

4,ao« 

741 

118 

115 

40.IM 

88,940 

l.HTO 

l,HftT 

lll,6»ft 

IHTM 

10,««B 

11,881 

in 

IM 

4,im 

TH» 

UT.in 

24a,41S 

2,188 

4,881 

9,68a,«»» 

447,1B0 

».M« 

1,008 

«8,T81 

«l,l«fi 

n,m 

49,481 

w 

118 

M 

OS 

1,0tS 

MM 

888,018 

48,187 

HAM 

10,ft»7 

IMSO 

188 

8,4te,0SO 

l,U«,eoi 

Boriion  {iptiu,  I  bound),  the  plane  of  a  gnat 
circuit  which  dividea  the  upper  or  viiilble  from  the 
lower  or  inviaible  homiipbere.     See  (iEouitAi-iir. 

Horn  (Ua.Uoomt  Vt.Cvmei  Otr.Uom;  Lit. 
Comu),  a  lubatsnce  well  known  to  manufacturers. 
Horni  are  of  very  considerable  importance  in  tho  art*, 
being  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  uaeful  puriiosea. 
They  are  very  extensively  need  in  the  manufacture 
of  handles  for  knivea,  and  in  that  of  apoons,  combs, 
lanterns,  snuff^boxaa,  etc.  When  divided  into  thin 
plates,  horns  are  tolerably  transparent,  and  were  form- 
erly used  instead  of  glass  in  windows.  Qlue  ii  some- 
times made  out  of  the  refuse  of  horn. 

The  projecting  weapons  on  the  head  of  the  ox,  the 
iheep,  the  antelope,  and  tho  rhinoceros,  consist  of  a 
■heath  of  horn  on  a  core  of  bone.  Horn  is  composed 
chiefly  of  coagulated  albumen,  gelatine,  and  a  small 
portion  of  phosphate  of  lime.  It  is  essentially  dis- 
tinct fhnn  bona  and  Ivor}' ;  the  antlers  of  tho  stag,  al- 
though sometimes  called  liorns,  consist  entirely  of 
bono.  Modifications  of  horns  may  be  noticed  in  tljr 
scales  of  the  armadillo,  the  plate  armor  of  the  torto<<", 
the  spines  of  the  porcupine  and  bedge-hog,  thto  quills 
of  birds,  and  the  hoofs,  claws,  and  nails,  of  animals. 
For  manufacturing  purposes,  the  horns  and  hoofs  of 
the  bull  and  cow  are  in  request,  and  there  is  a  large 
import  of  these  trom  South  America,  southern  Africa, 
and  from  Kussla.  The  horns  of  the  bison  and  buft'olo, 
the  chamois  and  the  antelope,  are  used  fur  the  better 
kinds  of  work. 

The  mannfactnrer  first  detaches  the  bom  fh>m  the 
bony  core,  by  macerating  the  bom  In  water  for  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  when  tho  membrane  by  which 
the  bom  is  attached  to  the  core  putrifles  and  allows 
the  two  to  be  separated.  The  ash  of  the  cores  makes 
•xoellent  cupels  for  the  assay  of  gold  and  silver.  The 
■olid  tips  of  the  horn  are  sawn  off,  and  are  used  for 
handles  for  knives,  for  buttons,  etc. ;  the  other  portion 
of  the  bom  is  cut  into  short  lengths,  or  soaked  whole 
In  boilmg  water,  or  heated  at  a  fire,  the  effect  of  which 
Is  to  soften  it,  and  allow  it  to  be  spread  out  nearly  flat. 
TheJhU  are'  next  pressed  between  warm  and  greased 
Iron  plates,  tlie  pressure  var}-lng  according  to  circum- 
stances. If  intended  for  lanterns,  the  pressure  is  con- 
tinued ontU  the  bom  separates  into  distinct  plates; 
these  are  placed  on  a  board  covered  with  hide,  and 
loraped  with  a  knUa  having  a  wire  edge.   Some  of  the 


BhaTiB(s  wUob  come  off  are  somatimaa  dyed  and  eul 
into  Various  forms,  and  are  so  sensitive  aa  tu  curl  up 
by  the  warmth  of  the  hand.  Tbay  are  aold  at  toy- 
ahop*  undar  the  name  of  "sensitive  leaves."  After 
the  scraping,  the  sheets  of  horn  nra  polished  with  a 
woolen  cloth  dipped  In  cliarcnal  dunt  and  water,  next 
with  rotten-stone,  and  lastly  with  horn  sbavings. 

The  eflkct  of  heat  and  presnure  ou  llglit-volorsd  horn 
la  to  render  it  transparent ;  but  must  of  the  aitlolea 
made  of  horn  are  colored  artificinlly  l)y  Imlling  the 
horn  in  infualona  of  coloring  matter.  If  the  horn  lie 
intended  for  comba,  the  preaaure  must  be  moderated, 
or  the  teeth  will  be  brittle  i  if  inteudnd  fur  drinking 
cupe,  the  horn  is  cut  into  lengths,  si'iilded,  roasted,  end 
molded  in  a  cone  oi  wood,  and  a  woiMleii  plug  is  drives 
into  It  fur  pressing  the  horn  into  the  nxiuirrd  shape. 
After  this,  the  cup  is  turned  and  |Niiished  at  tlie  lathe, 
and  a  groove  Is  cut  to  receive  the  bottom ;  this  cut  out 
of  a  flat  piece  of  horn  by  means  of  a  crown  saw,  and 
the  bottom  of  the  cup  having  been  softened  at  the  lire, 
the  disk  la  forceil  Into  the  groove,  and  the  horn  con- 
tracting in  cooling  makes  a  water-tight  Joint.  For 
knife-handle  and  similar  works,  the  horn  is  cut  nearly 
to  the  required  form,  end  is  molded  in  dies  with  the 
assistance  of  heat  and  a  powerful  surew-piess,  The 
work  la  flnishod  by  scraping  and  bufling  with  Trent 
■and  and  oil,  or  rotten-stone  and  oil.  Horn  is  some- 
times used  as  a  vehicle  for  applying  iiolishing  powders 
to  the  flat  works  of  the  watchmaker.  In  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1H61,  there  were  sundry  small  articles 
of  chamois  honi,  consisting  of  brooches,  sliirt-buttons, 
rings,  and  wutuh-keys,  liy  a  Swiss  exiiibitur ;  tJHre 
were  alsu  some  transparent  horn  paintings  from  Ham- 
burg, and  a  pair  of  pulialied  ox-horns  from  Port  Natal, 
with  the  head  complete,  measuring  from  tip  to  tip  8 
ft.  4  in.,  and  21  in.  circumference.  The  liest  ci'llec- 
tion  of  articles  in  horn-work  was,  however,  from 
Turkey.— E.  B. 

Bom  Mannteoturu.  Horn  is  employed  for 
all  the  purposes  of  tortoise-shell ;  nnd  its  much  greater 
cheapness  gives  it  a  more  extenda<l  application. 
Knife-handles,  buttons,  umbrella-handles,  whip-tops, 
liell-puUs,  druwer-knobs,  sides  of  lanterns,  and  combs, 
are  among  the  numerous  articles  made  of  horn.  For 
the  la:'ger  bull^  of  these  manufactures  in  England,  ox- 
homs  are  chiefly  used  ;  but  those  of  the  ram,  tlio  ante- 
lope, the  buffalo,  the  deer,  etc.,  are  employed  for 
special  purposes.  To  show  how  enormous  the  con- 
sumption mi-st  be,  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  I.lver^ 
pool  imported,  in  1850,  no  less  than  120  tons  of  buffalo 
f!:<s,  200  tons  of  buffalo  luirns,  280  tons  of  deer  horns, 
and  700  tons  of  ox  and  cow  horns.  Horn  is  brought 
into  manufactured  forciG  by  processes  bearing  some 
analogy  to  those  employed  in  the  gutta-percha  manu- 
facture, by  heat  and  moisture  ;  a  higher  temperature 
being,  however,  required  for  the  horn. 

Horn,  or  Hoom,  Cape,  commonly  considered  the 
southern  extremity  of  America,  is  not  a  part  of  that 
continent,  but  the  most  southerly  point  of  aHmall 
island  of  the  Tierra  del  Fuogo  group.  S.  lat.  66°  68' 
40",  W.  long.  67°  16'.  It  consists  of  a  lofty,  precip- 
itous, bare  black  rock,  running  far  out  into  the  sea ; 
and  was  formerly  considered  dangerous  to  pass  on  ac- 
count of  the  strong  westerly  gales  that  prevail  in  its 
neighborhood  during  summer,  but  as  these  are  re- 
stricted to  the  vicinity  of  the  capo,  vessels  avoid  the 
difficulty  by  sailing  in  a  higher  latitude.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1G16  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Schouten, 
who  named  it  after  his  native  town,  floora.  See 
Capb  Horji. 

Horse-ohestnut.  The  horse-chestnut  is  a  tree  of 
the  largest  size,  with  an  erect  trurk,  and  a  pyramidal 
head,  sometimes  attaining  a  height  of  90  or  100  feet. 
The  leaves  are  large,  of  a  deep  green,  and  singularly 
interesting  and  beautiful,  when  first  developed.  When 
inclosed  in  the  bud,  they  ore  covered  with  a  pubee- 
cecce,  that  falls  off,  as  they  become  expanded,  which 


HOR 


HOS 


Meordinf  to  th*  ityuut  or 

MolalllCM  of  lb*  NMOD. 

Umgmphp  mni  //wtnry,— Tha  luttlvo  country  of  Ibo 
oommon  horao-rlMitnut,  Mr,  KoyU  o\»»tm,  "  U  jrtt 
unknown,  thoBKh  nUiIwi  In  tonM  work*,  to  Im  Ik* 
■orth  of  InilU."  Ho  t»y»  th*(  ht  nortr  met  with  it, 
though  oflon  viailinii  tho  mount*lM  of  that  country, 
whoro,  lf,anywh«r«,  It  wm  llluly  tn  Iw  found,  knil 
wbora  tho  ladlAD  hono-chMtnut  wm  found  In  nbund- 

MMO. 

AecordlUK  to  M.  Hon  do  Haint-IIIUiro,  th*  horM- 
ohMtnut  pawod  f^ini  tb«  mountitinii  of  Thlliot  tn  Kn- 
gUnd  In  IftM,  ^iKi  thonco  to  Vienna,  liy  rluniua,  and 
■lUrWBrd  to  Parte,  by  Havheller.  It  In  aUo  itated  by 
Clwlui,  In  hU  "  Rarlorum  i'Untarum  llielorla,"  that 
th«i«  WH  •  plant  of  thia  ipeiloa  at  Vionna,  in  1<MM, 
which  had  lioon  brought  tharo  12  year*  befor*,  but 
which  had  not  then  flowered.  It  ha*  alMi  been  (aid 
that  thi*  tr**  wa»  tint  raiaed  in  France,  from  need* 
procured  ftnm  the  levant.  In  the  y"ar  161  A,  by  on* 
Bachelier.  I'arklnaon,  in  1620,  aaya  "  Our  Chriatlan 
world  had  flnt  a  knowledge  of  it  from  Conitantlno- 
pla."  The  earn*  author  place<l  It  In  hi*  orchard,  a*  a 
flrult-trae,  between  the  walnut  and  the  mulberriei. 
We  afterward  And  It  mentioned  in  Juhnaon'a  edition 
of  Gerard'*  "  Herbal,"  in  1088,  a*  then  growing  in  Mr. 
Trade*cant'*  garden,  at  South  Lambeth.  From  thin 
period  tilt  the  time  of  Miller,  It  appaarn  •  have  at- 
tracted great  attention,  and  acquired  a  hig'  reputation 
a*  an  ornamental  tree,  a*  he  repreient*  it  in  I7ill,  a* 
being  very  eommun  In  Kngland,  and  extenelvely  em- 
plMred  in  the  formation  of  avenue*  ami  public  walk*. 

The  wood  of  the  hora«.che*tnut  1*  white  and  very 
•oft,  and  according  to  Loudon,  when  dry,  weigh*  from 
8A  to  87  pound*  to  a  cubic  foot.  It  I*  unflt  for  u*e 
where  much  etrength  and  durability  in  the  open  air 
•re  required ;  neverthele**,  there  are  many  purpoee* 
for  which  It  la  applicable,  when  sawn  Into  board* ; 
(uvh  as  for  Hooring,  lining  to  carts,  packlng-ca«e*,  etc. 
In  France,  aabots,  or  wooilen  shoo*,  are  made  from  It ; 
and  It  1*  *ald  to  be  u*ad  by  carver*,  turner*,  etc. 
Boutcher  say*,  that  It  I*  lultable  for  water-pipe*  that 
•re  to  be  kept  conatantly  under  ground ;  and  it  1*  alao 
recommended  for  thI*  purpo*e  by  l)u  Ilamel.  The 
charcoal  made  of  thi*  specie*  may  be  ui^ed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder ;  and  the  aahes  of  every  part  of 
the  plant,  more  erpeclally  of  the  fruit,  afford  pot-aah 
In  cunaiderable  quantity.  The  bark,  which  1*  very 
bitter,  Is  employed  for  tanning,  and  alio  for  dyeing 
yellow  t  and  it  has  been  used  medicinally  as  •  sub- 
stitute for  Jesuit's  bark.  In  Turkey,  the  nuts  are 
ground,  and  mixed  with  horse-food,  especially  when 
the  animal*  are  broken-winded;  and  in  their  crude 
■tate,  they  are  eaten  by  goata,  aheep,  deer,  and  bog*. 
They  are  used  In  Ireland  to  whiten  linen,  and  for  this 
purpose  are  rasped  into  water.  In  which  they  are  al- 
iowed  to  macerate  for  some  time.  The  eaponaceoua 
Juice  which  they  contain  la  verj'  uaeful,  not  only  in 
bleoiktng,  but  in  washing  linens  and  other  stuffs. 
The  nuts  must  be  peeled  and  ground,  and  the  flour  of 
twenty  of  them  is  sufficient  for  ten  quarts  of  water ; 
and  either  linens  or  woolens  may  be  washed  with  the 
infusion,  without  any  soap,  as  it  effectually  eradicates 
spot*  of  all  kinds.  The  clothes,  however,  should  af- 
terward be  rinsed  in  clean  water.  The  nuts,  when 
ground  Into  flour,  and  mixed  In  the  proportion  of  one 
third  with  the  flour  of  wheat,  are  said  to  add  to  the 
strength  of  bookbinder's  paste ;  and  when  steeped  in 
hot  water,  Ad  mixed  with  an  equal  proportion  of  bran, 
it  makes  a  nutritious  food  for  pig*  and  poultry.  M. 
Vergaud  has  proposed  to  change  the  stt^rch  contained 
lo  the  flour,  into  sugar,  and  afterward  employ  it  In 
distillation.— Bbowmb's  Treet  of  America. 

Hon*  (Ger.  P/trdi  Dn.  Pattrdi  Da.  //e«<;  8w. 
IfaM;  Fr.  Cheval;  It.  CavaUo;  8p.  CoMb;  Bus. 
Lotdiad;  Pol.  K<m;  I.at.  £qmu;  Or.  'iTrirof),  •  do- 
mattia  qMdniptd  of  th*  highaat  ntUUjr,  baiag  hy  Car 


tka  Moel  valuable  aaqnlslthMi  mad*  by  ai&.i  among  ika 
lawar  animda.  The  people  of  Thmsaly  were  earal. 
lent  equeetrians,  and  proliably  were  thi  ilrat,  anicing 
the  Greek*  at  leaat,  who  HMle  U|ion  horwa,  and  liroke 
them  In  for  aarvice  in  war  i  whence  aruaa  the  falila 
that  Thaaaaiy  wa*  originally  Inhabited  liy  rtntaun. 
And  Holuman  had  tO.OIIO  atalla  of  horaae  for  hi*  rhari- 
oU,  and  12,000  homaman.— I  Kinft,  Iv.  SA.  Th* 
power  of  the  hone  la  «<|Ual  to  that  of  Ave  men.— Hmia- 
TOR.  A  boraa  can  perform  the  work  of  alx  men.— 
HoaaVKT.  The  Grseka  and  Komana  had  aome  rover- 
Ing  to  arcura  their  horae*'  hoofa  from  Injury.  In  th* 
IHh  century,  horae*  were  only  ahud  In  tlia  time  uf 
fruet.  Th*  practice  of  ahoeing  waa  Intnidurad  into 
Kngland  by  William  I,,  1066.  In  Kngland  there  are 
2,000,000  draft  and  plaaaure  horaea,  and  100,000  ag- 
ricultural horaaa,  which  oonaume  the  produce  of  7,000,- 
000  arr*a.  The  horse-tax  waa  impuaa<l  In  17M4,  and 
waa  than  levied  on  all  aaddle  and  coaoh  horaea  in  En- 
gland. The  exiatingduty  upon  "hone*  (br  riding" 
only,  in  Kngland,  amounta  to  about  jC8M,000  per  year. 
— IUyiin.  It  may  be  fairty  eatlmated  that  there  ar* 
in  Great  Britain  fh>m  1,800,000  to  1,400,000  hones 
employed  for  various  purpose*  of  pleaaur*  *nd  utility. 
They  may,  probably,  be  worth  at  an  average  from  £10 
to  tVi,  making  their  toUl  value  from  X18,000,000  to 
;(10,HOO,UOO  sterling,  exclusive  of  the  young  horae*. 

In  the  United  States,  there  wero,  In  the  year  18(0, 
4,a3fi,IIM  horaea,  the  largeat  numlwr  (4611,000)  being 
in  the  8ute  of  Ohio.  See  Cnuui  Rrport  U.  S.  He* 
alao,  lIxiTKii  Htatu,  Aim  ittock  of;  Living  Age,  x., 
806,  xxi.,  411 ;  Ulnar,  tUv.,  xxvlil.,  26.  Th*  moat 
reliable  and  valuable  work  on  the  horse,  1*  by  Fkamk 
FuBRSTRR,  8vo.,  New  York,  1HS7, 

The  flnt  animal*  brought  to  Am^.tca  ftrom  Europ* 
were  imported  by  Columbus,  In  hi*  aecond  voyage,  la 
1498.  He  left  Spain  aa  admiral  of  17  ahipa,  bringing 
a  collection  of  European  tree*,  plant*,  and  seeds  of 
various  kinds,  a  number  of  horses,  a  bidl,  and  several 
cows.  The  flnt  horses  brought  Into  any  part  of  th* 
territory  at  present  embraced  In  the  United  8tat«a, 
were  landed  at  Florida,  by  Cabe9a  de  Vaca,  In  1627, 
42  in  number,  all  of  which  perished  or  were  otherwis* 
killed.  The  next  importation  was  also  brought  to 
Florida,  by  I)e  Soto,  In  1689,  which  consisted  of  a 
large  number  of  horses  and  swine,  among  which  war* 
18  sows,  the  progeny  of  the  latter  soon  Increasing  to 
several  hundred.  The  principal  breeds  of  horses, 
adapted  fur  speciflc  purposes,  in  the  middle,  northern, 
and  western  States,  are  the  Norman,  the  CanadUn, 
the  Morgan,  the  Conestoga  or  Pannsylvantan,  the 
Virginian,  and  the  Kentuckian.  For  carriages  of 
heavy  draught  the  Conestogaa  ai«  regarded  by  many 
aa  the  best.  For  the  saddle,  dranght,  and  other  uso- 
ful  purposes,  the  Morgan*  ar*  highly  priied,  especUlly 
in  New  Yorli.  For  roadston,  the  Normans  and  Cana- 
dians ar*  firequently  sought.  For  blood,  th*  Virgin- 
ians and  Kentucklans  generally  teke  the  lead. 

Horse  Xaatitadsa.  On  the  polar  side  of  th* 
lones  of  calms,  bordering  the  north-east  trade-winds 
on  the  north,  and  bordering  the  *outh-east  trade-wind* 
on  the  south,  there  is  a  broad  band  extending  up  into 
th*  polar  ri/ions,  the  prevailing  winds  within  which 
are  the  op^josites  of  the  trade-winds,  viz.,  south-west 
In  the  northern  and  north-west  In  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. Th*  equatorial  edge  of  these  calm  belt*  is 
near  the  tropica,  and  their  average  breadth  is  10°  or 
12°.  On  one  aide  of  the*e  belte  the  winds  blow  pev- 
pctually  toward  th*  eqnator ;  on  the  other,  their  pre- 
vailing direction  is  toward  th*  poles.  They  are  called 
the  "horse  latitudes"  by  seamen.  These  calm  xonaa 
vibrato  up  and  down  with  the  trada-wlnd  lones,  par- 
taking of  their  motions,  and  following  th*  daclination 
of  th*  sun.  Along  the  polar  borders  of  th***  two 
calm  belto  (§  190)  w*  hav*  another  ragion  of  pradpita- 
tion,  thongh  gen*rally  tlM  rains  h*r»  ar*  not  so  Gon- 
■taat  ■•  Ui*7  u*  in  Um  *i|aatoiial  aalmf.     Tl*" 


// 


HOfl 


Mi 


Hon 


ptMMutlon  MU  Iba  troplosl  aaimt  U  novtrthottM 
•ufllmnl  lo  mark  tho  hmom  i  for  whoMvar  thw*  oalm 
ioiM«,  u  tiny  |o  from  north  to  M>aih  with  lb*  mh, 
Ictv*  a  Klrnt  paralUl,  tha  rainy  Maion  of  that  parallal, 
If  It  Im  In  winUr,  1*  mIiI  lo  ooninianoa.  Hanoa  wa 
may  axplain  tha  rainy  Maaon  In  Clilll  at  tha  wulh, 
and  In  California  at  tha  north.— MAunv'a  Pkgt,  il*<f. 
■ospltal,  HoaplUl*,  In  cloUtan,  tha  ptaea  of 
ihaltar  for  itranRan,  whothar  rich  or  poor  i  thua  ai|uiv- 
attnt  to  oar  hotal,  tha  Xtwxioehuon  of  tha  Uraaki,  tha 
llotpHiHm  of  tha  Romani.  Tha  Aotpun/ia  of  tha  K»- 
mam  correaponU*  with  our  Innt.  Thay  war*  imall 
araetiont  on  tha  rUlit  anil  lift  of  tha  main  bouaa.  In 
Qrmca,  a  panon  who  hail  dona  any  graal  pulilio  larv- 
lea  might  In  rawardad  with  monay  and  provliiona,  but 
ba  raqulrad  to  look  aftar  a  plaea  of  almda  hlmaalf. 
liearing  toma  riMmldanca  to  our  prciant  hoapltala 
ware  tha  palilic  building*  for  tha  agsd  woman  of  l>aloa, 
built  on  tha  Uland  oallail  Khana ;  and  thoia  bulldlnga 
whii'h,  at  a  latar  parloil,  wore  ererted  near  (he  temple 
of  ilCiculapiui,  for  lick  peraun*  coming  In  learoh  nf 
health.  It  wa*  pomlldy  a  alnillar  Inttllullon  whii-h 
Antonlui  built  at  Epidiurus.  Another  appear*  to 
have  exUted  on  the  litaml  of  tha  Tiber,  at  Home,  to 
which  tick  ilarei  were  lirought  to  li«  healed.  Iklhtt- 
da  (hou*e  of  mercy),  with  live  porolie*,  wai  a  place  In 
Jeruaalem  to  which  the  aiek  were  brought  to  await  the 
moving  of  the  water*.  Alu,  the  Tiiitnn  iftrilnrum 
at  Honiu  appear*  to  havo  lieon  n  honpttui  for  inrnlid*. 
lloapltal*  fur  the  poor  and  *lck  are  prominently  chnr- 


aotarialio  of  Ckrlttlanlty.  Ho  early  «*  tka  CoanaO  af 
NUe,  A.D.  BM,  they  are  apokaa  of  aa cowmoaly  known. 
The  trM  oelel>ratad  hoapltal  waa  that  of  CaMMoa,  a.d. 
S70-W0,  riably  endowed  by  tha  Kmparor  Valani.  It 
waa  of  laiinanaa  dimanalona.  After  It  followed  tka 
lloapltal  of  Uhryaoetom,  at  t'onatantlnopla.  In  tha 
ninth  cantary  there  ware  M  hoapltala  In  Home  alone. 
A  foundling  hoapltal  waa  Drat  eitabllahed  at  Milan, 
A.u.  787 1  a  laaaratto  about  tha  aama  time  In  Oonetail< 
tinople  I  and  an  orphan  hoapltal  In  the  aama  city,  a.it. 
HHM),  by  AlexluB  I.  lloapltal*  are  now  unlvaraalty 
eatablUhed  In  all  parta  of  ChrUtxndom,  and  appropri- 
ated for  all  eUaaa*  of  tha  oonimunity  and  for  all  kind* 
of  dl*aaaei,  Hoa  Unaaxwn  h  IIoiwtai,.  —  Lhing 
ilM,  xvill.,  174 ;  /WM*r'«A/<y.,  xsxvli.,&80|  OuUim 
Univ.,  vll.,  Xn. 

By  the  law*  of  the  United  Htate*,  foreign  *eamen 
arriving  In  tha  United  Hutaa  pay  each  20  cent*  per 
month  to  thn  collector  of  the  port  aa  hoapltal  moner, 
and  pay  86  centa  par  day  when  In  hoepllala  under  med- 
leal  treatment.  Marine  hoapltala  are  erected  by  the 
United  Htatea  at  New  York,  New  Orleana,  lloaton,  and 
other  porta,  under  the  anpervlaion  of  the  Treaiury  lir- 
partmant,  for  tha  accommodation  of  di*aliled  and  *lck 
**am*n.  For  dieabied  naval  offleeri  and  *lrk  *eamen, 
navy  hoapltal*  have  been  erected  at  Philadelphia. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Norfolk,  and  other  eea-porta,  aup- 
ported  by  grant*  by  Congreaa,  and  from  contribution* 
of  one  ration  per  dny  from  each  inmate.— Ddhlaf'* 
IHjttt  iMvt  VniUd  Main,  820,  449,  HiH. 


RlOAnTOLATioa  BT  BTATia  or 

rai  HAaiNa  lloarTTAL 

Ftmn  or  ma  UmtaD  BraTxa  loa  tub  riaoAL  Ybab 

80,1868. 

nDna  Jcnb 

•Mtw. 

*»B»a 

UmlUnl. 

atMnn 
dlMbargad. 

loud  ua 

■urtljig. 

M>aiHi 

a«rvl«N. 

Midklu. 

Chits*  1  «>«"»- 

Ta4»l«l- 

HMpllnl  HoQ<r' 
aoltacUd. 

«6,909 

900 

141 
19,808 
1,194 
8,266 
471804 
4,888 
7,910 
1,020 
6,764 

406 
6,94V 
9,169 
9,480 

688 
4,919 

289 

2,703 

16,640 

1,240 

5,337 

4^863 
2,280 

406 

9,400 

60 

079 
9,018 

811 
8,0*4 

100 

601 

Maln« 

Nawllampahlie... 

999 
10 
11 

088 

60 

88 

1,000 

90 

496 

816 
6 
90S 
820 
809 
400 
164 

19 
997 
1,801 
109 
941 
890 
826 
188 

98 
861 

9i4 

63 

16i 

1,313 

196 
20 
10 

941 

68 

88 

1,128 

28 
473 

801 
7 

161 
338 
808 
378 
166 
16 
2.14 
1,717 
19« 
847 
394 
308 
209 
99 
868 

902 

78 

180 

1,941 

»U,«90 
699 

m 

2^616 
2,086 
1,049 

98,006 
6BT 

13,666 

4,768 
197 
4,838 
^9«7 
4,6S1 
6,988 
0,636 
8,484 
8,770 

S0,98S 
4,770 

14,761 

1)^4I6 

12,4'it 
0,780 
4,781 
9,769 

8,866 
11,461 

1,716 
36,246 

"614 

»2,U46 

136 

48 

8,141 

700 

113 

1,801 

108 

1,067 

1,987 
8,464 
164 
1,887 
1,800 
1,249 
9,468 
8,798- 

1,006 
1,419 
1,969 
1,109 

i',a6i 

8,427 

«688 

ST 

11 

9,766 

S*i 

20 

(68 

16 

469 

461 
761 

78 

1,060 

804 

828 

788 

2,689 

18 

l,:i66 

469 

668 

8St 

248 

408 

786 
8,566 

$129 

T 

1 

814 

89 

19 

808 

T 

809 

"is 

9 

79 

86 
4S 

1» 
100 
666 
878 
4S 
171 

141 

605 

1,677 

113 

'hi 

607 

IT 

460 

3 
48 
"I 

i 

ii« 

15     « 

"t 

10 

s 

10 

9 

1 

0 
60 

1 
44 
91 
19 

8 

io 
"i 

4 

4 

M 

«18,079 

764 

188 

81,788 

8,966 

1,916 

80,658 

771 

16,866 

4>8i 
914 
0,109 
8,649 
4,920 

19,800 
10,160 

12,768 
88,260 

4,867 
lT,8Se 
11,804 
14,819 
19,885 

T,045 
11,039 

6,976 
10,268 

1,751 
46,603 

'614 

MuauhnMlU .... 

llhoilK  laUnd 

l!(>nniH)tlrut 

Now  York 

N«w  Jemey 

nmnaylvanta 

DeUware 

Maryland 

Dill,  of  C'olumMa. . 
VlrjrlnU 

North  (Jarolloa.... 
South  Carolina. . . . 

MUaUolppl 

Horlcla 

MlaMurl 

Ohio 

MIchlRan 

Indiana 

minola v.... 

lowe 

Wlaconaln 

Kentucky 

Tonneuee 

(lallfomU 

Orvgon 

Waalilngton  Terr. . 

ToUl  year  lS67-'8 

"       »    188«-'7 

10,703 
9,72'i 

0,444 
10,006 

$2s;i,48s 

263,629 

$41,201 
30,600 

!|ll»,710 

16,479 

116,660 
21,6*4 

881 
809 

$!!66,020 
843,084 

$164,161 
167,325 

Houaaa  ia  the  name  of  an  extensive  portion  of 
Central  Africa,  which,  along  with  Bornou,  bear*  the 
general  name  of  Soudan,  or  Land  of  the  South.  It 
conaiata  of  various  petty  kingdoms  or  states,  which  oc- 
cupy territory  stretching  east  and  west  from  the  upper 
couno  of  the  Yeou  nearly  to  the  Niger,  the  boundaries 
of  which  on  the  south,  and  norlh,  and  west,  have  now 
fur  the  flrst  time  been  determined  by  Dr.  Barlh. 

The  dominant  people  in  Houssa  are  the  Fellatas, 
this  country  forming,  In  fact,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  empire  of  Sokoto,  which  again  comprise*  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Fellata  dominions. 

Kano,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  th«  same  name, 
Rrr 


'  and  the  principol  commercial  city  of  Houssa,  la  situ- 
'  ated  in  N.  lat.  12^  0'  19",  and  E.  long.  8°  80'.     It 
i  may  contain  between  30,000  and  40,000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  a  great  portion  are  slaves.     This  number  Is 
exclusive  of  strnngers,  who  crowd  thither  during  the 
;  drj'  months  from  all  parts  of  Africa.     The  city  is  of 
I  an  Irregular  oval  shape,  about  15  miles  in  clrcumfer- 
I  ence,  and  surrounded  by  a  clay  wall  80  feet  In  height, 
having  a  dry  ditch  on  both  sides  of  it.     There  are  14 
gates  made  of  wood,  and  covered  with  sheet  iron,  and 
these  are  regularly  opened  and  shut  at  sunrise  and 
sunset.    A  platform  inside,  with  two  guard-houses  be- 
low it,  serves  to  defend  each  entrance.    The  housea 


'J:  I 

9 


HOU 


8tin 


HFA  t 


withlii  tiM  wdb  do  not  ooenpymen  than  <ma  ftmrth 
of  the  ground  imkMcd,  the  nmsining  *p«M  baing  laid 
out  in  fields  and  gudeni.  The  city  ia  almoat  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a  large  morass,  which  stretches  fVom 
east  to  west.  This  swamp  is  crossed  by  a  small  neelt 
of  land,  which  is  overfiowed  during  the  rainy  season, 
but  in  the  dry  season  the  market  is  held  upon  it. 

The  great  maricet  is  held  upon  the  neck  of  land 
which  intersects  the  morass.  Hers  streets  consisting 
of  sheds  or  stalls  of  bamboo  are  regularly  arranged, 
different  places  being  allotted  to  those  who  traffic  in 
different  commodities.  The  latter  conxist  of  cattle, 
Tegetables,  fruits,  the  fine  cotton  falirics  of  the  coun- 
try, gora  or  koUa  nuts,  which  are  called  African  coffee, 
and  crude  antimony,  with  which  every  eyebrow  in 
Houssa  is  dyed.  The  Arabs  al«,  dispose  of  sundry 
eomm-'dities,  soch  as  various  dreaies.  The  slaves, 
who  constitute  the  staple  article  of  trade,  have  a  spe- 
cial market  appropriated  to  them,  consisting  of  two 
long  ranges  of  sheds,  one  for  males  and  the  other  for 
females.  Here  these  poor  creatures,  drawn  up  in  nft- 
ular  array,  and  dressed  in  attractive  attire,  are  iu- 
specied  and  scrutinized  by  purcliasers,  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  horses  are  in  the  catMe-mnrkets  of 
this  country.  The  market  of  Kano  is  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a  sheik,  who  regulatc-<  the  police,  and 
is  said  also  to  possess  the  exorbitant  power  of  fixing 
the  prices.  Tlie  medium  of  exchange  consists  of  the 
small  shells  called  cowries,  480  of  which  make  a  shil- 
ling, so  that  pajing  a  large  sum  is  here  rather  a  todious 
process.  Kano  is  celebrated  all  over  Central  Africa 
for  the  dyeing  of  cloth,  for  which  process  there  are 
uumerous  establishments.  Some  ingenuity  is  dis- 
played in  the  manufacture  of  leathern  jars,  which  are 
fashioned  upon  a  clay  mold  out  of  the  raw  bide.  The 
inhabitants  nre  also  acquainted  with  the  art  of  tan 
ning.  The  negroes  here  are  very  polite  and  ceremo- 
nious, especially  to  those  advanced  in  years.  A 
part  uf  the  city  is  appropriated  to  the  use  of  those 
who  are  afflicted  with  blindness,  which  is  a  prevalent 
disease. 

By  the  most  correct  accounts,  it  would  appear  that 
the  Fellatau  are  an  off-sh«ot  from  the  Foolahs  of  west- 
em  Africa,  and  may  be  identifled  with  them.  They 
are  a  mixture  of  Moors,  Arabs,  Beriiers,  and  probably 
other  races  of  men,  and  are  gradually  extending  their 
authority  over  central  Africa.  They  are  much  supe- 
rior to  f ho  native  negroes,  with  whom  thej*  very  rarely 
mix  their  blood.  Captain  Lyon,  speaking  of  the  Fel- 
latas,  observes,  "  their  complexion  being  of  a  much 
lighter  hue  than  that  of  the  other  trities,  they  call 
themselves  white;  their  color  resembles  that  of  our 
gypsies  in  England.  Many  female  slaves  are  brought 
to  Hourzouk  from  their  nation,  and  are  very  hand- 
some womrn."  Other  observers  descrilw  their  com- 
plexion as  being  very  dark,  and  of  a  shade  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  deepest  African  and  the  Moors. 
The  fact  seems  to  lie,  that  their  color  varies  in  a  verj- 
remarkalile  manner,  from  being  neorly  white  t<>  neoriy 
black.  Both  men  and  women  pay  considerable  atten- 
tion to  their  dress,  which  among  the  wealthy  inhabit- 
ants is  rather  showy.  In  their  domestic  habits  they 
are  regular,  orderly,  and  cleanly,  and  the  slaves  are 
generally  well  treated.  The  Mohammedan  is  the  pre- 
dominant religion,  and  considerable  attention  is  paid 
to  keeping  up  an  .appearance  of  it.  Prayers  are  reg- 
ularly said  five  times  a  day  in  the  Aral>ic  language, 
wliich  both  tile  male  and  female  children  of  the  better 
tort  of  Fellatus  are  taught  to  read  ind  write.  Their 
marriages  arc  celel)rated  without  any  pomp  or  noise, 
and  such  contracts  are  of  a  less  arbitrary  nature  than 
we  find  them  to  be  among  the  inferior  races  of  man- 
kind. Captain  Clapperton  makes  the  following  re- 
marks regarding  Iloussa : — "  The  government  of  the 
Fellatas  in  Soudan  is  in  its  infancy.  The  govern- 
ors of  the  different  provinces  are  appointed  during 
pleasure ;  and  all  their  property,  on  their  death  or  re- 


moval, filla  to  th«  tnhan.  Tha  apimiatmeat  to  • 
vacancy  is  sold  to  tha  highest  bidder,  who  ia  generally 
a  near  relation,  provided  that  his  property  is  sufficient 
to  enable  him  tn  hid  np  to  tha  mark.  Ail  the  inferior 
offices  in  the  towns  are  sold  in  like  manner  by  the  gov- 
ernors, who  also  tucoaad  to  the  property  of  those  petty 
officers  at  their  death  or  removal.  A  great  deal  of 
marketable  property  is  claimed  b}'  the  governor,  such 
as  two  thirds  of  the  produce  of  all  the  date-trees  and 
rther  froit-treas,  the  proprietor  being  allowed  only  tha 
remaining  third.  A  amall  duty  is  also  levied  on  every 
article  sold  in  the  market ;  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  a  cer- 
tain rent  is  paid  for  the  stall  or  shed.  A  duty  is  also 
fixed  on  every  lobt  that  is  dyed  blue,  and  sold.  On 
grain  there  is  no  aiity.  Kano  produces  the  greatest 
revenue  that  tha  sultan  receives ;  it  is  paid  monthly, 
in  horses,  cloth,  and  cowries.  Adamowit  pays  yearly 
in  slaves  ;  Yacoba  in  slaves  and  lead  ore ;  Zegzeg  in 
slaves  and  cowries;  Zamfra  ttie  same;  Uodeja  and 
Kotagum  in  horses,  bullocks,  and  slaves  ;  Cnshna  in 
slr.ves,  cowries,  and  cloth ;  Ader,  or  Todela,  in  bul- 
locks, sheep,  camels,  and  a  coarse  kind  of  cotton  cloth, 
like  what  is  called  by  us  a  counterpane."  Of  the 
number  of  negroes  and  Fellatas  who  inhabit  the  coun- 
try of  Houssa  no  correct  idea  can  be  formed  Much 
additk>nal  and  more  precise  information  on  these  coun- 
tries may  be  expected  from  the  pen  of  Or.  Berth,  that 
energetic  traveler,  who  has  so  thoroughly  explored 
these  regions,  , 

The  exports  era  principally  civet  and  blue  check 
tobet  called  sharie,  which  are  manufactured  l)y  tha 
slaves  from  NyfH,  of  whom  the  men  ara  considered  as 
the  most  expert  weavers  in  Soudan,  and  the  women 
as  the  best  spinners.  The  common  imports  are 
brought  from  the  borders  of  Ashanti ;  and  coarse  calico 
and  woolen  cloth,  in  small  quantities,  with  brass  and 
pewter  dishes,  and  some  few  spices,  from  IfyfB.  The 
Arabs,  from  Tripoli  and  Ghadamis,  bring  unwrought 
silk,  ottar  of  roses,  spices,  and  beads.  Slaves  are  both 
exported  and  imported.  A  great  quantity  of  Guinea 
com  is  taken  every  year  by  the  Tuaricks,  in  exchange 
for  salt.  The  market  is  extremely  well  supplied,  and 
is  held  daily  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  On  the  north 
side  of  Sokoto  there  is  a  low  marsh,  with  some  stag- 
nant pools  of  water,  between  the  city  and  the  river ; 
this,  perhaps,  may  be  the  cause  of  the  great  preva- 
lence of  ague,  as  the  city  stands  in  a  fine  airy  situa- 
tion." 

Sokoto  is  described  by  Dr.  Barth  as  fanning  nearly 
a  regular  square,  and  having  8  gates,  not  12,  as  for- 
merly supposed.  .Sokoto  has  a  mixed  population,  tha 
Zoromana  forming  the  chief  portion  of  the  inhabitants. 
They  are,  unlike  the  tribes  of  pure  Pullo  or  Felian 
origin,  very  industrious,  and  are  excellent  workmen 
in  leather,  iron,  and  gebbega  or  cotton-stripes.  The 
articles  of  iron  made  at  Sokoto  ara  the  liest  in  all  .Sou- 
dan ;  and  Dr.  Barth  purchased  some  specimens  of 
beautifiil  workmanship.  The  Zoromana  are  the  prin- 
cipal inhabitants  of  the  town,  while  the  Syllebana,  a' 
ver}'  interesting  trit)e,  different  from,  but  united  with 
the  Fellatas  from  time  immemorial,  inhabit  the  vil- 
lages round  the  town. — E.  B. 

Houstoo,  a  city  of  Texas,  United  States  of  Korth 
America,  capital  of  Harris  county,  and  the  second 
commercial  city  in  the  State.  It  is  situated  on  Buf- 
falo Bayou,  at  the  head  of  its  steamboat  navigation, 
and  -15  miles  above  .ts  mouth  in  Galveston  Bay.  It  is 
the  principal  shipping  port  for  the  cotton,  sugar,  and 
maize,  of  the  ailjacent  oounties.  Fop.  (1853)  estimated 
at<'000. 

Huallaga,  a  river  of  Peru,  rises  in  the  Andes, 
near  lut.  11 -'''10'  south,  and  at  l.<i,200  feet  above  the 
sea,  flows  mostly  northward,  and  joins  the  Amazon, 
near  lat.  5°  south,  and  long.  75°  40'  west,  after  a  to- 
tal course  estimated  at  500  miles.  From  Ohasuta,  50 
leagues  alwvo  Its  entrance  into  the  Amazon,  and  3000 
miles  above  tlie  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  there  is  watei 


dist 


.^i-^a^.^.^'r^  1:  ^ 


HUD 


»O0 


Htm 


■  North 
scrond 
liuf- 
igution, 
ItU 
ar,  and 
timated 

Andes, 
ove  the 
imazon, 
er  a  to- 
BUtn,  50 
nd  3000 
is  watei 


•oough  to  ilMt  the  largest  vesaela,  for  more  thtn  el? 
month!  in  the  j'ear.    See  Amazon  TiiviR. 

Hudson,  Henry,  a  diatingniahed  and  ill-fated 
navigator  of  the  17th  century.  Ilia  early  hiatory  la 
quite  unknown,  and  he  did  not  emerge  fmro  olMOurlty 
till  the  year  1607,  when  he  waa  aent  out  by  a  eompitny 
of  rich  Ix>ndon  merrhanta  in  <]ueat  of  a  ahortar  paa- 
aage  to  China,  than  that  l>y  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
In  that  year  he  penetrated  aa  far  aa  the  8*id  degree, 
beyond  which  hia  paaaage  waa  barred  by  the  Ice,  In 
the  following  year,  he  altered  hia  niurae,  eaatward, 
•nd,  coaating  along  Spitzliergen,  reached  the  Htraita  of 
Waygatz.  Unable  to  force  hia  way  any  furthar,  in 
that  direction,  he  again  returned  home  withrmt  eflhet' 
ing  hia  purpoae.  In  1609  a  company  of  Dutch  maf' 
chanta  aupplied  him  with  the  meana  of  again  attamitt' 
ing  a  north-oaat  paatage.  Again  the  Ice  atoppad  hia 
progress,  and  Hudson,  abandoning  bla  original  plan, 
aailed  away  to  America,  where  he  diacovereii  the 
great  river  which  now  hears  hia  name,  and  at  tlie 
mouth  of  which  New  York  is  situated.  Hearcity  of 
provisions  drove  him  once  more  to  Kngland,  which  ha 
reached  on  the  7th  November.  In  the  following  year 
(1610),  he  aailed  iVom  London  on  the  forlorn  queat  nf 
the  north-west  paaaage.  In  the  end  of  May  his  sail  I 
ors  mutinied,  and  the  revolt  waa  only  quelled  with 
great  diffloulty.  In  .lune  ho  entered  the  strait  and 
bay  now  called  I)}'  his  name,  and  was  in  liigli  hnnen 
that  he  lud  at  last  solved  the  mystery  that  hail  lui  Iliad 
80  many  inquirers.  Stricter  investigation,  however, 
showed  him  that  he  had  been  caught  in  a  oul-da>sae, 
and  as  summer  was  now  drawing  to  a  close,  he  found 
himself  compelled  to  winter  on  those  inhospitalde  ahora* 
with  a  mutinous  crew,  and  a  very  scanty  stock  of  prO' 
visions.  Commander  and  sailors  were  alike  out  of 
temper  at  the  bad  success  of  the  whole  expedition,  and 
heart-burnings  and  diasenaions  embittered  the  winter 
bivouac.  On  the  way  home  in  the  summer  of  Hill, 
the  crew  again  mutinied,  and  taking  poaseaaion  of  the 
ship,  they  turned  adrift  Hudson  and  auch  of  the  craw 
as  remained  faithful  to  him  in  an  open  Imat,  and  with 
a  scanty  supply  of  provisions.  What  was  the  fate  of 
the  boat  and  her  crew  ia  unknown  ;  nothing  waa  ever 
heard  of  them.  The  detaila  of  Hudson's  progress  are 
given  at  length  in  Purchas's  Pilgrim,  and  in  II  ARBia'v 
Vogagtt.     See  Sparks's /tm.  Btbi;.,  vol.  X. 

Hndaon'B  Bay,  a  large  sea  of  North  America, 
lying  between  51  and  69  degrees  of  north  let.,  disco v> 
eredinl610  by  Henry  Hudson.  See  HcDaoM,  IIbN' 
BY,  and  Polar  Keoioxs.  A  charter  for  a  company, 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  Jludson'i  Hag 
Company,  waa  obtained  in  the  year  1670.  Sea  Vv» 
Trade. 

Hudson's  Bay  Territory.  The  first  internal 
explorers  of  the  vo^t  region  surrounding  Hudson's 
Bay  were  traders  from  Canada  while  it  was  yet  in 
the  possession  of  France.  Canadian  traders  had,  pre* 
viona  to  the  conquest,  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa  Kivers  to  their  sources,  and  had  formed  estali^ 
lishments  on  the  great  lakes.  From  the  north-western 
end  of  Lake  Superior,  they  threaded  the  intricate  com^ 
munication  which  leads  by  lakes,  streams,  and  port* 
agea  to  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  thence  penetrated  soma 
distance  up  the  Soakatcliewan  liiver,  where  tlieir  moat 
distant  estaliliahment  was  situated,  in  nortli  lut.  61'^, 
west  long.  103°.  These  enterprises  were,  in  a  great 
measure,  suspended  by  the  struggles  which  ended  in 
the  conquest  of  Canada  by  Great  Britain.  In  1767  • 
party  headed  by  a  British  suliject,  again  penetratod  to 
the  Saslutchewan.  The  Misainipi,  or  Churchill  liiver, 
was  visited  by  Mr.  Joseph  Frobisher  in  177A,  and  l.ak* 
Isle>a-la-Croase,  in  1776.  In  the  year  1781,  the  fur 
trade  had  reached  the  limits  of  Lake  Athaliasca,  nearly 
1000  miles  beyond  the  most  distant  {)oint  attained  by 
the  French.  These  explorations  were  greatly  extended 
by  the  establishment,  in  17BB,  of  the  North- West  ('am- 
pany  of  Montreal — an  association  formed  of  the  lead. 


lnR  ifl4lviduiil«  «tt<(«K«d  In  tbk  traflk— who,  in  tiM 
aMrtf«itl«  pursttlt  ut  the  fur  trade,  anlendad  tlitilr  »»• 
t»l)ltsiim«H(i«  to  IIm)  Arctic  ( 'Ircle  and  (be  Pacitte  < li-ean. 
Tba  «b«rtM' itf  iIm  lludwin's  llav  (.'ompanr,  ooHfofrlNK 
tb«  )iN«>luiiivi)  litfbt  of  trade  with  tba  indUiM,  baviiiK 
liMll  tfntflt«4  wltnoilt  the  sanction  uf  PariUmant,  im 
Kanarally  \mm  b«ld  Invalid  \  and  It  wm  prnlwldy  the 
drawl,  dwIhk  io  ibis  defeul,  of  altraettnc  ptibliu  oImm'' 
vatbm  di  Ibnir  (irrHvedlngs  that  Induced  IIm  Omiatny 
fur  many  f»»l»  to  connne  tlvir  truding  «t«(l«M  NtmtM* 
•ntirely  (n  tb*«  coasti  In  176U,  a  cautury  after  tb« 
d«Ki  of  tlmir  ubarler,  their  farthest  <idvan<i«  w««  »li«ut 
'IIKI  iiiilxft  Inland,  tit  that  year,  howavar,  \m\»tt  il«* 
•iroua  i)f  olitaiiilttK  ittformatlim  regarding  mmw  iiiineit 
of  tiopiier  (iMftiirllMxt  by  the  natives  as  exintlng  ni>ar  • 
rivf  r  ItllwInK  \*A»  ihe  a««  t<i  tlie  northward,  cullad  the 
(ln|ip«rmin«  lil¥«r,  iliey  directed  Mt,  lleaniM,  •  g«n> 
tiamait  In  tlwir  service,  to  proci-ed  overlaiul  for  tluit 
rivar  which  h«  bait  orders  tu  survey,  if  piNMlbU,  down 
to  its  »niliou«ihur»'^ti  «nterpris«  in  wbivb,  after  twe 
\inmnm»»M  itttemhts,  he  suoeeded,  raaebtng  tba  Ms 
(it  tba  iflftulb  (if  tlM  Cupuermliie  itiver  on  tlia  liMb 
My,  Mli,  bHvtllM  been  thus  the  Arat  to  aatablUb  t*i« 
°;iat«Hiii*  iif  H  Hfiat  Nnrtliern  Ocean,  waahing  th« 
ill' ran  of  Miirth  Aitierka,  Mr,  llearne'a  Juurnala  and 
uimrt*  warfi  bnwev«f,  withheld  from  the  pubiUi  for 
naitrly  ',^0  s»»tn  aftdf  the  dute  of  bia  journey.  On  tb« 
uaptHra  ii^  V»ti  ijhuruhlli  by  the  I'rencb  tbaa*  diMU* 
iMaiiM  fii||  iiit<i  the  bands  of  I*  Peroiwe,  wlt»  mrn- 
iiiandad  tbM  Vnm^  squadron,  and  ware  ra*t<ir«<i  Ut  tb« 
(iuiHjiiiny  iiflly  nu  Mmditluli  of  their  being  phIiIIiiImnI. 
It  waa  d(itili(l«M  (iwiNg  to  this  ctrcumatauca  that 
lleMRg'M  clitima  di  this  lisportant  diacovary  war*  lot 
m*ny  yaars  dlacrwllted  i  although  the  ««i»tiin<!«  of  » 
Nortliarn  Oiwhii  was  conlirmed  by  Mir  Alaxanikf 
M'KeH«li<,  witii,  In  l7Wi,  descended  tlia  rivar  iaautnK 
friiHi  liriial  I^Uvf  linke.  which  lieara  bla  niuna,  it  wm 
not  imtil  ttw  Nverland  eaiiedition*  of  l^ranldln  «n4 
iilcliardHMi  In  ItJO  and  iWlb,  that  llaarna'a  iHarlla  si 
«  «|ii>i:,ivar«r  wer«  fully  reoognir.ad.  To  tlia  anpadi' 
tioni)  iiliit  nitm«*l  we  owe  (he  Hrst  socurate  gaograph' 
inal  dullniiatlnn  nf  llila  eatenaire  region,  frMiii  tlia 
shores  of  llmisoti's  llay  na  far  as  M'Kan)!i«'a  Klvar, 
Of  (jia  iiumAty  west  uf  this  stream,  and  e»t«ndlng  m 
far  an  ItUMtlitn  America,  a  careful  survey  baa  been 
iMitra  ra««nlly  it«i«|fUt«d  l;y  Profeaaor  A,  K.  Ubl>t«ri</ 
l><inibm,  mm  tiiiliii«l**Ml  In  the  Journal  of  tbe  lUiyal 
(JeegrapbicMl  Niwiety,  fur  1140.  To  tbia  gentlaiMS 
wa  owe  alait  m  elaliorate  geological  map  of  lb«  antirs 
rcwion,  publbilwd  in  1160  by  the  (iaologluil  Hocltty  of 
UmiUm, 

Tl)«  now  WMOctatloti,  which  retained  the  nanw  of 
tba  HudMm'a  Ikt  Cntnpapy,  obtained  in  IM'/I  alicanM 
uf  ijit'luitiva  traiie  fur  ill  years,  renewed  in  \H't  lot  s 
aiinilar  \»Ai)A,  over  tlie  territuriea  weat  of  the  \Umky 
Miiuntam!>=tbe  w/tintry  im  tlie  euat  side  Iwing  cimaiii- 
tirad  aulttclfntly  iirotecteil  from  rival  traiiera,  by  tbt 
eatitlilliibmantii  nr  the  two  Companies  alrsaily  formad 
there,  awl  auuh  vagu«  rightn  aa  might  lie  claimad  un- 
der tba  iibarti<r  uf  1670,  Oruve  douliU  esUtiiitf  a«  to 
tba  validity  of  this  charter,  and  numerous  complaint* 
iwving  RriMn  frum  tb«  nrbllrary  eaerciae  of  tbo  p«w> 
era  idaimaii  undar  It  by  the  Company,  an  addreaa  to 
thu  i^riiwtt  hut  been  rrcnntly  moved  by  the  liou«t  of 
Comiiiunii,  fur  nn  Itiqulry  (which  la  now  pending)  ini<< 
tba  kgality  of  tlm  very  wide  and  anomaloit*  powaraat 
praaunt  iiiiNrcl»i>d  by  the  (,'otnpany. 

Tba  tarritory  «mbrH««d  within  the  present  operatimM 
of  tba  ilHdwin'n  Hay  Coinpsny  may  lie  roughly  atti- 
mated  at  naarly  4|(NiU,M00  of  square  miles,  or  aoin*' 
wliNt  graalar  than  ibe  entire  extent  of  Kurope,  Tbia 
vast  arua,  whiiib  U  (<<iv«f«d  by  a  het-work of  siwiit  100 
traiiinij-|i<Mi4,  iwaitefed  at  distances  of  alwut  HOO  er 
Mm  \ii\\t*  »\mti,  ia  divided  Into  four  Urge  4ap«rtmant« 
-^iat,  Tbo  Montreal  department,  which  inclnda*  $iX 
ttia  eaUldUbmanta  siluated  lietweon  the  Klvar  It. 
LawranM  Hn4  titti  great  iakaa  of  Cansds,  snd  sleag 


HUD 


086 


HTJD 


liit  Boith  thora  of  the  Onlf  of  St.  Lawrence  >Dd  the 
coast  of  Labrador;  2d.  The  Southern  department, 
which  inclndes  the  country  along  the  north  ihorea  of 
Lake  Superior  and  the  nouthem  shore*  of  Hudson's 
Bay;  3d.  The  yorthem  department,  which  compre- 
hends all  the  establishments  north  of  this  as  far  as  the 
shores  of  the  Polar  Sea ;  and  4th.  The  Columbfai  de- 
partment, including  the  territory  watered  by  the  Co- 
lumbia and  other  rivers  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  departments  are  divided  into  a  number  of  districts, 
each  under  the  direction  of  a  superior  officer ;  and  these 
again  are  subdivided  into  numerous  factories,  forts, 
poets,  and  outposts. 

In  a  geographical  view  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories 
may  be  divided  into  four  great  natural  regions — 1. 
The  Columbia  or  Oregon  Territory,  a  county  of  varied 
features,  extending  ftom  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
Pacific ;  2.  The  wooded  region,  occupj'ing  the  country 
from  Canada  northward  along  the  shores  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  extending  along  the  valley  of  the  M'Kenzie 
and  Peace  Rivers  nearly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  8.  The 
prairie  region,  situated  between  the  forementioned  di- 
visions, and  occupying  the  valley  of  Saskatchewan 
and  Red  Rivers,  and  the  upper  waters  of  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi ;  4.  The  strip  of  sterile  country  along 
the  northern  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  coast  of 
the  Polar  Sea,  familiarly  known  as  the  Bcrren 
Grounds.  Of  these  divisions  the  wooded  region  is  the 
most  extensive  and  the  most  valuable  for  the  purposes 
of  the  fbr  trade ;  all  the  finer  skins  which  find  their 
way  to  the  I^ndon  marttet,  being  obtained  ttom  it. 
It  hat,  in  conseqaence,  been  long  occupied  and  thor- 
oughly worked  by  the  trading-posts  and  agencies  of 
the  Company.  "The  Indians  inhabiting  it  are  in  gen- 
eral a  mild,  inoflTensive  race.  Long  familiarity  with 
the  whites,  and  the  habits  of  tradl^  have  produced  a 
fHendly  feeling  among  them  toward  Europeans ;  and 
their  desire  to  supply  them  with  the  commodities  of 
trade  rendera  them  by  far  the  most  valuable  and  in- 
dustrious class  of  the  population  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
.  territories.  The  relation  of  the  Company  toward  them 
is  an  extremely  simple  one :  the  Indians  hunt  and 
trap  for  the  fure  which  the  Company  receive,  giving 
in  exchange  such  articles  as  are  suitod  to  the  simple 
wants  and  tastes  of  the  natives.  Trade  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  a  standard  valuation,  based  on  the  market 
price  of  a  l>eaver-skin,  and  hence  denominated  a  made 
beaver.  This  is  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  circulating 
money,  which  is  quite  unknown  in  any  part  of  the 
Indian  country.  A  beaver-skin  is  considered,  in  the 
Indian  trade,  equivalent  to  two,  ^hree,  or  more  skins 
of  inferior  value.  The  rates  .it  which  the  skins  can 
be  obtained  under  the  complete  monopoly  enjoyed  by 
the  Company  render  the  fur  trade  proliably  one  of  the 
most  lucrative  species  of  traiHc  in  the  world. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  approaching  to  ac- 
curacy of  the  population  o'  uie  Hudson's  Ba}-  territories. 
From  40  to  60  diflferent  tribes,  speaking  distinct  dialects, 
have  been  enumerated ;  but  the  discordant  estimates 
even  of  the  oldest  and  most  experienced  residents  in  the 
Indian  country  forbid  all  idea  of  arriving  at  any  accu- 
rate estimate  of  their  numlien.  They  probably  do  not 
exceed  160,000.  Their  numhen  are,  by  the  most  trust- 
worthy accounts,  rapidly  diminishing.  Through  the 
benevolent  exertions  of  the  Church  Missionary  and 
other  S<  ieties,  missions  and  schools  have  been  estal>- 
lished  in  various  parts  of  the  country  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  These  missions,  supported  entirely 
from  tlie  funds  of  benevolent  iKHiles  in  England  and 
Canada,  afford  the  only  means  of  education  hitherto 
availalde  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  remote  regions. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  Hudson's  Ba3-  territories, 
except  in  the  extreme  northern  districts,  differ  little 
from  those  of  Canada,  and  are  equally  adapted  for  col- 
onization. On  the  banks4if  the  Red  River,  flowing  into 
I^ke  Winnipeg,  a  small  settlement  has  been  formed, 
ooattfting  chiefly  of  retired  servants  of  the  Company, 


with  their  families.  The  colony  now  anmbm  •  pop> 
ulation  of  about  10,000  soula ;  but  from  Its  isolat«4 
position,  the  bulky  nature  of  such  exports  a*  could  ba 
ftamished,  and  the  long  and  dangerous  navigation  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  there  is  bnt  little  probability  of  it« 
rising  to  commercUl  importance. 

The  necessity  for  creating  a  new  penal  colony  fuf 
England  has  caused  attention  to  be  directed  to  the  ad» 
vantages  which  soma  portions  of  Hudson's  Bay  possssf 
for  such  a  purpose ;  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  urged 
that  these  sections  of  conntry  would  be  thereby 
brought  within  the  cirole  of  civilization,  and  th« 
resouroes  of  the  whole  ragion  opened  out  for  man's 
enterprise ;  while  it  would  be  the  means  of  subverting 
that  exclusive  monopoly  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  (^om* 
pany,  which  has  proved  so  prejudicial  to  every  liritiab 
interest,  and  is  antagonistic  to  the  spirit  of  the  age  in 
which  we  live. 

At  this  moment  it  Is  unnecessary  to  pronoiincD 
whether  such  a  colony,  located  in  some  nortbam 
portion  of  Hudson's  Bay,  would  be  prejudicial  to  tb* 
interests  of  Canada. 

It  is  urged  by  the  Canadians  that,  under  the  charter, 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  originally  only  ilaiuied 
around  Hudson's  Bay,  and  did  not  extend  their  claim* 
beyond  its  limits  until  about  100  yean  after  the  d*t« 
of  their  charter,  which  was  made  in  1670,  between 
that  year  and  1690.  The  Company  discovered  that 
the  charter  was  illegal  und  nnconstitutional,  and  p«> 
titioned  the  imperial  Legislature  for  the  confirmation 
of  that  charter.  An  act  of  Parliament  was  passed, 
conferring  it  for  a  period  of  seven  years,  and  no  luiigtr. 
In  1697  the  charter  had  ceased  to  exist,  and  has  never 
again  been  renewed.  Nevertheless,  under  cok>r  of 
that  charter,  about  the  year  1800,  they  set  up  a  claim 
to  the  possession  of  all  that  country  lying  this  side  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Let  our  readere  choose  tba 
epithet  which  will  most  truly  characterize  the  nion> 
strous  imposition,  which  has  the  audacity  now  to 
claim  possession  of  a  countr}'  which  the  very  words  of 
the  charter  itself  excluded  from  the  operation  of  tlie 
supposed  grant — and  which  only  professed  to  give  suelf 
"  lands,  territories,  etc..  as  were  not  poiietsed  bg  tht 
subject  of  any  ChriiUan  prince  or  State,  84  year* 
prior  to  the  date  of  this  charter,  Louis  XIII,  of  Franc* 
granted  a  charter  to  a  company  called  the  Company  of 
New  France,  granting  them  the  exclusive  trade  over 
that  very  country  which  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
now  assume  to  claim  under  the  illegal  and  invalid 
charter  of  Charles  the  Second,  and  the  Frencli  pos- 
sessed, enjoyed,  and  traded  throughout  that  country, 
which  was  always  recognized  as  within  the  dominion 
of  France  until  1763,  when  Canada  was  ceded  to  the 
British  crown ;  and  it  was  not  until  aliout  40  years 
after,  that  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  had  tba  pre. 
sumption  to  set  up  a  claim  to  that  country  wliich  hod 
lieen  won  by  British  blood.  Canada  maintains  tliat 
the  whole  country'  is  a  portion  of  Canada,  und  us  such 
should  be  thrown  open  to  her  people.  See  Blackwood, 
Ixiii.,  869 ;  Monthly  Rev.,  Ixxxvii.,  66 ;  Uem.  Jlev.,  xil., 
346 ;  Living  Aye,  xxiii.,  688. 

Hudson,  a  river  of  the  State  of  New  York,  though 
less  in  its  length  and  in  the  amount  of  water  wliirli  it 
discharges  than  many  others,  is  one  of  the  must  ini» 
portant  in  the  United  States.  The  Hudson,  proper, 
rises  by  two  branches  in  the  Adirondack  muuntuins. 
The  eastern  branch  from  the  north  passes  tliruugh 
Schroon  lake,  and  is  sometimes  called  Schroon  brunch ; 
and  the  western  has  a  circuitous  course  tntxa  tba 
north-west,  and  is  considered  as  tlie  main  branch  or 
Hudson.  About  40  miles  fVom  the  source  of  each, 
they  unite  In  Warren  county.  After  a  course  uf  16 
miles  south,  the  Hudson  receives  the  Sacandaga,  on 
the  line  between  Montgomery  and  Saratoga  counties, 
The  Sacundaga  rises  in  Hamilton  county,  and  first 
runs  south-east  and  then  north-west  and  west,  to  ita 
junction  below  Jessup's  Falls.    The  Hudson  then  run* 


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io  the  «ait  of  sontb,  16  mUei  to  Hadley  Falls ;  it  tban 
turns  to  the  north-east  20  mtles  to  Glen's  Falls.  Its 
direction  Is  then  nearly  south  to  its  entrance  into  Xew 
York  Bay.  40  miles  bolow  Glen's  Falls  It  Teceives 
from  the  west  the  Mohawlc,  its  greatest  tributary. 
From  the  junction  of  the  Mohawk  to  its  month,  is 
ahont  170  miles.  The  length  of  the  Hudson,  from  its 
entrance  Into  New  York  Bay,  is  a  little  over  300  miles. 
Ho  straight  is  tbis  river  between  Albany  and  New 
York,  that  the  distance  is  less  by  water  than  by  land. 
The  tide  flows  to  a  little  above  Albany.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  the  largest  ships  118  miles,  to  Hudson,  and  for 
stooM  and  large  steamboats,  146  miles  above  New 
York  to  Albany.  Small  sloops  also  proceed  to  Troy, 
and  through  the  dam  and  lock  to  Waterford,  about  8 
miles  fnrther.  Throiigh  a  considerable  part  of  its 
MUrse  the  banks  are  elevated,  and  in  some  parts  high, 
fncky,  and  precipitous ;  particularly  in  its  passoge 
thtoagb  the  HIgblanda,  63  miles  above  the  city  of  New 
York.  The  scenery  on  the  hanks  of  the  Hudson  is 
klghly  picturesque.  The  city  of  New  York  owes 
much  of  its  prosperity,  and  its  pre-eminent  advan- 
tages, to  this  uoble  river,  connected  as  it  is  by  the  Erie 
Canal  with  the  great  lakes,  and  by  the  Champlain  Ca- 
nal with  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  By  no  other  route 
can  an  e<|ua11y  favoralde  water  communication  be  had 
■with  the  great  West.  There  are  many  large  and  flour- 
i»h'ng  towns  on  the  Hudson.  The  principal  on  the 
east  aide  are  Troy,  Hudson,  and  Pougbkeepsie ;  and 
on  the  west  side  Albany,  Catskill,  and  Newburg; 
tiesldes  many  others  on  both  sides.  Its  waters  were 
the  theatre  of  the  first  tuccemful  attempt  to  apply 
steam  to  the  propelling  of  vessels  by  Fulton  and  Liv- 
ingston, In  1807-1808.  As  a  naviga)>Ie  medium  of 
eommerce  this  river  is  unrivaled.  During  the  year 
1860  there  passed yVom  the  interior  through  its  channel, 
why  railroad  conveyance  along  its  basin,  products  of  the 
forest  valued  ot  $10,000,000 ;  agriculture,  $38,000,000 ; 
manufactures,  $4,000,000 ;  merchandise  $663,000  ;  and 
rarloas  other  articles,  $2,300,000 ;  showing  a  grand 
total  of  aliout  $64,000,000.  The  total  value  of  the 
various  kinds  of  property  sent  from  the  seatward,  via 
the  Hndaon  River,  in  1860,  amounted  to  $74,000,000, 
and  In  1861,  to  $80,000,000,  while  that  of  the  year 
1860  Is  estimated  at  $160,000,000.  See  Lake  Trape. 
Uiithon  River  Navigation. — Table  showing  the  open- 
ing and  closing  of  the  Hudson  River  in  each  of  the 
{last  16  years : 


TMn. 

<^n«d. 

OloMOd. 

Qiy*  opeQ 

1M9 

Febrnsry  4... 

Nov.  23 

8U8 

IMS 

April       IS... 
March     IS. . . 

Dec.  10 

242 

1M4 

"    IT 

278 

1845 

Febr'ry  S4... 

"      8 

288 

im 

March      18. . . 

"    14 

275 

1M7 

April         T... 
March     29... 

»    2.5 

268 

ms 

''    27 

292 

1S49 

"         19. . . 

"    26 

286 

l8(ifl 

10. . . 

"    IT 

232 

IWl 

Febr'ry   25... 

"    14 

293 

IMl 

March     28... 

"    28 

270 

28... 

"    21 

274 

19M 

IT... 

"      8 

266 

ISM 

"         2T... 

"    20 

263 

18M 

April       10... 

"    IT 

261 

Hulk,  the  name  given  to  an  old  ship  laid  up  as 
unfit  for  fnrther  service. 

Mull,  the  body  of  a  ship,  exclusive  of  the  masts, 
rigging,  etc. 

Hull  iloim,  expresses  that  the  hull  of  the  ship  is 
concealed  by  the  convexity  of  the  sea. 

MtlU,  or  Klngston-upon-Hull,  one  of  the  prin- 
dpal  cummerclai  towns  of  England,  is  situated  on  the 
north  hank  of  the  Humlier,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Hull,  36  miles  south-east  of  York.  It  is  a  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough,  and  though  locally  in  the 
Rast  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  is  a  county  in  Itself.  The 
Mtudmit  name  of  this  town  was  Wyke,  or  Wyke-upon- 
Hull.  For  more  than  a  century  previous  to  1269  it 
WM  •  plaoa  of  oonslderable  mercantile  importance, 


ar.d  possessed  fhmi  the  Abbot  of  Meaux,  who  waa 
lord  of  the  manor,  the  privilege  of  holding  a  weekly 
market  and  a  yearly  fair.  The  town  of  Hull  is  ad- 
mirobly  situated  for  trade.  Vessels  of  the  largest 
size  can  come  up  to  the  town  ;  while  the  Hull,  Ouse, 
and  Trent,  affluents  of  the  Humber,  with  their  tribu- 
tary streams  and  canals,  afford  facilities  for  trade  with 
a  large  extent  of  country.  It  is  also  connected  by 
railways  with  all  parts  of  the  idngdom.  These  advan- 
tages have  besn  improved  liy  the  activity  of  the  in- 
habitants, so  that  Hull  ranks  as  the  third  port  in  the 
kingdom,  the  value  of  its  exports  being  inferior  only 
tc  those  from  Liverpool  and  London.  The  site  of  the 
old  fortifications  is  occupied  by  docks,  and  thus  the 
old  town  is  surrounded  with  water  from  the  Hull  to 
the  Hum))er.  The  old  harbor  was  that  part  of  tba 
River  Hull  which  faced  the  old  town ;  but,  as  it  was 
found  to  be  inconvenient  for  the  shipping,  an  net  was 
passed  in  1774  for  forming  a  dock,  now  called  the  old 
dock,  which  has  its  entrance  nt  tlie  upper  end  of  the 
old  harbor.  It  is  1703  feet  in  length,  264  in  breadth, 
and  24  in  depth.  Between  1805  and  1809  another  dock 
was  erected,  called  the  Humber  dock.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  Humber  bv  a  lock,  and  is  914  feet  in 
length,  342  in  breadth,  and  31  in  depth.  The  accom- 
modation becoming  insufficient  for  the  increasing  trade, 
another  dock  was  constructed  between  1826  and  1829, 
called  tlie  .Tunction  dock,  from  being  formed  on  the 
land  that  intervened  between  the  old  and  the  Humber 
docks,  and  thus  forming  a  connection  between  them. 
It  is  914  feet  in  length,  842  in  breadth,  and  81  In 
depth.  The  locks  are  120  feet  long,  36  broad,  and  36 
deep.  The  two  bridges  ocross  tlie  locks  are  of  cast 
iron,  and  24  feet  wide.  The  railway  dock,  near  the 
terminus  of  the  Hull  and  Selby  railway,  and  the  Vic- 
toria, to  the  east  of  tiie  citadel,  are  of  recent  construc- 
tion. The  following  table  exhibits  the  area  and  cost 
of  the  different  docks : 


Doekf. 


Area. 

Old  dock 10  'i  fi 

Hnmbor  dock 9  8  24 

Junction  dock 6  0    5 

Rallwaydock 2  8    9 

Vlctorladock 20  1    3 


Co>t. 
£78,830 
2.18,086 
165,038 
115,000 
470,000 


Total 49    112       £1,056,449 

A  considerable  quantity  of  shipping  is  also  accom- 
modated w^ithin  tlie  old  harbor,  which  may  be  com- 
puted at  10  acres  of  tidal  water.  A  timber  pond  of  9 
acres  was  constructed  in  1863.  The  quays  around  the 
docks  are  spacious,  and  are  entirely  surrounded  with 
warehouses  and  deal  yards.  Hull  has  of  late  years 
become  a  principal  steam-packet  station.  Steamera 
sail  regularly  to  and  from  London,  Leith,  Aberdeen, 
Newcastle,  Yarmouth,  Hamburg,  Rotterdam,  Copen- 
hagen, Antwerp,  etc.  Hull  is  the  principal  entrepot 
of  the  Baltic  timlier  trade  on  the  east  coast  of  Britain. 
The  staple  imports  are  ^mber,  deals,  grain,  and  seeds, 
sheep's  wool,  tullow,  hemp,  (iax,  hides,  iron  liars, 
green  fruit,  bones,  madder,  bark,  turpentine,  cattle, 
sugar,  etc.  The  chief  articles  of  "xport  are  cotton 
stuffs  and  twist ;  woolen  goo<ls  and  woolen  yam  ;  iron 
and  hardware ;  linens  and  linen  yarn  ;  earthenware ; 
machinery-  and  mill-work ;  coal,  salt,  and  more  re- 
cently raw  cotton,  brought  from  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester, The  whale  fishery  was  formerly  extensively 
carried  on.  In  1819  it  employed  64  vessels,  but  from 
that  period  it  rapidly  declined  to  1837,  and  in  that  and 
the  seven  subsequent  years  employed  only  one  vessel 
annually.  More  recently,  however,  a  reaction  has 
taken  place,  and  from  1846  to  1862,  inclusive,  from  12 
to  14  vessels  have  annualh-  set  out  for  this  fishery. 
The  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  registered  at  the 
port  on  81st  December,  1864,  were  as  follows :  Sailing 
vessels — under  60  tons,  238,  tonnage,  8822  ;  above  60 
tons,  196,  tonnage,  42,861.  Steam  vessels — under  60 
tons,  10,  tonnage,  824 ;  above  60  tons,  36,  tonnage, 
9924,    The  following  table  gives  the  ships  and  ton- 


■*i';;;""(T'vv-  ■^■*-i;--? 


HUN 


008 


HUN 


aaga  (including  both  sailing  and  (team  vatseU),  em- 
ployed in  tlia  colonial  and  foreign  trade,  for  1664,  and 
tlM  tliree  preceding  yean  : 

I — — immns: 


VUBA.  1      *mnttm. 


I  Hhlpr  TwiiKf. 


IWl  I  l,l!)6  W^8Ai) 
ISSa  1,087, 28fi,9i7 
1858    1,107  289.641 


8hl^.  TwiIMm, 


1,488 
1,230 
1,7A8 


18M  1 1,042  286,721  1,747 


212,702 
17S,7U 
269,212 


"TSOTWXIlor 


848 
7SS 
778 
706 


roni 

280,781 


217,411 
1»7,8M 


8hl|». 

iToMi 

1,28fi 

1,179, 177,009 


The  number  and  tonnage  of  veueli  that  entered  and 
cleared  coastwise  during  1854,  were  :  Entered,  sailing 
vessels,  716,  tonnage,  62,414 ;  steam  vessels,  424,  ton- 
nage, 76,406;  cleared,  sailing  vessels,  1162,  tonnage, 
117,279 ;  steam  vessels,  468,  tonnage,84,072.  In  1862 
the  amount  of  dock  duties  paid  was  £34,961 ;  the 
amount  of  customs  revenue,  ^324,819;  and  the  value 
of  British  manufactured  goods  exported,  £9,916,414. 
The  staple  articles  of  import  being  subject  to  low  du- 
ties, or  altogether  free,  the  customs  revenue  is  smaller 
than  that  uf  less  in<portant  ports.  The  port  charges 
of  Hull  have  been  reduced  in  the  aggregate  about 
£18,000  per  annum.  The  industrial  establishments 
of  Hull  are  chiefly  connected  with  the  building  and 
equipment  of  ships,  comprising  ahip-building  yards, 
rope-walks,  and  manufactories  of  canvas,  chains,  chain 
cables,  and  steam  machinery.  Population  in  1851, 
84,690.~E.  B. 

Humber,  a  large  river  or  rather  estuary  of  En- 
gland, formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Ouse  and  Trent, 
and  separating  Yorkshire  from  Lincolnshire.  It  flows 
trst  east  for  about  18  miles  to  IIuU,  and  then  south- 
east for  22  miles  to  its  mouth  between  the  Spurn-head 
on  tlie  north,  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Lincoln  on  the 
south.  Its  average  breadth  is  from  two  to  three  miles, 
but  near  its  mouth  it  widens  to  six  or  seven.  By 
means  of  its  numerous  tributaries  it  drains  about 
10,000  square  miles,  comprising  some  of  the  most  fer- 
tile and  populous  districts  of  England.  Vessels  of 
considerable  burden  can  ascend  to  its  head,  and  those 
of  the  largest  size  to  Hull. 

Hungary.  The  kingdom  of  Ilungar}'  consists  of 
Hungar}'  Proijer,  Sclavonia,  Croatia,  Hungarian  Dal- 
matla  on  the  sea-coast,  Transylvania,  and  the  Military- 
Frontier.  It  is  situated  between  46°  and  60°  N.  lat., 
and  between  13°  and  26°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Ualicia,  on  the  east  by  the  Danubian  Prin- 
cipalities, on  the  south  by  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  the  Adri- 
atic, and  on  the  west  by  Styria,  Lower  Austria,  Mora- 
via, and  Silesia.  The  north-eastern  frontiers  are  formed 
by  the  Carpathians,  which  jut  out  in  different  branches 
toward  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  inclose  Trnnsyl- 
vanU  in  the  form  of  a  double  crescent.  A  no  less  nat- 
ural boundary  is  the  Danube,  separating  southern 
Hungary  from  the  Turkish  provinces.  The  least 
marked  frontier  is  the  western,  separating  Hungary 
from  I.«wer  Austria :  it  is  in  part  formed  by  the  small 
March  River.  The  exact  extent  of  Hungar}-  and  its 
dependencies  has  not  yet  lieen  precisely  ascertained. 
According  to  the  Austrian  official  statistics,  published 
by  Czosnig,  the  saperlicial  area  amounts  to  126,087 
English  square  miles  ;  more  recent  Austrian  tables  re- 
dice  that  number,  whereas  the  Hungarian  statist, 
Alexius  Fenyes,  reckons  the  superficUl  area  at  180,910 
English  square  miles,  of  which  Transylvania  occupies 
about  one  sixth,  or  upward  of  20,000  miles.  The 
Hungarian  kingdom  is  thus  larger  than  Great  Britain 
and  IrcluTid  by  about  10,000,  and  than  Prussia  by 
20,000  s«(  iire  miles.  The  physical  aspect  of  Hungary- 
Proper  is  nharply  marked  by  the  contrast  between  the 
northern  Carpathians,  forming  large  plateaus,  and  the 
vast  level  land  intersected  by  the  Danube,  Theiss, 
and  Marosh  ;  while  in  Transylvania,  wliere  the  Alpine 
character  predominates,  the  sudden  diminution  of  the 
mountains,  allows  only  of  undulating  table-land,  alter- 
nating with  narrow  valleys.  The  greatest  part  of 
Croatia,  and  part  of  ScUvonia,  likewise  consist  of 


moiintainoui  land,  formed  by  the  ontlinea  of  the  Alp^ 
the  level  land  in  the  latter  lying  to  the  north. 

Jtiveri, — Turning  to  the  hydrographic  survey  of  the 
countr}-,  the  Danube,  the  largest  European  river  next 
to  the  Volga,  Urst  cbtims  notice.  Reaching  the  Hun- 
garian territor}-  at  Presburg,  where  the  Carpathians 
begin  to  rise  on  its  left  bank,  the  Danube  pursues  a 
south-easterly  course,  dividing  into  three  branches, 
which  receive  the  waters  of  the  Layta,  Raub,  and  the 
Waag,  embracing,  moreover,  the  two  SchQtt  Islands 
about  Comorn,  and  then  the  St.  Andrew  Island  at 
Waitzen,  after  which  its  direction  becomes  more 
southerly,  and,  after  leaving  Buda  and  tho  Oaopel  Isl- 
and, it  rolls  along  the  Hungarian  plain  and  the  Bunat, 
its  right  banks  reaching  the  Turkish  territory  at 
Semlin,  There,  where  its  course  becomes  retarded  by 
the  Servian  Mountains,  it  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Save,  leaving  the  kingdom  at  Orsova,  after  forcing  its 
impetuous  waves  through  the  /run  Gate.  The  breadth 
of  the  Danube  varies  in  difiercnt  parts,  being,  about 
Presburg,  900  feet;  at  Foldvar,  18U0  feet;  lietween 
the  former  and  Vanek,  4000  feet ;  at  I'etervurdcin, 
3600  feet ;  at  Belgrade,  508  feet,  and  ut  tho  Iron  Gate 
between  158  and  80  feet.  The  depth  varies  between 
20,  40,  60,  and  120  feet.  The  greatest  tributory  of  the 
Danube,  the  Theiss  (Tibiscum),  rises  from  a  double 
source  in  the  county  of  Marniaros,  near  Galicia,  reaches 
the  level  land  at  Nagy  Szoles,  and  winds  its  course 
through  the  large  plain  as  far  as  Titel,  where  it  flows 
into  tho  bed  of  tlie  Danube.  The  chief  tributui^,!4  of 
the  Theiss,  remarkalilo  for  richness  in  lish,  are  tiie 
Hemad,  Sujo,  Bodrog,  Szamos,  Koros,  and  the  Ma- 
rosh, which  is  the  chief  river  in  Transylvania,  The 
Drave,  which  rises  in  the  Tyrol,  flows  through  Styria 
into  Croatia,  and,  dividing  it  from  Hungary,  fulls  into 
the  Danube  near  Essek.  The  Save,  rising  in  Corinola, 
winds  its  course  through  Croatia,  is  fed  by  the  Unna 
and  Kulpa,  forms  part  of  the  frontier  toward  Bosnia 
and  Servia,  and  falls  into  the  Danute  at  Belgrade. 
The  Morosh,  which  ranks  next  to  the  Theiss,  falls  into 
the  latter  at  Szcgedin,  after  having  received  the  Ar- 
anyos,  famous  for  its  gold  washings,  and  the  Kokel  or 
Kokiilo,  The  Alt  or  Aluta  rises  likewise  in  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Mountains,  entering  WulUichia  through 
the  Red-Tower  Puss.  All  the  Hungarian  rivers  flow 
into  the  Black  Sea,  with  the  exception  of  the  Popard, 
which  rises  in  the  Zips  from  the  Kongsberg,  and  flows 
into  tho  Vistula. 

Lakes. — Among  the  lakes  the  largest  is  tho  Platten- 
see  or  Balaton,  situated  lietween  the  countries  of  Zaia 
and  Schumeg.  Its  lengtli  is  about  60  miles,  and  its 
breadth  between  eight  uiid  nine  miles ;  and  with  the 
surrounding  marshes,  it  occupies  about  5U0  square 
miles.  Its  principal  feeder  is  the  Zaia,  and  its  only 
outlet  is  the  March  Sio.  The  Neusiedler-sco,  in  Hun- 
garian Ferto,  between  the  counties  of  Wicselliurg  and 
Uedenburg,  fed  by  the  Vulka,  is  TO  miles  long  and  10 
miles  broad  ;  its  shallow  waters  are  impregnated  with 
salt,  and  exhibit  an  ebb  and  flow,  »s  yet  unexplained. 
The  Palver-see  is,  properly  speaking,  a  marsh,  resem- 
bling many  which  are  farmed  by  the  Theiss  and 
Lower  Danube.  The  Star-ret,  in  Bihar,  the  Ecseder, 
in  Szothmar,  the  Feketels,  in  the  Banat,  are  the 
largest  marshes.  The  marshes  covered  with  aquatic 
plants,  such  as  Ecseder,  are  generally  distinguished 
by  the  name  lap.  The  only  canal  of  importance  is 
that  In  the  county  of  Bacs,  culled  the  Francis  Canal, 
cut  from  Monosterto  Foldvar,  and  uniting  the  Danulie 
with  the  Theiss.  It  is  at>out  60  miles  long,  and  short- 
ens the  passage  by  about  200  miles.  The  Bega  Canal, 
near  Temesvar,  is  rather  a  river  than  a  canal.  The 
Adriatic  touches  only  the  south-western  extremity  of 
the  Hungarian  kingdom,  the  sea-coast  being  variously 
called  Hungarian  Datmatia  or  lUyria,  the  principal 
porta  being  Fiume,  a  flourishing  town  inhabited  chiefly 
by  Italians,  Buccari,  Port-re-Xcngg  St.  George,  Tub- 
lonz,  and  Carlopago.    The  whole  coast  is  mountain- 


acres: 


HUN' 


999 


HUN 


OAK,  and  in  Mm*  parti  iteep,  and  espoied  to  rlolcnt 
sooth  winda. 

The  fertility  of  the  Hungarian  mil  and  the  variety 
of  Ita  prodnee  are  universally  known.  Besides  the 
different  species  of  corn  and  maixe,  raised  in  great 
quantities,  Hungary  produces  hemp  and  flax,  various 
Icinds  of  delicious  apples,  pears,  and  plums,  two  sorts 
of  melons,  rich  crops  of  tobacco,  and,  lastly,  a  great 
variety  of  wines;  while  tlie  vast  pastures  and  oak 
woods  afford  ample  sustenance  to  herds  of  homed  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  swine. 

Wittei. — Among  the  vine-hills  and  gardens,  culti- 
vated since  the  18th  century,  and  which  occupy  no 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  Hungarian  soil,  the  most 
valualile  is  the  Hegy-alja,  or  southern  promontory  of 
the  Carpathians,  and  which  comprehends  the  Tokay 
mountains  situated  round  the  town  of  that  name.  The 
whole  promontory  occupies  above  fiO  English  square 
miles,  of  which  only  one-third  is  under  cultivation. 
The  Tnkny  wino  is  of  a  crj'stalline  yellow,  and  some- 
times greenish,  color,  and  is  known  under  two  names — 
the  Aiubruch,  the  stronger,  containing  more  of  the  es- 
sence, and  the  Mailat.  The  whole  annual  produce  is 
180,000  gallons.  Next  In  rank  to  the  Tokay  Is  the 
Menes,  a  red  wino  of  the  county  of  Arad  ;  and  Inferior 
to  It,  thouKh  by  no  means  Inferior  to  Burgundy,  are 
the  red  wines  of  Erlau,  Szeksard,  Vlllany,  and  Buda. 
Among  the  yellow  table-wines,  particular  mention  may 
i)e  made  of  the  Nesmcler,  Somloer,  Badaesoner,  and 
Ermelcker.  The  county  of  Simla  is,  moreover,  partic- 
ularly famous  for  its  red  wines,  the  most  known  of 
which  Is  found  on  the  Fruska  Gora  mountain.  No 
less  famous  are  some  of  tlio  Croatian  wines,  marked 
by  a  spirituous  flavor,  as  well  as  the  wines  of  Transyl- 
vania. The  total  produce  of  wine,  Transylvania  not 
included,  is  estimated  at  328,748,000  gallons. 

We  give  here  the  statistics  of  the  year  1840,  wliich 
stood  as  follows:  Horses,  1,000,000;  horned  cattle, 
4,260,000;  8heep,17,000,000;  hogs,  4,000,000.  In  Tran- 
sylvania the  numbers  were  tliese:  Horses,  397,388; 
liorned  cattle,  800,000;  sheep,  2,000,000;  hogs,  350,000. 
To  this  abundance  must  be  added  a  great  number  of 
domesticated  fowl,  especially  geese  and  turkeys,  and  a 
variety  of  game,  such  as  ducks,  partridges,  pheasants, 
etc.  The  rivers  alraund  in  carp,  pike,  and  sturgeon — 
the  Theiss  being  reckoned  tlie  richest;  the  peculiar 
Hungarian  fish  called /u^ns  is  only  found  in  the  Ba- 
laton Lake,  or  Flatten  Sec.  Some  of  the  waters  yield 
trout,  and  larj^e  quantities  of  leeches. 

The  approximate  amount  of  the  productive  soil,  botii 
in  Hungary  and  Transylvania— in  the  latter  of  whicli 
the  forests  form  more  than  one  lialf— is,  according  to  tlie 
Austrian  official  tables,  40,200,000  j'.icA,  or  57,204,600 
English  acres,  of  which  10,431,700  belong  to  Transyl- 
vania. The  relative  division  is  aa  follows,  in  English 
acres: 


AcrM. 

Soil  under  tlllRge.  a2,flr.l,4"8 
Viiioyarda l.CBI.iiBJ 

Pastures 

Forests 

AcrM. 
....    15.6112,299 
....  15,880,680 

Heaaow 6,T11,7<3 

In  the  above  numbers  is  not  included  the  military 
frontier,  the  productive  soli  of  which  occupies  about 
6,000,000  acres;  the  forests  forming  one  third.  Tlie 
produce  in  com  is,  Hungary, 281,000,000 bushels;  Tran- 
sylvania, 30,000,000;  nriiitury  frontiers,  12,000,000; 
toUl,  323,000,000  Englisli  bushels.  The  value  of  the 
natural  products  is  estimated  at  £29,000,000,  while 
the  value  of  the  crops  in  England  and  Wales  is  esti- 
mated by  M'Culioch  to  be  only  ;£83,656,071. 

MineraU, — The  mountains,  which  arc  partly  worked 
by  the  government  and  partly  by  private  enterprise, 
contain  metals  of  almost  every  kind— viz.,  gold,  sil- 
ver, iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  zinc,  alum,  orpi- 
nicnt,  tellurium,  and  many  other  minerals,  l)csidcs 
coal  and  salt.  In  the  neglected  state  in  which  the 
gold  mines  are  kept,  the  produce  is  only  al'iut  2400 
marks.     The  sliver  mines  yield  65,000  marks.     Of 


great  importance  are  the  copper  mines  in  the  Banat ; 
the  richest  vein,  however,  is  at  BchmOlnitz.  Those  in 
Traitsj-lvania,  at  Damokos  and  Deva,  yield  1200  cwts. 
The  produce  of  lead  is  estimated  at  26,000  cwts.  The 
iron  mines  are  found  chiefly  in  the  counties  of  OOmOr, 
Sohi,  Ung,  and  Zips;  the  average  produce  of  the 
former  ueing  260,000  cwts.  The -richest  rock-salt 
mines  are  in  the  county  of  Marmaros.  and  tlie  total 
produce  amounts  to  upward  of  800,000  cwts.,  a  quan- 
tity which,  however  great,  is  far  from  suflicient  for 
the  wants  of  tlie  country.  Several  places  yield  also 
soda,  saltpetre,  alum,  and  potash.  Pit  coain,  which 
till  very  lately,  and  liefore  the  introduction  of  rail- 
ways, had  Iteen  entirely  neglected,  lie  deep  in  forma- 
tions almost  unwrought.  The  total  produce  is  1,000,000 
cwts.  The  value  of  the  mineral  produce  in  Hungary 
is  £872,000,  that  of  Transylvania  £169,000;  the  mili- 
tary frontiers  yield  almost  nothing  in  this  respect.  It 
must  bo  added  tliat  Hungary  possesses  also  precious 
stones  and  marble  of  vof ious  descriptions. 

iltmufaclurea. — The  chief  articles  of  manufacture 
are  cloth,  linen,  and  silk  stuffs,  carpets,  leather,  iron 
wares,  and  chemical  products,  including  alum,  salt- 
petre, and  potash  manufactures.  All  these  are  as  yet 
in  an  incipient  state,  especially  cloth  manufacture,  if 
it  be  considered  that  in  wool  Hungary  is  the  richest 
country  in  Europe.  Linens  are  chiefly  manufactured 
in  the  north.  Tho  county  of  Zips  produces  about 
6,000,000  yards.  The  largest  silk  manufacture  is  at 
I'estb,  giving  employment  to  between  400  and  500 
men.  Of  greater  extent  are  the  leather  manufac- 
tures ;  but  even  of  this  article  much  is  imported.  The 
most  productive  iron-works  are  in  the  county  of 
GOmOr,  among  which  are  particularly  distinguislied 
the  manufactories  of  Pohorela,  and  Vorosko,  belong- 
ing to  the  Prince  of  Saxe  Coburg,  The  whole  iron 
produce  of  Hungary  is  estimated  at  500,000  cwts.  per 
annum,  half  of  which  belongs  to  GOmflr.  In  several 
counties  there  are  potteries  and  glass-works,  some 
of  which,  as  at  Uebreczin  and  Papa,  produce  20,000 
liowls  weekly.  Soap  is  chiefly  manufactured  in  Szege- 
dln,  Kecskemet,  and  Del)reczin,  the  last  of  which  pro- 
duces 7000  cwts.  annually.  The  distilleries  are  mostly 
in  the  north,  among  the  Sclavonic  population ;  and  tlie 
breweries,  300  in  numlier,  are  situated  round  the  large 
towns  of  mixed  population,  as  beer  is  no  favorite  drink 
with  the  Magyars.  Sugar  refineries  have  also  of  late 
risen  in  several  parts  of  the  country;  but  this  article 
also  requires  importation.  The  cigar  manufactories, 
introduced  within  a  very  recent  period,  had  imparted 
a  new  impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco ;  but  tlie 
introduction  of  the  tobacco  monopoly  at  tlic  end  of  the 
late  war  at  once  extinguished  this  brancii  of  indus- 
try. 

TVode. — The  inferiority  of  the  roads,  only  compen- 
sated to  some  extent  by  two  railway  lines,  and  steam 
navigation  on  the  Danube  and  Tlioiss,  but  espeoially 
the-  restrictive  commercial  system  of  Austria,  sufli- 
ciently  accounts  fur  the  insignificance  of  Hungarian 
commerce,  both  foreign  and  internal.  The  centre  of 
commerce  is  the  capital,  Pestii,  situated  on  tlie  banks 
of  tiie  mighty  artery  of  tiic  kingdom,  tlie  Danube. 
The  chief  feature  of  internal  trade  is  the  exchange  of 
products  between  the  northern  and  southern  districts; 
the  former  sending  to  the  south  minerals  and  timber, 
and  the  latter  carrying  to  the  north  grain  and  cattle, 
an  intercourse  facilitated  by  the  great  number  of  rivers 
navlgalile  to  vessels  and  boats  of  small  freight.  Tlie 
annual  fairs  licld  at  Pesth  mark  the  culminating  points 
of  commercial  activity,  tiie  chief  marketable  article 
tieing  wool,  of  wliicii,  according  to  Fenyes,  upward  of 
120,000  cwts.  are  sold  annually.  The  other  towns  of 
commercial  importance  arc — in  the  south,  Becse,  ex- 
porting to  Austria;  Kiume,  the  Hungarian  littorale, 
and  Scmiin,  communicating  with  the  Turkish  prov- 
inces; in  the  west,  Waitzen  and  Presburg;  in  the 
north,  Koshuu  and  Eperies. 


HUB 


1000 


HYD 


/Mporto.— Th*  tbIm  i,(  importf ,  both  ftom  Auitria 
ud  othur  couDtrlu,  was,  in  the  lama  year,  68,614,487 
florins,  or  ^6,861,448.  Foreign  countries,  it  must  b« 
added,  enter  only  for  one  fourth  of  this  intercourse, 
the  rest  Iwlongs  entirely  to  the  Austrian  dominions. 
'  Since  the  end  of  the  late  war  the  custom-duties  lie- 
tween  Hungary  and  Austria  have  been  abolished.  In 
how  far  this  change  haa  hitherto  affected  the  commerce 
of  the  former,  would,  in  consequence  of  its  abnormal 
political  state,  be  difficult  to  decipher,  even  it  the  re- 
quisite data  had  been  made  public.  As  difficult  would 
it  be  tu  form  a  sure  estimate  of  the  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure of  Hungary  since  the  late  war,  as  both  rest 
on  momentary  arbitrary  measures  undertalien  either 
as  precautions  against  revolutiim  or  in  consequence  of 
the  periodical  sickness  of  the  Auntriun  flnances.  Am- 
ple data,  however,  are  extant  as  to  the  public  revenue 
and  expenditure  of  Hungary  before  1848.  The  chief 
lonrces  of  revenue  up  to  that  date  were — the  house- 
tax,  war-tux,  the  toll  duties,  the  crown  and  fiscal  do- 
mains, and  salt  revenues,  which,  with  the  minor 
sources  of  income,  such  as  the  lottery,  the  post-office, 
and  the  mines,  yielded,  according  to  Fenyes,  £8,- 
400,000,  a  sum  less  than  that  of  Lombardy,  but  more 
than  sufficient  to  cover  public  expenses,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  internal  organization  of  the  counties, 
where  the  salaries  of  the  constitutional  officials  were 
but  nominal.  In  the  new  regime  a  not  unimportant 
item  in  the  public  revenue  is  the  tobacco  monopoly 
introduced  into  the  Hungarian  dominions  by  an  im- 
perial edict  of  November,  18A0.  By  tills  edict  no  one 
may  cultivate  tobacco,  except  by  previous  permission, 
specifying  tlie  place  and  mode  of  cultivation,  each 
owner  being  obliged  to  deliver  up  his  produce  to  the 
government,  which  determines  its  value.  The  mon- 
opoly in  itself,  no  less  than  the  domiciliar}'  visits  to 
which  it  gave  rise,  greatly  injured  this  thriving 
branch  of  Hungarian  industry.  A  great  many,  indeed, 
have  in  consequence  of  this  given  up  its  cultivation, 
dispensing  even  with  its  use. — E.  B. 

For  commeroe  of  Hungary,  see  Hunt's  Mag.,  xxL, 
191  (Cassali)  ;  Db  Bow's  Review,  xiii.,  433 ;  Racet 
of  Hungary ;  Nor.  Am.  Rev.,  Ixx.,  and  Ixxii. ;  Ch, 
kxam.,  xlviiit,  44. 

Huron,  Lake,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  of  North 
America,  lies  between  Lake  Superior  on  the  north- 
west. Lake  Michigan  on  the  west,  and  Lake  Krie  and 
Lake  Ontario  on  the  south  and  south-east.  Its  shape 
is  BO  irregular  that  it  is  difficult  accurately  to  deter- 
mine its  exact  dimensions.  Its  length  from  north  to 
south  is  2C0  miles,  and  1I>0  miles  in  breadth  from  east 
to  west,  in  its  widest  part,  but  exclusive  of  the  bay  on 
the  north-east,  it  is  only  90,  and  its  circumference 
1100  miles.  Its  principal  indentations  are  Saginaw 
Bay,  extending  into  Michigan,  and  two  others ;  one 
immcdiutely  north  of  Manitou  Islands,  and  the  other 
soutli-east  of  them.  The  latter,  called  Georgian  Ba}*, 
is  about  170  miles  long,  hj  70  broad ;  almost  u  separ- 
ate sheet  of  water,  divided  from  Huron  Ijy  a  nearly 
continuous  series  of  iiilands  which  are  closely  connected 
by  the  great  peninsula  of  Cabot's  Head,  and  with 
Point  do  Tour,  the  easternmost  caiie  of  northern  Michi- 
gan. Manitou  (or  Great  Spirit)  Island  is  the  largest 
of  the  group,  and  Drummond  Island  separates  another 
sheet  of  water  ttom  the  main  lake,  80  miles  long  and 
20  broad.  The  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada  passes  along  the  middle  of  the  main  Hu- 
ron 225  miles,  and  between  I.essor  Manitou  and  Drum- 
mond Islands,  by  what  is  called  the  Middle  Passage, 
and  curves  round  to  the  north  and  west  25  miles,  to 
the  entrance  of  St.  Mary's  river.  The  elevation  of 
the  surface  of  Lake  Huron  above  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  is  574  feet,  or  loss  than  that  of  Lake  Superior  by 
68  feet,  or  than  that  of  Lake  Michigan  by  4  feet. 


Tb«  greatait  daptb  toward  ita  wait  ihora  if  at  laait 
1000  feet,  and  its  mean  depth  000  feet,  or  about  800 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  AtUntic.     Sea  Laum. 

Hnrrioana  (8p.  Huracan),  a  violent  ttonn,  gene- 
rally  accompanied  by  thunder  and  lightning,  and  dia* 
tingttished  fh)m  every  other  kind  of  tempest  by  the 
vahemanco  of  the  wind,  and  the  sudden  changes  to 
wliich  it  is  subject.  Hunieanas  prerail  ehiefly  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  the  Isle  of  France,  and  in  some 
parts  of  China.  The  following  graphic  description  of 
the  usual  phenomena  attending  tha  West  Indian  hur- 
ricanes, from  the  pen  of  Edmund  Burke,  may  be  in- 
teresting to  the  reader :  "  It  is  in  the  niiny  season, 
principally  in  the  month  of  August,  more  rarely  in 
July  and  September,  that  they  are  assaulted  by  hurri- 
canes, the  most  terrible  calamity  to  which  they  are 
subject  from  the  climate.  This  destroy*  at  one  stroke 
the  labor  of  many  years,  and  frustrates  the  most  ex- 
alted hopes  of  the  planter,  and  often  just  at  the  mo 
ment  when  he  thinks  himself  out  of  the  reach  of 
fortune.  It  is  a  sudden  and  violent  storm  of  wind, 
rain,  thunder,  and  lightning,  attended  with  a  furious 
swelling  of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  with  an  earthquake ; 
in  short,  with  every  circumstance  which  the  elementa 
can  assemble  that  is  terrible  and  destructive.  First 
they  see,  as  a  prelude  to  the  ensuing  havoc,  whole 
fields  of  sugar-canes  whirled  into  the  air,  and  scattered 
over  the  face  of  the  country.  The  strongest  trees  of 
the  forest  are  torn  up  by  the  roots  and  driven  about 
like  stubble.  Their  wind-mills  are  swept  awaV  in  a 
moment.  Their  works,  their  fixtures,  the  ponderous 
capper  boilers  and  stills  of  several  hundred  weight,  are 
wrenched  from  the  ground  und  battered  to  pieces. 
Their  houses  are  no  protection  ;  the  roofs  are  torn  oflf 
at  one  blast,  while  the  rain,  whicli  in  an  hour  rises  5 
feet,  rushes  in  upon  them  with  an  irresistible  violence. 
There  are  signs  which  the  Indians  of  these  islands 
taught  our  planters,  by  which  they  can  prognosticate 
the  approach  of  a  hurricane.  It  comes  on  either  in 
the  quarters,  or  at  the  full  or  change  of  the  moon.  If  it 
will  come  on  at  the  full  moon,  you  being  at  the  change, 
observe  these  signs.  That  day  you  will  see  the  sky 
verj'  turbulent.  You  will  observe  the  sky  more  red 
than  at  other  times.  You  will  perceive  a  dead  calm, 
and  the  hills  clear  of  all  those  clouds  and  mists  which 
usually  hover  about  them.  In  the  clefts  of  the  earth, 
and  in  the  wells,  you  will  hear  a  hollow,  rumbling 
sound,  like  the  rushing  of  a  great  wind.  At  night 
the  stars  seem  much  larger  than  usual,  anu  surrounded 
with  a  sort  of  l)urs.  The  north-west  sky  has  a  sort  of 
menacing  look,  and  the  sea  emits  a  strong  smell,  and 
rises  into  vast  waves,  often  without  any  wind.  Tha 
wind  itself  now  forsakes  its  usually  steady  easterly 
stream,  and  shifts  alwut  to  the  west,  from  whence  it 
sometimes  blows  with  intermissions  violently  and 
irregularly  for  about  two  hours  at  a  time.  You  hare 
the  same  signs  at  the  full  of  the  moon.  The  moon 
itself  is  surrounded  with  a  great  bur,  and  sometimes 
the  sun  has  tlie  same  appearance." 

Hydrographical  Charts  or  Maps,  usually 
called  scu-churts,  arc  projections  of  some  part  of  the 
sea  or  coast  fur  tlio  use  of  navigation.  In  these,  are 
laid  down  all  the  rhumbs  or  points  of  the  compass, 
the  meridians,  parallels,  etc.,  with  the  coasts,  capes, 
islands,  rocks,  slioals,  shallows,  etc.,  in  their  proper 
places  and  proportions. 

Hydrography,  the  art  of  measuring  and  descri))- 
ing  the  sen,  rivers,  canals,  lakes  and  the  like.  With 
regard  to  the  sea,  it  gives  an  account  of  its  tides,  coun- 
tertides,  soundings,  bays,  gulfs,  creeks,  and  also  of 
the  rocks,  shelves,  sands,  shallows,  promontories,  and 
harlwrs ;  the  distance  and  l)earing  of  one  port  from 
another,  with  every  thing  that  is  remarkable,  whether 
out  at  sea  or  on  the  coast. 


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:-itI**''-' ■"■'!■''"','"'  'I  '    •  ''■*     "•<  i.-.'J  jf^rit  ' 
^•iii     .,. .  ,:-:.:';..>       ll 

Xo0.  The  sale  of  ice  and  mow  pnaerved  in  tlie 
MTerns  of  VeBUvitu  and  on  the  more  elevated  parts 
of  .£tna,  hoa  long  been  a  considerable  branch  of  trade 
in  Naplei,  Catania,  and  the  adjoining  towna;  but  it 
was  reserved  for  the  Americans  to  cany  the  trade  in 
ice  to  an  extent  which  could  not  previously  have  been 
anticipated.  The  extreme  heat  of  the  summer  in  the 
New  England  States  occasions  a  natural  demand  for 
ice,  which  the  extreme  cold  of  tho  winter  gives  the 
means  of  supplying.  The  ftesh  water  lakcn  adjoining 
Boston  and  other  large  towns  being  deeply  frozen  in 
winter,  large  ice-houses  are  filled  with  the  ice  taken 
from  them,  which  is  retailed  in  summer  at  a  low  price. 
The  practice  had  not,  however,  been  long  established 
till  it  occurred  to  some  ingenious  speculators  to  attempt 
to  realize  a  profit  by  shipping  ice  to  the  southern  parts 
of  the  Union  and  the  West  Indies :  and  tlie  speculation 
having  succeeded,  the  trade  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended to  the  Spanish  Hahi  and  South  America,  and 
more  recently  to  Europe,  India,  and  China  I  The 
business  iias,  in  fact,  become  of  the  first  importance ; 
numerous  companies  and  a  very  large  amount  of  ton- 
nage being  now  engaged  in  the  ice  trade  from  Boston. 
And  owfaig  to  the  greater  slciil  and  economy  with 
which  the  business  is  at  present  conducted,  the  ice 
which  used  a  few  years  ago  to  cost  6  cents  per  lb.  in 
New  Orleans  and  Havana,  ma}'  now  he  had  for  1  cent ; 
and  there  has  been  a  lilie  fall  in  its  price  in  India  and 
other  more  distant  places.  An  immense  warehouse 
has  recently  lieen  constructed  at  Calcutta  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  ice  brought  by  the  ships,  whence  it  is 
(upplied  in  the  quantities  required  for  the  public  ac- 
commodation. This  singular  fabric  has  triple  walls, 
five  distinct  roofs,  incloses  aljout  three  fourths  of  an 
acre,  and  is  fitted  to  hold  upward  of  80,000  tons  of  ice  1 
It  is  said  that  a  similar  d^pot  is  about  to  be  formed  at 
Canton. 

The  Ice  Trade  of  the  United  States.— The  ice  trade 
of  the  United  States  was  commenced  l>y  Mr.  Frederic 
Tudor,  of  Boston,  in  1806.  This  gentleman,  having 
previously  sent  agents  to  the  West  Indies  to  procure 
information,  determined  to  maice  bis  first  experiment 
in  that  region.  Finding  no  one  willing  to  receive  so 
strange  an  article  on  shipboard,  be  was  compelled  to 
purchase  a  vessel,  the  brig  favorite,  of  al>out  130 
tons,  which  he  loaded  with  ice  from  a  pond  in  Saugus, 
llassnchusetts,  t)elonging  to  his  father,  and  sent  to  St. 
Pierre,  Martinique.  This  first  enterprise  resulted  in  a 
loss  of  about  $4600,  but  was,  nevertheless,  followed  up 
until  the  embargo  and  war  put  an  end  to  the  foreign 
trade,  at  wiiich  period  it  hod  yielded  no  profit  to  its 
projector.  Its  operations  had  been  confined  to  Mar- 
tinique and  Jamaica.  After  the  close  of  the  war  with 
England  in  1815,  Mr.  Tudor  recommenced  his  opera- 
tions by  shipments  to  Havana  under  a  contract  with 
the  government  of  Cuba,  which  enabled  him  to  pursue 
his  undertaliing  without  loss,  and  extend  it,  in  1817,  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina ;  in  tho  following  year  to 
Savannah,  Georgia ;  and  in  1820,  to  New  Orleans.  In 
the  mean  time  it  had  been  tried  again  (by  other  par- 
ties) at  Martinique  and  St.  Thomas,  and  failed,  and  by 
Mr.  Tudor  at  St.  Jago  de  Cuba,  where  it  also  failed, 
after  a  trial  of  three  years. 

On  the  18th  May,  1833,  the  first  shipment  of  ice  was 
made  to  the  East  Indies  by  Mr.  Tudor  in  the  ship  Tus- 
cany, for  Calcutta,  and  since  that  period  he  has  ex- 
tended his  operations  to  Madras  and  Bombay.  Previ- 
ously to  1832  the  trade  had  been  chiefly  confined  to 
the  operations  of  the  original  projector,  although  sev- 
eral enterprises  hod  been  undertalien  by  other  persons, 
and  abandoned.  The  increase  of  shipments  to  this 
period  had  been  small,  the  whole  amounting,  in  1832, 


n!    'I. 


,l„:, 


.I'!-    :   ,f   .j't'tiic-iV  .'•< 


to  4,8fi2  tons,  which  was  taken  entirely  tnm  FI•t^ 
Pond,  in  Cambridge,  and  shipped  by  Mr.  Tudor,  who 
was  then  alone  in  the  trade.  Up  to  this  time  tlie  ice 
business  was  of  ■  very  complicated  nature.  Ship- 
owners objected  to  receive  it  on  freight,  fearing  it* 
effect  on  the  durability  of  their  vessels  and  the  safety 
of  voyages ;  ice-houses  at  home  and  abroad  ware  re- 
quired, and  the  proper  mode  of  constructing  them  was 
to  he  ascertained.  The  liest  modes  of  preparing  ships 
to  receive  cargoes  were  the  subject  of  expensive  and 
almost  endless  experiments.  The  machines  to  cut  and 
prepare  ice  for  shipping  and  storing,  and  to  perform 
the  operations  of  hoisting  it  into  store-houses  and  low- 
ering it  into  the  holds  of  vessels,  were  all  to  be  in- 
vented, involving  much  expense  and  vexation.  Many 
of  these  difficulties  have  now  Iwen  overcome,  and  since 
1832  the  trade  has  increased  much,  and  appears  des- 
tined to  a  still  more  rapid  increase  for  some  years.  It 
has  also  been  divided  among  many  parties,  and  its 
methods  liave  l>een  further  improved,  and  a  knowledge 
of  them  more  widely  difl'used. 

The  ice  lias  been  chiefly  taken  from  Fresh  and  Spy 
Ponds,  and  since  1841  mainly  transported  on  the 
Charlestown  Branch  Railroad,  whi'^h  was  constructed 
for  that  purpose.  Quite  recently,  ice  establishments 
Iiave  been  made  at  most  of  the  ponds  near  Boston,  and 
it  is  probable  that  in  a  few  years  the  products  of  all 
these  waters  may  be  required  to  supply  the  trade.  Jn 
the  year  1839  the  great  quantity  of  ice  cut  at  Fresh 
Pond,  and  the  consequent  difficulties  which  hod  arisen 
among  the  proprieters,  as  to  where  each  should  take 
ice,  induced  them  to  agree  to  distinct  boundar}-  lines, 
which  were  settled  by  three  commissioners,  viz.,  Simon 
Greenleaf,  Levi  Farwell,  and  S.  M.  Felton,  esquires, 
on  the  principle  of  giving  to  each  the  same  proportion 
of  contiguous  surface  of  the  lake,  as  the  length  of  his 
shore-line  was  to  its  whole  border.  Tliia  settlement 
was  made  by  partition  deed,  executed  by  all  the  own- 
ers, and  recorded  in  the  registry  of  deeds  of  Middlesex 
county.  Published  maps  were  also  placed  in  public 
institutions  and  private  hands.  These  maps  show  the 
direction  and  length  of  the  Iwundary  lines  of  each 
owner,  and  the  area.  Thb  arrangement  has  been  of 
great  advantage  to  the  parties,  and  enabled  them  to 
secure  more  ice  than  could  otherwise  be  taken  from  a 
pond  of  equal  extent. 

The  shipments  of  ice  from  Boston  coastwise  for  the 
year  ending  Decemlrar  Slst,  1847,  amounted  to  61,887 
tons.  The  ice  shipped  to  foreign  ports  during  the 
same  period  amounted  to  22,591  tons,  and  was  sent  to 
the  following  places,  viz.;  Havana,  Matanzas,  Trin- 
idad, St.  Jago,  Cuba,  Martinique,  St.  Thomas,  St. 
John's,  Mayaguez,  Porto  Rico,  Guadaloupe,  Barba- 
does,  Trinidad,  Antigua,  St.  Vincent,  Nassau,  Jamaica, 
Pemambuco,  Demerara,  Honduras,  Vera  Cruz,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Mauritius,  Isle  of  Bourbon,  Manilla,  Calcutta, 
Madras,  Bombay,  Ceylon,  Hong  Kong,  Whampoa,  Bo- 
tavia,  and  Liverpool. 

The  freight  paid  during  this  year  is  supposed  to 
have  averaged  as  high  as  $2  50  per  ton,  at  which  rate 
it  would  amount,  on  the  74,478  tons  shipped  abroad 
and  coastwise,  to  $186,195.  There  is  a  great  variatior. 
in  the  cost  of  securing  ice  and  stowing  it  en  !.oiird 
vessels,  caused  by  winters  favorable  or  otherwise  for 
securing  it,  and  by  the  greater  or  less  expense  of  tho 
fittings  required  for  voyages  of  different  duration,  or 
by  difference  of  season  when  the  shipments  are  made. 
Taking  all  these  contingencies  into  consideration,  the 
cost  of  ice  when  stowed  on  board  may  lie  estimated  to 
average  $2  per  ton,  which  would  give  for  the  quantity 
shipped  $148,956.  There  were  in  1847  upward  of  29 
cargoes  of  provisions,  fruits,  and  vegetables  shipped  in 


A*- 


lOB 


1002 


ICB 


A 


let  to  port*  whn*  otlMrwiia  lach  utlolet  could  not  ba 
Mnl — My  to  Barbadoaa,  Trinidad,  Dtmerara,  Antigua, 
St  Vlncant,  Ouadaloupe,  St.  Thomai,  Honduran,  and 
Calcutta— the  Invoiced  cost  of  which  at  BoHon  would 
average  about  tSSOO  each,  (TZiSOO.  To  these  items 
majr  be  added  the  proflti  of  the  trade  to  those  engaged 
in  it,  $100,000.     ToUl  returns,  •M7,661. 

The  ice  trade  has  been  without  doubt  one  of  the  main 
it$j»  which  preserved  the  Calcutta  trade  almost  exclu- 
sively to  Boston,  and  it  would  do  so  fbr  China  if  that 
country  were  in  a  more  quiet  condition.  The  (Veights 
paid  to  India  by  Mr.  Tudor  for  ice  amount  to  from  10  to 
is  por  cent,  of  the  earnings  for  the  whole  run  of  the  ship 
out  and  home,  and  it  is  earned  without  cost  or  deduction 
to  the  charterer  or  sbipH>wner. 

It  Is  probable  that  the  commercUl  marine  of  the 
United  States  has  been  materially  increased  by  the 
operation  of  the  ice  trade.  A  large  portion  of  the 
vessels  formerly  engaged  in  the  freighting  trade  from 
Boston  sailed  in  ballast,  depending  for  remuneration 
on  fr«ight»  of  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  etc.,  to  be 
obtained  in  more  southern  latitudes,  often  competing 
with  the  vessels  of  other  nations  which  could  earn  a 
freight  out  and  borne.  Now  a  small  outward  freight 
from  Boston  can  nsaally  be  obtained  fbr  the  trans- 
poitation  of  ica  to  those  places  where  fk«ighting  vessels 
ordinarily  obtain  cargoes.  The  ice  trade  has  generally 
been  onsaccessfUl  to  places  where  profitable  return 
freights  can  not  be  obtained,  because  to  such  places  a 
heavy  fkeight  must  be  paid  on  the  ice,  which  it  can  not 
bear;  and  also  because  southern  places  which  do  not 
pn>du9e  valuable  exports,  are  usually  unable  to  con- 
aune  expensive  luxuries. 

The  methods  and  materials  for  preparing  vessels  for 
the  transportation  of  ice  have  been  various.  Formerly 
their  holds  were  sealed  up  at  the  sides,  bottom,  and 
top,  with  boards  nailed  to  joist  ribs  secured  to  the  skin 
of  the  vessel,  and  with  double  bullcheads  forward  and 
aft.  The  spaces  thus  formed  were  filled  with  refuse 
tan,  rice-hulls,  meadow-hay,  straw,  wood-shavings,  or 
like  materials.  These  spaces  were  made  of  a  Uiiclc- 
aess  proportionate  to  the  length  of  the  voyage,  and 
with  reference  to  the  season.  The  immediate  surface 
of  the  ice  was  covered  with  the  same  materials,  ex- 
cepting tan.  At  the  present  time  saw-dust  is  used 
almost  exclusively  for  voyages  of  considerable  length. 
It  Is  placed  immediately  between  the  ice  and  the  skin 
of  the  vessel.  This  material  is  obtained  trom  the 
State  of  Maine,  and  before  its  use  for  this  purpose  was 
entirely  wasted  at  the  watei^mills,  and,  falling  into 
the  streams,  occasioned  serious  obstructions,  Puring 
the  year  1847,  4600  cords  were  brought  to  Boston,  ut 
-an  average  value  of  $2  60  per  cord,  delivered.  The 
lumber  is  also  wholly  from  the  State  of  Maine.  The 
value  of  it  is,  however,  small,  in  the  present  mode  of 
fitting  vessels.  Almost  the  whole  value  of  the  returns 
of  the  ice  trade,  including  freight,  is  a  gain  to  this 
conntr}'.  The  ice  itself,  the  labor  expended  on  it,  the 
materials  for  its  preservation,  and  the  means  of  its 
transportation,  would  be  worthless  if  the  trade  did  not 
exist.  The  prices  at  which  ice  sells  hi  places  where  there 
Is  competition  var}'  constantly.  In  Havana,  where  it  is 
a  monopoly,  it  is  sold  at  6^  cents  per  pound,  and  there 
the  trade  has  not  increased  since  1832,  when  the  ship- 
ments were  1112  tons,  while  at  New  Orleans,  where  it 
has  been  sold  at  from  half  a  cent  to  three  cents  per 
ponnd,  it  has  increased  during  the  same  period  from 
2810  tons  to  upward  of  28,000.  At  Calcutta  the  trade 
commenced,  in  1883,  with  a  shipment  for  that  year  of 
301  tons,  and  the  price  has  never  been  above  6  cents 
per  pound,  and  is  now  about  2}  cents.  The  export  to 
that  place  had  increased  in  1847  to  3000  tons,  but 
probably  less  than  one  fifth  of  tliat  quantity  is  actually 
■old,  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the  voyage. 

Ice  being  shipped  and  used  at  all  seasons,'  large 
itotehouMS  are  rtiquired  to  preserve  it.  Exclusive  of 
iM-houMB  on  the  wharvea  at  East  Charlestown  and 


East  Boston,  in  which  Ice  la  stored  for  short  periods, 
there  had  been  erected  in  1847,  and  previously ; 

At  Fresh  Pond,  In  Cambridge,  lee-boasaa  capable  of 

eontalnlnf 8<,T!I9 

AtBp*  Pond,  In  WestCambridca SaoOO 

AtUttlePood        "          "          &4no 

AfWenhsm  Pond 18,000 

AtMedAird  Pond 4,0ii0 

At  Eel  Pond,  In  Maldea a,iiOO 

At  Horn  Pond,  In  Wobam 4,000 

At  Sunuer's  Pond 1,SOO 

Total 141,881 

The  ioe-hous«a  now  in  use  arc  '>uilt  above  ground-. 
In  southern  countries,  where  ice  is  most  valuable,  they 
are  constructed  at  great  expense,  usually  of  brick  or 
stone,  and  the  protection  to  the  lea  consists  In  air 
spaces,  or  in  dr}',  light  vegetable  substances  inclosed 
between  two  walls.  In  this  vicinity,  on  the  borders 
of  the  lakes,  where  ice  is  least  valuable,  they  are 
usually  built  of  wood,  In  which  case  they  are  of  two 
walls,  formed  by  planing  two  ranges  of  Joists  upright, 
flramed  into  plates  at  the  top,  and  placed  in  the  ground 
at  the  bottom,  or  (Vamed  into  sills ;  these  two  ranges 
are  ceiled  with  boards  secured  to  that  side  of  each 
range  which  is  nearest  the  other,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  boardings  filled  with  reftise  tan  wet 
from  the  yards.  This  wet  tan  Is  fh)xen  during  the 
winter,  and  until  it  is  thawed  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer, little  waste  occurs ;  afterward  the  waste  is  more 
rapid,  but,  as  a  large  portion  of  the  ice  is  shipped  or 
otherwise  used  before  this  takes  place,  the)  loss  in 
quantity  is  small,  and,  occurring  before  the  expenses 
of  transportation  have  been  paid,  is  of  less  pecuniary 
moment. 

In  one  instance,  brick  has  been  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  an  ice-house  which  covers  86,000  feet  of  land, 
and  the  vaulta  of  this  ice-house  are  40  feet  in  depth, 
and  its  walls  are  four  feet  thick  ttom  outaida  to  inside, 
inclosing  two  sets  of  air-spaces.  Such  a  construction 
is  more  costly,  but  has  the  advantage  of  durability  and 
safety  fhim  fire,  to  which  ice-houses  are  much  exposed 
from  the  fVequent  juxtaposition  of  railroad-engines,  and 
the  light,  dry  material  used  about  them  to  cover  and 
otherwise  preserve  ice.  At  first,  the  Implements  of 
husbandry  only  were  used  in  securing  ice,  but  as  the 
trade  became  more  important,  other  machines  and  dif- 
ferent methods  were  adopted,  and  abandoned  when 
better  were  brought  forward,  or  when  the  increased 
magnitude  of  the  business  required  greater  facilities. 
More  ice  is  now  secured  in  one  favorable  day  thun 
would  have  supplied  the  whole  trade  in  1882,  Ordi- 
narily, before  there  has  been  cold  enough  to  form  ice 
of  suitable  thickness,  snow  falls  on  its  surface.  If 
this  occurs  when  the  ice  is  four  or  more  Inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  the  snow  not  heavy  enough  to  sink  the  ire, 
it  can  be  removed  by  using  hones  attached  to  the 
"snow-scraper;"  and  under  such  circumstances  this 
is  the  method  in  common  use.  But  if  snow  fulls 
so  heavy  as  to  bring  the  water  above  the  surface  of 
the  ice,  it  is  removed,  after  it  has  congealed  into  snow, 
ice,  with  the  "  ice-plane,"  which  takes  oflT  alraut  two 
inches  deep  and  22  inches  wide  of  its  surface.  This 
machine  is  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  is  guided  by  in- 
serting its  "guides"  into  grooves  previously  made 
with  the  "ice-cutter."  The  chips  made  by  it  are 
scraped  olT  in  the  same  manner  as  dry  snow.  These 
preliminary  expenses  are  often  very  great;  fre- 
quently, after  much  expense  has  been  incurred  to  re- 
move a  body  of  snow  or  snow-ice,  the  weather  be- 
comes warm  and  spoils  the  ice  on  which  so  much  has 
been  expended.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not 
done  and  the  cold  continues,  there  will  be  little  or  no 
increase  of  thickness  to  the  ice,  which  is  equally  a 
disaster. 

When  ice  has  been  formed  of  sufficient  thickness, 
and  freed  from  mow  and  snow-ice,  it  is  reduced  to 
blocks  of  uniform  size,  ordinarily  22  inches  square,  by 
the  "  ic«  cutter,"    This  mMbia*  it  similar  to  a  car- 


IGK 


1003 


lOB 


onstTuc- 
of  land, 
n  depth, 
o  inside, 
itruction 
Ulty  »nd 
exposed 
Ines,  and 
)Ver  and 
lenU  of 
It  as  the 
and  dif- 
|ed'  when 
increased 
facilities. 
lay  thun 
;.    Ordi- 
fonn  ice 
[ace.      If 
in  thicli- 
the  iop, 
to  the 
Inces  this 
low  fuUs 
irface  of 
jto  snow. 
Lbout  two 
M.     This 
fed  by  in- 
sly  made 
Iby  U  are 
These 
leat;    fre- 
red  to  re- 
lather  be- 
[much  has 
It  is  not 
Itle  ot  no 
lually  a 

Ithickness, 
leduced  to 
Iqnaie,  by 
1  to  »  car- 


pentor't  plow,  weapk  that  It  hu  •  oerle*  of  cutting- 1 
chlMlt,  on*  auocMding  another,  and  deepening  the 
graoTa.  It  If  drawn  by  a  hone,  and  cut*  at  one  paaiage 
about  two  inches  deep,  and  If  the  ice  requires  to  l<« 
planed  to  remove  snow-lee,  the  guides  of  the  "  inow- 
plane"  are  used  in  grooves  of  this  depth,  but  when 
grooves  are  required  to  split  from,  the  "  ic»«atter" 
ohould  be  drawn  two  or  three  times  through  each. 
These  grooves  should  be  parallel  to  each  other,  and  to 
make  them  so,  the  "  ice-cutter"  has  a  guide,  which  is 
placed  in  the  last  groove  made.  When  the  grooves 
in  one  direction  have  been  made,  others  at  right  an- 
gles with  them  are  produced  in  the  same  manner. 
After  thi*  has  iieen  done,  one  groove  at  the  end  is 
opened,  and  also  the  two  outside  grooves ;  a  wedging- 
bar  is  theu' stricken  into  the  groove  next  the  end  one, 
and  at  several  places  along  its  length,  which  detaches 
It  easily  flrom  thu  moss ;  then  the  same  l)ar  is  forced, 
with  a  slight  blow,  into  the  transverse  grooves,  which 
reduces  the  ice  to  very  uniform  square  blocks.  The 
blocks  of  ice  thus  formed  are  l)ruuglit  to  the  receiving- 
doors  of  the  ice-houses  (which  are  built  on  the  imme- 
diate borders  of  the  ponds),  either  by  placing  them  on 
sleds,  or  floating  in  canals  cut  through  the  ice.  Various 
modes  of  elevating  the  ice  ore  in  use ;  the  endless 
chain,  in  combination  with  the  inclined  plane,  has 
been  successfully  used,  and  also  the  common  pile- 
driving  steam-engine;  but  at  present  horse-power  is 
more  used  than  any  other.  The  ice  is  placed  in  the 
houses  in  regular  courses,  every  block  exactly  cover- 
ing the  next  below  it.  When  a  vault  has  been  filled, 
it  is  immediately  covered  with  wood-shavings  and  the 
receiving-doors  fitted  up,  to  prevent  waste,  until  the 
contents  are  required  for  shipment  abroad  or  use  at 
home.  The  weight  of  ice  for  shipment  is  usually  de- 
termined, at  the  wharves,  immediately  before  being  put 
on  shiplx>ard,  on  scales  which  have  lieen  constructed 
for  the  purpose ;  and  this  single  operation  settles  the 
weight  to  b«  paid  for  by  the  party  for  whose  accou,nt 
the  ice  is  shipped ;  the  amount  duo  for  freight  on  ship- 
board, for  transportation  on  the  railroad,  and  that 
which  is  to  be  received  by  the  owner  of  the  ice. — 
American  Almanac,  year  1849. 

The  aggregate  of  freights  paid  for  ice  shipped  In 
Boston  in  1856,  was  $2  60  the  tun,  clean  and  clear  to 
the  ship-owner ;  therefore  he  received  from  this  trade 
last  year  $365,000  (a  large  interest),  and  prol>ably  more 
profit  than  any  other  interest  whatever  in  the  busi- 
ness. Railroads  and  wagons  were  paid  $100,000 ;  lo- 
l>orers,  $160,000 ;  towns,  for  taxes  of  ice  privileges  and 
ice  in  store,  $1500 ;  and  wharves  $20,000  to  $25,000. 
There  are  93  wagons  and  about  150  horses  employed 
in  distributing  ice  in  Boston  and  vicinity  ;  60,000  tons 
are  thus  retailed,  supplying  18,000  families,  hotels, 
stores,  and  factories. 

The  tons  of  ice  prepared  for  market,  its  value,  capi- 
tal invested,  and  number  of  persons  employed  in  this 
business  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1855,  are  shown 
in  the  annexed  summary  : 


New  Tork,  up  to  this  time,  haf  exported  but  little 
Ice,  being  chiefly  engaged  in  proeuKng  an  amount  suf- 
ficient tot  Its  domestic  supply.  New  York  city  and 
vicinity  is,  for  the  most  part,  tupplled  with  lea  by  four 
or  Ave  Joint-stock  companies.  The  amount  of  Ice 
placed  in  storage  for  the  winter  of  18M-7,  by  these 
various  companies,  is  estimated  u  follows  t 

Knickerbocker  Ice  Co wSjM  "^ 

New  York  and  Brooklyn  Co, M,OW     ( 

People'sOo 90,000 

Independent  Co 90,000 

FsisalaCo T.OOO 

Total nT,000 

The  Knickerbocker  Company,  which  engrrssei  • 
large  proportion  of  the  business,  is  a  consolidation  of 
three  separate  concerns  into  one  company,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $300,000.  Its  supply  of  ice  is  'derived  from 
Rockland  and  Highland  lakes.  The  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  Company  obtains  its  suppler  from  the  Hudson  - 
River  at  Athens;  the  Independent  from  the  same 
place  ;  the  People's  from  the  same  river  at  Catskill ; 
and  the  Passaic  from  the  reservoir  at  Jersey  City. 

Erpoti  TVode.— The  export  of  ice  during  the  year 
1866,  from  Boston,  has  l>een  ai  follows : 

Tom. 

East  Indies 14,880 

Pern l,m 

Csllao 6,744 

Melbourne,  Australia.       MS 

Sydney,  N.  8.  W 680 

Valparaiso 014 

Ouyaquil 1,028 

Ceylon 4«I 

Rio  .Janeiro 1,T61 

llavaoa.  B,801 

Demerara. l|lno 

Montevideo 8(8 

Kingston,  Ja I,ira4 

Asplnwall 9S7 

Cardenas 429 

St.  Thomas T78 

BuenosAyres B80 

Bnull 48 

Barbailacs. 8T7 

StJaeo 44B 

Matonias <0& 

NewOronada 890 

Lagolra. 218 

PortoCabello BO 

The  total  capital  invested  in  the  ice  bdsiness  is 
$700,000,  and  the    total  quantity  gathered  897,000 
tons,  about  one  third  only  of  which  is  exported. 
Exports  or  Ice  from  tbk  Unitkd   States,   roa  lAca 
YiiB  MDWO  Jpiia  80TII,  1888,  1854,  and  1865. 
idV*. 


T<u. 

Port  Spain 

704 

Pernambnco 

9BT 

Martinique 

911 

South  America. . . . 

876 

Cuba 

814 

Bahla. •.. 

87B 

Porto  Rico 

181 

Mansanllla 

6T 

Nassau,  N.P 

180 

10 

Bermuda 

40 

BloHache 

10 

Boathera  ports... 

..    81,(90 

ToUl,18S«.... 

..  128,814 

"      188B.... 

..     98,080 

»      1864.... 

..  116,810 

"      1868.... 

..    89,799 

»      1869. . . . 

.      94,489 

•'      1861.... 

..    99,687 

"      I860.... 

..    69,698 

"      18«».... 

...    66,8U8 

"      1848.... 

..    67,607 

"      1847.... 

..    64,626 

Cuunuti-i. 


Bristol .... 

Kssex. 

Htddleaex . 

Plymouth.. 

Total... 


Tool  pr«< 
parvd  fur 
nuirket. 

~  16,200 

13,900 

866,900 

800 


Vahu 
umully. 


897,100  t689,10u 


The  annual  domestic  consumption  of  ice  in  the  chief 
citieg  of  the  United  Utates  is  estimated  as  follows : 


Tom. 

Boston 60,000 

New  Tork 800,000 

PhlladslpbU 800,000 

Baltimore 46,000 

Washington 90,000 


Tonf, 

Charleston 16,000 

Mobile 16.000 

NewOrleana. 40,000 

Bt  Louis. 26,000 

Cincinnati 26,000 


In  the  smaller  towns,  especially  in  those  where 
water  is  introduced  V}-  rasorvulrs,  the  consumption  of 
ice  is  about  two  thirds  as  great  in  proportion  to  their 
population  as  in  the  larger  cities. 


Danish  West  Indies. , 
Dutch  East  Indies. . . . 

England 

OlbralUr. 

British  East  Indies... 

British  Galana 

British  West  Indies.. 

Australia   

French  West  Indies. 
Spain  on  the  Medlter 

Manilla 

Cuba 

Spanish  West  Indies — 

Portngal 

Mexico 

Central  Republle 

New  Granada 

Veneiuela 

Brull 

Pern 

CbllL 

China., 

AMca 

Canada 

British  Amer.  colonies. 

France. 

Porto  Rico 

Cape  it  Verd  Islands. . 

BuenosAyres 

Ecuador 

ToUl 


I8U. 


V>lii>. 

12,069 

7,706 

4,606 

620 

02,M0 

681 

92,Ufrl 

1,191 

8,416 

960 

8,189 

88,402 

2,!S22 

848 

1,066 

245 

4,630 

68 

a628 

14,186 

2,982 

900 

9,966 


V>liw. 
$4,099 

"686 

108,8  is 

OSS 

12,236 

4,409 

1,675 

869 

1,600 

26,278 

916 

800 

2,460 

4^768 

184 

11,071 

16,286 

4,906 

858 

""i9 

076 


Tom. 

1,528 

2,180 

781 

9,094 
997 

8,880 
496 
428 
271 
997 

7,646 

"286 

8< 

20 

180 

8^109 
6JM1 
1,687 


606 
64 

197 
OOO 
988 
808 


♦176.0661202,118    41.117" 


V»Ju«. 

$3,888 
6,478 
8,000 

90^897 
2,969 

14,471 

1,606 

1,070 

900 

8,200 

91,1(1 

■'b78 
770 
820 

470 

'9^972 
17,449 
6,647 


1, 
176 
896 

2,iH)0 

CoO 

_  9,494 


From  this  statement  it  would  appear  that  the  Brit- 
ish East  Indies  absorb  the  largest  quantity  of  ice  ftom 
this  region,  Cuba  next,  and  Pern  the  third  in  impoit- 


ICE 


1004 


lOE 


MM.  At  praMnt  th*  tcgragaU  ii  rtty  trifling,  hut 
u  fMt  M  In*  HlleU  b«coniM  known  in  louthern  ell- 
m»IM  it  will  be  mora  ipiiraciittd,  «n<l  will  bMoma  > 
p«rni*ntnt  article  of  export  from  Boiton,  where  the 
•hipmentf  are  principally  made.  Uy  reference  to  the 
prfice<llng  page  It  will  lie  leen  that  the  domeitic  con- 
luniptinn  of  ice  at  the  Muthem  porti  Ii  larger  than  the 
foreign  export. 

Exroira  nr  Ina  raoK  ma  I'mitbii  HTiTaa  nnaina  Tna 
Fiscal  Yaia  aNDiMU  Jiraa  10,  lUfl. 

WliUlMraip«fW4.  Tom.  Dolton. 

Danlah  Wtnl  Indlei ii8S  1,84ft 

Dutch  Eut  iDdlM 1,880  T.mn 

Knfland 800  100 

Malta I'M  l.iHW 

Canada B  Bo 

BriUah  WMt  Indite 8,088  1B,ATB 

Britlah  Oiiltna SiB  Mi 

Britlih  IMwanloni  IB  Africa 4M  l,«IO 

BrltUh  Auatralla. . .  1,!l»«  4,100 

Brillah  l':ut  IndiM >,«B1  104,4«) 

'     Pnnch  Wtit  Indiea 480  1,100 

Cub* »,B0»  «9,ltl 

PortoRlco 884  1,IM 

Srrpt no  1,400 

■xico 100  180 

MawOraaada 681  1,KTS 

Braall 8,110  »,0«0 

J^m 1,000  t,ntO 

Ecuador 840  4,n00 

landwloh  Iilandi 400  1,400 

China MB  1.T10 

ToUl,  ISfiS 3V,48l  11X1,615 

The  foreign  export  of  ice  waa  from  the  following 
porta: 


I'eiiobacot,  ate 

Ilnston 

New  York 

Other  porta 

Total,  a  yeara. 


IM«. 
TuM. 


m 

41,414 

i,B6a 

B 


43,IB0 


isr 


ToMI. 


177 

4A,8KR 

1,016 

17 


BI,B.i!t 


lutt. 


Tmii.     I 


"Viiiii 


3*1, 1  ill 

1,567 

ft 


B»,4H1 


iji;7ii 

101,47'i 

7,110 

ftO 


«lUit,l>10 


— For  Ice-housea,  see  Cabkt's  ifiu.,  xll.  176.  Ice 
Trade,  etc.,  aee  Hunt's  J/ier.  Afng,,  v.  444,  xl,  877; 
Jour,  of  Set.,  ill.  179,  iz.  186,  xlvl.  179,  xlviii.  87.1; 
Fankff'  Mag.,  ill.  406;  Am.  £clec.  ill.  807,  512(Loti8 
AnAS.117:),  Ir,  1. 

Zoebergs.  The  accumulation  upon  elevated  altu- 
ttions  of  frozen  enow  produces  tboMi  moving  maasc s 
of  ice  called  glacUn.  In  the  Alps  and  in  Norway 
these  glaciers,  coming  down  to  a  mild  region,  melt 
■way ;  but  In  the  arctic  regions  they  often  flow  into 
the  sea  and  produce  Iceliergs.  They  are  of  all  sizes, 
ttom  mere  lyagments  to  upward  of  half  a  mile  In  diam- 
eter, and  of  all  weights,  from  a  few  pounds  to  100,000 
tone.  They  rise  aometlmes  ISO  feet  above  the  water, 
■nd  this  Is  but  an  eighth  of  the  whole  mass.  Icebergs 
ttom  each  pole  have  approached  nearer  the  equator  than 
40°  north  and  south  latitude ;  they  have  been  met  with 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Many 
of  these  icebergs  originating  on  land,  present  the  same 
phenomena  as  glnclors.  Hence,  upon  near  Inspection, 
they  are  found  to  b«  loaded  with  the  debris  which,  as 
glaciers,  they  scraped  olT  the  mountain  sides,  past 
which  they  flowed  to  the  sea.  This  debris  contains 
masses  of  green-atone,  clay-slate,  gneiss,  granite,  etc. 
In  the  polar  circle,  where  the  flnating  masses  reach  to 
hundreds  of  miles  in  length,  thoy  are  called  ice  Ulandt. 
The  ice-ilinHittt  appearance  produced  on  the  horizon  by 
thone  Ice  Islands  when  stationary,  and  which  indicates 
the  existence  of  an  ice  Island  before  it  is  itself  visible. 

Zoe-boatS,  boaU  so  constructed  as  to  sail  upon  ice, 
and  which  are  very  common  in  Holland.  They  go 
with  incredible  swiftness,  sometimes  so  quickly  as  to 
affect  the  breath,  and  are  found  very  useful  In  convey- 
ing goods  and  passengers  across  lakes  and  great  rivers. 
Boats  of  diffisrent  sizes  are  placed  in  a  traverse  form 
npon  a  2i  or  8  inch  deal  board.  At  the  extremity  of 
each  end  are  fixed  irons,  wbick  turn  up  in  the  form  of 
skates.  Upon  this  plank  the  boat  rests,  and  the  two 
ends  serve  as  outriggers  to  prevent  oversetting,  whence 
ropes  are  fastened  that  lead  to  the  head  of  the  mast  in 


the  natnf*  of  shrouds,  and  olhara  pasMd  thrAUgh  • 
block  across  the  bowsprit,  The  ruddar  la  inaitn  iimit* 
what  like  a  hatchet  with  the  head  plaoeil  downward, 
which  Ivjing  pressed  down,  cuts  the  lee,  and  Mrves  all 
the  purpoeea  of  a  rudder  In  the  water,  by  iiiabllng  the 
helmsman  to  steer. 

Xo«  lalands,  a  name  givtn  by  sailors  to  a  graal 
quantity  of  ice  collected  Into  one  huge  solid  tnnss,  and 
floating  about  the  seas  nuar  or  within  the  piiliir  cir- 
cles. The  motion  of  tlie  lesser  pUcat  Is  as  rHpId  as 
the  currents;  the  greater,  which  are  aomellinss  Son 
leaguea  long,  and  00  or  80  broad,  move  slowly  and 
majestically;  often  llx  by  the  tide,  liiitiinvabi*  liy  the 
power  of  the  ocean,  and  then  produee  near  the  horliinn 
that  bright  white  a|i|iearaiios  called  the  {i*-IiUhL  The 
appruxiiiialion  of  two  great  fields  priiducer  n  mi;*!  slii- 
gular  pheiionienun  ;  it  forces  the  lesaer  (If  the  Isrni  run 
be  applleil  to  pieces  of  severnl  acres  xiuiire)  nut  of  the 
water,  and  adda  it  to  the  surface  i  n  sei'oiKl,  niiil  oftan 
a  third,  succeed*,  so  that  the  whole  roriiis  an  itgurfgiite 
of  a  tremendous  weight.  These  float  In  llie  si'n  like  so 
many  rugged  mountains,  and  are  sdiiiel  lines  hOO  nr  IKIO 
yards  thick;  but  tho  far  greater  part  Is  i'<inci<sli<d  be- 
neath the  water.  These  aru  uonlintinlly  ItH'reaurd  In 
height  by  the  fre'**";  »f  the  spray  of  the  sea,  or  the 
melting  of  the  snow  whirh  fulls  on  llieui,  'I'lioio 
which  remain  in  this  ft'oiien  lillniale  raculve  eotillnual 
additions;  others  are  gradually  wafled  by  Ihti  north- 
em  winds  Into  southern  latitudes,  and  melt  by  degrees 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  tIM  they  waste  «w«y  nr  tilmp- 
pear  in  tlie  boundless  element, 

Iceland,  one  of  the  largest  Islands  In  Kiirn|i«  Oio- 
ing  little  inferior.  In  point  of  miiierlleliil  extent,  In  Ire- 
land), is  situated  in  the  north  part  of  tlin  Alliuilla 
Ocean,  between  N.  lat,  OH'  W  110",  and  IIH"  »'i\  and 
W.  long.  18°  m'  U',  and  24"  «4'  U"\  thy  north  point 
being  thus  very  near  to  the  arotio  rlrele,  but  nut  |in»s- 
ing  beyond  it,  as  all  maps  but  a  recent  RUllinrllatlve 
one  have  represented  it,  Its  exlrenie  length  from  ensi 
to  west  Is  about  2N0  miles,  and  Its  breadtli  from  north 
to  south  varies  from  IHO  to  200  miles, 

The  precise  sieriod  at  which  this  Island  wim  illaonv- 
ered  and  first  colonized  Is  unknown)  but  from  the 
Landnaroabok,  an  ancient  Icelanilifl  ehruiilelv,  ntid  n 
work  generally  relied  ujion  as  aullmnllK,  wn  lenrii  lliiit 
the  Morwegiuns  wore  the  llrat  settlers  upon  Its  vnasti. 
Naddodr,  a  famous  pirate  of  that  ndveiituroiii  nation, 
was,  on  his  rotnrn  to  the  Karoo  Islands  from  n  prodn- 
tory  excursion,  about  the  year  HIIO,  driven  by  a  tem- 
pest upon  the  coast  of  Iceland.  He  ascended  In  the 
summit  of  a  mountain,  but  oliserving  arimnd  lilm  nei- 
ther the  vestige  of  a  human  realdanua,  nor  auglil  cUn 
than  vast  and  trackless  flolds  of  snow,  lie  Innneilliilely 
abandoned  It.  I'rnliulily  aware  of  this  ilUcoverv,  (Inr- 
dar  Svarfarson,  a  Swede,  followed  the  same  traeH  n  few 
years  afterwani,  and,  auceeedlng  In  elreninniivigiiliiig 
the  country,  discovered  It  to  lie  an  Island.  Tlio  third 
adventurer  on  this  coast  was  one  Klokl,  another  cel- 
ebrated Norwegian  pirate,  who,  during  lh«  two  neii- 
sons,  explored  a  considerable  portion  of  tho  luiilliern 
and  western  coasts, 

Tho  ancient  Icelanders  |iosiasB«d,  as  Is  sllll  llio 
case  with  their  posterity,  few  of  lh«  luxuries  or  rellne- 
ments  of  life,  and  were  odcasioniilly  exposed  to  sovero 
privations,  from  the  nature  of  their  soil  nml  lliu  i  II- 
mato  under  which  they  lived.  There  Is  rniimin,  linw- 
ever,  to  believe  that  the  climate  of  leeland  was  mice 
less  austere  than  It  now  is;  and  that  nut  only  trees 
and  shrubs,  but  even  corn,  were  grown  iijioii  iliu  Inl- 
and. Of  the  undent  exlatanmi  uf  Ihii  former,  the 
trunks  occasionally  discovered  In  the  bogs  Nfl'ord  pret- 
ty jatlsfactor}'  evidence,  (irain  of  iiny  de«('rl|i|liin  Is 
not  now  a  native  of  this  island  |  and  a  few  lilr(  lies,  nut 
rising  much  mora  than  n  yard  In  litdght,  niTord  tlio 
only  approach  toward  timlier,  Mke  the  ureaenl  In- 
habitants, the  ancient  Icelanders  were  innehills|ier<i'il 
over  the  country,  their  habitation*  bttlng   seldom 


.'ifsiuiki 


lOB 


14M 


ILL 


•lUI  tl<a 

I  or  riil\iio> 

ti)  Kovi-ro 

III  llui  ill- 

Imiii,  li'iw- 
1  wn*  <Mi('o 
tiily  triM'« 
III  llio  I'l- 
Ifllinf,  llio 
iTiird  lirrt- 
brljitliiii  In 

nffiml  tlio 
Irgnriil  I"* 

}  (llnlHT'l'll 

ndlituin 


fTouptd  togtOwr,  bnt  pUecd  whcnrtr  tin  iltuatlon 
and  natura  of  tha  ioU  app«ar«d  mtltahl*.  Their  occu- 
pation <  and  modsi  of  Ufa  appear  alto  to  hava  Imma 
mucli  similitude.  The  proiluce  of  the  farm,  and  the 
capture  of  flth,  affbrded  them,  aa  they  do  the  prerant 
Inhabitant*,  the  principal  mean)  of  •uhtlitenca)  and 
their  traffic  with  foreign  countrlea  made  a  valuable  ad- 
dition to  their  domentlc  oomfortii. 

/•.ip«/ri/i()fi.— The  population  of  Iceland  hai  under- 
gone considerable  vicimiitudoii  through  the  operation  of 
epidetnice.  At  60,444  In  1703,  It  hod  «unk,  In  1709,  to 
46,'201,  nor  did  It  Hue  much  above  this  point  through- 
out the  remainder  of  the  century.  In  IH80  It  wai 
89,167.  Thli  la  imall  for  an  Uland  whose  eurface  li  to 
that  of  Ireland  aa  four  to  five ;  but  that  aurface,  both 
from  itn  own  nature,  and  the  character  of  the  climate, 
'  b  [lerhaps  as  unfavoralile  na  any  which  exists  between 
the  limits  of  the  two  arctic  circles.  Deducting  the 
Kraaa  of  the  numerous  flnrdn  with  which  it  Is  Inter- 
aected,  the  square  contents  of  the  land  may  l)e  calcu- 
latM  at  8"/,888  statute  miles :  but  us  the  centre  of  the 
island  consists  entirely  of  snowy  and  uninhabited 
mountains,  the  peopled  portion  can  not  bo  considered 
more  than  26,000  square  miles ;  and  the  population 
therefore  will  not  much  exceed  two  persona  to  each 
square  mile.  At  present  the  population  must  bo  In- 
creaslnB  with  great  rapidity,  If  we  may  judge  fh>m 
the  proportion  of  births  to  deaths,  the  respective  num- 
bers in  1852  being  2485  (of  which  383  were  illegitimate) 
and  1487.  The  whole  population  Is  employed  either 
in  farming,  whichoccnples  about  three  fourths  of  the 
men,  or  In  fishing'.  Other  employments  do  not  exUt, 
nor  is  there  any  other  class  of  people  or  townsmen, 
aave  the  small  number  of  merchants  in  Relklavik  and 
the  other  trading  establishments.  Everj"  branch  of 
industr}-  Is  therefore  domestic,  and  confined  chiefly  to 
articles  of  clothing,  such  as  coarse  cloth,  gloves,  mit- 
tens, and  stockings.  The  peasantr}-  are  generally  in- 
genious, and  manufacture  such  simple  pieces  of  furni- 
ture as  their  cottages  require ;  some  also  aspire  to 
mako  trinkets  of  silver,  and  articles  ffom  the  walrus' 
tusks.  The  trade  of  Iceland  has  never,  till  the  pres- 
ent  time,  been  managed  in  what  modem  science  points 
out  as  the  most  advantageous  way.  The  Danish  gov- 
ernment long  had  a  monopoly  of  the  business  of  this 
remote  dependency.  For  many  years,  whilo  this  was 
abolished,  Danish  merchants  had  a  preference  to  trad- 
ing, hy  virtue  of  higher  duties  exacted  fVom  those  of 
other  countries.  It  was  not  until  1856  that  the  for- 
eign  merchant  was  encouraged  to  come  to  Iceland  by 
a  perfect  equality  of  terms.  The  only  place  in  the 
island  untitled  to  be  considered  as  a  port  Is  Relklavik : 
only  a  few  trading  stations  exist  elsewhere.  There  is 
an  annual  export  of  from  1,000,000  to  1,200,000  pounds 
of  raw  wool,  besides  about  200,000  pairs  of  knitted 
stockings,  and  300,000  mittens,  or  gloves  without  fin- 
gers. The  Iceland  sheep  have  remarkably  fine  fleecea 
of  wool,  which  the  farmers.  In  the  spring  of  the  year, 
take  olf  whole ;  their  weight  being  usually  fWim  four 
to  five  pounds.  The  other  principal  branch  of  Indus- 
try In  Iceland  Is  fishing,  which  must  he  considered  aa 
in  a  thriving  state.  The  fishing-banks  around  the 
island  abound  In  co<l  and  other  species,  and  the  number 
of  Iwats  engaged  In  the  business  in  1853  amounted  to 
8600,  being  an  advance  of  nearly  50  per  cent.  In  20 
years.  Fish-oil,  whale-bluliber,  skins,  elder-down, 
feathers,  and  the  Lichen  Itlandicfii,  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, may  also  be  liicludod  among  their  list  of  ex- 
ports. These  the  natives  dispose  of  to  the  Danish 
merchants  in  exchange  for  coflTee,  sugar,  tobacco, 
snuif,  a  small  quantity  of  brandy,  rye  and  r}'»-bread, 
biscuit,  wheaten  flour,  salt,  soap,  and  such  other  small 
articles  as  are  la  constant  use  for  domestic  purposes. 
Those  who  can  afford  It,  purchase  a  supply  of  linens 
and  cottons,  which  of  late  years  have  become  of  more 
common  use,  and  which  must  tend  greatly  to  cleanli- 
ness, and  the  prevention  of  those  diseases  which  wool- 


en olothtng  worn  naxt  ILa  skin  ttnda  to  engender. 
The  traffic  I  Ims  ocoasloned  Ukea  place  In  the  early  part 
of  summer,  and  while  It  lasts  creataa  a  kind  of  fair, 
with  no  little  bustle  and  buslnesa  in  the  capiul.  All 
the  articles  brought  from  the  Interior  for  sale  at  ths 
saa-porta,  and  all  those  taken  back  for  winter  con- 
sumption, are  transported  on  pack-horses.  There  is 
not.  In  fitct.  In  all  Iceland  such  a  machine  aa  a  wheal- 
carriage ;  before  any  auch  can  he  used,  there  must  b« 
roads,  of  which,  up  to  the  present  time,  none  exist. 
The  lines  of  transit  along  the  country  are  mere  tracks, 
cut  deep  by  use  where  the  ground  is  soft,  and  encum- 
bere<l  by  blacks  where  It  Is  hard.  Yet  full  as  these 
patha  are  of  difficuitiea,  it  is  surjirlslng  at  what  a  pace 
the  small,  hardy,  sura-fuoted  horses  of  the  countr}- 
will  proceed.  For  foot  traveling  they  an  In  general 
impracticable. 

The  revenue  of  the  Island,  arising  from  crown  prop- 
erty, commercial  charges,  a  small  tax  on  transference 
of  property,  etc.,  amounted  In  the  year  ending  81st 
March,  1864,  to  29,049  rlx-doltars  (£3119),  while  tha 
expenditure  for  offlcera'  salaries,  educating  the  clergy, 
and  other  Items,  waa  60,743  rlx-dollars,  or  more  than 
double  tha  Income,  tha  excess  being  supplied  by  tha 
central  government.  The  income,  however,  appears 
to  be  Increasing  in  proportion. 

The  scanty  produce  of  the  land  is,  however,  to  • 
great  degree  compensated  for  by  the  abundance  of  fine 
fish  which  occurs  on  the  coast.  In  several  parts  of 
the  island,  particularly  on  the  north  and  north-west, 
the.  shark  fishery  is  a  regular  occupation.  Strong 
hooks  fastened  to  chains  are  baited  and  anchored  a  lit- 
tle way  out  to  sea,  and  the  fish  when  caught  are  thus 
towod  to  shore.  Of  the  skin,  shoes  are  made ;  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  oil  Is  extracted,  and  some  parts 
of  the  flesh  are  occasionally  smoked  and  used  by  tha 
natives  for  food  The  cod  is  ver}'  plentiful ;  the  had- 
dock grows  to  a  large  size ;  ling,  skate,  flounders,  and 
halibut,  are  likewise  very  common ;  the  herring,  too, 
frequents  the  fiords  in  vast  shuals,  but  this  branch  of 
the  fishery  has  hitherto  been  little  attended  to.  The 
salmon  In  the  rivers  are  said  to  be  very  fine,  and  no 
country  in  the  world  produce  them  in  greater  quantity. 
Seals  are  particularly  numerous  on  the  shores  of  the 
Breide-flord  and  the  western  coast.  See  JCd.  Rtv.,  ill., 
334  (Sydney  Smith),  xlx.,416i  QKnr.7Jeii.,llv.,  185, 
xlx.,  291,  vll.,  43  (I{.  Soutuey)  ;  Wettm.  Rtv.,  ill., 
264;  North  Am.  Rn.,x%%y.,  76  (0.  W.  B.  Pbabody)  ; 
For.  Quar.,  ix.,  41. 

niinoiB,  oni)  of  the  United  States,  Is  bounded 
north  by  Wisconsin,  east  by  Lake  Mlchigau  and  In- 
diana, from  which  It  Is  separated  fur  a  third  of  Its  length 
by  the  Wabash  Kiver,  south  by  the  Ohio,  which  sep- 
arates it  from  Kentucky,  and  west  by  the  Mississippi. 
It  lies  between  N.  lat.  87°  and  42°  30',  and  between 
W.  long.  87°  49'  and  91°  28'.  Greatest  length  flrom 
north  to  south  378  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  212  miles ; 
average  breadth,  140  miles.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
66,409  square  miles,  being  only  about  3000  square 
miles  less  than  that  of  England  and  Wales,  Accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1850,  little  more  than  a  sixth  part 
of  the  State  was  under  cnltivation. 

Illinois  is  one  of  the  most  level  States  in  the  Union. 
With  the  exception  of  a  range  of  low  hills  in  the 
south,  and  a  good  deal  of  broken  land  in  the  north- 
west, as  well  08  a  few  elevations  near  the  Illinois,  and 
some  la'ty  bluffs  along  the  Mississippi,  the  State  may 
be  regarded  as  an  extensive  table-land,  gently  inclin- 
ing toward  the  south-west.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
the  soil  Is  only  about  340  feet  above  tide-water  in  tha 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  highest  elevation  In  the  whole 
State  does  not  exceed  800  feet  above  that  standard. 
Its  surface  Is  occupied  almost  entirely  by  prairies, 
which  are  popularly  distinguished  by  the  names, 
"wet"  and  "dry,"  ''alluvial"  and  "rolling."  The 
wet  prairies  are  peaty,  indicating  that  they  have  once 
been  morasses.    Those  of  an  alluvial  nature  are  dry, 


WL 


looa 


ILL 


wMk  ■  rich  biMk  Iomi,  >iid  (leMitliiiilr  r«rttk.  llMjr 
M«  eoTtrad  wMh  •  ooan*  kind  of  ||r*M,  whleh  frowi 
lo  III  Miomoiu  tlu,  Th*  Mill  of  lh«  hl^ih  kad  "  mU- 
Iiir"  prslrlM  U,  In  gM*ral,  only  of  Mconil-nU  qokllly, 
•nd  ■bonnrfi  In  iprinR*.  <)rkp».vln«t  •»  iilmnduit. 
Th*  prairUi  fnrnUh  *■  Inaxhaiwllbl*  Mniniar  nngt 
for  catUs.  KroM  th*  txciixlinK  Aatnma  of  Kima  of  lb* 
plaint,  lb*  mini  tliat  Call  am  allowad  In  itaiinata,  and 
Ihua  nndar  lb*  iltuatlon  unhaaltby.  Th*  UramI 
Pralri*,  wbloh  U  lb*  UrK*rt  trait  of  tbia  dnarripllon, 
U  probalilr  th*  hlHbaat  tablr-land  li*twr*n  th*  MlMli- 
•Ippl  and  th*  Waliath.  It  cxtanda  trom  th*  oounly  of 
Jaekioii,  In  a  iiortb-aaat  ilircotlun,  tu  th*  IniquoU 
oouBly,  and  varlaa  In  hroadth  frum  I  to  upward  of  I'i 
mil**,  AKbaunb  paaalnfi  und*r  on*  nanM,  It  dii*«  not 
MUilil  of  on*  ilBKl*  tract  of  lan<l,  hut  U  lin>krn  up 
Into  Hvaral  rtachr*  of  pralrln  Kmuncl,  with  itrlp*  uf 
wood  mnnlng  hctw»*n  th*ni.  It  1*  rioh  and  fartllo, 
■nd  Mvaral  Mttlcroantu  hav*  li*«n  located  on  Ita 
bordar,  which  li  avary  wh*r«  nklrtad  with  wimmI.  Th* 
pralrlai,  g*D*r*lly,  ar*  not  pUntlfully  nupptlvj  with 
Umhar,  most  of  tham  b*lnK  only  lnt*nip*r«*d  with 
KToap*  of  tnsM,  or  iklrteil  with  ntiipK  of  fiinut. 
Much  of  tb*  youoff  woimI  la  (lc*iruy*d  by  th*  annual 
winter  burning  of  tb*  cnum*  k'***>  which  oirart  at 
latit  two  thinl»  of  th*  pralrl*  land.  In  •prinn  Ih* 
prairi**  again  b«com*  profuaaly  d*ck*d  with  th* 
greateat  rarlaty  of  beautiful  and  delicat*  flower*  of 
avcry  hu*. 

Illlnol*  la  dlatant  from  th*  aea,  but  la  well  provldad 
with  river*.  Nearly  three  (tourtha  of  ita  Iraundary  la 
formed  by  navlKabI*  rivera;  and  on  the  notth-eaat 
It  baa  Lak*  Michigan  for  upward  of  )!0  milaii.  The 
MlaaUalppI,  which  forma  Ita  entire  wcatem,  and  the 
Ohio,  which  forma  the  aouthem  boundary,  give  com- 
mercial accesa  to  thoa*  valleya  which  Iwar their  namea. 
The  Wabaah,  a  noble  atreain  which  iHiunda  the  Htate 
on  th*  eaat  for  more  than  IHO  mile*,  la  navigable  for 
more  than  that  diatance.  For  Internal  communication, 
the  Illinoia,  which  belonga  entirely  to  thia  8tate,  la 
navigable  at  all  aeaaona  for  ateamlioata  fur  260  nillea, 
lo  La  Salle,  where  navigation  ia  stopped  o<%aalonally 
by  the  little  raplda,  and  where  a  canal  branchoa  oft, 
connecting  the  river  with  Lake  Michigan.  The  pi  i  i- 
cipal  IrlbuUriea  of  the  Illinoia,  which  ia  Itaelf  formed 
by  the  Junction  of  th*  Kankakee  and  the  Uea  Hlainea, 
ar*  lb*  Fox  Klver,  which  riae*  In  Huron  Territory, 
and  haa  ■  coura*  of  tJUO  mil**  li*fur*  It  Joina  the  IllU 
noia ;  the  Vermillii)n  Klver,  which  falla  iut  it  from 
the  Bouth-eaal ;  the  Sangamon  from  the  eaat,  the 
Mackinaw  from  the  north-«aat.,  and  the  Spoon  Klver 
tntn  the  north-weal.  Thea*  are  almoat  all  navigable 
for  ci<n.«l(lrr«ble  diatancea.  Tb*  Sangamon  la  naviga- 
ble foi'  110  milea.  The  Little  Wabaah  and  the  Km- 
barraaa,  which  flow  into  the  Wabaah,  ar*  likewiae 
navlgatde  for  upward  uf  16U  mile*.  The  Rock  Klver, 
which  riaea  In  Wlaconain,  and  falla  into  the  Miaaia- 
alppl,  after  a  courae  of  about  BOO  mile*,  la  navigable 
for  aome  distance,  bnt  ita  upper  ooura*  la  Impeded  by 
rapldi. 

The  cllmal*  of  Illinoia,  extending  a*  It  doea  oT«r  a 
apace  of  S}  degree*  of  latitude,  maat  neceaaarily  be 
Taried.  The  natural  dllTerenca  of  temperature  between 
the  northern  ami  the  aouthem  parta  ia,  however,  In- 
creaaed,  by  the  ncmerous  and  large  riven  which  hound 
and  Intervft  th«  country,  and  liy  Ita  attte  of  cultiva- 
tion. Evryw  -  s  the  winter*  are  aevere,  the  aum- 
mera  hot  rnd  It.  and  the  temperature  aul>]ect  to 
ftequent  ani'  aud'*'  °  tn^e*.  In  the  aouthern  parta 
of  the  State  °h*  sutn.  ^  amt  ia  ^fvy  oppreaaive  and 
enervating ;  ar.'.<  i«  ii' .  >vcaaio .rally  relieved  liy  freah 
breeze*  from  the  prii'r'^sr  'n  .<'',ut«r  the  anow  falla  to 
•  considerable  dejith,  atij  lli^i  occasionally  fur  three 
montha ;  and  many  of  '.he  Aven  remain  fi  oMn  for 
the  aam*  length  of  iime.  In  aom*  parta  of  the  State 
only  ■  few  inches  of  snow  falls,  and  it  quickly  dls- 


lUlnola  paaaiassi  •  vaal  •mtoot  of  arabU  land.  Th* 
soil,  allboagh  varied,  Is  g*n*rally  highly  uruduetlv*, 
and  for  agricultur*,  it  haa  b**n  i-un*id*rvd  *»  unauN 
pasaad  by  any  HIat*  In  Ih*  Am*rlr*n  mnfadaracy.  Tha 
soil  in  "  th*  bottoBW,"  or  along  Ih*  rivar  valUys,  aui'h 
as  thos*  of  th*  KiM'k  lllvar,  th*  SangaDWm,  and  Ka»- 
kaakia,  conalata  chltHy  of  tWh  alluvial  dapoaita,  and  Is 
ao  priMlucllve  *a  fraquently  to  yield  W  buahel*  uf  wh*at 
or  iuO  buth*la  of  In<IUn  corn  tu  th*  aor*.  Naarly  all  Ih* 
tract*  adjacent  to  th*  rlv*n  ar*  of  thia  cbaraoter. 
"  Th*  American  Bottom,"  a*  It  la  callfd,  la  th*  rl«ll*at 
rtvar  alluvium,  and  haa  li«*n  cropp*il  without  dat*. 
rluratliin  for  a  century.  It  cxUnua  along  th*  Miania- 
alppl  fur  9U  mlUa ;  but  In  cnnacqucnca  of  Ita  liability 
lu  Inuudation,  much  of  it  la  uncultivated.  The  pralrlea, 
altliuugh  leaa  priMluctive,  ar*  attll  vary  fertile,  and  on 
account  vf  their  grsatar  aalubrlly  ara  preferred  for 
famia,  wherever  wood  I*  to  l>*  olitaiasd.  In  IHftO, 
th*r*  w*r*  76,!tOM  farms  In  Illinois,  conUlnlng  S.uao,- 
M&  acraa  of  Improved  ground. 

lni|iorlant  and  valuabl*  mln*rala  abound  In  this 
8tat*.  Ditumlnoua  coal  occurs  In  almost  *v*ry  county  | 
and  In  aom*  inatancea  may  lie  ol)talned  wilhuut  exca- 
vatlim.  Vaal  lieda  ar*  found  on  the  blulTs  adjacent  to 
the  "American  Ikittom;"  and  It  has  been  reported 
that  antbracit*  coal  has  lic*n  found  In  the  cdiinty  uf 
Jackaon,  Hut  the  gnat  coal  region  la  an  extenaivu 
tract  which  extonda  quit*  acroas  th*  Stat*  from  MIS' 
auurl  to  Indiana,  and  from  Iowa  lo  Kentucky.  Trun 
has  been  found  In  the  southern  part  of  th*  .State,  mid 
la  said  to  be  plentiful  in  the  northern.  The  great  lead 
region  la  ahur*d  between  Illinoia,  Iowa,  and  Wlacon- 
ain. Ualena  In  tha  nnrth-weai  la  nearly  aup|>orted  by 
thia  mineral.  Silver  haa  alau  beau  found  in  the  weat 
part  of  the  Slate,  and  cupper  ia  obtained  In  aeveral 
pluciB,  Th*  other  mineral*  found  her*  ar*,  sine,  gyp- 
auni,  qukrti,  cryatala,  etc. 

Mannfacturtt,  tic. — Ther*  w«r*  lii  th*  Slat*  In  1860, 
16  W'liilen  factoriea,  with  a  capital  inveateil  of  (1M,500, 
eiiiiil  ^  ^ng  124  males  and  64  femalea,  manufacturing 
H  ji  ,':  J  yarda  uf  clotb,  tnd  l:i7,0OO  pounda  uf  yarn 
.  1  <ied  at  t'2(l(!,&'2  j  2  eatablUhmenta  making  pig  Iron, 
with  a  rnpltal  of  66,000,  employing  160  |ieraona,  pro- 
ducing J,700  tana  of  pig  iron,  etc.,  valued  at  l|70,200; 
20  eatabliahmenta  with  a  capital  of  (260,400,  omploy> 
ing  8112  peraona,  and  making  4,160  tons  of  castings, 
etc.,  valued  at  $441,186;  2H0  flouring  and  grial  mills, 
487  taw  mills ;  M  printing  offices,  10  daily,  4  tri- 
weekly, 94  weekly,  2  semi-munthly,  7  monthly,  and 
I  quarterly  publicutluns.  Total  value  of  manufac- 
tured articles,  16,200,000.  There  wer*  in  January, 
1866,  2,216  milea  uf  railroad  in  operation,  and  1,046 
milea  in  courae  of  oonatruclion. 

The  internal  trade  uf  this  State  ia  becoming  cun- 
siderable,  and  Incraaaing  in  proportion  to  llio  means 
of  inlamal  communication.  Ita  direct  foreign  cum- 
merce  is  amall,  and  ia  chiefly  with  (Iroat  Ilrituln. 

C'u¥MEaaa  or  ma  Mtatx  or  Ilu>>  4,  raou  4i?ro«aa  I, 
1S47,  TO  July  1,  isJ''. 


1    2_  ■*'*■*•• 

iMroanT  ~ 

f  ....  1 

,  A     ~l' 

TBAk  I. 

tkillUUif. 

Tuisl. 

hwl     • 

ttO" 

IST 

169,1110 

|S1,1U0 

♦i     "" 

1HI» 

4l,8in 

41.M)S 

4,8.. 

but 

ISM 

88,411 

8^41T 

»,7M 

»14 

i,7i« 

1«M 

17,6«t 

17,6«S 

lts705 

1S51 

111,aK 

114,giU 

4,«B7 

1,018 

■'ii5 

l«n 

M.H2S 

61, IBB 

4.881 

8,408 

118 

IWW 

re.iw 

7»,tW 

T,M9 

1,188 

IMM 

100,1146 

MI.OM 

7»,844 

8,014 

"708 

i»ias 

Mr,osi 

547,(168 

64,601 

81,464 

i.ei« 

18,VI 

1,84A,21!1 

1,84.\228 

177,4M 

7M80 

19,811 

Illinoia  consist  of  100  counties,  which  contain  a 
number  of  thriving  towns,  many  of  which  are  increas- 
ing very  fast  in  population.  Chicago  is  much  the 
largest,  and  bat  cunnocted  with  it  lUe  greater  part  of 
tha  troflio  of  the  SUte.  Population  In  1860,  20,963. 
In  186U  it  Is  said  to  have  increased  to  upward  uf 
60.0u0.  In  1856  the  population  wat  eatimated  at 
100,000.    The  capital  of  tba  State  ia  Spriagfleld. 


TMM 


1007 


IMM 


ning  con- 
ki«  meant 
klgn  com- 
Min. 


1,TM 

"ii5 

118 

"to» 

1,916 
19^ 

[contain  a 
5  increas- 

Iniiich  the 
br  i>art  of 
0,  29.963. 

Ipwnril  uf 

luiated  at 

Wd. 


Th«  (bllowtnn  taliU  •hnwa  Ih*  dtemnlal  IncmiK*  of  i 
th*  impulatlon  In  Iht  NiaU  •Inr*  IHIO  i 


ino 

1MI> 
1*4U 
IIM 

WUrti."' 

M.rwt 

4T«,SM 
M«,1M 

[  rm  •..I..NJ. 

-lU-i..— 

T.j.1 

Ilk 

MM 
l,«T 

MM 

fir 

J4T 

Ml 

Nod*. 

1117,. 

4Ill,K 

Ml,l!0 

Th«  aalcinUblnK  Krowth  of  th«  HUia  of  tlllnola  and 
iU  iirnnilalng  contliUon,  In  IHfift,  ma;  tw  amii  f^im 
lh«  following  raturna  tcanamlUad  to  tha  Auditor  of 
Iha  Hlala  i 


Artlaka. 

Namter, 

ItonMa 

(^«M 

|M,S«4,>llf 

N•>tealf|.^. 

t.ITO.SIW 

H,«l».ftW 

h  V<ai  '  liaaa 

1»,UI| 

1,I(I«,0M 

P-i-  

f)l  1,817 

I,0t4,|l)l 

'<«K*. 

l,»i»,MT 

i.Alt.A|5 

>:"'rv:jr^:;: 

1IH,«M 
1M,4N 

4,TM.«» 
T4fUI44 

Mann...      

1.MT 

1M.IM 

M.'rrhanilli.-  

M<x,ti> 

Rankort'  prniMTtf 

t,AI^IM4 

f  Miuflirliiriiil  arllaloa,.. 

NM,MII 

M  iiify  ami  ernillla. 

t4,fl71,iMO 

I'lDMla,  ttook^  titn, 

Klfl.WA 

11  IK  iiinirratt'il  [iraiwrtx 
Dnluotlonii. 

n.wnMt 

■,7M,aM 

I'arminal  proprrlj 

M,MT,l|gS 

Tow  n  Iota 

119,1105,9(18 

Uiida 

fOt,l»t,l78 

Tha  proKrata  arhloh  tlia  Rtata  hai  made,  even  within 
a  alnglu  yaar,  may  Imi  i«»n  from  the  following  com- 
pariaona  of  totala  for  tha  Uat  two  yaara  : 


PcraoMl  MraMrtv, 

1WA. ..  |9^»n,'/ilA 

18A4....    T9,MA,»M 


l4l~l>. 

19114.194,170 
ril,4AI,884 


Parvniwl  prnMrljr, 

l«IMti  m4  lou, 

|IWt,WH,4<ll 

9S'i,7IMVM8 


Increanu  |16,8Sl,lHt  179,741,848         |81,«4I,8A7 

Ita  Internal  Improveroenta  for  aoma  yeara  paat  hare 
been  very  great,  Canala  have  Imcd  fumed  to  com- 
penaate  for  the  natural  barrlera  to  navigation  In  aome 
of  Ita  rivera,  and  recently  Ita  great  canal  (Vom  Chicago 
to  Peru,  on  the  IllinaU  Kivnr,  baa  been  completml, 
uniting  the  wuten  of  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Miaala- 
•IppI ;  tliua  opening  direct  communication  between  the 
whole  of  the  I,,ake  diatrlct  In  the  north,  and  the  river 
navigation  on  the  south.  The  ayatem  of  railroada,  pro- 
jected on  a  grand  acale  upward  of  30  yean  ago,  and 
which  hud  l)een  temporarily  auapended,  hai  been  re- 
aumed  aomo  yeara  ago  on  a  atill  greater  acale,  and  Is 
being  carried  on  with  vigor.  Chicago,  its  principal 
commrrcinl  city,  la  connected  with  Kockford,  St. 
Charles,  Aurora,  Peru,  and  many  other  places  within 
the  State,  and  beyond  it,  either  directly  or  Indirectly, 
with  Detroit,  Cincinnati,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Boston.  Beaiilcs  theae  there  were  railroada  unit- 
ing Springfleld  with  Jackaonville,  and  Naples,  Alton, 
and  Quincy,  with  Columbus.  >^  hen  Its  railroads  under 
construction  are  llnished,  Illiii.  .«  will  be  surpassed  for 
Its  rBilriiad  communication  by  but  few  States  In  the 
Union. 

.Tr.  migration.  Progrrtt  and  Eximt  of  Immi- 
gralivn  to  the  United  iStatei. — Wo  will  review  the 
progresa  and  extent  of  immigration  to  tha  United 
States  of  America  prior  to  IHIO,  the  year  In  which 
the  present  official  hist»ry  Iwgins.  As,  on  this 
point,  no  authentic  inforiuation  exists.  It  must  be  de- 
termined by  such  evidF^ce  aa  statistlclana  of  that 
period  possessed,  and  by  tlie  relations  then  existing 
between  the  United  States  and  the  countries  from 
which  persons  emigrated.  The  t-unrot  of  emigration 
commenced  its  flow  from  Fngland,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land, and  from  Germany  throup--.  the  ^  rpnrh  and  Brit- 
ish ports.  It  was  subji-  '  to  many  8uclii:ition8  during 
a  part  of  this  time,  hut  < '  i<ntinued  with  considerable  uni- 
formity, it  la  believed  until  1X06.  Mr.  Samuel  Rlodget. 
a  atatisticlan  of  more  than  ordinary  research  and  accu- 
racy, wrote  in  1806,  while  every  fact  in  regard  to  irami- 
gration  was  ft«sh  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  that  fVnrn 
"  tha  best  records  and  estimates  at  present  attaimabie" 


the  tmiillir*nU  mHtImh  in  tha  Uirftad  flUtaa  did  n«l 
avaraga,  fcr  th*  t«  rsara  from  WM  to  1704,  mora  than 
I'X)*  par  ann«m.  lliiring  I7»l,  10,000  parauna  war* 
aallmalMl  »'>  have  arrivwl  In  tha  United  MtlM  fhtrn 
ftirelKn  i-  in  In  IMS,  I>r.  Adam  Heylwrt,  mem- 
bar  nif  tkn  House  (if  KepreMntatlvfit  from  l^annaylva- 
nla,  In  bla  excaadlngly  vali  ,M<>  "  'neuii.nl  Annnli" 
of  Iha  United  Stataa,  wrote  to  tlu.  i  ,;!'  win^  ■StK'li 
"Thoup-'>  wa  admit  that  10,000  fhralfpiirM  ,iay  have 
arrived  m  tha  United  (Mates  In  1794,  we  can  not  allow 
that  they  did  ao,  in  an  mgiial  numlier,  In  any  prsuadlng 
or  Bul>aei]uent  year  until  IH17  {"  ami  ha  aaaumaa  that 
AOOO  persona  arrived  In  tha  UnllatI  "^intaa  from  fnr«|j(n 
countriea  In  each  year  fmni  1700  to  IMIO ;  tn  faliii  and 
to  the  BUthoritiea  he  i'iinantte<l.  Ihia  average  amtmad  a 
generona  one.— .HrYniiHT'H  AnmiU,  pp.  28i  29 

During  the  10  yean  from  1H04  to  IHlA,  eitMiaiva 
Immigration  to  tha  United  Hutes  waa  praiUniwi  by  the 
unfHandly  relations  at  that  time  existing  bttween 
(Ireat  Britain,  Vnncti,  and  the  Unltwl  Mlatea.  Kngiand 
maintained  the  doctrine,  and,  for  a  while  enforced 
It  with  aucoeaa,  that  "  a  man  once  a  auhjact,  waa 
alwaya  a  aubjact."  Thia  deterrixl  many  from  em- 
igrating tn  the  ITnlteil  Htatea  from  the  Britlab  em- 
plra,  Numlten  had  previously  come  fur  O  *  purposx 
of  entering  the  merchant-service,  and  numi Ta  might 
atill  have  coma  whom  the  fear  of  Britiah  imp  resaroent 
frightened  from  carrying  out  their  deai^n.  oother 
influence  retarded  immigration  ;  In  1R06  (ireai  Uritain 
Uaued  a  decree  declaring  the  coaata  of  Fm.  «  In  it 
state  of  blockade.  A  retaliatory  decrea  was,  >  No- 
vember of  the  same  year.  Issued  by  Krsoc«  dec)  'iring 
the  llritlah  lalea  In  a  atate  of  blockade.  To  lese 
reatrictlona  on  commercn,  and,  conaequently,  on  iha 
unobstructed  paaaaga  from  ICurope,  aucceeded  the  I  lU 
lah  orden  In  council,  and  the  Milan  decrea  of  Nu  '- 
leon.  In  March,  1809,  the  United  SUtea'  law  w  i« 
passed  prohibiting,  for  an»  year,  Intercouna  witi'i 
(iteat  Britain  or  Knnce.  In  1810,  the  Napoleoni< 
decrees  were  annulled,  and  tha  commerce  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  had,  in  IHll,  fairly  commenced  with  France, 
but  only  to  bavo  their  vosseia  full  into  the  hands  of  the 
British,  Preparations  wera  now  making  for  active 
hostilities,  and,  on  tha  IHth  of  June,  181*2,  war  was 
formally  declared  by  the  United  States  to  exist  with 
Great  Britain. 

The  German  emigration  sensibly  felt  this  unfavor- 
able condition  of  affain.  Inasmuch  as  the  Germans 
embarked  principally  at  the  ports  of  Liverpool 
and  Havre;  facilities  for  migrating  thence  to  this 
country  being  more  numerous,  and  the  expense  of 
the  voyage  less  onerous.  Thus,  from  1806,  was  the 
stream  of  emigration  pent  up  at  its  fountain.  In 
February,  1815,  peace  was  concluded  between  tha 
United  States  and  Great  Britain;  and  after  sevorul 
months  requisite  to  restore  tranquillity,  and  to  secure 
the  confldenoe  of  those  desiring  to  leave  the  Old 
World,  the  tide  returned  to  its  flow,  and,  with  a  speed 
greatly  accelerated ;  as,  from  authentic  Informntion, 
collected  principally  at  the  several  custom-houses,  it 
appears  that,  during  the  year  1817,  not  less  than  22,- 
240  persons  arrived  at  ports  of  the  United  States  fh>m 
foreign  countries.  This  number  included  American 
cillxens  returning  from  abroad. — Sbthbrt's  AnnaU, 
p,  29.  In  no  year  previous  to  that  had  one  half  so 
many  foreign  passengers  reached  our  shores.  Many 
sufferings  were  incident  to  a  voyage  across  the  At- 
lantic in  a  crowded  emigrant  vessel ;  and  there  were 
no  laws  of  the  United  States  either  limiting  the  num- 
ber of  penons  which  a  passenger  ship  or  vessel  should 
be  entitled  to  rarri-,  or  providing  any  measures  for  ths 
health  or  accommmlation  of  the  paasengen.  The 
subject  seemed  to  deserve  the  immediate  attention  of 
Congress.  In  1818  (March  10),  Mr.  Louis  M'Lane, 
of  Delaware,  reported  to  the  House  of  Representatives 
a  bill  "  regulating  passenger  ships  and  Teasels,"  which 
was  read  twice  and  refanred  to  a  committee  for  inT«*« 


IMM 


1008 


IMM 


(tgatlon  Into  til*  inbjed.  In  Dacamber,  1818,  the 
subject  wu  brought  before  Congress  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Newton,  of  Virginia,  who  oxplained  the  necessity  of 
its  passage.  It  was  read  a  third  time  and  passed  by 
the  House.  After  receiving  amendments  from  both 
the  Senate  and  House,  it  was  finaily  passed  and  ap- 
proved March  2,  1819.  In  compliance  with  a  require- 
ment of  tliis  act,  collecton  of  the  customs  have 
reported  quarter-yearly  to  the  Secretary  of  State  the 
number  of  passengers  arriving  in  their  collection  dis- 
tricts, by  sea  from  foreign  countries ;  also,  the  sex, 
age,  and  occupation  of  such  passengers,  and  the  coun- 
try in  which  they  were  bom.  Annual  reports  embrac- 
ing that  information,  have,  in  conformity  with  the 
same  act,  been  communicated  to  Congress  by  the 
Secretary  of  State ;  and,  as  before  indicated,  from 
these  reports  chiefly,  this  historical  sketch  has  been 
compiled.  The  country  having  the  largest  emigra- 
tion is,  doubtless,  Ireland ;  for,  in  addition  to  the  747,- 
930  persons  arriving  from  the  United  Kingdom,  known 
to  have  been  bom  in  Ireland,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
of  the  1,348,682  others,  l>om  as  indefmitely  stated  in 
"  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  arriving  in  the  United 
States,  1,000,000  at  least,  were  bora  in  Ireland  alone ; 
thus  making  1,747,930  as  the  total  Irish  emigration. 
See  Khiouation. 


Next  In  numerical  order  comes  Germany;  England, 
third ;  and  France,  fourth.  The  emigration  of  Chinese 
to  this  countr}-,  was  very  inconsiderable  until  1854 ; 
previous  to  which  year,  the  aggregate  number  known 
to  have  arrived  was  only  88.  In  that  year,  however, 
18,100  came  to  the  United  States ;  and  in  181J5,  8626 ; 
all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  passenger, 
landed  at  the  port  of  San  Francisco;  15,950  were 
males,  and  were  designated  in  the  returns  of  the  col- 
lector as  "  laborers." 

As  regards  passengers  from  British  America,  the 
fact  may  be  deemed  worth}'  of  mention,  that  many  of 
them,  especially  of  those  arri\'tng  during  the  last  four 
years  are  known  to  have  come  with  the  intention  of 
returning,  and  not  of  residing  in  the  United  States. 
The  numl>er  of  such  can  not,  however,  be  determined. 
Finally,  to  the  4,212,624  passengers  of  foreign  birth 
arriving  in  the  United  States  since  September  30, 
1819,  may  be  added  260,000  as  the  numiier  of  immi- 
grants who  arrived  prior  to  that  date ;  making  the 
total  foreign  arrivals  from  the  close  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War  to  December  81,  1855,  4,462,624.— Brom- 
WF.Lv'a  History  of  Immigration.  New  York :  1856.  To 
this  large  number  may  be  added,  as  variously  esti- 
mated, from  600,000  to  1,000,000,  who  emigrated  to 
the  western  States  through  Canada. 


Total  Nraaia  or  Passsnokiui,  DisTiNonismNO  ALtiNs  fbom 

OTIIKKB,   ABllIVINO   IN 

rUK  U.NITKD 

States  bt  Sea,  from 

FOKBION  OOUMTBIKS,  FKOil 

SBrTEHBEB  80,  1819,  TO  Dkokmhbr  81,  1S56 

Ymti  (iidlic 

TOTAL*. 

or  WHOU  WKBI  ALIBMI.                                       1 

M*lai. 

F.m.l«;. 

Rex  not 
■Ut«d. 

TdUI. 

Malei. 

F«nuilea. 

1     B«I  m.t 
1      tliiKd. 

TulAl. 

SeptemberSO,      1820 

6,44T 

2,680 

1,184 

10,811 

4,871 

2,398 

1,121 

8,836 

1881 

6,866 

1,988 

2,840 

11,644 

4,651 

1,686 

2,840 

9,127 

1828 

5,818 

1,149 

2,082 

8,549 

8,816 

1,018 

2,082 

8,911 

1828 

6,818 

1,044 

1,908 

8,265 

8,698 

848 

1,908 

0,354 

1824 

6,268 

1,661 

1,818 

9,627 

4,706 

1,893 

1,818 

7,912 

1824 

9,206 

8,829 

823 

12,858 

6,917 

2,959 

828 

10,199 

1820 

10,218 

8,633 

67 

13,903 

7,702 

8,078 

57 

10,837 

182T 

14,165 

6,479 

1,188 

21,777 

11,808 

5,989 

1,188 

18,S75 

1S28.....«. 

19,446 

10,677 

61 

80,184 

17,261 

10,060 

61 

27,332 

1822 

12,988 

5,470 

6,105 

24,518 

11,803 

6,112 

6,105 

22,520 

1880 

7,514 

8,575 

18,748 

24,837 

0,4;j9 

8,185 

18,748 

23,322 

1881 

15,01  T 

7,968 

28,880 

14,909 

7,724 

•  •  *  • 

22,6.33 

18.S2 

85,599 

18,7.12 

•  t  •  • 

64,851 

84,596 

18,5a3 

51,179 

Deo.  81  (Smos.),  1882 

4,691 

2,612 

100 

7.803 

4,691 

2,512 

100 

7,303 

1888 

42,548 

17,877 

.... 

69,926 

41,646 

17,094 

.... 

58,640 

;                               1834 

40,T80 

23,180 

4,088 

67,948 

88,706 

22,640 

4,029 

e5,.366 

isa^ 

80,752 

17,791 

178 

48,716 

28,196 

17.027 

151 

4,1,374 

1886 

61,459 

28.689 

824 

80,972 

47,865 

27.663 

824 

76,242 

188T 

58,408 

28,706 

2,8iV) 

84,959 

48,837 

27,658 

2,850 

79,810 

1888 

24,504 

14,900 

1,765 

45,159 

28,474 

13,685 

1,756 

83,914 

1882 

48,200 

26,454 

la 

T4.666 

42.932 

25,125 

12 

08,069 

1840 

5S,998 

88.153 

51 

92,207 

62.888 

81,132 

51 

84,060 

1841 

68,815 

88,814 

170 

87,805 

48,082 

82,031 

176 

80,289 

1812 

67,124 

4,3,475 

881 

110,930 

62,277 

41,907 

881 

104,.166 

Bept  80  (9  mos.),  13« 

83,172 

23.354 

8 

56,529 

80.0C9 

22,424 

8 

52,496 

J844 

4?,897 

85,867 

84,764 

44,481 

84,184 

78,015 

1846 

69,179 

49.811 

1,406 

119,896 

i.\inr, 

48,115 

1,241 

111,371 

1840 

90,974 

66,778 

807 

168,619 

87,777 

0,1,742 

S07 

l,H4Ifl 

1847 

189,167 

99,325 

090 

2.39,482 

186,086 

97.017 

905 

23I,06S 

1848 

186,128 

92,S83 

472 

229,488 

138,906 

92,149 

472 

2'.;i!..V27 

1849 

179,256 

119,916 

612 

299,688 

177,232 

119,280 

512 

207,024 

ISM 

200,904 

113,392 

1,083 

816,884 

106,311 

112,63,'i 

1,038 

810,1104 

Dec  81  (8  mos.),  1830 

88,292 

27,107 

isl 

65,.'i70 

82,990 

26,805 

181 

50,976 

KM 

245.017 

163,745 

66 

408,828 

217,181 

162.219 

00 

879.406 

]i»2 

28.\TS1 

160,174 

1,438 

897,848 

212,469 

1,17,606 

1,438 

871,003 

1858 

286,782 

164,178 

72 

400,9S2 

207,958 

100,615 

72 

86S,045 

1854 

284,887 

175,687 

,  , 

460,474 

250.177 

171,0.10 

427,8.33 

1868 

140,181 

90,283 

12 

280,476 

115,807 

81,567 

3 

200,877 

1856 

185,808 

89.188 

.... 

224,490 

116.846 

84,590 

48,408 

200.4.36 
4,413,(r8b   1 

ToUl 

2,849,289    1 

1,809,398 

48.701 

4,707,883 

2,600,926 

1,708,720 

Legal  Righii  of  Naturalized  Citizem  in  the  United 
Btattt. — Aliens  naturalized  agreeably  to  the  nets  of 
Congress,  are  not  prohibited  by  th"  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  enjoyment  of  the  same  rights, 
and  to  the  same  extent  as  naturul-bora  citizen.i,  with 
the  singlo  proviso  that  no  person  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  President  or  Vice-President,  except  a  cit- 
izen native-born,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  .States  at 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Congress  can  make  no  law  to  prohibit  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion;  nor  to  aliridgo  their  freedom  of 
speech.  The  right  of  security  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and 
leiznret,  is  not  denied  to  them ;  nor  are  they  prohib- 


ited the  purchase  and  ociMipation  of  lands  owned  by 
the  government.  'I'lie  ('onstitutions  of  the  several 
States  concede  to  those  naturalized  citizens,  who  take 
up  their  residence  within  the  States,  in  general  tlif  ~.imo 
rifflits  as  are  enjoyed  bj-  persons  born  therein.  Among 
tlp'so  rights  may  be  meiitinncd  tliat  uf  voting  and  of 
being  elected  to  office.  Seo  Kmiokatiox.  Brom- 
WEl.i.'s  Sketch  of  Immigration,  See  No,  Am,  liev.,  xl., 
457  (by  A.  H.  Evebbtt);  Am,  Whig  Rev.,  vl.,  455, 
63.1,  vii.,  4la  (by  O.  C.  OARDINF.B) ;  Niles's-  Regis- 
ter, xiv.,  880,  xviii,,  157.  Upon  the  subject  of  Gor- 
man emigration,  gee  No,  Am,  Rev,,  il.,  1  (by  Kuward 
Everett)  ;  xx.,  191  (by  J.  Sparks).  Immigration 
to  the  United  States,  see  DeBow's  Review,  v.,  243, 


TSD 


1009 


IND 


rngUnd, 
Chinese 

tU  1854  i 
ir  known 
boweve', 
55,  8526 ; 
Bsscnger, 
)50  were 
f  the  col- 

srica,  tlie 
i  many  of 
1  last  four 
tcntion  of 
ed  States, 
sterrained. 
e!gn  birth 
ember  30, 
r  of  immi- 
laking  tha 
lovolution- 
14.— Brom- 
:1856.   To 
iously  eati- 
nigrated  to 

,Y  8ea,  fbou 


Tula). 


5.% 

:a 

12 

3S 
81 
«« 

72 


103 


8,895 

9,1 2T 

6,911 

6,854 

7,912 
10,109 

10,83T 

18,'(75 

27,«.S2 

22,r)20 

28,822 

22,6S3 

Rt,179 
7,8(18 

69,640 

65,366 

A374 

76,242 
79,3-10 
38,914 
08,089 
84,066 
80,289 

ln4,r)65 
62,496 
78,615 
114,371 
l.")4,416 
231,069 
2•26.^27 
207,024 
810,00-t 
69,976 
879.466 
871,003 
36s,046 
427,'«S 
2(M1,877 
200,4:?6 

"4,413,060" 


ands  owned  by 
„f  tlie  several 
izena,  who  tako 
roneral  tli.'  -.""O 
'herein.   Among 
,f  voting  and  of 
ATios.     Bkom- 
.  Am.  Her-,  "l-i 
Rtv.,  vi.,  455, 
NiLHs'8-  Rei/i" 
subject  of  Gor- 
,  1  (by  KoWABD 
).     Immigration 
Review,  v.,  243, 


xm.,  466,  HiWT'g  Mer.  Mag.,  vUl.,  1B7,  *\v,,  m  | 
Fbazbr,  xYi.,  662,  683,  zxvUi.,  4201  mn,  Rev,,  vil. 
186,  xlv.,  40,  xlvii.,  204,  xcii.,  268,  x»ix,,  B16 1  W»rt- 
mimter  Rev.,  iU.,  449,  vi.,  842,  xxxv.,  IHt,  «|,,  69, 
101;  Quar.  Rev.,  llv.,  216,  xxxvll.,  689,  »»1|(,,  878  ( 
Hlaeheood,  xv.,  483,  xx..  470,  xxl.,  877,  »»)ll,,  M, 
616,  v.,  623,  vi.,  78;  Knick.,  xvl.,  589. 

Importation  and  Exportation,  the  bringing 
of  commodities  from  and  sending  them  to  other  euun' 
tries.  A  ver}'  large  portion  of  the  revenue  of  n  aimu 
meroial  conntry  is  derived  from  customs  dutlM,  ttt 
from  duties  on  commodities  imported  from  ahro»4 )  ttiut 
drawbacks  being  given  on  many,  and  bounties  on  A 
few,  articles  exported;  the  business  of  importwtion 
and  exportation  is  subjected  to  various  r<igulittion« 
which  must  be  carefully  observed  liy  those  who  womI4 
avoid  incurring  penalties,  and  subjecting  tlieir  prop* 
erty  to  conflscation.  See  articles  TAniti!-  and  UwirKM 
States  for  the  imports  and  exports  of  tliis  counlry, 

Impressment,  the  farcil)le  taking  away  of  ma* 
men  from  their  ordinary  employment,  and  conilHilling 
them  to  serve,  against  thoir  will,  in  national  ahlpt. 
See  Ed.  Rev.,  xli.,  164 ;  Weslm.  Rev.,  xx.,  489  |  iUm'h' 
wood,  XX.,  746. 

Indemnity,  is  where  one  person  secures  anotltor 
fVvm  responsibility  against  any  particular  event  |  thtts 
a  policy  of  insurance  is  a  contract  of  indemnity  ag4in*it 
any  particular  loss.  Where  one  person  aluo  lieuunieii 
bail  for  another,  a  bond  of  indemnity  Is  frequently  OX' 
ecutcd ;  and  where  a  bond  or  bill  of  eKchanga  \,W» 
been  lost  or  mislaid,  the  acceptor  or  obligee  woiilil  not 
act  prudently  in  paying  it,  without  l)eing  seaured  \)y  ft 
bond  of  indemnity. 

India,  or  Hindoostan,  has  from  the  earliest  ngss 

been  celebrated  as  one  of  the  most  highly-favored  cuun' 

tries  on  the  globe,  and  as  abounding  in  the  chiiU'etit 

productions  both  of  nature  and  art.    In  ancient  tUnes, 

this  distant  region  was  veiy  imperfectly  known  to  tin) 

Greeks  and  other  nations  of  the  west ;  but  thay  tni' 

ported  its  most  valuable  produce,  its  diamonds,  its 

aromatics,  its  silks,  and  its  costly  manufactures,    Tlo 

country  which  abounded  in  those  expensive  |ux>4ri<9it 

was  naturally  reputed  to  bo  the    seat  of  imntfinsA 

riches,  and  ever}' romantic  tale  of  its  felicity  and  glory 

was  readily  believed.     In  the  middle  ages  an  eiftfiik 

sive  commerce  with  India  was  still  maintained  throHgll 

the  ports  of  Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea ;  and  its  preeioui 

produce,  imported  into  Europe  by  the  merchants  of 

Venice,  confirmed  the  popular  opinion  of  its  high  tfa 

finement  and  its  vast  wealth.     After  the  discovery  of 

a  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hops,  (lie 

same  ideas  still  prevailed ;  and  the  maritime  statM  of 

Europe  contended  with  their  fleets  and  armies  for  tll« 

dominion  of  the  Asiatic  seas,  and  for  the  comniBrca  of 

the  countr}'.      The  Portuguese,  and  afterward  tils 

Dutch,  made  important  conquests,  and  carried  on  in 

extensive  trade.     In  later  times,  Great  liritain  and 

France  appeared  on  the  field  as  competitors  fur  tin) 

prize  of  Indian  commerce  and  dominion,  aiui  wers  aU 

lowed  to  establish  factories  on  the  coasts  for  tUa  rscsH' 

tion  and  the  store  of  goods.     These  were  gradually 

converted  into  military  posts,  defended  by  soldierii  and 

cannon ;  and  in  due  time  those  two  powers  were  ranged 

on  opposite  sides  in  all  the  wars  and  politics  of  IndiAi 

This  contest  terminated  in  the  triumph  of  the  Dritifl) 

arms.     France  lost  her  prs-eminonce  on  tile  continent 

of  India ;  and  her  great  rival,  enlarging  her  |iowars  on 

every  side,  gradually  rose  to  greatness  and  dominion, 

and  now  rules  with  undisputed  sway  from  tha  llinnt' 

laya  Mountains  to  Cape  Comorin.   This  vast  extansion 

of  the  British  power  in  the  East  has  opened  tlis  way 

into  the  interior  of  India.     It  has  tended  greatly  tt) 

enlarge  our  knowledge  of  tliis  distant  region ;  and  if 

more  accurate  inquir}'  has  reduced  tlie  marvelous  talas 

of  its  glor}'  and  greatness  withm  the  bounds  of  sobrt' 

ety  and  truth,  Hindoostan,  the  seat  of  Industry,  of 

asBunnca,  and  of  the  arts,  when  Europa  wm  iitnll  in 

Sss 


ItartMiiiim,  lh«  sMns  of  many  armtful  r«votutloiiii, 
from  th«  Muhommod  Invasion  till  tt<  tmnumi  \iy  tilt 
HmUm  ut  DrltHJii,  and  InbaLiied  by  •  imo|<U  of  mcU' 
liitr  tnitntiffa.  laws,  Institutions,  and  ruligiun,  utill  pr»> 
mil*  M  wldn  field  for  interesting  Inquiry  und  «|Mi!uliitiMt, 

(if  tlt«)  following  account  of  this  InternnUng  «!<;imtfy. 
W«  ^mlplm  to  dpscrllje— I.  Its  geograpliy  ami  natural 
ftiattirss )  it<i  pfoiluce,  Its  animals,  its  niiinuf(M.iurtii»,  and 
iiiiffffttot'ce  I  tlia  numerous  races  t<y  which  it  i*  inliab- 
lt»iil,  Willi  th«lf  manners,  religion,  and  jiolity  (  and  tli« 
wsfil  and  bulltli'Hl  revolutions  whicb  bavu  (iirtiiini:t«(l 
in  ««taldlsliing  the  away  of  Great  iirituin  over  iMarty 
tba  wififlti  euntlnent  of  India. 

(.  'f  lis  Htii'ient  geographers  bad  nu  pr«ci««  i(Ua»  of 
tin*  tmtmii  tit  Hindoostan  or  Indbt,  terms  wliielt  w« 
mmii  ttt  Use  li.vnunymously  In  the  following  «rtl«l«| 
ttiiil  llM-y  Kcoordliigly  extended  iu  frontiur  w«»tw«r(t 
M  tuf  M<t  t'efsla,  and  eastward  t^  Cliinit.  Jn  aft«r 
HgcN  Itf*  limits  often  fluctuated  with  tits  «v«nt<«  of  w«f, 
»nH  lf»rv«i1  obiy  to  mark  out  the  couns  of  (»in(iu«»t, 
witit  lliik  of  no  attention  to  gsograpbli^al  mmuftLey, 
Vft  In  ttu  uitrt  of  the  eartli  has  naturs  |»obit«4  out,  In 
(lie  grsiit  nMtiifen  of  the  country ,  mors  dUtini.'t  and  mag- 
nifitient  liouitdatles.  On  the  north  It  is  ttvpuratoil  from 
tint  i<lttv«tt<il  t»l<)s-land  of  Tbilist  by  tits  prA)!||)lt»uii 
waII  of  llitt  Ititnnlayu  Mountains,  tba  liightiat  land  of 
tllti  At>iHtiti  continent  i  on  the  wcat  th«  ffitlitniin  rangtt,  a 
wttltiltMittioH  of  the  Hufeld  Koli  Mountuinif,  ii<tpaMt«s 
it  fritfti  AftjItanistAn  and  Deloocbistan ;  its  «»•(  txmnd' 
ntjf  I*  (umeA  liy  parallel  oirshnuts  from  tits  oppoNit« 
Stttrt<mity  of  tha  Himalayas,  and  by  tits  «ontiniiuui 
ritngsit  of  fofest'i'overed  lillle,  wbh^li,  sldrtlng  tits  lt«tt< 
gttt  dlfitrlct  of  Chtttagong,  stretch  sontbwitrd  to  tba 
r^miitly^Hciiiiired  province  of  I'egu,  and  fi)!piirat«  th« 
Itritiiill  domliiiims  from  the  territory  of  lliirnhib.  The 
llldtit  ttfid  tile  Oflngsa  discharge  tliain!»>lvi8K  into  tha 
owwi  (in  tlie  Wfl«t<-rn  and  eastern tumnU  of  lliiidoontafl, 
ill  AliUMt  north  latitude  24°  and  22°  ;  and  to  tits  notitb 
tits  eoitittry  Is  eontraoted  Into  an  Irregular  triAnglii, 
proJscllllK  itito  the  tiidlaii  Ocean  to  Within  sight  (!«• 
grsfi*  of  tlis  equator,  or  about  1000  miles,  and  on  all 
liidsK  inclosed  liy  the  sea,  The  nxtensivs  riigion  tiItU' 
Mlsrt  wiliiln  tliBSfl  limits  Is  nearly  comprRliBiidsd  1;*- 
twesn  fliti  !ttli  and  srnh  degrees  of  nortli  latitiuli),  »ml 
btitwti^n  lbs  longitudes  06°  and  09°  Ba»ti  i»ii(1  Iti 
liitlgtil  fttm  the  northern  barrier  of  tita  IlimMlaya 
Ikfnuntttin!!  to  Cape  Comorin  is  alwut  lUOO,  whil«  In 
lirsmHb  it  may  be  estimated  at  1800  tnil«»,  (Itoiigb, 
owing  to  {b«  If  regularity  of  its  figure,  It  Am»  niA,  «%■ 
ussd  l|4Mi,clfi7  English  square  iniiss, 

KlttiloiiistAn  Is  of  an  extremely  divsralllsd  itii(M«t. 
and  i!iMii()fpli'-ti(ls  within  its  bounds  all  tbs  vurlfttioii  of 
(ililHilte,  of  Mil,  and  of  natural  scenery,  front  tlin  li«r« 
Slid  llftiied  fork,  and  lofty  mountain  buried  under  Kt«f« 
nitl  tiHowi*,  to  the  low  and  fertile  plain,  scorched  by  th« 
(rniib'itt  Klin,  and  the  seut  or  luxuriant  vegntiitlon, 
TltM  illvtifsiU'  in  the  aspect  of  the  country  hint  given 
rine  d)  tite  ndlowing  territorial  dtvUbins,  nmnnly  i  1, 
Ni>rtliern  Hitidoostan,  whicli  cainprebendu  tbs  Hima* 
layit  Muiintflliin  on  the  north,  witb  tbstr  lowsr  ritng«g 
of  iiillit  stfetching  southward  to  tlia  plains  of  tits  In- 
itltA  unit  tiie  Ganges,  and  extending  front  I'suhfiwuf 
ami  CMsbinere  on  the  west,  to  Uootan  and  Annam  on 
tits  sitnt.  3,  Hindoostan  I'roper  wlih'lt  sxtuiidii  iioutk< 
want  SI*  far  as  the  Nerbudduh  Itlver,  wbsrs  ttis  i)«e- 
i!itn  diitntnencei),  and  which  includes  tbs  biwnr  (irov< 
iHesn  of  UengHl,  the  north-western  provincss,  togetfaar 
with  Omle,  luatwa,  or  Central  India,  tbs  Punjnli,  dtU* 
sMt,  Minds,  and  Cutcb.  8.  Tba  D«cc»n,  bounded  on 
tlis  ttiirth  by  the  Nerbuddah  litvsr,  and  on  tbs  aotttb 
Tlv  tlls  llivefs  Krlshmo  and  TooinbudM,  cont|irsli«nd« 
tits  Isfgef  portion  of  the  presidency  of  llontlmy,  to- 
H^tUpt  Willi  Orlops,  the  Nizam's  dominions,  and  tits  (mr- 
ritory-..  NHi<|iore.  4,  India  south  of  the  Cnibmaltivaf, 
ifoiitpfelieiiijing  th«  territories  under  tb*  admlnliitra- 
(inn  of  tits  government  of  Madras,  togstbsr  with  th« 
n»(iv«  »ta(M  »f  Coebin,  Travaoflort,  ftiid  lbs  Uyiutn 


IND 


1010 


IND 


The  Himalaya  Moaotalna  contain  the  aourcea  of  the 
great  riven  which  6ow  through  the  hiiming  plaina  of 
Hindoostan.  The  deep  valleya  between  the  mountaina 
are  the  channels  through  which  the  waters  flow  from 
the  higher  grounds ;  and,  hy  the  melting  of  the  snow, 
those  streams,  suddenly  swollen  into  torrents,  and 
rushing  down  the  declivity,  woric  out  a  deep  and  nar- 
row channel  among  the  rocks,  where,  imprisoned  as  it 
were  between  steep  and  perpendicular  rocica,  they  roor 
and  foam  amid  precipices,  or  in  dark  and  unfathom- 
able glens,  exhibiting,  in  the  conflict  of  their  troubled 
waters,  all  the  great  phenomena  which  belong  to  riv- 
ers, namely,  the  cataract,  the  rapid,  the  boiling  eddy, 
and  the  dangerous  whirlpool,  and  only  sut)side  into 
smoothness  when  they  l>reak  out  and  spn'id  over  the 
plains.  Huge  rocks  were  seen  by  Dr.  Gerard  whirled 
along  with  flrightful  velocity  ;  nothing  visible  but  an 
entire  sheet  of  foam  and  snray,  thrown  up  and  show- 
ered upon  the  surrounding  -ocks  with  loud  concussion, 
and  re-echoed  from  bank  to  liank  with  the  noise  of  the 
loudest  thunder.  Across  these  streams  are  thrown 
rude  bridges  made  of  ropes  or  of  wood,  the  usual  ex- 
pedient by  which  rivers  are  crossed  in  all  mountain 
countries.  Where  the  breadth  of  the  river  is  small, 
the  passage  is  effected  by  one  or  two  fir  spars  laid 
across  from  rock  to  rock  j  but  where  the  space  is 
wider,  a  bridge  of  ropes  is  constructed,  on  the  princi- 
pie  of  the  chain-bridge.  In  attempting  the  passage 
by  one  of  these  rude  bridges,  a  carrier  who  accom- 
panied Fraser  in  his  journey  to  the  sources  of  the 
Ganges  unfortunately  lost  his  footing  and  fell  into  the 
water.  He  wos  instantly  swept  down  the  stream  to 
its  junction  with  the  Bhngiruttee,  atiout  50  j-ards, 
"  when  his  head,"  says  the  traveler,  "  appeared  for  a 
moment,  and  his  load  floating  beside  ijim;  but  ,'ho 
foaming  current  of  the  Bagliiruttee  here  tumbling  over 
large  rocks  with  a  mighty  roar,  seized  him  and  hurried 
him  along  with  its  tremendous  torrent." 

Northern  Hindoostan  varies  in  its  climate  and  in  its 
aspect  with  the  height  of  the  ground.  The  lower 
ranges  of  mountains,  though  they  scarcely  reach  the 
level  of  perpetual  snows,  ..till  retain  the  sublime  fea- 
tures of  alpine  sceuerj' ;  namely,  the  rugged  and  bare 
mountain,  the  craggy  rock,  white,  gray,  red,  or  brown, 
springing  up  iq  fantastic  forms  above  the  general 
mass  ;  and  the  deep  and  suddenly  descending  chasm, 
with  the  foul  torrent  foaming  over  its  rocky  t)ed.  The 
luxuriant  foliage  is  wanting  which  embellishes  the 
lower  hills ;  the  rich  and  smiling  valley  is  not  so 
often  seen  ;  while  the  forests  of  dark  brown  flr  fring- 
ing the  mountains  and  the  hallows  impart  a  sombre 
and  unvarying  appcirance  to  the  scene.  At  a  lower 
level  the  country  improves ;  and  though  it  still  exhib- 
tts  the  mountain  and  the  precipice,  the  intervening 
valley  is  clothed  with  verdure,  and  the  lower  hills 
with  the  most  magniliccnt  forests  of  large  and  lofty 
trees,  tiic  open  country  with  roses.  Jasmines,  and  other 
lovely  or  odoriferous  shrubs,  and  with  the  most  luxu- 
riant alpine  plants.  The  valleys  throii^li  which  flow 
the  head  waters  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges,  namely, 
the  .SutloJ,  the  Patiur,  tlie  .lumna,  the  Baghiruttee,  the 
Alkananda,  with  their  tributaries,  exhibit  all  the  va- 
ried and  sublime  scencrj'  of  this  romantic  country. 
The  valley  of  the  .SutleJ  is  hemmed  in  by  brown  and 
baricii  mountains,  steep  and  rocky,  without  the  grand- 
eur of  lofty  precipices  or  fringing  wood.  The  hollows 
through  which  it  receives  its  trilmtary  streams  are 
dark  chasms,  without  cultivation  ;  the  heights  crowned 
with  forts,  but  without  any  neat  villages  surrounded 
with  trees  to  relieve  the  adjacent  desert.  The  banka 
of  the  .lumna,  on  the  oi  .er  hand,  though  rocky  ann 
wild,  are  wooded  and  green,  and  tlie  sloping  faces  of 
the  hills  fertile  and  well  cultivated ;  and  even  at  Its 
source,  the  countrj',  however  wild  and  picturesque,  is 
Btili  not  nearly  ao  dreary  as  the  valley  of  the  Bhagi- 
ruttee.  The  features  of  the  landscape  are  here  lofty, 
ra{(gad,  and  inaccessible,  with  less  of  the  beautiful  i 


than  of  the  inblime  and  terrible.  A  plaaaing  oratriMt 
to  this  wild  scenery  is  presented  by  the  smiling  v«lUy 
through  which  the  Pabur  meanders,  checlcerwt  m  It 
is  with  pasture  and  crops,  and  the  bankii  and  tlw  Milt 
clothed  with  cultivation,  villages,  and  wood.  Hml'Ii  Ik 
tire  usual  aspect  of  the  lower  valley  of  nortliArM  ilift' 
doostan,  the  height  of  which  is  for  the  moat  part  trum 
8000  to  6000  feet  above  the  plains.  The  dilteranca  litt. 
tween  the  northern  and  southern  axposuies  iif  till* 
mountainous  country  is  remarlcable,  not  only  it)  tlw 
formation  and  structure  of  the  hills  and  roclis,  but  in 
the  vegetation.  The  country  on  its  aoutlisru  fwu  in 
of  a  brown  and  dusky  color ;  the  grass  altoH  «r)4 
parched ;  the  hills  rough  and  lumpy,  with  rock*  MmvU 
ing  through  the  ground ;  the  lower  parts  Imrn  id 
wood ;  and  above,  the  Weymouth  pine,  witli  »  ftttr 
stunted  larches  sprinkled  among  the  rocks  t  wlilla  tlw 
higher  parts  are  spread  over  with  oak,  iwlly,  iin4 
alder,  their  leaves  of  brownish  green,  harmoni/,iiig 
with  the  burned  appearance  of  the  bills,  aii4  givJHg  « 
sombre  hue  to  the  whole  scene.  On  the  northern  »%^ 
posure  a  rich  color  of  dark  green  is  diffused  over  llu> 
whole  landscape ;  the  rocky  sides  of  the  glens  Mrs 
bolder  and  grander ;  and  they  are  clottwd  with  nuUUi 
forests  of  larch,  silver  and  spruce  flrs,  whieb  shri»u4 
from  the  view  the  highest  and  steepest  cliffs,  "  All," 
says  Fraser,  "  was  rich  and  dark ;  and  bare  «n4  titers 
a  glade  opened,  or  a  high  slope  extended  from  tJM 
base  of  the  rock,  or  projected  l)etween  two  streams,  of 
a  bright  beautiful  green  shining  throfigb  the  minim 
forest."  This  difference  between  tli*  northern  «(4 
southern  exposures  is  strongly  martuid  all  oin  (lis 
hills. 

That  strip  of  flat  country,  about  20  miles  in  brss4tli, 
which  lies  at  the  base  of  the  great  Himalay*  fm\i>>, 
dividing  it  from  the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  is  mlUil 
Terrae  or  Terreeano.  It  is  covered  with  thick  fof»a\» 
and  low  swamps,  and,  though  fertile,  it  is  so  unliaMi^ 
that  it  is  little  cultivated.  Bishop  Heber  graphi«4ll)' 
describes  it  as  a  long,  black,  level  line,  eKt£n4lng  Hi 
the  foot  of  the  lowest  hills  ;  "  so  black  and  levitl,"  li» 
adds,  "  that  it  might  seem  to  have  been  drawn  wKli 
ink  and  a  ruler."  This  flat  docs  not  extenil  tMntlier 
north-west  than  through  a  portion  of  lUiMleunil, 
where  tho  healthy  cultivated  country  reaches  ft  tlin 
foot  of  the  hills,  which  rise  abruptly  from  the  milAy 
flat  beneath.  These  low  hills  are  watered  by  stretnis 
from  the  higher  mountains,  that  rise  to  tlie  level  nf 
1500  or  5000  feet,  from  which  the  lower  range  is  fre.- 
quently  separated  by  flne  valleys  of  some  lengtli, 
which  are  called  doon  by  the  natives,  answering  U)  t\m 
.Scottish  name  or  strath.  Tlie  hills  which  rite  lmym<l 
this  lower  range,  to  tho  height  of  alMut  MMMtii  7WHf 
feet,  are  lofty  and  majestic,  and  broken  into  nmmr<mi 
ridges,  divided  by  deep  shaggy  dells.  This  ap|ieiir«n<'<' 
Fraser  ascribes  to  the  quality  of  the  rock  of  wlii/  li 
they  are  composed,  which  consists  of  a  strontjiy  in.- 
durated  clay,  with  a  mixture  of  t^iiiccous  niattT,  fornp 
ing  a  rock  exceedingly  hard,  though  easily  dectrui'tlblf 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  splitting  into  y«ri/iw«lf - 
sized  fragments  leaving  hard  marbly  masses  fintliie 
through  the  scanty  soil.  It  may  l>a  finally  rmMfk"'l 
of  this  singular  and  interesting  country,  (bat  llmijilt 
it  appears  from  the  plains  to  l)e  divided  iiiti»  ilistfnfi 
ranges  of  terraces,  it  is  really  a  vast  KulhuHlim  ii( 
mountains  lieaped  in  masses  one  uIiovh  aiwrfher,  wftll-- 
out  any  order  or  plan  that  can  l>e  dibcoyerwl,  until 
the  height  of  land  is  readied  at  tlie  great  Hlimlttyn 
ridge  whicii  extends  from  beyoml  tlie  source«  wf  itm 
Indus  in  a  continuous  chain  far  into  (^bina. 

Tho  following  are  the  chief  rivers  of  llin4o«it(#H, 
with  tlie  length  of  their  respective  courses  t"  the  M<4  i 
Indus,  170U  miles ;  Brahma|)ootra,  IWU)  |  (j«nti«<i 
1500;  Jumna  (to  its  junction  with  the  (iangeit,  l>illl, 
1500 ;  Sutlege  (to  the  Indus,  900),  UW  j  <;ii^luiu  (t<> 
the  Indus,  760),  1250 ;  Gunduck  (to  the  limtnn*  iM), 
980.    In  the  Deccan,  and  south  of  lu4i«,  (he  liini»\/»ff, 


IND 


1011 


IND 


860;  Slatiis,700;  Nerba^dab,  700 ;  Mahanuddy,  660 ; 
Tuptee,  460 ;  Cavery,  400.  There  are  few  coasts  of 
such  extent  so  destitute  of  islands  and  harbors  as  that  of 
Htndoostan.  With  the  exception  of  emerged  sea-banks 
and  mere  rocks,  Ceylon  is  the  only  island  near  its 
shores ;  and  on  the  eastern  coast,  Masulipatam,  which 
admits  vessels  of  800  tons  burden,  is  the  only  harbor 
for  large  vessels  between  Trincomalee,  in  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  and  the  Ganges,  which  is  free  from  raging 
surf.  To  this  Inconvenience  Madras,  though  an  im- 
portant British  settlement,  is  peculiarly  liable.  On 
the  western  coast,  the  only  harbors  capable  of  admit- 
ting large  vessels  are  Bombay  and  Kurachee,  in 
Scinde;  Mnngalore  admits  no  vessels  drawing  more 
than  10  feet. 

Iliadoostan  comprehends  -within  its  bounds  the  op- 
posite extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  The  plains  rro 
burnt  up  with  intense  heat  ;  while  winter,  with  every 
intermediato  variety  of  temperature,  prevails  in  the 
mountains.  Philosophers  have  in  vain  endeavored  to 
fix  the  point  of  perpetual  congelation  under  differant 
degrees  of  latitude.  Thoy  have,  indeed,  framed  a 
graduated  scale  of  the  respective  heights  at  which,  ac- 
cording to  calculation,  this  point  should  begin  at  cor- 
responding distances  from  the  equator ;  but  theory  is 
here  at  variance  with  actual  observation.  The  climate 
of  mountainous  tracts  depends  so  much  on  localities, 
and  the  particular  course  of  the  winds,  as  tn  baffle  all  gen- 
eral speculation.  Hence,  on  the  Himalaya  Mountains 
harvests  of  grain  are  found,  where,  according  to  hy- 
pothesis,  the  ground  should  be  buried  under  deep 
snow ;  and  trees  are  seen  to  ilourish  in  the  regions  of 
perpetual  winter.  Captain  Webb,  in  ascending  the 
Himalaya  range,  saw  around  him,  at  the  height  of 
11,030  feet  above  the  level  of  Calcutta,  rich  forests  of 
oak,  pine,  and  rhododendra,  the  ground  covered  with 
vegetation  as  high  as  the  knee,  strawberry-beds  in 
full  flower,  and  currant-bushes  in  blossom ;  and  in 
1818,  at  the  Niti  Pass,  16,814  feet  in  height,  philosophy 
was  again  at  fault,  as  the  ground  was  clear  of  snow, 
though  above  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation,  and 
many  quadrupeds  were  feeding  on  the  grassy  banks  of 
the  Sutlcge.  It  was  remarked  by  Dr.  Gerard  that 
vegetation  attained  a  higher  level  on  the  northern  than 
on  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya  ridge,  whei<  the 
extreme  height  of  cultivation  Is  10,000  feet;  the  limit 
of  the  forest,  11,800  feet,  and  12,000  feet  that  of 
bushes.  On  the  northern  side  cultivation  rises  to  the 
height  of  11,400  feet;  in  other  places  to  13,600 feet; 
birch-trees  to  14,000  feet;  and  tama-bushcs,  which 
form  excellent  fuel,  to  the  height  of  about  17,000  feet. 
In  northern  Hindoostan,  great  and  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  occur,  which  is  the  cause  of  pulmonary 
affections.  Dnring  summer,  the  thermometer,  which 
Is  often  In  the  morning  at  32°  or  under  it,  rises  to  70°, 
75°,  and  80°,  or  upward,  during  the  day ;  the  winters 
arc,  however,  uniformly  severe.  In  this  also,  as  in 
other  liilly  countries,  the  traveler  may  be  fainting  to- 
day under  a  tropical  sun,  and  shivering  to-morrow  amid 
the  rigor  of  perpetual  snows.  From  the  banks  of  the 
Sutlege,  where  the  thermometer  frequently  stands  at 
100°  and  108°,  three  days'  climbing  will  carrj'  him 
into  the  regions  of  winter. 

In  the  plains  of  Hindoostan,  the  heat  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  Is  unintermitting  and  intense, 
except  where  it  is  modified  by  the  ranges  of  mountains, 
or  the  table-lands  toward  the  west.  The  seasons  hero 
are  commonly  divided  Into  the  hot,  cold,  and  rainy. 
The  spring  and  the  dry  season  throughout  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges  last  about  four  months,  the  heat  gradu- 
ally increasing  with  the  season,  until,  in  May  and 
iluno,  the  thermometer  rises  to  100°  and  frequently, 
In  the  interior,  to  108°  and  110°,  when  it  is  almost  In- 
tolerable even  to  the  natives,  and  still  more  so  to  Eu- 
ropeans, who  resort  to  various  modes  of  alleviation, 
such  as  the  aacua  iatlij,  which  is  a  frame  of  wood  In- 
terwoven with  twigs,  between  which  is  distributed  a 


hyer  of  a  particular  kind  of  sweet-scented  gram 
This  being  hung  before  an  open  window,  in  the  quar- 
ter of  the  prevailing  wind,  and  constantly  moistened 
on  the  outside  by  a  water-carrier,  diffuses  a  rehashing 
codness. 

FejetaMe  produce.— Hindoostan  comprehends  all  the 
known  varieties  of  the  vegetable  tribes.  The  mount- 
ainous tracts  of  northern  Hindoostan  produce  all  the 
Alpine  plants,  and  the  various  species  of  European 
grain,  fruits,  and  flowers.  Deep  woods  cover  those 
lower  ranges  of  mountains,  in  whicli  are  found  the 
pine-tree  of  various  species,  "  the  tallest,  straightest, 
and  most  magniflcent, "  says  Eraser  (Eraser's  Journal 
of  a  Tour  through  the  Himalaya  Mountains  p.  139),  he 
ever  beheld,  the  larch,  the  silver,  and  the  spruce-fir, 
from  the  1)ark  and  twigs  of  which  resin  exudes  In  abun- 
dance ;  the  yew-tree,  several  species  of  oak,  holly,  alder, 
sycamore,  and  birch,  with  mnlberr}-  and  chestnut-trees. 
Here  is  also  found  the  mimosa-tree,  from  which  is  made 
the  catechu  or  India-rubber :  the  resinous  part  of  this 
fir,  cut  Into  slips,  answers  the  common  uses  of  the  lamp. 
These  noble  forests  extend  over  Immense  tracts,  and 
would  afford  inexhimstiblo  supplies  of  timber  if  they 
could  be  transported  to  the  proper  market.  Fruits  in 
great  variety  are  also  produced  in  this  elevated  region, 
such  as  apricots,  peaches,  and  grapes,  apples,  pears, 
currants,  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  strawberries ; 
roots,  such  as  turnips,  carrots,  garlic,  and  onions ;  flow- 
ers and  plants,  as  roses,  both  red  and  white,  lilies  of 
the  valliy,  jesmines,  butter-cups,  yellow,  blue,  and 
white,  cowslips,  and  sweet-briar,  with  numerous  other 
beautiful  and  fragrant  plants.  The  vallej-p  exhibit, 
according  to  their  altitude  and  temperature,  the  pro- 
ductions of  Europe  or  of  the  tropical  countries.  At 
the  height  of  6000  feet  appear  the  oak  and  the  pine ;  at 
that  of  3000  feet  rattans  and  bamboos  of  enormous  di- 
mensions ;  in  some  parts  the  pine-spple,  the  orange, 
and  the  sugar-cane,  grow  to  maturity ;  in  others,  bar- 
ley, millet,  and  similar  grains  are  produced.  The 
lower  part  of  these  hills  Is  the  seat  of  the  saul  forests. 
The  lower  valleys  yield  rice,  sown  broad-cast,  maize, 
wheat,  barley,  pulse  of  various  kinds,  sugar-cane,  cot- 
ton, Indian  madder,  a  large  species  of  cardamum,  be- 
sides other  productions.  'The  pastoral  tribes  of  north- 
ern Hindoostan  feed  considerable  flocks  on  the  lower 
hills  and  valleys  ;  in  summer  they  climb  the  Alpine 
countr)',  and  browse  on  the  herbage  adjacent  to  the 
region  of  perpetual  frost. 

Rice  is  t'le  great  staple  of  agriculture  throughout 
Hindoostan,  in  the  plain  of  the  Ganges  as  well  as  in 
southern  India.  It  is  sown  at  the  approach  of  the 
rains,  and  it  Is  gathered  during  the  rainy  season,  about 
the  end  of  August ;  the  last  crop  Is  sown  during  the 
same  season,  and  Is  gathered  in  the  beginning  of  De- 
cember. It  is  esteemed  the  l)est,  not  being  equally  li- 
able with  the  other  to  decay.  The  diversity  of  soil 
and  climate,  and  the  several  seasons  of  cultlvotlon, 
have  given  rise  to  inrmite  varieties  in  this  species  of 
grain.  When  the  ruins  fail  tliroughout  Hindoostan, 
which  occasionally  happens,  the  rice  crops  are  apt  to 
be  deficient  to  a  degree  altogether  unknown  in  the 
well-regulated  agriculture  of  Europe,  where  the  sever- 
est scarcity  hardly  ever  rises  the  price  of  com  more 
than  three  times  its  usual  rate.  But  the  famines  of 
Hindoostan  leave  thousands  without  subsistence,  and 
fill  the  land  with  scenes  of  misery  and  death.  In  the 
great  famine  of  1769  it  was  estimated  that  8,000,000  of 
the  people  perished ;  the  air  was  so  infected  by  the  nox- 
ious effluvia  of  dead  liodies  tliat  it  was  scarcely  possible 
to  stir  abroad  without  perceiving  it,  and  without  hear- 
ing also  the  frantic  cries  of  the  victims  of  famine,  who 
were  seen  in  every  stage  of  suffering  and  death  ;  whole 
families  expired,  and  villages  were  desolated ;  and 
when  the  new  crop  came  forward  in  August  it  bad  no 
owners.  Bengal  has  been  less  liable  to  famines  sine 
nis  period,  but  they  have  frequently  occurred  in  other 
parts  of  India.     Rice  thrives  well  in  the  inundated 


IND 


1012 


IND 


: 


track  of  the  Ganges,  and  in  southern  Hindoostan,  es- 
pecially on  the  low  lands  of  the  sea-coast ;  higher  up 
the  Ganges,  wheat  and  barley  are  more  generally  culti- 
vated, also  in  the  high  grounds  and  elevated  table-lands 
of  southern  India.  Other  kinds  of  grain  are  cultivat- 
ed, such  as  Indian  corn ;  and  groat  varieties  of  pulse 
and  coarse  grains,  such  as  peas,  beans,  chiches,  gram, 
vetches,  and  ruggy,  w*iich  is  the  most  important  crop 
raised  in  the  dry  field,  and  in  some  parts  of  southern 
India  is  the  subsistence  of  all  classes,  in  others  of  the 
poorer  classes.  These  are  importunt  articles  of  culti- 
vation, OS  they  have  each  their  particular  season,  and 
thrive  even  on  poorer  soils.  Maize  is  the  general 
produce  of  poor  soils  in  hilly  countries,  and  is  com- 
monly cultivated  in  the  more  western  provinces.  Mil- 
let and  other  grains  are  also  cultivated,  and  vegetating 
rapidly,  in  every  season  they  till  up  profitably  for  the 
farmer  the  short  intervals  between  the  other  modes 
of  cultivation  in  lower  Hindoostan.  Sugar  is  every- 
where cultivated,  and  at  little  expense  by  the  Hindoo 
cultivator ;  and  as  the  sugar  of  India  is  no  longer  sub- 
jected in  the  United  Kingdom  to  an  unequal  import 
duty,  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  the  produce  of  India 
may  compete  not  only  with  the  sugars  of  British  colo- 
nies, bat  those  also  of  Cuba,  Brazil,  Siam,  and  Ma- 
uilla.  Though  formerly  unlinown  in  Elirope,  sugar 
has  been  produced  in  India  from  the  remotest  times, 
and  was  thence  transplanted  into  Arabia,  whence  it 
has  been  introduced  into  Europe,  Africa,  the  West  In- 
dies, and  An'crica.  It  grows  luxuriantly  throughout 
all  the  valleys  of  thr  Ganges,  and  in  the  plains  of 
southern  India,  and  could  be  produced,  with  the  help 
uf  European  skill  and  capital,  to  meet  any  demand. 
It  thrives  more  especially  in  Buhar  and  Benares,  and 
in  particular  districts  of  Bengal.  Opium  is  the  pecu- 
liar and  staple  produce  of  the  province  of  Bahar,  and 
is  also  extensively  cultivated  in  Malwah,  and  in  other 
parts  of  Hindoostan.  It  is  a  precarious  crop,  produc- 
ing alternately  high  profits  and  heavy  losses.  The 
liquor  extracted  from  the  poppy  is  collected  as  it  ex- 
udes, and  is  then  placed  in  pots,  where  it  is  dried  and 
formed  into  lumps,  in  which  process  it  loses  from  one 
tenth  to  one  eighth  of  its  weight.  The  opium  produced 
in  Bobar  and  Bengal  being  monopolized  by  the  East 
India  Company,  and  bought  at  a  fixed  price,  is  a  con- 
traband article  of  trade,  and  its  cultivation  is  confined 
to  certain  di'^tricts.  Within  Bengal  no  one  is  allowed 
to  cultivate  the  poppy,  except  for  the  goveniment. 
In  Malwah  a  treaty  was  entered  into  with  the  dilTerent 
rulers  and  chiefs,  by  which  the  monopoly  was  extend- 
ed to  that  country,  and  all  tlut  was  produced  delivered 
to  the  Company,  at  the  rate  of  tliree  rupees  a  seer, 
which  is  two  pounds.  But  so  great  was  the  discontent 
excited  by  this  extension  of  the  monopoly,  that,  at  tlie 
desire  of  the  chief,  the  treaties  were  rescinded  in  1819, 
1820;  and  the  trade  in  opium  and  its  cultivation  is 
now  free  in  that  province,  and  everywhere  throughout 
India,  except  in  the  Company's  dominions;  but  as 
Malwah  is  completely  surrounded  by  British  territory, 
a  large  revenue  is  derived  from  the  high  duty  levied 
on  Malwah  opium,  in  transit  to  Bombay  for  exporta- 
tion to  China.  Malwah  opium  equals  that  of  Bengal, 
and  is  brought  into  competition  with  tlie  Company's 
opium  in  all  the  foreign  markets,  and  especklly  in 
China  (see  appendix  to  the  report  on  the  East  India 
Company's  affairs,  p.  15).  The  cotton  plant  has  from 
time  immemorial  been  one  of  the  staple  products  of 
Hindoostan,  and  is  indigenous  from  Ceylon  in  the  south 
to  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  It  is  cultivated  exten- 
sively throughout  Bengal,  and  in  the  interior  prov- 
inces, on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna ;  also  in  the  Dcccan, 
and  in  southern  India,  whence  it  is  impoitcd  into  Ben- 
gal, and  into  Hirzapoor,  and  the  district  of  Benares, 
where  it  is  manufactured.  Flax  and  hemp  are  also 
cultivated  in  several  districts  both  in  the  north  and  in 
the  tooth  of  India.  Silk  was  long  the  exclusive  prod- 
uct of  India  and  China,    Silk-worms  ore  now  reared 


principally  in  the  district  of  Burdn  >n,  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  Bhogirati  and  the  Ganges,  and  for  about  100 
miles  down  tlieir  streams.  Four  crops  of  mulberr}'- 
leavcs  ore  obtained  in  the  year,  the  last  in  December, 
A  considerable  quantity  of  silk,  of  a  coarse  kind,  is  ob- 
tained from  wild  silk-worms,  which  do  not  feed  on  the 
mulberry,  and  are  found  in  the  forests  of  Silhet,  Assam, 
and  tho  Deccan.  Indigo  was  originally  a  product  of 
India ;  and  the  plant  was  afterward  carried  to  South 
America,  whence  Europe  was  for  a  long  time  supplied 
with  this  dye.  The  manufacture,  on  which  the  quality 
of  the  indigo  depends,  was  very  unskillfuUy  conducted 
until  the  year  1783.  Since  this  period  it  has  been  so 
much  improved  by  the  skill  and  capital  of  Europeans 
that  it  is  now  a  staple  article  of  commerce ;  and  in 
Bengal  the  value  of  tlic  produce  in  1864  amounted  to 
£1,701,206.  Indigo  is  produced  generally  throughout 
the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  and  in  southern  India,  but 
chiefly  in  Bengal.  Tobacco,  formerly  unknown  in  In- 
dia, and  introduced  from  America  probabi}-  about  the 
l)eginning  of  the  17th  century,  is  now  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  every  part,  chiefly  however  in  the  northern 
provinces,  and  more  rarely  in  the  south.  The  tobac- 
co grown  in  the  Mahratta  territories  is  most  esteemed, 
particularly  that  which  is  produced  near  Bilsca,  a 
town  in  Malwah.  Bengal  does  not  yield  good  tobac- 
co ;  but  the  Company's  territories  in  Guzerat,  being 
principally  of  a  rich  black  soil,  are  considered  as  pecu- 
liarly suitable  to  its  cultivation  (see  letter  of  the  Sec- 
retary to  the  Court  of  Directors,  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  India  Board,  &th  September,  1828).  The  Hindoos 
having  been  already  in  tho  habit  of  inhaling  the 
smoke  of  hemp-leaves  and  other  intoxicating  dbrugs, 
readily  adopted  tol)acco  as  a  more  agreeable  substitute, 
and  it  soon  came  into  general  use.  Their  recent 
knowledge  of  it  appears  from  their  having  no  name  for 
it  which  is  not  a  corruption  of  some  European  term. 
Pepper,  though  of  inferior  consequence,  is  a  valuable 
product  of  soutliern  India,  especially  of  Malabar.  It 
is  produced  from  a  species  of  vine,  which  is  made  to 
twino  around  tlio  jack-tree.  It  bears  fruit  about  tlio 
third  or  fourth  year,  amounting  to  from  three  to  seven 
pounds'  weight,  and  yields  two  crops  in  the  year. 
The  areca-nut  and  betel-leaf,  universally  chewed  by 
the  natives,  thrive  in  the  low  grounds,  where  water  is 
abundant;  and  cardamoms,  a  spice  in  great  repute. 
The  universal  and  vast  consumption  of  vegetable  oils 
in  Hindoostan,  for  food,  or  unguents,  or  for  the  lump, 
is  supplied  l)y  the  extensive  cultivation  of  musturd- 
seed,  linseed,  scsamum,  palma,  christi,  besides  what  is 
procured  from  tho  cocoa-nut.  The  first  rii)cn  in  tlio 
cold  season,  the  sesamum  during  the  rains,  or  soon  af- 
terward. 

The  forests  in  the  low  plains  of  Hindoostan,  of 
southern  India,  and  those  which  cover  the  western 
range  of  tho  Ghauts,  and  more  sparingly  the  eastern 
Ghauts,  abound  in  the  most  valuable  trees,  applicable 
to  many  importont  uses.  The  extensive  woods  in 
southern  India  supply  the  teak-tree,  valuable  for  ship- 
building ;  and  in  Malabar,  extensive  tracts  of  waste 
land  have  within  tho  lust  few  years  been  converted  in- 
to teak  plantations  by  the  government.  Saul,  sissoo, 
toon,  and  bamboo-trees  abound ;  the  last  of  which 
yield  a  medicine  mucii  used  by  the  native  doctors,  ond 
which  sells  for  its  weight  in  silver.  There  aro  many 
species  of  tlie  palm-tree,  with  its  luxuriant  and  spread- 
ing leaves,  of  which  tho  produce  is  extremely  useful. 
The  cocoa-nut-tree  is,  in  some  provinces,  an  important 
article  of  culture.  Tlie  kernel  is  used  for  food  l>y  the 
richer  natives,  either  in  the  raw  state,  or  dressed  after 
various  fashions ;  and  it  yields  by  far  the  finest  oil  in 
India,  if  the  nut  be  fresh,  and  the  oil  quickly  used. 
Extensive  tracts,  many  miles  in  length,  are  planted 
with  tlio  cocoa-nut  and  betel-nut  palms.  Many  other 
species  of  timber  are  found  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the 
woods,  of  which  Dr.  Buchanan,  in  his  account  of 
Mysore,  gives  a  particular  deacription,  with  the  botan- 


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teal  name*  of  the  dlfTerent  treea,  and  to  his  work  we 
refer ;  observing,  generally,  that  the  woods  consist  of 
over}'  description  of  timber,  black,  heavy,  and  strong, 
and  adapted  for  the  beams  and  posts  of  houses  ;  other 
kinds  are  white,  hard,  and  durable,  and  adapted  to  all 
the  purposes  for  which  strong  materials  are  required ; 
some  are  beautifull}'  grained,  and  take  a  fine  polish, 
and  are  well  suited  for  furniture,  or  exude  resins  and 
gums  of  a  sweet  scent,  that  are  used  In  temples  for  ln> 
cense ;  the  wood  of  some  kindles  readily  into  a  clear 
light,  and  Is  used  for  torches  (see  Journey  from  Mad- 
ras, through  Mysore,  Canara,  and  Malabar,  vol.  1.,  p. 
26).  Other  kinds  of  wood  are  employed  for  dyeing. 
Tlie  sandal-wood  Is  valuable  for  its  perfume,  and  for 
the  essential  oil  which  it  yields.  It  requires  a  strong 
soil,  and  it  is  12  years  before  It  attains  the  proper 
size  for  being  cut.  The  billets  of  wood  are  prepared 
by  being  buried  in  the  dry  ground  for  two  months, 
when  the  ants  eat  up  all  the  outer  wood,  leaving  the 
heart,  which  is  tlie  sandal.  The  deeper  the  color,  the 
higher  the  perfume.  The  best  sandal-wood  of  Hin- 
doostan  is  now  in  possession  of  the  rojah  of  Mysore, 
who  succeeded  to  a  small  portion  of  Tippoo'a  domin- 
ions. 

Animah. — Ilindoostan,  from  the  great  extent  and 
inequality  of  its  surface ;  Its  stupendous  and  snow-clad 
mountains,  and  its  vast  and  wojued  j.lains,  Ij'ing  un- 
der a  burning  sun,  comprehends  all  tlie  most  interest- 
ing forms  of  animal  life,  more  especially  those  animals 
of  the  tropical  regions  remarkable  for  ferocity  or  size, 
which  have  been  the  subjects  of  scientific  research  as 
well  as  of  popular  curiosity  in  all  ages,  and  which  find 
ample  cover  in  the  deep  woods  and  jungle-covered 
wastes  of  those  tracts  of  the  countrj'  which  have  been 
desolated  by  tyranny  or  war. 

However  much  the  following  statistics  of  th^  finan- 
cial concerns  of  tlie  British  Eastern  empire  may  bo  at 
voriance  with  the  exaggerated  ideas  entertained  re- 
specting It,  as  well  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  people 
of  England  as  by  foreigners,  it  will  excite  no  surprise 
in  the  mind  of  any  one  who  has  ever  reflected  on  the 
subject.  It  Is  due,  indeed,  to  the  directors,  to  state, 
that  though  they  have  occasionally  acted  on  erroneous 
principles,  they  have  always  exerted  themselves  to 
enforce  economy  in  every  branch  of  their  expenditure, 
arid  to  impose  and  collect  their  revenues  in  the  best 
and  cheapest  manner.  But  though  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  repressing  many  abuses,  it  would  be  idle  to 
suppose  that  they  should  ever  entirely  succeed  In  root- 
ing them  out.  How  can  It  bo  imagined,  that  stran- 
gers sent  to  India,  conscious  that  they  are  armed  with 
oil  the  strength  of  government,  placed  under  no  real 
responsibility,  exempted  from  the  salutarj-  Influence  of 
public  opinion,  fearing  no  effectnal  exposure  through 
the  medium  of  the  press,  and  anxious  only  to  'accumu- 
late a  fortune,  should  not  occasionally  abuse  their 
authority?  or  that  they  should  manage  the  compli- 
cated and  difficult  'aflTairs  of  a  vast  empire,  inhabited 
by  a  race  of  people  of  whose  language,  manners,  and 
habits  they  are  almost  wholly  ignorant,  with  that  pru- 
dence, economy,  and  vigilance,  without  which  it  were 
idle  to  expect  that  any  great  surplus  revenue  should 
ever  be  realized  ? 

TnJia  Company,  th'.  East. — The  first  commercial  In- 
tercourse of  the  English  with  the  East  Indies,  was  a 
private  adventure  with  three  ships  fitted  out  in  1591  j 
onlj'  one  of  them  reached  India,  and  after  a  voyage  of 
three  years,  the  commander.  Captain  Ijincaster,  was 
brought  home  in  another  sliip,  the  sailors  having  8elze<l 
on  his  own ;  but  his  information  gave  rise  to  a  capital 
mercantile  voyage,  and  the  Company's  first  charter, 
in  December,  1600.  Their  stock  then  consisted  of 
£72,000,  and  they  fitted  out  four  ships,  and  meeting 
with  success,  have  continued  to  trode  ever  since.  In- 
dia stock  sold  at  £500  for  a  share  of  .£100,  In  1683.  A 
new  Company  was  formed  In  1698;  and  both  were 
united  in  1702.    The  India  House  was  built  in  1726, 


and  enlarged  In  1799.  Board  of  Control  instltated  1784 
See  East  India  Compast. 

Saitroadt  m  India. — ^There  are  several  railroads  going 
forward  In  dliferent  parts  of  India,  which  promise  to 
1)0  productive  of  a  great  increase  in  the  trade  of  that 
countr}-,  though  it  is  more  questionable  whether  for 
some  years  to  come  they  will  afford  a  very  ample  in- 
come to  the  proprietors,  for  the  heavy  cost  of  the  con- 
struction. One  of  the  lines  first  undertaken  is  the 
East  Indian,  extending  from  a  navigable  part  of  the 
Ganges  toward  Delhi.  This  road  is  already  partially 
opened,  and  the  report  of  its  operations  for  the  first  six 
months  of  the  year  1856,  contained  a  return  of  432,831 
passengers  transported,  and  88,010  tons  of  frelghL 
The  work  ftom  Allahabad  to  Cawnpore  was  going  for- 
ward successfully  at  the  date  of  this  report,  but  it  had 
been  since  retarded  beyond  the  expectations  that  had 
been  entertained,  by  the  difficulty  in  carrying  forward 
the  materials.  The  earth-work  was  nearly  completed  at 
that  time.  Allahabad  is  near  the  junction  of  the  Jnmna 
with  the  Ganges,  600  or  700  miles  above  Calcutta. 
The  work  was  to  he  extended  from  Cawnpore  to  Delhi 
under  the  ofiicers  of  the  Company,  without  contract- 
ors. We  have  lately  seen  an  account  of  tho  total 
loss  of  a  costlj'  locomotive,  destined  for  this  road,  by 
being  sunk  In  the  Ganges.  A  portion  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsular  road,  beginning  at  Bombay,  has  also 
been  opened,  and  a  location  for  the  extension  of  the 
line  has  been  recently  made,  from  Nagpore  to  Jubbul- 
pore,  where  it  will  unite  with  the  East  Indian,  thereby 
forming  an  entire  line  of  inland  communication  follow- 
ing. In  part,  the  course  of  the  Ganges,  ftom  Bom- 
bay to  Calcutta. 

The  Scinde  Railway,  another  important  work  de- 
signed for  opening  the  trade  of  the  great  valley  of  the 
Indus,  has  already  made  considerable  progress.  It 
will  extend  from  Hyderabad  to  the  port  of  Kurrachee, 
a  distance  of  110  miles,  it  being  rendered  necessary  on 
account  of  the  diflicult  navigation  of  the  mouths  of 
that  river.  As  an  appendage  to  this  work,  a  more  ex- 
tensive one  called  the  Punjaub  Railway  has  been  lately 
projected,  and  a  prospectus  of  it  is  now  advertised  in 
the  London  papers.  It  is  to  be  230  miles  in  length, 
beginning  at  Mooltan  on  the  Indus  470  miles  above 
Hyderabad,  and  running  thence  to  Lahore  and  Umrit- 
sir,  through  a  countrj-  of  .emarkable  equality  of  i  •- 
face.  It  Is  to  form.  In  connection  with  the  Scinde 
Railroad,  and  an  improved  system  of  steam  navigation 
on  the  Intermediate  portion  of  the  River  Scinde  or  Indus, 
between  Hyderabad  and  Mooltan,  a  connected  line  of 
communication  from  Kurrachee,  which  Is  destined  to 
be  the  principal  port  for  western  India,  to  Lahore  the 
capital  of  the  Punjaub.  From  Lahore  it  will  be  far- 
ther extended  36  miles  to  Umritsir,  the  commer- 
cial capital  of  a  very  large  and  productive  trading 
district,  making  in  all,  by  railroad  and  steam  naviga- 
tion, 810  miles.  For  the  Punjaub  railroad  alone  it 
is  proposed  to  raLe  a  capital  of  £2,500,000,  of  which 
two  fifths  of  the  shares  are  reserved  to  the  sharehold- 
ers in  the  Scinde  Company,  In  the  proportion  of  two 
shares  of  the  former  to  one  held  of  the  latter.  The 
prospectus  advertised  in  tlie  London  papers  contains 
the  following  description  of  the  region  of  country 
through  which  this  line  of  communication  will  pass, 
extending  nearly  tho  whole  length  of  the  valley  of  the 
Indns : 

"  A  railway  from  Mooltan  to  Lahore  and  Umritsir 
will  not  only  afford  an  outlet  to  the  impeded  traffic  of 
Punjaub  and  neighboring  territories,  but  would  of 
necessity  greatly  enhance  the  importance  and  value 
of  the  line  from  Kurrachee  to  Hyderabad  Scinde 
and  the  Punjaub  (including  the  States  under  control 
(.over  an  area  of  180,000  square  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  nearly  26,000,000.  The  flower  of  the  European 
and  native  army  occupies  these  provinces,  and  num- 
bers 70,000  men,  more  than  16,000  of  whom  are  Enro- 
peans." 


IND 


1014 


IND 


Th«  fallowing  farther  description  of  Mt  region  of 
oountr)',  !«  from  t)ie  Calcutta  EnglUhman  : 

"  Lahore,  aituntnd  on  the  Ravee,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Punjaub  and  the  seat  of  its  political  administration. 
The  town  is  very  extensive,  and  carries  on  a  brisit  in- 
ternal trade.      The  civil  station  of  Anarlcullee,  and 
the  large  military  station  of  Meean  Meer,  are  lilcewise 
attached  to  it.     Umritsir,  the  commercial  capital  of 
the  Punjaab,  distant  86  miles,  is  at  least  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  Delhi  in  population  and  wealth.    The  in- 
tervening country  is  level,  ond  without  even  a  nullah 
of  any  size,  and  an  intercourse  of  so  great  an  extent 
is  maintained  between  them,  that  the  road  is  literally 
Mironged   day  and  night  with  every  description  of 
wheeled  vehicles,  horses,  camels,  etc.,  and  foot  pas- 
sengers; in  short,  more  resembling  the  street  of  a 
town  than  a  mere  communication  between  two  cities 
so  far  apart.     Umritsir  is  the  grand  entrepot  for  the 
commerce  of  the  cis-Sutlej  States — the  rich  and  mount- 
ainous regions  eastward  to  Kote  Kangro— the  horses, 
fruits,  and  woolens  of  Cabul  and  Bokhara,  the  shawls 
and  other  produce  of  Cashmere,  Yarlchand,  end  the 
mountainous  country  toward  the  nortli-east— in  fact, 
of  the  whole  Punjaub  and  the  countries  encircling  it, 
are  here  concentrated.     Mooltan  is  a  large  town  and 
military  station  on  the  Sutlej  or  Gharra,  so  termed 
after  its  conjunction  with  the  Beas.     It  is  quicltly  be- 
crming  an  important  emporium,  for  it  is  the  connect- 
ing linlc  to  the  trade  of  northern  with  south-western 
India,  or  rather  Bombay  and  Europe.      Kurrachee, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  is  fa^t  advancing 
into  prosperity  and  into  notice  as  a  sea-port ;  it  will 
probably  soon  be  known  as  the  first  in  the  empire, 
being  superior  to  Calcutta,  Madras,  or  even  Bombay." 
The  distance  between  Calcutta  and  Bombay  in  a 
direct  line  is  a  little  more  than  a  thousand  miles.     By 
the  indirect  route  which  must  be  pursued  by  the  Pe- 
ninsular line,  to  find  one  adapted  either  to  steam  nav- 
igation or  to  the  construction  of  a  railroad — that  is, 
by  following  the  course  of  the  Ganges,  so  far  as  the 
route  is  eligible,  and  from  the  point  thus  reached,  by 
selecting  the  line  best  adapted  to  the  construction  of  a 
railroad,  taking  into  consideration  the  comparative 
evenness  of  surface,  and  the  production,  resources  and 
population  of  the  countrj'  to  be  traversed,  the  distance 
will  not  be  less  than  1600  miles,  exclusive  of  the  minor 
sinuosities  of  the  route,  which  can  not  be  accurately 
estimated  until  the  line  is  definitively  laid  down.     It 
is  already  ascertained  that  easterly  from  Nagpore,  coal 
of  an  excellent  quality  for  the  making  of  coke  at  a 
low  cost  is  found  in  abundance.     Extensive  as  these 
railway  routes  are,  it  will  he  perceived  that  they  liear 
no  comparison,  in  point  of  extravagance,  and  hope- 
lessness of  execution,  with  the  vast  routes  projected 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific  in  various 
directions,  traversing  regions  uninhabited  and  unin- 
habitable, and  passing  over  mountain  ranges,  which 
almost  bid  defiance  to  the  power  of  the  locomotive. 
In  one  cose,  the  projected  routes  pass  througii  coun- 
tries already  covered  by  an  immense  population,  and 
affording  valuable  products  adapted  to  l)ecome  the  ob- 
jects of  a  profitable  trade,  and  consequently  capal>le  of 
contributing  to  the  support  of  the  line  throughout 
every  part  of  it.     In  tho  other  case,  nearly  the  whole 
country  to  be  traversed,  by  the  most  favored  of  the 
projected  routes,  is  destitute  not  only  of  the  means  of 
affording  even  a  partial  support  to  the  route  when 
constructed  and  put  in  operation,  but  in  a  great  meas-  { 
ure  incapable  of  furnishing  even  the  timbe'  necessaryj 
for  its  construction  and  repairs,  the  fuel  necossar}'  for 
locomotives,  or  provisions  for  the  men  who  must  bo 
employed  in  running  them. 

The  great  lever,  however,  by  which  England  will, 
in  a  greater  ratio  than  ever,  increase  her  power  in  the 
East,  will  be  the  railroad  tyttem.  And  in  this  policy 
rapid  strides  and  important  results  have  lieen  already 
accomplished.  Ai  early  as  August,  1855,  it  was  stated 


in  the  HoOM  of  Commons  that  the  East  India  Com* 
pany  had  sanctioned  the  construction  of  one  road  690 
miles  in  length,  to  be  completed  in  the  }-ear  1856,  with 
a  guaranty  of  6  per  cent,  dividend  liy  the  Company. 
In  other  words,  private  capitalists  having  subscribed 
the  roquired  capital,  the  Company  therefore  gave  a 
guaranty  of  5  per  cent,  income,  upon  a  capital  of 
120,000,000.  Other  roads  have  been  projected,  and 
are  now  in  course  of  construction,  with  an  aggregate 
line  of  over  3000  miles.  From  one  extremity  of  Brit- 
ish India  to  the  other,  the  magnetic  telegraph  Is  in  full 
operation.  The  intelligence  carried  from  Engluml  to 
Bombay,  was,  as  far  back  as  April,  1855,  transmitted 
to  Calcutta  by  telegraph.  The  three  grand  trunk 
railroads  are : 

Longth,  mtlfli, 

1.  From  Calentta  to  Feshawnr 1,428 

«.     "     Calcutta  to  Bombay 1,002 

8.      "     Bombay  to  Agra 784 


ToUI.. 


8,1I» 


40OO  miles  of  telegraph  wire  are  now  set  up  in  In- 
dia, and  in  constant  use.  In  the  construction  of  this 
immense  line  of  wire,  70  large  rivers  were  crossed.  In 
one  case  the  cable  over  a  river  miiasureg  15,840  feet, 
and  in  another  over  two  miles  in  length. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  views  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment and  of  the  East  India  Company  especially,  a 
standing  army  of  289,000  men  (European  and  native), 
is  maintained.  It  requires  little  foresight  to  show  that 
it  is  in  India  (at  present)  and  in  China  (hereafter)  that 
tho  Britisli  power  will  for  many  years  be  developed  to 
an  extraordinary  degree.  With  the  aid  of  capital, 
now  abundant  in  India,  and  witli  the  further  aid  of 
railroads,  manufacturing  machinery,  steamships  and 
steamboats,  the  magnetic  telegraph,  and  cheap  labor, 
the  commercial  and  political  power  of  Great  Britain 
will  soon  overshadow  all  others.  The  subject  fur- 
nishes points  of  inquiry  and  consideration,  which 
should  be  duly  weighed  by  the  statesman,  the  mer- 
chant, and  the  philanthropist. 

We  have  all  looked  with  astonishment  upon  the 
vast  commercial  changes  that  have  transpired  in  the 
world  within  the  past  20  or  30  years.  Science,  genius, 
enterprise,  and  capital  are  yet  at  work  transforming, 
modifying,  creating.  America  has  witnessed  groat 
transformations  wUhin  that  period.  It  would  seem 
that  Asia  is  likely  to  undergo  equally  important 
changes,  through  the  means  of  the  British  govern- 
ment and  its  thousand  agents.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  United  States,  availing  themselves  of  the 
newl3--enlarged  field  of  operations  in  tho  East,  should 
not  find  a  profitable  market  for  their  manufactures, 
and  further  employment  for  their  shipping. 

Metals. — From  the  wild  and  inaccessible  n.iture  of 
the  country  in  many  parts  of  Hindoostan,  its  metallic 
products  are  but  imperfeotly  known.  It  is  found  to 
produce  all  the  metallic  ores,  as  well  as  diamonds  and 
precious  stones,  and  other  mineral  substances.  Gold 
is  generally  found  in  the  sands  of  the  mountain 
streams,  and  is  extracted  i)y  washing.  The  head 
streams  of  tho  Ganges  l>ring  along  with  them  parti- 
cles of  gold,  which  in  Rohilcund  are  collected  by  a 
particular  caste  of  people.  It  is  found  in  various  parts 
of  Mysore,  particularly  nine  miles  cast  of  Boodicotta, 
where  the  country  is  impregnated  witli  it ;  also  in  tho 
Nielgherry  Mountains ;  and  in  great  quantities  in  all 
that  tract  of  countrj-  that  lies  west ;  and  in  the  adjoin- 
ing Koondanud  and  Ghaut  Mountains.  This  whole 
tract,  including  the  niountttins,  and  comprising  a  space 
of  2000  miles,  contains  gold.  Unrefined  gold  is  regu- 
larly exchanged  by  many  of  tho  mountain  tribes  of  the 
north  for  the  produce  of  the  plains.  It  is  estimated 
that  aimut  1000  men  are  continually  employed  in  col- 
lecting this  precious  metal.  Cop|ier  is  produced  in  the 
provinceof  Delhi,  which  the  natives  collect  either  on  tho 
surface  or  with  very  slight  excavations ;  also  in  the  Raj- 
poot principality  of  Jeypoor  in  the  jirovinve  of  Ajmeer, 


IND 


1019 


IND 


nature  of 
its  mctuUic 
is  fouml  to 
iamomU  ani 
nccs.     Gold 
mountain 
The  head 
.  tlicin  parti- 
Uected  by  » 
various  parts 
■  Boodicotta, 
,  j  also  in  the 
intitics  in  all 
.n  the  ttdjoin- 
Thia  whole 
■Uing  a  space 
gold  is  regu- 
tribes  of  the 
is  estimated 
iloyed  in  col- 
oduced  in  the 
;t  either  on  the 
ilsointheRaj- 
ice  of  Aimeer, 


■nd  in  other  parts  of  the  game  province,  there  are 
capper  qiinea,  and  in  the  Camatic,  abont  40  miles 
north-east  from  Cuddapuh.  The  metal  is  found  in 
layers  about  two  inches,  and  occasionally  two  feet 
thicli ;  they  are  coated  with  ochre,  and  arc  in  (general 
flat,  as  if  they  had  undergone  compression.  The  ore 
exists  in  nearly  a  metallic  state,  without  any  admix- 
ture of  sulphur,  arsenic,  or  any  other  substance  that 
requires  separation.  The  best  ores  yield  60,  and  the 
worst  6  per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  The  granitic  mount- 
ains of  Nepaul  and  northern  Illndoostan  contain  much 
iron,  load,  and  copper,  with  n  little  gold  in  the  river 
courses.  The  copper  mines  are  quite  superficial,  the 
ore  being  dug  from  trenches  entirely  open  above,  so 
that  the  work  is  laid  aside  in  the  rainy  season.  Iron 
ore  Is  found  in  many  parts  of  Hindoostan.  There  are 
mines  of  iron  in  Lahore  and  in  Ajmeer.  In  Orissa 
many  of  the  natives  are  iron  smelters,  and  most  of  the 
iron  sent  from  Halusore  to  Calcutta  is  produced  in  this 
district.  In  llejapoor  the  working  of  iron  furnishes  em- 
ployment to  many  of  the  inhabitants,  who  extract  it  by 
a  verj-  rude  process.  At  Porto  Novo,  in  the  British 
district  of  South  Arcot,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
extensive  iron-works  have  been  erected  by  a  joint- 
stock  association  called  the  East  India  Iron  Company ; 
to  whom  also  belong  the  iron  foundery  works  at  Bey- 
poor,  in  Malal>aT,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  penin- 
sula. The  ore  smelted  at  these  establishments  is  found 
in  great  abundance  and  of  excellent  quality  in  their 
respective  vicinities.  The  Mysore  countrj- aiwunds  in 
iron.  There  are  also  forges  for  manufacturing  steel, 
which  are  minutely  descril)ed  by  Dr.  Buchanan  in  his 
account  of  the  Mysore  country.*  In  Coimbetore  and 
in  Malabar  the  iron  mines  give  employment  to  a  con- 
siderable numlior  of  persons.  The  process  and  ma- 
chinerj-  for  extracting  the  iron  are  very  imperfect. 
Iron  mines  were  formerly  worked  in  the  district  of 
Hogllpoor,  but  they  have  been  long  neglected.  Rich 
iron  ores  are  abundant  in  Cutch,  The  ore  is  gathered 
in  baskets  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  yields 
2a  per  cent,  of  iron  j  and  the  steel  which  is  made  from 
this  ore  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  Lead  is  produced 
in  various  parts  ;  also  antimony,  plumbago,  sulphur, 
alum ;  and  there  are  inexhaustible  supplies  of  coal, 
though  the  mines  are  not  worked  with  any  effect. 
Coal  Is  raised  in  Burdwan  in  considerable  quantities 
and  of  a  line  quality.  Saltpetre  is  produced  in  Bengal 
and  Bahur,  though  its  manufacture  does  not  go  beyond 
the  eastern  limits  of  the  latter  province.  It  might, 
however,  be  attended  with  success  in  Bengal,  where 
the  tendency  of  the  soil  to  its  production  is  vory 
great;  ana  there  might  be  manufactories  of  salt  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  countrj',  but  they  are  re- 
stricted by  the  Company's  monopoly.  In  the  My- 
sore plains  the  wells  are  salt,  and  the  ground  is 
frequently  covered  with  a  salim  efflorescence.  A  range 
of  hills,  extending  from  the  Indus  to  the  Ilydaspea, 
yields  the  famous  rock-salt  of  Lahore,  of  which  they 
are  almost  entirely  composed. f  Many  quarries  are 
found  in  the  hilly  districts,  which  produce  fine  stone, 
that  is  cut  by  the  inhabitants  into  pillars,  flags, 
statues,  and  used  for  other  ornamental  purposes  Dr. 
Buchanan  saw  several  fine-grained  speci.i:eus  of 
granite,  also  a  black  stone  used  in  the  construclion  of 
llyder's  monument,  and  a  beautiful  green  stone  which 
takes  on  a  marble  polish.  The  kills  of  Guzerat  con- 
tain marbles  exhibiting  many  colors  and  qualities; 
and  marbles  are  seen  in  the  various  tombs  and  monu- 
ments of  ancient  art  still  remaining  in  the  countrj', 
finely  ground  and  of  different  colors,  white  and  yellow 
witli  red  veins,  and  green  clouded  with  yellow  and 
black,  of  which  the  quarries  havo  never  been  discov- 
ered. 

•  Journey  from  JMiidnM,  vol.  t,  pp.  170,  180 ;  toL  11., 
p.  189. 

t  See  tho  obBorvattons  of  Lieutenant  Bnmes  on  the  com- 
mercial relations  of  the  Pui^aub. 


Diamonds  are  no  longer  found  in  tho  celebrated 
mines  of  Golconda,  but  they  are  still  gathered  in  the 
bed  of  the  Krishna,  and  in  the  province  of  Gundwana. 
Near  the  confluence  of  the  Hebe  and  the  Mahanuddy, 
18  miles  beyond  the  town  of  Sumbhulpoor,  after  the 
rains,  the  natives  find  diamonds  in  the  red  earth 
washed  down  from  the  mountains.  The  matrix  con- 
taining  them  is  a  clay  which  has  a  red  appearance  like 
burned  bricks.  Tliere  are  diamond  mines  in  the  south 
of  India,  about  7  miles  north-east  of  Cudhapah,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Pennar  Itiver.  These  mines  have 
been  worked  for  several  hundred  years,  and  occasion- 
ally yield  largo  diamonds,  which  are  either  found  in 
the  alluvial  soil,  or  are  recognized  by  their  sparkling 
among  the  gravel  after  it  is  washed  and  spread  out,  or 
in  rocks  of  the  latest  formation.  The  grounds  are 
leased  on  behalf  of  the  government  to  private  specu- 
lators at  a  moderate  rent.  In  Bundelcund,  also,  the 
table-land  which  surrounds  Pannah,  wherever  the 
ground  is  of  a  gravelly  nature,  produces  diamonds. 
The  soil  is  from  two  to  eight  cubits  deep,  and  diamonds 
are  found  intermixed  with  small  pebbles,  though  not 
adhering  to  them.  A  verj-  few  diamonds  in  the  course 
of  a  year  repay  the  labors  of  the  workmen.  The  dia- 
monds found  are  mostly  under  the  value  of  500  rupees, 
or  jt'SO,  though  some  reach  the  value  of  from  500  to 
1000  rupees.  They  are  weighed  and  sold  to  the  mer- 
chants residing  at  Pannah,  and  are  by  them  carried  to 
all  parts  of  the  countr}'.  The  workmen  are  allowed 
three  fourths,  two  thirds,  or  a  half  the  diamonds  they 
find,  according  to  their  size,  and  any  man  is  at  liberty 
to  dig ;  but  the  business  is  less  prosperous  than  form- 
erly, and  tho  workmen  are  poor.  The  diamond 
grounds  are  strictly  guarded  against  the  contraband 
trader,  and  the  least  delinquency  draws  down  the 
prompt  and  barbarous  vengeance  of  the  rajah.  These 
are  supposed  to  bo  the  diamond  mines  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy.  Their  annual  produce  was  estimated,  in 
the  reign  of  Achar,  at  eight  lacs  of  rupees.  In  1750 
it  had  fallen  off  to  one  half;  tho  amount,  compara- 
tively insignificant,  is  divided  between  the  rajahs  of 
Pennah,  Banda,  and  Chirkaree. 

The  other  varieties  of  precious  stones  found  in  India 
are  the  ruby  from  the  table-1  nd  of  Mj'sore,  the  berj-l, 
the  topaz,  the  chrj'solite,  garnet,  cat's  eye,  etc.  Thero 
are  cornelian  mines  in  the  province  of  Guzerat,  in  tho 
wildest  parts  of  the  jungle.  They  consist  of  numerous 
shafts  worked  down  perpendicularly,  about  four  feet 
wide,  and  several  of  them  to  the  depth  of  fifty  feet. 
Some  of  them  extend  at  the  bottom  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  though  not  to  any  distance  ;  the  heavy  rains 
cause  the  banjcs  to  full  in,  so  that  new  openings  are 
alwaj-s  made  at  the  end  of  the  rainy  season.  The 
nodules  weigh  from  a  few  ounces  to  two  or  even  three 
|iounds,  and  lie  close  to  each  other  in  abundance,  not 
in  distinct  strata,  but  scattered  about.  They  are  of 
various  colors  when  they  are  found — of  a  blackish 
olive,  like  common  dark  flints ;  others  of  a  lighter  hue, 
with  n  slight  milky  tinge ;  though  it  is  quite  uncertain 
what  appearance  they  will  assume  after  the  process  of 
turning.  They  are  carried  to  Cambay,  where  they  are 
cut,  polished,  and  formed  into  the  fine  ornaments  for 
which  that  city  is  so  highly  celebrated.  Beautiful 
jaspers  and  agates  are  also  found  in  this  district,  and 
in  other  parts  of  India. 

Manufactures. — In  every  country  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  manufactures  must  depend  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  consumers,  and  among  the  despotic  States 
of  Asia  these  naturally  consist  of  two  classes :  1st,  of 
the  great  and  powerful,  in  whose  hands  the  property 
of  the  country  is  accumulated,  and  who  are  compara- 
tively few ;  and,  2dly,  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  op- 
pressed under  native  rule,  and  sunk  in  poverty.  Such, 
accordingly,  has  been  from  time  immemorial  tho  state 
of  Hindoostan  j  and  its  manufactures,  which  are  neces- 
sarily adapted  to  the  use  of  these  two  classes,  have 
always  consisted  of  exquisitely  fine  fabrics  of  cotton, 


IND 


1010 


HID 


for  the  nae  pf  the  imperial  court  or  of  the  njahs  and 
princea  of  the  coantr^-,  or  of  coarse  ttnftn  fur  the  com- 
mon people ;  and  to  such  perfection  have  they  attained, 
that  the  modern  art  of  Europe,  with  all  the  aid  of  its 
wonderful  machinery,  has  never  j-ot  rivaled  In  Iwauty 
the  product  of  the  Indian  loom.     Yet  the  Hindoo 
workman  has  no  advantage  from  ca'pltal,  from  machin- 
ery, or  from  the  division  of  lalwr ;  he  prepares  the  raw 
material  with  his  own  skillful  hand,  in  all  the  various 
stages  of  its  manufacture ;  his  loom  and  all  his  im- 
plements are  of  the  rudest  construction ;  and  yet, 
hy  patience,  perseverance,  and  unusual  skill,  he  pro- 
duces an  article  which  Is  prized  all  over  the  world  for 
its  inimitable  richness  and  beauty,  as  well  as  for  its 
durability.     The  native  artisan  distinguishes  at  once 
these  fino  fabrics  from  all  counterfeits,  l)y  the  eye,  the 
touch,  and  the  smell.     In  the  district  of  Dacca  are 
chiefly  fabricated  plain  muslins,  variously  denomi- 
nated, according  to  the  closeness  or  fineness  of  the 
texture ;  also  (lowered,  striped,  or  checkered  muslins, 
denuminatod  from  their  patterns;   and  the  thinnest 
sort  of  muslins,  for  the  manufacture  of  which  the 
province  Is  much  celebrated,  ns  Is  Coromandel  in 
southern  India  for  its  calicoes  and  other  piece-goods, 
of  the  most  brilliant  end  durable  colors.     Other  kinds 
more  closely  woven  are  fabricated  In  the  western  parts 
of  Bengal ;  and  another  sort,  of  a  more  rigid  texture. 
In  everj'  district.     Coarse  muslins.  In  the  shape  of 
turbans,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  are  made  in  all  parts  of 
Ilindoostan ;  and  in  its  northern  provinces,  plain  and 
'.low-red  muslins,  but  of  Inferior  quality  to  the  beauti- 
ful (ai'rics  of  Dacca.     In  Moultan  ore  manufactured 
silks  which  pos.scss  a  strength  of  texture  and  brilliancy 
of  hue  that  have  secured  for  them  a  preference  in  the 
Indian  market.     They  are  woven  into  shawls  and 
scarfs,  which  are  in  great  demand,  and  which  the  In- 
dian manufacturer  in  other  parts  has  never  been  able  to 
rival,  either  in  color  or  durability.     Carpets  are  also 
manufactured  in  this  province,  though  they  do  not 
eijual  those  of  Persia.     Various  articles  of  calico  are 
made,  which  still  retain  their  India.,  denominations,  as 
khasuhs,  which  are  manufactured  north  and  east  of 
the  Ganges ;  cloths  of  nearly  the  some  quality  are 
made  near  Tanda  in  Oude.     Near  Luckipoor,  on  the 
western  frontier  of  Benares,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Allahabad,  and  also  in  the  province  of  Bohor  boftoes 
are  monufactured ;  sanoes  In  Orisso,  and  in  the  district 
of  Midnapoor ;  and  a  similar  cloth  under  the  some  de- 
nomination in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  province  of 
Benares ;  woven  silk  and  taffeta,  both  plain  and  flow- 
ered, in  the  ncigliborhoo<l  of  Moorshedabad  ;  tissues, 
brocades,  and  ornamented  gauzes,  ot  Benores ;  plain 
gauzes  for  domestic  use  in  the  west  ond  south  of  Ben- 
gal ;  ond  ot  Mouldo,  Boligpoor,  and  at  several  towns 
in  the  district  of  Burdwon,  mixed  goods  of  silk  and 
cotton.     Sackcloth  is  manufactured  from  packthread 
In  many  places,  especially  in  tlie  northern  provinces, 
fbr  the  clothing  of  the  mountaineers.     Cotton  is  mode 
into  canvas  in  the  neighborhood  of  Chittagong,  Patna, 
and  other  places ;  and  blankets  everywhere  for  com- 
mon use.     A  coarse  cotton  cl.th  dyed  red  with  cheap 
materials  is  very  generally  used,  aiid  is  .chiefly  manu- 
factured In  the  countrj'  between  the  Jumna  and  the 
Ganges.     Fine  and  coarse  calicoes  are  dyed  with  per- 
manent and  fugitive  colors  for  common  use  in  tho 
province  of  Benares,  the  city  of  Patna,  ond  tho  neigh- 
borhood of  Calcutta.    This  art  appears  to  h.ivo  had  its 
origin  in  India,  end  to  hove  been  there  perfected  to  a 
degree  never  surijossed  by  Europeans.     Dimities  of 
various  kinds,  and  damask  linen,  are  made  at  Dacca, 
Patna,  Tanda,  and  various  other  places. 

In  Mysore,  near  Bangalore,  silk  is  manufactured 
Into  different  articles  of  dress,  into  strong  cloths,  which 
men,  women,  or  boys  wrap  round  them,  and  Into  tur- 
ban pieces.  These  cloths  are  of  a  rich  fabric,  variously 
flgurcd,  and  the  pattern,  if  ordered,  is  elegantly 
wrought  in  gold  thread.    Turbans  are  made  of  cotton 


and  ailli.  Thin  white  musllni  with  aillc  horden  omiu 
mented  with  gold  and  silver,  and  plain  greei\  muslins, 
with  silk  borders,  are  manufactured  for  female  dresses ; 
also  striped  and  checkered  muslins;  cloth  like  the 
khaaahs  of  Bengal,  for  wrapping  round  the  shoulders 
of  men,  sometimea  with  striped  or  silver  Iwrilers. 
Handkerchiefs  with  rod  borders,  a  coarse  thick  white 
cotton  cloth  with  red  borders,  and  turbans  ornamented 
with  silver  and  gold  thread  at  the  ends,  are  also  made 
In  this  district ;  and  the  dyeing  of  cotton  clotli,  cotton 
thread,  and  silk.  Is  carried  on  by  a  set  of  people  who 
act  OS  tailors,  cloth-printers,  and  dyers.  Tanneries 
ore  established,  and  manufactories  of  oil.  At  Chen 
napattana  there  are  manufactories  of  glass-ware  and  of 
glass  rings,  universally  worn  as  bracelets  by  the  wo- 
men of  the  Ueccan.  Steel  wire  la  also  mode  here  fur 
tlie  strings  of  musical  Instruments,  At  Vizigaputam, 
in  tho  northern  Circors,  the  inhabitants  are  very  ex- 
pert in  carving  curious  little  l>oxes  of  ivory  and  bone. 
Throughout  southern  India  manufactories  of  cotton  silk 
are  generally  established.  In  tho  northern  Circars 
the  principal  part  of  the  East  India  Company's  invest- 
ment of  piece-goods  was  formerly  provided.  This 
country,  extending  about  600  miles  along  the  coast  of 
Coromandel,  from  the  Kiver  Kistnah  to  the  borders 
of  Cuttack,  has  from  very  early  times  been  tho  seat  of 
an  important  and  extensive  manufacture  of  cotton  piece- 
goods,  of  which  the  description  of  calicoes  known  as 
Madras  long  cloths  and  sulempores  are  the  chief,  and, 
with  Masulipatam  dyed  handkerchiefs,  and  other  kinds 
of  goods  for  the  African  and  West  Iivlia  trade,  have, 
until  lately,  been  in  great  demand.  Masulipatam  goods 
have,  however,  for  some  years  been  entirely  super- 
seded by  the  manufactures  of  Manchester  and  Glas- 
gow ;  and  in  all  appearance  the  northern  Circara  will 
at  no  distant  period  of  time  be  deprived  of  the  manu- 
factures of  white  calicoes  also.  A  great  change  has 
indeed  been  brought  about  in  the  manufactures  of  In- 
dia by  the  introduction  of  British  goods,  which,  in 
many  branches,  have  supplanted  those  of  tho  coun- 
trj' ;  the  poor  Hindoo,  notwithstanding  tho  low  rate  at 
which  ho  works,  is  thus  undersold  in  bis  own  market 
by  the  manufacturers  of  Manchester  and  Glasgow; 
and  this  competition  of  British  goods  nearl}'  ruined  the 
native  manufacturers  of  India,  deprived  the  workmen 
of  employment,  and  reduced  them  to  great  distress ; 
so  that  the  directors  remark  concerning  the  Indian 
trade,  that  "  it  exhibits  the  picture  of  a  commercial 
revolution,  productive  of  much  present  suftering  to 
numerous  classes  in  India,  and  hardly  to  bo  paralleled 
in  the  history  of  commerce." 

Commerce. — Hindoostan,  from  its  great  extent,  and 
tho  diversity  of  its  soil  and  climate,  supplies  tho  mate- 
rials of  an  extensive  commerce.  Its  internal  (rode  is 
great,  while  its  rare  and  precious  products  are  ex- 
ported to  the  remotest  regions  of  the  world.  An  ex- 
tensive commerce  takes  place  between  Bengal  and  the 
other  maritime  districts,  and  the  western  provinces  of 
Hindoostan,  consisting  in  the  cx|M>rtatiun  of  grain 
from  the  com  districts,  in  exchange  for  salt,  a  great 
staple ;  for  betel-nut,  sugar,  raw  silk,  silk  and  piece 
goods.  From  the  native  .States  of  central  India  Mai- 
wah  opium  is  sent  down  to  Bombay  fur  exportation  to 
China.  In  Bengal  the  culture  and  manufacture  of 
opium  are  conducted  under  a  State  monopoly,  and  the 
produce  is  transmitted  to  Calcutta,  whore  it  is  disposed 
of  by  public  sole.  The  holy  city  of  Benares  is  a  great 
mart  of  trade,  in  which  are  oxclianged  tho  shawls  of 
the  north  for  the  diamonds  of  the  south,  and  for  tho 
muslins  of  Dacca  and  tho  eastern  provinces :  and  it 
has  besides,  very  considerable  silk,  cotton,  and  fino 
woolen  manufactures  of  its  own,  the  produce  of  which 
is  exchanged  for  other  commodities.  Through  tho 
northern  provinces  of  Delhi  and  Lahore  a  groat  trade 
is  carried  on  between  the  hill  countries  and  the  plains. 
The  Inconsiderable  town  of  Hurdwar  or  Hardiwara, 
being  a  celebrated  place  of  Hindoo  pilgrimage,  is  b 


ally 
from  : 
elephan 
From 
India 
pato  in 
the  East 
it  certii 
Wo  kno» 
silk,  wh 
that  it 
commod 
matics, 
cious  an 
etc.,  and 
ported  in 
commerc 
metropol 
ried  on  fi 
Sea,  whe 
mans,  th( 
sail,  and, 
west  moi 
Ocoan  for 
reached 
their  voyi 
mandel 


IND 


1017 


IND 


sxtcnt,  and 
IS  the  uiate- 
lal  trade  is 
cts  arc  ex- 
a.     An  ex- 
jral  and  the 
irovinces  of 
in  of  grain 
alt,  a  «'"»' 
and  piece 
India  Mal- 
portation  to 
ufacturo  of 
oly,  and  the 
t  is  disposed 
es  is  a  great 
D  shawls  of 
and  for  the 
ices:  and  it 
)n,  and  fine 
fiee  of  wWeli 
'hrough  the 
J  great  trade 
d  the  plains. 
Hardiwara, 
[timage,  i»  » 


great  commerclol  eniporlam,  to  which  muUItndei  re- 
sort for  the  purposes  of  trade,  at  well  as  from  piety. 
This  great  annual  concourse  takes  place  In  the  spring, 
when  the  produce  cf  the  northern  and  western  coun- 
tries U  exchanged  for  the  manufactures  of  the  lower 
provinces.  The  principal  articles  brought  here  for 
sale  from  Cabul,  Candahar,  Moultan,  and  the  Punjiiub, 
are  horses,  mules,  camels  ;  some  of  tliese  from  nallc, 
Uokhara,  and  the  countries  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Hindoo  Ooosh  Mountains  ;  a  particular  species  of  to- 
l)acco,  antimony,  assafoctida,  dried  fruits,  such  as  apri- 
cots, figs,  prunes,  raisins,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts,  and 
pomegranates ;  from  Cashmere  and  Amrttsir,  shawls, 
dootas,  and  pattoos  j  spotted  turbans,  looking-glasses, 
toys,  with  various  maiiufucturos  in  lirass  and  Ivory 
from  Jcypoor ;  shields  from  Rohllcund,  Lucknow,  and 
Silhet ;  bows  and  arrows  from  Sloultan  and  the  Doab ; 
rock-salt  from  Lahore ;  baftas  and  piece-goods  from 
Rahn,  a  large  city  in  the  Punjauli.  The  country  of 
Marwar  also  supplies  many  camels,  and  a  species  of 
flannel  called  loo.  In  exchange  are  brouglit  from  the 
British  provinces  Kharwa  muslins,  mushroo  or  sarsnet, 
and  woolen  cloths,  the  coarsest  of  which  only  find  a 
market.  In  this  fair,  Dutch  and  Venetian  coins  are 
current ;  and  some  toys  of  European  manufacture 
wore  seen  exposed  to  sale  by  Mr.  Wolil).  The  north- 
ern merchants  liy  wliom  It  is  frequented  assemble  at 
Amritsir  in  caravans  alx>ut  the  end  of  Fol>ruary,  and 
pursue  their  route  in  an  easterly  direction  through  the 
territories  of  the  protected  Seikh  powers.  Still  further 
to  the  north  and  west  the  provinces  of  Lahore  and 
Moultan  export  to  the  countries  to  tlie  west  of  tlie 
Indus,  sugar,  rice,  Indigo,  wheat,  and  white  cotton 
cloths,  hides,  etc.  The  imports  aro  swords,  horses, 
fruit,  lead,  and  spices ;  and  into  all  tliese  countries 
European  goods  are  imported  from  the  lower  prov- 
inces. The  southern  provinces  export  to  Bengal,  pep- 
per, betel-nut,  sandal-wood,  and  cardamums,  teak 
timber,  etc. ;  while  they  receive  in  return  salt  and 
rice,  cotton  cloths,  and  articles  of  European  manufac- 
ture. 

A  very  considerable  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  Ilindoostan.  Bengal  ex- 
ports to  Madras  and  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  grains 
of  dilTerent  descriptions,  sugar,  saltpetre,  molasses, 
ginger,  long  pepper,  oil,  silk  wrouglit  and  unwrought, 
muslins,  spirits,  and  provisions.  The  returns  ore  salt, 
rod  wood,  line  long  cloth,  izarees,  and  cliintzes.  From 
tho  Malabar  coast  the  imports  are  sandal-wood,  coir 
ropo,  pepper,  cardamums ;  and  the  returns  are  gener- 
ally in  the  annual  supplies  which  Bombay  receives 
fi'ora  Bengal.  From  Bombay  are  brought  teak  timber, 
elephant's  teeth,  lac,  etc. 

From  the  reputed  wealth  and  precious  produce  of 
India  foreign  nations  were  always  desirous  to  partici- 
pate in  Its  trade.  Prior  to  Alexander's  expedition  to 
the  East  it  was  scarcely  known  to  the  Greeks,  nor  is 
it  certiin  that  they  had  ever  seen  its  productions.  But 
we  know  that  these  were  brought  to  Home,  especially 
silk,  which  so  allured  the  vanity  of  the  Roman  ladies 
that  it  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold.  Other  voluable 
commodities  of  India,  such  as  calicoes,  muslins,  aro- 
matics,  ivory,  diamonds,  pearls,  and  other  gems,  pre- 
cious aromatics,  the  pepper  of  tlalabar,  turtle  shell, 
etc.,  aud  some  dry  sugar  and  indigo,  were  also  im- 
ported into  Alexandria,  the  chief  emporium  of  eastom 
commerce,  and  were  naturally  attracted  to  the  great 
metropolis  of  the  ancient  world.  This  trade  was  car- 
ried on  from  Myos  Ilormos,  the  chief  port  on  the  Rod 
Sea,  whence,  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  tho  Ro- 
mans, the  annual  fleets,  sometimes  of  120  vessels,  set 
sail,  and,  under  the  propitious  influence  of  the  south- 
west monsoon,  boldly  stretched  ocross  the  Indian 
Ocean  for  tho  western  coast  of  Hindoostan,  which  they 
reached  In  about  40  days  j  and  afterward  extended 
their  voyage  round  CapeComorin  to  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel and  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges.    The  high 


price  received  for  these  eastern  luxuries  in  Rome  en- 
couraged the  merchants  to  provide  larger  vessels,  and 
a  band  of  archers  to  defend  them  againat  the  pirate*, 
who  then,  and  until  very  lately  that  they  were  extir- 
pated liy  British  ships  of  war,  infested  the  western 
shores  of  India.     The  commodities  of  the  East  being 
landed  at  Myos  Ilormos,  were  carried  on  camels  to 
Coptos,  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  trade,  and  thence  by 
sea  to  the  Nile,  whence  they  reached  Alexandria  by 
water  carriage,  and  were  re-shipped  to  the  different 
ports  on  tho  Mediterranean.     The  produce  of  India 
was  also  brought  to  Europe  by  other  routes — namely, 
Ijy  the  way  of  Palmyra,  then  a  flourishing  city,  and 
thence  to  Rome  and  other  western  countries,  through 
the  ports  of  Syria;  or  across  the  Himalaya  Mountains 
to  the  Oxus,  thence  to  tho  Caspian,  and  afterward  to 
tho  Black  Sea,  and  Anally  to  Its  ulterior  markets  In 
Europe.     But  though  there  was  a  demand  in  Europe 
for  the  produce  of  India,  there  was  no  demand  in  In- 
dia for  tho  produce  of  Europe ;  and  bullion  was  the 
only  article  that  could  be  sent  out  in  excliange.     The 
annual  drain  of  gold  from  Rome  and  its  provinces  for 
Indian  goods  was  estimated  by  Pliny  at  600  sestertla, 
equal  to  about  .£400,000.     In  the  convulsions  which 
followed  the  decline  of  tho  Roman  empire,  the  trade  of 
tho  East  was  successively  engrossed  by  the  Persians 
and  Arabians.     The  latter.  In  the  year  636,  built  the 
city  of  Ilassora,  which  soon  grew  Into  a  great  com- 
mercial mart ;  and  to  this  place,  and  to  Ormus,  long 
celebrated  for  its  vast  riches  and  Its  trade,  the  splceries 
and  merchandise  of  India  were  brought,  and  distrib- 
uted through  the  various  ports  of  the  Mediterranean. 
After  tho  expuii^iou  of  the  cr^isaders  from  Syria  and 
Egypt,  Alexandria  again  became  the  chief  entrepot  of 
eastern  produce,  whencn  it  was  carried  to  Italy  by  the 
Venetians  and  others,  and  distributed  throughout  Eu- 
rope.    But  tho  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  in  1495 
by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  changed  tho  course  of  this 
trade,  which  now  entirely  left  the  Italians,  and  was 
engrossed  liy  the  Portuguese   for  nearly  a  century 
without  any  molestation  from  European  rivals.     At 
length  the  Dutch  and  the  English  became  their  com- 
petitors, and  established  joint-stock  companies,  with 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  eastern  trade.   But  their 
anticipations  of  profit  were  not  realized.     Tlio  preat 
distance  of  Europe  from  India,  and  the  want  of  an 
C(iuivalent  for  its  produce,  precluded  any  extensive 
intercourse  ;  tho  trade  accordingly  bore  a  very  small 
proportion  to  the  trade  of  the  country ;  and  being  bo- 
sides  cramped  by  monopolies,  it  never  attained  its 
natural  growth.     In  1773  the  average  exports  of  Brit- 
ain to  India  amounted  to  about  i:489,000  a  year ;  in 
1793,  on  a  like  average,  to  about  a  million  a  year ;  and 
it  does  not  appear  that  a  greater  trade  was  carried  on 
with  India  from  any  other  part  if  Europe.     Tho  com- 
merce of  nations  Is  limited  to  the  surplus  produco 
which  they  can  mutually  exchange;   and,  from  the 
groat  distance  between  India  and  Europe,  this  surplus 
produce  was  long  conflncd  to  those  few  articles  which, 
containing  a  great  value  In  small  bulk,  could  bear  tho 
expense  of  a  long  voyage.    The  demand  was  also  alto- 
gether on  tho  side  of  Europe,  and  its  trade  with  India 
consistett  merely  in  tho  purchase,  with  bullion,  of  a 
small  quantity  of  precious  articles  for  the  consumption 
of  tlio  rich.     Tho  progressive  Improvment  of  industry 
in  Europe,  together  with  tho  entire  opening  of  the 
trade  to  India  and  China  since  the  year  1834,  has  oc- 
casioned not  only  a  greater  exportation  of  British 
goods,  but  a  change  also  in  the  nature  of  the  trade.   It 
is  not  80  much  the  produce  of  the  labor  as  of  the  cli- 
mate and  soil  of  India,  which  no  ingenuity  oan  supply, 
that  is  in  demand  in  Britain ;  and,  accordingly,  while 
tho  import  of  Indian  manufactures  has  fallen  off,  that 
of  tho  raw  material,  and  many  varieties  of  vegetable 
produco,  has  increased.    Thus  the  Importation  of  cot- 
ton piece-goods — namely,  white  calicoes  and  muslins—' 
which  amounted  in  1814  to  1,266,608  pieces  had  de- 


m 


IND 


1018 


IND 


•ntMd  in  1868  to  428,294  plec6«  i  nhUe  within  tlie 
■una  period  tlia  iniportution  uf  cottun  woul  liud  in- 
cnuuMd  from  •2,HM,MH  Iba.  to  lHl,aU'J,Ug4  Ibx.,  and  tlis 
•zportatlon  of  oottun  umnufucturef  in  a  aliiilliir  riitio. 
Kven  tba  inuoniparHbla  mualina  of  Uuocu  aru  in  leu 
daviind  linca  tlie  introduction  of  I)rlti«li  kooiIk.  Tlma, 
in  tlia  proureaa  of  tlia  trade  lietween  India  and  Ku- 
ropa,  tba  farmer  country,  notwitliatandinu  ita  Ijoaated 
waaltli  and  superior  Induatry,  lias  taken  the  lowaat 
place,  exporting  her  rude  produce  for  the  manufactures 
of  the  riclier  country.  Thia  is  the  nature  of  the  trade 
carried  on  iMtween  Uritain  and  America  and  the  coun- 
tries in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  is  a  sure  index  to  the 
respective  progress  of  the  two  countries  in  wealth 
and  improvement.  Those  countries  which  can  not 
manufacture  their  own  rude  produce  send  it  to  Britain, 
which  abounds  in  capital,  and  still  more  in  art  and  in- 
duKtry ;  and  Iwth  countries  are  benefited,  tho  poorer 
country  exchanging  its  surplus  produce  for  a  supply 
of  manufacturea  of  which  it  is  In  want,  and  the  rictier 
country  the  produce  of  Its  overflowing  capital  for  a 
supply  of  the  raw  material  wbicli  its  own  soil  docs  not 
afford.  This  is  now  the  relative  condition  of  Groat 
Britain  and  India.  The  farmer  having  outstripped  the 
latter  couutry  In  industry  and  wealth,  sends  out  a  sup- 
ply of  cheaper  goods  than  the  native  workman  cun 
furnish ;  and  so  prodigious  have  been  tho  Improve- 
ments in  macbiner}',  that  the  raw  material  of  cotton 
is  imported  from  India,  and  being  manufactured  In 


Britain,  is  ra-export«d  and  sold  •(  »  chua|iar  rata  than 
ir  can  ha  made  at  h<ini»,  though  liiadnd  with  the  ex- 
penaa  of  a  doulila  voyage  aiiriws  liiilf  thu  gliili«  |  and 
thus  it  has  iHii'oMin  an  iinixirlunt  alapie  In  the  trade  of 
Great  Britain  with  ths  l',aat,  A  iiollun  wiia  l>i,ig  mul 
successfully  pr<ipai|at«|l  by  tlia  advonntaa  nf  the  mo- 
nopoly, that  the  llimlooa,  from  thiilr  isivsrty  anil  tluilr 
simple  habits,  wuuM  never  ImiMnia  sxtHnnlve  con- 
sumers of  Kuropeun  gooda,  and  that  thn  dnniiinit  waa 
amply  supplleil  by  tlm  iiX|Hirla  of  thn  I'^aal  India 
Company.  Kvldance  to  this  MlCiii't  was  given  hutim 
the  committee  of  thu  llouaa  of  llonmions  In  IHIO 
by  Sir  Thomas  Munro  aiid  utiiar  nuilnsnt  servants  nf 
the  Company.  But  suiib  alataniants  liava  bnon  com- 
pletely refuted  by  the  rapidly  Iniireaalng  nxportutlcm 
of  British  goiida  to  India  ainua  tliii  voniplMte  oiioning 
of  the  trade  in  IMii-l,  This  vlll  uppvar  from  the  fol- 
lowing table,  allowing  tita  vxpurts  from  llluduustan 
for  a  (lerlod  of  tH  yours  I 

Valui  or  ExroHTs  rsoM  Orsat  HaitiiNTo  iliRnoosriN, 
axiii.uaivM  nv  lliaMoa, 


mm. £H,iriMio 

i8aa. H,'im,m 

laST IVJKI.IIItll 

11)88 lt,rHlA,P.«l 

1>MI» 4,'ixV,|sll 

1840. A,0I4,HIIV 

mi Mllfl,M4 

iMi h.llM.Ulll 

lii41l t,U1MV 


Vtan, 

ixU,,.. 
txIA,,., 
IUKI,,., 
1*47,,, . 
IMN,,,. 
IHIU,,,. 
INM.,,. 
M\.,.. 
IsM,.,, 


RilHtrli. 

.  i!r,»ri!i,i79 

.  '1.477,148 

.  il,4Jll,4(M 

.  M.TUIUDH 

.  .-M'J.IIO 

.  .,M«,1I*I 
:<,1'i7,IIM 

.  1I,'M,79II 

.  7,'i8iV)7g 


Impoxts  br  Hikdoobtan. 


1884-4S 
188D— to 
1844— 4S 
184»-A0 
1880— Bl 
1881-68 
1882—63 


MERCHANDI8E. 


1I«D(>1. 


£ 
1,»(H),t80 
8,Stl,691 
B,98.'»,990 

Rjwt.no 

e,116,-J01 
7,OS7,40B 
4,993,674 


'Midru. 


& 
603.290 
(W3,807 
l,04fl,S94 
906,1)04 
897,S2;) 
906,4.S5 
Rt0,631 


Bombtty. 

1,758,688 
l,Sflfl,iW7 
3,778,1 -,1 
4,110,718 
4,.%4.\764 
4.21)1,647 
4,2H6,8M 


UnlKd 
Kingdom. 

£ 
2,082,221 
4,2S9,4S9 
7,9,^2,179 

7,67-',»SO 
H.827,»II2 
!»,236,7i9 
7,2A073 


(.tUitr 
'  Aountrlel. 

£ 
l,.'i78,H«4 
1, Ml  ,747 
2,H0I,8S6 
2,72(1,0(17 
8,880,798 
8,018,700 
2,W«>,7H3 


Total  mir- 
cliaihlU*. 

« 

4,261,106 
6,S3l,2nil 
10,7ft4,06,') 
lll,2UU,8i>i 
ll,^'W,7llH 
12,210,490 


B»(al 

« 
616,224 
1,22iI,7hiI 
1,^11,11118 
1,2U,N68 
U>Ms'. 
2,* 


10,070,H6|i  8,81)..,  ',7 


THICAKUNII. 
Ma<lra<,       RnmliBy, 

ToUI. 

i  - 

IM,IIA 
112,10)1 
I'.H.ft)!! 
:  J  1,4117 
2)1)1,110 

1.0|»H,6WI 
fl)l6.0Tl 
1,9X2,8(8 
2,OIIO.MiA 
2,1162,214 

2,H6)I,8II6 

£ 
1,898,028 
l,0tft,'^6l 
8,7fi!i,47l 
8,89)1,HI17 
8,')ll,s(H 
f),ori2.0,'ill 
fl.Hl)  1.1)77 

Exroan  or  Hindoostan. 


18)M-85 
1839—40 
1844—18 
1849—50 
1S50— 81 
IWI— .^2 
1882-68 


MERCHANDUE. 

B«|«>I. 

Mulraa. 

Bombay. 

TOTAL. 

United 

uihc. 

Klntdom. 

cuQiilrlt*. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

^         1 

4,092,043 

886,107 

8,016,268 

8,056,978 

4,986,447 

6,800,928 

1.228,467 

«,  838.8.82 

8,969,981 

4,892,708 

9,822,197 

1,641,462 

r..li6.M2 

7,240,619 

9,849,592 

10,14S,)I3« 

1,272,S,H4     5,H9I,876 

7,026,470 

10,2A-iiH 

9,997,.^27 

1,866,976     6,899,645 

8,104,)I16 

10,060,1. '18 

10,423,970  1,6.'W,S08  1  7,796,474 

7,18^.888 

12,740,517 

10,788,884 

2,121,613 

7,6))4,4)M 

8.428,298 

12.086,38» 

ToUI  liiir- 
(■hitiillit. 

ij  ■" 
T.')03,4J« 
10,S|I2,7I8 
10,590,212, 

17,i)12,29tl| 
18,1)14,1  (0| 
19,879,2,'>8l 
20,464,688' 


gr 

66,nM 
90)i,(i|7 
1196,5411 
85l,'.Mi8 
276,il'J9 
2ri)i,5'<K 
476,1)78 


THKANUHE, 

MtXlfM, 

tinml.ay, 

Totnl. 
£ 

"i, 

1! 

106,1)77 

2!, 808 

191,740 

127,416 

1  "l,0M 

47)1.528 

68,11511 

645,2)8 

I.IOD.HIO 

72,.,87 

ftM.ti'O 

•n\;M 

101,110 

16)1,8)8 

Ml.ii9  ; 

2 18.761 

48y.7ll2 

9IIMH8  1 

II6,H»2 

M2,472 

1,0«ri.229 

The  goods  exported,  as  they  are  enumerated  by  Mr. 
Eickartls  in  his  valualile  work  on  India,  consist  of  all 
the  staple  manufactures  of  Britain,  "Woolens  and 
cottonF,"  he  mentions,  "  of  every  variety  and  value  ; 
manufactured  silks  ;  hardware  of  all  descriptions ; 
iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  spelta,  in  largo  quantities ; 
marine  and  military  stores ;  machinery  for  various 
uses ;  glass-ware  of  the  metal  specimens,  down  to 
articles  of  the  commonest  use ;  china-ware  or  porce- 
lain, the  same ;  Jewelry  of  all  sorts ;  gold  and  silver 
plate  and  ornaments ;  clocks,  watches,  furniture,  cur- 
riogos,  harness,  haberdashery,  hosiery,  stationery, 
books ;  in  short,  every  article  of  luxury,  comfort,  or 
convenience,  which  British  inuuatry  can  produce." 
According  also  to  all  the  most  correct  observers  of  In- 
dian manners,  the  tastu  for  European  fashions,  luxu- 
ries, and  comforts,  is  rapidly  extending  among  the 
Hindoos.  Bishop  Heber,  in  hit  interesting  journal  of 
a  tour  through  India,  strongly  conflrms  this  fact. 
"  The  wealthy  natives,"  he  observes,  "  now  all  affect 
to  have  their  houses  decorated  with  Corinthian  pil- 
lars, and  filled  with  English  furniture  ;  they  drive  the 
best  horses  and  tho  most  d.i3hing  carringcg  i)\  Calcutta. 
timy  of  tli«m  speak  English  fluently,  and  are  toler- 


ably road  In  English  lll<ir»ti)r«  |  iinil  tlio  iihlblren  of 
one  of  our  fr|en)|s  I  saw  )i|i)i  ijiiy  droaaoil  In  Jii('k)>ts  mul 
trowsers,  with  riiunti  hats,  aliiixa,  and  atni'kliiMn."  At 
Bcnares.ho  fouiid  "  Kngllali  liarilwnrti,  BW)irdH,  shloldsi, 
and  spears,  from  I.iiiikiuiw  niid  Monghyrj  nnd  tlio.to 
European  luxuries  nnd  »i|i<giin);l)ia,  wlilili  nrn  liaily 
becoming  more  popular  In  India,  itlDiiiliito  fnon  home 
through  Tlundohiunil,  (lorriDikpoor,  Nnpiiiil,  iinti  i>llicr 
tracts  which  are  removxi]  from  Iho  niiiln  artery  of  the 
Ganges."  At  Nuaaii«ralm)|,  In  tho  phivlme  of  llmir, 
the  same  traviilor  iniiiitbina  Ihiit  "  I'ngllnh  cotton 
cloths,  both  whita  Hml  prlntxil,  nrn  to  bn  met  with 
commonly  in  wear  >iinoilg  thn  p)i)i|iln  of  the  countrj-, 
and  may,  I  learn  to  iiiv  aiirprlai<,  bn  bought  l)cst  an(l 
cbeapast,  as  well  as  «||  kitida  of  hiirdtturii,  crockorj-, 
writing  desks,  ctit,,  at  i'ullnn,  ii  largo  town  nnd  celi-- 
brated  mart  in  Marwar,  on  Ihn  n)lgo  of  thn  desert, 
several  days'  Journny  w«»t  )if  .toudpoor,  wlit-m,  till 
very  lately,  no  Kuropniin  was  over  known  to  have 
penetrated."  In  aliort,  It  a|i|i«ars  that  Itrltlah  and 
other  European  inunufai't)irna|  from  tliolr  nunllty  nnd 
cheapnass,  are  avflrywliorn  In  ilxiniind.  They  pene- 
trate into  the  ronixteat  )llatrl)'tK  of  Aala  |  nnd  now 
ttiat  (b«  tcrmiiifttlon  uf  tba  Kast  India  Company's 


Inil 


Pegrn. 


l^Mrr. 


I849--S0 
1880-81 
1S8I— ,82 

1883-64 
1864-68 

The  Brit 
the  domini 
which  politi 
we  maintai 


IND 


1010 


IND 


thkd 
n  eX' 
I  ikiid 
t(l«  (i( 
K  anil 
m  iiin> 
,\  Iholr 
D  wm- 
iiil  witn 
,  ItiiUik 

lii'fiire 
n  IHIO 
nntit  iif 
m  eora- 
nrtiitliin 

tlio  fut- 
iiduuitAU 

innoiTiK. 


tn.ita 

rilil.'J'J'* 

r.i'j.un 

.■WT.tlW 


J   i,9»n,(Uii 

n,7W,4Tl  1 

"^  '  fl,H8i,Hn 


Tolnl. 

s,"   , 

ll»t,740 

47(1,M1  ' 

l.Km.Hll)  I 

'     .J71,'2U  1 

Ml. '2^9  ; 

lllti.(H8  ! 

.,  c'Wlilfon  of 
III  Jiickflii  &w\ 
V'klnU"."    At 

Jri  nnil  Hi""'' 
lli'li  urn  iliiH.v 
Itn  from  lu-mf 
■nil,  iiiiil  ""'"r 
I  iirtory  "f  ""' 
iiii'P  of  Ilcrar, 
TnnlInU  cotton 
■  lin  met  with 
_'  ttin  countr)-, 
[lHht  bout  and 
luro,  crocVor)-, 
lown  nnil  celc- 
litf  tho  desert, 
lir,  vfheri",  till 
Inown  to  have 
Itt  llrltlKli  and 
\\x  qunllty  nnil 
I     'Ihey  ponc- 
Ltft,   una  now 
pu  Company* 


monopoly,  which  took  pUo*  In  1884,  hu  Utd  open 
Hlndooatut  to  the  oepltkl  and  enterprUe  of  Britain, 
•xparienoa  prove*  that  an  equal  demand  fur  them 
may  be  anticipated  in  that  country.  The  prccod- 
In^  talilai  contain  a  view  of  the  extent  and  vuluo  of 
the  trade  of  Indlu  to  all  parte  uf  the  world.  The  ex- 
ceiiii  of  exports  over  Imports  arises  from  the  necessity 
of  maklnK  annual  remittances  to  Great  Dritain  to  de- 
ft'ay  the  intore^t  of  debt,  and  to  meet  the  expenditure 
of  the  home  government. 

AocoirnT  o»  THi  PBiNOiPAL  Importi  imto  OaiAT  BarTAiir 
noM  IHDU  IK  Tuaai  Yiam,  rauM  1861-fi'i  to  18(U-ft8. 


Ooffiae IbL  MH^W 

Cotton,  raw "  81,104,'.'2a 


QUKBlllUt, 


Vftlu*  Id  lUrllaf . 


Aooooin  nr  tni  QntKTiTin  and  xeriAxtn  VAitn  or 

Till  PRINCirAI.  ASTI(M.ni    SIl'nsTSII   rsliU   OstAT   Hsif 

AiN   Ti)   India   in   Turki    Yiam,  raoM    lSAI-«il   to 
Iftftl-M. 


AntoUi. 


qiiwiiniM. 
I  IsH-n.T  imV-m". 


Orsln cwt. 

IdiHko lbs 

iTorjr owt 

Lac " 

Pepper lbs. 

Piece-goods 

Cotton pieces 

Bilk ■■    ^ 

Shawls. 

Rum gsllons 

8llk,raw lbs. 

Saltpotre cwt 

8uitar " 

Wool lbs. 

HlxcoUsnoous 

Total  merchandise. 
"  treasure. .... 
Grand  total 


■I.IIIT 

8,198,9»« 

fi,UU 

8il,44.s 

1,918,978 

i!08,Tl» 

4U.s,H()4 
7,49(1 

%24,48.<l 
1,487,068 

2M,670 
1,60«,OM 
7,086,718 


4,344,MS 

HI, 800,994 

1,167,9S8 

a,778,l«(l 

8,87ft 

A8,M8 

l,S08,IMfi 

428,GfiO 

B02,»47 

11,311 

171,984 

1,881,408 

U89,U4 

1,860,6:U) 

12,000,999 


AS,429  01,1)29 
I,171,2M(2,B2f«,1^6 
lll.^,88(lj  I"r,4ft9 
l,-H4,7l)6il,18i),R8T 
8A,949I  61,078 
6t<,l)41  104,04:1 
16,889      10,47V 


188,632 
207,866, 
119,410 
8,447' 
e64.4.^4 
268,787 

1,008,821 
171,109 

1,070,009 


71,071 

224,h;m 
118,848 
10,S14l 
6Sii,BS7j 
19(1,84^1 
l.O'-il.l.M 

1181,0)  ia: 

1,111,108 


7,188,S89 

7,0611 

7,146,9408,667/214 


»  8,428,296 
128,919 


Apparol 

Douks,  Btatloiivry,  eto.. 
('otton,  twist  an'l  yarn. 
I      "       pleca-Kouus.. . , 

I  Fruits 

Jowolry 

Malt  liquor 

Machinery 

Metals,  iiiiinursetnred. . 

"      t'ohper owt. 

"      Iron 

"      Leail 

•'     Siielter . . . 

"     Tin 

9»» 

Silken  goods 

HplCl'B 

Hplrlls. gallons 

Tea. 

TnbiK^co,  Began. . 

Timber 

Woolen  goods. . . . 

Wines gallons 

Miscellaneous... 


Total  merchaniUao. . 

"     treo-Huri' 

Orand  total 


44,004 
(88,722 

1,188,988 
96,803 


266,126 


Vslut  Is  Hitllit. 
7«li-'i'j.     IS4I— ta. 


24,796 
888,796 

M70 

887,946 


(8,696 


176,101 


260,981 

118,712 

1,878,949  1 

4,662,0808, 

948 

66,984 

146.947 

11,641 

280,106 

2I0,IU2 

207,402 

27,829 

68,788 

0.086 

662,800 

81,496 

4'9,6is 

"iis 

1,080 
100,486 

^oo,o.^8 

764,204 


286.118 

1 1 8,00 1 ! 

.I02.NI0| 

,ft78,iM» 

121 

18,664 

161,870 

28,I2( 

182,944 

114.AS1 

140,(KIS 

17,901 

8,748 

1,008 

899,802 

88,804 

S8i48l 

"684 

1,2.12 

114,794 

144,761 

781,817 


B,220,729!7,2!J6,O78 
1,04I,016)2..'HO,U47 
10,267,744  9,670,026 


The  following  table  shows  the  several  territories 
which  havo  been  annexed,  or  have  been  proposed  to  be 
annexed,  to  the  Indian  possessions  of  Great  Britain 
since  tho  year  1848  : 


Terrlloriei  ADneied. 


DBMor 

Udd. 


Jcitpore  (Bundelcund) 

guinbulpore  (wuth-wcstfirent' 

ler  Itenital) 

Bughat  (Cls-SutleJ  Ulll  States) 

Fart  of  SIkkIm  (north-eastern 
India) 


Oodeypore  (sonth-west  flrontlor 
of  Bengal). 


Pegu. 


Territory  resumed  f^om  Meer 
All  Morad,  one  of  tho  Ameers 
of  Hcindo 


County  of  Tulsram  Sonapalter 
In  northern  t^ach-.r 


Nagporu  Territory  (IhonsD . , . 

Bundelcund 

Boodawal  (Candclsli) 


IMS 
1849 
1860 

1860 

1863 
1863 

1863 

1858 

1851 

18.54 
1865 


PopulBtloD.     I  Grou  RaTtnilt. 


'Falluroof  heirs 

|FBlluro  of  heirs 

iFnIlure  of  heirs 

,ln-ulttotbo  Hrlllsh  Gov- 
ernment In  seizing  the, 
person  of  lb  represent- 
ative  

Failure  of  heirs 

Conquered  from  th  j  Bnr-j 

I    mcso  during  tho  last; 

I    war I 

Forgery  of  a  treaty, 
whereby  ho  acqulml 
certain  districts  which' 
belonged  to  the  BrlUsh: 
Government ! 

Misconduct  and  breach  of 
engagement  with  the 
British  Government. . .  { 

Failure  of  heirs 

Falluroof  heirs 

Ijlluro  of  heirs 


HquBre  tlltlul. 

106 


1,670 

2,806 
20,000 

'    6,4l2 


i,160 

80,000 
2,632 


16,000 

274,000 

8,420 

61,766 

188,000 
1,000,000 

Not  known, 


6,015 

4,000,000 

200,000 

910 


Rupvea. 

(M,180 

93,000 

T,000 

82,037 

16,480 
Not  known, 

483,653 

1,203 

4,000,000 

618.889 

2,727 


Riip««i. 

Mot  known, 
Not  known 
Not  known. 


Not  known. 
Not  known, 

201,013 


1,011 

Not  known. 
Net  known. 
Not  known. 


The  coses  in  which  annexation  has  been  proposed 
by  the  government  in  India,  are — Kerowlee  (liaj- 
pootana),  in  1852,  1800  square  miles,  having  a  revenue 
of  511,402  rupees  ;  Adjy  ghur  (Bundelcund),  in  1855, 
340  square  miles,  46,000  inhabitants,  and  u  revenue 
of  175,000  rupees  j  Inchulkurunjie  (Colaporo),  in  1866, 
800  square  miles,  43,547  inhabitant.'!,  with  a  revenue 
of  15,000  rupees  ;  Tanjore  Fort  and  ground  adjacent  in 
1856.      See  Annala  of  liritiah  LeyUlation,  by  Leone 


Lkvi,  July,  1856;  Ency.  Brit.,  eighth  edition;  Com, 
m.  U.  S.,  1856-7. 

Revenues  of  British  India  1849-1865.— An  abstroct 
Btatemen;  of  the  revenues  and  charges  of  India,  in- 
cluding; t  no  charges  disbursed  in  England,  for  the 
years  18 .9-50  to  1854-55  (tho  last  year  partly  esti- 
mated) showing  the  surplus  or  deficit  in  each  year 
convened  into  sterling  money,  at  the  oa.ablished  rata 
of  two  shillings  the  sicca  rupee : 


1849—50 
1850-51 
1861—62 
18.52-68 
1868-54 
1864-65 


Grau 
RareDue. 


£ 

26,698.046 
25,S*),160 
20,09-.',Tls 
26,821,088 
16,378,197 
26,654,071 


Alloirancos 
■^BTCordA**  < 
iti;)>  trrallaK. 


£ 

2,809.207 
2,.W2,0.S3 
2,147,505 
2,80,5,003 
2,420,181 
2,412,693 


Nat 

Ravatiuai, 


Charf^fl  of 

(../Iteotloii. 


Civil,  liidl 

(■lal,  nillllary, 

and  marine 

char^eR. 


£    r     £ 

2.1,888,880  8,242,280 
28,801,0071  8,800,015 
2.S,645,1.5:r  8,817,6,57 
24,4.56,48.5  4,104,158 
2.8,949,060  4,248,9,80 
24,241,478,  4,607,400 


To'al 

c^ari  ea  in 

'rj  a. 


£ 
17,041,829 

10,8flS,000 
10,789,8,54 
17,229,,584: 
18,480,908; 
19,258,875; 


CharKP.  dl, 
bunad  in 
Enffiand. 


£  £ 

2.),2S8,505  2.760,9.87 

20,16*',015  2,717,186 

20,007,6111  2,500,377 

21,8-^8,0901  2,09T,4SS 

22,730,894  8,202,289 

23,760,341  3,018,847 


To  till 
charges. 

Surplua. 

Deaeil. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

2.8,034,602 

854,387 

22,886,201 

416,868 

..*• 

28,118,888 

681,265 

...• 

24,081,178 

424,267 

25,998,188 

.... 

3,044,117 

20,786,188 



2,548,710 

The  British  possessions  in  India  are  intermixed  with 
the  dominions  of  various  nativu  governments,  with 
which  political  relations,  varying  in  nature  and  degree, 
Me  maintained.    The  following  table  exhibits  the  rel- 


ative area  and  population  of  the  presiden  ;ie9  of  Ben 
gal,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  and  those  also  of  the  native 
States  of  Hindoostan,  and  also  giving  the  area  and 
population  of  the  separate  provinces  of  the  presidencies. 


\^ 


I      :<!' 


iW) 


load 


TOT) 


AlUAR»  PorviATMm  or  THR  Bmrnii  PiiuiDunB  Ann 

TBI  MttlTR  HrATM  nr    InIIIA. 


■rtlbk  PiaaUuMlM. 


Baii(»l. 


HtdrM. 


I 


n<lalMa. 

iXowiir  ProvliuvA 

Iltufur  and  Ni<rliuil<<» 
T«rrlli>rli'i 

UaIouii , 

illrllUli  Mlitlrwnrrah.. 

niitbulUli,  LuiMlUiiah, 
*nil  Ti'rrlliiry  lalily 
h'>liini{tni{  tu  Helkli 
rlil(>fti 

Nurth-ttAAtiTU  fr<>ritti>r, 
Inrliiilliii  AiMiii,  fit«. 

Arnctii 

SoiUli-wciitf^otitliir,  In- 
iliiclliii:  Huriibiil|iiirK, 
('t)ula  NitiMHiri*,  •t4<, . 

Vftintnro  <ir  Rt^rftr. .... 

Tliu  I'linjiiiili  til  I  Koii 
loo  Tcrrttory 

Tanuwrliii  I'rovlricM. 

Ilmiil 

riii'  Hurhlt'rltiuxlii,  vtn. 

Nortli-wi'iriirn  I'rov. 
Irii't'a,  tiM'lutJiMK  lit)!- 
Ill,  Aitra,  H«n«ri'im<lc. 

Hully  Torrltorv,  O.y 
rnh  Dliiiiin,  Kiiniiioii, 

(lurhwttl,  oto 

Total 

RoKulatlori  I'rnvlnroR.. 

Noii.KvKulalloii  IM«- 
IrloU 


Bombtjr 


Tlio  fwlvrn" 
si^ttlcmontH 
ofHiugaporc, 
I'rtnco  ol 
Waled'  Iil'.l. 
anil  Malacca 

Nallvo    Stales') 
within     tho  1 

of  Bengal...  J 
Do.    I're«liloii-  I 

cyof  .Matlraa  f 
Do,   Pri'«lilcn-  I 

rynfliorabay  f 
Port'lgn  Euro- 1 

poan  poasei-  V 

alont ) 


Ar«*  lit 

■<|ii*r«       Pi<|niUlkin. 

ti)ll«i.    I 

ItD.MII  »T,'M'i.l(M 

i  lft,Hi»     l,W»,MT 

t.HTII        IT«,WT 
mi         HT.TIA 

V>M     1,111 1, (M* 


Total 

Itcitiilatlon  I'rovliin^A.. 

Nuii-ltoKulalliin      Din 

IrlcU  

Total 


Ondfl.  Hvdtrabail,  niio. 
pal,  llliurtpori',  Hi'ln- 
dlait,  mid  llolkar'n 
Donilnloni,  eto. 

Cochin,  Mynoro,  Tra- 
ranooro,  ote 

Oiiji'rot,  Culch,  Cola- 
pore,  oto 

French  (Poiidlchorry, 
etc.) 

I'ortuguuw  (Ooa) 


M.IKKI 

.  mfiH\) 

'  m.vn 
■  i*,w 

Vtf.lil 

ti,fi«i(< 

.  7'J,UMI 

I. 1,61)11 

4UtUl 
I  Iil,'i4.>' 
[  I  Mil 
IHft.llW 

I'Jil.lllV 


l,Mft 


.VW.KM 


.80S 


1,1*1,1 

mi. Mi 

«.«'i7,4A(l 

4,«,^<l,ll(KI 
»,INI,«ll) 

IIA,4HI 

'ilH),IHHI 

rnkiiown 

t(XI,*MI 

iii'.Haii.iiM 

lll,M7,llllA 
K.tAt.Ill)? 

^J,iiiii,a»;| 
i),iiiA,n»4 

«,n«8,A8Hj 
ll,10!>,lltl7 


9ot,Mn 


8S,250,9M 


4,7A3,»T5 


}61,l 

I  00,B7»'  4,4«0,87o' 

^      INS  171,J17 

1,0(10  818,2112 


Amthact  or  Tni  Foiiooino. 


Brlllih     PoB- 
icaloBl.... 


Natlre  Stales- 

Foreign    Ea- 
ropcan  Statu! ' 
Total  of 


Bengal 

Madras 

liombar 

Kanln.  BettlemenU 

Bengal {     fitl3,,'»4 


I      Ar«A  la 

MWn,  tiillffi. 

^4lW,TiT 

l.'W,«l)2 

12i).ii(l,t 

l,ft7B 


Mad  rat. 
Bombay.... 

Kroncli 

Purtuguoae. 
IiidU 


BI,H02 

lHi4 
U 


Populftllol 


90,K»U,ll,'l(l 

22,:Ull,fl»7 

ll,init,ll«T 

20'i,MU 

ai,M9,'<02 

4,7.%9,»7ft 

4,4<IU,870 

171,217 

818.202 


i,875,aiiS'  f72,4io,(ii<) 


Notwlthstonding  the  ravages  committed  hy  incea- 
■aiit  wars  and  revdutlonn,  aa  well  as  li}-  famine  and 
pestilence,  their  usual  concomitants,  India  has  fium 
the  earliest  times  lieen  a  densely-peopled  countr}'.  In 
dilTerent  states  of  society,  tho  law  of  tho  increase  of 
mankind  will  vary  according  to  their  rolativu  circum- 
stances anil  position ;  and  tho  name,  or  nearly  the  same, 
prlncipio  will  be  found  to  apply  to  those  classes  who 
are  placed  in  tliu  opposite  extremities  of  the  scale. 
Among  tho  people  who  are  pos.^esscd  of  affluence, 
or  the  means  of  commauding  tlio  necessaries  and 
comforts  of  life,  the  exorcise  of  moral  restraint  is  un- 
necessary ;  among  those  who  are  reduced  to  a  mere 
physical  subsistence,  without  tho  possibility,  and 
consequently  without  the  desire,  of  improving  their 
condition,  It  will  be  disregarded ;  and  hence  the  same 


malts  will  follow  fynm  ransM  In  llieir  own  nalnra  4U. 
mstrically  iippnalte.  Kilt  In  Indin  the  Kreat  mni<A  of 
the  population  havn  for  »g*»  burn  pliiced  In  a  ■Itiintiiin 
whirh  exrluilM  all  Idea  iit  Impmvement ;  and  rxllKlon 
has  lent  Its  iMiwerfiil  aid  to  iihatriiet  thn  »|i<<rRlh,n  of 
thoae  natural  rnu*ei«  which,  in  other  luiintrlea,  hava 
aervod  to  nmellnnitn  the  <  onilllliin  of  thn  jieople.  If 
may,  however,  bii  iiennltted  to  hii|M<,  thiil  tliiiii)(h  In- 
dia always  hns  linen,  It  will  not  iilwn.vs  Im,  wlmt  It 
now  In  ;  Ihnt  the  exletixion  nf  eommeri'e,  iimler  thn 
pnitei'tloii  of  a  vlKoriiiis  ami  lm|iurtlul  Kiiveniment, 
will  awake  new  Ideas  In  the  inltiilH  of  the  p«<i|i|i, ;  that 
security  to  |K  rsim  and  prii|i<irty  will  )(lve  a  strohK  ntlin- 
iilus  to  industry  ;  thiit  the  habitual  rontiict  with  a 
higher  and  more  rutlimul  form  nf  civlllxntlon  will 
serve  to  niltlgiite  their  prejudlcea,  and,  In  time,  to 
destroy  the  Inlluence  of  n  debasing  niipentltloii ;  and 
that,  In  prii|«irlliin  as  their  wants  are  multiplli'il,  their 
elTortM  to  nnielliirata  their  eohdltiim  will  lie  liureaseil. 

Calcutta  is  the  prlni'l|Mil  city  of  the  provime  of  lien- 
gal,  llin  capital  of  the  llrillsh  dominions  in  liidlii,  and, 
with  till)  exception,  perhaps,  of  I 'union,  the  greatest 
eni|ioriiiin  to  the  eastward  of  the  Cape  of  (IimiiI  ||ii|ie. 
Its  citadel  is  in  latitude  •ii°  M'  VJ"  S.,  liMigitude  HH" 
'iT  M"  K.  It  Is  alKjut  KM)  miles  from  the  seu,  being 
situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  western  branch  of 
the  llangoH,  denoininiitud  by  Kuropeans  the  llooghly 
liiver,  which  Is  the  only  arm  of  the  (iangea  naviguhle 
to  any  considerable  illstancn  by  large  slilp.i.  At  lil)(h 
water,  the  river  oppnnito  to  the  town  is  alniut  a  iiille 
In  breadth  ;  but,  during  the  ebb,  the  side  opposite  to 
Cali'Utta,  exposes  a  long  range  nf  ,Ir}-  naiid-banks. 
Owing  to  the  length  and  intricacy  of  the  nuvlgiitlim 
from  tlie  sea,  it  can  not  be  underliiken  without  a  pilot; 
so  that,  even  if  it  did  not  exceed  our  limits,  it  wnnid 
be  useless  to  attempt  any  description  of  It  in  this  place. 
The  principal  nierrhants  and  traders  consUt  of  llrltlsh 
and  other  I'.uropeans,  I'ortugucse,  liom  in  India,  Ar- 
menians, ,Iews,  I'flrsiaiis,  from  tho  const  of  the  I'ernlan 
(<uir,  commonly  called  I'arseei,  Moguls,  Mohunnncd- 
ans  of  llindoostan,  and  Hindoos;  the  latter  unuiilly 
either  of  the  llrahniinical  or  mercantile  castes,  and  na- 
tivun  of  llvngal.  The  native  I'ortiigueso  and  Arme- 
nian merchants  have  of  late  greatly  declined  In  wealth 
and  impnrtanre.  On  tlio  other  lianil,  the  Persian 
merchants  have  inireascd  in  numbers  and  wealth,  sev- 
eral of  them  being  worth  .£250,UOO  sterling,  'i'lie  liirge 
fortunes  of  the  llindoo  merchants  have  been  much 
broken  down  of  latn  years  by  litl|,'ation  in  the  courts, 
and  naturally  through  tho  law  of  equal  cojiarcenary 
among  brothers.  To  counturbalancu  this,  there  has 
been,  since  the  opening  of  the  free  trade  in  lHl-1,  a  vast 
augmentation  of  the  number  of  inferior  mcrcliiints, 
worth  from  £20,0t)0  to  £M),t)0()  Htcriing.  There  are 
but  few  llindoo  merchants  at  present  wliose  wealth 
exceeds  X2I)0,000  sterling.     Sec  (Jai.(  utta. 

The  sales  of  opium  the  lust  live  years  at  Calcutta 
alone  vtand  thus : 


Chens  told. 

law— no MA-ti 

IS  0—51 1M,400 

18BB      ss.noi 

l8,^s      8n,4<i8 

IhM        4s,.Sl» 


Priir,-eda  resliu-l 
l.y  •al.'. 

Kill" 

l).VliW.ll79 

iii.'i.w.sag 
la.sw.i.w 

«.SHIs,ll8a 
ll6,72",.'i.S4 


The  price  paid  to  the  cultivator  is  about  LMO  ru- 
pees a  chest,  the  rupee  being  worth  -Ifi  to  .^lO  cents. 

This  revenue  from  opium  amounts  to  one  seventh  of 
tho  total  income  of  the  empire.  Of  the  fl,  0(10,  (MX) 
which  it  represents,  i.'l,000,000  in  round  numbers  is 
produced  by  a  duty  levied  in  Honiba)-,  and  X3,il00,0(X) 
by  the  monthly  sale  of  opium  in  Calcutta.  For  soma 
years  past  the  average  production  in  llengal  has  been 
3G,000  chests,  and  tho  average  price  of  each  chest  lO.W 
rupees,  or  80O  per  cent,  advance.  Two  or  three  years 
ago,  however,  the  government  removed  certain  re- 
strictions on  cultivation.  Any  body  niiglit  grow  it,  to 
any  extent  ho  pleased,  though  he  must  still  sell  it  at  a 


im> 


10!il 


IND 


flxail  priM,  mUI*U  liaforahiuiil,  Mid  navtr  klUnJ  to 
Um  o|iIuiu  (gvut.  ThiD  (jiolit  i>a  till*  pric*  la  tu  untt 
UmI  th«  iMMuaatt  will  cultivate  it  wlmraver  it  will 
grow.  'I'll*  ruult  wait  an  Incrgaw  uf  |iriHlui:tioii, 
wbUih  iucraiiMd  tlu  •ulim   (u  atwut  A0,UUO    i.li«ita. 

A>MTii*irr  Vm*  or  Tim  niTHNAk  ('umtiaoa  or  Umual. 
iiir<>an,  IMI 


Opium  fall !  th«  chcata  whi,  h  lw,|  lirougtil  1060  ru- 
|>wa  aoia  for  fiJW  ru|i*ga,  mi.l  th«  iIlffwrHHLa  In  ((uiknlll^ 
m>  \ouift  t'iiin|MinaatM  for  tlia  (liffiranio  in  prlca.  Thu 
tuat*  of  opium,  Ilk*  tlin  taatt  of  tubacop,  B*v«r  Imvm 
Ita  vutarl«a. 


OMMim. 


Oraal  nrllain 

Kraniw 

Norlb  Ainorlo*, 

Mulraa  Cowl 

('Kvloa 

Malillviiaan<l  Ijuieiill«aa,. 

Malabar  Cuaak 

Anlilan  *n<l  I'liralai)  OuUk. 

8tirtiaporo 

HxiiaiiKanil  Mala<<c* 

Ohlna 

Now  llullanil.... 

Java  anil  Huiuatra 

IVitu 

Maurltlua 

U<>urb4jii 

I'apii  ami  Ht  llolon* 

Hamburg 

Oailli 

Aniatunlaui 

TrlaaUi 

Onnoa 

Other  piaroa 

Total,  Company'a  nipeaa 


t,m,iMi 

t,W,ilM 

»,Kt,i«W4 

fhl.iWI 

l.llti.DU'i 

it,;mmio 

7,W.»i.% 

t4,lt».4Xl 

<l.t«.IM« 

l«,oil,»4« 

ll,«(t,'i.Vt 

87, 1 M 

^IH,I•« 

9-J,H'ia 

!i<l,U(M 

(»,inft 
t,4».nu 

l,ll),ll»< 

IM,«Oi 

"«,7»,l4,t,'VI 


ft,ir4,M4 

4.«A,SAII 
11,'M.IMIU 
ls.im,riAi< 
i.miiiim 

8,tY,llsi) 

l,MI,T'/J 

i(,'i\ii>ii 

l,M.IVU 

(W,W.MU>l 

lll,|.VJ 

1.4117 

H.ni.lMVI 

N,«I,V»8 

7,iW.V(h'V 

86,HMI 


S,4»,«H.1H4 


Thu  oilier  priiiclpiil  porta  are — Ilomliiiv,  a  aea-piirt 
on  the  wwatern  cuaat  of  Ilriliali  India,  lut  1X°  5(1'  N., 
lonit-  ^'i"  bl'  K.  It  la  aituutod  at  the  aouth-eaaterly 
•xtraniity  of  »  amull  laland  uf  auinn  name,  aepurated 
from  tlio  main  land  l>y  an  arm  of  tlio  aeu,  forming, 
vritb  tlio  cuntlKUoua  lalanda  of  Colabuli,  Hulaette, 
Ilutcbera'  and  CuraiKuh,  one  of  the  licut  harlinri  in 
India.  I'ha  entraiicu  U  nearly  three  miles  wide,  and 
liua  a  depth  of  from  M)  tu  40  foot. 

Madrua  Ih  the  accond  liiltiah  Indian  prPHldoni'y,  and 

frincipul  |Kirt  on  the  weatem  t'oaat  of  the  Buy  of  Uengiil. 
t  la  without  port  or  harlior,  lyiiiK  doae  to  an  open  mail- 
■tead,  and  the  ahore  having  a  conatant  aurf.  A  rapid 
current  ruiia  alon^  the  coaat,  and  typtioona  are  com- 
mon. iMT^e  ahipi  anchor  aliont  two  milea  from 
■hure,  in  the  roada,  in  from  40  to  GO  foct  of  water,  and 
lighten  are  used  to  load  and  unload  froi|{lit. 

Singapore,  a  Uritlah  sottlnment  on  an  l.sland  of  the 
•ame  name,  at  the  oaatern  oxtrpmity  of  Malacca,  kt, 
10  17'  Ti"  N.,  long.  103°  61'  46"  K. 

United  Stain  and  the  F.iut  Indiet. — The  commercial 
Intercourse  of  the  United  8tatoa  with  the  territories  of 
the  East  India  Company  is  regulated  liy  the  different 
local  governments  tliorcof,  under  thn  aupreme  control 
and  approval  of  the  (jovomor-Ucnernl  of  India  In  coun- 
cil. The  reguliitlona  prnscrilied  by  these  authorities 
are  not  of  a  pormunont  character,  being  liable  to  niodl- 
Hcations  and  clianges  whenever,  In  their  opinion,  such 
become  neceasary.  To  present,  however,  the  true 
iiaais  upon  wiiich  this  intercourse  rcata,  it  will  bo  neces- 
sary to  refer  brii^lly  to  the  treaty  stipulations  aulwlst- 
ing  between  the  governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  llritain  ;  premising,  that  prior  to  the  convention 
of  London,  signed  on  the  M  of  ,luly,  1815,  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Urltain,  the  commercial  In- 
tercourse of  the  former  witli  the  East  India  posses- 
sions was  regulated,  as  was  that  of  other  foreign  na- 
tions, by  a  general  clause  in  the  Company's  cliurtcr, 
providing  that  "  vcMsela  of  countries  in  amity  with 
Great  Britain  may  imiKirt  into,  and  export  from,  the 
British  possessions  in  India,  such  goods  and  commodi- 
ties as  may  bo  specified  in  rules  to  be  prescribed  by  the 
KiL«t  India  Comimny ;  provided  that  such  rules  uhall 
not  be  inconsistent  with  any  treaty  now  [then]  made, 
or  which  may  be  made  between  Great  Britain  and  any 
foreign  State  in  amity  with  her,  or  with  any  act  of 
Parliament  for  regulating  the  aflfoira  of  India."  By 
the  conTentlon  above  referred  to,  and  the  subaequent 


nnwa.lill-M. 


4,fl|o[l4B 
4^1)7,481 

7il,x4,tf»l 

IV,IW,iUO 

l,Ali,'ilO 

llii,illi'J 

>«,7i.niii 
w,m.nu7 

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conventliin  of  October,  1818,  continuing  the  former,  it 
waa  stipulated : 

lat.  That  veaaola  of  the  United  .States  shall  be  iid- 
initted  and  lio»pltalily  received  at  the  principal  settie- 
inents  of  thn  liritiHli  dominlona  in  the  East  Indies, 
viz. :  Calcutta,  Madriis,  Bombay,  and  Prince  of  W'alea' 
laland  ;  and  the  citizena  of  thn  United  Stato.t  may 
freely  trade  between  the  aaid  anttlemonts  and  the 
United  States,  in  ail  articlca  of  which  the  importation 
and  exportation,  reapectlvely,  to  and  from  the  said 
territories,  shall  nut  bo  entirely  prohibited ;  and,  2d, 
it  was  provided,  that  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
shall  pay  for  their  vessol.n,  when  admitted,  no  higher 
or  other  duty  or  charges  tlian  ahull  bo  payable  on  thu 
vessels  of  tho  most  favored  European  i^i  'ion.  And 
they  shall  pay  no  higher  or  other  duties  oi  cnar^os  on 
tho  importotion  or  exportation  of  the  cargoes  of  said 
vessels  than  shall  bo  payable  on  thu  same  article 
when  imported  or  exported  in  tlio  vessels  of  tho  most 
favored  nation  ;  and,  ltd.  It  was  expressly  agreed,  that 
the  vessels  of  the  United  .States  shall  not  carry  any 
article  from  the  said  settlements  to  nny  port  or  place, 
except  to  some  port  or  place  In  the  United  States  of 
America,  where  the  same  shall  bo  unladen. 

This  convention  Is  still  in  force,  and  regulates  tho 
commorclal  intercourse  of  the  United  States  with  the 
East  India  possessions,  except  as  to  paragraph  II, 
which  has  been  susperseded  by  the  repeal  of  the  British 
navigation  laws  In  1849 ;  the  effect  uf  which  has  been 
to  open  tho  ports  of  Great  Britain,  and  of  all  her  colo- 
nial possessions  abroad,  to  "  goods  of  any  sort,  in  a  ship 
of  any  countr)-,  from  ony  part  of  tho  world."  By  an 
act  of  tho  imperial  Parliumeiit,  entitled  1,1  Victoria, 
chap,  xxlx.,  sees.  8,  4,  5,  C,  the  Govcrnor-Oonoral  of 
the  East  India  possessions  was  clothed  with  full  powers 
to  admit,  whenever  ho  aiiould  deem  it  advisable  so  to 
do,  to  tho  coasting  trade  in  tho  East  Indies,  tho  ves- 
sels of  all  foreign  nations.  This  privilege  is  now  en- 
joyed by  every  flag.  With  these  two  exceptions,  the 
convention  of  1818  is  still  in  full  force,  and  constitutes 
the  only  guaranty  which  tho  United  States  possesses 
of  equal  privileges  with  the  most  favored  nation  in 
its  intercourse  and  commerce  with  the  East  India  pos- 
sessions. Notwithstanding  the  express  stipulations 
contained  in  tlie  treaty  above  referred  to,  that  the  East 
India  Company  should  prescribe  no  Togolations  "  Incon- 
sistent with  any  treaty  now  made,  or  which  may  be 
made,  by  Great  Britain,  with  any  nation  in  amitjr 


.  '  ■« 


IND 


1022 


IND 


I 


with  her,"  It  haa,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  been 
represented  to  the  Department  of  State  that  the  ofQ- 
cera  of  thU  Company  do  not  consider  themselves  bound 
by  the  commercial  treaties  which  exist  between  the 
United  States  and  England."  The  dispatch  from 
whicli  the  foregoing  extract  is  taken  further  says,  that 
"  the  speedy  settlement  of  this  question  is  deemed  of 
paramount  importance  to  the  commercial  interests  of 
the  United  States,"  Ko  case,  however,  having  been 
presented  to  the  Department,  beyond  the  niilied  asser- 


tion of  the  quasi  independent  sovereignty  by  the  offi. 
cers  of  the  East  India  Company,  the  necessity  has  not 
yet  arisen  for  an  examination  of  the  grounds  upon 
whicu  this  claim  is  based.  As  the  question  may,  how- 
ever, hereafter  embarrass  the  commercial  relations  of 
the  United  States  with  this  portion  of  her  Britannic 
majesty's  possessions,  it  has  been  deemed  proper  to 
present  the  facts  in  relation  to  it,  which  have  come  to 
the  linowledge  of  the  Department.  See  Commercial 
Relations  U.  S. 


CoMMXaca  or  tde  Unitrd  Btatxs  wrrn  toe  Bbitisu  East  Imdiks 

raoM  OcToBiB  1,  1820, 

TO  July  1 

1886. 

Ywn  eldlnf 

Eiporu. 

loiporti. 

Whtraof  Ihira  ww  In  Bullion 
and  S|»el<. 

Tontu^  ClearM. 

Domeitle. 

Fonlri. 

ToUI. 

ToUl. 

Eiport. 

Import, 

Amerloftn. 

Forelpi. 

Sept.  80,  1821 

182,088 

$1,984,190 

$1,966,279 

$1,680,799 

$1,884,949 

8,027 

1622 

67,979 

1,90^,865 

2,086.344 

8,272,217 

1,980,876 

8,847 

1888 

10,642 

807.7.88 

818,880 

8,26^961 

888,062 

896 

1824 

«4,a54 

927.718 

962,070 

441,967 

782,886 

.... 

2,920 

1826 

206,450 

794,629 

991,079 

1,766,494 

666,623 

4,124 

18M 

24,226 

418,042 

442,269 

2,610,006 

854,667 

2,080 

.... 

T827 

82,717 

1,019,788 

1,061,450 

669,066 

872,188 

2,490 

«... 

18S8 

64,199 

795,692 

849,991 

1,642,786 

660,080 

.... 

8,441 

.... 

1829 

89,070 

477,629 

646,699 

1,229,569 

297,801 

8,050 

.    1880 

Total.... 

93,731 

658,128 

646,957 

1,878,297 

160,641 

$500 

4,029 

.... 

1625,457 

$9,195,880 

$9,811,807 

$17,492,692 

$7,881,048 

$500 

89,298 

Sept  80,  1831 

tl82,442 

$676,390 

$807,982 

$1,644,273 

$486,027 

^  $82 

6,481 

181)2 

189,218 

839,286 

628,4,^3 

2,688,988 

212,886 

11,000 

6,916 

1883 

180,156 

199,848 

824,999 

1,882,059 

90,910 

2,700 

6,785 

19.14 

199,602 

206,941 

406,643 

2,298,012 

147,825 

872 

6,655 

.... 

1886 

864,417 

8*9,641 

754,058 

1,697,893 

529,123 

•  ■  ■  ■ 

10,899 

.... 

1886 

289,815 

4-»,481 

724,776 

2,954,476 

861,925 

10,520 

.... 

1881 

120„^91 

82,907 

203,669 

8,041,9(2 

18,950 

1,290 

8,487 

.... 

IS.'iS 

820,505 

2.H402 

679,907 

676,.')81 

279,921 

.... 

8,884 

1839 

246,845 

887,597 

694.412 

2,185,162 

891,72.'. 

10,557 

1840 

Toul.... 

2S0,4(a 

861,791 

682,196 

1,952,461 

815,007 

1.697 

6,742 

t2,279,495 

$8,266,269 

$5,545,703 

$20,608,687 

$2,758,699 

$17,641 

78,816 

Sept  80.  IMl 

J,M2,8»4 

$Wn,867 

$903,201 

$1,286,641 

$878,650 

$40 

12,647 

1842 

899,979 

2^8.925 

6s8,S04 

1,.'S80,861 

202,1580 

2,951 

9,079 

i.m 

9mos.      1*48 

237,5V6 

140,186 

377,712 

689,777 

87,839 

,  , 

6,416 

June  80,  1841 

aSS,413 

(W7,.TO 

67,\966 

892,792 

274,107 

60 

10,479 

.... 

18« 

297,831 

I-Stoo? 

4(1,399 

l,276,.^34 

76,168 

>  .  .  * 

10,814 

1946 

270,600 

99.772 

870,872 

1,861,846 

78,920 

1,479 

10,979 

706 

184T 

S87,7.8.1 

135,4,54 

878.237 

1,646,457 

100,132 

2,800 

12,294 

1848 

610,2S4 

1,'>6,715 

666,999 

2,069,6:12 

66,298 

•  •  ■  • 

15,ii54 

612 

1M9 

882,962 

76,!<62 

409,.'S24 

2,036,254 

249 

21,020 

827 

1880 

Total.... 

602,613 

150.946 
$1,951,797 

6')9,469 
$.%61 1,672 

2,695,010 

85,400 

.... 

29,889 

2,1.98 

$8,659,975 

$16,414,912 

$l,'»-85,823 

$6,820 

186,970 

4,942 

June  80,  \^\ 

(512,906 

$17.''>.494 

$699,390 

$3,a86,835 

$80,671 

49,210 

2.964 

1842 

605,189 

89,360 

604,199 

4,225,041 

550 

.... 

62,76:) 

7,7.90 

18B3 

60.8,S'i6 

6:!,M2 

607,399 

8,.V9I,726 

45,727 

60,461 

6,809 

1854 

667,198 

69.219 

686,412 

6,378,821 

29,721 

46,812 

585 

1865 

714,119 

199,144 

912,26:) 

6,457,878 

6.'),424 

.... 

80,729 

4,742 

1866 

691,998 

75,631 

767.629 

7,0Wi,911 

80,700 

OS.a.Vi 

9,482 

The  whole  number  of  arrivals  in  the  United  States 
<>\rom  the  East  Indies  during  the  year  1856  were  2'2G. 
In  1855, 168.  At  Boston,  133 ;  New  Yorlt,  82 ;  Sulcm, 
7 ;  Philadelphia,  2  ;  Providence,  1 ;  Savannah,  I, 

At  Boston,  in  1856,  133.  In  1855,  100.  From  Cal- 
cutta, 77 ;  Manilla,  22 ;  Cape  Town,  9 ;  Sin};a|>ore,  4 ; 
Padang,  4 ;  Peuang,  2 ;  Bataviu,  2 ;  Mauritius  via 
London,  1 ;  Foo  Cliow  Fow,  2 ;  Whumpoa,  1  j  Ilong 
Kong  via  New  Yorlt,  1 ;  Padung  via  New  Yorit,  1 ; 
Singapore  via  Rotterdam,  1 ;  Canton,  1 ;  Canton  via 
London,  1 ;  Sumatra,  1 ;  Shongliae  via  Now  Yorli,  1 ; 
Calcutta  via  London,  1, 

At  New  Yorlc,  in  1850,  82  (of  which  60  belonged  to 
Boston  and  ports  east  of  New  Yorli).  In  1855,  59, 
From  Manilla,  15 ;  Shunghae,  14 ;  Singapore,  12 ;  Foo 
Chow  Fow,  9 ;  Calcutta,  0 ;  Ilong  Koug,  G ;  ^^1lalnpoa, 
u ;  Penang,  5 ;  Canton,  4  ;  Calcutta  via  Loudon,  1 ; 
Foo  Chow  Fow  via  Havana,  1  ;  Swatow  via  Ha- 
vana, 1. 

At  Salom,  in  1850,  7.  In  1855,  C.  From  Zanzibar, 
6 ;  Penang,  1 ;  Manilla,  1. 

At  Philadelphia,  iu  1856,  2.  In  1860,  4.  From  Cal- 
cutta, 1 ;  Calcutta  via  London,  1. 

At  Providence,  1  from  Zanzibar. 

At  Savannah,  1  from  Calcutta  y'xk  Liverpool. 

Clearance). — The  whole  number  of  clearances  in  the 
'United  States  for  thi  East  Indies  were  161.  In  1865, 
172.    At  Boston,  90 ;  New  York,  40 ;  Salem,  8 ;  New 


Orleans,  G;  Providence,  3j  Philadelphia,  2;  Balti- 
more, 2 ;  Mobile,  2 ;  Portland,  1 ;  Newlmryport,  1. 

At  Boston,  in  1?56,  96.  In  1855,  75.  Fo"r  Calcutta, 
28  ;  Batavln,  10  ;  Cape  Town,  14  ;  Manilla,  6 ;  Bom- 
bay, 5 ;  Hong  Kong,  4  ;  Calcutta  viii  Buenos  .\yrcs; 
6  ;  Madras  and  Calcutta,  8 ;  Akyab,  3 ;  Madras,  3 ; 
Sumatra,  2  ;  Singapore,  4  ;  Calcutta  vii  London,  2 , 
Calcutta  vii\  Liverpool,  1 ;  Zanzibar  viii  Providence, 
1 ;  Pedang,  1 ;  Colombo,  1 ;  Whampoa,  1. 

At  New  York,  in  1856,  40  (of  which  24  traded  from 
Boston  and  ports  east  of  New  York).  In  1855,  50. 
For  Hong  Kong,  9  ;  Calcutta,  6 ;  Shanghae,  4  ;  Capo 
Town,  3 ;  Canton,  8 ;  Batavia,  2 ;  Calcutta,  viii  Bue  nos 
Ayres,  3 ;  Sumatra,  2 ;  Bombay,  2 ;  Mauritius,  1 ;  Sing- 
apore, 1 ;  Anjier,  1 ;  Akyab,  1 ;  Slam,  1 ;  Padang,  I. 

At  Salem,  in  1850,  9.  In  1855,  8.  For  Zanzibar,  7  ; 
Batavia,  1 ;  Penang,  1. 

At  Now  Orleans,  6.  Last  year,  24.  For  Calcutta 
vi4  Liverpool,  5;  Bombay  viii  Liverpool,  1. 

At  Providence,  3  for  Zanzibar.     Last  year,  1. 

At  Philadelphia,  2.  Last  yuus  4.  For  Calcutta, 
1 ;  Manilla,  1. 

At  Baltimore,  2  for  Capo  Town.     L.'ist  year,  8. 

At  Mobile,  2  for  Calcutta.     Last  year,  0. 

At  Newlmryport,  1  for  Calcutta.     Last  ye,ir,  0.- 

At  Portland,  1  for  Calcutta  viii  Buenos  Ayres. 
Last  year,  1.  See  Anna!)  Brit.  Leg.,  July,  1856,  p.  25, 
"  Territories  Anaesed." 


IND 


1038 


IND 


6 

n 

9 

1,129 

;a 

79 

..•• 

14 

The  British  East  India  poBsesstona  ambrAW  «n  aW 
moat  boundless  extent  of  territory,  e«tfi|td)ni{  tmn  tllS 
Himalaya  range  of  mountains  cm  tho  north  to  tim 
ocean,  including  nearly  the  whole  of  the  paiilMUMlA  i)f 
Hindoostan,  tho  island  of  Ceylon,  and  that  iwrtloit  of 
Burmah  lying  between  20"  of  north  latlttms  (tlMltlm 
Bay  of  Bengal.  These  vast  possessions  wra  sut)|Mi*f«t 
to  contain  a  population  of  162,000,000  iif  souls,  Tll8 
Kast  India  Company's  possessions  comuriss  t\w  Mtvttmt 
presidencies  of,  1st,  the  Bengal  pre8fi<uni!y  |  M,  )llt) 
Bombay  presidency ;  3d,  the  Madras  prustilunu)'  |  4(ll, 
the  Agra  presidency  ;  and  the  several  dependetlBlfl*  (if 
each  of  these  presidencies. 

Bengal. — The  commerce  of  the  United  StBtes  with  tlw 
East  Indies  Is  principally  conlined  to  the  prasittancics  of 
Bengal  and  Bombay,  and  to  a  few  of  their  dep«n<lHMf;l«it, 
The  loading  exports  from  the  East  India  pns)i*i^i>loni*  to 
the  United  States  are  wool,  oil-seeds,  bidos,  ni^dl<  ilM 
al  drugs,  sandal-woods,  gums,  spices,  horns,  inill){o, 
ivory,  coir,  saltpetre.  The  prim'lpul  export*)  from  \\m 
United  States  to  the  East  Indies  are,  toliat'i'o,  imvill 
stores,  provisions,  ice,  and  miscellaneous  ntarvlmnilUf*, 
copper,  pitch,  tar,  rosin,  pine-lmards,  and  spurs,  NuiH" 
ber  of  American  vessels  entered  the  port  of  CitlfiuttA 
in  1852,  65;  tonnage,  3-l,840,  Numtinr  of  vsshpIs 
cleared  from  Calcutta  in  the  same  year,  101 )  tonMll|4*', 
69,340.  In  1853,  109  vessels  front  the  Unita4  HtitlMH 
entered  tills  port.  See  Calcutta,  Hf.}mMi,  mv\ 
Great  Britain. 

Imports  from  Calcutta,  1851-18B3,  Iii9fiinfi1i  |  vsllW 
of  exports  during  tlie  same  |)eriod,  tl,iuO,lii/!l  j  AjijiKr- 
ent  balance  against  tlie  United  Htates,  |:M,|Hn,ll7il, 
This  heavy  balance  apparently  against  tjia  (!nitt<il 
States  is  accounted  fur  by  tho  large  dls»>rln)limtlM)i 
duties  on  all  its  manufactures,  in  favor  of  siniikr  nwt= 
chandise  imported  from  the  mother  country,  Atnctl-- 
can  vessels  usually  enter  the  ports  of  (^Jsluntt*  find 
Bengal  in  ballast,  for  tho  purpose  of  tal(in|$  lit  H  liom- 
ward  cargo, 

Bombay. — Exports  from  Bombay  the  sanw  »s  from 
Calcutta.  Tho  samo  description  of  nierelntniliso  la  im- 
ported from  the  United  States.  Tliu  following  MWffcet 
prices  at  Bombay  will  show  tliat  the  artlclos  s|Hit'|||)j|1 
might  enter  advantageously  into  Aniorluan  o>(|iort'<, 
not  only  to  that  port,  but  to  the  otiier  ports  in  (lift 
East  Indies :  Copper  slieathlng  sells  i«t  uf)  riiptois,  iif 
$27  25  i)er  cwt, ;  duty,  10  per  cent ;  annual  imports, 
400  tons.  Copper  bolts  sell  at  50  rupees,  or  f  2<)  ppr  t'Wl,, 
duty,  10  per  cent. ;  annuil  imports,  700  tons,  I'lti'li, 
4  rupees  ==  $1  50  i)cr  barrel ;  annual  Imports,  lIHHI 
barrels ;  duty  10  per  cent.  Tar,  1  rupBas  -^  ifi  fif f 
barrel ;  annual  imparts,  'J20  barrels ;  duty,  10  \m  ami, 
Tonnage  duty  in  Boml)ay,  1-10  rupee,  or  mM[y  (t 
cents  per  ton.  T^ight-liouse  dues  on  ships  from  iA' 
20  rupees  =  from  $7  50  to  $10,  according  to  tho  mtdlFC 
of  the  cargo  and  time  of  tho  year.  The  ruiieo  is  val- 
ued by  Pope  at  46  cents  :  consular  returns  front  Itom-- 
bay  value  it  at  60  cents. 

Pilotage  is  regulated  by  tlie  season,  Itlt4  U  HA  foU 
lows: 


Tll«  folWIng  (abia  exlilldts  tho  trii4«  of  ttit  t7nlt«d 
8t«t«i!  *lth  the  East  Indies  ganorally  i 
tSA|/ort«  to  tml  Indies ;  l^W), 

|>«jni.(illo  mannroctures iftKI,<*fi(( 

rofiHKd  "         mfiVt 


ISM. 
N,II» 


,        ,  Tnt*! MT,l»« 

Importi  tmn , , ,  «,jmi,7M 


"Vfueli  of 


From  Se|il.  to  June.        Frij 


Tons. 

100— 

800- 

400— 

500— 

000— 

TOO— 

80O- 

900—1,000. 
1,000—1,100. 
1,100-1,200. 
1,200—  1,800. 
1,800—1,400. 
1,400—1,800. 
1,800—1.600. 


800. 
400. 
600. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
900. 


I    Kup 


"Er= 

llolla.a. 
28  00 

»v= 

^t' 

K,  = 

27  28 

m  == 

40  110 

60  = 

80  110 

H.')  - 

mth 

68  = 

82  28 

9rt  -^ 

46  00 

70  -= 

38  00 

m  - 

47  «6 

78  = 

8T28 

too 

Aoim 

60  = 

40  00 

108  - 

MW 

88  = 

42  28 

11"  - 

6AINI 

120  = 

60  00 

nft  - 

Vt  «6 

180  = 

«8  no 

188  ^- 

77  1(6 

140  = 

70  00 

tOfi   - 

tettH 

IM  = 

78  00 

176  - 

17  1*8 

160  = 

80  00 

m  -- 

lit 

170  = 

65  00 

196  -- 

Tho  above  rates  are  regulated  by  tha  louitl  uiiv^riu 
meat  of  the  Company's  possessions,  and  this  pilots  iiri* 
legulnrly  licensed.  See  articles  BoxRAir  and  F<A'^I' 
India  Cohpamt. 


KXdem  of  Importa  orsr  esporU,  )l,UM,Hil4  4,741,VM 

Vnt  f^mnmerce,  etc,,  of  Kast  India,  mt  A'rf,  tlev., 
nMil,  ai2,  flSfl,  Ixxll,,  ISJ,  U»,,  167  (MAfiAIJMt), 
nnin,.  i)flf»|  Vhr.  Utrim.,  »lviil,  (K,  I'K4m»i»y)(  Wnlm. 
lift'.,  il,  Mfl  I  For.  Qmr.,  xxlil,,  03  ("  DrltlKfi  Umifiw. 
thm"),  »««v^fl«2,  xxxvl,,  900, 

Znaian  Ooaan,  Indleim  Mart,  h  v«rt  ocotmlo 
hNAin,  nepurott-d  from  the  Pitcllli!  on  thn  (»i>t  by  ib« 
Aitlittie  Afi'hipelngo  and  Australiii,  lioimilxd  fin  thn  itnnth 
lij'  H  11(18  drawn  from  the  V,a\m  of  (1ih»1  ||ii|m  to  Hniin' 
Mfrnlt,  divlilfld  from  the  Atlantic  liy  Afripu  on  the  yttti, 
Mn\  Inclosed  by  the  countries  of  Asia  on  tho  north.  It 
<omoii(nlciite«  with  the  Chinese  Hnii  hy  thtt  Mtrnit  of 
Mittiicco,  Hiinda  Htralt,  and  the  Htmit  of  fJofCK,  PHn- 
('l(wl  Itilffts,  the  Day  of  llengul,  th«  Hfl«  of  Oman,  tho 
I'criiiiin  Miilf,  nod  the  ll«i|  Hea,  VMM  utrilltii,  tfaa 
Chmmel  of  Mo/.amWmie,  and  P/ilk's  Htrolt,  The  modt 
Important  Iphinds  are  Madagascar,  MnilfltlMK,  tlourlion, 
lh«  ('jilnoro  Islands,  Heychelles,  itnd  Mocotfrt,  hetong- 
Ilij4  to  Africa  I  the  l,iiccadlvcs,  Mahllvwn,  Cpyhm,  the 
AndHhiiiti  and  Nlcoltar  Islands,  to  A<«ltt,  h»  prlnripal 
«(fl««ii(s  me,  in  A<!la,  the  Saliwn,  Irrawadl,  Bfahma- 
(intCll,  Oflngns,  (lodnvery,  Kistnii,  Nurtillddrt,  Indioi, 
imd  tho  Mliat-cl-Aruli,  formed  hy  tho  junction  of  the 
Tl(if)s  dtid  Euphrates)  In  Africa,  tho  /,»mWM.  The 
chief  nen-ports  are,  Calcutta  «nd  Ihimhity  In  India  j 
MftlHccn,  In  the  Asiatic  Arclilpidago  |  Adtm,  Mocha, 
iind  Mnscnt,  In  Arabia  j  Zanzibar,  (tt«,,  in  Africa. 
Hl(i«tt^piiclicts  or«  etiabllshcd  l)«tw««n  tlitt  principal 
fKirts,  The  monsoons,  or  periodical  winds,  prevail  In 
i\M  ilortli  part  of  tlis  ocean,  blowing  from  the  south- 
Wfjt  between  April  and  October,  and  iiotith--<iii'>t  from 
(h'tolier  to  April.  Tempests  are  g«>n«rfil  nt  thn  periods 
of  chitn^a,  and  lietwaeii  hit,  6^  tnd  40*  t>.  violent  huf- 
ricnnen  ffeiiuenlly  occur. 

Zfldlada,  one  of  the  United  HfA^*  at  Nitrth  Amer^ 
icit,  Is  hounded  east  Ity  the  MtatA  of  Oiilo,  south  by 
the  fliver  (ihio,  which  separates  it  ffimi  Kentucky, 
west  by  {llinois,  from  whicli  It  la  partly  separated  hy 
the  WnliHsh  lllver,  and  north  by  Michigan  nod  l.nko 
Michigan.  It  lies  between  !I7<'  61'  and  MP  40'  N, 
hit,,  and  HO"  W  and  «H''  2'  W,  hint?,  VMmw  length 
fi-oiii  noftli  to  Boiith,  270  miles  (  grsiitniit  breadth,  176 
inllei*-    Area,  33,«0!i  sfjuarn  nilhis, 

llldlnti/i  may  be  generally  charact<?rl?,«d  as  a  great 
jdain,  inclining  toward  the  i^ontli'Weet,  A  ranf^e  of 
ilills  extends  along  the  Olilo  from  (ho  month  of  tho 
llteHt  Miami  to  llluo  llivcr,  and  tho  shore  of  Lake 
Mieiii($nn  Is  lined  !>/  large  sandy  hills,  which  rise  to  a 
liei(<i(t  of  '/OO  feet,  In  some  "tliBr  parts  are  to  he  found 
"  ktlobfl,"  but  tlieao  are  seldom  of  great  otltent  of  eto- 
Vrtlion,  Tlie  surface  of  tlia  country  mttWfHllv  divides 
Itself  Itlio  several  extensive  rUer  valleys,  Tlis  Valley 
of  tile  Ohio,  comprising  an  area  of  about  6600  sipmre 
miles,  I*  H  liinestiine  tract,  and  wiis  origimilly  covered 
witli  forests.  About  <in<*  tliird  of  it  In  rugged  nnd 
lifoketl,  so  IIS  to  be  uiiitt  for  ciilllvation,  The  Wliite 
tllvef  Valley,  extending  through  tIm  eefltffl  of  tho 
Mtflte,  from  the  VVuba^h  to  tlio  Ohhi,  conlitlns  about 
tllKlO  square  miles.  Tills  distrii.'t  Is  almost  iltliformly 
level,  nnd  riciily  wooded,  oxcejrtt  in  tint  west,  whore 
(here  are  soiiin  ranges  of  low  rugged  hills,  it.'d  several 

t Miches  of  prairie  ground.  The  soil  Is  of  (he  ."^chesl 
litid.  Tiie  Wabash  Valley  is  iniicli  turner  than  Mi* 
ofllers,  and  contains  upward  of  12,000  iii|iiar«  mlloii. 
The  eastern  {lortion  eipials  the  Whita  l<iv«r  Valley  In 
fertJilty,  hut  the  other  parts  ar«  not  so  productive. 
Tlie  northern  part  of  tito  Htuto,  watered  liy  llin  8t. 
ifu!<eph  And  the  Kankakee  Klvers,  Is  ii«m«\flmt  mora 


IND 


1024 


IND 


swampy  than  the  Wabash  Valley ;  and  a  large  tract, 
comprising  the  sand-hills  on  Lake  MiclUgan,  is  cov- 
ered only  with  stunted  pines  and  burr  oaks. 

The  State  ia  well  watered  by  numerous  beautiful 
streams  and  rivers,  but  with  the  exception  of  the  Ohio 
and  Wabash,  few  of  them  are  navigable.  The  Wabash 
ia  the  largest  river  that  has  its  course  mainly  within 
the  State,  and,  together  with  its  branches,  drains  tliree 
fourths  of  the  entire  surface.  It  rises  in  the  west  of 
Ohio,  and  flows  first  in  a  north-west  direction,  and 
then  south-west  till  it  meets  the  lioundary  of  Illinois, 
which  it  follows  southward  for  more  than  100  miles, 
till  it  falls  into  the  Ohio,  after  a  course  of  upward  of 
fiOO  miles  ;  for  400  of  which  it  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats at  high  water.  The  Ohio  forms  the  entire 
southern  boundary  of  the  State.  The  other  principal 
rivers  of  Indiana  are  tributaries  of  the  Wabash.  The 
White  fiiver,  the  most  important  of  these,  is  formed 
by  the  West  and  East  Forks — two  rivers,  respectively 
about  300  and  200  miles  long — which  unite  about  100 
miles  above  its  confluence  with  tlie  Wabash.  The 
Miami  is  formed  by  the  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Alary  in  the 
north-east,  and  falls  into  the  Ohio.  Tlie  Upper  St. 
Joseph,  with  its  tributaries,  passes  through  the  north- 
ern counties,  and  falls  into  I^ke  Michigan. 

Indiana  resembles  the  other  western  States  north 
of  the  Ohio  in  climate.  They  are  generally  milder 
than  those  on  the  Atlantic  coasts,  but  very  subject  to 
sudden  changes.  The  winter  is  very  severe  in  the 
northern  ports,  but  more  genial  in  the  southern.  Ex- 
cept in  the  neighborhood  of  wet  prairies  ami  swamps, 
the  climut  >  is  everywhere  bealtliy.  Dr.  Owen,  speak- 
ing of  the  geological  position  of  Indiana,  remarks,  that 
"it  posstjises  all  the  elements  of  extraordinary'  fer- 
tility." The  richest  soil  is  tliat  of  the  river  bottoms, 
where  it  is  very  deep  and  exceedingly  fertile.  The 
most  productive  are  those  inclosed  by  the  river  hills, 
v/hich  run  parallel  to  the  Ohio  and  other  rivers.  The 
extensive  valley  of  the  Wabash  is  a  tract  of  this  de- 
scription. Behind  the  river  hills,  a  table-land  spreads 
out,  forming  what  may  be  called  the  interior  of  the 
country,  and  here,  instead  of  the  bottom-lands,  or 
river  valleys,  there  are  vast  prairies.  The  soil  of 
these  is  not  so  luxuriant,  but  is  such  as  amply  to  repay 
the  expense  of  culture.  Evcq  the  wet  and  marshy 
parts  of  the  State  admit  of  being  brought  under  culti- 
vation. Indiana  ranks  fourth  of  the  States  of  the 
Union  in  the  absolute  amount  of  Indian  com  raised. 
It  also  produces  large  quantities  of  wlicat,  oats,  and 
Irish  potatoes,  as  well  as  a  fair  proportion  of  the  other 
productions  common  to  the  western  States. 

The  number  of  farms  in  Indiaua  under  cultivation 
In  1860  comprised  93,896  acres,  and  the  extent  of  im- 
proved land  was  5,016,5-13  acres;  of  unimproved, 
7,746,879  acres.  The  value  of  the  farms  returned  was 
$135,000,000.  The  orchard  produce  was  estimated  at 
1322,000,  and  market-garden  products,  $71,000. 

The  chief  minerals  of  Iniliana  are  coal,  iron,  lime, 
marble,  freestone,  and  some  copper.  Of  these  the  flrst 
is  by  far  the  most  important.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  coal  beds  of  Indiana  cover  7700  square  miles, 
and  are  capable  of  yielding  50,000,000  bushels  to  the 
iquare  mile.  One  coal  deposit  commences  in  Perr}' 
county,  and  extends  north-west  into  the  county  of 
Vermilion  upward  of  150  miles. 

The  manufacturing  capital  of  Indiana  in  1860 
amounted  to  $7,941,602.  The  value  of  raw  material, 
etc.,  consumed  in  the  year  had  been  $10,214,337.  The 
products  were  valued  at  $18,922,651.  There  were  on 
June  1, 1850,  4326  industrial  establishments,  producing 
annually  to  the  value  of  $500  and  upward.  Of  these, 
2  were  cotton  factories,  23  woolen  factories,  19  iron 
works,  and  368  tanneries. 

Indiana  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  but  it  has 
a  considerable  transit  trade,  and  exports  large  quanti- 
ties of  agricultural  produce.  The  facilities  for  inter- 
nal communication  are  great,  and  tspldly  increasing. 


The  principal  canals  are  the  Wsbaab  an4  ^1«  C/itm\ 
between  Evansville,  on  the  Ohio,  and  ToMw,  un  fwtiM 
Erie,  467  miles,  of  which  379  miles  are  fn  Jiulimm  i 
and  the  White  Water  Canal,  6M  miles  long,  uniUnit 
T^awrcnceburg,  on  the  Ohio,  with  llagernUtwi),  tn 
1853  the  State  had  756  miles  of  rtilrond  ei)nn/U4i"1, 
and  979  in  course  of  construction.  The  firimiimi  fitiU 
roads  centre  in  Indianapolis,  and  radiate  from  tUnt,  #  jty 
in  all  directions.  See  Db  Bow's  lien,,  (,,  fill,  yjj 
246;  Bankers'  Mag.,  ill.,  164;  UvuT'a  AUr,  M,,,,, 
xxi.,  147.  ' 

Indian  Ink.  A  species  of  ink  used  (n  VMiavm  fin 
the  lines  and  shadows  of  dra^tingn.  It  Is  yf\nmiti\\f 
manufactured  in  Cliina,  and  there  used  P<r  wrtdiwa, 
From  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Lewis,  it  »\>\m»»  Ui  im 
a  compound  of  fine  lampblack  and  sniiual  nilU),  ^«# 
Ikk. 

India-rubber.  Also  called  cso<}t«boH«,  (trH 
brought  to  Europe  from  South  America,  Mttvufftt 
plants  produce  various  kinds  of  elastic:  gmn ;  hut  thttt 
in  commerce  is  chiefly  the  juice  of  the  Slnlijmla  /'HfiM^ 
tica,  or  syringe-tree.  Incisions  In  tb«  mrk  nf  tltU  ' 
tree  give  vent  to  a  liquid  which  forms  UMli^uiiiinr, 
No  substance  is  yet  known  which  is  so  filMtU,  Mn4  nt 
the  same  time  so  exceedingly  elastic  ;  {t  imfm  fwt  Uti' 
der  the  form  of  a  vegetable  milk,  from  ineiaUm^  mmU 
in  the  tree,  and  is  gathered  chiefly  in  tlw  tfOM  ttt  f»)H, 
because  it  flows  then  most  abundantly,—.!/,  Aliufiiitf, 

The  most  astonishing  and  useful  dtsu«v«r^  iif  (ti^ 
19th  centur}',  after  the  practical  a\i\)\\i»t\i>n  itf  nittnm 
and  electricity,  is  the  employment  of  JndhMrMlftw  fur 
manufacturing  purposes.  The  flrct  kni>wMi;N  ti(  l( 
is  due  to  La  Condamino,  a  French  pbilijswjilMsr,  mUii  Itt 
1730  was  sent  by  his  government  to  Vem  to  nwiwm 
an  arc  of  the  meridian.  The  tree  whiet)  ^lrf^4m'tli^ 
rubber  or  caoutchouc  (as  it  is  called  by  tlix  Mtty#<i  itf 
South  America),  is  found  in  the  tropics  of  Imrfh  humU 
spheres.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  60  or  QO  (mt,  with' 
out  branches,  and  is  crowned  or  tufted  with  rUh  MtHHH, 
The  leaves  are  a  deep  green,  thick  ami  nUmy,  ci«  iit 
seven  inches  in  length ;  the  l)ark  is  stniHith,  »nti  ttm 
fruit  consists  of  white  almonds,  of  an  sgraeAbJA  llnviit, 
much  liked  by  the  natives.  In  order  tn  ftiitnili  tlli<t 
substance,  the  natives  of  the  valley  of  tUa  Aimf,<m 
make  a  longitudinal  gash  in  the  bark  ut  tiM  tr^n  with 
a  narrow  hatchet ;  a  thick,  white  and  ui\y  l|/|«|jfl  (it 
sort  of  vegetable  milk)  flows  out,  a  wedge  of  Wi)n4  M 
inserted  to  keep  the  gash  oiien,  and  a  smoU  vUy  f'M))  U 
stuck  to  the  tree  beneath  the  gash.  In  fiiur  if  IHn 
hours  the  milk  ceases  to  run,  and  each  WOMlffl  tm« 
yielded  from  three  to  five  talile-spoonfttls,  'fim  "  **-- 
ringero,"  or  rubber  gatherer,  then  em|»t(i»s  tll«  I'lHf' 
tents  of  the  cups  into  an  earthen  vessel  an4  fiiimmiini;4>i> 
the  operation  of  forming  it  into  sha|ies  uni  imi>U\nf(  it, 
This  inost  be  done  at  once  as  the  milk  iOOH  eimguhto^, 
A  fire  is  made  on  the  ground,  of  nuts  of  ttm  Wf»«^>ii 
palm  tree,  over  which  Is  placed,  inverted,  mt  ««r(hti*l 
pot  with  a  hole  In  the  Ijottom  wUeniJt  issws  m  jH  iif 
pungent  smoke.  Molds  are  made  either  itf  i'-\tty  iir 
wood,  which  are  dipped  into  the  milk,  »n4  tlwf  \m<im\ 
slowly  through  the  hot  smoke.  Wli«n  tlw  r«((((if«i 
thickness  is  obtained,  the  molds  are  cut  or  wmImmI  out, 
Smoking  changes  the  color  of  the  rubltor  very  tilil«, 
but  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  atmosplMTM  it  \imiinni't 
brown,  and  in  time  black.  The  euperforft/  of  i\m 
rubber  imported  from  the  valley  of  the  AWM//ON  \n 
said  to  be  owing  to  the  peculiar  properties  of  lli<i!fm>iM 
of  this  nut,  no  other  smoke  producing  »  nUn'thf  wffcH 
upon  the  gam.  A  lielt  of  forest  trees  »nt»fU\<t  Ut  (t«- 
groes  each  side  of  the  equator,  wliitih  yUM  UMi^ 
ruliber  of  various  kinds ;  so  the  supply  Sn  lit«ntliy 
inexhaustible.  The  gum  from  nidi4  «H<i  i\m  VmsM^i: 
coast  of  South  America  is  obtained  by  Ntlowiflff  (Im 
sap  to  flow  down  the  side  of  the  tree,  4n4  is  ()*«n  ^i\u 
ered  with  the  loose  bark  and  dirt  Into  rermmt  ut  (yttit- 
dies  for  shipment.  For  •  long  tlnie  tbU  sulwtoll^  WM* 
valued  simply  as  an  object  of  curiosity,  to  \m  YtmintA 


IND 


1026 


IND 


'f'lw  "  »*' 


io  collections  of  natural  history,  and  its  first  practical 
application  Tras  as  an  eraser  of  pencil  marks. 

STATEWiNT  SIIOWINO  TIIR  EXPORTS  Or   InDIA-RUBDEB  FBOM 

THE  United  Htates  for  the  Year  endimo  Jdhe  SOtb, 
1856. 


DOMUTtO  HANUrACTOKBI  Of 
INDU-BUBBBS. 

rOBBIOn   IKDIA- 
mUBBBB. 

[ndU'TObtMr  tboei. 

Oth«r 
manufa..- 
turet  or. 

Maonf. 

Unmana- 
farturcd. 

Russia  on  the  Baltic 

anJ  North  Seas. . .  ) 
Danlnh  West  Indies.. 

PBlr. 

8,856 

422,660 

48,000 

800 

4,486 

9,7(15 

187,161 

70O 

1,248 

8,892 
27,218 

288 
167 

I'o^flflO 

600 

24 

"278 

7,560 

'2,i62 

1,168 

42S 

7,046 

1,714 

"soo 

Dollan. 

2,608 

267,589 

80,506 

210 

8,800 

6,440 

82,841 

482 

1,194 

8,241 

19,198 

2.S0 

140 

6,462 
344 
42 

"204 

6^660 

1,878 

"692 

294 

4,966 

1,088 

"207 

Di'lUn. 

750 

669 
182,788 
88,187 

8,096 

25,188 

168,848 

2,306 

449 

78 

9,911 

7,668 

128 

8 

8,529 

2.842 

S.'),151 

1,052 

"120 
8,184 

890 

11,619 

4+4 

22,934 

2,872 

2,158 

189 

11,870 

7,696 

4,179 

6,692 

Dollan. 

i'o',ii8 

'8,949 

.... 

"185 
4,127 

18,879 

Dollan. 
'4^+48 

l'0,6S7 
26,647 

7^^020 
100 

.... 
120,802 

Bremen 

Other  German  ports. . 
Holland ' 

Belgium 

Scotland 

Gibraltar. 

Malta 

Canada 

Other  Br.  N.  Am.  pos. 
British  Honduras. .... 

British  Ouiana. 

British  pos.  In  Africa. 

British  Australia 

France  on  the  Atlantic 
France  on  the  Med . . . 
French  N.  Amor.  pos. 
Spain  on  tho  Atlantic. 

Cuba. 

Porto  BIco 

Portug:aI 

Turkey  in  Europe. . . . 

Haytl : 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

New  Granada 

Venezuela. 

(razll 

Buenos  Ayres 

Chill 

Peru 

Total 

685,220 

427,936|  606,602 

Statement  siiowino  the  Imj 
THE  United  States  fob 
1866. 

0RT8  01 
lUE  Yk 

iNDIA-RUnBEK    INTO 

LB  ENDiMO  June  80tu, 

Wbenfe  imported. 

Manufac 
turtil. 

Unuanufac. 
tured. 

Danish  West  Indies 

OollBra. 

"'88 
922 

82,982 
1,690 

12,164 

Dollan. 

4 

2,&4S 

■9;647 

6 

41,800 

87,469 

"761 

1,174 

123 

8,7NJ 

89,494 

461 

5,878 

844 

777 

289 

70,274 

11 

771,826 

10,046 

47 

Hamburg 

Holland 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  East  Indies 

England 

Canada. - 

Other  British  North  American 
British  West  Indies 

pos... 

British  Honduras 

British  nosse.isldns  In  i 
British  East  Indies... 

\frlca. 

Franco  on  the  Atlantic 
Other  ports  In  Africa. 
Haytl 

New  Granada 

Braill 

Chill 

Peru 

ToUl 

' 

'        1 

About  the  year  1821,  Charles  Macintosh  of  England, 
having  learned  how  to  dissolve  the  gum  in  spirits  of 
turjientine,  commenced  manufacturing  the  goods  which 
now  bear  liis  name,  by  spreading  the  gum  so  dissolved 
between  two  layers  of  cloth.  The  rude  overshoes 
made  by  the  natives  in  South  America  trom  the  nat- 
ural gum,  were  beginning  to  be  worn,  and  in  1823,  500 
pairs  of  shoes  were  imported  into  Boston.  At  a  later 
date  gum-elastic  became  the  subject  of  scientitic  inves- 
tigation and  many  persons  commenced  experimenting 
with  it.  In  1832,  the  considerable  manufacture  of  it 
was  commenced  in  Massachusetts,  by  John  Ilaskins 
and  Edwin  M.  Chaffee,  who,  in  connection  with  oth- 
Ttt 


ers,  started  the  celebrated  Roxbuiy  India-rubber  Com- 
pany,  which  was  shortly  after  incorporated  with  a 
capital  of  $400,000.  For  this  Company  Mr.  Chaffee 
invented  the  famous  mammoth  machine  for  spreading 
rubber  without  a  solvent — tho  machine  itself  coating 
nearly  $80,000.  Similar  machines  are  now  required 
by  all  manufacturers  of  rubber  goods.  The  apparent 
prosperity  of  this  Company  induced  the  starting  of 
factories  in  Boston,  Chelsea,  Wobum  and  Framing- 
ham,  Mass.,  New  York  city,  Staten  Island,  and  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  with  capitals  of  from  $50,000  to  $500,000. 
These  Companies  made  their  goods  by  dissolving  the 
rubber  in  camphene  or  other  solvents,  then  mixing 
lampblack  with  it,  and  while  in  the  form  of  pasta 
spreading  it  on  cloth  from  which  coats,  etc.,  are  made. 
The  goods  were  then  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  a  warm 
room  until  the  solvent  evaporated,  leaving  a  coating 
of  rubber.     See  Gutta  Perciia. 

Indies,  Dutch.    See  Java. 

Indigo  (Fr.  Indigo  ;  Ger.  Iiuligo  ;  Sans.  Nili ;  Arab. 
Neel;  'Malay,  Taroom),  the  drug  which  yields  tho 
beautiful  blue  dye  known  I)y  that  name.  It  is  ob- 
tained by  the  maceration  in  water  of  certain  tropical 
plants  ;  but  the  indij,'o  of  commerce  is  almost  entirely 
obtained  from  leguminous  plants  of  the  genus  Indigo- 
fera;  that  cultivated  in  India  being  the  Indigo/era 
tinctorial  and  that  in  America  the  Indigoftra  anil. 
The  Indian  plant  has  pinnate  leaves  and  a  slender  lig- 
neous stem  ;  and  when  successfully  cultivated,  rises  to 
the  height  of  three,  five,  and  even  six  feet.  Before 
the  American  colonies  were  established,  all  the  indigo 
used  in  Europe  came  from  the  East  Indies ;  and  until 
the  discovery  of  a  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  it  WLs  conveyed,  like  other  Indian  products, 
partly  through  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  partly  by  land 
to  Babylon,  or  through  Arabia  and  up  the  Red  Sea  to 
Egypt.  1  he  real  nature  of  indigo  was  so  little  known 
in  Europe,  that  it  was  classed  among  the  minerals,  as 
a^^ars  by  letters-patent  for  erecting  works  to  obtain 
it  from  mines  in  the  principalit}'  of  Halberstadt,  dated 
December  23,  1705  ;  yet  what  Vitruvius  and  Pliny  call 
indicum  is  supposed  to  have  been  our  indigo, — Beck- 
MAXX.  The  first  mention  of  indigo  occurs  in  English 
statutes  in  1581.  The  first  brought  to  Europe  was  pro- 
cured from  Mexico.  Its  cultivation  was  begun  in  Caro- 
lina, in  1747.  It  appears  pretty  certain  that  the  culture 
of  the  indigo  plant,  and  the  preparation  of  the  drug  have 
been  practiced  in  India  from  a  verj-  remote  epoch.  It 
has  been  questioned,  indeed,  whether  the  indicum  men- 
tioned by  Pliny  {Hiat.  Nat.  lib.,  xxxv.,  c.  6),  was  in- 
digo, but,  us  it  would  seem,  v/ithout  any  good  reason. 
Pliny  states  that  it  was  brought  from  India;  that 
when  diluted  it  produced  an  admirable  mixture'of  blue 
and  purple  color  (in  diluendo  miattiram  purpura  caru- 
leique  mirabilem  reddit) ;  and  he  gives  tests  by  which 
the  genuine  drug  might  be  discriminated  with  suffi- 
cient precision.  It  is  true  that  Pliny  is  egregiously 
mistaken  as  to  the  mode  in  which  the  drug  was  pro- 
duced; but  there  are  many  examples  in  modem  as 
'well  as  ancient  times,  to  prove  that  the  possession  of 
an  article  brought  from  a  distance  implies  no  accurate 
knowledge  of  its  nature,  or  of  the  processes  followed 
in  its  manufacture.  Beckmann  (^itt.  of  Invtntiont, 
vol.  iv.,  art.  Indigo),  and  Dr.  Bancroft  (Permantnt 
Colon,  vol.  i.,  pp.  241,  252),  have  each  investigated 
this  subject  with  great  learning  and  sagacit}' ;  and 
agree  in  the  conclusion  that  the  indicum  of  Pliny  wag 
real  indigo,  and  not,  as  has  been  supposed,  a  drug  pro- 
pared  ^from  the  iaatii  or  woad.  At  all  events,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  indigo  was  imported  into  mod- 
em Europe,  by  way  of  Alexandria,  previously  to  the 
discovery  of  the  route  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  When  first  introduced,  it  was  customar}-  to 
mix  a  little  of  it  with  woad  to  heighten  and  improve 
the  color  of  the  latter ;  but,  by  degrees,  the  quantity 
of  indigo  was  increased ;  and  woad  was,  at  last,  enr 
tirely  9ui>ersedcd.     It  is  worth  while,  however,  to 


IND 


1026 


IND 


remark,  that  tndigo  did  not  make  its  way  into  general 
nse  witliout  encountering  much  opposition.  The 
grotctrt  of  tooad  prevailed  on  several  governments  to 
prohibit  the  use  of  indigo  I  In  Germany,  an  imperial 
edict  was  puliliahed  in  1654,  prohibiting  the  use  of 
indigo,  or  "  devil's  dye,"  and  directing  great  care  to 
be  taken  to  prevent  its  clandestine  importation,  "  be- 
cause," says  the  edict,  "  the  trade  in  woad  is  lessened, 
dyed  articles  injured,  and  money  carried  out  of  the 
country  I"  The  magistrates  of  Nuremberg  went  fur- 
ther, and  compelled  the  dyers  of  that  city  to  take  an 
oath  once  a  year  not  to  use  indigo ;  which  practice  was 
continued  down  to  a  late  period.  In  1598,  upon  an 
urgent  representation  of  the  States  of  Languedoc,  at 
the  solicitation  of  the  woad  growers,  the  use  of  indigo 
was  prohibited  in  that  province ;  and  it  was  not  till 
1737,  that  the  dyers  of  France  were  left  at  liberty  to 
dye  with  such  articles,  and  in  such  a  way,  as  th^y 
pleased. — Beckmann,  vol.  iv.,  p.  142.  Let  not  those 
who  may  happen  to  throw  their  eyes  over  this  para- 
graph, smile  at  the  ignorance  of  tlieir  aneesters — Afu- 
tato  nomine,  de  te  fahula  narratur.  How  much  oppo- 
sition is  made  in  most  countries  at  this  moment  to  the 
Importation  of  many  important  articles,  for  no  better 
reasons  than  were  alleged  in  the  16th  ceiitur}-  against 
the  importation  of  indigo  I 

Indigo  is  produced  in  Bengal,  and  the  other  prov- 
inces subject  to  the  presidency  of  that  name,  from  the 
SOtb  to  the  80th  degree  of  north  latitude ;  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Tinnevelly,  under  the  Madras  government ;  in 
Java  ;  in  Luconia,  the  principal  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
nnjls ;  and  in  Guatemala,  and  the  Caraccas,  in  Central 
America.     Bengal  is,  however,  the  great  mart  for  in- 


digo ;  and  the  quantity  produced  in  the  other  places  Is 
comparatively  inconsiderable. 

Raynal  was  of  opinion  that  the  culture  of  indigo 
had  been  introduced  into  America  by  the  Spaniards ; 
but  this  is  undoubtedly  an  error.  Several  species  of 
indigo/era  belong  to  the  New  World ;  and  the  Span- 
iards  used  it  as  a  substitute  for  ink,  ver}-  soon  after  tlie 
conquest.  (llvMiiOhm,  Nouvelle  JCymifne.)  For  the 
first  '20  years  after  the  English  became  masters  of 
Bengal,  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  indigo,  now 
of  such  importance,  was  unknown  as  a  branch  uf  llrit- 
ish  industry  ;  and  the  exportu  were  but  trifling.  The 
European  markets  were,  at  this  period,  principally 
supplied  from  America.  In  1788,  however,  tlio  atten- 
tion of  the  English  began  to  be  directed  to  this  busi- 
ness ;  and  though  the  processes  pursued  by  them  be 
nearly  the  same  with  those  followed  by  the  natives, 
their  greater  skill,  intelligence,  and  capital  give  tliem 
immense  advantages.  In  their  hands,  the  growth  and 
preparation  of  indigo  has  become  the  most  important 
employment,  at  least  in  n  commercial  point  of  view, 
which  can  be  freely  carried  on  in  the  country,  the  cul- 
ture and  preparation  of  opium  being  a  monopoly.  The 
indigo  made  by  the  natives  supplies  the  internal  de- 
mand ;  but  a  portion  of  that  which  is  raised  by  them, 
with  all  that  is  raised  l>y  Europeans,  is  exported.  In 
tiie  Delta  of  the  Ganges,  where  the  best  and  largest 
quantity  of  indigo  is  produced,  the  plant  lasts  only  for 
a  single  season,  being  destroyed  by  the  periodical  in- 
undation; but  in  the  dry  central  and  western  prov- 
inces, one  or  two  raltoon  crops  are  obtained ;  and  owing 
to  this  circumstance,  the  latter  are  enabled  to  furnish 
a  largo  supply  of  reed  to  the  former. 


Btatkuent  of  tbk  Qkantitv  aso  Value  or  Indigo  suirpen  feom  Calcutta  in  1830 — 31,  1840—41,  1881—52. 


CoontriM. 

18SO-3I. 

1840-41. 

1851 

—M. 

Quantity. 

Valug. 

Quantity. 

Valts. 

Quantity. 

Valne. 

Great  Britain 

Fy.  niAundi. 

86,741 

28,151 

6,899 

10,089 

660 

248 

"'88 

RUMPA. 

86,74,100 
28,16,100 
6,89,900 
10,98,900 
66,000 
24,800 

'8,360 

Fy.  maunda. 
84,205 
20,260 
4,822 
5,053 
687 

"iim 

73( 

Knttees. 

1,65,81,074 

40.86.266 

9,46,868 

9,64,414 

1,27,499 

4'l',2M 
15,775 

Ind.  maiinda. 

80,679i 

24,79  U 

8,761) 

6,887* 

207} 

'l',687) 

Kiipro. 

1,27,18,127 

89,6S,162 

6,97.297 

6,81,194 

22,795 

2,7's',961 

;Franc6 

IXorth  America, 

1  Arabian  aud  Persian  Gulft. .... 

fBwedeD 

Bremen 

Elsewboro. 

Total 

1,26,566 
9,444,24H 

1,26,66,600 

1, 15,268  ( 
8,601,567J 

2,27,11,602 

l,17,604j 
9,688,371 

Ton*,  cwtf.  lb«. 

4,800  12    27 

1,82,10,536 

Being  In  pounds . . 

"       tons 

Shipped  Ibr  Britain  onljr.  . 

Ton*,  cwte.  ]bfl. 

4,216    8    65) 

Tuoi.   cwu.  Ibl. 

8,889  19    69} 
"'2,805    6    88} 

2,866    8    861 

2,965    8    95 

It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  since  the  opening 
of  the  trade,  Indian  capitalists  have  betaken  them- 
selves to  the  manufacture  of  indigo  on  the  European 
method,  and  that  at  present  a  considerable  part  of  the 
whole  annual  produce  is  prepared  by  them.  The  cul- 
ture of  indigo  is  very  precarious,  not  only  in  so  far  as 
respects  the  growth  of  the  plant  from  j'ear  to  year, 
but  also  as  regards  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
drug  which  the  same  amount  of  plant  will  afford  even 
in  the  same  season.  Thus  the  produce  or  1825-26  was 
41,000  chests,  while  that  of  1826-7  was  but  25,000 
chests;  and  in  1842  the  produce  was  only  79,000 
maunds,  while  that  of  the  following  year  was  no  less 
than  172,249  maunds  I  The  price  of  indigo  in  India, 
increased  for  a  while,  ir.  a  far  greater  ratio  than  the 
quantity  In  1813-14,  the  real  value  of  that  exported 
from  Calcutta  was  £1,41)1,000;  but  in  1827-28,  al- 
though the  quantity  had  increased  but  20  per  cent.,  the 
value  rose  to  £2,920,000,  or  was  about  doulded.  There 
was  no  corresponding  rise  in  the  price  in  Europe,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  a  decline ;  and  the  circumstance  is  to 
bo  accounted  for  by  the  restraints  that  were  then 
placed  on  the  investment  of  capital  in  the  production 
of  colonial  articles  suited  to  the  European  market,  the 
consequent  difflcuUy  of  making  remittances  from  In- 
dia, and  an  unnatural  flow  of  capital  to  the  only  great 
article  of  Indian  produce  and  «xport  that  was  supposed 


capable  of  bearing  its  application.  The  consumption 
of  indigo  has  varied  but  little  in  England  during  the 
last  10  years,  having  been,  at  an  average  of  that  pe- 
riod, about  2,000,000  lbs.  a  year.  This  stationary  de- 
mand, notwithstanding  the  full  in  the  price  of  the 
drug  and  the  increase  of  population,  is  principally  to 
be  ascribed  to  the  decreasing  use  of  Idue  cloth,  in  tlio 
dyeing  of  which  it  ia  principally  made  use  of.  Its 
consumption  in  France  is  about  as  great  as  in  Britain. 
Besides  the  exports  to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the 
United  States,  a  good  deal  of  Bengal  indigo  is  ex- 
ported  to  the  ports  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  it  finds 
its  way  to  southeni  Russia.  It  is  singular  that  it  is 
not  used  by  the  Chinese,  with  whom  blue  is  a  favorite 
color.  The  indigo  of  Bengal  is  divided  into  two  classes, 
called,  in  commercial  language,  Bengal  and  OuJe;  the 
first  being  the  produce  of  the  southeni  provinces  of 
Bengal  and  Bahar,  and  the  last  that  of  their  northern 
provinces  and  of  Benares.  The  first  is,  in  point  of 
qualit}',  much  superior  to  the  other.  This  arose  at  one 
time,  in  n  considerable  degree,  from  the  practice  wliich 
prevailed  in  the  northern  provinces,  of  the  European 
planter  purchasing  the  wet  fecula  from  the  liyot  or 
native  manufacturer,  and  completing  the  processes  o; 
curing  and  drying  the  drug.  This  is  at  present  in  a 
great  mcasuro  discontinued ;  and  the  OuOe  indigo  has, 
in  consequence,  considerably  Improved  in  quality.    Itf 


of  a 
plant, 
and 
plante 
bleof 
worth 
£1,500 
sary  ( 
would 
fore,  ■ 
affordi 
freque 
engagi 
that< 
Cult 
ment, 
first 
for  it, 'f 
very  63 
used  to 
esteem 
are  de] 
12year 
taiaed. 


IND 


1027 


IND 


inferiority?  ts  probablj?  more  the  result  of  goil  and  cli- 
mate, than  of  any  difference  in  the  sliill  with  which 
the  manufacture  is  conducted. 


The  following  is  believed  to  be  a  pretty  accurate 
estimate  of  the  annual  production  of  indigo  in  India, 
in  maunds  of  82  lbs. : 


I>49. 

IMS.       1       1844. 

1841. 

1848. 

1S41. 

1848.      1      1841. 

list). 

1851. 

Avtroge. 

Bengal 

Tlrhoot 

Bonares 

Oude 

Total.... 

MsuiKli, 
42,120 
12,810 
18,980 
^(i90 

thundi. 
108,288 
41,470 
12,878 
9,668 

Maundv 
97,046 
28,482 
16,869 
6,860 

Ibundi. 
80,584 
21,816 
16,712 
9,800 

Maundi. 

68,277 
11,418 
18,783 

7,886 

Maundi. 

72,010 

18,880 

11,060 

7,480 

Minndi. 
88,420 
27,412 
10,118 
8,620 

Mtuurti, 

82,520 

22,800 

9,SS0 

6,600 

MHUtidi, 
70.860 
21,960 
12,000 
8,012 

Mnundi. 

74,(100 

81,000 

11,000 

9,000 

Mauiuli. 
77,481 
28,163 
18,776   1 
7,826   1 

79,000    1  172,249   {  148,207 

127,862   1  101,823 

110,000 

126,866 

121,270 

112,822 

128,000 

121,899   1 

In  addition  to  the  exports  from  India,  incUgo  is  ex- 
ported from  Java,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Central  Amer- 
ica, ond  other  places.  In  1846  the  exports  from  Bata- 
vta  amounted  to  1,663,869  lbs.,  and,  we  believe,  they 
have  varied  but  little  in  the  interval.  In  1860  the  ex- 
ports from  Manilla  were  estimated  at  about  460,000  lbs. 
According  to  Humboldt,  1,800,000  lbs.  of  indigo  were 
exported  fh>m  Guatemala  in  1825.  But  if  so,  its  pro- 
duction must  have  fallen  off  greatly  in  the  interval. 
It  does  not  now  probably  exceed  600,000  lbs.  in  all 
Central  America.  Indigo  is  also  produced  in  some  of 
the  West  India  islands,  but  in  small  quantities.  Good 
indigo  is  known  by  its  lightness  or  small  specific  grav- 
ity, indicating  the  absence  of  earthy  impurities ;  by 
the  mass  not  readily  parting  with  its  coloring  matter 
when  tested  by  drawing  a  streak  with  it  over  a  white 
surface ;  but  above  all,  by  the  purity  of  the  color 
itself.  The  first  quality,  estimated  by  this  last  test,  is 
culled,  in  commercial  language,  ^'ne  blue ;  then  follow 
ordinary  blue,  fine  purple,  purple  and  violet,  ordinary 
purple  and  violet,  dull  blue,  inferior  purple  and  violet, 
strong  copper,  and  ordinary  copper.  These  distinctions 
refer  to  the  Bengal  indigo  only,  the  Oude  being  dis- 
tinguished only  into  ^ne  and  ordinary.  The  indigo 
of  Madras,  which  is  superior  to  that  of  Manilla,  is 
aliout  equal  to  ordinary  Bengal  indigo.  The  indigo 
of  Java  is  superior  to  these. 

We  subjoin  an  account  of  the  prices  of  Bengal  in- 
digo of  medium  quality,  at  thu  quarterly  sales  in  Lon- 
don, from  1847  to  1861,  both  inclusive : 


Yearn. 

February. 

Mav. 

July. 

f>ctob«r. 

>.    d. 

1.    d. 

I.    d. 

1.    d. 

1861 

6    2 

6    2 

4  10 

4    4 

1850 

4    8 

4    6 

4    9 

6    6 

1849 

8    9 

4    0 

4    0 

4    0 

1*18 

4    1 

8    7 

8    6 

8    7 

1847 

4    8 

4    4 

4    0 

S    8 

For  further  information  as  to  indigo,  see  Colk- 
brooke'8  Ilutbandry  of  Bengal,  p.  164  j  Milbdrn's 
Orient.  Com. ;  Wilkinson's  Commerce  of  Bengal ; 
Wilson's  Review  of  do. ;  evidence  of  Gillian  Maclaine, 
Esq.,  East  India  Committee,  1830-81,  etc.  The  fixed 
capital  required  in  the  manufacture  of  indigo  consists 
cf  a  few  vats  of  common  masonry  for  steeping  the 
plant,  and  precipitating  the  coloring  matter  ;  a  boiling 
and  drj-ing-house ;  and  a  dwelling-house  for  the 
planter.  These,  for  a  factory  of  10  pair  of  vats,  capa- 
ble of  producing,  at  an  average,  12,600  lbs.  of  indigo, 
worth  on  the  spot  about  .£2500,  will  not  cost  above 
£1,50U  sterling.  The  buildings  and  machinery  neces- 
sary to  produce  an  equal  value  in  s-  g;ar  and  rum, 
would  probably  cost  about  £4000.  This  fact,  there- 
fore, without  any  reference  to  municipal  regulations, 
affords  a  ready  answer  to  the  question  which  has  been 
frequently  put,  why  the  planters  in  India  have  seldom 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  in  preference  to 
that  of  indigo. 

Cultivation  of  American  Indigo. — At  the  present  mo- 
ment, and  for  ihe  past  two  years,  the  supply  of  the 
first  quality  indigo  has  not  been  equal  to  the  demand 
for  it,  and  that  demand  is  constantly  increasing.  Some 
very  excellent  indigo,  well  adapted  for  making  ch)'mic, 
used  to  l-e  obtained  from  Guatemala,  but  the  kind  most 
esteemed  is  the  first  quality  of  Bengal,  for  which  we 
are  dependent  on  a  colony  of  Great  Britain.  About 
12  yearn  ago  the  best  Bengal  indigo  could  easily  be  ob- 
tained, but  at  present  it  is  almost  unknown  in  the 


market.  A  spurious  artii;lo,  however,  much  resembling 
it,  is  abundant,  but  it  does  not  possess  one  half  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  genuine,  and  yet  it  is  sold  at  a 
retail  price  var)-ing  from  Cs.  to  149.  per  pound.  Our 
object  is  to  direct  the  attention  of  our  southern  plant- 
ers to  the  cultivation  of  the  indigo  plant,  and  the 
manufacture  of  the  best  kinds  of  indigo,  for  the  infe- 
rior kinds  are  by  far  too  plenty.  About  60  years  ago, 
and  within  that  period,  some  very  fine  qualities  of  in- 
digo used  to  be  cultivated  in  £.juth  Carolina ;  its  char- 
acter was  much  higher  than  the  finest  Guatemala  or 
the  best  Bengal,  but  it  is  now  unknown  in  the  arts,  to 
the  great  regret  of  calico-printers,  dyera,  and  leather- 
dressers.  In  the  fermentation  of  the  indigo-plant  so 
much  oxygen  is  absorbed,  that  its  manufacture  was 
found  to  be  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  negroes 
on  the  plantations.  This  was  one  reason  for  giving  up 
its  culture;  and  another,  and  perhaps  the  strongest, 
was  the  higher  profits  derived  from  the  cultivation  of 
cotton.  It  appears  to  us  now,  however,  that  with  ex- 
ercise of  sufficient  care,  the  health  of  the  negroes  may 
be  maintained  as  well  as  in  the  rice  culture :  also  that 
the  price  which  could  now  be  obtained  for  it  would  be 
very  remunerative.  There  are  hundreds  of  persons  in 
our  country  who  would  rather  pay  $2  per  pound  for 
tho  best  kind  of  indigo — that  quality  which  wos  manu- 
factured at  one  time  in  South  Carolina,  or  the  kind 
that  was  sold  for  tho  best  Beng.il  12  years  ago — than 
that  which  is  now  sold  for  75  cents  per  pound.  We 
think  these  considerations  ought  to  induce  some  of  our 
planters  to  engage  in  the  cultivation  of  the  finest  quali- 
ties of  indigo.  See  Hunt's  Jt/er.  Mag.,  xiii.,  227 ; 
Jour.  ofSci.,  xviii.,  237 ;  Ency.  Brit. 

Statement  snowiso  tub  Expoets  op  Indioo  feom  toe 
UnrrED  States  for  the  Ykab  ehdino  Ju.ve  SOtii,  1856. 


Whither  eiport- 


Danish  West  Indies. 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

England 

Gibraltar 

Canada 

Other  British  North  Amer.  pus. 

British  West  Indies 

Canary  Islands 

Cuba 

Turkey  In  Europe 

Ilaytl 

San  Domingo 

Mexico 

Uruguay. 

Total 


From  warehouse 

Not  fW>m  warehouse . 


286 


84,660 

14,071 

764 

796 

8 

6,548 

200 

8,805 

1,037 

1,180 

106 

665 

1,017 


92,829 


43,324 
49,208 


Value. 

$130 

21,844 

21,761 

18,071 

802 

852 

10 

1,909 

219 

2,448 

984 

852 

72 

661 

1,081 


t70,866 


140,842 
80,324 


Statement  snowiHa  the  IsirOEis  or  Indioo  into  the 
United  States  fob  the  Yeae  endino  June  80tii,  1886. 


W^henpa  Imported. 


Holland ... 

England 

Canada 

Other  British  North  Amcr.  pes.. 

British  Honduras. 

British  East  Indies 

Philippine  Islsuds. 

Cuba 

Mexico 

Central  Bcpubllo 

Mew  Qranada. 

Voucznela 

China. 

ToUl 


Founde. 


261 

608,198 

890 

224 

42,629 

622,108 

407,899 

408 

1,000 

1,928 

6,610 

146,370 

176 


1,732,290 


"Van; 


1194 

868,278 

845 

138 

82,211 

416,122 

123,421 

462 

1,028 

1,484 

4,867 

116,198 

10 


I 


$1,068,748 


IND 


1028 


IND 


ZndorMment— rAe  law  of  /ndortment,  and  the 
Right!  and  Dutiet  nf  an  Indorier. — Only  a  nolo  or  bill 
payable  to  a  payee  or  order,  Is,  strictly  speaking,  sub- 
ject to  indorsement.  Those  who  write  their  names  on 
the  back  of  any  note  or  bill,  are  indorsers  in  one  sense, 
and  are  sometimes  called  so.  The  payee  of  a  negotia- 
ble bill  or  note — whether  he  be  also  maker  or  not — 
may  indorse  it,  and  afterward  any  person,  or  any  num- 
ber of  persons  may  indorse  it.  The  maker  promises  to 
pay  to  the  payee  or  his  order ;  and  the  indorsement  is 
an  order  to  pay  to  the  indorsee,  and  the  maker's  prom- 
ise is  then  to  him.  But  if  the  original  promise  was  to 
the  payee  or  order,  this  "or  order,"  which  is  a  negoti- 
able element,  passes  over  to  the  indorsee,  and  he  may 
Indorse,  and  so  may  his  indorsee,  indefinitely.  Eacli 
indorser,  by  his  indorsement,  docs  two  tilings ;  first, 
he  orders  the  antecedent  parties  to  pay  to  his  indorsee ; 
and  next,  he  engages  with  his  indorsee  that  if  they  do 
not  pay,  he  will.  What  effect  an  indorsement  of  a  ne- 
^tiable  note  or  bill,  by  one  not  payee,  before  the  in- 
dorsement by  payee,  should  have,  is  not  quite  certain. 
Upon  the  whole,  however,  we  should  hold,  with  some 
reason  and  authority,  that  where  such  a  name  appears, 
.IS  it  may  be  made  to  have  the  place  of  a  second  in- 
'lorser  whenever  the  payee  chooses  to  write  his  name 
over  it,  it  shall  be  held  to  be  so  intended,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  evidence ;  and  then,  of  course,  it  gives  the 
payee  no  claim  against  such  a  party,  because  a  first 
indorser  can  have  none  against  a  second,  but  the  sec- 
ond may  have  a  claim  against  the  first.  But  evidence 
is  receivable  to  prove  that  the  party  put  his  name  on 
the  note  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to  its  security,  by 
liecoming  responsible  for  it  to  the  payee.  And  then, 
if  he  indorse  the  note  before  it  was  received  by  the 
puyoe,  the  consideration  of  the  note  attaches  to  him, 
and  he  may  be  |ield  either  as  surety  for  consideration 
!>r  as  a  maker.  If  he  wrote  his  name  on  the  note  af- 
ter it  was  made,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  payee  or 
other  holder,  he  is  bound  only  as  a  guarantor  or  surety, 
and  the  consideration  of  the  note  being  exhausted,  he 
is  bound  only  by  showing  some  new  and  independent 
consideration.  No  one  who  thus  indorses  a  note  not  ne- 
gotiable can  be  treated  or  considered  precisely  as  a 
second  indorser,  whatever  be  the  names  on  the  paper 
before  his  own ;  but  any  indorser  of  such  a  note  or 
bill  may  be  held  to  be  a  new  maker  or  drawer,  or  a 
guarantor  or  surety,  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
Indicate  or  require  ;  but  either  the  origiml  considera- 
tion or  a  new  one  must  attach  to  him  to  affect  hlra  with 
a  legal  oliligation. 

If  the  words  "  to  order,"  or  "  to  Iwarer,"  are  omitted 
accidentally  and  by  mistake,  it  seems  they  may  be  af- 
terward inserted  without  injury  to  the  bill  or  note ; 
and  whether  a  bill  or  note  is  negotiable  or  not,  is  held 
to  be  a  question  of  law.  By  the  law-merchant,  bills 
and  notes  which  are  payable  to  order  can  be  effectually 
and  fully  transferred  only  by  indorsement.  This  in- 
dorsement may  be  in  blank  or  tn  full.  The  writing  of 
the  name  of  the  payee — either  the  original  payee  or  an 
indorsee — with  nothing  more,  is  an  indorsement  in 
blank,  and  a  blank  indorsement  makes  the  bill  or  note 
transferable  by  the  delivery,  in  like  manner  as  if  it 
had  originally  been  paid  to  bearer.  If  the  indorse- 
ment consists  not  only  of  the  name,  but  of  an  order 
above  the  name,  to  pay  the  note  to  some  specified  per- 
son, then  it  is  an  indorsement  in  full,  and  the  note  con 
be  paid  to  no  one  else  ;  nor  can  the  property  in  it  be 
fully  transferred,  except  by  the  indorsement  of  such 
indorsee  ;  and  ha  may  again  indorse  it  in  blank  or  in 
full.  If  the  indorsement  is  paid  to  A  B  on/y,  or  its 
equivalent  words,  A  B  i^  indorsee, !  ut  can  not  Indorse 
it  over. 

Any  holder  for  value  of  a  bill  cr  note  indorsed  in 
blank,  whether  he  be  the  first  indorsee  or  one  to  whom 
it  ha*  come  through  many  hands,  may  write  over  any 
nam*  indorsed  an  onier  to  pay  the  contents  to  himself, 
and  this  makes  it  a  special  indorsement,  or  an  indorse- 


ment In  fun.  This  is  often  done  for  security,  that  is  to 
guard  against  the  loss  of  the  note  by  accident  or  theft. 
For  the  rule  of  the  law  is,  that  negotiable  paper,  trans- 
ferable by  delivery  (whether  payable  to  bearer  or  in- 
dorsed in  blank),  is,  like  money,  the  property  of  who- 
ever receives  it  ^  good  faith.  The  same  rule  liax 
been  extended,  in  England,  to  exchequer  bills,  to  pul)- 
lic  bonds  payable  to  bearer,  and  to  East  India  ))onds ; 
and  we  thinit  it  would  extend  here  to  our  railroad  and 
other  corporation  bonds ;  and,  perhaps,  to  all  such  in- 
struments as  are  payable  to  bearer,  whether  scaled  or 
not,  and  whatever  they  may  be  called.  If  one  has 
such  an  instrument,  and  it  be  stolen,  and  the  thief 
passes  it  for  consideration  to  a  bonA  fide  holder,  this 
holder  acquires  a  legal  right  to  it,  because  the  property 
and  possession  go  together.  But  if  the  bill  or  note  be 
specially  indorsed,  no  person  can  acquire  any  property 
in  it,  except  by  the  indorsement  of  the  special  indorsee. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  this  precaution  protects  only 
t''e  party  who  has  thus  made  himself  a  special  indorsee, 
and  that  the  former  parties  remain  liable  in  the  same 
way  as  if  the  indorsement  continued  blank. 

At  one  time  this  acquirement  of  property  in  negoti- 
able  paper  was  defeasible  by  want  of  proof  or  care  j 
that  is,  if  a  holder  lost  his  note,  and  a  thief  or  finder 
passed  it  off  to  a  honi  fide  holder,  the  property  did  not 
puss,  if  the  circumstances  were  such  as  to  show  neg- 
ligence on  the  part  of  the  purchaser,  or  a  want  of  duo 
inquiry.  But  this  question  of  negligence  seems  now 
to  be  at  an  end,  and  nothing  less  than  fraud  defeats 
the  title  of  the  purchaser. 

The  written  transfer  of  negotiable  paper  is  called  an 
indorsement,  because  it  is  almost  always  written  on 
the  back  of  the  note ,  but  it  has  its  full  legal  effect  if 
written  on  the  face.  Joint  paj'ees  of  a  bill  or  note,  who 
are  not  partners,  must  all  indorse.  An  indorser  may 
always  prevent  his  own  responsibility  by  writing 
"  without  recourse,"  or  othir  equivalent  words,  over 
his  indorsement;  and  any  bargain  between  the  in- 
dorser and  indorsee,  written  or  oral,  that  the  indorser 
shall  not  be  sued,  is  available  against  that  indorsee, 
but  not  against  subsequent  indorsees,  without  notice. 
A  bill  or  note  may  bo  indorsed  conditionully,  and  nn 
acceptor  of  a  bill  so  indorsed,  who  paid  it  before  such 
condition  is  satisfied  or  complied  with,  has  been  held 
to  pay  It  again  after  the  condition  is  performed. 

Every  indorsement  and  acceptance  admits  conclu- 
sively the  signature  of  everj-  party  who  has  put  his 
name  upon  the  bill  previously  in  fact,  and  is  also  pre- 
vious in  order.  Thus  an  acceptance  admits  the  sig- 
nature of  the  drawer,  but  not  the  signature  of  one 
who  actually  indorses  before  acceptance,  because  ac- 
ceptance is  in  its  nature  prior  to  indorsement.  If  a 
holder  strike  ont  an  indorsement  by  mistake,  he  may 
restore  it ;  if  on  purpose,  the  indorser  is  permanently 
disoharged.  If  the  plaintiff,  in  his  declaration,  de- 
rives his  title  through  all  the  previous  indorsements, 
all  must  be  there,  and  proved.  But  a  holder  may 
bring  bis  action  against  any  prior  indorser,  and  fill  any 
blank  indorsement,  specially  to  himself,  and  sue  ac- 
cordingly; but  then  he  invalidates  subsequent  indorse- 
ments. The  reason  is,  that  ho  takes  from  them  all 
right  to  indorse;  thus,  for  example,  if  A  makes  a 
note  to  B,  and  B,  C,  D,  £,  and  F,  indorse  it  in  blank, 
and  G,  the  holder,  writes  over  C's  name,  "  pay  to  G," 
it  is  as  if  C  had  written  this  himself,  and  then  G  only, 
could  indorse,  and,  of  course,  D,  E,  and  F  could  not, 
as  they  were  meio  strangers.  And  a  holder  precludes 
himself  flrom  taking  advantage  of  the  title  of  any 
party  whose  indorsement  is  thus  voided.  Nor  can 
be  strike  out  the  name  of  any  indorser  prior  to  that 
one  whom  he  makes  defendant ;  for,  bj'  so  doing,  he 
deprives  the  defendant  of  his  right  to  look  to  the  party 
whose  name  is  stricken  out,  and  this  discbarges  the 
defendant. 

On*  mav  niake  •  note  or  bill  payable  to  his  own 
order,  and  -ilone  it  in  blanli;  and  this  if  novr  very 


to  a  I 
and  ( 
able  i 
it. 
and 
ored, 
indors 
bill  ( 
liands 

A 
transfc 
action 
bill  or 
the  ba; 
no  trai 
to  the 
ignorai 
After 
should 
indorse 
livcred 
deliver 
or  note 
riagc,  1 
a  bill , 
mandec 
ment  of 
technici 
and  defi 
by  indo 
Parso> 
articles 
Kkm'( 
^ag.,  V, 


IND 


1020 


IND 


that  Is  to 

or  tlieft. 
er,  trans- 
iror  or  in- 
)•  of  yrho- 

rule  hi\H 
Is,  to  pul)- 
lia  bonds ; 
Uioad  and 
II  such  in- 
r  scaled  or 
If  one  has 
.  the  thief 
lolder,  this 
da  property 

or  note  l)e 
ly  property 
al  indorsee, 
■elects  only 
iai  indorsee, 
in  the  same 

ly  in  negotl- 
[Jof  or  care ; 
lief  or  finder 
jorty  did  not 
to  show  neg- 
want  of  due 
:e  seems  now 
fraud  defeats 

jr  Is  called  an 
•8  written  on 
legal  effect  if 
llor  note,  who 
indorser  may 
y  by  writing 
it  words,  over 
tween  the  in- 
it  the  indorser 
that  indorsee, 
rithout  notice. 
)nnUy,  and  an 
it  before  such 
has  been  held 
formed, 
ulmits  conclu- 
10  has  put  his 
lud  is  also  pre- 
iiduiits  the  sig- 
jnature  of  one 
ce,  because  ac- 
rscment.    If  a 
listake,  he  may 
is  permanently 
leclaration,  de- 
indorsements, 
a  holder  may 
ser,  and  fill  any 
If,  and  sue  ac- 
«quent  indorse- 
from  them  all 
if  A  makes  a 
rse  it  in  blank, 
pay  to  G," 
nd  then  G  only, 
id  F  could  not, 
lolder  precludes 
ho  title  of  any 
ided.     Nor  can 
aer  prior  to  that 
by  80  doing,  he 
ook  to  the  party 
discharges  the 

able  to  his  own 
in  now  very 


eoninon  In  oar  commercial  cities,  becanse  the  holder  of 
such  a  bill  or  note  can  transfer  it  by  delivery,  and  it 
needs  not  his  Indorsement  to  make  It  negotiable  fur- 
ther. 

A  transfer  by  delivery,  without  Indorsement,  of  a 
bill  or  note  payable  to  bearer,  or  indorsed  in  blank, 
does  not  generally  make  the  transferrer  responsible  to 
the  transferroe,  for  the  payment  of  the  instrument. 
Nor  has  the  transforree  a  right  to  fall  back,  in  case  of 
non-paj-ment,  upon  the  transferrer,  for  the  original 
consideration  of  the  transfer.  If  the  bill  were  trans- 
ferred In  good  faith,  in  exchange  for  money  or  goods  ; 
for  such  transfer  would  bo  held  to  be  a  sale  of  the  bill 
or  note,  and  the  purchaser  takes  it  with  all  risks.  Btt 
It  seems  not  to  bo  so  where  such  a  note  is  delivered 
either  in  payment  or  by  way  of  security  for  a  pre- 
viously existing  debt.  Then  If  the  transferrer  has 
lost  nothing  by  the  reception  of  the  note  by  the  trans- 
ferrco— because  if  ho  had  contlnaed  to  hold  the  note, 
he  would  have  lost  it — there  seems  to  bo  no  reason 
why  the  transferree  should  lose  it.  We  have  no 
doubt  that  such  a  transferrer  may  make  himself  liable, 
without  indorsement,  by  express  contract ;  and  that 
circumstances  might  warrant  and  require  the  implica- 
tion that  the  bill  or  note  so  transferred  remained,  by 
the  agreement  and  understanding  of  both  parties,  at 
the  risk  of  the  transferrer.  And  every  such  transfer- 
rer warrants  that  the  bill  or  note  (or  bank-note)  Is  not 
forged  or  fictitious. 

An  indorsement  may  be  made  on  the  paper  before 
the  bill  or  note  is  drawn ;  and  such  indorsement,  says 
Lord  Mansfield,  "  is  a  letter  of  credit  for  an  indefinite 
sum,  and  it  will  not  lie  In  the  indorser's  mouth  to  say 
that  the  Indorsements  were  not  regular."  The  same 
rule  applies  to  an  acceptance  on  blank  paper.  So,  an 
indorsement  may  be  made  after  or  before  acceptance. 
If  made  after  a  refusal  of  acceptance,  which  is  known 
to  the  indorsee,  he  takes  only  the  title  of  the  indorsor, 
and  is  subject  to  all  defenses  available  against  him. 
A  bill  or  note  once  paid  at  or  after  maturity  ceases  to 
be  negotiable,  in  reference  to  all  who  could  be  preju- 
diced by  Its  transfer.  So,  where  a  bill  drawn  payable 
to  a  third  person,  by  wliom  It  is  indorsed.  Is  dishonored 
and  taken  up  by  the  drawer,  it  ceases  to  be  a  negoti- 
able instrnment ;  for  tho  drawer  has  no  title  to  indorse 
it.  But  if  one  draw  a  bill  payable  to  his  own  order, 
and  indorse  It  over,  and,  upon  the  bill  being  dishon- 
ored, take  It  up,  he  may  indorse  It  again,  and  this  last 
indorsee  can  recover  against  the  acceptor.  And  if  a 
bill  or  note  Is  paid  before  it  is  due,  it  is  valid  in  the 
hands  of  a  subsequer.  -  honifide  Indorsee. 

A  portion  of  a  negotialile  bill  or  note  can  not  be 
transferred  so  as  to  give  the  transferree  a  right  of 
action  for  that  portion  in  his  own  name.  But  if  the 
bill  or  note  be  portly  paid,  it  may  be  indorsed  over  for 
the  balance.  If  an  action  b-  brought  on  a  bill  or  note, 
no  transfer  during  the  peniency  of  such  action  gives 
to  tho  transferree  a  right  of  action,  unless  he  was 
ignorant  of  the  action;  then  the  transfer  is  valid. 
After  a  hol'er's  death  his  perconal  representative 
should  transi'er.  But  it  seems  that  If  a  note  needing 
Indorsement  was  indorsed  by  the  holder,  but  not  de- 
livered, the  executor  can  not  complete  tho  transfer  by 
delivery.  The  husband  who  acquires  a  right  to  a  bill 
or  note  given  to  the  wife,  either  before  or  after  mar- 
riage, may  Indorse.  One  who  may  claim  payment  of 
a  bill  or  note,  and  of  whom  paj-ment  may  also  be  de- 
manded, or  one  who  is  liable  to  contribute  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  note,  can  not  sue  upon  it.  But  if  only  the 
technical  rule— that  the  same  party  can  not  he  plaintiff 
and  defendant — prevents  the  action,  in  may  be  avoided 
by  indorsement  over  to  another  before  maturity. — 
Parsons'  Elements  of  Mercantile  Law,  ch.  ix.  See 
articles  Bills  op  Exchange;  Story  on  Bills; 
Kent's  Commentariu  on  American  Law;  Banker's 
Mag.,  vols,  v.,  vi.,  vli. ;  En.  Brit.,  article  KxcnANOB ; 
BAyunr  on  Bittt;  Manmljbr  Notaries  Publie. 


Indna.  This  great  river  of  Asia  haa  Its  riao  In 
Thibet,  at  the  north  of  the  Kailaa  mountain,  regarded 
In  Hindoo  mythology  as  the  mansion  of  the  gods,  in 
about  lat.  82°,  long.  81°  80'.  It  first  Ukes  a  north- 
westeriy  direction  for  about  4C0  miles,  when  it  is  joined 
by  the  river  of  Dras,  which,  rising  In  the  mount»in« 
of  Cashmere,  and  receiving  several  streams  both  from 
the  east  and  west,  discharges  a  considerable  volume  ol 
water  at  Its  confluence.  At  Makpon-I-Shagaron,  in 
lat.  86°  48',  long.  74°  80',  the  Indus  emerges  from 
the  mountainous  region,  and  turning  south  (a  course 
which  It  thenceforth  continues  to  tlio  sea),  takes  it." 
way  through  the  country  north  of  Attock.  Close 
above  this  last-mentioned  town,  and  at  the  distance  of 
870  miles  from  its  source,  tho  Indus  receives  on  the 
western  side  the  great  river  of  Cabool.  Both  rivers 
have  a  large  volume  of  water,  and  as  they  meet  amid 
numerous  rocks,  the  confluence  is  turbulent,  and  at- 
tended with  great  uproar.  The  town  of  Attock  Is  sit- 
uate alwut  1000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  about 
17,000  feet  below  the  source  of  the  Indus,  which  falls, 
therefore,  16,000  feet  In  870  miles,  or  at  tho  average 
rate  of  about  19  feet  per  mile.  The  length  of  its 
channel  from  Attock  to  the  sea  Is  942  miles,  and,  con- 
sequently, in  that  lower  part  of  its  course,  it  falls  little 
more  than  1  foot  per  mile.  For  about  10  miles  below  At- 
tock, the  river,  though  In  general  rolling  between  higli 
cliff's  of  slate  rock,  has  a  calm,  deep  and  rapid  current ; 
but  for  100  miles  farther  down  to  Kalubagh,  It  becomes 
an  enormous  torrent.  Lieutenant  Wood,  describing; 
this  section  of  its  course,  observes,  "  It  here  rushes 
down  a  valley,  varying  from  100  to  400  yards  wide, 
between  precipitous  banks  from  70  to  700  feet  high." 
From  Kalabagh  southward,  to  Mittunkote,  distant 
about  860  miles,  the  banks,  either  right  or  left,  are  In 
several  places  so  low,  that  the  first  rise  of  the  river 
covers  the  country  round  with  water,  extending,  as 
the  inundation  advances„as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 
On  entering  the  plain,  the  water  loses  its  cleames^l. 
and  becomes  loaded  with  mud.  Two  or  three  mllcf 
below  Mittunkote,  and  about  490  miles  from  the  sea,  the 
Indns  receives  the  waters  of  the  Punjnud,  the  channc'. 
which  conveys  the  collected  stream  of  the  Punjauli. 
Above  the  confluence,  the  breadth  of  the  Indus  is  le-is 
than  that  of  tho  other  river,  but  In  consequence  of  the 
greater  depth  and  velocity,  the  former  has  the  greater 
volume  of  water.  Wood  found  that  the  Indus,  near 
the  confluence,  had  a  breadth  of  608  yards,  a  vcloclt\ 
of  about  five  miles  an  hour,  a  depth  of  12  or  16  feet, 
and  discharged  91,719  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
Punjnud  had  a  breadth  of  17G6  yards,  a  velocity  of 
about  two  miles  an  hour,  a  depth  of  12  or  16  feet,  and 
discharged  68,965  cubic  feet  p:r  second.  Below  the 
junction,  the  Indus  in  its  lowest  state  is  2000  yards 
wide.  Its  aspect  in  this  part  Is  well  described  ty 
Major  Boileau.  lie  says,  "  At  tho  place  where  we 
crossed  the  Indus,  almost  immediately  below  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Punjnud,  its  stream  is  2047  yards,  or 
nearly  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  breadth,  at  a  place 
where  its  width  is  unbroken,  either  b}-  islands  or  sand- 
banks. The  banks  arc  very  low,  and  the  water  very- 
muddy,  having  just  began  to  rise  from  the  melting 
snow  at  its  sources,  nor  Is  the  stream  of  very  great 
depth,  except  in  tho  main  channel ;  but  with  all  these 
drawbacks,  it  is  a  miignificcnt  sheet  of  water,  a  very 
prince  of  rivers."  Below  Mittunkote,  the  river  passes 
In  succession  the  towns  of  Sukknr,  Bukkur,  Sehwan, 
Hyderabad,  and  Trlecal.  Tho  last  mentioned  of  these 
towns  is  situate  in  lat.  26°  9',  long.  68°  21',  and  here 
the  delta  commences ;  all  the  country  below  it,  and 
contained  between  the  Fulailee  branch  on  the  east, 
and  the  extreme  western  bram  'i  of  tho  river,  being, 
with  little  exception,  alluvial,  and  obviously  deposited 
by  the  stream.  At  about  five  miles  below  Tatta,  ami 
60  miles  from  the  sea,  the  Indus  divaricates  into  two 
great  branches,  the  Buggaur,  which  flows  westward, 
and  the  Sata,  which  maintains  the  previous  course  ul 


INK 


1030 


INK 


the  Indas  southward,  and  la,  in  atrictneas,  the  contin- 
iiutiun  of  that  river.  The  lower  part  of  tlia  delta  is 
intersected  liy  rlvfra  and  creeka  in  almost  every  direc- 
tion, like  the  delta  of  the  UungeH ;  but  it  so  fur  dilTera 
from  the  latter,  that  it  haa  no  trees  on  its  surface,  the 
liry  parts  being  covered  with  brushwood,  and  the  re- 
mainder, by  much  the  largest  part,  l>eing  noisome 
swampa  or  muddy  lakes.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
influence  of  the  tides  is  not  felt  at  a  greater  distance 
than  UO  or  65  mil<is  from  tiie  sea.  At  the  mcutlis  of 
the  different  branches,  the  rush  or  influx  of  the  tide  is 
high  and  dangerous,  running,  us  has  l>een  estimated, 
at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  tliough  varying 
greatly  at  different  places.  From  the  sea  up  to  Ily- 
ilerabad,  the  Indus  is  in  general  about  a  mile  in 
iiraadth,  varying  in  depth  from  two  to  live  fathoms. 
I'he  river  begins  to  swell  in  the  middle  of  July,  from 
the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  continues  to  Increase 
until  the  end  of  August.  The  most  eastern  of  the 
tistuaries  connecteu  with  the  Indus  is  the  Koree 
Mouth,  from  which,  proceeding  westward,  the  remain- 
mg  creeks  or  estuaries  most  worthy  of  notice,  occur  In 
tile  following  order:  The  Seer,  Mull,  Kaha,  Kooke- 
wurreo,  Kedywarree  (discharging  the  waters  of  the 
Satu),  Ilujamree,  Jooa,  Durbar,  Pitteoanee,  Coondee, 
Pitty,  and  Glzree.  The  spring-tide  rises  nine  feet. 
The  length  of  the  navigable  part  of  the  river  from  the 
sea  to  Attock,  has  been  ascertained  by  measurement 
to  be  942  miles,  that  of  the  upper  part  is  about  870 
miles,  making  a  total  length  in  round  numbers  of 
1800  miles.  The  average  c'eclivity  of  the  water-course 
from  the  locality  of  the  source  to  Attock  is,  per  mile, 
19  feet ;  from  Attock  downward  to  Kalubagh,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  110  miles,  it  is  20  inches  ;  from  this  place 
to  Mittunkote,  a  distance  of  about  850  miles,  it  Is  eight 
inches,  and  thence  to  the  sea  six  inches.  Tiie  Indus 
appears  destined  to  become  an  important  channel  of 
commercial  comniunication.-,-E.  T. 

Ingot,  a  mass  of  gold  or  silver  melted  down  and 
I'ust  in  a  mold,  but  not  coined  or  wrought,  A  large 
portion  of  the  gold  received  from  California  at  Now 
Vork  is  put  into  tbb  shape  for  more  convenient  ex- 
l)ort. 

Ink  (Du.  Ink,  Inlt ;  Fr.  £ncre  i  Ger.  £>inte ;  It. 
litchiottro;  Lat.  Atramentum ;  Rus.  Ttchemilo ;  Sp. 
Tinta ;  Sw.  Jihk).  Every  liquor  or  pigment  used  for 
n-riting  or  printing  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
ink.  Common  practice  knows  only  black  and  red. 
Of  black  there  are  three  principal  kinds:  1.  Indian 
ink ;  2.  Printers'  ink  ;  and  3.  Writing  ink.  The  In- 
dian ink  is  used  in  China  for  writing  with  a  brush,  and 
for  painting  upon  the  soft  flexible  paper  of  Chinese 
manufacture.  It  is  ascertained,  as  well  from  experi- 
ment as  from  information,  that  the  cukes  of  this  ink 
are  made  of  lampblack  and  size,  or  animal  glue,  with 
the  addition  of  perfumes  or  other  substances  not  es- 
sential to  its  quality  as  an  ink.  The  ftne  soot  from  the 
flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle  received  by  holding  a  plate 
over  it,  mixed  with  clean  size  from  the  8hre<U  of 
parchment  or  glove-leather  not  dyed,  will  make  an 
ink  equal  to  that  imported.  Good  printers'  ink  is  a 
black  paint,  smooth,  and  uniform  in  its  composition, 
of  a  firm  black  color,  and  possesses  a  singular  apti- 
tude to  adhere  to  paper  thoroughly  impregnated  with 
moisture. 

The  aicient  black  inks  were  composed  of  soot  and 
ivory  black,  and  Vitruviun  and  Pliny  mention  lamp- 
black ;  but  they  had  likewlte  various  colors,  as  red, 
gold,  silver,  and  purple.  Red  ink  was  made  by  them 
of  vermilior  and  various  kinds  of  gum.  Indian  ink 
is  brought  from  China,  and  must  have  been  In  use  by 
the  people  of  the  East  from  the  earliest  ages,  most  of 
the  artificial  Chinese  productions  being  of  very  great 
antiquity.  It  is  usually  brought  to  Europe  in  small 
quadrangular  cakes,  and  is  composed  of  a  fine  black 
animal  glue. — Beckmakn. 

Slack  Ink. — Nutgalls,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  gtuu, 


are  the  only  substances  truly  useful  in  the  preparation 
of  ordinar}'  ink  ;  the  other  tilings  often  added  merely 
modify  the  shade,  and  considorubiy  diminish  the  cost 
to  the  manufacturer  upon  the  great  scale.  Many  of 
these  inks  contain  little  gallic  acid,  or  tannin,  and  :.ra 
therefore  of  inferior  quality.  To  make  12  gallons  of 
ink,  we  may  take  12  lbs.  uf  nutgalls,  6  lbs.  of  green 
sulphate  of  iron,  5  lbs.  of  gum  Senegal,  and  12  gallons 
of  water. 

The  bruised  nutgalls  are  to  be  put  into  a  cylindrical 
copper,  of  a  depth  equal  to  its  diameter,  and  Imilcd, 
during  three  hours,  with  three  fourths  of  the  aliove 
quantity  of  water,  taking  care  to  odd  fresh  water  to 
replace  what  is  lost  by  evaporation.  The  decoction  is 
to  be  emptied  into  a  tub,  allowed  to  settle,  und  tlio 
clear  liquor  being  drawn  off,  the  lees  are  to  be  drained. 
Some  recommend  the  addition  of  a  little  bullock's 
blood  or  white  of  egg,  to  remove  a  part  of  the  tunnln. 
But  this  abstraction  tends  to  lessen  the  product,  and 
will  seldom  be  practiced  by  the  munufucturer  intcut 
upon  a  large  return  for  his  capital.  The  gum  is  to  i)e 
dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water,  and  the 
niuciiuge  thus  formed,  being  filtered,  is  added  to  the 
clear  decoction.  Tlie  sulphate  of  iron  must  likewise 
be  separately  dissolved,  and  well  mixed  with  the 
aliove.  Tlie  color  darkens  by  degrees,  in  consequence 
of  tlie  peroxydizement  of  the  iron  on  exposing  the  ink 
to  the  action  of  tlie  air.  But  ink  afl'ords  a  more  dura- 
lilo  writing  when  used  in  tliu  pule  state,  because  its 
particles  are  then  finer,  and  iieiietruto  the  pnper  mure 
intiinutely.  When  ink  consists  cliiofly  of  tunnute  uf 
jwroxj-d  of  iron,  liowever  black,  it  is  merely  super- 
iieial,  and  is  easily  erased  or  effaced.  Therefore, 
wliencver  the  liquid  made  Ijy  the  above  prescription 
has  acquired  a  iiio<lerutely  deep  tint,  it  sliould  be 
drawn  ofT  clear  into  bottles,  and  well  corked  up. 
Some  ink-makers  allow  it  to  mold  a  little  in  the  casks 
before  bottling,  and  suppose  that  it  will  thereby  bo 
not  so  liable  to  become  moldy  in  the  bottles.  A  few 
bruised  cloves,  or  other  aromatic  perfume,  added  to 
ink,  is  said  to  prevent  the  formation  of  moldiiiess, 
which  is  produced  by  the  ova  of  infusoria  animalcules, 
I  prefer  digesting  the  galls  to  boiling  them. 

The  operation  may  be  abridged,  by  pcroxydizing  the 
copperas  beforehand,  by  moderate  calcination  ill  an 
open  vessel;  but,  for  tlie  reasons  above  assigned,  ink 
mudo  with  such  a  sulphate  of  iron,  iiowcver  agreeable 
to  tlio  ignorant,  when  made  to  shine  with  gum  und 
sugur,  under  the  nume  of  jupun  ink,  is  neither  tlic 
most  duruble  nor  the  most  pleasant  to  write  wiili. 
From  the  comparatively  high  price  of  gnll-nuts,  suinuili, 
logwood,  and  even  oak  liark,  Ui'e  too  frequently  substi- 
tuted, to  a  considerable  degree,  in  the  munufucture  of 
ink.  The  ink  made  by  the  prescription  given  above, 
is  much  more  rich  and  powerful  tlian  many  of  the  inks 
commonly  sold.  To  bring  it  to  their  standard,  a  liulf 
more  water  may  safely  bo  added,  or  even  20  gallons  of 
tolerable  ink  may  be  made  from  that  weight  of  mntc- 
rials.  Sumach  aud  log  wood  admit  of  only  about  one 
half  of  the  coppers';  thut  gulls  will  take  to  brin,;  out 
the  maximum  umouht  of  black  dye.  Chuptul  gives  a 
prescription  in  his  Chimie  appliquee  atix  arts,  wlilcli, 
like  many  other  things  in  that  iiook,  ure  published 
with  very  little  knowleuge  and  discrimination.  Ho 
uses  logwood  and  sulphate  of  copper,  in  addition  to 
the  galls  aud  sulphate  of  iron ;  a  pernicious  combina- 
tion, prodf'.tive  of  a  spurious  fugitive  black,  and  a 
liquor  corrosive  of  pens.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  modification 
of  the  vile  dye  of  the  hatters.  Lewis,  who  made  ex- 
act experiments  en  inks,  assigned  the  proportion  of  3 
parts  of  gi'lls  to  1  of  sulphate  of  iron,  which,  witli 
uverage  galls,  will  answer  vury  well ;  but  good  galls 
will  admit  of  more  copperas. 

Cold  Ink  is  made  by  grinding  upon  a  porphyry  slab, 
with  a  mullcr,  gold  leaves  along  with  white  honey,  till 
they  be  reduced  to  the  finest  possible  division.  The 
paste  is  then  collected  upon  the  edge  of  a  knife  or 


sola 

This 

docs 

In 

asth 

ink< 

with 

with 

He 

three 

pedii 

upon 

slighi 

impn 


INK 


1091 


INK 


rparattoa 
(1  merely 
1  the  cost 
Many  of 
i,  nnil  -ro 
5;»llon9  of 
.  of  (;roou 
12  gallons 

cylindrical 
md  luillvd, 
the  iil)Ove 
h  water  to 
lecoctlon  h 
;le,  luid  tho 
be  drained. 
[e  bullock'a 
the  tannin, 
product,  and 
:turer  intent 
gum  is  to  ho 
tor,  and  tho 
idded  to  the 
iu8t  likowisc 
ed  with  the 
,  consecjuenco 
osing  the  ink 
a  more  dura- 
e,  because  Us 
le  imper  more 
of  tannate  of 
merely  super- 
.      Therefuro, 
•e  prescription 

it  should  he 
iU  corked  up. 
lo  in  the  casks 
rill  thereby  bo 
lottles.  A  few 
ume,  added  lo 

of  moldincss, 
la  animakHles. 

icm. 

^roxydizing  the 
Icinatlon  iu  an 
e  assigned,  ink 
fCver  agreeable 
with  gum  and 
is  neither  tho 
to  write  wiili. 
ll-nuts,  sumach, 
equently  substi- 
manufacturc  of 
on  given  above, 
nany  of  the  inks 
itandard,  a  half 
on  20  gallons  of 
weight  of  mate- 
only  ahout  one 
»ke  to  bring  out 
Chaptal  gives  a 
lUX  aria,  which, 
,,  are  published 
•imination.     Ho 
.■   in  additioa  to 
licious  combina- 
vo  black,  and  a 
■t,  a  modification 
I  who  made  ex- 
I  proportion  of  3 
•on,  which,  with 
but  good  galls 

ft  porphyry  slab, 
I  white  honey,  till 
|e  division.  Tho 
Igo  ot  a  knife  or 


upatuU,  put  into  ■  \uge  glaaa,  and  diffused  through  I  Ink,  but  it  li  fhgltlve.     An  6X(«mponn«nni  nd  ink 


water.  The  gold  by  gravity  soon  falls  to  the  bottom, 
while  the  honey  <liasolvea  in  the  wate*',  which  must  he 
decanted  off.  The  sediment  Is  to  be  repeatedly  washed 
till  entirely  freed  from  the  honey.  The  p<> .'  ni,  when 
dried,  is  very  brilliant,  and  when  to  be  u  .  ^  an  ink, 
may  be  mixed  up  with  a  little  gum  water.  After  tho 
writing  hecomea  dry,  it  should  be  burnished  with  a 
woirs  tooth, 
<!i'iVi'f>r  Ink  is  prepared  In  the  same  manner. 
Indelible  ltd: — A  very  good  Ink,  capable  of  restating 
chlorine,  oxalic  acid,  and  ablution  with  a  hair  pencil 
or  sponge,  nui}-  be  made  by  mixing  some  of  the  Ink 
made  by  tho  preceding  prescription,  with  a  little  gen- 
uine China  ink.  It  writes  well,  litany  other  formulas 
have  been  given  for  Indelible  inks,  hut  they  aro  all  In- 
ferior in  simplicity  and  usefulness  to  tho  one  now  pre- 
scribed. Solutloii  of  nitrate  of  silver  thickened  with 
gum,  and  written  with  upon  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  pre- 
viously imbued  with  a  solution  of  soda,  and  dried,  la 
the  ordinary  permanent  ink  of  the  shops.  Before  the 
cloths  are  washed,  the  writing  should  be  exposed  to 
tho  sunbeams,  or  to  bright  daylight,  which  blackens 
and  lixoN  the  oxyd  of  silver.  It  is  easily  discharged 
by  chlorin  and  ammonia,  A  good  ^lermanent  ink 
may  be  made  by  mixing  a  strong  solution  of  chlorid 
of  platinum  with  a  little  potash  sugar,  and  gum  to 
th'cken.  The  writing  made  the'ewith  should  be  passed 
over  with  a  hot  smoothing  iron  to  tlx  it. 

By  decomposing  vanadate  of  ammonia  with  infu- 
sion of  galls,  a  liquid  is  ol>taincd  of  a  perfectly  black 
hue,  which  flowa  freely  from  tho  pen,  la  rendered  blue 
by  acida,  ia  insoluble  in  dilute  alkalis,  and  resists  the 
action  of  rhiorin.  Whenever  the  metal  vanadium 
shall  become  more  abundant,  as  it  probably  may  ore 
long,  we  shall  posses"  the  means  of  making  an  ink,  at 
a  moderate  price,  much  superior  to  the  tannate  and 
gallate  of  iron.  To  prepare  the  above  vanadic  salt 
cheaply,  the  cinder  or  hammerschlag  obtained  from 
the  Iron  made  at  Kkersholm,  in  Sweden,  or  other  iron 
which  contains  vanadium,  being  reduced  to  a  line  pow- 
der, is  to  be  mixed  with  two  thirds  of  its  weight  of 
nitre,  and  one  third  of  effloresced  soda.  The  mixture 
ia  to  be  ignited  in  a  crucible ;  cooled  and  lixiviated, 
whereby  solutions  of  tho  vanadates  of  ])otash  and  soda 
are  obtained,  not  pure,  indeed,  but  sulliciently  ao  for 
being  decomposed,  by  means  of  sal  ammoniac,  into  a 
vanadate  of  ammonia.  This  being  rendered  nearly 
neutral  with  any  acid,  constitutes  an  excellent  indeli- 
ble ink. 

Indelible  Ink  may  be  prepared  by  adding  lampblack 
and  indigo  to  a  solution  of  the  gluten  of  wheat  in  acetic 
acid.  This  ink  is  of  a  beaut'ful  black  color,  at  the 
same  time  cheap,  and  can  not  b'  'emoved  by  water, 
chlorin,  or  dilute  acids.  M.  Herbt-ger  gives  the  fol- 
lowing directions  for  its  preparation :  Wheat-gluten  ia 
carefully  freed  from  the  starch,  and  then  dissolved  in  a 
little  weak  acetic  acid  ;  the  liquid  ia  now  mixed  with 
so  much  rain  water  that  the  solution  has  about  the 
strength  of  wine  vinegar,  i,  e ,,  neutralizea  1-16  of  its 
weight  of  carbonate  of  soda,  10  gi-a.  of  the  best  lamp- 
black and  2  grs.  of  indigo  are  mixed  with  4  nzs,  of  the 
solution  of  gluten,  and  a  little  oil  of  cloves  added. 
This  ink  may  be  employed  for  marking  linen,  as  it 
does  not  resist  mechanical  force, 

Ink,  indelible,  of  Dr.  Traill,  ia  essentially  the  same 
as  the  above.  French  indelible  ink  consists  of  Indian 
ink  dilTuaed  through  dilute  muriatic  acid,  for  writing 
with  quills,  and  through  weak  potash  lye  for  writing 
with  steel  pens. 

Xed  Ink. — This  ink  may  ■..'«  made  by  infusing,  for 
three  or  four  days  in  weak  vinegar,  Brazil  wood  chip- 
ped into  small  pieces ;  the  infusion  may  be  then  boiled 
upon  the  wood  for  an  hour,  strained,  and  thickened 
slightly  with  gum  arable  and  sugar,  A  little  alum 
improves  tho  color.  A  decoction  of  cochineal  with  a 
Uttia  water  of  ammonia,  forms  a  more  beautiful  red 


of  the  same  kind  may  be  made  by  dissolving  carmine 
In  weak  water  of  ammonia,  and  adding  a  little  mu- 
cilage, 

(.Veen  Ink — According  to  Klaproth,  a  line  Ink  of 
this  color  may  be  prepared  by  liolling  a  mixture  of 
two  parts  of  verdigris  In  eight  parts  of  water,  with  one 
of  cream  of  tartar,  till  the  total  bulk  bo  reduced  one 
half.  The  solution  muet  be  then  passed  through  a 
cloth,  cooled,  and  bottled  for  use. 

Yellow  Ink  Is  made  by  dissolving  8  parts  of  olum  In 
100  of  water,  adding  ii5  parts  of  Persian  or  Avignon 
berries  bruised,  boiling  the  mixture  for  an  hour, 
straining  the  liquor,  and  dissolving  it  in  4  parts  of 
gum  arable,  A  solution  of  gamboge  in  water  forms  a 
convenient  yellow  ink. 

By  examining  the  dilfcrent  dye-stuffs,  and  consider- 
ing the  processes  used  in  dyeing  with  them,  a  variety 
of  colored  Inks  may  be  made. 

China  /nX:,— Proust  says,  that  lampblack  purlfled 
by  potash  ley,  when  mixed  with  a  solution  of  glue, 
and  dried,  formed  an.  Ink  which  was  preferred  by 
artists  to  that  of  China.  M.  Merim6e,  In  hia  intereat- 
Ing  treatise,  entitled  De.  lapeintiire  b,  I'huile,  says,  that 
the  Chinese  do  not  use  glue  in  the  fabrication  of  their 
ink,  Init  that  they  add  vegetable  julcea,  which  render 
It  more  brilliant  and  more  indelible  upon  paper.  When 
the  best  lampblack  Is  levigated  with  tho  purest  gela- 
tine or  solution  of  glue,  it  forms,  no  doubt,  an  ink  of 
a  good  culor,  but  wants  tho  shining  fracture,  and  Is  not 
so  permanent  on  paper  as  good  China  ink ;  and  It 
stiffens  in  cold  weather  Into  a  tremulous  jelly.  Qlue 
may  be  deprived  of  the  gelatinising  property  by  boil- 
ing it  for  a  long  time,  or  sul>jecting  it  to  a  high  liieat  In 
a  I'apin's  digester;  but  as  ammonia  is  apt  to  be  gener- 
ated in  this  way,  M,  Merlmie  recommends  starch  gum 
made  by  sulphuric  acid  (British  gum)  to  be  used  In 
preference  to  glue.  He  gives,  however,  the  following 
directions  for  preparing  this  ink  with  glue.  Into  a 
solution  of  gluo  he  pours  a  concentrated  solution  of 
gall-nuts,  which  occasions  an  elastic  resinous-looking 
procipitato.  IIo  washes  this  matter  with  hot  water, 
and  dissolves  It  In  a  spare  solution  of  clarified  glue. 
He  filters  anew,  and  concentrates  it  to  the  proper  de- 
gree for  being  incorporated  with  the  purlfled  lamp- 
black. The  astringent  principle  in  vegetables  does 
not  precipitate  gelatin  when  its  acid  is  saturated,  aa 
is  done  by  boiling  tho  nut-galls  with  lime-water  or 
magnesia.  The  first  mode  of  making  the  ink  is  to 
be  preferred.  The  lampblack  ia  said  to  be  made  in 
China,  by  collecting  the  amoko  of  the  oil  of  sesame. 
A  little  camphor  (about  3  per  cent,)  has  been  detected 
in  the  ink  of  China,  and  is  supposed  to  improve  it. 
Infusion  of  galls  renders  the  ink  permanent  on 
paper. 

Sympathetic  Ink. — The  best  is  a  solution  of  muriate 
of  cobalt. 

Printers'  Ink.  See  Ure's  Diet,  for  full  details. 
Blue  Ink. — Mr,  Stephens's  patent  blue  ink  Is  made 
by  dissolving  Prussian  blue  in  a  solution  of  oxalic 
acid.  The  blue  should  be  washed  in  dilute  muriatic 
acid.  M.  Homung  has  given  the  following  aa  tho  boat 
formula  for  blue  ink:  Mix  4  parts  of  perchlorid  of 
iron,  in  solution,  with  7'60  parts  of  water,  then  add  4 
parts  of  cyanid  of  potassium  dissolved  in  a  little  wa- 
ter; collect  the  precipitate  formed;  wash  it  with  sev- 
eral additions  of  w.^^er ;  allow  it  <  o  drain  until  it  weighs 
about  200  parts  ;  aud  to  this  1  p^rt  of  oxalic  acid,  and 
promote  the  solution  of  the  cyanid  by  shaking  the 
bottle  containing  the  mixture.  Tlie  addition  of  gUm 
and  sugar  is  useless,  and  even  appears  to  exercise  a  prej- 
udicial effect  on  the  beauty  of  the  ink.  It  may  be 
kept  without  any  addition  for  a  long  time. — Urg's 
Dictionary  nf  Manufactures.     See  Indian  Ink, 

Inkle,  a  sort  of  broad  linen  tape,  principally  manu- 
factured at  Manchester  and  some  other  towns  in  Lan- 
cashire. 


INS 


1033 


INS 


Inlaid  worlc.  Th«ra  am  m*ny  pretty  and  rarlad 
klndi  of  inUld  work  manufactured  frnm  KiniiU  fk'agiii«nt« 
of  miltodal,  Ther*  in  the  Mnrqurtrie  (ir  inlaid  caliinet- 
fumiture  of  France,  conaintinK  In  inlnylnK  wood*  ot  a 
great  variety  of  tinta,  In  the  form  of  flowera,  omamenti, 
etc.  The  liuhl,  or  linul-wnrk,  I*  alio  nf  Krench  Inven- 
tion, wherein  metuli  are  Inlaid  upon  a  ground  of  oliony 
orturtnlne-shell.  The  elalwrute  fierman  cnliinets,  madu 
of  olmny,  aro  inlaid  with  precioun  ittonea  and  vuriouH 
woods  and  metaln.  There  in  tiie  Motatc  inlay,  in  which 
the  piocea  inluid  are  extremely  small,  und  of  which  ex- 
quisite hnxes  ore  mode  by  the  Hindoos  ;  witness,  too, 
the  marvelous  Spanish  table  at  the  (Ireat  Kxhibitlon 
of  London  In  3,000,000  of  pieces.  The  Parijiitlrie,  or 
inU:d  flowering,  which  difTera  from  Marquetrie  chiefly 
in  the  Iwldar  scale  of  the  designs  ;  woods  of  different 
colors  being  cut  to  pattern,  and  inlaid,  There  is  the 
novel  and  beautiful  process  nf  inlaying  articles  of  fur- 
niture with  iMirccluin ;  the  inlaid  portions  are  rot 
merely  pannelh  and  pilasters,  liut  painted  (lorceliiiM 
flowers  and  other  ornaments.  The  I'ieira  Dura  is  a 
kind  of  art  curried  to  great  peifection  in  Tuscany :  its 
cultivtion  in  that  country  has  for  a  long  |)criod  sup- 
fWeA  ..  't  of  the  palaces  of  Kiirope  with  works  in 
pietra  dura,  which  rank  among  the  finest  examples  of 
decorative  furniture. 

InaoWenoy  and  Bankruptcy.  The  flrst  In- 
solvent Act  in  Kngland  was  passed  In  10-19,  but  It 
was  of  limite<l  operation ;  a  number  of  acts  of  more 
extensive  operation  were  passud  at  various  periods, 
and  particularly  In  the  reign  of  George  III.  The 
licnefit  of  the  act  known  as  the  Great  Insolvent  Act 
tvoa  taken  In  Englapd  by  60.7.13  insolvents  from  the 
lime  of  Its  passing,  in  1814,  to  March,  18'27,  a  period  of 
13  years.  iSince  thun,  the  icts  relating  to  insolvency 
have  been  several  times  amended.  Persona  not  trad- 
ers, or,  being  traders,  whoso  del>ts  are  less  than  X8()(), 
may  petition  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  propose 
composition,  and  have  pro  tern,  protection  from  all  pro- 
cess against  their  persons  and  property,  6  Vict.,  1842, 
Act  amended,  8  Vict.,  August,  1844.— Hatdn. 

Bankruptcy. — Biockstone  defines  a  bankrupt — "  A 
trader  who  secretes  himself,  or  does  certain  other  acta 
tending  to  defraud  his  creditois."  But  an  intention 
to  defraud  is  not  now  held  to  be  cs.sentlal  to  constitute 
a  bankrupt ;  who  may  be  either  simply  an  Insolvent, 
or  a  person  who  la  guilty  of  certain  acta  tending  to  de- 
fraud his  creditors, 

ISSOLVKNCV, — Analysis  of  the  Laws  of  bankruptcy. 
— In  Groat  Britain,  insolvency  is  applied  to  every  clots 
of  persons,  while  bankruptcy  is  exclusively  applied  to 
traders.  In  foreign  countries,  insolvency  is  the  general 
denomination.  Bankruptcy  is  declared  when  there  Is 
ony  degree  of  criminality.  The  law  of  bankruptcy  of 
England  is  consolidated  In  the  12  and  13  Vict.,  c.  100. 
In  America,  various  attempts  were  made  for  a  general 
enactment  for  ull  the  States,  but  with  no  success.  The 
act  of  Congress  on  the  subject,  {  "  1  in  1841,  was  re- 
pealed in  1843.  Special  insolvency  laws  exist,  of 
which  an  abstract  i*  given  hereafter.  In  Scotland, 
the  bankrupt  law  is  Included  in  the  2  and  3  Vict.,  chap, 
41,  The  French  law  of  the  28th  of  May,  1838,  has 
modified  the  Code  of  Commerce  of  1807,  Article  437 
permits  declaration  of  the  insolvency  of  a  trader  after 
his  df  ceare.  The  law  of  Scotland  authorizes  the  seques- 
tration of  estates  of  a  deceased  debtor.  The  same  ii 
permitted  in  Portugal.  In  England  a  Court  of  Bank- 
ruptcy is  instituted,  which  may  adjudge  the  creditor  a 
bankrupt.  In  Scotland  the  same  is  placed  with  the 
Lord  Ordinar}-,  In  France  the  same  authority  Is 
given  to  the  tribunal.  Acts  of  bankruptcy  may  be 
committed  In  England  in  various  ways.  All  acts 
made  previous  to  adjudication  of  bankruptcy  are  valid, 
if  they  are  entered  into  ioni  fide  on  the  part  of  the 
cocttfictlng  party.  In  Fnince,  the  following  acts, 
made  within  10  daya  preceding  the  opening  of  the  in- 
solvency, are  void:   1st,  Acts  transferring  property 


gratultnuily  i  Id.  Paytnalil  of  dalits  not  due,  and  of 
tlioaa  dua  anttled  otliKrwiiMi  than  with  rommnrrlal  ef- 
foc»jj  Hd.  All  uiortgHgna,  antlclirioe,  or  awurlty,  nin- 
sentad  to  fur  aniarliir  dalita  |  and,  laatlv,  »ll  acts  what- 
ever made  by  the  dabtiir  with  a  tlilnl  party  wlio  was 
cognliant  of  hU  having  BluptHid  (Hiyment.  Artiiies 
63  to  Al  of  tha  Pruanlun  I'lidn  contain  also  alMillar  In- 
structions, Tliii  Nimnlsh  i'oiIm  IIhus  IMI  days  |  the  I'or- 
tugueae  coiIk, '10  iliiva  |  tlm  Dillch  cm, n,  two  ninnlhi 
previous  to  tha  inaolvmiry  ua  tli«  time  during  wlilch 
tha  Inaidvent  could  Miit  allanutn  hia  property  gratui- 
tously, or  endow  hi*  clilldrnn,  or  transfer  nr  tnortgnge 
his  real  eatatn, 

The  Duti'h  cinlu  daidiiraa  void  tha  donations  ninde 
by  the  Inaolvant  ut  uiiy  llm»  whnm  h«  knew  his  affulrs 
uinbarraaaud,  although  th«  donuten  Wua  hnnAfiilr.  Tlin 
Ruasian  code  prolillilta  llin  wIPii  and  children  of  the  In- 
aolvent  to  recinlni  tliu  ilnnutlniia  mads  to  them.  Ily 
Articlu  MM,  lliii  priipttrty  t'ngagml  by  the  Inanivent, 
and  not  yet  sulci,  nuiy  lin  riMli<i'tiied,  and  form  portlnns 
of  the  uaauta,  A*  t<i  tlm  ndnilnlatratlon  of  the  Inanlv- 
ency  in  Knglitnd,  aaalgiimia  urn  clinaen  by  thn  creditors, 
umier  the  au|M)rvlaloii  of  lli»  Ciiurt,  In  Ncotlaud,  cred- 
itors are  to  idtii>t  an  Interim  fhitor  nnd  ii  trustee,  and 
also  three  uoninilaaliiiiiira,  hi  France,  thn  agents  cre- 
ated liy  the  cmla  1NII7  liavn  lieen  suppreaaed,  and  at 
priment  them  are  no  morn  than  iimvlaliinarv  nsslgnoea, 
who  copllnuM  their  fiinelliin*  till  the  conlirniatlon  of 
the  setliuinent,  or  till  tli«  fiirttintlon  of  the  contract  of 
union,  'I'hii  Triliuiml  of  ( -'ommnrcn  of  I'arls  haa  formed 
u  fixed  number  of  iiaalgneea,  to  whom  Is  conflded  the 
maniigement  of  nil  liaiikruptelna, 

In  Hpalii,  the  IrlliiinMl  dealgnatna  a  commiaaloner, 
noiulnaliia  a  trunti  «  for  llin  proiierty  of  the  Inaidvent, 
and  calls  the  cMdltora,  who  ciiiuisn  anmn  assignees, 
who  are  to  lia  taken  from  among  the  creditnrs,  or 
their  atioriiKya,  In  Knglnnd,  thn  coinmlaaloners  of 
bankruptcy  urn  juilgea,  •iFi'etnd  by  tho  l.ord  Chancel- 
lor, one  fur  eucli  dlalrlet,  All  Inglalalton  provides  for 
tiie  remuneration  of  tli"  iiaalgnena,  trualeea,  or  adiniii- 
istrutora ;  those  remunitratlona  urn  flxed  liy  Art.  Mtm, 
Spanish  code,  J'ortugtiKsn  eoile,  Kuaalan  code,  etc.,  etc, 
eitlier  upon  a  ileterttiliied  share,  or  the  receipts  wliich 
they  have  ntali/.ed,  or  liy  remuneration,  valued  by  the 

tribunal,    Tha  Hpiiiilali In  prolilbta  an  attorney  from 

repreaenting  morn  llmii  onn  creditor  |  and  the  Portu- 
guese code  pridillilta  it  crndltor  from  representing  an- 
other creditor  at  Ilia  meetings, 

In  order  that  an  liiaolvettt  may  obtain  a  settlement, 
there  need  bu,  In  l''riiiieii  ntid  In  Itussia,  a  tnajnrity  nf 
tlie  creditor*  and  tliran  fourth*  of  the  debts.  In  Scot- 
land, u  majority  and  lliren  fifths  of  tho  delita.  In 
Spain,  one  mora  tiMiii  tlm  half  of  rredltora  and  three 
liftlis  of  the  debts,  Tlm  wlfn  of  tho  iaaolvent  has  no 
deiiberativu  voice  timrit  III  tlm  resolutions  relative  to 
the  settlement,  In  llollnnd,  In  Portugal,  In  Wurtcm- 
burg,  and  according  to  tlm  onlltmnco  of  Bllboa,  the 
two  third*  of  ordinary  creditor*  and  three  fourths  of 
debts,  or  the  tlireu  l^iiirtli*  of  the  creditors  and  two 
third*  of  the  delita  imial  Im  added  toguther,  Tlie  Prus- 
sian code,  which  divide*  tlm  creditors  Into  six  clas.scs, 
exacts  the  majority  un  *utii  ntiil  clasaea  i  In  case  of  di- 
vision of  claaaaa,  tlm  aelttcmetit  may  bo  adopted  liy 
the  one  und  rejected  by  iiiiotlmr  i  but  if  tho  division 
is  Impracticable,  tlm  lUelarntlott  nf  division  shall  be 
equivalent  then  to  a  refusal,  With  respect  to  the 
confirmation,  Iwtli  In  Franca  nnd  In  Spain,  it  can  only 
be  pronounced  eight  day*  after  Ilia  settlement  iias  been 
nlitained.  The  (tisietttlng  creditor*,  according  to  tlic 
Spaniiih  coda,  can  not  form  oppoaltlnn  tu  It,  unless  on 
occount  of  defects  In  the  foriMs  of  calling  the  meet- 
ings, on  account  of  culluslon,  ur  of  want  of  legitimate 
rights  In  the  partht*  voting,  or  of  fraudulent  exaggera- 
tion of  their  debt*  |  ami  In  Holland,  when  the  assets 
exceed  the  sum  eiiterad  in  thn  settlement.  The  Dutch 
coila  and  the  French  law  render  the  conflmiation 
obligatory  u[Km  all  tbe  orvditon  both  abacnt  and 


INS 


1083 


TNS 


pNNiit,  Md  (rtn  upon  thoi*  who  have  nnt  b«en 
calM. 

Tb«  rlRhtu  of  fflralKn  creditnra  ara  f(en«rally  r«KU- 
Utad  by  traatim,  Prufmia,  or  l>y  the  rl)(ht  of  reciproc- 
ity, Auatriu  By  the  French  code  nf  civil  procndure, 
two  months  are  ffranted  to  creditnm  realdinR  in  Kn- 
gUnd  to  prove  their  delita.  liy  the  Sardinian  rode, 
iuch  delay  la  throe  montha. — (!om.  hm  nf  the  World, 
by  Lkomb  Lkvi.     I^ndon,  1860.     3  vola. 

Unittd  Utatei. — There  is  not  any  bankrupt  ayatem 
In  exiatence  under  tho  government  of  the  United 
States.  An  act  of  Congress  was  passed  on  the  aulijnct 
In  1841,  but  It  was  rcpealvd  in  IHIII,  .  Tho  several 
States  are  left  free  to  Institute  their  own  bankrupt 
ayatem  Inaolvent  lawa  prevail  tlirouglmut  the  Union. 
In  the  Statea  of  Maine,  Now  Ilumpshlru,  Massachu- 
setts, Virginia,  and  Kentucky,  thny  are  confined  to 
the  relief  of  debtors  charged  in  execution.  In  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  North  and 
South  Curnlina,  (ieorgia,  Alabama,  MIsaissippi,  and 
Illinois,  the  Insolvent  laws  extend  to  delitors  In 
priaon  on  mesne  or  Hnal  proceas.  In  New  York, 
Connecticut,  Rho<le  Island,  Pennaylvanin,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, Missouri,  and  Louisiana,  they  are  still  mora 
extenalve,  and  reach  tho  debtor  whether  in  or  out  of 
prison.  The  following  is  an  abatract  of  the  laws  of  the 
several  States  In  reference  to  summar)-  uttachmunt 
against  insolvents : 

I.  A  tabama Original  attachments,  foreign  and  do- 

meatic,  are  Issued  by  judges  of  the  circuit  or  county 
courts,  or  justices  of  the  peace.  An  attachment  may 
issue,  although  the  delit  or  demand  of  the  plaintiff  lie 
not  due ;  and  shall  be  allien  on  the  property  attached, 
until  the  debt  or  domand  becomes  due,  when  judgment 
shall  be  rendered  and  execution  issued.  A  non-resi- 
dent plaintlfT  may  have  un  attachment  against  the 
property  of  i  non-resident  defendant ;  provided  ho 
gives  good  diA  sufficient  reaident  security  in  the  re- 
quired Innd ;  making  oath  that  the  defendant  has  not 
sufficient  property  within  the  State  of  defendant's 
residence  to  satisfy  the  debt  or  demand. 

II.  Artaiuat.  —  An  attachment  may  be  issued 
against  the  property  of  a  non-resident ;  and  also 
against  a  resident  of  the  State  when  the  latter  is  about 
to  remove  out  of  the  State ;  or  is  about  to  remove  his 
goods  or  effects  ;  or  about  to  secreto  himself  so  that 
the  ordinany  process  of  law  can  not  be  served  on  him. 

III.  Cali/i)mia. — 1.  Creditors  may  proceed  by  at- 
tachment wlien  the  defendant  has  absconded,  or  is 
about  to  abscond  from  tho  State ;  or  is  concealed 
therein  to  the  injur}-  of  his  creditors.  2.  When  the 
defendant  has  removed,  or  is  about  to  remove,  any 
of  his  property  out  of  tlie  State,  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud hia  creditors.  3.  When  tlie  defendant  fraudu- 
lently contracted  the  debt,  or  incurred  the  obligation, 
respecting  which  the  suit  is  brought.  4.  When  the 
defendant  is  a  non-resident.  6.  When  he  has  fraudu- 
lently conveyed,  disposed  of,  or  concealed  hia  property, 
or  a  part  of  it ;  or  intends  to  convey  tlie  same  to  de- 
fraud bis  creditors.  In  California  the  real  estate  shall 
be  bound,  and  tho  vttachment  shall  be  a  lien  thereon, 
although  the  debt  or  demand  doe  the  plaintiff  be  not 
due — in  case  the  defendant  is  about  to  remove  himself 
or  his  property  from  the  State.  The  law  of  attachment 
applies  in  California,  tehen  the  contract  hai  b*en  made  in 
that  State,  or  when  made  payable  in  that  State. 

ly.    Connecticut Attachment   may   be   granted 

against  the  goods  and  chattels  and  land  of  the  defend- 
ant ;  and  likewise  against  his  person  when  not  ex- 
empted f^om  imprisonment  on  the  execution  in  the 
suit.  The  plaintiff  to  give  bonda  to  prosecute  bis 
cUim  to  effect. 

V.  Delaware.— Xwiit  of  domestic  attachment  Issues 
against  an  inhabitant  of  Delawaru  when  the  defendant 
can  not  bo  found  ;  or  has  absconded  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud his  creditors ;  and  a  writ  of  foreign  attachment 
when  the  defendant  ia  not  an  inhabitant  of  this  State. 


This  attachment  la  diaaolveil  by  tha  daf^dant's  ajv 
pearing  und  putting  in  special  bull  at  any  time  Iwfur* 
judgment. 

VI.  Flimila. — An  attuibmnnt  iaauea  whan  the 
amount  ia  actually  ilue,  nnd  the  defendant  is  actually 
removing  out  of  the  State,  or  aliicoodi  or  conceals 
himaelf. 

VII.  ffroryiffl.  — A  Judge  iif  Ih.i  auperlor  court,  or 
a  justice  of  the  interior  cciiiil,  or  a  jUHtico  of  the 
peace,  may  gront  an  attnclmifnt  against  a  delitor 
whether  the  debt  lie  matured  <  r  nut,  when  tliu  lat- 
ter la  removing  without  tlio  limitii  ,if  the  State,  or 
any  ntunly,  or  conceals  himiu'lf.  Tho  remedy  liy  at- 
tachment mpy  lie  renorted  to  liy  non-rcolilent  as  well 
as  by  resident  creditors.  The  iiecoasar}'  ufliiluvit  may 
be  made  liefore  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the 
State  to  take  affidavits.  Indorsars  nf  notes,  obliga- 
tions, and  all  other  instruments  in  writing,  nre  entitled 
to  the  aamo  remedy  ua  provided  for  seeuritiea.  In  all 
casea  the  attachment  llrst  servi'il  shall  be  first  satisfied. 
No  lien  ahnll  Im>  created  by  tlii'  l»vying  of  an  attach- 
ment, to  the  exrliision  of  any  judgment  obtained  by 
any  creditor,  lipforo  Judgment  is  obtained  by  the  at- 
taching creditor. 

VIII.  IHinoiii. — Attachmenta  are  Isaued  by  the 
clorka  of  the  circuit  court,  when  affidavit  ia  filed  that 
the  defendant  baa  departed,  or  la  about  to  depart,  out 
of  the  State,  or  conceals  himself,  so  that  proceas  can 
not  be  served  upon  hiro. 

IX.  Indiana. — The  property  of  an  inhabitant  of  the 
State  may  Ih)  attached,  whenever  be  Is  secretly  leav- 
ing the  State,  or  aliall  have  left  the  State  with  intent 
to  defraud  bis  creditors.  The  property  of  a  non- 
resident ia  liable  to  attachment  as  in  other  States. 

X.  Iowa. — Tlie  plaintiff  may  cause  any  property  (if 
the  defendant,  which  is  not  subject  to  execution,  to  be 
attached  at  the  commencement,  or  during  the  progrena, 
of  the  proceedings,  whether  the  claim  be  matured  or 
not;  provided  an  affidavit  is  Hied  to  the  effect  that 
the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  acting  us 
such,  or  that  bo  Is  a  non-resident  of  the  State,  or  (if  a 
resident)  that  he  ia  in  some  manner  about  to  dispose 
of  or  remove  his  property  out  of  the  State. 

XI.  Kentucky. — 1.  The  plaintiff  may  have  an  uttacii- 
ment  against  the  property  of  the  defendant  when  tiie 
latter  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  a  non-resident  of  this 
State ;  or,  2,  who  has  been  absent  therefrom  four 
months ;  or,  3,  has  departed  from  the  State  with  in- 
tent to  defraud  bis  creditors ;  or,  4,  has  left  the  county 
of  his  residence  to  avoid  tiie  sorvicti  of  a  summons,  or 
conceals  himself  that  a  summons  can  not  roach  him ; 
or,  6,  is  about  to  remove  bis  property,  or  a  material 
part  thereof,  out  of  tho  State  ;  or,  6,  boa  sold  or  con- 
veyed bis  property  with  the  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors,  or  ia  about  so  to  sell  or  convey.  Such  at- 
tachment is  binding  upon  the  defendant's  property  in 
the  county  from  the  timo  of  the  delivery  of  tlie  order 
to  the  sherifT. 

XII.  Louisiana. — A  creditor  may  obtain  an  attach- 
ment against  the  property  of  bis  debtor  upon  affidavit : 
1,  when  the  latter  ia  about  leaving  permanently  the 
State  liefore  obtaining  or  executing  judgment  against 
him ;  2,  when  the  debtor  resides  out  of  the  State ;  8, 
when  be  conceals  himself  to  avoid  being  cited  to  an- 
swer to  a  suit,  and  provided  the  term  of  payment  have 
arrived.  In  tho  absence  of  the  creditor,  the  oath  may 
be  made  by  hia  agent  or  attorney,  to  best  of  bis  knowl- 
edge and  belief. 

XIII.  Maine.— \xt  this  State,  an  original  writ  may 
be  framed  either  to  attach  the  goods  or  estate  of  the 
defendant,  or  for  want  thereof  to  take  his  body.  All 
goods  and  chattels  may  be  attached  by  the  creditor 
and  held  as  security  pending  any  suit  against  the 
debtor.  Such  a  writ  will  authorize  an  attachment  of 
goods  and  estate  of  the  principal  defendant,  in  bis 
own  bands,  as  well  as  in  the  hands  of  trustees.  Real 
estate,  liable  to  be  taken  in  execution,  may  be  attached. 


i! 


.1.-1 


158 


ioa4 


INS 


XIV.  tfarylani—K  cmdltor  may  nlitiln  an  allach- 
mant,  whrthtr  h«  Iw  a  cilUm  of  Miirj  Inml  nr  nnt, 
UKulnit  hi*  cluljtiir,  who  i«  not  a  litlr.iMi  of  thin  Nliitn, 
uiiil  not  rraicllnic  thcnln,  \t  any  rltltrn  of  thn  Stntx, 
\»'\n^  Inilalitnil  to  aiiothnr  dtiiKii  lliprrof,  aliiill  iiitu- 
nlly  run  away  or  almnmil,  or  unirrtly  ri-movn  lilin>i<ir 
rriini  hill  plain  of  alHxIii,  with  intent  to  xviiiln  lhi<  yay- 
nicnt  of  hia  Jniit  (Ivhta,  nn  attHchini'nt  nmy  Im  olitiilni-<l 
aKulnnt  him.  An  attaihrnont  may  Im  luiil  ii|N>n  ilnhtii 
ju«th«  (Irfvnilant  U|Hin  JiulKnicntn  or  ilnirixo  n-nilxml 
or  panaxd  hy  any  court  of  thiit  Stulp,  ami  Juil)(nii'nl  nt 
nini'.rninatlon  thnrror  may  lj«  huci,  an  U|)on  oth»r  ilelita 
<lu«  thfl  ilffpnilant. 

XV.  Miuutehutrlla. — Original  writ"  may  1«  framnil, 
dither  to  attarh  th«  ^tmiU  nr  I'^tatn  of  thn  ilxrouihint, 
or  for  want  thereof  to  tukn  hIa  iKidy  ;  or,  there  may  lie 
an  orl|{lnal  aummonii,  either  with  or  without  an  order 
ti>  attach  the  ^oihU  ur  eatnte.  All  real  eittate,  or  kimhIh 
and  chatteU  that  are  lialda  to  !>«  taken  In  execution, 
may  b«  attached  niHin  the  orli{lnal  writ,  in  any  action 
in  which  any  doht  or  dama)(eii  are  recoveraliie,  and 
may  l)«  held  aa  nccurlty  to  nathfy  auch  Judifinent  aa 
the  plaintilT  may  recover. 

XVI.  MicMyun, — The  );rounda  of  attachment  in  tlila 
Ntate  are,  1,  that  the  defendant  haa  aliKcon<led,  or  in 
aliout  to  ahncond,  or  haa  concealod  himnelf ;  'i,  that  he 
liaa  aanlgned,  ur  concealed,  or  la  aliout  to  remove,  Ilia 
pMporty  with  ii  view  to  defrauil ;  ,'),  that  he  fk'anilu- 
lently  contracted  the  dolit,  or  Incurred  the  olili)(atii  ii, 
about  which  tlie  ault  U  lirouKht ;  I,  that  he  la  not  > 
ri-'aident  of  tlie  State,  or  liaa  not  reaided  there  thr  •' 
months  immediately  precedinK  tlie  auit ;  ft,  that  the 
defendant  ia  a  foreign  cor|iorati<in. 

XVII.  .ViMiMi/i/ii. — An  attachment  ajtainat  tlie  ea- 
t.ite,  incluilln)(  real  elate,  alavcn,  ^oiHla,  chattcia, 
etc.,  of  a  debtor,  whi'  i  it  ia  ahown  that  he  haa  re- 
moved, or  ia  aliout  rcoiovinK  or  abacondiuft  from  the 
State,  or  privately  ciniceala  himaelf.  Attachment  alao 
Ilea  againat  the  property  of  non-realilent  decedenta. 
It  may  lio  olitained  liefciro  the  clelit  ia  duo  for  whicli  it 
laauea,  when  the  creditor  has  )(''"«>«l  tu  lioiiove  tliat 
the  debtor  will  remove  with  hia  elTecta  out  of  the 
Mtate,  or  baa  removed. 

XVIII.  Miitouri An  attachment  may  bo  laaiied 

liere  when  the  debtor  ia  not  a  reaident  of  the  .State; 
or,  if  a  resident,  when  hn  abaconda,  abaenta,  or  con- 
ceals himself;  or  is  about  to  remove  hia  pro|Mjrty,  or 
fraudulently  convey  it,  with  a  view  to  liinder  or  delay 
his  creditors ;  or,  2,  where  the  debt  waa  contracted  out 
of  the  8tate,  ami  the  ilebKir  haa  secretly  reiniovud  his 
elTects  into  this  Htate  with  intent  to  defraud. 

XIX.  fi'ew  JIampthirt. — In  this  State  a  writ  of  at- 
tachment may  be  Issued  upon  the  Institution  of  any 
personal  action  ;  and  will  hold  real  and  iMTaonal  pro|)- 
erty,  shares  of  stock  In  corporations,  pewa  In  chunhes, 
and  the  franchise  of  any  i  onmrution  authorized  t.  >  re- 
ceive tolls,  until  the  perin.l  of  thirty  days  from  the 
time  of  rendering  the  judgnK  nt. 

XX.  SewJeriry. — An  att;K  hment  mar  issue  at  the 
Instance  of  a  creditor  (or  in  his  aliM^nce,  of  his  af^ent 
or  attorney),  against  the  pn>p<rty  of  a  debtor  when 
tlie  latter  is  almut  to  abaiond  from  the  State,  or  ii  not 
a  resident  of  the  State,  or  ia  a  foreign  cnrponition. 

XXI.  Ntw  Yirrk. — Any  creilltor  to  the  amount  of 
|25  may  compel  the  assignment  of  their  latates  by 
debtors  imprisonrd  on  execution  in  civil  causes  for 
more  than  (10  years.  If  the  debtor  refuses  to  be  ex- 
amined, and  to  iliaclose  his  affairs,  lie  is  liable  tn  lie 
c<imniltted  to  close  conflnement.  If  he  refuxos  to  ren- 
der an  account  inventory,  and  make  an  saHignmcnt, 
be  will  not  be  entitled  to  his  discharge ;  though  the 
ofScer  having  jurisdictiun  in  the  case  is  authoriied  to 
make  the  assignment  for  him.  The  proceedinga,  and 
the  effect;  of  tlic  discharge,  when  duly  obtained,  and 
the  duties  of  the  <lebtor,  and  the  rights  of  the  credit- 
ors, are  essentially  the  same  aa  in  the  case  of  priuc'cd- 
ingi  with  the  tuaent  of  two  thirds  of  tha  creditors. 


3.  Rrary  Ininlrant  dahlor  may  alao  petition  tha  pro- 
per offlcara  fur  leave  voluntarily  to  assign  hia  eatatii 
for  thn  lianallt  of  his  I'radltora  i  and  thn  aame  priHeail. 
ings  and  checks  are  aubaliintlally  preacrilmd  aa  in  otlu<r 
cases  of  insolvency.  His  disihargo,  obtained  in  such 
a  case,  exenipta  him  from  iiiipriaoniiient,  aa  to  ilejiti 
liun  at  thn  timn  of  the  aanlgnniciit,  or  previously  con- 
tracted ;  and  as  to  llabllltlea  Incurred  by  niiilklti)(  m 
indoraing  any  promlaaory  note  or  bill  nf  i<\ihungii, 
Itut  the  diw'harge  doca  not  alfect  or  'nipair  any  debt 
demanil,  payment,  or  decree  against  tha  Insolvent  j 
and  they  remain  giHul  agalnat  hia  property  uciiuirccl 
after  the  exruutlon  uf  tliu  uaalgnnient ;  and  the  limi  i,f 
Judgment  and  liecree  is  not  all'ecteil  by  tliu  discharge. 

H.  The  creditor  at  wlioae  auit  thn  debtor  la  iiii. 
prisoneil,  may  reipiire  him,  after  the  expiration  of  thruo 
months,  to  make  the  assignment,  anil  hia  refusal  will 
forever  bar  him  from  his  discharge  under  this  provisiiin. 

4.  ('or|Hiratlona  being  creditora,  may  petition  by  a 
director,  or  other  oltlcer,  acting  under  the  ciir|Hiriite 
aeal ;  and  aiich  director  ur  olllcnr,  may  inakn  tlie  reijui- 
alto  afHdavits.  H'l  one  Joint  partner  may  act  aa  ii 
creditor  for  tlio  llrm ;  ami  jirovlaion  is  iiiado  fur  tlia 
acconimoilatlon  of  nun-resiiient  creditors. 

Ti.  Debts  purchased  below  the  nominal  amount  enti- 
tle the  creilltor  to  act  to  the  amount  of  the  sum  act- 
ually and  liuni\  tide  paid ;  nor  Is  a  creditor  having  u 
aecurlty  |H'rmltted  to  laMiimo  a  i>etitloner  unless  he 
reliiu|uiahos  his  security  for  the  common  benetit  of  tliu 
creditora.  The  aaaignmunta  and  diaclmi'goa  in  these 
inaolvent  caacs  are  to  be  recorded  liy  the  clerk  of  the 
county  in  which  they  wore  exociitoil.  No  debt  or 
duty  tu  the  United  Stutea  ia  affected  by  any  such  dl:^ 
charge,  not  oven  as  to  the  remedy  by  Impriaiinment ; 
but  debta  and  dutiea  to  the  State,  except  taxea,  are 
placed  u|Hin  the  same  footing  aa  debts  to  individuals. 

)l.  The  nsaignment  uf  the  insolvent  passes  ail  his 
interest,  legal  and  ei{ultabln,  existing  at  the  time  of 
execulinK  the  ttsaignment  in  any  estate,  real  or  per- 
sonal ;  but  no  contingent  interest  passes  unleaa  It  shall 
liocomo  vested  within  three  years  after  making  tlie  as- 
signment, and  then  it  passes.  I'roliabiUtles  couplcil 
with  an  interest  are  assignable  ;  but  not  bare  |iossibil- 
Itics,  such  as  the  ex|>ectancy  of  an  liclr.  Tlio  assign- 
ment does  not  affect  property  hold  by  the  debtor  in 
truat ;  nor  does  the  aaaignment  by  the  insolvent  iius- 
l)and  affect  the  property  settled  to  the  separate  use  uf 
thn  wif«  free  and  dear  of  her  husband. 

7.  The  insolvent  liiachargcs  apply  only  to  debts  ex- 
isting when  the  petition,  inventory,  and  schedule  of 
debts  are  presented,  and  not  so  as  to  cover  debts  con- 
tracted between  that  time  and  tlie  time  of  the  dis- 
charge. 

8.  The  property  assigned  is  distributed  rataiily 
among  all  the  creditors,  subject,  nevortheleaa,  to  exist- 
ing leical  liens  and  priorities  existing  before  the  as- 
aigniiiient ;  and  under  the  New  York  inaolvent  laws,  a 
crniiiliir  can  not  become  a  petitiiming  creditor  in  re- 
apect  to  any  debt  secured  by  a  legal  lien,  unless  he 
praviousl}'  rellnquishei  that  lien  for  the  general  benefit 
of  the  creditors. 

9.  The  attachment-law  of  New  York  is  a  legal 
mode,  by  wblcb,  a  title  to  property  may  be  acquired 
by  operation  of  law.  When  the  debtor,  who  is  an  in- 
habitant of  New  York,  absconds,  or  is  concealed,  a 
creditor  to  whom  lie  owes  ijioo,  or  any  two,  to  whom 
be  owes  $li>0,  or  any  three,  to  whom  he  owes  ^300, 
may,  on  application  to  a  judge  or  commissioner,  and 
on  due  proof  of  tha  debt,  and  of  the  departure  or  con- 
cealment, procure  his  real  and  personal  estate  to  be 
attached ;  and  on  due  public  notice  of  the  proceeding, 
if  the  debtor  does  not  within  three  months  return  and 
satisfy  the  creditor,  or  appear  and  offer  to  contest  the 
fact  of  having  absconded,  or  offer  to  appear  and  con- 
test the  validity  of  the  demand  and  give  the  requisite 
security,  then  trustees  arc  to  bo  appointed  who  liecumo 
vested  with  the  debtor's  estate :  and  tbey  are  to  col 


INS 


1080 


INS 


I  th<i  pro* 

Ilia  imUtit 
»  pr»«'««t!- 
•  In  uthiir 

III  111  DUI'll 

I  to  ilaliti 
iiualy  (Wn- 
iiiiktIiiK  «i 
iivctiunK"' 

»fiy  ilnlit, 
Inicilvniit ; 
y  iiiiiulrwl 

tliH  linn  iif 
i\lsi'liitrKi>. 
itor  lit  Ini- 
lull  of  tlir«n 
rnfumil  will 
iaprovliiliin. 
aliliin  liy  » 
in  ciiriKiriita 
;o  tliii  rmiul- 
iiy  ai:t  an  A 
iniwls  fur  till 

uninimt  full- 
lie  Kum  net- 
Itor  Imvln^  u 
ler  uiilemi  hu 
liiMiellt  of  tlio 
I'Uni  111  tli'i"" 
1  cUtW  of  the 

No  ilolit  »r 
any  »ueh  iH^- 
niirlnonmoiil  i 
Bpt  tiixeii,  are 

IniUvlduiiU. 
imnnen  nil  hi" 
it  the  tiiiK'  "f 
p,  roiil  or  por- 
uiiIpsh  It  shuU 
imkiii|4  the  »«• 
lilltien  coupleil 

bare  (lomlhll- 
Tlio  u»»lnn- 

th«  debtor  In 

iiiHolvcnt  lius- 
Icpiirato  U9U  of 

|ly  to  debts  ox- 
ii'd  schBdule  of 
r  debt*  con- 
uifl  of  the  dls- 

Hbutcd  ratably 
jhclcBS.tocxlst- 
J  before  the  tts- 
|»olvcnt  laws,  a 
,  creditor  in  ro- 
'  lien,  unless  he 
1  general  bcnelit 

fork  is  a  legal 
Lay  be  ocquirod 
fr,  who  is  an  In- 
lis  concoiiled,  a 
ly  two,  to  whom 
fi  lie  owes  ^300, 

nmiBsioner,  and 
lepuTturo  or  con- 
Val  estate  to  be 
j  the  prococdinR, 
Jinths  return  and 
Ir  to  contest  the 
Xppear  and  con- 
live  the  requisite 
liti>d  who  becumB 

,  they  are  to  col 


l*ct  init  mH  It.  and  ••(tie  controverslM,  and  make  divi- 
dends «inon)(  all  bla  creilltcirK,  in  thu  nuHln  prutcribtd. 

10,  Kroiii  the  time  of  111*  notice,  all  •alea  and  »•- 
illinmenta  by  the  debtor  are  deilareil  to  \m  void.  If 
lb«  dalilor  reaiiloa  out  of  the  Htate,  anil  In  itidabted  on 
•  contract  made  within  the  Ntale,  ur  tii  a  creditor  reiii- 
dinii  within  thn  Ntiite,  nltlloiiKJi  upon  a  contract  made 
ulaewhere,  hia  property  is  liable  to  l,e  attui  bed  and 
■old  In  lllie  inuniier  j  but  the  triiatees  aie  not  tu  be  aii- 
polnted  until  niu*  months  after  publi  i  notice  of  the 
proceedlnKa, 

11.  I'crlaliable  ((oods,  iitlier  than  vessels,  when  at- 
tached iindvr  the  AbacoiiilInK  Debtor  Art,  may  be  lin- 
medlatelv  "old  and  convurteil  Into  money  |  and  If  the 
iherllT,  under  the  attachment,  teliea  pro|ierty  claimed 
by  third  persona,  he  Is  tu  auiiiinoii  a  Jury  and  to  take 
their  ini|ulaltlon  as  to  the  title  to  tlie  pni|ierty  claimed. 

\'i.  If  any  American  vessel  lielonKinK  to  the  debtor 
bo  attached  under  these  pniceedinxa,  it  nmy  be  re- 
leased on  the  claimant  of  the  vessel  )|lvlnK  security 
to  pay  the  amount  of  the  valuation  of  the  vessel 
to  the  trustees,  or  tu  the  debtor,  as  the  case  may  be  ; 
and  if  It  lie  a  foreign  vesaoi  claimed  by  a  tlilnl  per- 
•on,  the  attuchln)(  creditor  must  give  security  to  pros- 
ecute the  atlacliinent,  ami  to  pay  the  dainaK«s  if  It 
•hould  appear  that  the  vessel  beloii)(ed  to  the  claimant. 

III.  A  creditor,  having  an  unli(|uidatcd  demand  rest- 
ing on  contract,  is  u  creditor  within  the  Absconding 
Debtor  Act,  and  competent  tu  apply  for  the  attach- 
ment. Any  creditor  may  proceed  against  on  abscond- 
ing ur  (Hincoalcd  debtor,  lioing  an  Inliabitant  of  the 
State,  or  against  any  non-resident  debtor.  If  the  con- 
tract wus  made  in  Now  York  j  but  If  the  contract  was 
made  elsewhere,  then  the  creditor  must  bo  a  resident 
of  the  State. 

M.  Attachment-laws  against  the  property,  real  and 
peraunul,  of  absconding  and  non•re^^ident  debtors  pre- 
vail throughout  the  several  United  States,  but  those 
stutiito  laws  are  not  uniform  on  this  |xiint. 

XXII.  A'orlh  Carolina — An  attachment  may  Issue 
on  the  complaint  of  a  creditor,  his  agent,  attorney  or 
factor,  against  the  property  of  a  debtor  when  ho  has 
removed,  or  is  about  to  remove,  privately  from  the 
State,  so  that  the  ordinary  process  of  bit)  will  not 
reach  him. 

XXIII.  Ohio. — 1.  A  creditor  rocuro,  licfore  or 
after  thu  maturity  of  the  claim,  .  ,  .ittachmcBt  against 
the  property  of  a  debtor,  wh>'ti>  Uie  latter  Is  a  foreign 
corporation  or  a  non-rcsideat ,  "f  if  a  resident,  when 
he  has  ali8conde>l,  or  left  the  cuumty  of  his  residence, 
or  conceals  himself  •  or  ■«  »bouli  to  remove  or  convert 
his  property,  with  a  vi..  »  to  defraud  his  creditors.  2. 
When  the  debtor  f r:iiid  «.ioutly  contracted  the  debt,  or 
Incurred  the  obligui  Mn. 

XXIV.  I'euiuijl'  .mill.— In  this  State  the  writ  of  do- 
mestic attachment  issues  against  any  debtor,  lieing  an 
inhaliitant  of  the  State,  if  he  has  absconded  from  his 
usual  place  of  ahwjo  ;  or  shall  bavo  remained  absent 
from  tlie  State,  or  shall  have  contined  himself  in  hia 
own  house,  or  concealed  himself  cWewhoro,  to  defraud 
bis  creditors.  No  second  attachment  will  be  issued 
against  the  same  property,  unless  the  ilrst  be  not  exe- 
cuted, or  be  dissolved  by  the  court.  A  writ  of  attach- 
ment may  lie  also  issued  against  the  property  of  a 
foreign  corporation  or  a  non-resident.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  attachment  inures  to  the  beneflt  of  the  at- 
taching creditor  only.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  for 
the  benefit  of  creditors  at  largo. 

XXV.  Itkoile  Inland.— \n  this  State  a  writ  of  at- 
tachment is  tlrst  levied  against  the  body  of  the  de- 
fendant ;  and  if  ho  can  not  be  found,  then  against  hia 
goods  and  chattels.  The  property  of  foreign  corporu- 
tiuiis  and  debtors  is  also  liable  to  attachment,  at  tho 
suit  of  a  creditor. 

XXVI.  South  Carolina.— A  writ  of  attachment  will 
issue,  at  the  instanco  of  a  creditor  wherever  resid- 
ing, against  a  debtor  when  he  is  a  non-residenk— or 


against  a  citiun  who  has  been  abaeni  more  than  a 
year  ami  a  day  i  or  when  ha  abaiunds  or  la  removing 
out  of  th-i  county  j  or  conceals  bimaelf  so  that  the 
unllnarv  nrw^eaa  of  law  can  not  reach  him. 

XXVII.  Trnnrtttr. — When  n  debtor  has  removed, 
or  Is  about  to  rviiiov*  out  of  the  county  privately,  or 
absconds  or  conceals  himaidf,  un  att.ichmrnt  may  b« 
obtained  against  bla  property,  iit  thu  suit  of  a  creditor, 
ur  Ills  agent,  atturney,  ur  factor.  In  the  caao  of  non- 
resident debtors,  having  any  real  or  pnriiunal  pro|i«rty 
in  tlie  State,  it  is  reiiulriil,  In  order  to  obtain  an  at- 
tacbment,  tu  file  a  bill  In  chancery, 

XXVIII.  Trj-iu. — Original  attachments  are  Issued 
against  tho  property  of  a  ilebtor  when  ha  Is  not  to  be 
found  In  the  county  ;  and  the  property  attached  shall 
rrmaiii  in  custody  until  llnal  Judgment.  Attaidiineiit 
win  also  lie  when  the  defendant  la  a  non-resident ;  ur 
when  a  reaident  is  about  to  remove  out  of  tho  State  ; 
and  whether  the  debt  lie  matured  or  not. 

XXIX.  Vrnmmt. — Writs  of  attachment  may  Issue 
against  the  goods,  chattels,  or  estate  of  the  defendant, 
or  fur  want  thereof,  against  hli  Imdy,  before  or  after 
the  maturity  of  u  claim.  Actions  iigiiliint  nun-rosi- 
ilenta,  ur  when  tho  defendant  baa  iibscunded  fruni  the 
State,  may  lie  commenced  by  trustee  process, 

X.YX.  lVri/mi((,— Tho  property  of  the  defendant, 
If  a  nun-reslilent,  or  n  reaident  who  is  about  tu  remove 
himself  ur  elfects  from  the  State,  is  Uablu  to  attach- 
inciit.  An  attachment  In  such  cases  will  bold  before 
tho  claim  is  due  and  payaldo. 

XXXI.  Witfomin. — An  attachment  will  hold  against 
the  property  of  u  delitur  when  he  has  abacunded,  ur  is 
about  to  abscond,  from  the  State ;  ur  has  fraudulently 
assigned,  disposed  of,  or  concealed  Ills  effects ;  or  re- 
moved Ills  property  from  the  State ;  or  when  the  de- 
fendant Is  a  non-resident  or  a  foreign  corporation, 

XXXII.  Minneiiita. — A  warrant  of  attachment  may 
bo  issued  against  tho  property  of  a  defendant  when  u 
foreign  corporation ;  or,  when  not  a  resident  of  this 
Territory  ;  or,  3,  has  left  the  Territory  with  Intent  to 
defraud  his  creditors. 

Thus  it  will  bo  seen  that  in  all  tho  States  thu  prop 
orty  of  non-residents  and  foreign  corporiiti  j  is  liable 
to  attachments  at  tho  suit  of  creditors,  iiure  Judg- 
ment is  rendered ;  likewise  against  domestic  debtor:! 
when  thev  have  absconded  from  the  State,  or  have 
fraudulently  convoyed,  or  are  about  to  convey,  sell,  as- 
sign, or  Bocreto  their  effects.  In  sumo  few  States, 
however,  even  this  conditiim  is  luU  essential  before  a 
writ  of  attachment  will  issue. 

In  tho  States  of  Alabama,  Massachusetts,  Connec- 
ticut, Maine,  Now  IlnmpsbiK,  Vermont,  and  Rhodo 
Island,  the  creditor  may  have  a  writ  of  attachment 
against  tho  property  of  the  debtor  ut  thu  first  institu- 
tion of  a  suit ;  and  without  any  ground  of  fraud  or 
fraudulent  intent  -such  property  being  held  by  tho 
attachment  until  the  terniinution  of  the  Gult,  or  until 
judgment ;  the  plaintiff  in  such  cases  giving  bond  or 
security  to  indeinnify  the  defendant  for  any  loss  or 
damage  Hii;<tained,  si  la  the  caso  be  decided  in  fa- 
vor of  the  latter.  •  icnerally,  tho  property  Is  liable 
only  wliun  actually  levied  upon ;  but  in  the  State  of 
Kentucky  only,  the  |  ruperty  is  liable  from  the  mo- 
ment of  tho  deliver}'    >'  tho  order  to  tho  sberifT. 

The  reach  1  will  f'iis.l  tho  Americon  law  on  this  sub- 
ject fully  illustrated  in  "A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Suits  by  Attachment  in  tho  United  States.  By  CilAS. 
D.  Drake,  of  the  St.  Louis  Bar."  8vo.  Published 
by  Messrs.  Little  &  Brown,  Boston ;  to  which  work 
wo  are  indebted  for  tho  present  abstract.  Cn  the  sub- 
jects of  insolvency  and  bankrupt  laws,  see  IIokt's 
.Iftr.  3tag.,  v.,  360,  iv.,  22,  vi,,  419,  vil.,  261,  362,  viii., 
294,  xxi.,  513,  x.xii.,  (}4,  195,  811;  N.  Y.Rev.^Va., 
440;  Am.  Reg.,  ii.,  74;  Weitminsttr  P'V.,  xlvi,,  BOO, 
lij.,  419;  Dcm.  Ha:,  xiii.,  286;  No.  Am.  Rev.,  vU., 
25;  Nit.Ks's  Register,  xix.,  403,  xxi.,  243,  882  (JoHK 

SBBQEAliT),  407  (AkDRBW  StEVBHSON), 


.iff 


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INS 


1086 


INS 


Inraranos,  a  cnntract  of  indemnity,  by  which  one 
party  engages,  for  a  stipulated  sum,  to  insure  another 
Bgainit  a  risk  to  which  he  is  exposed.  The  party  who 
taltes  upon  him  the  risk,  is  called  the  Innircr,  Atnirer, 
or  Underwriter ;  ond  the  party  protected  by  the  insur- 
ance is  called  the  Insured,  or  Assured;  the  sum  paid  is 
called  the  Premium;  and  the  instrument  containing 
the  contract  of  indemnity  is  called  the  Policy. 

Insurance  on  Ships  and  Merchandise. — Suetonius 
conjectures  that  Claudius  was  the  first  contriver  of  it, 
A.D.  43.  Insurance  was  in  general  use  in  Italy 
in  1194,  and  in  England  in  1500.  Insurance  pol- 
icies were  first  used  in  Florence  in  1623.  Tlve  first 
law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted  in  1601.  Insur- 
ance of  houses  and  goods  in  London  began  in  1667. 
This  was  the  year  following  that  of  the  great  flre  of 
London.  An  office  was  then  set  up  for  insuring  houses 
and  buildings,  principally  contrived  by  Dr.  Barton, 
one  of  the  first  and  most  extensive  builders  of  the  city 
of  London.  The  first  regular  office  set  up  in  London 
was  the  Hand-in-Hand,  in  1696.  A  duty  was  laid  on 
insurances  of  Is.  6d.  per  £100  in8ured,"in  1782 :  this 
duty  was  increased  in  1797,  and  whs  variously  altered 
since.  The  date  of  the  first  insurance  office  in  the 
United  States  has  not  been  ascertained. — IIayds. 

This  article  has  been  divided  under  the  general 
heads  of:  I.  Insurance  COeneral  Principles  of ).  II. 
Insurance  (JIarine).  III.  Insurance  (Fire).  IV. 
Insurance  (Life). 

I.  Insurance  (Generai,  PRtNciri.E3  or).— It  is 
the  duty  of  go\-emment  to  assist,  bj'  everj-  means  in  its 
power,  the  eflTorts  of  individuals  to  protect  their  prop- 
erty. Losses  do  not  always  nriso  from  accidental  cir- 
cumstances, but  arc  frequently  ocasioned  by  the 
crimes  and  miscimduct  of  individuals  ;  and  there  are 
no  means  so  eflfectual  for  their  prevention,  when  they 
arise  from  this  source,  as  the  establishment  of  a  vigil- 
ant system  of  police,  and  of  such  an  admipistration  of 
the  law  as  may  be  calculated  to  afford  those  who  are 
injured  a  ready  and  nhcup  method  of  obtaining  everj' 
practicable  redress ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  of  insuring 
the  punishment  of  culprits.  But,  in  despite  of  all 
that  may  be  done  by  government,  and  of  the  utmost 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  individuals,  property  must 
always  be  exposed  to  a  variety  of  casualties  from  fire, 
shipwreck  and  other  unforeseen  disasters.  And  hence 
tho  importance  of  inquiring  how  such  unavoidable 
losses,  when  they  do  occur,  may  be  rendered  least  in- 
jurious. The  loss  of  a  ship,  or  the  conflagration  of  a 
cotton-mill,  is  a  calamity  that  would  press  heavily 
even  on  the  richest  individual.  But  were  it  distributed 
among  several  individuals,  each  would  feel  it  propor- 
tionally less  ;  and  provided  the  number  of  those  among 
whom  It  was  distributed  were  very  considerable,  it 
would  hardly  occasion  ony  sensible  Inconvenience  to 
any  one  in  particular.  Hence  the  advantage  of  com- 
bining to  lessen  the  injurj-  arising  from  the  accidental 
destruction  of  property :  and  it  is  the  diffusion  of  the 
risk  of  loss  over  a  wide  surface,  and  its  valuation,  that 
forms  tho  employment  of  those  engaged  in  insurance. 
Though  it  be  impossible  to  trace  the  circumstances 
which  occasion  those  events  that  are,  on  that  account, 
termed  accidental,  they  are,  notwithstanding,  found  to 
obey  certain  laws.  The  numlier  of  births,  marriages, 
and  deaths  ;  tho  proportions  of  male  to  female,  and  of 
legitimate  to  illegitimate  br  hs  ;  the  ships  cast  away ; 
the  houses  burned ;  and  a  v  t  variety  of  apparently 
accidental  events,  are  yet,  when  our  experience  em- 
braces B  sufficiently  wide  field,  found  to  be  nearly 
equal  in  equal  periods  of  time  j  and  it  is  easy,  (Irom  ob- 
servations made  upon  them,  to  estimate  the  sum  which 
an  Individual  ihoidd  pay,  either  to  guaranty  his  prop- 
erty bom  risk,  or  to  secure  a  certain  sum  for  his  heirs 
at  his  death.  It  must,  however,  be  carefully  observed, 
that  no  confidence  can  bo  placed  in  such  estimates,  un- 
less they  are  deduced  from  a  very  wide  induction. 
Suppose,  for  example,  it  happens  that  during  the  pres- 


ent year  one  bonse  is  accidentally  burned,  in  a  town 
containing  1,000  houses ;  this  would  afford  very  little 
ground  for  presuming  that  the  average  probability  of 
flre  in  that  town  waa  1  to  1,000.  For  it  might  be 
found  that  not  a  single  house  had  been  burned  during 
the  previous  10  years,  or  that  10  were  burned  during 
each  of  these  years.  But  supposing  It  were  ascer- 
talned,  that,  at  an  average  of  10  years,  1  house  hud 
been  annually  burned,  the  presumption  that  1  to  1000 
was  the  real  ratio  of  the  probability  of  flre,  would  bo 
very  much  strengthened ;  and  if  it' were  found  to  ob- 
tain for  20  or  30  years  together,  it  might  be  held,  for 
all  practical  purposes  at  least,  aa  indicating  the  precise 
degree  of  probability. 

Besides  its  being  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
true  measure  of  the  probability  of  any  event,  that  the 
series  ef  events,  of  which  it  is  one,  should  be  observed 
for  a  rather  lengthened  period,  it  is  necessary,  also, 
that  the  events  should  be  numerous,  or  of  pretty  fre- 
quent occurrence.  Suppose  it  were  found,  by  observ- 
ing the  births  and  deaths  of  1,000,000  individuals, 
taken  indiscriminately  from  among  the  whole  popula- 
tion, that  the  mean  duration  of  human  life  was  40 
j-ears  j  we  should  have  but  very  slender  grounds  for 
concluding  that  this  ratio  would  hold  in  the  case  of  the 
noxt  10,  20,  or  30  Individuals  that  are  bom.  Such  a 
number  is  so  small  as  hardly  <o  admit  of  the  operation 
of  what  is  called  the  lau>  of  average.  When  a  large 
number  of  lives  is  taken,  those  that  exceed  the  medium 
term  arc  balanced  by  those  that  fall  short  of  It ;  but 
when  the  number  Is  small,  there  is  comparatively  little 
room  for  the  principle  of  compensation,  and  tho  result 
can  not,  therefore,  be  depended  upon.  It  is  found,  by 
the  experience  of  all  countries  in  which  censuses  of 
tho  population  have  been  taken  with  consideroble  ac- 
curacy, that  the  number  of  male  children  born  Is  to 
that  of  female  children  in  tho  proportion  nearly  of  22 
to  21.  But  unless  the  observations  be  made  on  a  very 
large  scale,  this  result  will  not  be  obtained.  If  we 
look  at  particular  families,  they  sometimes  consist 
wholly  of  boys,  and  sometimes  wholly  of  girls ;  and  it 
is  not  possilde  that  the  boys  can  be  to  the  girls  of  a 
single  family  in  the  ratio  of  22  to  21.  But  when, 
instead  of  confining  our  observations  to  particular  fam- 
ilies, or  even  parishes,  we  extend  them  bo  as  to  em- 
brace a  population  of  600,000,  these  discrepancies 
disappear,  and  we  find  that  there  is  invariably  a 
small  excess  in  the  number  of  males  born  over  the  fe- 
males. 

The  false  inferences  that  have  been  drawn  from  the 
doctrine  of  chances,  have  uniformly,  almost,  proceeded 
from  generalizing  too  rapidly,  or  from  deducing  a  rate 
of  probability  from  eurh  a  number  of  instances  as  do 
nut  give  a  fair  average.  Hut  when  the  instances  on 
which  we  found  our  conclusions  are  sufficiently  numer- 
ous, it  is  seen  that  tho  most  anomalous  events,  such  as 
suicides,  deaths  by  accidents,  the  number  of  letters  put 
Into  the  post-office  without  any  address,  etc.,  form 
pretty  regular  series,  and  consequently  admit  of  being 
estimated  a  priori.  The  business  of  insur.nce  is 
founded  upon  the  principles  thus  briefl}'  stated.  Suppose 
it  has  been  remarked  that  ot forty  ships,  of  tho  ordinary 
degree  of  sea-worthiness,  employed  in  a  given  trade,  one 
is  annually  cast  away,  the  probability  of  loss  will  [ilainly 
be  equal  to  o«e  fortieth.  And  if  on  individual  wish  to 
insure  a  ship,  or  the  cargu  on  lioard  a  ship,  engaged  in 
this  trade,  ho  ought  to  pay  a  premium  equal  to  the 
l-40th  part  of  the  sum  he  insures,  exclusive  of  such  an 
additional  sum  as  may  be  required  to  indemnify  tho 
insurer  for  his  trouble,  and  to  leave  him  a  fair  profit. 
If  the  premium  exceed  this  sum,  the  insurer  is  over- 
paid ;  and  if  It  fall  below  it,  he  is  underpaid. 

Insurances  are  effected  sometimes  by  societies,  and 
sometimes  by  individuals,  the  risk  being  in  either  case 
diffused  among  a  num1)er  of  persons.  Companies 
formed  for  carrying  on  the  business  have  generally  A 
large  (ubscribed  capital,  or  auch  a  number  of  propii- 


nw 


1091 


INS 


eton,  88  enables  tbem  to  r»iM,  without  dUlmUf, 
whatever  lums  may  at  any  t\m»  \m  rm\uit»A  t0  malU 
good  loasex.  Societien  of  tbia  aort  do  nni  limit  tturlr 
risks  to  small  sums ;  that  is,  they  do  out  utim  fwCttM) 
to  insare  a  large  sum  U|H>n  a  bIi!|i,  4  (Mmtsu,  M  life,  «t<'< 
The  magnitude  of  their  capitals  »ffur(i»  tli«m  lli« 
means  of  easily  defraying  a  heavy  l<isit  |  Kn4  tll«if 
premiams  being  proportioned  to  tlieir  ri«lH,  tittir  pftrflt 
is,  at  an  average,  independent  of  sueb  e«l)tiH|jMt(fl«li 

Individuals,  it  is  plain,  could  not  aot  In  till*  w«y, 
unless  they  were  possessed  of  very  large  <'«pUitii*  (  una 
besides,  the  taking  of  large  rislis  wiml4  fftt/lM'  tl)« 
business  so  hazardous,  that  few  would  \m  Ai»fnmi»i  to 
engage  in  it,  InsteatI,  therefore,  of  insHrlH|{  »  i»fK« 
sum,  as  $20,000,  upon  a  single  sliip,  »  prlVMl*  undcN 
writer  or  insurer  may  not,  proliglily,  1r  ordilMry  vumi, 
take  a  greater  risk  than  $200  or  f  500 1  mi  tll«(,  th<»lli(ti 
his  engagements  may,  when  added  tugHtwr,  muimi 
to  «20,000,  they  will  be  dilfuBed  over  from  4t)  U»  IW 
ships ;  and  supposing  one  or  two  shiiHi  t4i  \m  tout,  (tt(* 
loss  would  not  impair  his  capital,  mui  woulii  iml^ 
lessen  his  profits.  Hence  it  is,  tllHt  while  urn  ttnttn. 
'action  only  may  be  required  in  gettlHg  M  i*iil}t  imumi 
by  a  company,  10  or  20  separata  tranxifitiniM  m«y  lift 
required  in  getting  the  same  thing  4o(W  »t  l/lwd'n,  ot 
by  private  individuals.  When  mmim'M  in  tBii  ««»■ 
tious  manner,  the  business  of  InsuranAe  is  mm(»  A  lln« 
of  speculation  as  any  in  which  indlviduols  mn  «I4{«X«, 
To  establish  a  policy  of  insurance  on  a  fn\f  fiiillliiM' 
tion,  or  in  such  a  way  thot  tlis  |iremiiin)>i  )Wtl4  liy  the 
insured  shall  exactly  balance  tl)s  riiilfS  iiiiiurrwt  \iy  tll« 
insurers,  and  the  various  necessary  ex|i#MtiP!l  to  wllioh 
they  are  put,  including,  of  course,  tlieif  Iffortt,  it  U 
necessary,  as  previously  remarked,  tliat  tito  |)Stt«^i«ni'« 
of  the  risks  shonld  be  pretty  eKitansive,  U  i««  nut, 
however,  at  all  necessary,  that  eitlier  party  kIinuIH  i«^ 
quire  into  the  circumstances  tliat  lead  to  i\m»»  «v«tltK 
that  are  most  commonly  mads  the  sulijstit  of  itiHUr- 
ance.  Such  a  research  would,  iildeeii,  l«*  entiraty 
fruitless :  we  are,  and  must  nscsssarity  I'imtimm  io  i)«, 
wholly  ignorant  of  the  causes  of  their  immrnni'^, 

It  appears,  from  the  accounts  givspj  by  Mr,  tknfuit' 
by,  in  his  valualde  work  on  the  Ar«tl8  lintfirm*,  ttmt 
of  686  ships  whicli  sailed  from  tlw  ?ari/MW  port*  of 
Great  Britain  for  the  northern  witalo  (jshnry,  Autinu 
the  four  years  ending  with  1817,  eight  WMf«  lost  (yu\, 
ii.,  p.  131),  being  at  the  rate  of  one  ,i|il|i  out  of  evsey 
73  of  those  employed.  Now,  8U|)|)i)iiin({  till*  to  iiB 
about  the  average  loss,  it  follows  dwt  tll«  (/fvioium 
required  to  insure  against  it  sltould  lia  }'70  per  i<mit,, 
exclusive,  as  already  observed,  of  tho  ««pi*l(s«i*  nni 
profits  of  the  insurer.  Doth  tlie  insurer  iltl4  Hm  Uu 
surcd  would  gain  by  entering  illt4»  »  tMH^lK'tiiifl 
founded  on  this  fair  prineipbi  When  tha  o|*or*(liiii* 
of  the  insurer  are  extensive,  and  his  fink*  <>[irewi  ov«f 
a  considerable  number  of  ships,  his  profit  doc*  H(*t  d*-- 
pend  upon  chance,  but  is  as  steaily,  nni  tmy  \m  M 
fairly  calculated  upon,  as  that  of  a  tlMtnuCwtHfef  of  H 
merchant ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  tlia  illdiviitUAls 
who  have  insured  tluiir  property  havo  ejwoijrtwt  it 
from  any  chance  of  loss,  and  placed  it,  A*  it  Wtirt<,  in  A 
state  of  absolute  security. 

It  is  easy,  from  the  lirief  statement  now  mM<1«,  to 
perceive  the  immense  advantages  resulting  t4)  nAvigA< 
tion  and  commerce  from  the  practice  of  marinf*  insilf' 
ance.  Without  the  aid  that  it  alfords,  twn\mui\*e\y 
few  individuals  would  be  found  dl^lMtitiit  to  cxpwM 
their  property  to  the  risk  of  long  and  haxardou*  voy* 
ages;  but  by  its  means  insecurity  is  (iiotngwt  tut  s«' 
curity,  and  the  capital  of  the  merclmnt,  wl)o*8  nJllwt 
are  dispersed  over  every  sea,  and  enposed  U)  »\i  the 
perils  of  the  ocean,  is  as  secure  as  that  of  the  Agriatii- 
turist.  He  can  comliina  his  nieasures  anii  urtM^v  III* 
plans  as  if  they  could  no  longer  lie  alfwitiiil  \iy  tU'fU 
dent.  Tho  chances  of  shipwreck,  or  of  hi**  by  Unfofc^ 
IMQ  occotrances,  eater  not  into  his  natoulAtiotM,  lt« 
hw  parcbaaed  aa  azamptlon  fram  tb«  Htf««t«  ef  «ueb 


ettuattlM  I  and  applies  bim««lf  to  ttwi  proMcutlon  of 
his  business  with  that  i!onlldttm'«  noiI  energy  which 
nothing  but  a  feijUng  of  security  v»n  Inspire.  "  Les 
oh»nees  ''.3  la  navlgatluii  eiitravalunt  In  commerce.  I>e 
tjMme  des  asmirances  a  p«r(i  i  il  a  I'onsutt^  les  sal- 
sons  I  II  a  port/i  ses  regard*  nur  \n  ttier )  II  a  interrog6 
ce  terrible  iUmmt  \  II  en  a  iugi  t'Inconstance  |  11  en  a 
oresfientl  les  orages ;  II  a  i\iUi  la  |Hillti(|U«  I  It  a  reconnn 
l«s  ports  et  les  c/>tes  de*  duuK  inoiid«*  |  it « tout  soumis 
k  des  calouls  savans,  h  d«»  thWI«*  Hpiffoxlmntlves  1  et 
It  a  dit  au  commer';ant  haliile,  am  iiavigateur  Intr6pide : 
eertes,  II  y  a  des  ihi«a*tr>i*  xiir  lituiMel*  t'hiimnnlt^  no 
pent  que  giinlr  1  nwls  quant  k  votre  fortune,  allez 
framlilssez  les  mers,  d/!ploy«/,  votro  A«tlvltA  et  voire 
Industrie  1  Ja  me  charge  do  vo*  ri*qu««,  Ahn,  Mes- 
*l«urs,  s'il  est  pemils  do  le  diro,  t«*  qiiatr*  parties  du 
moflde  se  sont  ruiiprooiiAss,"— C'wife  de  Cummene,  Kx- 
poti  dm  J/oliJ'-,  llv,,  ii, 

Besides  insuring  against  tli«  p«ril*  of  the  sea,  and 
losses  arising  from  accident*  t'AMH«il  l>y  the  operation 
of  natural  causes,  it  i*  conimiin  to  Insure  against  ene- 
mies, pirates,  thieves,  and  ttv«n  tlio  fraud,  ><r,  us  it  is 
teclinlculiy  termed,  liarrulry,  lit  tlio  (naster,  The  risk 
arising  frimi  these  source*  of  iia*UAlty  lielng  extremely 
fluotUHtlng  and  various,  it  i*  not  8A«y  to  estimate  it  with 
any  considerable  ilegree  of  aeeuraoy  f  and  nothing 
more  than  a  rough  averago  ean,  in  mofit  cases,  Lo 
looked  for.  In  time  of  war,  tho  fluctuation  In  the 
rates  lit  insurance  is  iwrticularty  grentj  and  the  in- 
telligence that  sn  enemy'*  *quA<lroti,  or  even  •  singlo 
btivateer,  is  cruising  In  tlio  coufs«  which  the  ships 
bound  to  or  returning  from  any  given  port  usually  fol- 
low, causes  uu  instantaneou*  rl*«  in  tlio  premium.  The 
Appointment  of  convoy*  for  ttw  protectlim  of  trade 
during  war,  necessarily  t«n<t*,  t^  t«*s«ning  the  chance 
of  capture,  to  lessen  the  pretnlum  on  insurance.  8till, 
however,  the  risk  in  such  |)«rio4*  i*,  in  mo«t  eases,  very 
consideralde  (  .>nd  u*  it  L*  IIaIiIo  to  change,  very  sud- 
denly, great  cautUtn  i*  raquirad  on  tlui  part  of  the  un- 
derwriters. 

Provision  may  also  be  m«i1«,  liy  mean*  of  Insurance, 
sgfllnst  loss  by  lire,  ami  almost  alt  tlie  casualties  to 
which  property  on  land  i*  *ulij«v^,  But,  notwithstand- 
ing what  has  now  lieen  atntiKt,  It  must  li«  admitted  thnt 
tile  advantages  dorived  from  th«  practice  of  Insuring 
Against  losses  by  sea  and  land  aro  not  altogether  un- 
mixed with  evil.  The  security  wlilcll  It  nflurds  tends 
to  relax  that  vigilant  attmniMn  to  the  protection  of 
property  which  tlie  fear  of  It*  loss  i<  oure  otherwise  1 1 
excite.  This,  however,  i*  mit  it*  worst  effect.  The 
records  of  our  courts,  and  tlia  «x|)«ricnce  of  all  wlio 
are  largely  engnged  in  tim  lm*ln«**  of  Insurance,  too 
clearly  prove  that  ship*  Imvo  b«i<n  rcpKatetlly  sunk, 
and  houses  burned.  In  order  to  defraud  the  Insurers. 
In  despite,  however,  of  tliii  t«m|itntlon  to  inattention 
and  fraud  which  Is  thus  alfurd«d,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
tllAt,  on  the  whole,  tlm  priU'ticii  I*,  in  a  public  ns  well 
as  private  (xiint  of  view,  dethhidly  lieneflclnl.  The 
frauds  that  are  occuitiuiiaily  committed  raise,  in  some 
degree,  the  rate  of  iii^urant'a,  lltill  It  I*  exceedingly 
moderate ;  and  it  is  most  probaldti  timt  the  precautions 
Adopted  by  the  iusuranco  "(Hw*  tur  the  prevention  of 
Are,  es|iecially  in  great  town*,  .vll^ro  It  I*  most  destruct- 
ive, outweigh  the  clwnce  of  IncrnAsnd  conflagration 
Arising  from  the  greater  tendnncy  io  eAfelessuoss  and 
orlme, 

The  business  of  life  ln»ur»n<!«  b»*  Irecn  carried  to  a 
tut  greater  extent  in  (iruut  tiritain  than  In  any  other 
country,  nnd  has  been  priwIlKitivA  of  the  most  bene- 
flelAl  effects.  F.lfe  hwnrance*  AfA  of  various  kinds. 
Individuals  without  any  vary  H«Ar  eimnectlons,  and 
possessing  imiy  a  llmlte't  fortnna,  arn  sometimes  desir* 
I  oils,  or  are  sometime*,  from  th«  ne<*»slty  of  their  situ- 
ation, obliged  annually  to  encroAcb  on  their  capitals, 
tlut  should  the  life  of  such  p«r*oii*  be  nxtendcd  lieyond 
the  ordinary  term  of  asi*t«lU!«,  tlniy  might  b«  toUUy 
«nprovhb)d  for  in  old  itg*!  and  to  Hottn  tbatnielvai 


INS 


1088 


INS 


against  this  contingency,  they  pay  to  an  Insarance 
company  the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  capital,  on  con- 
dition of  its  guarantying  them,  as  long  as  they  live,  a 
certain  annuity,  proportioned  partly,  of  course,  to  the 
amount  of  the  sum  paid,  and  partly  to  their  age  when 
they  buy  the  annuity.  But  though  somitimes  service- 
able to  Individuals,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  in- 
surances of  this  sort  are,  in  a  public  point  of  view, 
really  advantageous.  So  far  as  their  influence  extends, 
its  obvious  tendency  is  to  weaken  the  principle  of  ac- 
cumulation ;  to  stimulate  individuals  to  consume  their 
capitals  during  their  own  life,  without  thinking  or 
caring  alraut  the  interest  of  their  successors.  Were 
such  a  practice  to  become  general,  it  would  be  pro- 
ductive of  the  most  extensively  ruinous  consequences. 
The  interest  which  most  men  take  in  the  welfare  of 
their  families  and  friends  affords,  indeed,  a  pretty 
strong  security  against  its  becoming  injuriously  preva- 
lent. There  can,  however,  he  little  doubt  that  this 
selfish  practice  may  be  strengthened  by  adventitious 
means ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  opening  of  govern- 
ment loans  in  the  shape  of  life  annuities,  or  in  the  still 
more  objectionable  form  of  tontines.  But  when  no 
extrinsic  stimulus  of  this  sort  is  given  to  it,  there  do 
not  seem  to  be  any  very  good  grounds  for  thinking 
that  the  sale  of  annuities  by  private  individuals  or  as- 
sociations can  materially  weaken  the  principle  of  accu- 
mulation. 

Luckily,  however,  the  species  of  insurance  now  re- 
ferred to  is  but  inconsiderable  compared  with  that 
which  has  accumulation  for  its  object.  All  profession- 
al persons,  or  those  living  on  salaries  or  wages,  such 
as  lawyers,  physicians,  military  and  naval  offlcers, 
cIcrUs  in  public  or  private  offices,  etc.,  whose  incomes 
must  of  coarse  terminate  with  their  lives,  and  a  host  of 
others,  who  are  either  not  possessed  .f  capital  or  can 
not  dispose  of  their  capital  at  pleasure,  must  naturally 
be  desirous  of  providing,  so  far  as  they  may  be  al)le, 
for  the  comfortable  subsistence  of  their  families  in  the 
event  of  their  death.  Take,  for  example,  n  physician 
or  lawj-er,  without  fortune,  but  making,  perhaps,  91000 
or  $2000  a-year  by  his  business ;  and  suppose  that  he 
marries  and  has  a  family  :  if  this  individual  attain  to 
the  average  duration  of  human  life,  he  may  accumu- 
late such  a  fortune  as  will  provide  for  tlic  adequate 
support  of  his  family  at  his  death.  But  who  cm  pre- 
sume to  say  that  such  will  be  the  case  ? — that  he  will 
not  be  one  of  the  many  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  ? 
— And  8uppo?e  that  lie  were  hurried  into  an  untimely 
grave,  his  family  would  necessarily  he  destitute.  Now, 
it  is  against  such  calamitous  contingencies  tlint  life  in- 
surance is  intended  chiefly  to  provide.  An  individual 
possessed  of  an  income  terminating  at  his  death,  agrees 
to  pay  a  certain  sum  annuiilly  to  an  insurance  ofBce  ; 
and  this  office  binds  itself  to  pay  to  his  family  at  his 
death,  a  sum  equivalent,  after  deduction  of  the  expens- 
es of  management  and  the  profits  of  the  insurers,  to 
what  these  annual  contril>utions,  accumulated  at  com- 
pound interest,  would  amount  to,  supposing  the  in- 
sured to  reach  the  common  and  average  term  of  human 
life.  Though  he  were  to  die  tlio  day  after  the  insur- 
ance has  been  effected,  his  family  would  be  as  amply 
provided  for  as  it  is  likely  they  would  bo  l-y  his  accu- 
mulations were  his  life  of  the  ordinarj'  duration.  In 
ail  cases,  indeed,  in  which  those  insured  die  before  at- 
taining the  average  age,  their  gain  is  obvious.  But 
even  in  those  cases  in  which  their  lives  are  prolonged 
beyond  the  ordinarj*  term,  they  are  not  losers — they 
then  merely  pay  for  a  security  which  thej*  must  other- 
wise have  been  without.  During  the  whole  period,  from 
the  time  when  they  effect  their  insurances,  down  to  the 
time  when  they  arrive  at  the  mean  duration  of  human 
life,  they  are  protected  against  the  '<sk  of  dying  with- 
out leaving  their  families  sufiiciently  provided  for; 
and  the  sum  which  they  pay  after  having  passed  this 
mean  term  is  nothing  more  than  a  fair  compensation 
for  the  aecority  they  previously  enjoyed.    Of  those 


who  iBsni«  honiei  against  Ars,  •  vwy  nflMtt  properikm 
only  have  occasion  to  claim  an  fn4sffln>|ty  fitf  Ummii ««. 
tually  sustained ;  but  the  poesesaion  of  h  nmmt^y  affnitut, 
loss,  in  the  event  of  occidant,  U  tutMmU,  mtM*ti  Uf 
induce  every  prudent  individual  U>  \murit  Mh  pfiifitift 
ty.  The  cose  of  life  insurance  is  in  Ihiit  r«tp«!t  (ttfferwtt, 
When  established  on  a  proper  fuoting,  m»  tmifn  mmn 
which  those  pay  whose  lives  »%emA  t)w  *ttlm#l«4  dii^ 
ration  is  but  the  voloa  of  tbs  pnviitim  tmautiiy,  In 
order  to  adjust  the  terms  of  an  inanrmim  tUiA  Urn  pnHy 
insuring  may  neither  pay  t<io  munh  mif  tmt  UMti,  H  M 
necessary  that  the  proltabiUty  of  bt«  l)f«  MHnff  in 
each  subsequent  year  should  Im  ()«(#nnfn«4  with  M 
much  accuracy  as  possible. 

To  ascertain  this  probability,  vnrUmn  oimmfntUmit 
have  been  made  in  different  lumntrU*  itwi  fmfiu6», 
showing,  out  of  a  given  numlwrof  \mrmn»  tmtn  tn  » 
particular  country  or  fUca,  kow  m»ny  mmpi^  ouch 
subsequent  year,  and  how  many  die  Ut  (»,  ♦(!(  lh«  who)* 
be  extinct.  The  result  of  su4i  o\Hief¥iAUmtl,  w)t«fl 
collected  and  arranged  in  s  MmUf  form,  (tf*  mUmi 
Tables  of  Mortality  ;  Iwing  entitM,  of  mmum,  Ut  mof« 
or  less  confidence,  according  to  th«  HM(ii)»(if  nM  sps-  * 
cies  of  lives  observed ;  tlw  jnerf/fd  wlt«l»,  Wfwl  th«  t'»f« 
with  which,  the  observations  vtura  maliu,  itUf,  titA 
supposing  these  tables  to  Iw  for)»«4  with  f>M0i(<t/>ti(  He- 
curacy,  the  expectation  of  Ufa  «t  my  *H{«,  «*  it«  moan 
duration  after  such  age,  may  >m  rtmWy  k»rn4tA  (frmt 
them  j  and  hence  also  the  valita  u(  «n  mtmUy,  lit  tim 
assurance  on  a  life  of  any  age,  Tbuii,  1«  tiwt  t«l(l«  of 
mortality  for  Carlisle,  framed  by  Mr,  MiltM*,  of  the 
Sun  Life  Office,  and  which  is  beliavwt  t'(  r^lfH9m^  tim 
average  law  of  mortality  in  l£ngl«n4  with  vufy  cfitisW. 
erable  accuracy,  out  of  10,000  |)«r*w«,  biifn  UiKKihtif, 
4000  complete  their  56th  year  j  wiMi  It  furHmt  #|(j*««M, 
that  the  number  of  such  imnom  wb<i  (iht  in  {heir 
66th  year  is  124 ;  so  tlut  tlui  prolmiAtity  tMt »  W«  mow 
56  years  of  age  will  terminate  (»  t\m  l»th  ymt  Iwiien  )s 
124-4000.  But  reckoning  iat«r««t  iMt  4  \mr  I'ont,,  It  «(>• 
poors  (Tables  Interest  ami*  A»«(»'tT(M),  ih»t  th« 
present  value  of  $100  to  ba  reenivmi  UiyUHfD  hMjce  Is 
$67'550 ;  consequently  if  its  feiwjpt  im  mmU  to  lUpmi 
upon  the  probability  that  »  Ufa  mm  M  ynitu  irf  sjje 
will  fail  in  the  66th  year,  its  nramnt  V»l««  will  I*  r»fc 
duced  by  that  contingency  to  -'^-^f-Hli'm,  Th» 
present  value  of  |100,  receival.ls  Ufwrn  thff  life  iit » 
party  now  66  vears  of  age,  termUmiUig  (tt  tl(«  ft/th  nt 
any  subsequent  year  of  liis  Ufa,  up  Ui  m  nDtrmilf  lim- 
it (which,  according  to  the  C'«rlUI«  iMn,  f*  thfl  IftJHh 
year),  being  calculated  in  this  wity,  Itm  (SMm  of  the 
whole  will  lie  the  present  vulm  of  |!JW*,  feivhtthU 
whenever  the  life  may  full ;  that  is,  iif  HM  in->tltei\ 
upon  it,  supposing  no  additions  wura  nmtU  to  It  for 
the  profits  and  expenses  of  the  innUftirs, 

More  compendious  processes  «rs  rumifUiii  til  fiif  cal- 
culating tables  of  insurances  «t  All  ugfi  i  liKt  the 
obovo  statement  sufficii-ntly  i||i)6tf»|t»<n  thit  ptiltcipU 
on  which  they  all  depend.  In  prmiUu,  a  Uff  imiltmtcg 
is  seldom  maile  Ijy  the  |>ayiiient  of  »  sIhjjI*  aitlli  nhcii 
it  is  eff°ected,  but  almost  always  by  this  fmyiliflit  lit  an 
annual  premium  during  its  conflnMMHCC,  th«  ficH  hclng 
paid  down  at  the  co lunenienifint  lit  lUn  itiaiifHnee,* 
If  the  Table  of  Mort ility  »dj)(>te4  by  th«  itl'ltfufn  fair- 
ly represent  the  law  of  mortality  firnyttWiii^  huiiihk  the 
insured,  it  follows  that  wlien  » \mrty  Ul<>umi  lUie^t  tint 
attain  to  the  average  age  miJiritiu^  Ui  (ht  fnl>)e,  the 
insurers  will  either  lose  by  him,  iir  IfliU/,"  if^n  Ihafl 
their  ordinary  profit ;  and  wM),  im  (lit  idhnf  hand, 
the  life  of  an  insureti  party  is  iirntim^Kii  tDtyiitlii  the 
tabular  average,  the  profits  of  tl(«  innilfi'fi*  (tf«  fiftfpdf' 
tionally  increased.  But  if  tlwir  liiie|n/'!«  I*  i:ii  ttst*^- 
sivo  as  to  enable  the  law  of  avfntiia  fiiUy  tii  npp^yi 
what  they  lose  liy  prematurH  ij«»lh  will  Iw  lr»l«nce<i 
by  the  payments  received  from  titma  wh'i  Una  »n 

•  For  the  method  of  calculating  Umw  mwmI  pfi^litMS  IM 
iMTXanT  AND  Amvditim. 


ms 


1039 


INS 


prolonged  beyond  the  mean  duration  of  life  for  the 
ages  at  which  they  were  respectively  insured ;  so  that 
the  profits  of  the  society  will  be  wholly  independent  of 
chances. 

The  relief  from  anxiety  afforded  by  life  insurance 
very  frequently  contributes  to  prolong  the  life  of  the 
insured,  at  the  ^ame  time  that  it  materially  augments 
the  comfort  and  well-being  of  those  dependent  on  him. 
It  has  a'so  an  obvious  tendency  to  strengthen  habits 
of  accumulation.  An  individual  who  has  insured  a 
sum  on  his  life,  would  forfeit  all  the  advantages  of  thu 
insurance  were  he  not  to  continue  regularly  to  malie 
his  annual  payments.  It  is  not,  therefore,  optional 
with  him  to  save  a  sum  from  his  ordinarj-  expenditure 
adequate  for  this  purpose.  He  is  compelled,  under  a 
heavy  penalty,  to  do  so ;  and  having  thus  been  led  to 
contract  a  habit  of  saving  to  a  certain  extent,  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  habit  will  acquire  additional 
strength,  and  that  he  will  either  insure  an  additional 
sum  or  privately  accumulate. 

The  practice  of  marine  insurance,  no  doubt  from  the 
extraordinary  hazard  to  which  property  at  sea  is  ex- 
posed, seems  to  have  long  preceded  insurances  against 
fire  and  upon  lives.  We  are  ignorant  of  the  precise 
period  when  it  began  to  be  introduced ;  but  it  appears 
most  probable  that  it  dates  from  the  end  of  the  14th  or 
t!i8  beginning  of  the  15th  centurj'.  It  has,  however, 
itcnded  by  Loccenius  (De  Jure  Mantimo,  lib., 
' '  Puffendorff  {Droit  de  la  Nature  et  det  Gene, 
I  .  •■  0),  and  others,  that  the  practice  of  maijne 
^  is  of  much  higher  antiquity,  and  that  traces 
or  it  may  be  found  in  the  history  of  tlie  Punic  wars. 
Livy  mentions,  that  during  the  second  of  tliese  con- 
tests, the  contractors  employed  by  tlie  Romans  to 
transport  ammunition  and  provisions  to  Spain,  stipu- 
lated that  government  should  indemnify  them  against 
such  losses  as  might  be  occasioned  l)y  the  enemy,  or 
by  tempests,  in  the  course  of  the  voyage.— /frp€<ra<«m 
fuit,  ut  qua  navibua  imponerentur  ad  exercitum  Ilispani- 
msem  deferenda,  ab  hosiium  tempestatisque  vi,  publico 
periculo  ««««(.— Hist.,  lib.  xxiii.,  c.  49.  Mal}-nes 
{lex  Mercatoria,  3d  ed.,  p.  105),  founding  on  a  passage 
in  Suetonius,  ascribes  the  first  introduction  of  insur- 
ance to  the  emperor  Claudius,  who,  in  a  period  of  scar- 
city at  Rome,  to  encourage  the  importation  of  com, 
toolt  upon  himself  all  the  loss  or  damgc  that  it  miglit 
sustain  in  the  voyage  thither  by  storms  and  tempests. 
—Ntgotiatoribus  certa  lucra  proposuit,  suscepio  m  se 
damno,  si  qui  quid  per  tempeatates  accidlsset,  et  navea 
mercaturm  causd,  fcAricantibua,  magna  commoda  consli- 
luit. — c.  18.  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  this  stipula- 
tion gave  occasion  to  tho  commission  of  acts  of  fraud, 
similar  to  those  so  frequent  in  modem  times.  Ship- 
wreclts  were  pretended  to  have  happened,  that  never 
toolc  place :  old  shattered  vessels,  freighted  with  arti- 
cles of  little  value,  were  purposely  sunit,  and  the  crew 
saved  in  boats ;  large  sums  being  then  demanded  as  a 
recompense  for  the  loss.  Some  years  after,  tho  fraud 
was  discovered,  and  some  of  the  contractors  were  pro- 
secuted and  punished. — Lib.  xxv.,  c.  3.  But  none  of 
these  passages,  nor  a  similar  one,  in  Cicero's  Letters 
(AdFam.,  lib.  ii.,  c.  17),  warrant  the  inferences  that 
Loccenius,  Malynes,  and  others  have  attempted  to 
draw  from  them.  Insurance  is  a  contract  between  two 
paities;  one  of  whom,  on  receiving  a  certain  premium 
(prelium  periculi),  agrees  to  take  upon  himself  tho  risk 
of  any  loss  that  may  happen  to  the  property  of  tho 
other.  In  ancient,  no  less  than  in  modem  times, 
everj'  one  must  have  lieen  desirous  to  be  exonerated 
from  tho  chance  of  loss  arising  from  tho  exposure  of 
property  to  the  perils  of  the  sea.  But  though,  in 
the  cases  referred  to,  the  carriers  were  exempted  from 
this  chance,  thej'  were  not  exempted  by  a  contract 
propter  aversionem  periculi,  or  by  an  insurance ;  but  liy 
their  employers  taking  the  risk  upon  themselves. 
And  it  is  abundantly  obvious  that  tho  object  of  the 
latter  in  doing  this  was  not  to  profit,  like  an  insurer. 


by  dealing  in  risks,  but  to  induce  individuali  the  more 
readily  to  undertake  the  performance  of  an  urgent 
public  duty. 

But  with  tho  exception  of  tho  instances  now  men- 
tioned, nothing  bearing  the  remotest  resemblance  to 
an  insurance  is  to  be  met  with  till  a  comparatively  re- 
cent period.  If  we  might  rely  on  a  passage  in  one  of 
the  Flemish  chroniclers,  quoted  by  the  learned  M. 
Pardessus— see  liis  excellent  work.  Collection  det  I.oix 
Marilimea,  tome  i.,  p.  356 — we  should  be  warranted  in 
concluding  that  insurance  had  been  effected  at  Bruges 
so  early  as  tho  end  of  the  13th  century ;  for  the  chron- 
icler states  that,  in  1311,  tlio  Earl  of  Flanders  con- 
sented, on  a  requisition  from  the  inhabitants,  to  estab- 
lish a  chaml)er  of  insurance  at  Bruges.  M.  Pardessus 
is  not,  however,  inclined  to  thmk  tliat  this  statement 
should  be  regarded  as  decisive.  It  is  evident  from  the 
manner  in  which  tho  subject  is  mentioned,  that  the 
chronicler  was  not  a  cotemporary ;  and  no  trace  can 
be  found,  either  in  the  archives  of  Bruges,  or  in  any 
authentic  publication,  of  any  thing  like  the  circum- 
stance alluded  to.  The  earliest  extant  Flemish  law  as 
to  insurance,  is  dated  in  1527  ;  and  none  of  the  early 
maritime  codes  of  the  North  so  much  as  alludes  to  this 
interesting  subject. 

Beckmann  seems  to  have  thought  that  the  practice 
of  insurance  originated  in  Ital}',  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  15th,  or  early  part  of  the  16th  century. — Hist,  of 
Invent.,  vol.  i.,  art.  Insurance.  But  the  learned 
Spanish  antiquar}',  Don  Antonio  de  Capmany,  has 
given,  in  his  verj-  valuable  publication  on  tho  History 
and  Commerce  of  Barcelona  {Memoriaa  Ilistoricas  snbre 
la  Marina,  etc.,  de  Barcelona,  tomo  ii.,  p.  383),  an  or- 
dinance relative  to  insurance,  issued  by  tho  magis- 
trates of  that  city  in  1435 ;  whereas,  the  earliest  Italian 
law  on  the  subject  is  nearly  a  century  later,  being 
dated  in  1523.  It  is,  however,  exceedingly  unlikely, 
had  insurance  been  as  early  practiced  in  Italy  as  in 
Catalonia,  that  the  former  should  have  been  so  much 
behind  the  latter  in  subjecting  it  to  any  fixed  rules ; 
and  it  is  still  more  unlikely  that  the  practice  should 
have  escaped,  as  is  tho  case,  all  mention  by  any  pre- 
vious Italian  writer.  We,  tlierefore,  agree  entirely  in 
Capmany's  opinions,  that,  until  some  authentic  evi- 
dence to  the  contrarj-  be  produced,  Barcelona  should 
be  regarded  as  the  birth-place  of  this  most  useful  and 
l)eautiful  application  of  the-  doctrine  of  chances. — 
Tom.  i.,  p.  237. 

A  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  insur 
ance  was  early  brought  into  England.  Acconling  to 
Malynes  (^Lex  Mercat.,  p.  105),  it  was  first  practiced 
among  us  by  the  Lombards,  who  were  established  in 
London  from  a  very  remote  epoch.  It  is  probable  it 
was  introduced  some  time  about  tho  beginning  of  the 
16th  century;  for  it  is  mentioned  in  the  statute  43 
Eliz.,  c.  12,  in  which  its  utility  is  verj'  clearly  set  forth, 
that  it  had  been  an  immemorial  usage  among  merchants, 
both  English  and  foreign,  when  they  made  any  great 
adventure,  to  procure  insurance  to  be  made  on  the  ships 
or  goods  adventured.  From  this  it  may  reasonably 
1)0  supposed  that  insurance  had  been  in  use  in  England 
for  at  least  a  century  previous.  It  appears  from  the 
same  statute,  that  it  had  originally  been  usual  to  refer 
all  disputes  that  |  arose  with  respect  to  insurances  to 
the  decision  of  "  grave  and  discreet"  merchants  ap- 
pointed  by  the  Lord  Mayor.  But  abuses  having 
grown  out  of  this  practice,  the  statute  authorized  tho 
I.ord  Chancellor  to  appoint  a  commission  for  the  trial 
of  insurance  cases ;  and  in  tho  reign  of  Charles  II.  the 
powers  of  tho  commissioners  were  enlarged.  But  this 
court  soon  after  fell  into  disuse ;  and,  what  is  singular, 
no  trace  can  now  be  discovered  of  any  of  its  proceed- 
ings.— Mausiiai.i,  on /tisi^ra.ice.  Prelim.  Disc,  p.  26. 

Few  questions  as  to  insuranca  seem  to  have  come 
before  the  courts  at  Westminster  till  after  the  middle 
of  last  centur}'.  The  decisions  of  Lord  Mansfield 
may,  indeed,  ho  said  to  have  fixed,  and  in  a  consider* 


TS& 


1040 


INS 


abia  degree  formed,  the  law  upon  thii  aubject.  His 
Jodgments  were  not  bottomed  on  narrow  views,  or  on 
the  municipal  regulations  of  England ;  but  on  those 
great  rrinciplea  of  public  Justice  and  convenience 
whic!  A  been  sanctioned  and  approved  by  universul 
exp<.  .ce.  His  deep  and  extensive  information  was 
acquired  by  consulting  the  most  intelligent  mercfaant% 
and  the  works  of  distinguished  foreign  jurists ;  anU 
by  carefully  study!n/r  the  famous  French  ordinance  of 
1081,  the  most  admirably  digested  body  of  maritime 
law  ''  which  any  country  has  ever  had  to  boast. 
Henei'  the  comprehensiveness  and  excellence  of  his 
lordship's  decisions,  and  the  respect  they  have  justly 
commanded  in  all  countries.  In  his  hands  tl>e  law 
of  insurance  became,  in  a  far  greater  degree  than  any 
other  part  of  English  law,  a  branch  of  that  national  or 
publiclaw,  of  which  Cicero  has  beautifully  said,  "  Ifon 
trit  alia  lex  Boma,  alia  Athenit,  alia  nunc,  alia  potthac, 
ted  el  omnrt  gentea  et  omni  tempore,  una  lex  et  aempitema, 
el  immorUJit  contitiebit,  unutgm  erit  communi*  i/uan 
nagitter  et  imperator  omniuM  l>eus." — Fragm.,  lib.  iii., 
de  Republici, 

Insurance  against  fire  and  upon  lives .  is  of  much 
later  origin  than  insurance  against  perils  of  the  sea. 
The  former,  however,  has  been  known  and  carried  on 
among  us,  to  some  extent,  a!:  least,  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half.  The  Amicaldc  Society,  for  insurance 
upon  lives,  was  established  l)y  charter  of  Queen  Anne, 
in  1706 ;  the  Royal  Exchange  and  London  Assurance 
Companies  began  to  make  insurances  upon  lives,  in  the 
reign  of  George  I. ;  and  the  Equitaldc  Society  was  es- 
tablished in  1762.  But  the  advantages  of  life  insur- 
ance, and  the  principles  on  which  the  liusincss  shoiid 
be  conducted,  were  then  very  ill  understood ,  and  tlie 
practice  can  hardly  bo  said  to  have  ol>taini.d  any  firm 
footmg  among  us,  till  the  Equitalilo  Socieiy,  by  adopt- 
ing the  judicious  suggestions  of  Dr.  Price,  began  its 
career  of  prosperity  ab  nt  1775.  Notwithstanding  the 
«>  sample  of  England,  li.e  insursix;^  has  made  compar- 
atively little  progress  on  the  Continent.  It  was,  in- 
deed, expressly  forbidden  by  the  French  ordinance  of 
1681  (liv.  iii.,  tit.  6,  art.  10) ;  l>y  tlio  regulations  as  to 
insurance  issued  .\t  Amsterdam  in  1612  (art.  24)  ;  and 
it  is  doubtf  li  whether  the  practice  be  not  inconsistent 
witli  the  334th  art.  of  the  Cade  de  Commerce,  though 
it  Ix!  now  extensivel}'  carried  on  in  F'rance.  Hut  wo  are 
inclined  to  tliink  that  ibo  want  of  security,  more  than 
any  fwsitive  regulations,  has  l)ecn  tlie  principal  cause 
of  the  little  progress  of  life  insurance  on  the  Conti- 
nent. 

II.  Insitrakob  (Mabinb).— There  are  few  persons 
who  are  not  acquainted,  in  some  degree,  with  tire  and 
life  insurances.  The  security  wliich  tliey  afford  to 
individuals  and  families  is  a  luxury  which  nobody,  in 
tolerably  comfortable  circumstances,  is  willing  to  be 
without.  Hence  the  great  increase,  in  our  days,  of 
companies  professing  to  afford  this  security  ;  and  hence 
the  knowledge,  on  the  part  of  the  public  generally,  of 
the  nature  and  principles  of  the  engagements  into 
which  these  companies  enter,  llut  marine  insurance 
is  a  subject  which  is  of  immediate  interest  only  to 
merchants  and  ship  owners ;  unless,  indeed,  wo  should 
refer  to  that  small  portion  of  the  coniniunity  who 
have  occasion  to  transport  themselves  beyond  seas  with 
capital  and  elfects  for  purposes  of  colonisation,  or  to 
fill  some  official  situation.  Hence  the  comparative 
indifference,  on  the  )>art  of  the  public,  as  to  this  sub- 
ject. The  general  principles,  however,  of  all  insur- 
ance are  the  same ;  and  in  treating  of  marine  insur- 
ance, it  will  be  necessary  to  notice  little  beyond  such 
topics  as  are  peculiar  to  that  broncli  of  the  liusiness. 

Individwd  Inturert,  or  Uttderwrilert. —  I  lie  first  cir- 
cumstance that  can  not  fail  to  strike  the  general  in- 
quirer into  the  practice  of  marine  insurance  in  this 
countr>-,  is  that,  while  all  fire  and  life  insurances  are 
made  at  the  risk  of  companies,  which  include  within 
themaeWei  the  daalrabU  nquisitei  of  security,  wealth, 


and  numbers,  a  larga  proportion  oi  marine  insurances 
<-  made  at  the  risk  of  individuals. 

Prohibition  of  Companies Till  1824,  in  Great  Brit- 

( in,  all  firms  and  companies,  with  tlio  exception  of  the 
two  chartered  companies,  the  Royal  Exchange  and 
London,  wore  prohibited  by  law  from  taking  marine 
insurances.  Toward  the  latter  end  of  that  year,  the 
prohibition  was  removed,  and  the  business  of  marine 
insurance  was  placed  on  the  same  legal  footing  as 
other  descriptionii  of  business,  AVhile  the  restriction 
lasted,  the  two  chartered  companies  did  so  little  busi- 
ness that  marine  in^turance  miglit  in  fuct,  be  said  to  bo 
wholly  'n  the  hands  of  in'liviiiuuls.  These  companies 
were  so  much  higher  in  their  premiums,  and  so  much 
more  exclusive  in  the  risks  they  were  willing  to  un- 
dertake, ihan  their  individual  cumpetitur",  that  even 
those  merchants  and  ship  owners,  wl]o  would  cheer- 
fully have  imid  some  trifling  considi  ration  to  obtain 
the  greater  security  of  a  company,  were  obliged  to 
resort  to  individuals.  And  it  was  only  when  the 
repeal  of  this  absurd  restriction  was  proposed,  that 
the  companies  showed,  by  defending  it,  that  they  set 
any  value  upon  tlieir  privilege.  The  undcrwiiters  at 
Lloyd's  joined  them  in  this  opposition ;  and  pamphlets 
were  written  and  speeches  made,  to  demonstrate  how 
much  merchants  and  ship  owners  would  suffer,  were 
tlie  law  to  allow  them  the  free  use  of  their  discretion 
in  insuring  their  jiroperty  ;  and  how  much  mure  con- 
ducive to  their  interests  it  (.as,  that  they  should  bo 
forced  up  to  Lloyd's,  to  pay  premiums  to  individuals 
rather  than  companies.  Hut  these  pamphlets  nud 
speeches  are  forgotten  ;  and  wo  should  be  sorry  to 
wound  the  feelings  of  their  authors,  or  to  trespass  on 
the  patience  of  our  readers,  by  referring  to  them  more 
particularly, 

^fod■)  nj'comiuctiug  Business. — Wo  shall  now  give  an 
account  of  the  arrangement  in  England  for  conducting 
the  business  of  murine  insurance,  as  well  l>y  individu- 
als as  the  companies, 

Hoyd's. — The  individual  underwriters  meet  in  a 
subscription  room  at  Lloyd's.  Tlie  joint  nff.iirs  of  the 
subscibers  to  these  rooms  are  managed  by  a  coiinnit- 
tee  chosen  bj-  the  subscribers.  Agents  (who  are  com- 
monly styled  Lloyd's  agents)  are  appointed  in  all  the 
principal  ports  of  the  world,  who  forward,  regularly, 
to  Lloyd's,  accounts  of  the  departures  from  and  arriv- 
als at  their  |)orts,  as  well  as  of  losses  and  other  casu- 
alties ;  and,  in  general,  all  such  Information  as  may  lie 
supposed  of  importance  towanl  guiding  the  judgment 
of  the  underwriters.  Tliese  accounts  are  regularly 
tiled,  and  are  accessible  to  ill  the  subsciiiiers.  Tlie 
principal  arrivals  and  losses  are,  besides,  posted  in  two 
liooks,  placed  in  two  conspicuous  parts  of  tlic  mnin ; 
and  also  in  nnotliPV  book,  which  is  plaicd  mi  an  adjoin- 
in;,'  m,  for  the  use  of  the  public  at  large.  Tlir 
roo  reopen  from  10  o'clock  In  the  morning  till  5 
o'clii'  li  in  the  afternoon,  but  the  most  considcralile 
part  of  the  business  is  transacted  lietwccn  1  and  4. 
Those  merchants  and  ship  owners  who  manage  tlioir 
own  insurance  business,  procure  blank  policies  at  the 
government  oilieo,  or  of  their  stationers,  which  they 
till  up  so  as  to  meet  the  particular  object  in  view, 
and  submit  them  to  those  underwriters  with  whom 
they  are  connected  j  iiy  whom  they  are  subscribed  or 
rejected.  Each  policy  is  li.mded  about  in  this  way 
until  the  amount  required  is  complete.  The  form  of 
the  jiolicy  and  of  a  subscription  is  subjoined  to  this  ar- 
ticle. The  premium  is  not  paid  to  the  undcnvrltcr  in 
ready  money,  but  is  passed  to  account.  >'or  does  the 
underwriter  debit  the  account  of  the  person  to  whom 
he  subscribes  a  policy  with  tlie  whole  amount  of  the 
premium,  but  with  the  premiiiin  less  5  per  cent.  AVhen- 
Bver  losses  occur  which  more  tban  absorb  the  premi- 
um i  on  any  one  account,  the  underwriter  is  called 
uiKjn  to  pay  the  balance.  But  should  the  underwrit- 
er's account  bo  what  is  called  good,  that  is,  should  the 
premiums  exceed  the  claims,  be  seuds  round,  durhig 


INS 


1041 


INB 


meet  in  a 
aff.iirsoftlie 
liv  n  coimnit- 
jvvho  arc  coni- 
Ited  in  all  the 
la,  regularly, 
}in  and  arriv- 
otlier  casu- 
[on  as  may  lie 
khe  jui1t;mcnt 
live  rctjularly 
[lilicrs.     The 
posted  in  two 
|of  the  roniii ; 
Ml  an  ailjoiu- 
lart;e.     Thr 
[iiorning  till  5 
•ousidcralilc 
cen  1  and  4. 
manage  their 
[olieies  at  tlie 
,,  which  they 
Lject  in  view, 
k  with  whom 
subscrihed  or 
in  this  way 
The  form  of 
picd  to  this  ar- 
[mdcnvriter  in 
Kor  Ams  the 
irson  to  whom 
imount  of  liio 
rccnt.  When- 
,tl)  the  ptemi- 
rriter  is  called 
[he  underwrit- 
is,  should  the 
round,  during 


the  ipring  and  anmmer,  to  collect  fh>m  hii  variooi 
debtors  either  the  balance  of  hU  laat  year's  account, 
or  n  oney  on  account,  acoordini;  to  his  judgment ;  but 
upon  what  he  receives,  he  makes  an  idlowance  of  12 
per  cent.  An  underwriter,  if  prudent,  therefore,  be- 
fore  he  consents  to  receive,  will  not  only  look  to  the 
goodness  of  his  account,  but  to  the  probability  of  its 
continuing  so. 

Iiunrance  Broktn. — Many  merchants  and  ship  own- 
ers do  not  transact  their  own  insurance  business. 
They  give  their  orders  for  insurance  to  others,  who 
nndcitake  it  for  them,  and  are  responsible  for  its 
proper  mansgement.  Those  latter  persons  are  called 
insurance  brokers ;  and  some  of  them  manage  the 
business  of  a  number  of  principals.  To  them,  like- 
wise, are  transmitted  the  orders  for  insurance  tram  the 
ootports  and  manufacturing  towns.  They  charge  the 
whole  premium  to  their  principals,  and  their  profits 
consist  In  5  per  cent,  upon  the  premium,  12  per  cent, 
upon  the  money  that  they  pay  to  the  underwriters, 
and  \  per  cent,  tluit  they  deduct  from  all  the  claims 
which  they  recover  from  the  underwriters.  It  is 
proper  to  remark  that  tliis  is  the  established  or  regu- 
lar profit;  but  competition  has  occasioned  numerous 
deviations  from  it  by  the  brokers,  many  of  whom  con- 
sent td  divide  this  profit  with  the  principals  who  em- 
ploy them.  The  insurance  brokers  are  not  unfre- 
qnently  underwriters  also. 

Principles  of  i$a/fa^.— Salvage  is  a  compensation 
for  maritime  services  rendered  in  saving  property  or 
rescuing  it  from  impending  peril  on  the  sea,  or  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  the  sea,  or  on  a  public  navigable  river 
or  lake,  wliere  inter-state  or  foreign  commerce  is  car- 
ried on.  The  amount,  according  to  Che  maritime  law 
of  Englanvl  and  the  United  Statet,  rests  in  the  sound 
discretion  of  the  Court.upon  a  full  consideration  of  ail 
the  facts  of  tlie  case.  It  Renenilly  far  exceeds  a  mere 
remuneration  piv  open  et  laboit — the  exceos  being  in- 
tended, upon  principles  cf  sound  public  policy,  not  only 
as  a  reward  to  the  particular  salvor,  but  also  as  an 
inducement  to  others  to  render  like  services.  "  If  the 
property  of  an  individual  on  land  be  exposed  to  the 
greatest  peril,  and  be  saved  liy  the  voluntary  exertions 
of  any  person  whatever;  if  valuable  goods  be  rescued 
from  a  liouse  in  flames,  at  the  imminent  haziird  of  life 
by  tlie  salvor,  no  remuneration  in  the  shape  of  salvage 
is  allowed.  The  act  is  hi;,'hly  meritorious,  and  the 
service  is  as  great  as  if  rendered  at  sea ;  yet  the  claim 
for  salvage  could  not,  perhaps,  be  supported.  It  is 
certainly  not  made.  Let  precisely  the  same  service, 
at  precisely  the  same  hazard,  be  rendered  at  sea,  aud 
a  very  ample  reward  will  lie  liestowed  in  the  courts  of 
justice.  If  we  search  for  the  motives  producing  this 
apparent  prodigality  in  rewarding  services  rendered  at 
sea,  we  shall  find  them  in  a  liberal  and  enlarged  policy. 
The  allowance  of  a  very  ample  compensation  for  those 
eervircs,  one  very  much  exceeding  the  mere  risk  en- 
cuun;ered  and  labor  employed  in  efi'ecting  them,  is  in- 
tended 08  an  inducement  to  render  them,  which  it  is 
for  the  public  interests  of  humanity  to  hold  forth  to 
those  who  navigate  the  ocean.  It  is  perhaps  diff '!ult, 
on  any  other  principle,  to  account  satisfactorily  >.  the 
verj-  great  difference  which  is  made  between  the  retri- 
bution  allowed  for  services  at  sea  and  on  land.  Nei- 
ther  will  a  fair  calculation  of  the  real  hazard  or  labor 
be  a  foundation  for  such  a  difference ;  norwill  the  lien- 
efii  received  always  account  for  \t."— Wreck  end  Sal. 
oage,  by  Martin,  New  York,  1858. 

Sale  of  Premium. — But  little  need  lie  said  upon  the 
ciroumstances  that  influence  the  rate  of  premium  de- 
manded by  the  insurers.  It  must  be  self-evident  that 
premiums  will  vary  accord  iig  to  the  seasons,  the 
quality  of  the  vessel,  the  known  character  of  the  cap- 
tain, the  nature  of  the  commodity,  and  the  otateof  our 
political  relations.  All  these,  of  course,  are  matters 
npoc  which  each  individual  must  exercise  his  own  dis- 
cretion, partly  firom  general  experience,  and  partly 
U  u  D 


firom  particular  information ;  exaggeration  of  risk,  and 
consequent  exorbitancy  of  premium  for  any  length  of 
time,  being  out  of  the  question,  where  so  many  indi- 
vidual underwriters,  in  addition  to  the  csmpanies,  art 
in  competition  with  one  another,  and  where  the  mer- 
chants have  the  means  at  band  of  effecting  their  insur- 
ances abroad.  W'>  have  already  taken  notice  of  the 
intelligence  of  vnich  Lloyd's  is  the  focus.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  there  is  a  subscription  register  book  for 
shipping  maintained  by  the  principal  merchants,  ship- 
owners, and  underwriters.  This  book  professes  to 
give  an  account  of  the  tonnage,  build,  age,  repairs, 
and  quality  of  almost  all  the  vessels  that  frequent  our 
ports ;  and,  although  exceedingly  defective  iu  many 
respects,  is  a  material  assistance  to  the  insurers,  who 
have  no  means  of  ascertaining  by  their  own  observa- 
tion the  particulars  of  one  in  a  hundred  of  the  ships 
they  are  oalled  upon  to  insure. 

Contract  of  Imurance. — Having  thus  given  a  gene- 
ral outline  of  the  mode  of  transacting  business  be- 
tween the  insurers  and  insured,  and  the  means  used  to 
enable  both  parties  to  come,  as  near  as  possible,  to  a 
due  estimate  of  the  risk  to  lie  insured  against,  our  next 
step  will  be  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  contract,  and 
the  bearing  of  its  more  important  clauses. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  state  that  the  object  of  those 
who  are  engaged  in  commerce,  or  in  moving  articles 
of  merchandise  from  one  part  of  the  wbrld  to  another, 
is  to  buy  at  such  a  price  that,  after  paying  all  the  ex- 
penses of  transport,  the  tale  price  may  leave  them  a 
surplus  in  the  shape  of  profit.  If  there  were  no  such 
contrivance  as  insurance,  merchants  would  be  obliged 
to  calculate  upon  the  probability  of  the  occasional  loss 
of  their  property,  and  to  regulate  their  transactions 
accordingly ;  but  it  must  be  obvious  that  enterprise, 
under  such  circumstances,  would  be  very  much  crip- 
pled. Now,  insurance,  in  as  far  as  it  approaches  per- 
fection in  guarantying  the  merchant  against  all  loss, 
except  that  of  the  market,  sulistitutes  a  fixed  charge 
for  uncertain  and  contingent  loss,  and  enables  him  to 
confine  his  attention  exclusively  to  price  and  quality, 
and  to  charges  of  transport ;  in  which  latter,  of  course, 
tbe  premium  of  insurance  is  included.  As,  however, 
ia  practice,  insurance  is  by  no  means  a  perfect  protec- 
tion, either  to  the  merchant  or  ship  owner,  against  all 
loss  that  may  occur  in  transitu,  there  is,  even  after  in- 
furance,  some  contingencies  remaining  to  be  taken 
into  consideration ;  and  we  do  not  know  that  we  can 
do  better,  by  way  of  explaining  the  contract  of  insur- 
ance, thun  state,  as  briefly  and  succmctly  us  possible, 
what  are  the  losses  against  which  the  merchant  and 
ship  owner  are  not  protected  by  an  insurance  effected 
in  this  country. 

1.  Acts  of  our  ovm  Government, — All  losses  arising 
fram  the  acts  of  our  own  government.  Thus,  if  an  em- 
biirgo  were  laid  on  vessels  about  to  sail  for  a  particular 
quarter,  and  the  merchant  obliged  to  unload  his 
goods ;  or  if  his  goods  were  condemned  to  De  de- 
stroyed in  quarantine ;  or  purposely  destroyed  at  sea 
by  some  of  our  cruisers  ;  no  part  of  his  loss  would  be 
made  good  by  the  insurer.  The  insurer  in  this  coun- 
try, although  liable  for  the  acts  of  foreign  powers,  is 
not  liable  for  such  acts  directed  against  the  property 
of  their  own  sulijects.  Thus,  if  French  property,  in- 
sured in  this  country,  were  confiscated  by  the  French 
government,  the  owner  would  have  no  remedy  against 
his  insurer. 

2.  Breaches  of  Ike  Revenue  Lfics. — All  losses  arising 
from  a  breach  of  the  revenue  laws.  It  may  be  ob- 
served, that  if  the  owner  of  the  ship,  by  his  act,  ex- 
pose the  goods  of  the  merchant  to  loss,  the  merchant 
so  injured,  although  he  can  not  recover  from  his  insur- 
ers, may  claim  from  him.  It  may  also  be  observed, 
that  if  the  captain  of  the  vessel,  by  his  act,  to  which 
neither  the  owner  of  the  ship  nor  the  merchant  is  a 
party,  expose  the  ship  and  cargo  to  loss,  the  insurers, 
in  such  case,  are  bound  to  maJie  good  the  loss ;  tba 


li'fil 


INS 


1042 


AR9 


liMimn  b«lng  liable  for  all  damage  arising  ftt>m  illegiil 
acta  of  tlie  captain  and  crew,  auppoaing  the  owner  of 
the  ahip  not  to  be  accesaory.  The  illegal  acta  of  the 
captain  and  crew,  contrary  to  the  inatructlons  and 
without  the  consent  of  the  owners,  are  termed  "  bar- 
ratry" In  the  policy.     See  Barratry. 

8.  hrtachtt  of  the  Lme  ofNationt. — All  losses  aris- 
ing fVora  a  breach  of  the  law  of  nations.  Thus,  If  any 
port  Is  declared  by  a  foreign  power  to  be  In  a  state 
nf  blockade,  and  such  blockade  is  acknowledged  by 
our  government ;  and  if  a  ahip,  in  deflance  of  that  no- 
tiflcation,  attempt  to  break  the  liiockade,  and  is  taken 
in  the  attempt ;  the  insurer  is  not  licble  for  the  less. 
It  wilt  otten  happen,  when  a  port  la  under  blockade, 
that  the  profit  is  so  great  upon  goods  introduced  In  de- 
fiance  of  the  blockade,  aa  to  tempt  adventurers  to 
break  It,  and  to  enable  them  to  aflTord  a  ver}'  high  pra- 
mium  to  insure  against  the  risk.  But  as  policies  for  such 
an  object  are  not  acknowledged  in  our  courts  ot'  law, 
when  effected,  they  are  nnderatood  to  be  policies  of 
honor.  The  same  kind  of  pelicy  is  adopted  by  under- 
writers, to  protect  foreign  merchants  who  prefer  Insur- 
ing In  this  country  against  capture  by  our  vessels. 

4.  ComequtRca  of  Deviation. — All  losses  subsequent 
to  any  deviation  Arom  the  terms  of  tho  polic}'.  Thus, 
if  a  merchant.  In  a  policy  on  produce  from  the  West 
Indies  to  London,  warrant  the  ship  to  sail  on  or  before 
the  1st  of  Angust,  and  the  ship  sail  after  that  day  and 
be  los' ,  the  insurer  is  exonerated.  Or,  if  a  merchant 
insure  from  London  to  Lisbon,  and  the  ship  call  at 
Havre  p.id  Is  afterward  lost,  the  insurer  is  not  liable. 
It  w'ii  be  understood,  of  course,  that  the  owner  of  the 
■hi(  is  liable  to  tho  merchant  for  any  breach  of  con- 
tract on  his  port,  as  well  as  that  the  Insurer  is  liable 
for  the  barratry  of  the  master ;  a  deviation  on  the  part 
of  the  master,  not  intended  for  the  benefit  of  the 
owner,  and  contrary  to  his  instructions,  iwing  consid- 
ered barratry.  Should  the  owner  of  the  goo<l3  neglect 
to  describe  accurately  the  voyage  for  which  he  wishes 
to  be  insured,  the  loss  would  be  a  consequence  of  his 
crwn  negligence. 

There  is  a  doctrine  connected  with  barratry  which 
it  will  here  be  proper  to  notice.  A  capta:a,  owner  or 
part  owner  of  the  ship  In  which  he  sails,  can  not  com- 
mit an  act  of  barratry.  In  other  words,  the  insurers 
are  not,  in  such  a  case,  liable  for  an  act  of  hii  which 
would  otherwice  be  barratrous.  The  equity  of  this 
doctrine,  as  far  as  regards  the  interests  of  the  captain 
himself,  can  not  be  called  in  qiicition ;  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand  why  the  merchant  who  ships  goods 
on  board  such  a  captain's  vessel  should  not  be  permit- 
ted to  insure,  among  other  risks,  against  the  .plain's 
Illegal  acts.  We  have  heard  that  a  clause  Uaa  occa- 
sionally been  introduced  into  policies  to  protect  mer- 
chants against  captain-owners,  and  we  do  not  suppose 
that  our  courts  of  law  would  refuse  to  enforce  Huch  a 
clause.  Indeed,  we  can  not  discover  any  reason  why 
every  party,  saving  the  captain,  should  not  h:ive  the 
power  of  insuring  against  the  consequences  of  illegal 
acts  of  the  captain.  We  believe,  that  among  the  life 
offices  which  protect  themselves  from  loss  by  suicide 
and  tho  hands  of  justice,  there  are  some  which  make  a 
distinction  In  favor  of  those  who  merely  hold  policies 
on  the  lives  of  others  as  a  collateral  security.  The 
propriety  of  such  a  distinction  must  strike  over}'  body. 

6.  UtiMaworthinesa. — All  losses  arising  from  unsea- 
worthiness. Unseaworthiness  may  bo  caused  in  va- 
rious ways,  such  as  want  of  repair,  want  of  stores, 
want  of  provisions,  want  of  nautical  instruments.  In- 
sufficiency of  hands  to  navigate  the  vessel,  or  incom- 
petency of  the  master.  It  might  be  supposed,  at  first 
sight,  that  insurance  affords  a  much  less  perfect  secur- 
ity than  it  really  does,  seeing  on  how  many  pluas  it  is 
possible  for  the  insurer  to  dispute  his  liability ;  but 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  proof  of  unseaworthiness 
ia  thrown  upon  the  defendant,  and  that  the  leaning  of 
the  courts  is  almost  always  in  favor  of  the  Inanred,  it 


will  be  easy  to  inppoM  that  no  ntpeetablt  intnnn 
would  ever  plead  unieaworthinMa  unlesa  they  could 
make  out  a  caae  of  mora  than  ordinary  strength  and 
clearness.  The  degree  of  aneasineaa  felt  by  merchants 
and  ihio  owners  at  their  liability  to  be  Involved  in 
loaf  by  caees  of  unseaworthiness,  may  lie  guessed  from 
the  fact  that  although  the  Indemnity  Insurance  Com- 
pany at  one  time  precluded  themsolvea  ttom  pleading 
unteawoithinesa  by  a  special  clause  in  their  policy, 
not  only  did  they  obtain  no  additional  premium  in  cci- 
sequence  thereof,  but  they  did  not  even  obtain  a  pref- 
erence over  other  companies  End  individuals  at  the 
same  premiuma.  At  least,  this  fact  must  be  either 
admitted  aa  a  proof  of  the  absence  of  uneasiness  on 
this  head,  or  of  that  inveteracy  of  habit  which  seems 
to  lead  the  great  bulk  of  mankind  always,  if  possible, 
to  continue  undeviatingly  in  those  courses  to  which 
they  are  accustomed,  even  where  the  benefita  to  be 
derived  fVom  a  deviation  are  undenii<ble. 

8.  Protraction  of  the  Voyage. — All  loss  arising  from 
unusual  protraction  of  the  voyage.  Thus,  if  a  ship 
meet  with  an  accident  in  the  Bi.ltic,  and  the  npairs 
detain  the  vessel  till  the  close  of  the  season,  when  the 
passage  home  is  rendered  impracticable  by  the  ice  till 
the  opening  of  the  ensuing  season,  no  payment  is  made 
to  the  merchant,  in  mitigation  of  his  loss  from  interest 
of  money,  losa  of  market  (if  the  market  fall),  or  dete- 
rioration in  the  quality  of  hia  goods  (unless  arising 
Arom  actual  sea  damage) ;  nor  to  the  ship  owner,  in 
mitigation  of  his  loss  from  the  extra  wages  and  mnin- 
tenance  of  his  crew.  In  most  foreign  countries  the 
ship  owner  Is  remunerated  by  the  insurers  for  the 
wages  and  maintenance  of  his  crew  while  his  ship  is 
detained  in  consequence  of  any  losa  for  the  making 
good  of  which  they  are  liable. 

7.  Liability  for  doing  Damage  to  other  Veiielt. — All 
losa  to  which  the  ship  owner  is  liable  when  his  vessel 
boes  damage  to  others.  According  to  our  laws,  the 
owner  of  eveiy  ship  not  in  charge  of  a  pilot,  that  does 
damage,  by  negligence  of  the  master  and  crew,  to  any 
description  of  craft  or  vessel,  is  liable  to  make  gonl 
the  acme  tc  the  oxtent  of  the  value  of  his  own  shi^ 
and  freight:  for  t)eyond  this  he  is  not  liable.  The 
common  policy  in  use  among  the  underwriters  at 
Lloyd'a  and  the  companies  does  not  protect  the  ship 
owner  from  this  loss.  But  the  clubs  or  associations 
before  mentioned  almost  univerdally  take  this  risk. 
Indeed,  this  is  one  of  tho  purposes  which  gave  rise  to 
their  formation.  Out  even  the}'  limit  their  lialiility  to 
the  amourt  of  the  policy;  so  that  if  a  ship  insured 
with  them  were  to  run  down  another,  and  to  sink  her- 
self iu  the  concussion,  the  owner  would  only  receive 
the  valu(  of  his  own  vessel  from  the  club,  and  still  r  . 
liable  to  the  owner  of  the  other  vessel.  The  Indem- 
nity and  Ma  na  Companies,  by  a  clause  in  their  poli- 
cies, make  themselves  liable  lor  three  fourths  of  the 
loss  which  the  owner  of  the  vessel  insured  with  tbetii 
may  sustiin  from  damage  done  by  his  vessel  to  those 
of  others.  If  suclt  a  case  as  the  one  just  supposed 
should  occur  under  their  policy,  the  insured  would  re- 
ceive the  value  of  his  own  vessel  and  three  fourths  of 
the  losa  to  be  made  good  by  him  to  the  owner  of  the 
other  vessel.  The  policies  of  these  companies  ap- 
proach in  this  respect  the  nearest  of  any  to  perfect 
protection  to  the  ship  owner.  But  the  loss  from  run 
ning  down  other  vessels,  although  serious,  nay  som«- 
times  ruinous,  seldom  occurs ;  and  many  ship  owners 
trust  so  confidently  that  it  will  never  fall  npon  them, 
that  they  are  as  well  satisfied  to  be  without  as  with 
this  protection.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  has  confirmed  s  decision,  to  the  effect,  that 
where  a  collision  takes  place  without  fault  in  a  port 
where  the  local  law  divides  the  whole  loss  (thereby  op- 
posing the  general  maritime  law),  the  insurers  were 
liable  for  it.    ThU  is  opposed  to  the  English  decisions. 

8.  Average  Clause. — The  next  description  of  loss  of 
which  we  shall  treat,  against  which  the  insured  ore 


If  the 

wou! 

Le 


princlt 


Bat  tnl 


im 


1048 


INS 


not  ]>rolMt«4,  (s  dMcribM  in  the  following  clinu  of 
the  policy:  "  Corn,  fish,  salt,  teed,  floir,  and  fln;il,  ara 
warnnbid  tter.  fVom  average,  unless  general,  or  the 
■hip  ly  stronded ;  sugar,  tobarco,  hemp,  flax,  hides, 
and  sktnn  ara  warranted  free  from  average  under  6  per 
cent.,  unless  general,  or  tlie  ship  be  stranded ;  and  all 
other  goods,  also  the  ship  and  freight,  aie  wrnunted 
free  tnm  average  under  8  per  cent.,  unless  general,  or 
the  ship  b«  strcnded.''  The  language  employed  in  this 
clause,  being  teehnic-J,  requires  explanation  to  render 
it  intelligible  to  the  general  reader.  Average  is  a 
name  applied  to  certain  descriptions  of  loss,  to  which 
the  merchant  and  ship  c  "..er  are  liable.  There  are 
two  kind^  of  average,  guneral  and  particular.  General 
Average  comprehends  all  loss  arising  out  of  a  volun- 
tary  3acriflce  of  a  part  of  either  vessel  or  cargo,  made 
by  the  captain  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole.  Thus,  if 
a  captain  throw  part  of  his  cargo  overboard,  cut  from 
an  anchor  and  cable,  or  cut  away  his  masts ;  the  loss 
60  sustained,  being  voluntarily  submitted  to  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole,  is  distributed  over  the  value  of 
the  whole  shin  and  cargo,  and  is  called  "general 
average." 

Particular  A  verage  comprehends  all  loss  occasioned 
to  ship,  freight,  and  cargo,  which  is  not  of  so  serious  a 
nature  as  to  debar  them  from  reaching  their  port  of 
destination,  and  when  the  damage  to  the  ship  is  not  so 
extensive  as  to  r^uder  her  unworthy  of  repair.  Losses 
where  the  goods  are  saved,  but  io  such  a  state  as  to  be 
unfit  to  forward  to  their  port  of  destination,  and  where 
the  ship  is  rendered  unfit  to  repair,  are  called  "  partial 
or  salvage  loss."  The  leading  distinction,  between 
particular  average  and  salvage  loss  is,  that,  in  the 
first,  the  property  insured  remains  the  property  of  the 
assured — the  damage  sustained,  or  part  thereof,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  as  will  hereafter  be  explained,  being 
made  good  by  the  insurer ;  and  in  the  second,  the 
property  insured  is  abandoned  to  the  insurer,  and  the 
value  insured  claimed  from  him,  he  retaining  the  prop- 
erty so  abandoned,  or  its  value. 

Particular  Average  on  Goods. — A  few  cases  illustra- 
tive of  the  method  of  stating  a  claim  for  particular 
average  will  best  explain  the  nature  of  this  descrip- 
tion of  loss,  and  will  at  the  same  time  show  the  reader 
what  the  practical  distinction  is  between  particular 
average  and  salvage  losr. 

The  property  insured  we  shall  suppose  to  be  a  <on 
of  hemp,  the  cost  of  which  at  Petersburg  is  J160,  for 
which  sum  it  is  insured  from  New  York  to  London, 
and  that  the  duty,  freight,  and  charges  to  which  the 
merchant  is  subject  on  landing  at  London  are  $50. 
We  shall  likewise  suppose  that  the  hemp,  on  its  arri- 
val, is  so  damaged  as  not  to  be  worth  more  than  half 
what  it  would  have  fetched  had  it  been  sound.  The 
insurer  would  then  be  called  upon  to  make  good  to  the 
insured  $75,  or  60  per  cent.,  upon  the  sum  insured. 
But  it  does  not  loUow  that  this  payment  of  $75  would 
indemnify  the  merchant,  or  that  it  would  not  more 
than  indemnify  him,  for  the  loss  sustained. 

If  the  homp  nnon  arrival  In  that  country 

would  liave  fetched  In  a  sound  state $350  00 

Less  duty,  iVclgbt,  and  charges 60  OU 


1100  w 


Bat  In  Its  daraansd  state  is  only  worth. . .  125  00 
Less  duty,  nelght,  and  charges 50  00 


t300  00 


75  00 


If  the  kamp  wonid  have  (itebed  In  a  aonad 

•Ut« tIBOOO 

Leu  duty,  freight,  and  charge BO  00 

But  In  ita  damaged  state  la  only  worth ...    75  00 

LsM  duty,  freight,  and  charge* SO  00 

9500 

The  uarobant's  loss  by  the  damage  Is (75  00 

And  he  receives  from  the  Insurer  t75.  Upon  the  principle 
of  r  .jtlrage  loea  be  would  receive  tliO. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  merchant's  lou  by  the 
damage  of  his  goods  varies  with  the  state  of  the  mar- 
ket. It  mny  also  be  observed,  that  in  general  the 
merchant  will  not  receive  from  the  Insurer  the  whole 
amount  of  the  loss  that  he  sustains.  'Whenever  his 
market  Is  a  profitable  one  (and  that  it  must  usually  be 
so  will  be  obvious  to  every  body),  whenever,  indeed, 
his  market  is  not  a  decidedly  losing  one,  his  policy 
does  not  afford  him  s  complete  protection. 

The  argument  in  favor  of  this  mode  of  settling 
claims  for  particular  average — and  it  should  be  o^ 
served  that  the  subject  has  been  discussed,  and  the 
principle  acknowledged  In  the  courts  of  law — is,  that 
the  insurer's  liability  is  to  be  guided  by  the  amount 
upon  which  he  had  received  a  premium  or  considera- 
tion ;  that  he  is  not  to  be  affected  by  the  rise  or  fall  of 
markets ;  but  that  the  gro$t  market  price  of  the  sovnd, 
and  the  gross  market  price  of  the  damaged  goods,  are 
to  be  the  test  by  which  the  rate  of  damage  upon  the 
amount  insured  is  to  be  adjusted ;  the  insurer  being 
liable,  besides,  for  all  the  extra  charges  arising  out  of 
the  damage. 

In  the  first  case  stated,  the  merchant's  loss  by 
damage  is  $25  upon  $40,  or  62}  per  cent. ;  in  the  sec- 
ond, $10  upon  $10,  or  100  per  cent. ;  in  the  third,  $16 
upon  $20,  or  75  per  cent.  If  the  duty,  freight,  and 
charges  were  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  dimin- 
ished value  of  the  goods,  the  loss  in  each  case  would 
be  60  per  cent,  upon  the  nett  price,  as  it  is  50  per  cent, 
upon  the  gross  i  rice.  As  far  as  the  duty  is  concerned, 
government,  upon  many  articles,  reduces  it  in  propor- 
tion to  the  diminution  in  the  value  of  the  goods ;  and 
if  the  freight  were  redui  ed  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
merchant  would  always  be  indemnified  for  his  loss  by 
the  Insurer.  But  the  practice  with  regard  to  freight 
in  this  country  admits  of  no  such  arrangement ;  freight 
being  paid  according  to  the  quantity  delivered. 

To  make  the  principle  upon  which  ciaima  for  partic- 
ular avorage  are  adjusted,  and  its  bearing,  still  clearer, 
we  shall  illustrate  it  by  a  few  more  cases.  Suppose 
two  packages  to  be  insured  at  cost  price — a  cask  of 
rice  and  a  cask  of  sugar — each  weighing  10  cwt. ;  the 
cost  of  each  at  the  port  of  shipment  $50,  the  freight 
of  each  250  cents  per  cwt.  at  the  port  of  I  livery,  both 
articles  free  from  duty,  and  to  arri%c  at  a  market 
where  no  more  than  the  cost  price  is  realized ;  assum- 
ing that  both  packages  are  damaged  60  per  cent. — the 
rice  by  loss  of  quality,  the  sugar  by  loss  of  weight — 
the  statement  will  be  ns  follows : 

10  owt.  of  rlcb,  had  It  arrived  sound,  would 

have  produced $75  00 

Less  fVelght  on  10  cwt 26  00 

But  buing  damaged  did  only  produce 3T  50 

Ii«ssn'olgbtoal0cwt.at250o.percwt.    25  00 


The  merchant's  loss  by  the  damage  is. $125  00 

Whereas  he  only  receives  fk'om  the  Insurer  $75.    Upon  the 
ptinclple  of  a  salvage  loss  he  would  also  receive  $76. 

If  the  homp  would  have  fbtched  in  a  sonnd 

slate $100  00 

LoH  duty,  flight,  and  charges 60  00 

$60  00 

But  In  Its  damaged  state  Is  only  worth ...     60  00 
Leas  duty,  freight,  and  charges 60  00 

The  merchant's  loss  by  the  damage  Is $60  00 

.  Whereas  be  receives  fh)m  the  Insurer  $76.    Upon  ttaeprin 
"Ple  of  a  salvage  lots  he  would  receive  $160. 


$60  00 


12  60 


Merchant's  loss $87  60 


10  owt.  of  sugar,  If  sound,  would  have  pro- 
duced  $75  00 

LessftelghtonlOcwt  stSOc.  percwt    26  00 

The  barrel,  being  damaged,  did  only  weigh 

6  owt.  and  produce 87  50 

Lessfyelgbtoa5cwtat250c.percwt.    12  50 


$50  00 


25  00 


Merchant's  lost. $26  00 

In  each  case  the  merchant  is  entitled  to  recover 
from  his  insurer  $25,  or  60  per  cent.,  upon  $50,  the 
turn  insured,  which,  although  an  inlemnity  to  him  foi 


INS 


1044 


nrs 


hb  Ion  on  tha  angtr,  Is  far  tnm  ImIiik  m  for  hia  lou 
upon  tha  rica.  If  the  marchant  would  contrive  so  to 
fhapa  his  contr'  ,.'ith  tha  ahip  ownar  for  freight  as 
to  reduce  the  fr^.^  it  in  proportion  to  the  depreciation 
in  the  value  of  tha  damaged  commodity,  ha  would  be 
completely  protected.  The  ahip  owner  might,  on  his 
ilda,  protect  himaalf  by  inauranca  from  losa  by  reduo- 
UbB  of  quality,  as  he  now  does  from  loss  by  reduction 
of  quantity.  But  we  have  already  more  than  once 
adverted  to  the  di6Bculty  of  breaking  in  upon  eatal> 
liahed  practices.  The  ii.erchanta  go  on  from  year  to 
year  complaining  of  the  losses  to  which  they  are  sub- 
iected  from  this  awkward  contrivance,  while  no  steps 
are  taken  to  improve  it.  To  show  that  the  principle  is 
equitable  aa  between  the  merchant  and  hia  inaurer, 
we  subjoin  one  mora  statement,  where  tha  damage  is 
taken  at  100  per  cent. 

10  ewt.  of  rice,  If  sound,  would  have  pro- 
duced      75  00 

Leas  tttigbt  onlOcwt.  StSOO 


$00  00 
.    2600 


BolBjr  totally  spoiled  did  produoe  nottalnK. 

The  merchant  being  still  liable  fbr  the  freight. 

Making  his  loss. fTB  00 

He  reoelros  |6U  only  IVoui  tbo  Insurer. 
10  cwt  of  sugar,  If  aound,  would  have  pro- 
duced;  ITBOO 

Less  freight  on  10  cwt 28  00 

160  00 

The  barrel  being  washed  out  produces  nothing. 

The  merobsut,  however,  not  being  liable  to  pay 
fhilgbt 

ills  loss  Is  only |60  00 

Which  ho  recovera  from  the  Insurer. 
It  will  bo  observed,  that  in  each  cose  the  Insurer  pays  |&0, 
or  the  run  sum  upon  which  he  receives  the  premtuin. 

When  whole  cargoes,  or  pu.-»ls  of  goods  of  consiil- 
arabla  value,  are  insured,  the  .'<iU8e  in  the  policy 
which  protects  the  insurer  from  particular  average 
under  a  certain  pe  jentage  la  often  partially  set  aside. 
Thus,  if  a  cargo  of  500  hogsheads  of  sugar,  valued  at 
flO,000,  were  damaged  to  the  extent  of  $4G0,  the 
merchant,  supposing  the  protecting  clause  to  remain  in 
force,  would  recover  nothing  from  the  insurer,  the  loss 
not  amounting  to  6  per  cent.  The  additional  written 
clause,  by  which  it  is  the  practice  to  modify  the  printed 
clause,  is  as  follows :  "  Particular  average,  payable 
upon  each  10  hhds.  sugar,  10  casks  and  60  bags  coffee, 
and  10  bags  cotton,  following  numbers,  and  upon  each 
package  of  manufactured  goods,  chest  of  indigo,  bag 
of  wool  or  silk,  the  same  as  if  separately  insured." 
Such  clauses  may  be,  and  are,  introduced  ad  libitum  bj- 
mutual  consent  of  insurer  and  insured,  the  premium 
or  consideration  being  arranged  accordingly.  The  pro- 
tecting clause  is  considered,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the 
insurers,  excecdingl}'  unsatisfactory  in  some  respects ; 
and  they,  aa  occasion  requires,  insist  upon  additional 
protection,  Thus,  saltpetre,  hides,  cocoa,  and  tin 
plates,  are  generally  warranted  free  from  particular 
average,  unless  the  ship  be  stranded;  and  upon  to- 
bacco, it  is  customar}'  for  the  insurers  to  make  them- 
lelves  lialde  only  to  such  part  of  the  particular  average 
u  exceeds  5  per  cent.,  throwing  6  per  cent,  upon  the 
merchant. 

Particular  A  vemge  on  Freight. — The  clause,  as  far 
aa  it  affects  "  freight,"  calls  fur  no  particular  comment. 
Particular  average  upon  freight  can  only  arise,  ac- 
cording to  prevailing  practice,  from  loss  of  weight ; 
and  whenever  the  loss  of  weight  amounts  to  3  per 
cent,  or  upwaitl,  the  ship  owner  is  entitled  to  recover 
ttom  his  insurer.  The  ship  owner,  upon  the  arrival  of 
the  ship  at  its  port  of  destination,  is  entitled  to  hold 
the  goods  as  security  until  the  freight  is  paid.  If  the 
owner  of  the  goods  should  prove  insolvent,  and  the 
goods  should  Iw  entirely  spoiled  by  sea  damage  during 
the  voyage,  and  the  ship  owner  thus  lo«e  his  freight, 
he  has  no  claim  upon  the  insurer ;  l>ecause,  although 
Ua  collateral  security  ia  destroyed  by  a  peril  of  the 
•M,  hia  right  to  racaive  freight  remaina  unimpaired,  | 


and  it  la  against  the  loaa  or  Impairing  of  thit  right  that 
the  inaurer  protects  htm. 

Particular  Average  on  Ship: — Particular  average 
upon  ahipa  U  a  anbject  aomawhat  more  baaet  with 
difflcnltiea.  There  is  scarcely  a  ahip  that  makes  u 
voyage  of  any  length  that  does  not  sustain  some  dam- 
age. Thn  cUnse  in  the  policy  warranting  the  ship 
f^ee  from  particular  average  under  8  per  cent,,  unless 
stranded,  protects  the  Inaurer  from  the  constant  recur- 
rence of  petty  claims ;  but  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  the 
practice  to  class  the  damage  that  a  ship  sustaina  in  tlie 
prosecution  of  hor  voyage  under  two  heads ;  ordinary 
damage,  or  wear  and  tear ;  and  extrannlinury  damage, 
or  particular  average.  Tha  aplitting  of  sails,  the 
breaking  of  anchors  and  cables,  tha  upsetting  of  wln<i- 
lasses,  are  losses  that  come  under  the  first  head.  The 
carrying  away  of  roasts  and  bulwarks,  damage  to  the 
copper  sheathing  and  hull  from  striking  on  rocks,  come 
under  the  second.  When  a  ship  sustaina  damage,  if 
she  be  on  her  first  voyage,  the  whole  expense  of  the 
repairs  la  made  good  by  the  insurers.  But  if  she  be 
not  on  her  first  voyago,  it  is  the  establiabed  custom 
that  the  insurer  pays  no  more  than  two  thirds  of  the 
repairs,  the  owner  of  the  vessel  having,  as  it  is 
thought,  an  equivalent  for  the  one  third  which  falls 
upon  him,  in  the  subatitution  of  new  work  for  old. 
Where  the  nature  of  the  damage  is  such  as  to  t«quiro 
that  the  copper  should  ba  stripped  off  tha  ship's  bot- 
tom, the  insurer  pays  the  diffierence  between  the  price 
of  the  old  and  the  new  copper  on  the  weight  of  the  old 
copper  stripped  off;  the  excess  in  weight  of  the  now 
over  the  old  copper  is  paid  for  by  the  ship  owner ;  and 
the  labor  of  stripping  and  replacing  the  cop|)er  is  paid 
for  on  the  principle  already  mentioned.  In  any  gen- 
eral rule  of  this  kind,  it  must  be  obvious  that  the  ship 
owner  will  sometimes  gain  and  sometimes  lose  by  an 
aocident.  As  soon  as  the  ship  owner,  or  bis  captain, 
learns  that  hia  vessel  has  met  with  an  accident,  or  as 
soon  after  an  possible,  he  summons  regular  surveyors 
to  exn  nine  his  vessel  and  report  all  defects,  discrim- 
inatin);  between  tlioso  defects  tliat  have  arisen  from 
perils  of  iiic  as.  and  those  from  wear  and  tear.  The 
first  only  are  made  good  by  the  insurer,  together  with 
all  charges,  such  as  surveyors'  fees,  dock  dues,  etc., 
caused  by  tlie  necessity  of  undergoing  repair.  It  bus 
been  already  observed,  that  when  a  ship  is  obliged, 
in  the  progress  of  her  voyage,  to  put  into  port  for  the 
purpose  of  repair,  although  the  owner  of  the  ship  be 
subjected  to  great  expense  for  the  wages  and  main- 
tenance of  his  crew  during  the  detention,  he  can  re- 
cover no  part  of  this  expense  from  the  insurer ;  the 
doctrine  being,  that  the  owner  of  tlie  ship  is  bound  to 
navigate  his  vessel,  and  that  the  insurer  does  not  un- 
dertake to  guaranty  that  the  voyage  shall  be  coiii- 
ploted  within  any  specific  time.  Such  is  the  doctrine, 
at  least,  in  this  country,  and  tho  practice  is  founded 
upon  it ;  but  in  all  other  countries  the  doctrine  ami 
practice  arc  the  reverse.  For  in  them  cUowance  is 
made  to  the  ship  owner  for  tlio  wages  and  maintenanoe 
of  the  crew  during  the  whole  period  that  the  ship  is 
under  repair.  Where  a  vessel  sustains  damage  and 
undergoes  repair  in  the  progress  of  her  voyage,  and  is 
subsequently  lost,  the  insurer  is  liable  both  for  the 
particular  average  and  a  total  loss.  Or  tho  owner  of 
the  ship  may,  if  he  please,  insure  the  amount  expend- 
ed in  repair ;  and  then,  in  the  event  of  subsequent  loss, 
the  insurer  is  liable  for  the  total  loss  only ;  but  in  the 
event  of  subsequent  safe  arrival,  the  average  is  aug- 
mented by  the  charge  of  insurance.  The  operation 
of  the  clause  warranting  the  ship  free  from  average 
under  3  per  cent.,  unless  general,  or  the  ship  be 
stranded,  may  now  be  clearly  seen.  If  a  ship  be  in- 
sured and  valued  at  $50,000,  and  the  repairs  of  the 
vessel  do  not,  after  all  the  deductions  above  referred 
to,  amount  to  3  per  cent.,  there  is  no  claim  upon  tlie 
insurer,  unless  the  vesaal  shall  have  been  stranded. 
Sea  AVKBAOB. 


INS 


104S 


INS 


Strtmdinf.—Tht  term  itranded  !■  not  well  choMii, 
•dinltting  of  more  than  one  construction ;  and  the 
clanae  of  which  it  forms  a  part  is  imperfectly  con- 
ceived. And  in  aettlements  of  accounts,  when  differ- 
ence* arise,  the  parties  who  discuss  them  are  more  apt 
to  strive  for  that  interpretation  of  terms  and  clauses 
which  is  favorable  to  their  interests,  than  for  that 
which  Is  best  adapted  for  general  purposes.  It  Is  com- 
monly understood  that  merely  striking  the  ground  and 
coming  off  is  not  a  stranding ;  it  being  necessar}',  in 
iirder  to  fall  witiiin  that  term,  that  the  ship  should 
remain  on  the  ground  or  rock,  as  it  may  happen,  and 
that  effort ..  nnould  be  made  to  float  her.  Striking  on 
an  anc'.or  and  leaking  dangerously  is  not  a  stranding. 
We  -,ftall  only  adduce  two  illustraticms,  for  the  pur- 
pof )  of  showing  how  ill  adapted  this  clause  is  as  a 
means  to  an  end.  Com  and  other  such  articles  are 
warranted  free  from  particular  average,  unless  the 
ship  be  stranded,  because  the  insurers,  considering 
these  articles  to  lie  ])eculiarly  susceptible  of  damage, 
will  not  consent  to  take  that  risk,  except  on  some  ex- 
traordinary occasion.  A  ship  laden  with  com,  makes 
a  verj-  stormy  pap<iagu  from  the  Baltic  to  London,  and 
damages  the  whole  of  he  cargo.  Upon  arrival  off 
the  coast  she  U  stranded,  but  got  off  without  straining 
or  sustaining  any  damag*;.  The  Insurer  is  held  to  be 
liable  for  the  damage  to  the  com,  under  the  clause  of 
the  policy.  On  another  occasion,  after  a  very  favor- 
able passage  to  the  coast,  a  ship  strikes  upon  a  shoal, 
but  is  not  stranded,  sustaining,  however,  so  much 
damage  that  she  arrives  at  London  with  6  feet  of  water 
In  her  hold,  and  her  cargo  almost  wholly  spoiled.  The 
insurer  is  held  not  to  be  liable  under  the  clause  of  the 
policy. 

General  Average. — The  insurer  Is  bound  to  make 
good  all  general  average  without  exception,  however 
trifling  the  amount.  General  average  la  treated  as 
though  altogether  unconnected  with  particular  aver- 
age ;  and  damage  to  the  goods  not  amounting  to  3  por 
cent,  is  not  payable  by  the  insurer,  although  there 
may  be  also  a  general  average,  and  the  general  and 
particular  average  together  may  amount  to  more  than 
3  or  5  per  cent.  General  average  U  a  charge  which 
must  be  paid  by  the  merchant  and  ship  owner,  even  if 
uninsured ;  altliough  when  Insured,  he  transfers,  as  it 
were,  in  virtue  of  his  Insurance,  the  dmrge  from  him- 
self to  his  insurer.  All  the  cleirients  ti-at  can  by  pos- 
sibility  enter  into  gennral  a'erage  may  be  classed 
under  foui  heads:—!.  Sacrifice  of  part  of  the  ship 
ihi  stores  2.  Sacrifice  of  part  of  the  cargo  and 
freight ;  8.  Remuneration  of  services  required  for  gen- 
eral preservation ;  4.  Expense  of  raising  money  to 
replace  what  haj  been  sacrificed,  and  to  remunerate 
services. 

1.  When  any  part  of  the  ship  is  sacrificed  for  the 
general  benefit,  the  owner  is  entitled  to  receive  (de- 
ducting, of  course,  his  share  of  contribution),  the 
amount  of  his  outlay  In  the  replacing  of  such  sacri. 
Ace ;  allowance  being  made,  on  the  principle  stated 
above,  where  old  works  and  materials  are  replaced 
with  new.  The  deduction  of  one  third,  however,  does 
not  invariably  apply.  For  instance,  one  sixth  only  is 
taken  off  the  price  of  an  Iron  cable  that  is  slipped  from 
forthe  general  benefit,because  iron  cables  are  calculated 
to  last  for  a  great  number  of  years  j  and  no  reduction 
Is  ever  made  from  the  price  of  anchors.  The  charge 
of  replacing  the  loss  may  amount  to  considerably  more 
than  the  value  lost,  computing  the  value  at  the  place 
where  the  ship  was  originally  fitted.  Thus,  the  cost 
of  replacing  an  anchor  and  cable  slipped  from  in  the 
Downs,  is  frequently  double  the  value  of  the  anchor 
and  cable  at  London.  But  whatever  the  charge  may 
be,  such  charge  forms  the  basis  of  settlement. 

2.  Sacrifice  of  the  cargo  and  freight  takes  place  In 
jettison,  or  where  part  of  the  cargo  is  fiung  overboard 
to  lighten  the  vesiel.  Upon  arrival  in  port,  after  such 
■ettUon,  the  owner  of  the  goodi  jettiaoned  is  eotitled 


to  receive  (deducting  his  share  of  contribution),  whM 
the  goods  wouM  have  produced  nett  to  him,  aupposing 
them  to  have  arrived  sound ;  and  the  owner  of  the 
ship  la  entitled  '■■>  receive  (deducting  bit  share  of  con- 
tribution), the  flreight  to  which  he  would  have  b«''j 
entitled  up'- ..  .je  same  delivery  of  the  goods. 

a.  Remuneration  of  services  and  other  charges. 
When  a  ship  loses  her  anchors  and  cables,  very  large 
sums  are  frequently  a"  rded  to  boatmen  who  vsntura 
off  to  her  with  new  ones  at  the  imminent  hazan'  of 
their  lives.  A  ship  disaliled  at  sea  is  towed  into  pet 
by  another,  and  remuneration  for  such  service  I.' 
awarded  according  to  the  value  saved,  the  detention 
occasioned,  and  the  loss  sustained.  The  ship  render- 
ing the  service  may  bo  laden  with  fish  or  fruit,  that 
may  be  totally  spoiled  by  the  detention,  or  may  be  in 
ballast.  A  ship  captured  by  the  enemy  may  be  re- 
captured by  a  man  ,t  war  or  armed  merchant  vessel ; 
here,  again,  salva^  e  is  awarded  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  cose.  All  these  chargea  are  gen- 
eral average ;  that  is  to  say,  must  be  distributed  over 
ship,  freight,  and  cargo.  When  a  ship,  with  her  car- 
go, la  driven  on  shore,  the  expense  of  attempting  to 
get  h*--  off  is  gennral  average.  If  she  can  not  be  got 
off  wl.  lut  discharifing,  the  expense  of  discharging  is 
^  merak  average ;  nut  the  expense  uf  getting  the  ship 
off  after  the  cargo  has  been  taken  out  falls  exclusively 
upon  the  ship.  The  warehousing  of  the  cargo,  and 
other  expenses  incurred  for  its  preservation,  are 
charges  exclusively  upon  the  cargo.  The  expense  of 
reloading  is  borne  by  the  freight.  Whbn  a  ship  puts 
Into  ])OTt  In  distress,  the  pilotage  inward  is  general 
average ;  the  pilotage  outward  la  i  charge  upon  the 
freight.  This  distribution  of  charges  has  settled  into 
a  tolerably  well  established  practice ;  and  upon  this 
principle  claims  are  settled  at  the  offices. 

4.  The  money  required  to  meet  the  above  charges 
is  sometimes  attainable  without  expense.  If  the  acci- 
dent happen  near  home,  and  the  ship  owner  be  respect- 
able, he  advances  the  money  and  recovers  from  the 
various  parties  oncerned  so  soon  as  the  accounts  can 
be  made  up ;  or  if  the  accident  happen  in  a  foreign 
port,  where  the  owner  of  the  ship  is  well  known,  the 
captain's  bill  upon  him  will  sometimes  be  received  in 
ps}-ment  of  the  charges  incurred.  But  where  such 
facilities  do  not'  exist,  the  captain  is  empowered  to 
pledge  his  ship,  freight,  and  cargo,  as  security  to  any 
one  ho  may  prevail  upon  to  supply  the  necessary 
funds.  This  pledge  Is  termed  a  bottomry  bond.  By 
it  the  captain  admits  the  receipt  of  the  money ;  con- 
sents to  the  payment  of  a  premium  (which  varies  with 
the  distance  of  the  port  of  destination,  the  risk  of  tha 
voj'age,  the  lespectablllty  of  the  owner,  and  the  neces- 
sities of  the  captain) ;  and  assigns  the  ship,  freight, 
and  cargo,  as  security  for  the  repayment  of  the  money 
advanced  and  the  stipulated  premium.  Should  the 
captain  consider  the  bottomry  premium  demanded  of 
him  exorbitant,  or  should  he  deem  it  preferable  in 
other  respects,  he  may  seU  a  portion  of  the  cargo  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  such  money  as  be  may  stand  in 
need  of  toward  the  proseftion  of  bis  voyage.  The 
expense  of  raising  the  requisite  funds,  whether  by 
commission,  by  bottomry  premium,  or  by  loss  on  the 
sale  of  the  cargo,  is  charged  to  those  parties  for  whose 
Interest  the  money  is  required.  Thus,  If  a  ship,  hav- 
ing struck  upon  a  rock,  puts  Into  port  in  distress,  and 
Is  obliged  to  unload  to  repair ;  supposing  the  particular 
average  upon  the  ship  to  amount  to  $600 ;  the  gen- 
eral average,  consisting  of  assistance  into  port  and 
expense  of  unloadin<;,  $200;  particular  charges  on 
freight,  consisting  of  expense  of  reloading  and  pilotage 
outward,  $100 ;  and  particular  charges  on  cargo,  con- 
sisting of  warehouse  rent  and  repair  of  packages, 
$200 ;  and  the  expense  of  raising  money  should  be  20 
per  cent. ; — those  sums  would  be  severally  increased 
by  this  addition,  and  would  be  raised  to  $600,  $240, 
$120,  and  $340.    See  Bottoxbt,  BBsroMDBMTU. 


104« 


INB 


It  itlll  Nmtlni  to  b«  Inqnlrad  In  what  proportion 
tht  gtneral  averag*  ii  tu  b«  paid  liy  th«  difliirant  own- 
an  of  th«  ottgo,  and  tho  owner  of  nhip  and  frvtiiht. 
Almoni  nil  gane'al  uveraKM  are  adjn-ittil  it  the  ihlp'! 
port  »f  deatlnatlon,  and  the  valuet  »r  Mm  ahip  and 
carK"  ure  taken  at  what  they  would  produxi  In  their 
actual  Ktate  upon  arrival,  and  the  freight,  aciurdlng  tu 
what  ia  actually  rooeWahle,  leaa  the  wagea  uf  the  ca|>- 
tain  and  crew  ;  the  general  average  being  di»tril>utad 
In  proportion  to  theie  valuaa.  Hliould  the  curgo  lie 
altogether  wotthlata,  it  can  not  lie  nude  to  ((intrlhiita ; 
and  ihould  the  wugee  of  the  crew  exceed  the  freight, 
then  the  freight  ia  not  liahle  to  contriliute.  In  caae 
of  Jettiaon,  the  purty  whoae  property  liui  lieen  aacrl- 
floed  fur  the  gnnnriil  lieiielit  rcceivea  Indemnity  on  the 
same  principle ;  the  value  to  which  ho  in  cntittad  lieing 
what  his  property  would  have  produced  ntii,  auppoaing 
it  to  have  lieen  aold  on  the  arrival  of  the  verael— the 
fame  value  aerving  for  the  liasia  of  hli  propcrtlim  of 
coDtrlbntiuri.  8nmn  few  caaea  occu.  where  the  general 
•venige  la  adjnatpd  at  the  port  of  departure.  Thui-, 
tf  a  ship,  outward  Iwund  to  tlie  Britlah  culoniea,  cut 
ttom  an  anchor  and  cable  in  the  Uowoa,  or  Incur  other 
general  average  on  our  own  coaat,  the  inaurancea  lieing 
principally  effected  In  thia  countr}-,  it  ia  the  cuat<ini  to 
•djuat  It  CD  the  spot,  by  which  means  both  delay  awl 
•xpenae  are  avoided.  On  theae  occasions,  the  values 
at  the  port  of  shipment  are  taken  as  the  baaia  of  con- 
tribution. A  total  loss,  subsequently  to  a  general 
average,  does  not  exonerate  the  Insurer  from  his  prior 
liability;  and  although  it  is  customiiry  with  the  ahip 
owner,  or  his  agent,  apeciflcally  to  insure  tha  mimuy 
expended  in  average,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  tlin 
insurer  against  any  greater  liability  than  100  per  cent,, 
he  is  not  absolutely  obliged  to  do  so.  When  the  aver> 
age  funds  are  raised  by  bottomry',  the  party  advancing 
them  takes  the  ship,  freight,  and  cargo,  as  security, 
and  charges  a  premium  to  cover  the  risk  of  the  ship's 
oon-arrival  at  hnr  port  of  destination.  And  thus,  ou 
such  an  occasion,  a  aubaequent  total  loaa  relieves  the 
Insurer  from  all  liability  to  average.  'Ihe  law  and 
customs  by  which  averages  are  adjusted  vary  in  dllTer- 
ent  countriea ;  but  the  inaurer  in  thia  country  ia  only 
llalile  for  the  averages  adjusted  anconllng  to  our  laws. 
The  merchant,  however,  whoae  goods  arrive  at  a  fur> 
•tgn  port,  is  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Jaws  of  that 
port.  He  may  thus  be  a  conalderablo  loser  i  paying 
general  average  according  to  one  law,  and  receiving 
from  his  insurer  according  to  another.  And  ho  never 
can  be  a  gainer,  because,  before  he  is  entitled  to  re- 
cover from  his  insurer,  he  must  prove  that  h«  has 
paid  to  the  owner  of  the  ship.  Tills  is  one  of  the 
many  inconveniences  to  which  mercantile  men  are  ex- 
posed, which  can  not  be  removed  without,  what  it  may 
be  hoped  will  gradually  take  place,  an  assimilation  uf 
the  commercial  laws  of  different  countries. 

Proof  of  Ltiu. — 'The  policy  of  inauranca  Is  the  In- 
strument under  which  the  merchant  and  ship  owner 
claim  indemnification  for  all  losses  tiiut  are  not  spe- 
cially excepted.  The  proof  that  the  loss  has  been 
sustained  must  also  be  exhibited  ;  such  as  the  title  tu 
the  vessel  and  cargo,  and  the  evideucb  ul'  the  captain 
and  crew  to  establish  tlie  circumstances  out  of  which 
the  claim  arises.  If  A  were  to  insure  his  vessel  fur 
the  space  of  12  months,  and  at  the  expiration  of  11 
months  were  to  sell  hia  ship  to  B :  A's  interest  in  the 
vessel  having  ceased,  su  also  does  his  insurer's  lialiiU 
ity  ;  and  B,  If  he  wish  to  be  protected,  must  make  a 
new  insurance.  Proof  of  ownership,  therefore,  is  an 
essential  prtiliminary  to  the  recover}'  of  a  claim,  lu 
general  practice,  no  difficulty  arises  from  this,  because 
the  fact  of  ownership  is  sufficiently  notorious.  The 
bill  of  lading  is,  in  most  cases,  satisfactor}'  proof  that 
the  cargo  was  on  board,  aa  well  as  of  tha  amount  of 
flight. 

Valutd  and  optn  Palicu$.—U  an  iosurano*  for 
#10,000  be  effected  upoa  100  bhda.  of  aogar,  valued  •( 


#100  par  hbd.,  *ha  hill  uf  lading,  showing  that  the  vsa. 
asl  ba<l  IIM)  hlula.  on  Uiard,  «>tulillaliiia  the  Intertat  at 
•  10,OOU,  and  tlw  policy  la  (i<riii"d  a  valued  p<iilcy.  But 
If  an  Inaiiraniia  for  #lll,l)00  lie  effeutiHl  on  100  hhda  of 
augar,  and  nothing  \m  nspraaaed  iia  I  >  value,  the  l<ili 
of  lading  only  satabllahaa  that  in<l  lihila.  are  on  boani, 
without  nalabllahlnil  the  ainoiiiit  uf  Intersat.  The 
|ir<iduutl»n  uf  the  liivolue,  ahuwiiig  the  cost  of  the 
goods,  la  niii'waary  to  that  end,  tho  policy  being 
lerried  an  uueii  on*. 

Jitliii-H  (j/  I'rtmium/itr  thnri  lnltrnl,—ln  a  valued 
policy,  wliaii  the  wlioU  of  Ihe  property  Insured  does 
nut  appear  to  have  tm»n  ahlpiwd,  the  difference  be- 
tween tlw  quiiiitlty  InaurscI  and  the  quantity  ahipped 
la  luriiind  aliorl  hiUrsal,  TIlUa,  if  $10,000  be  Inaurpd 
upon  IIH)  lihils,  of  augar,  valued  nt  #100  per  hhil.,  and 
MO  hllda,  only  li«  aliippRd  |  as  the  Insurer's  liability 
does  nut  Maiiiiid  liayund  #11,000,  so  he  la  obliged  to  re- 
turn the  preuiluni  up<in  #'i,000  to  which  no  riak  atttchea. 
Thia  return  uf  premium  la  called  a  return  fur  ahurt 
Intereat. 

t'ur  Oii»r'lmurttni^»,~ln  an  oiien  policy,  where  the 
valuu  ahlpiMMl  la  nut  vqual  to  the  value  Inaurod,  the 
illff«rsiio«  la  termed  over-lnaurance.  If  a  merchant 
liiaurua  In  l.undtiii  fur  X'ri,IHM)  upon  goods,  without 
apeulfying  any  valua,  from  (Calcutta  to  London,  the 
pntrolum  lising  i'll  and  tha  stamii  duty  6s.  per  cent., 
the  uwount  uf  Intnrest  thtl  nttaclu>a  to  tho  policy  ia 
an  liNad.  that  li«  Is  nslther  to  gain  nor  loae  by  the 
tranam  tiiin  In  tha  event  uf  the  veaael's  loaa,  aupiios- 
ing  Ilia  inauratiiw  t<i  lie  aufllulnnt.  To  entitle  him  to 
reuover  M  prullt,  the  prullt  to  be  Inaured  muat  be  stip. 
ulatJid  In  tha  |'<illay.  The  expense  of  insurance  upon 
XIOI)  lining  II  'it>,  It  la  I'lnar  that  every  illOO  Insurance 
cuvara  Ull,7'/  uriglnni  coat,  thiit  la  to  aay,  protects  tho 
inarcliant  from  loaa  to  thai  extent  In  case  uf  tha  loss 
of  the  vaaani,  If  then,  we  aaaume  tlie  invoice  of  tha 
goods  ahlp|i«d  to  In<  40,01X1  ruiieca,  or,  at  the  exchange 
uf  ,lU(i,  |M<r  ru|Hi«,  i''l,(IUO,  the  interest  attaching  to 
thu  iMilluy  is  aarnrtHJned  ns  fulluwas:— If  0U,75  coat 
la  Insured  liv  XIOO  liiaurance,  what  wilt  411,000  codt  lir 
inaured  liyr  Aliawar,  i;4,l<l6,  Under  such  drcum- 
atuniuia,  nUhuMgli  tt  pulley  exists  for  X6,000,  the  in- 
sured la  nut  able  to  prove  liitereat  for  mora  than 
4,'4,1I)A|  and  oonasquently,  the  inaured  lieing  entitled 
tb  ntvovar  no  MKirw  tlmn  tiiat  auni  In  caae  of  loss,  tho 
Insurer  la  iimIIhiI  upon  to  make  a  return  of  premium 
fur  uver-lnauraiicn  upon  tHIVi. 

Althuugh  w«  huvii  treated  sn|iarately  of  returns  for 
sburt  Intsroal  and  uver-lnaurance,  we  should  observe 
that  tbaas  tarina  In  practice  are  used  Indiscriminately ; 
and,  iudaail,  wn  ii*U  nut  say  that  wo  perceive  much 
advantugti  In  uutklng  tha  dlatlnctiun,  or  preserving  tho 
diallnctlvii  a|i|i<i|latluiia,  It  sunietimes  happens  that 
the  property  tiapnoted  in  a  vessel  is  not  all  insured  at 
una  tium  or  in  uim  iHilliy.  Hut  this  inukns  no  dilTer- 
enca  in  Ilia  principle  of  settlement  according  to  our 
law !  althuugh,  luiiiurilliig  tu  the  lawa  of  moat  otiicr 
oouutriua,  lliu  pulli'hm  lake  precedence  of  one  another 
according  tu  th«lr  datsa,  the  whole  short  interest  'ill- 
Ing  uiHiM  till)  imllcy  or  |Killclua  last  effected.  Tho  for- 
eign law,  lu  this  Inatance,  appears  to  us  tho  more 
equitable  and  reasuunblo  uf  the  two ;  and  thut  our 
reOMill  fur  thinking  so  may  be  intelligible,  and  thus 
gain  Maamit  or  niiiet  with  rtjfutatiun,  we  xhull  state  a 
case  uf  aiiiirt  lutereat  upun  u  number  of  policies,  auch 
aa  nut  unfr«i|u*inlly  apiiuurs.  A  merchant.  A,  oiders 
hia  currtiafHindeut  at  Calcutta  to  ahip  for  his  account  a 
quantity  uf  sugar,  not  exceeding  1,000  tona,  at  a  price 
not  HKctiadlng  X'iW  per  ton.  In  duo  thne  lio  receives 
a  lattar  frum  hU  (uirreapondent  acknowledging  tha  re- 
ceipt uf  hi*  nrder,  and  expressing  confident  hopes  of 
being  abla  tu  purchase  the  quantity,  or  the  greater 
part  uf  it,  at  the  limits  proscribed,  and  promising  to 
adviaa  as  h«  prugeeds.  A,  on  receipt  of  this  letter, 
mj  on  tha  lal  uf  .lanuary,  makoa  a  provisional  innur- 
kuea  tot  ilMiOOU  upon  tutfnr  valued  at  £iWi  per  too. 


INS 


1047 


INS 


Coatinulnx  without  further  wIvIcm,  *nd  hirtnK  Uat 
hU  oornapondant'ii  Ixttor  aliniiM  have  miii.iurliMl,  anil 
that  h«  luiiiht  bav«  prap«-rty  ((loat  unlnnureil,  on  th* 
lit  of  Fabruary,  lit  of  Marab,  anil  lit  of  April,  he  ef- 
hcti  •Imiliir  IniurancM,  thua  coverlnK  the  whole  1,04M) 
tone.  He  eubiMq-Mntly  mcalv«*  odviiie  that  hia  cor- 
nipondent  huil  nut  lj«en  alile  to  pnrchaie  more  than 
half  the  quantity  ordtred,  nt  hU  limit,  and  recover! 
from  hill  iimurorii  hiilf  the  preuiliiin  u|i»n  each  policy. 
Mow,  it  wae  nut  ut  all  imprububla  that  he  niiifht  have 
received  advice  from  hia  curreapundent,  aa  he  expected, 
much  aooner.  And  if  ha  had  received  advice  in  the 
middle  of  February,  of  the  ahipment  iif  (00  toni,  and 
that  the  ahip  which  contained  them  wus  totally  lost  In 
the  river  HooKhly,  tho  liiaurera  u|>on  the  two  ttrat  ^>ol- 
idea  would  have  been  liable  for  a  total  loaa.  Aii<!  it 
appeara  to  ua  a  defective  arnini^ment,  by  which  a 
party,  who  la  at  una  time  exposed  to  a  total  loaa, 
ahould  at  another  lie  compelled  to  return  half  hia  pre- 
mium. It  la  true  that  the  merchant  may.  If  he  plaaie, 
Inaert  in  Urn  policiea  •  clauaa  by  which  the  policiea 
ahall  be  niado  to  aucceed  i>ii»  another;  but  we  ahould 
aay  that  the  law,  in  inaurance  caaoa,  ua  in  the  diapoaal 
of  the  property  of  deceaaod  peraona,  oii)(ht  to  be  the 
beat  Koneral  diagioaitlun,  leaving  to  In  livlduala  the 
right  of  raodillcation  according  to  puitu  iilar  circum- 
atancex. 

Return  fur  Douhh  tntmaiuc — Bcaidos  return»  for 
aliort  interoat  and  over-lnaurunce,  tliuro  nre  return*  for 
doulile  inauruiicn.  They  are,  in  fact,  to  all  Intonta 
and  purpoaea,  the  aaine  thing.  Double  inaurunce  ex- 
lata  where  the  party,  through  forgotfulneaa,  makea  an 
Inaurance  upon  hia  property  twice  over;  or  where  the 
ahlppera  and  cuuaigneea  of  gooda,  when  uncertain  of 
one  unother'a  iutontiona,  effect  each  an  inaurance  upon 
them;  or  where  the  captain  of  s  veaael  in  foreign 
parta,  fearing  leat  hia  advicea  ahould  not  reach  hia 
owner,  elfecta  un  inaurance  upon  it,  and  the  owner  at 
the  same  time,  acting  with  equal  caution,  effects  one 
aUo.  The  obaorvationa  alreaily  mode  upon  returns  for 
■hart  intereat,  and  U|)ou  the  ditrerence  between  our 
laws  and  those  of  other  countries,  apply  with  eqnal 
force  here. 

We  have  now  gone  over  all  the  principal  topics  con- 
nected with  marine',  assurance.  Those  who  per- 
this  article  with  ordinary  attention  will,  we  hope,  ^ain 
a  tolerably  clear  insight  into  the  principles  ami  prac- 
tice of  the  business.  £ut  a  perfectly  familiar  ac- 
quaintanca  with  it  can  only  be  acquired  by  thoaa  who 
are  daily  conversant  with  its  details. 

Analysis  of  the.  General  Late  of  Insurance.— The  in- 
vention of  roaritiroi-  Inaurance  is  due  to  Italy,  and  it 
came  into  un  at  the  close  of  the  12th  or  the  beginning 
of  the  13th  century.  The  term  "policy"  la  derived 
from  the  Italian  Polizza,  which  aignlfies  any  note  or 
memorandum  in  writing,  creating  an  evidence  of  a  legal 
obligation.  At  that  time  the  Italians  were  the  oar- 
riers  of  Europe,  and  by  their  means  insurance  was 
introduced  into  other  countries.  A  colony  of  Lom- 
bards was  settled  in  London  in  the  I3th  century,  and 
conducted  for  a  long  time  almost  exclusively  the  for- 
eign trade  of  the  kingdom ;  and  it  is  to  them  that  the 
tradition  of  England  attributes  the  introduction  of 
Insurance.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  a  court  was  con- 
stituted to  treat  of  causes  relative  to  policies  of  insnr- 
ance  In  a  summary  way.  The  court  was  formed  of 
the  judge  of  admiralty,  tho  recorder  of  London,  two 
doctors  of  civil  law,  two  common  lawyers,  and  eight 
merchants,  empowering  any  five  of  them  to  hear  and 
determine  all  such  causes  arising  in  London.  But  the 
court,  on  account  of  its  restricted  character  and  other 
causes,  fell  into  disuse,  and  cases  of  insurance  are  now 
decided  by  trial  in  the  courts  of  common  law.  The 
contract  of  insurance  is  essentially  a  contract  of  in- 
demnity against  the  perils  of  the  sea.  The  various 
codes  differ  in  the  objects  prohibited  to  be  insured. 
Thua  tha  French  cod«,  oidinance  of  BUboa,  Spanish 


oode,  Danish,  Two  iUoillea,  Koman  States,  Ionian  IsU 
ands,  Lombardo-Vnneto,  Sardinia,  ilaytl,  and  Oreros, 
prohibit  insurance  on  freight  of  good*  on  boani,  ex- 
cepted proUta,  wages  of  seamen,  and  maritime  Interest 
on  loana  on  bottomry.  While  Ureut  UrIUin,  Uolliind, 
Portugal,  Trusala,  Malta,  United  tHatea,  and  Ham- 
burg, pormlt  theiu.  K«-lnaurance  is  prohibited  in 
Ureat  Uritaia.  In  Orsat  Urilain  mariners  are  forbidden 
to  Insure  their  wages  ;  but  a  I'uptiiin  of  a  ahip  can  in- 
sure bis  wagea,  or  any  Intereat  at  part  owner.  An  in- 
aurance on  money  lent  to  the  capt.iin,  payable  nut  of 
the  freight,  la  Illegal.  Ho  are  wagor  policiea ;  and  it 
la  the  same  in  Maaaachuaetta. 

Article  8HJ>  of  the  French  code  authorise*  the  assur- 
ance on  the  whule  or  on  a  part  iif  the  objects  which 
may  be  inaured;  but  in  Spain  and  ilenniarii  tho  goods 
can  not  be  inaured  fur  more  than  nine  tentha  of  tlieir 
value,  and  in  Spain,  no  mure  thiin  four  llftha  can  be 
inaured  on  the  value  of  a  ahip;  at  Malta  the  inaurance 
can  nut  exceed  aeven  eighths;  In  Prussia  it  miiy  be 
mail'>  for  the  cost  price,  or  for  the  value  of  the  ship ; 
but  III  Holland  and  in  Portugal  the  entire  value  may 
be  insured  after  tha  vessel  has  set  sail.  In  (Irea't 
Britain  no  polli  y  can  be  made  fur  a  longer  time  than 
for  12  calendar  months. 

The  duration  of  risks  for  a  ship  continues  in  (ireat 
Britain  until  24  hours  after  she  haa  moored  at  anrliur  in 
KiifHty.     The  aame  In  the  United  Stutea  and  at  Malta, 

According  to  the  Pruasiun  code,  payment  ought  to 
be  effected  within  two  months  after  the  notice  of  the 
damages;  after  this  time  interest  commences  to  run. 
The  law  of  Ureat  Britain  being  mostly  similar  to  that 
of  America,  it  haa  lieen  thought  necessary  to  vary  the 
moile  of  treating  the  various  subjects;  so  illegal  in- 
surance, rights  of  agents,  concealment,  and  reprencnto- 
tluna  have  lieen  enlarged  on  In  the  law  of  America, 
while  for  these,  as  well  as  fur  r,\l  others,  the  reader  is 
particularly  referred  to  the  law  of  (ireat  Britain.  The 
general  spirit  of  the  law  of  insurance  is  beautifully 
illustrated  in  tha  following  language  of  the  French 
jurists  at  tha  close  of  their  report  to  the  council  of 
State  on  the  title  of  insurance  in  the  code  of  com- 
merce, and  rendered  by  Uuer  in  his  work  on  insur- 
ance :  "  Marine  Insurance  may  justly  be  deemed  one 
of  tha  noblest  creations  of  human  geuius.  From  a 
lofty  height  it  surveys  and  protects  the  commerce  of 
the  world.  It  scans  the  heavens ;  it  consults  the  sea- 
eons  ;  it  interrogates  the  ocean ;  and,  regardless  of  its 
terrors  or  caprice,  defines  its  perils  and  circumscribci  its 
storms.  It  extends  its  cares  to  every  part  of  tho  hab- 
itable globe ;  studies  the  usage  of  every  nation  ;  ex- 
plore .  ever)'  coast,  sounds  every  harbor.  To  tin-  sci- 
ence of  politics  it  directs  a  sleepless  attentloi . ;  it 
enters  tho  council  of  monarch* — watches  the  deL  aera- 
tions of  statesmen — weighs  their  motives,  and  pene- 
trates their  designs.  Founding  on  these  vast  materials 
its  skillful  calculations,  secure  of  the  result,  it  then 
addresses  tha  hesitating  merchant : '  Dismiss  your  anx- 
iety and  fears ;  these  aro  misfortunes  that  humanity 
may  deplore,  but  can  not  prevent  or  alleviate.  Such 
are  not  the  disastcra  you  dread  to  encounter.  Trust 
in  me  and  they  ahall  not  reach  you.  Summon  all 
your  resources,  put  forth  all  your  skill,  and,  with 
unfaltering  courage,  pursue  your  adventures.  Suc- 
ceed— your  riches  are  eularged ;  fail — they  shall  not 
be  diminished.  My  wealth  shall  supply  your  loss. 
Rely  on  me,  and,  for  your  sake,  at  my  bidding,  the 
arm  of  your  enemies  shall  bo  paralyzed,  and  the  dan- 
gers of  the  ocean  cease  to  exist.'  The  merchant  list- 
ens, obeys,  and  is  rewarded.  Thousands,  tempted  by 
his  success,  follow  his  example.  Those  whom  it  had 
long  separated,  tho  ocean  now  unites.  The  quarters 
of  the  world  approach  each  other,  and  are  bound  by 
the  permanent  ties  of  mutual  interest  and  mutual 
benefits." — Lbvi's  Com.  Law  of  the  World. 

We  extract  from  Duer's  Marine  Insurance  the  fol- 
lowing Law  of  Insurance  in  the  United  States : 


INB 


104P 


IlfS 


"  1.  iDinnnM  !•  •  onntrsot  of  Indtmnlty  *ff*l**t 
lh«  parlli  of  lh«  ita.  9.  A  policy  muni  ipo'lty,  III, 
lb*  ptrtUi  iMtwMn  whom,  tn>l  cm  wboM  Mrounl,  lh« 
Iniuranr*  la  mad*  ;  'id,  tha  ciiiiKldKrallon  or  pnnnlam 
paid ;  Iki,  the  aulijcct  Inaurad  |  4th,  tha  amount  Inmirad  i 
Ath,  tha  risk  Inaurad  a^atnat ;  and,  Ually,  tha  voya^a  or 
puriod  of  tiraa  during  which  tha  Inaurancfl  la  to  con> 
tinua  in  foroa.  >.  Form  anil  KXaciillon  of  tha  conlraiit. 
Tho  nnlfonn  and  ifanariil  i>rui'tl<'a  of  m«>rt-hantii  may  Ik 
contldomd  aa  avidanca  nt  thn  Irxal  nccpmilty  nf  a  writ- 
tan  contract.  A  aiiaeitlcation  of  the  riaka  in  an  aaaan- 
tiul  part  of  Iha  contract.  I.  'I'hn  |iollclf-a  uiad  In  tha 
dilTunint  Htatat  of  tha  Union  dilTar  mat«rlally  |  and  in 
Now  York  lb*  forma  of  the  policy  in  una  for  tha  dllTar- 
ent  aubjni'tji  of  InnuriinRo  ara  dintlnrt  and  ivparatfl, 
ft.  Tho  iiuliacrlption  of  the  Innurar  In  alone  auftl'iiant. 
Whan  tha  inauranre  la  matle  liy  an  Incorporatnd  com- 
pnny,  the  axeoutlon  of  the  policy  muKt  Im  atteated  by 
the  offlrera  danlfpiatod  for  that  purpoa*  by  Itii  chartTa 
or  by  Ita  law*.  6.  Whan  a  policy  haa  in  fact  liaan  ex- 
ccutad,  and  nolioaof  ita  exo  ution  haa  l'!<fn  givm  to 
the  aaaured,  ita  actual  delivery  la  not  eaaential  to  tha 
completion  of  tha  contract.  7.  Tha  Inaurar,  whether  an 
individual  or  an  incorporated  company,  would  not  b« 
allowed  to  retract  a  conaont  thua  confexaed  to  have 
been  given  ;  but  would  lie  connldared  aa  holding  the 
policy  for  the  benuflt  of  the  aaaured,  and  liound  t<i  de- 
liver it  at  hia  reqiient.  Khoiilil  a  luaa  occur,  and  the 
policy  then  be  withheld  from  the  aaaurml,  he  would  have 
a  eumpleta  remedy  In  an  action  at  law.  H,  When  an  ap. 
plication  for  inauranca  la  accepted  by  the  Inaurer,  the 
rate  of  premium  and  tha  date  inaerted,  and  tho  writing 
signed  by  the  partlea,  it  c<mititutea  in  equity  a  valid  in- 
aurance,  luid  in  liiw  a  valid  agreement  to  Innure  :  it  f(ivea 
to  the  aaaured  an  Immediate  rlt;ht,  upon  tho  tender  nf 
the  premium,  or  premium  note,  to  domand  from  tho 
ininrer  the  execution  and  deliver}'  of  the  policy.  The 
validity  of  an  agreement  to  inaure  may  be  proved  by 
tha  correapondence,  but  the  evidence  of  the  oaaent  of 
Iwth  to  all  tho  terma  propoaed  muat  be  clear  and  une- 
<iulvooal.  0.  An  offer  to  inaure  made  by  letter  i«  a 
valid  undertaking  that  the  party  will  \m  bound  by  it, 
if  In  due  aeaaon  a  fttviirabln  anawer  lie  returned,  nut 
although  the  inaured  is  necesaarily  liound  by  hin  offer 
during  the  interval  that  hoe  lieen  atated,  it  muat  not 
lio  inferred  that  the  applicant  boa  tho  right,  under  all 
circumatancea,  to  accept  the  offer  when  ha  rerelvea  It. 
10.  The  policy,  from  the  time  of  its  execution,  consti- 
tutes the  aole  evidence  of  tha  agreement  of  the  parties ; 
nor,  subject  to  some  exceptions,  can  any  previous  let- 
ters or  communioationB  between  thum,  nor  even  the 
written  application  or  agreement,  be  used  to  vary  or 
control  its  interpretation.  11.  When  a  policy  refers 
to  any  other  document  or  paper,  the  contenta  of  the 
document  or  paper  become  a  part  of  the  contract  as 
fully  as  if  they  ware  recited  or  incorporated  in  the 
policy.  12.  A  policy  of  insurance,  when  executed, 
may  not  only  be  cancelled  by  tha  consent  of  the  par- 
ties, but  Is  subject  to  any  change  or  modification  of 
its  terms  that  they  may  choose  to  adopt.  When  an 
alteration  is  nude  in  the  body  of  the  policy  by  the  as- 
surtd,  without  the  assent  of  the  underwriters,  if  it 
change  the  aense,  or  affect  in  any  degree  the  substance 
of  the  contract,  it  renders  the  whole  instrument  void. 
13.  The  date  is  one  of  the  principal  requisites  in  the 
policy,  Tho  date,  however,  is  only  presumptive, 
not  conclusive,  evideace  of  the  facts  that  it  attests. 
U,  Wager  policies  are  established  and  admitted  to 
be  illegal. 

Of  the  Cotutruciion  oflhf.  Policy. — 16.  The  construc- 
tion of  a  policy,  with  the  exception  of  cases  in  which 
parole  evidence  is  admitted,  is  •  question  of  law,  the 
determination  of  which  lielongs  exclusively  to  the 
court.  As  a  contract  of  indemnity  to  the  assured,  the 
policy  is  to  be  liberally  construed  in  his  favor.  An  ex- 
ception ttom  the  risks  of  the  policy  is  to  be  construed 
ttrictly  against  the  insoter.    16.  When  a  discrepancy, 


apparent  or  real,  la  fbnnd  to  exist  liatwaen  a  wrltto* 
and  a  printed  clnuae  of  the  poliiy,  it  la  the  writing  that 
eontrula  the  Inlxrpretation.  17.  Kxtrinain  pro<if,  by 
tha  testimony  nf  witneaaea  or  othrrwiae,  is  reralvad  to 
contMl  or  aki  lh«  intsrpretatlon,  in  order,  tat,  to  tix 
the  appiioatlon  nf  ganeral  or  indeterminate  wortia ;  3d, 
In  corrart  an  error  of  dearriptinn,  by  ahnwing  the  Iden- 
tity of  the  auliject  to  which  it  relatn  ;  Ad,  to  remove  a 
latent  ambiguity  ;  and,  Imtly,  to  explain  the  meaning 
nf  foreign  or  terhnicnl  wiinia,  1M.  I'nrrile  eviilenre 
shall  never  lie  received  to  ahow  thiit  the  intentlnn  of 
the  parties  was  directly  npimaite  to  that  which  their 
language  exprenaen,  or  aubatantiiilly  different  fnim  any 
meaning  that  the  words  they  have  used,  upon  anycon- 
alruction,  will  a<tmit  or  convey.  Parole  evidence  may 
be  admitted  to  show  that  iwrtlcnlnr  words,  u|mn  the 
construction  of  which  n  mntmveniy  turns,  hiive  ao- 
i|uireil,  by  the  known  usages  nf  trade,  a  |ieculiar  mean- 
ing, wholly  distinct  fMm  their  ordinary  and  popular 
sense.  lU.  When  the  lntnr)in-tatl<m  nf  worda,  or  the 
construction  nf  ii  clause  In  the  |Killcy,  that  may  lie  nn- 
deratood  in  a  aenae  mnm  nr  leas  extensive,  haa  not 
been  fixed  by  Jiilidal  decisions,  pamie  evidence  may 
be  admitted  to  » linw  whether  thny  have  obtained,  by 
uae  and  priictica  i.rtween  the  aa"ir«rs  and  the  assured, 
any,  and  whut,  known  and  il>-llnlt«  Impnrt.  The 
usage,  if  prnvcil,  will  guvern  the  conatriictinn.  20.  If 
by  a  general  pructlc «,  tha  voyagn  or  tr.ide  to  which 
the  Insurance  relates  has  been  pursued  In  a  certain 
course  or  manner  that  the  terms  of  the  policy,  in  their 
ordinart  nterpretution,  would  not  embrace  parnle,  evi- 
dence may  be  admitted  to  prove  the  pxi-tunrn  nf  the 
usage.  21.  A  usage  that  cnn  alone  bn  iillowed  to  con- 
trol the  inter])retatlnn  of  the  policy,  or  viiry  tlin  legal 
rights  of  the  parties,  must  bo  general,  uniform,  nntnr- 
ious,  reasonable,  and  consiatent  with  thn  terms  of  the 
policy,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  the  rules  of  law 
0/  Illrgal  Innirnncti. — Hreach  of  Afunicijnl  /.nwi, — 
2^.  The  invalidity  nf  an  insurance,  as  an  implied 
violation  of  tha  laws  of  trade,  may  nriae  fmm  the 
character  of  the  gooda  ex|M>rtvd  or  iinpnrted,  the  na- 
ture of  the  trade,  or  the  breach  of  anmn  atatutnry  pro- 
vision relative  to  tlie  navigation  of  tlin  »hip  or  conduct 
of  the  voyage.  2;l.  When  the  oxpnrtatatinn  or  Im- 
portation of  the  gniHls  shipped  ia  prohibited,  the  Ille- 
gality affecta  nut  only  the  policy  upon  the  goods  them- 
selves, but  equally  those  upon  the  ship  and  freight, 
since  the  voluntary  reception  of  the  gonds  by  the  mas- 
ter is  as  much  a  violation  of  law  as  their  shipment  by 
the  owner.  When  the  prohibited  act  renders  the  sub- 
sequent voyage  or  trade  illegal,  it  vacates  tho  policy. 
24.  The  Illegality  of  a  voyage,  arising  from  the 
transportation  nf  prohibited  goods,  is  never  permitted 
to  affect  a  distinct  policy  upon  the  lawful  gmMis  of  a 
different  owner.  25.  Where  the  goods  insured  by  one 
policy  are  all  of  them  lawful,  the  insurance  is  valid, 
even  when  the  assured,  as  owner  or  otherwise,  is  In- 
terested or  concerned  in  the  transportation  of  unlaw- 
ful goods  by  the  same  vessel,  but  otherwise  when  in- 
cluded in  an  entire  policy.  M.  The  contract  is  entire 
when  the  goods  insured  (whether  tho  insurance  be 
general  or  specific)  are  included  in  one  gross  vuluntlnn ; 
but  where  an  insurance  it  specific  upon  different 
k.nda  of  goods,  and  a  separate  value  is  affixed  to 
each  denomination,  the  contract  is  distinct.  So  where 
the  policy  is  open  upon  different  kinds  of  goods. 
27.  An  insurance  in  one  policy  for  the  owners  of  a 
ship  la  not  devisable ;  but  the  illegal  act  of  one  with- 
out the  knowledge  or  privity  of  the  others,  has  the 
same  effect  In  voiding  the  entire  contract  as  if  ail  had 
concurred.  But  the  contract  will  not  bo  regarded  as 
entire  when  the  insurance  is  made  by  a  common  a({ent 
on  account  of  several  persons  whoso  interests  are  seve- 
ral and  distinct.  28.  When  an  entire  voyage  is  ille- 
gal at  its  inception,  the  illegality  runs  through  and 
infects  every  part  of  it.  20.  When  a  particular  trade 
Is  prohibited  by  the  expnsa  terms  of  a  treaty  to 


191 


t049 


INS 


vhUh  lk«  MaU  within  whn**  jiirtiHtl.?(lnii  th*  policy 
In  oiruRUd  U  »  ixrty,  thn  rlfni't  'J  thii  prohlliUlim, 
whi'th«r  ipnanil  ••  to  trail*  nr  limit  :il  t4)  purtii'iiUr 
cuminodUlM,  U  pnrliidly  thn  •Hnifi  m  if  it  warn  liy  • 
muDiclpkl  Uw,  an  act  of  I'trlliiniiint,  or  iif  CiinKraii*. 
Kv«ry  voyag*  in  rnntrtvuiili'in  of  tlia  trtaty  in  IIUkiiI, 
and  tvary  Inituranofl  u|>im  auili  ii  voyiiK*,  wiiatnvtr  Imi 
th*  lulijai-t  or  Urina  <pf  thn  |k'Ii'  v,  la  n«onai>artly  voiil. 
8<t.  Tha  liafaat  of  thn  voyunn  iiy  an  iimluir||o  aftnr 
the  policy  haa  attaihnrl,  Ik  imt  connlilnrad  aa  a  dia. 
aolution  »/  thn  cnntrart,  hut  aa  a  loaa  l)y  a  pnril 
Inaurad  aKainat,  mtitllnK  tli«  Inaurad,  upon  an  almn- 
doninant,  to  a  muovary  of  thn  whola  aum  Inmirnl. 
81.  Tha  rontlnK*nt  «X|MctMtloii  of  thn  partlaa  thitt 
an  axiitiDK  law  will  Iw  rnpnalml  IntardirtlnK  a  vnyaRO 
or  trada  mnant  to  !>«  (-ovnraii  liy  thn  pollny,  la  not  luf- 
fioiant  to  randar  th«  innuranre  valid  wheii  tha  axpni-t- 
atlon  la  not  raaliand,  and  tha  voyn)(n  Ih  undartaknn  and 
proaacutad  in  dnHancn  of  the  pnivliilona  of  thn  law. 

Hfctiim  II.  A'ni'my'a  J'rvpfrli/. — M.  ICvory  inaur- 
ancn  upon  pnipnrty  iialila  to  conliacation  aa  prizn  nf 
war  by  thn  ifovnmniant  of  thn  country  to  which  thn 
inauranca  IwionK*,  la  of  neoeaaity  invalid.  An  Inaur- 
anca  mada  in  a  iialligarnnt  country  upon  thn  p^)p«rty 
of  tha  aulijacta  of  an  oppoaite  liolllKarent,  la  void,  flU. 
Uooda  in  the  courae  of  trunaportutlon  from  a  nniitriil 
country  to  a  lieliiKeroiit,  if  they  arn  to  Iw  delivnrnd  to, 
and  iMconia  the  pni|i*rty  of,  a  l)elli)i(erent  immpdintidy 
on  their  arrival,  are  uonaidflrml  ua  hia  unmU  during  the 
voyage  (in  iiintrt'),  and  aa  auch  are  buliject  to  cupturn 
and  contiacation. 

Srctiim  III.  AVm.y'a  Proprrty—Domieilti.—M.  A 
merchant  la  a  political  menilier  of  the  country  into 
which,  liy  hia  reaidenco  and  liualncaa,  he  la  incorpo- 
rated i  he  la  a  auliject  of  the  government  that  protei'ta 
him  la  hia  purauita,  that  hia  induatry  contributea  to 
support,  and  of  whoaa  natural  rnwurcna  hia  own  meana 
are  a  conatituent  part.  81).  When  the  proiwrty  of  a 
foreigner  who,  at  the  time  of  ita  ahipment  waa  ilvinn 
in  a  boatile  country,  la  aeized  aa  that  of  nn  enemy,  the 
captora  are  not  bound  to  prove  in  the  firat  inatanc'e  that 
hia  place  of  realdence  waa  hia  actual  domicile.  The 
preaumptliin  of  law  ia  in  their  favor.  The  animiu  mn- 
nendi,  the  intention  to  remain,  the  Inw  imputes  to 
him,  and  to  redeem  hia  property  from  the  noxioua  im- 
putation, ho  muat  give  auch  evidence  of  hia  intention 
and  plana  ua  ahull  be  effectual  to  destroy  it.  Uli.  The 
national  character  of  iiersoua  who  reside  in  a  foreign 
countr)-,  in  a  public  or  representative  capacity,  is  not 
chuni  I  d  or  alleeted  by  ttieir  residence,  whatovrr  may 
be  its  uuratiou,  or  by  whatever  circumstances  indica- 
tive of  the  intent  to  render  it  permanent  it  may  be  ac- 
companied. But  if  a  foreign  consul  engage  in  com- 
merce, he  is  immediately  stumped,  with  respect  to  that 
commerce,  with  the  national  character  of  the  coimtry 
in  which  lie  resides,  and  from  which  his  trade  is  con- 
ducted. His  character  of  consul  affords  uo  protection 
to  bis  mercantile  adventures.  37.  A  native  suliject 
can  not  acquire  a  foreign  domicile  by  an  emigration 
from  his  own  country  during;  the  existence  of  hoxtlli- 
ties  (JIanrante  beilo)  so  as  to  protect  hia  trade  during 
the  war,  either  against  tho  boiligorent  claims  of  liis 
own  country  or  against  those  of  a  hostile  power.  Ilia 
native  character  ia  wholly  unclianged  by  his  changn  of 
residence.  38.  The  nature  of  the  trufho  or  busineLS  in 
which  an  individual  is  engaged,  may  stamp  upon  him 
a  national  character  wliolly  independent  of  that  which 
hia  place  of  residence  would  alone  impose. 

Section  IV.  Trade  with  the  A'twiny.— 39.  The  pro))- 
erty  of  a  subject  is  in  all  cases  liable  to  confiscation  in 
a  court  of  prize  when  it  ia  found  engaged  in  an  unlaw- 
ful trad*  M  intercourse  with  the  ports,  territories,  or 
•ubJediS  of  the  public  enemy  ;  and  the  property  of  a 
subject  of  a  State  allied  in  the  war  is  iialila  under  tho 
like  oiroumstances  to  the  same  penalty.  40.  To  ren- 
der the  importation  of  goods  from  an  enemy's  port  an 
lUegal  trading,  it  is  not  requisite  that  they  should  b« 


tha  fhilla  nt  any  purrhasn,  barter,  eonlract,  nr  nnRO- 
tiatliin  in  the  nnainy'a  inutitry,  after  hontllit>'  hud 
commnncad.  Thn  nulling  of  thn  vMsnl  with  th*  triHHia 
on  tHwird  aftnr  thn  party  had  knowledge  nf  thn  war, 
complntoa  thaotrnnun,  atainpa  tha  cargo  with  an  illpgal 
charactnr,  and  aubjacts  it,  during  Ita  transportallim,  to 
a  rightful  aaiiurn.  41.  To  rnndar  a  trmln  with  th* 
nneniy  unlawful,  It  is  not  necnsaary  tliat  thn  commu- 
iiicallon  with  thn  ennniy'x  country  ■hoiiid  Im  immadl- 
ate  and  direct,  A  circuitous  trailn  ia  llabln  to  th* 
same  abuana,  ami  Invcdvaa  tiie  •anin  political  danger* 
aa  a  direct  one,  anil  Ihnrrfnrn  equiilly  fulls  within  th* 
intenllctlon  and  prnulty  of  thn  law.  Vi.  If  un  Amer- 
ican V4'<ael,  during  a  war,  evm  when  deitlned  to  a 
neutral  (xirt,  pnisacutna  her  voyage  under  1  licans* 
fnim  thn  govnmmont  of  thn  ennniy,  luith  nhlp  and 
cargo,  while  they  reniain  under  thn  pnitcctlon  of  th* 
licence,  aro  llabln  '  capture,  and  If  captured,  are  law- 
ful subjects  of  coi,.,iiiiation.  43.  A  lici"ian  grunted  by 
the  sovereign  |Kiwnr  is  not  subject  to  tr  .iisfcr  or  asnign- 
meiit,  but  ita  ingitimat*  us*  Is  cnntliinil  to  thonn  for 
wlu>SH  benefit  it  was  original'y  gruut  <,  A  licensn  to 
an  alien  enemy,  whe'lior  by  nami>  or  general  words, 
removes  all  his  persu.  d  disablllt  ■  41.  Tli*  'd* 
for  which  the  protection  of  a  licensn  is  ciuimed  mist 
corres|Hmil  with  those  that  thn  IIcimm*  enumer.  .  ir 
doacribna.  When  a  license  autliorlzes  the  ii  0  t>  >tloii 
of  gomls  from  an  uniiniy's  country  in  un  enei  1  v'  1  jhip, 
the  proti'i  linn  intended  tii  l>e  gmntcd,  although  con- 
fined ill  I  rnis  to  the  goods,  by  '■  >  conntrucllim  of 
the  law  11  extended  to  tho  vessi  ..  1 .'  ii  national  char- 
acter of  the  ahip,  as  describei'  In  tl..-  licence,  is,  in 
most  cases,  a  condition  necessary  to  lie  fulfilled  to  se- 
cure the  pmtection  that  is  desired. 

Sniiint  V.  Hreach  nf  Nrutralitg. —4i.  The  dutlei 
of  tt  subject  or  citizen  of  tho  neutral  iState  are,  1.  To 
aliHtuin  from  every  act  that  tends  to  thu  ussistancu  of 
either  of  thn  belligerents  In  the  prosrciitiim  of  the  war. 
2.  To  abstain  from  ever}'  act  that  tuiuU  directly  to  re- 
lievo one  of  tho  belligerents  f'lm  the  pressure  and 
effect  of  the  opposite  liostilities.  3,  To  offer  no  resist- 
ance to  the  full  exorcisi)  of  the  lielligercntH'  rights  of 
visitation  and  search,  anil  to  resort  to  no  means  for 
eluding  and  defrauding  the  rights  of  capture.  40. 
Krom  the  moment  that  a  ship,  with  contruhand  arti- 
cles on  lioard,  quits  her  port  on  a  hostile  dpstinatlou, 
us  a  general  rule  the  offense  is  coinplctu  and  tho  cap- 
ture legal.  To  Justify  the  capture,  it  is  enough  that 
tlie  immediate  object  of  the  voyage  is  to  supply  the 
enemy,  an  '.'lat  the  contraband  is  certainly  destined 
tohisimmei-i  liu  -  <e.  47.  Articles  ofcontraband  are  all 
the  munitc"  .  nj  Instruments  of  war;  all  manufac- 
tured articles  mat  in  tliefr  actual  state  urn  litti<d  for 
militar}'  and  naval  use,  and  more  especially  for  tho 
building  pnd  equipping  ofaliips  of  war.  Pitch,  tar,  and 
hemp  ".re  contraband ;  but  they  enjoy  exemptions  if  di- 
rect' u  to  u  mercantile  ]iort.  Provlsion.i  are  not  contra- 
ba  .d,  but  they  may  bo  rendered  so  by  their  special  desti- 
nation and  intended  use.  4H.  An  Insurance  upon  good* 
liable  to  confiscation  as  contraband  of  war — if  made  in 
the  belligerent  country  whose  rights  are  violated — is 
wholly  void.  49.  A  lilockado  is  a  naval  circumvalla- 
tion  intended  to  prevent  and  cut  off  all  communica- 
tion with  tho  port  tliat  it  incloses,  and  to  causo  an 
entire  8U8|iension  of  its  commerce.  Tho  breach  of  a 
blockade  sulijccts  all  thu  property  so  employed  to  con- 
fiscation by  tho  belligerent  power  whose  rights  ar« 
violated. 

0/  the  Partiea  lo  the  Contract — 0/  the  Ij'flal  Compe- 
tency of  the  Parties. — 50.  All  persona  of  full  ago  and 
otherwise  capable  of  contracting,  have  the  right  to  in- 
sure and  bo  in.«ured.  51.  In  order  to  render  a  party 
capable  of  insuring,  it  is  not  necessary  tliat  ho  should 
huvo  any  interest  in  tlio  property  insured  at  the  time 
tlie  insurance  is  effected,  unless  the  Hsks  as  described 
in  the  policy  liave  already  commenced.  When  the 
contract  is  perspective,  it  is  valid  and  effectual  If  tha 


iLl 


Is 


'.■■^'.'!?"'5vT  '■""•'•r^'Atr'  ^ 


OVB 


1060 


INS 


fntersat  niMuit  to  be  covered  exlats  Trhen  the  policy 
attaches.  >\nien  a  party  efTecta  an  insurance  after  the 
risks  have  commenced,  if  he  has  an  interest  at  the 
time  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  policy,  the  contract 
may  be  so  framed  as  to  entitle  him  to  recover  fur  a  loss 
that  had  in  fact  occurred  Iwfore  his  own  title  was  ac- 
quired by  insuring  the  goods  "  lost  or  not  lost."  62. 
An  agent  emploj-ed  to  procure  an  insurance  can  not 
himself  become  the  insurer. 

0/  the  Deicription  of  the  Parties  in  the  PoUcy. — 53. 
The  names  of  the  immediate  parties  to  the  contract, 
that  is,  of  the  individual  or  company  agreeing  to  m- 
snme  the  rislcs,  and  of  the  person  effecting  the  insur- 
ance, must  be  mentioned  in  the  policy.  64.  When 
the  in~urance  is  made  by  an  agent,  the  parties  really 
assured  may  be  described  by  general  words ;  nor  is 
•ven  a  general  description  necessary,  if  the  party 
effecting  the  insurance  describes  himself  as  "agent" 
In  the  policy.  Where  the  person  effecting  the  insur- 
ance describes  himself  as  the  agent  of  a  particular 
person,  the  policy,  by  its  necessary  <  instruction, 
inures  only  to  protect  an  interest  of  the  party  thus 
named  as  the  principal.  66.  When  an  agent  effects  a 
policy  in  his  own  name  on  account  of  a  third  person, 
who  is  named,  or  describing  the  assured  by  general 
words,  an  action  on  the  policy  for  the  recovery  of  a 
loss  may  be  maintained  in  the  name  of  the  agent,  or 
in  that  of  the  party  really  interested.  But  where  the 
agent  is  a  naked  trustee,  having  no  lien  in  the  policy, 
and  no  interest  of  his  own  that  was  meant  to  be  pro- 
tected, he  will  not  be  allowed  to  maintain  the  action  in 
bis  own  name,  if  it  appear  that  previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  suit  his  authority  as  agent  had  been 
countermanded  or  revoked.  66.  Although  each  part- 
ner has  a  right  to  insure  the  partnership  property  in 
the  name  or  on  account  of  the  Mrm,  yet  where  the  in- 
surance is  expressed  to  be  on  his  sole  account,  it 
must  be  limited  in  its  application  to  his  individual 
share.  When  the  separate  interest  of  a  partner,  sep- 
arately insuring,  is  equal  to  the  amount  insured,  he 
can  have  no  motive  for  averring  or  attempting  to  prove 
a  partnersliip  property.  67.  When  the  interest  of  the 
party  in  whom  the  interest  is  averred  is  proved,  and  an 
authority  from  him  to  insure,  or  his  adoption  of  the 
contract  is  also  proved,  it  is  an  inference  of  law  from 
the  terms  of  his  policy  that  tlie  insurance  was  effected 
on  bis  account.  But  when  the  proof  establishes  that 
his  interest  was  not  intended  to  be  covered,  it  forms 
an  insuperal>le  bar  to  a  recovery.  68.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  every  policy  that  is  effected  Ir-  an  agent  under 
previous  instructions,  must  hn  controlled  by  the  inten- 
tion of  the  principal  in  every  case  where  evidence  of 
the  intention  can  properlj-  be  received  to  determine 
the  construction.  The  general  words  of  a  policy  de- 
scriliing  the  assured,  have  always  received  a  liberal 
interpretation.  59.  The  policy  may  be  so  framed  that 
the  insurance  sliall  Iw  inseparably  attached  to  the 
property  m^ant  to  be  covered,  so  that  the  successive 
owners,  during  the  continuance  of  the  risks,  shall  be- 
come in  turn  the  parties  really  assured. 

Of  the  Atiiunmenl  of  the  Policy  and  of  the  Rights  of 
the  Aaaigwe. — 60.  Although  a  jiolicy  of  insurance  in 
its  usual  form  is  not  assignalde  in  law  so  as  to  enable 
the  assignee  to  maintain  an  action  upon  the  contract 
in  his  own  name,  it  is  in  all  cases  ossignuble  in  equity, 
and  vests  in  the  assignee  a  beneticial  intererit,  varj'ing 
in  its  extent  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
assignment  is  made.  61.  Althougli  the  rights  of  the 
assignee  of  a  policy  are  equitable  in  their  nature,  it  is 
not  in  a  court  of  equity,  when  a  loss  has  occurred  to 
which  he  claims  to  l)e  entitled,  ind  the  underwriters 
refuse  to  pay,  tha*  he  must  seek  lelief.  He  has  a  full 
remedy  in  an  action  at  law,  in  the  name  of  the  as- 
surer. 62.  The  assignment  in  writing  of  a  policy  of 
insurance  does  net  vest  in  the  assignee  a  perfect  title, 
except  as  against  the  assignor,  unless  it  is  accompanied 
by  an  actual  delivery  of  the  instrument  itself.    The 


policies  in  use  In  Boston  contaiu  special  olansea  n. 
stricting  their  assignment. 

Of  Intunmci:  effected  by  an  Aget'i, — Of  the  Authcr- 
ily  of  an  Agiitt  to  Insure. — 63.  The  necesaity  of  prov- 
ing either  the  original  authority  of  the  agent,  or  the 
subsequent  adoption  of  his  contract,  is  expressly  af- 
lirmed,  or  necessarily  implied,  in  every  case  in  which 
a  question  us  to  the  authority  of  the  agent  has  arisen. 
A  prior  authority  conferring  on  the  agent  the  right  to 
insure,  is  either  express  or  implied.  An  express  au- 
thority may  Ym  written  or  verbal.  64.  The  author- 
ity of  a  single  partner,  and  of  each  partner,  to  insure 
the  partnership  property  in  the  name  or  by  general 
words  on  account  of  the  Arm,  or  to  direct  such  an  as- 
surance to  be  made,  is  established  and  undoubted. 
65.  The  right  of  a  part  owner  to  insure  is  limited  to 
his  own  individual  share.  66.  The  master  of  a  ship 
has  no  general  authority,  but  has  an  implied  authority 
in  special  cases.  67.  When  a  consignee  has  an  inter- 
est, he  may  insure  the  entire  property  consigned  to 
him ;  but  a  consignee  who  has  no  interest,  ai;d  no  lien 
whatever,  upon  the  goods  consigned  to  him  for  sale, 
has  no  right  to  insure  them  on  behalf  of  the  consigner, 
unless  specially  instructed,  68.  A  general  agent  may 
insure  ou  behalf  of  his  principal,  unless  restricted  in 
his  discietion  by  the  express  instruction  of  his  princi- 
pal. The  authority  of  the  agent,  express  or  implied, 
may  be  revoked  by  the  principal  at  any  time  before 
the  terms  of  the  insurance  have  been  settled  by  an 
agreement  with  the  underwriters.  69.  In  the  United 
States  a  u.sage  prevails  to  cover  all  shipn.  its  by  a 
general  standing  time  policy  on  good..,  so  as  to  em- 
brace not  only  all  outward  and  home  shipments  made 
on  their  own  account,  but  all  shipments  made  to 
them  from  foreign  ports,  upon  which  they  are  di- 
rected to  effect  insurance.  AVhen  there  is  a  sub- 
sisting policy  in  the  above  form,  a  direction  to  insure, 
once  given,  is  in  its  nature  irrevocable.  70.  Wiicn 
an  agent  accepts  an  order  to  insure,  or  omits  to 
give  notice  of  his  refusal,  he  is  of  course  bound  to  its 
execution.  When  the  principal  has  funds  or  effects 
in  th]  hands  of  his  correspondent,  the  application 
of  which  rests  in  his  own  discretion,  he  is  justifled 
that  they  will  be  applied  liy  his  correspondent  to  pro- 
cure the  insurance  that  he  directs.  71.  When  the 
agent  has  no  funds  or  effects  of  his  principal  on  hand, 
but,  b}-  an  established  course  of  dealing,  has  been  in 
the  habit  of  executing  the  orders  of  his  principal  to 
effect  insurance,  and  of  advancing  t!  e  premium,  he  is 
Iwund  to  execute  all  similar  orders  that  be  may  re- 
ceive from  him,  until  he  has  given  him  notice  tliat  this 
cours'j  of  dealing  must  bo  discontinued.  72.  When  a 
consignee  receives  a  bill  of  lading,  with  an  order  to  in- 
sure its  contents,  if  ho  accepts  the  consignment,  be 
must  execute  the  order.  lUe  law  regards  the  trans- 
action as  entire,  and  the  acceptance  of  the  l)enolit  as  a 
tacit  promise  to  discharge  tlie  duty.  73.  Tiicse  rules 
are  subject  to  exceptions.  The  agent  can  never  be 
bound  to  effect  an  insurance  that,  from  circumstances 
that  could  not  liave  t)een  known  or  anticipated  when 
the  order  was  given,  instead  of  securing  an  indemnity 
to  his  principal,  would  tend  to  his  certain  prejudice  and 
loss.  When  the  agent,  when  he  receives  the  order, 
knows,  or  has  just  grounds  for  believing  that  liis  cor- 
respondent is  insolvent,  or  is  threatened  with  insolv- 
ency, the  acceptance  of  the  trust  rests  in  his  own  dis- 
cretion. Vet,  should  his  apprehension  prove  to  he 
groundless,  he  should  be  called  to  justify  his  conduct, 
by  proving  that  the  information  on  which  he  has 
acted  was  credible  and  trustworthy.  The  obligation 
to  insure  that  arises  from  a  previous  course  of  dealing, 
can  only  appi;  to  insurances  similar  to  those  that  the 
agent  had  been  in  the  habit  of  effecting.  74.  The  con- 
fldence  reposed  in  an  agent  is  strictly  personal  {  and 
he  can  not  delegate  to  a  third  person  an  authority  that, 
l)y  the  intention  of  his  principal,  was  meant  to  be  exe- 
cuted by  himself  alone. 


INH 


10«1 


IKS 


Sbotioh  III.— (y  /tuuranett  by  wluntafu  ngmti, 
and  their  Adoption.— 76.  Altimuith  tllA  uAmition  nt  « 
voluntary  inturance  ia  naeattanfyiotllUkt  ifm  wdtroct 
Tilid  against  the  principal,  an4  \>tmi(  ui  iUt  udo^lon 
to  warrant  the  recovery  of  a  Urn*  ttaitUiiit  th^.tnnurer, 
we  are  not  to  infer  that  tlie  agent  wtw*  Htfrnt^  t'w  policy 
is  at  liberty  to  rescind  bis  own  lumtrm't,  mum  ptouf 
either  of  his  want  of  a  previous  mtiwfiljf,  lit  (if  tlut  re- 
fusal of  bis  intended  prinuiiMls  t(t  ntify  bi«  Mi.  70. 
There  are,  however,  two  citsss  in  whUiU,  m  Ddceptloin 
from  the  general  rule,  tlw  viilMntjtry  MlifCB*,  wImB  hit 
insurance  has  been  rejmtod,  may jitmy  uU\m  to  te- 
cover  back  the  proniiun»  ba  Ims  (N«i4 1  Ut,  Wb«ti  lis 
■Uscloses  to  the  underwriters  tJMtt  (h«  iniiUMttco  Is 
made  without  authority,  aiui  tb(<y  Hilfeti  tb«t  It 
shall  be  cancelled,  if  not  s4«il)t«d{  *ttlil  V'tlyi  Where 
the  insurance  is  rejected  m  ranmnu  (but  would 
have  rendered  the  contwet  v»li4,  If  (WbifAwl.  77. 
The  contract  of  the  volunt«ry  itamtt  m»y  \m  rat- 
ified and  appropriated  liy  tlw  prUWIlMtt,  #V(ffl  with 
knowledge  of  a  loss,  uiiUss  tim  pownr  U)  tKliopi  tim  ln-> 
surance  under  these  circuutotaiM^*.  U  «X«lU(M<d  by  the 
express  provisions  of  the  pi»ll«y,  Wh»t»  ««  "Imtirton^ 
ment  of  the  pro|)erty  insured  is  mmnMt^  justify  a 
claim  for  a  total  lose,  an  »4o|)ti((ii  of  tli«  ^oiiirKct,  with 
the  right  to  enforce  the  tlaiHl,  l»(if  iw«e«tly  limited  to 
the  period  within  which,  either  (*y  tlw  ptDvMoen  of 
the  policy  or  by  the  general  fhIs  of  l«w,  tlw  HbafldoM' 
ment  must  be  made  to  render  ft  Vftlbt  |  Mild  »  nlMltn  ft/r 
partial  loss  is  just  as  Jlabls  to  ()#  \mtf»A  \iy  Ibe  lopse 
of  time,  as  if  it  arose  under  a  \mlU>y  duly  nuthnrliied. 
The  party  for  whom  the  insurMflt^A  Wi*s  iHt<<tl(l«1  ean 
have  no  right  to  adu|>t  and  anfurra  »  Mitiiract  that 
would  not  have  l)een  valid  if  m«te  by  bw  pnptfuit  di- 
rection. 78.  When  tlia  agent  iiwfiily  »nei>«iU  »  «tr«n 
authority,  the  principal  is  mmiwM  If  b»  fall  to  gite 
notice  of  his  dissent  witliin  a  PfaMmabk  tilttt)  »(t«t  rS' 
ceiving  the  information, 

Of  the  Dutiea  of  Ayenti  in  Iheir  Ifehthmt  with  Iheir 
Principals,  and  with  the  Jiitu)>i>fii,=HK  Kvefy  ««ent 
who  is  entitled  to  receive  a  w)iil(i«B!*«tbm  (lit  bis  serv- 
ices, is  bound  to  eiercisa  not  only  (Iw  s(tm«  dare  ami 
diligence  that  be  is  accMstoiiied  to  i>m\i\iiy  l«  bis  own 
private  affairs,  but  all  tlia  H»r«,  ami  rtllljjfinw,  and 
skill  that  the  transaction  ot  (ba  |Nir(i«iilnr  business 
with  which  he  ia  intrusted,  anwrdlHtf  Ut  Its  iinturs, 
may  be   reasonably   coi)stri(e4   to  f#(}Hlf«,      SO,  A 
person  who   undertakes  fi  ^Ifm-'t  an   Inmnmum  for 
another,  should  maks  proper  iw|uirbl»  uh  Ui  (b«  clr^ 
cumstances  and   standing  of  tin*  ininfUM  to  whom 
he  wishes  to  apply,  and  to  im  mnM  to  mUvt  tliose 
whose  credit  is  established  and  Hn()ia(illi(i(l  (  but  when 
he  acts  in  good  faith  In  niakblb'  tlia  «itl«utloii(  and  has 
exercised  the  nucesuury  oawtioB,  Iw  in  ivit,  K«n«ral!y 
speaking,  responsible  for  tlM  ultimitt^   Mtvency  of 
those  who  subscribe  that  (wliuy,  unbiM  bn  teeeWn  a 
del  credtre  commission,     i  mm  tbU  f l(l«  lb«  toluntary 
agent  is  not  exempted,    81,  WlH>n  tb«  ngMtt,  employs 
a  broker  to  effect  the  polliiy,  aa  Im  in  alwayit  justllled 
in  doing,  when  such  is  t'ia  Hsaga  frf  tll»  tilaoe  where 
the  contract  is  road(>,  it  ia  to  tiM  (llw  fsilon  of  the 
broker  that  tbe  choiiM  of  tl^-"  Insttrura  l«  Intrusted  (  and 
for  his  fraud  or  neglect  in  Um  eK<i0Htlott  of  this  trust, 
th;  agent  is  not  reaiwnslbia  wber*  no  watit  of  «ood 
faith,  or  of  proper  diligen«.>a,  ia  juatly  linuutMbl*  to  him, 
f<2.  An  agent  who  baa  elfaiitod  »  |Kilb<y  In  oonform- 
ity  to  the  orders  of  bis  prinoiMtl,  baa  Mm  fxrwor  when 
the  first  insurer  becomes  insolvfint,  tym  of  rcselndlng 
the  contract  when  the  tnljsraata  of  lila  pHntiilMl  plainly 
demand  the  measure,  eo  long  aa  tlH*  (wlloy  remains  in 
bis  hands.    But  the  agent  oni(bt  iiavvr  to  cancel  a 
subsisting  poUoy  when  tlw  partial  aotiufltf  that  It  af- 
fords is  preferable  to  a  tat\im  of  Ibx  uromlinn,  unless 
with  the  artolnty  that  Ita  will  I*  »\ti»  Ui  pay  «  new 
contract  fully,  to  protact  tlut  lnt«raa(  of  bbi  principal. 
The  subsisting  polioy  being  rMNiinil^ul,  If  th«  order  was 
tpeoial  and  lintitsd,  Im  wIU  ntUl  \m  \mni\  to  follow  lu 


provisions  and  niMarr*  lu  llmlta )  bnt  If  within  iu 
limits,  and  according  Ui  ita  tanna,  It  U  tho  duty  of  the 
agent  u>  eflTect  a  «««on<l  insuranc*.     88.  Whore  an 
Increased  premium  la  ilamaiidMl,  the  execution  of  the 
order  can  no  longer  be  r#gard«(l  a«  a  positive  duty, 
but  will  rest  1,1  the  sound  ill«cr«tion  of  tbe  agent. 
Where,  from  the  la|w<i  of  lliim,  or  other  circumstan- 
ces, the  alteration  of  tlia  riok  l«  so  material  that  the 
premium  <!«mun<U'd  la  mnifb  larftef  i  .an  the  prin- 
cipal when  he  gave  tlw  oribtr  to  liisiire  '  ould  have 
conteniclated  aa  necassary  to  im  paid,  the  agent  may 
lie  partly  excused  wlio  dwlliisn  to  flX(<rclse  hb  author- 
ity I  and,  on  the  otliar  band,  wbijlever  may  be  the 
oiiange  in  tbe  rUk,  and  the  Increaso  of  the  premium, 
If  the!'!  are  reaaonaiibi  urmiiuU  to  believe  that  a  sec- 
ond insurance  will  tatul  to  tli«  advantags  of  the  prin- 
cipal, tlia  agant,  procaailing  In  good  fultb  to  effect  it, 
will  Ihj  protected,    M,  U  ia  tlie  duty  of  every  agent 
to  communicata  to  tb«  uwkrwrltera  all  the  facts  and 
circumstancea  of  wbk'b  b«  b««  any  knowle<lge  or 
information)  to  repraMnt  truly  all  the  facte  he  dis- 
closes, and  t<i  answar  truly  all  tbe  proper  inquiries 
of  the  Insurer  |  for  tba  cuntwalmnnt  or  misrepresent- 
ation of  the  agent,  wb«tb«r  Intentional   or  unde- 
signed,  baa  the  saina  vlfm'.l  on  tli«  validity  of  the 
contract  aa  that  of  tlio  party  really  assured.     85. 
Although  an  agant  to  wliom  no  fraud  or  neglect 
is  Imputable,  la  not  r«(|aini)lbt«  for  the  concealment 
and  miareprasentatioH  of  (b»  sulMigeat  whom  he  is 
authorized  to  employ,  y«(  when  be  employs  a  broker 
to  effect  the  policy,  ba  hi  laiund  to  givn  him  all  the 
ntxieiHtry  instruction*  and  all  material  information 
that  ba  himself  posaa>ia<ts,  and  thin  duty  attaches  even 
on  an  agent  who  act"*  gratuiUiUsly,  who  may  be  ren- 
dered lialde  fur  tlia  dttlii»g(ii>  resulting  from  his  omis- 
sions.   HO,  When  thtt  ombislon  or  act  of  the  agent 
that  vitiates  tlia  contract  «Mn  li«  Justly  Imputed  to  his 
fraud  or  bis  nauUnt,  h$  la  poraonally  liable  for  the 
resulting  damaKBt   but  where  1(  proceeds  from  his 
want  of  the  rtt<(uUlt«  akill,  there  are  cases  in  which 
e(|uily  demanda  soma  dlntlnctiuns.    87.  A  mercantile 
agent  who  was  neltlier  aulliorlxnd  to  Insure  nor  has 
effected  an  inauranca,  may  yet  render  himself  liable 
as  an  insurer,  liy  «  fabio  representation,  not  to  the  un- 
derwriter, but  to  bla  prlnvipal,  If  the  nature  of  the 
misrepresentation  b>  au«b  aa  to  Invalidate  a  policy 
founded  on  It,  elfacled  liy  tlie  {irlnclpnl,  or  on  his  be- 
half.   The  nuist  Important  and  responsible  duty  of 
every  agent  in  effecting  an  insurance,  Is  to  take  care 
that  the  (Hilicy  shall  tia  no  framed  as  efTcctiially  to 
cover  the  property  and  rl»k#,  which  he  is  directed  to 
Insure,  or  which,  wli«n  nut  acting  under  a  previous 
order,  be  believaa  anil  represetiti  himself  to  have  in- 
sured.    88,  WIten   an  agent  acts  under  cle?T  and 
positive  instructional  and  viulntes  them  In  the  term 
and  form  of  tlia  Inaurani/e  that  lie  effects,  his  nogll>. 
gence,  it  is  manifest,  U  still  more  culpable  and  renders 
the  agent  iwraonally  liable,    llut  when  tho  order  is 
plain,  the  guwl  faith  iif  tint  agent  will  not  protect  him. 
Hil,   Even  when  an  agent  acta  grntultously,  without 
tlie  hope  or  expectation  of  a  reward,  yet,  if  ho  enters 
on  tbe  execution  of  an  order  to  Insure,  he  must  follow 
its  terms,  and  by  bia  iimlaiiiim  t<i  cover  all  the  property 
or  risks  that  lia  is  dlretited  t4i  Insure,  will  become  re- 
sponsible for  a  loaa  that  Iba  insurance  of  property 
affected  would  hava  »ttibra<:e<l.    The  mistake  of  the 
iig«nt  wliare  the  pra^ilk'e  Is  unaettled  and  thv  luw  un- 
uertaiii,  affoniri  tin  eviitenife  of  the  want  of  reasonable 
i^kili  and  ordinary  dilignni  e,  for  which,  alone,  he  is  re- 
s|Hiii8iliU,     W,  The  agent  bt  not  responsible  if  his 
mistake  ansa  not  fnnn  bia  want  of  reijuislto  diligence 
and  skill,  but  from  tlie  imperfect  and  confused  manner 
In  whicli  the  lnatru«tbm»  of  his  principal  were  <  x- 
pressed,     UI,   All  prior  verbal  commnnioations  nrt 
superseiled  by  the  written  instructions  which  consti- 
tute tlie  proper  and  sola  «vl>lenc«  of  the  intentions  of 
tba  party  dlrtcting  (b«  iiwttrancet.    93.  If  (he  agent 


ms 


10S2 


im 


finds  it  impracticable  to  effect  an  Insurance  according 
to  the  terms  of  his  instructions  it  is  his  duty  to  give 
immediate  notice  of  his  failure  to  his  principal.  When 
an  agent  has  separate  orders  to  insure  on  the  same 
voyage,  and  against  the  same  risks,  the  property  of 
several  persons  whose  interests  are  several,  should  he 
elect  to  cover  the  whole  property  in  one  policy, 
he  most  be  careful  so  to  frame  the  contract  as  to 
secure  to  each  of  his  constituents  the  same  indem- 
nity to  which  he  would  have  been  entitled  had  his 
property  and  Interest  alone  been  covered.  93.  An 
order  to  insure  is  either  discretionar}'  or  positive, 
and  when  positive,  is  either  general  or  limited.  The 
order  is  discretionary  when  the  election  to  insure 
'  or  not  to  insure,  is  committed  alisolutely  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  agent ;  and  in  such  a  case  if  the  agent 
determines  not  to  insure  he  is  responsil)le  only  for  his 
good  faith.  The  order  when  positive  is  general  when 
it  describes  the  property  and  voyage,  but  gives  no  di- 
rection as  to  the  risks  to  be  covered  nnd  imposes  no 
limitation  as  to  the  premium.  When  the  order  Is  thus 
general  the  duty  of  the  agent  is  fully  discharged  by 
his  obtaining  an  insurance  in  the  usual  form  of  the 
policy  at  the  place  where  the  insurance  is  made, 
94.  When  the  order  to  insure  contains  no  direction  or 
restriction  as  to  the  amount  of  the  premium  to  be  paid, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  agent  to  effect  the  insurance  at  all 
events  without  regard  to  the  premium ;  and  if  by  lim- 
iting himself  to  a  smaller  premium  he  defeats  an  insur- 
ance, he  is  liable,  with  the  exception,  however,  that 
where  the  funds  he  has  or  he  is  to  advance  should  not 
permit  him  to  enhance  the  premium  sufficiently,  he 
would  be  excused,  96.  Special  instructions  must  be 
exactly  followed  by  the  agent.  When  an  agent  is  di- 
rected to  insure  a  certain  amount,  it  is  his  duty  to  pro- 
cure an  insurance,  if  possible,  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
sum  required ;  but  if  he  can  not,  he  must  execute  the 
order  ss  far  as  he  can.  96.  An  insurance  is  not  wholly 
void  when  the  agent  exceeds  the  premium  to  which 
he  was  limited.  A  contract  made  by  an  agent  who  in 
its  terms  exceeds  his  authority,  is  never  wholly  void 
if  the  excess  may  be  readily  ascertained  and  separated, 
97,  Asa  general  rule  the  order  imless  otherwise  express- 
ed, may  be  construed  as  intended  to  refer  in  its  execution 
solely  to  the  place  of  the  agent's  residence  ;  but  circum- 
stances may  doubtless  creute  an  exception  and  impose 
a  duty  that  the  order  does  not  in  terms  require,  98, 
Where  an  agent  who  has  effected  a  policy  retains  its 
possession  with  the  consent  of  his  principal,  his  agen- 
cy is  continued.  His  general  dnt}'  is  to  enforce  the 
rights  and  protect  the  interests  of  his  principal  in  all 
matters  arising  out  of  the  contract.  If  a  loss,  partial 
or  total,  has  occurred  he  must  collect,  arrange,  and 
submit  the  accessary  proofs,  adjust  and  settle  its 
amounts,  demand  and  receive  its  paj-ment.  If  in 
order  to  sustain  the  claim  of  the  assured  for  a  total 
loss,  an  abandonment  is  necessar}-,  he  must  take  it  on 
behalf  of  his  principal,  must  take  care  that  it  is  prop- 
erly expressed  and  is  delivered  in  due  season,  and  he 
must  be  careful  to  preserve  the  requisite  evidence  of 
all  his  transactions,  99,  The  most  important  and  re- 
sponsible of  the  subsequent  duties  of  the  agent  is  to 
collect,  receive,  and  pay  over  the  losses  that  may  oc- 
cur and  fall  'no  under  the  policy,  and  l>y  his  negli- 
gence in  the  lischarge  of  his  duty  he  may  readily 
incur  a  heavy  lialiillty  since  he  is  necessarily  bound  to 
pay  all  losses,  that  l>ut  for  his  neglect  and  delay  might 
have  been  recovered  from  the  underwriters.  Payment 
to  the  agent  to  discharge  the  underwriters  must  be  i>'. 
actual  payment  made  in  good  faith,  not  the  aiiowanc 
of  a  credit.  100.  An  insurance  agent  or  broker  who  . 
authorized  to  receive  a  loss,  has  no  authority  to  accept  r 
credit  in  lieu  of  a  payment  in  money,  nor  can  the  un 
derwriter  in  such  a  case  allege  his  own  ignorance  of 
the  trust  that  is  violated.  When  the  agent  is  a  cred- 
itor of  the  assured  and  the  nature  of  his  debt  gives 
bim  a  lien  on  the  policy,  that  lien  will  attach  on  all 


moneys  that  he  may  recelv*  from  tim  n^dttrwtUtt  «fl. 
der  the  policy,  and  he  h««  »  peff««t  tii(Hl  («  frt«((l 
such  moneys  to  his  own  i»»  w>  fur  M  m»y  1m  ncee*. 
sary  to  satisfy  his  claims,  l)y  giving  Am  »'f«l(j  Ut  th« 
assured  ifor  the  amount,  Tha  eriflft  litvoti  \iy  (h« 
agent  extinguishes  the  debt  U»  tfw  nmUffA,  »iv\  iW-u 
charges  the  insurer,  101,  A  mttUnmii  m  hkmiH 
between  the  underwriter  and  tl»e  agsKt  U  t'imr\u'>Ue  nti 
the  agent  himself,  102,  Tlis  ag«nt  sImjhM  inmrnW  to 
his  principal,  full  and  just  mn'tmnti  of  *tJ  Ma  tM/isso. 
tions  on  bis  behalf,  keep  bim  »4v(»«4  tif  «ti  metir. 
rences  connected  with  the  Iniltnmm  \iy  wW<h  hi* 
interests  may  be  affected,  and  AaWfn  MM  Ui  his  (rrtn* 
clpal,  on  request,  the  policy  affmiM  m  h(i  bfhalf, 
provided  his  own  claims,  if  iuu:h  A*  f^Yti  him  M  \imi  m 
instrument,  are  iirst  satisAcd.  Tm  plAU^  i<»  In  all 
cases  the  property  of  the  \mtty  mMy  imnfrA,  H« 
may  maintain  an  action  of  tro«r«r  (i)r  itD  rm'^fury,  fiot 
only  against  his  agents,  but  wgwinHt  Ofwy  l*f«»ft  inUt 
whose  hands  it  may  have  fmimd,  »fl4  tty  wdmn  In  tlo- 
lation  of  his  righU  it  may  be  witUImM,  ilKf,  Ifl  tt)« 
United  States  it  is  wA.  unusual  tj)  tn««rt «  pfit^Uimt  id 
the  policy  l)y  which  ail  losses  are  m«l4i>t  (wrMblA  (miy 
to  the  person  in  wlioaa  name  Hi»  imiinmx  h  d/fccted, 
104,  If  the  agent  intends  by  tint  iHstiftiim  lit  th(t  spe- 
cial clause  to  extend  his  lieM  im  »^t^  i'»ntm  fidvanres 
or  a  balance  of  accounts,  to  w(»M(  tlw  \n\it\Utilfi  U  not 
annexed  by  law,  the  eUeniHim,  U  mtt  imttuifiml  try 
the  principal,  is  a  fraud  upon  bis  iijdtt§i  »ii4  whefa 
no  such  intention  exists  «  priMtim  llmittn^  (tie  pay- 
ment  of  a  loss  to  the  agent  »1»m  tmy  itpmnte  in  em- 
barrass or  delay  the  remedy  of  ttm  Hmitttm,  »t<4  i>huttl(t 
therefore,  without  his  consent,  ffvor  tm  fHMftwl, 

0/  Ike  RighU  of  Ihe  AgrtUr-^lOfi,  A»  »KKflt  has  a 
lien  on  the  policy!  and  nw»r«»v«f,  hm  Htilluirity  to 
maintain  an  action  in  his  own  «*BW  fitr  lh«  temvtty 
of  a  loss  ur'ier  the  policy,  Jf«),  An  Smw»nt«  bfohef 
has  a  li.  •■  n  ilie  |x)ilcy  «giiiM«(  UU  StnmmWttte  em- 
ployor,  n  '  i^ms  for  bis  atmmMim*  »«/!  f/remittms, 
but  for  the  general  balanc«  iif  bix  imunmm  tuxtmtit. 
If  the  broker,  when  Ije  eAWM  (It*  \mSyy  htttrw,  irt  had 
reasonable  ground  to  l»li«y«,  <b»t  tb*  frtsMfafifd  was 
on  the  account  of  a  third  \iBfmn,  btx  \\m  m  »^»\imiI  the 
party  really  assured,  will  Im  mmi^»»fi  tii  tlw  fitcmlom 
and   bis   commission  in  tb<    \mnUmhr  ttntinmiiirti. 

107.  A  broker  who  has  re<»fv<i4  trnmyn  ttuAit  it  pnU 
icy  that  he  effected  in  ig«»f«fM«  tbirt  bf*  etflployer 
was  an  agent,  is  liable  to  ttm  mrty  rtntWy  HHtiiteA, 

108.  A  mercantile  agent  b«s  a  liivN  m  tbA  fHiiiey  that 
he  is  directed  to  effect,  not  miy  tit  tlt«  t(r«mttim  and 
his  commission  in  the  fi^HkitUr  tritniHk'tinn,  irt  en.' 
tended  only  to  advances  ui«>b)  \)y  bfffl  im  wcoont  of 
the  pro|>erty  assured,  but  »\m  lii  thtt  gmm»i  finUnre 
due  to  him,  or  liecomiug  diw  «fbtl«i  Uut  tmiUf  in  in  his 
hands  in  bis  account  with  Ma  ptini'iplH,  the  pflvl- 
lege  of  lien  embracing  •Uiws  »ri»iltu  iriitit  lAitct  dis- 
tinct trausactiims  does  not  a%tmu\  tit  nut  mi-Vfuftr^,  th« 
voluntary  or  the  gratuituUK  ttgmtt  A  utmM'iti  iitti  Is 
not  limited  to  moneys  actually  |mI4  lif  tbff  n^mtt  iif  (hen 
due  to  him,  but  einliraces  alt  Mn  imiiitntiiiiliif  ImMllties 
on  behalf  of  his  principal  tfiiUi^  irtit  iif  bis  Huency. 

109.  But  a  general  lien,  ualrM  hy  tt  tifmiiiti  Hfinrtnent, 
does  not  embrace  all  tlie  e%U>ting  iUniMftii'  find  liiihili- 
ties of  the  agent  ugaiH»t  bW  iiriiuifmi,  iiiit  ttiiy  such 
as  relate  to  the  business  or  (tiin>U>ym*iit  In  which  tha 
agjr.'  H  enf;aged,  and  b»v«  gmmu  iitit  tit  t)(«  fplatlon 
in  *Mji  ii:ploynuiOt  iietwewn  btw  awS  biii  principal. 
'V.  'lSa  obligation  of  tlte  iimt  uttif'ttfa  f'|IIAll.V  im  all 
mjnty.i  i»-«;  ed  hy  bim  muUirtIm  (miii'y,  'tint  tiKmi 
vr^iivir  i.  j  !l(  n  when  ha  vulMMt^Hlfdcllv^f*  (he  iiollcy 
to  ;.!<  pri'i'i;  al  or  to  bis  oniitr,  nf  mtii^  b«  («»tt«  with 

111)  nMsseh"!  n  wrongfully,  as  by  fM^itiK  the  (nrlicy 
. .  .M  ox  I  property.  Ho  lie  iiwy  «»)*«  b(«  lien  by  an 
nxpress  or  implied  agreement,  VVb#N  tb«  ptiiiry  enmn 
again  into  his  possassion,  bU  iim  U  fofltrnt  in  all  Its 
original  extent,  Tba  iittn  u(  n  mitri-uMii  nguM  at- 
taches on  the  policy  io  tb*  piMmmkn  «(  (Im  broker 


117, 

be  pi 

half 

plete 

fendt 

Whe 

namt 

sponi 

«ign 

hast 

act 

thori 

ance 


INS 


1063 


INS 


whom  he  had  tmploved  to  eiTeot  the  Insnnnce. 
111.  The  Revtaed  Statutes  of  Xew  York  limit  the 
right  of  aet-o<f  to  a  defendant  to  whom  the  demand 
proposed  to  be  set  off  is  due  in  his  own  right,  either 
as  the  original  creditor  and  pa^ee  or  as  the  assignee 
and  owner,  and  the  provision,  if  literally  and  strictly 
construed,  would  exclude  a  set-off  by  an  agent  in  any 
case  whatever.  The  courts,  however,  may  adopt  as  a 
reasonable  construction,  that  an  agent  who  in  his  own 
name  is  a  party  to  the  contract,  and  has  a  lion  on  the 
policy  and  its  proceeds,  is  to  be  considered  as  an 
original  creditor,  or,  in  judgment  of  law,  as  the  as- 
signee and  owner  of  the  demand.  So  long  as  the  pre- 
mium-note remains  in  the  hand  of  the  underwriter,  a 
return  premium  on  the  same  policy  is  its  necessary  ap- 
pendage ;  where  the  return  is  entire,  it  extinguishes 
the  note ;  where  it  is  partial,  it  operates  pro  tanto  as 
a  satisfaction. 

Of  the  Extent  of  the  Uahility  of  the  Agent.— Hi.  The 
liability  of  the  agent  is  simply  to  malce  good  to  his 
principal  the  actual  damage  that  the  specific  breach  of 
duty  with  which  he  is  charged  has  directly  occaMoned. 
The  liability  of  an  agent  orising  from  the  insolvency 
of  an  underwriter  from  whom  a  loss  was  due  that  he 
might  have  collected,  is  probably  of  the  same  nature 
as  that  of  an  agent  under  a  del  credere  commission  not 
immediate,  but  secondary.  113.  The  first  remedy  of 
the  principal  is  agsinst  the  estate  of  the  banicrupt,  and 
the  agent  is  answerable  only  for  the  sum  that  the  es- 
tate may  be  deficient  to  satisfy.  And  when  an  agent 
has  received  the  amount  of  a  loss,  he  is  not  permitted 
to  dispute  the  title  of  his  principal,  his  duty  is  to  pay 
over  the  moneys  he  receives.  114.  To  fix  the  liability 
of  the  agent  an  actual  damage  resulting  to  his  princi- 
pal, must  be  proved.  Wliere  an  agent,  from  his  neg- 
lect to  insure,  has  rendered  himself  liable  as  an  in- 
surer, he  is  entitled  to  avail  himself  of  everj'  defense 
which,  had  the  necessary  insurance  been  made,  might 
have  been  urged  by  the  underwriters  themselves. 
116.  The  lUibility  of  the  agent  is  not  in  all  cases  de- 
termined, even  where  it  appears  that  the  principal  had 
parted  with  all  his  interest  in  the  subject  to  be  insured 
previous  to  the  happening  of  the  loss.  The  liability 
of  an  agent  is  not  in  all  coses  to  be  limited  to  the  sum 
that  his  principal  would  have  been  entitled  to  claim  as 
an  indemnity  from  the  underwriters  h?d  an  insurance 
been  properly  effected.  Where  the  principal  has  been 
defeated  in  an  action  against  the  underwriters  on  the 
policy,  owing  to  the  breach  of  duty  of  the  agent,  the 
costs   and   expenses   are   chargeable  to  the   agent. 

116.  An  agent  acting  under  a  del  credere  commission 
is  liable  only  as  a  surety  for  the  ultimate  solvency  of 
the  party  with  whom  he  contracts  for  his  principal.  A 
del  credere  agent  has  no  immediate  remedy  against  the 
underwriter.  When  the  policy  is  effected  in  the  name 
of  the  del  credere  agent,  he  may  maintain  an  action 
in  his  own  name  on  the  policy  itself,  but  not  when 
his  own  name  is  not  on  the  face  of  the  policy.  A 
del  credere  commission  is  not  within  the  statute  of 
frauds.     See  Del  Ckedere. 

Of  Insurance*  by  on  Agent  of  tlie  Undertpriters.— 

117.  The  authority  of  the  agent  to  sign  a  policy  may 
be  proved  by  his  habit  of  subscribing  policies  on  be- 
half of  the  defendant,  although  such  proof  is  incom- 
plete unless  it  embraces  some  positive  act  of  the  de- 
fendant amounting  to  a  recognition  of  the  authority. 
Where  the  agent  subscribes  the  policy  in  his  own 
name  and  omits  that  of  his  principal,  ho  becomes  re- 
sponsible. 118.  An  agent  whose  original  authority  to 
sign  the  policy  as  such  has  been  proved  or  admitted, 
has  an  implied  authority  to  perform  everj'  subsequent 
act  on  behalf  of  his  principal ;  and  this  implied  au- 
thority extends  to  the  adjustm"nt  of  a  loss,  the  accept- 
ance of  an  abandonment,  and  the  payment  of  a  loss. 
An  insurance  broker  is  not  the  agent  of  the  under- 
writer to  admit  or  to  pay  a  loss ;  and  if  such  a  pay- 
ment U  mode  hj  him,  it  is  regarded  as  purely  roluntar}'. 


119.  Agents  of  Insurance  companiei  in  the  United 
States  are  usually  intrusted  with  an  authority  not 
merely  to  transmit  applications,  but,  under  certain  re- 
strictions, to  perfect  insurances  in  the  name  and  on  the 
behalf  of  their  constituents.  If  the  restrictions  to 
which  the  agent  is  subject  in  the  exercise  of  his  ou- 
thority  are  private  and  confidential  in  their  nature, 
their  existence  as  between  the  principal  and  his  agent 
is  not  permitted  to  ht  alleged.  So  far  as  the  rights  of 
third  persons  are  concerned,  unless  disclosed,  thoy 
are  inoperative  and  void.  The  ostensible  or  apparent 
authority  of  a  general  agent  is  his  real  authority  in  re- 
spect to  all  who  deal  with  him  in  ignorance  and  good 
faith.  It  is  the  custom  of  the  underwriters  at  Lloyd's 
and  of  the  principal  insurance  companies  in  the  United 
States,  to  appoint  agents  in  nearly  all  the  ports  of 
the  world,  but  the  powers  of  these  agents  are  cir- 
cumscribed by  very  narrow  limits.  They  can  not 
bind  their  employers  by  any  positive  act  so  as  to 
create  a  liability  to  the  assured  that  would  not  other- 
wise exist,  nor  are  the  acts  which  they  are  authorized 
to  perform  of  such  a  nature  as  to  mislead  the  public 
as  to  the  real  extent  of  their  authority.  When  a 
question  arises  as  to  the  validity  of  their  acts,  it  is 
solely  by  a  reference  to  their  written  instructions  that 
it  must  be  determined. 

Of  Concealment. — 120.  Each  is  bound  to  communi- 
cate to  the  other  all  facts  within  his  personal  knowl- 
edge that  tend  to  show  the  true  character  and  value 
of  the  risks  that  are  meant  to  be  covered,  and  each,  in 
his  own  communication  to  the  other,  is  bound  to  state 
the  exact  and  the  whole  truth  in  relation  to  the  facts 
that  he  represents,  or,  upon  inquiry,  discloses,  A 
misrepresentation  or  concealment  of  material  facts, 
whether  it  resulted  from  design  or  from  ignorance, 
mistake  or  inadvertence,  vitiates  that  mutual  consent 
essential  to  its  validity.  121.  The  materiality  of  facts 
concealed  or  misrepresented  is  not  to  be  determined 
by  the  event,  but  results  solely  from  their  probable 
influence  on  the  estimated  value  of  the  risks  at  the 
time  they  were  assured.  The  question  is  not  whether 
the  loss  that  is  claimed  is  attributable  in  any  degree 
to  the  rislLB  that  were  concealed,  but  whether,  had  the 
facts  been  known,  the  underwriter  would  have  sub- 
scribed the  policy  or  would  have  limited  himself  to  the 
premium  that  he  received.  The  obligation  of  a  frank 
and  full  disclosure  attaches  equally  upon  both  the 
parties,  the  underwriter  as  well  as  the  assured. 

facta  that  the  Assured  is  bound  to  disclose. — 122.  Ti, 
is  the  duty  of  the  assured  to  communicate  all  facta  that 
are  material  to  the  riska,  and  which  are  not  known,  .t 
presumed  to  be  known,  to  tlie  underwriter.  The  as- 
sured is  bound  to  disclose  all  the  intelligence  that  he 
has  received,  and  all  the  information  that  be  possesses, 
that  relate  to  facts  which  are  material  to  the  risks,  al- 
though the  informutiiin  may  be  of  a  doubtful  charac- 
ter, and  may  ultimately  prove  to  bo  untrue.  123. 
So  if  the  intelligence  received  by  the  assured  relates 
not  to  a  fact,  but  to  mere  expectation  or  belief 
of  the  person  from  whom  it  was  received,  if  the  ex- 
pectation refers  to  an  event  that,  had  it  occurred,  would 
be  material  to  the  risks,  it  must  be  communicated ; 
nor  will  the  suppression  be  excused  by  evidence  that 
the  expectation,  although  entertained  and  expressed 
in  good  faith,  was  not  realized  in  the  event.  When  it 
is  certain,  however,  that  the  assured  acted  with  an  en- 
tire good  faith,  circumstances  not  disclosed  by  him  are 
not  to  l>e  deemed  material  simply  on  the  ground  that 
if  communicated  tliey  might  have  excited  a  suspicion 
of  danger  in  the  mind  of  the  insurer.  124.  The  as- 
sured will  not  be  allowed  to  protect  himself  against 
the  charge  of  an  undue  concealment  by  evidence  that 
he  had  disclosed  to  the  underwriter,  in  general  terms, 
the  information  that  lie  possessed.  Where  his  own  in- 
formation is  specific,  it  must  be  communicated  In  the 
terms  in  whicn  it  was  received.  The  information  pos- 
sessed by  the  assured  may  not  be  material  in  itself, 


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nparateljr  considered,  yst  may  be  of  such  a  clmraoter 
that  it  woald  probably  lead  to  farther  inquiries  on  the 
part  of  the  underwriter ;  and  If  the  result  of  the  in- 
quiry wonld  show  the  information  to  be  material,  it 
must  be  communicated.  Its  concealment,  whether 
fraudulent  or  innocent,  will   vitiate  the  insuran^je. 

126.  When  the  insurance  is  "  on  ship  or  ships,"  omis- 
sion to  disclose  the  name  will  not  avoid  the  policy  un- 
less the  concealment  was  rendered  material  by  other 
facts.  The  voluntary  i/;noriiPce  of  the  assured, 
whether  the  result  of  flraud  or  of  gross  negligence, 
vill  not  be  allowed  to  excuse  him,  but  as  evidence 
if  a  concealment  vitiating  the  policy,  will  have  tht 
same  effect  as  his  actual  knowledge.  126.  Wher« 
the  assured  utaploys  an  agent  to  effect  the  policy, 
it  is  his  duty  to  communicate  through  him  all  the 
facts  that  are  requisite  to  be  disclosed.  The  duty 
of  the  principal  is  the  same  whether  the  author- 
ity of  the  agent  be  general  or  special.  The  conceal- 
ment of  a  loss  by  an  agent  who  is  bound  to  give  the 
intelligence,  violates  the  implied  understcnding  on 
wticb  the  contract  is  founded,  as  a  similar  conceal- 
ment by  the  principal.  Concealment  of  material  facts 
when  the  policy  i^  altered,  renders  the  policy  void. 

127.  'Where  an  underwriter  seeks  to  protect  himself 
by  a  re-assurance,  he  is  bound  to  communicate  not 
only  all  the  representatli  ns  made  to  himsrlf  whf'n  he 

woscrlbod  the  policy,  but  all  tiie  knowledge  and  in- 
formation he  had  subsequently  acquired.  In  England 
and  in  the  United  States  the  knowledge  of  the  as- 
sured, or  of  his  agent,  is  never  presumed,  but  must  hn 
established,  in  all  cuses,  by  positive  evidence.  128. 
The  information  usually  necessary  to  be  given,  may 
be  distributed  under  the  following  general  beads :  1. 
The  state  and  condition  of  the  ship  or  property  in- 
sured, 2.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  interest 
insured ;  and,  lastly,  the  extraordinary  perils  arising 
from  extreme  causes  to  which  the  property  has  been 
or  will  piobably  be  exposed.  The  assured  is  not 
bound,  in  the  first  instance,  to  make  any  representa- 
tion as  to  the  condition  of  the  ship  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  risks  to  which  the  policy  relates.  129. 
Although  uot  by  the  terms  of  the  contract,  yet  in 
judgment  of  the  law,  stipulates  that  the  vest^e'  vf  i  or 
shall  be  seaworthy,  and  it  is  on  the  truth  of  this  im- 
plied stipulation,  and  not  of  any  representation  of  the 
assured,  that  the  underwriter  relies,  and  the  policy  is 
founded.  Hence,  a  policy,  where  the  siilp  is  unsea- 
worthy,  and  the  fact  is  known  to,  and  suppressed  by 
the  assured,  is  conclusive  evidence  of  a  meditated 
fraud.  The  same  disclosures  must  be  made  by  the  as- 
sured if  any  facts  are  known  to  him  which  would  just- 
ify a  reasonable  suspicion  of  the  honesty  of  the  mas- 
ter. As  the  warranty  of  seaworthiness  relates  solely 
to  the  condition  of  the  ship  at  the  commencement  of 
the  risks  that  are  covered  by  the  policy,  if  the  as- 
sured has  received  anj'  advices  relating  to  the  state 
and  condition  of  the  ship  since  the  commencement  of 
the  voyage  insured,  he  is  bound  to  communicate  them. 
l:)0.  Condition  and  quality  of  the  goods.  When  no 
inquiry  is  made  by  the  underwriter,  the  assured  is  not 
bound  to  disclose  the  state  and  condition  of  the  goods 
when  shipped,  nor  where  the  insurance  is  on  goods 
generally,  is  he  bound  to  disclose,  in  the  first  instance, 
the  particular  character  and  descrintion  of  the  goods 
that  are  meant  to  be  covered.  Go^ds  lashed  on  deck 
are  not  at  the  risk  of  the  underwriter.  Whether  they 
were  insured  in  special  or  general  tsrms,  they  are  not 
protected  unless  the  fact  that  they  are  thus  transported 
is  stated  in  the  policy,  or  unless  the  "lode  of  transport- 
ing is  sanctioned  by  a  usage  of  tmAi,  the  existence  of 
which  the  underwriter  is  bound  to  know.  When  goods 
laden,  or  to  be  laden,  are  insured  in  a  time  policy,  such 
a  disclosure  is  not  necessary  to  be  made.  The  same 
when  the  insurance  is  on  successive  ce-^oea  on  a  trad- 
ing voyage  to  successive  ports,  the  hoice  of  the  port 
at  the  discretion  of  the  assured.     ' 


Title  or  fnifeil  q/*  the  Attured.— 131.  The  assured 
is  not  bound  to  communicate  to  the  underwriters  the 
particular  natuit  of  his  interest  in  the  p'nnerty  In- 
sured ;  but  in  some  cases,  as  when  the  insurance  is  on 
freight,  bottomry,  respondentia,  eto.,  the  nature  of  hia 
interest  must  be  specified  in  the  policy,  and  in  others, 
its  disclosure  to  the  underwriter  is  nocessarj',  in  order 
that  the  terms  of  the  policy  may  be  construed  tu  em- 
brace it.  The  decisictt.>t  on  this  subject  in  the  Arneri. 
can  courts  are  very  conflicting.  132,  When  letter* 
marques  are  intended  to  be  used,  although  for  tb.e 
limited  purpose  of  chasing  and  capturing  vessels  that 
may  be  mci.  in  the  courtie  of  the  voyage,  it  must  l)e 
disclosed,  133.  Information  of  the  fact,  or  of  the  day 
of  sailing,  although  known  to  the  irssured,  is  nit  iu 
all  cases  to  be  given  to  the  insurer.  When  the  ship 
is  known  to  have  performed  a  part  of  the  voyage  in- 
sured, she  may  not  l>e  out  of  time  when  the  policy  is 
effected  in  reference  to  the  whole  voyage,  yet  may  be 
so  in  reference  to  the  accomplished  portion ;  and,  in 
such  a  case,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  assured  to  communi- 
cate not  merely  the  original  time  of  sailing,  but  all 
the  information  he  had  received  relative  to  the  course 
and  progress  of  the  voyage,  134,  However  material 
may  be  the  facts  known  to  the  assured,  it  is  plair.ly 
unnecessar}-  to  communicat"  them  to  the  insurer,  if 
they  are  iu  faut  already  known  to  him.  Proof,  there- 
fore, of  «^he  actual  knowleilge  of  the  underwriter  is  in 
all  cases  a  complete  answer  ti  a  charge  of  conceal- 
ment. The  assured  is  not  bcim  1  to  make  any  coiamu- 
nication  in  the  first  instance  respecting  facts  which  the 
underwriter  ought  to  know,  i\nd  of  which,  for  this  rea- 
son, the  law  imputes  to  liim  the  actual  knowledge. 
The  piesumption  of  law  in  the  cases  comprehended  in 
th<s  rule,  is  conclusive  and  absolute.  The  insu'er  is 
bound  to  know  all  the  general  causes  that  are  open  to 
his  inquiry,  that  may  by  their  operation  affect  either 
the  political  or  natural  perils  that  are  intended  to  be 
covered  by  the  policy,  135.  The  political  perils 
usually  covered  l)y  the  policy,  are  the  risks  of  capture, 
seizure,  and  det'-ntion ;  therefore  the  assurer  is  bound 
to  know  the  general  end  public  facts  upon  which  a  loss 
arising  from  such  risks  may  occur.  136.  The  natural 
perils  of  k  policy  are  such  as  wholly  arise  from  physi- 
cal caujcs,  and  in  a  limited,  but  not  in  an  unusual 
sense  of  tlie  words,  are  aptly  denominated  "  perils  of 
the  sea,"  or  "  sei  risks."  The  underwriter  is  bound 
to  know  all  the  general  causes  by  which  they  may  be 
occasioned,  increased,  or  varied.  The  usages  of  trade 
are  equally  presumed  to  be  known  to  the  underwriter. 
In  all  these  cases  the  presumptioa  of  knowledge  at- 
taches equally  upon  both  parties.  137,  To  fix  the 
presumption  of  knowlcdgn  upon  the  underwriters,  it  h 
the  duty  of  the  assured  to  communicate  all  the  circum- 
stances within  his  personal  knowledge  tliat  are  neces- 
sary to  be  known  to  enable  the  underwriter  to  apply 
the  presumption  to  the  particular  li^iks  that  are  meant 
to  be  covered.  The  assured  is  not  bouiid  to  communi- 
cate material  facts  if  the  undorwriter  expressly  or  im- 
pliedly waives  the  information.  138.  Where,  from  the 
facts  communicated  to  tfle  underwrite! ,  he  is  bound  to 
infer  the  existence  of  other  facts  not  disclosed,  his 
omission  to  make  tho  inquiry  is  an  implied  waiver  of 
1  more  explicit  disclosure.  The  underwriter,  by  tho 
nature  and  terms  of  tho  contract,  may  waive  all  spe- 
cial information  as  to  the  actual  and  prol>able  existence 
of  the  particular  risk  that  he  agrees  to  assume.  When 
he  thus  consents  to  assume  the  risk  in  its  most  aggra- 
vated form,  he  can  not  just'y  complain  that  facts 
showing  tliftt  such  w.is  its  real  extent  were  not  dis- 
closed to  him.  139.  Tho  assured  is  not  bound  in  the 
first  instance  to  communicate  any  facts  that  era  cov- 
ered by  a  warranty  exp.'ess  or  implied.  Ho  is  not 
bound  in  the  flrsi.  instance  to  communicate  facts  that 
are  only  material,  as  showing  the  existence  of  a  risk 
which  is  excepted  from  the  policy.  He  is  not  bound 
to  communicate  facta  that  tend  to  diminish  the  risks 


vaiidil 
mine  I 
ofani 
laws 
as  ini 
War. 
Of 
statem 
ing  to 
otherii 
of  the 
surer, 
estima 
nsnall 
bthe 
Btructi 
the  poi 
facts; 
tions, 
sentati 
divide 
aUve 
facts 
specifl 
Thee 
prope; 
dence 
tion, 


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M  ihty  would  othenrtse  b«  understood  by  the  inaorer. 
140.  The  liuurer  has  the  right,  upon  inqniiy,  to  be 
informed  of  all  facts  within  the  knowledge  of  the 
assured,  that  in  the  exercise  of  his  own  Judgment  he 
may  deem  material  to  the  risks,  or  important  to  be 
known,  as  a  guide  to  his  own  discretion.  Where  the 
insurer  is  not  to  be  charged  with  an  equal  knowledge, 
the  assured,  either  without,  or  upon  inquiry,  is  bound 
to  communicate  all  the  facts,  that  his  knowledge  or  in- 
formation embraces,  that  are  material  to  the  risks,  or 
may  be  deemed  material  by  the  insurer,  but  he  is  not 
bound  to  communicate  his  own  conclusions  from  the 
facts  that  he  must  disclose.  141.  The  following  are 
cases  in  which  the  effect  of  a  concealment  is  not  to 
vitiate  the  entire  contract,  but  merely  to  exonorate 
the  insurer  from  a  loss  resulting  from  the  risk  con- 
cealed :  1st.  National  character  of  the  insured.  2d. 
Liability  of  the  propertj'  insured  to  capture  and  deten- 
tion. 8d.  Liability  to  seizure  from  breach  of  foreign 
laws  of  trade.  4th.  Want  of  necessary  documents. 
5th  and  lastly,  the  use  of  false  or  simulated  papers. 

National  Character  of  the  Atmred — 142.  Where  the 
Insurance  is  made  in  a  neutral  country,  a  full  dis- 
closure of  the  national  character  of  the  assured  in  the 
first  instance  is  necessary,  not  to  give  validity  to  the 
contract,  but  to  cover  the  risk,  so  as  to  charge  the  un- 
derwriter with  a  resulting  loss.  The  assured  may  be 
the  subject  of  a  nentral  State,  and  legal  owner  of  the 
property  insured,  yet,  an  equitable  interest,  rendering 
the  property  liable  to  hostile  capture,  may  be  vested  in 
a  belligerent  subject.  As  such  an  interest  creates  a  risk 
not  contemplated  by  the  parties,  it  must  bo  disclosed. 
143.  Even  when  the  policy  contains  a  warrant)'  of 
neutrality,  and  describes  the  assured  by  general  words, 
facts  not  disproving  the  warranty,  yet  showing  that 
the  property  is  liable  to  seizure  as  enemy's  property, 
are  necessary  to  be  disclosed.  144.  Liability  of  prop- 
erty to  capture  or  detention :  The  voyage  or  trade 
to  which  the  insurance  relates  may  be  interdicted 
by  the  law  of  nations,  by  the  special  provisions 
bI  1  treaty,  or  by  an  unjust  ordinance  or  decree 
of  toe  belligerent  power,  or  by  arbitrary  rules  or 
decisions  that  prevail  in  the  courts  of  prize.  145. 
Where  the  voyage  or  trade  on  which  the  insurance 
relatit,  is  'prohibited  by  the  municipal  laws  of  the 
foreign  countrj'  to  which  the  ship  is  destined,  or  where 
the  risks  are  to  commence,  a  concealment  of  such  an 
extraordinary  risk  discharges  the  insurer  from  a  con- 
sequent loss,  without  affecting  in  other  respects  the 
validity  of  the  contract.  146.  The  rules  that  deter- 
mine the  validity  of  an  insurance,  embracing  the  risks 
of  an  illicit  trade,  or  trade  in  violation  of  tho  municipal 
laws  of  a  foreign  county,  are  suljstantially  the  same 
as  in  rejpect  to  an  insni:ince  on  goods  contraband  of 
war. 

Of  Representations.  — 147.  A  representation  is  a 
statement  of  facts,  circumstances,  or  information  tend- 
ing to  increase  or  diminish  the  risks,  as  they  would 
otherwise  be  considered  made,  prior  '..:  ;  ■  execution 
of  the  policy  by  the  assured  or  his  agunt,  to  the  in- 
surer, in  order  to  guide  his  Judgment  in  forming  a  Just 
estimate  of  the  risks  he  is  desired  to  assume.  It  is 
usually  ro'  ".o  by  parole,  or  by  a  writing  not  inserted 
in  the  policy ;  but  when  the  intention  as  to  the  con- 
struction is  sufficiently  declared,  may  be  expressed  in 
the  policy.  148.  Representations  relate  either,  Ist,  to 
facts;  2d,  to  the  information ;  or,  lastly,  to  the  inten- 
tions, expectations,  or  belief^  of  the  assured.  A  repre- 
sentation of  facts  is  a  positive  roprcsentation,  which  is 
divided  into  affirmative  and  promissory :  when  affirm- 
ative, they  assert  the  past  or  present  existence  of  tho 
facts  to  which  they  relate ;  when  promissory,  that  the 
specifiei  event  will  happen,  or  act  be  performc ',.  149. 
The  evidence  of  a  positive  representation  of  facts,  may 
properly  be  received  in  all  cases.  The  rules  of  evi- 
dence in  respect  to  the  admissibility  of  a  representa- 
tion, are  anbstantially  the  same  as  in  respect  to  a 


uiage ;  and,  in  many  cases,  the  representation,  when 
proved,  becomes,  like  the  usage,  a  part  of  the  contract. 
The  words  of  tite  representation  are  to  be  strictly  and 
literally  construed,  but  are  to  be  understood  in  their 
plain  and  obvious  meaning,  in  that  which  it  is  most 
probable  they  were  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the 
insurer.  It  will  be  construed  to  embrace  all  the  facts, 
the  existence  of  which,  from  the  terms  nsed,  would 
reasonably  and  probably  be  inferred.  150.  When  a 
representation  is  so  ambiguous  in  its  terms,  that  it  may 
be  understood  with  equal  propriety  in  two  diiferent 
senses,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  insurer  to  seek  an  explana- 
tion ;  and  when  such  a  representation  is  understood  l>y 
him  in  a  sense  different  from  that  intended  by  tho 
assured  if  he  had  omitted  to  inquire,  he  will  not  be 
permitted  to  aver  its  falsity.  A  representation  of 
future  facts,  although  positive  in  its  terms,  may  in 
some  cases  be  Justly  interpreted,  not  as  an  undertaking 
for  the  truth  of  the  facts,  but  as  referring  solely  to  the 
expectation  or  belief  of  the  party.  When  a  represent- 
ation of  future  facts  is  inconsistent  with  the  terms  of 
the  policy,  it  is  not  to  be  rejected.  The  policy  remains 
the  sole  evidence  of  the  agreement;  but  the  repre- 
sentation may  be  operative,  l)y  construing  it  to  refer 
to  the  intentions  of  the  assured  at  the  time  of  making  it. 
161.  The  words  of  a  representation  must  be  construed 
in  reference  to  the  usages  of  trade,  or  in  their  tech- 
nical and  commercial  sense.  A  representation  may 
supersede  a  usage  and  an  implied  warranty.  Where 
there  are  several  underwriters  on  the  same  policy,  a 
representation  to  the  first  is  construed  to  extend  to  all, 
so  that  each,  when  it  proves  to  be  false,  may  avail 
himself  of  the  defense.  This  rule  is  strictly  confined 
to  the  cases  in  which  the  representation  is  made  to  the 
underwriter  whose  name  stands  first  on  the  policy. 
The  terms  of  the  rule  are  restricted  to  underwriters  on 
the  same  policy,  and  it  is  confined  to  cases  in  which 
tho  representation  to  the  first  und  jrwriter  was  favorable 
to  the  risk,  and  to  such  cases  the  rule  exclusively  applies. 
152.  Where  the  subscription  of  the  first  underwriter 
is  obtained  under  a  secret  agreement  that  it  is  not  to  be 
binding,  and  for  the  sole  purpose  of  decoying  others  to 
insure,  the  exhibition  of  the  policy  thus  subscribed  is 
the  asser^on  of  a  falsehood,  and  the  contract  is  void. 
A  representation  once  made  is  binding  on  the  party, 
unless  it  is  altered  or  ^thdrawn  before  the  insurance  is 
effected.  The  completion  of  the  policy  is  thcrefora 
the  time  to  which  the  representation  is  construed  to 
refer.  153.  A  representati-n,  to  be  binding,  must  b^ 
material,  and,  to  discharge  the  insurer,  must  be  false 
wholly  or  partially,  id,  according  to  tho  character  of 
the  represcntatio  '  >'se  in  fact  or  in  the  event.  It  is 
not  necessary'  thut  .  hu  facts  represented  should  be  ma- 
terial to  the  risk,  that  is,  should  affect  or  change  the 
value  of  tho  risk,  considered  in  themselves.  The  ma- 
teriality required  is  not  absolute,  but  rela^'.ve,  and  its 
test  is  the  actiuU  or  probalde  influence  of  the  facts 
represented  on  the  mind  of  the  insurer.  In  Judgment 
of  law  a  representation  is  falpe  when  il  fails  to  corre- 
spond with  the  facts  that  it  afiirms  or  stipulates ;  and 
hence  i  falsity  is  either  intentional  or  accidental. 
154.  \-''  11  the  representation,  whetl'r  ."rmative 
or  promiaBory,  is  made  with  an  intent  '  -  ■'"'.  've,  the 
fraud  in  all  cases  vitiates  tho  contract ;  ii .  ' ' ,:  produce 
this  effect  is  it  requisite  that  tho  falsity  Bh;,uld  be  en- 
tire: partial  falsity,  when  intentional,  is  equally  a 
fraud;  and  an  inquiry  into  the  materiality  of  tl'' 
charge,  as  affecting  the  character  and  value  of  tl.f 
risks,  would  never  be  allowed.  155.  When  the  falsity 
of  the  representation  is  accidental,  its  effect  upon  the 
contract  will  depend,  first,  upon  the  nature  and  extent, 
and  next  upon  the  period  of  time  to  which  it  is  to  be  re- 
ferred. The  falsity  of  the  representation,  when  entire, 
in  all  cases  dlschar(,es  the  insurer ;  but  such  is  not  its 
necessary  consequence  when  it  is  only  literal  or  partial. 
The  substantial  falsity  of  a  representation,  in  cases 
exempt  from  firaud,  does  not  always  render  the  con- 


^$  \ 


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i^'iliii 


tnot  wholt"  void.  When  the  reprerintatlon  Is  false 
when  maiU,  or  at  the  commcrncment  of  the  riiki,  auch 
U  the  nece.iAar}'  etTect,  bal  Aiien  the  policy  haa  at- 
tached, and  the  repreaentuti  •<.  ia  fulaiflod  by  a  eubse- 
quent  event,  the  breach  do<^  nut,  by  a  retvo-active 
force,  render  the  p.^ticy  void  b  ita  ori^^in,  156.  When 
the  assured  had  r  :  'lersonal  kiii>»led);e  of  the  tacts  he 
desires  to  represtiii,  and  is  unwilling  to  bind  himse'T 
by  a  positive  itatement,  he  may  quulify  the  rervresent- 
ation  by  adding,  that  it  is  made  from  the  infui  matio<i 
of  othura,  or  may  submit  the  info'Tnatlon  in  ita  wb  jli  ox- 
tent  to  the  insurer.  When  the  Ht.iiiri'd  aubmita  tli«  \n- 
formation  in  extenso  to  the  insurer,),  lie  is  not  aa.ntcr 
alio  for  the  actual  or  eventual  tt  ufh  if  the  facts  tlut  .  < 
emhraces,  nor,  in  any  case,  for  the  accuracy  of  the  con- 
elusions  that  the  insurers  muy  dravr  from  it.  It  would 
be  dilferenl  if  the  information  proceuds  fvom  an  agent  of 
the  assured  v\liose  >iuty  it  ia  to  give  i'u  intelligence. 
li',7.  Tl<«  assiuvd  u  reaponsible  when  the  policy  is  in- 
(Jucid  byDalsersp/.^santationofliisoHnagent.  Where 
tlio  i.isijrert,  or  his  .ijteiit  in  his  naive,  declares  that  he 
Int  111!  to  lyit'UBu.  '.Trtaln  course,  oi  i>prform  certain 
act  I  ,'i.v'r;!blci  0  iljfl  risks,  l^f:  his  enWre  liberty  to 
change  '.he  itiv  i'>asv,ii  (i«<  i^rcl ;  lut  if  the  represent- 
atioii  >s  !i>adn  ivi.ii  w  actuni  intent  tu  deceive,  the 
(rati''!  vi'ie'-?  ihn  ';;ntr;itt.  Wl:9re  the  party  seek- 
ing tlio  iux'-jd.  :e  d«clai'<:  his  own  expectation,  or  that 
t'k'  hb>  p:\ii'Ji,<ii,  in  regA<-i»  to  the  existcnm  or  happen- 
ing  of  a  C-.'A  or  event  'hat  if  true,  wouid  diminish  the 
risk:<,  tho  clfect  of  tlie  reprcentation  muHt  depend  up- 
on it?  juit  Interpretation.  Tho  same  will  be  for  a  rep- 
resentation of  a  belief  of  a.  material  fact.  It  is  from 
tho  character  of  the  party,  and  lus  relation  to  the  sub- 
ject, that  sucli  representation  acquirer  ntrength. 

Oftht.'iir/hl  and  Duties  o/Ihe  Iruured  in  com  of  Loss. 
Section  I. — 0/ Abandonment. — 158.  A  total  loss,  within 
the  meaning  <S  tha  policy,  may  arisu  cither  by  the 
total  deetructi'  n  of  the  thing  insured,  or,  if  it  specifi- 
cally remains,  by  such  damage  to  it  as  renders  it  of  lit- 
tle or  no  value.  A  loss  is  said  to  be  total  if  the  voy- 
age be  entirely  lost  or  defeated,  or  not  worth  pursuing, 
and  the  projected  advimture  trustrated.  It  is  a  con- 
structive total  loss  if  the  thing  insured,  though  exist- 
ing in  fact,  it.  loit  for  any  ut^^ful  purpose  to  the  owner. 
In  such  cases  tbe  insured  may  ubt^ndon  all  his  interest 
in  the  subject  insured,  and  ai!  his  hopes  of  recovery  to 
the  iiisuivr,  and  call  upon  him  ta  pay  as  for  a  total 
loss.  159.  In  cases  of  ubandunmeut  the '.nsurer  stands 
in  place  of  tbe  insured,  and  takes  tiie  subject  to  hiiri- 
«elf,  with  all  tho  chances  of  recovery  and  indemnity. 
A  valid  .ibandonment  has  a  riti-ospec'.ive  effect,  and 
does  of  itself,  and  without  any  deed  or' cession,  trans- 
fer the  right  of  property  to  the  insurer,  to  the  extent 
of  the  insurance  ;  and  if,  after  an  abandonment  duly 
madn  and  accepied,  the  ship  sboula  be  recovered  and 
proceed  and  muKe  a  prosperous  voyage,  the  insurer  as 
owner  would  reap  the  profit.  160.  As  soon  as  the  insured 
ia  informed  of  the  loss  he  ought  (after  being  allowed  a 
reasonable  time  to  inspect  the  ca'go,  and  for  no  other 
purpose),  to  determine  promptly  whether  he  will  or 
will  not  abanvloii ;  and  he  can  not  lie  by  and  speculate 
on  events.  If  he  elects  to  alandoi',  he  must  do  it  in 
a  reasonable  time,  and  gi  /e  notice  promptly  to  the  in- 
surer of  his  determination,  otherwise  he  will  be  deemed 
to  have  waive-1  his  right  to  abandon,  and  nill  be  enti- 
t'ed  to  re-.  ■  only  for  a  partial  loss,  unless  the  loss 
be  in  fact  i.  'tely  total.  If  t'le  thing  insured  exifit 
in  specie,  u  insuri'id  wishes  to  g,>  for  a  totiil  loss,  | 

an  abai.  is  indispensable.     The  main  genera) 

dsctrinea  respecting  abandonment  being  entirely  in- 
corporated into  the  English  law,  it  would  be  useless  ',o  i 
insert  tbem  at  length.  Ifll.  An  abandonment  onR3  I 
rightfully  mode  is  binding  and  conclujivo  between 
the  parties,  and  thn  rights  flowing  from  it  become 
vested  rights,  and  aro  not  to  be  divested  by  subsequent 
events.  The  right  to  abandon  is  to  be  tested  by  the  ac- 
tual facts  at  the  time  of  the  abandonment,  and  not  <p- 


on  the  atate  of  the  iDfomatlon  rece'vH.  Upon  a  valid 
abandonment,  tho  itMtst«'t-  cct^^mis  tlin  a),;eiit  of  the  in- 
surer, and  the  insured  Li  n^t  bound  by  Mn  subse'^uent 
acts,  unless  he  i  \.'pt«  tttcm.  l(ai.  It  i^  th^  ci:  ne 
thing  with  tho  as>^i,'ii«3  nf  .h<<,  '.argo.  Op  an  t  elated 
abandonment  of  :l;e  sLip.  i',.  freight  nvmed  previ;.ui 
to  the  disaster  is  t.)  be  ru.'^ii/ed  by  t  ke  owni-r  or  hi% 
repre? >  ?  taiive,  th':  insurer  »i'  >y^  frnistH,  anii  u^w. 
tioned  J.  10  rata  iV  .  rro,  anil  •:'.•,  Ireigh-:  lUbBti-iuinrlv 
to  be  turned  ftjoes  to  Mie  insurer  on  the  ship, 

Sectii.r.  '/.     Ofth.    iiijuitmenl  of  Partial  r^wec— 

168,  In  an  open  poli':,^ ,  the  actual  or  market  ^-.^xie 
of  the  »\>hy.'A  i  .sured  is  to  ha  estimated  at  the  time  of 
the  commencement  of  the  risk.  IfU,  Th^re  art  two 
kinds  of  indemnity  thr.t  may  lawfully  be  obtained  im- 
iler  (/.  contract  of  hisumriut.  The  first  Is  • ,  pay  wli  t 
the  go.  -i  I  would  ..ave  sold  for  if  t.'^j'  iisd  cached  tue 
ji'Lice  of  tliei!  dei-tirution ;  a^id  the  valiift  xliere  con- 
sists  a'  thn  prime  coals  iind  e^:peD<<«ii  O:'  thi,  out- 
fit, tho  freit;t>t  aii,I  cspimsec  at  ■  ^joit  o.f  Iclivery, 
and  t'K  proi;t  or  h)88  .-i-ising  txwn  ±o  state  of  the 
market.  This  puts  tLc  in.  iired  in  the  same  situation 
as  if  no  loss  had  hap).fOuea.  The  other  kind  of  indem- 
nity is  to  pay  only  the  first  cost  of  the  goods  and  the 
expenses  incurred ;  and  this  places  the  insured  in  the 
.situation  he  was  before  he  undertook  the  adventuro. 
165.  The  aetiuil  or  market  v.iluo  at  the  p<>it  of  de- 
parture may  frequently  lie  different  from  the  involee 
price  or  prime  cost,  and  tvhen  that  happens,  or  can  he 
ascertained,  it  is  to  be  preferred.  166.  If  goods  ar- 
rive damagitii  at  the  place  of  destination,  the  way  tu 
ascertain  tlio  quantity  of  damage,  either  in  open  or 
/ulued  poU.:ittf  is  to  compare  the  market  price  or  gross 
Hmoimt  at  wbMi  the  same  goods  would  have  sold  if 
sound.  There  is  a  material  difference  between  the 
adjustment  of  .  (lartial  loss  and  of  a  general  average, 
since  the  former  i',  adjusted  according  to  the  value  at 
the  time  and  plnoi;  of  departure  of  the  vessel,  and  tbe 
latter  according  to  the  value  at  the  foreign  port.  167. 
In  settling  losses  under  the  memorandum  in  the  policy 
which  decliires  'articles  free  of  average  under,  suy  4 
per  cent.,  if  a  partial  loss  to  an  article  be  found  on 
survey  and  sale  to  have  been  5  per  cent.,  tho  insurer 
pays  tho  damages  and  the  expenses.  If  under  5  per 
cent.,  he  pays  nothing,  and  the  insurer  bears  the  ex- 
penses. The  expcnsea  are  like  costs  of  suit,  and  full 
upon  the  losing  party.  The  expenses  are  not  taken  to 
make  up  the  5  per  cent.  1Ij8.  With  respect  to  leak- 
age, tho  rule  in  cases  free  from  special  stipulations  is, 
that  the  insurer  is  not  liablo  for  waste  occasioned  by 
ordinary  lealuigo,  and  only  for  leakage  beyond  the 
ordinary  waste  and  produced  by  some  extraordinary 
accident.  The  practice  is  to  ascertain  in  e:\cli  case 
what  amount  of  leakage  is  to  be  attribute  I  to  ordinary 
cas!59,  or  the  fault  of  tho  insured,  or  1)U  .  litonago,  and 
what  to  tho  perils  of  the  sea ;  and,  in  pursuing  his  in- 
quiry ,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  nature  of  tbe  arti- 
cles, tho  description  of  the  vessel,  tho  length  of  the 
voyage,  and  tbe  stowage,  aro  all  to  be  considered. 

169.  An  adjustment  of  a  loss  can  not  bo  set  aside  or 
opened  except  on  tbe  ground  if  fraud  or  mistake  of 
facts  not  I.  .  >vn.     In  making  tiic  adjustment  in  the 

u.'*:  1  .  )SJ,  the  rule  is  to  apply  tho  old  iiia- 

.  '  *.lif<  pajment  of  tho  new,  anil  a  dedu ■ 

'  new  for  old  is  made  whether  the  vea- 

i,     170.  The  insurer  is  liablo  for  all 

I  expenses  attendant  upon  an  accident 

'    the  vessel  into  port  to  bo  repaired ;  and  in 

.  »  of  the  general  periuission  in  the  policy 

tared  to  labor  for  the  recovery  of  the  prnp- 

(<.■       'M  insurer  may  be  rendered  liable  for  tr    cx- 

. ;  .      i'lr.iirred  in  tho  atteiupt  to  recover  tiia  lout 

,ii-0|.,  i'.    i,'  .Hi'dition  to  the  payment  of  a  total  loss. 

;^  (A.  ■..  1  o//'remium.— 171,  The  premium  paid 
by  the  i  :.,  is  in  consideration  if  tlio  risk  which 
the  i'l-p-i-  imes,  and  if  tho  contract  of  insurance 
be  Tc.    i''  :<  ^^c,  or  the  riak  ha,',  not  been  commenced, 


case  of  a 
terials  t 
tion  of  I 
ael  be  .  : 

t;  1  lai 


•  Shi- 


Merchant 
[National, 

-•i'PtUllc. 

Shoe  A  I 
fiuffolk.. 
United  L 
iWarren  . 
|Wiuh[ngt 


Clua  of  d 


(Missing  V, 
^'ban'd  o.- 
|lMturneil 
|ArrIvcd  <• 
fitrs-.ded, 

pisinantle 
punk  by  l( 
Burned  oil 
P'rack  byl 

!       .^f  -1. 


^-  -mi^ 


ms 


1067  mm 


the  Insured  b  entitled  to  a  return  of  premium.  If  the 
Inaurance  be  made  without  an}-  interest  whataoever  in 
the  thing  insured,  and  this  proceeds  through  mistalce, 
misinformation,  or  any  other  innocent  cause,  the  pre- 
mium is  to  Im)  retume<l.  So  if  the  insura'^ce  l)e  made 
with  short  interest,  or  for  more  than  the  real  interest, 
there  is  to  be  a  ratal)le  return  of  premium.  If  the 
rislc  has  not  l>een  run  the  premium  must  l>e  returned. 
172.  if  the  Interest  has  not  htea  run,  whether  it  be 
owing  to  the  fault,  pleasure,  or  will  of  the  insured,  or 
to  an}'  other  cause,  the  premium  must  t>e  returned  for 
the  consideration  for  which  it  was  given  fails.  178.  If 
tlio  veJSbl  never  sailed  on  the  voyage  insured,  or  the 
policy  became  void  by  a  failure  of  the  warranty,  and 
without  fraud,  the  policy  never  attaches ;  but  if  tho 
risic  has  once  commenced,  though  the  voyage  be  im- 
mediately thereafter  a))andoned,  there  is  no  return  or 
appnnionm.ent  of  premium.  174.  And  if  the  premium 
is  to  l>e  returned,  the  insurer  retains  \  per  cent,  by 
way  of  indemnity  for  his  trouble  and  concern  in  the 
transaction.  175.  The  insurer  retains  the  premium  in 
aU  cases  of  actual  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  insured  or 
his  agent.  So  if  the  trade  be  in  any  rr.^pect  illegal, 
tho  premium  can  not  l>e  reclaimed.  If  the  voyage  be 
divisible,  there  may  be  an  apportionment  of  the  pre- 
mium, but  not  unless  the  risk  were  divisible  and  dis- 
tinct in  the  policy.  If  the  voyago  and  premium  be 
entire,  there  can  be  no  apportionment.  It  is  requisite 
that  the  voyage,  by  the  usage  of  trade  or  the  agree- 
ment of  the  parties,  be  divisible  into  distinct  risks; 
and,  in  that  case,  if  no  risk  has  been  run  as  to  one 
pai-t,  there  may  be  an  apportionment  of  premium. — 
See  DUER  on  Marine  In$urance, 

Losses  of  the  Boston  Stock  Insurance  Companies. — 
According  to  the  annual  report  of  the  insurance  com- 
missioners, the  following  were  the  issues  of  the  various 
stock  insurance  companies  of  Boston  for  the  year  end- 
ing November  1, 1856 : 


Oompaalet. 


tAmorlcan... .  

Boston 

Boylston 

City 

lillot 

Tremoiit 

Franklin 

Hopo 

Manuiiicturcrs' 

Merchants' 

Merclisnts'  Marino . 

National 

'!tv'ptun(" 

Bhoe  JcL.  Dealers'. 

Suffolk 

United  States 

iWarren 

IWashlngton 


|«,070  08 

8,044°  88 
17,68.1  08 
18,»24  4S 
83,473  95 

9,8U  S7 

27,f!)»"28 
17,851  63 

17,7i3'89 
n.'UiB  08 
107  9-2 
40  00 
880  00 
G'.IS  66 
1,292  06 


♦187,179  70 
197,638  80 
828,440  06 


26,5.85  2.1 
188,013  44 

90,81)1  27 
l.'3$,241  94 
12:1,718  66 
18i,21H  23 
488,405  94 
.8,929  20 
11S,6.31  28 

78.442  62 
101,283  91 
2)i5,909  06 


Total 


1142,255  78 

197,628  80 

441,484  94 

17,68:j  08 

18,024  45 

82,472  95 

86,900  82 

188,018  46 

117,870  60 

156,098  67 

12.8,718  66 

14S,981  67 

445,658  97 

4.087  12 

1 18,671  28 

74,822  62 

101,985  47 

237.201  11 


As  the  commissioners  observ-e,  the  past  year  or  two 
have  Ijcen  unusually  disastrous  to  thu  marine  insurance 
companies,  who,  in  most  cases,  pay  a  portion  of  their 
losses  from  the  reserved  funds  of  more  favorable  years. 
The  North  American  Company  reports  no  losses,  either 
fire  nr  marine.  Tlo  i  uiual  report  of  the  Boston 
B",  of  1 ,— ",(  represents  tho  following  losses,  etc., 
til'   I      -ear  It!'  '■. 


Clus  of  dliuUn. 


Missing  vessels. . 
/iban'rtorcond'd- 
Kcturncd  In  dlst's 
Arrived  ("an  iiired, 

Stranded 

ColllMons 

Put  I,  leaky 

Dismantled 

Sunk  by  lo 

Burned  or  Mured 
Strack  by  Ughtn'g 

.■ita,. 


6  {  lU 


I  85  I  98  I  101  I  146 

Xxx 


435     202  I  233 


Batis  or  InniANoa  ix  tuc  Vrnno  Btatio, 


ForU. 


Atlantic  ports,  ttom,  to  ports  in  Europe,  not  in 
the  Northern  Sea.. 
..."  ".  "  "  In  the  Northern  8e» 
AfHca,  to  or  from,  (toneral  llsblllty 

'*     out  and  home 

Apalschlcolo,  to  and  from 

Bermuda,  to  or  from 

Braills,  to  any  port 

Buenos  Ayres,  direct 

"         "     and  Montevideo 

Bahamas,  to  o.  tram 

Batavla,  or  any  one  port  In  the  Indian  Ocean . . , 

"      out  and  home  

Canton,  direct 

"      ontandbome 

Cuba,  any  one  port 

Calcutta,  out 

"       out  and  home 

Cadis 

Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Darlen,  to  or  from . . 

Denmark 

Domerara  or  Surinam,  out  or  home 

France,  to  or  from 

'^       out  and  home 

Oreat  Britain  or  Ireland,  to  any  port,  out  or  home 

"  north  of  tho  Thames 

"  and  back  to  tho  United  Btetes 

^  Dry  Roods,  homo 

"  Hardware,  home 

Gibraltar 

HallfiiX,  to  or  fl'om 

Honduras,  to  or  from 

IjHIuayra  

Lisbon,  to  or  f^om 

Madeira  and  Western 

Capo  de  Verd  Islands 

"        "        "     outandhonio 

Mainga. 

Trieste. 

"     andbaektothe  UnltedStates 

Manilla,  out  and  home 

Mobile 

New  Orleans 

Mobile  or  New  Orleans,  from  either 

"  "  "     to  ports  la  Europe  not 

in  tho  North  Sea. 

"  11  u     In  the  North  Sea 

Ocracock  Bar  (over) 

Porto  Oabcllo 

Klo  Janeiro 

Pcrnambnco 

Russia,  different  seasons 

St  Domlnio,  out  or  home 

9an  FranclBco 

Smyrna  or  Constantinople 

Spanish  Main,  any  one  port,  or  between  tho 

Orinoco  and  the  Sabine 

"        "      outandhome 

Sumatra,  port  or  ports  in,  to  or  from 

St.  Croix  and  St  Thomas,  to  or  from 

Turks  Island  and  back 

Valparaiso,  out  or  home 

'*         out  and  home 

Vera  Crui 

Tamplco •• 

Wilmington,  N.  C,  to  or  from.  

To  tho  coast  of  Patagonia, per  annum 

To  tho  Pacific,  viiysgo  round 

North  of  Onaysqull,  and  not  north  of  8.  Francisco 
To  tho  Brazil  Banks,      "  "       "  " 

Windward  Islands. 

"  "       out  and  home 

California 

Oregon 

CoiSTWisK  Risks. 
To  or  flrom  any  port  in  Maine,  not  east  of  Portland 
"  "       "        "       cast  of  Portland 


li-8 


J!: 


If-U 


II.  Fire  Insurance. — It  is  impossible  to  estimate  tuo 
highly  the  value  and  importance  of  insurance,  and 
the  benefi'j  conferred  on  mc.nkind  by  the  invention, 
whether  it  be  considered  m  its  orig^-al  character  aa  a 
protection  to  the  mercliant  who  adventured  hia  prop- 
erty on  the  bosom  of  the  treacherous  deep — against  its 
many  perils — or  in  its  more  modem  applications,  aa  a 
guaranty  against  loss  by Jire,  and  its  further  interest- 
ing adaptation  to  tho  assuring  of  life.  Considering 
that  maritime  insurance  was  well  Icnown,  .ind  insur- 
ance on  life  understood  and  practiced,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, in  several  mercantile  countries  by  tho  middle  of 
the  IGth  century,  it  appears  extraordinary,  when  we 
call  to  remembraoce  the  devastations  and  distrees  oo- 


II 


■ill 


|»r> 


M'''  •'^i<*4"^*' 


ira 


1068 


INS 


tuioiMd  by  Jin  in  Great  Britain,  that  aonie  meani 
thonld  not  have  been  adopted  at  an  earlier  period  to 
reader  luch  calamities  leaa  ruinoua  to  Individualn,  par- 
ticularly wlien  a  plan,  vrliich  apiwara  eventally  to  liave 
formed  the  basin  of  tlie  present  insurance  companies, 
was  suggested  so  early  as  1600. 

In  that  year,  a  person  proposed  to  Count  Anthony 
Ganther  von  Oldenburg,  that,  as  a  new  species  of 
finance,  he  should  insure  the  houses  of  all  his  subjects 
agalhst  fire,  on  their  paying  so  much  per  cent,  an- 
nually, accor^ling  to  their  value  ;  but  the  prospect  of 
gain  so  tempting  to  most  persons,  could  not  induce  the 
Count  to  adopt  the  plan.  He  thought  It  good  if  a 
company  was  formed  of  indlvlduiils  to  insure  each 
others'  houses,  but  he  doubted  thnt  it  could  by  him  be 
"honorobly,  Justly,  and  irrepronchfuUy  instituted 
without  tempting  I'rovidence — without  incurring  the 
censure  of  neighbors,  and  without  disgracing  one's  name 
■nd  dignity,"  adding  thut  "God  had  without  snch  means 
preserved  and  blessed,  fur  many  centuries,  the  ancient 
house  of  Oldenburg,  and  lie  would  still  he  present 
with  him  through  his  mercy,  and  protect  his  subjects 
tiom  destructive  fires."  This  plan  appears  not  to  hove 
been  again  thought  of  until  the  fire  of  1666  had  laid 
the  city  of  London  in  ashes. 

In  consequence  of  this  calamitous  evcut,  the  cit- 
izens l)egan  to  see  the  importance,  and  indeed  wecea- 
lity,  of  erecting  their  buildings  of  h  material  less 
susceptible  of  Are  thun  hitherto;  also  of  adopting  a 
regular  system  of  precaution  against  future  uccidcnts, 
as  well  a,s  of  devising  some  scheme  for  mutual  pecuni- 
ary protection  and  relief.  Various  proposals  were 
accon'ingly  submitted  to  the  Court  of  Common  Coun- 
cil of  the  city  of  London,  between  16G9  and  1680,  for 
the  mutual  relief  of  such  as  might  have  their  houses 
destroyed  by  fire— the  most  notable  and  accoptulile  of 
which  was  t)y  one  of  their  own  l)ody,  Mr.  Deputy 
Newbold.  But  If  wo  miiy  Judge  from  the  len^'tli  of 
time  tiiut  elapsed  ere  the  worshijiful  committee  made 
their  report  to  the  court,  we  should  conclude  the 
adopting  of  the  proposal  to  have  been  attended  with 
serious  difficulties,  and  in  verification  of  the  old  prov- 
erb that  "  delays  are  dangerous,"  during  the  period 
between  the  first  presentation  of  Mr.  Ncwbold's  pro- 
posals to  the  Lord  Mayor,  and  the  final  report  of  the 
committee,  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred  l)y  the 
Court  of  Common  Council,  several  private  individuals 
associated  themselves  together,  and  submitted  to  the 
good  citizens  of  I.nndon  a  "dcsijtn  for  insuring  houses 
from  fire,"  and  on  the  ICtii  Scpteml)er,  1681,  a  notice 
or  advertisement  was  issued  from  their  "  oJUce,  on  the 
baek  side  of  the  Riii/al  Esch<ingr,"  offering  to  insure 
brick  hou.^cs  against  fire  for  sixpence,  and  timber  bouses 
for  licelreprnce  in  the  pound— Mng  at  the  rate  of  £'2 
lOf.  per  cent,  for  the  brioic  houses,  and  of  jC5  j)rr  cent. 
for  timljer. 

Subsequently,  on  the  1,1th  Octolier,  1681,  the  Court 
of  Coiiimon  Council  did  "agree  and  resolve  f  '  under- 
take yo  Insuring  all  houses  w'hin  this  city  :<  i  lilier- 
tyes  from  fire,  and  execute  ye  s:ime  with  all  ixpedi- 
con,"  and  thereafter  "  resolved  forthwith  to  engage  a 
sufficient  fund,  and  undoubted  security  \>y  the  chnm- 
her  of  /xHx/on,  in  lands  and  good  ground  rents,  for  the 
performance  thereof."  Much  amusing  pamphleteer- 
ing and  advertising  in  the  Omette  took  place  between 
the  advocates  of  the  corporation  scheme,  and  the  "  in- 
terested" in  the  sale  insurance  office  on  the  back  side 
of  the  lioyol  Ex  i„inge. 

The  jounial.  J  the  Court  cf  Common  Council  in 
1681,  1682,  and  j68.1,  record  the  signing  of  many  fjoli- 
cies,  and  bear  aiimsing  evidence  of  tlic  zeal  and  pru- 
dence of  the  fire  insurance  committees  in  promulgating 
the  benefits  of  the  corporation  scheme,  and  combat- 
ing the  antagonistic  pamphlets  issued  by  their  com- 
petitors. 

As  the  fruit  of  this  pamphleteering  Agitation,  the 
subject  was  brought  under  the  most  serious  considera- 


tion of  the  oonit  on  th«  ISth  Norsmber,  1682,  as  ap. 
pears  l)y  a  minute  of  that  date ;  when  the  court  evinced 
a  much  greater  anxiety  to  relinquish  than  they  hiul 
to  undertake  the  design,  and  directed  the  discharge  of 
existing  contracts,  with  the  prepayment  of  the  money 
which  had  been  advanced. 

Notwithstanding  this  resolution,  however,  contained 
In  the  foregoing  minute,  we  find  several  policies  sub- 
sequently passed  the  common  seal,  on  the  6th  March 
and  Sd  May,  1683. 

After  this,  the  city  discontinued  Issuing  policies,  and 
having  had  a  quo  warranio  brought  against  their  char- 
ter, tvery  exertion  was  used  to  ol>tain  a  surrender  uf 
the  existing  policies,  and  thus  release  the  city  laads 
from  the  incumbrances  thereon. 

The  last  matter  taken  into  consideration,  was  the 
petition  of  Mr.  Newbold,  the  author  of  the  design 
which  turned  out  so  unsuccessful  for  remuneration, 
fur  the  time,  troulde,  and  expense  he  liad  been  at, 
which  was  referred  to  a  committee  who  reported  on 
the  13th  October,  1696,  and  on  the  8th  December  fol- 
lowing it  was  "  resolved  to  give  him  the  lienellt  of 
making  two  persons  free  of  this  citie  l>y  redemp  eon, 
paying  to  Mr.  Chamberl.in  to  the  citie's  use  uf  fortie- 
slx  shillings  eight  pence  a-piece,  the  said  persons  to  be 
first  presented  and  allowed  of  by  this  court."  This 
was  the  fate  of  the  "  City's  Design  and  Undertaking 
for  the  insuring  of  Houses  from  the  evil  of  I'ire." 
The  "  interessed"  in  the  rival  office  became,  of  course, 
f^eatly  elated,  and  their  success  led  to  the  formation 
of  several  other  companies  or  mutual  Insurance  socie- 
ties, for  protection  against  fire. 

In  1696,  tlie  lland-in-IIand  Fire  Office  was  estab- 
lished by  abo\it  100  persons,  who  afterwards  formed 
a  deed  of  settlement,  enrolled  in  Chancery  January 
24,  1698.  This  office  is  remarkalde  at  tlio  present 
day  for  its  aije,  and  is  the  only  surviving  one  of  those 
of  that  period. 

Up  to  the  year  1706,  the  protection  afforded  l)y  fire 
insurance  societies  was  limited  entirely  to  houses 
(buildings'),  but  in  that  year  the^iSun  /■'ire  <>Jfice  was 
projected  by  one  Charles  Povey,  for  insuring  merchan- 
dise and  household  goods  (as  well  as  houses)  from  fire, 
and  was  the  first  office  to  extend  the  benefits  of  insur- 
ance )>eyond  the  confines  of  London.  This  office  has 
for  very  many  yea.j  "stood  first  on  the  list  in  amount 
of  business. 

There  is  also  a  stamp  duty  of  Is.  on  each  policy. 
])y  far  the  greater  number  of  the  above  are  joint- 
stoclc  companies,  who  insure  at  their  own  risk  and  for 
their  own  profit,  and  are  represented  by  agents  in  all 
the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom ;  the  remainder 
are  joint-contribution,  or  mutual  insurance  societies, 
in  which  every  insurer  participates  in  the  profit  or  loss 
of  the  concern. — E.  B. 

Practice  of  Fire  Insurance. — The  advantages  ot  Jlre 
insurance  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  ver)'  elab- 
orate description.  A  manufacturer  or  private  individ- 
ual can,  l>y  the  payment  of  an  annual  sum  (premium) 
proportioned  to  the  risk,  secure  himself  against  loss  in 
the  event  of  hi.'i  manufactory  or  dwelling-house,  or 
♦,'ucir  contents,  being  destroyed  l)y  fire. 

Tht  Imw  of  Fire,  Insurance  in  the  United  States — 
Of  thi  vsual  subject  and  form  of  this  insurance. — We 
have  .loen  that  fire  is  one  of  the  {)erils  insured  against 
hy  the  common  marine  policies.  It  is  usual,  however, 
to  Insure  building  and  personal  property  wliich  is  not 
to  be  wat'-  '  orne,  ogoinst  fire  alone;  and  this  is  what 
is  commonly  called  lire  insurance.     The  general  pur- 


poses and  prin' .  ^his  kind  of  insurance  are  the 

same  as  those  c.  .  r'ne  insurance;  and  tbn  ",aw 
in  respect  to  it  'li,i".  ■    ■.  r:<    in  those  resj     .  in 

that  degree  in  wfiic'i  i  Uc  difference  is  made  ne,„l^.  iry 
by  the  sul)ject-n,  ■ ,  r  jf  the  contract.  It  wil;  be 
proper,  therefore,  tc  ,  „nfine  ourselves  in  this  chapter, 
mainly  to  the  statement  of  these  differences  and  to 
consider  those  general  principles  which  have  already 


INS 


16S9 


INS 


been  dlaousMd,  only  bo  far  bh  thli  may  he  neceaaar}' 
for  tho  coinprchcnaion  ur  Illustration  oi'  tha  peculiari- 
ties which  belong  to  Are  insurance.  This  kind  of  in- 
surance la  sometimes  made  to  indemnify  against  loss 
by  fire,  of  ships  In  port ;  more  often  of  warehouses, 
and  mercantile  property  stored  in  them,  still  more  fre- 
quently of  personal  chattels  In  stores  or  factories,  In 
dwelling-houHcH  or  bams,  as  murchandise,  furniture, 
I)0flk8,  and  plate,  or  pictures,  or  live  stock.  But  by 
fur  the  most  common  application  of  this  mode  of  insur- 
ance is  to  dwellliig-housea.  Like  marine  Insurance,  it 
may  b«  effected  by  any  hidivldual  who  Is  capable  of 
making  a  legal  contract.  In  fact,  however.  It  ia  al- 
ways or  nearly  always  In  this  country,  and  we  sup- 
pose elsewhere,  made  bj'  companies.  There  are  stock 
companies,  In  which  certain  persons  own  the  capital, 
and  take  all  the  profits  by  way  of  dividends.  Or  mu- 
tual in  which  every  one  who  Is  insured,  becomes 
thereby  a  member,  and  the  nett  profits,  or  a  certain 
proportion  of  them,  are  divided  among  all  the  mem- 
bers in  such  a  manner  as  the  charter  or  by-laws  of  the 
company  may  direct.  Or  both  united.  In  which  case 
there  Is  a  capital  stock  provided,  as  a  permanent  guar- 
anty fund,  over  and  above  the  premium  received,  and 
a  certain  part  or  proportion  of  tho  nett  profits  ia  paid 
by  way  of  dividend  upon  the  fund,  and  tho  reaidue 
divided  among  the  insured.     Paiisons  on  ContracU. 

Of  late  years  the  number  of  mutual  fire  Insurance 
companies  has  greatly  Increased  In  this  country,  and 
probably  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  insurance 
against  Are  is  effected  by  them.  The  principal  reason 
for  this  is  undoubtedly  their  cheapness ;  the  premiums 
required  by  them  being  in  general,  very  much  less  in 
fact  than  in  the  stock  ofllces.  For  example,  if  the  in- 
surance Is  effected  for  se  iren  years,  which  Is  a  common 
period — un  amount  or  percentage  ia  charged  about  the 
same  as,  or  a  little  more  than  Is  charged  as  the  s'jock 
companies.  Only  a  small  part  of  this  is  take  '  in 
cash;  for  the  rest  a  premium  note  or  bond  la  -  u, 
promising  to  pay  whatever  part  of  the  amount  may 
be  needed  for  losses,  which  shall  occur  during  the 
period  for  which  the  notu  is  given.  More  than  this, 
therefore,  the  insured  can  not  be  bound  to  pay,  and  it 
frequently  happens  that  no  asBcssment  whatever  Is 
demanded ;  and  sometimes  where  the  company  ia  well 
established,  and  docs  a  large  business  upon  i jiird  prin- 
ciples, a  part  of  the  money  paid  by  him  is  n'lunded 
when  the  insurance  expires,  or  credited  ti-  him  on  the 
renewal  of  tho  policy  if  such  be  his  wish.  The  dis- 
advantage of  these  mutual  companies  Is,  that  the  pre- 
miums paid,  and  premium  notes,  constitute  the  whole 
capital  or  fund,  out  of  which  losses  are  to  be  paid  for. 
To  make  this  more  secure  it  is  provided  by  the  charter 
of  some  companies,  that  they  should  have  a  lien  upon 
the  land  itself  on  which  any  insured  building  stands 
to  the  amount  of  the  premium.  But  while  this  adds 
very  much  to  the  trustworthiness  of  the  premium 
notes,  and  so  to  the  availalillity  of  the  capital.  It  is, 
with  some  persons,  an  objection,  that  their  land  ia 
thus  subjected  to  a  lien  or  incumbrance. — Ibid. 

There  is  another  point  of  difference  which  recom- 
mends the  atock  rather  than  the  mutual  company.  It 
is  that  the  atock  company  will  generally  insure  very 
nearly  the  full  value  of  the  property  insured,  while  the 
mutual  companies  are  gei.-jrilly  restrained  by  their 
charters  from  insuring  more  ^han  a  modei'ate  propor- 
■in,  namely,  from  one  hn!f  ■  three  fourths  of  the 
wed  value  of  the  proercy.  It  would  .follow, 
■  ■■  ::ofore,  that  one  insured  by  i,.  mutual  company  can 
■ ;  h-  i"\\y  indemnified  again  '  loss  by  fire ;  and  may 
not  be  ';uite  so  certain  of  getting  the  indemnity  he 
bargain.^  for,  as  if  he  wei  e  insured  l)y  a  sto'  k  company. 
But  thi"  last  reason  is,  practically,  of  v^ry  little  im- 
portance, and  the  lownessof  tlie  p.eiaiums  effectually 
overcomes  the  other.  The  nieJiod  inl  operation  of 
fire  insurance  have  become  quit:  uniform  thn  <ghout 
the  countijr,  and  any  couir<it',   may  appeal  to  tht 


usage  of  other  companies  to  answer  qneltlona  which 
have  arisen  under  its  own  policy ;  onlv,  however,  with- 
in certain  rules,  and  under  some  well-defined  restrlc- 
tlona.  In  the  first  place,  usage  may  bo  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  explaining  that  which  needs  explana- 
ticm,  but  never  to  contradict  that  which  Is  clearly 
expressed  In  the  contract.  And  no  usage  can  be  ad- 
mitted, even  to  explain  a  contract,  unlets  the  usage 
bo  so  well  eatablished  and  ao  well  known,  that  It  may 
reasonably  be  supposed  that  the  parties  entered  Into 
tho  contract  with  reference  to  it.  Thus  \i  under  a 
policy  against  fire  on  a  vessel  In  one  part  of  this  coun- 
try, an  Inquirj'  la  raised  as  to  the  local  naage,  the 
imlicy  is  not  to  be  affected  by  proof  of  usage  upon  any 
particular  matter  In  other  parta  of  the  world,  or  even 
uf  the  United  Statea,  And  not  only  the  terma  of  the 
contract  must  be  duly  regarded,  but  those  of  the  char- 
ter ;  thus  If  this  provides  thut  "  all  policies  and  other 
instruments  made  and  signed  by  the  president  or  other 
officer  of  the  company,  shall  bind  the  company,"  an 
agreement  to  cancel  the  policy  should  be  signed ;  al- 
though it  can  not  be  doubted  that  a  party  insured 
might  otherwise  give  up  his  policy,  or  renounce  all 
claim  under  it,  and  that  a  valid  agreement  to  that 
effect  between  him  and  the  company  would  not  be  set 
aside  for  hia  benefit,  on  tho  ground  of  a  merely  formal 
defect, — Ibid. 

In  regard  to  the  execution  of  a  fire  policy,  and  what 
ia  neceasary  to  constitute  such  execution — as,  for  ex- 
ample, whether  delivery  la  necessary  or  a  signed  mem- 
orandum Ims  sufficient,  or  indeed  an  oral  bargain  only, 
and  whether  thl)  insurance  may  be  effected  by  corre- 
pondence,  and  if  when  the  proposit  iim  and  assent  com- 
plete the  contracts  we  are  not  aware  of  any  material 
difference  on  any  of  these  points,  between  the  law  of 
fire  Insurance  and  that  which  has  already  been  pre- 
aentei  as  applicable  to  marln'  .  It  has  been  held  In 
an  action  on  a  Are  policy,  a<>  '<  iiMlesa  It  would  be  on 
a  marine  policy,  that  a  memorai.  lum  made  on  the  ap- 
plication book  of  the  company  b)  *he  p-o^ident,  and 
signed  by  him,  was  not  binding,  wher^  ■■.',.^  p" '  *.y  to  be 
insured  wished  »h .  jiolicy  to  lie  delay? '  .n  i  a  differ- 
ent adjustment  of  the  terms  could  be  slICIc  I,  .tnd  after 
some  delay,  was  notified  by  the  company  to  call  and 
settle  the  business,  or  the  company  would  not  be 
bound,  and  he  did  not  call ;  because  there  was  here  no 
consummated  agreement.  So,  too,  a  subsequent  adop- 
tion or  ratiflcation  is  equivalent,  either  in  a  Are  or 
mar'nn  policy,  tu  the  makini;  originally  of  the  con- 
trail; with  this  limitation,  however,  that  no  party 
can  by  his  adoption,  secure  to  himself  the  beneflt  of  a 
policy,  if  it  had  not  been  intended  that  his  interest 
should  be  embraced  within  it.  It  is  quite  common  to 
describe  the  insured  in  marine  policies,  by  general  ex- 
pressions— as,  "for  whom  it  may  concern,"  or,  "for 
owners"  or  the  like ;  but  °uch  language  is  seldom  if 
ever  used  in  Are  policies,  tl  t  n  '-  ■ '  'I'^inp'  apeclflcally 
named  in  them. — Ibid. 

It  may  be  remarked,  '''»'■  Cm  i^recting  of  a  Are  in- 
surance ia  not  so  often  doi.e  through  the  agency  of  a 
broker,  as  that  of  marine  insurance ;  nor  is  it  so  usual 
to  pay  nothing  down,  but  to  give  a  note  for  the  whole 
premium.  If,  however,  the  insurance  company  has 
an  express  rule  to  that  effect,  it  may  be  waived ;  and 
this  waiver  may  be  express  or  implied,  from  the  conduct 
of  officers  of  tho  company  who  have  the  right  to  act  for 
it ;  and  their  admissions  bind  the  company. — Ibid. 

On  the  Inlereit  of  the  Insured. — As  to  what  interest 
in  the  insured  is  sufficient  to  support  an  insurance,  the 
pri  .pleisthe  samo  in  Are  as  in  marine  insurance. 
Any  legal  interest  is  sufficient;  and  if  it  be  equitable 
in  tha  sense  that  a  court  of  equity  will  recognize  and 
pro;  ect  it,  that  is  sufficient  j  but  a  merely  moral  or  ex- 
F '  ".lint  interest  is  not  enough.  Hence,  one  who  has 
ouly  made  an  oral  bargain  with  another  to  purchase 
hia  house,  can  not  insure  it ;  but  if  there  bo  a  valid 
contract  in  law,  or  if  by  writing,  or  by  part  perform- 


V' 


INB 


1000 


INH 


■noa,  it  U  anforcwlila  In  •qnil)',  the  purckaiMr  IMJ 
iniura.  So  he  nwy,  ulthouKh  then  b«  m  ntlpuUllua, 
th*  braacb  of  which  ba^  >  'h>i  <'untriict  vuiil  liy  lla 
tcrmt,  if  the  othrt  '.  ''     '  \t  the  cumlltluii 

anil  enforce  tlin  nira,  .  ■',  ,  i  il'ilitor  ualKii  hU 
|jniperty  to  •  c  liin  ile'ita,  hi  u  m  >i.i  iniunliln  liitnmat 
in  It  until  tliu  (!.  hta  are  jiald,  or  until  the  property  lie 
aold,  ThH  was  ao  held  where  it  apiwared  that  the 
pmpsrty  wi>u'J  pay  the  drbta,  and  leave  it  aurplua  fur 
the  aaaigiiur;  but  we  ahuuld  expect  the  auma  ruling 
where  tiiia  waa  not  the  caae,  altbouxh,  in  thia  inatunca, 
there  had  lieen  proviotuly  a  verdict  fur  the  pluiiililf, 
and  u  new  trial  for  want  of  evidence  of  audi  aurplua, — 
Ihid. 

Of  Reiiuurance. — Reinaurance  la  equill,'  'a\'  " 
Are  policiea  aa  in  niarino  policieH,  ami  in  gapxral  la 

fioverned  by  the  aame  rulea.  Tl:  -  reiiiauraiii's  in  an 
naurance,  not  of  the  riak  of  the  inaured,  for  that  la  a 
merely  ideal  thing,  but  it  la  an  iiiaurance  of  tliu  prop- 
erty originally  inaured,  in  which  tlie  flrit  inaurera  have 
an  inaurabie  interest.  If  a  common  policy  be  uaed, 
with  no  other  change  than  the  word  reinaurance 
uaed  inatead  of  insurance,  all  ita  requirenieiita  are  In 
force.  If,  for  example,  in  caae  of  loaa,  thin  prujierty 
requirea  a  certificate  from  a  nioglHtrate,  un  to  cliaractur, 
circumatancea,  etc.,  that  luuHt  be  furniahod  by  tliu  re- 
Inaured.  But  if  a  aultabio  certificate  were  given  by 
the  party  first  inaured  to  the  original  inaurer,  uml  lie 
tranamit  the  aamo  forthwith  to  thoae  who  inaure  liiin, 
that  ' .  enough ;  and  ao  it  would  be  with  notice,  pni. 
liinin.iiy  proof,  and  all  similar  rei|ulremeiita.  And  an 
iniurer  who  olitaina  reinaurance,  la  bonnd  to  communi- 
cate I  in  addition  to  whatever  elae  shoubl  I.''  atuted  by 
one  uaking  insurance),  ail  the  information  lie  hua  uiin- 
caming  the  character  of  the  party  originally  inaured  i 
and  a  material  cnncoalment  on  thia  point  would  avoid 
the  policy.— /All/.,  page  51G. 

Oj'  Double  /naurance. — Double  insurance,  although 
sometimes  confounded  with  reinaurance,  ia  eaientliilly 
UfTerent.  Ky  this,  the  party  origlnaliy  insured  be- 
comes again  inaured ;  liut  by  reinsurance,  the  original 
inaurer  is  inaured,  and,  as  we  have  scon,  the  nrigiiml 
insurer  has  no  intere.jt  in,  and  no  lien  u|M>n,  tlila  pol- 
icy.  If,  by  a  double  insurance,  tlie  insured  could  pro- 
tect himself  over  and  over  agaii,  lie  might  ruovur 
many  indemnities  for  one  loss,  'lis  can  not  lie  |ier- 
mitted,  not  only  liecause  it  is  opposed  to  tin'  first  prin- 
ciples of  insurance,  but  liec^xise  it  wonKI  tempt  to 
tnai,  and  u  i'. .;  it  very  eii'y.  This  offi  t  may  Ini  ob- 
viated in  two  ,>'.i,v:< :  one,  liy  cunsideilu,^  llio  sucoml 
Insurance  as  operating  only  on  so  much  of  tbn  value  of 
the  property  insured,  as  is  not  covered  liy  the  first  j  and 
then,  as  soon  us  tbo  whole  value  ia  covered,  wlictlier  liy 
the  first  or  by  'lubsuquent  policies,  any  further  insur- 
ance has  no  clTect.  A  second  way  ii>,  li<'  loiiaidrring 
the  second  insurance  as  made  jointly  with  tlie  lirat  ; 
then  only  as  much  would  lie  paid  on  miy  ioa.4,  on  many 
insurances,  as  on  one  only;  but  this  puyniciil  ia  itl> 
Tided  ratalily  among  all  tlie  insurers.  All  'he  pollriiia 
are  considered  as  m-iking  liut  one  ilicy ;  timl  tlicre- 
fore,  any  one  insurer  who  pays  '  tliun  lii-  pro|Htr- 
tion,  may  claim  .1  coutributiu,  l:  other"  wiiu  wuru 
liable.— /ill/. 

In  this  country  Pre  policies  usnally  coui.>  n  expreta 
and  exact  provisions  on  this  subject.  1  lisy  vary 
somewhat ;  but,  generally,  they  icquire  timt  any  other 
insurance  mu:<t  be  stated  liy  tbo  insured,  and  iuduraxd 
on  the  policy ;  and  it  i.i  a  frequent  condition,  tliut  eucli 
office  sliall,  in  thut  case,  pay  only  a  ratable  ;iro|)Ortliili 
of  a  iosaj  and  it  is  often  added  thut,  if  such  other  in- 
surance bo  not  so  stated  und  indorsed,  the  iiisurcil 
shall  not  recovr  on  the  policy  ;  and  it  hus  lioen  liubl 
thut  such  a  condition  upplie.1  to  u  subsequent  as  well  its 
a  prior  insurance.  Xor  will  a  court  of  equil}  relisva 
if  suSlcient  notice  and  indorsement  have  been  made, 
But  it  has  been  held  that  a  valid  notice  might  be  given 
to  Uw  agent  of  the  company,  who  was  authorized  to 


raoaiva  appllaatlima  and  iurvajr  ftojarty  pro|ioiMd  fur 
liMurancs,~/t^/, 

(l/lh»  HUk  nii<iirfil  by  Me  liuurfri.—At  the  time  of 
the  Inauramw  tlui  property  must  Iw  In  exiatance,  imd 
nut  on  lire,  and  not  at  that  moment  axpoaed  to  a  dan- 
garoua  firs  In  tha  Imiiladlala  nelghlHirhoud,  hecauae  the 
liiauraiiii*  aaauinea  that  no  unusual  riaks  exist  at  thut 
lima,— /6i^, 

'I'ha  V,  M.  Iniuruw  llatrtU  for  .March  containn  ilin 
rafHtrt  of  tli*  Inauraiice  coinniiaalonora,  apiwinttd  i,y 
tha  iiomptrullar  tu  inquire  into  tha  affaire  of  the  fire 
inaiiranca  iiiiiiipaiilea  nf  New  Vork  and  Hrunklyn,  The 
leading  featursa  of  tha  report  are  contained  In  the  an- 
'inxad  table,      Tlia  exainlnatloni  ware    made  from 

.  rch  to  Dauainbar  I 


Najn«*fOtim|iaa|i, 


h 

lAai 


,Aat»r 

Amlta 

lAHsnlleillr,),, 

|-«lim„,,, 

ilrowlwa)! 

ItxnkMiail I 

llrinililyii  illr  ),  I 

'rilllllllrtlllal. 

riirii  Kn'liaifK", 
I'oiiiiiiuiiwiislih,; 

Clliitim I 

'■ity 

|t'iimiiiiiri'l»l.,,, 
jruliiMilila .     .,, 

l.'ltlaen'a I 

:Kiiiplr» 

Kiisl  lllvar 1 

Kni'iijaliir 

Ksale,, ,,,,,,,, 

KuTniii 

Flrnniali'a 

(Iroeara 

ilrunnwlih,,,,, 

lloNW ,,, 

llariniiiiy , 

llaiiiiver 

Howard 

Ilanillton 

IrvliiK 

IikI nil)' 

ilnlfuraiiii 

Kiil«ki<rlioi'kur, 

UirlllaM 

\a  Vhhx 

i|,iinoih 

Ill,  ialiiiMl  illri., 

Miireliaiiti)' 

'Markai 

viKiriipiilltsH,, 
M.iiiImiiIio'. 
MaiiliiKlnii,,,,  , 
Miili'SlllH. 

NluKara      

NiiwAiii'U'rilain 

Nanaau 

Niir;ii  lllv..r  ,, 
jNnrtli  Ainerlrmi 

Nslliiiiiil ,., 

IN,  V,  lliiwury, 
IN,  V,  K.|iiHnIiI 

iN..wViirk 

Il'ark 

jlVllle 

|'ml|l|ll'a, ,,,,,,, 

ll'utur  (iiHipur'a, 

|l'hi.Ml» 

Illoliiiklle 

Ituliixr'a,,, 

ituljur 

HI,  Nlrliolaa,,,, 

Ml,  Mnrk'a 

iHtucvaaaiit 

Muiiiirlty ,, 

illiilinlHIalra',, 
Wwhlnidiin  ... 
iWllllamalf,  iilty: 


ri.illa». 
lAtl.lMI  iHI 
IMH,niNI  IMI 

\hti,m)  no 
vnti.iiNi  INI 

ITH,4I4  IMI 

mm.tiHo  i«i 
(H,>iii7  mi 
tiif;M  m 
mt.HMi  mi 
IM«,4rai  INI' 
l<ri7,4iNi  INI' 
tlAI,iVMl  (III 
tila.MI  mi 

mm  <Ki 
•^\^^tVl  111 

lUtl.lMNI  INI 

\/%m  INI 

ilit.raiA  INI 

vm,*s»  Ml 

l|li«,(HM  (Nil 
UK,  109  (. 

«flli,4M  nnl 
mii.HAi  un 

'ITllllKNI     110; 

iMi.iinii  ml 
iriV.iiiHi  (N) 

K4II,4(KI  (HI 

1111,1114  mi 

'iMNI.lVin  Ufl, 

IVi.liMI  110 

'Mi.iHNi  no 

illJil.lW  Ml 

<i\(i,mf  INI 
iiT,iiiiii  m 

llt'i.Vlll  00 

iiii4,iiiiri  mi 

illt,l44  no 

uiiiiittiNi  mi 

iiiiH.IHT  Til 
'/ll.ltm  no 
•tVttAt,  I II 

'iiiH.niii  III 

tllV.IIINI  INI 
»II,IMNI  INI 

I4MIHI  mi 
ilTft.mm  INI 
l'1ft,T4^  II 
m.Vtn  mi 
MHMMNI  IIO 
'Ml INI  IHI 

lliiiilii'i  mi 
||il),l»r,i  oil 
\wmi  INI 

iHt.l'iB  Wl 

iH.ifll  no 
jiiilMl  mi 
i74,Nftn  vi< 
lTa,M«  no 
ini.yiKi  00 
114,400  no 
170,7111  mi 

IW,44(t  ou 
UIII.WNI  IN) 

aif.HM  iKi! 

9fH,llflA  07, 
l<M),IHN)  (Nil 


•laak..      I  r.mlin«j|J,j,„;."^H 

Holland  n..ll«i.     I 

RO.ttfl  no  19,AIKI  III 

H7,1M  ill  IA,77H  8A| 

7H,sin  w,  Ki,\n  INI 

ltll,A«t  .19  21.11110  IM 

no.fWM  87'  4'i,IH«  no 

IWI,W(0  51 ;  97,404  m 


194,800  Ml 
IP.BAO  00 
99,7IK)  00 

ao,9oo  Wl 


77,72'/  . 
M,OUH  • 
71,440  I 
flO.llO!!  ; 
B1.4'2»  I 
7O.808  : 
HIM54  I 
H9,4(l.'i  1 
70,948 

M,72,'i  : 
1iih,M:i  I 
M.W7  : 
7'',>l'29  : 
7  l,ft(NI  I 
|4.lill«  > 
r.-.Bso  ; 
ri«,7S6  I 
7g,OA9  I 

«»,on4  s 
wi,m\  ( 

77,996  ( 
M,481  I 
IHI,'i'*t  ' 
49.'485  I 
29,916  I 
7«,160  I 
67,920  I 
(i«,lS9  ' 
r4,740  ( 
07,948  I 
Mi,996  1 
47,207  I 

n4,4i6'< 
B3,9S4  "i 
66,819  ( 


82,2&0  »%\ 

lOO.wi  061 
47,11110  IHli 
40,'/09  U2 

10,76400 
lUO.IHH)  87 
84,11,'Ki  no 

•111,(111(1  (Kl 

«6,lli9  41 
49.W16  '/4i 
I10,hl|:|  l«l 
4(1,4211  af 
!A,nti\  11, 
87,971  11: 
40,!i(lii  t;.. 
61,44,'.  7J 
82.624  21 
106,614  nil 
108,01111  on 
81,474  2!l 

so.ono  no 
7,mHi  uoi 

26,sl4  00| 

84,072  76' 

2n,lCi  481 

67,2S9  9U! 

86,609  611 

8l.'2tll  881 

21,600  00 

2S,o6o'oo| 

80,060  61 1 

40,692'6o 
48,220  62< 
40,727  09 


I)/ Ailjiiilmrnt  nml  t.oti, — In'<urer8  against  fire  are 
nut  lield  til  pay  fur  loss  of  profits,  gains  of  business,  or 
other  Indirect  ii"it  remote  consequences  of  a  loss  by 
fire  I  WH  do  not  know,  however,  why  profits  may  not 
lie  aiitti'llliiiilly  Insured  ngalinit  fire,  where  it  is  not  for- 
bidden liy,  or  IncvDstttent  with,  the  charter  of  the  in- 


WB 


1081 


INS 


la  ioo,8«i!  ml 

18  47,600  Oti 
so    40,209  Vi 

nil  iojm'oo 

7h'  Um.iKH)  &7 

OOI  Ii4,ll.'i0  liHi 

an  4ll,(HiO  I'll; 

19  80,1110  44' 
10  4y,8;i5  '^4: 
07  00,80^  \ii 

4o,4'2»  r,:i 

M,'*H8  1 1 

87,971  41 

40,288  T.'i 

Bl,44.'i  ':-i 

3'2,B'24  ■i\ 

10(1,614  "II 

Ill8,0<i0  I'll 

81,474  M 

80,0110  nil 

7,omi  nil 

a6,Hl4  nil 

84,07a  Til 

2n,ici  4a 

B7,2'i9  9U' 

I   86,609  611 

8l,i91  l>S| 

21,600  00, 

26,000  OOl 
80,060  B7i 

40,692  00 
48,220  B2l 
40,727  09 


iur«ri<.  Thtra  U  one  wide  dllf«r«ni'u  between  the 
prineiple  of  ailjuatment  of  «  marine  |Miliuy,  nnil  of  a  Are 
policy.  In  the  former,  If  >  priipurtion  only  of  the 
value  la  inenred,  the  Iniurnd  ii  eontlderpd  an  hi*  own 
InKurer  for  the  reildue,  and  only  an  ci{uul  pmiwrttnn 
of  the  loM  ia  paid.  Thou,  Ifon  a  ahlp  valued  at  f  10,000, 
$5000  he  inanrrd,  there  U  n  loaa  iif  one  half,  the  In- 
•uren  pay  only  one  half  of  the  auui  they  Innuro,  Just  aa 
If  mimo  other  |iarty  had  Inaured  other  (ftOOO,  Hut 
In  u  rtro  pidiry,  the  lo^urara  pity  In  all  oaiea  the  whole 
nmiiiint  wblvh  la  lost  l>y  the  Are,  provideil  unly  that  It 
diKis  not  exceed  thu  amount  which  they  Innure.  It  Is 
luild  that  K«n«ral  average  claintes  iir  provisions  are  In- 
■ertod  in  lire  policiea  In  England,  liut  are  nut  known 
here.  Still,  in  one  rasa,  the  prinriple  nf  general  aver- 
iige  was  applied.  Blankets  were  used  liy  the  aaaured, 
with  the  ronsent  of  the  insurers,  to  protect  the  liuild- 
ing  f'lim  a  uour  Are  j  thry  did  this  efTectunliy,  but 
were  thcnuelves  made  worthless,  and  an  action  by  the 
inaured  against  the  iiisurer^,  for  this  loss,  waa  sus- 
tained by  the  court. — Ihid,,  p.  537. 

fii/e  Auuranrf. — It  Is  curious  to  observe  that  life 
aaauranee,  which  hiis  ao  fiivorable  a  liearing  on  our 
social  and  moriil  welfare,  may  be  said  to  have  origin- 
ated from  the  study  of  the  laws  of  chance,  us  observed 
In  tlie  experience  of  the  gambler.  It  will  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  one  is  the  very  antithesis  of  the 
other.  In  life  assurance,  the  individual  is  tnei  from 
risk  by  union  for  mutual  protection  with  his  fellow- 
men.  The  gambler  takes  the  single  risk  upon  him- 
self, and  his  average,  if  ho  obtain  it,  can  only  arise 
from  the  duration  of  his  play.  In  fact,  thu  man 
who  baa  the  opportunity  cf  assuring  his  life,  and  does 
not  do  it,  is  the  gambler,  taking  the  single  risk  upon 
himself, 

TImt  the  one  practice  took  Its  origin,  however,  from 
the  ibservation  of  the  other,  there  can  be  no  doubt ; 
the  earliest  mathoniutical  publication  on  probabilities, 
being  a  little  tract  of  Cliristian  Huygens,  written  in 
Dutch,  but  afterward  translated  Into  Latin,  and  ap- 
pearing under  the  title  "  I)e  Ratiociniis  in  Ludo  Aleie," 
in  the  Exercitatiotui  Gfnmrtricm  of  Francis  Schooten, 
printed  at  Leyden,  IG.')?.  Two  other  mathematicians, 
however,  who  preceded  Iltiygons,  really  laid  the  found- 
ation of  the  science,  although  ho  wrote  the  flrst  sys- 
tematic treatise  on  the  subject.  We  refur  to  the  famous 
Pascal,  and  Fermat  hia  friend,  a  magistrate  of  the 
Parliament  of  Toulouse.  Dut  as  the  history  of  the 
general  doctrines  of  probabilities  is  given  under  that 
head,  we  must  conAne  our  remarks  to  the  history  of 
that  doctrine  as  applied  to  the  duration  of  life,  and  the 
progress  of  life  computations. 

It  has  been  usual  to  commence  the  history  of  life 
contingencies  with  the  little  volume  of  "John  Graunt, 
citizen  of  London,"  who  published  observations  on 
the  bills  of  mortality  in  1662 ;  but  Mr.  Ilendriks  has 
given  the  means  of  more  remote  speculation  on  the 
subject. 

The  psactlce  in  the  days  of  Herodotus  was  to  reckon 
three  generations  equivalent  to  a  centur}-,  and  the  cen- 
sus of  Vespasian,  as  noticed  in  Pliny,  distinguished 
cases  of  extreme  longevity.  But  wo  do  not  find  any 
thing  like  an  observation  on  the  subject  until  we  come 
to  the  calculations  of  the  Proitorlan  proifect,  Ulpianus, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  commentators  on  the  Jus- 
tlnUn  Code,  who  gave  a  table  of  the  estimated  present 
worth  of  life  annuities,  with  reference  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Falcldian  law,  which  rendered  it  neces- 
sary to  put  a  value  on  life-rents  and  other  similar 
provisions.  Ulpianus,  however,  took  no  account  of 
interest,  so  that  hta  calculations  are  more  expectations 
of  life  than  life  annuities,  and  In  that  view  Mr.  Hi.n- 
driks  says,  "  The  old  Roman  jurisprudence  gave  far 
more  correct  views  of  the  comparative  value  of  life  at 
different  ages  than  the  modems  possessed,  in  a  popular 
way,  until  nearly  the  close  of  the  17th  century."  Ul- 
pianus's  calculations  {Pandtct,  85-2-68),  compared  with 


certain  Swtdlih  ..toserratlons  given  by  Dr.  Price,  arw 
as  follows  s 


*f". 

•IMkkolai  lib. 
nr.  Prt,., 

A(«fl, 

IklUstfUlluiM  1 

RMMaUfc. 

tui».    ,  r>iu«i~. 

Jill- 

Mftk 

its 

li-li 

DIrth— iO 

B 

(T'll 

90— J6 

94 

10 

«Kin 

Ml* 

9.1-JV) 

9S 

IB 

1!«-74 

mcM 

80-1)8 

99 

90 

mi'Kr, 

80 -01 

«B— 40 

90 

<a 

11 '40 

a«'8ii 

40—11 

(m 

1»'4« 

1M-»S 

41—49 

KB 

IT-BS 

«1'(M 

49—411 

M\ 

IB^t 

it-it, 

4H— 44 

V, 

ISTS 

1717 

44— 4B 

60 

lltS 

IBIJ 

4^-l« 

BB 

10-80 

IIM 

46-47 

an 

8>e» 

104fi 

47— 1« 

«B 

T-8» 

H-mt 

48—49 

70 

B-81 

«i« 

49-BO 

7B 

4'0« 

4I» 

BO-B,'^ 

BB-6(I 

. 



60  auil  upwaril. 

It  seems  abundantly  evident  that  I.Mplanus's  esti- 
mate must  have  been  based  on  actual  idisiirvations  In 
some  form,  but  the  nonuins  must  have  had  a  miserable 
c.hunce  of  life  in  old  age. 

From  that  period  we  have  nothing  to  attract  atten- 
tion till  the  inth  century,  when  Dr.  (or  Sir)  Thomas 
Wilson,  who  died  in  1581,  published  his  Diicuurir  upon 
Viurif.  which  contains  illustrations  of  endowment 
transactions  on  the  lives  of  children,  but  the  life  con- 
tingency (wrtiun  seems  merely  incidentally  introduced 
with  reference  to  questions  as  to  usury. 

In  1661,  M.  Cleirac,  the  author  of  I,n  tu  tl  CoU' 
tumi  dr  In  ^frr,  notices  the  Guidon,  "  a  French  produc- 
tion, formerly  compiled  for  the  bennilt  of  the  mer- 
chants trading  In  the  noble  city  of  Rouen."  This 
work  is  nearly  800  j-ears  old,  its  author's  name  is  un- 
known, but  it  is  a  most  curious  document,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  reference  it  makes  to  assurance  matters. 
From  Mr.  Ilendriks  we  give  the  following  translation, 
omitting  Clulrac's  notes : 

"  1.  In  other  countries,  where  the  bodies  of  people 
may  be  captured  and  reduced  to  bondage,  there  are 
various  usages  for  the  insurance  of  the  body  and  life 
of  men,  whether  they  be  of  free  condition,  or  slaves, 
which  customs  will  not  be  mentioned  here,  because  in 
France,  men  of  whatsoever  nation  are  of  frank  and 
fne  condition. 

"  2.  Notice  only  will  be  taken  of  what  is  practiced 
In  this  country  by  those  who  undertake  distant  voy- 
ages, as  to  the  coast  of  Italy,  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, or  other  like  voyages  in  the  Mcditerrannnn  and 
Atlantic  ^eas,  on  account  of  the  fear  which  they  have 
of  the  galleys,  fustet,  and  frigates  of  the  army  of  the 
Turk,  or  Corsair'^,  who  make  a  trafflc  of  the  sale  of 
Christians,  who  r,  iiicy  capture  as  well  on  sea  as  on 
land ;  which  creates  '  '  c  ;iiion  for  the  masters  and  cap- 
tains of  this  (luntvy  vi>,  n  they  undertake  such  voy- 
ages, to  stipiitatc  « ith  iheir  merchant  freighters,  or 
others,  for  the  .-estiti'Uon  of  their  persons,  in  case  they 
are  captured ;  and  this  they  can  do  even  for  the  peo- 
ple of  their  crew. 

"  8.  In  such  a  case,  the  master  must,  in  the  policy, 
estimate  his  ransom,  and  that  of  his  companions,  at  so 
much  per  head  ;  declare  the  name  of  the  ship,  the  stay 
or  touchings  which  it  will  make,  the  duration  of  each 
sta}-,  and  to  whom  the  ransom  is  payable.  The  insurer 
is  bound  to  pay  the  sum  insured  for  the  ransom  15 
days  after  verification  and  certiAcation  of  the  captlv- 
ity,  without  waiting  for  the  usual  two  months'  delay ; 
and  without  other  formality  of  seeing  freightage,  bill 
of  lading,  or  charter  party,  it  will  snfHce  to  produce 
the  attestation  of  capture  and  policy. 

"  4.  Pilgrims  going  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  Jeru- 
salem, or  on  other  distant  voyages,  may  effect  insur- 
ance for  their  redemption,  valued  at  a  given  amount. 
Description  shall  besides  be  made  of  their  persons, 
names,  surnames,  country,  abode,  age,  and  rank ;  and, 


INH 


1043 


ms 


iiionorar,  limit  ihkll  (m  nuii*  u  to  within  what  tlm* 
ihiiy  unilartkk*  to  makn  and  irrompliiih  Ih*  royag* : 
th«  loiiKnt  parloil  iiliiiU  l>«  of  lhn«i  yaiin  inclunlva, 
tlon  whktMMvar.  In  imlt.ttiim  of  thu  |irm-mlinK,  thoo* 
without  ulniltllnK  r.\ni«i  «t  iilnatii,  or  otlixr  ilrtnn- 
who  uii'lnrtaka  Jouriiwyn  or  vuwa  for  a  lanKtIioiiad 
imrlod,  or  •  paaaa^a  from  oiia  country  to  anothar,  may 
iimura  fur  tlmlr  miiiioin. 

"  t.  Anothar  kind  of  iixuranca  la  mudti  liy  olhar  na- 
tion* upon  tht  li/f  It/  m,  ,,  in  ens*  of  Ikrtr  lirrrair  upon 
thtir  voyitgr,  to  pay  rartahi  aiuna  to  their  halm  or  crod- 
Itora.  Crtiditom  avan  may  Inanra  thidr  dabt«,  If  their 
dablor  rrmoM  from  imr  amnlry  la  antithrr ;  tha  aania 
can  b*  dona  l>y  thoaa  hiivlnn  raiita  or  |nin«lrin«,  «o  ■•  In 
caaa  of  thiir  Jrrnur,  U>  ffmlinur  to  Ihnr  hnirt  f i/c*  ptn- 
lion  or  ml  lu  fa/iy  6a  Hw  In  iKm.  Whinh  »r»  all  atlp- 
uUtlonn  forliidclim,  la  ut(aln>t  good  nioraU  and  cua- 
toina,  from  which  andlami  abuaaa  and  dacaptlona  aniao, 
whanca  thay  hava  Iwon  conalrainad  to  alxilliih  and 
prohlliit  tha  aaid  u««t{fii ;  which  la  alao  to  be  pmhib- 
Itad  and  forliiddiMi  In  thia  country." 

Tha  moat  renmrkuble  fratura  of  thai*  timai  waa  tho 
condamnation  of,  and  lagialatlon  aRainat,  tha  pructlce 
of  amiuranea  In  many  countriaa.  Not  only  in  Knince 
waa  it  aaaumcil  unrocoKni/ahla  by  law,  but  in  tha 
Natherlanda'  ordlnaii'  e  of  Hbillp  II.,  and  la  the  civil 
itttutaa  of  Oanoa  (,15X8),  in  which  laat  It  ia  declared 
that  "  aecurltiea,  bomla,  or  wngara  may  not  be  made, 
without  the  licenno  of  tha  Hanute,  upon  the  life  of  tha 
pope,  nor  upon  the  Ufa  of  tha  emperor,  nor  upon  the 
life  of  kinK*,  canlinala,  dukea,  princea,  blahopa,  nor 
Ujion  tha  life  of  other  lonU  or  peraona,  in  conatituted 
dignlliea,  ecclealaatical  or  aeculnr.  Neither  may  they 
be  made  upon  the  acqulnitlon,  loaa,  or  change  of  lonl- 
ahipa,  Kov^rnmentn,  kingdoma,  province*,  duchlea, 
citiea,  lundi,  or  places  ...  nor  upon  any  other  trana- 
oetlon  having  the  i|»ciea  or  form  of  a  Iwnd,  aecurity, 
or  wogcr  Ceadimmii  leeuritati;  itu  parlil)  ;  but  all  are 
undartt(M>d  and  are  forbidden."  The  24th  article  of  the 
AmKtcrdum  ordinance  of  15!tH  prohibits  insurance  of  the 
life  of  any  person,  and  likewise  wagers  upim  any  voyage 
or  frivolous  purpose  j  and  tha  Kottcrdani  ordinances 
of  lew  and  1835  repeat  the  latter  injunctions.  The 
10th  article  (7'iVrr  C),  of  the  great  French  marine  ordi- 
nance of  Louis  XIV.,  dated  l(i«l,  aaya,  "  We  forbid 
the  makirit^  of  any  insurance  on  the  life  of  men  ;"  but 
the  11th  article  excepts  those  who  redeem  captives, 
and  guruDtees  tha  price  of  the  redumption  assured 
upon  the  persons,  if  tlie  redeemed  on  his  way  back 
perish  bg  other  mtaiu  than  tuilural  Jrtilh.  "  Kven  later 
than  the  17th  century,"  adds  Ilendriks,  "  life  insur- 
ance was  regarded  in  France  as  obnoxious.  In  1788, 
there  remuinod  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  It.  Kmerlgon, 
whose  work  on  assurance  comprises  more  than  1300 
quarto  pages,  devotes  one  pai/e  to  the  subject  of  life 
assurance,  and  that  short  space  to  the  purpose  of  at- 
tacking the  system." 

But  we  must  now  pass  on  to  a  more  interesting  pe- 
riod, when  we  are  called  on  to  consider  the  conflicting 
claims  of  great  names,  with  reference  to  the  origina- 
tion and  practical  application  of  the  doctrine  of  annui- 
ties, as  derived  fhim  the  study  of  tha  laws  of  chance 
or  probability. 

John  da  Wit,  the  grand  pensionary  of  Holland,  sub- 
mitted to  the  States-General  of  Holland,  in  ICTl,  a  trea- 
tise on  the  valuation  of  life  annuities,  and  on  the  l>asis  of 
that  document,  it  was  resolved  to  grunt  life  annuities 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  funds.  Tills  treatise  Hr. 
Hendriks  characteriies  aa  "  the  first  known  production 
of  any  age  treating  in  a  formal  manner  of  the  valua- 
tion of  life  annuities,"  and  the  scientific  world  are 
much  i  riitebted  to  him  for  the  restoration  of  this  docu- 
ment, which  was  inserted  in  the  resolutions  of  the 
States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland  of  the  year  1671, 
and  which  had  remained  as  good  as  lost  for  180  years. 

In  the  preparation  of  thU  document  Da  Wit  waa 
no  doubt  aided  by  tha  preceding  labon  of  Faical, 


Farmal,  and  lluygana,  and  ha  had  no  doubt  tha  ad* 
vantage  of  obsarvatlona  on  the  duration  of  Ufa  aninng 
(Mrsons  to  whom  tha  Htata*  of  llnlland  had  prnvlounly 
granted  annultlaa ;  but,  lndr|ienil«ntly  nf  tin-  >irlg|. 
nallty  of  tha  deaign,  we  nmiit  give  lilm  the  cntlra 
credit  of  having  diacovrrad  a  correct  prim  iple  un 
which  tha  value  of  •  Ufa  annuity  might  U  calcu- 
lated. 

Da  Wit's  traatiaa  la  headed,  "  Valua  of  l.ifn  Annui- 
ties In  I'ro|M>rtion  to  Itadaemable  Annuities."  Ha 
couimencca  with  pointing  out  the  dinVrrnce  lirtween  a 
"  radeemable  annuity,"  »r.  he  lernm  It,  at  1  per  cent., 
that  U  a  |iarp«tulty  at  25  years'  iiiirchase,  or  (lerpetual 
investment  at  4  {ler  cent.,  ainl  u  life  annuity ;  esti- 
mating the  value  of  the  latter  in  the  most  favombla 
ciri'umstances  as  "  really  not  lie|{iw,  but  certainly 
alHive  Iti  years'  purchase."  lie  then  gives  soma  pra- 
llniiiiary  observations  on  the  doctrine  of  chances, 
and  afterward  applies  the  principle  to  the  calculation 
of  un  annuity  value  at  a  particular  age.  His  calcula- 
tions are  simpllfled  and  explained  as  follows  by  Mr. 
Hendriks : 

"  t'irti,  Out  of  128  lives,  aged  say  .1  years,  1  Is  sup- 
posed to  die  in  every  half  year  of  the  llrst  100  half 
years,  or  2  per  annum  for  M)  years,  leaving  28  alive, 
aged  58  years,  ut  the  end  of  the  tenn ;  out  of  whom  1 
dies  In  every  U  months,  twing  O'OO  per  half  year  during 
the  next  '20  half  years,  or  I'.'lll  per  annum  for  10  years, 
leaving  ID'UO  alive,  aged  f)3  years,  at  the  end  of  the 
sBcimil  term ;  of  whom  1  dies  In  every  year  for  10 
yeurs,  being  O-.')  per  half  year  during  the  next  20  half 
years,  leaving  5'<>0  alive,  aged  73  years,  at  the  end  of 
the  tliird  term ;  of  whom  1  dies  in  every  year  and  a 
half  for  7  years,  being  0'S3  per  half  year  during  the 
next  14  half  years,  leaving  1  alive,  aged  80,  at  the  end 
of  tho  fourth  term ;  which  survivor  does  nut  live  over 
another  half  year.  Hecoiuili/,  Out  of  the  128  lives, 
those  who  die  In  the  resiiectlvo  half  years  between  the 
nges  of  3  and  80,  will  receive  an  annuity  certain  in 
half-yearly  instalments,  for  n  term  equal  In  ccmtinu- 
ance  to  the  number  of  completed  half  years  eliipf*ed 
between  age  3  and  the  date  of  their  death ;  therefore, 
the  sum  of  tho  present  values  of  half-yearly  annuitiei 
certain,  for  the  corresponding  terms  multiplied  In  the 
numbers  dying  within  such  respective  terms,  gives  the 
present  worth  of  all  the  annuities  which  will  be  en- 
Joyed  by  the  128  lives,  1-128  of  which  represents  the 
present  value  of  tlie  single  life  annuity  at  age  of,  say 
3  years." 

We  have  dwelt  ot  some  length  on  the  discovery  of 
De  Wit,  as  It  has  not  been  available  previously  in  any 
account  given  of  the  progress  of  life  calculations,  our 
best  writers  in  this  country,  from  the  absence  of  any 
precise  knowledge  In  regard  to  it,  having  passed  it 
over  with  a  slight  notice.  On  the  continent,  however, 
the  labors  of  l)e  Wit  have  l)cen  more  highly  uppreci- 
ated.  Tho  Marquis  of  Condorcet,  in  his  Diicourt  Pre- 
limitMtre,  gave  him  thu  credit  of  l)elng  "the  Hrsi 
mathematician  who  thought  of  applying  calculation 
to  political  questions."  "  It  teat  he  uihoflrtt  eaiayrj  to 
Jix  the  rate  of  life  annuiliet  according  to  the  probabili- 
tiei  of  life  given  by  the  tablet  of  mortality.  Upon 
politics,  upon  the  true  Interests  of  nations,  upon  tho 
freedom  of  trade,  he  had  very  superior  ideas  to  those 
of  his  age;  and  we  may  say  that  his  premuture 
death  was  a  misfortune  to  Europe  as  well  us  to  his 
country." 

We  cun  not  conclude  our  notioe  of  De  Wit  without 
mentioning  tha  name  of  bis  fellow-laborer,  if  we  may 
so  term  him,  the  Durgomaster  Hudde.  We  had  ut 
one  time  rather  a  painful  Lnpression  left  on  our  mind, 
arising  out  of  the  terms  of  Iludde's  certiflcate  to  tho 
report  of  De  Wit  to  the  States-General,  and  other  ob- 
servations by  Mr.  Hendriks,  but  wo  are  glad  to  find, 
from  the  ooirespondence  subsequently  brought  for- 
ward, that  they  were  fellow-laborers  in  the  same  field, 
and  that  Uudde  himself  was  a  man  of  science. 


and 
hav 
of  i 
reuo 


IrJ 


CfS 


1008 


INS 


W*  h»v«  now  lo  intntion  lb*  Krat  puUlihid  work  In 
whli'li  mi  alloinpt  la  inailu  to  form  UliUi  of  mortnlity. 
W«  alludo  to  III*  work  of  John  (iraunt,  whoM  n»iii* 
baa  Iwcn  al.aady  iiiaiillon«i|.    It  waa  |iuUiahail  In  lOOl, 
anil  I*  til*  llrat  Iwok  uii  tli*  nulijait  of  lif*  olHwrvatluna 
la  a  ilUtliic:t  trnuilis,     It  la  «iitltlii<l  \iilural  ami  I'o- 
lititiU  lib.vri'  iliunt,  mtiilmiirii  iii  ii  ftiUitwini/  I'm/rj-,  iini/ 
mmlt  uyim  Ihti   /litli  o/  Mnrliility,  by  John  OnAliNT, 
cilitrniif  I  iiHtloH  (iifterwunl  ili-xrilu  i|  in  th«  llflli  eill- 
tiuii  ua  "  ('u|iliiln  Julin  (iruuiil,  F.U.S.";.     A  cantury 
provloua  lo  Ibo  |iolillcallon  of  llila  lltllu  vuliini*,  via,, 
on  Ut  Juiiuiiry,  DU'J,  tba  HrU  reulatar  of  liuriata  waa 
cuiiiioKoi'cul  in  Liinilun,  tb«  nucuaiity  fcir  tha  ln(|ulry 
arliint(  fnnn   llio  urtikl  mortality  oi-ciialunod  liy  tlia 
ptjguu  ut  tliut  tinin.     From  tlmttlino  llio  Llllauf  mor- 
tality w«r«  kept  at  Irragnlar  Intorvuli,  iioorilinK  to  tlia 
*|ip«arun>'a  ami  ilitii|ipeiiran(«  of  the  pliiKua,  but  from 
100.1   tlia    n-corila   wcro    coiitinui^il    unlnlorruptcilly. 
Oruiiht  pulil  particular  attviilion  lo  tlioae  weekly  ie> 
turn*,  unci,  with   *  auKUcluua   nppraciution   of  tliair 
value,  rediiccil  the  reaulla  into  table*,  "  In  order  to  the 
mora  ready  compiirln((  of  onu  yrar,  auaaon,  purlah,  or 
other  division  of  the  city."     Iln  analyiea  the  bllla 
themnelvea,  nml  drana  certain  concluaiuna  with  great 
adroilneaa,  Klvlng  llio  flrat  acmblaiice  of  a  table  of 
mortality  in  the  arranueiiK-nt  of  di-utlia  In  decade*. 
The  work  piia-ird  tliriiu|{h  live  cdltiiinK,  tho  laat  under 
the  ■uperliili'iiilonco  of  his  ri-lallvo  .Sir  William  Petty, 
who  himiielf  paid  aiiine  uttcnlinn  to  the  aulject,  hav- 
ing publiahed  t.'»iii/i  on  I'uHlintl  Arilhmrtic  cimetmini/ 
Ikt  I't'tpli;  lliiutimji,  etc,  nf  hinjun  and  I'arit;  Funy 
conctrning   Iho    MuU'iplientiim    "f  ifuidind,   and    the 
(Jrnwlh  nf  the  (.'ity  nf  London ;   t ibteriatioiu  on    the 
t)Mm  llUls  nf  iloilMy,  etc. ;  mid  hiacourie  vn  Ihi- 
plieate  I'nipurtlon,  read  before  tho  Uoyul  Society,  1071. 
From  Ihia  lime  till  lfi!)3,  when  tlio  celebrated  Ur. 
Ilalley'a   iiivesligullona   and   calculationa    appeared, 
there  is  little  to  attract  attention,     A  act.  of  tablea 
wui  publiahcd  during  tliia  interval,  entitled   Tablet 
fm'  li^neifinij  an'l  I'urvhiuing  nfthe  l.eniet  nf  Cathedral 
Churchei  and  Caligii,  etc.)  also  Tablet fnr  Ktntwing 
and  I'urchanng  nf  l.ieet,  etc.,  bearing  ihu  impnting 
title  nf  "Sir  limte  Seuton't   Tablet;"    but  we  learn 
from  Mr.  Kdwin  James  Farrcn's  hiatorlcul  Ktiay  an 
the  Itise  and  Karly  I'rogreti  nfthe  Doctrine  nf  Life  i'on- 
tiiigtnciet  in  England,  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  being  then 
at  Cambridge  (Lucasian  Professor  t-ice  Harrow),  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  thought  politic  to  obtain  his  sanc- 
tion or  imprimatur  as  to  the  correctness  of  tho  tables, 
and  "his  original  cognizance  of  the  work  appears  to 
have  been  to  merely  conllrm  the  (Q.E.D.)  correctness 
of  a  aingle  table  relative  to  the  established  usage  of 
renewing  college  leases." 

In  No.  190  of  the  J'hiloiophical  Trantacliom,  1693, 


Dr.  Ilallny  pnbliahad  tlia  rcault  nf  hia  Invratlgatlnns 
iiniUr  Iha  fulluwlng  tilb- 1  "  An  l-Jtlniat*  of  Ihi'  I)e- 
grara  nf  Miirlallty  nf  .Mankind,  drawn  from  ruriona 
ialdaa  uf  lli*  lilrtba  and  Fuin-ruls  at  the  ritv  nf  lira*- 
lau,  with  an  atlampt  In  uncertain  ti  a  j.rlc*  of  Annul- 
tina  upon  l.tvaa,  by  K.  Ilailey,  1(.8.H. ' 

Additlninil  liifnrnialinn  Mill  also  U  found  In  th* 
Ailuiiri'il  Tablft  ,if  W.   1.  'rii.,iiiaini,  F.K.S.K.,  Itt68, 
and  in  the  vi-ry  vulimljlK  'I'uhlrt  ,nd  I'oimuin  f'r  tin 
t'omimlalioii  if  life  t'lintiiiyrni  in,  nf  Mr.  IVler  (Jruv, 
published  In   IM4U.      In  nmi-luiiun.  Ilin  nami'S  nf  Kd- 
ward    Sung,   Pi'ter    llurdy,  Humml    llrown,   Chiirlca 
Jallico*,  Wlllliim  Wond,  \\  illium  Urcliaid,  nml  It.  II. 
Todd,  may  be  aclacled  for  tpacial  iin  Ice  frnin  llic  Iniig 
list  uf  calcniatora  uhu  huvu  advam-i  d  varluua  ileparl- 
menla  of  Ih*  science.     Muili  valualle  Infnrmalion  on 
th*  subject  will  also  be  fnund  In  tlin  .U<uran(-«  ,l/«7ii- 
line;  th*  Hijiortt  of  Iht  l!rgiiiriii-t„iirral :  mid  in  llie 
Evidence  given  before  the  lluutr  if  Cittnmima,  in  1843, 
on  Joint-stuck  ('omiianlis,  und  in  Inmi  nn  Aanurunce 
Aaanclutlons.     The  evidence  lui  Frienilly  Nucli'lies  will 
also  be  found  Interesting. — K.  II.     iSee  I>Tr.niEsr,  etc. 
life  Intuinnre  in  the  I'nited  Ntolen. — We  inpy  from 
the  Itcpoit  nf  lb*  Mulnul  I  if*  Insurance  Company  of 
New   York,  of  lH6fl,  the  rriiiarks  of  the  Aclnnry  (Mr. 
iSlicppnrd  llomana),  on  the  ex|ierienc*  of  that  inslilu- 
tiun,  one  uf  the  oldest  l.lfu  Companies  in  the  I'nited 
Stuli'Bt   The  cluae  of  the  third  <|iilni|Ui>niiiiil  perind 
hinco  the  formation  of  thiiicn!npaiiy,<iniirucinK  nearly 
hulf  agoncratlon,  rccmsan  iipprnpriule  time  fur  making 
a  careful  examination  of  the  results  of  its  ex|icrience 
with  special  reference  to  the  determination  (.f  Ihe  com- 
parative mortality  among  nninbers  n-niding  in  Ihe  dif- 
ferent cluises ;  among  hnldera  uf  alinrt-lerm  and  »  hole- 
life  policies;  und  also  of  tho  rilulivc  mnrlulity  ut  dif- 
ferent ogea  nr  epochs  nf  life.      It  may  perhups  be  well 
to  remark  lliut  this  company  nasurea  ut  the  uge  accnril- 
Ing  to  the  "  nearest  birthday,"  atsuming  that  the  errors 
uf  deliclency  ond  excess  will  balance  cnch  other.     This 
Is  different  from  tho  practice  of  English  companies, 
who  assure  at  the  age  "  next  birthday,"  which  liaa  tha 
eff'ect  of  representing  thuir  members  to  be  older  thar. 
they  are  In  reality  (about  four  msnths,  on  tho  averag 
With  the  exception  of  this  single  assumption,  that ' 
office  age  is  the  real  age,  the  results  whicli  are  now  pre- 
sented are  deduced  from  the  most  rigorous  calculr  ,.iu  > 
The  number  odivei  cxpused  to  mortality  are  cai  'nli , 
separated  from  the  number  of  pu/iciei,  ai/<  no  .  itn  .i 
laljor  has  been  spared  In  making  the  varir   s  -I Trv:! 
tions  and  deductions  ns  complete  and  ace  r.tt  ■'»  r    ■ 
sible.     The  annual  experience  of  the  V.1     c  >.     >,    in- 
has  been  noted  separately  for  each  of  the  liueei,      ura 
ending  February  1,  I86tt,  as  may  be  seen  by  lefe.  n'^r 
to  the  following  table: 


Anhdai.  KxpitBiiNoii  OF  Tna  Mutual  Lira  Insusanoc  Cositamt  of  N«w  Yo«k— 1813-'57  ikciusiti. 


Y«r. 

BipuMa  lo  HorUllly  tn  th«  Campaiiy 
fur  on*  whota  Year. 

Pmbabla  l.i»i  bit  Com- 
pany'* T«bl*. 

Actual  Lon. 

Probabia  Loai  by  Carliala    j 
Tabla.                   | 

Numbflrof  l.lrai  iind 
Fraclloni  of  LIvm. 

Amount. 

Ni"iib.r  of 
IXalhi. 

Amount. 

Nunib«r  of 
lltalbi. 

Amount 

Numbar  of 
IKalhi. 

Amount 

1S48 

IftU 

1*16 

1846 

1M7 

1W3 

1M9 

1S60 

1861 

185-J 

1S&3 

1884 

1855 

1866 

1857 

Total. . 

263-61) 
633-79 
1,276-16 
1,993-53 
2,666-14 
8,606-38 
4,613-48 
^-297-94 
6,672-98 
6,780-17 
«,181-07 
6,720-07 
7,260-76 
8,186-60 
8,893-24 

900,710 

2,312,278 
4,346,709 
6,226,630 
8,123,ftt6 
10,707,613 
13,'29O,20O 
16,127,796 
1N807,144 
16,718,402 
lS,6OS,'i0fl 
20,728, 'WO 
22,870,264 
26,148,107 
29,121,868 

2-962 
7-715 
15539 
24-934 
83-660 
44-166 
60  861 
07-320 
72-131 
76-277 
83-318 
92  127 
100-600 
118-874 
128-876 

11,401 

29,708 
M,618 
80,4.16 
106,741 
140,014 
173,986 
200,201 
218,790 
228,061 
267,197 
289,339 
821,332 
807,014 
408,790 

"5 

2J 
28 
27 
04 

71 
49 
67 
72 

85 
SI 
76 
90 

18,'otio 

18,100 

09,400 

00,160 

94,20l) 

176,060 

154,040 

101,100 

203,100 

207,200 

281,600 

207,860 

204,266 

82.3,100 

2-809 

7-297 

14-771 

23-628 

81-738 

41-799 

63-481 

63-618 

67-970 

71-649 

78-018 

86-861 

93  063 

106-599 

116-198 

K^dO-i 
27,119 
51,026 
7^80» 
100,392 
181,988 
103,86» 
138,891 
200,296 
218,924 
289,681 
269,294 
298,490 
840,985 
379,818 

68,617-79 

211,069,018 

814-377 

2,882,033 

760 

2,81!,646_^ 

866-939 

2,692,464 

These  results  are  deduced  from  observations  om< 
bracing  ever}-  variety  of  age,  term,  and  climate,  which 
constitute  the  company  as  a  whole.  The  comparison 
is,  therefore,  not  strictly  just,  inasmuch  as  we  should 


expect  that  the  mortality  among  members  residing  in 
the  South  or  California,  and  who  pay  an  extra  premium, 
would  prove  to  lie  greater  than  that  prevailing  among 
members  residing  in  the  New  England  or  Middle  States, 


INS 


1064 


INS 


who  are  insured  at  the  regular  table  rates.  Each  class, 
larm,  and  age,  however,  will  be  considered  separately 
la  the  sequel. 

It  will  !<e  observed  that  among  the  members  of  this 
company  are  residents  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States ; 
henc  !1ie  infiaenoe  of  almost  every  variety  of  soil  and 


climate  is  exerted  upon  the  lives  and  health  of  our  as- 
sured, and  renders  the  tadk  of  adjusting  their  varied 
Interests  one  not  only  of  great  interest,  but  also  of  aoiiio 
dilHculty.  The  results  of  the  e.xperience  in  different 
sections  nf  the  country  may  be  observed  by  reference 
to  the  following  table  : 


■ 

COHPARJITIVB   MOSTALIT.'  IN  TUK  DimRKNT  CLABSEa 

Numlxr  of 

LiTM  and  Krac. 

Iloni  of  I.Um 

whlflli  hav« 

Iwsa  eipoivd  to 

Iba  risk  of  Mor- 

Ulily  fur  on* 

whola  Y««r. 

COHPillT'aTAhl.1. 

Fir  CmV- 

ago  of 
aetaal  un 
Diobablo 
Numbar 
of  Uaatba. 

RaU  par 

L'.ut.of 

actual 

Hoilaiily 

COUPaNY'a  TABLS, 

Actual 

Locato 

•ncli  1100 

prodictad. 

Pnbabia 
Nunibar 

of 
Dailhi. 

iteluti 
Nuiub«r 

of 
DmUu. 

c'uVo'f 

prubablo 
Morulity. 

Probabla 

AntoUDt 

of 

hum. 

Actual 

AmouDt 

of 

l.oaa. 

(1848-'52 
Whole  Company  -jlSKS-'S? 

(l5  years 

<lS43-'62 
Class  I. -jl863-'5[ 

(|5  yoam 

Class  II.  (Includ-  f}fJF.S'^ 

I843-'53 

Class  UL Jl85S-'57 

(15  yoara 
/1 848-' 52 

Class  IV. ^lS63--57 

(16  years 

,184S-'52 

Classes  V.&Tir.  JlSSS-W 

(15  years 

87,185  74 

68,617-79 

19,937 -JO 

26,639-49 

46,616-69 

4,479-40 

6,398-46 

10,872-85 

1,603  5,1 

1,556  20 

8,l-:4  70 

1,441  10 

l,«37-^5 

3,07S65 

861-10 

960-05 

1,821-16 

401,106 

613,211 

914,877 

S6,%0S3 

868,741 

628,824 

66,643 

88,012 

141,655 

20,100 

22,678 

42,877 

18,675 

23,937 

42,612 

8,S37 

12,843 

21,630 

840 
410 

780 

178 

262 

410 

48 

70 

127 

20 

21 

41 

23 

86 

es 

87 
18 
60 

84-15 
79 -S8 
82  02 
6J-i8 
71-06 
7063 
64-74 
92-93 
8.1-06 
99-01 
92  60 
05-62 
123-8;- 
146 -2-i 
186-43 
418-68 
101-22 
230-62 

1-03 
1-iW 

1-oa 

0-89 
0-98 
0-90 
1-07 
1-28 
1-17 
127 
1-35 
1-Sl 
l-i4 
214 
1-8S 
43) 
lv5 
2-76 

1-^3 
1-38 
1-o8 
1-28 
1-39 
1-34 
1-20 
1-33 
1-30 
1-20 
1-46 
1-!17 
1-29 
1-40 
1-38 
1-03 
1-34 
119 

1,238,944 
1,643,6S9 
2,882,638 

l,lV3,976 
2°64|4.8 

lob^Mi 

Ilbi2(l9 
'8s',i40 

903,140 
1,349,406 
2,312,645 

7'3y,605 
2801650 
lbV,800 
203,500 
26^450 

77  74 
82-09 

30-22 

09  89 
8722 

os'-ii 

17490 
69-36 

The  clacses  contained  in  the  above  table  refer  to  the 
following  divisions  of  the  country :  Class  I.  The  New 
England  and  Jliddle  States. — Class  II.  The  Western 
States. — Class  III.  The  Southern  States  bortlering  on 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. — Class  IV,  The  Southern  States 
bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  .Mexico. — Class  V.  California, 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  Utah  Territories. — Class  VI, 
Within  ten  miles  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  below  the 
SSd  parallel  of  latitude,— Class  VII.  Military  and  naval 
men,  seamen,  etc. 

These  results,  from  the  comparatively  small  amount 
of  data,  can  scarcely  be  depended  upon  as  furnishing 
reliable  statistics  of  actual  mortality  in  dilfcrent  parts 
of  our  count'y,  and  among  all  classes  and  af;es ;  at  the 
same  time,  however,  they  are  believed  to  afford  a  more 


reliable  comparison  of  the  relative  mortality  among 
aatured  livet  in  the  different  classes  .hau  were  ever  be- 
fore obtained.  They  prove  cnnclusively  that  the  ex- 
tra rates  of  premitiin  now  charged  by  the  company 
are  not  only  judicious,  but  thit  they  are  in  no  case 
quite  sufficient  to  provide  for  :he  extra  risk  which 
they  are  intended  to  cover,  and  consequently  can  nei- 
ther bo  rescinded  nor  reduced  without  doing  injustice 
to  members  residing  in  the  New  Kngland  or  Middle 
Stotes. 

Comparative  Jfortalily  among  Membirs  assured  under 
ShorUerm  and  iV/iole-life  i'Mcies. — In  order  to  throw 
some  additional  light  upon  this  Interesting  question,  I 
have  computed  the  fallowing  table,  embracing  results 
for  the  last  Ave  years  only : 


Tarm  at  Poller. 

Numbar  of 
Ltvaa  aipoaad 
lo  Mortality. 

Probabla 
Numbar  of  Daatha. 
Company*!  Tabla. 

Actual  No. 
of  Deatbi. 

No.  of  Denthi 
to  each  100 
pradlcled, 

Actual 
Rata  of 

Mortality. 

Probabla 

Rata  of 

Mortalltr. 

Eitm  AonuAl 

Pramium  which 

■hould  iM  rhftrged. 

!llB 

38,-i22-52 

R3  03 

8,255  66 

024-64 

87,185-74 

460-ri6 

0-83 

44-03 

7-74 

613-21 

341 

0 

56 

13 

410 

74 

0 

127 

108 

80 

1-Oi 
0-00 

1-72 
2-08 
110 

1'89 
1-60 
1-85 
1-24 
1-38 

1090 

1-8T8 

Whole  company 

The  mortality  among  persons  Insured  by  short-term 
policies  in  this  company  has  been  found  to  be  in  nil 
cases  inveritly  proportionate  to  the  length  o/tfrm  of  the 
policy  itself.  Our  mortuary  experience  among  mem- 
bers assured  under  short-term  policies  is  thus  shown  to 
have  been  very  unfortunate,  so  much  so,  that  by  refer- 
ence to  the  last  column  we  find  th\t  an  extra  annual 
premium  of  from  one  to  nearly  two  yer  cent,  should  be 
charged  ;  which,  added  to  the  regular  table  rates,  will 
make  the  gross  annual  premium  on  short-term  policies 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  high  as  the  regular  life  rales. 
In  other  words,  experience  teaches  that  short-term 
policies  should  not  be  issued  by  this  company  at  less 
than  life  rates,  thus  practically  confirming  the  wisdom 
and  justice  of  the  recem  resolution  by  the  Board  of 
Trustaea,  declining  to  underwrite  these  risks,  nt  least 
until  more  reliille  data  than  were  then  possessed  could 
be  obtained.  Applications  for  assurance  under  short- 
term  policies,  as  was  remarked  by  the  president  in  his 
last  annual  address,  are  often  made  by  persons  who 
wish  to  provide  for  an  extra  hazardous  risk,  either  of 
climate,  occupation,  or  disease,  knoicn  only  to  themselves, 
and  in  which  the  applicant  has  everf  advantage  ovtr 
the  medical  examiner ;  or  they  are  made  for  the  pui'- 
pote  of  affording  sec  rity  for  debt,  both  of  which  coses 


Include  contingencies  not  foreseen  when  naming  the 
preniium.  In  the  earlier  practice  of  insurance,  when 
a  life  not  altogether/M/-e/  uj  was  offered,  the  risk  was 
sometimes  accepted  fur  a  </ior<  term  of  years,  and  nt  a 
small  r.nnuat  premium,  wlicn  it  would  have  been  ro., 
jected  for  the  irhole  term  of  life,  and  at  a  higher  rale  of 
annual  premium. 

In  May,  1859,  a  convention  of  the  representatives  of 
Life  Insurance  companies  was  held  at  tlie  Astor  Mouse, 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  Various  committees  were  ap- 
pointed, to  report  at  un  ailjourncd  meeting  of  the  CoK- 
ventlon  lo  bo  held  in  the  year  I860j  the  result  will 
probably  be  more  uniformity  in  the  rates  of  premium, 
ond  in  the  general  principles  of  action  of  all  tlio  Life 
Insurance  companies  of  the  United  States.  'I'lio  re- 
duced rate  of  mortality  in  the  United  States,  indicated 
by  the  experience  of  the  local  companies,  compared 
with  the  mortality  indicated  by  the  Carlisle  anil  oll-r 
tables,  will  furnish  a  profit  of  25  to  40  per  cent,  in  well- 
managed  companies. 

The  relative  mortality  at  difleront  ages  among  mcm- 
liers  of  thij  company  and  also  of  the  "  Mutual  Ilencllt," 
which  havo  been  deduced  from  data  furnished  in  their 
last  annual  report,  may  bo  observed  by  the  following 
table: 


20 
30 
40 
60 
60 
70 


i 

-< 

- 

15 
20 
26 
30 
35 
40 
46 
60 
65 
60 

1 

- 

15 
20 
25 
30 
85 
40 
45 
60 
65 
60 

INS 


1065 


INS 


CoMPAUMii  o»  *oi  AOTDAt  Ndnhik  w  Ppwh*  muHimmiHtio  10  iim  mm  iiniriiMR  nwmmm,  o%  VfiumitAaa 


C'liuw  I.  alone ■ . ,  >  >  i  >  t 

dual,  and  II.  conibined ,,, 

C'lais  II.,  Including  VI 

Olaaa  III.  alons , , , , 

ClaaalV.  alone .,.,.... 

Claaa  V.,  Including  VII , 

Whole  (iompansr , , , , , 

Whole  Company,  "CarlUla  Tablu"  ,, , 
"Mutual  Beneflt,"        "  " 


_»--«L_ 
W 

» 

m 
m 

481 

m 
iw 
m 


»»=»," 


ISA 

m 
m 


U-tfT 


w 

M 

m 
m 

m 


«-<t. 

M^t. 

M 

W 

f 

Vh 

11 

«» 

(10 

99 

It 

M 

m 

0 

19 

m 

M 

11)1 

f!4 

T» 

UJti, 

4ll  i«M. 

Tl 

t(/M    ■ 

m 

urn 

1»6 

mm 

« 

! » (Hi 

Itlil 

i:is,4» 

n 

!(i)OM 

M) 

Wirt 

63 

MM 

I»« 

»'69 

We  flrit  observe  the  extraordln«ry  mort«llty  Rt 
younger  ages  ia  the  South  and  Califarilln,  wlllfi  Ifl 
Clasi  I.  alone,  as  well  as  that  in  C\m!i>>*  I,  Hll4  K. 
combined,  it  is  in  all  cases  less  than  tb»l  eM§A  for  hjf 
the  company's  table. 

Kxpectatwnnf  Life.— Verhtpa  tlia  ni'ist  fntfrsSttflSfS' 
suits  of  the  experience  of  this  compsiiy  AfS  SOntAltWd 


)h  (Im  column  headed  »  K*p8«t«tlefl  et  Life,"  l.y  which 
W8  wny  nnd  for  avery  aK«  lh«  (ifliffllmf  life,  or  the 
lll(ml)er  of  years  whitli,  taking  »h«  \mmm  with  an- 
other,  »»  may  expect  to  Ilv6,  lly  imtim  at  tlio  fol- 
lowltlg  talile  we  may  coinpara  IImm  iiutiilwro  from  our 
ewH  talilen,  with  liiose  accurdliij}  to  iom«  of  the  more 
««iebrflted  I'.nglish  tables  of  mortality. 


ExpgOTATIoa  Oir  Um  MMUmnS  W  MfftMHT  TikBI.ES  or   MOKTAMTT, 


A,.l. 

Halani 

OHM, 

c.  out. 

Mulnil  l,lfa 
Eip«ricnce, 

8>(l> 
Eip.. 
rl«.ice, 

•4- 

;-iu<4 

& 

s 

4wl«ifcl« 

Knauau 
rsiiiiri>i.r  KoJinrrM. 

rt«i«, 

41  li) 
H4'«! 
27  20 

It)  on 

liilli) 
»-«8 

Mmm. 

fll  !!«•((« 

lUli. 
Kllloll, 

«o.  1.      No.  J, 

H.  T,*(!. 

Htttm, 

20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
TO 

4010 
3313 
24  33 
1974 
13(16 
8  St 

44-76 
36-00 
38  04 
2166 
14  55 
864 

8S'46 
.12-18 
25-71 
IS -40 
1366 
8  66 

-ti'4) 
84  •4.1 
•27-^8 
2fl|ti 
I3-T7 
«-64 

4144 
1(4  »4 
ST'rtt 
8(')t 
UK4 

41  M 

«T4fl 
•id  V,i 

mm 

l«fS 
8lt 

mm 

Hlll» 

mm 

20  03 

8hi 

8ii'»l 
V«-43 
1087 
1360 
866 

■(Oi'-i 
«8T0 
'M4I 
19  40 

is-«» 

"  in  n  ~ 

t»l9 
Iftflt 
W'il 

;i»'ii 
ato 
27  » 
213 

ir.o 

»4 

'iVe  here  find  that  our  adjusted  eyparisn^S  giv8l  A 
higher  expectation  of  life  at  all  ages  than  t\M  §0111' 
pany's  theoretical  table,  and  also  liigliar  tlian  Ally  I^H' 
glish  table  below  the  age  of  70,  except  tfia  "  Vrl^fldl^ 


»(*c|ptles"  aetorrtlng  to  Nelson,  wlileti  U  uniformly 
higher  at  all  ages.  At  and  above  the  «««  of  70,  the 
ojipectntlon  by  Beveral  English  tal/lei  b  higher  than 
ih«t  slwwn  by  our  own  experlenee. 


A  OOMPABATITE  TABLE  OF  THE  RaTKS  Of  TB8  RO«li#f(fl  *WH  f(lt(P,(0!<  Un  InSDBANVR  OOWI'AKIM  nOJKS  tlVHUtM  tn  TO* 

tfNif«H  'r,iiktm. 


Is 


13-30 
14-90 
17-40 
19-80 
83-40 
27-80 
82-00 
40-00 
63-60 
72-00 


^3 
I 

■K 


18-40 
20-80 
22-90 
26-40 
28-60 
82-30 
87-00 

turn 

66-90 
66-90 


14-40 
16-80 
20-40 
23-60 
27  60 
82-00 
37  SO 
48-30 
64 -SO 
78-40 


lO-hO 
IS -70 
21-40 
24-70 
28-30 
!)'J-70 
SS-fiO 
46  80 
63  80 
74-20 


f'i'W 

intia 

MOO 
8210 

06d 
6ft -vi 

«8-()0 


8it-(i«l 

fti'ti 

(ITI* 
4fi'!il 
M14 
74-30 


li 


IB.W 

n-4'i 

19 -W) 
22 -SO 
20  60 
316<» 
M'lO 
4710 

mm 


^.i 


1611 

10 -80 

2:t(W 
26  87 
!M-7;t 
aHiH 
46  44 
67  68 


Jft'flO 
1710 
2fl'W 
23-(IO 

moo 

»2H0 
87*1 


17110 
l^l'IO 
22  70 
SO'fiO 

M-m 

fit  00 
47'iifl 
M-40 
70-40 


'Wm 

17-70 
20-40 
'i.l-flO 
27  60 
(12  00 
87  30 
4')  00 
07  80 


15-00 
17-40 
20-40 
24-00 
27-80 
33-00 
40-00 
6000 
66-00 
81-00 


1511 

17-30 
19-89 
23-02 
26-87 
81-73 
88-04 
46-42 
67-58 


19-70 
22-10 
241N) 
28-10 
32-10 
i!7  30 
44-20 
B4-S0 
67  20 


•B? 


13  00 

14  80 
17-10 
10-90 
23-00 
27  Sit 
82-00 
89-10 
60(10 
66 'iO 


IT -TO 

>iim 

84110 
8T-fW 
46(10 


16M 
1T10 

STftO 
ftT«i 

vim 


¥ 

P 

ft  to 

ao-40 

2)t-(Cl 
jITwi 
»3(io 
»7»o 
40-00 
M-Wi 
70((0 


Noit_Tho  rates  gf  those  conipanl«i.  wUU  »  »»af  ('»  Sfe  «««.-i)«ft)elIiatlnfr  rsi.«. 
ralM." 


I, 

lti'.i» 

l«20 
IN  00 

21  ■») 
2ft  (CI 
«'«I0 
>MI4I 
40.70 
flow 


irm' 

1660 

l!l-i() 
2Mi(( 
2i'i;ifl 
I'dn 
.'1410 
4«'I0 
BilftO 
(Who 


20'4'> 
23  60 
27  60 
32'IPO 
»7',I0 
40-00 
r.7'80 
70-00 


Thn  otlu>™  «rii  "partldpfllliiK  or  tniilual 


Life  insurance  in  (he  United  fitates  is  as  yet  In  ll»  buslnesn  oiiccessfuily.  [ii  (Jreat  nrltoln  )lil*  liiforma- 
{nfancy,  os  far  as  regards  the  Mlewt,  but  the  mMHi<»  tlwi  Is  nbtaldcil  from  f  w.i  nmireat,  vh,,  tlio  piipcrlonrn 
is  rapidly  gaining  favor  with  all  elasscs  itf  ||ie  cmn--  ntiialnlng  P(i<b  ycnr  aHioou;  ilm  companlttfi  llipin»p|vp« ; 
munlty,  and  the  number  availing  thanoelvfjii  «f  lis  and,  nerondlv.  from  llif>  r<'|iort»  of  (ho  rcKl^lror-ttcnei- 
henelita  in  this  country  are  dail."  increasing,  HM\».  I  al  which  nrc  ndriuidly  iuri.|ii  lo  I'lirllnnniht,  Irom  the 
ticsof  life  and  mortality  are  tliefoundntion  upon  which  |  compfirntivcly  small  m-.tn  of  t|;«  llrltMi  Islen,  nnd  the 
the  science  of  life  insurmca  Is  eracurt,  and  mllMhte  In-  ]  escidlcKt  ttyntum  of  nppoin.'nii'nU  by  Ihw  Kovcrnmrrt 
formation  regarding  tie  relative  valna  of  tifa  In  dlf^  of  Ks  =c|cntllio  inon.  great  iidvMntag't  lit  dcriviid.  The 
feront  climates  and  at  each  age  is  of  tlia  greal^H  Ini-- '  dpcunnlnl  census  of  (ireat  llrtlain  Is  lahcn  In  ime  .!«;/ 
portanoo  to  a  life  company,  in  order  to  proi(««tii«  Its !  wliii  h  at  once  '.■Ibnliialcs  ono  of  itio  most  fruilf'ui 


INS 


1066 


INS 


soup'es  of  error;  and  by  having  a  registrar  and  corps 
of  ussistnnts  in  liis  office  regularly  educated  an<l  train- 
ed, a  perfect  system  is  adopted ;  and  tlius  we  liuvo  in 
tlicir  reports  a  niuas  of  reliable,  interesting,  and  valua- 
l)le  information  whicli  can  nowhere  else  Iw  ol)taincd. 
Unfortunately,  in  the  United  States  it  is  different. 


From  the  Immense  area  of  frrttary,  gmttrnHng  gftirr 
variety  of  soil,  climate,  and  fhyeUnl  H'limniimUnt,  it 
would  be  almost  impossible,  even  (f  wn  hmi  rit  f^ffort 
a  system  of  registration  as  tliev  Un¥it  Ut  tihifUtxi,  (<> 
complete  the  enumeration  at  (Im  mmwt  iu  n  dtty,  ut 
even  a  few  davs. 


Si'MnraiB  OK  TUB  anndal  Aoooirars  or  Lira  Insuranoe  CoMPAHira  doino  iiubinkss  in  tiib  ftrtTH  or  fifw  Ytnuf,  nm  *«• 
Ybar  19S7,  INOLOUINO  Rats  of  Oroanizatihn,  NuMiira  nr  llM.iriKS,  Amoii.nt  at  Kisk,  AiiHi'i),  Uni'f4tVlk  t'm<p,<i'liu,f 

CIP  ExrKMiITURES  TO  InCXMIE,  PEB  ORNT.  IIK  l.'l.AIMS  ON  INOOUE,  I'KB  CEMT.  I»r  CaBII  ASOKT*  »«  Alf  <f  WY  *V  UlMt  t'tll 
i'KKT.  ur  <ITUF.R  SRCCB1TIE8,  PiB  CKNT.  Of  TOTAL  ASSKTS.  PBEPABKO  PBO.V  TUE  OUUIINAI.  lt|3TUKNI»  IH  fm  l^f/ktli'vjlit' 
TaOklER'S  OKviua 


Nunc  of  Lift  iMunrae*  Company. 


Mutual  t.lfo  of  New  York 

Now  EnKliind  Mutual,  Uoston. . 

Nflw  York  Life 

Mutual  llei:etit,  Newark,  N.  J.. 
Conncrticut  Mutual,  Hartford . 
Aniorican  .Mutual,  New  Haven. 

Manhattan,  New  York    

United  Htatea,  New  Y'ork 

KnlekorlHicker,  New  York 

Mai4i<.  Mutual,  .Springfield 

Totals 


8  of  [.ife  Iniuranfe  Company. 


Mutual  Life  of  New  Yolk 

New  England  Mutual,  Itoston. . 

New  York  Ijifu 

Mutual  IJonofit.  Xmvark,  N.  J.. 
Connecticut  Murutil,  llartfonl . 
Ameiicnn  Mutual,  New  Haven. 

Manhattan,  New  York 

United  State^',  New  York 

Knickerbocker,  New  York 

Matta.  Mutual,  Sprin^eld 

TofiN 


When 

organ, 
lied. 


Polieln  iuued  during 
lh>  Voar. 


1S43  ! 
tS4S  ■ 

1S4«  i 
1S4T  ' 
185')  ■ 

isno  I 


isaa 
ft:)'i 
111 

6-3J 
(Ml 

ftsa 

1004 
IBS 
S8- 


7U0U 


1,Tt!)4101 

'i,67S,in2 

l,'.l«.i,65') 

l,3in,H7rt 

(•^0,76') 

■.',!t45,00l) 

2,r.37,900 

3,ir),44S 

7-i3,1.W 


$'J|,4TS,S.')7 


At  Rlik  at  and  of  tha 
Year. 


Nombar 
of 

Polleiaa. 


f^ttftntVfltlftluym, 


PramiuuH 

and  lijurusl 

oot^Mfb. 


10,3111) 
2,881 
3,S36 
6,3al 
8,ti29 
3,100 
2,478 
2,440 
800 
1,083 


4U,5U8 


$3i,48l,3iKJ  . 

S,SS4,190 

12,77-l,»8S  I 

17,4'.'3,177 

20,1!)7,1«4 

4.0ftl,IM|{| 

7,S02,!ll!8 

4,0flt,'*24 

l,21»,81l 

2,11)1,081 


$110,021,014 


•ifll.lfti  I 
asi.of/  i 

Wt,hH')  i 

7:),;i47 

2  'i.tA4 
lH4,'.iil<l 
4i,.SIIi  , 
4:),I7J 


1,ll\h 
mm  I 

i,m  I 
(«.W4  I 


.f'lH,! 


irti'Ji 

»1t,l'iB 


ni«biirMiiiei)l4  diirinK  the  Vtar 


*aw(» 


P».d  Claim,  1      p  I    .  |,„|„rt,„, 

J.y  ''•""'•_l_cl<- .olr;_  Conn,ii»i.m.. 
$317,043 

1R3,7SS 

r.is,ii.'s 

217,92S 

47,075 

f.7,Sli3 

61,794 

.3,000 

6,R')0 


*:i'J,507 

t4d,448 

{170.71S 

18«,'J32 

•243 

{2(t,Sr)D 

El-.lli) 

0,390 

":i,(KH) 


Nama  of  Lifa  Iniuranea  Comprny. 


I  $1,IB3,(!63  I    $.Ml:i,a4U 


Per  Cant  ofF«- 
panhai  on  Inconia 


SllO,!!^ 

24,.W7 
02,634 
6'*,301 
44,978 
21,M1 
41,366 
29,778 
14,780 
10,502 


$413,4-i4 


Tuial 

Dliburio- 

nicnta. 


Caak. 


$4il6,0:!5 

118,907 

202,77u 

430,204 

41S,135 

09,772 

120.077 

lor>,Ttl 

24,170 

23,INI2 

$2,»9i,7i3~ 


•$4,086,909 

9«0,T4T 

804,820 

i,7.80,«4< 

I,692.IW3 

108,781 

"287,635 

"341.011 

••1B6,6»J 

_  ^•14^,249 

$lt,i«3.95( 


*«4t'«*,  j     rmat. 


f(»«.)*»  I 
mm*  I 


f<».-f,:-Mt  ! 
"J:U<,W1 


Mutual  Life  of  New  Y'ork 

New  I''.nt.'land  Mutual,  IJoston.. 

New  York  Life 

Mutual  lleneOt,  Newark,  N.  J., 
Connecticut  Mutual,  Hartford  . 
American  Mutual,  New  Haven. 

.Manhattan,  New  York 

(Tnited  SuitP!«i  New  York 

Knickerbocker,  New  York 

Ma.i.*.  Mutual,  SprinjjfieM 


09-5 
08-2 
13-2 
OS -4 
07  1 
208 
13-0 
101 
27-5 
IS -5 


Par  Cent  of  Claima 
on  Income. 


27-2 
81-6 
32  4 
28  fi 
841 
B'.)-7 
18-2 

81  a 

06  0 
09-7 


Percent  of Caih 

Aareta  on  Amount 

at  Ki'.V 


154 
10-3 
06-8 
099 
07-9 
04-2 
08-7 

12-8 
00 '8 


PcrtVot   ofu^lJW 
A.  WU  on  4WW^t 

atUiili. 


04  ^ 
05 'i 

m'a 

oil) 
III  6 

mn 


*  Includes  '-^  deferred  preiuiuni  account  and  Intere-'t  accrued,"  as  returned  by  the  otlter  eninimui^. 
t  Inr  ludlng  $i2,332  interest  on  dividend*  pulil  during  the  )ca/.  t  I'lcludlng  lihiAsnA*  pitiii, 

i  Includinj;  $10,0011  lntere<t  on  capital  mixk.  I  lucludint;  mUni'H  uff  ftultftl  fUfll, 

T  Inteiv-'t  on  capital  wlock.  ••  lurludinij  ^Imt^Ufi)  f,'#|/f(#|  rUrck. 

tt  IncIudiUK  $37,919  of  "  Hrpuiiiim  Note.«  "ii  which  pnlicie.i  arc  Isftiicil  and  in  force." 

Of  the  five  lu,  t  coliimnn,  the  flrwt  two  represent  re.>>pectlvely  the  amount  paid  for  expense..'  i>f  miin*u>»lim)HilUt  (iif  tlMno 
by  death  for  each  $100  of  income,  wiiile  the  last  three  coliuuus  rcprt.-ent  the  t^^'fets  (cash,  rjedit,  «ad  t^kttt,  rp^pfHif^fi  for 
each  $lm)  of  amount  at  risk. 


I.i/e  Infirnnce  in  deal  ISriln'm.—^aVmg  a  Rcnerol 
retrospective  glance  ut  the  subject,  thorn  nro  several 
points  which  arrest  the  attention.  Of  the  existing 
ollices  only  three  were  nslablislied  between  170.  and 
]7(i2,  .1  period  of  fifty-six  years,  vrhlcli  gives  an  average 
of  (me  office  in  nineteen  years.  In  the  next  period, 
from  1762  to  IS  IB,  embracing  fifty  four  years,  fourteen 
offices  were  estulilished,  being  an  average  of  one  office 
in  rather  more  than  fnur  years.  From  1810  to  184.">, 
a  period  t,f  twenty -oiglit  yoar.«,  the  growtti  U  far  more 
rapid,  being  at  the  rate  of  noarly  tliren  offices  each 
year.  We  may  reino.k  iiere,  by  way  of  explanation, 
that  inasmuch  as  tlie  Joiiit-stucli  Companies'  Act  only 
came  into  operation  in  September,  1844,  we  takn  it, 
f.ir  ordinary  purposes,  as  commencing  with  184.1,  and 
calculate  accnnllngly.  Since  wo  have  began  to  be 
"critical"  with  the  offices,  wo  may  also  note  oho  or 
two  other  peculiarities.  One  of  these  is,  that  some 
periods  in  assurance  history  seem  to  have  lieen  far  niiiro 
ctmgenial  to  the  growth  of  good  offices  than  other 
pcriixis,  oftentimes  not  very  far  remote.  1806  furnishes 
us  H  ith  our  first  example,     llie  offspring  of  that  year 


were  botli  numerous  and  strong.  IM^.I  (jlffi*  n  f\\\\ 
more  notalde  example.  IH2'I,  Midi  mitt  nni^\Mim,  d.n 
much  to  1)0  proud  of;  whilu  \>iift  \U'Atii'Hi\  Dumf  (rfl'i'! 
best  companies  of  tlie  Oi.ldeii  Ago.  fMlift  H  Uani  ( 
ten  yeirs,  1836  placed  two  n'>ltli)ii)nmi>\im*imlhi'\ht; 
and  !8.1G  furnishes  the  inual  mrt.tblx  imtmiiK  ii(  nut 
point  to  be  found  on  record.  'CIlM  (lii'lHrc  ))»s  Its  coti- 
verso.  iScne  periods  in  uesiiraiiicK  tUniitiAfigf  <*cf(i ( . 
have  been  l)eset  witli  dilficijllles,  Himthm»i<hluhiy) v 
list  of  defunct  i-ompaiiies.  Wa  hod  IU)i  (lt«  litfllttn  (if 
carrying  it  as  fur  batk  as  we  toiild  wUU,  \mt  U  gimttt.ir 
enough  t)  pr(/ve  our  present  isss.  fn  l*W  f((«  epi. 
demic  shows  itself.  <  )f  tlie  various  offfco)  iif  IMI  nnd 
1842  but  three  ore  si  ill  reiimiiiiiig.  tHift  |>fwlnc(id  >■ 
weak  and  puny  offspring,  of  whMi  tl^t  KfnuUtr  parf 
have  King  since  departed  this  life  J  )•*<!»  tr«#  (fm  fti 
of  "  Assurance  Swindles;"  |)jfj<)  Ui*>i\vuii  muny  at  th" 
unsound compaides inU> ruli)i)u«  1<m««« j  nmi tnimlhii 
period  down  to  the  pr«s«nt  Him,  tlfi(!fmft^('hi«nr('ry 
and  tin  liankruptcy  t.'ourt  iiava  |if«4  imiMunl  jmpln;  - 
inent  in  swindling  assursnca  »' UailfH, mm /nnritncf 
Guide  mui  llund  Hook,  I.<)i)'lo(),  i>i,/,t, 


INT 


loai 


INT 


Interest  U  the  annual  sum  or  rate  per  cent,  which 
the  borrower  of  a  capital  agrees,  or  is  bound,  to  pa}*  to 
the  lender  for  its  use.  "  Inter6t ;  loyer  d'un  capital 
preti ;  ou  bien,  en  termes  plus  exacts,  achat  dea  serv- 
ices productifs  que  pout  rendre  un  capital"  (Sai/,  torn, 
ii,,  p.  480,  ed.  4mo).  It  was  generally  supposed,  pre- 
viously to  the  middle  of  the  last  centur}',  that,  in  the 
event  of  all  legislative  enactments  regulating  the  rate 
of  iutorcst  being  repealed,  its  increase  or  diminution 
would  wholly  depend  on  the  comparative  scarcity  or 
abundance  of  money ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  it  would 
rise  as  money  became  scarce,  and  full  as  it  became 
more  plentiful.  Qut  this  opinion  has  been  successfully 
controverted,  first  by  Mr.  Joseph  Mussie,  in  a  tract  puli- 
lished  in  1750,  entitled  "  An  ICssaj'  on  the  Governing 
Causes  of  the  Rate  of  Interest ;"  and,  second,  with  bet- 
ter effect  in  Hume's  Essay  on  Interest,  in  1752.  And  it 
bos  Iwen  «i>own  tliut  the  rate  of  interest  in  advanced 
communities  is  not  determined  l>y  the  abundance  of 
the  currency,  but  by  the  average  rate  of  profit  derived 
from  the  eniploj  ment  of  capital.  No  doubt  it  most 
frequently  liuppcns  tliat  louna  arc  made  in  currency ; 
but  tliis  is  of  no  consequence.  There  is  obviously  no 
substantial  diiference  l)etween  A  fiirnisliing  B  with 
100  busliels  of  com,  or  100  yards  of  cloth,  to  be  repaid 
at  the  expiration  of  a  specified  period  by  the  delivery 
of  101  or  105  bushels,  or  101  or  105  yards,  or  with  as 
much  money,  at  4  or  5  per  cent.,  as  would  purchase 
the  com  or  cloth.  And  it  is  easj'  to  perceive  that,  us 
crowds  of  passengers  may  be  successively  conveyed 
by  the  sumo  carriage,  so  tlio  same  sum  of  money  may 
serve  to  negotiate  un  infinity  of  It  -s.  Suppose  A 
lends  to  X  IJIOOO,  with  wliich  the  lutter  buys  from  P 
an  equivalent  amount  of  commodities ;  tliut  U,  having 
no  use  for  the  money,  lends  it  to  Y,  who  pays  it  away  for 
produce  to  C,  who  again  lends  it  to  Z,  and  so  on.  It 
is  plain  that  X,  Y,  Z  have  received  loans  of  commodi- 
ties or  produce  from  A,  B,  C  worth  (Aree  times  (and 
they  might  have  l)ei'n  worth  30  or  300  times)  as  much 
as  the  money  employed  in  settling  the  transactions. 
According  as  the  supply  of  currency,  compared  with 
the  business  it  has  to  perform,  is  g  reuter  or  less,  we 
give  a  greater  or  less  number  of  guineas  or  livres, 
notes  ur  assignats,  for  the  article  we  wisli  to  obtain. 
It  is  not,  however,  by  the  fact  of  the  price  of  such 
articles  being  liigh  or  low,  l)ut  by  tlie  advantage  or 
profit  which  tlie  borrowers  expect  to  derive  from  their 
possession,  that  tlio  interest  or  compensation  to  be 
paid  la  the  lenders  for  tlieir  use  is  determined.  It 
may,  periiaps,  be  supposed,  in  the  case  of  goldsmitlis 
and  jewelers,  tlmt  wlien  the  quantity  of  metallic 
money  is  increased,  tliey  will  ol)tain  tlie  raw  material 
of  their  business  witli  greater  facility.  Hut  this  is 
not  always  the  case ;  and  tliougli  it  were,  it  would  not 
in  any  degree  affect  the  rate  of  interest.  No  coins  are 
ever  sent  to  the  melting-pot  unless  the  currency  bo  de- 
graded or  depreciated ;  that  is,  unless  it  be  deficient  in 
weiglit,  or  relativ<  ly  redundant  in  quantity.  And  it  is 
plain  tliat  the  inducement  to  offer  u  high  or  a  low  rate 
of  interest  for  loans  of  money,  which  it  is  intended 
to  worl{  up  into  plate  or  other  articles,  will  not  depei.d 
on  the  supply  of  such  money,  l)ut  on  tlie  (iroiit  to  be 
derived  from  its  conversion  into  goods — a  circumstance 
wliolly  imconnected  with  tlm  scarcity  or  abundance  of 
coin. 

It  tlierefore  ap|)ear3  tliat,  spenliing  generally,  tlie 
rate  of  inl.rest  depends  on  the  profit  that  may  bo  made 
by  employing  capital  in  industrious  undertaliings,  and 
not  on  the  price  paid  for  tlie  articles  of  which  it  con 
eists.  The  latter  are  affected  by  every  change  in  the 
value  of  money,  whereas  the  former  is  little,  if  at  all, 
affcctfd  by  those  changes,  and  is  determined  liy  the 
pro'luotivenoss  of  industry.  A  low  or  a  high  rate  of 
profit  is  uniformly  accompanied  by  a  high  or  low  rate 
of  interest.  Money,  as  every  one  linuws,  is  clieaper 
In  the  United  States  and  in  Australia  than  iu  Kn- 
gland ;  but  tUo  ordinary  rate  of  profit  being  higher,  in- 


terest, despite  the  lower  value  of  money,  is  also  higher. 
Extraordinary  as  it  may  seem,  it  is  nevertheless  true, 
that  during  the  half  dozen  years  ending  with  1856,  the 
current  rate  of  interest  iQ  San  Francisco,  where  bull- 
ion is  80  very  abundant  as  to  be  almost  a  drug,  ho* 
varied  from  H  to  2  aui  3  per  cent,  a  month,  or  from  18 
to  24  and  36  jier  cent,  per  annum.  And  though  it 
were  allowed  that  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  this  rate 
should  be  viewed  as  a  premium  to  compensate  the  in- 
security  prevalent  in  California,  still  the  residue  would 
amount  to  three,  four,  or  live  times  tlie  ordinary  rate 
of  interest  in  England.  In  further  corroboration  of 
tliese  statements  wo  may  mention,  that  the  low  rate 
of  interest  in  Holland  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
17th  and  whole  of  the  18th  century,  was  not  owing  to 
any  jieculiar  abundance  or  cheapness  of  monej-,  but  to 
the  high  rate  of  taxation,  and  the  dilKculty  of  investing 
capital  with  profit.  And  to  this  latter  circumstance 
we  owe  the  low  rate  of  interest  in  this  country  toward 
the  middle  of  last  century,  and  at  several  later  periods. 
It  is  not,  in  aliort,  by  the  amount  or  value  of  the  cur- 
rencies of  different  countries,  Imt  by  the  means  which 
they  respectively  enjoy  for  tlio  profitable  employment 
of  capital  or  stoclc,  tliat  their  profit  and  interest  are 
governed. 

Tliat  a  rise  or  fall  in  the  value  of  money  can  have 
no  direct  influence  over  interest  is  plain  from  the  fact 
of  the  interest  being  itself  paid  in  the  mone;,  that  has 
risen  or  fallen.  But,  at  the  same  time,  a  ?udden  in- 
crease in  the  supply  of  money  may  undoulitedly  have 
a  temporary  effect  in  depressing  interest.  Importers 
of  'ullion  may  not  be  alile  to  lay  it  out  advantageous- 
ly in  purchases,  and  may,  in  .'onoi  ^uence,  lie  disposed 
to  liave  it  coined  and  lent,  thoi.^li  .it  a  low  rate.  We 
incline,  Iiowever,  to  thinic  that  the  influence  of  consid- 
erations of  this  sort  is  but  iiicon?iderable.  Lenders 
will  not  take  less  for  loans  than  the  borrowers  aro  will- 
ing to  ofl'er,  and  the  offers  of  the  latter  nmst  be  deter- 
mined not  merely  by  the  amount  of  money  seeking 
investments,  liut  partly  also,  and  in  a  still  greater 
degree,  liy  the  profit  that  may  lie  made  by  its  em- 
ployment. When  there  is  a  rapid  influx  of  money, 
loans  for  short  periods  are  usually  obtainable  at  low 
ratci.  This,  Iiowever,  is  not  generally  tlie  case  wi;h 
loans  for  lengthened  periojj.  The  leiiders  are  will- 
ing to  .'.ccept  a  reduced  interest  for  a  sliort  term, 
till  thoy  can  look  about  for  some  more  profitable 
mea.;  1  of  investment.  But  the  interest  on  loans  on 
mortgages,  or  for  lengthened  periods,  is  always  propor- 
tioned to  the  rate  if  prcfit  at  the  time  ;  and,  supposing 
the  security  to  be  unexceptionable,  is  but  little  aficct- 
ed  li^'  any  thing  else. 

The  profits  made  in  industrious  undertakings  nre, 
for  thi  i-'ost  part,  distributed  into  omss  and  m  II  profits. 
Tlius,  if  from  the  total  returns,  whether  unnual  or 
otherwise,  obtained  in  any  business  or  employment, 
we  deduct  all  sorts  of  outlays  necessarily  incurred  in 
carrying  it  on,  ncluding  the  wages  or  remuneration 
due  to  the  undertakers  for  their  skill  am'  trouble  in  su 
perintipuiing  tlio  business,  and  a  sum  to  coiiipensote 
the  ri-ks  provided  against  l>y  insurance,  tlie  residue  is 
the  nett  profit  of,  or  return  to,  the  capital  employed. 
And  it  is  on  this  latter  portion  that  interest  depends, 
or  rather  with  wliich  It  Is  usiiaily  identical.  Lenders 
liaving  nothing  to  do  with  tire  employment  of  capital, 
are  not  entitled  to  any  peculiar  advantage  timt  may 
arise  from  it.  Hut  tliey  are  cntitlcil  to  all  that  can 
fairly  lie  considered  as  the  return  to  the  capital  they 
have  lent,  after  tlie  risks,  salaries,  and  necessary  emol- 
uments of  those  who  undertake  its  employment  are 
deducted;  and  this  much,  speaking  generally,  they 
will  get,  and  no  more.  Whatever  else  may  be  real- 
ized by  tlio  employment  of  capital  in  industrial  pur- 
suits belongs  to  the  borrowers,  and  forms  the  fund  out 
I  of  which  tlicy  are  remunerated.  In  coming  to  tliis 
conclusion,  we  are  supported  by  the  authority  of  Mr. 
Tonke,     "  The  rate  of  interest,"  says  ho,  "  U  the 


INT 


1068 


INT 


meMuro  of  the  nett  profit  on  capital.  AU  returnj 
beyond  this  on  the  employment  of  capital  urn  renolv- 
alile  into  compensatlona,  under  dixtinct  headK,  for  risks, 
troubles,  or  skill,  or  for  advantages  of  situation  or  con- 
nection." (Considerations  on  the  Stutn  of  the  Currency, 
p.  12.)  Whatever,  therefore,  may  at  any  lime  occa- 
sion a  sudden  glut  of  money  or  capital  n\ay  lower  the 
lata  of  nett  profit  and  interest.  But  that  >  <>ry  circum- 
stance, by  increasing  the  d«(niand  for  capital,  uill 
eventually-  raise  the  rate  to  its  proper  level ;  and  the 
glut  liavmg  disappeared,  profits  on  interest  will  de- 
pend on  the  productiveness  of  industry'. 

Besides  such  variations  as  are  proportioned  to  variiu 
iions  in  the  ordinary  rate  of  profit,  and  which  e(iually 
aftiect  all  loans,  the  rate  of  interest  varies  according  to 
the  security  fur  the  repaymeni;  of  the  ])rincipal  and  the 
duration  of  the  loan.  Henco  the  powerful  influence 
which  the  character  of  the  borrower,  the  purpose  for 
which  he  borrows,  and  the  nature  of  the  business  !a 
which  ho  is  engaged,  have  over  interest.  Careful, 
skillful,  and  Intelligent  parties  always  borrow,  orteris 
Itaribus,  on  lower  terms  than  those  of  an  opposite  de- 
scription. 'Hie  spendthrift,  the  idle,  and  the  unskill- 
ful, can  with  dilficulty  obtain  loans  on  any  terms ;  and 
those  who  deal  with  them,  and  stipulate  for  a  high 
rate  of  interest  to  cover  their  risk,  frcriuently  find  that 
their  guaranty  is  inadequate,  and  that  they  would 
have  better  consulted  their  own  advantage  by  lending 
to  respectable  parties  on  the  usual  terms.  The  nature 
of  the  employment  in  which  liorrowers  are  engaged 
has  also,  as  now  stated,  a  powerful  effect  in  determin- 
ing the  rate  of  interest.  Wherever  there  is  risk,  it 
must  l)e  compensated.  A  sum  lent  on  mortgage  over 
a  valuable  estate  is  not  exposed  to  any  risk.  Hut  a 
sum  limt  to  a  manufacturer  or  a  merchant  engaged  in 
a  hazardous  business,  is  exposed  to  a  high  degree  of 
risk  ;  and  th(!  interest  payable  on  the  latter,  inasmuch 
as  it  must  include  a  premium  to  compensate  this  extra 
risk,  may  be  twice  or  thiee  times  as  much  as  that 
paid  on  the  mortgage. 

We  should  mistake,  however,  if  we  supposed  that 
this  circumstance  places  those  who  carry  on  parti<'u- 
larly  hazardous  businesses  in  a  lomparatively  disad- 
vantageous situation.  Competition  will  not  permit, 
taking  every  thing  into  account,  a  greater  nr  a  loss 
amount  of  nett  profit  to  l>e  perinanontly  obtained  in  one 
lirai'i'h  of  industry  than  in  amither.  The  produce  re- 
alized by  those  who  engage  in  employments  of  more 
than  ordinary  hazard  is  generally  sold  at  prices  that 
yield  the  orrlinary  rate  of  profit,  with  a  surplus  suf- 
ficient to  guaranty  their  stock  against  the  extra  risk 
to  which  it  is  exposed.  Were  it  otherwise,  every  body 
would  decline  placing  their  property  in  a  stale  of  coni- 
pavativo  danger,  and  undertakings  of  .-i  hazardou.'.  na- 
ture would  not  l»e  entered  into.  Hut  it  very  fieiiuently 
happens,  that  the  manager  of  a  hazarilous  branch  of 
industry,  paying  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  for  loans,  rea- 
lizes larger  nett  profits  than  the  purchaser  of  an  estate 
with  money  borrowed  at  3  or  4  p     cent. 

Supposing  the  security  to  lie  equal,  capital  lent  for 
a  fixed  and  considerable  |)eri-id  always  fetches  a  higher 
rate  «f  interest  than  that  which  is  lent  for  short  pe- 
riods, or  which  raav  be  demanded  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  lender.  There  are  but  few  modes  of  safely  em- 
ploying loans  of  which  the  duration  is  so  uncertain,  so 
that  they  are  frequently  w-orth  s  ery  little  ;  ami  hence 
the  ratii  of  Interest  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  in  part 
■t  leant,  dotermin'"d  by  the  length  of  the  loan  ;  for, 
when  that  is  con'-iderable.  It  may  be  productively 
era|ib>yed  in  a  variety  of  businesses,  in  whicli  it  would 
ant  therwise  be  prudent  ti>  imett  it,  at  the  sametinn 
thjvn  the  borrower  has  time  t>i  prcp;ir«-  for  its  repay- 
mfikt.  But  this  princijile  has  "b1\  <  «Hglit  influence 
«\^r  loans  tor  terms  beyond  three,  or,  nt  most,  five  | 
yoirs  ;  for  a  loan  for  either  of  these  t»rnis,  hot  espe- 
cially  the  latter,  may  be  emplovcd  in  a  «roat  variety  of 
ways,  and  would  bring  nearly  ..s  much  interrft  us  it 


would  do  were  it  for  10  or  12  years.  It  is  further 
to  be  observed,  that  largo  classes  of  borrowers  prefer 
the  less  interest  whicli  they  get  for  advances  at  sliort 
dates  to  the  higher  rate  which  they  ndght  get  were 
thej  for  longer  terms.  .Most  people  wish  to  have  the 
full  command  of  their  ca|iital.  Merchants  end  manu- 
facturers who  lent  im  mortgage  would  in  so  far  iliiprivo 
themselves  of  the  means  of  extending  their  busmess, 
and  of  speculating.  And  ''ough  sometimes,  perhaps, 
this  might  bi,  for  their  advantMi;e,  yet  the  tlattcring 
opinion  which  most  people  enteri:,in  of  their  own 
sagacity  and  gO(i<l  fortune,  would  but  seldom  pennit 
ihem  to  doubt  that  it  was  a  very  serious  disadvantage. 
Hence  the  low  rates  at  wliicli  bunking  companies  who 
pay  the  sums  deposited  with  them  on  demand,  end  gov- 
ernments overwhelmed  with  delit  are  ablu  to  borrow. 
A  stockho'.ler's  mortgage, .  r  "laini  on  the  revenue  of  a 
country,  rac  -  be  imuiediately  converted  into  cash  at 
the  current  prices.  Anrl,  however  much  the  majority 
of  the  creditors  of  a  deeply  indebted  country  may  bo 
impressed  with  a  conviction  of  its  inability  to  dis- 
charge the  various  claims  upon  it,  each  individual, 
confident  in  his  own  good  fortune  and  foresight,  flat- 
ters '  .nself  that  he,  at  all  events,  will  foresee  tlie  com- 
>  g  tempest,  and  be  able  to  sell  out  before  a  |ii:blic 
bankrujitry. 

ilt  is  eviilent,  from  those  statements,  that  in  addi- 
tion to  tlie  security  for  loans  and  their  durati(jn,  the 
rate  of  interest  will,  to  a  considerable  extent,  depend 
on  the  facilities  afforded  for  enforcing  or  carrying  out 
the  stipulatiims  in  contracts.  Ar''.  hence  a  main  cause 
of  its  reduction  as  society  is  more  and  more  improved. 
Generally,  it  maj-  be  said  that  a  speedy,  cheap,  and 
effectual  process  for  securing  the  payment  of  delits, 
has  a  powerful  tendency  to  lower — and  a  slow,  costly. 
and  ineftVctual  process,  to  raise — the  rate  of  interest. 
In  most  countries,  extraordinary  means  are  taken  to 
compel  payment  of  bills ;  and  this  is  a  principal  cause 
of  the  low  rate  at  which  they  are  commonly  dis- 
counted. The  easy  enforcement  of  contracts  consti- 
tutes, in  truth,  an  important  portion  of  the  security 
for  a  delit.  By  a  good  security,  is  not  meant  a  guar- 
anty that  a  loan  will  ultimately  bo  made  good,  but 
that  it  will  be  punctually  paid  when  due  ;  or,  if  the 
loan  be  of  a  kind  that  a  little  delay  in  its  payment  '3 
usually  given,  that  that  delay  will  not  be  exceeded, 
and  that  it  will  be  paid  within  the  customary  term. 
\  security  whidi  should  insure  the  final  payment  of  a 
debt,  but  which  should  not  insure  its  payment  when 
due,  01  shortly  thereafter,  is  not  a  good,  l)Ut  a  liad  secur- 
ity. It  is  indispensable  to  the  transacting  of  business 
safelj',  cheaply,  and  expeditiously,  that  there  should 
1)0  as  little  dou'it  as  possible  either  in  regard  to  the 
payment  of  loans  or  the  term  wli^n  they  are  to  lie 
paid.  If  cither  of  these  points  be  doubtful.  Lie  lender 
will  insist  on  an  indemnity  for  the  consequent  risk. 
And  it  therefore  appears  tliat  the  summary  proceed- 
ings taken  to  enforce  payment  of  bills,  and  such  like 
debts,  are  in  truth  and  reality  more  for  the  advantage 
of  tlio  borrowers  than  of  tlie  lenders.  They  reduce 
tiie  rate  of  interest ;  and  the  hardship,  such  as  it  is, 
which  they  occasionally  inflict  on  the  liorrower,  docs  not 
occur  in  one  case  out  of  live  hundred  ;  while  their  pow- 
erful influence  in  depressing  interest  tells  In  every  case. 

t/rpfci-.— In  (irooce  the  rate  of  interest  was  not  regu- 
lated by  law  j  and  it  couseqmntly  varied  with  all  the 
causes  of  variation  above  alluded  to.  Generary,  how- 
ever, it  was  what  we  should  reckcm  very  high,  amount- 
ing, in  mo.st  cases,  to  from  10  to  18  per  cent.,  and 
upward.  This  high  rate  of  interest  was  not  occasioned 
by  a  high  rote  of  profit,  but  by  the  uncertainty  of  the 
laws,  and  the  facilities  which  they  afforded  to  fraudu- 
lent debtors  to  defeat  the  just  claims  of  their  creditors. 
The  Interest  on  money  lent  on  hollomrij.  or  on  the 
security  of  tho  ship  or  cargo,  or  both,  was  rated  .it  so 
much  per  voyage.  It  therefore  depended  on  the  plac« 
to  which  the  ship  was  to  sail,  tho  season  of  the  ycar> 


INT 


1060 


INT 


,  0('l'i\S 

linty  iif  the 
ti)  frauilu- 
ir  creditors, 
or  oil  the 
riiteil  lit  HO 
in  tlic  i)liic« 
if  the  yean 


the  chance  of  meeting  pirates  or  enemies'  ships,  etc. 
Usually  it  was  extremely  great,  varj-Ing  from  30  to 
SO  or  (JO  per  cent.  The  bankers  and  money-lenders  of 
Athens,  though  of  low  origin,  being  mostly  freedmen 
or  aliens,  appear  to  have  lieen  considered  as  eminently 
trustworthy,  and  entitled  to  the  public  confidence. 
But  they  were,  notwithstanding,  quite  as  unpopular, 
and  fur  no  better  reasons,  as  the  Jews  and  Lombards 
of  the  middle  ages.  Wo  are  surprised  that  so  learned 
a  writer  as  Bueckh  should  have  l>een  so  mibued  with 
the  vulgar  prejudice  against  them  as  to  state  that 
they  drew  upon  themselves  "  the  merited  hatred  of  all 
classes."  lie  should  have  known  that  it  has  not  been 
the  covetousness  of  bankers,  but  that  bad  lawf  admin- 
istered liy  interested  judges,  by  making  loans  insecure, 
and  driving  parties  of  the  highest  respectability  from 
the  l>anking  business,  have  been  alone  to  blame  for  the 
exorbitant  usury  of  ancient  as  well  as  of  modem 
times.  Had  contracts  lieen  properly  enforced,  the 
|.ri)li.il)IUty  is  that  interest  would  have  been  as  low  in 
(Jrei'i  n  as  in  England. — Boecku  H  Public  Economy  of 
Atheii',  vol.  i.,f>\).  KM -191. 

Altimtila  til  limil  the  rale  of  interest  have  railed  it. — 
Instciid,  however,  of  leaving  the  rate  of  interest  to  be 
adjusted  by  e  free  competition  of  the  parties,  on  tiia 
primiple.s  tlius  briefly  e.\plaine(l,  or  endeavoring  to 
reduce  it  by  facilitatin;,'  tl'o  enforcement  of  ccintniets, 
most  governments  liiiva  interfered,  eitlier  entirely  to 
priihiliit  the  takiug  of  interest,  or  to  fix  certain  rates 
wliiili  might  lie  legally  exacted,  while  any  excess 
over  tliein  was  decl'red  to  be  msmi//,  and  proliiiiited 
under  the  severest  penalties.  In  the  ages  in  which 
these  enactments  had  thoir  origin,  the  precious  metals 
were  the  only  species  jf  inoiiey,  and  were  considered 
quite  peculi;ir.  lieing  u.sed  in  a  double  jap.icity — as 
stimdiirds  by  wliich  to  a.scertain  the  values  of  differ- 
ent articles,  and  as  tliu  eiiuivalents  fur  which  they 
were  most  frequently  exchanged — tlii^y  inquired  a 
fiictitiuiis  importance  in  the  estimatior  not  merely  of 
tbe  vulgar,  but  of  persons  of  the  greatest  discernment. 
The  fact,  that  to  buy  aud  to  sell  Is  merely  to  barter 
one  commodity  fur  unutlier,  to  exchange  a  quantity  of 
cor  [,  or  cloth,  or  beef,  for  a  quantity  of  gold  or  silver, 
anil  vice  i-emi,  was  entirely  overlooked,  The  atten- 
tioi.  was  gradually  transferred  fniin  the  money's  worth 
to  the  money  itself.  And  the  wealth  of  states  and  of 
individuals  <Kiia  not  measured  by  the  amount  of  thc'r 
disposable  produce,  or  by  the  quantity  or  laliie  of  the 
orticlus  with  which  they  could  afford  to  purchase  the 
preciuis  metals,  liut  by  tlie  quantity  ot  value  of  these 
laelals  actually  in  their  possession.  I'or  llieso  and 
other  reasons,  money  has  lieen  cunsidered  as  a  nier- 
chanilisc  par  ejrcellmn'.  And  we  need  not,  tliereforc, 
be  Kiirpri-sed  at  the  mens'ires  to  which  tlio  prevalence 
of  such  e::agi.'iTateil  opinions  almost  necessarily  led  ; 
or  that  vigoious  efforts  slimild  have  been  made  to  pro- 
t  ct  those  who  wore  unprovided  with  so  powerful  an 
iustriiiuent  from  liecoming  a  (irey  to  their  more  fortu- 
nate neighliors.  Imlividuals  might  freely  dispose  of 
their  corn,  cai'le,  land,  etc.  Hut  it  was  supposed  that 
the  demand  for  money  might  lie  so  great,  as  to  enable 
the  lenders,  unless  restrained  in  their  exactions,  to 
ruin  tiie  borrowers,  and  engross  tlie  whole  property  of 
the  country. 

Aniitlier  cause  of  the  prejudice  against  stipulating 
for  interest  grew  out  of  tlie  dislike  entertained  to  ac- 
cumulation. It  is  a  consequenco  of  i  cononiy,  or  of  a 
saving  of  income ;  and  this,  in  rude  ages,  is  considered 
indicative  of  a  sordid  disposition,  and  as  being  posi- 
tively huRlul.  Prodigals  and  spendthrifts  were  long, 
and  perhaps  still  continue  to  lie,  the  favorites  of  the 
iiublic.  lieforo  tliu  naluro  and  functions  of  capital 
WMre  properly  understood,  it  was  lielieved  that  it  could 
noi  lie  increased  without  injury  to  individuals,  and 
that  wliatever  advantage  it  might  give  to  one  party 
must  occasion  an  equal  disadvantage  to  others.  Our 
ancestors  did  not  know  that  those  who,  by  their  econ- 


omy, accumulate  stock,  a  Id  to  their  own  wealth,  with- 
out diminishing  that  of  any  one  else ;  nor  did  they 
know  that,  when  expended,  as  is  almost  always  the 
case,  in  the  support  of  p.-oductive  industr}',  this  stock 
affords  the  means  of  producing  an  Increased  income. 
But  reckoning,  as  they  i'id,  that  the  3avlags  of  indi- 
viduals were  so  much  withdrawn  from  hicome  In  which 
the  public  would  otherwise  have  participated,  it  was 
natural  enough  that  they  should  endeavor  to  limit  tho 
advantage  derivable  from  their  employment. 

Much,  also,  of  the  prejudice  against  bargaining  for 
Interest,  prevalent  In  the  middle  ages,  may  be  traced 
to  the  authority  of  certain  texts  of  Scripture,  which 
were  understood  to  prohibit  its  exaction.  It  is  doubt- 
ful, however,  whether,  they  will  really  bear  that  in- 
terpretation. And  supposing  that  they  did,  nothing 
could  be  more  irrational  than  to  regard  the  municipal 
regulation  of  a  people  placed  in  such  peculiar  circum- 
stances as  the  Jews,  as  general  and  fixed  principles,  ap- 
plicable In  all  ages  and  countries,  (Miciiaelis  On  the 
Imw»  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.,  33(j,  English  translation .)  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  famous  reformer  Calvin 
was  one  of  the  first  to  emancipate  himself  from  the 
prejudices  formerly  so  prevalent,  especially  among 
religious  people,  against  taking  Interest.  He  com- 
ments as  follows  on  the  statement  of  Aristotio,  that  as 
money  did  not  produce  money,  no  return  could  be 
equitably  claimed  liy  the  lender: — "  Pecunia  non  parit 
pecuniam.  Quid  marc  ?  quid  domus,  ex  cujus  loca- 
tione  penslonem  percipio  ?  An  ex  tectis  et  parietibus 
argentum  propriii  nascitur?  S3d  et  terra  producit,  et 
niari  adveliitur  quod  pecuniam  dcindi!  producat,  et  habi- 
tationis  commoditas  cum  certii  iieciunia  parari  coniinu- 
tarive  solet.  Quod  si  igitur  plus  ex  negotiatione  lucrl 
perci|  i  possit,  quam  ex  fundi  ciijusvis  proventu;  an 
feretiir  qui  fundem  sterilem  fortasso  colono  locaverit 
ex  (juo  mere  edem  vel  proventum  recipiat  sibi,  qui  ex 
pecunia  fructuin  aliquem  perceperlt,  non  feretur  ?  ct 
qui  pecunia  fuiiduin  acquirit,  annon  pecunia  ilia  gen- 
eral alteram  annuam  pecuniam?  Unde  vero  merca- 
ton  s  lucrum  '<  Ex  ipsius,  inqulcs,  diligentia  atque 
iiidustriu.  (Jills  dubitet  |)ecuniam  vaciiam  inutilem 
omnino  esse  ?  neque  qui  h  me  mutuam  rogat,  vaeuam 
apiid  se  habere  h  ino  acceptam  cogitat.  Non  erga  ex 
pecunia  illi'i  lucrum  accedit,  sed  ex  proventu.  Ilia! 
igitur  rationes  subfiles  quidem  sunt,  et  speciem  qiian- 
dam  habent,  sed  ulii  prL,aus  cxpenduntur,  scipsa  con- 
cldiirit.  Nunc  igitur  concludo  judicanduiu  de  usuris 
esse,  non  ex  porticulari  aliquo  Scriptura;  loco,  sed  taii- 
tiii  1  o.x  a'lpiitatis  .-egula."  Ciuoted  liy  Dugald  Stew- 
art III  hh  Notes  to  his  Prelimiiiari/  Dissertation  to  tlie 
EncAjchpmdia  Britannira. 

Hut,  whatever  may  have  led  to  tlie  efforts  so  gener- 
ally made  to  limit  or  suppress  interest,  it  Is  aliundant- 
ly  certain  tliiit,  instead'  of  succeeding  in  their  object, 
tliey  hud  an  oiiposite  eflcct.  If  a  licrrower  consider 
it  for  his  ad"antage  to  offer  li,  7,  or  8  per  cent,  for  a 
loan  (and  otherwise  he  would  not  make  the  offer),  wliy 
should  tlio  legislature  prohibit  him  from  offerin;r,  and 
the  lender  from  receiving,  more  than  3,  4,  or  5  |ier 
cent.?  An  interference  of  ibis  sort,  besides  being 
uncalled  for  and  unnecessary,  i ,  in  a  high  degree  preju- 
dicial. Restrictive  laws,  instead  of  reducing,  uni- 
formly raise  the  rate  of  interest.  They  can  not  be  so 
framed  as  to  prevent  borrowers  from  engaging  under- 
hand, to  pay  a  liiiihcr  rate  of  interest  tlian  is  fixed  by 
statute.  And  If  tho  lenders  had  implicit  confidence 
in  the  secrecy  iiinl  .ailvciicy  of  tho  llorro\ver^,  tliey 
might  accoiainodatc  tlieiii  witli  the  sums  wanted,  with- 
out requiring  nny  additional  interest,  because  of  tlie 
illogalfty  of  tho  transiu  tlon.  liut  cases  of  this  sort 
are  extremely  rare.  (Jralitude,  and  a  sense  of  licne- 
fits  receivcil,  iire  l.ut  slender  securities  for  honoralde 
conduct.  Numberless  unforeseen  events  occur  to 
weaken  and  dissolve  tlie  best  cemented  friendships ; 
and  a  transaction  of  tliis  kind  would  afford  an  addi- 
tional source  of  jealousies  and  divisions.     In  such 


INT 


1070 


INT 


mattera,  Indeed,  men  are  more  than  nsually  sharp- 
sighted,  and  are  little  disponed  to  trust  to  moral  guar- 
antees for  the  security  of  their  propertj'.  Hut  though 
neither  the  thrcatenings  of  the  law,  nor  the  induce- 
ments which  it  hold  out  to  dishonest  debtors  to  recede 
froi  I  the  stipulations  into  which  they  had  entered, 
were  able  to  prevent,  or  even  greatly  to  lessen,  what 
are  termed  umriout  bargains,  they  rendered  them 
moro  oppressive.  Thcj-  ol]liged  the  lenders  to  demand, 
and  the  borroiyers  to  undertul<e  to  pay  a  rate  of  inter- 
est sufficient  to  yield  the  current  rate  of  nett  profit  ot 
the  time,  with  a  further  sum  to  Imlanco  the  risk  of  en- 
tering into  what  the  low  made  an  illegal  transaction. 
This  latter  sum  boin,,,  of  course,  proportioned  to  the 
greater  or  less  magnitude  of  the  risk  to  be  provided 
against,  it  Increased  or  diminished  according  as  the 
laws  for  the  prevention  of  usurj-  wero  enforced  or 
relaxed.  AVhencvcr,  under  the  old  system,  the  mor- 
ket  rate  of  interest  rose  almve  the  statutorj-  rate, 
the  free  transfer  of  capital  was  olistructed.  Parties 
could  no  longer  look  merely  to  their  own  advantage. 
And  loans  which  might  have  been  obtained  for  0,  7,  or 
8  per  cent.,  had  there  lieen  no  hazard  from  anti-usuri- 
ous statutes,  were  raised,  on  its  account,  to  R,  10,  and 
12  j>er  cnt,  '  It  is,  therefore,  plain  that  if  the  moans 
talvcn  to  put  down  usury  wero  not  wholly  rejiponsiblo 
lor  its  existence,  they,  at  all  evenis,  added  largely  to 
its  amount. 

Tliese  conclusions  do  not  rest  on  theory  only,  but 
are  supported  tiy  a  wide  an<l  uniform  experience.  In 
Home,  during  the  repulilic,  tlic  ordinary  rate  of  inter- 
est was  excessively  high.  Tlio  del)tors,  or  pleI)oians, 
were  every  now  and  then  threatening  to  deprive  their 
creditors,  wl>o  wero  genorally  of  tlie  patrician  order, 
not  only  of  the  interest,  but  of  the  principal  itself. 
Uejieated  instances  ocourrcrt  to  sliow  tliat  tlie.ie  were 
not  mare  empty  threats  ;  and  tlie  patricians  inilcmni- 
lied  themselves,  by  :i  corresponding  premium,  for  the 
dangers  to  which  they  were  exposed.  "  Dcb  conti- 
nuels  changements,"  says  Slontesqiiieu,  "  soil  par  des 
ioix,  eoit  par  des  plebiscites,  naturaliserent  h  Rome 
Insure  j  car  les  crcunciers,  voyant  le  peuple  leur  de- 
liiteui,  lewr  legislateur,  et  leur  juge,  n'curent  plus  de 
couliance  dans  les  contrats.  Lc  peuple,  comme  un  debi- 
tcur  decredite,  ne  tentoit  i  lui  prefer  que  par  des  gros 
[irofits ;  d'autant  plus  que,  si  les  ioix  no  venoient  quo  de 
temps  en  temps,  les  pbiintcs  du  pcuplo  etoient  continu- 
eiic",  e^  intimiduieiit  toujours  les  crcanciers.  Cela  (It 
que  tous  les  moycLs  honnetes  de  pretor  et  d'emprunter 
fiirent  aliolia  Ji  Rome,  et  qu'une  usuro  affreuse  tou- 
jours foudfoyoe,  et  toujours  renaissante,  s'y  otalilit. 
I.e  nial  vei.„ient  de  ce  quo  les'choses  n"avoient  pas  6t6 
menages.  Lea  Ioix  extremes  dans  le  bien  fi'Ut  naitre 
le  mill  extreme ;  il  fallut  payer  (wnr  le  jpret  do  I'argent, 
et  pour  lc  'knger  des  peines  do  la  loi." — Esprit  dta 
htis,  liv.  xxii.,  c.  '21. 

In  Moliammcdan  countries,  notwithstancyng  the 
proliil)'tion  in  tlie  Koran,  the  ordinary  rate  of  interest 
is  at  least  thioo  or  fo\ir  times  as  great  as  its  ordinary 
rate  in  Europe.  "  I.'usuro  -.ugmente  dans  les  pays 
IMaliomcfans  ii  projjortion  do  la  scverite  de  lu  defense : 
k-  preteur  s'iudimnise  du  peril  de  ia  contravention." 
Il)id.,  liv.  xxi.,  c.  19.  During  tiie  n'iddlc  .iges,  when 
interest  was  excessively  high,  the  rate  of  profit  was 
probably  little,  if  at  all  biglicr  tha.i  at  present.  But 
it  sliould  1)0  observed  that  a  very  great  maj'irity  of  tho 
loans  of  tiicse  ages  wero  but  little  influenced  iiy  its 
amount.  Tliey  were  not  nia  '"  to  bo  invested,  but  to 
tic  s|pent.  The  greiit  liarons  a.nl  other  landed  proprie- 
tors were  the  principal  liorrowers.  .*."it  in  I!)  out  of 
every  20  instances,  tlio  sums  wldi'li  they  liorrowed  ' 
were  expiiiiled  in  tho  maintenance  of  cMwds  of  idle  i 
retainers,  in  warfare,  or  in  prodigalities  of  some  sort 
or  otiiur.  And  while  the  borrowers  belonged  gener- 
ally to  what  wo  should  now  call  l!>e  spendthrift  class, 
and  thero  were  no  eflic'ont  ineaus  (/•■  compelling  them 
to  abide  by  their  engagements,  tho  lenders  wero  but 


few  In  number,  and  mostly  Jews  and  Italians,  the  cb. 
Jects  of  the  most  unreasonable  prejudices.  Under 
such  circumstances.  It  would  bo  folly  to  suppose  that 
the  rate  of  interest  shnnld  depend  In  any  conslJerat)le 
degree  on  the  rate  of  profit.  Tho  numbers,  position, 
and  character  of  tho  borrowers,  compared  with  tlio 
fewness,  position,  and  character  of  the  lenders,  and 
the  risk  to  which  tho  latter  were  exposed  in  entering 
into  such  transactions,  occasioned  tho  «>/,es8lvely  high 
rate  of  interest.  Of  the  50  and  even  100  per  cent, 
which  borrowers  then  frequently  e.igaged  to  pay  as 
interest,  not  more  than  10  or  12  per  cent,  can  properly 
be  said  to  have  Iteen  given  for  the  productive  services 
of  loans.  Tho  rest  must  be  considered  as  occasioned 
partly  by  the  extreme  scarcity  of  disposable  capital 
and  the  carelessness  of  the  borrowers,  and  partly,  and 
princiiMlly,  as  a  honu»  to  compensate  the  lenders  lor 
the  imminent  hazard  of  losing  the  principal. 

Xnt/lauil. — In  England,  as  in  most  other  countries, 
Christi:tn8  wore,  after  the  Conquest,  absolutely  pro- 
hibited, both  by  the  civil  and  tho  ecclesiastical  law, 
from  bargaining  for  inter'-st,  But  as  ,Iew8,  according 
to  the  Mosaic  law  (Deuteronomy,  chap,  xxiii.,  v.  20), 
were  allowed  to  lend  at  an  interest  to  a  stranger,  its 
exaction  by  them  was  first  connived  at,  and  sulise- 
quently  authorized  by  law.  And  the  same  privilege 
was  afterwanl  extended  to  tho  Italian  or  Lomliard 
merchants.  In  conseiiuenco  of  this  exemption,  many 
Jews  early  settled  in  Kngland,  and  engrossed  a  largo 
share  of  the  trade  of  tho  kingdom.  But  despite  tlieir 
industry  and  general  good  conduct,  tho  prejudices 
against  them,  and  against  the  liusiness  in  which  they 
wero  mostly  engaged,  wore  so  very  strong  that  they 
and  their  families  wero  regarded  as  slaves  of  the  crown, 
by  wliom  they  wero  plundered,  to  an  extent  and  un- 
der pretenses  which  would  now  appear  incrcdilile. 
To  such  an  extreme,  indeed,  wero  these  oppressive 
practices  carried,  that  a  particular  office,  called  tho 
erifteqiier  of  the  Jews,  was  cstablislied,  for  receiving 
the  sums  extorted  from  them  in  fines,  customi,  tal- 
lages, forfeitures,  etc.  They  were,  in  consequence, 
oldiged  to  charge  an  enormous  rate  of  interest,  or,  as 
Madox  exjiresses  it,  "to  fleece  tho  sulijects  of  the 
realm  as  the  king  fleeced  them."  (Maddx's  History 
of  the  Exchequer,  vol.  i.,  pp.  22t  2fil,  4to,  17(i!).)  And 
hence,  while  only  from  7  to  10  and  12  per  cent,  inter- 
est was  paid  in  i  iiuntries  where  sounder  principles  pre- 
vailed, tho  rate  charged  in  Kngland  was  ,1, 4,  and  even 
5  times  as  great.  At  Veron.i,  in  122H,  the  interest  of 
nionej-  was  fixed  by  law  at  12^  per  cent.  Toward  tho 
end  of  tho  Mth  centurj-,  tlio  repulilic  of  (Icnoa  paid 
only  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  to  her  creditors;  anl  the 
average  discount  on  good  liills  at  Barcelona,  in  li;).5, 
is  stated  to  have  lieen  about  10  per  cent.  But  wliilo 
interest  in  Italy  and  Catalonia,  wluro  a  consiilerablo 
degree  of  freedom  was  allowed  to  tlie  parties  bargain- 
ing for  a  1  lan,  was  thus  comparatively  moderate,  it 
was,  despite  its  total  proliiliition,  incomiiaraldy  liigher 
in  Franco  and  Kngland.  Mattiiew  Paris  nientioiis 
that,  in  tho  reign  of  Henry  HI.,  the  delitor  paid  10 
percent,  every  two  months.  And  this,  though  impos- 
sible as  (•  general  practice,  ma,'  not  have  been  ven.' 
far  from  tho  average  interest  charged  on  the  few  loans 
that  were  then  contracted  for.  (IIai-i-aji's  Middle 
Ages,  vol.  iii.,  p.  102.) 

But  in  tho  end  tlio  I'isordera  occasioned  by  tliis  rain- 
ous  system  tiecamo  so  olivious,  that,  notwithstanding 
tlie  deeply-rooted  prejudi  es  to  the  contrary,  a  statute 
was  passed  in  IMfi  (;!7  Hen.  A'lII..  cap.  7),  legalizing 
interest  to  tlio  extent  of  10  per  cent,  per  annum  ;  lie- 
cause,  as  is  recited  in  the  words  of  the  act,  ilie  stat- 
utes "prohibiting  interest  altof;cther  have  so  little 
force,  that  little  or  no  punishment  liatli  ensued  to  tho 
offenders."  In  the  reign  of  !Mwiird  VI.,  tlie  liorror 
against  interest  seems  to  have  revived  in  full  force ; 
for,  in  lfif)i,  the  faking  of  any  was  again  prohibited, 
"  as  a  vice  most  odious  and  detestable,"  and  "contrary 


INT 


1071 


INT 


'•) 


receiving 
onii,  tttl- 
cquenco, 
or,  as 
of  the 
lUttorij 
And 
inter- 
ilos  pre- 
nnil  >'vcn 
;urcst  of 
:ir.t  the 
(will 
uni  the 

,  ii,  i-i;!"), 

!ut  whilo 
il(t(/rulile 
Inirgiiin- 
ilcniti',  it 

liiniier 
nii'iitions 
.  liil  10 
;li  iinpos- 
ocn  vcn' 
few  loans 

Middle 

tlii?  rflin- 
[stiimling 
a  stiitnte 
cualizing 
mm  ;  !><!- 
,  ilic  stat- 
s<i  little 
I'd  to  tlio 
lie  liorror 
nU  force; 
roliiliited, 
•  contrary 


to  the  word  of  God."  But,  In  nplte  of  thin  dtnuncin- 
tlon,  the  rate  of  interest,  instoad  of  being  reduced, 
immediately  rose  tn  14  per  cent,,  and  continued  at 
thin  rate  until,  in  1571,  an  act  wn«  paKscd  (lilth  V.Wz., 
cap.  8),  repealing  the  act  of  Kdward  VI.,  and  rcviv- 
ing  tlie  act  of  Hcnrj'  VIM.,  allowing  10  per  cent,  in- 
terest. In  th«  preamlde  to  this  act  it  is  stated,  "  I'hat 
the  prohllilting  act  of  King  Kdward  VI.  had  not  done 
BO  much  good  as  was  ho]ied  for ;  but  that  rather  the 
vice  of  usurj-  hath  much  more  oxceodinglj*  abounded, 
to  the  utter  undoing  of  many  gentlemen,  merchants, 
occupiers,  and  others,  and  to  the  Importable  hurt  of 
the  commonwealth."  This  salutary  stotnte  was  op- 
posed, even  by  those  who  should  have  known  Iwttor, 
with  all  the  violence  of  superstitious  fanaticism.  Dr. 
John  Wilson,  s  man  famous  in  his  day,  and  celebrated 
for  the  extent  of  his  learning,  informed  tho  House  of 
Commons,  of  which  he  was  n  member,  that  "it  was 
not  the  amount  of  the  interest  taken  that  constituted 
tlie  crime ;  hut  that  all  lending  for  any  gain,  bo  it  ever 
so  little,  was  wickedness  before  flod  and  man,  and  a 
d,imnat)le  deed  In  itself,  and  that  there  was  no  mean 
in  this  vice  any  more  tli.m  In  murder  or  theft."  To 
quiet  tho  consciences  of  tho  bishops,  a  clause  was  in- 
serted, declaring  usury  to  be  forbidden  by  tho  law  of 
(!od,  and  to  be  In  its  nature  sin,  and  detestable.  This 
statute  was  limited  to  a  period  of  five  years;  but, 
"  forasmuch  us  it  was,  l)y  proof  and  experience,  found 
to  be  very  necessarj-  anil  profltalde  for  the  common- 
wealth of  this  realm,"  it  was,  in  the  same  reign,  made 
perpetual  (.Sltth  Eliz.,  cap.  18). 

In  tho  21st  of  James  I.,  tho  legal  rate  of  interest 
was  reduced  to  8  per  cent.,  by  on  act  to  continue  for 
seven  years  only,  but  which  was  made  perpetual  In 
tlio  succeeding  reign  (M  Car.  I.,  cap.  4).  During  the 
Commonwealth,  the  legal  rate  of  interest  was  reduced 
to  6  per  cent.,  a  reduction  which  was  afterward  con- 
firmed liythe  12th  Car.  II.  And,  finally,  in  the  reign  of 
(Jiieen  Anne,  a  statute  (12th  Anne,  t^ip.  Ifi)  was  framed, 
reducing  tho  rate  of  interest  to  ."i  per  cent.,  at  which  it 
stood  till  1839.  In  the  preamlile  to  this  statute,  it  is 
stated  that,  "  whereas,  the  reducing  interest  to  10,  anil 
from  thence  to  8,  and  tlience  to  fi,  in  the  hundred,  hath 
from  time  to  time,  by  experience,  lieen  found  very  bene- 
ficial to  the  advancement  of  trade  and  the  improvement 
of  landa.  It  is  liecome  olisolufoly  necessary  to  reduce 
the  high  rate  of  interest  of  ii  per  cent,  to  a  nearer  pro- 
portion to  tho  interest  allowed  for  monny  in  foreign 
States."  It  -Koi  f..r  these  reasons  enacted,  that  all 
bargains  or  contracts  stipulating  for  a  higher  rate  of 
interest  than  5  per  cent,  should  lie  utterly  void.  And 
"  that  all  persons  who  should  after  that  time  receive, 
liy  means  of  any  corrupt  bargain,  loan,  exchange, 
chevizance,  or  interest,  of  any  wares,  merchandise,  or 
other  thing  whatever,  or  by  any  deceitful  way  or 
means,  or  liy  any  covin,  engine,  or  deceitful  convey- 
ance for  the  forbearing  or  giving  day  of  payment,  for 
one  whole  year,  for  their  money  or  other  thing,  above 
the  sum  of  £.5  for  £100  for  a  year,  should  forfeit,  for 
everj-  such  offense,  tlie  treble  value  of  tho  moneys  or 
other  things  so  lent,  liargaine^d,"  etc. 

Scotlnmi and  fr<l(iiid.—ln  Scotland  previous  to  the 
Eeiormation,  no  interest  could  be  legally  charged. 
Hat  that  great  event,  liy  weakening  the  force  of  those 
religious  prejudiccj  which  had  chiefly  dictated  the 
prohibition  of  interest,  led  to  the  adoption  of  more 
liberal  opinions  on  the  suliject,  and  to  the  enact- 
ment of  the  statute  of  1587  (llth  Pari.,  .Inc.  VI.  cap. 
52),  which  legalized  interest  to  tho  extent  of  10  per 
cent.  In  1633  the  legal  rate  was  reduced  to  8  per 
cent.,  and  in  1661  to  6  per  cent.  The  statute  of  Anne, 
reducing  tlio  rato  of  interest  to  5  per  cent.,  extended 
to  both  kingdoms.  The  statutes  proliibiting  the  tak- 
ing of  interest  m  Ireland  were  not  repealed  until  1(!36, 
when  the  statute  10th  Car.  I.,  cap.  22.  gave  liberty  to 
.stipulate  for  any  rate  riot  exceeding  10  per  cent.  In 
t"04  this  rate  was  reduced  to  8  per  cent. ;  in  1722  it 


WM  reduced  to  7  per  cent. ;  and  In  1782  it  wan  further 
reduced  to  0  percent. 

f'rance.— In  France  the  rato  of  Interest  was  fixed 
at  6  per  cent,  so  early  as  1886 ;  and  this,  a  few  short 
intervals  only  excepted,  continued  to  be  tho  legol  rato 
till  the  Revolution.  Ijiverdy,  In  1766,  reduced  it  from 
5  to  4  per  cent.  Instead,  however,  of  the  market  rato 
lieing  proportionally  reduced,  it  was  raised  from  6  to  6 
per  cent.  Previously  to  tlie  promulgation  of  the  edict, 
loans  might  have  been  olitained  on  good  security  at  5 
per  cent. ;  but  an  additional  per  cent,  was  afterward 
required  to  cover  the  illegality.  This  caused  the 
speedy  abandonment  of  the  measure.*  The  same 
thing  happened  in  Livonia  in  1786,  when  the  Empress 
Catherine  reduced  interest  from  6  to  6  per  cent.  Hith- 
erto, says  Storch  (in  loco  cilalo),  those  who  had  good 
security  to  offer  were  able  to  borrow  at  6  per  cent. ; 
but  thenceforth  they  had  to  pay  7  per  cent,  or  upward. 
And  such  will  be  found  to  be  invariably  the  case,  when 
the  legal  is  less  than  the  market  rate  of  interest. 

It  has  been  observed  by  Adam  Smith,  that  tho  stat- 
utory regulations,  reducing  interest  in  Kngland,  were 
made  with  great  propriety.  Instead  of  preceding, 
they  followed  the  fall  which  was  gradually  taking 
place  in  tho  market  rate  of  interest,  and,  therefore, 
did  not  contribute,  as  they  would  otherwise  have  done, 
to  raise  that  which  they  were  intended  to  reduce.  Sir 
Josiah  Child,  whose  treatise,  recommending  a  reduc- 
tion of  interest  to  4  per  cent.,  was  originally  published 
in  1668,  f  states,  that  the  goldsmiths  of  London,  who 
then  acted  as  bankers,  could  obtain  as  much  money  as 
they  pleased,  upon  their  servants'  notes  only,  at  4J 
per  cent.  The  supposed  insecurity  of  the  revolution- 
ary establishment,  and  the  novelty  of  the  practice  of 
funding,  occasioned  tlie  payment  of  a  high  rate  of  in- 
terest for  a  large  portion  of  the  sums  borrowed  by  tho 
public  in  the  reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne.  "  But 
private  persons,  of  undoubted  credit,  could  then  bor- 
row  at  less  than  5  per  cent.  During  the  i-eign  of 
George  II.  the  market  rote  of  interest  fluctuated  from 
3  to  4  and  +J-  per  cent.}:  Smith  mentions  that  tlie  in- 
creased means  of  profitablj'  investing  capital  acquired 
during  tho  war,  terminated  liy  the  peace  of  Paris  in 
17C3,  raised  tho  market  rate  of  interest  to  a  level  with 
the  statutory  rate,  or  iierhaps  higher.  IJut  it  was  nut 
until  the  subsequent  European  war  that  any  ver^'  ma- 
terial or  general  inconvenience  was  found  to  result 
from  the  limitation  of  interest  to  0  per  cent. 

It  is  neccssarj',  however,  to  otiserve,  that  this  re- 
mark applies  exclusively  to  loans  negotiated  by  indi- 
viduals who  could  offer  unexceptional'lo  security ;  for, 
since  tho  act  of  1714,  jiersons  engaged  in  employments 
of  more  than  ordinarj'  hazard,  or  whose  character  for 
prudence  and  punctuality  did  not  stand  high,  or  who 
could  only  offer  inferior  security,  were  unalne  to  bor- 
row at  5  per  cent.,  and  were  consequently  compelled 
to  resort  to  a  variety  of  schemes  for  defeating  or  evad 
ing  the  enactments  in  tlie  statute.  Tho  most  common 
device  was  the  sale  of  an  annuity.  Thus,  siipposuig 
an  individui,!  whose  personal  credit  was  indifterent, 
and  who  had  only  the  life-rent  of  an  estate  to  give  in 
security,  wished  to  iiorrow,  he  sold  an  annuitj'  to  tho 
lender  suflieient  to  pay  tho   interest  stipulated  for, 

•hich,  because  of  the  risks  and  odium  attending  such 
transaction;-,  was  always  liigher  than  the  market  rate, 
and  also  to  pay  tho  preminm  necessary  to  insure  pay- 
ment of  the  principal  at  the  death  of  tho  Imrrower. 
It  is  curious  to  ol)serve,  that  though  the  sale  of  an  ir- 


•  Storch,  Traitf  d' B-nilomfe  Politique,  torn.  111.,  p.  18T. 

t  A  sectiud  edition,  very  greatly  enlarjicd,  was  puliHshed 
lu  1600. 

X  On  thu  ISth  Dr'ciiihlicr,  \1Vii,  the  3  per  cents,  brousht  tho 
hiKhest  price  they  have  hitherto  reached,  namoly,  lOCj  per 
cent.  Oil  tile  yOrh  of  September,  170T,  the  day  on  which  tlio 
failtiro  of  Lord  Malnicsbury'B  attempt  to  negotiutc  with  tho 
French  republic  transpired,  coneole  fVU  to  4T|,  being  the 
lotrcst  price  at  which  they  have  ever  been  sold. 


INT 


1072 


WT 


I 


redeemabh  llf*  anDulty,  at  a  rato  exceadlng  lagal  in- 
terest, waa  not  reckoned  fraudulent  or  uaurtoua,  yet, 
■o  late  as  1743,  I.ord  Ilardwicke  held  that,  in  their  less 
exceptionable  form,  or  when  they  were  ndeemable, 
their  siile  could  be  looked  upon  in  no  other  light  than 
as  an  invasion  of  the  statute  of  usury,  and  a  loan  of 
money.*  Hut  the  extreme  inexpe<lienry  of  this  dis- 
tinction soon  became  obvious,  and  the  law  was  changed. 
The  great  extension  of  the  traffic  in  annuities,  and  the 
advantage  of  giving  as  much  publicity  as  possible  to 
•urh  transactions,  led  to  various  inquiries  and  regula- 
tions res|)ecting  them  In  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.  In  consequence,  ths  su'  i  ^  Irredeemable 
annuities  became  nearly  unknown ;  and  it  was  ruled, 
that  the  sale  of  a  redoeniuble  annuity  could  not  Iw 
impeached,  though  it  ap|>eared  on  the  face  of  the  deeds 
that  the  Icniler  had  secured  the  principal  by  effecting 
an  assurance  of  the  borrower's  life. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  French  revolutionary 
war,  the  usury  laws  operated  to  the  prejudice  of  all 
classes  of  borrowers.  The  greater  extent  and  high 
interest  of  the  public  loans,  the  facility  of  selling  out 
of  the  funds,  the  regularity  with  wliich  the  dividends 
were  paid,  and  the  temptations  to  speculation  arising 
from  the  fluctuations  in  tlie  price  of  funded  property, 
diverted  so  large  a  portion  of  the  floating  capital  of  the 
country  into  the  coA'crn  iif  the  treasury,  that  it  was 
next  to  Impossilde  fur  private  indiviiluals  to  Imrrow  at 
the  legal  rate  of  interest,  except  from  the  trustees  of 
public  companies,  or  througli  the  influence  of  circum- 
stances of  a  very  neculiar  nature.  Hence,  the  prupri- 
etors  of  unencumbered  freehold  estates,  of  which  they 
hud  tbu  absolute  disposal,  were  very  generally  oldiged, 
when  they  had  occasion  for  loans,  to  resort  to  those 
destructive  expedients  which  had  formerly  been  the 
resource  onl}-  of  spendthrifts  and  persons  in  desperate 
circumstances. 

Committee  on  Umrt)  Lawt. — The  evidence  annexed 
to  the  "  l{c|)ort  of  thn  (lommittee  of  the  House  of 
Conimons,  in  1H1«,  mi  the  Usury  Laws,"  sets  their 
impolicy  and  pernicious  influence  in  a  clear  light,  Mr, 
Sugdcn,  now  I.ord  St.  Leonard,  stated  that  when  the 
market  rato  of  interest  was  alvjve  the  legal  rate,  the 
landed  prupriutor  was  compelled  to  resort  to  some  shift 
to  evade  the  usur>-  laws.  He  had  "  known  annuities 
granted  fur  three  lives,  ut  10  per  cent.,  upon  fee-simple 
estates,  unencumliered,  and  of  great  annual  vulue,  in 
a  register  county,  lie  hud  also  known  annuities 
granted  for  four  lives  j  and  more  would  have  been 
added,  but  fur  tlie  danger  of  equity  setting  aside  tlii 
transaction  on  account  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  con- 
sideration. I..atterly,  many  annuities  were  grantcil  for 
a  term  of  years  certain,  not  depending  upon  lives." 
On  being  asked  wliether,  were  there  not  laws  limiting 
tlio  rate  of  interest,  better  terms  could  or  cuuld  nut 
have  l>een  obtained,  he  answered,  "  I  am  decidedly  >f 
opinion  tliat  better  terms  could  have  been  oljt 'iiied ; 
for  there  is  a  stigma  which  attaches  to  men  y,  bo  lend 
money  upon  annuities,  that  drives  all  rupoitublo  men 
out  of  the  market.  Some  leading  men  did  latterly 
embark  in  such  transactions,  l)ut  I  never  knew  a  man 
of  reputation  in  my  own  profession  lend  money  in 
such  a  manner,  although  we  have  ttie  best  means  of 
ascertaining  the  safest  securities,  and  of  olitaining  the 
best  terms." 

"The  laws  against  usury,"  says  Mr.  Holland,  of 
tlie  house  of  Messrs.  Daring  Brothers  and  Company, 
"  drive  men  In  distress,  or  in  Aant  of  money,  to  nmc'.i 
mure  dLsustrous  modes  uf  raising  it  than  tliey  would 
adopt  if  no  usury  luw.s  existed.  The  man  in  trade,  in 
want  of  money  for  an  unexpected  demand,  or  (iisa|)- 
pointed  in  Ids  returns,  must  fulliil  liis  engagements,  or 
forfeit  his  credit.  He  might  have  borrowed  money  at 
G  per  cent.,  but  the  law  allows  no  one  to  lend  it  to 


•  "  Connilerationt  on  the  Batt  of  Interetl," 
den,  Esq.,  PumpMeUw,  ToL  rUL,  p.  278. 


by  E.  B.  Sug.  I 


him;  and  ba  must  sell  soma  of  tha  commodity  ha 
holds,  at  a  reduced  price,  in  order  to  meet  his  engage- 
ments. For  example,  he  holds  sugar  which  is  worth 
80s. ;  but  ho  is  compelled  to  sell  it  immediately  for 
70s.  to  ihe  man  who  will  give  him  cash  for  it,  and  thus 
actually  l)orrow8  money  at  12|  per  cent.,  which,  had 
the  law  allowed  him,  he  might  have  liorrowod  from  a 
money  dealer  at  6  per  cent.  It  is  known  to  every 
merchant  that  cases  of  this  kind  are  common  occur- 
rences in  every  commerchil  town,  and  more  especlidly 
in  the  metropolis.  A  man  in  distress  for  money  pays 
more  interest,  owing  to  the  usury  luws,  than  he  would 
If  no  such  laws  existed ;  because  now  he  Is  obligojl  to 
go  to  some  of  the  disreputable  money-lenders  to  Iwr- 
row,  as  he  knows  the  respectable  money-lender  will 
not  break  the  laws  of  his  country.  The  dbireputable 
money-lender  knows  that  he  has  the  ordinary  risk  of 
his  debtor  to  incur  in  lending  his  money,  and  he  lias 
further  to  encounter  tlie  penalty  of  the  luw,  for  Imth 
of  which  risks  tlie  Iwrrower  must  pay.  If  no  usury 
laws  existed,  in  common  cases,  and  wliere  a  person  is 
respectable,  ho  might  obtain  a  loan  from  the  res|iectit- 
ble  money-lender,  who  would  theo  only  have  to  caUu- 
late  his  ordinary  risk,  and  the  coiK,iensatiun  fur  the  use 
of  his  money." 

Thn  committee  admitted  the  force  of  this  evidence 
by  agreeing  to  tha  following  resolutions:  "  1st.  That 
it  is  the  opinion  of  this  iMmmittue,  that  the  laws  regu- 
lating or  restraining  the  rate  o^  interest  have  l)con  ex- 
tensively evaded,  and  liave  failed  of  the  clfect  of  im- 
posing a  maximum  on  such  rate;  and  that,  of  Into 
years,  from  the  constant  excess  of  the  inaiket  rate  uf 
interest  al>ove  the  rate  limited  by  law,  tliey  have 
addt'ii  to  the  expense  incurred  liy  Iwrrowors  on  real 
security,  and  tliat  such  borrowers  have  lieen  compelled 
to  resort  to  the  mode  of  grunting  annuities  on  lives ;  a 
mode  which  lius  been  made  a  cover  for  obtaining  a 
liigher  rate  of  interest  than  the  rate  limited  liy  luw, 
and  has  further  sulijectcd  ilie  borrowers  to  enormous 
charges,  or  forced  tUem  to  make  very  disadvantageous 
sales  of  tlieir  estates.  2d.  That  it  is  the  opinion  of 
this  committee,  tliut  the  construction  of  such  laws,  as 
applicable  to  the  transactions  of  commerce  us  at  pres- 
ent carried  on,  have  been  attended  with  mucii  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  legality  of  many  transactions  of 
frequent  occi'  .'rence,  and  consequently  l>eon  product- 
ive of  much  embarrassment  and  litigation.  it<l.  That 
it  is  the  opinion  of  this  committee,  that  the  present 
|)eriod,  when  the  market  rate  of  interest  is  licluw  the 
legal  rate,  alTurds  an  opportunity  peculiarly  fav  ruble 
for  tile  repeal  of  the  said  laws." 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  recommendation  of  the 
committee,  and  tlie  cogent  evidence  iiii  wliicli  it  was 
founded,  the  popular  prejudice  continued  so  strong, 
that  it  was  nut  till  IHUO  that  u  stut'ito  was  passed,  tlie 
2d  and  3  Vict.,  cap.  37,  which  exempted  all  bills  ;f  ex- 
change and  promissory  notes,  not  bavin).'  iiiori'  than 
twelve  months  to  run,  and  all  contracts  for  sums  above 
t'lO  from  the  operation  of  the  usury  laws.  It  was 
supposed,  or  at  all  events  argii?d,  tliat  tlie  repeal  of 
the  usury  laws  would  tempt  such  individuals  us  bad 
money  to  lend,  to  indulge  in  those  mean  ami  discrcil- 
itablo  practices  which  characterize  the  loHcst  cla-^s 
of  money -dealers.  Hut  it  was  raoro  rensonalily  con- 
tended, tliat  ill  the  event  of  the  rate  of  interest  being 
left  to  be  adjusted  by  the  free  competition  of  the  par- 
ties, there  would  be  little  employment  for  inferior 
dealers.  Kxcept  wlion  the  market  late  of  interest  was 
below  the  hyal  rate,  the  usury  laws  prevented  all  per- 
sons, H  liose  credit  was  not  extremely  good,  from  oli- 
taining loans  from  capitalists  of  the  liighest  character, 
and  forced  them  to  have  icniurse  to  tliose  who  were 
less  scrupulous.  Supposing  the  markit  rate  of  inter- 
est to  be  il  or  7  per  cent.,  an  individual  in  ordinarily 
good  credit  may,  now  that  the  usury  laws  are  abol- 
ished, easily  obtain  a  loan  at  that  rate.  Hut  ,vhcn  the 
law  declared  that  no  more  tuaa  5  per  cent,  should  be 


INT 


lots 


INT 


Uken,  and,  eonaeqnently ,  afll  xed  «  apeclea  of  itl|{ma  to 
thoae  lenders  who  bargained  for  a  t  Igher  rate,  the  rich 
and  more  respectal>le  cni'it  li.Ht*  bi'ng  excluded  from 
the  n  >rket,  borrowtTA  .  obliged  to  renort  to  thou 
of  an  inferior  churactei,  i  »■ -.  In  addition  to  the  pro- 
mlum  for  the  risk  of  enterfi  into  an  illegal  transac- 
tion, received  an  indemnlflcation  for  the  oJium  which, 
in  inch  c.  8,  alwayn  attache!  to  the  lender.  It  is  idle 
to  attempt  to  secure  individuals  against  the  risk  of  im- 
position In  pecuniary  more  than  in  nr.y  other  species 
of  transactions.  And,  although  the  object  had  boeu 
desirable,  it  could  nnt  be  obtained  by  such  inadequate 
means.  The  usurj-  laws  generated  the  very  mischirf 
they  were  intended  to  suppress.  Instead  of  diminisli- 
ing,  they  multiplied  usurious  transactions,  and  •i^gii' 
vated  the  evils  they  were  designed  to  mitigate  or 
remove. 

Nothing  can  lie  more  unreasonable  than  the  clamor 
against  money-lenders,  because  of  their  exacting  a 
comparatively  high  rate  of  interest  from  •>  odigc''  ind 
spendthrifts.  This  is  the  most  proper  ..nd  etiivieut 
check  tl  ■  'an  1)0  put  U|Kin  oxtr  ivagance.  Supposing 
t'  vciirity  of  a  prodigal  and  an  industrious  man  to  h 
I  'ii,  'v  equal,  and  this  is  but  seldom  the  case,  the  cop- 
i  iVs*  who  lends  to  the  latter  in  preference  to  the 
former,  confers  a  service  on  the  community,  lie  pre- 
vents those  funds  which  ought  to  be  employed  in  sup- 
porting useful  lulwr,  am'  in  adding  to  the  puldio 
wnlth,  from  being  wasted  in  frivolous  or  pernicious 
puiMuits. 

But  i^rhaps  it  will  be  said  that  this  is  mistaking  the 
object  of  the  usury  laws ;  that  they  were  not  intended 
to  force  capitalists  to  lend  to  spendthrifts  on  the  same 
terms  as  to  industrious  persons,  but  to  protect  the 
prodigal  and  unwary  from  the  extortion  of  usurers,  b, 
making  any  stipulation  between  them  for  more  than  a 
given  rate  of  interest  null  and  void.  Hut  why  all  this 
solicitude  al>out  the  least  vaiuaiile  class  of  society? 
Why  fetter  the  circulation  of  capital  among  those  who 
would  turn  it  to  the  best  account,  lest  any  portion  of 
it  chance  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  those  who  would 
squander  it  away  ?  If  tlie  prevention  of  prodigality 
be  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  interference 
of  the  legislature,  prodigals  should  be  put  under  an  in- 
terdict ;  for  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  it  is  possible 
to  restrict  them.  It  is  not  by  l)orrowing  money  at 
high  interest,  but  by  contracting  <lobt8  to  dealers,  on 
whose  charge  tliere  is  no  check,  that  spendthrifts  run 
through  their  fortunes.  Bcntliam  has  justly  oliscrvcd, 
that  60  long  as  a  man  is  looked  upon  as  one  wlio  will 
pay,  he  can  much  more  easily  got  tiin  giHKis  he  wants 
than  the  money  to  liuy  tlieni  with,  thougn  ho  wore 
content  to  give  for  it  twice  or  tlirco  times  tlie  ordinary 
rote  of  interest.  How  contradictory,  then,  to  permit 
prodigals  to  l)orrow  (for  it  was  rcaily  imrrowini')  the 
largest  supplies  of  food,  clothes,  etc.,  at  2n,  30,  or  oven 
100  per  cent,  interest,  at  tiiu  same  time  that  wo  i,ro- 
hibited  them,  and  every  one  else,  from  liorrowing 
money  at  more  than  !y  per  cent.  ?  Instead  of  being  of 
any  service,  this  r.?striction  was  evidently  injurious  to 
the  proiligal.  It  narrowed  his  choice,  and  drove  him 
to  a  market  where  no  disgrace  is  attached  to  the  ex- 
action of  tho  most  exorliltant  interest,  and  wliere  he 
could  gfarcciy  escape  lieing  ruined. 

The  outcry  which  i  sometimes  raised  against  capi- 
talists for  taking  advantago  of  the  necessities  of  indui- 
trious  Individuals,  is  seldom  mucli  liettcr  founded  than 
tli,it  wliich  is  raisecl  against  thcni  fir  tailing  advantage 
of  the  prodigal  or  simple.  Parties  liorrow  acconling 
to  their  character  for  sobriety,  and  punctuality  in 
meetipjc  their  engagements,  and  according  to  the  pre- 
sumed state  of  their  aiTairs  «t  tlic  time.  To  mv  'M. 
a  capitalist  takes  advantage  of  tlie  ni'cessitics  oi  i, ' 
viduais,  is,  in  most  cases,  equivalent  to  saying  tli.i  !• 
refuses  to  lend  to  persons  in  suspiciivus  or  iieccsitiu,, 
'■ircumstances  on  the  same  tonus  ii^'  would  do  were 
they  in  good  credit,  or  were  there  no  doubt  of  their 
Y  Y  r 


solvency.  And  were  l.r  to  act  otherwisa,  would  hs  b* 
considered  fit  to  be  iptri  st«d  with  the  managamciil  ol 
bis  affairs  7 

But,  as  already  seen,  whatever  may  be  the  extortloa 
of  lenders,  the  usury  laws  did  not  check  it.  On  the 
contrary,  they  compellc  1  the  borrowers  to  pay,  ovei 
and  nliove  the  common  rate  of  interest,  a  prtmium  tc 
indemnify  the  lenders  for  the  risks  incurred  in  break- 
ing them.  They  attempted  to  remedy  what  was  not 
an  evil,  and  what,  consequently,  should  not  have  been 
interfered  with ;  and  in  doing  th'.s,  they  necesaaril)- 
V  .>"tod  a  real  grievance.  The  wisdom  ol"  an  act  of 
Pariiament  which  should  compel  the  uhderwriters  to 
insn-e  a  gunpowder  magazine  and  a  salt  warehouse  on 
»mo  terms,  would  not  be  very  evident.  Yet  it 
Wo.  id  not  be  more  absurd  than  to  enact  that  the  same 
rate  of  Interest  shall  be  charged  on  capital  lent  on 
goml,  on  Indifferent,  and  on  bad  securities.  "  It  is  in 
vain,  therefore,"  to  use  the  words  of  I.,ocke,  "to  go 
almut  effectually  to  reduce  the  price  of  interest  by  law, 
and  you  may  as  rationally  hope  to  set  a  fixed  rate 
upon  the  hire  of  houses  or  ships,  as  of  money.  He 
that  wants  a  vessel  rather  than  lose  his  market,  will 
not  stick  to  have  it  at  the  market  rate,  and  find  means 
to  do  it  with  security  to  the  owner,  though  the  rate 
were  limited  by  law;  and  he  that  wants  money, 
rather  than  loso  his  voyage  or  his  trade,  will  pay  the 
natural  interest  for  it,  and  submit  to  such  ways  of  con- 
ve^'ance  as  shall  keep  the  lender  out  of  reach  of  the 
luiV,"  ("Considerations  of  the  lowering  of  interest 
and  raising  the  value  of  money,  1C91,"  works,  vol.  ii., 
p.  7,  Ito,  1777.)  The  case  of  Holland  furnishes  a 
striking  proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  theory  we  have 
bcfn  endeavoring  to  establish.  The  rate  of  interest 
•as  been,  for  a  very  long  period,  lower  in  Holland 
tl.iin  anywhere  else  In  Kurope;  and  yet  it  is  the  only 
couiitrj-  in  which  usury  laws  have  been  altogether  uii- 
kuown,  where  capitalists  am  allowed  to  demand,  and 
l)orrowers  to  pay,  any  rate  of  interest.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, this  applies  only  tc  the  state  of  Holland  previously 
to  the  revolution  in  1795.  The  enactments  of  the  f'odo 
N""  (deon  were  subsequently  introduced;  but  it  ap- 
■  ^f'.  frou.  tho  report  of  the  Parliamentary  Commit- 
tf^'  1  the  usury  laws,  that  they  have  not  lieen  acted 
n\'  >i.  Notwithstanding  all  the  violent  changes  of  the 
f  i)vi;iii.  "-nt,  and  the  extraordinary  disturliance  of  her 
ti  mcial  concerns  since  1790,  the  rate  of  interest  fn 
l.oUand  has  continued  coiHpaiati\c.y  .  ..idy.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  of  that  period,  jiersons  who  could  offer 
unexceptionable  security  liave  been  able  to  borrow  at 
from  2  to  SJ^  per  cent. ;  nor  has  tlio  average  rate  of  in- 
terest cliarged  on  capital  advanced  on  the  worst  spe- 
cies of  security  over  exceeded  6  or  7  [H-r  cent.,  except 
w  .en  the  government  was  negotiating  a  forced  loan. 
It.  t.  in  this  country,  where  tiie  law  docLired  that  no 
more  than  5  per  cent,  sliould  lie  taken,  the  rate  of  iii- 
tei  t  'or  money  advanced  on  tho  licst  landed  security 
varieil,  in  the  same  [leriod,  from  5  to  16  or  17  per  cent., 
or  above  /ire  times  as  much  as  in  Holland. 

In  France  llie  usury  laws  were  abolished  at  the  Revo- 
lution ;  and  it  is  stated  tliat  tlicir  aliolition  was  not  at- 
tended liy  any  rise  of  i"'cre.st. — Stokch,  Keonumie. 
Polil  ■  ':  ,  torn,  iii.,  p.  187.  According  ta  the  Code  Na- 
poleon, only  t)  pel  cent,  is  allowed  to  be  charged  on 
commercial  loans,  and  .'i  per  cent,  on  those  made 
on  the  security  of  real  property.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  difficulty  in  evading  the  law.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  by  gi^ mg  a  boniia  before  completing  the 
transaction,  or,  wiii<  h  is  the  same  thing,  by  framing 
the  obligatir!i  f'l  r  the  debt  for  a  larger  sum  than  is 
really  advanced  iiy  the  lender.  None  of  the  parties 
pp-'icularly  interested  can  be  called  to  swear  to  the 
of  snch  bmius  being  given  ;  so  that  tho  transaction 
iininipcacliable,  unless  a  Shird  party,  privy  to  the 
■jei '  lemeni  of  the  alfair,  be  produced  as  a  witness. — E.1!. 
'  ..  .  ader  is  referred  to  M'Ccli.ooh's  £i»fiy  on /nto'- 
es'  'Hi  ^I'xchange,  pub,  in  Eankeri'  Mag.,  N«w  York. 


(XT 


1074 

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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MS80 

(716)  S73-4S03 


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1070 


BBT 


-  TABLES  OF  INTKBKST  AND  ANNUITIES. 

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4-810186 

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6-416888 

6-4T0716 

6-536681 

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6-866601 

6184711 

6-1051110 

6 

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6-801818 

61T6818 

7-158891 

7-889039 

7-688885 

7-715610 

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T-886184 

8-018158 

8-141008 

8-888888 

8-664031 

8133808 

9100485 

9-487171 

8 

8'8tt886 

8-114886 

8-880014 

9-648109 

9-8»r468 

10168808 

10-686638 

11-0884T4 

11-486838 

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10158106 

10-688796 

10-601114 

11-036564 

11^491816 
18-180Tt5 

11177989 

13-487568 

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18-679477 

10 

11-4«8ST« 

11-006101 

11-188108 

18«TT898 

18-816448 

14-486561 

15-193980 

16187425 

11 

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18-486861 

18-841^ 

14-906T3T 

149T164S 

16-788699 

16-646487 

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18-581167 

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16-085806 

16-464081 

18-91T13T 

16'86»941 

17888461 

18177186 

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18 

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16-6M888 

17-168918 

1T-T119S8 

18-888188 

10-14064-f 

81-495897 

11163386 

84-621712 

14 

1T'0868M 

18-881811 

18-981109 

18-698688 

31-016066 

11-560488 

14114930 

16-019188 

17-974988 

15 

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10-088688 

10-T84064 

11-6T8564 

181T69T0 

16-138038 

97-168114 

29-360916 

81-771482 

16 

S0-15638t 

81-884681 

11-T19887 

88-65T491 

15-6T8518 

87-888054 

80114388 

83-008899 

86149780 

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81T61688 

88-69T6I8 

14-741TIIT 

36840866 

18111880 

80-840117 

88-750336 

861TST06 

40-544708 

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SS'414486 

86-645418 

16-866084 

18-183886 

80-906668 

88199088 

87-450344 

41-801888 

456991T8 

11 

35-116868 

8T-6T1888 

18-068568 

80-689004 

88-T59990 

87-878965 

41-446368 

46118468 

61-168080 

M 

S6-8T0ST4 

89-T78079 

81-871438 

88-066964 

86-T36g01 

40995491 

46-761964 

51-160110 

6T1T4999 

SI 

S8-6T64S6 

81-969908 

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S6-T19861 

89101T3T 

44-866177 

60-433911 

66T64580 

64103499 

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84-347970 

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88-606114 

48-893390 

49-006739 

65-456765 

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28 

8t<4Bi884 

86-617889 

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11-4804T5 

46196838 

68-486141 

60-898296 

68-581988 

79-548024 

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84-486470 

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41-689196 

44-601999 

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68-176671 

66-7647S0 

76-789818 

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54-864513 

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68-676470 

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60-T11834 

64-669126 

68-T06T66 

74-488838 

87-860768 

108-718186 

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48-967688 

68-998888 

68-401588 

68-518118 

80-697691 

95-888880 

113  968117 

134109986 

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46118890 

68-966886 

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63-833T13 

78-639T98 

87-846539 

103-965986 

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148-680980 

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66  084888 

81-007070 

66-488848 

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94-460786 

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186807688 

164-494033 

81 

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64-T58888 

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84'8016TT 

103-073041 

118-845868 

149-6T531T 

181148435 

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61'T01469 

68-666346 

75-298839 

90-889778 

110118164 

184118537 

164-086geT 

801-187767 

88 

66'0n841 

66-ine68T 

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80-068111 

97-848166 

118188435 

146150610 

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811151544 

84 

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85-066969 

104-188756 

138168766 

16H-626670 

196132844 

146-476699 

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60-468088 

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81-496618 

90810807 

111-484780 

138186878 

172-316804 

115-T10766 

171034368 

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88-875944 

TT-698814 

86-168966 

86-886328 

118-130667 

148118460 

187-102148 

886134738 

399-126805 

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81-T0S146 

91-041844 

101-62S189 

137168119 

160-887403 

108-070880 

368176948 

880-088486 

88 

60-10844* 

86-9T0886 

86-188306 

107-709546 

185104106 

173-661030 

330-315946 

382-629788 

8641484S4 

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S04U9I50 

101-464434 

114-095028 

145«68458 

185-640893 

238141331 

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401-447773 

40 

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96-086516 

lOT-OSOSlS 

110-799774 

164-761966 

199-635111 

869-056619 

887-883445 

442-5925M 

41 

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99-886586 

113-846688 

187-S38768 

166-047684 

114-609570 

18D-781040 

869191866 

487-351311 

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80-083186 

104-819598 

118-924789 

186131751 

176-950545 

880-681140 

804143538 

408-628183 

687'636»92 

48 

86-488888 

110-018888 

136-176404 

143198888 

187-507577 

14T-TT6496 

838-588006 

440-846669 

602-4U0602 

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88-04$408 

116-412877 

181418848 

161-14S006 

198-758083 

166-180851 

366149646 

481-5S1TT6 

662-040761 

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•8-T18361 

181089898 

188  849965 

169-700166 

312-748614 

885-T48811 

886-605617 

525-368884 

T18104837 

44 

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126-870568 

146-098814 

168'686164 

134-60S135 

806-T51T68 

418-426067 

6T4-186031 

791-799321 

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100-886901 

188-949890 

168-673683 

178-119433 

341-086613 

839114386 

468-900153 

626'363T61 

871174853 

48 

104'4088M 

188268806 

161687908 

188-036898 

396-564529 

868170098 

490-183164 

684180411 

960-172S.<)8 

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108-540U8 

145-888784 

169-85086T 

198-426668 

372158401 

878199000 

680142787 

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1067-189672 

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118-786867 

168-667084 

lT8'5ae028 

308-847996 

390-385905 

406-528929 

678-770166 

816-083666 

1168103529 

51 

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188-778767 

18T-68S665 

310'816395 

808-756069 

486185055 

680-671769 

888-4410T6 

1281199882 

51 

181-696I8T 

167164718 

196-9T4T69 

283-856165 

838181423 

467-604871 

671-826610 

970-490778 

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58 

186-84T0S1 

174-861806 

306-838684 

846  498974 

848173808 

501180819 

736-081551 

1058  834943 

1652-4722,')J 

64 

181-187485 

188  845859 

31T-1468T8 

158-778938 

870117006 

587-816443 

785-114075 

1155-130083 

1708-719417 

55 

186-071680 

181-16eiT8 

t8T91T959 

373-713618 

894-17202T 

575128598 

848128101 

1360-001796 

1830-5!)14ri 

58 

141-1S876S 

199-806540 

389  1T4368 

387  348249 

418-823348 

617148594 

917-887058 

1874-500067 

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146-888881 

908-T9TT69 

350-98T110 

803-719662 

444-951689 

661-450646 

998164011 

1499109063 

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68 

161-730088 

818-149678 

164-329380 

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708-752191 

1078-646144 

1636-183518 

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50 

167-««KM 

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3T6-0T459T 

886-794017 

508-007718 

759-364844 

1150-466756 

1788-299686 

275S-014!liB 

80 

168.038487 

887-990696 

3S9-49T994 

868-588718 

583-123131 

818530888 

1158118296 

1944-793188 

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81 

168-945040 

I48-5108I8 

808-525862 

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1854470860 

3120-323439 

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176-018891 

159-450726 

818-184008 

891'8T6049 

601-082824 

983'46949T 

1468-327988 

3313-697583 

36T4-2273;JS 

68 

181-868798 

170-898754 

888-502283 

413-469851 

688-147798 

999-812851 

1681-984237 

3521840811 

4042'65U6-i'> 

64 

137701707 

182-661904 

849-509880 

484093844 

677-436661 

lOTO-199216 

1709'4ffi9«6 

3749-809989 

44»7-916(i>5 

66 

194-888758 

194-968881 

866137831 

456-798011 

719-082861 

1146-755161 

1847148088 

3998183474 

4893-70Ti51 

66 

80rt«n41 

807-767116 

888-718588 

4S0'63T918 

768127883 

1238-038038 

8369184486 

6884-07'97-i 

6T 

808-197628 

881-0TT8IIO 

401-986867 

606-669807 

810-031503 

1814183988 

3166-710164 

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5928-4S5776 

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116448651 

884-980918 

481-076281 

681958298 

859-622793 

1408-039283 

3830146977 

8886-148634 

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68 

89t-906S68 

848-817749 

441-028617 

559-560968 

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1507-602033 

2517166785 

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880-694064 

864-890459 

461-869630 

668-538511 

967182170 

1614-184174 

2790-080074 

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888611886 

879  862077 

488-663815 

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666-066875 

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1236-366679 

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467-976621 

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TT 

991-8640T5 

487-879686 

686559969 

8S68C0T35 

1468-806987 

3600-800779 

4670-668047 

8453'821115 

15879138994 

T8 

801-00I99T 

50T-770874 

666-205108 

8T9-0T3T61 

1663-634398 

3788-642833 

6046-316011 

9216120016 

16913127893 

T» 

811-08905T 

699-091708 

697184101 

934-02T449 

1646-793350 

2979-497831 

6449140211 

10045-430317 

186H-890138 

80 

881-868019 

661-814977 

719-557699 

971138831 

1746-599891 

8139162680 

6386135428 

10390-674090 

20474-002146 

81 

888-008908 

6T4-194T76 

763-387795 

1080-790268 

1868-396885 

8418197067 

6S68'890268 

11987186758 

22532-402360 

88 

848-964086 

598-266667 

798-740246 

10T3'829TT6 

1964-589688 

8658127868 

6868  601484 

18012-467077 

44T76-642696 

88 

864-86894T 

688-197280 

885-638657 

113T-4T1264 

1088-411016 

8809168813 

7419-039601 

14184-689114 

17354106856 

84 

866-880686 

649136119 

8T4'38981T 

It84-84483T 

3109-416787 

4184-690679 

8018-616770 

16462102184 

19980-637543 

85 

8n-8S6e68 

616-090184 

914-683886 

184B-08T068 

3843181741 

4478-576190 

8656-706118 

16654-800886 

81970-690896 

INT 


mil 


INT 


/  ( 


,  .AWvt^iW:..  TABLB8  OF  nmtEBST  AMD  AMMUmW, 

IT.— Tailb  iBOwnco  rai  FmncT  Vaiu«  or  am  Amkuitt  or  $1  n»  AnirifM,  to  m»im»vi  roil  Am  «iv««  XoMin 
or  Tbam,  r«oii  1  to  M,  »«cicoiiiwo  CoMroPMD  I«t«»mt,  at  »,  4, 4|,  0,  t,  1,  $,  t,  tntt  Vt  Ml  0»ii*. 


Ymm. 

tpvtul. 

tftfti. 

4|.|p«rual. 

tptrMlt, 

•  ptrMni. 

-MOST- 

^ffium, 

wptf  MMi 

ttuurn, 

MrWMM. 

■vtm* 

-961588 

■966988 

-951881 

f84A7P 

^iflBHEU 

'^iiliil 

l-TMIM 

l'tlM70 

1-88609B 

1-671668 

1-8SM10 

1-8UW8 

i'SSif 

'tSmSS 

HMllt 

8' 

3'8i8611 

l-n6091 

3-748964 

1-718148 

•■67W13 

'o77M97 

l'4S(Ma 

8-T170»8 

8-619895 

8-687516 

8-548«61 

8-466106 

SlWTStt 

'919197 

8'16(86S 

4'a7l70T 
B-4171l»l 

4-461811 
6141187 

4<889l>n 
M67871 

4-819477 
6'076691 

4-111864 
4'91?M4 

tiwitl 

««WM 

tlSSiii 

8-7(0787 
4486861 

8480188 

»00106B 

6'89170l 

6786878 

6-6<8a81 

A'WMif 

'901970 

9fMI9M 

4'86841( 

TDIMM 

6-781746 

6-0*6886 

6-468118 

6-309r»4 

^>M|iM 

749999 

ft^^ 

ffiS 

T-786100 

7-485881 

7-168790 

7-107833 

6^8016M 

I'MwN 

'fMiM 

6-580108 

8110896 

7^913718 

T711736 

T860U8T 

T'oSHb 

HiwSi 

MiTm 

(-M4667 

•'162614 

8-7604n 

8-688917 

8-306414 

t'88687B 

m 

7i9i9«4 

« 

(-496061 

•■154004 

»«8ti074 

9-118581 

8-668261 

8-886844 

m 

6-81(6(8 

10-684065 

9-986648 

9-688961 

9-398673 

8-863688 

S'ttf jpi 

7108866 

11-196078 

10663188 

10412825 

9-89S641 

9-394«84 

11*740409 

IjtSSm 

7-86(6(7 

11-087986 

11-118887 

10^789646 

10479668 

9-71334* 

9'i079i4 

7(06080 

IIMIIOI 

11-658896 

11^384016 

10437770 

10-106806 

0 '444449 

''19199  ' 

SSlSSi 

ifmuvi 

18-166118 

11-166669 

11707191 

11-174066 

ia-4n360 

9*749909 

*fii99  ' 

Sottas 

18-768618 

13-659197 

12169993 

11-689587 

10-887608 

10'0(I9097 

'97t9il 

('TMMft 

8301418 

14-8187M 

18188989 

11'593294 

11-086811 

11-168116 

iO'ftWWff 

tms 

S-MOllA 

8464930 

so 

14-877476 

18-&9«8i6 

18-007936 

18-468310 

11-469991 

lO'MMU 

UltSUt 

8(18564 

n 

15-416014 

14  019160 

18-404724 

13-821158 

ll-7640n 

lomim 

0;M««M 

tmu* 

('6486(4 

u 

16-986917 

14-451116 

18-784426 

18-168003 

ll'04ie6« 

t  -otrnt 

«'44I48» 

8771640 

t* 

16-448608 

14-856841 

14.147776 

18-488674 

11-SO8870 

(Mjlt^ 

9'bWtOl 

8-818918 

M 

16-985541 

16-146968 

14.495478 

JM98641 

11-660868 

(villi 

»'«84744 

as 

17-41814S 

15.t!1080 

14-828209 

14.093945 

11-788866 

ll'JWftii 

9-077040 

M 

17-876841 

16-«S1769 

16-146611 

14-876186 

18-006161 

}1S»{«» 

0'i09v79 

•  N89T9 

(1(0946 

ST 

18-817081 

16-819686 

16-451808 

14-648034 

18-810684 

w«w 

ittiimm 

(387338 

28 

18-764108 

16-668063 

16-742874 

U-898117 

18-406164 

t  urui 

iwmm 

9406667 

» 

19-188465 

16-983716 

16-021889 

15-141074 

I8-A90731 

JliTTBT* 

{HMUM 

l«i»81M 

('869606 

80 

19-600441 

17-898088 

16-288889 

15-378451 

18764881 

u-4m*i 

i-WTTH 

utiiim 

•■496(14 

81 

80-000438 

17-588494 

16-544391 

16-598811 

18-910068 

t|;6818l4 

!S 

ioinmat 

(479018 

8t 

80-888766 

17-878668 

16-788891 

15-803677 

14-084048 

»'4««H0 

9-636876 

88 

10-766791 

18-147646 

17-022882 

16-003549 

14'380Mft 

wtrnto 

«'4«4Mt 

(-569481 

84 

11181887 

18-411198 

17-346758 

16-198904 

14-868141 
14-49(li48 

1'  19994 

0'M7M6 

9608676 

86 

81-487110 

18-664618 

17-461011 

16-874194 

KMmi 

1'   4509 

10M6Mt 

9-614169 

86 

11-881168 

18-908181 

17-666041 

16-646858 

14-680987 

.     8(1 

1«;«1TM 

(-676608 

8T 

83-167886 

19142679 

17-862240 

16-711887 

14-786780 

W;U701T 

•'706917 

as 

^^^498468 

19-867864 

18-048990 

16-867898 

14846019 

Ollffl 

•'783651 

8» 

81-808115 

19-684486 

18-229666 

17-017041 

14-949076 

l'M4«l« 

»-t66«66 

40 

18114773 

19-792774 

18-401684 

11-159086 

16-048897 

ttmm 

lOWMO 

•-779051 

4t 

18-411400 

19-998061 

18-666109 

17-394868 

16-1(8016 

tnmm 

iwm 

lO-TMM* 

•■799187 

41 

8S-T01869 

10-186617 

18-718560 

17-488808 

16-834648 

ii^imt 

•'817897 

48 

18-981901 

80-870796 

18-874210 

17-646913 

16-806178 

19*509909 

9wMlO 

tmm 

t'Maigs 

U 

14164174 

10-648841 

19-018888 

17-668778 

16-888183 

J9'967909 

9*077^4 

iH-mm 

•  •491)89 

45 

84-018718 

20-710040 

19-166847 

17-774070 

16-4B668( 

wmm 

9'1(f94't9 

lA'Mllvr 

•'.169808 

4« 

M-n5441 

80-884664 

19-188871 

17880067 

15-514ST0 

wmm 

()8r4«« 

iwwmiai 

IS 

9476180 

4T 

15-014708 

11-041986 

19-414709 

17-981016 

16-e8»038 

18>«9M«I 

41IIIM 

94960)8 

48 

16-866707 

81196181 

19-686607 

18-077156 

16-650017 

18-710474 

9896936 

4> 

lS-601667 

81MI478 

19-651898 

18-168781 

15-707572 

l8-76679» 

l«'94SM4 

•406196 

80 

lB-719764 

81-48219U 

19-76-2008 

18-365936 

15-761861 

la-MOTM 

iim^ 

lOIMKtSS 

•'914814 

51 

1&'<61887 

21-617486 

19-867960 

18-888977 

16-818076 

U-tSMTS 

M'iStl^ 

«'»7401t 

•  911669 

58 

86-166140 

81-747581 

19-969880 

18-418078  . 

16-861898 

K'gWIM 

)('(7tAo6 

«'»*«!I40 

•'•3«599 

68 

86474990 

21-871675 

80-066345 

18-498408 

16-9069T4 

'  fl-tf^llW 

HIOMM 

•-988999 

64 

86-677600 

21998967 

90-169181 

18-566146 

15-049976 

19*910795 

mum 

•-•41X17 

55 

86-774488 

18-108611 

30-8180-21 

18-688471 

15W0648 

19*999999 

i*mt4 

I'OlimK 

•-•47107 

5« 

86-965464 

88  819819 

80-883034 

18-698646 

16-018814 

ICMHM 

fmm 

It-UMOll 

•■981916 

5T 

87160986 

83-886749 

80-414887 

18-760619 

16064S19 

i»*»»m 

}«-»444#t 

u-mm 

•■966896 

68 

17-331006 

38-4a96e7 

80-493886 

18  619642 

16-0(6960 

141KI84W 

lamiiui 

IHlMllS 

•400860 

6» 

87-505881 

81-618480 

80-566783 

18876764 

16-131118 

uwm 

t'Mmu 

11043410 

•408S78 

80 

17-676664 

11-618480 

30-688081 

18-939890 

16161488 

14<08»Ul 

mmn 

ti-«4fnn 

•467167 

81 

1T-8I0<58 

38-714894 

10-706841 

18-960876 

16-1(0086 

it^mmt 

\imm 

lOMWS 

•470148 

n 

IS-OOOMt 

38-801788 

80'771&88 

19-088634 

16-317008 
16-341468 

U'l«i(40 

tmum 

I'Dbim 

•472847 

68 

1S-16567S 

82-887891 

.30-888993 

19-O7000O 

1'0»*»71 

•476816 

64 

18'80t478 

22-968549 

30898778 

19119114 

16-8664T0 

nmm 

iiimm 

9477568 

66 

1S«18M 

98-046682 

80'«Sae79 

19-161070 

16-88(1(8 

i^mm 

ll'Ofo«»T 

•4710O7 

66 

18-8«5040 

88-K18I0 

81-006788 

19-301019 

168104(8 

U'Wm 

l^ 

m  UK 

9481461 

6T 

88-78S04( 

33-194048 

81-066107 

19-839066 

164806M 

u-mm 

•488147 

68 

18-867083 

88-368607 

31-108286 

19376801 

16-34(678 

14'14((80 

9'4mm6 

■  \nf  94^ 

'  tmuna 

«> 

88-997114 

38-880896 

81-156801 

19-809610 

16-8(7617 

U'UMir 

l«'4«*itM» 

wmtm 

•486071 

70 

19-1184U 

88«M516 

81-303118 

19-848677 

16-884644 

U'ltOHW 

H-mm 

i'0SM4» 

•-•97888 

71 

89446040 

88-466864 

31-346040 

19-878978 

I640061S 

14't«8A6« 

MMm 

ii-o»Mao 

•488«W 

71 

11-866087 

8S6166SI 

31-388077 

19-408788 

16-416678 

14'l76Wt 

)i'4M»7r 

•40635 

78 

89'48066T 

83-678780 

81-888808 

19483179 

16-4K791 

U'lt841li 

\tm 

•490487 

74 

MTMM6 

88-687635 

81-866797 

19-460318 

16-44SI(( 

U'llOm 

ivmnu 

t'ttmi 

76 

38-680408 

91-408684 

19-484970 

16-466848 

wtim 

ll;4ffl««4 

l-OWITM 

•■••1188 

76 

8»-807e(8 

88-7S1168 

81438684 

19-509496 

16-46n(l 

U'tOttOA 

ilWMM 

•■9M8&1 

77 

8»-«iom 

8S-7T996S 

31-478616 

19-638863 

16-47(089 

wmim 

ll'Mor 

li'O90M9 

•••8601 

78 

80-009910 

38-836868 

31-904396 

19«S6098 

1646(«e« 

14111(774 
14-11754} 

li^S 

•4M48 

7» 

SO-10«78« 

38-878008 

81-635786 

19-676184 

16-4(9679 

il» 

•4M480 

80 

80-100768 

S8-916893 

81-665846 

19«96460 

16-609181 

li'mm 

D'OMIM* 

•4^6118 

81 

SO-lllOOt 

SS-WITIOS 

81-598638 

19-616677 

16-6111048 

14434171 

H'mm 

9*479479 

|l-l«l«W 

•itIflMS 

81 

80-S80686 

3S<«^78M 

81-680700 

19-688978 

16536460 

i'477i99 

•4«M6« 

88 

aO-466668 

340(8787 

31-M66aS 

18-651407 

16-6848(6 

umitt 

9'47i97§ 

Ml 

•■WWW 

64 

80460086 

34-073873 

81-671890 

19-668007 

16-541888 

14-88711 

t^* 

0'99o949 

85 

ao«u6t 

S4-10e681 

11-6«6110 

19-688616 

16«48(47 

u-i4m 

'ism. 

INT 


1071 


lUT 


In  Hamburg  the  nto  of  Intartst  ii  qoIU  mmttM' 
od  {  or,  if  tUai*  bo  a  written  Uw  reftnining  it,  it  bw 
become  obioleta.  The  rate,  therefore,  varies  accord' 
ing  to  clrcomatances.  Occaaionally  It  ha>  been  at  7, 
8,  and  even  10  per  cent. ;  and  in  1799,  a  period  of 
great  mercantile  embarrassment  and  insecurity,  it  wa« 
as  high  at  14  per  cent.  Generally,  however,  the  rata 
of  discount  on  good  bills  does  not  exceed  8  or  4  par 
cent. — Rtport  on  Uiury  Lawt,  p.  40. 

In  Russia  the  legal  rata  of  interest  is  6  par  cant> 
But  as  Russia  is  a  country  capable  of  much  iiuprova' 
ment,  and  where  there  are  very  great  facilities  for  tba 
advantageous  employment  of  capital,  the  market  rat* 
of  interest  is  invariably  higher  than  the  statute  rata, 
and  the  law  is  constantly  and  easily  tvaiai.—Rmort 
oa  l/iurg  Laui,  p.  46 ;  and  Storch,  torn.  Ui,,  p.  W7> 

The  previous  statements  apply  only  to  ths  cases  of 
interest  arising  out  of  loans  made  by  one  party  to 
another.  But  there  are  cases  in  which  interest  m»Y 
became  due  without  being  stipulated  for,  by  unnecasr 
saiy  or  unjustiAabte  delays  in  the  payment  of  del>ts, 
or  by  trustees,  agents,  or  other  parties  coming  into 
possession  of  property  belonging  to  others,  etc.,  and  in 
these  it  Is  necessary  to  obviate  litigation,  that  tba  in, 
terest  to  be  charged  should  be  fixed  by  Uw.  This 
legal  rate  had  better  be  somewhat  below  the  ordinary 
market  rate,  and  may  be  adjusted  from  time  to  tinia 
us  circumstances  may  require.  But,  except  in  cases 
of  this  sort,  there  is  no  more  reason  for  interfering  tu 
regulate  the  rata  of  interest,  than  there  Is  tot  intafr 
fering  to  regulate  premiums  of  insurance. 

Dutmction  ofii '  ipfe  and  Compound  ItUmit. — When 
a  loan  ia  made,  it  is  -anal  to  stipulate  that  the  interest 
upon  it  should  be  regularly  paid  at  the  end  of  every 
year,  half  year,  elt..  A  loan  of  this  sort  is  said  to  ha 
at  simple  Interest,  It  Is  of  the  essence  of  such  loan 
that  no  part  of  the  interest  accruing  upon  it  should  ba 
added  to  the  principal  to  form  a  new  principal ;  and 
though  payment  of  the  interest  were  not  made  wlien 
it  becomes  due,  the  lender  would  not  be  entitlad  to 
charge  interest  upon  such  unpaid  interest.  Thus,  sup< 
pose  (100  were  lent  at  simple  interest  at  5  per  cant., 
payable  at  the  end  of  each  year ;  the  lender  would,  at 
the  end  of  three  or  four  years,  supposing  him  to  bava 
received  no  previous  payments,  be  entitled  to  tl(  or 
$20,  and  no  more. 

Compound  Interttf. — Sometimes,  however,  money  or 
capital  is  invested  so  that  the  interest  is  not  paid  »t 
the  periods  when  it  becomes  due,  but  ia  progressively 
added  to  the  principal ;  so  that  at  every  term  a  nair 
principal  is  formed,  consisting  of  the  original  prin^l' 
pill  and  the  successive  accumulations  of  interest  upon 
interest.  Money  invested  in  this  way  is  said  to  b« 
placed  at  eompotmd  uUereti.  It  appears  only  reasonv 
ble,  when  a  Iwrrowir  does  not  pay  the  intereft  he  baa 
contracted  for  at  the  period  when  it  is  due,  ttiat  ba 
should  pay  interest  npon  such  interest.  This,  boNT' 
ever,  is  not  allowed  by  the  law  of  England  |  nor  is  it 
'allowed  to  make  a  loan  at  compound  interest,  But 
this  rule  is  easily  evaded  by  taking  a  new  olillgatton 
for  the  principal  with  the  interest  included,  whan  tlw 
latter  beconles  dae.  Inveetments  at  compound  inter' 
est  are  also  very  fkwquent.  Thus,  If  an  individual 
buy  into  the  funds,  and  regnlariy  buy  fresh  stock  with 
the  dividends,  the  capital  will  increase  at  cowpowtd 
interest ;  and  so  In  any  similar  case. 

Caktjaiion  of  Inlerett. — Interest  is  estimated  at  so 
much  per  cent,  per  annum,  or  by  dividing  tba  prinai' 
pnl  into  100  equal  parts,  and  specifying  how  man;'  of 
these  parts  are  paid  yearly  for  its  use.  Thus  5  par 
cent.,  or  6  parts  out  of  100,  means  that  $5  are  paid  for 
the  uaa  of  «100  for  a  year,  tlO  for  the  use  of  ffUO, 
$2  50  for  the  use  of  f  ftO  for  the  same  period,  aod  so  on, 

liany  attempts  have  bean  nude  to  oontiiva  axpadi' 
tloua  processes  far  calcnUting  interest.  The  tumV' 
ing  is  one  of  the  best :  Sappoea  it  were  required  t« 
find  tba  interest  upon  tl72  for  107  daya  at  5  par  MRt. 


ntn  feriM  wtMt  t§  tmiM  ht  •ritlnnatleal  book*  • 
dMiMa  nk  «t  thr«t  ^tmtkm,  and  would  be  stated  h 
follow*  ( 

fi,    IAHr«>  //,       /,,    tiiifM. 

mxM  tkn  mxm-^ht  interest  required. 
Ilanca  U>  #»4  ttm  inUifiitt  ut  any  sum  for  any  number 
of  day*  ut  nny  Mt«  fW  ««»(.,  mottlply  the  snm  by  the 
numimr  of  Atkjfit,  m4  (Im  prnAnei  liy  the  rate,  and  di- 
^\Hti[»ym,m{mt/,m)i  «Im  qtwtlent  is  the  inter. 
**t  nx|H(nNii>  WIm)  IIm  Mt«  is  ft  per  cent.,  or  l-20th 
of  tha  yiimAmi,  ail  (iMt  \»  reqitired  Is  to  divide  the 
pfodfWt  f>f  (Ha  imn  tH«MfA\«i  hf  the  days  by  7300 
(fif^,  tba  ^y»  Iff  •  ymif,  MNMfrfled  by  20).  Five  per 
cant.  <Rl«rM»t  Mnk  UmnA  tiy  (fits  extremely  simple 

firo#*4«,  ft  f*  iMtMl  M  ttfUMAite  to  calculate  4  per  cent. 
Htaiwet  tt¥  A^AtwHnu  hfifk )  9  per  cent,  by  deducting 
t-M»  f  ii  mr  utint,  hy  tlhUntig  by  2 ;  2  per  cent,  by 
taking  Urn  httUiifi,  ««d  to  m, 

In  mitiHilMfin  hitDnH  upon  aeeoants  current,  it  is 
rmttMtt  t#  Mutt*  t(M  MMHlwr  «f  days  between  each  re- 
m\^  wr  ptymtmt,  IUi4  tlM  lU'a  (commonly  the  Slst  of 
Imomtmh  t#  wNMt  Um  «««e«nt  carrent  Is  made  up. 
Tbws,  |m  {Mi4  m  tint  1Mb  of  September,  bearing  In- 
t«r««t  t0  tb#  tlH  sf  Vmmmhiit,  i(n  days.  The  amount 
of  eWAb  lll(«r«*(  NMrj  titm,  be  ealenlaled  as  above  ex> 
platflad,  oH)f  tb«  m4  0f  tabl«M, 

Tb«  WMb  tlHum  k,  «f(«f  the  81  st  of  December,  the 
must  wawl  d*l«  t«  irMeb  aeeonnts  cutrxnt  are  mode 
wp,  *n4  intMmt  «frf#«l«t«d.  It  Is  desirable,  in  calcu. 
litiftg  UtUirmt  m  lUmOhUi  enttimt,  to  he  able  readily 
to  0n4  (b«  Humtmr  of  tinfn  from  one  day  in  any  month 
t«  »Hy  4l/  bl  H»y  «(lm  MMntb.  This  may  be  done 
witb  tb«  KfSHtmii  mm  \if  means  of  the  following  uble : 

T4»M  rm  mmwfimiim  tM*  Mcaam  or  Dais  rsoH  aht 
imn  MAt  m  «M«  f  a^a  to  aar  oinaa  Day. 


x 

I 

1 

11  i 

i 

i' 
1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

M 

m 

m  m  m 

m 

918 

944 

974 

806 

885 

^i 

m 

§1 

mim  m 

m 

lf4 

946 

976 

80« 

886 

» 

u 

M 

mi  mm 

iSi 

9IR 

94< 

97« 

807 

887 

4' 

tf 

M 

umm 

M 

«» 

947 

977 

80S 

.sas 

6 

w 

H 

mmm 

m 

917 

24« 

978"!  809 

889 

t 

w 

W 

»t,m.m 

m 

918 

94V 

r,i  j  810 

810 

f 

w 

M 

In 

m]m 

m 

m 

960 

im 

811 

841 

«" 

m 

#f 

m 

m.m 

m 

an 

261 

981 

812 

812 

» 

# 

m 

#» 

mm 

m 

99"j 

2.W 

282 

818 

848 

W 

4i 

m 

untim 

m 

m 

999 

•2M 

988" 

814 

844 

»i 
If 

49 

4* 

» 

tm  m 
m  m 

m 

m 

m 
m 

m 

914 

964 

9.W 

2S« 

816 

846' 

285 

818 

846 

» 

44 

»  m'm 

iM 

m 

995 

96« 

29« 

817" 

847" 

u 

« 

njim  iM 

m 

m 

Hi 

967 

287 

818 

848 

u>~ 

41 

14 :  m  m 

m 

IM 

997 

969 

288 

819 

849 

f«" 

4f 

iimm  m 

m 

iff 

998 

26» 

289 

820 

860 

»r 

¥r 

Miffff.W 

m 

m 

m 

9«0 

990 

821 

861"" 

1* 

m 

11 

(«»|M 

m 

m 

m 

9«1 

291 

822 

862 

(» 

M' 

ii 

UW 

m 

m 

m 

981 

2«9 

999 

828 

868 

9D 

fii 

19 

m 

(ft 

m 

m 

989 

m 

9«8 

894 

86t 

«t 

M 

m 

Hi 

i4i 

m 

m 

m 

9«4 

8»4 

886' 

856 

w 

ir 

if  iHi 

m 

m 

m 

iSi 

9«6 

9i5 

89« 

866 

m 

H 

Mlyl(» 

i«f 

iU 

M 

986 

9M 

99< 

827 

867 

a 

» 

wl 

iU 

i44 

m 

ax 

nit 

9«7 

99T 

828 

868 

«fi 

w 

H 

m 

m 

m 

m 

98* 

9<8 

998 

899~ 

"869 

w 

w 

m 

tu 

m 

Iff 

wf 

988 

9« 

999 

880 

800 

»r 

m 

ftr 

m 

ur 

m 

m 

m 

"970 

too 

881 

861 

it 

M 

«r 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

971 

Ml 

889 

'862 

,, 

w 

Iff 

m 

flS  *f«lMl' 

979 

809 

8CS 

868 

W 

- 

«» 

m 

iS9 

18^^1949 

978 

808 

8S4 

864 

»f 

«» 

'"_' 

»riT^!*f§Tfti8 

■• 

804 

^.. 

886 

11^  tbi#  t«bb*  M«f  be  readily  ascertained  the  numlwr 
of  my»  ttim  imf  f(iten  day  in  the  year  to  another. 
Vm  ittnUum,  ftim  tb«  jxt  of  January  to  the  14th  of 
AttHmt  (Afli  mi  Uti  dayx  Included),  there  are  22G 
ilay*/  'f«  Ha4  <b«  «WMb«r,  look  down  the  column 
km»i  immif,  t«  %»,  14,  and  then  look  along  in  a 


INT 


1070 


mt 


r,i  810  i  8 

40 

isW  i 

111  i 

141 

281  ' 

m  i 

)42 

SSI 

MS 

its 

S8S 

SU 

B44 

SM 

816 

345 

M5  816  [ 

8M 

SM 

817 

847 

38T 

188 

818 
819 

348 
849 

lit 

820 

8W 

no 

891 

3S1 

9»1 

sn 

8Ml 

m 

3S8 

■  JW  8M 

8M 

i»M  325 

8h» 

89« 
827 

m 

fMI 

828 

'868 

9  iM 

829 

859 

d  MO 

"880 
"'881 

'  880 
'861 

tm 

"88S 

'869 

9  IMS 

r'8Ct 

rsss 

.    80 

1884 

[864 
"865 

panUel  Un*  to  the  colamn  headad  Angiut,  you  find 
236,  th*  nambcr  requirad.  To  And  the  number  of 
d«}'a  between  any  other  two  given  days,  when  they 
are  both  after  the  first  of  Jsnuar}',  the  number  oppo- 
aite  the  flrat  day  must,  of  course,  be  deducted  firom 
that  oppoaile  to  the  second.  Thus,  to  find  the  num> 
ber  of  dayi  between  the  18th  of  March  and  the  19th  of 
August,  deduct  firom  231 — the  number  in  the  table 
opposite  to  19  and  under  August — 72,  the  number  op- 
posite to  18  and  under  March,  and  the  remainder,  169, 
is  the  numlrar  required,  last  day  included.  In  leap 
years,  one  must  l>e  added  to  tlie  number  after  the  28th 
of  February. 

Whan  interest,  instead  of  being  simple.  Is  compound, 
the  first  year's  or  term's  interest  must  be  found,  and 
being  added  to  the  original  principal,  malces  the  prin- 
cipal upon  which  interest  is  to  he  calculated  for  the 
second  year  or  term ;  and  the  second  year's  or  term's 
interest  lieing  added  to  this  last  principal,  makes  that 
upon  which  Interest  is  to  be  calculated  for  the  third 
year  or  term)  and  so  on  for  any  number  of  years. 
But  when  the  nnml>er  of  years  is  considerable,  this 
process  becomes  exceedingl}'  cumbersome  and  tedious, 
and  to  facilitate  it  tables  have  been  constructed,  which 
are  subjoined  to  this  article. 

The  first  ofthe8etable8(p.  1071)  represents  the  amount 
of  tl  accumulating  at  compound  interest,  at  3, 3),  4, 4|, 
up  to  10  per  cent,  ever}'  j'ear,  from  1  }'eaT  to  86  years,  in 
dollan  and  decimals  of  a  dollar.  Now,  suppose  that 
we  wish  to  know  how  much  (500  will  amount  to  in 
seven  years  at  4  per  cent.  la  the  column  marked  4 
per  cent.,  and  opposite  to  7  years,  we  find  tl'31.6981, 
which  shows  that  $1  will,  if  invested  at  4  per  cent., 
compound  interest,  amount  to  $1-31. 5931  in  7  years ; 
and,  consequenti}-,  $500  will,  in  the  same  time,  and  at 
the  same  rate,  amount  to  $600X1°81.6931,  or  $657-96.6. 
For  the  same  purpose  of  facilitating  calculation,  the 
present  value  of  $1  due  any  number  of  years  hence, 
not  exceeding  85,  at  3, 3),  4, 4|,  up  to  10  per  cent.,  com- 
pound interest,  is  given  in  the  tables,  pp.  1074-1077. 
The  use  of  these  tables  is  precisely  similar  to  the  one 
above.  Let  It,  for  example,  be  required  to  find  the 
present  worth  of  $500  due  7  years  hence,  reckoning 
compound  interest  at  4  per  cent. ;  opposite  to  7  years, 
and  under  4  per  cent.,  76-291781,  the  present  worth  of 
$1  due  at  the  end  of  7  years ;  and  multiplying  this  sum 
by  #600,  the  product  being  $879-96.89,  Is  the  answer 
required.  These  taldes  are  in  part  from  Tablet  nfln- 
tertU,  DiicouBt,and  Annuitiei,  by  John  Smart,  Gent., 
4to.,  London,  1726.  They  are  carried  to  eight  decimal 
places,  and  enjoy  the  higiiest  character  in  England 
and  on  the  Continent,  for  accuracy  and  completeness. 
The  original  work  is  now  become  scarce. 

Akhditibs.  1.  ilnnuiViet  certain. — When  a  sum  of 
monay  is  to  be  paid  yearly  for  a  certain  number  of 
years,  it  is  called  an  annuity.  The  annuities  usually 
met  with  are  either  for  a  given  number  of  years,  which 
are  called  annuitiea  certain  ;  or  they  are  to  be  paid  ao 
long  as  one  or  more  individuals  shall  live,  and  are 
thence  called  contingent  anr.uitiet. 

By  the  amount  of  an  annuity  at  any  given  time,  is 
meant  the  sum  to  which  it  will  then  amount,  supposing 
it  to  have  been  regularly  Improved  at  compound  inter- 
est during  the  intervening  period. 

The  present  value  of  an  annuity  for  any  given  pe- 
riod, is  the  sum  of  the  present  values  of  all  the  pay- 
ments of  that  annuity. 

See  Jones  on  Annuiliei,  London,  2  vols.,  8vo; 
fncjf.  Brit.,  8th  ed. ;  Bankkrb'  Mag.,  vols,  v.,  vi., 
vii.,  New  York,  1864-1867 ;  J.  R.  McCulloch,  Et- 
sojw  on  exchange,  Intereit,  etc.,  New  York,  1867 ;  Ai- 
mrance  Sfagazine,  London,  1864-1867 ;  Jteporl  to  Britith 
Parliament  on  Utwrg  Laiei ;  Stobch,  Kconomie  Poli- 
tique, ill. ;  Madox,  History  of  Ike  Exchequer ;  Contid- 
erationt  on  the  Stale  of  the  EngliA  Curreneg ;  Humb's 
Euag  OA  Interttt ;  Etiag  on  the  Goeeming  Cautet  of 
AtRaUof  Interttt. 


The  uses  of  these  tables  are  numerona,  and  they  •(• 
easily  applied.  Suppose,  for  example,  it  were  requirad 
to  tell  the  amount  of  an  annuity  of  $60  a  year  for  17 
years,  at  4  per  cent.,  compound  interest. 

Opposite  to  17  (Table,  p.  1074)  in  the  column  of  yaara, 
and  under  4  per  cent.,  is  23-69761,289,  being  the 
amount  of  an  annuity  of  $1  for  the  given  time  at  tb» 
given  rate  per  cent. ;  and  this  multiplied  by  60  gives 
$1184-87.66196,  the  amount  required. 

Suppose,  now,  that  it  is  required  what  sum  onH 
must  pay  down  to  receive  an  annuity  of  $60,  to  con- 
tinue for  17  years,  compound  interest  at  4  per  cent.  ? 

Opposite  to  17  years  (Table,  p.  1076)  and  under  4  per 
cent.,  is  12'16&66,886,  the  present  value  of  an  annuity 
of  $1  for  the  given  time  and  at  the  given  rata  per 
cent. ;  and  this  multiplied  by  60,  gives  $608-28.8448, 
the  present  value  required. 

.When  it  is  required  to  find  the  time  which  must 
elapse,  in  order  that  a  given  sum,  improved  at  a  speck 
fied  rate  of  compound  interest,  may  increase  to  soma 
other  given  sum,  divide  the  latter  sum  by  the  former, 
and  look  for  the  quotient,  or  the  number  nearest  to  it, 
in  table  No.  I.,  under  th?  given  rate  per  cent.,  and  the 
years  opposite  to  it  are  the  answer :  thus, 

In  what  time  will  $528  amount  to  $1087-27.94,  at  6 
per  cent.,  compound  interest? 

Divide  1087-27.94,  etc,  by  623,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  2-0789,  etc.,  which  under  6  per  cent,  in  table  I,, 
is  opposite  to  16  years,  the  time  required. 

If  it  had  been  required  to  find  the  time  in  which  a 
given  annuity,  improved  at  a  certain  rate  of  compound 
interest,  would  have  increased  to  some  given  sum,  the 
question  would  have  been  answered  by  dividing,  as 
above,  the  given  sum  by  the  annuity,  and  looking  for 
the  quotient  (not  in  table  No.  I.,  but)  in  table  No.  III., 
under  the  given  rate  per  cent.,  it  would  be  found  on  a 
line  with  the  time  required ;  thus, 

A  owes  $1000,  au<l  resolves  to  appropriate  $10  a 
year  of  his  income  to  its  discharge ;  in  what  time  will 
the  debt  be  extinguished,  reckoning  compound  interest 
at  4  per  cent.  ? 

1000  divided  by  10  gives  100,  the  number  in  table 
No.  III.  under  4  per  cent,  and  neatest  to  this  quotient 
is  99-8205,  etc.,  opposite  to  41  years,  the  required  time. 
Had  the  rate  of  interest  been  6  per  cent.,  the  debt 
would  have  been  discharged  in  somewhat  less  than  37 
years.  This  example  is  given  by  Dr.  Price  (^nnu. 
itiet,  6th  ed.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  289) ;  and  on  this  principle  the 
whole  fabric  of  the  sinking  fund  was  constructed. .  Of 
the  abstract  truth  of  the  principle  there  can  not,  in- 
deed, be  a  doubt.  But  every  thing  depends  on  the 
increasing  sums  annually  produced  being  immediately 
invested  on  the  same  terms;  and  this,  when  the  sum 
k  large,  and  the  period  long,  is  altogether  imprac- 
ticable. 

Let  it  next  be  required  to  find  an  annuity  which, 
Iwing  increased  at  a  given  rate  of  compound  interest 
during  a  given  time,  will  amount  to  a  specified  sum : 
in  this  case  we  divide  the  specified  sum  by  the  amount 
of  $1  for  the  time  and  rate  given,  as  found  in  the 
Table  III.,  and  the  quotient  is  the  answer. — Thus, 
What  annuity  will  amount  to  $1,087,  27.94  in  15  years 
at  6  per  cent,  compound  interest?  Opposite  to  15 
years  in  Table  III.,  and  under  6  per  cent.,  is  21-6785, 
etc.,  the  amount  of  $1  for  the  given  time  and  rate ; 
and  dividing  1087-2794,  etc.,  by  this  sum,  the  quotient 
60-887,  etc.,  is  the  annuity  required.  Deferred  annui- 
tiet  are  those  which  do  not  commence  tUl  after  a  cer- 
tain number  of  years ;  and  reveriionarg  annuitiei,  such 
as  depend  upon  the  occurrence  of  some  uncertain 
event,  as  the  death  of  an  individusl,  etc.  The  pres- 
ent value  of  a  deferred  annuity  is  found  by  deducting, 
from  the  value  of  an  annuity  for  the  whole  period,  the 
value  of  an  annuity  to  the  term  at  which  the  rever- 
sionary annuity  is  to  commence. — ^Thus,  MThat  is  the 
present  value  of  an  annuity  of  $60  to  contiiiue  for  26 
years,  commencing  at  7  years  fhim  the  praaant  tiaWt 


INT 


1080 


INT 


lataratt  at  4  p«r  cant,  t  According  to  Table  No.  IT., 
tho  ralin  of  an  annuity  of  tl  tor  M  yaan  at  4  par 
o*Bt.  if  16-62307,995,  and  that  of  f  1  for  7  yean  ii 
600206,467,  which  Ixing  daductod  from  the  other, 
leave*  9-62002,628,  which  multiplied  by  60  give*  $481, 
the  aniwer  required.  Supposing  the  annuity,  inttead 
of  being  fcr  26  yean,  had  been  a  perpetuity,  it  would 
hare  been  worth  #1,260,  from  which  deducting  #800 
lOe.,  the  value  of  an  annuity  for  7  years  at  4  per  cent., 
there  remain*  #^9*90,  the  value  of  the  revenion.  For 
a  eelectlon  tf  problems  that  may  be  solved  by  Table 
of  annultiee  cerUin,  see  Smakt's  Tablet,  pp.  20-109. 
9.  JU/a  AtmuitUt.—Atur  what  has  been  stated  In 
the  article  on  Imrdrance  (Gkkbral  PniirciPLBa  or), 
respecting  tables  of  mortality,  it  will  be  easy  to  see 
buw  the  value  of  a  llf^  annuity  is  calculated.  Sup- 
posing—to revert  to  the  example  given  before  Inscn. 
AWCft,  that  it  were  required  to  find  the  present  value 
of  #1,  the  receipt  of  which  is  dependent  on  the  contin- 
gency of  a  person,  now  66  years  of  age,  being  alive  10 
years  hence,  taking  the  Carlisle  table  of  mortality, 
and  Interest  at  4  per  cent.  Now,  according  to  that 
table,  of  10,000  persons  bom  together,  4000  attain  to 
66,  and  2894  to  66  years  of  age.  The  probabUlty  that 
a  person,  now  66  years,  will  be  alive  10  years  hence, 
is,  consequently,  2894  —  4000 ;  and  the  present  value 
of  #1,  to  be  received  certain  10  years  hence  being 
#0-676664,  it  fbllows,  that  If  Its  receipt  be  made  to 
depend  on  a  life  66  years  of  age,  attaining  to  66  yean, 
its  value  will  be  reduced  by  that  contingency  to 
2884X#0-676664-4000..#0-48877.  If,  then,  we  had 
to  find  the  present  value  of  an  annuity  of  #1,  secured 
on  the  life  of  a  person  now  66,  we  should  calculate  In 
this  way  the  present  value  of  each  of  the  48  payments, 
which,  aocording  to  the  Carlisle  table,  he  might  re- 
ceive, and  their  sum  would,  of  course,  l>e  the  present 
Value  of  the  annuity. 

This  statement  is  enough  to  show  the  principle  on 
which  all  calculations  of  annuities  depend ;  and  this 
also  was.  In  fact,  the  method  according  to  which  they 
were  calculated,  till  Mr.  Simpson  and  M.  Euler  In- 
vented a  shorter  and  easier  process,  deriving  fiom  the 
value  of  an  annuity  at  any  age,  that  of  an  annuity  at 
the  next  younger  i^  There  is  a  nonsiderable  discrep- 
ancy In  the  sums  at  which  dilfennt  authon,  and  dif- 
ferent bssuranoe  offices,  estimate  the  present  value  of 
lifs  aonnltlea  payable  to  penons  of  the  same  age.  This 
doe*  not  arise  fkom  any  difference  in  the  mode  of  cal- 
culating the  annuities,  but  ftom  differences  In  the 
tables  of  mortality  employed.  These  can  only  be  ac- 
curate when  tbey  are  deduced  (h>m  multiplied  and 
careftal  obiervations  made,  during  a  long  series  of 
yean,  on  a  large  body  of  persons ;  or  when  the  aver- 
age nnmben  of  the  whole  population,  and  of  the  deaths 
at  every  age,  for  a  lengthened  period,  have  been  deter- 
mined with  the  necessary  care.  It  is  to  be  regretted, 
that  governments  who  alone  have  the  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  rate  of  mortality  by  observations  made  on 
a  inffldently  Urge  scale,  have  been  singularly  inatten- 
tive to  their  duty  In  thii  respect.  And  until  a  very 
few  yean  dnoe,  when  Mr.  FInlayson  was  emploj-ed  to 
oalenlale  table*  of  the  value  of  annuities  txmn  the  age* 
of  the  nominee*  in  pnbllc  tontines,  and  of  Individuals 
OB  whose  live*  government  had  granted  annuities,  all 
that  had  been  done  fai  thi*  eonntry  to  lay  a  solid  foun- 
dation on  whioh  to  eonitmot  the  vast  fabrio  of  life  In- 
surance, had  been  the  work  of  a  few  private  persons, 
who  had,  of  aonr*e,  but  a  limited  number  of  obeerv»- 
tlon*  to  work  upon. 

The  cdebntad  mathematician.  Dr.  Halley,  was  the 
fint  who  oalcalaledV  table  of  mortality,  which  he  de- 
daeed  fk«m  obtervatlons  made  at  Breslau,  in  Silesia. 
In  1724  M.  de  Mdvre  pabllshed  the  first  edition  of  his 
tract  on  Anntutla  on  Uvtt.  In  order  to  facilitate  the 
calculation  of  their  values,  M.  de  Moivre  assumed  the 
nnnoal  decrements  of  life  to  be  equal ;  that  Is,  he  sup- 
\  that  oat  of  86  (the  utmost  limit  o(  life  on  hi*  by- 


potbesls^  person*  bom  together  one  would  die  eveiy 
year  till  the  whole  wen  extinct,  ThI*  a**umptloi> 
agreed  pretty  well  with  the  true  value*  between  86 
and  70  yean  of  age,  a*  given  in  Dr.  Halley's  table ; 
bat  wa*  very  remote  ftam  the  truth  in  the  earlier  and 
later  period*.  Mr.  Tbomaa  Simpeon,  in  hi*  work  on 
i4nmit<M«  ami  Jbrernmu,  originally  publlihed  In  1742, 
gave  a  table  of  mortality  deduced  bam  the  London 
bills,  and  tables  founded  upon  it  of  the  value*  of  annu> 
ities.  But  at  the  period  when  this  table  was  calcu. 
lated,  the  mortality  In  London  was  so  much  higher 
than  in  the  re*t  of  the  country,  that  the  value*  of  the 
annuities  given  in  it  were  far  too  small  for  genenl  use. 
In  1746  M.  Deparalenx  published,  in  his  Sttai  tur  let 
PnMnUtit  de  la  Durie  delaVie  Hunnine — a  work  di*. 
tinguished  by  Its  penpieuity  and  neatness— tables  of 
mortality  deduced  from  observations  made  on  the  mor> 
tuaiy  reglsten  of  several  religious  houses,  and  on  list* 
of  the  nominees  in  several  tontines.  In  this  work, 
separate  tables  were  fint  constructed  for  males  and  fe> 
males,  and  the  greater  longevity  of  the  latter  rendered 
apparent.  M.  Deparcieux'i  tables  were  a  ver}-  great 
acquisition  to  the  science,  and  are  decidedly  superior 
to  some  that  are  still  extensively  used.  Dr.  Price's 
famous  work  on  Atmuitiet,  the  fint  edition  of  which 
was  published  in  1770,  contrlbutedpowerAilly  to  direct 
the  public  attention  to  inquiries  of  this  sort,  and  was. 
In  this  respect,  of  very  great  utility.  Qf  the  more  n- 
cent  works,  the  best  are  those  of  Mr.  Bally  and  Mr. 
Milne,  which,  indeed,  are  both  excellent.  The  Utter, 
besides  all  that  was  previously  known  as  to  the  his- 
tory, theory,  or  practice  of  the  science,  contains  much 
new  and  valuable  matter ;  and  to  it  we  beg  to  refer  such 
of  our  readen  a*  wish  to  enter  fully  Into  the  subject. 

The  table  on  which  Dr.  Price  UM  the  greatest  stress 
was  calcuUted  ftom  the  bnhal  reglsten  kept  in  the 
parish  of  All  Saints,  in  Northampton,  eontaining  little 
more  than  half  the  popoUtion  of  the  town.  There  con 
be  no  donbt,  however,  as  well  from  original  defects  in 
the  oonstruction  of  the  table,  as  fh>m  the  improve- 
ment that  has  since  taken  place  in  the  healthiness  of 
the  public,  that  the  mortality  represented  in  the  North- 
ampton table  is,  and  has  long  been,  decidedly  above 
the  average  rate  of  mortality  in  England.  Mr.  Mor- 
gan, Indeed,  the  Ute  learned  actuary  of  the  Equitable 
Society,  contended  that  thU  U  not  the  case,  and  that  the 
society's  experience  shows  that  the  Northampton  ta- 
ble is  still  remarkably  accurate.  But  the  facts  Mr. 
Morgan  disclosed  In  his  "  Views  of  the  RUe  and  Prog- 
ress of  the  Equitable  Society,"  p.  42,  published  in 
1828,  are  quite  at  variance  with  this  opinion;  for  he 
there  states,  that  the  deaths  of  persons  insured  in  the 
Eqitable  Society,  flrom  60  to  60  yean  of  age,  during  the 
12  yean  previously  to  1828,  wen  839 ;  whereas,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  Northampton  table,  they  should  have 
been  6461  And  Mr.  Blilne  has  endeavored  to  show 
(Art,  AnnuUiei,  new  ed.  of  Snay.  Brit.)  that  the  dis- 
crepancy U  really  much  greater. 

The  only  other  table  Used  to  any  extent  in  England 
for  the  calculation  of  life  annuities,  is  t^at  ftamed  ny 
Mr.  Milne,  from  observations  made  by  Dr.  Heysham  on 
the  rate  of  mortality  at  Carlisle.  It  gives  a  decidedly 
lower  rata  of  mortality  than  the  Northampton  Table ; 
and  there  are  good  grounds  for  thinking  that  the  mor- 
tality which  it  represents  U  not  very  different  from 
the  actual  rata  throughout  most  parts  of  England; 
though  it  can  not  be  supposed  that  a  table  founded  on 
so  narrow  a  basU  should  give  a  perfectly  fair  view  of 
the  avenge  mortality  of  the  entire  kingdom. 

In  life  insurance,  the  fint  annual  premium  is  al- 
ways paid  at  the  commencement  of  the  assurence,  and 
the  othere  at  the  beginning  of  each  year,  so  long  as 
the  party  assured  surrives.  Hence,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  assurance,  the  whole  of  the  annual  premiums 
payable  for  It  exceed  the  value  of  an  oqual  annuity  on 
life  by  one  year's  purohase.  And,  therefore,  when 
the  valua  of  an  aasurance  is  present  money  U  given, 


INT 


1081 


INT 


imiam  i»  *^* 
larance,  and 
,  M  long  u 
le  beginning 
il  premiums 
,1  wnuity  on 
Bfore,  when 
ley  it  given, 


to  And  the  eqnlralent  annual  premlnm  daring  the  Ufc, 
the  whole  preaent  valoe  must  be  divided  by  the  nnm- 
ber  of  years'  purchase  an  annuity  on  the  life  ti  worth, 
increased  by  1.  Thus,  for  an  aesnrance  of  ^100  on  a 
life  of  40  }-ean  of  age,  an  oflce,  calculating  by  the 
Carlisle  table  of  mortality,  and  at  4  per  cent,  interest, 
reqnire*  tfi8'446  in  present  money.  Now,  according 
to  that  table  and  rate  of  Interest,  an  annuity  on  a 
IKe  Just  40  years  of  age  is  worth  16-074  yean'  pur- 
chase, so  that  the  equivalent  annual  premium  Is 
uiiiirT  =W"826.  The  annual  premium  may, however, 
be  derived  directly  from  the  value  of  an  annuity  on 
the  life,  without  flrst  calculating  the  total  present 
value  of  the  assurance.  See  Mr.  Milnes  Trtai,  on  An- 
miUia,  or  art.  AnnuWui,  in  new  edition  of  Ency.  Brit, 

"In  order  to  exhibit  the  foundation  upon  which  tables 
of  life  annuities  and  insurance  have  been  founded  In 
this  and  other  countries,  we  have  given,  in  a  portion 
of  the  preceding  tables,  the  rate  of  mortality  that  has 
(wen  ofc^eri-iid  to  take  place  among  1000  children  bom 
together,  or  the  numbers  alive  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
till  the  whole  became  extinct,  in  England,  France, 
Sweden,  etc.,  acconiing  to  the  most  celebrated  anthori- 
ities.  The  rate  of  mortality  at  Carlisle,  represented 
in  this  table,  is  less  than  that  oliserved  anywhere  else : 
the  rates  which  approach  nearest  to  It  are  those  deduced 
from  the  obervations  already  referred  to,  of  M.  De- 
parcieux,  and  those  of  M.  Kersseboom,  on  the  nomi- 
nees of  life  annuities  in  Holland.  In  order  to  calcu- 
late from  this  table  the  chances  which  a  person  of  any 
given  age  has  of  attaining  to  any  higher  age,  we  have 
only  to  divide  the  number  of  persons  alive  at  such 
higher  age,  given  in  the  column  of  the  table  selected 
to  decide  the  question,  by  the  number  of  persons  alive 
at  the  given  age,  and  thd  fk'action  resulting  is  the 
chance.  We  have  added,  by  way  of  supplement  to  this 
table,  Mr.  Finlayson's  table  (No.  VI.)  of  the  rate  of 
mortality  among  1000  children  bom  together,  accord- 
ing to  the  decrement  of  life  observed  to  take  place 
among  the  nominees  in  govemment  tontines  and  life 
annuities  in  this  country,  distinguishing  males  from 
females.  The  rate  of  mortality  which  this  table  ex- 
hibits is  decidedly  less  than  that  given  in  the  Carlisle 
table ;  but  the  lives  In  the  latter  are  the  average  of  the 
population,  while 'those  in  the  former  are  all  picked. 
The  nominees  in  tontines  are  uniformly  chosen  among 
the  healthiest  individuals;  and  none  but  those  who 
consider  their  lives  as  good  ever  buy  an  annuity.  Still, 
however,  the  table  is  very  curious  ;  nnd  it  sets  the  su- 
periority of  female  life  in  a  very  striking  point  of  view. 
Tables  VII.  and  VIII.-  give  the  expectation  of  life,  ac- 
cording to  the  mortality  observed  at  Northampton  and 
Carlisle ;  the  former  by  Dr.  Price,  and  the  latter  by  Mr. 
Milne.  '  The  next  table.  No.  IX.,  extracted  from  the 
Second  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
on  Friendly  Societies,  gives  a  comparative  view  of  the 
results  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  tables  of  mortal- 
ity, in  relation  to  the  rate  of  mortality,  the  expectation 
of  life,  the  value  of  an  annuity,  etc.  The  coincidenca 
Iwtween  the  results  deduced  from  M.  Deparcieux's  ta- 
ble and  that  for  Carlisle,  Is  very  striking.  And  to 
render  the  information  on  these  subjects  laid  before 
the  reader  as  complete  as  the  nature  of  this  work  will 
admit,  we  have  given  tables  (Nos.  X.-XV.)  of  the 
value  of  an  annuity  of  £1  on  a  singe  lifb,  at  every  age, 
and  at  3, 4, 6, 6, 7  and  8  per  cent.,  according  tot  he  North- 
ampton and  Carlisle  tables ;  wo  have  also  given  tables 
of  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  £1  on  2  equal  lives,  and 
two  lives  differing  by  five  years,  at  8,  4, 6,  and  6  per 
cent.,  according  to  the  same  tables.  It  is  but  sel- 
dom, therefore,  that  our  readers  will  require  to  re- 
sort to  any  other  work  for  the  means  of  solving 
the  questions  that  usually  occur  in  practice  with  re- 
gard to  annuities ;  and  there  are  not  many  works 
in  which  they  will  find  so  good  a  collection  of  the 
lablti.    W«  •ubjoin  one  or  two  examples  of  the  mode 


of  nsing  the  tabirs  of  Ilfis  annnitiea.  Snppose  It  wen 
required,  what  ought  a  parson  aged  4ft,  to  give  to  a* 
cure  an  annuity  of  tW  a  year  for  life,  interest  at  4  per 
cent.,  according  to  the  Carlisle  table  ?  In  Table  No, 
XI.,  nnder  4  per  cent.,  and  opposite  4S,  Is  14-104,  the 
value  of  an  annuity  of  «1,  which  being  multiplied  by  M 
gives  $706-20,  or  the  value  required.  According  to" the 
Northampton  table,  the  annuity  would  only  have  been 
worth  $614  15.  The  value  of  an  annuity  on  two  Uvat 
of  the  same  age,  or  on  two  lives  different  by  five  years, 
may  be  found  in  precisely  the  same  way.  Some  ques- 
tions in  reversionarg  life  annuities  admit  of  an  equally 
easy  solution.  Thus,  suppose  it  is  reqnired  to  find  the 
present  value  of  A's  interest  in  an  estate  worth  $100  s 
year,  falling  to  him  at  the  death  of  B,  aged  40,  InteN 
est  4  per  cent.,  according  to  the  Carlisle  table  ?  The 
value  of  the  perpetuity  of  $100  a  year,  interest  4  per 
cent.,  is  $2600 ;  and  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  $100 
on  a  person  aged  40,  interest  4  per  cent.,  is  $1507  40, 
which,  deducted  fiain  $2500,  leaves  $992  60,  the  pies> 
ent  value  required.  A  person  aged  80  wishes  to  pur- 
chase an  annuity  of  $50  for  his  wife,  aged  26,  provided 
she  survives  him ;  what  ought  he  to  pay  for  It,  Interest 
at  4  per  cent,  according  to  the  Carlisle  table?  The 
value  of  an  annuity  of  $1  on  a  life  aged  80  Is  $16-852 ; 
from  which  subtracting  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  $1 
on  two  Joint  lives  of  25  and  80, 14-989,  the  difference, 
2-518  X  50  =125-650,  the  sum  required.  For  the  solu- 
tion of  the  more  complex  cases  of  survivorship,  which 
do  not  often  occur  in  practice,  recourse  may  be  had  to 
the  directions  in  Mr.  Milne's  Treatise  on  Annuities,  and 
other  works  of  that  description.  To  attempt  explain- 
ing them  here  would  lead  us  into  details  quite  incon- 
sistent with  the  object  of  this  work."  See  Com.  Diet., 
art.  iNTaRBST,  by  J.  R.  M'Cdi.locb  ;  Banters'  Mag., 
N.  Y.,  186S-6;  the  Interest  Tables  now  in  use  in  New 
York  city,  are  by  Delisser,  Six  and  Seven  per  Cent. 
4to  $4 ;  Price,  Svo  ;  Oates,  8vo. 

Invo'oe,  an  account  of  goods  or  merchandise  sent 
by  merchants  to  their  correspondents  at  home  or 
abroad,  in  which  the  peculiar  marks  of  each  package, 
with  other  particulars,  are  set  forth. 

The  revenue  laws  of  the  United  States  require  two 
consular  certificates  only  to  invoices  of  foreign  mer- 
chandise imported  into  this  country  (the  owners  of 
which  reside  abroad)— one  authenticating  the  invoice, 
the  other  as  to  the  value  in  Spanish  or  American  dol- 
lars of  the  currency  in  which  the  invaice  is  made  out. 
Where  consittar  certificates  to  invoices  of  goods  des- 
tined for  the  United  States  are  required,  they  are  to 
be  granted  only  by  the  consular  officer  within  whose 
consular  jurisdiction  such  goods  have  been  manufac- 
tured or  prepared  for  exportation.  A  practice,  it  is 
understood,  has  extensively  prevailed  of  transmitting 
invoices  to  a  consular  ofBcer  at  the  port  of  shipment 
for  the  usual  consular  certificates,  whose  certificate 
must  often  necessarily  be  given  without  due  knowl- 
edge of  their  accuracy  or  details.  Thus,  invoices  of 
goods  manufactured  or  prepared  for  shipment  in  Switz- 
erland have  sometimes  heretofore  been  sworn  to  at 
Havre;  invoices  from  Lyons  have  been  verified  at 
Marseilles ;  and  those  from  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
the  Rhine,  at  the  ports  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  It 
is  manifest  that  great  abuses  must  spring  from  such  a 
practice,  the  meaning  and  intent  of  the  law  being  to 
require  those  who  have  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
contents  of  invoices,  and  the  prices  of  goods  compris- 
ing the  same,  personally  to  depose  to  their  valuation. 
All  consular  officers  of  the  United  States  are  strictly 
enjoined  to  conform  to  this  rule,  nnd  report  to  the 
Treasury  Department  any  violation  of  it  which  may 
come  within  their  knowledge.  Under  the  provisions 
of  the  act  of  Congress  of  1st  March,  1823,  the  invoices 
of  all  imported  goods  subject  to  ad  valorem  duty  be- 
longing to  persons  not  residing  in  the  United  Status, 
must  1)0  swom  to  and  verified  by  consular  certificates ; 
the  oath  must  be  taken  by  the  owner  or  manofacturei 


INV 


1082 


INV 


of  the  goodf ,  or  •  mmbar  of  th«  flrm  owning  or  m«nn- 
fkctaring  them,  and  not  bjr  •  dark  or  other  inbonllnata. 

In  >11  CHca  whore  the  oethi  to  InvoioM  are  not 
token  before  the  United  States'  ooninl,  but  before  aome 
pnbllo  offlcer  duly  authorlied  to  admlniiiter  oathi  In 
the  country  wher*  the  goodi  ahall  have  be«n  pur- 
ehaaed,  the  oflolal  ooftiflcate  of  anch  offlcer  mual  be 
authenticated  by  •  conaular  offioar  of  the  United 
Statea.  If  there  be  no  conaular  officer  of  the  United 
Statea  in  the  country  fVoiB  which  the  merohandlae  ahall 
bavo  been  Imported,  the  authentication  muat  be  exe- 
eatad  by  a  conaul  of  a  nation  at  the  time  In  amity 
with  the  United  Statea,  If  there  be  any  aach  reaiding 
there.  If  there  be  no  auch  conaul,  the  anthenttca' 
tlon  mnat  be  made  by  two  reapectable  merchanta,  If 
any  auch  there  bo,  realding  at  the  port  from  which  the 
merohandlae  ahall  have  been  Imported. 

It  la  proper  that  the  oath  taken  by  foreigner*  ahould 
be  adnilnUtered  to  them,  not  only  In  their  own  lan- 
guage, ao  that  they  may  fully  understand  the  nature 
and  import  of  it,  but  alao  In  the  form  practiced  In  their 
own  country,  which  would  probably  be  conaidered  by 
them  aa  mora  solemn  and  of  a  mora  binding  natura 
than  If  administered  in  a  form  to  which  they  have  not 
been  accustomed.  The  attention  of  conaular  officera 
ia  alao  directed  to  the  8th  and  11th  aectkms  of  the  act 
of  Congresa  of  the  lat  March,  1828,  In  which  it  will 
Im  seen  that  a  consular  certlflcate  ia  required  in  ail 
eas«8  of  involcaa  of  gooda  exported  by  the  nutnu/ac- 
turen  thtireof,  in  whole  or  In  pari  for  their  account, 
notwithatonding  another  owner  in  part  may  reside  In 
the  United  States.  This  provision  of  the  law  of 
li!28,  there  is  reason  to  lieileve,  has  been  hitherto  over- 
loaked  in  many  instances.  If  a  consular  offlcer  ascer- 
tains and  has  reliable  evidence  of  the  falsity  of  an 
oath,  administered  either  by  himself  or  by  a  local 
magistrate  whose  ceititicate  he  has  authenticated,  he 
should  notify  the  Treasury  Department,  which  will 
transmit  to  him  the  original  invoice  and  oath,  to  he 
used,  if  deemed  expedient,  In  a  prosecution  for  peijury. 

It  la  to  be  remarked  that,  by  the  act  of  8d  March, 
1801,  invoices  of  all  goods  imported  into  the  United 
States  mbjecled  to  a  duty  ad  valorem  are  required  to  be 
"  made  out  In  the  currency  of  the  place  or  countiy 
from  whence  the  Importation  shall  be  made ;  and  shall 
contain  a  true  statement  of  the  actual  cost  of  such 
goods  in  such  foreign  currency  or  currenciea,  without 
any  reapect  to  Mie  value  of  the  coina  of  the  United 
States,  or  foreign  coins  which  now  are,  <fr  ahall  l>e,  by 
law,  made  current  within  the  United  Statea  in  such 
foreign  place  or  country."  Hence,  invoices  of  free 
goods  are  not  required  to  be  made  out  in  the  currency 
ot  the  country  from  whence  the  goods  may  l>e  im- 
ported ;  but  whenever  invoices  of  auch  goods  may  be 
made  out  in  the  cumncy  of  the  country,  and  said  cur- 
rency is  depreciated,  and  its  value  not  fixed  by  any 
law  of  the  United  Stntea,  a  consular  certlflcate  of  the 
ralne  of  auch  currency  mnat,  as  before  intimated,  ac- 
company the  same. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  law  or  instructions  of  the 
Treasury  Department  to  prohibit  invoices  of  free 
goods  from  being  made  out  in  the  currency  of  the 
United  States,  or  that  of  any  other  country  where  !t« 
value  is  fixed  by  our  laws.  Involoea  of  ad  va'onm 
or  free  gooda,  when  made  out  in  a  foreign  deprecU^M 
currency,  or  a  currency  the  value  of  which  ia  not  fixed 
by  the  laws  of  the  United  Statea,  whether  the  Importer 
or  owner  residea  in  this  country  or  abroad,  must  in 
each  case  be  accompanied  by  a  conaular  oertifioate, 
showing  the  value  of  such  currency  in  Spanish  or 
United  Statea  silver  dollars.  Applications  are  fre- 
quently made  to  the  Treasury'  Department  for  perraia- 
alon  to  enter  merchandise  where  the  invoices  ara  not 
accompanied  by  the  needfUl  consular  certificates  in  the 
cases  where  such  certificates  are  by  law  required. 
That  Department  has  heretofore)  acted  with  great  len- 
iency and  indulgence  in  such  canis,  but  esparienoe  has 


ibown  tba  nacasaity  for  a  mora  rigid  eoana  in  future ; 
and,  in  all  cases  when  auch  conaular  certlHcutea 
ahould  accompany  the  invoices,  any  penalty  which  nuy 
be  incurred  for  want  of  them  will  be  regularly  enforced. 

Conaula  abroad,  by  dna  attention  and  vigilance,  can 
do  much  toward  checking  and  preventing  Um  numeroua 
ft»ada  which  are  undoubtedly  practiced  upon  the  rev. 
enue,  if  they  will  report  to  the  coUectora  of  the  cua- 
toma  of  the  United  Statea  all  thoae  Invoices  where,  in 
their  opinions,  un'lervaluatlona  have  been  made,  and  by 
otherwise  keeping  the  collectora  or  thia  Department 
generally  and  fully  adviaed  on  thia  aubject ;  and  they 
are  earnestly  requested  to  do  so,  and  to  consider  it  one 
of  the  most  important  services  which  they  cun  render 
In  connection  with  the  faithful  collection  of  the  rev- 
enue. An  erroneous  Impression  exists  with  miiny  for- 
eign ahlppers  of  goods  to  the  United  States,  that  the 
consuls  befora  whom  the  oath  to  invoices  is  either 
taken  or  verified  have  no  power  to  examine  the  details 
of  such  Invoices,  but  simply  to  verify  the  fact  of  such 
oath  being  taken  befora  them,  or  by  an  oflicer  in  au- 
thority known  to  them  as  such.  Thia  la  not  the  fact ; 
and  conaular  oJBcera  nre  expected  before  verifying  in- 
voicea  to  aotiafy  themselves  of  their  oomctness. 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  a  particular  system 
of  nvenue  duties,  the  government  of  the  United  States 
requires  that  the  accuracy  of  certaiq  invoices  should 
be  ascertained  and  verified ;  and  a  nikHinable  time  for 
consuls  to  accomplish  that  object,  by  an  examination 
of  such  invoices,  con  not  be  Justly  denied  to  thom. 
Consular  officers  ara  not  supposed  to  ))e  practically  uu- 
quainted  with  the  market  prices  or  value  of  all  mer- 
chandise within  their  district,  or  of  the  precise  weights, 
tans,  measures,  bounties,  etc.,  Included  therein ;  but 
inquiry  and  experience  will  soon  enable  them  to  ren- 
der efficient  aid  to  the  raVenue  officers  of  the  United 
States,  by  aacertaining  errora  or  fk'suda,  and  promptly 
informing  the  Traaaury  Department,  as  well  as  the 
collector  of  the  port  to  which  the  goods  may  be  des- 
tined, of  ever}-  instance  where  an  exporter  persists  in 
refusing  to  correct  his  invoice,  when  apprised  of  its 
defects,  and  that  It  will  bo  subject  to  revision  at  the 
ouatom  houses  of  the  United  Statea. 

CERTIFIOATG  TO  INVOICR 

Fortlgn  Owiwr'a  oath,  whtre  gooUt,  vartt,  tr  menhandUe, 

haw  teen  aetuatly  purehdted. 

1,  ■  ,  do  solemnly  and  truly  swear,  that  the 

gooda,  warsa,  or  merchandise  described  in  the  Invoice  now 
produced,  and  hereunto  annexed,  were  actually  purchaaed  for 
my  account,  or  for  account  of  myaolf  and  partners  in  the  said 
purchoae:  and  that  said  Invoice  contains  a  true  and  faithful 
account  of  the  actual  cost  'hereof,  and  of  all  chari^s  thereon ; 
and  thai  no  diaeounta,  bounties,  or  drawbacks,  are  contained 
in  the  said  Invoice  but  auch  aa  have  been  actually  allowed  on 
the  aame. 


Sworn  to  and  aubacrlbed  before  me,  at ',  the  —  day 

of ,  A.i>.,  18 — ,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United 

Statea  the :  and  I  do  further  certify,  that  I  am  astis- 

fled  that ,  who  aubacrlbes  the  foregoing  oath,  la 

the  peraon  he  repreaenta  himself  to  be ;  that  he  is  a  credible 
peraon;  and  that  the  atatemenla  made  by  him  under  said 
oath  (or  afflrmatton,  aa  the  coae  may  be)  are  true. 

[ua.]  U.S.Coiuut. 

CERTIFICATE  TO  INVOICE. 

Ft  reign  mmm/aeturer  or  oimer's  oath.  In  catet  ul^^re  gooii, 

u  area,  or  tnerchandite,  have  not  teen  aetuallypurchatei. 

X, ,  of ,  do  aolemnly  and  truly  swear, 

that  iUa  mvolee  now  produced,  and  hereunto  annexed,  eon- 
tatna  a  true  and  faithful  account  of  the  goods,  warea,  or  mer- 

ehandlaa  therein  described  at  their  market  value  at ,  at 

the  time  the  same  were  (procnrad  or  man-factured,  aa  the 
eaae  may  be),  and  of  all  chargea  thereon ;  and  that  the  aald 
invoice  eontatoa  uo  diaeounta,  bounties,  or  drawbaoka,  but 
such  aa  have  been  actually  allowed. 

Sworn  and  aubacrlbed  before  me,  at  ,  the  —  day 

of ,  A.D.  18—,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United 

Statea  of  America  the >  and  I  fUrther  certify,  that  I 

am  satisfied  that  — — ,  who  subsorlbea  the  foregoing 


ION 


1088 


ION 


,cal«l 
inwy 
jrcod. 
t,  can 
leroo* 
lerev. 
lecurK 
•re, In 
and  by 
rtment 
id  they 
r  It  one 
1  render 
he  rev- 
any  for- 
that  the 
#  either 
le  details 
[  of  "uch 
er In  »u- 
thefact; 
Ifylng  In- 
eaa. 

ar  system 
ted  SUles 
:es  should 
«  time  for 
;amln»tlon 
I  to  them. 
Btlcally  uc 
)f  oU  mur- 
se  weights, 
leroin ;  but 
hem  to  ren- 
tho  United 
id  promptly 
well  at  the 
may  he  "le»- 
[r  persists  In 
prised  of  its 
vision  at  the 


nunMndiM, 

irear,  that  the 
B  inToleo  no* 
purchased  for 
lorslothosaid 
10  and  faithful 
,an{cs  thorcon ; 
1,  are  conUlned 
lUy  allowed  on 

Zl^t  —  day 
I  of  the  United 

pat  J  am  aatla- 
regolDg  oath, Is 
he  Is  a  credible 
blm  under  said 
true. 

lu  where  gooit, 
Uypvrchaeed. 
1  truly  swear, 
)  annexed,  con- 
wares,  or  mer- 

■tlueat 1»* 

•futured,  as  the 
,d  that  the  said 
4r,wbaoks,  but 

..-ffte  —  d«y 
Xo^of  the  United 

|oreert«y.»h»'' 
Ibes  the  foregoing 


nd 


to 


wtk,  Is  ths  f«sa  k«  rsprsssBtt  himself  to  bti  that  h*  Is  a 
■ndlbls  parson  i  and  that  the  statements  made  by  him  under 
said  oath  (or  sfllrmatlon,  as  ths  case  may  be)  are  true. 

[L.  ■.]  U.  B.  bumuL 

Connitttr  CerHJItaU  «/  (As  saliis  t^f  eumney. 

I, ,  consul  of  the  United  Stales  of  America, 

do  hereby  certify,  that  the  true  value  of  the  currency  of 
the .— — -  of  ,  In  which  currency  the  annexed  Invoice 

of  merchandise  Is  mads  out.  Is  — — —  cents,  estimated  In 
American  or  Spanish  silver  dollara 

Ionian  Zaluids,  the  name  given  to  the  islands  of 
Corfu,  Puxo,  Santa  Maura,  Ithaca,  Oephalonia,  Zante, 
Carigo,  and  their  dependent  islets.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Cerigo,  which  lies  opposite  to  the  south-sastem 
•ztremlty  of  the  Moroa,  the  rest  lie  pretty  contiguous, 
■long  the  western  coasts  of  Epirus  and  Greece  i  the 
most  northerly  point  of  Corfu  twing  in  Ist.  30°  48'^  16" 
IT.,  and  the  moat  southerly  point  of  Zante  (Cape  Kteri, 
on  which  there  is  a  light-house)  lieing  in  iat.  87°  88' 
M"  N.  Knpsali,  the  port  of  Cerigo,  is  in  Ut.  80°  7' 
80"  X.,  long.  38°  E.  The  area  and  population  of 
the  difTerent  islands  may  be  estimated  as  follows : 


Itbnca 

ArMlBH.mllN 
It  u>  a  ttfiM. 

Populalhm 
In  ISM. 

Oorfli 

1016 
1640 
5-60 
4'SS 
8N 
4-M 
I'M 

T»,891 
70,870 
41,9M 
18,966 
11,164 
11,886 
Mil 

CephalonU. 

Zante 

Banta  Msura i 

Ithlca  and  Oslamos 

Faxo  and  Anttpaxo 

ToUl 

4}'l!je 

M0,690 

•  This  Is  equal  to  1001 'E  English  square  miles  of  60-15  to 
tbs  degree. 

Soil  and  Climatt. — These  ore  very  various.  Zante 
Is  the  most  fruitful.  It  consists  principally  of  an  ex- 
tensive plain,  occupied  by  plantations  of  currants,  and 
having  an  air  of  luxuriant  fertility  and  richness.  Its 
climate  is  comparatively  equal  and  line,  but  it  is  very 
subject  to  earthqualtes.  Corfu  and  Cephalonia  ore 
more  rugged  and  less  fruitful  than  /ante;  and  the 
former,  from  its  vicinity  to  the  snowy  mountains  of 
Epirns,  and  the  latter  from  the  Black  Mountain  (the 
Mount  .lEnoB  of  antiquity)  in  its  interior,  are  exposed 
in  winter  to  great  and  sudden  variations  of  tempera- 
ture ;  the  ftost  sometimes  damaging  to  a  great  extent 
the  oranges  and  vines  of  these  islands  and  those  of 
Santa  Maura.  The  latter  is,  in  the  hot  season,  ex- 
ceedingly unhealthy — a  consequence  of  the  vapors 
arising  fitim  the  marshes  and  the  shallow  seas  to  the 
north-east.  Cerigo  is  roclcy  and  sterile ;  it  is  subject 
to  continued  gales,  and  the  current  seldom  permit  its 
waters  to  remain  unruffled. 

These  islands  have  undergone  many  vicissitudes. 
Corfu,  the  ancient  Corcyra,  was  famous  in  antiquity 
for  its  naval  power,  and  for  the  contest  between  it  and 
its  mother  state  Corinth,  which  eventually  terminated 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Ithaca,  the  kingdom  of 
Ulysties ;  Cephalonia,  sometimes  called  Dulichium, 
from  the  name  of  one  of  its  cities  ;  Zante,  or  Zacyn- 
thus;  Santa  Maura,  known  to  the  ancients  by  the 
name  of  Leucos  or  Leucadia,  celebrated  for  its  pron^ 
ontor}-,  surmounted  by  a  temple  of  Ap<dlo,  whence 
Sappho  precipitated  herself  into  the  ocean ;  and  Ce- 
rigo, or  Cythera,  the  birth-place  of  Helen,  and  sacred 
to  Tenus ; — ^h»ve  all  acquired  on  immortality  of  re- 
nown. 

For  upward  of  400  years  these  islands  remained 
subject  to  Venice,  constituting  the  Venetian  Levant. 
By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  6th  Xovember,  1816,  be- 
tween England  and  Russia,  it  wap  igreed  that  the 
Ionian  Islands  should  regulate  their  own  internal 
organization,  with  the  approbation  of  ths  protecting 
power,  which  ibonld  be  represented  by  a  lord  high  com- 
missioner ;  that  the  merahant  flag  of  the  new  States 
should  be  acknowledged  as  that  of  a  IVee  and  iade- 
pmdeat  State;  and  that  Austria  should  eqjoy  equal 


comnMToUl  privileges  with  OrMt  Britain  b  Its  com> 
roeroa  with  the  republic.  This  treaty  was  acceded  to 
by  all  the  representatives  of  the  allied  powers,  then 
negotiating  at  Paris,  and  by  the  Grand  SulUn  and 
the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  ports  of  tho  Ulands 
ara  Corfu,  CephalonI,  Zante,  Santa  Maura,  Ithacn, 
Cerigo,  and  Puxo.  These  are  free  ports,  at  which  all 
kinds  of  merchandise  may  be  stored  In  designated 
warehouses,  tne  of  any  duties  or  charges,  except  rent, 
portage,  and  other  minor  expenses,  which  are  regulat- 
ed by  special  tariff's.  There  is  no  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Ionian  republic,  and  the  com- 
msrcial  Intercourse  between  the  two  countries  is  sub- 
ject to  the  various  restrictions  which  apply  to  non- 
equalised  vessels.  Tho  restrictions  are  higher  tonnage 
duties,  light  duties,  port  charges,  etc. 

The  following  items  will  Illustrate  these  discrimina- 
tions :  Charges  for  clearance,  Including  bill  of  health, 
muster-roll,  anchorage,  and  light  duties,  on  an  lonhin 
or  equalized  vessel  of  fVom  260  to  800  tons,  98  10 ; 
chargPH,  etc.,  including  as  above,  for  a  non-equollzed 
vessel  of  from  250  to  800  tons,  ^10  84. 

Other  restrictions  and  discriminations  exist  In  favor 
of  equalized  flags,  especially  in  the  transhipment  of 
merchandise  from  one  port  to  another,  which  confer 
such  advantages  on  vessels  coming  under  this  cate- 
gory, as  to  preclude  all  competition  on  the  part  of  those 
belonging  to  the  other  class.  Merchandise  tranship- 
ped, as  above,  in  the  farmer,  is  exempt  ttom  every  ex- 
tra charge ;  in  the  latter,  three  fourths  of  the  original 
duty  is  exacted  on  all  merchandise  paying  speclHc 
duties,  and  Ave  per  cent,  on  such  as  pay  ad  valorem 
duties.  These  discriminating  duties  amount,  in  the 
aggregate,  to  about  14  per  cent,  against  non-privileged 
vessels.  There  entered,  In  thvyear  1861,  Into  all  the 
Ionian  ports,  1436  vessels,  measuring  169,114  tons; 
and  there  cleared  1401  vessels,  measuring  164,780  tons ; 
making,  in  all,  2836  vessels,  measuring  833,924  tons. 

The  flags  of  these  vessels  represented  14  different 
nations,  among  which  the  United  States  Is  not  includ- 
ed. Indeed,  it  is  but  seldom  that  a  United  States' 
vessel  is  fpund  in  any  of  the  lonUn  ports,  nor  can  we 
look  for  any  direct  trade  lietween  the  two  countries  so 
long  as  the  present  restrictions  exist.  Their  removal 
can  be  effiected  by  treaty  or  convention  only ;  and  nego- 
tiations to  this  end,  under  the  constitution  of  the  Ion- 
ian republic,  must  originate  at  London,  as  all  diplo- 
matic questions  and  conventions  between  these  islands 
and  foreign  States  must  be  conducted  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  protecting  power. 

Manufacturtt,  etc. — Those  islands  possess  few  manu- 
factures properly  so  termed.  The  wives  of  the  villanl, 
or  peasants,  spin  and  weave  a  coarse  kind  of  woolen 
cloth,  sufficient  in  great  part  for  the  use  of  their  fam- 
ilies. A  little  soap  Is  made  at  Corfu  and  Zante.  The 
latter  manufactures  a  considerable  quantity  of  silk 
gros-de-Xaples  und  handkerchiefs ;  the  art  of  dyeing 
is,  however,  ton  little  studied,  and  tho  establishments 
are  on  too  small  a  scale.  The  peasantry,  in  general,  ore 
lozy,  vain,  delighting  in  display,  and  very  supersti- 
tious. Those  of  Zante  and  Cephalonia  are  more  in- 
dustrious than  the  CorHotos ;  In  the  flrst,  particularly, 
their  superior  condition  is  probably  to  be  ascribed,  in 
part  at  least,  to  the  nobles  residing  more  on  their  es- 
tates in  the  country,  and  contributing,  by  their  exam- 
ple, to  stimulate  Industrj'.  In  Corfu,  the  taste  for  the 
city  life,  which  prevailed  in  the  time  of  the  Venetian 
government,  still  operates  to  a  great  degree.  The 
Corflote  proprietor  resides  but  little  in  his  villa ;  his 
land  is  neglected,  while  he  continues  in  the  practice  of 
his  forefathers,  who  ^ireferred  watching  opportunities 
at  the  seat  of  a  corrupt  government,  to  improving  their 
fortunes  by  the  more  legitimate  moans  of  honorable 
exertion  and  attention  to  their  patrimony.  In  this 
respect,  however,  a  material  change  for  the  better  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  20  yours. 

Impqrtt  of  Grain,  efc— Great  part  of  the  land  Is 


ION 


1084 


row 


li*M  ondar  (hort  tonani,  on  th«  mttaftr  ij/itrm,  th« 
traant  paying  half  tha  produca  to  tha  landlord.  OwIhk 
to  tha  natiira  of  the  mII,  and  tha  •nparior  attention 
(tvan  to  tha  culture  of  ollvaa  and  earranti,  the  itaple 
prodncta  of  the  blanda,  moat  part  of  tha  grain  and 
cattle  required  for  their  coniumptlon  la  imported.  The 
hard  wheat  of  (Meaaa  i«  preferred,  and  large  tuma  are 
annual!)'  aent  to  tha  RUrk  Hea  In  payment.  The  Par- 
liament, in  Marrh,  1H;1.'I,  repealed  the  dutiaa  on  the  in- 
troduction of  com  i  and  the  grain  mono|ioly  of  Corfu, 
which  had  liaen  eataliliahed  in  favor  of  govemmrnt,  In 
order  to  provide  agalnit  tha  poaalbility  of  a  general  or 
partial  aoarcity,  waa  then  alio  auffered  to  expire. 
Thaaa  two  aourcei  of  ravenne,  while  they  exiated,  did 
not  probalily  produce  teei  than  ;e30,000  annually.  They 
are  aimilarly  dependent  upon  Ureecn  nnil  Turkey  for 
auppliaa  of  butcher'a  meat ;  a  email  numlier  only  of 
iheap  and  goata  being  bred  in  the  ialanda.  Oxen, 
whether  for  agriculture  or  the  alnu)(hter-houae,  are 
principally  brought  from  Turkey.  The  iMevea  eaten 
by  tha  troopa  are  aix  weeka  or  two  niontha  walking 
down  ftam  the  Danube,  and  the  provincea  that  akirt 
it,  to  tha  ahorea  of  Epirua,  where  they  remain  in  pai- 
tnre  until  fit  for  tha  table. 

erpotH.—tht  ataple  exporta  ftam  theaa  lalanda  are 
oil,  curranta,  wine,  aoap,  aalt,  and  Valonla.  The  flnit 
la  produced  in  great  abundance  in  Corfu  and  Paxo, 
and  in  a  leaa  quantity  in  Zante,  Santa  Maura,  and 
Uephalonia.  Corfu  haa,  in  fact,  the  appearance  of  a 
continuoua  olive  wood ;  a  conaequence,  partly,  of  the 
extraordinary  encouragement  furmerly  given  to  the 
culture  at  the  plant  by  the  Venetiana.  Although 
there  la  a  harveat  every  year,  the  great  crop  ia  prop- 
erly biennial ;  the  tree  generally  repoaing  for  a  year 
after  ita  effort.  (In  Franco  and  Piedmont  the  period 
of  inactivity  ia  two  and  thrre  yeara.)  During  Ave  or 
six  montha,  from  Octolier  till  April,  the  country,  par- 
ticularly in  Corfu,  presenta  an  animated  appearance, 
peraons  of  all  ages  being  bually  employed  in  picking 
up  the  fruit.  The  average  price  may  be  about  ;C1 11a. 
per  barrel.  Under  the  old  Venetian  system,  the  oil 
could  only  be  carried  to  Trieste.  It  ia  charged  with  an 
ad  valorem  duty  of  18  per  cent.,  payalde  on  the  ex- 
port. The  quality  might  be  much  improved  by  a  little 
more  care  in  the  manufacture,  the  trees  being  generally 
finer  than  in  any  other  country.  Curranit,  originally 
introduced  from  the  Morea,  are  grown  in  Zante,  Ceph- 
alonia,  and  Ithaca,  but  principally  in  the  6rat.  The 
plant  ia  a  vine  of  amall  size  and  delicate  nature,  the 
caltivatlon  of  which  requires  much  care.  Six  or.aoven 
yean  elapse  after  a  plantation  has  been  mode  before  it 
yields  a  crop.  In  the  beginning  of  Octol>er,  th*;  earth 
abont  the  roota  of  the  plants  is  loosened,  and  gathered 
up  in  amall  heaps,  away  from  the  vine,  which  is  pruned 
in  March ;  after  which  the  ground  is  again  laid  down 
smooth  around ;  the  blight  ca||ed  the  "  brina,"  and 
rainy  weather  in  harvest  produce  great  mischief. 
The  currants  are  gathered  toward  September,  and 
after  being  carefully  picked,  are  thrt/wn  singly  upon  a 
stone  floor,  exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  open  air.  The 
dr}-ing  process  may  occupy  a  fortnight  or  longer,  if 
the  weather  be  not  favorable.  A  heavy  shower  or 
thunder-storm  (no  unfttquent  occurrence  at  that  sea- 
son), not  only  interrupts  it,  but  sometimes  causes  fer- 
mentation. The  fruit  is  then  only  At  to  be  given  to 
animals.  Should  It  escape  these  risks,  it  ia  deposited 
in  magaiines  called  "  icraglie,"  until  a  purchaser 
casta  up. 

The  exports  of  these  islands  are  raiaina,  olivet,  olive- 
oil,  honey,  soap,  silk,  and  ivine ;  and  the  imports  are 
coffee,  sugar,  wines,  brandy,  grain,  cured  flsh,  manu- 
factures of  wood,  wool,  cotton,  iron,  etc.  Currants  and 
raisins  constitute  the  heaviest  articles  of  export  fivm 
these  islands,  the  annual  produce  of  currants  amount- 
ing to  some  12,000,000  pounds ;  but  of  late  years  the 
? inducers  have  had  to  contend  with  diseases  called 
'  tha  blight,"  for  which  sqipbur  has  proved  to  be  the 


only  efflclant  remedy.  Notwithstanding  tha  partial 
failure  of  tha  cnipa  ttom  this  itausa,  fur  fniir  i'iiii»«(iu« 
tlve  yean,  the  exporta  of  uurranti  In  INAA  almw  un  an- 
tiva  and  remunerating  trade,  The  following  auinmary 
for  thia  year  will  give  auma  Ida*  of  the  aatant  iif  tba 
currant  trade  of  tha  rapublio  i 

«\H«T I AWitW    ,,,,  tl,Tiw,n(in 

WA,4M|   M(,lli  IIIO,ll(MA,IIW,(NI» 


BiAfOiSf 


tOilllNI 

llMMNI 

T,MV,ll(Rl 

8aU  may  Im  ohtainsd  in  oonaldarabia  quantltlna  In 
Corfu,  /ante,  and  Hanta  Maura,  for  axportalloii  |  iha 
latter  island  alone  produced  It  until  the  lata  ai't  iif  I'sN 
liamont,  which  provided  that  govarnmant  ahoiiid  1*1 
tha  aalt-pana  in  ail  the  ialands  to  tboaa  lilddnn  who 
should  offer,  by  aealed  tenders,  to  aupply  i(  at  Ilia  low- 
eat  rate  to  the  consumer,  paying  at  tha  aama  lima  tlia 
higheat  price  to  government.  No  export  duty  la 
charged  upon  it.  These  itatanianta  show  tlint  liciivy 
dutiea  are  levied  upon  tha  ex|Hirtat|im  i>f  tlii<  ndiiila 
products  of  tha  islands— an  objaiitionabla  syat4<iii,  and 
one  which,  if  it  la  to  lie  excused  at  all,  can  uiily  \m  an 
by  the  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  tlixy  art 
placed.  There  ia  no  land-tax  or  iinpi«t  on  prii|M>rt/  In 
the  Ionian  Islands,  such  as  exists  In  manv  iitlinr  ruda 
countries ;  and,  sup|NMing  it  wera  daslrafda  In  liitrn* 
duce  such  a  tax,  the  complicated  atata  of  prn|i«i1y  In 
them,  the  feudal  tenures  under  which  It  la  linM,  iind 
the  variety  of  uauges  with  respect  to  It,  op|Nwi<  nil  lint 
Invincible  obstacles  to  its  lni|Msltlon  on  fair  and  aqiiat 
principles.  At  the  same  time,  too,  a  large  aninunt  of 
revenue  is  required  to  meat  the  exiienaas  of  thv  gi<ii)>ral 
and  local  governments,  to  maintain  an  elHiilMiit  |hiIIc«, 
and  to  prevent  amuggiing  and  piracy,  Jlowavitr,  wa 
can  not  help  thinking  that  soma  vary  matarUI  rntriMich* 
ments  might  be  made  firom  tha  axpandlturti  i  iitid  It  I* 
to  this  source,  more,  perhapa,  than  to  any  iillinr,  that 
the  inhabitsnta  muat  look  for  any  real  or  affaituitl  r«< 
lief  from  their  burdena. 

The  Dutiei  cm  Krporti  from  tba  Ionian  laliiiida  an 
regulated  by  acts  dated  8th  >funa,  IHIIft,  'MU  April, 
1837,  and  20th  May,  1847.  Oil  and  uurratit^  piiy  Ig 
per  cent,  ad  valorem.  Wine  (axoeptlng  timt  nf  tha 
(.'ephalonia  Wine'  Company),  0  iwr  cant,  nd  vitlimm. 
Soap,  8  per  ;'<!nt.  ad  valorem.  Valonla,  fl  per  viMit.  nd 
valorem.  >. II '<,.her  artlclea  fraa,  N,  il.~()ll  alilptMil 
in  vessels  inutii'  lo^iian  colore  for  the  pur|ui»«  ut  lining 
conveyed  from  one  Island  to  another  of  tha  Htalaa  must 
pay  only  7  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Account  or  ma  Kivsaua  or  Tiia  loai^a  Isi.Axiia  iw  titftt 
AMU  1SS2,  spKcirviNo  Tiia  pirraaaNT  Iratw,  anii  tun 
Amount  or  xaou,  


DnllM. 


Customs 

Export  duty — 

On  olive  oil 

"  currants 

"  Island  winea 

Import  duty— 
On  fcrelzn  wines  and  aplrits, , 

"  tobacco 

"  grain ,, 

Stamp  duties 

Bale  uf  gnnpowdsr  (monopoly) , , 
Becolpta  for  tariff  dues— 

Hraltb  Office 

PoatOffloe , 

Executive  Police 

Judicial....' 

Free  port  warehouso  ronls. , , , , , 
NfortgsKe  and  rci^strotian  dusa. . 

Printing  offloe  rerolpis 

Freights  of  gov't  atrsni  pookets, 
Becolpta  for  publio  lustruotlon , . 

MIscsllanoous >••..,,.,. 

Total 


It«nas<  In 

nil. 


m,m 


"ttiifjM- 


H«vfH<t«  In 
Mt), 


«0,7U 

11,10(1* 

M,iH 

Wfitn* 

m 

070 

i,wi 

f,l90 

tm 

t,t<w 

T^^i 

ll'J,MI 

l(l,IMO 

m 

Ht» 

*,w 

4,1ll« 

t,m 

v.mn 

i,m 

im 

1,UT« 

Ml 

IIHM 

vm 

DOT 

mn 

m 

vm 

t,m 

i.m 

ijm 

i.tin\ 

Hll 

mil 

£W,IMt 


z 


*  The  dtmlnntlon  of  the  dutlat  was  wliolly  9Wla|  to  tk* 
fitUnre  in  the  crops  of  all  and  oomntli 


Poi 
»reC 
and  J 
CmAi 


1085 


ION 


|<t«i 

i»,(iit* 

(ITi) 

i,un 

|(I,IIIM 
HIV 

i,m 

ll,«M 

Ml 

1,'J'M 

nun 

VOK 

i,ri«l 

MM 


4aiioviiY  or  tbb  KiriRDitviiB  or  m  Iomun  Ulaim 
M  lUl  ARD  IMM,  ipinirTixo  t»  UifruuiT  Ituii, 

AlU  TNI  AMOVKI  or  lAOII. 


II««U  at  •■fMMlllQM. 

BiilUnr  protiiotloii  (iwlii  bv  Sng.) 
LopI  11. 1'unmilMluniir'i  civil  lUt 

L*gl*l*tlTa  AMombI/ 

Civil  MUblUhmtnt. 

JvillcUtl  uUbllibinont 

Iducillon 

IbnU  of  publlo  ofllou 

Pabllo  wotki. 

Picket  Mrvlo«,  eoalf,  r<p«ln,  tlo. 
nollMtlon  of  nvonut,  liislndliif 

paper  A>r  •Uinpt. 

IlMitli    offlea,   burettot    ind 

llght-hauMi. 

Pott  ofllcM 

Kxacallv*  polio* 

OonrU  of  Juitloe 

CoDllniiont  oxModltnn  of  i{«n- 

•nl  tnil  lood  lOToramonU. . . 
ToUL 


IMI. 


HMH 

811 

4I,«I» 

l^«M 

ll.m 

l.tM 

1.BH1 

4^ 

1,8» 

MT 
1,4(0 
1,8M 

«o,(na 


eik,o»t 

4,7W 
4«,4<0 
1A,IMM 
1I,4W 

l.M'i 

m 

S,«48 
4M 

1,8W 

888 

1,*4> 

t,0«> 

14,484 


iil8Ml» 


AoooKiiT  or  TNI  QUANTiTin  AXD  Valvm  or  Tni  rilKOI- 
rAL  AnioLU  expuktid  riuH  tui  Iomiaii  Islahw 
ID  IBM. 


ArlJtiM  tiporlffd. 


QuaBlUlM. 


9Ut«  oil bar.  of  14  Imp.  ul 

OamuiU. Iba 

Win* bureli 

BplriU " 

M( bathdi 

HldM number 

Oaikt  of  onmnU. " 

B«rrel*n>r  oil Incbntti 

9o«p. Iba, 

All  otber  artlolai 

Foreign  manulkoturai 

ToUl 


Harcbandlaa  In  tnnilt. 


V>lu<. 


IIT.ITD 

£61,6AS 

r,8«a,»o8» 

7^0I4 

SD.MJ 

9,A1S 

780 

Sb4 

100,797 

1,14fi 

6,1187 

1,788 

8,77» 

1,889 

6,140 

089 

l,9»l,687 

16,608 

18,871 

S.»?5 

8,717 


189,879 


99tl,4M 


*  A  Torjr  bMl  leuon.     In  flirorabla  yeut  the  nporti 
imount  to  1^000,000  or  16,000,000  Iba. 

AooouxT  or  Tni  QuANTiTin  and  Valdm  or  Tin  TARiout 

ARTICLM  IHPOITRD  liITU  TUB  lOMIAK  laLANDf  IN  1SB9. 


ArtUUi 


Troduee,  angar. Iba. 

Coffee " 

Orura,  guina,  eto. £ 

Mannnicturc'    £ 

Rawallk Ibi. 

lUwcotton " 

Wool " 

Hemp  and  flax ** 

Btavea  Ibr  largo  eaaka. No 

Iloopa       "  "    " 

Iron Iba. 

Timber £ 

Firewood paaal 

Wheat. ktloga. 

Indian  corn " 

Barley  and  oata " 

Beana  and  other  palao ...     * 

Potatoea Iba, 

Klce " 

MaccaronL " 

Flour " 

Blwulta " 

Cberae, " 

Butter " 

Bait  moot " 

Stock  flab  and  baecala " 

Bottarsa  and  Caviare " 

Bardlnloa  and  anchovlea. " 

Onlona  and  garllo roll. 

Dried  ftulta, £ 

Poultry. No. 

Wlnea,  foreign barrela 

Splrite. " 

Horned  cattle No. 

Iloraea,  mnlea,  and  aaaes.. . .  " 

Sheep,  goata,  and  piga ■* 

Tobacco Iba. 

Eye klloga. 

All  otber  artlolea £ 

Total 


Valnoofmerchandlao In  tranatt 


^iiantltlM. 


1,B8^807 


W 

BO,AU 

28,834 

69,588 

8«9,S79 

816,070 

200,880 

0,641 

028,889 

167,823 

78,658 

18,»<4 

1,181,084 

801,797 

371,M4 

879,817 

81,828 

474,469 

71,707 

28,746 

1,088,610 

60,018 

1,244,826 

0,614 

17,i07 

632 

1,164 

9,066 

2,028 

816 

80,142 

200,621 


"vail 


£80,788 

1^617 

10,986 

114,468 

88 

1,866 

980 

1,148 

6,706 

2,410 

17,251 

8,708 

201,646 

28,180 
6,761 
8,248 
4,887 
0,210 
2,M8 
8,269 
818 
6,764 
2,8S6 
82.1 
0,102 
4,280 

16,964 
2,660 
4,869 
069 
4,209 
8,200 

83,741 
9,678 
9,071 
0,804 
6,828 

19,878 


686,288 


108,123 


Portt. — The  principal  porta  in  tlie  Ionian  republic 
are  Corfli  and  Zante,  in  tlie  islands  of  tlie  same  names, 
and  ArgostoU  in  Gephalonla.  The  city  and  port  of 
Cotfa  lia  on  the  east  side  of  the  laland,  on  the  canal 


or  obannal  between  It  and  the  ..(ipoalto  ooalliienl, 
whieh  ia  here  aliout  live  miles  wide.  The  oiladel, 
which  ptnjecu  Into  the  aea,  ia  funii^liad  wUh  a  light- 
house,  M(l  faet  hlxh  |  the  laUer  b«in({  In  lat.  89°  87' 
N.,  long.  18°  M'  K.  The  town  la  but  indlffeiantir 
built.  Population  aliout  1H,U00,  excluaive  of  the  mill- 
Urj.  The  fortlflcations  are  rery  strong,  both  toward 
the  sea  and  the  land.  The  canal  has  deep  water 
tbrottgbout  I  Its  navigation,  which  Is  a  little  diffloult, 
has  liaen  much  racilitated  by  the  erection  of  a  llght- 
huus*  on  the  rock  of  TIgnoeo  In  the  northern  entrance, 
where  the  channel  Is  leas  than  a  mile  In  width  t  and 
by  the  mooring  of  a  floating  light  off  Point  Uschino, 
In  the  southern  entrance.  Hhlps  anchor  between  the 
small  hut  well-fortifled  laland  of  VIdo  and  the  city,  in 
ftom  13  to  17  fathoms  water.  The  port,  or  rather  gulf, 
of  ArgostoU  in  Cephnlonls,  Use  on  the  south-west  side 
of  the  island.  Cape  AJi.  forming  its  south-weatem 
extremity,  is  in  lat.  m°  h'  40"  N.,  long.  20°  SB'  80" 
E.  Cape  Han  Nicoio,  forming  the  other  extremity,  it 
about  4}  miles  from  Cape  Aji  i  and  between  them, 
within  ab<iut  1)  mile  of  the  latter,  is  the  email  lalet  of 
Quardlani,  on  which  is  a  light-house.  Prom  this  isl- 
and the  gulf  stretches  N.  }  W.,  fh>m  seven  to  eight 
miles  inland.  The  town  of  ArgostoU  lie's  on  the  west 
side  of  a  haven  on  the  east  side  of  the  gulf  formed  by 
Point  Stature.  The  situation  is  low  and  rather  un- 
healthy. Population  about  6000.  Its  appearance  and 
police,  particularl}'  the  latter,  have  been  much  Im- 
proved since  its  occupation  by  the  Kngllah.  There  Is 
deep  water  and  good  anchorage  ground  iu  most  parts 
of  the  gulf.  The  beat  entrance  is  between  Cape  San 
Nicoio  and  GuardUni,  keeping  rather  more  than  a  mile 
to  the  eastward  of  the  latter,  on  account  of  a  reef  that 
extends  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  from  it  nearly  that  distance. 
The  port  and  city  of  Zante  are  situsted  on  the  east- 
em  side  of  the  island,  in  Int.  87°  27  N.,  long.  20°  M' 
42"  £.  The  city,  the  largest  In  the  lonUn  Islands, 
extends  along  the  shore  for  nearly  H  mile,  but  it  Is 
nowhere  above  200  yards  in  breadth,  except  where  it  as- 
cends the  hill  on  which  the  citadel  Is  erected.  The  stylo 
of  building  is  chiefly  Italian ;  and  the  Interior  of  the  city 
displays  every  where  great  neatness,  and  even  a  certain 
degree  of  magniflcence.  Population  estimated  by  Dr. 
Burgess  at  a^ut  20,000.  It  has  a  mole  or  Jetty  of  con- 
siderable utility,  at  the  extremity  of  which  a  light- 
hoiue  is  erected ;  and  a  lazaretto,  situated  a  little  to 
the  south-west.  The  harbor  is  capacious.  Ships  an- 
chor opposite  the  town  at  tiom  600  to  1000  yards'  dis- 
tance, in  from  12  to  16  fathoms,  availing  themselves 
of  the  protection  of  the  mole  when  the  wind  is  ttom 
the  north-east.  When  the  troops  took  possession  of 
Zante,  in  1810,  the  fortlflcations  were  found  to  be  in 
very  bad  repair ;  but  immense  sums  have  since  been 
expended  upon  their  Improvement  and  extension. 

In  1853  66li,817  tons  of  shipping  entered  the  ports 
of  the  Ionian  Islands,  of  which  27,010  were  English. 
The  others  were  Ionian,  Greek,  Turkish,  etc. 

Money. — Accounts  are  kept  in  sterling  money,  or  in 
Spanish  dollars  and  oboli,  100  oboli  being  =  1  doll,  b 
4s.  4d. ;  a  doubloon  =  1  dollar.— Tate's  CantbUt. 

Weighti. — English  weights  and  measures  are  some- 
times made  use  of,  though  with  Italian  denominations ; 
but  the  following  are  most  generally  used :  The  pound 
pt$o  grotto,  or  great  weight  of  12  oz.  =  7884  grains 
Troy ;  94-8  lbs.  =  100  lbs.  avoirdupois.  The  pound 
pt$o  loltile,  or  small  weight  used  for  precious,  metals 
and  drugs,  is  l-3d  lighter  than  the  foregoing ;  12  oz. 
peso  sottile  corresponding  to  8  oz,  peso  grosso. 

The  oke,  used  in  the  southern  islands,  weighs  about 
18,900  grains  Troy,  or  27'10  lbs.  avourdupois.  The 
Levant  cuntnr,  or  quintal,  should  contain  44  okes. 
I'he  migliujo  (lUOO  lbs.),  for  currants  in  Zante,  is  1  per 
C'jnt.  lighter  than  for  other  articles. 

Meamrei  of  Length.— Tte  Venetian  foot  is  12  onu6 
=  13}  inches  English.  Passo  =  6  Venetian  feet. 
Braccio,  for  cloths,  etc.,  a  27  8-16  Inches  English. 


low 


loefl 


i<rw 


Do.  fcr  lilki,  —  tS  R-ia.  Uad  U  mcMtirMl  hf  the 
nwura  or  I'M  of  •  mogglo,  or  hacllo,  4<l0  nquar*  ^mW 
balaf  1  nUnira,  or  bacilo,  alianl  8-10  of  in  Mr*  Kn- 
glUh.  VliMyarda  aro  moaiartd  hy  th*  mfipailii  A 
uppado  (■  oompaUd  dav'i  work)  Miik  1  minura,  V\n- 
wood  U  maaaurad  h}-  tha  Miuara  pauHi,  luoally,  how- 
•var,  only  1  hat  thick,  thit  dapandliiK  nn  tha  (luallty 
•f  tha  wood,     fltona  I*  maaaurwil  hy  Iha  paaan  oalKi. 

ttmmrrt  nf  (!apacilg.~r,,rn.—V,nrta  and  Fasoi 
■ogfloof  II  HiUura,  alioat  A  WInrhmtar  boahcU.  (^pli- 
alonla  i  baclla  ihould  rnntain  HO  IIm,  paw  k">**<>>  t**** 
quality  whaat.  Santa  Maura :  oailo  of  M  crivalll,  4  •> 
S  moH.  I  1  cadi)  —  Hf  huahalt  KiiulUh.  Ithaca  i  5 
baalla  w  1  ntoftglo.  Carl|(i>  i  chllA,  tha  maaaura  of 
ConMantlnnpla,  —  1  hnihel  KnKlUb. 

Win* — (.'orfu  and  Paxo  i  m  i|uartu«il  •-  1  Jar,  and 
4  Jart  -•  1  harral  —  IH  KniilUh  wtna  Kallani.  (^aph- 
•lonla  and  Ithaoa  i  8  quartuecl  —  I  iKx-cal*  |  t  Imc- 
eall  —  1  laocbio  |  li  Mcchio  —  1  liarml  —  ID  KnglUh 
galloni.  Zanta  t  IS  1-S  qnartnooi  -•  1  lira  i  40  quar- 
tacel  »  1  Jar  t  8  jara  —  1  barrel  »  17  6-8  Kngllah 
wina  Rallona.  flanta  Maura  t  M  quartuecl  ••  1  rtam- 
nu  {  «  atamni  =>»  1  barral  »  18  Knifllih  wina  Kalloo*' 
CarlKo :  3  »gt»t*n  •>  1  boccia  |  80  bocelo  -•  1  liarral 
^  IB  KngUah  wIna  nllooa. 

OH. — Corfu  and  Paxo ;  4  qnartuecl  ••  1  mlltro  |  6 
mlltri  —1  Jar  i  4  Jara  —  1  bairal  —  IH  KnglUh  wIna 
Kallona.  Caphalonia  i  9  pagllaiil  —  1  barrel  — 18 
Kii((lUh  win*  gallnna.  Zanta  :  8  lire,  or  8  Jan  nf  46 
quartuecl  each  —  1  barrel  M  Enf(llih  wine  gallona. 
Santa  Maura :  7  etamiil  =—  1  Iwrret  •»  18  Kn^lUh  wine 
gallon!.  Ithaca ;  1.1  pa((llBi«l  •»  1  barrel  •»  18  Kn- 
glUh wtna  gallniia.  Origo :  il4  Imiia  °«  1  barrel  •«■ 
14  O'S  Engllah  wIna  gallona.  Mn/(.— (Jentlnajo,  alwnt 
4000  Iba.  Venetian  peiio  grouo.  Aim«.— Corfu,  meaa- 
ura  of  4  Engllah  cubic  feet. 

In  compiling  thia  article,  we  have  cnnanlted,  lieaide* 
the  worka  referred  to  above,  the  Voj/ag*  llitloriiiue  Pit- 
Uwftqu*,  etc.,  by  Saikt  8advk«ii — a  dlfruae  but  valu- 
able work.  The  aooonnt  of  /ante,  in  the  laat  volume 
(tome  ill.,  pp.  101  378),  la  particularly  good.  We 
have  alao  looked  Into  the  Vnyagt  en  drStrr  of  Sono- 
VAITI, 8  tomea,  Paria,  1801 ;  the  Archive  du Commercf ; 
the  I'aptri  laid  ie/on  the  Jirilith  f'inanee  Committee, 
etc.  See  Wettm.  Rev.,  xxxvlli.,  418 ;  MimtUy  Kev., 
Ixxxlll.,  238,  oil.,  188;  Qnar.  Xev.,  xxix.,  80;  Chrii. 
ifoc,  xiv.,  «36 ;  Com.  JM.  U,  8.,  vol.  i.,  457,  vol.  11., 
171. 

Iowa,  one  of  the  United  Statea  of  N'orth  America, 
Ilea  between  north  lat.  40°  40'  and  4:i°  m',  and  weat 
long.  90O  13'  and  86°  63'.  It  la  Iwunded  north  by 
MInneaota  Tenrltoiy,  eaat  by  the  MiaalaalppI  River, 
which  aeparataa  It  fh>m  the  Statea  of  Illinoia  and  Wia- 
conaln,  aouth  by  Miaaouri,  and  weat  by  the  Mlaaouri 
and  the  great  Sioux  Klvera,  the  former  of  which  aepa- 
ratea  it  timm  tha  Indian  Territory,  and  the  later  from 
MInneaota.  Greateet  length  fh>m  eaat  to  weat,  807 
milea ;  graateat  breadth,  196  milea ;  aioa,  60,914  square 
mllea. 

The  aurfac*  of  Iowa  la  somewhat  elevated  and  gen- 
erully  undulating.  It  haa  no  monntaina,  nor  even 
hiUa,  of  any  great  height.  Table  Mound,  a  co.ilcal 
elevation  with  a  flat  summit,  three  or  four  miles  from 
Dubuque,  la  perhapa  600  feet  high.  On  the  bordera 
of  the  rivera  there  are  frequent  "  bluffa"  whiob  are 
generally  from  40  to  130  feet  high.  The  higheat 
ground  in  the  State  la  a  plateau  in  the  north-west, 
called  Coteau  dt*  Prairiei,  which  enters  it  from  Min- 
nesota. The  southern  part  of  tha  State  abounda  with 
groaay  lawns  and  verdant  plains,  Intersected  by  nu- 
merous rivers,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Den  Moines, 
the  Skunk,  the  Iowa,  and  the  Red  Cedar  (a  branch  of 
Iowa)  Rhrers  which  flow  in  a  south-east  direction  into 
the  Miaaiaaippi.  The  banks  of  almost  all  of  these 
rivera  are  akirtcd  with  belts  of  wood.  The  diatingulsh- 
Ing  feature,  however,  of  Iowa  Is  ita  unique  and  admir- 
ably dlversifled  prairies,  sometimet  spreading  out  into 


vast  plalna.  Tha  entir*  Mai*  b  wuMd  "  a  ralllag 
prairie"  by  th*  aattlara,  Aram  th*  rasMlhUoo*  Ita  aur- 
fkcc  Iwara  to  tha  rolling  awall  of  th*  ncaan.  From 
the  abaanc*  of  wootl,  tha  acanary  baoomea  waariaum* 
and  twoa. 

The  aoll  of  Iowa  la  in  gmteral  hrtlla.  N»«r  th* 
oonflna*  of  the  Cuteau  dca  I'ralrlca  the  country  Ik  hilly 
and  dea<ilate ;  th*  hi^h  Unila  being  covered  with  Kraval 
support  but  a  acanty  vrgntatlon,  while  the  low  xrounil* 
are  marshy.  It  ap|Mtan,  however,  fVom  the  aiirvcys 
whieb  have  l)**n  made,  that  no  State  In  the  Union  ha* 
a  snuillar  proportion  of  Inftirior  land.  Dr.  Owen,  in 
hia  geological  report,  remarks  that  "  tha  aoll  of  low* 
la  geminilly  excellent,  and  of  easy  cultivation.  Th* 
vallaya— eapeciatly  of  the  Ked  Cedar,  Iowa,  iind  l)*s 
Molnea  Klvera— preannt  n  iKMly  of  arable  land,  which, 
taken  aa  a  whole,  for  richneaa  In  organic  elementa,  for 
amount  of  aiillne  matter,  and  due  admixture  nf  earthy 
allicatea,  afforda  a  combination  which  Iwlonga  only  to 
the  moat  fertile  upland  plalna."  The  climate  i%  gen- 
erally more  healthful  than  moat  of  the  new  .States. 
The  openneaa  of  the  country  rendera  It  leaa  lUMe  than 
la  uaual  to  the  InHuence  of  malarial  the  air  on  the 
nplnnil  prairiea  la  buoyant,  and  rendered  flr««  frum  all 
pemlclnua  Inllnencea  by  the  refreabing  lireezca  that 
lilow  periodically  over  them.  The  rapid  flow  of  It* 
rivera  alan  carriea  off  In  the  valleys  those  mUamatIo 
influences  which  otherwise  tend  to  the  prtHluction  of 
disease.  The  winter  la  nccaainnally  a*vera,  liut  tha 
aeverity  is  not  ao  great  aa  la  uaual  In  the  same  lat- 
itudes.    The  aunimer,  also,  la  leas  nppreaaively  hot. 

Iowa  la  ntrli'tly  an  agrletiltiiral  country.  Ita  flna 
prairiea  and  rich  natural  paaturoa  afl'nrd  peculiar  fucil- 
itiea  for  rearing  cattio  and  sheep.  WiHii-gmwIng  has 
accordingly  liecome  one  of  the  staple  emplnymenta  of 
th*  settlers.  The  raising  nf  hogs  Is  an  occupation 
equally  common  and  protltable.  The  value  of  live 
sto«!k  in  1860  was  estimated  at  ^,660,000,  and  slaugh- 
tered animals  at  (iHTO,00(),  The  amount  of  wool  pro- 
duced was  n7ll,H0H  pounds,  ('onalderable  pnigreas 
has  recently  l)een  made  In  agricuUiirv,  as  shown  by 
the  increase  of  various  pnxiuctiona  of  tliA'  State.  Kor 
instance,  in  IHIO  there  were  only  164,<i9II  huahtila  of 
«heat  grown  ;  In  1850,  there  were  1,640,581 ;  In  1M40, 
216,886  bushels  oats;  in  1850,  1,524,846;  In  1840, 
1,406,341  bushels  maize ;  In  1860,  8,056,799.  All  the 
other  productions  common  to  simllsr  latitudes  are 
grown  In  Iowa,  and  have  increased  in  an  equal  or 
greater  proportion. 

ManufHcturcs  Imve,  until  recently  made  little  prog- 
ress In  the  State.  Having  only  existed  for  little 
mure  than  10  years  as  an  independent  State,  time  has 
not  been  afforded  to  develop  ita  manufacturing  re- 
Bourcea.  Poaaeaaing  within  itself  abundance  of  the 
two  grand  elementa  for  manufacturers— coal  and  wa- 
ter power— there  can  l)e  no  doubt  that  Iowa  will  yet 
be  distinguished  as  a  manufacturing  State.  In  1860 
the  number  of  manufacturing  eatabjiahmc  .ts,  produ- 
cing each  to  the  value  of  (500  annually  iind  upward, 
was  483.  Of  these  there  were  three  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  cast  iron,  14  tanneries,  and  one  woolen  factory. 
The  others  are  chiefly  employed  In  the  manufacture  of 
articles  for  ordinary  and  domestic  purposes  and  agri- 
cultural Implements.  Th*  home-made  manufactures 
In  the  vear  ending  Ist  June  1860,  were  valued  at 
•220,000. 

The  minerals  of  Iowa  are  not  of  great  variety.  The 
vast  bituminous  coal-field  of  the  State  occupies  must 
of  Its  central  and  southern  portions.  For  upwards  of 
200  mllea  the  River  Dea  Moines  passes  through  thia 
groat  deposit,  the  area  of  Vhlch  has  been  estimated  at 
about  20,000  square  miles  embracing  a  country  equal 
In  extent  to  more  than  one  half  of  the  State  of  Indi- 
ana. The  beds  of  coal,  which  are  100  feet  iu  thick- 
ness, lie  near  the  surface,  and  may  be  worked  at  small 
expense.  The  lead  mines  of  Iowa  are  a  continuation 
of  those  of  IlUnoi*  and  Wisconsin.    Th*  workings  ai« 


TOW 


I08T 


IRR 


•M  tad  lwv«  b««n  rtrj  ftoivetlr:  thty  oeevr  In 
Mm  Mltk-Mit  part  of  |h«  fltaU,  Duhnqun,  on*  of  the 
oldfH  Htlltm«ntii  In  Nitrth  Am»rli<*,  ImIiir  lh«  chl«f 
town  of  Iht  Icid-mlnlnK  'H^trlil.  Dr.  Owrni,  In  hU 
(ImlofM  •Vunry,  rtmnrki  thut  tht  Iniut-mlnM nf  Inwa 
prwiaco  M  much  of  that  mxlal  an  the  whola  uf  Kurnpa, 
•inrpt  (Irtat  llrllain,  and  that  Ihalr  rapalilllllaa  an 
nnlwunilnd.  /Inn  U  fnunit  I'hiaHy  In  tha  form  of  alac' 
trie  caltmin*.  In  cdlular  ma«M>  In  ninncrtlnn  with  tha 
load.  Thit  minoral  nrnun  In  •oma  "dlgKlnK»"  alao, 
In  a  Mat*  nf  carlKinute,  and  In  iithan,  a*  a  lulphiirtt, 
Cuppar  U  fuund  In  tha  aam*  lix'allilai  aa  line.  It  haa 
ra«antt}r  Iwan  dUrnvarad  In  Cadur  county  In  cnn»ldi>r- 
•Ilia  quantltlM.  Iron-ora  la  abundantly  dlKtrllmtrd, 
but  aa  yat,  only  a  iiniall  quantity  of  It  haa  liaan  con- 
vartad  Into  inatal.  In  tha  Kadloifical  aurvay  of  the 
State  above  referrrd  to,  It  U  affirmed  that  It*  reMurcaa 
•nd  eapahllltlea  are  auch  that  10,000  Inliorera  and 
mlnera  mlifht  he  pniAtahly  emp1oye<I  wKhIn  Ita  bound- 
arlet.  Inwa  haa  no  direct  fiirelifn  commerce,  but  ita 
trade  with  the  porta  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mexican 
flulf  la  very  conalderable,  and  rapidly  Increnalng. 
The  export*  conalat  of  agricultural  ami  mining  pro- 
dueti.  The  home  traffic  nf  thia  fltate  la  alao  ver>-  con- 
ilderabl*.  The  facllltlea  which  it  poaaeaaea,  lioth  for 
Internal  trade  and  forelfpi  commerce  are  ver}-  abund- 
'1,  and  In  a  abort  time  will  be  )(reatly  Increaaed.  A 
railroad  of  IfH)  milea  In  length  haa  lieen  projected  lie- 
tween  Dubuque,  the  capital  of  the  lead-mining  diatrlct, 
and  Keokuk,  the  chief  port  of  the  State  fur  foreign 
trade.  Keokuk,  Davenport,  Lyona,  and  Duliu(|ua  will 
alao  ihortly  be  connected  by  rallninda  with  the  lnte< 
rior.  Dealdea  theae,  which  will  radiate  thmugh  the 
State  In  varioua  directinna,  the  grand  trunk  line  la 
propoaed  to  be  carried  from  thia  city  weatward  to 
Conncil  niulTa  on  the  Mtaaourl,  and  will  form  a  part  of 
the  great  Paclflc  line  which  la  to  terminate  at  Han 
Francijco,  In  California.  Through  Iowa  will  aUnpaaa 
a  branch  of  the  great  chain  of  north  and  aonth  ralt- 
rottda  connecting  St.  I^uia  with  the  extreme  settle- 
ments  of  Minnesota  Territory.  When  these  are  com- 
pleted, iKith  the  home  and  foreign  commerce  of  the 
State  will  be  Indeflnitoly  Increased,  Congress  has 
given  1,800,000  acres  for  the  improvement  of  the  Des 
Moines  River,  as  far  as  Des  Moines  City— to  be 
made  navigable  for  large  steamboats.  In  July,  1856, 
there  were  108  miles  of  ruilrnod  flnished,  and  1110 
propoaed,  for  which  Congress,  in  May,  1868,  appropri- 
ated 4,8*^0,000  acres.  The  valley  of  the  Des  Moines 
River  contains  at  present  half  the  population,  as  well 
as  half  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  State,  and  its  pros- 
perity may  for  some  time  depend  as  much  upon  the 
improvement  of  navigation  on  this  river,  as  upon  the 
execution  of  these  projected  railroads.  The  Des 
Mvines  rises  in'  the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  In  the  south- 
west of  Minnesota,  and  flowing  through  the  State  In  gen- 
eral in  a  south  south-east  direction,  divides  it  into  two 
nearly  equal  sections,  and  after  a  course  of  400  miles, 
falls  into  the  Mississippi  at  the  south-east  extremity  of 
the  State,  about  four  miles  below  Keoknk.  Iowa  has 
many  other  Interior  rivers  which  are  navigable  for  va- 
rious—some of  them  for  consideralile— distances.  The 
Skunk  is  more  than  200  miles  In  length,  and  flows 
through  a  fertile  countrj-.  It  pursues  a  course  of  150 
mites  in  a  south-east  direction  nearly  parallel  to  Des 
Moines.  The  Iowa,  from  which  the  State  takes  its 
name,  has,  in  general,  a  south  south-east  direction, 
and  after  a  course  of  upwards  of  800  miles,  discharges 
Itself  in  the  Mississippi  by  two  mouths,  forming  a  delta, 
the  sides  of  which  an  about  six  miles  long.  It  Is 
navigable  by  steamboats  at  all  seasons,  to  Iowa  City, 
80  miles  ftrom  Its  mouth,  and  for  boats  of  light  draught 
much  farther  up.  TIib  Red  Cedar  (a  branch  of  the 
Iowa),  Is  navigable  for  60  miles.  The  Wapsipinicon, 
the  Makoquete,  Turkey,  and  Upper  Iowa  Rivers  have 
courses  varj'lng  In  length  fh>m  100  to  200  miles,  and 
an  MTlgable  for  distances  of  SO  to  60  mUer     They 


flow  In  a«  aast  or  south-Msl  dIrMthm  Into  IIm  Mlanfk 
slppl.  The  (iraat  fllnnx,  an  ihiportant  IrltHltary  •# 
tha  Mlsoonrl,  fnrms  the  north-west  bnumlary  nf  Ik* 
State  I  its  length  U  Mtlninted  at  IMN)  mliet,  The  Irliki 
utarles  nf  the  Missouri  In  itiU  Sui*  are  nf  minof  Im- 
pnrtance.  The  Mississippi  hn.-iiars  the  Mtata  A>»  ll« 
whole  length  on  the  east,  and  Is  navigable  In  lima  uf 
high  water  for  steamtxMts,  to  tha  mouth  of  th*  M. 
Tetars,  in  Minnesota. 

IpaoMuanlui  (Vi.  /i»n,uaitJka i  Oar.  Amtrimf 
Mc*«  irrcAvMrsW ;  It.  Iptriwinmt ;  I'ort,  Ciim  iU>  torn' 
am,  IpnaruntAa i  8p.  Iiimicutina,  Hiiii  it'  ufri),  Iht 
mot  uf  a  perennial  plant  (CriiAiulu  i/ccncuiiaA/i),  gruir> 
Ing  In  Kraall  and  other  parts  uf  Houtb  Anierliia.  It 
Is  fhim  Ite  color  usually  dennmlnatatl  whilr,  gntf,  ut 
(uK-colond,  and  ftnwa.  Mttle  of  the  lint  variety  U 
found  In  the  shops.  Tha  gray  and  brown  varlelltt  an 
brought  tn  thia  country  In  baloa  from  lllu  .Unaira 
Both  are  In  short,  wrinkled,  variously  beiil,  mul  imnt 
lorted  pieces,  which  break  with  a  nsiiinii  IruitMN, 
The  gray  Is  about  the  thicknaaa  nf  a  small  i|Ulll,  full 
of  knots  and  deep  clroular  flssuras,  that  nearly  reaeh 
down  to  a  white,  woody,  vaaoular  uoni  that  runs 
throagh  the  heart  of  each  place  |  tha  eatemal  part  Is 
compact,  brittle,  and  looks  smooth  i  tha  brown  Is 
smaller,  mora  \Trlnkled,  of  a  Idacklsh-brown  volnr  on 
the  outside,  and  whitish  within  i  the  white  Is  woody, 
and  has  no  wrinkles.  The  entire  nnit  Is  IriiNloruus  | 
hut  the  powder  has  a  faint  dlsiiKi^anble  mlnr,  Til* 
taste  Is  bitter,  sul>-aiTid,  and  extremely  niiuaanus,  IR 
choosing  lpe<'acuanha,  the  larger  roots,  wlilih  ara  ii(im> 
pact  and  break  witn  a  resinous  fraoturn,  having  • 
whitish  gray,  somewhat  semi-transparent  apiieitraniM 
In  the  outside  cortical  part,  with  •  pale  strawtKilored 
medullar}'  fibre,  are  to  lie  prahrred.  When  iHiundml, 
Ipecacuanha  forms  the  mildest  and  safest  tinietln  in  tha 
whole  materia  medicH.  Though  proliably  employad 
in  America  from  time  Immemorial,  it  was  not  Intro- 
duced into  Europe  till  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,,  when 
one  Urenier,  a  French  merchant,  brought  lAO  |Hiund* 
of  It  ffom  Spain,  with  which  trials  were  made  at  tha 
HAtel  DIeu.  Ilelvetius  first  mada  known  Its  usa  in 
dysentery,  for  which  I^nls  XIV.  munlfloantly  rawurdad 
him  by  a  douceur  of  2fi,000  francs. — TlliiMsnN'a  Itif 
peiualory ;  Tiiomhon'h  Ckemulry, 

Ireland,  one  of  the  largest  of  tha  Kurnpean  IsUrnls, 
Is  situated  to  the  west  of  Great  lirltaln,  frnni  which  11 
Is  separated  by  a  narrow  channel  called  tlie  Irish  N«* 
and  St.  George's  Channel  on  the  east,  and  is  bnundad 
on  Its  other  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocuun,  througb 
which  it  can  maintain  a  direct  communication  with  tn* 
continents  nf  Kurone,  Africa,  and  America,  Tha  ad* 
vantageous  position,  the  fertility  of  tha  soil,  and  III* 
salubrity  of  the  climate,  have  conferred  upon  Iralund 
commercial  facilities  which  are  cupalilu  of  I:  dng 
greatly  increased.  Ilow  far  these  natural  udvuntagas 
have  been  made  available  toward  tha  iiitarnal  tin- 
provement  of  the  island  itself,  and  the  gunerul  bsiiallt 
of  the  empire  of  which  it  forms  an  important  part,  niuy 
lie  best  ascertained  from  the  following  iletuils  of  Its 
history  and  statistics. 

Ireland  la  rhomlioidal  In  shape,  and  placed  at  til* 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  wasliai 
its  northern,  western,  and  soutliern  shores,  while  Us 
eastern  coast  Is  separated  from  the  adjacent  Island  of 
Great  Britain  liy  the  Northern  Channel,  which  at  una 
point  Is  only  13Jr  miles  wide,  tha  Irish  Baa,  about  tllO 
miles  in  width,  and  St.  George's  Channel,  wbu-h  Is  (III 
miles  wide  between  Dublin  .ind  IIol>hsa(l,  and  miui''' 
what  less  at  its  southern  extremity.  Its  geugraublCMl 
position  is  lietween  N.  bit,  51°  2fl'  and  bft'^'il  ,  iind 
W.  long.  5°  20'  and  10°  26',  comprising,  tli«i»fofa, 
3°  55'  of  lat.,  and  5°  6'  of  long.— tha  degraaa  of  lati- 
tude being  the  same  as  those  under  whiob  are  aituatad 
the  dissimilar  climates  of  Beriin,  Hamburg,  HotlaN 
dam,  Leipzig,  Warsaw,  i>art  of  Hudson's  Vityi  (b* 
8tn,..<i  of  Bellelsle,  and  PetropaolowaU,  In  lUrnK- 


IRB 


1088 


IRB 


chatka,  which  Uttrr  if  nearly  under  the  lame  parallel 
of  latitude  as  Wicklow.  The  largeet  diagonal  line 
that  can  be  drawn  within  the  island,  viz.,  from  Tor 
Head,  in  Antrim,  to  Mizen  Head,  in  Corl^  measures 
802  miles ;  and  the  shorter,  from  Camsore,  in  Wex- 
ford, to  Erris  Head,  in  Mayo,  is  210  miles  in  length. 
The  breadth  of  the  country,  from  Dundallc  to  BiUly- 
shannon  is  85  miles ;  from  Dublin  to  the  head  of  Gal- 


way  Bay,  110  miles ;  and  the  indentations  of  the  coitt 
b;-  harbors,  arms  of  the  sea,  and  mouths  cf  rivers  are 
so  numerous,  that  scarcely  an  acre  of  land  in  the  coun- 
try is  more  than  60  miles  from  tho  sea  or  good  naviga- 
tion. The  territorial  divisions,  and  the  acroable  ex- 
tent of  Ireland,  which,  next  to  Great  Britain,  is  the 
largest  ishind  in  Europe,  appear  in  the  following 
table : 


TirriUrill  DiTiilaiu. 

ACKKAILa    BXTUfT, 

■\iinual  amoun* 
of  UiUIMiN 
V>luuk,i. 

£4,306,418   ■ 
8,247,177 
2,588,265 
1,868,720 

11/489,6:5 

ProvlDMB. 

No.  of 
Bwonlei. 

No.  of 
PftriihDi. 

Or«r>blolu4. 

OfnHulllT- 
•ltd  lud. 

OfpUnl*. 
tlanii. 

Of  towni  ud 

Tlllagei. 

OfwftUr. 

ToUI  ana. 

LcliisUr 

Munster 

Ulster 

124 

T6 
TO 
47 

1,(108 
884 
SSI 
809 

8,981,188 
8,874,613 
8,407,589 
2,810,000 

781,886 
1,908,477 
1,764,870 
1,906,008 

15,569 

14,698 

8,790 

8,877 

51,624 
1B1,8SI 
214,936 
212.SM 

4,876.211 
6,064,579 
5,475,489 
4,802,048 

Connangtat 

Total 

810 

2,681      1  18,484,800 

«,1»^T85 

874,481 

42,92ft 

«8ft,825 

20,808,261 

Several  coal-fields  exist  in  Ireland,  resting  on  a 
limestone  basis.  In  Ulster,  the  district  of  Coal  Island, 
in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  produces  coal  of  gqpd  quality, 
extensively  used  in  the  nelghliorhood ;  the  small  coal- 
field at  Bollycastle  in  Antrim,  is  of  no  economical  im- 
portance. The  province  of  Connaught  affords  beds  of 
coal  in  Leitrim,  Roscommon,  and  Sligo,  but  rarely  ex- 
ceeding three  or  four  inches  in  tbic)(neas.  The  Mun- 
ster coal-lields  are  in  the  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry,  and 
Limericlc.  The  chief  coal-district,  however,  is  that  oi 
Leinster,  in  Corlow,  Kilkenny,  and  the  Queen's 
County.  Tills  coal,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Munster 
district,  is  anthracitous ;  that  of  Connaght  is  bitumin- 
ous. The  native  cool  is  only  used  in  the  districts 
where  it  is  raised,  and  neither  the  quantity  nor  the 
quality  has  l>een  found  such  as  to  intorlere  with  the 
importation  of  coal  from  Great  Britain,  which  probably 
exceeds  1,000,000  of  tons  annually. 

More  notable  in  Ireland  are  the  unstratifled  igneous 
rocks,  of  which  many  varieties  are  found.  Trap-rocks 
exist  in  various  parts  of  the  countr}',  but  more  espec- 
ially in  Antrim,  where  they  are  found  in  great  variety. 
The  basaltic  columns  of  Fairhead  and  the  Giant's 
Causeway  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  geological 
districts  in  the  British  empire.  The  trap-rocks  often 
repose  on  tiie  indurated  cluilk  of  Antrim,  especially  in 
Kathlin  island  and  at  Cushendole.  At  tlie  latter  place 
beds  of  trap  and  the  chalk  alternate.  Of  quartz  rock, 
the  chief  development  in  Ireland  is  in  Mayo  and  Don- 
egal ;  it  appears,  also,  in  the  peninsula  of  Howth  and 
Dublin,  the  summits  of  the  Sugar-Loaf  Mountains,  and 
Bray  Head,  in  Wicklow,  and  in  the  district  of  Forth, 
in  Wexford.  No  tertiar}-  formation  has  been  discov- 
ered in  Ireland,  except  the  clays  containing  lignite  or 
wood-cottl  on  tlie  southern  sliore  of  Lough  Neugh. 

The  elevation  of  the  surface  of  Ireland  Is  stated  in 
the  fallowing  table  from  the  Land  Tenure  Commission- 
ers' map : 

Sqimre  mllei. 

Between  ses-levcl  and  250  feet  In  height 18,242 

2,V)  and  500  feet 11,797 

"         6110    "1000    "    5,797 

"       1000    "2000    "  1,699 

Above  2000  feet  In  height 82 


Total 82,6091 

The  highest  peaks  in  the  chief  mountain  groups  are : 

Foot. 

Carntusl.  M'Ollltcaddf's  I(eek^  Co.  Kerry. . . .  3,414 

Lngnaouilla,  Wicklow 8,089 

Sliovo  I)onard,  Mourno  Mountains,  Co.  Down .  2,796 

Mulres,  Co.  Mayo 2,689 

Comerngh,  Co.  'Walerford 2,697 

£rrigsl,  Co.  Douenl 2,462 

Troitan,  Co.  Antrim 1,810 

If  the  possession  of  numerous  fine  bays  and  iiarbors 
made  a  country  great  as  a  commercial  and  maritime 
power,  Ireland  would  be  second  to  none  in  Europe. 
Pre-eminent  even  in  Ireland  is  the  magnilicont  harbor 
of  Cork,  securely  land-locked,  protected  by  strong  bat- 
teries, and  used  as  the  only  naval  station  on  the  Irish 
coast.  Baltimore  Harbor,  Skull,  Cape  Clear,  Crook- 
haven  Duninanu*  and  Bantry  Bay,  are  all  nf  auilicient 


depth  and  capacity  for  large  vessels.  On  the  western 
coast  are  Berehaven,  Kenmare  Kiver,  Valentia,  Ven- 
tr}-,  Smerwick,  Brandon  Bay,  the  estuary  of  the  Shan- 
non, Galway  Bay,  Roundstone  Bay,  Ardbear  or  Cllf- 
dcn,  Ballynakill  and  Killery  Iiarbors,  Clew,  Blackrod, 
and  KilliUa  Bttys,  with  many  others  of  loss  importance. 
On  the  northern  coast  are  Milroy  Harbor,  and  the  fine 
gulfs  of  Lough  Sw.iiy  i\nd  I.ongh  Foyle.  The  eastern 
coast  has  been  lest  ^  vored  by  nature,  and  furnishes 
only  one  bay,  with  sufiicient  depth  of  vater  for  the 
largest  vessels,  that  of  Strnngford.  The  Buy  of  Dub- 
lin, which  is  much  exposed,  contains  tiie  fine  artificial 
Harbor  of  Kingstown.  Belfast,  Xewry,  Drogheda, 
Wicklow,  Arklow,  and  AVexford,  have  all  been  con- 
verted into  ports,  but  are  naturally  doiiciout  in  the 
requisites  for  good  harbors.  Between  Wexford  and 
Cork  is  the  fine  Estuary  of  Wutcrford,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Rivers  Suir,  Nore,  and  Barrow.  Al- 
together, Ireland  possesses  14  harbors  for  tlie  largest 
ships,  17  for  frigates,  from  30  to  40  for  merchant  ves- 
sels, with  many  good  summer  roadsteads,  and  an  in- 
finity of  small  harbors  for  fishing-boats.  The  islund» 
oflT  the  coast  of  Ireland  are  numerous,  but  generally  of 
small  size ;  the  largest  are  Rathlin  and  Tory  in  tlio 
north ;  AchiU,  Clare,  the  South  Arran  Islands,  and 
Valentia,  in  the  west ;  and  Whiddy  and  Cupo  Clear  in 
the  south. 

Ixikes. — The  lakes  in  Ireland  are  numerous.  Lough 
Xeagh,  in  Ulster,  is  tho  largest  inland  lake  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  is  only  exceeded  in  Europe  by 
Lake  Ladoga  in  Russia,  Luke  Vtncr  in  Sweden,  and 
the  Lake  cf  (ioneva.  According  to  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey it  covers  98,255  statute  acres.  Tho  River  Bann, 
passing  through  it,  affords  tho  moans  of  lowering  its 
surface,  which  Is  '18  feet  above  tho  sea  at  low  water ; 
but  as  its  deepest  part  is  beneath  the  level  of  low  wa- 
ter, total  drainage  would  be  impracticable.  Tradition 
states  that  It  was  once  dry  land,  and  that  tlie  tops  of 
buildings  may  at  times  lie  seen  in  it — n  legend  whiili 
has  been  made  use  of  by  Moore  in  one  of  his  melodies. 
Lough  Neagh  contains  but  one  islet,  Rum  Island,  re- 
markable onl}'  for  a  round  tower,  and  as  contributing 
to  break  the  sameness  of  the  surface  of  the  lake,  whicli, 
being  surrounded  by  shores  almost  as  level  as  itself, 
and  generally  bare  of  wood,  has  little  or  none  of  the 
picturesque  beauty  wliich  renders  Lougli  Emu  and 
Killarney  so  delightful.  Its  vicinity  to  tho  five  coun- 
ties of  Ulster,  Antrim,  Down,  Armagh,  Tyrone,  and 
Londonderry,  each  of  which  its  waters  touch,  presents 
great  advantages  for  internal  trft<lo  by  inland  naviga- 
tion ;  steam  vessels  have  been  placed  upon  tho  lake, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Coal  Island,  Ncwry,  Ulster, 
and  Lagan  Canals,  Lough  Xcagh,  with  its  100  miles 
of  coast,  promises  to  increase  in  iinpurtanco  as  a  centre 
of  Internal  trafilc.  Lough  Erne,  tlie  next  In  size,  lies 
wholly  within  the  county  of  Fermanagh.  Its  tot.il 
length  is  upward  of  40  miles,  lut  its  greatest  breadth 
is  not  more  than  8.  Strictly  speaking,  it  consists  of 
two  lakes,  about  5  miles  apart ;  the  more  inland  nicos- 
arinff  about  14  milea  in  length,  and  that  nearer  tho 


IRR 


1080 


IBB 


Ml,  !S,  They  art  conmtctM  with  «««ti  oiliM  \ty  ■ 
flna  riv«r  (lowing  from  tiM  »^\m  m  (M«tth«fn,  Into  th<t 
lowar  or  nortbtm  Uka.  On  am  Mdnd  (WmM  M'  tha 
divlilon  of  thit  rlvnr  Into  two  \ir»W^fi,tM«  chlaf  imrt 
of  the  town  of  KnnlakllleH  U  Imftt,  Tlw  MpiK-rJafce 
covera  927H  itatuta  m'lM,  nn/l  fmitfllni*  Kfmlit  (10  Inl- 
■ndi  i  the  lower  and  lurgar  Ukc  cmiitSm  fiMrty  8«,- 
000  Itatuta  arrei  ani  nnmaroMa  Mi>i»,  ItK  coHntit  an 
•tuddod  with  niiniuriiuii  mittta  ilfl4  v(1l«»  of  mticli  Iwan- 
ty,  Louiili  (^irrib  and  l^m^  Maitk,  in  tha  w«Kt  itt 
Connaugbt,  are  aeparatod  froni  amh  otfMir  l/y  an  luth- 
mua  not  more  than  (I  mllna  liro»Ml,  'i'\m  (iitmur  nt  thnm 
lakea  covara  an  ara»  of  in,m  m'nm,  utid  the  latter, 
22,319.  It  dlachiri^aa  jta  w«t«p«  lnt««  Oalway  liay  tiy 
K  abort  but  broad  and  rapid  rlvtir,  wbti^h  aktrta  the 
town  of  Oalway,  Ita  |bv«|  la  Itiit  U  tM  adore  that 
of  the  aea,  and  worka  Imva  |/ifl«  bwn  Id  ptnKttM  to 
connect  the  navigation  of  tlta  I/ay  with  that  of  the  two 
great  lakea  abuvo  it,  Mnaiia  lii  i'iniim't\iiK  them  liy 
water  coniinunk-'ation  l)»a  n<»t  y#t  liaiti  fflhi'tml,  Fur- 
ther north,  and  aliont  it  ntilxa  frmtt  tlallitia,  la  the  nar- 
row Uka  of  r^oujb  Conn,  12  mil**  imiK,  'tha  lake* 
of  Killamey,  in  Kerry,  Iwva  Umg  tmn  celaliratod  for 
their  plctureaijue  aiensry,  'I'li^yaw  atnall  aa  com- 
pared with  the  larger  lak<>«  of  |r«UHd  |  the  lower  lake 
covera  S0«1  a<!r8»,  tlia  niiiblbi  lak«  limi  tu'tfn,  and  the 
upper  lake  only  iHO  airca,  t^nU  I  irrn,  •«  »'•«  "oi'th 
of  Oonegal,  in  anwil,  but  of  i^raat  cfftAl/rlty  from  an 
iBiet  in  it,  ottllfld  8t,  VMtU'k'it  I'utifHUity,  wfikh  haa 
been  reaorted  to  from  tima  UmmituiriHi  »n  a  pl«e«  of 
penance  by  pil«rln)<i  of  (b«  tUmmu  i  Jatlioll*  jieMuaabm. 
This  lake  U  not  to  lie  lonfoMiidxd  with  thfi  Kreat  liOUfth 
Dearg  lying  on  tlia  uiurxa  of  tha  HUnnivm,  whiflh  con- 
talna  29,670  acres,  U/ugli  Ijlll,  In  Mluti,  lydigh  8hel- 
lln  to  the  north  of  Muatli,  aid  f,<rt(Kli  Oiij/bter,  In 
Cavan,  are  alao  worthy  of  notb*  for  thflr  wciilc  lieau- 
tiea.  There  are  many  otiiar  Uk«a  of  Mnall  dlr^  in 
most  parti  )f  Ireland,  but  i  biaily  In  tiM  ((/untlea of  Ca- 
van, Weaiuieath,  ami  l/ongford. 

Ireland  contain*  nut  only  tlta  lar((aH  lake,  bnl  also 
the  larifoat  river  in  tlta  I'nltwl  Kln«d(rt((— the  «i»n- 
noB,  which,  rUlng  in  tha  ntountuini)  on  tlm  confl-iea  of 
Ftrnian  tgb  ami  Mtrini,  llowa  tliroiiitli  l/Oitgh  Allen, 
and  thence  In  »  *outlt'W«ii(4>rH  dlrccdon,  wparatlng 
Connaught  from  I<eln»t«ir,  lill,  arriving  nt  J.lnifrbk, 
it  tuma  wcMtward,  and  dlw  liafKca  llacTf  Into  tha  At- 
lantic, through  a  Ana  antuary,  wbi«b,  at  it*  entrance 
between  tha  Cape*  of  I,uop|M>ad  an4  Kerryliead,  la  8 
miles  wide.  |(  la  imvigabia  for  lar/^c  veaaela  to  Lim- 
erick, and  for  veiaala  of  anialbir  t<»nnaK«  to  within  6 
milea  of  ita  source  In  l^mgh  Allf  n.  Ita  centre  length 
measures  2-10  niilaa,  anil  in  mmmmmim'ii  of  the  amall 
amount  of  ita  fall,  wkkb  tbwa  iMi  i>ni'<iri\  IfiO  feet,  ita 
current  la  very  slow  and  oft«n  iMiiwnci/tiblp,  I)nr- 
ing  its  paaaaga  fruin  lyUUKlt  Allan  (j)  I  jniertck  It  ex- 
pands into  the  large  Uk«a  of  hmnU  1U<»nh,  iU  milea, 
and  Lougb  Dearg,  21  utiUa  in  langth,  atwl  atudde<l 
with  numerous  l»Ut»,  Tlw  Ulat'kwat«r  flses  near 
CharleviUe,  and,  ttuwing  aoutlMaalward,  dlKchargea 
itself  into  the  AtUntic  at  Vonglial,  aftof  forming  the 
boun%ry  between  tlie  cmntlas  of « !or1t  and  Waterfwd, 
Between  tho  lattar  county  aid  tliat  of  WoafottI  U  the 
estuary  of  tlia  8ulr,  tha  Nora,  ami  Hw  Harrow,  all  of 
which  have  tliair  lonrcaa  not  ht  trim  oach  other  In 
the  central  range  of  tint  HliavaliliNittt  Monntalna  |  and, 
after  diverging  ao  that  thair  nirnHmii  »nrtf,U  a  great 
portion  of  tha  provimtes  of  l>«lni>t«r  anil  Mnnator,  unite 
again  near  the  city  of  W«t«rford,  Tha  Waney  rUea 
in  the  mountains  of  Wb^kbiw,  anil  amiitiiw  Itaelf  Into 
St.  George's  Channal  at  Wv^tittii,  Tli«  ttirym,  fa- 
mous for  Its  hbitorb.'al  rai'olbii'tbina  aa  well  aa  firr  Ita 
Jiatural  advantages,  iiaa  ita  aoMrt'as  In  tha  (antral  ele- 
vated plain  of  Uinster,  and,  (liming  nurtb-eaatward, 
fella  into  the  Iriab  Haa  at  Mrogliada,  TIm)  llann  rlnea 
ta  tha  Mourn*  Muuntalna,  rtwwa  northward  throngh 
I/>ugh  Mtagb,  and,  aflar  aa|HiratlnK  tlia  i  oiintica  of 
LondoiMUfl7  (Dd  Autrlin,  flow*  iuki  tlM  AtUotlo  at 
2ki 


Bq,  DiitM* 

too :.  -185 

LllToy -im 

Blsckwater,  N -Mi 

Maine  and  Inncy. 'Ml 

Fcslo  and  Oalle •4T9 

Konghty. -478 

Ovooa •2S1 

Bandon -iiS 

Lagan -ilT 

Avonmore '2M 


Ooleralnc.  The  Foyle  is  formed  by  the  onion  of  the 
streama  of  the  Poe,  the  Moume,  the  Finn,  and  the 
Derg,  which,  flowing  from  different  parts  of  tho  interior 
of  Ulster,  diacharge  their  combined  waters  into  Lough 
Foyle  near  liOndonderry.  The  Erne,  which  flows 
from  Lough  Erne,  boa  a  short  but  rapid  course  to  the 
Atlantic  westward,  and  discharges  its  great  body  of 
waters  into  Donegal  Hay,  over  a  lodge  of  rocka  riaing 
in  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ordlnar}'  tides.  The 
other  rivers,  though  numerous,  amounting  nearly  to 
inn,  are  email,  and  mostly  confined  to  the  countiea 
that  give  them  birth.  The  Liffey,  which  rises  in  tha 
monntain-land  of  Wicldow,  and,  after  a  circultoua 
coorae  through  KUdare,  discharges  itself  into  the  Iriab 
flea,  Is  remarkable  for  nothing  except  that  the  metro- 
politan city  of  Dublin  la  seated  on  Its  bunks. 

The  extent  of  country  forming  the  basin  from 
whence  each  of  the  principal  rivera  derives  Its  supply, 
Is  aa  follows : 

Sq.DlllM.! 

flhannon 4-M4  ' 

Barrow,  Noro,  and  Bnir  S-400 
Oalwar,  Includ.  Loughs 

(kirrib  and  Mask....  1-374 

Erno l-.Vi« 

FoTle l-47« 

Bann  and  Maine 1,208 

Blackwater.B IISIS 

Borne  and  Blackwatci  1-08A 

M(^. 1-088 

Blanoy. -815 

Ireland  wna  once  so  thickly  covered  with  timber  oa 
to  receive  the  name  of  the  Island  of  tho  Woods.  Dur- 
ing the  early  periods  of  ita  connection  with  England, 
Its  extensive  and  Impenetrable  forests  formed  a  main 
obstacle  to  the  progress  of  the  English  troops.  West- 
minster Hall  is  said  to  l)c  roofed  with  oak  cut  in  the 
woods  of  Shillelagh.  Numerous  trunks  of  large  trees 
aro  constantly  found  In  the  bogs.  Even  In  mountain 
tracts,  devoted  for  a  long  succession  of  years' to  the 
pasturage  of  sheep,  timber  trees  shoot  up  spontane- 
ously wherever  the  land  is  secured  from  the  Intrusions 
of  cattle.  Many  pbices,  where  the  vestige  of  a  plant- 
ation la  not  to  1)6  seen,  retain  names  of  which  the  word 
"  wood"  forma  a  component  part ;  and  in  localities 
where  the  most  attentive  culture  will  not  suffice  to 
keep  any  tree  or  shrub  alive  on  occonnt  of  the  western 
lilasts,  large  trees  are  found  Imbedded  In  the  boga. 
The  diflerent  kinds  of  timber  foOnd  In  the  Iwgs  of  Ire- 
land are  confined  to  onk,  fir,  yew,  holly,  sallow,  and 
birch.  Two  centuries  ago,  when  Ireland  was  covered 
with  foresta,  there  were  numerous  small  Iron-worka, 
in  which  wood  charcoal  was  employed,  and  vast  quan- 
tities of  wood  used  until  tho  country  was  grodually 
stripped  of  Its  supply,  and  the  -working  of  iron  was 
consequently  abandoned.  The  extension  of  agricul- 
tnriil  Improvement,  and  more  especially  the  timber 
act,  which  gives  the  tenant  at  the  expiration  of  big 
lease,  a  pcfunUry  Interest  In  tho  trees  he  has  planted, 
are  gradually  removing  tills  defect,  the  consequence  of 
ages  of  disturbance  and  desolation  ;  but  trees  In  large 
quantities  are  generally  found  in  Ireland  only  in  the 
vicinity  of  tho  residences  of  the  gentr}-,  except  la 
some  favored  spots,  which  are  well  wooded. 

jt/ifKTo/ii.— Ireland  Is  reputed  to  contiim  much  lead; 
copper,  and  Iron,  but  notwlthstondlng  many  attempta 
to  work  tho  metallic  mines  discovered  In  the  country, 
few  have  l)cen  found  sufficiently  productive  to  repay 
the  necessary  outlay  of  capital.  Toward  the  closa  of 
the  last  centur)-,  gold  was  discovered,  accidentally,  in 
the  streams  flowing  from  the  Mountain  of  Crogban 
Kinsela,  on  the  confines  of  Wlcklow  and  Wexford. 
The  metal  was  found  In  lumps  and  small  pieces  down 
to  the  minutest  grain.  Many  of  the  peasants  having 
rulnml  tbcmsolves  by  leaving  their  proper  occupations 
to  join  tho  search,  the  government,  to  put  an  end  to 
the  fruitless  quest,  took  up  the  enterpriae,  and  only 
relinquished  It  after  satisfying  the  seekers  of  Ita  worth- 
lessnesa,  "  The  gold  la  asaoclated  with  magnetic  iion- 
(tone,  aometimei  in  mauea  of  half  a  hundred  weight 


IRE 


lam 


IRB 


•Iio  Iron  pyrit«8,  brown  and  red  hematite,  'woIArwt, 
manganeiie,  and  fragments  of  tinstone  in  cryatala, 
together  with  quartz.  From  the  nature  of  these  at- 
tendant minerals,  of  which  most  are  known  to  occur 
in  the  quartz  veins  of  the  adjacent  mountain,  it  was 
hoped  that  by  tracing  up  the  rivulets  to  their  sources, 
and  laying  bare  in  various  directions  the  underlying 
rock,  the  metnlliferous  veins  might  lje  discovered, 
from  the  disintegration  of  which  the  sand  and  soil  of  tho 
bed  of  the  streams  had  been  produced.  All  such  trials 
prowd  useless,  and  the  question  as  tn  the  source  from 
whence  the  gold  in  those  streams  in  Wicklow  has  been 
derived,  remains  still  unanswered." — Sir  R.  Kane's 
Industrial  Resource!  of  Ireland.  Copper  ores  are  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  clay-slate  districts  in  a  great 
number  of  localities  more  or  less  abundantly.  The 
principal  mines  are  those  of  Ballymurtagh,  Conoree, 
Cronebane  and  Tigroney,  and  Ballygahan,  in  Wick- 
low county ;  the  Knockmahon,  Kilduane,  Uonmahon, 
and  Balinasisla,  in  the  Waterford  district ;  AUihles  or 
Berehaven,  Audley,  and  Cosheon,  and  SkuU,  in  the 
south-western  district ;  and  the  mines  of  HoUyford 
and  Lackamor,  in  the  western  district. 

The  total  quantity  and  value  of  copper  ore  from  Ire- 
knd,  sold  in  Swansea,  where  it  is  smelted,  vete,  in 


Tom. 

V>lua. 

;T..m 

Ton. 

ValiM. 

1886... 

.  21,819 

£168,846 

1847... 

..  14,857 

£96,880 

1S40... 

.  I9,5S0 

127,911 

1848... 

..  12,808 

82,089 

1848... 

.  17,609 

117,626 

1849... 

.  10,426 

68,704 

1844... 

.  18,597 

77,622 

185a.. 

.  10,021 

e^.wt 

1846... 

.  18,480 

97,122 

1851... 

.  10,577 

77,718 

184«... 

.  17,471 

108,078 

1852... 

..  12,171 

104,828 

Lead  is  more  extensively  di&used  through  Ireland  than 
copper.  The  granitic  district  of  Wicklow  contains  nu- 
merous veins ;  the  principal  are  tliose  of  Glendalough, 
Glenmolur,  Glendasaue  or  Luganure,  and  Ballycorus. 
The  claj'-slate  districts  also  yield  numerous  Indications 
of  this  metal,  but  few  of  the  mines  have  proved  profit- 
able. Those  still  worked  aro  at  C'lonligg,  Kewtown- 
ards,  and  KathmuUen,  in  Down  county ;  Bond  and 
Newry,  in  Armagh  county ;  Castleblayney,  in  Mon- 
aghan  county  ;  Kenmare,  in  Kerry  couuty ;  KUbricken 
and  Ballyhickey,  in  Clare  county  j  Shallee,  in  Limer- 
ick county ;  and  Bantry,  in  Cork  county.  A  vein  at 
Clontarf,  near  Dublin,  was  worked  until  the  mine  was 
filled  with  water  by  the  ingress  of  the  sea.  At  Bally- 
corus, where  the  lead  ores  from  the  mines  of  the  Min- 
ing Company  of  Ireland  are  smelted,  the  qiuntities  of 
ore  worked  up  in  1851  from  Luganure  mines  was  C74 
tons,  which  produced  ICO  tons  of  lead,  equal  to  nearly 
69  per  cent.  The  proportions  uf  silver  to  a  ton  of  lead 
are  generally  found  to  be,  from  the  mine  of  Luganure, 
8  oz. ;  Caime,  12  oz. ;  Ballyhickey,  15  oz. ;  Shallee, 
25  oz. ;  KUbricken,  120  oz. ;  Tollyratty,  near  Strang- 
ford,  10  oz.  The  average  of  silver  extracted  from  the 
lead  ore  raised  by  the  Mining  Company  of  Irelu'~'l  in 
1851,  was  7  oz.  to  the  ton  of  lead ;  the  total  quantity 
8860  oz. ;  producing  £1029  6s.  8d. 

Native  silver  was  found  in  a  bed  of  iron  ochre  in 


Cronebane,  but  the  deposit  ha<  been  long  since  tx- 
hausted.  Sulphuret  of  silver  was  found  in  the  loud 
ore  at  Ballycorus  some  years  since,  and  the  Mining 
Company  of  Ireland  have  resumed  operations  to  prove 
this  valuable  discover)-.  Tinstone  has  been  found  in 
the  auriferous  soil  of  Wicklow,  but  no  veins  or  work- 
able deposits  have  been  discovered.  Other  minerals, 
useful  in  manufactures  and  the  arts,  and  found  in 
quantities  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  are  mang- 
anese, antimony,  zinc,  nickel.  Iron  pyrites,  alum, 
clays  of  various  kinds,  building  stone,  mnrtilo,  flags, 
and  roofing  slates.  Mineral  springs,  chiefly  chaly- 
l>eate,  are  numerous  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
Those  of  chief  note  for  their  medicinal  qualities  are  ut 
'Mallow,  in  Cork,  resembling  the  hot  wells  of  Bristol  j 
Ballynahincb,  in  Down ;  Swanlinbar,  in  Cavan ;  Cas- 
tleconnel,  near  Limerick ;  and  Lucan,  near  Dublin. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  the  different  estimates 
and  census  inquiries  into  the  number  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Ireland  at  various  periods : 

y«»r.  Pan. 

1662  Sir  William  Potty S.'ictOOO 

1672  "  » 1.820,000 

1695  Captain  Sonth 1,084,108 

1712  TbonusBobbs 2,099,094 

1718    "    " ; 2,169,048 

1728    "    "  ; 2,817,874 

1726    "    "  2,809,106 

1781  Established  Clergy 2,010,221 

175*  Tax  Collectors 2,872,684 

1760  De  BafKho,  HIbern.  Domiulcnn 2,817,884 

1767  Tax  Oolloctora !i,544.276 

1777    "  "        2,690,5,'i6 

17S5    »  "        2,8tt,982 

1788  Oerrals  P.  Bushc 4,010,000 

1791  Tax  Collpctora 4,206,612 

1792  Dr.  Beaufort 4,088.226 

1805  Thoniiia  Ncwenham 5,895,4.^6 

ISlI  I'srllimentary  return 5,937,856 

1821  "  "      6,801,827 

1881  "  "      7.767,401 

1834  Commissioners  of  Public  Instruction.  7,948,940 

1841  FarliamcDtary  return 8,178,124 

1851  "  "       6,552,886 

Few  countries  in  the  world  have  increased  in  |iopu- 
lation  so  rapidly  as  Ireland  during  the  first  40  years 
of  the  present,  and  the  conclusion  of  the  lust  century. 
Arthur  Young,  in  his  Tour  through  Ireland,  in  1766, 
observed  that  it  everywhere  evinces  the  marks  of  a 
rapid  increase  of  population.  It  is  generalh'  supposed 
that  the  number  of  the  people  increases  in  the  rutio  of 
food  and  comforts,  and  that  an  increase  of  jwpuliition 
is  a  convincing  proof  of  the  advancing  prosperity  of  a 
nation.  The  effect  of  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop 
in  depopulating  tho  country  would  show  that  the  pop- 
ulation of  Ireland  had  outstripped  the  progress  of 
wealth,  and  the  increase  of  industr}',  and  had  reduced 
their  wants  to  the  lowest  point  without  procuring  an 
addition  to  the  comforts  of  life  corresponding  to  tlie 
increase  of  the  population 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  population  of  each 
portion  of  the  country,  according  to  tho  census  of  1821, 
1831, 1841,  and  1851,  together  with  the  house  accom- 
modation at  the  latter  period : 


ProvioM*. 

tni. 

tni. 

mt. 

IBSI. 

Funlllai. 

Houiei  Id  1811.                      | 

Ual«. 

FeniAt*!. 

Toul. 

IiduUlad. 

VnlnhaLlliKl. 

TouJ. 

Built. 

Build- 
Inif. 

Trflnster 

Mnntter 

Ulster 

Cdnnangbt . . 
Total 

1,767,492 
1,936,612 
l,99s,494 
1,110,229 

1,909,718 
2,227,152 
2,286,622 
1,848,014 

1,978,781 
2,396,161 
2,886,378 
1,418,859 

818,462 
904,657 
976,288 
496,105 

859,129 

952,7,%5 

l,oa^,473 

514,106 

1,672,591 
1,V)7,412 
2,011,75« 
1,010,211 
0,6r.I,970 

821,991 
820,2,'iO 
880,781 
184,080 

258,002 
267,116 
851,878 
169,808 

17,566 
19,860 
20,647 
T,605j 
65,rt8r 

5112 

473 

^SI 
1,884 

276,160 
280,949 
873,0(54 
177,198 
1,118,856 

6,001,827 

7,767,401 

•8,175,124 

3,190,507 

8,861,468 

1,207,002 

1,040,294 

The  chief  impediment  to  improvement  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  peQple  of  Ireland  during  the  present  cen- 
turj'  has  been  the  redundancy  of  the  population.  In 
a  country  almost  wholly  dependent  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil,  there  wore  in  1841  as  many  as  335  persons 
to  each  square  mile  of  aralde  land.  Perhaps,  with 
the  exception  of  China  there  was  no  other  counti^-  in 
the  world  so  densely  peopled,  and  certrinly  none 
where  the  population  was  so  disproportloned  to  tho 


means  of  emploj-ment.  This  great  density  of  popu- 
lation was  necessarily  accompanied  by  an  extreme 
competition  for  land  and  employment,  with  the  ab- 
sence of  all  inducements  to  the  acquirement  of  skill, 
and  in  consequence  of  the  low  rate  of  remuneration 
for  labor,  and  high  rents,  the  impossibility  uf  any  ac- 
cumulation of  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  cultivators  of 
the  soil.  The  following  table  shows  the  density  of  the 
population  in  1841,  and  its  remarkable  decrease  in  1861  •. 


IRE 


1001 


'•-I 


T0I*1- 

'~276j6()l 
296,949 
878,()S4 

1,118,8561 


Insity  of  popu- 
1'  an  extreme 
,  with  the  ab- 
Imont  of  skill, 
I  remuneration 
lutv  of  any  nc- 
£  cultivators  of 
■e  density  of  the 
^crease  in  1851  •• 


Tabu  gnownra  TnaDiwtiTT  oy  PowrL*tio»  in  IMl,  Ann  m  hwaiiiamii  timm»u»  in  1861. 


Leiniter. , , . 
Monster. . . . 

Ulster 

Connaught. 
Total.... 


Rarftl  popalatloo. 


>B«I. 


1,681,108 
2,009,230 
2,160,698 
1,888,686 


7,089,669 


I8II. 


1,191,684 

1,466,099 

1,749,707 

926,269 


^388,709 


tin,  olfti fHH  w  III*  ofiiiir*  iiAtr, 


MuabU  Im4. 


347 
882 
4C6 
886 


M8 


189 
218 
330 
241 


Ou«r«w« 

iMtwavn 
IMl-SI. 

114 

m 

146 


MIlMfMlninifsliiMilai, 


M  Ilia  Milln 

I  tnHH  pafnimion). 


■nalliKliiilliit  Ik*  I 


mu 


m 
m 
m 

w 


IHI, 

1« 

m 

m 

m 


Number  or  Pusoms  iit  OcnnPAnoNS  in  1841  and  1861, 

CLASSirillD  AOCOBDlMa  AS  PRODnOEBS,  MAMUrACTUEEES, 

AND  Traders. 


('••fMiM 

tow, 

4ft 

(to 

Ml, 

lUI. 

OMmw   ' 

b«iwt«fi 
IMI-M. 

m 

9M 
219 
20T 

m 

ilio 

m 

285 
147 

89 
87 
44 

60 

201 

49 

Oe«up«Uoiu.  1841. 

Hlntsterlng  to  (bod : 

Producers 1,864,141 

Msnnftctnrers 18,995 

Traders. 86,986 


Total 1,904,071 

Ministering  to  clothing: 

Cloth  mannfttcturers. 669,224 

I/eather-workers 67,883 

Olathes>makars 167,993 

Tndors. 6,269 


Total 901,824 

Ministering  to  lodging,  eto.: 

Workers  In  stone 80,204 

"          wood 64,036 

"          metal 44,197 

Miscellaneous 28,786 

Traders 2,098 


Total 164,866 

Ministering  to  health 6,871 

"           charity 2.'>3 

"           Justice 19.641 

"            education 16,314 

»           religion 7,192 

Total 60,671 

nnclaiislfled: 

Ministering  to  arts 8,495 

"            trade 59,549 

"            traTcllng.....  18,976 

Miscellaneous 409,409 


Total 491,423 


lUI. 

1,461,776 

18,086 
62,103 

1,681,914 

378,228 
49,900 

367,225 
11,184 

606,682 

37,177 
48,196 
46,083 
30,749 
6,265 

146,469 

7,148 

1,398 

36,362 

17,407 

8,898 

61,713 

2,674 

64,470 

48,748 

.894,-i08 

494,995 


Oenoral  total 8,511,860  3,841,6-28 

Ireland  is  naturally,  both  from  soil  and  climate,  n 
pastoral  conntr}'.  and  it  was  not  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  last  century  that  efforts  were  made  to  in- 
troduce an  attention  to  tillage  on  an  extended  scale. 
Primate  Boulter,  when  one  of  the  ImtOs  Justices, 
pressed  stronglj'-  on  the  British  frovemmcnt  the  neces- 
sity of  enforcing  a  tillage  system ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose proposed  a  law,  in  1727,  to  compel  landlords  to 
till  fire  acres  out  of  every  hundred  in  their  possession, 
exclusive  of  meadows  and  bogs  ;  and  also  to  release 
tenants  to  the  same  extent  fh>m  the  penal  covenants 
against  tillage,  inserted  in  their  leases.  Mr.  M'Cul- 
loch  observes,  in  his  Statistical  A  ccoimt  of  the  British 
Empire,  that  the  luxuriance  of  the  pastures  in  Ireland 
and  the  heavy  crops  of  oata  raised,  even  with  the 
most  wretched  cultivation,  attest  the  extraordinary 


fertility  at  tlia  twll,  IHfimu  mmthn  eUy  soils,  sandy 
soils,  chalky  itnd  gnvnWy  mM»,  and  several  other  de- 
scriptions «f  soil  mtmtm  In  Kntjland,  are  seldom  or 
never  met  with  111  (rKliii«4,  whlcli  affords  no  great 
diversity  tu  eom|«r«l  with  (iwiti  Dritaln.  Mr.  Wake 
field  dascrtlM*  tll«  miIIm  of  treland  as  follows ;— •■  A 
great  |iortloii  (if  tim  mill  itt  Ireland  throws  out  a  luxu- 
riant ImrliitgB,  iiprin^\»g  frtiM  a  calcareous  subsoil 
without  Kpiy  viiiipilittinihk  (lojith,  this  Is  one  species 
of  the  rUill  Mill  of  Irsland,  »tU\  It  found  throughout 
RotcomiDoii,  in  Mittw  fMrts  of  (latway,  Clare,  and 
other  dlalrlcts,  HiillMt  |iU<'<>ii  exhibit  the  richest  loam 
I  ever  snw  tMrn«d  up  with  a  plow  t  this  Is  the  case 
throughout  Maiith  In  pHrtlflMliir.  Where  such  soil  oc- 
curs. Its  furtlKty  Is  wi  i>(mii|ili'Uiitls,  that  it  appears  as 
if  nature  hiut  (Idturinlnwl  Ui  coiiiilefaut  the  bad  effects 
produced  hy  ttia  (')Mm*y  Kysl^tii  of  its  (3ultlvatars.  On 
the  hanks  nf  tJM  |i'iirKU«  HHil  Mlintilinfl,  the  land  is  of  a 
different  kind,  liut  mimtty  fmiUHHWe,  though  the  sur- 
face presents  ttm  »\i\mtitni<«  of  marsh,  These  dis- 
tricts are  (iiilled  enummti  th«  ^ulMtratum  Is  a  blue 
silt  deposited  by  Hm  mn,  wlih'h  s««ffl»  to  partake  of 
the  qualities  nt  the  H|ifi«if  utrntum,  for  this  land  can  be 
injured  by  no  rt^jith  of  lilowl«((," 

The  praviilmit  soil  ti«  a  ftiflllfl  loam,  resting  on  a 
rocky  But)str«tum,  ('hi«i|ly  of  ll«n«ttwi«,  The  depth, 
though  in  genafMl  nut  tfrwtt,  tit  In  some  parts  such  as 
to  admit  of  »  fresh  vwrtitlik  wold  being  repeatedly 
thrown  up  liy  shw««»1v9  plowlnKs  to  a  greater  depth. 
This  occurrence  is  most  utrlking  in  Meath,  and  in  the 
district  of  tha  wmntUis  of  Tliipernfy  and  Mmerick, 
long  distinguished  liy  tli«  HNm«  of  the  Golden  Vale, 
from  its  eKtriMirillimry  ffrtllity/  In  some  parts,  par- 
ticulariy  in  (Jitlwav,  tint  rock  shows  Itself  alwve  the 
surface  in  ridges  lik«  WMVtm,  the  Interstices  lielng  fliled 
with  rieli  moUl,  wltlt>h  tiroilui<«<4  d  thick,  clone  sward, 
extremely  grateful  to  Dh«K|i,  Large  tracts  of  grazing 
land  similar  to  the  Mownii  In  t^ngtand  are  unusual ; 
the  only  tra^^t  of  my  tixtunt  of  such  descrlptkin  is  the 
Curragh  of  Klldiirti,  which  Um  lipen  used,  time  im- 
memorial,  for  » sha#p  witik,  The  nmiintalns  are  capa- 
ble of  tlilttga  ta  «  Min<li)t<rillile  height)  and  their 
summits,  with  tlm  ai«'i«|illfin  of  a  few  of  the  very 
highest,  w»  fit  for  pitstiiriida  In  slimmer, 

The  ijuantity  of  Aritbla  latut  In  1841,  according  to 
the  return  of  tlia  tiansus  Cimimliiiiloners,  was  13,4r>4,- 
800  acres,  and  in  \m,  H,WI!;,rilll  lu-tm  \  and  the  pro- 
portion per  eant,  of  iiillivi^ed  and  uncultivated 
surface,  ate,,  nt  thosa  two  |iarloilK  was  as  follows : 


FroTincM, 

Total  ar«a  In 
■tatute  aeiTi. 

PivMwi  of  wrCK«, 

Arable  land. 

UneulllTalail. 

tUoMan. 

T««a<< 

Wattr, 

Propnrlton  per  eenl. 

Proportion  per  rent. 

Propordoo  per  aeal, 

VmymUn  ffi 

HHI, 

Propvrtlnn  per  eeul. 

1841.      1       IStl. 

1841.      1       1841. 

1841.             I<i|. 

HI,     ,     1< 

*l, 

IHI, 

IIM,      I 

Lelnster... 

instcr 

Mnnster... 

Connaught 

■fotal.. 

4,876,211 
6,064,579 
6,475,483 
4,392,043 

81-28 
68-89 
62-23 
60-57 

82-80 
71-08 
72-95 
58-01 

16-01 

81-22 
82  23 
43-39 

18-67 
24-48 
21-39 
3812 

2-88 
215 
1-46 
1-10 

V'ue 

ITI 

J-III 

ODD 

(III) 

(Wi9 

1 

(1 

Ik 
'lit 

■0» 

T-o* 

I'M 
8-93 
41« 

1-06     1 
2-50     1 
8-93 

4-85 

20,803,271 

6471 

7114 

80-26    I     24-14 

ISO 

1-4T 

n\ 

t 

iit4 

fl-IM 

808 

The  laws  which  prohibited  the  exportation  of  Irish 
woolens  to  foreign  countries,  and  to  the  British  col- 
onies, were  repealed  in  1779.  By  the  Act  of  Union, 
the  dattes  on  woolens  imported  into  either  island  were 
confined  to  those  called  "old  and  new  draperies;"  and 
the  high  duties  of  Charles  II.  were  reduced  to  BJd.  per 
yud  on  the  old,  and  2)d.  on  the  new  draperies.     By 


the  same  aft,  Riiglitiiil  ralitxad  hsr  mono|ioly  to  far  at 
to  permit  the  aii|Mii't  of  wool  And  Wnulen  yam  duty 
free  to  Irelund,  I'ravlou^  to  tlw  Ijnion,  when  the  Im- 
port of  Knglinh  wool  WAS  tiroblliitml,  the  manufacture 
of  Irelund  was  conAnaii  to  tha  eoarAPst  description  of 
goods,  fur  which  alona  tha  Irish  wool  was  suited.  I're- 
vious  to  the  introduftlon  of  I'Mdlng  machinery  the 


IRE 


1009 


manafaoton  of  wooltni  was  inoontldenbla,  but  tm- 
medlatsly  after  the  Union,  nuobinery  worked  by 
water  power  became  general,  and  the  trade  increaeed, 
biit  the  oombinationa  of  workmen  and  protecting  duties 
rendered  the  IrUh  nunnfactnrers  unable  to  compete 
with  those  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  trade  continued 


limiuit»tlm4mmi4t»i1mmmMmpUm.  flu. 
nel)  are  mad*  in  WteWow,  WMJ  MiMiuiiit  itt  Miumny, 
Fri»»  of  th«  ooaruMtt  Uwl  k  in  mam  ti^ttn  maonfae. 
tured  bjr  the  paumttry  f»r  tUmwHk  mmntafikm,  and 
the  supply  of  tba  N4j(»H>Hi(  (tiHtH, 


Tabui  auowiMO  iH«  XsTiHT  o»  LiMD  o»D»K  Cbom  Foa  lAOB  CooiiTr  AUD  f»ernum  fl»  tttbMIt,  a  1«M  ilMlMB, 

▲HD  THC  NCHBia  Or  ACSXI  UNDKE  lAOU  IfUHm  Ot  (>IUH>i 


LelniUr. 


|18M 
18SS 


Inereaae  or  deoretse  I 
InLeluter...  ' 


Mnoiter. 


I18M 


Iner«a*e  or  deoreaie 
In  Munater. 


} 

\^' w^ 

iBcrrase  or  deereiie 


I     in  Ulater. 

I  Connanght |  j^J 

,  inereaae  or  decretao  I 
{     in  OoDnengbt ) 

ITOUI IIS* 

I  Inereaae  or  decrease  { 
I      in  Ireland I 


Wkiat. 


Aer*«. 

187,698 

IH. 

13,8TS 


151,570 
16T,7M 

l». 

<,1M 


65,501 
70,1»7 

Ine. 

4,580 


89,018 
Inc. 
Mil 


411,184 
445,509 

Iw. 
84,»5 


OtU. 


Aer«i. 

6S8,65« 

66tl,077 

Dm. 
4T9 

880,946 

IlM. 

1^7«7 


841,879 
890,171 

tH. 

48,799 


985,891 
294,461 
Inc. 
8,570 


9,045,998 
9,117,966 

lu. 

72,667 


Bvlcjr,  bare, 
ry«,  bMU, 


Aem. 

197,841 

115,586 

Dm. 

11,756 

185355" 

•M67 

Dm. 

7,849 


89,496 
«78 


19,811 
19,198 
Dae. 
118 


987,154 

967,5«S 

Dm. 

19,689 


FotAtoai. 


Aeraf, 

904,890 
906,006 

iDC. 

8,186 


956,449 
164,944 

Dtc. 

1,506 


818,167 

Oac. 

19,729 


197,496 
200,418 

Inc. 

9,918 


989,660 
981,629 

Oac. 

8,181 


TtnAft, 


ken*. 
106|tM 

Inc. 

9,045 


Ili9l9 
194,948 

Int. 

,10,066 

"86,8»r 
100371 

Ik. 
16,088 


82,179 
86,887 

8,208 


829,170 

866,497 

lu. 

87,827 


Dm. 

w 

»m 


Limen. — The  same  legislative  measure  which  was 
intended  to  discourage  the  woolen  manufacturer  stated, 
that  "if  the  Irish  turned  their  industry  and  skill  to 
the  settling  and  improring  of  the  linen  manufacture, 
they  should  r«ceive  all  the  countenance,  favor,  and 
protection  for  its  encouragement,  and  promotion  to  all 
the  advantage  and  protlt  they  might  be  capable  of  de- 
riving  from  it."  This  declaration  should  not  lead  to 
the  inference  that  the  manufacture  had  been  previ- 
ously unknown  or  disregarded  in  Ireland.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  use  of  linen  was  so  prevalent  among  the 
higher  orders,  that  sumptuary  laws  were  enacted  to 
check  its  excessive  use.  The  unfortunate  Earl  of 
Strafford  seems  also  to  have  anticipated  the  views  of 
the  British  manufacturers  on  the  subject.  Instead  of 
extinguishing  the  woolen  trade  by  exclusive  duties,  he 
labored  to  foster  that  of  linen.  He  imported  flax  seed 
in  large  quantities  from  Holland,  and  held  out  pre- 
miums to  induce  Flemings  and  Dutchmen  acquainted 
with  the  manufacture  to  settle  in  Ireland.  On  tliese 
laudable  objects  he  spent  upward  of  ^£80,000  of  his 
private  fortune ;  and  his  example  was  followed  by  the 
Duke  of  Ormond.  Still,  however,  the  woolen  manu- 
facture prevailed,  particularly  in  the  south  and  west, 
where  the  climate  and  extensive  pasturage  for  sheep 
insured  a  copioos  and  aheap  supply  of  the  raw  mate- 
rial. In  the  same  spirit,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  En- 
glish Parliament  in  1696,  to  encourage  foreign  linen 
manufacturers  to  settle  in  Ireland ;  and  with  that  view 
all  articles  mode  of  flax  or  hemp  in  this  country  were 
admitted  into  England  duty  free — a  privilege  which  is 
estimated  to  have  given  that  branch  of  trade  an  ad- 
vantage of  25  per  cent,  over  other  nations  in  the 
English  market.  The  Iririi  Parliament  responding  to 
the  sentiments  and  wishes  uf  that  of  England,  prom- 
ised that  "  it  would  heartily  endeavor  to  establish  the 
linen  and  hempen  manufacture,  so  as  to  render  it  use- 
ful to  both  kingdoms ;"  adding,  that  "  it  hoped  to  find 
such  a  temperament  in  respect  to  the  woolen  trade 
here,  that  the  same  may  not  be  injurious  to  England." 
The  "temperament"  here  announced  was  evinced 
most  effectually  by  laying  prohibitory  duties  on  the 
export  of  its  own  woolens,  thos  accepting  the  compact 
on  tiM  pact  «r  Inland,  and  givlag  tha  conntiy  an  !»• 


eontrovertlblo  cWffl  Hp0fl  ¥/fit(knd  tsr  »  pefpvtmi  en- 
couragement of  tb»t  hrmtnh  Mrliifh  w*i  to  («  nurtured 
in  lieu  of  the  n«tur»l  HHpif  uf  »h«  I'tmtitff,  In  fur- 
therance of  tlie  mB»t»H^  m»timUf  HKfm<4  m  between 
both  kingduiiis,  a  tmnni  >i(  tttHfi'ii  (of  lh«  ertfotirage- 
ment  of  the  Mmn  nmntifmiHm  #m«  esUlbJifvhed  in 
1710,  oonsistinti  of  »  m»tt)«'f>tf  MftMuals  of  Influ- 
ence in  eiu:h  provJww,  I-'jmW  i(>»  i<mttiA  a  code  of 
regulations  was  ij«Ww4  m)4  mHihlilitmd,  which  ex- 
tended to  the  must  mimts  imriU'uUfn  itt  twi  ptmennen, 

and  had  the  eflfect  (or  BWHJ'  ffUfit  tit  wWftrtft^  the  fal)- 
ric  a  decided  pr»f»rtmm  ti«4b  in  tb«<  iwm«  and  foreign 
market.  A  l»rg«  utm  wit*  mtnu»iif  f^ranfed  to  this 
board  for  prawiUMM  »h4  itm  iiHf/\)ff  lit  wheels  and 
other  implements,  whkl*  »«#  iimuimi  till  the  year 
1830,  when  thfl  gr»»)l#  »cf*  limmmmni,  and  the 
board  ceased  to  *c!t,  'i\m  (!«»  imi\  )«  chiefly  im- 
ported. Uttle  \»  gwwfl  in  tlw  miuniff, «»,  nttwith- 
sUnding  all  tM  oi^ertiMns  WMk  itf  tiM  grower,  the 
plant  raised  from  it  is  nw*J4#r«4  lit  inttrtiiit  quality 

t'lax.—Tlm  6m  Ikx^f^nninff  tM««hJMefy  erected  in 
Ireland  was  »t  C.ufk  in  W*fi,  Atmul  l«i7,  Knglish 
and  ScoUh  yarns  witm  tifH  im^i^i  Iftio  Irelund,  and 
undersold  the  spun  #rt(<.|*/  'Urn  «»#  iif  machinery 
gradually  iner««s«d,  »tt4  Hm  Mimi  mHlilltaHiln  soon 
became  extiugui«l)«4  in  tim  »«Mi(*  and  Wert,  and  con- 
centrated in  tba  nonit,  In  iiHi  (>m  ftnu  were  all 
mode  by  hand.  Wftb  mtti  «f  tWM  tririlfig  Mceptions, 
not  a  spinning  fm^Utry  wiu>  Ui  im  «*#«.  In  Mtt  there 
were  upward  of  70,  In  l»J!*,  wHb  !(<«  «*irtence  of 
bounties  on  the  e«uort  uf  \ini^»,  Hn4  b#Mt/  dtrtles  <m 
the  adniijtsion  of  fur»if(n  (i*»  #wl  (irteft  UMcs,  only 
40  millions  of  yarns  H«r«  #»p(*rt«1  tfiim  Ireland.  In 
1849  these  ex|iort4  h«4  Jwf«***"J  U)  Id  fnldkrtls.  Th« 
question  became  out »«  to  HiUHim  (Im)  «mf/t'>yment  of 
linen-weavers  \)y  eprtoHsivM  in»n»t»«intm»,  and  con- 
flnhig  them  to  tba  »«r»  pf«Wi»*  iif  w»«*l/ig,  was  or 
was  nut  mors  adv»Ht««i<eMM  M«#«i  th«  iM  system, 
where  the  producisr  of  (M  noi  mrt«riat,  the  WMver 
of  the  ch>tb,  and  tb*  w#r«lMMt  wtw  disMMd  of  it, 
wen  the  sama  MMiSmA  (  M  wtMiitMf  M  would  ba 
more  proAtabIa  t«  aKw  ll«  lym^iim  «f  kna  tlw  trade. 

The  fwUowlM  %iMm  lAtiiW  tb«  val<M  of  tb*  t/rowa 
oronUaMM  mm  tM  kiMMMWaMl  ItemiMtlMta 


IBB 


1098 


IRE 


In  Ireland  daring  a  period  of  fonr  yean,  ai  f amlihed 
by  the  returns  of  the  geal-mantera  and  inspectori  of 
the  Linen  Board  to  Parliament  in  1826,  The  aama 
stated  In  the  former  of  those  tables  are  the  first  cost 
paid  to  the  manufacturer  by  the  country  purchaser ; 
the  value  of  most  of  the  linen  sold  is  afterward  con- 
siderably increased  by  the  process  of  bleacUng  and 
other  treatment. 

TotALor  BaowN  oa  UNBLiAaiuD  LiNax  sold  in  Ibilahd, 


Ymh. 

LaltuKr. 

Ukler.        MoHtor, 

Coniwaght. 

Total. 

182< 
1828 
1894 
1826 

£ 
286,854 
880,698 
£07,088 
192,888 

2,066,122      08,870 
2,127,629      82,202 
1,968,1801     96,195 
2,109,8091   110,420 

£ 
117,004 
180.914 
140,866 
168,090 

£ 
2,688,010 
9,077,848 
2,411,809 
2,680,707 

Total. 

1,022,678 

8,271,140    860,087 

■66y,524 

10,207,929 

Since  1826  no  returns  have  been  kept.   The  number 
of  yards  of  linen  exported  from  Ireland  was : 

V.M. 

Ik  Greit  Britain. 

To  foreign  parti. 

Total. 

1800 

Nosepar 
84,622,898 
88,018,SS4 
«5,018,834 
60,290,821 
4^619,509 
62,560,920 

ate  rotarna. 
8,283,704 
4,147,616 
8,926,781 
^940,^64 
4,011,680 
2,668,539 

8^•76,908 
87,911,602 
87,160,899 
88,W8,01B 
60,280,575 
49,581,189 
66,114,516 
6fl.9IAK»3 

1801 

1809 

1818 

1817 

1821 

1825 

1885 

..,---,  .-    1 

The  apparent  amount  of  exports  of  linen  from  Ire- 
land is  now  small,  arising  from  the  fact,  that  nearly 
all  is  sent  by  cro^s-channel  steamers  to  the  English 
and  Scotch  ports,  whence  it  is  transhipped  to  foreign 
countries.  The  entire  export  from  Ireland  to  Qreat 
Britain  and  all  foreign  countries  reaches  about  106,- 
000,000  yards;  value,  £4,400,000.  The  following 
table  shows  a  comparison  of  the  production  and  value 
of  the  }-am8  made,  and  amount  of  wages  paid,  In  an 
ii'tarval  of  ten  years : 


BujKlIst  of 
yam  produced. 

1840. 6,000,000 

1850 7,400,000 


rafrei  paid. 
£1,600,000        £2(»,000 
1,942,600  817,000 


The  cotton  manufacture  was  introduced  In  1777, 
and  became  an  object  of  attention  to  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment, which  endeavored  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the 
home  market  by  high  import  duties  and  bounties. 
The  first  cotton  mills  were  erected  at  Proaporons,  In 
the  county  of  Kildare,  and  in  Belfast,  about  the  year 
1784.  From  that  period  till  the  Union,  it  throve,  in 
consequence  of  the  measures  adopted  to  prevent  for- 
eign competition.  At  the  Union  It  was  arranged  that 
the  then  existing  duties  should  continue  for  eight 
years,  after  which  they  were  to  be  gradually  lowered, 
by  eight  annual  reductions,  in  such  manner  that,  after 
the  year  1816,  they  should  stand  at  10  per  cent,  ad 
valorem.  The  progress  of  the  manullicture  has  been 
very  slow  as  compared  with  that  of  Great  Britain. 
The  alteration  of  the  scale  of  duties  materially  affect- 
ed the  home  demand,  and  the  immense  capital  and 
great  superiority  of  the  British  artist  have  contributed 
much  to  secure  to  his  manufacture  a  preference  in  the 
foreign  market.  In  1822  the  quantity  of  cotton  wool 
imported  was  3,755,024  lbs.,  and  of  cotton  yam, 
1,197,294  lbs.  j'  leaving  a  total  quantify  of  4,570,816 
lbs.  of  cotton  yam  consumed,  after  allowing  10  per 
cent,  for  waste,  etc.,  on  the  cotton  imported. 

Silk  and  Lace. — The  silk  manufacture  was  introduced 
into  Ireland  in  1693,  by  French  emigrants  after  the  re- 
vocation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Its  seat  was  the  city 
of  Dublin,  where  it  was  maintalnea  by  the  aid  of  pro- 
tecting duties.  Some  feeble  attempts  to  fix  It  in  the 
country  parts  failed  completely.  The  lost  of  these 
was  so  lately  as  1825,  when  a  company  was  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  trade  on  a  secure  basis 
in  the  south  of  Ireland,  by  earing  the  silk-worm  there, 
and  thus  having  the  benefit  of  the  raw  material  for 
the  labor  of  producing  it ;  but  after  considerable  ex- 
pense had  been  Incurred  for  the  purchase  of  ground 


and  the  planting  of  mnlbeny-tt«es,  the  scheme  was  ro- 
linquiahed  aa  hopeless.  One  branch  of  the  manufac- 
ture, a  fabric  of  mixed  worsted  and  silk,  known  by 
the  name  of  tabblnet,  or  Irish  poplin,  Is  In  consideruble 
demand,  both  at  home  and  elsewhare,  for  the  richnesn 
and  beauty  of  the  texture.  It  Is  almost  the  only 
branch  now  flourishing.  The  general  trade  haa  beeii 
nearly  annihilated  by  the  removal  of  the  protecting 
duties  in  18"1,  after  which,  in  consequence  of  the  com- 
bination of  the  workmen  to  keep  up  the  rate  of  wages, 
the  Irish  manufucturcr  Ijecame  unable  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  thd  English  trade.  The  manufacture  of 
lace  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in  Limerick,  and  of 
late  years  a  great  source  of  (mplo}'mcnt  for  females 
has  been  introduced  In  the  working  of  patterns  on 
muslin  with  the  needle. 

Metalt. — Manufactures  In  metal  exist  only  to  a 
small  extent;  and  the  making  of  glass,  which  was 
once  carried  on  largely,  haa  declined. 

Provitiont. — The  provisjon  trade,  together  with  the 
exportation  of  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  coun- 
try, has  always  been,  and  will  probably  long  remain, 
the  principal  commercial  business  carried  on  in  Ire- 
land. This  export  trade  is  mainly  with  Great  Britain, 
to  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and  Glasgow,  from  Belfast,  Dun- 
dalk,  Drogheda,  Newrj-,  Waterford,  Limerick,  and 
more  particularly  fWim  Cork  and  Dublin.  In  1825, 
181,276  barrels  of  beef  and  pork,  362,278  cwt.  of  bacon 
and  hams,  474,161  cwt.  of  butter,  and  35,279  cwt.  of 
lard,  were  exported.  Since  that  period  the  provision 
trade  has  vastly  increased ;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
cessation  of  the  duties  on  the  cross-channel  trade,  there 
are  no  means  of  accurately  ascertaining  the  present  ex- 
tent of  the  trade. 

The  following  talile  shows  the  number  of  gallons  of 
Irish  spirits  brought  to  charge  since  1840,  and  the 
amount  of  duty : 


Yoan. 


1840. 

lati. 

1842. 
1841). 
1644. 
1845. 
1646.. 
1847. 
1848., 
1649.. 
1850.. 
1851.. 
1652.. 
1863.. 
16M.. 


Oallona. 


10,816,709 
7,401,061 
6,485,448 
5,290,660 
^6<0,48S 
6,451,187 
7,606,190 
7,952,070 
6,787,097 
8,120,507 
6,978,888 
7,408,086 
7.580,518 
6,206,250 
8,180,862 


Duty. 


£1,261,832 

936,120 

804,725 

904,908 

852,418 

800,151 

1,014,020 

1,000,276 

804,984 

948,057 

929,777 

987,774 

1,008,786 

1,094,434 

1,273,151 


The  principle  of  extracting  the  largest  passible 
amount  of  revenue  trcm  the  duty  on  spirits  having 
been  adopted,  the  rate  was  raised  in  1855  to  6s.  2d.  per 
gallon,  when  the  number  of  gallons  brought  to  charge 
declined  to  6,228,850,  and  the  maximum  rate  of  duty 
productive  to  the  revenue  appears  to  have  been  at- 
tained, if  not  exceeded.  There  are  breweries  in  most 
of  the  large  towns  in  Ireland,  the  produce  of  which  has 
superseded  the  use  of  beer  imported  fVom  Great  Britain, 
and  also  furnishes  a  quantity  sufficient  for  a  large  ex- 
port trade,  which  has  of  late  years  much  increased. 

The  external  trade  of  Ireland  branches  out  into  two 
great  divisions,  the  cross-channel  trade  With  Great 
Britain,  and  the  commerce  with  foreign  nations.  The 
relative  Importance  of  each  port,  as  respects  its  com- 
mercial character,  will  appear  from  the  first  and  sec- 
ond tables  following,  which  contain  a  specification  of 
the  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  that  entered  and 
cleared  out  coastwise,  from  and  to  the  British  col- 
onies and  foreign  countries  in  1853,  in  each  of  the 
ports  of  Ireland ;  while  the  progress  of  domestic  navi- 
gation will  appear  from  the  third  and  fourth  tablea, 
containing  a  summary,  in  triennial  periods,  of  the 
tonnage  of  ships  belonging  to  and  registered  at  the 
different  ports  In  Ireland,  and  of  the  number  and  ton- 
nage of  those  employed  in  the  cross-channel  trada. 


IRE 


1094 


ms 


Ndiubb  Aim  ToaHAOB  or  Baiuno  Vihiu  and  Stkam  Vchiu  tuat  Eimaio  axd  Cliabkd  oirt  Coaitwui  a* 

BAOU  or 'TDK  Potn  IH   IlCLAMD  IK  THI  TlAB  1868, 


Mm. 

UILWa  TUMIA.                                                 1                                                  •raAM  VBMBU.                                                  j 

ImnI, 

Oulvwl                 1                  Inward, 

Oiilward. 

VmuIi. 

Toiuug*. 

V«Ufltl,        [      ToDfuffis 

VUMII. 

Toniuna. 

VcimU,        j       ToDMJt. 

BcUkit 

^168 

9,080 
M9 

0,110 
688 
697 
906 

8.999 

470,066 

170,201 

42,462 

890,892 

89,000 

42,937 

^72,891 

"188,877 

1,180 

1,618 
268 

9,610 
266 
198 
786 

1,919 

198,661 
H769 
19,767 

129,787 
1W20 
11,791 
60,966 

197,980 

1,477 
260 
208 

1,486 
468 
140 
169 
690 

419,611 
104,878 
80,240 
440,448 
148,816 
40,686 
49,887 
901398 

1,89»        1       412,004"  1 
287             lni  ma    . 

Cork 

DroKbedA. 

Dublin 

266 
1,608 
464 
186 
177 
8W 

94,142 

408,182 
146,608 
88,206 
80,400 
122,8(4 

LoDilouderrr, .... 
Newry 

Wtterford. 

Otberportt 

Totol 

■■■  18,101  - 

1,417,466 

8,670 

648,196 

4,860 

1,484,827 

4,699 

1,469,410 

NUMBKB  AND  ToKIiAaE    OF    SaII.INO    VlaaELS     TUAT    EnTKIKD     AND     ClIABXD     OUT    FBOH    AND  TO  TUB  COLONICa  AND 
FOBIIQN    POBTR    AT    BACU    or    THK    PuKTA  OF   IRELAND     (INOLITDINU    TUBIB    BEFBATID    VOTAOEa),     DIRTINOUUUINa 

Bbitisd  and  iBisn  rROM  Forbion  Vi«sel8,  in  TUB  Ybab  1868, 


rOATI. 

1 

faOM  AND  TO  BBITUU  COLOMIU. 

r«OH  AND  TO  FODKinM  PLACU.                                   1 

iHUd. 

Ckitwud. 

Iiward. 

OotwMd,                1 

Brillih  Jfc  Irlih.  1       rorelgn. 

BrIUih  *  Iriih. 

Foreign, 

BrilUb  *  Iriih. 

Vorcifu. 

llriilihliU.b. 

Forol((n. 

Vh. 

Toa*g<, 

Vm. 

Too'ge. 

Vm. 

Tou'ip.. 

Vei. 

Ton'g.. 

Vm. 

Tun'gfl. 

Vm. 

Ton>|>. 

Vm, 

Ton's*, 

V... 

TonV". 

4*1,800 
40,216 

IM.Ws 

IH.O.W 

l^^^2 

"20T,028 

BoUUt. 

■  Cork 

Dublin 

Umeriok.... 

WBterfoid.... 

Otbar  porta.. 

TotBl 

07 
61 
81 
89 
29 
78 

17,968 
14,969 
Wfia 
11,208 
8,099 
70,700 

24 
6 
22 

■9 

7,921 
1,842 
7,244 

2,887 

81 
64 
26 
88 
98 
48 

10,472 
18,691 

9,184 
19,419 

8,974 
18,928 

12 
16 
18 

4 
18 
11 

8,048 

8,906 
1,210 
8.8(8 
9,616 

160 
187 
187 
99 
61 
226 

22,608 
28,068 
21,780 
22,668 
10,819 
88,007 

206 
2» 
175 

98 

90 

837 

88,167 
80,164 
81.MS 
24,994 
20,186 
5'',166 

69 
61 

81 
29 
94 

85 

819 

18,840 

11,422 

18,886 

6,878 

6,149 

28,026 

74,25i 

211 

207 
ISl 
71 
88 
2(« 
945 

809 

90,866 

60 

19,844  1  220 

69,968 

69    17,477 

860 

144,636|  1.186  218,156 

ACOOUNT  or  TUB  TONNAOB  BBLONUINO  TO  AND  RROUTRK'n 

AT  TUB  Irish  Port*  at  DirrcRENT  Triennial  Periods, 
wrru  TUB  Inoebarb  between  the  First  and  Last 

FBBIODe. 


NaoMofpoxt. 


Yarn. 

1140.  IMl 

lau. 


I 


IBbIIIbb... 
'Beldut... 

iCoIamlne. 
'fork . 


Drogheda.. 
Dubllt 


In 

Dundalk. 

jOalway. 

lUmerlok 

Londondarry. . . 

Newry 

Mm. 

Sklbberean 

Sllgo 

Btnngfbrd 

Tralce 

Walerford 

Weatport 

Wexford 

Otber  porta 

Total 


Tonj. 

ioV,.i49 

14.607 
94,742 


42,247 
26,186 
32,720 


18,080 


60,848 

9^098 
8,291 


I84S,I8M, 


Tom. 

164^462 

ll'5,689 
14,092 
105,101 


42,sri7 
88,607 
86,018 


9,858 


66,647 


2(,68a 
_  I   40,288 

669,294    6817981 


Y»n, 

184a.  I84T 
1848. 


Taarf, 

1849,  1880, 
1881. 


Tonf. 

902',0il 
2,795 

14,\127 
19,287 

126.288 
7,971 
11,448 
48,1.'» 
27,844 
36,714 
86,824 

14,296 

"979 
81,926 
781 
95,818 
11,280 


Inenuo 
bctwMn 

flnl  period! 

11H-88- 

W.ntidlut 

IwriM, 


Ton*. 

162 

226,414 

1,080 

149,485 

20,524 

128,182 

8,918 

12,170 

89,6(8 

2-8,888 

80,748 

28,871 

8,049 

18,112 

6,626 

8,180 

09,287 

624 

27,080 


>i. 


218,852 

186lfl41 
17,528 
89,007 


86,236 
20,527 
18,261 


19,766 

'2^040 
60,808 

20^205 


781,948  i  Klfi-a  1 627,871 


KUMBBB  AND  ToNNAOB    OF  VE8«EL8  EUPLOYBD   IN  TUB  In- 

tbrcoob«b  bbtween  Oeiat   Britain  and   Ireland, 

WBIOU  BNTBBED  InWABD  AND  CLEARED  OUTWARD  WITU 
CABOOBB,  AT  TUB  P0BT8  or  TUB  UNITED  KlMUDOH  DCB- 
INS  FODB  TBABB, 


ISM.            1             1818. 

18M. 

VcMeli  1  Tcmugt.  1  VmiiIi  1  Tonnm<. 

VeM«1l    Tonnage, 

Inward,,.,    9,4O0|t,762,197 
Outward...  18,676!2,400,906 

9,840' 1,98 1,089 

19,9442,694,655 

10,006  2,042,1461 
20,8862,819,8961 

Theae  tables  exhibit  the  great  preponderance  of  the 
croag-cbannel  trade,  which  has  been  greatly  augment- 
ed (Ince  the  introduction  of  steam  navigation.  The 
earliest  attempts  at  establishing  a  company  for  this 
purpose  were  made  in  Dublin  about  the  year  1816. 
Two  small  vessels  wore  fitted  up,  but  the  construction 
of  their  machinery  was  faulty,  their  dimensions  were 
too  small,  and  the  effort  proved  abortive.  The  cross- 
channel  trade,  with  the  exception  of  tliat  in  coal,  is 
almost  wholly  carried  on  by  means  of  steam-vessels  ; 
but  since  1825,  when  the  trade  between  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  was  placed  apon  the  footing  of  a  coasting 


trade,  no  separate  returns  have  been  made  out  at  the 
custom-house  of  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  exports 
and  imports. 

Fuherie: — The  coasts  of  Ireland  abound  with  llah ; 
and  Sir  William  Temple  observed,  "  that  the  Usher}-  of 
Ireland,  if  improved,  would  prove  a  mine  under  wa- 
ter, as  rich  as  ony  under  ground."  Arthur  Youur  ulr.o 
remarks,  "  that  there  is  scarcely  a  part  of  Ireland  !iut 
what  is  well  situated  for  some  fishery  of  consequence  ; 
and  that  her  coasts,  of  innumerable  creeks  and  river 
mouths,  are  the  resort  of  vast  shoals  of  herrings,  i-oU, 
ling,  hake,  and  mackerel. 

Keveime. — Uefore  the  arrival  of  the  English,  tlio 
revenues  of  Ireland  were  paid  in  cattle  ;  and  even  after 
that  period  the  custom  prevailed  for  several  centuries 
in  the  parts  less  subject  to  foreign  influence.  Traces 
of  it  have  been  met  with  so  late  as  the  reign  of  Kliza- 
beth.  The  new  government,  under  the  English,  in- 
troduced the  method  of  raising  money  by  subsidies. 
John  exacted  a  subsidy  from  the  Irish  clerg)-,  and  es- 
tablished the  court  of  exchequer  for  the  general  man- 
agement of  the  revenue.  The  same  method  was 
continued  during  tho  reigns  of  Henry  III.,  and  the 
first  Kdwards ;  but  tho  income  thus  e.ttracted  from  tho 
lieople  proved  so  inadequate  to  meet  the  expenditure, 
that  recourse  was  had  to  tho  legalized  extortion  of 
coygne  and  livery,  which  was  tho  levying  of  iimn's 
meat  and  horse's  meat  for  the  soldiery  in  time  of  serv- 
ice. The  amount  of  the  regular  revenue,  in  tlio  TuXga 
of  Edward  III,,  is  stated  by  Walsinghani  and  Holing- 
shed  to  have  Ijeen  £80,000 ;  but  Sir  John  pavis,  who 
collected  his  information  from  the  pi|ie-roIl8,  and  other 
authentic  sources,  reduces  it  to  £10,000,  Tho  most 
remarkable  fittancial  measure  of  Kichanl  II.  was  a  tax 
upon  absentees-  In  1433,  the  eleventh  of  llcnr)-  VI., 
the  revenue  was  reduced  to  £2,889  18s.  Cd.,  while  the 
expenses  of  the  government  were  £2,.348,  16s.  lljd., 
thus  exceeding  the  income  by  £18,  17s.  b\i\.  At  the 
latter  end  of  the  same  reign,  tho  Duke  of  York,  wlien 
sent  over  as  lord-Uentenant  with  extraordinary  pow- 
ers, not  only  obtained  the  whole  revenue,  but  stipu- 
lated for  an  additional  supply  from  England  of  '1,000 
marks  for  tho  first  year,  ond  £2,000  for  every  year 
thereafter.  Edward  IV.  raised  money  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  duties  on  all  merchandise  sold  in  Ireland  ex- 
cept hides.  In  the  IStb  year  of  Henry  VII.  a  duty 
of  one  shilling  in  tho  pound  was  laid  on  all  merchan- 
dise imported  and  exportad,  except  wine  and  oil;  and 


4<I.HUU 
4I),2>(I 
M,H«S 
IH.UW 


IRE 


1006 


IRB 


/ 


•  t«x,  by  way  of  lubaldy,  of  18«.  M,  on  every  hide  of 
knd.  During  this  reign  the  revenue  leldom  exceeded 
;C6000.  Henry  VIII.  increased  the  revenue  by  the 
suppression  of  monasteries.  The  laws  against  al)sen- 
tees  were  also  enforced.  During  the  first  16  years  of 
Elizabeth,  the  revenue  was  jel20,000,  or  ilSOOO  per 
annum,  white  the  expenses  amounted  to  .£490,779,  7s, 
6^1.  In  1699,  at  the  close  of  Tyrone's  rebellion, 
i.'600,000  were  spent  in  six  months ;  and  Sir  Koliert 
Cecil  affirmed  that  Ireland  had  cost  tlie  queen  £8,400,- 
OUO  in  ten  years'  time.  In  the  paciflo  reign  of  James 
the  customs  increased  from  £00  to  £1)000,  and  at  the 
close  of  bis  reign  to  /:./700.  The  wardships  nnd  other 
feudal  rights  prodwoed  about  £10,000,  notwithstanding 
which  the  income  was  inadequate  to  the  expenditure. 
To  defray'the  expense  of  the  army,  an  order  of  bar- 
onets was  established  l)y  which  £98,600  were  raised, 
in  addition  to  which  £247,433  were  remitted  from  En- 
gland to  clear  off  the  debts  incurred  l>y  Elizabeth. 
The  Irish  Parliament  granted  the  same  king  a  sultsidy 
of  29.  8d.  in  £1  on  every  personal  estate  of  £3  annual 
value,  and  4d.  in  £1  on  ever}-  real  estate  of  £1  value ; 
an  act  of  liljerality  with  which  James  was  so  much 
pleased,  that  he  declared  "  he  would  hereafter  hold  bis 
Irish  8ul>jectB  in  equal  favor  with  tliose  of  his  other 
kingdoms."  In  the  succeeding  reign  Strafford  raised 
the  customs  to  four  times  their  previous  amount.  In 
the  same  reign  the  first  mention  is  made  of  an  excise 
tax.  Thurloe,  however,  in  his  state  papers,  men- 
tions that  the  revenue  for  two  years  ending  in  1G67, 
amounted  to  £137,658,  while  the  ex|)endituro  was 
£142,609.  When  the  Irish  Parliament  met  after  the 
Restoration,  it  granted,  first,  an  hereditary  revenue  to 
the  king,  his  heirs,  and  successors  ;  second,  an  excise 
for  maintaining  the  army ;  thirl,  the  subsidy  of  ton- 
nage and  poundage  for  the  navy ;  and,  fourth,  a  tax 
of  28.  oacli  on  hearths,  in  lieu  of  the  feudal  hardens, 
which  were  tlien  almlished.  After  the  Revolution,  the 
information  respecting  this  important  element  of  na- 
tional statistics  iiecomcs  more  precise  and  satisfactory'. 


The  revenae,  tma  the  landing  of  Schomberg  in  1689 
till  the  end  of  the  reign  of  William,  was  as  follows, 
the  total  on  the  previous  military  expenditure  of  the 
war  with  James  having  amounted  to  £8,861,666 : 


Ye«r.  RaTaniM, 

lASD £8,NM 

1690 93,910 

1891 2T4,9»9 

1601 898,926 

1698 444.188 

1694 480,uB4 

1695 488,804 


Yekr.  ll«r*nue. 

1696 £618,584 

169T 548,967 

1098 60I,84« 

1699 701,989 

1700 766,630 

1701 697,986 

1702 6S1,»8« 


During  the  earlier  part  of  Anne's  reign  the  income 
exceeded  half  a  million,  but  in  her  latter  days  it  was 
less  productive.  In  the  reign  of  George  I.  the  state 
of  the  revenue  continued  nearly  as  in  tlie  preceding 
reign.  In  that  of  George  II.  there  was  a  surplus, 
which  was  applied,  not  always  judiciously,  to  public 
works.  Tiie  national  del)t  of  Ireland,  incurred  by  an 
excess  of  expenditure  beyond  the  income  of  the  coun- 
tr}',  increased  with  great  rapidity  toward  the  close  of 
the  last  contur}-  and  till  the  year  1817,  when  it  ceased 
to  form  a  separate  item  in  the  public  accounts,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  consolidation  of  tiie  British  and  Irish 
exchequers.  Its  progressive  increase  since  the  Revo- 
lution is  exhibited  in  tlio  following  table : 

Public  Drdt  or  Ibeland. 


1716 £16,106 

1720 87,811 

1780 2211,780 

1740 290.983 

17,'SO 205,117 

1762 228,488 


1770 £629,888 

1780 1,067,8«5 

1790 I,.'i8«,067 

1800 22,245,190 

1810 75,240,790 

1817 184,602,760 


The  following  table  gives  an  account  of  the  gross 
revenue  levied  in  Ireland,  in  each  year  from  1840  tn 
1863;  distinguishing  the  expenses  of  collection  and 
the  other  payments  out  of  the  revenue  in  its  way 
to  the  exclicquor ;  also  an  account  of  the  amount  of 
repayments  into  the  exchequer  on  account  of  advances 
for  public  works,  employment  of  the  poor,  distress, 
etc.,  in  Ireland,  for  the  like  period. 


Gross  Urvkshr  lkvikd  in  Ibkland,  is  baoh  Thar 

moM  1840 

TO  1868. 

mVR.XUB. 

CHAROla. 

Yeifi. 

Total 
Chargei. 

Paymcnla  on 
account  ot' 

Public 
Works,  ate. 

OUUtAIullBg. 

Groii 
rvvenne. 

Tul.l 
Income, 

C)ulrs«B  of 

COlluClIliD. 

PayinauU 

lo  the 
Eichoquflr. 

Pftjrmenu 

on  Recount  ol 
Kevenue, 

BAlaneea  at 
Ihe  vnd  of 
the  year. 

account  of 
llavanue. 

1840 

£220.509 

£1,107,860 

£4,H2S,8T5 

£542,716 

£85,808 

£8„559,462 

£19fl,8S9 

£»,32S,875 

£858,683 

£8,913,100 

1841 

190,889 

4,118,689 

4,S09,07S 

587,(115 

85,U8 

8,586,192 

199,628 

4,809,07s 

438,411 

8,969,688 

1842 

199,628 

4,156,892 

4,8M„52I1 

536,707 

87,256 

8.5«2,492 

220,065 

4,850,,^2ll 

871,377 

8,984,889 

1848 

220,065 

4,01)9,062 

4,310,127 

6.U''88 

86,650 

8,574,017 

172,827 

4,819,127 

884,794 

8,959,711 

1844 

172,827 

4,406,509 

4,67i),8:t6 

52S,700 

.%%,488 

8,84.5,200 

169,983 

4,5-9,:W6 

420,470 

4,265,780 

1845 

109,988 

4,667,462 

4,8i)7.40(l 

MO,  124 

JH.654 

4,096,8.W 

160,769 

4,«a7,400 

394,305 

4,491,158 

1846 

166,769 

4,919,622 

5,086,891 

538,851 

1M,017 

4,389,821 

179,208 

5,036,891 

870,238 

4,710,104 

1847...... 

179,208 

4,4.V4,462 

4,     '.065 

546,499 

8,5,500 

8,840,920 

21O,0S6 

4,683,065 

514,491 

4,8.W,4«1 

4,827,505, 

1S48 

210,686 

4,,W1,95S 

4,7i)2,(Wl 

668,701 

85,764 

3,970,44^ 

159,781 

4,732,6H 

a^7,117 

1849 

159,781 

4,291,S07 

4,451,Ws 

54,5,9,V9 

88,141 

8,711,804 

1,58,1.85 

4,4SI,WS 

621,1.% 

4.832,459 

1850 

156,185 

.  4,257,686 

4,41.8,8211 

018,741 

86,S18 

8,613,911 

144,8.51 

4,418,320 

505,021 

4,118,932 

1851 

144,852 

4,882,000 

4,526,!»2 

661,821 

84,072 

8,672,883 

157,,574 

4,526,861 

360,195 

4,642,195 

1852 

167,674 

4,424.785 

4,582,359 

561,207 

83,019 

S,820,H« 

167,946 

4„532,389 

406,829 

f'?3S"* 

1353 

167,946 

4,752,288 

4,888,444 

530,718 

30,460 

4,118,449 

156,821 

4,336,444 

445,889 

4,504,888 

N«TT  Rkvenuk  OF  Ibeianu  in  kacu 

VEAB  FROM  1840  TO  1861 

,  DISTINGDIeilED  UNDER  TIIE  DIFFEBKXT  HEADS 

or  liErENUE, 

Yean. 

Cnitomi. 

Kiella, 

Stampa. 

Properly  and 
Incomo  tax. 

Poit  Office. 

MlieelllH 
neons. 

Imprest  nnd 
other  .M»m>y8. 

Repa.vments  of 
Ailrtinoes  for 
I'uUIr  Works. 

Total. 

1840 

£2,080,159 

£1,177,407 

£482,723 

.... 

£0,6M 

£6.929 

£,^531 

£358,68.3 

£4.018,100 

1341 

1,999,257 

1,097,918 

425,771 

7,411 

6,385 

488,441 

8,969,688 

1.342..'.... 

1,949,884 

1,110,342 

491.8.11 

8,000 

5,248 

2,210 

371,378 

8,9ai,869 

1848 

1,960,498 

1,082,722 

621,931 

.... 

8,000 

5,069 

1.077 

894,794 

8,959,781 

18+4 

9,12\\49 

1,147,940 

646,898 

.... 

16,000 

6,590 

2,088 

420,470 

*'^?5'!22 

1845 

2.091,851 

1,408,471 

559,569 

22,000 

6,847 

0,310 

881,988 

^i3l^ 

1*43     .... 

2,258,143 

1,487,080 

678,787 

.... 

29,000 

6,003 

5,388 

352,649 

4,692,468 

1847 

2,009,183 

1,152,982 

667,996 

69,000 

6.099 

40,160 

494,924 

4,825,344 

184S 

2,069,778 

1,821,915 

682,924 

89,000 

4,3.85 

2,000 

804,927 

4,275,875 

1849 

1,941,129 

1,231,643 

502,078 

26,000 

6,088 

8,923 

621,156 

4,882,469 

1850 

1,827,289 

1,312,123 

462,691 

.... 

5.744 

6,063 

605,021 

4,113,982 

1351 

1,864,268 

1,343,911 

451,N84 

6,000 

9,000 

4,470 

827,499 

4,000,682 

1852 

1,856,160 

1,478,092 

474,874 

.... 

7,782 

8,829 

.466,829 

4.236,615 

1858 

1,924,611 

1,708,621 

474,480 

27,976 

7,206 

8,681 

475,445 

4,621,870 

1864 

1,862,103 

3,208,580 

458,813 

649,011 

10,000 

6,203 

4,813 

861,281 

6,4»»,807 

The  circulating  medium  in  Ireland  was,  until  lately, 
subject  to  a  groat  variety  of  alterutions.  Without  en- 
tering into  the  disputed  question  of  tlio  existence  of  a 


mint  in  Ireland  established  by  the  Ostemen  or  Danes, 
the  first  certain  account  of  a  mint  there  is  that  estab- 
lished in  1210,  by  King  John,  who  caused  pennies, 


-<l* 


IRE 


1098 


IRB 


■i> 


tuM^nnlai,  Md  fltrthinga  to  lie  eolned  and  made  ear- 
rant  by  prneUmitlon.  Further  coinigM  were  made 
V  Henry  III.  and  by  Kdward  I.,  who  added  the  title 
of  DoMiMua  HiaiRinH  to  that  of  Knx  AitoMB  on 
hta  Irish  colnnue.  It  cnnnisted  of  groata,  half^nce, 
and  farthing*.  The  first  important  alleratlon  an  to 
value  waa  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Kdward 
III.  who  caused  the  ounce  of  eilTer  to  be  cut  into  2ti 
denlen  or  penniea,  Instead  of  20,  oa  Iwfore,  which 
caused  the  depreciation  of  8^  per  cent,  in  the  Irish,  as 
compared  with  the  Ilritish  currency,  which  existed  un- 
til thk  final  assimilation  of  the  two  currenclea  In  1836. 
Henry  VI.,  or  rather  the  Duke  of  York,  his  lieutenant 
in  Ireland,  hail  minta  in  Dublin  and  Trim,  In  which 
both  silver  and  copper  money  were  coined. 

In  the  lieglnning  of  the  Hubscqucnt  reign  of  Ed- 
Tfrard  IV.  the  value  of  silver  coins  was  raised  to  double 
their   previous   amount.      The  consequence  waa  an 
enormous  increase  of  price  in  all  the  necessaries  of 
life ;  to  remedy  which,  the  Irish  Parliament  enacted, 
that  the  master  of  the  mint  should  strike.  In  the  Cas- 
tles of  Dublin  and  Trim,  and  in  the  town  of  DrogheiU, 
five  kinds  of  silver  coins ;  the  gross  (or  groat),  the 
demi-groes,  the  denier  (or  penny),  the  demi-denier,  and 
quadrant  (or  farthing);   eleven  groats  to  weigh  an 
ounce  troy,  and  each,  undipped,  to  puss  for  fourpence, 
A  few  years  afterward,  the  price  of  silver  was  again 
raised  ao  excessively,  that  the  dilTerence  between  the 
Irish  and  English  groat  was  50  per  cent.  In  a  pound  of 
bullion.     In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  the  difference 
between  the  two  coinages  waa  one  third.     Soon  after 
the  accession  of  Hcnrj'  VIII.  the  coin  in  Ireland  was 
10  clippe<l,  defaced,  and  scarce,  that  the  Earl  of  Sur- 
rey, then  lord-lieutenant,  sued  for  his  recall.  In  coa 
sequence  of  the  want  of  money  to  carry  on  the  war 
against  the  Irish.     Elizabeth  "ordered  the  ounce  of 
allver  to  be  cut  Into  60  pennies,  ao  that  the  coin  of  that 
name  was  reduced  in  weight  from  the  20th  to  the  60th 
port  of  on  ounce.      The  total  value  of  the  money 
coined  in  Ireland  bv  that  princess,  is  said  to  have  lieen 
jEM,677  10s.  6d.  English,  which,  at  the  rate  of  ICd. 
Irish,  for  a  shilling  English,  amounts  to  i:il8,222  9a. 
4}<l.  Irish.      The  Irish  sliilling,  or  harp,  as  it  was 
called,  flrom  the  impression  on  its  reverse,  waa  worth 
ninepence  English.     By  a  proclamation  issued  in  the 
fifth  year  of  James  I.  the  same  proportion  of  values 
was  continued.     In  1718  English  money  was  current  in 
Ireland  at  an  increased  value ;  the  English  five-ahilling 
cro«m-piece  passing  for  six  shillings  and  eigbtpence, 
and  the  other  coins  in  proportion.     Th?  exchange  be- 
tween Duldin  and  I^ndon  was  21s.  Irish  for  16s.  En- 
glish, with  6d.  or  8d.  per  pound  extra,  payable  in  Ix>n- 
don.  ,  By  a  proclamation  in  1637,  tlie  name  of  Irish 
money  was  ordered  to  be  alwlished,  and  all  payments 
were  reduced  to  English  sterling  money.    About  1672, 
amall  change  was  so  scarce  In  Ireland,  that  towns  and 
private  dealers  were  obliged  to  issue  copper  tokens. 
Jame  II.,  on  his  arrival  in  Dublin  in  1688,  issued  a 
proclamatien,  by  which  the  English  guinea  was  to  pass 
current  at  .£1  4s.,  the  crown-piece  at  fia.  S<l.,  and  all 
lesser  coins  in  the  same  proportion.     In  1690,  he  de- 
preciated still  farther  the  value  of  the  coin,  by  the 
iasue  of  pieces  of  base  metal,  which  were  to  pass  at  a 
nominal  value  far  above  their  Intrinsic  worth ;  so  that 
thecoins  issued  of  the  nominal  value  of  £965,376  accord- 
ing to  some,  but,  according  toothers,  of  £1,696,790,  were 
really  worth  no  more  than  £6495,  eatimating  the  metal 
at  4d.  per  fiound.     On  the  accession  of  William,  this 
coinage  wns  cried  down.     In  1725,  the  new  gold  coin 
of  Portugal  was  made  current  in  Ireland,  the  largest 
coin,  or  Portugal  piece,  l>eing  rated  at  £4.     Alwut  the 
•ame  time,  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  small 
change.  Wood  obtained  his  patent  for  the  issne  of  a 
copper  currency,  which  was  prevented  by  the  literary 
exertions  of  Dean  Swift  in  his  celebrated  publications 
called  the  Dmpier't  Letten.     In  1780,  the  acta  of  Par- 
liament  prohibiting  the  carrying  of  gold  or  ailver  into 


Ireknd  were  rapealed.  At  that  time  the  tbIm  at 
preoloua  metals  In  circulation  •■  specie,  or  hoarded, 
waa  estimated  at  £8,000,000  Irish.  Mo  Auther  legis- 
lative change  took  place  until  the  oaalmtUtioa  of  the 
Irish  and  English  currency  in  18W,  previously  to 
which,  however,  the  want  of  a  metallic  circulation  waa 
BO  severely  felt,  particularly  during  some  periods  of 
the  French  war,  that  private  bankers  and  traders  is- 
sued notes  or  tickets  fbr  snull  sums,  f^om  5s.  down  to 
twopence-half^nny ;  and  also  copper  tokens.  The 
•vlla  of  this  combined  pressure  of  the  scarcity  of  legal 
and  the  abundance  of  counterfeit  coin,  was  ultimately 
reme<lied  l>y  the  Issue  of  stamped  dollara  estimate<l  at 
6s.,  and  by  silver  tokens  of  KM.  and  5d.,  Iiy  the  bank 
of  Ireland,  which  circulated  freely  until  they  were  re- 
placed by  the  issue  of  a  pure  standard  coinage  of  sil- 
ver ftrom  the  royal  mint. 

The  amount  of  subscriptions  miaed  In  England  for 
the  relief  of  sufferers  by  the  famine  of  1822  having 
exceeded  the  expenditure,  the  surplus  was  intrusted 
to  a  committee  in  I^ndon,  and  was  retained  under  the 
name  of  the  Irish  Keproducttve  Loan  Fund,  as  a  per- 
manent fund  for  organizing  loan  sooieties,  ultimately 
originated  the  present  loan  fund  system,  under  which 
small  sums  are  advanced  to  industrious  individuals  of 
the  working  classes,  to  be  repaid  by  instalments,  with 
intereat,  and  which  waa  placed  under  the  control  of 
a  commiaslon  bi  1886  by  the  Act  6th  and  7th  Will. 
IV.,  chap.  56.  The  rate  of  discount  on  loans,  made 
chargeable  by  It  at  6d.  in  the  pound,  has  Iwen  reduced 
to  4d.  In  the  poui.d  by  the  Act  of  6th  and  7th  Vict.,  c. 
91,  which  placed  the  general  control  over  all  charitable 
loan  Bocieties  and  churitatiie  pawn  or  de|iosit  offices 
under  the  su])erintendence  of  the  "  Loan  Fund  lioard." 
The  number  of  funds,  with  their  capital  and  circula- 
tion since  the  commencement  of  the  system,  haa  been 


Tm™. 

No.  of  Audi. 

OkrlMl. 

arenUUM. 

1888 

BO 

.... 

£I80,62< 

1S89 

sat 

.... 

818,478 

1*40 

ilS 

.... 

1,1<U,046 

1S41 

S68 

£370,507 

1,48S,.')98 

is4a 

300 

124,920 

1,891,871 

1M3 

398 

403,848 

1,650,968 

1S« 

W» 

417,584 

1,702,918 

isa 

iK 

444,427 

l,8.^7,467 

1»W 

SftO 

404,842 

l,77i),!!97 

1847 

228 

270,618 

868,647 

IMS 

117 

217,112 

717,865 

1»4» 

180 

189,187 

649.984 

l&W 

132 

182,601 

6«a,794 

1861 

128 

18«,240 

712,073 

IS-W 

lis 

180,271 

789,056 

18fl8 

112 

212,888 

842,800 

1984 

116 

814,735 

870,(124 

Pawn  offices,  on  the  plan  and  under  the  name  of 
the  French  MonU  de  Putt,  were  opened  in  several 
towns  of  Ireland  in  1841,  with  the  object  of  advancing 
money  on  pledges  at  rates  more  moderate  than  thoao 
of  the  licensed  pawnbrokers ;  but  all  have  since  l>een 
discontinued.  Uy  means  of  navigable  rivers  and  ca- 
nals, Ireland  possesses  extensive  inland  navigation. 
For  the  details  of  the  various  canals,  see  C  asau.  The 
railway  from  Dublin  to  Kingstown,  which  was  opened 
at  the  latter  end  of  1834,  was  the  first,  and  for  several 
years  the  only  railway  in  Ireland. 

Bants. — The  entire  banldng  liusineas  of  Ireland,  un- 
til 1783,  was  in  the  hands  of  private  individuals,  who 
often  issued  notes  to  an  amount  not  only  far  beyond 
their  respective  capitals,  but  exceeding,  hi  a  great  de- 
gree, what  the  wants  of  the  country  required,  or  its  credit 
could  support.  To  remedy  the  evil  effects  of  a  system 
so  pernicious,  a  national  bank  was  established  in  that 
year,  with  similar  privileges  to  tlioae  of  the  Bank  of 
England  in  respect  to  the  restriction  of  more  than  six 
partners  in  a  private  bank.  The  injury  that  Ireland 
has  sustained  fVom  the  repeated  failure  of  banks  may 
be  mainly  attributed  to  this  injudicious  regulation. 
The  loss  that  the  country  has  suflTered  by  the  failure  of 
banks  may  be  described  in  s  few  w6rd8.    On  the  ex- 


ttas 


lODT 


mfl 


lilrjr  of  Uia  Bank  of  IrtUnd's  charter  In  1888,  it  wh 
aontinutd  hy  act  of  Parllamrat  from  year  to  year  an- 
til  1846,  ainca  which  time  It  haii  been  regulated  by  the 
new  Banking  Act,  8th  and  IHh  Vict.,  o.  87,  acoording 
to  the  foliowing  prinelplet : — The  bunk  to  continue  the 
banker  of  government,  which  Is  to  pay  for  the  10  lub- 
■eqiiant  yean  8}  per  cent,  on  the  debt  It  owea  to  the 
bank.    The  proceedings  of  the  establishment  to  be 


under  the  Mun*  mla  which  baa  been  applied  by  Pat> 
llament  to  other  banking  institutions,  anil  to  make 
weekly  returns,  similar  to  those  of  the  Hank  of  En- 
gland nnder  the  new  act,  containing  a  full  develop- 
ment of  Its  affairs,  the  amount  of  Its  bullion,  and  lbs 
variations  In  the  quantity.  The  Joint-stock  banks  now 
doing  business  .ire  as  follows.  There  marked  (*)  do 
not  Issue  their  own  notes  : 


Bank  of  Ireland 

•Hibernian  Jolat-Bioek  Co.,  Dublin. . 

Provlnolal  Dank  of  Ireland 

Northern  Banking  Ca.,  BelAut 

Belhst  Banking  Company 

National  Bank 

Ulster  Banking  Company,  BelAut. . . 

Clonmol  NalloosI  Bank 

Carrlok-on-Hiilr  National  Bank 

•Royal  Bank,  Dublin 


Whaa 

InithuliJ. 

1788 
1894 
1826 
1825 
1827 
1886 
188A 
1836 
1886 
1886 


No.  <( 

braiiehM. 

~~K~' 
1 

88 
11 
99 
46 

18 
1 


CaplU). 

SifiOOfiOO 

1,000,000 

9,000,000 

600,000 

600,000 

1,000,000 

1,000.000 

80,000 

40,000 

1,044,950 


Cipllal  fiU  «p. 

PaMap 

[Mr  ihftru. 

£8,(H)O,00O 

£100 

260,000 

98 

540,000 

95 

150,000 

80 

126,000 

98 

460,000 

91) 

187,000 

It 

16,986 

li 

4,069 

li 

900,176 

10 

RvMrrwl  tuad. 

fi7rfl;()Si~ 

63,000 
162,210 
60,778 

40,826 


60,000 


£8,788,428 

897,667 
848,440 
881,611 
761,757 
811,079 
66,418 
»t,0S4 


Tua  AHNuai,  Avaaaoa  or  ran  sstrral  Basks  oi 

ISSOB  IM  laSLASD  fOa  THt 

YlAsa  1846  TO 

1364. 

Tmii. 

all  ib*  banki,    '         upwanj. 

Nolal  umlir  il. 

Toui  lua«  o<all 
Ibt  banbi. 

W,UMi.       1      »ll»rh.H.     |l5;:|,X'jifil 

1848 

1847 

£6,854,484 
6,854,484 
«,864,4«4 
6,864,494 
6,854,404 
6,854,484 
M54,484 
6,854,401 
6,8H494 

£8,111,250 
9,844,048 
9,489,121 
9,904,474 
9,197,117 
9,118,077 
9,21^6«8 
9,517,570 
9,372,007 

£4,l44,4<ll 
9,886,878 
9,889,868 
9,105,809 
9,316,401 
9,848,870 
9,602,988 
8,182,883 
8,498,507 

£7.265,721 
6,830,425 
4,828,882 
4,810,288 
4,612,448 
4,462,009 
4,818,288 
6,650,466 
6,285,607 

£2,106,004 
1,968,517 
1,088,910 
1,080,476 
1,017,0.S« 
987,4(IS 
004,548 
1,388,867 
1,745,828 

£884,253 
481.868 
609,075 
698,783 
875,822 
818,574 
240,018 
182,729 
913,711 

2,440,266 
1,7H,476 
1,586,808 
1,M1,004 
1,816,480 
1,266,0S5 
1,243,676 
1,576,600 
1,858,048 

1848 

1340 

1860 

1861 

1889 

1368 

1864 

GOUMKRO 

■  or  Tira  UKmo  8tat«s 

wmi  laatAHn,  raoH  Ooronxa  1,  1890,  to  Jolt  1,  1866. 

Y««ri  ending 

Eipotta. 

Import!. 

Whoreof  Ibeni  wm  Id  Bullion 
anil  Spefll*. 

Tunnaxe  Cleared. 

Domeulg, 

Foralgn. 

Tout 

Total. 

K>pori. 

Import. 

Aawrlcaa.        Forelsn, 

8*t.80,1821........ 

1898!!!!!!!! 
1324 

1826 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1880 

Total.... 

Bept8a,18Sl 

1882 

1888 

1834 

1888 

1886 

1337 

1888 

1888 

1840 

Tetal.... 

BepL80.1841 

1842 

Imos.      1848 

June  30,  1844 

tm 

1346 

1847 

1848 

1818 

1880 

Total.... 

June  80, 1861 

1852 

1868 

1884 

1866 

1                 1866 

1880,577 
770,176 
714,087 
818,689 

1,247,660 
775,187 
687,190 
804,460 
827,728 
261,687 

•4,068 

87,644 
8,678 

20,668 
6,884 

"sio 

866 

•393,646 
no,176 
761,681 
812,206 

1,268,218 
781,821 
637,120 
885,260 
828,091 
161,687 

•686,154 
806,091 
647,788 
481,876 
612,272 
672,904 
650,129 
711,011 
363,611 
881,888 

•198 
4,426 

a.  .  • 

•2,638 
^978 

"283 

19,812 

18,168 

12,982 

20Atl 

19,438 

14,486 

8,247 

6,626 

4,8,33 

4,604 

2,201 
2,047 
2,478 
1,761 
1,821 
1,868 
1,838 
8,780 
2,502 
2,670 

(6,080,004 

•680,841 
152,813 
120,4S9 
180,914 
408,601 
848,845 
9,898 
8S585 
880,710 
217,762 

•78,916 

•4,ii5 

"189 

•7,009,808 

•689,»41 
167,028 
120,482 
180,108 
408,604 
847,689 
9,803 
88,685 
880,719 
217,762 

•5,762,071 

•161,664 
491,391 
im,2S0 
974,712 
642,890 
608,866 
181,776 

76,169 
160,639 

08,349 

•4,618 

•8,899 

117,657 

7,888 
1,701 
1,406 
9,620 
4.272 
2,335 
551 
472 
1,862 
2,732 

21,368 

2,806 

l',S48 
243 
760 
240 
181 
166 
882 
861 

•2,807,608 

•60,872  * 
t    40,063 
.   108,602 
42,591 

108,471 
1,077,008 
12,807,693 
9,879,201 
8,9ie,8»2 
1,026,081 

•8,158 

1,180 

6^468 
81,483 

1,803 
99,.'S26 
42,603 

•2,405,766 

•60,871 

49,968 

209,631 

42,691 

108,471 

1,082,471 

12,420,186 

2,880,604 

8,988,863 

1,067,724 

•21,805,427' 

•699,888 
573,850 
028,064 
1,082,509 
1,542,484 
4,874,780 

•1,687,668 

•Sl,921 

109,700 

48,685 

88,084 

104,857 

86,n4 

680,240 

415,828 

876,703 

298,783 

!!!! 

•S2;ih 

116,946 

26,920 

1,891 

681- 

832 

101 

1,412 

14,748 

124,600 

17,410 

58,901 

10,014 

8,827 

"880 

2,187 

786 

837 

6,804 

101,067 

84,778 

46,165 

92,072 

•21,260,774 

•508,688 
678,250 
618,812 
1,006,017 
1,908,688 
4,800,021 

•104,653 

•1,200 
100 
89,272 
36,486 
832,861 
74,709 

•2,188,610 

•935,988 
169,588 
1M,118 
119,888 
162,283 
89,032 

!!!! 

(199,110 

225,280 

8,142 
4,116 
8,439 
0,120 
19,827 
85,786 

216,687 

12,618 
9,460 
14,966 
14,481 
W,6«l 
10,030 

Savings-banks  were  introduced  into  Ireland  in  1810. 
The  greatest  amount  deposited  was  in  1846,  previous 
to  the  years  of  distress  consequent  on  the  famine  ;  and 
the  fluctniitions  which  have  since  taken  place  appear 
In  the  annexed  table : 


Yeare.      Depotltori. 

1846....  88,421 
1346....  98,863 
1347....  80,851 
1843....  48,611 
184*...    46,549 


Amooat, 
£1,921,581 
9356,817 
2,410,790 
1,834,996 
1,M0,3T8 


Tear*.       Depoiltori.       Atnoant, 

1360....  47,887  £1,181,788 
1851,...  48,661  1,847,017 
1359....  62,141  1,447,816 
1858....  65,680         1,686,010 


-  The  intemni  traffic  of  tho  country  is  carried  on 
chiefly  by  wlieel-carriage  roads.  Their  condition,  lx>th 
as  to  lines  of  direction  and  mode  of  construction,  is 
excellent.  Materials  for  the  construction  and  repairs 
of  roads  are  very  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
whole  island,  either  in  quarries,  ridges,  and  masses  of 
gravel,  or  in  the  beds  or  channels  of  rivers  and 
streams.  The  limestone,  which  is  tho  general  sub- 
stratum of  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  is  the  Iwst 
material  for  their  formation ;  and  the  system  Imown 


mo 


1008 


mo 


nndn  th«  iuom  of  macxUmiiliiK  wm  Ioiik  an'  auc- 
ceufully  prkctlced  on  mnny  of  the  liuiilInK  lliicn  of  ro(Ml 
in  IrnUnii  baftire  It  wiu  thought  of  in  Ciniat  llrititin. 

Til*  proxred*  Mul  condition  uf  tlia  Iriali  railway  •}•• 
lem  from  Iftau  to  Iftfrt,  Ineluilve,  nuiy  Ixi  wiun  in  the 
following  titliUi,  comiiUad  'rum  tbs  Uoknl  of  Tnda 
Ueturni  i 


■Ollt  JUM, 

IIU  Iba  lit 

Jnnuary  In 

No.  of 

|xu.ii(.n. 

Rmlpto.                  1 

from  ftu- 
•■niicni. 

«2A,81« 
HI.VOl 
88.818 
81,400 
80,171 
41.002 
M,919 
Bfl,B4M 
(12,608 
104,709 
l(l,t,4(IO 
I4B,^H1 
91I.Mt8 
2V0,(I0I 

8:iu,o;ii 

48.\»10 
887,989 
891,871 

Friim 

£U» 
44 

970 

807 

414 

480 

2.112(1 

0,M(i9 

8.9s« 

14.08(1 

lH.2i4 

W,(IOO 

(K  1,915 

127.402 

1M.IP."|» 

10s,|,"19 

218.01 10 

949,810 

8,^9.H04 

Toul, 

'i88',49r 

81,018 

88,588 

84,716 

86,518) 

41,4(W 

8(1,789 

68,11.10 

71,404 

1 19.808 

19il,718 

Is4,881 

971,808 

418,(MW 

814,01)5 

5*4,0(19 

(179.5  II) 

881,809 

874,477 

1«W(l&iuo(.> 

1H87 

« 
« 

il 

St 

8S 
HOI 
209( 
428 
MS 
M) 
AM 
771 
84S 

1,287,800 
1,184,428 
1,218,979 
1,841,908 
l.HftH.Tdl 
l.82V.lfi4 
2.01<l,»»^l 
2.074.444 
9,BH.'4,0|NI 
8,481,707 
8,«1II,B06 
a,«fW,2»4 
4.874,749 
0,05:1,1147 
8,4l»S,7'Jrt 
B,(lfl»l.(lll8 
«,l«fl.l27 
7,074,478 
(1,111,170 

1»88 

t8IW 

1840 

IMl 

tm 

I«8 

1844 

IMS 

iMa 

1M7 

I«4» 

tt4» 

1800 

lafti 

ItiU 

18U 

ISU 

E.  B. 
Irf«,  orOrrla-Root  Plant  (iV/«./for«i^iV),  a  percn. 
nial,  native  of  (Jurniola,  unil  common  In  tlio  ((aniens  of 
Kura|)e,  tlio  root  of  whiuli  la  lomarkalilo  fur  ronimunl- 
ciiting  an  odor  like  that  of  violett,  and  produces  the 
tirrU  of  the  ahopH.  The  tlowers,  which  put  forth  in 
aprinK,  are  noted  for  tli«  graceful  curve  of  their  petals, 
a:<  well  us  for  the  brillioncy  of  tlieir  hues.  It  has  u 
tliick,  tulwrous,  creeping  stem,  usually  called  its  runt, 
which,  externally,  is  bMwn  and  yelluwisli,  Is  wliito 
vithin,  and  sends  out  numerous  tllires — the  true  routs 
— fri'ui  the  lower  part.  When  these  are  pared  oflf,  tlio 
stiiui  ap|)eurs  full  of  round  8|M>ta.  Inde|icndent  of  the 
value  wbiih  would  lie  derived  from  the  roots  of  this 
jilant,  it  would  l)e  highly  dcsiralile  to  cultivate  it  fur 
the  purpuses  of  ornament,  in  uli  parts  of  the  country 
where  it  would  thrive. 

Iron  (Dun.  Jem ;  Du.  Yzer ;  Fr.  Fir ;  Gcr.  /'/jirn  ; 
It.  Fcrro;  Lat. /Vrrunt,  ^/iirn ;  l'u\,  Zflazo ;  I'or. />r- 
ro ;  Kus.  Scheleto ;  Sp.  Ilierro ;  Sw.  Jem ;  tir.  S/dfpof ; 
8jn8.  Luha;  Aral).  IMerd;  Pors.  Ahun),  tlio  most 
aliundant  and  moet  useful  of  all  tne  inctuls.  It  is  of 
bluish-white  color,  and  when  imiishcd  hiia  a  gruat 
deal  uf  brilliancy.  It  has  a  styptic  tastb,  and  emits 
a  smell  whan  rubbed.  Its  liarduess  exceeds  that  uf 
nin.'it  other  metals;  and  it  may  lie  rendered  harder 
than  must  liodieB  liy  lieing  converted  into  steel.  Its 
(pccllic  gravity  varies  from  7'0  to  7°H.  It  la  attracted 
by  the  magnet  or  loadstone,  and  is  itself  the  substance 
v'liich  constitutes  the  loadstune.  Hut  when  iron  is 
perfectly  pure,  it  retains  the  magnetic  virtue  for  a 
very  short  time.  It  i»  malleable  in  every  temiierature, 
and  its  malleability  incrrascs  in  pro|iortluu  as  the 
tpm|)«rature  augments ;  but  it  can  not  lie  hammered 
out  nearly  as  thin  as  gold  or  silver,  or  even  cop|ier. 
Its  ductility,  is,  however,  more  perfect ;  for  it  may  be 
drawn  out  into  wire  as  fine  at  least  ax  a  human  hair. 
Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  an  iron  wire  0'07H  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  is  capable  of  8up|)orting  649'25  lbs.  avoir- 
dupois without  breaking.  Hutorical  Notice, — Iron, 
though  the  most  common,  is  the  most  diflicult  of  all 
the  inetola  to  obtain  in  a  state  fit  for  use ;  and  the 
discovery  of  the  method  of  working  it  seems  to  have 
been  {losterior  to  tlie  use  of  gold,  silver,  aud  cop|)er. 
yVe  are  wholly  ignorant  of  the  steps  by  which  men 
were  lead  to  practice  the  process  required  to  fuse  it 
■nd  render  it  malleable.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
it  waa  prepared  in  ancient  Kgypt,  and  some  other 
countries,  at  a  very  remote  epoch ;  but  it  was  verj' 
little  used  in  Greece  till  after  the  Trojan  war.  (See 
the  admirable  work  of  M.  Goguot  on  the  origin  of  I.uws, 
Arts,  et«,)  Iron  woo  found  on  Mount  Idu  by  Uoctyles, 


owing  to  the  (bruli  of  tbo  mount  having  UIng  burnt 
by  lightning,  14U'i  n.  c.—Arumklian  Mwhln.  'l'h« 
Greeks  aaorilw  the  discovery  of  Iron  to  thamsalvas, 
and  referred  glass  to  the'  Phuiiiloians  i  but  Musaa  r«> 
lates  that  iron  was  wrought  by  TulHil-Cain.  Imii  fur. 
naces  among  the  Koiiiaiia  were  unpruvidad  with  b«U 
lows,  but  wore  placed  on  eniinviicus  with  the  grata  in 
the  direction  uf  the  prevailing  wiiidi,  Hwuillsh  iruii  U 
very  celebrated,  and  Dauneniora  is  the  graiitiiat  iiilim 
of  Sweden.  llrltUh  Iron  was  ciut  by  Italpli  I'ligii  uml 
I'ater  Ilaude,  in  Sussex,  in  IMit. — Itri/mrr'i  t'lulrm. 
Iron-mills  were  llrst  used  fur  slitting  iron  into  burs  fur 
smiths  by  (iiKlfroy  Itocbs,  In  16'JO,  Tinning  of  Iron 
was  llrst  intriHluced  from  Uohanila  In  IIIHI,  Tlmra 
are  upward  of  8(M),000  tons  of  iron  producnd  uniiuully 
In  Kiigland. — l/ai/dn.  There  are  many  varieties  uf 
Iron,  which  artists  distinguish  by  particular  imimis| 
but  all  of  them  may  lie  reduced  under  one  ur  utbar  of 
the  throe  following  classes ;  nitt  or  i>ig  inm,  ii>niiitjlit  or 
f'tji  iron,  and  ilrrl.  1.  Cast  or  pig  Iron  is  the  Aaiiiu 
given  to  this  metal  when  llrst  extracted  from  Its  (ires, 
Tile  ores  from  which  iron  is  usually  obtained  ur«  I'um. 
|iused  uf  oxyd  of  iron  and  clay.  The  objuit  of  tliu 
manufacturer  Is  to  reduce  the  oxyd  to  the  iiintulllii 
state,  and  to  separate  all  the  cla,v  with  which  it  is  ciiiii- 
bined.  This  is  eifected  by  a  (leculiar  prucuss  |  and  ilm 
iron,  being  exposed  tu  strong  liaat  In  furnuciis,  ami 
inelteil,  runs  out  into  mollis  prepared  for  Its  racoptluri, 
and  ubtiiins  the  name  uf  cast  or  pig  Iniii,  Tliu  iiut 
iron  thus  ulitaiucd  Is  distinguisheil  liy  inaiiiifactiirorN 
Into  dilferent  varieties,  from  its  color  and  utiior  i|iiiil|. 
ties.  Of  these  the  following  are  tho  must  rumarkiiblu  i 
WhilK  cast  iron,  which  is  extremely  hard  and  brilliit, 
and  appears  to  be  ciini|iuseil  uf  a  congeries  uf  niiiiijl 
crystals.  It  can  neither  be  Hied,  liured,  nor  liunl,  iiinl 
is  very  apt  to  break  when  suddenly  houted  ur  ihmiIiuI, 
llmyut  mollMKnitt  Iron,  so  called  from  the  lii(ii|uiillty 
of  Its  color.  Its  texture  is  granulated.  It  Is  miuli 
softer  and  less  brittle  than  the  last  variety,  and  niiiy 
lie  cut,  bored,  ami  turned  on  tho  lathe.  Cannons  uro 
made  uf  it. 

J/liick  cast  iron  is  the  must  unei|uul  In  Us  texture, 
the  most  fusible,  and  least  cohesive,  uf  tliu  tlil'uu. 

Wrought  or  soft  iron  is  prepared  from  i^ast  iron  bv  a 
process  termed  a  rellncmoiit  or  llnery.  'I'he  wroiiglit 
iron  manufactured  in  Sweden  is  rockuiied  the  llne>t  in 
the  world. 

Steel  consists  of  pieces  of  wrought  Iron  hardeiifld  by 
a  peculiar  process.  Tho  Swedish  iron  lm|Hirliii|  Into 
this  country  is  mostly  used  in  tho  muiiiifacturii  uf 
steel. — Tiiiimson'n  Cheminlri/. 

Uses  of  Iron. — To  enumerate  the  various  iism  uf  Iniii 
would  re(iuiro  a  lengthened  dissortiitloii.  No  one  nliu 
reUects  for  a  moment  on  the  subject  I'liii  doiibl  Hint  iU 
discovery  and  employment  in  the  shape  of  luuls  mul 
engines  has  been  uf  tlie  utmost  impurtuncu  to  iiinii  i 
and  baa  doiio  more,  perhaps,  than  any  thing  elsu  tu  ac- 
celerate his  advance  in.  the  career  uf  iiiipriivuiiiniil, 
Locke  has  the  following  striking  observalliins  uu  tliU 
subject :  "  Of  what  conse(|U»ncH  tho  discovery  of  uim 
natural  body  and  its  properties  may  be  to  liiiiiiuii  IU'd, 
the  whole  great  continent  of  America  is  a  cuiiviliiiiig  In- 
stance :  whose  ignorance  in  useful  arts,  and  want  uf 
tho  greatest  part  of  the  conveniences  of  life,  In  a  iiiiiii- 
try  that  abounds  with  all  sorts  of  natural  plmily,  I 
think  may  be  attributed  to  their  ignorance  >if  what  wiis 
to  1)0  found  in  a  verj-  ordinary  dospicalila  stumi-l 
mean  tho  mineral  of  iron.  And  whatever  wu  think  of 
our  parts  or  improvements  in  tills  |)art  of  tliu  wurlil, 
where  knowledge  and  plenty  seem  to  via  with  uiicli 
other,  yet  to  any  one  that  will  seriously  rolluct  upon 
it,  I  suppose  it  will  appear  past  doubt,  that,  weru  tlui 
use  of  iron  lost  among  us,  we  should  In  a  fuw  ages  bii 
unavoidably  reduced  to  the  wants  and  ignorance  of  tlio 
ancient  savage  Americans,  whose  natural  anilowmniits 
and  provisions  came  no  way  short  of  tlioso  of  tb«  niiml 
flourishing  and  polite  nations ;  ao  that  he  who  llrst 


>..^.iwliJ*-,-..viiVi«j 


mo 


1000 


IRO 


i>i  iif  Iron 

IIIIU   will) 

llml  ll« 
oIh  unit 

III   IIIIIM  I 

IIIIIHlll. 

ijii  thin 
ry  ijf  ciiiii 

IIIIUII  lil'Xi 

Itii'liiKlii' 
wmit  lit 

,11  u  iiiim- 
[il'irily,  I 

Wllllt  HU« 

tliliik  <>f 
Jill  vvirrM, 
wltli  uiicU 

lluct  U|lllll 

^  wuru  tliii 
w  UK'*"  '"' 
ilL'u ')( tlin 
ilowiiiKiitt 
f  tba  niiiiil 
who  Ut»t 


m«4«  UM  of  that  on*  rontcmptthU  mineral,  ttuij  ba 
truly  atylail  the  futhar  of  art*  iin<l  iiuthur  of  planty." — 
ilttn/f  «■  lk»  UwUritimilmi}^  ImmiIc  |v.,  c.  VI. 

Iron,  iin  aix'niiiit  of  ita  aliiinilance,  worklnK  qual- 
lllaa,  mill  tanarlty,  In  iinilwbly  tha  moKt  uaaful  anil 
valiialila  of  nintula.  AccorillnK  to  Dr.  Ura,  "  It  la  co- 
pallia  of  li»lii)(  cnat  Into  inolila  of  any  form,  of  IwInK 
drawn  Into  wira  of  any  ilaalrad  lunKth  or  flnnnaaa,  of 
Iwlnx  axlanilnil  into  pliitea  or  ahaata,  of  lieint(  bant  In 
ovary  illraotlon,  of  bolnn  aharpaneil,  or  liarUanail,  or 
wiftanail  iit  plaiiaura.  Iron  aruoninioilataa  Itaalf  to  all 
our  wiuita  mill  doalraa,  anil  «v«n  to  our  caprlcei.  It  la 
aqually  aervlcaable  to  tli«  arta,  tlio  ai'lencea,  to  aK- 
rlvultura,  ami  war.  Tlie  aania  ore  fumiahea  tlie 
awiinl,  tlio  plowaliiira,  tho  acythe,  the  pruninK-book, 
Iho  iiaaillv,  tlia  Kraver,  the  aprliig  of  a  watch  or  of  a 
varrliiKa,  tlm  cblaal,  tba  chain,  the  anuhor,  the  com- 
paaa,  thn  cminon,  anil  the  iKinib.  It  la  a  nieilieine  of 
inui'ii  virtiia,  ami  the  only  inetiil  friemlly  to  the  human 
framn."  In  Ita  primitive  |Hialtion  it  bi  coinmlnKleil 
with  tlm  earth'a  atrittii  in  bountiful  pnifuaiun;  it  la 
fbunil  in  vnrloua  combimttiona  uml  coniiitiuna  in  every 
ftinimtion,  miil  It  la  a  lonatltuent  clement  of  lioth  ani- 
mala  anil  veKetables, 

llUhiry — Klullealile  Iron  nppeara  to  have  been 
known  from  a  remote  antiquity.  Ita  obvious  utility 
and  urent  aiiperlorlty  over  tho  softer  motiila,  then  com- 
monly uand,  combined  witli  the  ux|ienHe  of  Its  reduc- 
tion, niiiiaeil  It  to  be  lilKhly  prized,  though  the  extreme 
dinii'ulty  of  workiuK  It  by  the  rudo  methods  then  em- 
ploypil,  itri'iitly  restricted  ita  application.  There  are 
notli'Ka  In  llomeriind  IleaiiHl  of  tho  arts  of  reducing 
mid  fiirKliiK  iron ;  but  caat-iron  waa  then  unknown — 
■n  liii|ierl)<ctly  iiialloable  Iron  being  produced  nt  once 
from  thn  oroa  in  the  furnace.  It  la  proliable  that  the 
Qroi>ka  obtained  most  of  their  iron  through  tho  PhoB- 
nli'liiiia  from  the  aborea  of  tlio  lllui-k  Sen,  and  from  La> 
coniii.  It  would  be  Interenting  to  trace  the  gradual 
nilvnticns  which  have  lieen  made  in  the  reduction  of 
Iron,  from  ita  discovery  to  the  jireaent  time  ;  to  inquire 
Into  thu  circumstances  which  led  to  the  successive 
clinngea  In  the  proceaseH,  find  into  the  principle  on 
wlilch  thuBo  changes  were  founded ;  to  examine  into 
the  dUrerences  in  the  products  which  from  time  to  time 
etiailed,  and  to  notice  tho  Influence  of  these  conditions 
on  llio  extent  and  progress  of  thn  uiunufiicture.  Our 
knowlodgo  of  theao  cliangcs,  however,  Is  scanty  and 
lni|K'rrni't,  and  we  can  only  conjecture  what  was  prob- 
alily  Ita  riirly  progress.  The  furnaces  which  were  tlrst 
empbiyed  for  smelting  iron  were  probably  similar  to 
Ihonn  now  called  nir-bhmmeriet.  They  were  probably 
simple  conical  structures,  with  small  openings  below 
for  the  mliiiiaslon  of  air,  and  a  large  ono  altove  for  the 
eacnpn  of  tho  products  of  combustion,  and  would  be 
erected  on  high  grounds  in  order  that  the  wind  might 
aaalat  ciiinbuation.  The  lire  Lielng  kindled,  auccesaivo 
layera  of  ore  and  charcoal  would  lie  ]ilaced  in  it,  and 
tlie  heat  regulateil  by  opening  or  closing  the  ajiertures 
below. 

The  process  of  reduction  would  consist  of  the  de- 
oxydntlon  of  the  ore  and  the  cementation  of  the  metal 
by  long  continued  heat.  The  temperature  would 
never  rise  sulBclently  high  to  fUse  the  ore,  and  the 
lirodiict  would  therefore  be  an  Imperfectly  malleable 
iron,  mixed  with  scoriai  and  unreduced  oxyd.  It 
would  then  be  brought  under  the  hummer,  and  fash- 
toneil  into  a  rude  bloom,  during  which  process  It  would 
lie  freed  from  the  greater  portion  of  the  earthy  impur- 
ities. Hy  such  a  process  us  this  the  Komans  probably 
worked  tho  iron  ores  of  our  own  Island ;  scurln),  tlie 
refuse  of  ancient  bloomeries,  occur  in  various  localities, 
In  aoiiie  cases  identitleil  with  that  people  by  the  coinci- 
dent remains  of  altars  dedicated  to  tho  god  who  pre- 
■Ided  over  Iron.  Blungo  Park  saw  a  rude  furnace  of 
this  kind  used  by  tho  Africans,  and,  indeed,  with  some 
modlllontions,  It  is  still  retained  in  Spain,  and  along 
tbe  cuHsta  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  rich  specular 


eras  ara  worked.  Th*  advantages  of  an  arttflclal  blail 
would  Boon  iMcoma  manifeat,  and  a  pair  of  Iwllows,  or 
a  cylinder  and  piaton  would  soon  bn  applied  tu  tlie 
ciinatructiiin  mentioned  almve.  limner  roproaeiit* 
Ilephoistua  aa  throwing  the  muteriala  from  which  the 
ahleld  of  Achillea  waa  to  Im  forged  into  u  furimci 
urged  by  '20  twlrs  of  liellowa  (i^On-ii).  The  inhabit- 
unta  of  MaiUguacar  smelt  iron  in  much  tho  aanie  way, 
their  blowing  apparatus,  liowever,  conaiating  of  hollow 
trunks  of  treea,  with  loosely-tltting  iiiatoiia, 

The  furnace  corraaponda  to  the  i/iMt-bloomer}',  and 
hua,  l>y  aucceaalve  Improvvmonta,  devolu|ic(l  Into  the 
blast  furnace,  now  alinoat  unlveraully  UMcd,  and  Into 
the  Ciitiilnn  Jorge,  atiil  einpliiyed  in  aimio  dlatrlcti. 
The  appllcutliin  of  the  liluat  would  olTcr  ciinsidoruMo 
advantages ;  It  would  obviate  tho  noceaalty  of  an  ele- 
vated site,  place  the  tomperuturo  mure  ImmedUtely 
under  the  illrnctlon  of  the  smelter,  iind  render  Iho 
whole  process  inoro  regular  and  curtulii,  Tho  mcthoit 
of  roduction  rumalueil  the  same  as  before,  but  the 
proiluct  would  dlllVr  considerably,  fur  whenever  the 
lilast  was  sulHcieiitly  powerful,  the  iron  would  lie 
J'uieJ,  a  partial  curburatiiin  would  take  place,  and  tho 
resulting  metal  would  be  a  s|iecics  of  steel,  utterly 
useless  to  the  workmen  of  those  days ;  hence,  it  seemi 
necoaaary  to  infer,  that  a  rudo  proccaa  of  ridlnlng  was 
Invented,  the  metal  lieing  again  heated  wltli  charcoal, 
and  the  blast  directed  over  its  surface,  Iho  curlion 
would  lie  burnt  out,  and  the  Iron  become  tough  and 
Iiialloable.  Tho  processes  might  perhaps  form  two 
auccesaivo  stages  of  one  o|ieratlon,  us  at  present  prac- 
ticed with  tho  Catalan  forge. 

The  increuaing  demand  fur  iron,  and  tho  progress  of 
internal  communication,  would  lead  the  smelter  to  in- 
crease the  size  and  height  of  his  blooniery,  and  this, 
probably,  would  lead  to  a  very  unexpected  result. 
The  greater  length  through  which  the  ore  had  to  de- 
scend, would  ]iridiing  Its  contact  with  the  charcoal, 
and  u  higher  state  of  carburatlon  would  ensue,  the 
prmluct  being  cast-iron — a  compound  till  then  perhaps 
unknown. 

From  the  time  that  cast-iron  became  tho  product  of 
the  smelting  furnace,  the  rellnlng  would  be  made  a 
separate  pruccss,  requiring  a  separate  furnace  and  ma- 
chinery. It  would  soon  be  found  also  that,  as  tlio 
furnace  Increased  In  height,  the  pressure  of  tba  su|ier- 
Incumbent  mass  would  render  the  materials  so  dense 
as  to  retard  the  uacent  of  tho  blast,  mid  thus  caii^o  It 
to  become  soft  and  inefficient;  honcu  tliu  internal  but- 
tresses called  bu»hea  wore  lirst  introduced  to  support 
the  weight  of  tho  charge,  relieving  tlie  central  parts 
from  the  pressure,  and  permitting  tho  free  ascent  of 
the  blast.  While  the  good  quality  «( tlie  Iron  and  the 
regularity  of  tho  process  were  thus  insured,  increoso 
of  quantity  was  the  result  of  improvemouts  in  the 
blowing  apparatus,  which  was  now  enlarged  and 
worked  by  water-power.  'With  these  modlllcatlons, 
the  furnace  was  tho  same  essentially  as  the  blast-fur- 
nace now  employed,  though  not  so  largo ;  Indeed  until 
tho  Introduction  of  coke  ut  a  much  later  period,  tho 
blast-furnacn  seldom  exceeded  16  foot  in  height  by  G  at 
the  widest  diameter.  The  more  perfect  operation  of 
the  blast-furnace  allowed  the  reduction  of  the  heaps  of 
BcorliD,  which  luul  been  gradually  accumulating  during 
tho  period  that  tho  bbist-bloomcries  had  been  in  opera- 
tion, and  which  contained  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  iron. 
A  new  species  of  proi)crty  was  thus  created  j  oxteuslvo 
proprietorships  of  l)anish  and  Roman  cinders  were 
formed ;  large  ileposits  of  scoria;,  which  fur  ages  had 
kihi  concealed  beneath  forests  of  decayed  oak,  were 
dug  up,  and  In  Dean  Forest  It  la  computed  that  '20  fur- 
naces, for  a  jieriod  of  upward  of  300  years,  wore  sup- 
plied chtelly  with  the  bloomory  cinders  as  a  substitute 
for  iron  ore. 

At  what  period  tho  complete  transformation  of  the 
blast-bloomcry  into  the  blast  furnace  was  effected,  it  ia 
impossible  to  say.    It  was  probably  in  the  early  port 


TRO 


noo 


mar 


of  Ihii  Kth  etmtnry,  m  irc  flnd  that  In  thn  17th  lh« 
•rt  of  CMtlnK  I;"'  »rrlv<(!  •>»  n  rnnililrmlili'  l'i{r«<  of 
pvrfrrtlon,  i;  <l  In  thit  ri*l({M  rf  KIlMlwth  thnm  wu  « 
mn>lil«riitil»  I'.MMrt  tnul*  »r  inti-lnm  or<lni<nr«  to  th* 
rontln»nt.  In  lh«  fornt  nf  limin  urii  tha  n>m»ln»  of 
two  lilint  nirnni'i-*,  which  formerly  lirlonKril  to  Iho 
liin)(*  nf  Knifliinil,  Imt  Oiry  hnvK  liron  iiiit  of  hlaat 
»lnr«  th«  i'onini«nriiin«nt  of  thu  iitnit()(l<<  Imlwwn 
rhnrlM  I.  anil  hia  Parllainrne,  Cnli'iilntlng  from  lh<> 
<liiiintlt.v  of  arorlai  nrnimiilntcrl  In  Iholr  Imniddlata 
ni>lKhlMirhooi|,  whlc-h  apjiriir  to  ham  lain  nni1l»tiirlxiil 
for  thf  laat  two  rrntiirlM,  Mr.  Mmhrt  hn«  at'empf  ■■! 
to  rtriloce  ih<i  jwrloil  of  llitilr  frmllim,  whir  <  he  emi- 
celvM  to  hnvp  Iwrn  nlHiut  tha  ynar  If  if  ilir  tln.>' 
of  KilwanI  VI.  I'p  to  ehla  pnrliKl  wc  o>i  .iiinml  ». . 
the  only  mat«rlal  nmrloyml  In  ■  Itli  4  •'|)»r»ii.iii-' 
but  the  want<  of  u  ronolanth  I'  >  Ann  |»  pulatbii 
not  IrM  than  thn  j(ri<at  ciiniiiHnpt'  •  of  "•  litsat  fUr- 
nnrea  Ihrmarlvpn,  I'rratp'l       noann.  nl  'aaenMal 

matcriiil,  ami  gii  n  a  eh. .  th«  manul.i  t'lr*.     'I'o 

iUch  an  pxtrnt  h  111  th"  ■  -im  drntmvml,  that  that 
cutting  down  of  t'l  '  I  «  u»ii  of  the  Imn-wnrka 
woa  priihlliltr'l  hy  apfcia;  <  nni'tiiienta  ;  and  thn  fnr«iiti< 
of  iSuMvx  a!  .e  ap|i«ar  to  hiivii  liecn  .  x( .  ipt  ttom  tha 
general  dnrrce  of  coniHtrx'ntlon,  The  nuinlier  of  ftir- 
naora  'u  Idant  di-i  raaned  thrt-o  foiirtlia,  and  the  annual 
product!  II,  which  Imt  a  ahort  time  lirfMm  la  aald  to 
have  heen  1NO,0(N)  tona,  waa  in  1710  reduced  to  only 
17,n,V)  tona. 

.lamea  I.  granted  natent'i  to  Iron-maatrra  In  varloua 
parta  of  the  kingdnni  f"r  lining  pit-coal  In  thn  mann- 
fnctiirii  of  iron.  'I'ho  idntaclea  to  Itn  Introduction, 
however,  wore  nnmeroua,  and  not  eaolly  overcomi-. 
The  comparatively  incombnatilde  natiiro  of  coke,  and 
Ita  feehler  chemical  afflniliea,  rendered  a  more  power- 
fnl  Idast  and  a  loni;er  milijerllon  to  the  hciit  Indixpen- 
Ml>le  to  ita  aucceHafuI  adoption.  I)(nnmncn  of  the 
esuaea  of  failure  operated  long  and  nerioualy,  liut  all 
difflcultlea  were  at  length  aurninunted.  An  enlarge- 
ment of  the  height  of  the  fnmace  prolonged  the  con- 
tact of  the  ore  and  coke,  and  at  InHt  the  iMnpIoyment 
of  the  ateam-englne  and  Improved  l>lnwing  apparatus 
rendered  the  Idoat  much  more  |)Owerful  and  regular, 
and  gave  that  im|ietua  to  the  manufacture  which  haa 
ciiiiawl  (ireat  llritain  to  take  the  (imt  mnk  in  thia 
branch  of  indu«try. 

The  drat  great  improvement  in  the  blowing  appiv 
ratua  waa  the  anlietitutlnn  of  large  cylindera,  with 
cbwely  lifting  piatonA,  for  the  bellowa.'  Tlio  enrlleat 
of  any  magnitude  were  probably  those  erecte<l  liy 
Smeaton  nt  the  (Barron  Iron-Worka,  in  1700.  In 
17H8-4,  Mr.  Tort,  of  Ooaport,  Introduced  the  proceaaoa 
of  pnddling  and  ndling,  two  of  the  most  in^portant  in- 
ventions connected  with  the  production  of  Iron  since 
'.;.  •  employment  of  tlio  blast  fumncn.  (See  Ad- 
ifetii^.i  A.)  About  this  time  the  im-eng^ne  of 
'  "^att  came  1'  ,  and  along  with  It  com- 

1  "'  ..  uew  era  In  .1  uistory  of  the  Iron  trade  and 
ever^  .jther  branch  of  Industry.  Its  Immense  power, 
economy,  and  convenience  of  application,  brought  It  at 
once  into  general  employment.  It  was  soon  applied  to 
pumping,  blowing,  and  rolling ;  it  enabled  the  mines 
to  be  sunk  to  a  greater  depth  ;  refractory  ores  to  be  re- 
duced with  facility,  and  the  processes  of  rolling,  forg- 
ing, etc.,  to  Iw  effected  with  a  rapidity  previously 
unknown.  Of  late  years  Scotland  has  made  consider- 
able progress  in  the  Iron  manufacture.  The  Introduc- 
tion of  railway  communication,  and  the  invention  of 
the  hot-blast,  have  given  a  stimalus  to  the  trade 
which  has  raised  Glasgow  into  Importance  as  an  Iron 
district,  and  few  towns  possess  greater  facilities  ftir 
the  sale  of  their  produce,  than  this  central  d6pAt  of 
the  mineral  treasures  of  the  conntry  by  which  it  is 
Durrounded. 

The  hot-bltit  process,  for  which  a  patent  was  taken 
ont  by  Mr.  Nelson  In  1824,  has  effected  an  entire  rev- 
olution to  the  iron  indutiy  of  Great  Britain,  and 


(hrma  theloot  em  In  the  hUlnry  of  till  m  '^Hol,  TUr 
simple  bill  effective  Invantliiii  has  ylx  an  sui  ii  farlilllaa 
fur  the  recluctlnn  of  rrfracliiry  nrr«  that  Iwtween  \hf*» 
and  ftinr  tiraea  the  quanlity  of  Iro.  --an  be  pn.|u< .  ,| 
weekly,  with  an  expendllnre  of  llitl.  iriore  than  one 
third  the  fuel  |  and,  ninnxiver,  the  ciml  doen  mil  re- 
ijulre  III  lie  coked,  or  the  ores  to  b«  calcined.  In  cnn. 
(dnsinn,  we  may  add  that  there  ii|i|iear  In  hnvi>  r  ng 
live  distinct  e|KH-ha  In  the  hiatorv  of  thn  Iron  Iriiilc 

'th»Jlrrt  dating  from  the  employirent  of  an  artlHilal 
bloat  til  accelerate  nimbuslion.  The  tntmtt  iiinrkril  by 
the  employment  nf  cuke  Air  reduction,  hImiiiI  the  tear 
liM),  The  ikini  dating  from  the  InlnidHctloti  nf  the 
■team-engine,  and  nn  account  of  the  fucllltlns  which 
'  'hat  invention  has  given  Air  raising  the  ores,  piiinpln|( 
I  tiie  mines,  anppiylng  the  furnace  with  a  copious  and 
regular  blast,  and  moving  the  |Hiwvrful  fiirge  and  ndl- 
Ing  machlner)',  we  imiy  safely  attribute  this  era  In  the 
genius  of  James  Watt.  'IheyiiNrt/k  epoch  la  liiillcatad 
by  the  Introduction  of  the  aystem  of  puddling  ami  nilU 
ing,  very  anon  after  the  einploymenl  of  thn  sli-iim* 
engine.  The  ,f{ffA,  ami  last — though  not  llie  least 
lm|iortant  epoch  In  the  history  of  tlila  manufatUure— la 
marked  by  the  application  of  the  hot-bloat — nn  inven- 
tion which  hoa  Increased  the  pnxluction  of  iMn  four- 
fnld,  and  has  enabled  the  inin-moater  to  smelt  other- 
wise useless  and  unreducible  ores ;  it  hoa  alMdlahril  the 
processes  of  coking  and  roasting,  and  haa  given  facili* 
Ilea  for  a  large  and  rapid  pro<iuction,  fur  lieyund  the 
most  sanguine  anticipations  of  Its  Inventor.  Manu- 
facturer* taking  advantage  of  so  powerful  an  agent, 
hove  not  hesitated  to  reduce  Improper  materials,  such 
as  dnder-heapa  and  Impure  ores,  and  by  unduly  has. 
tening  the  process,  and  attending  to  qiuntity  more 
than  to  (|uality,  hnvo  prmluced  an  inferior  description 
of  iron,  that  haa  lirought  the  Invention  Into  unmerited 
iiblo<|ny, 

Thf  Orrt. — The  ores  of  iron  are  fonnd  In  |iroriise 
abundance  in  every  latitude,  emlieddcd  In  or  strntltleii 
with  every  fiirmotlon.  They  occur  lioth  erystaliUcd, 
maasive,  and  arenaceous,  lying  deep  in  strata  of  vast 
extent,  Itlling  veins  and  faults  in  other  rucks,  and 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  gronnd.  Hometimes, 
but  rarely,  found  native ;  usually  ns  oxyds,  suiphurcts, 
or  corbonates,  more  or  less  mingled  with  other  suit- 
stances,  i  )t  these  ores  there  are  perhaps  twenty  vari- 
eties, many  of  which  are,  however,  rare ;  others  are 
combined  with  substances  which  unlit  them  for  the 
manufacture  of  iMn,  ao  thot  the  temoinder  may  lie 
classed  under  the  following  general  heoda ;  their  com- 
position, however,  varies  greatly : 

I,  The  magnetic  oxyds,  in  which  the  Iron  occurs, 
OS  Kej  ()  or  Ke2  Oj+Fo  O.  Thia  is  the  purest  ore 
which  Ik  .  iirked :  the  liest  Swedish  metal  is  niantiriic- 
tured  from  It.  It  is  found  in  primitive  rucks,  and  is 
widely  Hiifuaed  over  the  globe.  '->.  .Specular  iri'n  ore, 
peroxvit  of  Iron,  Kei  Oj.  This  Is  rich  and  valunble, 
and  has  been  workeil  from  a  remote  ontii|ulty  in  Kllia 
and  Npaiii.  It  is  fnunil  chicliy  in  primary  iiiiii  trnnsi- 
tlon  rocks.  8.  Ki'd  and  brown  hnmatltes,  liydratpil 
|i»Mxyd  of  Iron.  These  ores  occur  in  liotyroiilal  riidi- 
oting  mosses,  in  Cumberlaud,  Ireland,  America,  nnd 
"thcr  plucoB.  4.  ( 'arlionato  of  iron.  This  ore  occurs 
mixed  with  large  quantities  of  argillaceous,  carliim- 
oceiius,  ai>d  siliciiius  substances,  forming  the  large  de- 
posits nf  .:lay->ron-stoni<  and  blackbamis,  from  which 
miMt  >if  the  l^1n  of  this  country  la  obtained.  I'hese 
strata  re  g»>i«rally  found  in  close  proximity  to  the 
"Sl  measures.  .Ml  the  above  ores  are  more  or  Icsa 
saixed  wi'h  silica,  alumina,  oxyd  of  manganese,  etc., 
and  it  may  not  Ih'  uninteresting  to  glanco  at  their  geo- 
graphical distribution  in  Run  |ie  and  America. 

Tke  United  Kini/ilnm. — tireet  Hritoin  possesses  |)ecu- 
liar  and  remarkable  advanta^'es  for  the  manufacture  of 
Iron.  The  ores  are  found  m  exhoustlcss  abundance, 
usually  interstratllted  with  the  coal  for  their  reduction, 
and  in  ok»«  proximity  to  the  msuntain  Umeatune, 


llxias  hy  !• 


I'rotoxyd'., 
Poroiyd  of 
Oxyd  uf  uia 
Aluniloa.. 
Mairnesla. 

\Uma 

Il'otash.... 

Hoda 

Hulphnr . . , , 
Phosphoric  1, 
<'arbaiilo  aoi 

j»lUca ' 

Carbonacoou 
loae 

ToUI.. 


1101 


tbtM  •iMDlial  lV|l|I^^Pv*o*"  '*  "'"■'*'  abuniUnra,  nr 
•u  iicttr  t«^th»rai^^i  tka  mK-Mmty  r«<tlillH  fur 
•  ki^  tnd  |irt>liitahli>  priHlavthm.  Ihe  i^'Tm  prtiirU 
pally  i>)«pl».v»<l  ar<i  thi!  >  laY-tmnHotivii  anit  '  arljoiialva 
of  liUcklMiwIo,  whli  )i  »n  tuiuuX  tntamtiatilM  with 
t^  <'i>al  ftvlda  of  A.vr^hlrx,  l«<"iirk«liir>'  .Stirii|mliin>, 
IMritth  WalM,  uui  otlur  |«rt>,  awl  thi'  vii''\  lu  rich- 
HMD  lit  (lllhifmit  liiralltiM,  H<i^tvr>liii|{  ti>  p  Hi  n  tlA.I 
tha  amount  of  aillca,  ulay  and  iitlirr  ("<  'ttcr 

witli  whii'h  th«7  tr*  aMuelatvd.     't'ba  <  li'  "iit- 

poallliin  of  thrva  varlntWa  of  tha  (ira  li"'"!   m  I 
ihln  U  kIvi  .1  by  *'uli|ulu)un,  na  folluwii 


fratoa.mt  afteot.     . 

HiTlOH  

Alumina 

Umf 

'llMnvKia 

Part)xyd  of  Iruri 

nitiinilriima  matter.. 

Nlphiir         

Oiyd  urinaiiitanaao. 
UoUtura  a«a  loia.  . . 

•|Vi*l 


Nil.  1. 

N        1 

^  .  ;i. 

Aiim 

4J;l:i 

:.■■■« 

IIM7 

nam 

■  '•* 

1-40 

«'«! 

■,r. 

O'lW 

4'M 

SIM 

am 

177 

«■«) 

0118 

ll  'Ul 

1 

»M 

i  " 

tl 

OIM 

0 

(I'f 

(MX) 

Oi 

01X1 

141 

tM 

6i» 

llJOWt 

iiM 

'    <??*- 

Thr   riirliniiio  acid  In  the  above  orea  iiiiiy  hi>  par 
comlihi    '   with  tlie  limn  M  carlxmatn  nf  |in>K,  aa  wi 
ax  witli    ilie  (irotoxyil  of  irtm.      M.   Ilnrthicr  kWo- 
■i:i'ur4')i.  :  t»    Dr.    Ure,   the    following    it«tal,>'K|ii   nf 
the  l>:4igi    ll  Olid  Wvlih  Ironatnnea  of  the  «m»I  rooi> 
urea: 


MikWiUli 
(M. 

()r«. 

Dl«ll.v  Rkk 
lIMorbubMa. 

81 W 

TM 
68'M 

I'M 

iiaa  brlinlti  >n 

MolublareiliKiuu.. 

Porovilofiran 

Umo 

Sow 

8'40 
WOO 
0-00 

UT'OO 
I'M 

ToUI 

MM 

ftt'N           M'tt     1 

CaloalatinK  the  arouant  of  oarlionata  of  iron  and 
metulllo  Iron  iodkatwl  by  the  abov*  aaalyaea,  we 
have: 

4ll'4fi 


rOaV^nate  of  Iron.  581T~n       WW 

iMaUlilolron.....  4J16      |  _    Hl-M 


The  richneaa  of  tlie  abovu  Irunatonea  would  liii  about 


811  per  I'i'iit.  of  Iron 
cent,  of  the  0T«  U  < ! 
the  fullowing  aaau,> 
ore,  aa  under : 


In  thfl  proci'HS  of  roaatinKi  '<2H  |ier 
'^ipntcd.  Mr.  Mitt'hel  kIvca  ulao 
uf  clay-irunatune  und  bluckbund 


Ct»y  inin»toa«, 
UUrim,  In'luMl. 

VlviiU.idi;..V:- 
bonatB  (>•. 

ilO-IM4 

■741 

17W 

14074 

•MT 

-Sttl 

Trace. 

Trace. 

■098 

114 

14000 

ttnt 

10-940 
1'4S0 

lobooo 

I'rotoiyd  af  Iron 

Poioiyd  of  IroB 

Uxyd  of  Dianganaia 

Alumina 

Maicneala 

Uma 

I'otaih .. 

Boda 

Hnlphur ,, 

MilM 

8-744 

•»T« 

1'84» 

■9M 

•410 

•S74 

•«T» 

•S14 

'8M 

81-14K 

(040 

Phoaphorlo  aold ••••...* 

I^'arbonlo  aold •. 

SlUca 

Carbonaceous  matter 

Loaa 

[    a-iso    1 

Total 

100-000 

In  North  Lancasbtn  mnd  Cumberland,  the  red 
hainiatite  orei  are  now  extr  ii»ively  worked,  and  K'^t 
quantities  are  yearly  shipptv  from  Whitvbaven,  Ulver- 
Rtone,  etc.,  to  tHtatfordslilrtv  South  Wales,  and  Scot- 
land, for  mixing  with  the  poorer  argl'lueeoua  and 
blackband  orea.  In  Cumbvriand,  North  LaiiuaBblre, 
no  leas  than  646,098  tons  were  raised  in  1864  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  greater  portion  was  exported  from 
those  districts.  In  additloa  to  these  ezporta,  about 
2S,000  to  80,000  tons  an  amdtad  by  tha  hot  blast  at 
Cleator,  in  the  naighborhood  of  Whitehaven.  It 
prodacM  a  itrong  and  dacUle  iron,  eoniidered  Ugbljr 


valuaMa  (br  mlalni  with  the  waakar  Imnn      TtiaM 
oraa  have  liaen  carfully  analyivd,  and  oontuni  i 


I'rrnyd  nf  Iroi. . 

Hlllra 

Aluihliia 

I.lmt 

MainotU. 

WaUr 


•■■••f I ■!•••■•* 


.  ■« 

.  Iraaa, 
.IM« 


Total , 

Or  about  H  par  eant  of  mtlallla  Iran. 

Th<*  roll  ,winu  table  kIvm  lb»  '>tata  of  tha  trade  Is 

IH5U ,  (ha  particuian  are  extn  ii<d  from  the  Mining 

KncoPila,    pubiiah4-<4    uniler    i'   >   dlri'itlon  of  Mr.    U, 

'  Hir     III   roiitxoHion   with  il.ii  MuHiim  of  I'ractlral 

•Im,^  '    l^indon.     Tb<'       i«)rtiin(B  which  lirotlan4 

K-iu    I'd  In  rafereno'  to  the  Imn  iiianufaitura  It 

i:i\U    otrthy  of  ni-  ,ia  i 


j  ''nulanii: 

Nort      tib«rlanil,      Pur 
iuu,      114  Vo'kihlra.... 

iporfcy.    tra , 

'Laaaav    nM  mnbarlanit 

"rfhr' vt,(f» 

I'-hira. 

^^tanWra... 

WAi.aa: 
iitakira,  danbtgluhlro. 
'ruorcaaatdro. 

Annweito  dlltrlrt. 
lorgansUro  andMon- 
.uulnahlro 
Bituuilnii'us  diatrlct 

H*'OTL«NO.' 


>ii.- 


'.Ire.... 
■nttea. 


No.  of 
Woika. 


n 
1» 

IH 

4 


N'l.  of  I  Nit.  itf 
tunntftt  I  Kntmt 
.  trteUd.   In  tltMt. 


» 

1» 
10 


lot 

M 
ft 

too 

M 

T 

11 
DA 


41 
17 


iISs    "Tm 


95 

a 

IM 
B 

» 

91 

100 


CI) 
.J 
1« 


"mT 


T.i.l  |it„ 
.lo.'t  In  !..«*. 


I'iTAKI 
111,11011 
MT.IVId 
IV4,Mnil 
ll,V«il 


Iron 
of  An 
Iron  III 


I  ■«'t»nn  with  the  almve,  we  Inacrt  the  (bllow- 
-i>m  Mr.  Kenynn  IllackweU's  pa|>i:r  on  the 

iiry  of  firont  llritain,  read  licr<iro  the  (i'nli'ty 
It  kIvck  tlie  eatlmuted  production  uf  criida 
v.irioua  countries : 


Tiint. 
Oreat  lir       ..      .     .1,00«,U00 
Kranoci.  7ao,tH)0 

irnltvd  MMK        ..    TM.OOO 
I'ruaala....,,...       ,     800,000 

Auatria 900,000 

Hi'lKluni 900,000 

Ituaala 900,000 


Sweden 1AO,000 

Varlona  Oarman  I  !„„»«« 

HUlia f  '""'"*'' 

Other  countrioB. . . .  1100,000 

Total. e,WMI,a00 


In  referring;  to  the  abovv,  it  will  l>i<  aeon  that  Oreat 
Hrituin  priMliii'ca  as  much  crude  iron  ua  all  othur  coun- 
trlca  put  foncfher ;  and  ii  great  portion  of  Ihiit  iron 
lieing  converted  into  bara  and  platea,  indicutca  a  luri^a 
and  important  article  of  production.  An  urtiiio  of 
imuieriae  vuluii  to  thn  country — of  K'eut  duniund  at 
homo  und  abroud — und  Justly  entitled  not  only  to  Im- 
provemcnU  niil  economy  in  its  manufacture,  hut  to 
tlie  generous  aupgiort  of  a  liberal  und  un  oullghtvned 
government. 

Previously  to  IH^ir),  the  Imports  of  foreign  Iron  into 
Ureat  Uritiiin  uauully  varied  from  20,000  to  'i&.OOU  tons 
a  year.  Uut  ut  tliut  c|>ocli  tho  duties  on  foreign  iron 
(20s.  a  ton  on  iron  in  bars)  were  repealed ;  and  there 
haa  ainco  linen  un  inoreuae  in  the  imports  of  Swedish 
bar-Iron,  which  is  ea|>ecialiy  well  lUted  for  being  mada 
into  steel.  The  imports  of  »U  sorts  of  foreign  iron 
amounted,  in  IM'J,  to  29,ISII(i  tons,  whereof  2ri,0a0  torn 
were  from  Sweden. 

I'erliaps  in  nothing  haa  tlie  fall  of  price,  conae(|uont 
on  tho  diminution  of  the  cost  of  production,  tliiit  liu* 
tnkon  place  since  the  peace  of  1016,  been  mora  con- 
apicuuus  than  in  hardware.  At  an  average,  articlei 
of  Imrdware  are  at  present  (1H67)  full  &0  per  cent, 
lower  than  in  1820.  And  it  may  be  safely  afllrmod 
that  there  are  very  few  descriptions  of  articles  to  which 
a  fall  of  price  would  have  bem  m  advantageoiu. 


IRO 


1102 


IRO 


AooouKT  or  THi  DirmiNT  DntiRimoNB  or  lion  (inolddixo  rawiOKanr  SniL)  izroEnm  raau  mi 

KinODOM  DUKINO  1860,  SPKOirtINU  TUE  QUAMTITUB  SUIT  TO  TUl  UirrKHUT  COUHTSIIS.* 


Vnmm 


Coontrief  to  wbkll  Mportcd. 


Flf  Iron. 


Bolluid 
rod  Iron, 


Cut 

Iron. 


Iron 


WrooKht  Iron,  t1i. 


Anrhon  [ 
gfapiwU,  Hoop*. 
flic. 


-.  Old  bon 
Ul  all  oUi'    for  r>- 
er  loru  muiufRC- 
(■ic«pt        tun. 
orananeiO. 


Rnssla. 

Sweden 

Nonr»y 

Denmark 

I'riiMla 

Mecklenburg. 

Hanorer. 

Oldenburg 

Hnnscntie  Towns 

irolland 

Belgium 

riiannel  Islands 

France 

I'ortugal,  Aiores,  and  Mailelra. . . 

Spain  and  tbe  Canaries 

Gibraltar 

Italy 

Malta 

Ionian  Islands 

Qreece 

Turkish  dominions,  excluslro  of 
Walluchla,  Moldavia,  Syria,  Pal- 
estine, ami  E^vpt 

Wallaclila  and  Moldavia 

Syria  and  rulustine 

Egypt 

Afgerln 

Tunis 

Morocco 

Western  coast  of  Africa. 

Britisli  possessions  in  S.  Africa  . . 

Cape  Vord  Islcnds. 

St.  Helena  and  Astcnslon  Isis. . . . 

Mauritius 

Ili  itisli  territories  in  £a.st  Indies. 

lava. 

Philippine  Islands, 

Cbhia,  including  Hong  Kong.... 
KrltUii  settlements  in  Australia. . 

South  Sea  Islands 

Ilritish  North  Amer.  colonies 

Britisli  W.  Indies  and  Ur.  Guiana 

Foreign  West  Indies 

United  States  of  America 

Mexico 

Central  America. 

New  Granada 

VoneKHoIa 

Ecuoilor 

Brazil 

Oriental  republic  of  Uruguay. ... 

Buenos  Ayrcs 

rhill 

Pern 

Falkland  Islands 

Russian  settlements  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  America 

Total 


Ton*. 

819 

280 

1,460 

7,5T1 

10,9B9 

21 

1,898 

318 

T,870 

18,103 

23 

bl2 

11,T18 

887 

4,«41 

7,460 
8 


801 


70 


190- 


MO 
200 

S'io 
1.102 

10,894 

16 

269 

87,021 


4 

10 
],M0 


2S0 
fiO 


Toni. 

449 

463 

171 

2,263 

1,422 

284 

fi29 

278 

7,868 

8,786 

21 

592 

1,085 

4,649 

1,812 

8.11 

22,184 

1,996 

805 

1,081 

8,060 

1,608 
165 
879 
9.18 
282 
161 
2,745 
1,883 

"  "1 

617 

82,319 

1,9(6 

846 

603 

4,80.') 

IS 

45,893 

812 

6.475 

260,841 

1,731 

130 

1,065 

711 

65 

2,942 

14 

1,M6 

6,446 

840 


Tons. 
8 

"142 
422 

93 
114 
470 

69 

1,991 

417 

100 

42 

846 

2,282 

876 


160 

"i-ifl 

8,557 

653 
141 

16 


Tom. 

616 

410 

9S 


1,309 

681 

707 

168 

25 

6V8 

869 

8 

65 

29 

M 

12 

1,620 

282 

12 

2 

1,583 

255 

18 

f  •  •  • 

20 

14 

n 


[.... 


141,1172  '442,998 


80 


18 

'm 

407 
5 


62 

4,848 

a%3 

1,M1 

46,i 

200 

100 

7 

2,207 

85 

2iiS 

1,498 

888 

2,895 

27 

1,,'543 

487 

1,808 

1,400 

1,470 

19 

88 

2 

29 

12 

25 

49 

5 

147 

996 

28 

28 

479 

49 

804 

8 

124 

Torn. 

264 
8 
41 
40 
10 
IS 
27 


53 
88 

'"65 
20 
12 

1,295 
10 


Tuna. 

192 

08 

6S8 

675 

10< 

49 

7S 

8 

950 

811 

48 

227 

216 

200 

727 

107 

1,067 

163 

6 

206 

658 


67 
735 
187 
62 
15 
4*3 
8 

2,riS3 

1U2 

123 

12,882 

4 

4 

18 

2 

7 

729 

14 

160 

178 

87 


12 


82 
807 

(» 
180 


1,512 
1,821 

'"m 

476 

1,40S 

1,878 

00 

8,415 

142 

109 

146 

228 

297 
5 

120 
16 
5 
6 

449 

289 


100 

8,818 

140 

78 

191 

910 

2 

1,980 

878 

849 

7,.349 

200 

9 

23 

18 

"690 

24 

881 

141 

84 


Toiu. 

9 
0 
1 
T 
65 
1 
1 

"lit 
94 
0 

162 

0 

08 

41 

89 

83 

1 

1 

5 

215 

22 

1 
8 


26 
130 

■'"a 

258 

669 

66 

10 

13 

1,677 

8 

2,016 

1,112 

804 

697 

40 

23 

78 

60 

81 

430 

19 

106 

196 

62 


4,034  1 26,927  I  80,606  1    9,267      54,808  \  Itifi-S  \  10,692 


Torn. 

868 

7fi 

999 

84T 
949 
160 
344 
98 

6,201 

4,708 
120 
193 

1,080 
682 

1,020 
21 

2,3.34 

100 

10 

149 

758 

820 
26 

192 
61 
10 

"iflO 

069 

« 

4 

461 

8,i)78 

198 

212 

28 

1,606 

8 

0,854 

1,003 

752 

10,894 

82 

64 

00 

20 

14 

840 

67 

489 

412 

277 

7 


Turn. 

"io 


952 
6,665 


171 


1,183 
10 


25 


3 
7,079 


5 

100 


65 

"476 
» 
14 

0,825 
70 
17 
II 


26.436    21,092  | 
*  Cwts.  and  lbs.  are  omitted  in  this  table,  but  are  allowed  for  in  the  sninmlng  up. 


In  Ireland  there  are  vast  deposits  of  iron  ore  of 
great  richness,  though  as  yet  hut  little  worked.  Some 
of  these,  such  as  the  ores  worked  nt  the  Arigua  mines, 
and  the  Kidney  ores  of  Bnlcarry  Hay,  yiel(l  as  miicli 
as  70  per  cent,  of  iron.  If  these  mines  were  worked 
more  extensively,  and  if  jwut  fuel  were  used  in  the 
smelting  operations,  the  iron  would  probably  be  of  the 
very  best  quality,  and  might  rival  the  famed  .Swedish 
rharcoal  metal.  Of  this  there  is  now  every  reason  to 
hope,  as  the  establishment  of  railway  rommunication, 
with  almint  every  part  of  Ireland,  will  open  out  the 
immense  peat  bogs  of  that  countrj-,  and  facilitate  the 
introduction  of  vegetable  fuel  for  the  reduction  of  the 
ores,  and  create  a  large  and  important  addition  to  other 
branches  of  Irish  industry, 

France  possesses  an  abundant  supply  of  iron  ore, 
hut  on  account  of  the  scarcity  cf  coal,  the  manufac- 
ture has  been  greatly  restricted  in  extent.  The  intro- 
duction of  railway  communication  is,  however,  rapidly 
removing  this  difficulty,  and  the  operations  of  smelt- 
ing are  greatly  on  tho  increase.  The  railroad  has 
enabled  the  French  iron-master  to  substKute  coal  for 
charcoal  in  the  reduction  of  tho  iron  ores,  an<l  in  con- 
lequence  an  immeiue  increase  baa  taken  place  in  the 


production  of  pig  and  manufactured  iron.  Tlie  ores 
are  found  in  Iwds  or  strata  in  tlie  .Jura  range  ;  accu- 
mulated in  kidney-shaped  concretions  in  tlie  fissures 
of  the  limestone ;  or  dispersed  over  tho  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  hut  slightly  covered  with  8nn<l  or  clay. 
They  are  found  in  the  Departments  of  tho  Yonno,  tho 
Meuse,  ond  the  Moselle,  and  indeed  may  bo  traced 
from  the  Pas  de  Calais  on  the  north  to  tlio  iTura  on  tho 
south,  indicating  throughout  an  abundant  and  ample 
supply.  Tho  present  increased  production  of  iron  in 
France  is  chielly  due  to  the  introduction  of  coal  in 
smelting,  but  it  may  also  be  traced  in  some  measure 
to  the  encouragement  given  by  the  govcmmcMt  to 
that  branch  of  industry,  and  to  tho  enterprise  of  such 
men  as  M.  de  Gallois  and  M.  Dufrinoy,  who  have  ex- 
erted themselves  to  extend  its  manufacture  In  that 
country.  M.  do  Gallois  resided  in  Englaml  for  sev- 
eral years,  immediately  subsequent  to  the  peace  of 
IKlfi,  and  having  obtained  admission  into  tlie  dilVerent 
iron-works  here,  he  returned  to  France  and  establisiied 
the  works  at  St.  Ktienne,  now  probably  tlie  largest 
and  most  extensive  in  that  country.  The  universal 
exhibition  of  last  year  (1866)  fuUy  justilies  the  re- 
morka  in  reference  to  the  great  increaae  of  the  iToa 


IRO 


1108 


mo 


Ton*. 
5T« 

85 

214 

7 

'wit 

471 
BIS  ' 
16 
188 

4 
IIT 

8 
81> 

1 


6 

100  1 


65 

"476 
tl 
14 

6,825 
70 
17 
11 


40 

■"5 

6 


5rrio>M  I 


trade  of  France.  Any  perum  In  tlia  l«(lH  (lonvtmutt 
with  the  imperfect  iniu-'liinery  mill  prui'vitxwi  i/f  (Im  Irrm 
manufacture  aa  it  exluted  In  l'r«l|i'<i  miimh  ynHf*  iilnco, 
could  not  have  Iwen  otlierMfina  IhuM  'tfW'M  tfUlt  th«f 
improved  character  of  thow  •vuiiipllltMl  In  tll«  I'tttin 
Exhibition.  In  no  country  (prMlwIily  luit  tiMi'i^itinif 
even  thin)  has  no  );reat  priixreiw  Ihwi)  mmU  In  mi  nll'rH 
a  time,  in  advancing  from  a  iitut«  of  i'unt|writ(lv«  rMil«< 
ness  to  one  of  conaiileralila  \Mir(m'.t\im,  *#  in  l^rilNf'ff, 
The  production  of  crude  pltt'lron  III  I'raiM'w  l»  »M»w  IIU- 
tie  Hhort  of  1,000,000  ton*  annually,  Iim(  tItM  lUmmul 
for  railways,  rollinf{-atock,  liriiit{<w,  iriiii  itlil|M,  ((IrilAr*, 
and  other  conBtructiona  la  ao  ({'"''t  tlwit  lnrtjH  i|fintltl' 
tiea  of  iron  are  atill  annually  Importtul  fr'ilN  till)  ('"llfi' 
tiy. 

German  Iron  3fannftuiturei,~^1'tm  Uu'txHim  Irt  tllfl 
production  and  manufacture  of  Iron  In  OftntlMliy, 
within  the  last  few.yeara,  la  reiimkalili',  In  Vriinnklt 
Westphalia  alone,  no  Icaa  than  )li  niininijMn'1  nmpMiiif 
companies  have  been  forniad  aini'a  JN^^I'^  itf  (iMtn 
since  1854.  In  1863,  tliia  province  \m4iuwi  hill  I'llfA,' 
625  cwt.  pig  iron,  and  118,004  i^wt,  mot  \rim  wiiroj 
■while  in  1854  the  product  was  700,110  nwt,  fAn  iroti, 
and  333,061  cast  iron  ware  |  allowing  HH  IncroaaM  of  lit 
per  cent,  in  one  year,  in  IHBft  tlie  mm»  \iriiviiuti 
produced  1,613,039  cwt.  pig  Iron,  and  l,l'i<).««tft  cwt, 
liar  iron.  The  product  of  Iron  orn  ill  all  rrn»la  In 
1853,  was  1,490,610  tons,  and  In  185^,  tl,i-l4,l4«)  limn  t 
Increase,  til7,GB3  tons.  The  produi-'t  of  all  l||«  fur- 
naces in  the  liingdoiii  of  Saxony,  In  Wi'i,  WHn  tii>*,nti 
cwt. ;  in  1853, 170,037  cwt.  ilavaritt  proilMcwl  ill  ixtm, 
668,107  cwt.i  In  1853,  l,074,in7  iwt,  AuniriH,  Irt 
1830,  produced  1,437,830  cwt,  pig  iron,  aii4  l//l,0»r 
cwt.  cast  ironware  in  185-1,  4,)/>I,505  imi,  piji  itim, 
and  682,440  cwt.  cast  iron  ware,  'i'lia  prodllii  lit  nil 
the  furnaces  in  the  States  of  lliu  ^ollvvri'lo  WN<il  III 
1851,  4,612,102  cwt. ;  in  1852,  6,J37,8-,<i  I'Wt,  (  Irt  Wi», 
6,126,468  cwt.  J  In  1854,  7,601,470  «wt,  (  allowing  iiti 
increase  from  1861  to  1864,  of  (|(  pr  twiit,  At  (lii'i 
rate  of  increase,  tlia  production  of  Iron  will  aoort  c*- 
ceed  its  consumption  In  Germany,  Hut  littlA  mllr<Ki'1 
iron  is  now  imported  into  (jerinany,  Tlia  l'oll)rtg< 
mills  on  the  lower  Itliine,  In  lt«rllii,  and  irt  Nfl««la, 
supply  Prussia ;  the  rolliri|{-inill  of  'AviU'kim  liwH*  Hlf 
demand  of  Saxony,  and  tliut  of  ilurglvii|{Kiifli'lil  mip- 
plies  Bavaria.  Austria,  too,  is  aupplivd  liy  (UiMnofii 
mills.  German  rails  ara  more  <>i(pi<iiiiivtt  (lian  l^!)!^ 
glish,  but  are  also  said  to  lie  inoru  dnralila, 

In  regard  to  macliinery,  (ierniany  la  hI>o  malting 
rapid  progress,  and  alreaily  outatrlpa  F.nglaild  ill  (llf 
building  of  locomotivea.  Not  a  aiiiglii  lot  (iiiMiilvn  Ik 
now  sent  from  Knglaml  tn  (iuriiiHliy  on  (iwfrtlMrt  Ac- 
count, while  numbers  of  them  ara  aailt  from  livrillNiiy 
to  France  and  Switzerland.  JCKtonalvw  lroii--f»iiiHl«<(1cK 
and  machine-shops  are  to  lie  found  ill  llvrlin,  Vli'lilin, 
Slunich,  Augsburg,  ICaalingun,  t.'ai'UrulMi,  MH'iiu 
Chnpelle,  Itubrort,  llanovur,  cli',  1,'p  fi  ilaililitfy  I, 
1854,  one  cstalilishment  in  Iturllil  liuti  aloiiu  torrti'd 
out  500  locomotives,  and  ilUlO  liayii  Ihikii  UlliU  In  all  In 
Germany  since  1841.  (jcrnian  cutlury  la  lllicwiiMi 
beginning  to  compete  with  the  i'Uigliali,  u>|M«<|ally  Irt 
the  West  India  and  South  Aiimrlcaii  iiiarki'ii,  'll»« 
sugar  plantations  of  tha  Went  Indi*',  hIiI'  ll  (nrmi'tif 
obtained  their  harvesting  linpluincnM  fioiii  I'.rt^lnii'l, 
now  import  them  direct  from  (iuriiiaiiy, 

Prussia. — Valuable  deposit*  of  tliu  l/lacMMrt/l  'irtd 
clay  carbonate  ores  ara  found  int'^mtratlliwl  wiili  iliii 
great  coal-field  of  Uuhr ;  and  the  liog-lrort  and  liifirta- 
tl^-e  ores  are  found  in  conaiderablu  profuaUin  In  llli^rt- 
ish  Prussia  and  otiier  parts.  In  l'p|i«r  Nilsala,  on  tho 
Vintula  and  the  Oder,  largo  dujiosiU  of  mhiI  and  ifoli 
are  found  in  ]uxta[iusltloi),  and  ara  workwi  Ui  n  i^oii^ 
biderable  extent. 

The  consumption  of  Iron  Is  not  «o  great  «a  In  Vrittii'i; 
tiiough  it  is  increasing  rapidly,  as  iiiuy  |w  iiiii<rt  ftofli 
returns  recently  given  by  tlia  Uritiali  t.'liargiJ  d'Af- 
fairw  at  Berlin.    TliaM  rttuiriM  alww  (Im(  IIm  UNH/Wflt 


of  Iron  ora  raited  tn  Prussia  has  increased  from  1,495,. 
5M  tons  in  1863,  to  2,144,509  tons  in  1854 ;  this  has 
taken  place  In  nearly  all  the  producing  districts,  but 
clilelly  on  the  Khine,  where  the  demand  has  increased 
ftfiin  71(>,«8I  to  1,()68,G60  tons;  in  Westphalia,  from 
140,320  to  830,014  tons ;  in  Silesia,  from  663,739  to 
050,(Mi9  tons ;  In  lower  Saxony  and  Thuringia,  from 
51,963  to  70,076  tons  ;  in  Prussian  Brandenburg,  from 
H,IM  to  12,731  tons;  and  in  the  Upper  ZoUvereui 
from  K,730  to  12,063  tons. 

In  Auntrlu,  all  the  iron  is  smelted  with  charcoal  or 
cnrlamlxed  neat,  and  is,  in  consequence,  of  the  finest 
((llallty  ;  I*  may  bo  ai>|>licd  to  every  description  of 
manufuctLr. ,  '  mm  the  most  ductile  wire  to  the  Imrdest 
steel,  Ti  ;  'vluction  Is,  however,  small.  Tlie  ores 
are  font  u  jii  llungarj',  Styrio,  Moravia,  and  Upper 
WIesla. 

In  Ui'lyium,  both  coal  and  iron  are  found  in  equal 
nlinnilnnce,  and  are  worked  at  Charleroi,  Liege,  and  at 
otlicr  places.  The  ores,  which  are  chiefly  hromatite, 
are  derived  from  the  limestone  at  the  base  of  the  coal 
measures. 

The  siijierlorlty  of  the  Swedish  iron  has  long  been 
acknowledged,  and  till  recently  it  has  been  unrivaled. 
Tills  arises  not  only  from  the  purity  of  the  ore — the 
magnetic  nxyd  of  iron — but  in  consequence  of  its 
Ireing  smelted  with  charcoal  only.  The  quantity  is, 
however,  restricted,  as  the  iron-masters  are  allowed  by 
law  only  a  certain  number  of  trees  per  annum,  in  or- 
der that  the  forests  may  not  be  totally  destroyed. 
i'jimX  doe.i  not  exist  in  either  Sweden  or  Norway. 

In  1814  some  experimental  researches  were  under- 
taken by  Mr.  Kairliairn  of  Manchester,  at  the  request 
of  tlio  Siildiine  I'orte,  in  regard  to  the  properties  of 
Iron  made  from  the  ores  of  Samakoff  in  Turkey.  The 
ores  were  strongi}'  magnetic,  and  contained,  according 
t-o  hiitnns  anil  others,  C2  to  64  per  cent,  of  iron.  They 
consisted  of : 

0(,e  atom  Iron    2f  +  one  atom  oxygen        8  =  I!6 
T«o  atoios  Iron  56  +  three  atoms  oxygen  24  =  SO 

Iron....  H4  Oxygen 82     116 

Home  of  these  ores  have  been  smelted  with  char- 
coal, and  some  very  fine  siwcimens  of  iron  and  steel 
priHiiiced.  'i'lie  manufacture  is,  however,  in  a  langnid 
stiite  in  Turkey,  and  although  smelting  furnaces, 
blowing  apparatus,  forges,  rolling  mills,  etc.,  were 
(ifcpared  and  sent  out  from  this  couniry,  they  are  to  a 
great  extent  useless  among  a  people  wlio  have  deeply 
roofed  prejii(li(cs  and  Imliltual  inactivity  to  overcome, 
and  every  thing  to  learn  in  all  tliose  liubits  of  industry 
which  liiiiicate  tlie  rising  prosperity  of  un  energetic 
and  an  act'fvr  ).co|ile. 

Amiriiit. — Uoth  the  magnetic,  hscmatito,  and  clay- 
Ifotisfones  abound  in  tlie  United  States,  The  nuig- 
lictic  ores  worked  in  New  Kngland,  New  York,  and 
New  .Jersey ;  tiie  ha'inatito  in  I'ennsylvania,  New 
Vork,  New  .lerscy,  and  otiier  localities ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  manufacture  must  eventually  establish 
itself  In  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  west  of  tlie 
Alleghany  range,  where  vast  deposits  of  coal  and  iron 
exist,  though  lit  present  but  imperfectly  known  or 
developed.  The  ores  in  most  of  these  districts  ore 
smelted  with  a  mixture  of  charcoal  and  anthracite, 
and  the  iisiihI  liiiicslone  lliix,  and  produce  a  very  ex- 
cellent (juality  of  iron,  in  another  portion  of  this  arti- 
cle (see  p.  IKii'i)  a  full  account  of  the  iron  ores  of  the 
United  States  is  given. 

In  Nova  Scotia  some  of  the  richest  ores  yet  discov- 
ered (recur  in  exhatistless  abundancb.  The  iron  manu- 
factured from  tlicm  is  of  tlio  very  best  quality,  and  is 
minal  to  the  linest  Swedish  metal.  The  specular  nro 
of  llie  Acadian  mines.  Novo  Scotia,  is  said  by  Dr.  I  re 
III  he  a  nearly  pure  pcroxyd  of  iron,  containing  99  per 
cent,  of  the  |ieroxyd,  and  about  70  per  cent,  of  iron. 
When  smelted,  100  parts  yield  75  of  iron,  the  increase 
Iti  weight  being  duo  to  combined  carbon.    The  rod 


mo 


1104 


nto 


on  Dr.  Ure  state*  to  be  analogons  to  the  kidney  ore 
of  Cumberland,  and  to  contain : 

S-0 


Peroxyd ot Iron 8S8 

BlUea S'S 


Water. 


6-0 


78 


"■  100-0  lOO-O 

"  Tbe  Acadian  ores  are  situated  in  the  neighborhood 
of  large  tracts  of  forests,  capable  of  supplying  almost 
any  quantity  of  charcoal  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
laperior  qualities  of  iron  and  steel.  Several  speci- 
mens of  iron  from  these  mines  have  been  submitted 
to  direct  experiment,  and  the  results  prove  its  high 
powers  of  resistance  to  strain,  ductility,  and  adapta- 
tion to  all  those  processes  by  which  the  finest  descrip- 
tion of  wire  and  steel  are  manufactured.  The  difficul- 
ties which  the  government  have  hud  to  encounter, 
during  the  lost  two  years,  in  obtaining  a  sufficiently 
strong  metal  for  artillsr}-,  are  lilcely  to  be  removed  by 
the  use  of  the  Acadian  pig-iron.  Large  'quantities 
have  been  purchased  by  the  War  Office,  and  experi- 
ments are  now  in  progress,  under  the  direction  of  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Wilmot,  Inspector  of  Artillery,  and  of 
Mr.  Fairbaim,  which  seeoi  calculated  to  establish  the 
superiority  of  this  metal  for  casting  every  description 
of  heavy  ordnancd.  There  are  also  some  verj'  rich 
ores  at  the  Xictau  mines,  as  the  following  analyses  by 
Dr.  Jaclison  show.  They  contain  impressions  of  SIl- 
nrian  tentaciilites,  spirifers,  etc. : 


Peroxyd  of  Iron 

BlUca 

Carbonate  of  Ume 

Carbonate  of  magnesia . 

Alumina 

Oxyd  of  msngsnese . . . . 
Water 


*  Oftia  from  oiTff n, 
"        mn,  p 
earboiutcuflliii 


Brown  Ore, 
■onuwhat 
mayiwlk. 


70'20 

14-40 

B-60 

2'SO 

6-90 

■40 

-00 


100'2O 
■20* 


10000 


M-40 
19-20 
B-40 
8-20 
1-20 
4-40 
2-40 


100-20 

■m 


100-00 


As  our  limits  are  circumscribed,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  extend  this  section  furtlier ;  suffice  it  there- 
fore to  observe,  that  in  all  countries  nature  has,  with 
a  beneficent  purpose,  interlaid  and  interstratifled  the 
whole  surface  of  the  globe  with  this  useful  and  indis- 
pensable material,  and  it  would  ill  bcspealc  that  high 
intelligence  with  which  man  is  endowed  if  ho  did  not 
avail  himself  of,  and  turn  to  good  account,  the  im- 
mense stores  of  mineral  treasures  which  are  so  pro- 
fusely laid  at  his  feet. 

Fuel. — The  inquiry  into  the  properties  and  compo- 
sition of  the  ores  of  iron,  and  the  processes  emploj'ed 
for  their  reduction  and  subsequent  conversion  into 
bars  and  plates,  would  be  incomplete  unless  accom- 
panied by  descriptive  analyses  of  the  fuel  by  which 
they  are  fused.  Indeed  the  results  of  the  operations 
of  smelting,  puddling,  etc.,  are  so  intimately  depend- 
ent on  the  quality  of  the  fuel  employed,  as  to  render  a 
knowledge  of  its  constituents  essential  to  the  manu- 
facture of  good  iron. 

Charcoal  was  at  first  universally  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  and  on  account  of  its  purity  com- 
pared with  other  kinds  of  fuel,  and  its  strong  chemical 
affinities  and  consequent  high  combustibility,  it  Is  of 
Terj-  superior  value  where  it  can  bo  olitained  in  large 
quantities  at  a  moderate  cost.  This,  however,  is  rare- 
ly the  case,  and  hence  its  use  is  restricted  within  very 
narrow  limits  in  most  countries.  Charcoal  is  the 
result  of  several  processes,  in  each  of  which  the  ob- 
ject is  to  increase  the  amount  of  fuel  in  a  given  bulk. 
The  wood  l)eiiig  cut  into  convenient  lengths,  and  piled 
closely  together,  in  a  large  heap,  the  interstices  l)eing 
filled  with  the  smaller  branches,  and  the  whole  cov- 
ered with  wet  charcoal  powder,  is  then  set  on  fire. 
Care  Is  taken  that  only  sufficient  air  la  admitted  to 
consume  the  gaseous  products  of  the  wood,  so  aa  to 
maintain  the  Uglt  tMnpentnn  trithont  needleialy  con- 


imming  tbe  carbon.  Aftar  the  whole  of  the  gaseous 
products  have  been  separated,  and  the  carbon  and 
salts  only  are  left,  the  access  of  air  is  prevented,  and 
the  heap  allowed  to  cool. 

Another  and  better  process  is  to  throw  the  wood 
into  a  large  close  oven  or  furnace,  heated  either  by  the 
combustion  within  it,  or  by  a  separata  fire  conducted 
in  fiues  around  it.  By  this  process,  not  only  is  the 
yield  greater  and  of  bistter  quality,  from  tbe  slower 
progress  of  the  operation,  but  the  products  of  the  dis- 
tillation may  b^  preserved  and  employed  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes.  The  following  results  of  some 
experiments  l)v  Karsten,  show  the  dift'erence  in  yield 
of  very  rapid  and  very  slow  processes : 


Toung  oak . 
Old  oak  ... . 
Tonngdeal. 
Old  deal.... 
Young  fir... 

Old  fir 

Mean.. 


Charcual  producetl  by     Chari-oal  nrotluced  by 
quick  c  arbonliallon.    \    ilgir  farponlmlon. 


1654 
15-91 
142S 
14-06 
16-22 
15-85 


15-88 


25-CO 
25-71 
25-25 
2500 
27-72 
24-75 


26-67 


These,  on  the  average,  give  for  the  quick  processes 
16-8,  and  for  the  slow  2d-C,  being  in  the  ratio  of  % ; 
1-67,  or  0-fi7  in  favor  of  the  quick  process. 

Peat — This  material  seems  likely  to  corns  into  use 
for  smelting  iron  in  countries  such  as  Ireland,  where 
neither  coal  nor  wood  ara  found  in  abundance.  It  is 
purer  and  less  objectionable  than  coal,  and  if  properly 
dried,  compressed,  and  carbonized,  would  prove  a  very 
valuable  fuel  for  the  reduction  of  such  ores  as  wo  have 
already  described  in  the  section  on  the  iron  ores  of  Ire- 
land. It  is  carbonized  in  the  same  way  as  the  char- 
ring of  wood. 

Coke, — Uefore  the  introduction  of  the  hot-blast,  thi.? 
material  was  used  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  ;  it  is  prepared  from  coal  in  the  same 
way  tliat  charcoal  is  prepared  from  wood,  the  opera- 
tion being  called  the  coking  or  desulphurizing  process. 
The  heaps  do  not  require  so  careful  a  regulation  of  tlie 
admission  of  air  as  those  of  charcoal,  on  account  of 
the  comparatively  incombustible  character  of  the  cuke. 
Sometimes  the  heaps  ore  made  I  irge,  with  perforated 
brick  chimnies,  to  increase  the  ilraught  through  the 
mounds  ;  at  other  times  they  are  formed  into  smaller 
heaps,  and  the  conversion  takes  place  without  the  in- 
tervention of  fiues.  The  more  usual  and  economical 
plan  is,  however,  the  employment  of  close  ovens,  by 
which  process  a  great  saving  is  effected,  the  yield 
being  from  30  to  &0  per  cent,  in  the  one  cose,  and  from 
60  to  75  in  the  other,  according  to  the  nature  and  qual- 
ity of  the  coal. 

The  following  table  of  the  heating  powf  r  of  various 
kinds  of  fuel,  from  Knapp's  Chemical  Tecbnology,  is 
not  without  interest ;  in  practice,  however,  only  a 
portion  of  the  absolute  heating  power  is  made  avail- 
able: 


Fotl. 

AoUiorily. 

Ponndiofwalpr 
biatcd  from  0" 
to  too*  c«-ii(if{. 
by  1  lb.  of  rui-1. 

Cbarcoal,  Arorago 

Bertbler. . 
[orlfflth.- 

68-fl 
62-7 
66-6 
2S-0 
60-7 
5^-9 
66-6 
64-3 
BS-9 
BO-8 
611 
61-6 
B6-4 
58-2 
71-6 
BO-8 
69-1 
67-4 

Peat  from  Allcnin  Ireland,  Upper 

"           "              "            Lower 

Pressed 

"     Kramont  *  Champ  do  Feu 
Coke,  Rt  Ktlenne 

Bertii'tor.. 

{•Bertbler- 

Bertbler.. 
■*                f 

Bertbler 

• 
•Bor'  ler 

"      Bossegos 

"     Klvo  do  Olor 

Cosl,  brown,  mean  of  7  varieties. . 
**    cannel,  WlffsD 

'*    cborry,  Dorbysblro 

"        "       Lancasbiro 

*'    Durham 

Qos  coke,  Paris 

"         mean  of  6  varieties... 

Coal. — The  hot-blast  aas  enabled  the  iron-masters  to 
ue  t$M  coal  in  the  blaat  foniMMt,  the  great  heat  of 


Derby] 


Malleal 
of  WTOUgl 
ders  an  'j 
esting, 
cast  iron  ; 
nearly  twi 
™«ny  cast 
lightness 
"  *speciali 
"c.^s  is  not 
"f  rigidity 
'ubular  or 
"le  constr 
ficsms,  one 
'ron  wliich 
«f construe 
■"",  and  ce 
'imit  of  its 
'hat  degree 
«nbject  den 
■"ill  we  deri 

•""ttile,  and 
"s  consider! 
brittle,  and 
««e  cast-iroi 
«own,that 


ma 


iios 


no 


ade  avail- 


toondiot"'!" 
Ib.tled  from  ()■ 

I  to  \00«  "«y*; 
■by  I  lb.  ot (ml.  1 

02 -T 
»i 
2S-0 

BO  7 

R8  9 

6B-6 

G4-3 

5S-9 

Bfl-8 

641 

61  ■« 

&64 

MS 

71  ■« 

KO'S 

69'1 

6T4 


the  Moradlatr  eamnt  of  the  prodnoto  of  eomboatloii 
coking  11  u  U  falU  In  the  ftirnuco.  The  snlphnr  bow- 
ever,  and  other  deleterious  ingredients,  do  not  appear 
to  be  so  completely  got  rid  of  as  when  the  cool  is  used 
in  the  shapo  oi'  coke;  nnd  it  appears  probable,  that 
even  with  the  hot-blast,  the  separate  process  of  coking 


might  b«  •drMttuMoiMt)'  vnd,  m  MMtal  «f  tlw 

greater  purltv  of  tba  \mn  yriAumH. 

The  foUowtng  tobbis,  imktM  (tim  vwlotu  son/ces, 
give  the  coropoaltbm  vf  tli«  UKutnt  kiwis  of  fuel, 
all  of  wblob  are  appUcubl*  to  tiM  r«dH«tioti  ami  fasUm 
of  the  iron  oraa  i 


Splint  Ck>aL. 


(Janneleod. 

U 

Cherry  eosl. 
Caking  coal. 


Newcastle,  Wylam. 
OUagow 


Lancashire,  WIgsn 

Edinburg  (parrot  coal,). 


Anthracite. , 


Peat. 


Loulltj'. 


Newcastle,  Jarrow 

Glasgow 

Noweastle,  Oaresflold . . . 
Durham,  South  Hetton. 


Swansea. 


Sooth  Wales.. 
Pennsylvania. 


MassachnsotU,  Worcester. 


Vulcalre 

Long. 

CbaihpdaFeu. 

Gappage 

Kllbeggan 

Kllbakan 


Speciflo 
frtvlly. 


i-no 

1-S66 

1-aos 

180T 

1'819 
1-318 

i-ies 

1-26S 
I'M* 
l-iSO 
l-iU 
1269 


1-848 
l-STO 


1-461 


Cvbov.    I  llydrefts. 


~fSW 

70-90 

T4-8SS 

S%9U 

64-7S 

72-M 

88-7l» 

67-WT 

74-48 

84'84« 

81 -SOS 

87-tfiS 

88-874 

76-28 


»2'fi6 
tO-ES 
94-05 
90-45 
94-89 
28-86 


6708 
68-09 
67-79 
61-05 
61-04 
61-13 


«•« 
4-M 
6-180 
6-491 

31-66 
8-98 
6660 
6-400 

19-40 
6-048 
5469 
6-98* 
6171 
4-18 


2-880 
9-600 
8-880 
9-480 
2-660 
0-990 


6-680 

0460 

6-110 

6-85 

667 


"ir/K;. 


'|im4 


u^ 
turn 

10'4« 
IS-Tg 

9a«ff 

wm 

1«'I6 
8-480 

U-99* 
5-416 

f><m 

J0*4 

'4m 

4-IW 
9-670 


Sl-TdO 

8HT0 

80-770 

Bt-60 

80-44 

84-48 


AAnktm 


t'lili 


d-MA 
U'fiM 

V'JM 

>'6I» 

_4«I» 

f-TM 


fiik 
m 


tlldbardsoii, 

'fhOHlMMl, 

(Its, 

Itlsbsrdsoii, 

Thmtimu. 

Bl«h«f(]saii, 

TfumiKofl, 


IReintstilL 

AIMHSlfH. 

OvMtnan. 

]t«|flUMl& 

[otentMti. 


[li»gfl*«1L 
Vr,  Km*. 


According  to  Knapp,  peat  contains  firom  1  to  83  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  of  ash.  In  coal  we  have  the  follow- 
ing ft-om  Mr.  Mushet's  analyses ; 


Speelle 
jr.vlly. 

Carbon. 

iUhal. 

VollUla 
mtUcr. 

Welsh  fhrnaceceal.... 

U                       1,                    "        ,  ,  .  , 

"     slaty       "    ':'.'.'. 
Derbyshire  ftarnace  coal 
cannol    " 

1-887 
1-893 
1-409 
1-964 
1-278 

88-068 
89-709 
82-175 
52-882 
48-862 

8-488 
2-800 
6-725 
4-288 
4-688 

8-800 

8-000 

9-100 

42-830 

47-000 

And  again  the  analyses,  from  Overman,  of  the  ash 
of  coal,  may  be  quoted,  as  showing  the  constituents 
contained  in  the  ashes  derived  from  combustion : 


Snipbste  of  lime 80-8 

time 3-8 

Sllex 14-2 

Ctj-doflron ' 1-7 

Alumina 0-0 


Total.. 


100-0 


3-6 
"-6 

^•7 
0-0 
8-2 

100^ 


^fdlkdb^«  Iron. — The  greatly  extended  application 
of  -wrought  iron  to  every  variety  of  construction  ren- 
ders an  investigation  of  its  properties  pecnliftrly  inter- 
esting. It  is  now  employed  more  extensively  than 
cast  iron ;  and  on  account  of  Its  ductility  and  strength 
nearly  two  thirds  of  the  weight  of  material  may  in 
many  cases  be  saved  by  its  employment,  while  great 
lightness  and  durability  are  secured.  Its  superiority 
is  especially  evident  in  constructions  where  great  stitf- 
ncKs  is  not  required,  but  on  the  other  hand  any  degree 
of  rigidity  may  \ie  obtained  by  the  employment  of  a 
tubular  or  cellular  structure,  and  this  may  be  seen  in 
the  construction  of  wrought  iron  tubular  bridges, 
beams,  and  iron  shops.  The  material  of  malleable 
Iron  which  is  making  such  vast  changes  in  the  forms 
of  construction,  can  not  bnt  be  interesting  and  imiwrt- 
ant,  and  considering  that  the  present  is  fur  from  the 
limit  of  its  application,  we  shall  endeavor  to  give  it 
that  degree  of  attention  which  the  Importance  of  the 
subject  demands.  From  the  forge  and  the  rolling- 
mill  we  derive  two  distinct  qualities  of  iron,  known  as 
"rti-shoH"  and  "  cold-thori."  The  former  is  the  most 
ductile,  and  is  a  tough,  fibrous  material,  which  exhib- 
its considerable  strength  when  cold ;  the  latter  Is  more 
brittle,  and  bus  a  highly  crystalline  fracture  almost 
like  cast-iron ;  but  the  fact  is  probably  not  generally 
known,  that  the  brittle  work*  as  w«U,  and  ia  m  ductile 
4A 


under  the  baromar,  as  tba  otb«r,  wb«fl  »i  •  Mgh  tan- 
perature. 

United  Siaiei,— Iron  was  first  tHii4«  In  America  In  the 
province  of  Virginia,  abowt  tfia  ys«f  1716,  and  the  ex- 
ample was  quickly  followed  by  lh«  iffifvlnt'es  of  Mary, 
land  and  Pennsylvania,  Thin  o(»»m{fltf  lit «  new  source 
of  wealth  waa  a  subject  of  iftmi  diltbifiMiibrtl  and  Im- 
portance to  those  who  were  tHt«rc»t«4  In  tb«  pfospetity 
of  the  colonies,  presenting  to  tlwir  vlow,  at  no  distant 
date,  a  prospect  of  huUiieHiliitivii  lit  fiir«l|(n  countries 
for  the  supplies  of  tboie  niont  smwHtial  aiiicles,  Iron 
and  timber, 

EzFOKTS  or  laoH  raoM  THK  ^ml^mAtl  Pl.jkMtAtlo«s. 


Ytftri. 

1717, 1718  together ,,, 

1799— 1786,  average,,,,,,, 
1789—1748       "       ,,,,,,, 

1760-1765       "       , 

1761-1776       »       

m 

InroKTs  or  Imm, 

Twin. 

1711— 171S,  svarsga ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

1729—1788       "       ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, 

No  further  rotums  wsrn  pHliltitlisii, 

ft*M. 

9,819 

In  1810,  Mr.  GalUthi,  til*  Hsiwtsry  iit  the  Tfeaa- 
ur}-  of  the  United  States,  |)rttii)<ii(««t  td  Vmgftti  a  re> 
port  on  the  manufactures,  in  wltkli,  mmmK  many  other 
branches,  iron,  and  the  nmnufitt'tur#it  of  Ifdli,  are  men' 
tioned  as  being  flrnily  estitlilUllMt,  SMIiplyill^t,  In  sere* 
ral  instances,  the  greater,  aiiif  In  «I1,  a  i«>nsld«ral)}e 
portion  of  the  conBuinptimi  of  tlia  riiitfil  Ntat«ii, 

"  The  furnaces,  forges,  aiul  bltioiMfrltiit  of  the  United 
States,  amount  to  fiiiO,  of  wliiiiji  tiM  Ht<*t«  of  New  York 
furnishes  69.  The  annual  value  of  Inm  and  lt<t  innnu- 
fuctures  is  estimated  at  412,(100,0(111  iir  f  lfi,UOU,MOO. 
The  average  value  of  impurtml  liictal,  In  Imf'irtm  and 
steel,  at  $1,00(),000.  The  I'riinwtnl*  Iron  Works,  In 
New  Hampshire,  establisbad  In  IMIO,  mtphy  a  vatdtal 
of  $100,000.  The  Vergeniias  Iron  Wdrha,  In  Ver- 
mont, promise  to  be  very  lni|)ort«nt,  TIm  price  of 
bar-iron  ut  this  establishment  i<i  f  140  \m  Ion,  the  ore 
$8,  charcoal  f  4  60  per  lUU  biisl)«<ls  |  ID,(NN)  muskets 
are  annually  mads  at  tlls  two  tiubllit  armorlea  of 
Springfield  and  Harper's  If'srry,  Tlitir«  Is  now  «  coti- 
siderable  surplus  of  small  arms," 

Some  of  the  ores  of  iron  ara  fuun4  In  avmr  tUtU  In 
the  Union ;  and,  about  the  iwrbid  uf  Mr,  (laflatln's  rii> 
port,  mines  of  this  metal  war*  workad  In  Mew  llamp* 
shire,  Vermont,  Bboda  btond,  }l«w  Yerk,  CMiii««ti> 


mo 


1108 


mo 


cat,  New  Jemy,  FtmuylymnU,  VlrglnU,  and  Korth 

CftfolilM. 

According  to  tha  >■  Stetlstlcal  AnnaU  of  the  United 
Statu,"  by  Adam  8«ybert,  founded  on  official  docu- 
mcntt,  tlie  mannfactura  of  iron  in  tlie  year  1810  «a« 
aa  fallows :  168  furnaces,  making  5»,908  tons  of  iron ; 
880  forges,  maldng  24,(41  tons  of  bar-iron  ;  816  trip- 
hammers ;  84  rolling  and  slitting-mills,  which  re- 
quired 6500  tons  of  iron  ;  410  nailiries,  ia  which  16,- 
727,914  lbs.  of  nails  had  been  made.  Blanufacture  of 
iron,  value,  914,864,526. 

From  abstracts  of  reliable  statements  it  appears 
that  the  whole  quantity  of  iron  mude  in  the  year  1830, 
computed  in  pig-iron,  amounted  to  191,686  tons,  pro- 
duced from  289  fhmaces,  two  fifths  of  which  ware 
made  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  average  quantity  of  hammered  iron  imported 
from  1821  to  1880,  was  alwut  26,200  tons,  and  of  rolled 
iron  about  5600  tons,  making  together  81,800  tons, 
rained  at  91,762,000.  The  whole  quantity  of  ham- 
met«<l  and  rolled  iron  consumed  in  the  United  States 
in  1830,  may  be  estimated  at  about  144,666  tons. 

The  value  of  the  various  foreign  manufactures  of 
iron  consumed,  on  an  average,  f^om  1821  to  1830,  was 
about  94,000,000,  making  the  whole  amount  of  foreign 
iron  and  its  manufactures  annually  con»umed,  about 
95,762,000. 

Iron  Manufacture  of  the  United  Statu  m  1860,/rom 
tJie  "  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  seventh  Centut, " 
minted  bg  order  of  the  Iloute  of  Rtpretenlativei. — Pio- 
IBON. — Number  of  establishments  in  operation,  377, 
Capital  invested,  917,346,425.  Materials  used,  and 
value. 

Ore. tons    1,6T»,809  » 

Coal "         «4S,«4i  V  »T,OOS,M» 

Coke  and  charcoal. . .  .bushels  M,165,88< ) 
Number  of  persons  employed,  20,448.    Average  wagea 
per  month,  920  76.    Fig-iron  made,  664,755  tons ; 
value,  912,748,777. 


C  Aarnot,^)! MmtMV  «r  «fi(«MMHH«fiitfi  hi  npenlloa, 
18*1.  Capitol  (A«r(a*tMl,li47^l«^l,  Materials  oaed, 
and  valua, 


PUIkhi, 

oia 

On, 

Coal 

Co^iamdimiiim 


.'lOTW 


I n 1 1  III 

1 1 It  t 111 


Numbar  of  p«r»«»»  fm^fi^,  i%tm.  Average  wages 
per  month,  ^il  AV,     CiHihtU  MMt«,  822,745  tons: 

valua,  ^ii,m,m, 

Wboiiohx-»w»W,-  Vumimt  ttf  ««<«MlshnMnts  in  op- 
aration,  4^,  e»\M»i  i*t*mU)4, 114^96,320.  Materi- 
als us«d,  iut4  v»\m>, 

mgmitM, ,,..,,, ,1,1,1, .-mt    m.m-] 
BiooBjs. .,,,,, ,,,„,,,,,  «      mMt] 

^<I«     «».«98,t0» 

imii^mdiiiiiiiriii'k  UfiiVflft^] 

Number  of  imnmt  iimpi>*Yti4,  MiflW,  Average  wages 
l>er  luuwtb,  fttr,  i\,  Wwrt((d(H#o«(  made,  278,044 
tons  i  valiw,  ♦J«,T47,W, 


Or» ,. 

Coif 

coE 


Iwuwn  (/¥  tNHMt  iikm. 

Vw. 

lSt6-l»l»,»fii>f»tu.  .■,,„, ,„,,i, ,,..,,. 

..    15,0»T 

l>ila-m         •*         III. mil,,, 11,1. III.. 

18»4-)^       "       ,,,,,,1111,1111111.... 

..  ll,88» 
..     17,491 

tmh-im     »      ,,,,,,,iiii„„.ii... 

..    48.680 

i(i*(— )fc«     *      III, iiiiiiiiii, 11,11 

..    74.S4« 

X«4H-(*i4       *•       i„i,,,iiiiiii„i,.... 
lM6-»«#       *•       ,11111111111,1,111.... 

..  «8,(r99 
..   1S1.602 

am,.,,,,, ,,,,,„,,„,,,,,, „,ii,,..... 

..  8«7,'<«3 

18R1. ,,,,,,„  ,,,,11111111,11...... 

..  46t,.V>l 

tm...... ,,,,,,1,1, 1,111,, II...... 

..  601,168 

Inyaim  or  Utttfim  tt/k»imtt»  md  CtiTtaav. 

V««n-  iMFlartd  fnliit, 

J8*(— 1»M,  ltVlfriHll»i.iiiiiiiiiiiiiii...  £49S.M1 
im-t»W  »  III, ,,,,,, ,111, 1. 1....  808,608 
18W..,,, ,,„,,„,,„,,,,,„„, „,,;,....  1,049,908 
t»bl,r,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,1,111.,...  1,080,487 
WW...,,.,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,..     »e8,4»l 

This  t«l>U  slwws  tim  fw|«Mt«  to  (wve  reached  the 


laoH  MAHvrAcniKia 

or  TBI  uaiTap  urtrm  tn  VUi, 

■TATU. 

CUT-IHOM. 

ttmnaii, 

wvHwtif  tint 

inHotlinff  ifitn- 
Wil  6p*rtfIonj. 

Mo.ofAiii)Ac«i.|Tafii  pro4ac*d. 

•JSl!l'iS&. 

r»w  fn4mM: 

Ctflul  iDniM. 

Ifalne 

18 

IB 

48 

6 

S8 

U 

186 

M 

SIS 

2 

IS 

4S 

8 

4 

14 

1 

6 

S4 

IT 

TS 

7 

4 

S 

IS 

1 

6,m 

1,8S0 

«,8SS 

4,126 

6,495 

6,748 

S9,088 

11,114 

98,890 

IT 

8,876 

18,810 

966 

1,250 

494 

80 

1.400 

16,129 

29,2.16 

85,286 

810 

158 

160 

601 

8 

I 
« 
«T 

44 

14 

120 

80 

169 

5 
IT 
62 
48 

» 
W 

b 

It 

»» 

1 

■4 

m 

»m 

IT, 

m 
t,m 

"in 
iM» 

"ill 

l«.«W 

gm 

MO 
i 

''% 

898 

788 

«l,4*« 

2.0M 

l.fM 

l,t49 

4ffl 

248 

41 

m 

145 
2,266 
?.1W 

m 
til 

8 

1186,960 

98.200 

1,2«2,S76 

22,290 

677,8110 

661,160 

2,103,418 

1,721,820 

7,781,471 

86,200 

796.660 

1,246.660 

94,961 

118,800 

JJOOO 

9,600 

867,000 

1,614,788 

449,000 

1,161,900 

67,700 

40,800 

T9,000 

60,800 

4.000 

Ilasaacbnsetts 

Bhode  Island 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvanta 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Vlr^nls 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia. 

Alabama 

TennesBoe ....        

Kentucky 

Ohio..... 

Indiana 

Illlnola 

Ulssourl 

Michigan..  .  . 

Wisconsin 

ToUl 

804 

286,908 

m 

itfMf 

iMiM  - 

mA*i 

20,482,181 

It  is  not  easy  to  strike  the  true  medium,  the  best 
policy,  between  the  proper  fostering  care  by  protec- 
tion, due  to  the  iron  manufacturer,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  not  to  restrict  the  construction  of  railroads,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  the  growth  of  new  States,  by  con- 
fining by  high  duties  the  supply  of  iron  to  the  pro- 
duction of  our  own  mills.  The  reduction  of  duty  on 
inn,  by  the  new  tariff,  from  80  to  24  per  cent,,  will, 
nndoubtedly,  have  some  effect  on  our  iron  maoufac- 
tnrea  ;  but  rather  to  limit  the  profits,  than  to  reduce 
the  production  or  number  of  mills ;  the  present  prices 
nt*  ample  to  give  Urge  profits  to  home  manufactun, 


even  if  a  swull  d*^(H#  ftitUmn  the  reduction  of  duty, 
Tha  fruH  immHfiU'Uiftt  iif  lh«  United  .states  is  only  a 
questiMi  )«f  Hmt>,  Itnti  «ti  *«ty  great  amount  of  that 
rash  artkla  U  ftuw  mfmf»i  ia  bring  it  to  that  point 
where  It  wttl  t^tui  th«  irnA  tit  the  world,  and  liecome 
the  stapUiitt  mA  mml  yfiifitnhh  Irranch  of  American 
iadustry,  A  (jrwtt  tUin(tf  Instr action  Is  to  be  derived 
from  tUa  ritmfU  >tf  Hm  Utm  maonfactnro  in  England. 
The  toWuwitm  Ut  nit  «Mfa«t  froM  one  of  the  most  re- 
cent) 

»  TImaIw  fm  tiM  mmt  fWrt  to  the  demand  from  the 
UnitMd  HMm,  ttM  faTMi  inA»  «f  sooth  Staffordshire 


life. 

into  th< 
new  am 
become 
neiit  01 
of  courf 
(jree,  an 
favor  of 
trade,  i 
policy  ( 
ductive 
that  CO 
compctf 
capital  i 
of  legis 
and  cou 
by  our  i 
Since 
iron  I 


mo 


HOT 


IRO 


m»y  be  reported  w  mnch  more  healthy  than  it  waa  a 
month  ago.  By  the  laat  two  or  three  American  mails 
there  have  been  brought  ipeciflcations  which,  in  their 
number  and  value,  form  a  atrilting  contrast  to  those 
received  during  many  months  past.  These  show  that 
the  American  mills  are  able  to  supply  only  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  demand  of  the  States ;  and  are  demon- 
strative that  with  bars  at  £8  instead  of  ^£9,  a  trade 
might  lie  carried  on  with  America  to  an  extent  tliat 
would  be  restricted  by  nothing  else  than  tbo  powers  of 
production  attaching  to  tlie  British  worlcs.  The  Periia, 
whose  letters  were  delivered  on  Saturday  last,  was 
especially  valuable  in  respect  of  such  specifications. 
In  the  past  fortnight,  however,  the  '  nialce'  of  south 
Staffordshire  has  not  been  by  any  means  so  large  as 
under  such  circumstances  might  have  been  expected. 
This  has  been  occasioned  by  the  unusual  circumstances 
of  large  masses  of  machiner}'  at  several  works  having 
been  stopped  by  brealcages,  whicii  have  all  happened 
within  a  few  days  of  each  other.  By  the  end  of  this 
weeic  the  preparations  that  have  ensued  will  lie  com- 
pleted, and  if  there  should  not  lie  a  recurrence,  the 
next  fortnight  will  I>e  characterized  by  the  utmost 
animation  at  the  works  of  the  principal  iron-masters  of 
the  district.  The  large  American  demand  will  make 
the  inconvenience  greater  than  is  now  lieing  felt  by 
most  of  the  makers  of  mallealile  iron,  from  the  exceed- 
ingly short  supply  of  hosmntite  ore  of  sample  suffi- 
ciently fine  for  the  purposes  of  the  puddling  furnace. 
If  this  deficiency  should  last  much  longer,  it  will  cause 
some  little  anxiety  in  cases  where  those  descriptions 
of  iron  are  in  demand,  in  the  manufacture  of  which 
pounded  calcined  cinder  is  not  an  efficient  substitute. 
There  are  no  complaints  of  a  shortness  of  supply  of 
those  coarser  samples  of  red  ore  used  in  the  blast  fur- 
nace."— London  Engineer,  Feb. 

The  supply  of  the  liest  quality  of  iron  is  decreasing 
in  England,  whereas  in  this  country  we  are  but  begin- 
ning to  develop  and  become  acquainted  with  our  best 
ores.  "  Iron  MountaUi"  and  "  Pilot  Knob"  in  Missouri, 
contain  iron  in  immense  quantities,  and  of  a  purit}'  of 
ore  not  to  be  found  but  in  two  or  three  mines,  and 
limited  in  amount,  in  Sweden.  And  Kentucky  has 
undeveloped  iron  ores  to  a  great  extent,  and  of  un- 
common puril^ .  We  ought  to  export  rather  than  im- 
port iron  ;  and  in  less  than  twenty  years  we  shall  do 
so,  unless  some  wonderful  mineralogical  discoveries 
are  made  in  the  British  Isles. 

No  State  in  the  Union  is  so  vitally  interested  in  the 
iron  trade  as  Pennsylvania.  Iron,  in  all  its  different 
varieties,  forms  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  State 
wealth.  The  ore  aliounds  in  several  sections  of  this 
coiiunonwealth,  while  furnaces  dot  the  hill-sides  and 
vullcys,  giving  employment  to  numerous  laborers,  and 
producing  thousands  of  tons  of  iron,  which  are  trans- 
ported to  other  States,  and  serve  to  enrich  all  who  are 
interested  in  its  manufacture.  Each  year  science  op- 
plies  iron  to  more  of  the  common  uses  of  ever3--doy 
life.  It  supplies  the  material  for  ships ;  enters  largely 
into  the  construction  of  houses  ;  forms  part  of  all  the 
new  and  improved  agricultural  implements  j  and  thug 
becomes  a  rival  to  timber  in  the  mechanicel  depart- 
ment of  our  countrj'.  This  increasing  consumption, 
of  course,  must  increase  the  demand  in  a  parallel  de- 
gree, and  if  Congress  will  but  legislate  wisely,  and  in 
favor  of  home  labor  and  capital,  as  exhibited  in  the  iron 
trade,  it  must  prosper  in  the  future.  It  is  surely  the 
policy  of  our  country  to  foster  this  branch  of  her  pro- 
ductive industry.  It  is  liy  wise,  judicious  legislation, 
that  comparatively  young  countries  are  enabled  to 
compete  with  older  and  more  practiced  ones,  where 
capital  is  abundant  and  labor  cheap.  This  is  the  kind 
of  legislation  demanded  by  the  iron  trade  of  this  State 
and  country,  and  we  hope  that  such  will  be  extended 
by  our  national  legislature.  j 

Shice  the  commencement  of  the  present  year,  the 
iron  market  of  this  countr}-  has  been  marked  by  pecu- 1 


liar  circumstances.  East  of  the  Alleghany  mountains 
the  production  of  pig  iron  exceeds  the  quantity  manu- 
factured during  the  same  period  of  any  previous  sea- 
son. A  still  greater  increase  is  also  locked  for  during 
the  remaining  months.  There  is  now  on  hand  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  stock  of  1866,  accumulated 
in  consequence  of  the  severity  of  the  winter  prevent- 
ing iron  from  being  delivered  when  ordered,  P^it  a 
singular  fact  is,  that  with  all  these  apparent  diaw- 
backs,  the  price  steadily  and  firmly  advanced  to  the 
highest  quotation,  and  sales  have  been  greater  in  the 
early  months  of  this,  than  in  the  same  months  of  any 
other  year.  More  than  60,000  tons  were  contracted 
for  in  this  city,  in  the  month  of  April,  to  be  delivered 
during  the  year.  This  is  a  ver}'  heavy  business  to  be 
perfected  so  early  in  the  season,  and  since  then  the 
quantity  has  been  swelled  to  a  much  higher  figure. 
Importations  of  pig  iron,  especially  Scotch,  have  been 
decreasing  for  the  past  year  or  18  months.  During  the 
six  months  ending  December  31st,  1855,  the  importation 
of  pig  iron  from  all  foreign  ports  only  reached  29,839 
tons.  This  is  less  than  one  third  of  the  amount  im- 
ported during  the  previous  12  months.  This  is  a  cheer- 
ing indication,  and  the  decrease  in  the  importation  of 
foreign  pig  iron  will  give  a  fresh  impetus  to  our  home 
manufacture,  which  is  much  needed  in  many  sections 
of  the  Union. 

The  long  and  aevere  winter  prevented  shipments  of 
bar  iron  from  Pittsburg  in  the  usual  quantities,  conse- 
quently there  has  been  a  heavy  accumulation  of  that 
particular  stock  at  that  place.  It  was  estimated  that 
in  the  month  of  April,  there  were  85,000  tons  of  bar 
iron  waiting  sale  and  transportation  at  Pittsburg.  In 
despite  of  these  facts,  however,  the  various  mills  are 
in  full  operation,  depending  upon  the  heavy  trade  to 
carry  them  through  the  season.  The  general  prosper- 
ity of  all  the  western  interests  must  keep  up  the  de- 
mand for  iron,  and  if  so  the  stock  will  not  be  too 
heavy.  It  is  computed  that  280,000  tons  of  pig  iron 
will  be  produced  in  the  West  during  the  present  year 
— this,  of  course,  includes  western  Pennsylvania. 
From  the  districts  of  Alleghany,  Hanging  Rock,  and 
Clarksviile,  about  200,000  tons  will  be  sent  to  market. 
There  will  be  a  decrease  of  charcoal  pig  iron  in  the 
present  year,  when  compared  with  the  production  of 
1855,  of  55,000  tons.  The  product  of  new  coke  and 
raw  bituminous  coal  furnaces  will,  however,  make 
good  at  least  15,000  tons  of  this  deficit.  The  amount 
of  anthracite  pig  iron  consumed  in  the  West  in  1855, 
was  33,000  tons.  There  will  be  an  increased  amount 
needed  during  the  present  year,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  contracts  made  for  supplies  from  Susquehanna.  We 
give  below  an  Interesting  article  from  the  ■'  Iron  Mas- 
ters' Keview,"  showing  the  amount  of  pig  iron  con- 
sumed in  the  places  named  in  the  West ;  and  also  the 
quantity  and  value  of  railroad  iron  imported  into  the 
United  States,  from  the  30th  June,  1839,  to  the  30th 
June,  1856.  It  is  well  worthy  an  attentive  perusal  by 
all  those  who  are  interested  in  tlie  iron  trade  of  the 
United  States. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  Susquehanna  district,  the 
furnaces  have  mostly  produced  for  the  western  mar- 
ket. There  has  lieen  considerable  irregularity  in 
their  operations,  partly  on  account  of  deficiency  of 
coal  and  the  late  opening  of  navigation.  The  new 
furnaces — Dudley,  Keystone,  No.  2  Cornwall — and 
several  furnaces  wliich  worked  little,  if  ony,  in  1855, 
will  prolmbly  increase  tlio  pro<iuct  of  the  district  this 
yeor  bj-  26,000  tons.  Circumstances  do  not  admit  of  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  product  of  tUs  district, 
nor  of  the  demands  that  may  come  from  the  West. 

In  the  Lehigh  district,  at  this  date,  the  stock  of 
pig  iron,  which  is  nearly  all  No.  1,  amounts  to  34,150 
tons.  Tho  contracts  already  made,  for  iron  of  this 
district,  for  this  year's  delivery,  approximate  to  87,600 
tons.  There  sffe  17  furnaces  now  in  blast,  one  to  be 
put  in  blast  by  the  middle  of  May,  and  one  in  July, 


mo 


1108 


mo 


Th«  17  rurnacwi  are  producing  wenkly  an  average  of 
2100  torn,  making  for  the  romalning  87^  weeks  of  18S6, 
78,7IM)  tons,  which,  added  to  the  present  stock,  gives 
an  aggregate  of  112,900  tons.  In  this  estimate  we 
omit  the  product  of  the  two  furnaces  soon  going  into 
bliifit,  to  make  up  for  the  possible  deficiencies  that  m»y 
result  from  accidents.  If  we  allow  for  next  j-enr's 
market  the  production  in  four  weeks  of  Deceml>er, 
during  which  the  product  may  be  closed  in  by  winter, 
we  have  104,500  tons  for  the  market  for  this  year,  less 
than  already  contracted,  !I7,600  tons ;  leaving  unsold  for 
this  year's  delivery  (i<!,900  tons.  In  these  estimates 
no  account  is  taken  of  the  small  sales  in  the  district, 
nor  of  a  few  small  shipments  by  railroad,  made  in 
1856  prior  to  this  date.  The  sales  of  iron  fh>m  this 
district  in  1856,  approximated  to  106,000  tons — equal 
to  a  reduction  of  stocks,  of  19,000  tons.  The  stocks 
on  the  1st  of  January  last  approximated  to  20,700  tons, 
and  on  the  1st  of  January,  1866,  to  39,000.  The  total 
production  in  this  district  in  the  year  1866,  wilt  ap- 
proximate to  106,000  tons;  assuming  as  a  basis  the 
data  alwve  given,  which  will  prove  reliable,  save  as 
it  may  be  affected  by  accidents  in  manufacturing,  or  by 
a  change  in  the  market.  The  production  in  the  14 
weeks  past  has  not  averaged  2100  tons — several  Atr- 
Dacea  having  but  recently  been  put  in  blast. 


The  oemimpdon  of  nrila  within  the  patt  otn* 
months  has'  graatly  inoreaaad  over  the  average  of  the 
previous  year.  The  importation  in  the  six  months 
ending  December  81, 1866,  amounted  to  89,854  tons ; 
or  60  per  cent,  more  than  in  tho  average  of  the  priv 
viout  12  months.  In  the  six  months  named,  Amer- 
ican mills  produced  about  70,000  tons.  As  the  returns 
of  last  year's  liarvest  are  now  exerting  their  greatest 
Influence  upon  the  general  prosperity  of  the  interior, 
railroad  enterprises  aro  much  encouraged.  If  the  pmin- 
ised  peace  of  Kurope  is  fully  re-inaugurated,  there  is  no 
doulit  that  with  an  average  harvest  the  present  year, 
our  railroad  extensions  will  b«  greater  tlian  In  any  pe- 
riod heretofore.  In  addition  to  the  requirementH  for  new 
roads  and  extensions,  the  older  roads  are  progressively 
needing  a  greater  amount  of  rails  for  renewals,  whera 
in  moat  instances  heavier  rails  are  put  down.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  note,  that  a  large  portion  of  the  old  rails  taken  up 
Is  used  In  other  manufactures,  to  which  this  description 
of  Iron  Is  regarded  l)y  many  as  being  better  adapted. 
The  increasing  amount  of  this  stock,  which  comes  in 
com|)etition  witli  pig  iron,  Is  worthy  of  special  consid- 
eration. Capital  is  wanted  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
Virginia,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  other  States,  for  the 
more  vigorous  and  mora  profitable  workings  of  the  ex- 
tensive iron  ores  of  those  States, 


FioDironoH  or  Pio  laoN  m  Tna  Unitkd  Statis,  aoookdino  to  tui  Cimsus  or  1860. 


Maine 

N. Hampshire 
Vermont .... 
Maswohusetts 
OonnectlcuL. 
Nev  York. , 
New  Jersoj, 
Pennsylvania 
Maryland.. 
VIrglola... 
N.  Carolina 

Georgia 

Alabama.  -, 
TeDDcaseo.., 
Kentucky,., 

Ohio 

Michigan . . . 

Indiana 

Illinois 

MiMonrl. . . , 
Wisconsin. . 


ToUl. 


dplisl 


i    DolUn, 

1  914.000 

l|        2,000 

SClr'WO 
480,000 
13j  326,600 
18!  606,000 
10  »67,000 
80l  R,ftT0,42S 
18{  1,480,000 
29     618,800 

2  215.000 
»l  20,000 
81       11,000 

23|  1,021,400 
2ill  924,700 
a5  1,609,000 
15,000 
72,000 
6S,000 
619,00(1 
15,000 


Tod*. 

2,90r 

.VM) 

T,676 

97,909 

86,490 

46,S3S 

51,'266 

8T7,2S8 

99,866 

67,819 

900 

6,189 

1,838 

88,810 

72,010 

140,610 

2,700 

B,200 

n,noo 

87,1100 
8,000 


coal 
aHd, 


Ooktsnd 
eliArcoal 


Valm  of 
jMW  mate. 
rUl,  lu«l, 


No.  of  hand!  Enllni  wani  I    *"?*;, 


Tons. 

"ioo 


20 

20,8«5 

816,060 

14,088 

89,992 


177,167 
21,780 

se'iso 


Biuhels. 

918,970 
80,000 
826,4871 

1,888,000; 

2,9"0.(K10, 

S,000,0T4, 

l,«8I,()00l 

27,«0.M90 

8,7U7,8(M) 

1,311,000| 

180,000 

430,000 

146,000 

160,000 

4,676.269 

\42»,80« 

188,000 

810,000 

170,000 

180,000 


Dnllani, 

14,919 

4,900 

40,176 

184,741 

2S9,'W5 

821,027 

as2,707 

y,7aA427 

.M)0,725 

1.^8,807 

27,900 

26.840 

6,770 

254,900 

2«0,1.^2 

080,0871 

14,0110 

24,400 

1S,.100 

97,867 

8,280 


71 

10 

100 

268 

148 

606 

600 

9,985 

1,870 

1,116 

26 

185 

40 

1,718 

1,846 

2,416 . 

25 

8S 

150 

884 

60 


87717,846,425 1,.179.809  (Hfl,24a  ,'U.KA286'7,00,\'is9'  20,29sll5042M))5J784  ....  I  . .  '  664.7.Vi  259.7(KI  12.748.777 


j'l  h 


Dollan. 

t>oli. 

1,662 

.. 

18t 

2,208 

7,288 

8,967 

12,62.1 
12,720 

201,0811 

4(1 

27,896 

14,289 

9« 

208 

22 

9,a'i8 

15 

700 

21,958 

m 

»7,8«5 

47 

59,129 

875 

2,290 

8,810 

8,1111 

1,800 

"**••    l-roduou, 


Dol'n.  Doll. 
22  UO 

IS  00 
22  08 
27  59 
26  80 
00 
121  20 
91  666  U 
20  14 
12  766  86 
8  004  40 
17  445  00 
17  60  .. 
12  8l'8  11 
20  284  70 
24  48 
96  00 
26  00 
22  06 
94  28 
80  00 


TOBI, 

1,484 

900 

8,200 

12,287 

18,420 

28,092 

94,081 

285,702 

48,641 

22,168 

400 

900 

622 

80,420 

24.246 

62,668 

660 

1,850 

2,700 

19,260 

1,000 


20,000 
19,900 

40,l)6o 
96,000 


98,000 

^000 

41,900 

10,000 

ia^ooo 


Valaa  of 

•  nilre 
produou. 


Oollai 

86,010 

6,000 

68,000 

295,128 

41.\60<l 

697920 

560,.%M 

6,071,118 

1,050,4110 

521,924 

12,500 

57,800 

22,.'Wi 

676,100 

6Ol,0;n 

1,256,«.')0 

21,(K)0 

5,9,0110 

70,20il 

814,0'Hl 

27,0011 


PaoDucnoM  or  WaouonT  Irok  in  rna  Umited  8tat«8,  1860. 


N.  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusotts. 
Rhode  Island. 
Connecticut . . 
New  York.... 
Now  Jersey. . . 
Ponnsylvonia. 

Dolawsre 

Maryland 

Virginia 

I  North  Carolina 
floorgla.... 
I  Alabama... 
jTennessoe. 
Kontucky . 

Ohio 

Indiana. . . . 
Missouri,, . 


6 
1 

18 
60 

181 

9 

17 

89 

19 

8 

.1 

42 

4 

11 


Capital 
tnvaited. 


CIto  ami 
charcoal. 


Uuihtli, 
."iO.OOO 
8.17,000 
79,500 

7s;t',«)0 

5,551,150 

1,994,180 

8,989,r" 

229,000 

246,000 

108,000 

857,900 

76,600 

80,000 

280,000 

466.900 

85,000 


Valila  c<f 
Rwf  mat,* 
rial  iiied. 


Di'Ila". 

ri,mn 

66,194 

221,194 

111,750 

S,'>9,780 

889,814 

820,950 

1,488,391 

19,500 

489,511 

691,448 

28,114 

6,986 

8,000 

886,616 

180,9001 

604.4981 

4,426 

24,509 


Avorn^o 

wairoi 

|)i-r  riKinrli. 


I  Ml 


Doll. 

.82  00 

.81  05 

,  29  60 

,26  00 

.31  69 

.20  00 

.27  79 

7  27  69 

.24  19 

.  28  38 

.28  62 

110  87 
II  856  00 
_,  .  20  00 
78i!B516  205  00 
198>..'82  06! 
708,.  38  61 1 
22;  227  454  00 
lor,., 80  00 


7  50 


5  88 


Wn.ugli 


Tuna. 

110 

2,»<5 

6,720 

9,660 

6,825 

18,636 

8,162 

182,606 

660 

10,000 

16,828 

860 

90 

100 

10,848 

8,070 

14,416 

175 

963 


Valna  of 

ulher 
product!. 


5,1100 
195,000 

219,560 


Valua  of 

entlr,' 
pruilurln. 


Dollars, 

10,1011 

16.'!,11SII 

42S,.'l'.'ll 

222,4'iil 

667..')(W 

l,42.'i,!li;9 

620,'i7.'i 

8,902,907 

56,000 

771,4)1 

1,2,'S4,995 

66,080 

15,894 

7,500| 

670,618 

299,700 

1,076,192 

11,7001 

68,7001 


Total !  42914,496,920  861,491  88,84tl 78,787  688,068 14,810,898 9,698,109  18,1797»i, 


1 978,044' 468,800:16,747,0741 


STAnUIKIlT 


jllatnburg. 
KiRlsnd,,! 
''«n«d«,,,. 
I'lher  Br,  No 
Irtilsh  West 
rtlish  Austr 
mi,b  Eut  I 
jmnce  on  th( 
French  Nortl, 
Chiba 

(Mhcrporti'l 
Moxico 
Centi^l  Ripaii 

»6W  Granada. 

Pern 

|Sandwlch'lsli 

Total 

From  wai 

Not  from 


IRO: 


1109 


IBO 


PioDnoTioif  or  Ito>  Cauimos  vt  nia  Umno  STAna,  I860, 


DolUn. 
88,016 
6,000 
68,0<in 
295,12!) 
415,600 
597,920 
660,544 
6,071,518 
l,06C,-li)0 
521,924 
12,500 
57,800 
22,50111 
676,100 
604,087 

1  ar^HcV) 

'  21,000 

58,0"0 

70,2I'>0 

814,(iOll| 

27,0001 


Diillnr'.  , 
10,400 
lOlVJ'^li 

42S,;v)0 

222.4"' 
,„„,     067.5W 

■^  '     629.27S 
8,9I«,907 
55,000 
I     771,4:(1 
1,2.U996 
'       66.9S0 
15.8S4 
7,5001 
670,618! 
I     299,700 
1,076,192 
'       11,700 
68,700 


M*lne 

N.IItmpshlre 
Vnrmont . 
MasMchuflottx 
Rhode  IsUnd 
ConnooHcuL 
New  York. . 
Now  Jeraoy. 
l>enn>ylrtnl> 
Dol»w»ro .... 

Maryland 

Virginia 

N.  Cirollna.. 
8.  Carolina... 

Ocorglo. 

Alabama. 

Mbtilsslppl. . . 
Louisiana.... 

Toxaa. 

TenncMeo . . . 
Kentucky.... 

Ohio. 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Missouri . . .  I . 

Iowa. 

Wisconsin... 

California 

D.  of  Columb. 


25 

26 

26 

68 

20 

00 

828 

4ft 

820 

18 

16 

M 

S 

6 

4 

10 

8 

8 

2 

16 

20 

188 

68 

14 

29 

6 

8 

15 

1 

2 


CaplUl 
lanitod. 


DolUrl, 

150,100 

282,700 

290,720 

l,49»,O.VI 

428,N0O 

580,800 

4,622,482 

5»8,2JS0 

8,422,024 

878,500 

859,100 

471,160 

11,500 

185,700 

8\000 

216,625 

100,000 

26^000 

16,000 

189,500 

602,200 

2,00.1,650 

195,450 

82,900 

260,400 

187,000 

6,500 

116,850 

5,000 

14,000 


PIf  Iron. 


Tow. 

3,591 

6,678 

5,279 

81,184 

8,918 

11,896 

108,945 

10,666 

69,501 

4,440 

7,220 

7,114 

192 

169 

440 

2,843 

1,197 

1,660 

250 

1,6S2 

9,781 

87,»6 

2,494 

1,968 

4,818 

6,100 

81 

1,371 

75 

645 


Oil) 
■uial. 


Ton*. 
245 
500 
274 

8,861 

'887 

8,212 

850 

819 


205 


1,848 

'"'6 

60 

200 

"is 


2,800 


6,050 
2,000 


Total....  1,39117.416,861  845.558  11,416  9,860  190,891 2,418,750  10,816,855!  23,541  48| .. . 


MlMral 
Msl. 


Tom. 
1,819 
l.ftSO 
1.066 

12.401 
4,670 
7,592 

22,7.^6 
6,444 

49,228 
4,967 
6,000 
7,878 


100 

"248 

8,206 

250 

24,690 

2,649 

80,006 

901 

182 

1,412 

2,698 

'695 
25 

80 


Cok*  Mifl 
•kareoftl. 


BiuhsU. 

14,000 

20,500 

198,400 

8,500 

4,0(KI 

30,600 

181,190 

175,800 

276,866 

80,(100 
7I.W)0 

6,875 
4O.%,50O 

9,800 
SL.SOO 
92,000 


18.200 
482,7,50 
856,120 
16,200 
29,600 
12,500 

"200 
2,700 


Vilua  of 

raw  mate. 
><al,  ftlsl. 


Ritmbar  ol 
kuida 

nployad. 


Dollart, 

112,670 

177,060 

160,608 

1,067,9m 

268,267 

aM.86« 

2,893.768 

801,048 

2,872,467 

163,852 

259,190 

297,014 

8,841 

29,128 

11,950 

102,086 

60,870 

7^80O 

8,400 

90,0.^5 

^95,,^88 

1,199,790 

91,866 

66,918 

172,380 

188,114 

2,524 

86,930 

8,580 

18,100 


H 


243   1 

874 

881 
1,596 

800 

942 
6,925 

803 
4,7H2 

2.10 

701 

810 
16 

153 
89 

212 

112 

847 
35 

261 

66820 
2,7.M 

837 

143 

832 

297 
17 

22S 

8 

27 


Avorafa 

waffaa 
par  month. 


00i5  0« 

05 

27 

90 

63 

49 
09 
656  00 


8  00 


60 

91 

46 

59  4  00 

48 

06 

91 

60 

48 

96 

89 

32 


9  41 


4  50 
4  15 


ruilnn   Valaaof 
produela. 


Valuaof 

antira 

prodoela. 


Tun*.    I 

8,691 

6,76l! 

5,000i 

82,074[ 

8,558 

11,210 

104,588 

10,269 

57,810 

8,630 

6,244 

^677 

172 

1,286 

415 

1,915 

924 

1,570 

200 

3,884 

5,88S 

87,399 

2,o70 

1,757 

4,160 

6,200 

71 

1,342 

75 

612 


27,700 
87,770' 

ll'o'.MO, 
70,000 


661,160 
66,000 
80,000 


8,800 
4,000 
1^000 


208,700 
25,616 

89^250 

'2^600! 
64,02S| 

l'l',6()0 


DolUra. 

266,000 

871,710 

460,881 

1,286,686 

728,706 

981,400 

6,021,980 

686,480 

6,854,881 

967,462 

686,000 

674,416 

12,867 

87,688 

46,200 

271,126 

117,400 

812,600 

65,000 

264,825 

744,816 

3,069,850 

279,697 

149,430 

441,185 

836,495 

8,600 

216,196 

20,740 

41,606 


822,746  1.624,121 25,10a,1M 


$7,000,000,  and  the  expectations  of  a  profltable  traffic, 
fair.  To  say  nothing  of  tlie  trade  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
there  are  forests  of  mahogany  and  other  woods  to  sup- 
ply timber-freight  for  centuries.  According  to  a  re- 
port in  the  Journal  o/Ihe  Socieli/  ofArlt,  the  Honduras 
government  "  agrees  to  give  a  bounty  of  60  acres  of  land 
to  unmarried,  and  76  acres  to  married  laborers  who  shall 
go  to  the  countrj-  to  work  on  the  road,  and  who  shall 
declare  their  intention  to  become  citizens." — Chambert' 
Journal,  We  now  subjoin  an  official  summar}-  of  the 
export  trade  of  the  United  States  from  1847  to  1856: 

Foreign  Ieom  Tbadis  of  Uhitkd  Statm  for  tk.v  Ysaes. 


Appearances  indicate  that  iron  will  grow  more  and 
more  into  request — in  architecture,  ships,  and  rigging. 
Wire  ropes  are  now  used  at  man}'  of  the  mines  in  the 
midland  and  northern  counties ;  and  an  attempt  is  be- 
ing made  to  introduce  them  in  Devon  and  Cornwall. 
At  equal  strength,  a  wire  rope  is  lighter  by  one  third 
than  a  hemp  rope,  and  by  two  thirds  than  a  chain  ;  an 
im))ortant  fact,  especially  whero  mines  are  deepest. 
Then  we  are  to  have  metallic  life-boats,  pontoons, 
army-wagons,  if  the  result  of  experiments  made  at 
Woolwich  and  Bochester  may  be  trusted.  The  boats, 
we  hear,  can  not  be  broken  or  overset,  let  them  be 
used  ever  so  roughly ;  and  the  pontoons  are  models  of 
lightness.  And  again — the  United  States'  Congress 
have  recommended  three  lines  of  rilUway  to  California : 
northern,  central,  and  southern,  each  al)Out  2000  miles 
in  length.  The  lands  grunted  to  the  three  comprise 
1.11,865,000  acres — a  truly  gigantic  encouragement ! 
What  ^  demand  there  will  be  for  rails  I  Then  we  are 
to  have  the  often-talked-of  railway  to  India  l)y  the 
Euphrates  valley ;  the  route  is  to  be  forthwith  sur- 
veyed. And  there  is  talk  of  a  railway  from  Honduras 
across  to  the  Pacific — 161  miles,  the  estimated  cost 

Statkhbmt  suowimo  tuk  Exports  or  Foreiq!)  MANUFACTonsD  Ikoh  from  tuc  Uritkd  States,  fob  the  Year 

INDIKO  June  80tii,  1856. 


Yean. 

AmaHeaa 
aiportad. 

Foreign  eotuutn«H 

Eieeu  tn  foreign 

eoniulned. 

1847 

11,167,484 

18,717,656 

$7,550,172 

1848 

1,2.59,682 

12,428,559 

11,168,927 

1849 

1,096,172 

18,722,894 

12,626,212 

18.50 

1,911,820 

16,282,899 

14,821,079 

1861 

2,256,698 

17,206,410 

14,950,712 

1862 

2,808,819 

18,823,056 

10,619,287 

1858 

2,499,662 

20,993,082 

24,498,480 

1854 

4,210,850 

26,.%46,903 

82,483,566 

1855 

8,763,473 

21,416,206 

17,661,788 

1866 

4,161,008 

21,018,718 

17,467,710 

WhlUiar  exported. 

Muiketi  and  rlflei. 

Flra.armi 
lot  ipeclOed. 

N,.;,  ■., 

Cutlery. 

Oiker  n.anol'^:- 
Inrae  and  ware! 
of,  notuporOted. 

StdeHimn. 

Cap  or  bonnet  wire. 

Hamburg 

No. 

"mo 

'8^296 
884 
100 

DoUar.. 

'1,200 

l'o'88« 

1,026 

418 

24614 
8,895 

"300 

'I'iw 

"392 
"860 

DoUan. 

6,650 
.... 

"606 

Dollan. 

45',('i46 
150 

82 

"I'ssa 

819 
1,745 

Dollan. 
450 

4,770 

181,906 

8,602 

613 

8,091 

"472 

172 

1,.522 

1,137 

7,726 

568 

674 

841 

8,666 

Dollan. 

"485 

877 

Poundi. 
'4^200 

Oollara. 
■448 

Hngland , 

Other  Br.  North  American  pos. 

nmishWost  Indies..; 

British  Australia 

Hrltlsh  Kast  Indli-a. 

France  on  the  Atlantic. 

French  North  American  posses. 
Cuba 

Other  porta  In  Africa 

Mexico 

Central  Kepublio. 

New  Oranada. 

Pern 

Sandwich  Islands 

Total 

'■  4,280- 

18,328 

80,908 

6,056 

60,225 

210,605 

1,862 

4,200 

448 

Front  warohonse 

8,404 
T8« 

11,164 
3,084 

6^644 
34,961 

6,832 
224 

26,129 
2^096 

120,048 
90,662 

1,856 
6 

4^200 

■448 

Not  from  warehouse 

io 


IIIO 


rao 


STATmuiT  iiaowiHa  m  Xipomn  or  Foinox  HANorAcrniEiD  Iiom  rtou  tai  UitmD  Rtath,  roa  tui  Tiai 

noiMO  JUNi  BOTH,  1854— d   MitiMil 


Wtltktr  raporM. 

Bvlroa. 

{          Rod  Iron. 

■lOCf 

Iron. 

Rhiot  Iron. 

Ptalro..           1 

Cwu. 
850 

'8^9T6 
806 

"Hi 

"94 
8,676 
190 
11 
687 
86 
90 

Dolln-i. 
1,960 

lV,98T 
9,508 

'l',8M 

"96 

18,886 

469 

46 

1,119 

919 

60 

'897 

Dollm. 
4;484 

PuUMb. 

99;i60 

58,480 
16,6H6 
99,186 
6,590 

.... 

DoUm. 

"M9 

9^868 
789 
981 
809 

Pound*. 

447,161 
18,078 
87,889 

8;468 

0^860 

OoIIhi. 

14,9i'il 

979 

9,829 

"m 

"m 

Owls. 

1,600 
440 
890 
100 

"ioo 

"198 
8,660 

klhr.. 

V,98l 
716 
TB9 
150 

"no 
"460 

6i86o 

Hollwid 

Enitlsnd 

Cuad* 

Olbor  BrItUh  North  Amor.  poi.. . 
BrItUh  Aiutralla 

Cuba 

Olhar  porU  In  AMea 

Havtl 

Mull  loo 

New  Oraoada. 

Braall 

Ohill 

Saiiilwleh  lalandt 

Cbioa. 

ToUl 

t,9T0 

6,871 
8,599 

89.M6 
lt,446 
15,081 

827 
89V 

4,484 
4,484' 

125,982 
71,8f8 
64,044 

5,4,^4 
2.8M 
9,601 

519,H.SI 
447,901 
64,»s0 

18.6*4 
14.986 
8,698 

6,7M  1   IU,U6» 
9,600       4.100 
4,156       HOMI 

^    1 

Btatkhikt  suowiiia  tiim  Kxpoets  up 

Foanoit   MA!<vpA(7ruaaD   Inox   raaii   ma  UNiTao  Statib,  roa  Tiia  Vbab 
tHDiNS  Jvaa  8OTI1,  1856— OmUniMd. 

Wkllkor  tMfoTUi. 

WilU,  iiillui,  MkM 
.te. 

Chain  ubiM. 

Mlllinwi, 

eruM.«ul, 

t-MWI. 

Anchor*,  nnd  Mria 
Ihoroor. 

Anvils,  and  Mrts    I 
Ihirsof.*^        1 

RuHlan  pea.  In  North  Anisrlea. . 

Poaali. 
"■70 

4,810 
9,000 
8,000 

6^860 

8,900 

bollua. 

"ii 

909 
490 
184 

"661 

"tiio 

Pounds. 
91,400 

99,986 
64,786 

141899 
6,876 
1,788 

17,660 

1.191 

2I5,8;)9 

8ft4.1S8 

m,m 

67,149 

Dollnn. 
649 

"ms 

8,877 

"680 
289 

86 

"969 

89 

e,«35 

"18,801 
1(>,8.W 
9,449 

No. 

'668 
'666 

bolhrl. 

"l',S88 

1,467 

Pounds. 

8^966 
4,«9T 
91,016 

8^894 

"sio 

198,701 

Dollnn. 
"197 

208 
1,419 

"990 

"iio 

6,459 

Pounds. 

"660 

'8,700 
~"»,250 

Dollars. 



66 

'865 

48 1  " 

Canada 

Other  British  North  Amer.  poa.. 
Britlth  Au.ttralla 

Phlllppino  Islnnila. 

Other  porta  In  Africa 

Hayil 

Uexloo 

Now  Qranada 

JChlll 

Whale  Fliherlea 

Total 

81,410 

2,086 

868 

8,940 

159,078 

8,656 

From  warehoaie 

18.810 
19,600 

1,008 
1,0TT 

868 
6 

8,065 
175 

83,854 
125,717 

1,716 
6,940 

'8  7110'!      ^^"^    1 

Not  from  warebouM 

'560 

60    1 

Iron  Mountain. — Iron  Mountain  is  situated  in  St. 
Francis  county,  Mo.  The  land  on  which  it  lies  was  a 
grant  by  the  Spanish  govemmeut,  when  this  portion 
of  the  south-west  was  in  possession  of  that  govern- 
ment The  grant  was  conflrnied  l>y  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States  in  1836 ;  but  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
eulty  of  transportation,  and  of  the  impreaaion  that  the 
CT*  could  not  be  smelted,  this  inexhaustible  supply 
waa  permitted  to  remain  unproductive  until  1851,  when 
the  Iron  Mountain  Company  waa  formed  and  proceed- 
ed to  the  erection  of  furnaces.  The  mountain  is  a 
flattened,  conical  shaped  hill,  with  an  average  eleva- 
tion above  the  surrounding  valleys  of  228  feet,  the 
base  of  which  covers  an  area  of  about  500  acres.  The 
ore  is  the  specular  iron  ore,  and  is  remarkably  pure ; 
its  average  yield,  in  the  furnace,  being  56  per  cent. 
From  surface  indications,  and  from  all  explorations 
made,  the  whole  Iron  Mountain  seems  to  Im  mode  uf 
iron  ore.  Almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  mountain 
is  covered  with  iron  ore,  the  particles  increasing  in 
size  OS  you  ascend  toward  the  top,  until  on  its  summit 
are  found  disconnected  masses,  many  tons  in  weight. 


and  often  six  or  eight  feet  in  diameter.  To  what  depth 
the  iron  ore  extends  below  the  base  of  the  mountain, 
has  never  yet  been  ascertained.  An  artesian  well  was 
attempted  to  lie  bored  by  the  company,  at  the  base  of 
the  mountain,  and  after  attaining  the  depth  of  180 
feet,  roost  of  the  way  through  iron  ore,  the  work  was 
abandoned.  Wlien  the  boring  ceased,  the  auger  rented 
in  a  solid  mass  of  ore  ;  so  that  there  is  ore  under  the 
ground,  as  well  as  above  it. 

Imports  if  Iron  intD  the  l/nited  States. — The  United 
States,  next  to  England,  may  he  considered  among  the 
leading  iron  producing  countries  in  the  world — EnglunJ 
producing  3,600,000,  and  tlie  United  SUtes  1,000,000 
tons  per  annum.  Assuming  tlio  average  price  of  Iron 
to  lie  927,  or  oven  $30,  we  produce  annually  to  the 
value  of  i|27,000,000  or  *30,()00,000.  From  the  follow- 
ing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  our  imports  of  iron  niid 
steel  manufactures  havo  gradually  reached  nearly  the 
same  sum.     The  imports  were  in 


1849 115,088,961 

1880 17,668,8tf8 

1861 18,876,768 

1869 90,661,599 


1868 |S0,895,7as 

1S.')4 81,819,  IS4 

18.Vi aV'iT.I.Stl.'i 

lSi« 24,680,262 


Btatiiixkt  snowiNO  the  Imposts  or 

UANCrACTURSS    Or    IBON     l!ITO    TUX    UMlTKn    StATXS    FOR 

Junk  8»Tn,  1866. 

TUX  YXAR  r.sui.sc) 

Whaaao  Importad. 

Caporbonnatwlr*. 

NalU,  splkis,  lacks,  •!<. 

Chain  eabUs. 

MIII-SBws,  cross- 
out  and  pll.sarrs. 

Anchors,  and  paru    { 
thoroof.             j 

Bwedlab  West  Indlea 

Pounds. 

■^67 

8,811 

190,698 

'2',i70 
91,680 

Dollars. 

"99 

244 

8,864 

"'67 
"606 

Pounds. 

'6^800 

1,960 
1.186,468 
1,104,989 

9,400 
14,910 

6,878 

l'7',BM 
■^660 

OolJars. 

"88T 

91 

48,008 

74940 

888 

1,298 

978 

"b91 
"i84 

Pounds. 
9,050 

l'2',8.M 
16,569,722 
80,100 
67,415 
86,118 
4,066 

9b;460 
11,518 

Dollars. 

976 

"447 

476.994 
9,840 
1,807 
S,4T8 

88 

.... 

■'699 
118 

No. 

2b',8S8 

""8 
9 

Dollars. 

5^872 

""a 

8 

Pounds. 

844;290 

9,966 

600 

62,690 

's^OflO 
877 

Uill.r.. 

8'7',iBi) 
507 
22 
9,043  1 

'119 
2B 

Ifambarg 

England 

Scotland 

British  Woat  Indlea 

British  Honduras 

Fr^-ioo  on  the  Atlantic...   ... 

PnrtngaL 

Maxloo 

New  Qranada. 

Pern 

Mm 

Total 

156,876 

4,899  9.299.6D6 

i2T,8T9 

18,860,7881 

48^S48 

90,848    MOMA 

991,198 

89,8IM 

Britlab  ' 
IFrance  t 
Cuba... 
Central  ] 
Cbloa 


Whej 

Ij^aala... 
^wedon  an 
Swedish  fl 
Danish  Wc 
llainb'nrg. 
^rotncn.. 
Wolland...— 
Dutch  £aat 
J«'ginm.. 
J^iKland.. 
Pcotland. 
Ilreland... 
Mnada . . . 
giber  Br.  « 
gritlsh  Wci 
iHtlsh  Hon 
fritlsb  OuU 
British  pos. 
British  knsi 
[franco  on  tl 

P»ba 

K^rto  Rico, 
gape  do  Vol 

^nitrla 

K">«r  porta  i 

fc,«'.na<ij 

fferq. 

Psndwicb  isll 
jCWiia. ' 

Total.. 


^^m^\i^it.<k 


IRO 


1111 


mo 


S-«A»  r.suisi> 


677' 


tTAmtnrr  imwna  n»  Urom  or  Uknvrkonm 

JttKB  SOrii, 

or  laoK  nrre  tn  TTiriTm  Statm,  ioi  na 

Tiai  imiiM 

Mukiu  u4  rifci. 

MM  ipMia*!. 

8M>«w, 

NMdlal. 

Cutlarj. 

MNIMUlwimtot, 

Ml  ■r«ia«<i. 

9w«d«n  and  Norw«r 

No. 

■■■■« 
1 

"ill 

7,606 
""4 

"84 
"6 

DolUn. 
"'il 

15 

"654 
89,824 

■"49 
"849 

"'il 

DulUn. 

"8;6t6 

11,161 

10 

1&<404 
164,959 

"in 
""is* 

564 

*7,974 

"1^818 

OiilUn. 
1,204 

"iio 

468 

"lis 

DolJui. 

"sis 

11,010 
841 

V,484 
174,111 

48^iM 

"is 

8,88* 

119,618 

110 

11.017 

1,489,881 

467 

"'404 
15 

n,6u 

""478 

"l,481 
"'889 

Doltan. 

9* 

1*7 

19,17* 

111,44* 

1,840 

10 

'       147,788 

8,602.115 

14,080 

4*4 

T.461 

1,174 

784 

"ii* 

*59,8S0 

10 

15* 

101 

10* 

M 

*« 

584 

10 

9,484 

188 

636 

S,950 

DuUb  Wtit  IndlM. 

Brenwn , 

HollMxt 

DnUb  OulaD*. 

B«Iglam 

Kngltnd 

BaoUtnd 

OlbnIUr 

Ouiid* 

Otbtr  BrItUh  North  Amar.  potMi. . 
DrltUh  Went  Indloi ,. 

BrItUb  Oulaii*  

BritUb  poMoulcini  In  Africa 

Spain  on  Uio  Mediterranean 

Cuba 

Auatria 

Ifay tt 

Mexico 

Vaw  Qranada. 

Chill 

Bftiidwich  Iitlftndi .         

China 

Total 

7,778 

40,944 

6T«,485 

8,015 

144,060 

1,698,094 

4,191,147 

8TATKUINT  miOWINO  Till 

iMPOKTa 

Olf  THF. 

MANurACTVKita  01 
Junk  80ti!,  1856, 

Iron  into  Till 
—Oonlltnud. 

Uhitid  States  roi  tub  Yiab  iXDiiia 

Wbaou  ImporUd. 

Aiivllf  tnilwrU 
HifmolT 

Bar  Iron. 

Rod  Iron. 

Hoop 

ron. 

Shntlroa.            | 

Bnula  on  the  Baltic  and  1 

North  80K) 1 

Pnuata 

fuuikli. 
968JU0 

'im 

Dullsii. 

441764 
"64 

CwU. 
1,44* 

177.906 

48,816 

10,246 

989 

1,806.104 

16,818 

87 

MOl 

1,405 

464 

165 

"io 

Dollm. 
1,794 

e5bi6<)9 

110,164 

16.672 

1,958 

4,808,,^81 

89,186 

83 

11,938 

2,708 

1,609 

486 

""60 

CwU. 

"iio 

1981679 
121 

Dollar!. 

"iss 

477,994 
296 

""1 

Poundf. 
7,484 

13,167,688 
60,820 

"481 

6,987 

"iio 

Dolkn. 
266 

8431687 
1,481 

"il 

"2O8 
"■41 

Pound!. 

1,088.068 
14,776 

4Wl',656 

29,351,1*1 

25,964 

65,i96 

Dollm. 

42,250 

875 

12,i84 

766,754 

644 

1,761 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Bremen 

Belptum 

Scotland 

Ireland 

British  Wcat  Indlea 

France  un  tho  AtUntlc. . . 
Cuba 

China 

Total 

960,809 

46,828  |8.1lll<^41S 

[>,852,785 

198,820 

478,523 

18,223,489 

846,^ 

81,887,858  1   814.848  1 

'           ' 

1 

Btatiuknt  siiowiNa  Tin  iHPoan  or  tue    MAHnrACTUKn  or  Irok  ahd 

TcAii  iNDiNO  JvKi  30rn,  l$5a, 

StEKL    INTO 

TBI  UitiTiD  Statw  ros  mi 

pig  Iron. 

Uldsnd 

•crap. 

Railroad  Iron. 

t'MI,  Bboar,  and  Uorman 
tlool. 

All  olhor.            1 

Pruula 

CwU. 

4,081 

4,891 
600 

862,170 

749,415 

89,879 

20,701 

8,090 

'/'/ 
1,640 

.... 

DolUn. 
8,500 

'4I637 
654 

369li88 

788,188 

87,967 

23,695 

6,884 

CwU. 

""s 

1,716 

"'67 

78,688 

68 

6,050 

40,016 

20,121 

44,874 

171 

9,584 

1,202 

128 

4,986 

,1,944 

84 

l,i44 

176 

495 

1,260 

18,185 

1,950 

18 

161 

1,610 

Dollan. 

""5 

1,481 

"■43 

81,6«8 

65 

4,742 

26.476 

13.572 

27,049 

97 

4,407 

905 

84 

8,075 

7,125 

8 

101 

"789 
191 
947 

1,138 

9,861 
940 
81 
144 

1,860 

Uwu. 

.... 

.... 

2,922,685 
1871689 

Dollars. 

5,79bl387 
SS8l687 

CwU. 
'9I686 
""4 

225 

161 

8,980 

"47 
168,295 

"'i2 

9S) 

"886 
"" 

DolUrt. 

iblieo 

"68 

2,365 

1.474 

86,484 

"420 
1,638,286 

"iii 

628 
81469 

Vwu. 

loslsis 

"224 
"■59 

"'68 

■"88 
1,911 

.... 

Dollan. 

S2'8loil 

"67* 
"861 

"m 

"488 
9,029 

Sweden  and  Norway. . . 
Swedish  West  Indies... 
Danish  West  Indies.... 

HolUnd 

Dutch  Eut  Indies. 

Pdfftnm 

England 

Canaila  

Other  Br.  N.  Amer.  pos. 
British  West  Indies.... 

Britlth  Hondaraa. 

British  Oulana 

Rrltlsh  pos.  In  Africa... 

British  Aastralla 

Franco  on  tho  Atlantic . 
Cuba 

I' 

11 

"! 

M 

Porto  Rico 

Cape  do  Terd  Islands. . . 
{Sardinia. 

KmMt 

Other  ports  In  Airica. . . 
Haytl.         

San  Domtnro 

Brull. 

Pern, 

Sandwich  Islands 

China. 

ToUl 

1,180,289 

1.171,085 

147,769 

186,112 

8,109,914 

6,179,280 

165,894 

1,698,855 

105,186 

t<89,968 

IRR 


1112 


IBI 


•lAMiiam  Miairat*  *ai  lirosn 

or  DoHwno  laoH  (law  aitd  iiamrraimrna)  taoii  tua  DamiB  •?*«■,  tot  tM 
TsAB  ■aoiMU  Jtraa  Mm,  18(6.                                                                 ^ 

1                    WUltar  nrcrtt4. 

RaMltn  pnMML  In  North  America, , 
pwedUh  Weat  IncIlM 

Mf. 

Bw. 

Halla, 

UMIaia, 

All  •ili»  imMi',! 

Cwu. 

lB,ji8 

"ioo 

OollM. 

26^666 
"mn 

""• 

"ioo 

101 

""* 

.... 

.... 

"'ii 
"w 

'"m 
"'is 

8,816 

DuUm. 

"is 
"mo 

ii,6ii 

411 

"28 

"iii 
"497 

"ioo 
"ioi 

11,881 

~*7foo 

H;4B0 
liMO 

"mo 

60^^10 

6,000 

647,417 

4I^N74 

80,416 

1,000 

6tS4W 
10,600 

6V,noo 

41,6110 
7,800 
V,1(I0 

40.000 

1,887,480 
70,740 

'ijm 

14,100 
16,60b 
10,0(H) 

lislni 

148,900 
11,600 

l!i6,701 
8,600 
68,40(1 
48,900 
41,100 
811,144 
66,.M0 
1,866,116 

167,800 

I.goo 

119,710 

8,600 

7,681 

6,T86,6S0 

IhUoi, 
810 

1,«T 

'iio 
"'is 

'l,A80 

166 

11.771 

19,828 

1,818 

U9T 

'8,167 
410 

'l,896 

1,766 

111 

898 

1,000 

7'8',iAB 
9,79T 

"ii4 

A89 

1,160 

A75 

°l',668 
6,406 

471 
8,711 

867 
1,681 
1,066 
1,768 
1,691 
1,798 
62,689 
2,868 
71 
6,871 

780 

800 
288,888 

iMIwi. 

"iio 
"'io 

"6i« 

180 

176,698 

61,190 

886 

16 

1,914 

86,881 

106 

"if» 

l,6i4 
101 

'"so 
"m 

"h47 

18 

144 

1,161 

'  'm 

'l',4i4 

178 

lAO 

1,94'^ 

1,001 

~a*«;8j6 

m 
t,mt 

8,661 

11,768 

6,6M 

847 

l,«W 

9(16 

HH 

81,141 

116,1711 

lll,f»B 

M»H 

All 

1,HII,AIVI 

>«,flfl6 

18,88^ 

i;701 

Hx 

7,MH 

101,807 

I8,4(l| 

149 

Ml 

W 
IKHI 

llu,4ii6 

878 

6(1 

116 

'l.NA* 

l.MMt 

IMIT 
19,1116 

Km^iiHU 

|N,9I1 

178,(1(81 
IH,W6 
16,666 
HI,1»6T 
1H,N6I 
68,778 
611,810 

76,689 

84,811 

8>6,7I1    1 

buli.h  W«it  IndUi 

Iliiuburg. 

Urflmun 

Holland 

Dutch  WdtlodlM 

Dutch  OaUnA 

Dutch  KMt  Indlcl, 

Ilclfflnm 

Scotland 

kllbraltar 

Malta 

Othar  Brltlih  North  American  poa. 
Brittah  WMt  Indloa '... 

HrttUh  Honduras 

Hrltbh  Oulana 

Britli  >  ixwwulona  In  Aftlca 

HrltUii  Auntralla 

BriCih  Kast  Indlci 

Fi'a.  "    on  tho  Atlantic 

Franco  on  the  Mediterranean  

French  Wert  Ini'los 

French  Gulaiia     

Hpat'i  on  the  Medltarranoan 

Cuba         

I'orto  Kloo. 

..™      -  .'' 

Portugal 

"is 

16,788 

"800 
iVilA 

Madeira 

Aiores 

Aualrlan  poMesaiona  Inltaljr 

Turkey  In  Asia  

Other  Dorta  In  Africa 

lUytX,                           

t$an  Uouiliitfo     

Mfiitco 

(^>«ntral  ReDabUfl. ..« 

New  Onnftda 

Veneiuela 

Braall 

Buenos  Arrea 

ChlU 

Pera. 

'Mandwlcb  lalanda 

China. 

Whale  FUberlea 

ToUl 

Iron- Wood  (Ger.  KisenhoU ;  Du.  Yitrkoul ;  Fr. 
Boi$  dtfer;  It.  Legno  di /em ;  Sp.  Plo  hierro;  Lat. 
Sidtrozyton,  Lignum  ferrtuin),  a  species  of  wood  of  a 
reddish  ca.4t,  «o  called  on  account  of  its  corroding  aa 
that  metal  iloes,  and  its  Iwing  rtmarkalily  hard  and 
ponderous — even  more  so  than  eliony.  The  tree  which 
produces  it);rows  principally  in  the  West  India  Islands, 
and  is  lileewiso  very  common  in  South  America,  and 
in  tome  ports  of  Asia,  especially  about  Siam. 

Irrawadi  (Krivati,  "  the  great  river"),  one  of  the 
great  rivers  uf  south-easlarn  Asia,  is  supposed  to  rise  in 
Tibet,  near  lat.  28°  north,  long.  97°  30'  east,  flows 
generally  southward,  traversing  the  Burmese  Empire 
throughout,  and  enters  the  Indian  Ocean  (Bay  of  Ben- 
gal) by  numerous  mouths,  east  of  Cape  Negrais,  in 
lat.  16°  20'  north,  long.  9fi°  east.  Principal  afflu- 
enta,  the  Ning-thee,  Mogouny,  Bhamo,  and  Lung- 
tchuen  Kivers.  In  lot.  17°  north,  it  separates  into  nu- 
merous arms,  which  cover  the  whole  kingdom  of  Pegu 
with  net-work  of  ramifications,  and  the  Rangoon  and 
Bassein  branches  form  the  east  and  west  boundaries  of 
its  delta,  a  region  comprising  upward  of  10,000  square 
miles,  covered  with  teak  forests  and  grass  jimglcs,  in- 
terspersed with  some  rice-grounds.  The  main  stream 
from  the  head  of  the  delta  to  Yedan,  above  Ava,  va- 
ries from  one  to  four  miles  in  breadth,  and  may  always 
be  ascended  to  Ava  from  the  sea  by  vessels  of  2U0 
tons,  which,  during  the  rains,  can  reach  the  influx  of 
tka  Hogouny  Biver,  800  milea  from  the  oceaii.    It  b 


usually  navigable  fur  canous  as  high  as  Bhamn,  lia>!d«a 
which  town  and  Ava,  Amarapura,  Nakulng,  Yitiiilitliu, 
Pagahm  Mew,  Prome,  Ilentlmda,  Uastein,  Mid  lluit' 
goon,  are  the  principal  places  on  its  luinks, 

lalnglass  (Uer.  Ilauienilaie,  UuuMiun;  I'r,  Ciilh 
ttepoittun,  Curlock;  It.  Culu  ili  peiiY ;  lt(i.4.  KIri  vllliltl, 
Karluk),  one  of  the  purest  anil  flnest  of  tlin  hiiIiiiuI 
glues.  A  variety  of  gelatine,  sninotlines  ci  'tail  ifklhi/- 
ocoila,  or  flsh-glue  (from  lxt'i(,njlih,  and  ««  ^'hi,  yliie), 
prepared  from  the  air-biig,  swimming-bliidih  : ,  iir  Miiiiiit 
of  various  flshes.  The  Kussian  and  HilHir.iii  laliiuliiaK 
is  most  esteemed  ;  it  Is  chiefly  obtained  frt-ni  sturgeiiiin, 
a  family  of  cartilaginous  flslics  uf  the  genus  /I  eiiitnuf. 
The  swimming-bladder  is  cut  up,  washed,  hihI  IIikii 
t>;:posed  to  the  uir,  with  the  inner  silv^'y  meiiiliriiiia 
upward.  When  dry,  this  menibrano  l>  .  iiniivtiil  by 
beating  and  rublung ;  tha  sound  ia  the;  prH|iiirKi|  In 
various  ways.  For  funning  what  Is  ci'led  /ni/ Islii' 
glass,  it  is  merely  dried  ;  for  long  and  ihiirt  Ha)ili),  It  U 
twisted  between  three  pegs,  hito  the  8)iu|Hi  of  11  liuraU' 
shoe,  harp,  or  lyre ;  fur  booh  isinglass,  It  is  fiildml  Ilka 
the  sheets  of  a  l)ook ;  for  ribbon  Isinglass,  it  la  rullod 
out.  The  swimming-bladder  of  A ,  tlurio  uf  tha  ( 'aa- 
plan  Sea  furnishes  leaf  isinglass  of  llirea  >|iialitl«a, 
known  as  JIne.Jiritt,  JirtU,  and  tfcomli.  A ,  //litili'H- 
ttitdlii  uf  the  Caspian  and  Bliick  8eaa  and  tlioir  (rlliu- 
tary  rivers,  furniHhas  caviare  from  its  nia  or  uvnry, 
while  the  swimming-bladder  yields  staple  and  lfi{f 
lilnglaii.    The  varietiaa  of  atapU  ara  PtUrimvh  Ailra- 


[SL 


113 


ISO 


Man,  »aA  AtlnMtm  JlriU,  uteonrli,  ap  unit.  Ii' 
Viirlall«»  (if  Imfnti  lAmtJirtlt,  irromlt,  uml  thinlt — tli« 
lint*  formlnK  th«  llnniit  Ivuf  known  in  coinmcrrn.  A . 
ru/nu*  nnil  A,  tlMUiu  alio  yield  Inlnglau.  Tliani  in 
»  Itinil  known  m  Itamnvfg  Uaf,  ftwm  Tanganrwl,  but 
thin  U  Infarior ;  there  in  alio  the  titan*  U(\f,  aalil  to  lie 
(ihtained  from  a  «mitll  Hah,  and  krotki  itinyliitt,  which 
U  made  intn  umiill  niemliranoui  diiikii.  I>inf{laiiii  i»  alio 
iirnriirpil  from  Hiliirit  i/lanit.  For  jnirtr,  pipf,  and 
lump  ItinKlaan,  the  awimnilnK-liliuldnr  i(  dried  un- 
o|ien«d,  and  the  varivty  known  aa  Sibrrian  purtt,  of 
moderately  good  quulity,  ia  greatly  in  demand. 

Uraiiliun  lalnglaia  ia  obtained  from  I'ara  and  Ma- 
ranham,  but  the  tlahva  whiuh  produce  it  liave  not  been 
iinmed.  For  the  variety  known  aa  pipe-JInail,  the 
awlmmlng-blaiblen  are  dried  unopened,  and  made  into 
jilpea  10  or  12  Inohea  long,  and  from  i  to  'H  inchea 
iiroad,  and  are  aometiraea  dlHtenilrd  with  air.  Lump 
Itlnglaai  ia  farmed  by  placing  two  awimniing-bladdera 
aide  by  aitle,  and  for  koney-cotab  ialnglaaa,  the  largeat 
lump  iainglaaa  ia  aplit  open.  Tliere  are  niao  varietiea 
of  Ulnglaaa  from  New  York,  from  Hudaon'a  Hay,  and 
from  the  I'^t  ludiea.  In  Holdavia  a  Tiirtety  la  pre- 
pared ftom  the  akin,  atomach,  Inteatlnea,  and  awim- 
ming-bladder  of  the  aturgeon.  Theae  are  cut  small, 
ateeped  in  cold  water,  and  ainimorrd.  The  Jelly  thua 
pro<luce<l  ia  ajiread  out  into  thin  luyora,  and  dried  into 
a  kind  of  parchment,  which,  on  lieing  aoftoned  witli 
water,  ia  rolled  into  cylindera,  or  extended  Into  platea, 
and  forma  an  inferior  iainglaaa.  (Jo<l  aonnda  are  alao 
used  for  n  aimilur  purpoae.  The  pnttnt  gelatin  pie- 
pared  from  glue-piecea  or  cutting)  of  hidea,  etc.,  after 
the  manner  of  glue,  ia  nIao  uaed  aa  a  aubatitute  for 
Iainglaaa.  A  solid  gelatin  in  thin  plutea  and  atringa 
la  prepared  from  bonea,  and  la  chiefly  of  French  manu- 
facture. 

Iainglaaa  ia  prepared  for  sale  by  being  picked  and 
cut.  This  was  formerly  done  by  hand,  but  ia  now 
elTected  by  steam  machinery  ;  the  thin  filaments  thus 
produc«d  should  be  whitiah  in  color,  dr}-,  semi-trans- 
pirent,  nearly  taatelera,  and  quite  devoid  of  smell, 
tainglaas  differs  from  glue  in  lielng  tough,  flbroua,  and 
elaatlc,  inateiid  of  brittle.  On  boiling,  it  should  com- 
pletely diss<ilve,  and  on  cooling,  ahould  form  n  white 
]"lly,  aoluble  in  weak  ncids,  but  separable  from  them 
by  alkaliea.  With  milk  and  sugar  it  ia  uaed  aa  a  diet 
for  invalids,  and  it  is  alao  uaed  in  the  preparation  of 
blanc-mange,  Jellies  and  creams,  and  for  enriching 
anupa  and  aauoeg.  Iainglaaa  is  no  longer  considered  to 
bo  highly  nutritive ;  it  ia  even  leas  digestible  than  the 
tlesli  or  muscular  part  of  animals.  The  great  con- 
sumer of  isinglasa  ia  the  lirewer,  who  uses  it  as  a  fining 
material,  for  which  purpoae  lump  isinglass  is  chiefly 
used.  This  is  deeper  in  color,  and  inferior  in  solubility 
to  the  better  varieties.  On  mixing  it  with  the  liquor 
to  lie  fined,  it  (tartly  combines  with  «ome  of  those 
matters  which  render  the  liquor  cloudy,  and  en- 
tangles in  ita  meshes  those  wliich  are  mechanically 
sua|irnded,  the  whole  then  rising  to  the  surface  can  be 
removed ;  and  the  liquor  be  left  ci>«ar.  Wine,  coflTee, 
nnd  other  liquids  are  also  clarifiea  by  isinglass,  but 
sole-skins  and  hartshorn  ahuvings  are  often  used  as 
BUbstitut  s  for  it.  lainglass  forms  the  uUhesivo  ma- 
terial in  court-plaster,  for  wliioh  purpoae  a  aolution  of 
iainglaaa,  mixed  with  tincture  of  benzoin,  ia  bruahed 
over  black  sarsenet.  Isinglass  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine  or  common  gin,  and  gently  simmered  by  placing 
the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water  for  about  an 
hour,  forma  diamond  cement,  or  white  JiiK-glue ;  gum 
ammoniac  is  sometimes  added.  Panes  of  isinglasa. 
Instead  of  glue,  are  used  in  France  instead  of  horn,  for 
lanterns,  and  also  for  lump-shades,  etc.— E.  B. 

Isle  of  Bourbon.  Merchandise  fVom  Europe,  or 
any  country  faoing  the  Mediterruneap,  is  inadmissible 
to  th*  established  entrepot  of  this  island,  nnlesr  di- 
fectly  imported  from  French  entrepots,  or  the  place 
«f  pioductlon ;  but  merchandise  of  any  other  origin 


may  be  Imported  under  any  flag.  This  Island  la  aita. 
ated  In  the  Imliun  Ocean,  between  latitude  'm°  AU' 
and  21''  21'  S.,  4  tU  milea  euat  of  Madagascar.  It  ia  of 
an  oval  ahape,  greateat  length  40  miles,  greatest 
lireadth  27  milea.  Population  ubtiut  100,000.  Area, 
1)00  square  oiilea.  It  la  Inter  ted  by  two  mountain 
ridgea,  with  volcanoes.  Thero  are  many  amall  rivers, 
but  none  navigable.  The  valleys  of  any  conaidorabla 
sine  are  not  numerous.  It  has  no  safe  harbor.  The 
climate  is  healthy  and  pleasant.  From  December  to 
May  la  the  hot  and  rainy  season.  The  aoil  la  very 
fertile.  In  1830  the  aurface  waa  distributed  into 
aliout  (15  parts  of  cultivated  land,  14  parta  of  paatur< 
age,  &A  parts  of  wood,  and  07  parta  of  waste  lands. 
The  cultivated  parta  encircle  the  Island,  and  press  up 
the  slies  of  the  interior  mountains.  The  articles  pro 
duced  are  the  sugar-cane,  coffee,  cloves,  cocoa,  tobac- 
co, and  groin  ;  of  these,  the  sugur-cane,  gruin,  and 
coffee  are  moat  largely  produced.  The  flsheriea  are 
excellent.  They  er-iploy  about  600  peraona.  The  flah 
taken  aell  in  the  ialand  for  about  (80,000  per  annum. 
la  1H4H  the  population  consisted  of  108,000  aouls. 
They  have  numoroua  brick  and  lime  kilna,  tanneriea, 
forges,  founderies,  tin-ware  fuctoriea,  breweriea,  and 
munufiK'turea  of  palm-leaf  bagging.  The  principal  ar- 
ticles of  ex|Hirt  are  raw  sugar,  coffee,  cloves,  dye- 
woo<l.i,  cttbinot-wo<id,  and  saltpetre.  The  staples  are 
enumerated  in  the  order  of  their  imp<irtance,  and  are 
of  the  annual  value  of  about  $5,000,000.  The  chief 
imiKirta  are  rice,  wheat,  oil,  wines,  cuttle,  timber,  salt, 
glass,  porcelain,  and  cottons  and  other  manufactured 
goods.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  U  about 
«2,KOO,000. 

laotbennal  (Gr.  iirof  and  Slpfiti,  heaf).  In  physical 
godgrupliy ,  imthermal  linei  are  those  which  pass  through 
those  points  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  at  which  ths 
moan  annual  temperature  ia  the  same.  Iiothennnl  zmtet 
are  spaces  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  having  the 
same  mean  temperature,  and  bounded  liy  correspond- 
ing isothermal  lines.  On  account  of  the  irregular  form 
and  disposition  of  the  continental  masscn,  liy  wuich  the 
climate  of  different  places  is  greatly  iiilluenced,  the 
isothermal  cunes  are  not  parallel  tu  the  equator,  ex- 
cepting in  the  very  low  latitudes.  According  to  Hum- 
lioldt,  the  isothermal  line,  which  corresponds  to  the 
temi)erature  of  32"  Fahrenheit,  passes  lietwoen  Ulea, 
in  Lapland,  lut.  €G°,  and  Table  Bay,  on  tho  conrt  of 
Liiirador,  lat.  54°.  Tho  isothermal  line  of  41°  passes 
neai'  Stockholm,  lat.  59J°,  and  St.  George's  Bay,  New- 
foundland, lut.  48°.  The  lino  of  60°  passes  tlirough 
the  Netherlands,  lat.  51°,  and  near  Boston,  in  the 
United  SUtes,  lat.  42i° ;  that  of  59°  lietween  Rome 
and  Florence,  lat.  43'-',  and  luilcigh,  In  North  '^.rolina, 
lat.  86°.  In  all  iVjm  cases  we  see  that  tho  isothermal 
lines,  in  passinf,  .rom  the  western  aide  of  tho  conti- 
nent of  Europe  1 1  the  castirn  coast  of  America,  deviate 
ver}' considerublj  toward  the  south;  the  deviation  in 
one  case  amount  ng  to  11^°  of  latitude.  In  passing 
over  the  American  continent  they  again  recede  to  the 
northward  ;  and  in  California,  and  to  the  north  of  that 
peninsula,  along  tl  o  western  side  of  tho  continent,  the 
annual  temporiktun  is  nearly  the  same  as  under  similar 
latitudes  in  the  we;  c  of  Europe.  F'rom  the  western  to 
the  eusterr  side  of  the  old  continent  the  flexure  of  the 
Isothermal  curves  and  tho  diminution  of  the  mean 
annual  temperature  uqder  tho  same  parallels,  are  not 
le.sa  conspicuous.  Tho  isothermal  line  of  55°  passes 
through  Nantes,  lat.  47°,  and  Pekin,  lat.  39i°.  Ed- 
inburg,  OTilKusan,  in  the  east  of  Russia,  have  the  same 
latitude ;  but  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
former  is  48°,  wiiilo  that  of  the  second  ;.i  below  38°. 
F'or  the  dlflbrcnt  causes  which  affect  tho  parallelism 
of  tlie  isothermal  lines,  or  which  produce  the  differ- 
ences of  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  places 
under  the  same  parallel  of  latitude. 

Humboldt  gives  the  name  of  itotheral  lines  (loof, 
and  dcpof,  summer)  to  the  currea  passing  through  those 


ITA 


1114 


ITA 


pticM  It  which  tha  ni**n  •umni«r  h«tt  la  th*  Mm*  | 
•nit  of  itnfkimmU  (iirnr,  and  triuuf,  inWrr)  In  thoM 
which  |Hiaa  through  th*  plamii  at  which  th«  maan  tain- 
paratura  nf  winlar  la  tha  iiama.  Tha  Imitharal  ami 
ia<H-hlmanal  ciirvva  ilavlata  much  mora  friim  thn  pnrat- 
IcU  uf  latltiiiln  thnn  tha  Inotharnial.  Thvlatlluilv*  of 
placaa  havln^t  Iha  aama  wintar  tainparatur*  anmrtlmaa 
dlftr  no  mui  h  aa  \H°  or  20°.  Tha  winter  of  Sccitliin.l 
la  aa  milil  ax  that  of  Milan.  Tha  niaan  ti'rn|H'rnturn 
of  tha  winter  inuntha  at  Kdlnhurtl  la  ahout  ll>i|°  ;  of 
Kaaan,  under  tha  aama  parallal,  only  'i".  Tha  wintar 
of  i'akin  In  aa  rl||i>roua  na  that  of  .Stockholm.— Hum- 
BOMiT'a  f'rm/mrHM  Atiiitii/iifi. 

Ilthmua,  a  narrow  nnck  or  allp  of  land  which 
connacta  two  rontlncnta ;  nr  Jolna  a  panlnaula  to  tha 
tarra  rtrma,  and  aaparataa  two  aaaa,  Iha  mnat  cala- 
brated  latliinuaaa  urn,  that  of  I'linnmaor  Darian,  which 
Jolna  North  and  Nouth  Amaricn;  that  of  Huax,  which 
ronnecta  Aala  ami  Africa  {  that  of  Corinth,  which 
unltna  tha  Murca  with  waalarn  (Iraaca;  that  of  Crlm 
Tartary,  otlierwlaa  called  Tnurira  ('hrrmnrtut ;  and 
that  of  tha  I'anlnaula  lb>manu,  and  Kriaao,  nr  the 
iathmiia  of  tha  ThracUn  (^haraonanua,  twelva  furlonK' 
broa<l,  l>elnt(  that  which  Xarxea  undertook  to  cut 
through. 

Italy.  The  nama  finlia  waa  originally  applied  to 
t°a*  axtrcmii  and  of  th«  paninaula,  aoulh  of  a  llnu 
drawn  from  the  (!ulf  of  S<|ulllaca,  >Sluiii  Srylnrrin,  to 
that  of  Htu.  Kufpinia,  >Vinu<  Trritxrut.  Ily  tha  time 
of  Thucydldea,  in  the  fith  icntury  n.c.tha  upiiallution 
had  already  extended  to  Metapontum  on  the  eaat,  and 
the  Poaldonian  (iulf  on  the  weat  conat,  thua  IncludinK 
the  whole  of  modern  Calaliria,  un<l  ((reat  part  of  the 
provtncaa  of  lluailicatn  and  .Salerno.  Tho  furtlirr  ex- 
tenalnn  of  the  name  wan  cotemiiorary  with  tha  pn)({- 
reaa  of  the  Itoman  power,  and  at  th«  time  of  I'yrrhua 
it  included  apparently  the  whole  penlnaula,  except 
Llt{uri«  and  Ciaalplne  Uaul.  In  the  7th  centur}-  of 
Rome,  tliouifh  both  I.iguriii  and  (Ciaalplne  Oaul  were 
(till,  in  official  usat(e,  diatinct  from  Italia,  yet  the 
Utter  name,  oa  wo  gather  fn>m  many  puaaagca  in  the 
claaalca,  waa  already  employed,  In  iiimmon  accepta- 
tion, to  dealgnate  the  whole  country  from  the  Alpa  to 
the  Sicilian  Struita.  The  official  acceptation  waa 
dropped  aa  aoon  aa  Auguatua,  In  hia  diviaion  of  Italy, 
Incorporated  Uguria,  C'laulpine  Uaul,  Venetin,  and 
latria. 

The  origin  of  the  name  haa  been  referred  to  varloua 
■ourcea,  all  equally  uncertain,  (ireck  and  Koman  tra- 
dition deduced  It  from  the  e|H>nymoua  hero  Italua,  a 
iuppoaed  (Enotrian  or  Pclaaglc  chief;  while  Timoiua, 
followed  by  Vurro  and  Oeliiua,  derived  it  from  Jtalm, 
which  In  olil  (ireek  algnlHed  an  «x,  from  the  quantity 
of  cattle  bred  in  the  country.  (Iracia,  niim  untiqua, 
nt  icribil  Tini(ru>,  Iniirni  rncnhnt  'IrnJni'c,  a  quorum 
mulliludinr  it  pulchrituiUne  rt /triu  vitulorum,  llnliam 
dixerunt.*  The  word  Vituliia  (calf)  and  Itatui  were, 
acconling  to  Kcatua,  aynonynioua  ;  and  on  the  denarii 
struck  by  tlio  8al)eillun  nationa  during  the  Social 
War,  n.c.  90-88,  there  occura  the  word  V'itelii  for 
lUly. 

In  early  timea  Italy  waa  alao  called  Satumia  from 
the  Latin  god  Satumua,  (F.notria  from  an  ancient  chief 
CEnotrua,  and  Auionia  from  the  Auaonea,  tho  Aurunci 
of  the  Komans,  who  oceupie<l  the  centre  of  the  penin- 
■ula.  All  theae  names,  however,  seem  to  have  lie- 
longed  to  particular  districta,  and  to  have  been  applied 
to  the  whole  country  only  by  the  I/atin  and  later 
Greek  poeta  ;  indeed  UCnotrin  would  appear  from  An- 
tlocbua  to  have  l>een  synonymous  with  Ilnlia  in  Its 
origioal  acceptation.  The  Greek  poeta  applied  to  it 
sometimes  the  name  Ifeiperia,  on  account  of  its  being 
to  the  westward  of  their  country.  The  Germans  called 
it  WadtUand,  because  the  parts  nearest  to  them  were 
inhabited  by  the  Gallei  or  Walles ;  and  in  their  pres- 


•  Vorro,  De  At  limtiei,  0.  6. 


ant  lanKuage  iha  nam*  of  WaalahUnd  la  atlll  ntalnad 
by  th*  riimni'in  pmpl*. 

Tlie  lofllesi  rang*  of  nimintalna  in  Kuropa  on  th* 
nortb-eaxf  north,  and  luirth-weat,  and  th*  a«a  on 
avery  <■•!  r  aid*,  form  tha  natural  iKiundarlea  of 
llah  .  Ilia  Alplna  ihnlii,  axteniling  In  a  aemirlr- 
ciilnr  form  fmni  tha  .lullan  Alpa  at  Iha  head  nf  ih« 
Ailrlatir  to  tha  Maritime  Alpa  on  tha  (Iulf  of  (innon, 
liivldaa  It  on  the  nortb-eaat  from  liiyria  and  the 
TvmI,  on  tha  north  and  ncirth-w»«t  from  Mwilaar. 
land,  anil  on  tha  weat  from  Krance,  where  the  llivar 
Var  (\'arut)  forma  Ita  ImuniUr)-.  From  thia  Alplna 
range,  which  may  l>*  caiia<l  Ita  baala,  Italy  projaita 
aoulh-eaat  In  a  |iflnlnaular  form,  and  nearly  In  th* 
■ha|M  of  a  iHHit,  far  Into  tha  Medlterranran  .Sea,  which 
take*  the  ililferent  namea  of — Adriatic,  Mam  Siiprmm, 
on  the  eaat  niaat — Ionian,  .Ifiirr  Inniinn,  on  thii  aoiith- 
eaat  cuaat,  from  the  ('a|ia  of  Sta.  Maria  dl  l.eiica  to  tha 
.Straits  of  Meaalno — and  of  Tyrrhenian,  Mnrf  In/rrum 
vel  7'yrrArnum,  on  the  weat  conat.  According  to  tlieaa 
phyalcal  barriera,  Triaatn  and  thn  province  of  latna  on 
the  eaat,  and  Nice  on  the  weat,  would  ha  nxcluded 
from  Italy;  but  ever  since  Auguatua  extended  Ita 
limlta  to  the  Var  on  the  weat,  and  the  Gulf  of  Quar- 
neru  (•Vmu<  t'lanntirui)  on  the  eaat,  they  have  been 
reckoned  aa  piirt  of  Italy.  In  the  present  |Hiiillca| 
diviaion  of  the  Auatrliin  empire,  liowever,  neither 
latria  nor  Trieate  la  included  In  the  l/ombarilo-Vrne> 
tian  kingdom,  th*  limlta  of  which  are  at  the  l*iin«o, 
nortli-eaat  of  Aqulleia.  Along  thn  north  iiiid  nmlh- 
weat  frontier  the  iiniita  of  Italy  have  at  different  tiiii  -i 
undergone  various,  though  Inatgnillcant  chungea ;  for 
the  Alpa,  though  preaenting  an  unbroken  line  on  a 
db'tant  view,  are  ao  deeply  indiinted  with  vulleya  aa  to 
m.>ke  a  natural  lioundiiry  posailile  only  by  foilewing 
the  watershed,  a  course  never  or  aviiioni  iidopteii  In 
political  arningemonta.  Hut  even  the  wulerahed  would 
not  mark  tlie  limits  of  different  nationiilitlea,  as  valieya 
which,  by  this  criterion,  should  not  belong  to  Italy,  are 
Inhabited  by  an  Italian  race ;  and  German  or  French  is 
a|>i)ken  In  distrlcta  which  should  be  included  in  Italy. 

Tlie  Italian  peninsula  is  situated  between  the  pariii- 
lela  of  N.  lilt.  4«°  30'  and  37°  b\',  and  K.  long.  U°  M' 
and  1H°  W'l' ;  if  the  Islands  are  Included,  the  southern- 
most iiarullel  of  lat.  is  !)i°  40'.  Its  length  in  a  direct 
line  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps  near  Aoata  to  the  Capo 
di  Sta.  Maria  di  I.eiiiia  {lapygium  J'romimlorium)  is 
about  1100  miles,  and  to  the  (.'apo  dell'  Arini  (_I,m<opt. 
Ira)  a  little  more  than  IIHO.  Its  breadth  varies  grciitly. 
From  the  moutli  of  the  Var  to  the  head  of  the  Adriatic, 
near  the  laonzo,  it  la  IKX)  niilea  ;  and  if  the  linn  lie  car- 
ried to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  near  Fiiiine, 
it  ia  more  than  HM.  It  narrows  rapidly  as  it  lieaienila 
aouth ;  and  from  Viareggio  to  Oervia  1<  only  ft'i  inile.i. 
Further  aouth  It  expanda  a  little ;  and  from  I'ioinbino 
to  Ancona  the  breadth  ia  1!I8  miles,  and  I.IOfniiii  I'upo 
dl  Mcosa  to  Brindlal.  From  Diamante  to  the  nuiiith 
of  the  Orati,  in  Calabria,  it  la  20  milea,  and  only  IH 
lietween  tho  Gulfs  of  8ta.  Kufemla  and  Squiilace.  It 
la  surrounded  by  many  islands,  tho  principal  of  whiili 
are :  on  the  east  coaat  the  group  of  the  Tremiti,  imrtli 
nf  Monte  Gargano,  and  S.  Pietro  and  S.  Paolo  in  the 
Gulf  of  Taranto  ;  on  the  south,  Sicily,  tlie  birgent  nf 
all,  the  Mpiiri  group,  Pantelleria,  Malta,  and  (iiuo,  .58 
miles  fhim  Sicily ;  on  the  west,  Capri,  I'rocidii,  and 
Ischia,  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  Gulf  of  Niiplea ; 
the  PonzB  group  opposite  (iaCta,  Giglio  near  Monte 
Argentaro,  tlie  two  large  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Cor- 
sica; and  between  the  Utter  one  and  the  coast  nf 
Tuscany  are  Ptanosa,  KIba,  and  Capraia.  Tho  most 
important  of  theae  are  noticed  under  their  respective 
heada  in  thU  work. 

The  sea  coasts  of  the  peninsula,  on  the  Tyrrhenian 
side,  are,  for  the  most  part,  protected  by  lofty  acclivi- 
ties, hnt  on  the  Adriatic  and  tha  Ionian  they  are  gen- 
erally 6at.  The  most  remarkable  capes  and  promon- 
tories of  tiio  peninsuU  ure;  Delia  Melle,  Manara, 


IT\ 


IMA 


ITA 


Ptombino,  Arg«nt«ru,  riri'(lli>,  MlHnn,  rrtrnpanvlla, 
LlroM,  Vatli-nnu,  l)*\\»  Ariiil,  iin  th«  woU  ■hnr*  i 
Npartlviinlii,  Uliiiiti),  Niii  iir  Cnlonn*,  Alica,  Ltiii'n, 
Uargann,  on  tli«  •oiitli-fiiit  mul  rMt  •hiir*. 

'I'ha  (KUiit  and  |H>|iiilatl<>ii  cif  llnly,  lrii'luilint(  Ita 
bUnila,  *ra  ahowii  liy  (lia  fi)lliii*iriK  IaIiIk,  which  la  to 


lia  cniiaMarait  M  maralr  a|>piu«(matlva.  In  atima  nt 
tha  nialaa,  Iha  ratumt  i>r  |M>|iuUlkm  art  nol  inuuh  al< 
InmlMl  In)  anil,  with  r«|(anl  lo  Ihalr  araa,  Ihar*  1h 
fraat  illacraiiniK'y  iMtwmiii  Ih*  varloiia  aulborlllM, 
ThU  talila,  hnwavar,  haa  Im«.i  iiimiillml  fnmi  Ih*  Htiial 
anthanllc  itaU, 


RaaMrfikallaliM. 

elaJ; 

imiIm. 

<,MI) 

4,«S0 

T.nno 

T.IKII 

l,«IW 
MM 

'  dr.!*! 

.... 

i'-i...i..i ,., 
«,*tft,nM 

«,'4IKV,M0 

S,»M,IAI) 

MW.MA 
ft,fillH,ITH 

H.iiiin,iiijii 
l.NiT.mxi 

ima.iKH) 
TniNi 

«n.i«i,i)jH 

WM.WI 
ItKMU 

l'*|fll«l  ffllU*. 

Naplat. 
ralirma. 

Tarin. 

I'aillari, 

Miran 

lliima, 

Kliirwiiiia. 

Muil.na 

I'arina. 

i«    Marina, 

AlaiMli). 
Valatt*. 

Kinrlam  nt  (h*  Two  llalHatl 

NalPlca 

Hl.lly 

Kltifilnm  or  MarilInU; 

I'lailniiinl  ami  Klvli'ra 

■  ■iaiKl  cirHarillala, , 

M 

t4 

M 

tl 

m 

tl 

J 

HMI 

»,IM 

1MWT 

i,ni) 

I'J.IHI) 

«,;h4 
i.im 

,.T|J 

t"T>«,(ll4 

I^niUrilo  VvuKilaii  Klii|iluiii 

Papal  HiMi'*. -, 

Oranil  Dnrhr  iirTiianny  dnrluillnf  LuaaM 

Ilurliy  iif  Minima 

Dui'hv  itt  I'aniia 

Ui-|>ul<lli'i>fH.  Martno. 

Total 

('orali'a,  bi'luitylng  to  Kraiioa 

1 
1 

114 

Malta  anil  Uoii),  bg|aiiK>n(  lu  Knfland 

ToUl 

M 

mu 

.... 

Tha  moat  iletiKi'ly  InhiililtKil  Stiitn  la  thiit  nf  I. una, 
whirl)  i-ontulna  A'.',')  inillvliliiala  for  every  mtuiira  mile  ; 
next  to  it  rum*  the  T.uinlinnl  provliU'Ka.  The  mnat 
thinly  Inhnhitnit  piirt'i  urn  thi>  ('anipat(na  nf  Kmne  ami 
the  Inlitnil  of  Niirillnia.  Italy  huK  ninrii  pnp'iloua 
town*  tliun  any  nthnr  State  of  Mtiroim  of  thn  aiiine  ex- 
tent. Nnplva  hiiK  inorn  than  .|n<l,00<)  Inhiililtanta ; 
Milan,  Turin,  Uunm,  and  I'ulernio,  each  morn  than 
lli((,()On ;  Kliironie,  Venice,  and  (iFniin,  nuiro  than 
1IH1,(K)() ;  f.i'){horn,  Mo»alna,  Veronii,  and  IloloKna, 
more  thiiii  r.0,1100;  I'arma,  Padua,  anil  Catania,  morn 
than  40,(K»() ;  Mantuu,  llrr|{iimo,  llre»el»,  Kiirrani, 
Modcna,  Piacenzn,  Ancona,  and  Ilari,  mora  than 
80,0<M),  etc. 

The  dtvtalon  of  Italy  Into  northern,  central,  ond 
■outhern,  ia  neither  political  nor  atrictly  Keo)(riipiiicHl, 
but  in  uilaptod  aomctimea  aa  a  I'onvonlent  df^i^nutiKn 
of  aomc  |>arta  of  the  country.  AcciirdhiK  to  the  gen- 
erni  acceptation  in  the  peninnula,  nortliem  Italy  Is 
underatood  to  include  Piedmont  nnd  the  Ittvlera,  I.om- 
liaMy,  the  Venetian,  Parma,  Si.)ilenn,  and  the  States 
of  the  (!hurch,  as  far  as  nn  imaginary  lino  from  the 
Gulf  nf  Spezln  to  Kuvenna;  central  Italy  includea 
Tuscany  and  the  rest  of  tlio  .States  of  the  Church ; 
and  southern  Italy  the  kingdom  of  Nnploa,  The 
division  in  more  common  use  among  natives  la  into 
upper  and  lower  Italy,  the  former  applying  to  the  por- 
tion north  of  the  Apennines  and  to  the  Itlviera,  the 
latter  to  ull  tlio  rest  of  the  peninsula. 

,  The  face  of  the  country  is  much  diversiflod  \>y  mount- 
ains, of  whiuli  those  forming  its  northern  and  north- 
western Imundary  have  Iwen  described  in  thii  worli 
under  the  article  Am'h.  A  second  range  of  ii  ount- 
ains,  running  through  its  whole  length,  determ'nes  its 
conllgurntion  and  its  piiysical  character.  V  i.m  the 
earliest  historical  times  they  were  called  Apeuninn — a 
name  suppimed  to  lie  of  Celtic  origin,  from  If  i  contain- 
ing the  root  Pen,  which  in  Coltiu  dialects  signifies 
heiglit  or  head. 

The  Apennines  may  lie  regarded  as  a  great  offshoot 
of  the  Alps,  from  which  they  branch  off  near  the  Gulf 
of  Qenou;  hut  as  there  Is  no  regular  break  in  the 
chain,  much  dlfferxnce  of  opinion  has  prevailed  as  to 
the  point  of  their  real  commencement,  Pidyblus  ex- 
tends thn  Apennines  nearly  as  far  as  Marseilles; 
Strobn,  un  the  contrar}',  extends  thn  Maritime  Alps  to 
Vado,  und  states  that  the  Apeimlnes  begin  nearOenoa. 
The  Littpr  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  the  best  mod- 
em geographers,  who  llx  the  Junction  of  the  Maritime 
Alps  and  the  Apennines  In  the  valley  of  the  Bormida, 
west  of  Savona,  whore  the  range,  which  does  not  ex- 
ceed the  height  of  1300  feet,  presents  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  a  break. 

All  the  rlvera  of  Italjr  tr«  gubjnct  to  sudden  and 


very  heavy  HikmIs,  and  with  Iha  exception  of  thn  I'o, 
tha  Adige,  and  the  Tiber,  have  their  volunia  of  water 
greatly  reduiml  in  summer.  The  iniignlHrant  amoiinl 
of  tide  in  the  .Mediterriuiean  rendera  moat  of  them  ua*> 
liisa  for  navigation. 

In  a  country  extending  through  10  ilegreea  of  lali> 
tilde  there  must  be  great  differencea  of  cllinata,  and 
consei|uently  of  vegetation  and  agriculture,  from  |k»I> 
tliin  alone.  Ilesldea  that,  however,  the  idimnin  of 
Italy  la  modlfleil  to  auch  a  degree  by  the  rangea  of  thn 
Alpa  und  A|iennlnea,  and  by  the  air  of  the  ana  along 
ita  coasts,  as  to  render  nseiesa  any  iliviiilim  into  regiima 
according  to  the  claaslllcatlon  of  Naiissiira.  In  thn 
plnlna  of  Loinbardy  and  Piedmont,  and  the  other  ler- 
ritorlei  to  the  north  of  the  Apenninna,  which  are  In- 
cloaeil  by  mountains  on  every  side  but  the  euat,  Kuli. 
renheit's  thermometer  In  winter  deacenda  lo  10"  | 
snow  lies  snmetlinos  a  fortnight  on  tlia  ground,  thn 
lagoons  at  the  mouths  of  the  rlvera  are  fruion,  and 
slight  night  fmsts  appear  early  In  November,  and 
some  years  as  lute  as  April.  Delicate  plants  do  not 
thrive  except  in  sheltered  situations,  but  the  niul> 
l)*rry-trees  Hourish,  rice  la  grown,  and  tlio  pattiirea 
are  rich.  Houth  nf  the  Apennines,  that  part  of  Tua- 
cany  and  the  .States  of  the  Church  which  Is  near  their 
main  range  Is  subject  to  great  cold,  but  westward, 
and  along  tlie  Kivlnru,  tlio  temperature  grows  mlhler, 
snow  seldom  lies  long  on  the  fields,  niiii  the  climate  la 
suitable  to  the  growth  of  thn  olive  ami  tlie  orange,  Hut 
it  is  when  we  reach  the  central  range  of  thn  Apaii- 
ninei  that  we  <1nd  the  coldest  districts  of  Italy,  In 
alt  the  upland  valleys  of  thn  Abrur.r.1  and  of  nannio, 
snow  begins  to  fall  early  in  Noveinoor,  und  heavy 
storms  occur  often  as  late  us  May ;  wiiole  comiiiunl- 
ties  are  shut  out  for  montlis  from  any  intercourso  with 
their  neighbors,  ond  sumo  villages  are  so  long  buried 
In  snow  that  regular  passages  are  made  between  tha 
different  houses  for  the  sake  of  communication  among 
thn  inhabitants.  The  district  extending  from  thu 
south-east  of  Luke  Fiiciiius  to  the  Piano  di  (Mnquenii* 
glia,  and  inclosing  tiin  up|ier  basin  of  the  Hungro  and 
the  small  lake  of  Scanno,  Is  the  coldest  and  most  bleak 
part  of  Italy  south  of  the  Alps.  Heavy  falls  of  anuw  In 
June  are  not  uncommon,  and  it  Is  only  for  u  short  tima 
toward  the  end  of  July  that  the  nights  are  totally  ex- 
empt ^iim  light  fVosts.  Yet,  less  that  40  miles  east  of 
this  district,  und  even  more  to  the  north,  we  llnd  thn 
olive,  the  flg-trpe,  and  the  orange,  thriving  luxuriantly 
on  the  shorea  of  tlie  Adriatic  from  Ortona  to  Vasto.  I  n 
the  same  way,  while  in  the  plains  and  hilli  round 
Naples  snow  is  rarely  seen,  and  never  remain)  long, 
and  the  thermometer  seldom  descends  to  tha  freezing 
point,  20  miles  east  from  it  in  tha  fertile  valley  nf 
AvoUino,  of  no  grett  eUvation,  but  encircled  liy  bl^b 


■f- ■■yji'ji^',- 


ISA 


1116 


ITA 


'moantabu,  light  ttottt  are  not  nncommon  u  lata  as 
June ;  and  18  mile*  further  east,  in  the  elevated  re- 
gion of  S.  Angelo  da'  Lombardi  and  Bisaccia,  the  in- 
habitants are  always  warmly  clad,  and  vines  grow  with 
difficulty  and  only  in  sheltered  places.  But  nowhere 
are  those  contrasts  so  strilclng  as  in  Calabria.  The 
shores,  especially  on  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  present  almost 
a  continued  grove  of  olive,  orange,  lemon,  and  citron- 
trees,  which  attain  a  size  unknown  in  the  north  of  Italy. 
The  sugar-cnne  flourishes,  the  cotton-plant  ripens  to 
perfection,  the  date-trees  are  seen  in  the  gardens,  the 
roclcs  are  clothed  with  the  pricl<l,r-penr  or  Indian-tig, 
the  inclosures  of  the  fields  are  formed  by  aloes  and 
sometimes  pomegranates,  the  liquorice-root  grows  wild, 
and  the  mastlch,  the  rosemary,  the  myrtle,  and  many 
varieties  of  oleander  and  cistus,  form  the  underwood 
of  the  natural  forests  of  arbutus  and  evergreen  oak. 
If  we  turn  inland  but  Ave  or  six  miles  from  the  shore, 
and  often  even  less,  the  scene  changes.  High  dis- 
tricts covered  with  oaks  and  chestnuts  succeed  to  this 
almost  tropical  vegetation  ;  a  little  higher  up,  and  we 
reach  the  elevated  table-lands  of  the  Pollino  and  the 
Sila,  covered  with  flrs  ond  pines,  and  affording  rich 
pastures  even  in  the.  midst  of  summer,  when  heavy 
dews  and  light  frosts  succeed  each  other  in  July  and 
August,  and  snow  begins  to  appear  at  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember or  early  in  October. 

The  cerealia  form,  as  elsewhere  in  Kurope,  the  chief 
aliment  of  the  inhabitants ;  in  Italy,  however,  the 
lower  classes,  who  are  the  most  numerous,  subsist 
much  on  maize  and  beans,  which  require  little  prep- 
aration to  render  them  fit  for  food.  In  some  of  the  south- 
em  parts  wheat  is  made  use  of  bj'  the  same  class,  both 
in  the  form  of  bread  and  in  that  of  macaroni,  which  is 
manipulated  with  great  facility.  Wheat  and  maize 
are,  on  the  average  of  years,  alwut  equal  to  the  con- 
sumption, but  little  can  be  spared  for  exportation; 
and  in  many  of  the  ports  are  depots  of  foreign  wheat 
kept  to  meet  the  variations  of  seasons,  or  to  l>a  used 
as  articles  of  commerce  with  other  countries. 

As  Italy  produces  abundance  of  wine,  and  conse- 
quently needs  neither  beer  nor  corn-spirits,  no  barley 
is  needed  for  these  drinks,  and  scarcely  any  is  culti- 
vated. Oats  are  but  little  grown,  but  almndance  of 
beans  of  various  kinds  are  produced.  Rye,  the  common 
bread-corn  of  the  far  greater  portion  of  Europe,  is 
only  raised  in  a  few  spots  in  the  ver}-  northernmost 
parts  of  Italy,  where  it  is  made  into  bread  for  the  poor  i 
while  those  of  the  higher  classes  there,  as  well  r.s 
throughout  the  whole  peninsula  in  the  cities,  make 
use  of  wheaten  bread.  Rice  grows  in  many  parts,  in 
fact  wherever  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  water  to  insure 
a  good  produce,  at  such  distance  from  towns  as  not  to 
be  injurious  to  tbo  health  of  the  inhabitants.  It  is  a 
part  of  almost  averj'  meal  in  families  in  easy  circum- 
stances, but  is  scarcely  used  by  families  who  are 
in  circumstances  that  require  the  practice  of  great 
parsimony.  A  great  variety  of  lupines  are  used  as 
food,  especially  in  the  soups.  In  some  parts  of  the 
mountainous  regions,  chestnuts  are  a  substitute  for 
com  as  long  as  they  last.  Fruits  are  plentifully  used, 
particularly  figs,  grapes,  and  melons,  as  food ;  while 
the  cheapneas  of  onions,  garlic,  tomatoes  or  love-apples, 
and  capsicums,  render  them  valuable  as  condiments. 
The  potato,  which  in  the  other  parts  of  Europe  has 
been  ,w  much  extended  of  late  years,  has  been  hut 
partially  introduced  into  Italy ;  and,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated, it  occupies  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  soil, 
lettuces,  asparagus,  endive,  artichokes,  and  several 
kinds  of  turnips  and  of  carrots,  are  everywhere  grown. 
Animal  food  i.^  far  from  being  extensively  used. 
The  oxen  yield  in  some  parts  excellent,  in  other  verj- 
indifferent  meat.  The  mutton  is  neither  good  nor 
abundant,  but  has  been  much  improved  of  late  years. 
Swine  fumish  a  plentiful  supply  dur'ng  the  winter 
months  :  they  are  also  prepared  as  bacoi.  <ir  hams,  and 
abova  ^  at  lausages,  the  fuma  of  which  <att«r  has 


reached  unto  England  under  the  name  of  the  city  of 
Bologna,  where  they  were  early  and  extensively  pre- 
pared. The  large  dairy  farms  in  Lombardy,  in  which 
the  cheese  known  by  the  name  of  Parmesan  is  made, 
and  the  oak  and  chestnut  forests  of  Calabria,  furnish 
the  most  and  best  swine's  flesh. 

The  fisheries  contribute  largely  to  the  supply  of 
food  in  Italy,  though  from  the  number  of  fasts  still 
countenanced  by  the  Catholic  church,  not  sufliolcnt 
for  the  consumption ;  and  the  deficiency  is  procured  by 
commerce  with  the  English,  French,  and  Americans, 
who  convey  to  the  sea-ports  the  salted  cod-fish  from 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Their  own  fisheries  on 
the  coast  give  much  occupation  ;  the  most  considcralile 
are  those  for  the  tunny,  a  very  large  flsli,  and  for  tlie 
anchovy,  a  very  small  one.  These  are  conducted  upon 
a  large  scale  by  joint-stock  companies.  The  lakes  and 
the  rivers  also  yield  some,  though  not  a  great  propor- 
tion, of  that  kind  of  food  which  ecclesiastical  restric- 
tions render  indispensalde.  The  sugar-cane  is  not 
cultivated  in  the  south  of  Italy,  as  it  is  found,  that  in 
point  of  strength,  as  well  as  of  cost,  the  sugar  made 
from  it  does  not  succeed  in  a  competition  with  that 
substance  when  imported  from  the  West  Indies.  The 
products  of  agriculture  are  sufficient  for  the  cloflilng 
of  all  the  inhabitants ;  for  though  wool  is  neither 
good  nor  plentiful,  yet  hemp  and  flax  are  grown  cver}'- 
where,  are  manufactured  at  home,  and,  from  the  lytt'ire 
of  the  climate,  linen  can  be  substituted  for  woolen 
dress  during  most  of  the  months  of  the  ^ear.  Some 
raw  wool  is,  however,  imported  to  supplj'  the  manu- 
factures, and  some  cloths,  both  from  England  and 
France,  together  with  (in  Lombardy)  those  from  the 
other  Austrian  provinces,  especially  from  Bohemia. 
Some  cotton  is  grown  in  the  southern  divisions  of 
Italy,  but  not  sufficient  to  furnish  materials  for  their 
very  insignificant  manufactures  of  that  article. 

The  chief  product  of  Italian  agriculture  is  the  silk. 
It  is  produced  from  every  part,  and  much  of  it  is  con- 
verted into  articles  of  dress  or  of  furniture  where  it 
is  collected ;  but  the  chief  production  of  it  is  in  Sar- 
dinia, Naples,  and  Lombardy,  whence  the  looms  of 
England,  Prussia,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Germany  are 
supplied.  The  value  of  this  commodity  exceeds  that 
of  all  the  other  productions  of  Italy  which  are  ex- 
ported to  foreign  countries.  The  manufacture  has  of 
late  years  made  great  progress,  which  it  is  still  stead- 
ily maintaining.  The  great  increase  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  propagation  of  the  mulberry-tree  has, 
within  the  last  30  years,  increased  the  quantity  of  raw 
silk  to  an  extent  that  had  never  before  been  dreamed  of. 

Another  very  important  Italian  product,  wlilcli  is 
used  partly  as  food,  parti}'  employed  in  home  manu- 
factures, and  extensively  exported  as  an  nrtidc  of 
foreign  commerce,  is  the  oil  of  the  olive-tree.  It  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Imttcr  in  the  south,  is  much 
appropriated  to  the  manufacture  of  many  kinils  of 
soap,  and  is  exported  to  England  for  the  use  of  our 
various  fabrics,  chiefly  those  of  wool,  and  as  a  luxury 
at  our  tables.  The  planting  and  watching  cost  hut 
little  labor  or  expense,  and  in  a  few  years  the  income 
more  than  recompenses  the  labor.  The  best  olive  oil 
is  produced  near  Genoa,  in  Lucca,  in  Tuscany,  and  in 
Calabria ;  but  it  is  plentiful  throughout  tlio  whole  of 
Italy,  except  in  Lombardy  and  in  Piedmont. 

The  wines  of  Italy  are  not  very  highly  valuad  in 
other  countries,  and  almost  the  whole  that  is  pmduood 
is  consumed  at  home.  Those  of  the  north  '  i'  fur  the 
most  part  disagreealdy  acid,  and  scarcely  any  uf  thnm 
aro  or  can  l>e  preserved  beyond  one  year.  Tho  vines 
are  not  so  much  grown  in  vineyards  as  in  the  liodge- 
rowB  ;  a  system  which  doubtless  injures  the  quality  of 
the  wine.  In  the  southem  parts,  however,  where  the 
vines  aro  grown  in  low  vineyards  as  in  Franco,  the 
wines  aro  of  a  mora  fierj'  quality,  and  though  prepared 
with  little  cara,  they  only  require  to  be  better  known 
to  be  etteamad  'jy  foreigners. 


ITA 


1117 


IVO 


The  minenli  of  Italy  am  of  mnilll  VUltM)  »nti 
tboiigh  ininea  of  gold,  Bllvar,  «n<l  uttppitf  wtttn  imt» 
wrought,  the  vttfnii  have  Uing  txmn  •*h«h«M/  Home 
alum  ia  found  in  the  I>([niI  dominkm*  itfld  tlM  Nmpott' 
tan  territory,  aome  vitriol  and  mUmimy  in  I'ftrirtM, 
and  aulpbnr  in  the  itisnd  uf  Nioily,  lit  mutiy  (flaoea 
there  are  excellent  marhia  (|UHrri«l«,  titit  tMMit  near 
Verona  and  Currara,  AUhaator  U  fuMtid  lit  mntiy  itt 
the  mountaina.  The  aait  manufifitMrnd  on  )h«  m«- 
ahore,  and  from  aaline  aprinKa,  I*  mHim  tltxn  la  r«' 
quired  for  the  home  conauiiipttiH),  and  a  lafK*  (|««ntitx 
might  l>e  exported. 

Direct  trade  between  tiia  Uiiitwl  Nl»lt«ii  «tt4  lt«ly  la 
conducted  through  the  porta  of  \mt\mm,  tUnim,  and 
Palermo,  to  which  may  Iw  odiM  tixt  AHatrtan  ^itt  (it 
Trieete.  Exporta  to  Sicily,  Hardloia,  a«4  Titaiiany, 
in  1854,  amounted  to  |4tl»,l  111  I  wIiIIh  Ut  TriMt«  they 
reached,  during  the  aume  year,  ♦l,7fil,7*(,  'J'iMt  *«lu» 


of  cotton  exported  to  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Toacany, 
durlnft  the  aame  year,  waa  $179,0931  to  Trieete,  it 
reached  $1,870,403.  The  value  of  tobacco  exported 
to  Hloily,  Sardinia,  and  Tuacany,  in  1854,  was  $144,- 
IW3 1  to  Trieate,  it  roachad  the  aum  of  $259,252.  A 
large  portion  of  the  exportu  to  Trieete,  however,  are 
puruhaaed  there  for  the  German  markets,  that  port 
(loaaeaaing  imuaunl  facilities  aa  a  leading  entrepAt  for 
many  of  the  Statea  of  German}'.  Many  American 
veaaela  clear  from  the  porta  of  the  United  States  with 
(largnea  deatined  for  the  marliets  of  "  Italy  general- 
ly i"  at  leaat  aiich  would  aeem  to  be  their  mode  of 
clearance,  from  the  cuatom-houae  returns ;  and  the  av- 
erage annual  value  of  cargoes  thus  destined,  exceeds 
the  whole  amount  of  cargoes  for  designated  points  in 
the  Italian  peninsula,  except  Trieste.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  value  of  this  triangular  trade  for  • 
period  of  86  succesaive  yeara : 


ComiitEcii  or  rnii  ITmitko  8t*t»«  wiTt*  IfkM  ilHilMMgn  MAVtk  to  Octobib  1,  1838),  taoM  Ootobbe  1,  1820,  to 

Ji;i,t  1,  1960. 


Ynn  •a4lii( 

Kflioni.                          1 

1.^. 

Wfatraor  then  wh  Id  BulUon  j        -.«.».».  Cl»r^ 

noiMWM, 

rml0,, 

TiHat, 

Total. 

Kipoit. 

Import. 

Amerleu). 

Sept.  80,  1821 

1822 

1823 ,, 

1824 

1828 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1880 

ToUU.v. 

Sept  80,  1881 

18:)2 

1883 

1834 

1836 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total.... 

Sept  80.  1841 

1842 

Bmos.      1848 

June  80,  1844 

1848 

1346 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1880 

Total..,, 

June  80,  1881 

1882 

1868 

ISM 

1868....... 

18156 

♦410,171 

640,714 
U6,W4 
76,8W 
66,606 
8|,»2ii 
74,4(7 
279,620 
«i»,76« 
(26,289 
♦»,2H1,»06 

♦871,6)6 

70,864 
106,786 
178,6  »6 
13»,47rf 
206,268 
8l8,6l<a 
8)6,l)»» 
1,189,888 
♦8,078,281 

(781,4)1 
6(6,677 
64),M0 
8)8,6M 
e87,8«U 
942,2«1 
1,064,022 
1,101,1)8 
811,460 

iM.m 

♦8,172,6117 

♦1,786,8:14 

2,178,746 

1,686,327 

606,6,')7 

467,4il7 

»*,47« 
M7!4¥» 

m,m 
(Hi,m 

«)(,2W 
4)4,(21 

mm 

(tO),*24 

n»,m 
m,im 

m,m 
m,Tii 
'tm,m 

Wim 

mm 

mm 

m,^ 

«»K,4I« 

IWI«,»<I4 

(2,»TI,»T« 

♦I27,4fl6 

»6«,«»W 

mm 

I>-«,184 

(,067,906 
6«l.8i<< 
616.A89 

timi,m 

«lll,«l 

m,1t*i 

Ml.'rll 

ttnm 

i*,«i(*,fwr 

4W/*7 
«V>,»4I 

mfitA 

M»,«7 
«('),(A« 

W,iM,r*(- 

»I7,»21 
t,M6,9t6 

1,«6n,rt«1 
Mn4,a«9 
IM^rtfl 

♦  (."MM.JIO 

(,7fi).70fl 
4*t,«20 

(978,448 
r662,098 
1,369,440 
1,029,439 
l,464,02il 
1,120,749 
1,013.126 
1,607,417 
1,409,688 
940,264 

♦2i5',66o 
88,692 

♦886,211 

271,944 

215,197 

70,303 

100,084 

74,259 

102,692 

67,582 

1,200 

2,570 

8,802 
10,066 
6,057 
6,111 
7,016 
8,208 
5,891 
6,615 
T,081 
6,626 

"461 

"767 
"418 

♦1,704,364 
1,619,796 

999,184 
1,422,063 
1467,977 
1,970,246 
1,827,181 

944,288 
1,182,297 
1,167,200 

♦68,692 
♦660 

♦1,201,482 

♦87,988 

4,400 

1,200 

18,805 

14,004 

2,614 

88',oi8 
6,728 
67,672 

67,812 

9,120 
6,042 
6,056 
4,482 
4,844 
6,868 
2,637 
8,041 
1,016 
8,071 

1,646 

"882 

426 

306 

268 

8,581 

1,810 

1,838 

2,602 

11,000 

1,267 

1,402 

1,117 

941 

914 

♦14,284,896 

(1,161,286 

3*4,664 
1,096,926 
1,301,677 
1,189,738 
1,279,986 
1.616,100 
1,660,S9« 
9,106^7 
fl2,6?8;62fl 

♦i(.0B1,«97 

1.234,906 

•63,714 

#1,728 

1,773,488 
1,686  866 

♦060 

♦8,780 
16,000 

♦180,769 

♦8,841 
1,414 

V,861 
2,400 

18'476 
7,719 
8,000 
4,023 

60,871 

6,282 
7,867 
8,380 
9,M0 
6,984 
1,196 

♦19,760 

♦42,288 

26,519 

2,898 
4,179 

8,6)1 

"237 
768 

The  commerce  of  Italy  has  sulfarad  tiiim  ttiM  «!«« 
rangement  of  the  government  i  uihI  MltlcotKh  favtif* 
ably  situated  for  a  large  troilu,  the  iiMirelmnl  tiiaiine  la 
•mall,  and  conflued  almost  eutirvlv  U)  i^oaallnK  Vfiaa«la, 

Import*  In  1862 ,   ,,,,,,,   \»itiH%t^ 

E»porta ..,,,  IO,m/»l» 

The  8cu<la=^l  m  at  llnlud  MtatM'  mtfumf, 
VALoa  or  THE  iMpoBia  iHP  %\ifnfiin  >t¥  \,mmnn, 

"oi'-t;."'  txi"      vzT 

1852 f^mm)      Mmm 

1863 ii6,*«Maa)        li/ivmin 

1868 142,26'l,orw 

NiTiQiTioH  or  Tna  I'oaw  ov  Civir*  Viwwhu  ami)  iir 
K*i:u»k  (1862), 


Vuiili. 


Roman,. . 
Foreign. 
Total.. 


'Kim 

187,728 


l,0ft; 

1,281 


:,«<i 


7,4»» 
20,1(7^ 


i.'U«i 

1,2)0  I 


tUittm. 


'li  l"m»if. 


The  mercantile  marine  numbered  nt  the  close  of 
the  year  1864,  1,893  veaaels  (of  which  210  were  ves- 
sels of  war),  having  a  total  tonnage  of  31,637  with 
9711  men.—f'iirfign  Com.  U.  S. 

Ivory,  the  name  given  to  the  teeth  or  tusks  of  the 
elephant,  and  of  the  walrus  or  sea-horse.  Each  male 
elephant  come  to  maturity  has  two  tusks.  These 
are  hollow  at  the  root,  tapering,  and  of  various  sizes, 
ilflpendirig  principally  on  the  age  of  the  animal. 
(,'olof  externally,  yellowish,  brownish,  and  sometimes 
dark  1  internally,  white.  The  Iwst  are  large,  straight, 
nnd  light-colored,  without  flaws ;  not  very  hollow  in 
the  atiimp,  but  solid  and  thick.  The  most  esteemed 
I'ome  from  Africa,  being  of  a  closer  texture,  and  less 
linbln  to  turn  yellow,  than  thoDe  from  the  East  Indies. 
TIrn  tfode  in  I.,ondon  thus  divide  them:— First  sort, 
weighing  70  jxiunds  or  upward ;  second  sort,  weighing 
M  Ilia,  to  00  lbs.  i  third  sort,  weighing  38  lbs.  to  66 
lb«, )  fourth  Bort,  weighing  28  lbs.  to  37  lbs. ;  fifth  sort, 


IVO 


1118 


IVO 


weighing  19  lbs.  to  27  lbs.  All  ander  18  Ibi.  an 
culled  tcrivelltet,  and  are  of  the  least  value.  In  pur- 
chasing elephants'  teeth,  those  that  are  very  crooked, 
hollow,  and  broken  at  the  ends,  or  cracked  and  decayed 
in  the  inside,  should  be  rejected ;  and  care  taken  that 
lead  or  any  other  substance  has  not  been  poured  into 
the  hollow.  The  fVeight  is  rated  at  16  cwt.  to  the  ton. 
— Milbdrm's  Orient.  Com. 

Supplji  of  Ivyry. — The  imports  of  elephants'  teeth, 
in  1840  and  1841,  were,  at  an  average,  5550  cwt.,  of 
which  4620  cwt.  were  retained  for  consumption.  'The 
medium  weight  of  a  tusk  may  be  taken  at  about  CO 
lbs. ;  so  that  the  yearly  imports  of  1840  and  1841  may 
be  taken  at  10,372  tusks ;  a  fact  which  supposes  the 
destruction  of  at  least  6186  male  elephants  I  But, 
supposing  the  tusks  could  only  bo  obtained  by  killing 
the  animal,  the  destruction  would  really  be  a  good  deal 
greater,  and  would,  most  probably,  indeed,  amount 
to  about  7000  elephants.  Occasionally,  however, 
tusks  are  accidentally  broken,  one  lost  in  this  way 
being  replaced  by  a  new  one ;  and  a  good  many  are 
also  obtained  from  elephants  that  have  died  in  the  nat- 
ural way.  Still  it  is  sufficiently  obvious,  that  the 
supply  from  the  sources  now  alluded  to  can  not  l>e 
very  largo ;  and  if  to  the  quantity  of  ivory  required 
for  Great  Britain,  we  add  that  required  for  the  other 
countries  of  Europe,  America,  and  Asia,  the  slaughter 
of  elephants  must,  after  every  reasonable  deduction  is 
made,  appear  immense ;  and  it  may  r  ell  excite  sur- 
prise, that  the  breed  of  this  noble  animal  has  not  been 
more  diminished.  The  western  and  eastern  coasts  of 
Africa,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  India,  and 
the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
are  the  great  marts  whence  supplies  of  ivory  are  de- 
rived. The  imports  from  western  Africa  into  Great 
Britain,  in  1810,  amounted  to  1933  cwt. ;  the  Cape 
furnished  only  97  cwt.  The  imports  during  the  same 
year  from  India,  Ceylon,  and  other  eastern  countries, 
were  2418  cwt.  The  Chinese  market  is  principally 
supplied  with  ivory  from  Malacca,  Siam,  and  Su- 
matra. 

The  chief  consumption  of  h  ory  is  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  handles  for  knives ;  but  it  is  also  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  and  mathematical 
instnunents,  chess-men,  billiard-balls,  plates  for  min- 
iatures, toys,  etc.  Ivory  articles  are  said  to  be  manu- 
factured to  a  greater  extent,  and  with  better  success 
at  Dieppe,  than  in  any  otiier  place  in  Europe.  But 
the  preparation  of  this  beautiful  material  is  much  bet- 
ter understood  by  the  Chinese  than  by  any  other  peo- 
ple. Xo  European  artist  has  hitherto  succeeded  in 
cutting  concentric  baMs  after  the  manner  of  the  Chi- 
nese; and  their  boxes,  chesvmen,  and  other  ivory 
articles,  are  all  far  superior  to  any  that  are  to  be  met 

with  anywhere  else. 

* 

Statkhrnt  Bi'ovtNa  iH«   Impoits  or  Ivoet  ikto  tor 

tiKITKD    BlATKS    FOB   TUB    FUOAL  T«AK  ENDING  JUNE 

80TU,  18S6. 


Whtnca  loiported. 

MMuhelorea  or.jI'uiiaiMliKlund.l 

Russian  Powes.  In  N.  America- 

i2'.oi8 
«,!iS8 

i;8«T 

s.iso 

lOS 

t898 

«^6S8 
ai,945 
SOS 
188 
960,278 
1T8 
88 

England 

British  Poisesslons  in  Africa. . . 

Kitnce 

rurtuml 

PorUIn  AlHca 

Clitna... 

Other  places 

Total 

%iijm 

1820,100 

aiilorical  JVbdce.— It  Is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  peo- 
ple of  all  Asiatic  countries  in  which  the  elephant  is 
found,  haTe  always  had  the  art  of  taming  the  animal 
and  applying  it  to  useful  purposes,  but  that  no  such 
art  has  ever  been  possessed  by  any  native  African  na- 
tion. Is  this  owing  to  any  difference  between  the 
Asiatic  and  African  elephants,  or  to  the  inferior  sa- 
gacity of  the  African  people  ?  We  incline  to  tliink 
that  the  latter  is  tlio  true  hypothesis.  Alexander  the 
.Great  is  believed  to  have  l>een  the  first  European  who 
employed  elephants  in  war.  It  appears  pretty  certain 
that  the  elephants  made  use  of  b}'  the  Carthaginians 
were  mostly,  if  not  w  holly,  brought  from  India ;  and 
that  they  were  managed  by  Indian  leaders.  Some  of 
the  latter  were  captured  by  the  Romans,  in  the  great 
victor}'  gained  by  Metellus  over  Asdrubal.  See,  on 
this  curious  subject,  two  very  learned  and  valuable 
notes  in  the  Ancient  Universal  Uittory.  Bcfpon's 
Article  on  the  Elephant  is  a  splendid  piece  of  compo- 
sition. 

Rendering  Ivory  Soft. — The  various  mechanickl  and 
chemical  processes  connected  with  the  manipulation 
of  ivory,  are  among  the  most  interesting  peculiarities 
of  art.  In  rendering  it  soft  and  transparent,  small 
pieces  of  the  article  are  laid  in  strong  phosphoric  acid 
until  they  become  transparent,  then  rinsed  in  water, 
and  dried  in  pure  linen.  When  drj-  It  is  tnmslucent 
and  hard,  but  softens  as  often  as  it  is  dipped  in  warm 
water  or  milk.  The  time  of  immersion  in  the  acid 
differs  with  different  pieces  of  ivorj-.  If  certain  parts 
are  to  retain  their  original  character,  they  are  covered 
with  a  varnish  before  immersion.  The  acid  probably 
acts  by  forming  an  acid  phosphate  of  lime  out  of  the 
buric  phosphate  which  constitutes  three  fourths  of 
ivory.  The  process  of  hardening  ivory,  which  has 
become  pliable  by  age,  consists  in  boiling  it  for  some 
time  in  a  solution  of  gelatin. 

Vegetable  Ivor,,  is  now  imported  chiefly  from  tlie 
River  Magdalen  into  Europe  and  the  United  States  of 
America ;  in  some  years  no  less  than  160  tons  of  it 
have  been  imported  into  England.  The  '-  nuts"  may 
be  purchased  in  the  toy-shops  of  the  British  metropo- 
lis for  a  few  pence  each,  but  when  bought  in  large 
quantities,  they  are  obtained  at  a  much  cheaper  rate. 
In  August,  1854, 1000  "  nuts"  were  sold  in  London 
for  78.  6d.  The  ivory  plant  is  confined  to  the  conti- 
nent of  South  America,  where  it  grows  between  the 
9th  degree  of  north,  and  the  8th  degree  of  south  lat- 
itude, and  the  70th  and  79th  of  west  longitude.  It 
inhabits  damp  localities,  such  as  confined  valleys, 
banks  of  rivers  and  rivulets,  and  is  found  not  only  on 
the  lower  coast  region,  as  in  Darien,  but  also  on  moun- 
tains at  an  elevation  of  more  than  3000  fert  above  the 
sea,  as  in  Ocana.  Among  the  Spaniards  and  their  de- 
scendants, it  is  kno>m  by  the  name  of  Palme  de  Mavfil 
(ivorj-  palm) ;  wWle  its  fruit  is  called  by  them  Cabc.a 
de  Negro  (Negro's  head)  j  and  its  seeU,  Marfil  regelal 
(vegetable  ivory).  The  Indians  on  the  banks  of  the 
Magdalena  term  the  plant  Tagva,  those  on  the  cotist 
of  Darien  Anta,  and  those  of  Peru,  PuUipunta  and 
Uomero.  It  is  generally  found  in  separate  groves, 
seldom  intermixed  with  other  trees  or  slirubs,  and 
where  herbs  are  rarely  met  with. — Botanical  Magadne, 
May,  1866. 

Ivoty  Blaok.  The  mixture  of  charcoal  and 
phosphate  of  lime  obtained  by  burning  bone,  is  sold 
under  this  name,  and,  like  other  forms  of  animal  char- 
coal, is  very  effective  in  depriving  certain  substances 
of  their  color. 


j*l.-».^^x_^-,ife.^. 


Si^irt-j^^%.-l^^jAr-.-^ 


3AD 


1119 


JAF 


peo> 
tnt  is 
aimiti 
I  such 
n  na- 
il tha 
or  sa- 

think 
er  the 
in  who 
certain 
jinians 
a',  and 
ome  of 
e  great 
See,  on 
raloable 

DFFOS'S 

compo- 

iciil  and 
ipulation 
uliaritles 
nt,  small 
loric  acid 
in  water, 
anslucent 
J  in  warm 
tlic  acid 
lain  parts 
te  covered 
1  probably 
out  of  the 
fourths  of 
which  has 
it  for  some 

y  from  tlie 
d  States  of 
iO  tons  of  it 
nuts"  may 
ih  nictropo- 
;ht  in  large 
heaper  rate, 
in  London 
to  the  conti- 
between  the 
of  south  lat- 
ngitudo.     It 
ned  valleys, 
1  not  only  on 
ilso  on  moun- 
ift  above  the 
and  their  de- 
Ume  de  Marfil 
■  them  Cabtza 
Marfi  regeKii 
banks  of  the 
0  on  the  coast 
'uUipunta  and 
>arate  groves, 
r  slirubs,  and 
itcahWrtS":""' 


bone,  19  »<"" 
of  animal  char- 
*in  substances 


J. 


Jack,  In  nautical  language.  Is  a  flag  of  colors  used 
In  making  signals.     See  Flags. 

Jaomel,  a  sea-port  of  Hayti.  This  port,  consider- 
ing the  scantiness  of  its  supplies  for  foreign  export, 
enjoys  a  considerable  share  of  the  navigation  of  Hayti. , 
It  forwards  to  Port-au-Prince  most  of  the  merchandise 
It  imports,  especially  the  large  quantities  of  flax  and 
silk  textiles  which  it  receives  by  the  British  steam- 
packets.  The  first  rank  in  the  commerce  of  this  port, 
formerly  held  by  the  British,  is  now  transferred  to  the 
United  States.  In  the  movements  of  1860  there  were 
under  the  American  flag  60  vessels,  out  of  a  total  of 
161 ;  under  the  English  flag,  46  (including  their  regu- 
lar ro}'al  mail  steamers) ;  and  under  the  Prench  flag 
only  6.  The  trade  and  navig.i » ion  between  the  United 
States  and  the  port  of  Jaciiiel  during  the  last  sis 
months  of  1864  is  given  as  follows : — Number  of  ves- 
sels, 30 ;  average  tonnage  of  each,  140  tons ;  value  of 
cargoes  inward,  #661,590  32;  value  of  cargoes  out- 
wan],  not  given  in  official  returns.  Cargoes  inward 
consisted  of  provisions,  lumber,  shingles,  and  assorted 
goods.  Cargoes  outwaiH  of  coffee,  logwood,  lignum- 
Titffi,  fustic,  braziUtto.' 

Jaoobus,  a  gold  coin,  worth  25s.,  and  so  called 
from  King  James  I.  of  England,  in  whose  reign  it  was 
struck.  There  are  two  kinds  of  Jacobut,  the  old  and 
new;  the  former  valued  at  26s.,  weighing  six  penny- 
weights ten  grains;  the  latter,  called  also  Carclui, 
valued  at  23s.,  and  in  weight  five  pennyweights  twenty 
grains. 

Jaoquard,  a  peculiar  and  most  ingenious  mechan- 
ism, invented  by  M.  Jacquart  of  Lyons,  to  be  adapted 
to  a  silk  or  muslin  loom  for  superseding  the  employ- 
ment of  draw-boys,  in  weaving  figured  good';.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  ordinary  play  of  the  warp  threads, 
for  the  formation  of  the  ground  of  such  a  web,  all 
those  threads  which  should  rise  simultaneously  to  pro- 
duce the  figure  have  their  appropriate  healds,  which  a 
child  formerly  raised  by  means  of  cords,  that  grouped 
them  together  into  a  system,  in  the  order,  and  at  the 
time  desired  by  the  weaver.  This  plan  evidently  oc- 
casioned no  little  complication  in  the  machine,  when 
the  design  was  richly  figured ;  but  the  apparatus  of 
Jacquart,  which  subjects  this  manoeuvre  to  a  regular 
mechanical  operation,  and  derives  its  motion  from  a 
simple  pedal  put  in  action  by  the  weaver's  feet,  was 
generally  adopted  soon  after  its  invention  in  1800. 
Every  common  loom  is  susceptible  of  receiving  this 
beautiful  appendage.  It  costs  in  France  200  francs,  or 
(40  in  this  country. 

Jade,  an  ornamental  stone,  of  which  there  appear 
to  be  two  varieties,  common  jade  or  nephrite,  and  taiU' 
twite  or  jade  tenace.  Common  jade  is  a  silicate  of 
magnesli,  oxyd  of  iron,  alumina.  Its  specific  gravity 
varies  from  2'9  to  3-0 ;  hardness  7'0.  Its  color  is  leek 
green,  passing  into  gray.  It  is  very  tough,  and 
icarcly  fusible  before  the  blow-pipe.  Nephrite  was 
formerly  worn  as  a  charm,  and  was  supposed  to  be  a 
core  for  disease  of  the  kidney,  whence  the  name  from 
vc^pof,  kidney.  From  its  toughness  it  has  l>een  used 
for  the  blades  of  hatchets  by  the  New  Zealanders,  and 
other  savage  nations.  Humlx>ldt  speaks  of  jade  stones 
being  an  article  of  trade  among  the  natives  of  the 
north  and  south  sides  of  the  Orinoco.  Jade  is  much 
used  in  Turkey  and  Poland  for  the  handles  of  knives, 
daggers,  swords,  etc. ;  and  in  India,  ornaments  and 
trinkets,  delicately  worked,  are  made  of  it.  In  China, 
the  jade  is  of  a  whitish  color,  and  is  called  yu.  It  is 
formed  into  vases,  rings,  and  other  articles.  A  great 
variety  of  jade  ornaments  ttom  India  and  China  ap- 
peared at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  IR&l.  Such  articles 
*n  veiy  costly,  on  account  of  the  extreme  difficulty 


of  working  thb  refractory  (lytwUnM,  liut  It  lias  b««n 
suggested  that  mort»r«,  p«»tk<«,  mhiI  mmu  other  objects 
required  by  cbemista,  i'omM  \m  HmtiMfi(«t«fe<l  of  jade 
of  larger  size  than  mn  iww  Iw  mmU  ut  agate,  and, 
from  the  slmpllclry  of  tli«  tdfmii,  »t  moderate  cost. 
Jade  is  polished  by  (>itrn«li«n,  (wt  It  takes  only  ■ 
greasy,  not  a  brilliant  iHtlUb, 

Saussurite  is  »  dniililn  •lllcfito  iif  nta^nesla,  lime, 
and  oxyd  of  iron,  with  MU<iit«  at  Mlumins ;  speclfln 
gravity  3'P  to  3'4,  bardiwsw  6'6,  U»  enht  in  graenlsh< 
white,  or  ash-gray ;  its  i^toMVUtft  U  in  twn  iirrectlons, 
meeting  at  an  angU  of  nmm  120",  Its  lustre  la 
pearly,  resinous,  or  vitrmm  |  It  is  ««tr«tnely  tough, 
and  is  fusible  liefore  (lie  litiiw--|il(w.  -^K,  tl. 

Jaffa,  or  Yaffil  (the  »iM'iAHt  ififpa),  Is  a  sea-port 
town  of  Palestine,  In  nortli  M,  m'  »',  east  long.  84° 
45'.  It  is  situate  on  An  ominrnM  ptuji^Ung  into 
the  sea,  about  40  mites  nnrtli'W«itt  of  Jerusalem,  It 
is  mentioned  In  the  Old  TMt«mHnt  MS  t)l«  putt  at  which 
the  timlier  for  Holomon's  'I'mnph  w«!*  tmstilpped,  Dar- 
ing the  wars  of  tlia  MI»<w«lM>*i<i,  it*  cllititiin^  wn^  set  on 
fire  by  Jonathan ;  and  it  wait  »nii\ii  (<lll»ged  during 
the  wars  between  the  Itmnanit  «Hd  tlin  Jews,  8400  of 
its  inhabitants  li«iiig  put  U>  tlti*  sword,  ntid  the  town 
burned.  Having  sulis«i|iiiintl)'  hci'iime  ttie  refuge  of 
pirates,  the  plaia  was  utterly  lUntrnymi,  Uradoally, 
however,  it  beiins  again  to  lmv«  risen  to  importance, 
for,  during  the  reign  of  thii  Chrtfitlait  smperors,  It  was 
made  the  seat  of  »  btftliapri*!.  In  A.  I),  690  It  was 
taken  by  Omar,  In  tlia  t'rusaitfit  it  was  taken 
by  Baldwin  I,,  and  ill  IIM!  ratiken  It)' Haladin,  In 
more  recent  times  (t  was  «tJiri»t(>(l  liy  Napoleon  in 
1797,  when  600  Turkiuli  nrliMiimr!*  were  put  to  death. 
The  harbor  of  Joppa  has  always  h«en  dangerous,  owing 
to  its  exposure  to  the  sea,  and,  Mnu  flow  nearly 
choked  up  with  sand.  vio>ii«i|»  ttn  iiUHgm  to  keep  at  a 
distance  from  tha  shore,  Notwitlistanding  all  tha 
danger  and  difficulty  of  Undlni;,  lUtppn  has  for  man^ 
centuries  been  tim  resort  of  |iil)(rlnis  on  tlidr  way  to 
Jerusalem.  The  town  cIiIji(I)'  faces  the  north.  The 
buildings  are  surmounted  by  Atllmmi  di.mes,  which 
rise  in  rows  above  one  aiiotli«r  like  terraces,  on  the 
steep  face  of  tlia  emin«ni'.t  on  wtiii'li  the  town  Is  built. 
The  summit  of  the  height  is  crowned  with  a  castle ; 
but  though  the  general  sttlMtton  of  the  town  Is  thus 
somewhat  pictureai)us,  it*  appearance  on  tloser  Inspec- 
tion is  mean  and  liimifortles*.  A  wall  12  feet  high 
defends  the  town  on  tlia  Ulidwaril  side,  and  two  forts 
protect  tlie  harlior.  Joiipa  Marries  on  trfole  In  cotton, 
soap,  fruit,  coral,  etc,  'I  lie  fruUs,  consl«tln)i  of  water- 
melons, oranges,  leniniii,  etc,  «row  well  In  the  sandy 
soil  of  the  numerous  nelglitHirtii);  gardens,  It  Imports 
rice  from  Egypt.  Tlifl  inhahttanl!!  consist  -it  Turks 
and  Arabs,  Itonwnists  and  iireeks,  with  some  Arme- 
nians, as  may  be  inferred  from  the  three  mosques, 
three  churches,  and  three  ArnMiilttn  convents  to  be 
seen  in  the  town,  A  Urittsli  consul  resl<les  here. 
Population  4000.— P„  It, 

Jafna,  tlie  capital  of  the  district  of  Jafnatiatam,  It 
stands  at  some  distance  fi'uin  tlM<  sea,  liMt  communicates 
with  it  by  a  river  navjgalila  for  larKe  lioats,  and  whloh 
fails  into  the  sea  near  Point  i'edro,  Tlie  town  Is  for- 
tified and  iMissesses »  gr)ud  cito'lel,  whlch,  though  small, 
is  exceedingly  well  liuilt  i  Imt  U  was  tfiven  'Ip  In  1706, 
after  a  short  resistanctfi  to  Ilia  Uritlsh  troops,  The 
situation  is  saiuiiriuus,  awl  Wving  is  ctieap  t  on  which 
account  many  families  liuvs  removed  (o  this  place  from 
Coluinbo.  Tlie  greater  part  of  ttie  Inhabitants  are  of 
Mohammedan  extraction,  An<l  are  divided  Into  several 
tribes,  known  by  the  naniM  of  liUldiahs,  Moplays, 
Chittees,  and  Cbolias,  Th»  foretgn  settlers  tr«  mora 
numerous  tb«D  tb«  iw(iv»  ialMbldtnte.    Thei*  im 


^AM 


iieo 


JAM 


manufactures  of  coarse  cotton  clotbs,  callcoM,  band" 
kercliiofs,  shawls,  stockings,  etc.,  and  there  are  also 
many  artificers,  such  as  goldsmiths,  jewelers,  joiners, 
and  caliiaet-makers. — E,  13. 

Jalap,  or  Jalop  (Ger.  Jahpp;  Fr.  Jalap/  It. 
Seiarappo  ;  8p.  Jalapa%  the  root  of  b  certain  convol- 
vulus, so  named  from  Xalapa,  in  Mexico,  whence  we 
chiefly  import  it.  The  root,  when  brought  to  this 
country,  is  in  thin  transverse  slices,  solid,  hard, 
weight}-,  of  a  blackish  color  on  the  outside,  and  inter- 
nally of  a  dark  gray,  with  black  circular  striae.  The 
hardest  and  darkest  colored  is  the  best ;  that  which 
is  liglit,  spongy,  and  pale  colored,  should  be  rejected. 
The  odor  of  jalap,  especially  when  in  powder,  is  very 
characteristic.  Its  taste  is  exceedingly  nauseous,  ac- 
companied by  a  sweetish  bitterness. — Lewis's  ifal, 
Med. ;  Bbande'9  Pharmacy. 

In  Mexico,  from  4000  to  6000  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  grows  the  plant  which  yields  ttue  Jalap,  and 
whtcb  has  been  called  by  botanists  Convolvulut  purga, 
and  Ipomaa  purga,  the  latter  name  being  adopted  l>y 
De  Candolle.  It  has  since,  however,  been  placed  in 
the  genus  Exogonmm.  Tlie  true  jalap  (Krogonium 
purga)  has  a  tuberous  perennial  root,  a  smooth,  twin- 
ing, annual  stem,  a  salver-shaped  corolla,  with  long 
cylindrical  tube,  a  calyx  of  Ave  small,  unequal  sepals, 
and  herbaceous  stems.  Its  leaves  resemble  the  ivy, 
and  its  beautiful  red  flowers  open  onl}'  at  night.  The 
dried  tubers  of  this  plant  supply  the  drug  jalap ; 
these,  as  found  in  commerce,  rarely  exceed  1  lb.  in 
weight ;  they  are  oval  in  form,  and  covered  with  a 
dark  slcln  or  cuticle.  _  Internally  they  are  yellowish 
gray,  with  deep  brown  concentric  circles,  and  are  liard 
and  difficult  to  powder.  Inferior  sorts  are  more  irreg- 
ular in  form,  and  are  called  tpurioun  jalap,  or,  from 
their  shape,  cocked-hat  jalap.  Some  roots  are  much 
Korm-eatm,  and  are  so  called ;  but  as  the  insects  do 
not  touch  the  resinous  portions,  such  roots  are  avail- 
able for  extracts.  Four  kinds  of  jalap  are  known  in 
commerce,  two  genuine  and  two  spurious ;  first,  dark, 
heavy,  resinous  tubers ;  secondly,  lighter  colored  and 
less  resinous ;  thirdly,  white  or  fake  jalap,  pieces  of 
which  are  occasionally  mixed  with  the  true ;  and, 
fourthly,  _/a/o/)-j(<iii  or  woody  jalap,  the  slices  of  which 
are  more  fibrous  and  woody  than  the  genuine.  Tliere 
are  about  200,000  lbs.  of  the  pure  jalap  annually  e%- 
ported  from  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
sea-port  of  Jalapa. 

Jalapa,  or  Xalapa,  a  town  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
a  cognominal  department,  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cru^. 
It  is  situated  on  a  small  plain  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of 
hills  55  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  Vera  Cruz,  and 
about  4500  feet  alrave  the  sea  level.  On  account  of  its 
exhilarating  climate  it  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the  iit- 
haliitants  of  Vera  Cruz  when  the  vomilo  priftn  is  prev- 
alent there.  The  only  building  of  importance  is  an 
old  church,  which  is  believed  by  the  people  to  have 
been  founded  l)y  Cortez.  Cotton  is  manufactured,  Itut 
its  trade  has  greatly  diminished.  In  the  neighl)orhood 
grows  the  creeping-plant,  Exogonium  purga,  or,  as  it  is 
called  from  this  town,  Jalap.  The  population  of  the 
department  is  estimated  at  46,000,  and  the  town  at 
16,000  persons. 

Jamaica,  an  island  lying  off  the  Bay  of  Honduras, 
between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  within 
N.  lat.  17°  40'  and  18°  30',  and  W.  long.  76°  10'  and 
78°  80',  about  4000  miles  S.W.  of  England,  80  S.  of 
Cuba,  90  W.  of  St.  Domingo,  and  516  iciles  N.  of 
Chagres,  the  Atlantic  port  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama- 
It  is  the  most  southern  of  that  group,  which  is  culled 
by  some  the  Greater  Antilles,  by  others  the  I.eeward 
Islands.  The  latter  name,  however,  is  now  generally 
applied  to  the  smaller  islands  on  the  nnrth-east,  and 
sometimes  to  those  on  the  south  of  the  Ci-rilibesn  Sea. 
It  is  the  largest,  and  was  formerly  the  most  valuable 
of  the  British  West  Indies,  being  140  geographical 
milea  In  length,  by  50  in  extreme  brciidth,  and  con- 


tafnlog  fi\)a^  4/M,0&i  ntfM,  or  6400  iqnare  mile* 
Within  Hm  mfttrnmttnl  ars  comprised,  besides  the 
tbraa  nmM  Mnfltin  (<«IM  the  Caymanas,  Belize,  or 
UrUiMt  lUmtiuimi,  m  tim  tntAn  land  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, with  \lmi»i  mii  f4h«r  Islands  in  the  Bay  of  Hon- 
dmriM,  'I'bMO  ^»tm,  ttMWKfa  distant  respeotlrely  600 
and  Wi  m\\$ii,  mus  iumtt  «Mlf«d  ths  dapendencies  of 
HmnUm,  »fl4  »1ti  mUiA  tif  s»p«rtnt«ndents  appofaited 
by  Urn  fsnimmf,  Th«  title  tit  Britain  was  disputed 
by  Mp«fn  in  (h«  mtt\f  f  mrt  nf  tfi«  last  century,  and  the 
liay  \»\mA»  WMH  ^iirtm  ^  to  that  power  by  the  treaty 
of  hntiim  to  I7«W,  (rtrt  ww*  fo-wcupied  by  the  British 
during  (iMi  tm>im\tmni  w«f/  Having,  with  the  Mos> 
quitA  'i'gtfUtiff,  dmttM  Ibd  Htlhjtet  tit  dispute  Iwtwccn 
tiroat  IMMfn  »h4  IIh)  t/nitml  Mates,  arising  out  of  the 
CUyt(»n--ilMiw«r  tfWrtf ,  ihttf  hav*  (1856)  been  consti- 
tutad  «« ttm  tMffUttry  #«/W  the  retmblic  of  Honduras, 
with  itruvliMX  ittiHilik  AlMfMtkm,  th«  erection  of  forts, 
and  t(M»  imf4i4miUtH  tit  nUtety. 

iitnmim  wm  iti!>4':4tiinf«4  liy  Colombns  on  the  3d  of 
Mi»y,  Wi,  mMk  ttmtiiinf  alnna  the  south  of  Cuba, 
during  Ui»  <MWW4  fitfttgHi  He  called  U  St.  Jago,  after 
ths  imt-nm  »mint  t)i  lipnin,  but  it  Is  now  generally 
known  by  ft4  MiiVH  nrntm  iUttuk»,  a  word  signifying 
tha  U\ft  ))(  l*prfnff<«f  «««Mf<llN|i$  to  the  best  authorities, 
though  l4me  Am^/tm  ^  frim  a  kmd  of  fmit.  It  is 
80W«{im««  MifHtm  %l^f^^tl^et^  by  the  Spaniards.  On  a]>- 
priHulmn  Urn  nlmtCf  i'tiiutntmi  called  the  nearest  land 
»A«r  \m  am  <!l«)t*,  thntu  MaHs,  a  name  still  preserved 
in  I'on  M#m/  ll«  «ff«4«d  a  landing  a  little  t(  tlio 
we«tw»rd,  <tt  0«  (;«♦««*»,  where,  after  a  slight  oppo- 
sition fnm  tim  Wttitx^i,  h«  (mk  possession  of  the  coun- 
try, with  ttm  WStwl  fi^walities,  for  the  king  of  Spain. 
T\vi  mUMiUitnln  W«»  ihi  nume  mild,  inoffensive  race 
OS  thnut  itf  Culm  Afffl  liityH.  Mke  the  Arowaks  of 
TrinM.iMt  »nA  (iuiimn,  ikity  were  probably  offshoots  of 
tba  grsst  t^^mnn  **«'(«(  awd  very  dlffereWt  from  the 
(i«r«»  t!#ril»<*  ttf  tht^  Wlwiward  Islands.  After  a  short 
stay,  I'Mumttm  n»iU^4  Jamaica,  which  remained  un- 
dfsturiisd  ftir  Ilim  yfltf»,  In  Jane,  1508,  on  his  fourth 
and  l««t  vitj^Mfi  b#  mtn  driven  l>y  a  tempest,  in  which 
ha  bxHt  tWH  sWjw..  i4t  M  tmy  on  the  north  side  of  the  isl- 
and, whi«b  h"  nrntwA  ftta.  GI(rti«  (now  St.  Ann's  Hay), 
wb«ra  h»  ritn  hU  fftniiitlittg  vessels  ashore  in  a  small 
inH  Dtili  tmitM  fitm  Obflslwpher's  Cove.  Tlie  ship- 
wre«k«4  mUfiimi*  #«f«  fWflved  with  the  greatest 
kindni'M  ity  tMtt  f ((4ii»rt#y  and  here  Colum)>ns  remained 
upward  i)f»  fmr  #w«iti«^  ih^  return  of  messengers  he 
had  4i»(«fci|wi4  tii  ilvittidof  Kirrtrtnar  of  Ilispaniola,  as 
<!m1>»  w»«  ihim  fniM,  JWrtnji  this  time  he  suffered 
miM^h  ffnm  4imim,  hh  W*11  as  from  the  mutiny  of  his 
folbfwer^,  wfcwi  ufim  wisfondnct  alienated  the  In- 
dians, #n4  fffiiViikf'i  lb«M  f«  withhold  their  accus- 
tomed eMM/)w<«,  miii  he  dfttlwfously  worked  upon  their 
su|wr«ltitl"n  by  ttfitfltiontiiititig  an  eclipse. 

J}y  |';8«|MJVii'l  ♦((#  ««ff*«s  Wete  treated,  according  to 
Hsrrisra,  with  «ffM,s(«#l  h«Wf(«lfy.  That  his  successors 
did  n«t  (mfttttc  Mm  Ul  this  respect  is  proved  by  the 
astoundiffi;  (itt>t,  «((*(„  nf  the  Indian  popidation,  at  this 
tinxt  eatUmtM  ul  tftita  00,000  to  ]  ((0,000  souls,  not  a 
d«i»r«n4#pt  lit  Mm  s«*  «*lsied  In  1655,  when  the 
isiiind  (4i  inUi  tiw  hittuh  iit  the  English,  nor,  is  It 
suppi(»»4,  (ttf  mutiy  *  ffiHtlfr  Irefore.  After  a  short 
sway,  KsiiiMivci  dl^4  Iff  fkfUH  d'Oro,  a  town  founded 
l)y  liinmf  tm  Ht,  Ahn'n  Way,  wMch  is  supposed  by 
some  U)  If****  imm  tki*tiH»i  an  account  of  the  ravages 
of  ants,  by  t4h4»fi  t4i  Unfit  lieen  destroyed  during  an 
in<urr«f'tf^  flf  ih*  Iw/lMfiS;  lf»  premature  fall  was, 
howavsr,  mM  ((fwtwbly  wwlnji  to  the  attacks  of  French 
fliliU»tl«»s,  tir  mutfti,  ♦bo  f(rr  »  long  period  infested 
tli«s«  Pim»U,  T(m»  fitft  lit  the  town  may  still  be  traced 
by  nw»H4«  n(»HfiMf  ««  #*ll  ss  In  the  names  of  certain 
fialds  \te\tmt^nii  t4i  itltt  *lrtlle  sugar  plantation.  Mel- 
ilia,  n«"tr  t'ttftmHfiitt  iifi  according  to  another  opinion, 
at  M»rtb»  llr*»,  m»t  Piiitnoth,  shared  the  same  fate. 
Al^fint  thi>  Vtittt  1M!t,  iHego  Columbus,  visiting 
iimMm  ttm»  Ui»p»Vi(A»,  tutine.tid  tm  the  River  Cobre, 


JAM 


1121 


JAM 


Inland  to  the  aonth  of  the  mountain  range,  St.  .Tago  de 
la  Vega,  St.  James  of  the  Plain,  which  gave  the  title 
of  marquis  to  his  descendants,  and  is  still  the  official 
capital,  under  the  name  of  Spanish  Town,  At  some 
distance  westward,  on  the  coast,  was  built  Oristan, 
which  is  now  called  DIuefielda.  Down  to  1596  the 
hlstorj-  of  Jamaica  is  onl;  -  record  of  the  rapid  disap- 
pearance of  the  Indians,  under  the  Spanish  yoiie,  and 
of  intrigues  at  the  court  of  Spain,  liaving  for  their  ob- 
ject the  dispossession  of  the  descendants  of  Columbus, 
whose  rights  wore,  however,  successfully  defended, 
and  eventually  centred  in  an  heiress,  through  whom 
they  passed  by  marriage  to  tlie  liouse  of  Braganza, 
reverting  afterward  to  the  Spanish  crown,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  revolution  of  IGIO,  which  placed  John, 
duke  of  Braganza,  on  the  throne  of  Portugal.  Long 
anterior  to  this  last  event,  the  union  of  the  crowns  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  under  Philip  11.,  in  1680,  occa- 
sioned an  influx  of  Portuguese  colonists  into  Jamaica, 
who  contributed  much  to  its  strength  and  prosperity, 
but  were  usually  on  indifferent  terms  with  Spanish 
settlers.  Attention  had  at  an  early  period  been  paid 
to  agriculture,  the  cotton-plant  was  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  the  sugur-cane,  vine,  and  various  kinds  of 
com  and  grass  had  been  introduced ;  and  whereas  a 
small  species  of  dog,  called  the  alco.  was  the  only  do- 
mestic quadruped  linown  to  the  aborigines,  horwf, 
horned  cattle,  and  swine  had  been  imported  from  Ilis- 
paniola,  which  multiplied  amazingly,  and  a  flourishing 
trade  sprang  up  in  lard  and  bides,  as  well  as  tobacco, 
sugar,  and  ginger. 

The  population,  according  to  the  return  of  1855, 
consists  of  181,633  males,  and  195,800  females;  but 
this  is  based  npon  the  last  census,  that  of  1814,  when 
the  population  was  returned  at  380,000,  of  whom  16,000 
were  white,  68,000  colored,  and  the  rest  black,  of  whom 
about  1200  were  maroons.  Since  then  upward  of  40,000 
people  have  died  from  cholera  and  small-pox,  and  about 
2000  have  emigrated  to  Navy  Bay  to  work  on  the  rail- 
way over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  a  portion  of  whom 
only  have  returned.  The  careless  treatment  of  chil- 
dren by  the  negroes,  and  their  almost  invincible  re- 
pugnance to  pay  doctors'  fees,  which  has  necessarily 
reduced  the  number  of  medical  practitioners,  prevent 
the  natural  rate  of  increase ;  and  the  waste  of  public 
money  during  the  protracted  dispute  between  the 
Council  and  House  of  Assembly,  has  caused  the  num- 
ber of  immigrants  imported  to  fall  very  short  of  other 
colonies.  We  find,  in  consequence,  that  while  49,000 
arrived  in  British  Guiana  between  the  years  1840  and 
1852  only  14,000  were  brought  to  Jamaica.  The  fol- 
lowing returns  have  been  made  by  the  Emigration 
Commissioners  of  Immigrants  introduced  into  Jamaica 
from  1848  to  1855,  both  inclusive : 

Emanclpadoes  fh)m  Havana 276 

Blerra  lione 1,870 

St.  Hcloni. 8,198 

Madeira 879 

China 472 


Total.. 


6,195 


Besides  which  there  were  still  in  the  island  1684  coolies 
who  had  arrived  before  1847,  and  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  recaptured  Africans,  The  criminal  returns  of 
this  population  are  remarlcably  favorable ;  tho  num- 
ber in  prison  throughout  the  island  on  the  31st  De- 
cember, 1855,  was  only  683;  and  Sir  H.  Borkly 
reports  that  the  numbers  convicted  of  crimes  in 
Jamaica  when  compared  with  British  Guiana  were  as 
18  to  83. 

The  revenue  of  Jamaica  was  estimated,  in  a  calcu- 
lation made  in  1830,  on  an  average  of  ten  years,  at 
£490,000  currency,  or  about  .£327,000  sterling.  .  This 
was  independent  of  that  raiaed  by  the  vestries  for 
parochltl  purposes,  which  amounted  to  about  i.'300,000 
currency,  or  ^£200,000  sterling.  Tho  public  revenue 
of  1841  was  £226,989,  IBs.  Bd.;  the  parochial,  ^£177,- 
491, 12s.  lOd.  rterling.  The  public  ezpendUnie,  I'S&l,- 
4B 


415, 16s,  Od, ;  the  parochial,  .£160,867,  16s,  8d.  In  the 
year  1854,  owing  to  tho  suspension  of  the  import  and 
rum  duties,  and  consequent  large  accumulation  of  tax- 
able articles  which  had  paid  nothing  to  tho  treasury, 
the  revenue  fell  to  .£116,624  sterling,  while  the  expen- 
diture was  X197,6,S8.  In  1856  tiie  following  return  was 
made:  Income. — Ordinary  revenue,  ;C199,647;  casual 
revenue,  £20,771;  total,  £226,419.  Kipendititre:- - 
Ordinary  expenditure,  £198,461 ;  casual  expenditure, 
£49,643 ;  total,  £243,105.  In  tho  same  year  the  local 
or  parocliial  taxes  amounted  to  al)out  £80,000.  In  the 
budget  for  1856,  the  following  estimates  of  the  rev. 
enuo  and  expenditure  for  tho  current  year  were  pre- 
sented to  the  Jamaica  I^egislature : 

I:)C0iiE. 

Import  dues £128,000 

Ituiii  duties. 80,000 

Stamps 11,000 

Tonnage  dues. 11,000 

Fees 1,000 

Htockand  hereditaments 16,000 

House  tux  (dlsallowud) 0,000 

Land  tax 6,000 

Interest  on  guaranteed  loan  In  Colonial  li'k       1,000 

Total  income £206,000 

ExpENDrruRK. 

Collection  of  revenue £20,105 

Parochial  Hems  trnnsrcrrod 14,053 

Church  ostnblishniont, 29,898 

Administration  of  Justice 20,292 

Police 28,465 

Governor  and  Privy  Council 4.460 

Lejislatlvo  Council 2,064 

House  of  Assembly 8,845 

Executive  comniittce 8,,820 

Sanitary  establishment 10,120 

Education  (disallowed) 6,000 

Printing. 4,000 

Public  works 8,500 

Llght-housoa 1,000 

Prisons 17,700 

Insolvent  deposits 2,000 

Interest  on  loans 88,411 

Miscellaneous,  including  £800  for  mllltia, 

£800  to  geologist 3,646 

Total  expenditure £206,765 

By  an  act  of  the  Assembly  in  1864,  the  Council  fund 
of  £6000  a  year,  originally  granted  in  1728,  ceased,  and 
it  was  provided  that  £25,000  should  be  raised  annually 
as  a  permanent  civil  list,  for  tlie  purposes  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  island,  and  a  further  sum  of  £30,000 
for  the  interest  on,  and  repayment  of  the  guaranteed 
debt. 

It  is  difficult  te  fix  the  value  of  the  movable  and 
immovable  property  in  Jamaica,  once  estimated  at 
£50,000,000.  The  latter,  however,  that  is,  the  land 
with  the  buildings  on  it,  is  periodicallj'  valued  for  tax 
ation,  and  the  hereditament  tax  is  raised  upon  a  sum 
equal  to  6  per  cent,  on  such  valuation — that  l)eing,  ac- 
cording to  an  arbitrary  assumption,  the  nett  revenue 
of  the  land.  Though  the  tax  is  paid  upon  many  prop- 
erties on  which  the  cultivation  has  been  given  up,  and 
which  produce  no  revenue  at  all,  this  sum  was  fixed  in 
1850  at  £693,382,  48.  3d.,  on  an  estimated  value  of 
about  £11,500,000,  Since  then  the  decline  has  been 
rapid ;  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  full  in  rata- 
ble property  in  the  next  year  exceeded  £2,000,000, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  difference  in  value 
since  the  prosperous  days  of  Jamaica  amounts  to  at 
least  80  per  cent.  For  many  once  valuable  estates  no 
purchaser  could  now  bo  found  on  any  terms.  It  is  on 
record  that  231  sugar  estates  have  been  abandoned, 
besides  ?43  coffee  plantations,  and  132  grass  pens.  It 
is  notorious  that  the  paper  circulation,  which  amount- 
ed to  £268,816  in  1844,  has  dwindled  to  £70,000  in 
1855.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  though  the  public 
and  parochial  taxation  has  been  reduced  from  about 
£800,000  cunedcy  to  less  than  £300,000  sterling,  it  U 
much  more  burdensome  to  the  tax  payer  now.  Indeed, 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  value  of  articles  ex- 
ported, expensive  as  they  are  to  produce,  does  not 
reach  £1,000,000,  it  \a  evident  that  the  estates  in  th( 


JAM 


1122 


JAM 


•ggrogate  yield  no  rental  at  all,  but  are  moiutained  by 
Bon-residont  proprietors  poaaesiied  of  other  meann,  wlio 
•re  unwilling  to  abandon  the  hope  of  future  improve- 
ment. Even  supposing  the  whole  money  expended  in 
raising  these  articles  of  export  amountwl  to  little  more 
than  double  the  public  revenue  of  the  country,  a  pro- 
portion, liighly  taxed  as  tlio  island  is  admitted  to  be, 
quite  beyond  belief,  it  would  follow  that  after  pay- 
ment of  production,  expenses,  and  taxes,  little  or  no 
surplus  would  remain  for  the  proprietor ;  but  such  ex- 
penses must  in  reality  far  exceed  ^£000,000,  and  cim' 
only  bo  provided,  as  before  observed,  by  those  propri- 
etors who  have  otiier  funds  at  their  disposal. 

It  is  necessary  to  explain  the  two  forms  of  calcula- 
tion to  which  reference  has  been  made — currency  and 
sterling.  The  former  was  an  arliitran*  mode  of  reck- 
oning, unrepresented  liy  uny  coinage,  employed  until 
the  year  18-10,  by  which  .£140  currency  equaUed  nom- 
inally .£100  sterling ;  but  a  premium  of  about  18  per 
cent,  was  paid  in  addition  to  place  this  sum  in  En- 
gland, so  that  upward  of  £tCiG  in  Jamaica  were  needed 
to  pay  4.'UK)  in  England.  In  1840  an  act  passed  cs- 
tablislilng  the  English  computation,  fixing  the  pound 
sterling  at  $5,  or  £1,  Vis.  4d.  currency,  and  making 
English  money  the  legal  tender.  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese coins  are  still  current,  the  highest  being  the 
doubloon,  or  ounce,  worth  obout  £i,  6s.  8d.  Before 
this  date,  a  "tivepenny,"  worth  3d,  sterling,  was  tlie 
lowest  coin.  There  is  still  no  copper,  und  the  lowest 
coin  is  the  silver  throe-hnlfpence,  coined  especially  for 
Jamaica,  and  culled  a  prxMllul,  as  intended  for  the  pay- 
ment of  agricultural  luluirers.  In  former  days,  the 
only  paper  currencj-  consisted  of  i.sland  checks  issued 
by  the  treasury.  There  are  now  two  banks  of  issue,  a 
branch  of  the  Colonial  Dank,  and  the  Hank  of  Jamaica. 
A  third,  the  Planters'  Dank,  has  l)cen  given  up  since 
the  trade  of  tlie  colony  declined.  The  present  issue  is 
usually  from  .£70,000  to  ilSO.OOO.  Savings  banks  havo 
abo  licen  cstaldished  in  the  island. 

•  The  commerce  of  Jamaica  depends  almost  entirely 
on  its  agriculture.  It  has  gradually  lost  the  greater 
portion  of  the  transit  trade  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
volt, and  subsequent  disorganization  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  on  the  mainland,  tlie  establishment  of  St. 
Thomas  as  a  free  port,  and  the  rapidity  of  steam  com- 
munication between  Europe  and  the  American  coast, 
which  diminished  the  advantages  of  an  emiwrium  in 
the  West  Indies.  Its  agricultural  prosperity  lias  de- 
clined in  equal  proportion,  tliotigh,  from  different 
causes,  the  value  of  its  staple  having  been  depreciated 
by  successive  acts  of  the  Imperial  Government,  where- 
by the  differential  duties,  under  the  protection  of  which 


the  scheme  of  emancipation  was  originally  intended  to 
be  carried  out,  were  discontinued.  In  1840  ]<^st  India 
sugar  was  admitted  on  equal  terms  into  the  Dritisb 
market.  FoUr  years  afterward  the  same  udvant;igo 
was  conceded  to  foreign  sugar,  the  produce  of  free 
labor;  and  in  1846  to  slave-grown  sugar.  Protection 
has  also  lieen  removed  from  molasses,  coffee,  und 
cocoa.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  want  of  ade- 
quate labor  hati  prevented  Jamaica  competing  witli 
those  countries  in  widen,  ^rom  slavery  and  otlicr 
causes,  there  is  a  sufficient  supply. 

The  following  tables  illustrate  these  observations : 

Ycart,  Vftlue  of  Import*.        V»liia  ofeinortl. 

1809 i;4,06S,H97  £;I,0:J3,2:U 

1810 4,808,887  2,808,8:9 

1888 864,094  887,276 

1864...^ 408,A20  082,816 

The  exports  consist  of  her  own  products  only,  the 
imports  include  those  intended  for  re-exportntinn,  as 
well  as  those  taken  for  home  consumption,  which  ox- 
plains  why.  In  the  flourishing  era  of  the  transit  trade, 
the  balance  should  bo  apparently  so  much  against 
Jamaica.  The  exports,  too,  are  entered  at  tlicir  vnluu 
in  the  place  of  growth,  while  to  imports  are  added 
charges  for  freight,  etc.  The  small  imports  of  1854 
were  partly  owing  to  the  goods  imported  in  anticipa- 
tion the  year  before,  when  the  duties  were  not  levieil. 
The  same  cause  accounts  for  the  small  quantity  of 
mm  exported  in  18.'>8,  and  the  excess  of  the  two  fal- 
lowing years,  enough  for  two  3'cars'home  consumption 
having  liecn  entered  in  the  same  year  duty  frfeo.  Tlia 
following  talile  gives  the  trade  and  navigation  report 
for  1855: 

AaniVALS  in  Jamaici.  im  1855. 


From 

X.'\^'.      "»"•          V..u.ofin,p.«.. 

()rc»i  llrlutn 

Unltucl  Stoles.... 
Colonial 

128 
94 
14B 
127 

48,1)201  ....  1                                i 
18,784|  ....  iBrtt.  £194,019  15    6 
15,4!W    ....   For.     405,437  12    4 
11,81)4    ....  ! 

Foreign 

Total 

488 

84,062]  4,823  ]        £899,607    7  10 

DuPAnTDRKa  FROM  iTamaioa  in  18.15. 


I  No.  of 
I  ihlpi.  I 


Ton- 
itairo. 


Oroat  Britain . 
Unltnil  States. 

Dolonlos 

Foreign  countries 
Total 


128 
77 
68 

240 


8S,997 
18,602 
8.847 
20,(114 


608  I  86,8liO 


4,462 


Value  of  export!. 


£l,0O3,:!25    9    5 
of  which 
9M,128  10    0     j 
represented  Island  | 
produce.  , 


Of  the  ships  in  this  list  40  were  ships  of  war,  -l-l 
steamers,  and  38  colliers. 

iMroRin  INTO  Oreat  Britain  from  ,Tauaica  of  thr  Principal  Articlrn  of  Nativb  Produor  in  IS17  and  ISiVi. 


Year, 

Sagnr. 

Rum. 

Mol... 

Colas. 

Cofioa.  1     CoUOD. 

PIroanto.  '  Ulinor. 

Arrow- 
tool. 

Uirwoml    MrIiok- 
A  fuitio.  1      any. 

l'^^'-     "'.""•"■""■>■• 

1817 
1888 

C.u. 
1,400,500 

450,282 

(iaili. 

2,706,969 
2,109,291 

Cwl.. 

96 

IJ». 
14,668,588 

6,667,108 

CwM. 

260 

I-lx. 

1,021,674 
2S0 

I.b.. 
1,627,812 

7,666,680 

i.t«.n  tb.. 

340,878      » 
799,793  87,900 

Torn. 
11,819 

11,844 

1'rin«. 

1,896 
F.-c'l. 

147,929 

I.l.>.         Lbi.    1  UM>. 

82,011  1     •     1     • 
....     1 81,686  6,487 

Dm. 

960,218 

Dm.          Pec.    {       !)«<<. 

697,678    95    I  8,996,485 

Dar. 
260 

Dotf.      {        Inc.       1     Int. 
1,021,894  6,088,968  459,423 

Dar. 

276 

82,011  1   ....  1  .... 

•No 

return. 

The  largest  sugar  crop  waa  in  1806,  which  exceeded 
160,000  hhds. ;  that  of  1856  did  not  i«ach  30,000  hhds. ; 
ihat  of  1866  had  fallen  to  20,000  hhds.  The  largest 
coffee  crop  was  in  1814,  and  exceeded  34,000,000  Iba. 
The  great  increase  of  pimento  is  unfortunately  ac- 
icounted  for  by  the  rapid  spread  of  tlie  tree,  which 
grows  wild  in  Jamaica,  over  lands  formerly  nnder  cnlti- 
.'vation.  Since  1862  a  small  quantity  of  copper  ore  has 
been  exported,  amounting  in  1854  to  37  tons.  Ilesides 
these  principal  articles,  there  is  exported  a  small 
quantity  sf  tamarinds,  cocoa-nuts,  succades,  shrub, 
eliony,  lignum  vitic,  and  lancewood.  There  are  five 
mining  companies  in  Jamaica,  all  in  their  infancy — 
the  Clarendon  Consols,  and  Wheal  Jamaica,  in  Claren- 
don i  the  Port-Royal  and  St.  Andrews,  and  the  Ellen- 


lie  and  Dardowie,  in  St.  Andrew;  the  Portland  Min- 
ing Company  in  Portland.  Of  these  the  first  two  are 
at  present  the  most  promising.  The  principal  iuiport!< 
into  Jamaica  are  salt  pork  and  lieef,  salt  lisii  and  oil, 
butter,  lard,  cheese,  com,  coni-nieal,  oatmeal.  Hour, 
biscuits,  rice,  tobacco,  wine  and  beer ;  hardware,  cut- 
lery and  ironmongery  ;  ready-made  clothes,  l)oots  and 
shoes,  and  dr)-  goods  of  all  sorts ;  soap,  candies  siul- 
dlery,  and  harness;  shingles,  lumber,  wood-hoojis, 
and  voals. 

Importt  into  the  hUmd  of  Jamaica  from  the  Uniltd 
Statet  in  1854.— Hour,  13,823  barrels;  candles,  7!)11 
boxes ;  buttar,  2378  kegs ;  lard,  2577  kegs ;  pork,  1433 
barrels ;  hams,  20  barrels,  W  casks,  11  tierces ;  clieeso, 
108  boxes;    meal,  2611  barrels;   com,   2191  bags; 


JAM 


1123 


JAM 


feiportl. 

li-h  I 

ii     10       0  : 

ml  Island  | 
)duco. 


rtlanil  5Iin- 
lirst  two  aro 
ipal  imports 
lisli  and  o\\, 
meal,  flour, 
rdware,  cut- 
is, boots  anil 
candles  sivd- 
wood-hoops, 

.,  the  Unilf'i 
andles,  71)11 
,;  pork,  1133 
rces ;  clieese, 
'2191  bagBi 


bread,  977  h»ml» ;  beef,  241  barrel* ;  C08l»,  8801  tons ; 
'umber,  83,186  feet ;  rice,  1642  bags.  Approximate 
value,  WOO.SIS. 

American  vessels  engaged  in  trade  with  Jamaica  in 
1852,  194 ;  in  1853,  164 ;  from  all  European  {lorts,  in 
1852,  119 ;  in  1858,  155. 

The  commercial  resources  of  this  island  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  tables  of  exports  for  three 
years,  1860-1852 :  * 


Sugar. hhds. 

jKam ponchoona 

I  Molasses casks 

jGliigor. lbs. 

IMmento " 

Coffee " 


1811. 


1861. 


84,414 

16,6flO 

It 

994,000 

6.4ilf<,flOO 

7,127,000 


Port  Regulationt. — On  every  vessel  entering  Ja- 
maica, there  is  levied  under  the  customs-tonnage  act, 
a  port  duty  of  24  cents  per  ton.  I.ight-house  duty,  6 
cents  per  ton.  Hospital  tax — vessels  from  out  of  the 
tropics,  8  cents  per  ton ;  from  within  the  tropics,  4 
cents  per  ton.  Health  officer's  fees — on  a  ship  or  bark, 
$2  88 ;  on  a  brig  or  brigantine,  $2  16 ;  on  a  schooner 
or  sloop,  $1  44.  Harbor  duos — ship  or  bark,  $7  08  ; 
brig  or  brigantine,  $5  76 ;  schooner  or  sloop,  $3  84. 
Jamaica  embraces  an  area  of  5520  square  miles,  and 
contains  a  population  of  about  3C,fl00  whitos,  and 
312,000  free  blacks.     Total  population,  348,000. 

Pilot  iJttea  m  the  porta  of  Kingston  and  Port  Jioi/al, — 
/n — 3.oO  tons  and  over,  $23  04 ;  250  tons  and  over, 
$17  28 ;  160  tons  and  over,  $14  40 ;  100  tons  and  over, 
$11  62;  100  tons,  $5  04. 

Out — 350  tons  and  over,  $15  30 ;  250  tons  and  over, 
$13  44  i  200  tons  and  over,  $11  52  ;  150  tons  and  over, 
$9  60 ;  100  tons  and  over,  $7  68 :  100  tons,  $6  72. 
These  charges  are  reduced  when  the  vessel  enters  or 
clears  from  Port  Royal  only. 

There  is  a  steam  communication  between  England 
and  Jamaica,  and  fiVe  versa,  twice  a  month,  in  19  days. 
The  Royal  Mail  Steam-packet  Company's  ships  leave 
Soutliampton  on  the  2d  and  17th  of  each  month,  call- 
ing at  St.  Thomas,  Porto  Rico,  and  Jacmel,  in  Hayti, 
and  reach  Kingston  on  the  2l8t  and  fitli.  Thoy  leave 
a);ain  for  England  on  the  27th  and  12th.  iking  the 
course  of  post  about  44  days.     Thoy  aU  once  a 

month  between  .lamaica  and  Honduras  ;  ne  of 
post  10  days.  There  are  frequent  opportunities  be- 
tween Jamaica  and  Havana,  and  the  United  States. 
In  the  island  there  is  a  post  twice  a  da)'  between  King- 
ston and  Spanish  Town,  and  a  communication  twice  a 
vcck  between  these  capitals  and  the  country  districts ; 
besides  expresses,  on  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the 
iimil  packets.  Jamaica  being  on  the  direct  route  frum 
England  to  Nice  ragua,  can  scarcely  fail  to  share  in  the 
gromng  importance  of  the  States  of  Central  America. 
Kmancipation, — Hitherto  its  history,  since  emanci- 
pation, has  been  discouraging  to  the  friends  of  liberty. 
The  negro  on  whom  the  cultivation  oi'  the  island  de- 
pends, has  gradually  retired  from  labor,  and  retro- 
grailod  in  the  social  scale.  This  does  not  ari.sc  from 
any  hostile  feeling  toward  the  whites,  with  whom  ho 
usually  lives  on  the  most  amicable  terms;  it  is  the 
natural  result  of  removing  all  restraint  from  a  people 
low  in  civilization,  and  consequently  with  few  artificial 
wants,  in  a  country  where  land  is  superabundant. 
The  Jamaica  negro  can  earn  enough  on  a  sugar  planta- 
tion in  a  few  weeks  to  buy  a  small  patch  of  freehold 
land.  The  wood  upon  it  forms  his  cottage  ;  the  vege- 
tables which  grow  almost  spontaneously  support  him 
in  tolerable  comfort.  When  his  little  property  does 
not  require  his  core,  he  works  from  time  to  time  for 
hire ;  but  as  plantation  after  plantation  is  abandoned, 
and  the  country  returns  to  its  primeval  forest,  he  is 
confined  more  and  more  to  the  society  of  his  own  race ; 
and  though  not  more  addicted  to  crime,  is  rapidly  re- 
ceding into  a  savage  state.  During  slaver)-  the  dis- 
■enting  ministera  possessed  great  influence  over  him; 


he  now  prefers  the  established  church,  becaaae  It  coati 
him  nothing,  but  he  cares  little  for  either.  Not  feelinu 
the  want  of  education,  he  does  nut  seek  it  for  Mo 
children,  whom  bo  prefers  employing  in  bis  own  ser- 
vice. Hence,  neither  churches  nor  schools  are  wanted 
in  Jamaica,  but  congregations  and  scholars.  These 
observations  are  contirmod  by  the  last  returns,  which 
flx  the  diminution  of  children  in  the  schools  in  1854, 
as  compared  with  the  previous  year,  at  2000,  and  show 
this  decrease  to  be  Ibss  conspicuous  in  those  l>elonginK 
to  the  established  church  of  England  and  Scotland, 
than  in  those  of  the  Baptists  and  Independents.  We 
can  scarcely  blame  the  negro  for  following  the  bent  of 
his  inclination ;  l>ut  it  is  evident  that  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, unless  there  is  a  large  and  immediate 
supply  of  immigrants,  to  meet  the  expense  of  wliose 
introduction,  averaging  at  least  £10  per  head,  there 
are  no  available  funds,  all  society  will  cnme  to  a 
speedy  end,  and  the  island  become  a  second  Huyti. 
Already  the  enormous  depreciation  of  projKrty  has 
caused  the  ruin  of  so  many,  that  the  name  of  Jamaica 
proprietor,  once  used  proverbially  to  indicate  wealth, 
is  now  associated  with  poverty  and  distress. 

Jamaica  is  of  a  long  oval  shape,  and  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  seal  with  the  head  pointed  to  the  west.  Its 
surface  is  beautifully  diversified  with  hills  and  valleys. 
An  elevated  range,  called,  in  the  eaitcm  or  highest 
part,  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  terminating  in  Dolphin 
Head,  to  the  west,  runs  longitudinally  through  the  isl- 
and, and  other  high  i  Mgus  insersect  this  chain.  On 
the  south  the  mountains  are  generally  steep,  with 
gigantic  spines  or  buttresses  rising  from  the  plain  at 
an  average  distance  of  12  miles  from  the  sea.  Though 
difficult  of  access  they  are  traversed  by  bridle-roads  in 
various  directions  to  the  height  of  nearly  6000  feet ; 
and  several  passes,  or  gaps,  as  they  are  called,  of  great 
altitude,  connect  the  two  sides  of  the  island.  On 
these  elevated  ranges  the  coffee  attains  the  greatest 
perfection,  and  above,  dense  forests  ascend  to  the 
highest  peak,  composed  chiefly  of  beef-wood,  as  it  is 
called  from  its  color,  and  satin-wood.  Under  their 
shade  the  tree-fern  grows  to  the  height  of  15  feet,  and 
the  flute-like  note  is  hoard  of  the  solitaire,  a  bird  only 
found  in  these  wildernesses.  On  the  north  side  the 
mountains  approach  the  sea  closely,  but  more  gradu- 
ally, their  conical  forms  are  gently  rounded,  and  in  St. 
Ann  and  Trclawny  the  lower  slopes  are  shaded  by 
pimento  woods,  the  indigenous '  rowthof  the  island,  and 
elsewhere  by  orange  groves,  n  dngo,  and  cedar  forests, 
above  which  frequently  towers  the  gigantic  silk-cot- 
ton tree.  The  shady  valleys  between  were  once  occu- 
pied by  cacao  walks,  now  destroyed ;  and  on  the  low- 
lands, near  the  sea,  were  formerly  the  indigo-works, 
long  since  abandoned.  Here  aro  now  the  sugar  estates, 
in  which  the  dark  green  of  the  cane  is  varied  by  the 
golden  tint  of  the  guinea  grass,  and  the  cabbage  and 
cocoa-nut  palms  shoot  up  in  long  lines  close  to  the 
water's  edge,  from  which  they  aro  separated  by  a 
fringe  of  mangroves,  growing  below  high-water  mark, 
and  the  beautiful  l>ut  poisonous  manchinecl.  The 
waving  field  of  cdnes  is  broken  at  intervals  by  the 
white  cluster  of  buildings  composing  the  sugar-works. 
The  mill,  the  boiling-house,  with  its  tall  chimneys, 
and  the  stables,  stores,  and  bookkeepers'  houses  sur- 
round a  large  court-yard.  Above,  on  on  eminence,  is 
usually  the  proprietor's  mansion,  and  close  by,  though 
completely  buried  in  the  broad  foliage  of  the  plantair 
and  banana,  the  negro  village.  On  these  plantations 
during  crop  the  scene  is  most  onin.ited.  Bands  of 
negroes,  with  cutlasses,  attack  the  rows  of  canes  which 
tower  above  their  heads ;  wagons,  drawn  by  oxen  or 
mules,  in  endless  succession,  carry  the  canes  to  the 
mill ;  women  and  children  hurr)'  with  the  dry  stalks 
to  feed  the  tires ;  and  the  shouts,  without  which  a 
negro  seldom  does  any  thing,  announce  afar  ofi',  in  th;!i 
clear  atmosphere,  the  neighborhood  of  a  sugar  estate. 
It  ia  here,  too,  that  the  traveler  sees  most  clearfy  the 


JAM 


1124 


JAM 


dtollne  of  th^  countr}-.  At  each  end  of  tho  island,  In 
tlia  parlthea  of  Hanover  antl  Portland,  ho  may  Journey 
fl>V  mtlea  through  deserted  plantatlona.  Ridges,  over- 
grown with  guuva  liushei,  mark  the  tite  of  the  com- 
flelda ;  rank  vegetation  filla  the  court-yard,  and  ovon 
bunts  through  the  once  hospitable  roof.  A  curse 
leoms  to  have  fallen  upon  the  land,  as  It  this  genera- 
tion were  atoning  for  the  sins  of  the  past.  For  while 
we  lament  the  rulu  of  the  present  proprietors,  we  can 
not  forget  the  unrequited  toil  which,  In  times  gone  by, 
created  the  wealth  they  have  lost,  no.'  that  hapless 
race,  the  original  owners  of  the  soil,  v.hoso  fate  sad- 
dens the  darkest  [i»ge  of  history. 

The  sugar  estates  resemble  generally  thone  of  tho 
other  Islands,  but  Jamaica  has  a  featu'f ■>  peculiar  to 
itself.  In  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  toward  the 
south  and  west,  are  largo  plains,  or  table-lands,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  1000  foet,  covered  with  a  luxurlr.nt 
growth  of  guinea  grass,  dotted  with  groves  of  tall 
trees,  and,  at  greuter  intervals,  with  v/hite  houses  and 
villages.  From  an  eminence  the  whole  country  re- 
sembles A  series  of  English  park.';.  These  are  the  pens, 
or  grazing  fnrms,  where  horses  and  cattio  of  most  ex- 


cellent quality  are  bred,  lliey  are  chiefly  In  St.  Anr, 
Manchester,  St.  Elizabeth,  Ht.  James,  and  Ilunover. 
The  climate,  nt  tliis  elevation  s  well  suited  lu  ii  Ku- 
ropean  population,  who  ct  ..ui  work  on  tliu  suyiir 
plantations,  but  may  with  safety  bo  cnipluyed  on  tiio 
light  and  htialthy  duties  of  the  farm. 

The  view  of  the  island  from  the  sea  has  long  been 
celebrated.  Soon  after  leaving  Cape  Tiburoii,  the 
western  point  of  Haytt,  the  Dluo  Mountains  are  in 
sight,  and  along  the  south  coust  of  Jamaica,  from  I'nint 
Morant  to  Kingston,  the  Inhabited  plains,  slopiii); 
gradually  up,  till  cultivation  terminaliis  in  forest,  pre- 
sent an  aspect  of  no  common  beauty.  From  Fort  Nu- 
gent, which  Is  conspicuous  under  a  stcoi  liill,  to  Port 
Kcyal,  runs  a  narrow  s>indy  promontory,  culled  tho 
Palisades.  Here  is  tho  great  cemetery,  where  so  many 
victims  to  yellow  fever  lie  buried  thnt  tho  name  Ims 
become  proverbial ;  and  this  neck  of  land  incloses  the 
harbor  of  Kingston,  which  Is  entered  by  i,  most  Intricate 
channel  between  Port  Koyal  and  Port  Henderson,  ami 
beyond  which  the  capital  Is  seen  strolcliing  norlliward 
toward  tho  amphitheatre  of  the  Liguana  Hill.i,  and  pro- 
tected by  the  loftiest  range  of  the  I31uc  Mountains. 


N'UMBIB  AMD  ToRN40a  Or  VuSfLS  IHTntED  AND  rLIAStD,  riOH  AKD  10  VABIODS  C'OUMTaiES,  IH  BAOH  Or  THE  VeaDS 

1864,  1866,  AMn  1866. 


CraMm. 

CLiiam. 

_  .  -  -  .  ._ 

IU4. 

IMS. 

IU(. 

IU4. 

1816. 

mi. 

VmhIi. 

Tom. 

VmmIi. 

Tom. 

VaMli. 

Toai. 

VeMwIi.      Tom 

Vludl. 

Tuns. 

Vnuli   I    T„ni. 

United  Kingdom 

Ilrltlih  colontcfl 

United  States 

163 
149 
141 
108 

48,368 

12,706 

22,044 

9,717 

122 
146 

04 
127 

43,I>2'J 
18,436 
18,784 
11,8114 

126 
188 
141 
89 

4I>,<I0() 

13,900 

20,2*2 

0,399 

111  8:i,,M5 
61  6,084 
80       12,2i« 

240       2(1,91)8 

123 
63 
77 

240 

38,0!lT 
8,347 
18,602 
26,014 
86,8(10 

I'JJ    1  80,40;> 
4»     '    50'.'7 
125    ,  W'^t-i 
184     1  IS.DTG 

4811     1  iH,8vr 

Other  foreign  countries 
Total  

651 

UU,8t)4 

488     163,662 

408 

80,680 

611     1  83,723 

608 

NUMBEB  AMD  TONHAII  OF  VESSELS,  WITU  CABOOIS  AND  IN  BALLAST,  AT  JAMAICA  IM  T:iE  YlAB  1866. 


NaUondltx  of  V<imIi. 

■MTRRIP. 

CLSA 

Bl». 

1 

with  r>r|o«l 

Ill  BlIlHt. 

Tola). 

Wilht 

ftrgoci. 

111  Billut. 

Tolnl.           1 

VCHOU. 

Tom. 

Vemli 

Tom. 

Vtutk 

Tom. 

VwMll. 

Tom. 
01,175 

6,913 

16,030 

183 

260 

178 

768 

2,4.13 

1,V85 

380 

4in 

407 
297 
103 
196 

Ve<iael». 
6 
76 
33 

"i 
"i 
"i 

"2 

1 

123 

Topi. 
1,270 

8,sa8 

0,4»4 
"72 

'  898 
"Sfll 

"m 

80 
18,140 

VeMli. 

112 

109 

186 

1 

10 
1 
4 
24 
7 
2 
1 
2 
1 
2 
4 
7 

Tom. 
aA14.'; 

i.'ssn 
2i,rv-i 

IKll 

Jill 

rs 

i,ii;c 

2,4,:S 
2,140 
CO'.' 
3s!i 
4111 
407 
2.>i 

'••};, 

25B 
7<,tS(l 

American  (U.  fitatei).. 

104 
162 
145 

1 
9 

21 

32,080 

14,864 

2>,801 

183 

246 

269 

1,4«9 

1,794 

1,731 

662 

197 

413 

"282 
224 
230 

8 

6 
6 

2076 
86» 
679 

'isi 

108 
161 
1 
0 
9 
4 
22 
6 
2 
1 
3 

"i 

4 
7 

84,1(16 

16,223 

28,480 

183 

246 

263 

1,460 

1,926 

1,731 

662 

197 

418 

"282 
224 
230 

1(6 
03 

103 
1 
8 
1 
3 
24 
D 
2 
1 

a 
1 

2 
2 
6 

Ananlah     

Portuguese 

Oldenburg 

Norwcurian 

Swediai 

Danish 

New  Onuisdan ...... 

St  Domlngan 

Total 

4TJ 

77,443 

21 

3246 

493 

80,689 

3 

60,746 

483 

NVMBEB  AMD  TOHHAaB 

or  Vessels  emtebed  and  olzaekd,  with  Cabgoes  and  in  ISallast 
Yeab  1856. 

AT  EACH  rOBT  IN  TUB 

Port.. 

CISAKIB. 

WIUi  C>r(oM. 

In  Ballut. 

Toui. 

With  OriiuM. 

In  Ballut. 

Total.          1 

VmmU. 

Tom. 

Vnula. 

Tom. 

VmoU. 

Tom. 

V.r.1., 

Ton.. 

Vauoli. 

Tom. 

VmmIi. 

Toi]». 

'  Kingston 

827 
4 
2 
3 

81 
« 
8 

62 

£1 
2 
3 

12 
r 

63,067 

1,391 

178 

802 

8,606 

1,138 

686 

6,877 

683 

466 

8,079 

1,98.1 

9 

"i 
1 

"i 

"b 

4 

799 

'isi 

339 
MS 

iiso 

669 

836 
4 
2 
4 

83 
6 
9 

61 

39 
2 
8 

16 
7 

64,456 
1,891 

178 

083 
8,034 
1,188 

686 
6,877 
4,136 

683 
1,696 
3,648 

i,:.6 

149 
8 
3 
6 
7 

17 
7 
26 
81 
8 

34 
64 
16 

16,683 
2,098 
206 
1,716 
1,247 
2,819 
1,720 
M3» 
4,201 
1,002 
7,678 

10,799 
4,688 

74 

'13 

"i 

n 

21 

"s 

12,64/ 

i,°643 

"144 
1,310 
2,210 

"288 

2J3 

8 

8 

6 

20 

17 

8 

37 

62 

3 

87 

64 

18 

20,i-5 
2,CP9 
205 
1,716 
2,7V0 
2,S12 
1,873 
6,730 
0,477 

Port  Mnrmnt 

Port  Antonio 

Aunotto  Bay 

1  ort  Marls ■ . , . . 

St.  Ann's  Bay 

Rio  Bueno 

Falmouth ............ 

Lucca 

1,002 

Savanna  la  Mar 

Black  River 

7,003 
10,799 

4,6113 

Old  Harbor 

Total 

479 

:;,448 

^21 

3246 

493    1  80,6811  1    860 

6(1,746 

123 

18,140 

483 

78,«i0 

Tain  or  I>roBTS  and  Eztobtb  ik  eacb  or  tub  Yeabb  7354, 1858, 1856. 


Taan. 

IMPOKTC. 

■ipoata.                                                           1 

Prodaca  of  tha 
Unltad  Klas4om. 

Prodnca  of 
fotalsn  Counlrlaa. 

ToMI. 

Jamaica 
Predaea. 

Unllad  Klnidom 
Produea. 

Colonial  and 
foreign  Produce. 

Product  from 
the  WarahoMta. 

Total. 

1864- 

188a 

185< 

4!87l),S97 
494,010 
Ul,148 

£484, 867 
44o|788 

i.'864,094 
St9Jt07 
Ml,886 

£866,170 
983,124 
881,078 

iC47,66l 
81,828 
28,467 

iCl  2,806 
6,046 
6,621 

X6,779 
12,888 
18,986 

X93L'316 

1,003,820 

935,0I>8 

JAM 


1125 


JAM 


18M. 

"1 

Tulnl. 

mtli.      Tuni. 

li'i       il'J,:4.'. 

109       V'fiW 

IBO      51,f''i 

t        ir;i 

10        :i;! 

t        i> 

4        1,li'>i' 

24        2,4..3 

1        S,1W 

2          CC'J 

1           SSii 

a       41 » 

1            40" 

2            '2.>i 

4            u'j,', 

7           22IS 

TbT  1  is'*^" 



I  I'OET  IS  TUB 

tol«l- 

/■null.      ■'■»"••  . 

'2'3       29,J'5 

8        2,11!"' 

8          idB 

0        IJIB 

20        2,T.'0 

IT        2,St2 

8        1,RT3 

8T        flJ89 

62 

C,4JI  1 

3 

1002 

87 

T,903 

M 

10,T99 

15 

♦,5a9 

4SS 


ToUl. 

jtoa.'.aro 

1,003,320 
936,068 


Some  parts  of  Jamaica,  particularly  near  moraaaes, 
ore  oxtromoly  unhealthy,  and  there  few  escape  inter- 
mittent fevers,  or  "  fever  and  ague,"  as  It  is  catled  ; 
liut  in  general  the  climate  Is  fuvorahle  to  those  who 
live  carefully,  though  when  the  yellow  fever  comes  as 
an  epidemic,  whicli  happens  every  seven  or  eiglit 
years,  it  carries  off  all  alike.  It  U,  however,  rarely 
known  at  an  olovation  of  lOflO  feet,  and  In  some  of  the 
hilly  districts,  especially  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains 
and  Pedro  I'lulus,  there  aro  remarkable  Instances  of 
longevity  among  the  English  settlers.  The  annual 
mortality  among  the  white  troops  for  twenty  years 
wuling  1837  was  130  In  the  1000,  or  a  seventh  of  tho 
entire  force.  Since  thej'  have  hoen  fed  on  ftrosh  pro- 
visions, and  more  especialy  since  thoy  have  been  on- 
camped  on  high  ground,  this  has  been  reduced  to  34 
per  1000.  Of  late  years  the  cholera  has  made  Its  ap- 
pearance, and  committed  extraordinary  havoc ;  and 
since  emancipation,  small  pox  baa  been  more  preva- 
lent, on  account  of  the  negroes  neglecting  the  vaccina- 
tion of  their  children.  Tlio  vegetable  productions  of 
.Tiininica  are  fur  too  numerouo  to  be  described.  There 
aro  forest  trees  fit  for  every  purpose,  from  shlji-hullding 
to  cal)in«t-making,  among  which  the  ballata,  rosewood, 
satiuwood,  mahogany,  lignum  vltio,  lancewood,  and 
ebony,  uro  connplcuods ;  but  tho  scarcity  of  lalior 
makes  It  cheaper  to  import  planks  ready  sawn  from 
Amorl>;a.  Tlie  logwood,  tlio  trunk  of  which  rosom- 
hlcs  tho  clustered  colunms  of  Gothic  architecture,  and 
tlio  fustic,  ore  largely  exported  for  dyeing.  The 
.lamaica  cedar  {Cedrela  oilurata),  with  ash-like  leaves, 
Is  valuable  for  the  Interior  of  houses,  as  its  scented 
wood  keeps  off  hisects.  Tho  silk-cotton  tree  (CVi'ia 
Ilombax  or  Kriotlenihon)  Is  one  of  tho  largest  in  Ja- 
maica ;  Its  silky  pods  are  used  to  stuff  pillows,  but, 
fninj  want  of  adhesion  In  tho  fibres,  Is  useless  for  manu- 
I'acturo,  The  pimento  is  indigenous,  and  furnishes  the 
allspice.  Tho  bamboo,  the  coffee,  the  cacao  or  choco- 
late tree,  are  well  known  productions ;  the  last,  how- 
ever, is  disappearing,  and  tiio  export  has  ceased. 
Several  species  of  palm  abound,  the  macco,  tho  fan 
palm,  and  screw  palm,  but  the  noblest  is  the  palmetto 
royal  {Areca  olevacea),  the  green  top  of  which  is  called 
tho  mountain  cabbage,  and  oaten  as  a  vegetable.  Tho 
cocoa-nut  Is  tho  most  valuable  of  all  this  trilie.  The 
mango,  which  overspreads  tho  island,  forming  a  splen- 
did forest  tree,  and  affording  food  for  man  and  bcist, 
was  introduced  l)y  Rodney,  who  took  It  from  a  French 
ship;  tho  bread-fruit  by  tho  famous  Bllgh  in  1793. 
The  papaw  has  tho  peculiar  property  of  rendering 
meat  tender.  Tho  lace-bark  tree,  found  near  Maroon 
Town,  has  an  inner  bark  of  so  delicate  a  texturo  that 
ladies'  drosses  have  been  made  of  it.  Tlie  guava, 
from  which  tho  delicious  pre?er\'o  is  made.  Is  a  weed 
of  the  country,  and  the  fruit  when  raw  scarcely  eata- 
ble. The  palma  christi,  fron\  which  castor  oil  is  made, 
is  a  very  abundant  annual.  A  new  species  of  silk- 
worm (the  liombyx  Cijnthia),  which  feeds  on  Its  leaf, 
has  lately  been  Introduced  from  India,  by  the  .Jamaica 
Society  of  Arts,  founded  by  .Sir  C.  Grey.  Tho  sun- 
ilower  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  oil.  A  variety  of  the 
Cactus  Opuntia,  on  which  the  cochineal  feeds.  Is  com- 
mon, and  from  which,  as  well  as  from  the  Insect, 
rccfnt  experiments  have  proved  that  a  dye  may  be 
obtained.  English  vegetables  grow  in  tho  hills; 
while  the  plainti  produce  the  plantain,  cocoa,  yam, 
cassava,  ochra,  beans  and  peas  of  various  sorts,  gin- 
ger, and  arrowroot.  Maize  and  guinea  com  are  gen- 
erally cultivated,  and  tho  guinea  grass,  accidentally 
Introduced  in  1750,  has  overspread  the  whole  island', 
and  forms  the  most  wh':lesorao  and  slrengthenlng  food 
for  horses  and  cattle.  The  principal  fruits  are  tho 
orange,  the  shaddock,  the  lime,  the  grape  or  cluster 
fruit,  the  pineapple,  noseborry,  granadllla,  star-apple, 
custard-apple,  mammeo  sapota,  mango,  banana,  grapes, 
melons,  the  avocado  pear,  the  bread-fruit,  and  tamarind, 
though  the  lost  three  would  be  more  correctly  ranked 


among  vegetables.  There  ts  a  botanic  gardon  iic.n 
Kingston,  and  a  finer  one  at  Bath,  when  many  now 
naturalized  exntirs  were  first  planted.  The  sarsapiu 
rilla  Is  erroneously  supposed  to  grow  in  Janiaicn, 
though  It  Is  classed  In  the  customs'  returns  thorn 
among  the  imports.  It  is  lironght  from  the  Hpanlsh 
main,  and  re-exported  by  the  Jamaica  Jews,  in  whose 
hands  the  trade  Is  g  hence  it  Is  cniind  .Tamaica  sarsapa- 
rllla.  I'he  sngnr-oane  was  cultivated  at  an  early  pe- 
riod In  Jamaica  by  the  Spaniards,  and  was  to  much 
extended  by  the  English  that,  In  1071,  we  read  of 
sugar  works  scattered  over  tha  whole  island.  There  are 
several  varieties,  the  most  valualde  being  the  one 
brought  from  liourbon  in  1700,  which  is  of  a  bright 
yellow ;  and  the  Mont  Blanc,  of  three  sorts,  wliito, 
violet,  and  blue.  Besides  which  is  the  ribl)an-cane, 
beautifully  striped  with  various  colors,  «  hich  is  coarse 
and  dry,  but  more  hanly  than  the  other  sorts.  Tiio 
statistics  of  the  sugar  and  coffee  cultivation  have  lieen 
given  elsewhere.  There  are  many  beautiful  flowers  in 
the  Island,  tho  most  remarkable  uf  which  are  the  aloe, 
the  yucca,  the  datura,  the  mountain  pride,  tho  port- 
landia ;  tiio  cactus  and  cereus  trilie,  the  various  kinds 
of  convolvulus  and  Ipomoea,  an<l  two  beautiful  de- 
scriptions of  plumeria,  called  the  tree  jasmine.  In- 
numeral>le  varieties  of  ferns  grow  In  the  mountains, 
and  orchids  in  tlie  woods.  The  pastures  are  infesteil 
by  that  interesting  mimosa,  the  sensitive  plant.  It  is 
eaten  by  sheep,  liut  is  armed  with  minute  thorns, 
which  make  troublesome  wounds  in  tlieir  feet.  There 
are  many  beautiful  insects,  among  wiiicli  the  fire-fliea 
are  most  remarkable.  There  are  fourtatn  sorts  of 
I.ampi/rida  or  Hre-fllee,  besides  the  Klnterida  or  lan- 
tern beetles,  which  are  larger  and  more  luminous; 
but  neither  in  flowers  nor  Insects  is  Jamaica  so  rich  as 
more  southern  islands.  To  compensate  for  this  it  has 
no  venomous  serpents,  though  alwunding  In  harmless 
snakes  and  lizards.  A  large  lizard,  the  Iguana,  is  con- 
sidered a  delic.icy,  as  are  the  land-cral>  and  tortoise. 
The  scorpion  and  centipede  aro  poisonous,  Imt  not 
very  common  or  dangerous.  Ants,  mosquitoes,  and 
sandflies  swarm  in  tho  '— 'inds.  Bees,  among  which 
is  a  stingless  variety,  aro  numerous  in  the  woods,  and 
produce  excellent  honey.  It  is  a  popular  error  that  in 
the  tropics  flowers  have  no  scent  and  l>lrds  no  song. 
The  datura  and  orange  are  among  many  instances  to 
the  contrary  in  the  former  case ;  and  as  to  the  latter, 
Gosa  enumerates  some  twenty  different  song  birds  in 
Jamaica,  among  which  may  l>e  mentioned  the  Jamaica 
nightingale,  a  kind  of  mocking-liird  (Aferula  Jamai- 
censii),  and  a  species  of  huii'ining-bird  (^Afelluvifa 
humilis).  Parrots  and  pigeons  are  common,  and  the 
wild  guinea  fowl ;  also  a  species  of  goatsucker,  called 
the  mosquito  hawk,  and  n  gruat  variety  of  water- 
birds,  among  wiiich  is  the  pelican  and  a  sort  of  alba- 
tross. The  crane,  heron,  plover,  snipe,  ortolan  (or 
rice-bird  of  Carolina),  and  quail,  aro  migratory.  The 
aura  vulture,  or  turkey  liuzznrd,  called  the  John 
Crow,  Is  numerous,  and  valuable  as  a  scavenger.  By 
its  Instinct  the  concealed  body  of  a  murdered  man 
has  more  than  once  been  traced  In  Jamaica.  The  sea 
and  rivers  swarm  with  fish ;  among  the  larger  ones 
are  the  shark,  tho  nurse  shark,  the  boni*^^  *he  sword 
and  saw-fish;  besides  tho  snapper,  mullet,  king-fish, 
Spanish  mackerel,  the  flying-fish,  etc.  The  cachalot 
is  found.  Turtles  abound  ;  and  the  seal  and  manatee, 
or  river  cow,  are  sometimes  found,  and  the  crocodile 
(called  erroneously  alligator).  Jamaica,  when  dlscov- 
ered,  contained  but  few  species  of  animals.  Besides 
the  alco,  there  was  tho  utia  or  Indian  cony,  the  musk 
rat,  the  armadillo,  monkey,  agouti,  peccary,  opossum, 
ami  raccoon.  At  present  the  only  wild  animals  are  the 
wild  hog  (an  African  vaTioty,  introduced  from  the  Ca- 
naries), a  kind  of  deer  (the  cariacou),  goats,  rats,  and 
mice.  Tho  rats  commit  serious  ravages  among  the 
canes,  and  those  which  feed  only  In  the  cane-flelds  are 
by  some  esteemed  «  delicacy.    This  species,  called  the 


JAM 


1126 


JAP 


Chnrlei  Pries  rat,  w>a  intnxlucml  to  daatroy  a  nmalliir 
'<ln<l ;  hut  the  ramedy  Mciiin  to  have  prnvoil  wiirnu 
thuii  Ihii  evil.  'rh«  lirevil  o(  uxcti  lijtn  liron  much  iiii- 
p-ovf(l  hy  Ju<licliiUH  croanInK,  and  tim  ncttrccly  lie  nur- 
pu»«e<l.  The  hone*  h«ve  niiirli  u(  the  Aruli  IiKmhI. 
They  are  tmall  liut  tloet,  und  at  the  IkI.hikI  rarc^  hnvo 
often  lieiten  KnitHitb  raoern,  |inrticiiliirly  some  liiken 
out  liy  the  Mariiuln  of  Nurmuiihy,  when  governor. 
The  Cleveland  l>«y  haa  liitely  been  introduced  from 
Enxliinil,  with  a  view  to  nizo  nnd  lione.  Tho  inuleii 
are  luritc,  hnrdy,  nnd  na|{acioUK,  iinil  much  UAcd  for 
mouutaln-ridInK,  an  well «»  for  curry  inx  b^i^KUKO  ""'l 
workinK  ■">  the  eitatea.  The  Klicop  nn<l  pJKH  are  of 
excellent  quality,  and  the  jiork  of  ,Jnmnii:u  is  consid- 
ered much  mora  wholesome  than  that  of  Knxland, 
'  eiuK  frequently  recommended  to  iiivullds.  (;onts  arc 
■.nuch  reared  l>y  the  ne({n)eii,  liut  they  are  very  mi»- 
chievoua  in  suKar  and  coffee  iilantutions.  Tlie  Cuha 
bloodhound  la  uaed  aa  a  wutcii-<loK,  beluK  tlie  apecioa 
which  thrives  liest  in  s  hot  climate ;  tlie  Kn^liah 
hound  and  terrier,  which  have  frequently  been  Intro- 
duced, soon  deRcncrate  anil  die.  I'oultry  aucccoda 
well,  particularly  tho  turkey,  tlie  (iuinea  fowl,  ond 
MuHcovy  duck. 

The  principal  publications  relating  to  Jamaica  are  : 
I.kno'h  llitlury,  177»;  linvoM  KnwAuii.s'  llitlury, 
1H09,  with  an  Ap|M<ndix,  1819!  ''kn.nt's  llittory, 
1H07  ;  Matiiinos,  1811  i  Howarii'm  /,<iim  nfjumnira, 
1827;  llKCKKoiui's  lliilory ;  Dai.i.ah' .J/nrwHi  War; 
Stkwart's  Jamnica;  Monk  Lkwih'  Tnnr ;  Mad- 
DRN'd  ./nmnicn;  Montoomkiiy  Mautin,  18,1ti  j  Phi- 
l.li'PiVs  I'ait  anil  I'ntrnt  Sinle  n/jamnica,  IS-I.I.  The 
earlier  histories  are  scarcely  applicable  to  the  p  isent 
day,  while  many  of  the  later  publications  ore  lero 
vehicles  for  conveying  the  authors'  views  for  or 
against  slavery.  Uy  far  the  lieat  and  most  roliat)le 
information  Is  contained  in  the  disputclies  of  suc- 
cessive ({oveniora,  published  in  the  Parliamentary 
Blue  Hooks ;  many  of  which,  and  particularly  those 
of  Sir  Charles  (irey,  contain  admirable  expositions  of 
the  state  of  tlie  country,  and  causes  of  its  decline. 
The  natural  history  of  .Jamaica  iiaa  also  been  the 
thenio  of  many  writera— Sioano,  in  IfiM;  Itrown, 
1754;  Barliam,  1794;  I.unan,  1814.  These  authora 
have  a  moat  able  and  entliusiaatic  successor  in  fiosao, 
whoae  Journal  of  a  Naturalist  in  Jamaica,  ISol,  ond 
Bird*  of  Jamaica,  1847,  are  deilKhtfuI  books.  For 
vivid  picturea  of  scenery  and  life  in  Jamaica,  Tom 
Cringle't  Ijog,  and  The  Cruite  of  the  3liil<je,  by 
Michael  Scott,  a  KIngaton  merchant,  are  unri- 
valed. 

The  Ca}-manaa,  or  Cayman  fales,  are  three  amall 
coral  islands  or  keys,  in  N.  Int.  19°  to  19°  20',  and  30 
to  40  leagues  west  north-weat  from  Point  Negril,  Ja- 
maica, and  about  the  same  distance  south  of  Cuba. 
Grand  Caymin  lies  off  the  centre  of  the  Yucatan 
Possage;  <^ayman-Uraque  or  Itrac,  and  Little  Cay- 
man, are  near  each  other,  and  about  i)4  miles  north- 
east from  Grand  Cayman.  They  were  discovered  by 
Colambua,  but  no  settlement  was  ever  made  by  the 
Spaniards.  Grand  Cayman,  tho  only  one  occupied,  la 
almut  a  mile  and  a  half  long  by  a  mile  broad,  and 
contalna  about  1000  acres.  It  is  ver>'  low,  entirely 
without  springs,  and  overgrown  with  low  stunted 
shrubs.  These  islands  are  favorite  breeding-places  for 
turtles,  immense  shoals  of  which  animala  frequent  tho 
low  aandy  shore  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their 
eg8»- 

Jftmea,  Capt  Tbomaa.  This  English  navigator 
waa  employed  by  a  company  of  merchants  of  Bristol, 
in  connection  with  one  l.uke  Fox,  in  1C31,  on  a  voy- 
age of  exploration  for  the  discovery  of  a  north-west 
passage.  Sir  Thomas  Koe  presented  him  to  Charlea 
T.,  who  greatly  encouraged  the  enterprise.  He  sailed 
from  the  port  of  Bristol  on  3d  May,  and  wintered  on 
an  island  in  Hudson's  Bay,  In  latitude  about  62°, 
flrom  whence  he  proceeded  noitbwaid  as  far  as  65)°, 


when  hia  further  progresa  waa  prevented  Ity  (he  ((rant 
accumulation  of  ice,  lud  hn  relurni'il  bi  Kiiulunit, 
where  he  arrived  22(1  Octolier,  Il).')2,  I  luring  INm  nn- 
suing  year,  he  puliliahed  hia  ■■  Ntrniige  itinl  DiiiignriMia 
Voyage  for  the  Diacovery  of  a  North-weal  I'lmaugn  In 
the  .South  Sea."  lie  muilii  sciniu  dU<  iiverlii*  oti  llm 
coant  of  Hudson's  Hay,  to  the  western  alila  of  wlili  h 
country  he  gave  tho  name  of  Srw  Wain,  In  linniir  nf 
the  prince,  afterward  Churina  II.  Ilia  Joiirniil  ciiii- 
lalna  much  curioua  and  Intnresting  nuiltur  iiiiiiii'iIimI 
with  the  aufl'etrlngs  of  hlmaelf  and  his  iiiinpiiiilnMa 
during  their  sojourn  on  the  Isle  of  I'linrUoii, 

Japan.  Tho  empire  of  Japan  coiiNlala  of  a  iji/ilu 
of  Islands  lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of  conlliinntnt 
Asia,  and  extending  south-east  und  northwiiat  lii'(wi'«ii 
north  Int.  ill°  und  48°,  ami  enit  long.  \W  and  ITiO'', 
Inclosed  between  this  chain  of  islunda  nhd  lhi<  iippn. 
site  rnaxts  of  (,'orea  and  Muncliu  Tartiiry,  la  tlin  Niiii  nf 
Japan,  which  cummunlcatea  by  means  of  »lmlta  wllli 
the  Chinese  Sea  on  the  south,  the  Pacilti'  Oiiiiiu  „\\  |||„ 
cant,  and  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  on  tho  nurlli,  To  llm 
east,  Japan  has  no  nearer  land  than  Calirnnilii,  ridiiii 
milcH  off;  the  neareat  part  of  China  la  about  liOiiilii'a, 
and  of  Kamachatka  270  miles  dlitunt,  Thi<  tiTiu  Ja* 
pan  la  probalily  a  corruption  of  tlie  ('liliiioe  miuiii, 
Ji-piin-quo — I.  e.,  Kingilom  of  the  Nuurco  nf  l|ii<  Hun, 
or  Kastcm  Kingdom.  Marco  Polo,  who  wiia  tliu  llr>l 
to  bring  intcliigenco  of  this  country  to  I'limpii,  and 
who  acquired  hia  Information  in  ('hinu,  calla  It  /,(. 
pnngti.  Tlio  Japanese  name  la  Nipon,  or  NIfdn  i,r,, 
Sun-source. 

Tho  empire  is  divided  Into  Japan  proper  I'oHalalJMg 
of  the  three  largo  islunda  of  NIpon,  Klu-aju,  and  Mitkniil', 
and  the  numerous  small  iHlunda.  Nipon,  IIm<  liiri(i'<t 
ai|(l  most  Important  of  the  group,  and  that  wlilr  li 
gives  name  to  the  whole  oinpint,  has  an  eatlniiilKil  ari'ii 
of  100,000  square  niilc.'< ;  its  length  lieliii;  morn  tliiiii 
900  miles,  while  its  average  Ijruaillh  excimila  lOll,  It 
is  thus  about  one  fifth  larger  than  (ir»at  llrltajn,  Its 
form  la  that  of  a  curve  or  crescent,  wllli  tlie  iiiiiiani 
side  toward  the  main  land.  South  of  NIpon,  and  ikii- 
aratod  from  it  by  a  narrow  chuiinul,  is  the  l>liiiid  nf 
Kiu-siu,  or  Xiiiio,  about  '200  niilea  In  lengtli  iiml  nluiiit 
80  in  average  breadth,  thus  containing  nil  ari'U  nf 
about  16,000  square  miles,  Lying  iiortli-uaat  of  Klii- 
siu,  and  eastward  of  the  soutliorn  oxtrenilly  of  Nl|iiiii, 
is  tho  island  of  Sitkokf,  or  Sikoko,  about  UiO  inlli'^  In 
Ungth  by  70  in  average  breadth,  It  la  aupariiti'd  from 
Ni|H)n  by  a  long  stru.t  In  some  parts  not  iiiorx  tliiin  a 
mile  in  width ;  and  from  Kiu-siu  by  llungof'lianiii'l, 
which  is  about  30  niilci  broad.  North  ><f  NIpon,  aiiij 
separated  from  it  by  the  Saiigar  Straits,  la  tlin  Inrud 
Island  of  Yesso,  a  conquest  and  cidoiiy  of  tlm  «in|ilri', 
Its  form  is  that  of  an  irregular  triangle,  und  lla  ari'ii  l< 
computed  at  30,000  square  miles.  The  aonllii'rii  por- 
tion of  the  island  of  Krafto,  or  Sagi.licn,  wlilcli  l>  >i'|>< 
arated  from  Yesso  by  tlie  Strait  of  Piiiihi«ii,  and  I  hi' 
three  southernmost  of  tho  Kurilo  laluilila^-Kiiiiuahlr, 
Iturup,  and  Ourop — belong  to  Japan, 

The  amnil  islands  which  nurruund  tlii-an  urn  giMiiT- 
ally  rocky  and  barren,  but  oicaslonully  rbli  and  fiiill- 
ful.  The  entire  number  of  lalunda  ciiin|i<i>lfiij  lln' 
empire  of  Japan  is  estimated  at  aliovo  IHOO,  ami  IIik 
area  of  the  whole  empire  at  not  leaa  llian   IVO,i|iiii 

square  miles.     The  coasts  are  dilllcnlt  of  a> n,  imt 

only  from  the  multitude  of  rocka  and  Ulntii  wlilili  Im- 
set  the  passages,  but  also  from  the  sHverii  gali<«  wlili  li, 
more  than  any  other  part  of  the  ocean,  Mgllntn  llii"" 
narrow  seas.  Several  dangerous  wlilrl|i(iola  al<ii  oi:i  iir 
among  tho  rocks.  Ka>nipfer  roniarka,  tliiit  niitiiiii 
seems  to  have  deaigncd  tlicau  Islanda  to  lie  a  nntt  nf 
little  world,  secluded  and  indepondunt  from  tlin  n nl, 
08  well  by  rendering  it  dangeroua  to  itpproacli  llnlr 
shores,  as  by  endowing  them  plentifully  with  every 
thing  necessary  for  luxury  and  comfort,  mid  tliiia  I'li- 
obling  them  to  subsist  without  any  coiiiliDtii'a  with 
other  nations.     The  Jupuiese  poUu^,  wkkb  rigiiHy 


JAP 


1127 


JAP 


iiri'ii  iif 
,.(  KIm- 

,(  S\\MI, 
fid  Mill'"  I" 

iriili'il  ffiMii 
iri<  tliiiti  II 

Clmnni'l. 
'nI|iiiii,  iiimI 

llin  lilft!" 

n  nllllilri'. 

II  a  liri'll  I) 

ullii'fii  |i"r- 
li'li  !•  ""I'- 
ll, mill  llii' 
Kiiiiiiolilr, 

iirti  «"iii''- 
•li  mill  fiiill- 
ll)i'i"lllU   III'' 

(iiiK,  mill  III" 
lull)  IVn,i)iiii 
f  (i''''t""*t  ""^ 
U  wlili'li  I'"- 

|{l||l'«  will'  III 
|l«ltllt"    111'"!' 

o\»  iilmiiii'i'iir 
tli'it.  niiliii" 
|,i<  II  flirt  iif 
iim  III"  t"'' 
iprimili  lli'lf 
y  Willi  I'vifV 
ItDll  till'*  ''"' 
iiiiiitii'i'ii  wH'i 

»hl«U  rinwiy 


forlildii  iill  Intcn'oiiriiK  with  iitriin({«r«,  in  other  i  Imim- 
ntiini'uii  iiii|iriii'tiriililii,  hiiH  Iiitii  ((rcntly  fai^llltiitiiil  liy 
thn  lnter|i<mitiiin  vt  thi'xu  iiatiiriil  iMirrlnra. 

Climnlr. — Tho  rliiimtii  (if  .Japan  iiiniit  viirj' cnn«l(lor- 
•lil,V  licitwofn  ItH  northitrn  anil  loiithirn  PXtrnmltlBn  ; 
liiit,  I'xcDpt  lit  11  fiiw  (lolntii,  wii  tHMKCKD  wjy  llttin  in- 
fnriiiiitlon  on  thn  nubji'it.  In  thn  noiithorn  part  of  the 
I'MipIrp,  It  In  Hiilil  In  many  runpoctit  tn  roxi'mliln  that  of 
I'^iixlnnil.  At  NaKiiKaki,  in  Ilin  Iflanil  of  Kiii-nlii,  lat. 
.'I.l',  till'  iivirano  toMiporatiiri)  In  th«  month  of  .Iiiniiary 
wan  :I5',  ami  In  Aii(!ii»t  (IH"  of  I'ahr.  At  thlK  point 
flio  wcalhiT  if  very  i  lian«t'alilp.  Kain  it  frt'ipipnt  at 
all  (H'a('(ini4  of  the  year,  hut  osppclally  In  tho  nionthn 
of  .'lily  and  Ainjimt.  In  Di'ccinlipr  ami  .laniiary  tho 
Kronnil  Ih  covcrwl  with  hoar  frii»t,  ami  oiTaslonally 
with  Know,  uxtopt  In  very  iiiUil  wintorH.  In  miniinor 
thn  land  In  cooled  liy  tho  sctt-liri'ozn,  which  lilows  from 
tho  Kouth  during  thu  day,  and  from  thp  ••iHt  at  nl){ht. 
At  Hlinoda,  on  tho  iMliind  of  Nliion,  in  north  lat.  :il° 
il'J'  ■111",  enxt  lonif.  llW  ,17'  M)'*,  wo  loam,  from  tho 
acrount  of  tho  Amorican  cxpodltinn  (1HB2  ol),  that 
"  tho  climate  i«  moro  or  lc«s  varlalilo  In  the  winter  and 
ii|irln({.  'I'lie  proMpnce  of  snow  \\\mn  thn  lofty  peak", 
although  there  u  xcldoni  fri>8t  or  hiiow  nt  Siinoda  it- 
Bclf,  and  tho  not  unfroquent  riiinn,  with  the  over  ne- 
rcsHiiry  fogs,  (jivo  an  occiiaional  Iiiimlility  and  raronojiH 
ill  tho  atmoaphoro,  which  are  chilling  to  tho  iienacs, 
and  inimt  lie  productive  of  occaslnnal  iiiHammatorydin- 
oaeoH,  such  as  aro  fre(|iiont  In  tho  sprint;  i>n<l  winter 
with  lis.  'I'he  change  of  wind  altcrnati'S  often  lietwccn 
tho  wiirin  »oa-lircezcs  from  the  smith,  and  thn  cold 
Idasln  from  the  snow-capped  mimntuliiH  i.iland,  and 
produces  the  usual  offects,  doulitlcss,  of  such  varia- 
tions. In  suiiiinor  it  is  occasionally  very  hot  in  the  day- 
time,  hut  tho  nights  are  refreshed  liy  tho  sea-lirce/.es. 
I'rom  April  19  to  May  111,  a  rci'urd  of  tho  ther- 
mometor  gives  72°  as  tho  highest,  and  fiH"  as  tho 
lowest  point ;  and  of  tho  linroiiietcr,  29°  ;18'  and  !10°. 
As  tlin  season  advances  tho  mercury  rises,  no  ilouht, 
niucli  higher,  reaching  prolialily  8u°  of  Fahr.,  or 
iimro."  (iolownln,  n  lliissian  naval  officer,  who  was 
for  two  years  a  prisoner  at  Hakodadi  In  Vcsso  (^north 
lat.  '11°  i<)',  east  long.  110°  47'),  descrilios  its  climate 
as  follows  : — "  Tho  ponds  and  lakes  freer.e,  snow  lies 
In  tho  valleys  and  plains  from  Novemlier  till  April,  and 
falls  In  as  great  almndanco  as  at  St.  I'etersliurg.  .Se- 
vere frosts  are  indeed  uncommon,  yet  tiie  temperature 
Is  often  two  degrees  lielow  the  freezing  point.  In  sum- 
mer tho  rain  jiours  in  torrents  at  least  twice  a  week, 
tlio  horizon  is  obscured  by  dark  clouds,  violent  winds 
blow,  and  the  fog  is  .scarcely  ever  dispersed.  Apples, 
IK-ars,  and  peaches  hardly  attain  ripeness,  and  the  or- 
ange and  lemon  will  not  bear  fruit."  Of  the  cli- 
mate of  tho  still  more  northern  part  of  the  empire  we 
iiavc  no  precijo  account ;  but  the  samo  writer  Informs 
us  that  on  tho  coast  of  Sagalien,  which  is  liut  little 
furtiier  north  than  Paris,  the  sea  is  not  clear  of  ice  so 
early  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Fogs  are  olso,  as  might 
iio  expected,  very  prevalent  in  .Japan,  and  thunder- 
storms are  frequent. 

Surfaee. — The  surface  of  the  principal  islands  is  in 
general  very  irregular,  though  in  tho  Interior  some 
plains  of  considerable  extent  occur.  In  many  places 
hills  descend  close  to  the  sea-shore,  or  loavo  only  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  water  and  their 
bases.  Ttie  highest  mountain  is  said  to  be  Fusi,  an 
extinct  volcano,  on  tho  island  of  Nipon,  westward  of 
the  Bay  of  Yeddo.  Its  summit  is  clad  in  perpetual 
snow,  thus  indicating  a  height  of  not  less  than  12,000 
feet  above  tho  level  of  tho  sea.  .Several  mountains  of 
considoraiilo  elevation  are  seen  to  rise  In  the  northern 
part  of  Nipon,  in  Yesso,  and  in  Sagalien,  and  some  of 
tliem  aro  active  volcanoes.  Besides  the  outbursts  of 
freiiuoiit  volcanic  eruptions,  no  country  is  more  fre- 
quently visited  Iiy  destructive  earthquakes.  Kn^mp- 
for  enumerates  six  active  volcanic  mountains.  "  Earth- 
quakes," says  he,  "are  so  frequent  that  tho  natives 


regaril  them  no  moro  than  Kiinipcans  do  onllnory 
storms."  In  l.'iW  a  suii^nsslon  of  i<arthi|iiakes  took 
placn  and  lasted  for  '10  days,  causing  the  destruction  of 
tho  best  part  of  the  clly  of  Yedchi,  anil  tiie  death,  it  U 
Alleged,  of  200,0110  of°  Us  inhabitauts.  In  17M.'I  tb* 
eruption  of  a  volcano  in  Iho  Island  of  Kiu-siu,  aicnin- 
paiiied  liy  violent  earthquakes,  destroyed  in  a  single 
province  27  villages.  Another  volcanic  eruption  took 
place  in  the  samo  island  in  171i:i,  aicimipanied  by 
earthquakes  which  coiitlniii'il  from  March  to  .lime,  and 
caused,  according  to  olllcial  returns,  the  death  of 
.V),000  persons,  with  a  proportional  destruction  of  prop, 
erty.  On  211<l  Decenilier,  lxr)l,aneartlii|uakfloci..irrod 
wiilcli  was  felt  on  the  whole  coast.  Of  tliu  town  of 
Hlmiida  only  n  few  tninples  and  private  ciiillces.  th.il 
stood  on  elevated  spots,  escaped  <iestriiction.  Tho  lino 
city  of  Osaca,  on  the  south-eastern  side  of  NI|Kin,  was 
completely  destroyed,  and  the  capital  Yedilo  dhl  not 
escape  without  injurj'.  On  lOfh  November,  1M5.'),  an 
eiirthipiake  at  Yeddo  Is  said  to  have  caused  the  de- 
struction of  liKi.ooii  dwnllings  and  64  temples,  and  til* 
death  of  110,000  iwrsons. 

lihrm. — The  rivers  aro  numerous,  liiit  short,  shal- 
low, and  rapid.  'I'liey  arc  not  navigable  for  vessels  of 
burden,  but  some  of  tlieiii  may  lie  ascended  by  small 
boats  for  some  mileii  from  tho  sea.  The  principal  liiko 
of  .lapun  is  that  of  Oit7.,  in  tho  soutiiern  part  of  tho 
island  of  Nipon.  It  is  about  DO  miles  .n  length,  but 
of  incnnsidorablo  breadth. 

(Ifiiliifft/. — I.itllfl  is  at  present  known  of  the  geolog- 
ical formation  of  tho  .lapaneso  islands,  Thn  volcanic 
fonnation  appears  to  provail,  liut  by  no  moans  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  pliitonlc  and  sedimentary.  Tho  use- 
ful mineral  products,  so  far  as  yet  known,  aro  gold, 
silver,  copper,  quicksilver,  tin,  lend,  iron,  coal,  sul- 
phur, and  salt.  With  tiio  exception  of  tin  and  iron, 
these  sooin  to  Im  all  verj-  abundant.  The  gold  is  found 
in  many  |iarts  of  the  empire,  sometimes  as  ore,  and 
sometimes  from  tho  washings  of  tho  earth  or  sand. 
.Silver  Is  eipialiy  plentiful  with  g<ild,  and  it  Is  probable 
that  tho  quantity  of  these  metals  annually  exported 
from  the  couiitry,  when  tho  trade  was  open,  amounted 
In  value  to  a  million  and  n  half  sterling.  Copiier 
abounds  through  the  whole  group,  and  sonictimos  of 
n  <iuality  not  to  lie  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world. 
The  natives  rellne  it,  anil  cast  it  into  cylinders  about  u 
foot  long  mill  an  inch  thick.  A  spocimon  aniily/.ed  by 
Dr.  Percy  gave  O'l!)  per  cent,  of  nickel,  O'Oll  jier  cent, 
of  iron,  and  extremely  minute  traces  of  tin  and  Rold. 
The  coarser  kinds  they  cast  into  round  lumps  or  cakes. 
Iron  ore  rich  enough  for  the  purpose  of  smelting  ap- 
jioars  to  bo  coniinod  to  three  provinces,  and  tiie  metal 
is  consequently  dear.  "  Iron,"  says  Kiompfer,  "  Is 
much  of  a  price  with  copper,  iron  tools  being  full  os 
dear,  or  ratlier  dearer,  than  tlioso  of  copper  or  brass." 
Tho  same  is  stated  with  respect  to  tiio  proportional 
value  of  Iron  and  copper  by  (iolownln.  Lead  and 
quid  silver  are  said  to  lio  abundiint,  but  ttiey  have 
never  been  articles  of  export.  Tin  lias  been  discovered 
in  smnll  quantities,  and  of  a  ([nality  so  line  and  white 
that  i(  almost  eqnals  silver ;  liut  of  tlie  extent  to  which 
it  ma;'  be  procured  little  is  known,  as  tho  .Tapanese  do 
not  attach  much  value  to  it.  Zinc,  according  to 
Kmmpfer,  is  not  produced  in  Japan,  and  in  bis  time 
calamine  used  to  bo  imported  from  Tonquin  for  the 
manufacture  of  lirass  wares.  Zinc,  however,  is  ex- 
pressly stated  by  tlie  governor-general  Baron  Van 
Imhoff  to  bo  nn  article  of  export  as  well  as  brass. 
Tills  was  00  years  after  Kosmpfer's  time.  .Sulphur,  as 
might  ho  expected  in  a  region  so  volcanic,  is  very 
abundant.  In  some  places  it  lies  in  broad  deep  beds, 
and  may  lie  dug  up  and  removed  with  as  much  ease  as 
sand.  A  considoraiilo  revenue  is  derived  liy  the  gov- 
ernment fnim  this  source.  Coal  appears  to  bo  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  used  for  fuel, 
.Siebold  speaks  of  it  as  being  in  common  use  through- 
out the  country,  and  on  visiting  one  of  the  minos  he 


'K|''i>I 
'I'ltB  5 ! 

mwM 


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11S8 


JAP 


MW  •noiiiih  to  convlnra  tilni  that  U  wm  nkllfUlly 
wiirkiiil.  IIkIiik  liUiimlnnuii,  it  in,  fur  iliimoatiii  pur- 
poMD,  KxiK'rnlly  <'iiiivtirt«<l  Into  ruku.  UiH'li-aiilt  Mnint 
t<)  HxUI  111  aoinii  purtii  ut  tlio  muritry,  liut  iIiwh  not  itp- 
paiir  til  1 41  miirh  um-iI,  tlin  ({iliniiry  Milt  In  iiiiai  IhiImk 
mmlii  frt>ni  Mii-vritttr  tiy  itn  luinkllirul  iiml  HXiwnilva 

finH'i'ni.  ily  MtiiriitlnK  liiuawii  nf  Kiinil  with  nni-wiitcr 
n  th«  nun,  II  ntniim  ly« U  uhtiilni'il,  whlili  Is  aftnrwaril 
liiiiliiil  In  imrthan  tmmIh,  anil  ylnliU  iin  cxprnaivo  nml 
lmpim<  niurliito  of  aixla.  Ni>  illiiniiinilK  liavx  Imcn 
ruiiiiil,  hut  iitfiiti'D,  rurnnliuni,  iiml  Jimprrii  urn  mot  with, 
•oinH  uf  tliiMn  i>r  Kruttt  Iwauty.  I'ltiirln,  rrHi|Uiintly  of 
Kreat  alan  and  Iwiiuty,  am  flibwl  up  on  nearly  all  (Hirta 
uf  tha  cuatt. 

VijiflMt  Prmlurli,tn$. — Thii  vi-n'talilo  priMluctloni 
of  iliipnn  ara,  fur  tlia  numt  part,  thimn  luninion  to  turn- 
panita  r»nlon«.  Timlicr  l«,  liowuvcr,  mi  araria,  tliat 
BO  linn  In  (wrniltted  to  cut  ilnwn  ii  trf«  wlllioiit  |mruii»- 
•Ion  fViim  thn  mnKl«triit«,  nml  only  on  tonilitlun  of 
planting;  a  roiinK  niii>  In  Itx  nlimil.  Tln'  iiiiMt  comniun 
Airtist  trni'H  am  tli«  llr  ami  cdilur  •  tlm  latter  KrowlUK 
tu  iin  linmnnaii  hU(>,  liolii;;  miuintluiKH  more  than  IH 
fb«t  ill  iliiimi'tar.  in  thn  imrthi'm  puria  of  tho  nmplro 
two  aiieclra  of  oak  arii  founil  whirh  illll'ir  from  th(i««  of 
Europii,  i'ho  ai'orna  of  oiin  kinil  urn  liolli'd  and  <iiit<>ii 
for  fund,  and  iirr  xaid  to  h«  Inith  imlutulile  and  nutrl- 
thiiiH.  Tho  inullierry  Kniwa  wild  In  Kn>at  uliuiidancr, 
and  tho  varnii<h-tre«  (r/iiia  prifi/r)  alioiinda  In  many 
diatrli'ta.  Ill  II  >'  Hiiuth,  thu  liamhoo  ciinn,  tlioUKh  a 
tropical  plant,  i  I'ound  rithnr  In  the  wlhl  or  cultivated 
•tiitr,  and  U  liir^idy  uard  in  the  niiinul'iictorlfla.  Th« 
I'amphnr-treo  la  of  j;ront  value  hero,  and  liven  to  a 
^'rrat  af^y.  Hiidxihl  vialtuil  one  which  Katinpfor  had 
deacrilied  aa  having  been  aeon  liy  him  lid")  years  before. 
It  waa  healthy,  and  covurud  with  folhii-o,  and  had  a 
clrcnnifiTcncM  of  liO  feet.  Thn  country  people  make 
the  camphor  from  a  drcnctlon  of  the  root  and  ateina  cut 
into  Hinall  piecea.  (Jheatnut  anil  walnut  treoa  are 
lioth  found.  Anions  tho  fruit  trees  ura  the  orange, 
lemon,  flg,  plum,  cherry,  and  apricot. 

Aniiimlt — Kxtenaive  cultivation  luavea  no  room  for 
wild  animala ;  and  tame  anlinaU,  not  being  naed  for  fowl, 
are  not  multiplied  beyond  the  felt  necoaalty  for  their 
aae.  'i'ho  horaoa  are  aniall,  but  hardy,  active,  and  of 
giHxl  liottom.  William  AdauH,  an  Kngllah  mariner  of 
the  time  of  ,lameH  I.,  deaciiln'a  lliem  ai  "  not  tall,  but 
of  the  ai/.o  of  our  inlddlini{  nag^,  short  and  well  truat, 
snuill  headed  and  very  full  of  mettle,  in  my  opinion 
far  dkcelliiiK  tlio  Spaniah  jennet  in  jirideand  atomaeh." 
Uxen  anil  cowa  are  only  uaed  in  plowing  and  carriage, 
milk  and  butter  not  being  uaed  aa  articles  of  food 
Iliiiraloes  of  an  extraordinary  »i/.e,  with  hunches  oi\ 
their  luicks,  like  camels,  are  u.'<ed  to  draw  carts  a»d 
carry  heavy  goods  on  tlioir  backs.  Sheep  and  go,.ts 
were  formerly  kept  at  I'irando  by  the  Dutch  ami  INiitu. 
gueae,  and  might  lie  bred  in  the  country  to  great  a>l- 
vantagu  If  the  natives  were  permitted  to  eat  their 
flesh,  or  know  how  to  mnnufai^ture  their  wool.  Tliny 
have  n  few  swine,  koiit  cliieHy  for  trading  with  the 
Chinese,  among  whom  they  are  in  great  demand. 
Doga  are  to  bo  found  in  largo  numbers  in  the  half  du- 
meaticated  state  in  which  they  generally  exist  iu  the 
East.  This  is  not  true,  however,  of  ou«  i^pecittH,  ro- 
lemblhig  somewhat  an  Kiiglish  8|uiniel,  which  ia  con- 
•idered  so  valu/ilde  aa  to  form  (iiirt  of  every  royal 
Japanese  present.  It  is  conjcctureil  that  tlio  Knglish 
variety  may  liave  sprung  from  some  presenlecl  by  th« 
emperor  to  the  king  of  Kngland.  The  wild  animals 
are  bears,  wild  boars,  foxes,  monkeys,  deer  and  hares. 
Kats  and  mice  are  very  common,  as  well  as  two  small 
ijieclcs  of  weasel  or  ichneumon,  which  live,  half  tamo, 
tinder  the  eaves  of  bouses. 

Wild  fowl  are  very  abundant,  consisting  chiefly  of 
gseao  and  ducks,  which  migrate  in  great  numbers  to 
th«  shores  of  .Inpan  in  winter.  Numerous  species  of 
pigeons  are  tu  be  found,  and  woodcocks,  pheasants, 
anipes,  larlu,  etc.,  are  cbiumou.    There  ore  two  spe- 


cUs  of  pheasant,  and  one  of  laiacock,  peculiar  to  Japan, 
Doim'stic  iRiiiltry  are  kept  by  the  uatlvea  alniuit  aolrly 
for  ornament  or  ainuaenieiit.  .Some  of  the  leptllLi  urn 
of  large  aUe,  and,  along  with  thn  liiaeit  Irllica,  urn 
dreailed  for  their  deadly  and  destructive  [mwera. 

Thn  ahnllow  bays  and  creuka  urounil  the  Mumls 
swarm  with  shoals  of  flsh,  which,  indeed,  niintlllitio 
nearly  the  wbide  animal  foiHl  of  thu  Japiine^e,  nnd 

furnish  them  plentifully  with  oil  fordomeatle  pAr| 

In  their  coarse  taste,  the  liiteatinea  of  thr  whiiie,  »ii,| 
even  (he  refuse  of  blubber,  are  coiialilered  good  unoii^'h 
for  food.  Thn  ,la|>aniei«  are  thn  boldeat  und  lunat  ex- 
pert iif  all  Asiatic  llshermen.  Their  lUhliig  voyngea 
extend  to  thn  rigorous  aeas  of  .Sagalien  and  Kurilea  in 
purault  of  herring,  with  which  they  manure  tliclr  mt. 
ton  Held*.  They  are  the  only  Aalatlc  people  Ihiit  pur- 
sue  the  whale.  The  women  are  said  to  be  rxpert 
divera  for  shell-llsh,  with  which  the  shorei  of  .l.ipin 
aliuund. 

Xiilirm. — The  .Fapaneae  are  described  aa  an  aitlve 
vigunilis  people,  of  the  middling  al/.e,  and  Ihelr  boillly 
and  mental  (aiwers  more  closely  assimilated  to  I'.nro- 
jieana  than  Aalatlcs.  The  laimmoii  people,  aiconlliig 
to  Tliunlairg,  urn  of  a  yellow  color,  which  Hoinetlinea 
bordcra  on  brown,  and  aumetiiriea  on  white.  The  In. 
boring  claanea,  from  the  exposure  of  the  upper  piil'la  of 
their  liodles  in  summer,  have  their  naturally  fair  cnni- 
jilexloii  deepened  Into  brown.  Their  dark  brunn  eiea 
are  oliluiig,  small,  and  sunk  deep  In  tho  head,  'ihu 
eyelids  forming  a  deep  furrow  gives  them  tho  iippeiir- 
anco  of  being  kneu-alghted.  Their  heads  iin\  liirge, 
und  their  necks  short,  their  hair  black  and  glimxy  witli 
oil.  Their  noses,  without  being  Hat,  are  yet  nillier 
thick  and  short.  Dr.  Aliialle  gives  a  somewhat  dlirer- 
ent  account  of  their  complexion.  lie  repreaenta  thnii 
as  perfectly  fair,  and  indeed  bluoming,  thiiu|{h  this 
seems  to  apply  chlelly  to  the  women.  Thunbcrg  nUo 
mentions  that  thu  deai  endants  of  the  ntdcat  and  no- 
blest fiimllies  of  the  princes  and  lords  of  the  empire 
are  suiiiewliat  majestic  In  their  alia|io and  countciiunii', 
being  more  like  Kuro|>eiius  :  und  the  ludies  of  di'tinc- 
tiou,  who  seldom  i'"  m:  ihnoiM'n  air  without  being 
coverlid,  are  iii    „    .te.     SleUdd,  apeiiking  of 

the  inhabll  Kiii-siu,  corroborates  this  view,  and 

says  tint  ac  women  who  protected  themselves  from 
the  In.'  ui  of  the  atmosphero  have  generally  a  lino 
und  wtiitv  skill,  and  the  cheeks  of  the  young  girls  dis- 
play .1  hlooimlng  carnatiim."  The  married  women  of 
.!»  11  dye  their  teeth  black,  by  means  of  a  corroalvu 
>  ii>^isitiim,  so  powerful  that  by  mere  touch  it  burns 
th»  ileah  Into  a  purple  gangrenous  spot,  and  in  spile  of 
the  utmost  rare  in  its  application.  Invariably  tiilnls 
the  guuia,  destroying  their  ruddy  color  and  vitality. 
"  The  Japanese  women,  always  excepting  the  disgust- 
lug  black  teeth  of  those  who  are  miirried,  are  not  ill- 
looking.  The  young  girls  are  well  formed,  and  ratlur 
pretty,  ami  have  much  of  that  vivacity  and  self-reli- 
ance In  manners  which  come  from  a  conscioii^iiess  of 
dignity,  derived  from  tho  comparatively  high  reganl 
in  which  they  are  held,  fn  thn  ordinary  mutual  in- 
tercourso  of  friends  and  families  tho  women  have  their 
share,  and  rounds  of  visiting  and  tea-parties  are  kept 
up  as  briskly  in  Japan  us  in  tho  United  Stiites."— 
.1  nwrican  ExpciUtion. 

iMni/uaije. — Superficial  obeorvation  led  to  the  belief 
that  Japan  was  colonized  by  the  Chinese  ;  but  a  moro 
accurate  knowledge  of  tho  physical  characteristics  und 
languagQ  of  the  people  has  rendered  this  o|iinion  unten- 
able. Indeed,  the  Japanese  themselves  consider  it  a 
high  disgrace  to  be  compared  with  tho  Chinese.  Or. 
Ainsllo  states  that  the  only  occasion  on  which  he  saw 
a  Japanese  surprised  into  u  passion,  and,  forgetting  his 
habitual  politeness,  lay  his  hand  on  his  sword,  was  on 
a  liomparison  being  made  between  the  two  nations. 
The  structure  of  tho  languages  of  the  two  countries  is 
essentially  diflferent,  that  of  .lapan  being  polysyllabic, 
while  uU  the  dialecta  of  tho  Chinese  are  monosyllabic 


JAP 


1190 


JAP 


thn  lii'Vu'f 
jut  11  nwro 
oriatirs  unci 
nioii  untcii- 
nsWet  it  1 
inose.  I'r- 
lilch  ho  ?aw 

■jjjcttint!  111!* 
ird,  wii»  »n 
wo  nntions. 

countriPH  is 

,„lv«.vll«l'lc. 
onosyllalilo. 


It  l<  Iru*  IhAt,  llkn  thn  IaiIii  In  Furop*  durlnK  lli« 
mlililln  iiK<"t  "■■  niaiiiUrin  illalntt  nf  til*  t'liiiioMi  Id  In 
'IM  iiiiiiiiiK  lli«  Ifitriii'il  liiTii,  »»  III  Ciiniii,  Tiiiiiiuln,  mul 
xlavwhoni ;  iiiiil  Iikiki'  iniiliy  ('liliii'aii  wnnU  Iiiivk  Ijiiiin 
liitniiliii'iiil  liilii  thn  Jii|>iini'><i ;  liiit  ilin  liilrixliK  tli>ii  iif 
tliaaii  imly  make*  tlia  ulriiitiirjil  <litriirniii'«  tli*  morn 
KtrlkliiKly  i)|)|>iiriint,  I'll*  fami,  nr  prliiiitlvn  liiiiKUntfu 
of  Jfi|iiin,  Ik  umiil  In  (Hintry  niid  wnrku  of  liuht  litiirit- 
tur*.  Tim  Kiit/f,  or  (,'hliiiHa  liinuiiiiKf,  nllKlilly  v«rli>il 
ill  |ironuiii:littiiiii,  U  I'mployiMl  l>y  tlM/xKini  or  prii'tU 
In  tlii'lr  rnll^louK  liciok^.  Tliu  viiiKur  Iiiiikuhkc  "t  llm 
I'liiiiitry  li  «  nilxturu  iiftlin  twn.  ('Ih.hm  mlliiitlcii  liiivn 
lint  liiiiMi  tmi'iiil  liiitwucn  tliv  t'nmi  nl'  ,lii|i;in  nnil  miy 
nlliur  Aaliitlo  liiiiKUiiKr.  Ily  huiiii>,  ut  IniHt,  it  b 
tlioUKlit  t'l  l>«  iiuiiit  ttimliiKiiiit  totlix  lunKiiii|{ei  nf  llio 
THrtiir  riirii,  tn  wliirli,  In  njiitn  cif  illviTnilv  In  pliVHiiul 
(:h»riictt<riiillni,  it  li  nuw  tiuMt  iiimmonly  Iwllovoil  that 
tho  <lii|iunna«  li«liin)(. 

/Vyi«/,//iuii.  -In  rBH«rJ  to  tlin  |i(>|iulatii)n  nf  .fiipiin, 
nil  our  inriiriimtlon  rmtji  ninrvly  on  coiijii tiiri'.  Nonin 
untliorltlou  iiitliiiutu  it  iit  niorit  lliun  lil.iKHl.lKK),  whiio 
othcri  innkti  It  nioru  tlmn  timr  or  llvn  tlmpn  tliiit 
iiiiiciunt,  All  trumlnrH  who  hum  vlnltcii  th«  country 
iHinrtfatiniony  to  tlin  popiiloniiiinHH  of  thn  |uirlii  vislteil 
hy  thrni.  'riiim,  Kaiinplrr,  who  (uiMHod  four  tlmcA 
over  thut  piirt  of  thn  country  Iwtwfcn  Niiniiniikl  unci 
Yodilo,  »iiy« — "  riio  country  la  (Kipuioua  Iwyonil  ox- 
priiHnion,  iinil  onn  would  acann  think  It  |ioHHildi>  thiit, 
bcinn  not  umatur  Ihiin  it  la,  it  Hlimiid  iinvcirtlicioaH  main- 
tain  unil  aiip|H>rt  iiucli  a  vuat  innilmr  of  inhjiliitnnta. 
The  lilxhwaya  ore  mi  iiliiioat  contlnuvd  row  of  vI11ii({iih 
imd  liiirnha,  You  ai;«no  eoniii  out  of  onn  liiit  yon 
(inter  luiotlicr  j  mid  you  may  travel  many  nilliw,  ua  It 
wiiri",  III  ono  atrciit  without  knowing  It  to  lia  coniimaod 
of  dilfurent  vlllaijua  liut  Ipy  tho  dirtVrciit  natiin  that 
were  fornmriy  kIvcu  them,  iind  wlilcli  thoy  oftcnviird 
retain  tlioujrh  Joined  to  onn  nnothrr.  It  liaa  many 
towiia,  the  chief  whorcdf  may  vie  witli  thn  moat  ••on- 
aiiinraldo  in  thn  world  for  larnencaii,  ningnHlconco,  and 
tlio  niiinliur  uf  inhalillanta." 

'I"li'»  men  of  ail  clnasoH  nro  excecdlnniy  cnnrtooui, 
•till  uthoUKh  in<|iilaltive  aliont  strauKcrH,  ni'Vnr  hoconio 
oir»uaively  iiitrnalvo.  Tho  lowur  people  urn  evidontly 
In  Kroat  dreud  of  their  auporiora,  and  urn  iiioro  rnacrvnd 
in  tlioir  proannoo  tliiin  thny  wonM  he  If  tlicy  worn  left 
to  tlioir  natural  inatlncta.  Tho  rl|{id  nxclualvenoaa  in 
regard  to  forol^nera  la  a  law  ini'rely  enacted  hy  the 
Uovornincnt  from  motiv  -s  of  policy,  and  not  a  acntl- 
uii'iit  of  tho  JapancHO  in'oplc.  Their  habits  arc  social 
amon|{  tlioinaelvna,  and  they  frenunntly  intorininulo  in 
friendly  intercourac.  "  Tlie  Japaneao,"  says  Kiuin|i- 
fer,  "nro  very  Induatrioua  and  Inured  to  hardahlpa. 
Very  little  will  aatiafy  tiioin.  They  (jenerally  live  on 
planta  and  roota,  tnrtolaea,  sholl-llah,  aea-weeda,  und 
tho  like.  Water  is  tliuir  conimou  drink.  They  H" 
liare-lieaded  anil  |pare-lon(jod,  They  wear  no  shirts  j 
thny  have  no  soft  pillows  to  lay  tlieir  lieada  on,  l>ut 
Bleep  on  the  ground,  laying  tlioir  heads,  instead  of  a 
pillow,  on  ft  piece  of  wood,  or  a  woodun  Imx  somewliat 
depressed  in  the  niiddlo.  They  can  pasa  wholo  ni({lit9 
without  sloeplnn,  und  autfcr  nil  manner  of  hardaliips." 
Tha  following  apparently  very  correct  jJctiuw  of  tiiia 
lieijplo  is  given  hy  an  anonymous  writer  of  thn  reign 
of  Klizalieth :  "  The  inliabitants  show  a  notablo  wit 
and  an  incredihlo  patience  in  suHering,  labor,  and  sor- 
rows. They  take  groat  and  diligent  caro  lest  either  in 
word  or  deed  they  should  show  their  foar  or  dullness 
of  mind,  and  lest  they  should  moke  any  man  (wlioao- 
evf  r  he  Iw)  partaker  of  their  troubles  and  wants. 
They  covet  exceedingly  honor  and  praise ;  and  im)V- 
erty  with  them  lirlngeth  no  damogo  to  nobility  of 
birth.  Thoy  suffer  not  tho  least  injury  In  the  world 
to  pass  uii  revenged.  For  gravity  and  courtesy  they 
give  not  place  to  tha  Spaniards.  They  are  generally 
ntfahle  and  fall  of  compliments.  •  They  are  very  punc- 
tual in  the  entertainment  of  strangers,  of  whom  thoy 
Will  sarioualy  inquire  even  trifles  of  foreign  people,  as 


of  thair  mannan,  and  such  Ilka  lhln(«.     Thry  will  u 

aiHin  I'Hw  a  lloili  iia  omit  one  ceremony  in  wdeoiiiliiK  • 
friend.      They    iiaed  to   give  and  receive  Ihu   i  up  al 

Olio  ancl  tl ther'a  haii.la,  and  la'fora  tho  iiiniler  of 

thn  liouao  liKglna  to  drink,  ho  will  |,roiri*r  ll up  In 

ovtry  one  of  hia  guiiata,  iiiskiog  ahow  lo  li.ivo  lliein 
begin.  I'lah,  roots,  ami  rlcn  urn  llutlr  coninion  Jupk- 
nta  i  and  If  they  i  haiicn  to  kill  a  hen,  dui  k,  or  pig, 
which  la  but  aeldoin,  they  will  not,  like  thiiria,  unt  ll 
alone,  but  their  I'rlenda  will  bn  piirtiikera  of  ll,  Al. 
though  eaaentliil'N  an  nbatenibMH  and  aolier  peopU, 
Ihey  am  nut  avi  i  <n  occaalonally  tn  ■tmiig  pntntloiia," 

'i  bn  ,lapaneHe  lawa  are  very  nlmrt  und  liitidllglbln, 
and  the  proccuiilnga  under  them  urn  aa  ahiiplu  aa  Ilia 
biwa  thiimiulvea.  There  am  no  |  rnfuaalniial  lawyara, 
every  mini  I'clng  ileeiiiid  cninpetniit  to  plead  Ida  own 
cuiiau.  It'  1  party  la  aggrieved,  lin  iippeaU  lo  tlia 
iiiaglati'il'',  who  auininniia  thn  other  party  lii'lnrii  liliii, 
Tlio  caae  ia  llioii  atated  by  tho  lonipialnant  In  hIa  nvtu 
way,  and  tlio  accuand  la  lioird  in  reply,  '|'hu  luaglaa 
tratn  exanilnea  wltiieaaca,  und  la  aiilil  fieipieiitly  In  dla- 
pla,  great  uciitenoaa  in  tlio  dutnctlon  of  falaisliiiiul,  ||i, 
paaaea  aenteuee,  from  which  theru  la  no  appniil,  mid  It 
la  carried  Into  execiitinn  iiulatUri:  If  tliu  iiiallnr  In 
dUpuIn  bo  of  gri'at  importance,  thu  iiiaglatiain  may 
refer  It  to  thn  emperor  in  council.  Nniiiellmea  In 
trilling  caaea  ho  ordera  thn  partioa  tn  gn  and  milllu  tha 
matter  privately  with  thn  aid  nf  tlioir  I'rlnnda,  ami  It  U 
well  uiideratnnil  that  the  matter  iiiii.it  bn  aeltled,  or  Uil> 
|ilea<int  coniieiiuences  will  ruauit,  Huo  /•.'/«'.'/•  Ili'il,, 
l(i,'»il  j  Dk  Uovv'h  Uri'itw,  \\. 

7t'i  i.'cnMc.  — Tho  grout  aotircn  of  rovuiiun  In  Japan  U 
the  rent  of  hind,  with  an  liiipoat  on  hnuaea.  In  thn  iiMin> 
iinr  of  aground  rent.  There  uppeara  i,  be  no  tan  oil 
artldea  of  cniiaumptinn,  no  capttutliii  I  ix,  und  iin 
tranait  dntioa.  The  oultlvatora  of  thn  »i  i'  apiwar  In 
bo  morn  vllluiiia,  simply  occupants  cnlti  ,  i,{  ua  inula- 
vera.  In  lands  belonging  to  tho  crown,  the  proporllnii 
of  tliRcropconalderod  rent  la  four  parta  in  tun,  and  In  thu 
rest  six  In  ten,  moat  commonly  thn  latter,  riiaaii 
proportions  apply  to  ovory  kind  of  crop— corn,  puUea, 
and  cnttnn.  Tho  land,  in  order  to  determliiu  tlio  rent, 
is  surveyed  by  sworn  uppraiaors  twice  a  year,  oiicii  bo. 
foro  tho  seed  is  sown,  and  again  immediately  li<  fniii 
Imrvost.  Those  thut  cultlvntu  untllled  grniiiid  liavii 
the  whole  crop  for  two  or  throo  years,  Aiiimig  their 
many  excellent  laws  relating  to  agriculture,  oim  In, 
that  wiiosoovnr  dons  not  cultivate  his  ground  I'm  tlin 
term  of  ono  your  forfeits  Ida  posseaaiou.  It  would  a|H 
pear,  from  tho  proportion  of  crop  taken  aa  r<'iit,  lliiit 
tho  impost  on  tho  land  does  not  luaterliilly  lUl'ir  fmiii 
that  ussuiiiGil  08  land-tax  under  tho  Moliammoduii  gov- 
onunont  of  Ilindoostan,  and  continued  in  sonin  place* 
by  ourselves.  This  will  enable  us  to  iimko  an  u|>|iroiC' 
imato  cstiniato  of  tho  rental  of  Japan-  thut  la,  of  the 
principal  source  of  its  public  Inconio.  Lis,  of  cunr n, 
will  suppose  a  similar  couilition  of  Hoci>  ty  und  latn  of 
populutinn  in  Japan  und  tho  country  with  wliiili  It  Is 
compared.  Let  ns  take,  tlicreforo,  the  samo  Indian  ter- 
ritories by  wliicli  we  have  attempted  to  uatiiniilo  Miu 
|M>pnlution.  Those  have,  iu  round  numliera,  u  popula- 
tion of  40,000,000,  and  yield  a  land-tax  of  X  111,(100,(100. 
This  proportion  woulil  give  to  Japan,  with  Its  imtl. 
mated  population  of  10,000,000,  a  rental  of  iinarly 
i;8,700,000  to  bo  divided  lietween  tho  Imiierlal  govern- 
mcnta,  feudatory  priucos,  hereditary  nobles,  unit  the 
soldier)'. 

To  tho  rent  of  lauds  Is  to  bo  uddod  thn  ground-rent 
of  tho  houses,  which  is  said  to  be  at  the  rata  of  Is.  Hil, 
for  each  futiiom  of  fioiitago,  without  regard  to  depth, 
unless  it  exceed  lo  fathoms,  when  tho  rate  is  doubled. 
Whether  tho  impost  applies  to  all  houses,  wliorovor 
situated,  or  only  to  those  in  towns,  is  not  stated  ;  but  if 
the  former  bo  tho  cuso,  estimating  each  luiuae  to  have 
an  average  of  live  inbniiitants,  and  also  five  falhoma 
of  frontage,  would  give  tho  income  from  this  suiircu  til 
more  than  X3,30O,000,  or,  adding  this  to  tha  luoil-reul, 


1 

m 


I  i'  I 


:?'■;■' 

m 


JAP 


1130 


JAP 


would  make  the  annnal  revenue  of  the  empire  about 
£12,000,000. 

The  Japanese  being  chiefly  dependent  on  the  soil  for 
inbsistence,  have  arrived  at  a  high  state  of  perfection 
in  the  arts  of  agriculture.  Though  a  great  part  of  the 
countrj-  is  hiily  or  mountainous,  and  the  soil  in  general 
rather  poor,  yet  almost  every  available  foot  of  land  is 
cultivated,  and  very  abundant  crops  are  raised.  Where 
the  land  is  inacct  ssible  to  the  plow  it  is  cultivated  by 
manual  labor.  Lilie  the  Cliincso,  they  pay  groat  at- 
tention to  manuring  and  irrigation.  As  animal  food 
constitutes  hardly  any  part  of  their  sul)8istence,  no 
pastures  or  meadows  are  to  lie  seen.  Rice  constitutes 
the  main  object  of  agriculture,  as  it  forms  the  l)rcad 
com  of  the  people  from  one  end  of  the  empire  to  the 
other.  Its  cultivation  extends  to  the  island  of  Yesso, 
and  as  for  north  as  45  degrees  of  latitude.  The  rice  of 
Japan  is  linown  to  excel  every  other  in  Asia,  and  this 
may  not  bo  owing  exclusively  to  its  skillful  cultiva- 
tion, but  partly  to  the  climate  and  the  distance  of 
Japan  from  the  tropics.  From  it  the  inhabitants  distil 
a  drink  called  saki  (a  kind  of  rice  beer),  in  very  general 
use.  Wheat  and  barley  are  grown,  but  the  former  is 
not  in  much  use,  and  the  latter  is  the  chief  provender 
of  cattle.  Rye,  maize,  panic,  millet,  and  the  Cynom- 
ms  corormmt  are  also  raised.  Beans  and  peas  of 
different  kinds  are  cultivated  in  great  abundance,  par- 
ticularly the  bean  Dolichm  snja,  from  which  soy,  a  kind 
of  sauce,  prepared  by  toiling  and  fermentation,  is 
made.  Among  esculent  roots  and  pot-herbs  the  fol- 
lowing arc  successfully  cultivated  :  tho  bata,  the  po- 
tato, carrot,  turnip,  cabbage,  radish,  lettuce,  gourd, 
melon,  and  cucumlier.  The  fruits  are  gencrlly  those 
of  Euroiie,  as  the  orange,  lemon,  peach,  flg,  pear, 
chestnut,  walnut,  and  cherry. 

The  tea-plant  in  Japan,  as  in  China,  takes  the  place 
of  the  vine  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  west,  and 
of  the  coffee  in  tropical  countries.  "  The  tea  shrub," 
says  Ka-mpfcr,  "  is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants 
growing  in  Japan,  and  yet  it  is  allowed  no  other 
room  but  round  the  borders  of  rice  and  com  fields,  and 
in  otlior  barren  places  unfit  for  the  culture  of  other 
things."  In  a  few  places  the  plant,  according  to  Sie- 
bold,  receives  more  attention ;  generally,  however, 
hardly  as  much  as  our  hawthom  hedges,  and  thus  the 
leaves  are  unfit  for  the  consumption  of  strangers.  Its 
use,  however,  is  universal  among  the  natives.  It  was 
introduced  into  this  countrj-  from  China  in  the  ninth 
century.  Tobacco  was  first  introduced  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  early  part  of  the  Ifith  .  I'ntury,  at)out  the 
same  time  that  it  was  introduced  Into  England,  and  it 
is  remarkable  that  fie  Japanese  emperor  instituted  a 
persecution  against  its-i  growers  and  smokers  at  the 
same  time  that  King  .lames  issued  his  Counter  Jtliiat, 
and  with  as  little  effect  in  arresting  its  use.  The 
plants  cultivated  in  Japan  for  textile  purposes  are  cot- 
ton and  hemp  in  the  northem  islands.  The  mulberry 
is  grown  for  the  silk-worm.  In  husbandry  cotton 
ranks  next  in  importance  to  rice,  and  fumishes  mate- 
rials for  clothing  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

Manufactures. — In  the  manufacture  of  cotton  fab- 
rics the  Japanese  display  considerable  skill,  but  in  this 
respect  they  do  not  equal  the  Hindoos.  Their  best 
silli  is  said  to  be  superior  to  tliat  of  China,  In  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain,  too,  they  are  said  by  some 
to  excel  the  Chinese.  Specimens  of  great  beauty  and 
delicacy,  at  least,  have  been  produced,  though  some 
assert  that,  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  best  clay, 
such  articles  can  no  longer  be  manufactured.  Like 
the  Chinese  the  Japanese  have  long  practiced  the 
manufacture  of  paper  and  glass.  Formerly  they  did  not 
know  how  to  make  the  flat  pane  for  window  glass,  and 
probably  what  they  do  make  is  of  an  inferior  q-a.»lity, 
as  they  still  purchase  thick  mirror  glass  ftwm  the 
Dptch,  to  grind  Into  lenses.  Paper  they  manufacture 
in  great  abundance,  as  well  for  writing  and  printing  as 
for  tapestry,  handkerchiefs,  etc.     It  is  made  of  very 


various  qualitlea,  and  some  of  it  Ii  a«  soft  and  flexibla 
as  cotton  cloth.  Indeed,  that  used  fur  handkerchiefs 
might  be  mistaken  for  cloth,  so  far  as  toughness  and 
flexibility  are  concerned.  This  paper  is  made  of  the 
bark  of  the  mulberry  (Aforus  papyrifera)  by  means  of 
the  following  process  :  In  December  after  the  tree  hat 
shed  its  leaves,  they  cut  off  the  young  shoots,  about 
three  feet  in  length,  and  tie  them  up  in  bundles.  They 
are  then  boiled  in  a  lye  of  ashes  in  a  covered  kettle, 
till  the  bark  is  so  shrunk  that  half  an  inch  of  the 
wood  may  be  seen  projecting  at  either  end  of  the 
branch.  When  cool  the  bark  is  stripped  off,  and  soaked 
in  water  for  three  or  four  hours  until  it  becomes  soft, 
when  the  exterior  black  cuticle  is  scraped  off  with  a 
knife.  The  coarse  bark,  which  is  full  a  year  oid,  is 
then  separated  from  the  fine,  which  covered  the 
younger  branches,  and  which  makes  the  best  paper. 
The  bark  is  then  Iwiled  again  in  clear  lye,  continually 
stirred  with  a  stick,  and  fresh  lye  from  time  to  time 
added,  to  make  up  for  the  evaporation.  It  is  then 
carefully  wasiied  at  a  running  stream,  by  means  of  a 
sieve,  and  incessantly  stirred  until  it  becomes  a  fine 
pulp.  For  the  finer  kinds  of  paper  this  process  is  re- 
peated, a  piece  of  linen  being  substituted  for  the  sieve. 
After  being  washed,  it  is  beaten  with  sticks  of  hard 
wood  on  a  wooden  table,  till  it  is  brought  tc  a  pulp, 
which  is  put  into  water  and  dissolved  aud  dispersed  like 
meal.  This  is  put  into  a  small  vessel  with  a  decoction 
of  rice  and  a  species  of  llibiicus,  and  stirred  until  it 
has  attained  a  toleralde  consistence.  It  is  then  poured 
into  a  larger  vessel,  whence  it  is  taken  out,  and  put  in 
the  form  of  slieete  in  mats  or  layers  of  grass  straw. 
These  sheets  are  laid  one  upon  another,  with  straw  l)e- 
tween,  and  pressure  is  applied  to  force  the  water  out. 
After  this  they  are  spread  upon  lioarda  in  the  sun, 
dried,  cut,  and  gathered  into  liundles  for  sale  and  use. 
The  well-known  lacquer  ware  to  which  Japan  has 
given  name,  is  unequaled  for  beauty  and  durability 
by  that  of  any  other  nation.  We  have  ourselves  of 
late  years  imitated,  t)ut  certainly  not  equaled  it.  They 
display  considerable  skill  in  working  the  metals.  In 
wood  work,  caskets,  caliinets,  and  the  like,  they  are  un- 
surpassed. Some  of  tlieir  swords  are  sai<l  to  lie  equal 
to  tlie  finest  Damascus  blades ;  and  Golownin  states 
that  their  carpenters'  and  cabinet-makers'  tools  are 
equal  in  temper  to  those  of  a  similar  kind  in  England. 
They  are  exceeding  quick  in  observing  any  improve- 
ment brought  in  among  them  tjy  foreigners,  and  copy 
it  with  great  skill  and  ex.i  'tness.  Clucks,  watches, 
and  astronomical  instruments  aro  made  by  them, 
copied  from  European  models. 

Arts. — In  certain  branches  of  ttio  fine  arts  the  Jap- 
anese liave  attained  no  small  skill.  They  are  ignor- 
ant of  anatomy  and  perspective,  and  therefore  barliar- 
ous  in  their  sculptures  and  landscapes ;  but  in  tlie 
representation  of  a  single  ol)joct  tliey  manifest  great 
accuracy  of  detail,  and  a  truthful  adherence  to  nature. 
Architecture,  as  an  ort,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  an 
existence — their  temples,  palaces,  and  private  houses 
l)eing  all  low  and  temporary  structures,  generally  of 
wood  ;  and  the  frequency  of  earthquakes  leads  them 
to  bestow  less  care  on  their  buildings  than  in  other 
circumstances  they  might  do. 

Trade The  Japanese  carry  on  a  largo  internal 

traffic,  which,  from  tlio  peculiar  characteristics  of 
their  countr}',  is  in  a  great  measure  by  coasting.  The 
numerous  straits  ond  creeks,  with  th:.ir  ;^r?l!ow 
waters,  though  generally  unfit  for  shii's  of  burden, 
are  sufficiently  commodious  for  the  small  craft  of  the 
Japanese,  which  rarely  exceed  00  tons  burden.  The 
inland  transport  is  by  horses,  oxen,  and  porters,  there 
being  very  little  river  or  canal  navigation.  Ka)mpfer, 
who,  however,  refers  to  the  busiest  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, that  between  the  chief  jwrt  Osaoo  and  the  two 
capitals,  speaks  of  Its  commercial  activity  as  follows : 
"  How  much  is  carried  on  between  the  several  prov- 
inces of  the  empire  I     How  busy  and  industrious  tho 


paresol 
wlint  ll 
wrougl 
infer  tl 


3\V 


1181 


JAP 


mMchanU  »M  rr»rywh»n  (  IfrtW  full  il)#)f  poftn  of 
ahipa  I  IIow  many  ftli  mvt  lH«f(^((Mtl1«  t««»fi»i  «p  ami 
down  the  country  I  'Jlwrn  ttftt  hmcIi  mtdtltiides  of 
people  along  tlui  eonrtd  «n4  tltmr  11m  mm-pmU',  nttch  a 
noUe  of  oura  onl  ii/ilU  niu\  umilfitiro  of  Mim  and  (iont», 
both  for  una  »nil  \nu»»uf»,  lli«t  >iiia  wonld  \m  apt  to 
imagine  the  whole  niitliin  li*l  wHlwl  thpfe,  and  all 
the  inland  part*  were  Mi  i\»\Ut  doiwH  «nd  emjpty." 
This  wu«  aaUl  \m  yearn  i»g«,  mV\  \i  urn*  he  nafely  bh- 
Bumed  that  the  unlnt(irru(itMl  (**«  wlfflh  tli«  fottnlry 
Iian  since  enjoyed  lni«  mit  )Mltia)rf)d  ltd  tmnmerclal 
prosperity.  'J  hat  the  JmrnHKim  «r»  A  <'/mim«fclnl  peo- 
ple may  be  inferred  from  (Iw  i/rd«r,  «««(«*«»,  and  pro- 
priety  with  which  uvury  tMitK  I'lmnrHi'A  with  their 
trade  in  conducted,  'Chey  Imvit  uiM,  »llv«f,  and  cop- 
per money,  an  well  at  bllbt  r*f  VHiihtiliUK,  Tlielr  »hopii 
have  signs,  and  tltelr  umiiU  aw  jw('fc«d  and  labeled 
with  a  truly  mercantile  mrit  m)t\  umlimt, 

The  foreign  Interi^urne  of  .IttiiNti  *m,  fnwe  than 
two  centuriei,  ami  till  within  llw  laiit  f«w  yearn,  iiolely 
confl.  ed  to  the  Dnh'h  and  I'Mmim,  Kvmi  with  these 
the  trade  wan  limlU'd,  hwing  wKh  H»fl  l»t(tc)i  for  a  eon- 
siderable  time  restri.ted  »»  it  ulimln  ulilp  annnally,  and 
with  tho  Chineite  to  t«n  j«nk»,  Tll«  ifMfmrU  and  Im- 
ports were  even  linilled  «»  li)  ¥«ltw,  «((d  the  dnlcn  and 
purchases  (Ued  liv  «  turiff  of  tim  -(nhiinon  gorerti- 
ment.  Tho  Dntcli  were  ('((Hliiwd  ((/  Ihp  Kmalllslnnd 
of  Uezlma,  in  tlw  Imrliorof  Nagawilil,  which  In  only 
about  frlO  feet  in  lungUi  by  m  in  unlrptne  Irrendth. 
A  small  stone  bridge  minmi*  Urn  l^lund  witli  the 
town  of  Nagasaki,  and  a  Klroiig  .fapflficnn  «iinfd  was 
always  stationed  here,  mi  <iM«  lining  iillowcd  to  pans 
either  to  or  from  tim  UUnd  wltlmiit  Dcenne.  The 
whole  Ulund  is  snrnmmM  with  a  lilj^li  fence,  on  tho 
top  of  which  ore  placed  Inill  njilhoK,  (hi  the  north 
Bide  aro  two  water.gataii,  whl/<h  W(«f«  lte|it  always 
shut,  except  to  admit  or  lat  imt  (Im  Ixitch  vessels. 
When  a  ship  arrived  licr  gnus  and  animiinltlon  were 
first  taken  out,  aiuJ  slw  wim  aftxrward  searched  In 
every  part,  and  an  euoct  ll»t  ntadw  (if  evcfv  thing  on 
lioard.  The  crew  were  tlmn  (mrinltt^d  to  land  on  the 
island,  where  tlwy  v/em  k«(it,  n»  liitig  ns  the  ship  re- 
mained, under  the  Insiwcthm  of  gtiards,  Kvcry  .la- 
paneso  oflicial  at  t!io  lintfdt  fuctfify  was  (round  twice 
or  thrice  u  year  to  take  it  miUimil  oath  of  feniinclntlon 
and  hatred  of  the  Christian  wllglim,  and  was  made  to 
trample  crosses  and  cru<lrt««s  Mtldwf  lils  feet.  The 
Dutch  were  ut  all  times  sMWiMndcd  by  'lapanese  spies, 
whom  they  were  obliged  Ui  mnpUiy  M  Interpreters, 
clerks,  servants,  etc, 

As  tho  empire  is  again  In  wntw  Wiasure  thrown 
open  to  foreign  Intercjinrse,  it  nihy  Mot  be  «n|irontable 
to  speculate  on  the  natiirf  and  value  of  a  trade  with 
It.  The  commodities  whirli  Imvh  lnwti  chiefly  In  do- 
niand  In  Japan,  are  Iron,  »t««l,  Uiui,  tin,  ((tdcksllver, 
cinnabar,  supun-wood,  lilat^k  )i»t(i((«r,  doves,  nutmegs, 
sugar,  putchnk,  ileer-skins.  Ivory,  (Chinese  and  Ton- 
quin  raw  silk,  Indian  cott<ill  good",  I'oft^in  yarn,  mir- 
rors and  other  glass  warn,  and  Cngllsh  woolens.  At 
one  time  or  another  all  (hesit  articles  fotind  a  market 
In  Japan,  and  most  of  tloni  ar«  lw|(ort«d  by  the  Dutch 
and  Chinese  at  the  present  ||m«,  In  a  free  trade,  or 
any  approach  to  It,  with  JajWH,  w«  may  suppose  that 
Iron  and  steel,  hlgU-prbwd  loinmiidltles  there,  would 
become  staple  Imjiorts,  Tlw  climate  wmild  give  rise 
to  a  consumption  of  wnol«Hi*(  and  allhongh  tho  Jn- 
paresa  are  clothed  In  their  own  cidlon,  lilifglng  from 
what  has  taken  place  in  India,  wlicre  tiofli  the  raw  and 
wrought  articles  aro  clmajier  than  In  ,»apan,  we  may 
Infer  that  cotton  fabrics  nilglit  !«<  lm(iort«d  with  ad- 
vantage.  Cotton  yarn  or  twist  has  long  been  one  of 
the  regular  artlcks  of  liH|iort,  altlionglt  It  was  long  the 
high-priced  manufacttirs  of  Java  sfinn  with  the  distaff 
that  was  lm|)orteil,  Mlrrorc  and  glass  wars  would,  no 
doubt,  find  a  remly  mart,  Hngar  wmild  certainly  1« 
In  demand,  as  Japan  prodmws  noM«(  and  the  same 
«n»y  be  eald  of  warly  all  kM*  iit  upkntitn  and  dye- 


woods.  Even  cotton  wool  and  rice  might  be  occ*- 
slonally  imported,  as  they  ai^  regularly  into  China. 
According  to  M.  Caron,  whose  information  refers 
to  10S6,  or  the  period  preceding  the  last  persecu- 
tion, tho  European  nations  imported  annually  into 
Japan  from  640,000  to  675,000  lbs.  of  Chinese  raw 
silk,  200,000  deer-skins,  and  100,000  other  kinds  of 
peltr)'. 

With  respect  to  the  exchangeable  products  from 
Japan,  gold,  silver,  and  copper  were  largely  exported 
when  the  trade  was.  open.  While  the  Dutch  were 
carrying  on  their  trade  at  Firando,  and  still  nnrestrict- 
ed,  they  exported  annually  gold  to  the  value  of 
4)470,000,  and  silver  to  from  ^£330,000  to  je385,000. 
Hut  the  (Spanish  and  Portuguese  trade  was  free  at  the 
same  time,  and  these  nations  are  stated  to  have  ox- 
ported  more  largely,  so  that  we  may  conclude  that  a 
million  and  a  half  of  the  precious  metals  were,  from 
near  the  lieginning  to  near  the  middle  of  the  17t1i 
century,  exported  from  Japan.  Of  copper,  the  Dutch 
exported  in  some  years  as  much  as  1800  tons.  Most 
important,  however,  in  this  part  of  the  world  will  be 
the  supply  of  coai,  which  the  islands  are  said  to  fur- 
nish abundantly.  It  will  also  be  seen  from  what  we 
have  already  said  of  *he  productions  of  the  countrj-, 
that  there  are  mony  things  among  them  that  may  be- 
come valuable  as  exports,  while  a  demand  for  other 
articles  will  no  doubt  lead  to  their  introduction  as 
subjects  of  trade. 

A  fter  the  expulsion  of  the  Portuguese  in  1C39,  and 
liefore  the  restrictions  were  so  jtringent  as  they  ofter- 
ward  became,  the  entire  value  of  the  foreign  trade 
wos  estimated  iiy  the  Dutch  governor-general,  tho 
Ilaron  Van  ImhofT,  at  £833,000;  while  In  his  own 
time  (1744)  it  hod  declined  to  £264,583,  of  which  one 
thlid  only  was  Dutch,  the  rest  being  Chinese.  In 
1805  the  cargoes  of  two  ships  laid  in  at  BataWa,  were 
sold  in  Japan  for  £35,416,  with  which,  or  rather  with 
tho  balance  after  deducting  heavy  local  charges,  cop- 
per and  camphor  were  purchased,  which  in  llatavia 
sold  for  £195,733.  The  adventure  of  next  year  wes 
neither  so  large  nor  so  prosperous,  for  the  outward 
cargo  brought  in  Japan  only  £24,325,  and  the  return 
cargo  of  copper  and  camphor  produced  when  sold  in 
Hatavia  only  £101,644.  These  favorable  speculations 
however,  arose  entirely  from  the  enormous  war  prices 
for  copper  and  camphor.  Since  then  the  trade  has 
become  still  smaller,  and,  as  already  stated,  is  con- 
fined to  a  single  ship.  In  the  earlier  period,  of  its 
trade  Japan  was  not  only  free  to  ail  the  world,  but 
was  not  even  burdened  with  imposts  on  either  ship  or 
cargo ;  presents,  however,  required  to  be  made  to  the 
emperor,  the  provincial  governors,  and  one  or  two 
other  parties. — E.  B. 

jlfoncy.— Accounts  are  kept  in  taels,  mace,  and  can- 
darlnes  ;  10  candarines  make  1  mace,  and  10  maces  I 
tael.  The  Dutch  reckon  the  Nangasaki  tael  at  3J 
florins,  equal  to  atiout  63.  2d.  The  gold  coins  current 
are  tlie  new  and  old  itjib  and  cobangs,  or  copangs ;  the 
silver  coins  are,  the  nandiogin,  itaganne,  and  kodama. 
They  are  in  general  very  simple,  struck  plain  and  un- 
adorned, the  greatest  part  of  them  without  any  rim 
round  tho  margin,  and  most  of  tliem  without  any  de- 
termined value.  Tor  this  reason  they  are  always 
weighed  by  the  merchants,  who  put  their  chop  or 
stamp  upon  them,  to  signify  that  the  coin  is  standard 
weight  and  unadulterated.  Tho  new  cobangs  are  ob- 
long, rounded  at  the  ends  and  flat,  about  2  inches 
broad,  scarcely  thicker  than  an  English  farthing,  of  a 
pale  yellow  color;  the  die  on  one  side  consists  of  sev- 
erol  cross  lines  stamped;  and  at  both  ends  there  is  a 
rectangular  figure,  with  raised  letters  on  it,  and,  be- 
sides, a  mooniike  figure,  with  a  flower  on  it  in  relief. 
On  the  otlier  side  is  a  circular  stamp,  with  raised  let- 
ters on  it ;  and  within  the  margin,  toward  one  end, 
two  smaller  sunk  stamps  with  raised  letters,  which  aro 
dlfl'eront  on  each  cobang ;  they  are  valued  at  60  mace. 


JAP 


1133 


JAP 


Time  are  old  eobonga  occaaionally  me;,  with,  which 
are  of  line  gold,  son  ewhat  broader  than  the  new.  The 
old  cobang  weigh  371  Dutch  asen,  or  275  English 
groina,  and  the  gold  ia  said  to  lie  22  carats  tine,  which 
would  give  44s.  7d.  for  the  value  of  the  old  cobang. 
But  the  Japanese  coins  are  reckoned  at  Madras  only 
87  touch,  wliich  is  20,  22,  26  carats ;  this  reduces  the 
old  cobang  to  41s,  lOd.  The  new  cobang  weigh  180 
grains ;  the  gold  ia  atwut  ](i  carats  fine,  and  the  value 
21b.  8d.  The  oban  is  thricu  the  value  of  the  cobang. 
The  iiljib  is  called  by  the  Dutch  golden  bean,  and  is 
inade  of  pale  gold,  of  a  parallelogramical  figure,  and 
flat,  rather  thiclier  than  a  farthing,  with  many  raised 
letters  on  one  aide,  and  two  liguros  or  flowers  in  relief 
on  the  other ;  the  value  of  this  ia  half  of  a  cobang. 
There  are  old  itjibs  also  to  lie  met  with ;  these  are 
thicker  than  tho  new  ones,  and  in  value  22  mace  6 
candarinea.  Nandiogin  is  a  parallelogramical  flat  sil- 
ver coin,  of  twice  the  thickness  of  a  lialfpenn}',  I  inch 
long  and  i  inch  broad,  and  formed  of  line  silver.  The 
edge  is  stamped  with  stars,  and  within  tite  edges  are 
raised  dota.  One  side  is  marked  all  over  with  raised 
letters ;  and  the  other  on  its  lower  and  larger  moiety, 
ia  tilled  with  raised  letters,  and  at  tho  same  time  ex- 
hibits a  double  moonlike  figure.  Its  va!  :e  is  7  mace  5 
candarinea. 

Itaganne  and  kodamaarc  denoii'n".  .,  which 

various  lumps  of  silver,  witliout  form    '  .  i,  are 

known,  which  are  neitlier  of  the  same  ..  >  >,  nor 
value.  The  former  of  these,  however.  ..  ■.  ^i  jiig,  and 
the  latter  roundish,  for  the  most  part  thick,  but  aome- 
times,  though  seldom,  flat.  These  pass  in  trade,  but 
are  always  weighed  in  payment  from  one  individual  to 
another,  and  have  a  dull  leaden  a))pearance.  Sent  is  a 
denomination  applied  to  pieces  of  copper,  brass,  and 
iron  coin,  which  bear  a  near  resemblance  to  our  old 
farthings.  They  differ  in  size,  value,  and  external 
appearance,  but  are  always  cast,  and  have  a  square 
hole  in  the  middle,  by  means  of  which  they  may  be 
strung  together;  and  likewise  have  always  broad 
edges.  Of  these  are  current,  sjumon  seni,  of  the 
value  of  4  common  seni,  made  of  brass,  and  almost  as 
broad  as  a  halfpenny,  but  thin.  The  common  seni  are 
the  size  of  a  farthing,  and  made  of  red  copper ;  GO  of 
them  =•  I  mace.  Doosa  seni  is  a  cast  iron  coin,  in  ap- 
pearance like  the  last,  of  the  same  size  and  value,  but 
is  so  brittle  that  it  ia  easily  broken  by  the  hand,  or 
breaks  in  pieces  when  let  fall  on  the  ground.  The 
seni  ar$  strung  100  at  a  time,  or  as  is  most  commonly 
tho  case,  96  on  a  rush.  The  coins  in  one  of  these 
parcels  are  seldom  all  of  one  sort,  but  generally  con- 
sist of  2,  8,  or  more  different  kinds ;  in  this  cjtso,  the 
larger  ones  are  strung  on  first,  and  tlion  follow  the 
smaller ;  the  number  diminishing  in  pro|>ortion  to  tho 
numlier  of  large  pieces  in  the  parcel,  which  are  of 
greater  value  than  the  smaller.  The  schuit  is  a  silver 
piece  of  4  oz.  18  dwta.  16  grs.  Troy,  and  is  U  oz.  fine, 
which  gives  ita  value  £1  5s.  3d.  The  name  ia  Dutch, 
referring,  probably,  to  its  shape,  like  a  boat. 

}Vtightt. — These  ore  the  candarine,  mace,  tael,  catty, 
and  picul,  thus  divided: 

10  condarlDea    —    1  nioco. 

10  niaco  =    1  tool. 

16  tacla  =    1  catty. 

100  rattles  =    1  piciil. 

The  pIcuI  -T*  125  Dutch  lb«.,  or  133^  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
It  is,  however,  said  to  weigh  only  180  Iba. 

Measum. — The  revenues  of  Japan  are  estimated  by 
two  raeasurea  of  rice,  the  man  and  koif ;  the  former 
contains  10,000  koifa,  each  3000  balea  or  bags  of  rice. 
The  long  measure  is  the  inc,  which  ia  about  4  Chinese 
cubits,  or  6^  feet  Rngliah  nearly ;  and  2)  Japanese 
leagoes  are  ci<mputed  to  be  about  1  Dutch  league. — 
MiLBDitN's  Orient.  Com. 

The  principal,  or  more  important  towns  vf  the  em- 
pire, are  Tedo  (or  Jeddo),  M{jako  (or  Kio),  etc. ;  Nan- 
gaaki.  Saga,  Kokura,  eto. ;  Simoda,  Kotal,  Takamutai, 
etc. ;  Hokodode,  ilatauraae,  etc. 


Commeraial  Inttrcowte. — At  an  early  period  the 
Portugueae  founded  a  aettlement,  and  established 
trade  with  the  Japanese,  having  succeeded  iii  winning 
the  favor  of  jeveral  of  the  native  princes,  through  the 
instrumentality  mainly  of  Christian  missionaries.  In 
1642,  Fernando  Meudez  Pinto,  a  Portuguese,  em- 
barked in  a  junk  from  Macao  to  Lew-Chew ;  but  en- 
countering adverse  winds,  he  was  driven  to  one  of  the 
western  islands  of  the  Japanese  archipelago.  Aliout 
the  same  period,  the  celebrated  Xavier  arrived  at  Goa, 
and,  proceeding  soon  after  to  Koyoaima,  made  eo  favor- 
able on  impression  on  the  Prince  of  Satsnma  that  nn 
active  and  profitable  intercourse  at  once  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  western  ports  of  Japan  and  Macao.  This 
intercourse  continued  uninterrupted  during  a  period  of 
nearly  40  years,  when  an  edict  was  issued  permitting 
tho  Portuguese  to  continue  their  trade  as  before,  but 
forbidding  them  to  bring  any  more  missionaries,  or 
even  to  apeak  on  religious  subjects.  In  1635,  under 
the  reign  of  Yeye  Mitson,  a  prison  was  constructed 
off  Nangasaki,  and  all  the  Portuguese  found  in  the 
country  were  there  confined,  and  the  commercial  priv- 
ileges which  they  had  so  long  enjoyed  were  transferred 
to  the  Dutch,  who  were  generally  believed  to  bo  tho 
instigators  of  the  severe  measures  put  in  force  against 
tho  Portuguese.  A  sanguinary  battle  between  the 
Portuguese  and  native  Christians,  amounting  to  38,000 
men,  on  the  one  aide,  and  the  Dutch,  and  such  of  the 
natives  as  sympathized  with  them  in  their  hostility  to 
the  Portuguese,  on  the  other,  was  the  result  of  tliese 
rigorous  measures.  The  former  fortified  themselves 
in  Simabara,  and  the  latter  made  their  attack  under 
the  command  of  the  Dutch  director  Kockebecker.  The 
fortress  was  soon  reduced,  and  the  Portuguese,  rather 
than  submit  to  their  rivals,  to  whom  they  attributed 
all  the  misfortunes  that  had  befallen  them,  perished 
to  a  man.  An  edict  was  immediately  published,  for- 
bidding the  Portuguese  to  enter  the  country.  The  in- 
telligence of  these  proceedings  soon  reached  Mucao, 
and  four  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  were  sent 
to  conciliate  the  favor  of  the  government  of  Japan. 
They  arrived  at  Nangasaki  in  1610,  and  were  inmic- 
diately  put  uuder  arrest,  and  condemned  to  death  for 
entering  the  country  in  violation  of  the  edict.  The 
following  inscription,  written,  it  is  said,  l>y  the  Dutch 
director,  Kocketracker,  was  placed  on  their  grave: 
"  So  long  as  the  sun  shall  warm  tho  earth,  let  no 
Christians  l)e  so  bold  as  to  come  to  Japan  ;  and  lit  all 
know,  that  the  King  of  Spain  himself,  or  the  Cliiistian 
God,  or  the  Great  Saca,  if  ho  violate  this  comniaiiil, 
shall  pay  for  it  with  his  head."  The  Portuguese  have 
never  since  been  peraitted  to  renew  their  intercourse 
witli  Japan. 

The  first  formal  edict  in  favor  of  tho  Dutch  was  is- 
sued in  1611,  and  the  privileges  of  trade  which  wcro 
then  conceded  have  continued,  modified  at  various 
times,  to  the  present  day.  In  the  earlier  period  of 
this  trade,  return  cargoes  ctmsistod  chiefly  of  silver 
and  gold,  Japaneso  copper  being  then  but  little  known 
in  Europe.  This  latter  article,  however,  soon  became 
one  of  the  leading  staples  of'Japanese  o.xport  trade. 
In  a  work,  entitled  "  Notea  of  tho  Voyage  of  the  Mor- 
rison from  Canton  to  Japan,"  published  in  183!),  tho 
following  reference  to  the  Dutch  trade  at  this  period  ia 
mado :  '•  The  Dutch  wcro  now  left  in  solo  possession 
of  the  trade  with  Japan ;  and,  since  tlint  time,  it  ia 
well  known,  their  monopoly  has  never  been  disturbed. 
Their  subsequent  political  intercourse  has  been  limited 
to  an  occasional  mission  from  Dutavhi,  and  the  visita 
of  the  Dutch  chief  of  tho  factory  to  Ycrto,  formerly 
made  annually  but  now  once  in  four  years.  Charlevoix 
mentions  emboaaics  in  1664,  1656,  and  1650.  It  waa 
while  the  second  of  tliese  missions  was  at  Yedo,  that 
two  thirds  of  that  city  and  100,000  of  ita  population 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  It  remaina  to  trace,  briefly, 
the  use  the  Dutch  have  made  of  the  monopoly  to 
which  they  have  so  long  aspired.    Of  the  assortment 


JAP 


1188 


JAP 


•od  value  of  their  import  cRrgoea,  in  the  17th  century, 
we  have  little  or  no  account.  Their  returns  had  lieen 
in  Bilver,  chiefly,  nntil  1641,  when  the  directors  of  the 
Company  suggested  returns  in  gold.  Japanese  copper 
was  at  this  time  in  little  estimation  in  Europe,  iiecause 
little  known ;  but  afterward,  on  a  rise  in  value,  it  he- 
came  an  importan^  retAm,  The  first  order  for  20,000 
picnls  was  sent  out  'n  1665." 

Various  restrictions  and  prohibitions  have  l)ecn, 
ftom  time  to  time,  imposed  upon  Dutch  commerce  by 
the  JajKtnese  authorities.  The  imports  and  exports 
were  limited,  and  the  number  of  vessels  was  finally 
restricted  to  four,  three,  and  two,  as  before  the  late 
treaty. '  The  profit!  realized  by  the  Dutch  from  this 
trade  buve  never  l>een  accurately  ascertained.  The 
author  already  cited,  referring  to  the  restrictions  im- 
posed by  the  Japanese  government,  remarks ;  "  Un- 
der these  circumstances,  the  trade,  wliich  had  yielded 
an  annual  profit  of  600,000  to  600,000  florins  for  the 
80  years  previous  [to  1714],  would  no  longer  pay  the 
charges."  Efforts  hove  been  made,  ot  different  pe- 
riods, by  the  English  ond  French  governments,  as  well 
as  by  that  of  the  United  States,  to  open  commercial 
intercourse  with  Japan ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
the  very  limited  concessions  granted  l)y  the  treaty  of 
81st  March,  1864,  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  and  concessions  nearly  similar  allowed  to  the 
British,  by  treaty,  subsequently  ratified,  nnd  :he  priv- 
ileges granted  to  the  Dutch  by  tlie  treaty  of  1865, 
without  success.  Some  years  since,  Russia  endeavored 
to  establish  commercial  relations  with  Japan  ;  l)Ut  the 
proposal  was  declined,  and  the  envoyf  were  ordered 
not  to  return  again  on  pain  of  ucul'i.. 

The  treaty,  already  referr  d  to,  l)etween  the  United 
States  and  Japan,  which  was  concluded  March  81, 
1854,  ratified  August  7,  1854,  exchanged  February  21, 
1865,  and  proclaimed  June  22,  1856,  is  as  follows : 
"  The  United  States  of  America  and  the  empire  of 
Japan,  desiring  to  establish  firm,  lasting,  and  sincere 
friendship  between  the  two  nations,  have  resolved  to 
fix,  in  a  manner  clear  and  positive,  by  means  of  a 
treaty  or  general  convention  of  peace  and  amity,  the 
rules  which  shall  in  future  be  mutually  observed  in 
the  intercourse  of  their  respective  countries  ;  for  which 
most  desirable  object  the  President  of  the  United 
States  has  conferred  full  powers  on  his  commissioner, 
JIatthew  Galbraith  Perry,  special  embassador  of  the 
United  States  to  Japan,  and  the  august  Sovereign  of 
Japan  has  given  similar  full  powers  to  his  commis- 
sioners, Hayashi,  Daigaku-no-l<ami,  Ido,  prince  of 
Tsus-Sima,  Tisawa,  prince  of  Mima-saki,  and  Udono, 
meml)er  of  the  board  of  revenue.  And  the  said  com- 
missioners, after  having  exchanged  their  said  full 
powers,  and  dulj'  considered  the  premises,  have  agreed 
to  the  following  articles :  Article  I.  There  shall  l>e  a 
perfect,  permanent,  and  universal  peace  and  a  sincere 
and  cordial  amity  between  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica on  the  one  part,  and  the  empire  of  Japan  on  the 
other  part,  and  between  their  people  respectively, 
without  exception  of  persons  of  places.  Article  II. 
The  port  of  Simoda,  in  the  principality  of  Idzu,  and 
the  port  of  Hakodado,  in  the  principality  of  Matsmai, 
are  granted  l)y  the  Japanese  as  ports  for  the  reception 
of  American  ships,  where  they  can  he  supplied  with 
wood,  water,  provisions,  and  coal,  and  other  articles 
their  necessities  may  require,  as  far  as  the  Japanese 
have  them.  The  time  for  opening  the  first-named 
port  is  immediately  on  sip;ning  this  treaty ;  the  last- 
named  port  is  to  be  opened  immediately  after  the 
same  day  in  the  ensuing  Japanese  year.  [_N'ole. — A 
tariff  of  prices  shall  lie  given  by  the  Japanese  ofli- 
cera  of  the  tilings  which  they  can  furnish,  payment 
for  which  shall  he  made  in  gold  and  silver  coin.] 
Article  III. — Whenever  ships  of  the  United  States  are 


trynwi  iip|Mlnt«4  to  rttMve  thrnn )  whatever  articlei 
tha  ihlpwrM^kM  m«tn  may  have  preserved  shall  like- 
wlM  be  rMtor«d,  «tt(l  tiM  eApenses  incurred  in  the  res- 
cue  and  tupitort  »f  AtflnrlMtls  and  Japanese  who  may. 
be  (but  titrowrt  Hjwn  tlt«  shores  of  cither  nation,  arc 
not  to  b«  rtfwM,    Aftleki  IV^Tliose  shipwrecked 
persona  and  othar  nWmm  itf  the  tJniUd  Statjs  shall 
ba  free  as  in  o(b«r  mmtittlM,  nnd  not  snlijeoted  to  con- 
finement, Imt  nhM  I*  (mPMul.le  to  Jnst  laws.    Article 
v.— ShlpwrB»lw4  fflKB  and  of  her  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  taioixiraflly  HvIh«  at  Hlmwla  and  Ilakodude, 
shall  not  Im  subjtw^t  Ui  stkh  restrictions  and  confine- 
ment as  tbiu  liuf-b  «h4  <!hines«  are  nt  Nangasaki,  but 
ahull  be  fraa  wt  NimtMtit  to  gn  where  tliey  please  wtthbi 
the  lltniti  uf  iut\/m  ihmmim  miles  (or  ri)  from  a  small 
island  in  tha  lmrb«r  iit  HUnmU,  marked  on  the  accom- 
panying chart  imrutit  i«|tpMtd«d  \  and  shall  In  like  man- 
ner lie  free  •«  |{(»  wlwf*  thdy  tilease  at  1  iakodarte,  within 
the  llmitii  to  Im  A«t\mi\  nft«t  the  visit  of  the  United 
Stateii'  tqundrnn  «t  thftt  fiimc,     Article  VI.— If  there 
be  any  other  bind  of  ^iiodM  wanted,  or  any  Imsiness 
wbUb  shall  rw)Htr«i  to  l««  Hfranged,  there  shall  be 
earefnl  dalilwrwtlon  li«tW(*«iH  th«  parties  in  order  to 
settle  suL'h  mottarn.    Article  Vlt,— It  is  agreed  that 
chips  of  th«  UnitMt  HUUin  rmnrting  to  the  ports  open 
to  them  simll  \m  |«rmlttMl  to  pxchntige  gold  and  silver 
coin  and  artlidwa  of  (jood*  tat  other  articles  of  goods, 
under  «iU'li  f»unUHm»  »*  shall  he  temporarily  estab- 
lished by  tb«  .7«(i«ii«w  fC'vetfiment  for  that  purpose. 
It  is  stipuUtod,  boWAVor,  that  the  ships  of  tho  United 
States  shall  ba  |)«riiiitt«d  to  mny  nway  wliatever  arti- 
cles they  ar«  uriwillil)f{  to  (tx«h«t»(4e.    Article  VIII.— 
Wood,  w»t«r,  f>f»vl»(on»,  (tortl,  and  goods  required, 
shall  only  lie  \m»'»nti  throii^b  the  agency  of  Japanese 
officers  aiifnintM  (tit  thrtt  toifpose,  and  in  no  other 
manner.    Artfido   IX.^^It  Is  agreed  that  if  at  any 
future  day  the  is'>*^itm»iil  lit  Japan  shall  grant  to 
any  other  nation  itt  flMltotlM,  tiflvlleges  anu  advantages 
whicli  are  not  b«rMn  gtuntm  to  the  United  States  nnd 
the  citizens  thwrwof,  that  th^se  same  privileges  and 
advantages  shall  \m  gtmtmi  llh<<wlse  to  the  United 
States  and  to  tba  i!\tif,«m  thefpof,  without  any  con- 
sul*- 'on  or  M»y,     Artlcls  X,»-SiiliM  of  the  United 
States  shall  bii  |)Prntlttw1  to  fcsott  to  no  other  ports  in 
Japan  but  KliHrtda  imf\  Krtfcodnde,  unless  In  distress  or 
forced  bj'  stress  of  WMlhcf,     Aftlcle  XI.— There  shall 
be  appointed  by  tho  i;o¥crflm«<flt  of  the  United  States 
consuls  or  agents  to  t^Mti  in  Himmla,  at  any  time  after 
the  expiratlim  of  Vt  nt'mtbs  (turn  the  dnie  of  the  sign- 
ing of  this  treaty  l  ttfovldcd  that  either  of  the  two 
govemmenta  deem  »H('h  «ff(l«jfiiiptit  necessnry." 

The  harbor  of  Himfidit  It  nwif  the  south-eastern  ex- 
tremity of  tbp  peninsula  of  Id/.o,  ntid  affords  n  safe 
and  capoi'lous  nDi'borajjc,  Kakodade  lies  on  n  spa- 
cious and  beautifnl  bity  iit  tlint  nnnie,  and,  for  aecessl- 
Idlity  and  safety,  I*  onw  of  Ihp  finest  In  the  world— cn- 
pal)le,  says  tb»  //»»//  A'«»//  llfjlltletf  ot  holding  all  the 
fleets  of  the  l»(Mi|rt«  In  m'iMtj, 

Purl  Refiulalhmt  iif  /^Immliir^thtet  natives  have 
Iieen  apiiointed  plliif!<  fiif  Altl«f)t'«n  Vessels  entering  or 
departing  from  the  port  iit  Mitnoda,  and  the  following 
rates  of  pllDtKgu  havM  licpn  p^tnbllnhed  by  the  proper 
ttuthotittes,  viz,  1  V«s«'l»  df«wln«  oyer  i«  feet,  pay 
115 ;  over  lit  fent,  and  km  timn  18  feet,  |10 ;  under  18 
feet,  $6, 

"  These  rates  ebitll  It*  pdM  In  ({old  of  sliver  coin,  or 
their  equivalent  in  umiiU  j  and  th«  same  shnll  be  paid 
for  piloting  vnatuU  out,  ah  well  »»  Into  imrt.  When 
vessels  anchor  In  tlw  ontw  roddii,  and  do  not  enter  the 
inner  harlior,  only  Imlf  tlw  rtlwve  compensation  shall 
lie  paid  tu  plhits,  A  loolMMlt  phKK  shnll  be  estaldlshed 
at  some  convenient  J«tlnt,  from  which  vessels  ap- 
pearing fn  the  nftin^  fan  Im*  f«e«tt  and  reported ;  and 
when  one  is  dfiM!ovHfo4i  imtkinif  Htiparentiv  for  the 


thrown  or  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Japan,  the  Japanese  1  harlior,  a  boat  sUaU  b»  (WBt  to  hor  With  a  pilot.  And 
vessels  will  assist  them,  and  carry  their  crews  to  81-  in  order  to  curry  tbU  faxiiktlott  Into  fidl  effect,  boats 
moda,  or  Hakodade,  and  hand  tbem  ov«r  to  their  conn- 1  of  sulbtbU  »Uf  nod  umiUjf  ibalt  always  ba  kept  in 


JAP 


1114 


JAP 


readiness  by  tbe  harbor-master,  which,  if  pecasMry, 
ihall  proceed  beyond  Bock  Island,  to  uscertaiu  wb«tbi>ir 
the  vessel  in  sight  intends  entering  the  harlMr  ur  nut, 
If  it  may  be  the  dosire  of  the  master  of  the  said  vhht 
sel  to  enter  the  port,  the  pilot  shall  conduct  her  to  a»(» 
anchorage,  and,  during  her  stay,  shall  render  svary 
assistance  in  his  power  in  facilitating  tlw  piocuri'' 
mont  of  all  the  supplies,  he  may  require.  Tlia  prixw* 
for  supplying  water  to  American  vessels  at  timw\» 
shall  be  1400  cash*  per  boat-load  ^^the  casks  Iwiog  (uf^ 
nished  by  the  vessel).  And  for  wood  delivered  on 
board,  about  7200  cash  per  cube  of  6  American  f««t," 

The  foregoing  is  a  full  summary  of  the  coiicessiuns 
granted  to  American  intercourse  by  the  treaty  with 
Japan  of  March  31st,  1854.  As  a  means  of  u|«eMJiii; 
commercial  relations  with  that  empire,  its  provi»i«i)» 
iiave  proved  inefficient ;  but,  before  submitting  any  iw. 
tice  of  facts  that  have  come  to  knowledge  of  the  l)»p»rt' 
ment  relative  to  this  subject,  it  is  deemed  approprM* 
to  give  the  laadiug  provisions  of  the  treaty  entered  inUi 
by  Greut  Britain  with  Japan.  The  first  article  of  tliis 
treaty  opens  ibc  ports  of  Kangasuki  and  Hakodode  Ui 
British  vessels  to  repair  a>jd  obtain  supplies  only,  U 
opens  all  parts  of  these  pc-ts ;  but,  as  respectu  amimi'- 
age,  vessels  must  conform  to  the  instructions  of  the  loi.'«| 
govemr.^ent.  Safe  an-',  commodious  places  ore  to  be 
designated  for  the  repair  of  vessels.  Wurkinen,  mih 
terial,  and  other  necessary  supplies  to  be  furnislied  hy 
the  local  government,  in  accordance  with  a  tatiff  Ui  Ite 
agreed  upon,  which  shall  regulate  the  manner  of  (My^ 
ment.  All  officiciul  communicatiuns  to  be  condu<.'ted 
in  the  English  language,  as  soon  as  the  Japanese  «hall 
have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  that  language.  A  pla<ce 
to  be  reserved  as  a  burial-ground  for  the  ivni$li>»l)  *t 
Medsuma  Sima,  which  will  be  inclosed  l)y  a  stone  W4li 
and  suitably  protected.  The  second  article  stipulates 
that  at  each  of  the  ports  of  Nangusaki  and  of  iiako- 
dade,  the  regulations  of  the  port  shall  be  observed  i 
but  the  Japanese  government  will  see  that  titese  regu.^ 
latioDs  shall  be  such  as  to  create  no  difficulties  and  )»-- 
terpose  no  obstacle  whatever  to  the  general  object  of 
tho  treaty,  which  is  essentially  designed  to  fox-ilit^te 
amicable  relations  between  Great  Itritoin  and  Jaiian, 

The  third  article  declares  that  only  vessels  in  4)1' 
tress  or  dismantled  can  enter  other  ports  than  KaNg^- 
saki  and  Hakodade,  withuu!  nerviission  of  the  JajittDese 
government;  but  ships  of  war  possess,  as  a  iteceMiary 
attribute  of  their  public  character,  the  general  right  t<' 
enter  all  the  ports  of  friendly  powers  ;  while,  however, 
this  right  shall  sulfer  no  prejudice  or  restrii'tion,  tl*e 
vessels  of  war  of  her  Britannic  majesty  will  iM>t  enter 
Any  other  than  open  ports,  without  necessity,  »«r 
without  offering  proper  explanations  to  tlie  imneriftl 
authorities.  Tbe  fourth  article  |)rovides  that  l>>itish 
ships  and  subjects  in  Japanese  ports  shall  conform*  Ui 
tho  laws  of  Japan ;  and  that  if  an)  snliordinste  Britiiih 
subjects  commit  offenses  aj^ainst  tli'  laws,  tliey  shall 
be  delivered  to  their  own  officers  for  punishnu'nt ;  and 
that  if  superior  officers,  or  commanders  of  shi|)ti,  fhall 
break  the  laws,  it  will  lead  to  the  chisingof  the  |M>rt« 
specified  :  but  it  is  not  intended  by  this  article  that  Uhy 
acts  of  individuals,  whether  high  or  low,  previoyely 
unauthorized  or  subsequently  ulsapproved  of  by  )»«r 
majesty  tho  Queen  of  Great  Britain,  can  set  usiiia  tl*e 
I'onvontion  entered  into  with  her  majesty  ulone  by  his 
imperial  highness  the  Kmperor  of  Japan.  The  fifth 
article  secures,  in  the  fullest  sense,  to  British  shipsaiMi 
subjects,  in  every  port  of  Japan,  cither  now  o|)eu  or 
hereaftet  to  bo  opened,  an  equality,  in  [wint  of  advaiM 
tage  and  accommodation,  with  the  ships  and  suijjei.'ts 
or  citizens  of  any  other  nation,  witlwut  prejudjji.'«, 
however,  to  any  peculiar  privileges  hitherto  cun^eiled 
to  the  Dutch  and  Chinese  in  the  irart  of  Naugaw»l»f, 

*  600  copper  cash  are  equal  to  4S  cen^ff  (urbitrary  vuliui). 
The  currency  of  Japan  Is  sf  mllar  to  that  of  Cbbu,  iu  whLi.'h  I 
Uel  -  10  mace  -  100  .landarwns  -  1000  casta  -  |1  48  L'.  H, 
currency. 


If,  t1mi>ti>fl>t  »ilf  otfMT  nation  or  peopl«  he  now,  or 
huti'itfUtf,  MrmittMl  to  enter  other  ports  than  Nang» 
Hhi  mh4  ttHhtnimU,  (tt  to  appoint  consuls,  or  to  op«a 

tr«4'«<  "f  («*«)«/  Hliy  advantage  or  privilege  whatever, 
tiritMt  eUp*  mi  sobjccts  shall,  as  of  right,  enter  upon 
tiMi  mtinfllt^tit  lit  ih«  Slime.  The  sixth  article  declares 
VM  Vt¥  im^^i\m  shfitl  )>«  exchanged  at  Mangasaki, 
wt  \mMi  i)t  im  wmjesty  the  (jueen  of  Great  Britain, 
I»ff4  im  tmUM  «f  his  highness  the  Emperor  of  Japan, 
wftbfH  a  ihntilhK  frnm  the  14th  day  of  October,  1854. 

'f  )t#  mirnfim  «t  )(«n««saki  communicated,  in  Octo- 
imf,  \l*i»i,  Ut  Mr  JNMtti  fHerlIng,  the  following  standing 
(Mrt  ttl0l\iuUmi  i  Amhi.h  1.  Ships  shall  anchor  within 
twM  *\m»,  »m\  (fMffi  nwalt  the  direction  of  the  guv- 
>'t»t>f,  i,  Hii  f)te-«rms  are  to  lie  discharged.  A.  No 
ff^r^m  Ui  \mn\  m  my  ct  the  Islands.  4.  No  soundings 
U)  \m  ttthm,  luif  tf((«ts  to  he  pulling  about.  6.  Should 
»»y  i>ifMNmNMie«tJ(ms  tie  desired,  a  boat  of  the  upper 
'imtrfit  iiImII  Im  t»Ueti ;  Imt  no  communication  shall  be 
IfAlft  #)tl«  tmfl'UitlH  boats,  and  no  exchange  of  articles 
i»lm  pim-ti,  (If  ifnAiii^  (tt  any  sort. 

'dm  »(**♦«  '*'«(((  according  to  the  law  of  Great 
>l»p)»i,  hH  KimltiHluien  and  other  officers  shall  oliey 
tliA  imilt4>,  Hiui  (frders  shall  lie  given  to  tiie  crew  that 
ibn  Hfofmniii  Uw  shall  not  lie  broken. 

An  HffUh^in^ntt  made  suliseqoently  to  the  conven- 
tUm  t»Uh  (if««t  liritaln,  requires  that  British  ships, 
iuWHAUtK  to  irhil  ildpHII,  shall  be  provided  with  a  doc- 
Ultmit  in  pf(t(if  (if  their  nationality,  and  as  a  check 
mu»t  (((#  ('(/tiAiU-t  (it  vessels  in  Japanese  ports ;  and  her 
fm^^f^  ti/iKieflimetA  has  directed  a  form  of  cortilicute 
(if  (f^'tftliiUm  Ut  im  adopted,  which  has  been  accepted 
ttj  itiiiUfiKiiity  >iy  the  .bipanese  authorities ;  an'l  mer- 
dlwfft  s)*iw*  iiftMn%  in  Japanese  ports  are  to  submit 
tlM^if  Wrt(rt««t«  »f  registration  to  the  officers  to  be  up- 
|«/fWU'4  1^  th«  Jajxihese  aut'iorities,  and  to  permit 
litem  Ui  limk4(  swch  exttacts  from  it  as  may  seem  good 
U>  ti>CM,  M(lt(<  <>tK-h  siiips  can  be  admitted  to  obtain 
f/Hhtifit  Htui  9(t(,'{ilie».  Her  majesty's  ships  of  war  are 
ink  U)  tic  (rt(/*i(i«rt  with  such  documents;  but  tho 
wrt}<»t(»  in  (iiiiitHnndi  upon  proper  oppbcation,  will 
»lfimi  *)(  fm«(tP.aitie  Information  regording  their  sbljis. 

iMUlui  tf*t  «(soi  recently  forr.ed  a  provisional 
trmly  mUl  illtMn.  bnt  it  is  sti>ted  that  the  liaUh  gov- 
vfrnnmi  wHhhoJds  It  from  publication.  The  Singa- 
pif«  fflHKif»  )/JV«  the  following  summary  of  its  provis- 
Vma  "'itmlUlUh  ate  no  longer  limited  to  Uecima, 
l/Hd  may  ftwily  feiuitt  Ui  Nns-gasaki  and  the  immediate 
wijsfd^/tlw^fft.  The  Island  of  Decima  is  placed  at  the 
dii«*»(«l  iif  iJw  f)((fth,  and  the  buildings  thereon  sold 
t"  UoHhuA,  This  island  will  serve  ns  an  entrepot  for 
(1^  UnMli  i^iwfi  tlie»  can  land  their  goods  without 
imytHOnt  uf  rtirt)«»  «r  search.  The  keys  of  tlic  wuter- 
g#(U<(  m(\  (ifiiu*  (iittef(it  warehouses  will  roniaiu  with 
t.\m  ttXiiU  (tiitif  tm^Utt.  The  usual  duties  will  not  bo 
^iiimicd  MMtil  tiiMnh  are  brought  to  Nangasaki.  Tho 
tf^U  mitt  Itie  Dutch  goveinment  remains  on  the 
(m'ncf  (iH4inK,  ttee  exer -ise  of  religion  and  right  of 
Itami  N  liiHiHiiUd  f(>  the  I)utch.  There  shall  exist, 
if-iHvfofWitidf  /rcwiom  of  communication  with  other 
*)*i(«  fnicfili^  (If  rfepartin  {  from  tho  roads.  A  delini- 
li*«  ttmty  1»  to  iie  he  "..fter  concluded:  but,  until 
iUiti  tskfi)  iiiiH:e,  itie  present  agreement  la  to  becon- 
^j4#f«4  in  hfi-e," 

'Hm  Htui*(t  in,  in  sUbstaiiee,  all  that  has  been  pub- 
iiniuid  fniuiiae  to  th«  (.•onventi(m  between  Holland  and 
,hpm  i  Imt,  ««()(  the  definitive  treaty,  iilluiled  to  in 
Hni  Ufsi  lutfXliiilph,  shall  have  been  entered  into,  the 
mpir<:imff^  (*t»een  the  two  countries  will  be  of  the 
mnte  iimilnd  clintncieT  that  has  hitherto  existed.  la- 
timi,  tim  i(/*)**Wse  e<-ince  an  almost  invim  !ble  repug- 
mmm  Ui  iiti^illK  their  (xirts  to  foreign  commerce,  and, 
(»  iMf  inMptUnlian  (if  treaties,  concede  nothing  be- 
ywl^d  Wifrt  in  t'recifically  granted.  Thus,  the  term 
'■  iflHpufUfy  fesiflcrtte"  in  tbe  treaty  with  the  United 
HM^n,  M  B(i  nhidiy  interpreted  that  citizens  of  this 
rnmiff,  *Jw  d«sl»«d  to  J»nd  «t  one  of  tho  open  poits, 


JAP 


1136 


JAP 


)cca  pub- 
llaml  anil 
ilcd  to  in 
into,  the 
of  the 
toil.  la- 
ile  rcpug- 
rco,  and, 
tiling  bo- 
tho  term 
United 
1  of  this 
ID  polts, 


were  ireqnlred,  before  belnR  permitted  to  g»  af  bore,  to 
state  how  long  they  intended  so  to  reside ;  ud  intima- 
tions were  given  tlmt  "four  or  five  days"  would  be 
■■ufflcient  to  satisfy  the  words  of  the  treaty.  In  one 
case,  the  applicants,  whose  object  appears  to  have 
been  to  reside  permanently  at  one  of  the  open  ports, 
for  the  purpose  of  eatablisliing  a  diput  for  the  supply 
of  whaleahips,  were  infonucd  that,  until  they  stated 
the  exact  number  of  days  they  intended  to  stay  on 
shore  for  "  temporory  residence,"  they  would  not  be 
permitted  to  sleep  one  night  from  their  vessel. 

On  the  17th  August,  1855,  tlie  American  schooner 
Wilmington,  Brown  maste-.  '  New  ^ndon,  Con- 
necticut, arrived  at  Simodt.  from  Hong  Kong,  with  a 
miscellaneous  cargo,  supposed  to  be  suitable  for  trade 
at  that  port.  Shortly  after  casting  anchor,  some  15  or 
20  officers  came  on  board,  and  desired  to  know  on  what 
business  the  vessel  came  into  port.  They  were  in- 
formed that  she  brought  a  cargo  of  American  com- 
modities, which  the  captain  wished  to  sell  or  exchange 
for  goods  of  Japanese  manufacture.  They  then  in- 
formed the  captain  that  they  could  not  trade ;  that  the 
people  at  large  would  be  much  pleased  to  do  so,  but 
that  the  emperor  had  positively  prohibited  all  commer- 
cial intercourse,  under  penalty  of  death  to  the  oflTcnd- 
ers.  A  letter  was  addressed  to  the  governor  of  the 
city  of  Simoda,  which  was  re'.'J-aed  in  the  same  en- 
velope, with  a  verbal  message  to  the  effect  that  he 
would  ^ot  be  permitted  to  land  a  single  article  for 
trade,  nor  could  he  present  any  fur  trade  on  shipboard. 
Wood  and  water  i^the  former  at  $5  per  cord)  were 
offered ;  but  fresh  proviiions,  it  is  stated  by  tlio  cap- 
tain, were  refused.  The  vessel  was,  night  and  day, 
surrounded  l)y  guard-boats  until  she  cleared  from  the 
bay.  The  Wilmint/ion  then  proceeded  to  Hakod.ide, 
wliere  she  met  with  more  Ulieral  treatment,  but  per- 
mission to  trade  was  refused,  as  at  Simoda.  Tlie  only 
provisions  to  be  purchased  consisted  of  beans,  tur- 
nips, scallions,  and  such  vegetables.  The  cattle  the 
Japanese  look  upon  as  sacred,  and  will  neitlier  sell  nor 
kill  them.  The  captain  and  crew  were  permitted  to  go 
ashore  and  visit  wherever  they  pleased.  They  were 
also  exempted  from  the  vigilance  of  guard-boats,  as 
well  as  from  the  constant  attendance  of  guards,  as  at 
Simoda. 

It  seems  evident,  tlierefore,  so  far  as  appears,  that, 
under  the  prpsent  treaty,  the  .Japanese  government 
will  not  permit  any  trade  to  be  carried  on;  noi'  is 
tliere  much  probability  of  the  trei  'y  receiving  any 
more  lll)eral  interpretation  than  that  given  to  it  by 
the  ofliuials  at  Simoda.  It  is,  as  the  Japanese  aver,  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  amity  only,  strictly  guarded 
against  any  concession  or  clause  under  which  Amer- 
ican citizens  could  claim  the  privileges  of  general 

trade Com.  Jlel.  U.  S. 

To  America  undoubtedl}'  belongs  the  credit  of  hav- 
ing lieen  the  flrst  to  re-establisli  commercial  relations 
with  Japan.  The  increased  traffic  in  this  part  of  the 
world,  particularly  between  eastern  Asia  and  north- 
western America,  and  the  importance  of  the  whale- 
fishery  in  the  Japanese  seos,  had  rendered  it  very  de- 
siroble  to  have  free  access  to  at  least  some  of  the  ports 
of  Ja^an.  Repeated  attempts  had  been  made  l)y  En- 
gland, Russia,  and  the  United  States,  but  without 
success,  when  at  length  the  United  States'  government 
resolved  to  make  an  effort  worthy  of  the  object,  and 
accordingly  fitted  out  an  expedition  under  the  com- 
mand of  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  The  commodore 
sailed  from  Norfolk  in  the  Mississippi  war-steamer,  on 
tlie  24th  of  November,  1852,  to  be  followed  as  soon  as 
possible  by  the  other  vessels  of  the  expedition.  He 
arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Yeddo  on  tlie  8th  of  July,  1853, 
with  four  vessels,  two  war-steamers,  and  two  sloops  of 
war,  and  after  some  negotiations  he  delivered  the  let- 
ter of  the  President,  promising  to  return  for  an  answer 
in  the  apring.  The  rest  of  the  year  was  spent  at  Loo 
Choo  and  China,  and  on  the  12th  gf  Fobruarj-,  185i, 


the  squadron  reappeared  in  the  Bay  of  Yeddo,  having 
by  this  time  been  increased  to  nine  vessels,  three 
steam-frigates,  four  sloops  of  wor,  and  two  store-ships. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  on  the  Slst  of  March,  in  terms 
of  which  the  ports  of  Simoda  in  the  island  of  Nipon, 
and  Ilukodade  in  Yesso,  are  opened  for  the  reception  of 
American  ships,  where  they  will  be  supplied  with 
wood,  water,  provisions,  coal,  and  other  articles,  so  far 
ns  the  Japanese  possess  them.  Ships  in  distress,  or 
from  stress  of  weather,  may  enter  other  ports ;  and 
seamen  shipwrecked  on  any  part  of  the  coast  are  to  be 
aided  and  carried  to  either  Simoda  or  Ilakodade.  Ship- 
wrecked seamen  and  others  temporarily  re»iding  at 
these  ports,  are,  at  Simoda,  free  to  go  anywhere  within 
the  limits  of  17  English  miles  from  a  small  island  in 
the  harbor,  and  in  like  manner  at  Ilakodade  within  12 
miles.  Ships  of  the  United  States  are  also  permitted 
to  trade  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  temporarily 
established  by  the  Japanese  government  for  that  pur- 
pose. All  the  privileges  that  may  hereafter  be  granted 
to  any  other  nation  are  to  bo  accorded  to  the  United 
States,  On  the  7th  of  September  following,  an  En- 
glish squadron,  consisting  of  a  frigate  and  three  steam- 
ers under  the  command  of  Kcar-Admiral  Sir  James 
&.  i-ling,  entered  the  harborofNungasaki.  The  primary 
object  of  this  visit  to  Japan  was  to  search  for  Russian 
vessels,  but  it  was  also  intended  to  attempt  to  cstab- 
lisli  friendly  relations  lietween  the  two  nations.  A 
treaty  was  entered  into,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  open 
absolutely  and  at  once  to  Brtish  ships  of  every  de- 
scription, for  effecting  repairs  and  obtaining  fresh 
water,  provisions,  and  other  supplies,  two  of  the  most 
convenient  harbors  in  .Fapan — Nangasaki  and  Ilako- 
dade ;  to  open  inferentialiy  to  British  ships  in  distress 
any  otlicr  port  in  Japan  it  may  be  expedient  fur  them 
to  seek  shelter  in;  to  secure  eventually  to  British 
ships  and  subjects  in  every  port  of  Japan  which  may 
liereafter  be  open  to  fureignerrt,  equal  advantages  with 
the  ships  and  subjects  of  the  most  favored  nation,  ex- 
cepting only  the  advantages  at  present  accorded  to  the 
Dutch  and  Ciiinose.  It  imposes  in  return  for  these 
concessions,  no  other  obiij^atlon  on  British  ships  and 
subjects  than  that  of  respecting  the  laws  and  ordi- 
nances of  tlio  ports  they  visit.  More  recently  the 
Russians  have  succeeded  inobtaiuing  a  similar  fuuting 
in  Japan.  See  Jiiici/,  Jiril.,  8th.  edition ;  Hunt's  Mei: 
Mag.,  i.,  208,  xxxi.,  231,  G2«,  xxxiv.,  120,  742;  Xor. 
.\m.  Jiev.,  X.,  33  (by  N.  IIalk)  ;  Qiiar:  liei'.,  xxii.,  107, 
lii.,  159,  vi.,  357  ;  Pkkky's  .fapan  '^xped.,  1354  ;  i»ii- 
ing  Age,  x.,  xiv.,  xxiii, ;  IJe  Bow's  Rev.  ix.,  444. 

Japanned  Wares  (Oer.  Jppmtische  ware;  Du, 
Japansch  lakicerk ;  I'f.  Mareluindisu  da  Japan';,  arti- 
cles of  every  description,  such  us  tea-trays,  clock- 
dials,  candlesticks,  snuff-boxes,  etc.,  covered  with 
coats  of  Japan,  whether  plain,  or  embellished  with 
painting  or  gilding. 

Japanning,  a  species  of  lac-varnishing,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  lacquered  ware  of  Japan,  which,  with  that 
of  China,  is  esteemed  tlie  best  in  the  world.  The  ware 
may  be  lacquered  upon  wood,  metal,  or  papier-machi 
grounds,  A  description  of  tlie  process  as  practiced  in 
China  may  3erve  to  explain  the  .sources  of  superiority. 
The  article,  if  of  wood,  being  made  very  dry,  light, 
and  smooth,  is  primed  with  a  mixture  of  o.x  gall  and 
rottenstone,  which  is  rubbed  smooth  before  the  varnish 
is  applied.  The  varnish  is  composed  of  605  grains 
of  guin-lao  in  1200  grains  of  water,  to  which  are 
added  38  grains  of  oil  of  Vamellia  sasanqaa,  pig's 
gall,  and  I'j  grains  of  rice  vinegar.  The  ingredients 
are  well  mixed  in  full  daylight,  when  the  varnish 
gradually  deepens  into  a  brilliant  black,  A  very 
thin  coat  of  this  varnish  is  applied  with  n  flat  hair 
brush.  The  article  Is  left  in  a  steamy  heat,  and  is 
then  rubbed  down  in  water  with  very  fine  pumice. 
A  second  coat  of  lac-v.arnish  is  next  applied,  and  the 
polishing  is  repeated,  which  two  operations  are  con- 
tinued until  a  perfectly  even  and  brilliant  lurface  is 


JAP 


1136 


JAV 


MtalneJ,  a  flnor  quality  of  lac  betiiK  aned  for  th«  later 
coats,  nf  which  thero  are  n«vi>r  \e»»  than  three,  nor 
more  than  18.  The  o))Ject  \a  ornamented  liy  an  i.rtlgt, 
who  draws  the  deai)^  in  wliite  lead,  enf^raven  it,  and 
Alls  up  the  details.  The  article  is  next  painted  with 
the  camphorated  lac  of  Kouangsi,  which  serves  as  a 
bails  for  tho  f;'l<li»X.     It  is  compietod  hy  vnmishini;. 

In  onr  metho<l  of  Japanning,  the  wood  intended  for 
the  best  works  is  thoroughly  dried,  since  any  warping 
or  shrinking  would  be  fatal  to  the  llnislied  surface ;  for 
which  purpose  well-i^rasoned  wood  is  cut  nearly  into 
the  required  forms,  and  ex|>osed  for  Beveral  days  to  a 
gradnally  increasing  heat  In  the  japanner's  stove.  The 
articles  are  then  finished  as  tv  form,  and  nrc  again 
atoved,  ufter  which  the  cracks  are  stopped  with  putty 
or  wliite  lead.  For  bl.-'k  J  wnned  works,  a  ground 
of  ivory-black  mixed  with  dark-colored  animi  varnish 
is  applied.  This  is  dried  in  the  stove,  and  coated  with 
viruish  three  or  four  times,  the  work  being  stoved  be- 
tween every  two  coats.  For  colored  grounds,  the  var- 
nish mixed  with  the  proper  color  is  laid  on  in  one  or 
two  coats,  and  the  work  is  conipleted  by  several  suc- 
cessive vamtshings  and  drj-ing'i.  Onlinar}'  painters' 
colors  ground  with  Unseed  oil  or  turpentine  and  mixed 
with  animi)  varnish  are  empIo}'ed  for  various  black  or 
brown  surfaces  with  gilt  e<lges,  imitations  of  marble, 
flne-grained  woods,  tortoise-shell,  etc.  Tho  colors 
mostly  used  ar«  fluke-white  or  white  lead,  I'russian- 
Huc,  vcmiiilion,  Indinn-red,  king's  yellow,  verdip^s, 
lamp-ldack,  and  tlio  various  tints  produced  l)y  their 
admixture.  The  varnishes  used  are  copal,  seed-lac, 
anlmi.-,  and  mastic.  The  lac  varnish  is  the  l)est  for 
hardness,  but  its  color  prevents  its  use  for  delicate 
grounds,  so  that  for  snch  purposes  it  is  citlier  mixe<l 
with  gum  varnish,  or  copal  varnish  is  used  instead. 
Copal  or  animb  varnish  made  without  driers  is  applied. 
in  from  two  to  six  coats,  after  the  color  lias  been  laid 
on.     See  VARNrsii. 

Japanners  sometimes  use  a  priming  of  size  and 
whiting,  which  it  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  left  for  a 
day  or  two  to  dry ;  it  is  then  made  smooth  by  rubbing 
with  rushes  and  a  wet  cloth.  When  this  is  quite  dry, 
the  grounds  are  laid  on,  and  finished  by  varnishing 
and  polishing  with  rottcnstone,  or  in  the  case  of  a 
white  ground,  with  putty  or  starch,  and  oil.  It  must, 
however,  be  remarked,  that  a  priming,  or  artiflcially 
perpared  ground,  is  objectionable,  the  japanning  licing 
more  liable  to  crack  than  when  executed  on  the  actual 
surface  of  the  ol>ject  Itself.  A  gold  ground  is  formed 
by  varnishing  the  work  with  japanner's  gold  size,  and 
when  nearly  drj'  but  still  clanLiiy,  covering  it  with 
gold  dust  applied  un  a  piece  of  wash-leather ;  the  effect 
of  such  a  ground  when  highly  varnished  is  very  brilliant. 
Japan  work  is  ornamented  with  drawings  or  engrav- 
ings, on  the  principle  of  transfer,  for  wliich  purpose  tlie 
engraving  is  printed,  or  the  drawing  executed  on  fine 
paper  previously  prepared  with  a  coat  of  isinglass  or 
gum- water.  When  this  is  Ary  it  is  placed  face  downward 
upon  the  japan  ground,  which  is  covered  with  ii  tlilii 
coat  of  copal  varnish.  A  sponge  dipped  in  warm 
water  is  then  applied  to  the  back  of  the  paper,  which 
dissolves  the  Isinglass,  loosens  the  paper,  and  leaves 
the  print  on  the  work.  Another  method  is  to  execute 
the  print  on  an  elastic  composition  of  glue,  etc,  which 
receives  tho  impression  well,  and  can  be  laid  down  at 
once  on  tho  japanned  surface.  The  whole  of  the  pro- 
cesses require  so  much  drying,  that  stoves  ore  requi- 
site to  hasten  tho  work.* 

The  great  demand  for  japanning  Is  for  works  In 
papier  mache,  to  which  article  we  must  refer  for  fur- 
ther information  on  Vie  sul)ject.  Common  articles  of 
furniture  are  sometimes  slid  to  lie  japanned,  therel>y 
Implying  that  they  are  mor>!  duralde  than  common 
painted  articles,  'fhe  term  as  thus  used  la,  however, 
incorrect,  since  the  colors  employed  on  such  common 
works  are  only  mixed  with  turpentine  instead  of  oil. 
For  ispanniog  worlu  in  mvtal,  they  Bte  cieaoed  wltii 


turpentlne'Ho  get  rid  cf  ^^reose  ct  oil,  unless  the  oil 
shoald  be  linieeid.  In  which  case  the  articles  are  stored 
until  the  oil  becoqcB  quite  hard.  Japanning  is  then 
performed  In  the  usual  manner. — K.  U. 

Jaaper  (Oer.  Juipitt ;  Du.  Jatit ;  I'r.  Jatjie ;  It. 
Diatpro  I  8p.  Jatpe  ;  Kus.  Jiuchma).  T'.iis  atone,  is 
an  ingredient  In  the  composition  of  many  mountnins. 
It  occurs  ns'tslly  In  large  amorph  jus  masses,  some, 
times  \t\  round  or  angular  pieces ;  its  fracture  is  couch- 
oldul  J  specific  gravity  from  'J  to  27.  Its  colors  ore 
various;  when  heated  It  does  nut  decrepitate;  it  is 
usually  di-, . 'od  Into  four  species,  denominated  Kgyp- 
tian  joepar,  stMped  jusjicr,  I'orcelain  jasper,  and  com- 
mon jasper.  It  is  sometimes  employed  by  jewelers  In 
the  formation  of  seals. 

Java,  the  first  In  Importance,  although  only  the 
third  in  magnitude  of  the  islands  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, llos  between  eiwt  long.  105°  VI'  and  114°  •!', 
and  Huuth  !at.  6°  52'  and  H°  4U'.  In  form  It  is  long 
and  nan'ow,  l>eing  066  miles  in  length  from  east  to 
-.rest,  by  from  &C  to  LIC  miles  in  breadtli.  Area  60,'i*iO 
square  miles.  Tn  the  north-west  it  is  parted  from 
l^umatra  by  a  strait,  at  its  narrowest  part  only  M 
miles  wide,  and  with  islands  lietween  ;  and  to  the' east 
from  Hall,  by  a  strait  of  no  more  than  two  miles 
broad,  Un  its  low,  and  in  some  measure  sheltered 
north  coast,  Java  has  a  good  many  islands,  by  far  the 
largest  and  most  i-nportant  of  which  Is  Madura,  sepa- 
rate from  it  by  a  strait  at  one  part  only  alioui  a  mile 
wide.  On  the  bold  precipitous  south  cua.st  there  nre 
very  few  islands,  and  only  two  of  a  considerable  size, 
ISaron  and  Kamlranagan.  Tlie  coast  line  of  Java, 
wliicli  Is  about  1400  KngUsh  miien  in  extent,  has  many 
bays  on  its  northern  coast,  l>ut  it  is  not  deeply  pene- 
trated by  any  one  of  them,  so  that  it  has  properly  no 
harbor  but  one,  that  of  Surabaya,  formed  between  the 
main  Islanil  and  Madura,  where  the  strait  that  divides 
them  is  still  narrow.  Tlic  southern  coast  is  still  less 
indented.  Here  there  are  two  harbors  only,  Padiitau 
— Inconvenient  and  unsafe — and  Chal.ichap,  formed 
lietween  the  main  island  and  Kambangan,  lioth  out  of 
the  way  of  intercourse,  and  little  frequented.  On 
other  parts  of  the  south  coast  there  is  no  safe  anchor- 
age, while  dangerous  surge  rolls  in  on  tho  shore  in  all 
seasons.  With  tho  single  exception  named,  the  ports 
of  the  northern  coast  are  but  open  road.steads,  with 
good  anchoring  ground  ;  but  the  want  of  land-lockiii 
harliors  Is  not  felt  so  near  the  equator,  where  hurri- 
canes are  never  exp<!rienced,  and  wliero  the  weather 
is  only  occasionally  tempestuous  at  the  change  of  the 
monsoons, 

The  physical  outline  of  Java  may  be  divided  into 
five  different  sections  of  various  breadths.  Iteginning 
from  the  western  end  and  following  tlie  line  of  tlio 
northern  coast,  the  first  section  ends  with  tlie  eastern 
side  of  tho  bay  of  llatavia.  This  is  aliout  7&  miles  iu 
average  breadth.  The  necgnd  extends  east  as  far  as 
Cherilion,  in  long.  1(W°  »«',  and  is  ulrout  95  miles 
liroad.  Both  these  divisions  are  mountainous,  the 
mountains  being  of  less  elevation  than  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  island,  but  mere  crow^ded,  and  with  nar- 
rower valleys.  They  constitute  the  proper  country  of 
tho  Sundas,  who  speak  a  distinct  language,  and  are 
less  advan(«d  in  civilization  than  the  Javanese,  tho 
nation  which  occupies  all  the  rest  of  the  island.  Tho 
third  section  extends  from  Cherilion  to  tho  western 
side  of  the  promontory  of  Japara,  in  alwut  long.  110° 
80',  and  its  breadth  does  not  exceed  50  miles,  the 
island  being  greatly  narrowed  by  the  bay  which  ex- 
tends for  140  miles  from  the  point  of  Indramaya  to 
that  of  Sapara.  The  fourth  section  extends  from  the 
psnmontory  of  Japara  to  that  portion  of  the  island 
which  Is  opposite  to  the  western  end  of  Madura,  and 
this  hue  an  average  breadth  of  100  miles.  Tho  fifth 
section  embraces  the  remainder  of  the  island,  and  Is 
00  more  than  60  miles  in  breadth.  In  the  three  last 
MCtioni,  tlie  msonUiiM  we  of  gtsuter  ele««tion,  tlia 


JAV 


list 


JAV 


pUtas  more  apactoas,  and  along  their  northern  coaaca 
there  runa  generally  a  belt  of  alluvial  land  varying 
fh>m  6  to  IS  milea  In  depth. 

The  geological  formation  of  Java  la  eminently  vol- 
canh.  A  range  of  mountalna  runa  In  a  longitudinal 
direction  through  the  centre  of  Java,  the  peaka  of 
which  vary  from  the  height  of  near  4000  to  near  12,- 
000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea.  No  fewer  than  48 
of  thoae  peaka  are  vnlcanoea,  20  of  which  are  in  a 
atate  of  greater  or  leaa  activity.  The  cratera  are 
aometlmea  of  great  extent,  and  their  walla  illustrate 
the  Btructure  of  the  mountalna,  which  la  either  vertical 
and  irregularly  columnar,  or  diapoaed  In  oblique  or 
horizontal  atrata. 

Java  haa  no  cxtenaive  collection  of  water,  aalt  or 
fresh,  and  no  large  lagoona  connected  with  the  sea. 
There  exist,  however,  o  few  beautiful  mountuin  lakea. 
One  of  thoae  lies  within  the  mountain  Wilis  ("  the 
green"),  which  parts  the  pinina  of  Madiyun  and  Kadiri, 
and  la  known  by  the  name  of  Gaial.  There  Is  a  sec- 
ond in  the  province  of  Cheribon,  Isnown  by  the  San- 
Bcrit  name  of  TiUaga,  or  the  reservoir ;  and  a  third  la 
in  the  province  of  Paauruhan  and  called  BaHunila,  or 
the  blue  water.  In  Jova,  however,  there  are  several 
extenaive  marahea,  which,  in  the  aeaaon  of  the  rains, 
become  lakes,  arc  navigated,  and  have  fisheries.  The 
rivers  of  Java,  especially  ca  its  northern  side,  are  nu- 
merous J  but  from  the  form  of  the  ialand,  they  are  of 
amall  size.  None  of  them  ore  navigable  for  vessels  of 
burden,  and  few  even  f»r  boats  beyond  tho  reach  of 
the  tide.  They  are  all,  more  or  lesa,  obstructed  by 
mud  or  aand-bara  at  their  mouths.  Though  of  little 
utility  for  trade,  they  are  excellently  adapted  for  irri- 
gation. Few  of  the  rivers  of  Java  have  specific 
names,  but  take  their  appellations  generally  from  tho 
placea  they  paaa  by,  and  change  them  with  every  new 
one,  a  circumstance  which  may,  perhaps,  be  owing  to 
their  small  size  and  great  number.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  few  exceptions,  in  some  of  the  larger,  aa  the 
Stoya,  a  river  of  the  province  of  Baflumaa  and  the 
Praga,  with  ita  tributaries  the  Eloa  Rivera  of  Kadu, 
all  debouching  on  the  southern  coast. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Java  Is  what  may  be  ex- 
pected in  a  narrow  sea-girt  countr)'  between  five  and 
eight  (legreea  aouth  of  tlie  equator,  having  plains  al- 
most on  a  level  with  the  sea,  and  inhabited  land  50110 
feet  above  it.  The  wet  season  begins  with  October 
and  ends  with  March,  and  the  dry  with  April  and  ends 
with  Septembsr.  The  monsoons  are  those  of  the 
louthem  hemisphere,  the  north-western  corresponding 
with  the  wet  season,  and  tho  south-enstem  with  the 
dry.  "■  e  setting  in  of  these  monsoons  is  irregular, 
and,  e .  a  during  their  prevalence,  there  is  some  drj- 
weather  in  the  wet,  and  not  unfrequentiy  rain  in  tlie 
dry.  At  the  equinoxes,  when  the  monsoons  change, 
the  weather  is  very  nnsettled,  and  most  tempestuous 
at  the  commencement  of  tho  winter  solstice  in  Septem- 
ber and  October.  Thunder-storms  are  then  frequent, 
and  often  destructive  to  life.  Land  and  sea-breezes 
are  experienced  within  15  miles  of  the  northern  and 
southern  coasts,  and  in  particular  localities  of  its  east- 
cm  and  narrowest  extremity  tho  aouth-oaatem  mon- 
soon blows  with  great  force  across  tho  whole  island. 
The  temperature,  so  far  as  the  seasons  are  concerned, 
is  equable,.  Near  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  is  that 
of  the  great  alluvial  band,  which  runs  along  the 
northern  eide  of  the  isiaud,  and  of  the  wide  plains  of 
the  interior,  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  seldom  falls 
lielow  70°,  and  seldom  rises  alrove  90°.  According 
to  the  elevation  of  the  land,  every  variety  of  temper- 
ature is  experienced  from  this  lost  to  6°  btlow  the 
freezing  point.  Snow  never  fills,  even  on  tixe  highest 
peaks ;  but  on  these  at  the  height  of  winter,  in  July 
and  August,  ice  a  few  lines  thick  la  formed,  and  hoar 
frost  is  seen  every  morning,  called  by  the  natives, 
poison  -dew  (&mbun'npa8),  from  its  pernicious  effect  on 
vegetation.  In  the  inhabited  mountain  valleys,  at 
4C 


the  height  of  4000  feet,  the  thermometer  la  uiually 
about  20°  below  what  it  is  at  the  level  of  the  tea. 
Here  la  experienced  a  climate  agreeable  and  congenial 
to  the  Kuropean  conatltutlon ;  and  here,  the  coma, 
fruita,  ttowera,  and  eaculent  vegetablea  of  temperate 
reginna,  have  long  lieen  acclimated.  In  point  of  aalu- 
brity,  the  climate  uf  the  high  landa  of  Java  la  luez- 
ceptiunable,  and  that  of  the  low,  containing  the  mass 
of  the  population,  la  generally  equal  to  that  of  any 
other  tropical  countr}-.  In  a  few  spots  of  the  alluvial 
band  if  the  northern  coast,  s.ich  as  Batavia  and  Cheri- 
bon, deleterious  malaria  have  occasionally  prevailed, 
ariaing  from  the  neglect  of  canals  and  water-couraea, 
or  .'rom  theae  '■eing  obatructed  b}-  volcanic  dibrla ;  but 
theae  are  exceptlona,  aa  ate  also  a  few  foreat  tracta  of 
the  interior  of  the  island.  The  extensive  cultivation  of 
rice  by  irrigation  might  have  been  expected  to  genera 
erate  malaria,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  nor  has  it  over 
been  alleged  to  have  done  so  in  the  country  Itself. 

Tho  elephant  ia  not  found  In  Java,  nor  doea  there 
exist  any  evidence  of  its  ever  having  been  indigenous, 
and  tbis  is  the  more  remarkable  aa  it  ia  abundant  in 
Sumatra.  The  animal,  however,  was  known  to  the 
Javaneae  for  ages,  and  waa  probably  imported  occa- 
aionally  for  the  use  of  its  princes.  Java  has  one  rhi- 
noceros peculiar  to  itself,  and  dift'ering  even  from  thoae 
of  Sumatra.  It  i.i  an  animal  easily  tamed,  and  when 
so,  gentle  in  ita  habits.  Il«8ides  the  donieaticated  hog, 
Java  has  two  wild  apeciea,  the  iSiim  t'rrruca<u<  and  Sui 
viltalut.  Both  are  very  numerous,  and  their  depreda- 
tions are  a  serious  impediment  to  agriculture. 

A  wild  ox  is  found  in  the  forests  of  Java,  thu  same 
as  that  found  in  the  peninsula  and  Borneo,  but  which 
is  wanting  in  Sumatra.  It  is  the  Hos  tondakiu  of 
naturalists.  The  Dutch  naturalists  inform  us  that  all 
attempts  to  tame  it  have  been  vain,  aa  in  the  case  of 
the  buffalo  of  the  American  prairies.  According  to 
the  Javanese,  however,  it  will  pair  with  tho  domesti- 
cated cattle,  producing  a  fertile  oflfspring,  to  which 
they  attribute  the  largest  breed  of  their  oxen.  The 
liuffalo,  Hot  bubaliit,  is  found  wild  in  many  of  the 
forests  of  Java,  but  considered  by  naturalists  to  be  de- 
rived from  individuals  in  the  domestic  state  that  had 
escaped  from  servitude.  The  horse  nowhere  exists  in 
Java  In  the  wild  state,  but  the  numbers  of  this  ani- 
mal and  of  horned  cattle  In  the  domestic  state  through- 
out the  island  are  very  large,  the  Dutch  letuma 
reckoning  the  first  at  820,000,  and  the  last  at  about 
2,000,000. 

Fish  are  plentiful  along  tho  whole  northern  coast  of 
Java,  am'  a  few  species  are  of  excellent  quality,  but, 
upon  the  whole,  the  abundance  and  the  quality  are 
not  equal  to  those  of  the  shores  of  the  Straita  of 
Malacca.  The  fresh  water  fish  are  all  of  ver>'  inferior 
quality  and  no  migratory  species  frequent  the  rivers 
for  spawning  aa  thpy  do  on  the  rivers  of  the  eastern 
side  of  Sumatra.  Shell-fish  are  very  abundant  on  the 
northern  coast,  especially  oysters  of  excellent  quality, 
and  prawns,  tlio  last  being  much  used  by  the  people  in 
the  shape  of  the  condiment  called  by  the  Javanese 
traai.  The  fisheries  of  the  exposed  soutiiem  coast  of 
the  island  are  unimportant. 

Java,  whetlier  the  inlialiitants  be  of  the  Javanese 
or  Sunda  nation,  is  peopled  by  the  same  race,  the 
Malayan.  This  is  characterized  liy  a  short  ond  squat 
person,  the  stature  being  about  two  inches  less  than 
that  of  the  Euro|)can,  tlie  Chinese,  the  Hindoo,  the 
Persian,  or  Arabian.  Tho  face  is  round,  the  mouth 
wide,  the  choek-bones  high,  the  nose  short,  small, 
never  prominent  as  with  the  European,  and  never  flat 
aa  with  the  African  negro.  Tlie  eyes  are  always 
black,  small,  and  deep-seated.  The  complexion  is 
brown,  with  a  shade  of  yellow,  not  so  dark  as  with  the 
majority  of  Hindoos,  and  never  black  as  with  some  of 
them.  Fairness  is,  indeed,  in  estimation  with  the 
Javanese  and  others  of  the  same  race.  The  hair  of  the 
head  i3  abundant,  always  black,  lank,  and  harsh,  or  «t 


Sii, 


JAV 


1188 


JAY 


navar  aoft  or  Mky.    The  hair  on  other  part*  of 
th*  body  in  either  iiaanty  or  altof^ther  wanting.     The 
l>«ard  conaiata  only  of  a  few  ihort  atra^lini;  hain, 
and  there  is  none  at  all  on  the  breaiit  or  limba.     The 
Javaneae,  peraonally,  are  not  an  afcile  people,  and 
mall*  very  indifferent  runncn  or  wreatlers.     Aa  to 
moral  character,  the  Javaneae  of  the  present  day  may 
be  described  aa  a  peacealile,  docile,  solnr,  simple,  and 
Industrloua  people.     The  practice  of  runnini;  a  muclc, 
so  frequent  with  the  other  cultivated  nutinna  of  the 
.\rchlpelago,  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  with  them. 
■Tnva  waa  populous,  and  to  a  consiileraliie  de)iTee  .jiv- 
illzed  for  many  ages  Iwfore  It  waa  known  U   Euro- 
peans.    De   Harroa  ilcscrilMis  the  Javanas-.,  at  the 
arrival  of  the  PortuKuese,  aa  what  they  stlli  are,  "  the 
most  civiliaed  people  of  these  parts"  (gtntei  ih  mai$ 
policia).     They  were  then  found  carrj-Ing  on  trade 
from  Sumatra  to  the  Moluccas ;  they  fumiahed  bread- 
corn  and  manufacturea  to  the  less  advanced  nations 
in  return  for  their  rude  protluctlons,  and  they  hod 
effected  conquests  or  settioments  in  Malacca,  I'liiem- 
bang  in  Sumatra,  and  in  the  two  fertile  Islands  of  Ball 
and  Lomboc.     In  fact,  it  is  certain  that  the  .Tavanese 
were,  at  this  time,  a  far  more  civilized,  probatily  even 
a  more  numerous  people  than  either  the  Mexicana  or 
Peruviana,  who  Iwcame  known  to  Kurope  nearly  at 
the  same  time.     The  essential  part  of  Javanese  civ- 
ilization seems  to  be  of  native  origin  anil  to  have  sprung 
up  in  the  Island  itself,  altliough  it  suljscquently  received 
consideraliie  accessions  liy  intercourse  with  llindoostan. 
With  the  exception  of  the  people  of  Bali  and  Lom- 
boc, the  Javanese  are  the  only  nation  of  the  Arclii- 
pelugo  that  can  be  aald   to  ba  almost   exclusively 
agricultural.     With  the  exception  of  the  fishermen  of 
the  northern  coast,  and  a  small  proportion  of  artisans, 
the  computed  ten  millions  of  the  population  of  the 
island  is  directly  or  indirectly  engaged  in  agriculture, 
and  have  made  a  reapectalile"  progress  in  it.     To  regu- 
late the  processes  of  agriculture,  the  Javanese  have  a 
rural  calendar  still  in  use.     This  consists  of  a  year  of 
860  days,  beginning  with  the  winter  solstice  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  in  the  end  of  June,  and  divided 
into  twelve  seasons  of  unequal  length,  varj'Ing  from 
23  to  41  days  each.     It  details  the  times  for  clearing 
and  preparing  the  land,  for  sowing,  for  transplantin,';, 
and  for  reaping  the  different  crops.     The  native  terms 
by  which  the  seasons  are  named,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  the  ordinal  numbers  of  the  vernacular  lani.uage, 
while  the  adaptation  of  the  seasons  to  the  latltide  of 
Java  sufficiently  show  that  this  calendar  Is  a  Javanese 
invention,  and  not  borrowed  from  strangers.     Irriga- 
tion, in  so  far  us  the  rice  crop  is  concerned,  multiplies 
the  productive  powers  of  the  soil  from  live  to  tenfold, 
according  to  the  abundance  of  water,  and  the  facility 
of  using  it,  and  haa  l>een  carried  to  such  an  cxt'^nt  in 
Java  that  the  majority  of  the  aralde  land  of  the  island 
consiata  of  rice  fields.     The  perennial   streams  and 
rivers,  aa  they  descend  from  the  mountains,  are,  l)y 
means  of  embankments  and  trenches,  diverted  into 
■mall  fields  surrounded  by  low  dikes,  which  can  be 
flooded  or  drained  at  pleasure.     Tbe  process  of  form- 
ing such  lands  is  expensive  and  laborious,  but  when 
once  formed,  they  are  easily  preserved.     When  the 
water  for  irrigated  lands  is  sufHclently  abundant  and 
continuous,  two  crops  of  rice  are  raised  within  the 
year,  and  in  some  cases  even  three  within  fifteen 
months,  the  sun  being  hot  enough  to  ripen  rice  in 
every  season.     The  husbandman  may  follow  his  con- 
venience as  to  the  time  of  sowing,  and  in  contiguous 
fields  may  be  seen  at  once  sowing  and  reaping  rice, 
with  every  intermediate  stage  of  the  growth  of  the 
plant.     When  the  water  is  not  sufficiently  copious  for 
two  crops,  the  rice  is  sown  in  the  wet  or  hot  seoson ; 
and  in  the  dry,  or  cold,  crops  considered  of  secondary 
value  are  produced,  such  as  pulses,  oil-giving  plants, 
and  cotton.     No  manure  is  ever  appli^  to  irrigated 
Iimda,  nor  are  fallows  practiced. 


Dry  or  upland  arable  la  of  small  value  compared  to 
Irrigated  land,  Un  the  beat  drj-  landa  rice  is  occa- 
aionally  grown,  but  more  generally  tliaae  landa  are 
used  for  such  crops  aa  pulses,  oil-giving  plants,  cotton, 
sugar-cane,  and  tolwcco,  and  on  the  mountain-slopes, 
at  an  elevation  of  2000  and  SOOO  feet,  fur  coffee.  1-. 
the  most  fertile  parts  of  Java,  which,  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  high  mountains,  are  usually  also  the 
most  picturesque,  the  scenerj-  is  at  onoe  agreeable  and 
nugnificent,  and  certainly  fur  grandeur  and  beauty 
excels  ail  that  may  be  seen,  even  in  Italy,  that  cuuu- 
tr}-  which  in  summer  liears  the  nearest  resemlilunce  to 
Java.  In  such  situations  we  have  mountains  10,000 
feet  high,  cultivated  to  half  their  heiglit,  the  valleys 
below  having  all  the  appearance  of  u  well-wuternd 
garden. 

When  Java  first  became  known  to  Europeans,  ita 
principal  agricultural  products  were  rice,  pulses, 
sesame,  ground-pea,  and  other  oil-giving  plants,  in- 
digo and  cotton,  with  palms  and  indigenous  fruits. 
European  intercourse  has  added  to  these,  muizc,  to- 
bpcco,  and  coffee.  Tbe  quantity  of  its  great  staple, 
rice,  which  "t  produces,  can  only  be  estimated.  With 
the  exception  of  a  s.nall  quantity  of  mulza,  r<  ■  Is  the 
only  bread-corn  of  the  Javanese ;  and,  t'.urt  -e.  If 
we  take  the  consumption  per  head  at  u  ',•  artcr,  or  448 
lbs.,  this,  on  a  computed  population  of  10,000,000,  will 
make  the  total  anntUkl  produce  the  same  number  of 
quarters.  The  export  is,  at  present,  too  incuusidoro- 
ble  materially  tc  affect  this  computation,  fur  in  1M48  It 
amounted  to  no  more  than  217,000  (|uarterK.  From 
the  first  appearance  of  Europeans,  ami  no  doulit  for 
many  ages  before,  Java  was  the  greatest  granary  of 
the  other  countries  of  the  Archipelago.  Itccoiitly  the 
extensive  culture  by  corv6e  lalior  of  such  products  as 
sugar,  coffee,  and  indigo,  under  an  idle  and  pernicious 
hypothesis  thnt  some  peculiar  commercial  advantage 
to  the  State  belonged  to  their  culture,  has  greatly  in- 
terfered with  the  production  of  corn.  The  ex|H>rt  of 
It  has  consequently  diminished,  and  the  price  materi- 
ally risen ;  the  consequence  of  which  has  lioen,  that 
countries  Immemorlally  supplied  liy  Java,  now  draw 
their  com  from  other  places,  such  as  Ball,  I.umboc, 
SLim,  and  Arracan. 

Afechanic  Arts. — The  state  of  the  mechanic  arts 
among  the  Javanese  Is  far  Iwlow  that  of  their  agricul- 
ture, i)Ut  stiU  in  advunce  of  that  of  the  other  nations 
of  the  Atcliipclago ;  and  with  the  exception  of  textile 
fabrics,  not  below  that  of  the  Hindoos.  About  thirty 
different  crafts  may  be  enumerated  us  practiued  among 
them,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  black- 
smith or  cutler,  the  carpenter,  the  kris-shcutli  maker, 
the  coppersmith,  the  goldsmitli,  and  the  potter.  Uoth 
bricks  and  tiles  are,  at  present,  largely  made;  and 
excellent  bricks  are  found  in  the  remains  of  many 
ancient  temples,  proving  that  the  art  of  manufacturing 
them  has  been  known  for  many  ages.  Coarse  un- 
glazed  pottery,  similar  to  that  of  llindoostan,  is  also 
made ;  and  the  names  of  the  different  so.-ts  all  lielong 
to  the  vernacular  language.  Beyond  the  manufacture 
of  this  coarse  article,  tbe  Javanese  have  not  ailvnnced 
— aU  their  Iwtter  pottery  having  been  fur  ages  received 
from  China.  Their  skill  in  carpentry  is  displayed  in 
house  and  boat  building,  in  the  fulirlcation  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  of  the  hilts,  shafts,  and 
scabbards  of  warlike  weapons.  The  ordinary  dwell- 
ings of  the  peosautr}'  consist  of  a  rough  frame  of  tim- 
l)er,  thatched  on  the  coast  with  the  leaves  of  the  nipa 
palm,  and  in  the  interior  with  grass;  having  walls 
and  partitions  of  split,  flattened,  and  plaited  l>amboa 
work.  They  are  always  built  on  the  ground.  The 
dwellings  of  the  upper  classes  differ,  chiefly,  in  their 
greater  size,  with  the  exception  of  the  palaces  of  the 
princes  and  bichor  nobility.  Boat-building  is  an  art 
extensively  practiced  all  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Java.  Their  boats  vary  in  form  and  size  from  mere 
fishing  canoes  to  vessels  of  fifty  tons.     The  building 


Jttvn 
work  I 
The 
and 
nothinj 
works 
falirical 
wliich 
Javanc 
chiefly 
staocat; 
way  in 
Some 
ili.imott 
ftill  mi 
portatio 
first  arr 

The 

ton,  rat 

made  fr 

other  t] 

known 

and  pn 

dyeing, 

domesti 

nations 

variety 

Mnsistlil 

"tripes,  I 

with  th| 

Javanei 

sists  inl 

doth  ncf 


JAV 


1189 


JAV 


of  ahlpt  li,  at  preunt,  carried  nn  under  the  dtrectiort 
of  European*,  the  workmen,  however,  being  all 
•lavaneM.  When  Ruropeana  became  flmt  acquainted 
with  the  Javaneae,  they  were  ponnenaed  ot  veaaela  of 
large  iiiiie,  well  entitled  to  the  name  of  ahipa.  The 
agricultural  implements  of  the  Javaneao  are,  like 
thoae  of  nearly  every  other  Asiatic  people,  aimple  and 
rude. 

The  .'avaneae  of  the  preaent  day  have  no  nrchitec- 
tur«  thai  deaervea  the  name,  and  apart  from  the  tem- 
ples of  thi  ir  ancient  worship,  no  relief)  renisin  of  any 
kind  of  don  e«tlc  architecture,  of  liriJgea,  o'  reservoha, 
or  of  emban'cmenta  of  riveia,  such  aa  are  found  In  the 
country  of  11,9  Hindoos.  Tlie  rcmuina  of  tho  remark- 
able edifices  -onnected  with  the  Hindoo  religion  are 
abundant ;  bu.  it  la  aingular  that  an  improved  archi- 
tecture cenaed  srith  thut  religion,  and  that  no  Moham- 
medan struttuT  I  of  solid  materials  or  beauty  has  been 
constructed  sin 'e  tho  adoption  of  the  Itlohammedan 
reli);ion  toward  i  he  end  of  the  IBth  century. 

It  is  in  woriing  the  metals,  however,  that  the 
Javanese  have  n  ost  excelled,  and  as  they  acquired 
this  comparative  excellence  without  possessing  any  of 
the  metals  them!  elves,  but  having  all  of  thom  Im- 
ported, tho  fact  may  1)8  considered  oa  evidence  of  com- 
paratively advan  :cd  civilization.  According  to  the 
Javanese,  the  flrt  t  rank  among  artisans  la  to  bo  as- 
cribed to  tho  blacl  smith,  or  at  least  to  the  cutler.  Tho 
moat  esteemed  product  of  his  skill  is  the  dagger,  the 
well  known  kria.  ."^.very  man,  and  hoy  of  14,  wears 
at  least  one  kris  os  port  of  bis  ordinarj-  dress,  and  men 
of  rank  two,  and  sometimes  fbur.  Even  ladies  of  high 
rank  occasionally  wear  one.  Swords  are  used  only  in 
native  warfare,  and  are  much  less  esteemed  than  the 
kris,  the  national  weapon.  The  Javanese  spear,  a 
plain  ptko  with  an  iron  head,  la  a  formidable  weapon, 
from  its  long  shaft  of  from  12  to  14  feet.  Some  of  the 
Javanese  krises,  from  their  antiquity,  are  highly  ap- 
preciated, and  when  lold  bring  enormous  prices.  The 
Javanese  had  also,  before  the  arrival  of  the  Portu- 
guese, a  knowledge  of  gunpowder  and  artiUerj-.  De 
Uarros,  in  describing  an  expedition  which  invaded 
Malacca  in  1613,  says,  "that  It  was  furnished  with 
much  artillery-,  made  in  Java,  for,"  adds  he,  "the 
Javanese  are  skilled  in  founding  or  costing,  and  in  all 
work  in  Iron,  lieaides  what  they  have  from  India." 

The  Javanese,  although  they  manufacture  gold 
and  silver  ornaments  of  consideralde  beauty,  execute 
nothing  equal  to  the  filigree  work  of  Sumatra.  In 
works  In  brass,  their  chief  excellence  consists  in  the 
falirication  of  musical  instruments,  a  full  band  of 
which  is  known  throughout  the  Archipelago  by  the 
Javanese  name  of  gamalan.  The  instruments  consist 
(.hlefly  of  l)ars,  constructed  after  the  manner  of  tho 
staocatu,  or  of  the  gong,  a  word  which  haa  found  Its 
way  into  our  dictionaries  and  is  genuine  Javanese. 
Soma  of  these  gongs  have  been  made  three  feet  in 
di.imotcr.  Musical  instruments  of  this  description  are 
still  manufactured  in  Java,  and  form  an  article  of  ex- 
portation, aa,  indeed,  they  are  said  to  have  done  on  the 
first  arrival  of  the  Portuguese. 

The  only  textile  material  of  native  produce  is  cot- 
ton, rather  a  coarse  article,  and  the  only  kind  of  cloth 
made  from  it  is  a  atout  durable  calico,  the  muslins  and 
other  fine  textures  of  continental  India  being  un- 
known aa  mauufacturea.  The  proceases  of  cleaning 
and  preparing  the  cotton,  of  spinning,  weaving,  and 
dyeing,  are  all  carried  on  by  women,  and  are  purely 
domestic  operations,  as  is  the  case  with  all  tho  other 
nations  of  the  Archipelago.  The  usual  mode  of  giving 
variety  of  colors  to  the  web  la  the  simplest  possible, 
consisting  in  weaving  the  previously  colored  yam  in 
stripes,  checkered  or  tartan  patterns,  so  frequent 
with  the  other  tribes,  being  against  the  taste  of  the 
Javanese.  Another  mode  peculiar  to  this  |)eople  con- 
sists in  covering  with  melted  wax  the  part  of  the 
cloth  not  intended  to  be  dyed  before  putting  it  in  the 


rat,  lh«  procea*  nKeaaarily  reqalrfaig  npntillon  tt 
proportion  to  the  numl)er  of  colon  intended  to  b« 
given.  Tho  only  material,  l)eaides  cotton,  from  whioh 
cloth  la  made  by  the  Javbneae  la  silk,  ,^od  aa  th<>  art 
of  rearing  thn  aUk-worm  haa  never  been  aurceaafully 
introduced  into  Java,  the  raw  mttrrial  has  always 
1)een  imported.  At  preaent  it  h  imported  from  China, 
an  inferior  silk,  fWmi  which  a  coarse  cloth  is  wrought 
with  the  same  implements  aa  that  of  cotton.  Papar  li 
a  manufacture  peculiar  to  the  Javanese.  It  is  of  the 
nature  of  the  papyrus  of  the  ancients,  nnd  not  of  tho 
iMiautiful  and  ingenious  fubrl^^  which  the  nations  of 
Europe  acquired  from  the  Araba  of  Spain,  and  ao  long 
known  to  the  Chinese. 

Two  language*  are  spoken  in  Java,  of  the  aame 
general  structure,  belonging  to  the  same  class  of 
tongues,  ad  having  many  words  la  common,  yet  ea- 
sentially  differing  from  oach  other.  These  are  the 
•Tuvanose  and  .''  la.  The  Javannse  haa  I>ecn  Im- 
memorially  a  writtva  language,  and  its  alpliuhet  has 
extended  to  the  Sunda  language.  InHcriptiDiia  on 
stone  and  brass  carry  us  l)iick  in  its  history  to  the  I'ith 
century.  The  written  character  is  of  two  descriptions, 
that  fhund  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  that  at  present 
current.  They  seem,  however,  to  be  essentially  the 
aame,  and  not  to  differ  more  than  black  letter  flrom 
modu'n  manuscript. 

Iliatory. — Java  was  unknown  even  by  name  to  the 
civilized  nations  of  ancient  Europe,  and  even  to  thoae 
of  tho  middle  ages.  It  Is  first  named  b}*  Marco  Polo, 
who,  in  his  Junk  voyage  from  (/hina  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  passed  through  the  northern  part  of  the  Archi- 
pelago about  the  close  of  the  Iflth  century.  He  glvea 
the  name  as  Ciaua  or  Java,  but  hia  information  being 
mere  hearsay,  la  In  other  reapecta  erroneoua.  Thus, 
mistaking  probably  the  products  of  its  commerce  for 
Its  indigenous  productions,  he  enumerates  among 
the  latter  cloves  and  nutmegs,  and  gold  in  quantity 
"  exceeding  all  calculation  and  belief,"  although  it 
produces  nono  at  all.  No  sooner  liad  the  Portuguese 
reached  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  than  the 
name  became  familiar  enough  to  Europeans.  L.  Bar- 
thema  visited  the  islind  apd  remained  fourteen  days 
in  it,  hut  hia  account  io  obviously  false  or  worthless,  for 
he  describes  parents  as  selling  their  children  to  be 
eaten  by  the  purchasers,  and  himself  as  quitting  the 
island  in  haat«  for  fear  of  being  made  a  meal  of. 
Edoardo  Barboaa,  although  he  had  not  visited  it, 
describes  its  productions,  its  trade,  its  manufactures 
of  arms,  and  the  persona,  dress,  and  manners  of  Its 
inhal)itants,  with  much  accuracy.  Pigafetta,  although 
his  information  respecting  it  was  derived,  as  he  tells 
ua,  himself,  from  the  old  pilot  who  accompanied  him 
from  the  Moluccaa,  la  even  more  correct  than  Barbosa. 
How  verj'  little,  however,  was  really  known  of  Java 
by  the  early  Portuguese  of  India,  is  to  be  seen  from 
what  De  Barros,  master  of  all  the  Indian  archives, 
saya  of  it  in  his  Third  Decade,  published  in  1663,  no 
less  tbdn  62  }'eara  after  the  conquest  of  Malacca,  i\nd 
several  years  after  his  countrymen  had  visited  (.'hina, 
discovered  Java,  and  traded  with  both.  Ho  makes  it 
consist  of  two  Islands,  Java  and  Sunda ;  and  his  work 
contains  a  rude  map,  in  which  a  great  river,  or  rather 
a  strait  of  the  sea,  is  represented  as  dividing  them. 
This  he  calls  the  River  Chiarao,  which  may  possibly 
be  the  Chitando  of  the  Sundas,  a  considerable  stream 
at  theeastem  boundary  of  their  country,  and  which,  in 
their  language,  signifies,  "  boundary  water  or  river." 

It  was  in  tl>c  reign  of  the  second  prince  of  this  dy- 
nasty, that  tlie  Dutch  mado  their  ^rst  appearance  in 
Java,  under  Iloutman,  in  1595.  In  IGIO  they  obtained 
permission  from  the  Sunda  prince  of  Jacatra,  to  build 
a  fort  near  the  spot  on  which  now  stands  tho  city  of 
Batavia.  In  1619  this  ibrt  was  besieged  by  the  joint 
forces  of  the  princes  of  Jacatra  and  Bantam,  aided  and 
abetted  by  the  English.  It  was  relievd  by  a  Dutch 
fleet  under  admiral  Koen,  and  the  aaaailanta  defeated 


JAV 


1140 


JAV 


uMl  driven  off.  ft  w«»  nfUr  IhU  •▼«nt  that  th«  nime 
of  lUtavlii  tiMt  ({lv»n  to  the  fortreu  wan  iimtowiMl  on 
tha  town.  In  WW  Ratavia  wa»  healoKcil  hy  a  nunwr- 
oiia  arm}-  tKnt  aKainut  It  bv  the  rt<[gn\nK  prlni'i  of 
Matawm,  with  thn  hr,p«  of  «xp«lllnK  thn  Dutch  from 
tha  lalanil ;  Imt  hv  thn  nklll  ami  coiiraKn  nf  the  Kiinv 
paan  ((arrlion,  thn  rudn  anil  illaonlerly  hont  waa  liafflful 
nnil  roiitnd.  Krom  thin  time  the  hUtory  uf  .lava  ii 
properly  that  of  Itn  Kuropenn  conquemni.  No  (!on- 
■Idarahle  territorlul  ncqiilnltion,  howevor,  waa  made 
until  ]a77,  when  the  Dutch  olitutned  a  rrsrilon  of  the 
principality  of  .Ini'iitrn.  Krom  that  time  n\<  to  the 
year  18,10,  ever>'  wur  rnrried  on  liy  them  with  the  na- 
tive princcii,  whether  as  principaUorauxiliarlea,  Inva- 
riably ended  in  a  rei4«liin  of  territory  to  the  former ; 
•0  that,  at  preRont,  hanlly  one  fourteenth  part  of  the 
iaiand  In  in  powerwlon  of  niitive  rulers,  und  even  that 
l«  entirely  triiiutitry  and  dependent,  Krom  the  year 
1074  to  Wm,  thn  Dutrh,  aa  prinripala  or  nuxilliiVieii, 
luive  been  enKJiffnd  in  nu  fewer  than  four  Kreut  ware, 
all  of  Ion({  durutlcin ;  one  of  whleh,  Iw^un  In  1074, 
laated  for  «4  yeara  ;  one  in  171K,  laated  for  5  yoara  ) 
one  in  1740,  for  1ft  yonra  ;  and  one  in  11*25,  for  5  yeara  i 
■0  that,  of  one  thini  part,  at  leaat,  of  a  period  of  IBfl 
yenra,  civil  war  ra)(ed  in  the  inland.  The  Durch  have 
dirliied  their  pomcuaions  in  .lavii  into  20  pruvinrea  or 
reKidenrns,  e;i<h  uf  which  U  adminintered  l)y  n  rnaident 
or  prefect.  Six  of  thenn  lielonK  to  tlie  country  of  tlie 
Hundas,  and  14  to  that  of  the  .lavanene.  The  two 
ramalnini;  native  .Stnten,  although  adminiHterod  by 
tholr  own  princea,  am  virtually  Dutch  provini^ea,  and 
placed  under  thn  runtrol  of  an  offlcer,  with  thn  namo 
title  aa  those  of  thn  provinces  under  dirert  Dutch  rule, 

Pnpulatinn. — .Attempts  have  been  made  at  varioua 
timea  to  estimate  the  total  |iopulation  nf  ,lava.  The 
flrat  of  these  was  by  the  hi^ttorian  Vulenlyn,  who  e«tl- 
matea  the  population  In  Ills  time  (VIC)  at  a,19!>,7,')0  ; 
and  IncludiuK'  Madura,  .1,51)1,500,  This  estimate  was 
made  shortly  nfler  a  civil  war  of  five  years'  duration. 
In  1756,  imnieiliately  after  the  llnost  parts  of  the  island 
had  l)*€n  the  theatre  of  a  civil  war  of  15  years,  an  es- 
timate was  made  which  pivo  .lava  only  1,941,911,  or 
Including  Madura,  2,001,011.  This  would  seem  to 
■how  that  In  less  than  !I0  years  a  decreiise  had  taken 
place  exeeedinit  a  million  and  a  quarter.  At  thn  close 
of  the  last  century,  estimates  of  the  population  were 
made,  which  raised  the  joint  population  of  Java  and 
Madura  to  .1,5.V.l,fill.  This  was  after  a  continued 
peace  of  45  years ;  and  shows,  compared  to  the  last 
estimate,  an  increase  exceedinn  a  million  and  a  half. 
In  1808  nnothor  estimate  was  made,  and  by  this,  the 
number  wan  made  II,7I)(>,000.  In  1MI5  a  census  was 
attempted  during  the  tem|)orar)'  occupation  of  the  En- 
gUsh,  which  raised  the  population  of  .lava  to  4,100,001, 
or  Including  Madura,  to  4,015,270.  In  1820  a  census 
waa  taken  which  gnvn  the  populatiim  at  5,40.1,780. 
10  yeara  later,  nnotlier  was  taken,  and  this  raise<l  the 
numlwr  to  7,l.Jl,551  ;  ond  consequently  gave  a  decen- 
nial Increase  at  the  rate  of  about  44  per  cent.  The 
census  of  184.'i  made  the  joint  |)opulatlnn  of  .lava  and 
Madura  9,5.10,781 ,  or  of  .lava  alone,  9,2S5,03.1.  The  last 
census  is  that  of  1852,  and  this  made  the  Joint  population 
of  Java  and  Madura  9,!Mi),07S.  The  population  was  es- 
timated aa  belnir,  on  Slst  Decemlior,  1H6.1,  10,290,000. 

Remnuf. — The  revenue  of  the  European  government 
of  Java  is  that  of  the  whole  island,  including  Madura; 
excepting  as  to  some  taxes  on  consumption,  the  terri- 
tories ere  subject  to  thn  two  remaining  native  princes, 
embracing  an  area  of  2220  square  miles,  and  a  reputed 
population  of  850,000.  It  is  derived  fr)m  multifarious 
sources,  and  may  be  briefly  described,  taking  the  fig- 
ure* from  the  public  accounts  of  1848,  aa  given  by  Mr. 
Temmlnck.  These  may  be  sufficient  for  a  general 
view,  aa  no  material  chanbce  has  since  been  made  in 
the  liscal  ay  ..tern. 

During  the  five  year*'  temporar}-  occupation  of  Java 
liV  the  British  government,  from  1811  to  1816,  nearly 


the  whole  anoUnt  tystam  of  mono|HiUea,  foreail  daily, 
erian,  and  corvia  lalxir  waa  ovarthruwn,  and  fraa  null, 
ura,  open  trade,  and  free  Ulair  aubaillulad  for  theni, 
The  merit  of  thia  great  revolution  In  tha  odnilnUlra. 
tion  of  the  Island  b«louga  t>  tlia  late  NIr  Htaiitfciril 
halfles,  the  liritisb  lieulaiiaut-giivarNor  uf  .lava,  under 
the  supreme  government  of  India  i  and  ha  carrlarj  hU 
bold  and  valuable  innovutluiia  into  elfticl  with  a  cour- 
age, industr}-,  and  peraevuruni.v  antllluil  to  the  grealeal 
praUe.  The  financial  aystaui  which  h«  adoplad,  how. 
ever,  waa  nut  so  lia|ipy,  In  so  far  aa  Ilia  lanil-laa  wua 
concerned,  fur  it  pruceiidad  on  Iha  prliiolpla  of  tlm 
.Stains  entering diraclly  into  an  •rraitguiiwnt  with  each 
individual  occupant  of  a  few  acres,  iii  Iha  ii«««  of  ./ava 
proliably  nut  fewer  than  half  a  ni,lllon,  rniler  tliii 
system,  the  tux  was  paid  eilhar  In  monev  or  In  kind, 
at  the  option  of  the  occu|Nint )  and  baliig  gniierallr 
paid  in  (he  latter.  It  followed  that  the  govi<riiiiiiiMt  was 
converted  at  once  into  waraliousa-keepari,  und  corn. 

merchants.    Aa  in  other  tarrltorlas  on  II mllniinl 

of  India,  the  new  sy.tum  was  fouuil  inUclii.'viiiia  and 
impracticable.  The  land  waa  okarHtasussed,  and  the 
hypothetical  land-tax  could  not  lie  reallxiiil, 

After  two  years'  trial  the  Duli'h  coniinUsJiiiinrs  wliii 
rec«lve<l  charge  of  the  i/<land,  judiciously  aliaNiloiimi 
the  ItyoUarrle  system  of  IH14,  and  arraiignd  with  tlia 
heads  of  the  village  cor[iuratloiia  fur  ilm  land-tax, 
leaving  its  distribution  anuing  tlia  oecuiiititls  to  tlieae 
coqKirutions  theineelves.  TliU  nuliirat  and  sliiipin 
system,  the  only  one  suited  to  auith  a  alala  of  society 
US  that  of  .lava,  after  latlng  in  u|Mralliin  for  11  years, 
waa  partially  reliniiuUliail  in  MWi,  mid  llin  old  system 
of  forced  duliverius  uf  certain  agricultural  producis, 
and  of  corvue  lulxir  In  railing  tliuni,  was,  to  »  large 
extent,  restored.  The  pretax!  for  this  was  the  liopn 
of  greater  gain,  and  tlm  uksumptloii  llmt,  by  tlin  liii- 
momorial  usage  of  the  cuuntry,  tha  Mate  waa  enlltleil 
tu  take,  at  its  option.  It*  tax  In  inoiiay,  In  kind,  or  In 
curv6o  labor.  Undor  tliU  systeiit,  »  iioiisldnraliln  por- 
tion of  the  tax  on  rent  Is  ruinlttiul,  and  miiiim  of  the 
bebt  land  with  Ihu  labor  uf  Its  |Mia«iiilry  li<i»  Iweii  ap- 
propri.itoil  to  liie  cultivation  of  iiriMlMcIa  deciiird  |hm  ii- 
Marly  lltteil  fur  the  markets  of  IvurMio,  such  as  colfce, 
sugar,  and  indigo,  with  tea,  ciiii' '  .n,  and  lochhic.il, 
and  the  laat  three  expressly  ii  .ruducnd  Info  thn  lalanil 
fur  this  s|>ecial  purpose,  Hy  ihia  liiipotltio  iimaaure, 
the  Dutch  guvernniunt  Iiuh  liucofua,  oiicn  more,  a  cul- 
tivator, a  trader,  •  nd  necessarily,  friiin  its  position,  to 
a  ccrt'iin  extent,  a  monopolist  trader,  The  evil  elfei  t< 
of  such  a  aystciu  on  that  wealth,  wlibli  U  thn  oiily 
^■lurce  of  public  revenue,  must  liu  oiivr  h  to  every 
enlightened  stutosniiin. 

The  actual  amount  of  the  tix  on  runt  or  land-liix 
remaining  to  tbu  Dutch  guvurniiiuiit,  aftnr  iliMluctlii^ 
exeinptiuns,  waa.  In  lS4il,  allowing  '.'Oil.  to  lhi<  llorlli, 
i.'8:)5,551.  To  this,  liawHver,  la  to  Iw  added  ii  sum  nf 
i;20,2l.''>  -'jr  iho  quit.,rant8  uf  land  sold  at  various  llincq 
in  fee-simple  tu  Euro|ieana,  with  other  llenia  of  the 
Mature  uf  a  land-tax,  aa  the  runts  of  I'lirtaln  llsh-iiuiid'i, 
or  stews,  amounting  to  X'27,ltO:f,  making  thn  total  l,inil- 
tiix  realized  X889,12H,  Nu  account  la  ranilered  of  re- 
missions on  account  of  land  a|ipruprlateil  tu  thn  I'ulhirc 
of  produce  for  government,  but  a  few  facta  are  stated 
which  will  give  a  toluraiilu  nutlun  of  tint  extent  to 
which  thia  very  barbarous  ayatani  la  larrlnd,  'i'lio 
number  of  Javanese  fuinlllea  from  which  I'litibn  labor 
was  exacted  for  tlia  culturu  of  iiolfe*,  In  IN-lt,  was 
45.1,289,  and  for  that  nf  sugar,  Indigo,  and  ciiliiatnon, 
!15U,9u5,  making  the  total  uumliur,  excluaive  uf  those 
employed  in  the  cultlTutlon  uf  tea  and  iiochlneal,  which 
is  not  elated,  70-1,244  families,  uqiilvulent  to  a  popula- 
tion exceeding  tliree  mlUiuna  uiid  a  half,  or  40  |iarts  In 
100  of  the  entire  population  of  the  K,ur<i|ie«n  (lurflun 
of  the  island.  The  quantity  of  land  set  aside  for  Ihn 
cultivation  of  augur,  indigo,  and  clnimHioti,  amounted 
in  1841  to  317,635  aorea,  ami  this  (lonalated  of  the  rich- 
est irrigated  land*  of  the  laUnd,  iiaually  ylaldhiK  two 


JAV 


1141 


JAV 


jraarljr  harrwtn,  tnil  iqual  In  v*Im  to  10  tlmu  that  of 
the  ■¥•■«)(•  of  ull  lity  Unila,  Tli*  ((uantlty  ii(  Unil, 
(if  m  Inferior  dcwription,  ii|ipro)ii'l'it*il  to  th«  uultun 
of  I  iITm  init  tc*,  all  iMouUariy  Httnl  titi  thu  K'owth  of 
ninliv,  ii  not  •tatml,  liut  ■iiniH  iiiitlon  uf  It  may  In 
fiirmsd  from  thn  numlxrof  famllltii  «iii|ili>ye(l,  iia  above 
((iven,  and  from  the  numlwr  of  treeii,  whirh  amounted 
In  1841  to  U.-Ill,l)-J.t,4«0. 

The  taxeii  on  connumptlon  are  multlfarloua,  connlat- 
InK  of  inoniipollea,  vxeUea,  cu»tomii,  traniilt  ami  ninrkitt 
dutlea,  taxei  on  Huheriea,  and  on  the  ilaiiKhtflr  of  cat- 
tle. The  chief  monopollei  are  thoie  of  tlia  vend  of 
nplum  anil  mU,  In  *M3  the  flnt  of  thcne  amounted 
to  x;»6,n;Ul,  ard  the  liut  to  i'!WI,15'J.  Tho  monopoly 
of  opium  la  at  tnce  productive  and  unexceptionable  In 
principle.  That  i  n  lalt  la,  of  courae,  a  |Hdl-tax,  which 
uinounta  to  about  4*.  on  each  family,  and  la  only  leaa 
oneroua  than  our  own  In  Itenital,  from  the  aalt  of  Java, 
the  produce,  chiefly  by  aolar  cvaporatlcm,  of  Ita  north- 
orn  coaat,  lieinjc  l>etter,  cheaper,  and  more  cci>noni- 
Ic'iliy  diatrlbuted  to  the  consumen  than  that  of  lt«n- 
gal.  Another  niono|)oly  la  that  exercUnd  in  certain 
cavea  prxlucln;;  the  naculent  awallow-neata,  and  thla, 
ai*  the  liirda  are  the  chief  manufacturer*,  and  atranftera 
the  chief  conaumera,  la  an  unexceptionable  aource  of 
revenue.  In  1H4.')  Ita  amouni  wai  £24,'J71.  The  aale 
of  limber  from  tho  teak  foresta,  which  are  the  exclu- 
aive  pro|>erty  of  the  Kovemmunt,  conatitutea  another 
monopoly,  of  whirh  the  produce  In  the  aame  year  was 
X42,141.  Theae  different  itema  make  the  tiital  revenues 
ariaing  from  nionopollea  £1,247,201,  In  the  public 
ai'iiunta  the  monopoly  of  tho  tin  of  Iluncu  la  set  down 
ii.*  .lavaneie  revenue,  and  .  tated  at  the  aum  of  XibO,- 
0(K).  Aa  tiie  revenue  of  Java  alone  auppllcs  the  funda 
with  which  the  mining;  and  Hmeltln)(  la  carried  on,  thia 
branch  ia  thereforo  <'orrectly  enough  Included  In  the 
flnancittl  resourcc.i  of  that  ialund. 

The  export  and  import  duties  of  Java  in  1H43,  in- 
cluding port  charges,  amounted  to  i,'ttin,840  :  und  thu 
market,  transit,  and  ferry  dues,  came  to  £282,072, 
The  tax  on  the  slaughter  of  cattle  wua  £!)9,!>41,  and 
that  on  flah  and  flaheries  £27,911.  It  ia  not  necessary 
to  add  that  the  two  last,  aa  taxes  on  nocoasaries  of  life, 
arc  injurious  Imposts,  A  stnmgo  want  of  attention  to 
an  obvious  principle  la  evinced  liy  the  Ktiro|ioan  gov- 
ernment of  Java,  connected  witli  tho  ^1-i  j;hter  of  cat- 
tle. Tho  slaug'iiter  of  tho  l)ufl'alo  ia  i  i  casly  prohll)- 
ited,  with  the  avowed  object  of  incrciuiing  the  num- 
ber of  this  animal  for  the  l)enelit  of  agriculture,  Tlic 
certain  effect  of  the  prohiliition,  however,  must  of 
I  nurse  b«  the  very  reverse  of  what  Is  intended,  for  the 
reariii  ;  of  these  animals.  Is  surely  discouraged,  not 
promoted,  liy  depriving  the  owners  of  a  market  for  tlio 
old,  JTnperfect,  or  au|«'rfluoua  (ini'S. 

The  expenses  of  the  govomracnt  of  '  'va  In  184H, 
were  given  at  tho  aum  of  £6,291,006.  Thus,  then,  the 
expenditure  "xceeded  the  amount  of  the  tuxes  by  tho 
enormoua  aum  of  £3,082,249,  to  lie  made  good  by  the 
contingency  of  proflta  on  produce  remitted  to  Kurope. 
Tho  civn  charges  came  tj  £827,825,  the  niilitar}'  to 
£720,319,  the  naval  to  £138,840.  and  tho  extraordina- 
ry expenditure,  on  account  of  Sumatra,  to  £220,070. 
The  expense  of  dispatching  government  produce,  ex- 
clusive of  frei)!'  t  and  charges,  amounted  to  £75,212, 
while  the  interest  of  the  pulilie  debt,  nearly  all  incur- 
red in  27  years'  time,  came  tu  £1,018,403,  or  about  liulf 
of  that  of  British  India,  with  120,000,000  of  inhab 
Hants,  and  which  it  has  taken  a  century  to  incur, 

Trade — The  Intenial  trade  of  Java  embraces  that  of 
all  the  Ketberland  possessions  in  India,  aa  it  is  the  en- 
trepot for  the  whole  of  it.  It  includes  also  a  largo 
remittance  for  the  public  revenue  in  the  shape  of  pro- 
duce, as  colfee,  sugar,  indigo,  tin,  and  spices.  Jikva 
and  the  other  Dutch  possessions  were  delivered  over 
by  the  English  in  1810,  with  a  considerably  improved 
commerce,  and  certainly,  at  all  events,  with  a,  dear 
field  for  the  MtaUubuent  of  a  liberal  tytUm,    The 


opportunity  baa  assuredly  not  been  taken  advantan 
(if.  Itoubia  duties  have  lieen  Imposed  iin  all  goods 
imptirted  under  *  foreign  Hag,  and  other  C4>ntrlvanc«s 
of  the  exploded  nirrcautile  ayatein  have  lieen  had  r«. 
course  to,  In  onler  lo  give  truiln  ii  direction  to  Holland, 
a  cnatly  expedient,  Injurious  to  the  colony,  and  of  no 
auhatantlal  value  to  the  mother  country.  In  IHM,  and 
within  eight  years  after  the  reatoratlon,  a  new  Koal 
India  (!umpany  waa  act  up  as  one  of  theae  contrivances, 
the  Handel  MaatachuplJ  or  trading  anaociiition.  This 
aaaoclaiion  ia  nieri'lmnt,  Bhl|Hiwner,  agent,  for  the  salt 
of  the  government  produce  In  Kuni|)e,  carrier  of  thla 
produce,  and  farmer  of  aome  liranch(<a  of  the  public 
revenue  of  .lava.  Originally,  there  wua  guaranteed 
to  It  a  tlxed  and  certain  interest  on  Ita  capital  atock, 
and  even  the  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands  was  • 
sleeping  iwrtner  of  it.  The  false  hy|iothesls  on  which 
this  retrograde  p<dlcy  was  udoptnl,  was  a  auppoaed 
neceasity  for  encountering  what  waa  called  the  over- 
grown ciipltula  and  enterprise  of  Knglnnd  ami  Ainirlca, 
as  If  the  free  ca|iital  ami  enterprise  of  llolluii  I,  which, 
under  greater  difficulties  had  achieved  much  greater 
things,  was  unequal  tc  curry  on  the  trade  of  its  own 
colony  without  plUowing  and  liolstering. 

1'he  values  of  the  exports  from  ilava,  and  their  des- 
tination, In  18-iO,  1M30,  and  1820,  wore  as  follows  : 


CuuiiIiIm. 


Netherlands, 

Indian  Archipelago. 

Great  Hrltsln 

China,  Macao,  etc.. 

France  

America 

Ilaniburx 

Sweden 

Otht'r  places..,....^ 


IS4I. 

Plurliii. 

8B,flOS,g48 
l),l«6,MN 
«,miB,9!Hl 
1,8S8,708 

i,in«,i4i> 

1,IW,»M 
815,041 
MiJM 
ni,8M 


im 

Ktorlri,, 

27.J»V,5Wi 
8,71  IS.  I, M) 
liW.Wi 
fl,«ls,7M 
l,9t4,UA 
I.IHM.ftW 

los.ua 

1IA8,>M 
8«U,in5 


ISM. 

""Kl.irlm. 
«,AI8,IMA 
4,IW7,7t« 
84t).0»8 

*t,wa 

SlI.OTl 
SH,»84 
MM* 

9ri9,7l» 


The  previous  statements  show  that  the  produce  and 
trade  of  .lava  have  increased  during  the  last  12  years 
with  a  rapidity  unlinown  in  an}' otiier  ciiUuiy,  Cuba, 
perhaps,  excepted ;  and  if  the  resources  and  capabil- 
ities of  thia  noble  island  bo  fully  developed.  It  Is  (juite 
Impoasilde  to  say  how  much  further  her  trade  may  be 
extended  and  her  resources  developed. 

Prinnpal  Port, — Batavia,  n  city  of  the  island  of 
.Tuva,  tho  capital  of  tho  Dutch  possi'ssinns  in  the  Kost 
Indies,  and  the  principal  trading  port  of  the  Oriental 
Islands,  lut.  0°  8'  soUth,  long.  100°  50'  cost,  on  the 
north-west  coast  of  the  Island,  at  tho  mouth  of  the 
.lucatrii  River,  on  «n  extensive  bay.  Tho  harbor  lies 
brf  ween  the  main  land  and  several  small  uninhab- 
ited Islands,  which,  during  the  north-western  mon- 
soon, alTord  sufficient  shelter  and  good  anchorage. 
Population  in  1842,  53,800,  including  about  30O0  £u- 
ro|)eans  ;  tho  rest  are  (,'lilnoso,  .luvunosc,  Malays,  etc. 
It  is  liuilt  on  marshy  ground,  und  intersected  by  canals 
in  the  Dutch  style.  It  is  defended  by  a  citadel  and 
several  batteries,  and  has  a  considerable  garrison  'and 
marine  arsenal.  Other  authorities  represent  the 
population  of  Batavia,  in  1832,  at  118,000 ;  viz.,  Euro- 
peans, 3000;  Chinese,  25,000;  Aborigines,  80,000; 
Moors,  1000 ;  Arabs,  9000.  Batavia  has  a  bank,  with 
branches  at  Saniarano  and  Surabayo.  This  place  waa 
long  considered  very  unhealthy,  but  has  been  much  im- 
proved by  drainage.     Moan  tcminrature  of  year,  78°. 

The  Jacatra  ia  navigable  by  vessels  of  40  tons  two 
miles  inland  ;  ships  of  from  300  to  400  tons  anchor  In 
the  bay,  1^  miles  from  shore.  Batavia  is  the  great 
commercial  emporium  of  tho  Asiatic  Archipelago,  and 
absorbs  by  far  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  trade  of 
Java  and  Madura ;  the  annual  exports  of  which  islanda 
amount  to  G0,3(i«),000  florin*  ($25,123,000),  and  tka 
imporU  to  .30,000,000  florins  ($12,000,000).— E,  B. 

See  Quar.  See.,  vi,,  487,  xvil.,  72;  HoNX'Bjfer. 
Mag.,  ii.,  328,  xxxiii.,  3C9;  Ed.  Rev.,  xxxi.,  895, 

In  1853  the  foreign  commerce  of  Java  and  Ma- 
dura amounted  to  $17,712,241  for  general  imports, 
and  to  $28,677,183  for  exports.    The  Import*  and  u- 


JAV 


1142 


JAT 


porta  durtng  tbt>  y*»t  •xc««l«d  thoM  of  tli*  praccdtng  tb*  N«th«rl«n<lii  In  tha  g*n«nl  tnd*  of  IMI  nipr«< 
}'Hi^-lb*  furiiitr  il,50fl,ltll,  or  O.U  par  rtnt.  i  th«  Ut>  j  Hntatl,  for  lni|xirti,  H.'iA  \wr  rent  of  th«  wholn  i  and 
t*r  ••ViV4,4HU,  or  'il.M.'l  par  iitnl. ;  tliui  •xhilillInK  tba  for  txportii,  7A.()U  |Mr  cant.  Th«  Iraita  with  Iha  tlnllnd 
inoit  prx'ttcitl  llluitrittiun  »f  th«  Incrviulnti  trvl*  of  Htatan  with  i  Iim«  UUniU,  ilurlnn  th«  uniii  yur,  WM 
th«M  riuh  aud  fartlla  Inland*.     Tha  thara  aulKnad  lu  '  l.liU  of  Iha  wlioU. 

OiMaaara  or  THa  Uarrau  ittATaa  with  riia  Uvtru  Ktti  Inuim,  rwu  iiirroaaa  I,  IWi),  to  Jult  I,  lilM, 


1l,MI,N(lH 

9W.ATI 
l,Tnil,tsl 

lWN,(illt 

l,iM«.»->4 
Ill4,iml 
l»T,I4» 
818.177 
t7Mlt 
l()7.'i«8 

|7,4HS,44»" 


ii,fiM>r 

l.l'il.lill 
t,«iit.lnl 

7llll.1INft 

l,A<7,U(i« 
4iM,4<tl 

im,iim 

ll»«,M7 
lltM,8V8 
I7ii,»64 

t)),n7i,i8n 

|7«i).8>4 

774,>M1 

ft-l,H» 

1,4t4,'iM 

1,I)7II,IKN 
84>*,474 
48A,»I1I 
4H>I.Aftll 
I<UA,I<IIH 
"J7,(lii0,».ll»^ 


TiMdl.  I      Kiporlxl, 

'|liU,iM  I  «i,w7,»»ft 

IW1,I44 


I  WlMTMr  (k«r«  w 
ilwl  H|ii 


•>  III  lliillUi 

'la. 

haywua. 


4ll»,llw) 
I47,4.-M 

A|:l,AM 
fM.UI 
I  l>l,4tt'J 
UI,iUi« 
IHI.-HJ) 

|«.4I)»,7U 

taiV.HOA 
IMH,«7t 
7Bll,Wn 

im.\m 

WKI,8>M 
l,477.»il<l 
1,1119,768 

•M,IM 

HI7.IIB7 

♦7,706,870 


h;7,«4I 
IHM.IHO 
4I»,HI8 
tUIO.MA 
V7».»«» 

H.rfi 
aiui,4->ii 

1I»,M0 
W.IIOO 

$A,IHlil,MM 

I4I40.87A 
4'J8,AIM 
477,»iW 
8'*n,ii7A 

l,lll«,4*H 
7l)(l,7»il 
IHA.HtlS 
80»,|s4 
87l*,«'i« 
17a,7'M 


$4,<»A,u8-4 
111  18,000 

1JH,«71 

«»..^77 
8M,8'iA 
At,AI8 
8N,440 
1  Oil,  1 10 

Hi.noo 

918,400 
|T,17J,488 

881,600 
l,'V«,4JU) 
148.MOO 
8H,NlO 
87,170 
Tl,000 


11,800 
14V 

14,H0<I 

l,ll<i7 
1,IW0 
8JI08 

111,000 

»44,H..N 

»»,A17 

lb>is| 

l,AIA 

»1A 

Hi 

HJ41 

ltl« 

11,818 


(4«,{>6» 
18,000 


1I,>A0 
111 


l,HO0_ 

ir,87t 


1,:I8« 
17,660 


Mill ' 
MIt 

4,890 
8,814 
T.fM 
8.1'«1 
1,1411 

i\,mt 

I, IMA 
l,AOI 

^7,«9A 

^4w 
:,m 
7,477 

Milt 
10,478 
18,»AH 

M41 
II,4JIU 

ll,»U 

l.^lfi 

96,141 

8,814 
794 
1,890 
4,llri8 
4,A91 
8.879 
6,870 
4/i76 
8,888 
4,071) 
41,6i«" 

8,016 
8,»49 
8,M6 
8,888 
N,40t 
10,!)77 


r»i<|a. 


I,1M 


WO 
l,4M 


8NI) 

1, 4  IS 

8411 

"417 
7,!H0 

m 

M 
11,449 


1,488 

8,llin 

"  4,7,'sa 

6,«.M 
14,ii« 
6,ll0A 
4.:lli| 
H,-lA:l 
1,141 


TVirfjf.— The  tarllT  reguUtloni  of  Java  ar«  divided 
Into  nix  different  claioaa,  viz, :  Claia  1  reUtea  to  du- 
tiea  on  wines  and  iplritK,  etc. ;  claaa  2  reliitea  to  dutioa 
on  cotton  and  woolen  gooda  ;  claaa  I)  relatea  to  aundry 
Inipnrta  from  Kuropn,  America,  and  the  <'a|)e  of  Good 
IIo|ie  ;  cliian  4  preacrilwa  the  dutioa  on  the  priHiucta  of 
the  Indian  ArcJiipelaKO ;  claaa  5  rolatea  to  nierchiindlae 
heinit  the  produce  of  countrlea  eaat  of  the  Cape  of 
Go<h1  Hope,  not  included  in  any  of  the  foregning 
cluaara  ;  :Iu8a  6  preacrihea  the  export  dutiea  levied  on 
the  prodacta  uf  Javu,  All  theae  claaaea  recognize  a 
diacriniiiiation  in  favor  of  the  Dutch  flag;  but,  under 
the  treaty  nf  Auguat  26,  1N52,  lietween  the  United 
Statea  and  Holland,  theae  diacriminationa  do  not  apply 
to  the  American  flag  when  importing  cr  exporting 
Jrnm  or  to  iSe  tame  place  aa  the  national  Hug.  The 
article,  by  virtue  of  which  the  veaaela  of  the  United 
Statea  are  equalized  with  thoae  of  Holland,  reada  thua : 
Art.  II.  "  The  aliove  reciprocal  equality  in  relation  to 
the  flag*  of  the  two  countrlea  la  underatood  to  extend 
alao  to  the  porta  of  the  colonlea  and  domlnlona  of  the 
Netherlanda  beyond  the  aeaa,  in  which  gooda  and  mei^ 
chandiae,  whatever  tlieir  origin  may  lie,  imported  or 
exported  fVom  and  to  any  other  countr}-  in  veaaela  of 
the  United  Statea,  ahall  pay  no  higher  or  other  dutiea 
Uian  ahall  be  levied  on  the  like  gooda  and  merchandise 
Imported  or  exported  f>t>m  and  to  the  aariie  placea  Id 
veaaela  of  the  Ketherlanda.  The  bountiea,  drawbacka, 
or  other  privilegea  of  similar  denomlnatiou,  which  may 
ba  there  granted  on  goo<la  and  merchandlae  imported 
or  exported  in  veaaela  of  the  Netherlanda,  ahall  also,  and 
in  like  manner,  be  granted  on  gooda  and  merchandise 
Imported  or  exported  in  vesiek  of  the  United  St>'oi," 


Tablb  (xuihitino  thi  NAvioATinii  or  Till!  laLAKM  or 
Java  and  Madura  in  ma  YcAoa  araciriKD, 


NUIoaalll^ 

V.M.T. 
laiil. 

lll«r<,l. 

VmmUi  cJ«mi«1.   j 

\»n.  1   lau.   1 

bntcb. 

l,8t» 
M 
1» 

l,S8d 
TT 
14 

17 
( 

18 

W 
11 

loo 

1,170 

1,8K 
48 

•  II8S 

Engllah 

French 

Ht'lRlen 

r; 

10 
10 
1 
\% 

1 
4 

T 
1 

1 

IB 

61 

r2,048 

10 

10 

8 

17 

t 

6 

10 

1 

1 

11 

6S 

1,011 ' 

in 
11 

1 

11 
1 
•i 

18 
A 
1 

19 

m 

1,'isil 

llroini'D 

l'ruK«lan 

Swedish 

Kuaalai) 

l*ortiiffueS4* 

Clilnue 

illitii 

Other  Anlatlo  conntrloi  . , 
Total 

From  the  preceding  table  It  appeara  that  In  186,1  the 
United  Stiitea  just  trebled  In  one  year  the  nunilier  nf 
veaaela  bearing  their  ting  in  thot  remote  corner  of  tlic 
globe.  This  la  to  be  aacrihed  to  the  lilieral  cnmmcr- 
cial  treaty  of  1862,  equalizing  the  United  States'  and 
the  Dutch  flags  In  the  colonial  trade.  The  subjoined 
tariff  of  dutiea  of  the  ialand  of , lava  hiis  been  prcparoil 
from  a  copy  printed  at  Batavia  in  1844,  with  modiUca- 
tlona  and  changes  down  to  ,Tuno,  18,'i5,  tranamitted 
from  tiie  United  Statea'  consulate  at  that  port : 

Pitrt  Chargfi  at  Java. — The  harbor  duea  are  one 
half  a  rupee  per  ton  ;  but  a  ship  having  once  paid  this 
charge  can  touch  either  at  Snmarang,  Soerabnya,  or  go 
to  a  foreign  port  ami  return,  if  within  aix  montha  fTnin 
date  of  payment,  without  further  expense,    Shipa  cau 


Koraei 

lUi.. 
Imii, 
Iron  1 

Jl'Wl.l. 
I.UIIlli. 

I-eathi' 
I-eaJ. . 
Llnii_ 
Musloa 
Naval  ■ 
<>liliiiii 
I'rovN 
l'a|>ii, 
IVifiii, 
rnlnit, 
Plcluri 
Po'li,  a_ 
■Stool  Ir 
■Stool  , 
Stoiiu  1 


Bogars, 

finath  i, 
jSailillei 

Silver. 
Silk  am 
Balt,pn 
Tin  and 


Tobaccffl 


JAV 


IMS 


JAV 


bOII 

4Kfi 


I  J«M. 


11  I 
1  I 

14 
1 

83 

»  I 
1 
10 

M 


Uekof  ulit  Hinaln  In  thu  niaili,  and  c*n  ««mmuiilc*l« 
with  tlia  uluira,  ni'ilv*  |inivUlimi,  wntiir,  ati!.,  wllhuul 
cbargK  of  iini'hiirMKn  fiiiti,  Tli*  roftiln  irii  miiith  i>f  • 
line  drawn  fniin  tb»  HhnniiUnil  to  tlin  N>i|itiiii«  abuol. 
All  Uttim  niiint  Imi  tininmllitlply  ilrllvtml  iit  lh«  I'ua- 
toni-hiiUM',  rxi'«|it  I'liimlKiiroi'  Ivttura,  miil  auih  »*  mty 
h»  Intunilril  fur  til*  i'a|itiiln  or  >u|i«roitrK<i.  Thar*  itra 
nil  |illiitii  fill  llutiivU  nr  NanuriiiiK.  For  Soariyaba 
plluta  can  Im  hail  at  I'nlnt  rauku  ruining  fniin  thn 
wait,  ami  at  I'aaaanwnK  iiiinliiK  frmn  tha  aaiit.  i''ll- 
larail  watar  U  aant  ulunKnlilu  In  Kuvvrnnirnt  tiink*, 
with  k  furct'pump  and  huaa,  at  a  i-liurKv  nf  A7  cantit 

DotIM  OK  ('"TKia  «-iii  Woiii.! 


par  hogahaad,  and  In  tha  mitar  maita  al  M  iiania,  WhaA 
a  lilua  HaK  U  ll\  inx  iit  tlia  iiiiiln-iMaH  liaad  iif  tha 
Kuarilnlil|i,  iir  at  tha  niKnal  atalf  iif  tha  Imikiiut-hunMi 
at  Ilia  liaad  vt  tha  I'anal,  It  la  unaafa  tu  aitaiiipt  antar- 
liiK  tha  rivur. 

Tariff'  of  Ihtliii  j\ir  ikr  hlimil  nf  Jntu.  Ily  Dilli'h 
vat/wl*  am  innant  va«>ala  Ih<|iiiii|Imi|  tii  Ili'lUnd,  ami 
■III  uthvrit.  I'ndartlia  Dutrh  llaif  ara  iHimiiridiandml 
tha  Hate  iif  AaUtlu  |irln>'ai  whlih  ara  plaiiad  iin  thn 
aania  fuiilInK  at  thn  Dutih  flaif.  Tha  imuiid  In  Ihia 
tarllf  la  tha  uld  AuiatKriliini  |Hmiiil.  '|ii  tha  ilullaa  In 
tha  tarilT,  A  |M>r  I'anl.  In  aililaU  fur  bfaakwalai. 
att  Oiioiia  ImpiihtkI)  inth  Java. 


Dutch 

In  Dutch  T'Uala,  wlib  oorlllli>at<ia of  Dutch  origin 

Luriiiiuari  aim)  AMii*rlraii,  If  friiin  I'iMintrloa  bittwauu  wbli^h 

and  lliillanil  ft-li<t)>lly  ri'latlona  autial^r 

From  <-i>iiiilrli'a  bi'twnun  wlilrh  ami  lluiiaiid  friunilly  raia- 

tliHia  till  nilt  auttalat 

I'rnni  llulrli  Iiiilla  and  Ikvuriiil  HIalna  In  (liu  Iiiiliau  Ari'bl 

jii>laKii 

Kniiii  il«.  Ill  Duti'h  Indian  ri-Mnit,  provlilad  Ihajr  hava  nui 

linK'»n|  at  an)  .'  iri'luii  iinrt 

All  I       ■  I'liuntria-  i>«»l  ur  tliu  Capa  of  Uowl  Ilopa,  uioapl 

(')    utQ  ifiioiU  In  ('litni-M' Juiika 


Kali  III  July. 

IIA  par  cant. . 
I'Jt    " 

M      " 

ftn       " 

'iS  par  oant . , 
111    " 

»5     »        .. 


On  appraUiMl  valiia,  % nllnn  lii  larllT  tt 

prii'i'a,  lormolud  uviirjf  llirau  Miuiiljia, 


On  appraliail  ralua,  a'-aordinf  \a  Iba  iUHkal 
'     prlpii  iif  the  ila/. 

Onlnviilcavaluu,  wllhivlitllliihiifllliiii  I'l  .iir 
Appralianiiinl  acanrilliin  In  niaiki<l  pi  lima, 


UroHT  DuTiia  un  aiiNuav  (loons  thi  PaoDucn  or  Kvaori,  AmaioA,  aau  ma  Ckm  nt  iii»,ii  llntia, 


Rarf,  aaltail,  imok'  •!.  ^ta 

Booki,  niualc,  r.iapt,  and  ebartt. . 

Bnttar 

('Iii'«*fl 

Caiiilloa,  wax 

ipiTinari'tl 

I'lothlntt,  wiiiil  niKl  cntton 

**       allk  aiul  llniMi 

Cuppor  ami  copper  ware 


^'ork^ 

Carrlaicca. 

(^•rda,  playing. 

{i'orilaKii 

('Aakn,  n«w 

Cattle,  aa  cow*,  iliaep,  etc* 

Urngi  anil  nioillolnoi 

Klour 

Furnltnra 

Olaaa,  clilna.  and  carthanwnro 

Oold  and  allvnr  pliitu,  iaoo,  thread,  and  inilllnry  ornauianu. 

flold  anil  silver  rain 

Oold  and  allTor  buiiiona 

llama 

Iloraea  and  muiea, 

Ilata.   

[mil,  in  liara,  nlua,  rnda,  et« 

Iron  w  irii  and  machinery 

Jcwulry,  pearit,  and  procioua  ttunca,  aat  or  not.  If  real 

Lumlior. 

Ix'athcr,  and  articlci  uf  leather 

I^ead 

LInuR  of  hionp  or  llax. 

Musical  Inatrunii'iita 

Naval  aton^a,  oxccnt  curila;;c 

Opiiiin.  proiiiblted 

I'rovlilunt,  utbnr  than  thoau  named  In  thla  tariff. 

Paper  . 


rerftimery 

Palnia,  llnaecd  oil,  etc , 

PIcturea,  platua,  and  printa. 

Pork,  aalt,  amokud,  etc 

Hteei  In  bara,  oto 

jBteel  ware 

IHtone  for  building 

Marble  tilca 

!  I'lliila,  proiiiblted,  unluu  especially  pornilttod. 
ISegara,  Havana 

All  other  kinda,  Knropean  and  American 

pnulTa  of  all  kinds 

paddlet  and  harncos  (samo  aa  leather). 


Hllver.    (Sea  Gold.) 
Silk  and  allk  gooda . . 
Salt,  priihlbited. 
Tin  and  tin  ware.... 


Tobacco  leaf,  manufkctarod  

(Sea  Naval  atorea.) 
illi  giioda  not  mentioned  in  thia  tariff,  the  products  of 
Europe,  America,  and  C^po  of  Qood  Hope 


HaUiirjuly. 

94  pur  cent... 

«  '• 
M     " 

M     "       .... 

10  10  per  lb.. 

0  III      ••     , . 

SA  per  cent 

III      ••        .... 
M     » 

Free. 

11  par  cent..., 

H     "       .... 

M     » 

U      " 

M     •' 

Free. 

1*  per  cent... 

94      » 

St  " 
•H  " 
94  " 
Free 

94  per  cent... 
Free, 

94peroent... 
19      •' 
94      " 
Free. 

19  per  cent... 
94     " 

94     »       ... 
94     " 
«     " 
19      " 

94      " 

94  per  cent. . . 
94      "       ... 
19      " 
19      " 
94      " 
19      "       ... 
94      "       ... 
19      " 
19      " 
19      " 
(0  BO  nor  lb. 

0  40      "    . 

0  16      "    . 

19  per  cent... 

19       "      ... 

94       "      .... 
10  061  per  lb 

VIS  per  cent . . , 


K«iiiarb«. 

i~ln  Dutch  vi'Wiila,  with  i'urlllli<al»  uf  DnSC 
origin,  19  por  cunt. 
•  above,  IVtie. 

A(  above,  one  half  Ibeau  dullea, 

6lrect  fVoni  Holland  In  Duti'h  va«wta,  If  ■,  ti 

In  Duti'h  vesaula,  with  uurtincali>,  nlii.,  4  p,  «(, 

Aa  ahiive,  19  per  rent. 

Direct  fioiii  llnllaiiil,  in  Diiti'li  viiaaula,  fraa, 

tn  Dutrh  vesseia,  with  certllliiato,  ata.,11,  p,  at 

Al  above,  19  per  rent. 

Ai  above,  li  per  lunt. 


\tt  aboTu,  19  |Hir  caat. 


Direct  from  Holianil,  In  Duleh  vtaaola,  A  p,  a|, 
I  Dutch  Hour  poi^ked  aiiurdlng  In  tlni  tariff  uf 
(      1S9S,  19  per  c.nt. 

In  Dutch  vesaela,  with  cerlincale,  "In  ,  19  p,  at, 
In  Ilutili  veoaela,  with  nertifli'atu, elii,,  19 p, el, 
As  above,  19  pur  cunt. 


As  aboro,  19  per  cant. 

Aa  above,  I'i  nor  cent. 

Direct  from  llollaiid,  In  Dutch  reHnli,  I  p,  at, 

In  Dutch  vuaaela,  with  curllfleale.  ulii,,  |V  p.  nl, 

Direct  ^o^l  llollanil.  In  Dn     i  tuMols,  6  p,  lit 

I  In  Dutch  vcMl!l^  with  •  ,>i|lliial«  uf  Dilt«b 
r    origin,  t'J  pur  cunt. 

AS  above,  free. 

Direct  frcni  Holland,  tn  Dutch  veisala,  A  p,  «t, 

Direct  (Vom  llnlland,  In  Diilch  vuaaala,  19  p  rt 

in  Dutch  vesmMa,  wllh  mrtllleale,  elit ,  i'i  p,  al, 

Direct  fVoni  llollaiid.  In  Dulch  vuMirja,  \i  a,  nt, 

In  Dutch  vouula,  wllh  cerllflcal*,  «t<i„  4  p,  at, 

Ab  above,  A  per  cent. 

As  above,  12  per  cunt 

Direct  from  llollaini.  In  Duicb  VDMula,  A  p,  at, 

In  Dutch  vcascls.  with  curlUicalo,  ul«„  19  p,  at, 

\%  above,  6  per  cent 

Direct  tram  Holland,  In  Dutch  vuMalo,  A  p,  «l, 

As  above,  tf  per  cent 

Direct  tVoin  Holland,  In  Dutch  vutauls,  ^  40, 

I  In  Dutch  veaaels,  with  oortincata  of  urIgiA, 

I     one  half  these  dittiaa. 

Direct  from  Holland,  In  Dutch  vessels,  A  p,  «l, 
As  aboTO,  A  per  cent 


In  Dutch'vessols,  wil ' 
I  Direct  fVom  Holln 
C    half  of  this  duty. 

As  above,  6  per  cant 


'Sle, al«,i  II  p.  at 
tub  fWMal*,  ma 


JER  1144 

Jata  Takot— Export  Ddtim, 


JET 


m 


b 


mwk.. 
iBlrd*' ) 

Camphor,  Jtptn 

Cotton  goods,  J*pia«M. 

Coffoo 


Copper,  J*pu 

Copper  ooln,  Dutch 

QoM  and  allrer  coin,  by  Chiueao.  to  China 

In  other  caaea 

Gold  and  aliver  not  coined,  and  Japan  cobangit. 

Hnraea 

Ilidea,  cow 

"     baflUo 

Indigo 

Jewels,  pearls,  and  precious  stones 

Oil,  cocoanut 

Batana 

Knin,  Java 

Rice. 


Hpicos,  cloves. 

mace 

•lutmogs 

wild  nutnioga 

pepper,  black 

Sugar,  tiava,  1st  and  id  sorts 

brown,  and  molasses  if,  in  the  opialon  of  the  col- 
lector, not  suitable  for  export  to  Europe  or 
America 
Salt. 


Tortois>>' shell , 

Tobacco,  Java. 

Tin 

Tripang. 

Wax 

Wnod,  aondol  wood 

eapan  wood 

tioods  not  mentioned  above,  being  the  producta  of  the  In 
dian  Archlpt^lairo 

Oooda,  the  maximum  import  duty  on  which  is  2A  or  ii4  per 
cent 


IlaUWila:;. 


All  other  goods. 

Jeddo,  Jedo,  or  7edo,  the  capital  of  Japan,  and 
the  largest  city  in  that  empire,  is  situate  on  a  gulf,  on 
the  western  si'^.e  of  the  island  of  Nipon,  in  N.  lat, 
35°  82',  E.  long.  140°.  It  stands  on4  large  plain  at 
the  head  of  the  gulf,  which  is  here  so  shallow  that 
vessels  generally  discharge  their  cargoes  a  league  or 
two  below  the  city.  Jeddo  is  said  to  be  7  miles  in 
length  by  6  in  breadth,  and  to  have  a  circumforen  i 
of  20  mile*.  It  is  not  inclosed  by  walls,  but  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  broad  canals  and  ditches,  having 
on  each  side  high  embankments,  on  the  top  of  which 
are  planted  rows  of  trees.  A  river  of  considerable 
size  flows  through  the  town  into  the  harlwr.  The 
houses  are  small  and  low  on  account  of  the  frequency 
of  earthquakes.  They  are  built  of  wood  with  thin 
clay  walls,  and  are  divided  into  rooms  1)y  paper 
screens.  The  floors  are  covered  with  mats,  and  the 
roofs  with  shavings  of  wood.  Being  thus  entirely 
composed  of  combustilile  materials,  flres  are  frequent 
and  destructive.  As  tlie  families  of  princes,  lords, 
and  nobility  of  the  empire  are  obliged  to  reside  con- 
tinually at  Jeddo,  there  are  numerous  houses  of  a  su- 
perior class.  These,  however,  anj  only  one  storj'  in 
height,  aad  have  no  towers.  They  are  distinguished 
tmm  the  other  houses  by  large  court-yards,  stately 
gates,  and  fine  varnished  steps  leading  up  to  the  door. 
There  are  besides  numerous  temples,  monasteries,  and 
other  religious  buildings.  The  imperial  palace  is  near 
the  middle  of  the  town,  and  is  said  to  be  more  than 
eight  miles  in  circumference.  It  consists  of  several 
palaces  or  castles,  with  large  gardens  and  orchards. 
Besides  being  the  residence  of  the  court,  Jeddo  con- 
tains flourishing  manufacture^!,  and  rnrries  on  an  ex- 
tensive commerce.  The  population  is  variously  esti- 
mated from  700,000  to  l,fiOO,000,  and  even  more.  See 
Japan. 

Jeremle.  This  Is  the  smallest  port  in  the  island 
of  Hayti  open  to  foreign  commerce.  The  anchorage 
at  Jeremle  is  to  dangerous  that  scarcely  a  year  passes 
without  one  or  more  shipwrecks,  or  other  serious  casu- 
altiea,  being  recorded.    In  1849  there  entered  and 


4  per  cent 

4      "       

4      »       


Under  Dutch  Has,  t  per  cent 

To  Holland,  in  Dutob  vcsaela,  |1 40. 

Under  Dutch  flag,  3  per  cent. 

Holland,  in  Dutch  vessels, 

ing  bond  fhr  the  dllTerence. 
Under  Dutob  flag,  $1  40, 

I  In  snms  Ices  than  $300,  for  owner's  use,  free, 
I     provided  permission  be  obtained. 

1  Under  Dutch  flag,  one  half  those  duties. 
To  Holland,  in  Dutch  vessels,  one  half  these 
duties. 


Free. 

IS  per  cent 

(3  80  per  tub. 

4  per  cent 

jPerpicolormTo  Holland,  in  S'utc^  vessel's,  8  per  cent  eiv- 
1     ibe.,Up.  ot.        •--».—..  <u- .u.  ...« »~  8" 

|3  80  per  ptcol 
Free. 

Spercent 

4      "        

4     "        

$16  DO  each... 

8  30  per  100, 

3  40  p.  picol 
4  per  lb. 
Free. 
$1  30  per  picol 

4  80  p.  iegger 
4  per  picol 

TOO       '■ 

800       " 

T  «0       " 
4  per  cent 
80  cts  per  picol 
6  per  cent. .... 

V30  cts. per  picol 

Free. 

4  per  cent 

$1  80  per  picol 
4  per  cent 
4      " 
40  ct  per  picol 

8    " 


Under  Dutch  flag,  one  half  those  duties. 

To  Holland,  In  Dntcb  vessels,  one  half  these 
duties. 

As  above,  ttet. 
Under  Dutch  flag,  ttfo 

j- Under  Dutch  flag,  3  per  cent 

To  Holland,  In  Dntcb  vessels,  84  cents. 

I  Under  Dutch  flag,  3  per  cent 

Under  Dutch  flag,  one  half  this  duty. 
'  To  Holland,  in  Dutch  vessels,  one  lialf  this 
duty. 

Under  Dntcb  flag,  2  per  cent 

As  above,  free. 

As  alwve,  8  per  cent 


cleared  76  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  A200  tons ; 
and  in  1850  there  entered  and  cleared  91  vessels,  meas- 
uring 11,530  tons.  The  following  summary  exhibits 
the  general  trade  of  this  port  for  1860 : 


ConntriM. 

Vain,  of 
Impurtt, 

Arllclea  aaA  QiuBlltiM  of  «i[K>ru 
r»  ISM.            "^ 

United  SUtea.... 
Franco 

1,064,1)00 
244.010 
348,1100 
118,000 

ColTee 

Pon.id.. 

4,S93,919 

641,871 

e,439,oe9 

S4,600 

8,138 

Cocoa 

Great  Britain.... 
Denmaric 

Campocbe 

Wax. 

Jersey,  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  En- 
lish  Channel  Islands,  is  situate  in  the  Bay  of  St. 
Michael,  13  miles  west  of  the  nearest  coast  of  Knmco, 
and  65  miles  from  the  nearest  point  on  the  Kngliitb 
coast ;  N.  lat.  (St.  Helior's)  49°  11'  8",  W.  long.  2° 
i'.  It  is  12  miles  in  length,  from  east  to  west,  und  7 
in  breadth  from  north  to  south,  and  has  an  area  of 
about  40,000  acres.  The  north  coast  of  the  island  is 
rock}',  l)old,  and  precipitous,  rising  sometimes  to  tlie 
height  of  more  than  200  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
Channel  Islands  are  cokisidered  ns  lielonging  to  the 
crown,  but  en,  forming  no  part  of  the  reuini,  so  that 
they  are  not  represented  in  Parliament ;  and  Acts  of 
Parliament,  as  .uch,  have  no  legal  force  as  regards 
them,  unless  they  are  tlieretn  specially  named,  or  un- 
less the  acts,  in  virtue  of  an  order  of  council,  are  regis- 
tered on  tlie  records  of  the  Islands.  In  their  iuHtltu- 
tiona,  customs,  and  laws,  the  people  still  retain  much 
that  is  Norman ;  and,  in  this  respect,  Jersey  bus  re- 
tained considerably  more  of  the  old  institutions  and  of 
their  free  spirit  than  the  sister  island  of  Ouemsoy. 
Tbu  people  appear  to  have  at  all  times  enjoyed  much 
freedom  and  great  privileges.— E,  B. 

Jet,  or  Pitch  Coal  (Uu.  Oil,  Ziearte  bamtleen; 
Ft.  Jait,  Jaytl ;  Gor.  Gagat ;  It.  Ilogata,  Luttrino ;  L»t. 
O'agut,  Gagaitt),  of  a  lilat^k  velvet  color,  occurs  mns. 
sive,  in  plates  ;  sometimes  In  the  shape  of  branches  of 
trees,  but  without  a  regular  woody  texture.  Internal 
lustre  sbhiing,  resinous,  tort;  rather  brittle j  easily 


ion 


1145 


JOI 


4i9i),919  1 

W1.8TI 

,4'29,«n» 

5i>H) 

8,148  I 


Irino !  Lttt. 
ccurs  in»B. 
)ranche»  of 
Internal 


flrtnBlbU  |  iMciAi)  gnv\ty  I'A,  ft  I*  wuA  tat  foci, 
and  fur  muklny  vmimIn  nihI  uriulMxiiicii,  In  PruaiiU 
it  U  caIM  tiliMik  untimr,  «ii4  i*  (ittt  Inbi  rowrl«i  ind 
neckUcaa,  It  fa  dittillKulnlMl  tiy  Ha  ttttllUncy.uid 
concboldAl  fr»vlur»,-^'l'uimmKi'ii  Vhemiitif, 
Jatasm.  (M  ('M^rftAN. 
J«tt««,  tlw  U*rii«r  Mtiwto  rmind  th«  atllta  under  > 
pier,  in  eartitln  tiM  l^rMtca*  Iwlntf  tli»  aame  with  atsr- 
';..,;;  conalatlny  of  »  atndtK  f'«iiilni(  "f  (Imlier  Oiled 
Willi  ttonea,  wbitlk,  iir  iftlixr  HMtnfklii,  to  preaerve  the 
foundotluna  tit  tlw  \fWrit  (ntm  inittry, 

Jetty-lMUd,  »  mitm  Hnunliy  uUtm  In  the  royal 
dockyarda  tu  tliitt  p«rt  »(  »  *(mff  whkh  projecte  be- 
yond tba  rsat  |  but  imtm  (/HftbiiiUrly  the  frtmt  of  a 
wharf,  tba  abU  uf  wbb<lt  (iirmn  im«ul  the  cheeka  of  a 
dry  or  wet  dock, 

Jewalry,  Wim  \ty  miH  itt  the  early  nationa. 
Bo  prodlKJoiia  waa  tlto  K)i(rMVA|«Nfif!«  i>f  the  Homan  la- 
diea,  tlut  I'llriy  tba  dbbtr  aaya  he  a»w  I^ollla  Taullnn 
wearing  urnauMint*  wbbh  Wfre  volued  at  i|l,005,0Wl. 
Jewsia  were  wont  in  VtMum  iiy  Akmh  »(irel,  In  UM. 
Tba  manufactura  waa  wKt«ftaivel^  encouraged  In  En- 
gland in  lOHb.    Him  liohlt, 

Jib,  a  Urga  triaiitfMUr  aall,  Itetween  the  fore-top- 
maat  bead  and  tita  tnHiiH  UU«lum  mUmi  jllvboom), 
which  project*  Iteyumt  tlia  JMwaprtt, 

Jidda,  or  Djldtf*,  A  M</t'|Mfrt  town  of  Arabia  on 
the  Bed  Sea,  M  litilea  waitt  ftiim  Mmm,  of  which  It  la 
the  port ;  N,  Ut,  iil"  W,  K,  hmg,  mi"  Ui'.  It  xtanda 
on  a  gentle  alavatbiu,  rtaifltf  frimi  the  aen,  while  the 
eurroundlog  aoMntry  la  a  Ure  rtea«rt,  .lldda,  aa  re- 
apecU  claaulinaaa  aiiil  fauMlarfty  iit  plan,  la  auperlor 
to  moat  eaatarn  towiia,  f  ha  atreeta,  lh«M«h  iinpaved, 
are  coHiparatlvaly  wall  Ubi  »«t  aitd  wMe.  The  h.maea 
are  built  of  liorallliia  atoim,  frcin  the  ahorea  of  the 
Ked  Sea,  and  frutn  tIta  lairiablitK  tiutiire  of  thia  mate- 
rial, are  not  vary  dMfabU,  hi  tbd  m\mt\in,  the  houaea 
are  mere  buU  coii»triK!t«d  ut  rimiU  and  buahwood. 

Jidda  baa  b)iig  baan  faihoMa  aa  the  ifommerclal  em- 
porium of  Arabia,  himI  indued  la  aolely  dependent 
for  tu  exUtanca  u|wii  tta  tra4a,  HItuate  about  the 
middle  of  the  aaat  coaat  of  tll«  W««d  ««a,  only  about 
120  milaa  diatant  from  tba  opicialte  ahore  of  Nubia, 
and  witbin  two  daja'  journay  of  Me  ca.  It  la  peculiarly 
fitted  for  tiia  iiii|Mrtatbin  of  forai^  (iiaxla  aa  well  aa 
for  the  exportation  of  (Mmia  pfod(«*-  'I'be  hariior, 
however,  lika  iiioat  of  tlia  otbar  porta  on  the  Ked  Sea, 
ia  inconvanlent,  and  tba  entran<<a  nitber  Intricate.  On 
account  of  tba  aliallownaaa  of  the  harbor,  larxa  ahipe 
are  obliged  to  diai^baga  Ibalr  fMtuiifn  In  the  <>^  -'g 
almut  two  milaa  from  tba  abor«.  '!  he  ImjaiHa  from 
E|{ypt  and  Aliyaalnla  wimprlaa  mmi,  flee,  (rtitter,  augar, 
clothlnn,  oil,  t*.ba<!co,  muak,  an'l  Iniiena*  j  from  India, 
mmlina,  abawla,  apli;«a,  ami  i^coa-niila )  while  tlin 
Malay  itianda  and  tba  MoKMiiil<b|Ha  coaat  aenu  nlther 
alaves.  TUa  lm|iorta  ara  wnvayad  l>y  ah)|>a  to  Suez, 
whence  they  lind  tliair  way  l<»  llie  Mediterranean 
porta,  or  by  caravana  to  Mai<«i»  aiKl  Medina,  from 
which  cltlsa  they  ara  dia|Niraa4  to  Wyria,  Aala  Minor, 
and  Turkey,  Uataa,  and  tlia  cabtltrated  balm  of 
Mecca,  ara  brought  from  tlia  fntflfbrt'  firf  ahlpment. 
Next  to  grain,  tba  moat  Imjairtailt  article  of  trade  la 
perhapa  coft4i8,  wbbb  la  olitainxd  in  large  ((iiantitlea 
from  Mocba,  Tba  numlair  of  v«<aela  liebmging  to 
the  port  ia  aatimatad  at  abont  'M,  The  goremment 
of  Jidda  la  In  tba  bawbi  of  tlia  I'aaba  of  Kgypt,  and 
the  town  ia  garrlaonad  by  f^gyfitian  tnaipa,  aniunntlng 
usually  to  about  OH),  Tlia  |ioiiulalbin  la  »er/  fluctu- 
ating J  the  iiermanant  |aiputatlwn  iba-a  mii  probaldy 
exceed  10,000,  wblia,  on  tlia  arrival  of  the  merchant 
flecti,  and  during  tba  faaat  of  Itamadtbati,  there  may 
beaa  many  aa  iO,000  atrangara  witliln  It.  walla— K.  B. 
Jobbar,  a  paraon  -  lio  undaltakf a  Mia,  or  email 
plecea  of  work,  In  iu»,\»  atatntoa,  jobber  la  uaed  to 
"ignlfy  a  peraon  who  buya  and  aalU  tm  otheri,    See 

BgOKRR, 

Jobbing  la  tb«  bualiww  of  »  ^uUm, 


Stodijobbing  Oftotea  the  practice  of  trafficking  in 
the  pubUc  funda,  or  of  buying  and  eelling  stock,  with 
a  view  to  ita  riae  or  fall.  The  term  ia  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  practice  of  buying  and  aelling  atock  for 
time,  or  of  accounting  for  tba  differencea  in  the  riae  or 
fall  of  any  particular  stock  for  a  stipulated  time, 
whether  the  buyer  or  seller  be  poaseased  of  any  such 
real  atock  or  not. 

Jolnt-atook  Companiea  are,  in  England,  a 
apecics  of  partnership  in  which  a  number  of  persona 
contribute  funds  or  "stock"  for  the  accomplishment 
of  aome  trading  or  other  profitable  object.     The  pecu- 
lUrity  from  which  the  term  is  derived  is  the  contribu- 
tion of  stock  apart  from  joint  management.     In  an 
ordinary  partnership  the  members  bring  more  or  less 
of  their  own  personal  management  into  the  aflfuirs  of 
the   company;    and   although,  in   peculiar   circum- 
atancea,  a  partner  may  abstain  from  any  interference, 
such  a  person,  called  in  the  trading  world  "  a  sleeping 
partner,"  is  treated  by  the  law  in  all  res()cct8  as  if  he 
participated  in  the  privileges  and  responsibilities  of 
his  working  brethren.     The  distinctive  peculiarity  of 
the  Joint-stock  company  is,  that  their  members  throw 
their  stock  into  the  venture  without  directly  partici- 
pating in  the  management,  which  may  be  eitlier  in  the 
hands  of  a  selected  number  of  the  shareholders,  or  in 
that  of  persons  who  do  not  contribute  at  all  to  the  un- 
dertaking.    The  8ul>ject  thus  presents  considerations 
stretching  far  Iwyond  the  boundary  of  the  mere  laws 
affecting  the  rights  and  obligations  of  individual  part- 
ners into  the  field  of  politics  and  history.     It  is  at 
once  obvious  that  these  arrangements,  by  which  the 
wealth  of  indefinite  numbers  can  be  concentrated  in 
the  hands  of  a  few,  are  capable  of  creating  a  political 
influence  which  will  have  more  or  less  the  character 
of  a  ruling  or  governing  power,  accordinr^  to  the 
strength  of  the  otherwise  constituted  authorities  with 
which  it  may  come  in  contact.     It  wui>  by  this  sort  of 
concentration  of  the  wealth  of  many  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  that  aome  of  the  religious  societies  of  the  middle 
ages  Ijecame  formidable  rivals  of  the  monarchies ;  the 
Society  of  the  Knights  Templars  rioting  conspicuously 
above  all  others,  and  threatening  to  establish  a  sort  of 
corporate  empire,  presiding  over  the  Kuropcan  mon- 
archies.    Subsequently  the  Jesuits,  in  their  govern- 
ment of  Paraguay,  aftbrded  evidence  of  the  power  at 
the  command  of  clover  men  regulating  a  common  fund, 
which  alarmed  crowned  heads  no  less  than  the  usurp- 
ing tenor  of  their  doctrines.     The  great  union  of  tba 
Uanse  Towns,  before  which  the  robber  monarchies  and 
aristocracies  of  central  Europe  fell,  was  again  an  in- 
stance of  the  power  of   concentrated  wealth  when 
measured  against  pure  monarchical  and  aristocratic 
authority ;  and  the  expanding  resources  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Venice,  and  of  other  wealthy  oligarchies,  seemed 
to  be  raising  a  new  ruling  power  which  would  grad- 
ually absorb  and  supersede  the  old  dynasties,  whether 
autocratic  or  aristocratic,  by  which  nations  were  ruled. 
The  expansion  of  trade  by  the  discovery  of  America 
and  a  new  passage  to  India,  and  still  more  perhapa 
the  recasting  of  the  political  st&te  of  Europe  by  the 
Itefurmatlon,  broke  up  these  great  concentrated  masses, 
and  distributed  the  power  of  collective  we.ilth  into 
amuller  groups.     Still  the  influence  of  joint-stock  aa- 
aocialions  has  ever,  from  time  to  time,  arisen  in  formi- 
dable rivalry  with  other  forms  of  political   power, 
aomotimea  creating  an  effectual  barrier  to  political  op- 
pression, but  at  others  threatening  the  lil>erties  and 
Just  riglita  of  communities  by  a  spirit  of  aggrandize- 
ment and  rapacity.     Perhaps  the  most  curious  single 
instance  of  a  struggle  between  concentrated  wealth 
and  a  ruling  dynasty  will  lie  found  in  the  historj-  of 
Kussia.     The  merchants  of  Novogorod  increased  in 
wealth  and  influence  until  they  liecamo  a  virtual  re- 
publican government,  gradually  absorbing  under  their 
influence  the  surrounding  territory.    "  Who  can  resist 
Ciod  and  the  great  Novogorod?"  I>ecame  a  saying  of 


m 


L 

.III 

■m  Si  j 


JOI 


1146 


JON 


th6  16th  centniy.  The  Grand  Dukes  of  Mnacovy 
commenced  b  ■}'8tematic  war  against  the  royal  com- 
pany of  merchants,  and  it  seemed  for  some  time  a 
question  whether  Russia  should  be  ruled  by  a  commer- 
cial conipnny  or  an  autocracy.  After  many  scenes  of 
cruelty  and  rapacity,  the  latter  prevailed.  Hut  tlie 
influence  of  Novogorod  was  not  entirely  extinguished 
until  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  drew  the  north- 
em  trade  of  Russia  into  a  new  channel,  where  it  came 
effectually  under  imperial  control. 

British  history  affords  many  incmora)>le  instances  of 
the  influence  of  joint-stocic  operations.  It  I)ecame  the 
policy  of  the  crown,  from  Queen  Elizal>eth's  reign  down- 
ward, to  cherish  commercial  coml)inations,  as  a  balance 
■gainst  the  power  of  the  aristocracy,  and  sometimes  the 
body  thus  started  with  a  stocit  of  exclusive  privileges 
acquired  an  influence  dangerous  alilce  to  the  authority 
of  the  crown  and  to  the  rights  of  the  subject.  The 
Kussian  Company,  which  hud  been  licensed  just  be- 
fore the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  acquired  so  much 
Influence  under  her  fostering  care  as  to  spread  its 
transactions  into  Persia  on  the  one  hand,  and  embark 
in  the  whale  fltheiy  of  Spitzbergen  on  the  other. 
This  potent  body  was  in  use  to  send  eml)assadors  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Muscovy.  But  his  successors,  the 
czars,  were  not  inclined  to  encourage  such  fellowship, 
and  gradually  enfeebled  the  haughty  corporation  by 
restricting  its  foreign  privileges,  and  encouraging  the 
rival  company  of  Holland.  The  celebrated  Turkey  or 
Levant  Company  was  chartered  in  1581.  Just  18 
years  afterward  was  formed,  under  far  less  pompous 
auspices,  that  East  India  Company  which  has  been 
destined  to  rule  over  a  greater  empire  than  that  of 
Julius  Ciesar  or  Charlemagne.  See  India.  Many 
African  and  American  companies  were  formed  in  the 
17th  century,  and  created  much  excitement  by  their 
aggressions  and  rivalries.  The  Scots,  excited  by  wit- 
nessing the  enterprise  and  prosperity  of  England,  in 
which  the  invidious  navigation  law  of  Charles  II.  pro- 
hibite<l  them  from  participating,  resolved  to  establish 
a  great  national  joint-Stock  company  for  themselves. 
In  1695  they  formed  the  "African  Company,"  better 
known  as  the  Darien  project,  sul)scribing  a  capital  of 
four  millions,  the  greater  portion  of  which  wag  paid 
up.  This  was  held  in  its  day  to  be  a  marvelous  pe- 
cuniary effort  for  a  portion  of  the  empire  which,  a 
century  and  a  half  later,  entered  on  railway  projects 
involving  in  one  year  an  outlay  of  sixteen  millions. 
The  company  obtained  from  the  Scottish  Parliament 
more  alisoiute  power  than  even  the  gr^at  corporations 
of  England  ;  being  authorized  to  hold  a  monopoly  of 
certain  trades,  to  occupy  and  govern  territories,  and  to 
make  peace  and  war.  It  commenced  the  execution  of 
a  variety  of  projects  on  a  grand  scale,  and  their  disas- 
trous result  was  a  signal  instance  of  that  unscrupulous 
spirit  of  aggrandizement  and  oppression  to  which 
trading  corporations  are  so  liable.  The  Scottish  com- 
pany, probably,  like  many  of  the  other  bodies  of  ad- 
venturers, committed  some  questionable  acts,  but  none 
Buflicient  to  justify  the  rancorous  hatred  of  the  English 
rival  companies,  which,  while  the  Scots  were  prevent- 
ed, as  an  alien  nation,  ffom  having  their  share  in  the 
English  companies,  denounced  the  corporation  set  np 
by  the  nation,  which  they  thus  counted  separate  and 
independent,  for  an  infringement  of  a  monopoly 
purely  English.  King  William  was  too  dependent  on 
the  moneyed  power  in  England  to  hold  an  even  balance 
of  justice  lietween  opponents  so  unequally  matched, 
and  the  Scottish  colony  was  ruined. 

Among  the  English  companies  of  that  age,  several 
were  successively  established  for  trading  with  Africa 
and  America.  Their  chief  object  and  source  of  gain 
was  one  that  would  be  fortunately  held  in  detestation 
by  the  greater  portion  of  British  speculators  at  the 
present  day — the  supply  of  captured  negroes  to  the 
plantations,  foreign  a*  well  as  British.  The  culmina- 
tion of  these  projects  in  the  great  South  Sea  scheme 


of  1719  la  a  well-known  chapter  in  English  history. 
The  names  of  the  many  preposterous  satellite  schemes 
by  which  it  was  surrounded  have  often  Iwen  cited  as 
instances  of  folly  calculated  to  tax  the  credulity  of 
solwrer  periods,  as  projects  in  which  the  inhabitants 
of  the  wisest  of  nations  actually  eml>arked.  If  it 
were  any  consolation  to  And  their  neighl)ori!  guilty  of 
greater  follies  than  their  own,  the  British  of  that  age 
might  And  such  consolation  in  a  view  of  the  French 
Mississippi  scheme.  The  corporate  power  thus  created 
not  only  professed  to  absorb  the  trade,  finance,  and 
banking  of  France,  but  projected  the  creation  of  a 
transatlantic  empire,  which,  from  it!"  centre  in  Louis- 
iana, should  gradually  absorb  the  American  conti- 
nent. 

Since  the  passing  of  the  Patents  Act  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  the  crown  alone  was  precluded  from  grant- 
ing powers  of  trading  monopoly  in  royal  charters,  ond 
the  companies  which,  since  that  period,  have  obtained 
an}-  monopolies  in  England  beyond  those  created  by 
the  simple  instance  of  their  large  capital,  have  held 
their  powers  from  Parliament.  The  crown  continued 
to  grant  monopolies  in  foreign  trade  till  1698,  when,  in 
the  celebrated  question  of  the  old  East  India  Company, 
the  practice  was  c  ondemned  by  a  vote  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  A  remarkable  instance  lately  occurred  of 
an  attempt  by  some  enterprising  men  to  curry  out  a 
nroject  something  like  that  of  the  Bast  India  Com- 
pany, independently  of  authority  either  from  the 
crown  or  Parliament.  It  was  represented  that  the 
islands  of  New  Zealand  were  admirably  suited  for  c<il- 
onization,  and  should  be  immediately  attached  to  the 
British  colonial  empire  by  the  right  of  occupancy. 
There  was,  however,  a  strong  disinclination  on  the 
part  of  British  statesmen  at  that  period  to  encumber 
the  imperial  government  with  the  management  of  ad- 
ditional colonies.  The  adventurers  conceived  the  idea 
of  occupying  the  islands  with  independent  British 
emigrants.  The  novelty  of  their  views,  and  the  en- 
ergy and  eloquence  with  which  tiiese  were  enforced, 
attracted  a  number  of  ardent  spirits  around  them,  who 
were  taught  that  in  these  happy  islands,  possessed  of 
all  the  advantages  of  our  British  climate  without  its 
drawbacks,  they  were  to  found  that  empire  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin,  by  which  the  southern  portion  of  the 
world  was  to  be  iventually  ruled.  It  seemed  hard 
that  the  government,  declining  to  occupy  the  colonies, 
should  discourage  this  project ;  but  there  were  many 
grounds  for  dreading  from  it  evil  consequences,  among 
which  the  most  obvious  and  immediate  was,  that  when 
the  colony  iK'gan  slightlj-  to  prosper,  it  would  attract 
the  cupidity  of  some  other  European  power,  from 
which  it  could  not  be  protected  without  an  interference 
which  might  involve  the  British  government  in  formi- 
dable disputes.  Hence,  in  the  year  1840,  the  British 
flag  was  hoisted  in  New  Zealand,  and  altliough  "  The 
New  Zealand  Company"  was  incorporated,  and  after- 
ward became  the  medium  for  the  disposal  of  large 
tracts  of  land,  its  position  was  so  humble  in  rcim- 
parison  with  the  splendid  visions  entertained  by  its 
promoters,  that  after  a  long  series  of  intricate  dis- 
putes, they  resigned  their  charter  to  the  government 
in  I860.— E.  B. 

The  chief  objects  for  which  joint-stock  companies 
have  lately  been  constituted  are  banking,  insurance, 
works  for  the  supply  of  cities  with  water  and  gas, 
canals,  shipping,  and  harbors,  and,  at  tlie  head  of  ail, 
railway^.  The  railway  system,  indeed,  is  tlio  form  in 
which  both  the  government  and  the  people  Imve  of  late 
felt  the  pressure  of  joint-stock  power,  and  known  the 
Influence  of  which  it  is  su;ceptil)lo.  The  historj-  and 
effect  of  the  railway  system  will  be  found  under  its 
proper  hsad. 

Joule  Jonqtie,  or  Jank,  in  naval  affairs,  is  a 
kind  of  small  ship,  very  common  in  the  East  Indies. 
These  vessels  are  of  various  dimenitlons ;  and  differ  in 
the  form  of  their  building,  according  to  the  dlfForent 


,.t.l.. 


i<'i:,'-^i!'!>A.iii'»'"*^jWt^ii!i.r-*-.-:^.ini<-i 


JUT 


lUT 


*     JUR 


torjr. 
ernes 
«d  as 
ty  of 
itants 

If  it 
Ityof 
at  age 
"rench 
mated 
;e,  anil 
n  of  a 

LouU- 

conti- 

•eign  of 

1  gront- 

crs,  and 

ibtnined 

iated  by 

ivo  held 

ontinued 

when,  in 

lompany, 

House  of 

curred  of 

irry  out  a 

idia  Com- 

from   the 

I  that  the 

;ed  for  cdl- 

ihedtothe 

iccupancy. 

ion  on  the 

)  encumber 

nent  of  ad- 

ced  the  idea 

ent  British 

nd  the  en- 

■e  enforced, 

I  them,  who 

lossessed  of 
without  its 

•e  of  Anglo- 
rtion  of  the 
leemed  hard 
the  colonies, 
e  were  many 
■noes,  among 
,8,  that  when 
vould  attract 
power,  from 
1  interference 
lent  in  formi- 
J,  the  British 
though  "  The 

mi,  and  aftcr- 
osal  of  large 
mblo  in  com- 
tained  by  its 
intricate  dis- 
governmcnt 

nek  companies 
ng,  insurance, 
•ater  and  gas, 
he  head  of  all, 
is  tlio  form  in 
■  have  of  late 
known  the 
no  historj-  and 
bund  under  its 

iral  affairs,  is  a 
he  East  Indies. 
and  differ  in 
to  the  different 


del 
,nd 
be 


methods  of  naval  architecture  used  by  the  nationi  to 
which  they  belong.  Their  sailn  are  frequently  made 
of  mats,  and  their  anchors  of      >od. 

Journal,  a  day-book,  regii-tor,  or  account  of  what 
passes  daily.  Journal,  in  merchants'  accounts,  li  a 
book  in  which  every  particular  article  is  posted  out  of 
the  waste-book,  and  made  debtor.  This  Is  to  be  very 
clearly  worded  and  fairly  engrossed.  Journal,  in  nmiija' 
tion,  a  sort  of  diary  or  daily  register  of  the  ship's 
course,  winds  and  weather,  together  with  a  general 
account  of  whatever  Is  materiiil  to  bo  remarked  in  the 
period  of  a  sea  voyage.  In  all  such  journals,  the  day, 
or  what  is  called  the  '24  hours,  terminates  at  noon,  be- 
cause the  errors  of  tho  dead-reckoning  are  at  that 
period  generally  corrected  by  a  solar  observation. 
The  daily  compact  usually  contains  the  state  of  the 
weather;  tho  variation,  increase,  or  diminution  of  the 
wind  ;  and  the  suitable  shifting,  reducing,  or  enlarg- 
ing the  quantity  of  sail  extended ;  as  also  the  most 
material  incidents  of  the  voyage,  and  the  condition  of 
the  ship  and  her  crew ;  together  with  the  discovery  of 
other  ships  or  fleets,  land-shoals,  breakers,  soundings, 
and  the  like. 

Juan  Fernandez,  or  Mas-a-tierra,  a  rocky 
island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  about  400  miles  off  the 
coast  of  Chili,  of  which  it  it  is  a  dependency.  I.at. 
3.9°  45'  S.,  long.  79°  2'  W.  It  is  18  miles  Ung  anrl  l! 
miles  broad,  rises  to  3,000  feet  above  the  ocean,  has 
steep  shores,  and  a  desolate  appearance  from  the  sea ; 
but  in  its  north  half,  in  which  is  Cumberland  Bay,  are 
some  fertile  valleys,  producing  figs,  grapes,  and  sundal 
wood,  cork,  and  other  timber  trees,  and  it  is  leased 
from  the  Chilian  government  by  settlers  from  the 
United  States  and  Tahiti.  The  solitary  residence 
here  for  four  years  of  a  Scotchman,  named  Alexander 
Selkirk,  is  supposed  to  have  formed  tho  basis  of  De- 
foe's well-known  tale  of  "  Robinson  Crusoe."  Mas-a- 
fuern  is  another  rocky  and  precipitous  island,  lying  to 
the  west.     Lat.  33°  49'  S.,  long.  80°  27'  W. 

Juniper.  The  juniper-tree  l)elongs  to  the  natural 
order  Coniform,  and  is  useful  both  for  its  wood  and  Its 
berries.  The  Virginian  species,  which  is  called  ml 
cedar,  affords  a  light  and  lurable  material  valuable  in 
ship-building.  It  attains  the  height  of  about  30  feet, 
ami  grows  well  in  barren  soil.  'I'he  berries  used  fur 
flavoring  gin  are  obtained  f^om  the  Juniperut  commu- 
nu,  and  about  20C  Inns  of  them  are  annually  imported 
to  this  country,  liiiv  tre  also  used  for  imparting 
pungency  to  b.cr.  Wii.'n  roasted  and  ground,  they 
afford  a  substl'nite  fur  rotfee.  The  oil  of  juniper  is  an 
important  in(,i<;<'.i<"nt  >,  varnish  for  pictures,  wood- 
work, etc.  "The  bin'  i  have  also  a  diuretic  property, 
and  are  used  In  medicine.  The  heavy  duty  to  which 
they  were  subject  in  England  was  abolished  in  1845. 

Junk,  in  nautical  language,  a  name  given  to  any 
remnant  or  piece  of  old  cable,  which  is  usually  cut 
into  small  portions,  f.r  the  purpose  of  making  polui.-, 
mats,  gaskets,  sennets,  and  the  like.     See  Jonk. 

Jute.  Jute  is  a  remarkably  beautiful  fibre— soft, 
silky,  and  easily,  spun ;  and  if  to  its  other  advan- 
tages were  added  those  of  strength  and  durabilty,  it 
would  probably  supeisede  all  other  flbrous  materials. 
But  it  is  as  rapid  in  its  decay  as  in  its  growth,  and  is, 
In  reality,  the  most  perishable  of  fibres.  From  the 
period  of  its  first  production  in  the  clear  state,  it 
slowly,  and  of  its  own  accord,  changes  its  color,  losing 
the  beautiful  pearly  white,  which  at  first  disiinguishee 
it,  and  assuming  successive  shades  of  fawn-color  and 
brown.    At  the  same  time,  its  strength  proportion- 


•Uly  dtffllnUli«!),  C^iroHffistances  hasten  or  retard  th!« 
iamy,  »mt  iiMiUtura  )<t  jiortlcularly  injurious  to  it. 
niKli-pruaaiirH  Kiuum  (tlmost  melts  it  oway,  so  that 
whxu  m\U'\ii\,\u  ,'t4uU«irnti<d  witli  jute,  is  submitted  to 
lilah.pr<<«»Mrii  st«rtm  (i,f  oiily  30  lbs.  pressure),  for  four 
liuurs,  »)<ir»  WMnhltiK  nHetmntA  rmioves  the  jute.  It 
is  \m\Wv»A  th«t  m  ittiitrovemnnt  in  the  process  of  set- 
ting WollW  \wt$»m  («(th  (Is  strength  ond  durability  ; 
l)Ut  It  (»  vary  HimHM  If  It  can  ever  be  rendered  equal 
in  tliiisti  rxoimtt*  i»  fitlicr  liemp  or  flax. 

Tln««»t"Ht  ((f  ttw  iiitttSun  tfflfBc  which  has  already 
lM«n  cstobllitlMul  lit  till*  fibre,  notwithstanding  its  im- 
furfaiXUin*,  liwy  \m  jlldjjed  of  fnmi  tho  fact,  that  !" 
i\\»ymt*  W*)M\t\  mtii,  tlift  quantity  of  jute  export  ^ 
from  V.nUmn  tAttm  wits  valued  at  2,000,000  rupees,  i,r 
X'^OO.'KIO,  mwl  tM  iilt«  ot  ((unny-cloth  at  an  e<|ual  sum, 
and  titllt  >t  Im<i  nmnAy  Mlrtnltteil  a  considerable  place 
sinona  tlis  nw  miit«trU1s  mnpluyed  in  manufactures.— 
1'.  J.ofC,    »m\itMP, 

AumtAinit  U*  l)f»ft(iw«lt«'»  "  Commerce  of  Liver- 
pwil,"  Wi,im  JMikift  wf  jtlt«  are  ttsed  annually  in  En- 
gland, VttltlAii  M  i'20  \mt  bale.  The  grass  is  sent  to 
Uundos  mu\  »th«<r  \i\nm*.  wtd  the  fibre  so  resembles 
catKr|)IIUr's  tlirtimt,  tbiit  it  Is  ns«d  to  adulterate  silk. 
It  is  nmA»  \nU)  ci/vitlltif^s,  (halted  "  baggings,"  for  cot- 
ton bal«s  I  iinil,  nitvt  viirintts  uses,  finds  its  way  to  the 
paptir'Hitli,  trn  thn  ntMiufactare  of  coarse  wrapplng- 
paiMrs.'^UKHKf  A'ftl'i*  Jimrmt, 

This  Hrtti'Iti  l*t  lUfW  Utn«\y  Introduced  in  the  mann- 
fac'turas  uf  VsaUnA,  U  much  resembles  a  coarse  flax, 
having  «  hinij  tllyry  t¥%ivit«,  and  when  dyed  has  a  very 
woolly  wpiwftntlli'ft,  ill  niid  around  Dundee,  Scotland, 
there  M»  m  hw«t  tUtrn  70  mills,  all  engaged,  spinning 
this  fiita  4n4  tkn^hs  f(r)ti«ltml  of  which  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  mill  In  t/mttUiui,  't'hrre  are  in  this  mill  some 
'iOUO  hitii4s,  nil  wll/illy  iimphiyed  spinning  jute,  which 
is  uwd  to  ft  lnrn»  KMl;«<tlt  )n  the  manufacture  of  carpets 
and  rui;«,  Hi»m  tlirctt  fnfitses  In  that  quarter  dye  for 
this  bwiU'h  »f  trmk  »Um«  about  seven  tons  a  day'  The 
c»rp«ts  (tru  mM  m  i4tw  »»  from  7d,  to  lid.  per  yard ; 
the  rug4  lignUt  MS  Um  Hi  ito,  sterling.  Jute  can  be'  spun 
lo  »  vary  turn  thrs/"t.  It  might  lie  turned  to  a  good 
account  in  tli«i  ^IimwI  fra<l«,  as  a  substitute  for  cotton. 
In  its  unmmiMl'iw.'ttirtMt  stfit«  It  Is  said  only  to  cost  lis. 
[wr  cwt,  I  »  v«iry  gtunt  contrast  to  the  very  coarsest 
wool^^nt  U»«t  I*,  tmr  |«)Un(l  In  its  oily  state. 

Junf'IBUt.  In  mtval  affairs,  a  temporar}-  mast 
erect<34  in  n  «lli|)  in  tll«  tmitn  of  one  that  has  been  car- 
rlad  nwfiy  Uy  («nt(K<rt  et  any  other  accident.  Jury- 
masts  urn  somctitnoit  mr^etmi  in  a  new  ship  to  navigate 
her  down  »  rtvtir,  iirton  iielfthliorlng  port,  where  her 
proper  miMto  ttn  Mapured  tut  her. 

Jury  Trial,  tli«  mint  ilwifoughly  expressive  feature 
in  till!  )ultn(nieif(tll</lt  «f  mralef'i  Jiisllce,  is.  In  its  essen- 
tial priii(!i|ii«,  iiiillilii({  mofti  than  the  citizen's  right  to 
have  ttm  JMilKiHNiit  of  ftn  impartial  committee  of  his 
I'lillowrfiiti/wn*  on  liny  qtlcsdon  of  fact  tending  to  affect 
his  life,  Ills  iUmriy,  m  tnjine  Important  patrimonial  In- 
terest, Tll«  oriijin  of  tlt«  (ffactlce  has  been  traced  by 
juridieal  i)nti<|iMri«'.<i  into  many  and  far  diverging 
sounds,  Init  timy  Iwvb  nil  been  found  converging  in 
one  direction,  I'y  tll8  influence  of  a  common  determina- 
tiun,  wbiL'lt  t«»uiit  to  liflvo  eVAr  guided  the  purpose  of 
the  Aniili>'M«)lon<i  flint  Piim«  other  northern  races  In 
the  |iriR'tii!tii  li|iplli'Mll<iii  Iff  such  existing  Institutions 
as  euuld  lie  inliueiUKil  to  thtt  end  in  view.  See  yortU 
})ril.  tU»„  viil,,  41  (  Uuitf,  HfP,,  Ivll,,  177  ;  Bern.  Rev  , 
vi.,  Wi  I  Ml,*i*W(Mi(i,  »«♦!!,,  730)  Knick.,  xv.,  478, 
xviii,,  'lili  Hu*'*'»  Jiff/,,  Xtll,,  189. 


Pi 
I 


i 

I! 

m 

if 


KAN  - 


114f 


KEL 


.  (.*     V  .1     t>.- 


K. 


Kaleidoscope.    This  optical  bMUiipntnt,  wMnU 

combines  mirrors,  and  produces  •  tymuiHriml  re- 
flection of  I'eautiful  images,  was  inveutad  hy  Ih, 
Brewster  of  Edinburg ;  it  was  fint  suggested  ill  IHti, 
and  the  in8trum<!nt  perfected  in  1817,  «f(<tir  wMt 
large  nuiiliers  «  are  manufactured.  It  Is  inttfiidixd  t" 
;',S8i8t  jewelers,  glass-pain lers  and  other  omaiiM'Ht*! 
artists,  in  the  formation  of  patterns,  of  wllkb  it  fTM' 
duces  an  infinite  nnmber.     3ee  Iti.ACKWooii,  iii, 

Kane,  BUaha  Kent,  the  Arctic  anph/rar,  w»» 
bom  in  Philadelpliiii  on  the  8d  of  lebruar),  }>Hi,  imd 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  lMi/#, 
first  in  the  college  and  suiiscquentl.v  in  the  puuliu'wl  ^ 
psrtment ;  and  when  he  started  upon  his  attivn  HHrfff 
of  adventure,  he  was  esteemed  a  gooii  ciasiiii!«i  luMitf, 
and  a  good  chemist,  mineralogist,  a6tr«iiuill«r,  nwl 
surgeon.  His  frame,  even  in  Iwyliood,  was  Mimt^i, 
and,  with  a  view  of  strengthening  his  constitwtiiufi,  Im 
■olicited  an  a;ipointment  in  the  navy  as  surgmm,  tuui 
obtained  it,  and  was  attacued  ti>  the  tint  AmarumH  iWM 
bossy  to  China,  This  position  gave  him  an  i>iiftinit#-- 
nity  to  explore  the  Philippine  Islands,  whijuli  ||« 
effected  mairl}'  on  foot.  He  was  tlie  tirU  mitn  wtti) 
descended  Into  the  crater  of  Taei,  lowered  imm  tUoit 
100  feei  liy  a  bamlxm  rope  from  the  overbaugint;  tUff, 
and  claml>€ring  down  some  700  more  through  titft  «m.- 
riie,  he  made  a  topograpical  siietch  of  ttia  int*rii>f  itf 
this  great  volcano,  cidlected  a  bottle  uf  suluiiMTiW^ 
acid  from  the  very  inouth  of  the  crater,  and,  althougli 
he  was  drawn  up  almost  senseless,  be  brought  witii 
him  a  sketch  of  this  hideous  cavern  and  the  it\tiu-\tmn* 
which  it  afforded.  Before  returning  hiNiie  irmtt  t\tU 
expedition  he  had  ascended  the  lliuiaUyns,  vivifvul 
Ceylon,  the  upper  Nile,  and  all  the  iavtlM>b)gi<'«I  f#.- 
gions  of  Egypt — travershig  the  route  and  niakinjj  ih» 
acquaintance  of  the  learned  I^psiu^  who  wi¥>  iiwn 
prnseruting  his  archa!olo,^ical  rssearclus,  II«  n\m  ifH^ 
Torsed  Greece  on  foot,  and  retuincd  to  the  I-'nitiad  M4l«« 
through  Europe.  Soon  after  bis  arrival  b«  was  afj^in 
ordered  on  duty — this  time  to  the  western  m4it  i4 
A'lica.  He  now  attempted  to  visit  the  islava  muH* 
of  Wbydab,  but  having  ttiken  tlie  Afri/:«o  t<tv«r,  \m 
was  sent  home  In  a  precarious  state  of  baaltbr  Hi' 
recovered,  however,  and  we  next  find  hiiu  a  vnlwiMl««i' 
in  the  Mexican  war.  His  adventures  in  M»%\m  ^txii>A 
him  to  be  the  possessor  uf  lion-like  courage,  ^ind  tii  M 
most  generous  and  nolde  heart ;  but  be  fell  «  vUiim  tti 
one  of  the  fevers  rf  the  country,  and  v'.s  vary  ntiiif 
dying.  When  he  reco/ered  and  returna>i,  be  tran  itH-' 
ployed  in  the  Coast  Survey  department,  from  whUU  Utt 
was  transferred  by  the  Secretary  of  tlia  Unvy  Ut  tUt> 
post  of  suijreon  on  the  (iriiinull  Antii:  espM|)tiiiw, 
His  history  of  that  expedition  gave  hint  a  high  \>i»U 
tlon  as  an  author.  Not  yet  satisticd,  hitv/H^w,  tut 
scarcely  gave  himself  time  to  recover  from  tb«  HnrtU 
shipa  of  that  cruise,  liefore  he  set  on  fout  tb«  mftHut 
Gruinell  or  Kane  expedition,  the  resulta  i>(  wttM) 
nave  lx>en  pronounced  by  the  higlie*t  f-itn-  r*tt  aM~- 
thorltles  as  among  the  wonders  of  the  [irmuntl  i-rniufy. 
Dr.  Kane  died  of  consumption,  at  Havana,  Vnimmrf 
16th,  1867.     Sea  A  rdio  Kxplnraiiuiu  anil  IJft «/  Hirnt, 

Kanaaa  Territory  extends  from  the  :i7tb  lUnftti' 
of  north  latitude  to  40  degrees  north,  and  dim  itm 
west  boundary  of  Missouri  to  tba  crest  of  tb«  Uituky 
Mountains.  Area,  l'22,OMO  »{uare  miles.  Orwiiue-i  irf 
the  main  branch  of  tl<o  Arkansas,  l>y  tluc  H/tnuti,  ittit 
by  head  lirapches  of  the  soutli  fork  of  i'|«t(ii  of  Kk.- 
Iiraska  Kiver.  .Surface  level,  consisting  >if  an  im»t*»i>* 
plain,  with  a  gentle  s1o|hi  from  tlie  base  uf  tlia  W»ky 
Alountaina  to  the  Missouri  border,  and  tba  al>ril|it  de- 
scent from  the  mountain  ridge  to  the  Inuu  of  ittumt  1fi 
miles  in  width.    The  soil  is  variuua,  tUik  «ilv»M  tmit 


•  Um  Sm^  lMr/(«Hng  th«  strenmi,  some  fertile  prairie 
Ui¥U  nwi  (Cttetitive  sandy  plains,  but  those  are  of  suf- 
Ii«  )«M(  IWtilK/  to  furnish  nourishment  to  immense 
b#rflir  Itf  (Ii«  American  bison.  It  was  formed  into  a 
,  'futf^iff  iif  the  act  of  Congress  of  May,  IS.')!,  to- 
HHtiXf  wilb  the  Territory  of  Neliraska. 

KtA§il,  »  stnall  anchor  used  to  keep  a  ship  steady 
,  MrMU  »(m  tVles  in  a  harlxir  or  river,  particularly  at  the 
t  t#fn  ti(  lh«  tUUi,  when  she  might  otherwise  drive  over 
,  Im'T  ptituiifnti  anchor,  and  entangle  the  stock  or  flukes 
,  *Hh  il«f  ikmk  cable,  so  as  to  loosen  It  from  the  ground. 
,  'tilU  U  *M(<r»(lingly  prevente<l  by  a  kedgo  rope  that 
!  Uill4t>f<t  iitt  ttiim  approaching  it.  The  hedges  are  par- 
I  iUn\*Ay  asefiil  in  transporting  a  ship;  that  is,  remov- 
;  Utji  Um  iftim  MM  part  of  the  harbor  to  anotlicr,  by 
{ im»ii=i  (if  fttjifn,  which  are  fastened  to  these  anchors. 
'th^  Me  KKtittMy  famished  with  an  iron  stock,  which 
I  in  #M|^  ifMfilaced  for  the  convenience  of  stowing 

I      1t0Si,  (fl«  (i*incipal  piece  of  timber  in  a  ship,  which 

I  i»  Untmiijr  flfst  laid  on  the  blocks  in  building.    By 

I  Mtutfrntinn  (Im)  carcass  of  a  ship  with  the  skeleton  of  the 

I  hmniin  fivxty,  the  keel  appears  as  the  back-bone,  and 

Hdi  timlmiit  as  the  rilis.    Tlie  keel  supports  and  unites 

(IlK  wh<ii«  Mititi  since  the  stem  and  stem  posts,  which 

Itm  «l«v«i(ml  tm  its  endj,  are,  in  some  measure,  a  con- 

iitiUMitftl  ut  the  keel,  and  serve  to  connect  and  inclose 

(M  «Mt«>m)()e«  (rf  the  sides  by  transoms,  as  the  keel 

itiftm  »tn\  unites  the  Imttom  by  timbers.     The  keel  is 

IftmaWf  composed  of  several  thick  pieces   placed 

UtiHUmftfKf  which,  after  lieing  scarfed  together,  are 

\tn\M\  tltiti  flinched  upon  the  npper  side. 

hdilf  Mffli  a  strong  thick  piete  of  timber,  bolted  to 
<(«'  MUim  (it  the  keel,  which  is  very  useful  in  pre- 
utif^iliK  iU  Urnet  side.  The  false  keel  is  provided 
#b«H  tite  (h)ck  pieces  which  form  the  keel  can  not  be 
f/faaafnti  UfK«  enough  to  give  a  sufficient  depth  there- 
t»,  in  fafge  ships  of  war  the  false  keel  is  composed 
Iff  t#w  JdeceSj  called  the  upper  and  hwer  false  keels. 
Tlw  UfWtlH  plank  in  a  ship's  bottom,  called  the  gar- 
liiiiifit  uli'i'ttti,  has  its  inner  edge  let  into  a  groove  or 
(■■(**«««).  cut  longitudinally  on  the  side  of  the  keel. 
'f  Im  ^\iiU  (it  this  channel  is  therefore  regulated  by  the 
ttli^d^l^s^  nt  the  garlward  streak. — E.  A. 

KKal^lMtlllng,  a  punishment  inflicted  for  various 
itHellam  in  the  I)nt"h  navy.  It  is  performed  by  sus- 
fttwitltii  the  culprit  by  a  rope  from  one  yard-arm,  w':' 
<  yfifJtnt  of  lead  (;r  iron  upon  his  legs,  and  liuvi  , 
tK'-tiUrt  *oyii  fastened  to  him,  leading  under  the  sliip  i 
i#il(<iWt  AHfl  through  a  lilock  at  its  opposite  yard-iirni. 
Ho  U  th«fi  sud'lenly  let  full  from  the  one  yard  iirra 
inUi  th«  mil,  where,  passing  under  the  ship's  liuttoin, 
iMt  )*  htiinUid  op  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  vchsoI  to 
tim  (ith«f.  Tb!«  nnnlshment  is  not  altogether  im- 
hmmn  in  Hrif  •  .iipi;  but,  as  It, is  dangerous,  it  is 
*Kff  fHfiiif,  or,  indeed,  scarcely  ever,  no"-  pniitiied. 

KtttUtOtit  or  Kelaon,  a  piece  of  ti- '  >or  forming 
^iUl  intMVft  «T  counterpart  of  the  keel,  bo..,;  'iiid  upon 
t(w<  mi/MIe  of  the  fore-timbers  Immediately  over  the 
kftii,  unit  serving  to  bind  and  unite  the  former  to  the 
(lrt<*r,  tiy  means  of  long  bolts  driven  from  witliout, 
Hnd  f'tlMebed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  keelson.  Tlie 
fc«*l!W«,  like  the  keel,  is  coiniHised  of  several  pieces 
mottml  together )  and,  in  order  to  fit  with  more  sccur- 
itj'  «(*rti  tlie  floor-timbers  and  crotchets,  it  is  iiotctied 
littitlll  nn  Inch  and  a  half  deep  opposite  to  eacli  of  those 
f^cffi,  thereby  scored  down  upon  tliem  to  that  depth, 
*»bcm  It  is  secured  upon  them  liy  spike-nails.  The 
tiififo  lit  which  it  is  tormed  are  of  only  lialf  the 
litKHitlh  und  thickness  of  those  of  the  keel.— K.  A. 

KtliPi  H  sniistance  composed  of  different  materials, 
y(  #bi«ll  ih«  fossil  or  mineral  alkali,  or,  as  It  is  com- 


at  an  averag 
most  probabl 
Tliis  resuli 
kelp  shores, 
'ho  lubor^ri  < 
feg^    ^  I 
Icecpi    - 
neccssii.ip ,  „, 
The  hi«li  pric 
"es  of  (iie  la 
supply  of  bnri 
"«»  on  it  an, 
vestige  of  a  gi 
tilings  would  t 
"y  it  while  it 
government  w 
to  some  of  thi 
*",  merely  tl 
cwental  advan 
Kelp  u  chit 


KEL 


1149 


KEN 


monly  termed,  aoda,  ia  the  chief.  Thia  ingredient 
renden  It  useful  in  the  composition  of  lonp,  in  the 
manufacture  of  alum,  and  in  the  formation  of  crown 
nnd  t)ottlo  glass.  It  is  I'ormed  of  marine  plnnta,  which, 
being  cut  from  the  roclca  with  a  hoolc,  are  collected 
and  dried  on  the  beach  to  a  certain  extent ;  they  are 
afterward  put  into  kilna  prepared  for  the  purpose,  the 
heat  of  which  ia  aufflcicnt  to  bring  the  plants  into  a 
state  of  semi-fusion.  Thej'  are  then  strongly  stirred 
with  iron  rakes ;  and  when  cool,  condense  into  a  dark 
blue  or  whitish  mass,  very  hard  and  solid.  Plants 
about  three  years  old  yield  the  largest  quantity  of 
kelp.  The  best  kelp  has  an  acrid  caustic  ta.ite,  n  sul- 
phurous wior,  is  compact,  and  of  a  dark-blue  greenish 
color.  It  yields  about  6  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of 
soda. — Barry's  Orlcneg  Islands ;  Thomson's  Dltpm- 
tatory.  The  manufactuie  of  kelp  in  Great  Rritain,  ia, 
or  rather  vat,  principally  carried  on  in  the  Western 
Islands,  and  on  the  western  shores  of  Scotland,  where 
it  was  introduced  from  Ireland,  about  the  middle  of 
last  century.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  1815,  the 
kelp  shores  of  the  island  of  North  Uist  let  for  f  7000 
a  year.  It  liaa  been  calculated  that  the  quantity  of 
kelp  annually  manufactured  in  the  Hebrides  only,  ex- 
clusive of  the  mainland,  and  of  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Isles,  amounted,  at  the  perio<l  referred  to,  to 
about  6000  tons  a  year,  and  that  the  total  quantity 
made  in  Scotland  and  its  adjacent  isles,  omounted  to 
about  20,000  tons.  At  some  periods  during  the  war, 
it  sold  for  £20  a  ton  ;  1>ut  nt  an  average  of  the  23  years 
ending  with  1822,  tlie  price  was  f  10. — Art.  Scotland, 
EiUnbnrg  Eneyclopitdia.  Unluckily,  however,  the 
foundations  on  which  this  manufacti<re  rested  were 
altogether  factitious.  Its-existence  depended  on  the 
maintenance  of  the  high  duties  on  barilla  and  salt. 
Inasmnch'  however,  as  kelp  could  not  be  su1)stitnted, 
witliout  undergoing  a  very  expensive  process,  for  barilla, 
in  a  great  many  departments  of  industry  in  which  the 
use  of  mineral  alkali  is  indispensable,  it  liecame  neces- 
sary materially  to  reduce  the  high  duty  in  Great  Britain 
on  barilla  during  the  w.ir.  The  ruin  of  the  kelp  manu- 
facture has  been  ascribed  to  this  reduction;  but 
though  barilla  had  been  altogether  excluded  from  the 
markets  which  could  not  have  been  done  without  great 
injury  to  many  most  important  manufactures,  the  re- 
sult would  have  l>een  perfectly  the  same,  in  so  far  as 
kelp  is  concerned,  unless  the  high  duty  on  salt  had 
also  been  maintained.  It  was  the  repeal  of  the  latter 
that  gave  the  kelp  manufacture  the  coup  <le  grace. 
The  purification  of  kelp,  so  ns  to  render  it  fit  for  soap- 
making,  is  a  much  more  troublesome  and  expensive 
process  than  the  decomposition  of  salt ;  and  the  great- 
est quantity  of  alkali  used,  is  now  nbtained  l>y  the 
latter  method.  The  manufacture  is  now  almost  ex- 
tinct. Shores  that  formerly  yiel<!'  d  the  pronrictors  a 
rent  of  JC200  to  £600  a  year,  ore  now  worth  next  to 
notlilng.  The  price  of  kelp  since  1822  has  not  been, 
at  an  average,  above  £4  a  ton ;  and  the  article  will, 
most  probably,  soon  cease  to  lie  produced. 

This  result,  though  injuriofs  to  the  proprietors  of 
kelp  shores,  and  productive  of  temporary  distress  to 
the  Ittl)or^n  employed  In  the  manufacture,  is  not  to  be 
regn  ^  i  (c  could  not  have  been  obviated,  wiH  jut 
keepi  -  tlie  price  of  firo  of  the  most  inip'rtant 
necessttiie  ,  of  life  at  a  forcii.  nni  unnatural  elevotion. 
The  hi[;h  price  of  kc'->  was  occasioned  liy  the  e^  ^  "■ 
cies  of  tiie  late  w^r,  .hich,  Ijosides  obstructin.'  *,l 
supply  of  barilla,  '  government  to  lay  bif»h  Jn 

ties  on  it  and  on  ...it.  The  proprietors  had  \i'i  '-,' 
vestige  of  a  ground  for  considering  thatsucli  asts'c  of 
things  would  be  permanent ;  they  did  right  in  profiting 
by  it  while  It  lasted ;  but  they  could  not  expect  that 
government  was  to  suiiject  the  country,  during  peace, 
to  some  of  the  severest  privations  occasioned  l)y  the 
war,  merely  that  they  might  continue  to  enjoy  an  ac- 
cidental advantage. 

Kelp  U  chiefly  used  in  the  United  States  as  a  n  '- 


nnn,  and  for  thl«  purpose  ia  very  Taloable.  Large 
quantitiea  are  thrown  on  the  beaches  after  a  storm,  and 
the  Gulf  Stream  const.wtly  brings  it  to  our  shores, 
from  whence  it  ia  carted  by  our  farmers  to  their  fields, 
and  allowed  to  decompose. 

Kentledge,  the  name  sometimes  given  to  the  iron 
pigs  cast  in  a  particular  form  for  ballasting  ships,  and 
employed  for  that  purimse. 

Kentucky,  one  of  the  central  United  States,  ia 
situated  between  36°  80'  and  89°  10'  north  lat.  and 
between  82°  and  89°  40'  west  long.  Its  length  is 
about  400  miles,  and  its  breadth  170  miles,  containing 
37,680  square  miles.  Population  in  1790  was  7B,667  ; 
in  1800,  220,959 ;  in  1810,  406,511 ;  in  1820,  564,317  ; 
in  1830  688,844 ;  in  1840,  779,828,  and  in  1860,  982,- 
405.     The  State  is  divided  into  100  counties. 

Surface,  /fwi7.  etc. — A  tract  from  5  to  20  miles  wide 
along  the  Ohio  River,  through  the  whole  length  of 
the  State  !s  hilly  and  broken,  but  has  a  fertile  soil. 
The  msrgin  of  i;he  Ohio  for  about  a  mile  iu  width,  con- 
sists of  bottom  lands,  which  are  overflowed  when  the 
river  is  high.  Between  this  tract  of  hilly  country  the 
more  mountainous  eastern  counties  ar.d  Green  Kiver 
is  a  fertile  tract,  frequently  denominated  the  garden 
of  the  State.  It  is  about  160  miles  long,  and  from  60 
to  100  wide.  The  soil  is  excellent,  the  surface  gently 
undulating,  and  the  forest-growth,  black-walnut,  black- 
cherry,  buckej-e,  paw-paw,  s!igar-maple,  mulberry, 
elm,  ash,  cotton-wood,  white  thorn,  and  an  abundance 
of  grape-vines.  The  country  in  the  south-west  part 
of  the  State,  between  Green  and  Cumberland  Rivers, 
is  called  the  "  baiTens."  In  1800  the  legislature  of 
the  State  made  a  gratuitous  grant  of  this  tract  to  act- 
ual settlers,  nrder  the  impression  that  it  was  of  little 
value,  but  it  proves  to  be  excellent  grain-land,  and 
also  adapted  to  the  raising  of  cattle  and  swine.  The 
whole  State  below  the  mountains,  has,  at  the  usual 
depth  of  eight  feet,  a  bed  of  limestone  which  has  fre- 
quent aperturea  through  which  the  waters  of  the  rivers 
sink  into  the  earth,  causing  some  of  them  to  disappear 
for  a  time,  and  others  to  be  greatly  diminished  in  the 
summer  season.  The  rivers  have  gt  net  ally  worn  deep 
channLis  in  the  calcareous  rocks  over  which  Ihey  flow. 
The  precipices  formed  by  the  Kentucky  are  in  many 
places  stupendous,  presenting  perpendicular  banks  of 
solid  limestone  800  feet  high,  above  wliich  is  a  staep 
and  diflicult  ascent  several  times  as  hijih.  In  the 
south-west  part  of  the  State,  between  Green  and  Cuin» 
berland  Rivers,  ore  several  iemarkul)Ie  caves.  One 
called  tlie  Slammotb  Cave,  130  miles  from  Lexington, 
on  the  road  to  Nashville,  has  licen  eNpIorcd  for  a  dis- 
tance of  eight  or  ten  miles.  Iron  ore  and  coal,  aro 
widely  dift'nsed,  coal  especially  occujii^s  an  extensive 
field.  Salt  springs  arc  numerous,  an  !  mineral  springs 
are  found  in  many  localities.  There  .  '^ro  in  this  State 
in  1850,  6,tC8,270  acres  of  land  implo^  cd,  and  10,981, 
478  of  unimproved  land  in  farms  ;  cash  value  of  farms, 
$155,031,262,  and  the  value  of  implements  and  ma- 
rhiner^-,  $5,1  J,037  ;  live  stock— horses,  315,682  ;  asses 
'     '    mu'es,   65,609;   milch  cows,  247,476;    working 

;-..,  ■!3,274 ;  other  cattle,  442,763  ;  sheep,  1,102,0J1 ; 
-t     .,  j,891,163;  vail'- of  livestock,  $29,661,436. 

.ipricvltural  Produ  13,  c/c— Wlieat,  2,142,822  bush- 
els ;  rj'e,  415,073;  Indian  corn,  68,672,591;  oats, 
8,201,311;  barley,  95,.-}4? ;  buckwheat.  16,097;  peas 
and  beans,  202,574;  poi,  ■  1,492,487  ;  sweet  pota- 
toes, 998,179 ;  value  of  ]  •■ .  j  .  j  of  the  orchard,  $106,- 
?30 ;  proilii  0  of  market  guruens,  $303,120 ;  pounds  of 
butter  mnilo,  9,947,523  ;  of  clieeso,  213,954;  sugar,  284 
hhds. ;  maple  8ugar,437, 10  •  pounds  ;  molasses,  30,079 
gallons  ;  beeswax  and  homy,  1,158,019  pounds ;  wool, 
pounds  produced,  2,297,4,33 ;  cotton,  758 ;  flax,  2,100,- 
116 ;  silk  cocoons,  1201 ;  hops,  4303  pounds  ;  tobacco, 
55,60], 196 ;  hay,  tons  of,  113,747  ;  hemp,  16,432  tons ; 
clover  seed,  3230  bushels ;  other  grass  aeeda,  21,481 ; 
flax  seed,  76,801  bushels  ;  and  were  made  8093  gallons 
of  wine ;   value  of  slaughtered  animals,  $6,462,698. 


i 


'iil 


'^ 

*. 

KEP 


llftO 


KER 


The  Ohio  River,  by  ita  varions  winding*,  borders  thii 
State  nv  th«  north  for  037  miles.  Cumberland  and 
.V.»nnf.  .iju  Klvera  pasa  thrflUffh  Us  western  part  as  they 
ftppro...'°i  thni.'  entrance  into  the  Ohio.  Cumberland 
rises  ill  t'x  '■•.stem  part  of  thh  State.  The  Hlg  Sandy 
Is  'JW  v.»i;  1  inTig,  and  for  a  conslderahlo  distance  fnrms 
'!iab-ji.iv.  1 1-..  ''itveon  this  Stiite  and  Virginia.  It  isnav- 
i:ft,h\t  It"  v'  m  iVir  b  .its.  The  Kentucky  Klver  rises  In 
the  r'ninli.'iland  Mountains,  and  after  a  rourso  generally 
through  a  (l«ep  rocky  bed,  fulls  into  the  Ohio  77  miles 
sboTe  Luuisvllle.  It  Is  navlghle  for  steamboats  HO 
miles  to  Fran'i'.fort.  Licking,  Grncn,  and  Salt,  an 
other  consiileruble  rivers.  The  Slississippl  runs  on  the 
western  bnnjar.  Tonnage  of  the  State,  January, 
IH''^,  VilCi  ,  composed  entirely  of  steamboats. 

■fanu/r,-  luret,  rtr.— There  were  in  this  State  In  1«60, 
%  '>i)lton  factories,  with  a  capital  Invested  of  (641,000, 
employing  20C  males  and  807  females,  producing 
l,0"?,0il4  yards  of  sheeting,  etc.,  and  T'^ft.OOO  pounds 
of  van;,  valued  at  f  440,0i)6 ;  27  woolen  factories,  with 
a  cayit  il  of  $200,320,  employing  i«'J  males  and  81  fe- 
males, manufacturing  878,084  yards  of  cloth,  valued 
at  $424,644 ;  24  establishments  making  pig  iron,  with 
a  capital  of  $1,027,600,  employing  192^  persons,  pro- 
ducing 28,600  tons  of  pig  iron,  etc.,  the  entire  value  of 
profiiicts,  $G!!9,0a7;  20  establishments,  with  a  capital 
of  $602,200,  employing  678  persons,  and  making  6888 
tons  of  eastings,  etc.,  valued  at  $744,816  ;  4  establish- 
menU,  with  a  capital  of  $176,000,  employing  183  per- 
sons in  manufacturing  8070  tons  of  wrought  iron, 
valued  at  $200,700 ;  820  flouring  and  grist-mills  862 
saw-mills,  and  390  tanneries;  61  printing  ofHces,  9 
daily,  6  trl-weekly,  2  semi-weekly,  38  weekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  7  monthly  publications ;  total  copies 
printed  annually,  6,582,838. 

There  were  in  this  State  January  1857,  83  banks, 
with  a  capital  of  about  $12,000,000.  There  were  in 
operation  Januar}',  1856,  288  miles  of  railroad,  and 
462  miles  in  course  of  construction. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Kentucky  is  very  small. 
Effort  is  being  made  to  increase  it,  and  also  the  foreign 
commerce  of  some  of  the  other  western  States,  by  giv- 
ing facilities  for  the  direct  importation  of  goods.  At 
several  of  the  western  cities,  line  custom-liousds  have 
been  built ;  at  St.  I^ouis  and  Clnclnnsti,  and  at  others, 
I^iouisvillo  and  Dubuque,  it  is  proposed  to  erect  them. 
There  arc  no  records  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Ken- 
tucky prior  to  1835.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  as 
followii : 

FoRKiGN  Croffiii  «  or  KrNTU<  »v. 


Y««n. 

1  T£»|K>ru. ' 

1    IXiineitle. 

Imporlf. 

UitilctTuiiriMu.      1 
EiuolM. 

Sept  80, 1838,  to  1 
eoptl)0,lMO..  1 

Sent  sn,  IS40.  to 
Juiif  :w,  186(), 

July  1.  \<ti).  to 
Jiily  1,  Is.M... 

i     $8,728 

1 

390,a'« 

In  1886,...  l,:u 

"  iMi....  s.aw 

"  19.11....  12,989 

Kepler,  John.  This  eminent  man,  known  in  the 
annals  of  astronomical  science  aa  discoverer  of  'he 
laws  of  motion  of  the  piiinetHiy  'lies  wliinh  cumj^oi' 
the  solar  circle,  was  tht  ».),i  i  i,  ,  'Vui  cflioer,  anri 
was  bom  at  Wiel,  Duchy  o'  '•'  _ml.uf(,'  '  ..ii  D.j 
cember,  irrv    In  1691  I  <.ie  the  pupil  of  J(iic:hae1 

Moistlins,  un'ler  whor.  j,i.<de  great  progress  an  : 
mathematician.  \\!>\  '{  addeu  divinity  to  his  studies, 
he  aciiuircd  consiilcrntii"  celebrity  u»  a  pruacfior ;  but, 
relinquishing  the  clerical  gown,  he  succeeded,  iii  1594, 
in  obtiining  the  mathematical  chair  in  the  university 
of  Cirat;!.  in  Styria.  In  1598,  havinir  professed  the 
Proti  ST ,  ,1  faith,  ho  was  remove.l  from  his  office,  but 
was  soon  recall'"l  again  l>y  the  S*  'tes.  In  1600  he  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  from  Tycho,  urging  him  to  set- 
tle at  Prague,  and  assist  him  In  tht  prosecution  of 
astronomical  researches,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Kmperor  Kodolph.  ''he  death  of  Tycho,  anil  Kepler's 
own  illness  almost  inime<liat<.'! ,  ■:.  ^  s  arrival  in  Prague, 
prevented  th<t  desired  co-of  ' .    ..^i:    \>"t  on  his  introduc- 


tion to  the  emperor,  he  was  requested  to  complete  the 
tables  his  late  ftrlend  had  begun,  which  were  to  bo  called 
the  BoJolphine  Tablet,  This  work,  which  occupied  him 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  of  hi.4  life, 
he  carried  on  and  completed  in  1627,  amid  the  incun  ■ 
venlences  and  difficulties  which  arose  from  the  irregu- 
lar payment  of  his  pension,  and  the  other  expenses 
attending  the  undertaking.  His  health  now  again 
failed,  and  as  a  means  of  restoration,  together  witli  the 
desire  of  obtaining  the  arrears  due  hlra  by  the  emperor, 
he  went  to  Katlsbon ;  but  the  fatigue  of  traveling  and 
mental  uneasiness  threw  him  Into  a  sickness  wnich 
closed  his  life,  soon  after  his  arrival  in  that  city,  in 
November,  1630,  Ills  published  works  on  astronomi, 
cal  subjects  are  numeroua,  besides  which  he  wrote  on 
chronology,  geometry  of  solids,  trigonometry,  logo. 
rlthms.  and  dioptrics.  To  this  great  philosoplier  the 
world  Is  indebted  for  the  diseovery  of  the  true  figure 
of  the  orbits  of  the  planets,  which  he  demonstrated  tc 
be  ellipses,  together  with  those  principles  of  planetary 
motion  generally  denominated  "the  laws  of  Kepler." 

Kennes  (6er.  Scharlachbeeren ;  Du.  Grein  Hichar- 
lakenbeiitn;  It.  (irartn,  Chrrmes,  Cremeae,  Cocchi;  Sp. 
(Irana  Kermet,  (Jrana  de  la  cotcoja),  an  insect  {CiKciia 
illicii  Lin.)  of  the  same  species  as  the  true  Mexican 
cochineal,  found  upon  the  querciu  ilex,  a  species  of  ouk 
growing  in  Spain,  France,  the  Levant,  etc.  Uefure  the 
discovery  of  America,  kermes  was  the  most  esteemed 
drug  for  dyeing  scarlet,  and  had  be|:n  used  for  that 
purpose  from  a  very  remote  period.  Ueckmann  inclines 
to  think  that  it  was  employed  by  the  Phoenicians,  and 
that  it  excelled  even  the  famous  Tyruin  purple.  (//m(. 
nf  Invent.,  vol.  u.,  p.  107,  Kng.  ed.)  From  the  name 
of  coccum  or  coccua,  cloth  dyed  with  kermes  was  culled 
cocctflum,  and  persons  wearing  this  cloth  were  suid  liy 
the  Romans  to  be  cnccinali.  (^Mart.,  lib.  1.,  ejiig.  97, 
lin.  6.)  It  is  singular,  however,  notwithstanding  its 
extensive  use  in  antiquity,  that  the  ancients  hud  tlie 
most  incorrect  notions  with  respect  to  the  nature  of 
kermes ;  many  of  them  supposing  that  it  wus  tlie 
grains  (grana)  or  fruit  of  the  Her.  This  was  Pliny's 
opinion ;  others,  after  him,  considered  it  in  the  sauie 
light,  or  as  an  excrescence  formed  by  the  puncture  of  a 
particular  kind  of  fly,  like  the  gall-nut,  It  wus  not 
till  the  early  part  of  last  century  that  it  was  linally  and 
satisfactorily  established  that  tlie  kermes  is  really 
nothing  but  an  insect,  assuming  the  appearance  of  a 
l)crry  in  the  process  of  drj-ing. — The  term  kermes  is 
of  Persian  origin.  The  Arabians  had  been  acquainted 
with  this  production  from  the  earliest  periods  in  Africa ; 
and  having  found  it  in  Spain,  they  cultivated  it  ex- 
tensively as  an  article  of  commerce,  as  well  as  a  dye 
drug  for  their  own  use.  liut  since  the  introduction  of 
cochineal,  it  has  become  an  ol>ject  of  comparatively 
trifling  importance.  It  is  still,  however,  iirepanul  in 
some  parts  of  S|>ain.  Cloths  dyed  with  kermes  are  of 
a  deep  red  color;  and  though  much  inferior  in  bril- 
liancy to  the  scarlet  cloths  dyed  with  real  Mexican 
cochineal,  they  retain  the  color  better,  and  are  less 
liablu  to  stain.  The  old  tapestries  of  Brussels,  ami 
other  places  in  Flanders,  which  have  scarcely  lost  any 
tiling  of  their  original  vivacity,  thougli  200  years 
old,  were  all  d  v  ed  with  kermes.  The  history  of  this 
;.roductiou  has  been  treated  with  great  learning  by 
..jckmann  {//tat.  of'  Invent.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  171-191,  Ist 
ed,  trans.) ;  and  by  I;  Uancroft  {Permantnt  Culurs, 
vol.  1.,  pp.  398-4.    ). 

Kersey  (pro;  ibly  a  corruption  of  Jersey,  whence 
it  originnily  came),  a  kind  of  coarse  cloth,  usually  rib- 
l)cd,  unit  woven  from  long  »  lol.  It  is  diiefly  iiianu- 
fuctured  in  the  north  of  Knghind.  Keraeymu-e,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  thin  stuff,  gentirally  woven  plain  from 
the  line  t  w.)ols ;  and  ht-ice  it  hn.j  been  inferred  that 
these  two  terms,  whose  meaning  is  so  distinct,  can  not 
be  referred  to  the  same  origin.  Kerseymere  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  appellation  from  Cashmir,  a  country 
which  produce*  the  finest  wool,  and  is  consequently 


lai 


^'  -^m^^-^ 


KEY 


1151 


KIA 


Dibit  celabrated  for  the  works  of  It*  loomi.  In  England 
it  is  prlncipuUy  manufactured  in  the  weitern  district. 
Ketob  (It.  caicchio),  an  old  English  term  applied 
to  a  vessel  equipped  with  tv;o  tnaats,  and  from  100  to 
230  tons  burden.  It  was  nearly  synonymr.us  witli  the 
modern  term  yacht,  licing  used  chiefly  \)\  embassadors 
or  other  distinguished  personages  in  voyages  from  one 
place  to  another,  and  was  furnished  with  all  tlia  appa- 
ratus necessary  for  defense  or  aggression. 

Key*.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascril)ed  to  Theo- 
dore, of  Samos,  by  Pliny,  about. 780  D.c.  liut  this  is 
an  error,  as  keys  are  mentioned  in  the  siege  of  Troy, 
1198  B.C.  Keys  were  originally  made  of  wood,  and 
the  earliest  form  was  a  simple  crook,  similar  to  the 
common  picklock  now  in  use.  The  ancient  keys  now 
to  be  found  in  tlie  cabinets  of  the  curious  are  mostly 
of  bronze.  Tho  late  Francis  Douce,  Esq.,  had  some 
of  remarkable  shapes,  the  shaft  terminating  on  one  side 
by  the  works,  on  the  otiier  by  a  ring.  Keys  of  this 
description  were  presented  by  husbands  to  wives,  and 
were  returned  again  upon  divorce  or  separation. 

Kei/s  are  certain  sunken  rocks  lying  near  tlie  surface 
of  the  water,  particularly  in  the  West  Indies,  from  the 
Spanish  cai/o  (an  islet  rock).  The  keys,  su  called,  off 
the  Florida  coast,  are  prolific  in  wrecks  of  the  larger 
class  of  vessels.  For  an  account  of  these  wreckti,  see 
articles  Kkv  Wbst,  Florid.v,  and  Wkecks. 

Key  West.    Prior  to  1821,  when  Florida  belonged 
to  Spain,  wreckers  from  the  Bahama  Islands  constant- 
ly cruised  along  the  Florida  reefs,  and  saved  large 
amounts  of  shipwrecked  property,  which  they  carried 
to  Nassau.    In  1821  the  country  was  transferred  to  the 
United  States  by  Spain ;  and  soon  after  that  event  a 
few  houses  were  built,  and  a  small  settlement  of  Amer- 
icans was  made  by  John  W.  Simonton,  Pardoif  C. 
Greene,  and  others,  on  the  island  called  by  the  Span- 
iards Cayo  Hueso  (Bone  Island),  and  by  the  Ameri- 
cans Key  West.     In  1822  Congress  established  a  port 
of  entry  at  this  place.    The  'jettlers  built  wharves  and 
storehouses,  and  were  very  soon  in  a  condition  to  re- 
ceive and  store  goods,  and  repair  and  refit  vessels  of 
moderate  size.     In  1825  Congress  prohibited  the  car- 
rying of  wrecked  good.i  found  on  the  coast  to  any  for- 
eign place,  and  required  all  such  goods  to  be  brought 
to  some  port  of  entry  in  tho  United  States.    This  broke 
ipthe  business  of  the  Bahama  wreckers,  and  Key  West 
became  the  central  point  for  the  business  of  wrecking 
on  the  coast.     In  1828  Congress  established  a  court  at 
Key  West,  vested  with  admiralty  jurisdiction.     The 
jmige  was  empowered  to  license  wrecking  vessels. 
This  court  was  abolished  by  the  admission  of  Florida 
into  the  Union  in  1845,  and  a  District  Court  of  the 
United  States  was  eiitablishcd  in  its  place  in  1847.   The 
judKe  is  authorized,  as  in  the  act  of  1828,  to  license 
wrecking  vessels.      The  act  rends  :   "  No  vessel  nor 
master  thereof  shall  be  regularly  employed  in  the  busi- 
ness of  wrecking  on  the  coast  of  Florida  without  the 
license  of  the  Judge  of  said  court;  and  l)efore  licensing 
any  vessel  or  master  the  judge  shiili  be  satisfied  that 
tlio  vessel  is  sea-worthy,  and  properly  and  sufficiently 
fitted  and  equipped  for  the  business  of  saving  property 
lihipwrecked  and  in  distress,  and  that  the  master  there- 
of is  trustworthy  and  innocent  of  any  fraud  or  miscon- 
duct In  relation  to  any  property  shipwrecked  or  saved 
on  laid  coast."     Kt  has  been  held  liy  the  ju<lge  that 
embezzlement  of  wrecked  goods,  voluntarily  running 
a  vessel  aground  under  the  pretense  of  piloting  her, 
colluding  with  the  master  of  a  vessel  wrecked  or  in 
distress,  or  corrupting  him  by  any  unlawful  present 
or  promise,  are  severally  good  causes  for  withholding 
or  revoking  tho  license.     The  act  does  not  apply  to 
trading  or  transient  vessels,  but  only  to  vessels  en- 
S^'-i''  in  wrecking  as  a  business.    Forty-seven  vessels, 
averaging  50  tons  each,  and  carrying  about  eight  men 
eacli,  have  licenses  at  the  present  time  (1858).     This 
number  is  fully  adequate  to  all  tho  wants  of  commerce, 
snd  encouragement  ought  to  be  given  to  any  increase. 


Soro*  of  these  rcisels— fully  one  half—associate  Ash- 
ing for  the  Havana  market  with  wrecking.  Licensed 
wreckers  are  required,  by  a  rule  of  court,  to  institute 
judicial  proceediiig.1  for  salvage  against  all  '•-.operty 
found  by  them  derelict  or  abandoned,  at  sea  or  on  the 
coast.— Makvin's  Iivalue  on  the  Law  if  Wreck  and 
Salvage,  1668, 

A  chain  of  islands  bends  around  the  southern  point 
cf  Florida,  extending  in  a  southwesterly  direction  from 
Cape  Florida,  in  lat.  26"  89'  62"  and 'long.  80'  6',  to 
the  Tortugas  Islands,  in  lat.  24°  37'  'iO'  and  long.  82° 
66'  10" — a  distance  of  oliout  200  miles.  About  eight 
miles  outside  of  these  islands,  anil  parallel  with  them, 
lies  the  1  '  irida  Ueef— a  chain  of  rocks,  of  coral  for- 
mation, lying  underneath  tho  surface  of  the  water,  at 
depths  varying  from  one  foot  to  twenty  feet.  At  several 
points  these  reefs  crop  out  and  appetr  above  the  water, 
forming  islets,  as  at  Loo  Key,  the  S  ml)reros,  the  Sam- 
boes, and  Sand  Key.  The  principal  entrance  into  and 
outlet  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  around  the  point  of 
Florida,  between  these  reefs  on  the  west  and  north  and 
the  Bali.ima  Islands  and  Cuba  on  the  east  and  south. 
Between  Key  West  and  Havana  the  channel  is  about 
80  miles  wide ;  further  to  the  east  it  is  narrower,  being 
about  46  miles  wide  between  Cape  Florida  and  the  Ba- 
hamas, The  value  of  the  ships  and  cargoes  annually 
passing  through  this  channel  has  been  eslimuted  at  be- 
tween three  and  four  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  The 
current  of  tlie  Gulf  Stream  commences  at  its  western 
entrance  off  the  Tortugas,  and  runs  in  an  easterly  and 
northerly  direction,  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  four 
miles  an  hour,  increasing  in  velocity  as  it  progresses, 
until  it  enters  into  and  expands  in  the  open  Atlantic. 
Irregularities  in  the  rapidity  and  direction  of  this  cur- 
rent, the  causes  of  whiih  are  unknown,  the  narrowness 
of  the  channel,  bad  weather,  the  carelessness  of  navi- 
gators, bad  lights,  and  other  causes,  produce  annually 
a  large  number  of  shipwrecks  upon  the  reefs.  Wreck- 
ers are  constantly  employed  to  save  property  thus  im- 
periled. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  value  of 
vessels  and  cargoes  wrecked  or  in  distress  carried  into 
Key  West  during  the  ten  years  1848-'57,  and  the  sal- 
vage and  expenses  thereon.  The  colunm  of  expenses 
includes  salvage,  wharfage,  storage,  duties,  repairs, 
refitting,  and  all  other  charges.  It  is  a  fearful  table, 
when  wo  consider  that  an  equally  large  number  of  ves- 
sels was  lost  without  even  a  partial  recovery : 


V««n. 

V<nel>. 

Value. 

SaIvak*. 

Totftl  Eipensei. 

1848 

4l 

$1, 282,1  lOU 

$125,000 

$20,I,U6(» 

18« 

40 

1,806,000 

127,ST0 

21!',169 

isao 

30 

920,800 

122,  S31 

200,S60 

}Ki\ 

84 

1160,«00 

7.'>,S.'>0 

105,000 

1862 

23 

s;6,iioo 

80,112 

103,000 

1853 

67 

1,073,000 

174,350 

831  SI  00 

1864 

Ml 

2,46',',600 

82,41:0 

211,808 

1866 

80 

2,814,077 

100,495 

190,910 

ISNi 

71 

2,000,000 

103,117 

2C2,i:64 

1867 

Total.. 

r,9 

1,837,050 

101,890 

181,772 

4119 

$l6,'il»l,427 

$I,1K),'.'11I 

$2,lv5,334 

Kiakhta,  a  Russian  settlement  of  more  than  a  cen- 
tury old,  a  little  to  the  south  of  Luke  Baikal,  and  con- 
stitutes, with  the  Chinese  frontier  town,  Mnimaclien 
(which  is  in  immediate  juxtaposition),  the  emporium 
through  which  the  whole  of  tlie  overland  tea  for  Uussia 
passes,  and  it  is  from  this  fact  that  this  place  acquires 
its  present  importance.  Il  is  by  this  channel  that  the 
article  originally  reached  western  Europe. 

The  only  country  which  has  an  interest  in  sealing 
the  Chinese  sea-board  is  likewise  the  only  one  which 
enjoys,  and  has  long  enjoyed,  the  privilege  of  being 
represented  at  Pckiii.  Ever  since  the  year  1727  the 
Russian  govDriimont  has  maintained  an  establishment 
in  that  capital,  the  members  of  which  are  changed 
regularly  every  ten  years.  It  originally  professed  to 
1)0  for  tlic  spiritual  liehoof  of  the  descendants  of  some 
Siberian  settlers  -  ho  had  been  carried  off  about  half  a 
century  before  from  the  upper  valley  of  the  Amoor, 


1 
4 

I 


Ml 


}>'' 


■\m 


M 
mm 


KIN 


1152 


KON 


bat  the  mdialoii  itltl  continuoii,  althongh  the 
ilty  has  ceaMd ;  ami,  while  uutlientic  infurnuitlon  rel- 
ative to  the  reaourceii  and  the  ulminiHtrutlon  of  the 
Celeatial  Empire  in  derived  throuKli  tliin  channel  by 
the  foreign  olBce  ut  8t.  retorebur|{,  no  doubt  wluit- 
ever  opinions  are  current  at  Peltin  of  the  powers  of 
western  Europe  owe  their  shape  and  color  to  the  same 
■t(ancy. — Umdon  Timtt. 

Kidderminster,  a  manufacturing  town  of  En- 
gland, county  Worcnster,  on  the  Oxford,  Worcester 
and  Wolverhampton  railroad,  and  on  lioth  sides  of  the 
Stour,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Severn,  15  miles 
north  uf  Worcester.  Population,  18,4U2,  Kidder- 
minster was  noted  for  its  woolen  manufactures  in  the 
reigu  of  Henry  VIII,  The  fabrics  now  nuule  are  car- 
pets and  tiui^r  rugs,  with  some  bombazines,  button 
coverings  and  waistcoat  pieces.  The  carpets  are  un- 
rivaled fur  excellence  of  worlimanship  ut  the  low 
prices  charged.  In  1838,  upward  of  2000  looms,  and 
4000  Iiand6,  wero  employed  in  this  manufacture.  The 
StttlTurd  an<I  Worcester  canal  pusses  the  town,  and 
opens  a  communication  with  Liverpool,  Hull,  and 
liristol.  The  Kidderminster  and  Scotch  carpets  are 
woven  on  the  principle  of  damasli  patterns,  all  being 
wool,  and  the  patterns  being  elfected  by  arranging 
and  interchanging  two  colors,  so  that  while  uno  pre- 
dominates on  one  side,  the  other  pattern  shows  itself 
on  the  other  side.  They  have  little  substance,  and 
■oon  wear  out ;  their  low  price  being  their  only  ad- 
vantage. They  are  made  in  widths  of  a  yard,  and  are 
sold  at  alwut  Bs.  sterling  per  yard,  or  sometimes  even 
below  that  price. 

Kidney  Beans,  or  French  Beana,  were  intro- 
duced into  England  about  A.D.  1G33.  The  kidney 
bean-tree  (OVyci'ne  frulacau)  was  brought  to  that 
country  from  South  Carolina  about  the  year  1724, 
though  some  authorities  say  earlier.  Kidney  beans 
are  a  summer  pulse,  and  are  of  peculiar  delicacy 
tatty  in  the  season.  They  are  much  esteemed,  both 
in  this  country  and  in  England, 

Kilogramme.  In  France,  the  unit  used  in  weigh- 
ing is  the  gramme,  which  has  been  flxed  by  law,  and 
is  equal  to  the  speciilc  weight  of  the  distilled  water 
contained  in  one  cubic  centimetre.  The  gramme  thus 
flxed  weighs  lfi-433  grains  Troy  and  IG'924  grains 
avoirdupois,  while  the  kilogramme,  which  consists 
of  1000  grammes,  is  found  to  be  equal  to  2  livres 
(pounds)  5  gros,  35  grains — 16-lOOth.s  poids  de  mark — 
and  to  2  i>ounds,  8  ounces,  3  pennyweights,  G-365 
grains  Tmy,  or  2  pounds,  3  ounces,  4  dramchann,  16 
grains  avoirdupois  weight  English.  As  the  most 
common  things  of  daily  consumption  are  sold  by 
weights  in  small  quantities,  a  great  difficulty  arose  in 
introducing  this  part  of  the  system ;  and  the  old  de- 
nominations of  weights  have  therefore  been  idlowed 
to  remain,  with  some  modilloation  in  thi'ir  actual 
value,  taking  the  hilogramme  as  the  Imsis.  The 
kilogramme  is  divided  into  2  livres,  the  livre  is  buI>- 
divided  into  16  ounces,  the  ounce  into  8  gros,  und  the 
gros  into  72  grains.  The  new  livre,  therefore,  ex- 
ceeds the  old  one  (poids  de  marc)  l)y  2-100th8 ;  so,  to 
reduce  kilogrammes  intr  oM  i^  ^asure,  it  is  necessarj' 
to  multipl}- by  2  and  add  2  1  Mhs.  In  the  decimal 
system  adopted  in  France,  the  prefixes  for  muUipli/ing 
are  Greek,  and  for  dividing  are  Latin.     Thus : 


Deca  means      10  times. 

Dccl     ,. 

:<     10th  part 

Hecto       "        100     •• 

c>ir' 

100th    " 

Kilo        "     i.noo     " 

M 

i,000th    " 

Myria       "    10,000     " 

,  therefore,  the  miingrai...aa,  cent<;'ramme, 
dec  ^jru-.i:  !,  Gramme,  decagramme,  hectu'cromme, 
kilo{,'rama  a,  and  myrlagramme,  as  the  nain'-s  of  the 
various  weights. 

Kino  (Fr.  Gomme  de  Kino  ;  G  or.  Kinoharz ;  It. 
Chino),  A  gum,  the  produ"  ■  .-.  ws  that  grow  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  AtHca,  :(•,  -ny  Bi-y,  etc.  The 
kino  now  fomd  in  fiu  Bhoi«         ."  L-y  Dr.  A.  T. 


Thomson  to  coma  ftam  Iiulia,  and  to  bo  the  prodnca  of 
the  tumelea  gamhir.  The  brancfasi  and  twigs  aro 
bruised  and  boiled  in  water.  The  decoction  ii  then 
evapoiuted  until  it  acquires  the  consistence  of  an  ex- 
tract, which  is  kino.  It  Is  imported  in  cheats  contain- 
ing tnm  1  to  2  cwt.  i  and  on  the  inside  of  the  lid  of 
each  chest  is  a  paper,  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
John  Itrown,  the  month  and  year  of  iti  importation, 
and  stating  that  it  is  the  produce  of  Amhoyna.  It  is 
inodorous,  very  rough,  and  slightly  bitter  when  lint 
taken  into  the  mouth ;  but  it  afterward  impresses  a 
degree  of  sweetness  on  the  palate.  It  is  in  small, 
uniform,  deep  brown,  shining,  brittle  fragments, 
which  appear  like  portions  of  a  <lried  extract  broken 
down;  being  perfectly  uniform  in  their  appearance. 
It  Is  easily  pulverized,  affording  a  powder  of  a  lighter 
brown  color  than  the  fragments.  But  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  naucha 
ganbir  ought  to  be  considered  as  kino.  Dr.  Ainslie 
says  that  Botany  Bay  kino  Is  the  only  kind  he  hud 
seen  in  an  Indian  bazaar.  The  tree  which  yields  it 
grows  to  a  great  height :  it  flows  from  incisions  made 
into  the  wood  of  the  trunk. — 'iHOAioJi's  VitpmKUurg  ; 
Ainslie's  Materia  Indica. 

Knee,  in  a  ship,  a  crooked  piece  pf  timber,  having 
two  branches  or  arms,  and  generally  used  to  connect 
the  beams  of  a  ship  with  her  sides  or  timbers.  The 
branches  of  the  knees  form  an  angle  of  greater  or 
smaller  extent,  according  to  the  mutui^l  situation  of  the 
pieces  which  they  are  designed  to  unite. 

Knte  i>f  the  /lend,  a  large,  flat  piece  of  timber,  fixed 
ndgewiso  upon  the  foie  part  of  a  ship's  stem,  and  sufi- 
porting  the  ornamental  figure  or  imago  placed  under 
the  bowsprit.  The  knee  of  the  head  is  a  phrase  peculiar 
to  shipwrights,  as  this  piece  is  always  culled  the  cut 
water  by  seamen,  if  we  except  a  few,  who,  afr"c:tlng  to 
lie  wiser  than  their  brethren,  have  adopted  this  ex- 
pression, probably  on  the  preso  ' . '  I  'on  that  the  other 
is  a  cant  phrase  or  vulgarism. 

Carling-Kneet,  in  a  ship,  those  timbers  which  ex- 
tend from  the  ship  to  the  hatchway,  and  bear  up  the 
deck  on  both  sides. 

Knivea  (Ger.J/eMtr;  Du.  Jf(<»«»;  Vt.Couteaur; 
It.  Collelii;  Sp.  Cuchilloi;  Rus.  Nothi)  well  known 
utensils  made  of  iron  and  steel,  and  employed  to  cut 
with:  they  nre  principally  manufactured  in  London 
and  ShcSicld.  Knives  oj  o  :iade  for  a  variety  of  pur- 
]>oses,  as  tlirir  different  denominations  imply;  »uch 
as  table-knives,  pen-knives,  oyxter-knivc  <.  pruning- 
knives,  etc.  Although  England  at  prssciit  excels 
ever}'  part  of  the  world  In  the  manufuctiirti  of  knives, 
as  in  most  branches  of  cutlery,  the  finer  kinds  were 
imported  until  the  reign  of  Elizabitii.  It  is  stated  liy 
Mr.  Ma*;pher8on  {Annalt  of  Com.,  A.i>.  15G3),  that 
knives  were  not  nmde  for  use  in  England  till  1563 ; 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  an  error.  Thry 
had  been  made,  though  probably  of  a  rude  and  clumsy 
pattern,  for  centuries  before,  in  the  district  called  Hiil- 
lamshire,  of  which  Sheffield  is  the  centre ;  the  cutlers 
of  ix)i;don  wero  formed  into  a  corporation  in  1417.— 
Manufaclurea  in  Afelal,  in  Labusek's  CijclopmVa. 
See  ilARDWARE  and  Cutlery.  Forks  were  in  use  on 
the  Continent  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.— Voi.- 
TAiKi-;.  This  is  reasonably  disputed,  as  being  too 
early.  In  Fines  Mortson's  Itinerary,  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  be  says:   "At  Venice  each  person  was 

served  Q .■•»  his  knife  and  spoon)  with  a  fork  to 

hold  the  me  \\  while  he  cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it 
ill  mmners  hat  one  should  touch  it  with  his  hand." 
Thomas  Coiyate  describes,  with  much  solemnity,  the 
manner  of  usi.ig  forks  in  Italy,  and  adds,  "  I  myself 
have  thought  It  good  to  imitate  the  It:lian  fashion 
since  I  came  homo  to  England,"  A.D.  IGlx. 

Kdnlgeonrg,  the  capital  of  east  'russia,  in  lat. 
54°  42'  11"  "^ .,  long.  20°  'i^'  15"  E.  Population,  in 
1846,  75,23'.  KOnigaberg  i.;  situated  on  the  Prcgel, 
which  fle  '■ »  i3  the  FrU ch«  .ilalf     ■  Fresh  Bay,  a  large 


KON 


1108 


KUR 


lake  having  frum  10  to  14  foet  water.  The  liar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  l*ri>gel  has  only  from  10  to  11  feet  water, 
to  that  veaielH  nf  more  than  thnt  ilruu((ht  of  water 
rrciuire  to  lie  lightereil  to  romo  up  to  KOniiriilieri;. 
Plllau,  in  Int.  54°  im'  »»"  N.,  lonn.  19"  82'  80'^  K.  on 
the  north  liile  of  the  entrance  from  the  Daltii;  to  the 
Frlache  KulT,  in  properly  the  |iort  of  the  town.  V/ithtn 
thene  few  years,  a  llght-hoUKe  has  lieen  erected  un  a 
rilling  ground,  a  little  to  the  nouth  of  Pilliiu,  the  liin- 
tem  of  wlilch  in  elevated  05  feet  alwve  the  level  of  the 
Ilea.  I'ho  light  la  fixed  and  brilliant.  The  entrance  to 
the  Imrlior  is  marked  by  buoys ;  those  on  the  lurlionrd 
side  being  surmounted  by  small  flags.  A  Uothic  build- 
ing, 120  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  licen  erect- 
ed to  serve  for  a  land-marli ;  at  a  distance  it  looks  like 
a  three-maste<l  ship  under  sail.  There  is  usuolly  from 
15  to  16  feet  water  between  the  buoys  on  entering  the 
harbor;  but  particular  winds  occasion  material  diffei'- 
ences  in  this  respect,  Ueing  situated  on  a  navigable 
river  of  considerable  im|iortance,  KOnigslierg  iias  a 
large  command  of  internal  navigation,  and  is  the  prin- 
cipal emporium  of  a  large  extent  of  country,  AVheat, 
rye,  and  other  species  of  grain  are  the  chief  articles  of 
export.  The  wheat  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
Dantzic,  but  of  inferior  quality,  being  larger  in  the 
lierry,  and  thicker  skinned.  The  rj-e  is  of  good  quality, 
but  barley,  with  few  exceptions,  is  thin  and  light,  A 
few  remarkable  large  and  flno  peas  are  exported ;  but 
the  bulk  are  of  small  size,  and  inferior.  Oats  are  com- 
mon feed,  with  a  slight  admixture  of  tares,  but  ns 
these  last  answer  in  some  degree  the  purpose  of  beans, 
the  valne  of  the  oats  is  rather  enhanced  than  other- 
wUe  liy  the  circumstance.  More  tares  are  shipped 
here  than  from  any  other  port  in  tho  Ilaltic.  The 
prico  of  all  sorts  of  grain  is  usually  lower  at  Kiinigs- 
lierg  than  nt  the  neiglilmring  Prussian  ports.  Linseed 
nnd  rapeseed,  hemp,  flax,  line  is,  oil-cake,  oil,  bristles, 
rellncd  sugar,  etc.,  are  largely  exported, 

AcrnuNT  or  Tiiit  Anrici.KS  kxi-orted  mox  Kuniosdero 

CI  Ska    in   is')),  8l-ECIt'VIN0    TIIR    QlANTITIKH  BlllPritU 
TO     ^EXAT  lIllITAIN,   THE  TOTAI,  QUANTITItg  EXI'ORTKU, 

<     THEIR  Values,  with  the  totai.  Quantities  ex- 
UKTED  IN  1350. 


Wheat lasts* 

Ityo " 

Burlcf. " 

0»tii " 

I'cM. " 

Beans " 

Tares " 

Linseed  and  raposeed. . ,  " 
Clover  <k  Timotbr  seed,  owtt 

FUx •' 

Flaxcodilla " 

Heiitp " 

'Icoip  codllla " 

LInoii " 

Bristles  and  hsir » 

Ffathon  and  quills. ....  " 

Ollcakea. » 

Oil » 

Bonos " 

Bono  Black " 

Sugar  rof  d  dt  molasiea. ,  ** 

Butter  and  cheese " 

Utiles  and  skins " 

Ashes " 

Bans. •' 

Mats bundlci  of  6 

aundrlcs 


Total  Talus  of  exports  1S31 


Eiportt  In 


Tolnl 

qiiinll- 

tlef. 


8,T5« 

22,447 

%fm 

1,0I» 

1,826 

689 

Kt 

4,411 

2,09S 

l.%986 

16,t:o 

i,8fi2 

202 

4,182 

157 

104 

70,8U 

9,005 

1,826 

7,889 

12,716 

62 

868 

56 

802 

5,060 


Vilut  Id 
Pruiilan 

eurrencj'. 

Ti".  ch. 

1,109,098 
l,496,ir 
154,1  M 
46,7171 
189,993 
47,925 
2,843 
499,918 
19,903 
124,515 
75,465 
22,.344 
1,010 
125,400 
14,130 
11,440 
98,820 
90,061 
2,180 
8,920 
22S,938 
1,240 
10,890 
120 
906 
8,036 
60,000 
4,374,S51  033,229    . . . ,  i 


6,101 

2,046 

20,468 

8,724 

»,S01 

171 

4,176 

«4 

126 

67,998 

18,421 

1,4,'S« 

568 

11,608 

166 


The  Imports  are  sugar,  tea,  herrings,  iron  and 
steel,  coffee,  wines,  tin  and  tin  plates,  dye-woods, 
tobacco,  spices,  drugs,  coals,  etc.  Salt  Is  a  govern- 
ment monopoly  j  oiiy  person  lieing  allowed  to  import 
It,  but  he  must  either  sell  it  to  government  ut  a  price 
flxed  by  them,  or  oxp<irt  it  again. 

Account  or  the  I'aotitioTs  iiii'oaTEu  into  KilNicsiiEan  nr 
Ska  in  the  Ykar  1'<8'.,  sPKciryiNn  the  CJUANTiTiRa 
imported  priim  Great  Britain  and  emewiiere,  wna 
their  EariHATED  Values. 


Krom  ik« 
I  Unllnl 
'KlnKdom 


Arrack, rum,  A  brandy. owts. 

I  Ashes,  calcined '* 

[('ottoii  wool '* 

.Cotton  ware '* 

[Cotton  yarn " 

UolTei! " 

jChuese " 

iCopncrasand  vitriol...    " 

Coals " 

jChina  and  earthenware    " 

Cciiiont " 

Dye  wuml " 

DruRS " 

Krult,  southern " 

Fruit,  ri'esh  and  dried..    " 

Klro  ciny " 

Glass  and  glassware, , . ,    ^ 

Gypsum " 

Honey " 

Hops " 

Hides  and  skins " 

Herrings barrels 

Indigo owta. 

Iron  and  steel  ware. . , .  " 
Iron  and  steel,  raw. . . .  " 
Iron  and  stoel,  new.. , .    " 

Lead. ..;.....    " 

Whitolend " 

Litharge " 

Lbnostono lasts 

Linen owts, 

Mill  and  grind-stones,  I ,,.,. 
flies  and  bricks.,, \;f'"*» 

Malt  liquors ewts. 

Molasses '* 

Mustanl . .  " 

Oil,  different  sorts " 

Paper " 

Klce " 

Salt " 

Spices  of  all  kinds " 

Sngnr,  rcflned " 

Sugar,  raw >   « 

Succory  root  " 

■^ea " 


'  lOi  Imperial  quarters. 


-1  20  to  a  ton. 


■liiate " 

<^:,  CO,  mannfkotared  " 

(Tobacco  leaves *^ 

rTarand  pitch " 

iTralnoll " 

IVInegar " 

Wlno " 

Woolen  ware. " 

Wool,  not  European .  .    " 
Sundry  Imports  of  varlons 
descriptions ) : 

Total  value  of  Imports 


614 

20 

1,422 

82 

5,968 

816 

7 

2,087 

190,800 

58 

7,868 

1,218 

8,414 

188 

2,i04 
10 


Vrtiiii 
•It  othtr 


qiutntl- 
lli.!. 


Vtlnnllli 
•Urihif.  I 


18,6^9  I 

296  I 

918  I 

224  I 

64  I 

14,694 

526 

582 

860 

1,178 

9,568 

11,666 

4,068 

1,198 

1,922 

81,225 

1,289 

718 

2  544 

4,2811  75^089 

4t2        24 

1,493  13,951 

80,718    l,.t90 

1,486  28,128 

1,998,      829 


87 
486 


76 
119 
148 

49 

161 
1,688 

"ii6 

7 


176 
80 

666 

IT 
907 


8,575 
861 
4,908 
8,018 
14,463 
I  785 
24,948 
9,642 
4,894 
183 
1.896 
2,841 
1,111 
14,267 
2,1.50 
971 
175, 17,406 
145  09 
960 


I 


4,906 
146,847 

1,837 

10<K46o 

% 

84 
665 


600 
2,148 


14,2UH| 

8161 

2,»10 

2561 

6,027 

15,510 

531 

2,6119 

190,660 

1,226 

7,8118 

10,771 

16,070 

4,191 

1,198 

2,104 

1,982 

81,226 

1,239 

765 

8,029 

79,269{ 

406, 

15,444 

82,2i)S 

29,613 

2,827 

261 

149 

148 

1,206 

827 

1,606 

207 

116 

8,682 

801 

9,809 

153,865 

16,290 

.      VV> 

125,348 

9,642 


88,8481 

4171 

7,020l 

8,072; 

22,601 

68,610' 

959 

1,201! 

T,««T 


1,180 

11,810 

11,804 

6,287 

l,25li 

106 

4,847 

1,875 

2,280 

2,882 

9,087 

77,296 

10,4.86 

84,749 

9,662 

S^686 

2,094 

490' 

179 

88 

18,000 

8,722 

2,167 

218 

696 

8,060 

976 

11,770 

9,870 

24,436 

1,654 

1,50,418 

7, 


13,4471 121,023 


217 
2,051 
2,841 
1,111 
14,867 
4,293 

971 
17,(M1 

2141 

960 


651 

9,2801 

17,046 

3,888: 

8,346! 

5,162 

487, 

81,768 

2,839. 

720' 

7,600, 
1I'<|.886 


Afonei/,  Weighta,  and  ilemurtt,  same  as  at  Dantzlc  j 
seu  Dastzic. 

Kuraohee,  or  Karachee  le  principal  soo-port 
town  of  Scindc,  on  an  inlet  ui  the  Indian  Ocean,  18 
miles  from  tho  west  branch  of  the  Indus.  Lat.  24° 
47'  8"  N.,  long,  66°  66'  2"  E.  It  stands  on  a  low, 
anndy  shore,  and  a  few  years  ago  consisted,  wifli  its 
extensive  suburbs,  mostly  of  straggling  huts ;  but 
the  latest  accounts  state  that  it  has  been  almost  rrliuilt, 
and  greatly  improved  since  it  has  become  a  British 
possession.  Its  trade  and  consequence  are  rapidly 
augmenting.  The  harbor  is  the  only  port  along  this 
coast  for  vessels  drawing  more  than  10  feet  water,  and 
is  sheltered  by  Cape  Mimorah,  four  nUles  lonth-weit. 


-'   .5  ■:    .„:1.;...l 
'in-:'!  i;  i;:;i  '^ 


«I» 


LAB 


1184 


LAB 


L. 


Ijaboring  of  a  thlp,  imiiHn*  pituliInK  or  rollintt 
henvily  in  nturliuldit  mni,  iiii  ctrt'ct  liy  wliirli  the  iimstn 
■n<l  hull  no  Kruatly  i'nilunK«r<Ml ;  iH^niiiiui  \>y  thi< 
nillin)(  muiiiiii  th>*  niiint^  <trniii  ii|Hm  thnir  pihrDUclH 
with  nn  efTiirt  which  Itii'mmcx  im  tli«  hIiia  of  thrlr  oik 
llquity  ;  and  thn  continiliil  iiK<t"tlon  of  the  ve«/iel 
often  hxim'nH  hi-r  joint'i  iiml  miilo'x  biT  oxtreini-ly 
l«Hky. 

Labrador,  n  larKe  p<'niii'<ulit  of  N<  rth  America, 
nearlv  of  n  trlnnxiiliir  nliiipc,  nxti'iidln^  from  N.  lut, 
Bl»o  to  «!)°,  unci  from  \V.  lon«.  M°  to  79°.  It  la 
bounilfd  on  tlie  iioutli  hy  I'linmla  and  tlio  (iulf  "I*  Ht. 
Ijttwn'nci',  ciiKt  liy  thn  Atlantic  Ocean,  north  liy  lliiil- 
lon'«  Striiii  and  went  hy  llnd«on'><  Hay.  l.ahrador 
I*  thus  detached  (n>m  the  arctic  land*.  Init  In  nevertho- 
U'Hn  a  country  an  frozen,  denolate,  and  liarren,  an  tliono 
on  the  went  of  Hudf>on'»  Hay.  The  coasit  ah>n)(  that 
HpaciouH  inland  pea  i*  called  Kant  Main,  and  the  <  II- 
mato  there  U  pceiillurly  rigorous.  Tlie  whole  nnrfaco 
of  L»l>rn(h>r,  Indeed,  ia  ax  nterile  and  naked  an  any  part 
of  thn  glnlie.  The  prevailing;  features  are  roiki", 
(wainpa,  «nil  «  ter ;  and  vegetation  apjH'ani  a*  tlie 
lout  effort  of  exp'nuK  nature.  Small,  Kcranwy  |io|>- 
liirn,  Htunted  Urn,  ireepinK  lurch,  and  ilwarf  willown, 
thinly  Hcattcred  in  thn  nouthern  parts,  constitute  the 
wholo  of  tho  trees.  Ilerhs  and  fjrass  an?  also  in  shel- 
tered places  to  Im  met  with,  liut  in  tlie  must  northerly 
parts  only  varieties  of  moss  and  liidiens  are  to  Ix" 
found.  Til.  whole  iif  the  interior,  from  the  as|)cct  of 
whir  ha»  li  I  cxidomd,  and  from  the  re|Hirts  of  the 
Esipiiumux  III  '  other  Imllans,  s«'ein~  to  lie  liroken  up 
with  rivers,  s,  ami  rocks.  I  !■  ■  prevailing;  rock 
continuous  ti  i.'  sea-shore  of  Labrador,  is  gneiss. 
On  this,  at  I, 'An  ■  li  Loup,  the  most  fertile  part  of  the 
country,  a  lied  or  old  red  sand- -tone,  aliut  200  feet 
thick,  is  supcrliui  il,  and  oxtemN  aliout  half  a  mile 
inland.  Here,  also,  us  on  other  parts  of  the  coast, 
the  ajipearances  nf  the  cliffs  and  ol  the  land  near  them, 
ai'd  the  rolled  n  ses  inlanil,  which  have  evidently 
been  ex|iuBed  to  ilie  action  i^  tl  sea,  sceui  to  |)rove 
that  the  latter  ha--  '  onsidumMy  r led. 

On  tho  coast  ol  fjtiirador  the  » inter  is  extremely 
severe,  the  tliermometc  often  falling  .10  dc|;reeB  Iw-  ' 
low  tho  freezing  |Kiint ;  and  although  the  houses  of 
the  Moravian  missimiaries  are  heated  liy  lar^e  east- 
Irou  stoves,  tho  windows  and  walls  are  all  tlio  winter 
covered  with  iee,  and  the  heii-ilolhes  froive  to  the 
walls.  Rum  is  fmzen  in  the  air  as  rapidly  as  water, 
and  rectified  spirits  soon  hecouie  tliick  like  oil.  From 
Uecemlier  to  ,Iune,  the  sea  is  coiiiplntidy  frozen  over, 
and  so  intense  is  the  cold  duriii|r  the  winter  months, 
that  traveling  is  sometimes  attended  with  the  most 
painful  consequences.  Tho  siiinmer  months,  a^faln, 
are  oxtrcmly  hot  alonj{  the  coast,  the  thermometer 
rising  to  HC,  degrees  of  Kuhreuheit,  when  swarms  of 
miisquitoes  iufest  the  air. 

The  climate  is  not  insal'i'irious ;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing all  its  disadvantages,  Lalirailor  is  of  considorulilo 
importance  to  fireat  Ilritain.  No  countr)'  is  lietter 
provided  with  large,  convenient,  and  safe  liarhors,  or 
supplied  with  hettcr  water;  and  vast  multitudes  of  all 
those  kinds  of  fish  common  to  tliu  arctic  seas  alxmnd 
on  tho  coast.  Herrings  are  very  fine  and  plentiful  in 
August,  but  there  is  no  weather  to  euro  any  kind  of 
fish  after  the  loth  of  So[itomhcr.  The  rivers  are  fre- 
quented by  salmon  and  sea  trout ;  and  pike,  barhcl, 
eels,  river  trout,  and  the  like,  are  likewise  found  In 
them.  On  the  numerous  islands  which  arc  scattered 
along  the  east  coast,  multitudes  of  eider-ducks  and 
ather  water-fowl  breed.  Those  of  large  size  have 
deer,  foxes,  and  hares  upon  them.  On  the  continent 
the  wild  animals  are  principalljr  iMars,  wolves,  foxes, 


and  otters;  beavers  and  du«r  am  not  liunierouii,  ImiI 
their  furs  am  rematkalily  clou  mid  liiiuutilul,  I  hi< 
birds  of  thu  country  am  tlm  whlU-lnlUd  i<iikIh,  fa|. 
cons,  hawks,  and  owls  of  vurlous  kinds  i  raven,  wlilln 
grouse,  ptarmigan,  spruca-ganiii,  whUlllnuTiirlKW, 
gray  plover,  varhiiu  kinds  of  Mtiil.pl|Mir«  and  other 
waders;  geese,  ducks  of  vurhius  sorls,  slia^'*,  gulls, 
divers,  and  some  few  apKcles  of  ■mall  lilrils,  llurlntf 
the  short  summer  insects  urn  very  nuiiierou.,  e>|m  [. 

ally  in  swampy  pla In  winter  the;,    ciilat   In  u 

stato  of  torphlity,  from  which  they  «r«  aroiKcd  by  (|hi 
solar  heat  or  artillcial  warintli,  I'liii  iilMUioiiinniin  of 
the  aurora  Isirealis  is  unconinionly  brllllani  In  llils  re- 
gion, and  exercises  a  vary  nmrknd  InlliiviMn  oviir  tlin 
compass, 

\o  accurate  account  iif  tliu  Imdii  of  t,aliiiolor  can 
be  olitjiined,  as  Iheru  uru  no  cus(oiii-l>oii«va  or  publlo 
ullicers  in  thu  country  i  but  thu  following  tisdinatn  is 
probably  as  close  un  appruniniatloii  as  4'sn  Iw  uiadn  to 
tliu  annual  value  of  tliu  ai(|Hirts  I 


III  Newniunillaud  vawal* ,,,,,,,, 

*'  Nova  HcotU  "      , 

"  Aiiierlcaii  '*      

"  Cnnadlaii  ••      , 

"  VuMuUownsd»reli»rt«rs<l  bjrKiiiillsh 
or  Jurtiiy  huusits , , . 

Tolsl 


'\ 


,  CVWMKN) 
,  WII.IHNI 
.       m.lHXI 

'/'.INN) 

M.IKSI 


«Mr,iiiMi 

•Some,  however,  estiinatu  tlw  tnUl  axisirts  at  A'NOO, 

COO.— i;.  n. 

The  ex|Mirts  of  Lubrailiir  urn  mil,  linrring,  pli.kled 
salmon,  fresh  salmon  (priiservi<d  In  lln  cases;,  seal- 
skins, cod  and  seal  oil,  furs,  and  fi<ntli»rs, 

I'lihrrim  iif  l.iilifiiilir,-  \*  lalo  as  17(11,  It  Is  not 
probable  that  lUhernien  of  on//  lliig  had  visited  Hie 
waters  of  Labrador,  T  h»  K.ngllsh  wiiiiln  and  sea  ll-li- 
cries  were  the  llrsi,  and  employed  upward  of  lOli  ves- 
sels, at  times,  prior  to  the  year  I77fti  The  earliest  ad- 
ventures  were  near  1711.1;  us  Ht  that  illlia  the  Labrador 
country  was  politically  saparaleil  from  Canada,  and 
annexed  to  the  government  of  Nnivfounillaiid  bv  royal 
proclamation,  to  the  end  thai  thn  "  oppn  and  free  IIkIi- 
ery  of  our  subjects  may  bu  uKteiided,"  The  pursuit 
of  the  cod  and  salmon  followml,  Meanlliiie  (he  .Mo- 
ravians, whoso  principal  sutllnmiint  Is  nt  Naln,  who 
have  ever  led  a  quint  and  slinplx  life,  uiid  nho  now 
annually  ship  furs,  oils,  and  otlmr  proilMclloiii  of  ilnil 
region  to  Knglund,  in  payment  fur  the  iiianiirai  tiireil 
commodities  which  they  ri'i|iilri<,  had  foumli'd  a  col- 
ony. The  islands  uru  so  nniniirous,  unil  so  near  each 
otiicr,  us  to  resemble,  aii4  oftwli  to  Isi  mistaken  for,  tli 
main  land.  Hack  from  thn  loust,  (lie  coiiiilry  Is  si:i. 
unknown.  Uilirador  still  forms  n  part  of  (lie  colmi 
nf  Newfoundland.  The  natives  Imur  Ilia  general  nri'ic 
of  Ksquiniaux.  The  resident  lnlmbltniil«  of  Kiiropi!!' 
origin  a^  Knglish,  Irish,  .lerseyiiicM,  and  ('auadian'. 
who  are  employed  either  on  tliair  own  account,  or  as 
servants  of  others,  us  fiirrlors,  snaU'iitchnrs,  and  cod 
and  salmon-Ushers, 

The  ('anadlan  lisherles  nrn  ■imhII,  Tliey  send  H  or 
10  vessels  to  tho  const,  with  M(t  or  llMI  men.  They 
(Ish  for  cihI  and  salmon,  Th«y  carry  a  part  of  what 
they  catidi  toQiieliec,  and  »uid  M  part  (o  I'.iirope.  The 
colonists  of  Nova  Mcotia  and  New  llrunswick  adven- 
turo  at  Labruilor  to  a  coiishlerabin  efitent ;  but  they 
do  not  pursue  the  business  us  regularly  and  with  a» 
much  system  us  do  those  of  N'ewfoiindlanil.  Home- 
times  they  send  more  llian  10"  vessels  In  n  year ;  ut 
others  the  number  is  much  leas,  They  engage  princi- 
pally in  tho  cod-Hshury,  Miukliig  a  slngln  fare  and  cur- 
ing their  tlsh  at  Iioiiih.  Tint  Labrador  llslierles  hiivo 
"  increased  nmre  than  sixfold,"  says  IVtucgrogor, 
"  principalljr  in  sonii«<ii^ay«  of  our  Htliermen  (the 


i.AB 


1150 


LAC 


I  tiPV  KPtiil  H  or 
mm,     'I'lH'v 
l„irt  nf  Vflinl 
I  I'.nrnpe.    I'l" 
t„wl(k  iidvetv 
„,il )  tint  ihpy 
Iv  1111(1  wll*!  lie 
liliinil.     H(.iiio- 
I  In  B  yoi"  '•  ",' 
t-nKiiK"  V'"''' 
1(1  fiirn  mill  ''"'■ 
nKltt-rlrs  Imvo 

(Islwfmen  ^tlK 


EnKllnht  lixInK  ilrivon  fVom  the  ftrouniU  now  nrcuplad 
)iy  tlio  Kri'iirh,"  niiics  tlio  yaar  IMll ;  nnil  h«  aiitlniatea 
thiit  nlwiut  ',>n,iM)il  Hrltl"!)  miliJectK  are  at  pnaont  re- 
quired (liiriii)(  thn  INIiInt;  >im»i>ii,  In  tlin  cutuhliiK,  lur- 
liiKi  o'kI  tranji|iurtin({  tim  vurloua  product*  of  tlivso 
rumota  i«iim, 

Htatutic*  or  FniimiH. 


TlK) 


IpriMliiCitill  jiJ 


•d. 


No.     |iluiafaiU.|'t'l«rcM. 

0,110  elMMo  .... 
li,ao()  I  Tiii.mH)  a.iiin 


id.nflo 


TuM. 
1,649 


Italian, 

i.Mo'.mm 

1'ha  HuhlnK  eatnhliHhiniintii  of  the  KnKli"h  uiiil  .fer- 
ley  nipri'lmntn  iire  rictnniilve  and  W(dl  rondiicted. 
They  II  Fit  Kii^nKed  In  the  end  and  nalmnn  rtnhi'rlen,  and 
In  the  taklnit  of  aeiiU.  In  the  )-ear  1N,'II,  the  value  of 
thoir  •hlpinvnta  tn  Kiiropo  wan  npwnrd  of  iti!ll(l,000. 
The  iiunilier  of  tliimn  rominnnlul  houaeH  In  from  111  to 
12,  who  miinii({«  thi'lr  huslnem  at  Nowfoundhind, 
elthor  liy  the  tenipor.iry  pri'»«nco  of  Junior  pHrtnen  or 
cliirk.H,  or  l>y  renldru;  iifjniitji.  The  |i«ople  of  Now- 
fbundland,  averring-  that  the  French  ami  Americana 
hav.)  drtvon  thoin  fr  their  own  "  hank-tinher)',"  re- 
aort  to  Laliriidnr.  I :  t'\  employ  2IH)or  iMXI  veaaela.  A 
part  make  two  voyii^-cs  in  a  aeoHon.  The  llrat  faro  la 
commonly  cured  on  the  conat ;  but  the  second  ia  c»r- 
rieil  home  willioiit  dryln({.  ."Some  of  the  nierchanta  of 
Newfoundland  ahip  both  cod  iind  aalmon  directly  to 
corrc»pondciita  in  l',uro|ie ;  while  others  order  their 
cuptiiiiH  to  return  tn  the  ialand  and  unluilo  their  llnh 
and  oil  at  their  own  wurohuuaea.— ^<AniNK'H  American 
Fiififrifn, 

Labttan,  n  amnll  Ialand  off  the  nortli-weat  coaat  of 
Honieo,  a  dependency  on  the  llritiah  crown,  ulmut  aix 
nilleH  dixtant  from  the  nearent  point  of  tlie  inuinland, 
and  110  miles  nortli  from  the  city  of  Uomeo  ,,r  llruni, 
lat.  fiO°  12'  N.,  Umg.  lift"  1!)'  ii«"  K.  It  ia  from  ir-, 
to  ;)ll  mili'N  In  circumference,  (lat,  and  covered  willi 
wood.  The  anchorage  on  the  aouth  aide  of  the  ialamt 
la  |)rntected  liy  a  ureator  and  three  am.tllcr  iaiunda ; 
aiKl  the  town  of  Victoria  has  l)eun  vommoneed  at  the 
mibnuchurc  of  a  rivulet  in  a  amall  buy,  at  the  head  of 
the  auclinraKe,  Coal  of  unnd  quality  ia  fmmd  un  the 
inliuid.  uiid  it  ia  well  aupplied  with  freali  water.  It 
wna  ceded  by  the  Sultan  of  Itornco  to  (ireat  llritain  in 
IKI 1 ;  and  .Sir  .lames  llrooke,  who  negotiated  ita  cea- 
aiiin,  waa  afterward  appninteil  its  ({overnor.  When  it 
came  liit'>  poaaea^inn  of  the  Kngiiali  It  waa  uninhalilted ; 
but  its  situation  is  such  that,  provilt'd  it  lie  moderate- 
ly healthy,  it  can  iiardly  fail  to  l)ecmne  an  important 
emporium.  It  Ilea  near  the  beat  route  for  ahippiu); 
from  the  .Straita  of  .SiiiKaporo  to  China,  and,  while  it 
ia  extremely  well  aituated  for  carrying  on  trnile  with 
the  west  and  north  coaata  of  Uomeo  and  the  Pliilippinc 
Islanda,  it  will  aerve  aa  a  harbor  of  refuse,  and  aa  a 
convenient  station  for  the  ateamera  and  other  ahipa  of 
war  required  tn  put  down  the  piracy  that  haa  lieen, 
tn  tlie  nr»'at  injury  of  commerce,  carried  to  so  );reat 
extent  from  the  jmrts  and  rivera  (d'  Uomeo,  and  of 
Hiiine  nf  the  ailjacent-  islands.  In  this  respect,  ita 
aliuadaiit  aup))l y  of  coal  will  be  of  the  greatest  acrvice. 
In  w.'ir,  tlie  ]>oasesaion  of  I^)>uan  will  give  to  the  Kn- 
glisli  entire  command  of  the  Chinese  Sea. — liitooKH'a 
Jii'ininl. 

Uomeo,  or  Hruni,  on  the  adjacent  sh<ireof  the  main- 
land, and  tlio  residence  of  the  8ultan  of  Borneo  proper, 
haa  been  termed  the  Venice  of  the  Kast.     It  cuntaina 
from  110,0(10  to  40,000  inhabitants,  moatly  JIalaya,  and 
really  seems  as  if  it  floated  on  the  waves.      It  La  situ- 
ated on  an  estuary,  and  though  liuilt  witli  little  regard 
to  regularity,  it  is  intersected  crosswise  by  two  main  ! 
streets,  which  divide  it  into  four  portions,  nno  only  of 
which  stands  on  dry  land.     The  houses  in  the  other , 
tlireo  parts  are  of  wood,  built  on  piles,  which  support ; 
them  aliove  the  water,  with  streets,  if  so  they  may  lio 
called,  to  admit  the  passagu  <,>f  canoes.    The  steauicr 


which  cnnveyail  HIr  Jamea  Orook*  to  nomen,  when 
I.abiian  waa  ceded,  anidmnid  in  the  main  atrert,  in  the 
centre  nf  the  town  I  "  The  greatest  novelty  at  llru- 
ni," wiya  Mr.  Marryat,  fmm  whom  we  have  iKirrowed 
these  detaila,  "  la  the  HoatinK  l>azaar.  Them  are  no 
ahnpa  In  I  lie  city,  anil  tliu  market  Is  held  every  day  in 
cannua.  Thi'ae  cniiie  in  at  aiinriae  every  morning  from 
every  part  of  the  river,  laden  with  freali  friiit,  tnbac 
CO,  pepper,  and  every  other  article  which  ia  produced 
in  the  vicinity  ;  a  lew  Kuro|iean  prndiii  ti.ma,  auch  aa 
handkerchlei'a,  cl|eck-<-otton  prints,  etc,  alau  niuka 
thoir  apliearance.  Cungregatcd  in  the  main  street, 
the  canoes  ur«  tucked  together,  fnrmiiig  lanes,  through 
which  thn  purchasers,  in  llieir  nwn  caiioea,  pudille,  se> 
lecting  and  bargaining  for  gnoila  with  aa  much  cnnv*- 
nioncu  aa  if  the  whnle  were  transacted  on  term  Jirmn, 
Iron  is  hero  ao  valuable  that  it  ia  used  aa  ii'ioney, 
100  Hat  piecea,  an  ini;h  square,  are  valued  at  a  dol- 
lar ;  and  among  tlie  hiwer  classes  these  iruii  pieces 
form  the  sole  coin.  They  are  unstamped,  »<i  that  any 
person  ap|>oara  tn  liu  at  liberty  tn  cut  his  own  iron  into 
mimey  ;  l>ut  wliether  auch  la  really  the  oaau,  I  can  not 
vouch." — .Makhyat'h  JImiieo. 

Hut  though  dellcient  in  iron,  the  gnid  iiiinea  nf  Ilor- 
n'-u  are  auid  to  be  nf  the  ricliest  description.  Mir 
Stumford  Itallles  •istimated  tliat  in  his  lime  about 
il'.',li00  Cliiiinsu  laluirers  were  emplnyed  in  these  miiieit 
on  ttie  west  coast  of  Ilurneo  ;  and  it  ia  not  easy  to  say 
Imw  prwluctive  tliey  nilgiit  liccome  were  the  miners  in 
u  cnnditiim  tn  prnsui  ute  their  undcrtuklnga  in  safety, 
and  tn  bring  the  resources  nf  science  and  nf  capital  to 
their  aid.  Antimony  is  also  found  in  abundance  in 
Uorneo,  capeciully  in  the  district  nf  .Sarawak,  uf  which 
.Sir  ilames  llrooke  ia  rajah  ;  and  the  diamonds  nf  Uor- 
neo rival  thnse  nf  India  and  llruzil.  Uut  independently 
nf  ita  coal,  and  "f  ita  precinua  and  other  metala,  its 
vegetable  products  might  alone  fiirnisli  the  materials 
of  an  extensive  commerce.  Tlie  sagn-paliii  grows  in 
gnfat  iierfection  in  many  parts  nf  tlie  isluml,  and  sugo 
ia  i,irg,<iy  exported  in  a  rough  state  to  Singapore.  The 
arecu  uut,  ruttaii.  gutta-percha,  gum-benjamin,  c.im- 
pliiir,  birds' nests,  etc.,  are  alsn  considerable  articles  of 
ex|>urt ;  and  sugar.  pep|>er,  and  all  the  products  of 
tropical  regions,  might,  with  .i  little  care,  be  raised  to 
any  extent  in  most  parts  uf  tills  vast  island.  The 
numliers  and  ferocity  of  the  savages  by  whom  it  ia  oc- 
cupied present,  indeed,  formidable  nlistjclca  to  ita  im- 
provement. Uut  civilization  is  lieginning  to  make  its 
way  among  them  ;  and,  thou^jh  pruhaidy  slow,  its  prog> 
rcsa  can  not  well  im  arrested. 

Lao  or  Oum  Lao  (Ger.  Lack,  Gmnmilack ;  Fr. 
Liicijuc,  (lomme  luiquis;  It.  iMCca,  dommnlacca;  .Sp. 
(iiiinalitea;  Uua.  L(iia,(Juminll<ik ;  Arab.  I,nak;  Ilind. 
LaJc'li;  Sans.  I.dkshi),  a  aulistanoo  which  has  been 
improperly  called  u  gum,  produced  in  Ucngal,  Assam, 
I'cgu,  Siom,  etc.,  on  the  leaves  and  branchea  of  cer- 
tain trees,  by  an  insect  (rlnniin  lucca).  The  treea  se- 
lected by  the  insect  on  which  to  deposit  its  eggs  are 
known  by  the  names  nf  tlie  liihar-troe  (frolon  lacrifer- 
uin  Lin.),  the  pepcl  (BuleaJ'rvnilosa),  bott  and  consim- 
trces,  etc.  After  being  depoaited,  tlie  egg  ia  covered 
by  the  inaoct  with  a  <iuuntity  of  this  peculiar  auli- 
stance,  or  lac,  evidently  intemled  to  aerve,  in  the  econ- 
omy "f  nature,  as  a  niilus  and  [irntection  to  the  ovum 
ami  insect  in  ita  lirst  stage,  and  as  food  for  the  mag- 
got in  its  more  advanceil  stage.  It  is  formed  Into 
cells,  linishcd  witli  as  much  art  as  a  honeycomb,  but 
dillerently  arranged.  I.ac  yields  a  fino  red  dye, 
which,  though  not  so  bright  aa  tne  true  Mexican 
cochineal,  ia  said  to  be  more  pennanent ;  and  the  res- 
inous part  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
seuling-wax  and  hats,  and  as  a  vamish.  I>ac,  when  in 
its  natural  state,  incrustiug  loaves  and  twigs,  is  called 
stick  lac.  It  is  collected  twice  a  year ;  and  the  only 
trouble  in  procuring  it  is  in  breaking  down  the  leaves 
ani  branches,  und  carrj'ing  them  to  market.  Whcu 
the  twigs  and  gtiolu  oio  large,  or  only  pottii^y  coV' 


'ife 


I 


:l| 


LAC 


1116 


LAC 


•r»il,  tli«  !»<•  I«  frfquently  ii>>|iiirutail  from  them,  h  It 
»\yi»\»  out(ht  tn  lui  whi<n  •hlpprd  r.ir  iimrkiit,  to  luaimn 
111"  «X|ii>ni<tt  uf  tMght.  'I'lui  lifpit  «tli'k  l»r  l«  of  t 
i|<!i-|>  r«(t  I'olor.  Whon  hi>M  iiKaln>t  llin  ilifht  It  nhniiM 
lodk  lirttflit,  unci  wlirii  lin>ken  nliiMild  u|i|mir  In  illii- 
ni(ind-lik«  pciliiln.  If  it  I*  not  Kiithoml  till  ttm  In- 
•ucta  havo  Irft  tlii'lr  i'hIIk,  It  licoinicii  piilo,  iuhI  plcri'dl 
at  tliH  tup ;  Hiiil  It  In  (if  littlv  UM  an  II  Ayr,  tlioUKh  pruU 
itlily  lH>tti>r  fur  a  vunilKh, 

/mc  i/yc,  /(»•  liitr,  or  inlr  lai\  I'onniitii  of  the  colnring 
mutter  i>xtr»i'ti'i1  fruni  the  ntlck  luc.  Vurloiin  pnn'cniwit 
huve  Iwpn  uilnptrd  for  thin  piirponn.  It  in  formed  Into 
•null  nqtiurii  r«ki>«  or  pli'ii««,  like  thojt*  of  IndiKo. 
It  nhould,  wlmn  broken,  look  durk-colorml,  ahlnlnK, 
•mouth,  and  conipuit ;  when  (craiwd  or  p<iwilnri'd,  It 
•hould  l>e  of  u  lirl({ht  red  color,  upprouihliiK  to  tint  of 
cirmlne.  That  whiih  it  nundv,  li|{ht-<oliirod,  ami 
•P""«yi  "'"•  which,  whon  •criiiwd,  in  of  ii  dull  hrick- 
dti»t  color,  (ihould  lie  rcjo'ted.  N'otwithntnndlnK  the 
ountlnuod  full  In  the  price  of  cnchlnmil,  the  use  of  lac 
dye  ha*  lieon  ext»ndiiij(.  The  nnnuul  conanrnptlon  in 
IN.M  wan  Oftlmutml  at  ulimit  1,200,000  Un.,  ImvinK 
nioni  than  qtilutuplod  »hi<i'  IHIM.  The  (Inent  qimlltlei 
of  lur  dye  ure  Meldom  mot  with  for  nule  In  f'lilcuttu, 
belnjj  Konerully  nianufuctiired  under  contract  for  the 
Euro|)ean  market.  When  ntlck  lac  lian  Iwen  •epuratcd 
fram  the  twlni  to  which  It  naturally  adhere,  and 
coamely  pouiiiled,  the  native  allk  ami  cotton  dyers  ex- 
tract the  color  a*  far  an  it  conveniently  can  tw  done 
hy  water.  The  yrlluwiKh,  hard,  resinous  powder 
which  remain*,  having  nomewhat  of  the  appearance  of 
mustard-seed,  la  called  iml  Im-.  When  li<|Uefled  hy 
Are,  it  Is  formed  Into  cake.i,  and  denominated  liimij  lai: 
The  natives  use  the  latter  in  maklb^  hnnnles,  or  orna- 
ments In  the  form  of  rln({S,  for  the  arms  of  the  lower 
class  of  females  j  the  liest  thrllnr  lielnj}  used  in  manu- 
facturini;  these  ornaments  for  the  superior  class. 

ShMtc  is  produced  from  seed  lac,  hy  putting  the 
latter  into  hags  of  cottcm  cloth,  and  holding  It  over  a 
charcoal  (Ire,  when  the  lac  melts,  and  being  strained 
through  the  bag,  the  resinous  part,  which  Is  the  most 
lliiueflahle,  is  obtained  In  a  considerable  degree  of  pur- 
ity J  it  U  formed  Into  thin  sheets  or  plates.  Thin, 
transparant,  or  aniber-c<dored  shellac  is  Iwst.  Avoid 
that  which  Is  tliick,  dark,  and  speckled.  It  shouM  al- 
ways, when  broken,  be  amber-colored  on  the  edge.  That 
which  has  a  dark-hrown  fracture,  however  thin, 
•hould  be  rejected.  When  laid  on  a  hot  Iron,  shellac, 
if  pure,  will  instantly  catch  (Ire,  and  bum  with  a 
strong  but  not  disagreeable  smell.  It  used  to  bo  princi- 
pally employed  in  this  country  In  the  manufacture  of 
aoaling-wax  and  as  a  varnish,  but  It  is  now  very  ex- 
tensively used  tn  the  manufacture  of  hats.  In  Bengal 
lac  is  chiefly  produced  In  the  forests  of  Sylliet  and 
Rurdwan.  The  finest  dye  is  said  to  lie  obtained  from 
the  stick  lac  of  Slam  and  Pecu  j  but  the  shellac  or 
resinous  part  obtained  from  the  latter  Is  inferior  to 
that  produced  from  Sylhet  stick  lac.  It  may  be  o»>. 
talne<l  in  almost  ony  quantity. — BANCRorr  on  Perma- 
wrU  Colon;  Ainslie's  Mat.  Med.;  Milbokn's  Orient. 
Com. 

Lao  of  Rupees,  is  100,000  rupees,  which,  snppos- 
ing  them  standard  or  slccos,  at  29.  6d.  eoch,  amounts 
tu  £12,600  sterling. 

Iiaooadlves,  an  archipelago  of  low  Islands  lying 
off  the  western  coast  of  India,  between  8°  and  13° 
JI.  lat.  There  are  19  considerable  ones;  but  as 
most  of  them  are  surroimded  with  reefs  and  steep 
rocks,  with  a  great  depth  of  water  close  to  them,  the 
approach  to  them  is  very  dangerous.  Between  these 
Ulandi  there  are  many  channels,  throngh  which  ships 
from  India,  bound  to  Persia  or  Arabia,  frequently  sail. 
The  safest  of  these  Is  called  Mamale,  or  the  Ntne-do- 
gree  Channel,  which  runs  between  the  Islands  of  Sea- 
hiUpar  and  Kalpenny.  The  hirgest  of  these  islands  ts 
about  7  miles  in  length  and  2}  in  breath.  Most  of 
them  are  inlubtt«d  by  »  nee  of  Mohammeduu  called 


Moplays.  They  do  not  yield  grain,  but  produce  an 
Inllnit*  ijuantUv  of  cocoa-nuta,  rnnii  the  hiiKki  df 
whiih  they  form  the  coir  cables,  wliich  urn  lunrn  Am- 
tic  a>id  duntliie  tllun  hamp,  ua  tliu  sea-wiiter,  iiia|i>ii<l 
of  rotting,  preaervea  them.  The>«  laUnda  are  well  »u|>. 
bllecl  with  Hah,  anil  carry  on  a  Iraile  with  the  sui.dl 
ahclla  <alliMl  niwriei,  which  pasa  aa  coin  nil  hvit  lihUa 
ami  uioit  of  Africa.  Moat  of  these  b<lunils  uro  uinlrr 
the  uncontndlad  management  of  the  beelien  of  Cuiiiiu. 
nure,  subject  to  the  |uiyniant  of  an  annual  tribut.'  to 
the  British  government.  A  proimaal  haa  lieen  uimlo 
lu  the  bcebee  to  transfer  them  to  the  British,  in  cipiiald- 
erution  i.f  a  [lecunlary  e(|uivaU'nt.  'I'hoy  were  ilia. 
covered  by  Vaaco  do  (iama  in  llUlt,  but  have  since 
lienii  little  fnii|Ueiited  by  Kuropeana. 

Laoe  (l)u.  Knnim;  it.  DtiUrllf  ;  (ter.  .Spittrn  ;  It. 
Afrrlelli,  fieii  i  Kus.  Kmthtvn ;  Hp.  F.nriijm),  a  |il,iln 
or  ornamented  net-work,  tuatefully  iiini|Kised  of  niiiny 
linn  threails  of  gold,  silver,  silk,  Hax,  or  cotton,  inter- 
woven, fnim  Ijiiinin  (I.at.),  the  guanl  liem  or  fringe 
of  It  garment.  This  delicate  fabric!  appears  to  luive 
claims  to  high  unth|uity,  but  Its  origin  is  Involved  In 
considerable  obscurity.  That  it  was  worn  by  (irrciun 
females  Is  <'ertaln,  and  the  derivation  uf  the  word  /,ii'« 
alTorda  presumptive  evidence  that  It  was  ii'^n  \n  use 
among  the  Uoinans.  In  Venice,  and  the  ncighbiiring 
•States  of  Italy,  It  was  very  early  worn  j  and  Mury  of 
Medli'is  is  supposeil  to  have  lieen  the  first  who  Intro- 
duced Its  usfl  into  France  ;  but  as  oatly  as  MMil  it  was 
included  In  a  list  of  articles  prohibited  from  inipiTtii- 
thm  Into  Kngland.  Home  it  had  been  made  In  this 
countrA'  jirior  to  the  |)erlo<l  above  niuntioucil ;  and  this 
prohibition,  like  many  other  subseipicnt  lu  ts,  was  lor 
tho  protection  and  encouragement  of  home  inanuruc- 
turea.  Uutpi'fu,  which  are  Indispensable  in  tlio  pro- 
cess of  fine  lacn-inaking,  were  unknown  till  long  af- 
terward ;  so  that  It  is  probable  tho  fabric  nuiilu  was 
neither  very  line  in  texture  nor  produced  to  any  grout 
extent.  It  is  uncertain  by  whimi  the  manufucturo  of 
lace  was  originally  introduced  into  this  country. 
Alwut  tho  middle  of  the  17th  century  tho  lacu  tr.iilc 
was  fiourishing  in  Buckinghamshire  ;  and  so  grcutly 
had  It  advanced  in  Kngland,  that,  l>y  a  roynl  onlnn- 
nance  In  France,  passed  in  ItillO,  a  murk  wus  ustub- 
lished  upon  the  thread  lace  Imported  I'rum  this  country 
and  from  Flanilvrs,  and  upon  point  lace  from  Genoa, 
Venice,  and  other  I'ountrins. 

Pillow,  or  Thread  Ijit-e,  is  made  by  placing  a  per- 
forated patteni  on  a  hard  stuflfed  pillow,  and  tlie  tlircuJ 
required  Is  wound  upon  bobbins  with  a  groove  In  the 
upper  part  for  retaining  the  thread ;  while,  to  form  the 
meshes,  pins  are  stuck  in  tho  cushions,  and  threads 
woven  or  twisted  round  them,  the  pattern  showing  the 
points  of  insertion  for  the  pins,  and  also  tho  directiim 
for  the  gimp,  which  Is  interwoven  with  the  lino  thrcmls 
of  the  fabric  to  form  the  pattern.  At  the  comoicnco- 
ment  of  the  work  the  bobbins  are  arranged  on  one 
side  of  the  cushion,  and  are  brought  to  the  front  side, 
two  pairs  at  a  time,  and  twisted  together.  The  woman 
holds  one  pair  of  bobbins  in  each  hand,  and  twi.its 
them  three  times  over  each  other  to  form  tho  sides  of 
the  mesh,  the  adjacent  bobbins  of  each  pair  are  next 
interchanged,  so  as  to  cross  thesu  threads  over  ono 
another  to  form  the  twttom  of  the  next.  Supposing 
tho  four  bobbins  to  bo  marked  1,  2,  3,  1,— No.  1  is 
twisted  round  2,  and  No.  3  round  1 ;  thcao.  In  order 
to  cross  2  and  8,  are  interchanged,  so  that  1  and  .S  and 
2  and  4  come  together,  and  at  the  next  twist  these 
pairs  of  threads  will  be  combined.  As  the  meshes  or 
half-meeheg  are  formed,  they  are  secured  by  pins. 
These  fonr  bobbins  are  now  put  on  one  side  of  the 
cushion  ;  two  more  pairs  are  brought  forward,  twisted 
and  crossed  as  before,  and  these  operations  are  re- 
peated until  a  row  of  meshes  is  formed  of  the  required 
breadth,  when  the  bobbins  are  worked  over  again  tu 
form  another  row.  From  48  to  60  bobbins  are  re- 
qniied  <br  every  ineh  ef  bieadth.    Pillow  or  thread 


LaO 


11A7 


LAO 


inn  II  l>cr- 

iiivo  ill  111" 

,)  fiiriii  the 

,(\  tliroiiils 

Kiw'ini?  the 

,  ,\irci'tion 

1110  thri'UilK 

comuiciicp- 

[cJ  on  one 
front  siile, 

riie  woman 
and  twists 

the  fii<le9  "' 
lir  are  next 
,  over  one 
Supposing 

,  _No.  1  i» 

;9e,  in  order 
1  »nil  S  and 
twist  these 
seniles  or 
,d  by  pins, 
eiae  of  tlio 
foxi,  twisted 
tlons  are  re- 
the  required 
over  again  to 
bbins  are  re- 
or  thread 


)«(>•,  fttrmiitly  ratplayml «  Ir.rK^  nnmbar  ot  irnin*n  Hid 
ehlMran  In  thn  cniintldi  of  lUdfunl,  Racklngli»m, 
Northampton,  itnil  Oxford,  hut  thit  dnmand  for  thU 
hind  of  wlilto  thread  Urn  fiillMl,  and  Idaok  lun*  took 
It*  |il«rii.  Ilimilon  lar»  dllTani  fhim  pillow  lac*  In  hav- 
ln((  thn  pnttnm  madn  Mpiiratdly,  Thn  nmamnnta 
wpm  formnrly  rnnHnml  to  ulnipla  tprlK*  and  linrdnrH  ; 
htit  thn  hhrlcii  now  prtnlurnd  iihnw  ciitrtm*  dnllcary 
nf  nxerullon,  with  Iwauty  and  taata  In  dnali^n  i  flounr- 
inga,  nhawli,  aearfa,  handkcrchlefii,  Iwrthnn,  «ti<.,  now 
Tury  in  prica  fmm  10  to  VnO  Kulnnaa.  The  llnnitnn 
lacn  dhtrlct  extonda  about  HO  mllna  alonK  the  coani,  of 
Devonnhlrn,  and  alwut  12  mllna  inland.  In  IHftt  frnm 
7000  to  WHK)  peraons  w«r«  omployad  In  tha  manufac- 
tnT«. 

Hrilith  poini,  Inmhnur,  and  f.imen'rk  lacni  are  chlnfly 
imitation,  and  arn  proiliirnd  In  ahawla,  urarfli,  dremnri, 
court  trulna,  anunrlnK*,  lappets,  He.  nrltliih  point  l« 
madn  chiefly  In  the  nciffhhorhnnd  of  Ix>ndnn,  tambour 
chiefly  at  Inllnf(ton,  roKKlrnhall,  and  NottlnRham, 
while  Limerick  lace  la  pncullar  to  Ireland.  Illack 
lace*  now  occupf  a  connlderable  portion  of  thn  atten- 
tion of  th«  trade.  Thn  raont  cnlebrateil  lacea  have 
lieen  claaaad  aa— 1.  limmli,  the  moat  valniible. 
There  are  two  kinda :  Brumrh  grontul,  having  a  hnx- 
a((on  meah,  formed  by  plnttiiii;  and  twisting  four 
throada  of  flax  to  a  perpendicular  line  of  mcnh  ;  /?ni«. 
uh  mm  ground,  made  of  ailk  i  monhca  partly  atralght 
and  partly  arched.  Thn  pattern  Is  worked  separately, 
and  act  on  l.y  the  needle.  2.  Sfechlin ;  n  hexAKonal 
mesh,  formed  of  three  flax  threads  twisted  and  platted 
to  a  perpendicular  line  or  plllnr.  The  pattern  Is 
worked  In  the  net.  8.  Vdlfncitvnfi :  an  IrreKular 
hexagon,  formed  of  two  threads,  partly  twli...'d  and 
platted  at  the  top  of  the  mesh.  The  pattern  la  worked 
in  the  net  almilar  to  Mechlin  lace.  4.  Litle:  a  dia- 
mond meah,  formed  of  two  threnda  platted  to  a  pillar. 
5.  Altnfim,  called  blond:  hexagon,  of  two  threads, 
twisted  similar  to  Buckingham  lace  ;  considered  the 
most  Inferior  o'  any  made  on  the  cushion.  6.  Alen- 
;o»  point!  f<  ^  'of  two  threads  to  a  pillar,  with  oc- 
tagonal and  <.   hes  alternately. 

In  the  miinut'.     .  'ace,  France  takes  tho  lead  j 


and  It  Is   .a|-   i:i!.:l 
band  gU<-i  ■    ,>iovm.  • ' 
iW.OOO  ft'mul.'    oO  all  :i,; 
bins  .'tm  .1  .'I  •]!'  piiVii 
th    .  ic  i '  o"'"  i  ■  ■'mn'ii 
hr.    .■."'  n  tnna  ihr»;i.l. 
ani.  «ilv  r  t'  i.ioi      /'(Nd 
made  >rltli  I 

Is  worth  from  ^tHi.' 


the  production  of  lace  by 

■  that  countr}'  to  upward  of 

It  la  all  made  with  bob- 

npt  at  Alen(;'on,  where 

'  he  ma'orlals  used  are 

't'<    ,  wool,  silk,  and  gold 

V  .iii'nfon  la  the  only  lace 

lnud-jpun  thread;  this  thread 

00  per  pound.     White  lace  Is 


now  chiefly  maae  w!  a  cotton  thread,  No».  120  to  320, 
The  principal  aeat.i  t  the  manufacture  are — Caeii  and 
Bayeux,  Chantilly  and  its  neighborhood,  LIUo,  Arras, 
Mireconrt,  Puy,  B  illeul,  and  Aloni;on.  Each  of  these 
districts  has  its  own  peculiar  style ;  and  although  the 
lace  may  be  made  in  the  same  way,  and  with  the  same 
material,  In  all  these  districts  except  the  last,  yet  each 
Is  easily  recognized.  Silk  blond  originated  at  Caen, 
and  was  so  called  ftom  being  made  of  nndyed  silk  of 
a  nankeen  color :  the  finest  white  or  the  finest  black 
silk  is  now  employed.  Caen  and  Bayeux  excel  all 
other  places  in  the  production  of  piece  goods,  and 
manufacture  shawls,  robes,  mantles,  etc.,  more  exten- 
sively than  any  other  districts  In  the  world.  By 
means  of  a  stitch  called  rucroe,  the  women  of  the  de- 
partment of  Calvados  join  sereral  parts  Into  one  piece 
so  cleverly  as  to  defy  detection,  oven  with  a  magnify- 
ing glass.  Most  of  the  Improvements  and  noNelties 
in  lace-making  originate  at  Mireconrt ;  it  produces  the 
same  kind  of  lace  as  Lille  and  Arras,  vIj!.,  clear  found- 
ation, fondt  ctair,  and  also  /on<i>  de  champs,  In  white 
thread,  also  a  lace  resembling  the  Hr  ca11"d  Tui- 

pun. 

Flowers  are  also  made,  and  sewed  i.i^ji.  t'lc 
tremely  fine  net  called  Bnuaela  net,  closet,    r^: 


bllng  the  Belgian  fkhrln.     The  wliMit  and  fkaapril 

Krrnrh  lace  la  pmlucMl  at  Hayeiii, 

Helgium  la  tlm  gnat  rival  of  ITranea  In  the  manu- 
facture of  Urns,  thn  I'hUf  vartcliaa  of  whiab  are  known 
aa  Hrunrli,  .\frrhlm,  I'li/rnnonnM,  and  (Immmimi. 
Ilrusaela  prixlucts  two  daarrliitlnni  iif  l«r«,  known  nt 
/mini  (t  I'aiguillf,  ami  llnmelt  pluil,  iU»  una  moda  en- 
tirely with  the  naadU,  anil  tlin  oihar  nn  Iha  pllktw, 
The  flneal  kind  la  niwU  of  vary  Una  Ma«  Ikraail,  and 
•ome  of  cotton.  It  la  ramarkalily  tofl  and  e\»»r,  bill 
vary  costly.  Mnchim  larai  are  mad*  «l  MallMt, 
Antwerp,  tU'.  Thay  arn  niada  In  one  placa  on  Iha  pil- 
low, and  thn  tlowera  ara  ■iirrouinUd  liy  a  pUII  thread, 
which  dasigna  tl  a  iiutlinn,  and  has  tlia  affact  nf  aiii< 
broldary.  Valenoiannaa  lacaa  ara  iiiaila  chlally  al 
Yprea,  Menin,  ('nurtral,  BrUKaa,  (Ihant,  Aloal,  and 
their  respaictiva  naighlKirhwHU,  aaidi  lumn  liavlnil  Its 
chaructnriatin  peruliaritlra  by  whirll  lla  prmtiiiillnlis 
am  identified,  Yprat  prudueaa  laiwa  of  Iha  llnv*! 
square  gniunds,  varying  in  prlca  fmiti  Vi  iianla  t<i  ff'lMI 
the  Kngllah  yani, 

It  la  natural  to  aup|MMa  that  attain|i(a  would  b« 
made  to  lessen  the  cost  of  prndiiitloii  of  sn  liaaullfiit 
and  costly  an  article  as  laoe.  It  was  nnt,  hiiwavar, 
until  machinery  had  liean  largely  liitiiHluoad  for  the 
purpose  of  manufacturing  taxtlla  fabrli's  llial  la«a  ma< 
chinery  can  he  said  to  have  li«nn  auccnaafully  nmiiliiyadi 
About  the  year  17KH  a  friiiiia-work  kiiitlnr  nf  NoIiImk. 
ham  employed  the  common  alocking-fraina  In  the 
manufacture  of  lace,  and  u*  nut  Iha  sania  tlina  anntlinr 
person  of  the  same  place  IntriHlucsd  a  iiln  iiiaohlna  fur 
making  single-press  point-net  In  Imltatluii  nf  tlia  Itrua* 
sets  ground.  Various  machinas  ware  frnm  lima  t«i 
time  introduced,  all  of  which,  axRai)t  tha  warfi  imu'km', 
have  been  auperseded  by  tha  hiibhin^ri  munhinr,  su 
called  because  the  thread  that  makes  tlia  Ian*  la  {larlly 
supplied  fVom  Iwbbins  and  partly  t'  in  a  warp, 

Bmittli  and  Mechlin  l/ict.—'lha  aiiiiiiiliiK  nf  Ilia  fine 
thread  used  for  lace-making  In  the  NullmrUiMU  U  mi 
operation  demanding  so  high  »  drgree  uf  axiiuI'lKi 
skill,  minute  manipulation,  and  vigiUnt  Kllanllnii, 
that  It  appears  Imposillila  that  It  can  uvar  lis  talo'tl 
from  human  hands  l>y  maclilnary,  Nona  but  llalglin 
fingers  are  akiUod  In  this  art.  The  yury  lliiRiit  anri  nf 
this  thread  is  made  in  llrusseli,  In  damp  uiiilargrniiiiil 
cellars,  for  it  will  break  by  contaot  wilh  the  dry  nir 
above  ground;  and  it  U  obtained  In  good  condlllntl 
only  when  made  and  kept  In  a  humid,  siibtarratianiis 
atmosphere.  There  ari  numbers  of  oM  llelgUn  tlirnad- 
makers,  who,  like  spiders,  have  puasud  Iha  beat  partitf 
their  lives  spinning  In  cellars.  This  sort  of  iMctipallnn 
naturally  has  an  Injurious  elfset  on  the  haalth,  and  th« 
eyesight  of  the  operatives  Is  impaired  at  an  aiirly  iin«, 

In  former  days  Mechlin  was  renowned  (ot  lis  Ini<« 
manufactures.  I'or  a  century  and  mora  It  (i«ld  »ii« 
premary  In  the  markets  of  Kurops,  and  tha  Maolilln 
lace  ivas  considered  the  iierfectlon  uf  Ihiit  arllritt,  ciitu 
manding  by  fur  the  highest  prices,  and  bciiiK  tlltnuturcti 
uf  a  large  revenue  to  its  fabricators.  It  tm»,  linW' 
ever,  fallen  ofT  very  canslderably  of  lata  yaaril  In  tup* 
ply  nnd  demand.  While  this  lace  U  not  so  Una  «a  tttill 
which  is  mudo  at  Brussels,  it  Is  mush  mora  durabjti, 
and  therefore  of  more  Intrliislo  value  as  an  arlli'lo  nf 
use.  In  rcgiird  to  lace  not  produced  by  hand,  tliiit 
which  is  known  ns  bobbin-net  may  be  said  tii  »lir|m"S 
every  other  branch  of  human  Industry  In  ttl»  cnni- 
plex  ingenuity  of  its  nmclilnery,  oita  of  tlie  "nfuiUUt^ 
(Vame8,"as  they  are  termed,  '  aing  aa  iniicit  bajnlld  lliti 
most  curious  chronomete'  '  i  niu;  '.illcity  of  ni8elwn< 


leal  device  is  that  Is  bi: 
Bobbin-net  lace  owes 
Ity  of  the  threads,  ni'l 
By  Increasintj  the      - 

given  ppr   j '.  lb.,- 

Ittcj  is  f  cd  thur-.  r 
upw'  .  of  ,-t!)i,  .ii'. . 
The-.n      ;..,      '/•"'.■'    ■"  i 


w     '  .ir  ion  hamUaaw, 
'I.      .t<i  ueaiity  to  the  <|u«l< 
■■ix  'ct8ha;Hinf  tbaniMahas. 

'    arp-threods  witliln  a 

aced  in  sUa,  and  Anff 

,  \.    from  700  to  {200  and 

In       piece  one  yard  wld#, 

.,  01.  It  la  oallad,  4«t)«nd« 


"1 


M 


m 


LAC 


1158 


LAO 


on  th«  namber  of  altta  in  the  comba,  and  hence  on  the 
number  of  bobbins  in  an  inch ;  thus  guage  nine  pointi 
indicates  nine  openings  in  one  inch  of  the  comb. 
The  length  of  work  counted  verticaliy,  and  containing 
240  holes  or  meshes,  is  caliod  a  rack.  A  circulai^bolt 
machine  may  produce  about  860  raclcs  pei  werlc. 
Bobbin-'.iet  is  ninde  up  in  pieces  of  from  20  to  80,  or 
more  yards  in  length,  and  of  -■<«riable  1)readth.  Nar- 
row  quillings  nre  worlced  together  in  a  number  of 
breadths,  united  !>}'  threads,  which  are  afterward 
drawn  out.  In  well-made  lace  the  meshes  are  slightly 
elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  selvage.  Ornaments, 
consisting  of  separate  flowers,  '>prigs,  etc.,  are  worlced 
in  by  a  J:icquard  apparatus  attached  to  the  frame ; 
bijt  M  the  xrnaments  nre  all  necessarily  connected  by 
the  thread  oi  gimp  which  forms  them,  the  connected 
'.bread  is  afterward  cut  out  with  sci8.sor8,  by  children 
employed  for  the  purijose.  Whoro  the  machine  pro- 
duces only  one  plain  net,  the  pattern  is  worked  in  .by 
hand,  the  lace-runnor  l)cing  guided  by  a  lithogranhic 
pattern  placed  under  the  net.  When  the  embroidery 
is  complete,  it  is  examined,  defective  parts  are  marked 
by  tying  the  lace  in  a  knot,  and  these  are  restored  by 
a  distinct  set  of  women  called  lace-mendert. 

In  addition  to  the  bobbin-net  machine  for  making 
lace,  there  is  also  the  warp  machine,  invented  about 
the  year  1776.  It  was  suggested  by  the  stocking- 
frame,  in  which  only  one  thread  is  required,  while  in 
the  warp-frame  there  is  a  thread  to  each  needle.  The 
flrst  articles  made  by  it  were  silk  stockings,  with  blue 
and  white  zig-zag  stripes,  or  Vandykes,  us  they  were 
called,  fh>m  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  claimants  to 
the  invention  of  tho  warp-frame,  the  other  three  being 
Englishmen.  Aluut  1784  a  Nottingham  mechanic 
greatly  improved  the  warp-frame  by  the  application  of 
the  rotatory  motion,  and  the  cnm-wheels  to  move  the 
guide-bars,  still  known  as  Dawson's  wheels.  The  im- 
proved frames  produced  oflicere'  sashes,  purses,  braces, 
and  other  clastic  toxtilo  fabrics,  the  manufacture  of 
some  of  which  still  continues.  In  1798  a  new  fabric 
was  produced  from  tht  warp,  and  employed  for  sailors' 
jackets,  pantaloons,  and  the  article  known  as  Berlin, 
so  much  used  for  making  gloves.  Warp  machines 
were  the  flrst  to  produce  ornamental  patterns  on  '.uce, 
such  as  spo.tj,  bullet-holes,  etc.,  which  had  been  pre- 
viously embroidered  or  tamboured  !)y  hand.  The 
bobbin-uet  machine,  invented  in  1809,  soon  became  a 
formidable  rival  of  the  warp,  and  influenced  its  tor- 
tunes  in  various  ways,  until  1889,  when  the  Jacquard 
apparatus  was  applied  to  it,  and  so  much  increased  its 
capabilities  as  to  introduce  into  Wm  warp-lace  trade  of 
Nottingham  a  new  class  of  products  of  elaborate  do- 
sign,  such  as  shawls,  scarfs,  mits,  falls,  laces,  etc.  Of 
late  years  the  tieist  machine  has  been  employed  on  sim- 
ilar goods,  and  has  to  a  great  extent  superseded  the 
warp.  <^'reat  improvements  have  also  been  intnxluced 
in  the  Luglisa  methoc^s  of  drrssing  lace,  ospocially  in 
silk  goods.  Many  new  kinds  of  elastic  fabrics,  in 
gloves,  in  silk,  and  other  raalcrials,  have  lioen  intro- 
duced. Velvet,  and  velvet  in  combination  with  lace, 
have  also  liecn  produced  at  the  warivfrnroo.  A  t  the 
time  of  tho  Great  Kxliibition  there  were  about  1400 
warp-frames  in  operation,  namely  alH)ut  GOO  in  I^ices- 
tershire,  alwut  400  in  Uerl>y8hu'o,  and  alwut  the  same 
number  in  Nottinghamshire.  T!io  employment  in  tho 
various  branches  was  estimated  as  filiows :  150  ma- 
chines engaged  in  thu  production  of  blund,  and  other 
lilk  laces ;  150  in  cotton  tattings,  A.')!)  in  I^oicester 
hosiery,  etc.)  100  iu  lace  gloves  and  mits,  150  in 
woolen  cloth,  hosiery,  purses,  and  various  fabrics  for 
gloves,  etc.  The  frst  machines  were  almut  16  inches 
in  width;  they  are  now,  in  the  Notiing'iam  trade, 
from  W  to  IM  inches  in  width,  and  in  tl  e  I^icester 
hosiery  tradn,  from  44  to  "3  Indies.  The  number  of 
persons  employed  in  tlio  warp  trade  in  Great  Ilritain, 
in  1861,  was  estimated  i,t  10,000,  and  the  rapital  in- 
retted  at  f  1,300,000,  making  a  return  per  annum  of 


$8,600,000.  In  the  Gruit  Exhibition  was  exhibited  a 
power  machine,  capable  of  producing  (working  12 
hours  per,  day)  800  racks  per  week,  which,  when 
dressed,  would  bo  equal  to  about  120Q  square  .vards. 
A  yard  of  4.quarter  white  silk  blond,  which  in  1830 
cost  60  cents,  can  now  be  had  for  12  cents. 

Gold  and  Silwr  Loot. — The  textile  fabric  known  as 
gold  or  silver  lace  consists  of  warp  threads  of  silk,  or 
of  a  mixture  of  silk  and  cotton,  while  the  weft  or  shoot 
is  a  silk  thread  covered  with  silver,  or  with  silver  gilt, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  production  of  this  thread  is 
a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  extensibility  of  gold, 
and  of  the  ductility  of  silver.  The  silver  preferred  by 
the  wire-drawers  is  that  which  has  been  separated 
from  ."-gentifcrous  galena,  this  licing  less  brittlo  than 
the  8iiver  obtained  from  purer  sources.  From  400  to 
600  ounces  are  cact  into  an  ingot  about  2  inches  in 
diameter,  and  from  20  to  24  inches  in  length.  This  is 
made  red-hot  in  a  charcoal  Are,  and  hammered  until 
sufficiently  reduced  to  pass  through  the  flrst  bole  of 
the  draw-plate,  the  hammering  incrcasLig  the  tenacity 
lind  elasticity  of  the  metal.  After  the  bar  has  been 
reduced  by  passmg  through  10  or  12  holes,  it  is  pkned, 
in  order  to  remove  any  imperfections  from  the  surface 
wlich  would  interfere  with  the  perfect  gilding ;  the 
lilemishes  are  readily  detected  by  the  reflection  of  a 
sheet  of  foolscap  paper  slightlj  arched,  and  placed 
over  the  bar.  The  bar  is  now  gilt,  by  placing  on  it  u 
number  of  gold  leaves,  varying  from  10  to  80,  accord- 
ing to  the  richness  of  the  wire  required,  tho  higher 
qualities  being  used  for  military'  purposes,  and  pearls 
and  bullions  for  cml)roidering,  while  the  lower  qual- 
itiss  aro  used  for  liveries,  tlie  ends  of  muslins,  and  fur 
skein  threads  exported  to  India  and  China.  The  (^old 
leaves  ure  placed  in  a  row,  side  by  side,  nearly  the 
length  of  the  bur,  on  a  pteco  of  cartridge  paper  :  the 
liar  is  tlien  gently  placed  on  the  leaves,  pressed  close, 
and  the  edges  of  tho  leaves  raised  up  until  tlio  silver  is 
entirely  covered.  Tlie  bar  is  next  enveloped  in  paper 
tied  tightly  round  ivith  cord,  and  placed  in  a  charcoal 
Are,  where  it  is  Icfl  until  it  becomes  of  a  bright  red 
heat,  the  paper  not  burning,  but  iiecoming  red  with 
the  metal,  when  it  slowly  consumes,  after  which  tho 
bar  is  withdrawn.  While  still  red-hot  it  is  burnished 
witii  a  blood-stone  or  with  South  Sea  ax-stone,  for 
the  purpose  of  uniting  the  gold  and  tho  silver  perfei^tly. 
When  cold  tho  surface  is  covered  with  wax,  and  tlie 
bar  is  drawn  into  wire  tlirough  graduated  steel  dies, 
and,  after  one  or  two  annealings,  flnishod  by  drawing 
througii  perforated  rubies,  so  Hne  that  from  an  ou'ice 
ol  meti.1  a  wire  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length  is  pro- 
duced. At  tills  point  tho  wire  has  not  ■^a  rich  und 
deep  a  shade  of  yellow  ns  U  required,  but  Uiis  is  given 
by  winding  the  wire  roind  a  copper  cylinder,  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  (lortion  of  wax,  and  filling  tho  cav- 
ity of  the  cylinder  with  red-hot  chartoul  iiiudo  from 
birch-wooil,  the  effect  of  which  in  to  deepen  the  culoi , 
and  render  it  i,erniancnt.  Tho  next  proeens  is  tu  flat- 
ten the  wire  by  iiaxaing  it  lietween  a  couple  of  steel 
rollers,  one  "t  ten,  and  th.'  other  of  four  inches  in  di- 
ameter, made  of  the  flnesi  steel,  and  of  exiiuisite  pol- 
ish. They  are  manufactured  in  Khenish  Prussia,  at  a 
cost  if  f  600  fur  a  shigle  pair  of  rollers.  The  tliittcned 
wire  is  wound  on  small  bobbins,  which  arc  placed  in 
the  contra  of  circular  riiigc,  attached  to  a  luir  over  a 
spinning  frame.  On  the  front  of  tlie  frame  nre  bob- 
bins of  silk,  thn  tb'eads  of  which  pais  through  the 
centre  of  the  ring  to  which  tho  reel  of  wire  is  tixed. 
Tho  whole  is  set  In  motion,  and  while  the  turead  is 
lieing  twisted,  the  ring  with  tho  wire  revolves  round 
the  thread  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  this  way  from 
30  to  40  threails  aro  covered  u*  once,  the  result  being  a 
resplendent  flexible  gold  thread,  adapted  to  the  pur- 
jMises  of  liice-making,  embroidery,  etc.  Of  this  thread, 
although  golil  only  appears,  pnilialdy  iMOths  nf  its 
,  bulk  is  silk,  while  of  the  remaining  1-lOth  only  1-oOth 
[  part  is  gold.     See  details  on  this  subjocv  in  the  Journal 


liulsil 

iiy  till 
as  (III 
PMr|«(i 
»r«lly 
SOU 

ui  m>, 

is  com 
W(jl<l 
!«•■)  i 
gnat 


LAD 


1159 


LAG 


uTlh*.  ^Dtitty  iffArti,  Ho.  170,  la  the  Report  of  Mr.  F. 
Vtntumh'n  (Nt|wr  nn  "'11ir«id  or  Fibre  Gilding. "— 
K,  li, 

'('b«  i»mmtUt  lit  \m'm  from  the  United  Statea  for  the 
ftiu  IMM,  w«n)  «*  MUirnn  t 

Thrmid  KtA 
,  fl-mllllH,  Ifiwrllnn,  Vtlm. 

i}»D»A»,,, ,,,..,,,.,,,,,,,,.,.  IIA.TM  120,878 

liriiMt  pummmt,,,,.. 1,440 

MMHlun, ,,,,,.,,, , 249  1,472 


'fitUl>,,. .,,,,,.,,, 117,408 


f2e,S4fi 


HfkTiiMkii'i'  DHitwim*  fun  UrriHtn  or  tAcmi  akd  Eu- 
NMiMfKKiM  iiftii  tim  Ifniriio  Statm  roR  tui  Tiab 
mmvit  il»««  )(i*fH,  1^, 


WlwM*  Imi/vMi 


>l»mbun,,,,, ,,,,,,,, 
ftraimn,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 
Kalliifli),, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,, 
U«linHMi, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,, 
Kni<t*iwl,,,, ,,,,,,,,,„ 
tttotlllSfJ,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 
M»l(«,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

(JanjUJu 

UrItUli  iii»,  III  Afrt**,, 
HrlllnllKd*):  iH/jiM  ,,, 
i/ritiliu  nil  Mw  Atlmitl^ 
Kmiii'u  »ii  t|iu  M«illl«r 

iJniidi'V  W»uj)#,,,,,,,, 

Wuw  HiiHIAi\n,,,,,,,,, 

Todtl .    , ,    , , , 


1»e«t, 


mtsMMA  Miii  i  Collmi  IniMrt- 
ffiJJlLIr  l«",Wlnmln», 


XtnbroldaHti 
of  wool,  entton, 
■Hk,  and  llnan. 


"Hi 

KM 
ST 


lm,sK2 

118 

'ifil» 


|18,«H 

"'88 

1,181,222 

8,»40 

28 

"m 

10,748 
2,028 


fTJinoTT 


$12 

11, M2 

186,784 

74A 

2,2M 

8,294,092 

198,194 

"i8 
48 

40 

2.'>2 

95S488 

1,728 

288 

7,210 

2,724 

•4,864,888 


Lnoqun,  ur  h»eiun,  s  yellow  vamlHh,  consiHt- 
fllK  of  »  i«iliiH<m  lit  nhMims  In  alcohol,  colored  liy 
KKIIiIhiK",  nuffniii,  HiiiiiiiUi,  (ir  rtlmr  ynllow,  orange,  or 
reil  col.iriHa  «m»t*r»,  f,(if<(iwM  are  chiefly  used  for 
vnriil.liliia  lifitt*  nllii  mimp  other  mctnln.  In  order  to 
(flvu  tliuiii  It  ({(/M«i(  color  niid  jirenerve  tlinir  luatre. 

liMquor  War*,  Ik  <1"rl*ed  from  the  Hindoo  name 
ki",  whW)  U  Hm  rdnln  netrcted  t<iKetlior  with  lac-<lye 
by  tlia  litK  fiiMict,  'IIm)  |(i((|ii«.r  r.are  hn»  a  covering 
or  i^mtintl  'if  iiU'  (  liMt  two  different  proressen  are  often 
coiifomnhHj  til  IikIIm  ,1,,,^  thin  name— the  one  prevall- 
IdK  ill  tliN  nuHthHrn  fmrlit  iit  India  and  In  Ilurmah; 
tliii  Ktlier  In  CMKliiitArn  and  I,nhore.  The  former  of 
timw  wiirwK,  C'lWJirliilnx  Incqiiered  cnblnetn,  lioxes, 
»U!„  WM  nmih  «|itin«'l«t«d  In  the  last  century ;  part 
Mug  liruMKbt  fmn  lllirmnh  and  India,  and  part  from 
Cblnii  I  but  Hk'  liM<i|iMrMl  or  japanned  work  of  Japan, 
tminii  t*!  ImvM  Iikkh  iiii|«rW  to  either)  many  fine  spe- 
cliiMfiw  of  k  imy  frtill  l/M  Men  In  the  formK  of  large 
fuUInu  oi'rmtiij  fU;  'f  h«  chief  expense  of  the  manu- 
du-'tura  arlMiii  from  (Iih  cnre  with  which  nuccosslve  lay- 
urn  of  vitmMt  W:ut  I*  Inld  <m.  Hoxen  have  lieon  sent 
to  tliU  lioMBlrj'  In  varifrtid  ntnges  of  progress,  which 
show  tiM  «r«ilM(tl  iifwlucthm  of  the  desired  effect, 
Tba  utli»f  kind  of  hM'i|it«ired  ware  partakes  somewhat 
of  tl(«  mturu  lit  \m\Ai-f-mnt\ik,  covered  with  one  or 
more  luyiiri*  iit  Imi  »»r«lsh.  Many  of  the  lac(iuored 
\>»xin  b<'liiw((ln«  to  this  class,  frmn  Cashmere  and  La- 
Uru,  niu  it,iniirlt4bh)  for  the  elegance  of  their  patterns. 

Ladlilf,  biU  of,     Hee  tlil.i.  OK  i.i>mifa. 

Latlon,  1(1  imiiticiil  biiigiisge,  the  state  of  a  ship 
wlitil  elm  U  chaCKwl  with  a  «ilght  or  quantity  of  any 
tort  of  nuiriih»n4is«  or  Hher  materials  equal  to  her 
tumiugM  or  i(Mf«l«M,  If  the  cargi  with  which  she  is 
liuhiil  \m  nKirmndy  hM/y,  her  burden  Is  determined 
•ly  tllfl  WflKltl  of  the  kikhIs  (  If  It  lie  IlK'ht  ..he  carries 
as  uiut'li  M  sIm  can  stow,  tliat  she  may  be  fit  for  the 
puriwKK.  itt  n»vi(j)itl<m,  \i  a  ton  In  measure  is  gen- 
•mlly  xtinmlwl  at  zihhi  fiounds  In  weight,  a  vessel  of 
'm  t^nm  OHKllt,  iMiflordiHglv,  to  carrv  a  weigot  oonai 
Ui  il)ll,mi  imuimIs,  when  the  matter  of  which  the  cargo 
W  cuiii|si»«4  Id  s^Mwiflcallv  heavier  than  the  water  in 
whii'li  Him  tUmU  t  m,  hi  other  words,  when  the  cargo 
u  «■»  l»»vy  (Im(  sh«  CMH  mil  «oat  high  onough  with  so 
grsat  It  ijiWHtlty  utitu  htt  hold  wUl  contain. 


Laden  tn  hulk,  the  state  of  being  flighted  with  a 
cargo  which  is  neither  in  casks,  boxes,  bales,  nor  codes, 
bat  lies  loose  in  the  hold,  being  defendeil  from  the 
moisture  or  wet  of  the  hold  by  a  number  of  mats,  and 
a  quantity  of  dunnage.  Such  are  usually  the  cargoes 
of  grain,  salt,  or  such  materials. 

Ladoga,  a  lake  in  Russia,  the  largest  in  Europe, 
lies  between  the  governments  of  Viborg  on  the  north 
and  west,  Petersburg  on  the  south,  and  Olonetz  on  the 
east.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  130  miles,  breadth 
above  70.  The  coast  is  generally  low,  much  indented, 
and  abounding  iu  dangerous  reefs.  The  depth  in  some 
places  reaches  about  150  fathoms.  In  others  it  is  in- 
sufficient for  safe  navigation.  Storms  are  frequent, 
and  the  influx  of  many  considerable  streams  produces 
strong  currents.  Tlve  chief  rivers  entering  the  lake 
are  the  Swir  (or  Svecr)  from  the  east,  biaring  the  wa- 
ters of  Lake  Onega ;  the  VolkhoflT  on  the  south  ;  those 
of  Lake  Ilmen  and  the  Saima  on  the  north,  draining 
the  reticulation  of  waters  of  that  name,  ii  empties 
itself  on  the  south-west  by  tlie  Neva,  into  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  There  are  numerous  islands  scattered  along 
the  north-western  shore,  several  of  them  Inhabited. 
The  principal  towns  on  the  coast  are  Kexholui,  Schlus- 
selburg,  and  Novaia  Ladoga.  A  canal  executed  in 
the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  connects  the  two  latter, 
forming  a  direct  communication  between  the  Neva  and 
Volkhoff, 

Ladrone,  or  Marianne  Islands  (bo  called  re- 
spectively from  the  thievish  habits  of  the  natives,  and 
in  honor  of  Queen  Mary  Anno  of  Spain),  a  group  in 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  between  lat,  18°  and  21°, 
long.  144°  and  140°.  They  are  about  20  in  number, 
of  volcanic  origin,  irregular  and  picturesque  iu  outline, 
and  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  Tlie  inter- 
vening straits  abound  in  jhoals  and  currents,  and  there 
are  few  good  harbors.  The  heat  of  the  climate  is 
somewliat  tempered  by  the  trade-winds.  Among  the 
vegetable  products  are  sugar,  rico,  Indi'in  com,  tobacco, 
cotton,  indigo,  etc.  Of  wild  animals,  the  most  nu- 
merous are  swine,  sometimes  of  largo  size ;  cattle, 
liorses,  asses,  mules,  and  Hamas,  have  been  introduced 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  principal  island  is  Guajtan, 
or  St,  John,  the  most  southerly  of  the  group.  It  is 
about  80  miles  in  circumference,  and  has  a  good  forti- 
fied harlMir,  some  miles  to  the  south  of  St.  Ygnacio  de 
Agafia,  the  seat  of  governmeut.  The  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, an  active  and  athletic  race,  have  gradually 
given  place  to  a  mixed  population,  descended  of  col- 
onists from  Mexico  and  the  Pliilippino  Isles.  This 
group  was  discovered  in  1521  liy  Magellan ;  but  no 
settlement  was  made  in  them  for  about  150  years, 
wlicn  the  widow  of  Pliilip  IV,  sent  out  a  body  of  mis- 
sionaries to  convert  the  nativea.  They  were  visited  in 
1742  by  Anson,  who  spent  some  time  on  the  i».land  of 
Tinuiu,  where  lie  discovered  arcliitectural  remuiiis,  in- 
dicating a  consideralde  progress  in  the  arts  of  civiliza- 
tion. There  are  two  other  small  island  groups  of  this 
name,  the  one  on  the  coast  of  Cliiaa,  at  the  n;outh  of 
the  bay  of  Canton,  a  great  stronghold  of  pirates,  the 
other  off  the  coast  of  Guatemala, 

Lager-Bier  was  introduced  into  this  countr}', 
gonenilh-,  about  nine  years  ago.  The  process  of 
manufacturing  the  peculiar  and  popular  beer  under 
lonsiderntion,  differs  very  mui'h  from  that  in  making 
common  beer,  or  ale,  Tho  only  materiila  used  aro 
malt,  hops,  and  water,  and  an  inspection  of  the  brew- 
cries  is  convincing  that  nmch  care  and  cleanliniss  are 
exercised  in  all  the  operations.  Lager-bier  ferments 
downward.  Common  beer  can  be  made  fit  to  drink  in 
four  or  five  days,  according  to  the  heat  of  the  weath- 
er ;  but  it  requires  as  many  weeks  before  lagor-bier 
can  lie  draiik,  and  it  is  thought  to  improve  constantly 
if  it  be  given  years  of  probation, 

Jin  ictries,  f/i'.  — TI.3  art  of  fermenting  grain  was 
early  known  io  the  ancients,  who  employed  it  advan- 
tageously iu  fattening  animals,     UrqiUiart  has  noticed 


LAG 


TIWO 


1AG 


that  Penelope  iteeped  the  f^atn  with  which  ahe  fed 
her  geese.  The  earliest  mention  of  beer  la  found  in 
the  history  of  the  Eg}'ptians,  who  are  said  to  have  In- 
Tented  it  more  than  12  centuries  before  the  Christian 
advent.  Thej-  called  it,  however,  not  bter,  but  Ptlu- 
tioH  liquid,  from  Pelustum,  a  city  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Nile,  where'  it  waa  first  made.  Hops  were  first 
used  in  England,  A.  d.  1524,  where,  it  appeara,  they 
were  for  a  time  prohibited  as  a  "poisonous  drug." 
The  famous  white  bter  was  made  from  wheat,  at  Nu- 
remberg, in  Germany,  about  A.  v.  IMl.  Ate  was 
brewed  by  the  English  Saxona  aa  early  as  A.  D.  728, 
and  their  "  barley-wine"  was  celebrated  for  its  exhll- 
aratlng  qualities.  Porter  waa  originally  a  mixture  of 
different  draught  beers,  first  compounded  in  1780  for 
the  laboring  classes  in  London,  who  required  a  liever- 
«ge  of  more  nutritive  qualities  than  had  been  produced 
by  the  mixture  of  ales  of  two,  three  or  four  "  threads" 
or  draughts.  The  celebrated  German  mt/mm  was  first 
brewed  at  Brunswick,  A.  ».  1492,  l.y  Charles  Mnmm, 
who  gave  his  name  to  his  invention.  England  has, 
however,  till  recently,  Iieen  the  great  "  beer  countrj-." 
Official  returns  show  that  in  1850  the  licensed  brewers 
In  the  United  Kingdom  were : 

In  England,  66.11 ;  malt  consumed,  24,95.5,202  bush. ; 
Scotland,  1510  j  950,105 ;  Ireland,  951 ;  164,702. 

Of  this  last  quantity,  the  greater  portion  was  doubt- 
less used  in  distillation  I  The  licensed  tavern-keepers 
In  Scotland  are  shown  by  these  returns  to  have  num- 
bered 14,971,  and  the  number  in  Ireland  to  have  l)ecn 
18,793,  many  of  whom  were  also  llcenaed  to  brew  or 
distill. 

The  quantity  of  ale  and  beer  brewed  in  the  XTnited 
States,  in  1S50,  waa  1,177,924  barrela  ;  of  whisky  and 
high  wines,  42,]S.S,955  gallons  ;  of  rum,  (5,500,500. 

The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the  United  State.s' 
breweries  averaged  ©8,334,254  ;  and  the  number  of 
persons  employed  in  this  branch  of  commirce,  5487. 
The  liroweriea  in  our  American  States  have  been 
greatly  increased  of  late  years  l)y  the  addition  .)f  Ger- 
man capital,  amounting  nearly  to  Si7,5lW),00O,  distribu- 
ted among  upward  of  500  establishments.  In  1847, 
the  German  brewerlea  first  Introdui.'ed  into  thi.i  coun- 
try the  beverage  linown  aa  lager-bier ;  perhaps  the 
drink  more  extensively  used  than  any  other  beer  com- 
pound in  the  pr^  > ..:,  duy.  The  process  of  t)rewing 
this  peculiar  and  popular  bier  differs,  we  are  told,  very 
much  from  that  employed  in  making  common  ale  or 
beer.  The  only  materials,  we  learn,  are  malt,  hops, 
and  water,  but  the  quantities  employed,  and  the  mean 
tenipcriture  observed,  are  a  secret  to  all  but  the  initi- 
ated. An  inspection  of  the  diflTercnt  breweries,  T,-ill 
show  that  a  studied  care  and  cleanliness  are  exercised 
in  all  the  operations.  Fermentation,  wli'ch  In  common 
beer  is  upward,  we  are  told,  in  the  insiince  of  lager- 
bier,  is  the  reverse,  or  downward ;  but  as  it  is  the  na- 
ture of  all  fermentation  processes  for  the  "  workings," 
as  tliey  are  termed,  to  ateemt  for  a  certain  period  lie- 
fore  they  finally  settle,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  this 
"  downward  fermentation"  an  ingenious  joke.  In  order 
to  stifle  further  inquiry.  The  word  lager,  in  German 
language,  meana  ''  reft,  repose,"  an  attetrtlon  thia  pe- 
culiar drink  requires  in  order  to  secure  u  ripening  or 
maturity  of  perfectness  ;  and  from  this  word  the  bier 
derives  its  prefix,  hger: 

The  lager-bier  annually  made  in  New  York  city  and 
subur!>3  la  estimated  at  85,000  barrels,  a  number  we 
are  inclined  to  lielleve  beneath  the  actual  average. 
The  entire  city  consumption,  however,  of  this  bier 
from  all  parts,  is  computed  to  \ye  not  less  than  .1,075,- 
000  liarrels !  The  city  retailers  numlier  about  200O, 
exclusive  of  the  large  hotels  and  restaurants,  which 
alone  consume  from  )50fl0  to  ^6000  worth  anuuiiUy. 
In  the  city  of  St.  ,  .o.iis,  Missouri,  there  were  drank, 
ffom  Ist  March  to  September  17,  1854,  more  than  17,- 
B00,000  glasaeg  of  lo^r  and  common  beer,  and  the 
cutire  stock  of  24  brewerlea  of  that  district  was  com- 


pletely axhanated.  Philadelphia  has  22  breweries  ot 
lager-bier,  and  the  stock  accumulated  during  the  fall 
and  winter  of  1865,  waa  valued  at  $600,000  wh^leaale ! 
The  city  of  Cincinnati  hoa  7  flrat-clasa  and  22  accond- 
clasB  breweries ;  the  value  of  the  "  plant"  (machin- 
ery, tubs,  etc.,  etc.)  of  the  former  is  estimated  at 
$150,000  each.  The  flrat-class  breweries  average  each 
about  4000  barrels  per  year.  Most  of  them  have  largo 
excavated  vaults  for  stocking  or  lagerlng  this  l)icr. 
M.  Von  Beck's  store-cellar,  in  the  rocks  at  Rondout 
New  York,  which  will  contain  30,000  casks,  cost  $15,1 
000  for  excavations,  etc. 

The  brewing  of  lager-bier  usually  commences  about 
October,  and  is  then  deposited  till  the  succeeding  April 
or  May,  when  it  is  considered  to  be  in  "  fine  condi- 
tion." The  Cincinnati  lager-bier  breweries  en)ploy 
about  260  brewers,  and  as  many  othera  as  assistunts, 
etc.,  etc.  The  salary  of  a  good  foreman  is  $1000  per 
annum  and  house-rent ;  his  assistants  receive  from  $30 
to  $50  per' month.  They  commence  operations  at  four 
A.  M.,  and  got  through  in  from  9  to  10  hours.  These 
men  are  remarkalde  for  good  health.  Some  of  these 
cstftbllshmenta  make  9  brewings  a  week.  The  fall 
stock  of  Milwaukio  lager-liier,  in  1856,  waa  fullv 
00,000  barrels.  The  western  lager  requires  to  bo  of  a 
stronger  quiility  than  that  made  in  the  northern  brew- 
eries. Of  the  bencflcal  qualities  of  this  bier,  opinions 
are  far  from  unnnimoua ;  the  partisans  in  favor  of  the 
bev  igo  profess  that  from  10  to  (!(  glasses  per  day  may 
be  drank  with  impunity  I  Wliile  the  editor  oi  th,i 
Xew  York  Scalpel,  in  his  issue  for  October,  1856,  as- 
serts that  its  continued  use  produces  the  most  injurious 
eflocts  on  the  human  constitution,  and  which,  if  per- 
sisted in,  induces  disease  and  gradual  decay,  mentally 
and  pliysically. 

IiagOOn,  from  the  Latin  lacuna,  a  diti  h,  means  a 
morass.  The  name  is  given  particularly  to  those 
creeks  which  extend  along  the  coa.st  of  the  Adriatic, 
in  the  present  government  of  Venice,  and  which  are 
formed  by  water  running  up  in  the  la.id.  They  con- 
tain many  islands.  Venice,  for  instance,  is  built  on  CO 
of  them.  In  some  places  they  ore  deep ;  in  otlier<i  so 
shallow  that  t'lcir  exhalations  ofo  offensive  and  dan- 
gerous. The  Austrian  goveiiinient  does  less  towanl 
clearing  them  out  than  th;-  former  Venetian  govern- 
ment did;  and  Venice  in  consequence  is  considcmliiy 
less  healthy  than  it  waa.  Toward  tho  soa  the  islets 
are  secured  by  dams,  natural  or  urtilicial. 

La  Ouayra,  the  principal  sea-port  of  the  republic 
of  Venezuela,  in  the  province  of  Caraccas,  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  lat,  10°  36'  ">"  N.,  Ion.  67°  6'  45" 
\V.  Population  8000  ?  In  1810,  ilie  population  is  hc- 
lieve<l  to  have  amounted  to  .1.1,000 ;  the  reduction  being 
a  consequence  of  the  lots  of  life  caused  by  the  tremen- 
dous earthquake  of  1812,  and  tho  mi  lacres  and  pro- 
scriptions incident  to  the  revolutionary  war.  Tlio 
[lopulation  of  the  city  of  Caracl'.^^,  of  which  La  Guiiyra 
may  be  considered  r.s  the  port,  fell  oflT,  from  the  same 
caiisea,  from  43,000  in  1810,  to  23,000  in  1830  j  but 
they  are  now  lioth  Increasing.  There  is  neither  ([uay 
nor  mole  at  La  Guayra.  Shipa  moor  E.  N.  IC.  and  Vi. 
S.  W.,  with  their  heads  to  tho  north,  at  from  J  to  f  uf 
a  mile  from  the  laud,  in  from  0  to  18  fatlioms.  The 
holding  ground  is  good  ;  and  n  .twithstaiiding  the 
openness  of  the  road,  vessels  properly  found  in  an- 
chors and  cables  run  very  little  riak  of  being  driven 
tmxa  their  moorings.  The  principal  articles  of  export 
are  coffee,  cocoa,  in-.''go,  hides,  sarsaparilla,  etc.  La 
Guayra  aharea  the  trade  of  Venezuela  with  the  porta 
of  Cuniana,  Puerto  Oubello,  Maracaybo,  etc.,  having 
alxiut  a  half  of  ita  entire  amount. 

Port  Regnlationf. — On  caating  anchor,  a  visit  is  paid 
by  the  collector  of  customs,  or  his  agent,  accompanied 
t)y  other  officers,  who  take  frorn  the  master  his  regis- 
ter, manifest,  and  muster-roll,  and  on  officer  is  left  on 
fmard  until  the  cargo  is  discharged.  Tho  master  must 
•iwear  to  hia  manifest  within  24  hours  after  his  arrival, 


LAG 


lt«t 


LAH 


it  is  paid 
mpanied 
I\i9  ngis- 
in  left  on 
icr  must 
( nrrivol, 


When  tfie  permit  to  discharge  ia  granted,  and  wttbtn  !• 
days  all  Invoices  must  be  presented.  The  dlaclisrifa 
completed,  the  same  officers  repair  on  hoard  to  a%»in- 
ine  the  vessel,  and  all  being  found  In  order,  the  ofll'^r 
is  withdrawn.  The  clearing  of  a  vessel  outward  (Hmt 
has  entered  with  cargo),  in  ballast  Is  then  cornpUted 
1))'  paying  the  port  charges  ;  proof  whereof  lieinii  l>">' 
duced,  the  permission  to  sail  is  signed  by  the  goynrilor 
and  harbor  master.  If  the  vessel  take  I'argo  on  l)o»rd, 
then  the  same  formality,  as  to  vi»ltln«.  in  pursued,  »• 
on  tlie  entry  of  a  vessel.  Goods  Imported  are  slHI»»t 
invariably  sold  upon  credit ;  those  exported  ure,  on  H)« 
other  hand,  always  sold  for  ready  money.  The  terms 
of  credit  vary  from  2  to  6  months,  or  more,  iiwnk' 
ruptcy  is  very  rare. 

We  subjoin  a  statement  of  the  principal  expert* 
from  La  Guayra  daring  eacl'  if  the  5  years  endlnif  the 
5th  October,  1847. 


YenneniUnKiUi 
October. 

1848 

1844 

1846 

1848 

1847 

Coree. 

Ooroe. 

Collun 
Qii'int'ii 
BIO 
285 
767 
240 

1,128 

iiuger.  ]  ladigo. 

HI4«, 

QatnlaU. 
147,474 
182,US6 
122,912 
151,97."l 
126,812 

Fenetru. 
28,624 
S8,I89 
29,418 
82,476 
87,876 

(luinl>J<'(iiilii  '!• 

8,2«R  1  l.i»74 
2,5l)S  1    7il2 
5,153       4o» 
4.582       51T 
7,040      8til 

8(,«i4 
4»,77H 

Duties  received  at  custom-house.  La  iimym, 
1842-43,  $831,848;  1843-44,  $722,116  j  1844-46,  $7!*6,- 
m-,  1845^6,  $891,602. 


Tonnsgfl  duty 

Entrance  fuo 

Anchorage 

Captain  of  norths  fee 

Interpreter  8  foe 

Forniit  to  discliarge  and  stamp. . 

Heallh  olliccr's  fee 

Munlclpol  charge  for  water 

Municipal  bill  of  health.  

Foritilt  to  load  and  stamp, 

Certificate  of  sea  worthiness. . . 


Total 

Value  In  sterling  money. , 


K»IU>iial. 


!  |>rt.11.y»d).  I 


$:i7  50 
4  00 
12  00 
8  00 
2  OO 

im 

400 
40  00 
2  00 

1  12J 

2  00 


tl08  76 
£17  16 


tl6o  UO 
6  00 
16  0<) 
6  00 
4  IM 

I  m 

4  00 
40  l» 
8  00 
1  t2i 
iiOO 


1232  ■« 


«88  14 


A  ship  introducing  n  cargo,  and  sailing  In  ballnst, 
would  be  liable  to  all  the  above  charges,  with  the 


autmfMm  ftf  ili«  l««t  two.  The  charge  for  water  is 
Utffwi  wlthmit  fptfard  to  tonnage;  viz.,  sloops  and 
iM:lM«m«fs,  tm  p«ch,  Iirigs,  $30,  and  ships,  $40.  Ton- 
ii/)({«  umid/iyod  )n  flm  foreign  commerce  of  La  Guayra, 
f'tr  six  moiielw  of  1«S0, 30,417  tons.  See  VESEZCiEr.A. 
XiAfiUM  dl  T«nnlnoa,  or  Iiaguna  di  Car- 
nMn,  (t  Kfl(i-(Krfl  (iti  the  south  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
MtnUttt.  nt»t«  f<t  Yucatan,  lat.  18°  SS'  44"  N.,  long, 
wr'  fir  ei"  W,  It  derives  its  names  from  being  sit- 
i(u(«<l  ttUtut  1  inlln  within  the  south-west  extremity  of 
i'ufuwii  S»\imi\,  oti  thn  most  westerly  of  the  straits  or 
BntrdtK'fi--  IwimIIhk  into  the  basin  or  lagoon  of  Terml- 
mm,  I'dpiildHon  nlioiit  3000.  Tlie  port,  which  is  se- 
mn  Mll4  (rtM<  "tf  the  hci>t  on  the  gulf  has  from  12  to  14 
fiWt  W«{«f  it^fr  thn  linr  at  the  entrance  to  the  lagoon. 
V»iW*l#  tt(  ^fBKt^f  draught  load  and  unload  by  means 
of  IfKhtofi,  (Mltr^ldi*  the  bar,  in  from  3  to  4  fathoms, 
with  gfHA  UiA'Wn^  ((round. 

To  KMff  Itf  t'lift Hun  in  over  the  bar  with  Xical- 

»«««  I'olfit,  bertflrig  by  compass  S.  J  E.,  till  Point 
Mdi'fftut  Sm»r<t  H,  I',.  ^  H.,  and  tlien  steer  for  it ;  and 
n)l«H  flis  iHttih  sidp  (if  the  island  begins  to  shut  in  liaul 
up  f"r  t)l«  rtMCherf age  oir  the  town.  The  lead  is  a  nafe 
(Jllldfl  ofl  tlw  west  side  of  the  channel,  but  not  on  the 
B»6t,  'fhf  phlef  trade  of  the  town  consists  in  the 
slli|ipltlf$  of  logwood,  known  in  foreign  markets  by  tlio 
iiUfHw  lit  < 'omjieachy  wood,  from  its  having  been  orig- 
iortlly  mi  down  In  the  vicinity  of  that  port  and  ship. 
()«4  ttiim  Si,  tint  Campeacliy  has  ceased  to  be  an 
«Hfrtt|t/(t  (lit  loifwood,  It  is  now  principally  cut  Oown 
on  i\in  tnftitllft/ld  adjoining  the  lagoon  of  Terminos  j 
«n4  Mn\i  thcnie  conveyed  to  Lagun.i  in  coasting 
6elM«m«tr«,  U  (Sent  from  It  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
V**6iMil»^  rtfrtvlKfJ  with  cargoes  must  bring  a  general 
m<tll)f««|l  »nd  fnvolcfl  in  triplicate,  certiticd  by  the 
M»%Simn  cmist'l  /it  the  jxirt  of  depaitm-c.  Those  ar- 
rivlHjj  ffoHl  ft  foreign  port  in  ballast,  must  produce  a 
v\iiHimi'«  (fithpf  from  the  Mexican  consul  ortheau- 
HlurWcd  iif  the  tdilcn  from  whence  they  came,  sliow- 
Um  tJMt  tlltiy  liTMIg  no  cargo.  Pilotage  $1.75  per  foot, 
ot)l«f  («(rt  charges,  such  as  harbor-master's  fees,  an- 
pfM>r«(J«,  \imfi\  (it  faealtb,  etc.,  about  $25  each  vessel. 
WilfHt  kcHvIh^  dlfect  from  a  foreign  [lort  pay  $1.50  per 
Urn  tor  tf/flHrtgo  dues.    See  Mexkm. 


Statevint  of  the  Expoetation  or  Dvkwooiw  nwn  fUH  l'«l('f  W  i,k»tink  trt  Trhmihos  buriso  hie  Yeabs  1880, 

1851,  AND  1852,  81-ECIFTI.VU    ALSO    TUE    VtMKIS  l»   WHICH    fHHf    WHIIH   UHfPtt)    AHV  the    PoBTS  TO   WHICH  TUET 
BELONOED. 


Forte. 


Liverpool 

lUavre 

lluniburg 

Cork  and  market 

'Bonlesux 

iNew  York 

{Uremon 

jMarseilles. 

Antwerp 

Stettin...- 

lOenoa 

jPetorsburg 

Boston 

'No>»OrleiM 

Barcelona. 

Iiibraltar  and  market 

Klslneur  and  market 

Cailli! 

Nantes 

Havana 

Ijincaster 

Cotto , 

In  ballast  to  sundry  port*. 
Total 


18U. 


19 

17 

12 

16 

8 

4 

1 

9 

1 

9 

2 

8 

3 

1 


10 


101 


Logwood. 


Qufnlulf. 

07,728 

99,678^ 

42,369 

70,94flf 

26,849 

20.280 

4,51U 
14.029 

B.m 
n,7<» 

HfiU 
000  ' 


1,600 

'i^ioo 


Qiilmelf; 
1,8SU 

■i;4t4 

""n 


4,440 


484,611 


8,»tt 


VnHdil,  f" 


n 
ft 
1 
w 

n 
•t 
•i 

8 
I 
J 
» 


J 

i 

'i 
_» 


"aSfwei., 

mm 

fm 

U4I 


T,4»1 

'4Mi 


«ff/<»r 


1S59.                            1 

""-(■„...- 

Vf..i,lj. 

Logwo.,(l. 

Ku.llc. 

On'"'.;.. 

4.491 

MO 

7r'i97 

'l',it7 

21 
16 
14 
7 
7 
4 
6 
5 
6 

Qiiinliil!<. 
96,S1H 
88,708 
47,877 
80,010 
17,0^S 
81,071i 
44,327 
81.584 
84,610 

(jiilntsli. 

■i',6oo 

8,084 

2,012 

12,277 

'"60 

"40 

4 

16,608 

'"}. 

9 
9 

1 
1 

8,4611 
1,000 
2,480 

1,114 

.... 

1 

1,678 

'.'.'.'. 

1 

1 

8S94 
8,973 

■.'..'. 

.'.", 

• 

>••< 

.... 

Mm" 

104 

468.0591 

19,677 

Lahore,  an  extensive  province  of  Hindoostan,  alt*  j  tiM  fndlK/  The  pi'lncipal  geographical  and  territorial 
uated  between  the  thirtieth  and  thirty-fourth  degrees  I  nuMlvlshitw  Mf«  the  Pnn^..  comprehending  otlier 
of  north  latitude.  It  has  been  estimated  at  .140  miles  '  m(ti'/f  noMlvlslons ,  »nd  the  Kohistan  of  Lahore, 
in  length  by  200  in  avefage  breadth.  It  Is  l)ouiidfd  lll««  U  (oltlvated  in  tlie  narrow  valleys,  but  the  in- 
on  the  north  by  Cashmere  and  the  course  of  the  In-  MAimtU  .i#l«l«t  (;hlefly  on  wheat  bread,  and  peas 
dus  J  on  the  south  by  Delhi,  Ajeueer,  and  Koultan  (  liiiidf  llii<(  »  thi<  )<  soliji.  Pines  and  willow-trees  grow 
on  the  cast  by  the  mountains  of  northern  Ilindoostao  t  i  uft  tll«  •l(ff((««  </f  the  mountains.  The  resinnua  part 
and  on  the  west  It  la  separated  from  Afghanistan  by  i  of  (Im  Of  i(i  cut  Into  slips,  and  scpplies  the  place  of  a 


m 


LAK 


lUt 


LAK 


lamp.  The  climate  U  not  favural^U  U)  ftnU«  im4  *HU' 
etablea.  Fossil  salt  iu  found  In  many  mrii,  t^ti4  IM 
mountain  tractn  are  supiwsed  Vu  Iw  rii'))  IH  mitrnfttU, 

Ihe  commerce  of  tbin  country  wim)  (ufiittfiy  mutU 
obstructed  by  the  heavy  duties  Levied  <>*)  tttt  llfx  umitiit 
as  they  passed  through  the  diflbreot  t»triUiri»i*  iit  ti«« 
petty  Silins.  It  was  iu  cons«(|U«nc«  mfnii4  Ui  H\H' 
doostnn  Proper  by  the  difficult  and  nvmt^mtum  fi/UUi 
of  .lumlioe,  Nadone,  and  Kerin»i;e»i,  'Hm  ^)kl)  iliiffn^ 
however,  discovered  thtir  error,  eB4  tmnjf  itf  iiivim 
heavy  and  vexatious  duties  ha-e  lawn  fwjH^Wj  (  Htui 
by  a  moro  stricl  aduiiuistrutiuu  of  jUttUn',  I'lmMt^m 
has  been  restored  to  the  merchants.  Tlw  ftMpiiHf>  Itf 
Lahore  to  the  coimtries  west  of  tha  ()#4m*  »rti,  itUtiHf, 
rice,  indigc.  A-hcat,  and  cotton  cli/tlw,  'fim  j»rt(#*rt<* 
from  Cicse  counti-ies  are,  swords,  tvtr^ii,  (mH,  J«w(, 
and  spicca.  The  exporta  to  C'asbnure  ar«  uxHfty  th« 
sani3  as  t.>  Persia,  the  imports  bviug  tihawl',  M  f'ltiHjf 
of  clotlis,  saffron,  and  fruits,  Witi*  kiiUintAlt  (I«a 
mountainous  district  o^  I^hure,  (tlM  MtMiit^Hi*  ii( 
Punjab  exchangu  tlotli,  matchlocks,  iiMi4  Uttfii4i^,  dif 
iron  and  ct'T r  small  c»niiiM;dUf«s,  ifrmt  thti  m/tHU 
are  im  Ifihur,  fndiifo,  «aj(,  Ittn4,  ifm,  liorit-- 

pell' I  '■•  ifii  h'th,  and  t.iimi-    '/'/i«  nitiiiitU  lu 

the  80U,  V  rses,  capjels,  .si/g*^,  riwi,  wUm  til4U, 
matcbl  ickfi,  swi'i'ds,  and  Ijows  and  arf"W4, 

Z.  re,  the  capital  city  of  the  l>'  U)y,  tifiHnU  !»-• 
dia,  o  aiueut  of  tlic  Kavce,  }n  ,4;,  Hf''  ati'  »,, 

long.  7»  .<i  E.  Populath>a  eatiimM  itt,  ffiilli  UKlf 
000  to  120,000.  It  is  inth>sed  by  a  tUiMu  \m  l.t 
defenses,  the  outer  lining  abuvt  /  Wil**  itt  litiuH. 
Streets  narrow,  filtliy,  and  muvihuif  ^■fllWI^«4i 
hou.'u.s  of  lirick,  end  lofty,  /t  Im  UUUl)/  Ufg*  Mill 
bandsonia  mosques,  ami  around  (t  (i-r  mt^lt^  ntiti'-'  ttfP 
extensive  Moliammrdun  ruins,  with  Um  hitf  UmUiit 
tliR  Emperor  Joliaugirc,  and  the  gar^tM "f  Mliill  ilfllMII. 
Hero  are  also  many  Itiudiw  (emptes,  »it)(--«Hfrt/lj«i4 
niarliets,  and  a  itadel,  containing  Um  (w(a*«  »/f  ()/* 
Silib  Boverclgiu).  Under  tlu;  U-^gMl  iwiwriin'.-  <)/# 
city  was  of  much  gre.ter  ext/nt,  /«  /7(*,  it  Mi  tlU 
to  the  hanils  of  Alinicd  8hali ;  in  HUH  Uuilifff  )i)ildll 
was  invested  governor  und  rajah.  AfUtr  Hm  liuitl  ih- 
feat  of  the  Sikba,  in  18'1U,  I^aiiore  UUD  lakftl  luiattiii- 
sion  of  liy  the  Urit'«li. 

Lake,  au  extensive  s  .  uniulatlon  uf  wnU>f  *ilinU}r 
Burniunrted  liy  land,  and  iiaving  m  4imi  im  imiiW- 
diatc  conimuniiatiun  witl.  tlia  ocean,  i)f  with  Ullf  Hflt*, 
or  having  so  only  by  means  of  rivers,  Mfc««  tHU  14 
various  l<inds,  and  have  been  A'.yitM  UlU)  iWil  I'huHi'iif 
according  to  th-jir  sltuaiion  and  caajiss  iif  iifmilUiUm, 
'f  liosc  wliiili  are  fonncd  in  di-cp  h/'llows  Mwi'<<ll  itut 
ridgca  or  at  the  bases  of  tlif  mount liins,  a«4  »)/('((  HfK 
supplied  with  water  by  springs  or  OirrunUt,  ttfx  i  IHf^ffii 
together,  and  those  which  are  foi'iiMfl  In  i'/W  HDii  htfl 
countri'js  by  the  surplus  water  of  rivers,  m  tfiitn  H 
want  of  sufficient  declivity  In  tljc  gr«M)Mj  i»  ttttiW  iUti 
watt  tv  cotinue  their  courNS,  mni^ililUi  It  WMWl 
class.  Sometimes  a  <  biun  of  la'^o  is  iitmtm'U"^  »irtl 
one  another  and  witli  .  ,iu  ocean  ijy  «  s«riAlt  i,f  fivttfM, 
This  Is  the  case  with  the  great  litkus  m  ttlM  lltifthl^n 
frontier  of  North  America,  wbere  /,<«)(»  nittn-tiiUtM  Imfiitf 
on  a  lower  If  vel,  like  sc  m  i.y  Iffk*  m  »  I'mmt.-  A 
foarth  class  of  lakes  are  thote  n.Ml  r»*)»'*  nifmttlK 
of  water  and  often  K'eat  rivers  viUhmit  Im^illlt  ■■mmt- 
ently  any  outlet,  'ihcse  lakes  are  in  ^lit-mt  I'limilcH 
tc  warm  liimates;  but  tlu-  ('aspfan  i^»,i\m  \mnifi-l 
of  all  lt<kcs,  belongs  U>  this  class.  TlwrM  nff  H  gfi'ltt 
many  others  beside  in  At^i';  ai^d  H'intli  Aiiutfii-Hititl^ 
tains  I.kVo  Tit4c".cs  nhicii  iiaa  u/i  itfflir4,  nHhitlnh  It 
receives  very  considerable  rivers  UlUi  Ur  Huih  iakfi 
upiiear  to  belong  to  the  Interior  uf  Uftmt  (^"liitu^ft  i 
they  are  j/laced  on  eleviitcd  plains  mhUh  Unff  Im  ««*' 
Bible  declivity  toward  Iha  sea,  ai^)  tUUh  >i<i  in4  HJkrvf 
the  water  opening  for  itself  «  J)**»*gt,  Ihf'i'luU  *1lM< 
to  dow  out. 

It  was  long  conjcct.ircjl  that  by  eiitiU'-  eui'U'flfillM'Hii 

chwujol  lakei  of  tl>i»  i«*cript4i>>»  imimumtiv^  tfith 


tim  M« )  but  the  fact  that  the  surfaceo  of  some  of  thb 
ttuiat  r«marKable  of  them,  such  as  the  Caspian  and  the 
!>««<(  Sea,  are  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  ocean, 
it  (|ntt«  sifflciont  to  explode  this  hypothesis.  I'or 
»W«  there  any  communicatian,  however  small,  the 
«c««m  tcmild  flow  into  the  lake  till  it  brought  it  to  a 
l«t«l  «lth  Itself.  The  true  explanation  seems  to  bo 
(iMit  H  quantity  of  water  equal  to  that  which  rum  In  is 
<ititU(\  off  by  evaporation.  The  alisorption  oi"  liquid 
)*y  the  contiguous  land,  may  also  materially  assist  iu 
carrying  off  the  surplus  fluid. 

Instinct  from  any  of  the  characteristics  of  lukes  yet 
«tlud«<l  to,  is  the  chemical  nature  of  their  waters. 
(.«it«s  in  respect  to  the  quality  of  the  waters  are  dis- 
tlftf^ftjshed  into  fresh,  saline,  and  alkaline.  Those 
#likh  receive  and  discharge  conslderablu  quantities  of 
t'esU  water  are  almost  always  kept  in  a  state  of  per- 
fect freshness  ;  but  those  which  have  no  outlet  are  in- 
variably saline.  Thus  the  Dead  Sea,  whose  waters 
(i«*«  no  efflnx,  and  into  which  the  river  Jordan  con- 
DnHolly  flows,  contains  about  eight  times  as  much  salt 
(W  Hiimnon  sea-water.  The  waters  of  the  Jordan  are 
("icltish,  abd  the  neigliboring  soil  is  much  imprcg- 
illfcii  with  salt,  so  that  the  accumulation  of  such  a 
UttHiiiiiy  (it  saline  matter  in  the  lake  during  a  series 
lit  (iges  is  by  no  means  surprising,  for  rone  of  it  ever 
(iWsws  off  by  evaporation.  Suit  must  likewise  be  ac- 
illiMAxttng  in  l>eds  a",  its  Iwttom ;  for  as  soon  as  water 
Is  Wrtfpctly  saturated,  and  cap  bold  no  more  salt  in  so- 
iutkm,  the  latter  must  fall  to  the  bottom.  Some  of 
file  large  Asiatic  lakes  are  dried  up  during  summer, 
llt-A  their  beds  appear  lined  with  an  incrustation  of 
Huh,  All  the  groat  American  lakes  consist  of  fresh 
Wntut )  lliose  ( f  Europe  arc  either  fresh  or  slightly 
sulfrte  i  but  the  Caspinr  Sen,  and  various  others  which 
«(*  situated  in  plains  full  of  salt,  or  in  tracts  of  couu- 
hf  *((ef«  suit  springs  abound,  are  almost  invariably 
imtitpgnnleil  with  that  sulstance.  Some  lakes  arc 
liiiiu  saline  anrt  alkaline,  im  i:.  the  case  with  the  Xat- 
Hitl  liaUen  in  I.owor  Egypt,  flu  y  derive  their  appel- 
lation ttiiui  their  aboiiiiling  in  .-oda  which  is  there 
calif  "  irons,  and  natron,  the  nitre  of  tlie  Scriptures. 
S*rt«e  bikes  produce  a  pil'.liy  substance.  In  the  i.^iand 
lit  trlnldsd  there  Is  one  'u  the  surface  of  which  au 
eiiiitmoUK  iiuiintlny  of  bidinicn,  fit  fr,f  naval  purposes, 
fs  liiiieiteif.  J/cposits  .if  various  kii  rls  besides  those 
jm«/rt«tated  scert  to  ov  e  their  origin  to  lakes.  Hng 
iflitt  irtt,  (ft  hydro-phosphate  of  iron,  is  often  founil  in 
(tttch  siNntions  as  to  show  that  it  biis  been  deposited 
ttiitn  the  waters  1 1'  lakes  j  and  in  some  countrii's  it  is 
((/Heeled  from  the  sldci'  and  bottoms  of  lakes  once  in 
«  (ettaln  /lumliei  of  years,  (,'alcarcous  springs  are 
ttdwetous,  and  when  tl  c  waters  of  these  collect  in  a 
IkiII</w  place  so  as  to  form  a  l.ike,  quantities  of  cal<'a- 
ti>(/n.;  !iin(ers  and  tuflas  are  deposited,  so  that  the  lakes 
#((«((  Piniaied  present  extensive  d.'posits  of  that  niin- 
(rtnl.  The  travertine  employed  at  liomo  lor  Imilding, 
(« (I  liike  or  spring  calcareous  deposit  of  sinter  and  tuffa. 

Lakes,  Oreat  American.    1  he  following  are 

the  prindf  al  lakes  forming  tho  great  chain  of  inland 
n«vl(pitlon,  extending  from  tho  St  Lawrence  Kiver  to 
fho  head  of  Lake  Superior: 

//(/•f  Onlitrio,  in  hlia|io,  approaches  to  a  long  and 
Hdrrow  ellipse,  bebrj  about  1!)0  miles  long .lud  60  wide, 
»ith  «  coos*,  line  of  about  180  miles.  Its  surface  is 
iM  feet  alxjve  tide  water,  and  .'illO  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  Jrtilie  Erie.  It  is  in  many  places  over  COO  feet 
deep,  so  that  ifs  lK)ttx)m  is  ladow  the  level  of  tho  At- 
latttic.  In  every  part  it  has  suthcieut  depth  for  the 
largest  vessels,  -md  :s  rarely  fro-ion,  except  near  the 
shov'i.  There  are  many  gooii  harbors  on  the  lake.  It 
reeeivea  tho  water  of  Ni;:gara  lUvcr,  tho  outlet  of  the 
other  American  Lakes;  aUo.  the  Genesee,  Oswego, 
!(n<1  lllac.k  lUvors.  It  la  connected  witli  the  Erie  Ca- 
ItM  \rf  t-he  Oswego  Canal,  and  has  by  'Mi  means  u 
(llTdft  water  communication  with  New  York  city. 

/.a/««  />'«!  which  is  aituated  066  feet  bIjovo  the  aea, 


LAK 


VM 


LAK 


louf?  ftnd 

id  5,"!  wide, 
surl'iU'n  is 

iw  the  8Ur- 
r  COO  feet 
of  the  At- 

ith  for  the 
L  near  thi> 
Dluko.  It 
itlct  ct  the 

„,  Oiwegi), 
10  Krie  Cn- 
lucana  u 
city. 
■0  the  ae&t 


080  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Ontario,  la  abont  26fi 
miles  in  length,  from  80  to  60  miles  in  breadth,  and 
between  600  and  700  miles  in  circumference.  Its  mean 
depth  is  120  feet,  being  the  shallowest  of  all  the  great 
lakes,  and  most  easily  frozen,  ltd  watei's  are  also,  on 
account  of  its  shallowness,  more  veadily  agitated  l)y 
storms,  cansing  its  navigation  to  be  therefore  more 
dangerous  during  stormy  weather.  Disasters,  involv- 
ing large  loss  of  life  and  property,  are  not  of  unflre- 
quent  occurrence  on  the  lake,  toward  the  close  of 
navigation,  liefore  the  rigors  of  winter  have  put  a  final 
stop  to  all  active  lake  trafBc.  The  shores  of  this  lake 
present  features  verj-  similar  to  those  of  Lake  On- 
tario ;  the  banks  of  Lake  Erie  lieing  generally  bolder 
and  more  elevated,  and  composed  chiefly  of  cloy  and 
sand.  The  more  fertile  parts  are  at  some  distance 
from  the  banks,  throughout  the  extensive  plain  of 
table-land  beyond.  Tliere  are  several  good  natural 
harbors  along  the  shore,  formed  chiefly  by  the  mouths 
of  deep  creeks  or  streams,  and  protected  from  the  ac- 
tion of  storms  and  c.rent  of  the  lake  by  strong  pro- 
jecting piers. 

Among  the  harbors  of  Lake  Erie  may  be  mentioned 
Port  Colbome,  situated  ot  the  entrance  to  the  Welland 
Canal,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  and  a  little  above  the 
commencement  of  the  Niagara  River.  A  little  further 
up  is  the  harbor  of  Port  Maitland,  at  tlie  month  of 
the  Grand  River.  This  is  a  very  fine  and  copacious 
stream,  navigable  for  small  vessels  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  possessing  much  fertile  land  and  pleasing 
scenery  along  its  banks.  The  shore  of  the  lake  for 
some  way  above  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  River  pre- 
spnts  many  delightful  and  fertile  settlements.  Among 
the  harl)ors  further  up  the  lake  ore  Ports  Dover,  Bur- 
well,  and  Stanley.  Port  Stanley  is  perhaps  the  moet 
flourlsliing  of  these  harbors,  being  the  port  of  one  of 
the  nio.st  populous  and  enterprising  liistricts  of  this 
part  of  Canada,  and  situated  near  the  centre  of  the 
great  fertile  peninsula.  Tlio  l)ank8  of  Lake  Erie  are 
hero  high,  and  of  a  sandy  character ;  but  off  tlie  im- 
mediato  bank,  and  extending  all  the  way  tlirough  the 
extensive  tract  of  country  to  the  town  of  Goderich,  or 
Lake  Huron,  a  distance  of  80  miles,  the  soil  is  of  the 
best  <iuality,  being  for  the  most  part  timbered  with 
bceih,  maple,  black  and  white  walnut,  oak,  ash, 
clicriv,  and  other  trees,  indicating  the  first  qualities 
of  soil.  The  whole  tract  is  greatly  undulating' in  its 
appearance,  and  is  evorywlicre  wull  wr.tered.  Th<- 
upper  part  of  Lake  Erie  is  diitinguished  by  mnuy 
beautiful  ifianda,  the  largest  of  which  is  Pele,  on  which 
there  ia  a  light-house,  and  several  faros.  The  shores 
along  tlie  upper  part  of  tlie  lake,  especially  toward  the 
mouth  of  the  Detroit  River,  have  a  smiling  and  luxu- 
riant aspect.  Trees  of  the  finest  growth  rise  from  tlie 
shore,  and  the  wild  vine  may  be  seen  twining  and 
clustering  among  the  brandies  of  the  lesser  trees  and 
tall  shrubs  along  the  sloping  banks.  The  shore  is 
here  covered  wit?;  fine  white  sand. 

Lalx  St.  Clair. — In  our  further  progress  up  this 
country,  we  pass  the  Detroit  River,  thence  into  Lokc 
St.  Clair,  then  the  River  St.  Clair,  which  'ast  opens 
into  the  broad  expanse  of  Lake  Huron.  From  the 
head  of  Lake  Erie  to  tho  foot  of  Lake  Huron,  is  a  dis- 
tance of  between  80  and  'JO  miles,  through  a  country 
of  unsurpassed  fertility  and  lu.iiiriaiice,  and  possess- 
ing many  delightful  features.  The  Detroit  Kivi-r, 
alwut  27  milns  in  length,  is  interspersed  >rith  many 
islands,  severol  of  whicli,  near  its  entrance  into  Lake 
Erie,  are  lisautiiully  wooded.  Tho  towns  of  .Vmberst- 
burg  and  Sandwich,  and  tlie  small  iillage  of  Wind- 
sor, are  situated  along  tiie  Couada  side  of  this  river. 
Opposite  Windsor,  toward  tho  upper  part  of  the  river, 
and  where  the  bonks  nonow  to  al)OUt  three  ti'iartnrs 
ol  a  mile,  is  the  American  city  cf  Detroit,  in  the  ^-.ate 
of  Michigan.  Lake  .St.  Clair,  which  forms  thi  con- 
necting link,  by  inean.s  of  tliu  St.  Clair  ami  I  etrnit  j 
Kivars,  between  Lakes  Huron,  Blichig^a,  and  Erie,  is] 


the  smallest  of  all  the  lakes,  and  exceedingly  shallow 
for  the  larger  class  of  vessels  passing  through  it.  It 
Is  from  20  to  30  miles  in  length,  and  alwut  the  same  in 
breadth.  Its  average  depth  is  about  20  feet,  but  the 
principal  channel  used  by  vessels  passing  through  it  is 
much  shallower,  especially  in  drj'  seasons,  when  the 
mud  of  its  JbUa  is  stirred  to  the  surface  not  unfre- 
quently  by  large  vessels.  The  chief  stream  which  it 
receives  from  tho  Canadian  shore  is  the  River  Thames, 
which  is  navigable  for  lake  vessels  22  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  the  banks  of  which  are  exceedingly  fertile, 
and  mostly  well  settled.  Much  of  the  land  bordering 
on  the  lake  is  low  and  marshy.  In  the  upper  part  of 
the  lake  are  several  islands,  the  principal  of  which  is 
Walpole  Island,  about  10  miles  long,  and  from  3  to  4 
miles  wide.  This  island  is  inhabited  by  a  stray  |)or- 
tion  of  the  remnant  of  Indians  still  existing  in  small 
and  decreasing  numbers  in  Canada.  We  are  now  at 
the  entrance  to  the  River  St.  Clair,  in  length  about  30 
miles.  There  are  several  thriving  settlements  along 
the  fertile  and  beautiful  banks  of  this  river.  Toward 
the  lower  part,  amid  a  cluster  of  wooded  islands,  the 
banks,  with  somewhat  of  a  flat  appearance,  are  cov- 
ered with  luxuriant  timber.  Further  up,  the  land  rises, 
with  finely  sloping  banks  and  cultivated  farms.  Near 
the  head  of  the  river,  and  pleasantly  situated,  is  the 
flourishing  town  of  Samia. 

iaie  Huron. — Tho  River  St.  Clair  now  opens  to  the 
wide  expanse  of  Loko  Huron,  of  about  1000  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. This  vast  sheet  of  inland  sea  is  tlie  second 
in  point  of  size  of  the  great  lakes,  yielding  only  in  this 
respect  to  Lake  Superior.  The  surface  of  Lake  Huron 
is  about  30  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Erie,  and  595 
feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  Atlantic.  The  length  may 
be  estimated  at  250  miles,  and  its  breadth  160  miles, 
inclusive  of  the  Georgian  Bay,  a  large  wing  of  the 
lake,  extending  along  the  north-eastern  shore  for  a 
distance  of  about  100  miles.  The  mean  depth  of  Lake 
Huron  is  900  feet,  and  its  greatest  depth  1000  feet 
near  the  west  shore.  This  lake  is  '  'id  to  contain  the 
almost  incredible  number  of  32,000  i.,  anda,  principally 
along  the  northern  shore  and  at  the  north-western  end, 
varying  in  size  from  mere  rocky  reefs  and  pinnacles  to 
large  and  cultivable  islands.  Tho  Great  Manitoulin,  the 
longest  of  tlie  islands,  is  upward  of  75  miles  in  length, 
and  varies  iu  width  from  3  to  23  miles.  The  waters 
of  the  lake  are  remarkably  pure,  clear,  ind  cold;  in 
these  respects  resembling  the  great  upper  Lake  Supe- 
rior. The  surface  of  Lake  Huron  is  about  32  feet 
lower  than  that  of  Lake  Superior,  ond  it  is  very  nearly 
OS  deep  as  that  lake.  Tlie  nature  of  tlio  banks  of  Lake 
Huron  vary  vciy  much.  In  parts  they  are  low  and 
sandy,  in  others  formed  of  clay ;  they  rise  to  a  height 
of  about  120  feet,  while  again  the  shore  of  this  inland 
sea  presents  a  bold,  rock)',  iron-bound  coast,  having 
groat  depth  of  water  to  the  base.  Numerous  streams 
descend  on  all  sides  into  the  lake ;  unl  among  its 
rivers  moy  bo  mentioned  tho  Maitland,  Severn,  and 
River  Franifois.  Tlio  lake,  which  is  rather  subject  to 
storms,  is  deficient  in  good  and  natural  harbors,  the 
principal  of  which,  along  tho  eastern  coast,  are  Gode- 
rich, at  the  mouth  of  tho  Maitland,  Saugeen,  and 
Penetanguisliene ;  and  on  the  western  shore  tl-e  best 
places  of  shelter  in  heavy  weather  are  Tliunder  Bay 
and  Saginaw  Hay. 

Lake  Huron  possesses  tho  advantage  of  bemg  re- 
remavkaldy  centrally  situated  with  respect  to  the 
other  groat  lakes.  With  Lake  Erie,  as  we  have  seen, 
it  is  connected  by  the  Straits  or  Rivers  St.  Clair  and 
Detroit,  and  the  small  Lake  St.  Clair.  Lake  Ontario, 
the  lower  of  the  lalses,  is  oven  open  to  it  by  the  River 
Severn,  Lake  Simcoc,  then  by  a  short  portage,  a  cliain 
of  lakes,  and  Trent  River.  Lake  Siracoe,  thus  situ- 
ated between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Ontario,  is  a  very 
beautiful  lak'-,  about  30  miles  in  length  and  20  In 
breadth.  The  neck  of  land  south  of  Lake  Simcoe 
from  UoUond  Rivei  leading  to  Toronto  is,  it  will  b« 


I 


LAK 


1164 


LAK 


remembered,  about  R6  milen;  and  axaln,  north  of 
I/okc  SImcoe,  from  the  narrown  of  this  lake  tn  I^iike 
Huron,  tho  portago  Is  only  ahout  14  mllen.  The  new 
railway  now  cutting  tlirough  tills  nof  k  of  tlio  penln- 
spla  weiitward,  situated  lietweim  tiio  Lakes  Erie,  On- 
tario, and  Huron,  will  greatly  facilitate  the  growing 
Intercourse  l)ctw«en  the  shores  of  Or  lario,  as  well  as 
all  tho  countrj-  lower  down  along  the  banks  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  also  groat  part  of  the  United  States, 
with  the  regions  of  the  great  upper  lakes,  Huron  ond 
Superior.  This  direct  course  will  no  doul)t  he  much 
preferred  to  tho  circuitous  route  through  Lakes  Erie 
and  St.  Clair,  and  tho  connecting  rivers. 

Lake  Huron,  hesldcs,  communicates  with  the  Otta- 
wa, and  thence  with  the  St.  Lawrence  almve  Montreal, 
by  means  of  French  River,  Lake  NIpissing,  ond  tlin 
River  Mattawa,  Into  tho  Ottawa.  This  Is  the  route 
adopted  generally  liy  the  north-west  traders  In  pro- 
ceeding to  the  remote  parts  of  tho  countrj',  and  It  is 
also  the  one  by  which  Kuroponns  first  penetrated  the 
West.  The  distance  from  Montreal  by  this  route  to 
Lake  Huron  Is  fully  more  than  one  half  shorter  than 
that  l)y  the  St.  Lawrence.  From  Montreal  to  the 
Georgian  Hay,  the  disfunco  is  estimati-d  at  400  miles, 
while  by  tho  St.  Lawrence  the  distance  Is  upward  of 
10<I0  miles.  A^ain,  Ijike  Huron  communicates  with 
tho  great  upper  Luko  Superior  by  means  of  tho  River 
St,  Mary,  aliout  (0  miles  in  length.  Lastly,  we  have 
tills  centrally  situated  loko  communicating  by  tlie 
straits  of  Slackinac  with  L.ike  Michigan,  and  thence 
i)y  tho  niinols  River  and  Canal  with  the  Mississipiii 
and  Gulf  of  SIoxUo.  The  slioros  of  Lake  Huron  have 
of  late  revealed  important  mineral  treasures.  The 
Bruce  copper  mines  promise  to  lie  of  great  value. 
These  mines  are  situated  upon  tho  riortliorn  Hiiiiro  of 
the  lake  under  tlie  Clocho  Mountains,  a  liold  range  of 
hills  extending  aliout  40  miles  abmg  the  coast.  Along 
the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  lake,  extending  l)e- 
youd  the  town  anl  harbor  of  ftoderich,  on  tho  River 
Slaitland,  arc  many  highly  prosperous  settlements. 
The  lands  in  this  direction,  and  through  thn  large  and 
tino  district  inland,  are  belleve<l  to  be  tlio  most  fertile 
in  Canada.  The  couutrj-  is  everywhere  well  watered, 
and  enjoys  much  dellglitfnl  scencrj-,  botli  along  the 
elevated  banks  of  tho  lake  and  the  licautiCui  rivers 
which  diversify  it.  The  town  of  Goderich.  on  the 
River  Slaitland,  is  very  agreealdy  situated,  anil  |io«- 
soKsi's  an  excellent  harbor.  The  higli  lianks  of  tho 
Maltland  are  exceedingly  picturesque. 

[,aki:  fiiiptrim; — Wc  now  upproacli  tiio  uppermost 
of  these  vast  collections  of  water,  not  in.ippronriately 
named  Inland  seas.  The  River  or  Strait  <if  St.  Sfary, 
connecting  Lake  Huron  witli  Lake  Superior,  is  lie- 
tween  M)  and  40  miles  in  lengtli.  The  diaraiter  of  the 
fcencry,  on  entering  St.  Mary's  Cli/iinn'l,  i^  the  moit 
delightfid  that  can  be  imagined.  The  chiinnci  thrmigii- 
out,  with  the  exception  of  several  small  bikes,  seems 
to  l)e  almost  packed  with  islands:  and  wliiie  perp1e.<t- 
Ing  the  navigator  by  its  Intricacy,  It  i<  c,  cry  now  and 
tlien  revealing  new  nnd  striking  be  nitic%  of  wooded 
heights  and  steep  banks  clothed  with  verdure,  and 
spots  of  flat,  fertile  meadows,  and,  at  times,  bare, 
rocky,  fanta.stic  crags.  The  sides  of  tho  ridges  of 
talde-lands  that  skirt  the  countrj',  around  the  liorders 
of  Lake  Superior,  appear  in  the  distance  clotlied  with 
one  mass  of  lively  green.  Tlie  foot  of  tho  Falls,  or, 
more  jiroperly  speaking.  Rapids  of  St.  Mary,  approach 
within  about  18  miles  of  Lake  Snperior.  Tho  ri.'gion 
in  this  direction  seems  much  less  fertile ;  the  trees 
along  the  shores  of  tho  broad  strait  appearing  to  be 
chiefly  of  the  pine  species,  and  tho  soil  in  many  parts 
light  and  sandy,  while  the  lands  close  upon  the  banks 
lie  for  the  most  part  low  and  flat.  We  now  approach 
tho  chief  seat  of  the  great  copper  district  of  .\merica, 
wfaero  the  barrenness  of  n  large  pjrtlon  of  the  country 
Is  richly  eompunsated  by  the  value  of  the  metals  with 
irhicli  it  abounds.  The  copper  niinea  of  Oansds,  along 


the  shores  of  I^kes  Huron  and  Superior,  are  perhapn 
entitled  to  rank  among  the  most  valualde  resources  of 
this  great  country. 

As  we  approach  the  great  queen  lake  or  inland  »ea 
upward  of  400  miles  in  length  and  i:)0  in  hreaillh,  dark 
liluo  masses  of  liills  uprise,  somen  liut  remindin;;  tlio 
voyager  of  the  approaches  to  tlie  ,St.  Lawrence  in  tlio 
forma  of  the  hoailiands  of  Cape  Itozi^re  and  other.a 
yet  Iwlng  neither  so  high  no;-  so  bold  as  these.  The 
main  entrance  to  the  lake  in  marked  liytwosuili  rocky 
headlands,  one  upon  either  shore  several  inilcH  npart. 
From  the  heights  of  the  one  on  tiiu  other  sliore.  niinicd 
Gros  ('ap,  composed  of  tlie  rock  of  tho  old  red  suiid- 
stone,  the  sides  of  wliich  are  partially  covered  witli 
Junipers,  blue  bells,  wihl  briars,  and  other  vegetation 
reminding  one  of  the  Scottish  hills,  we  overlook  u 
scene  of  the  most  Imposing  and  still  grandeur  iiomlblo 
to  be  imagined.  The  dim  distance  into  tlio  lake  is 
lioundod  liy  vast  islands,  and  along  both  shorc.i  Ijuld 
uneven  banks  uprise,  apparently  covered  with  dark 
dense  foliage,  and  stretch  themaelvos  in  irregular 
course,  as  far  as  tho  eye  can  reach,  along  the  wide  ex- 
panse of  water  that  scarcely  as  yet  presents  any  speck 
of  navigation.  Tho  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  which 
are  even  now  Imperfectly  explored,  alreai?  prove  to 
lie  abundant  in  mineral  resources.  Many  of  tiie  en- 
terprising iiihabitant.s  of  Cana<la,  having  formed  tlicm- 
soives  into  associations,  are  now  engaged  in  mining 
the  seemingly  inoxhaustililo  treasures  of  virgin  cop. 
per  which  are  found  along  the  shores  of  this  lake  as 
well  as  Lake  Huron.  This  source  of  wealth  to  tho 
colony  la  likely  to  prove  of  considerable  ini|H>rt. 
ance. 

Lake  Superior,  which  Is  tho  largest  sheet  of  fresh 
water  on  tho  face  of  the  globe.  Is  the  most  remarkalilo 
of  the  great  American  Lakes,  not  only  from  its  mag- 
nitude, Imt  also  from  the  picturesque  scenery  of  itj 
liordem,  and  the  interest  and  value  attacliing  to  its 
geological  features.  "  As  a  mining  region,"  continues 
br.  Jackson,  who,  as  United  States'  geologi.st,  was  in- 
trusted by  his  government  to  survey  tho  territory,  "  it 
is  one  of  tiic  most  important  to  tliis  country,  and  is 
rich  in  veins  of  metallic  copjier  and  silver,  us  well  us 
in  the  ores  of  those  metals.  At  tlie  jirescnt  nioiiicnt  it 
mny  lie  regarded  as  the  most  vuinalile  mining  district 
in  North  America,  with  the  exception  only  of  the  gold 
deposits  of  California.  The  whole  coast  of  Lake  Su- 
perior is  rock-l>ound.  Mountain  masses  of  consideraljle 
elevation  in  some  places  rear  themselves  from  the  im- 
mediate shore,  while  stoep  precipices  and  friglitful 
crags  oppose  themselves  to  the  surges  of  tlie  niiglity 
lake,  and  threaten  tiio  unfortunate  mariner  who  may 
lie  caught  In  a  storm  upon  a  '.eo  sliorc  with  almost  in- 
evitable destruction.  The  northern  or  Canadian  shore 
of  the  lake  is  the  most  precipitous,  and  consequently 
most  dangerous  to  tho  navigator.  Good  hurlHirs  for 
ves.sels  of  moderate  capacity  are  comparatively  few, 
liut  there  are  almndance  of  coves  or  ijoat-harlmra 
formed  by  tlie  countless  indentations  of  tlic  rocky 
coast.  In  remarkable  contrast  to  Lake  Huron,  wliicli 
is  thickly  studded  witli  islands,  there  are  very  ('ew 
islands  in  Lake  Superior. 

Agriculture  may  be  truly  said  to  have  not  yet  com- 
menced to  tamo  tiio  great  and  comparatively  unex- 
ploreil  wilderness  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  forests  of  8tun*»d  spruce  and  (ir-trces  along  tlie 
immediate  coast  of  the  lake  are  said  to  utVord  a  very 
inadequate  idea  of  the  agricultural  resources  of  the 
shores  of  the  great  queen  lake.  Tlie  cold  air  from  tho 
lake,  says  Dr.  .Tackson,  affects  only  the  vegetation 
near  its  shores,  while  further  inl.ind  the  temperature 
more  resemtdes  that  of  the  settled  parts  of  Canada. 
The  native  forest  trees,  and  also  the  flowering  plants, 
as  well  as  the  agricultural  produce  where  clearings 
have  been  made,  are  believed  to  afford  very  satisfac- 
ton,-  evidence  on  this  point.  The  forests  are  filled 
with  excellent   timber  for  building   purpoc'S;    tho 


white  I 

dimens: 

are  niti 

interest 

hringin/ 

abundai 

exteiifit 

descents 

never  he 

above  th 

Lake  1 

America, 

and  betT 

northern 

Straits  01 

miles  in  v 

its  nortlie 

Michigan. 

lies  wholl; 

long,  andi 

lfi,081  squ 

Hay,  a  lar 

cast,  Gran 

It  Is  ostimi 

is  elovutcd 

few  gooil  hi 

eago,  Jlilw 

are  Michigi 

Josepli  Illy, 

Grand  Jiivt 

and  Severn] 


CoIImUi 


Verniont..' 
Cbamplnin., 
OsH-oiratchi, 
'-ape  Vliico, 
:    .Saclcctt's  Hi 

;    OswcKo 

j    *jeiiesoo. 
I   Alogara.. 
i    Buffiiln... 
I    Prosnuo  I,i,; 
j    Cuya^iofjj., 
I    Saiidiuky . . 

I    Miami 

Detroit....; 
Moekliiac. 
!   Mllweultle.  . 
(   Chfcavo 

i Total..., 

Inie  Trad,' 
canal  navigatii 
Lac  and  Chici 
hracing  the  lar 
tion  in  the  wi 
condensed  foru 


jl^ko  Snperior.. 

I    '     Huron.. 

1'  ?,'•  t:lalr. 
:         J'-rle.... 

"  Ontario. . 
nirer  St.  La„r 


Quwi,. 

fc«chlno 

"•^nuharnols...';, 
'Cornwall , .        j 
If;'"franJ'8  Polntn 
|S*P''"''»t...  .]) 
iMntlroquls..!}' 
I'Jdlons. .  , 

|Wel!ind..'.'::.;|-' 

The  gr6«t  Ink 


LAK 


lies 


LAK 


vhite  tnd  yellov  pinea,  partieularlj-,  Iwing  of  Urge 
ditncnsloiu.  "  The  tributary  rivorH  of  Lake  .Superior 
are  numerous."  nays  Mr.  1.  I).  Andrcwn,  in  hi«  very 
interesting  re|)ort  to  the  United  States'  Senate,  "  and, 
bringing  down  a  largo  volume  of  water,  afford  su[>er- 
atiundant  water-power  for  manufactories  the  mont 
exteujiivo  in  the  world,  though,  from  the  precipitous 
descents  and  numerous  falls  and  chutes,  they  can 
never  be  rendered  navigable  for  more  than  a  few  miles 
above  their  mouths,  except  for  canoes." 

I,alce  Michigan,  one  of  the  Ave  great  kkee  of  Xorth 
America,  lies  between  41°  88'  5»"  and  46°  N.  lat., 
and  between  84°  41'  and  87°  8'  W.  long.  In  the 
northern  pnrts  it  communicates  with  Huron  by  tlie 
Straits  of  Michilimackiniic  or  Mackinac,  about  four 
miles  in  width  in  its  narrowest  part,  and  by  which  and 
its  noitliern  part  it  separates  tba  two  peninsulas  of 
Michigan.  Michigan  Lake  is  the  largest  lake  that 
lies  wholly  within  the  United  States,  being  830  miles 
long,  und,  on  nu  average,  60  miles  broad,  containing 
lfi,081  Bquaro  miles,  or  10,808,000  acres.  It  has  Green 
Bay,  a  large  branch  on  the  north-west ;  and  on  the 
cast,  Grand  Travorso  Bay  and  Little  Traverse  Bay. 
It  Is  estimated  to  be  on  an  average  000  feet  deep ;  and 
is  elevated  about  'MO  feet  above  tide-water.  It  has 
fow  pood  harbors.  On  the  west  side  are  those  of  Chi- 
cago, Stilwaukle,  und  Green  Bay.  On  the  east  side 
are  Miililgan  City,  .St.  .loseph,  at  the  mouth  of  St. 
Josepli  Uiver,  and  Grand  Haven,  near  the  mouth  of 
Grand  lUver.  It  is  navigated  by  many  large  vessels 
and  fievemi  steamboats,  which  ply  from  Buffalo  to 


Lake  Erie  and  ChIca(;o,  stopping  at  t]t«  intermedfita 

plttceH.  It  uff'jrds  great  facilities  for  transportation. 
The  lake  has  pure  and  clear  water,  and  .iMiumIs  with 
excellent  fish.  There  are  several  islu'iidfi  on  its  north- 
ern part.  It  has  23  light-houses  and  1  beacons  on  its 
island"  and  coosts.  The  Illinois  utid  Michigan  CauftI 
connects  the  navigable  waters  of  ttie  Illinois  Kiver 
with  Lake  Michigan. 

Commerce  of  the  /.oin.— These  lakes  arf  estimated 
to  drain  an  entire  area  of  336.516  square  i..iles,  and 
discharge  their  waters  into  the  ocean  throu),;h  the 
Kiver  St.  I^nwrcnee,  which  is  rendered  navigable  from 
Lako  Erie  downward  to  all  vessels  not  exceeding  130 
feet  keel,  2«  beam,  and  10  feet  draiiglit,  and  the  free 
navigation  of  which  for  American  bottoms  was  recently 
acquired  by  the  concession  of  reciprocity  of  trade  to  the 
Canadian  government.  The  whole  trafjic  of  these  great 
waters  may  lie  now  unhcfitotingly  stated  at  1^326,000,- 
000,  employing  74,(K)0  tons  of  steam,  :,nd  138,000  tons 
of  sail,  for  the  year  1851,  of  215,000  tons  burden. 

The  entire  numluer  of  vessels  und  crews  of  the  in- 
terior trade  amounts  to  140  bottoms,  and  5,837  men,  in 
excess  of  the  whole  ocean  and  coast  navy,  though  tht 
tonnage  employed  in  the  latter  Is  sm8.llcr  by  7,775  tons. 

However  remote  the  period,  of  the  discover)',  ex- 
ploration, and  partial  colonization  of  these  wilds  and 
waters,  any  thing  like  practical  navigation  of  them  for 
commercial  purposes  was  unattempted  until  after  the 
commencement  of  this  centurj'.  In  1G79  a  French 
craft  indeed  was  launched  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  for  the 
expedition  of  the  celebrated  and  unfortunate  La  Salle. 


ToNNAor  OP  THE  Luke  I'lMfte,  1964. 


CoIImUoii  dblritU. 


Vermont Ver. 

ChampUln N.  Y. 

0»«"C)!8tohic " 

Cape  Vlncouu " 

Suckctt's  Harbor » 

OSWCRO " 

Geiicsce " 

Niagara " 

Buffalo " 

Prcfnue  Isle Pcnn. 

Cuys'insa Ohio 

Saudttsky " 

Miami " 

Detroit Mich 

Mackinac ** 

Mllwaukle Wis, 

Cbicaio 111. 

Total 


Owned  In  dUtriou, 


ToCDftg*  cuteivd. 


Sl'Jiun 

8,340 

t»lT 

1,9S6 

"848 

4,8S3 

429 

100 

22,48S 

O.Ml 

11.861) 

78 

I.IM 

21,044 

1,741 

as7 

707 


Sail 
tomiii((p, 

6!J2" 
8,291 
576 
2,486 
6,763 
21.941 
287 
60« 
28,620 
2,249 
24,716 
4,7S5 
3,0(W 
]S,475 
1,409 
2,6,'i9 
22,896 
T7,0«l  1 188,914 


Kurclyn. 


SMatn, 

"~6«742r 

go,4S4 

206,084 

427,467 

108,616 

228,842 

160,000 

76,072 

18,498 

«S0 

4,643 

1,494 


652 


1,484,779 


17,490 

8,185 

47,124 

'  'ilil 

W5,681 

1,620 

964 

11,705 

1,0.S9 

24,269 

4,760 

1,644 


I  Stfani, 

9;fi«6" 

8,899 

00,962 

12,478 

1,060 

7,269 

27,900 

14.1,778 

4S,460 

"873 
2S0 


464,W2  1 897,587 


10,7.W 

20,769 

6,657 

V,6iM 

SiS.OOl 

8,714 

1,S44 

23,75,1 

781 

10,^92 

746 

7,860 


428 
174,619 


TooiiHge  clonred. 


Slolini. 

~M'jm 

90,436 
218,1)69 
427,457 
161,376 
267,594 
160,000 

76,072 

l!i,162  i    18,774 
!1,205 


"17,020 

8,185 

46,205 

V,SS5 

327,172 

1,620 

904 


Forel(pi. 
SU-am.  S*II. 


2,070 


2,086 


15,690 
1,396 

1,609 


9,821 
8,899 

89,366 

12,473 
1,060 
7.2.'>9 

27,900 
146,773 

48,6  ;i 

"926 
830 

6V,727 


7,002 

20,759 

6,657 

V,9.34 

83,768 

8.714 

1  -Ht 

22I.W8 

721 

9,019 

1,800 

6,546 


_2,1S3_    J^82S       ....  428 

1,482',548T438,S62  J898;702   "l(K),010 


Lake  Trade. — ^Tho  great  chain  of  river,  lake,  and 
csnal  navigation,  which  extends  westward  to  Fond  du 
Lnc  and  Chicago,  a  distance  of  about  1400  miles,  em- 
bracing the  largest  extent  of  inland  water  communica- 
tion in  the  world,  the  following  t.able  exhibits  in  a 
condensed  form : 


Lni(tb.  1  Bnadlh. 

D.pih. 

over  Mfc!    *"»■ 

Lake  Snperlor 

"     Mlchlirau 

"     Huron 

"     8t  Clair 

»     Erie 

42(1 
320 
270 
25 
2.'iO 
190 
700 

MMpi. 

120 
70 

146 
18 
46 
40 

i  crt. 

600 
1.000 

350 
20 
70 

500 

Feel. 
800 
673 
57s 

670 
664 
234 

81,100 

21,900 

18,750 

800 

9,800 

7,S0O 

"     OnUrio 

BlTer  St  Lawrence. 

CauaIi. 


lAchlno 

Benuhnrnols.. . . 

{(Cornwall 

iFsrrand's  Polni 
iRapldrist..., 
Point  Iroquls 

jOAlops 

jWelland 


I.aiiKtli. 


UOei. 

lU 


28 


CAN.VLS. 
Deplli. 

10 

10  " 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 
10 


SiiTJ? 

KeelT" 

200X46 
200x48 
200x45 
200X46 
200X46 
200x46 
200x46 
ISOxjMt' 


Lockftg*. 


44} 

a2i 

48 
4 

'\' 
8 
830 


T 
1 
2 
1 
i 


Atlantic  Ocean ;  but  in  pro|)artion  afford  much  grcator 
facilities  for  commerce,  in  consequence  of  the  advan- 
tage of  great  length  with  less  width,  and  of  greater 
proportion  of  shore  line.  Tlie  country  forming  the 
shores  of  the  lakes  can  not  be  surpassed  in  general 
productiveness  l)y  anj  .sec  tion  of  the  Union,  either  in 
variety  of  important  commodities,  or  in  quantity  pro- 
duced per  square  mile.  Tim  extent  of  tlie  commerce 
of  the  lakes  may  1)C  estimated  by  the  commerce  of  the 
lake  Dorts.  During  the  pa.st  15  years  the  value  of  the 
trade  of  the  lakes  has  »\.  lulled  "from  ^05,000,000,  in 
1841,  to  $608,310,320,  in  1850 ;  and  the  whole  of  this 
grand  aggregate,  with  the  exception  of  $42,260,060, 
set  down  fur  .Sackett's  Harbor,  Cape  Vincent,  Oswo- 
gatchie,  Genesee,  and  Niagara,  came  through  the  fol- 
lowing ports : 


BuBRilo..   ..  $303,02-3,000  i 

Ohlcaifo....  a23,S9S,00fl 

Cleveland..  162,185,000  ! 

Detroit ....  140,000,000 


Milwaukie..  J81,0O0,00O 
MaumcOj...  94,107,IH» 
yanduBkp. . .  ,V.),966.000 
Oswego 140,2.>J.VK)0 


The  grtat  l«kw  are  »bont  l-25th  of  the  area  of  the 


With  the  exception  of  Buffalo  and  Oswego,  these 
arc  all  ports  of  the  north-west,  whose  trade  has  lioen 
the  result  of  its  d'n-elopuient  during  n  very  brief  poriinl  j 
and  the  great  bulk  of  the  trada  of  Buffalo  and  (Jawogo 
is  derived  from  the  same  cuise. 

The  tonuage  employed  .-vn  the  great  lakes  ia  thomi 


M 


'<i.f 


■;i  >\ 


LAK 


1166 


LaH 


tt  tli«  fbllowing  tebU,  and  (Iom  not  Ineltid*  any  ooeui 
or  rivor  tonnage  i 


Tmu. 

ininoU 1,743 

Wlacunstn l,4fil 

Michigan 7,848 


Tom. 
Ohio  'Uko  tonnage)  1 1,86« 

N«w">'>rk 3aM« 

Total KvtJ 


Thla  Is  l-12th  of  the  total  tonna^^e  ovrncd  by  the 
I7nite<l  StntPH,  and  about  1-fith  of  the  total  amoum 
employed  in  the  coaating  trade.  ,  le  ttritt  Hteanicr 
launched  on  Lake  Ontario  waa  in  IHlll,  while  on  Lake 
Erie  steam  navigation  commenced  in  1814.  In  1M61 
the  proportion  of  ateam  craft  to  sailing  craft  waa  as 
74,000  to  138,0(0  tons.     The  number  of  Canadian 


■taamers'and  schooners  now  trading  on  Luke  Ontario 
la  284,  of  which  48  arti  ateamors,  17  prupoiiera,  and  109 
schooners,  the  tonnage  of  which  amounts  to  about 
"i,000  tons,  and  their  valun  la  about  i:il78,000.  'the 
/hole  tonnage  owned  on  I  iie  lakes  in  1820  iiinoun'  d 
t.  but  6,500  tons,  in  IH  t  to  70,000  tons,  in  18uO  o 
,  5,787  tons,  and  In  1865  to  34S,UOO  tons.  liut  even 
t..i»  rapid  increase  hardly  conveys  an  idea  of  the  vast 
commerce  of  which  those  groat  biland  seas  are  (loatli.ad 
to  become  the  scene  even  l)t)foro  the  close  of  tlio  cur- 
rent  century.  The  liborul  provisions  of  existinn  treat- 
ies with  Kngland  and  her  American  coU>nles,  will  rap- 
idly develop  the  resource.)  of  Canada  and  the  N.  States. 


VALua  or 

Kx  roars  raoa 

TUa  LAxa  Ports,  1n56, 

CgllMlloD  dlilrlrlt. 

0™dl««dlb«!.    t«l,..         1,    ,„„,.„,,« 

AfBTnimtii  valmt 
vr  torti\gn  tr«iie. 

j   (1,1188,989 

1      1,04!1,2S6 

W«,168 

98,747 

78,099 

4,992,228 

962,694 

0'i9,769 

1,121,454 

18,870 

615,670 

174,716 

92,771 

21.1.V)6    1 

8,067 

12'r,M6 

EiporU. 

Impnrto. 

Kiporti. 

Impuiu 

U24,818,623 
8,W2,739 

17,654,107 

670,8i8 

88,147,088 

8,J'09,489 

,     86,m;mi666 

22,'m,oi6 

80.886,580 
27,1177,807 
5,000,000 
24,125,610 
81,184,528 

Vermont Vcr. 

Champlaln N.  Y. 

Oaweffatchio " 

t90,868,42« 
919,537 

80iB',2&S 
11  '71,071 

48il^«S4 
80,674,976 
1,601,867 
19,026,487 
6,469,669 
7,847,808 
6,961,480 
3,000,000 
4,664.707 
^859,47^ 

$8,48M96 
3,434,145 

497',86» 
6,088,086 

286iei4 
87,472,108 

2,2il7,6S2 
22,804,150 
1 6,9^5.857 
22,987,772 
20,416,867 

8,000.000 
19,.'Mkl,yi8 
2.'„82.\063 

j    (767,592 

1      74'»,0O9 

618,648 

82,889 

21,980 

8,307,81 , 

918,61.4 

686,784 

618,948 

15,415 

381 ,086 

09,088 

66,804 

115,014 

ll'6^i86 

1366,417 
304,284 
214,620 
61,868 
66,119 
■  '4,413 
4»,04<) 
10.8,983 
607A  "> 

860,6.; 

76,628 

26,470 

98.641 

8,907 

6;8il 

^'ap^  Vincent " 

Sackett'a  Harbor " 

Oswego. " 

Oeneaee '' 

Nlanra. 

Bnlilo 

Presqno  lalo r<  .n. 

Cuyahoga 0.. 

Banduaky " 

Miami " 

Detroit Mich. 

Maoklnae " 

Mllwaukle. WK 

Chicago 111. 

Total 

1183,017,476 

$182,465,988    1    t8,3O7,750 

(8,913,147 

(814,478,468 

(13,I1!I,K77 

Total  coasting  A  for.  trade. 

....       1             ....       1            ....        1 

Marine  Louet  on  the  Ltkes  for  the  i'ear  186C. — Tlie 
Report  to  the  Board  of  Lake  IJndcrwriters  is  unnuuliy 
published,  showing  the  dia^xters  and  losses  on  the 
lakes.  The  losses  during  1856  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing summary- : 

Loss  or  PaoPKBTV. 


May steam  and  sail,. 

June "  "  **  . 

July, "  "  "  . 

August "  "  "  . 

Boptombcr....  "  "  "  . 

October "  "  "  . 

November....  "  "  "  . 

December....  "  "  "  . 


.  (142,600 

,     118,,™ 

,    266,180 

67,760 

842,iiIO 

,     882,089 

1,0.^9,8M 

.     159,M0 


Total  loM,  steam  and  sail.  In  18.56.  (8,08S.874 
"       '     "  1865.    2,797,889 


Increisod  loaa  in  1866 (211,08.5 

Losses  In  18.M (2,187.825 

"  186a. 85l,8.'>0 

"  1862. »!ll,01S 

»  1861 740,515 

1850 541,440 

Loss  on  steam  hnlis (782,800 

"      cargoes  by  steam 616,800 

Total  load  by  steam  in  1856 (1,878,100 

1856 l,«92,T0O 

Decrease  In  1856. (814,800 

Loss  on  sail  hulls (868,615 

"      i-arfjoea  by  sail ..       6»7,0»» 

Total  loss  by  .wll  In  1866 (1,.'MiO,774 

1S65 1,106,189 


Increased  loss  In  1866 (556,685 


I.oM  (ir  Lira. 

Loss  of  life.... 

I«S4. 
119 

isu. 

lis 

ISM. 

4U7 

SY.vorBis  or  thk  Marixk  Rkoistrr  or  thk  IIoaiiu  or  Lakb 
Undkkwuitrbs  op  VKHsp,i.a  IN  Commission  un  the 
Lakki  in  Tua  Fall  <•¥  1856. 


~Vei«.li. 


Hteamers... 
Propellers.. . . 

Barks 

Brigs 

Schooners.... 
Total.... 


107 
185 

f.6 
lll8 
860 
Jj260_ 


TonniiK''. 


62,868 
54,675 
21,778 
27,045 
175,880 


C..I,  V.lii,7 


(8,820,41X1 
2,741,21)0    ! 

('p1W,S(KI     ' 

■iil.hSO 
6.4,SJ,100    I 


889,786        (l2,'.l4t,:iSO 


This  shows  an  increase  In  the  loss  of  lito  during  tlie 
past  roar  over  that  of  is,">'i  of  28!l. 

The  increased  faciliti?':  for  saving  wrecked  pro|;erty 
has  lessened  the  actual  amount  of  losn  on  pn>|)erty  in 
distress  at  least  28  ]>er  cent,  dnring  the  past  severe 
season ;  ils  the  proportion  of  total  losses  to  the  v,-hol« 
number  of  disaster"  will  show  when  compared  with 
186£. 


For  Commerce  nj"  the  ImI.ps,  see  South.  Qunr.,  xix., 
420 ;  South.  Lit.  Mist  ..  (Maurv")  ;  X>t:  bow'.s  Krr,, 
vii.,279i  Chrii.Kmti  ...  !*, ;  isii.i.iMAN'a ,/o«i'.,  x.,83 
(AoA.'fsiz);  Hunt's.''  ,.,vlii.;  Am.  Whi;/ Her.,  \i., 
400 ;  Andrews'  Hepon  o,    "olonial  and  Ixike  Trmle. 

Lamar,  formerly  <\iitijA,  a  sea-])ort  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Bolivia,  the  ci  ..jvant  Upper  I'eru,  on  tlie  west 
coast  of  South  Amcricn,  iat.  22°  39'  W  S.,  loiij:.  'ro^ 
1'!'  W.  Population  5000.  In  ISita  Lumur  was  ile- 
clared  a  free  port,  and  in  it  centres  almost  the  whole 
foreigu  trade  of  tlie  republic.  Its  situation  is,  how- 
ever, very  nnfiivomble.  It  labors  under  a  grcit  wnnt 
offresh  water;  nni!  if  ibllged  to  import  nil  its  provlslon.s 
b}'  son,  either  from  Valparaiso  on  the  one  tinnd,  or 
from  Arica  on  tlie  i  ;'">r.  The  Desert  of  Atiionm.i 
lies  between  it  and  the  internal  und  populous  part  nf 
the  country,  where  tli.  '  wns  of  Potosi,  C'oclinliunili.i, 
Charcas,  etc.,  aro  situated.  Tlio  produce  imported 
at  Lamar  is  conveyed  across  the  desert  on  the  i'ncks 
of  mules  to  the  interior ;  the  golii  and  .silver  of  the 
mines  being  brought  in  the  same  way  to  the  port  to  be 
shipped.  These,  with  ^opjier,  saltpetre,  cliinchilla 
skins,  and  wool,  form  '  principal  articles  of  iximrt. 
.Saltftetre  is  found  in  large  iiiiautitic.i  in  the  desert ;  the 
copper  is  found  near  the  coast,  and,  owiiif;  to  the  scarcit.y 
of  fuel,  most  part  of  it  is  exported  ir.  the  uhiipe  of  oro. 
P.:ru  possesses  a  lon(j  ni>rrow  strip  of  laud,  stretching 
along  tlio  const  of  the  Paciiic  frmi  Arcquipii  to  the 
Bay  of  Pica,  ■«-liieli  ^i  glit  nntural'y  to  belong  to  Boli- 
via, being,  ii:  fact,  the  litl  ral  of  the  latter.  Tho 
Bolivian  Kovr-i.m'nt  has  set  on  fviot  various  negotia- 
tions to  ii  '  '  ''  cession  of  this  tract,  which,  be- 
sides gT<  ■*'■  .ovlng  tho  frontier  of  the  republic, 
would,  rt '  I  1  ••nil',  render  her  mistress  of  Aricn, 
which  id  in  uU  Tesp« ,'  r  much  better  fitted  than  Lamar  foi 


LAM 


116Y 


LAM 


becoming  the  entrepAt  of  trnilo.  Hitherto,  however, 
thcno  negotlntluMi  have  provnd  glmrtive,  no  that,  ■■ 
alreiuly  ntated,  I.iimiir  nt  prenent  etiKroniieii  niMt  part 
of  the  fnreiKii  trade  of  the  State.  We  subjoin  the  de- 
cree cnniititutini;  I.amar  a  free  port : 

1.  From  and  after  the  lit  nf  Jidy  of  thia  prcaont  yrar,  I8S8, 
Port  Lan»r  •liiill  bo  uliaoliituly  freo  aud  open,    %  Veawla  of 
CTory  natlufi  may  entfu'  thlM  port,  aud  reiiintn  na  long  aa  thoy 
plflBM,  wli'.hbut  being  auljecttid  to  any  tax  whatrver,  olthor 
on  entrance,  or  during  their  itay,  ur  on  thoir  doparttiro.    D. 
Thoy  ihall  bo  free  Iron  all  dultes  of  nnchonige,  tonnage, 
■hlfting,  unloading,  or  reloading  of  riirgo,  depoHlt,  atorage,  or 
any  otlier  of  whatever  dtnondnatlnn.    4,  (looda  may  bo  de- 
poilted  In  private  warehoiiaea,  without  any  intervention  on 
the  part  of  the  government,    K.  The  euitom-houae  of  Fort 
lAiuar  la  auppreaaod.    In  .tta  atead  wilt  be  a  commlaaloner'a 
offloe,  for  thu  purpose  of  di.itrlbuting  permits  for  the  trana- 
portatton  of  goods  into  tlie  lutRrior.    0.  Whenever  goods  are 
to  Iw  sent  into  the  Interior,  they  must  f  rat  bo  submitted  to 
the  commisaloner,  together  «dth  the  liiroico  corresponding. 
T.  The   oommlasloner  will   legister   thoin   in  a  boolc,  to- 
gether with  their  valuation,  made  by  two  merehanta  of  the 
place,  and  the  name  of  their  mmo'S,  of  the  person  to  whom, 
aud  the  plaoo  where  they  are  to  be  sent    This  Is  to  b«  signed 
by  the  person  enti^rlng  the  Ro<ids,  who,  at  tho  same  tlmo, 
binds  himself  to  have  them  traniiportod  direct  to  the  "ustom- 
houso  for  which  they  are  dealiniid,  without  opening  any  of 
the  cafes,  bags,  or  other  envelops,  each  of  which  shall  be 
Bcalcil,  marked,  and  numbered  before  departure.     These 
points  are  to  bo  expressed  In  tho  permit,    a.  The  rnmmls- 
sionor  shall  by  tho  earliest  post  solid  a  notice  to  tho  collector 
of  the  custom-house  for  which  any  merchandise  Is  destined, 
apeclfylng  the  numbers,  characters,  quantities,  and  qualities 
of  the  several  articles.    I>.  Tho  goods  must  not  bo  carried  by 
any  uiuccustomcd  roads,  but  only  through  Calamu  and  llio 
public  thoroughfares  ;  and  whenever  they  pass  through  any 
place  at  which  a  guard  or  comndsslnnnr  Is  stationed,  the  per- 
nillB  must  bo  exhibited.  In  order  that  their  arrival  with  their 
seals  unbroken  may  bo  ascertained.    10.  Merchants,  either  in 
person  or  by  a  repniscntative,  roust  produce  to  the  commis- 
sioner of  the  port  a  certlflcuto  of  the  delivery  of  the  goods  at 
the  custom-bouKa  for  which  they  are  destined  within  six 
months  from  thi  day  of  their  entry ;  in  case  they  do  not,  they 
must  at  the  end  of  tiiut  period  pay  the  whole  of  the  duties  on 
thorn.    II.  From  and  after  tho  Ist  of  Jul/,lt<38,  all  goods  on 
tercd  st  Port  Tjsmar  shall  pay  a  duty  of  only  5  per  ceni.  over 
aud  above  that  of  half  per  cent  to  the  cousulado.    13.  The 
duty  of  6  per  cent,  shall  be  paid  thus:  at  tho  port,  2  per  cent, 
on  the  valuation  made  as  aloreauld ;  and  the  o.  her  3  at  the  cus- 
tom-house In  tho  interior  for  which  tho  goods  are  destined, 
In  each  case,  one  half  at  tho  end  of  8,  tho  other  half  at  tho 
end  of  &  months.     13.  All  goods  carried  from  Port  Lamar  by 
land  to  any  of  tho  adjacent  republics  b'imH  only  pay  a  transit 
duty  of '2  per  cent.    U.  A  duty  of  2  per  cent  shall  bo  paid  on 
three  fourths  of  all  gold  and  sliver  money  entered  at  any  of 
ttio  custom-bouBos  In  tho  interior  for  exportation  through 
Port  Ijicar.    IB.  It  Is  absolutely  prohibited  to  export  gold  or 
silver  in  bullion  ur  plate,  except  in  small  quantities  for  the 
use  of  the  person  carryUig  it  out.    It  will  be  sciziid  wherever 
it  Is  found  on  this  side  the  districts  of  San  Antonio,  San  Vln- 
cente,  Atoca,  Agna,  do  C'astilla,  T,equapat«,  or  the  lino  of 
tho  canoL    Id.  All  hardwire  for  agriculture  and  mining  ma- 
chinery, Instrnmsnts  of  sdenco  or  the  arts.  Iron,  atoel,  qulck- 
silver,  and  moral  txioks,  may  be  introduced  free  of  duty  into 
the  republic,  and  productions  of  Bolivia  may  bo  exported  like- 
wise free.    17.  A  premium  of  2  por  cent  on  their  valuo  shall 
be  allowed  on  the  exportation  through  Port  Lamar,  of  casca- 
rlila,  wool,  tin,  cocoa,  and  coffee,  in  tho  shape  of  remission 
from  duties  to  tho  amount  on  goods  carried  into  thu  Inte- 
rior tnra  the  same  port    Tho  remaining  articles  of  the  De- 
cree -ro  of  a  purely  local  natnre.    Seo  BOLivi;i  and  Psau. 

Lamb-skinB  (Gcr.  Lamnufelk ;  Kr.  Peaux  tTagen- 
fiux ;  It.  Pflli  agnelline  ;  8p.  PieUe»  ile  cardens). 
The  value  of  lamb-skins  varies  according  to  the  fine- 
nesii,  brilliancy  and  color  of  tho  wool.  Black  laml)- 
skins  are  more  generally  esteemed  than  those  of  any 
other  color.  English  lamb-skins  are  seldom  to  lie  met 
>nth  perfectly  black;  but  since  the  introduction  of 
Merino  sheep  into  this  country,  many  of  the  white 
fleeces  have,  in  point  of  quality,  arrived  ot  a  pitch  of 
perfection  which  Justly  entitles  them  to  be  ranked  with 
some  of  the  best  fleeces  in  Spain.  Tho  importation  of 
laminkins  is  Immense.  Eight  tenths  of  tho  whole 
quantity  are  supplied  by  Italy.  Thoy  ore  mostly  used 
In  the  glove  maaitfaotuxe. 


ZiMaip  (Oer.  Lampi ;  Fr,  Lampe ;  It,  LucmtM ;  Sp 
Lampnra ;  Kus.  Lampadu),  >n  instrument  used  for  th« 
combustion  of  liquiil  inllumnmblo  b<Hiie«,  for  tliu  pur- 
pose of  producing  artilicial  liglit.  Ltinips  are  men- 
tioned In  nil  tlie  early  ages :  they  were  in  use  in 
Egypt,  (Ireeee,  and  Konie,  Tlie  eartlien  lamp  which 
Epictetua  tlie  philosopher  had  in  his  study  sold  after 
Ilia  death  for  HOOO  drachmas,  A.  I>.  1(11.  I.ain|is  with 
horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred.  Luuips  were 
in  general  use  through  the  streets  of  London  up  to  th* 
close  of  the  18th  oenturj-,  as  wore  ttainl>eaiix,  which 
were  carried  iiy  link-linys.  London  strcits  were  tirat 
lighted  by  oll-lampa  in  lli8I,  and  witli  gas-lamps  In 
1814.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of  elegant  manufac- 
ture; of  this  kind  is  the  Argand  lamp,  brought  into 
general  use  in  England  in  ITHA. — Hnydn. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  any  description  of  instru- 
ments that  are  ao  well  known.  We  may,  however,  re- 
mark that  the  discover}'  of  Hir  II.  Uavy,  wlio,  liy 
covering  the  flame  with  wire  gau?:e,  lucecedud  in  pro- 
ducing a  lump  tliat  may  be  securely  used  in  coal  niinui 
charged  with  inllammiible  gas,  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
genious and  valualilo  that  has  ever  iieen  niado.  The 
following  extracts  from  a  communication  of  the  late 
Mr.  Huddle,  an  able  and  well-informed  coal  engineer, 
evinces  the  groat  importance  of  Sir  Humphrey  I)avy's 
invention :  "  Besiiles  the  facilities  afforded  liy  this  in- 
vention to  the  working  of  coul  mines  alxiundiiig  in  lire- 
damp,  it  has  enalilcd  the  directors  and  superiiitendpiit 
to  ascertain,  with  the  utmost  precision  and  expedition 
both  tho  presence,  the  quantity,  and  i  irrect  situation 
of  the  gas.  Instead  of  creeping  incii  liy  inch  with  a 
candle,  as  Is  usual,  along  tlie  guilerics  of  the  mine 
8US|iected  to  contain  iiro-dump,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain its  presence,  we  walk  lirmly  on  with  tlio  safe 
lamps,  and,  with  the  utmost  conlidomo,  prove  thn  ac- 
tual statu  of  the  mine,  liy  oiiaerving  iittentlvuiv  tho 
several  appearances  upon  the  lliimo  of  tlie  lamp,  in  aii 
examination  of  tiiis  kind,  tho  cause  of  uccidpiits  n  lilcli 
hapjicned  to  tho  most  exiicrienccd  and  cautious  minors 
is  completely  developed  ;  and  this  has  hitlurto  licin 
in  a  great  nionsuro  matter  of  mere  conjecture.  It  is 
not  'lacessary  that  I  should  enlarge  upon  tlie  ii:itiir:il 
advantages  which  must  necessarily  result  frmii  an  in- 
vention calculated  to  prolong  our  supply  nf  mineral 
coal,  liecause  I  think  tiicm  obvious  to  every  rellecting 
mind ;  but  I  can  not  conclude  witlioiit  expressing  my 
highest  sentiments  of  admiration  for  tlioi.e  tiilcnts 
which  have  develojicd  the  properties  and  coiitrollcd 
the  |iower  of  one  of  tho  most  dangerous  elements 
which  human  enterprise  has  hitherto  had  to  en- 
counter." 

The  lamps  now  used  for  light-houses  are  highly  in- 
genious, and  lieautiful.  In  the  first  place.  It  is  neces- 
sar)'  to  dlstinguisii  between  two  systems — tho  vntDjitric 
ami  tlie  ilwptrlc — tho  former  depending  on  the  retiec- 
tion  of  light  from  u  mirror,  and  the  latter  on  the 
transmission  of  liglit  tlimugh  a  lens.  If  a  large  lump 
were  placed  on  tlio  top  of  a  light-house,  witli  glass 
roof  and  windows  ail  around  it,  the  ilglit  would  shine 
in  every  direction,  losing  its  intensity  by  being  so 
mucli  dill'iiaed ;  liut  by  the  use  either  of  mirrors 
or  of  lenses,  all  the  light  Is  concentrated  to  one  defi- 
nite direction ;  its  energy  is  increased  by  lieing  cir- 
cumscribed in  range.  In  the  catoptric  system,  nu- 
merous concave  reflectors  are  placed  at  definite  angle* 
round  a  central  lamp ;  they  are  of  silvered  copper,  and 
are  kept  exquL^itely  liright ;  and  they  all  contrive  to 
reflect  the  rays  out  seaward,  witiiont  allowing  any  to 
waste  their  power  landword.  'i'he  dioptric  system  in- 
volves tlie  use  of  powerful  convex  lenses,  tlirough 
whicli  the  rays  are  focalized  in  a  definite  direction. 
If  very  largo,  these  lenses  wotdd  bo  difiicult  to  make 
and  costly  to  purchase ;  but  it  has  been  shown  iiy 
Brewster  and  Frosnol,  that  a  compound  lens  raa}'  be 
built  up  of  a  number  of  pieces,  provided  the  curvatures 
are  well  adjusted.  Around  thousands  of  miles  of  coast, 


LAN 


Ilfll 


LAN 


whtra  tn«  annual  wnwka  nra  from  700  to  ftOO,  aod  tlm 
proparty  luat  ainountu  tu  inilllunt  atKrlinu.  tha  lifiht- 
hoiUHii  have  |>aaiif il  tlirnUKli  many  ^ttg<n^  iif  efncivncy. 
Fint  thern  wua  the  Urga  roal  flrn  ukihI  nn  tlia  KuniiiiiU 
of  open  liuildiiiKx.  than  thu  nld-faililonxil  41II  lanipii,  ur 
aomntiinm  wax  canillaa,  witli  a  IwiklnK-Klasa  rvHcitur 
Ix'liind ;  then  the  niiin'  >  HKhtly-burnlnK  Ar)(anil  lamp, 
with  iHincavK  iimtallii'  i>  ,01  tur '  hahinil ;  than  the  ion- 
vex  lena,  to  fociiUze  tlie  rii\  a  liy  trannniUiiiiin ;  unil 
than  the  lent  liuilt  up  plecvniaal,  au  that  the  llicht  may 
appear  ulniont  aa  one  Vii^t  lumiuoua  pillar.   8<i«  l.iotrr- 

IloVKKa,        , 

Lamp-blaok  (flor.  Kiinrum  ;  Kr.  A'm'r  ifr  fumie, 
Nrro  tlij\imn,  Neip-a-fumf,  ftft/m  ile  Ahmo).  'I'hii  llnimt 
Iani|>-I)lack  ii<  pro<lu<'i'il  liy  i'(illei'lin)(  the  ainoko  from  a 
lamp  with  n  long  wlik,  wliich  auppliea  more  oil  than 
can  l«  perfectly  cnnHUnieil,  or  l>y  auflerinK  thn  fliinin 
to  play  UKuinnt  a  metalline  cover,  wlilch  impedea  the 
comliuatloii,  not  only  l>y  condurtinK  off  parta  of  the 
heat,  I'lit  liy  (ilintruuting  tlie  current  of  uir,  Ijtmp- 
Mack.  Iiowevor,  ia  prepared  in  a  much  cheaper  way 
for  IliA  (Iciiiiinda  of  trudo.  Tho  linga  wliich  reniiilii 
aftpr  the  (!li(|uati>m  of  pitih,  or  elite  amull  piecva  of 
fir-wood,  \re  liurned  in  furnuct..:  m(  a  peculiar  vonatruc- 
tlim,  tlie  amoke  of  wlilch  ia  made  to  paaa  tImiUKli  a 
long  horizontal  Hue,  terminating  in  a  cloae  lioarded 
clianiber.  I'he  roof  of  Miia  chunilier  ia  mado  of  coame 
cloth,  through  wliicli  the  current  of  air  eacapea,  while 
tlie  aoot  reniaina Uuk's  Diftiotuiry, 

Laud,  in  ae^t  languiigo,  niuk<>a  part  of  aeveral  coin- 
pound  terma ;  tliua,  A/.vi'n.v  Ihe  land,  denotea  that  motion 
of  a  ahip  which  increiiaea  itn  distance  from  the  coaat,  ao 
aa  to  mako  Uap)i«ar  lower  or  ainalleron  account  of  the 
Intennediate  convexity  of  the  sea,  linuini)  Ihe  /am/, 
ia  produced  liy  the  mollon  of  the  veaael  toward  it. 
I.11111I  it  thiit  In,  algnilies  that  another  part  of  the  land 
hindxrx  tlie  alglit  of  that  the  ahip  came  from,  Ixmii  to, 
or  »o  far  from  aliore  ttuil  it  can  only  be  Juiit  discerned. 
I.nwl  turn,  a  wind  that  in  almoKt  ull  hot  counlrlen 
blowa  at  certain  tiinen  from  tho  nhore  in  the  night. 
To  set  thn  hud;  that  iit,  to  aeo  liy  the  coinpntiH  how  it 
bears.  Ijind-brfrze,  a  I'urrcnt  of  oir,  which  In  niiin,\ 
porta  within  the  tropici,  particularly  in  tho  Went  lii- 
dicH,  regularly  h-u  from  tho  IuikI  toward  tho  fva.  dur- 
ing the  night,  aiic!  tliix  even  on  opponito  pointa  of  tlie 
coast.  iMtui-locked,  ia  aaid  of  u  hariior  rvliich  if  envi- 
roned liy  land  on  all  aides,  so  ua  to  exclude  the  prospect 
of  the  sea,  unless  over  some  intervening  land.  If  n 
ahip  ix  ut  anchor  in  such  a  place,  she  is  Kald  to  rido  land- 
l<K'kcd,  and  ia  tliprefore  considered  tn  be  safe  from  the 
violence  of  winds  and  tides.  To  make  thi  land,  is  to  dia- 
covci'  it  after  having  been  out  of  siglit  of  it  for  some 
time.  Land-mark;  any  mountain,  rock,  steeple,  or  tlie 
like,  near  tho  sea-side,  which  servea  to  direct  ships 
passing  by  how  to  steer  so  as  tu  avoid  certain  danger- 
ous rocks,  shoals,  whirlijioln,  etc. 

Land*,  Publio.  (iranta  of  public  land  tu  certain 
States  fur  railroads,  made  at  the  last  session  of  the 
3-ilh  Cungreas,  lHo5-'ti  : — To  /mm,  a  grunt  of  the  al- 
ternate sections  designated  liy  odd  numbers,  for  aix 
miles  in  width  on  each  aide  of  certain  railroads  named 
in  the  act ;  and,  in  case  any  of  such  sections  shal.  have 
lieen  sold,  or  become  subject  to  pre-emption,  then  the 
limit  of  selection  ia  extended  to  ffteen  milet  on  each 
aide,  to  make  up  the  deficiency  so  caused.  The  alter- 
nate sections  remaining  to  the  United  Htates  within 
tic  milet  on  each  side  not  to  be  suld  for  less  than 
double  the  minimum  price  of  other  public  lands— 
(1  26  per  acre.  Troops  and  other  property  of  the 
United  States  to  bo  transported  free  upon  the  rail- 
roads— maila  t«  be  carried  at  such  r'\tes  aa  Congreaa 
may  prescribe,  and,  until  ao  fixed,  at  auch  rates  aa 
the  Pratmaster-Gonerul  may  allow. 

At  the  second  session  of  the  same  Congress,  1856-7, 
s  likfl  grant  was  made  to  Minnesota  and  to  Alabama. 
The  quantity  of  land  granted  in  each  ca«e  is  ovar  8000 
•entparmUaof  railwa/.  ..  ^  1 1.1.  <  ^n 


U  tb«  riral  iirMt  luwla  In  AUUina,  lliara  does  not 
aaem  tu  Im  any  Incraaaa  of  tlia  priin  of  Ilia  santlima  r»- 
taliird  by  tha  Dnltad  Htataa,  that  pruvlaiun  of  the  law 
not  Uliig  fairly  I'onalnialilo  us  niic  iif  llm  (eriiis  or  nin- 

ditlona  of  thn  grant.     In  all  11 grunta.  It  will  U 

iibaiirved,  tha  Htataa  are  aiithiirl««il  to  iimke  thdr  ii>- 
lactlona  aa  far  aa  ,f{lttrn  nillas  011  aai  h  sldn  uf  i-varj 
railroad,  while  tha  Ini'mann  In  Ihn  ininlintnn  gov. 
ernniviit  prlia  iif  tha  Malnnil  lands  la  cimllnrd  to 
thii  »i>  iiilla  limit,  I  ha  ptdlli  lands,  In  all  the  almva. 
iiuiiind  hi    t««,  pnrtii  ulnrl'     n  |„wu,  Alaluiinu,  MNols. 


ippi,   l.ui.    iana,    Wi> 
lieon  sold  "r  prB-«iii|il< 
feat  that  thn  aalactioin 
rang",  mora  or  lens,  t«  ||i 
on  each  side  of  thaiti>    'I 
price,  thiirpfora,   dm  '  ' 
inilea  on  each  abla. 
inch,   that  thn  iiiily    <iii> 
grcas  tu  uiaka  ttiHwi      >i 
Miiv  large  lioldar  of  umx  ' 
to  enhaiiiai  tha  vulua  iif  I 


I'ld    Michigan,  having 
•It  extant,  it  is  niniii- 
•mwl  rallriiniiii  will 
Uiiilt  of  ir,  miles 
w         In  the  inliiiinuni 
III  4  width  of  nifif 
In  irlvn  up  the  iirgii. 
'il'li  moved  Con- 
would  actuate 
'  give  away  part 
III    .  for  If  the  land  Is 


Milt  iinprovail  In  value  fur  tli«  fiili  extent  of  the  in 
niilea,  what  right  hava  Cuiigrnss  to  make  such  u  grant 
for  auch  a  niaaoii  } 

Tha  inimniiMi  diinallnna  vf  pulillii  lanil  'nade  of  lata 
yuara  by  Cungruss  to  loriairatiiins  wllMii  thn  new 
Htatea,  have  awakmiad  Ilia  atlvnllon  of  llii<  people  of 
the  old  Hlutua  tu  thn  sulijact,  and  of  Virginia,  capeiially, 
where  the  Imrdcn  of  Inaiitliiii  for  Inti'rniil  Iniprovc- 
nients  has  liimit  grniltly  InirnHscd.  It  strikes  u.'>, 
tlicrcfore,  tliut  11  iirli'f  rnciirrancfl  to  the  history  anil 
ciiiiditiiina  of  tha  limurn  iif  Ilia  piilillu  domain  may  bo 
of  general  liitnrnut  Ml  tilio  IIiiik, 

At  thfi  ciiiiiniHiicaiiuint  of  the  llevoliitlonnry  Vfnt, 
there  belniiguit  to  aolllH  of  thn  Ntates  large  triirl<  of 
wild  and  uiiupproprliitcil  lands,  while  In  others  none 
such  exlHtnil ;  thn  Nliilxa  piiMcs'lng  no  such  lands, 
cluiincd  Hint  n»  thn  war  was  waged  with  united  inciins 
and  «i|ual  Kiicrilli ««,  tlin  waatn  lain  >  wlilcli  mlglit  lie 
ciiiii|uered  from  lliu  cimitiy  should  Immihiio  cmnuion 
property,  and,  uiulnr  lliH  rni'iiininnndaliuns  of  ('on- 
gresM,  Hull  Ocliibnr,  I'M),  "  lliiit  tile  uiiiipprnprliited 
lands  which  might  bn  indnd  to  Ihn  I'nltcd  MiitcK,  liy 
any  partlciiliir  Ntaln,  |iiir»liaiit  to  tli«  rccomincniliition 
of  Congreaa  of  the  Titli  of  Neplninlier  hist,  shall  lie  dis- 
posed of  for  th«  ciminiiin  Imnnllt  of  the  I 'oiled  Stiite.i." 

Virginia  promptly  inada  it  ccmIcui  of  her  viml  do- 
main  north  of  Ilia  lllvnr  Dido,  out  I'f  which  six  Slates 
have  aliica  liunii  foriiinil.  Thn  ronillliiui  of  her  ccssiun 
(adopted  siilwtNiitlully  liv  otiinr  Hlates)  wiis,  Hint  all 
the  lands  conveyad  "  shall  Im  considered  ns  a  mmmim 
fund  for  the  ||>«  and  lii<tli<lll  of  suih  of  the  I'liitcd 
States  aa  Imvu  tim'oiiic  or  sliiill  Imcoino  iiiciiilinrs  of  Hie 
confederacy  or  ftdxiMl  iilllaiicp  of  the  said  Ktntcs,  Vir- 
ginia Inclualva,  acaordtng  to  their  usual  respi'divc 
proportiiina  In  tha  gMiinral  cliargn  and  expenditure, 
and  shall  be  faithfully  and  lama  fitf  disposed  of  for 
that  purjiosfi,  and  for  no  nlhrr  um  orimi'iimr  u-lialerer." 
Thus  were  thn  lands  cudtil,  accnpted,  and  hold  in  Irutt. 
How  they  ImvH  silica  Imnii  dlsjapscd  of,  in  total  disre- 
gard of  tha  coniUllona  of  Ilia  trust,  llio  history  of  tlic 
countr)'  tails  in  tba  Niinals  of  (loiigressionol  legisla- 
tion. 

In  disrngard  of  tint  ptilln  oliUgiillons  of  thn  trust. 
President  .lackaoii,  in  thil  xarly  diiya  of  his  adminis- 
tration, pro|M»ed  to  cada  thn  lands  thus  aiiiiulred,  and 
all  ejiliaaqtiently  piiriilmasd,  to  llm  Htntes  In  which 
tUay  M;  gMtnltoHaly,  or  for  a  nominal  price. 

To  countaruct  thia  iilovniMcnt,  which  nt  that  time 
met  with  BO  favor  '11  Oongrnss,  hut  which  has  since 
been  aulKt^ntlally  adoptml  In  Um  system  of  partial 
grants,  Mr,  (;l»y  Introducdil  his  well-known  distribu- 
tion bill,  wbluli  was  piM(«4  by  Congress  on  the  2d  day 
of  March,  JHaS,  by  a  Yiiti  0/  iW  to  20  In  tho  SenaU, 
and  06  tu  40  In  Hi»  llvu««  ot  llepfBBontativos,  This 
bill  PraalOant  JmIwor  nfUMd  to  approve,  ood  it  did 


Total. 


IAN 


1100 


LAN 


llmt  time 
has  since 
of  partial 

dlstribu- 
lie  2tl  day 
le  Senate, 

OS.  This 
tud  it  did 


not  bacoiiM  •  law,  the  popnlir  will,  m  Indloated  liy 
the  rot*  of  thn  llnute,  to  the  contniry  notwithilanil- 
inic.  Nome  iif  the  weatern  meiiiiiora  did  nut  hetttate 
to  avow  the  purpoMi  of  nventiiully  appnipri/itlnK  to 
the  Nttten  In  which  thn]-  He  all  the  pulillu  lamia,  and 
on«  of  the  moat  eminent  of  them  ilmUrnd  that,  after 
the  cenaua  of  1820,  the  pownr  to  do  ao  would  lie  Irre- 
eletlble.  The  rulflllnient  of  thia  menace  la  almost  com- 
plete, and  uftiu  the  cenaua  of  18(10  the  olil  Mtati-a  will 
he  utterly  |i<>werlesa  unleaa  they  unite  conllolly  fur 
their  connooii  protection. 

Thi<  wliiiln  amount  iif  mon«x  which   would   have 


Rono  into  the  Treaaur 
«i»ion«  of  Mr.  t'layV  . 
period  of  aeven  yee' 
for  e«i:h  year,  t7" 


''Irglnla,  under  the;  pro- 

~  *nm  l».\i  to  IHUU,  a 

been  *4,369,16»,  or 


On  8ei>lcmb«r  4,  lH4i,  an  act  wai  paaaail  to  appro- 
priate tha  prococila  of  the  aalae  of  the  public  land* 
amonK  the  a«v«r«l  Htatea.  The  llmt  nectloii  provided 
that  from  ami  after  the  »Iat  of  December,  1841,  there 
alioulil  "  li«  alloweil  »niA  pulil  tu  each  cif  the  (State)  of 
Ohio,  Incliann,  llllnola,  AUIiai.na,  Mlaaourl,  Mlaala- 
aippl,  Louiaiana,  Arkanaaa,  ami  MIcblK'in,  over  ami 
above  what  eicli  of  Ui«  said  yutes  la  entitled  to  by 
the  terms  of  tlio  coui|>acts  entered  lato  betwe»n  them 
and  the  lloiud  Statea,  upon  their  admisalon  iuto  the 
Union,  the  auni  of  Un  |ier  centum  upon  the  nett  pro- 
ceeila  of  the  saira  of  the  pulillc  lunda,  wlii'  b,  subaa- 
quent  to  the  diiy  iifureaalil,  ahull  lie  madi-  within  the 
limits  of  each  of  aaid  >Slatea  reapoctively."  Wn  give 
below  a  atatemeut,  aliciwInK  the  qoantltlea  of  public 
land  disposed  of,  and  also  tliu  i|uantitles  vacant. 


Btatbhsrt  or  tu,     toiAa  s  'bvhii.  Pvilio  Land,  Statss   ian  TKaniTiiniin  dr  riia  V.  B.,  tiis  Uoartitt 

or  Lav  II  Diaroka.  •  or.  and  thi  Qvamtitt  ■BHAiHina  vaoant,  oh  tui  ilOrH  or  JvNa,  18M. 


IIAIM  aaS  Tnrilariai. 

Ansa. 

Sarvtyad 

ap  (0 
JunalO, 

Uainrrajrad. 

Onnd  for 
Sala. 

RoM. 

saHBVATiinia 

foa- 

Sallim  '     ladlaM. 

.iSKTS;"* 

Ohio 

Kq.  nill.». 
119,964 
11.1,809 

M,4in 

6^0H7 

tM,948 

ti)7,»97 

41,846 

M,4S1 

M,198 

09,368 

66,080 

68,9941 

188,990 

141,880 

186,990 

136.647 

»t6,984 

187,928 

849,488 

136,988 

67.030 

Aflr*,.          1      A<^rM. 

♦9.^,H78,»60I6,770,9M 
•31,6:17,760  91,487,760 
8.1,469.400  il.M«9,4ao 

4l.0O.M,68O,41.W)O,89» 
t.'W,O'.'/,.V*l31.0!W.818 

Aer««. 

Aer#i. 

16,770,984 
94.487.760 

A«ni. 

12.890, 890i)8 
16.lt0O.860'87 
ll»,(«lli,ll90'B9 
16,V,M,V1T07 
1.1,«HH,3i'l-lM 
11,847,367-81 
4,rtW).198'80 
11,117,7141» 
4,ia6,.Vil'85 
1,B83,996'66 
lu,90.8,ft07-4.'i 

Arr-.           Aap-i.                 Apr*,,        1 

34,316      l6ni!oTR  8minaT«'Ooi 

98,040 
191,639 

48,n.'*i> 

93,040 

46,080 
46,080 

411080 

1«6,3OT-7I 

48,9n9  6» 

2-^,687 -61 

3,.542,878i)2 

977,619«4 

109,'8OO'83 

99'7'4» 
119,188  84 
167,894 -97 

149,109«l| 
.... 

niw'-76i 
10,8((0'00 

llllnola 

....    Kfti4M,96'i 

24,783  41, 1n6,6.V4 

88,707  81,908,3811 

....  198,899,677 

9,4il9,l6S;l9,28l,l6l 

....  ,»t,l  16,710 

f.'7,713  89,619,409 

12,6;1»,4.18'I8,876,6I6 

1,830,7«0,1!«,660,6I4 

7,176,96934.1:11.419 

Mlaaourl 

Ulaalaslppl 

Loiit«lsna , 

t9;i,Hllll,tV80 

96,461.4111 

86,198.IVIO 

88,406,790 

87,981,690 

8.\89l,900 

84J)tl,860 

190,947,640 

90,776,960 

119,688,900 

80,990,080 

158,087,760 

190,970,730 

919,160,830 

BO.fti  1,190 

49,899,800 

9»,8ll.\680 
M,0'M,979 
86,168,610 
88,979,009 
90,999,063 
88,816,480 
17,8IM,891 
10,991,401 
10,67MI1S 
8,»»7.679 
617,730 

2«o',li77 

179,189 

1,679,690 

MIckiifsn 

Arlianaas 

Florids 

lows     , *. 

WlAconaln 

9,066,91936 

46,080 

Csllfbrnta 

110,036,489 
8(Vt01,8'27 
116,691,191 
80,872,860 
l,%8,0«7,760 
120,0,10,1148 
'.n  8,98 1,1 81 
79,248,480 
49,892,800 

2,8oa',7io 

l,682,(i87'-67 

SU,4»t'M 

498-76 

'   *   1 

.... 

Oregon 

Wa^tiliiKton 

Now  Mexico 

Utah     

Kanass    

Indian 

Total 

9,9I6,7&9 

1,418,081.990 

.... 

1M,8U»,180-81 

423,826 

^,40o,72^•^l 

H^MB/idS-TS 

Btatkhent  or  tiic  Absas  or  tub  sbvbbal  Pobuo  Land   Htatis   aki>  TRnniTnnir.H,  tub  Qitantitt  or  Land  ma- 
rosBD  or,  ano  tub  Qoantitv  kkwaikino  vacant,  on  tub  SOtii  or  Jvnk,  1866.— OoiWimMd. 


IMatandTarrlterlai 


»OMAT10n  AMD  aBAMTI   VOK— 


Itilartial 
ImprovemeDU. 


Ohio 

Indiana 

IlllnoL'" 

MlMourl 

Alabama. . . . 
Mlssltwlppl.. 
Lonlnisns... 
Michigan.... 
Arkansas . . . 

Florida 

lows 

Wisconsin . . 
California... 
y.nncsota. . 

Orcifon I  6;692,134i 

WsslibiKton 4,.MA,A3<) 

Now  Mexico....   e.836,956 

UUh I  6,681,777 

Nebroaka 12,175.668 

Ksnsoa. 4,400,063 

Indian 


T27,62S 

678,867 
1,001,798 
1,222,179 

92.1,804  2l,M9-46 

880,624 

833,124 
1,113,478 

».I2,M0  9,0974« 

954,.'iS2:20,924"22 

961,224; 
1,004,714; 
6,766,404 
6,089,244 


1,»48,00V77 

1,609,961-61 
600,000-00 
6fl0,000-0fl 
KOO.000-00 
600,(K)0-flO 
800,01 10 -OO 

l,2.VI,0fl0-0O 

600,000-00 

600.000-00 

11,866,798 -22 

1.060,871  99 
500,000-00 

|a4U,000-00 


CToaHrmtd 
prlvAt. 

claliiii. 


Arr*», 

36.11)0 
821),>i81 


.Hwamp 
land!. 


Vacant  pablla 
laada. 


Atb 
|8-.>,42S 
11,816,1119 


l^s,9o2,  51,88;l,41« 

l,M62,4SJi  I  3,85a,4M 

31:l,.-ls7         12,896 

0>i<,0s8l  I  2,7IW,S24 

■2,003,914  [10,686,676 

l-i«,711l!  7,178,736 

118,4,11118,401,130 

S,781),-8»  1 10,790,787 

....     n.499,716 

86,881  19,650,000 


Total |e«,48S,572|44,971-ll:  10,878,988-89 18,190,806 279,799-07i  50.830    87,8-i5,099-88 8,9-rt,(W8  49,787,358 


48,M8 

80.1107 

611,668 

13,878.021 

9,'3i)3.0H8 

,1,542,891 

6,444,994 

11,889,778 

1S,443,08IM 

1S,.15,8,188 

T,688,B9« 

18,648,429 

118,683,436 

82,599,6118 

113,918,241 

76,444,0.16 

149.210,804 

118,889,013 

200,934,747! 

76,861,068^ 

_42^892,80(jj 

i,077,9l»,S35( 


*  Includes  reserves  under  deeds  of  cession.- 
t  Includes  the  quontUy  of  541,625  ocros  of  tho  Dos 
«  Is  tho  estimate  of  the  Des  Mdnvs  Klver  Grant,  w 
I  licported  by  the  State's  autboritlca. 

Land-waiter,  nn  officer  of  the  English  custom- 
house, whose  duty  it  1.1,  upon  landing  any  merclian- 
dlse,  to  taste,  weigh,  measuru,  or  otherwise  examine 
the  various  articles,  etc.,  and  to  talie  an  account  of 
the  anmc.  They  arc  likewise  stj-lcd  searchers,  and 
«re  to  attend,  and  join  with,  the  patent  searchers,  in 
oiecution  of  ail  coclcets  for  the  shipping  of  goods  to  be 
exported  to  foreign  parts  ;  and,  in  cases  where  draw- 
Wlu  or  bounties  are  to  be  paid  to  the  merchant  on 
4£ 


-t  Exclusive  of  Chickasaw  cession. 
Moines  Ulver  Grant  above  tho  Ksceoon  Fork, 
ithin  this  Territory. 

1  Estimated. 

the  exportation  ct  any  goods,  they,  as  well  as  the  pat- 
ent searchers,  are  to  certify  the  shippin,.;  thereof  on 
tbo  debentures. 

Laniard,  or  Lanyard  (from  Lanier,  Fr.),  a  short 
piece  of  cord  or  line  fastened  to  several  machines  in  a 
ship,  and  serving  to  secure  them  in  a  particular  place, 
or  to  manage  them  more  conveniently.  Such  are  the 
lanyards  of  the  gun-port,  the  lanyard  of  the  buoy,  the 
lanyard  of  the  cat-hoolc,  and  others.    The  principal 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


1.25 


^  lii    |22 
:£    |i£    12.0 

u 


Ml 


1.4   11.6 


Photographic 
•   ScMices 
Corporation 


// 


is. 


<    ^ 

^ 


^C7 


23  WEST  MAIN  STRUT 

WEBSTIR.N.V.  MSM 

(716)I72-4S03 


o^ 


LAP 


au9 


tAP 


UnyMd*  OMd  in  a  iblp,  howerar,  are  thoM  employed 
to  extend  the  •hniade  end  itayt  of  the  mutt  bjr  their 
eommnnieatlon  with  tke-dead  eyes,  to  u  to  fmni  •  toit 
of  mechanioal  power  reiembllng  tlut  of  a  taokle.  Tbete 
lanjttdt  ere  flxed  in  the  dead-eyat  at  followi :  one 
end  of  the  lanyardt  it  thnut  through  one  of  the  holet 
of  the  npper  dead^ye,  and  then  knotted  to  prevent  it 
from  drawing  ont ;  the  other  it  then  patted  throogh 
one  of  tlie  Imea  la  the  lower  dead-eye,  whence  ntorn- 
ing  upward,  it  it  inierted  through  the  taoond  hole  in 
the  upper  dead-eye,  and  next  through  the  teoond  h<de 
in  the  lower  dead-eye,  and  Anally  through  the  third 
hole  of  both  dead-eye«.  The  end  of  the  lanyard  be- 
ing then  directed  upward  ''  vm  the  loweit  dead-eye;  it 
ttretcbed  at  ttiff  at  pottible  by  the  application  of 
taclilet ;  and  that  the  teveral  parts  of  it  may  Ulde 
with  more  fiicllity  through  the  holes  of  the  dead-eyet, 
it  it  well  tmeared  with  hog't-Urd  or  tallow,  to  that 
the  strain  it  immediately  communicated  to  all  the 
turns  at  once. 

Zdl  Penraaa,  a  celebrated  French  navigator.  Hit 
first  voyage  was  commenced  in  1786,  when  Perouse 
tailed  (h>m  France  for  the  Paciflo  with  the  Botunh 
and  Astrolabe  under  hit  command.  The  latt  direct 
intelligence  received  ftom  him  wat  ftnm  Botany  Bay, 
in  March,  1788.  Several  expedltinnt  were  tnbte- 
quently  dispatched  in  search  of  Perouse,  but  no  certain 
information  was  had  until  Captain  Dillon,  of  the  East 
India  ship  JUHorck,  ascertained  that  the  French  ships 
had  been  cast  away  on  two  diflSsreat  islandt  of  the  New 
Hebrides— a  fate  authenticated  by  various  artidet  of  the 
WTRck  of  these  vetseli,  which  Captain  Dillon  brought 
with  him  to  Calcutta,  April  9, 1828,  40  yeart  af  terwaid. 
Lapiduy,  a  name  given  to  the  artist  or  ar-  .san 
whose  busineat  it  is  to  out,  grind,  and  polish  gems,  small 
stones,  etc..  for  the  purposes  of  jewelrj',  and  also  for 
mineralogical  specimens.  The  name,  derived  from 
lapidariut,  pertaining  to  ttonet  (from  lapu,  a  stone), 
would  seem  to  include  the  various  modes  of  working 
or  finishing  stones  in  generul ;  the  technical  use  of  the 
word,  however,  is  limited  at  above  noticed. 
Iiapia  Xi«Biili.  See  Ultbanabinb. 
Ziapland,  the  most  northerly  country  of  Europe, 
It  bounded  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  louth  by  Swe- 
den, east  by  the  White  Sea,  and  weit  by  Norway  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  limita  an  not  very  accu- 
rately laid  down  by  geographers ;  but  it  teems  to  be 
divided  from  tbe  rest  of  Scandinavia  by  a  line  nearly 
corresponding  with  tlie  polar  cirele,  in  latitude  66° 
82',  and  is  consequently  almost  entirely  an  arctic 
region.  North  Cape,  its  most  northerly  point,  is  sit- 
uated in  N.  lat.  71°  10'  16",  oonsequently  its  length 
Ihtm  north  to  louth,  it  about  880  miles,  and  not  600,  as 
it  usually  stated.  From  Cape  Orlov,  on  the  White 
Sea,  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  it  extends  about  700 
miles ;  but  betl jes  this  continental  territory,  thnie  are 
a  vast  number  of  islands,  which  are  included  in  the 
general  name  of  Lapland.  The  whole  country  is  di- 
vided into  three  parts,  called  Russian,  Swedi.-th,  and 
Norwegian  Lapland  or  Hnmark,  and  is  recognized  by 
the  Swedet  and  Norwegiant  by  the  name  of  Lapmark, 
mark  lignifying,  both  in  Swedish  and  Norse,  land  or 
tract  of  country.  The  very  early  writers,  howeve-, 
do  not  notice  any  country  under  the  name  of  Lapmark, 
while  Finmark  is  alluded  to,  though  not  with  such 
clsamess  as  would  admit  of  our  defining  the  exact  ex- 
tent of  country  which  went  by  that  appellation.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that,  in  former  ages,  the  parts  of 
the  north  now  known  by  the  names  of  Swedish  and 
Kuitian  Lapland  were  dittinguished  as  Russian  and 
Swedish  Finmark  previously  to  the  period  when  the 
Finns  obtained  the  name  of  Lapper,  or  Laplanders. 

Finmark,  which  forms  the  meet  northern  part  of 
thia  wild  and  extensive  tenitoiy,  constitutes  one  ex- 
tremity of  the  kingdom  of  Norway,  to  wiiich  it  now 
beloagt,  though  doubtlett  In  ancient  timet  U  wat  a 
wpantf  ktai^om,  govamed  by  it«  own  Mvara^tnt- 


Ita  tmiaat  boandaiy  »b  the  wait  It  Iioppaa,  the  And 
itlaod  ia  Flamark,  aod  wUch  forma  a  line  between  tt 
ondHha  NaidUodt,  a  part  of  Norway  tomatimes  erto> 
aeontly  confonadad  with  Iiapland,  On  the  north, 
wett  Md  norMHaatt  it  it  watbed  by  the  Polar  Ocean, 
while  to  the  eut  It  it  bordeted  by  Rnitian  Lapland, 
which  alto,  with  Nordlaod,  bonndt  it  to  the  toutli— 
the  boundary  line  iMtwean  the  two  oountrlet  being  tiia 
Biver  Taaa.  Ita  extent  from  north  to  south— tlut  it, 
Arom  the  bordan  of  Ruitiaa  Lapkiid  to  the  North 
Cape — it  nearly  three  degreei  of  latitude ;  ita  greatett 
breadth  bafgg  firom  wett  to  eatt,  namely,  from  the 
wettem  sidt  of  Faroe  to  the  coast  above  Waranger, 
near  the  bordart  of  Rutiiaa  Lapland.  At  the  eattero 
extremity  of  Finmark  there  it  a  contidaiable  ttoct,  to 
which  both  Norway  and  RuttU  lay  claim.  It  ilea 
between  the  acknowledged  bonndariet  of  each  of  theia 
powert,  and  being  now  coniidend  at  neutral  ground, 
it  f^  to  the  Laplander  of  both  countriet  to  hunt  and 
fish  in.  This  district  extends  a  little  to  the  westward 
of  Bngefiord,  stretching  nearly  south  to  tiie  F.nara 
Lake,  where  it  bends  to  the  east,  and  afterward  to  the 
N.E.,  where  it  Joins  the  coast.  .  Russian  Lapland  Ilea 
to  the  touth  and  eatt  of  the  debatable  ground  above 
mentioned.  The  river  Muonio,  which  for  a  consider- 
able portion  of  ita  early  course  receives  the  name  of 
the  KAngftmtelf,  conrtitutet  the  boundary  between 
Sweden  and  Russia.  The  !cirol»  of  Kola,  and  the 
northern  part  of  eastern  Kemi,  constituted  at  one 
time  Russian  Lapland;  but,  by  subsequent  treaties, 
two  extensive  districts,  all  tho  Lapmark  of  western 
Kemi,  and  the  gteater  part  of  the  Lapmark  of  Tomeo, 
have  been  ceded  to  RussU.  Thus  nearly  two  thirds 
of  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  Laplandere  are  included 
in  the  dominious  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  Swedish 
Laplanu,  the  most  southerly  division,  occupies  the  in- 
terior part  of  the  country  to  the  west  of  the  River 
Tomeo — the  maritime  district  of  Nordland,  a  portion 
of  Norway,  being  situated  between  it  and  the  North 
Sea.  How  much  of  the  northern  part  of  Sweden  it 
entitled  to  be  called  Swedish  Lapland,  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  If  the  arotic  circle  be  token  as  the  boondaiy 
Ihie,  only  that  portion  of  Sweden  called  North  Both- 
nia can  be  considered  as  lieionging  to  Lapland ;  but 
Pitea  Lapmark  and  Umea  Lapmark  ore  sometimes 
mentioned  at  forming  part  of  the  latter  country,  and 
these  are  situated  in  West  Bothnia.  The  cause  of 
error  may  bil  traced  to  the  cireumttance  of  these  no- 
madic tiibea  fkequently  inhabiting,  at  least  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  year,  districts  of  country  far  down  in  the 
interior  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  Thus,  in  the  latter 
country,  the  Roraas  Mountains,  situated  between 
CbristUnia  and  Drontbeim,  an  inhabited,  during 
summer  at  least,  by  a  family  of  Laplanders,  with  the 
never-failing  herd  of  reindeer.  -  But  the  exact  bound- 
ary line  is  not  ver}'  material,  as  it  has  reference  only 
to  difierent  portions  of  a  tract  of  oountiy  which  is 
under  one  government. 

There  are  numerous  lakes  and  rivers  in  I.apland.  Of 
the  latter,  several  take  their  rise  in  the  Koelin  Mount- 
ains, and  flow  in  various  directions  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  or  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  principal  rivers'  of 
the  country  are  the  Tana  or  Tama,  which  takes  a  noith- 
eostom  course  through  Finmark,  and  empties  itself  into 
a  imy  or  souitd  of  the  same  name  |  the  Alten  or  Alata, 
which  it  very  rapid,  forcing  its  way  throagh  the 
mountains  of  Finmark  in  a  north-westerly  direction, 
empties  itaelf  into  a  bay  of  the  same  name  ;■  the  Tomeo, 
which  issues  from  a  lake  so  named,  and,  after  being 
enlarged  by  a  number  of  streams  uniting  in  one  chan^ 
nel  and  running  nearly  due  south  through  a  long 
course,  falls  into  the  northom  extremity  of  tb^-B^thr 
uian  Ottif  at  Tomeo ;  and  the  Muonio,  which  rises 
from  the  Killpit  Jaure,  at  the  foot  of  the  alpine  chain 
of  Norway,  it  a  contiderable  stream,  and  constitutes  the 
boundary  line  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  till  it 
.wjittM.irith  |he|^ver.fi^r9M,  when  the  latter  marks  tte 


LAP 


iXVtl 


'^Mf 


rUmttft  of  tiaar  aoBiit(9>  i*  fU•^a«^lr4^  TiMi»  m* 
•Ito  other  itren  wUpk  Uliit  'Mb  xiM  ia.Lailiad,  and 
CiUlMo  tk*  OuirorBoUmlivMeltMi  tt*J>W«,  EitM, 
Kalix,  amd  othen.  In  K«a«I«ii  LapUad  Omm  an 
MTwal  eoBsidanblB  straama,  bat  tlMM  bara  not  baan 
■o  weU  daflned,  nor  haa  this  part  of  T<iilti>d  baan  ao 
ftilty  daanrihad  u  the  otheti.  The  Kaau  takai  ita  riae 
amo«^  the  Keml  UonntaiM,  «ita«t«d  saar  .the  centie 
of  the  eonntrjr,  and  tout  into  the  Onlf  of  Bothnia. 
It  haa  many  Imroaing  catanota,  of  wU«h  ti»e  TaiVnl 
Ke^,  or  the  fall  o(  tha  lMavana,ria  the  only  im»  wbioh 
the  adreatnroiu  boatm«n.narer  attempt  to  unit.  The 
iVuM,  or  holy  atrsam,  la  the  outlet,  of  .the .  great  lake 
Enara,  flowing  thence  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. .  The  east- 
ern declWitiea  of  Buaiian  Lapland  are  watered  by  the 
Paaoit  which  diKhaigas  itself  into  the.  White  Sea. 
The  Taloaui  falls  from  a  great  height^  enters  th«  Lake 
Kola,  which  name  it  aftwwaid.  takeS)  and  falls  into 
Kola  Bay,  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Beside  these,,  there 
are  numerous  other  rivers  wbkh  traretse.the  country 
in  various  directions,  and  either  give  xise  to  lakes,  or 
issue  (hmi  them.    :  

FMtry. — The  coast  Laplanders  support  themselves 
entirely  by  the  fishery;  wlUch  is  astonishingly  pro- 
ductive, 2000  pounds'  weight  of  cad>fish  being  caught 
in  a  day  by  means  of  linea  idone.  From  the  great 
.number  of  small  Russian  vessels  which  fkequent  the 
coast  at  certain  seasons,  they  And  a  ready  s^  for  the 
fhiits  of  their  industry,  roceivipg.  in  exchange  chiedy 
meal,  brandy,  tobacco,  and  the  like.  Wlules  are 
abundant,  particularly  what  is  called  the  fin  whale, 
wluch  is  long,  active,  swimming  with  great  strengtii 
and  speed,  and  consequently  difficult  to  capture. 

Mantffacturtt. — In  their  manual  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, that  is,  making  the  various  utensils  which  their 
mods  of  life  requires,  the  Laps  display  some  ingenuity. 
Their  sledges  and  canoes  are  very  strongly  and  closely 
put  together,  so  as  to  be  entirely  impervious  to  water. 
They  t||i  hides  with  the  first  inner  bark  of  the  birch, 
make  strong  cordage  and  thread  of  the  sinews  of  the 
reindeer,  weave  coverings  for  their  tents,  luiit  gloves, 
fashion  wooden  utensils  for  domestic  purposes;  and 
the  women  prepare  the  sUds  of  foxes,  fawns,  otters, 
and  other  animals  f<>r  sale,  by  stripping  off  the  mem- 
braneous parts,  and  curing  them  with  fiBh.4>il. 

Kussian  Lapland  begins  at  the  Waranger  Fiord,  un- 
der X.  lat.  70,  and  extends  as  far  as  the  White  Sea. 
Admiral  LitlLs,  in  surveying  its  northern  coast,  in  tlie 
years  1822-3,  has  noted  down  many  interesting  par- 
ticulars, from  which  we  derive  the  following  notes : 

It  may  appear  surprising,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true, 
thst  this  coast,  navigated  for  three  centuries  by  like 
first  maritime  nations,  was,  liefore  Admiral  Litke's 
survey,  less  known  ff>  us  than  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tant and  uninhabited  parts  of  the  globe.  Vessels 
trading  to  Archangel  had,  for  a  long  time,  only  the 
Zttfabtl  of  the  Dutch  for  a  guide.  Litke,  June,  1822, 
iMgan  his  survey  of  the  Lapland  coast  at  Cape  Orlov, 
hi  about  X.  lat.  67'>.  This,  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Russian  Lapland,  consists  of  high,  steep,  and  bare 
locks,  NearSviatoiNoB(inN.lat.68°)tbeooasthaa 
sn  inviting  appearance;  the  south  side  of  the  islands, 
or  indentations,  being  covered  with  l>eautiful  turf, 
wild  lack,  and  a  number  of  strawlwrries,  but  there 
were  no  bushes.  On  the  main  sliore,  however,  were 
seen  low  dwarf  birch  and  juniper  busliea,  and  numer- 
ous tracks  of  reindeer.  During  summer,  as  Admiral 
Litke  was  here  informed,  there  is  no  land  route  through 
Lapland ;  and  all  who  are  then  necessitated  to  travel 
—as,  for  example,  clerjgj'men,  the  Judges,  or  officers 
of  judicial  courts,  etc — pass  by  tinaktt  along  the 
shore,  by  stations,  from  Kola,  round  the  whole  penui- 
sula,  as  far  as  Kandalaksha,  in  the  extreme  north- 
esstem  point  of  the  White  Sea.  Between  KandaUk- 
sha,  however,  and  Kola,  they  manage  to  travel  in  the 
usual  manner.  A  little  to  the  west  of  Sviatoi  Nos  is 
the  month  of  the  Yukanka  River,  which  is  navigable 


An!tfaiwt<»|Mff;p«fi  mOwivp,  «FhMimfd*mfiiwc«, 
a9dpr«5rentnavigathtB,eva«i(aTsin«l|boat<.  ,*Oa.this 
Uftbank  ef  thip  (ivarlieaaJiaiiar,Tttl»|«„eall«d  Ae 
Yukaaka  Lodgai  fbr  fU  plaoea  of  the  Lfpanfa,  boUi 
f«F  summer  and  wjtaitsK  leildeaea,  ar*  called  by  ttje 
Busaians  jMjOiti  (hNlgfa). 

About  30  milea  north-weat  fhua  Tnkanka  |^  Chemi 
Nos,  or  Black  Cape ;  a^id  ne«c  it,  Nok^av  Isla^d^i 
earlier  oh^rta,  called  ^agel,  or  NaopL  9«n  Admtna 
Litka  fbnnd  that  the.nteedle  showed  ao  Taflatkq.  Qn 
the  main  ahore,  near  Nokaev  Island,  tlie  prineipal 
fishes  caught  are  salmon,  Ub,  poltut,  and  jitUM.  The 
ptthehanht  (saad-^vl)  is  caught  in  a  remarkabla  man- 
ner. Some  timebeforeebb,the  Lopares  set  about  dig- 
ging up  the  wet  sand  dose  above  the  jrtrand  line ;  with 
almost  «v!ery  step  th«y  dig  out  such  a  9sh,  to  icUcb, 
however,  they  must  not  allow  a  second'*  time,  aa  oth- 
erwise it  woidd  lie  sure  to  dig  itself  in  agaii>,.and  ea- 
capo.  As  soon  as  they  perceiye  it,  therefore,  they 
seise  i^  with  a  handful  of  sand,  and  throw  it  violently 
on  the  ground,  the  fl«|),  thus  stunned,  are  cellected 
in  baskets  or  casks.  ,  It  is  strange  that  tbia  fish. is 
found  only  at  ebb  during  the  day,  and  never  at  night. 
The  people  of  thii  place  had  also  some  sheep,  which 
Lad  abundant  food  in  the  adjoining  pastures. 

The  chief  iaUad  on  the  coast  of  Russian  Lapland  is 
Kadin-not  Kilduiq,  as  the  Dutch  call  it—and  lies  U 
miles  east  fron^  the  qiouth  of  the  Kola  Bay.  It  is  9 
miles  long,  and  1}  to  9}  miles  broad.  Its  shores  are 
high  and  precipitous  on  the  north  side,  and  terminate 
abruptly  in  a  perpendicular  rock  on  the  west,  while  on 
thesoutlMwst  side  it  slopes  down  gently  to  theses. 
The  appearance  of  the  south  coast  is  most  peculiar, 
rising  as  it  does  in  four  most  regular  terraces,  forming 
an  amphitheatre  of  600  feet  in  height,,  with  a  flat, 
table-like  top.  This  coast  is  everywhere  clothed  with 
the  richeet  verdure,  forming  a  most  striking  contrast 
with  the  iwre  granite  crags  on  the  msia  shore.  Tlie 
island  consists  of  primary-  slate,  and  thus  differs  from 
both  tu*  islsnds  and  the  inaln  shore  to  Uie  south-east- 
ward, which  show  only  granite- 
Kola,  the  capital  of  Russian  Lapland,  is  situate  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Rivers  Kola  and  Tuloma,  about 
80  miles  from  the  sea.  As  determined  by  Ur.  Rssu- 
mowski,  who,  in  the  last  century,  observed  in  this 
place  the  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun,  the  latitude 
of  thd  city  ia  68°  52',  the  longitude  33°  1'  east  from 
(>[i!::Rwidi.  It  iippears  that  Kola  was  founded  long 
before  1568,  as  English  and  other  mariners  traded 
ilready  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  to  Kola 
as  to  a  well-known  place.  It  was  at  first  only  a  vo- 
Uuh  (capital  of  a  district),  became  under  Peter  the 
Great  an  oHrog  (fortified  place),  and  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  stadtholdership,  the  capital  of  a  goverq- 
ment.  The  place  extends  530  fAthoms  along  the  River 
Kola,  and  175  fathoms  along  the  River  Tuloma.  Ex- 
cept a  church  bnllt  of  stone,  all  tiie  houses  are  of 
wood.  The  streets  are  paved  with  planks.  On  the 
bank  of  the  KoU,  near  the  centre  of  the  tcwn,  lies  a 
wooden  fort,  being  a  square  with  Ave  towers :  since 
the  rupture  with  England,  in  the  year  1800,  the  can- 
non of  this  fbrt  were  removed  to  the  prioiy.of  Solowez, 
in  order  to  put  the  latter  in  a  state  of  defense ;  and 
slpce  then,  the  walls  of  the  fort  serve  only  as  a  fence 
for  the  cathedral,  and  the  towers  ore  transformed  into 
storehouses.  The  number  of  inhabitants  of  both 
sexes  was  estimated  by  Litke,  in  1822,  at  about  800, 
but  recent  official  data  show  that  it  was,  in  1849,  only 
642.  The  officials  and  merchants  of  Kola  live  in  a 
style  varying  little  from  that  of  the  capital.  In  ex- 
ternal appearance.  Kola  Is  that  of  a  clean  town ;.  and 
the  houses,  consisting  frequently  of  two  floors,  are 
neat.  The  view  of  the  town  from  the  nortb-^sst  is 
most  charming ;  it  stands  on  a  high,  and  abrupt  bank, 
from  which  a  wide  plain  extends,  bordered  on  three 
sides  by  high  hills.  The  principalltrade  of  Kola  is  b\ 
fish,  particularly  in  bib  (frtAa)  and  pak\u..    The  K» 


mp 


tin 


UP 


Imn  in  Mt  tiMMMltw  tapmi  hi  fliUBg.  im  Atittfo 
4»  ilw  b)r  taitH>.  aoiilx  Am  Um  BomIui  lih«n 
tndinf  M  Ikt  Laiuad  cmM,  Mtfl)^  ftmn  tha  Horway 
Mill  «r  WadiA,  wavAlnM,  HwiunMfcM,  ■ad-  even 
mm  TroMft,  to  WbMi  MfU  th«  KaImm  ■!•  parmtttad 
to  axpori  abeitt  IQOO  teMit*rt  tttj*  Hoar  evai^  Tear. 

Kola Mtf  goto  ArrfMttgtl  to butar  thMr cargo  of 
Mk  fM  vim  VaHoOt  moMluMdlM  thajr  require,  and 
•omo  of  thMh  vaotiM  (0  tatwii  A«mi  the  latter  place 
oa  tholr  Wtim  hmM  M  lata  aa  Oateber.  Whne  the 
nan  of  Kola  an  th«a  otmnlNI,  tbahr  wIt«i  and  daugh- 
tan  do  not  raaMrin  Mk.  nar  ema  In  littla  boati  to 
Mm  laiMrfa  lo  gatbor  wowiitfa,  the  berriea  of  Ruhui 
MoOMWOrw.  A  boat  eoatalu  iiiaall}>  bat  one  yenitg 
mUI  ablo  nun,  and  flMm  19  to  M  women.  Among  the 
Iflanda  near  tha  Bar  of  Kola,  tha  Korellae  lalanda  are 
oonaMond  to  glira  tna  batt  prednoe  of  monahka ;  they 
Ma  lit*  nHat  wait  ft«m  Mia  morith  of  the  bay.  The 
Kok  woman,  howarar,  will  go  itUI  further,  to  Motov 
Bay,  and  oran  to  th<t  Alnova  Iilaa.  at  leait  100  mile* 
Anm  Kola,  lo  a  boat.  The  monahka  ftnm  these  ialea 
ara  Mid  to  torpaaa  in  alia  and  flavor  all  others,  and 
a^  moaMy  daaMnod  Air  the  fanperlal  court.  The  Bay 
of  koU,  naar  tho  town,  la  ao  thaUow  that  even  the 
imaUait  raaaali  oaa  appfoaoh  It  only  at  high  water. 
Tm  Blrar  Kola  eaaaaa  altogether  to  be  navigable  at 
tka  town  I  bnl  tha  Tutoma  la  narlgable  fbr  about 
40  milaa,  namalr,  to  Ita  origin  flwm  the  lake.  Ita 
banka  an  daniafy  wooded  wlu  apleadld  fir.  There  Is  a 
man  and  bar*  ialand  In  the  middle  of  the  Bay  of 
Kola,  eallad  Solnol  Ottrov  (Tallow  Ialand),  from  the 
Immonaa  nnmbar  nf  aaalt  which  fbrraerly  used  to 
eoma  aahor*  harr ,  but  which  antittl;  disappeared  about 
tha  and  of  tho  last  oantury. 

Ilia  Lap  hot  la  fbrmad  Intarlorly  of  wood,  by  means 
of  flurvad  ribt,  whkh  nnlta  near  the  centre  in  a  ring, 
wbkh  k  opan,  and  allows  free  escape  for  the  smoke, 
tha  An  being  lighted  in  the  centre  of  the  floor.  The 
anterior  k  eovarad  with  turf.  The  door  k  wood  on 
one  aide,  Tha  Inmates  rsellne  on  skins  on  the  floor, 
with  their  feet  toward  tha  flra )  and  behind  them,  en 
10  w  of  itonaa  naar  tha  wall  of  the  hot,  ere  their  rari^ 
utaatlk.  Their  clothing— chiefly  of  tanned  skint 
woolen  ptuA— looked  very  dirty.  Their  whole  weaiiu 
tonaiitslnrabidaer.  Tha  two  families  who  frequent  this 
ralky  poaaosi  about  700  deer.  We  aaw,  perhaps,  about 
ana  (barth  of  that  nmnbsr.  A  few  of  them  were 
drtran,  tvt  our  Insnaotkm,  hito  a  ckcular  indoaure  of 
wooden  paling,  wnare  they  are  habitually  milked. 
On»  of  Ml*  men  dasterooaly  cau^'it  them  by  the  horns 
with  a  lauo,  tit  noose.  The  det/  ate  ainall ;  but  some 
of  tham  cany  Immaase  branching  boms,  the  weight 
of  whkh  Miay  Mem  ahnoit  onable  to  support.  At  this 
i*a*on  thair  long  winter  coat  of  hair  came  off  by  hand- 
fttUa.  Thoy  mak*  a  kw  gniniing  noise,  almost  like  a 
pig.  m*  mUk  is  very  small  in  quantity,  and  ezcess- 
Ivelv  rich. 

Tna  whole  popuktton  of  Finmark  does  not  exceed 
46,000.  Tha  degrading  superstition  in  which  they 
war*  fomMrly  sunk  has  now  in  a  great  measure  disap- 
p*ar*d,  akng  with  those  numerous  deities  which  t'  jy 
wonhlp*d  I  th*  wild  creations  of  unenlightenet  na- 
tare  hav*  bean  superseded  1^  ChriatUnity,  and  a 
knowladg*  of  the  true  God.  Regular  clergymen  are 
astabllihad  In  tha  country  by  the  diflttrent  govem- 
mants,  and  tha  Laps  exhibit  much  reverence  and  de- 
votional feeling  daring  divine  service,  although  its 
pnrport  k  only  known  to  them  tbnagh  an  interpreter. 
Vlnmark,  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  regnktions,  is  un- 
der th*  Jnrkdiotlon  of  the  Bishop  of  Norknd  and  Fin- 
nark,  both  of  which  form  one  dkceie.  Swedkh  Tjtp> 
hnd  naa  a  poputatton  of  only  about  13,000.— E.  B. 

Xi«  VUta   Tha  Argentine  Republic,  or  "  La  Con- 
fadaraolon  Argmtfau,"  compriaes  the  provbioea  which, 
with  Paragnay  and  Uruguay,  now  independent  States, 
at*d,  UMMPSpanlMirttle,  the  vice-royalty  of  Bne> 


oonitUi 
■oa  Ayr**. 


It*  area  k  the  largest  of  the  South  Amer- 


ican rapubUca,  and  Ita  popnlatkn  to  th*  square  mik 
the  sa«Uest.  It  oonaistaef  18  provfaMea,  oompritfaig 
an  area  aatinialed  at  TM,000  square  mtlee,  and  contains 
a  popukMon  of  about  74M,<00  souk.  Other  estimates 
reduce  thk  number  to  694^000,  while  the  "  Almanoch 
de  Gotba"  te  186S  givea  a  total  number  of  about 
1,000,000,  of  whom  l,300,0u0  are  oreolea,  Spaniards, 
and  meatiaoa,  100,000  snt^ugated  Indiana,  and  8S,0OO 
negroes.  Withk  a  few  yesrs,  Buenos  Ayrce  has  with- 
drawn from  the  confederacy.  With  tte  exception  of 
a  portion  of  tha  extenslTe  pkins,  called  p<mpat,  wa- 
tered by  the  rivers  Rk  Negro,  Colorado,  and  Oesagua- 
dero,  nearly  all  the  country  bdonge  to  the  basin  of  the 
La  Pkta,  the  great  estuary  of  which  k  between  the 
State  of  Buenoa  Ayres  and  the  Druguayan  port  of 
Montevideo.  The  most  inportant  pradnct  of  the  te- 
publio  k  cattle.  Immense  drovee  of  oxen  roam  at 
laige  over  the  pampaa,  and  vast  herds  are  scattered 
throughout  the  extensive  breeding  eetates  of  private 
individuak.  Horsea  and  mniea  oonstltate  a  prominent 
article  of  commerce  with  the  PemvUa  and  other 
traders ;  and  sheep  and  hogs,  and  the  small  quadru- 
peds which  fumkh  the  nutria  and  chinchilla-skins,  are 
among  the  valuable  native  animak,  Cotton,  tobacco, 
rice,  coooa,  sugar-cane.  Indigo,  maiae,  wheat,  and 
other  grains,  constitute  leading  productions ;  but  the 
staples  of  export  are  hides,  skins,  horns,  bones,  horse- 
hair, wool,  tallow,  oetrich  feathers,  salted  meats,  crude 
saltpetre,  and  cocoa.  The  export  trade  reaches,  annu- 
ally, a  value  of  about  #10,000,000. 

Commerckl  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Argentine  Republic  are  regokte^  by  treaties  of 
July  10th  and  27th,  18(8.  The  fbrme.  treaty  relates 
chiefly  to  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  Panna  and 
Uruguay ;  that  of  July  27th  woe  designed  to  acknowl- 
edge and  conflrm  the  rektions  sulwistiug  between  the 
two  governments  by  the  signing  of  a  treaty  of  friend- 
ship, commerce,  and  navigatkn,  as  well  for  the  good 
security  as  for  the  encouragement  of  the  coAnercial 
intercourse  already  subsisting  between  them.    ThU 

'ter  treaty  stipulates  that  perpetual  amity  shall  ex- 
l<etween  the  two  coontrirs  and  their  respective 
•MOB ;  that  tliere  shall  be  reciprocal  freedom  of  com- 
merce ;  that  the  citlxens,  ships,  etc.,  of  each  shall  be 
protected  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  to  which  other 
foreigners,  or  tli*  ships  or  cargoes  of  any  other  foreign 
nation  or  state  are  or  may  be,  permitted  to  come ;  that 
the  respective  ships  of  war,  and  po8t-ofBce  or  passen- 
ger packets  of  the  two  countries  shall  have  lil)erty 
freely  and  securely  to  come  to  all  harbors,  rivers,  and 
places  to  which  other  foreign  ships  of  war  and  packets 
are,  or  may  be,  permitted  to  come ;  to  enter  into  the 
same ;  to  anchor  and  rmiain  there,  and  refit,  ^aliject 
always  to  tlie  Uws  and  usagesvof  the  two  countries 
respectively ;  tiiat  any  favor,  exemption,  privilege,  or 
immunity  whatever,  in  matters  of  commerce  or  navi- 
gation, which  either  of  the  two  nations  has  actually 
granteii,  or  may  hereafter  grant,  to  the  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  other  government,  nation,  or  state, 
shall  extend,  in  like  cases  and  circumstances,  to  the 
citizens  of  the  other ;  that  no  high  or  discriminating 
duties  shall  be  imposed,  in  the  territories  of  either  of 
the  contracting  parties,  on  any  article  of  the  growth, 
produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  territories  of  the  other, 
than  are,  or  shall  be,  payable  on  the  like  article  nf  any 
other  foreign  country;  that  export  duties  on  all  arti- 
cles exported  ftom  the  territories  of  either  party  to  those 
of  the  other,  shall  be  the  same  as  when  the  exporta- 
tion is  made  to  any  other  foreign  country ;  and  that  all 
prohibitions  as  to  imports  and  exports,  into  or  from 
either  country,  shall  be  such  as  extend  to  the  like  ar- 
ticles of  any  other  foreign  country.  The  treaty  far- 
ther provide*  that  no  other  or  higher  duties  or  charges, 
on  account  of  tonnage,  light  or  harbor  dues,  pilotage, 
salvage  In  cue  of  average  or  shipwreck,  or  any  other 
local  charges,  shall  be  Imposed  In  the  ports  of  either 
of  the  two  contracting  parties,  on  the  vessels  of  tha 


LAP 


117S 


LAP 


ates  and 
atieB  of 
jrTelates 
ana  and 
icknowl- 
ween  the 
)f  Wend- 
the  good 
riUnercial 
n.    ThU 
shall  ex- 
espective 
B  of  com- 
1  shall  be 
^Ich  other 
ir  foreign 
kme ;  that 
r  passen- 
\e  liberty 
[vers,  anil 
Id  packets 
I  into  the 
t,  ^abject 
f  countries 
rllege,  or 
or  navi- 
actually 
[tizens  or 
or  state, 
es,  to  the 
fminating 
either  of 
)  growth, 
the  otiier, 
■le  of  any 
1  all  artl- 
fy  to  those 
exporta- 
[d  that  all 
,  or  from 
le  like  ar- 
jaty  fur- 
charges, 
pilotage, 
any  other 
of  either 
tli  of  the 


olhtr,  ttaa  tlioM  iM7«bl«  in  Um  Mm*  aoiti  on  Ha  ovn 
veumbi  that  the  ▼•Halt  of  «ach  (hall  tajoT  tntltt 
aqoalUy  with  nattonidl  veiaeb  In  the  ports  of  the  other, 
both  ••  nsfacts  import*  and  exports ;  that  a  nipilar 
pawport,  or  **arlcttef,  fUmbhad  by  eompeteiit  antbor< 
Ity,  *b*U  b*  lafBclent  evidence  of  the  aationallty  of 
tb*  v*«sal  I  that  thf  merchants,  commanders  of  ships, 
and  all  othqr  citisans  of  either  of  the  contracting  par- 
tie*,  slian  enjoy,  in  the  management  of  their  affairs  in 
tbe  tenttorles  of  the  other,  the  same  privileges  and 
rights,  in  all  respects,  that  belong,  to  its  own  citlzeni 
onder  the  laws  and  established  cnstoms  of  the  coun- 
try ;  that,  in  case  of  the  death,  without  will  or  testa- 
ment, of  any  eitizen  of  either  of  the  contracting  par- 
ties, in  the  territorie*  of  the  other,  the  consul-general 
or  consul  of  the  nat|^  to  which  the  deceased  belonged, 
or  the  representative  of  such  consul-general  or  consul 
in  his  alnenoa,  sliall  have  the  right  to  intervene  in  the 
possession,  administntlon,  and  Judicial  liquidation  of 
the  «state  of  the  deoeasr  j,  conformably  with  the  laws 
of  tiie  countr}',  for  the  beneflt  of  creditors  and  legal 
Iwirs.  The  treaty  concludes  with  placing  the  diplo- 
matic agents  and  consuls  of  the  United  States  on  the 
same  footing  as  similar  representatives  of  the  most 
favored  nation,  and  makes  ample  provision  respecting 
religious  privileges,  rites  of  burial,  etc.  This  treaty 
contains  no  limitation  as  to  its  duration,  but  provides 
that  the  amity  which  it  establishes  between  the  citi- 
sens  of  the  two  republics  siull  be  perpetual.  The  fbr- 
eign  trade  of  the  Argentine  Kepublic  was  formerly 
monopolized  by  Buenos  Ayres;  bilt,  in  18S2,  new 
channels  of  commerce  were  opened,  thf  Psraiut  and 
Uruguay  Rivers  being  declared  free  to  the  commercial 
trade  and  navigation  of  all  nations  by  a  decree  offli- 
cUUy  promulgated  October  80,  of  which  a  translation 
is  subjoined : 

Article  1.  The  navigation  of  the  Rivers  Parana  and 
Uruguay  is  allowed  to  every  description  of  merchant 
vessels,  whatever  may  be  their  nation,  place  of  de- 
parture, or  tonnage.  Art.  2.  All  merchant  vessels 
may  enter  the  ports  established  on  the  Rivers  Parana 
and  Uruguay.  Art.  8.  The  established  ports  are :  1. 
In  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  that  of  the  city  of  Pa- 
rana, the  capital  <  f  said  province,  and  those  of  Dia- 
manti,  Victtori,  Guategual,  and  La  Paz,  on  the  River 
Parana;  and  those. of  Qualeguaichu,  Concepcion  del 
Uruguay,  Concordia,  and  Federacion,  on  the  River 
Uruguay.  2.  Tn  the  province  of  Santa  F6,  that  of 
the  capital  of  the  province  and  that  of  Rosario.  8. 
In  Corrientes,  the  capital  of  the  same,  Bella  Vista,  and 
Oorga.  Art.  4.  All  those  ports  designated  in  the  fore- 
going article  shall  have  custom-houses  for  foreign 
trade ;  and  those  established  in  the  provinces  of  Jujui, 
Sslts,  San  Juan,  and  Mendoza  shall  have  custora- 
honses  for  inland  trade.  Art.  5.  Until  the  national 
tariffs  be  fkdly  arranged,  the  custom-houses  for  foreign 
tnde  on  the  river  shall  continue  to  collect  duties,  ac- 
cording to  existing  regulatktns.  Art.  6.  Seven  per 
cent,  upon  the  valuation  of  the  articles  imported  for 
consumption  into  the  litoral  provinces  shall  be  col- 
lected a*  the  sole  national  tax.  Art.  7.  In  the  ena- 
tom-honses  for  inland  trade,  six  per  cent,  upon  the 
vuluation  shall  be  collected  on  all  articles  introduced, 
a*  a  uatlonal  tax.  Art.  8.  All  the  custom-houses  for 
foreign  trade,  as  well  on  the  rivers  as  in  the  inte- 
rior, shall  permit  the  transit  of  foreign  merchandise 
for  the  provinces  of  the  confederation ;  but  the  cus- 
tom-bouse  dispatching  them  shall  collect  and  retain 
Ave  per  cent,  upon  the  valuation  of  the  goods,  as  the 
whole  of  the  national  tax.  Art.  9.  All  good*  and 
msrchandiaa  of  foreign  production,  or  shipped  from 
fonign  placaa,  and  all  the  productions  of  the  manufac- 
ture* or  indostry  of  Bnanoa  Ayres,  which  are  intro- 
doosd  by  land  into  any  of  the  provinces  of  the  interior , 
■halt  pay,  for  the  present,  tbe  same  duUas  as  are  col- 
beted  in  the  coatom-houae  of  Bosario.  Art.  10.  In 
tte  stme  on<toni-houie,  the  lame  dntlea  on  exporta- 


tion as  on  impoitation  shall  be  paid  on  whatever  arti- 
cles interior  province*  may  bitrodtw*  fafo  the  Movinoe 
of  Buenos  Ayies.  Art.  II.  In  all  the  nstom-honae* 
in  which  deposit  is  allowed,  the  same  shall  be  con- 
tinued subject  to  the  exbting  regulations.  Art.  It. 
Within  the  territorbs  of  the  18  confederated  province*, 
the  passage  of  their  own  product  or  manofaotav*  shall 
be  ftee  of  all  dutie*  of  transit  or  on  coasmnptiflB- 
Art  18.  The  present  decree  shall  have  eOhet  only  on- 
til  the  natbnal  congress  shall  eitabliah  panaaneot 
regulations  on  the  subject  H  ambraeea. 

The  above  decree,  published  by  the  provbbnal  di- 
rector of  the  repabUc,  was  followed  by  the  pofaUeation, 
on  the  18th  of  the  same  month,  of  the  tbliowing  resolu- 
tion of  the  representatives  of  the  province  of  Bof  qo* 
Ayr** :— "  The  province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  recognlaing 
as  a  principle  of  general  convenience  the  opening  of 
the  River  Parana  to  the  traOc  and  navigation  of  aU 
naHona,  from  this  pi«*ent  date  decUres  and  authorizea 
the  same  on  its  part." 

.  Boenos  Ayres  mnrt  alway*  be  a  point  of  great  Cote- 
marcial  importance,'  a*  it  b  the  principal  outbt  through 
which  the  {induce  and  indoitry  of  the  immense  r«- 
gbna  lyidg  behind  c«n  have  an  egress  to  a  foreign 
market ;  and  it  b  only  through  thh  port  and  Monte- 
video that  those  cenntrbs  cam  receive,  by  the  La  Plata 
and  its  tribntarie*,  unless  in  the  direct  trade,  their 
snpplbs  of  fonign  merchandise.  Indeed,  these  two 
ports  form  the  only  channeU  through  which  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  countries  lying  between  the  C!ordillera* 
and  the  La  PUta  will  find  theb  way  to  fonign  market*. 
By  late  advices  to  the  State  Department,  notice  is  re- 
ceived of  a  law  which  passed  both  houses  of  the  Ar- 
genthie  legisbturo,  and  was  approved  by  the  President  ■ 
July  19,  1866,  establbhing  differential  duties  on  all 
fonign  merchandise  introduced  into  the  ports  of  the 
confederation,  in  the  indinct  trade  from  Buenos  Ayres. 
These  duties  an  almost  equivalent  to  prohibition,  and 
will  divert  fkom  the  port  of  Buenos  Ayres  that  portion 
of  the  foreign  trade  destined  for  the  fluvial  provinces. 
The  chief  reason  assigned  for  the  adoption  of  this 
measnn,  as  annoonced  during  the  debate  which  it 
elicited  in  both  branches  of  the  legislatue,  was,  that  it 
would  be  the  most  effective  means  that  could  be  adopt- 
ed to  force  Buenos  Ayres  fVom  its  secession  move- 
ments, and  thus  restore  tranquillity  to  the  npublic. 
Alnad}'  the  government  budget  of  Buenos  Ayre*: 
shows  a  deilcienoy  of  ^9,000,000.  This  act  of  the 
confederation,  in  driving  from  its  ports  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  other  provinces— hitherto  a  source  of  im- 
mense proflt  to  its  treasury-rmay  lead  to  a  commereial, 
perhaps  a  political,  crisis. 

The  navigation  of  the  I.a  Pkta  and  its  tributaries' 
is  npresented  to  be  at  this  time  active,  employing  a 
heav;- tonnage  both  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels. 
The  trade  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo  con- 
sists in  the  transhipment,  to  and  from  either  port,  of 
articles  the  growth  or  manufacture  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  and  the  conveyance  of  passengers. 
From  Buenos  Ayres  to  the  interior,  the  trade  consists 
in  the  intarchsnge  of  foreign  merolundise  for  the  va- 
rious productions  of  the  La  Plata  provinces.  South 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  from  Patagonia,  in  exchange  for 
diy  goods,  spirits,  wines,  and  sundries,  are  imported 
hides,  skins,  tallow,  hair,  and,  occasionally,  wheat  Mid 
salt,  especially  from  Patagonia.  The  principal  ports 
in  the  provinces  open  to  this  trade  are  San  Fernando, 
San  Pedro,  and  San  Nicolas,  in  the  province  of  Buenos 
Ayres;  Kossario  and  Santa  ¥i,  in  Santa  ¥i\  Guale- 
guaigchu,  Parana,  and  Concotdb,  in  Entre  Rios  ;  Ooiw 
ga,  Bella  Vista,  and  Oorrientes,  in  the  province  at 
Corrientes.  From  all  these  ports,  as  tnm  those  in 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  the  imports  consist  cbbily  of 
yerba  mat/i  (Paragiuy  tea),  and  tobacco,  Udaa,  liw- 
ber,  nutrin  wool,  candles,  soap,  ashes,  peannta,  and 
various  manufactures  of  wood. 

Tbe  steam-vesseb,  exchuive  of  tbmt  vttkik  VtMflt 


m 


m4 


tip 


Bojral  Iba  tttfoftiult  Cprnguy,  nnlwljr  aiii- 
pfeyad,  •!  •  ]flfm  4»to,  in.tha  navigatloa  or,th«  PUU, 
u*  s  flv*  itMinan,  nndcr  tM  Orient^  flag— on*  of 
tlm  vfmstra^  in  tba  pnited  Stotoi  ■nil  ona  nndar 
tha  BMDpf  Avna  flag,  iUio  of  Unttad  SUtas'  origin. 
■Aowntog  tp  m  MTigation  ratwn*  of  tlia  ArganUna 
BapnUio  for  WSi,  Uia  iteanian  angagad  in  tha  ragidar 
IrSoa  batwaan  Boanoa  Ayraa  and  Montevideo,  wl&  tiia 


nambai'  ct  ronUf  tri|M  lalM  hf  Moh,  wara  a*  IbHowa  > 
1  Amarienn,  44  roond  tripa  t  1  Britbh,  17 ;  9  Oriantal, 
88 ;  and  SBrutlian,  14.  tIm  ikiHng-veiwls  engaged 
In  tha  aama  tnda,  wen  9  tinxmin,  under  tha  Orient- 
al flag,  witteb  mide  43  roand  tripe ;  and  3  achoonera 
add  3  brlg«ntinaa,  under  the  flag  of  Bnenoa  A^raa, 
which  made  40  roond  tripa.  Tha  following  table  ihowa 
tha  akpoita  of  Bnenoa  Ayree  for  alx  jmn,  ending  1864. 


ConrAn^nvn  •rAtanain'  ainiBtniis  mm  XzroiTAiion  or  Sifru  PpoDuoie  or  raa  Stat*  or  Boaiioa  Aiaa  to 
ALL  <;ouina»a.  »«■  1848  n>  1851,  aorii  iMOLinirB.    [Uaub  vr  raoii  "Kajarao  KexAOwnoo  DaL  brAoo  db 

Bu«ii«a  Auvi."] . 


OiaM  Britain. 


liilHph/IKl'., 
I  /I  \4  Mm. 


th^Btrtea.. 


:    ,.,.;-/„,,,  • 


'^; 


■1   KtH   I) 


B»*aaa,)^.,^.j»,.. 


'••mIjw  liiiiHi  ixii  . 


-ni-r. 


leita 


18H 


1M4S 

4MM 

S.'SS 

MMM 

mm 
«a,4t« 

810^858 

ai8,4«> 


ISM 


18« 

1880 

\^ 
18B8 
18B« 


Dq>kM«. 


^}& 

188.1«4 

81M8B 

18^880 
lTft37« 
8885T 


188(818 


81MU 

88,198 
T,TM 
1,908 

am 

1,818 

i«84 
8,088 

4.888 


«lll1,88t 

utua 


T89^0 
888^888 


Hon*. 

m 

T,»«T 
8,1M 

Mas 

1,888 

s; 

1,081 

M41 

188 

8,008 

18^14 

14,08? 

885 

1,808 

lion 


18,880 
8,88* 
1KT87 

V,800 

8,811 

ia,5n 

14,888 
1,0(8 


40,888 


a; 


480' 
88,878 


817,888 
887,888 

88^877 
818^ 

t«,788 
88,808 
80344 
87,888 
4M« 

Sim 

81,878 
«7,1«B 
SB,S4B 


,84,flTS 
01,041 

188,784 
187,184 

iX 
88,180 
88,845 

4,948 
88,848 
08,014 
74,411 
18,118 
18,788 

9,888 

6,911 
9^088 
8,881 
0,891 


8B0,1I» 
780,040 
«li,818 

418,741 
409,480 


"TBST 
198,045 

'^ 

88,000 

108,808 

188J94 

114 
7,»4 
10,418 
8,718 
1,497 
11,718 


IM 

107 
880 

1,854 

4,198 


7,678 
10,888 
1^107 

7,188 
44,418 


18,888 
80 

"m 

1,846 

1,481 
1,887 
6,608 
1,118 
447 
6,178 


197,851 

84,817 
118441 
118,800 


4,888 
1,881 

8,916 
0,884 
M80 

8,887 

8,080 

871 

iS& 

8,888 

1,118 

Tip 
1,874 
.8,176 
8,011 

18,008 

IIM* 

8,018 
9,808 


848 
818 


086 

480 


1 

■■4 

'iS5 


1,070  ^ 

8M 

170 

871 
1,188 

186 

T 
88 

"i 
a 

1*4 

148 

8 

417 


IJB6 
,8.818 

184 


IS 

1S8 


18,818 

18,018 
88,849 
11,441 


74 
11 


1,914 
1,604 

1,880 
Ml 


i;W8 

iJm 

914 

MU 

808 

:«8 

887 
1^ 


841 
»4t 
478 
SM 
101 
181 


909 
718 

1,010 
718 

1,101 


145 
41 
11 
« 

15 


8 

48 


s» 

808 

188 

sa» 

88 
187 
879 
160 


n 

95 

8 
18 

'io 


1,817 
888 

1,888 

800 

1,174 


191 
MS 
HI 
4M 
18 


88 

11 


Tan*WM4WiM 


17480 
11,000 
19,115 
18,860 
18,978 
90^1 

Sit 
884 

!* 

188 
608 
144 

181| 
890 
100( 
880^ 
101 
MS 


1»» 

1,081) 

1,410 

46 


87 

1 

44 

16l{ 
187 


407 
7| 

ISi 

47li 

MS 

1,797 


1,400 
1,M7 
1,801 
8,118 
1,801 


18,624 
11,090 
t9,94« 
80,111 

10,668 
88,879 


bnAdl. 
81,060 
17,887 
4,096 


8,918 

84l8 

9,746 

760 

s» 

1,808 

981 
976 

"40 
884 

4 


871 
88 


84 
1,994 

149 

878 

678 

1,860 

176 
401 
119 
688 
04 
19 

401 
150 
188 

100 

"449 

1,881 
1,767 
1,118 
1,101 
«<1 
811 


64,814  i 
«S,8«0 

l».8fi0i 
P,4«7 
16,&6»| 


•  TiMte  are  erabraead  nnder  ox  aad  oow. 


SiAtauDT  •xmannrv 


nia  aDAKUTiBi  or  DOiiBiTio  Paooufla  Bxroarte  ndw  'ink  Towi  Or  Bdsios  Aran,  rioii 
1648  in  JW  BtanKODBmno  moan  nroann  *o  nn  UimtD  BtAn*. 


^ 


MklM. 


::::.:.. ....:..M. 

, BaI<a,elo. 

itldai,  «s  Md  eo«r,  ialtad. . .  .No; 

,»      "        diy 

Sheap^kiaa ...Balai 


1,688 
•17^ 

88,814 


im 


TTS&iaiim 


■uasr 

RUUM. 


101 

io^ 

8,646 
"488 


s^S^ 


780,040 

^^ 

188,884 

8,688 

V^f44 
8^6 


mfM  StiiSifiji    ... 

8,1M      ,4,081       1,1 


ValM 


tmWriaa 


los^.MEooe  nilioi, 

iM74      47,006  14,087 

7,678     88,871  IftSM 

1,010       4,810  1,871 

Ii;&4«     ifMO  i^7»4 

'I,8M|       I,814|  -  ■ 


1,8!8 

788,610 

14,619 

7,198 

0891      8,477 

881 

7,847     tt,14( 

«7^    i.aD« 

ll#iriI60t4«MMt,t,885,7Mlit68t848^1,888,lT|  878,804,1,8W,176 


BMtw. 

99,000 

•tm 

6B0 

169,164, 

1,S4S 

8,4771 

19S, 

mi 

8,UI« 

114 

880.M6^ 


rtn. 

I8S1.. 
1861.. 

im.. 

1864... 
1896... 


84 

eT8 
6T8 

1,800 

175 
4«a  ^ 

« 

40> 
150 
188 
MO 

■■44» 

1,881  I 

\,nt 

i,l<8 
«,101 

M 

911  I 

1 

»,8«0 

in,w*, 

1»,SB04 
I     9,4ST  I 
15,58»l 


nlud 
BtOM.    \ 

TJoiooo 

763 

MM 

«S»,1M, 

1,8«S 

8,4"' 

19S| 

W 

8,01« 

144 


LAP 


im 


LAP 


Wutiamnn  «r  Foaiwa  Mimbait  Vhhu  vmog. 

BiTiD  AT  Tui  Pout  or  Bdinm  Aths,  raoM  lUI 
1804,  DimiiaDnyiiia  toon  imom  tn  uamn  titAnf 


Flag. 


Twn. 

Wnm 

UnlUdSliUn 

Ymn. 

riM 

•U  Milan. 

UduSstitoi 

Iftll 

801 

41 

1884 

10« 

St 

isn 

lU 

7S 

1887 

118 

40 

im» 

140 

80 

1841 

488 

M 

1814 

811 

148 

1848 

875 

75 

18*ft 

87S 

101 

1844 

618 

88 

1R80 

187 

88 

1841 

6M 

88 

1881 

107 

77 

IHfiO 

440 

87 

188* 

Its 

es 

18S1 

4T1 

8« 

1888 

1*4 

(1 

1851 

488 

6T 

1884 

Ml 

87 

18S8 

8U 

rnknown. 

1885 

118 

n 

18S4 

884 

IS 

The  aggngits  ralue  of  eaigoei  from  tho  United 
8UtM  imported  into  the  port  of  Buenos  Ayres  during 
tlie  year  1851,  wu  CeOO.Ul;  18«3,  i6t9,915;  1868, 
(497,888.  The  aggregate  Talae  of  exports  from  the 
port  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  all  countriea  in  1864,  is  stated 
liy  French  anthorlties,  as  follows : 

tmatt. 
ONatBtttsln....  10,080,568 
UnltodStatoi....    1,188,788 

Spain 11,t6.\88B 

Hum  Towns....    5.18«,»07 

Vrsnee 6,86«,861 

Budlola. 8,71«,«oe 

Brnll 1,786,171 

Bslsiun 888,188 

Dtamaric 847,840 

Bwodsn. 817,604 

Norwajr 15,460 

From  statements  pulilishsd  by  the  minister  of  finance 
of  the  State  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  the  legislative  cham- 
bers, on  the  revenues  of  the  customs,  it  appears  that 
there  was  imported  in  1654,  of  merchandise  of  ever}' 
description,  in  value,  as  follows : 

Sundry  •rtlcle^  paying  6  per  cent  duty. ,..,....    i6,67Tj540 
Bnndn      •-  ■  -■   ■  ■  .  .~-». 

Bilks,! 


KAOoTer 

104,881 

HaUsnd. 

1,888,647 

Portngsl 

11S,0W 

Arsrntlae  Hepnb. 

888,081 

Uruguay 

111,088 

PruBls 

49,858 

TwoBlctlles 

80,788 

Total  bancs.... 

61,887,071 

Total  dollars...  19,744,648 


Sundry  srttcles,  paying  10  per  cent,  duty 1,497,987 

Bilks,  paying  19  p<r  csnt.  iluty •,811,M1 

Bnndry  artlolos,  psyhiK  15  per  cent  duty 184,494,888 


Aitfoles  made  up,  and  pruvtsiona,  paying  80  per 

sent,  duty 44,800,880 

Iiqnors,])aytngl5  per  cent  duly. 89,4a4,9M 

Aitieles  ftee  of  duty,  or  entersd  in  oontrabaad . . .  674I6)(,146 


■^;»otaJ.... 


— .<5r,,vrrfMf:V.?r" 


800,000,000 


ysluelDC  8.enrreBey.;..'....... 115,600,000 


Total  exports  ofBnenos  Ayras  In  1661 19,744,648 

Total  imporuofBnenoB  Ayres  in  1864 1^000,000 

The  large  Iwlance  of  trade,  liowever,  which  appears 
against  this  port  (as  is  the  case  also  with  the  port  of 
HiDnteyideo),  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
wants  of  the  interior  provinces  of  Paraguay,  and  even 
of  many  phw^ea  in  Bolivia,  are  supplied  ftom  these  two 
points. 

Wool  constitutes  upward  of  25  per  cent,  in  value  of 
all  the  Imports  into  the  United  States  ttom  the  Argen- 
tine Bspublio.  This  is  shown  by  the  following  tabular 
statement  mitde  up  from  annual  reports  of  the  Treas- 
ury Department  on  commerce  and  navigation  for  the 
years  named,  exbibithig  the  total  values  of  imports 
into  the  United  Statea  from  the  Argentine  BepuliUc, 
from  1861  to  1856,  together  with  the  values  of  wool 
imported  from  t|w  lame  country  during  tlie  same 
period:         .^  ,-,  ,, 


rten.      ,   'jKini.    .IMalnlaMtr 

1851 18,166,9 

1861 1,001,097 

1868 i 1,188,641 

1864 1,144,971 

1806 1,646,087 


VeliM  of  T«*l. 

11,828,88(7 
704,084 


864,181 
617,718 


Of  the  total  quantity  of  wool  imported  into  the 
United  States  ft«m  all  ooimtries,  aliout  one  third,  or 
nearly  so,  Is  received  ttom  the  Argentine  Repuldie. 
This  is  shown  by  the  following  tabnlar  statemant,  de- 
rived ftwn  the  same  souroes  as  tba  former,  ezUbiting 
the  <taaa*itlaa  of  wool  imported  into  the  United  States 
hsii  aU  oountriat,  fkwn  1861  to  1856,  togothu  with 


*^i5!:T(Ssr* 

7,684,741  ,_ 

6,74^85r  lU 

•.tSMlS  .  t„ 
g^M«,9N 


Iha  quantities  Imported  fkvm  the  Argentine  BepubUs 
dnriiig  the  same  period  i 

Vm™.  All  manlrlu. 

JSi 81,848.491 

18B1 18,841,118 

16M ll,68^0» 

;»4 10^110,110 

1866 18,n4;416 

The  preceding  table  exhibiu  an  aggregate  of  111, 
319,898  pounds  of  wool  importod  ftam  all  countries, 
and  of  87,169,802  pounds  from  the  Argentine  Republic, 
or  an  annual  average  of  22,248,878  of  the  former,  and 
of  7,481,960  of  the  latter  g  being  a  fraction  over  one 
third  of  the  whole. 

Jtegulaliom  i^lAt  Port  o/Buam  Agrti Article  1. 

—All  yeasels  at  anchor  in  the  port,  whether  national 
or  foreign,  shall  render  every  assistance  in  case  of  a 
vessel  breaking  adrift,  or  of  any  other  accident ;  or, 
in  dehult,  shall  suffer  the  penulties  establislied  by 
law,  and  in  proportion  to  the  gi  avity  of  the  case,  2. 
All  vessels  at  anchor  in  tt::  roods  must  have  their 
anchors  buoyed,  on  account  of  the  shdlow  water ;  or 
pay  all  damages  which  may  occur  to  any  vessel  or  boat, 
from  this  precaution  having  been  neglected.  8.  Any 
vessel  losing  a  buoy  from  her  anchors  shili  report  it 
immediately  to  the  captain  of  the  port,  who  will  send 
off  a  pilot  to  replace  it.  No  anchor  can  b<>  weighed 
witliout  permission  of  the  captain  of  the  port.  4.  Pi- 
lots on  bringing  vesseb  up  in  the  roads  are  to  inform 
the  captain  what  artioles  are  necessary  for  their  perfect 
safety,  and  in  case  of  there  being  any  wanting,  nport  it 
to  the  captain  of  the  port.  Pilots  neglecting  to  do  so 
will  Im  punished  with  the  rigor  of  the  law.  6.  If,  in 
a  gale,  the  anchor  of  any  vessel  should  happen  to 
drag,  or  the  cable  part,  either  on  account  of  said  cable 
not  corresponding  with  the  size  of  the  vessel  or  the 
anchor,  or  from  rottenness,  said  vessel  will  be  respon- 
sible for  ail  the  damages  occasioned  thereby.  6.  Any 
vessel  from  sea,  tliat  may  anchor  in  this  port  without 
applying  to  a  pilot,  will  be  liable  to  pay  all  damages 
that  may  occur,  and  can  not  claim  redress  if  she,  in 
any  way,  sustains  damage.  7.  Any  vessel  at  anchor 
with  her  boats  astern,  and  not  hauling  them  along- 
side upon  seeing  another  under  sail,  so  as  to  give  a 
ftee  passage,  CSM  not  claim  for  the  damages  she 
may  suffer,  and  shall  be  obliged  to  pay  for  those 
occasioned;  8.  T/(o  vessel  at  anchor  in  the  roads 
can  heave  ballast,  or  any  thing  that  does  not  float, 
overboard ;  and  if  such  be  provedto  have  lieen  done, 
the  act  will  be  punished  according  to  law.  9.  No  vea- 
sel,  excepting  on  her  arrival,  can  salute  in  the  inner 
roads  without  ol)taining  permission  of  the  captain  of 
the  port.  Those  which  do  so  will  suffer  the  penalties 
the  government  may  determine  on.  10.  All  boats, 
belonging  to  merchant  vessels  at  anchor  in  either 
roads,  shall  put  off  ttom  shore  one  hour  after  sunset. 
11.  AU  boats  that  may  be  found  on  the  iieach,  from  the 
time  of  firing  the  evening  gun  until  daybreak,  will  be 
ssiaed,  and  ^e  crew  punished  according  to  the  gravity 
of  the  case. 

Pilot  Den  or  tuk  Post  or  Bnairoe  Atbis. 

Sllnr  doUsn. 
.  ..  150 

....  no     •• 

140     lo 

....  160 


V«Mli4nwli«         SUnrdoUan. 

10  {net,  pay 40 

11  3"^ 60 

VanMli  Srawlog 

18       »       70 

14      »       90 

16      "       110 

80       " 

1   U      » 

1 

AU  vessels,  excepting  packets,  requiring  a  pilot  to 
enter  the  inner  roads,  pay  $200  cnrrenc}-  (equal  to 
f  10  United  States'  coin— the  currency  dollar  lieing,  at 
present,  equal  to  5  cents.  United  States).  When  leav- 
ing port,  whether  taking  a  pilot  or  not,  they  pay  f  200 
currency  ((10  United  States).  Any  vessd  that  may 
enter  the  inner  roads  without  a  pilot,  wishing  to  be 
moored  or  to  change  anchorage,  pays  flOO  currency 
(«5  United  Statea). 

Port  Charget. — Tonnage  dues  per  ton,  entering  (cur- 
rency), di  =  to  07}  cenU,  United  Statea ;  TiiitaDd 
rogulatkin,  (7  =  (0  85  {  stamps  for  opening  nglsttr, . 


LAt 


1176 


LATT 


Me.,  $M  mm  tint.    Tomaca  duM,  olMrinf ,  $1}  mm 
)  t  «Nw  Uat,  •12  —  $0  60 1  bOI  or  hwlth,  $• — 


•OU, 
•0  80. 


B/  lb*  fbUowlog  Uw,  paiMd  by  tb«  Senate  and 
Chambar  of  Repraaentetlraa  of  Buanoa  Aym,  and 
ofleUlljr  auiioanMd  undar  date  of  Septemhor  6, 18M, 
tt  win  b*  iMD  tbat  T«ai«la  of  friandly  natloni  anjoy 
Iba  ■ama  privikgei,  and  are  labjeet  to  tbe  lame  te- 
ftrlctloM,  aa  national  Teiiela :— "  From  the  date  of 
tbo  praiant  law,  tbara  will  not  be  ■  largad  in  tba 


porte  of  tba  State  of  Buanoa  Ayraa,  to  tba  raatali,  of 
fHaodljr  natioka  of  mora  tban  IM  torn,  for  tonnage 
dnai,  port  dnea,  pUotaga,  aalvaga  In  oaaa  of  damage 
or  iblpwraek,  mora  tban  will  be  cbarged  to  Argentina 
raaaala." 

Tbia  Uw  plaoaa  tba  vaaiala  of  tba  United  Statoi  on 
an  aqnallty  witb  tboaa  of  Buanoa  Ayrei  |  wblle,  under 
an  old  Uw,  tba  ablp'a  regiitor  ia  teken  aa  evidence  uf 
ber  meainrement.  For  a  more  extended  account  of 
tba  eommarca  of  La  Plata,  aae  article  Branoa  ArRna. 


Oimp*B4<iTa  BtAniniirr  or  rm  Oomuiaaa  or  m  Uiiinp  BTAtm  wrra  raa  Aasunini  Karvaur,  ainBinKO  thb 
Valob  or  KxpoBTt  to  akd  UroBn  raoii  bash  Oodbtbt,  aru  thb  Tonkaob  or  Ambbioaii  ard  f  obbion  Vohu 

ABBITIMO  raoH  AHS  DBTABTDia  TO  IaCH  OOtrXTBT,  DinUHa  TUB  TbABI  DniONATBD. 


TUU, 

omnmec —    ■ 

-  HAViaATBH. 1 

ritm  Of  svfottffB. 

TALVi  or 

tUFOBtfc 

lUlMiii  mniMl.                    piwnaa  tommi.          | 

MOdUM. 

TaMl. 

UrilM  SUM. 

■k«  U.  8Uta>. 

Itmu-^lk. 
UDlMd  HUUi. 

UlMr«d  ftooi 
Iha  U.  8IMt. 

1845 

118,864 

8(18,708 
'   SttJUS 

888^ 

si8,oer 

818,8» 
8S8,nO 
810,788 

Km 
sMas 

84^811 
4M,»I8 
881.110 
888,811 

IS"??? 

Illliliilll 

788,818 
841,808 

1;M 

•,081,087 
8,188,841 
1.144,871 
S,S4^067 

11,408 

8,888 

888 

it,n8 

18,880 
18,881 
18,4U 
11,887 
11,145 
11.B8S 

■  io,wr 

4,184 
8,187 
»8«. 

181107 
11,841 
18,711 
10,748 
8,l»8 
18,084 

i,888 
887 

"714 
7,388 
18,081 
11,006 
4,871 
4.741 
1,6«» 
707 

848 

V,400 
^4«l 
8^880 
0,186 
4,881 

!m8 

1,880 
1,810 

1848 

184T 

1848 

1848 

1800 

18BI 

uta 

]8B« 

IM 

IBB 

By  a  recent  treaty  with  Brazil,  tbe  fV«a  navl(j[atlon 
of  tbe  Puraua  and  Paraguay  is  secured.  Tbe  tariff  of 
import  duties  adopted  by  tbe  Argentina  Republic  ia 
based  ortthe  per  cent,  ad  ralorem  principle,  breadstuflb 
ezcapted ;  wblle  export  duties  ara  chiefly  speclflc. — 
Com.  Relatioiu,  V.  S. 

Xiaibovd,  among  seamen,  tbe  left  band  side  of 
the  ship  when  yon  stand  witb  }'onr  fkce  toward  tbe 
bead. 

ZiHTOh.  In  the  catalogue  of  soft  timber  used  in 
ship-buhding,  the  larch  or  hacmalack  is  not  the  least 
usafbl— the  Utter  name  is  the  aboriginal.  It  some- 
times attains  an  altitude  of  70  feat,  but  ia  usually 
found  fkom  40  to  80  feet.  It  ia  generally  of  straight 
growth,  but  quite  tapering.  It  grows  rapidly,  and  te 
of  great  strength ;  and  its  durability  exceeds  that  of 
the  oak.  It  U  distinguished  for  the  closeness  of  ita 
grain,  is  rery  compact,  and  of  rtddisb  color ;  and  for 
knees  and  top-timbers  of  resseb,  particniarly  steam- 
vessels,  is  unequaled.  This  fact  should,  bowoTer,  be 
retained,  tbat  tte  strength  U  quite  out  of  proportion  to 
ite  density ;  benca,  we  say,  tbat  it  sbonid  always  be 
fastened  with  aqnan  iron ;  under  such  ciroumstances 
it  b  superior  to  oak.  This  timber  is  extensively  cnl- 
tifated  in  Europe,  and  Is  not  a  ran  specimen  of  veg- 
etation in  th3  Mew  EngUnd  States.— QBiifiTTR'a  Sk^ 
buaden'  Mamial,  y.  Y.,  1866. 

ZiUoan,  native  IndUn  sailors,  many  of  whom  an 
in  tbe  service  of  tbe  East  India  Company. 

lact,  an  nncertain  qmmtity,  vai^-ing  in  dilTennt 
countries,  and  with  respect  to  different  articles.  Gen- 
erally, however^  a  last  is  estimated  at  4000  ponnda  | 
bu*  ineie  are  great  diacnpancies. 

The  folUwing  quantities  of  dlflbnnt  articles  make 
a  Ust,  viz. : — 14  barreU  of  pitob,  tar,  or  ashes ;  18 
dozen  of  hides  or  skins ;  12  barrels  of  codfish,  potash, 
or  meal ;  20  cades,  each  of  1000  herrings,  every  1000, 
10  hundred,  and  every  100  five  acore ;  10)  quarters  of 
cole-seed ;  10  quarters  of  coan  or  rape-seed.  In  some 
parte  of  EngUnd,  21  quarters  of  com  go  to  a  last ;  12 
sacks  of  wool ;  20  dl<^ers  (every  dicker  18  skins)  of 
leather;  18  barreU  of  unpacked  barrings;  10,000 
pilchards ;  24  barreb  (each  barrel  eontainfaig  100  lbs.) 
of  gunpowder ;  1700  lbs.  of  ftathers  or  flax.  L(ul  ia 
sometimes  nsad  to  signify  tba  burden  of  ■  ship. 

Latosn  Ball,  a  long  trbmguUr  sail,  extended  by 
a  Uteen  yard,  and  ftvqnently  used  In  Xeb«ei,  Polaeret, 
Settet,  and  other  vesseb  wUcb  navigate  in  tbe  Med- 
iterraneaa  Sea. 

Latt,  Lattu  (Fr.  LatlMi  Ger.  LaUm;  It.  C<m- 
i{  Bus.  IHtgi),  long,  tbin,  and  narrow  allpa  of 


wood,  nailed  to  the  rafters  of  a  roof  or  ceiling  In  order 
to  sustoin  the  covering.  Laths  ara  distinguished  into 
various  sorts,  according  to  the  different  kinds  of  wood 
of  which  they  are  made,  and  tbe  different  purposes  to 
which  they  are  to  be  applied.  They  are  also  diatin- 
gubbed,  according  to  their  length,  into  five,  four,  and 
three  feet  laths.  Their  ordinary  bnadth  is  about  an 
Inch,  and  their  thickness  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Laths 
aro  sold  by  the  bundle,  which  b  generally  called  a 
hundred;  but  seven  scon,  or  140,  ara  computed  in 
the  hundred  for  thrae  feet  Uths ;  six  scora,  or  120, 
in  such  as  ara  four  feet ;  and  for  those  which  are 
denominated  five  feet  the  common  hundred,  or  five 
soon. 

Latitude.  First  determined  by  Hipparchns  of 
Mice,  about  170  a.  o.  It  b  the  extent  of  the  earth  or  of 
the  heavens,  rrokoned  flrom  tbe  equator  to  either  pole. 
Uaupertub,  in  Utitude  66-'.£0  measured  1°  of  Utitude, 
and  nude  it  69-493 ;  he  measured  it  in  1737.  Swan))erg, 
in  1608,  made  it  69292.  At  tbe  equator,  in  1744,  four 
astronomen  made  it  68-732 ;  and  Lampton,  in  latitude 
12°,  made  it  68-743.  Mudge,  in  EngUnd,  made  it 
69-148.  Cassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made 
it  69-12,  and  Blot  68-769 ;  while  a  recent  measurer  in 
Spain  malms  it  but  68-68,  less  tban  at  the  eqator;  and 
contradicts  all  the  othen,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a 
prolate  spheroid,  which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini, 
Ealer,  and  others,  while  it  has  mora  generally  been 
regarded  as  an  obUte  spheroid.     See  Lonoitodk. 

Ziattfln,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  tin  plates; 
that  b,  to  tbin  plates  of  iron,  tinned  over.    See  Tiv. 

Ziannollt  In  sea  Ungnage,  signifies  to  put  out ;  as, 
Unnch  tbe  ship ;  that  b,  put  her  out  of  dock.  launch 
afl  or  forward,  speaking  of  things  that  are  stowed  in 
the  bold,  b,  put  them  more  forward.  Launch,  ho  I  is 
a  term  used  when  a  yard  b  hoisted  high  enough,  and 
signifies,  hoist  no  more. 

Laurel-tree.  The  Kalmia  UtifolU,  or  laurel,  b 
a  large  evergreen  shrub  or  low  tree,  growing  to  a 
height  of  16  or  20  feet,  in  favorable  situations,  with  a 
stem  three  or  four  incbas  in  diameter ;  but  ordinarily 
it  does  not  attain  mora  tlian  one  half  of  these  dimen- 
sions. Ite  leaves  ara  of  a  coriaceous  texture,  oval- 
acuminate,  entire,  and  about  three  inches  long.  The 
flowera,  which  put  forth  from  Hay  to  July,  are  some- 
times of  a  pnre  white,  tinted  with  pale  pink,  delicately 
spotted;  but,  in  general,  they  are  a  beautiful  roae- 
ooUr,  and  an  destitute  of  odor.  They  ara  disposed  U 
corymba  at  tba  axtramity  of  the  branches ;  and,  as 
tliey  an  always  amnenna,  their  brilliant  efTect  b 
baigbtanad  b^  tba  richaeaa  af  tba  lurronnding  foliage. 


-•»»  uaiivai 
But  modern 
""  'on 


!*»J.»ndanamb 
"utiughont  Gen 
*«»  PUnt.  I, 
Jfl*«*fon  duriw 
^-"•U'B.r^ 
r^Jng'wmensa 
«Uia  northern 


LAIS 


nil 


LAW 


luurel,  is 
ling  to  • 
Is,  with  » 
IrdiDarily 
%e  dimen- 
■e,  oval- 
|g.    Ttie 
lis  tome- 
lelicately 
iful  rose- 

1  «nd,  » 
I  effect  i* 
jfoUagV. 


Xkt  Malt  ua  T«7  minat*,  lad  wt  oontalmtd  la  «m11, 
globaUr  oapealM. 

Th*  lUlmla  UtUblla  b  iadlgtiwiu  to  North  AtoM- 
k*,  from  Canada  to  OaroUna.  It  ranljr  oeoun,  how- 
ever, BoRh  of  the  43d  or  48d  degieee  of  north  Utitndo, 
and  ii  but  ipariagly  produoad  ta  Kentnchy  and  w«al- 
cn  Tanneeeee,  and  diMppaam  entirely  in  the  eonthem 
Statee  wherever  tlie  riven  enter  the  low  ooimtry,  or 
where  the  ptne-barreni  IxKin.  Although  it  l«  con^ 
paratively  abundant  alonK  the  rivere  of  the  middie  and 
•oothem  Statei,  it  ii  nnwiiere  teen  mora  proftiialy 
BoltlpUed,  nor  oif  a  greater  height,  and  of  more  luxu- 
riant vegetation,  than  in  North  Carolina,  on  the  loftlait 
part*  of  the  AUaghanles.  It  there  occupies  larga 
tracts,  and  fbrms  thicluts  upon  their  summits,  and 
for  a  third  of  tlieir  distance  down  their  side*,  which 
are  rendered  almost  impenetrable  by  the  croolied  and 
unyielding  tmnhs,  crossed  and  locked  with  each  other. 
As  the  shrubs  which  compoee  these  eopae*  are  nearly 
of  the  same  height,  and  richly  laden  with  evergreen 
fbliage,  they  present,  at  a  distance,  the  appaaranca  of 
verdant  mtadows,  surrounded  liy  tall  tree*. 

The  wood  of  the  Kalraia  latifolia,  particularly  that 
of  the  roots.  Is  very  compact,  4n«-gnined,  and  marked 
with  led  line*.  When  green,  it  is  of  a  soft  texture, 
and  is  easily  wrought ;  but,  when  well  seasoned,  it  is 
very  lurd,  and  more  nearly  resembles  the  European 
box  (Bnxus  semparvirens),  than  any  other  American 
wood.  Consequently  it  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
mathematical  Instrument-makers,  and  of  engravers  on 
wood.  It  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  United  States 
for  the  handles  of  light  tools,  for  screws,  boxes,  etc, ; 
and  it  is  said,  also,  to  make  good  clarionets.  It  is 
used  by  the  American  Indians  for  making  small 
dishes,  spoons,  and  other  domestic  utensils.  The  whole 
plant  is  regarded  as  poisonous  to  young  cattle,  and 
sheep,  but  not  to  goats  and  deer.  A  decoction  of  the 
leaves  of  this  tree  was  formerly  taken  by  those  miser- 
able- natives  who  had  determined  on  self-destruction. 
But  modem  enterprise  has  successfully  enlisted  it  in 
the  service  of  medicine,  and  it  is  applied,  in  a  pulver- 
hwd  form,  internally,  in  fevers,  or  topically,  for  the 
relief  of  cutaneous  aHectkms.  A  few  drops  of  the 
tincture  poured  upon  the  body  of  a  large  am'  vigorous 
rattlesnake,  killed  the  reptile  in  a  short  time.  The 
powder  which  covers  the  leaves  is  popularly  employed 
is  some  parts  of  the  country  where  it  grows,  for  snuff. 
Tlie  honey  collected  from  the  flowers  by  bees,  Is  ac- 
counted deleterious,  which,  with  other  noxious  quali- 
ties, of  this  elegant  shrub,  lessens  that  esteem  which 
its  beauty  cUims. 

The  Laurus  nobilis  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  En- 
rope,  and  northern  Africa ;  and,  according  to  St.  Pierre, 
remarkably  flue  trees  of  it  were  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Peneus,  in  Thessaly,  which,  probably,  might 
have  given  rise  to  the  (able  of  the  nymph  Daphne 
(supposing  the  Greek  tiapkai  to  be  this  tree),  the 
daughter  of  that  river.  The  exact  date  of  the  intro- 
duction of  this  species  Into  Britain  is  unknown,  but  it 
mutt  have  been  previous  to  1562,  as  it  is  mentioned  by 
Turner,  in  his  "  Herbal,"  published  in  that  year;  and 
we  find  that,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  floors  of  the 
houses  of  distinguished  persons  were  strewed  with  its 
Isaves.  The  largest  recorded  tree  of  this  species  in 
Britain,  Is  at  Margram,  in  Glamorganshire,  at  the 
itat  of  C.  P.  Talbot,  M.  P.,  about  12  miles  from  Swan- 
Ma.  It  is  upward  of  60  feet  in  height,  with  a  mag- 
nificent bell-shaped  summit,  about  60  feet  in  diameter. 
kt  Cyprewi  Grove,  near  Dublin,  in  Ireland,  there  Is  a 
Uural  60  feet  in  height,  with  a  trunk  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  an  ambitus  or  spread  of  branches  of  25  feet. 
Throughout  Germany,  tlie  Laurus  nobilis  is  a  green- 
house plant.  In  Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  it  requires 
protection  during  winter.  In  Italy  and  Spain  it  at- 
tsms  a  Uiger  sUe  than  in  any  other  part  of  Europe, 
temhig  immense  bushes,  ttom  60  to  70  feet  in  height, 
htha  northam  parta  of  the  United  States  it  ia  only 


ealttvatsd  as  a  green-house  plant ;  but  In  the  sonthara 
sections  of  the  Union,  where  the  climate  la  more  mild, 
It  grows  in  great  perfection  In  the  open  air.  Th* 
wood  of  this  tree,  ttom  its  inferior  sixe,  I*  not  much 
naad  la  construction,  nor  in  the  arts.  The  young 
braaohea  are  sometimes  employed  for  the  hoop*  of 
small  casks.  Both  the  leaves  and  harries  wen  for- 
merly consMeied  medicinal,  being  highly  aromatic  and 
stomachic  t  they  an  also  astringent  and  carminative. 
An  infusion  of  them  was  not  only  considered  benefi- 
cial, when  taken  internally,  but  it  was  used  in  fomenl- 
allons,  etc.  Vrom  the  berries  there  Is  extracted  • 
paiticuUr  principle,  called  buruw.  The  kernels  of  tha 
f^t  vleM  an  emollient  and  resolutive  oil,  called  oil  of 
laurtl,  which  Is  employed  as  an  embrocation  in  materia 
medtca,  and  in  the  veterinar}'  art.  The  essential  oil 
is  used  in  perfumery,  and  for  scrubbing  walnncots  In 
chambers.  In  order  to  drive  away  flies.  The  leaves 
Impart  a  yellow  color  to  wool.  The  principal  use  of 
thU  tree,  however,  ia  for  hedges,  and  other  purposes 
of  ornament,  though  the  leaves  are  much  employed 
for  flavoring  custaris,  blanc-mange,  etc.  The  flowers 
afford  the  iwrt  kind  of  honey,  and  are  numerously 
frequented  by  liees. 

The  Laurus  caroUnensis  is  indlgeuout  to  the  lower 
part  of  Virginia,  and  is  found  more  or  less  abundantly 
throughout  the  maritime  districts  of  the  Carollnas, 
Georgia,  Florida,  and  of  Louisiana.  It  occurs  In  th* 
broad  swampa  which  Intersect  the  pine-barrens,  and  1* 
there  associated  with  the  tupelo  (^Ifyua  bljhra),  red 
maple  (Actr  rufrrum),  and  the  water  oak  (Quercui 
aqtuticd),  A  cool  and  humid  soil  appears  to  be  essen- 
tial to  Its  growth ;  and  it  Is  remarked,  that  the  further 
south  it  grows,  the  mora  vigorous  and  beautiful  Is  Its 
vegetation.  The  wood  of  the  Laurus  caroUnensis  Is 
vei^-  strong,  and  of  a  beautiful  rose-color,  with  a  fine, 
compact  grain,  and  is  Busceptible  of  a  brilliant  polish, 
having  the  appearance  of  watered  satin.  Before  ma- 
hogany became  in  general  use  in  cabinet-making,  in 
the  United  States,  the  wood  of  this  tree  was  much 
emploj-ed  in  the  regions  when  it  abounds,  In  the  manu- 
factun  of  articles  of  furniture  of  the  highest  degree 
of  beauty.  It  might  also  be  employed  in  sbip-bulld- 
Ing,  and  f"r  other  purposes  of  construction,  as  It  unites 
the  pro<  >:'v  of  strength  and  durability;  but  its 
trunks  ai  th  niy  found,  of  late,  of  tuflScient  dimen- 
sions to  randc  it  available  for  these  purposes.  When 
bruised,  the  leaves  diffuse  a  strong  odor,  resembling 
that  of  the  sweet  bay  (Latirm  nobilU),  and  may,  like 
them,  bo  employed  in  cookery. — hroime't  Trett  of 
America. 

Ii*^  John.  Law's  Bubble  was  the  most  ruinous 
speculation  of  modem  times.  The  projector,  John 
Law,  of  Edinburg,  raised  himself  to  the  dignity  of 
comptroller-general  of  the  finances  of  Europe,  upon  the 
strength  of  a  scheme  for  establishing  a  bank,  an  East 
India  and  a  Mississippi  Company,  by  the  profits  of  which 
the  national  debt  of  France  was  to  be  paid  off.  He 
first  offered  his  plan  to  Victor  Amadous,  King  of  Sar- 
dinia, who  told  him  he  was  not  powerftal  enough  to 
ruin  himself.  The  French  ministry  accepted  of  it  In 
1710 ;  and  in  1716  he  opened  a  bank  In  his  own  name, 
under  the  protection  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of 
France ;  and  most  of  the  people  of  property  of  every 
rank  in  that  kingdom,  seduced  by  the  prospects  of  Im- 
mense gains,  sul)scribed  both  in  the  bank  and  the 
companies.  In  1718,  I^w's  was  declared  a  royal  bank, 
and  the  shares  rose  to  upward  of  twenty-fold  the  original 
value,  so  that  in  1719  they  were  worth  more  than  80 
times  the  amount  of  all  the  current  specie  in  France. 
But  the  following  year  this  great  fabric  of  false  credit 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  almost  overthrew  the  French 
government,  ruining  tens  of  thousand  of  families.  It 
is  remarkable  that  the  same  desperate  game  was 
played  by  the  Couth  Sea  dlrectore  in  England  In  the 
same  fattd  year,  1720. — Hut.  vf  France,  Noun.  Did, 

Law  was  the  eldest  son  of  William  Law,  and  wai 


r..^;i'v«;i-l^--.j4   w^.:-'^uir-    li^iiXJi^'i: 


LAW 


IITI 


LAW 


Iwm  M  EdMmrf  In  Ih*  monlk  oT  April,  1871.  IIU 
falhw  rollowad  IK*  pfohMiM  of  (oMiintth  or  bankar, 
with  10  much  lucevM,  thai  h*  wu  (nabltd  to  pnrcbaM 
tht  land*  of  LanrUton  and  Randlafton,  whkh  altar- 
ward  daacanded  to  hi*  tn.  Tha  latter  wa*  eduoatad 
at  KdlnhofK,  whar*  ha  U  laid  to  have  made  lome  pnig- 
nti  in  lltcratura  |  but  the  bent  of  hli  Keniua  haTinf 
led  bim  to  ttnd.v  arithmetic  and  geomatr}',  ha  attained 
■ooh  prollclenoy  in  theaa  branchei  ai  to  he  able  to 
■oire  with  fadilty  the  moat  Intricate  prublanu )  and 
ha  llkewiae  made  hlmaelf  maater  of  alipbra.  Law 
raaMed  for  aereral  yean  abmad ;  lint  at  I'aria  wheN 
he  acquired  gnat  dexterity  In  all  gamea  of  chance, 
and  afterwani  at  Genoa  and  Venice.  One  cauae  a»- 
ilgned  for  hia  leaving  ParU,  wai  hl<i  eloping  with 
Lady  Catharine,  thini  daughter  of  Nkholai,  Lord 
Banbury,  and  wife  of  Mr.  Henor,  or  Semour.  Hla 
iucccM  in  |ilay  waa  lo  great,  that  he  la  aaid  to 
have  acquired  X20,000.  The  favorite  maxim  Incul- 
cated liy  Law,  and  upon  which  hia  whole  fabric 
of  the  Miialasippi  nyatem  waa  reared ;  namely,  that 
the  power  and  proaperity  of  a  nation  increaae  in  pro- 
portlim  to  the  quantity  of  money  circulatihg  therein, 
and  that,  at  the  rlcheit  nutioni  have  not  apecle  auAI- 
elant  to  aiibrd  full  employment  to  their  Inhabitanta, 
thii  defect  may  be  aupplied  by  paper  credit ;  involvea 
a  dangeroua  flilUcy,  even  In  the  moat  rertricted  view 
that  can  be  taken  of  ita  application,  Inaamuch  ai  It 
impliei  that  paper  money  may  be  laiued  with  advan- 
tage to  an  almoat  unlimited  extent,  upon  general 
aecurity ;  and  that  Hi  credit,  or,  In  other  worda,  ita 
value,  may  that  be  maintained  without  its  being  ren- 
derd  convertible  at  pleaaure  Into  ca«h.  Bat  all  expe- 
rience has  proved  that  this  is  absolutely  impossible. 
There  is  much  truth  in  an  observation  of  Mr.  Rurke, 
In  hia  RtJbctioM  on  tkt  French  Herotut'um.  "  It  is  not 
true,"  saya  he,  "  that  Law  l)uilt  solely  on  a  specula- 
tion concerning  the  Mississippi ;  he  added  the  East  In- 
dia trade,  he  added  the  African  trade,  he  added  the 
(linns  ot  all  the  farmed  revenue  of  France ;  all  these 
onqueationabiy  could  not  support  the  structure  which 
the  public  enthusiaam,  not  he,  chose  to  build  on  these 
bases.  lie  laid  the  beat  foundation  that  he  could, 
perhapa  the  best  which.  In  the  circumstances,  It  waa 
poasltje  to  lay ;  but  the  nation  went  suddenly  mad,  an 
erent  which  he  could  scarcely  have  foreseen;  the 
Company  waa  hurried  onward  by  the  general  fVeniy ; 
and  when  the  delirium  had  reached  Its  height,  the  re- 
gent was  advised  to  Issue  the  fatal  edict,  which  level- 
ed the  whole  fabric  to  the  dust.  (See  E.  B.,  :866.j) 
(Euvrei  de  Law,  passim ;  Uitloire  du  Sgilime  dei  Fi- 
nancti,  torn.  1.;  Pollnltz,  Mimo!m;  Massillon,  Mi- 
moirei  de  la  Mmoriti  de  Louit  XV,;  Mimoirti  a«  la 
Segftce  de  M.  U  Due  d'OrUan;  torn.  I. ;  Richelieu, 
ML  liret,  tom.  til.;  VolUire,  Siiclt  de  Louie  XV.; 
Chalmers's  Biog.  Diet.,  art.  "  liUW." 

Ztawn  (Ger.  and  Kr.  Linrm;  It.  Liiume,  Kema; 
Sp.  Cambrag  elaritt),  a  sort  of  dear  or  open-worked 
cambric,  which,  till  of  late  years,  waa  exclusively 
manufactured  In  France  and  Flandera.  At  present, 
the  lawn  manufacture  Is  established  In  Scotland  and 
In  the  north  of  Ireland,  where  articles  of  this  kind  are 
brought  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  nearly  to 
rival  the  productions  of  the  French  and  Flemish  manu- 
factories.  In  the  manufacture  of  lawns,  finer  flaxen 
thread  la  uaed  than  in  that  of  cambric. 

XiawrenOA,  a  manufacturing  town  of  the  United 
Slates  of  North  America,  Essex  county,  Massachusetts, 
Is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Merrimac,  26  miles 
north  of  Boston,  and  forms  the  centre  of  a  network  of 
railroads  communicating  with  Lowell,  Newbuij'port, 
Boston,  and  other  places  of  Importance.  Although 
founded  but  recently,  Lawrence  has  become  one  of  the 
chief  manufacturing  towns  In  New  England,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  water-power  it  derives  from  the  Mer- 
rimac. In  1845,  the  Eaaax  Commeroiol  Company  con- 
structed a  dam  ofmaaonry  across  the  stream,  by  which  a 


tell  af  M  <bat  wu  obtained  for  tba  whole  river.  Fran 
thla  dam  a  canal,  ttom  60  to  100  feat  brood,  \i  feel  deep, 
and  mora  than  a  mil*  long,  conduota  the  water  to  tba 
variona  faetoriaa  aituate  liatween  It  and  the  Merrimao, 
Tha  town  proper,  which  ia  laid  out  between  the  latter 
and  a  amall  tributair  called  the  Spicket,  has  in  ita 
centre  an  open  common  of  17^  acrss  in  extent,  and 
contains  a  town-house.  Jail,  several  churches  and 
sehools,  and  a  literary  institute.  The  inlialiitants  art 
almoat  oil  employed  in  the  various  factories  in  the 
town,  soma  of  which  an-  of  great  sIm,  and  one,  tlie 
PaolAc,  la  said  to  bo  the  largest  in  the  world.  Tha 
building  haa  seven  stories,  and  Its  flooring  covers  18 
acreo,  while  the  oonsamption  of  cotton  within  Its  waiii 
amounts  to  1,600,000  lbs.  yearly,  and  of  wool  to  the 
third  of  that  amount.  It  givea  employment  to  about 
traOO  persons.  The  manufactures  of  the  town  mm- 
prise  woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  goods  nf  various  kinds, 
IncorporaUd  1H47.  Population  in  1848,  600U;  in  1N60, 
8288;  in  INM,  almut  14,000. 

Zrfiwrano*,  Bt,  an  important  river  of  North 
America,  forming  part  of  the  north  boundary'  of  tha 
United  States,  and  watering  the  flnest  portion  of  Brit- 
ish America,  rises,  under  the  nama  of  the  St.  Ixiuis,  In 
lat.  47°  46'  N.,  long,  08°  W.,  flows  east,  and  enter* 
the  Bonth-west  extremity  of  Luke  Superior.  Passing 
thnmgh  the  chain  of  great  lakes,  It  quite  Lake  Onta- 
rio at  Kingston.  Here  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Iro- 
qnola,  and  flowing  north-east  forms  the  wide  expense! 
called  Lakaa  St.  Francis,  St.  Ijouin,  and  St.  Peter.  It 
ia  first  called  St.  Lawrence  after  passing  Montrc.il. 
Below  Quebec  It  forms  a  broad  estuary ;  and  it  enters 
the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawrence  at  (iu»fi  Point  liy  a  mouth 
100  miles  wide.  Length,  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the 
Oulf,  6J0  miles ;  entire  length,  1800  miles.  The  basin 
of  the  St.  Ijiwrence  Is  estimated  to  contain  297,000 
square  miles,  of  which  04,000  are  covered  with  the 
waters  of  the  great  lakes.  The  river  receives  many 
Important  tributariea  firom  the  north,  but  none  of 
any  size  from  the  south.  The  tides  rise  to  the  dis- 
trict of  Three  Rivers.  Ships  of  the  line  ascend  to  Que- 
bec, and  vessels  of  600  tors  to  Montreal.  The  naviga- 
tion is  continued  hence  by  canals  to  Kingxton  and 
Ijike  Ontario.     See  Canada  Lakes,  Commeuce  or. 

Ziftwiwnoe,  Bt,  Onlf,  an  Inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  British  North  America,  having  Newfoundland 
on  the  east,  Labrador,  Lower  Canada,  and  New 
Brunswick  on  the  north  and  west,  and  Nova  Scotia 
and  Cape  Breton  on  the  south;  extending  from  N. 
lat.  46°  to  61°  80',  and  W.  long.  68°  to  65°.  It  com- 
municates with  the  ocean  by  three  channels,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  la  between  Cape  Breton  and  Newfound- 
land, 48  mllea  In  width  at  its  narrowest  port.  1]he 
other  two  channels  are  much  narrower;  the  Straits 
of  Belle  Isle,  between  the  north  extremity  of  New- 
foundland and  Labrador,  being  10  miles,  and  the  Gut 
of  Canso,  betwixt  Cape  Breton  and  the  main  land,  be- 
ing only  about  half  a  mile  in  width  at  the  narrowest 
part.  The  Oulf  is  about  800  miles  in  length,  ttom 
north  to  south,  by  240  miles  In  breadth,  and  incloses 
numerous  islands,  the  chief  of  which  are — Anticoati,  in 
the  north,  the  Magdalen  group  in  the  centre,  and 
Prince  Edward's  Island  In  the  south.  The  estnar}-  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  debouches  into  the  Gulf  at  the 
western  extremity  of  AntlcostI ;  although,  properly 
speaking,  this  firth  Is  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  as  fur  up  as 
the  River  Sagnepay.  Navigation  is  suspeuded  here 
during  winter  and  eariy  spring,  tiom  the  prevalence 
of  ice,  which  is  especUlly  da.igaroua  in  the  entrance 
to  the  Oulf.  Fogs  also  are  very  ffi-quent  during  thk' 
prevalence  of  the  east  winds  in  aprin;;.  In  summer, 
however,  the  west  and  south-west  winds  render  navi- 
gation comparatively  lafe.  The  fisheries,  which  are 
very  valuable,  are  prosecuted  with  assiduity  by  the 
eolonles  aa  well  as  by  United  States'  companies.  Her- 
ring, cod,  and  mackerel  abound,  S^e  Canada  and 
Lakgi. 


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tews  of  OommOTO*.  Th*  fcllowliig  Mkto 
«Mttin>  •  eaad«BM<l  inmmaiy  of  th*  )ir«MDl  Hat*  of 
eommareUl  Uw  In  thoM  eoantrin  whh  whlah  Ih* 
UnHad  HtelM  kar*  commercial  Intercouna.  For 
thli  valuahta  ikatob,  wa  ara  Indrlited  to  "  Tht  Com- 
menial  /Miwt  It/ tkt  WoM,"  bjr  Lbomb  f.avi,  I^tiuhm, 
1«M,  8  voU.,  4to. 

1.  A»kall-llm%htHirg,  AnkaU-OMlMfn,  Anhah-Dtuau, 
Jhukiu  nf.—Tht  Duchlaa  of  Anhalt-RernbourK,  An- 
balt-Ooalh«n,  and  AnhalUDtiuu,  cairh  fonnlnft  an 
Indapaadant  Mala,  ara  under  law*  pnoullar  to  Iham- 
aalvu.  One  may  eatlly  perreive,  hnwerer,  that  In 
province*  of  M  United  extent,  and  whtire  commercial 
relationa  ara  varjr  partially  developed,  leiflalathin  muat 
have  remained  Imperftcl.  Thui,  In  their  trilinnala, 
they  have  to  refer  either  to  lawa  which  ara  rather  civil 
than  commercial,  to  forelfpi  leglalation,  or  to  the  com- 
mon law  of  Qermany.  Two  ordinaneei  of  Blit  Au- 
guat,  1802  and  1883,  on  bills  of  axchanii*,  were  repbeed 
by  the  law  recently  enacted  Ibr  all  Germany.  There 
exinte  in  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt-Deanau  an  nnllnance  in 
ngard  to  brokera,  of  the  IBth  April,  IHOa,  and  a  law 
relating  to  banliru|itcy,  of  the  13th  July,  1818 ;  but 
theae  contain  only  a  email  number  of  unimportant  ar- 
rangementa,  which  it  ia  unneceaaary  to  apeoU^' ;  with 
only  one  exc':ption,  namely,  that  In  the  law  regarding 
brokera,  every  contract  concluded  by  aueh  peraona  la 
anil  if  not  drawn  up  In  writing,  and  ia  complete  only 
when  the  deed  ha*  appended  to  It  the  *lgnatnr«*  of  the 
partle*  Intereeted.  There  la  no  apecial  Jurladiction  in 
the  three  Dnchlea  for  the  determination  of  commercial 
aniti.  They  are  decided  by  the  ordinary'  trilmnals. 
It  wonld  be  difllcult  to  enter  Into  tho  detail  of  the  or- 
ganiiation  of  theae  eoarta,  the  power*  of  which  are  of 
a  very  compllcited  character,  and  whoaa  competency 
rariea  according  to  the  persona  or  matters  brought  be- 
fore them.  It  la  auAcient  to  remark  that  the  princes 
of  the  three  Duchies  of  Anhalt  joined  with  the  princes 
of  Schwartiburg  in  eatublishing,  14th  October,  1807,  a 
supreme  court  of  appeal,  befbre  which  all  affiiirs,  civil 
and  criminal,  of  their  reapeotive  States,  are,  or  may 
be,  Anally  carried, 

a,  AttifriaH  Kinplre. — Tho  commercial  legislation  of 
Austria,  at  present  in  force,  ia  traced  to  the  time  of 
Maria  Thereaa,  who,  in  1756,  published  an  ordinance 
of  consMerable  length  on  matters  connected  with  com- 
merce. She  at  the  same  time  caused  a  revision  of  the 
former  law  of  exchange  of  1717,  and  by  letters  patent 
of  1st  October,  1763,  declared  the  same  to  be  impera- 
tive in  almost  all  the  provinces  of  the  Austrian  mon- 
^^'hT.  'ilils,  consisting  of  44  articles,  contains  diree- 
Vxni,  iolat!ve  to  bills  of  exchange  and  to  other  point* 
of  commercial  law.  Various  modifications,  however, 
of  later  date,  have  passed  rn  it.  The  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy is  equally  due  to  the  care  of  Maria  Theresa,  al- 
though not  promulgated  before  the  reign  of  Joseph  II, 
This  law,  not  less  important  on  account  of  tlie  wisdom 
of  its  proviaiona  than  from  its  general  extension 
thrrughout  all  the  Austrian  States,  was  to  have  come 
In  force  on  the  1st  of  Januar}',  1782,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  some  accompanying  difflculties,  was  not 
acted  upon  Ull  the  1st  of  May  (bllowing.  It  repeals 
all  the  pre-existing  statutes  in  relation  to  bankruptcy. 
It  present*  at  the  same  time  certain  undetermined 
points  afterward  provided  far  by  later  statutes,  mostly 
inserted  in  the  judiciarj-  ordinances  of  GaiUcia.  As 
all  the  provisions  of  this  law  were  repeated  in  a  new 
edition  of  the  Lombardo-Venetian  code,  the  most  im- 
portant points  will  be  exhibited  in  that  division  under 
the  title  ■<  Bankruptoy."  The  maritime  legislation  of 
AuBtria4a  the  work  of  the  same  empress.  It  dates  35tb 
April,  1774. '  She  published  the  ordinance  l>nown  un- 
der the  tHle,  "  Editto  Politico  di  Xivlgazione  Meroan- 
tile  Austrlaaai"  attended  thereafter  by  some  other  ordt- 
ttanoes.  The  whole,  however,  1*  far  from  being  a  perfect 
system  of  comraeKlal  legislation.  The  ••  Editto  I'olit- 
ko^"  wbtcb  tmbMoes  the  most  extensive  and  the  wisest 


provlaioas  la  rsgard  to  oaptAlaa  anil  aaanen,  contains 
nothing  oa  the  subject  of  tValgkt-eaatmct*,  of  bot- 
tomry-hond,  and  insnnneee.  In  th«  abaeace,  there- 
fore, of  legialative  decision,  rsferanca  Is  at  prasaat 
made,  on  the  shons  of  the  Adriatic,  to  the  Frmch  "  Or- 
doananca  de  la  Marina"  of  ltW3,  Theee  diAreat  laws 
an  already  of  somewhat  ancient  data,  and  are  by  no 
maana  adequate  to  the  new  wants  of  commerce.  W* 
ara  led  to  this  conclusion  l)y  the  fact  that  of  lata 
there  were  lieing  prepared  in  AiiHtria  two  projei^  of 
law,  tho  object  of  which  waa  to  embrace  in  the  one 
the  Interest*  of  inland  commerce  on  wlikh  a  great  part 
of  th«  new  cod*  of  Hungary  haa  bean  baaed ;  In  the 
other,  all  the  maritime  legislation.  Neither  the  on* 
nor  the  other  has  received  the  legislative  sanction. 

8.  Badtu,  Onmd  liwkf  ^.— From  the  1st  July, 
1809,  the  French  code  has  lioen  in  force  within  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Though  the  text  of  this 
has  not  been  altered,  and  the  same  older  of  artiolaa 
has  been  maintained  aa  far  as  article  306,  numeron* 
addition*,  under  the  form  of  articles  supplementary, 
have  been  introduced,  particularly  in  what  ralatea  to 
commission,  carry  ing-traile,  and  hills  of  exchange.  Wa 
have  inserted  only  these  additional  regulations.  The 
civil  code  of  the  (jrand  Duchy  of  Baden,  under  the 
liead  of  "  Property,"  contains  important  provisions  In 
regard  to  literary  property.  The  second  book  on 
maritime  commerce  wa*  necessarily  retrenched.  The 
fourth,  on  oommerclal  juitsdiction,  also  haa  not  been 
reproduced, 

4.  Bavaria. — Bavaria  has  no  commercial  code,  nor 
even  a  commercial  legislation,  applicalila  to  the  whole 
extent  of  it*  territory.  In  the  provinces  where  the 
Coda  Napoleon  ha*  been  maintained,  that  is,  in  Khenish 
Bavaria,  the  Code  de  Commerce  is  equally  in  force. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  districts  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  Prussia,  such  as  the  principalities  of  Ans- 
pach  and  Bairentb,  Incorporated  into  Davaria  in  1803, 
have  preserved  the  Prussian  legislation.  There  are, 
tlierefore,  none  but  the  ancient  provinces  of  Bavaria 
which  are  governed  by  apecial  laws.  This  legislation, 
in  what  concorna  commercUi  right,  ia  extremely  im- 
perfect. In  moat  coaes,  it  is  true,  tlie  defect  is  sup- 
plied by  the  common  law  of  <  Ii^rmuny  and  liy  the  civil 
law,  but  the  documents  mo- ,  important  and  complete, 
are  three  statutes :  the  flrst  Itnown  under  the  name  of 
the  statute  for  Bavaria  of  24th  Novemlier,  178S,  ex- 
tending to  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom  by  tho 
laws  of  nth  of  September,  1826.  The  two  others, 
that  of  1778,  for  the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  that  of  the 
ICth  February,  1722,  for  the  city  of  Nuremberg.  We 
tind  in  these  three  enactments  regulations  not  only  in 
regard  to  bills  of  exchange,  but  respecting  merchants, 
brokers,  partnership,  and  factorage. 

5.  Bttgium,  Kingdom  nf. — The  commercial  code  of 
France,  without  any  modification,  baa  continued  to 
regulate  affairs  of  commerce  in  Belgium  ever  since  the 
year  1811,  the  period  at  which  a  political  separation 
between  the  two  countries  took  plnce.  The  same  ju- 
diciary organization  has  been  in  like  manner  continued. 
The  single  e.xceptiun  is,  that  a  law  has  been  enacted 
in  Belgium  (25th  March,  1841)  ordering  that  the  tri- 
bunals of  commerce  shall  give  final  judgment  in  causes 
that  may  come  before  them  to  the  amount  of  2000 
francs,  whereas  in  France  the  law  of  the  25th  May, 
1838,  fixes  the  competency  of  the  tribunals  in  the  flrst 
instance  at  1500  francs.  Royal  edict*  have  named 
commitfsions  cliarged  to  prepare  projects  of  law  for  the 
revision  of  the  legislation  In  regard  to  bankruptcy, 
suspension  of  payment,  partnership,  civil  or  commeN 
olal  insurances,  writs  of  captim,  mortgage  seiaure 
of  real  estate,  accounts  of  law,  expenses,  marriage 
contract,  possession  and  division  of  property.  A  law 
has  been  in  progress  on  the  proper  Interpretation  of 
article  442  of  tlie  Code  of  Commerce,  It  was  diaeossed 
in  the  Chamber  of  Repiesentattvea  in  the  eeaalon  of 
1842,  but  170*  ntjected  by  the  Senata. 


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C  Brmil,  Jfeyi'rn  </.— <A  oomawnUl  eod*  tt  wkloh 
Ikal  of  H^  lua  tmi  u  •  ImmU,  Ium  Ulatjr  bMB 
iMMd,  bal  lot  batng  yt  \m  oar  poMawlon,  w«  nhr 
oar  rcadtn  to  ■rtkU  Bbaiiu 

7.  /Imnni,— Tbougk  tin  cHjr  of  Hndwii  wm  om  of 
tha  tnt  in  Ika  aaoltnl  HanMatio  Uanaa,  and  U  itUI 
amnnc  Iha  ijoal  Important  Ma-iiurt*  In  Uarmany,  Itt 
ooMmarclal  la(<»Utlon  U  calnmaly  dahotlva  and  In- 
oomptata.  Htalutaa  and  lagUUtlva  anaelmanti  twar- 
lag  a  Tarj  ramota  data,  haw  fallaa  antlraly  Into 
daauatuda,  and  caiuat  ara  ilalarnlnad  allbar  ly  tha 
oomniiMi  U»  of  Uarniany  ur  by  that  uf  nalghborlng 
laglalatloai,  Hamburg,  alo.  Cummarolal  diapatai  ara 
datarmbiad  by  tha  tribunal  of  oommarva,  an  la  Ham- 
burg. Biaman  aanMi  two  daputlai  to  tha  Huprcma 
Court  aitabUahad  at  Lubao  for  tha  four  Haniaatic 
Towni. 

8.  fimiutniol,  Dudkj/  q/*.— Tba  oily  of  Brantwlek 
had  formarly  calebratad  falra.  Sha  ubtalnail  at  an 
aarly  period  a  ipaclal  ordoimaitn  In  regard  to  axchanga, 
whioh,  ronawad  nn  lit  August,  I7IA,  and  aflarward 
aatandad  to  tha  Uuchioa  ut  Hruntwick  and  Brandaa- 
boorg,  wai  Mill  tha  law  of  tha  MUta  until  tha  law  for 
bllli  of  aachanga  for  all  Uarmany  eama  into  forra. 
Anolhar  ordinanoa  relating  to  haakruptoy,  of  data  Mth 
Hank,  1888,  la  alnwtl  tha  oaly  document  uf  a  oom- 
merfclal  character  to  be  fiiund  in  the  duchy  j  for  with 
tha  exce|i(kin  of  eoma  recent  deciiioaa  la  the  Court  of 
Appeal  of  Wulfeabattal  in  regard  to  mercantile  ao- 
enuntt  and  factorage,  aad  whona  almpte  object  wae  t<i 
give  the  force  of  law  to  utagai  already  attabliahail, 
other  enaotnimta  have  been  of  a  dcKrlptlon  lo  purely 
of  detail,  without  bearing  directly  on  oummeivial  leg- 
ialatlon,  properly  ao  called,  that  it  hai  been  thought 
unneceuary  to  do  mora  tlwn  refer  to  them.  lu  tha 
Duchy  of  Bmniwick  coromerolal  cauaea  are  deter- 
mlne<l  by  the  ordinary  tribunal!. 

0.  Cracow. — The  commercial  code  of  Friniw,  of 
which  an  almoit  literal  tranalatinn  wa«  made  fur  the 
UM  of  Wanaw,  hae  nut  lieen  olBclally  repealed  in  the 
new  kingdam  of  Poland.  It  appean  unlikely,  how- 
ever, that  legltlatlon  of  French  origin  will  be  per- 
manent In  this  country.  In  the  city  of  Oacow  thei 
oade  Juat  mentioned  tlill  maintaina  its  authority.  It 
la  alio  In  force  throughout  the  Urand  Duchy  of  War- 
•aw,  having  been  intnHluccd  in  1808 ;  (.'racow  at  that 
time  forming  a  part  of  the  duchy.  Only  one  altera- 
tion haa  been  made  in  tha  co<la,  namely,  that  which 
authorixea  tha  nolariea  and  the  Judgea  of  the  court  to 
afflx  their  aeala  to  the  property  real  or  movai>le  of  a 
bankrupt,  and  to  determine  the  dividend  payable  tn 
the  reapective  creditors.  Commercial  alfaira  have  no 
special  tribunal.  They  are  carried  liefore  the  ordinary 
courts  ua  well  In  flrat  inatance  aa  in  oaaea  of  appeal. 
Three  lawa,  tha  one  of  lith  October,  1819,  relative  to 
the  public  exchange  (la  Bourse),  and  the  corporation 
of  merchants,  and  the  other  two  of  the  1st  March, 
1831,  and  19tk  May,  IHJU,  on  the  freedom  of  commer- 
cial transactions,  and  on  tha  restrictions  to  which  in 
certain  eases  they  may  be  liable,  ara  not  of  sufficiently 
general  Interest  to  have  a  place  given  them  here. 
There  are  certain  articles  of  produce  aubjected  by  the 
Senate  to  a  tarilf,  in  which  trading  is  not  considered 
as  a  part  of  commerce,  and  only  legal  process  of  a 
civil  character  is  allowed. 

10.  Dtnmarh. — The  enactments  relating  to  com- 
mercial Jurisprudence  in  Denmark  are  not  at  all 
numerous.  In  matters  of  exchange  the  ancient  ordon- 
nanet  of  1768,  has  been  replaced  by  a  later  act  of  legis- 
lature of  18tli  May,  1835,  which  repeals  all  preceding 
deeds  with  the  exception  of  that  of  2Cth  June,  1834, 
relative  to  some  particular  branches  of  tlia  law  on 
bills  of  exchange,  the  rescript  of  22d  March,  1769, 
and  the  proclamation  of  8th  November,  1799,  lu  which 
•re  found  regulations  for  bills  upon  the  West  Indies. 
The  maritime  law  of  Denmark  contained  in  tke  code 
of  Christian  V.,  1688,  continuea  itiU  in  foroe.    We 


ehould  have  eanAnad  onrsalvaa  lo  aa  aaalysis  af  Ihee* 
ragalalloiu  wkloh  uiesase  only  a  kislorlxal  InUrsst  | 
bM  we  have  Ml  tiia  propriety  of  JoIbIbk  »IiIi  Iheni 
•a  analvllo  view  of  all  tha  later  euaetments  and  lawa 
which  have  served  to  complete,  at  this  day,  Ihia  «»i 
clanl  monuateat  of  maritime  Jurlsf  rudanoe,  anil  which 
we  are  enalileil  to  present  by  the  aasistanca  of  the  ex* 
celleni  abetract  of  M.  I'uehln.  As  to  bankruptcy, 
there  exists  no  law  which  gives  precise  ami  tlxed 
rules,  Ordonnancee  of  very  ancient  data,  the  meaiti 
ing  of  whioh  king  custom  has  determiaed,  conitituta, 
on  this  auliject,  the  legislation  uf  tha  country.  || 
would  have  been  a  matter  uf  great  diflcully  to'glve  a 
copy  of  Ihaae  hail  nut  a  valuable  document,  due  to  tha 
labors  of  M.  Orstadt,  Attomey-iieneral  in  tlie  Iligli 
Court  of  Copenhagen,  aad  generally  iatoaded  fur  the 
use  of  the  French  Consell  d'Etal  at  the  time  nf  tha 
diseutiiions  on  the  projet  de  iol  on  liankruptiv  (pub> 
llshsd  38th  May,  1NA8),  eualded  us  to  preaeut  an  ab* 
street  which  will  lie  found  as  exact  as  it  U  aubstanlUkt 
and  wail  arrangnd. 

11.  /Vance — France  had,  under  the  admlniitratloa 
of  Colbert,  united,  or  rather  eu<liti«<i,  her  cumniercUl 
legisUtlun,  and  collected  in  the  two  nnllnanurn  of  com* 
merce  and  navigatkin  of  167S  and  1081,  tlielr  princi- 
ples, usages,  and  cuatoina.  Yet  the  want  of  a  general 
coda  of  laws  va*  seriously  felt  until,  with  thn  entire 
reconatniction  of  her  political  institutions,  Napoleon 
ordered  the  compilation  U  coilea  which,  within  a  abort 
period,  were  preaented  and  adopted.  With  some  un- 
important modiflcationa,  they  are  atlll  tlie  lioaia  of 
French  Jurisprudence,  With  regard  to  tha  ailminls- 
tratlon  of  commercial  law,  the  following  Is  a  summary 
of  the  report  of  the  Minister  of  Justice  for  the  year 
1846,  which  deservca  attentive  conalderation  : — Tvibu- 
nail  of  Commerc*. — Commercial  alTairs  ara  adjudicated 
by  330  special  tribunals  uf  commerce,  estelilished  in 
the  most  commercial  departmenU,  and  by  170  civil  tri- 
bunals, which  are  charged  to  take  cognisance  of  tha 
same  in  the  other  departmenU.  In  1840  tlmre  were 
Introduced  307,370  new  cases  before  theae  ilUO  triliun- 
als  I  177,440  have  lieen  brought  licfure  the  320  special 
tribunals,  and  30,8»M  only  before  the  civil  ttiliunsis. 
Judging  commercially.  In  1846  only  191 ,0X7  cases 
were  enrolled  in  the  890  tribunals)  since  1846  tha 
number  haa  Increased  88  per  cent.  On  81st  Uecem- 
l>er,  I84fi,  there  remained  7,983  cases  to  be  ujjudi- 
cuted  i  8,804  cases  which  were  considered  as  terminated 
l>y  compromise  or  abandonment,  were  brought  liefura 
the  court  In  1846.  These,  united  to  the  307,379  new 
cases,  form  a  total  of  319J^9  cases  to  be  adjudicated. 
Of  this  number  &9,82S  have  been  aaljudicated  contra- 
dictorily, and  116,808  by  non-appearance  i  403U  luive 
been  submitted  by  tha  tribunals  to  arbitratlun,  and 
82,705  have  been  erased  from  the  register  as  termi- 
nated by  compromise  or  abandonment;  7078  only 
were  left  unsettled  on  the  dlst  Decemlwr,  1846,  or 
hardly  8)  per  cent.,  while  the  civil  tribunals  left  un- 
aettied  at  the  same  epoch  36  per  cent,  of  the  civil 
caaea  brought  liefore  them.  Of  the  174,641  adjudic»< 
tiona  rendered  in  1846  by  the  tribunals  of  commerce 
84,569  only,  hardly  one  fifth,  were  auaceptible  of  ap- 
peal. The  special  triliunaia  of  commerce  buve  1 
court  and  1  president  only ;  the  number  of  judgea 
varies  from  1  to  10,  and  that  of  the  aumigatea  from  2 
to  16.  Tha  triliunaia  of  Parla  and  Lyons  have  each 
10  Judges,  and  of  surrogates  the  Arst  16,  the  second  6  j 
8  tribunals  have  6  Judgea  and  4  to  6  surrogstes ;  1  only 
haa  5  Judges  and  3  surrogates ;  96  have  4  Judges  and  2 
to  4  aurrogataa ;  106  have  3  Judges  and  2  to  4  surro- 
gates ;  lastly,  7  have  3  Judges  and  2  surrogutos.  In 
1840  the  tribunals  of  commerce  of  Paris  had  dis- 
patched 50,376  coses,  or  more  than  one  fourth  of  the 
toUi  number.  The  tribunals  of  commerce  wliich 
have  dispatched  most  oases  after  that  of  Paris,  are 
those  of  Lyons,  9841 ;  Rouen,  4914 ;  Marseilles,  4396; 
Bordeanx,  4137 1  Touloue,  8738 ;  that  of  Limogei, 


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ISOTi  n  oUk«r  trlli«n*ti  h*r«  •dJudtotM  upon  1000 
lo  toot)  OMM I  11  Iribanali  ciimpaMd  af  I  In  4  JudgM 
hay*  dlnpalcbMl  narh  AO  par  j»u,  tnil  lA  nthan  hara 
tarmlnatad  ttom  M  lu  100  only,  Thar*  war*  ramlarail, 
In  184A,  no  Miitanrvii  liy  arhllntlon  In  ilUpataa  ha- 
twaan  iiartiiiin,  1*10  i>r  wM<-h  with  tha  a<aUUniia 
of  a  thint.  Tha  grafflar*  of  tha  Iritiunali  of  aom- 
marca  hava  raraWad  tha  (1«|)<mII  of  VIH  partnanhip 
daadt,  of  which  lOHO  In  rnllartlTa  namaa,  4A0  In  enm- 


manillla,  '106  liv  nharaa  to  nciinhmlail  panunn,  and  41 
hy  iharat  lo  tha  liaarar,  9B  annnymnai  partmrahlpa, 
h»r»  haan  haaldaa  authnrliad  hy  raguUtlona  of  pnMlo 
•dmlnlatntlon ;  In  all,  >7I7  partnarahlp*  of  arary 
kind.  Tha  grafflar  nf  tha  triliiinal  of  tha  Halna  alona 
haa  raealvad  860  partnanhip  daatia,  almoat  tha  third  of 
tha  total  nambar.  On  Klit  Panmhar,  1H4S,  thara  ra- 
malnad  A9*I4  lianMroptelaa  to  }m  llquldr.tad.  In  IMfl, 
A70A  n*w  nnaa  wara  opanail ;  IWKM  iintr  hava  liaan  tar- 
mlnatad, and  61fi8,  or  almoat  two  thlnla  of  tham  war* 
laft  unialtlad  at  tha  and  of  the  yaar;  1013  hankrupl- 
daa  hava  liaan  tarmlnatad  l>y  •  ■i'"ppoml«a  \  lOfll  hy 
llqntdatlon*  ;  8'iO  havi-  liaan  cloaad  ny  In  iifflclanp}'  of 
capital;  laatly,  tharn  Imvn  lMi«n  darlarad  IM  Judg- 
menta  of  hankriiptrlan,  Th«  triliunal  of  mmmarca  of 
tha  K«ln«  ban  terminated  H90  liankmptclaa  In  1840, 
that  of  Kouan  10.1,  of  I.yont  1111,  of  flonlaaux  00,  of 
Manalllea  SI.  Tha  paanive  debt  of  AAO  bankruptnlaa 
which  terminated  In  IK-iO,  by  agreement  or  liquida- 
tion, did  not  exceed  MOO  franca  i  it  varied  fVom  lUXW 
to  10,000  In  441  bankruptclea ;  from  10,000  to  M.OOO 
In  12(1!!  i  from  R0,000  to  100,000  franca  In  270;  lartlv, 
It  BXrneited  100,000  fruncn  In  1107.  The  amount  of  the 
active  debt  of  2043  bankruptclea  liquidated  waa  61,- 
810,891  franca  ;  namely.  In  eatatea,  19,H5A,111  franca; 
and  movalilea,  81,001,280  firanca.  The  total  amount 
of  the  paaalve  debt  waa  148,514,671  fhinca ;  mortgaged 
debt,  10,2r)7,540;  privileged,  8,001,687;  and  ordinary, 
120,Itf*S,40't  franca.  The  loaa  home  by  the  ordinary 
credltura  waa,  on  an  average,  76  per  cent.  The  divi- 
dend obtained  haa  Iwen  more  than  7(>  per  cent. ;  In  84 
bankruptclea  51  to  75  per  cent. ;  In  02  from  26  to  50 
percent. ;  1 1  604  10  to  25  In  12(8;  and  1  per  cent.  In 
412,  In  186  bankruptclea  the  ordinary  credltora  have 
received  nothing;  the  aaseta  li«ving  been  abnorhed 
by  mortgaged  and  privileged  crwlttiifn.  I.aatly,  the 
divldenda  of  78  bankruptclea  terminated  try  compro- 
miae  have  not  been,  indicated,  aa  the  assets  could  not 
be  realized  Immediately.  CvuH  of  Apptal. — In  com- 
mercial matters  the  number  of  Judgments  susceptible 
of  appeal  have  lioon  in  1840,  84,560.  2511  appeals 
were  made,  namely,  7  appeals  for  100  Judgments  less 
than  in  civil  matters  ;  1777  appeals  only  were  adjudi- 
cated upon,  1212  Judgments  (68  per  cent.)  hare  been 
conflrmed ;  1665  (82  per  cent.)  modlfled  in  whole  or  In 
part;  602  appeals  have  lieen  negatived.  CounnI  of 
PruiHommet. — 68  councils  existml,  4  of  which  did  not 
■it  In  1846.  The  64  councils  have  had  on  hand  21,254 
cases.  The  partiea  hare  withdrawn  8158  cases  before 
they  were  eettled ;  16,140  have  Iwen  conciliated ;  1762 
remitted  to  the  'bureaux-general,  ani'  106  to  the  Judge 
of  peace. 

12.  Frankfort. —tht  ancient  ordinance  of  Frankfort 
(26  May,  1780)  relative  to  various  points  of  com- 
mercial law,  such  OS  partnership,  commission,  and 
brokerage,  haa  always  continued  in  force.  The  Sen- 
ate had  in  1811  prepared  a  project  similar  In  great  part 
of  Its  prorlalona  to  the  French  code,  but  which,  finm 
national  feeling,  was  not  adopted  in  1814.  In  1827,  a 
new  project  of  •  code  of  commercial  law  waa  pub- 
lished, for  the  pnrpose  of  being  submitted  to  jurists 
and  to  merchants.  This  project,  however,  has  not 
hitherto  received  any  leglalatlre  sanction ;  so  that  the 
ordinance  of  1730  still  remains  as  law.  There  exists 
In  Frankfort  no  special  Jurisdiction  for  commercial 
matters :  they  are  brought  before  the  ordinar}'  tribu- 
nals. There  Is  a  court  of  appeal,  •  mtuloipal  court, 
•ad  •  monidpal  or  terltorial  balllwlok.    The  supreme 


eourt  of  apiMol  slu  ol  Uheo.    lu  JartadlotlM  aitaaab 
to  all  tha  free  citlea  »f  (lermaay. 

18.  llrrai  Hnlam.—Th»  marranUla  law  of  Kagbwl 
It  almoat  antiraly  fo<in<lad  on  what  haa  baa«  aip*- 
rhncMl  to  ba  must  candudva  to  tha  welhira  of  aoolaty. 
Ita  origin  b  darirad  ftnm  many  suuroaa,  wUle  anolaal 
onmmarclal  enactments  ware  the  baab  of  oar  marlllMa 
law.  With  the  Incraaaa  of  oommaroa  aad  gaaaral  ad- 
rancament  of  tha  nation,  mercantile  law  grew  in  Im- 
portance. I'mmiaaorj-nolaa  and  tha  banking  system 
wara  placed  in  thair  prmwnt  tUta  during  tha  raign  of 
William  and  Anne.  NumUra  of  Judgea  fullowad,  wkoaa 
commanding  inUlligenee  furmed  an  e|)oeh  In  the  anaala 
of  jarlsorudence.  I'ha  names  of  Juatlca  Hale,  Lord 
Manaflald,  and  l.a^l  Htowell,  are  rendered  BunUlar  (tarn 
thair  being  consUntly  referred  to  la  the  a^Jodloalloa  of 
tha  moat  aubtle  argumanta  on  commarvUl  law.  Meat 
of  the  commercial  law  of  (Iraat  Britain  la  included  In 
tha  common  law ;  yet  lately  varloua  enactments  have 
paaaed  consolidating  the  Iwnkrnptcy  law,  jotnt-ttoeb 
companies,  etc.  The  law  of  Hi'otUnd  dlflera  materUlly 
from  that  of  Kngland  In  contrnita  and  bankruptcy. 
Tha  mercantile  law  of  this  country  la  entirely  included 
in  tha  civil  law,  of  whkh  Ertklna,  Htair,  etc.,  are  the 
leading  writara. 

14.  Qntet. — Since  tha  erection  of  Greece  Into  a  sor- 
eniign  and  Independent  State,  Its  government  haa  liaan 
engage<l  In  fl'<ng  Its  laws  and  digesting  the  varloua 
codea.  Tht  I  law  la  still  datennined  by  the  manu- 
al of  ilermunapol,  the  latest  compilation  of  tha  Uyaan- 
tlne  emperora.  The  commercial  ccmIo,  which  la  but  a 
textual  repetition  of  that  of  Krance,  with  a  few  unim- 
portant alterations,  haa  liaen  In  force  since  Ist  Uay, 
1885,  Theae  alterations  consist  only  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  Articles  616  to  6110,  relating  to  the  organization 
of  triliunala  of  commerce,  in  place  of  which  there  la 
the  law  of  18.14.  To  complete  tha  documenta  reUtIre 
to  the  commercial  coile,  wo  shall  say  that  the  law  of 
14th  May,  1886,  ra-establishwl  tha  regulations  of  Arts. 
681  and  6-11  of  the  French  cmle,  which  at  first  had  been 
suppressed.  It  la  interesting  to  remark  that  the 
adoption  of  the  French  code  waa  anterior  to  the  Greek 
revolution ;  inaamuch  as  in  1821  It  had  been  twioa 
translated,  and  the  merchants  of  Greece  had  unani- 
mously adopted  it.  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
lirmlng  this  volutnary  preference  that  his  mi^sty 
Otho,  by  a  royal  deciarutiim  of  May,  1836,  gave 
the  force  of  law  to  a  translation  executed  by  his 
command,  and  now  acknowledged  as  the  sole  ofHcial 
autlKirlty.  As  to  the  Judicial  organization,  it  is  simi- 
lar to  tliat  of  France.  There  is  an  innovation,  how- 
ever, which  is  of  some  practical  utility;  this  is  the 
being  obliged  to  choose  a  Jurist  as  president  of  the 
tribunal  of  commerce.  All  the  articles  of  the  com- 
mercial coda  are  the  same  as  the  reguUtlons  of  that  of 
France,  with  the  exceptions  of  the  modltlcations  duly 
noticed. 

15.  Hamburg. — Though  the  commercial  laws  of 
Hamburg  are  now  of  old  date,  and  have  frequently, 
partionlarl}  in  later  years,  been  sought  to  be  submitted 
to  rerision,  yet  going  back,  as  they  do,  to  the  statutes 
of  1608,  and  supplied,  when  defective,  by  enactments  of 
greatly  more  recent  date,  they  demand  our  notice ; 
and  the  more  so  that  they  regulate  matters  not  only  in 
Hamb"rg  but  in  the  neighboring  cities,  such  as  Bre- 
men and  Lubec,  where,  properly  speaking,  there  exist 
no  commercial  laws  whatever.  The  enactments  most 
recently  made  In  regard  to  points  embraced  In  the 
commercial  code  of  France  are  the  following :  an  en- 
actment on  the  subject  of  brokerage,  of  l&th  Decem- 
ber, 1824,  an^  another  on  partnership,  of  28th  Decem- 
ber, 1836,  the  latter,  however,  having  only  for  its 
object  the  deposit  and  publication  of  partnership  deeds. 
The  statutes  of  1603,  relative  to  mercantile  books, 
have  not  been  repealed  by  any  later  enactment.  The 
law  on  bills  of  exchange  Is  now  similar  to  that  of  Prus- 
sia.   Tha  regnlationa  iu  legaid  to  maiitime  conunerca 


lAW 


1182 


tAW 


•MmXchMyhomWaitnmtiMlUlMualim.  At 
thay  b»v*  iMtn  modMtd,  bowtvar,  by  Mvtral  more 
NOMit  aiMetrnMit*,  w«  bar*  sralUd  ouiMlres  of  the 
work  of  M.  PoabU  upM  thi*  Mtijcet.  TbeM  will  be 
found  al*o  In  tb«  proper  ptac*— th«  rogalatlon  in  r«- 
guA  to  mirltlRM  iMNmnM  of  10th  Moptombw,  1781— 
of  (TMt  tmportcnoo  to  nno  wlihinc  inforautlon,  and 
rtnurkkbk  for  tb«  «ompl«t«n«M  of Iti  dctalli.  B«nk- 
raptolM,  bofon  tbo  trllnmal*  of  oontiiMrco  (a  pncodare 
wblob  doM  not  oslst  ((•n«mll}r  In  aennany,  whor*  fai 
«aiM  of  folium  tbo  dm<imii  for  a  Mttlanient  between 
tbo  partiM  l«  oarriM  tu  tbo  drll  oourla),  bara  baen 
ragulatad  by  an  ordlnanca  nf  81  tt  Aaguit,  1762.  The 
eomnioniial  Jariwlletlon  and  competaney  of  tribanab 
of  eumrooMa  had  Itaan  Kxad  by  tba  law  of  ISth  Daoem- 
ber,  Ml(,  wbMi  appelntod  •  trlbnnal  of  commerce  at 
HacnbuiK  far  all  onmmareUI  alTalra.  Prior  to  1815 
thai*  war*  earrlad  bafor*  tbaadminbtratlvaaBtbority, 
or  bafort  tha  Court  of  Admiralty  whan  tba  affair  was 
«f  a  marttlma  cbaractar, 

U,  HttMvtr. — 'Hmn  asbilad,  accurately  apaaUug, 
no  oommarclal  laglilatkm  In  Hanorar  till  the  period 
of  tba  Pniatlan  occupation  In  1801.  Immediately 
aft<T  tbia  tha  l*ruMian  ooda  waa  Introduced  into  the 
ballUK«>  "f  Heldaxbalm,  Verden,  Haya,  DIepbolti, 
Oanaliraab,  and  I.anjar.  A  myal  ordinance  of  Oeorge 
IV„  dated  tMM  Jtily,  1«!»,  conflmiad  It.  It  la  atlll  the 
axlitlng  Uw,  In  tba  other  parti  of  the  kingdom  there 
axlat*,  with  tba  axcaption  nt  tha  ragnlatlon  In  billa  of 
aai'bttnga,  of  tha  aama  data  (2M  July,  1823),  no  law 
wbBtavi*r,  liaaring  on  commerce.  Actloni  are  deter- 
mined by  uaam  and  oommon  Uw.  The  new  penal  code 
adopted  In  llanovar,  IIMO,  flxaa  tha  penalties  estab- 
Ibbed  In  caaaa  o(  iMinkrupttiy,  All  commerci:)!  differ- 
ancan  ara  brought  liafora  tha  ordinary  trilmnala.  In 
moat  in«lane«»,  howavar,  thay  are  terminated  amica- 
bly by  arbitramant,  nr  thay  are  decided  by  the  mnni- 
ci|«l  court  which  ordalnft  arcnrding  to  common  law, 
or,  utberwlaa,  acta  In  tlia  capacity  of  a  court  of  equity. 

17,  llantl,  ItKpuhlin  »/*.— Tha  republic  of  Hayti  has 
had,  (tnca  1828,  lla  c<Nlaa  In  unifi-rmity  with  those  of 
Vranca.  Tlia  commarolal  code  Is  throughout  tha  same 
aa  that  of  Kranoa.  It  was  publbhed  on  28th  March, 
18tM,  and  lias  liaan  artad  upon  since  1st  July,  1827. 
The  other  codas,  those  rvlatlng  to  civil  and  commercial 
procedure,  |ienal  and  rural,  form  together,  with  the 
civil  and  eommari'lal  <-o<tes,  one  body  of  law,  dated  the 
Jfttb  year  of  Indapanilenre,  snd  produced  by  the  la- 
bors uf  M,  HUnchat,  a  dUtlnguisbed  member  of  the 
Parisian  liar, 

18,  llnif,  flntnd  Diickg  «/.— The  French  W)do  has 
baen  maititttlnsd  where  It  had  liecii  intrmluced  at  the 
time  of  tha  t''r(>ncb  occupation  In  the  Khenlsh  prov- 
inces. With  regard  to  the  other  provinces  such  as 
Markanliurg  and  Hesaa-Huperleura,  commercial  leg- 
Ulation  Is  r«gulst«d  as  much  as  possible  in  conformity 
witli  th«  Krt'Mcli  law,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  town 
of  Offanliai'h,  which  had  a  speclil  ordinance  on  the 
exchange,  uf  date  4tli  March,  18',;d,  the  same  as  that 
of  Frankfort,  There  ara  tin  tribunals  of  commerce  in 
tha  (Jrand  Duchy  i  commercial  disputes  are  submitted, 
aa  In  most  parts  of  Qermany,  to  ordlnar)'  tribunals. 

10.  Ihuf  KUdoraH.—'ihtM  ordinances  only,  and  of 
ver)-  nbl  data,  exist  In  this  Htate  on  commercial  mat- 
tars  I  tha  Aril,  of  IfHh  May,  1747,  on  bankruptcies ; 
tba  sacoml,  of  !21st  Novemhitr,  1788,  on  partnerships; 
tba  third,  of  14tb  tlecnmlier,  1796,  concerning  com- 
mercial iHKiks,  Although  these  three  ordinances  serve 
only  U>  estsMUh  prinrlples  aheady  recognized,  and 
C4,nt«b>  only  a  var>-  limited  numbk.r  of  provisions,  yet 
wo  have  tbiiught  It  nacesaary  to  reprodpce  them.  In- 
dependently of  those  ordinances,  wblob  are  far  from 
forming  a  sulHclent  Imdy  of  commercial  law,  they  geo- 
erally  refer  either  to  the  rrench  code  which  baa  been 
bt  furoa  for  some  time  In  tbbi  country,  or  to  the  com- 
OMHi  kw  of  (termany, 

20.  UoUaml.—Tkt  «od«  of  Holland  came  into  oper- 


atien  tha  Itt  October,  1 888,  It  paaaed  ua|!er  a  savaN 
oideal,  and  it  waa  delayed  through  the  nvolution  which 
causei  her  separation  (Vom  Belgiom. 

21.  iroA«iuoUmi-0'<eAiivai.--<Prinolp«lities  of  Sieg- 
mariagar  and  Lichtenstain.)  Thaae  States  have  no 
general  prooedun  for  commercial  matters ;  the  disputes 
ariaing  on  them  are  adjudicated  by  the  ordinary  tribu- 
nals. The  principality  of  Lkhtenstein  la  governed,  for 
commeroial  matters  eSpecUlly,  by  the  laws  and  ordl- 
nanees  of  Austria. 

23.  lomait  IAkuU. — The  French  code  of  commerce, 
with  a  email  number  of  modificationa,  most  of  which 
have  been  borrowed  from  the  code  of  commerce  of  Two 
SIcUiea,  has  recently  been  introduced  in  the  United 
States  of  the  seven  Ionian  lalanda,  which  form  an 
aristocratic  representative  republic  under  the  perpet- 
ual protectorate  of  England.  A  decree  of  16th  March 
(26lh  February),  1841,  abrogated  all  the  laws,  stat- 
utes, regulations,  general  or  local  customs,  tba  re- 
quirements of  which  ara  contrary  to  the  present  code 
which  came  in  force  on  the  1st  May,  1841.  At  the 
same  epoch  of  lat  May,  1841,  the  other  codes  of  civil 
and  criminal  procedure,  and  the  penal  codes,  hod  been 
promulgated;  they  are  drawn  up  almost  in  the  same 
spirit  and  system  aa  the  French  co<le8. 

28.  Lombardo-Vmetian  Kingdom,— Tbt  French  coda 
of  commerce  bos  been  almost  entirely  preserved 
in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  Kingdom;  only  with  re- 
gard to  bankruptcies  t^ey  refer  to  the  Austrian  legis- 
lation ;  namely,  to  the  ordinance  of  Ist  January,  1782, 
and  to  the  more  recent  ordinances  inserted  mostly  in 
the  ordinance  for  Western  Gallicia,  and  later  on  in  the 
judicial  ordinance,  for  the  Italian  States  of  the  Aus- 
trian monarchy.  A  translation  in  Italian  of  the  French 
oode  of  commerce  baa  been  recently  published  at  Mi- 
lan, where  those  provisions  which  have  remained  in 
vigor,  and  have  the  force  of  law  have  been  reproduced ; 
these  provisions  bare  replaced  the  French  code,  espe- 
cially on  bankruptcies.  We  have  made  use  nf  this 
work  aa  the  most  authentic  compilation  we  could 
adopt;  and  have  simply  indicated  the  direct  corre- 
spondence between  them  and  the  ancient  ordinances 
or  law  of  1782,  and  the  ordinance  of  Gallicia,  deeming 
this  sufficient  to  show  the  various  changes  which  have 
been  made.  Trieste  follows  entirely  the  Austrian  leg- 
islation, namely,  the  ordinance  of  1760  on'bills  of  ex- 
change; that  on  bankruptcies  of  1782  modilied  by 
more  recent  laws,  such  as  that  of  Gallicia  and  others, 
and  the  political  procUmation  of  Maria  Theresa  of 
1678,  on  maritime  commerce. 

24.  Lubtc  (Frte  Toum  o/).— Lubec,  although  a 
truly  commercial  city,  does  not,  properly  speaking, 
possess  any  body  of  commercial  law.  She  borrows 
provisions  relative  to  this  matter  either  from  the  com- 
mon law  of  Germany  from  foreign  legislation,  or  from 
ancient  statutes.  The  Stadtrecht,  which  is  the  found- 
ation of  the  law  of  Lubec,  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
wants  of  commerce.  Yet,  with  all  the  impcrfectioas 
of  the  law,  attempts  to  improve  it  hove  proved  abor- 
tive. The  political  constitution  of  Lubec,  which 
goes  as  far  back  as  the  middle  ages,  demands,  for  the 
compilation  or  revision  of  the  law,  such  minute  and 
complicated  formalities  that  even  the  most  indispensa- 
ble improvements  are  inlinitely  long  dekyed.  Every 
project,  in  fact,  after  having  been  elaborated  by  a  com- 
mission, and  subjected  to  the  examinntion  of  the  Sen- 
ate, must  be  successively  discussed  and  approved  by 
the  eleven  colleges  of  the  Burgess.  This  mode  of  de- 
liberating, isolated  and  multiplied,  carries  with  it 
lengthened  and  incalculable  difficulties.  Practice 
very  imperfectly  supplies  defects  of  the  written  law ; 
because  no  regular  jurisprudence  can  be  establislied  hi 
a  country  where  the  inhabitants  terminate  their  dif- 
ferences chiefly  by  arbitration.  This  is  so  true  that 
in  1840  the  supreme  court  established  at  Lubec,  for 
the  4  free  towna  of  Germany,  bad  to  adjudicate  only 
upon  4  appeala  made  by  the  citizens  of  Lubec.    Nev- 


XAW 


y. 


11«8 


•LAW 


■lUMhw,  If.  Htrbait,  the  Pranch  oanial  thM«,  ia  lt41, 
traaiitiiltod  to  the  Miniftar  of  Foreign  AffUn  in 
Fnaoe,  ■  remarkable  woric  on  woh  lagUatlon  w  that 
of  Labee,  that  we  think  proper  to  give  lome  extracts 
fltom  it.  Through  his  care  and  enliglitened  xeal,  we 
an  fumiahed  with  aome  valuable  docamentt  on  mer- 
ehantf,  also,  on  commercial  books,  brokers,  on  whom 
there  exists  a  regnlation  of  the  36th  June,  1823,  and 
on  commercial  jarisdiction.  With  refhrenoa  to  niaii- 
time  commerce  we  have  follawed  the  treatise  of  Poehls, 
10  metbodio  and  complete.  TiiO  Stadtreoht  is  silent 
on  bills  of  exchange.  The  three  onUiances  of  14th 
November,  1669,  of  fith  March,  1788,  and  o.  20th  An. 
gust,  1828,  contain  only  provisions  Jt  simple  proce- 
dare.  The  first  prescribes  some  measure  for  prompt 
exeention  in  matters  of  exchange;  the.second  declares 
the  right  of  appeal,  but  not  its  saspenshin  powers ;  and 
the  third  leaves  to  the  tribuuals  the  faculty  to  exam- 
ine whether  a  permission  may  be  given  to  the  natives 
of  taking  proceedings  in  matters  of  exchange.  The 
reproduotion  of  these  texts  did  not  appear  to  us  neces- 
sary. Title  IX.  of  the  Third  Book  of  the  Stadtreoht 
is  devoted  to  commercial  partnerships ;  but  their  pro- 
yiaions  are  not  in  conformity  with  the  developments 
that  have  taken  place  which  ancient  law  could  neither 
foresee  n'  icgnlate.  Thns  white  expecting  the  en- 
actment ''  n  .aw  on  bankmptcy,  and  l>earing  on  this 
subject,  they  are  guided  by  thi  regulation  of  Ham- 
burg. As  for  bankruptcies,  the  subject  b  so  obscuro 
and  uncertain  that  it  is  now  fifty  years  since  mer- 
chants demanded  some  regulations;  but  difficulties, 
apparently  insurmountable,  have  hitherto  prevented 
any  improvement.  Still  there  exists  a  project  pre- 
pared in  the  name  of  a  commission  by  the  Syndic 
Bncchoia,  a  distinguished  jurist.  This  project  is  to  lie 
submitted  to  the  Senate.  It  seems  that  it  is  composed  of 
more  than  150  Arts,  and  that  it  approaches  the  French 
code  in  its  spirit  and  as  a  whole.  The  title  I.  of  the 
Third  Book  of  the  Stadtreoht  contains  some  provisions 
(till  in  force  (the  rights  of  creditors  privileged,  cred- 
itors distraint,  etc.,  etc.),  but  which  have  reference 
more  to  individaals  in  gwieral  than  to  merchants. .  The 
"Bourse"  of  Lnbeo  is  regulated  entirely  by  that  of 
Hamburg,  for  the  course  of  exchange,  money  and  pub.: 
lie  funds.  With  respect  to  jurisdiction,  oommereial 
affairs  are  submitted  to  the  civil  tribunals  of  three  dif- 
ferent degrees,  of  which  we  will  give  some  details. 

26.  Lucca,  Ducky  of. — An'  ordinance  of  6th  May, 
1840,  declares  that  the  French  code  of  commeree  shall 
continue  in  force  in  the  Duchy  of  Lucca. 

26,  Luxtmburg,  Grand  Ducky  of. — ^The  French  code 
of  commerce  has  not  ceased  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Luxemburg.  Simply  a  decree  of  King  William,  of 
8d  April,  1817,  modifies  the  articles  615,  640,  and  641, 
It  suppresses  the  tribunals  of  commerce,  and  it  orders 
that  commercial  disputes  shall  be  adjudicated  by  the 
ordinary  tribunals. 

27.  Malta. — Much  confusion  exists  in  Malta,  in  the 
application  of  the  laws  in  regard  to  commerce  ;  a  want 
otjixitt/,  which  gives  occasion  to  constant  complaints. 
Their  only  guides  are  the  "  Ordotuiattce  qfFmtek  Ma- 
rine" of  1681,  and  other  old  authorities,  such  as  the 
Code,  or  "  Pragmatique,"  of  the  Grand  Master  Manoel 
(which  is  only  snlwidiarily  in  force),  or  the  code  of 
1784,  of  the  Grand  Master  de  Rohan,  which  Iraars  the 
name  of  "  Municipal  Law,"  and  is  at  present  a  very 
general  anthority.  Subsequently  to  the  date  last 
given,  proclamations  emanating  from  the  diflbrent 
governments  which  have  succeeded  each  other  in 
Malta,  and  in  particular  that  of  Britain,  since  1800, 
have  introduced  or  remodeled  certain  rules  of  juris- 
prudence in  regard  to  various  points  of  commercial 
equity.  The  result  has  been  a  sort  of  common  law, 
generally  adopted  in  practice,  and  acted  upon  by  the 
tribunals.  To  promote  this  object,  a  collection  of  ail 
commercial  usages  in  the  fbrm  of  a  manual,  has  been 
pabliahed  by  gentleman  of  the  legal  profession;  it 


btara  the  title  of  "  Cimpmdu  it  Diritta  Cmmmtih 
JfobsM  (Malta,  1841)"--Compendlum  of  the  CommaP' 
eial  Law  of  Malta.  This  oollection  pieianta  m 
abridged  view  of  the  principles  of  Maltese  legislatiwi 
and  Jurisprudence,  in  the  absence  of  any  thing  Ulu  • 
regular  system  of  commercial  law.  It  is  a  snbjaet  of 
regret  that  the  English  government  has  not  foUowad 
up  its  plan  in  giving  a  code  to  the  Ionian  RepuUlo  bjr 
promn^ing  a  similar  one  in  Malu.  (We  undw 
stand  that  the  civil  code  for  Malta  is  already  prepared 
and  printed.)  On  the  subject  of  bills  of  excliaoga,  tba 
want  of  legal  arrangements  has  been  peculiarly  fdt> 
In  the  mean  time,  the  regulations  In  regard  to  roari* 
time  commerce,  borrowed  obiefly  from  the  Fnnoll 
shipping  lav,',  enter  much  into  the  necessar}-  dataiif , 
and  form  the  principal  part  of  the  commercial  law  c^  tlia 
island.  In  the  matter  of  bankruptcy,  the  ordinanea* 
of  1815  have  established  certain  principles  wbisb, 
In  the  form  of  procedure  especially,  have  l)een  on|y 
imperceptibly  modified  by  later  enactments.  Tbasa 
regulations  treat  l>ankruptcy  as  in  England — Clwp> 

XVI in  which  it  is  ttated,  that  should  any  dlAaiil. 

ties  occur  in  regard  to  procedure,  reference  should  Im 
had  to  the  law  of  England.  The  judiciary  organisa* 
tion,  which  dates  from  1679,  was  terminated  by  the 
constitution  of  1814.  The  maritime  consulship  was 
tlien  reformed,  and  the  name  of  tribunal  of  commarca 
imposed.  Begulations  were  at  the  same  time  enacted 
for  its  suitable  efficiency.  The  commercial  code  so  many 
yean  under  consideration,  was  revised  by  the  oounaU 
in  1847,  en  the  recommendation  cont()ned  in  the  abia 
Report  of  Andrew  Jameson,  Esq.,  Advocate,  SberiAT. 
depute  of  the  county  of  Edinburg.  A  commission  w»a 
also  named  to  revise  the  code  of  civil  procedure,  ln> 
tended  to  remove  many  obstructions  and  deUys  in  tba 
administration  of  justice. — Pavliamenlary  Heport,  1840. 

88.  MecklenburgSckieerin,  and  MechUnburg-StrtliiM, 
Duckiet  of. — ^There  ex-sts  in  these  Duchies  no  pecu- 
liar law  relating  to  ipmmerce.  The  only  authority 
throughout  their  respttUve  provinces  is  the  common 
law  of  Germnny.  Rostock,  however,  has  a  municipal 
law  pecnltar  to  itseh'.  A  decree  of  this  city  was  passed, 
19th  Decemifer,  1827,  relative  to  bills  of  exchange, 

29.  Modena,  DucKj  of. — The  duchy  of  Mudena  has 
no  code  of  commerce.  Reference  is  mode  to  the  opin- 
ions of  the  most  celebnted  writers,  such  as  Cosaregi 
and  Ansaido,  and  still  more  to  Azuni,  Baldasseroni, 
and  Cassiani.  In  the  absence  of  legislative  enact- 
ment, in  regard  to  commerce,  the  civil  code  is  also 
most  frequently  appealed  to,  which  in  commercial  dif- 
ferences alone  permits  to  act  by  executory  process. 

80.  Natmm,  Duchy  of  .—TUX  the  present  period  tbara 
existed  In  the  Duchy  no  law  relating  to  commercial 
rights,  and  the  ordinance  of  Frankfort  on  bills  of  ax- 
change  was  the  sole  authority.  The  government  has, 
however,  recently  promulgated  the  project  of  a  eon- 
menial  code,  extending  to  ever}'  subject  that  might 
be  contemplated  by  it.  This  project,  which  has  been 
aided  by  the  valuable  ciMiperation  of  Messrs,  Voi- 
pracht  and  Bertram,  is  in  a  great  measure  a  repetition 
(as  to  the  text  almost  always  so)  of  the  regulations  of 
the  code  of  Wurtemburg,  of  those  of  the  ordonnance  of 
Saxe- Weimar  (20th  April,  1819)  on  bills  of  exchange. 
Though  the  above  projet  has  not  yet  been  discussed 
at  an  assembly  of  the  States,  there  is  every  probabil- 
ity of  Its  being  adopted  In  its  present  form,  at  least 
without  any  material  alteration.  We  have  accord- 
ingly inserted  it  in  due  order. 

81.  jVoneay.— Civil  and  commercial  legislation  re- 
main in  this  countr}-  the  same  as  in  Denmark.  Its 
union  with  Sweden,  in  1814,  produced  no  alteration. 
Two  laws  only  were  carried  In  the  last  Storthing  (Par- 
liament) in  1842,  The  first,  of  date  4th  August,  on 
bills  of  exchange,  given  in  its  proper  place,  the  second, 
of  29th  June,  and  which  has  received  the  royal  aasant. 
This  law,  however,  being  merely  a  regulation  on  tha 
right  of  engaging  in  commerce,  which  it  limits,  with 


LAW 


1184 


lAW 


yny  ftw  exctptioDS,  to  the  dtUmi  of  comnMiebd 
town*,  we  ngard  u  not  coming  within  the  legal  depart- 
ment we  had  anigned  ounetvea ;  we  therefore  omit  it. 
There  was  recently  in  force  a  regulation  in  regard  to 
exchange  of  Copenhagen,  16th  April,  1681,  aa  pre- 
■ented  by  M.  Nonguier.  This  regulation  has  been 
replaced  in  Denmark  by  the  law  of  28th  May,  1836. 
In  Norway  it  has  hitherto  undergone  no  alteration  ex- 
cept those  of  the  recent  law  of  4th  August,  1848. 

The  maritime  law  of  Norway  is  the  same  with  that 
of  Denmarlc.  The  code  of  Chriatian,  promulgated  in 
■  1683  in  Denmark,  and  in  1667  in  Norway,  is  still  in 
force. 

82.  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guatlalh,  Duchieto/.—lbe 
commercial  code  of  France,  which  had  been  introduced 
into  these  duchies,  still  continues  in  force.  Only  the 
dvU  code  of  Parma  contains  regnlations  in  regard  to 
Ulla  of  exchange.  These  remain  the  sole  distinguish- 
log  documents  of  commercial  character. 

88.  Portugal.— On  the  18th  September,  1888,  an  or- 
dinance of  the  King  Don  Pedro  sanctioned  a  code  drawn 
out  by  a  Jurist  alone,  and  which,  derived  in  great  part 
from  the  Spanish  and  Dutch  codes,  has  taken  from 
them  tke  most  enlightened  provisions,  and  added  oth- 
ers, especially  on  the  institution  of  the  jur}*,  for  com- 
mercial matters. 

84.  Boman  Statu. — The  commercial  code  of  France, 
mppressed  in  1814,  when  the  French  ceased  to  occupy 
the  Roman  territory,  has,  notwithstanding,  still  con- 
tinned  in  force  in  some  of  its  provinces,  and  in  1821 
was  formally  Ik-established  throughout  all  the  Papal 
States,  by  an  edict  of  Pius  VII.,  under  the  title  of 
Provisional  Law  of  Commerce.  Certain  modifltatlons, 
however,  of  minor  importance,  and  which  were  to  re- 
main only  until  the  completion  of  a  new  code,  were 
introduced.  This  code  has  not  yet  appeared.  The 
edict  of  1st  June,  1821,  contains,  moreover,  several 
enactments  which  liave  for  their  object  the  better  or- 
ganization of  tribunals  of  commerce.  In  regard  to 
this  point,  however,  the  legislative  and  Judiciary  regu- 
lations of  10th  November,  1884,  contains,  in  sections 
three  and  four,  new  provisions.  The  decisions  of  the 
tribunals  of  commerce  may  be  carried  Iwfore  the  ordi- 
nary courts  of  appeals.  The  new  law,  however,  has 
not  revoked  a  papal  statute  of  date  27tb  February, 
1890,  re-establishing  a  court  of  appeal  at  Ancona,  and 
of  which  we  have  aieo  given  a  translation.  The  edict 
of  1st  June,  1821,  contains,  besides,  diffennt  Judiciary 
enactment!),  several  of  which  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  English  code  of  civil  procedure.  Into  the  exam- 
ination of  these  we  felt  it  unnecessary  to  enter,  the 
greater  part  being  presented  in  the  new  legislative 
and  Judiciary  law. 

36.  Rutria. — As  early  as  in  ITOO,  Peter  the  Great 
conceived  the  idea  of  collecting  all  the  ukases  pub- 
lished since  the  code  of  1649,  but  co-operation  was 
wanting  to  carry  it  into  practice,  Nicholas  completed 
this  important  nndertalUng.  The  iwod  was  published 
with  the  ukase  of  81st  January,  1826.  It  is  a  com- 
plete digest  where  the  old  laws  are  inserted,  yet  con- 
forminf;  them  to  the  progress  of  legislation  and  Euro- 
pean civilization.  The  commercial  part,  forming  the 
11th  volume,  occupies  an  important  place ;  it  includes 
mora  than  20<X)  articles,  and  it  contains  ver}*  remarka- 
ble provisions,  such  as  demonstrate  the  customs  and 
usages  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  vast  empire. 

86.  Sardinia.— After  the  events  of  1814,  which 
placed  upon  the  throne  the  present  family,  the  ancient 
laws  published  in  1723,  an  impression  of  which,  with 
numerous  additional  provisions,  had  been  published  by 
King  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  the  7th  April,  1770, 
were  re-establlshod  in  Sardinia,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont. 
They  remained  in  forae  as  to  commercial  mattem  until 
the  promulgation  of  the  new  code  of  commerce,  which 
came  into  operation  the  1st  July,  1848.  The  city  of 
Qcnoa  alone  has  continued  to  be  regulated  by  the 
French  code  since  the  Restoration,  the  exigendea  of 


thif  eommenUl  port  nqniriag  the  appUaatia*  of  • 
more  modem  lagislation,  and  one  which  would  ba  hi 
harmony  with  the  lawa  and  cuatoma  of  other  nations. 
The  same  motive  has  nrged  tha  enlightened  govern- 
ments of  Sardinia  to  endow  thehr  country  with  new  and 
mora  uniform  provisions  b}'  publishing  a  coda  of  com- 
merce. The  new  oode  of  1848  follows  entirely  the 
French  code,  takhig  into  careful  consideration  the 
lawa  voted  for  its  amelioration  by  the  French  Cham- 
ben  fai  1817, 1888, 1888,  and  1841.  It  has  done  more ; 
it  has  almost  always  resolved  any  dlfflcoitiea  that  have 
arisen  in  the  practice  according  to  the  sense  and  judg- 
ment of  the  Court  of  Cassation,  and  often  made  re- 
forms which  experience  iud  proved  to  be  necessary. 
Among  the  various  innovations  introduced,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  mention  that  minora  and  females  whom  the 
dvil  Sardinian  code— the  same  as  the  Macedonian  and 
Velleine  status  consultus— considered  as  incapacitated 
to  act  for  themselves,  an,  as  regards  the  exeroise  of 
commerdal  profession,  independent ;  which  modifica- 
tion was  certainly  indispimsable ;  adding  also  to  the 
No.  6  of  the  French  law  In  conformity  with  their  Ju- 
risprudence, a  presumption  of  the  consent  of  the  hus- 
band when  the  married  female  is  engaged  in  trade. 
The  code  intrusts  to  the  tribunals  of  commerce  the  in- 
spection of  twoks  of  oommeroe  ;  it  prescribes  precau- 
tions already  specified  in  the  projects  of  law  presented 
by  the  Gaide-des-sceaux,  before  the  Chamlier  of  Depu- 
ties, the  ISth  February,  1838,  with  a  view  to  put  an 
end  to  the  scandalous  speculations  of  partnerships 
in  commandite;  it  relieves  partners  from  farced  ar- 
bitration, and  makes  it  optional,  as  in  several  modern 
codes ;  it  dedicates  a  fourth  book  to  this  important 
matter,  under  a  special  title,  in  conformity  with  the  pro- 
visions of  our  code  of  procedure ;  and  it  replaces  tlie 
entire  section  of  the  French  code  which  treats  uf 
disputes  between  partners,  with  most  valuable  provin- 
ions  in  the  functions  of  tlie  liquidators  of  partnerships. 
The  exchange  agents  are,  as  the  notaries  in  France, 
rasponsilde  for  the  signatures  to  bills  which  they  nego- 
tUte  when  signed  in  their  presence ;  their  books,  ami 
those  of  brokers,  form  evidence  of  agreements  amonj; 
parties.  With  reference  to  bills  of  exchange,  thoao 
drawn  by  the  States  of  the  king  in  a  foreign  countr}-, 
may  be  signed  by  any  person  who  may  be  subjected  to 
imprisonment  for  non-payment,  without  distinction  of 
rank,  but,  for  inland  bills,  merchants  alone  may  be 
prosecuted  commercial!^' ;  and  It  is  further  necessary 
that  the  bill  shall  not  be  drawn  by  order  and  on  ac- 
count of  a  third,  in  which  case  they  are  only  deemed 
OS  simple  promises.  The  endorsement,  after  the  liill 
becomes  due,  and  the  security  given  by  a  person  not  en- 
gaged in  trade,  do  not  constitute  procuration.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  remark  that  Sardinia  has  adopted  the  some  metri- 
cal s}'stem  for  distances  and  measurement  as  in  France. 
The  second  book  relative  to  maritime  commerce  con- 
tains only  regulations  analogous  to  the  French  code, 
with  the  exception  in  reference  to  the  sale  of  ships, 
which  must  lie  made  by  public  act,  under  penalty  of 
nullity ;  it  prescribes  also  to  the  captain,  express  duty 
of  ascertaining  the  good  state  of  the  ship  before  goin;; 
to  sea;  it  enjoins  on  him  to  watch  witli  great  care  over 
the  interests  of  seamen.  Lastly,  by  the  Art.  343,  §  1 , 
the  negotiation  of  a  bottomry-bond  lietween  persons 
not  engaged  in  trade,  produces  tlie  same  effect  as  bills 
to  order,  and  by  the  Art.  360,  any  convention  which 
should  have  for  its  object  to  discharge  the  lender  on 
bottomry-bond  from  the  contribution  to  the  common 
averages,  is  null.  The  regulations  of  the  third  book  on 
bankruptcies  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  French  law 
of  20th  May,  1888.  Simply  they  have  suppressed  the 
Art.  448  of  the  French  code  which  declares  null  the 
inscriptions  of  mortgages  talien  within  10  days  pre- 
ceding the  suspension  of  payment ;  and,  also,  they 
Older  the  exposition  of  the  names  of  all  persons  who 
fail  at  the  hall  of  the  tribunal  of  commerce  during 
the  whole  of  their  lives  unless  they  obtained  a  license. 


LAW 


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LAV 


it  • 

b*  in 
tUmi. 
tTcrn- 

WMld 

f  com- 
ly  the 
an  the 
Cham- 
more; 
it  have 
a  Judg- 
ade  re- 
iesiary. 
ii  nec- 
lom  the 
lianand 
lacltated 
irciae  of 
modifica- 
10  to  the 
their  ju- 
the  hu»- 
in  trade, 
ce  the  in- 
ig  precau- 
presented 
r  of  Depu- 
te put  an 
irtnerships 
farced  ar- 
ral  modern 
important 
fiththepro- 
eplaces  the 
1   treats  of 
ittble  provis- 
lartnershlps. 
a  in  France, 
li  they  nego- 
r  booliSi  and 
lenta  amoni; 
hange.thoso 
ign  conntrj', 
1  subjected  to 
listinction  of 
lone  may  be 
ler  necessary 
r  and  on  ac- 
only  deemed 
afur  the  bill 
person  not  en- 
on.  Itiswor- 
le  same  metrl- 
t  as  in  France. 
ommerce  con- 
French  code, 
Bale  of  ships, 
ler  penalty  of 
express  duty 
J,  before  going 
treat  care  over 
J  Art.  343,  §  1. 
tween  persona 
e  effect  as  bUls 
,ventlon  whi'^1' 
the  lender  on 
the  common 
po  third  l)OoV  on 
the  French  Uw 
suppressed  the 
Clares  null  the 
10  days  pro- 
id,  also,  they 
.11  persons  who 
pmmerce  during 
tainedaUcense. 


Ilia  treasury  advances  the  preliminary  expenses  of 
the  procedure.  With  reference  to  the  license,  it  can 
only  be  given  by  the  Senate  (court  of  appeal)  after 
the  accomplishment  of  many  formalities.  The  tribu- 
nals have  the  same  organization  as  in  France  ;  but  the 
Judges  elected  by  the  merchants  are  nominated  by  the 
king.  An  important  modlflcation  has  been  introduced 
in  Sardinia,  as  In  Mexico,  and  In  Spain ;  a  Iaw}'er 
(conntlerUe  quiditiale)  is  appointed  to  each  tribunal  as  • 
counselor,  but  without  a  deliberative  vote.  This  in- 
ititntion  has  doubtless  great  adrantsges,  yet  It  Is  sub- 
ject to  great  inconveniences,  as  If,  for  example,  the 
conmltore,  through  the  Influence  of  his  acquaintances, 
should  predominate  In  all  the  deliberations,  and  over- 
rule the  judges.  Another  innovation  consists  in  the 
creation  of «  judge,  delegated  every  week  by  the  tri- 
bunals, who  decides  by  himself  all  disputes  below  300 
flrancs,  and  judges  without  appeal  all  those  which  do 
not  exceed  100  francs.  The  appeal  is  admissible  only 
in  disputes  above  1200  francs,  as  before  the  enactment 
of  the  French  law  of  llth  April,  1838.  An  article  on 
imprisonment  for  debt  has  been  added  to  tlu<  code ;  it 
fixes  its  dnrotion  in  proportion  to  the  sums  due,  and 
submits  to  it  persons  not  engaged  in  trade  for  bills  of 
exchange,  drawn  from  or  on  foreign  countries,  when  it 
results  from  maritime  operations ;  and  in  consequence 
of  frauds,  or  presumption  of  flight,  and  insolvency. 
There  is  not  yet  any  regulation  on  the  procedure  be- 
fore the  tribunals  of  commerce.  The  publication  of 
the  code  of  procedure  Is  shortly  expected,  the  ministr}' 
having  been  occupied  with  It  for  several  years  past. 
A  diplomatic  treaty  of  2'lth  March,  1760,  seems  to 
place  Sardinia,  with  respect  to  France,  in  a  very  ex- 
ceptional position  relative  to  the  execution  of  judg- 
ments rendered  by  the  Sardinian  tribunals,  and  the 
payment  of  the  security  jW/eatom  aolvi. 

37.  Saxe-AHenburg,  Saxe-Coburg  Gotha,  and  Saxe- 
Ueiningen. — In  these  duchies  there  exists,  in  regard  to 
commerce,  only  a  very  small  number  of  regulations. 
Commercial  differences  are  decided  beforethe  ordinary 
tribunals,  and,  in  general,  by  a  reference  to  common 
Ura  and  usage  much  more  than  to  particular  statutes. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  practice  of  Leipsic  I^  the  prin- 
cipal guide  to  that  of  the  two  duchies  of  Saxe-Atten. 
bnrg  and  Saxe-Melningen. 

88,  Saxe-Holdburghausen,  Duchy  of. — The  ordinance 
of  Leipsic,  which  was  introduced  Into  this  duchy  In 
virtue  of  a  rescript  of  llth  June,  1714,  still  continues 
in  force. 

89.  Saxe-Weimar. — ^A  number  of  laws,  entering  Into 
considerable  detail,  on  the  subject  of  mortgages,  and 
the  proper  distribution  and  precedency  of  creditors  In 
coses  of  bankruptcy,  were  promulgated  by  the  govern- 
ment in  1839  and  1841.  Their  ol)ject,  however.  Is 
only  to  establish,  in  regard  to  the  latter  subject,  a  uni- 
formity of  rule,  such  as  is  required  In  any  other  civil 
arrangement.  For  l>ooks  of  merchants,  partnership, 
brokerage,  failures,  there  exbt  no  other  special  regula- 
tions. The  Prussian  code  Is  followed,  or,  as  In  other 
parts  of  Germany,  actions  are  decided  by  usage  and 
common  law.  There  is  no  special  tribunal  of  com- 
merce in  the  Grand  Duchy.  It  is  proper,  however, 
to  remark,  that,  during  the  continuance  of  the  wool- 
fiir,  which  is  annually  held  in  AVeimar,  in  the  month 
of  June,  a  commission  is  named  by  the  1)urgomaster, 
composed  of  two  memliers  of  the  municipality  and 
several  merchants,  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  upon 
diffarences  that  may  occasionally  arise.  There  being 
no  commercial  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy,  no  Bourse 
(place  of  exchange)  has  been  regularly  established. 
Each  city  has  Its  particular  regulations  in  regard  to 
fairs  held  in  it. 

40.  Saxony,  Kingdom  of. — The  government  of  Sax- 
ony are  at  present  occupied  in  the  revision  of  the  an- 
cient legislation,  and  in  completing  it  by  new  laws. 
As  yet,  however,  there  exists  no  commercial  code,  not 
*T«n  ir,  the  fom  of  a  "projet,"  The  tribonals  are 
4F 


guided  by  ancient  statutes  and  ordhiancea,  whleli, 
where  no  enactments  exist,  are  considered  as  possessing 
uniform  authority.  Various  reguUtlons  have  passed 
In  regard  to  brokerage.  Their  respective  dates  are  7th 
March,  1818,  21st  September,  1888,  and  14th  April, 
1882.  In  regard  to  payments  and  bankruptcy,  the 
only  legal  authority  is  the  ordhiance  of  20th  Decem- 
ber, 1766,  promulgated  in  Lusatia  In  1788 ;  this  an- 
swers, however,  verj-  Insufllclently  for  the  present 
rsquirements  of  commerce,  and  government  are  pre- 
paring to  replace  It  liy  new  enactments.  The  ancient 
tribunal  of  commerce  established  at  Leipsic,  by  an 
ordinance  of  date  21st  December,  1682,  still  exists,  but 
simply  as  a  local  court,  and  without  any  effort  being 
made  to  establish  other  tribunals  upon  a  common  prin- 
ciple of  judiciary  organization.  Such  is  the  present 
state  of  commercial  law  in  Saxony,  to  which  the  gov- 
ernment are  now  endeavoring  to  apply  a  remedy.  In 
addition  to  other  means  for  this  purpose,  M.  Kinert, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  jurisconsults  of  the 
country,  has  latelj*  received  an  order  to  review  the  re- 
cent laws,  so  as  to  bring  them  still  more  into  unison 
with  tho  increasing  demands  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry. 

41.  Sckwarlzburg,  Rudolitadt  and  Schwartzburg^on' 
derthausm,  Principalitiei  of, — As  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  minor  States  of  Germany,  so  in  the  above 
principalities,  commercial  differences  are  brought  be- 
fore the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  are  decided  upon  ac- 
cording to  common  law  usage,  or  oven  the  laws  of  the 
neigblraring  States,  Saxony,  etc.  The  former  ordi- 
nance of  Ist  Septemlier,  1787,  respecting  failures,  has 
been  replaced  by  another  of  1st  Deceml)er,  1836,  on  the 
same  subject. 

42.  Siciliea,  Kingdom  of  the  Two. — ^The  French  com 
mercial  code  was  introduced  into  Naples  the  28th  May, 
1808,  when  the  throne  was  occupied  by  King  Joseph 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  laws,  having  undergone  • 
general  revision  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  a  new 
code  of  commerce  for  the  Two  Sicilies  was  made  public 
26th  March,  1819.  It  forms  one  of  the  parts  of  a  body 
of  general  law,  arranged  under  the  five  heads  of 
civil,  penal,  and  commercial  law,  and  civil  and  crim- 
inal procedure.  This  code  of  commerce  contain* 
nearly  the  same  regulations  as  that  of  France,  on  the 
basis  of  which  it  has  obviously  been  founded,  and  which 
long  practice  besides  has  sanctioned. 

43.  8pmn,—ln  1827  King  I'"erdlnand  VII.  nomi- 
nated a  commission  charged  to  frame  a  code  of  com- 
merce ;  and  on  the  30th  May,  1829,  a  royal  ordinance 
sanctioned  the  new  code,  wldch  was  to  come  into  force 
the  Ist  January,  1830. 

44.  Sweden. — For  bills  of  exchange  in  Sweden 
there  are  two  ordinances,  of  1st  February,  1748,  and 
12th  June,  1816.  The  text  of  them  has  been  given  by 
M.  Nonquier  in  his  treatise.  It  appears,  however, 
that  these  ordinances  have  been  insufficient  for  the 
wants  of  commerce.  Accordingly,  on  20th  May,  1835, 
there  appeared  a  new  law  regulating  inland  bills.  This 
law,  which  Id  perfect  in  itself,  and  may  be  considered 
as  the  common  law  of  exchange  in  Sweden,  forms, 
with  the  ordinances  already  mentioned,  an  extremely 
remarkable  body  of  laws.  In  relation  to  maritime 
law,  a  complete  occount  of  it,  as  it  formerly  stood,  may 
be  found  in  the  collection  of  M.  Pardessus.  He  haa 
given  *,here  the  ordinance  of  1CC7,  being  an  abstract 
of  the  Ilanseatic  Recea  Maritime  Consulate,  etc.  Kn- 
merous  changes,  however,  have  since  been  made  in 
this  ordinance,  certain  articles  having  been  retained, 
while  others  have  been  supressed  or  modified.  On 
the  present  state  of  the  maritime  law  of  the  north,  the 
work  of  M.  Poehls  may  Ije  regarded  as  of  the  highest 
authority.  A  law,  very  minute  in  detail,  was  is- 
sued in  regard  to  failures,  in  1818.  This  has  been 
more  recently  replaced  by  a  new  law  of  date  12th 
March,  1830,  having  regard  to  somq  modification* 
made  in  it  ia  1835.    In  regard  to  Juaticiary  oTgaaUar 


LAW 


use 


LAW 


tlou,  It  li  ittflolMt  to  note  that,  genorslly,  the  acttle- 
nlMt  of  coniMrclal  dUpntas  devolves  on  the  civil 
tllbunalt.  The  oviy  exception!  are  proceedings  reU- 
tlvt  to  bllll,  or  arising  tnm  disputes  which  may  have 
•rlMU  bttwara  ship-owners  and  the  proprietors  of  the 
oargo,  or  th*  captains,  or  between  captains  and  their 
tiamtn.  Actions  in  regard  to  these  are  within  the 
eomp$Uacy  of  the  municipal  courts.  The  same  tribu- 
nali  take  oognliance  of  ordinary  failures.  If  the 
bankrupt  la  a  noble,  the  case  is  brought  before  the 
courts  of  Justice.  To  these  also  an  appeal  lies  trom 
tba  daolsions  of  the  municipal  trlbnnals.  When  there 
it  loom  for  appeal  fl'om  an  inferior  district  court,  it 
may  be  carried  In  the  second  instance  before  a  superior 
one  I  and  In  the  third  (6naUy)  before  one  of  the  three 
high  oourta  ot  the  realm. 

45,  Swluertand.—Eich  of  the  twenty-two  Swiss 
cantons  U  sovereign  and  Independent,  ruled  by  its  own 
laws.  There  exists,  however,  in  the  greater  part  of 
thain,  no  commercial  law  whatever.  Matters  of  com- 
merce are  treated  as  other  affairs  of  civil  life,  with  all 
the  mitrictlons  and  Impediments  which  have  been  the 
f^lt  of  municipal  legislation.  In  the  Canton  of  Ge- 
neva, the  French  code.  Introduced  provisionally  after 
the  events  of  1814,  seems  now  to  possess  the  authority 
of  deflnltlve  law.  No  change  has  been  made  in  it, 
txeept  In  what  regards  the  mode  of  legal  procedure, 
delineated  In  the  "  Code  de  Procedure,"  arranged  by 
M.  Bellot,  and  promulgated  1st  January,  1821.  A  law 
of  12th  May,  1817,  giving  a  new  sanction  to  the  French 
code  of  commerce,  established  those  changes  already 
adopted  In  France,  and  introduced  into  the  art.  160  a 
provision  having  special  reference  to  Geneva,  namely : 
''  The  loss  of  right  mentioned  in  the  art.  160,  shall 
take  place  against  the  bearer  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  at 
one  or  more  days  after  sight,  or  months  or  usances 
after  sight,  drawn  from  the  Canton  of  Geneva,  payable 
In  foreign  countries,  who  shall  not  exact  the  pay- 
ment or  acceptance  within  the  time  prescribed  by 
each  of  the  preflxed  dates."  In  the  other  French 
Cantons  of  Switzerland,  the  same  French  code, 
though  not  expressly  enacted.  Is  frequently,  in  the 
absence  of  other  legUUtlve  authority,  the  guide, 
or  Is  at  least  appealed  to  as  a  rule  of  equity.  The 
Canton  of  Vaud  has  published  a  law  on  bills  of 
exchange,  the  4th  June,  1819,  which  is  chiefly  ex- 
tracted from  the  French  code,  and  which  has  been  also 
adopted  in  the  Canton  of  Friburg.  In  1818,  the 
Council  d'F.tat  of  the  Cnnton  of  Vaud  had  prepared  a 
report  of  a  code  of  commerce  to  be  submitted  to  dis- 
cussion, but  It  was  rejected  in  1841,  by  the  Grand 
Council,  The  Canton  of  Friburg,  in  1840,  presented 
the  proitt  of  the  first  book  of  the  "  Code  de  Com- 
mtret ;  It  has  not  yet,  however,  undergone  discussion. 
ItOitly,  Keufchatef  has  recently  published  some  com- 
mercial laws.  The  loglslatlon  in  the  German  Can- 
tons Is  extremely  Imperfect.  The  least  defective  sys- 
tem of  meroantua  law  is  that  of  Basle,  In  which,  in 
addition  to  an  ordinance  on  exchange,  of  14th  Decern- 
tier,  1808,  there  are  to  be  found  various  regulations  in 
regard  to  mercantll*  books,  brokerage  (26th  Dec., 
1822 1  April,  180S  and  1817)  as  well  as  some  old  regu- 
lations (1710)  relative  to  the  ranking  of  creditors  in  a 
case  ot  bankruptcy.  The  latter  also  still  retain  some 
degree  of  authority,  and  are  therefore  not  without 
Importance.  Recently,  In  the  Canton  of  Berne,  the 
dlscunslon  as  to  the  propriety  of  maintaining  the  codes 
of  France  in  the  French  portion  of  the  Canton,  seems 
to  have  led  the  way  to  important  reforms,  having  for 
thiiir  object  the  revision,  not  only  of  these  codes  in 
certain  articles,  but  of  the  entire  legislation  of  the 
country.  This  legislation  is  composed  of  very  ancient 
laws,  which  could  not  be  Included  in  this  work.  The 
law  on  bankruptcy,  of  22d  December,  1820,  contains 
■one  very  remarkable  provisions.  The  new  civil 
oode  of  Lucerne  embraces  various  regulations  on  com- 
inilil  matters.    Zurich  possesses  an  ordinance  on 


bills  of  exchange,  of  date  16th  Hay,  1805.  St.  Oall, 
an  ordinance  on  the  same  of  18th  July,  1784,  and  a 
law  of  11th  October,  1832,  on  'commercial  accounts. 
Lucerne  follows  the  ordinance  on  bills  of  exchange  of 
St.  Gall ;  Soleure,  tliat  of  Basle  ;  und  Friburg  has  the 
same  law  aa  Vaud  on  bills  of  exchange,  of  date  24th 
June,  1829.  In  the  German  Cantons  the  defects  of 
commercial  law  are  supplied  partly  fiom  the  civil  law, 
but  chiefly  by  usage.  Commercial  disputes  are  deter- 
mined before  the  ordinary  tribunals.  A  law  on  bank- 
ruptcy, of  18th  May,  1818,  for  the  Canton  of  Zug, 
contains  some  curious  regulations  in  regard  to  religious 
establishments,  4n  favor  of  the  bankrupt  himself,  who 
preserves  the  right  of  redemption  over  the  sale  of  his 
real  estate,  and  against  his  family  in  certain  cases. 
There  still  exists  at  Schoffenhausen  a  committee  of 
commerce  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  year  1703; 
shnllar  ones  were  to  be  found  in  several  cities  in 
Switzerland.  Its  members  were  elected  from  the 
mercantile  body,  and  were  appointed  to  watch  over 
every  thing  that  concerned  the  commerce  of  the  city. 
In  1806  it  was  erected  into  a  tribunal  of  commerce  for 
the  decision  of  all  mercantile  differences.  It  is  much 
to  be  wished  that  Switzeriand,  especially  in  regard  to 
commercial  affairs,  were  possessed  of  a  common  legis- 
lation applicable  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the 
confederations.  It  Is  possible  that  the  late  reforms  in 
the  civil  and  the  criminal  codes  of  the  Cantons  indi- 
vidually, may  lead  evf qtually  to  this  resnlt.  In  cer- 
tain cases,  indeed,  tha  Cantons  have  already  felt  it 
necessar}-,  amid  the  multiplicity  of  statutes  and 
usages,  to  adopt  certain  measures  of  a  general  char- 
acter, by  federal  conventions  or  concordats.  Thus,  in 
a  case  of  bankruptcy,  by  the  concordat  of  15th  June, 
1804,  confirmed  8th  July,  1818,  every  Swiss  through- 
out all  the  Cantons,  enjoys,  on  ranking  as  creditor, 
the  soma  rights  with  the  inhabitant  of  the  Canton  in 
whose  jurisdiction  the  bankruptcy  has  been  declared, 
both  in  regard  to  preferable  and  to  ordinary-  claims. 
No  seizure  can  take  place  of  the  movable  property  of 
the  bankrupt,  except  for  the  common  interest.  Three 
Cantons  only — Schwitz,  Glaris,  and  Appenzell — re- 
fused their  adherence  to  this  federal  agreement: 
their  particular  legislation  seems  to  oppose  it.  By 
another  concordat,  7th  June,  1810,  confirmed  8th 
July,  1818,  the  Cantons  have  mutually  decreed 
that  all  the  effects  of  the  bankrupt,  wherever  found, 
must  go  into  the  general  mass,  without  prejudice, 
meanwhile,  to  the  claims  of  the  present  holder.  In 
the  case,  however,  of  the  body  of  the  creditors  contest 
ing  either  the  properly  of  deposits,  or  a  mortgage  or 
ownership  security  situated  in  a  different  Canton  from 
that  in  which  the  bankrupt  was  domiciled,  the  claim 
must  be  carried  before  the  competent  judge  in  that  Can- 
ton, where  the  said  effects,  mortgage,  or  security,  were 
fonnd.  By  virtue  of  art.  14  of  the  treaty  of  alliance . 
between  Franca  and  Switzerland,  Frenchmen  and 
Swiss  are  respectively  exempted,  in  pleading  before 
the  courts  of  each  other's  country,  from  the  obligation 
to  furnish  a  "judicium  aolci."  The  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion, 0th  April,  1807,  and  the  Court  of  Colmar,  '28th 
March,  1810,  have  specially  determined  to  this  effect; 
and  the  law  may  be  considered  as  fixed. 

46.  runif.— There  is  no  commercial  law  in  Tunis. 
Usage  and  particular  articles  of  agreement  direct  the 
decision  in  those  cases  of  dispute  that  may  occur  be- 
tween native  traders.  Every  trader  keeps  a  book  in 
which  he  registers  his  purchases  and  his  sales.  Tho 
native  Mussulmen  and  Jews  know  no  higher  fonn  of 
mercantile  book-keeping.  There  are  few  countries, 
however,  where  oommercial  probity  is  found  more 
prevalent.  '  And  tliough  cases  may  occur,  in  which 
the  confidence  of  the  creditor  or  the  equity  of  the  judge 
are  attempted  to  be  worked  upon,  yet  such  are  pro- 
portlonably  rate,  when  compared  with  similar  instances 
among  nations  where  the  written  laws  of  commerce 
are  of  a  more  definite  and  extended  character. 


LAW  Si 

47.  Turltf.—Tht  geographical  pultion  of  Turkey 
was  destined  to  form  thU  rich  oountrjr  into  an  essen- 
tially commereial  power.  But  tlie,  natural  indolence 
of  its  inhabitants  has  prevented  It  tnm  reaping  the 
advantages  which  nature  had  lavished  on  it.  Their 
foreign  trade  is  almost  exclusively  carried  on  by 
strangers,  who  enjoy,  by  virtue  of  diplomatic  treaties, 
the  privilege  of  payiiig  dues  of  customs  of  smaller 
amount  than  those  which  are  exacted  from  the  Mus- 
solmen  and  Rayas,  and  possess  the  righ:,  in  cases  of 
differences  with  other  foreigners,  of  appealing  to  their 
own  international  laws.  The  Koran  is  the  common 
law  acceding  to  which  causes  among  natives  are  al- 
most always  decided.  It  is  no  matter  of  surprise, 
therefore,  that  there  exists  no  special  law  ai>plicable 
to  matters  of  commerce.  Those  enactments  which 
seem  to  t>ear  the  nearest  rc^mblance  to  such,  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  general  code — a  collection  of  all 
sorts  of  laws ;  to  whi(£,  moreover,  the  idea  of  religious 
sanctity  is  attached,  and  which  have  been  brought 
together  by  various  doctors  for  the  purpose  of  regulat- 
ing religious  services  and  public  administrations.  The 
collection  of  highest  authority  is  that  which  was  com- 
piled by  order  of  Solyman  II.,  from  1620  to  1666,  en- 
titled Miiltelca  Ehbar.  This  code  has  been  translated 
by  Chevalier  Mourudja  di  Hossen,  a  native  of  Con- 
stantinople, of  honorable  Armenian  family,  and  drago< 
man  (interpreter)  to  the  emlnissy  of  the  King  of  Swe- 
den. The  work  appeared  in  France,  the  first  two 
volumes  in  1798,  and  the  third  in  1824,  under  the  title 
of  "  Tableau  General  de  I'Empire  Ottoman,"  and  pre- 
sents an  accurate  exhibition  of  the  laws  which  govern 
that  vast  empire.  This  code  contains  a  book  on  com- 
mercial matters,  but  the  laws  embraced  in  it  refer 
rather  to  principles  iMaring  upon  civil  contracts,,  and 
adapted  to  Mussulman  manners,  than  to  commercial 
right,  properly  so  called.  Under  the  administration 
of  Ahmed-Fetclii-Pacha,  in  188i),  a  project  of  a  com- 
mercial code  was  prepared  on  the  model  of  that  of 
France.  The  fall  of  that  minister,  however,  has  in- 
definitely deferred  its  publication.  As  to  commercial 
jurisdiction  not  falling  under  the  rule  of  common  law, 
actions  in  regard  to  it  were  determined  at  Constanti- 
nople and  in  the  principal  sea-ports  of  the  Levant,  by 
the  chief  officer  of  the  castom-house  (chef  de  la 
douane),  aided  by  several  assessors  chosen  from  the 
leading  merchants  of  the  place,  Mussulmen,  Rayos, 
and  freemen.  This  court,  however,  had  been  sup- 
pressed in  the  capital,  and  the  Ministers  of  Commerce, 
similarly  aided  by  assessors  from  the  same  class  of 
merchants,  have  for  some  time  taken  cognizance  of 
all  commercial  affairs.  It  was  the  wish  of  the  Porte 
that  disputes  between  Ottoman  subjects  and  Euro- 
peans, should  be  carried  by  petition  before  this  tribn- 
nal  without  the  presence  of  any  European  assessor, 
and  subject  only  to  the  interposition  of  the  interpreter 
of  the  embassador  of  the  respective  country.  The  en- 
tire diplomatic  body  were  opposed  to  this,  and  the  min- 
istrj-  of  commerce  has  been  abolished.  The  former 
order  of  things  has  now  been  re-established,  and  the 
Grand  Dooanier  (the  officer  already  mentioned)  pre- 
sides as  formerly  in  the  tribunals.  Its  decisions  are 
final.  "  A  cause,"  aays  the  religious  code,  "  legally 
examined,  discussed,  and  determined,  can  not  again 
be  brought  into  courts  the  law  having  pronounced 
against  all  appeal."  The  judgments  which  it  pro- 
nonnces  are  not  founded  on  any  well-defined  usages. 
The  code  of  France  is  generally  the  rule  to  which,  in 
their  private  transactions,  the  Rayas,  who  hold  a  seot 
in  the  tribunal,  are  accustomed  to  defer.  The  tribunal 
of  commerce  is  not  the  only  tribunal  existing  in  Con- 
stantinople. There  are  other  tliree,  namely :  1.  The 
Arz  Odassei!,  a  supreme  tribunal  where  formerly  the 
Grand  Vizir  presided,  now  the  Cheik-ul-islam  (mufti), 
before  whom,  without  appeal,  diflferences  of  every  kind 
uedetermfaied,  save  on  commercial  and  maritime  sub- 
J«t«.    2.  The  tribunal  of  the  Cadis  j  the  Mehkeim,  a 


If:';:!.;,. .  law 

sort  of  court  of  peace  or  conciliation.  8.  The  court  of 
the  commandant  du  port  (governor  of  the  harbor), 
Leiman-Odassy,  who,  assisted  by  several  captains, 
judges  of  all  maritime  questions,  insurances,  ship- 
wrecks. Jettisons,  etc.  Commercial  differences  between 
the  subjects  of  the  Grand  Seignior  and  those  of  foreign 
powers  who  are  residents  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  are 
determined  summarily  in  presence  of  an  interpreter 
of  the  legation,  or  of  the  consul  of  the  nation  to  which 
the  foreign  subject  belongs,  sometimes  by  the  decision 
of  the  custom-house  authority,  sometimes  by  that  of 
the  Pacha.  In  consequence  of  foreign  treaties,  every 
process  Involving  a  sabject  excee<Ung  4000  asprea 
(alwut  8  francs  each)  may  be  forced  Iwfare  the  divan 
in  Gonstanthiople.  This  privilege,  however,  is  seU 
dom  made  use  of.  In  cases  of  dispute  l>etween  the 
subjects  of  foreign  powers,  a  decision  is  given  by  the 
consuls  of  the  respective  parties,  assisted  by  merchants 
of  both  nations.  The  Turkish  tribunals  decide  on  ac- 
tions brought  before  them  by  the  commentaries  of  the 
Koran,  of  which  there  are  four  in  number,  namely,  as 
follows :  the  Hanafi,  the  Makki,  thaCAa/(y,  and  the 
BambuU.  These  have  never  l>een  translated  from  the 
original  language.  The  Hcmafi  is  followed  at  Constan- 
tinople and  tliroughout  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey ; 
the  Maleki,  in  Barbary ;  the  Chafiy,  in  Egypt ;  the 
Hambuli  is  no  longer  used;  the  collection  entitled 
MuUeht  Ehbar  is  known  over  the  whole  empire. 

48.  Tuicany. — The  "Code  de  Commerce"  has  al- 
ways, since  it  was  introduced  into  the  Grand  Duchy, 
held  its  position  as  law ;  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
suppression  of  the  tribunals  of  commerce,  which,  not- 
withstanding, have  been  continued  in  Florence  itself, 
it  has  undergone  no  alteration  of  any  importance. 
The  article  117,  however,  of  the  judiciary  reform  of 
1838,  has  annulled  the.regulations  of  article  61  of  the 
French  code,  relative  to  obligatory  arbitration  in  mat- 
ters of  copartnery.  An  ordinance  of  6th  Septem- 
ber, 1814,  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  facility  with 
which  persons  not  engaged  in  trade  sign  bills  of  ex- 
change, authorizes  only  bankers,  merchants,  and  trad- 
ers, to  draw  bills  of  exchange.  In  cases  when  on  such 
bills  there  should  be  the  signatures  of  others  than  mer- 
chants, the  ordinance  grants  only  a  recourse  against 
them  through  the  civil  procedure.  Another  ordinance 
of  23d  November,  1818,  prescribes  certain  measures 
proper  to  shorten  the  procedure  in  matters  of  bills  of 
exchange.  Lastly,  a  third  ordinance,  of  20th  Decem- 
ber, 1824,  declares  that  the  words  value  exchanged,  in 
bills  of  exchange,  shall  be  considered  aa  a  true  cause. 
We  may  also  announce  an  important  resolution  of  the 
jurisprudence  of  the  court  of  Tuscany,  by  which  a  fail- 
ure does  not  destroy  the  provision  of  funds  for  a  bill  of 
exchange ;  a  question  much  disputed  in  France,  and 
which  the  Court  of  Cassation  has  adjudicated  upon  ip. 
a  manner  contrar}'  to  the  judiciary  decisions  of  the  tri- 
bunals of  Florence,  by  decrees  of  7th  Februarj',  1816, 
30th  July,  1832,  and  20th  March,  1841.  We  may  add 
that  the  article  130,  of  the  new  Sardinian  code  of  com- 
merce, contains  a  regulation  in  conformity  to  the  juris- 
prudence of  Tuscany.  An  ordinance  of  6th  August, 
1827,  has  made  alterations  in  regard  to  insolvency  and 
bankruptcy.  It  confers  on  the  Advocate  Fiscal  (pub- 
lic prosecutor),  or  his  substitute,  the  same  powers  with 
those  of  the  public  minister  of  France.  The  same  or- 
dinance proceeds  thereafter  to  abrogate  the  enactments 
of  article  587,  of  the  French  code  of  1807,  relative  to 
those  cases  in  which  proceedings  might  be  taken 
against  a  simple  bankrupt.  The  court  above  men- 
tioned in  Florence  consists  of  two  merchants  who  are 
judges,  two  surrogates,  one  judge,  a  professional  law- 
yer, and  n  "  greffler."  The  judges-consular  are  chosen 
by  the  principal  merchants ;  the  list  of  nominals  is 
laid  before  the  Grand  Duke  for  approval.  The  Judg- 
ments awarded  by  this  tribunal  may  be  carried  hy 
appeal  before  the  tribimal  "  de  la  vote,"  and  finally 
before  the  council  of  justice.    All  maritime  cases  are 


LAW 


1188 


LAW 


nndar  the  JoritdictloQ  of  the  "  bureau  de  k  Merine," 
at  Leghorn.  lo  the  other  provlncei  of  Toicuiy  the 
trlbnniUs  of  commerce  have  been  snppreued,  and  the 
Gogniianee  of  commercial  affUn  tranaferred  to  the 
«1tU  Jn^^,  whoee  Jorladtetton  b  unlimited. 

49.  Viittd  Stattt.—TiM  commercial  law  of  the 
United  Statee  b,  In  general,  the  lame  with  that  of  En- 
gland. The  prineiplea  connected  with  it  are  almost 
always  traeeable  to  the  latter  soarce ;  modifled,  how- 
ever, by  the  legislation  of  individual  States,  as  well 
as  by  the  decisbns  of  the  ftderal  court  of  the  Union, 
and  other  inferior  tribunals.  English  laws  are  not 
valid  as  such.  They  must  be  sanctioned  by  legisla- 
tive enactment,  or  introduced  by  a  cour^,  as  an  expo- 
sition of  principles  common  to  the  two  nations.  Each 
State  has  a  separata  commercial  legislation.  This  is 
fonnd<)d  either  on  express  statute,  or  on  decisions  of 
court.  But  as  the  decrees  of  the  dUbrent  courts  have 
a  sort  of  authority  of  themselves,  and  as,  in  addition 
to  this,  questions  In  relation  to  commerce  emanate 
fh)m  general  principles,  or  consist  only  In  determining 
the  proper  Interpretation  of  the  contracts,  commercial 
law  may  be  said  (o  be  the  same,  or,  at  least,  to  vary 
very  inconsiderably  throughout  the  Union.  Numer- 
ous questions  on  commercial  aflklrs  are  decided  by  the 
federal  couAs  of  the  Union  (district  and  circuit  courts), 
held  for  the  purpose  of  talcing  cognizance  of  civil  dis- 
putes between  inhabitants  of  different  States,  and  of 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction.  The 
final  revision  of  the  decisions  of  these  courts  In  gen- 
erally competent  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  which,  differing  ftom  the  Court  of  Cassation  In 
France,  judges  both  St  regard  to  fact  and  law ;  and 
the  decrees  of  which,  while  not  constdend  as  deter- 
mining the  principles  of  legislation  or  jurisprudence, 
have,  indirectly,  great  influence  In  giving  uniformity 
to  the  decisions  of  Inferior  courts  in  the  several  States 
of  the  republic.  Thongh  each  State  is  in  Itself  Inde- 
pendent, yet  laws  of  a  general  and  uniform  character 
may  be  enacted  by  Congress.  For  example,  article 
Ist  of  section  8  and  section  4  of  the  Constitution  of 
1787,  provides,  that  Congress  shall  have  the  power,  in 
the  matter  of  bankruptcy — a  subject  of  so  grave  In- 
terest in  America,  and  affecting  so  deeply  public  credit 
— to  enact  laws  that  shall  Ira  obligatory  on  all  the 
States,  and  take  place  of  local  enactments,  whatever 
these  may  be.  TTnder  a  general  view,  the  tribunals 
must  form  their  decisions  on  the  basis  of  four  suffi- 
ciently defined  elements :  1st.  The  common  or  imper- 
fectly written  law.  2d.  The  statutes  of  the  particu- 
lar State*.  8d.  The  legislative  acts  of  Congress ;  and 
4th.  The  decisions  of  English  courts  and  treatises  on 
English  jurisprudence  to  which  lawyers  are  permitted 
to  appeal,  as  rawon  icrit,  professionid  decision  reduced 
to  writing.  There  are  no  tribunals  of  commerce  in 
the  United  States.  Commercial  or  maritime  ques- 
tions are  determined  In  the  first  Instance  by  the  ordi- 
nary courts  appointed  in  each  State.  There  are  many 
exceptions,  however,  viz, ;  1st.  Of  maritime  civil 
causes  such  as  seamen's  wages,  mortgages,  salvage, 
engagements  of  vessels,  etc.,  in  general,  of  every  nal 
action  against  the  vessel,  or  even  in  certain  cases 
against  the  cargo.  2d.  In  the  case  of  seizure  of  the 
ship  or  cargo.  8d.  In  regard  to  patent*  for  discovery, 
rights  of  authorship,  etc. ;  and  4th.  In  an  action  in- 
tended by  a  citizen  of  one  State  against  a  citizen  of 
another.  In  all  these  cases  the  jurisdiction  devolves 
on  the  federal  court  of  circuit  or  of  district.  Though 
the  judges  have  no  political  privileges,  they  possess 
each  in  his  own  sphere,  great  power;  Inasmuch  as 
they  may  reftue  to  apply  thA  law  on  the  ground 
of  unconstitutional  im|nYiprlety  in  particular  cases 
brought  befbre  them— an  ingenious  but  sure  method 
of  fixing  the  character  of  imperfection  on  a  particular 
law.  In  order  to  place  In  one  view  the  documents 
oeeessaiy  to  give  uie  most  perfect  view  of  American 
legislation  on  th*  yhIoui  matter*  contained  in  a  com- 


mercial code,  It  WM  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the 
best  aeoredUed  •xpoeitiona  and  commentaries,  and 
to  which  the  American*  themselve*  attach  the  highest 
authority.  The  author  generally  followed,  as  the 
most  accurate,  is  Chancellor  Kent,  whose  Commnta- 
ria  on  American  Law,  presents  an  admirable  and  gen- 
eral view  of  commercial  legislation.  With  reference 
to  bankruptcies,  the  Congress  having  made  use  of  the 
power  gruted  to  it  by  the  Constitution,  voted  19th 
June,  1841,  a  general  law  for  all  the  States  of  the 
Union,  which  cams  in  force  1st  February,  1842.    See 

iNSOLVEKOr.. 

BO.  Waltaehia  and  MoUavia.— These  principolltles 
are  ruled  by  laws,  originally  a  mixture  of  Roman  law 
and  usage.  More  recently  the  laws  of  the  Lower  Empire 
came  into  force,  and  retained  their  authority  to  a  pe- 
riod not  yet  remote.  The  position  of  the  two  coun- 
tries, pressed  by  the  great  powers  which  surround 
them,  has  led  them  to  feel  the  importance  of  stability 
In  civil  legislation.  For  this  purpose  there  have  been 
established  organic  regulations,  with  a  view  to  protect 
the  citUeus  against  the  usurpations  of  the  governing 
authorities,  as  well  as  to  rsnder  secure  the  rights  of 
the  principalities  against  their  powerful  protectors.  A 
desire  has  been  felt  also  to  preserve  the  traditionaiy 
usages  which  are  the  expression  of  national  habits, 
though  sometimes  these  usages  are  not  perfectly  in 
harmony  with  the  French  legislation,  which  has  beon 
adopted  as  the  leading  authority.  The  aristocratic 
principle  Is  maintained  in  all  its  rigor  in  their  laws. 
As  the  primary  element  in  that  principle  is  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  great  estates,  the  law  confers  on  pa- 
rents, according  to  their  rank,  and,  falling  these,  on 
Inhabitants  of  the  locality,  a  preference  In  the  right  of 
purchase,  and  also  a  power  of  redemption  on  the  sale 
of  immovable  property.  In  the  cose  of  encroach- 
ments on  contiguous  property,  prescription  is  not 
admitted.  So  jealous  indeed  are  the  inhabitants  in 
preserving  their  estates  intact  that  the  property  con- 
veyed in  dowry  by  the  wife  (such  is  the  rigor  with 
which  the  dotal  system  is  carried  into  execution),  is 
fireed  from  obligation  to  a  leasehold  by  the  simple  fact 
of  marriage,  if  the  husband  refuses  to  confirm  the 
lease ;  a  regulation  greatly  tending  to  shackle  and  dis- 
courage the  labors  of  the  agriculturist.  In  18-10  a 
commercUl  code  was  laid  before  the  General  Assembly, 
containing,  with  a  few  alterations,  the  same  regula- 
tions with  that  of  France.  It  has  696  articles.  After 
having  been  adopted  by  the  General  Assembly  it  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  prince,  June,  1840,  and  was 
to  come  into  force  1st  January,  1841. 

OuaoMouMioAL  Tablb  or  Comhkboial  Laws. 

Dtfa,  Tltl<.  Covmtrlii, 

B.C,  HarlHine  Law  of  Menu India.  • 

B.O.  Maritime  Law  of  Burgee India. 

General  Code  of  Malacca India. 

B.C.  IiawonContr*ct,Usury,  Factor,  Ex- 
change, Debtor  and  Creditor, 
Fartnardiip,  Books  of  Commerce, 
Maritime 

B.C.  Lav  on  Bankers,  Debtors  and  Credit- 
ors, Maritime,  etc 

Bth  oent  Antani  Brevlamm  of  Alario  II., 
a  Court  of  Admlraltjr  at  Amalfl  for 
all  Nations  trading  In  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Constantinople 

etb  oent  Excerpta  Juris  Orientalis  ad  Rem 
Nantloam  PertUientIa 

tth  cent.  Jus  Navala  Bliodlomm. . . . 
940.  The  Gelanlng  on  Shipping 

10«8.  Maritime  Mv  of  Trani 

llth  eent  The  Maritime  Law  of  VriUlam 
the  Conqueror 

1150,  Ststnles  of  Bleswick  Maritime  Lav. 

1180.  Statute*  of  Aries. 

1188.  Code 

llta  Oonstttatnm  Usns 

13th  cent  Maritime  Law  from  the  Book  of 
the  Assises,  and  from  the  Usages 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  oy 
the  Conrt  of  Borgesaea  [From 
this  doeuaient  it  appears  that 
ether  lawa  were  enaoted  on  oom- 
m*i«*  in  generaL j J*n**Iem 


ISth  con 

Qreeee. 

13th  cen 

Home. 

IStbcen 

ISlh  cen 

Amalfl. 

13th  oen 

Eastern  Empir* 

13th  cen 

Rhodes. 

Norway. 
Two  SloUles. 

18th  cen 

180S,  U 

England.   ,< 
Denmark.  . 

1803.  M 

EVance. 

Lnbee. 

1303.  H 

Pis*. 

ISOt  p, 

1306.  A 

■  i ' ' 

About 

About 
M18  or 


LAW 


li^O 


LAW 


1!70. 


«lw>  dated  mt  and  1»S.]., 
UarlUme  Stetuta,  extract  ifom  the 


from 


itatute  of 
liTl.  Maritime   Law,  extraoted 

Pragmatlo 

liTl  Marltlnie  Law,  extracted  from  the 
'  OultUMngtUigh  of  the  King  Hag- 

nut 

m4.  Hartttme  SUtotei 


ms.  MarlUme  statute! 

1280.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  the 
lont-iog  Code. 

1282.  Maritime  Law,  a  Uonitltutlon. 
1983.  Maritime  Law,  a  Constitution. 

1283.  Maritime  Law,  the  Recognottrunt 

Pnctrtt 

1284.  Maritime  Law,  from  the  Statute  of. 
1286.  Letters  Patent  of  Kdward  L  on  the 

Contribution  of  Jetlnn 

1236.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  a 

Conitltntlon  of  Jacob  I 

1288.  Prannatlc  of  the  King  of  Aragon 

rolatlTo  to  Shlpwrccka 

1283.  Pragmatic  of  the  King  of  Angon 

rdatlve  to  Flratei 

1202.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  the 

Statute  of 

1293,  Maritime  Law,  from  the  Aren  Curia 

marit. 

1290.  Maritime  Statute 

About  1300.  Maritime  Law  of  Bremen.... 
18th  cent  ConMtMo  SoHetaNi  Navtum. 
13th  cent  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from 

the  let  and  2d  Skraa 

13th  cent  Maritime  Code. 

13th  cent  Maritime  Laws,  extracted  from 

the  General  Codes. . . . 
IStheent  Maritime  Code. 


CnitncoUMiioAi,  Tabu  or  OoHHnoiAL  Law»— 0i>iiMimm((. 

Dal«.  tltlfl. 

11th  cent  Maritime  Law  known  under  the 

name  of  Rooles  or  Judgments  of. . 
12th  cent  Law  of  Orlgi'a,  or  the  Code  of 
12th  cent  Maritime  Law  of  the  Bnrgha  of 
ISth  cfnt  Maritime     Law    called    Blar 

Kerar-Ratt 

1814.  CItU  SUtutes  of. 

1238.  Maritime  I<aw  from  Coatame  of. 
1124.  Maritime  PriTllege  granted  to  Ln- 

bee  in  the  town  of, 

1181.  Extract  from  a  Constitution  of  Fred- 

erio  II.  for  the  Kingdom  of , 

1281,  The    Criminal    Statute    regarding 

Shipplnic. 

1140.  Maritima  Extract  from  the  Cede  of, 
1MB.  Maritime  PrittlegM  granted  to  the 

city  of  Valenoe  Ij  the  Xing  of 

Angon 

1260.  Maritime  Law,  extraeted  from  the 

oontume  of. 

12B4.  Maritime  Lav,  SUtnta  of  Blarkoo, 

or  Diroa 

12fi0.  Maritima  Ltw,  from  the  Statute  of 

1255.  Maritime  BUtntes 

1286.  Maritime  Statutes,  extraeted  from 

the /^Hmto  Itsai 

1263,  Ordbunee  of  the  King  of  Angon  on 

the  policy  of  Narlgatlon  of 

1206.  Prirllega  granted  br  the  King  of 

Angon  to  the  Magistrates  of  Bar- 
celona to  nominate  the  Consub 

bflTond  the  Seas. 

12U,  Maritime  Law,  from  the  Partldas 
1109,  Maritime  Law,  extract  of  Pririlege 

gnnted  to 

12T0.  MariUme  Statute?    [This  statute  Is 


Olinn. 
Iceland, 
BcotUod. 

Nonrajr. 
Cnraoia. 
Montpelllei. 

Stralsond. 

BIcfljr. 

Venice. 
Lubeo, 


Valence, 

Valenea, 

Sweden. 

Marsetlleik 

Venice; 

CastiUla. 

Bareelona. 


Barcelona, 
CasUUIIa. 


Barcelona. 


Hamburg, 

Riga, 

Barcelona. 


Norway, 
Bergen  and  Dron- 

thelm, 
Stralsund. 

Iceland. 
Two  Bldllcs. 
Two  Sldlles, 

Barcelona, 
Flonsbnrg, 

Eni^and. 

SleUy. 

Aragona. 

Aragona, 

Hadersleben, 

Pisa. 
Lnbee. 
Bremea 
Bayonne, 

NoTogorod. 
Malacca, 


,  Malacca. 
....  Mang  Kassar  and 
Bougul,  In  the  Island 
of  Celebes, 

13th  cent  Maritime  Code, 'BouguL 

13th  cent  Maritime  Code,  extracted  from 


Statutes  of  Oenoa.  

13th  cent  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from 

the  Statnte  of  Zara 

13th  cent  Maritime  Law,  extracted  frx>m 

the  Establishments  of 

1303.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  the 

Establlahmenta  of ,, . , 

1303.  Maritime  Law,  extraeted  from  the 

EsUbllshments  of 

1303.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  the 

Establishments  of 

1301  Pragmatlo  of  Maritime  Law 

1306.  ArUeles  of  Maritime  Law 

About  1816.   Extract  from  a   Maritime 

Statute  of  Genoa 

About  1316,  MariUme  Law,  extract  of 

a  Statute  of  Bassari 

1818  or  1S19,  Brevt  partm  KUtantani 

(CsgUa) 


Colony  of  Pera. 

Dalmatla. 

MontpeUler, 

Bad. 

Bremen, 

RimluL 

Catalogna, 

Hamburg, 

Genoa. 

Uand  of  Sardinia. 

Island  of  Sardinia. 


CntonoLoeiOAL  Tabu  or  Comkbioial  Laws— AmMiiusd 

DrMa,  This,  CotolllM, 

About  UM,  MariUme  Uw,  extraeted  from 

the  Statute  of  the  Oily  of  Wlsby, 
1880.  Extract  from  a  Statnte  of  Genoa 

(Sept  14) 

1880,  PrMlece  tor  the  Chartera  (armateur 

in  course) 

1881.  MariUme   Law,   extract  from  the 

Statute    of    Pbaro    Island,    of 

Leuloainthe 

1888,  MariUme  Statute  of  Genoa  (Jan,  11) 
1888.  MariUme  Law,  extract  from   thu 

Skraa. 

1888,  Extract   from  an  Inqniry  on  the 

MariUme  Law  of ., 

1889,  MaritlmeStatntoof  Oenoa  (Not.  10) 
1840.  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from  the 

Coutnme  of 

1840.  MariUme  Ordinanoa  of  the  King  of 

1841.  Maritime  Statute  of  Oenoa  (gept  6) 
1841,  MariUme  Ordinance  relaUre  to  Uie 

(}ansuls  of  Barcelona 

1848.  Ordinance  of  the  Haglstntes  of  Bar- 
celona on  MariUme  Law 

1848.  Begntatlons  of  Consular  Procedure. 

1846  or  184T,  Maritime  Law,  extracted 
from  6th  Toluma  of  the  "OlTll 
Statutes" 

1864,  Ordinance  of  the  Xing  of  Angon  on 
Men.of-War 

1861  Ordinance  of  the  King  of  Aragon  on 
Narlgatlon  In  Times  of  War 

1886,  Ordinance  of  the  King  of  Aragon  on 
MariUme  CourKS 

1869.  Races  of  the  HanseaUo  League.. . . . 

18T8.  Extract  of  the  Inquiry  of  Queenbor- 
ough  OD  the  Maritime  Law, 

18TT,  MariUme  Law,  extract  from  the 
Statute  of  Lerant 

18T8,  Reces  of  the  HonseaUc  League. 

1880.  Reces  of  the  Hanseattc  LMgue 

1831.  RcgulaUon  In  the  Consulate  of  Bar- 
celona  

1386.  RegntaUon  for  the  Consulate  of  Bar- 
eelona  

1890,  MariUme  Law,  extraoted  bom  the 

Coutume. 

1391.  Reces  of  the  HsnseaUc  League 

189T.  MariUme  Statnte 

1899,  Pririleges  of  the  Grand  Admlnl. . , 
14th  cent  Maritime  Law,  known  under  the 

name  of  Jugementa  de  Damme,  or 

Laws  of  Weatcapelle 

14th  cent  Body  of  MariUme  Law,  known 

under  the  name  of  Contolato  del 

Man 

14th  cent  ArUcIes  of  MariUme  Law 

14th  cent  MariUme  Law,  extracted  from 

the  GompUaUon  of  the  Law  of 

Lubec,  published  by  Brokos 

14th  cent  Maritime  Lav,  extracta  from 

the  Statute  of 

14th  cent  Maritime  I.aw,  from  the  Olril 

Statute  of  Catoro 

14th  cent  Ghapten  on  the  Armaments  In 

Course 

14th  cent  Maritime  Law,  extracted  from 

the  RccapltulaUon  of  the  Ordi- 
nance of 

14th  cent  Maritime   Law,  extract  fremi 

the  Lvre  de  Justice  el  de  plet,\ 

drawn  up  hi France, 

1406.  Royal  Cedtile,  rpUUro  to  the  Jurls- 

dlcUon  of  Judges,  Consuls 

1412.  Reces  of  the  Uanseatic  League 

141T.  Rccca  of  the  Hanseattc  League 

1413.  Recce  of  the  Uanseatic  Leegue 

1428.  Lew  on  Averages  (Juno  9) 

1432.  Privilege  In  favor  of  Judges,  CoU' 

sulsof 

1434  Reces    of   the    UanseaUc    League 

(June  6) 

14.14.  Reces  of  the  HanseaUc  I^ckgue  (Oot) 
1436.  Ordinance  of  the   Magistrates  on 

Maritime  Police 

1436.  Ordinance  on  Insurances, 

1436,  Ord.'nsnco  on  Insunnees. 

1 436  Ordli. wee  on  Maritime  Poliea, 

i44l.  Reces  nf  the  Hanseatic  Leagna 

1441.  Maritime  Statute  of  Genoa 

1442.  Reces  of  the  Ilanseatio  League 

144T.  Reces  of  the  HanseaUo  League 

1460.  MariUme  Law.  extract  of  the  notori- 
ous Role 

1461  Rcccs  of  the  HanseaUo  Leogne 

1466.  MariUme  Law,  extract  of  alTflleltur 
1466.  Maritime  Law,  extract  of  a  WiUtkiu 
146T,  MariUme  Lav,extrao(of  a  iniMtHr, 

additions Diotilg. 


IstaBdofOotblMd. 

Gano*. 

CataloBta. 


Adriatio. 
Genoa. 

Appennda. 

Eugtand, 
Genoa. 

Island  of  OUroa, 

Aragona, 

Gaiarla, 

Sicily, 

Barceiana, 
Valsnsa 


Venice.         ^,.,i 

Aragona.        i< 

Aragona. 

Aragona. 
Uansa  Towns. 

EngUnd. 

Genoa. 

Ilaniie  Towns, 
llanse  Towns. 

Alexandria, 

Dsniasco,      ,.., 

Harlem, 
Hansa  Towns, 
Ancono. 
Sicily, 


Low.NstharUBdn- 


Venlce. 
Bremen, 


Lubea 
Riga. 
Dalmatla. 
Catalogna, 


Seville, 


Barcelona,  ' 
Ilanse  Towns, 
llanse  Towns, 
H  insa  Towns, 
Venios, 

Barcelona. 

Hansa  Tovni. 
Hanaa  Tovnsi 

Baroalona, 

Baroelona, 

Barcelona, 

Barcelona. 

HanseTovufr 

Genoa. 

HanssTovni. 

Hanse  Towns, 

Bremen. 
Hansa  Towns. 
Dantaig, 
Dantilg. 


LAW 

OnoROLoaioAL  Tabu  or  OomiuoiAL  La' 

DtH.  IWt. 

AbaalltfT.  ReinUttoiuonlfaritlmaNtr- 

IntloD. 

MM.  Onllnun  of  th*  IbgMntM  on  In> 

raimnoM 

1461.  OnHaHMo  of  ttaa  ma«iitntM  on  In- 


1190 


LAW 


14M.  OrMMBoaooIunfMMHMulTS) 
14T0.  RoMi  or  th*  HnnMnUe  liMfluo. . 
14B1I.  R«eMortlnR«n(Mti«L«MiM(Mar) 
14Mw  Ordlamv  of  Um  UtH^S—  on  In- 


1408.  llaritlme   Law,  ntnot  fram   Iho 


Statatii  (Aprti  W). 
•    whiol 


14M.  Pngmatla,  wbleh  eoniUtntM  •  Con- 


14»T.  ll*rHlmeI««,extnet(tonUwa«n- 
enlC'ode 

t4n.  Multlnie  T««,  tkxl*  of  Emmuoel. 

iSth  coDl.  Marittmo  Utw,  known  nndor 
the  MUM  of  "  tr«VM  MariHmu 
i*  Amdtriitm,  JRiAuytm,  aUU' 


•m,"  ate. 
int  Coi 


Voniao. 
HaaaaTowu. 
Ilanaa  Towna. 

Banaloaa. 

Aneoaa. 

Bni|oc 

Hambarf. 
PortngaL 


Northara  Mathar- 


15th  oant  OompUaUon  of  Iha  MarlUma 

ta» 

15th  oeni  Maritima  Uw. 
15th  oant.  Marl'.tma  Lav,  cxtraalad  fimn 
tha  aioMm  Anemitam  urM«. 

16th  eent    Addltlona    to    tbo    Maritime 

Statutoa  of  IMT.     

150T.  Ilaritlnw  Ordbianoa  of  the  Offloan 
of  tha  Cm  d»  la  Cvntnlaeim 
(NoT.M) 

1506.  MariUoM  Uw,  attrUmtad  to  tha 
KInf  John 

151ft  Fragmado  of  tha  King  of  Aragon 
nUtlTe  to  tha  Vonauiar  Jnrlalle- 
llona^ 

1610.  Maritima  Lav,  eztnot  fhim  a  Stat- 
ute of  (Jnna  91) 

151ti  Pragmatle  eonearelna  the  Freight- 
ing of  Bhlpa  (Jaa.  Si) 

1511.  MarTttroe  Lav,  extract  Crom  a  8tat- 
nle  of  (Deo.  ID) 

1518.  Statute  on  Inanraaeea  (Jan.  13). 

1618.  Statute  on  Iniaranoaa  (Jan.  IT) 

WU.  Statute  on  Inaaraneei  (Jnna  15). . . . 

16KI.  Maritime   Lav,  extracted   from 
PrMlege  granted 

I51T.  Ordlnaaea  on  the  Loading  of  Shipa 
(JulflB 

1S2T.  Staitute  relatln  to  the  Bottoaur 
(Aug.  18) 

15(0.  ReeeaoffhaHanaeatlc  League. 

1531.  Maritime  Lav,  extnet  ftrom  a  Stat- 
ute  

1BS8.  Ordtawaee  of  Bottomrjr 

158T.  Marlltme  Lav,  extraet  from  an  Ordi- 
nance (May  18) 

15S8.  Addltlona  to  the  Pragmatic  of  Jan- 
uary 81,1611 

1588.  ReguUtlon  on  the  Police  of  theCon- 
tractatlon 

1688.  Ordinance  for  laenranee 

1640.  Maritima  Lav  extract  of  aa  Ordl- 


1641 
1548, 


WUby. 
Oantaig. 

Aneona. 

Ancona. 


SarlUa. 
Denmark. 


Barcelona. 

Ancona. 

Burgoii. 

Ancona. 
Plorenee. 
Florence.  , 
Florence. 

Oantaig. 

Vaniaa. 

Aniatardam. 
RaaaaTovni. 

Plaarow 
Dordrecht 

Brahant 


Bnrgofc 

Bnrgoa. 
Borgoa. 

Prnaala. 
Lubac 


Maritime  Ordinance 

Maritime  Lav,  eztrtet  of  aa  Ordl' 

nance  (Jan.  It). 

1551.  Maritime  Ordinance  (July  19) 

1661.  Extract  of  tha  Maritime  Ordinance 

CharleaV, 
1566.  Maritime  Lav,  extract  of  the  Book 

.         II.  of  the  Criminal  Statute 

1666.  Maritime  Lav,  extract  fh>m   the 

Ordinance  of  the  Uontraetation. . 
166T.  Extract  of  a  Statute  ralatlTa  to  In 

attraaea(Oot) 'Genoa. 

16(10.  Maritime  Ordhianee  for  tha  Con-| 

tractatlon BUboa. 

16(1.  Maritime  Code Denmark. 


Nelherlanda. 
NatherUnda. 

Spain. 

Oenoa. 

'Serine. 


16(8.  Maritime  Ordinaaoa  (Oat  81). 

VUn.  PoUeyof  Inanranoa 

1608.  Lkv  OB  Bhipvreeka  (June  S). 
1S08.  Iav  on  Loading  of  Bhlpa  and  Ship- 

vracka , 

16T0.  Maritime  OrdUiance  (Jan.  10) 

16T0.  Extract  on  Bottomry  Boada. 

I5T1.  Beceaof theRanaaathiLaagaa..... 
1581.  Extract  on  iMuraaoaa  of  the  tioa' 

tnme 

1684.  Edict  on  the  Admiral^  (March). . , 
1686i  Lav  on  Bottomry Bonda  (Aug. 4).., 

1560.  Lav  on  Shlpvraeka  (Jane  18). 

1680.  Lav  on  Inanranoa  (Sept.  18) 

1688.  Maritime  Uv,  eztnuied  from  the 

Slatntea 

vm.  Maritima  Lav,  axtraeted  fkom  tha 

CirUBtatv«w<Dw.U>, 


Nethorlaada. 

Ancona. 

Venice. 


Vanlee. 
Nether  landa. 
Middelbnrg. 
Hanaa  Tovni. 

Antvorp, 

France. 

Tenie^ 

Teniae. 

Tanlce. 

Lnbee. 


OmHimtd.   Cnoxou)aiaAL  Taili  or  OominouL  Lav*— Cbfi«(iMi«{, 

1888.  Uv  on  Loading  of  Ship*  (Nor.  4). .  TenlMr^ 

1581.  UvonBhipvraeka, Dnohy  of  Urblao 

15*r.  Maritima  Lav,  extract  from   th* 

Statnlaaof. 

18(8.  Ordtnanea  on  Inanraaca  (Jaa.  81). . . 
1688.  Maritima  Lav,  extraet  Aram  the  a«- 

dant  Statata  of. 

1688.  Pragmatic  of  the  King  of  Aragon  ou 

the  Ooaaolar  Juriadiotion 

1(00.  Ordinance  on  Ineuraaaa  (Sept  80). 

18th eent  Ooldonde  lamer 

Klh  cent  Maritima  Lav,  extract  ftrom  tha 

Statute  of. ( 

Itthoent.  Hanieatio  Bagnlattona  on  the 

Police  of  Bhlpa. I 

Kthcent  Maritime  Lav,  extract  flrom  the 

Political  Btatntaof. i 

Kth  cent  Maritima  Lav,  tnm  tha  Statute 

of  the  Court  of  Marchante 

1(01.  Statute  of  ElUabetb  on  Inaurance. 

1(01.  Lav  on  Navigation  (Ang.  81) 

1(08.  Statute  on  Booka  of  Commeioe 

1(06.  Mercantile  Lav,  extract  from  the  Id 

part  of  tha  Oeneral  Statute  of. . 
1(04.  Pnsmatlo  on  Sallora  (July  IS), . . , 

1(04.  Ordinance  on  Inauranca 

l(05i  Lav  on  loading  and  arming  Ship* 

(ApriiK) :    • 

1(06.  Ordiaanca  on  Iniuranee  (June  10) . 
1(08.  Lav  on   the  Luggage  of   Sallora 

(OctS) 

1(08.  Ordinance    on     Bottemry    Bonda 

(Fob.  14) 

1(08.  Maritime  Lav,  extracted  from  the 

Statute  of  BonUkolo 

1(10.  An  Act  ooncemlqg  MonopoUoa. . .... 

1(10.  Maritime  Lav,  ilbm  tha  Coutume 

of 

1(10.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance  (Jan.  M). , . 
1(14.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance  (H>yO)... 

1(14,  Recea  of  the  Hanoeatic  League 

1(16.  Maritima  Lav,  from  the  Chaptera  of 

the  Court  of I 

KIT.  Maritime  Lav,  from  the  Coutume  of ! 
1(18.  MartUme   Lav,  from   the  Btadti- 

tagh. I 

1(10.  Maritime  Lav,  from  the  Code  of  the 

Duchy  of. 

1(20.  Ordinance  on  Inonranco  (Dec.  6). . . 
1(11.  Declaration  of  the  Maglatratea  of 

Amaterdam  on  the  Bottomry. . . 
1(11.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance  (Sept.  T). 

1(11.  Lav  on  Quarantine  (Sept  18) 

KH.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance 

1(18.  Ordinance     on     Bottemry     Bond 

(Aug.  83) 

1(13.  Ordinance  on  Inaurancea 

1(14.  Lav  on  Inaurance  (March  11). . 
1616.  Ordinance  on  Inaurancea  (Jon.  1 
1682.  Lav  on  Prorlalonlng  of  ShIpa  (April 

80) :.....' 

1682.  Lav  on  the  Police  of  Narigatlon 

(May  1) 1 

1633.  Maritime   Ijn,  extract  from  the 

computation  of  the  Pragmatic  of 

1(88.  Extract  of  an  Ordinance  of  Enchuy- 

oen  on  Inaurance 

1640.  Maritime  Iav,  from  the  Pragmatic 

of  the  Orand  Maater. 

1644.  Lav  on  Bottemry  Bond.(May  20).., 
1666.  Ordinance  on  Maritime  Lav  and  Ju- 

rladicUon  (March  16) 

16(1.  Ordhiaaoe  on  Insurance  (Feb.  12). 
1664.  Act  of  Charlca  IL  on  Marltlmo  Lav 

and  Juriadlctlon 

1(6T.  Maritime  Code 

16T8.  Maritime  Lav,  extract  from  Statute 

of. 

16S1.  The  Lav  on  Billa  of  Exchange  of] 

Copenhagen  (April  16) , 

1(81.  Ordinance  on  the  Marine  (Aug.). 
1681.  Regulatlona  on  the  Marine  (Oct  24)  1 
1681.  ReguUtiona  on  Bottemry  (Jan.  80). . 
1681.  A  Tribunal  of  Commerce  citabUolicd 


(Deo.  11).,,, 
1681.  Lav  on  BUla  of  Exchange  (Oct  2), 
1681.  Ordinance  of  St   SebaaUan  on  the 

Cootraetatlon  (Sept  ID), 
1683.  Maritime  Lav,  from   tno  gonrral 

code, 


1688.  Maritime  Lav,  Code  of  Oirlitliin  V. 
1684.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance  (Nor,  22), , 
168T.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance.  (Jan.  31), , 

168T.  Ordinance  on  Inaurance 

16S8.  Ordinance  on  Iniuranee  (Jan  2D). . . 
1(88.  Ordinance  on  Insurance  (Oct  2D). . . 
1(88.  Ordinance  oa  Iniunnoe  (Jan.  26). . 


Oanlalg. 
Amaterdam. 

Culm. 

Barcelona. 

MIddelburg, 

Ouidon, 

Oaeta. 

Ranoe  Towns. 

Sarona. 

Lucca. 
England. 
Venice. 
Hamburg, 

Hamburg. 
Tvo  SioUIea. 
Rotterdam. 

Venice, 
Amaterdam. 

Venice. 

Portugal. 

Coritca. 
Great  Britain. 

Ostend. 
Amsterdam. 
Amsterdam. 
Ilanae  Towns. 

Sardhilo. 

Zulteotte. 

Sveden, 

Prussia. 
Amsterdam. 

Amaterdam. 
Amaterdam, 
Venice. 
Tvo  Sicilies. 

Portugal. 
Tvo  SicUIos, 
Venice, 
Amsterdam, 

Venice. 

Venice. 

Sardinia. 

Enchu;jen. 

Malta. 
Oenoa. 

Rotterdam. 
Flossing. 

England. 
Sweden. 

Riga. 

Denmark, 
France. 
France, 
Amsterdam, 


Leipxig.    So-ony, 
Leipzig.    StkMTij, 

St  Scboatlan. 

Denmark  and 

Norway. 
Denmark. 
Portugal, 
Amsterdam. 
Senate  of  Bremen- 
Amsterdam, 
PortugaL 
Amiterdam. 


1TT4. 
1TT6. 


irsr.  Coil 

1T88.  ' 

m4. 
nD6. 

18(1,  Or 
1801, 
1801  On'l 

ISOK  Un 
.(J| 


LAW 


1101 


LAW 


.  ScbuUftK. 


1TS6.  Ordlranoe  on  Commerce  (March  4) 
ITDS.  Ordinance  on  BUli  of   Ezchango 

(Octl) 

1T66.  Additional  Article*  on  Bankruptdea 

(Dec  4) 

1TT3.  Itegnlattona  on  DUIa  of  Exchange 

(Not.  6) 


1TT4.  Lawon  Merchant  Shipping  (July  86) 
1TT6.  Lav  on  Tribunal!  of  Kxrhango  and 

Commerce  (Jnljr  82) 

1TT6.  Ordinance  on  BUIi  of  Exchange, 
1T7V.  On  the  declaration  of  Cargoea  at 

the  arrival  and  laillng  of  Ships 

(March  18) 

ITSl.  Ordinance  on  BUli  of  Exchange.  St 

OaU  (June  18). 

1T8S,  Ordinance   on   BllU  of    Exchange 

(Sot.  M) 
ITSO.  An  Act  to  explain  and  amend  an  Act 

on  the  Reiponelbilltj  of  Ovnen 

of  Shlpi,  etc,  (Sept.  1) 

1T87.  Concerning  the  RegulaUona  eatab- 


bllahed  for  obtaining  a  Royal  Pa- 
tent of  Navigation  (Sept.  14) 

1T88.  Ordinance  on  Commercial  Partner- 
ihips  (Not.  21) 

1T94.  \      Maritime  Loan  (Dec.  IB) 

ITM.  Ordinance  on  Book*  of  Commerce 
(Dec  21) 

18(11.  Ordinance  of  Broker*.  Bade  (April 
28) 

1803.  Ordinance  on  BUI*  of  Exchange 
(Aug.  81) 

1801  On  the  deposit  of  Aooount*  at  the 
"  Oreffe"  In  caaa  of  Bankruptcy 
(Not.  8) 

IBK.  Law  on  BUI*  of  Exchange.  Zurich 
(MayU) 

1808.  Code  of  Commerce  (Jan.  1) 

1806.  Lav  on  BUI*  of  Exchange  (Dec  14) . 

1810.  LawonBankmptoy.  Bade  (Dec  18) 

1811.  LawonBankraptcr.  Bade  (Dec  2), 
1818.  An  Act  to  limit  the  responaibUUy  of 

Ship-owner*  In  certain  Cargoe* 
(Jnly  21). 


181B.  Regulation  on  Bankruptoy  (Not.  1), 
1815,  Prooedure  In  matter  of  Bai' 


(Not.  1). 


ankroptcy 


flnovoMaiOAL  Tabu  or  OommoiAL  Laws— OmMMMii. 

Dm*.  Tint. 

IMT.  Praamatlo  on  MarlttB*  Lav  of 
arand-Maator  Ptrdlo*  (8«pkl). . 

1890.  Ordinance  oa  Inauranc*  (Jan.  28). . . 

lTlhe«nt.  Marltlm*  Lav,  exlrael  tnm  a 
eod*  of  Oeortla,  by  th*  Prlao* 
Takhlang. 

ITth  cmk  Usaae*  on  euatom*  of  Olonn*. 

ITOB,  All  Ael  (or  glTlng  like  remedle*  on 
Pronlaaory  Note*  a*  I*  nov  upon 
BUI*  of  Exchange,  and  for  tb*  bet- 
ter payment  of  Inland  BUla  of  Ex- 
change (May  1). 

ITIO.  An  Act  for  rerlTlng,  oontlnnaney, 
and  appropriating  certain  Dulie* 
(Maren  8) 

ITU.  Lav  on  BUI*  of  Exchange  (March  I) 

mi  Lav  on  BUla  of  Exchange  (March  22) 

int.  An  Act  to  rednce  the  rate  of  Inter- 
est (Sept  28) 

1T1&  Lav  on  BUI*  of  Exchange  (Aug.  1) 

ITlt.  Ordinance  on  Bankruptoy.    Bade. 

1T21.  AnAct  for  preTentlng  trading  to  the 
East  Indie*  (June  St) 

1721.  RegiUatlan*  on  BUI*  of  Exchange  for 
the  City  of  Norembnrg  (Feb.  10), 

ITSl.  RegnlatlonaonlnniranceaandATer. 

r(8ept.  1) 
nee   on    BUI*  of  Ezehange 

dgned  by  minor*  and  poraons  not 

ennnd  In  trade  (Sept.  4). . 

1TS4.  Svedbh  (}ade 

1TS4.  AnAottoprerenttbelnilunouaprac- 

tlte  of  Stock-Jobbing  Olune  1) 

1T84.  An  Act  fur  aettllng  the  reapousiblli 

He*  of  Ovner*  of  Ship*  (or  the  eels 

of  M**ter*and  Seamen  (June  24). 
1789.  Ordinance   on  BUI*  of   Exchange 

(May  90) 

1740.  An  Act  to  regnUte  inenranee  of  Ship* 

and  on  Merchandise  (Ang.  1). . . . , 
1740.  An  Act  for  regulating  Insurance  up 

on  Uto*,  etc 

1T4T.  Ordinance  on  Bankruptcie*  (May  10) 
1T48.  Ordinance  on  BUI*  of    Exchange 

(Keb.  1) 

1T50.  Ordlnanca  on  BUI*  of  Exchange. 
1763.  ReguiatlonouBankrnptcie*(Aug.8t) 
1766.  Ordinance   on   BiU*  of    Exchange 

(March  20) 


Malta. 
AmatardaB. 


Oaorgia. 
Franoe. 


Oreal  Britain. 


Great  Britain. 

Ilamhurg. 

Bremen. 

Great  Britain. 

Brunavlck. 

Svltierland. 

Great  Britain. 

Bayarla. 

Hamburg. 


Hamburg. 
Sweden. 

Great  Britain. 


Great  Britain. 
Frankfort. 
Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain. 

Ilessc-Electorate. 

Sweden. 

Saxe-Altenbnrg. 

Hamburg. 

Schwartiburg, 
Rudolstadt 
Austria. 

Austria. 

Hamburg. 

Augshnrg. 
Austrl*. 

Austria. 
Saxe-Cob.  Goth*. 


Austria. 
Switxerland. 


BaTarla. 


Great  Britain. 


Austria. 


Hesse  Electorate. 
Denmark. 


Hesaa-Electorat*. 
Switzerland. 


Anhalt-Coethea 


Switzerland. 

Switzerland. 

France. 

Switzerland. 

Switzerland. 

Switzerland. 


Great  Britain. 
Mdta. 

Malta. 


Obboroumioai,  Taaui  or  OoMMUoiai  Law*— CbuMmuA 

Date,  TTUc, 

818.  Ordinance  on  Commercial  Jnrlsdlo- 

Uon(Dee.  16) 

816,  Ordinance  on   Bill*    of    Kxchann 

(Feb.  12) 


of   Exchange 
'  rcaumpUon  of  Specie  Pay 


817.  Ordinance  on  Broker*.  Baal*  (Aug.  8) 

818.  On  Bankruptcy.    Bade  (Feb.  11).... 
818.  Lav  on  Bankruptcy,    Zug(Mayll) 

818,  Ordinanea    on    Brokar*.     Lelpsls 

(M»rch7) 

810.  Code  of  Commerce  (March  26) 

819.  Ordinance   on    Bllli 

(April  20) 

819.  Act  for  rcau 

meat* 

811.  An  Act  to  regulate  acoeptanca  of 

Bill*  of  Exchange  (June  1) 

891.  An  Act  for  preventing  Fraud  upon 

(Jredltors,  etc.  (July  2) 

821.  Provisional     roKUlalton     of    C 

merce  (Juno  'ii) 

811.  ReguUtion  on  llrnkers  (Juno  20) 

811.  Ordinance   on    IliUs  of    Exchange 

(July  18) " 

821.  Law  on  Merchant*,  Basle  (Doc  28 
828.  Law  on  Bankruplales  (March  20). . 
828.  Lav  on  Bankruptdea.    Berno  (Dec 

12) 

824,  Regulation  on  Brokerage  (Dec  16) . 
826.  An  Act  to  amend  the  Law*  reUtlye  to 

Bankrupt*  (May!) 

826.  Ordinance  on  BUI*  of  Ex.  (May  18). 

826.  An  Act  to  alter  and  amend  the  Law 

for  the  better  protection  of  the 
Property  of  Merchanta  (Jnly  6), 

820.  Code  of  Commerce  (Jan.  SI ) 

820.  Hay tian  code  (March  28) 

820.  An  Act  for  better  regulating  co- 

partnerahip  of  certain  Bunker*  In 
England  (May  20) 

827.  BUls  of  Exchange  payible  on  Good 

Friday  or  Christmas  Day  (Apr.  12) 

827.  Ordinance   on   BiUs   of  Ezcnange 

(Doc.  IT) 

,828,  On  BUls  of  Exchange  (Jan.  21), 

828.  An  Act  for  rendering  a  written  mem- 

orandum necessary  to  the  validity 
of  oertaln  promisee  and  engage- 
ments (May  9) 

880.  Code  of  Commerce  (May  1) 

,830.  EslablUhmer.t  of  a  Tribunal  of  Ap 

peal  at  Anoona  (Feb,  2T) 

830.  Law  on  Bankruptcy  (March  12) 

881.  An  Act  to  prohibit  the  payment  In 

certain  tndes  of  wages  In  goods, 
etc  (Oct.  16) 

882.  On  the  establishments  of  Broker*. 

Drcadon  (April  14) 

,881.  An  Act  for  regulating  the  protesting 
for  nou-paymont  of  Bills  of  Ex- 
change (Aug.  9) 

831.  Bankruptcy  amendment  (Ang.  15). . 

832.  Law  or  commercial  Arms,  partnor- 

shlv3,  female  property  Lucerne 
(Off.Jl) 

;831.  An  Acr  to  csUbllsh  a  Court  In  Bank 
ruptoy  (Oct.  20) 

838.  Bank  Charter  (Ang.  29) 

833.  Code  of  Commerce  (Sept.  13) 

.833.  Ordinance  on  the  evidence  resulting 

from  Books  and  Papers  of  Brok 
en  (Sept  21) 

834.  Slavery  abolislicd  in  Jamaica 

834.  Law  on  the  Organization  of  Justice 
884,  Circular  on  Bankruptcies.     Berne 

(Sept  17) 

834.  Legislation  and  Judiciary  Regula- 
tions (Nov.  10) 

836.  Law  on  Bills  of  Exchange  (Hay  20) 

836.  Illegal  Securities  (Aug.  31) 

836.  Weights  and  Measures  (Sopt  9). . . 

836.  An  Act  to  amend  the  Law  touching 
the  Letters-patent  for  Invention 
(Sept  10) 

886.  Regulation  of  Partnership  (Dec.  28) 

836.  An  Act  for  declaring  the  Law  aa  to 
the  day  for  proacntation  for  pay- 
ment o.*  Bills  of  Exchange,  etft 
(Aug.  13) 

83T.  Joint-stock  Companies  (July  IT). . . . 

838,  Joint-stock  Bank  Partner*  (Aug.  14) 

'"*  Imprisonment  for  Debt  end  ln*olvent 
Act  (Aug.  10) 

8,^'<.  (;heap  Postage  Act 

,839.  Law  on  Bills  of  Exchange    Vand 

(June  4) 

1S39.  Lawon  theoonflrmatlonof  theClvU 
Code  aud  Code  of  Commerce 
Berne  (June  22) 


OMIIlltS, 

Hambui, 

Swadaa 
SwitiarlaiML  . 
Bwltaarlaad. 
SwUatrUnd. 

Saxe. 

Two  SIclU**, 

S*ze-Wdm*r. 

Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain. 

Roman  Stat**. 
Lubec 

Hanover. 

Switzerland, 

Urunawlck. 

Switzerland. 
Hamburg. 

Great  Britain. 
Denmark. 


Great  Britain.^ 
BusaU. 
Haytl.  .„ 

Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain. 

Rostock. 
Bremen. 


Great  Britain. 
Spain. 

Papal  State*. 
Sweden. 


Great  Britain. 


Saxony. 


Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 


Switaerland. 

Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 
PortngaL 


Saxony. 
Great  Britahi. 
Greece. 

Switzerland. 

Roman  State*. 
Sweden. 
Great  Britain. 
Great  Britaia 


Great  Britain. 
Hamburg, 


Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 

Great  Britahi. 
Great  Britaia 

Switzerland. 


Switzerland. 


LEA 

OmMWOiMieAi  Taili  or  Comhuoiai,  La« 

rw<.  tlUa.  I 

law.  An  Ael  for  Uit  batter  protcotlon  of^ 


1192 


uu 


MrtiM  dullng  with  paraoM  UabU 
lo  thi  Ihuikrapt  !.*«•  (July  10). . 
ISat.  EiempllugMrlarnnilliof  Rnlunim, 


•to.,   from  tht  opantloD  of  uu 

Lav  rabtliif  to  Utury  (July  K)). .  Oraal  Drilatn. 

IMO.  Aamlnltr  Court  (Aug.  T) Orut  Britain. 

IMAi  On  Ilankruplclaa  (Au|.  T) Ilanorer. 

IMS.  Not  Factor'a  Act  (Juna  BO) Oreat  Brltala 

IM4.  Lav  on  BUU  of  Ezebanga  (Aug.  4). .  Norvajr. 
IMS.  An  Aet  for  the  relief  of  IneolreDt 

Dabtora  (Aug.  13) Oreat  BriUln. 

1843.  Bankniptey  Amendment  Aet  (Aug. 

U) Oreat  BriUln. 

IMS.  Oode  of  Commerce  (Dec.  HO) Sardinia. 

1844.  Bank  Begulatlon  Aet  (July  10) Oreat  Brilnln. 

1844.  Deblora'  and  Credltort'Arrangemont 

Bill  (Aug.  «) Great  Britain. 

1844.  Inaolreneir,  Bankruptcy,  etc.,  amend- 


ment (Aug.  8). . 
Jolnt-atock  Bank  Act  (Hopt.  D), 


Act 


Oreat  Britain. 


Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  Britain. 
Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  Britain. 
Oreat  Britain. 


Oreat  BriUln. 

Svcden. 
PruHla. 

PruHia. 
Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  BriUln. 


PruiaU. 
PruiaU. 


1840. 


1840. 


1844. 

1844.  Dullea  on  Cotton  abolUhe'd. 

ifUn.  Navigation  Act  (Auit.  4) 

I84^  Sblp-regtatry  Art  (Aug.  4) 

184B.  Harohant  Beamen   rrolectlon 

(Ang.8) 

1846.  BeguUtlon  on  Commerce  e-.d  Hanu 

ncturea  (Dec.  K, 

1848.  Ordinance  on  Partnenhip 

1844.  Ordinance  on  Tribnnale   of  Com- 
merce  

18.  Com  Lav  reform 
184T.  Act  for  relief  of  IrcUnJ  (1'8,000,()0)) 
184T.  Amanduiant   of  Reglatratlon,  eU. ; 

Jolnt-itook  Company' a  Act,  eto. 

(July  «) 

I84T.  Bankruptcy  and  InaoWency  Jurie- 

dlctlon  Act  (July  23} 

1848.  Butpeniloa  of  Bank  of  Franoa  legal- 

laed  (Harob  IS) 

1848.  An  Act  to  coiiaolldato  and  amend 

the   I.avi  reUtWe  to   Inaolvont 

Debtora  In  India  (June  9) 

1848.  Jolnt-itock  Company'a  Winding-up 

Act  (Aug.  14) 

1848.  An  Act  to  empower  the  Commlulon- 

era  of  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy  to 

order  tho  releaie    of  BankrupU 

from    Priaon    In    certain    coaes 

(Aug.  81) 
An  Act  to  amend  the  Lave  In  force 

for  the  encouragement  of  Brlllab 

Shipping  and  Navigation  (Juna  ttO) 
Bankruptcy  Lav  Coniolldatlon  Act 

(Aug.l; 

1849.  Bankruptcy  Amendment  Act  (Aug.  1) 
1848.  Jolnt-ttock  Company'!  Winding-up 

Enactment  (Aug.  1) 

18tT.  Inetitutlon  of Tribunalaof Commerce 

(April  II) 

1848.  Uv  on  BUU  of  Ekchange  for  all 

I.clpElg  (May  1) 

1850.  A  SUmp  Lav  on  Bllla  of  Exchange, 

Sbarea,  Policy  of  Ini.  (June  5). . . . 

1980.  NevSUmpAct 

18B0'  County  Court  Fxtenaton  Act 

IBfiO.  Mercantile  Marine  Act 

1854.  Repeal  of  Unnry  Lava  (Aug.  6) 

Bee  CoHHDiciAi.  Law  or  ran  Wokld,  by  Laom  Lsvi. 

Xiasaretto.    Se«  Qdaraktime. 

Lead  (Ger.  BUg,  Blei;  Da.  load.  Loot;  Fr. 
Plomb;  It.  Piombo;  8p.  Phmoj  Biu.  Saitutz;  Pol. 
Ohm;  Lat.  Plumbum;  Arab.  Aniik;  Hind.  Sim;  Pen. 
Hufti),  one  of  the  most  useful  metals.  It  is  of  a  blu> 
ish  white  color,  and  when  newly  melted  is  very  bright, 
but  it  soon  becomes  tarnished  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
It  has  scarcely  any  tnste,  but  emits,  on  friction,  a  pe- 
culiar smell.  It  stains  paper,  or  the  fingtrs,  of  a  bluish 
color.  When  taken  internally,  it  acts  as  a  poison.  It 
is  one  of  the  softest  of  the  metals  {  its  specific  gravity 
is  11*36.  It  is  very  malleable,  and  may  be  reduced  to 
thin  plates  by  the  hammer ;  it  may  also  be  drawn  out 
into  wire,  but  its  ductility  is  not  very  great.  Its 
tenacity  is  so  small,  that  a  lead  wire  1-126  inch  diam- 
eter is  capable  of  supporting  only  18-4  lbs.  without 
breaking.  It  melts  at  612°.— Tuomson's  Ckemutry. 
Lead  is  a  metal  of  much  importance  in  the  arts.  Its 
durability  and  malleability  make  it  very  suitable  for 
the  roofing  of  buildings,  the  construction  of  gutters, 
and  such  like  purposes.  It  used  to  be  very  exten- 
tivtljr  employad  in  the  formation  of  water-pipes  and 


Franee. 


Pmsaia. 
Pmiila. 


Prusala. 


PniaaU. 

Prussia. 
IreUnd. 

Ireland. 

Pmssla. 

Oermany. 

Franee. 
Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  BriUln. 
Oreat  Britain. 


cUtanif.  But  though  water  hai  no  direct  action  on 
lead,  it  flullilatea  the  action  of  the  external  air )  and 
hence  the  lead  of  oUtemi  and  of  pipes  frni"  which  the 
air  Is  not  antirsly  exelnded  becomes  oxyilued,  and  Is 
covered  with  a  white  crust  at  the  point  where  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  comes  into  contact  with  the  air.  In- 
asmuch, however,  as  this  oxyd  ii  extremely  delete- 
rious, lead  pipes  and  cistern*  ore  now  very  generally 
supersede<i  by  those  of  oast  iron.  At  present,  per- 
haps, lead  is  mora  extensively  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  small  shot  than  in  any  other  way.  Its  salts, 
though  poisonous,  are  used  in  medicine  to  form  aedv 
tive  external  aj>plioations  \  and  frequently  not  a  little, 
by  the  disraputable  wine  merchant,  to  stop  the  prug. 
ress  of  acetous  fermentation.  Wine  thus  fwlsoned 
may,  however,  be  readily  diatlngubhed ;  a  small  qusn. 
tity  of  the  bicarbonate  of  potass  producing  a  white 
precipitate,  and  sulphureted  hydrogen  a  black  one. 
Pure  wine  will  not  lie  alfeeted  by  either  of  these  teats. 
"  The  oxyd  of  lead  enters  into  the  composition  of 
white  glass,  which  it  renders  clearer  and  more  fUsihle ; 
it  is  also  used  in  glaxing  common  earthen  vessels; 
hence  the  reason  that  pickles  kept  in  common  rod  pans 
become  poisonous.  Lead,  with  tin,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  some  of  the  other  metals,  forms  pewter ;  with 
antimony.  It  forms  the  allo^  of  which  printing  tj-pes 
are  made." — Jotcr'r  Chemulry.  Mines  of  this  valu- 
able mineral  have  been  wrought  In  England  from  the 
■ira  of  the  Romans.  It  does  not,  however,  appear 
that  it  was  obtained  any  where  except  in  Derl)yiihlre, 
till  1289,  when  it  was  discovered  in  Wales ;  and  the 
fact  that  silver  was  foimd  Intermixed  with  the  Welsh 
ores  having  transpired,  gave  a  new  itimulus  to  the 
business ;  but  in  other  respects  the  discovery  of  silver 
was  of  no  use ;  the  quantity  obtained  being  InsufB- 
cient  to  defray  the  cost  of  its  separation  from  tho  lead. 
At  present,  the  most  productive  English  load  mines 
are  situated  in  Northumberland ;  in  Cumberland ;  in 
tho  western  parts  of  Durham ;  in  Yorkshire;  in  Der- 
byshire, and  in  Comwull.  The  Welsh  mines  are  prin- 
ci,)ally  situated  in  the  countiej  of  Flint,  Cardigan,  and 
Montgomer}- ;  those  of  Scotland  in  Ayr,  Kirkcud- 
bright, and  Lanark ;  and  those  of  Ireland,  in  Wick- 
low,  Down,  Limerick.  Lead  mines  are  also  wrought 
to  considerable  advantage  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  We 
subjoin  an  abstract  deduced  from  the  accounts  fur- 
nished by  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  of  the 


QuANTiTixa  or  Lxad  Obi  and  Lxad  pboouood  i»  Obiat 
Bbitaiv,  IK  1858. 

iMd. 

Tom. 


England. 


l.«*don. 

Tou. 


3,411 


Wales 18,818 

Ireland 4,488 

Scotland S,488 

IsleofHan 8,415 

Total 81,188 


43,818 

18,7(18 

8,328 

3,881 

1,885 

(M,0S1 


'*  In  1862, 14,124  tons  of  lead  were  Imported,  and  26,- 
648  tons  (Including  2,967  tons  foreign),  were  exported. 
It  consequently  follows  that  the  produce  of  British 
mines  is  sufficient  not  only  to  supply  the  home  demand, 
but  to  furnish  a  surplus  of  9,467  tons  for  exportation. 
Pig  lead  was  worth,  in  the  London  market,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1853,  ^£22  10s.  6d.  a  ton.  In  1832  it  was  only 
worth  jCIS  10s.  a  ton. 

"  Lead,  when  first  extracted  from  Its  ore,  always  con- 
taini  a  certain  portion  of  silver,  varying  from  a  few 
grains  to  46  oz.  or  more  in  the  ton.  When  the  silver 
mixed  up  with  the  lead  Is  sufficient  to  repay  the  ex- 
pense, it  is  usual  to  separate  it,  which  is  effecteil  by 
the  process  termed  refining.  The  lead  of  some  of  the 
English  mines,  especially  those  of  Cornwall,  and,  also, 
of  the  Isle  of  Han,  contains  very  considerable  quan- 
tities of  silver,  and  our  readers  will,  perhaps,  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  it  has  been  estimated  by  the  highest 
authority  that,  in  1852,  the  United  Kingdom  famished 
no  fewer  than  818,826  oz.  of  silver,  worth,  at  6s  an  oz. 
£205,080,  obtained  tiom  lead." 


1844. 

184S.I 

184«. 

194T. 

1848. 

1848.1 

1850.1 

1851.1 

1851.1 

1858. [ 

1854,1 

lS55.r 


LEA 


1108 


tMk 


Lud. 

Toiu. 

48,818 

18,708 

8,128 

1,881 

1,885 


Th«  eoommpllon  of  Itad  In  Fnnc*  hai  gnMy  tn- 
crmMd  within  the  lut  to  ynn.  In  1862,  tbout 
80,000  tonii  of  or*  wan  lin|)ort«<t,  of  which  from  B-10th« 
to  B>10thi  w<n  lirought  from  8p«ln. 

TIm  lewl  minu  of  the  United  State*  are  iirinclpoUy 


■Itnated  tn  IlllnoU  and  WUconaIn,  on  tha  Upper  Ml»> 
•Uelppl.  Their  pnxluce  and  that  of  the  other  mlnea 
in  the  Union,  may,  perhapi,  average  from  1)1,000  to 
1*,000  toni  a  year.  Lead  ore  ii  alio  found  In  abund* 
ance  In  MUnourl, 


Ak  Aoooukt  or  BaiTiin  Liad  a»d  Latn  Oaa  aiponao  rioM  THa  UsirraD  Kikodom  i«  1869,  DMTixauuaiiia  tn 
UouNTaiaa  to  whioh  it  wa»  ukt,  and  ma  Qdaxtitim  tciiT  to  aAoii. 


OowlriM  lo  whUk  •iporM. 

LuUora. 

n.-i^r.U.4 

■IMI. 

Uikuf. 

■•iIIm4. 

WIUUIM4. 

ToUl  llTom. 

Tiiw.  awM. 

io'o 
i«"o 

109    0 

■«"o 
'i'o 

TnM,    flWto. 

990    0 

969    0 

486    0 

90T    0 

989    0 

9,»t4    0 

179    0 

71    0 

80    0 

91    0 

84     0 

109    0 

1,811    0 

91    0 

9,109    0 

488    0 

888    0 

998    0 

89    0 

8,488    0 

499    0 

9    0 

107    0 

16    0 

40A    0 

TnM.  twta. 

8  0 
88    0 

ii"  0 

9  0 

1    0 

■49'  0 

11    0 

1    0 

T    0 

98    0 

WW    0 

18    0 

8    0 

147    0 

419    0 

68    0 

4«    0 

88    0 

104    0 

10    0 

IS    0 

4    0 

lis    0 

toiw.    PWU. 

181    T 
88    4 
18    4 
69    B 
94  18 
90    B 
18  18 
98    8 
OlS 

ois 

0  t 

i's 

1  IT 
0    fi 
0    1 
T  18 

11    1 
0    T 
0  10 
0    4 
118    8 

tum.  «wte. 
41     8 
10    A 
18  19 
189    8 
1A7  11 
107    6 
1    T 
68    9 

8  19 
6  10 
4  18 
0    8 

9  9 

160  18 
0    T 
0    6 
T    8 

88  14 
9  IT 

99  10 

161  4 

89  6 

"oh 

9  10 

171    9 

VoBi.  awu. 

17  19 
169  16 

A    4 

48    4 

9  IS 

i«9'l8 
7    4 

"oio 

7  18 
99  19 

960    9 

1  18 

9  19 

160  18 

179  19 

88  19 

98    B 

106    1 

194    4 

4  18 

18  IS 
4    6 

914  10 

Tmu,  flwia. 

9,106  9 
BA4  4 
98T  T 
T19  1T 
4T1  9 
89T  10 

9,989  0 
496  S 
18T    1 

esio 

199    S 

98  19 

96T    4 

1,918    9 

48    9 

9,908    4 

T9B    A 

1,978    8 

878    1 

168  16 

6,764    1 

877  10 

94    8 

149    8 

98    0 

1,069  16 

98,681    9 

lUnnuirk 

ProMUi 

llanMtlfl  Towni, , , 

IlolUod 

Beklam 

pfHOM 

PortagAl,  Aloroi,  aod  Haaolrt. 

Kfjoi. 

Weitern  ooait  of  AMca. 

IlrlUib  poiMuloiu  In  B.  Afrle*. 
Uritbb  lerrltoriot  In  E.  Inillei. 
Java 

China. 

Ilrltlili  MttlemenU  In  AiutnUla 
llrltlah  North  Am«r.  oolonloa., 
Ilrltlih  Woat  Indlea 

Forolif n  Weat  Indloa 

Uulled  Btatei 

jnull 

ITniffUAV.        

.chiT^:;:;:::;:::::::::::::: 

Pern.      

Other  plaoua 

Total 

1»6    0'  ' 

18,841    0 

1,866    0 

47^18 

1,H1  16 

1,781    1 

The  annexed  table  nhowi  the  total  product  of  the  lead 
mines,  and  the  average  yearly  price  atOalena,  lUlnola. 


Ttan.        I       n(lMil. 


1849. 
1848. 
1844. 
1846. 

1848. 
1847. 
1843. 
1849. 

lavi. 

1861. 

18S1. 
19)W. 
18M. 
1866. 
1666. 


447,909 
669,161 
694,673 
778,499 
T81,4flS 
771,866 
681,069 
628,986 
668,6^9 
4T4,11I! 
408,628 
426,814 
418,617 
480,866 


ToUl  pouad*. 

81,8M,(i80' 

89,148,270 

48,797,040 

64,494,860 

61,188,910 

61,096,910 

47,787,880 

41,026,880 

89,801,930 

83,188,060 

28,608,960 

99,807,880 

29,668,190 

80,19^660 


Pilu. 

~tfii~ 

984 
9  80 
9  98 
1  89 
8  17 
814 
8  6T 
420 
4  18 
4  13 
660 
6  60 
6  TB 
600 


*  Bstlmated  at  96  per  cent  less  than  1866. 

The  following  tables  show  the  quantl'.y  of  lead  of 
Western  production  received  in  the  port  of  New  Or- 
leans fh>m  1844  to  185&  inclusive,  and  also  of  foreign 
lead,  paying  20  per  cent,  duty,  imported  Into  the  port 
of  New  York,  from  18^19,  Ao  first  year  of  late  Importa- 
tions of  this  staple,  to  1856,  both  inclusive : 


Ttan. 

ilM«lnd  U  Now  Olouu, 
■ad  muoUy  birworded  to 
BonhenicltloaofU.  8. 

roralipi  lood 
Imporwd  Into 
iftw  York. 

1844 

iillii 

Fuuiida. 

9s,sTs;66o 

80,004,140 
48,461,120 
88,461,000 
87,918,160 
66,948,900 
40,827,140 
41,181.680 

1846 

1846 

184T 

1848 

1849 

1860 

1981 

1889 

1888 

1864, 

1S55 

1866 

Estimating  the  American  lead  to  weigh  70  pounds 
each  pig,  and  the  foreign  140  pounds  each,  which  is 
deemed  about  the  average  of  both. 

LiAD  uodVxd  at  St.  Loun  moM  Wrsrbh  Minis. 

Tmo.  Fin.  Poiitidi. 

1864. 806,827  =  21,470,890 

1886. 818,67T  =  22,09T,890 

•      mH... 904,666  =  14,82M10 


In  1844  the  Oalenu  mines  produced  01,40-1,860 
pounds  of  lead,  and  the  price  at  St.  Louis  was  alwut 
8  cents  per  pound.  In  1856  they  lauded  at  St.  Louis 
14,8'i5,020  pounds — less  than  one  fourth  the  supply  of 
12  yean  prevloua,  and  the  price  was  about  6^  cents 
per  pound,  thus  being  more  than  doubled.  In  1864 
there  was  imported  Into  the  single  port  of  New  York 
66,046,900  pounds  of  foreign  lead — more  than  the  Ga- 
lena mines  ever  produced  In  any  ono  year.  Doubling 
the  price,  doublin){  the  demand,  has  reduced  the  pro- 
duction to  one  <|uarter,  and  it  is  certain  that  In  1867 
the  western  manufacturers  of  lead  will  have  to  pro- 
cure a  portion  of  their  staple  from  imported  foreign 
lead  in  the  Atlantic  cities. 

BtATIMINT    BZIIIBITINO    nil    FoRIION    iMPOaTATIONS    AND 

KxPORTATioNS,  Dounxio  Gxpoan  and  Hojir  Con- 
sumption or  FoREiox  Importations  or  Lead,  and 

TUB  MANUrAOTVRia  TIIRBIOF  ;  AISO  HoMR  CONSUMP- 
TION OP  FoRiioN  Importations,  h»8  Domkstio  Kx- 
roRTo,  or  Lbaii,  and  tub  Maxupaoturks  or  Liau, 
AND  Domkstio  Kxpobto,  tKSS  IIomb  Consumption  or 
Foreign  Importations  or  Lead,  and  the  Manupao- 

TURKS  TIIKBBor,  POB  TUB  L.UT  BBVBXTXBN   YBARS,  AND 

TUB  Annual  Aybbaqb  tuereop. 


Toart. 


1840.... 

1811.... 

1842.... 

1848*... 

1844.... 

1848  ... 

1846.... 

184T.... 

1848.... 

1S49.... 

1880.... 

1861.... 

1869.... 

1863.... 

1861.... 

1868. 

1866, 

Arersgo 


Fortt^ 

Inporta- 

tloM. 


Dollorfl. 

20,866 

6,9S0 

818 

217 

108 


6,488 
7,192 
S0,25T 
1,187,426 
1,824,188 
1,284,672 
1,619,757 
2,102,487 
2,866,168 
1,6H284 

864,880 


Porei^ 
•xporti. 


Domeitle 
oxporti. 


I)nnan. 

84,090 


626, 
47 
192 


111 
11,601 
61,876 
164,240 
181,644 
60,687 
98,117 
90,688 
189,878 


64,941 


Horn*  eon - 
smnplion 
of  forelfn 
Imporu- 
tloni. 


Home  oon-i  ..^.j. 
Imports- 


Dollan. 


6,1 


Dollan. 
89,687 

117,194 

540,117 

491,786 

605,256 

857,06(1 

624,796 

188,6T8  6,488 
92,017  T.on 
48,894  T4,786 
85,4791,126,849 
28,100|l  ,869,891 


tiuiu.  lei« 
donifuitlfl 
aiporta. 


81,862 
1,990,070 
1,841,699 


[coiuiltltp- 
Hon  of 
funlita 

liiipuria 
tloiu. 

DolUn: 

89,087 
111,808 
689,409 
499,766 
606,900 
867,060 
6i4,T96 
188,140 

84,946 


61,1941,161,0181,100,884  .. 
19,eo4|1,669,100 1,889,496  .. 
48,8832,074,870  2,081,018  . . 
19,681;2,4T6,59&2,46^9M  .. 
88,140,9,414.666!9,M1,616  .. 
193,038'  948,480 1,406,498{  889,048 


*  Tho  year  1843  is  given  for  nine  months  only,  in  oonse* 
qnonco  of  a  change  tn  the  fiscal  year. 


LIA  1104  HA 

ttAtamm  laovia*  ni  laroMi  or  £m»  nrio  va  D«rrw  •*«««  toa  tn  Tbm 


•fvai 


■wnmbWMlIndlM.. 
IHuitoh  WMt  IndlM. . . 


WlwM*  laiystttrf. 


Iliubttii. , 
msmtn. . . 


llollud 

lliilch  UulMa,,, 

lUlrtnm 

KnjiMd 

Iteotlud ,, 

Olbriltar 

Ctncda 

nibar  BrllUh  North  Am«r.  dim, 

Hrllbh  Well  IiHlIu 

HrltUh  Uiiiint  

KrwiM  on  tbo  AtUiitIo 

Kranco  un  Iha  MMllt«rr*a«u 

Krunpli  Wi>it  Inillni 

Itptln  nil  tho  AtUiitla 

DmlnonUiii  MMlUcrruiMD., 

(iabfc 

PortnBlco. 

Htrillnl*, 

Matloo 

N«w  OiMkdt. 

Vtnaiu*!* 

Taui 


nf,kw,ilMMH4  lU. 


4,bW 

a,7sa 

«IT,Mt 

40»,7M 

191 

1,1AT,U7 

W,tMa,u7a 

(.iiw 

MW 

•4,flOT 

T0I,M4 

l«,«ll> 

i,»M,im 

18,n7ll,N7 

•,777 

l,4tl,7»« 

«,«4MM 

i,7U 

800 

8a,tw 

1,0»I,7M 
B(0 

ijl5 

0&4'r4,SD§ 


Dalian. 
M 

100 

1»,IMH 

« 

M,4M 
t71l,ll< 

■■i»7 
KM 

1,811 

W,SI« 

4M 

4I5,NW 

77 

W,IU 

ll«7,A«> 

m 

S4 

1,«W 

w 

IB 

TWolT 


fnmit,      I  ~  bdiaii!  "T-"n<< 

....  .... 

I(N0M 


•48,(10 
M 


4M 


188,«8« 


14,M4 


U 

'■'•1 

8^887 


MT( 


DmJwi. 


8M 


••n>,liM. 

ii«iHi<. 

ISIUn. 


44«,10« 


»4,Ubi'"   I     ijm 


•81 

°MI 
1 

'Hit 

'lit 
"ii 


EiroNTi  or  Liad  rtoa  Tut  Uiiitid  Btath,  roi  Tin  Tiam  ■hdwo  Jvm  SOrn,  ItOS,  i  M,  lUS,  ard  18M. 


Bl^orMlo 

lUI. 

IM 

4. 

lut. 

1 

Rnifand 

r«m4t. 
8,«M 

10;8>0 

J?" 

1,9I» 

MM) 
M>1 

.... 

lK,lbn. 

400 

807 

11 

100 

8M 
4U 

halOs. 

48,000 

••1,844 

60,000 

aiit 

81,'«I4 

S1,M« 

800 

1,000 

m 

1,075 

l>i>llar>. 

1,700 
14,t18 
B,»40 

Ml 

•,«M 

M4( 

445 

70 

7B 

14B 

Fowdt. 

««;im 

1,710 

mt 

<I8A 

1^,^ 

ll,«8« 
8,U0 
1,000 

LUS 

800 

^9oo 

758 
10« 

1,515 

80,181 

478 

4.018 

Mian. 

"68» 

187 

tl 

481 

1,875 

1,774 

804 

100 

M 

IS 

471 

•4 

17 

in» 

887 

haaii. 

1,4'iS 
8,180 

V,56o 

t40,Slll 
1,515 
8,178 

"880 
11,870 

kikr.. 

iV.iio 

IM 
110 

"ioo 
"«i4 

8,091 

IIMI 
INl 

"mo 
19 

"h 

1,085 

('•D*ds 

nrlUih  Amar.  col.. 
Tub* 

Iltvll 

Mdiileo 

Vtneinal* 

Ilrltlah  W  IikIIm. 
(Vntral  Ropubllo.. 

Now  OrantiU. 

AMri 

AaKrHI 

Drill   ,  LaitlniliM 

P    '.  Bloo... 

I.ikill 

BUOM/V'of 

Porn..., 

Sandwlob  Itland* . 
ToUI 

ioo,n8 

b,tM 

404,147 

10,874 

185,588 

14,M8 

810,0M 

17,511 

*  Inoladlng  BrlUah  HondarM  and  Oolut. 

The  production  of  lend  at  the  Galena  mlnen,  of  lata 
yean,  haa  be«n  materUU/  raducwl  by  the  dlicovery  of 
gold  in  CallfomU 

Wkitt  iMtd. — The  nuuinfactanra  of  white  lead, 
allot,  lead  pipe,  etc.,  have  petitioned  Congreia  to  place 
the  raw  material,  pix  lead,  on  the  tnt  lUt,  and  the 
committee  reported  favorably  on  the  luliject.  The 
petition  wai  ilgned  liy  all  the  leading  houaea  engaged 
in  the  trade,  and  the  fucta  presented  in  favor  of  their 
request  are  numerous  and  concluaix  Tbev  uy  that 
for  'y  long  time  previous  to  1849  '  ii>   ' '    bi'<  vly 

of  ,■■  ;  lead  wu  more  than  adequa'n  In  .b«  — I  r"  ilo- 
mestic  demand.    Up  to  1847  the  <    'An.:'  y 

Increased  in  productiveness,  an       -    ^  m 

increase  in  consomptlon.  Sincd  .....  i  your  the  con- 
lumptlon  has  been  in  advance  of  the  home  supply, 
and  the  manufacturers  on  the  seaboard  have  had  to 
pay  comparatively  high  prices  for  the  raw  material, 
the  western  States  now  manufacturing  nearly  all  the 
pig  lead  they  produce.  Out  of  60,000,000  pounds  of 
pig  lead  Imported  into  New  York  in  18M,  only  about 
8,500,000  pounds  were  American.  The  duty  on  pig 
lead,  by  the  tariff  of  1846,  was  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem, 
and  at  the  time  that  act  was  passed,  it  protected  all 
domestic  intaresta,  for  we  produced  as  much  lead  us 
the  country  consumed.  Since  1848  we  have  been 
obliged  (o  Import  the  bulk  of  our  consumption,  and  all 
consumers  and  manufacturer!  are  therefore  injured, 
while  foreign  manufacturers  ore  benefited  by  the  duty 
now  Imposed  un  »ue  article.  Our  manufacturers  are 
•hut  out  of  all  foreign  markets  by  the  enhanced  price 


t  Ineludtnc  Venesasla. 


t  China. 


which  the  duty  of  20  per  cent,  putt  upon  their  gond.^. 
The  manufacturers  ask  only  that  pig  lead  should  Ik 
put  in  the  free  list.  It  is  their  wish  that  all  artlili's 
manufactured  from  pig  lead  should  remain  as  at  pres- 
ent, under  a  duty  of  20  per  cent.  The  manufacturers 
of  articles  from  pig  lead  ask  no  more  than  the  >Sei:rc- 
tary  of  the  Treasury  has  repeatedly  suggested  in  Ills 
annual  reports — "  that  the  raw  niateriuls  use<l  in  our 
manufactures  should  be  admltte<l  free  of  duty."  Ily 
the  tariff  of  1857,  passed  8<1  March,  the  duty  en  Icml 
manufactures  generally  was  reduced  from  30  per  cent 
to  24;  lead  In  )ilg  and  bi"^  ttom  20  to  16  per  cent. 
OreHrorr  >5  per  vent. 

L6B£  '  sounding.  The  common  hand  leaj 
weighs  11  ll>s.  with  about  20  fathoms  of  line.  Thn 
leadsman  stands  somewhere  on  the  side  of  the  ves.tel, 
leaning  against  n  band  for  the  purpose  ;  lets  thn  leml 
descend  near  the  water;  then,  swinging  it  "ver  liin 
head  once,  or  twice.  If  the  ship  Is  going  flist,  >  brows  it 
forward.  The  line  if  marked  at  6,  7,  10,  1).  17  uml 
20  fathoms.  The  numbers  between  are  called  drrps: 
thus,  "by  the  mark  7,"  "by  the  deep  9,'  Inili- 
cates  7  and  9  fathoms.  MThen  the  depth  Is  gre  "t,  tli-- 
deep-sea  lead  of  28  lbs.  Is  used.  Tho  ieod  is  ilrof,"- 1 
from  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel,  the  line  Iw-ing  p«f  ^\ 
outside  all.  It  Is  generally  necessary  li  leave  the 
ship  to.    See  Socndinoh. 

I(««gue,  a  measure  of  length,  used  in  reckoning' 
distances  by  soa.  The  sea  league  Is  three  nautical  or 
geographical  miles,  or  the  l-20th  of  a  degree,  and  con- 
sequently about  8-46  English  mUea.    The  commoa 


LEA 


n»5 


lEA 


iMHl  l«Hi>*  I*  *  <"l>-known  Utnarwry  uMiura  en  Ikt 
mmMIii'  't  of  Ewoiw,  I  hi'  ilv  ta  rrantM.  'I'lia  Krancb, 
howO'  '  '>  two  (Uttint't  l«ilf  ii*i  :  ik»  XtgnX  iMMllnK 

1m(U"  (litur  'in  fiott''),  oontaiwInH  ''*"*)  toiMa,  knd 
ri|iul  tu  i'41  Kn||li«li  miles  ;  uiil  ii  luii^u*  uf  'ib  tii  (hii 

li'id  1  .  ,tii<b  mil**,  lliii  Ual,  l«ii«reT«r,  can  Kkroaly 
Iw  nKsntail  w  n  <l«Anit«  mtuan  i  aiij  ^/''  ^  'oua  to  th« 
RcT'ilutUm  till  IrimiM  WM  lUhnnt  lu  tbo  >tMl'  ">nt 
lirnvlimt,  't'h*  wi>  I  U  mIiI  to  Iw  d«Kv«l  r^>lu  tti 
C'dtlu  iMch,  ttiiHf  I  ui«  iU«t«ncM  havitiK  Iwcn  iu*rke<i 
by  iitouca  In  tlis  Uoinan  pruvliiora.  lit  Oaitl  itlon*  of 
tb(Mt  pruvlnuM,  tbajr  war*  inMrkixl  in  miiim  iiuUdcm 
by  Uimuaa  M  wall  m  mllaa.  Tb«  OauUali  luAtf""  wu 
conalilarail  liy  tha  Htim«Dl  M  wiual  In  a  niUe  and  a 
hal/  of  tbalr  own  DMMura,  or  u  contoinioK  1500  Ko- 
man  pacaa.  It  la  aiippoaad  that  tha  Uatc***!  °'  ''ura, 
waa  Intrmluoad  into  Knglawl  by  lh«  Nurmana,  whcr*  at 
an  aarly  parlod,  it  cam*  to  li*  rackonad  «•  an  aquiralant 
to  'i  nilixa  of  tlia  time  ;  thia  Iwing  tlia  aen»n  in  which  tht\ 
larai  limra  ia  nnetl  liy  tha  ulitaat  law  writam,  and  In  mtwt 
of  tba  old  l^jigllah  chartera,  A  leagua,  or  II  niitaa,  In 
tha  limit  fh>m  ahore  generally  allowed  for  tha  Juriadiu- 
tlon  of  a  country  to  extend  In  flaheriaa,  ate, ;  and  ulao 
tha  limit  of  oautral  water,  In  which  a  fugltlvie  thip  la 
•af*.     Haa  FiaiiKRiu  and  Nhutram.     Hea  Itii.H. 

Leak,  at  aea,  la  a  hole  in  the  ahlp,  through  which 
the  water  cornea  In.  A  ahlp  la  auid  to  tpring  a  Irni, 
when  ahe  i>egin«  to  leak  or  let  in  the  water,  'l'b« 
nunner  of  atopping  a  leak  la  to  put  into  It  a  plu^ 
wrapped  in  oakum  and  well  tarred,  or  to  inaert  a  tar- 
pauling  cluut  which  keep*  out  the  water,  or  to  nail  a 
pteua-  of  Bh**t-l«*d  on  th*  plac*.  Seamen  aometimes 
•top  a  leak  by  thruating  a  place  of  aalt  beef  Into  it. 
The  eca-water,  anya  Mr.  Doyle,  living  freahor  than  the 
brine  imiiilied  by  the  beef  penetriilna  Into  Ita  liody  and 
cauaea  it  to  iweil  ao  at  to  liear  atrongly  againat  the 
edgea  of  the  broken  plank,  and  thereby  atop*  the  in- 
flUK  of  the  water.  A  ready  way  to  Qnd  a  leak  In  a 
ihip  ia  to  apply  the  narrower  part  of  a  apeaklng- 
trumpet  to  the  ear  and  the  other  to  tha  aide  of  the  ahip 
where  tha  leak  U  auppoaed  to  be  ;  then  the  nolaa  of 
the  water  ruahing  in  at  the  leak  will  b«  dtatinotly 
heard,  and  thereby  diacovered. 

Leakage,  in  commerce,  an  allowance  In  the  cua- 
toma,  granted  to  iin|wrten  of  wine  for  tha  waate  and 
damage  the  gooda  are  auppoaed  to  receive  by  keeping. 

Laathar.  The  akina  of  varlouB  anlmala,  in  their 
ftreah  atate,  are  Hexlble,  tough,  and  elastic,  and  ap- 
pear tu  b«  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpoae*  of  cloth- 
ing. But  In  drj-ing,  thoy  become  hard  and  homy,  and, 
on  expoaur*  to  muiature,  putrid.  The  art  of  reatoring 
the  auppla  qualitiea  to  akina,  and  rendering  them  dura- 
ble, apiieara  to  have  been  diacovered  at  an  early  |ie- 
riod  of  man's  hLitor^- ;  and  the  word  letUAer,  from  the 
Saxon  lilh,  liihe,  or  laher,  indicates  the  quality  of  aup- 
plenesa.  LeMher  1*  formoil  b}-  the  (themical  union  of 
the  ikrmit,  coriuin,  cutii,  cr  true  akin  of  an  animal, 
with  an  aatringent  vegetable  principle,  known  aa  ton- 
am,  or  (annic  acid.  The  word  (an,  from  the  French 
tannrr,  to  tan,  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  low  Latin 
lanart.  Leather  may,  however,  lie  prepared  by  Im- 
pregnating the  akin  with  alum,  oil,  or  grease.  In  the 
animal  hide  or  akin,  the  outer  part,  which  Is  covered 
with  huir  or  wool,  is  called  the  epidermu  or  cuticle, 
below  which  ia  the  reliculated  tinue,  and  then.  In  con- 
tact with  tho  fleah,  ia  the  dtrmit,  or  true  skin,  which 
ii  the  only  part  which  admits  of  being  tanned.  It 
varies  In  thickness  In  ditTerent  parts ;  the  mane,  the 
bock  and  the  rump,  being  thicker  than  the  belly.  The 
skin  is  converted  into  gelatin,  or  glue,  by  the  action  of 
boiling  water. 

Varietif. — Leather  tanned  is  generally  divided  into 
three  kind*,  namely,  hidtt,  kipt,  and  tkiiu ;  and  these 
I'i'ld  different  varieties  of  leather,  such  as  butti  and 
haekt,  which  are  made  of  the  stoutest  and  heaviest  ox- 
bides.     When  bides  are  tanned  whole  for  sole  leather, 


tltar  ar*  «all*<l  crof  AmIt..  Okua  jprudur*  th*  lighter 
varUll**  of  leathat  I  erg*  qHMMltim  of  hid**,  it  J 
s»lt*d,  am  iMi|Hirt«d  >tttu  lb*  l'«iM*a  Kingiliim  ftam 
South  Ainariia  uinl  Ulfarvnl  ptitta  ot  Kuru|w,  fruuith* 
(^•IH'  of  li'Mil  ||o|M,  llur«v«iu,  A*«,  (oif  akina  are 
fttilK>rt*<l  fif.ui  thv  HallH',  anU  the  calv«s  being  klllad 
\<funger  than  In  I'.ndlatul,  th*  luathai  pr*p*rad  trnm 
th*m  la  u*«d  fur  >'<Hili-bbi<Ung,  glovea,  *n'l  ladl**'  ahoaa. 
Tb*  atoutaat  l«i>th«r  ia  mail*  from  butta  or  bai'ka. 
Biiir  leatbar  waa  .'irmarly  made  ri<'i»  tb*  lilJe  nf  th* 
t  vilfalo,  liiit  it  ia  now  fiiniiahail  bv  lb«  <  w-lifale.  uid  ia 
na*d  cbietly  fur  aniillera  brlta.  H"''  '  *  ':hl<:ker 
than  cow-bide,  wliUe  llmi  •<(  the  liull>  'ti>rn>»iU- 

at*.     ('alf-«4iin  >iip|jliea  the  grt>i*l 't<M)i,>nil  'hu  up- 

|Mr  |<i  rt  uf 'iKHitj  and  aho«a.  8ha*r>-''l<iiH  r  >  thin, 
chiui,  laatlwr  lamli-akina  ar*  uacd  forglos.  .'lat 
uii.i  liid-aktna  form  a  light  Ixalhar  of  itna  tin  m  i  , 
il>s;r  and  iintainpe  am  usually  lAanoyni',  or  draas.  in 
Mil ,  horw!  bill*  la  pmparail  ^r  h*riMta-'"<>rk,  etc.,       1 


nainci    I 
itmuaO 

-..li-aklB 

uaed  ftir 

imiiort 

'  <r  th* 


shia,  with  aeal-akln,  i*  uaail  for   mitV 
taiather  ;  ilog-akin  maksa  atliim  t<iUKli  loui.. 
of  tlm  ^lovaa  »oM  as  dog-sklii  are  made  ■ 
Ilog-akin  makaa  a  thin,  |kimii    Ir.tbiir,  iiii 
covering  tha  aeata  of  aaddles.  r«  ia  a  1 

tradu  In  akina.     The  great  dnii     uJ  for  Imii 
beat  glnv«a    la    aiapplied  by  liu  ili-akina  ttv 
Spain,  thw  south  of  France,  ami  iith<!r  parts,  %.  , ,      in 
■iiiiai'quiiaK'n  uf  the  lamb  Iwlng  killed  caFJu''^  tlion      ih 
'la.  the  akin  ia  small,  line,  and  thin,  and  ia  uw  '  -t 

kid  i  but  it  ia  neither  ao  atriing  nor  ao  glu»> 
vin  of  lambs  that  dL«  auon  after  their  birth  m 
I  inaa  dreaaed  with  the  wool,  and  lire  iiaud  I'l"  s^ 

gi   vos  and  ahoaa.    The  beat  kid-akina  arc  '' 
aui/th  of  France  |  thoy  are  alao  impivrted  I 
niu.  >,  Switzerland,   Italy,  and  Ireland,     li   '  1 

thill   IIS  soon  a*  tho  kid  begins  tu  feed  on  herbugo.     '* 
akin    iilferH  In  nneuean^uul  delicacy ,  and  la  no  ion     ' 
aulta    li>  for  the  beat  gloves.   Tlix  best  murocco  leuti 
ia  mil"  from  .Swiss  guat-akina,  eiiutlior  kindialV' 
Moguil'  r  nnd  ICaat  IniUan  goat-altina,  which  are  oiinu 
mode      to  black  morocco,  known  iia  "  black  Spaiial 
ieathiM    '  from  the  circumstance    ''the  first  suppllev 
Imving  iicKii  obtained  frum  Spain.     The  leather  fTort' 
the  Cap'   ihevp-skln  is  nearly  equal  to  murocco.  Ili|v- 
i  lililes  are  imported  fruni  louth  Africa,  and 
ii'il  with  oak  bark,  they  uiuko  an  extremely 
(impact  loathor. 
/  MateriaU, — Tho  vegetable  substances  used 
have  of  lata  years  become  almost  as  numor- 
orietles  of  hides  and  skins  on  which  they 


popotaiii 
when  til 
thick  aU' 

TVinnii'  , 
iu  tanning 
ous  as  till 


are  employ''^.  The  active  vegetable  principle,  tannin, 
varies  soro<  «hat  according  to  the  source  from  which 
it  is  derivi'i:  but  it  is  always  marked  by  an  aatringent 
taat",  a  blii"«h-black,  or  ibirk-green  precipitate,  in 
aqueous  solu  ous,  by  admixture  with  a  sulutiunof  one 
of  tho  salts  '  peroxyd  uf  iron ;  while,  with  a  sulutiun 
of  gelatin,  i'  ;ivos  a  dirty  white  or  brown  precipitate. 
A  colli  aqueoi.  wlution  of  tannin,  mixed  in  certain  pro- 
portions with  10  of  gelatin  In  the  form  of  glue,  sli*, 
or  Isinglass,  .  nis  a  substance  which  la  known  »» 
tanno-fftlatin,  V  ich  nuybe  formed  by  the  application 
of  heat  into  u  viscid  elastic  mass,  resem1>ling  India- 
rubber.  By  ttio  action  of  ether,  containing;  a  little 
water,  on  gall-nuts,  pure  tannin  may  be  procured. 
The  etherlal  Bol>.:tion  separates  by  repose  Into  two  lay- 
ers, the  lower  on-,  which  is  of  an  amber  color,  being  a 
solution  of  tannin  in  water;  while  the  upper  layer 
'contains  gallic  ai  I,  mixed  with  other  substances.  On 
gently  evapuratiii_-  the  aqueous  solution,  nearly  pure 
tauniii  Is  procured  to  the  extent  of  from  83  to  40  per 
cent,  from  galls.  >btained  in  this  way,  it  is  a  shining, 
porous,  uncr}-stalli.:able  mass :  It  Is  soluble  In  water, 
and  then  exerts  the  properties  of  an  acid.  By  expos- 
ure to  air  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  give*  off  a  carbonic 
acid ;  two  new  products,  gallic  acid  and  ellagic  acid, 
being  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  tannin,  the  latter 
being  insoluble.    Tannin  may  be  precipitated  from  its 


LEA 


iwrf 


LEA 


wlutloDI  by  mlphuria  »nA  »ome  other  iiclde ;  by  boil- 
ing tha  pnclplUM  with  Kninhiiric  ndd  for  a  f«w  min- 
uttt  fn  «  dllHta  lolittlnii  nt  thn  tmme  arid,  gallic  ncid  is 
farroed,  and  crynttlllzM  In  cooling.  Onllic  acid  ex- 
Uti  In  galUniitt,  anmoch,  valloncii,  tea,  and  other  anl>- 
itancM,  and  iimlmlily  arluc*  from  the  decomposition  of 
tannin.  It  <lii«ii  not  cotiililne  with  gelatin,  and  is, 
therefore,  lutileiw  In  tanning.  Home  tnnners,  however, 
Imagine  tliii  gallic  acid  nf  the  waxte  liquor  to  bo  nscfiil 
in  swelling  <ir  raUIng  the  hides,  iireiiaratorj'  to  remov- 
ing them  tn  » itrnnger  llqnor.  It  Is  important  to  the 
tanner  to  underNtand  tho  circumstances  nnder  which 
tsnnlu  I*  convertad  Into  gallic  add ;  they  are  numer- 
ous and  sottuiwhat  complicated,  and  their  investigation 
belongs  to  tha  sclciilKIc  I'hcmlst,  to  whom  the  manu- 
facturer ulroady  owes  so  many  obligations'. 

During  a  long  (Mtrlod  the  principal  tanning  material 
has  \)een  oak  bark,  'Htat  which  Is  stripped  in  the 
spring  Is  tha  most  esteemed,  for  It  then  contains  a 
larger  quantity  of  lannin  than  thet  stripped  in  au- 
tumn, and  this  mnro  than  the  bark  stripped  in  winter. 
The  best  bark  Is  obtained  In  a  warm  spring,  from  cop- 
plce-traes  abuMt  12  years  of  age.  Oak  bark  contains 
from  5'rt  to  flO  of  tannin,  which  Is  contained  In  the  inner 
white  layers  next  the  alburnum,  ns  In  the  case  of  other 
astringent  barks,  'Hie  tannin  of  bark  is  probably  not 
iilentlcal  with  that  of  galls,  as  It  docs  not  yield  pyro- 
galllc  acid  when  subj«<!ted  to  destructive  dUtlilnton. 
From  four  to  six  jNiunds  of  oak  bark  are  required  for 
every  pound  ot  leather.  After  the  stripping,  the  bark 
Is  stavkeil  to  dry.  Hhould  the  season  l>o  rnlny  a  portion 
ot  tha  tannin  may  be  washed  out,  and  the  bark  l>e 
thus  deteriorated.  There  Is  no  doubt  that  tho  peculiar 
excellenca  of  the  Sole  leather  of  Kngland  Is  due  in  great 
measura  U>  the  superior  oak  bark  which  Is  pos8e8se<l. 
Oak  bark  Imparts  Itrmnoss  and  solidity  to  leather, 
while  utbur  sorts  give  soflnosi^j  thus  the  peculiar  soft- 
ness of  I'rench  curried  leather  Is  referred  to  tho  bark  of 
tlie  evergreen  oak,  with  -.v/ilch  the  h«tter  kinds  are  tan- 
ned, while  the  other  tanning  materials  next  to  bo  named 
give  oai;li  its  [lecullar  quality  with  respect  to  color,  scent, 
toughness,  or  tho  power  of  resisting  moisture  and  decay. 

The  utlwr  tanning  tnat«rlals,  used  chiefly  for  fancy 
laathera,  are  as  follows  i— Sumach,  consisting  of  the 
young  branclwi  and  powder  of  tho  leaves  of  Hhia  Co- 
tlnut,  Vrnui  mmaeh,  or  tho  wild  olive,  and  Rhus  Con- 
aria.  8umach  varies  In  Its  amount  of  tannin  fhjm 
1<)'4  tier  cent.  In  Malaga  and  Hlclllan  specimens,  to  10 
»nd  0  In  Virginia  and  (laridtna  sumach.  The  solution 
is  llabia  U>  fermentation.  Iim,  or  divi-divi,  is  tho 
pod  of  a  Mouth  American  shrtib,  Cirmlpinia  Coriaria. 
The  pod  la  dark-lirown,  aliout  three  Inches  long,  and 
curled  up  as  If  by  heat.  U  Is  rich  In  tannin,  tho  whole 
of  which  Is  found  In  tho  rind  below  the  epidermis. 
Vallonea,  consisting  of  the  acorn  cups  of  Quercui 
■^-gUnp»,  or  prickly-cupped  oak,  growing  in  the  Morea. 
A  smaller  kind,  called  cnrnnia,  containing  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  tanuin.  Is  for  tho  most  part  used  by  the  silk 
dyers,  About  two  [siunds  of  vallonea  are  required 
for  making  one  pound  of  leather.  Vallonea  and  onk 
bark  may  \m  mixed  together  with  good  effect.  Cat- 
tehu,  eulrh,  Terra  japimkn,  or  terra,  are  the  inspissated 
aqueous  extracts  of  tho  liark,  wood,  and  leaves  of  the 
Araria  CiUeehu,  and  Unrnriagambirr.  The  two  vari- 
etiea  arn  known  In  commerce  as  catechu,  or  gambler, 
and  cutch  \  that  from  llombay  Is  richer  in  tannin  than 
that  from  llengal.  Afumhitltm  Is  a  name  given  to  the 
fruit  of  several  Kast  India  trees  ;  the  husk,  being  the 
tiortlon  vatuabln  to  the  tanner,  is  separated  by  l>rui»- 
ing  the  nut  which  It  Incloses.  Mimoia  or  Wattkbarh 
ta  furnished  bv  dllSirent  species  of  Mimota  growing  in 
Australia  and  New  ;;«aland.  Cork-tree  bark  is  the 
inner  bark  of  ttia  cork  oak,  the  outer,  or  dead  bark 
being  the  well-known  sulwtance,  cork.  It  Is  oiitained 
from  Corsica,  Hpaln,  and  •  few  other  countries,  and 
oontalns  twice  as  much  tannin  as  average  oak  bark. 
Lareh  bark  la  somatlme*  ni«d  for  tanning  sheep-skins, 


and  WiUov  harh  tot  kid  and  Ismb-skins  The  last, 
named  bark  is  used  in  making  Russia  leather,  but  its 
peculiar  odor  is  given  by  means  of  the  oil  of  birch-tree 
bark.  In  addition  to  the  tannin  contained  in  the  above 
substances,  there  are  muoilaginons,  coloring  and  other 
matters  which  have  an  influence  on  the  kind  of  leather 
produced.  The  tannin  itself  may  also  vary  in  difTerciit 
materUls ;  thus  catechu  and  divi  give  a  more  porous 
leather  than  oak  bark  or  vallonea,  while  larch  bark 
gives  a  very  inferior  leather  to  that  prepared  from 
oak  bark.  The  coloring  matter  in  some  excellent 
tanning  materials  prevents  their  use,  since  It  is  the 
custom  to  sell  both  upper  and  sole  leathers  of  a  yel- 
lowish-fawn color,  and  any  thing  wliich  interfered 
with  the  production  of  this  tint  would  be  objected  to ; 
thus,  catechu  and  cutch  would  be  among  the  cheapest 
of  tanning  materials,  were  it  not  that  they  impart  to 
ti>e  leather  a  reddish-brown  color,  which  would  in  no 
way  interfere  with  the  dressing  or  currj'ing. 

Statemknt  enowiNO  Tna  Exports  or  Leatiikk  frou  the 
llNn-KD  States  for  thk  trah  rkdixq  Jcnr  80,  ISM. 


Whlll)«r  exported. 


Russian  Poss.  N.  Amor. 
Danish  West  Indies. . . 

Hamburg. 

Bromon 

Holland 

Dutch  West  Indies.... 

Dutch  Onlana 

Dutch  East  Indies. .... 

Belgium 

England 

Scotland 

Canada 

British  M.  Amer.  pes.. 
British  Wosi  Indies. . . 

British  IIon(iur<ts 

British  Oulana 

British  poss.  In  AMca. 

British  Australia 

Now  Zealand 

Frt-nch  N.  Amor,  poss. 
French  West  Indies. . 

Cuba 

Porto  KIco 

Capo  do  Verd  Islands. 
Turkey  In  Enropo. . . . 

Turkey  In  Asia 

Other  ports  In  Africa . 

Haytl 

San  Dnmlngo 

Mexico 

Central  Itepubllc 

Now  Granada 

Venezuela 

Brazil 

Uruguay 

Buenos  Ayros 

Chill 

Peru 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 

Whalo  Fisheries 

Total 


Poundi. 

iV,m 

20,000 

1,!1U0 

1,000 

11,44T 

400 

66 

^ooo 

48,707 

84,886 

808.194 

8r»,s»i 

8,610 

"rio 


1,0*6 

8U0 

2fi,&18 


6,123 

%m 

600 
8,200 
1I,B94 
4,800 

"800 

4^000 

8,642 

2,600 

212 

»t2,t69 


UulUn, 

3,414 

4,670 

23S 

150 

2,460 

67 

33 

760 

9,TS5 

4,836 

181,049 

80,141 

820 

"227 


2&8 

B6 

4,086 


1,871 

"405 
70 

T52 
8,903 

768 

""68 

"686 

822 

fi41 

ft7 


Uooti  and  ihuei  til 
leMher. 


filri. 
3,004 

6,173 


20U 
4,905 

31^100 

lfi8,518 

2O,S70 

4,992 

2,191 

148,638 

100 

262 

iV.iM 

842 

660 

408 

5S8 

2,703 

10,400 

3,(U2 

6S0 

S,»46 

7,S87 

4,040 

1,8M 

8,000 

18,486 

17,829 

19,763 

20,740 

2,128 

494 


7,8,^7 


186 
8,877 

8s'2',748 

142,116 

17,682 

6,965 

2,049 

068,770 
250 
210 

ll',C,M 

211 

77S 

410 

643 

3,076 

12,76S 

2,066 

730 

4,770 

10,6.VJ 

8,'*27 

1.142 

2,624 

18,IW7 

14.616 

17,287 

80,432 

4,109 

Mill 


262,844    698,140  l,0«fl,!l«7  1 


I)iroRi«  or  Leather  Maxufaotorrs  into  the  United 
States,  for  tub  Ykahs  knuinq  June  SOtu,  1863, 1S.H 
1865. 


Tanned,  bend  and  solo 

Tanned  and  dressed  upper. 
Skins  tanned  and  ilressod. . 
Skins  tanned  &  not  dressod 

SkiTors 

Boots 

Shoes  and  pumps 

Gloves  

General 

Total 


IMS. 


18M. 


Dollarf. 

28,267 

1,0.12,120 

486,660 

16,.520 

89,760 

64,001 

87,603 

1,868,997 

281,748 

8.816.2i2  I  8,661,204 


DoUvi. 

160,147 
l.SM.tSrt 

618,«-S6 
10,838 
60,4.38 
6'f,677 
88.126 
1,826,885 

8.17,883 


Grained  leather,  which  is  curried  on  the  Iiair  or 
grained  side,  is  called  black  on  the  grain,  and  is  mostly 
used  for  the  upper  leathers  of  ladies'  shoes.  In  prcpur- 
ing  such  leather,  the  waxing  is  performed  as  follows : 
A  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  called  copperai-traler,  or 
iron-Iijuor,  is  applied  to  the  grain  side  of  the  wet  skin, 
when  the  salt,  uniting  with  the  gallic  acid  of  the  ton, 


LEA 


1107 


LEA 


185 
8,877  I 


058,710  1 
850  1 
210 

11,»4 
211  ' 

77!l  I 

410 

648 
3.075 
1'2,76S 
•^.0.15  I 

730  1 
4,770 
10,6.Vi 
8,>!'27 

1.142 

2,6M 
1S,5«7  I 
14.M5  I 
17,2ST 
80.432 

4,109 

1^60,967  I 


18».      1 

l.J.-lV.M!! 
486,031 

6l»,490 
L    90,818 

086.2'26 

285,986 

ll^OSSV^oJ 

he  linlr  "' 
1  is  mostly 
In  prcpar- 
ns  follows: 
•at-ir'alcr,  or 
tie  wot  skini 
I  of  the  tan, 


piodaoM  an  ink  dye ;  stale  urine  Is  then  applied  to  the 
(kin,  and  when  dr}',  the  stuffing  is  applied,  i  he  grain 
Is  raised,  and  when  dry  the  skin  is  whitened,  bruised, 
and  again  grained ;  after  which  a  mixture  of  oil  and 
tallow  applied  to  the  grain  side,  completes  the  process, 
Vamuhed  and  Enamded  Leather. — For  many  years 
it  was  found  difficult  to  cause  a  bright  varnish  to  ad- 
liure  to  leather  without  cracking,  an  effect  which  is 
now  produced  by  means  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  mixed 


with  vegetable  black  and  Prussian  blue.  This  oop* 
position,  of  the  consistence  of  a  thick  paste,  Is  rubb«4 
upon  the  surface  of  the  leather,  and  then  dried  •(  » 
temperature  of  from  150°  to  170°  Fahr.  The  process 
is  repeated  from  8  to  7  times,  and  when  quite  dry,  tlia 
varnish  adheres  very  firmly,  and  will  bear  considera- 
ble flexure  and  tension  without  cracking.  By  mikiug 
colored  pigments  with  the  varnish,  enameled  laatbsr 
of  various  colors  may  be  produced. 


STATiuurr  snowiHO  tuc  Impoets  or  LtATUsa  and  MAMvrACTUBSS  or  Liatuio,  into  Tua  Uhitid  Statu  roa  *ui 

Ykab  khdiho  Juki  SOib,  1856. 


Whenn  Importwl. 

TtoMd,  b«iid,  >ol«,  kdA 
uppir. 

SUoa  taimed  and 
dnauil. 

Sklran. 

BooU  lud  iho«i. 

OIoT6«  for  man, 
woman,  and  eUldran. 

"IfMuibturaa 

o(  balhar 
uH  apaolM. 

Prassl* "! 

PoUDiti.       DulUn. 
1,659             796 

42 
1 

40 

048 

2,551 

68 

101 

89,l8t 

1,585 

"m 

54 

100 
65 

278 

19,465 

84,687 

82 

"■40 

10 

1 

"  24 

18 

197 

426 

"28 

DolUm. 

606 

6 

191 

7,272 

29,888 

625 

1,081 

288,400 

19,804 

"896 

286 

658 

289 

8,408 

47,402 

878,985 

188 

"i64 
44 
18 

"288 

74 

914 

2,797 

"820 

DoHn. 

"239 
ll',085 

■  •'    ■ 

2,825 

Dollm. 

1,779 
54,780 

i2;658 

rain. 

"828 

1,065 

710 

86|265 

"461 
80 
98 

"120 

221777 
514 

"■40 

""6 
8,921 

Dollui. 

]',208 
1,985 
2,018 

85^656 

"486 

81 

228 

"154 

40,210 
888 

"'79 

""5 
6,950 

Doian. 

"is 

1^696 

118,261 

""9 

14V,998 
100 

""so 

8,8io 

ItelUn,. 

"'68 
79,866 

660,010 

"■75 

6981641 
174 

""68 

I'oiess 

Dullwi, 

62,889 

l,06fi 

04-1 

79,028 

408 

49 

.,2J4 

21 

168:640 
91 

"688 
"B8J 

2,624 

Swedish  West  Indies. . . . 
Danish  West  Indies 

18,890 

108,611 

411,887 

7,190 

'im 

1,646 

3,848^480 
6,085 

"497 
970 

1,065 
866 
446 
150 

"250 

12,645 
29,594 

8,411 

42,702 

141,168 

1,888 

1,947 

608 

1,669',889 
8,316 

"886 
820 

"211 
71 
171 
60 

""69 

Bremen 

Holland. 

Belgium 

England 

Scotland 

Malta 

Other  Br.  N.  Amer.  pes. . 

British  W.  Indies. 

Drltlsh  Oulana 

British  Australia 

British  Ea-st  Indies 

Franco  on  tho  Atlantic.. 
France  on  the  Moillter. . . 

Philippine  Islanils 

Cubs 

Portugal 

Two  Sicilies. 

Turkey  in  Asia. 

Other  ports  In  Africa — 

Oontni  Ropubilo 

llraiil 

Clilll 

China 

Total 

4,519,651 

1,918,987 

99,561 

758,758 

18,539"" 

69,212  166,821  1 188,872. 279,8«l 

1,844,660     810,24.1     | 

STATISTIOS  of  Till  TANNEKin  IH  THI   UNITED  STATES,  ACCOBDINO  TO  THE  CENSUS  Or  1850. 


No.  ol 

lan- 

nariaa. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts. 

Rhode  Island 

Crnnectiout 

Now  York 

New  Jersey 

Ponnsylvanla 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina. 

Georgia. 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas  

Arkansas  

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indians 

Illinois 

Mlssou.l 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Diat  of  Columbia... 


Capital 
Invaatad. 


218 

16.3 

152 

246 

10 

115 

942 

1! 

l,0i 

16 

116 

841 

151 

91 

140 

4 

149 

92 

15 

22 

51 

894 

275 

706 

60 


148 
14 
8 
1 


Dollara. 

782,747 


441,975    166,679 
846,250    125,052 


1,877,725 

42.900 

860,500 

5,025,148 
672,857 

8,6411.818 
9l>,,H50 
628,900 
676,988 
251,0Kt 
184.886 


No.  of  hldaa  and  tkltia. 


816,884 


750,220 

10,571 

122,455 

1,707,862 

101,485 

926,450 

26,060 

169,585 

189,200 

77,806 

55,000 


262,856|     81,484 
9,400|       2,100 


200,670 
145,616 
88,800 
88,860 
42,100 
490,320 


79,088 
62,815 
lO/W) 
9,850 
16,450 
166,944 


768,455 

196,200 

,840,8S9 

844,280 

236,000 

72,865 

514,997 

141,549 

188,878 

60,825 

228,09,i 

120,667 

20,850 

6,340 

78,950 

29,800 

50fl 

120 

26,000 

6,000 

sffi 


81,850 

109,696 

44,330 

293,000 

14,861 

67,110 

871,894 

120,731 

293,798 

12,9.V) 

68,810 

74,573 

24,0,35 

13,880 

21,705 

1,200 

13,922 

0,780 

2,850 

1,750 

8,S,M 

4.3,429 

69.830 

228,493 

23.600 

57,070 

21,575 

44,498 

850 

14,900 

)i:200 


Value  raw 
Diataria). 


D-illam. 

892,348 

543,779 

857,946 

2,811,178 

40.615 

4.53,854 

6,065.221 

428,687 

8.169,809 

99,620 

72.5,612 

498,926 

191,237 

181,679 

185,604 

4,800 

1.58,247 

111,474 

26,440 

18,624 

85,230 

896,159 

587,147 

1,118,080 

203,450 

405,888 

129,907 

247,956 

10,745 

98,880 

200 

25.600 


Nu.  of  hftiidt   M„„,i,i-  «... 
amplovad.    iMM-'My  »'»"■ 


Malea.    Fain.  {  Malt'i.     Fvm. 


^ ^im 

Total r6i2M,18,900,557|6,128,970  |2,668,865  il9,613,237J  20,909  102  1 410,21^  970  2,968,865  !l2,257,940'82,8«l,79? 

*  There  are  about  6,000,000  sheep,  goat,  and  other  small  skins  dressed  annually  which  aro  not  inchidod  in  tlie  abore  table, 


82 


81 


787 

502 

890 

1,510 

88 

407 

4,014 

405  .... 

2,978  2 

108  .... 

479  .... 

900  0 

372  1 

264  .... 

402  .... 

12  .... 

457  6 

266  8 

51  8 

63  1 

110  .... 

915  6 

877  2 

1,826  .... 

206  .... 

886  2 

240  .... 

412  6 

28  .... 

75  .... 

8  .... 

10  .... 


Dollar*. 

17,229 
11.787 

8,807 

41,245 

929 

10,027 

10.3,171 

8,946 

54,7S4 

2,,588 

8,034 

18,64J3 

5  291 

8,667 

7,107 

189 

7,-00 

4,924 

930 

1,007 

1,814 

14,3-38 

14,417 

8.\S80 

6.782 

l^199 

5,145 

8,806 

543 

1,710 

60 

m 

410,214 


Holla, 
28 


293 


No.  of  aidaa  of  laalhar, 
akliu,  etc.,  pnnliicad. 


Sklni,     |»l(lca  lealb, 


81.850 

109.595 

44,330 

293,000 

14,861 

67,110 

871,894 

120,781 

293,799 

12,950 

68.810 

74,678 

24,085 

13,880 

21706 

1,200 

13,922 

9,780 

2,850 

1,760 

8,851 

43,429 

69,880 

228,493 

23,600 

57,070 

21,575 

44,493 

850 

14,900 

4,200 


682,668 

888,158 

250,104 

1,500,440 

21,142 

241,910 

8,415,724  9,804,0001 

- 724,4661 

6,27^492| 

163,742 

830,1701  1,103,189 


1,« 
900,4211 
567,466 

8,519,12ffl 

76,0- 

781,01 


878,400 

155,610 

110,000 

162,968 

4,200 

1,58,066 

104,680 

21,000 

18,700 

32,900 

888,888 

892.400 

688^560 

144,780 

283,098 

101,650 

241,334 

10,680 

59,600 

240 

10,000 


804,877 

852,5851 

2«l,H8il 

86I,6S6 

9,200 

885  9111 

220,407 

65,112,') 

52,06d 

78,77* 

T46,48« 

986,267^ 

1,964,591 

86:i,98(y 

714,8ld 

244,02« 

466,2411 

24,-    ' 

175, 


,2411 
,520 

940^ 


Thin  LenUur. — The  process  of  tanning  differs  con- 
siderably in  tho  mode  ot  reatment,  with  the  kind  of 
skin,  and  the  result  desired,  A  large  number  of  thin 
leathers  which  are  intended  to  b«  dyed,  an  tanned  in 
▼arioiu  wajri.    White  UUhen  ue  not  Unned,  but 


tawed ;  or  treated  with  alum,  salt,  and  some  other  mat- 
ters, Wash  leather  is  dressed  with  oil,  or  shainoyed. 
But  whatever  may  \m  the  subsequent  treatment,  tba 
preparatory  steps  somewhat  resemble  each  other, 
whereby  hair,  woOl,  gtoMe,  ud  other  nurttm,  an 


1198 


\ 


LEA 


ranoTed,  and  the  akin  ia  reduced  to  the  state  of  a 
gelatinous  membrane  called  pelt.  The  hair  is  removed 
from  kid  and  goat-skins  by  meuns  of  cream  of  lime ; 
the  -vTool  is  generally  removeil  by  the  foll-morgers  be- 
fore the  skin  is  passed  to  the  tawers.  Foreign,  lamb- 
skins, which  are  received  with  the  wool  on,  are  washed, 
scraped  on  the  flesh  side,  and  sweated  In  a  close  room, 
until,  in  consequence  of  the  putrefactive  fermentation, 
the  wool  can  be  easily  removed.     After  this,  fatty 


matters  are  got  rid  of  by  subjecting  the  tUni  to  hy- 
drostatic pressure ;  they  are  next  worked  at  the  beam, 
and  pared  into  shape,  treated  with  lime,  and  next  with 
dogs'  or  pigeons'  dung  if  the  skins  are  to  be  tanned, 
and  with  bran  and  water  if  they  are  to  be  towed,  the 
object  l)eing  in  either  case  to  get  rid  of  the  lime.  Dur- 
ing these  operations  the  skins  are  worked  a  few  times 
at  the  beam,  and  ore  finished  by  washing  in  clean 
water. 


ExpoBTS  or  LiATUEB  AHD  MAHurAOTDBUS  Or  LxATnia,  raoM  Till  Umited  Btatis,  tob  rati  Teass  XHoao  JnitE  SOni, 

1858,  18M,  18&&. 


KiporUd  to 


Bwodtsh  West  Indies 

Danish  West  Indies 

Dutob  West  Indies. 

England 

Scotland 

atbraltor. 

Hondunu 

British  Guiana 

British  West  Indies 

Canada 

Brltlih  American  colonies. 

Australia 

Bilquelon  and  Brit  £.  Indlea. 

ronorlffe 

Cuba 

Spanish  West  ladles 

Madeira 

Cnpo  do  Verd  Islands 

Haytl 

Mexico 

Central  American  Bepubllc... 

New  Granada 

Tencinela 

Brazil 

Urngoay 

Argentino  Kepubllc 

Peru 

Chill 

China. 

South  America  generally 

West  Indies  generally 

AMca 

Indlan-Ocean 

South  Seas  and  Paclflo  Ocean. 

Other  places 

Total  Exports 


Lnlbn. 


BooUand 

I  aiiMi. 


Foiuidi.    I     Pain. 
878      ....■ 
7,SM     (1,8T» 
9,289.     .... 
S;il,872  86 

168,7201     •■•• 
280 
8,8«6!     i>,98l> 
723i     8,628 
8,6Si:  18,B8« 
179,676    70,671 
190,297  118,822 
468  126,452 
160 


Valiu. 


1,160 

11,866 

684 


6,266 
600 

"264 

8,882 
260 


60 
1,560 


14,704 

25 

85 

60 

22,794 

1,248 

5,214 

6,809 

a,250 

10 

4,272 

7,960 

7,729 

6,824 


780 

2,886 

800 


OnlUrt. 

78 

7,682 

1,688 

86,071 

26,500 

62 

4,461 

2,964 

18,486 

101,878 

121,645 

198,788 

190 

261 

8,562 

145 

64 

88 

19,870 

1,861 

6,089 

7,880 

4,213 

68 

4,oa5 

6,524 

8,678 

7,685 

8^824 

1,146 

2,950 

840 


22,628     26,228 


LMllur. 


Poundi. 

900 

14,045 

16,266 

641,689 

883,967 


Boot!  and 
aliou. 


Pain. 

24 

9,238 

8^275 


6,476  6,680 
1,925  626 
9,068    17,188 


l,172,661j  440,709  1 678,708 


490,008 

266,990 

4,100 


19,295 
"260 

18,241 

3,266 

3,490 

116 

19,840 


1,110 
4^600 


9,084 

6,825 

1,768,1)06 


106,842 
165,495 
42,791 


1,748 
48 

"268 

14,816 

1,803 

1,946 

7,669 

2,694 

2,182 

25 

5,483 

8,880 

80,683 

1,0110 

62 

°2,sio 

27,876 
5,885 

465,680 


ValM. 


Dullan. 
183 
11,546 
3,695 
87,081 
58,678 

l'0J44 
1,176 

17,693 
271,447 
219,563 

84,868 


0,598. 

59 

886 

800 

16,255 

1,446 

8,368 

9,817 

6,526 

3,191 

76 

6,869 

10,818 

28,227 

1,829 

75 

3^672 

S(>^i46 
9,163 


698,723 


Pounds. 

618 

80,937 

16,027 

457993 

194,289 

12,080 
2,734 

13,077 
388,790 
417,636 


80,860 


10,299 
1,500 

1,800 

10,539 

1,800 

I2I60O 

3,667 
8,600 

lV,66l 


2,147 
17,840 


1,400,885 


Dullan. 
117 

6,868 
2,854 
79,400 


3,148 
718 

1,859 
75,885 
74,660 


6,245 


216 

"274 

2,760 

250 

'2,080 

"425 

804 

2,818 


621 

238,887 


BooU  ard  Sho«i. 


18,088 

8^763 


8,046 
8,870 
27,081 
112,484 
161,487 
88,868 


840 


946 
4,872 

8,218 
18,828 
8,665 
2,174 
1,082 
18,004 
27,S5« 
72,696 
8,283 

"446 
4,025 

8l',782 

5,856 

616;i04 


Dollar!. 

4,m 
im 

8,886 
24,746 
206,488 
172,011 
130,064 
640 

"865 


946 
4,062 
8,026 
4,331 
11,798 
7,518 
3,008 
1,658 
13,780 
86,503 
64.878 
8,502 

"M2 

4,628 

3:i240 
_6.H72_ 
768,889 


Morocco. — Morocco  leather  is  prepared  by  tanning 
goat-skins  with  sumach,  and  dyeiu);  on  the  grain  side. 
Inferior  moroccocs  are  prepared  from  sheep-skins  sim- 
ilarly treated,  for  which  purpose  eai.'h  skin  of  pelt  is 
sewed  up  into  a  bag,  the  grain  aide  outermost,  dis- 
tended with  air,  and  placed  in  a  mordant  of  tin  or 
alum.  They  are  next  placed  in  a  warm  cochineal 
bath  for  red,  indigo  for  blue,  orchil  for  purple,  and  are 
worked  by  hand  until  the  dye  has  properly  stnick. 
For  certain  colors  the  tanning  precedes  the  dyeing. 
The  tanning  or  sumaching  is  carried  on  in  a  large  tub, 
containing  a  weak  solution  of  sumach  in  warm  water ; 
another  and  stronger  solution  is  contained  in  an  ad- 
joining vcsse',  a  portion  of  which,  together  with  some 
snmnch  leaves,  ia  poured  into  the  bag ;  some  of  the 
weak  solution  is  then  added,  the  bag  is  then  distended 
with  air,  and  the  skin  thrown  into  the  vat.  In  this 
way  aliout  60  skins  are  treated,  and  arc  kept  in  mo- 
tion a  few  hours  in  the  sumach  tub  by  means  of  pad- 
dles worked  by  hand  or  by  iiiachinerj-.  The  skins  are 
then  taken  out  and  lieaped  up  on  a  shelf  nt  the  side  of 
the  tub,  the  pressure  thus  produced  causing  the  liquor 
to  escape  slowly  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  the 
bags  being  shifted  about  from  time  to  time.  The  bags 
are  next  passed  into  a  second  vat  containing  a  stronger 
solution,  where  they  remain  for  9  hours.  The  bags 
are  now  opened  and  washed  ;  line  red  skins  being  fin- 
ished in  a  both  of  salTron.  Ail  the  skins  are  next 
struck  on  a  sloping  board  until  they  are  smooth  and 
flat,  and  in  order  to  improve  their  appearance  in  the 
cunying,  a  little  linseed  oil  may  be  rubbed  on  the 
grain  side.  They  are  then  hung  np  in  a  loft  to  dry, 
when  they  become  homy,  and  are  in  the  emit,  at  it  is 


called.  They  next  pass  through  much  laborious  fric- 
tion with  the  pommel,  and  with  a  glass-lmll ;  while 
the  peculiar  ribbed  appearance  of  morocco  is  given  by 
means  of  a  ball  of  box-wood,  on  which  is  a  number 
of  narrow  ridges.  Sheep-skin  morocco  is  prepared 
f^om  split  skins ;  the  skin-splitting  machine  resem- 
bles in  principle  that  already  described,  only  as  the 
membrane  is  thinner  certain  variations  arc  required. 
Instead  of  stretching  the  skin  on  a  drum,  it  is  passed 
between  two  rollers,  the  lower  one  of  giin-mctal,  and 
solid,  and  the  upper  made  of  gun-metul  rings ;  while 
between  the  two  rollers,  and  nearly  in  contact,  is  the 
edge  of  the  sharp  knife,  which  Is  moved  by  a  cnnk, 
as  nlread}-  mentioned.  When  a  skin  is  introduced 
between  the  two  rollers,  it  is  dragged  through  against 
the  knife  edge  and  divided,  the  solid  lower  roller  sup- 
porting the  membrane,  while  the  upper  one,  being 
capable  of  moving  through  a  small  space  by  means  of 
its  rings,  adjusts  itself  to  inequalities  in  tlio  luem- 
brone ;  where  this  Is  thin  the  rings  become  rtcprcased, 
and  where  it  is  thick  they  rise  up,  so  that  no  part  es- 
capes the  action  of  the  knife.  The  divided  skins  are 
not  sewed  up  Into  bags,  as  from  their  thinness  they 
can  be  sumaclied  quickly. 

In  preparing  white  leather  by  tawing,  the  pelt  is 
made  as  pure  as  possible ;  the  best  kind  of  leather  being 
prepared  from  kid-skins,  while  sliecp  or  lamb-iiklns 
make  the  inferior  kinds.  They  are  first  fed  with  alum 
and  salt  in  a  drum  or  tumbler  made  like  a  huge  chum ; 
aliout  8  lbs.  of  alum,  and  4  lbs.  of  salt  being  used  to 
120  skins  of  medium  size.  The  alumina  of  the  alum 
probably  forma  some  definite  compound  with  the  gela- 
tin  of  the  skina ,  wblla  the  salt  serves  to  whiten  them. 


1840... 

1841... 
1843... 

im*.. 

1844... 

1845... 
'  1848..., 
11847.... 

1848.... 

1849.... 

1850.... 

1861.... 
1868.... 
1868.... 
1854.... 
l'«5.... 

1856 

[Vearly  avorag( 

•  Year  IsSl 

Of »  change  In  t 

T  For  but  six 

See  Hides, 
the  T'nited  St 

Ledger,  t 
nierchants  an( 
"""It  is  plao 
the  Journal, 
different  count 
•W  IsCOHll  Li 


LED 


1199 


LEE 


When  teken  ont,  the  aUna  are  washed  in  water,  then 
allowed  to  ferment  in  bran  and  water,  to  remove  the 
(urplua  alum  and  aalt,  and  to  reduce  the  thickness. 
Tliey  are  next  dried  in  a  loft,  and  became  tongh  and 
brittle,  but  they  are  made  soft  and  glossy  by  means  of 
a  dressing  of  20  lbs.  of  wheat  flour,  and  yolks  of  8 
dozen  eggs.  By  rotating  the  oklns  in  the  drums  for 
some  time  the  dressing  U  absorbed,  and  scarcely  any 
tUng  but  water  remains.  This  dressing  is  usually 
repeated,  and  the  skins  are  hung  up  to  dry.  The 
beautiful  softness  and  elasticity  of  this  leather  is  now 
given  by  manipulation.  The  skins  are  first  dipped  in 
clean  water,  worked  upon  a  board,  and  staked  upon  a 
stretching,  or  softening  iron,  consisting  of  a  rounded 
iron  plate  fixed  to  the  top  of  an  upright  beam,  by 
which  the  skins  become  extended  and  made  smooth. 
They  are  finished  by  being  passed  over  a  hot  iron. 

Stateukkt  xxaiBrnNO   the  Foreion  Impokts  and  £x- 

PUITS    AND    DOMKSTIO    EXPOBTS,  TOaRTHKR    WITH    THK 

HoHi  Consumption   or  Forf.ion   Importations   or 

LKATIIF.R,  and    TUS   MaNOFACTDRES  TIIEREOr,  FOR  TlIK 
LAST    SRVRNTEKN    YxASS,  AND    THE    TeARLY   ATERAOB 

niEBEor. 


YcM-i. 

Forrlcn 
Imporlituoni. 

Porclfpl 
•iporu. 

DotDMlIo 

«tporu. 

Home  con. 
■ampllon  of 

toreiga 
ImporlalioDi. 

1840 

Dollnri. 

642,498 

809,884 

912,686 

287,217 

779,407 

979,886 

1,180,064 

1,060,819 

1,890,492 

1,460.126 

2.107,620 

2,816,663 

2,627,911 

8,816.262 

8,661,204 

8,069,860 

4,588,122 

Dullan. 

14,248 

22,608 

10,268 

8,446 

6,216 

40,263 

6,193 

2,880 

6,692 

18,099 

16,066 

26,049 

28,787 

40,670 

82.688 

188,700 

73,297 

DolUr.. 
23.3,917 
282,272 
191,427 
142,137 
248,197 
844,464 
873,188 
278,672 
210,578 
161,201 
198.599 
472,147 
447,325 
680,156 
909,605 
824,912 

1,319,076 

Uollnrt. 

628,260 

797,851 

902,882 

288,771 

778,191 

989,628 

1,124,871 

1,063,488 

1,383,600 

1,447,027 

2,091,464 

2,789,614 

2,604,124 

8.275,612 

8,678,671 

2.981,160 

4,461,825 

1841 

1842 

184a» 

1844 

1848 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1860 

1851  

1862 

1858 

1864 

1866 

1856 

Yearly  average. 

1,849,148 

8l),860 

897,227  i  1,818,298 

*  Tbe  year  1848  represents  but  nine  months.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  cbango  In  the  fiscal  year. 

Statement  xxhibitino  the  FoRF.roN  Importations  and 

KXPORTATIONS,  DOMESTIC  EXPORTS  AND  IIoME  CON- 
SUMPTION OF  FoREioN  Importations  or  Hides  and 
8K1NS  IN  THE  United  States,  for  the  last  Seven- 
teen Years,  and  the  Yearly  Averaok  thereof. 


Y««rt. 

For«lffn 
tmportAlloui. 

Foreltni 
eiporu. 

Domeitlo 
exports. 

Home  oon- 

■umpllon  of 

forflen 

Importationii, 

1840 

1841 

1842 

DoIUr*. 

2,756,214 
8,467,246 
4,007,616 
2,619,815 

tl,629;948 
4,262,069 
8,607.800 
4.790,081 
6,964,3.36 
4,828,119 
6,919,391 
7,620,272 
8,046,016 
8.088,292 

Ooll«ri. 

64,762 
7,628 

78,622 
108,688 
101,044 

67,632 
170,798 
804,089 
101,921 

DolUn. 

112,500 

46,699 

53,187 

60.340 

62,659 

111,636 

14J!,323 

131,894 

86,145 

28,890 

71,940 

66,624 

65,421 

Dollars. 

2,766,214 
8,893,276 
4,008,064 
2,612,297 

1,529,948 
4,262,069 
8.379,694 
4,720,209 
6,861.200 
4.722.075 

1848* 

1844 

1846 

1848 

1347 

1S48 

1849 

1860 

1S61 

1852 

1868 

26,9.VS     6.861,769 
28,622     7,440,479 
861,032     7,74;l,927 
101,174     7,961,369 

1854 

1S6B 

1656 

Yearly  average. 

4,819,465 

109,184 

91,806 

4,782,088 

'Year  1648  Is  given  fur  nine  months  only,  In  consequence 
ofa  change  in  tlie  llscal  year, 
t  For  but  six  months. 

See  Hides,  for  the  imports  into,  and  exports  from, 
the  United  States,  of  hides  and  leather. 

Ledger,  the  principal  book  of  accounts  kept  by 
merchants  and  tradesmen,  wherein  every  person's  ac- 
count is  placed  by  itself,  after  being  extracted  from 
the  Journal.  For  an  extended  summary  of  the  laws  of 
different  countries  regulating  the  keeping  of  accounts, 
see  Lbokb  Levi's  ^ommerctal  Imv>  q/tht  World. 


Lee,  an  epithet  used  by  seamen  to  distinguish  that 
part  of  the  hemisphere  to  which  the  wind  is  directed 
from  the  other  part  whence  it  blows,  and  which  is  ac- 
cordingly called  to  windward.  This  expression  is 
chiefly  used  when  the  wind  crosses  th«  line  of  a  ship's 
course,  so  that  all  on  one  side  of  he'  is  called  to  wind- 
ward, and  all  on  the  other  side  to  leeward.  Hence, 
under  the  lee,  implies  further  to  the  leeward,  or  further 
from  that  part  of  the  horizon  whence  the  wind  blows. 
Under  the  lee  of  the  shore,  means  a  short  distance  from 
the  shore  which  lies  to  windward.  This  phrase  is  com- 
monly understood  to  express  the  situation  of  a  vessel 
anchored,  or  sailing  under  the  weather-shore,  where 
there  is  always  smootlier  water  and  less  danger  of 
heavy  seas  than  at  a  great  distance  from  it.  Im  lurches, 
the  sudden  and  violent  rolls  which  a  ship  often  makes 
to  the  leeward  in  a  high  sea  particularly  when  a  large 
wave  strikes  her  on  the  weather-side.  Lee  side,  all 
that  part  of  a  ship  or  boat  that  lies  between  the  mast 
and  the  side  furthest  from  the  direction  of  the  wind ; 
or,  otherwise,  that  part  of  a  ship  which  is  pressed  down 
toward  the  water  by  the  effort  of  the  sails,  as  separated 
from  the  other  half  by  a  line  drawn  through  the  middle 
of  her  length.  That  part  of  the  ship  which  lies  to 
windward  of  this  line  is  accordingly  called  the  weather 
side.  Thus,  admit  a  ship  to  be  sailing  southward  with 
the  wind  at  east,  then  is  her  starboard  or  right  side 
the  lee  side,  and  the  larboard  or  left  the  weather 
side. 

Leeward  Ship,  signiflos  a  vessel  that  falls  much  to 
leeward  of  her  course  when  sailing  close-hauled  and 
consequently  loses  much  ground.  To  leeward,  toward 
that  part  of  the  horizon  which  lies  under  the  lee,  or 
whither  the  wind  blows.  Thus,  "Wo  saw  a  fleet 
under  the  lee,"  and  "  we  saw  a  fleet  to  leeward,"  are 
synonymous  expressions. 

Lee-way,  in  navigation,  is  the  deviation  of  the  course 
actually  run  by  a  ship  from  the  course  steered  upon ; 
or  it  is  the  angle  formed  between  the  line  of  the  ship's 
keel  and  the  line  which  she  actually  describes  through 
the  water.  In  consequence  of  the  action  of  the  wind 
or  currents,  a  ship  is  generally  impelled  aideuai/s  as 
well  as  forward,  whence  tbe  direction  of  her  motion  is 
different  from  that  of  the  keel. 

Leevrard  Islands,  a  name  fi^quently  applied  to 
those  of  the  West  India  Islands  lying  between  N.  Int. 
1.5°  and  19°,  and  W.  long.  G0°  30'  and  65°  40'.  The 
group  comprises  the  British  possessions  of  Antigua, 
Dominica,  Montscrrat,  Nevis,  St.  Christopl'-r's,  An- 
guilla,  Barouda,  and  the  Virgin  Islands,  whi  are  nil 
included  under  one  government.  The  French,  Dutch, 
Danes,  etc.,  have  also  possessions  in  the  group.  Tliere 
ara  23  i.ilands,  besides  numerous  islets,  having  in  all  an 
area  of  about  1700  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  321,000. 

Leeoh-Fishety.  The  demand  for  the  medicinal 
leech  Qlimdo  medicinalis)  is  so  great  as  to  afford  em- 
ployment to  a  considerable  number  of  persons  in  catcii- 
ing  and  selling  the  aninnil.  It  is  common  throughout 
Europe,  America,  and  India,  inhabiting  lakes  and 
])oaIs.  Norfolk  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  leeches 
brought  to  tlie  I.«ndon  market ;  but  some  are  taken  in 
Kent,  Suffolk,  Essex,  and  Wales ;  and  large  quantities 
are  imported  from  Bordeaux  and  Lisbon.  They  aro 
caught  in  spring  and  au'umn  by  people  who  wade  into 
the  pools  and  allow  them  to  fasten  on  their  limbs  ;  or 
more  generally  the  catchers  beat,  as  they  wade  in  the 
surface  of  the  water  with  poles,  which  sets  the  leeches 
in  motion,  and  brings  them  to  the  surface ;  when  tliey 
are  taken  with  the  hand,  and  put  into  bags.  As  they 
come  to  tlie  surface  just  before  a  thunder  storm,  this 
is  rp,,'arded  a  good  time  for  collecting  them.— TiioM- 
SOS.  Wo  extract  from  the  Gazette  dej  llipilaux  the 
following  interosting  account  of  the  fishery  of  leeches 
at  La  Brenne,  in  France : 

"  The  country  abont  La  Brenne  la,  perhaps,  the  most  unin- 
teresting in  France.    Tbe  people  aro  mlgeral)lo4ooklng,  Uw 


T.inr. 


1200 


LEO 


mNU  wrttttitd,  tba  Uh  Ja«t  m  bad— bat  tha  leechea  tra'tA- 
nlnbU.  If  (Tar  r<»>  pu*  throngh  I«  Bnmie,  you  will  aea  a 
OMtl,  Ml*  and  atralglit-halrad,  with  a  woolan  cap  on  hi*  batd, 
Mtf  Ma  laga  and  arma  naked ;  he  walka  along  the  bordera  of 
■  marah,  among  the  apota  left  dry  by  the  aurroundlng  watera, 
b«l  partleularljr  wharerer  the  vegetation  aeema  to  preaenre 
tha  aaMaaant  a«U  nndlatarbed ;  thla  man  la  a  lecch-flaher. 
To  a««  nim  fron  a  dlatanee— hla  woe-begono  aapect— hla  hol- 
low afa«— fala  llirld  lipa— hla  aingnlar  geatnrea— you  wonld 
taka  him  fl>r  a  patknt  who  had  left  hla  sick  bed  In  a  fit  of  de- 
llrliim.  If  yon  obaeire  him  OTery  now  and  then  raiaing  hla 
laga,  and  eianilnlng  them  one  after  the  other,  you  might  anp- 
MNM  hlffl  a  fool !  but  he  la  an  intelligent  Icoch-flaher.  The 
laaehaa  attach  themaelTea  to  Ma  lega  and  feet  aa  he  movea 
among  tbatr  hannta ;  he  feela  their  preaence  from  their  bite, 
and  galbera  them  aa  they  clnater  about  the  roota  of  the  bull- 
rnahai  and  aea-weeda,  or  beneath  the  stonca  ooTcred  with 
graan  and  gldey  moaa.  Borne  repoae  on  the  mud,  while  othera 
awim  about,  but  ao  alowly  that  they  are  eaaily  gathered  with 
the  hand.  In  a  fayorable  aeaaon,  it  la  poaalble,  in  the  courra 
of  threa  or  four  houra,  to  atow  ten  or  twelve  doaen  of  them 
In  tha  little  bag  which  the  gatherer  earriea  on  hla  ahoulder. 
Hometlmea  you  will  aee  the  leech-llaher  armed  with  a  kind  of 
ap««r  or  harpoon  s  w  Ith  thla  he  depoalta  pleeea  of  decayed  an- 
imal mattor  In  plaoea  frequented  by  the  leechea ;  they  aoon 
gather  round  the  prey,  and  are  preaently  themiielTca  gathered 
Into  a  little  veaapl  half  full  of  water.  Such  ia  the  leech-flBhery 
In  aprlug.  In  aiimmer  the  leech  retires  Into  deep  water ;  and 
tha  fiahera  hare  then  to  atrip  naked,  and  walk  Immeraed  up 
Ut  tha  chin,  gome  of  them  have  little  rafta  to  go  upon ;  these 
rafta  are  made  of  twiga  and  ruahea,  and  It  la  no  caay  matter 
to  propel  them  among  the  weeda  and  aqnatlc  planta.  At  thla 
Iwaaon,  too,  the  anpply  In  the  poola  la  scanty ;  the  flshcr  can 
only  lake  the  few  that  awim  within  hla  reach,  or  thoae  that 
tot  entangled  In  the  atrnctnre  of  hla  raft  It  la  a  horrid  trade. 
In  whatever  way  It  ia  carried  on.  The  leech-gatherer  la  con- 
atantly  mora  or  lesa  In  the  water,  breathing  fog  and  mist  and 
AUd  odnra  from  the  marah ;  he  l(  often  attacked  with  ague, 
catarrha,  and  rhenraatlsm.  Some  indnlge  in  atrong  liquors 
to  keep  oif  the  noxIniiH  influence,  but  they  pay  for  {(Jn  the 
Old  by  dlaordera  of  ollur  kinds.  But,  with  all  its ^rblddtng 
meullarltlea,  the  leech-flahery  givea  employment  to  many 
iiandai  If  It  be  pernicious,  It  Is  also  lucrative.  Besides  sup- 
plying all  the  neighboring  pharmaderu,  great  quantilica  are 
exported,  and  there  are  regular  traders  engaged  for  the  pur- 
pose. Henri  Chartler  is  one  of  those  peraons;  and  an  im- 
portant personage  be  ia  when  he  cornea  to  Meobecq,  or  Ita 
Tkinlty  I  hla  arrival  makca  quite  a  ftte — all  are  eager  to  greet 
him.  Among  the  Intereating  particulars  which  I  gathered  in 
Ii«  Ilrennn  relative  to  the  Iccch-trade,  I  may  mention  the  fol- 
lowing: One  of  the  traders — what  with  ills  own  fishing  and 
that  of  his  children,  and  what  with  his  acqulaitlona  from  the 
earrlera,  who  aell  quantltlea  SMond-Aond— waa  enabled  to 
hoard  up  IT^KOO  leechea  in  the  courae  of  a  few  montha;  he 
kept  them  dcpoaited  In  a  place  where.  In  one  night,  they  all 
iMcame  frozen  en  inasae.  But  the  froat  docs  not  Immediately 
kill  them  t  they  may  generally  be  thawed  Into  life  again. 
They  eaaily.  Indeed,  bear  very  hard  usage.  I  am  told  by  one 
of  thfl  carriers,  that  bo  can  pack  them  as  closely  as  be  pleases 
In  tha  molat  aaek  which  be  tiea  behind  his  saddle;  and 
■Sffletlraea  he  atowa  hla  cloak  and  boola  on  top  of  the 
••ek.  The  trader  buya  hla  leechea  pfle  mile,  big  and  little, 
green  and  black — all  the  aame;  but  he  afterward  aorts 
them  for  the  market  Thoao  are  generally  accounted  the 
beat  whieh  are  of  a  green  grotmd,  with  yellow  atrlpca  along 
tha  body." 

A  trort  published  at  ParU  in  1846,  by  M.  Joseph 
Martin,  leech-merchant,  contains  a  great  variety  of 
curious  and  Inatructlve  details  in  regard  to  the  natural 
hlatory  of  leechea,  the  trade  carried  on  in  them,  and  the 
frauds  of  the  dealers.  They  are,  we  believe,  much 
more  extensively  used  in  medical  practice  in  France 
than  In  Kngland ;  and,  at  all  events,  their  consumption 
in  the  former  seems  to  \m  quite  immense.  Notwith- 
standing the  exhaustion  of  some  of  the  marshes  and 
ponds  In  dlRerent  parts  of  the  country,  whence  sup- 
plies of  leeches  were  formerly  procured,  great  numbers 
art  still  obtained  at  home.  By  far  the  larger  portion 
of  the  necessary  supplies  Is,  however,  brought  from 
abroad  i  princloally  from  Germany,  Spain,  Sardinia, 
Turkey  In  Europe,  Algiers,  Asia  Minor,  etc.  In  the 
Fmich  oustom-hoQse  the  imports  ore  estimated  at  600 
leeches  per  kilog. ;  but  M.  Martin  affirma  that  1000 
iMchM  do  not,  at  an  average,  weigh  more  than  a  kilog. 
IltM*  th*  nabm  Mid  TUBM  of  tka  iMohM  Ivportad 


into  Franc*  dui^  each  of  the  Ave  yean  ending  wUh 
1847,  wlUbe: 


Ywii. 

1848 
1844 
1846 
1846 
184T 


NomUn,  Mfordinf 
to  offlelsl  Rvtunii, 

U,(I07,6M 
16,882,878 
18,848,488 
18,731,646 
11,790,840 


N(ifnb«rt 
eorrtflted. 

86,91^89!l 
S0,4«6,84« 
27,<8e,9<0 
86,448,000 
88,681,680 


OOtUI 
Valu. 
Frun. 
638,881 
466,980 
416,804 
881,047 
868,710 


See  De  Bow's  Sev.,  xiii.,  80. 

Leghorn,  a  city  and  sna-port  of  Italy,  in  Tuscany 
lot.  48°  88'  5"  N.,  long.  10°  16'  45"  E.  Population, 
in  1851,  84,000.  Leghorn  has  an  outer  harbor,  pro- 
tected by  a  line  mole,  running  in  a  north  north-west 
direction  upward  of  half  a  mile  into  the  sea,  and  a 
small  inner  harbor  or  basin.  The  water  in  the  harbor 
is  rather  shallow,  varying  from  8  feet  in  the  inner 
basin  to  18  or  19  feet  at  the  end  of  the  mole.  The  rise 
of  the  tides  ia  about  14  inches.  Ships  lie  within  tlie 
mole  with  their  stems  made  fast  to  it  by  a  cable,  and 
an  anchor  out  ahead.  The  light-house  is  built  on  a 
rock  a  little  to  the  south-west  of  the  mole.  It  is  a  con- 
spicuous object,  being  about  170  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  roadstead,  lies  west  north-west  of  the 
harbor,  l)etween  it  and  the  Melora  bank.  The  latter  is 
sandy,  lying  north  and  sonth,  4  miles  in  length  by  2 
in  breadth,  the  side .  nearest  the  shore  lieing  about  4 
miles  from  it.  It  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  sand 
and  mud,  and  has  from  8  to  3}  fathoms  water  over 
it  i  but  toword  its  southern  extremity  it  is  rocky ;  and 
there,  on  some  of  the  points  which  project  above  the 
water,  the  Melora  towct  has  been  constructed  to  serve 
as  a  sea-mark ;  it  l>ears  from  the  light-house  west  one 
half  north,  distant  about  4  miles.  The  best  course  for 
entering  the  roods  is  to  keep  to  the  northward  of  the 
Melora  bank  at  about  a  mile  from  it,  and  then,  having 
doubled  it,  to  stand  on  for  the  light-house  about  2| 
miles,  anchoring  in  from  7  to  9  fathoms,  the  light-house 
bearing  south  south-east  one  half  east  4  miles  olT.  Tlie 
entrance  by  the  channel  to  the  south  of  the  Melora 
bank  is  also  quite  safe ;  but  it  is  not  so  suitable  for 
large  ships  as  that  by  the  north.  During  southerly 
winds  there  is  sometimes  a  heavy  sea  in  the  roads, 
but  the  holding-ground  is  good;  and  with  sufficient 
anchors  and  cables,  and  ordinary  precaution,  there  is 
no  danger.  The  lazaretto  lies  to  the  south,  about  one 
mile  from  the  tower,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best 
in  Europe. 

Track,  etc. — The  comparative  security  and  freedom 
which  foreigners  have  long  enjoyed  in  Tuscany,  still 
more  than  its  advantageous  situation,  render  Leghorn 
the  greatest  commercial  city  of  Italy.  Its  exports  are 
similar  to  those  from  the  other  Italian  ports  ;  consist- 
ing principally  of  raw  and  manufactured  silks,  olire 
oil,  borax,  fruits,  shumac,  valonia,  wines,  rags,  brim- 
stone, cheese,  marble,  argol,  anchovies,  manna,  juniper 
berries,  hemp,  skins,  cork,  etc.  Leghorn  platting  for 
straw  iiuts  is  the  finest  in  the  world ;  and  large  quan- 
tities are  imported  into  Britain.  See  Hats,  Stiiaw. 
Besides  the  above,  all  sorts  of  articles,  the  produce  of 
the  Levant,  may  be  had  at  Leghorn.  Recently,  how- 
ever, this  trade  has  fallen  off  j  the  English  and  other  na- 
tions who  used  to  import  Levant  produce  at  second  hand 
fh)m  Italy,  preferring  now,  at  least  for  the  most  part, 
to  bring  it  direct  from  Smyrna,  Alexandria,  etc.  The 
imports  are  exceedingly  numerous  and  valuable,  com- 
prising all  sorts  of  commodities,  with  the  exception  of 
those  produced  by  Italy.  Sugar,  coffee,  and  all  sorts 
of  colonial  produce;  cotton  stuffs,  yam,  and  wool; 
com,  woolen  stuffs,  spices,  dried  fish,  indigo,  dye- 
woods,  rice,  iron,  tin,  hides,  etc ;  are  among  the  most 
prominent  articles.  Ships  with  corn  on  board  may  un- 
load within  the  limits  of  the  lazaretto,  without  being 
detained  to  perform  quarantine ;  a  circumstance  which 
has  contributed  to  make  Leghorn  one  of  the  principal 
dip^t  for  the  wheat  of  the  BUck  Sea.  Hard  wheat, 
partlculaily  tnia  Taganrog,  ia  in  high  estimation  here 
•ndiiillMotliwItvUHiiNHto.    It  U  particulMljr  well 


$107  i 
bought 
there 
discour 
per  cen 
general 
cent 
Mocha 
30  to 
crushec 
packag 
18  per  c 
rosin, ; 
the  pri( 
Three  A 
ish  doll 
loons, 
©per  1 
Inie 
horn,  1 
taking 
whole 
bUity 
thepov 
6,000,0( 
govemi 
thebai 


im 


1201 


LEI 


fttad  tut  mMng  ▼•Tmlodli,  maecaronl,  *te.  The  gor- 
eminent  do  not  publbh  any  offlctal  aeeount  of  the  Im- 
porta  of  Leghorn ;  and  no  mereantUe  circulars  that  we 
have  been  fortunate  enough  to  fall  in  with  lupply  the 
deficiency. 

Monty. — Down  to  18S7  accounts  were  principally 
kept  In  peize  da  otto  noli  (or  dollars  of  8  reali),  the 
pezsa  being  divided  into  20  soil  or  240  denari ;  but  tills 
money  has  been  discontinued  since  the  above  date,  and 
accounts  are  now  Icept  in  {ire  Toscane,  The  lire  of  100 
eentesimi  is  worth  7'82d. ;  so  that  the  par  of  exchange 
with  London  is  80-69  lire  per  £1.  The  lire  is  divided 
In  20  soldi  dl  lira  each  of  6  eentesimi.— Tate's  Can- 
but,  p.  87. 

Weightt  and  ifeamn$. — The  pound  by  which  gold 
and  silver  and  all  sorts  of  merchandise  are  weighed  is 
divided  into  32  ounces,  96  drachms,  288  denari,  and 
691-^  grani.  It  is  =>  339-542  French  grammes,  or  6240 
English  grains.  Hence  100  lbs.  of  Leghorn  =  74-864 
lbs.  avoirdupois ;  but  in  mercantile  calculations  it  is 
usual  to  reckon  100  lbs.  of  Leghorn  ==i  77  lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois :  this,  perhaps,  has  arisen  from  taking  the  tares 
and  other  allowances,  as  to  which  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  uncertainty,  into  account.  Thus  it  is  found  that  tho 
English  cwt.  seldom  renders  more  than  140  or  142  lbs. 
at  Leghorn,  though  it  is  =  160  lbs. ;  in  the  instances 
of  logwood,  tobacco,  and  a  few  others,  it  does  not  ren- 
der more  than  135  lbs.  The  quintal,  or  centinago  = 
100  lbs.  The  contaro  is  generally  160  lbs. ;  but  t,  cen- 
taro  of  sugar  =  161  lbs. ;  that  of  oil  =  88  lbs. ;  of 
brandy  =  120  lbs. ;  of  stock-fish,  and  some  other  arti- 
cles =  160  lbs.  The  rotolo  =  8  lbs.  Com  is  sold  by 
the  sacco  or  sack  =  2-0739  Winch,  bushels ;  hence 
4  BucliR  =  1  imperial  quarter,  very  nearly.  The  liquid 
measures  are : 

2  Meziette  =  1  Boccalo. 
2  Boccale    =  1  Finsco. 
2nFlascbl    =  1  Barile=13  English  wine  gallons. 

The  barile  of  oil  is  16  flaschi,  of  two  boccali  each  = 
8-83  wine  gallons ;  it  weighs  about  66  lbs,  avoirdupois. 
A  largo  jar  of  oil  contains  30  gallons ;  a  small  one  16 ; 
and  a  box  with  30  bottles  =  4  gallons. 

The  long  measure  is  the  braccio,  which  is  divided 
into  20  soldi,  60  quattrini,  or  240  denari ;  it  contains 
22-98  English  inches.  165  bracci  =  100  English 
yards.    The  canna  of  4  bracci  =  92  English  inches. 

Credit,  Chargei,  etc Goods  in  general  are  bought 

and  sold  for  silver  money;  between  whi  :i,  and  the 
money  in  which  bills  of  exchange  are  bought,  there  Is 
a  difference  of  7  per  cent,  (agio)  against  silver;  i.  «., 
$107  in  silver  are  equal  to  if  100  in  gold.  On  goods 
bought  or  sold  (unless  it  be  in  eflective  money,  where 
there  is  no  discount)  there  is,  generally  speaking,  a 
discount  of  8  per  cent. ;  on  all  cotton  manufactures,  4 
per  cent.  Charges  on  sales,  including  commission,  are 
general'.y  from  6  to  8  per  cent. ;  on  fish,  8  or  10  per 
cent  7'ar««.'— Cinnamon  lb.  12  to  14  per  half  bale ; 
Mocha  coffee,  6  to  7  per  cent. ;  indigo  seroons,  lb.  20, 
30  to  40  per  seroon ;  sugar  Havana,  14  per  cent. ; 
crushed,  42  per  cent,  oi  real  ta-e  of  package ;  loaf 
pacliage,  and  4  per  cent,  for  paper;  Brazil  uf  19  inches, 
18  per  cent,  upward  20  per  cent. ;  tobacco,  10  per  cent. ; 
rosin,  12  per  cent.  For  most  other  articles  specified  in 
the  price  current  the  real  tare  is  allowed.  Exchanget, 
Three  Monihi'  Date. — London,  liv.  @  per  £  stg. ;  Span- 
ish dollars,  ^6  lis. ;  Paris,  liv.  @  per  100  francs ;  doub- 
loons, £101 ;  Genoa,  liv.  @  per  100  Ln. ;  Trieste,  liv. 
&  per  100  C.  Flor. 

In  1836  a  Joint-stock  bank  was  established  in  Leg- 
horn, with  a  capital  of  2,000,000  lire  (£«6,666  sterling, 
taking  the  lira  at  8d.)  in  shares  of  1000  lire  each.  The 
whole  of  tho  capital  is  paid  up,  and  the  responsi- 
bility is  limited  to  the  capital.  The  managers  have 
the  power  of  issuing  promissory  notes  to  the  extent  of 
6,000,000  lire.  These  notes,  though  received  l)y  the 
government,  are  not  legal  tender.  The  operations  of 
the  bank  ate  confined  to  the  discounting  bills  of  ex- 1 
4G 


diaaga  not  having  mora  than  foor  moatha  to  ran,  aiid 
to  til*  purchase  and  sale  of  foreign  coins.  The  rate  o. 
discount  is  fixed  at  6  per  cent.  The  superintendsne* 
is  veated  in  a  director  and  eight  regent*,  nominated  by 
the  shareholders ;  and  the  government  appointa  a  cont' ' 
missary  and  three  censors  (fh>m  among  the  share 
holders),  who  exercise  the  highest  authority,  to  secun 
obedience  to  the  statutes.  An  annual  report  and  InJ- 
ance-sheet  is  produced,  and  ia  accessible  to  all  shor*. 
holders.  The  maximum  amount  for  which  notea  ara 
issued  is  2000  lire^X66  13s.  4d.  steriin^ ;  the  lowest, 
200  lireojCe  13s.  4d.  steriing.  It  is  a  profitable  eaUb- 
Usbment ;  its  shares  are  at  a  considerable  premium, 
and  it  has  every  prospect  of  success. 

luroan  or  laa  LxamifO  AaTiotia  nrro  Laonoaii,  DimiHa 
na  YrAKS  I860,  1861,  1861. 


ArtifllM. 


Bngar,  Havana  . .  lbs. 

"     crushed  ..lbs. 

"     loaf lbs, 

"     Brazil  ....lbs. 

»     E.  L  *  Santo* 

Coffee lbs. 

Cotton lbs 

Tepper lbs. 

Indigo.....^  •*"»•• 
*  ( seroons 


isn. 


issi. 


8,400,000 

18,874,000 

18,600 

603,000 

1,61-^800 

8,028,000 

211,600 

898,600 

162 

128 


1,149,000 

7,686,000 

6,000 

186,000 

129,000 

4,489,000 

660,700 

686,000 

128 

181 


IMI.         I 


3,610,000 

16,182;000 

87,000 

89,000 

966,000 

8,610,000 

188900 

886,000 

278 

111 


AooouNT  or  Tui  NuHBia,  Tomnaoi,  and  Caswa  or  thi 
HancnANT  Vkbsrls  wuicn  bklonokd  to  xacs  HAaii- 
TtiiK  Division  or  Tuscany  in  1860. 


MtriUun 

DlTldOM. 


Legbom... 
Orbetellc. 
Isl.  of  Elba 
Vlaregglo. 
Total. 


Vm.I  Tom.  CrawiiV«a 


108!  2,67?, 

134    818 
163  2,284  1,438 
98  2,713     &i7 


ljv« 


867113 
940 


T»ni.  jCraw 


14,674 

4^663 
8,613 


4981 8,4911 8,782213  22,849 


1,809 

"790 
S41 


2,440 


Toi*l. 


Vet.)  Toiu.  |Cr*w». 


2211 17,361 
124  813 
2U'  6,947 
162|  6.834 
711181,840 


3,166 

Mo! 

3,328 

688 

6,222 


CirsroHS  Dotiks   RaoaivxD  in    tub   Oband  Duoht  oi 
Tdsoant,  in  1843,  1S49,  and  1860. 


Import.. 
Eiport.. 
Transit.. 

Total.. 


1848. 


Uvrei.    I       X  Livrei. 

3,411,749  118.729.8,614,281 
2a6,4M     7,888    274,010 
81,92-2^     2,780    100,781 


I8W. 


Uif.    I       t 

120,4764,660,4M  166,848 
9,184  297,71«  9,9>t 
aB53     79,7981     2,660 


8,780,161^  124,888  8,989,042;  182,0686,087,974|  167,982 


Zieipsio,  or  more  correctly  Leipzig,  one  of  the  four 
circles  into  which  Saxony  is  divided,  comprises  the 
north-west  part  of  that  kingdom,  and  is  (wunded  on 
the  north  and  west  by  Prussia,  south  by  Saxe-Alten- 
burg  and  the  circle  of  Zwickau,  and  east  by  the  circle 
of  Dresden.  Area,  1386  square  miles.  The  countr}- 
is  generally  level,  and  lies  lower  than  any  other  part 
of  Saxony.  It  is  most  elevated  in  the  south,  where 
some  offsets  of  the  Erzgebirge  appear,  but  do  not  at- 
tain any  great  height.  Leipsic  belongs  to  the  basin 
of  the  Ellie,  and  is  principally  drained  by  its  tribut- 
aries the  Elster  and  Mulda.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  in 
general  well  cultivated.  The  principal  crop  ia  com. 
The  rearing  of  cattle,  and  especially  of  sheep  of  a  supe- 
rior breed,  is  much  attended  to.  Tobacco  is  exten- 
sively grown.  There  are  no  metals ;  but  limestone, 
marble,  potters'  clay,  fullers'  earth,  and  peat  are 
abundant  in  various  parts.  The  manufactures  in  th'i 
circle  are  fiourishing,  and  include  woolen,  cotton,  and 
linen  goods,  and  eartl">nware.  Population  (1855) 
454,262. 

Leipsic,  or  Leipzig,  the  capital  of  the  above  circle, 
and  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom,  ia  situate  on  an 
extensive  and  fertile  plain,  on  the  White  Elster,  here 
joined  by  the  Pleisse  and  Parde,-72  miles  W.N.W.  of 
Dresden  by  railway.  The  fortifications  which  for- 
merly surrounded  tiie  town  have  been  converted  into 
beautiful  walks  and  gardens.  The  houses  are  chiefly 
old-fashioned  stately  buildings,  frequently  six  stories 
in  height,  tjesides  three  or  four  additional  ones  in  the 
pyramidal  roof,  and  exhibiting  much  carved  masonry, 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  from  the  height  of  the 
houses,  have  rather  a  ^gy  appearance,  but  ore  well 


LEI 


1202 


LEI 


yti««d  and  «I«mi,  Th«  mibaibt,  homnr,  of  irlileh 
tkwa  an  four,  «•  of  neont  data,  and  mora  ngnlarly 
baUt. 

Laipiie  ii  conncotad  bj  nilwajra  with  Dnadan, 
Magdaburg,  Barlln,  and  Altanbnrg,  and  ii  tba  oantra 
of  a  vary  axtanaiva  trada.  Tha  calabratad  Laipiio 
lUn  an  held  thriea  a  yaar— on  tha  lit  of  Janoary,  at 
Eaatar,  and  at  Michaalmas.  Thay  ntoally  lait  for 
thraa  weeks,  and  an  attended  by  merchanta  fVom  all 
parte  of  Germany,  England,  France,  America,  Rniala, 
Italy,  Greece,  Turkey,  Fenia,  etc.  The  goode  com- 
prlaa  all  klnda  of  woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  itulfe, 
aiUu,  laoe,  hardware.  Jewelry,  watchei,  toys,  paper, 
booka,  leather,  etc.  llie  value  of  the  goods  brought 
to  these  fain  in  the  year  18fi5  was  estimated  at  about 
|S5,000,000.  The  atreeta  and  squares  .of  tli"  city  are 
occupied  by  temporary  liootha,  in  addition  tu  the  ordi- 
nary shops,  while  the  popuUtion  of  the  place  is  nearly 
doubled.  Topulation  in  18&S,  69,986.— E.  B. 
An  AooouMT  or  ma  QvAHTrnaa  or  Oooos,  rta  Mahu- 
yAOTuaa  oa  PaODCoa  or  ma  Statm  or  ma  Oibham 
CoaroHs  L'moH,  BBOuauT  to  Tna  I.airaio  FAiaa  im  Tua 
YiAS  I8BT. 


DMtHptioa  of  a««4l. 


Cotton  msnufscturei 

Iron  nianuflu-tMniii 

Yam,  cotton,  *nd  woolen . 

Olan  mannfsr.tnrca 

Wood  msnufacturcs 

Hardwama 

Initrumenta 

tealhtr 

Leather  ntnufactures , . , . 

rinen  

Paper 

Porcelain 

Furs 

Silk  manufietiires 

Ulxed  sillc  nmnu&ctures  . 
Woolen  niannfacriires . , , . 

Straw  ninniifiictureii 

Other  articles 


Eaater  Fair 

Michaelmss  Fair, , . 
Total 


N«W-«Mf'|i 

rain. 


CABtotra. 

tia89» 

S,SS-J 

1,614 

],WT 

aon 

t,S03 

323 

18,118 

TP8 

B,TT8 

1,TM 

i,on 
Tia 

1,801 

488 

8S,3S1 

121 


14»,10S 

i«8,n« 


S»T,680 


■aalar 
fair. 


C'antnan. 

8»,013 
4,643 
8,188 
8,ITT 
1,618 
S,!I64 
1,848 

80,184 
8,892 

12,14T 
8,891 
8,547 
1,826 
8,086 
1,488 

46,006 

406 

1,938 


149,108 


Miehaaloiaa 

Pair. 
Cantoara. 

81,699 
^708 
8,797 
8,783 
8,770 
9,188 
1,447 

8e,'266 
2,8ST 

14,889 
8.907 
8,888 
8,148 
8,796 
1,708 

68,641 

876 

1,16T 


108,778 


Xaeitb,  although  an  independent  burgh,  may  be 
eonaidered  tha  aaa-port  of  Edinburg,  tnm  which  it  is 
only  about  a  mile  and  a  half  distant.  The  Water  of 
Leith,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Firth  of  Forth,  di- 
vides tha  town  into  two  parte,  called,  raspeetively, 
North  and  South  Leith.  The  first  mention  made  of 
Leith  is  in  the  charter  of  erection  of  Holyrood  Abbey, 
bunded  by  David  I.  in  1128,  when  it  is  styled  Inver- 
leith.  The  magistrates  of  Edinburg  obtained  a  grant 
of  the  harbor  and  mills  firom  Kobert  I.  in  1829,  and 
they  subsequently  purchaaed,  from  Logan  of  Bestal- 
rig,  all  the  other  rights  and  privilegaai 

The  chief  manufitctures  of  Leith  are  ropes,  sailcloth, 
locomotive  enginea  and  machinarj',  glass,  eoap,  ale, 
refined  sugar,  and  oO^seed  cakes.  Iron  and  timlwr 
ship-building  ia  also  carried  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. Various  efforts  have  ftvm  time  to  time  been 
made  to  overcome  the  natural  obstacles  that  lay  in  the 
way  of  Leith  aa  a  shipping  port.  In  1720  a  dock  waa 
formed  on  tba  east  side  of  the  river,  and  in  1777  a 
small  quay  called  the  custom-house  quay  was  built. 
Between  1800  and  1817,  two  wet  docks  were  con- 
structed, each  measuring  760  feet  in  length  by  800  in 
width,  and  having  a  united  area  of  about  10  acres. 
In  18i)l  two  great  additional  works  were  undertaken, 
viz.,  an  addition  to  the  old  or  east  pier  of  600  yards,  and 
the  formation  cf  a  covering  bulwark,  by  means  of 
which  the  water  in  the  channel  was  deepened  about 
two  feet.  There  were  still,  however,  only  17  feet  of 
water  over  the  bar  at  its  month  at  high-water  spring 
tides,  and  no  vessel  of  above  400  tons  could  enter  the 
harbor  without  lightening.  Further  Improvements 
wan  commenced  in  1848,  and  completed  in  1866. 
Tbaae  iadnded  the  formation  of  tha  Victori*  Dock, 


equal  fat  extent  le  either  of  tha  otiian  i  thi  new  west- 
era  pier  and  low-water  landing  allp ;  the  extension  of 
tho  eastern  pier  1000  feet  seaward.  The  length  of  the 
east  jder  ia  now  8680  feet,  and  of  tha  west,  8128  feat, 
They  are  unsurpassed  by  any  In  the  kingdom ;  and,  in 
addition  to  other  important  purposes,  afford  the  means 
of  a  healthful  and  pleasant  promenade.  By  means  of 
these  improvements,  a  depth  of  26  feet  water  has  been 
obtained  in  the  new  harbor  at  high-water  spring,  and  of 
21  feet  at  neap,  tides.  The  Victoria  Dock  has  26  feet 
water  at  spring,  and  20  feet  at  neap,  tides,  upon  the 
gate  sill,  and  two  feet  more  within  the  dock  ;  and  the 
two  old  docka  have  18  feet  at  spring,  and  13  feot  at 
neap,  tides.  Vessels  of  upward  of  2000  tons  bunlen, 
of  820  feet  in  length,  and  68  feet  in  breadth,  can  be 
accommodated  in  the  Victoria  Dock.  Then  are  also 
five  dry  or  graving  docks  at  Leith,  of  the  following 
dimen  '  ins : 


No.  or 
doaka. 

UagOi. 

WUIb. 

DtpUi  of  wuirl 
OTtrdogkillla 
at  Uib-italar 
tprinf  tidal. 

Ofloor. 

At  top. 

OfSoor. 

Allop. 

Mgalta. 

1 

\ 
1 

ft.  la. 
160  0 
178  0 
166  0 
117  6 

ft  la. 
174  0 

177  0 

178  0 
181  6 

A.  la. 
460 
880 
869 
410 

ft.  la. 

70  6 
680 
49  6 
61  0 

ft.  lo. 
880 
860 
809 
889 

~     ft.  la.      - 

16  6 
18  8 
18  6 
13  6 

A  new  graving  dock  of  greater  capacity  is  proposed 
to  be  made  on  the  east  sands,  and  to  enter  the  present 
new  harbor  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  entrance  to  Vic- 
toria Dock.  The  following  are  its  proposed  dimen- 
sions :  length  of  floor,  300  feet,  at  top,  880  feet ;  width 
of  floor,  46  feot,  at  top,  80  ieet ;  of  caiuon,  72  feet ; 
depth  of  water  over  sills  at  high-water  springs,  24  feet 
5  inches.  Besides  having  regidar  steam  communica- 
tion with  Rotterdam,  Hamburg,  Hull,  London,  New- 
castle, and  the  north  of  Scotland,  Leith  trades  largely 
with  the  Baltic,  Mediterranean,  Xorth  America,  and 
Australia.  The  exports  an  principally  coal,  iron, 
apUits,  ale,  paper,  linen  yam,  etc.  Of  coal  and  iron 
the  quantities  exported  during  the  last  three  years 
were  as  follows : 

Ezroan, 


To  May  161b,  1864. 
«  1868. 

"  1866. 


Coab. 

Tofla. 

89,778 

86,098 

80,898 


PIf-lroe. 
Toaa. 
84,078 
88,094 
19,880 


Mallaabia  Iraa, 
Toiu. 
8,008 
1,196 
8,858 


The  principal  import  is  grain,  of  which  the  quantity 
Imported  during  the  last  three  years  is  given  in  the 
following  table.  After  grain  and  timber,  the  chief 
articles  of  import  are  hemp,  flax,  wool,  linseed,  oil- 
cakes, guano,  agricultural  seeds,  butter,  cheese,  fruit, 
corkwood,  wines,  spirits,  oil,  sugar,  tea,  etc. 
iHroBia. 


Taara 

a>dla(HarIlllu 


1854., 
1866., 
1866. 


Qia. 

877,866 
871,917 
864,006 


Baca  k  tar'U 
80,68T 
46,893 
86,700 


BalUaaad 
olbar  porta. 


Loada 

86,850 
19,689 
86,644 


North 

Amarffft. 


Loada. 

10,647 
1^884 
18,089 


NoKBsa  AND  ToNNAOa  or  Vasaaia  AaaiviNO  at  Lsito, 
roB  TUB  Tbabs  indiro  Hay  16x0,  1864,  1856, 1866^ 


18B4 
1866 
1866 


BrfUak 
aallllif  aaaaala. 


No, 
8,406 
8,314 
8,889 


Toaa. 

198,986 
198,481 

194,739 


Britlak 
Blaam  vaaaala, 


Poialfa  Taaaala. 


Torn, 
89,111 
86,068 
88,064 


Tona. 

87,468 
78,461 
81,138 


Total. 


No.   I   Tona. 

4,918  309,499 
4,7561867,964 
4,693  868,941 


Nuhbkb  and  Tonnaoe  or  Vessils  bailino 

rOB  TDK  TlABS  BNDINS  MaT   16TII,  1854, 

fRoM  Lbith, 
1865,  1866. 

Yaan. 

1864 
1856 
1866 

Britlak 
aalllng  Teaaala. 

Britlak 
itaam  Taaaala. 

Forelga  veaaala. 

ToiaU 

No. 
8,410 
8,816 
8,808 

Toaa. 

191,800 
194,881 
19^887 

No. 
680 
625 
688 

Ton*. 

87,604 
85,899 
87,668 

No. 
8(8 
778 

848 

Tona. 
85,218 

78,486 
88,686 

No.      Tona. 
4,882  8M,022 
4,719  358,669 
4,773  871,475 

The  amount  of  customa  duties  received  at  Leith  for 
tba  laat  four  years  were:  1868,   ^£486,916;  18M. 


ljt!k 


1303 


LEN 


llallanbU  Im. 
Tan*. 
1,008 
1,186 
9,85'i 


Nortk 

10,MT 

l^J8* 

18,089 


Tom. 
MX 
|4,756l857,»ft, 
'  '    .8l868,Ml| 


£4S6,408;  1855,  £462,917;  and  1856,  £498,172.  Th« 
vessels  registered  as  belonging  to  the  port  on  Slst  De- 
cember, 1859,  were :  salting  vessels,  of  and  under  60 
tons,  71;  tonnage,  2218;  above  50  tons,  80;  tonnage, 
17,058 ;  steam  vessels  of  and  under  50  tons,  14  ;  ton- 
nage, 289 ;  above  60  tons,  2S  ;  tonnage,  6654.  The 
recent  war  with  Russia  has  checked  the  increase  in  the 
trade  that  would  otherwise  have  resulted  from  the 
greatly  enlarged  accommodation. — E.  R. 

Lemon*  (Qer.  Linumen ;  Du.  lAmotntn ;  Fr.  Li- 
mom,  Citront ;  It.  Limoni;  8p.  Limonn ;  Port.  Limiti; 
Bus.  LimonU;  Arab.  Ijim/hi),  the  (Vuit  of  the  lemon 
tree  (Cilrua  medica,  var.  /?.  C.).  It  Is  a  native  of  As- 
syria and  Persia,  whence  it  was  brought  into  Europe : 
first  to  Greece,  and  afterward  to  Italy.  It  is  now  cul- 
tivated in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  and  is  not 
uncommon  in  our  green-houses.  Lemons  are  brought 
to  England  from  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  Azores, 
packed  in  chests,  each  lemon  being  separately  rolled 
in  paper.  The  Spanish  lumons  are  most  esteemed. 
Like  most  of  its  tribe,  the  lemon  produces  under  culti- 
vation a  great  number  of  varieties.  Several  are 
known  in  commerce.  The  principal  are :  the  Wax 
Lemon  (Cilrui  Limonum  cerietcum  of  Kisso) ;  this  is  the 
tmimth-peeledone,  most  generally  found  In  the  matkets ; 
its  rind  is  thick.  The  Bignette  Lemon  {Citnu  Li- 
monum Bignella  of  Risso)  is  a  thinner-peeled  fruit  than 
the  wax  lemon,  less  oval  in  shape,  and  more  blunt  at 
the  point ;  the  color  of  the  rind  is  less  clear,  and  is 
usually  tinged  with  green.  It  is  cultivated  more 
largely  than  any  other  variety,  as  it  yields  a  larger 
quantity  of  juice,  and  is  a  most  abundant  bearer.  The 
Clustered  Lemon  (Citnu  Limonum  racemosum  of  Risso) 
is  the  least  oval  of  the  imported  lemons,  but  the  nipple- 
like point  is  fully  developed.  The  rind  is  thick,  and 
has  a  bright  yellow  color.  The  pulp  is  less  agreeable 
thon  the  varieties  previously  mentioned.  One  or  two 
other  varieties,  as  the  imperial  and  Gacta  lemons,  are 
occasionally  brought  to  this  countrj',  but  not  In  any 
conaidorable  quuntities. 

Lemon  Juice,  or  Citrlo  Acid  (Cer.  Zitznmen- 
mft ;  Fr.  Jul  de  limon ;  It.  Agro  o  Sugo  de  limone ;  Sp. 
Jugo  dc  limon),  the  liquor  contained  in  the  lemon.  It 
may  bo  preserved  in  Irattles  for  a  consideralile  time  by 
covering  it  with  a  thin  stratum  of  oil :  th..s  secured, 
great  quantities  of  tlie  juice  are  exported  from  Italy  to 
different  parts  of  the  world ;  from  Turkey,  also,  where 
abundance  of  lemons  are  grown,  it  is  a  considerable 
article  of  export,  particularly  to  Odessa.  Tlie  discov- 
ery of  the  anti8corl)Uttc  influence  of  lemon  juice  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  that  has  ever  been  made. 
Thu  scurvy,  formerly  so  fatal  in  ships  making  long 
voyages,  is  now  almost  wholly  unknown:  a  result 
that  is  entirely  to  be  ascril>ed  to  the  regular  allowance 
cf  lemon  juice  served  out  to  the  men.  The  juice  is 
also  frequently  administered  as  a  medicine,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  manufacture  of  punch. 

Lemon  Peel  (Ger.  Zitrontmhalen,  Limontchellen  ; 
Fr.  Lamet  d'icorce  de  citron ;  It.  Scone  de  limone ;  Sp. 
CourtezM  de  citrd).  The  outward  rind  of  lemons  is 
warm,  aromatic,  and  slightly  bitter — qualities  depend- 
ing on  the  essential  oil  it  contains.  It  is  turned  to  many 
uses,  and,  when  well  candied,  constitutes  a  very  good 
preserve.  In  Barbadoes,  a  liqueur,  known  under  the 
nsnie  of  Eau  de  Barbade,  is  manufactured  from  lemon 
peel,  which  the  inhabitants  have  tlie  art  of  preserving 
in  a  manner  peculiar  to  themselves.  Both  the  liqueur 
and  the  conserve  used  to  be  in  high  repute,  cspectall}' 
to  France. 

Lending-bousea.  That  it  should  have  once 
been  conceived  unlawful  to  exact  interest  for  the  loan 
of  money,  will  not  appear  surprising  when  it  is  consid- 
ered that  at  an  early  period  the  occupations  by  which 
a  man  could  support  his  family  were  neither  so  numer- 
ous nor  so  productive  as  in  modern  times.  As  money, 
therefore,  was  at  that  time  sought  to  remove  imme- 
diate necessity,  those  who  advanced  it  were  influenced 


by  benevolflnoe  and  friendship.  Bnt  oir  th*  astMMloa 
uf  trade,  arts,  and  «iannAictui«i,  money  lent  prudlMwl 
muoh  more  tlian  what  was  adequate  to  th*  bormwar'i 
daily  support,  and  therefore  the  lender  might  raaion- 
ably  expect  from  him  some  remuneration.  To  tb* 
lending  of  money  upon  interest,  according  to  tha  earik 
est  accounts,  succeeded  tho  practice  of  eatal)|lahin( 
funds  for  the  relief  of  the  needy^  on  condition  that  thajr 
could  deposit  any  thing  equal  in  value  t»  doubl*  tbt 
sum  borrowed,  for  which  they  were  to  pay  no  Interest, 
But,  as  upon  the  one  hand,  tha  idea  of  exacting  ln> 
terest  for  the  loan  of  money  was  odious  to  the  iueni> 
bors  of  the  Catholic  church  In  general,  while,  on  the 
other,  it  appeared  proper,  and  even  necessary,  to  pay 
interest  for  money  to  be  employed  in  commerce,  tbt 
pontiffs  themselves  at  length  allowed  tho  lending, 
houses  to  take  a  moderate  interest ;  and,  in  order  not 
to  alarm  the  prejudices  of  those  to  whom  the  measur* 
was  obnoxious,  it  was  concealed  under  tha  nam*  of 
being  paid  pro  indemnltato,  the  expnssion  mad*  usa 
of  in  the  papal  bull. 

It  appears  that  lending-houses,  which  gave  monny 
on  receipt  of  pledges  at  a  certain  interest,  are  by  no 
means  of  recent  date ;  for  many  houses  of  tills  da- 
scrlption,  in  Italy  at  least,  were  establislied  In  the  lAtb 
century,  by  Marcus  Bononiensis,  Michel  a  Caroano, 
Cherublnus  Spoletanus,  Antonlus  Veroellensls,  Bar' 
nardinus  Tomitano  and  others.  The  lendlng-housa  at 
Perugia  established  by  Barnabas  Interamnensls  WM 
inspected  in  1485  by  Bernardinus,  who  augmented  It* 
capital,  and  in  the  same  }-ear  established  one  at  AssUI, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent,  and  visited 
and  improved  by  its  founder  in  tlio  year  1487.  Ha 
likewise  established  one  at  Mantua  after  furmidablo 
opposition,  having  procured  for  it  tho  sanctiim  of  the 
Pope.  The  same  person  also  founded  londing-housea 
at  Florence,  Parmn,  Chieli,  and  Piacenza,  in  doing 
which  he  was  sometimes  well  received,  while  at  otheni 
he  freqnentl}-  met  with  great  opposition.  K  house  of 
this  kind  was  established  at  Padua  in  the  year  1401, 
and  another  at  Ravenna,  which  were  approved  of  and 
confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  VI. 

Long  after  the  period  here  referred  to,  lending-housea 
were  established  at  Rome  and  Naples ;  that  of  tha 
former  city  having  been  opened  in  1589,  and  that  of 
the  latter  proliably  in  the  following  year,  A  lending- 
house  was  established  iit  Nuremberg,  In  Germany, 
about  1618,  the  Inhabitants  having  obtained  from  Italy 
the  regulations  of  different  houses  in  order  to  select 
the  best.  In  France,  England,  and  the  Netherlands, 
lending-houses  were  first  known  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  lombards.  Similar  institutions  were  formed  at 
Brussels  in  1G19,  at  Antwerp  in  1620,  and  at  Ghent  in 
1622.  Although  such  liouses  must  bo  allowed  to  lie  of 
verj-  considerable  utility  under  certain  circumstances, 
especially  when  Interest  is  not  allowed  to  be  exorbitant, 
yet  they  were  always  odious  In  France.  One  wa«, 
however,  established  ni  Paris  In  1626  in  tho  reign  of 
Ixiuis  XIII.,  which  tho  managers  next  year  were 
oliliged  to  abandon.  The  mont  de  pleti  In  that  city, 
which  has  sometimes  had  in  its  possession  forty  ciuka 
full  of  gold  watches  which  had  been  pledged,  was  eii- 
tablUhed  by  royal  autliority  in  the  year  1777,  as  we 
learn  from  the  Tableau  de  Paris,  published  at  Hamburg 
in  the  year  1781. — E.  A. 

Lengthening,  in  ship-building,  the  operation  of 
catting  a  ship  down  across  the  middle  and  adding  a  cer- 
tain portion  to  her  length,  it  is  performed  by 'sawing 
her  planks  asunder  in  different  places  of  her  length  on 
each  side  of  the  midship  frame  to  prevent  her  from 
being  too  much  weakened  in  one  place.  The  two  end* 
are  then  drawn  apart  to  a  limited  distance,  which  must 
be  equal  to  the  proposed  addition  of  length.  An  in- 
termediate piece  of  timber  is  next  added  to  the  keel, 
upon  which  a  sufHcient  number  of  timbers  are  erected 
to  fill  up  the  vacancy  produced  by  the  separation.  The 
two  parts  of  the  kelson  are  afterward  united  by  an  ad^ 


LEN 


1204 


LET 


4ltl(mal  plactf,  irhkh  li  nored  down  npon  tha  floor 
timbora,  and  M  many  baama  ai  may  ba  necesiary  ara 
flxad  aoroii  tha  ahip  in  the  naw  Intarval.  Finally,  tha 
planka  of  tha  aide  are  prolonged  ao  a*  to  unite  with 
Mch  other,  and  thoea  of  tha  ceiling  are  refitted  in  tha 
aame  manner,  by  which  the  whole  proceafi  ia  com- 
jdeted. 

Lentil,  the  aeeda  of  £rnim  Uiu  (natural  order  le- 

rnmotm).  Tha  lentil  ia  cloaely  allied  to  the  tare,  and 
probably  the  moat  ancient  of  all  the  food  producta 
which  man  derivea  from  the  pea-tribe.  The  nd  pot- 
tag*  in  Oen.  xxv.  84,  ia  the  amsll  lentil  decorticated, 
M  it  ia  aold  at  the  preaent  day  in  the  baxaara  of  India. 
Pliny  mentlona  two  liinda  of  lentila  grown  in  Egypt, 
ime  rounder  and  l)lacker  than  the  other.  Theae  were, 
nrobably,  only  varieties  reaulting  from  cultivation. 
Three  anch  are  cultivated  in  France,  where,  aa  in  moat 
Boman  Catholic  countriea,  thia  liind  of  pulae  ia  exten- 
■Ively  naed  during  Lent ;  to  which  aeaaon,  aa  aome  aup- 
poee,  it  gives  its  name.  The  lentil  ia  a  native  of  Europe, 
Aala,  and  northern  Africa ;  or,  at  all  events,  it  ia  nntu- 
ralliad  In  thoaa  parta  of  tha  world.  It  ia  cultivated  oc- 
casionally in  aome  parta  of  England,  but  chiefly  aa  a 
foddor  plant.  ,  The  ripe  aeeda  are  very  nutritious,  and 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  gluten.  They  ara  fre- 
quently imported  from  Alexandria  for  cattle-feeding ; 
while,  for  culinary  purpoaea,  the  larger  and  lighter- 
colored  varieties  an  imported  from  France  and  Ger- 
many, where  conaiderable  attention  ia  paid  to  their 
cultivation  and  harvesting.  In  Eg}-pt  the  lentil  forms 
a  large  proportion  of  the  general  food  of  the  inhab- 
itanta,  and  tha  haulm  ia  uaed  for  packing  purpoaea. 
The  empirical  pnparation  called  Revalenta  Arabica, 
has  been  proved  to  be  nothing  but  the  meal  of  decorti- 
cated lentila ;  a  food  by  no  meaua  well  adapted  to  all 
constitutions,  especially  thoae  of  infanta.  The  quan- 
tity of  ataroh  In  the  lentil  ia  very  considerable ;  and. 
In  addition  to  the  gluten,  renders  thia  pulse  one  of  the 
most  nutritive  of  vegetalile  food  producta.  Lentila  ara, 
however,  heating  if  used  much.  The  ataroh,  accord- 
ing to  Einhoff,  is  nearly  one  third  ita  weight. 

Zietters  of  Credit.    A  letter  of  credit  ia  an  open 
letter  of  request,  whereby  one  person  requeats  aome 


other  peraon  or  paraone  to  advance  money  or  to  give 
credit  to  a  third  peraon,  named  therein,  for  a  certain 
amount,  and  promiaea  that  he  will  repay  tha  aame  to 
the  peraon  advancing  the  aame,  or  accept  bills  drawn 
upon  himself  for  the  like  amount.  It  is  called  a  gen- 
eral letter  of  credit  when  it  ia  addressed  to  uU  mer- 
chants, or  other  persona  in  general,  raqueating  audi 
advance  to  a  third  peraon,  and  a  apecial  letter  of  credit 
when  it  is  addreased  to  a  particular  person  by  nauie, 
roqursting  him  to  make  auch  advance  to  a  third  per- 
ron. If  tha  letter  of  credit  be  of  the  latter  sort,  there 
doea  not  aeem  to  be  any  doubt  that  it  is  an  availalile 
promiae  in  favor  of  the  peraon  to  whom  it  ia  addressed 
and  who  makea  the  advance  upon  the  faith  thereof.  But 
If  the  letter  of  credit  be  general,  it  is  a  matter  of  some 
doubt  whether  the  writer  ia  bound  to  the  peraon  mak- 
ing advance  upon  the  atrength  of  the  letter.  The 
question  d^a  not  appear  to  have  l>een  ever  decided  In 
England,  but  it  haa  aeveral  timea  been  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
(iMwraton  vs.  Ataion,  8  Cranch,  492 ;  Adami  vs.  Jonea, 
12  Peters,  207),  The  doctrine  was  maintained  in 
theae  caaea  that  the  letter  writer  Is  bound  positively 
and  directly  to  any  party  niuking  the  advance  upon 
the  fuith  of  the  letter,  nut  only  where  the  letter  pur- 
ports,' on  ita  face,  to  be  addressed  generally  to  any 
person  or  persons  whatsoever  who  should  make  the 
advance,  but  also  In  coses  where  the  letter  ia  ad- 
dressed solely  to  the  person  to  whom  the  advance  is  to 
l>e  made,  and  merely  stales  that  the  person  signing 
the  same  will  become  his  surety  for  a  certain  amount, 
without  naming  any  person  to  whom  he  will  become 
security.  If  it  is  obviously  to  be  used  to  procure  credit 
from  aome  third  person,  and  the  advance  is  made  upon 
the  faith  of  the  letter  by  such  third  person. 

Formerly,  and  up  to  the  years  1826 — 1830,  remit- 
tances to  India  and  China,  for  importations  Into  the 
United  States,  were  made  almost  exclusively  in  Span- 
ish dollars.  After  that  period  letters  of  credit  were 
liberally  issued  l>y  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  on 
their  European  correspondents,  in  favor  of  American 
merchants.  This  mode  of  remittance  is  made  univers- 
ally from  the  United  States. 


FoBMi  or  Lbttem  or  Credit,  as  used  in  New  York,  ahd  as  issued  by  the  Western  Bank  op 
Scotland,  roR  Bemittances  to  India,  etc. 


i 


^nul 


laiBS 


Aew  York,  7th  June,  1842. 


•8 


le! 


Siii 


Exchange  for  £300  Sterling. 
2388 


K.  S.  &  Co. 


fllif  i'^'S^I^     5  i  six  Mentha  after  sight  of  this  First  of  Exchange  (Second 

^    '^  S'^l  =1^1 "  -I    "^  I  '"*  '"''■^  unpaid)  pay  to  the  order  of  Davis,  Brooks,  &  Co.  Three  Hundred 

ill  S  ^f  ►J  2 1 1*  Pounds  Sterling,  value  received,  aa  advised  by 

t.£l5flv-fil®3  Your  obedient  servant. 


Geo.  D.  Carter.* 


Mo. 


To 


Messrs.  Palmers,  Mackillop,  Dent,  &  Co., 
London. 
•The  bill  is  indoraed,  "Pay  Ooorge  D.  Garter,  or  order.— Aiins,  Brooks,  <t  Co. 


roB  rtiST  or  xxonAicoi. 
Waanaii  Bask  or  ScoxLAirn, 


Bt  the  Western  Bank  of  Scotland, 
No.  £        .        . 


1S61, 


18 


I  liereby  engage  to  accept,  and  to  pay  at  Ma- 
turity, the  first  presented  BUI  of  the  set  of  Ex- 
eksDge,  of  which  the  annexed  Is  the  First,  to 
be  drawn  by  on  ""v 

the  Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  on  or  before    | 

at  Sixty  Dcy'  Bight,  provided  this  Letter  of   / 
Credit,  aa  annexed  to  anch  BUI,  be  preaented  / 
therewith  and  delivered  to  me  on  acoepUnee  I 
thereof.    For  the  Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  V 
eiaagow.  Kanager.   \./ 


Sixty  days  after  eight,  pay  this  First  of 
Exchange  (Second  and  Third  of  same  tenor  and  date  unpaid), 
to  the  order  of 

at  Messrs,  Jones,  Lloyd,  &  Co,'s,  London,  value  received  as 
•d  vised, 

>  "•  To  the  .      ,        > 

Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  ■  ■^■' 

Qlsagow.  'v   •''■'','    ' '  ■■ 


LIB 


130ft 


LIB 


miBD  or  ncaiHsa. 
Oltdbdali  Bahx,  Qlamow. 


By  thm  Cltdmd.       '^ahk. 
Ko. 


lUl. 


1S61. 


Vf»  banibj  ennRe  to  aooept  *nd  to  pay  tt 
matnrltx,  tb«  flrit  iirgHntal  Bill  of  tha  Ml  of 
Kxohanga,  of  which  tha  anneied  li  tha  Third, 
to  ba  drawn  bj  you  on  ua,  on  or  bafora  tha 

for  £  taj 

dterllnf,  pajrsble  In  London  at  a  date  not  leaa 
than  and  not  exeaadlng 

dan'  alf ht,  pravidad  tbla  Uttet  of  Cradlt  ba 
dellTerad  to  ua  on  acceptanea  of  thfl  annaied 
Bin.    For  tha  Cljrdeidala  Banking  Companjr. 

In  N«w  Tork  it  hM  bean  held  (Hlll'a  R«p.,  toI.  v., 
684)  that  tettars  of  credit  and  commercial  guarantiei 
are  not  negotiable  Inatrumenta.  In  Campbeli'i  liep., 
iv.,  393,  it  waa  decided  that  a  letter  of  credit^addreaaed 
to  any  person  who  should  malce  an  advance  upon 
the  faith  of  the  letter,  is  an  available  promise  in  favor 
of  the  perion  malting  the  advance ;  and  it  is  considered 
as  available  if  it  lie  a  general  letter  of  credit,  in  favor 
of  any  person  who  maices  the  advancement  the  faith 
of  it.    See  articles  Banks,  Bills  or  Exchanor,  and 

EXCIIANOB. 

Levant,  a  name  derived  from  the  Italian  word  for 
the  south-east,  and  applied  in  the  mfddlo  ages  to  that 
quarter  of  the  Mediterranean  east  of  Cape  Matapan, 
now  generally  applied  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor, 
SjTia,  etc.  Levant,  in  geography,  signifles  any  coun- 
tr}'  to  the  eastward  of  us,  or  in  the  eastern  part  of  any 
continent  or  country,  or  in  that  quarter  where  the  sun 
rises. 

Iievee,  an  embankment  on  the  margin  of  a  river 
to  confine  it  within  it:  natural  channel.  The  lower 
part  of  Louisiana,  which  has  been  formed  by  encroach- 
ments upon  the  sea,  is  subjected  to  be  inundated  by 
the  Mississippi  and  its  various  branches  for  a  distance 
of  mora  than  800  miles.  In  order  to  protect  the  rich 
lands  on  these  rivers,  mounds  are  thrown  up  of  clay, 
cypress-logs,  and  green  turf,  sometimes  to  the  height 
of  15  feet,  with  a  breadth  of  30  feet  at  the  base. 
These,  in  the  language  of  that  part  of  the  country,  are 
called  Uvtei.  They  extend  for  hundreds  of  miles ; 
and  when  the  rivers  are  full,  cultivated  fields  covered 
with  rich  crops,  and  studded  with  villages,  are  seen 
several  feet  below  the  river  courses.  The  giving  way 
of  these  levees,  sometimes  occasioned  by  a  sudden  and 
violent  pressure  of  the  water,  and  sometimes  by  acci- 
dental  perforations,  is  called  a  crevaite ;  French,  a  dis- 
ruption. 

Lew«Chew  Island*.   See  Loo-Ciioo  Islands. 

Liberia,  an  independent  Negro  repuldic  of  west 
Africa,  established  1823,  extends  along  the  coast  of 
Guinea,  between  Sierra  Leone  and  Cape  Mensurado, 
from  the  Shebar  River  on  the  north,  to  the  Oaraway  on 
the  south,  a  distance  of  350  nniies,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  80  miles.  Population  1850,  250,C0O,  of 
whom  10,000  are  f>ee  blacks  from  the  Uniied  States, 
and  the  remainder  aborigines,  or  captives  released 
from  slavers.  The  country  has  been  all  purchased 
from  time  to  time  by  the  American  Colonization  So- 
ciety, and  its  climate  has  improved  greatly  by  a  sys- 
tematic drainagt;,  and  clearance  of  woods.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  2,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  interior  now 
ubtain  supplies  of  European  goods  from  this  republic 
and  Cape  Palmas.  Liberia,  formerly  a  dependency  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  was  recognized  as  an 
independent  republic  in  July,  1848.  Government 
vested  in  a  president,  vice-president,  and  a  senate  of 
0  members,  and  a  house  of  representatives  of  28  mem- 
bers, elected  by  all  possessors  of  a  real  estate  to  the 
value  of  $30.  About  60,000  of  the  population  are  said 
to  use  the  English  language,  and  children  are  sent 
from  the  surrounding  countries,  400  or  500  miles  dis- 
tant, to  attend  the  schools  of  this  State,  which  also 
supports  two  public  journals.  The  sea-port  and  capi- 
tal, Monrovia,  has  a  population  of  9,000, 


•    after  sight,  pay  this  Third  of  Exchange 
(First  and  Second  of  the  same  tenor  and  data  unpaid),  to  tha 
Order  of 
in  London  ,    r  ,  .j 

,  ,.,  .  SUrltng. 

Value  racaived  as  advised 
To 


The  treaty  concluded  in  1852  between  France  ana 
the  republic  of  Lil>eria  was  linally  ratified  in  the  year 
1856.  The  independence  of  the  republic  was  recog- 
nized successively  by  the  United  .States,  England, 
Belgium,  Pru.Hsin,  and  Brazil,  from  1847  tu  1854.  To 
this  list  France  has  at  last  added  her  name  by  the  late 
treaty.  The  original  colony  of  Liberia  was  founded 
by  the  American  Colonization  Society,  under  tha  di- 
rection of  its  first  President,  Mr.  Finley.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
and  is  about  870  miles  in  length.  Its  capital,  Monro 
via,  is  on  the  former  site  of  the  principal  slave-mar- 
ket on  this  part  of  the  African  coast,  and  stands  as  a 
living  protest  against  the  slave-trade,  in  the  alwlition 
of  which  tha  colony  has  been  largely  instrumental.  In 
February,  1820,  the  first  sliip-load  of  emigrants  left 
New  York  for  the  coast  of  Guinea.  They  were  80 
in  number — forming  25  families — under  the  care  of  8 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  a  clergyman,  a  lawyer, 
and  a  physician.  In  1847  Liberia  emerged  from  its 
dependent  colonial  condition,  and  became  an  independ- 
ent State.  In  1864  it  contained  a  population  of  about 
12,000  black  colonists,  chiefly  Americans,  and  from 
140,000  to  150,000  natives,  whose  social  and  religious 
condition  is  far  in  advance  of  that  of  their  blood-thirsty 
and  idolatrous  ancestors. 

The  capital  is  now  a  flourishing  maritime  city,  bar- 
ing a  fort,  a  light-house,  a  commercial  market,  a  small 
marine,  and  schools,  churches,  newspapers,  charitable 
associations,  and  other  institutions  similar  to  those  in 
the  United  States.  The  Gth  article  of  the  constitution 
of  the  republic  declares  that,  inasmuch  as  the  essential 
object  of  its  foundation  was  to  open  an  asylum  for  the 
scattered  and  oppressed  children  of  Africa,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  regenerate  the  people  of  the  vast  conti- 
nent of  Africa,  yet  enveloped  in  the  darkneis  of  igno- 
rance, none  but  persons  of  color  will  be  allowed  to  be- 
come citizens  of  the  republic. 

The  exports  of  Liberia,  consisting  chiefly  of  palm- 
oil,  logwood,  and  other  dye-woods,  which  are  trans- 
ported to  England  and  the  United  States,  amount  to 
about  (1,000,000  annually.  Besides  all  the  usual 
tropical  productions,  it  produces  Indian  com,  rice,  the 
potato,  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton.  Gold  is  also  found 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  cotton  of  Liberia, 
which  has  been  highly  approved  in  the  Manchester 
market,  has  lately  attracted  much  attention,  and  its 
probable  successful  cultivation  promises  to  exert  a 
most  important  influence  on  the  future  of  the  republic. 
A  communication  from  a  highly  respectable  and  relia- 
ble source  recently  appeared  in  the  National  Intelli- 
gencer, the  writer  of  which  gave  a  decided  preference 
to  the  cotton  of  Liberia  over  that  of  Brazil,  in  point  of 
quality,  cheapness  of  production,  and  facility  of  trans- 
portation to  market.  The  subject  deserves  further 
and  full  investigation.  Considered  simply  as  an  ex- 
periment in  practical  benevolence,  Liberia  deserves 
and  will  receive  the  protection  of  the  great  powers  of 
the  world.  Whether  or  not  it  be  destined,  as  some 
have  thought,  to  work  o\it  the  solution  of  the  vexed 
question  of  slaver}'  in  the  United  States,  it  will  yet 
gain  the  great  glory  of  redeeming  from  barbarism  and 
idolatry  many  millions  of  the  human  race. 

Trade  ir  the  chosen  employment  of  the  great  mass 


LIB 


1200 


LIB 


at  the  I.ttxrUni,  and  lonM  of  tham  b*v«  baan  dtoid- 
«dl}'  luconiful  in  thin  vocation.  It  coniliti  In  the  ex- 
clunK*  of  articlea  of  Ameririn  or  Kiiropean  manufic- 
ture  for  the  natural  priHliictn  of  the  country,  of  which 
palm-oil,  oam-wood,  and  ivory,  are  the  pijnclpal  artl- 
ulM.  Cam-wool  is  a  rich  dye-wood,  and  it  l»  brought 
to  Monrovia  on  the  iihouldere  of  the  natives  from  a 
great  diatance.  It  l»  worth,  in  the  European  and 
American  niarltetn,  from  tOi)  to  (80  p«r  ton.  The  ivory 
of  th!i  region  doe«  not  form  an  Important  Item  of  com- 
merce. The  Liberian  merchants  own  a  number  of 
•mall  vesaeli,  liuilt  by  themielvei,  and  varying  In 
ilia  from  10  or  16  to  40  or  fiO  torn.  Theae  are  navi- 
gated by  the  Lllierin  aailora,  and  are  conatantly  en- 
gaged in  bringing  palm-oil  to  Monrovia,  fhjm  whence 
it  la  again  ahipped  in  foreign  vtiaela  far  Liverpool  or 
Naw  York. 

Under  the  general  nama  of  Liberia  are  oompra- 
hended  the  territorlea  of  the  republic  and  of  the  Mar}-- 
land  colony,  foundoil  at  Cape  Palmos,  The  political 
juriadiction  of  the  republic  extenda  ft-om  Shebar,  a 
point  Immediately  north  of  Oallenai,  to  Grand  Sav 
tara,  giving  a  coaat  trov  Mer  of  3&0  milea,  or,  including 
the  Maryland  colony,  o/  470  milea,  ninning  into  tht 
interior  an  average  of  40  milea ;  the  whole  territor) 


to  the  production  of  ao  great  a  variety  of  valuable 
ataplaa. 

Tha  port  dr«i  are,  anchorage  X2  10*. ;  ligbt-houia 
I2t.  U.  ' 

The  tonnage  duea  are  8i.  U.  per  ton,  added  to  which 
■  oanaral  permit  and  liranM  to  trada,  coitiog  ti.  M. 
allow  veaaala  to  traffic  at  porta  of  antr}-  and  alaawhtra 
within  tha  Republic. 

The  Aflrlcan  Koyal  Mail  Steamahip  Compaiiy'i 
iteamera,  which  touch  at  thia  port  monthly  for  paanen- 
garaand  fVeight,  are  exempt  from  all  port  and  tonnage 
duea.  Thoy  vary  from  SOO  to  MO  torn,  and  prove  a 
great  l)aon  to  ciinimerce,  bringing  out  an  ample  supply 
of  Mambeiitor  cotton  gooda.  They  charge  for  freight 
from  England  X6,  and  to  England  the  aame  per  ton. 

During  the  year  1866  tha  average  market  prices  of 
the  produce  of  this  country  have  bean  ai  followa : 

Palm-oil 0  *i  IJ  per  gMlon. 

Caro-wood 18  0  0  per  ton. 

I'<"7 0  4«neflb. 

Berivelloa oi  1  per  II). 

At  regards  the  produce  not  exported,  it  may  ba 
iil!;ain  remarltcd  that  for  some  time  past  the  rice  cropa 
'lava  been  doflcient,  the  price  of  that  grain  having 


embracing  an  area  of  upward  of  14,000  a<|uare  mi]r«,  i  raacbed  9j.  id.  per  buahel.     Countr}'  clotha  from  the 
The  Juriadiction  of  the  Hni^'land  colony  extenda  fr^m  j^'^'^f  ),<'*""  "f^  *°^^  '■>  8'°"^  quantities  fot-  4>,  'M. 


Grand  Hesters  to  the  River  Han  Pedro,  opening  a  cuaat 
fh>ntiFr  of  120  miles.  These  territories  have,  of  la«« 
years,  been  considerably  extended  by  means  of  pnr- 
chaae,  the  most  important  addition  being  the  annexa- 
tion of  Gallenas,  formerly  the  point  at  which  the 
slave-trade  was  moat  extensively  vonductnd.  The 
New  Jersey  Colonization  Society,  established  in  1826, 
is  aaid  to  have  recently  purchased  ttma  the  natives 
160,000  acres  In  tha  interior  of  Eaasa  country.  Tha 
population  in  1850,  aa  eatimat^d  by  the  Rev.  R.  R. 
Guriey,  who  waa  sent  out  b^'  govamment  to  obtain 
information  in  respect  to  Libei  t  //aa,  in  the  republic, 
emigrants,  6,000;  natives,  l'*'/,000  to  200,000.  In 
the  Maryland  colony,  emigrants,  9000  j  natives,  100, 
000.  The  independence  of  the  republic  of  Liberia  haa 
been  recognized  bj-  France,  Belgiun-.,  I'ruaala,  the 
Hanae  Towns,  and  England;  and,  with  tha  latter 
countr}-,  a  treaty  of  peace,  friendahip,  and  commerce, 
waa  concluded,  August  1,  1840.  Treatica  of  friend- 
ahipj  etc.,  have  alao  been  entered  into  with  aevara'. 
trtliea  of  the  interior,  containing  atipulationa  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  including  new  terri- 
tory within  the  political  and  judicial  Juriadiction  of 
the  republic.  The  soli  of  the  republic  is  capalde  of 
yiftlding,  in  the  greatest  abundance,  the  moat  valua- 
ble productiona  of  the  tropica.  Rice,  cotton,  tha 
sugar-cane,  and  coifee  are  claaacd  among  the  ataplea 
of  Liberia ;  and  com,  cassada,  yams,  aweet  potatoea, 
arrow-root,  vegetables,  and  beana,  of  every  variety, 
are  among  the  productions  of  this  region. 

It  Is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  persona  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  resources  of  thia  region  of  Africa, 
that  no  clime  or  country  in  the  world  will  bring  cofTee 
to  higher  perfection  than  Africa ;  and,  whether  intro- 
duced at  an  early  period  by  the  Portuguese  and  Span- 
lards,  or  whether  it  is  a  native  of  the  countr}',  it  has 
propagated  Itself  along  a  great  extent  of  the  African 
coast,  without  culture,  for  many  ages.  The  com- 
merce of  the  republic  with  foreign  countries  consists 
chiefly  in  th<9  exportation  of  arttclea  Bupplie<l  by  the 
native  population,  from  thr,  apontaneous  growth  of  the 
countr}-,  such  as  palm-oil,  cam-wood,  ivory,  tortoise- 
shell,  and  gold,  which  are  Iwrtered  for  tobacco,  pow. 
der,  muskets,  rum,  cotton  gooda,  salt,  soap,  crockery-, 
and  iron  war'js,  capper  and  iran  rods,  and  American 
provisions.  This  commerce  must  necessarily  expand 
with  the  growing  development  of  the  agrioultnral  re- 
toarces  of  the  country,  and  the  extension  of  the  arts  of 
civilization  and  industry,  in  a  region  ao  highly  ftt- 
vored  in  soil  and  climate,  and  ao  eminently  adapted 


(one  dollar  United  States  currency)  each. 

Tha  following  table  will  ihow  tho  number  of  vessels, 
tons,  and  crawa  that  entered  and  cleared  from  the  port 
of  Monrovia  during  the  year  1866: 


NlUoB. 


British 

American . . 
Hamburg. . 

Dutch 

Fnnoh 

ToUI.... 


No.  of 

Vfmli. 


U4 


Tenaagt. 


K8,8fiO 
4,824 
I.IVIO 

fa 

SB4 


^,SUJ 


No.  of 
Crtwi. 


8M 
1T8 
104 
28 
19 


618 


No.  of 
VoiitU. 


68 
20 
11 


ToaDtfft, 


2!<,1!6() 
4,8.4 
1,M(I 

'.51 


I  No.  of 

I  Crtwi. 

8.^4 
178 
1(14 
211 
10 


114    I  »',wa 


6TU 


laroBTa  at  Monsotia,  ISM. 

Artletaa.  Quullly. 

Cotton  goods 86I,3,SU  yds. 

Iron-ware 1,400  mt. 

Iron-wars 4,oai  ilnzs. 

Powder . .  .• S2,f>60 1b». 

Earthen-ware 3,480  dnza. 

Tobacco 07  hhils. 

SplriU 4,r>3.i  Kallii. 

Provlalona 2,02g  bnrli. 

Lumber 12,500  feot. 

ExroBTS  or  HomoviA,  1868. 

ArtlelM,  Quuilll;.  Vuluo. 

Palm-oil 2,(161  tons.  X39,7UT 

Cam-wood l24tona.  1,4S8 

Ivory l,0801ba.  898 

Total  value X4 1 ,653 

From  the  "  Annual  Statementa  of  the  Tradu  an<* 
Xavigation  of  the  Unit^l  Kingdom,"  it  appears  that 
the  Imports  into  Great  Britain  from  the  western  count 
of  Africa — the  limits  of  which  are  not  particularly 
designated,  though  estimated  to  contain  some  50,000, 
000  inhabitants — consist  chiefly  of  bar-wood,  cam- wood, 
ebony,  guano,  gum-animi,  gum-copal,  untanned  hides, 
palm-oil,  orchal,  elephants'  teeth,  and  bces'-wax— the 
heaviest  item,  by  far,  being  palm-oil,  which  averaged 
some  450,000  cwt.  each  of  the  five  years  ending  with 
1868;  and  amounted  to  633,608  cwt.,  at  a  "computed 
real  value"  of  jei,467,068,  in  1854.  The  agfregnte 
value  of  imports  in  1854  is  given  oflicially  at  i.'l,'>28,- 
836.  The  exports,  during  the  same  year,  the  produce 
and  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  of  other 
countries,. consisted  of  arms  and  ammunition,  wearing 
apparel,  manufactures  of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  iron, 
brass,  copper,  steel,  and  glass ;  salt,  soap,  spirits, 
staves,  coals,  lieadt,  unmanufactured  tobacco,  earth- 
enware, and  porcelain ;  of  which  the  he.w!est  items 
were  cottons,  gunpowder,  guns,  staves,  and  tobacco. 
The  average  "  declared  value"  of  cottons  thus  cxporteil, 
during  the  six  years  ending  1854,  was  1'187,000 ;  and 


iiiJr^:iJiie^,tii^k^!:iA'Jikis^!Vi 


LIB 


not 


LIB 


u» 

. 

No.  of 

•f. 

ti««i. 

IN) 

V>* 

m 

lib 

m 

1114 

m 

n 

.64 

10 

tflJI 


Vtlua. 
X3B,T07 
1,4S8 
308 


of  iobtcco,  tht  •rtrait*  quantity  wu  S,1SO,000  pono<l«. 
Tba  r()ni|iuteil  rnal  vuliia  of  tha  l,Nltl,U'i7  pounda  uf 
tobacco  nx|>ort»(l  In  JHM  ia  Klvon  at  i;S6,7UU.  The 
computad  rani  valun  of  all  tunign  axporta  to  wentarn 
Africa  far  tha  auma  yoar  waa  i.'17'l,07ll ;  and  of  all  dn- 
mestio  ax|mrt»,  i.'iHll,()lM  s  lielni;  mora  than  that  of 
18A8,  and  doulile  that  of  IHbi — tha  averaK*  vvlua  of 
each  of  the  alx  yaara  ending  with  IHA-I,  IxInK  upward 
of  £460,1)00. 

It  la  thua  aaen  thnt  tha  trade  of  (iraat  Hrltuin  with 
weatem  Africa  la  ra|ililly  Increuainif — amounting.  In 
value,'  in  1^5-1,  to  £1,D'JM,H06  Ini porta  ;  donieatic  ex- 
ports, iltMd.HUH;  foreixn  nxporta,  £174,0711;  aKgregute 
(Importa  and  exportn)  i:2,IMi),Hn7^iill  J,741),lflS.  And 
thia,  ind«|>endflntly  of  the  Uritiah  colony  of  8lerr.i 
I.eone,  the  trade  of  wliich  amounted  In  INM  to  (1,421,- 
H6A ;  and  of  the  llrltiah  puaaeaaiona  on  the  (iold  C'ooat 
and  the  Kiver  <ianil)iii,  anuiuntinK  tu  tl,.'i47,'2HA  more ; 
and  of  thoae  at  the  Cape  of  (iood  ilii|H)  and  aouth  Af- 
rica, awelling  the  amount  tH,BM)l,0!)0  more ;  maldng. 
In  all,  an  iiKgregate  of  over  iil'i8,000,0IM)  In  lHft4,  for 
the  weatem  coaat  of  Africa  entire.  The  trade  of  the 
United  8tutea  with  weat  Africa,  there  are  no  meana  of 
detemiinini; — the  valupa  of  import*  and  exports  lieing 
given  in  Commerce  ami  Navigation  for  "  Africa  Qene- 
rally."  "  l.llmria,"  It  ia  true,  appeitra  in  the  reports 
from  IH-IO  to  IHM,  inclusive,  hut  with  no  tigures  to  in- 
dicate trade,  and  hut  few  to  Indicate  navigation ;  giv- 
ing, it  ia  inferred,  the  tonnage  of  colonixation  veaaela 
only— none  others,  perhaps,  lieing  engaged  in  the  di- 
rect Intercourse  with  I.il>erla,  Tlie  following  table 
ihowB  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Africa  dur- 
ing the  leven  yeara  ending  June  80,  lf)65 : 


1849T 
1880. 
1861. 
1863. 
1868. 
ISM. 
1856. 


EiporlB. 

TtomTT 

76«,9e< 
1,840,8(4 
1,248,141 
1,610,888 
1,804,972 
1,87^».I6 


IntporU. 

"»498J4i" 

624,791 
1,l5!f,l76 
1,057,667 
I,'2(l2,g36 
1,886,660 
1,887,627 


Toui. 


(1,201,168 
1,288.9S8 
9,808,890 
9,8fr'),798 
9,818,819 
8,191,639 
9,718,489 


From  thia  itateinont,  it  will  lie  perceived  that,  al- 
though the  tigures  for  185r>  show  a  fulling  off  In  that 
year,  sj  compared  with  1854  and  183,"1,  yet  that  there 
M  a  regular  and  very  rapid  advance  from  1849.  But, 
white  the  avercga  value  of  thu  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  all  Africa,  during  the  six  years  ending 
1854,  is  found  to  lie  only  #2,200,000;  that  of  Gr<-at 
Urltian  with  vest  Africa,  alone,  for  the  same  period, 
averaged  (l2,!l()0,000 ;  and,  including  all  of  her  Afri- 
can colonies  and  possessions,  together  with  the  etli- 
nattd  value  of  her  tratle  on  the  eastern  coast,  it  could 
not  have  averaged  much  less  than  #20,000,000. 

In  1854,  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  "  Af- 
rica Generally"  rose  to  i)3,191,632 — a  higher  figure 
than  before  or  since ;  at  the  same  time,  the  trade  of 
Great  Britain  with  west  Africa,  only,  amounted  to 
$11,719,185.  Tl:e  value  of  the  unmanufactured  to- 
bacco alone — derived  mostly  from  the  United  States- 
amounted  to  near'y  $300,000  of  that  total ;  and  the 
vi.luo  of  British  fade  with  "Africa  Generally"  was, 
as  has  been  sec;,  more  than  $23,000,000,  or  nearly  8 
times  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  establishment  of  a  line  of  commeroUl  steamers 
between  the  United  States  and  the  western  coai<t  of 
Africa  has  been  urged,  as  tending  greatly  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  our  commerce  with  that  countrj'.  The 
uses  which  aucl.  stearaora  might  subserve  have  lieen 
stated  thus : — 1  The  transportatiin  of  free  negroes 
from  the  Unlteu  States  to  Liberia.  2.  The  c,.rr>-ing 
of  the  mails.  8.  The  transportation  of  merchandize. 
4.  The  carrying  of  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Mecca. 
B.  The  carrj'ing,  en  the  return  voyage,  of  the  pil- 
grims, who  now  assume  the  name  of  Hadjis ;  the  cer- 
tain and  expeditious  transportation  of  the  fruit  and 
other  products  of  the  Mediterranein ;  and  the  grtiater 
facility  afforded  to  passengers  from  central  Europe 


to  America,  whoa*  •x|niii»i^  >         rat  ^M  k* 
diminished  liy  embarking  tlM  tf 

stead  nf  at  tlie  unuul  weatii  i. 

Falni-oil  has  liecumo,  witliiii  a  i.n  .ir»,  a  |.l'  .>f 
export  from  Liberia.  Mora  than  M  vesneis  vtcr* 
freighted  with  the  article  at  her  ports.  In  1835  ;  wbila 
three  years  liefore,  the  quantity  exported  did  not 
exceed  1*KH)  gallons,  at  a  cost  of  $1  per  gallon.  Tht 
quantity  expiirted  at  tlie  present  time  ia,  at  laaat, 
700,000  gallons  ;  liut  the  price  liiia  fallen  to  88  ccnta 
|ier  gallon.  The  trade  In  ground-nuts,  chiefly  carried 
on  with  France,  is  liecoming  of  great  iin|Hirtunc«. 
They  are  shipped  In  Imgs,  and,  wh  m  ground,  supply 
a  wholesome  sulistituto  for  oiive-oll.  Sugar,  cotton, 
and  coffee  are,  however,  viewed  as  the  great  iiutural 
staples  of  pro<luct  for  tlie  soil  and  climate  of  LilierU. 
The  lm|Mirt  duties  in  the  repulilic  of  Liberia  are  0  per 
cent,  mi  valorem. 

From  ic<:ent  intimations,  it  is  not  Improbable  that 
the  country  cast  of  Liberia  mny  shortly  lie  more  ex-  . 
tenslvoly  explored,  witli  a  viow  of  planting  new  set- 
tlements in  the  Interliirof  the  prewnt  coast  line,  which 
It  Is  hoped  will  lie  beyond  the  reach  of  malaria.  Should 
such  an  enterprine  lie  siiccesHfully  carried  out,  tiip  im- 
mense 'natural  resources  of  that  fertile  reglin  would 
soon  attract  foreign  commerce,  and  thus  tlio  philan- 
thropic Inliors  of  those  engaged  in  the  movement  would 
lie  greatly  facilitated.— (.Vwi.  Kel.,  U.  .V. 

There  can  lie  no  question  that  vast  commercial  advan- 
tages would  accrue  to  the  commerce  uf  western  Africa, 
If  the  Niger  and  Tschaddn,  the  natural  highways  Into 
the  interior  to  Tiinbuetoo  and  other  large  cities  of  the 
continent,  were  effectually  o|i«ncil  ard  maintained  so 
for  tt  few  years.  The  last  ex|ieditlon  is  a  proof  that, 
under  Judicious  management,  and  at  the  proper  season, 
there  Is  no  greater  danger  to  health  in  a  navigation  of 
those  streams,  than  of  otiier  rivers  in  Braail  and  our 
southern  States.  While  the  British  export  trade  with 
different  parts  of  the  world  has  only  increased  in  tlie 
last  20  years  50  per  cent.,  the  export  trade  uf  western 
Africa  has  more  than  doubled.  British  manufactures 
are  mainly  dependent  on  that  quarter  for  several  arti- 
cles, especially  vegetable  oils  and  Ivor}'.  The  yearly 
exp<irt  of  palm-oil  has  risen  to  the  value  of  nearly 
£2,000,000  steriing,  or  $10,000,000.  Ground-nuts,  for 
oil,  are  a  leaillng  article  of  production.  Dyewoods 
are  Important.  Of  the  whole  imports  of  Ivor}-  Into 
Great  Britain,  Africa  supplies  one  half.  When  It  ia 
noticed  what  has  been  done  in  stimulating  the  cultiva- 
tion of  coffee,  sugar,  spicea,  and  other  staples  In  Libe- 
ria, there  is  no  reason  why  a  great  stlmrlus  may  not  be 
given  also  to  the  countries  bordering  on  the  rivers  of 
the  interior. 

The  following  returns  to  Parliament  Illustrate  the 
Increase  of  British  exports  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  of  imports  from  the  same  region : 


V.."r.. 

Efporu. 

Ini|jorta. 

£606,988 
794,810 
707,024 
749,878 
906,634 

Tol.1.         1 
£1,34.\8S7      1 
1,449.868 
1,2411,749 
1,6,'»,775 
1,864,443 

I860 

1881 

18.^9 

1858 

J8M 

£689,4'W 
664,.M3 
688,728 
801,409 
988,809 

This  Is  independent  of  the  British  colonies  of  Sierra 
Leone,  the  trade  of  which  amoui^ed  in  1854  to  $1,421,- 
866,  and  nf  the  British  possessions  on  the  Gold  Coast 
and  the  Kiver  Gambia,  amounting  to  $1,647,285  more, 
and  ]f  those  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  south 
Africa,  swelling  the  amount  $8,383,090  more  ;  mailing 
In  all  an  aggregate  of  over  $23,000,000  In  1864,  for  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  entire. 

An  American  steam  line  to  Africa  would  be  a  pio- 
neer of  civilization.  It  would  afford  a  rapid  communi- 
cation with  the  interesting  republic  of  Liberia,  which 
Is  proving  the  capacity  of  the  Christianized  and  Amer- 
icanized African  for  self-government,  according  to  An- 
glo-Saxon ideas  and  institutions.  It  could  not  fail  to 
promote  powerfully  the  prosperity  of  that  young  com- 


LIF  M 

mMWMlth.  II  wmiM  prirtlralljr  hrMR*  th*  Atl<ntl« 
in  *  niw  dinrtinn,  anil  roiincct  ti>K*th*r  th*  nwxl  pro- 
KKmIv*  ■nil  thn  nKMt  lUttDnary  of  th*  continent*, 
It  would  Mjon  Im  an  elfortiwl  alil  in  that  African  axo- 
ilua  fniiii  th*  Mill  nf  til*  n*w  wiirlil  ti>  th*  anciant 
fatharland  of  th*  ram,  nf  which  w*  now  m*  th*  faint 
Iwiftnnlngi.  Ita  raaliaatton  would  inrolv*  mim  wido- 
raaohlng  aad  li*ii*llRlal  raaulta  than  avan  Ita  warmaal 
fH*nda  hav*  *v«r  hoped. 

Zilbraria*.  In  a  volnm*  on  Pulilio  l.ltirariaa  of 
th*  lTnlt*d  Stataa,  pulilMhad  li.r  tha  Nmttliaoolan  In- 
■tltutlon,  th*  following  itatlitlca  ap|i«ar,  olitaiiiad  fur 
a  larit*  part  fmin  rxplim  to  clrrulara,  and  tharcfor* 
l*aa  full  than  thuiw  uf  th*  ccnaua  : 

UhnlHM.  Nn.  VnlHHHI. 

atata  Ubrartaa W  m\mi 

Social  LIbratUi*. IM  «lt,«M 

t'nll««o  MlirariM IM  IVMI,II« 

Hluilciita'  I.WirariM„ 141  tM,M» 

BanilnariM  anil  I'mfcHlanal  Ubrartea  WT  KWI.INM 

BeUnllflcancI  lllaturlcal  HiH'lulloi' ill).    M  lgli,9\l\ 

Oaa«T  LiaBABiaa  or  Kvaora  la  IKM, 

LlbrarUa,  VoliiiiiM. 

•  Part*  National m*,000 

•  Munich  Horal («IO,0«) 

Pvtcnbnrii  Imparlal 444,000 

•  Loniliin  llrltbh  MuMum 4«ft,OIIO 

•  CnpcnIiaKcn  Boyal 411,000 

•  Berlin  Royal 410,000 

•  Vltana  Imparlal SIS,(N)0 

•  Drciulen  Itnyal 800,000 

Mailrtd  National 100,000 

Wolfcnbuttcl  Dneal 100,000 

BtntRaril  Royal 187,000 

PariiAracnal 180,000     ' 

•  Milan  Brcia 170,000 

I'arli  Ht  OcnxrlKTe 100,000 

Darmatailt  Oranil  Ducal 1M),000 

•  Floranra  MaRllabaocblan IB«,000 

•  Naplca  Royal , lM,aoo 

•  Bruiaala  Royal iWflM 

Roms  CananaU HO.iNNI 

•  IIa«iieK*y*L 100,000 

ParhMaiarlD 1UO,UOO 

Rome  Vatican 100,1X10 

•  Parma  Ducal 100,000 

TbcM  marked  thai  (*)  am  entitled  by  law  to  a  copy  of 

(Terr  book  publUbad  within  tha  HIatai  to  whiah  they  r*- 
•p*etlr*l]r  belong. 

Xil«n.  It  haa  been  decided  that  no  ahipwrlxht  bai 
aHenupon  avriirl  fur  the  repaint,  etc.,  done  to  thevea- 
Kel,  when  he  |>artii  with  the  (loimewilon  of  tho  venrnl, 
and  can  only  recover  thv  Mine  from  the  ownera  in  an 
action  for  debt,  aa  ha  in  thia  caa4>,  as  well  aa  tradea- 
inan,  who  have  no  lien  upon  the  ahip,  am  auppoaed  to 
hare  glvea  th*  credit  for  the  requiiitea  required  for  the 
veaael  to  the  ewner.  In  tnaritiine  lien,  the  persona 
who  hav«  a  Halm  in  the  Admiralty  Court  in  rem,  and 
can  compel  reiinburement,  conaiat  of  thoae  who  have 
rendered  aervicea  to  the  ship  liy  their  lalior,  aa  mar- 
iner*, bjr  pilotage,  tonnage,  aalvage,  and  by  the  loan  of 
money  as  bottomry  for  repairs.  The  wages  of  seamen 
have  tho  fimt  claim  upon  a  vessel,  and  then  come  sal- 
vage, pilotage,  tonnage,  or  Imttomry,  llottomry,  how- 
ever, baa  a  precedence  over  prior  salvage,  although  it 
gives  way  to  subsequent  salvage.  8ir  John  Michel, 
speaking  of  lien,  says  :  "  Subjects  which  operate  for 
the  protection  of  prior  interests  are  privileged  over 
those  Interests." 

Ueutenknt,  of  a  ehip  of  war,  the  officer  next  in 
rank  aad  power  to  the  captain,  in  whose  absence  he  is 
accordingly  charged  with  the  command  of  the  ship,  aa 
also  the  execntlon  of  whatever  orders  h«  may  have 
received  from  the  commander. 

Lieutenant  (<ucum  tencfu,  holding  the  place  of),  in  a 
militar}-  sense,  means  the  person  second  in  command : 
■a,  loril-lieuten»nt,  one  who  represents  the  prince  or 
governing  power ;  lientenant-geaerai,  one  who  stands 
next  to  the  general ;  lieutenant-colonel,  the  next  to  a 
colonel ;  and  lieutenant,  the  next  to  a  captain,  in  every 
company  of  both  foot  and  hone,  and  who  takes  the 
command  upon  the  death  or  absence  of  a  superior 
officer. 

Iiif«>Boata.    Sea  LirB-PBBSBRVBita. 


Iiti>-yr»Mrt»W.  Altkeugh  It  too  flvqnantly 
hap[i«ns  that  an  acclilani  which  inatarialiy  amlaiigiin 
tha  life  of  an  Inillvlilual,  liaprlvas  him,  in  th*  m*«n- 
tiro*,  of  that  pr*s*nc*  of  mind  which  alun*  wiiuld 
enable  him  to  tak*  proper  ni*aaur*s  for  his  safety  i )  at 
to  have  niaditated,  in  an  Interval  of  Iclaur*,  U|Min  the 
Iwat  laethiHl  of  proi^awliiig  In  i'*a*  of  emergency,  muit 
tend  gr*ally  to  diminUh  tli*  amiiarrasamant  *nd  con- 
hislon  that  commonly  accom|iany  tha  acciilant,  even  If 
it  should  not  li*  thought  n*c*asary  to  pniviii*  any  |iar- 
ticular  apparatus  fur  th*  piir|MiBc  of  escaping  III*  ilan. 
grr.  Yliere  are  also  niiiny  ways  In  wlilch  thosn  who 
are  not  IminedUlely  iiiviilveii  in  the  diaaster  may  i»ii. 
tribute  to  the  preaervHtion  uf  life,  whether  actuiitaii  by 
interest,  or  by  humanity  only ;  and  the  mode*  of  r*. 
Ii*f  will  tbersfon  lie  naturally  divided  intti  tti*  iWcr- 
nal  and  th*  ttitmul,  wh*th*r  relating  to  Jim  or  to 
ihiftwrrrla. 

Jntemal  /Vrc-A'<m;iM.- Whenever  a  family  eatalt- 
llshaa  itself  in  a  residence  nut  iletacbeii  fmni  utliera, 
it  liecomas  of  importance  to  ascertain  what  fuiilltles 
th*  house  affunis  fur  ascending  to  the  ruuf,  and  fur 
paaaing  to  those  uf  the  neighboring  houses.  It  is 
scarcely  poasliil*  that  a  conllagratlon  should  extend  st 
one*  to  the  cuiitiguuus  houses  on  each  side,  before  the 
Inhabitants  of  the  house  in  qiieation  have  had  tlino  to 
aaoap*.  Hut  in  a  detached  house,  If  there  are  nut  two 
or  more  stair-cases  remote  from  each  other,  and  even  In 
a  house  cuiiliguoiis  to  others,  when  there  is  no  rucility 
of  communicating  by  the  roof,  it  becomes  highly  ex- 
pedient to  provide  some  inttrmil  mtunt  of  eacuping 
through  the  windows,  In  case  of  Are,  and  to  have  on 
every  Hour  a  strong  ro|>e,  with  a  hook  or  a  loop  ut  tliu 
end,  by  which  it  may  be  fastened  to  a  bed-poat,  so  ua 
to  enable  an  active  |M<rson  to  descend  by  its  help  out  of 
the  window,  Hnding  from  time  to  time  a  partial  fmiting 
in  the  inequalities  of  the  wall.  This  proceaa  will  lie 
greatly  facilltntnd  by  having  the  rope  knotted  at  inter- 
vals of  aliout  a  foot  throughout  Ita  length  ;  the  knots 
being  nearly  as  convenient  ■■  the  Idocks  or  clips,  timt 
are  sometimes  made  for  the  purpose  of  retarding  tiie 
descent,  by  holding  them,  and  reguUtIng  the  friction 
by  the  pressure  of  the  hand ;  unless  the  clip  be  at- 
tached to  a  strong  crusa-bar,  on  which  a  person  may 
sit,  while  he  regulates  the  position  of  the  clip  by  its 
bandies,  allows  liiiuself  to  descend  with  more  or  leas 
velocity  at  pleasure. — Emcrson'h  iltchanio,  flgs.  228, 
229  I   I.kdi-iii.d'h  Thtttlrum  Atackinarimn,  plate  llv. 

tUlemal  Meant  of  Kivapefrom  Fire. — Tho  external 
means  to  be  eiiiployed  in  cases  of  conflagration  luuKt 
be  provided  by  the  managers  of  flre-oftices,  or  by  otiier 
public  oflicera  ;  and  every  ingenious  workman  whom 
they  may  employ  will  lie  able  at  his  leisure,  to  devise 
such  apparatus  as  he  can  the  niont  conveniently  execute. 
and  to  give  it  a  full  trial  In  the  absence  of  all  danger ; 
it  will  therefore  only  be  advisable  that  he  should  com- 
pare for  himself  the  (mrtlcuiar  inventions  which  have 
been  suggested  for  thia  purpose,  and  that  he  should 
choose  from  among  them  sucli  us  he  thinks  most  likely 
to  do  him  credit ;  and  he  may.  Indeed,  very  (losailily 
And  means  of  lm|iroving  on  any  of  them.  In  I.eu- 
pold'a  Tktati-um  Machinarium  (plates  liv.  Iv.),  wo  find 
tho  representation  of  a  chair  calculated  to  be  drawn  up 
or  down  by  maana  of  pulleys.  Mr.  Varcourt  obtiiined. 
In  1761,  tiie  approbation  nf  the  Parisian  Academy  of 
Sciences  fur  his  Invention  of  a  hollow  mast,  lixed  in  a 
wagon,  and  supporting  a  stage,  with  the  means  of  as- 
cending and  descending. — llut.,  p.  1&8.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century,  a  fire-escape  of  .Mr.  Audi- 
bert  was  approvetl  by  tha  Parisian  Institute. — .(/«». 
Init.,  iv.  A  committee  waa  also  appointed  for  exam- 
ining several  similar  inventiuns  at  the  Lyceum  of  Arts, 
and  a  medal  was  awarded  by  it  to  Mr.  Daujon,  fur  his 
apparatus,  which  consists  of  a  platform  carried  on 
wheels,  supported  by  three  frames,  with  brass  wires, 
on  which  boxes  are  made  to  slide  up  and  down  for  the 
conveyance  of  persons  or  furniture. — AnnuUt  Jcs  Arti^ 


LIP 


laoo 


f,  H.,  vol.  I.,  p.  4M.  Mr.  Onlllnt'*  InrMillon  i 
of  |ilpM  rilMd  by  r«|i«n,  miiI  •mirding  ■  ranlr*  to  • 
limn  l«v*r,  la  ilMrrlhail  In  llin  fourth  viilunM  of  Ih* 
Amtrimn  Trmuiu-ittmt,  and  in  lh«  Iff/i^Wory,  vol.  xv,, 
p.  IIA.  In  Um  HUt  Tiilunia  of  th«  7Va)M>u'(iiHM  r/  Ikn 
HoeiHg  Iff  An$  fur  IMIII,  p.  144,  w*  luv*  an  ■riiniinl  of 
•  Nra-aMiip*  Invantoil  by  Hr.  Aitum  YounK,  lut  which 
h«  ncalvol  *  niaiUI  fVoni  lh«  uiolrty.  It  »\>\m*n  tn 
rnnitltut*  by  hr  lh«  nioat  |K>rt«bl«  iif  UiliUm,  c(iniUt- 
IRK  of  criHM  ban  or  rouniln  ronnm'tml  by  ropat,  tnil 
havlnif  thair  amlt  Attml  liiK«thar,  ao  «a  to  form  a  poU, 
whirh  la  raaillly  alavatml  tii  tha  wlnilow  |  anil  tha 
ruimila  IwliiK  Mparatail,  ami  tha  hooka  at  Iha  anil  pro|>> 
arly  tlxad  to  tha  wlmlow-frama,  tha  whola  forma  Itaalf 
tato  a  vary  convanlant  laililar  nf  a  nilxa<l  atrui'tura. 
Tha  Mth  rolnma,  fur  IMIA,  p.  tn,  cnntalna  a  ilaacrlp. 
tlim  of  Mr.  Braby'a  tlra-aaca|ia,  mnalatlng  of  a  car 
mado  to  aliila  on  a  atrip  of  plank  flxa<l  to  a  pola, 
and  Kuvamad  by  a  ro|ia,  which  la  caaaii  with  IruD, 
tn  protact  it  in  caaa  of  nacakiity,  from  tha  alTaol  of 
tha  lira. 

A  KTeat  many  other  forma  of  llre-aacapaa  mlffht  ha 
noticad,  for  II  la  ona  of  thnta  aubjacta  which  raaiUly 
appaal  to  the  Inipinlous  mechanlr  In  a  lar^e  city  where 
ilraa  are  numeroua ;  and  every  form  of  Ara-eicapa 
muat  at  timea  fail,  llenue,  there  haa  b««n  a  aort  of 
(competition  amonK  the  una<lucatad  luventnra,  who 
have  dlaplayed  aoma  mechanical  Ingenuity,  but  have 
not,  io  far  aa  wa  ara  aware,  developed  any  new  prin- 
ciple. 

Inlemal  .ifeaiu  nf  Ktcap*  from  SMpiprrck. — The 
meana  of  eacaping  from  ahipwreck  may  be  almilarly 
divided  Into  internal  and  rrtrmal,  or  Into  the  precau- 
tiona  to  La  taken  by  tha  ahip'a  company,  itnil  the 
loaaauraa  to  be  adopted  by  peraona  on  ahorc.  'i'hn  In- 
ternal roeana  depend  eithor  on  enablinK  the  Individ- 
uala  to  awlm  or  Hoat,  or  eatabllahlng  a  connection  with 
the  ahom  by  ropea ;  anil  of  (hf  former,  we  may  flrat 
conalder  thoao  which  require  no  particular  preparation 
liefora  the  occurrence  of  the  accident  that  calla  them 
Into  action,  and  which  are,  therefore,  the  moat  nnl- 
veraally  applicable.  Of  auch  ex|)edlenta,  tha  moat 
alTectual  ap|iear  to  ba  thoae  which  depend  on  the  ein- 
plnymont  of  empty  water-caaka  for  aaaiatlng  the  ahip'a 
company  to  drift  on  ahore.  1,  A  paper  on  the  ar- 
rangement of  water-caaka,  to  arrve  aa  ttoata  in  caaa  of 
■hipwrack,  appean  In  the  publlcattona  of  the  Society 
for  tha  Improvement  of  Naval  Architecture,  dated  in 
1700  (vol,  li.,  p.  61).  2.  In  1818,  Mr.  Grant  of  Hide- 
ford  obtained  a  gold  medal  f^om  the  Society  of  Arta, 
for  the  Invention  of  a  life-preaerver,  conalating  of  a 
86  gallon  caak,  with  »ome  iron  l>allaat  fixed  on  a  wood- 
en bed,  and  laahad  to  the  caak,  and  with  ropea  round 
It  for  the  men  to  hold ;  and  it  waa  found  i:hat  10  men 
were  aupported  by  it  with  convenience  in  tolerably 
amooth  water,  the  bung  of  the  caak  being  well  aocurod 
by  cork  (vol,  xxxvi,,  p.  69).  The  ballaat  could  be  of 
very  little  uaa,  and  a  caak  aimply  tied  round  with  a 
tope,  like  a  common  parcel,  would  probably  answer 
tho  purpose  equally  well.  It  would,  indeed,  be  pru- 
drni.  for  every  ahip  in  a  atomi,  on  a  lee  ahore,  to  have 
a  few  of  her  caaka  well  emptied  and  (topped,  and  tied 
In  thia  manner,  Iwforo  the  actual  occurrence  of  immi- 
nent danger,  8,  In  87th  volume  of  the  Trantac- 
Uoni  of  Ihe  Socitlji  (p,  110),  there  la  an  account  of  Mr. 
Cook'a  life-raft,  conalating  of  a  square  frame  with 
oanvai  nailed  acroaa  it,  aup|iorted  by  a  caak  at  each 
comer,  for  which  the  gold  modal  waa  voted  to  him. 
4,  It  ia  followed  by  a  deacription  of  Lieutenant  Rodg- 
er's lifo-roft  (p.  112),  which  obtained  u  similar  compli- 
ment. Thia  raft  has  the  advantage  of  requiring  only 
inch  materials  as  are  usually  found  on  board  of  every 
■hip;  oapstan-bars,  bout-masts,  yards,  or  any  other 
■para  of  numerate  dimenaions,  which  are  tied  together 
■0  aa  to  make  a  sort  of  wagon  frame,  with  a  large 
caak  fixed  on  each  side ;  it  appears  to  afford  a  very 
oonvenient  support  to  the  men,  but  It  can  scarcely 


poaaeaa  any  gfaal  ttnngth  Air  i«al«lln(  liw  (bret  ti  Ika 

brvaliara, 

Mr.  J.  Ilrvmat,  n  ilergvman  In  Iha  Orknaya,  had 
rarnlvad  a  lordul  from  Ihn  No.  Idy  In  IHIII,  for  hia 
iiwth(Ml  i,(  •imvartlng  any  alilp  >  IhmI  Into  a  llfa-lmat 
by  pulling  Into  It  II  or  4  lanka  laahml  to  Iha  keel,  whlcb 
la  to  havn  rliig-Uilu  ll<iad  In  ||  for  rejalvlng  (hii  ro|na 
by  which  tlia  i'H«ka  ara  faaUnml  |  ha  g|y»«  iiarlliuUf 
dirai'tlona  fur  making  nil  tlin  neiieaaary  arraogpinenta, 
1,1  the  2M|li  voliinin  of  Iha  Tnin-uiiimi  (p  IIl4)i  ha 
|iartlruliirly  advlaaa  that  im  una  nliouM  Im  lunda  of  tha 
natural  buoyani'y  of  Ilia  cuvlty  of  llm  limit,  liut  thai 
Iha  iNitlom  ahoulil  \m  |i«rriiritti-il  wltlioiil  liraltallun, 
wherever  the  hole  would  affonl  any  adilltliinal  facility 
for  fixing  a  mpa,  I'aptuln  Manby'a  Jolly-lHial,  flttad 
aa  a  llfn-Uial,  "  at  tlir  ax|N>iia«  of  4:il,"  ■•gnia  to  Ix 
coinpreheuded  among  thoao  preparatlona  which  are  to 
lia  nia<la  pravioualy  to  tha  voyage.  The  liuckling  a 
aoldler'a  canteaii  on  hia  lireoat  aa  un  aanlalaiica  to  ena- 
ble him  to  Hoal,  Iwlonga  to  thoae  taui|ior«ry  ex|HMll> 
enia  which  may  orcualonally  lie  »niployi>il  with  ailvan* 
tage.  Tying  n  hut  In  a  iHiiket-liundkarrhinf,  and 
holding  It  aa  a  Hunt,  haa  lieun  reciinmirnilixl  by  Mr. 
Dawaon  In  tha  I'kilotnfihicnl  Mtiffntint  (mA.  xx,,  p. 
1162) ;  he  advlana  that  the  crown  of  the  hut  hIiouIiI  Ik 
held  downwanl,  and  obaervea  that  a  atick  ni^iy  lie  em> 
ployed,  to  enable  ua  to  uaa  2  or  I  hiita  at  uiice  ;  but 
thia  nielha<l  can  only  be  adopted  when  the  accident 
occura  In  vary  atiU  water. 

In  China,  a  fraiiin  of  bainlioo  aurrounding  the  peN 
aon  ia  used  for  a  Hont,  nnil  the  li^litncnH  unit  atrength 
of  thia  aubatance  muat  well  adapt  It  for  the  pur|ioae  | 
aometlmea  alao  a  gourd  ia  tied  to  a  child,  to  Kccure  lit 
floating  in  caae  of  accident.  The  Intluted  g<>at-akina 
UHcd  from  time  immemorial  by  the  Ariilia,  or  the  aeaU 
akina  employed  by  the  Chlliiina,  hnvo  the  di»advaiv> 
tuge  of  lining  ettally  rent  or  torn  by  a  roclt  or  ,i  apur) 
an  objection  which  ia  also  more  or  leaa  uppiiiable  to  all 
aubatunces  containing'  uir;  for  example,  to  the  air- 
Jackela  described  in  Leupold'a  Tknilnim  I'unlijiciim, 
publiahcd  aliout  1724,  A  float  of  a  aemicirculnr  form 
waa  recommende<l  by  Ozunam,  the  author  of  tlie  HeC' 
rrationn;  and  Uachatrom,  in  hia  Art  of  iSirimming,  pro- 
poaed  to  flout  a  troop  of  ciiviiiry,  liy  fixing  cork  to  tli» 
aaddlea.  The  cork  Jacket  of  (lelucy  la  iloacrilied  In  tha 
llittory  of  tht  I'unataH  Ariulrmi/  nf  Wc/ivicm  for  1767, 
ond  Lachapelle'a  Nniphimiler ,  which  ia  conaidored  an 
improvement  on  it,  In  the  volume  for  176ii.  In  tha 
year  1764  the  attention  of  tlie  llritiah  public  was  pa^ 
ticularly  called  to  the  floating  (lowors  of  curk,  l>y  aoma 
experimunta  which  were  nuiile  with  cork  Jackets  on 
the  Thainea,  together  with  Home  comparative  expert* 
menta  on  air-Jucketa ;  and  Dr.  Wilkinson,  in  the  Phi- 
luiophii-al  Trimmtrliimt  for  1765,  descrlliea  some  experi- 
ments by  which  he  aacertulncd  that  al>out  "  pound  of 
cork  was  amply  aufllcient  to  enable  a  man  ol  ordinary 
aize  and  mak«  to  flout  witliout  ofTort.  It  ia  almc  <t  super- 
fluous to  enumerate  tlie  multitude  of  trifling  vu'iationa 
that  have  been  made  in  the  arrangements  of  cc:  '<  Jack- 
ets and  air-Jackcts,  apparently  fur  the  piirpoai  of  ex- 
citing a  momentary  interest,  though  possibly  '  "om  the 
lieat  motives.  Mr.  Ilosquet  udvLsod  a  bug  uf  c  >rk  shav- 
ings to  lie  kept  in  readiness  by  each  peraon  j  the  Sea- 
iiian't  Frifwi  was  composed  of  two  pieces  of  cork,  united 
by  straps  j  tlu  dilliuelta  was  a  hollow  vessel  of  cop|)cr, 
diviilcd  Into  cells  ;  a  "  marine  spencer"  lias  been  de- 
scrilied  by  Mr.  Spencer,  in  the  16tli  volume  of  the  I'hilo- 
mphietU  Miigiizine,  consisting  of  a  number  of  old  corks, 
arranged  so  ns  to  form  a  girdle ;  and  in  IHHU,  Mr.  T.  C, 
Daniel  obtained  a  gold  moilal  from  the  Society  of  Arts, 
for  the  invention  of  an  apparatus  of  waterproof  leather, 
surrounding  tlie  body,  which,  according  to  the  testi- 
monia'iA  ho  produced,  had  saved  the  lives  of  some  per- 
sons who  had  been  sailing  in  a  pleasure-boat  on  a  river. 
In  smooth  water,  it  has  been  suggested  that  throwing 
a  foot-ball,  with  a  small  weight  tied  to  it,  to  the  per- 
I  son  immersed,  would  often  afford  auf&cient  assistance  t 


LIF 


ISIO 


LIF 


/ 


•nd,  with  rtii|i«rt  to  floatltiK,  thtn  Is  no  doabt  that 
»n>'  of  tliK  iiMil«titni:«i)  which  have  lieon  proposed 
woulil  Iw  miflli'lnnt  If  thny  were  nt  hand ;  bnt  there  is 
iinntlinr  iilijurt;,  to  whiirh  It  Is  neressnry  to  attend,  in 
oiiM,  and  svnn  In  tnnitwrnte  rllnmtes,  that  of  support- 
InK  «  t<iiii|Mirstur(i  lompatllile  with  life  nnd  health,  if 
the  lininnmliiii  In  llkdly  to  t»  of  lonn  duration  ;  and  an 
oddillonsl  [irovislim  of  worsted  storkinxs,  jackets,  and 
tro»»Hrs,  will  It*  nlmost  »»  essential,  in  sucli  cases,  as 
tlie  means  of  iilitalnlnit  Imoyancy. 

Thii  Invention' of  Indlo-ruhlier  cloth  led  to  the  In- 
trodactloii  of  Indiitt-d  tioU»,  the  ndvantaftes  of  which, 
coinpsrtid  with  I'ork,  and  other  forms  of  belt,  are  their 
\gt9iAar  Imoyancy  compared  with  their  Imlk,  and  their 
gre«t«r  purtutiillty,  for,  when  emptied  of  nir,  they  can 
b«  foldeil  M|»,  iind  packed  Into  a  small  space.  The  ob- 
jections to  (hem  ore  their  linlillity  to  Rot  punctured  or 
torn,  and  to  (l«<f«y,  from  being  put  away  damp  j  the 
m«i»l  Vttlvis  by  which  they  are  inflated  may  also  get 
out  of  order  I  during  the  hurry  and  confusion  of  a 
wrack  tli.iy  are  liable  to  l>e  only  partially  inflated,  and 
th«  valves  to  lie  only  half  screwed  up,  so  as  to  allow 
of  tha  i'M'»\m  of  the  Inclosed  air.  Commander  J.  R. 
Ward,  It,  N,,  <nstiector  of  life-lioats  to  the  National 
Llfu-Hoat  Institution,  has  Invented  a  lielt  with  4  com- 
ptrtmunts,  which  admit  of  lieing  separately  inflated, 
thus  inltlgiitln)(  the  danger  arising  from  puncture  or 
Injury  U)  the  Inflating  valves ;  it  has  a  buoyancy  equal 
to  IHt  lbs,,  and  slioidd  two  of  Its  compartments' be  dis- 
abled, thn  remaining  two  would  be  suftlcient  to  flout 
tba  w«ar<tr. 

Forth*  rough  purposes  of  ordinary  boat-work.  Com- 
mander Ward  insists  on  the  advantages  of  cork  as  n 
motarlal  for  llfe<lielts,  anil  he  has  invented  a  form  of 
l»elt,  which  has  lieen  selected  by  the  National  I,ife- 
IJoat  Institution  for  the  use  of  its  life-boats'  crews, 
'J'h«  bU4iyant  jtower  of  eacii  licit  is  from  20  to  24  ll)s., 
the  cork  Is  uncovered,  so  that  Its  quality  can  be  seen, 
and  It  U  divlde<l  into  numerous  narrow  pieces,  each  of 
which  Is  sewed  separately  to  a  strong  linen  or  duck 
bait,  which  covers  the  txsly  from  the  arm-pits  to  lie- 
low  th«  hips.  The  pieces  of  cork  are  distributed  in 
two  rows,  one  above,  the  other  lioiow  the  waist. 
Mid  tha  belt  Is  secured  closely  about  the  body  by 
means  of  strings  passed  round  the  waist,  between  the 
two  rows  of  cork.  It  is  further  secured  l)y  other 
itrlngs,  crossed  over  the  shoulders,  Ky  this  arrange- 
ment thn  trunk  of  the  IkhIv  is  enveloi>cd  in  cork,  at- 
tiMtlied  so  as  \u  be  quite  flexible,  and  to  allow  of  the 
usual  movements  of  the  Isidy  without  inconvenience, 
whlls  It  proteifts  the  body  agalr't  injury  fhim  blows, 
•nd  Is  :•  warm  covering  In  cold  weather. 

Various  fnrnis  of  buoyant  mattresses  have  been  con- 
trivwt  by  Mr,  l^iurle  and  others.  As  manufactured 
by  Mr,  Mllver,  numerous  waterproof  tubes  are  partly 
dtstandiul  with  horse-hnlr,  woidon  flocks,  or  cocoa-nut 
fliires,  so  that,  should  one  or  more  of  the  tnlies  fail, 
the  others  may  siifllce  to  sustain  the  required  weight 
on  tli«  water.  The  tulies  are  made  up  into  mattresses, 
pillows,  and  floats — the  last  to  be  placed  under  the 
ihwarts  of  bo;,ts.  A  mattress  weighing  17  lbs.  sus- 
tains In  thn  water  2K4  lbs.  A  pillow  sustains  28  lbs. 
A  mattress  for  emigrant  vessels,  sold  at  9s.,  was 
proved  at  the  Ornnt  Kxhibitlon.  ft  sustained  96  lbs. 
In  the  water  iliirlng  ft  days,  without  being  injured. 
Floating  mattresses  are  also  made,  filled  with  cork 
•havings,  In  the  Oreat  Kxhibltion,  Mr.  Khind  had 
various  mislels  of  deck  seats  and  benches  for  steam- 
ors,  ui  conxtructed  as  to  be  readily  formed  into  rafts, 
Mch  of  which  was  capalde  of  snstalnlng  R  persons. 

For  the  second  obJe<^  which  Is  desirable  to  a  ship  in 
distrass,  tliat  of  olitalnlng  a  safe  communication  with 
th*  shore,  it  has  been  usual  of  late  years  to  rely  prin- 
olpally  on  tlie  humane  exertions  of  persons  who  may 
b«  on  tho  i»iast,  and  who  may  have  mode  preparations 
for  this  purpose  s  and  with  this  view,  some  instruc- 
tiuM  fur  properly  ooi^penUlag  lu  the  meuures  to  b« 


adopted  with  Captain  Manby'i  apparatus  have  been 
lilierally  distributed  to  all  ships  when  they  received 
their  papers  from  some  of  the  British  custom-huuses. 
There  are,  however,  some  simple  expedients  which 
may  be  adopted  for  this  purpose  by  persons  on  lioard 
of  the  ship ;  for  example,  the  making  a  kite  with  a 
pocket-handkerchief  stretched  over  a  hoop,  and  caus- 
ing it  to  carry  a  cord  to  the  lee  shore,  by  means  of 
which  a  stronger  line,  and  at  last  a  hawser,  may  bo 
drawn  by  persons  standing  on  the  beach.  A  line  may 
also  sometimes  be  carried  on  shore  by  a  cask,  allowed 
to  drift  before  the  wind  i  and  a  bag  has  been  recom- 
mended to  lie  attached  to  such  a  cask,  or  to  a  buoy, 
in  order  to  act  as  a  sail,  and  to  insure  its  crossing  the 
surf.  Mr.  Cleghom  •■  was  also  rewarded,  in  1814,  by 
the  Society  of  Arts,  for  the  invention  of  a  buoyant 
line,  having  a  heart  of  cork,  to  obviate  the  inconven- 
ience which  would  arise  from  its  sinking  and  lioing 
dragged  on  the  atones  under  the  breakers ;  but  he  ob- 
serves, that  in  heavy  storms  there  is  generally  a  cu^ 
rent  along  shore  whicli  renders  the  method  nlnioiit 
impracticalde,  (Trantactioiu,  xxxii.,  p.  181.)  A 
Mr.  Wheatloy  assures  us,  in  Captain  Munliy's  A»»ay, 
that  his  own  life,  and  those  of  8  otlier  persons,  were 
saved,  in  1791,  by  a  lead  line,  which  was  curried  on 
shore  by  a  NewfonndUnd  dog  that  he  hap|iencd  to 
have  on  board,  whun  two  good  swimmers  had  been 
drowned  in  the  attempt  to  swim  on  sliote.  It  had  oc- 
curred to  Lieutenant  Bell,  in  1791,  that  a  rope  miglit 
bo  thrown  from  a  ship  whicii  had  struck,  l>y  means  u{ 
a  mortur  carrying  a  iieavy  sliot,  and  upon  the  priuLi- 
ple  of  the  gun  harpoon ;  and  he  showed  the  practica- 
bility of  the  suggestion  by  an  actual  experiment,  in 
which  a  deep-sea  line  was  carried  to  a  distance  of  about 
400  yards.  {Trans.  Soc.  Arts,  xxv.,  p.  lilG.')  He 
recommended  that  every  ship  should  be  provided  with 
a  mortar  capable  of  carrying  such  a  shot,  and  observed 
tliat  it  might  be  placed  on  n  coil  of  rope  to  lie  iired, 
instead  of  a  carriage.  The  line  was  to  lie  coiled  on 
handspikes,  which  were  to  be  drawn  out  before  the 
mortar  was  flred.  In  1792  he  received  a  premium 
of  50  guineas  from  the  Society  of  Arts  {Transactiom, 
X.,  p.  204) ;  and  he  obtained  his  promotion  in  the 
Ordnance  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  merits.  The 
shot  was  to  weigh  about  60  lbs.  or  more,  and  the  mor- 
tar 6  or  6  cwt.  The  experiments  of  the  Freiicli  artil- 
lery at  Lafere  weru  subsequent  to  those  of  Mr.  licll, 
though  they  have  sometimes  been  quoted  as  tlie  first 
of  the  kind. 

It  has,  however,  generally  been  thought  impractica- 
ble to  manage  a  mortar  witii  uitect  under  tiie  circum- 
stances of  actual  shipwreck ;  and  Mr.  Trengrouse  has 
preferred  a  rocket,  as  more  easily  tired,  and  as  having 
a  smaller  initial  velocity  than  a  shot,  so  that  the  rope 
would  be  less  in  danger  of  being  briiken  liy  the  im- 
pulse. He  found  that  a  rocket  of  8  oz.  carried  a.mack- 
erel  line  180  yards,  and  a  1  lb.  rocket  212 ;  and  in 
some  experiments  made  under  the  Inspection  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  a  rocket  1 J  inch  in  diameter  carried  a 
cord  across  the  Serpentine  River  in  Hyde  Park.  The 
musket  is  provided  with  a  valve,  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  materials  of  the  rocket  i  and  it  is  to  be  tired  with 
a  little  powder,  without  wadding.  The  wliole  appara- 
tus is  packed  in  a  chest,  containing  from  8  to  12  rock- 
ets, the  musket,  a  life-spencer,  a  chair  to  traverse  on  a 
rope,  a  canvas  bag,  and  a  ball  of  wood  to  tlirow  to  a 
person  swimming.  Mr.  Trengrouse  was  compliment- 
ed with  a  medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1820 
(Vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  161.) 

Jixtfmal  Meant  of  Excape  from  SMpiirreek.—The 
means  to  lie  employed  by  perscms  on  shore,  in  caoft 
of  shipwreck,  depend  either  in  projecting  a  line  dfjf 
the  ship,  or  on  the  use  of  a  life-boat.  Mr.  Bell  hkd 
cursorily  observed  that  a  line  might  lie  carried  over 
a  ship  from  the  shore  by  means  of  his  mortar ;  but 
for  the  actual  execution  of  this  proposal,  in  a  variety  of 
oases,  we  are  indebted  to  the  meritorious  exertions  of 


01  assistln 
advantage, 
over  the  vl 
in,  it  lirmll 
or  rlgglngl 
lief  of  the  I 
It  is  rendel 
hold,  or  slf 
Which  It  hif 


LIF 


1211 


LIF 


wreck. — The 
ore,  in  cM»» 
[  a  line  oft* 
Mr.  Bell  liW 
curriid  over 
mortar ;  but 
I  a  variety  oJ 
exertions  ol 


Captain  O.  W.  Hanby,  whoso  apparataa,  seeordlng  to 
the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commona, 
dated  in  March  1810,  appears  "  to  be  admirably  adapt- 
ed to  its  purpose,  and  to  have  been  attended  with  the 
fullest  success  in  olmost  every  instance."  In  conse. 
quenco  of  this  report,  Captain  Manby  wus  thought 
worthy  of  a  parliamentary  reward ;  and  ho  afterward 
published  a  description  of  his  inventions,  under  the 
title  of  "  An  Essay  on  the  Preservation  of  Shipwrecked 
Persons,"  8vo,  London,  1812.  He  had  previously  re- 
ceived  a  gold  medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1808 
(Traitsactiom,  xxvi,,  p.  209).  His  success  makes  it 
expedient  to  extract  from  his  essay  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  apparatus  ;  and  it  will  be  easy  to  make  it 
somewhat  more  intelligible  by  a  slight  alteration  of  the 
order  of  arrangement :  "  The  method  of  af&xing  a  rope 
to  a  shot,  for  the  purpose  of  affecting  communication, 
when  projected  ftom  a  piece  of  ortlnanco  over  a  strand- 
ed vessel,  was  at  length  succeeded  in,  by  introducing 
a  jagged  piece  of  iron,  with  an  eye  at  the  top,  into  a 
shell,  and  securing  it  by  tilling  the  hollow  sphere  with 
Iwiling  lead;  and  in  another  way,  by  drilling  a  hole 
through  a  solid  ball,  and  passing  a  piece  of  iron  with 
nn  eye  to  it,  as  before  described,  to  the  bottom,  where 
it  should  be  well  secured  by  riveting.  To  produce  the 
means  of  connecting  a  rope  tu  a  shot,  and  prevent  its 
being  l>urnt,  and  rendering  it '  imtiiiibh'  to  the  pow- 
erful inflammation  of  gunpowder,  was  the  labor  of 
inlinitc  time,  and  the  number  of  experiments  to  accom' 
pllsh  it  were  numer- 
oils.  Chains  in  every' 
variety  of  form,  and 
great  iitrength,  break- 
ing, proved  that  it  re- 
quired not  only  an 
elastic,  but  a  closer 
connected  body,  -  At  length,  some 
stout  platted  hide  (flg.  2),  woven 
extremely  close  to  the  eye  of  the 
shot,  about  two  feet  in  length  be- 
yond the  mu2.Ele  of  the  piece,  and 
witli  n  loop  at  the  end. to  receive 
the  n)pe,  happily  effected  it.  Fig-  !■ 

"Vhis  method  is  certainly  desirable,  as  a  rope  may 
immediately  [as]  it  is  required,  be  affixed  to  the  loop, 
and  applied  in  service.  Tlie  form  of  the  platted  hide 
may  likewise  be  woven  by  twisting  it  in  the  manner 
that  the  lashes  of  whips  or  rope  are  spun.  There  is 
anotlier  method,  by  passing  the  rope  through  a  case  of 
leather,  taking  the  greatest  care  that  it  ii  so  well  se- 
cured at  the  e}'e  of  the  shot  as  to  leave  no  room  for 
the  tliffhieat  play,  as  is  represented  by  the  annexed 
barbed  ahot  (fig.  2). 


Pig. ». 
'When  the  crew  of  the  distressed  vessel  are  incapable 
of  availing  themselves  of  the  benefits  arising  from  com- 
munication, they  having  previously  lashed  themselves 
in  the  rigging  to  prevent  being  swept  aw.ty  by  the  sea, 
wliich  is  repeatedly  breaking  over  them,  and  when, 
flrom  long  fatigue  and  the  severity  of  the  storm  (on 
which  occasions  it  too  frequently  occurs),  they  totally 
lose  the  use  of  their  limbs,  and  are  rendered  incapable 
of  assisting  themselves  in  the  slightest  degree — the 
advantages  of  this  shot  are,  that,  on  its  being  projected 
over  the  vessel,  and  the  people  of  the  shore  hauling  it 
in,  it  firmly  secures  Itself  on  some  part  of  the  wreck 
or  rigging,  by  which  a  boat  can  be  hauled  to  the  re- 
lief of  the  distressed  objects ;  and  l>y  the  counterbarbs 
it  is  rendered  Impossible  [that  it  should]  give  up  its 
hold,  or  slip,  while  that  part  of  the  wreck  remains  to 
whtob  it  has  scoured  itself. 


Fig,  8, 


"  Among  the  many  that  have  been  saved  by  thb 
shot,  the  following  are  testimonials  of  a  Uii  of  tim 
cases !  '  We,  the  crew  of  the  brig  ffaney  of  Hunderland, 
do  hereby  certify  that  we  were  on  board  the  said  va«. 
sel  when  she  was  stranded  on  the  beach  of  Varmnuth, 
on  Friday  morning,  the  15th  of  Decenil)er,  IHOII,  nnd 
compelled  to  secure  ourselves  in  the  rigging  to  prevent 
being  swept  away,  the  sea  running  so  higli  over  Ilia 
vessel.  And  we  do  further  declare  and  certify  tlwt 
Captain  Manby,  tiring  a  rope  with  a  hooked  sliot,  *»• 
curely  holding  on  to  the  wreck,  enabled  a  boat  to  lie 
hauled  from  the  shore  over  the  surf  to  our  relief,  other, 
wise  we  must  inevitably  have  perished.'  TliU  eertl. 
ficate  is  attested  by  six  signatures, 

"  Facilitating  communication  is  at  all  times  of  tlil> 
portance ;  but  when  the  stranded  vessel  is  in  monUint> 
aiy  danger  of  going  to  pieces,  this  point  becomes  » 
consideration  of  extreme  urgency,  I  feel  a  perauaslun 
that  this  particular  service  can  only  be  carried  Into 
effect  by  a  small  and  light  piece  of  ardnani»,  the 
range  of  which  is  consequently  very  iuconsiderabla, 
when  compared  with  that  of  a  large  and  heavier  pleea, 
as  It  is  weight  alone  that  conveys  the  rope.  In  ordar, 
therefore,  to  increase  the  powers  of  shot  projected  from 
a  small  mortar,  its  natural  form  must 
be  varied,  so  as  to  give  it  additional^ 
'  preponderane.'  The  annexed  shape, 
in  the  form  of  a  pear  (flg.  3),  has  been 
used  with  the  greatest  success ;  for,  by 
the  incrsnsed  weight,  the  shot's  momentum  and  power 
over  the  line  is  in  consequence  considerably  augment- 
ed in  its  range;  and  when  made  to  fit  the  piece  «« 
close  as  possible,  a  great  increase  of  velocity  ia  like- 
wise  produced  from  the  decrease  of  windage. 

"  Portability  In  the  construction  of  a  piece  or  ord* 
nance  (as  just  descrilied)  is  the  very  essence  of  thi« 
service  ;  and  communication  with  the  stranded  yetmX 
or  wreck  may  be  effected  with 
a  cord,  by  which  cord  u  rope 
can  be  conveyed,  and  by  that 
rope  a  hawser  or  cable  sent  to 
the  distressed  vessel ;  for  this 
purpose  the  annexed  was  con- 
structed (lig.  4).  A  person  com- 
pletely equipped  with  every 
necessary  apparatus  to  effect 
communication  with  a  vessel 
driven  on  a  leo-ahore  *  ♦  •  Fig.  4.  ' 

the  horseman,  fully  equipped,  traveled  a  mile  and  a 
half,  the  howitzer  was  dismounted,  and  the  line  pro- 
jected 138  yards,  in  six  minutes. 

"  The  application  of  a  small  piece  of  ordnance  llk«' 
wise  offers  particular  advantages,  capable  of  being  em- 
ployed from  a  boat  to  go  to  the  assistance  of  a  ve.ssol 
grounded  on  a  bar  when  running  for  a  harbor,  the  na> 
cessity  of  which  repeatedly  occurs,  and  was  twice  wit- 
nessed at  Blakeney,  on  the  10th  of  November,  1810, 
when  boats  endeavored  to  go  to  their  relief,  and  were 
enabled  to  get  out  of  tlie  harbor  on  the  ebli  tide,  within 
20  j'ards  of  the  vessel ;  but  it  was  found  impossible  to 
approach  them  nearer.  Had  such  boats  been  provided 
with  a  piece  of  this  description,  and  the  same  firmly 
secured  on  a  stout  piece  of  plank,  l)y,the  holes  left  at 
each  corner  of  the  iron  bed,  they  might  liave  projecteil 
a  small  rope,  coiled  in  a  crate  or  basket,  made  to  the 
form  of  the  bow  of  the  boat;  and  the  persons  in  the 
boat,  so  provided,  would  not  have  remained  tliu  diS' 
tressed  spectators  of  the  untimely  end  of  their  fellow- 
creatures,  without  being  al)le  to  afford  them  the  small- 
est relief,  although  so  little  was  then  wanting  for  that 
dcsirul>Io  purpose. 

"  Although  advantages  have  l)een  pointed  out  in  the 
use  of  tliese  small  mortars,  it  is  necessary  to  be  kepi 
in  remembrance  that  they  are  produced  for  parttuuUr 
services ;  as  the  nature  of  the  coast,  and  circumstan- 
ces attending  the  distressed  vessels,  will  direct  what 
piece  is  best  adapted  to  the  undertaking.    To  enabU 


m 


i 


LIP 


1212 


LIF 


/■ 


the  mind  to  form  a  Jadgmant  of  what  can  bo  effected 
by  other  pieces,  the  foUowing  are  the  minutea  of  ex- 
periments made  with  a  &l-inch  brass  mortar,  stating 
the  quantity  of  powder  used,  and  distance  the  ropes 
were  projected  against  a  strong  wind,  at  the  angle  of 
17°  (elevation) :  weight  of  the  mortar  and  bed  about 
aUO  lbs. : 

Y«d*ofdMp- 
■M  Iln*. 

148 
182 

Sin 

S49 

2S10 

riio 

"  With  a  short  8-inch  mortar,  the  weight  of  which, 
and  bed,  was  supposed  to  be  about  700  lbs ;  the  angles 
of  elevation  uncertain : 

Y(4rfli  Tit  twt><ln>:h  patent 

Buiid«^rlAtid  rop,*,  capftbl* 

of  liftullng  tha  Ismat 

boAl  from  «  Uma. 


UuocM  of 

Vvdiorineli 

powd«r. 

■nd  half  rap«. 

4 

184           

6 

IM           

8 

184         

10 

207         

U 

886         

14 

250         

OmMMof 

Tirdi  ofdsap. 
MftUw* 

89        ... 

89 

89 

....         489 
....        479 

88« 

' '  Dirtctiomfor  uting  thi  Apparatut. — When  the  rope 
(which  should  l>e  pliant  and  well  stretched)  is  brought 
on  the  beach  or  cliff  opposite  to  the  stranded  vessel, 
the  most  even  spot,  and  free  from  projecting  stones, 
should  be  selected  to  lay  it  on,  and  great  care  be  talien 
that  no  two  parts  of  it  whatever  overlay  or  even  touch 
each  other ;  nor  must  it  be  laid  in  longer  lengths  than 
(if  two  yards.  But  to  project  a  small  line  or  cord,  it 
will  be  necessary,  if  it  is  required  to  contract  the  faiier 
to  half  a  yard  at  most,  to  avoid  the  jcrlc  received  at  the 
end  of  each  right  line.  The  best  method,  with  such  a 
description  of  cord,  is  to  lay  it  on  the  ground  in  the  most 
short  and  irregular  windings,  to  relieve  it  from  the  pow- 
erful impulse.  To  prove  the  effect  of  the  impulse  on  a 
rope,  if  it  is  faked  in  lengths  of  10  or  15  yards,'  it  will 
brealc  each  time,  as  it  then  becomes  a  most  powerful 
pendulum.  These  precautions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  success  of  the  service, 

"  The  following  has,  after  various  trUls,  been  found  a 

certain  method  of 
laying  the  rcp», 
and  pbcing  it 
into  comparU 
ments."  (French 
Faking,  flg.  6  ) 

"A  particular 
attention  to  this 
mode  will  never 
fail,  with  a  good 
rope,  when  the 
impediments  are 
removed  that  might  otherwise  obstruct  its  rapid  flight. 
Its  advantages  are,  that  it  will  allow  the  e^  e  rapidly 
(yet  correctly,  jutt  bfjort  firing,  which  is  absolutely 
necessary)  to  pass  over  tlie  different  compartments, 
and  at  once  discover  if  any  fake  has  lieen  displace'',  by 
the  storm,  or  l)y  any  other  casualty  or  accident  come 
in  contact  with  another  part,  which  would  destroy  its 
application  by  the  rope  breaking. 

"  It  muy  likewise  be  coiled  in  the  manner  used  in 
the  whale  fisher}',  whale  lair  (fig.  C) ;  and  in  the 
method  called  chain  faking  (flg,  7). 


PlgR 


place  it,  but  from  the  great  anxiety  of  mind  natural  on 
these  occasions,  where  the  lives  of  feilow-crcitures  are 
literally  dependent  on  the  correctness  with  which  the 
rope  Is  laid;  it  is  therefore  extremely  diflicult,  in  a 
moment  of  agitation,  to  determine  whether  any  over- 
lay has  taken  place,  an  error  that  would  infullihiy  de- 
stroy everj-  endeavor,  and  occasion  even  the  futes  of 
those  whose  lives  we  might  be  exerting  ourselves  to 
preserve.  Could  persons  in  the  performance  of  this 
service  be  always  collected,  the  two  latter  nictluHls 
would  have  a  decided  advantage  over  the  first  mode 
of  faking,  they  being  laid  in  a  much  less  space  of  time. 
"  As  all  these  methods  of  laying  the  rope  occupy 
time  to  place  it  with  the  care  necessary ;  and  as  it  iius 
repeatedly  happened  that  a  vessel  very  soon  after 
grounding,  has  gone  to  pieces,  and  all  hands  perislied ; 
it  was  necessary  to  produce  a  method  of  arranging  the 
rope,  so  that  it  could  be  immediately  projected  as  soon 
as  it  arrived  at  the  spot ;  and  none  proved  so  effectual 
as  when  brought  ready  in  a  basket  (fig,  8,)     la  this 


Fig.  6,  Flg.  7, 

It  la,  however,  nocessar)*  to  add,  that  great  atten- 
tion is  required  in  laying  it  agreeably  to  the  two  latter 
methods,  arising  not  only  fn>m  the  arm  being  liable  to 
get  under  certain  parts  of  the  rope,  and  thereby  dis- 


Flg.8. 
case,  the  rope  should  be  mpst  carefully  laid  in  alter- 
nate tiers  or  fakes,  no  part  of  it  overlaying;  and  it 
should  be  well  secured  down,  that  in  traveii'i);  it  bo 
not  displaced ;  but,  above  all,  no  mistake  must  happen 
in  placing  the  batket  properly.  For  exr  uple,  that  tlie  end 
of  the  basket,  from  which  the  shot  hangs  in  the  above 
figure,  should  be  previously  marked,  and  must  lie 
placed  toward  the  sea  or  wreck,  that  the  rope  lie  deliv- 
ered freely,  and  without  any  cliance  of  entanglement. 
It  will  ba  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  there  will  lie  sev- 
eral tiers  of  the  rope  when  laid.  Tlie  utmost  care  and 
attention  are  lequired  in  laying  the  rope  in  tiers  with 
strict  regularity,  to  prevent  entanglement, 

"  The  next  is  the  application  of  the  mortar.  If 
the  wind  is  sideways  to  the  shore,  it  must  bo  iwinted 
sufliciently  to  windward  to  allow  for  the  slack  of 
the  rope  lighting  on  the  object,  as  the  rope  will, 
of  course,  be  consideralily  I  ome  to  leeward  by  the 
effect  of  a  strong  wind,  and  by  its  lieing  laid  nt  a 
low  elevation  insures  the  rope  falling  against  the 
weathermost  part  of  the  rigging.  While  this  service 
is  performing,  great  care  should  lie  taken  to  keep  the 
mortar  dry ;  nor  should  it  lio' loaded  until  every  thing 
is  ready  ;  when  that  is  done,  it  should  be  primed ;  but 
as  it  would  l)e  impossible  to  do  it  with  loose  powder  in 
a  storm,  a  tube  is  constructed  in  the  simplest  manner 
of  common  writing  paper  (the  outer  edge  lieing  ce 
mented  with  a  little  gum)  in  this  form  (fig,  9). ' 
It  is  filled  with  meal  gunpowder,  made  into 
paste  with  spirit  of  wine ;  wlwn  in  a  state  of 
drying,  run  a  needle  through  the  centre,  and 
take  care  the  hole  is  left  oyma,  for,  on  the  tube 
being  inflamed,  a  stream  of  flre  darts  through 
the  aperture  with  such  force  as  to  perforate 
the  cartridge.  The  mortar 
■hould  then  instantly  be  fired ;  flg-  9, 
and  in  order  to  lessen  a  difficulty  that 
has  often  occurred  in  performing  this 
service,  a  pistol  may  be  used,  linving 
a  tin  box  over  the  lock,  to  exclude  the 
eflTect  of  wind  or  ruin  on  the  priming ; 
and  the  muzzle  being  cut  [obliquely], 
dilates  the  inflikuimation,  so  as  to  re- 
quire but  little  exuctnesa  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  aim, 

"  We  will  suppose  the  communioation  to  be  secured, 
although  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  offer  any  other 
assistance  than  that  of  a  rope,  as  the  inventive  geniua 


LIP 


WH 


LIP 


of  a  sailor  will  aupply  every  thing  else ;  yet  I  conld 
expect  the  people  on  shore  to  get  a  boat  ready  for 
meeting  the  vessel  when  driven  on  a  beach:  it  is  the 
promptest  and  most  certain  method  of  relief,  as  well 
as  the  most  easy  tu  be  accomplished ;  for  by  hauling 
her  olf  with  the  lope  projected,  the  boat's  head  is  kept 
to  the  waves,  and  not  only  insures  safet}'  by  rising  to 
the  surge,  but  prevents  her  upsetting.  When  the 
rope  r.ttached  to  the  shot  (not  having  barbs  to  it),  is 
fired  iver  the  vessel  and  lodges,  let  it  be  secured  by 
the  e  on  board,  and  made  fast  to  some  firm  part  of  the 
Tigging  or  wreck,  that  they  may  haul  olf  a  boat  by  it ; 
but  should  there  not  be  any  boat,  tlien  haul  on  board 
by  the  projected  rope  a  larger  one  and  a  tailed  block, 
through  which  a  smaller  rope  is  rove.  Let  the  large 
rope  Im  made  fust  at  the  nmst-lieod,  between  the  cap 
and  the  top  of  one  of  the  lower  masts,  and  the  tailed 
block  a  little  distance  below  it ;  but,  if  the  mast  should 
have  been  cut  or  carried  away,  then  it  must  be  made 
fast  to  the  loftiest  remaining  part  of  the  wreck.  When 
this  Is  done,  there  will  be  supplied  from  the  shore  a 
cot,  hammock,  netting,  basket,  hoop,  or  any  of  the 
numerous  resources  of  seamen,  whi  'i  will  run  on  the 
larger  rope,  and  be  worked  by  the  [lecple  on  shore. 
If  a  cot  be  used,  the  men  may  be  so  securely  fastened 
to  it  as  to  preclude  all  possibility  of  falling  out,  and 
then  be  brought  from  the  wreck,  one  by  one,  in  per- 
fect safety. 

"  While  communication  is  gaining,  3  stakes  should 
be  driven  into  the  ground  in  a  triangular  position,  so 
as  to  meet  close  at  the  heads  to  support  each  other. 
As  soon  as  communication  has  been  elTected  by  the 
crer.'  of  the  vessel,  and  they  have  secured  the  line 
attached  to  the  shot,  made  fast  to  these  stakes,  the 
crew  will  haul  on  board  by  it  a  large  rope  and  a  tailed 
block,  through  which  a  smaller  rope  is  to  lie  rove,  both 
ends  of  which  (the  smaller  rope)  are  to  be  kept  on 
shoro.  When  they  have  secured  these  on  board,  and 
the  larger  rope  is  rove  through  the  rollers,  let  a  gun- 
tackle  purchase  be  lashed  to  it,  then  lash  the  purchase 
to  the  stakes.  By  the  means  of  the  purchase  the 
larger  rope  may  be  kept  at  a  At  degree  of  tension ;  for, 
if  care  be  taken  to  slacken  the  purchase  as  the  ship 
rolls  out  to  sea,  the  danger  of  the  rope  being  broken 
will  be  guarded  against ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
purchase  1)0  gathered  in  as  the  ship  rolls  toward  the 
shore,  the  slackness  of  the  rope,  which  would  prevent 
the  cot  (fig.  10)  traversing  as  it  ought  to  do,  and 
plunge  it  in  the  water  more  than  it  otherwise  would, 
will  be  avoided. 

"  Supposing  neither  boat  nor  cot  apparatus  at  band, 
first  cast  off  the  shot  from  the  projected  rope,  and  with 
a  close  hitch,  let  it  bo  put  over  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders of  the  person  to  be  saved,  bringing  it  close  under 


seize  every  moment  for  nspiratioo,  after  each  surf  liaa 
passed  over  the  body.  If  circumstances  compel  re- 
course to  this  method,  care  must  be  taken  to  free  the 
rope  from  any  part  of  the  wreck,  and  to  jump  clear 
away ;  but  should  there  be  mora  than  one  on  board, 
each  man  should  make  himself  fast  in  the  same  way, 
about  4  four  feet  from  the  other,  and  join  hands,  all 
attending  to  the  same  directions. 
■  "For  giving  Relief  to  VetteU  Stranded  on  a  Lee 
Shore  in  a  Dark  and  Tempeituoua  Night.— It  will  be 
requisite,  first,  to  devise  the  means  of  discovering  pre- 
cisely where  the  distressed  vessel  lies,  when  the  crew 
are  not  able  to  make  their  situation  known  by  lumi- 
nous signals ;  secondly,  to  produce  a  method  of  laying 
the  mortar  for  the  object,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  in 
the  light ;  thirdly,  to  render  the  flight  of  the' rope  per- 
fectly distinguishable  to  those  who  project  it,  and  to 
the  crew  on  board  of  the  vessel,  so  that  they  can  not 
fail  of  seeing  on  what  part  of  the  rigging  it  lodges, 
and  consequently  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  it. 
To  attain  the  first  object,  a  hollow  ball  was  made  to 
the  size  of  the  piece,  composed  of  layers  of  pasted 
cartridge  paper  of  the  i'  ickness  of  half  an  inch, 
having  a  lid  on  the  top  to  contain  a  fuse 
(flg.  11),  and  it  was  then  filled  with  about 
N)  luminous  balls  of  star  composition,  and 
a  sufHcient  quantity  of  gunpowder  to  burst 
the  ball  and  inflame  the  stars.  The  fus^  | 
fixed  in  the  ball  was  graduated,  to  set  fire 
to  the  bursting  powder  ut  the  height  of  300 
yards.  Through  the  head  of  the  fuse  were  F'g-  H. 
drilled  holes,  at  equal  [distances],  to  pass  through 
them  strands  of  quick  match,  to  prevent  the  possibil- 
ity of  any  accident  from  the  match  falling  out,  or  from 
its  not  firing  the  fuse.  On  the  stars  being  released, 
they  continued  their  splendor,  while  falling,  for  near 
one  minute,  which  allows  ample  time  to  discover  the 
situation  of  the  distressed  vessel.  During  the  period 
of  the  light, 
a  stand,  with 
two  upright 
sticks  (fig.  l-.i), 
(painted  white 
to  render  them 
more  discerni- 
ble in  the 
dark),  was 
ready  at  hand, 
and  pointed  in 
a  direct  line  to 
the  vessel.  ' 
"A    shell 


§ 


Fig.  10. 
each  arm,  drawing  It  tight,  obierving  particularly  the 
knot  it  on  the  breaitbone ;  for,  by  having  the  knot  in 
that  position,  on  the  people  of  the  shore  hauling  the 
person  from  the  wreck,  he  will  naturally  be  on  his 
back,  consequently,  the  face  will  be  uppermost  to 


Tig.  13. 

affixed  to  the  rope,  having  four  holes  in  it  to  receive  a 
like  number  of  fuses  (headed  as  before  described),  and 
filled  with  the  fiercest  and  most  glaring  com- 
position, which,  when  inflamed  at  the  dis- 
charge of  the  piece,  displayed  so  splendid  an 
Illumination  of  the  rope,  that  itti  flight  could 
not  be  mistaken. 

"  To  get  a  Bool  from  a  Beach  over  the  Surf. 
— The  importance  of  going  to  the  relief  of 
ships  in  distress  at  a  distance  from  the  land, 
or  for  taking  off  pilots,  was  viewed  as  of  the 
highest  consequence  by  the  older  brethren  of 
the  Trinity  House,  and  offered  to  my  partic- 
ular attention  liy  several  distinguished  char- 
acters. After  numerous  experiments  to  nc- 
^^complish  it  in  various  ways,  the  mode  fullow- 
■■"^^  ing  was  most  approved : — About  40  fathoms  of 
2}-inch  rope,  made  fast  to  2  moving  anchors, 
was  laid  out  parallel  with  the  shore,  at  a  dis- 
tance beyond  the  sweep  of  the  surf ;  to  the  cen- 
tre of  this  rope  was  made  fast  a  buoy,  of  sufficient  power 
to  suspend  the  great  rope,  and  prevent  it  from  cimfing 
on  the  sand,  rock,  or  stones,  as  well  as  embedding,  a 
circumstance  that  has  rendered  it  Impossible,  on  a 
sandy  or  shingly  coast,  to  heave  oat  an  anchor  with  a 


,    . 


u 


LIP 


1214 


LIF 


njm  to  It  tnm  tbe  shore.  Ai  thia  service  ahonM  be 
performed  In  fair  ireather  (to  be  prepared  for  the 
•tomi),  It  mny  be  regulated  with  the  greatest  exact' 
nes«,  and  should  take  place  at  the  top  of  high-water, 
that  the  upper  part  of  the  buoy  may  be  at  the  full 
rtretch  of  its  power,  and  only  seen  at  that  time. 
Should  the  shore  be  extremely  flat,  it  will  be  desira- 
ble to  place  another  set  an  a  sufficient  distance  beyond 
the  first,  to  Insure  the  operation  of  this  method  in  any 
itate  of  the  tide. 

"  The  royal  mortar  being  brought'to  the  spot,  la  to 
he  pointed  In  the  direction  for  the  buoy,  and  should 
be  laid  at  a  ver}'  low  elevation,  but  such  as  to  insure 
the  range ;  for  the  more  it  is  depressed,  the  less  alack 
of  rope  there  will  bo  from  the  parabola  formed  in  the 
shot's  flight;  the  basket  with  the  rope  ready  laid 
(having  a  barbed  shot  to  it)  la  to  be  placed  in  the  front 
of  the  mortar ;  on  Ita  being  fixed,  instantly  haul  the 
slock  of  the  rope  In,  to  prevent  the  effect  produced  on 
It  by  a  strong  tide ;  which  being  done,  let  the  remain- 
der be  gently  hauled  in,  to  insure  the  sltot's  grappling 
with  the  great  rope ;  when  that  is  caught  and  hooked, 
•  power  will  be  acquired  fully  adequate  to  the  service. 


Fig.  13. 
"  As  a  cast-iron  anchor  appears  particularly  adapted 
to  thIa  method,  and  would  be  much  cheaper  than  ham- 
mered, flg.  13  la  a  I'lan  of  one  which  the  British  Navy 
Board  approved,  iiml  allowed  me  to  cast  at  their  ex- 
pense, for  the  purpose  of  making  the  experiment. 
When  a  vessel  is  in  that  extreme  and  periloua  situa- 
tion, driven  under  a  rugged  and  inaccessible 
cliff,  and  In  danger  of  going  soon  to  pieces, 
the  most  prompt  metho<l  I  should  suggest  is, 
by  lowering  to  the  craw  a  rope  with  stiff  loops 
spliced  into  it  (flg.  14),  at  the  distance  of  a 
foot  and  a  half  from  each  loop,  of  suflicient 
aize  to  contain  the  foot,  by  which  they  can 
ascend  as  a  ladder.  This  rope-ladder  is  capa- 
ble of  being  projected;  and  one  of  an  inch 
and  a  half  rope  was  thrown  from  a  mortar  194 
yards.  It  might  also,  from  the  simplicity  of 
its  structure,  be  extremely  useful  in  escaping 
from  a  house  on  Are.  By  making  one  end 
fast  to  the  leg  of  a  bed  or  n  table,  the  person 
would' come  down  from  the  window  In  safety, 
_  and  with  much  less  difficulty,  and  quicker, 
ij-  }*■  than  with  the  common  rope-ladder,  which  is 
heavier  and  more  nnwieldy.  It  has  great  advantages 
when  employed  in  saving  shipwrecked  men  in  situa- 
tions Just  descril)ed,  when,  from  extreme  cold,  and 
almost  benumbed  limbs,  it  would  l>e  impossible  for 
them  to  climb  up  a  rock,  or  ascend  it  even  by  the  aid 
of  a  common  rope.  The  holds,  thus  spliced  in,  will 
support  both  hands  and  feet." 

Thg  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons contains  also  a  paper  of  instructions  for  the  man- 
agers of  ('aptain  Manby's  apparatus  on  shore,  which 
are  somewhat  more  miaute  than  the  directions  puli- 
llshed  In  his  Essay.  For  example : — "  If  the  wind 
be  aldewaya  to  tbe  shore,  the  mortar  must  be  pointed 
•offlcisntijr  to  windward  to  allow  far  the  alaok  of  the 


rope  lighting  on  the  object,  as  the  rope  will,  of  course, 
be  borne  considerably  to  leeward  by  the  effect  of  • 
strong  wind.  The  distance  your  Judgment  decides 
the  vessel  to  be  from  the  shore  ahould  regulate  tho 
charge  of  powder  as  stated  in  the  acale,  taking  just  a 
sufflcient  quantity  to  clear  the  object :  an  attention  to 
this  will  be  mora  certain  of  your  effecting  communi- 
cation, and  guarding  against  the  danger  of  tlie  rope 
breaking,  or  any  other  circumstance  that  miglit  pro- 
vent  the  aoccesaful  performance  of  the  aervice.  The 
elevation  of  16°  ia  to  be  preferred,  particularly  if  the 
wind  ia  aldewaya,  pointing  tho  mortar  sufficiently  to 
windward,  as  the  rope  would  then  fall  itgaiuHt  the 
weather-most  part  of  the  <igging  of  the  stranded  ves- 
sel. When  a  vessel  ia  driven  on  shore  in  the  night, 
you  will  flash  gunpowder  as  often  as  convenient  on 
your  way ;  this  will  animate  the  crew,  and  denote  to 
them  you  are  coming  to  their  assistance.  On  getting 
to  the  spot  where  you  have  reason  to  suspect  the  ves- 
sel lies,  as  you  ara  not  able  to  discover  her  from  the 
extreme  dartneas,  and  if  the  people  on  board  cun  not 
[make  known]  their  situation  by  luminous  signals,  or 
noises  (which  -.iiey  will  be  directed  to  make  if  possi- 
ble), you  will  lay  the  mortar  ut  a  very  high  elevation, 
and  fira  a  light  balL  Juat  l^efore  you  fire  (the  rope) 
it  would  be  advisable  to  let  off  a  blue  light  to  put  the 
craw  on  their  guard,  to  look  out,  and  be  ready  to  se- 
cure the  rope.  The  service  can  be  performed  witli  a 
carronade." 

In  the  report  we  have  a  copy  of  directions  to  per- 
sona on  board  veasela  8trande<l  on  a  lee-«hore,  proposed 
to  be  delivered  to  the  masters  at  tlie  custom-houso.  It 
is  observed,  that  even  snapping  a  pifitol,  when  the 
powder  is  wet,  may  sometimes  afford  a  aignal  visible 
on  shore,  from  the  aparka  of  the  ateel  alone.  The 
other  pa?ts  of  the  diractiona  will  be  supplied  by  those 
who  understand  the  principles  of  the  proposed  mode  oi 
relief. 

Rockets  have  of  late  years  been  much  employed  in- 
stead of  the  mortar,  in  Manby's  apparatua  for  throw- 
hig  a  line  to  a  ship  in  distress.  "Dennett's  liocket 
Apparatua"  ia  aupplied  to  many  atatlons  along  the 
coast.  The  only  advantage  which  the  rocket  has  over 
the  mortar  ia  ita  greater  portability ;  for,  being  much 
lighter,  it  can  be  uaed  with  greater  facility  among 
rocky  cliffs,  and  in  positions  difficult  of  access.  The 
disadvantagea  of  rockets  are,  that  they  are  somewhat 
uncertain,  sometimes  exploding  as  soon  as  ignited,  to 
the  danger  of  the  bystanders  ;  and  they  are  also  liable 
to  deteriorate  from  the  effects  of  damp  or  of  age, 
Moreover,  being  expensive,  they  can  not  be  often 
emplo}'ed  in  trials,  ao  as  to  keep  up  the  practice  of  tiie 
people  employed  in  using  them.  The  range  of  a  shot 
from  a  24-lb.  mortar,  which  is  the  ordinary  size,  is 
about  the  same  as  tliat  of  a  12-lb.  rocket,  whicli  is  tho 
largest  in  use.  As  the  management  of  the  mortar  und 
rocket  apparatus  Is  much  better  understood  I>y  tho 
officers  and  men  of  the  coast-guard  service  than  l>.v 
ordinary  l>oatmen  nnd  fishermen,  it  has  been  aImo^t 
entirely  left  in  their  hands,  and  ia  provided  by  tho 
Board  of  Customs.  There  ara  in  England  132  mortar 
and  rocket  stations ;  in  Scotland,  16 ;  in  Ireland,  22, 
Several  inventions,  or  varUtions,  in  the  Manby  appa- 
ratus may  be  just  glanced  at,  M.  Q.  Delvigne  uses  a 
howitzer  instead  of  a  mortar,  while  a  portion  of  tlio 
line  to  bo  carried  is  contained  in  th<<.  projectile.  Mr. 
Greener  hrs  a  method  of  discharginfr  a  rocket,  with  a 
line  attached,  from  a  light  harpoon  gun.  When  dis- 
charged, the  racket  ignites,  and  ia  said  to  prolong  tho 
nmge  to  a  greater  distance  than  if  the  gun  or  tho 
rocket  were  alone  employed.  Captain  Jemingham, 
R.N.,  lias  an  anchor  of  a  particular  form,  wliich  he 
proposes  to  fire  from  a  Manby's  mortar,  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  affonl  the  means  ot  hauling  a  life-boat 
through  the  surf.  Mr.  A.  G.  r^rto  employa  a  war- 
rocket  inatead  of  a  Dennett'a  rocket. 
LifMoalt,—Tbe  lost  description  of  the  inventions 


missio 
Board 
lushed 
it  in  ; 
beachi 
of  equ 
piece  i 
.  keel,  i 
fegain 
with  I 
roundc 
vented 
driven 
relieve 
andi 
Wale,  ' 
every 
the( 
edge 
was  ca 
Mr. 
boat  a 
made  c 
with  ei 
a  man 
could 


LIF 


1216 


LIF 


le  inventioni 


to  be  conaidered,  vlth  regard  to  the  preserration  of 
lives  in  cases  of  shipwreck,  is  that  of  Ufe-liosts,  which 
are  of  such  a  construction  as  to  be  Incapable  of  sinlc- 
ing,  even  when  filled  with  water.  The  occasional 
adaptation  of  the  common  boats  of  the  ship  to  inch 
purposes,  b}'  means  of  empt>  casita,  has  been  already 
noticed.  But  the  boats  now  in  question  are  supposed 
to  be  kept  on  shore  at  proper  stations,  and  manned  by 
active  persons,  who  are  in  the  hiil>it  of  exerting  them- 
selves for  the  relief  of  seamen  in  distress,  ilr.  Henry 
Greatheod  of  South  Shields,  received  a  gold  medal  and 
fifty  guineas  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1802,  and  a 
parliamentary  reward  of  £1200,  besides  further  remu- 
nerations from  tile  Trinity  House  and  from  Uoyd's 
Coffee-house,  for  his  invention  of  a  life-lwat,  which  is 
described  in  the  Tratuactiont  of  the  Society,  vol.  xx., 
p.  283.  The  length  of  this  boat  is  30  feet,  its  breadth, 
10,  and  its  greatest  depth  about  8,  besides  a  general 
curvature,  which  nearly  doubles  the  depth,  as  reck- 
oned from  the  ends ;  the  convexity  below  being  in- 
tended to  give  it  a  greater  facility  of  turning,  and  a 
greater  power  of  mounting  on  the  waves  without  sub- 
mersion of  the  lx>w,  which  would  increase  the  resist- 
ance, though  it  would  not  sink  the  boat ;  the  breadth 
h  also  continued  further  than  usual  fore  and  aft,  in 
order  to  contribute  to  tlie  same  property.  The  gun- 
wale projects  some  inches,  and  the  sides  below  it  are 
cased  with  pieces  of  cork,  amounting  in  the  whole  to 
seven  cwt.,  which  are  secured  by  plates  of  copper. 
There  are  ten  short  oars  of  fir,  fixed  on  pins  to  the 
gunwales,  and  a  longer  oar  for  steering  at  each  end, 
both  ends  of  the  boat  being  alike.  It  is  painted  white, 
in  order  to  be  more  conspicuous ;  and  a  .  trriage  is 
provided,  for  conveying  it  overland  when  required. 
The  description  is  accompanied  by  documents  of  the 
preservation  of  200  or  300  men  by  the  boats  of  South 
Shields  and  North  Shields,  which  were  built  in  1789 
and  1798  respectively. 

Mr.  Christopher  AVilson  received  a  gold  medal  in 
1807,  for  a  life-boat  with  air  gunwales,  which  was 
tried  at  Newhaven,  and  was  sai'I  to  be  lighter  and  more 
manageable  than  Mr.  Greatli'  ''s.  (_Tran3aciion», 
XXV.  55.)  "  Little  is  required,"  vs  Captain  Manby, 
"  to  establish  the  importance  and  '  vantages  that  will 
result  from  giving  every  boat  the  roperties  of  a  life- 
boat, particularly  when  taken  into  <  nsideration  that 
it  can  be  produced  at  a  ver}' trifling  c^xpense."  To 
illustrate  the  method  of  giving  the  properties  of  pres 
ervation  to  any  boat— a  man-of-war's  jolly-boat,  for 
example — we  quote  the  description  of  the  one  which 
was  fitted  up  to  make  experiments  thereon,  by  per- 
mission of  the  Honorable  Commissioners  of  the  Navy 
Board.  "  To  give  it  buoyancy,  empty  casks  were  well 
lashed  and  secured  in  it.  For  the  advantage  of  keeping 
it  in  an  upright  position,  launching  from  a  flat  shore, 
beaching,  and  to  resist  upsetting,  it  had  billage  boards 
of  equal  depth  with  the  keel,  and  when  a  good  sized 
piece  of  iron  or  lead  was  let  into  or  made  fast  to  the 
.  keel,  if  any  accident  did  upset  the  boat,  it  immediately 
regained  its  original  posture.  A  stout  projecting  rope, 
with  swellings  upon  it  to  increase  its  elasticity,  sur- 
rounded the  gunwale,  served  as  a  fender,  and  pre- 
vented it  being  stove  in  lowering  down,  or  when 
driven  in  contact  with  the  vessel  it  might  be  going  to 
relieve.  The  boat  thus  described  hud  the  plug  out, 
and  was  filled  with  water  until  it  ran  over  the  gun- 
wale, when  a  crew  of  four,  with  myself,  tried  it  in 
every  way,  and  found  from  the  buoyant  property  of 
the  casks,  it  kept  the  Ixrat  so  much  above  the  water's 
edge,  that  it  was  rowed  with  the  greatest  ease,  and 
was  capable  of  performing  any  service  required." 

Mr.  J.  Boyce,  in  1814,  obtained  a  medal  for  his  life- 
boat and  safety-buoy,  consisting  of  hollow  cylinders 
made  of  canvas,  painted  and  varnished,  and  connected 
with  each  other.  It  was  tried  on  a  river,  and  carried 
a  man  with  safety  (Trans.,  xxxii.,  177);  but  surely  it 
could  not  be  tmsted  among  breakers  on  a  lee  shore. 


In  1818  Mr.  Gabriel  Bray  obtainwl  a  silver  modal  for 
his  invention  of  a  boat  tilled  with  alr-boxcs  under  the 
seats  and  along  the  aVv.    (Vol.  xxxv.,  p,  172.) 

Of  late  years  the  subject  of  life-boats  has  attracted 
considerable  attention,  I'rom  the  cbrcumstanco  of  the 
increasing  number  of  vnrecks,  consequent  on  the  rocky 
nature  of  many  shores,  and  the  vast  and  increasing 
amount  of  our  commerce.  The  exertions,  too,  of  the 
National  Life-Boat  Institution  have  had  a  powerful 
influence  in  directing  attention  to  this  subject.  This 
society,  founded  in  1824,  is  under  the  patronage  of  her 
majesty,  and  the  presidency  of  his  grace  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland.  The  oliject  is  to  assist  every 
wrecked  person  in  the  kingdom,  by  such  means  as  the 
establishment  of  life-boats  and  rocket-mortars  at  all 
the  dangerous  parts  of  the  coast ;  to  assist  in  the  form- 
ation of  local  committees  at  the  chief  ports ;  to  confer 
rewards  in  the  form  of  meduls,  votes  of  thanks,  or  pe- 
cuniar}' remuneration  to  all  persons  risking  their  Uvea 
for  the  sake  of  others ;  and  also  to  encourage  the  in- 
vention of  new  or  improved  life-boats,  belts,  rocket 
apparatus,  buoys,  and  other  means  of  saving  life. 
This  admirable  society  is  dependent  on  voluntar}'  sub- 
scriptions for  its  existence  and  support.  That  the  so- 
ciety has  worked  with  some  success,  may  be  judged  of 
from  the  fact,  that  since  its  establishment  It  has  lieen 
instmmenal  in  saving  the  lives  of  9682  persons ;  it  has 
granted  79  gold  medallions,  and  556  silver  medals,  be- 
sides pecuniary  rewards,  amounting  to  jCOCSI.  The 
attention  of  the  public  is  also  kept  alive  by  the  publi- 
cation of  a  journal  entitled  The  Life-Boat,  which,  in 
addition  to  statistical  returns  of  shipwrecks,  contains 
information  on  everj'  subject  connected  with  the  pres- 
ervation of  life  from  shipwreck.  One  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  society  is  a  Wreck  Chart  of  (he  British 
latands,  originally  published  by  the  Admiralty.  A 
vessel  wrecked  on  their  coast  is  indicated  by  a  black 
spot  • ,  while  a  vessel  so  seriously  damaged  as  to  re- 
quire to  discharge  her  cargo  is  indicated  by  -f- ;  and 
the  number  of  such  marks  at  any  one  spot  indicates 
the  annual  average  of  wrecks,  which  may  be  large 
because  the  const  is  dangerous,  or  because  the  trafBo 
is  great.  Thus,  the  mouth  of  the  T}-ne  shows  a 
larger  number  of  black  dots  and  crosses  than  any 
other  place ;  the  mouth  of  the  Tees  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Weir  occupy  the  next  places  of  distinction  in  this 
dismal  chart:  these  three  rivers  being  the  outlets  of 
the  district  by  which  Jx>ndon  is  supplied  by  sea  with 
3,000,000  tons  of  coal  every  year,  giving  employment 
to  several  thousand  collier  ships,  which  sail  to  and  fro, 
and  greatly  add  to  the  otherwise  large  trade  of  the 
Northumberland  and  Durham  ports.  The  coast  of 
these  two  counties  indicates  per  annum  180  wrecks, 
sinkings,  and  serious  collisions.  The  mouth  of  the 
Humber,  the  coast  of  Suffolk  between  Yarmouth  and 
Southwold,  the  sandy  shoals  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Thomes,  the  Good.vin  Sands,  the  Scllly  Isles,  Barn- 
stable Bay,  and  Liverpool,  rank  as  the  next  dangerous 
portions  of  the  English  coast.  The  Welsh  coast  is 
also  dangerous,  especially  Glamorgan,  Pembroke,  and 
Anglesea.  Scotland,  except  near  the  Firtli  of  Forth, 
is  comparatively  free  from  wrecks,  the  western  coast 
remarkably  so,  probably  from  being  less  exposed  to 
the  winds,  which  tend  to  drive  ships  ashore  on  the 
eastern  coast.  In  Ireland,  the  east  and  south  coasts 
present  about  an  equal  number  of  wrecks,  the  smaller 
number  being  on  the  northern  and  western.  In  the 
year  1855  no  less  than  1141  wrecks  occurred  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom — about  one  hulf  of  that 
number  Ijelonging  to  the  east  coasts  of  Great  Britain. 
The  loss  of  life  from  shipwreck  durhig  tl'.at  year  was 
comparatively  small,  being  only  469,  or  less  than  one 
third  of  the  loss  of  tho  preceding  year,  the  average 
loss  per  annum  being  between  600  and  700  lives. 

Passing  over  a  great  variety  of  proposals  for  life- 
boats, we  proceed  to  notice  the  boat  which  the  Life- 
boat Institution  recommends  and  supplies  to  its  sta- 


LIF 


1216 


tlont.  Ita  hiitory  Is  inttreiting.  A  few  yean  ago,  a 
lanwntubls  accident  occurred  to  •  South  Shields  life- 
boat, whereby  twenty  pllota  were  drowned.  This  in- 
dnceil  the  Dulce  of  Korthumberland  to  offer  a  rewnrd 
(br  the  best  model  of  a  life-boat.  This  offer  was  re- 
sponded to  by  boat-liuilders  and  others  from  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  from  France,  Holland, 
Germany,  and  America,  so  that  280  models  and  plans 
were  sent  in.  About  50  of  the  best  of  these  were  ex- 
hil>itrd  by  his  Grace  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  18S1 ; 
and  he  expressed  the  intention  of  placing  tho  best 
life-l)oats,  with  their  subsidiary  apparatus,  on  all  the 
exposed  points  of  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  He 
also  caused  a  report  to  be  prepaiwl,  accompanied  by 
plans  and  drawings,  with  a  view  to  elicit  the  best  form 
of  life-lmat ;  for  although  the  prize  of  £100  was  as- 
signed to  Mr.  Beeching  of  Great  Yarmouth,  it  was 
considered  that  a  better  boat  might  still  be  produced. 
Accordingly,  Mr.  James  Peake,  uHsistant  master-ship- 
wright in  her  majesty's  dockyard  at  Woolwich,  and  a 
member  of  the  Life-boat  Committee  appointed  by  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  wa3  requested  to  furnish  a 
design  for  a  life-boat  which  might  combine  as  many  as 
possible  of  the  advantages,  and  have  as  few  as  possible 
of  the  defects,  of  the  best  of  the  models  examined  by 
the  committee.  A  boat  was  accordingly  designed  by 
Mr.  Peake,  and  bailt  at  the  public  expense  in  Wool- 
wich dockyard.  Some  modifications  were  from  time 
to  time  made  in  her,  in  consequence  of  various  experi- 


ments, and  a  trial  of  ker  capabilities  mad*  In  a  gala  ol 
wind  at  Brighton.  The  boat,  with  others  of  the  same 
design,  built  at  the  cost  of  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, was  placed  on  the  Northumberland  coast  in  the 
autumn  of  18S3.  In  the  course  of  the  following  win- 
ter, these  boats  were  taken  afloat  on  trial  by  the  Soci- 
ety's inspector  of  lif»-boats,  some  of  them  in  heavy 
seas  and  gales  of  wind,  and  the  result  of  the  trials  was 
consii'.ered  to  be  highly  satisfactory.  Other  boats  were 
therefore  built  on  the  same  plan,  and  we  may  therafoie 
consider  this  as  the  model  life-lioat.  These  boats  have 
been,  for  the  most  part,  of  two  sizes,  viz.,  27  and  30  feet 
in  length,  with  7J  to  8  feet  beam,  and  rowing  from  8  to 
12  oars,  double-banked — their  weiglit  averaging  two 
tons.  But  as  such  boats  have  l>een  found  too  heavy 
to  be  managed  in  some  localities,  where  boatmen  are 
few,  boati  of  less  beam  and  weight,  rowing  six  oars 
single-banked,  but  on  the  same  design  in  other  r». 
spects,  have  Iwen  built  under  the  denomination  of 
second-class  life-boats.  The  former  class  of  boats  has 
also  been  somewhat  modified  since  the  description  of 
the  boat  was  first  published,  so  as  to  be  reduced  some 
what  in  beam,  and  to  have  less  height,  and  greater 
sharpness  of  bow  and  stem,  to  enable  them  to  be 
rowed  with  greater  speed  against  a  head  gale  and  a 
heavy  sea.  They  ore  also  built  of  fir,  upon  tho  diag- 
onal principle  of  double  planking  without  timbers, 
whereas  the  earlier  boats  were  of  elm,  and  clenched, 
or  clinker-built. 


riR.  IS. 


Fig.  It. 


The  accompanying  figures  show  the  general  form  and 
the  nature  of  the  fittings  of  the  air-chamliers  of  one 
of  these  boats,  30  feet  in  length,  and  7  feet  6  inches  in 
breadth.  In  figs.  16  and  10,  corresponding  to  the  ele- 
vation nnd  deck-plans,  the  general  exterior  form  of  the 
boat  is  seen,  showing  the  sheer  of  gunwale,  length  of 
keel,  and  rake,  or  slope  of  stem  and  stem  posts.  Tho 
dotted  lines  of  fig.  15  show  the  position  and  dimensions 
of  the  air-chambers  within  the  board,  and  of  the  reliev- 
ing tul)es.  A  represents  the  deck,  B  the  relieving  tubes, 
six  inches  in  diameter, 
C  the  side  air-cases,  D 
the  end  air-chambers. 
In  fig.  17  tho  exterior 
form  of  transverse  sec- 
,  tions,  at  different  dis- 
^t^inces,  firom  stem  to 
^^tem,  is  shown.  Fig. 
-18  represents  a  midship 
fig,  17.  transversa  section,  A  b»- 


ing  sections  of  the  side  cir-cases,  B  the  relieving  tubes, 

liored  through  solid  massive  chocks  of  wood,  of  the  same 

depth  as  the  space  between  the  deck  and  the  bu.it's  fiuor ; 

C  0  are  spaces  beneath  the  deck  filled  up,  over  six  fpct 

in  length,  at  the  mid-ship  part  of  the  l>oat,  with  solid 

chocks  of  light  wood,  or 

boxes  of  cork,  forming 

a  portion  of  the  ballast ; 

D  is  a  section  of  a  tier 

below  the  deck,  with  a 

movable  hatch  or  lid,  in 

which  the  boat's  cable  is 

stowed,  and  into  which 

p.U  leakage  beneath  the 

deck  is  drained  through 

small  holes  with  valves  fixed  in  them.     In  some  of 

the  later  boats  a  small  draining  tier  only  is  placed, 

having  a  pump  in  it,  by  which  any  leakage  can  be 

pumped  out  by  one  of  tho  crew  while  afloat.    The 

festooned  lines  in  fig.  16  represent  exterior  life-lines, 


Fig.  la 


LIP 


1217 


•ttachml  roand  the  antlra  langth  of  the  boat,  to  which 
peraons  in  the  water  may  cling  until  thej  can  be  got 
into  the  l>oat;  the  two  central  liuei  aia  festooned 
lower  than  the  othen,  to  l>e  used  a*  stirrups,  «o  tliat  a 
person  in  tlie  water,  by  stepping  on  them,  may  climb 
Intc  the  boat. 

The  chief  peculiarity  of  a  life-boat  is  its  incapability 
of  being  sunic,  In  consequence  of  its  being  fitted  with 
water-tigh^  air>oaMs,  or  compartments.  One  of  the 
difficulties  of  li/e-boata  has  been  to  deciile  as  to  the 
amount  and  diKtrtbution  of  such  air<ases.  The  nee 
essary  space  for  rowing  and  working  the  boat,  and  for 
the  stowage  of  shipwreclced  penons  being  secured,  the 
space  along  the  fides  within-board  should  be  entirely 
occupied  by  buoyant  cases,  or  compartments,  because, 
on  the  boat's  sbipp|ng  a  sea,  the  water,  until  got  rid 
of,  is  confined  to  the  midship  parts  of  the  boat,  where 
it  serves  to  a  great  extent  as  balUst,  instead  of  falling 
over  to  the  lee-aide,  and  destroying  the  equilibrium  of 
the  Iwat.  Hence,  barrels  or  casks,  which  do  not  con- 
form in  shape  to  the  sides  of  the  Iwat,  are  not  well 
adapted  to  serve  us  air-cascs.  In  Mr.  Peake's  life- 
boat there  is  a  water-tight  deck  at  the  load-water-line, 
and  detached  air-boxes  along  the  sides,  closely  con- 
forming to  their  shape  from  the  thwarts  to  the  deck. 
Extra  buoyancy  is  also  derived  from  large  air-cases, 
built  across  the  bow  and  stem,  and  occup}'ing  flrom  8 
feet  to  4^  feet  in  length,  from  the  stem  and  stem  posts 
to  tlie  gunwale  height.  These  cases  are  chiefly  hi- 
tended  to  provide  self-righting  power;  but  in  the 
event  of  the  lioat  being  sti  vo  in,  und  the  space  below 
the  deck  being  tilled  with  water,  these  air-coses  alone 
have  sufficient  buoyancy  to  float  the  boat. 

Tlie  second  peculiarity  of  a  life-boat  is  its  power  of 
discharging,  in  a  few  seconds,  any  water  which  may  lie 
■hipped  by  the  breaking  over  of  the  sea,  or  by  the 
boat  being  suddenly  thrown  on  her  lieam-ends.  Thi» 
property  does  not  belong  to  all  life-boats,  for,  in  cer- 
tain oases  (tlie  Norfolk  life-boats,  for  example)  the 
plugs  which  stop  certain  holes  in  the  floors  are  taken 
out  during  a  gale  of  wind,  or  a  heavy  sea,  so  as  to  let 
the  water  into  thera  until  it  is  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  water  thus  let  in  is  confined  by  the  wide  sea-cases 
iO  the  midships  of  the  boat,  whjre  it  serves  as  a  loose 
ballast,  and  the  boatmen  consider  that  it  is  safest  to 
go  off  under  sail  with  the  boat  deeply  immersed.  The 
Liverpool  life-boats  have  no  relieving  holes,  so  tint 
when  filled  by  a  sea,  the  water  must  Ira  got  rid  of  by 
bailing.  In  Mr.  Peake's  bout  there  is  a  water-tight 
dock  at  the  load-water-line,  and  a  number  of  large 
open  tul)e8,  opening  at  the  surface  of  the  deck,  and 
passing  through  the  space  l>etweon  the  deck  and  the 
Uoor;  the  bottom  orifices  being  furnished  with  self- 
acting  valves  opening  downwanl,  so  as  to  allow  any 
water  shlp|>ed  to  escape  through.them.  The  deck  be- 
ing pUiced  at  or  above  the  load-water-line,  any  water 
which  in  above  it  will  be  above  the  outside  level  of  the 
sea,  80  that  the  water  escaiies  from  the  deck  by  its  own 
weight,  and  disappears  in  a  few  seconds.  As  a  life- 
boat has  very  great  buoyant  power,  it  is  important  to 
her  stability  and  safety  to  attend  to  the  ballasting. 
The  Greatheud  life-bouts  have  usually  no  ballast, 
their  great  broudth  of  beam  being  relied  on  for  stabil- 
ity ;  but  some  of  them  have  a  tank  in  the  midships  be- 
neath the  deck,  wlilch  can  be  filled  with  water. 
Beeching's  life-bouts  are  similarly  ballasted ;  but  ao- 
ciileBts,  with  loss  of  llfo,  have  arisen  from  a  difficulty 
in  filling  the  tanks,  and  preventing  the  escape  of  the 
water  when  full ;  hence  solid  ballast  is  to  be  preferred. 
Mr.  Peake's  life-boats  are  ballasted  with  heavy  iron 
keels,  and  with  solid  wood  and  cork  ballast,  stowed 
nnder  the  declu ;  and  should  these  ho  stove  in,  and  i 
the  space  Iwneath  l)e  filled  with  water,  the  wootl  and 
the  cork  would  supply  extra  buoyancy. 

A  life-boat  ought  to  be  self-righting  if  upset,  a  prop- 
wty  which,  however,  belongs  only  to  Mr.  Peake's  and 
Mr,  Beeohing'B  boats,  some  boat-builders  Gons!'leriiig 


that  stability  Is  McrlHced  thereby.  Tha  faot,  btw> 
ever,  has  been  established  in  the  Hfe-bnat  Juumat. 
that  the  means  employed  to  produce  self-righting  ltda 
to  the  stability  of  a  boat,  and  improve  tier  in  otbir  r» 
spects.  The  self-righting  power  is  thus  attained  t  1, 
The  boat  is  built  with  considerable  sheer  of  gunwala, 
the  bow  and  stern  being  from  1  foot  0  laches  to  'i  hat 
higher  than  the  sides  of  the  boat  at  her  centre,  aud 
the  space  within  the  Iwat  at  either  extremity,  tu  tit* 
distance  of  from  8  to  4^  feet  ft-om  the  stem  and  starn 
posts  to  gunwale  height,  is  then  Imdosed  bv  a  sautlonal 
bulk-head  and  a  ceiling,  and  ro  converted  Into  a  wata^ 
tight  air-chamber,  the  cubical  contenti  of  which,  fniin 
the  thwarts  upward,  are  sufficient  to  bear  the  wbula 
weight  of  the  boat  when  she  Is  placed  In  the  watar  In 
an  inverted  position,  or  keel  upward,  ti,  A  heavy 
iron  keel  (from  4  to  8  owt.)  is  attached,  and  a  nearly 
equal  weight  of  light  wood  or  cork  ballast  is  stowed 
between  the  boat's  floor  on  the  deck.  No  other  meaiw 
ures  are  necessary  to  bo  taken  in  order  to  al^ut  tli^ 
self-righting  power.  When  the  boat  Is  forcibly  plawd 
in  the  water  with  her  kee)  upward,  she  it\  floutail  un> 
steadily  on  the  two  air-chambers  at  Iww  itiid  stern  i 
while  the  heavy  iron  keel  and  other  ballast  Iteing  tlluii 
carried  above  the  centre  of  gravity,  an  unstable  equl. 
llbrium  Is  at  once  effected,  ami  the  weight  of  the  Iron 
keel  falling  over  on  one  side,  immediately  restores  tliu 
boat  to  her  proper  position ;  in  other  words,  aha  self- 
rights."— rAe  Life-boat,  No.  22.  Lateral  stability  ut 
stilTnesB,  being  the  tendency  to  preserve  an  upright 
position  in  the  water,  with  proportionate  resistance  to 
upsetting,  is  obtained  by  breadth  of  Iwam  or  by  but. 
last — OS  in  Mr.  Peake's  boats,  by  an  iron  keel  ami 
other  solid  ballast,  and  by  flatness  and  length  of  flooi 
with  moderate  beam  only.  The  other  qualities  to  liu 
required  in  a  good  life-boat  are  speed,  strength,  and 
stowuge-room .  all  of  which  seem  to  hikve  baeo  well 
cousideied  in  Mr.  Peake's  bouts. 

A  n«w  description  of  life-boat,  invented  by  the  Itev, 
£.  L.  Berthon,  M.A,,  of  Fareham,  urn!  '  'lown  as  the 
Fareham  Life-bout,  has  been  made  i  ibjuct  of  u 
patent.     Its  novel  feature  is,  that  it  i  i|Mllila,  m 

that  it  combines  the  property  of  the  life-liu.it,  with  fa- 
cility of  stowage  In  a  small  space.  Hence,  it  Is  well 
adapted  for  the  use  of  chips,  espechiUy  large  steamers, 
emigrant  vessels,  and  troop-ships.  Its  fruine-work  ii 
of  wood,  all  the  timbers  extending  tlie  wluihi  length  of 
the  boat,  there  beini;  no  transverse  timbers  or  ribs, 
The  timbers,  four  on  each  side  of  the  stem  and  ^el- 
piece,  are  thin,  flat,  and  deep,  sometliing  like  a  thin 
slice  of  melon;  they  are  made  without  scarfing,  by 
bending  plank  over  plank  till  the  required  thickness 
13  attained.  They  are  jointed  together  at  their  ends, 
and  to  the  tops  of  the  stem  and  stein  posts  by  u  kimi 
of  chain  hinge.  When  the  boat  is  nollupsed,  these 
tiinbers  stand  side  by  side  in  vertical  planes,  like  the 
leaves  of  a  closed  book ;  but  when  expanded,  tliuy 
stand  apart  in  radial  plunes,  somewhat  like  the  aug- 
ments of  an  orange.  Attached  to  the  edges  of  ail  tliu 
timbers  are  water-proof  coverings,  of  which  there  uru 
two,  the  outer  skin  being  secured  to  the  outer  edguH, 
and  the  inner  skin  to  the  inner  edges  of  the  timbeiii, 
by  which  means  the  whole  body  of  the  bout  is  divlduij 
Into  eight  separate  longitudinal  cells  or  conipanmenti, 
which  become  filled  with  air  on  expanding  the  iiout, 
This  is  effected  and  maintubied  by  the  bottom  liounU 
and  thwarts,  which  being  jaiqted  along  tho  mldillo 
Ime,  are  made  to  stand  up  at  an  acuta  angle  when  the 
Iwut  is  collapsed,  and  fall  down  to  straight  lines  when 
open.  The  inventor  compares  tho  principle  of  oxteii. 
siuu  to  that  of  a  curriage-head,  the  frunie  of  whiuli 
may  be  compared  to  the  bout's  timbers,  and  tho  Joints 
to  tho  thwarts  and  stretchers  of  tho  bottom  boards  t 
and  as  the  leathern  covering  of  the  carriage  shuts  in 
when  tho  hciid  is  down,  so  the  coverings  of  the  Imut 
shut  In  between  the  timbers.  Tho  boat  has  rather  u 
deep  keel,  bosidoa  two  bilge  pieces  on  each  tide,  ami 


LtF 


1318 


LIF 


la  araiy  other  ullent  point  the  cuvefhig  ti  protected 
by  wood  or  copper.  The  boat  !■  lowerwi  by  the  fbl- 
lowlng  contrivance :  Inaide  the  bulwarks  la  a  large, 
flat,  deaply.grooved  aheave  about  2  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter ;  it  haa  two  deep,  narrow  g:roove8  cut  nearly 
to  it*  axia,  and  In  these  are  wound  separately  the  ends 
of  (he  two  ftills.  From  this  sheave  is  a  projection  on 
which  a  fHction-atrap  with  a  powerful  lever  is  made  to 
worli.  This  being  placed  flat  against  the  I>n1warlta, 
the  falls  are  brought  to  it  fore  and  aft  liy  small  shcaveii 
Mt  In  the  top-rail ;  thus  the  fVlctlon  of  the  strap,  when 
the  boat  la  np,  is  enough  to  prevent  motion  ;  but  liy 
/  llocliing  the  lanyard  by  which  the  leather  la  aecured, 

It  may  be  allowed  to  descend  rapidly  or  slowly,  ac- 
cording to  the  preaaore  applied  to  the  break.  Bis- 
Ing  and  falling  derricks  are  substituted  for  davita. 
The  average  size  of  the  Fareham  life-boat  ia  ?fi  by  10 
fcet  i  it  has  8  thwarts,  besides  seats  round  the  stem, 
Ud  will  pull.  If  required,  12  oars,  double-banked. 

CapWn  Manby's  proposal  for  throwing  ropes  from 
ihip  to  ship  in  cases  of  accidents  may  easily  be  under- 
stood from  the  methods  which  he  employs  for  s■^vlng 
lives  in  shipwrecks.  The  lifg-bnoy  by  Lieutenant 
Cook,  R.N.  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  FortiAcdtion  at  Ad- 
dlscombe  College,  is  related  to  the  same  class  of  in- 
rentions ;  its  object  ia  to  preserve  tlie  life  of  a  person 
falling  overboard  in  the  night,  by  meons  of  a  floating 
light ;  and  It  obtained  him  a  gold  medal  from  the  So- 
ciety of  Arts,  In  1818.— TVofwrartion*,  xxxvi.  He 
obatrvM  that  a  ship  may  often  have  to  run  half  a  mile 
before  she  can  get  about  and  lower  a  boat,  so  that  it 
becomes  highly  desirable  to  afford  a  temporary  sup. 
port  to  the  sufferer.  The  machine  consists  of  two 
Copper  spherical  air-vessels,  with  a  square  tapering 
tabe  through  each,  made  water-tight,  and  united  to- 
gather  by  a  cross-piece  of  wood,  in  which  are  two 
brus  conducting  tubes  through  which  is  flxed  a  par- 
pendicuUr  tubular-ataff,  with  a  brass  ferule  tt  each 
and,  and  a  copper  slidiug-rod,  neatly  its  own  bngth, 
within  it.  Attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  is  a 
flat  circular  balance-weight,  bearing  a  chain  by  which 
the  life-buoy  is  suspended,  and  a  link  which,  when 
hooked  to  a  atud  in  the  lower  ferale,  Iwars  np  the  rod 
and  the  balance-weight,  but  which,  when  unhooked, 
allows  the  weight  to  draw  the  rod  about  two  thirds  out 
of  the  staff.  To  the  head  of  the  i^erpendictlar  staff  is 
attached  at  night  a  ftise,  on  a  brass  ftase-plate,  the 
ihank  of  which  is  seenred  in  a  socket  by  a  thumb- 
screw. The  buoy  ia  secured  to  the  ship  by  the  chain 
only,  the  ring  of  which  hangs  on  the  hook  of  the 
rheave  of  the  trigger-plate.  Attached  to  the  stem  of 
the  vessel  are  two  iron  rods  cased  with  copper  tubing, 
together  with  the  screw-bolts,  from  which  they  are 
anspended ;  just  above  the  forked  ata-r  which  keeps 
the  rods  parallel,  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  stem. 
Is  the  trigger-plate,  and  the  brass  fuse-case  which 
covers  and  protects  the  fuse  on  the  head  of  the  i^talf. 
There  ia  also  a  brass  case  for  the  lock  or  percussion- 
hammer,  placed  so  aa  to  communlcaie  with  tho  fnan- 
caae,  by  meana  of  the  horizontal  tube  j  all  these,  to- 
gether with  the  pulleys  ancf  guara-iron.  ^.re  flrmly 
attached  to  the  atom  of  the  vessel,  insido  of  which, 
immediately  opposite  to  the  puUien,  are  fired  the  cups 
and  handles,  the  one  for  firing  the  lock  and  lighting 
the  fuse,  the  other  for  raising  the  trigger-bolt  and  dis- 
engaging the  buoy  from  the  ship.  As  soon  as  the 
trigger-bolt  ia  raised,  the  shrave  revolves,  tlie  stop 
turns  round,  and  the  life-buoy  alidea  off  the  rods  into 
the  water,  bearing  on  the  kaad  of  tho  staff  a  brilliant 
flame.  The  l>alance-weight,  when  no  longer  held  np 
by  the  chain,  drops  upward  of  three  feet  below  the 
cross-piece,  prevents  the  buoy  from  upsetting,  and 


Mr.  MiUer'a  aafety-polea  for  akatera,  and  Mr.  Pri- 
or's mod*  of  preventing  accidents  in  descending  mines, 
are  mentione<i  in  the  Tranixtiont  of  the  Society  o, 
AHi  (vols,  xxxli.,  xxxvi.)  Apparatua  o'  the  latter 
kind  has  been  introduced  at  different  timea  with  vari- 
oua  modifications,  in  coal-pits,  or  coal  and  iron  pita, 
where  the  men  are  raised  and  lowered  in  a  rectangular 
iron  frame,  called  a  cage,  the  rope  or  ohniii  may  break, 
or  the  cage  may  be  overwound  by  drawing  it  over  the 
framing  at  the  pit's  mouth.  Mr.  Kal^ort  lllee  of 
Kedruth,  bos  intriHluced  what  he  oaila  a  aufbty-bucket, 
and  Messrs.  White  and  Grant  of  Glasgjw,  have  a 
safet}'-cage.  These  inventiona  depend  upon  some 
such  arrangements  as  tho  following :  Two  p^irs  of  ec- 
centrics are  attached  to  tho  ends  of  two  parallel  shafts, 
which  extend  across  the  tup  of  th^  cage ;  the  edges  of 
the  eccentrics  are  toothed,  and  when  the  cage  is  in 
motion  they  are  free  of  the  vertical  wooden  rails  which 
steady  the  cage  in  its  motion  up  and  down  the  pit. 
Should  the  rope  break,  two  volute  springs  bring  round 
the  thick  sides  of  the  eccentrics  to  bear  against  the 
guides,  and  hold  the  cage  securely.  To  prevent  over- 
winding, the  holdfast  which  connects  the  rope  tu  the 
cage  is  secured  by  a  curved  Imlt,  kept  in  place  by  a 
strong  spring ;  this  liolt  moves  on  a  fulcrum,  and  Is 
oontinued  a*  a  lever  Iwyond  the  holdfast ;  across  tlie 
framing  at  the  mouth  of  the  pit  is  a  bar  so  arranged 
that,  when  the  lever  comes  in  contact  with  it,  tho 
Imlt  becomes  disengaged,  the  cage,  by  tho  action  of 
the  eccentric  i),  becomes  fixed,  and  the  rope  only  is 
drawn  up  over  the  pulley.  In  Mr.  Blee's  safety-cage 
the  catches  allow  it  to  move  freely  so  long  as  there  ia 
a  vertical  strain  on  them ;  but  should  this  cease  by  the 
breaking  of  the  rope,  the  catches  become  liberated, 
and  attached  to  the  iron  staves  of  the  ladders  placed 
on  either  aide  of  the  shaft. 

A  sketch  of  the  expedients  which  have  been  recom- 
mended for  the  preservation  of  marine  re,  published  in 
a  work  entitled  Shipicnckt  and  Ditattert  at  Sea  (vol. 
ill,  Edinburg,  1822),  contains  a  few  further  historical 
details  relating  to  some  of  the  inventions  which  have 
been  described. — E.  B. 

Francis's  life-boats  are  verj-  generally  used  on  our 
American  coast,  and  below  we  give  a  sliort  description 
of  them.  Many  of  them  are  also  used  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  structure  of  the  boats,  and  of  the  wagons 
may  be  briefly  described.  A  sheet  of  galvanized  iron 
or  copper  of  the  full  size  of  one  half  of  the  boat,  from 
stem  to  stem,  but  not  thicker  than  a  sixpence,  is 
placed  between  two  dies  of  the  requisite  form,  ard 
then  aubjected  to  enormous  hydraulic  pressure,  Tlie 
dies  require  great  care,  labor,  and  expense,  in  their 
preparation,  two  being  required  for  each  form  and  size 
of  boat- -one  for  the  starboard,  and  one  for  the  lar- 
board section.  The  pjate  of  metal  is  thus  pressed  into 
the  shape  of  the  half  lioat,  receiving  at  the  same  time 
certain  longitudinal,  or  fore-and-aft  corrugations  of  a 
peculiar  character.  The  two  halves  are  then  riveted 
together,  and  the  boat  is  complete. 

It  Is  to  the  corrugations  that  the  boat  owes  its  enor- 
mous strength,  for  it  has  no  frame-work,  no  riba,  no 
timbers.  A  plute  of  plain  metal  was  exhibited ;  it 
was  laid  on  two  blocks  of  irood  a  yard  apart,  and  was 
too  weak  even  to  bear  its  o'rn  weight.  Another  plate 
of  metal  of  the  same  thiciness,  but  corrugated,  was 
placed  on  the  block,  and  lore  the  T,eight  of  a  man 
withont  bending;  and  would  Lave  borne  four  men. 
Boats  of  all  sizea  may  be  thua  constructed,  from  the 
smallest  gig  to  the  largest  man-of-War's  cutter  or 
launch.  The  great  majority  of  the  American  steamers 
have,  for  some  years,  carried  Francis's  boats.  In  an 
experiment  to  test  the  strength  of  these  boats,  one  of 


affords  a  place  for  the  man  to  stand  on.     This  appara-  '  them  was  subjected  to  most  violent  treatment.     It  was 


m 

ap 
rit 
am 
fen 
wh 
1 
wag 
run] 
17c 
?ici 
the  I 
wate 
one  I 
uppei 
tho  w 
Ihe  I 
these 
(umbr 
with,  ( 
army « 
these  1 
across 
">e  waj 
and  use 
Topes  fr 
'ogethei 
"uimuni 
Mlesm 
be  ancht 
and  a  br 
■  more  ej 
the  L'nite 

,1'iebti 

'"}'  inann 
'".  or  fron; 
There  are 
throughjui 
"erchandii 
These  are  i 

terms  whi< 
indlfferentl 
Sea-Ziffii  ni 
"""'erf  o»  to 
'^i  at  once 
tie  nig^t,  in 
<^«ld  do  Hi, 
..ouses  is  v< 
queries,  rind 
endeavored 
rounded  on 
writers,  and 
Wactoij-hyn 
•"Mthen  rnyti 

'[ght-honses  ; 
"•at  Cyclops 
"present  a  lio 

"'  «  accorts  - 
'ended  to  be 
•ne  "nes  tnnx 
•fe'criblng  the 
"le  fleet  of  U: 
^Klopean  isla, 

Etat6o/4tv  r" 


"T/ 


tus  admits,  of  being  lighted  and  let  down  Into  the  wa- 
ter in  the  short  space  of  five  seconds.  Lieutenant 
Cook  is  also  the  Inventor  of  a  plan  for  converting  boata 
used  for  ordinary  purposes  into  life-boata  at  pleasure. 


pitched  from  a  height  on  stone  pavement ;  it  was  rolled 
and  bruised  upon  It,  and  several  men  used  their  utmost 
endeavors,  with  heavj'  hammers,  ta  damage  it,  but  all 
in  vain.     It  was  then  set  afloat,  aM  four  strong  men, 


There  does 
P»''n».  that  nn, 
.'V  other  pc„„, 
'"■"e  was  conv. 
"concaable  th. 
"">  fflJ-thology, 


nnc 


EM 


I'ilO 


Lia 


X  its  enor- 
[o  rib»,  no 
■ibitedi  '' 
1,  and  was 
Itber  plato 
fated,  WM 
lof  »  n»n 
four  won. 
I  from  the 
Icuttet   fli 
^  steamers 
is.    man 
Its,  one  of 
t      It  was 
[was  rolled 
\,\x  utmost 
I  it,  but  all 
Irong  men. 


palling  with  might  and  main,  ran  It,  item  on,  at  fliU 
■peed,  to  th*  stone  wharf,  again  and  again  ;  but  at  the 
close  of  the  experlmenta,  which  would  have  utterly 
annihilated  a  wcHxIen  Imnt,  It  was  found  to  havo  suf- 
fered no  damage  beyond  a  few  dents  and  bruises, 
which  a  hammar  set  to  rights  In  Ave  minutes. 

The  wagons  were  also  experimented  upon.  The 
wagon  was  first  placed  In  the  water,  with  the  whole  of  its 
running-gear  attached,  Including  the  pole,  the  weight, 
17  cwt.  16  men  ihen  got  in,  their  weight  amounting  to 
2fi  cwt.,  and  brought  the  wagon  to  about  one  foot  from 
the  top.  Attempts  were  then  made  to  upset  it  in  the 
water,  b}'  the  whole  of  the  men  bearing  down,  first  on 
one  side,  and  then  on  the  other,  but  all  in  vain  ;  the 
upper  edge  of  the  wagon  could  not  lie  brought  helnw 
the  water.  Many  other  severe  experiments  were  tried. 
Ihe  advantages  possessed  by  an  army  marching  with 
these  wagons,  are  manifold  and  delf-evident.  The 
( umbrous  pontoon  and  brVAge  train  may  he  dispensed 
with,  the  ordinary  wagons  which  must  accompany  an 
army  supplying  their  place.  On  approaching  a  river, 
these  wagons,  full  of  men,  may  at  once  be  driven 
across  the  water ;  or  if  the  stream  be  full  and  rapid, 
the  wagon-liodies  may  be  tal!.eii  olf  their  running-gear, 
and  used  as  boats,  propelled  by  oars,  or  dragged  by 
ropes  from  the  opposite  banic.  Two  wsK''n-l)o<iie8  put 
together  will  float  a  field-piece,  with  its  liml)cr  and 
ammunition  ready  for  Instant  action.  Four  of  the 
bodies  maiie  a  valuable  raft.  A  succession  of  them  mny 
be  anchored  across  the  river,  planks  laid  over  them, 
and  a  bridge  far  all  arras  is  at  once  estalilished.  For 
a  more  extended  account  of  the  losses  on  the  coast  of 
the  United  States,  see  Wreokb, 

Lighter,  a  large  open  flat-bottomed  vessel,  gener- 
ally managed  with  oars,  and  employed  to  carry  goods 
to,  or  from  a  ship,  when  she  is  to  be  laden  or  delivered. 
There  are  also  some  lighters  furnished  with  a  deck 
throughout  their  whole  length,  In  order  to  Inclose  such 
merchandise  as  would  be  damaged  by  rainy  weather. 
These  are  usually  called  close  lighters. 

Light-houaes.  Light-house,  and  sea-light,  are 
terms  which,  although  not  strictly  sj'nonymous,  are 
indiflTerently  employed  to  denote  the  same  thing.  A 
Sea-light  may  be  defined  as  a  light  ao  modified  mui  di- 
rected at  to  present  to  the  mariner  an  appearance  which 
thall  at  once  ennbh  him  to  judgt  of  hit  position  during 
the  night,  in  the  tame  mr.nner  an  the  tight  of  a  landmark 
would  do  during  the  dag.  The  eiirly  history  of  light- 
..ouses  is  very  uncertain ;  and  many  ingenious  anti- 
quaries, finding  the  want  of  authentic  records,  have 
endeavored  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  conjectures 
founded  on  casual  and  obscure  allusions  in  ancient 
writers,  and  have  invented  many  vague  and  unsat- 
isfactorj-  hypotheses  on  the  subject,  drawn  from  the 
heathen  mythology.  Some  writers  have  gone  so  far 
as  to  imagine  that  the  Cyclops  were  the  keepers  of 
light-houses;  while  others  have  actually  maintained 
that  Cyclops  was  intended,  by  a  bold  prosopopoeia,  to 
represent  a  light-house  itself.  A  notion  so  fanciful  de- 
serves little  consideration  ;  and  in  order  to  show  how 
ill  it  accords  with  that  mythology  of  w'  ich  It  is  in- 
tended to  be  an  exposition,  it  seems  enough  to  quote 
the  lines  from  the  ninth  Odyssey,  where  Homer,  after 
describing  the  darkness  of  the  night,  informs  us  that 
the  fleet  of  Ulysses  actually  struck  the  shore  of  the 
Cyclopean  island  before  it  could  be  seen. 

'Ev6'  fitiTif  T^v  waov  iaetpaxtv  di^aX/iutaiv 
'Ovf  civ  KVfiara  /laxpd  KvXtvfo/icva  iron  x^pow 
'Eiaiio/uv  jrpiv  vi/oq  ivaocX/tovc  irtiKcXaul, 

Odyii.,  ix.,  146. 

There  does  not  appear  any  better  reason  for  sup- 
posing, that  under  the  historj*  of  Tithonus,  ChiK^n,  or 
any  other  personage  of  antiquity,  the  idea  of  a  light- 
house was  conveyed ;  for  such  suppositions,  however 
reconcilable  they  may  appear  with  some  parts  of 
the  m)-thology,  Involve  obvious  inconsistencies  with 


others.  Nor  does  it  seem  at  all  probable,  that  In  thoM 
early  timei,  when  navigation  wai  so  little  practiced, 
the  advantages  of  beacon-lights  were  so  generally 
known  and  acknowledged  as  to  render  them  the  object! 
of  mythological  allegory. 

Colotmi  of  Rhodet About  800  years  before  the 

Chistian  era,  Chares,  the  disciple  of  Lyiippus,  con- 
structed the  celebrated  bracen  statue,  called  the  Colos- 
sus of  Rho<les,  whose  height  waa  upward  of  100  feet, 
which  stood  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  There  li 
considerable  probability  in  the  idea  that  this  figure 
served  the  purposes  of  a  light-houso ;  but  we  do  not 
remember  any  passage  in  ancient  writers,  where  this 
use  of  the  Colossus  is  expressly  mentioned.  There  la 
mnch  Inconsistency  in  tlie  account  of  tills  fabrio  l,y 
early  writers,  who,  in  describing  distant  objecta  which 
could  lie  seen  from  it,  appear  to  have  forgotten  the 
height  which  they  assign  to  the  figure.  It  was  partly 
demolished  by  an  earthquake,  about  HO  years  after  Its 
completion ;  and  so  late  as  the  year  672  of  our  era,  the 
brass  of  which  it  was  composeil  was  sold  by  the  Sara- 
cens to  a  Jewish  merchant  of  Edessa,  for  a  sum.  It  is 
said,  equal  to  $180,000. 

Pharoi. — Little  is  known  with  certainty  regarding 
the  Pharos  of  Alexandria,  which  was  regarded  by  the 
ancients  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
It  was  built  by  Ptolemy  Philndelphus,  about  800  yean 
liefore  Christ ;  and  it  is  recorded  liy  Strulio,  that  the 
architect  Sostratus,  the  son  of  Dexiphanes,  having 
first  secretly  cut  his  own  name  on  the  solid  walls 
of  the  building,  covered  the  words  with  plaster,  and, 
In  obedience  to  Ptolemy's  command  made  the  follow- 
ing inscription  on  the  plaster—"  King  I^lemy  to  the 
gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors."  What 
truth  there  may  be  in  this  account  of  the  fraud  of  Sos- 
tratus there  is  now  no  means  of  determining ;  and  the 
story  is  only  now  interesting,  in  so  far  as  it  shows  the 
object  of  the  royal  founder  and  the  use  of  the  tower. 
The  accounts  which  have  reached  us  of  the  dimensions 
of  this  remarkable  edifice  are  exceedingly  various ; 
and  many  of  the  statements  regarding  the  distance  at 
which  it  could  be  seen  are  clearly  fabulous.  Josephns 
approaches  nearest  to  probability,  and  informs  us,  that 
the  fire  which  was  kept  constantly  burning  on  the  toil, 
waa  visible  liy  seamen  at  a  distance  of  about  40  miles 
If  the  reports  of  some  writers  are  to  be  believed,  this 
tower  must  have  far  exceeded  in  size  the  great  pyr- 
amid Itfelf ;  but  the  fact  that  a  bnildlng  of  compar- 
atively BO  late  a  date  should  have  ao  completely 
disappeared,  while  the  pyramid  remains  almost  un- 
changed, is  a  sufiiclent  reason  for  rejecting,  as  errone- 
ous, the  dimensions  which  have  been  assigned  by  most 
writers  to  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria,  Some  have  pre- 
tended that  lorge  mirrors  were  employed  to  direct  the 
rays  of  the  lieacon-light  on  its  top,  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous direction ;  but  there  is  nothing  like  respectable 
evidence  In  favor  of  this  supposition.  Others,  with 
greater  probability,  have  imagined  that  this  celebrated 
beacon  was  known  to  mariners,  simply  by  the  uncer- 
tain and  rude  light  aifoi'ded  by  a  common  fire.  In 
speaking  of  the  Pharos,  the  poet  Lucan,  on  most  occa- 
sions sufficiently  fond  of  the  marvelous,  takes  no  no- 
tice of  the  gigantic  mirrors  which  it  t.  said  to  have- 
contained,  ■' 

Beptlms  nox,  Zcphyro  nunquam  laxante  mdantes, 
Ostendit  Pharils  ^gyp.ia  littora  fammi*. 
Sell  prlns  urbi  dies  noctumsm  Umpaia  tezit, 
Qnam  tutas  liitrarct  aquas.  PAarsoI.,  iz,,10(M, 

It  is  true  that,  by  using  the  word  "  lampada,"  whict 
can  only  with  pronriety  be  applied  to  a  more  perfect- 
mode  of  illumination  than  an  open  fire,  he  appears  to 
indicate  that  the  "Jtammai"  of  which  he  Speaks,  were 
not  to  produced.  The  word  lampada  may;  however, 
be  used  metaphorically ;  and  Jlammit  would,  In-  this 
case,  not  improperly  describe  the  irregular  appearance 
of  a  common  fire.  Those  who  are  desirous  of  knowing 
all  that  occurs  in  ancient  authon  on  the  subject  of  the 


UQ 


laao 


UQ 


Phamt  of  Alexandria,  may  eoniult  Pi.int,  I.  xxxvt., 
0.  Ittt  I.  ▼,,  e.  18,  and  I.  xlii.,  c.  11.   STRAno,  1.  xtII., 

&701,  el  t«q.  CMKAn,  Commtnl.  de  Httl,  Civil.,  I.  III., 
onpon.  Hbim,  1. 11.,  e.  7.  Amniah.  Marcxm.in,  1. 
xxll.,  c.  lA.  .Tnmtpii.  ({«  Uttt.  JuJiae.,  I.  vl.  Nicil- 
ohM  LixtTD'a  /^xt'ran  Oeoffrnphicvm,  iiid  tba  Nolilia 
OrH§  Aniigui,  of  Celariua,  I.  Iv.,  c.  1,  p.  18. 

ConiHa. — Mr.  Honra,  in  hli  /litlnry  of  Irelami  (yo\. 
I.,  p.  16),  apcaka  of  thn  Towitr  «f  Comfla,  which,  ha 
•aya,  la  menttonad  in  th«  traditionary  hiatory  of  that 
oonnlry  aa  a  llght>houae  erected  for  the  uat  nf  the  Irlah 
in  their  frequent  early  Intercoaraa  With  Spain.  In 
conflrmatinn  of  thU  opinion,  he  citea  a  aomewhat  al>- 
acura  paanage  from  /Kthlcua,  the  coamoKrapber.  Tbii 
in  all  prol>alillity  ia  the  tower  which  Humhaldt  men- 
tlona  In  hia  Narrative  under  the  name  of  the  Iron 
Towtr,  which  waa  built  aa  a  IlKht-hnuae  hy  Calua  8avlua 
Lopua,  an  architect  of  the  city  of  Aqua  Flavia,  the 
modem  Chavea.  A  llitbt-houae  haa  lately  been  eatab- 
liahed  on  thia  headland,  for  which  dioptric  apparntu* 
.  waa  auppliad  fhiin  the  wnrlihop  of  M.  I^taurneiiu  of 
Paria.  See  alao  a  curioua  account  of  the  trailitiona 
about  thia  tower  in  Soiitiiby'h  lAttert  from  Spain  and 
Portugal,  p.  17.  There  la  alao  a  record  in  Stralm,  of  a 
magnifloent  light-honae  of  atone  at  Oapio,  or  Apio,  near 
the  harbor  of  Meneatheus  (the  modem  Heaa  Aata,  or 
Puerto  de  Sta.  Maria),  built  on  a  rock  neariy  anr- 
ronnded  by  the  aea,  aa  a  xoide  for  the  abollowa  at  the 
month  of  the  Onailalquiver,  which  he  detcrllwa  In 
terms  almoat  identical  with  thoaa  aaa<l  by  him  in 
apeakinif  of  the  I'haroa  of  Alexandria.  I  am  not 
aware  of  any  other  notice  of  thia  great  work,  for  auch 
it  oeemi  to  have  been,  to  have  deoerved  the  prniaea  of 
8trabo.  In  Camden'a  Britanma  a  paaaing  notice  ia 
taken  of  the  ruina  called  Canr't  Altar,  at  Dover,  and 
of  the  Tvar  d'Ordre,  at  Boulogne,  on  the  o),poaita 
coaat ;  both  of  which  are  conjectured,  on  aomewhat 
doubtful  grounda,  to  hnve  been  ancient  light-houaes. 
Pennant  deacrlliea  the  remaina  of  a  Roman  Pharoa 
near  Holywell,  but  citea  no  authoritlea  for  hia 
opinion  aa  to  its  uae.  There  were  likewise  re- 
maina of  a  aimilur  atructure  at  Flamboniugh- 
head.  A  very  meagre  and  unintelligible  account 
la  alao  given  of  a  light-houae  at  St.  Edmnnd'a 
Chapel,  on  the  coaat  of  Norfolk,  In  Gough'a  ad- 
ditlona  to  Camden,  by  which  it  might  aeem  that 
the  light-houae  waa  erected  in  1272. — (ioiioii'a 
Camdbn'a  Mrilaima,  vol.  i.,  p.  81R,  and  vol.  II.,  p. 
198.  Batcbcller,  in  bla  Dorer  Ciiidf  (1845,  p.  Ill), 
aaya,  that  the  Dover  Pharoa  waa  built  "  during  the 
lieutenancy  of  Auliua  Plautlua  and  Oatorlua  Scapula, 
the  latter  of  whom  left  Britain  A.  D.  6.S"  (Prnhant's 
Hittory  of  Wkiltford  and  /MyivU,  p.  112). 

Modem  //wtory.— Such  aeems  to  be  tho  aum  of  our 
knowle<Ige  of  the  ancient  histcrj'  of  lii;ht-houae«,  which, 
it  munt  lie  admitted,  ia  neither  accurate  nor  extenaivc. 
Our  information  regarding  modem  ligbt-honaea  ia  of 
cnurae  mure  minute  in  Ita  details,  and  more  worthy  of 
credit,  as  the  greater  part  of  it  is  drawn  from  authen- 
tic Hourcea,  or  is  the  result  of  the  actual  obaervatlon  of 
the  writer  of  thia  article,  who  has  visited  the  most  im- 
portant light-houses  of  Europe.  It  aeema  sufficient 
here  to  notice  briefly  the  moat  remarkable  establish- 
ments of  the  kind  now  in  existence ;  reserving,  for 
the  latter  part  of  the  article,  the  more  appropriate 
and  important  topics  of  the  methods  of  illumination, 
and  the  systems  of  management.  The  first  light-house 
of  modem  days  which  merits  atti^ntion  is  the  Tour  de 
Corduan,  which,  In  point  of  architectural  grandeur, 
la  unquestionably  the  nolilest  ediflce  of  the  kind  in  the 
world.  It  is  situate  on  an  extensive  reef  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Garonne,  and  serves  as  a  guide  to  the 
shipping  of  Bordeaux  and  the  Languedoc  Canal,  ami, 
indeed,  of  all  that  part  of  the  Day  of  Biscay.  It  waa 
founded  in  the  year  16B4,  and  was  not  completed  till 
1610,  under  Henri  IV.  It  Is  minutely  deacrilied  In 
Balidor'a  Archiltcture  Hg^hwiliqna.    The  building  it 


T97  feet  In  height,  and  la  ahown  In  the  acoomp«nj-la( 
woodcut,  fig.  1.  Round  tba  boo*  la  a  wall  of  circuni- 
vallation,  184  fbat  in  dioineUr,  ia  which  th«  light- 


MltfK 


Fig.  I.    Tova  DB  ooasvAit. 

keeper'a  apartments  are  formed,  aomewhat  In  the 
style  of  casemates.  The  flrst  Mght  exhibited  in  the 
Tour  de  Corduan  was  obtained  by  bumlng  billets  of 
oak  wood,  In  a  chauffer  at  the  top  of  the  tower ;  and 
the  use  of  coal  instead  of  wood  was  the  flrst  Improve- 
ment which  the  light  received.  A  rude  reflector,  in 
the  form  of  an  inverted  cone,  was  afterwards  added, 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  light  which  escaped  upward. 
About  the  year  1780,  M.  Lenoir  was  employed  to  suli- 
Btitute  reflectors  and  lamps  ;  and  in  1822  the  light  re- 
ceived ita  last  improvement,  l)y  the  introduction  of 
the  dioptric  instruments  of  M.  Fresnel.— Z/i»/oiy  o; 
Celebrated  Light-house: 

iV/dyrtrtne.— The  history  of  tho  celebrated  light- 
house on  tho  RIdystone  rocks,  is  well  known  to  the 
general  reader,  from  the  narrative  of  Mr.  Smeaton  tiie 
engineer.  These  rocks  are  OJ  miles  from  the  Kam- 
head,  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall ;  and  from  the  small 
extent  of  the  surface  of  the  chief  rock,  and  its  exposed 
situation,  the  construction  of  the  light-house  was  a 
work  of  very  great  dilflculty.  The  flrst  erection  was 
of  timber,  designed  by  Mr.  Winstnnley,  and  was  com- 
menced In  1696.  The  light  was  exhibited  in  Novem- 
ber, 1698.  It  was  soon  found,  however,  tliat  the  sea 
rose  upon  this  tower  to  a  much  greater  height  than 
had  been  anticipated,  to  much  so,  it  is  said,  as  to 
"  Jury  under  the  water"  the  lantern,  which  was  60  feet 
above  the  rock ;  and  Mr.  Winstanley  was  therefore 
afterward  under  the  necessity  of  enlarging  tho  tower, 
and  canying  it  to  the  height  of  120  feet.    In  Novem- 


LTO 


1991 


LIO 


vmur 


b«r,  17011,  ioma  coimldarabl*  rapntn  w«n>  required, 
■ml  Hr,  WIniUnUy,  «rcain|uiiilfHt  l>y  hli  wnrknirn, 
wnnt  to  the  light-lioiiM  to  nttenil  to  their  nxnutlon  ; 
but  th*  itonn  of  th«  'Mih  of  that  month  carried  awar 
tha  whole  erection,  when  the  engineer  and  all  hi  >  aa- 
ilitanti  unhappily  periahed. 

Tha  want  of  a  llf(ht  on  tha  Kddyitona  aoon  led  to  a 
fatal  accident ;  fur,  not  lonx  aflor  the  destruction  of 
Mr.  Wlnatanlvy'a  li|{ht-h<iuw,  tha  Winrkilma  man-of- 
war  waa  wreclu-d  on  thn  KddyHtoiie  rocka,  and  moat  of 
her  crew  were  lout.  Three  yeart,  however,  elapaed 
after  thia  roeliincholy  proof  of  the  neoeaiity  of  a  light 
before  the  Trinity  llouae  of  Ix>ndon  could  obtain  a 
new  act  to  extend  their  pewan  g  and  It  waa  not  till  tha 
month  of  ilaly,  170A,  that  tho  eonntruction  of  a  new 
light-houaa  waa  begun,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  John 
Budyerd  of  London.  On  the  'iHth  of  .luly,  1708,  the 
new  light  wna  flrat  ihown,  and  continued  to  lie  ti'um- 
larly  exhibited  till  the  year  1766,  when  the  whole  fiili- 
ric  waa  deatroyed  by  accidental  lire,  after  standing  47 
ycnr*.  But  for  this  circumatance,  it  t>  Impoaable  to  tell 
how  long  the  light-houae  might,  with  occaaional  repair, 
have  laited,  as  Mr.  Rudj'erd  seems  to  have  executed 
hl.4  taaic  with  much  Judgment,  carefully  rejecting  all 
architectural  decoration,  ua  unsuitable  fur  such  a  situ- 
ation, and  directing  his  attention  to  the  formation  of  a 
tower  which  should  offer  the  least  reuUtance  to  the 
waves.  Tho  height  of  the  tower,  which  was  of  a  cir- 
cular form,  and  constructed  of  timber,  waa,  including 
thn  lantern,  92  fast,  and  the  diameter  at  the  baie, 
which  waa  a  little  above  tha  level  of  high  water,  waa 
23. 


1Vkt0r' 


Wmttr 


' I 


«    0 

Pig.  «. 


M  to         *»  40 

XDDnTom   UOHT,  OOaXWALU 


VoR. 


The  advantages  of  >  light  on  the  Eddyitone  having 
been  so  long  known  and  acknowledged  by  seamen,  no 
time  was  permitted  to  alapsa  before  active  measures 
were  taken  for  its  restoration ;  and  Mr.  Smeaton,  to 
whom  application  was  made  for  advioa  on  tho  subject, 
recommended  the  exoluaive  use  of  stone  as  the  material, 
which,  both  from  Its  weight  and  other  qualities,  he 
considered  most  suitable  for  the  situation.  On  the 
oth  of  April,  1756,  Mr.  Smeaton  first  landed  on  the 
i-ock,  and  made  arrangements  for  erecting  a  light-house 
of  tUme,  and  preparing  the  foundations,  by  cutting 


the  surface  of  tha  rook  into  regular  horlaontal  henohaa, 
into  which  tlia  atones  wxre  ran-fiilly  iluvetalled  or 
notched.  The  flrat  atone  was  laid  on  I'ith  .lune,  17&7, 
and  tlis  laat  on  the  24th  of  August,  1760.  The  tower 
measures  UM  fast  In  height,  and  -M  fast  in  dIameUr  at 
the  level  of  the  Hrat  entire  course,  and  tha  diameter 
under  the  curnlce  is  16  fe«t.  The  Arat  12  faet  of  the 
tower  form  a  solid  mass  nf  masonr}-,  and  the  stones 
are  united  by  means  of  atone  Joggles,  dovotiiilcd  Joints, 
and  oak  treenails.  It  is  remarkablo  that  Mr.  Hnieuton 
should  have  adopted  nn  arched  fonn  for  the  lioom  of 
his  building,  Inatcnd  of  emplnying  these  lloora  as  tie- 
walls  fornieil  of  dovetailed  atones.  To  counteract  tha 
Injurious  tendency  of  the  outwani  thrust  of  the  arched 
floors,  Mr.  Smeaton  had  recourse  to  thn  ingenions  ax> 
pedient  of  laying,  In  cIrcuUr  trenches  or  beds  In  tha 
atones  which  form  the  outsiile  casing,  sets  of  chains, 
which  wore  iiented  by  means  of  an  apnllcatlon  of  hot 
lead,  and  becamo  tight  in  cooling.  The  light  was  ex- 
hibited on  the  16th  October,  1760  ;  tiut  such  was  tha 
sUte  of  the  light-room  apparatus  in  liritain  at  this  pe- 
rlml,  that  a  feeble  light  ttam  tallow  candles  was  all 
that  decorated  this  noble  structure.  In  1H07,  whan 
the  property  of  this  light-house  again  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Trinity  House,  on  the  expir}-  of  a  long 
lease,  Argand  burnors,  and  paraliolic  retiectors  of  sil- 
vered copper,  were  substituted  fur  the  chundolier  of 
candles.  Figure  2  shows  a  section  of  the  K<ldystone 
light-house,  as  executed  according  i  Mr.  Smeaton'a 
deaign. 

litU-Rode. — The  dangerous  reef  called  the  Inch 
Cape,  or  Bell-Kock,  so  long  a  terror  tn  mariners,  waa 
well  known  to  tho  earliest  navigators  of  Scotland. 
Its  dangers  were  so  generally  acknowledged,  that  the 
Abbots  of  AI<erl)rothick,  from  which  tlie  ruck  is  distant 
about  13  miles,  caused  i  float  to  be  fixed  upon  the 
rock,  with  a  bell  attached  to  it,  which,  being  swung 
by  the  motion  of  the  waves,  served  by  Its  toiling  to 
warn  the  mariner  of  his  approach  to  the  reef.  Among 
the  many  losses  which  occurred  on  the  Bell-Kock  in 
modem  times,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  of 
the  York,  74,  with  all  her  crew,  part  of  the  wreck  hav- 
ing  l)een  afterward  found  nn  the  rock,  and  part  having 
come  ashore  on  the  neighboring  coast.  During  the 
survey  of  the  rock  also,  many  instances  were  discov- 
ered of  the  extent  of  loss  which  this  reef  had  occa- 
sionod,  and  many  articles  of  ships'  furnishings  were 
picked  up  on  It,  as  well  as  various  coins,  a  bayonet,  n 
sliver  shoe-buckle,  and  many  other  small  objects. 
Impressed  with  the  great  Importance  of  some  guide 
for  the  Bell-Kock,  Captain  Brodie,  R.N.,  set  a  small 
anbscrlptlon  on  foot,  and  erected  a  beacon  on  spars  on 
the  rock,  which,  however,  was  soon  destroyed  by  the 
sea.  He  afterward  constructed  a  second  beacon, 
which  soon  shared  the  sanv  i  fate.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  1802,  when  the  Commisslonurs  of  Northern 
Lights  brought  a  bill  into  Parliament  for  power  to 
erect  a  light-house  on  it,  that  any  efficient  measures 
were  contemplated  for  the  protection  of  seamen  from 
this  rock,  which,  being  covered  at  every  spring-tide  to 
the  deptii  of  12  feet,  and  lying  right  in  the  faraway  to 
the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Tay,  had  been  the  occasion  of 
much  loss  both  of  property  and  life.  In  1806  the  bill 
passed  Into  a  law,  and  various  ingenious  plans  were 
suggested  for  overcoming  the  difficulties  which  were 
apprehended,  in  erecting  a  light-house  on  a  rock  12 
miles  from  land,  and  coven^d  to  the  depth  of  12  feet 
by  the  tide.  But  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Robert  Ste- 
venson, the  engineer  to  the  Light-house  Board,  after 
l)eing  submitted  to  the  late  Mr.  Rennie,  was  at  length 
adopted  ;  and  it  was  determined  to  cupstruct  a  tower 
of  masonry,  on  the  principle  of  the  Eddystone.  On 
the  17tb  of  August,  1807,  Mr.  Stevenson  accordingly 
landed  with  his  workmen,  and  commenced  the  work  by 
preparing  the  rock  to  receive  the  supports  of  a  tempora- 
ry wooden  pyramid,  on  which  a  barrack-house,  for  the 
recoptionofthe  workmen,  was  to  be  placed}  and  daring 


LKI 


IIM 


LIO 


.ht*  opaiBtlon  muoh  (ukiard  wu  ofUn  tnnamd  In  trani- 
IMrtinK  the  iiKin  fVotn  tb*  r<>rk,  which  wiu  only  ilry 
Tdr  >  fitw  huun  it  •|>rlnK-ll<l«*i  tu  tha  votncl  wltlili  Uy 
niiiorol  off  it.  'i'h*  luwmit  ttoor  cif  lhl»  t«iii|Miriiry 
•r«<:tkm,  In  which  tha  mcirtitr  fur  tha  liullilintt  waa  pn- 
partd,  wu  oftm  liruHan  up  and  ramovad  by  tha  fun* 
of  tha  •••.  TIm  AmmUtiun  having  l>a«n  anvavatad, 
tha  tint  itona  waa  laid  on  tha  luth  July,  IMIIM,  at  tha 
dapth  of  10  faat  ImIow  tha  bl^fh-walar  of  aprlnictldaa, 
and  at  tha  ami  uf  tha  aacund  na«4>ii,  tha  hullilliiK  waa 
5  faat  0  Ini'haa  alMiva  tha  lownat  part  of  tiia  fiiunUa- 
tlon.  Tha  third  aaaaou'a  o|Mratiiins  tarmhiutad  l>y 
flnlahing  tha  lulld  part  uf  tha  atructurc,  which  la  HO 
faat  lu  hal^ht  |  and  tha  whola  of  tha  maaonr}'  waa 
oomplatad  In  (ktoliar,  IMIO.  Tha  lifdit  waa  lint  ax- 
bibitad  to  tha  publlu  on  tha  night  of  tha  lat  of  Kabru- 
uy,  1811.  Tha  dilHcuUlaa  and  haiardt  of  thia  work 
wara  chlaHy  cauaad  by  tha  short  tima  during  whiuh 
Iba  rtwk  waa  uccoaHllila  twtwaan  tha  abliinx  anil  lliiw- 
Ing  tidas ;  ami  among  tha  many  eventful  Ini'lilcntn 
wliluh  randered  thu  biatory  of  thia  work  intareiting, 
was  tha  narruw  oacapa  which  the  engineer  and  HI  per- 
sona mode  from  being  drowned,  by  the  riaing  of  the 
tida  upon  tha  rock,  before  a  boat  oanie  to  their  asnist- 
anoa,  tha  attending  veaaal  having  broken  adrift.  This 
oiieumitanoa  oocurrad  bvfore  the  bnrraok-bouso  was 
aracted,  and  Is  narrated  by  Mr.  Htevaunun  In  hia  ao- 
ooant  of  the  work,  publUhed  at  thu  expense  of  tlie 
Light-house  Board  In  1824,  to  whiuh  we  may  refer  for 
more  minute  information  on  the  suliject  of  this  work. 
Mid  tha  other  lights  of  tha  coast  of  Scotland. 


TiiFeet 


Fig.  S.     BU.L-I00K  LISnT,  SOOTLAND. 

The  Bell-Rock  tower  is  100  feet  in  beight,  42  feet 
in  diametat  at  the  base,  and  16  at  the  top.  The  door 
ii  80  faat  flrom  the  base,  and  the  ascent  is  by  a  maaslTe 
oopper  ladder.  Tha  apartments,  Including  tha  light- 
room,  ara  six  la  oumbar.    The  light  la  a  r«Tolving 


red  and  white  light,  and  la  produced  by  tha  revolution 
<if  a  fraiMa  containing  J»  Argnuil  lampa,  plarml  In  tlin 
foci  of  parabolic  mlrruri,  arranged  on  a  quailran)(uUr 
frame,  whoiw  alternate  faie*  have  nhiidaa  of  nil  kIi'<4 
placed  liefore  the  retlectnrit,  lo  that  a  red  and  whitn 
light  Is  •liiiwn  •uccaiiiivi'ly.  The  machinery,  whiih 
causes  tha  revolution  of  the  l>anie  containing  the 
tampa,  la  alaii  appllt<d  to  tolling  two  large  lielis,  tti  give 
warning  to  the  mariner  of  hia  appmarli  to  tha  rook  In 
foggy  weather.  I>'lg.  Ii  ihown  a  aaction  of  tli«  llell- 
Kock  Mglit-house,  and  of  the  tani|H>rary  liarrack-hiiii»n, 
which  waa  ramovoii  on  the  cnmpletlon  of  the  work. 
Tha  entire  cost  of  the  light-house  waa  over  Xiil,il:U, 
The  in«at  merit  of  Mr.  HtavenKon,  as  architect  of  the 
Bell-Kock  Light-houaa,  lias  In  hia  lM>ld  nmcvptlun  and 
unshaken  lieiief  in  tlie  poaalbiiity  of  erecting  a  lower 
of  maaonry  on  a  reef  12  niUea  from  the  neareat  land, 
and  covered  by  every  ti<le— a  situation,  uniloubtedly, 
much  more  dllHcult  than  that  nf  the  tUldystone.  Hut 
bis  mechanical  akill  in  carrying  on  the  work  i«  alao 
deaerving  of  liigh  pruiaa  Not  only  did  lie  concelvn 
tha  plan  of  the  movable  jib  and  baimet  enmei,  wlilch 
ha  afturwapl  uaed  with  much  advantage  in  building 
tha  tower ;  but  bis  seal,  ever  alive  to  tlic  poasibiiity  of 
improving  on  tha  oonceptions  of  liis  great  muster 
SmeatoD,  led  liim  to  Intniduce  several  lienellclul 
changes  Into  tbo  arrangeinriits  of  the  niammry.  In 
particular,  hn  converted  th«  stone  llixira  of  the  apart- 
ments, whiuh  in  tlis  Kddyntune  exert  an  oulwtml,  and 
in  Its  tendency  disruptive,  thrust,  Into  bonds  of  union 
and  olfluiant  souroaa  of  stability.  This  thrust  was  by 
Smeaton  lilmsclf  considered  so  dlsudvantngeuus,  tliat 
he  thought  lit  to  counteract  It,  as  alreaily  noticed,  by 
means  of  metallic  girden,  concealed  in  the  itonn-wurk, 
and  most  ingeniously  applied.  The  Mght-houne  Hoard 
placet!  in  the  upper  apartment  of  the  tuwer  a  bust  uf 
Mr,  Stevenson,  "  In  testimony,"  as  the  minutes  ra> 
cord,  "of  the  sense  entertained  by  tlie  Oomnili<iiloni>r8 
of  his  distinguished  talent  anil  indefatigable  zeal  In 
the  erection  of  the  Light-house," 

Tha  most  remarkable  llght-housa  on  the  coast  of  (m- 
land  Is  that  of  Carllngford,  near  Crunltold  I'oiiit,  at 
the  entrance  of  Carllngfurd  Lough.     It  wus  built  ac- 
cording to  the  design  of  Mr.  George  Ilulplii,  tlio  In- 
spector of  the  Irlsli   Lights ;  and  was  a  work  of  an 
arduous  nature,  being  founded  12  fout  below  the  level 
of  high-water  on  the  Hawlbowllne  Itock,  which  lies 
about  two  miles  off  Cranfleld  Point.     The  llgure  l> 
that  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  111  feet  in 
height,  and  48  feet  In  diameter  at  ttie 
base.    Tha  light,  which  Is  fixed,  Is  (torn 
oil  burned  in  Argand  lump-t  plhcoil  in 
the  foci  of  patdbollo  mirrors.     It  was 
flrst  exhibited  on  tha  night  of  the  20th 
December,  1830. 

Sktrryvon  Rocki. — The  .Skorryvore 
Rocks,  which  He  about  12  miles  W..S.  W. 
of  the  seaward  point  of  the  Isle  of 
Tyree,  In  Argyleshlre,  weP3  long  known 
as  a  terror  to  mariners,  owing  to  the 
numerous  shipwrecks,  fatal  alike  to  the 
vessels  and  tbo  crews,  which  bad  oc- 
curred in  the  neigliliorhuoil.  A  list, 
confessedly  incomplete,  enumerates  3U 
vessels  lost  In  thu  40  years  preceding 
1844 ;  but  how  many  others,  which 
during  that  periuil  had  been  reported 
aa  "foundered  at  sea,"  or  as  to  whose 
"■  fate  not  even  nn  opinion  has  Ijeen  hai- 

II.-"     i  arded,  may  have  lieen  wrecked  on  this 

dangerous  reef,  which  lies  so  mnoh  in  the 
track  of  the  shipping  of  Liverpool  and 
the  Clyde,  it  would  ba  vain  to  conjecture.  The  Com- 
missioners of  the  Northern  Light-houses  bad  for  many 
years  entertained  the  project  uf  erecting  a  llght-hou.ie 
on  the  Skanyvore ;  and  with  this  object  had  visltxd 
it,  more  eapealally  in  the  year  1814,  la  ooropany  with 


Thei 
over  a 
E.N.E. 
dent  su 
lueami 
composei 
glass  by 
smaUthi 
of  the  to 
■ndsomi 
through 


LIG 


un 


UQ 


Mr  WalUr  Knitt,  who,  In  hU  diary,  i{lv*i  •  Kraphic 
doxrlptlon  iif  Iti  lnh<M|ilUlil*  ii>|i«cl.  I h*  iinul  dllH- 
ouUr  <'f  UmllnK  on  Ih*  riK'k,  whirli  li  warn  (muotli  liy 
Ihii  rontlnud  batt  of  Atlaiitlu  wavrn,  wliluh  rlaa  with 
anillmlnlahail  (xiwor  from  tha  rt«*|>  watnr  naar  U,  halil 
out  no  chaarlnK  pro«|Mcl ;  anil  It  wta  not  until  tha 
yaar  IHIM,  whan  •  minuta  aarvay  i>f  tha  ra«f  waa  or> 
darad  by  tha  Hoard,  that  tha  Ida*  at  mmmauolag  thia 
formldalila  work  waa  larloualy  ainltranad. 


•  ^  ■£  I'l'-i  f-  ■(  t  »ii»  1 

.  I..  .  *   ..       I     ..It    '  III  I  II 


■^Gi^?-^ 


OoKW.    M 


"^^^^i^^k^ 


5      0 

Hm.iI- 


— h- 


8» 


39 


4t 

— t— 


Fig.  i.     BKKRUTTOKE  I.IOIIT. 

The  reef  is  composed  of  numeroua  roeka,  atretching 
OTsr  a  surface  of  nearly  eight  miles  from  W.S.W.  to 
E.N.E.  The  main  tatcltiu,  which  alone  presents  sufS- 
cient  Rurfaca  for  the  bole  of  a  light-bouse,  is  nearly 
three  miles  from  the  seaward  end  of  the  cluster.  It  la 
composed  of  a  very  compact  giuut  worn  smooth  as 
gloas  by  the  incessant  ploy  of  the  waters,  and  is  so 
•mall  thiit  at  high-water  little  remains  around  the  base 
of  the  tower  but  a  narrow  band  of  a  few  feet  in  width, 
»nd  some  mgged  humps  of  roclc,  separated  by  gullies, 
througb  which  the  sea  plaja  almost  incqputly.    The 


cutting  of  the  fuuniUtton  fbr  the  tower  In  thlt  brag^ 

lar  rilnly  mass  iiccupiail  naarly  two  lumuiars  i  and  tha 
lilastInK  of  the  mrk,  in  so  narrow  aipaca,  without  any 
ihailiir  rnini  thn  rlik  of  Hying  uplintnn,  waa  atUadad 
with  niurh  haiiinl. 

Tha  dasign  fur  lh«  8karryvora  Light-house  waa 
givan  by  Mr.  Alan  HUvanMin,  and  Is  an  stlaptatkin  irf 
Hnieatiin's  Kjlilyitona  Tnwar  to  tha  peculiar  situation 
and  Iha  tln^uiiiiitancas  of  the  cuu  at  tha  Hkarryvore, 
with  auoh  ininllllrallons  In  the  icnaral  arraiiganianta 
and  dlnmnalims  uf  tlia  building  a»  tho  nnUrgnl  vinwi 
of  the  lm|Hirtanre  of  light-housaa  *  liloh  prevail  in  the 
present  day  aeanieil  to  vail  fur. 

The  tower  Is  IIM  fast  U  Inches  M^b,  and  42  feet  in 
diameter  at  tha  base,  unil  18  foot  at  tha  lop.  It  ion* 
tains  a  mass  of  atunn-wurk  of  about  M,MO  cubic 
feet,  or  more  than  ilimblr  that  uf  the  B«ll-ltix-k, 
and  not  much  lau  than  ilf  limtt  that  uf  the 
Kddystone.  'I'lie  lower  part  uf  the  tower  was 
built  by  means  uf  jik-inmrt,  and  the  upper 
part  with  thear'/Hilti,  iireiile;  and  a  balance- 
crane.  The  ah«ar-|N>lea  wera  simiUr  to  thofie 
used  by  Smeatoii  at  the  Kdilyatune  |  and  theji'i- 
craiiM  and  h<UaHrt-<-nut*  ware  the  ianin  as  those 
which  were  Jrsignad  and  lint  employed  by  Mr, 
Itiibert  Hteveniiun  ii  the  erection  of  the  liell- 
Huck  Light-huuiie.  The  mortar  use<l  was  cum- 
pounded  of  equal  parts  uf  llmeatune  (from  the 
Malkin  Mountain,  near  Holywell,  In  North 
Wales),  burnt  and  ground  at  tlio  works,  and  of 
I'oiiulanii  aartli.  The  light  of  Hkorryvorc  is 
revulvloK,  and  reaches  Its  brighteit  stato  miea 
fpery  minute.  It  is  produced  by  the  revolution 
uf  eight  gruiit  annular  lenses  around  a  central 
Inmp  with  four  wicks,  and  beluugs  to  the  first 
order  uf  dioptric  liglits  in  the  system  of  Fresnel, 
The  light  may  lie  seen  from  a  vessel's  deck  at 
the  distance  of  IH  miles,  The  entire  cost  of  the 
IA  light-hoose,  including  the  purchase  of  the  steam- 
■^  vessel,  and  the  building  of  the  harbor  at  llynlab 
'  for  the  rece|)tion  uf  the  small  veasel  which  now 
I  attenda  the  light-house,  was  JXOfin,  17s.  7d, 
"  In  such  a  situation  oa  the  8kerryvors," 
says  the  engineer,  "  innumerable  delays  and 
disappuintmeiiti  wore  to  be  ex|iected  b}*  those 
engaged  in  the  work  ;  and  the  entire  loss  of  the 
fruit  of  tho  first  seaaon's  labor  in  tho  course  of 
a  few  lioura  waa  a  good  less<m  in  the  achool  of 
patience,  and  of  trust  in  aometbing  better  than 
an  arm  of  Hesli,  During  our  pnigresa,  alao, 
cranes  and  other  materials  were  swept  away 
by  tha  waves ;  venaels  were  driven  by  sudden 
gales  to  sefk  slielter  at  a  distance  from  the 
rocky  shores  uf  Mull  and  Tyroe ;  and  the  work- 
men were  left  on  the  rock  desponding  and  idia, 
and  destitute  of  many  of  the  romfurts  with  whicit 
a  more  riwmy  and  sheltered  dwelling,  and  the 
neighliorbood  of  friends,  are  generally  connect- 
ed. Diiily  risks  were  run  in  landing  on  the 
rock  in  a  heavy  surf,  in  blasting  the 
splintery  gnoiss,  or  by  the  falling  of 
heavy  bodies  from  the  tower  on  the 
narrow  apace  below,  to  which  so  many 
persons  were  necessarily  confined.  Yet 
bad  we  not  any  loss  of  either  life  or  limb ; 
and  although  our  labors  were  pndonged 
from  dawn  to  night,  and  our  provisions  were  chietly  salt, 
the  health  uf  the  people,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
slight  I'liAos  of  dysentery,  was  generally  good  through- 
out the  lix  successive  summers  of  our  sojourn  on  the 
rock.  The  close  of  the  work  was  welcomed  with 
thankfulness  1)y  alt  engaged  in  it ;  and  our  remarka- 
ble preservation  was  viewed,  even  by  many  of  the 
most  thonghtless,  as,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  tha  gra- 
cious work  of  Him  by  whom  '  the  ver}'  balra  of  our 
heads  are  all  numbered.'  " 
There  can  bo  little  doubt  that,  down  to  a  vary  late  pa- 


BoFttt 

d 


UQ 


1224 


LIG 


Hod,  th«  only  niMla  of  lllamhiatlon  adoptad  In  the  light- 
h'liiM*,  8vm  nf  th«  moiit  dvlllnd  nattona  of  Europe, 
w**  tba  c<offlliiiitlon  nf  wood  or  ooal  In  a  chauffer  on 
tba  tof)  of  •  high  tower.  It  Is  needleas  to  enlarge  upon 
tlie  evlla  uf  nwM  a  method  t  they  need  only  be  named 
to  bo  undarMood  i  (or  It  la  difficult  to  conceive  how  an 
•in«l«nt  ayiitam  ot  lighting  a  coast  could  be  managed 
nndar  »ti«h  dliadvantaKea.  Tlie  nncertainty  caused 
by  tha  afllMt*  of  wind  and  rain,  and  the  impoeslbillty 
of  Ntldarinn  on*  %ht  distinguishable  ftom  another, 
most  bar*  at  all  times  nndered  the  early  light-houses 
In  a  great  maatar*  useless  to  the  mariner. 

C'la/iptrh  ftgitrm—M.  Teul^re,  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Corp*  of  Knglneers  of  Bridges  and  Roads  in 
Frttnea,  Is,  by  soma,  considered  the  first  who  hinted  at 
tba  adrantagas  of  parabolic  reflectnra ;  and  he  is  said, 
in  a  mtinoir  datad  the  !<nh  .Tune,  1788,  to  have  pro- 
poaad  their  vomldnutlnn  with  Argand  lamps,  ranged  on 
a  rerolving  frame,  for  the  Corduan  Light-house. 
Whatever  foundation  there  may  be  for  the  claim  of 
M.  TauUira,  certain  It  Is,  that  this  plan  was  actually 
enrrlad  Into  elfsct  at  Contuan  under  the  directions  of 
(he  Ohavallar  Itorda,  and  to  him  Is  generally  awarded 
tlifl  mwrlt  of  having  conceived  the  idea  of  applying 
piiraliiillt!  mlrmrs  to  llgbt'houses.  These  were  prodi- 
gious stops  In  the  Improvement  of  llght-honses,  as  not 
only  tba  power  of  the  lights  was  thus  greatly  in- 
uraasad,  but  the  Introduction  of  a  revolving  frame 
nrorad  »  valnnlde  source  of  distinction  among  the 
llglits,  and  has  since  twen  the  means  of  greatly  ex- 
tending thair  utility.  The  exact  date  of  the  change 
on  the  light  of  the  Corduan  is  not  known ;  but  as  it 
was  made  liy  I,.ennlr,  the  same  young  artist  to  whom 
"orda,  alioNt  the  year  1780,  Intmstmi  the  construction 
of  his  rertwting  circle,  it  his  been  conjectured  by 
noma  that  tlie  Improvement  was  made  atrout  the  same 
time.  If  this  conjecture  he  correct,  the  claim  of  M. 
Teulfcra  must  of  conrse  fall  to  the  ground.  The  re- 
llei'tors  were  formed  of  sheet  copper,  plated  with  sil- 
ver, and  had  a  doubln  onlinnte  of  81  French  inches. 
It  was  not  long  liefore  these  improvements  were 
iidofttcd  In  Kngland  l>y  the  Trinity  House  of  London, 
who  stnt  a  deputation  »n  Franco  to  inquire  into  their 
HMtura.  In  Hcotland,  one  of  the  (irst  acts  of  the  North- 
"m  I/iglits  WobkI,  In  178fl,  was  to  substitute  reflectors 
in  tba  room  of  coal  lights,  then  in  use  at  the  Isle  of 
May  In  (he  Firth  of  Forth,  and  the  Cumbrae  Isle  in 
tha  Firth  of  (;iyde,  which  had,  till  that  period,  l>een 
the  <mly  lieacons  on  the  Scotch  const.  The  reflectors 
I'liiployrd  were  formed  of  facets  of  mirror  glass,  placed 
In  Itolliiw  psrntiollcnl  molds  of  plaster,  according  to 
tlia  designs  of  the  late  Mr.  Thomas  Smith,  the  En- 
gineer of  the  Hoard,  who,  as  appears  from  the  article 
UKyt,KirKm  in  the  Hupplement  to  the  8d  edition  of 
tlwi  Km^rlnpiutia  Hriiannica,  was  not  aware  of  what 
had  l»aan  done  in  France,  and  had  himself  conceived 
the  idaa  of  this  comldnatlon.  The  systom  of  Borda 
was  also  adotitad  In  Ireland )  and,  In  time,  variously 
modified,  it  liecama  general  wherever  light-houses 
ware  known. 

i'anilmliiiiltil  Mirmri.—Th*  property  of  the  parabola, 
by  which  nil  lines  Incident  on  its  surface  from  the  fo- 
cus make  with  normals  to  the  curve  at  the  points  of 
incldance,  angles  equal  to  the  Inclination  of  these  same 
normals  respectively  to  lines  drawn  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  tba  cnrVB,  Is  that  which  fits  It  for  the  purposes  of  a 
light-house,  A  hollow  mirror,  farmed  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  portion  of  a  parabola  alwut  its  axis,  has,  in 
oonseqnence  of  thhi  propt^ty,  the  power  of  projecting 
tha  rsfNMtted  Images  of  a  luminous  point  placed  in  its 
focus,  in  directions  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  generat- 
ing curve  I  so  that,  when  the  mirror  Is  placed  with  Its 
axis  Mivllal  to  tlie  horixon,  a  cylindrical  beam  of 
light  la  thsMbv  sent  forward  in  a  horizontal  direction. 
Whan  such  mirrors  are  placed  side  by  side,  with  their 
axis  parallel  un  the  faces  of  a  quadrangular  firame 
wMeil  r*volv«s  abonl  •  vartloal  axis,  a  distant  ob- 


server receivea  the  anccessive  impresaions  which  m. 
suit  ftom  tha  paasage  of  each  face  of  the  fl-ame,  over  a 
line  drawn  between  the  observer's  eye  and  the  centre 
of  the  revolving  fhune.  This  arrangement  const!- 
tutea  what  Is  called  a  revolving  light.  A  fixed  light 
Is  produced  bj-  placing,  side  by  side,  round  a  circular 
frame,  a  number  of  reflectcis,  with  their  axes  inclined 
to  each  other,  so  aa  to  be  radii  containing  equal  arcs 
of  the  frame  on  which  they  are  placed.  It  is  obvious 
that  a  perfect  parabolic  figure,  and  a  luminous  point 
mathematically  tme,  would  render  the  illumination  of 
the  whole  horizon  by  means  of  a  fixed  light  impoui. 
ble ;  and  It  is  only  from  the  aberration  caused  l>y  the 
size  of  the  flame  which  is  substituted  for  the  point, 
that  we  are  enabled  to  render  even  revolving  lights 
practically  useful.  But  for  this  alwrration,  even  the 
slowest  revolution  in  a  revolving  light,  which  would 
be  consistent  with  a  continued  observable  series,  such 
aa  the  practical  seaman  could  follow,  would  render  the 
flashes  of  a  revolving  light  greatly  too  transient  for 
any  useful  purpose ;  while  fixed  lights,  being  viitible 
in  the  azimuths  only  in  which  the  mirrors  are  placed, 
would,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  distant  horizon,  be 
altogether  invisible.  The  size  of  the  flame,  therefore, 
which  is  placed  in  the  focus  of  a  paral>alic  mirror,  when 
taken  in  connection  with  the  form  of  the  mirror  itself, 
leads  to  those  important  modifications  in  the  paths  of 
the  rays,  and  the  form  of  the  resultant  beam  of  light, 
which  have  rendered  the  catopric  system  of  lights  so 
great  a  benefit  to  the  benighted  seaman.  It  is  obvi- 
ous, from  a  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  action 
which  takes  place  in  this  coml)ination  of  the  pnrabo- 
loidal  mirrors  with  Argand  lamps,  that  the  revolving 
light  is  not  only  more  perfect  in  its  nature  than  the 
fixed  light,  but  that  it  possesses  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing susceptible  of  an  increase  of  its  power,  by  increas- 
ing the  number  of  reflectors,  which  have  their  axes 
parallel  to  each  other,  so  as  to  concentrate  the  eflx!ct 
of  several  mirrors  in  one  direction.  The  perfect  par- 
allelism of  the  axes  of  separate  mirrors,  it  is  true,  is 
unattainable,  but  approaches  may  be  made  sufficiently 
near  for  practical  results ;  and  in  order  to  prolong  the 
duration  of  the  flash,  the  reflectors  are  sometimes 
placed  on  a  frame,  having  each  of  its  sides  slightly 
convex,  by  which  arrangement  the  outer  reflectors  of 
each  face  of  the  frame  have  their  axes  less  inclined  in- 
wards ttom  the  radii  of  the  revolving  frame  which  pass 
through  their  foci. 

Pniportioni  and  Divergence  of  Paraboloidal  Mirrors. 
— The  best  proportions  for  the  paraboloidal  mirrorif  de- 
pend upon  the  object  to  which  they  nro  to  l>e  applied ; 
as  mirrors  which  are  intended  to  produce  great  diverg- 
ence in  the  form  of  the  resultant  beam  should  have 
one  form ;  while  those  which  are  designed  to  cause  a 
near  approach  to  parallelism  of  the  rays  will  liave 
another  form.  These  objects  may  also  be  attained  l>y 
variations  of  the  size  of  the  flame  applied  in  the  same 
mirror ;  but  it  is  much  more  advantageous  to  produce 
the  effect  by  a  change  in  the  form  of  the  mirror,  as  any 
increase  of  the  flame  beyond  the  size  which  is  found 
to  be  most  advantageous  in  other  respects  can  not  bo 
regarded  otherwise  than  as  a  wasteful  expenditure  of 
light.  The  details  into  which  a  full  investigation  of 
this  matter  would  lead  us  are  quite  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  article,  and  it  therefore  seems  sufllcient  to  give 
the  formulie  which  express  the  relations  wlilch  exist 
lietween  the  size  of  the  flame,  the  reflecting  surface, 
and  the  oomaponding  divergence  of  the  reflected 
ray.  If  A  represent  the  inclination  of  any  retlected 
ray  to  the  axis  of  a  paraboloidal  mirror,  e  the  distance 
of  the  focus  from  the  point  of  reflection,  and  d  the  dis- 
tance from  the  edge  of  the  flame  to  the  focus  in  the 

d 
plane  of  reflection,  we  shall  have  sine  A^s  - ;  and  when 

e 
the  flame  in  tlie  given  plane  of  reflection  is  circular, 
or  has  its  opp^Ute  sides  equidistant  from  the  focus  of 


Lid 


122K 


UQ 


Mirrori. 
noTH  de- 
appUed ; 
diverg- 
uld  have 
cause  a 
fill  have 
;ained  by 
the  same 
produce 
as  any 
is  found 
m  not  bo 
iditure  of 
igation  of 
the  scope 
it  to  give 
lich  exist 
surface, 
reflected 
reflected 
distance 
d  the  dlt- 
cus  in  the 

and  when 

i  circular, 
le  focus  of 


flie minor,  m  iliall,  hy  potttng  A'  tot tliee Active dt- 
1  ergenoeof  the  mirror haTe  In  'he  given  plane,  A'aJ  A. 
When,  therefore,  great  divergence,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  fixed  lights,  ia  required,  the  prolate  form  of  the 
curve  is  to  be  preferred ;  and  the  oblate  is  conversely 
more  suited  to  revolving  lights. 

Power  of  Parabohidal  ifirror*.— The  power  of  the 
reflectors  ordinarily  employed  in  light-houses  is  gen- 
erally equal  to  about  860  times  the  effect  of  the  unas- 
sisted flame  which  Is  placed  in  the  focus.  This  value, 
however,  is  strictly  applicable  only  at  the  distances  at 
which  the  observations  have  been  made,  as  the  pro- 
portional value  of  the  reflected  beam  must  necessarily 
vary  with  the  distance  of  the  observer,  agreeably  to 
come  law  dependent  upon  the  unequal  distribution  of 
the  light  in  the  luminous  cone  which  proceeds  A*>m  it. 
The  ordinary  burners  used  in  light-houses  are  one  Inch 
in  diameter,  and  the  focal  distance  generally  adopted 
Is  4  Inches,  so  that  the  effective  divergence  of  the 
minor  in  the  horizontal  plane  may  be  estimated  at 
about  14°  22'.  In  arranging  reflectors  on  the  frame 
of  a  fixed  light,  however,  it  would  be  advisable  to  cal- 
culate upon  less  effective  divergence,  for  beyond  11° 
the  light  is  feeble ;  but  the  difficulty  of  placing  many 
mirrors  on  one  frame,  and  the  great  expense  of  oil 
required  for  so  many  lampa,  have  generally  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  first  valuation  of  the  divergence. 

Manufacture  and  letting  of  /fc/cctT*.— The  reflect- 
ors used  in  the  best  light-houses  are  made  of  sheet 
copper  plated,  in  the  proportion  of  6  oz.  of  silver  to  16 
oz.  of  copper.  They  are  molded  to  the  paraboloidal 
form  by  a  delicate  and  laborious  process  of  beating 
with  mallets  and  hammers,  of  various  forms  and  ma- 
terials, and  are  frequently  tested  during  the  operation 
by  the  application  of  a  carefully-formed  mold.  After 
being  brought  to  the  curve,  they  are  stiffened  by  means 
nf  a  strong  beazle,  and  a  strap  of  brass,  which  is  at- 
tached to  it  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  any  acci- 
dental alteration  of  its  figure.  Polishing  powders  are 
then  applied,  and  the  instrument  receives  its  last  fin- 
ish. Two  guages  of  brass  are  applied  to  test  the  form 
of  the  reflector.  One  is  for  the  back,  and  is  used  by 
the  worltmen  during  the  prodess  of  hammering,  and 
the  other  is  applied  to  the  concave  face  as  a  test,  while 
the  mirror  is  receiving  its  final  polish.  It  is  then 
tested,  by  tr}-ing  a  burner  in  the  focus,  and  measuring 
the  intensity  of  the  light  at  various  points  of  the  re- 
flected conical  beam.  Another  test  may  also  be  ap- 
plied succr 'lively  to  various  points  in  the  surface,  by 
masking  the  rest  of  the  mirror.  Having  placed  a 
ureen  in  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  mirror  at  some 
given  distance  from  it,  it  is  easy  to  find  whether  th% 
image  of  a  very  small  object  placed  in  the  conjugate 
focus,  which  is  due  to  the  distance  of  the  screen,  be 
reflected  at  any  distance  iVom  that  point  on  the  centre 
of  the  screen  through  which  the  prolongation  of  the 
axis  of  the  mirror  would  pass,  and  thus  to  obtain  a 
measure  of  the  error  of  the  instrument.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  is  necessar}'  to  find  the  position  of  the  conju- 
gate focus,  which  corresponds  to  the  distance  of  the 
screen.  If  i  i>e  the  distance  which  thd  object  should 
be  removed  outward  from  the  principal  focus  of  the 
mirror,  d  the  distance  from  the  focus  to  the  screen, 
and  r  the  distance  from  the  focus  to  the  point  of  the 

r* 
ndmr  which  Is  to  be  tested,  we  shall  have  b=  —  as 

d 
the  distance  which  the  object  must  be  removed  out- 
ward from  the  true  focus  on  the  line  of  the  axis. 

Argand  Lampi. — Tha  flame  generally  used  in  re- 
flectors is  f^m  an  Argand  fountain-lamp,  whose  wick 
Is  an  Inch  In  diameter.  Much  care  is  bestowed  upon 
the  manufacture  of  those  lamps  for  the  Northern 
Light-houses,  which  have  their  burners  tipped  with 
silver,  to  prevent  wasting  by  the  great  heat  which  is 
•volved.  These  burners  are  also  fitted  with  a  slide 
apparatus,  accurately  formed,  by  which  tha  burner 


may  he  removed  tton  the  interior  of  the  mirror  tt  tb« 

time  of  cleaning  it,  and  returned  exactly  to  tli«  wtim 
place,  and  locked  by  means  of  a  luy.  This  arrMm^ 
ment,  which  is  shown 
in  figures  6,  6,  and  7,  is 
very  important,  as  it  in- 
sures the  burner  always 
being  in  the  focus,  and 
does  not  require  the  re- 
flector to  be  lifted  out 
of  its  place  every  time 
it  ia  cleaned;  so  that, 
when  once  carefully  set 
and  screwed  down  to 
the  frame,  it  is  never 
altered.  In  these  flgs. 
aaa  represents  one  of  the 
reflectors,  b  is  the  lamp, 
c  is  a  cylindric  fount- 
ain, which  contains  24 
oz.  of  oil.  The  oil-pipe 
and  fountain  of  the  for- 
mer is  connected  with 
the  rectangular  frame  (2,  and  is  movaliio  In  a  vertl/)*l 
direction  upon  the  guide-rods  e  and/,  by  wliieli  it  am 
be  let  down  and  taken  out  of  the  reflector  by  slinn' 
turning  the  handle  g,  as  will  be  more  fully  wm»t- 
stood  by  examining  fig.  6, 
An  aperture  of  an  elliptical 
form,  measuring  about  2 
inches  by  8,  is  cut  in  the  up- 
per and  lower  part  of  the  re- 
flector, the  lower  serving  for 
the  free  egress  and  ingress  of 
the  lamp,  and  the  upper,  to 
which  the  copper  tube  A  ia  at- 
tached, serving  for  ventila- 
tion ;  I  shows  a  cross  section 
of  the  main  bar  of  the  chan- 
delier or  flrame,  on  which  the 
reflectors  are  ranged,  each 
being  made  to  rest  on  knobs 
of  brass,  one  of  which  is  seen 
at  kk,  and  which  are  soldered 
on  the  brass  band  /,  that  clasps 
the  exterior  of  the  reflector. 
Fig.  6  is  a  section  of  the  r^ 
flcctor  aa,  showing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  burner  6,  with  the 
glass  chimney  b  ,  ami  oil-cup 
I,  which  receives  any  oil  that 
may  drop  from  the  lamp.  Fig.  6  shows  the  apparatus 
for  moving  tlie  lamp  up  and  down,  so  as  to  remove  it 
from  the  reflnctor  at  the  time  of  cleaning  It,  In  tlia 
diagram,  e,  the  fountain  is  moved  partly  dowDi  id 


Fig.  T,         ^ 

shows  the  rectangular  frame  on  which  the  bumsr  If 
mounted,  e,  e  the  elongated  socket-guides,  /  the  r*«> 
tangular  guide-rod,  connected  with  the  perforated  i 
eots  on  which  the  checking-handle  g  slides. 


Lia 


1228 


UQ 


ArraitgtmeiU  ofRtfieeU/n  on  (A<  /rafm.— The  modaa 
of  arranging  the  raflaoton  in  the  frame*  an  Bhown 
in  flgi.  8,  9,  and  10.  It  leema  quite  nnnecetsary, 
after  what  in  said  on  the  subject  of  divergence, 
ti  do  more  than  remarlc,  that  in  revolving  lighta 
t'lie  reflectors  are  placed  with  their  axes  parallel  to 
each  other,  so  as  to  concentrate  their  power  in  one 
direction  ;  while  in  fixed  lights  it  is  neceasarj-,  in  or- 
der to  effect  as  equal  a  distriliution  of  the  light  over 
the  horizon  as  possible,  to  place  the  reflectors,  with 
their  axes  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  angle  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  the  divergence  of  the  reflected  cone. 
For  this  purpose  a  brass  guage,  composed  of  iwc  long 
arms,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  common  di- 
viders, connected  by  means  of  a  graduated  limb,  is 
employed.  The  arms  having  lieen  Hrst  placed  at  the 
angle,  which  is  supplemental  to  tluit  of  the  inclination 
of  the  axes  uf  the  two  adjacent  mirrors,  are  made  to 
span  the  faces  of  the  reflectors,  one  of  which  is  moved 
about  till  its  edges  are  in  close  contact  with  the  flat 
surface  of  one  of  the  arms  of  the  guage.  The  diflfer- 
ent  arrangements  of  the  reflectors  will  be  more  fully 
understood  by  referring  to  the  figures. 


«0.t 

Hi- 


chandaltar, ;  the  flxed  shrfi  iu  the  centre,  which  snp< 
ports  the  whole,  o,  o  the  reflectors,  and  p,ptha  fount- 
aiut  of  their  Umr*. 


r>   inv,! 


"=^^^r^ 


tlf.  8. 

lig.  8  shows  an  elevation  of  a  revolving  apparatus 
on  the  catoptric  principle.  In  these  figures,  «n,  shows 
the  reflector  frame  or  chandelier ;  o,  o,  the  reflectors 
with  their  oil-fountains,  p,  p.  The  whole  is  attached 
to  the  revolving  axis  or  sbtft  q.  The  copper  tubes, 
r,  r,  convey  the  smolce  from  the  lolnps ;  s,  «  are  cross 
biers  wliich  support  the  shaft  at  U ;  uu  is  a  copper  pan 
for  receiving  any  moisture  which  may  accidentally 
enter  at  tue  central  ventilator  in  the  roof  of  the  light- 
room  ;  /  is  a  cast-iron  bracket,  which  supports  the  pivot 
on  the  shaft ;  ra,  n>  are  beveled  wheels,  which  convey 
motion  from  the  machine  to  the  shaft.  Fig,  0  shows 
a  plan  of  one  tier  of  reflectors  arranged  in  the  manner 
amnloved  in  a  fixed  catoptric  light;  tm  shows  tiie 


Flg.». 


To  the  Dutch  belongs  the  honoi  '  '  '<ig  first, 
lifter  t\e  French,  embraced  the  s^.  "  '  •■  •  snel  in 
their  lights.     The  Commissioners  -  .  British 

Lights  followed  in  the  train  of  im|  .,  and,  in 

1834,  sent  Mr.  Alan  Stevenson  on  a  mission  to  Paris, 
with  full  power  to  take  such  steps  for  acquiring  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  the  dioptric  systom,  and  forming  an 
opinion  on  its  merits,  as  he  should  find  necessary.  The 
shigulor  liberality  with  which  he  was  received  by  M. 
L^nor  Fresnel,  brother  of  the  lute  illustrious  inventor 
of  the  system,  and  his  successor  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Light-house  Commission  of  France,  afforded  Mr. 
A.  Stevenson  the  means  of  making  such  a  report  on 
his  return  as  induced  the  Commissioners  to  authorize 
him  to  remove  the  reflecting  apparatus  of  the  revolv- 
ing light  at  Inchkeith,'and  substitute  dioptric  instru- 
ments in  its  place.  This  change  was  completed,  and 
the  light  exhibited  on  the  evening  of  1st  October, 
1836;  and  so  great  was  the  satisfaction  wliich  the 
change  produced,  that  the  Commissioners  immediately 
instructed  Mr.  Stevenson  to  make  a  similar  change  at 
the  fixed  light  of  the  Isle  of  May,  where  the  new  light 
was  exhibited  on  the  22d  September,  1836.  The  Trin- 
ity House  of  London  followed  next  in  adopting  the 
improved  system,  and  employed  Mr.  A.  Stevenson  to 
superintend  tlie  construction  of  >'  revolving  dioptric 
light  of  the  first  order,  which  wni;  afterward  erected 
at  Start  Point  in  Devonshire.  Other  countries  I'ul- 
lowed,  and  the  Report  of  the  light-house  Board  of 
Atnerica,  published  in  1852,  which  recommends  (sec 
page  1229  of  this  article)  the  adoption  of  Fresnel's  di- 
optric system,  and  the  bolophotal  improvements,  is  a 
very  full  body  of  information  on  light-house  subjects, 
extending  over  about  7oO  pages.  Even  Turkey  has 
followed  in  the  train  of  improvement,  and  we  believe 
that  a  light  on  the  dioptric  principle  will  shortly  bo 
exhibited  (if  it  be  not  already  completed)  from  the 
Isle  of  Serpents.  Fresnel,  who  is  already  classed 
with  the  greatest  of  those  inventive  minds  which  ex- 
tend the  boundaries  of  human  knowledge,  will  thus,  at 
the  same  time,  receive  a  place  among  those  benefactors 
of  the  species  who  have  consecrated  their  genius  to  the 
common  good  of  mankind;  and,  wherever  maritime 
intercourse  prevails,  the  solid  advantages  which  his 
labors  have  procured  will  be  felt  and  acknowledged. 

When,  however,  this  system  was  in  its  infancy, 
there  were  several  objections  raised  to  its  adoption, 
which  appeared  to  be  of  very  considerable  impoitance, 
though  the  experience  of  years  has  proved  that  they 
are  not  insurmountable,    Tbs  first,  and  probably  the 


UQ 


1227 


UQ 


mMt  impottut,  WM  tha  lUbtUt}'  of  the  lamp  to  ba  ex- 
tinguished from  tlie  failure  of  the  leather  woric  of  the 
oU-pumpa — a  most  gerlQus  objection,  inasmuch  as,  ftom 
there  being  onljr  one  lamp,  its  failure  implies  tlie  ex- 
tinction of  the  light.  The  means  adopted  to  remady  this 
have  ber:i  already  described  (vtds  "  meclunical  lamp"), 
and  an  experience  of  21  years  in  the  Northern  Light- 
houses has  proved  them  to  be  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  for  during  the  whole  of  that  time  (although  it 
has  on  aaveral  occasions  been  necRSsarj-  to  light  the 
spare  lamp),  the  light  has  only  on  one  occasion  been 
totally  extinguished,  a  casualty  which  was  caused  by 
the  lieeper  sleeping  on  his  watch. 

The  only  otiier  objection  worthy  of  mention  is  the 
short  duration  of  the  flash  in  revolving  lights,  owing 
to  the  small  divergence  (6°  9')  of  the  annular  lens. 
This  has  b3en  corrected  by  setting  the  inclined  mirrors, 
or  holophotal  prisms,  a  little  in  advance  of  the  great 
lenses,  so  that  they  precede,  and  consequently  prolong, 
the  priacipal  flash.  M.  Degrand  has  also  proposed  to 
cut  tbo  whole  apparatus  by  a  horizontal  plane  passing 
through  the  focus,  and  to  set  one  portion  a  few  degrees 
in  advance  of  the  other,  a  plan  which  has  considerable 
advantages,  as  all  the  portions  of  thv  beam  are  more 
nearly  of  equal  intensity. 

iSpherico-Ci/liHdric  Lmtes, — Mr.  T.  Stevenson,  more- 
over,  suggests  an  ingenious  method  of  remedying  this 
evil,  by  constructing  lenses  whose  alwrration  in  the 
vertical  plane  is  corrected,  while  that  in  tlio  horizontal 
plane  may  l)e  adjusted  to  any  determinate  amount. 
In  the  application  of  this  method  of  construction  to 
the  annular  lenses  they  would  be  ground  on  the  exter- 
nal surface  as  before ;  but  the  internal  surface  would 
be  a  portion  of  a  vertical  cylinder  of  suitable  radius. 
Thus  each  vertical  section  would  be  similar  to  that  of 
a  plano-convex  lens  as  at  present,  and  would  refract 
the  rays  accoidingly,  while  the  horizontal  sections 
would  be  of  a  meniscal  form,  and  would  act  only  by 
the  excess  of  their  convexity  over  their  concavity. 
Thus,  by  varying  the  radius  of  the  cylinder,  any 
amount  of  horizontal  divergence  may  be  obtained,  and 
this  without  much  increasing  the  thickness  of  the 
glass,  at  least  in  the  case  of  revolving  lights,  in  which 
a  curve  of  long  radius  might  be  applied. 

Fuel  of  Light-houtet. — The  oil,  until  lately,  most 
generally  employed  in  the  light-houses  of  the  United 
Kbgdom,  was  the  sperm  oil  of  commerce,  which  is 
obtained  ttom  the  South  Seu  whale  {Phyatter  macro- 
ctphalut).  In  France,  the  colza  oil,  which  is  expressed 
from  the  seed  of  a  species  of  wild  cabbage  (jBroMica 
oUraeea  colza),  and  the  olive  ofl|  are  chiefl}'  used ;  and 
a  species  of  the  former  has  now  been  successfully  in- 
troduced into  the  British  light-houses.  The  advantages 
oi  the  colza  oil  are  thus  stated  by  the  engineer  of  the 
Scottish  Light-house  Board : — "  It  appears  from  pretty 
careful  pliotoraetrical  measurements  of  various  kinds, 
that  the  light  derived  from  the  colza  oil  is,  in  point  of 
intensity,  a  little  superior  to  that  derived  from  the 
spermaceti  oil,  being  in  the  ratio  of  1-05C  to  1,  The 
colza  oil  bums  both  In  the  Fresnel  lamp  and  the  tingle 
Argand  burner  with  a  thick  wick  during  17  hours, 
without  requiring  any  coaling  of  the  wick  or  any  ad- 
justment of  the  damper ;  and  the  flame  seems  to  be 
more  steady  and  treet  from  flickering  than  that  derived 
from  spermaceti  oil.  There  seems  (most  probably 
owing  to  the  greater  steadiness  of  the  flame),  to  be 
less  breakage  of  glass  chimneys  with  the  colza  than 
with  the  spermaceti  oil.  Tlie  consumption  of  oil 
seems  in  the  Fresnel  lamp  to  be  121  for  colxa,  and  114 
for  spermaceti;  while  in  tha  common  Argand,  the 
consumption  appears  to  be  910  for  colza,  and  902  for 
spermaceti;  and  if  we  assume  the  means  of  these 
numbers,  515  for  colza,  and  608  for  spermaceti,  as 
representing  the  relative  expenditure  of  these  oils ; 
and  if  the  price  of  colza  be  8s.  9d.,  while  that  of  sper- 
maceti is  6*.  9d.  per  imperial  gallon  ;  we  shall  have  a 
Mving  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  1-766,  which,  at  the  present 


rate  of  rapply  for  tha  Northern  Lights,  would  glw  • 
saving  of  about  ^£8266  per  annum." 

Gat. — In  a  few  light-houses  which  are  near  towns, 
the  gas  of  pit  coal  has  been  used,  and  there  are  certain 
advantages,  mora  especially  in  dioptric  lights,  where 
there  is  only  one  lar.^e  central  flame,  which  would 
render  the  use  of  gas  desirable.  The  form  of  the 
flame,  which  is  an  object  of  considerable  importance, 
would  thus  be  rendered  less  variable,  and  could  be 
more  easily  regulated,  and  the  inconvenience  of  tha 
clock-work  of  the  lamp  would  be  wholly  avoided.  But 
it  is  obvious  that  gas  is  by  no  means  suitable  for  the 
majority  of  light-houses,  their  distant  situation,  and 
generally  difficult  access,  rendering  the  transport  of 
large  quantities  of  coal  expensive  and  uncertain; 
while  in  many  of  them  there  is  no  means  of  erecting 
the  apparatus  necessary  for  manufacturing  gas.  There 
are  other  considerations  which  must  induce  us  to  pause 
before  adoptmg  gas  as  the  fuel  of  light-houses ;  for, 
however  much  the  risk  of  accident  may  !»  diminished 
in  the  present  day,  it  still  forms  a  question  which 
ought  not  to  be  hastily  decided,  how  far  we  should  be 
jubiified  in  running  even  the  most  remote  risk  of  ex- 
plosion in  establishments  such  as  light-houses,  tha 
sudden  failure  of  which  might  involve  consequences  of 
the  most  fatal  description,  and  the  situation  of  which 
is  often  such  that  their  re-establishment  must  b^  a 
work  of  great  expense  and  time. 

Drummond  and  Voltaic.  Lights. — The  application  of 
the  Drummond  and  Voltaic  lights  to  light-house  pur- 
poses is,  owing  to  their  prodigious  intensit;,',  a  very 
desirable  consummation ;  but  it  is  surrovrided  by  so 
many  practical  difficulties,  that  it  may,  in  the  prescfK 
state  of  our  knowledge,  Iw  pronounced  unattainable. 
The  uncertainty  which  attends  the  exhibition  of  t>oth 
these  lights  is  of  itself  a  sufficient  reason  for  coming 
to  this  conclusion.  But  other  reasons,  unhappily,  are 
not  wanting.  The  smallness  of  the  flame  renders 
those  lights  wholly  inapplicable  to  dioptric  instru- 
ments, which  require  a  great  body  of  flame,  in  order 
to  produce  a  degree  of  divergence  sufficient  to,  render 
the  duration  of  the  flash  in  revolving  lights  long 
enough  to  answer  the  purpose  of  the  mariner.  M, 
Fresnel  made  some  experiments  on  the  application  of 
the  Drummond  light  to  dioptric  instruments,  which 
completely  demonstrate  their  unlitness  for  this  combi- 
nation. He  found  that  the  light  obtained  l)y  placing 
it  in  the  focus  of  a  great  annular  lens  was  much  more 
intense  than  that  produced  b}'  the  great  lamp  and  lens 
of  Corduan ;  but  the  divergence  did  not  exceed  80'; 
so  tliat,  in  a  revolution  like  that  of  Corduan,  the  flashes 
would  last  only  1^-  second,  and  would  not,  therefore, 
be  seen  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suit  the  practical  pur- 
poses of  a  revolving  light.  The  great  cylindric  refrac- 
tor, used  in  fixed  lights  of  the  first  order,  was  also 
tried  with  the  Drummond  light  in  its  focus ;  but  it 
gave  colored  spectra  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  only 
a  small  bar  of  white  light  was  transmitted  from  the 
centre  of  the  instrument.  The  same  deficiency  of  di- 
vergence completely  unfits  the  combination  of  the 
Drummond  light  with  the  reflector  for  the  purposes  of 
a  fixed  light,  and  even  if  this  cause  did  not  operate 
against  its  application  in  revolving  lights  on  the  ca- 
toptric plan,  the  supply  of  the  gases,  which  is  attend- 
ed with  almost  insurmountable  difficulties,  would,  in 
any  case,  render  the  maintenance  of  the  light  precari- 
ous and  uncertain  in  the  last  degree. 

There  are  many  questions  of  much  interest  regard- 
ing light-houses  which  appear  to  open  an  extensive 
field  of  inquiry ;  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  some 
of  them  have  received  tiiat  degree  of  consideration  to 
whii  li  their  importance  entitles  them.  Among  these 
we  may  rank  the  numerous  questions  which  may  \m 
raised  regarding  the  most  effective  kind  of  distinctions 
for  lights.  Those  distinctions  may  be  naturally  ex- 
pected to  be  of  the  most  effective  kind  which  strike  aa 
observer  by  their  ofipearance  alone.    Thus  a  red  and 


LI6 


rsas 


LIG 


whit*  light,  •  NTolrlng  and  a  flxed  light,  otn  appear- 
ancti  which  (TO  ci  nUtad  to  produce  npon  the  observer 
■  ftronger  senie  <>.  their  dilhrenca  than  the  same  ob- 
ierver  would  receive  from  light!  the  gole  difference  of 
which  iiaa  in  their  revolutions  lieing  performed  in 
greater  or  less  intervels  of  time.  On  thj  other  hand, 
the  distlnctior  '  derived  from  time,  if  the  intervals  on 
which  the}r  depend  do  not  approach  too  closely  to  each 
other,  appear  to  afford  very  suitaliie  mesne  for  charac- 
terlKing  lights  ;  and  the  numljer  of  distinctions  «nleh 
may  lie  founded  upon  time  alone  are  pretty  numerous. 
Colored  media  have  the  great  disadvantage  of  .-"bsorb- 
Ing  light,  and  the  only  color  which  has  hitherto  been 
found  useful  in  practice  la  red,  all  othen  at  even  mod- 
orate  distances,  serving  merely  to  enfeeble,  without 
characterizing  lights.  In  the  system  of  Fnisnel,  as 
already  explained,  all  the  distinctions  are  based  upon 
time  alone.  Mr.  Roliert  Stevenson,  the  engineer  of 
the  Northern  Light-houses,  has  invented  twn  distinc- 
tions, which,  although  they  are  produced  by  variations 
of  the  time,  possess  characteristic  appearancft,  suffi- 
ciently marked  to  enable  an  observer  to  distinguish  a 
light  without  counting  time.  The  one  is  called  ajh^ 
fci;  light,  in  which  the  flashes  and  eclipses  succeed  each 
other  so  rapidly  as  to  give  the  appearince  of  a  succes- 
sion of  brilliant  Bcintillations ;  arkd  the  other  has  been 
called  inlermi'tlent,  from  its  consisting  of  a  flxed  light, 
which  Is  suddenly  and  totnlly  eclipsed,  and  ajiuin  as 
suddenly  revealed  to  view.  The  effect  of  t'.iis  light 
is  entirely  different  fiwm  that  of  any  revolving  light, 
both  from  the  i^at  inequality  of  the' intervals  of  light 
ud  darkness,  and  also  from  the  contrast  which  is  pro- 
Weed  l)y  its  sudden  diiappearance  and  reappearance, 
which  is  completely  dIHcrent  from  the  prndunl  diminu- 
tion and  increase  of  the  light  in  revolving  lights,  more 
especially  in  those  on  the  catoptric  principle.  Tlie 
preut  and  still  increasing  numl)er  of  lights  renders  the 
means  of  distinguishing  them  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant considerations  connected  with  light-houses. 

Lightt  on  the  Co(w<.— 'Not  less  Important,  and  very 
nearly  allied  to  the  suliject  of  distinction,  is  that  of  the 
arrangement  of  lights  un  a  line  of  coast.  The  choice 
of  the  most  suitable  places,  and  the  assigning  to  each 
the  characteristic  appearances  which  are  most  like!}'  to 
distinguish  it  tnm  all  the  neighboring  lights,  are 
points  requiring  much  consileration ;  and  it  ougiit 
never  to  lie  forgotten,  that  the  indiscriminate  erection 
of  tight-houses  vion  leads  to  cc.ifusion,  and  that  the 
ne edlnss  exhibition  of  a  light,  by  involving  the  loss  of 
a  distinction,  may  afterward  prove  inconvenient  In  the 
ease  of  some  future  light,  which  time  and  t' '  growing 
wants  of  traile  .nay  call  for  on  the  same  line  of  coast. 
To  enter  st  length  upon  this  topic,  or  even  to  lay  down 
the  general  principles  which  ought  to  regulate  the  dis- 
tribution of  lights,  w  exceed  the  limits  of  this  arti- 
cle j  but  in  connecti.  ith  this  it  may  lie  observed, 
that  the  superintendiiiee  of  light-houses  should  be 
committed  to  one  general  body,  and  ought  not  to  \tt 
left  to  local  trusts,  whose  operations  are  too  often  con- 
ducted on  narrow  principles,  without  reference  to  gene- 
ral Interests.  The  inconveniences  arising  fVom  intor- 
ferenca  lietween  the  distinctions  of  the  lights  under 
one  trust,  and  those  of  the  lights  under  another,  are 
therel>y  avoided  ;  and  the  full  advantage  is  olitained 
of  the  means  of  distinction  at  the  disposal  of  Iwth. 

The  considerations  which  enter  into  the  choice  of 
the  iwsltion  and  character  of  the  lights  on  a  line  of 
const  are  either,  on  the  one  hand,  so  simple  and  self- 
evident  as  scarcely  to  admit  of  being  stated  in  a  gene- 
rnl  form,  without  becoming  nie'«  trui'ms ;  or  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  so  very  numerous,  and  often  so  com- 
plicated, as  scarcely  to  be  susceptible  of  compression 
into  any  general  laws.  We  shall  not,  therefore,  do 
more  than  very  briefly  notice,  in  the  form  of  distinct 
propositions,  a  few  of  the  chief  considerations  which 
should  guide  us  in  the  selection  of  the  sites  and  char- 
•cteTistk)  appearance  of  the  light-houses  to  be  placed 


on  a  line  of  coast.  For  fiirther  information  on  thla 
subject,  see  works  mentioned  at  the  enu  of  this  article 
1.  The  moat  prominent  points  of  a  line  of  ^oast,  or 
thode  flnt  made  on  over-tea  voyages,  should  first  be 
lighted;  and  the  most  powerful  lights  should  be 
adapted  to  them,  so  that  they  may  l>e  discovered  by 
the  mariner  as  long  as  possible  before  his  reaching 
land.  2.  So  far  as  is  consistent  with  a  due  attention 
to  distinction,  revolving  lights  of  some  description, 
which  are  necessarily  more  powerful  than  fixed  lights, 
should  h«  employed  at  the  outpost/i  on  a  line  of  const. 
8.  Lights  of  precisely  identical  character  an'!  ap|>ear- 
ance  should  not,  if  possible,  occur  within  a  less  dis- 
tance than  100  miles  of  each  other  on  the  same  line  of 
coast,  which  is  made  by  over-sea  vessels.  4.  In  all 
cases,  the  distinction  of  color  should  never  be  adopted 
except  from  absolute  necessity.  6.  Fixed  lights,  and 
others  of  less  power,  may  be  more  readily  adopted  in 
narrow  seas,  because  the  range  of  the  lights  in  such 
situations  is  generally  l«ss  than  that  of  open  sea-li);hts. 
tf.  In  narrow  seas,  also,  the  distance  between  lights  of 
the  sauie  appearance  may  often  be  safely  reduced 
within  mnch  lower  limits  than  is  desirable  fur  the 
greater  sea-lights.  Thns  'hero  arc  many  instances  in 
which  the  distance  separating  lights  of  the  same  char- 
acter need  not  exceed  60  miles  ;  and  peculiar  cases  oc- 
cur in  which  even  a  much  less  separatioq  between 
similar  lights  may  be  sufficient.  7.  Lights  intended  to 
guard  resuels  from  reef^,  shoals,  or  other  dangers, 
should,  in  every  case  where  it  is  practicable,  be  placed 
feaward  of  the  danger  itself,  aa  It  is  desirable  tliat  sea- 
men be  enabled  to  nuU'e  the  lights  with  confidence.  8. 
Views  of  oconom}'  in  the  first  cost  of  a  light-liuuse 
should  never  Ite  permitted  to  intnrfere  with  placing  it 
in  the  best  possilile  position  i  and,  when  fund<  "re  do- 
ficient,  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the  wise  cuurse 
is  to  delay  the  work  until  a  sum  shall  have  Iwen  oli- 
tained sufficient  for  the  erection  of  the  light-house  on 
the  l>est  site.  9.  The  elevation  of  the  lantern  above 
the  sea  should  not,  if  possible,  for  sea-lights,  exceed 
200  feet ;  and  about  150  feet  is  sufficient,  under  almost 
any  circumstances,  to  give  the  range  which  is  re- 
quired. Lights  placed  on  high  lieadlands  are  sul)ject 
to  lie  frequently  wrapped  in  fog,  and  are  often  thereby 
Tendered  useless  at  times  when  lights  on  a  lo  ver  level 
might  be  perfectly  efficient.  But  this  rule  must  not, 
and  indeed  can  not,  be  strictly  followed,  especially  on 
a  coast  where  there  are  man^-  projecting  clilfs,  which, 
while  they  subject  the  lights  placed  on  them  to  occa- 
sional oliscurotion  by  fog,  would  also  entirely  and  per- 
manently hide  from  vt*w  lights  placed  on  the  lower 
Ir.nd  adjoining  them.  In  snch  cases,  all  that  can  be 
done  is  carefully  to  weigh  all  the  circumstances  cf  tho 
locality,  and  choose  that  site  fo.-  the  light-house  wliioh 
seems  to  afford  the  greatest  balance  of  ad'-anta  -e  to 
navigation.  As  might  be  expected,  in  questions  of 
this  kind,  the  opinions  of  the  most  experienced  per- 
sons are  often  very  conflicting,  accr  ling  to  the  value 
which  is  set  on  the  various  elements  uhich  enter  into 
the  inquiry.  10.  The  best  ])osition  for  a  sea-ligl.t 
ought  rarely  to  lie  negleotc<l  for  the  sake  of  tlio  more 
immeaiate  lieneflt  of  some  neighlMiring  port,  however 
important  or  influential ;  and  the  interests  of  miviga- 
tlon,  as  well  as  the  true  welfare  of  the  port  Itself,  will 
generally  be  much  lietter  sor\-ed  by  placing  the  sen- 
light  >cA<re  it  ought  to  be,  and  adding,  on  a  smiillor 
scale,  snch  subsidiary'  lights  as  the  channel  leading 
to  the  entrance  of  the  port  may  require.  11.  It  may 
be  held  as  a  general  maxim,  that  the  fewer  lights  that 
can  lie  employed  in  the  illumination  of  a  coast  the  liet- 
ter, not  only  on  the  score  of  economy,  but  also  of  real 
efficionoy.  Kvery  light  needlessly  erected  may,  in 
certain  ciroumstances,  become  a  source  of  confusion  ti 
the  mariner ;  and,  in  the  event  of  another  light  licing 
required  in  the  neighborhood,  it  becomes  a  Jrduction 
tram  the  means  of  distinguishing  it  from  the  lights 
which  existed  previous  to  its  establishment.    By  the 


LIQ 


1229 


mt 


\  appear- 


■aedleu  erection  of  a  new  Ught-houie,  thenfore,  Tre 
not  only  expend  public  treaeure,  but  wute  the  mean* 
of  distinction  among  tlie  nelgliboring  lighti.  12.  Dl»- 
tlnctions  of  lighti,  founded  upon  the  minute  estimation 
of  intervale  of  time  between  flaehes,  and  especially  on 
the  measurement  of  the  duration  of  iight  and  dark 
periods,  are  less  satisfactory  to  the  great  majority  of 
coasting  seamen,  and  more  liable  to  dnrangement  by 
atmospherio  changes,  than  those  di..incticad  which 
are  founded  on  what  may  more  properly  be  called  the 
characterulie  appearance  of  the  lights,  in  which  the 
times  for  the  recurrence  of  certain  appearances  differ 
so  widely  Arom  each  other  as  not  to  require  for  their 
detection  any  very  minute  observation  in  a  stormy 
night.  Thus,  for  example,  flashing  lights  of  five  sec- 
onds' interval,  and  revolving  lights  of  half  a  minute, 
one  minute,  and  two  minutes,  are  much  more  charac- 
teristic than  those  which  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  intervals  varying  according  to  a  slower  series 
of  6",  10",  20",  40",  etc.  13.  Harbor  and  local 
lights,  which  have  a  circumscribed  range,  should  gene- 
rally be  fixed,  instead  of  revolving ;  and  may  often, 
for  the  siLme  reason,  l>e  safely  distinguished  by  colored 
media.  In  many  cases,  also,  where  they  are  to  serve 
as  guides  into  a  narrow  channel,  the  leading  lights 
which  are  used  should,  at  the  same  time,  be  go  ar- 
ranged as  to  serve  for  a  distinction  from  any  neigh- 
boring lights.  14.  Floating  lights,  which  are  very 
expensive,  and  more  or  less  uncertain,  from  their  lia- 
bility to  drift  from  thoir  moorings,  as  well  as  defect- 
ive in  power,  should  never  l>e  employed  to  indicate  a 
turning-point  in  navigation  in  any  situation  where  the 
conjunction  of  lights  on  the  shore  can  be  applied  at  a 
reasonable  expense. 

Britith  and  Iriih  LighU. — English  lights  are  placed 
under  the  Corporation  of  Trinity  House  of  Deptford, 
Slroud ;  the  Scottish  lights  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lights ;  and 
the  irish  lights  are  under  the  care  of  the  corporation 
for  preserving  and  improving  the  port  of  Dublin,  com- 
monly called  the  linllast  Board. 

The  last  act  of  Parliament  on  the  subject  of  light- 
houses formt)  part  of  one  the  general  title  of  which  is, 
"  An  act  to  amend  various  laws  relating  io  merchant 
shipping."  It  passed  20t)i  August,  1863.  The  chief 
provisions  which  affect  light-houses  are  the  following : 
1.  The  light  dues  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  to  form 
one  imperiiti  fund,  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  2.  From  this  fund  all  expenses  of  erecting 
and  maintaining  the  lights  of  the  United  Kingdom  are 
to  l>»  defrayed.  3.  The  three  boards  which  manage 
the  light-honses  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
are  to  render  account  of  their  expenditure  to  tho  board 
of  Triide.  4.  The  Trinity  House,  or  English  board,  is 
to  cxTcise  a  certain  control  over  the  boards  in  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  and  is  to  juuge  of  all  their  proposals 
to  erect  new  lights,  or  to  cliunge  existing  ones ;  but 
in  every  case  the  sanction  of  the  Board  of  Trade  must 
precede  the  acts  of  each  of  the  throe  Iwards. — E.  B. 

Ccmpariion  of  the  Syttems  of  Lighting  in  the  United 
Slates,  France,  Great  Britain,  'tc. — To  maka  this  com- 
parison intelligible,  will  require  a  brief  notice  of  the 
ligbt-b"'  ^e  systems  of  France  and  Great  Britain,  with 
some  rfc.aarka  on  the  systems  of  other  countries,  before 
giving;  p  3  extended  notice  of  the  systems  of  the  United 
States'  light-houses. 

France. — The  administrative  matters  relating  to 
ligl'.t-liouses,  though  hardly  such  as  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  us  to  follow,  are,  nevertheless,  regulated 
with  a  system  of  order  worthy  of  all  commendation. 
As  with  us,  CO  light  dues  are  exacted  from  shippmg, 
but  tiie  light-houses  ore  a  direct  charge  upon  the  treas- 
ury, and  supported  by  annual  appropriations.  The 
question,  shall  there  be  a  light-house  at  a  particular 
roint,  is  decided  by  a  board  consisting  of  naval  officers, 
government  engineers,  and  scientific  civilians,  The 
first  dpcision  settles  that  inquiry  is  desirable.    The 


civil  engineer  of  the  Department  where  the  work  is  to 
be  pUced,  report*  hi*  view*,  with  plan*  and  estimate* 
for  it,  which  are  laid  before  the  board  by  their  sef.rt- 
tary.  If  it  now  appears  that  the  work  should  go  on 
in  the  manner  pro|)osed,  the  details  of  construction 
and  the  estimates  pass  to  the  general  council  of  gov- 
ernment engineers  (Bridges  and  Roads — ■'  Ponit  el 
Chau4tiu"j,  and  when  approved  are  constructed  bjr 
contract,  under  the  tupervition  of  tit  govemmeta  en- 
ginetrt  of  the  Department.  These  engineers  also  super- 
intend all  repairs  of  light-houses.  In  some  case*  local 
boards  are  required,  first,  to  examine  and  report  upon 
the  necessity  for  a  proposed  light,  before  the  subject  la 
examined  by  the  light-house  board.  The  administn^ 
tive  details  Wj  In  the  D«partm  .t  State,  mhiistr}' 
of  public  works,  under  which  tho  dilferent  persons  re- 
ferred to,  serve.  The  general  arrangemont  of  sea- 
coast  lights,  adopted  on  the  report  of  Rear  Admiral 
Rossel  to  the  light-bouse  board  in  1826,  Is  based  upon 
two  principles :  that  one  liglit  of  the  brightest  class 
shall  nut  be  lost  sight  of  until  another  is  visible :  and 
that  such  distinction  shail  be  presented  by  the  light, 
that  a  vessel  nn  nearing  the  coast,  without  very  gross 
error  in  the  knowledge  of  her  position,  can  not  mistake 
one  light  for  another.  21  nautical  miles  was  adopted 
as  the  distance  of  visibility  of  the  brightest  lights,  and 
three  classes  of  distinction  were  admitted,  viz. :  fixed 
lights,  revolving  lights  showing  a  bright  light,  and  an 
eclipse  at  Intervals  of  a  minute  an  1  .t  half  a  minute. 
By  placing  the  fixed  light  midway  between  the  two 
revolving  ones,  of  the  different  kinds,  and  at  a  distance 
of  42  nautical  miles  from  each  otiier,  the  essential  con- 
ditions of  the  system  would  be  fulfilled.  In  applying 
this  practically,  it  was,  of  course,  so  modified  as  to 
conform  to  the  general  features  of  the  coast,  and  to  the 
wants  of  navigation.  Between  these  brightest  sea- 
coast  lights,  others  of  inferior  power  were  arranged  as 
required. 

Every  light  is  placed  under  the  inspection  of  a  per- 
son called  a  conductor,  who  viiils  it  at  least  once  a  month, 
by  night  at  well  at  by  day,  and  is  provided  with  keys  of 
the  building  and  of  the  watch-room,  so  that  he  can 
enter  at  all  times,  without  summoning  a  keeper.  The 
resident  engineer  of  the  Department  inspects  all  the 
lights  in  his  Department  at  least  once  a  quarter,  and 
the  chief  engineer  of  the  Department  once  a  year,  and 
the  secretary  of  the  Departn.ent  makes  au  inspection  at 
least  once  in  three  years.  The  light-house  keepers 
are  furnished  with  l)Ooks,  ruled,  and  with  appropriate 
headings  to  the  columns,  to  record  the  ol>servations 
required  of  them.  Detailed  instruct'  ns  for  light- 
houses and  beacons  are  distributed,  which  direct 
minutely  their  duty. 

Prior  to  1822,  Argand  lamps  with  reflectors  were 
used  in  the  French  light-houses.  In  that  year,  Au- 
gustine Fresnel  put  up  the  first  lens  light  of  his  inven- 
tion, in  the  tower  of  Cordouan,  at  the  mouth  of  thu 
Gironde,  In  1826  the  general  adoption  of  the  leys 
system  was  determined  upon.  In  1846  there  were  ou 
the  coast  of  France,  not  including  the  colonics,  151 
lens  lights  and  47  reflector  lights ;  and  nearly  all  of 
the  latter  were  merely  beacon-lights. 

According  to  Mr,  Ke}-naud's  statement,  not  one 
reflector  light  will  be  left  in  1862,  in  the  class  of  lights 
of  the  first  and  second  order.  Experience,  then,  has 
led  to  the  substitution  of  lens  lights  for  the  others, 
except  as  small  harbor  beacon-lights,  requiring  a 
small  arc  of  tlie  horizon  to  bo  illuminated.  The  me- 
chanical lamp  used  with  tho  lens  light  ivas  tiie  johit 
invention  of  Arago  and  Fresnel,  combining  the  idea  of 
Rumford,  of  a  number  of  concentric  wiciis,  accuri'ing 
to  the  intensity  and  volume  required  for  the  flame, 
and  the  idea  of  Carcel  of  keeping  the  wick  from  burn- 
ing rapidly,  by  making  the  oil  overflow  about  it,  by 
raising  it  with  a  pump,  moved  by  clock-work.  Sev- 
eral kinds  of  mechanical  lamps  have,  from  time  to 
time,  been  presented  for  examination  and  trial,  an- 


tio 


1230 


UQ 


•waHiig,  gMiinlly,  MtUhctorlly ;  AdiM  oatA  in  aoma 
of  the  nemt  lights  an  called  the  "  moderator  lamp." 
The  repair  of  28  lamps  of  the  first  order  lights,  4  of  the 
second,  and  13  of  the  third,  amounted,  in  1660,  only  to 
$:8S  M. 

Ur.  Frosnel  suggests  that  if  it  be  appiehended,  that, 
on  aroount  of  the  distance  of  a  light-honse  frrmi  the 
workshops,  there  may  be  dliHcnlties  in  regard  to  the 
repairs  of  the  meehanical  lamp,  the  appointment  of  a 
mechanic  as  light-house  keeper,  ond  the  supplying 
him  with  the  necessary  tools,  will  'be  a  very  simple 
remed}'.  In  the  refracting  light  the  diverging  rays 
ttom  the  lamp  are  rendtired  nearly  parallel,  bypassing 
through  a  glass  lens.  Several  such  lenses,  forming 
the  aides  of  a  prism,  surround  tho  lamp,  the  light 
fh>m  which  is  thus  refracted  into  a  number  of  beam.') 
corresponding  to  the  nnml>er  of  the  faces  of  the  prism, 
separated  by  dark  angles.  If  this  prism  be  made  to 
revolve  slowly  alwut  a  vertical  axis,  there  will  he 
altemr.tions  of  light  and  darkness,  as  the  beam  from 
the  face  of  the  pHiirii  reaches  the  eye,  cr  it  is  in  the 
dark  angle  between  the  beams.  The  increase  of  the 
light  to  Its  greatest  brightness,  and  the  decrease  3gain, 
will  be  gradual.  A  prism  of  eight  sides,  thus  revolv- 
ing in  eight  minutes,  would  show  bright  flashes  ni,  in- 
tervals of  a  minute,  and  eclipses  at  the  same  interval. 

llie  lens  is  made  of  a  nnmlwr  of  pieces  of  glass, 
ground  to  the  same  curve,  and  fitted  closely  together. 
The  building  up  of  a  lens  in  this  way,  of  separate 
pieces,  has  t>een  carried  tn  very  great  perfection,  and 
the  separate  pieces  composing  it  are  of  lienutiful  clear- 
ness, polish,  and  precision  of  form.  A  drum  of  glass, 
oylindrical  in  its  horizontal  sections,  and  lens-siiaped 
in  the  vertical  dire>4ion,  placed  about  a  Ismp  which 
occupies  its  centre,  will  diflTuse  all  around  the  horiron 
the  rays  falling  horizontally  upon  it,  bending  toward 
the  horizon  those  coming  above  or  below  the  horizontal 
line  from  the  lamp,  furnishing  a  fixed  light  of  equal 
brilkiancy  in  every  direction.  A  panel  of  glass,  lens- 
shuped  in  the  horizontal  direction,  being  made  to  re- 
volve about  this,  would  gis-e  a  bright  Hash  as  the  axis 
of  the  iens  passed  any  partirular  point ;  and  several  of 
these  thus  mode  to  revolve,  constitute  •  fixed  light, 
varied  by  flashes. 

When  the  whole  of  the  horizon  is  not  to  be  illumin- 
ated, a  reflector  is  substituted  for  the  lens  behind  tho- 
lamp,  so  as  to  throw  to  tho  firont  the  light  which  would 
otherwise  he  lost.  Not  to  lose  the  light  thrown  up- 
ward by  the  lamp,  a  series  of  glass  prisms  is  so  nr- 
ranged  as  to  receive  the  rays  at  the  angle  at  which 
they  are  re''«cted,  to  throw  them  downward  to  the 
horizon.  imilar  prisms  bel^w  the  lamp,  serve  to 
prevent  the  waste  of  the  light  which  falls  below  the 
lens.  This  application  of  totally  ^fleeting  prisms,  is 
claimed  by  Mr.  Alan  Stevenson,  ot  l?dinb«rg.  There 
are  four  orders  of  lights,  according  to  the  range  of  vis- 
ibility,  determined  by  tlie  volume  and  brilliancy  of 
the  flame ;  the  first  order  corresponding  to  the  greatest 
range.  The  number  of  wicks  of  the  lamps,  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  whole  apparatus,  vary,  accordingly. 
In  the  dlfierent  orders.  The  third  and  fourth  orders 
are  subdivided  into  two  classes,  corresponding  to  the 
larger  and  smaller  size  of  the  apparatus.  The  dimen- 
sions nf  the  lantern  of  the  several  orders,  the  number 
of  wicks  of  the  lamps,  and  other  details,  will  be  found 
in  the  table  annexed. 

Fixed  and  revolving  white  lights  are  nsed  to  give 
six  characteristic  combinations :  the  simple  fixed 
light;  the  fixed  light,  varied  by  bright  (liashes  every 
four,  three,  or  two  minutes ;  the  revolving  light,  with 
intervals  between  the  flashes,  or  between  the  eclipses, 
of  a  minute  or  half  a  minute.  By  introducing  a  red 
fixed  light,  alternate  red  and  white  flashes,  and  a  fixed 
white  light  with  rod  flashes,  these  combinations  are 
extended  to  eight.  Two  fixed  white  lights,  in  sep- 
arate towen,  ore  nsed  in  t  ttw  cosea  tor  the  sake  of 
diitiaelioii. 


The  loss  of  light  by  a  deep,  red  glaaa,  U  stated  by 
Mr.  Stevenson  to  be  as  high  as  §0  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  A  pink  French  gi»H'<  absorbed  l)Kt  f>7  per 
cent.,  but  the  color  of  the  burner  was  not  verj-  decided. 
All  parts  of  the  illuminating  apparatus  for  light-houses 
an  supplied  fkom  a  dAp6t  and  workshnps  under  the 
immediate  dinctlon  of  the  secralary  of  the  light-house 
board.  The  distance  to  which  a  lii,'ht  may  be  seen, 
its  range  of  ^'Islbility  (called  sometimes  simply  its 
range),  depends  upon  the  brightness  (Intensity)  of  tlie 
light,  it»  elevation  above  the  general  surface,  and  the 
greater  or  less  transparancy  of  the  atmospheie.  Some 
persons,  too,  ran  distinguish  lights  at  c  much  grenter 
distance  than  othen.  The  range  of  a  light,  then,  is 
not  a  sure  test  for  comparing  it  with  other  lights. 

The  value  (useful  effect)  of  a  light  depends  on  its 
brightness  and  the  extent  o.  he  horizon  which  it  will 
illuminate.  The  brightness  can  1>e  ascertained  by  ex- 
periment with  the  photometer,  tn  terms  of  the  light  of 
a  standard  lamp  as  a  unit ;  the  extent  of  horizon  illu- 
minated, by  simple  measurement  in  degrees,  minutes, 
and  flractions.  Hence  the  value  of  a  light  can  be  ex- 
prassed  in  numben :  so  many  units  of  the  stundiird 
lamp,  multiplied  by  so  many  degrees  on  the  horizon. 
If  the  light  is  not  spraad  uniformly  over  the  horizon, 
it  is  necessarj-  to  estimate  its  brightness  at  different 
parts,  and  the  space  over  which  it  extends.  The  value 
for  each  portion  being  thus  found,  the  whole  value  is 
easily  deduced. 

Theof}'  will  show  bow  much  of  a  light  from  a  lamp 
can  be  thrown  by  a  given  lena,  or  mirror,  in  a  pnrticu. 
lardiraction;  but  as  the  degroe  of  perfection  of  these 
instruments  would  vary  the  result  considerably,  re- 
course is  to  be  had  to  experiment  in  comparing  differ- 
ent kinds  of  illuminating  apparatus.  Very  cnrcful 
and  often-repeated  experiments  have  been  made  l>y 
M.  L^onor  Frosnel,  late  secretarj'  of  the  light-housu 
board  of  France,  for  *he  purpose  of  comparing  the 
reflector  and  lens  lights  used  in  France.  To  appre- 
ciate them  fully,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  the  very 
minute  details  eiitored  into,  by  meanuring  the  brilliancy 
of  the  light  In  the  various  divisions  of  the  horizon, 
and  finding  its  total  value  (useful  effect)  in  estimating 
the  value  from  different  parts  of  the  apparatus,  and 
the  allowance  to  l>e  made  for  loss  of  light  from  tho 
construction  of  the  lantern,  etc.  Without  such  a 
scrutiny,  however,  the  character  o!  their  author,  as  an 
experimentalist,  is  a  guaranty  for  the  accuracy  of  the 
results.  They  show  the  following  comparison  for  lens 
lights  of  the  different  orders,  and  equivalent  systems 
of  nflector  lights : 

4th  order,  2d  \.L  .ss ;  economy  2^  to  1  in  favor  of  the 
Ions  light. 

3d  order,  1st  class ;  economy  3}  to  1  in  favor  of  the 
lens  light, 

2d  order,  fixed ;  economy  8}  to  1  in  favor  of  the  lent 
light. 

2d  order,  ravolving;  economy  4  to  1  in  favor  of  the 
lens  light. 

1st  order,  fixed,  economy  4  to  1  in  favor  of  the  lens 
light. 

The  combination  of  nflectors,  to  be  equivalent  to 
the  first  order  lens,  is  such  as  has  never  been  made. 
The  average  economy  of  the  light  itself  is  about  3j(  to 
1  in  favor  of  the  lens  system. 

To  render  these  deductions  strictly  applicaMe  to 
practice,  they  should  be  made  under  the  precise  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  apparatus  is  'used ;  but  as 
they  would  then  be  made  in  conditions  unfavorable  to 
accuracy,  it  is  usual  to  assume  that,  in  practice,  tho 
lamp  is  burning  in  the  liest  way,  and  thus  to  make  the 
comparisons.  To  render  them  strictly  applicalde  to 
the  lights  of  the  United  States,  the  oil,  too,  should 
be  the  same,  and  the  manner  of  burning  it  the 
same ;  or.  If  different  oils  wer«  used,  each  oil  should 
be  burned  under  tho  most  favorable  circumstances  for 
it.    These  nmarlts,  however,  touch  only  the  nfine- 


LIO 


1281 


LIS 


menu  of  Mm  cut,  and  ihow  th«  detinblniMi  of  ex* 
pcrimcnta  mada  with  the  actual  refleeton,  lampi,  and 
oil  In  uas  In  the  United  States,  with  the  lenses  and 
Uieir  lamps,  the  oil  licing  the  same. 

The  question  of  the  relative  economy  of  the  lens 
and  redeetor  lights  dependfl  upon  the  relative  cost  of 
the  ligbt-uouse  adapted  to  them  ;  of  the  Illuminating 
apparatus;  of  the  rej^.irs  of  the  building  and  appa- 
ratui  ,  sa'.^ries  of  the  lieepers  |  coat  of  the  oil,  and  inci- 
dental expenses.  In  France  two  keepers  have  always 
been  employed  for  the  larger  lights ;  one  '  T  the  other 
being  required  to  be  constantly  on  duty,  bo  aa  never 
to  leave  the  lights  without  attendance  in  the  lantern 
or  wati.h-room.  With  the  new  apparatus  for  the  first 
order  lights,  in  ordinary  caaes,  three  keepers  are  al- 
lowed, increasing  the  expense  for  salaries  about  one 
fourth.  With  those  of  the  other  orders,  there  has 
been  no  increose^two  keepers  being  allowed  to  those 
of  the  second  order,  and  third  order,  ilrst  class,  using 
the  mechanical  lamp ;  and  one  to  the  third  order,  sec- 
ond class,  and  to  the  fourth  order  lights,  nslng  the 
ordinary  fountain  lamps  with  Argand  burners.  The 
light-house  buildings  are  of  the  same  cost,  except  that 
an  additional  room  must  be  provided  for  the  third 
keeper  of  the  lens  lights  of  the  flrst  order.  The  6rst 
cost  of  the  lens  apparatus  is  somewhat  greater  Ann 
that  of  the  mirrors ;  but  the  great  economy  In  con- 
sumption of  oil,  turns  the  scale  entirely  in  favor  of 
the  lena  lights— giving,  according  to  the  calculations 
of  M.  Fresnel,  made  upon  the  prices  in  France,  for  a 
jmail  light,  an  economy  of  nearly  2  to  1  in  favor  of 
the  lens  ;  and  for  a  large  light  (revolving  light,  sec- 
ond order),  an  economy  of  more  than  1}  to  1.  The 
interest  on  the  first  cost  of  apparatus,  and  the  ad- 
ditional salaries,  inust  make  a  large  increase  to  conn- 
tertwlance  the  large  economy  in  the  consumption  of 
oil,  which,  in  France,  we  have  seen  to  be  mora  than 
8  to  lln  favor  of  the  lens  lights.  The  same  grade  of 
intelligence  and  education  is  statou  by  M.  Fresnel  to 
be  required  In  the  keepers  of  the  two  kinds  of  lights. 
The  care  of  the  mechanical  lamp,  however,  requires 
more  mechanical  tact  than  that  of  a  common  lamp ; 
while  the  cleansing  of  the  lens  apparatus  requires  leaa 
time  and  care  than  the  othem. 

The  additional  keeper  of  the  large  lights,  and  the 
providing  of  u  second  lamp  in  case  of  accident,  is  sup- 
posed to  guard  against  the  danger  of  the  total  extin- 
guishment, for  any  considerable  time,  of  the  single 
lights,  which  is  the  weak  point  of  the  lens  system. 
A  very  simple  alarum  Is  also  provided,  which,  as  soon 
as  the  overflow  In  the  lamp  ceases,  rings  a  bell,  giv- 
ing notice  of  any  derangement  in  the  machinery,  etc., 
for  raising  the  oil.  Mr.  Stevenson  causes  this  appa- 
ratus to  keep  a  bell  constantly  sounding,  and  to  stop 
when  the  machinery  becomes  deranged ;  belieying 
that  he  better  secures  the  watchfulness  of  the  keeper 
thereby.  On  this  question  M.  Fresnel  gives  this  very 
decided  opinion — after  an  experience  of  22  3'eait,  sus- 
tained by  the  daily  results  of  more  than  100  lenticular 
lights  of  the  flrst  8  onLers — "  that  they  have  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  re^arity  of  their  service."  The 
metallic  parts  of  the  lantern  are  made  of  gun-metal 
(bronze),  the  astragals  being  inclined  to  the  vertical. 
The  ventilation  of  the  lanterns  Is  carefully  attended 
to.  The  domes  are  of  copper,  painted  white  inside. 
There  is  a  lightnmg-conductor,  of  copper  wire  strands, 
twisted  like  a  rope,  to  each  tower.  The  keeper's 
house,  and  the  cellars  for  oil,  are  generally  detached 
from  the  light-house,  when  practicable.  The  con- 
struction of  light-house  towers  offers  nothing  for  spe- 
cial remark,  except  that,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  can  ased  in  obtunlng  plans  for  them,  they  are 
substantial  and  convenient,  dry  and  well  ventilated. 

Oil  of  colza  (rape-seed),  expressed  from  the  <;eedg 
of  a  kind  of  wild  cabbage  (Jmuiica  oleraiea),  is  the 
only  oil  used  in  the  French  light-houses.  The  colza 
give*  a  very  white  light,  and  the  oil  does  not  readily 


thicken  by  gold.  U,  Reynaud,  secretary  to  (h«  UghU 
bouse  board  of  France,  speaks  of  the  raaulta  of  uoni' 
paratlve  experiments  on  olive  oil,  mineral  oU  from 
bituminous  schlsle,  hydrogen,  and  mixtures  of  uur. 
gen  and  hydrogen,  as  having  been  uofavorabU.  Tm 
oil  Is  tested  before  being  received,  by  burning  fur  15  or 
16  consecutive  hours  in  a  mechanical  lamp,  #b«n,  if 
it  bums  clearly,  and  makes  little  or  iu>  crust  on  til* 
wick,  It  is  received.  The  oiiometer  is  ulao  used  in  tb« 
inspection.  At  the  principal  ports  a  book  Is  keiit.  In 
which  masters  of  .vessels  nay  register  their  conipUiiit* 
in  reference  to  the  lighu  on  the  coast.  Their  remark* 
are  examined,  and  Inquiry  made  by  tli*  Inspecting  *n« 
gineen. 

Table  or  CoMrxanoM  or  Ltns  axd  Biri.aiiTua  huuiH 
roa  Tua  hfuihsnts  or  M.  Laoaoa  Fmiwiiii,, 


Ordtrofthi 
llfbU. 


CUu  ind  fliar- 
Mt«T  of  UghU, 


iPonrth, 
iThlrd.. 
Second, 
Second, 
First.. 


Second  class 
First  class.. 

Fixed 

RevoIvlDg.. 
FUod 


EqulVRlMil  tyiun  {   VsltM- 

ofrin«cU)n,       I     yMful  _ 


1 

u 

24 


llftUivUr, 


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so 
so 

IM 


»  -1 

J-4-1 
l-S-l 


For  a  list  of  the  principal  French,  Danish,  Russian, 
and  other  Continental  IJghts,  sliowing  the  haiglita  of 
power  and  elevation  above  the  level,  see  tlie  Ust  part 
of  this  article. 

Gnat  Britain. — The  administrative  part  of  tiM 
British  lighthouse  system  is  so  peculiar,  having  grown 
up  Irrogidarly  with  the  expansion  of  commerce,  that 
it  does  not  require  to  be  described  in  detail.  't'JM 
chief  English  lights  are  under  the  direction  of  tli« 
corporation  of  Trinity  House,  Deptford  Stroud,  liUU' 
don;  and  the  Scottish  and  Irish  lights  under  conimU> 
sbners.  The  expense  of  the  lights  is  |iald  !)>-  duel 
coliticted  from  vessels  of  all  nations,  including  Kn« 
gland  herself. 

The  British  lights  are  divided,  according  to  tlialr 
power  and  position.  Into  three  classes — sea-coast,  Beu< 
ondary,  and  harbor  lights. 

Each  district  in  England  has  a  local  inspector,  and 
the  membera  of  the  Trinity  House  corporation  also 
inspect  from  time  to  time.  In  Scotland,  the  engineer 
of  the  commissioners  has  the  general  saperlntandencjl 
of  the  lights.  Noticoj  in  regard  to  lights  are  givun 
in  several  of  the  daily  metropolitan  papers,  in  periuiU 
icals  perused  by  nautical  men,  and  are  posted  at  tiM 
custom-houses. 

The  lights  of  Great  Britain  are  principally  still  rs. 
flectir,~  lights,  but  tlie  lens  light  has  been  iiitraduc«4 
in  m:  i  y  of  the  most  important  pmitions,  and  is  grad* 
ually  taking  the  place  of  the  other. 

Trinity  House  lenses,  1st  order,  1( ;  2d  order,  6  | 
4th  order,  number  not  known. 

In  Scotland,  the  proportion  of  lenses  to  reflectors  U 
greater  than  under  the  Trinity  House  corimratlon. 
Mr.  Stevenson  says :  "  The  Board  of  Northern  Light* 
bouses  are,  excepting  in  a  few  coses,  giving  up  th* 
use  of  reflectors,  and  substituting  eitiier  Fretiiel  «r 
holophotul  lights."  (See  letter  of  October  if),  1861,) 
Quite  recently  three  new  lens  lights  have  lieen  sstab> 
lished  in  England,  by  the  Trinity  House  board;  thr«« 
others,  of  the  ilrst,  second,  and  fourth  orders,  respect* 
ively,  have  taken  the  place  of  reflector  ligliti,  and 
fourth  order  lenses  have  been  introduced  for  barUtr 
lights. 

The  first  lens  light  in  Great  Britain  was  establinhed 
in  1835,  at  Inchkeith,  near  Edinburg,  under  tlie  ckargt 
of  Mr.  Alan  Stevenson ;  the  next  at  the  Isle  of  May  | 
and  now  the  Scottish  lights  of  the  larger  classes  ani 
gradually  being  converted  into  lens  I'glits,  Tlie  Trin* 
ity  House,  of  Deptford  Stroud,  introduced  tb«  flnl 
lens  light  in  Engbtnd,  in  1837,  at  Start  Point,  In  D«V> 
onshire.  Mr.  Herbert  says :  "  The  bydraallfi  lamp  l« 
universally  ic  use  in  the  dioptric  light*  of  tb*  <!6r|i» 


Ct(3 


1283 


UQ 


MMw  of  Trinity  IIoaM,  with  on*  exccpiloii  (the  South 
Fonknd  light),  wb«ra  the  Hght  li  ahown  fh>m  a  Car- 
Mi  lamp,  th«  ditaclvantaga  arising  from  tha  usa  of 
which  la  tha  occailonal  darangament  of  the  machin- 
al}'." In  Scotland,  the  mechanical  lamp  is  nsed  with 
the  lana  lights.  When  the  ventilation  of  the  towers 
ia  not  complete,  the  introdaction  of  I'rofessor  Farra- 
day'a  ventilating  tubea  over  the  chimneys  of  the  lampa 
baa  been  found  vary  uaeftal.  Tha  consumption  of  oil 
ia  Increased,  but  the  light  is  also  increuaed,  and  no 
flickering  of  the  lamp  can  occur  In  the  highest  wind. 
These  tubea  are  used  in  all  the  English  light-houses 
nnder  the  Trinity  House  board.  The  oil  of  oolia  is 
now  txcliuivtlj)  uwd  in  all  the  ligkU  under  (A«  Triiuig 
Hnu*  board.  According  to  Mr.  Stevenson,  ito  light 
ia  a  little  more  intense  than  that  of  apermaceti  oil; 
tha  consumption  for  a  given  quantity  of  light  al)out 
the  same,  »"'iether  the  two  he  compared  in  a  nieciuinl- 
cal  lamp  or  i.  common  Argand  lamp ;  it  remains  fluid 
at  temperatures  which  would  thiclten  spermaceti  oil ; 
the  flame  appeara  more  steady,  and  hence  the  breali- 
age  of  lamp-glueses  is  less  than  with  apennaceti  oil. 
It  is  furnished  in  England  at  8!)  cents  per  gallon,  which 
is  40  per  cent.  leas  than  the  cost  of  apermaceti  oil 
thei«.  The  auppiies  of  oil,  wiclia,  glasses,  etc.,  are 
delivered  once  a  year  by  a  vessel  lielonging  to  the 
corporation.  There  are  two  distinctive  characters 
given  to  the  reflector  ligbta  on  the  Scotch  coaat,  dif- 
fering from  those  already  adverted  to ;  In  one,  by  plac- 
ing the  rima  of  all  the  mirrors  on  one  side  of  a  revolv- 
ing light,  in  ode  vertical  plane,  and  inclining  their 
axes  slightly  to  the  horixon,  and  causing  a  rnpld  rota- 
tion of  the  frame,  a  flash  is  produced  every  6  seconds, 
which  appears  to  rise  and  full ;  the  bright  and  dark 
intervals  follow  each  other  rapidly.  In  the  other,  an 
Intermittent  light  la  produced  by  the  vortical  motion 
of  circuLirdiaca  in  ftont  of  the  reflectors,  eclipsing  the 
light  for  half  a  minute,  and  then  permitting  it  sudden- 
ly to  show  out. 

In  England,  the  coat  ef  ',he  lens  apparatus  for  a  sea- 
coast  light,  lantern,  and  pedestal,  exceeds  that  of  the 
reflector  apiiaratus  nearly  (,no  fourth  ;  liut  tliis  disap- 
pears in  the  cost  of  towers  and  apparatus,  and  the  ad- 
vantage is  on  the  other  aide  when  the  charge  for  con- 
struction is  turned  into  an  annual  interest,  and  the 
cost  of  illumination  is  considered. 

No  difference  ia  mtde  in  the  numtier  or  salaries  of 
tho  keepers  of  the  lens  lights  in  England.  Two  keep- 
ers are  allowed  to  all  large  lights,  because  one  la  re- 
quired always  to  be  on  duty  in  the  watch-room. 

Comparing  the  value  (useful  eflect)  of  the  revolving 
lens  light  at  Skerrj-vore,  Scotland,  with  the  old  re- 
flector light  at  Incbkeith,  Mr.  Stevenson  makes  It  in 
the  ratio  of  nearly  8^  to  1,  and  the  economy  (econom- 
ical effect)  in  the  proportion  of  8}  to  1.  Spermaceti 
oil  was  used  in  these  comparisons,  tho  result  of  which, 
aa  to  economy,  is  the  same  as  was  olitained  in  France. 
In  the  comparison  of  fixed  lights,  Mr.  Stevenson 
makea  the  economy  of  the  lens  light  rise  to  four  times 
that  of  the  reflector.  Taking  the  interest  on  first  coat 
of  erection  as  an  annual  charge,  and  combining  it  with 
the  cost  of  malntainhig  the  two  kinds  of  lights,  Mr. 
Stevenson  mokes  the  economy  of  tho  lens  ayatem,  for 
rtvolving  lighU  of  the  Jlnt  orde,;  to  be  aa  1-2  to  1,  and 
for  large  fixed  lights  as  1}  to  1. 

Argand  burners  and  paralmlic  reflectors  are  used  In 
the  Hritiah  light-veaaels,  l>oth  for  fixed  and  revolving 
lights.  The  lantenis  are  of  copiwr,  or  of  gun-metal. 
There  are  from  8  to  11  light-vessels  in  each  of  the 
districts  under  the  charge  of  the  Trinitj-  Konse  lioard, 
and  in  each  district  a  relief  light  veasel  ia  stationed. 
A  gong  is  used  as  a  fog-alarm,  in  the  Trinity  House 
coqwration  light-vessela. 

The  lens  system  was  early  introduced  Into  Holland, 
where  it  has  been  entirely  approved ;  it  has  also  been 
intr^nced  into  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  Raa- 
ala.    The  coIm  oil  ia  also  in  common  use.    There  is 


no  caae  whera  the  lens  lights  have  b««n  introduced,  ia 
which  raeurrence  haa  been  made  to  the  reflector  sys- 
tem. 

From  these  data,  ws«ra  prapared  to  make  the  com* 
paiison  required  by  the  instructions  of  the  Department, 
under  the  heads  which  It  has  pointed  out,  aa  far  as  It 
can  lie  done  without  further  experimauta. 

Tim  ui^e  of  theae  data  will  lie  entirely  safe,  since  the 
systems  of  reflecting  and  refracting  ore  compared  un- 
der the  mott  favorable  circumatancca  fur  eacli  class. 

1.  {/ayVif  ilffeel. — We  hive  Juat  ahown  that,  by  tha 
experimenta  of  Fnsnel  and  Stevanaon,  the  useful  ett'ect 
of  a  lens  light  is  to  that  of  a  reflector  light  of  tlie  sumi 
class,  on  the  average,  aa  8^  to  1 ;  of  course,  tho  !iulu. 
photal  ayatem  of  saving  some  of  tho  lost  lig).(  in  tlie 
various  arrangements,  increases  tbU  djspar!  ,y. 

2.  Economy — Fivt  Cost — lit  pain — hum  lilihj — Efi. 
ciencj), — ThU  branch  of  the  subject  has  been  so  ebbo- 
rated  elsewhere  in  this  report,  that  it  is  coaHiilcrod 
only  necessar}-  to  remark  briefly  upon  it  in  this  place. 

Assuming  that  tho  ligiita  in  tha  two  ayatema  are  tlie 
best  of  their  kind : 

The  economy  of  the  third  order  lens  light,  in  com- 
parison to  the  reflector  light,  aa  near./  equcl  to  It  iia 
poaaibie,  is  as  1  to  2-0.  That  ia,  it  requires  more  tluiii 
two  and  a  half  times  as  much  oil,  etc.,  for  tho  retlcctnr 
light,  which  is  leas  than  one  third  as  useful,  as  fur  the 
lens  light. 

The  economy  of  the  second  order  lens  light,  in  com. 
parison  to  the  refloctor  light,  as  nearly  equal  to  it  as  it 
is  possible  to  be  made,  is  as  1  to  4'07.  That  is,  tlio 
lens  apparatus  is  four  tUnes  as  advantageous  aa  tha 
reflector  light. 

The  economy  of  the  first  order  lens  light,  compared 
to  that  of  the  reflector,  is  4-08  to  1 ;  or  that  the  ris 
flector  is  four  times  as  expensive  as  the  leus,  or  thut 
the  lens  is  fonr  times  aa  advantageous  as  tlie  refiectoi 
light. 

"  That  if  we  take  into  account  the  flrat  cost  of  cuii- 
atructlun  and  the  expense  of  their  maintenance,  we 
will  find,  in  respect  to  the  efiuct  produced,  the  now 
system  (dioptric)  is  still  from  one  and  a  half  to  twice 
as  advantageous  as  the  old." 

Tho  repairs  to  the  mechanical  lampa  employed  in 
lena  lights,  amount  to  a  mere  nominal  sum. 

No  difficulty  can  be  anticipated  in  getting  pro])er 
keepers  to  attend  to  the  lena  lights.  Men  beloiigii:>{ 
to  the  claas  of  ordinary  niechauiea  or  laborers,  are  a|>- 
pointed  to  take  charge  of  tlie  lamps  in  France.  Kiglit 
or  ten  days  will  sufiice  to  instruct  a  light-keeper  a  the 
most  essential  parte  of  liis  dut}',  receiving  lessons  fniiu 
an  inatructor  conversant  with  all  the  details  of  tlic 
aervioa. 

The  attendance  upon  the  lamps  can  no  Iou);cr  be 
regarded  with  fear  of  ill  conscqunnces.  They  have 
iMjen  greatly  improved,  and  are  now  believed  to  be 
nearly  perfect. 

Thasa  is  nothing  belonging  to  a  mechanical  lamp 
which  coidd  not  be  repaired  by  a  watch-maker,  and 
any  person  capable  of  taking^harge  of  u  movulilo 
light  is  equally  compoteiit  to  nnmage  a  leins  light. 

While  ex|Mjrience  has  fully  proved  that  tho  fears 
which  were  entertained  of  the  extinction  of  the  single 
lamp  used  in  the  lens  lights  are  illusory,  yet,  should 
they  still  exist  in  un}-  mind,  any  greater  guaranty  be 
absolutely  required  than  experience  gives,  it  would  lie 
easily  aflbrded  by  furnishing  each  of  the  three  or  four 
wicks  of  the  mechanical  lamp  with  a  separate  pump, 
rendering  them  thus,  in  effect,  three  or  four  Iniiips. 
By  subdividing  the  wicks,  thia  might,  if  desired,  lie 
carried  still  further,  and  the  expense  of  the  addltloiml 
pumpa  would  not  add  two  doilara  per  annum  to  the 
cost  of  each  first-clatiii  light.  The  experience  in  rclu- 
tion  to  lonses  has  not  lieen  confined  to  any  one  coun- 
try ;  even  in  our  own,  with  but  three  statione,  the 
results  ore  moat  conclusive  in  their  favor.  Every 
first-class  light  ahould  have  two  keepers,  as  in  Groat 


LIO 


1288 


LIG 


oed,  la 
at  •)■*• 

16  com* 
rtmnnt, 

tar  aa  U 

Ince  tlie 
iTe(\  uii- 
cUu. 
t,  bv  the 
ful  effect 
the  uttii"' 
tho  '.lolo- 
).<,  la  the 

f- 

tilij—tlffl- 
00  elAl)i>- 
on»ii\ero(i 
tiU  ))liice. 
nB  are  the 

it,  in  coin- 

icl  to  it  IIS 

more  thnu 
10  rclli't'liir 
,  ttd  for  tlio 

;ht,  in  com- 
altoit »!'  it 
rbat  is,  tlio 
eoua  as  the 

t,  compared 
that  the  r«- 
leu»,  or  tliiit 
the  rellectoi 

I  cost  of  cou- 
teniimo,  we 
the  now 
littif  to  twice 

emiiloyed  in 
n. 

tting  proiwr 
en  belongii.'? 
irers,  are  ap- 
iince.  I'iglit 
keeper  n the 
lessons  from 
etails  of  the 

no  longer  lie 
They  have 
Blicveil  to  1)8 

hanical  lamp 
h.mal(e<'>  and 
of  u  movable 
e^9  li(?l't- 
,bttt  tlie  fears 
of  the  single 
',  yet,  should 
guaranty  bo 
s  it  would  be 
,  three  or  four 
iparate  pump, 
t  four  lami's. 
if  desired,  be 
the  additional 
annum  to  the 
iricnce  in  nU- 
any  one  coun- 
stntions,  the 
favor.     Kv<«5' 
,rg  M  in  Groat 


BrlUIn,  etc.  Such,  however,  In  not  the  cue  In  the 
United  State!  |  and  In  nial(in((  the  comparison  of  coit, 
they  have  deemed  it  best  to  allow  the  salnr}'  of  an  u- 
•iitant  keeper,  and  the  additiona*  cost  of  hia  dwelling- 
nvms.  In  making  com))arative  estimate*  of  the  ex- 
panse of  the  lent  and  reOecto'  ,(hts  ;  but  in  compar- 
ing the  actual  annual  expenae  of  lights  per  lamp  In 
thia  and  in  foreign  countries,  no  credit  was  given  to 
the  foreign  light  for  having  additional  ke'  era,  and  no 
charge  made  to  our  lights  for  deficiency  of  keepera. 
The  Congressional  Committee  on  Commerce  aay  : 

"  It  la  not  believed  that  dioptric  liglita  of  the  firat 
order  ran  be  required  at  any  point*  except  a  few,  and 
thoae  the  moat  important  outer  aea-statlona.  The  ru- 
murka  hereinafter  mado  in  regard  to  the  compurative 
cllicienoy  and  economy  of  Krcucli  and  American  lights, 
and  tlie  letter  of  the  Auditor,  may  suggest  doubts  of 
the  propriety  iif  using  any  of  the  first  -rder," 

Flmt  order  lights  are,  if  poaalble,  i  lore  neceuarj/  on 
our  coatt  than  on  that  of  any  other  country,  and  the 
Board  can  not,  therefore,  conceive  tL.'a<  good  reaton 
could  be  ffiven  for  not  introducing  them.  It  Is  true,  we 
have  nojirtt  order  lightt  at  preteni,  but  nmny  are  claimed 
to  be  of  that  cIom,  fr/iilr  ,'  /  are  no  belter  than  third- 
dau  ones.  It  is  deni  ,iisi  .ted  elsewhere  in  this  re- 
port, that  the  firtt  o>  x  r  lentet  are  abt  utely  neeeuary ; 
anil  it  is  beyond  question  true,  that  no  combination  of  the 
reJUctort  can  produce  ajirtt  order  light  equal  in  pover 
to  afir$l  order  lent. 

Again,  tho  committee  aay : 

"  In  arranging  lights,  useful  effect  and  expenae 
aiiould  be  looked  at  in  cue  view.  An  outer  or  sea- 
coast  light  ahould  have  a  '  purtee'  or  reach  of  light 
sullicleiit  to  give  the  approaching  vessel,  in  all  weath- 
ers, timely  notice  of  danger.  Any  expense  in  fitting 
up  lights  to  produce  more  effect  is  useless.  A  light 
extending  its  limit  of  visibility  to  tho  distance  of  25 
miles,  is  as  efficient  and  useful  aa  one  of  greater  range. 
The  mariner  sees  it  in  ample  time  to  shape  his  course 
free  from  all  dlfBculty."  Tho  Board  concur  in  theso 
opinions,  J3ut  our  lights  are  not  of  that  character. 
The  object  of  a  light  is  to  warn  the  ni^vigator  of  some 
hidden  danger,  or  of  hia  ajiproacli  to  land,  and  to  guide 
him  clear  of  that  danger  on  his  way,  or  into  hia  dea- 
tbied  port.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  regu- 
late the  power  and  range  of  a  light,  solely  with  refer- 
e'jce  to  these  primary  objects.  If  a  light  is  placed  on 
a  "  clear  coast"  merely  to  warn  the  mariner  of  his  ap- 
proach or  proximity  to  a  lee-shore,  or  of  his  danger  of 
running  hia  veasel  on  it  at  night,  a  power  and  range 
must  be  given  with  reference  to  the  gradual  or  irrcgu- 
br  soundings  in  approaching  the  danger.  If  it  is  in- 
tended to  aerve  as  u  guide  around  a  dangerous  point 
or  shoal,  then  it  becomes  necessary  tu  give  it  such  a 
range  aa  will  Inaure  safety  to  the  vessel  outside  of 
these  dangers  under  every  circumstance ;  such,  for 
example,  as  a  sudden  storm,  or  a  continued  gale  blow- 
ing on  shore  for  many  days. 

There  are  many  points  along  the  coast  of  the  United 
States,  with  dangerous  shoals  extending  many  miles 
from  them.  To  guide  vessels  clear  of  these  dangers, 
lights  of  the  greatest  power  and  range  are  indispensa- 
ble. Take  aa  example  the  Nantucket  Shoals,  those 
between  Bamegat  and  Cape  May,  off  Absecum,  and 
those  off  Capes  Hatteras,  Lookout,  Fear,  Remain,  etc. 
The  shoals  off  Cape  Fear  extend  20  nautical  miles  from 
the  present  light,  which  can  only  be  seen  under  favor- 
able circumstances  about  12  miles.  The  necessity  for 
first  order  lights  at  all  points  where  sea-coast  lights  arc 
required,  is  therefore  indisputable.  None  of  the  lights 
named  above  have  a  sufficient  range  to  warrant  the 
mariner  in  running  boldly  for  them.  The  lights  on 
the  Bahama  banks  are  vaatly  auperior  to  those  on  tho 
Florida  coast.  The  idea  that  our  lights  are  injured  by 
the  haze,  miits,  etc.,  etc.,  arising  from  the  proximity 
of  our  southern  coaat  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  therefore 
trroneoua.    That  there  is  nothing  in  the  atmosphere 


along  oar  coaat  calculated  to  affect  the  brilliancy  and 
power  of  good  lightii,  which  doea  not  exist  on  the 
coasts  of  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  France,  Holland, 
Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  etc.,  etc.,  la  abundantly 
proved  by  th"  ubaervations  of  intelligent  inillviduala, 
who  are  acute  oliaarvera  of  meteorological  phenomena, 
and  who  have  had  their  attention  drawn  to  this  par- 
ticular aul>Ject  iii  consequence  of  the  great  Inferiority 
of  our  lights,  compared  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  mar- 
itime worbl. 

The  proper  e'evation  tu  be  given  to  flrat-clasa  l.,(hta, 
U  a  suliject  closily  allied  to,  and  in  some  degrei  de- 
pendent upon,  th.'  general  atate  of  the  atmosphere  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  particular  liglits. 

Observation  by  i  \teiligent  professional  persons,  will 
always  enable  the  'ight-iiouse  engineer  to  act  under- 
standingly  and  deoii'o  correctly  in  all  H|iecial  cases  of 
this  kind. 

Aa  a  general  rule,  it  is  considered  by  aide  light- 
house engineer!  in  Ki  rope,  that  on  coasts  where  fog« 
prevail,  a  light  shouM  not  have  a  greater  elevation 
than  200  feet  above  the  mean  sea-level;  but  under 
other  circumstances  .iiy  elevation,  if  desirable  to 
afford  a  greater  range  to  the  light,  may  be  given, 
which  is  not  above  tho  egion  of  clouc'  >. 

For  a  list  of  the  pri  icipal  British  lights,  showing 
the  height  of  tower  and  elevation  above  sea-level,  see 
the  last  part  of  this  art!  de. 

No  light  dues  are  cha  ged  upon  shipping  In  France, 
oa  In  Great  Britain,  Holl.nd,  Denmark,  Norwa;*,  and 
Sweden,  etc.,  but  the  whoU  eetablishmeut  is  provided 
for  as  In  the  United  States  and  Kussia.  Tlie  main- 
tenance of  the  light-house  buildings  is  confided  to  the 
departmental  or  local  engineers,  and  the  expenses  are 
defrayed  from  funds  appropriated  for  the  service  of  the 
department  of  public  works. 

United  States,  Light-house  System  in  Me.— The  foUow- 
ng  account  of  the  condition  of  the  liaht-housea  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  proposed  changes  to  be  made  in 
the  light-liouae  system.  Is  extracted  f^om  tho  Keport 
of  the  Light-house  Board,  made  in  1851. 

"Tho  subject  of  light-liouse  illumination  and  Im- 
provement, although  one  of  occasional  discussion  In 
Congress  and  in  certain  circles  within  the  last  12  or  15 
years,  has  not  occupied  the  public  mind  to  any  great 
extent  in  this  country,  while  in  Europe  generally,  but 
more  especially  in  France,  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  the  ablest  and  most  distinguished  statesmen, 
philosophers,  and  philanthropists  have  devoted  them- 
selves for  the  last  25  or  30  years  to  this  subject,  in  en- 
deavoring to  apply  practically  the  aids  which  science 
and  tlie  mechanic  arts  have  developed.  Experimenta 
to  ascertain  the  truthful  practical  tests  of  the  relative 
useful  and  economical  values  of  illuminating  appa- 
ratus, combustibles,  aud  their  accessories,  in  the  most 
minute  detail,  have  been  made  by  Fresnel,  Faraday, 
Stevenson,  and  other  distinguished  individuals;  the 
results  of  their  investigations  have  been  published  to 
the  world,  and  their  conclusions  have  served  for  the 
formation  of  a  sy.stcm  for  light-houae  illumination,  ap- 
proximating to  perfection.  Legislation,  too,  has  taken 
a  prominent  part  in  this  important  branch  of  the  public 
service  in  Europe.  In  1825  the  French  government 
adopted  definitely  the  Fresnel  system  of  illumination 
on  the  coasts  of  France,  and  took,  aa  the  basis  of  their 
future  light-house  establishment,  the  programme  pro- 
posed by  the  Board  organized  for  the  purpose,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  Admiral  Rosael  of  tho  French 
navy. 

"About  this  time  the  subject,  which  Sir  Uavld 
Brewster  had  foreshadowed  in  1811,  was  revived  in 
England  and  Scotland,  through  Colonel  Colby  of  the 
Royal  Engineers,  and  Mr.  Stevenson  the  engineer  to 
tho  Northern  Lights,  and  the  distinguiihed  architect  of 
the  Bell-Rock  tower.  However,  no  important  step  was 
taken  on  tho  English  side  of  the  Channel  to  introduce  tha 
Fresnel  apparatus  imtil  after  a  more  careful  and  rigid 


12.14 


LIG 


•Xkmlnatlon  had  bean  mild*  )>y  th«  llf(hl'hauM  «n- 
ginmr  of  ScntUnil,  anil  aftrr  trlutx  of  riiiii|iaratlve 
UMfulncM  and  economy  with  that  anil  the  rpflector  ap- 

fiarutiin  at  the  tnchkelth  itHtlnn.  In  IMJM,  a  new 
HipiilKo  waa  given  to  the  Hulijevt  of  linprnvement  lii 
llKht-hDiine  lllumlnatlim  hy  lt<lteni  from  HIr  Havlil 
KrvwKter,  and  frnm  the  action  of  the  IIoum  of  Com- 
Biona'  neloct  raminlttee.  The  ll){ht-h()U»e  iMninU  of 
Europe  aeemml  to  exert  themnelvea  to  Mtiafy  pulillo 
opinion  )iy  tlio  IntriMluctlon  of  tlie  Freanel  leni  at  a 
fcw  of  the  moHt  Important  |iolnt»  fur  land  llghtu,  and 
of  Improved  apiiaratua  for  floatinK  IlKhta,  ronalating 
of  the  ArKand  liinipii  and  puralwUc  reflectora,  In  gen- 
eral ti8e  for  land  IlKlita  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Ffoiel  leu8,  and  moval>le  machinery  for  converting 
•ucli  fixed  floating  llghta  as  wore  neceaaar>  Into  re- 
volving ones. 

"Although  the  lens  met  with  much  favor  In  En- 
gland, and  has  heen  gradually  getting  into  use,  until 
nearl  \  one  half  the  sea-ciHiat  lightK  have  t)«en  changeil 
•ince  18:17,  ntill  Scotland  has  introduced  a  larger  num- 
ber, in  proportion  to  extent  of  coast,  tlian  the  Trinity 
House  corporation.  Notwithstanding  these  decided 
Improvements  In  the  llglita  of  (J  rent  Ilritiiln,  another 
•elect  ciinmilitae  on  light-houses  was  raised  hy  th^ 
House  of  Commona  In  \H46 ;  and  of  the  henetits  arising 
from  thla  last  report  have  heen  the  Intrmluctlon  of  a 
large  numlier  of  lens  apparatus,  not  only  In  (Jreat 
Britain  hut  also  Into  many  of  the  colonies,  and  the  ault- 
•tltutlim  of  the  colza  or  ropc-soed  oil  In  nearly  every 
llght-liciuso  in  the  kingdom.  In  canse(|uenco  of  its  su- 
periority and  economy  compared  to  the  liest  »|)enn  oil. 
Improvements  In  illuminating  apparatus  and  construc- 
tion, ventilation,  coml)Ustihlos,  etc.,  Iiavo  made  rapid 
progress  In  light-house  engineering  In  Kuropo  j  while 
in  this  country  no  attempt  has  Ijecn  made  to  Improve 
the  lights,  with  the  exception  of  the  act  of  (Congress 
approved  July  7,^H38,  and  which  was  the  result  of  the 
Teconimendation  of  the  committee  ou  commerce  In 
the  Senate,  as  follows  : 

"  '  Skc.  i.  And  b<s  it  further  emcled,  That  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  be,  and  he  is  herel>y  directed 
to  cause  two  seta  of  dioptric  or  lenticular  appararns— 
one  of  the  flrat,  the  other  of  the  second  class — and  also 
one  set,  if  h»  deem  it  expedient,  of  the  reflector  appa- 
ratus, all  of  the  most  Improved  kinds,  to  be  imported, 
and  cause  the  said  several  sets  to  bo  set  up,  and  their 
merits  as  compared  with  the  apparatus  In  use,  to  lie 
tested  by  full  and  satlsfactorj-  experiments.'  Under 
iku  authority,  a  lens  apparatus  was  placed  in  each  of 
/the  towers  at  the  highlands  of  Navesink,  and  14  out  of 
rthe  15  reflectors  were  placed  in  the  lioston  light-house. 
,  If  '  the  said  several  sets'  were  '  set  up'  and  '  their  mer- 
;it|,  as  compared  with  the  apparatus  in  use,  tested  by 
full  and  satisfactory  experiment,'  in  confomlty  to  the 
act,  the  results  of  those  experiments  have  not  been 
made  known.  With  this  exception,  and  the  authority 
of  Congress  'to  test  Mr.  Isherwood's  plan  of  dlscrimi- 
natiag  one  light  from  another,  and  of  determining  the 
dUtaiiee  of  a  vessel  from  a  light,'  which  resulted  in 
placing  a  seoond  order  lens  in  the  tower  at  Sankaty 
Head,  Nantucket,  and  the  lights  authorized  by  law  to 
be  constructed  under  the  direction  of  tde  Topographical 
Bureau  (Brandywlne  .Shoal,  Parysford  Reef,  and  Sand 
Key),  no  steps  have  lieen  taken  to  keep  pace  in  light- 
bouse  improvements  in  this  country  with  those  of 
France  and  Groat  Britain, 

"  The  twurd,  after  examining  with  a  patience  and  a 
zeal  which  they  believe  this  important  branch  of  the 
public  service  to  demand,  the  dilTercnt  points  to  which 
their  attention  was-speeiully  called  by  the  instructions 
of  the  Department,  have  arrived  at  the  following  con- 
clusions, which  they  fuel  assured  will  be  found  to  be 
fully  sustained  by  the  detailed  data  in  this  report,  and 
Its  appendix,  upon  which  they  ure  chiefly  based ; 

"  That  the  light-houses,  light-vessels,  beacons,  and 
-buoya,  and  their  aecesaories  in  the  United  States,  are 


not  as  efflclant  aa  the  interests  of  commerce,  naviga- 
tion, and  humanity  demand  i  and  that  they  dn  nut 
compare  favorably  with  similar  aids  to  navigation  In 
Kurope  In  general,  but  eapeclally  with  thtsie  of  Krsnni 
and  Orent  Britain,  and  their  dependencies.  That  the 
light-house  establishment  of  the  ITniteil  Ntntcs  does 
not  compare  favoraldy  In  economy  with  those  of  (ireiit 
Britain  and  France.  *  *  *  That  while  the  sups, 
riority  of  Kuropean  lights  to  those  of  the  llnitmi  .'<tiiti'.H 
(arising;  from  the  greater  care  and  attention  lipstuwed 
upon  them,  the  batter  and  more  expensive  apparatus 
•mployed  In  them,  the  larger  number  of  keepem  to 
the  lights,  the  mom  rigid  superintendence  and  fr«i|ui>nt 
visitations  for  inapecthm  and  for  deliver}'  of  supplies), 
render  any  Just  comparimin  of  them  in  annual  i>x|i<inse 
In  money  Imposaible,  It  Is  shown  that  the  difTeronce 
for  maintenance  per  lamp  per  annum  la  ver}-  small, 
Atted  with  lens  apparatus  of  equal  power  to  tlie  re- 
and  that  not  Invariably  In  favor  of  those  of  tlils 
country.  •  •  •  If  all  our  present  lights  were 
flectors  now  In  use,  the  annual  expense  for  suppii"^  of 
nil  and  cleaning  materials  would  cost  little  more  timii 
one  fourth  as  much  as  Is  now  expended  for  theso  arti- 
cles of  supply  annually ;  that  is,  that  the  supplies  now 
costing  upward  of  i|iir>2,U00,  would  not  exceed  tiW.OOO 
tof42,0<)0,  making  an  annual  saving  of  (.1 10,000  to 
(116,000.  That  In  addition  to  the  great  Bii|«)riarity  in 
brilliancy,  power,  and  economy  iif  the  lenses,  compiirod 
to  the  re  (lectors,  they  possess  the  great  advuntiitjc  cif 
duraliiiity  to  the  extent  of  never  requiring  to  lie  re- 
newed. 

"  The  light-house  system  of  the  United  States  hii« 
grown  up  from  small  beginnings — only  8  lights  in  17WI, 
and  65  lights  in  IH'iO— to  the  enlarged  condition  of  :i;il 
lights  In  1H51,  and  witliout  those  helps  from  orgaiii/.n- 
tion  of  which  some  other  countries  have  hud  lh«  ad- 
vantage. Groat  credit  Is  due  to  tlie  zeal  and  faltiifiil- 
ness  of  tlie  present  general  su|i«rintendent,  and  to  tlic 
spirit  of  economy  which  he  has  shown.  Tho  system* 
of  lighting,  however,  which  '25  years  ago  were  in  giit- 
eral  use,  liavo  gradually  given  way  In  more  impniml 
onrs — more  rfficimt  and  more  economical.  The  gencnd 
condition  of  our  lights  Is  not  such  as  our  commence  ikiw 
requires,  and  not  such  as  the  improvements  of  tlio  diiy 
can  supply.  In  considering  the  condition  of  tlie  ilil 
fcrent  parts  of  the  system  In  their  order,  these  (mU 
will  strongly  appear,  viz. :  that  waste  of  light,  l>y 
imperfect  apparatus,  is  waste  of  oil,  niid  must  lio  p^iul 
for  In  money.  The  navigator  would  be  mo-e  lienetitcil 
by  a  few  good  and  reliable  lights  than  by  many  imper- 
fect ones  j  Indeed,  he  would  prefer  no  light  at  all  tu  a 
l>ad  one. 

"  Clauijicalion  ofLighti. — A  proper  classification  nf 
lights  has  many  and  obvious  advantages ;  in  fact,  it 
forma  the  liasls  of  the  arrangement  of  liglits  in  a  sys- 
tem. In  England  the  shore-lights  are  ciussfd  as  »<.:- 
coast,  secondar}',  river,  and  harlior-lights.  In  Fr.incM 
they  are  divided  Into  six  orders,  according  to  the  Aim 
of  the  illuminating  app^iratus.  The  name  of  tho  onlcr 
of  the  light  In  the  French  syncem  suggests  Its  pur<>iHi', 
the  range,  the  relative  lirilliancy,  the  size  and  chaniiti"' 
of  the  parts  of  the  Illuminating  apparatus,  and  tli ' 
particulars  of  detail.  That  our  own  lights  have  nut 
been  classed,  will  explain  the  many  anomalies  in  the 
number  of  lamps,  the  forms  of  the  reflectors,  anil  llio 
like.  It  is  an  admitted  principle,  that  the  degree  ef 
divergency  given  to  a  light  b}-  a  reflector  for  li;j;lit- 
house  puriHises,  should  depend  upon  Its  intended  oli- 
jects,  including  range,  etc.,  etc.  j  and  yet  no  such  prin- 
ciple has  lieen  applied  In  our  light-houses,  and  a  w:iste 
of  light  has  been  the  consequence.  Classification  i<  of 
little  avail  without  other  and  mora  Important  qualities ; 
but  it  is  nevertheless  an  essential  of  a  system.  Tlio 
following  is  an  assumed  classification  of  the  lights  of 
the  United  States,  accordiiigto  their  present  value  and 
tueful  offact,  as  compared  to  the  lens : 

1.  One  station  with  a  first  order  flxed  and  a  second 


i;hi^iiia0i,f. 


■  f^^iV^'j^ii^SIIUji. 


U(i 


1385 


LIO 


ordarrcrolvIngUni  light.  Thia  onmblnatlon  NiuUn 
th«  Ilghl  only  «quul  to  a  Mcond  nrdvr  Ian*  light.  3. 
One  fitatlun  with  a  Mcond  onler  HaahinK  light  (Icna), 
ThIa  light  la  not  fully  cqnal  to  a  aecimil  anl«r  lena, 
conatrnrted  nn  tha  moat  ■ppn)ve(l  plan,  In  ronaaiiucnce 
of  tha  loaa  of  ll^ht  by  inotal  placvil  In  the  focal  plana. 
3.  One  atiitlon  with  a  third  order  larger  model  lena 
light,  conatrui'tml  on  the  most  approved  plan.  4.  One 
station  with  a  rovolvliiR  light,  '21  2I-lnoh  rBrtoct4)r»,  the 
nearcnt  approximation  to  a  flrat  order  catoptric  light  on 
the  coaat ;  Inferior  to  a  aecond  order  lena  light.  6. 
Three  atationa  with  18  21-Inch  rafle^tora  (flxad  light)  | 
not  Iwtter  than  aecond  ordir  catoptric,  or  third  order 
dioptrlo  light  e.  One  atatlon  with  aO  18-incb  reAact- 
ora  (two  llghi!<  In  one  tower),  not  li«tter  tlun  aecond 
onler  catoptri",  or  third  order  lens  llglit  (larger  mod- 
el). 7.  Four  atationa  with  IH  16-incli  rellei'tora  ;  about 
equal  to  third  order  lena  light  (larger  model),  H.  Two 
atationa  with  17  21-Inch  reflectora  ;  almut  equal  to  third 
order  lena  light  (larger  model).  0.  Nine  atationa,  15 
21-Inch  reflectora  ;  not  "qual  to  a  third  order  lena  llglit. 
in.  KIght  Ktntinn",  U  il-lnch  reflectora  j  Inferior  to 
third  order  lens  light.  11.  Fourteen  atationa,  15  16- 
inch  do.  12.  Three  atationa,  18  lA-lnch  do.  IB.  KIght 
atttlona,  14  lO-lnch  do.  14.  Eleven  atationa,  18  14- 
tiuiido.  16.  Tliree  atationa,  12  21-Inch  do.  16.  One 
atatkin,  12  Itl-inch  do.  17.  Four  atationa,  12  16-tnch 
do.  18.  Three  atnllona,  11  21-inch  do.  10.  Twelve 
ptatlona,  11  16-inch  do.  20.  Nine  atationa,  10  21.inch 
do.  21.  F.ighteen  atationa,  10  llj-inch  do.  22.  Forty 
atationa,  10 14-inch  ilo.  23.  Thirty-nine  atationa,  8  14- 
inch  do.  24.  Twenty-oight  atationa,  8  1 1-Inch  do.  26. 
Two  atationa,  8  IR-inch  do.  20.  Two  atationa,  I)  21-inch 
do.  27.  Eighteen  «tntiona,  7  14-Inch  >lo.  28.  Fourteen 
•tutiona,  G  1  l-lnrh  do.  29.  Two  atiitlona,  2  Ifl-ineh  do. 
30.  Eight  atationa,  4  14  and  lO-inch  do.  Ill,  Fourteen 
•tati<in»,  11  14-in('h  do.  .S2.  Four  atationa,  1  14-<:ich 
m.  One  station,  8  9-inch  do.  84.  Eight  atationa,  6  14- 
Inch  do.  86.  Four  stations,  S  14-Inch  do.  36.  Kine 
stationa,  without  reflectors. 

"  Recnpitulation. — 1  tower  witli  30  lamps  (two  lights 
in  one  tower)  j  1  do.  29  do. ;  1  do.  21  do,  j  7  do.  18 
do.  i  2  do.  17  do. ;  8  do.  HI  do. ;  23  do.  16  do, ;  16  do. 
M  do.  J  11  do.  in  do. ;  8  do.  12  do. ;  29  do.  11  do. ;  67 
do.  10  do. ;  2  ''  9  do. ;  70  do.  H  do. ;  18  do.  7  do. ;  M 
do.  0  do. ;  1  -  do.  5  do. ;  8  do.  4  do.  j  6  do,  8  do. ;  2  do. 
2  do. ;  7  do.  1  do. ;  6  do.  small  gas-lights  ;  4  do,  lens 
lights ;  ,'17  towers  with  21-Inch  reflectora ;  1  do.  18  do. ; 
41  do.  16  do. ;  61  do.  16  do. ;  168  do.  14  Vo. ;  1  do.  9 
do. ;  9  without  reflectors. 

"  /-<■!«  IJghtt, — Ore  station  equal  to  aecond  order 
lena  light.  One  stath  :  not  equal  to  second  order  lena 
light.  One  atation  with  third  order  (larger  model) 
lens  light. 

"  Rtflrclor  Lights. — 12  lights  not  equal  to  aecond  or- 
der lens  light.  61  lights  not  equal  to  third  order  lena 
light  (large  size).  85  do.  (small  aize).  121  lights 
not  better  than  fourth  order  lens  light.  8-t  lights  infe- 
rior to  the  fifth  and  sixth  order  lens  light. 

"  It  is  apparent  fW>m  thia  statement  that  there  i»  not 
a  (Irat-claaa  light  of  any  description  on  the  whole  coast 
of  the  United  States.  The  nearoat  approximatlona  are 
at  the  Highlands  of  Naveaink,  composed  of  a  first  and 
second  order  light,  and  the  revolving  reflector  light  at 
Mobilo  Point,  of  21  reflectora.  The  three  next  in  or- 
der are  Sandy  Hook,  Cape  Ilcnlopen,  and  Cape  Henry, 
each  fitted  with  18  21-inch  reflectors,  and  in  towers  of 
tt  good  elevation.  The  Boaton  harbor  light,  fitted  with 
14  21-Inch  English  reflectors,  proluibly  now  stands  next 
on  this  list,  although  the  apparatus  is  much  worn,  and 
has  not  had  the  care  and  attention  it  deserved.  There 
are  236  fixed  lights,  80  revolving  lights,  2  fixed  and 
revolving  lights,  18  double  lights,  2  triple  lights. 

''Average  number  of  lamps  per  liglit-honse,  in  the 
Untied  States,  is  now  9J ;  in  England  (general  coast), 
13;  in  Scotland  (do.),  17j!  in  Ireland  (do.).  20;  in 
Ireland  harbor,  7|.  The  41  light- vessels  of  the  United 


Alataa  are  flttad  wlthoat  lampa  (In  tha  nrdlaar}-  a» 
captation  uf  tha  tenn),  and  without  rofleetora.  Tha 
llghta  are  conaequently  aeen  at  very  abort  diatanoaa, 
anij  do  Dot  fully  auliaarve  tha  ulijecta  for  which  thay 
wara  autli.>rlMd°  liy  Ccmgreaa.  Argand  lampa,  with 
large  parabolic  reflectora,  are  amployed  in  (Iraat  Urit- 
ain  in  light-vraaela.  The  Admiralty  list  uf  Trinity 
llouie  lighta  for  1HI»,  showa  that  there  wara  at  that 
time  aeven  floating  ilgliti  fitted  with  revolving appura* 
tua,  lielonging  to  that  corporation. 

"  Vittimiivt  CAanu'tera,— The  diatlnctlva  oharacten 
of  the  lighta  of  the  United  Htatoa,  are;— lat,  fixed 
llghta;  2d,  revolving  lighta;  Bd,  doulile  llghta,  or 
lighta  In  two  towera ;  4th,  llghta  In  three  towers  ;  6th, 
colored  llghta.  DiafinctlonH  have  lieen  employed  at 
10  atationa  frum  two  fixed  lights,  and  from  one  Axed 
light,  and  one  rovolvin.;  light ;  ami  in  three  towari 
with  two  lighta,  one  above  the  other.  Thero  la  but 
one  triple  light  on  the  coast  of  the  United  Htutes, 
The  Iwacons  for  ranges  are  not,  of  courae.  Included  la 
theae  numl>era.  Double  and  triple  llghta  are  among 
the  moct  waateful  modes  of  diatinction,  and,  it  may  b« 
added,  the  leuat  eflraillve.  Very  little  attention  hoa 
been  paid  to  distinguishing  iiglita  In  the  United  Stntea. 
At  points  along  tlio  eastern  coaat,  many  fixed  lighta 
are  seen  at  the  same  moment,  without  the  means  ot 
knowing  any  of  them.  The  pro|iortian  of  revolving 
to  fixed  llghta  on  the  entire  couat,  is  1  to  0-2,  Tha 
proportion  of  all  niodea  of  diatinction,  Including  mul- 
tiple and  colored  lights,  is  1  to  6'2. 

"  On  the  coaat  of  Maine  there  are  84  light-atationa ; 
of  which  numlior,  8  arc  revolving,  1  two-towcra  fixed 
and  revolving,  1  two-towcra  fixed  llgiita,  and  the  re- 
maining 29  are  all  fixed  lights.  In  Now  Ilampsbira 
there  are  8  light-stations  :  1  fixed,  1  revolving  red  and 
white,  and  1  fixed,  with  2  lighta  in  1  tower.  In  Hai- 
sachusetta  there  uro  42  light-stations ;  of  which  6  are 
revolving,  11  fixed  and  revolving,  1  lena,  floahing,  8 
doulila  fixed,  1  tripln,  und  the  remaining  26  are  fixed 
white  ligiits.  In  Itliode  Island  there  are  0  stations ; 
2  are  revolving,  ami  7  are  fixed  lighta.  In  Connecti- 
cut thero  are  11  atationa ;  2  are  revolving,  and  9  fi.xed 
lighta.  In  Now  York  there  are  41  light-stations;  4 
are  revolving,  and  87  fixed  lights.  In  New  Jersey 
thero  are  10  light  stations ;  1  revolving,  1  fixed  and 
revolving,  1  rod,  und  7  fixed  lights.  In  Pennsylva- 
nia  tliere  are  4  light-stations,  und  all  fixcil  llglita. 
In  Delaware  thero  are  8  light-stations,  ii  all  tha 
lights  are  fixed.  The  one  on  the  breakwiit  la  called 
a  rod  and  w  hite  light,  by  the  keeper ;  but  as  the  light 
can  not  l>o  aenn  tiirough  the  dark  red  ehield-like 
ahadea,  the  white  part  only  Is  seen.  In  Maryland 
there  are  1 1  ilght-stationa;  1  double  fixed,  and  13  sin- 
gle fixed  lights.  In  Virginia  tliere  are  8  light-sta- 
tions; 2  are  revolving,  and  G  aru  fixed  lights.  In 
North  Carolina  there  are  11  light  stations:  2  are  re- 
volving, 2  douliIc  fixed  lights,  and  7  fixed  lights.  In 
South  Carolina  I'  I're  are  o  light-stations ;  1  revolving, 
2  double  fixed  li^'ht-l>eacons,  and  2  fixed  lights.  In 
Georgia  there  uro  a  liglit-stations ;  2  revolving,  1  two 
fixed  beacons,  and  G  fixed  lights.  In  Florida  there 
are  12  light-stations ;  6  revolving,  and  6  fixed ;  one  of 
the  latter  with  red  shades.  In  Alabama  there  are  8 
light-stations ;  1  revolving,  and  2  fixed  lights.  In 
Mississippi  there  iir°  4  light-stationa,  and  all  fixed 
lighta.  In  Louisiiuia  there  are  M  light-stations;  8 
revolving,  1  witii  two  liglits  in  one  tjwer,  1  red  liglit, 
and  tho  remaining  9  are  all  fixed  lights.  Of  the  re- 
maining 49  lights,  on'.,  Iico  are  revolving. 

"  The  foregoing  liglits  are  exclusive  of  the  42  light- 
vessels  distriliuted  along  the  coast,  fonning  an  im- 
portant port  of  the  light  system,  all  of  which  ore  fixed 
lights.  From  the  Highlands  of  Naveaink  to  the  fixed 
light  on  Dry  Tortugas,  a  distance  of  upward  of  1800 
miles  by  the  coast,  there  are  only  3  prominent  revolv 
ing  lighta ;  all  the  rest  being  single  fixed  ligbti.  T'lit 
revolving  lighta  at  Cape  Cbarloa,  at  Ocracokc,  Sapelo, 


LIO 


laaa 


LIO 


■ad  AmalU  Ul*nd,  sr*  ant  IncluiliiH  in  tbU  ntlnul*, 
Imcsum  Ihny  an  ralniir  llghia,  anil  no':  Han,  ticppl  liy 
vanMlii  hounil  liilii  port'  naar  thilr  location,  lloily'a 
Ulanil  la  to  tiadty  plai-oil,  an<l  an  low,  tliat  it  l»  of  yiry 
llltin  UM  to  navlKatur".     Krum  Dry  TortUKaa  to  (^|ia 

teC■■•v•r•i,  a  ilUlanca  of  naarly  4IX»  mllaa,  tliare  U  nut 
•  aingla  ravolvInK  or  olliar  Ihan  llxail  lliihta.  Knim 
('harlaaton  to  r'apa  (y'anareral,  a  ilUtanco  of  MN)  mllaa, 
nli  tlia  pronilnant  littlita  ara  flxail,  with  only  two  minor 
revnlvinii  llt(ht«.  Krnm  (iiarlaaton  to  Navralnk,  thara 
la  lint  ona  ravolvInK  IlKht  whli:li  ran  ha  of  any  uaa  to 
tha  mariner  IhhiiiiI  t<i  tivw  Yorli. 

"  In  KniiliiiKl  tha  llghta  *r«  iliatlnKuiahed  hy  flxail, 
rarolvlnit,  lliiahlni{,  coiorrd  crtnl  only  UlnK  uiad),  with 
oomliiniitiona  of  clouhla  tlxad,  llxad  and  ravolvInK, 
etc.,  atr.  The  Kn^Hah  Trinity  llouaa  corporation 
have  7  revolving  llghta  on  iKianI  of  light-veaaaia,  out 
of  26 1  and  tha  pro|M>rtian  of  revolving  to  Axed  lighta 
li  1  to  1.2.     or  40  aea-coii  t  lighta,  HI  ara  fixed  white, 

10  revolving,  i  rxvidving  und  lixed,  II  red  fixed,  and  1 
(Ixiible  flxod  light;  that  la,  one  half  are  fixed,  and  tlie 
I'niiiitlning  half  are  revolving,  eti'.     The  Hcotch  have 

11  fixed  white  ;  i  revolving  red  and  white  i  4  revolv- 
ing, thowing  lirlghtnat  every  mlnutu  j  4  revulviug,  and 
ahowing  white  lighta  every  two  nilnutea ;  'i  ilnulile 
fixed  lighta  ;  2  tiaahing  once  In  every  Ave  aouoiiil  <  |  4 
intermittent  iighia,  hrightoat  ttate  once  In  two  nUn- 
utea  j  2  Axed  anil  red  |  1  double,  revolving  at  the  lanie 
Inatunt ;  malting  only  11  Axed  lighta,  out  of  lia,  on  the 
entire  coaat  of  Scotland.  In  Irelanil  there  are  Ave 
diatinctlona  <'niployed :  fl"-d  white.  Axed  red,  rovolv- 
Ing  white,  revolving  red  uiid  white,  and  intennittiiot 
lighU.  Ur  211  aeo-coaat  lighta,  11  are  Axed  white,  7 
revolving,  1  Axed  red,  and  1  Axed  and  revolving. 

"  In  France  there  are  nine  principui  umliinutlona  of 
lighta,  poaaoaaing  dislinctivo  charucteriatica,  viz.:  1. 
Fiaahea  whicli  aiicceed  each  otiirr  every  minute.  2. 
Flnahea  which  auccacd  eucii  otiier  every  half  min- 
ute. 8.  Fluabea  aiternata  red  and  white.  4.  Fixed 
lighta,  varied  liy  fluxhea  every  4  ndnutea.  6.  Fixed 
lighta,  varied  liy  Haahea  ovor\'  8  minutei.  6.  Fixed 
llglita,  varied  by  fhuhea  ovury  2  minulea.  7.  FIxcmI 
wliite  lighta,  vurimi  by  red  flualiea  more  or  leaa  fre- 
quently. 8.  Fixed  lights.  !).  Doulile  Axe<i  lighta. 
To  which  ndght  lie  added  Axed  und  revolving,  lu  two 
towera,  aa  at  Nuvesink.  Tliere  uro,  however,  very 
few  double  lighta  in  France,  and  are  only  employed  to 
give  a  verj'  decidcU  character  to  a  locality,  in  contra- 
diatinction  to  those  neareat.  Ily  adopting  the  princi- 
ple of  Hear  Adndral  Itoaael,  aa  act  forth  In  the  pro- 
gramme reported  by  him  for  lighting  the  coaat*  of 
France,  In  1822,  Anally  adopted  by  the  French  adniln- 
latration  in  182.'>,  and  which  has  been  ateadily  adhered 
to  aince,  of  placing  flrat  order  aoa-coaat  lighta  witliin 
the  diatatice  of  42  nautical  milea  of  each  other,  there 
can  be  no  great  dIfBculty  in  obtaining  a  auflicient 
'  number  of    very  niuriied    diatlnctions    for  aeo-cooat 

lighta.     The  present  advanced  and  progreasive  state 
*'  of  nautical  icienco  ii  also  brought  in  to  the  aid  <ir  the 

1;  light-houae  engineer,  as  it  will  now  seldom  happen 

t  that  a  navigator  will  be  84  miles  out  of  Ills  reckoning. 

'  ^y  commencing  at  one  line  of  the  boundary  of  a  coun- 

try, on  a  a««-coast  whore  a  Arst  order  light  is  required, 
with  a  revolving  light;  then,  at  the  distance  of  42 
nautical  miles,  a  Axed  light ;  and  at  the  distance  of 
42  nautical  miles  further,  a  Aasiiing  light ;  then  an 
intermittent  bright,  then  a  fixed  light ;  then  a  revolv- 
ing— and  so  on  along  tha  entire  coast — the  mariner 
will  And  no  difBculty  in  recognizing  any  well-kept 
light  that  ha  may  see.  Sliould  it  become  necessar}' 
•  to  employ  time  as  one  of  the  elements,  then  there  can 

b«  no  better  system  than  that  employed  in  France. 
An  occaaional  deviation  may  Iw  found  to  be  necessary, 
■uoh  as  the  erection  of  two  towurs  fo^  Axed,  revolving, 
or  fixed  and  revolving  lights.  This  is  one  of  the 
branchM  of  light-house  service  which  can  only  be  ex- 
ecatod  praperiy  by  competant  pertoni,  who  have  thor- 


oughly Inveati^atad  and  atutliad  tha  subjact,  Imth  la 
general  and  fur  apttcUi  caaea.  Hhould  the  v«ry  ingt- 
nioua  pUii  of  diatinguiahliig  lighta  by  iKrultitUuiH,  us 
prn|Hi*eil  by  Mr.  Cbariaa  llalilmge,  |iruvr,  U|Hinax|mri- 
meiil,  to  lie  pructiiabie,  the  whole  ayateni  uf  ikunic- 
tsristiii  diatinctlona  will  ba  entirely  oiiangail  and 
greatly  aimpliflad. 

"  The  Uuatlug  lighta  of  the  liuited  Hutu  uni  all 
fixed,  anil  fitted  with  common  torch  ianipa,  wlthnul 
Argand  bumara  und  reAectura.  The  iight-veaaola  ure 
too  amail  for  nxpnaed  poaitinua,  and  the  mwit'U  ura 
not  the  heat  for  tlia  piir|H>aea  fur  wiiiili  tki>y  uru  ilu- 
aigneil.  They  are  not  pravldiid  witli  iiioiirliiga  aiii  li  ua 
they  require,  and  there  la  nut  auOicleut  attrntlmi  \iM 
to  plaining  them  in  their  |iru|ier  poaltlona.  Tlie  ilglita. 
In  cunaaquenca  of  the  Inferior  Ianipa  wilhoul  rrjfndini, 
ara  uf  vary  little  use  to  tlie  navigator.  The  iiiufr- 
tainty  of  finding  the  llght-veaaela  in  thnir  propor  |Hiai- 
tiona,  by  navigatora  wlio  have  been  acverui  iiiuntlis 
ulmeiit  fnim  the  country,  pruducca  a  gencrul  ilialriiit, 
wliii'li  daatroya  all  reliance  on  them. 

"  The  filiating  lighta  of  F^ngiand  and  Ireland  ure 
built  ii|iuii  tlia  bast  modela;  ara  of  auflicient  tunnuga 
to  be  safe  at  tha  pointa  fur  which  they  were  liuilt; 
are  ciinatructed  in  tha  moat  auliatantial  niiiiiniir— of 
woml  generally,  but  in  aonie  caaea  of  Iron  ;  uru  iiiourid 
witii  heavy  anchors  and  chains,  and  lung  acupcH. 
Thiiae  placed  to  mark  rhannela,  aa  tliu  Nurtli-Wcnt 
light-vnssel  at  Llver|iool,  are  moored  with  long  aiMipua 
of  cable  to  a  swivel,  and  liuve  In,  so  that  in  swinging 
they  do  not  change  their  iHiaittuns  perceptibly.  TIiimu 
lluiifiiig  lighta  are  placed  in  the  moat  expiiaeii  poaitiims 
ill  llui  Iriab  or  Ut,  Oeorge'a  Cliunnul,  in  tlio  llritiitli 
(liuiinel.  North  Sea,  and  In  the  most  ex|Hi«i'd  p<Mi- 
tioiiN  of  the  Kiigllsh  and  Iriuii  ciiiiata.  It  very  atdiiuin 
hap|iena  tiiat  they  break  from  their  moorings,  unii  nrn 
noviir  taken  awuy  without  previously  piuiiiig  u  dupli- 
cate In  the  |><>.>ition.  The  system  of  relief  to  tiio 
keepera  and  crews  la  an  admiiabie  one ;  unu  tliut  iii- 
aurea  a  ftiitliful  [lorfiinniince  of  tlio  duties  intrusted  tu 
tiiKin,  to  the  great  advantage  of  navigatora. 

"The  Fjiglish  Aoating  llglits  aro  Atted  witii  Argaiid 
lumps  und  parabolic  reflectors — fixed,  revolving,  und 
double  liglits.  Tliey  arc  diatinguisiicd  by  day  by 
cages  of  lioop-iron,  balls,  conos,  flaga,  etc.,  etc.  Tlio 
name  and  number  of  each  light-vessel  are  puintcd  in 
large  letters  and  figures  conaplcuoualy  on  tlio  Mas 
aud  aterii.  These  lights  from  tiie  superior  apparatus 
employed  ((them,  and  the  great  care  and  attention  of 
ina|iections  and  superintendence,  under  tiie  most  rigid 
instructions  in  detail  (.which  are  printed  in  large  type, 
and  hung  in  frames  in  the  upurtmeiita),  are  very  little 
inferior  to  the  same  class  of  reflector  lights,  witli  equui 
elevations,  on  shore.  Many  of  them  can  lio  seen  from 
the  deck  of  a  merchant  vessel  12  to  14  miles,  wiiilo 
those  in  tliU  country  can  only  be  seen  from  il  to  7 
miles.  Ilofractors  havo  been  made  liy  Mr.  Lctour- 
neau,  of  Paris,  for  light- vessels,  which  can  not  fail  to 
lie  productive  of  much  lienuAt,  and  whicii  aro,  no 
doubt,  destined  to  render  floating  lighta  much  niuro 
useful  to  the  navigator  than  thoy  have  liitherto  been, 
even  in  F^ngland,  whore  tiie  best  reflecting  apparatus 
has  been  employed  for  many  years. 

"  AfuJf.  of  atcertaining  Vlacfi  nf  JJ(/hl-Jfoutes,~'So 
systematic  mode  of  determining  where  there  should  bo 
a  light-house,  or  lx>at,  seems  to  have  been  followed  for 
any  period  of  years,  and  hence  the  lights  are  so  numer- 
ous on  some  parts  of  the  coast  as  to  be  inconvenient, 
and  on  other  parts  are  so  few  as  not  to  supply,  even 
mockraleli/,  the  demands  of  navigation.  The  princi- 
ple adopted  by  the  French  commissioner  uf  light- 
houses for  pUcing  lights  ou  the  coast  of  France,  will 
be  found  stated  in  another  part  of  this  report :  steadi- 
ly adhered  to,  it  has  prevented  the  wasteful  multipli- 
cation of  lights,  and  has  provided,  gradually,  those 
really  necessary  for  facilitating  navigation. 

"Platu/or  UgU-Umtu,  Light-  VuttU,  ate.— No  an- 


Cll 


tl 


Ufl 


1287 


LIG 


Unutlc  mathojt  itp|ieiir  Ui  htva  li«*n  nmnrtcd  to  in  m> 
Clin  pUii*  for  ll|(lit-h<iiiiH>i,  llKht->i"*i>,  IlKhtlnK  nppn- 
nitua  anil  iilhxr  «i'i'i-i«irUii,  In  tlm  rnltnl  Mlutna.  Thn 
|ir*|iitr*tli>n  of  plmm  for  ll)(lil-liiiuiii<ii,  ll)(htlnK  nppii- 
rut  11.4,  un<l  othitrii('Ci*Nw)rl<*ii,  U  tti«  UuHliimM  of  aii  unKln* 
iiiir.  Dci'ualiiiiully  nrililtvi'tii  liavn  liifn  ronsiiltrit,  ami 
thii  TriiiMury  Dupiirtnient  •ml  i'nnunn  h*v(  loin*. 
tiniei  iliiv»lvi>il  tba  pnipiiratlun  of  pUnii,  (tc,,  upon  thfl 
iiffliora  of  thi*  rorpii  of  to|ioKr«plii<  nl  anninmra.  Thn 
iinoullail-for  viirlvty  anil  tlie  Im-nnvenlanra  anil  III- 
.iiliiptiitlnn  of  th«  •tnii'tiiraa  vlaltml  !>}■  tha  lloani,  ihow 
how  miK'li  thfl  Intarvimtlon  of  knnwli>ilK*  I*  raqiilmd. 
In  (IUeiia<iliit(  tho  itatalli  of  tliciia  worka,  thia  fact  will 
cunatanlly  iippcur.  I'rofnaalonnl  akill  la  ptaantlal  to 
cfllclem'y  iinil  ncoiioiny.  Ill-rontrlvail  lli[ht-hiiua«a  n- 
i|iilre  niiiiirroua  aililltlona,  ami  ilo  not  than  anawar 
tlioir  piirpoao.  Ilmlly-oonatrui'tod  nnca  ara  axpanalve 
In  ropiilra,  Iwaldxa  lnjiirln)(  tha  nppnriitiia  and  atom 
(uMtalnad  In  tliriii.  Ilndly-rontrlv-  lumpa  wnata  tha 
nil,  and  iinawrr  impcrfrctly  tha  ,  ■|K>aa  of  IJKhtlnK. 
MIrrora  liiidly  inndp,  iiiiikillfully  iirriinK«<l,  iinHrlnntilli- 
In  tlioir  forma  and  adjiiatiiipiita,  cauao  a  loaa  of  IlKht 
wlili'h  la  patil  for  In  oil.  Iniporfnct  vcntUution  caua*.. 
It  liiid  light,  linni'lentitir  arriingamant*  of  thn  liinti'rii 
in  regard  to  Klnilnt;,  )>alntinK,  otp.,  >  nae  a  waatn  " 
light.  Tho  projier  arriingemcnt  of  tho.vi  mattera  la  tnu 
atudy  and  oii'iipiition  of  ii  profvaalnn.  The  nnglnrt  nf 
tho  proper  i-omlltlona  la  waHteAil.  Plana  of  llght- 
houaea  of  difTi-rcnt  i'hi«.ieN.  with  niodilleationa  adapted 
to  dinori'lit  localltlea,  would  promote  economy  hy  tho 
freipicMt  repetition  of  th<  imo  piocea,  whirh  in  :■ 
work,  brick-work,  lron-c;i  iIiik,  carpcnter'a-work  0" 
iler'a-work,  and  the  like,  la  productive  alwiiv  of  a 
decided  economy.  The  Important  aiilijpct  oi"  ..iarm 
ai||niila  liaa  not  received  tlio  attention  which  It  do- 
aurvea.  In  the  Engllah  llght-housea  tlin  ){"")( I"  i»"'d 
liiatcad  of  tho  IjoII,  to  give  algnala  in  cnau  of  foga,  and 
no  iittvinpt  appoura  to  have  been  miiilc  in  thia  country 
to  comparu  tho  viiliio  of  the  two  kiiidn  of  alarm  aig- 
iiala.  The  fog-wliiatle.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Daboll  nnil 
recommended  by  tho  Hoard,  haa  been  found  to  bo  far 
niuro  eillcleiit  than  the  bell.  Thn  Hoard  had  ninple 
moans  of  forming  correct  concluaiona  iia  to  the  ndatlvc 
merlta  of  the  two  niodea  of  warning  tho  nmrlnor  in 
fogs,  and  found  no  difflculty  in  deciding  in  fuvorof  tho 
wlil»tle  for  iioaitlona  whore  It  can  bo  put  up.    ' 

"  Mr.  Alexander  Oordon,  civil  engineer,  of  Ixindon, 
proposed  to  tho  aolect  committee  of  tlie  House  of  Com- 
muna  on  Ught-houaea,  in  1HI5,  that  the  gong  employed 
on  lioard  of  light-veaaela  ahould  bo  aujieraedod  by  tho 
uae  of  0  ahrlU  scream  or  wh  '«tlo,  such  na  tho  railway 
whiatlo,  giving  It  sound  by  a  !  p!!  ;■'»,  and  having  tho 
sound  directed  around  the  b"  Ui-<;  r.y  reflectora,  similar 
to  those  of  Uordier  JIarcet  Sol  i<)i1ectlng  light.  Tlio 
reflection  of  tho  sound  of  tlio  air-whiatio  of  Mr.  Paboll 
is  believed  to  be  practicable  !>}'  the  means  suggested  by 
Mr.  Gordon ;  at  any  rate,  tho  Importance  of  tha  auli- 
jcct  warrants  the  sr^tli  expenditure  which  would  be 
required  to  test  It  exjierlmeiitally.  Tho  discharge  of 
heavy  guns  ba'>  bien  recommomlod,  and  would  be 
effective  if  there  wore  sufflclent  force  at  tho  light- 
houses ».o  load  and  fire  them.  They  would  always  bo 
expensive,  however,  every  discharge  of  a  24-pounder 
gun  costing  obout  $1.  The  fog-ticUs  examined  by  tho 
United  States'  Board  wero  not  placed  so  aa  to  prixlnce 
the  Iwst  effect.  That  ot  Boston  harbor  was  inclosed  in 
a  frame  building,  the  sides  of  which  effectually  dead- 
ened tho  sound  In  two  directions.  It  Is  time  that  this 
subject  received  full  and  careful  investigation  by  ex- 
periments under  the  direction  of  scientitlc  men.  He- 
lides  this  class  of  nignals,  those  intended  to  guide 
vessels  entering  into  larred  harbors,  when  (ft-om  heavy 
weather  or  other  causes)  pilots  can  not  be  had,  should  be 
carefully  systematized.  The  system  should  lie  adopted 
of  Captain  Fenoux,  of  the  French  navy,  depending  upon 
the  positions  of  a  movable  triangle  flxed  to  a  pole  or 
mast,  or  to  a  light-house ;  and  that  of  Lieutenant  John 


RodK*ra,  ITgltad  Htataa'  navy,  by  a  Hag,  to  h«  uwA  In 
a  Imiit  nr  on  ahor*.  Hnrf-Uiata  and  llfn-iHuila  alinuld 
be  fnmlahml  to  certain  llghl-liuuaa  itntlona,  and  thn 
meiina  nf  readily  providing  cntwa  fur  tham  In  timo  of 
n««d,  bn  fumlalied.  Thoy  ahonid  Iw  planned  by,  and 
ciinalriictml  uiiilar  tha  dlrmtlon  of,  cuinintant  |Mraiina, 
who  wonlil  atudy  all  tba  dxtalla  of  their  uan,  and  make 
It  certain  that  wlwn  requlmd  they  could  be  UuiicIkhI 
and  effectively  manneil.  The  truatees  of  the  Uvor 
piHil  Dock  Company  (Kngland)  have,  umler  tha  adiiil- 
rahie  management  of  their  vary  able  marine  aurva)  oi 
of  that  |»irl,  a  moat  parfact  ayatem  for  Ihii  relief  nf'tio' 
ahlpwrecked. 

"There  are  nine  llfa-boata  atutioiuHl  at  different 
pointa  around  the  bay  and  |Hirt  of  Liverpool.  The 
lioata  are  cnnatructed  on  the  moat  approved  priuclpiea  ; 
kapt  I'U  carrlagoa  in  tha  lioat-lioiiaea  near  tha  ahorn. 
and  hnraaa  proviiled  to  eimlila  them  to  pnicaed  to  the 
moat  f  Ivantag'oua  ap.it  for  launching.  A  gun  ia 
placed  ut  each  Btallon  to  auminon  lliii  crew,  U-aidea 
•  latreaa  Haga  placed  at  each  ilght-hiiua<>,  ilght-ahip, 
and  telegrapli  atiition.  Thn  arrniigement*  are  ao  pee> 
fact  that  In  many  iiiatancea  the  lifu-lHiat  haa  uion 
manned,  biunciwl,  and  on  her  way  to  the  wreck  In  17 
or  IN  mini'tna  from'e  time  the  diatreaa  signal  woa 
inailn.  I  Ufe-lioata  iro  maiiiird  liy  pickod  boatmen 
ofUverp  '  ind  picked  liahermenabing  thn  coast,  who 
realilr  ■'."  t  i  boat  statlona,  and  who  arc  ruiiilliar  with 
the  li  I', .a  awoahwaya,  tides  and  ciirrontn,  in  l,iver|Hiol 
Hay.  I'liB  whole  nf  tl'  •  iHiatiiicn  are  kept  on  constant 
and  perinaii'int  pay,  i  urn  regiibirly  mustered  ami 
oxerdaed  once  a  i>i.  .;  ,,  and  no  ex|>en»«  has  lieen 
pared  In  rendtrlng  tlie  boats,  their  ixpiipmonta  ami 
crows,  as  perfect  as  [maailile.  Tiie  Liverpool  arrange- 
inenta  are  well  worthy  of  imitation  for  many  parts  of 
our  dangerous  coaat  (ea|ie<'laUy  during  the  winter 
iiiimths).  Tho  necoasity  can  not  too  alroiigiy  be  urged 
for  tho  employment  of  more  etlicioiit  ineana  than  now 
exist  at  the  pointa  whero  life-lioats  liave  been  author- 
ized by  law  to  lin  placed. 

"  l.iiiht-Hiuil»  and  their  Atr^tiorii-f. — Tho  llrat  co.<t. 
birgu  annual  exjienao  for  maintenance  and  repairs,  and 
tlm  rupbl  decay  of  light-vessels,  render  tliia  modo  of 
lighting  very  olijectlonable,  independently  of  the  in- 
effectual  manner  in  wiiich  they  suiiaerve  tho  purposes 
of  warning  tho  iiiuriiier  of  danger.  That  this  deHcri|i- 
tioii  of  iigiits  has  not  received  tlie  attention  in  this 
country  due  to  its  iinportanco  as  a  necoasary  adjunct 
to  a  prn|ier  aystein  of  seu-cottst  llluminution,  Is  very 
evident  to  the  Hoard. 

"  That  there  are  many  points  on  our  extended  sea- 
coast  requiring  to  iio  ligiitcd,  which  will  not  admit 
of  any  other  means,  is  also  e\  ident.  It  therefore  be- 
comes necessary  to  select  those  means  least  objection- 
nldn,  in  an  economical  (xiint  of  view,  and  licst  adapted 
to  tho  desired  eiiil.  The  rapid  decay  of  tiuiliers,  espe- 
cially on  our  aontliern  coast,  would  seem  to  suggest 
tho  propriot\'  of  employing  more  durable  materials.  It 
is  stated  liy  tlio  general  su|ierintendent  of  Iigiits  that 
these  vessels  last  from  5  to  10  years.  Tu  oliviate  the 
necessity  for  renewing  them  at  sucli  short  periods  iron 
vessels  might,  with  gr>iut  propriety,  bu  sulistitutcd. 
Tho  ex|ierimont  has  been  tried  in  Europe  with  perfect 
success.  The  advantages  of  iron  over  wood  for  the 
construction  of  light-vessels  are  self-evident.  Uura- 
blllty,  buoyancy,  and  economy  of  first  coat,  are  the  ad- 
vantages, without  any  conceivable  disadvantages  that 
could  arise  from  their  introduction. 

"  The  inferiority  of  those  vessels  seen  by  the  Board, 
tho  largo  sums  appropriated  annually  for  their  support 
and  repair,  and  the  small  amount  of  usefulness  arising 
from  their  employment,  warrant  the  Board  In  recom- 
mending a  lietter  class  of  vessels  ;  to  be  built  of  iron, 
and  filled  with  the  best  parabolic  rullectors  and  Argand 
lamps,  similar  to  the  north-west  light-ship  at  Liver- 
pool and  those  generally  employed  by  tho  Trinity 
House  Board  and  Irish  Board.     Proper  distinguishing 


LIO 


1238 


■'■tr 


Lia 


miiriM  by  day,  m  w«U  m  tin  distinctions  of  the  lights 
at  nlKht,  •hiiuM  not  b«  ncgiecttd,  and  the  Board  ran 
not  lin  Ixitter  tlisn  raeominend  the  Liverpool  and  other 
KnKllnh  llght-vniiolii  as  proper  models,  in  every  respect 
wrurtby  nf  Imltntlim.  There  are  many  points  on  our 
M>ntb«m  Mast,  especially  In  the  sound?  and  Inys, 
whsm  xmall  light-vessels  are  now  placed,  at  which 
iicniw>pll«  foundations  might  be  substituted  with  great 
advantag*  to  the  navigator,  and  In  an  economical  point 
of  vlaw.  Mtructures  on  scfew-piles  costing  in  the  ag- 
IfreKMta  muirh  less  than  the  light-boats,  and  affording 
a  nu»m  powerfnl  and  efficient  light,  would  conduce 
greatly  to  the  ofllcienry  and  economy  of  tiiis  branch  of 
tb*  lighting  service  of  the  United  ^>ate8.  The  appa- 
ratlM  of  tha  light-vessels  of  this  countrj'  ir  so  far  inferior 
that  moat  Intelligent  and  disinterested  persons  engaged 
In  eommanta  and  navigation  pronounce  them  useless, 
t'be  example  nf  the  Trinity  House  corporation,  Liver- 
IHHil  lights  entMhllshments,  etc.,  etc.,  in  fitting  up  their 
iight-shliHiwIthVl-lnch  pambolio  reflectors  and  Argand 
•aitipil  and  burners,  tins  not  ))cen  followed  in  this  coun- 
try. While  the  light-vessels  of  this  counti}'  are  com- 
paratively nrelnss,  those  of  Great  liritain  xcw  in  qany 
instances  ci|ua1,  and  In  all  nearly  so,  to  those  placed 
in  t<iw«fs  Ml  the  shore.  The  introduction  of  movable 
ma«hin«ry,  with  the  view  to  distinguiihing  these 
lightd,  is  not  of  very  recent  date  in  Europe,  though 
not  known  here, 

"  The  removal  of  light-vessels  fl'om  dangerous  nnd 
Important  points  on  the  const,  without  due  notice  (a 
sourtiA  of  almost  universal  complaint  by  masters  of 
vessels),  la  an  evil  that  can  not  \m  remedied  too  soon. 
It  boa  not  biien  many  days  since  the  rin^t  steam-frigate 
in  tha  navy  struck  on  a  dangerous  shoal,  properly  laid 
down  nn  the  coast-survey  chart,  in  consequence  of  the 
wSmiWA  of  the  light-vessel  *rom  her  position.  Light- 
veiwets  seliiwffl  break  away  >.«m  their  moorings  in  En- 
gland, and  are  never  takon  away  from  their  positions 
without  previously  placinf(  a  substitute.  This  branch 
'if  the  lighting  service  of  the  country  is  probably  the 
most  defectlvi!,  I'raperiy  mi/delow,  built,  and  moored, 
light-vessels,  fitted  with  the  best  apparatus,  and  placed 
iindor  the  charge  of  compete)-,  masters,  v.  ith  ample 
I'rnws,  governed  by  the  most  rigid  rules  and  regulo- 
tbms,  and  subjected  to  frequent  visitation  and  inspec- 
tbm,  can  alone  subserve  the  great  interests  of  naviga- 
tion, in  this  branch  of  the  llgliting  service. 

"  Mnnnrr  ami  frequency  nf  Innpertinn — Ptrtont  by 
mhom  mad*, — All  ex|ierience  sliows  that  frequent  in- 
N|w*,'tions  of  liglit-liouscs  arc  essential  to  maintaining 
•n  elHcltint  system.  Those  inspections,  by  competent 
'.  jmons  (engineers  of  the  corps  of  Fonts  et  Chaustes)  are 
rfarefdily  provided  for  In  France,  by  members  of  the 
Trinity  lioiard  In  England,  and  liy  the  eng:<".. i  of  local 
aotabllshments,  such  as  that  of  the  Port  and  Bay  of 
l<iv«r|io*l,  and  by  the  en,{inorrs  and  their  assistants 
of  tha  establishments  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The 
vigilance  which  Is  secured  by  inspections  at  irregular 
Intervals  Is  of  greater  value  than  even  the  direct  re- 
sults of  an  examination.  Our  system,  at  present  is 
<|ult«  deflclent  In  this  respect ;  a  single  annual  visit 
from  the  collectors,  who  are  superintendents  of  lights, 
and  the  visit  of  the  employee  who  delivers  snppl!!«s  to 
the  tight-house,  etc.  (the  latter,  in  some  districts, 
tielng  the  only  Inspection),  is  obviously  insutficent. 
(Hee  H«nat«  Doc.  No.  428, 1st  session,  29th  CongrBSS.) 
Tha  tvldent  state  of  preparation  in  the  ilglit-hauses  at 
which  llie  visits  of  the  Hoard  were  expected,  showed 
that  good  effects  would  flow  from  a  system  of  inspec- 
tlim.  Hocb  a  system  could  be  organized  with  very 
little.  If  any,  additional  expense  to  the  grovemment; 
wblen  will  h«  discussed  in  detail  in  another  part  of  this 
rnpon.  The  efficiency  which  would  be  gained  by 
thorough  Inspection  would  justify  additional  expendi- 
ture, If  K  oould  not  be  reached  without  it;  Imt  it  is 
believed  to  lie  clearly  demonstrated  elsewhere  in  this 
repcfl,  tkat  th«  prasent  annual  ezpanditura  ibr  com- 


mission on  purchases,  distributing  supplies,  and  nonv< 
inal  inspections,  would  be  ample,  under  the  system  pro> 
posed  by  the  Board,  to  produce  these  desiralilo  and 
beneficial  results.  Jietter  have/ewer  lights  and  effective 
than  many  without  efficiency.  In  the  district  of  New 
York  the  collector  employs  an  assistant,  who  is  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  lights,  beacons,  buoys,  etc.,  nnd 
who  has  under  his  charge  a  small  vessel  for  furnishing 
supplies,  visiting  the  lights,  replacing  buoys  when 
displaced,  and  the  like.  The  zeal  of  this  gentleman 
lias  been  survicable  In  the  management  of  this  district ; 
and  were.it  guided  by  good  Instructions,  and  sustained 
by  occasional  visits  of  a  competent  general  inspector, 
would  produce  still  better  results. 

"PoiitioM  ofBeacont,  Buoyt,  etc. — As  a  general  rnlo, 
only  seamen  familiar  with  hydrography,  inj  pilots, 
know  what  beacons,  buoys,  and  sea-marks  are  required, 
and  where  and  how  they  should  be  placed.  The 
beacons,  buoys,  and  sea-marks  which  would  sufHce 
for  pilots,  with  their  accurate  knowledge  of  natural 
and  artlflcial  objects  available  for  safe  navigation,  are 
not  always  sufficient  for  mariners  generally.  Thoir 
object  is  nbt  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  the  pilot, 
but  to  iumish  him  with  marks,  etc.,  to  provide  for 
cases  of  emergency,  when  the  vessel  must  enter,  and 
may  not  be  provided  with  a  pilot.  Small  coasting 
vessels;  carrying  freights  which  do  not  pay  well,  ran 
not  afford  to  pay  pilotage.  The  necessity  for  the 
beacons,  buoys,  and  sea-marks  rccentl}'  and  at  present 
provided  for  liy  law,  is  inquired  into  and  reported 
upon  by  the  superintendent  of  the  coast  survey,  on  the 
eXK.  'nation  of  officers  of  the  work,  and  by  the  chief 
of  tho  Topographical  Bureau.  They  are  then  usuully 
placed  by  pilots  or  se.imen,  but  sometimes  by  the 
officers  of  the  coast  survey.  When  required  to  be 
removed  on  account  of  ice,  or  for  repairs,  or  when 
displaced,  they  urn  replaced  by  contract  by  the  year, 
under  the  authority  of  the  local  superintendent.  The 
duty  of  replacing  buoys  driven  from  their  moorings  is 
neither  superintended  nor  executed  in  a  proper  man- 
ner. Tiie  buoys  are  usually  placed  by  pilots  (who 
contract  to  perform  the  service)  by  compass  bearings, 
ranges,  or  by  guess  ;  and  it  has  Ijeen  remarked  by  tlic 
surveyors,  that  in  many  cases  their  places  are  so  much 
changed  in  different  years  as  to  produce  error,  and 
even  danger.  The  coast  survey  officers  place  thct- 
by  the  known  positions  of  three  suitable  oiijects  on 
shore — a  method  known  as  the  three-pomt  problem, 
measuring  the  angles  with  a  sextant.  This  is  the  true 
mode  of  placing  them ;  and  no  person  should  be  per- 
mitted to  put  them  down  who  is  not  competent  to  use 
that  instrument.  When  placed,  it  is  indispensalde 
that  their  position  should  lie  verified  l>y  a  competent 
officer,  that  he  should  report  In  relation  to  them  to  the 
local  or  general  superintendent,  and  that  he  should 
inspect  their  positions  fh>m  time  to  time,  and  always 
when,  by  accident  or  design,  they  have  liecn  moved. 

"  Coloring  and  tfumhrini)  Buoys. — Until  the  passage 
of  the  recent  law  (1850),  in  regard  to  coloring  buoys, 
the  local  superintendents  changed  the  colors  at  pleasure, 
often  introducing  the  utmost  confusion.  Xo  notice  of 
such  change  being  given  to  the  general  superintend- 
ent, no  changes  could  lie  made  in  the  cliarts  of  tlic 
coast,  and  the  worst  consequence  might  have  resulted. 
Wise  legisUtion  has  checked  this ;  but  it  is  still  true, 
that  the  eramiuution  of  positions,  colors,  and  num- 
bers, sliould  be  made  by  competent  inspectors,  and 
reported  to  the  Department.  Plain  ns  are  tho  direc- 
tions of  the  law  in  regard  to  coloring  and  numbering 
buoys,  there  hi  known  one  important  port  in  which  the 
provisions  of  the  law  have  been  comiili'tely  misunder- 
stood, so  that  a  navigator  running  liy  the  buoys  must 
put  his  vessel,  If  of  considerable  draught,  on  the  bar. 

"  Sufficient  caro  has  not  been  bestowed  upon  the 
bnoyo  generally,  under  tho  law  of  1850.  The  paint 
used  for  coloring  has  not  Iwen,  in  any  single  Instance 
that  the  Board  has  seen,  of  the  best  quality.   To  cony 


LIG 


1239 


Lia 


oat  the  design  of  the  act  of  Congreu,  the  red  especUlly 
should  be  of  tae  beat  quality  of  red  lead,  the  bUok  of 
the  glossiest,  aud  the  white  of  the  purest  white. 
Spanish  brown  and  dirty  black  are  difficult  to  distin- 
guish from  eacli  other.  Such  may  Im  seen  almost 
everywhere  ilong  our  entire  coast.  The  spar-buoys, 
being  the  most  common  in  this  country,  are  inefficient ; 
diflicuit  to  give  easily  distinguished  marks  or  num- 
bers, and  from  their  peculiar  shape,  size,  and  improper 
mooring,  are  too  often  at  such  an  angle  with  the  sur- 
face of  tlie  water  as  to  render  them  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  be  seen.  Can  and  nun-buoys  are  employed, 
but  not  to  a  great  extent,  and  those  used  are  much 
too  small.  The  boat-1)uoys,  used  chiefly  on  the  east- 
ern coast  are  very  inefficient,  in  some  of  the  rivers, 
barrel-buoys,  equal  in  capacity  to  about  a  sixty-gallon 
cask,  are  employed.  Iron  hui  vs  have  lieen  authorized, 
by  special  act  of  Congress,  for  the  Columbia  Kiver, 
rivers  in  Texas,  Hatteras  Shoals,  etc,  The  m()orings 
of  buoys  'r.  the  United  States  are,  as  a  general  rule, 
very  defective.  The  weight  of  the  blodis  of  granite, 
or  sinkers  of  iron,  and  size  of  chains,  are  not  sufficient. 
Tor  want  of  proper  inspection,  buoys  frequently  sink 
at  their  moorings,  and  part  their  chains.  Too  much 
cure  can  no  he  taken  to  guard  against  those  casual- 
ties, especially  in  important  channels:  in  rivers  and 
on  sand-bars,  lodgments  of  this  kind  may  destroy  a 
valuable  channel.  The  important  duty  of  raising  and 
replacing  buoys  should  not  he  left  to  the  discretion  of 
contractors.  The  kind  of  buoys  required,  theSr  ma- 
terial, etc,  should  all  be  provided  for  l>y  comftetent 
persons.  In  regard  to  distinguishing  them,  the  Board 
will  elsewhere  make  further  remarks.  The  numbers, 
as  now  placed  upon  the  buoys,  are  verj'  ineffective. 
The  law  in  regard  to  coloring  and  numbering  them, 
however,  is  deemed  all-sufficient, 

"  Notice  to  Mariners  in  regard  to  Changet. — This  is  a 
subject  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board,  requires 
more  attention  than  has  ever  been  given  to  it  in  this 
country.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  publish  changes  in  a 
local  newspaper.  They  should  be  pulilished,  as  far  in 
advance  of  the  proposed  change  as  possible,  in  all  the 
loading  commercial  newspapers,  nautical  periodicals, 
and  by  placards  in  large  type,  with  conspicuous  head- 
ings, and  distributed  at  home  and  abroad,  at  the  cus- 
tom-houses, and  offices  of  the  differest  consulates.  In 
making  changes,  they  should  take  place  at  the  precise 
time  designated,  and  nothing  should  prevent  the  per- 
fect fulfillment  of  the  originally  pul)lished  design. 
Changes  of  lights  in  light-houses,  removal  or  placing 
of  light-vessels,  should  never  take  place  with  less  than 
six  months'  notice :  a  year's  notice  would  l>e  better. 
Should  a  light-vessel  break  adrift,  although  replaced 
witliin  a  few  days,  a  notice  of  1)oth  facts  should  ap- 
pear together  in  the  same  papers,  and  on  the  same 
placards,  as  the  navigator  might  otherwise  see  the  no- 
tice of  the  breaking  adrift,  and  not  the  other,  and  there- 
by be  deceived.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  the  lighting  service,  and  one  that  can 
never  \m  perfectly  systematized  without  a  corps  of  com- 
petent and  efficient  local  inspectors.  In  this  respect 
the  Trinity  House,  Northern  Lights,  Irish  Board,  Liv- 
erpool Dock  Trustees,  etc,  are  good  models.  Notices 
of  proposed  changes  of  lights,  buoys,  beacons,  and  of 
new  lights,  are  to  tie  found  in  every  part  of  the  glol>e, 
and  always  placed  whore  the  navigator  is  obliged  to 
go  before  leaving  port — the  clearance  office,  and  at  the 
office  of  the  consul  of  his  country.  The  admirable 
system  followed  by  those  independent  beards,  in  all 
the  minute  details  of  the  service,  for  the  benefit  of 
commerce  and  navigation,  can  not  be  too  highly  com- 
mended. Those  who  have  been  around  the  world,  and 
visited  nearly  every  principal  port  it  conCaina,  never 
saw  a  notice  to  marim-rs  relating  to  an  American 
light,  except  l>y  chance,  in  some  comer  of  a  newspa- 
per, and  that  proluibly  a  merely  local  one, 
"Changei  arising  flrom  casualties  should  bo  pub- 


lished widely  in  the  manner  presoribad,  mA  it  tiM 
same  time  reported  by  the  local  insiwctor  to  tb«  [>•• 
partment.  No  changes  should  be  made  axoapt  on  tiM 
authority  of  the  Department,  which  should  itutbortw 
at  least  six  months'  notice,  in  all  cases  of  Ugbt*>  TIm 
looseness  of  tlie  system  in  this  country  baretufur*  In 
these  respects  is  proved  by  tlie  fact,  that  «ltlii)U|{b  it 
circular  was  issued  by  the  general  sup8rinteiM)<illt  ut 
lights  etc,  directing  the  collectors,  acting  as  suparin* 
tendiiits  of  lights  to  report  to  the  superlnUiiulMHt  of 
the  coast  lurvey  all  changes  in  regard  to  llghbi,  twit* 
cons,  buoys,  etc,  that  tliey  might  be  placed  U|)Mn  (Ita 
charts,  but  one  collector  ever  complied  with  tlis  diriHi' 
tiou.  Changes  which  otherwise  would  Iw  liiipruvu' 
ments,  unless  luiown  to  the  mariner,  bscomu  mtumit 
No  list  of  beacons,  buoys,  or  sea-marks  exists )  no  (U' 
scription  of  them  can  be  obtained,  except  \ty  a  gaitaral 
visitation  and  inspection  of  them  along  tlw  wliold 
coast.  Having  failed  to  obtain  the  rsquirad  iitforuM' 
tion,  efforts  have  been  made  by  tlie  Uoiird  to  |irw.>Mn 
this  important,  information  from  the  local  eu|Mirlill«ii4> 
ents,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  a  dsscri|)tlvii  list  uif 
them.  So  far  only  a  few  returns  have  Iweii  ni»4ii, 
and  some  of  these  not  full  enough  to  carry  out  tlia  da* 
sign,  European  light-house  boards  do  not  ponlim 
themselves  to  giving  notice  to  mariners  uf  pru|iiNHt4 
changes,  etc.,  in  their  own  lights,  etc,  but  tlwi.y  e»»im 
those  in  foreign  languages  to  be  translated,  nitd  IM 
widely  disseminated  us  tlieir  own.  The  Trinity  IIuum) 
corporation  of  London  causes  the  nutivas  relating  to 
lights,  etc,  on  the  French  coasts,  as  well  as  m  iMt 
own,  to  be  published  in  the  commercial  iMjiers  in  tbi* 
country, 

"  Relative  Economy  of  Sejiector  and  l^nt  SyiUmi,'^ 
Now,  although  the  most  decided  results  in  favor  rif 
economy  are  to  be  expected  from  the  reformation  of 
the  minor  classes  of  lights,  we  do  not  tlterafura  uoU' 
elude  that  we  should  begin  with  them,  beeauue  liumaH' 
ity,  and  the  more  general  interests  of  cunuDsriiS,  mA 
the  safety  of  our  sliips-of-war,  have  tlieir  claims,  Uur 
ships-of-war,  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  cumnwtrcs,  nil 
that  arrive  on  our  coast  ftrom  distant  vuyagiiit,  an 
more  liable  to  suffer  from  the  inferiority  of  mt  MW> 
coast  lights,  or  higher  class  lights,  than  are  our  i!oa«t> 
ers  from  the  deficiencies  of  the  Inferli  r  clasiwis  \  miwI, 
accordingl}-,  it  is  along  our  exterior  ci.  t  Ifnu  tliat  w« 
find  occurring  tlio  greater  number  and  the  must  diiOM' 
trous  shipwrecks  during  the  stormy  seasons, 

"  The  minor  lights  are  usually  so  muitipllad,  and  tJM 
localities  inside  of  tiie  general  coast  line  so  wall  known 
to  the  navigators  of  our  bays  and  rivers,  that  tliay  em 
not  often  be  at  a  loss  for  a  secure  harbor  sumawlMr*  It 
heavy'  weather;  whereas  the  sea-coust  lights,  at  tilUMI 
comparatively  few,  and  even  dulicieiit  in  nuinlMil', 
and  at  others  complicated  by  their  suparalmnd»nu«i 
occupy  positions  full  of  danger  to  tlis  navigator,  it  is, 
therefore,  of  the  first  importance  to  shi|is  arriving  on 
the  coast  from  distant  voyages,  that  tlie  llgiit  whli-'li 
they  first  make  should  be  clearly  visiliie  at  tlia  urmtMt 
distance  from  the  luud,  and  tliut  it  should  lai  m  dis> 
tinct  in  character  as  not  to  be  confounded  with  otlMf 
lights ;  and  it  is  not  less  important  that  wa  should  not 
delay  giving  to  such  lights  all  the  perfection  tltsy  »n 
capable  of  receiving ;  and  having  accoiuplisbail  th(« 
purpose  with  respect  to  tlie  most  prominent  awl  im> 
|)ortaut,  we  sliould  extend  the  improvement  to  tb* 
lights  of  inferior  classes  and  of  iqinor  tmiiortant!*, 
although  by  so  doing  we  were  to  save  at  tlia  auts«t 
something  less  than  if  wo  were  to  begin  by  rafurminf 
tlie  minor  lights,  iiccause  in  the  mean  time  our  forelKII 
commerce  and  the  navy  might  be  suffering  to  Ml 
amount  far  surpassing  that  which  might  be  saved  to 
the  revenue, 

"  Mr,  Alan  Stevenson  'lys:  '  In  comparing  tba  A  m4 
dioptric  and  the  fixed  catoptric  apparatus,  tlia  raawiM 
may  bo  summed  up  under  the  following  lu>ada  I 
"  '1.  It  v.  impossible,  by  means  of  any  pnetk*! 


Lia 


1240 


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combination  of  parabololdal  reflectors,  to  distribnte 
round  the  horizon  a  zone  of  light  of  exactly  equal 
intensity,  while  this  may  lie  easily  effected  by  diop- 
tric means  in  the  manner  already  described.  In  other 
words,  the  qualities  required  in  fixed  lights  can  not  be 
so  fully  obtained  by  reflectors  as  l)y  refractors. 

" '  2.  The  average  light  produced  in  every  azimuth 
by  burning  one  gallon  of  oil  in  Argand  lamps  with 
reflectors,  is  only  about  one  fourth  of  that  produced 
by  burning  the  same  quantity  in  the  dioptric  appara- 
tus, and  the  annual  expenditure  is  .£140  8s.  8d.  less 
for  tlie  entire  dioptric  light  than  for  the  catoptric 
light. 

"  '  3.  The  characteristic  apiwarance  of  the  fixed  re- 
flecting light  in  any  one  azimuth,  would  not  be 
change<l  by  the  adoption  of  the  dioptric  method,  al- 
though its  increased  mean  power  would  render  it  vis- 
ible at  a  greater  distance  in  ever}-  direction. 

"  '  4.  From  the  equal  distribution  of  the  rays,  the 
dioptric  light  would  be  observed  at  equal  distances  on 
evei}'  point  of  the  horizon — an  effect  which  can  not  be 
fUUy  attained  l)y  any  practicable  coml>ination  of  para- 
boloidal  reflectors. 

" '  6.  The  inconveniences  orising  from  the  uncertainty 
which  attends  the  use  of  the  mechanical  lamp,  are  not, 
perhaps  so  much  felt  in  a  fixed  as  in  a  revolving  light, 
because  the  greater  simplicity  of  the  apparatus  admits 
of  easier  access  to  it,  in  case  of  accident. 

•  «  .  *  •  * 

" '  There  can  be  bnt  little  doubt  that  the  more  fully 
the  system  of  Fresnel  is  understood,  the  more  cer- 
tainly will  it  be  preferred  to  the  catoptric  system  of 
illuminating  light-houses,  at  least  in  tliose  countries 
where  this  important  branch  of  administration  is  con- 
ducted with  the  care  and  solicitude  wliich  it  deserves. 

" '  The  expense  of  fitting  up  a  revolving  light  with 
twenty-four  reflectors,  ranged  on  three  faces,  may  be 
estimated  at  £1208,  and  the  annual  maintenance,  in- 
cluding the  interest  of  t)  '.'•■:  i  cost  of  the  apparatus, 
may  be  calculated  at  £41.<  -ic.  .'i.  The  fitting  up  of  a 
revolving  liglit  with  eight  ici.  )->;<,  and  the  diacatoptric 
accessory  apparatus,  may  be  estimated  at  .£1469,  and 
the  annual  niaintenancn  at  X354  lUs.  4d.  It  therefore 
follows,  that  to  establish,  and  afterward  maintain,  a 
catoptric  light  of  the  kind  called  revolving  white,  with 
a  frame  of  three  faces,  each  equal  in  power  to  a  face  of 
the  dioptric  light  of  Cordouan,  an  annual  outlay  of  £63 
18s.  more  would  l>«  required  for  the  reflecting  light  than 
for  the  lens  light ;  while  for  a  liglit  of  the  kind  called 
revolving  red  and  white,  whose  frame  Lcs  four  faces, 
at  least  86  reflectors  would  bo  required  in  order  to 
make  the  light  oven  approach  an  equalit}'  to  that  of 
Cordouan ;  and  the  catoptric  light  would,  in  that  case, 
cost  £2*25  mora  than  the  dioptric  light.' 

"  Convert  these  two  sums  into  our  currency,  and  it 
will  tie  seen  that  we  have  a  saving  in  the  first  case  of 
$309,  and  in  the  second  case  of  (1089  per  annum. 

"The  eflTect  produced  bj-  burning  an  equal  quantity 
of  oil  in  revolving  lights  in  either  system,  may  l)e 
estimated  as  follown :  In  a  revolving  light,  like  that  of 
Skerrj'vore,  having  eight  sides,  each  lighting  with  its 
greatest  power  a  horizontal  sector  of  4°,  we  have  32° 
(or  units)  of  the  horizon  illuminated  with  the  full 
power  of  3200  Argand  flames,  and  consequently  an 
aggregate  eflfiect  of  102,400  flames  produced  by  burn- 
ing the  oil  required  for  10  reflectors ;  while  in  a  catop- 
tric apparutu:  like  that  of  the  old  light  at  Inchkeith, 
having  seven  sides  r'  oni  -^fleetor  euvh,  lighting  with 
its  greatest  power  u.  '<■  .■t'n'  ■>•'  4°  25',  we  have  nearly 
81°  (or  units)  cf  ttw  Inriy:  »n  'Si  iminated  with  the  full 
power  of  400  y.y-uit  ll»f.-i.^.  :.r,d  consequently  an  ag- 
gregate effect  l'i,4'':0  'iuuib.'.  .la  the  result  of  burning 
the  oil  required  ''  v  s^ivnn  r^^i<' -tors.  Hence  the  effect 
of  burning  the  -.•.'..  ■■  ■•'■AatM;.  jf  oil  in  revolving  lights 
io  either  system  "iii  im  ivpresented  respectively  by 
16-7,  12,400^28,348  for  the  catoptric,  contraste<l  with 
102,400  for  the  dioptric  light ;  or,  in  other  words,  re- 


volving lights  on  the  dioptric  principle  use  the  oil 
more  economically  than  those  on  tho  catoptric  plan, 
nearly  in  the  ratio  of  8-6  to  1. 

"  Let  us,  then,  take  the  appropriation  for  oil  for  tho 
lights  in  the  United  States,  deducting  the  quantity 
used  in  the  four  towers  fitted  with  dioptric  apparatus, 
and  divide  It  liy  8'6,  the  proportion  to  1,  in  favor  of  tho 
lens  apparatus. 

"  18J1-2. — Appropriation  for  oil  (\em  oil  burned  in 
lens  lights)  $122,629  fi6;  1  to  8-6  will  give  necessary 
quantity  for  lens  lights  of  equal  power,  $34,063  08 : 
annual  saving  for  oil  by  this  mode  of  comparison, 
$88,666  S7.  Glass  chimneys,  wicks,  and  repairs  of 
lighting  apparatus,  will  be  in  the  proportion  of  not 
less  than  310  to  8198 ;  that  is,  1  to  10.  Amount  ap- 
propriated for  these  objects,  minus  the  expenses  of  the 
same  articles,  for  the  four  lens  lights,  $15,162  30;  1 
to  10  will  give  the  necessary  expense  with  lenses, 
$1216 '23:  annual  saving  by  this  comparison  in  tlicsc 
articles,  $18,646  07. 

"  The  oil  being  the  most  bulky  article  of  supplies,  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  saving  in  oil  will  bo  a  fair 
proportion  for  the  transportation,  the  more  especially 
as  spare  lamps,  burners,  reflectors,  and  the  great  wear 
and  tear  of  the  Argand  lamps,  burners,  and  reflectors, 
is  not  included  in  the  estimate  of  annual  saving. 

"Amount  appropriated  for  the  transportation  and 
delivery  of  oil  and  other  annual  supplies,  1851-2, 
$11,437 ;  1  to  8-6  will  give  the  necessary  expense  for 
this  article,  $8176  94:  annual  saving  witli  lenses, 
$8260  06.  It  may  be  nrged  that  there  would  not  be  so 
great  a  saving  in  transportation  by  the  change ;  of 
that,  the  experiment  alone  can  decide.  By  the  aid  of 
a  small  steamer,  one  half  of  the  amount  appropriated 
could  be  saved  in  money,  while  very  important  ad- 
ditional service  would  be  rendered  in  tlie  way  of  in- 
spections, and  Qiore  frequent  visits  to  tho  princlp.il 
sea-coast  lights.  Taking,  then,  the  savings  of  this 
mode  of  comparison,  it  will  bo  as  follows :  for  oil  in 
one  year,  $88,665  67 ;  for  wicks,  chimneys,  repairs  of 
apparat!is,  etc.,  $13,646  07 ;  for  transportation,  $82G0 
06 :  total  annual  saving,  $110,471  70.  Making  within 
a  fraction  tlie  same  amount  which  would  lie  saved 
annually  l)y  the  introduction  of  the  lens  apparatus  by 
this  comparison,  that  was  shown  by  taking  tiio  Ilglits 
in  their  regular  order  of  powers,  and  comparing  with 
orders  of  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  powers  in  the 
Fresnel  system.  Notliing  therefore  can  be  clearer 
than  tho  results  thus  set  forth. 

"  The  effect  produced  by  the  consumption  of  a  gal- 
lon of  oil  in  a  fixed  light,  with  26  refiectors,  which  is 
the  smallest  number  that  can  be  properly  employed, 
may  be  estimated  as  follows :  The  mean  effect  of  the 
light  spread  over  the  horizontal  sector,  substituted  liy 
one  reflector,  as  deduced  from  measurements  made  at 
each  horizontal  degree,  by  the  method  of  shadows,  is 
equal  to  174  unassisted  Argand  burners.  If,  then, 
this  quantity  bo  multiplied  by  360  degrees,  we  shall 
obtain  an  aggregate  cfiisct  of  62,640 ;  whicli,  divided 
by  1,040  (the  number  of  gallons  burned  during  o  year 
in  26  reflectors),  would  give  60  Argand  flames  for  the 
eflTect  of  tho  light  maintained  throughout  the  year  l>y 
the  combustion  of  a  gallon  of  oil.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  power  of  a  oatodioptric  light  of  tho  first  order,  like 
that  lately  established  at  Girdleness,  may  be  estimated 
thus :  The  mean  effect  of  tlie  light  produced  by  joint 
effect  of  both  tho  dioptric  and  catttdioptriu  parts  of  a 
flxed  light  apparatus,  may  be  valued  at  450  Argand 
flames ;  which,  multiplied  liy  360  degrees,  gives  an 
aggregate  of  162,000;  and  if  tliis  niiantity  be  divided 
by  670  (the  number  of  gallons  liuniod  by  th>  great 
lamp  in  a  year)  we  shall  have  about  284  Argand 
flames  for  tlie  effect  of  tho  light  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion of  a  gallon  of  oil.  It  would  thus  apiMur,  that 
in  flxed  lights  the  French  apparatus,  as  lately  im- 
proved, produces  as  the  average  efl'ect  of  the  consump- 
tion of  the  tome  quantity  of  oil  over  the  whole  horizon, 


LIG 


1241 


tm 


apwArd  of  fonr  times  the  amount  of  light  that  is 
obtained  liy  the  catoptric  mode,  altbongh  in  certain 
directions,  opposite  the  axes  of  each  reflector,  the 
catoptric  liglit  is  fully  60  per  centum  more  powerful 
than  the  dioptric  light, 

"But  the  great  superiority  of  the  dioptric  method 
rests  chiefly  upon  its  perfect  fulflllment  of  an  Import- 
ant condition  required  in  a  fixed  light,  by  distributing 
the  rays  equally  in  every  point  of  the  horizon.  Henre, 
the  saving  for  fixed  lights  in  the  same  amount  of  oil, 
etc.,  appropriated  for  as  before,  will  lie  $91,071  94 ; 
saving  on  other  articles,  $22,226  07 :  total  saving  per 
annum,  $114,198  01. 

"  It  may,  and  probably  will  t>e  urged,  that  a  large 
portion  of  this  annual  saving  will  bu  ab8orl>ed  in  the 
wages  of  additional  keepers.  In  answer  to  fhat,  it 
may  be  stated,  that  in  the  comparisons  of  reflecting 
and  refracting  systems  in  Europe,  the  same  number 
of  keepers  is  required  for  both,  of  equal  class  or  order, 
and  therefore  the  ascertained  saving  is  a  net  annual 
gain. 

"  In  the  United  States,  as  a  general  rule,  but  one 
keeper  (there  lieing  only  14  assistants  belonging  to  an 
establishment  of  301  light-stations,  fitted  with  reflector 
apparatus)  is  attached  to  a  light-station.  To  render 
the  larger,  or  sea-coast  lights  efHcient  and  safe,  two 
keepers  should  be  attached  to  each  station  having  a 
single  tower,  and  three  to  thoso  with  two  towers, 
whether  fitted  with  reflectors  or  lenses. 

"  However,  as  it  "may  i)e  contended,  that  Inasmuch 
OS  our  reflector  lights  in  general  have  only  one  keeper, 
and  that  the  change  to  tiie  lens  system  would  require 
two  to  eacli  light  of  the  first  or  second  class  or  orders,' 
It  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  see  how  many  of  the 
present  lights  on  our  coast  would  be  required  to  be 
changed,  and  the  increased  expense  for  an  additional 
keeper  to  each.  From  the  north-eastorn  boundarj*  to 
the  Rio  Grande  there  are  38  positions  which  ought  to 
be  fitted  with  the  most  powerful  first  order  lenses, 

"  There  are  points  iietween  some  of  these  first  order 
lights,  which  ought  to  lie  fitted  with  second  order  lens 
apparatus,  making  a  total  of  about  60  lights  of  the  first 
and  second  orders.  An  additional  keeper  for  each,  at 
the  rate  of  $300  per  annum,  will  be  $16,000, 

"  If  this  sum  be  deducted  from  the  total  already 
shown  (which,  on  the  contrary,  ought  to  Ihs  added  to 
the  present  expenditures,  to  render  our  lights  in  that 
department  equal  to  European  lights),  there  will  still 
lie  an  annual  saving  of  $95,471  70,  or  $99,198  01,  If 
additional  evidence  were  required  to  prove  so  plain  a 
proposition,  that  the  refiector  system  is  more  expens- 
ive than  the  lens  system  in  the  proportion  of  3'6  to  1, 
disregarding  the  great  superiority  of  the  lens  system 
for  all  the  useful  purposes  of  the  mariner,  It  would  lie 
found  in  the  action  of  the  Trinity  House  corporation, 
of  Deptford  Stroud,  London ;  Northern  Lights  commis- 
sioners, of  Edinbnrg ;  and  the  Ballast  Board,  of  Dub- 
lin, Ireland. 

"  In  1886  the  first  lens  apparatus  was  introduced 
into  Scotland. 

"  In  1837  the  first  lens  waj  Introduced  into  England, 
under  the  Trinity  House  corporation  ;  and  since  1845 
the  first  lens  light  was  lighted  in  Ireland. 

"  Now  (1851)  there  are  very  few  lights  fitted  with 
reflectors  In  Scotland ;  the  commissioners  having 
abandoned  >.he  use  of  that  apparatus,  and  substituted 
for  it  the  Eresnel  and  holophotal  svstem  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Stevenson. 

The  Trinity  House  (London)  has  upward  of  20  lens 
lights  of  the  first  and  second  order,  besides  numerous 
fourth  order  harbor  lights.  Lens  lights  are  also  being 
introduced  into  Ireland  ;  the  precise  number,  liowever, 
now  existing  there,  is  not  known,  as  they  ate  not 
marked  in  their  printed  lists,  and  no  information  has 
yet  been  received  from  that  board, 

"  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  these  three  light- 
honse  boards  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  are  close 


corporations,  deriving  their  means  entirely  from  light* 
dues  levied  upon  the  shipping  of  ail  nations,  including 
that  of  their  own.  They  derive  v  pecuniary  advan- 
tages from  the  government,  ami  >ie  only  under  Its 
general  control ;  consequently  their  acts  are  independ- 
ent of  Psrilamentary  legislation, 

"  If  these  boards  had  found  the  recommendations 
of  the  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  of 
1845,  to  use  less  expensive  apparatus  and  comliustl- 
bles  in  their  lights,  with  a  view  to  the  reduction  of 
light  dues,  had  not  been  based  upon  sound  principles,  ° 
they  would  have  had  no  inducement  to  follow  them ; 
for  whether  the  lights  are  economically  kept  or  not, 
goo<l  or  bod,  the  same  amount  of  light-money  would 
be  collected.  It  Is,  therefore,  plain  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  lens  apparatus,  and  the  colzo  oil.  Into  the 
establishments  under  the  control  of  these  independent 
corporations,  was  the  result  of  close  examination  and 
trial  by  those  charged  with,  and  most  interested  in  the 
suliject.  The  introduction  after  France,  first  liy  Hoi- 
land,  and  successively  by  Belgium,  Hanover,  Prussia, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Brazil,  and  the  colonies  of  tlie  respect- 
ive nations,  goes  far  to  counteract  any  prejudice  which 
may  exist  in  any  quarter,  of  the  giolie  against  this 
inimitable  illuminating  apparatus  for  llght>houses, 

"Notwithstanding  the  renovations  of  EnWish, 
Scotch,  and  Irish  lights,  and  the  erection  of  new  tow- 
ers, fitted  with  the  lens  apparatus,  a  material  redac- 
tion has  lieen  made  of  late  years  in  the  light-dues 
levied  in  Great  Britain  upon  shipping.  This  may  in 
some  degree  be  attributed  to  the  increased  amount  of 
commerce  and  navigation,  and  the  more  frequent  and 
rapid  intercourse  between  nations,  by  the  aid  of  steam 
navigation ;  but,  it  can  not  fairly  be  contended  that  it 
is  wholly  due  to  that  cause, 

"These  facts  are  undoubted,  and  the  deductions 
from  them.  It  is  believed,  will,  upon  the  closest  scru- 
tiny, be  found  to  be  correct, 

"  Mr,  Alan  Stevenson  says,  '  It  therefore  follows, 
that,  by  dioptric  means,  the  consumption  of  oil  neces- 
sary for  betweeen  14  and  Ifi  roflectors,  will  produce  a 
light  as  powerful  as  that  wlii.h  would  require  the  oil 
of  21  reflectors  in  the  catoptric  system  of  Scotland; 
and,  consequently,  that  there  is  an  excess  of  oil  equal 
to  that  consumed  by  10  reflectors ;  or  400  gallons  in 
the  year  against  tlio  Scotch  system.  But  in  order 
fully  to  compare  tl  o  ndrimy  of  producing  two  re- 
volving lights  of  !  jun!  poxjr,  by  those  two  methods, 
it  will  be  necessir;-  to  tuk)  into  the  calculation  the 
interest  of  the  fir  t  outlay  in  establishing  them,' 

"  It  is  worthy  of  rn'iiirk  that  the  French  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  Dutch  government  in  introducing  lenses 
into  their  light-houses, 

"  The  subject  of  Intro  '\icing  lenses  into  the  Scotch 
light-houses  was  brought  liefore  the  commissioners  of 
Nortliem  Lights  by  the  Knglneer*  of  that  bod}',  at  the 
instance  of  General  Colby,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  as 
early  as  1824,  The  Siotcli  commissioners  directed 
their  engineer  to  visit  France,  and  report  upon  the 
lights  of  that  countr)-.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1884, 
the  board  directed  lenses  to  be  imported  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  experiments.  These  experiments  re- 
sulted in  the  recommendation  that  an  Important  light 
should  be  changed  from  a  reflector  to  a  lens  apparatus. 

"  it  Is  believed  the  powerful  and  unanswerable  ar- 
guments contained  in  tho  letters  of  Sir  Uavid  Brews- 
ter, in  1833,  to  the  Bell-Rock  committee,  in  favor  of 
lenses,  contributed  greatly  to  the  early  introduction 
of  them  into  the  lights  of  Scotland, 

"  Notwithstonding  the  numerous  experiments  from 
1825  to  183-1,  made  by  the  Northern  Lights  commis- 
sioners to  test  the  relative  merits  of  the  two  systems, 
it  was  not  until  the  latter  year  that  decisive  steps  were 
taken  to  decide  the  question. 


*  Robert  gtevena«o. 


LIG 


1342 


LIO 


"  In  Ootojer,  18S6,  th(  nfleotlng  ■ppsntiu  of  the 
TcrolWng  light  st  Inchkeith  was  Tpmoved,  and  dioiH 
trl"  apparatus  substituted. 

"  Ho  great  was  the  satisfaction  which  this  eliange 
prodnceil,  that  another  li^ht  was  Immediately  changed 
tu  a  lens  light.  The  second  lens  light  erected  in  Scot- 
land was  at  the  Isle  of  Ma; ,  in  Septeml^r,  1686. 

"The  Trinity  House.  Undon,  fitted  the  Start  Point 
light  with  a  lens  apparatus  in  1837. 

"  The  Tarkish  government  employed  an  Kngllsh 
«n)(ioeer  in  1886-7,  to  make  experiments  with  the 
Vresnei  lenses,  Dmmmond's  light,  etc.,  to  enable  it  to 
decide  upon  the  best  illuminating  apparatus  for  the 
Boiphorus  flrom  the  Black  Sea.  The  letter  upon  this 
dulijert  from  William  Konry  B.wlowj  Es.j.,  yhich  wos 
rea<l  Iwfore  the  Koyal  Society  of  London,  will  he  found 
to  contain  much  valuable  information  for  those  inter- 
ested in  the  experiments  of  light-house  navigation. — 
Viik  PkUotophical  Tramactiotu  of  the  Koj/ol  Socieig  of 
jMmdon,  1887,  p.  211. 

"  fl/umbtr  of  Letutt  m  the  World. — At  the  present 
moment  (1861),  there  are  lens  lights  of  thu  three  first 
orders  (flrst^  second,  and  third  orders),  216,  and  of  the 
smaller  classes,  162  j  making  the  total,  number  of 
lenses  808. 

"  They  are  found  nov.-  in  England,  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, France,  Belgium,  the  maritime  States  of  Qer- 
many,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  (the  Hus- 
slan  government  has  a  French  orCist  established  ut  St. 
Petersburg,  for  the  manufa;ture  of  lenses  for  their 
lights;,  Itily,  Spain,  Por<:ugal,  the  Heditcrrunet^n, 
Egypt,  Turkey,  East  and  West  Indies,  Brazil,  and,  iu 
general,  in  all  the  colonial  dependencies  of  the  Kt>T0- 
poan  States.  Onn  first,  two  second,  and  one  third  or- 
dt^r,  are  the  only  lenses  at  present  in  the  United 
States. 

"  The  three  first  named  were  procured  in  obedieiice 
to  special  acts  of  Congress,  and  the  thiiu  order  was 
placed  on  the  Brandywine  shoal  by  the  Topographical 
Bureau. 

"  It  is  understood  thnt  the  two  light-towors  now  in 
the  course  of  erection  at  Sand  Koy  and  Carysfort 
Koef,  under  tifae  direction  of  the  Topo;p'»phical  Bureau, 
are  to  be  fitted  with  first  order  lensen. 

"Mr.  Stevenson  pays  this  ra.irited  tribute  to  the 
distinguished  savan  whose  system  is  now  almost  uui- 
venally  aamired and  adopted  throughout  the  maritime 
world ;  '  Frrsnel,  who  is  already  classed  with  the 
greatest  of  those  inventors  who  extend  the  boundaries 
of  human  knowledge,  wil^  thus  at  the  same  time  re- 
ceivo  a  pisce  among  those  benefactors  of  the  specie; 
who  have  consecrated  their  genius  to  the  common 
good  of  mankind ;  and,  wherever  maritime  intercourse 
prevails,  the  solid  advantages  which  his  labors  havu 
procured  will  he  felt  and  acknowledged.' 

"///HSUfKMum.~Ou  a  review  of  this  subject,  the  adop- 
tion is  recommended,  as  early  as  ])raclfcablf«,  of  the 
lens  system  instead  of  that  of  reflectors,  as  most  etfect- 
Ive  and  economical. 

"  It  haa  been  shown  that  the  Fresuel  lens  is  essen- 
tial for  sea  or  lake-ooast  lif^hts  of  the  (rst  order ;  that 
for  those  of  the  second  order,  or  for  secondary  or  Ijea- 
eon  lights,  including  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
oMers,  the  useful  effect  of  a  lens  light  is  from  8-6  to  4 
times  that  of  reflector  lights  of  the  some  class,  ar.d 
that,  economicaliy,  the  reflector  lights  are  4  times  as 
expensive  for  oil  aloue  as  the  lens  lights. 

"  It  has  been  clearly  shown,  in  <1iscussin(;  this  mat- 
MT,  that  if  it  were  possible  to  convert  in  a  moment  all 
the  present  reflector  lights  of  the  United  States  into 
tana  lights  aa  nearly  aa  possible  (though,  in  almost 
inrery- instance,  they  would  b^  superior),  rf  equal  or- 
il  'Tt,  the  annual  saving,  for  oil  and  other  supplies, 
vonld  be  #112,186  87,  taking  the  appropriations  of 
1861-'62  as  the  basis  of  the  calculation,  with,  at  the 
aa*ne  time,  an  increase  of  8}  to  4  times  as  much  light 
from  each  lantern  aa  at  preient. 


'■  If  the  estimates  for  1862-'68  be  taken  as  a  hssin, 
then  the  annual  saving  may  bo  Increased  (20,000, 
which  will  make  the  entire  saving  for  one  yem,  with 
all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  superior  lights, 
$132,185. 

"  Add  to  this  sum  $  10,000,  the  mean  of  the  value 
of  the  lamps  and  reflectors  proposed  to  be  taken  from 
the  light-houses,  to  l>e  fitted  first  with  the  lens  appa- 
ratus, and  which  would  be  required,  under  any  circum- 
stances of  improvement,  for  the  42  light  vessels  already 
existmg,  and  the  sum  of  (172,186  may  be  put  down  as 
clear  profit,  with  which  ti'  purchase  lens  apJMiratus  for 
the  first  year. 

"  By  appropriating  this  sum,  or  as  much  of  it  as 
can  be  economically  anJ  judicious!;'  employed  in  im- 
proving the  sea-coast  lights,  thsrc  will  be  an  additional 
gain,  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  in  the  di6ference  in 
the  cost  of  oil,  etc.,  undnr  the  two  systems,  for  all  the 
apparatus  procured  with  this  saving.  This  saving 
will  go  on  from  year  to  year,  on  compound  intercit, 
at  the  rate  of  80  tu  50  per  cent.,  until,  in  6  or  6  yearn, 
should  the  appropriations  be  made  as  required  to  carry 
out  gradually  the  system,  we  shall  have  lights  equal 
to  those  of  Franca  and  Qreat  Britain  k.  brilliancy, 
useful  effect,  and  economy,  and  apparatus  that  n<iver 
requires  renewing,  without,  in  the  aggregate,  having 
spent  one  cent  mure  than  wou'd  have  been  required 
for  th'}  ordinary  service  under  the  present  system, 
with  inferior  lighte  and  enormous  simis  for  annual  re- 
prjrs  and  renovations. 

''  These  estimates  are  based  upon  the  assumption 
that  the  sprrm  oil  now  in  use  is  to  be  continued. 
Should  it  be  decided,  however,  to  follow  the  example 
of  nearly  the  wnole  maritime  world  in  introducing  the 
colaa  or  rape-seed  oil,  a  saving  of  85  to  40  cents  per 
gallon  will  be  gained,  equivalent  to  $10,000  to  $45,000 
more. 

"  The  price  of  the  first-quality  clarilied  coha  oil  is, 
on  an  average,  at  ihe  principal  markets  in  France,  72 
francs  the  hectolitre,  or  for  a  little  more  than  26  gallons, 
which  is  equal  to  nearly  55^  cents  per  gallon.  Sperm 
oil,  in  this  country,  ranges  from  $1.30  tu  $1.50  per 
gallon,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  a  fair  qualiiy  ■•■a.n  be  fur- 
nished at  these  prices.  The  supply  if  the  best  sperm 
oil  to  stand  a  temperature  of  28°  Fahrenheit,  is  not 
equal  to  the  demand,  and  no  other  quality  should  ever 
be  burnt  in  a  light-house.  A  few  gallons  of  rape-seed 
oU  havq  been  sent  from  Ilnvre  to  the  Board,  costing 
about,  00  cents  per  gallon. 

"  This  important  agricultural  product  (rape-seed) 
oiily  requires  to  be  introduced  favorably  to  the  notice 
of  onr  planters  and  fanners,  to  become  a  boon  to  tlie 
-.■tion  of  no  ordinary  value.  Adapted  to  the  soils  of 
nearly  ever}'  portion  of  this  great  countt}',  its  admirii- 
ble  qnalities  for  domestic  illumination  would  soon 
bring  it  in^  favor,  and,  uy  its  means,  expe',  from  our 
houses  the  many  dangerous  fluids  now  used  for  the 
sake  oiUy  of  economy, 

"  The  experimente  made  by  Fresnel,  Faraday,  Ste- 
ven wn,  and  r;,hor  distinguished  individuals,  have 
proved,  beyond  all  question,  that  the  colza  is  not  only 
better  than  the  best  sperm  oil  (an  article  now  very 
diffici'lt  t]  procure),  !iut  that  it  will  bum  17  hours 
without  coaling  the  wicks ;  that  it  will  remain  in  a 
fluid  ■<tate  in  a  lower  temperature  than  the  best  sperm 
oil,  and  that  it  is  chciper  by  nearly  one  third. 

"  In  this  countrj-,  the  quantity  of  sperm  oil,  inde- 
pendently of  its  high  price,  has  not  been  suflicient  to 
meet  the  demands  for  the  various  purposes  connected 
with  steam  machinery',  etc.,  for  seveiul  years.  Lard 
and  othei  prepared  oils  have  been  forced  to  take  the 
place  of  it,  for  these  and  other  purposes  for  which  it 
is  peculiarly  adapted. 

''  The  returns  from  the  fishing  grounds  show  that 
this  branch  of  comiserce  is  Incoming  more  and  more 
uncertain,  and  less  profitable,  every  year.  When  those 
engaged  in  the  whale  fisheries  find  it  unprofitable. 


LIQ 


1248 


LI& 


jiraday,  Ste- 

duals,  have 

is  not  only 

now  very 

rn  17  houre 

remain  in  a 

best  spiral 

jird. 

nn  oil,  in>l«- 

suffiiient  to 

es  connected 

.-ears.     Lard 

to  take  the 

for  which  it 


Wlien  those 
unprofitable. 


thsy  -will  not  pnnae  it  beoanse  the  goremment  may 
require  a  few  thouaands  of  gallon  )■  annually.  We  can 
not  go  wrong  in  tbla  matter,  in  following  the  example 
of  other  countries. 

"  Francd-  introduced  the  rape-seed  oil,  from  convic- 
tion of  its  superiority,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  the  northern  powers  of  Europe  generally,  have 
followed ;  first  from  motives  of  economy,  and  continue 
its  use  from  the  conviction  that  it  ia  not  only  more 
economical,  but  is  better  for  light-house  purposes  thaa 
the  best  winter-strained  sperm  oil,  the  only  kind  used 
in  most  lights.  Olive-oil  has  been  introduced  into  the 
light-houses  of  Liverpool,  England,  at  a  saving  of  40 
per  cent,  over  sperm  oil, 

"  In  the  United  States,  the  oil  (two  kinds,  '  winter 
and  summer,'  being  used)  for  our  lights,  is  not  of  the 
best  quality.  It  is  now  nearly  60  per  cent,  higher  in 
price  than  it  was  a/ew  years  since ;  and  with  the  pres- 
ent prospects,  it  must  continue  to  increase  in  price  so 
long  as  the  demand  is  so  great  for  it  as  at  present. 

"  It  has  been  proposed  that  the  88  most  important 
sea-coast  lights  should  be  fitted,  with  as  little  delay  as 
possible,  with  first  order  lenses,  and  that  the  Argand 
lamps  and  reflectors  taken  from  them  (or  surh  of  them 
as  may,  upon  examination,  be  found  to  bn  suf&eientiy 
good  for  that  purpose)  be  used  for  fitting  up  the  42 
light-vessels  now  existing,  which  have  been  pro- 
nounced by  high  authority  comparatively  useless  in 
their  present  state.  Several  years  would  be  required 
to  effect  this  change,  as  the  new  lights  authorized  by 
law,  amounting  to  34,  exclusive  of  those  for  the  coasts 
of  California  and  Oregon,  require  illuminating  appa- 
ratus ;  and  as  there  are  only  two  establishments  from 
which  the  lenses  could  be  procured  for  some  time  at 
least,  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  demand  a  larger  num- 
ber at  once  than  could  be  easily  supplied. 

"  Having  fitted  the  most  important  sea-coast  lights 
with  the  best  lens  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  newly 
authorized  lights,  by  changing  thereafter  such  only  of 
the  minor  lights  as  now,  or  hereafter,  require  new  ap- 
paratus, would  in  two  or  three*  years  place  the  light- 
house establishment  of  this  conntr}-  far  in  advance  of 
its  present  state  in  efficiency  and  economy. 

"  To  purchase' Argand  lamps  and  reflectors  for  the 
42  light-vessels,  would  be  to  retrograde  in  light-house 
illumination  at  a  first  cost  of  $40,000  or  $46,000,  and 
an  annual  waste  of  $7660  for  oil  alone ;  and  of  the 
supplies,  to  the  extent  to  increoso  the  amount  to 
$10,000,  with  apparatus  which  must  be  frequently  re- 
newed, producing  only  trom  one  fourth  to  one  »<xth 
the  usefulness  of  the  less  aconomical  system,  Wi>*ch 
never  requires  renewing. 

"Taking  the  estimate  for  1652-3  f'o'  rmintaining 
the  lights  of  this  country  as  a  basis,  t'  '  ..resent  sys- 
tem costs  annually  within  a  fraction  oi  «  ^;Jj,000  more 
than  the  same  lights  would  under  the  lens  system. 
But  in  BO  important  and  humane  a  branch  of  the 
public  service  as  this  is,  upon  the  efficient  and  proper 
management  of  which  depends,  in  a  greater  or  lets 
ilegree,  the  loss  of  human  life  and  property,  in  which 
every  •I'li  viduol  in  the  land  is  to  a  certain  extent  inter  ■ 
estrl  '  ./•honally,  mere  saving  of  money,  which  is  by 
no  means  always  true  econom;  •  should  not  be  the  only 
guide.  The  incalculable  ber,  .a  to  the  seaman ;  the 
merchant,  who  receives  tho  foroiijn  products  to  gratify 
the  wants  of  our  citizens ;  the  plv-nter,  who  ships  his 
cotton,  tobacco,  grain,  breadstuffs,  provisions,  navnl 
stores,  and  the  thousRnds  of  products  of  our  clime,  to 
the  best  markets,  would  seem  anflicient  to  show  the 
necessity  for  this  change. 

"  By  those  of  our  citizens  along  our  gontbem  coasts, 
from  the  mouth  of  Delaware  Bay  to  the  Kio  Grande, 
who  are  now  and  have  kykt  been  sufftring  in  conse- 
quence of  a  badly  lighted  coast,  will  this  additional 
reason  be  beat  understood  and  apprecUted.  Their 
freight  lists  and  beav}-  insurances  speak  out  truly  on 
this  point. 


"  The  $7,000,000  worth  of  property  sent  into  Key 
West,  and  there  adjudicated  for  salvage,  within  the  six 
years  prior  to  January,  1850  (lost  to  our  citizens  and 
our  government  chiefly),  speaks  trumpet-tongued  on 
this  subject.  But  this  is  not  all.  The  wreck  lists  of 
Nassau  and  New  Providence  exceed  by  far  those  of 
Key  West, 

"  Let  us  light  out  coasts  as  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain have  done  theirs,  and  wreckers  will  be  compelled 
to  turn  their  attention  to  other  means  of  livelihood, 
and  the  consumers  of  everj-  class  and  grade  will  poy 
less  for  their  necessaries  and  luxuries,  and  the  planter, 
farmer,  mechanic,  will  have  smaller  freight  and  in- 
surance bills  to  pay  on  their  exports. 

"  If  we  assume  the  necessity  for  changing  all  of  the 
lights  on  our  coast  to  lens  lights,  end  give  to  each  one 
of  them  its  proper  power  and  eOiciency,  we  should 
have  about  as  follows :  86  first  order  lens  lig'.its,  cost- 
ing for  apparatus  $244,800;  10  second  order  lens 
lights,  costing  for  apparatus  $44,000 ;  fil  third  order 
lens  lights,  costing  for  apparatus  $113,400 ;  206  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  order  lens  lights,  costing,  in  the  ag- 
gregate, about  $92,700;  total  amount  nccessarj'  to 
purchase  lens  apparatus  for  all  the  lights  in  tho  United 
States,  $494,960 ;  deduct  value  of  reflectors  and  lamps 
for  light-vessels  at  present  existing,  and  for  proposed 
ones,  $45,000 ;  deduct  value  of  present  illuminating 
apparatus,  lamps,  reflectors,  chandeliers,  etc.,  merely' 
estimating  the  value  of  the  old  silver,  copper,  and 
iron,  say  2500  lamps  and  reflectors,  and  815  chande- 
liers, at  one  fifth  tlieir  cost,  $50,000;  deduct  first 
year's  saving  on  oil  and  other  supplies,  $110,000; 
total  expenditure,  $205,000 ;  leaving  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  with  lenses,  only  a  balance  of  $289,960; 
saving  for  four  years,  $440,000 ;  making  a  gain,  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth,  of  $150,040. 

"  Thus,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  the  country  will 
have  gained  $150,000  in  money,  including  interest, 
and  an  annual  saxnng  of  $110,000,  the  interest  of 
which  will  moke  it  $117,600,  and  afford  to  the  mariner 
lights  equal  to  the  best  in  the  world,  by  which  means 
every  consumer  and  exporter  will  derive  a  pecuniary 
advantage;  and  those  who  go  to  sea,  either  fron: 
pleasure  or  necessity,  will  be  doubly  insured  against 
shipwreck  on  our  inhospitable  coast. 

"  To  make  the  reform  in  our  juesent  light-house 
system  perfect  in  its  illuminatuig  department,  it  only 
remains  to  introduce,  in  addition  to  the  lenses,  the 
colza  or  rapc-^seed  oil,  which  will  produce  an  additional 
saving,  as  has  already  been  shown,  of  about  $10,000 
per  annum ;  making  the  grand  total,  in  five  years,  of 
$200,000.  It  may  be  contended  that,  inasmuch  as  in- 
terest is  included  in  the  saving,  it  is  but  fair  to  allow 
it  on  the  first  cost,  which  will  be,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year,  $15,397  60 ;  third  year,  $8,  ("97  60 ;  fourth 
year,  $2,197  60;  making  for  interest,  $26,392  80; 
still  leaving  a  nett  gain,  at  the  end  of  five  years,  of 
$132,647  iO,  without  taking  into  consideration  the 
saving  from  the  rape-seed  oil,  if  introduced,  which 
would  increase  it  to  $182,  647  20  of  clear  gain  at  tho 
end  ui  five  years,  in  addition  to  the  annual  gain  and 
other  advantages  already  stated. 

"  But  if  we  continue  to  employ  reflectors,  such  as 
we  hi  ,.  .'.'  in  use  and  are  constantly  Introducing 
into  01  ■ !  . '  >,  we  will  not  only  lose  the  amount  Mi- 
nually  i-Llfii  has  been  shown  we  should  gain  with 
lenses,  but,  in  addition  to  that,  these  reflectors  and 
lamps  will  require  tv  '.9  renewed  once  in  10  to  if 
years,  at  <i  cost  ver  )'  Ik  short  of  that  of  the  !ur  iJiJ, 
which  sufl'er  no  d  .■.^■ition  from  long  use,  i>t»c 
humanity  and  commerce  will  continue  to  sufiei  fvi 
want  of  good  and  efilcient  lights  on  our  coast. 

^^ Inspection. — Without  a  rigid  system  of  inspection 
by  competent  persons,  the  light-house  system  can 
never  be  efficient  or  economical.  The  whole  sea  and 
lake  coasts  of  the  United  States  should  be  divided  into 
light-house  districts,  with  lesa  regard  to  geographical 


iii'  \ 


'm 


LTG 


1244 


LTG 


!    (P- 


tlt:o  io  local  Ilnea.  For  example,  the  New  Tork  (dis- 
trict should  embrace  all  the  lights  from  T^'. v  i  'THl 
Including  Block  Island,  Montauk  Point,  ct...,  to  the 
Highlands  of  Nave.iink,  up  the  boj's,  inel-.-dlAit  th  ■ 
Baritan,  Hackensack,  Pnssnic  and  Nurth  Klvv,  to 
the  head  of  navigation.  Thn  Phllad'lihW  '  ■  liciii- 
ward  Bay  iMotrict  should  embrace  (he  oast  f.^iii  :he 
Barrtegat  to  near  Assateagvii",  and  up  thn  TSvU  wure  on 
both  sides  to  the  head  of  i..i  Igation.  '!  fi '  ,'lall^:;i  t 
or  Cliesai  ike  B.iy  dtstri  f  should  .  nl  inc>i  hV.  r'le 
coast  from  Ais.tkague  to  Cape  Henr.v.  Hampton 
Roads  and  trll.iiii'.rios,  and  C",  'apeakellv  ind  tribu- 
taries, to  tho  Iv  1 ;  ,.f  navigation.  The  other  districts 
s'loiUd  be  fornu.  'j.on  the  sum"  pr.nclphis.  In  each 
<i!'  these  districts  ilicre  should  be  a  local  inspector, 
who  should  bn  fiiniiylied  with  the  necesiar/  means 
aud  facilitiei  for  re;;ular!,v  Tnsiiontinf!;  the  lights,  at- 
tcnil'.ig  to  the  ■Bints  of  Vm  ke-Tii,;,  euperintendlnj; 
anu.ii  repairs,  repouiug  thr  couclit-ii  of  I'le'estnbiish- 
meut,  at  short  intervals  oi  utdp.  .'u  the  cxcctitiv  olfl- 
ccr  or  engineer  of  the  Lighf  lion  c  Bourd,  superiiiteji 
the  placing,  roplueing  and  icnovnf.iiig  buoyr,,  heaconi, 
eti'  ,  etc.,  under  the  general  .»nd  spi>:>ial  instn  i .  Ion  of 
the  Light-House  Board,  comniuni''ated  through  their 
executive  officer  or  engineer. 

"  For  this  purpose,  there  would  be  required  on  the 
lakes  two  inspectors,  and  on  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and 
north-west  coasts,  including  ai!  the  afjjacent  navigable 
waters,  from  10  to  IS  inspectois  more,  making  the 
whole  number  required  from  18  to  15 

"  I'ach  of  these  light-house  ilistricts  should  be 
placed  under  the  charge  of  an  mtivo  and  zealous  offi 
cer  of  the  army  or  navy,  <vho  sfKuld  receive  all  his  In- 
structions from,  and  he  responsitlo  to  the  I.ight-House 
Board,  through  their  exei-utive  clRicror  engineer,  and 
to  whom  all  rcimrta  should  be  mmU. 

"The  facilities  for  Inspectors  suiitrintending  such 
repairs,  etc.,  etc,  as  may  be  conftdtd  to  the  local  in- 
spector, to  be  furnished  by  the  liglit-houBe  vessels, 
revenue  cutters,  and  such  other  monns  as  the  Treasury 
Department  may  from  time  to  time  authorize. 

"  By  this  mode  of  inspection,  very  little  if  any  ad- 
ditional expense  will  Iw  incurred,  while  there  will  be 
secured  an  independent  examination  of  everj'  light  on 
the  coast,  say  from  four  to  six  times  per  annum,  by  a 
coiupetcnt  person,  wliose  duty  it  will  Iw  to  inform  him- 
self upon  .ill  essential  matters  connected  with  this 
service.  In  additi(m  to  the  foregoing  means,  the  rev- 
enue boarding  boats  might  find  would  be  appropriately 
put  in  requisitiaa,  as  occasion  might  require,  to  assist 
the  inspector  in  his  duties  in  situations  where  a  strict 
eccnomy  would  not  authorize  the  employment  of  « 
veisel  permanently  to  peform  this  service. 

"  Instead  of,  as  now,  contractinjj  with  persons  to 
keep  the  buoys  in  their  places  for  a  certain  sum  per 
annum,  and  who  seldom,  if  over,  perform  the  sorvlci) 
faithfully,  the  inspector  would,  under  proper  in.'truc- 
tions,  be  required  to  examine  the  bars,  channels,  etc., 
etc.,  of  bis  district,  at  regular  periods,  and  always  im- 
mediately after  heavy  gales  of  wind  to  ascertain  what 
buoys  are  out  of  position,  and  to  replace  them. 

"  The  inspecting  olllcer?  wmM  occasionally  he  nc- 
lompanied  by  the  secretory  jngmeer  to  the  Kighi- 
House  Board,  or  ixirhapa  by  "  -'  A  .he'n ;  a  thorough 
system  would  be  provldeu 
less  eiipenslve  in  the  agg 
existing  without  specific   l 


!  rort 

lis    : 


these  inspection  i    ''  |^t8 
lugs,   etc.,   etc.,   i  r 
These  d^pAts  m'. 
requiring  but  l!i"; 
aad  their  moor'ngs . 
where  a  spare  ligb 
There  should  be  <  t 
every  three  placed  U  exjio 
pUcate  buoys  and  mor.rii 


times,  ThoLlgbb-Uou 


-.Timid  inevitably !« 

:'iun  tliat  at  present 

t  connection  with 

-t»,  Hpare  buoys,  moor- 

' ;.       -'isable  in  each  distri'^t. 

''   US'!  places  be  at  liome  place 

•ji:!"  .  f  xpense,  where  the  buoys 

.'Ki  repaired,  painted,  etc,  and 

'  'I'pht  1)6 kept  rcadyforuse. 

-<i ,    n.'c   ;pare  light-vessel  for 

n  sea-posttionr.    Du- 

dd  be  ready  at  all 


lould  have  anthority 


I  to  canaa  inayt  to  be  p1aoe<l  on  newlv-disoovered  slioala, 
!  r-rncks,  etc.,  etc.,  whenever  necessary.     By  the  cai- 
!  pi»y  nient  of  these  inspeutors,  the  country  would  derive 
I  the   I reneflt  of  their  services  without  expense,  and 
I  hai  e  :ii^.  as' iii>>ce,  from  their  position  and  standing, 
of  II  falthf.  !  uxoci'tion  of  their  duties.     The  Bo,ird 
woiilj  refer  aa.i'u  to  the  reports  of  the  committee  of 
the  Senate  iih:  Kouse,  already'  pointed  out  in  this  re- 
in thi    V.  >  ic  >.i  nt  branch  of  the  lighting  service, 
mee'.i...'   \  '  a  (his  'jvommundation,  the  Board 
-r.ould  ai'yi;'  ','•.',  light-keepers  be  examined,  as  naval 
engineers,  midiibipmen,  and  cadets  are,  in  reference  to 
qualiflcattons  for  their  apixdqtmenti ;  that  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  take  charge  of  the  lights  without 
suitable  preparation ;  nor  the  more  important  lights 
without  p^^portionlllly  higher  qualiftcutions;  that  such 
mev-'or.'igif.ol  :  id  tidal  observations  be  required  of 
i  tbem  !<    additio,.  to  the  keeping  of  suitable  registers 
<jf  ilKl'di.'g,  consumption  of  supplits  daily,  etc,  as  may 
i  terd  to  test  the  capacity  of  the  keepers,  and  to  elevate 
'.e  stunit:  r<l  of  information  and  practi"al  skill  of  them 
,00  class . 

"  To  G  iHe  LegUation  m  Extending  and  Improving 
Oiir  Presfnt  Syttem  of  Construction,  Illuminatum,  In- 
tpection^  and  Superintendence. — ^Tha  seventh  section  of 
the  act  making  appropriation  for  light-houses,  liglit. 
boats,  buoys,  etc,  approved  March  8,  1851,  provides, 
'  That  hereafter,  in  all  new  light-houses,  in  all  liglit- 
hotises  requiring  new  lighting  apparatus,  and  in  all 
light-houses  as  }-et  unsupplied  with  illuminating  appa- 
ratus, the  lens  or  Fresnel  system  shall  be  adopted,  if, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treiteury,  the 
public  interest  will  be  subserved  thereby.' 

"  This  is  a  wise  provision.  There  are  ver^-  few 
cases,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board,  where  the  public  in- 
terest will  not  be  greatly  subserved  by  the  substitution 
of  the  Fresnel  lens  for  the  reflectors  now  employed  in 
illuminating  our  light-houses.  In  positions  wiierc  the 
light  is  only  required  to  illuminate  a  small  arc  of  tlio 
horizon,  it  may  lie  of  questionable  propriety ;  but  In 
all  sucli  cases,  the  capable  light-house  engineer  should 
decide  upon  the  merits  of  the  two  kinds  of  apparatus. 
In  no  case  requiring  one  half  or  more  of  tlie  horizon 
to  be  illuminated,  is  it  believed  reflectors  ought  to  bo 
employed,  in  preference  to  the  lens.  There  mny  l<e 
occasionally  circumstancej  of  a  paramount  character, 
which  may  render  the  employment  of  retiectora  prefer- 
able. 

"  The  ninth  section  of  the  act  approved  Slarch  ,'!, 
1851,  provides, '  That  the  President  be,  and  he  is  hereby 
required  to  cause  to  be  detailed  from  the  engineer  corps 
of  the  ormy,  from  time  to  '  ;m»,  Juch  officer.-  .3  mr.;>  lie 
necessarj'  to  superintend  toe  construction  nnd  renova- 
tion of  light-houses.' 

"  The  Board  are  of  opinion  that  this  act  is  one  cul- 
cti'.nted  to  produce  the  most  beneficial  results,  in  in- 
creasing the  durabiluy  of  light-house  structures,  and 
consequently  lessening,  to  some  extent,  at  least,  the 
present  large  annual  appropriations  for  renovations 
and  ri'pairs ;  and  they  recommend  that  no  new  struct- 
ure tie  erected,  and  no  old  ones  be  repaired,  except  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  a  comp'*-™!  officer  of  tlin 
corps  of  engineers. 

"  The  Board  are  of  opinion  thit  : -■  i.g  tuii  •  O-.  n 
of  Congress  iii^u  the  subje< '  .ruroving  our  lig. 
etc.,  much  may  iie  done  t-  <  .  ttroducing  a  more  ef- 
ficient and  economical  ad  MuUtration  of  the  establish- 
ment, by  a  rigid  adheveii  e  to  thu  provisions  of  the 
seventh  and  ninth  sections  of  the  law  of  1851. 

"  Locating  of  Sea  and  fAike-coaH  I.ighta.—Tba  Board 
have  adopted  the  same  principle  which  has  proved  so 
effective  >•  the  organization  of  the  Fren  .»  system  of 
lights  ;  nunioly,  to  place  a  pea-coast  light  of  the  lirst 
order,  in  general,  every  42  nautical  miles,  so  tliat,  as 
a  rule,  one  light  will  not  be  lost  sight  of  until  another 
8  above  the  horizon.  If  it  should  be  necessary  to 
adopt  only  two  main  syftems  of  distinction  for  thesa 


lao 


1245 


LIO 


'  Ughtt  Into  fixed  and  revolving,  then  a  fixed  light 
■holld  be  placed  between  two  revolving  lighta,  suit- 
ably distinguished  by  flashes,  etc.,  so  that  no  two 
lighta  of  the  same  kind  should  be  nearer  tlian  84  miles 
from  each  other.  Other  dUtinctiuns,  easily  described 
In  the  published  lists,  and  easily  comprehended  by 
navlgaturs,  which  would  render  all  fear  of  mistakes 
arising  flrom  the  want  of  proper  distinctions  illusory 
(without  the  use  of  colored  media),  can  be  employed. 
If,  however,  Mr.  Babbage's  system  prove  to  be  proc- 
ticable,  and  be  adopted,  all  doubt  in  regard  to  distinc- 
tions of  light  will  l>e  obviated.  The  Board  have  adopt- 
ed an  approximate  programme,  in  this  report,  for  the 
lea  and  lake-coast  lights,  the  number  of  which  is  nec- 
essary to  a  full  system.  Of  these  many  now  exist, 
though  not  with  the  requisite  range  of  visibility-. 
There  are  many  locations  where  the  wants  of  com- 
merce will  not  require  such  lights  for  many  years, 
though  necessarily  included  in  a  general  programme. 

"  At  a  full  meeting  of  the  Light-house  Board,  holden 
on  the  6th  of  January,  1852,  the  following  resolutions 
were  offered  and  unanimously  adopted : 

"Betolved,  That  it  is  the  opinion  of  •'.his  Board,  1. 
That  the  Ions  or  Fresnel  system  of  light-house  illumi- 
nation is  the  best  at  present  known.  2.  That  the 
lens  ur  Fresnel  system  of  light-house  illumination  is, 
in  economy,  brilliancy,  power,  and  usefulness,  supe- 
rior to  the  best  reflector  system  of  illumination  in  the 
ritio  of  about  4  to  1 ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  lens 
system  is  about  four  times  more  advantageous  than 
the  best  reflector  system,  and  at  the  same  time,  at  an 
expense,  for  oil  alone,  of  only  one  fourth  as  much  as 
the  reflector  system.  8.  That  the  lea)  system  of  light- 
bouse  illumination  is  as  well  adapted  to  the  coasts  of 
the  United  States  as  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  mari- 
time world.  4.  That  while  there  Is  no  well-founded 
objection  to  introducing  the  lens  system  of  illumina- 
tion into  this  country,  there  is  every  reason  for  doing 
so  as  rapidly  as  possible.  6.  That  the  floating  lights  of 
this  country  are  comparatively  useless  to  the  mariner, 
in  consequence  of  the  very  Inferior  apparatus  em- 
ployed in  them.  6.  That  the  reflector  lights  of  the 
United  States  are  greatly  inferior,  in  usefulness,  power, 
and  range,  to  the  same  description  of  lights  in  foreign 
countries  generally,  but  especially  to  thosu  of  Great 
Britain." 

"  The  object  of  these  notes  is  to  point  out  certain  im- 
provements in  the  use  of  existing  light-houses,  by 
which  it  shall  become  almost  impossible — let.  To  mis- 
take any  casual  light,  on  shore  or  at  sea,  for  a  light- 
house ;  2d,  Ever  to  mistake  one  light-house  for  another. 
The  plan  requires,  in  most  instances,  no  change  in  the 
optical  means  at  present  used  for  condensing  and  di- 
recting the  illumination  of  light-houses  ;  it  adds  slight- 
ly to  the  facility  of  observing  them  at  great  distances, 
and  from  its  simplicity  and  generality  is  equally 
adapted  to  the  use  of  all  countries.  Rovolving-lights 
must  became  fixed;  but  the  mechanism  already  ex- 
isting for  their  rotation  may,  with  little  alteration,  be 
employed  for  the  motions  required  by  the  new  system. 
The  principle  by  which  these  objects  are  to  be  accom- 
plished, is  to  make  each  light-house  repeat  its  own 
number  continually  during  the  whole  time  it  is  lighted. 
This  is  accomplished  by  inclosing  the  upper  part  of  the 
gloss  cylinder  of  the  Argand  burner  by  a  thin  tube  of 
tin  or  brass,  which,  when  made  to  descend  slowly  be- 
fore the  flame,  and  then  allowed  suddenly  to  start 
bi.  k,  wui  cause  an  occiiltation  and  re-app'arauce  of 
IK  light. 

Congress  having  auth'  irized  lights  to  be  erected 
on  a  low  of  tbo  most  prominent  and  important  points 
to  aid  the  rapidly  increasing  commerce  along  tbut 
coast,  which  it  is  presumed  will  be  fitted  with  appro- 
priate lens  appo'.atus,  in  conformity  to  the  7th  station 
of  the  act  jf  1861,  the  Board  have  only  added  the 
■ames  of  the  remaining  most  prominent  points  of  that 
to  thii  Uit,  leaving  the  more  detailed  wants  of 


this  branch  of  the  public  service  to  be  d«riU>lt«4  l)}r 
the  operations  of  the  coast-survey,  now  In  rapii!  [iron- 
ress  for  external  or  sea-coast,  and  uf  iiopulatioii  and 
interior  communication  for  local  lights, 

"  Pdit  Mamm  /Jght-houK.--'rM»  la  a  fixed  llgllt, 
&3  feet  alKJve  the  level  of  the  sea,  situated  un  the  Miiith 
end  of  Petit  Manan  Island,  Muiiu,  lut,  H"  Ti'  north, 
long.  «7°  52'  west.  This  liglit  Is  lilted  wltli  12  l«lil|i» 
and  16-inch  reflectors,  to  illuminate  the  wliola  borl/,iiii, 
If  the  oppiirutus  belonged  to  tb*  first  class,  iustuad  of, 
as  it  d'«9,  to  about  the  fourth,  the  greateht  dUtunce  nt 
which  it  could  be  seen,  under  the  most  favumbU  ulr- 
cumstauces  of  weather,  would  be,  from  a  vessal's  ittmk 
15  feet  from  the  sea-level,  about  lU  miles.  If  we  titka 
into  consideration  the  small  size  of  the  reflector',  ttlld 
the  small  number  of  lamps  fur  so  large  su  arc  wf  tb* 
horizon,  it  is  fair  to  presume  this  light  is  sulduiii  mun 
over  10  miles.  Distant  from  thU  light  to  the  eastward 
are  Seal  Islands,  84  miles  (two  llxed  lights),  and  (Ian. 
net  Kock  (flashing  light),  16  miles  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  belonging  to  tliu  Ilritiah  g<iv«<riim«ril, 
This  light,  with  a  proper  elevation,  and  u  leus  »ppara> 
tus,  would  servo  to  guide  vessels  bound  to  any  uf  tlui 
ports  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  from  Frenchman's  Hay  to 
Passamaquoddy  Bay,  having  the  seo-coost  lights  uf 
Seal  Island  and  Uannet  Uock  tu  the  eastward,  hiuI 
Mount  Desert  Rock,  distant  27  miles  to  the  southward 
and  westward.    [Now  become  a  flashing  light  (IH5i)),J 

"  Mount  Oeterf  Ruck  Liyht-houK,—  \!\\\»  light  l»  oil 
the  keeper's  dwelling,  with  an  elevation  of  60|  f»«t 
above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  it  is  fitted  wilb  12  l«iii|iii 
and  21-inch  reflectors,  to  illuminate  the  whole  hurlzini, 
Lat.  43°  68'  6"  north,  long.  68°  w'  we»t|  It  I*  sit- 
uated about  20  miles  S.8.E.  of  Mount  Desert  Island  ( 
is  27  miles  distant  from  Petit  Menan  light  and  i):i  iiiUb* 
from  Matinicus  light  (two  fixed  lights).  'I'hU  light, 
with  the  best  illuminating  apparatus,  cuuhl  not  Iw  s««ii, 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  of  wuathur,  a( 
a  greater  distance  than  14  miles.  The  small  nuiiilier 
of  lamps  for  so  great  on  arc,  renders  it  llttlu  Ixittsr 
than  a  fourth  order  light,  while  its  elevation  cull  only 
give  it  the  range  of  a  light  of  that  class, 

"  A  much  greater  elevation  is  required  for  this  light, 
with  the  most  powerful  lens  apparatus  that  can  lie  i>in\- 
structod.  Vessels  bound  from  the  eastward  Into  any 
port  from  the  ncighlmrhood  of  Mount  Desert  U)  Pe- 
nobscot Bay,  would  run  for  it ;  having  iiioilii  It  as  a 
first-lass  light,  it  would  guide  them  into  the  rang«s  uf 
the  different  hnrbor-liglits  along  tbo  coutt.  Vtmn  \Uk 
isolated  position  at  the  distance  of  14  to  IN  miles  from 
the  nearest  land,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  |iulntl 
on  the  eastern  coast  for  a  flrst-chiss  light, 

"  Martinicua  Rock  lAi/hl-ltoute. — These  lights  (two 
fixed),  are  situated  on  the  rock  south  of  Martlnlcus 
Island,  at  the  mouth  of  Penobscot  lUy,  They  are 
placed  40  feet  apart,  N.N.W.  and  8.S.K.  on  tlie  ke«p' 
er's  dwelling.  Each  light  has  14  lumps  anil  21'lni.'li 
reflectors,  at  an  elevation  of  82J  feet  above  the  lovol 
of  the  sou;  33  miles  from  Mount  Desert  Itock  himI JiO 
miles  from  Seguin's  Island  light,  lat.  43°  46'  'M"  north, 
long.  68°  49'  west. 

"Seguin  Island  Light.— Th\»  is  a  fixwl  liglit,  166 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  seu,  fitted  with  16  lamps 
and  21-inch  reflectors.  This  light  is  deficient  In  IlluniU 
nating  apparatus  ;  with  24  lamps  and  21-Inch  pitraltoliu 
reflectors  of  ^be  proper  shape  and  finish,  It  could,  uiv 
der  favorable  circumstances  of  weather,  be  seen  IH  to 
19  miles.  It  is  30  miles  from  Martinicus  Kock  light,  'Ifl 
miles  from  Boone  Island  light,  and  21  iniles  from  Moii> 
began  and  Cape  Elizabeth  lights.  Ut,  53°  U'  UH" 
north,  long.  69°  44'  west. 

"  lloone  Island  Light. — This  light  Is  situated  on  tha 
west  part  of  the  small  low  islaml  iMariiig  its  imine,  oft 
York  River,  Maine.  It  is  fitted  with  12  lain|H)  and  U* 
iii.'h  reflectors  (fixed),  with  an  elevation  of  70  (nt 
above  the  level  of  the  Ma,  in  Ut.  48°  08'  Honb,  Umf^ 
70°  29' west. 


£10 


1240 


'SIQ 


"  TKhtehh-'i  Ithnd  /.i^A/*.— Theac  two  fl»id  light* 
•ra  nttuatcd  about  two  Riiles  off  Cap*  Ann,  (1tt«d  with 
11  lamps  and  ',<l-inch  reflertnn,  each  wUh  an  elevation 
of  90  feet ;  greateiit  tnugn,  IH  milea.  C.apa  Ann  forms 
the  northern  limit  of  Maanachusctta  Itay,  Distant 
from  Boone  Island  light  80  miles,  lioaton  light  34 
mlbs,  and  from  Tmro,  Cape  Cod,  48  miles.  I.at.  42° 
88'  21"  north,  long.  70°  !H'  48"  west.  This  is  a  very 
important  light-station,  and  the  lights  require  to  bs 
increased  in  power  and  range. 

"  Truro,  Cape  Cnd,  Light. — Tills  Is  an  important 
sea-coast  light,  situated  on  the  highlands  ontsiile.of 
Cape  (Jod.  It  Is  48  milea  flroni  Thatcher's  Island 
lights,  46  miles  fkvm  Sanknty  Head  light,  and  41  miles 
from  Boston  light.  It  Is  fitted  with  IS  lamps  and  21- 
inch  reflectors  (Used),  with  an  elevation  of  180  feet, 
giving  It  a  range,  in  good  waatbor,  if  the  apparatus  Is 
of  the  first  older,  of  30  to  21  miles.  A  first  order  lens 
Is  required  for  this  tower.  Ijit.  42°  02'  23"  north, 
long.  70°  03'  65"  weet. 

"iSunkalf  Ileml  Light. — This  is  a  second  order  Krea- 
npl  Haahing  lens  light.  It  is  placed  on  the  miuth-east 
extremit}'  of  the  island  of  Nantncliet,  with  an  elevation 
of  about  160  feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea,  which 
gi^'es  it  a  range  of  about  19  miles  in  ordinary  states  of 
the  \t-eather.  It  has  Iwon  seen  at  a  muoli  greater  dla- 
tnncr,  and  ia  considered  equal  to  the  Highlanda  ot' 
Mave^ink  ll,|hts  (first  and  second  order  lenses). 

"  In  conaiderntion  of  tlie  dangerous  navigation  around 
the  reefs  and  shoala  off  tlio  i.iland  of  Xnntnckct,  it 
would  have  been  advisable  to  have  placed  a  flmt  order 
Ions  in  this  tower ;  but  the  superiority  of  this  light  to 
tliiiw  in  its  vicinity,  renders  it  of  duul)tful  propriety  to 
propose  any  change  in  it. 

"  Oaij  Head  Light. — This  light  is  placed  on  the  west 
point  cf  J'lrtha'a  Vineyard.  It  is  a  revolving  light 
fitted  with  10  lamps  and  14-Inch  reflectors,  having  an 
elevation  of  172  feet  above  the  level  of  the  seo.  This 
ll(,'ht  ia  deficient  in  power,  and  not  arranged  to  sut>- 
acrve  the  wants  of  the  navigator.  At  the  distance  of 
aliout  12  milea  it  is  obscured  about  three  fourths  of  the 
time.  Its  present  elevation,  witli  first  order  nppor.itus, 
would  give  It  a  range  of  19  to  20  miles.  I,at.  41°  20' 
64"  north,  long.  70°  50'  26"  west.  Distant  from 
Sunknty  Head  ?')  milea,  Montauk  Point  8«  milea,  and 
Point  Judith  light  80  miles.  This  licht  is  not  second 
to  any  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  ahoul'i  )•'  fitted,  wltli- 
out  delay,  with  a  first  order  illuminating  apparatus. 
A  glance  at  the  chart  will  suffice,  to  seo  its  great  im- 
portance. 

"htonta»k  Point.  Light-house. —IM.  41°  04'  10" 
north,  long.  71°  51'  68'  west.  This  is  a  very  import- 
ant light,  especially  for  navigators  liound  from  Europe 
to  New  York.  It  is  fitted  now  with  only  15  lamps 
and  21-inch  reflectors  for  a  fixed  light.  Its  reported 
elevation  is  1 60  feet  atiove  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
with  a  first  order  npparatua  would  lie  seen  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  almnt  20  nautical  milea.  Distant 
from  Gay  Head  47  miles ;  from  Fire  Island  Inlet  light 
fiS  milea.  fly  erecting  a  light  in  the  vicinity  of  Oreat 
West  Buy,  Long  laiand,  midway  between  Montauk 
Point  and  Fire  Island  lights,  the  trade  l)ctween  New 
York  and  all  port,  to  the  eastward,  including  the 
whole  of  Europe,  would  le  greatly  benefited. 

"  Lighti  near  f/renl  H'eit  Bag,  Utng  Itland,  Ntxo 
York. — It  ia  proposed  to  erect  a  first-class  light  on 
Long  Island,  midway  lictween  Montauk  Point  and 
Fire  Island  Inlet,  distant  S3  miles,  to  faillitate  navi- 
gators going  to  snd  coming  '  tlie  eastward.  Tho 
letters  of  packet  and  other  8hi[,;aa8ter-  "  Appendix  B, 
will  show  conclusively  the  neoessl!;  '  '(rhtinthia 
vicinity. 

"  Fire.  Itland  Lnlet  Lighl-hnHtf,  !  n-  '  /,  ffexo 
York. — This  is  a  moat  important  H,./:  ,,   .  igators 

trading  to  New  York.  It  may  to  a  .>  mark  the 
eastern  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  New  York.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  th«  south  side  of  Long  Island,  N«w  York,  east 


aide  of  nr«  Tsload  Tnlet,  lat.  40°  tlY  46"  N.,  and  TS" 
18'  88"  W.  long.  ;  disUnt  37  mllsa  fW>m  tlit  High, 
lands  of  Navesink,  which  mark  the  western  entrance 
to  the  Bay  of  New  York.  This  tower  has  an  eleva- 
tiou  of  only  80  feet  8  inches,  and  lias  only  14  Umps, 
and  21-inch  reflectors  for  n  revolving  light.  The 
range  of  this  light,  with  ita  present  eleration  and  tho 
best  apparatus  that  could  be  procured,  would  not  ex- 
ceed 14^  nautical  miles  in  ordinary  weather.  It  is, 
therefore,  clearly  necessary  to  increase  its  height,  and 
place  in  the  tower  the  most  powerful  lens  apparatus 
that  can  be  procured. 

"  Highlanda  ofXait$ink  IJghli,  Ntu>  Jertey. — There 
are  two  towers  and  lights  at  this  station  ;  a  first  order 
fixed,  and  a  second  order  revolving  lens  apparatua. 
The  great  importance  of  the  lights  on  this  point  ren- 
ders it  highly  necessary,  in  carrying  out  the  proposed 
plan  of  Improving  and  increasing  tha  number  of  sea- 
roast  lights,  that  the  second  order  apparatus  should  be 
changed  for  a  first  order  one.  These  lights  are  now 
the  beat  iiu  the  coast,  but  are  not,  when  comljined, 
equal  to  liotter  than  a  second  order  lens  light.  With 
tlie  present  elevations  of  these  lights  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  the  aubatitution  of  a  iirat  order  lens 
for  the  second  order  apparatua,  navigators  would  be 
w  r-anted  in  running  boldly  for  them,  and  with  the 
certainty  of  seeing  them,  under  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces, at  the  distance  of  22  nautical  miles. 

"  Bamegat  Light-houte. — This  is  a  light  in  point  of 
importance  equal  to  that  of  Fire  Island  Inlet.  It  is 
situated  37  milea  from  the  Highland  lights,  on  I.ong 
Beach  New  Jersey,  on  the  south  side  of  Bamegat  In- 
let. At  present  it  is  fitted  as  a  fixed  light,  with  11 
lamps  and  1  (-inch  reflectors,  equal  In  power  to  almut 
a  fifth  order  lens  light.  The  numerous  wrecks,  involv- 
ing the  great  loss  of  life  and  property,  attest  tho  truth 
of  tho  necessity  for  making  this  a  first  class  sca-coiist 
light.  The  tower  is  40  feet  high,  placed  on  a  low 
l)each,  giving  it  a  range  of  probably  \\\  nautical  miles. 
The  improvement  of  the  Montauk,  Fire  Island,  and 
Banieg,it  lights,  and  the  erection  of  a  first  class  light 
near  Great  West  Bay,  Long  Island,  would  render  the 
approaches  to  New  York  Bay  much  safer  than  they 
are  at  present,  and  would  save  to  our  government  and 
to  our  citizens  many  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty, and  prevent  the  untimely  loss  of  many  valuable 
lives. 

"  Ahtecum  Beach,  ffew  Jertey. — A  sea-coaat  light  is 
abaolntely  necessary  in  this  vicinity  to  guide  vessels, 
Imund  north,  clear  of  the  Abaecum  and  Brigan^ino 
shoals.  The  coast  here  is  verj'  low,  and  difficult  to 
distinguish,  and  the  light  on  Tucker's  Beach,  near 
Little  Egg  Harbor,  although  fitted  with  15  lamps  and 
15-inch  reflectors,  ahowing  a  fixed  red  light,  from  its 
little  elevation  (R!)}  feet)  is  not  seen  further  tiiun  five 
to  eight  milea ;  in  addition  to  which  the  woods  on  the 
Absecum  Ijeach  to  tho  southward  hide  it  from  the  mar- 
iner going  north.  A  light  should  be  placed  somcHlicre 
in  this  vicinity,  west  of  the  inlet,  and  as  nearly  mid- 
way between  Bamegat  and  Cape  May  light  ua  pos- 
allde.  An  examination  of  this  coast  by  competent 
professional  persons  can  alone  decide  the  best  site  for  a 
sea-coast  light, 

"  Cape  Mag  Light-houte,  ."'-ir  .Tr-  vy. — The  position 
of  this  light  on  the  east  aide  of  I  'f  la  ware  Bay,  and  its 
contiguity  to  the  dangerous  bank  known  to  navigators 
as  the  Five-fathora  Bank,  renders  it  of  great  import- 
ance that  it  should  be  of  the  first  orde»  'his  iao  re- 
volving liglit,  88  feet  above  the  lev  '  '  1  la,  fitted 
with  15  lamps  and  16-lnch  refiectoi  .    tight  has 

been  shown  to  be  inferior  to  the  (i.ii,.  .  ;■.  X"."-  'ight 
on  B  -6  Shoal,  In  the  proporf  i  of  thr  c  to 
one.  tj  •■>  nt  range,  under  the  most  favorab'.e  cir- 
cumstances ot  weather,  is  not  greater  than  14  J  nimtical 
milea,  and,  with  the  present  apparatus,  it  is  doulitful 
If  it  can  be  seen  so  far  by  several  miU>s.  Make  Cape 
May  and  Henlopen  Ught*  ">'  :     -der  lights,  with 


Lia 


Uil 


LIG 


•The  position 
5  Bay,  and  its 
to  navigtttor» 
great  import- 
■"lii»  is  ft  rc- 
,>a,  fitted 
ill,    light  has 
:..!  W'^  'igh' 
,  of  thr "  to 
fftvorablp  cir- 
in  14i  nimtical 
it  is  doiiiitfal 
Make  Cape 
lights,  with 


proper  elevationa,  and  navlgaton  wHI  be  able  to 
plare  their  veawU  In  positions  for  receiving  pilots 
without  the  risk  of  shipwreck  on  the  dangerous  Five- 
fathom  Dank,  distant  10  m'lea  from  Cape  May,  and  20 
miles  fVom  Cape  Henlopen.  With  bearings  from  these 
two  lights.  Keen  at  tlifl  distance  of  20  to  2S  miles, 
the  navigator  could  always  shape  his  course  by  tlii) 
most  direct  line  Into  the  hay,  ot  for  the  breakwater. 
The  light  vessel  authorized  by  law  to  be  placed  on  the 
Five-fathom  Hank  is  so  often  out  of  position  that  it  is 
the  more  Important  that  these  improvement*  should 
be  made. 

"  Cape  Urnlnpen  /.igii-kouiie. —TM»  Is  one  of  the 
best  reflector  (Ixed  lights  on  the  coast,  although  in- 
ferior to  tlia  third  order  lens  on  Brandywine  Shoal  in 
the  proportion  of  one  to  six.  This  light  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  180  feet,  and  only  reqaires  a  first  order  lens 
apparatus  to  make  It  equal  to  tho  requirements  of  com- 
merce and  navigation.  The  large  amount  of  trade 
from  Philadelphia  warrants  the  proposed  expenditure, 
and  humanity  would  seem  to  dictate  it  as  consistent 
with  true  policy  and  philanthropy. 

"Attattague  Ught-houar,  i-Vrymm,— This  light  is  situ- 
ated on  Assateague  Island,  between  Capes  Henlopen 
and  Charles,  in  lot.  87"  54^  86"  N.,  and  long.  76°  21' 
45"  W. ;  a  fixed  light,  fitted  with  only  11  lamps  und 
14-lnch  reflectors.  The  shoaU  of  this  low  and  danger- 
ous coast  render  the  improvement  of  this  ll)?ht  one  of 
paramount  importance.  By  elevating  this  tower  to 
150  feet,  and  placing  in  It  a  first  order  lens  apparatus, 
there  will  be  no  great  necessity  for  any  other  sea- 
coast  light  until  we  reach  Cape  Charles  (Smith's  Isl- 
and). The  very  dangerous  shoals  extending  along 
this  entire  coast,  at  a  considerable  dlst.,,ico  from  the 
low  coast,  at  distances  ranging  from  live  to  twelve 
miles,  as  shown  fWim  the  recent  su.veys  by  the  const 
survey,  make  it  the  duty  p»  tho  government  to  ca'  ^e 
this  light  to  be  increased  in  jiower  and  range  to  'e 
rank  of  a  first     i  ■  ■  sea-coast  light,  withont  delay. 

"  Smith't  I  ,i,d  Light-house,  Cape  Churtea.—Thh 
light  Is  placed  on  the  north-east  of  Cape  Charles,  and 
at  the  north  entrance  of  Chesapeal's  C.py.  Tliis  vcr)- 
important  li^ht  has  at  present  onlj  10  lamps  and  21- 
inch  reflectors.  Tlio  dangers  at  tlie  entrance  to  Ches- 
apeake Bay  render  It  extremely  important  that  t.iis 
light  should  be  increased  to  a  first  order  one.  The 
tower  h''(>  a,,  elevation  of  only  55  feet,  placed  on  a 
very  low  enaat,  giving  tho  light,  if  in  other  respects 
good,  a  range  of  not  more  than  12  nautical  miles, 
which  It  can  seldom  reacli  iu  consequence  of  the  vciy 
inferior  illuminating  apparatus.  This  is  one  of  the 
lights  requiring  the  earliest  attention  of  the  light-house 
department. 

"  Cape  Henry  I.Uj" i-iiome,  Virginia.— IhU  is  one  of 
the  best  reflector  lights  on  the  coast.  It  is  situated  on 
the  south  side  of  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake  Bav,  has 
an  elevation  of  120  feet,  and  is  fitted  with  18  !»  r' 
and2Unch  refiectors.  It  being  a  promlnen'.  le.i.ln.', 
mark  for  vessels  bound  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  li,\.,  .- 
ton  Roods,  and  their  numerous  tril)utarle8,  everj- .  rgu- 
ment  would  seem  to  be  in  favor  of  its  speedy  improve- 
ment, to  render  it  equal  to  the  best  first  class  lights  of 
other  maritime  nations. 

"  Light-house  halfway  between  Cape  Uenry  and  Body's 
Island  Light. — The  large  number  of  shipwrecks  and  the 
vast  amount  of  life  and  property  lost  annually  on  this 
coast  should  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  erecting  and 
maintaining  a  first  class  sea-coast  light  on  some  eligi- 
ble site  In  this  vicinity.  The  Body's  Island  Light  is 
badly  located,  and  insuffifi<  nt  in  power  and  range  to 
subserve  fully  the  requirements  of  commerce  and  nav- 
igation. Vessels  bound  south  from  the  eastward  run 
to  make  l!iis  coast,  with  thj  view  to  avoid  tho  oppos- 
m^'  cunints  of  the  Gulf  Scream,  and,  at  the  same 
tl-iie,  to  avail  of  the  fi  ciable  currents  within  the 
'imlM  cf  the  cold  w«U  iMunding  the  Gulf  Stream.  The 
rend  of  the  tuasts  on  either  side  of  tho  Chesapeake 


Bay  Tendon  navigation  more  dangerons  than  It  wonlrt 
otherwise  be ;  and  therefore  it  becoriinii  the  more  Im- 
(Mirtant  to  light  well  the  entire  coait  ftum  Cape  llat- 
terns  to  Cape  Henlopen, 

"  Ilody't  lilaml  Light-house,  Norik  Co»v,<hm.— This 
light  has  already  been  referred  to.  It  la  of  great  im- 
portance,  especially  to  the  coasting  trade,  and  would 
be  of  much  more  if  it  were  increased  to  a  first  class 
light.  It  Is  now  fitted  with  14  lamps  and  21-liuh  re- 
flectors, roviilving,  with  an  elevation  of  66J  feet,  giv- 
ing It  A  :.  igeof  about  12  nautical  miles.  This,  In 
addition  to  the  proposed  sea-coa«t  light  between  it  and 
Cape  Henrj',  would.  If  properly  fitted,  save  the  life  of 
many  a  gallant  seaman,  and  miUlona  of  dollars'  worth 
of  property  to  the  country.  ^ 

"  Cape  J/atltras  Lighthouse,  North  Carolina.— Then 
is  perhaps  no  light  on  tho  entire  coast  of  the  United 
States  of  greater  value  to  the  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion of  the  country  than  this.  That  it  U  not  such  a 
light  as  any  sea-coast  light  should  be  is  too  apparent 
to  require  much  argument  j  while  Its  special  reipiire- 
ment,  having  reference  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  cur- 
rents and  counter-currents  which  sweep  past  it,  and 
the  very  dangerous  shoals,  extending  to  the  distimcn 
of  10  nautical  miles  from  the  light,  ail  tend  to  miiko 
It  one  of  no  ordinary  importance.  Vessels  pro|>cllcd 
both  by  wind  and  steam  run  for  soundings  oft'  this 
cape ;  and  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  navigators 
wishing  to  make  quick  passages,  that  they  should  siio 
this  light  in  going  south.  At  present  it  is  of  very  lit- 
tle use,  in  consequence  of  its  limited  range.  Navi- 
gators do  not,  as  a  general  rule,  rely  upon  it  sufllciently 
to  warrant  them  in  running  for  it.  It  is  fitted  with  15 
lamps  and  21-inch  reflectors,  having  an  elevation  of 
about  9^  ft  et,  which  would  give  it  a  range,  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  of  14^  nautical  miles,  provided 
the  appa.atus  for  illuminating  was  ol'  the  best  descrip- 
tion. There  is  no  single  light  on  the  const  believed  to 
require  renovation  more  than  this  does.  An  clevatinn 
■f  160  (•-•■%,  and  a  first  class  illuminating  apparatus,  are 
111.,  ■  ^s;  demanded,  and  without  any  nnnecesH.iri' 
Jelh'  . 

'  .'ip,  I  miout  Light-house,  Nm^h  Carolina. — This  is 
at  present  a  fixed  light,  fitted  with  13  lamr-s  and  21- 
inch  refiectors,  and  elevated  95  feet  above  tho  level  of 
the  sea.  In  consideration  of  the  manner  in  which 
navigators  have  to  follow  liiii  low  const,  this  light  be- 
comes, necessaril)',  one  of  the  important  sea-coast 
lights,  and  rtijuires  to  l)e  elevated  and  Improved  to 
that  extent.  The  shoals  of  this  cape  ar"  "f  such  a 
character  ns  to  render  it  a  very  important  light. 

"  .Veto  Hirer  Inlet,  S'orth  Carolina. — The  great  dis- 
tance from  Cape  Lookout  to  Capo  Fear,  and  the  dan- 
gerous shoals  extcniiiii^  lo  such  a  great  distance  from 
them,  without  any  prominent  mark  intervening  to 
guide  navigators,  render  it  necussar}',  in  making  up  a 
i,»Tierai  plan  for  lighting  tlie  entire  sea-eoast,  to  lu- 
ll a  lirst  class  light,  to  be  placed  somewhere  in  the 
;^inity  of  New  Kiver  Inlet.  The  coast  between 
Capes  Ilatteras  and  Fear  forms  a  curve,  but  not  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  render  a  light  near  this  point  un- 
necessary. Although  the  necessity  for  this  proposed 
light  maj'  not  be  considered  as  prossing,  yet  in  a  well- 
devised  scheme  it  can  not  be  entirely  omitted. 

"  Bald  Head,  Cape  Fear,  North  Caivlina. — This 
light  in  its  present  position  and  with  its  present  appa- 
ratus, etc.,  is  comparatively  useless.  The  iipparatus, 
15  lamps  and  21-inch  refiectors,  is  inadequate  to  the 
requirements  of  the  service  of  an  ordinary  sea-const 
light,  while  this  is  one  of  the  8i)ccial  cases  requiring 
e\.-aordinary  means  to  in-  -re  anj'  amount  of  good. 
The  t.)wer  is  nearly  4  miles  from  the  pitch  of  tiio  Ciipo, 
and  20  nautical  miles  from  10  fathoms  water,  in  a  di- 
rect line  on  the  end  of  the  '  Frying  Fan  shoals,'  which 
extend  continuously  from  the  pitch  of  the  cape.  The 
assumed  elevation  of  the  light  is  110  feet,  which,  with 
good  illnminating  apparatus,  would  give  a  range,  un- 


1        'Pn- 


UQ 


1248 


ua 


itt  tba  mott  fkronlile  rlrcumiUnc**,  of  17  to  17) 

nnutloal  mllei.      ()«nful  olmrvatlon  liai,  however, 

•hown  thnt  It  In  very  Mldom  teen  li  milni  |  iinil  then 

>iily  rpumulilinK  a  Ktur  of  tho  lifth  or  ilxth  iiiHKxituil*. 

'Ibln  IlKht  !•  conaiilen  (1  \>y  tho  |illot«  as  of  very  littlv, 

it  Indexil  i<r  liny  u>«  at  all,  for  the  local  piiriKwai  uf 

tba  harlior ;  while  it  \»  perfevtly  clear  that  It  Ih  of  n» 

value  to  the  navigator  In  giiUIInK  him  around  anJ 

<.  clear  of  theae  *hoal«,  which,  ii<  the  opinion  of  navlifii 

ton,  are  only  exceeded  In  Importance  hy  thodo  utt 

Nantucket.     Thia  llftht  nhould  either  lie  reiluotd  to  a 

mere  harlwr  liKht,  <ir  rnniuved  to  the  pitih  of  tho  cape, 

'  and  )('v*n  an  elevation  Hufflcient  to  Inauro  a  flrat  order 

light  iMing  Keen,  under  ordinary  clrcumntanceii,  out- 

/*'  •ldiy>ftli'     I      '        '''hU  li^ht  oi  u  limt-cloiif  Bea-coaHt 

1>K 't,    oti  •  iiDt-uo^f  light-       «el  plmcd  on  the  nlinjilH, 

would  tend  greatly  toward  lucraaalu)!  tho  lafuty  of 

/  navigation. 

"t'npt   Homain,   Hiiulh    Carolina, — The    dangeroua 
•boala  off  this  point  render  this  an  iuiportunt  light  tii 
navigators  Iwund  to  ChurlFstou,  and  a*  fur  soulli  oh 
Ht.  Augustine,     To  save  the  current,  nnd  to  keep  out 
"  of  the  influence  of  the  current  of  tho  Gulf  Stream, 

navlgatum  run  for  soundings  olT  the  Ca|io  Koniiiin 
shoals.  A  llrst-class  light  would  tend  greatly  to  less- 
en tho  hazards  of  this  navigntiun.  The  present  light, 
lilted  with  only  11  lamps  and  'il-inch  rellectors,  at  iin 
elevation  of  only  H7  feet,  can  not  |je  seen  with  iiny  de- 
gree of  certainty  at  a  greater  distance,  under  tlie  must 
favorable  circumstances,  tluin  aliout  14  nautical  miles, 
which  Is  by  no  moans  far  enungli  tu  enable  nnvigators 
to  run  their  vessels  with  that  tioldne.ss  which  Is  essen- 
tial to  success.  This  light,  in  iHiiiit  uf  |)<)wer,  brillian- 
cy ai.d  range,  is  not  superior  to  a  fnurth  order  lens. 

"  CkarUslon  IJykt-hoiiiie,  i^oulh  t'ltrolina. — This  Im- 
portant light  is  titted  with  only  12  lumps  ii,      1-inch 
■  relliictors ;  revolving,  with  an  elevation  of  .ti.jut  126 

*  foot.     Its  greatest  range  ab)ut  lU  miles.     Tho  neces- 

sity fur  a  tirst  unler  lens  apparatus  for  this  light  is  too 
apparent  to  roi|uire  more  thun  a  liure  reference  to  the 
chart.  This  light  shouhl  be  changed  to  a  lixed  light, 
and  the  lights  un  cither  side  of  it  cliimgcd  in  their 
cliaruoteristlc  distinctions,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  used 
OS  a  range  with  the  beacon-light  for  croxsing  the  bar. 
Revolving  lights  are  not  adapted  to  this  pur|)08u,  es- 
pecially wuere  channels  are  narrow  and  the  eclipsos  of 
long  duration. 

"  1/ Hilling  Jtlaud,  Georgia. — This  point  is  one  of  the 
positions  selected  for  new  lights  in  carrying  rut  the 
gen<  r  il  programme.  Distant  33  miles  from  Clmrlus- 
tun,  .Suuth  Carolina,  ind  about  niidway  between  the 
Charleston  and  Tybee  lights. 

"  Tgbee  IJghl. — This  is  an  important  light  both  In  n. 
general  and  local  puint  of  ■  iew.  For  the  over-sea 
voyacier  along  the  coast,  it  is  nf  equal  importance  to 
tho.  J  generally  un  the  cost  (f>r  lucal  purposes,  as  the 
guid«  to  the  entrance  to  S.ivannah  Kiver.  This  light 
ut  present  is  littod  with  lb  lamps  ard  IC-ini  'i  rctlcct- 
on,  and  h.is  an  elevation  of  100  feet.  This  light,  in 
const!  erat ion  uf  the  sameness  in  tho  app  nranco  of  the 
coast,  should  ■>«  well  distinguished  nnd  improved  to 
the  oxtciit  of  making  it  a  first  order  light. 

"  Su  lo  Iiland  I.ight-hotue. —tUli  light  is  10  miles 
from  'I  ee  light,  and  comes  into  the  list  embracing 
the  geri'  ul  programme.  As  a  sea-coust  light,  its  im- 
portance will  appear  clearly  liy  referring  to  the  chart, 
and  in  a  local  puint  nf  view  it  is  tho  mark  to  guide 
vessels  into  the  Important  inland-waters  constituting 
Doboy  Sound.  This  Is  at  present  a  light  fitted  with 
15  louip-  and  LVinch  reflectors,  elevated  71  feet  abuve 
the  level  of  the  sea,  und  is  revolving.  Its  greatest 
range  now,  will  not  exceed  i:i|  nautical  miles.  As  a 
sea-coast  light,  it  should  be  seen  clearly  and  distinctly 
,  at  the  distance  of  20  nautical  miles. 

;  "  Amtl,n  Iiland  Light-house,  Florida. — ^ThU  light, 

ji.  41  miles  from  Sapelo  light-house,  Is  another  of  the 

proposed  SM-coost  lights.    It  Is  at  present  fitted  with 


\i  lampa  and  15-inch  reflectors  j  a  revolving  tight, 
having  an  elevation  uf  alwut  110  fi'vt,  and  a  cunsoqutMil 
range  for  the  best  d«stTi(>tiim  of  upparutus,  of  111  nuu- 
ticnl  iiiIIm.  The  tower  requires  tu  b«  elevated,  uml 
in  other  respecl.-.  improved,  to  the  extent  of  nuikiiig  it 
a  flrst-class  sea-coast  light. 

"HI.  Auguiline  I.ighl-houae. — This  light,  being  60 
miles  flora  llie  Amelia  Island  light.  Is  Included  In  the 
list  of  sou-roast  lights.  The  present  light  is  one  uf  u 
merely  local  cli.iracter,  lieliig  litted  with  only  lU  luiu|is 
and  small  reflectors. 

"  Miimiuilii  liar. — .V  light  is  pi'upiiieil  to  be  [iliii  imI 
in  this  vicinity.  Although  its  iiiiiiiediate  necessity  U 
not  apparent,  yet  In  time  it  will  Ijecome  necessury  to 
erect  a  sea-i'uust  light  hnlf-way  between  .St.  Augustine 
and  Ciipc  Canaveral.  This  point  is  M)  miie»  fruui  ^i. 
Angusline,  and  13  miles  from  Cap«<  Canuvarui. 

"Cape  Canaveral. — This  Is  one  uf  the  prominent 
IHiints  on  tho  coast,  requiring  the  most  |>owvrful  h^h- 
cuust  lights  tn  facilitate  nuvigutinii.  Duiigoreus 
shunis  extend  i'  t  cuiiHiderulile  distancu  off  tills  cape, 
rendering  it  still  mure  Important  that  a  flrst  ordc^r 
light  should  lie  substituted  fur  the  present  very  iiiefli- 
clent  one.  The  present  apparatus  consists  of  1&  luiii|is 
und  21-Inch  rellectors,  revolving,  in  a  tower  nf  only 
!>!>  feet  elevation.  The  present  runge  uf  this  light 
dues  not  exceed  12  nautical  miles,  and  should  bo  In- 
creased to  not  less  thun  20  nautical  miles. 

"  Cape  Florida.—  letwcen  this  and  Cape  Canuveriil 
it  is  proposed  to  erect  '.i  new  sea-coast  lights  of  tliu 
tirst  order  ;  one  near  Jupiter  Inlet  is  considered  uf  iiii 
mediate  importance;  and  the  other  two  ut  dift'erciit 
periods,  according  tu  circumstunces,  and  as  tho  oxpund- 
itures  for  light-bouse  service  on  utlier  |ioints  may 
warrant.  The  Cape  Florida  light,  nmrkiiig,  us  it  iliie», 
a  prominent  puint  on  u  must  dangerous  cuast,  shoulil 
ncrcssari ' .  be  ut  ;ii  •  most  [lowerful  illuuiinatiii„'  up- 
purutus.  The  pi  '  -iit  apparatus  is  cunifioseil  uf  17 
lumps  and  21-inc  Sectors,  with  un  •  I -vutiouuf  70 
feet  ttbnve  tho  lev  •'  the  sea,  giving  u  r.inge  uf  nut 
more  tliun  13  nautici. .  miles.  The  currents  and  duii- 
geruus  reefs  along  the  I'lorlda  coast,  r>  udor  it  of  ubs»- 
lute  importance  that  li  ould  be  increased  to  tiie  ruiik 
of  a  flrst-class  seo-coust  i>^lit. 

"  Caryf/orl  Rtef  and  ijana  Keg  Liijhls. — These  two 
import'int  lights  are  i.  x  in  course  of  lunstruction  by 
the  officers  uf  the  Tu|r  );raphical  Engin  >:rs,  to  bo  fltted 
with  flrst  unler  lens  apjuiratas. 

"  Dry  Hank. — This  p>.<itii)ii  has  beeti  selected  as  an 
Intermediate  point  for  u  flr.-'t-clasa  light  midway  lie- 
twecn  Curysfort  lleef  and  Sand  Key  lights,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  48  miles  from  them.  It  is  believed  to  lie  uf 
the  flrst  importunce  that  tho  entire  Florida  coast  sliuuM 
III!  lighted  with  the  lens  apparatiK  of  tho  greatest 
I'ower,  without  delay. 

"  Dry  Torlugaa. — This  Is  a  verj'  important  light,  es- 
pecially to  those  navigators  bound  to  and  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  fltted  at  present  with  17  lamps 
and  21-lnch  reflectors,  with  an  elevation  of  70  feet, 
giving  a  range  of  about  13  nautical  miles.  This  light 
is  65  miles  from  Sand  Key,  which  makes  it  still  more 
important  that  it  should  be  of  the  flrst  order. 

"  Pensaeola  Lighl-home. — This  light  is  deficient  in 
power,  being  fitted  with  only  10  lumps  and  16-inch 
reflectors.  This  and  tho  light  at  Mubile  Point,  being 
about  40  miles  apart,  are  both  revolving.  As  un  im- 
portant naval  station,  Pensaeola  rc'iuiros  a  first-class 
soa-coa9t  light.  The  present  light  is  very  little  better 
than  the  ordinary  local  lights  along  the  coast.  Tho 
distinction  of  this  light  should  be  changed,  as  it  is  lia- 
ble to  be  mistaken  for  tho  one  at  Mobile  Point.  The 
proposed  lights  along  the  Florida  coast,  from  the  Keys 
and  Dry  Tortugas  to  Pensaeola,  etc.,  although  nec- 
essary in  a  general  plan,  are  not  deemed  to  be  of  pres- 
ent great  importance.  With  the  increase  of  trade  and 
population,  the  coast  must  keep  pace  in  its  improve- 
ments in  lighting. 


LIG 


IMf 


LIQ 


"  MMI*  Pitin/.—ThU  li  hctUvMl  to  l>«  tk*  bwl  n. 
iMtnr-llght  on  tb«  cuMt)  bclni;  revolving,  Mid  fltud 
with  HI  Uropa  and  'il4nuh  nflactnrii,  Tha  eUvilion 
of  thia  light  Ixilng  only  Aft  ttiH  im  r*iiK«  U  iiecuwirily 
rottrlctml  vrithin  tlm  v«ry  narrow  limit*  of  only  l!i 
nautlcul  mllrs.  Thin  llxht,  from  it  pn>p«r  sUvatlun, 
could  be  awn  nt  ■  dlataiKa  „f  In  to  '^0  inllai.  Tbli 
townr  ahould  Ixt  alavntnd  to  at  Iniut  I  j  fnt,  to  randar 
tha  light  of  M  muuh  impoitanca  aa  tha  navigation  in- 
taraHta  of  Holiila  demanil,  Thla  light  may  ha  eaaily 
miatakan  for  the  one  at  Panancola,  ami  tbarefuva  tha 
characterlatio  ilintliictlon  of  one  of  them  ahould  lie 
changed.  In  carrying  out  tha  gtinaral  plan,  It  may 
become  a  qucatlon  aa  tii  whetlior  Moliiln  Point  or  Sand 
laUnd  light  nhoiilil  \m  tin  principal  oraea-coaat  light. 

"  Paw  o/  lh»  Mittittippi, — Tbeae  ligbta  ahould  be 
of  tha  Ural  claaa,  with  aui^h  elevationa  aa  will  give 
them  the  rangea  of  at  loaat  20  nautical  milea.  The 
preaent  lightu  are  inefflcient,  and  unnecaaaarily  expen- 
aive,  without  any  commensurate  IwneAta.  Theae 
ligbta  are  of  grvat  importance  to  tha  coinmarce  of  the 
Uulf  of  Mexico,  and  ahould  lie  rendered  the  mimt 
efficient  in  tho  aborteiit  apace  of  time.  The  reniainlog 
light*  along  the  coiiat,  embraced  in  the  programme,  are 
of  minor  iin|iortance,  compared  to  thuae  already  enu- 
merated ;  but  ilcserve  the  attention  uf  thoae  wliu  are, 
or  may  be,  cliargcd  with  the  iight-hiiuoa  aervice. 
Many  of  the  |H>iiit4  along  the  cooat  of  Texiu  require 
lights,  especUlly  at  tho  entrancea  to  the  ports  and 
bays,  nt  un  early  day,  Tlie  prominent  |)olnts  on  the 
I'acilio  coast  ahould  have  lights  without  unnecessary 
delay,  and  no  soa-coast  light  should  be  Utted  except 
with  llrat-claas  apparatus. 

"  lAiht  CiHut.  Chnmphin,  Onlario,  Erie,  Huron, 
Michigan,  Huperior,  and  Iktir  Iribulariei  or  connecting 
link: — Tha  shores  of  theae  inland  seaa  belonging  to 
the  United  States,  are,  ao  far  as  the  number  of  the 
lights  is  concerned,  pretty  well  lighteil.  There  are  a 
few  important  points  which  require  lights  of  greater 
power  and  range  tlian  those  now  existing ;  and  aa  com- 
meice  and  navigation  increase  there,  a  few  additional 
•mall  lights  may  bo  required,  to  the  extent  proliably 
of  6  in  Kfichigan,  1  in  Ontario,  8  in  Huron,  and  »ov- 
eral  in  Superior.  The  most  of  theae  lights  are  mere 
pier-head  beacons.  A  system  arranging  the  lights 
into  classes,  and  giving  to  each  one  a  distinctive  char- 
acteristic, is  necessary.  In  Lake  Huron,  tho  two  im- 
portant lights  of  Thunder  Bay  Island  and  I'oint  aux 
Barques,  distant  about  22  miles,  and  marking  the  en- 
trance to  Saginaw  Bay,  are  both  fixed. 

"  Many  of  these  lake  lights  have  more  lampa  and 
reflectors,  although  only  requiring  to  have  short 
rangea,  than  many  sea-coaat  lights  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Uulf  coaats,  Ualloo  Island,  east  end  of  Lake  Ontario, 
near  the  Kiver  St.  Lawrence,  is  fitted  with  15  lamps 
and  reflectors;  in  Lake  Superior,  Manit<  u  T>.Und,  15 
lamps  and  reflectors;  White  Kieh  Pol; it,  1'^ ,  -.oA 
Copper  Harbor,  13  lamps  and  reflectors.  TliMk-  irin- 
cipal  lights  on  the  lakes  should  be  flt'ixd  vtlih  third 
order  lenses,  of  smaller  or  larger  modt  I,  nicor'lmg  to 
circumstances,  similar  to  the  one  recautly  placed  in 
the  Wagooshance  Light,  built  under  the  direction  of 
the  Topographical  Buroau.  The  fallowing  may  bo 
considered  tirst-class  lake  lights,  and  should  be  of  the 
third  order  lens  ap|iaratU9,  vln. :  Galloo  Island,  Lake 
Ontario,  tixed;  Sodus  Bay,  Lake  Ontario,  revolving; 
Fort  Niagara,  Lake  Ontario,  fixed ;  Dunkirk,  Lake 
Eric,  fixed ;  Preaq'  Isle,  Lake  Erie,  fixed  ;  Cleveland, 
Lake  Erie,  fixed ;  Western  Sister,  Lake  Erie,  fixed ; 
Buffalo,  Lake  Erio,  Axed ;  Point  aux  Barques,  Lake 
Uu.'on,  fixed;  Thunder  Ituy  Island,  Lake  Huron, 
fixed ;  Presq'  Isle,  Lake  Hurm,  revolving ;  Point  de 
Tour,  Lake  Huron,  fixed;  Wagooshance,  Lake  Mich- 
igan, third  order  lens  ;  Fox  Isles,  Lake  Michigan,  re- 
quired; South  Manitou  Island,  Lake  Michigan,  fixed ; 
Mllwaukie,  Lake  Michigan,  fixed ;  Chicago,  Lake 
Michigan,  fixed;  White  Fish  Point,  Luke  Superior, 
4K 


fixed ;  Capper  Harlior,  Lake  Superior,  Used  |  MaaJloa 
Island,  Uke  Superinr,  fixed. 

"Of  the  72  lighta  on  the  Ukea  and  their tributarlM, 
t>H  iti-e  tixed  and  4  revolving. 

'■  Aminijemenl  into  one  .Sj/item  in  re/trtnee  lo  CUun 
Jicatiun — The  following  cUaslftcatlimof  lighta  la  raooni' 
mended  accoriling  to  their  |K)«lti.in»,  usea,  etc.,  etc. ; 
1.  Main  coaat  lights  for  tlw  most  prominent  point*  on 
tha  coaat.  2.  Secondary  lighta  for  the  inferior  poInU 
on  the  coaats,  and  in  brood  suunda,  bays,  etc.  S.  Minor 
•ounda  and  bay*,  and  for  harbors  and  river  ligbta. 
4.  Range,  beacon,  and  pier  lighu.  Also  into  alx 
clooaea,  according  to  the  dimensiona  of  the  lighting 
apparatus  and  tlio  range  of  the  light*.  All  the  main 
•eo-cooat  llgnts  should  lie  of  the  first  order,  and  the 
claaaes  to  which  the  aecondary,  aound,  bay,  harbor, 
river,  range,  iieocon,  and  pier  lighU  ahould  belong, 
would  be  determined  liy  the  light-house  board,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality,  ob>icta  for  which  placed,  etc.,  etc. 
Thli  applies  to  new  lights,  and  to  tha  gradual  replac- 
ing of  the  old  ones  aa  they  may  rei^uire  renewal.  It 
la  lielieved  that  many  of  thr.  preaent  lighta  might  lie 
diapenaad  with  if  eflTectlvH  .ne!  were  subitituteil  for 
those  now  placed  on  import  >nt  points,  but  nut  of  suOl- 
cient  power  and  range,  w  hi<  >  uuld  in  the  end  produce 
a  considerable  saving. 

"Dietinctice  CAanicferi'WiVa.— Experiments  will  throw 
light  on  this  important  subject.  The  light-houses  and 
vesaela,  aa  well  as  the  lights,  ahould  be  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  sight,  as  well  as,  in  case  of  fogs, 
liy  sound.  Colors  should  only  lie  used  for  distinguish- 
ing small  lights  of  short  range,  as  river,  pier,  beacon, 
or  range  lights.  In  employing  colored  media  at  all 
fur  lights,  it  Is  important  that  the  most  approved  modes, 
with  the  best  quality  of  appliances,  only  lie  used  ;  u 
duty  which  should  devolve  upon  professional  men. 
Mr.  Stevens  enumerates  the  number  of  distinctions  of 
which  reflecting  lights  ar>.>  susceptible  as  nine:  Ixt. 
fixed;  2d,  revolving  white;  Ikl,  revolving  red  and 
white;  4th,  revolving  red  with  two  whites;  Dth, 
revolving  white  with  two  reds;  6th,  flashing;  7th, 
intermitting;  8th,  double  fixed  light;  9th,  double 
revolving  white  lights ;  to  which  may  be  added,  10th, 
double,  one  fixed  and  one  revolving.  Of  these,  three 
depend  on  color  and  should  be  discarded,  reducing  the 
distinctions  to  seven.  In  the  Scottish  lights,  by  caus- 
ing a  rapid  revolution  uf  the  frame,  and  placing  the 
rims  of  the  mirrors  of  each  side  in  one  vertical  plane, 
while  their  axes  are  in  a  plane  inclined  to  the  vertical, 
flashes  are  pro^luced  every  five  seconds,  which  appear 
to  rise  and  sink.  The  intermitting  light  luddenly  ap- 
pears, is  steady  for  a  short  time,  and  then  disappears 
suddenly.  These  changes  are  produced  by  the  verti- 
cal mution  of  circular  shades  in  front  of  the  reflecturs. 
The  difTerent  characteristic  combinations  in  the  lens 
system,  according  to  M.  L.  Frcsnel,  are  nine:  Ist, 
fiashlng  at  tho  interval  of  a  minute ;  2d,  flashing  at 
the  Interval  of  half  a  minute;  .Id,  white  and  red 
flashes  alternating;  4th,  fixed  lights  flashing  ever^- 
five  minutes  ;  0th,  flashing  everj-  three  minutes ;  fith, 
every  two  minutes ;  7th,  fixed  white  lights  with  rod 
flashes ;  Xth,  fixed  wliite  liglits ;  9th,  double  ti.xcd 
lights.  These  are  applied  only  to  the  first  three  orders 
of  lights.  In  England  tho  lights  are  classified  as  sea- 
coast,  secondary-,  and  harbor  and  river  lights.  In 
France  they  are  divided  into  six  orders,  according  to 
their  range  and  tho  aize  of  the  lighting  apparatus ;  the 
first  order  being  the  largest,  and  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  orders  being  each  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
larger  and  smaller,  or  first  and  second  classes.  The 
objections  to  colored  lights  are,  the  large  absorption  of 
the  incident  light,  and  the  difltculty  of  distinguishing 
the  color,  Ked  is  admitted  to  lie  the  best  color.  A 
good  red  light  is  seen  16  miles,  and  sometimes  22. 
j  Green  lights  from  a  powerful  apparatus,  in  Mr. 
Stevenson's  experiments,  were  seen  7  miles  in  very 
clear  weather,  and  blue  lights  only  6. 


19M 


LIO 


"Th*  obJMtlani  is  rt<1  «r*;  1.  Tli*  giml  Imi  at 
Ugtil  tiy  aliMirptiun.  A  full  nxl  gUn  UKtd  u  ■  chlm- 
nr.v  <it  >  lamp  ■liaorlHid  W)  per  i-ont.  of  th*  whoU.    A 

Krik  Kronrh  gUu  iliMirlwd  liiit  117  par  c«nl.  of  th* 
[ht,  but  th«  light  wu  nut  churmrtariatlr. 
"2.  Wliitn  light*  gn>w  rcdilUh  In  «  fng.  In  ■  r*- 
Ttttving  light,  ahowttig  ■Ifmiiti'ly  ml  and  white,  Iht 
r*d  l>  nhiiorlicd  at  a  lnu  dlntanra  than  tha  whita,  and 
tba  light  may  l)a  mintaken  fur  a  whita  light  iifhalf  tha 
priiMl  of  ravidutlun.  Twi)  llxbta  will  anpaar  lilandad 
In  ona,  whioh  arn  nut  >«|iariitad  liy  at  l»a«t  8'  18"  i 
call  I!  ilie  Mquirxd  dlatanca  Ixtwaan  tha  IlKht*  In  f««t, 
A  tha  ohaarver'a  dUtanca  in  fi-ft,  O  half  «if  8'  IM". 
Than  n  "-  2  A  tan.  ().  For  1  mila,  II  =  ft  HI  faat, 
and  for  n  milea  If  — .  n  x  A'84.  lauding,  or  rangn 
light*,  ahould  b<  naarl}-  on  tha  aama  lOrrutlon,  nii  ai 
Iti  cauia  thani  tn  apjirar  nearly,  hut  not  (|ulta  In  nne. 
Tha  dliit«ni'e  Iwtwrrn  them  •hiiuld  not  Im  leiii  than 
one  alxth  of  the  dUtunco  at  which  they  are  thua  to  b* 
uard. 

"  (n  forming  a  programme  for  lighting  tha  coatt, 
tha  following  conditlurifi  nhould  h«  realized:  1.  The 
moat  prominent  |iolnla  ahould  lie  Drat  lighted.  2.  Re- 
volving lighta,  a*  more  powerful  than  fixed,  ahould  ba 
used,  when  |>o*illJe,  on  the  projecting  polnta.  A, 
Mglit*  Identical  in  appearance  ahouM  not  occur  within 
80  t4i  ]dO  mllaa  of  each  other.  4.  Diatlnctiona  of  color 
■huuld  not  lie  adopted  except  in  cuaev  of  almdute  ne- 
cesalty.  6.  Aa  few  light*  a*  |>o*allde  nbuiild  lie  ummI, 
not  only  for  the  auke  of  economy,  liut  to  avoid  con- 
fU*lon.  0.  Diittlnctloii*  of  lighta  depending  on  the 
•atiniatlon*  of  email  dmrencea  of  time,  of  nppearance 
and  dlaoppearance,  ahoald  never  be  reaorted  to.  7. 
Ilarlior  or  local  lights  ahould  generally  lie  flxed,  and 
may  h»  illitlngulahed  lijr  ciilora.  A.  Floating  light* 
•hould  never  be  uaed  whea  flxed  lighta  can  l>e  em- 
ployed. 

■'The  ayatem  propoaed  Xry  Charlea  liabhage,  Eaq., 
of  I.ondon,  and  wliich  lia*  lieca  communicated  by  Ita 
dUtiiiguished  author  to  the  Uaar<l,  at  the  requoat  of 
one  fit  it*  member*,  I*  to  dintlnguioh  light*  by  occulta- 
tion* ;  or,  to  make  each  light-bouae  repeat  It*  own 
oumlier  continually  during  the  whole  time  It  la  lighted. 
Thia  I*  uccomplialied  by  iiicloHlng  the  upper  part  of  tha 
glaaa  cylinder  of  the  Argand  burner  liy  a  thin  tulie  of  tin 
or  liniaa,  which,  when  niude  to  deacend  alowly  before  the 
flame,  and  then  allowed  auddenly  to  atart  back,  will 
caaeo  an  occultation  and  reappcaranoe  of  the  light. 

"  The  number  belonging  to  a  light-house  may  be 
thua  indicated  to  diatant  veaaels.  Take,  a*  un  exam- 
ple, 243.  1.  Let  there  bo  tm  wcultationa.  2.  A  short 
|)*use.  3.  Four  occultatlons.  4.  A  short  pause.  6, 
Thnx  occultatlons.  (I.  A  longer  interval  of  time. 
ThiK  *yatem  of  occultationa  may  lie  repeated  all  night 
by  nieuns  of  proper  merhaniam. 

"The  rapidity  of  the  occultatlons  themaelve.^,  the 
length  of  the  pauae*  between  the  units  and  tena  and 
between  the  teoa  nnd  hundreds,  as  well  as  th«  dura- 
tion of  the  long  Interval  of  time  which  marks  the 
termination  of  the  nunilier,  must  be  made  the  subject 
of  experiment.  A  light  has  been  already  used  as  an 
iUuatrution,  in  which  the  occultatlons  occurred  at  in- 
tervals of  one  second ;  the  |)auaes  occupied  four  and 
the  long  interval  ten  seconds.  Tlio  pauae  was  thought 
to  lie  unneceaaurily  long,  and  waa  iliminijhed.  What- 
ever may  be  the  times  ultimately  adopted,  the  experi- 
ments already  made  render  it  improbable  that  the 
average  time  required  by  a  light-house  for  repeating 
its  number  ahould  amount  to  ane  minute.  It  Is  by  no 
means  ncceasary  that  the  counting  of  the  number  of  a 
light-house  should  commence  with  the  digit  which  ex- 
presses hundreds.  No  greater  amount  of  time  would 
have  elapsed,  if,  in  the  uliove  inatance,  the  observer 
had  commenced  with  counting  the  unit's  figure.  It 
would  then  huve  read  thus :  (three  occultatlons)  long 
interval ;  (two  occultationa)  pause ;  (four  occaltu- 
tioaa)  jiauaa.     By  the  long  interval  denoting  the  com- , 


m*»fm*M  t4  ■  namlMir,  It  la  already  apparant  that 
the  number  of  the  llght-htiusa  la  24H,  and  not  IM.  (a 
order  atltl  further  to  prevent  miataka*  arising  fnun  an 
Inridanttl  error  In  counting  tha  numlier  of  iH'iuitM- 
llons,  K  will  ba  convenient  to  eatabilah  another  princi- 
ple tnt  tba  pvrpoaa  of  numbering  the  llght-hiiUHa. 
I.lght-hnusa*  mual  not  lia  numbered  In  the  order  nf 
thair  |>n«itlon )  hut  every  llght-houae  mu*t  have  auch 
■  numlwr  aaslgnad  to  it,  that  no  digit  occurring  In  the 
number  denoting  the  aaverul  llght-lwiuaaa  neareat  to  it 
nn  either  aide  ahall  have  the  tame  digit  In  tha  aama 
plaoea  of  ligiira*. 
**  If  Hva  adjacent  llght-haa*a*  wars  thus  numliered  i 
IMI,  .  ftI7,  243,  h7«,  IH2| 
•opposing  a  miataka  to  have  oevufrsd  In  tha  Ant  'inie 
of  ceuBting  2411,  ami  that  It  had  lieen  reported  totlm 
maater  of  the  vaaaal  aa  2Aa,  h«  would  immeiliuteiy,  on 
looking  at  hU  numerical  lUt  of  light-housea,  iwri'iiiva 
that  a  miataka  had  lieen  made  In  tha  middle  llgure; 
lierauae,  in  any  general  arrangement,  2fill  woulil  h*re 
been  aaaigned  to  some  llght-houae  on  a  coaat  very  dla- 
tant  fnim  that  on  whicli  24H  wua  placed.  In  fact,  two 
out  of  any  three  Hgurca  would  alwaya  detect  the  error 
of  tha  third. 

"Tha  occultation*  would  dUtlngnlah  every  llght- 
houae  from  all  caaual  lights,  and  their  number  would 
Identify  the  light.  The  whole  Illuminating  power 
would  lie  always  employed,  undiniiniahml  by  tha  in- 
terpoalthin  of  colored  glaaa.  Theae  light*  would  be 
more  readily  vlallde  at  a  distance,  Iwcauae  It  Is  known 
that  the  eye  perceive*  more  readily  a  faint  light  which 
I*  Intermittent  than  an  equal  light  which  I*  lixed. 
The  Hoard  regard  thi*  as  the  most  lm|iortant  proposi- 
tion for  distinguishing  lighta  which  has  ever  liccn 
made,  and  propose  to  make  full  experimental  trials  of 
it.  In  fogs,  Mr.  Habbage  pmpoaea  to  make  the  pauaes 
between  the  atmkea  of  the  gong  take  the  placea  of  the 
occultatlons  of  the  light.  To  give  this  plan  »  full  de- 
velopment, all  nations  should  unite  in  a  ayatem  of 
numbering  for  llght-houaes.  Huch  a  co-operation  might 
reasonably  lie  looked  for,  if  the  plan  have  all  the  suc- 
cess which  Is  now  expected. 

"  Bett  mode  of  tucrrtnitimg  the  neeeuili/  for  inlm- 
ilueing  nnr  JAghtt,  fieneotn,  etr. — l/>gialation  la,  of 
course,  necessary  to  the  eataliliahment  of  a  new  light. 
The  recommendations  of  the  l.ight-houae  Koanl,  of 
ofScers  of  the  coast  survey,  of  pilots,  nnvigatora,  and 
others,  all  reach  the  Committees  of  Commerce  of  the 
two  llousas  of  Congress,  through  different  appropriate 
channels.  It  does  not  seem  practicable  to  pro|ioae  any 
aptam  of  examination  of  sites  which  would  nut  lie 
ver}'  expensive,  while  leglalation  Is  pending  on  the 
subject.  A  reference  to  the  Light-house  IJtianl,  in 
doubtful  cases,  would  secure  the  committees  from 
recommending  appropriations  for  objects  whirli  cer- 
tainly would  not  have  the  approval  of  pnifesjional 
men.  The  law  of  the  last  session  provided  for  the  ex- 
amination of  sites,  for  which  appropriations  were 
made,  by  the  officers  of  the  coast  survey,  and  a  report 
by  the  superintendent.  Aa  tMs  will  leave  a  full 
knowledge  of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  he 
attended  with  very  little  expense,  the  same  plan 
shonid  be  pursued  In  all  future  caaea. 

"  liftl  mode  of  iHpplgmg  tine  Lii/hlii. — When  it  has 
l)een  shown,  to  the  satisfaction  of  Congress,  that  new 
lights  are  required,  and  appropriations  made  for  the 
purpose,  the  )ilans  and  spedflcations  fur  constructlnn, 
illuminating  apparatus,  distinction,  etc.,  should  lie  made 
by  the  engineer  of  the  Light-house  Board.  .Should 
a  previous  estimate  have  lieen  made  by  this  enj^inrer, 
for  the  Information  of  Congreas,  generally,  there  will 
t>e  required  but  little  more  than  to  fill  up  the  details. 
The  construction  having  lieen  approved  by  tha  Li|;lit- 
bouse  Board,  a  contract  should  be  entered  into,  acconl- 
Ing  to  law — based  entirely  upon  the  plans,  drawing?, 
and  spedflcations  and  estimates  of  the  engineer — and 
tha  building  should  be  erected,  and  the  lighting  appa- 


nl|iiMi4a,' 

"'  tba  ^ng^ti 

cnr|iaoreng{ 

•be  purpose, 

•«•  approved 

•*  "Uhject  to 

"  ^rW»  of 

bouae  Un»r^  | 

•ny  exiating 

mInallBg  app, 

•houM  lie  reqi 

<lrt»ll,  to  Iw  ai 

paaaad  upon 

•hould  ba  take 

''"» I  or.  In  thr 

•"admit  of  the 

appropriation,  ( 

•'»'<»,  etc.,  ,h„, 

the  Neerelary  o 

Congreaa.      f  | , 

procure  all  the 

"»»«hllahment  of 

"*•'■  I  to  be  „.,, 

"I'limltted,  thmii 

tongreaa,  at  thf 

"  f>"cnnlim4an 

In  regard  to  the 

•Imllar  to  eboae 

light*. 

"fuherf,  „f  I 

•"'I  llght-kee;;era 

atrucllon,,  In  the 

well  as  those  necei 

•be  establlshment- 

Inapectora  and  keei 

Great  Britiln.      '| 

tailed  account  of  \\ 

•be  duties  contlneri 

description  of  the 

»nd  the  means  to  I 

the  nmchlnerj-,  etc 

itructlona,  f„r  the 

brace  every  p„|„t  j, 

"«t  only  fl,,  ,h,      1 

•>ut«laoof  theenul 
""cted  with  the  serl 
houses,  llghUveaaef 
"P»clt;prlfte,iinr 
m*\  «nd  are  kept] 
[rames,  .o  that  no  1 
*"«<J«ty.     Thedlirl 
<lc»<-rll«d,  and  the  J 
o«,  In  plain,  el„„, 
l^lytotheunderstJ 
""  subjects  contail 
manuals,  would  forf 
•xaminatlonarorniJ 

The  ,y,te„  „,-[„  1 
•xamlnatlons  for  hil 
•he  exercise  of  thel 
gleet  or  dlsobedlen.r 
lucdegreeof  attenJ 
"is'le  entirely  by  ml 

general  or  local  ina  J 
■ng  upon  want  of} 
•ould  be  doubtless,! 
•dge,  skill,  and  attij 
Improvemrntt  I'J 
In  regard  to  the  subl 
•««^)i  now  used  exT 
'n  France,  Engbnif 
mostofthellght-hoi 
for  spermaceti  oil,  ol 
0"  lights,  the  Boir,! 
wcommendatlon  of  f 
or  Commons  of  GroJ 


Md 


isai 


UQ 


nipi  Mid  MCMMTl*!  b*  ptmMirMl,  unilaf  th*  tiMpMtinn 
nf  tha  riiKinmr  of  lh«  Ikxinl,  iir  <if  ■ikIi  nffloor  of  lh« 
corjui  of  »nK<ni'«ni  iif  llm  anny  «a  niity  Im>  duUilnl  for 
lbs  purpow,  In  nmfnnnlty  to  tho  nth  notlnn  nf  tha 
Ml  a|iprov«<l  M  Marrh,  INAI.  All  tha  datalU  aliould 
b«  autijart  tn  alinllar  Inaportlnn. 

"  MnJ»  nf  rmornlmif  l,ighl$, — Wh«iMT«T  tha  MifhU 
houaa  Hflanl  in  NiitiaHnl  nf  thit  nacnahy  for  ratmvallnK 
any  axUtliiK  llxht,  liy  tha  Intrixlui'tlim  of  liattar  Illu- 
minating apparatiia,  rtc,  tha  anKlnaor  of  Ih*  lloanl 
•houtd  Iw  rM|iilrad  to  impara  lotimatra  and  pinna  In 
datall,  to  Iw  aul>mlttml  tn  tha  hnnrd,  which  nhonld  Iw 
paaaad  upnn,  and,  If  nppnivrd,  tha  nwaaaary  lapa 
ahoiild  be  lakan  tn  maka  tha  n>|ialni,  air.,  araonlInK  to 
law  j  nr,  in  tha  avant  of  tha  cxpanaa  >MtnK  ton  Kraat 
la  admit  nf  Iha  wcrka  IwInK  dona,  axrapt  liy  a  apot'ial 
appropriation,  than  Iha  narcaanry  aatimntan,  axplana- 
tiona,  rtr.,  ahnnld  l>a  prapnrad  and  anlnnltlad,  thrnUKh 
tha  Narralary  ol  Iha  Trenaiiry,  for  tha  cnnatdamtinn  nf 
Conifraaa,  II  ahould  alan  Iw  thn  duty  of  tha  Hoard  to 
proeura  all  tha  nacaaaiiry  infnrmalinn  raUlInK  tn  tha 
aalahllahmant  of  n«w  lli(hta,  alnili»hiiiant  nf  nl<i  nnaa, 
atr.  I  tn  Iw  arcompanlad  liy  aatimulaa  of  cnut,  to  he 
Niilimitlad,  through  Iha  Nacratiiry  of  tha  TrKiinury,  to 
C'unKraaa,  at  th^  t'oininanoemant  nf  aach  ariiKion. 

"  Ditenntiimanre  nf  unni-cMinry  lAiiklt. — The  iitapa 
In  regiird  tn  the  dUi'ontlnuanrn  »t  light*  ahnuld  l>« 
■imllar  to  thoae  necaaaary  in  roaei  of  renovation  of 
lighti. 

"  Suhjrdt  nf  fnitrurliim  to  Jimplof/ftt. — Inapectort 
and  llght-keepera  ahould  lie  pnivldad  with  printad  In- 
•tructinna.  In  tha  form  of  munuala  of  lifatruttlnn,  aa 
well  aa  thoae  ncccaiiary  to  giilda  tham  in  the  police  -if 
the  eatalillahmenta,  alinilar  to  thoae  provided  fur  the 
ln*pectura  and  kvepvra  nf  li){ht-houaaa  In  Kmnve  and 
Great  Uritiiin,  Thla  manua'  ahould  embrace  a  de- 
tailed account  <if  the  mndot  oi'  exacutinif  ever}'  part  of 
the  duties  conflned  tn  the  ina|iecton  and  ko4>peni;  a 
deicription  of  tlie  parts  of  the  machinery  employed  i 
and  the  means  to  be  employed,  in  case  nf  accident  lo 
tha  machinerj-,  etc.,  until  it  can  he  repaired.  The  In- 
■trurtinns.  for  the  liKht-hnuse  service  nf  Krance  em- 
brace every  point  in  the  moat  minute  detail,  and  serve 
n<it  only  for  the  guidance  of  lns|)ectora  and  kee|iers, 
but  also  of  the  en^^inaera  and  others  in  any  way  con- 
nected with  the  service.  The  instructions  for  light- 
bouses,  lighWvesscIs,  etc.,  of  England,  are  ftill  and 
explicit  j  primed  in  large  type,  with  conspicuous  head- 
ing*; and  are  kept  in  tho  quar^'.s  of  the  keepers,  In 
frames,  so  that  no  one  ca.i  ever  lie  at  a  loss  to  know 
his  duty.  The  different  kinds  of  lamps  employed  are 
descrilied,  and  the  mndcs  of  attending  tn  them  p<iinted 
out.  In  plain,  clear,  ond  explicit  tprms,  adapted  espec- 
iiiUy  to  the  understandings  of  tlie  keepers  of  the  lights. 
The  subjects  contained  In  the  printed  instructions  and 
manuals,  would  form  a  part  of  the  essentials  In  the 
examinations  for  qualincatinns  of  keepers. 

"  Hett  Modt  of  trcurinf/  Altrnlion  to  Instnieliona, — 
The  system  of  Inspection  already  recommended,  the 
examinations  for  higher  positions  In  the  districts,  and 
the  exercise  of  tlie  present  power  of  removal  for  ne- 
glect or  disobedience  of  initructions,  would  secure  a 
due  degree  of  attention  tn  them.  If  promotions  were 
made  entirely  by  merit,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
general  or  local  inspectors,  and  changes,  not  depend- 
ing upon  want  of  qualiflcation,  were  avoided,  tiiere 
would  be  doubtless,  great  improvement  in  the  knowl- 
edge, skill,  and  attention  nf  tho  light-keepers. 

"  Improrfnirntt  in  the  Malfrialt  fur  Illumination. — 
In  regard  to  the  substitution  of  the  oil  of  colza  (rape- 
seed),  now  used  exclusively  for  light-house  purposes 
in  France,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  in 
most  of  the  light-houses  of  the  other  maritime  nations, 
for  spermaceti  oil,  or,  more  properly,  for  that  used  in 
oar  lights,  the  Board  would  refer  to  the  fact,  that  the 
recommendation  of  the  select  committee  of  the  Ifnuse 
of  CommoDa  of  Great  Britain,  in  1846,  to  the  Light- 


hniiM  Bnant,  lo  InlriMluce  tha  mi  rr  .onomlaa]  nil  0/ 
ckIo  Into  Ibair  llytilhuUMi  aslabllaliirianta,  had  Iha  af- 
fai't  i>f  causing  a  Ihomugh  axpariniintat  axaiiiinalina 
In  lia  iiiada  of  the  twn  iiila  (iniu  and  tha  beat  wliileib 
alralnail  •|i«rm  oil),  liy  frvfaastir  Karaday,  Mr.  Alaa 
Htavanwin,  and  iithara  Intaraatad  in  llght-houaa  aarv» 
lea,  by  which  it  waa  riaariy  daniiinstrulatl  that  Ih* 
cnUa  nil  ka  BU|wrlur,  In  avary  aaaantlal  partlrnlar,  to 
the  liaat  winlar-itraina<l  H|i«rm  oil.  I'rofaaaor  Karaday 
aaya.  In  his  ra|airt :  ■  Having  Imnil  tlia  lani|w  fnr  many 
days,  I  have  Iwaii  much  struck  by  tbi\  great  ataaiilncaa 
of  tin  rap*  oil  lampa,  aithar  aa  riinaldrratl  alun*  or  in 
compariann  with  Iha  aparm-oil  lam|ia.  Tbay  wnuid 
bum  fnr  Vi  ur  H  huura  at  a  lima  willi  llltia  or  !ioallar< 
atinn  of  the  llgiil,  Iha  cntlniis  or  lampa  nut  lMiii( 
tuuched  Iha  whole  time  1  whereas  tha  spann  oil  lamp* 
would  In  tha  cnursa  nf  fnur,  Ave,  nr  six  houra,  give  ■ 
iliiiiiniahad  Haini>,  fruni  tlie  Incrualaliun  of  Iha  charred 
part  nf  tlie  cnltun  retarding  the  Huw  of  oil.  In  tha 
rape  oil  lamps  the  coal  is  bmkan  and  porous,  and 
serves  fur  wick  almost  as  wall  aa  the  frash  cuttimi 
but  in  tha  a|i«rin  oil  lampa  tha  i:nal  furma  a  hard,  ran- 
tinuous  ring,  which  seaU  up  the  ends  of  Iha  threads  | 
aud  tills,  Willi  the  more  cnnllned  cnndition  of  Hit 
buniar,  and  tho  greater  distance  nf  the  oil  lianeath 
(from  intentional  diff«raiic«  uf  flow  in  the  lamps), 
causes  the  apenn  nil  lamp  tiaine  tn  fail  In  bright- 
ness, and  ra<|ulres  that  the  wick  should  be  re-triinmad. 
*  *  *  I  lava  inadu  many  careful  experiinenta 
on  the  proportion  of  light  pnitluced  by  the  two 
kimla  of  lamps,  in  ever}-  vase  weighing  the  oil  liafnr* 
and  after  cninbustlon,  so  as  to  know  exactly  the  i|uiiii- 
tity  burned,  anil  making,  during  the  axperimenta, 
aliove  100  tomparisons  uf  the  lights  one  with  annthor. 
The  rape  oil  lamps  were  always  mure  brillbiiit  tliiin 
the  sperm  oil  lamps,  except,  indeed,  one  or  two  rar« 
cases;  but,  at  the  same  time,  more  oil  waa  liumi'd 
in  them.  •  •  *  Krom  108  observations  uf  the 
lights,  taken  at  such  times  as  appeared  filled  lo 
give  the  best  mean  expression  of  Ihe  light  of  the  luiiipi 
cnmpared  with  the  oil  burned  in  them,  the  averago 
light  of  the  rape  oil  Ump  came  out  as  one  and  a  half,  that 
of  the  sperm  oil  lamp  I 
son  says  :  'In  my  la 
the  light-hoUHes,  Id.  . 
to  the  propriety  of  r^iak 
the  patent  cnlzu  '<i  r^i 
Hrlggs,  of  BlHhopi<.(<'li 
been  made,  .."'irlo;  t'l  • 


ig  one.'  Mr,  Alan  StevKii- 
U'li  report  on  the  state  of 
11^  ttention  of  the  Itonrd 
'  several  staliuns,  uf 
■  !  Ill,  ;  repared  by  Messrs. 
wri .  i  I  se  trials  have  now 
rii.HiH  11  'uary  and  K«l>- 
ruary,  at  '  t  iluptn.'  u.i.l  ili.  . 'ptric  lights, 
•  •  •  ■'•.1  it,-iunl.  I  imrcc  p  ,it  jf  all  tlie  re. 
|iorts,  as  iL  'lOi, 'Inl  1  '  lin-  il  «.  irs  it  needless 
to  enter  into  any  1,1'  •>  il.       gdnly-varying  cir- 

cumstances of  each    ..  ive,  therefore,  great 

satisfaction  in  briefly  '  1..  s  follows,  the  very 
favorable  conclusions  at  WMich  1  have  arrived:  1. 
The  colza  oil  possesses  the  advantage  nf  remaining 
fluid  at  temperatures  wliicli  thicken  the  spcrniuceti 
oil,  so  that  it  requires  thu  iippilcation  of  tlie  frost- 
lamp.  *  *  *  U.  Tlie  colza  oil  bums,  Imtii  in  tha 
Fresnel  lamp  and  tho  single  Argand  burner,  with  a 
thick  wick,  during  1"  houra,  without  requiring  any 
coaling  of  tho  wick  or  any  adjustment  of  the  dumper, 
and  tiifl  flame  seems  to  bo  more  steady  and  free  fruin 
flickering  than  that  from  spermaceti  oil.  4.  There 
seems  (most  proliably  owing  tu  the  greater  steailinesi 
of  the  Hame)  to  be  less  breakage  of  glass  ciiimneys 
with  the  colza  than  with  tho  sperm  nil.  5.  The  con- 
sumption nf  oil,  in  so  far  as  tiiat  can  lie  ascertained 
during  so  short  a  period  of  trial,  seems,  in  the  h'resnel 
lamp,  to  be  121  for  colza  and  114  for  spennucoti; 
while  in  tiio  common  Argund  lump,  the  coiisuniption 
appears  to  be  010  for  colza  and  90'i  for  spermaceti,  6. 
If  we  may  assume  the  means  of  these  numbers,  615 
for  colza  and  508  for  spermaceti,  as  representing  the 
relative  expenditure  of  these  oils,  and  if  the  r*'ce  of 
the  colza  is  3b.  9d,,  while  that  of  spermaceti  '     ^  9d. 


,feL 


<-»,! 


^^ 


LIG 


1252 


LIO 


ptr  Ifflptrial  gallon,  w«  thall  have  a  saving  ia  the 
ratio  nf  1  to  to  1-776,  which,  at  the  present  rate  of 
aapply  for  the  Northern  lights,  wonid  give  a  saving  of 
•hont  £9116  per  aennm.'  The  evidence  of  these  two 
dlstbigulshsd  gentlemen  is  cnnclunive  of  the  snperior- 
It/  of  the  colxa  or  rape-seed  oil  to  the  liest  winter- 
atra!!;--!  ..perm  oil  j  and  how  much  hotter  than  that 
ttwid  in  our  lights,  may  be  readily  inferred  without  the 
al4  of  experiments  on  so  nice  a  scale  as  these  employed 
\ty  Professor  Pamday  nnd  Mr.  Stevenson,  when  it  is 
ntm«mli«r«d  that  our  lights  are  supplied  with  oil 
eallwl  winter  and  spring  or  summer  oil.  That  efficient 
tights  along  the  consts  of  ail  maritime  countries  are 
••stmtial  to  a  snfn  -vigation,  and  the  Ducceiafui  prose- 
y '  eutlon  of  a  liicrntive  commerce,  wijl  not  Ije  contested; 

that  all  mere  personal  or  locaf  interests  should  give 
way  to  the  genor'-.l  good,  is  an  assumption  which  will 
not  meet  with  disfavor  in  this  country ;  and  inasmuch 
us  It  is  nf  paramount  Importance  to  the  best  interests 
of  (he  whole  conntry,  that  our  lights  and  other  aids  to 
n  ivlgntlon  shonld  bo  the  best  which  money,  science, 
anii  the  mechfloic  arts  \rill  afford,  it  is,  in  the  opinion 
flf  the  Hoard,  tiie  duty  of  those  charged  with  this  im- 
portant branch  <f  the  public  service  to  employ  every 
raaMmable  means,  not  inconsistent  with  law,' to  per- 
fert  them,  and  therefore  recommend  that  the  subject  of 
IntrodUi^ing  other  combustibles  than  the  oil  nuw  used, 
he  taken  into  serious  c<msideratlop,  as  ono  of  the 
means  of  improving  our  lights,  and,  atthe  same  time, 
of  elfeptlng  considerable  annual  saving  of  expense  to 
Ml*  (fountry.  If  the  rape-seed  were  cultivated  to  any 
•xt«ot  In  this  country,  it  Is  not  doubted  it  would  sup- 
ply the  place  of  the  numerous  chemical  oils,  fluids, 
•tfl.,  MOW  In  general  use  for  domestic  purposei,  as  well 
ns  for  lighting  our  light-houses  and  light-vessels.  To 
insure  the  consummation  of  so  desirable  an  object  as 
thii  cnldvAtlon  of  this  plant  on  a  largo  scale  in  this 
country,  where  climate  and  soil  are  so  well  adapted  to 
It,  will  be  to  place  it  in  a  fair  competition  with  its 
rivals.  It  will  lie  the  duty  of  the  Board,  if  authorized 
by  Congress,  among  Its  numerous  other  important  du- 
ties oonnected  with  the  light-house  establishment,  to 
examine  into  the  merits  of  all  proposed  improvements 
•n  apparatus  and  coml)Ustllde8,  and,  l)y  their  recom- 
mendations to  <^ongress,  iieep  iwco  with  the  improve- 
ments lit  other  countries  in  this  branch.  The  intro- 
duction of  gas  Into  light-houses  hiis  long  been  looked 
forward  to  as  an  important  step.  Hitherto  it  has  met 
with  )/Ut  little  favor  in  any  quarter.  While  tlie  in- 
troduction of  gas  into  our  light-houses,  if  found  adapt- 
alde  to  them,  would  involve  Important  points  to  Iw 
c<>nsi<lered,  It  Is  liy  no  means  certain  that  by  the 
means  of  a  series  of  experiments,  the  Board  would  not 
\m  enabled  to  decide  conclusively  as  to  the  practica- 
bility of  mailing  tlie  attempt  in  thn  present  state  of 
knowledge,  or  the  liest  and  safest  means  of  genei  jting, 
«<mducting,  and  continuing  it  for  light-house  pur- 
poses. The  persons  charged  with  the  few  gas-lights 
flow  existing  in  this  country,  for  want  of  practical  and 
theoretical  knowledge,  it  is  bnlieveil,  arc  not  compe- 
tent to  report  results  sutHcieiitiy  reliable  to  decide  so 
important  a  question. 

"  IUu}jii. — The  material  Is  iron  or  wood,  sometimes 
rovered  with  copjier.  The  anchors  arc  heavy  blocks 
of  stfine,  or  mushroom  anchors,  or  iron  sinkers  (which 
•hoilld  lie  hollowed  out  below),  or  iron  screws.  It  is 
Worth  trial  whether  fastening  the  buoys  liy  a  traverse 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of  oscillation  would 
not  diminish  the  liability  to  chafe  otf  tho  chain,  and 
aefHirate  the  bnoy  from  the  anchor.  A  swivel-shackle, 
in  a  degree,  prevents  HiIm,  but  not  ctfectualiy.  The 
eolora  of  liuoys  are  mucin  to  indicate  tlioir  purpose,  as 
dc-ilgnatlng  a  channel,  shoul,  spit,  etc.  They  are 
sometimes  even  charncteristically  marked  to  distin- 
ruish  them.  The  law  passed  in  1860,  in  regard  to  color- 
,ji%  and  numliering  buoys  in  the  United  States,  is  sim- 
ple and  effectlvf.     The  numbers  were  intended  to 


begin  at  the  axterior  of  a  bay,  harbor,  etc.  This  law  ii 
as  follows :  Extract  from  an  act  making  appioprialinn 
for  light-houses,  light  vessels,  buoys,  etc,  and  provid- 
ing for  the  creation  and  establishment  of  the  same, 
and  for  other  purposes,  approved  September  28,  1850 : 

Section  6.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  hereafter 
all  buoys  along  the  coast,  or  in  the  l<ays,  harbors, 
sounds,  or  channels,  shall  be  colored  and  numbered, 
so  that,  passing  up  the  coast,  or  sound,  or  entering  the 
bay,  harbor,  or  channel,  red  buoys  with  even  num- 
bers shall  be  passed  on  the  starboar'  hand;  black 
buoys  with  uneven  numbers,  on  the  port  hand ;  anil 
buoys  with  red  and  black  stripes,  on  either  hand. 
Buoys  in  channel  ways  to  be  colored  with  alternate 
white  and  black  ;ierpendicular  stripes.'  Of  course 
the  buoys  show,  with  more  or  less  distinctness,  when 
projected  on  the  water,  against  the  sky,  trees,  etc. 
The  red  buoya  should  lie  painted  a  bright  red,  and  sot 
a  Spanish  brown,  in  order  to  be  well  distinguished- 
red  lead  or  vermilion  being  used  as  the  paint.  The 
experiments  and  observations  of  the  Board  satisfied 
them  that  in  such  a  case,  red  and  black  were  good  col- 
ors for  distinguishing  buoys.  The  can-buoys,  in  some 
instances  (as  in  New  York  harlwr)  are  too  small  to  be 
easily  seen.  The  numbering  is  a  simple  matter,  but 
is  by  no  means  effectively  executed,  es(wcially  on  the 
spar-buoys,  where  the  numbers  repeated  on  the  dilfer- 
ent  sides,  being  seen  in  range  in  a  diagonal  view,  load 
to  confusion.  The  Board  have  given  some  attention 
to  plans  for  numbering  buoys.  The  numbers  should 
be  placed  almve  the  buoys,  on  stems  or  perches ;  should 
present  the  'same  appearance  on  different  sides,  and 
have  their  distinctions  by  difference  in  a  vertical  line, 
and  not  by  varying  horizontally.  Several  plans  have 
occurred  to  them.  Three  solids,  the  cone,  cylinder, 
and  sphere,  arranged  in  groups  of  not  more  than  il 
each,  will  give  42  combinations  ;  no  one  of  these  fig- 
ures can  be  taken  for  the  other,  and  thoy  may  easily 
be  placed  on  stems  projecting  nearly  vertically  above 
the  buoy,  the  several  solids  being  placed  one  above 
the  other,  with  a  sufficient  interval,  Thoy  cun  be  of 
adequate  size,  and  may  be  cheaply  made  in  tlie  turn- 
ing lathe.  The  elementary  forms  of  the  unit,  the  5 
nnd  the  10,  of  the  Koman  numerals,  are  the  cylinder, 
the  cone  and  the  double  cone.  By  combinations  of 
these,  39  numbers  are  represented.  Seven  numbers 
may  be  represented  by  2  signs  and  their  combinations ; 
28  by  ;)  signs,  restricting  the  number  M  elements  in 
any  one  combination,  to  '1.  Seven  numl>ers  of  every 
10  may  be  represented  l>y  only  2  more  signs  than  tliose 
expressing  tlio  value  of  the  ten's  place,  giving  a  very 
great  variety.  A  letter  made  to  rcvolvo  al)out  a  verti- 
cal axis,  produces  a  solid  of  rovolution  which  is  easily 
recognized  as  the  sign  fgr  the  letter,  Fourteen  of  the 
twenty-six  letters  are  adapted  to  charucteristic  signs, 
as  shown  in  the  figures  (A,  IS,  K,  I,  J,  I,,  O,  1', 
Q,  K,  T,  \V,  V,  Y),  Nino  digits  of  the  Arabic  num- 
erals, viz. :  1,  2,  4,  5,  (i,  7,  8,  !),  and  0,  give  easily 
formed  and  easi'  '  recognized  signs,  us  is  shown  in  tlie 
accompanying  plate ;  and  these  the  Board  recommend 
for  numbering  buoys,  excluding  3  as  not  sulBcicntly 
characteristic.  In  tlio  English  system  of  plueini; 
buoys,  a  red  and  black  are  placed  on  opposite  sides  of 
u  channel,  and  the  vessel  runs  between  them.  In  our 
system  only  one  buoy  is  placed  on  the  starboard  or 
port  hand,  and  the  vessel  runs  for  tho  buoy,  keeping 
it  close  aiioard  in  passing.  Tho  Knglish  system  is 
most  simple,  and  even  the  most  economical.  In  order 
to  render  buoys  available  at  niglit,  various  proposi- 
tions have  been  made  for  lausing  them  to  appear 
luminous,  but  none  iiave  succeeded  practically.  Light- 
ing by  gas  is  among  tlio  methods  propeted. 

"  Of  Foj  Signals, — During  the  prevalence  of  fogs, 
the  lights  wliicli  ought  to  guide  the  seaman  are  often 
indistinctly  seen,  or  entirely  obscured,  until  ho  lias 
approached  too  near  tho  danger  ag^iinst  which  t'ley 
were  intended  to  warn  him.     In  cases  of  fog,  light- 


1263 


LIO 


■hlpa  and  Ught>hoiiwa  «n,  in  lome  instaneea,  prorlded 
with  gong<  and  bella,  which  sre  than  kept  ooiutantly 
eounding.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  means  of  wan- 
ing the  seaman  of  his  danger  should  extend  to  the 
bhortest  distance  when  that  danger  is  most  imminent. 
The  lights  asually  employed  are  visible  at  a  distance 
of  from  6  to  30  miles ;  but  the  sound  of  a  gong  or 
liell  is  heard  at  a  comparatively  very  small  distance. 
When  these  instruments  are  heard,  they  merely  indi- 
cate danger,  but  not  its  exact  nature.  It  might,  in 
dome  cases,  be  of  great  importance  that  the  gong  or 
bell  should  indicate  the  number  of  the  light-ship. 
This  could  be  accomplished  liy  a  ver}'  trifling  altera- 
tion in  the  mechanism.  Instead  of  striking  the  instrn- 
iiient  at  fixed  intervals,  let  there  be  pauses  and  a  long 
interval  lietween  the  number  of  strokes  which  succes- 
sively represent  tie  digits  of  the  number  of  the  light- 
ships, just  in  the  same  manner  as  has  l)een  proposed 
for  light-houses.  A  light-house  or  light-ship  whose 
numlier  is  243,  would  be  thus  indicated  during  fog : 
two  blows  on  gong,  pause ;  four  blows  on  gong,  pause ; 
three  blows  on  gong,  long  interval.'  The  same  mechan- 
ism which  caused  the  occultai.ions  of  the  light  might 
produce  the  blows  on  the  gong.  The  preceding  ex- 
planations are  sufficient  to  show  that  each  light-house 
or  light-ship,  by  continually  repeating  its  own  number, 
might  render  any  mistake  of  it  for  a  different  light 
very  nearly  impossible.  The  great  principle  on  which 
the  system  rests  is  to  give  numerical  expression. to 
each  light.  If  it  be  not  thought  necessary  to  apply  it 
to  every  light-house,  the  most  important  may  be 
chosen  for  its  application.  The  expense  of  the  altera- 
tion, and  the  amount  of  danger  incurred  by  a  mistake, 
will  furnish  the  ground  of  decision  in  each  individual 
cose.  In  proposing,  however,  a  new  system  which  has 
extensive  I)earing3  on  other  questions  connected  with 
the  safety  of  those  who  travel  on  the  waters,  it  is  desir- 
able that  a  general  nnd  comprehensive  view  should  be 
taken  of  such  of  its  applications  as  tite  rapid  advance  in 
mechanical  and  chemical  science  justify  us  in  supposing 
must  take  place  in  a  few  years.  However  partially  the 
system  may  be  adopted  at  first,  a  judicious  foresight 
into  its  prob.ible  applications  may  enable  us,  without 
any  present  inconvenience,  to  accelerate  future  im- 
provements, and  to  save  considerable  expense  on  their 
adoption.  The  following  suggestions  for  improve- 
ments or  applications,  many  of  which  are  perfectly 
practicable  at  the  present  time,  are  offered  for  the  con- 
sideration of  those  who  may  l)e  called  upon  to  carry 
out  the  NumerietU  System  of  Light-houtft.  They  are 
not  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  simple  plan  which 
has  been  already  descrl  ed,  but  may  be  adopted  or  re- 
jected without  any  interference  with  it, 

"  SuggeMiont/or  the  Impnwemen  >f  Ligkt-houie  Sig- 
naU,  B\ioy$y  ttc. — Telegraphic  etmmunication  during  the 
night  beUneai  Light-homei,  and  Shipt  in  dittrtst. — Cases 
occur  in  which  it  is  of  great  consequence  that  a  ship 
should  communicate  with  the  land  long  liefor^;  it  can 
send  a  Ima^  ashore  or  enter  its  intended  port.  It  may 
be  the  hi-oier  of  important  intelligence.  It  may  con- 
vey soiae  person  whose  presence  is  essential  for  some 
great  objec.  The  vessel  itself  may  be  in  distress. 
The  state  of  the  element!)  may  render  it  impossible  to 
send  for  or  receive  any  assistance  from  the  land  j  yet, 
even  under  such  unfavorable  circumstances,  if  direc- 
tions from  skillful  pilots,  acquainted  with  the  coast, 
could  be  conveyed  to  the  ship,  its  wrei'.k  might,  per- 
haps, be  prevented ;  or,  if  driven  on  shore,  having  been 
directed  to  the  least  unfavorable  spot,  its  crew  might 
possibly  lie  saved.  Such  cummunicatic'n>  i.iight  easily 
be  organized.  There  are  already  existing  in  the  royal 
ntvy  in  the  East  India  Company's  service,  and  else- 
where, large  dictionaries  of  numerical  signals.  These, 
it  is  true,  are  made  by  fia-s,  or  by  bails ;  but  the  same 
numbers  may  be  expressed  l)y  the  occultations  of 
lamps.  Any  number,  however  large,  may  be  ex- 
fteaaed  by  making  the  number  of  occultations  corre- 


sponding to  the  flnt  or  highest  digit,  than  A\am\nn  I 
pause ;  after  which  the  numlier  of  occultations  t»\fn- 
senting  the  second  digit,  then  a  pause )  and  m  Ott, 
always  observing  that,  after  the  unit's  figure  b»«  imm 
expressed,  there  must  follow  a  long  interval, 

"  The  plan  for  telegraphic  communications  wouM  b# 
thus  arranged :  1.  LighUhouse  repeating  Its  own  imW' 
her.  2.  Ship  fires  a  gun,  and  hoists  »  light,  to  vM 
the  attention  of  the  light-keeper.  8,  l.lght'huMMI 
ceaseAepeating  its  numl)er,  uiiil  becomes  a  •t«lt4y 
light,  thus  informing  the  sliip  that  It  is  obuirvad,  i. 
Ship  having  prepared  its  niesssge,  numericuUy  »%• 
presses  it  by  the  occult»tions  of  its  own  Uinp,  ft, 
Light-house  repeats  the  message  of  ship,  in  order  (« 
show  that  it  has  l<een  rightly  undentood,  f),  Myhl' 
house  now  repeats  its  own  number,  while  it  is  pr*|Nir' 
ing  the  answer.  7.  Light-house  expresses  its  nuswM 
by  occultations.  8.  Ship  repeats  the  answer,  ThU 
interchange  of  question  and  answer  is  oontinMad  M 
long  as  necessary,  during  which  the  liglit-liumw  r*' 
peats  its  own  number  previously  to  each  reply, 

"  Very  little  delay  will  occur ;  for  these  i{utistlan« 
and  answers  will  l>e  arranged  on  movable  discs,  wltii^b 
may  be  placed  in  the  mechanism  employed  fur  oa.'M\U 
ing,  even  while  it  is  repeating  another  massage.  Many 
such  discs,  each  containing  a  different  iiiessaga,  m%y 
be  placed  in  the  machine  at  once,  and  on  touching  any 
lever  the  light  will  continue  repeating  the  corriiii|iuMl 
ing  message.  In  case  of  a  ship  in  dititruss,  fur  iii> 
stance,  requiring  an  anchor  of  given  weight.  It  may  \m 
necessary  to  send  to  the  Imrbor-mastar  of  tlie  adjiiocot 
port  to  give  the  order,  and  to  ascertain  tl)a  tim*  WJMM 
it  can  reach  the  vessel.  During  this  interval,  tlm 
light-house  will  be  repeating  its  own  number,  An 
electric  telegrjph  from  the  light-house  to  the  dwelling 
of  the  harbor-master  would  save  mucli  time,  and,  In 
some  cases,  much  damage.  The  gun  tired  liy  tlia  vea> 
sel  might  also  be  heard  by  the  harbor-niastar  |  and  Ilia 
attention  then  being  directed  to  the  telegraph  light- 
house, the  whole  time  might  be  saved.  If  avail  hia 
own  house  was  invisilile  to  the  ship,  but  within  view 
of  the  light-house,  hn  might,  by  means  of  a  siwwil 
light,  correspond  with  tiie  ship,  through  the  intfirvaiM 
tion  of  the  light-house,  repeathig  the  signals  nf  hutb 
parties.  Colored  shades  might,  if  thought  i<X|wdi*l)t, 
be  used  for  different  dictionaries  ;  or  un  •ntirely  illd*' 
pendent  lantern  might  be  speciuiiy  devoted  to  eig' 
nals ;  but  this  would  cause  additional  exiwnna,  aiid 
seems  unnecessar}'.  It  may  be  ol)Jected  to  this  plan, 
that  it  would  mislead  other  vessels  on  first  coming  In 
siglit  of  the  light-house.  This  objection,  liowavsr,  will 
lie  found  on  examination  to  lie  invalid  ;  for  a  ship  on 
first  getting  sight  of  a  light-house,  will  lai  at  the  dis- 
tance of  many  miles ;  and  ns  nil  telegraphic  mesaagsa 
would  consist  of  more  than  three  places  of  figures,  tlia 
ship  would  immediately  perceive  that  the  ligtit-housa 
was  acting  telegruphicaiiy,  and  on  turning  to  tlia  difl* 
tionary  would  even  become  acquainted  with  ft*  llHia> 
sage.  Besides,  in  the  course  of  every  tliree  mimitaii, 
at  least,  the  light-house  would  re|)eut  its  own  numlwrr 
Thus  tlie  ship  would  always  know  that  it  was  \n  the 
presence  of  a  light-house ;  and  if  its  reckoning  did  n"( 
enable  it  Identify  the  light,  it  could  only  remain  in 
doubt  during  a  few  minutes. 

"  Telgraphic  Signals  between  Shipt  at  night. — Tb«  «p« 
plication  of  tlie  system  of  occultations  to  shl|M  at  lun 
may  not  perhaps  be  quite  so  easy  as  that  wbltb  ta 
proposed  for  light-liouses,  but  no  ol)jectian  liaa  yat 
occurred  which  appears  at  all  insurmountable,  'i'ha 
question  of  the  position  of  the  occulted  light  or  Itgllta 
placed  on  the  ship  must  be  settled  iiy  practical  man, 
aflor  due  consideration  and  experiment.  It  may, 
however,  be  suggested,  that  a  light  hid  by  a  mast  or 
sail  may  yet  have  its  occultations  made  (lerfiu'tly  a|>|Nt> 
rent  liy  reflection  from  another  sail,  If  such  a  syslant 
of  signals  were  adopted,  fleets  might  sail  in  cuinpaiiy 
during  the  night,  each  repeating  its  own  numlier  i  and 


LIG 


12S4 


VBjT 


% 


anj-  ordm  could  be  conveyed  to  any  individual  «hip. 
Specific  lights  have  already  hcen  employed  to  distin- 
guish sailing-vessels  from  steamers,  in  order  to  prevent 
collisions.  By  adapting  the  system  of  occultations  to 
one  or  more  of  the  lights  of  steamers,  their  character 
would  appear  more  distinctly,  and  at  greater  distances. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  it  would  Im  lietter  to  have  the  dis- 
tinctive character  of  u  steam- vessel  indicated  l>y  a  con- 
tinual enlargement  and  diminution  of  its  light,  mtlier 
than  by  an  occultutinn.  Two  steamers  alwi  would 
have  much  leas  reason  for  approaching  each  other,  be- 
cause thoy  could  hold  any  correspondence  by  signals. 
They  might  also,  by  the  same  means,  convey  to  each 
other  their  intended  course  long  before  they  approach 
each  other, 

"  Of  a  univenal  Dictimary  of  Sli/nnU.—'WYieWwt 
the  system  of  occultations  tje  generally  adapted  or 
not,  numerical  dictionaries  of  signals  have  l*en  fonnd 
absolutely  nocessarj-,  and  have  long  l)ecn  in  use.  The 
rapid  increase  Imth  of  ships  and  of  steamers  renders 
some  common  language  for  ail  natifins  almost  ii  mat- 
ter of  necessity.  The  concurrence  between  adjacent 
nations  in  numbering  their  respective  light-houses 
would  he  essential  if  any  numerical  system  is  adopted 
for  distinguishing  them.  Such  un  opportunitj'  ought 
not  to  be  lost  of  rendering  those  discussions  still  more 
useful  l)y  attempting  to  organize  a  plan  for  a  universal 
system  ot  numerical  signals.  The  first  step  might, 
perhaps,  lie  that  each  nation  should  suppij'  all  ques- 
tions and  answers  that  ships  could  ever  require  for 
their  safety  or  convenience.  Out  of  these,  the  dupli- 
cates lieing  omitted,  the  first  draught  of  the  naval  part 
of  the  dictionary  might  be  formed.  This  l)eing  sui)- 
mitted  to  criticism,  would  probably  itself  suggest 
many  additions. 

"  The  questions  shoul.l  he  ver' carfuUy  translated 
into  the  languages  of  all  maritime  nations,  and  should 
be  printed  in  columns  for  each  language.  A  dictionary 
of  tbi.4  l(ind,  containing  alwut  6(XKi  terms  in  ten  Eu- 
ropean languages,  was  published  in  1849  by  M.  K.  P. 
Tcr  Kceliorst.  The  words  are  contained  on  about  200 
douliie  pages ;  and  since  each  word,  of  which  there 
are  usually  about  25  in  a  page,  is  nnrabered,  this  work 
might  be  used  as  a  numerical  telegraphic  dictionary. 
If  a  more  general  dictionary  were  undertaiten,  other 
considerations  arise,  and  the  great  questions  relating 
to  tie  philosophy  of  language  must  ho  examined  with 
refurence  to  such  a  work.  It  wiii,  however,  be  suffi- 
ciently early  to  enter  on  that  tulijcct  when  any  steps 
arc  seriously  taken  to  acfomplish  so  desirable  an  ob- 
ject. The  coutinualiy  increasing  use  of  the  electric 
telegraph  rendnrs  a  universal  language  still  more  de- 
sirable. 

"  Iki  the  Itlrnlification  of  a  f.iyhl-hnuif, — A  case  has 
been  more  tlian  once  suggested  to  the  author,  to  which 
it  may  lie  desiral>ie  to  advert  in  order  to  point  out  the 
course  of  ex|)erimcnt  which  may  lead  to  its  removal, 
.'it  certain  periods  of  the  year,  and  on  ceru  ',-.  consts, 
there  occur  dense  fogs.  IJnder  these  circumstances, 
it  lias  happened  that  a  vessel  has,  on  a  partial  and 
momentary  ofH^ning  in  the  fog,  insufficient  to  show 
more  than  a  single  >ccuitati<in,  found  herself  almost  close 
upon  a  light-house.  In  such  a  esse,  there  is  neither 
time  nor  opportunity  to  ascertain  its  number.  It  may 
here  tie  remarked,  that  the  assumed  danger  of  going 
ashore  is  so  imminent  that  it  Ik  not  nirettary  to  i(now 
the  numlHir.  It  is  sufficient  for  the  moment  to  know 
that  there  is  a  light-house  in  a  certain  direction,  which 
is  close  at  liand.  Jt  must,  however,  be  aamttted,  that 
in  common  v  ith  all  received  systems  of  lights,  the 
method  of  occu'tatlons  will  not  furnish  a  remedy.  If 
a  colored  light  is  already  employed  in  particular  local- 
ities to  meet  sucli  a  case,  it  will  still  accomplish  the 
purpose  when  wcultations  ai':  apjilied  to  it.  The 
dang<  r,  altiuiugh  rare,  ought,  hdwever,  to  be  provided 
■gainst.  The  fcilluwing  remarks  are  suggested  to  as- 
list  in  attaining  that  object : 


"  The  tima  between  two  occnltatlon*  (aanally  one 
second)  might  be  doubled  in  special  cases.  A  little  ex 
perience  would  enable  most  men  to  recognize  the  fact 
after  two  occultations.  If  such  light-houses  were 
placed  alternately  with  others,  no  light-house  would 
bs  mistaken  for  either  of  its  adjacent  neighbors.  This 
plan  might  be  partially  extended,  but  it  is  liable  to 
olijecticns.  Another  view  may  be  taken.  Is  it  possi- 
lile  to  give  a  specific  character  to  the  occultation  itself  ? 
It  has  been  found,  that  if  the  occultating  cylinder  de- 
scend rather  slowly  over  the  lamp,  and  then,  after  a 
very  ihort  pause,  rise  suddenly,  the  eflfect  is  best.  It 
has  also  been  observed,  when  an  accidental  defect  in 
the  apparatus  caused  the  cylinder,  after  suddenly 
rising  up,  to  reliound,  and  again  to  obscure  partially 
the  lamp,  that  the  nature  of  the  ocLultation  was  pecu- 
liarly characteristic.  This  peculiarity  was  verj-  re- 
markable up  to  a  certain  distance,  after  which  it 
liecame  lost.  Almost  any  form  of  peculiarity  can  lie 
given  to  the  occultations  by  giving  proper  forms  to  the 
cams  which  govern  them.  The  fact  that  such  pecu- 
liarities are  not  seen  until  the  ship  has  approached 
within  certain  distances,  does  not  appear  to  present  a 
material  difficulty,  and  may  even  prove  an  advantage. 
It  would  seem,  then,  to  lie  de.^irable  to  institute  a  se- 
ries of  experiments  to  determine  the  following  ques- 
tions :  Can  the  occultations  of  a  lamp,  in  which  the 
rapid  re-appearance  of  the  light  occurs  from  the  falling 
down  of  the  shade,  bo  distinguished  from  those  in  which 
it  occurs  in  consequence  of  the  rapid  riting  up  of  the 
shade ;  and  if  so,  at  what  distance  ?  In  some  cases 
tile  shades  might  move  from  right  to  left,  and  in  tha 
reverse  direction.  What  peculiarities  in  occultations 
can  lie  seen  at  the  greatest  distances  ?  Among  the 
experiments  still  require^  may  be  mentioned  the  loss 
of  light  resulting  from  the  interposition  of  colored 
glasses,  and  also  the  proportion  of  light  lost  liy  sacri- 
ficing given  portions  of  various  parts  of  the  optical  ap- 
puratucused  for  concentrating  it.  This  is  necosury 
in  order  to  enalile  us  to  judge  what  portion  may  lie 
most  economically  sacrificed  in  case  the  space  might 
lie  required  for  other  purposes.  Ihe  dangers  arising 
from  fogs  are  of  such  un  extent  that  all  the  resources 
of  science  ought  to  be  called  in  to  remove  them,  ^'nl. 
talc  light  can  scarcely  lie  depended  upon  except  under 
continual  superintendence ;  it  would  therefore  bo  ex- 
pensive. If,  however,  any  intense  Uglit  can  lie  found 
capable  of  penetrating  dense  fogs,  it  migiit,  during 
their  continuance,  tie  go^rf  oconomy  'o  employ  it  even 
at  consideralile  expense.  Perhaps  the  ordinary  light- 
house lamps  might  l>e  supplied  wiih  oxygen  during 
fogs ;  its  expenditure  being  regulated  by  the  oliscurity 
to  lie  penetrated.  Possibly  portions  of  ]iho8phorus 
might  be  burnt  in  oxygen,  and  the  liglit-house  would 
then  express  its  nunilMr  l)y  a  series  ut  fttuhes,  and  of 
pmuet  between  them.  The  new  form  which  that  body 
is  now  known  to  assume,  might  render  itj  a(  plication 
to  i\.\»  purpose  free  from  danger. 

"  On  Simtuit  meilfir  SignaU. — Uoth  gongs  aiid  iieiU 
are  employed  as  substitutes  for  lights  during  fogs.  I 
am  not  aware  of  any  series  of  experiments  on  the  ilis- 
tances  at  which  sounds  of  various  kinds  can  be  hearii. 
In  a  question  on  which  so  much  property  and  so  many 
lives  depend,  it  is  surely  important  to  lie  well  informcil. 
The  only  resource  is  experiment.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  low  notes  of  the  gong  might  be  confuUiided 
with  those  of  the  roll  of  waves  hreaki'.g  on  the  shore, 
while  the  slirill  whistle  of  Che  steam-engine  will  find  a 
rival  in  the  wind  whistling  through  the  rigging.  The 
trumpet  and  the  new  and  still  more  powerful  instru- 
ment at  the  recent  oxposition  ought  also  to  lie  com- 
pared. 

"  Again,  although  some  of  these  may  b«  heard  at 
greater  distances  in  the  open  air,  some  nuiy  be  more 
easily  adapted  to  have  tlieir  sound  concentrated  and 
directed,  when  placed  in  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  mir- 
ror, or,  perhaps,  at  the  •  ■  i  of  a  long  tube.     Souud  is 


LIG 


1266 


LIG 


trusmitted  to  coiuidenbis  disUncM  tbrongh  water, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  might  be  used  in 
ease  of  fogs.  But  it  seems  probable  that  sound  would 
he  much  interrupted  in  its  progress  from  the  constant 
motion  of  the  waves;  and  if  it  were  transmitted  at  a 
considerable  depth,  it  might  be  diffl'-ult  for  a  vessel  to 
send  down  an  apparatus  to  render  it  sensible.  Experi- 
ments should  be  made  on  the  distance  at  which  sounds 
can  be  heard  under  water  in  various  circumstances  of 
its  motion.  If,  during  storms,  the  surface  only  is  agi- 
tated, it  might  be  possible  to  transmit  sounds  in  the 
still  water  near  the  bottom  to  considerable  distances. 
Thus  channels  might  be  traversed  by  telegraphic  com- 
munications with  a  less  costly  apparatus  than  that  of 
the  electric  wire.  It  ought  also  to  be  ascertained 
whether  the  forms  of  the  instruments  struck  would 
enable  them  to  project  their  sounds  in  particular  direc- 
tions. Gongs,  bells,  and  the  firing  of  cannon  under 
water,  are  among  the  sounds  to  be  tried. 

"  Whatever  mny  be  the  sound  audible  at  the  great- 
est distance,  it  will  be  necessar}-  to  ascertain  what  are 
the  best  means  of  producing  it  in  greatest  intensity — 
whether  by  one  large  instrument,  or  by  many  small 
ones.  It  seems  probable  that  some  combination  of 
discordant  sounds  may  be  most  effective,  because  it 
seems  to  be  a  luw  of  our  nature  that  contrasts  produce 
stronger  impressions  than  uniformity.  There  is  one 
form  of  sound  the  most  disagreeable  with  which  we 
are  acquuinte<) ;  it  is  said  'to  set  tlie  teeth  on  edge.' 
What  is  the  cause  of  this,  unci  does  that  highly  obno.i- 
ious  sound  penetrate  further  than  others  ?  If  it  pen- 
etrate as  far  as  others,  it  will  certainly  be  the  earliest 
to  he  noticed, 

"  Liijhta  on  Buoys. — The  time  is  probably  ni.'  remote 
when  lights  will  be  placed  on  floating  buo;  s  for  the 
purpose  of  |)ointing  out  isolated  dangers — as  sunken 
rocks,  shoals,  otc,  on  which  light-liouses  can  not  be 
placed,  or  where  the  great  expense  may  prevent  them 
from  Iteing  built.  They  may  also  be  useful  to  indicate 
the  channels  leading  to  some  few  ports  of  verj'  great 
resort  in  order  to  render  the  approach  of  vessels  possi- 
ble during  the  night.  The  lirst  difliculty  in  placing 
lights  on  buoys  arises  from  the  necessity  of  trimming 
the  lan-.ps,  and  of  supplying  them  with  fresh  oil. 
Gidvanic  processes  seem  to  present  u  8imi''\r  difficulty. 
The  chemical  discoverirs  of  recent  times,  however, 
offer  some  liop^  of  rvmoving  it.  By  the  destructive 
distillation  of  peat,  of  coal,  and  of  shale,  as  well  as  by 
other  methods,  a  yari^'ty  of  immliiiaticns  of  hydrogen 
and  carbon  have  been  obtained.  Some  of  these  only 
remain  liquid  under  a  pressure  of  two  or  three  atmos- 
pheres. They  posse's  considerable  illuminating  power ; 
and  by  confining  them  in  a  close  vessel,  and  allowing 
a  very  small  aperturo  for  f  heir  escape  in  the  state  of 
gas,  a  jet  of  flame  may  '  i.  produced,  of  uniform  mag- 
nitude, and  without  the  use  of  a  wick,  until  the  last 
drop  of  fluid  has  evaporated.  If  such  a  fluid  couid  lie 
produced  nt  a  moderate  price,  '>  quantity  might  l>e  in- 
closed witliin  the  buoy,  sufEciekit  to  last  several  weeks, 
if  not  months, 

"  Such  u  light  would  bum  withont  the  necessity  of 
trimming,  but  it  would  require  mechanism  tu  light  it 
each  evening,  and  to  put  it  out  each  morning.  Such 
mechanism  already  exists  in  many  of  our  public  clocks. 
If  it  is  thought  desirable,  too,  that  it  should  :>ccult,  so 
as  to  indicate  its  number,  tha  plan  already  described 
might  be  applied.  Thus  t!  e  buoy  would  contain  two 
pieces  of  mechanism.  The  only  remaining  Jithoulty 
would  Iw  the  necessity  of  visiting  the  light  frequently 
in  order  to  wind  up  the  two  instruments.  This  might 
probably  be  removed  I))'  having  within  the  buoy  a 
heavy  pendu)  jm,  or  perhaps  two  such,  swinging  «t 
right  angles  to  each  other.  If  the  perpendicular  mo- 
tion of  the  buoy  could  be  secured,  then  the  winding  up 
pendulums  must  be  maintained  horiiiontally  by  means 
cf  a  powerful  spring.  These,  by  the  action  of  the 
naves,  would  be  continually  winding  up  the  springs 


which  drive  the  mechanism.  This  might  be  ao  ar- 
ranged that  it  would  never  over-wind  them.  Spirits 
of  turpentine,  binaole,  and  several  other  compounds, 
assume  a  gaseous  state  at  very  low  temperatures.  If 
the  end  of  a  tolerably  thick  rod  of  metal  is  heated  by 
the  flame  of  the  lamp,  und  the  other  end  conducts  the 
heat  to  the  bottom  of  the  fluid,  it  is  sufficient  to  pro-_ 
duce  a  continuous  stream  of  gas  to  supply  the  burner' 
untU  the  last  drop  of  the  fluid  is  exhausted.  Lamps 
constructed  on  this  principle  liiive,  under  various 
names,  been  in  use  for  several  years.  If  the  fluid 
were  sufliciently  cheap,  one  of  these  movements  might 
be  dispensed  with,  by  allowing  tiw  light  to  bum  con- 
stantly during  the  day  as  well  as  the  night.  New 
forms  would  be  required  for  such  buoys.  Probably  a 
columnar  form,  weighted  at  the  bottom,  might  give  a 
steadier  light  amid  the  fluctuations  caused  by  the 
waves.  These  buoys  should  be  attached  to  their 
moorings  by  rings  fixed  at  the  centre  of  resistance. 

"  0/lhe  Mechanimn  necuiaryfnr  OcculUiu,  Lighta. — 
The  period  of  time  occupied  l>y  any  occulting  light  in 
making  a  signal  is  so  short  th^t  great  accuracy  in  the 
wheel-work  is  not  necessary.  In  light-houses  the 
moving  power  may  be  a  heavy  weight  driving  a  train 
of  wheels.  This  must  terminate  in  a  governor,  which 
presses  by  springs  against  the  inner  side  of  a  hollow 
cylinder.  AVhen  the  length  of  the  time  nccessarj'  to 
indicate  the  number  of  the  light-house  is  known,  the 
governor  must  be  so  adjusted  that  some  one  axis  shall 
revolve  in  the  given  time.  A  cam-wheel  must  be  fixed 
on  this  axis,  having  its  cams  and  blank  spaces  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  lift  up  the  tail  of  a  lever  carrj-inj^  the  oo- 
cultating  cylinder  at  the  proper  intervals  of  time. 
Each  tooth  of  the  cam-wheel  will  cause  an  occultation 
of  the  lamp  l)y  the  cylinder,  which  is  instantly  drawn 
back  by  a  spring.  It  is  obvious  that  an  axis  m'ght  l)e 
used  whicn  moves  round  in  the  course  of  two,  three, 
or  more  cj'cles.  In  this  case,  the  same  system  of  cams 
would  be  repeated  an  equal  number  of  times  in  the 
circumference  of  the  cam-wheel.  This  plan  is  sufficient 
for  light-houses  which  are  not  intended  for  signal  sta- 
tions also.  When  signals  are  to  be  used,  it  is  better 
to  have  a  single  cam  on  an  axis  which  revolves  once 
in  the  time  which  elapses  from  the  end  of  one  occulta- 
ti.in  to  the  i-nd  of  the  next.  The  effect  of  this  cam 
will  be,  by  acting  upon  a  forked  lever,  to  lift  up  the 
occulting  cylinder.  If  nothing  retain  it  in  that  posi- 
tion, the  action  of  the  spring  on  the  lever  will  cause  it 
to  descend,  and  the  cylinder,  acted  ou  by  gravity,  will 
instantly  follow.  But  if  an  arm  is  interposed  which 
retains  the  cylinder,  then  the  forked  lever  alone  will 
be  pulled  back  by  its  spring,  and  the  occulting  cylin- 
der will  remain  suspenilod  until  the  next  tun  of  the 
cam-wheel.  The  suspending  arm  which  was  inter- 
pOi^?d  must  itself  lie  governed  by  a  cam-wheel,  ex- 
pressing the  number  of  the  light-house. 

"When  a  signal  is  to  be  made,  an  adjustable  cam- 
wh<::el  is  to  be  set  to  the  proposed  signal,  and  is  to  be 
fixed  upon  thaotxis  carrying  the  constant  number  of 
the  light-house.  When  the  proper  time  arrives  tar 
making  the  signal,  it  is  only  necessary  to  shift  the 
axis,  so  that  the  adjustable  cam-wheel  shall  be  moved 
into  the  place  occupied  by  the  fixed  cam-wheel,  Tb« 
signal  will  now  be  made  and  repeated  as  often  as  re- 
quired, after  which,  the  original  position  of  the  con- 
stant cam-wheel  must  be  restored,  it  is  clcav  that 
any  number  of  adjusting  cam-wheels  might  be  pre- 
pared for  signals,  and  put  upon  the  axis  at  once,  so 
;  that  u  series  of  different  signals  might  !»  made  in  a 
very  short  time.  Lights  to  -.nark  the  depth  of  water 
must  have  a  heavy  6oat  connected  with  them,  wkich, 
at  every  foot  of  its  rise  or  fall,  must  alter  the  numbei 
of  occultations  made  by  the  colored  light.  It  must, 
also,  at  the  turn  of  the  tide,  change  the  color  of  the 
!  light.  It  is  sufiicient  for  the  present  purpose  to  ob- 
I  serve  that  the  mechanism  similar  to  that  by  which  a 
I  clock  strikes  different  hours,  might  be  ea[doy«d  f«r 


LIG 


1256 


UQ 


tbia  pnrpoM..  The  xell  in  which  the  float  i<i  placed 
ought  to  be  oien  to  the  tida  by  several  sm.'ll  ai>ertarea ; 
tblt  would  render  the  riae  or  fall  of  the  float  more  uni- 
form Telescopea  are  used  fi>r  ubaerving  liffht-houaes. 
They  h»v«  a  ainail  magnifying  power,  bat  a  Urge  aper- 


ture. It  ia  important  that  Ony  ahonld  be  aa  abort 
aa  poaaible,  for  taking  in  a  given  visual  angle.  Poa- 
aibly,  thoae  oonatructed  with  a  lens  of  rock-ciystal 
might  bo  employed  with  advantage,  but  upon  thia  aub- 
Ject,  alao,  experiment  muat  be  made. 


Umx.  Brtktm.* 

Portland 

Degutn 

WeatQuoddjr.. 
lUonhofan  lil . . 
lOwl'a  Hi-ad . . . 
Cue  Kllzabetli. 

|l)lce'aH(iad...! 
lEagle  lal.  point 

|Buar  Island 

Boston 

iTluttcfasr's  lal. . 


CapaOod 

Oay  Bead 

iflaiikaty  Head. . 
Jufitpor  Island, 
jf Jew  London  . . 
jKaton'aNcck... 

Montauk 

sandy  Hook.... 
NarAlnk 


Cape  Henlopen 

(!ap«  Henry 

iUdUcad 

Cape  Uatteraa. . 
Oap«  Lookout . 

Cliarleaton 

Cape  Uoinain.. . 

Tyhce 

llry  Tortugaa . 
Cape  Florida. . . 
Cape  May 


RHOUSIf  LIOHTS 


SoUly 

Longshlps. . 
Lizard 


Eddystone 

!«lart  Point... 
Caaonota 


Portland. 


CoMPAnATiTa  Elkvation  or  Foanuii  amd  Umitiii  8TATia'  LiauT-Haoaa  Towaaa,  xtc 


40 
T3 

T» 
M 

Mr 

S8 
101 
S6 
»6 
K 
35 
SS 


68 
86 
4B 
45 
78 
>4 
18 
S8 
S8 
85 
TO 
S« 
106 

to 

8« 


Mcedles 

ii.  Catliarlno'a. 
(leacby  Head. . 
Dangooncss. .. 
r*antb  Puro^and     41 
"  »       !    8J 

North  Foreland;    TO 

Orford '  8T 

fiovaatoft 48 

•        48 

Haiabromfa..  85 


80 
IM 
80 
ITO 
MI 
140 
)40 
IK 
100 
86 
80 
80 
80 
160 
178 

85 
111 
134 
ISO 

80 
848 


Hatsbrough . . . 
iCronur. 


ICbapel.'. !.!.!!'    48 


Brum 

iFuunborough., 
Tynituout'i 


Inobkelth. . . 

tale  of  May. . 

It 

Bell  Rock... 
Olrdieness. 


3uchsnne99 . 
Klnnalrd.... 

Bkeirlof 

Tarbet, 

Noss  Itiad, . 

Duniiet 

I'entland. . . . 


Start. 


jTj      Snmburg. 


180 
ll!0 
110 
85 
86 
105 
87 
100 
70 
70 


188 

88 

221 

284 

72 

204 

81 

81 

61 

188 

181 

408 

178 

885 

82 

872 

275 

184 

86 

87 

118 

48 

187 


Ca|>e  Wraili. . . . 

Glass 

Uarrallead 

Skerryvorc...  I 

Liamore ( 

Khina  of  Islsy. . 

Kynlyre 

Pladda 

Mull 

Little  itoss 

Corsowall 

Calf  of  Man.... 

Douglas 


IMOI.AND — 
WMT  COAST. 


Bt  B«ca 

Walney 

Black  Itock,.. 

I^sowu 

Lynns 

Sktirrics 

Stock 

Bardscy 

Small's  (Knck) 
8t  Ann's 


Houth  Bliliuu... 

Caldy 

Mumbles.. . . 
Naah 


FUtholm 

Lnndy 

Trovoae  Head. 


100 


100 
67 

120 

45 
80 
10 
80 
85 

r,o 

80 

Rork. 

ftwaah 

80 

88 
80 
70 

88 
65 
40 
65 


US 
60 
118 
60 
86 
54 
68 
78 

44 

17 
86 
40 
66 
80 
46 
77 


100 
«74 
115 
106 
814 
IM 


880 
840 
110 
8C 
186 

re 

180 
180 
160 
176 
176 
846 
170 
140 
100 
800 
400 
180 
680 
150 
108 
160 
887 
130 
825 
175 
118 
875 
2S2 
104 


70 
118 
800 
128 
117 
201 
128 

70 
188 
168 
144 
210 
114 
167 
122 
156 
610 
804 
188 


IKIIkradan 
Bkelllg. 


latL  KKD- 

FaatoetUoek..... 

iCape  Clear 

Kljaalo 

KInaalo  Harbor., 

Hook  Tower 

Tuskar 

Wlcltlow 


Bally 

l*oolbug.... 
CarllnffoidcKock) 
('opoland.. . 
Maidens.. . . 


Inalatrabul.. , 
Tory  Island., 
Kllfybcg..... 

Eagle 

Clare  Island. . 

Arran '    a. 

Loophcad I     tO    {269 


H.y. 

lion 

•bon 

tower. 

■e* 

lord. 

r-t. 

fMt. 

76 

161 

48 

465 

42 

274 

86 

98 

110 

152 

81 

I'l'. 

68 

^ 

U» 

121 

48 

184 

68 

68 

111 

101 

52 

181 

60 

84 

60 

04 

26 

167 

68 

■»(»r 

Panaa  am. 

Aroona 

Jerahoft 

Rlxhiift 

Hela. 

Briisteriirt 

Memel. 


SwKDDH. 

Orsklir 

Oriinskir.. . . . 

Koraao 

I^nd.so.t 

rtlund 

Kullon...,    . 

Marst;aiid  . . , 


This  list  romprlsos 
ttU  the  moftt  im- 
puriant  lighU. 

BauiiCH. 

Oatend  (2d  order 
fixed) 


\vn 


MCTHKRLANDS. 

Wf-stkappeUnx'd) 
Scbouwon  (lat  or- 
der Icna) 

Oooree  (flxod),... 
Briellolfliod).,.. 
!Egmonu-aan-zeo  . 

Kykdulu 

IVlleland 

Toracbclllng. 

IIamovkriax. 

Borcum 

UAHBuau. 

Nenwerk  (flxod). 

DAHii.a. 

8kaw 

Anholt 

He&jel('ie 

NakkShored 

Kronborg 

Thun»e 

atoTMUskllnt 

Fakkcbolrg 

Hameren 

Lubec 


110 


183 


118 


878 


87 


146 

170 

148 
808 
186 
154 
151 
177 

142 


69 
188 

85 
147 
118 
100 
144 
128 
880 


NoBwaoiAN. 

FoDrder 

Jumfruland... 

0x1)0 

TheNaxe 

HarkJie 

(lunnarshong. 
Iloldlngsiio... 

Rondiie 

Qultbulmea.  . 
Terulogeu.... 

Agdenwe. 

Villa  Oen 

RusaiAK. 

Swalforort. , . . 

Riga. 

Fllsand 


ISm: 
tlon 
above 

:>Tii. 


Dagerort 

OdeO'^holm*. . . 

Pakorort  

Sourop  

Nargbon. ..... 

ticvel 


Hoglaiid 

Oufo 

HangsoDd,. . . 
Parkaloud... 

Euakar 

Odo&.ja. 

Polllnghe.... 
Tarkankoot.. 
Kheraon'M . . 
Inkerinan. . . . 


Takll I 

Baloiar.'ilak I 


r««t. 

808 
166 

226 
130 
1« 


113 
103 
151 
145 

180 
288 
97 

292 


216 

14 
iO 
146 
201 
129 
133 
16^ 
181 
lUO 
lit 
124 


110 
100 
110 
96 
6-18 
111 
I4« 
180 
116 
136 
210 
882 
116 
'  107 
I  172 
1«» 

\% 
115 
109 
420 
860 
168 
176 


*  Tbia  liat  of  84  towera  comprises  those  ofithc  greatest  elevatf  ^n  of  the  eo"-(i  n"uibor  of  stations  (286)  on  the  coasts  of 
the  United  States.  Of  tlie  remaining  towers  (say  °MI),  the  nu^Jorlty  have  n^  greati'r  average  elevation  than  t1  to 6^  feet  while 
there  are  many  having  Icsr  than  30  to  40  feet    The  European  lists,  on  the  contrary,  comprisu  uo^rlv  all  the  sr.  ooost  lights. 


pr*m«. 


ScoTon 
Of  the  34  nortbem  llgbta  in 
a*  below : 

No.  0(     ; 

Hum.  lanpo  A 

Isleoi'Hay 24 

Bell  Rock '20 

(ilrdienoM 98  '• 

Bachaoneaa 84 

Miinalrd  Iliad 18 

Tarbctncts 91 

i'eatand  Skerries  (Vt) . . . .  DO 

8wnburK  Head. 86 

Dunnet  Head 17 

"  Of  the  27  northern  lights  in  1845,  there  werf  4  d!- 
oplric  lights.  (Itetiector  lights.)  1  fltted  witli  28  lampa 
and  reflectors;  2  with  '16;  4  with  24:  2  with  21;  2 
with  20;  1  with  19;  8  with  IH  ;  1  with  17;  1  with  16; 


Lioirrs.  I 

1834,  the  following  were  fitted  | 

No.  of 
iSmpoSt 
Kaouton. 

Cape  Wrath 20 

Island  Olasa 18 

Barra  Head 81 

Liauiore 18 

Islay 24 

MullofKlntyre 90 

MDllofOalloway IT 

One  of  only 8 

Blxof  jnly 18 


4  with  12.  In  1861,  nearly  all  the  northnrn  lights  tit- 
ted  previously  with  reflectors  and  Argand  lamps  had 
be:n  changed  to  Ions  lighti  and  the  colza  or  rupe-.seed 
oil  introdiicod.  Perfectly  formed  parnho  ic  reflectors, 
heavily  plated  with  silver,  and  of  largo  ""lie,  are  employ- 
ed in  the  lights  of  Great  Britain,  chitlly  24  and  21  inihcs 
in  diamotrr.  Refle -tors  are  l)eing  changed  as  rapidly  aa 
puaail>le  foi-  lenacs,  and  the  holupliotal  .system  of  lenses 
and  reflectors  upon  the  plan  of  Mr.  Thomas  Stevenson 
'^f  Edinl'urg. 

"  Of  the  sea-coast  lights  of  Ireland  In  1845,  1  waa 
fitlad  witi'  40  lampa  and  redeotora  ;  1  with  28 ;  1  with 
27  ;  2  with  28 ;  2  with  24 ;  l  with  28  ^  6  with  21 ;  2 
with  20 ;  8  with  1!) ;  1  with  17  ;  2  with  Ifl ;  8  with  J5. 

'-  Floating  lAghta. — 1  was  fitted  with  24  lamps  and 
tefleotora ;  2  with  10.      Lens  lights  are  beiuij  iiitru- 


I«Hefe,  .,, 
Ilarre,  4iii 
Taucarvlll,- 
I'oliil  lie  ' 
I'olnte  de 
'La  llotruf, 
■fsloa  t^hari 
(Iranvfli,., 
Cape  Frth, 
lleau.v  do  i 

L'llle  -lo  It 

''Tile  .1  Uii 
l«t.  MatlilcL 
jl'ortiec,  2d 
\Vlh  do  Sei 
Bic  da  Kaji, 
Belle  III),  1 
phaislroD, 
(Virdoaan,  1 
f'apv  Beam, 
Mont  d'Agd 
(Mont  Posfu! 

"  There 

Wihlj,  witiL 

'e*t,  range 

fejt,  range 

fahge  18 

range  20 

range  18 

range  18 

range  20  , 

'ion,  range 

feef,  range 

tnfllcient 

nautical  ni{ 

have  gener 

milea.    Thi 

I'rniico. 


im 


125T 


LIO 


lU 

180 

148 

98 


,118 
108 
151 

145 
180 
288 
OT 
I  292 


21S 

4 

,iO 

14« 
SOI 
12» 
188 
1&3 
I  181 

;loo 
11" 

12« 


I  110 
100 

no 
«« 

m 
111 


145 
1  101    1 

I  n»  ■ 

I  iw 

203 

'  128 

115 

1  10» 

.      420 

860 

168 

1T6 

1  tlio  coasts  of 

j6.-foet,wliIto 

tOMt  lights. 


In  1845, 1  was 
ith  28 ;  1  with 

6  with  21 ;  i 
Ifi  J  8  with  IS- 

24  lampa  and 
Q  being  ii.tw- 


ditced  intio  Inland,  and  th«  eolia  or  i«pe-(e«d  oU  inb- 
Btltated  for  wtnter-atraincd  ap«rm  oil. 


f 


XiiKrrT  Hou»  Cohpokitioii  Ltaun  in  1984. 


•^jKmiw  Md  ■hanutor 


Num. 


No.  of 

roSMton. 
FLOATINO   LldUTS. 

NevuTk M 

OoodwiD 14 

Oalloiier 16 

HalBborouKh It 

Stanftird t9 

OallHtroain 16 

Lynn  WoU II 


No.  or  I 

"'"a"-         4ai'.?.J,i 

^cllty,  raTolTlni. 80 

£(l(lrstone,  flxcd M 

rortland,  rovoWIng, SI 

Llnrd  (8),  fixed each  IS 

Flomborough,  revolving.  21 
Biiuth  Sbick,  revolving. . .  21 
Itcachy  H('a<I,  revolving.  SO 

ileMgolaml,  flxud S4 

Koulnes.%  revolving 80 

I.onJ«blpa. 19 

N.  Foreland. IS 

"  Whole  number  of  Trinity  Houae  lights  in  1834, 42 ; 
do.  floating  lights  in  1834,  la. 

"  Trimty  llouit  Corporation  Lightt. — Total  number  of 
li|{ht-hoiisea  in  18  to,  66;  floating  lights  in  1845,26. 
Of  tfa  it  number,  there  were,  in  1846,  lat  order  lena 
lights,  11 ;  2d  order,  4 ;  totidL  in  1845,  16.  Of  the  61 
romRining  (reflector)  lights,  V«'ere  fltted  with  30  lamps 
and  reflectors  each ;  1  with  27 ;  1  with  26 ;  4  with  24 ; 
2  with  21 ;  3  with  19 ;  8  with  18 ;  3  with  17 ;  3  with 
15  j  1  with  14:  6  with  13.  Of  the  26  floating  lights 
belonging  to  the  Trinity  House  in  1845,  2  were  fitted 
with  24  lamps  and  reflectors  each  ;  9  with  16 ;  1  with 
12 ;  8  with  8 ;  6  with  4.  6  lens  apparatus  have  been 
introduced  into  the  Trinity  House  lights  between  1846 
and  1851. 

"  The  fourth  order  lenses  are  introdaced  as  substi- 
tutes in  ^arbors  for  reflectors, 

Fkrnch  Linim. 


Ns-no  ud  ehomotor  of  light. 

Holalit 

tower. 

Bleva- 
lion. 

Ranne. 

Fool. 

F.«l. 

Va.t.ni 

Donkorqu'-,  Jst  order,  revolving. 

Qravellnes  nd  order,  6xed     

198 

84 

166 

4T 

94 
189 
193 

IS 

20 
28 

Calais,  l8t  order,  movable 

Cape  OrlsneJ,  Ist  ordiT,  revolving 

\A  Canche.  1st  order,  fixed 

169 

172 

20 

(jayoux.  iif\  order,  mo\iiMe 

91 

15 

Treport,  -Uh  order,  fixed 

36 

9 

Fecamp,  lat  order  fixed  ...     

55 

422 
39 

18 
9 

Fecamp,  4tli  order,  revolving 

Ia  l/pve,  Ist  order,  fiXed 

66 

898 
89 

SO 
10 

Havre,  4tli  order,  lis  jrt 

104 
43 

416 
137 

15 

Point  de  Vcr.  8d  ordnr,  movable 

I'olnlo  do  Barfleiif.  («t  order,  revolving 

834 

28 

La  Hague,  1st  order,  fixed 

156 

IS 

Isles  C^Biiney,  8d  order,  movable 

(Iranvflle.  3il  order,  fi.Ktd 

M 

120 

16 

43 

1.^S 

15 

Cape  Frehel,  Ist  order,  revolving 

78 

2.'S7 

23 

lleaux  do  Brehat.  1st  order,  fixed 

146 

18 

l.'Islo  lie  Bss,  1st  order,  revolving 

l.'Isle  d'Bur^nt,  1st  order,  P\ed  

If" 

821 

24 

<^i 

'J7.1 

18 

I8t.  Msthleu, 2d  order,  revolving 

81 

175 

m 

10T 

1S2 
185 

18 
20 

L'lle  de  Bell.,  irt  order,  oiovable 

Bee  du  Raa,  1st  or(  er,  fixed 

M 

807 

18 

Belle  lie,  Ist  order, .  jvolving 

l.V) 

878 

27 

Oliaaslron,  Ist  order,  fixed 

140 

16B 

18 

Cordouan,  tat  order,  revolving 

SOS 
30 

748 

8i 
18 

Uont  d'Agde,  lat  order,  revolving 

■'r, 

410 

27 

Mont  reslusuto,  lat  order,  tevidvlng. . . 

52 

828 

27 

"  There  are,  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  ist  order 
lltbtj,  with  elevations  1."^)  feet,  range  '22  miles ;  192 
feet,  range  18  miles ;  176  I'eet,  range  18  miles ;  237 
fe^t,  range  20  miles  ;  160  feet,  ranf^  18  miles ;  l.'Vt  feet, 
range  18  miles ;  130  feet,  range  20  miles  '.>60  feet, 
range  20  mllus ;  420  feet,  range  27  rnlles  ,  3.15  feet, 
range  18  miles ;  266  feet,  rang';  22  mit«.s ;  286  feet, 
range  18  miles ;  888  feet,  range  20  miles :  215  feet, 
rang"!  20  miles.  Second  or.lcr  lights,  7W  feet  eleva- 
tion, range  18  miles ;  IM  feet,  range  18  miles ;  150 
feet,  range  18  miles.  Third  order  lights  are  given  a 
snfflrient  e'evation  tn  average  a  range  of  about  1,*) 
nautical  niiled.  Fourth  nrd<ir  lights  (harbor  lights) 
have  generally  un  average  range  of  9  to  10  n;iutical 
miles.  This  list  comprises  all  the  important  lights  of 
ITnoce. 


Tabu  or  Dutahom  at  wnion  Oanora  oax  ■■  aam  a> 
8aA,    AcooaDiKO   to  tuiis  aaaraoTiTi  Ei.avATio!ca 
.    AMD  Tuc  KiavATioH  or  Tua  Eye  or  ma  Oaaaavia. 


K-iS.!- 

DlataMu 

DttUocfi 

HolghU 
In  r>il. 

DhfanOM 

niilaoMi 

hi  bglUh 
mllu. 

In  Routieal 
mlUi. 

loKiVlllill 
iaUm. 

bmoUal 
mlln. 

5 

2-958 

8-565 

lid 

18-874 

18-03 

10 

4'1S4 

8-638 

120 

14-490 

13-58 

16 

6188 

4-443 

180 

ifi-om 

m-os 

SO 

SfllO 

6-180 

140 

1B-66S 

18-67 

86 

6614 

6-786 

150 

17-801 

14-91 

80 

7-245 

6-888 

200 

18-708 

16-83 

85 

7-826 

6-787 

850 

80916 

18-14 

40 

8-366 

7-865 

800 

88413 

19-87 

45 

8-874 

7-696 

880 

84-748 

81-46 

50 

9-864 

3-118 

400 

86-467 

93-94 

55 

9-811 

8-5(19 

4.V) 

88-063 

84-88 

60 

10-246 

8-886 

60U 

SS-KO 

S5-«S 

66 

10-666 

9-249 

560 

81-034 

B6-90 

70 

11-047 

9-593 

600 

83-408 

3S-10 

75 

11-4o6 

9-985 

O.'M 

88-726 

89-25 

80 

11-88a 

10-26 

700 

85-000 

80-88 

85 

12-196 

10-57 

800 

87-416 

83-46 

90 

13-549 

10-8S 

900 

89-836 

84-54 

95 

lS-.<08 

11-18 

1,900 

41-888 

86-88 

100 

18-823 

11-47 

"  '  The  spheroidal  form  of  th"  narth  requires  that 
the  height  of  a  light-house  tower  should  increase  pro- 
portionally to  the  difference  between  the  earth's  radini 
and  the  secant  of  the  angle  intercepted  between  the 
normal  to  the  spheroidal  at  the  light-house,  and  the 
normal  at  the  point  of  the  light's  oceultation  from  tba 
view  of  a  distant  observer.  The  eff'ect  of  atmospheric 
refraction,  however,  is  too  considerable  to  be.  neglected 
in  estimating  the  range  of  a  light,  or  in  computing  the 
height  of  a  tower  which  is  required  to  give  to  any  light 
a  given  range ;  and  we  must,  therefore,  In  accordance 
with  the  influence  of  this  element,  on  the  one  hand, 
increase  the  range  due  to  any  given  height  and  vice  versa 
reduce  the  height  required  for  any  given  range,  which 
a  simple  consideration  of  the  form  of  the  globe  would 
assign.' 

"  If  the  distance  at  which  a  light  of  a  given  height 
can  lie  seen  by  a  person  on  a  given  level  be  required, 
it  is  only  needful  to  add  together  tlie  two  numbers  in 
the  column  of  distances  corresponding  to  those  in  the 
column  of  lieights,  which  represent  respectively  the 
height  of  the  observer's  eye  and  the  height  of  the  lan- 
tern above  the  sea.  AVhen  the  height  required  to  ren- 
der the  light  visible  at  u  given  distance  is  required, 
we  must  first  seek  for  the  number  corresponding  to  the 
height  of  the  iih.server's  eye,  and  deduct  this  from  the 
whole  proposed  range  of  the  light,  and  opposite  the 
remainder,  in  the  column  of  dLilnnces,  seek  for  the  cor- 
responding number  in  the  column  of  heights." 

Statkuknt  siiowiNO  TiTR   Incrkabe  or  Lens  Lionia  ur 
Feance  sixcE  1834.    Fre.scu  Liohts. 

Clurvter  of  light*.  No. 

In  1884. 

Lens  lights 29 

Befleetor  lights 4o 

Total 74 

In  1345. 

Ist  order  reflector  lights 4 

Ist  order  lens  Hshts 81 

2d        "          "       4 

8d        "          "       18 

4th      "          "       67 

Total  of  lens  lights 109 

Koflector  lights  (small) 42 


Total. 


151 


Ist  order  Ions  lights, 
8d       " 
3d       » 
■S'.h      " 


In  1861. 


6 
16 


Total  of  lens  lights 126 

Iteflector  beacons 40 

The  lights  of  Alelers  and  the  colonies  are  not  Included  In 
this  Hit.  An  imperfect  list  of  these,  up  to  the  latest  dates, 
inoy  1)0  found  In  I'oi-e's  Yealy  Journal  nf  Trade  SeveraV 
Important  lights  have  been  erected  in  Algiers  uuring  the  paat 
year  (.1356).  ,  .,.,.,., .  „. 


I;  I 
I' I 

id  M 


tiG 


1258 


LIG 


BTATunT  inowiNS  Tim  nmiBn  or  htm  Lisim  i>  i 
laTiifoi  IN  1851.    Lrns  ArrAUATU*. 

Chtnu-ler  of  llghu.  No. 

In  18  (A  there  wore  llghta  fltted  with  the  flnt  three 
•         ordors  of  lena  epptrttui  tbronghout  the  world .    IK) 
Bnullor  mtadioptrlo  lights 118 

TotiU  lens  ll«hU 210 

From  194S  to  18S1  (six  years),  there  were  oon- 
stmeted  In  Paris  and  sold — 


lat  order  lens  apparatus . 


as 

SO 

8d           "           "          80 

4th         "           "          8T 

Total  In  six  jreara. 1S8 

Total  of  the  flrst  three  ardors  of  lena  apparatns 

In  use  in  1851 218 

Smallor  lens  lights IBS 


Total  of  lens  llghto  In  ISal . 


Booka  and  Puhlii  Documtntt  of  Reference. — The 
following  works,  Be|)orta,  nnJ  Documenta  may  1>e  con- 
sulted upon  the  subject  of  li|{!it-honsea,  viz. : — Smca- 
ton'a  Narrutivs  of  the  Gddyslone  Light-house :  \Am- 
don,  1793.  Stevenson's  Account  of  the  Kell-Kock 
Light-hoase :  Kdinburg,  1824.  M6molre  sur  un  nou- 
veau  syst^me  d'6cIairago  des  Thares ;  par  M.  A.  Fres- 
nel,  Ingonieur  au  Corps  Royal  dea  Fonts  i^t  ClmubsAes, 
etc.,  etc.,  etc. :  Paris,  1822.  Bclidor,  Ati:hitectnre 
Hydraulique,  tome  iv.,  p.  151.  I'eclet,  Traits  de  1' 
£olairage :  Paris,  1827.  Admiral  de  Rossel,  Kapport 
contenunt  I'oxposltion  du  systime  adopti  par  la  Com- 
mission des  I'haroa  pour  ecluirer  lea  cotes  de  France 
Paris,  1825.  Treatise  on  burning  instruments,  con- 
taining the  method  of  building  large  polyzonal  lenses. 
By  David  Brewster,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. :  Eillnlmrg,  1812. 
Fanal  di  Salvore,  nell'lstria,  illuminato  a  gaz:  Vien- 
na, 1821.  On  the  construction  of  polyzonal  lonses 
and  mirrors  of  great  magnitude  far  light-houses  and 
for  biirning  instruments,  and  on  the  formation  of  a 
great  national  burning  ajiparalus.  By  David  Brews- 
tcr,  LL.D.,  F.K.S. :  (Kdinburg  Phil.  Journal,  1828, 
vol.  riii.,  p.  160.)  Account  of  a  now  system  of  illumi- 
n.ition  for  light-houses.  By  David  Brewster,  LL.D., 
I'.K.S.  Kdinburg,  1827.  ^iaggio  di  osservazione,  or 
observations  on  the  means  of  improving  the  construc- 
tion of  light-houses ;  witli  un  appendix,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  gus  to  ligbt-hfluees.  By  Chevalier  G.  Al- 
dini:  Milan,  1828.  Bodlor  Marcet,  Notice  descriptif 
d'un  fanal  i,  double  aspect,  etc.,  etc.  :  Paris,  1823. 
Bonlior  Marcet,  Paralmle  soumise  h  I'art,  ou  I'^ssaie  snr 
la  catnptrique  de  rcchiiragc;  Paris,  1819.  Descrip- 
tion Sonimaire  des  Phares  et  Fanaux  alium^s  snr  le.i 
cAtea  de  France :  Paris,  1845.  Stevenson's  British 
Pharos:  Leith,  1881.  The  Light-houses  of  tlie  Brit- 
ish Islands,  corrected  at  the  Admiralty,  to  October, 
1844.  The  Belgian,  Netherlands,  Hanoverian,  Dan- 
ish, Prussian,  8we<lt8h,  Norwegian,  Ionian  Ules,  and 
Russian  light-housci :  London,  184.?.  The  Light- 
houses, Beacons,  und  Floating  Lights  of  the  United 
States :  Washington,  1845.  Instruction  pour  le  serv- 
ice des  Phat«s  l^enticulaires.  Par  liionor  Fresnel, 
ing£nieur-en-chef,  s&'rctaire  de  la  Commission  des 
Pbares  :  Paris,  1835.  Clauses  et  Condition.'!  relatives 
k  la  foumiture,  pendant  trois  anni'ies,  de  I'hulle  de  col- 
za nicessaire  au  service  de  I'dclairage  dea  IMinres  et 
Fanaux  des  cotes  de  U  Manche,  }88S>.  Detail  eatima- 
tif  de  la  dcpense  annuelle  de  la  foumiture  en  hui'.e  de 
colza  n£co8saire  au  service  do  roclairago  des  Phares 
et  Fanaux  des  cotps  de  la  Manche  :  Paris,  1839.  Clau- 
ses rt  condilions  de  I'enterprise  de  r^Milainigo  doa  Pliares 
et  Fanaux  des  cotes  de  Torinn,  et  de  la  Meditorraneo : 
Peris,  1838.  Tablc.ia  de  service  d«  I't'clairage  des 
Phares  de  I'ocdon  :  Paris,  1888.  Detail  estiniatif  des 
diponses  annuelle.4  du  service  de  I'Aclairago  des  Phares 
rt  Fanuux  des  coten  de  Fronce :  Paris,  1889,  1848. 
Sous  details  du  prix  des  diversoa  fournitnres  et  des  d6- 
penses  k  faire  pour  le  service  de  I'^clairoge  des  Phares 
ot  Fanaux  dea  cutea  de  France,  1838.     Notice  sur  la 


compoiitiOB  et  1m  prix  dea  Phorea  Lenticulairea,  Cv 
toptriques  ot  Catadioptriques,  parties  optiquu  ot  m6ca- 
niqne,  par  L^toumeau  et  Cie.,  successeurs  de  M3(. 
Soliel  p6re,  et  Frames,  je'me,  constructeurs  de  Pharei 
dioptriquos,  systiima  de  M.  A.  Fresnel,  Rue  dea  Pois- 
•onniera  No.  24,  prjts  et  hors  la  Imrriiire  Poissonnicre, 
k  Paris.     Instruction  sur  I'organisation  et  hi  surveil- 
lance du  aervico  dea  Phares  et  Fanaux  des  cutes  da 
France.     Par  I^onor  Fresnel,  ringj)nieur-en.>chef,  dl. 
recti  i;r,  secretaire  de  la  Commission  dea  Phares :  Po- 
liti,  1842.     Captain  Leontey  Spofareiff 'a  New  Guide 
lot  the  Navigation  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland :  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1813.     Colier,  Gnide  dea  Marina :  Par's,  1825. 
Stevensob's  Sketch  of  Civil  Engineering  in  America: 
London :  1838,  p.  296.     Report  of  the  Select  Commit- 
tee of  the  Mouse  of  Commons  of  Great  Britain  on 
Light-houses :  Hansard,  London,  1834.     Report  by  a 
Committee  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  of  the 
Northern  Liglit-houses,  on  tlie  Report  of  the  Select 
Committee :  Edinburg,  1836,     Report  of  the  Ommlii- 
sioners  of  the  Northern  Light-houses  on  the  illumina- 
tion of  Light-houses,  by  Alan  Stevenson  M.  A. :  Edin- 
burg, 1834.   Report  to  the  same  l)oard,  on  the  Inchkeith 
Dioptric  Light,  by  Alan  Stevenson  :  Edinburg,  1885. 
Report  on  the  Isle  of  May  Dioptric  Light,  by  Alun 
Stevenson :  1836.     Report  on  the  Isle  of  May  Light, 
by  a  Committee   of  the  Royal    Socinty  (Professor 
Forbes,  reporter) :  Edinburg,  1886.     Comptes  Rendus 
Ilebdomadaires  des  S6ances  de  I'Acad^mio  des  Scien- 
ces, tome  18,  p.  25 :  M6nioire  pr^sont6  h  i'Acudi'inie 
des  Sciences  le  8  .lanvior,  1844.     Note  sur  I'Appariil 
Cutadioptrique  exccutee  par  M.  Francois,  jeuno,  pour 
le  Phare  Ecossais  de  Scherivore :  Conimi».suirea  JIM. 
Arago,  Mathieu,  Babinet.     Report  of  the  Select  Clom- 
mittee  of  the  House  of  Commons  of  Great  Britain 
upon  Light-bouses :  Hansard,  London,  1845.     Cuptiiin 
Denharo,  R.  N.  Mersey,  and  Dee  Navigation:  Liver- 
pool, 1840.     Encycloposdia  Britaimicu,  7th  edition: 
Kdinburg,  1842;  vol.  xx.,  article  Sea-lights,  p.  16. 
Circular :  Instruction  sur  la  Nouvelle  Organisation  de 
I'dclairage  des  Phares  et  Fanaux:  Paris,  le  2.')  Juin, 
1839.     Circular:  the  samo  subject :  Paris,  le  28  .luin, 
1839.     Circular :  Phares  et  Fanuux  ;  Controle  des  con- 
sommationa  en  huile  et  do  la  situation  des  divers  ap- 
provissionments :  Paris,  le  17  Mars,  1845.    Documents 
H.  It.,  2d  session  25th  Congres.*,  Noa.  21,  27,  38,  and 
41.     Documents  Senate,  2d  session  25th   Congress, 
Nos.  138,  159,  428,  375,  506,  258.     Document  H.  R., 
8d  session  26th  Congress,  No.  24.     Documents  Senate, 
Ist  session  26th  Congress,  Nos.  474  and  619.     Docu- 
ments II.  R.,  2d  session  27th  Congress,  Nos.  140,  193, 
274,  811.   Documents  II,  R.,  8d  session  27th  Congress, 
Nos.  183  and  199.     Documents  H.  R.  1st  session  28th 
Congress,  Nos.  38  and  62.     Document  Senate,  2d  80.«- 
sion  iii]i  Congress,  No.  166.     Document  Senate,  3d 
sesslo'i  2Gth  Congress,  No.  190.     Docnment  II.  11.,  3d 
session  27th  Congress,  No.  282.     Document  Senate, 
2d  session  27th  Congress,  No.  983.     Document  II.  R., 
2d  session  27th  Congress,  No.  740.     Document  Senate, 
1st  session  26th  Congress,  No.  58.     Documents  Son- 
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Ught-houses  at  Barfleur  and  Ostend;  Document  H. 
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don.     Edinburg  Review,  No.  csv.,  vol.  57,  p.  180; 
No.  cxxiii.,  vol.  61,  p.  117 ;  No.  oxxiv.,  vol.  61,  p, 
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1832  to  1846,     Encyclopojdia  Britannica,  8th  edition : 
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nuaire  pour  I'an  1881,  pr^enti  uu  Roi,  par  \o  Bureau 
dea  longitudes :  Notices  Soientifiques  par  M,  Arogo, 
p.  151  et  p.  172.     Ex.  Document  H.  R.,  No.  14,  2d 
session   Slst  Congress.      Rudimentary   Treatise   on 


tl© 


1260 


LIO 


Ught-hooMii,  by  AUn  Stavemon,  0.  E.,  «te.,  etc,, 
•tc. :  London,  1860.  Account  of  the  Sk^nryvore 
Light-house,  with  notes  on  the  illumination  of  Light- 
houses, liy  Ainu  Stevenson,  LL.!).,  F.K.S.E.,  M.T.C. 
E.,  Engineiir  to  the  Northern  Light-huusa  Buiird  i  Ed- 
inburg  and  London,  184H.  K«port  of  the  Franldin 
Institute  ou  th«  Dlii|)tric  System  of  Augustin  Fresnel, 
for  the  iilununutiou  of  Light  Houses :  .hiurnnl  l''r«nk- 
lin  Institute,  1H4U,  1850.  Account  of  the  }Iolophi>tal 
system  of  illuminating  liglit-huuses  ;  lieing  c  d^scrip- 
tion  of  the  light  i>f  maximum  intensity  :  by  Thom- 
as Stevenson,  K.U.S.K.,  F.K.S.S.A.,  civil  engineur: 
Edinburg,  iHul.  Ex,  documeut,  lirst  sessiun,  30th 
Congress,  No.  27.  Ex.  document,  special  session 
Senate,  No,  1.  Instruction  pour  le  service  dps  Fhares 
lenticuluires :  Pnrii,  18-18.  An  account  of  the  CBst- 
inm  light-house  tower  on  Gibbs's  Hill  on  the  Bermu- 
diu :  by  Peter  I'aterson  ;  London,  IHIiO.  An  account 
of  the  construction  and  fitting  up  of  the  new  light- 
bouse  on  the  Mora  costlo  at  Havana,  island  of  Cuba ; 
first  order  lens  apparatus.  Franklin  Institute  Journul, 
July,  1M7.  Returns  to  rurliamcnt  of  Northern  lights 
for  1844,  1846,  18-16, 1847,  1848, 1849,  and  1850.  Re- 
turns to  Parliament  of  Uritinh  Colonial  lights  for  1846, 
1849,  1850,  and  1851:  London.  Returns  to  Parlia- 
ment of  Trinity  House  Corporation  lights  fur  1844, 
1845, 1847,  and  1848.  Returns  to  Parliament  of  Irish 
lights  for  1846  and  18-18.  Returns  relating  to  the  use 
of  colza  oil  in  Grout  Uritiiin,  three  cuhiurs,  1846,  Cast- 
iron  light-housos.  Nautical  Magazine:  June,  1850, 
Light-house  economy,  Nautical  ^Magazine :  May,  1851. 
Light-houses  of  the  British  colonics  and  possessions 
abniad:  by  Alexander  Gordon,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  etc, 
London,  1848.  Parliamentary  report  on  shipwrecks : 
IX)ndoii,  1843.  William  Ilerschel  on  the  reflection  of 
light  from  surfaces  of  tptculum  metal,  in  thu  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  vol.  90,  p.  64 :  I,ondon.  An 
account  of  the  construction  and  price  of  lenticular 
aea-lightH ;  catoptric  and  catudioptrlc,  optical  and  me- 
chanical portions.  W.  Wilkinsi  London,  1851.  Traito 
elementnire  de  Physique,  par  E.  Pcclet :  Paris,  1847." 
IJyht-hou»e  Si/alem  of  the  United  Stitlfa  1850-57. — 
The  rvcommendutions  suggested  in  the  Report  of  1851, 
have  been  generally  carried  into  effect.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  1856,  there  were  in  operation,  or  nearly  lln- 
ished,  in  the  United  States,  609  light-houses,  light- 
boats,  etc.  The  following  extracts  from  tlie  Light- 
house Board  Report,  under  date  November  1,  1856, 
will  show  some  of  the  important  ciianges  that  have 
recently  taken  place : 

"  The  general  condition  of  the  aids  to  navigation,  at 
the  date  of  the  last  report  from  this  office,  was  such 
as  to  leave  but  little  to  be  done  toward  completing  the 
systematic  plan  of  improvements  of  authorized  aids 
to  navigation  along  the  coasts  l>eyond  the  general 
routine  duties  of  renovating  and  repairing  existing 
structures,  and  of  providing  those  aids  for  which  ap- 
propriations had  been  then  recently  made.  The  system 
of  buoyage  and  beaconage  had  been  carried  out  as  per- 
fectly, and  to  as  great  an  extent  as  the  means  provided 
for  that  object  would  admit ;  and  it  is  believed  that 
but  few  localities  urn  known  to  exist  requiring  ad- 
ditional aids  of  that  kind.  Renovation.*  and  improve- 
menta  of  light-honses  and  litrht-vosscls,  in  addition  to 
the  ordinary  .  ecessury  repairs,  have  been  niado  as  ex- 
tensively during  the  past  year  as  the  means  provided 
and  t^  t  ;ierind  of  time  for  doing  so  would  permit.  A 
large  nuuiber  of  lens  illuminating  apparatus  has  I>f en 
substituted  for  the  old  rcHuctors  and  fountain  lamps, 
to  the  f;rent  benulit  and  economy  of  the  service. 
Changes  are  still  being  made  as  rapidly  as  the  lens 
apparatus  is  available,  having  in  each  case  due  regard 
to  the  condition  of  the  old  apparatus  in  the  lii^ht- 
honses  requiring  renovation.  Now  and  Improved  illu- 
minating apparatus  has  been  placed  in,  or  is  in  course 
of  preparation  for,  such  of  the  light-vessels  as  h.id 
Dot  been  roiitted  at  the  date  uf  the  last  report.    All 


the  aids  to  uvigatloa,  for  which  iipteUI  upprupriatlang 
liave  been  made,  bava  either  been  coniplntad  or  cuirM 
menced,  except  those  condemned  iw  being  uuii*iiiiiiwr>' 
I'y  tho  proper  authority,  or  thoM  to  the  sltM  of  whMi 
perfect  titles  have  not  lieen  obtained,  Th«  lute  |K>riu4 
of  the  year  at  whicli  (Congress  made  appriiprlatiuiK  h( 
its  last  regular  session  for  new  aids  to  navigullun,  run* 
dered  it  Impracticable  to  commence  many  of  the  wofki 
this  season;  but  preliminary  rtep*  have  Unn  tah#n 
for  commencing  those  at  the  north  eariy  next  •liring, 
and  those  at  the  south  will  be  commenciid  ami  pru»< 
ecuted  as  for  as  possible  during  the  ensuing  wliitar. 

"  The  frequent  inspectloii» of  tbelights  by  im\i«itU>n 
and  others,  the  instruction  which  tli*  ka<i|Hirs  h«v«  tW- 
rived  from  them,  and  their  ucqulreinent  of  a,  \mlUir 
knowledge  of  their  duties,  as  laid  down  In  the  prInM 
instructions  and  directions,  have  reiulted  In  a  gri'liml 
but  very  perceptible  improvement  in  tlia  clmrji.'tvf, 
appearance,  and  reliability  of  lighta  ahing  tit*  untir* 
coast.  Notwithstanding  the  extraordinary  ■•vurity  of 
the  post  winter,  and  the  consequent  injury  done  Ut  th« 
buoys  and  light-vessels  by  the  masses  of  Ikutlug  hil 
ou  the  coast  from  the  cafies  of  Virginia  to  the  uauterit 
boundary,  it  is  believed  but  little  serious  Incurivoilciica 
resulted  to  navigation  on  account  of  the  t«iii|iiir«ry 
absence  at  times  uf  these  aids  from  their  |iM|wr  »t»- 
tions.  The  buoys  which  were  driven  from  their  iit»> 
tions  were  promptly  replaced,  by  means  uf  tile  buoy 
vessels,  from  the  duplicates  kept  on  hand  st  different 
points  along  the  coast,  and  no  efforts  were  xpared  iu 
have  the  light-vessels  repaired  and  towed  by  atouniars 
to  their  sti^tlons  with  the  least  practicable  delay.  Mnm 
the  light-vessels  have  lieen  provided  with  Hervlue  and 
spare  moorings  of  the  best  description,  but  few  uf  tlimii 
have  broken  adrift  from,  or  left  even  the  moit  eii|Hi««4 
positions.  The  supplies  have  been  distributed  to  lb« 
lights  on  the  Atlantic,  gulf,  and  lake  cou»t«,  by  tliri'H 
supply  vessels  employed,  with  as  much  regularity,  and 
as  satisfactorily  as  could  be  expected  In  a  service,  tint 
successful  |)erformance  of  which  de|iends  so  iilllch 
upon  the  weather.  The  great  diminutiou  in  the  i|u>in' 
tity  of  oil  required  to  lie  delivered  ut  the  Ug!it.i  lltted 
with  lens  apparatus,  will  be  the  means,  as  the  iiiitr 
apparatus  is  substituted  fur  reflectors,  of  facl|||(itln;( 
the  operations  of  making  dollverias ;  and  more  i'ro' 
quent  and  regular  visits  will  be  made  wllhnut  lilcrnuii- 
ing  the  number  or  expense  of  the  supply-vesu-U, 

"  The  officer  in  churge  of  the  llglit-liouse  service  on 
the  Pacific  coast  was  instructed  to  lo»e  no  tinui  In  cuni' 
mencing  the  erection  of  the  light-house  at  Dnipqun, 
In  Oregon  Territory,  and  it  Is  oxjiccted,  from  tlu  ur« 
gent  instructions  from  this  office,  and  the  y,eii\  unit 
energ}'  of  the  olHcer  in  charge,  tliut  it  will  be  built  dm 
soon  as  the  necessary  materials  can  be  cullecti'd  ut  tlltf 
site.  The  illuminating  apparatus  and  lantern  for  that 
light  reached  the  Pacific  coast  in  July  lost,  In«tru<!- 
tions  were  also  given  to  commence  the  liu!ldln;<  of  tfio 
light  at  New  Itungenoss,  in  Washington  Territory, 
and  *,o  take  the  necessary  steps  for  coinmerii'lng  ifie 
on«  at  Cape  Flattery  and  at  Blunt's  UUwl  with 
the  least  practicable  delay.  The  Indian  houtlllth'S 
in  Washington  and  Oregon  Territories,  and  tli«  dWl. 
eulties  attem'ing,  necessarily,  oiwratlons  jit  such  dis- 
tant and  sparsely  populated  localities,  wilt  doubtless 
account  for  any  seeming  delay  in  the  niH'ciiHoii  of 
these  works.  In  the  last  report  from  this  Hoard  ut. 
tention  was  invited  to  tho  low  rate  of  cijni|)en»atl(in 
allowed  to  light-keepers  under  the  existing  law,  lly 
the  fourth  section  of  the  act  making  approprlallonii  for 
light-houses,  etc.,  appro^■ed  Jlay  2^,  iH-,;8,  the  Secre* 
tary  of  the  Treasury  Is  authorized  and  cinpowerail  to 
regulate  and  fix  the  salaries  of  the  respective  keepers 
of  IlghtThouses  in  f<uch  a  manner  as  he  clinl!  deem  Jliat 
and  proper,  '  provided  the  whole  sum  ulliiwed  ahull 
not  exceed  an  average  of  i|400  to  eiuli  kse|i«r.'  Th» 
Board  would  again  respectfully  renew  its  remmm«n<1  • 
otlon  of  Itst  year,  that  a Teasonibla  iucreass  b«  m«4« 


I    I 'I 


LIG 


1960 


LIG 


to  th«  pteunt  trtnga  rate  of  compeviutlon  to  light- 
keepers,  M  the  liest  means  of  Insuring  efficiency  and 
true  economy  In  the  can  and  management  of  the 
light-iiouses  on  our  extended,  dangerous,  and.  In  many 
portions,  sparsely  populated  and  inhospitalilo  coast. 
The  present  average  rute  of  coni|)ensAtlon  to  the  keep- 
ers of  light-houses  on  the  I'aolflc  coast,  ns  established 
liy  the  Rppn>priation  bills,  is  (iSOO  per  annum ;  but  tlie 
difficulties  which  have  lieen  met  with  in  obtaining  the 
services  of  competent  and  reliable  keepers  for  some  of 
the  lights  at  isolated,  though  important  points,  on  that 
coast,  and  the  frequent  resignations  of  keepers  after  a 
short  trial  of  the  duties,  lead  to  the  opinion  that  the 
main  cause  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  service  arises 
ftam  insufficiency  of  the  compensation  in  the  present 
state  of  that  part  of  the  country." 

The  annual  report  of  the  United  States  Light-house 
Board,  under  date  of  November,  1857,  recapitulates  the 
progress  of  the  work,  viz. . 

The  systematic  plan  for  an  economical  administra- 
tion of  the  light-house  estaldishmcnt  service,  and  for 
improving  and  perfecting  those  aids  to  navigation 
which  had  been  authorized  by  the  different  arts  of 
Congress  subsequent  to  the  passage  of  the  law  of 
August  7,  17itl<,  which  enacted  "  that  all  ex|  enscs 
which  shall  aScrue  from  and  after  the  liftecnth  lay  of 
August,  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  ei^nty-nine. 
In  the  necessarj-  support,  maintenance,  an<l  repairs  of 
light-liouses,  beiinons,  buoy.*,  and  pul>lic  piers,  'Srectcd, 
placed,  or  sunk,  before  the  passage  of  this  ace,  at  tho 
entrance  of  or  within  any  bay.  Inlet,  harbor,  or  [mrt 
of  the  ITnited  States,  for  rendering  tho  navigation 
thereof  easy  and  safe,  shall  lie  defrayed  out  of  tho 
treasury  of  the  United  Stato,"  wos  commenced  liy 
this  board  under  the  direction,  orders,  and  instructions 
of  the  honorable  .Secretary  of  the  Trett.<ury  on  the  ath 
of  October,  18i>2,  under  the  authority  of  the  act  of 
Congress  of  .list  August,  18.'>2. 

At  thut  lime  there  were  325  light-houses  and  lighted 
beacons,  and  3S  light-ve.isels,  making  an  aggregate  of 
343  light  stations  and  371  lights  of  all  orders  or  classes, 
dUtriduted  in  the  waters  and  nlimg  the  coasts  of  tlio 
Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  nortliwcstcrn  lakes.  A  few  l)U(iys 
and  beacons  were  placed  uliing  tlio  coast  and  in  the 
bays  and  harbors  of  the  roost  prominent  seu-iMirts,  witli- 
out  system  or  plan,  and  often  misleading  in.itead  of 
guiding  the  mariner.  There  were  no  lights  or  other 
aids  to  navigation  at  that  time  in  the  harliors  or  bays 
on  the  Pacltic  coast  of  tho  United  States.  There  are 
now  on  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  Ijjke,  and  Pacido  coasts  of 
the  United  States,  648  light-house  and  light-vessel  sta- 
tions, witii  an  aggregate  of  602  lights;  also  81  lights 
remaining  either  to  l)e  condemned  according  to  law, 
or  to  be  built  in  obedience  to  tho  directions  of  Con- 
gress, as  soon  as  valid  cities  to  the  sites  are  ol)tainpd  ; 
inakipg,  after  allowing  for  all  probable  condemwutioni 
and  the  discontinuance  of  such  as  time  iius  shown  to 
be  wholly  unnecessary  for  the  general  interests  of 
commerce  and  navigation,  nn  aggregate  of  57!)  light 
stations,  including  light-vessels,  and  627  lights.  The 
buoyage  and  beaconage,  at  thut  time  almost  entirely 
neglected,  is  now,  it  is  believed,  unsurpassed  in  sys- 
tematic arrangement,  in  reliability,  and  in  economy 
of  administration.  The  number  of  buoy's  and  beacons 
may  be  put  down,  in  round  numbers,  at  not  less  than 
4500  or  6000,  with  duplicates  (and  at  nio.st  places 
along  the  coast  spare  buoys)  to  replace  those  to  bo 
taken  up  each  spring  and  autumn  for  cleaning  and 
painting,  ond  to  replace  thos^  removed  or  destroyed 
by  ice  or  by  storms,  and  by  licing  run  into  and  sunk 
by  steamers  and  nther  vessels.  The  entrances  to  the 
principal  harbors,  and  ship-channels  lauding  tu  them, 
are  marked  by  large  nun  and  can  buoys,  made  diietiy 
of  iron,  which  have  Iwen  introduced  witliin  tliu  l».tt 
four  yeura.  The  previous  reports  from  this  office  dur- 
ing the  last  Ave  years  have  infiirmed  tlie  department 
and  Congreis  of  the  extremely  dilapidated  condition 


of  the  towert  and  buildings,  of  the  inferior  quality  of 
the  illuminating  apparatus,  and  of  the  wasteful  expen- 
ditures of  oil,  wicks,  chinmeys,  and  other  necessary 
•upplles,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  lamps  employ. 
ed  at  the  different  light-stations,  many  of  which,  witli 
proper  illuminating  ap|iarntus,  wouhl  have  Ircurred 
less  than  one-tenth  the  cost  for  far  more  brillia.t  and 
lietter  adapted  lights.  The  light-vessela  were  found 
to  be  In  a  state  of  inefficiency,  some  of  tliem  silent 
from  their  stations  for  months  at  a  time,  without  nuh- 
stitutcd  to  occupy  their  places,  with  an  inferior  di  si  |i. 
tlon  of  lamps,  consuming  large  quantities  of  <jil  with- 
out  producing  sufficiently  powerful  lights  tu  bo  seen  ut 
the  required  distances,  or  an  adequate  return  fur  the 
expense  Incurred. 

It  will  appear  that  at  the  time  tho  I.ight-honse 
Board  was  organized  under  the  act  of  August  31, 18,')2, 
there  were  but  Ave  liglits  at  four  stations  fitted  with 
apparatus  that  had  long  before  lieen  shown  incontesta- 
bly  to  be  In  point  of  economical  effect  in  no  case  leas 
than  4  to  1,  as  compared  with  the  catadioptric  or  re- 
flecting liglit  system,  ond  in  point  of  power  and  linll- 
;  ia.'cy  the  proportion  in  percentage  was  83  to  Itl— that 
is,  the  consumption  of  oil  would  not  exceed  ono-fniirth 
i  in  the  new  svstem  of  what  was  actuallv  rp<i     imI  in 
I  the  old,  and  ut  the  same  time  tho  new        ccni  pmiluc- 
I  ing  for  the  l<enelit  of  the  navigator    i>    n  than  live 
'  tinie.H  as  mucli  light  with  this  one-fuu     '   part  of  tho 
oil  required  for  the  argand  lamps  and  paraiiolic  re- 
flectors.    But  even  this  comparison  is  too  favoraljle  to 
the  stato  of  the  light-house  estaldishment  as  it  existed 
up  tc  1853,  inasmuch  us  tlie  apparatus  was  not,  of  its 
I  kind,  the  best  that  could  lie  made,  and  also  from  the 
'  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  lights  (those  in  the  bays, 
sounds,  rivers,  and  harliors)  were  fitted  with  a  mucli 
larger  numl>er  of  lamps  than  was  necessary ,  even  under 
I  tliat  system,  attributalde,  however,  to  tho  great  infe- 
riority of  the  apparatus,  which,  it  would  seem,  it  was 
attempted  to  remedy  by  increasing  the  number  of 
I  lamps  at  each  station.     The  estimates  for  lf<53  gave 
!  3003  lamps  for  the  3.11  light  stations.     Kstiniating  at 
an  average  of  10  lamps  for  each  new  light  authiirlzed 
'  or  built  since  that  time,  the  number  of  lamps  to  be  fed 
with  oil,  to  bo  supplied  with  wicks  and  chimneys,  and 
in  pro|iortion  to  be  supplied  with  the  various  articles 
j  of  expensive  cleaning  materials,  would,  vnder  the  oM 
system,  have  amounted  to  the  large  number  of  5560 
j  lamps,  requiring  an  annual  supply  of  not  less  than 
|'222,400  gallons  of  oil,  computing  the  consumption  at 
1 40  gallons  per  lamp,  which  is  the  minimum  rate.    The 
<  cost  of  oil  has  been  as  high  as  $2  per  gallon  at  tlio 
I  warehouses  of  the  manufaclurer,  and  has  been  esti- 
mated for  the  year  18o8-"5a  at  the  rate  of  $1  GO  per 
gallon. 

Tlie  lights  at  Southwest  Pass  and  South  Pass  of  the 
Mississippi  should  be  discontinued  after  the'  coiiipletiun 
I  of  tho  Southwest  Puss  screw-pile  tower,  whicli  was  au- 
tliorued  August  4,  1854,  and  for  Avhich  S45,0UU  was 
appropriated,  leaving  alxiut  $70,000  to  be  upproiiri- 
atcd  fur  its  entire  completion  before  commencing  tho 
x/ork. 

The  annual  appropriations  for  renovations,  repairs, 
e*c.,  of  light-houses,  within  the  jirriod  rcferrtd  to, 
have  lie  en  employed  to  the  liest  possiliie  advantage  in 
rebuilding  such  light-houses  m  were  in  imminent  dan- 
ger of  falling  to  pieces,  and,  where  special  iipprojiria- 
tions  had  not  been  made  for  reliuiUiing  tiicni,  in  pro- 
viding the  necessary  improved  and  economical  appa- 
ratus, fitting  the  lan'.trns  and  towers  for  rcooiving 
i  them,  and  in  placing  them;  ami  with  those  means 
I  alone  the  whole  of  thij  light-houses  existing  in  .lan- 
i  uary,  186;S,  have  been  provided  with  new  appuratus 
\  of  tile  most  approved  kind,  which  combines  the  great- 
I  est  advantages  yet  discovered  in  tlie  science  of  light- 
house  illumination — of  [lOwer,  duialiiiity,  and  ecmi- 
;omy.  — See  light-houte  itcporta,  18i''U  tu  X858 ;   oiso 
'  Cuaat  Hurcey  Report}, 


LIM 


1261 


LIM 


n9,  repiiif'i 
rfferrtd  to, 
IvantiiBe  >» 
iiinent  ila»- 
.  iipiirup"^- 
.em,  in  1'"'" 
inical  ain"- 
,r  ri'ooiviiiK 
hose  means 
,iii(5  in  .lau- 
«\iparatus 

,i  the  (jreat- 

Ke  of  ligl>'- 

,  and  «>;'>"- 

ia58;  also 


Uina,  th«  ritpital  of  Peru,  on  tha  wut  coMt  of 
South  Amfrlo,  lut.  12°  2'  42'  S.,  long.  77°  7'  15" 
W.  Population  variously  entlmatml  j  but  may  prolv 
ably  amount  tu  fh>m  00,000  tn  60,000.  In  1fi24, 
Pizarni,  marching;  thmuKh  Peru,  wai  atrurk  with  tho 
beaut}  of  the  vaMny  of  Kimac,  and  ther«i  ha  founded  a 
elly,  and  gave  li  the  name  of  i'iwlml  ih  os  Ket/rt,  or 
City  of  the  Xi'  gn.  Thin  Spanixh  name  it  retains  in 
nil  legal  dnedn,  but  it  In  brtter  known  a»  Lima.  Awful 
earthquake;*  occurred  here,  since  solemn!  '  commemo- 
rated by  annual  fusti  ale,  A.n.,  ISMO,  1680,  1687,  and 
October  28,  l',M6.  In  the  loat  it  was  almoit  totally 
deHtroyed,  as  well  as  Calloo. 

('uliao,  the  pert  of  Lima,  la  about  alx  miles  wait 
from  the  lattei.  The  har)>or  lies  to  the  north  of  a 
projecting  point  o:'  land,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the 
small  unlnh^'>ite<l  island  of  San  liorenzo.  Previously 
to  the  "■  ■  ipi'nit''-  of  Peru,  and  tho  other  ci-devant 
8pat,i»h  prtivlic*  .  the  New  World,  Lima  was  the 
grand  enlrejtM  fur  khe  trade  of  all  the  west  coast  of 
South  America :  liut  a  consideralde  portion  of  the  for- 
eign trade  of  Peru  's  now  carried  on  through  Buenos 
Ayres,  ><id  the  former  h  also  in  the  hnbit  of  importing 
1  .'opei  -oodK  at  second  hand  from  Valparaiso  and 
other  ports  in  C'liili.  The  exports  from  Lima  consist 
principally  of  lilver,  which  la  by  far  the  most  import- 
,ant  article,  ci>,  ,)er  ore,  )>ark,  soap.  Alpaca  wool,  etc. 
Guano  la  found  in  large  (|uuntitie8  on  some  parts  of 
the  coaat  of  Peru,  but  is  principally  imv«>rtcd  from 
some  sma'l  islands,  opposite  tu  Pisco,  where  it  is  found 
In  vast  quantities.  The  great  value  of  guano  as  a' 
manure  in  now  generally  recognized,  and  it  is  hardly 
of  less  Importance  as  an  article  of  commerce,  no  fewer 
than  80,000  tons  having  l>een  imported  in  1847.  It 
was  partly,  however,  Irought  from  (.'hill  and  other 
ports,  as  well  as  from  Peru ;  but  that  from  tha  latter 
is  decidedly  the  best.  Tho  'mports  consist  principally 
of  cotton  bluffs,  linens,  woolens,  and  hardware,  prin- 
cipally frni,.  .England ;  silks,  brandy,  wine,  and 
quicksi'lvtr  from  Spain  and  France;  stock-flsh  and 
flour  from  the  ''nited  States,  indigo  from  Mexico, 
Paragutt)"  herb  from  Paroguay,  spices,  dye-stuffs,  etc. 
Timber  for  the  construction  of  ships  and  houses  is 
brought  from  (iuuyaquil.  For  moneys,  weights,  and 
measures,  f>eo  Pkru. 

Lime  (Ger.  "  Ik;  Fr.  Chnux;  It.  Culeina,  Calce ; 
Sp.  Cat;  Kus.  '),  an  eartliy  substaiire  of  a  white 

color,  moderateh  .rd,  but  which  is  easily  reduced  tn 
powder,  either  b_,  f^  'nkling  it  with  water  ov  by  tri- 
turation. It  h^n  tt  ii»:  burning  taste,  and  in  some 
measure  coiTod<  ond  destroys  the  texture  of  those 
animal  liodies  to  which  it  is  applied.  Specific  gra^.i,^ , 
2'3.  Calcium,  the  metallic  basis  of  lime,  was  discov- 
ered by  Sir  H.  Davy.  Tliero  are  few  ports  of  the 
world  in  which  lime  does  not  exist.  It  is  found  purest 
in  limestone,  marble,  and  chalk.  None  of  those  sub- 
stances is,  however,  strictly  speaking,  lime  ;  but  they 
are  all  easily  con  ort  id  into  it  l)y  a  well-known  process ; 
that  is,  liy  plae.  n;  them  in  kilns  or  furnaces  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  and  keeping  them  for  some 
time  in  a  white  h  \'  -a  process  called  the  bur^^ng  of 
lime. — Thomson  s  Chem'iMry.  The  use  of  limj  as 
mortar  in  building  has  prevailed  from  tho  earliesi  an- 
tiquity, and  is  nearly  universal.  It  is  also  very  ix- 
tonsively  used  in  this  country,  ai\d  in  un  infei  or 
degree  in  some  pai  's  of  the  Continent  and  of  Nor  li 
America,  as  a  mui  '  '  to  fertilize  land.  Mut  It  Is  \ 
curious  fact  that  the  ase  of  lime  us  a  manure  is  entire- 
ly a  Kuropean  practice ;  and  that  its  employment  ic 
tliat  way  hus  never  been  so  much  as  dreamed  of  in  any 
part  of  Asia  or  Africa.  I.ime  i'*  of  much  importance 
in  the  arts,  as  a  (lux  in  the  suh  Itiug  of  metals,  in  tha 
shape  of  chlorate  in  bleanliing,  .n  tanninp,  etc.  Lime 
and  limestones  may  be  ci  'ried  and  landed  coastwise 
without  any  customs  document  whatever.  Its  con- 
»UD-^iUoi  i..  'li '  .'ountry  is  very  great. 
XiijKC  Jronitr;  Ger.  Citrone;  Hind.  A'cem- 


bo),  a  Biwclei  of  lemon  {Cilnu  medtca,  var.  S  0.\ 
which  grows  tu  abundance  in  most  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  and  it  also  to  be  met  with  in  lome  |)arta  of 
Franco,  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  throughout  India,  etc. 
The  lime  is  smaller  than  the  lenion,  its  rind  Is  naually 
thinner,  and  its  color,  when  the  fruit  arrives  at  a  per- 
fect sUte  of  maturity,  is  a  line  bright  yellow.  It  Is 
uncommonly  juicy,  and  its  tiavor  U  estaemed  superior 
to  that  of  the  lemon ;  it  is,  besides,  mors  acid  than 
the  latter,  and  to  a  certain  degree  acrid. 

Limertok,  the  principal  city  of  west  Inland,  and 
a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  river  port,  and 
county  of  itself,  and  capital  county.  '  Limerick,  on  an 
island  in  the  Shannon,  and  on  both  banks  of  that  rivar, 
being  partly  in  county  Clare,  50  miles  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, uud  25  miles  N.N.W.  TIppeniry,  with  which  town 
It  communicates  by  railroad.  L»t.  52''  40'  N.,  long. 
8°  86'  W.  Area  of  liorder,  70,000  acres.  Populs'lon 
1861,  66,268.  Inhabited  houses,  6,566.  Population 
of  town,  68,274.  There  are  numerous  flour  mills,  but 
manufactories  are  very  limited ;  those  of  lace  and  Hsh- 
books  are  the  principal ;  the  trade,  consi.iting  of  Im- 
ports of  British  manufactures,  coal,  turf,  continental 
and  colonial  pro<luce,  and  of  exports  of  com,  meal, 
butter,  beef,  pork,  is  great,  and  sUU  increasing. 
Ships  of  600  tons  unload  at  the  qua^  and  those  of 
1000  tons  approach  within  6  miles  of  the  city,  which 
by  steamers  on  the  upper  Shannon  and  by  canals,  has 
also  a  water  communication  with  Dublin. 

Lime-tree.  Lime-tree,  Black  Lime-tree,  Bmooth- 
leaved  Lime-tree,  Bass-wood.  't\yB  TiUa  Amerkana, 
like  the  European  linden,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
finef't  of  forest  trees,  and  when  cultivated,  proves 
highly  ornamental.  In  our  native  woods  it  often  risus 
more  than  80  feet  in  height,  and  frequently  upward  of 
four  feet  in  diameter ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  but,  if 
cultivated,  and  judiciously  treated,  it  would  reach  a 
size  little  inferior,  if  not  equal,  to  the  Kuropean  sjie- 
cies.  Its  body  is  straight,  uniform,  and  surmounted 
with  an  ample  and  tufted  summit.  In  winter  it  is 
readily  recognized  by  the  roliust  appearance  of  who 
trunk  and  branches,  and  by  the  dark-brown  color  of 
the  bark  on  the  shoots. 

Geography  ami  Jlitlort/. — The  Tilla  Americana  is 
found  in  Canada  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States.  It  becomes  less  abundant  toward  the  south, 
except  on  the  Alleghunies,  where  It  is  found  quite  at 
their  termination  in  Georgia.  It  is  profusely  mul- 
tiplied on  the  iwrders  of  Lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  iu 
Maine,  New  Ilampsliire,  and  Vermont.  It  woj  culti- 
vated in  England  by  Miller,  in  1752,  but  has  not  been 
ery  extensively  distributed.  Tho  Tilia  Americana 
laxijhra  is  said  to  abound  from  Maryland  to  Georgia, 
near  the  sea-coast.  It  was  introduced  into  Britain  in 
1820,  and  is  but  sparingly  cultivated  in  that  country. 
The  Tilia  A  mericana  pubeicens  belongs  to  the  southern 
parts  of  the  United  States,  Florida,  Kentucky,  and 
Texas.  It  is  said  to  bo  the  only  variety  found  in  the 
riarithne  parts  of  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
Seeds  of  this  tree  were  carried  from  this  country  to 
England  l>y  Mark'Cutesby,  in  1726;  but  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  boen  much  cultivated.  Tho  Tilia 
A  maficana  alba  is  not  met  with  east  of  the  Hiver  Dela- 
ware, but  it  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
Delaware,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Georgia, 
It  is  said,  also,  to  gro  r  oi  the  liver  Santee,  in  South 
Carolina,  and  on  tho  itis^issippi.  It  is  remarkable, 
that,  althougli  this  va/iety  was  known  in  France  in 
175ii,  it  should  not  huvo  Imviu  introduced  into  England 
till  1811.   _ 

i     Pnipertiee  and  Uiei,. — Tlie  wood  of  the  American 

I  lime-treo,  when  drj',  weighs  S.")  pounds  to  a  culiic  foot. 

It  is  very  white,  when  grevi    but  becomes  of  u  light- 

I  brow^n  hue,  when  seasonerf.     It  is  soft,  easily  worked, 

and  is  often  sawod  into  boards,  which  do  not  warp, 

like  those  formed  of  resinous  trees.     In  the  northern 

I  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  British  ptor- 


fe  # 


LIH 


19«3 


LUf 


tncai,  whcro  th*  tulln-tiM  doc*  not  kboand,  U  I*  UMd 
(br  th*  pancli  of  ruwlaga  IkhUm,  and  tha  iwata  of 
chatra.  In  Kantucky  anil  tlia  waati-  ..  ''^Utea,  the 
wwmI  of  tha  whit*  Urn*  la  often  aubal  i.ii  t  Mr  that  of 
the  white  pine.  In  variotii  parta  of  i  •• .  ■  try,  It  la 
tamed  into  ilomaatic  utenaila  of  various  kinda  ;  and  la 
■lao  carved  Into  ImaKea  for  the  heada  of  veaaela,  and 
other  ornamental  work.  The  yoiinif  troea  are  aome- 
tlmea  out,  and  employed  na  raiU  for  rural  fencea  ;  hut 
they  are  mil  durable  wlieii  tliua  expoaed.  The  wood 
la  almoat  uanleaa  iia  fuel,  when  K'*!""!  heinK  too  full  of 
aap,  and  of  hut  little  viilue  when  drj-.  Tho  cellular 
Integument  of  the  hark  la  H!|iarated  from  the  epidermia, 
and,  lifter  lieing  macerated  in  water,  la  formod  Into 
ropea,  after  th*  manner  of  mal.Ing  them  in  Kurope,  of 
the  other  apeclea.  The  liiirk  wua  ulao  employeil  by 
the  I.enni  I.cnap*  Indiunn  fur  milking  linea  and  ropea, 
aa  well  aa  for  coverinff  their  haliltutloni.  The  outer 
bark  of  the  Tilia  Americam  !n  rou^h  und  atrin^y,  and 
the  Inner  portion  viacid  and  awi^fi..  Thj  ty'i^i  and 
bud^  are  very  glutlnoua  when  cliowed,  anc'  alTiinl 
connideruble  nutriment.  In  aever*  wintera,  when 
fodder  la  acarce.  It  la  common  for  the  farmcra  of  tho 
HritiKh  American  provincea,  aa  well  aa  tlioa*  of  Maine, 
New  MampaUre,  and  Vennont,  to  drive  their  cuttle 
Into  thn  wihkR  in  the  morning,  and  fell  a  iiuaa-woiHl, 
or  other  tree,  on  which  they  eagerly  browse  during 
the  diiy. 

The  wood  of  the  Kuropean  lime-tree,  or  linden-tree, 
01  compared  with  Mint  of  the  oak,  the  aah,  and  other 
timber  treea,  holda  liiit  an  inferior  rank,  and  is  only 
used  in  such  worka  aa  are  not  to  be  exposed  to  the 
altomatioiis  of  moisture  und  ilrynexs,  It  is  of  a  palo 
yellow,  or  white,  close-grained,  soft,  light,  and  smooth ; 
and,  when  seasoned,  it  ia  not  lialde  to  be  attacked  by 
insects.  It  is  used  liy  piiino-fnrte-makers  for  sound- 
ing-lKiurds,  and  by  caliinet-makcira  for  a  variety  of 
purposes,  as  It  does  not  warp  under  atmospheric 
changes.  It  is  turned  Into  domestic  utensils  of  va- 
rious kinds,  carved  into  toys,  and  turned  into  small 
boxea  for  a|H)thecaries.  Tho  most  elegant  use  to 
which  It  is  applied,  is  for  carving,  for  whicii  It  Is  supe- 
rior to  every  other  wood.  Many  of  the  line  carvings 
In  Windsor  Castle,  Trinity  College  l.ii  .rarj-,  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  the  Duke  of  Devonshire's  mansion,  at 
Chiitworth,  are  of  this  wood.  It  ia  said  to  make  ex- 
cellent charcoal  for  gunpowder,  even  better  tliun  alder, 
and  nearly  as  good  as  hazel,  or  willow.  Ilaskets  and 
crudleM  were  formerly  made  from  the  twiga ;  and  shoe- 
maki'M  and  gluvers  are  said  to  prefer  pianks  of  lime- 
tree  for  rutting  the  tlner  kinds  of  leather  upon.  The 
leaves  of  this  tree  arc  collected  in  Sweden,  Norway, 
Camiola,  and  Switicrland,  for  feeding  cattle  ;  though, 
In  .Sweden,  I.innieus  says,  they  oommunicate  a  ba<l 
flavor  to  the  milk  of  cows.  One  of  the  most  import- 
ant uses  of  the  lime-tree,  in  tho  nortii  of  Europe,  is 
that  of  supplyingmaterial  for  making  ro|)es  and  mats  ; 
the  latter  of  wliicli  enter  extensively  into  Kuropean 
commerce.  The  Kiissian  |ieasants  weave  the  bark  of 
the  young  shoots  for  tho  nppcr  ntirts  of  tlielr  slioes, 
the  Imrk  of  t!ie  trunks  or  large  branches  serving  for 
the  soles  ;  and  they  also  make  of  it,  tied  together  with 
•trips  of  the  inner  Iwrk,  baskets  and  lioxes  for  ^pnies- 
tic  purposes.  The  outer  bark  of  old  treea  also  sup- 
plies them,  like  that  of  the  bircli,  with  tiles  for  cover- 
ing their  cottages.  Hopes  are  still  made  of  the  bark 
of  this  tree  in  Coniwail,  and  in  some  parts  of  Devon- 
shire. The  inannfaeture  of  mats  from  the  inner  bark, 
however,  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  Kuassia,  and  to 
aome  parts  of  .Sweden.  Trees  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
in  diameter  are  selected  at  the  beginning  of  summer, 
when,  from  the  expansion  produced  from  tiie  ascend- 
ing sap,  the  bark  ports  freely  from  the  wood.  The 
bark  Is  then  stripped  from  them  in  lengths  of  aix 
to  eight  feet,  and  is  afterward  steeped  in  water  till  It 
separates  freely  in  layers.  It  is  then  taken  out,  and 
divided  into  ribbons  or  strands,  and  hung  op  in  the 


I  shod*,  ganarally  In  tho  forest  where  It  growa,  and.  In 
th«  roiiraa  of  tlie  aummer,  is  maniifaituraii  into  mata, 
ao  much  in  uae  liy  gardanera  and  upholnterera,  and  for 
covering  luickagea  generally.  The  fishermen  nf  .Swe- 
den make  neta  for  catching  flah,  of  tha  flbroa  of  the 
Inner  bark,  aaparated  by  maceration,  ao  as  to  form  a 
kind  of  flax  or  hemp ;  and  th*  sheplienis  uf  (Jarniula 
weave  a  coarse  cloth  of  it,  which  serves  for  their  ordi- 
nary clotliiiig.  The  sap  of  llio  lime-tri»,  drawn  olf  in 
spring,  and  evaporated,  afTurds  a  cunslilt  laliic  'piantity 
of  sugar.  The  honey  produced  from  tha  llnwern  Is 
considered  superior  to  all  other  kinds  for  Ita  delicacy, 
aelling  for  three  or  four  timea  thii  |rric(  of  common 
honey ;  and  it  ia  ua«d  hi  the  prepuratiiin  uf  inedicine, 
and  for  making  (lartliiular  lii/ururi,  more  e»|i<M'iaily 
roaogiia.  This  lime-tree  honey  is  only  produced  at 
the  little  town  of  Kowno,  on  the  Itiver  Ninmen,  in 
Lithuania,  which  is  surrounded  liy  an  extensivu  forest 
of  lime-trees,  and  where  the  management  of  the  hnney- 
bea  occupies  the  principal  attention  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  Jews  of  Poland  pnxliice  ii  closo  imitation  of  this 
honey,  by  lilem'hing  tlie  cniumon  kind  in  the  open  air, 
during  frosty  weather.  Tlie  fruit  of  the  lime-trcu  had 
long  l>«en  tlimight  of  litfN'  use,  till  M.  Slissa,  of  i'aris, 
by  triturating  it,  mixed  with  some  of  its  flowers,  suc- 
ceeded In  procuring  a  butter,  perfectly  resemliling 
chocolate,  both  in  tasto  anil  consistency ;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, it  was  found  that  the  lime-tree  cliociiluto 
would  not  kiiep.  It  has  lieen  suggested  wiiutlier  some 
of  the  American  varieties  of  lilia  would  not  prove 
successful  in  this  particular.  In  England,  there  are 
many  ancient  lime-trees,  planted  In  towns,  liei  iiuxe, 
In  olden  times,  tlieir  oilor  was  lonsidereil  as  purifying 
to  tho  air,  and  tu  lie  gooil  against  epilepsy. — Uhiiw.ne's 
Tnet  of  A  mrrica. 

Line,  in  Ueometry,  a  quiintity  extended  in  length 
I'tiiy  witliout  lireadth  or  thickness.  It  is  formed  liy 
the  flux  or  motion  of  a  |xiint.  Line,  in  tlio  art  of  war, 
la  understood  as  tho  dis|iosition  of  an  army  ranged  in 
order  of  battle  with  the  front  extended  out  so  that  it 
may  be  flanked.  Line  of  balllf.  Is  also  understood  as 
the  disposition  of  a  fleet  in  the  day  of  engugeini'nt ; 
on  which  occasion  the  vessels  are  usually  drawn  up  us 
much  as  possilile  in  a  straight  line,  as  well  to  gain  and 
keep  the  advantage  of  tho  wind  as  to  run  tlie  same 
board,  l/oriamlal  line,  In  (ii'ngrapiiy,  ami  Astrono- 
my, a  line  drawn  parallel  to  tlie  horizon  of  any  part 
of  the  earth.  Kquinnrtial  line  In  Geography  is  a  great 
circle  on  the  earth's  surface  exactly  at  the  dist^ince  of 
W°  from  each  of  tlie  poles,  and  of  con9C()nonce  bisect- 
ing tho  earth  in  that  part.  From  this  imaginary  lino 
the  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude  aro  reckoned. 
In  Astronomy,  the  equinoctial  line  is  that  circle  which 
the  sun  seems  to  descrilie  found  the  earth  rin  the  days 
of  tho  equinox  in  Marcli  and  September.  Meriiiian 
line,  is  an  imaginar}'  circio  drawn  through  the  two 
poles  of  the  earth  and  any  part  of  its  surface. 

Iiinen  (Ger,  Linnen,  lA-inwanJ;  I>ii.  hjnmmt;  Fr. 
Toile;  It.  Tela,  J'anno,  lino;  Sp.  Lienza,  Tela  de  lino ; 
Rus  Polotno),  a  species  of  cloth  made  of  thread  of 
flax  or  hemp.  The  linen  manufacture  has  lieen  pros- 
ecuted in  England  for  a  very  long  period ;  Imt  tlioiigh 
its  progress  has  been  considerable,  particularly  of  lata 
years,  it  has  not  been  so  groat  as  might  have  liecn  an- 
ticipated. This  is  partly,  perhaps,  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  liolster  up  and  en- 
courage the  manufacture  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and 
parti)'  to  the  rapid  growtli  of  the  cotton  manufictiiro 
— falirics  of  cotton  having  to  a  considerable  extent 
supplanted  thoao  of  linen. 

Linen  Is  a  faliric  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Pha- 
raoh arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of  fine  linen. — 6'en., 
xli.  42.  This  article  was  first  manufactured  in  En- 
gland by  flemish  weavers,  under  the  protection  of 
■Henr)-  III.  1263.  Before  tliis  period  woolen  shirts 
wore  generally  worn.  A  company  of  linen  weovers 
established  itself  in  London,  1868,  and  tho  art  of  stain- 


LTN 


IMS 


LIN 


lag  IIbmi  liMMiw  known  In  167B.  A  culnny  of  fl«oU 
la  lh«  roign  of  Jiiniei  I.,  and  iiihcr  l>rubyter(ani  who 
flad  ttnm  porwcullon  in  that  ciiuntiy  In  th«  hucmkiI- 
Ing  InKlnrliiua  r*l){ni,  plintail  theniMlvaa  In  tha  nortli- 
anKt  part  nf  Iralunil  anil  than  aitabllnlwd  tha  linen 
manuracliira.  It  wan  lilicrally  ancoura^Ml  Iit  tha 
Inrrt  ilepiity  Wantwurth.  In  ltl34.  Ilsmp,  lUx,  linen, 
thread,  and  yarn,  from  Ireland,  were  permitted  to  Im 
exported  duty  free,  lUUH.  Tlilt  law  gave  rlie  to  the 
Niibaequently  Impmved  Htate  of  the  manufiirtura  there. 
The  Irliih  l.lnen  Hoard  waa  ettalillshed  In  1711 ;  tha 
Mnen-ball,  Dulillii  wna  o|)enad,  172H|  tha  Board  waa 
at  lllhad  In  IH'.'x  'unfermllna  In  Ftfenliire,  Dundee 
In   Anicuaiililn'  Tniiley  In    Yorkahire,  are,  In 

(ireat  llrltaln.  '>f  the  linen  manufacture. 

MplnnInK  U\  <w  nearly  unltnowu  in  lr»- 

land,  and  the  uim  i  dliiap|ieared  from  nev- 

eral  part*  >if  thn  ro  It  had  lieeii  lar)(ely 

lntroduce<l.  I<  whit  were  partially  depend- 

ent oil  it  for  in  a  very  depreaaed  Rtate. 

On  the  w  hole    lio*  run  he  no  doulit  that 

the  Intnxlurt'    ,  i<i  xyatem  will  Im,  In  tha 

end,  moKt  advuntu,  faat  hai  long  lieen  the 

great  neat  of  the  niunuliuture  In  Ireland,  and  there  it 
la  carried  on  In  large  fartnrlea  fumtahed  with  the  best 
marhinery,  and  condui:tc(l  on  the  nioKt  approved  prin- 
ciple. In  1H41,  there  were  in  the  town  and  ita  Imme- 
diate vicinity,  2A  Kteam  nillla  for  Hpinning  linen  yam, 
one  of  whicli  ctniploycd  8(K)  lianda.  In  INIIS,  the  ex- 
porta  of  linen  goo«l»  from  lldfust,  amounted  to  53,8H1,. 
WK)  yards  of  the  valuu  of  i:2,6'Jl,iK)0.  According  to 
the  official  return*,  thero  weru  in  Ireland,  In  1H3H,  '10 
fiax-milU  employing  in  all,  U,l)17  hands.  The  total 
average  exgiort  of  linena  from  Ireland  during  the  U 
yeara  ending  with  1826,  wan  51 ,047,41!)  yards,  of  which 
4!l,0!l],O73  came  to  this  countrj';  the  uxports  to  lUI 
other  parts  being  only  3,916,:M0.  Since  1826,  the 
trade  Iwtween  Ireland  and  (iroat  Britain  hoa  been 
]>luced  on  the  footing  of  a  roasting  trado ;  and  linena 
l>eing  ex|)ortc(l  and  imported  witliout  any  specific  en- 
try at  thn  custom-house,  no  r  "count  is  kept  of  their 
quantity  and  vulue. 

mciilch  Linen. — In  17?7,  a  Hoard  of  Truateca  was 
estaldished  in  Scotland  for  the  superinteudenco  and 
improvement  of  the  linen  manufacture.  It  is  not 
easy  to  suppose  that  the  institution  of  this  Board  could 
of  itself  have  Imen  of  any  material  service ;  but  con- 
siderablo  bounties  and  promlumi  being  at  the  same 
time  given  on  the  production  und  exportation  of  linen, 
the  muniifactura  went  on  increasing.  Still,  however, 
It  did  not  increase  so  faat  «a  cotton  and  some  others, 
which  have  not  received  any  adventitious  support,  un- 
til machinery  began  to  be  extensively  employed  in  the 
manufacture ;  so  that  It  la  verj'  doubtful  whether  the 
Influence  of  thu  liounty  has  been  so  great  as  it  would 
at  tint  sight  ap|)eiir  to  have  been.  The  regulations  as 
to  the  manufactuii>,  after  having  been  long  ol>Jected 
to  by  those  concerned,  were  abolished  in  1822;  and 
the  bounties  have  now  ceased. 

Dundee  is  the  grand  seat  of  the  Scotch  linen  manu- 
facture; and  ita  progress  there  during  the  last  few 
years  has  been  so  extraonlinary,  tliat  the  following 
details  in  resjwct  to  it  ma}'  not  be  unacceptable.  The 
manufacture  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Dundee  some  time  toward  the  beginning  of  last  cen- 
turj- ;  but,  for  a  lengthened  period,  ita  progress  was 
comparatively  alow.  In  1716  only  74  tons  of  flax 
were  Imported,  without  any  h^mp ;  the  shipments  of 
linen  cloth  during  the  same  year  Ijeing  estimated  at 
about  1,000,000  yards,  no  mention  being  made  either 
of  sail-cloth  or  bagging.  In  1791,  the  imports  of  flax 
araouilied  to  2,444  tons,  and  those  of  hemp  to  299  tons ; 
the  exports  that  year  being  7,842,000  yards  linen, 
280,000  yards  sail-cloth,  and  65,000  yards  bagging. 
From  thia  period  the  trade  began  to  extend  itself  grad- 
ually, though  not  rapidly.  Previously  to  the  peace 
of  1816,  no  great  quantity  of  machinery  waa  em- 


ploy <-.l  In  spinning ;  but  al>out  thia  p<>riod,  in  oonae- 
quence,  partly  and  princi|ully,  of  the  lnipn>vem«ni 
of  machinery,  and  |^  •xtenslve  Introduction  Into  the 
manufacture,  aud  partly  of  the  greater  ragularlty  with 
which  ■uppilea  of  the  raw  material  were  obtained  (Voni 
tha  Northern  |x)wars,  the  traila  bugan  rapidly  to  In- 
crtaae.  Its  progress  hni,  indeed,  been  quite  astonUh- 
ing ;  thu  im|H>rtN  of  flax  ami  hnnip  having  Increoaed 
from  about  11000  tons  In  1814  to  16,000  tons  in  1880, 
and  40,000  lona  In  1846,  of  which  at  least  »U,000  tona 
were  spun  by  the  ndlla  in  the  town,  the  rent  Ulng 
apuu  in  the  vicinity,  i  li»  value  of  the  exptjrU  of 
manufactured  goods  au'l  yarn,  from  Dundim  anwnnta 


at  pruiant  (1847)  to  from  i;l,60U,000  tr 
year, 

Am  AonooNT  or  thi  QirAaiiTiaa 
VAaiKTiKs  iir  Uxaa  Oihim  »t 
uuiiiKo  aioii  or  THI  Foul  Ti    . 


'>,000,  k 


OsnabuFK* 
HheotlDK*. 
jCotton  baKKlng 
BuikItIih. 
Hall-cloth 
iHacklnK  . 
llowlaa.. 
Sundries, 

Total 


lUI, 

|H^~ 

-TWC 

"St.. 

ri.f.1. 

Mwtl, 

I'ltMl. 

Tiun, 

»«,»« 

ll)0,4AI) 

7M,Hl« 

77,«M 

lai.M) 

IW.DftS 

li5'<,.'M6 

t«l,»M 

6ft,ftW 

80,168 

111.624 

961 

T.ltBft 

13.AI1 

l«,oog 

«H,S8S 

n.*M 

108,010 

11H,»M 

160,1461 

4^sw 

67,177 

174,76(1 

1»»,»IT 

40,»18 

4^78a 

M'J,»»7 

7H,181 

ll,SftO 

ia,709 

1i4,||7 
774,Mi 

1»,IM0 

*U,im 

»IS,T07 

7'a,l)10 

It  la  not  eaay  to  give  any  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  remarkable  proifress  ofthe  linen  manufacture  at 
Dundee.  Something  miiit  Ihs  ascribed  to  the  conve- 
nient sitiution  of  the  port  lor  olitainiii^'  supplies  of  tha 
raw  material ;  and  more  |i«rhapH  to  tlio  manufacture 
having  Iwen  l<'iig  cstaldixlied  in  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  Strathmorn,  the  Curse  of  Oowrie,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Fife,  of  which  Dundee  is  the  em- 
porium. Hut  tliean  circumstances  do  not  seem  ade- 
quate to  explain  tlio  xuperiority  to  which  she  haa 
recently  attained  in  lUU  department;  and  however 
unphilosophical  it  may  icm,  we  do  not  really  know 
that  wo  can  ascribe  it  to  any  thing  else  than  a  concur- 
rence of  fortunate  accidents.  Nothing,  in  fact,  is  so 
difiicult  to  explain  as  the  8U|>eriorit7  to  which  certain 
towns  frequently  attain  in  particular  departments  of 
industry,  without  apparently  possessing  any  |>ecullar 
facilities  for  carrying  them  on.  But  from  whatever 
causes  their  pre-eminence  may  arise  in  the  first  in- 
stance, it  is  very  diflicult,  when  once  they  h  ive  at- 
tained it,  for  otiiers  to  come  into  competition  with 
them.  They  have  on  their  side  estaldisheil  connec- 
tions, workmen  of  superior  skill  and  dexterity  in  man- 
ipulation, improved  machinery,  etc.  Kecently  indeed 
the  advantages  in  favor  of  old  establishments  have 
been,  to  a  considerable  extent,  neutralized  by  the 
prevalence  of  combinations  among  their  workmen ; 
but  it  is  to  l)e  hopedtekt  means  may  be  devised  for 
obviating  this  formid^|t  evil. 

Value  of  Mumifncturt, — There  ore  no  means  by 
which  te  form  an  accurate  estimate  ofthe  entire  valuo 
of  the  linen  manufacture  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Dr.  CoUiuhoun  estimates  it  at  £15,000,000;  liut  there 
can  not  be  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  this  estimate 
was,  nt  tlie  time,  absurdly  exaggerated.  In  the  last 
edition  of  this  work  we  estimated  the  annual  value  of 
the  manufacture  at  £7,500,000.  But  it  has  increased 
very  rapidly  in  the  interval,  principally  through  the 
great  extension  of  the  exports  of  France,  and  its  valuo 
is  at  present  (1847)  certainly  not  under,  if  it  do  not 
exceed  £10,000,000  or  £12,000,000.  But  taking  it  nt 
the  former  amount,  and  setting  aside  a  third  part  of 
this  sum  for  the  value  of  the  raw  material,  and  another 
third  for  profits,  wages  of  superintendence,  wear  and 
tear  of  capital,  coal,  etc.,  wo  have  £3,383,000  to  be 
divided  as  wages  among  those  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture. And  supposing  each  individual  to  earn  on  an 
average  £24  a  year,  the  total  number  employed  would 
be  about  133,000.  It  may  be  thought,  perhaps,  that 
£24  is  too  low  an  estimate  for  wages ;  and  such,  no 


«}| 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


v.. 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


118 

u 


lAO 


IE 

1.4   IIIII.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRUT 

WnSTER,N.Y.  I4SS0 

(716)  873-4503 


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1364 


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donbt,  would  b«  the  cue  vera  not  Inland  taken  into 
the  aTeran*.  But  as  many  penoni  an  thera  employed 
In  the  mannfkctnra  at  very  low  wages,  we  beliere  that 
£3i  if  not  very  far  ttom  the  mean  rate. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  exports  of  linen  goods  and 
yam,  especially  the  latter,  to  France  (see  for  an  ac- 
count of  this  incnase  the  article  Havbk),  though 
latterly  they  have  declined,  is  wholly  a  consequence 
of  their  comparative  cheapness  in  this  country,  occv 
sl(med  by  our  superior  and  cheaper  machinery.  And 
If  the  Franch  really  wish  to  rival  us  in  this  department 
of  industry,  they  should  endeavor,  by  ndncing  or  re- 
pealing the  oppressive  dntiee  ')n  iron  and  machineiy 
imported  into  France  (which  would,  of  course,  propor- 
tionally ndiNe  the  cost  of  the  spinning-mills  and  pow- 
er-loom factories),  to  place  their  manufacturars  and 
ipinoers  on  something  lilce  the  same  footing  as  ours. 
In  this  way  they  might,  perhaps,  have  some  chance 
of  rivaling  us ;  but  the  attempts  -that  have  racently 
been  made  to  bolster  up  the  mannfactura  by  means  of 
dnties,  must  necessarily  fail,  and  will  luve  no  elTect 
but  to  perpetuate  exploded  practices,  and  to  promote 
the  trade  of  smuggling;.  The  British  exports  of  linen 
goods  aro  also  increasing  to  most  other  countries,  as 
well  as  to  France ;  and  we  are  gaining  on  the  Ger- 
mans in  mon  marlcets  that  are  equally  accessible  to 
both.  Hence  the  decrease  of  late  years  in  the  export 
of  linens  from  Hamburg.  Tlie  improvement  in  the 
mannfactuTO  of  damasks  and  table-linen  generally, 
which  is  principally  carried  on  in  Dunfermline  and 
Kiriccaldy,  has  \)een  quite  as  strilcing  as  in  the  other 
departments  of  the  trade,  especially  since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Jacquard  mounting.  In  fact,  tablo 
linen  U  now  shipped  from  this  countrj'  for  Germany ; 
■o  that  the  duty  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  importation  of 
German  damasks  and  such  like  fabrics  might  be  re- 
duced or  npealed  without  the  measure  having  any  in- 
jurious influence  over  tho  manufacturer. 

Tabulab  VIEW  or  tub  Fobbion  £xp'>bis  or  Lines  Ooods 
rKOH  Obbat  Bbitain  roB  baou  Ybab  raov  18C1  to 
1SS2,  botu  imolusivb. 


TMin.  Vain*. 

18S1....£1,»8I,46S 


1819. 
18S8. 
18M. 
1815. 
1818. 
1817. 


1,192,771 
l,0»5.fi74 
1,441,440 
1,180,700 
1,48»,«47 
1,8»M8« 


1818....   1,000.083 


18W. 
1880. 
1881. 


i.Ba'i.sst 

l,flW,2M 
1,801,808 


Y»n.  V>la«. 

1881...£1,SI»,478 
1888...    2,139,080 


1Sft4.. 
1885.. 
1886. . 
1887.. 
1888.. 
1889.. 
1810.. 
1841.. 
1842.. 


2a>79,a68 
8,108,778 
8,645,097 
1.006,761 
8,566,486 
4,2!W,452 
4,128,1)64 
4,81U,02t 
8,871,800 


YMrf.  V«Iw. 

1848.... £8,701,061 


18U.... 
1845.... 
1846.... 
1847.... 
1848.... 
1849.... 
1360.... 
18.M.... 
18U.... 


4,076,476 
4,104,986 
3,706,112 
8,619,771 
8,191,701 
4,108,468 
4,K46,080 
6,067,096 
6,867,871 


Statbmbnt  snowixa   tub  iMPOBts  or  Linbic  ixto  the 

llRITBD  bTATBS  FOB  TUB  YbaB  BNOINO  JuNB  SOTII,  1866, 


PiSMHuquoddy.. 
Portland  A  Falmouth 

01ouco8t«r 

BostonAChsrlestoWD 

Nl«gan. 

Oswegatchle 

New  York 

Cliamplain 

n*pe  Vincent 

Phlbdolpbla 

Delaware 

Baltimore 

Chsrleston 

Savannah 

Mobile 

Key  Wot. 

New  Orleans 

Texss. 

Salurla. 

Brazos  do  Santiago.. 

Detroit 

MlcblllmscUnao.... 

Ban  KranolKO 

Total 


linen  btcMhwl 
or  uflblekcfiad. 


Hoilary  toA  ar- 

tleUi  mad*  OB 

f^fttnci. 


11,951 

16,788 

64V,ig3 

06 

1 

7,567,778 


978,468 

81 

125,899 

41,783 

14,861 

869 

881,168 


898 

1,616 

26 

87,195 

{9,849,600 


H8B8 


11 
14 


13 


t4,921 


BfwinflKturM 
nut  ipcclfled. 


ti06 
464,169 

""4 

601,897 

.     798 

10 

219,971 

H671 

1,671 

400 

8,848 

12,861 
997 

■"68 
20 

2^466 


11,884,941 


Consumption  of  Foreign  Lineni, — According  to  the 
ntvnis  of  the  imports  and  entries  of  foreign  linens 


fbr  th*  Ibor  ye«n  ndfaig  with  1844,  the  coaanmptioii 
of  foreign  linens  in  England  is  quite  incnuidetable ; 
the  real  or  deolarad  value  of  those  entered  for  hone 
consumption  in  1844  oonld  haidly  amount  to  ;e40,000. 

Until  recently,  this  manufacture  liaa  been  negleetsd 
In  the  United  States.  Lately,  however,  mllla  have 
been  erected  to  test  the  profltableness  of  linen  manu- 
facture. In  Fall  River,  Mass.,  new  mills  have  besn 
built,  but  not  long  enough  in  operation  to  give  any 
statistics. 

UlMaad.  The  mannfaotun  of  linseed  oil  hu 
greatly  increased  within  a  few  years,  encouraging  tiie 
itaiportation  of  seed  flrom  Calcutta  and  other  places. 
The  imports  of  linseed  into  Boston  from  Calcutta  for 
the  year  1856  were  1,887,944  bushels,  valued  at 
$1,841,719.  The  imports  of  linseed  into  the  United 
States  for  the  year  1856,  amounted  to  1,696,294  bushsb, 
of  which  1,691,875  busiiels  were  firom  the  East  Indies. 

By  the  official  returns  it  appean  that  the  imports  into 
the  United  Kingdoms  in  1856  amounted  to  1,180,179 
quartan  of  Ihiseed,  and  to  264,919  of  npe-seed,  show- 
ing a  very  great  incnase  in  both  caaes  aa  compared 
with  the  previous  annual  arrivals.  Annexed  are  the 
official  returns  for  the  last  16  years,  during  which  the 
consumption  ci  the  manufactured  artidei  has  made 
rapid  .•tirides. 


1B41. 
1842. 
1648. 
1844. 
1845. 
1846. 
1847. 
1848. 
1819. 
1860. 
1861. 
1861. 
1868. 
1854. 
1355. 
1356. 


UnM«l. 


Ouartora. 
8iS8,461 
867,700 
470,689 
616,947 
666,798 
606.141 
489,611 
799,650 
626,496 
603,984 
680,471 
799,401 

1,035,885 
X18,648 
756,900 

1,180,179 


RAp«-Med. 


Ouarten. 
89,411 
6^686 
87,097 
68,834 
47,677 
87,661 
47,528 
79,970 
29,480 

107,029 
82,394 


86,815 
103,165 
162,353 
161,919 


Ziiquorloe  (Ger.  SusaHoh;  Fr.  RiglUte,  Racim 
douce  ;  It.  Jtegolaia,  Logorizia,  Liquirizia ;  Sp.  Itegaliz 
Orozuz),  a  perennial  plant  (Glycirrhiza  glabra),  a  na- 
tive of  the  south  of  Europe,  but  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  England,  particularly  at  Mitcham  in  Surrey. 
Its  root,  which  is  its  only  valuable  part,  is  long,  slen- 
der, fibrous,  of  a  yellow  color,  and  when  fresh  very 
juicy.  The  liquorice  grown  in  England  is  fit  for  use 
at  the  end  of  8  }'ean ;  the  roots,  when  taken  up,  arc 
either  immediately  sold  to,  the  lirewers'  druggists,  or 
to  common  druggists,  by  whom  they  are  applied  to 
different  purposes,  or  they  are  packed  in  sand,  like 
carrots  or  potatoes,  till  wanted.  The  roots  of  liquor- 
ice have  been  introduced  into  the  middle  and  southern 
States,  and  have  thus  far  lieen  successful.  From  the 
increasing  demands  for  this  root,  it  is  probable  that  it 
could  l>e  cultivated  profitably.  The  amount  annually 
imported  (and  manufactured),  is  valued  at  about  $300,- 
000. 

Liquorice  Juice  (Succut  Liquaritia),  popularly 
black  tugar,  thf  inspissated  juice  of  the  roots  just  men- 
tioned. Very  n:  tie  of  this  extract  is  prepared  in  Brit- 
ain, iiy  far  the  larger  part  of  our  supply  i>eing  im- 
ported from  Spain  and  Sicily.  The  juice  oLtjined  by 
crushing  the  roots  in  a  mill,  and  subjecting  them  to 
the  press,  is  slowly  Ifoiled  till  it  becomes  of  a  proper 
consistency,  when  it  is  formed  into  rolls  of  a  consid- 
erable thickness,  which  are  usually  covered  with  bay 
leaves.  This  is  the  state  in  which  we  import  it. 
Most  part  of  it  is  afterward  rodissolved,  purified,  and 
cast  into  small  cylindrical  rolls  of  about  the  thickness 
of  a  goose  quill,  when  it  is  called  refined  liquorice.  It 
is  then  of  a  glossy  black  colo.-,  brittle,  having  a  sweet 
mucilaginous  taste.  It  is  used  in  the  materia  medica, 
particuUtfly  in  colds,  etc.— Thoiuon'b  Chemittrg. 


12«S 


LIS 


/I 


ZilaiMn,  t1i«  capital  of  Portngal,  rituatad  on  Um 
north  bank  of  the  River  Tagtu,  the  obMnratorjr  of  tlie 
fort  being  in  Ut.  88°  42'  24"  N.,  long.  8°  6'  60"  W. 
FopoUtion  about  340,000.  The  Moon  aia  laid  to 
have  given  the  name  of  Liilxia  to  this  city  wlien  they 
conquered  it,  A.D.  716.  It  was  made  the  capital  of 
Portugal  by  Emanuel,  1606.  Lislion  was  almost  de^ 
ttro}-ed  by  an  earthqnaiw,  Novem))er  1,  1766.  See 
JiifirlkqutUM.  It  iMcame  a  point  of.  tlie  late  war,  and 
the  court  fled  to  the  Braails,  Novemlier,  1807,  in  which 
month  (the  80th)  the  French  army  under  Junot  entered 
Lisbon,  and  held  possession  of  it  until  the  battle  of 
Vimeira,  in  which  they  were  defeated  by  the  British, 
under  Sir  Arthur  Welleslay,  August  21, 1808.  Insur- 
rection at  Lisbon,  August  21, 1881.  Massacre  at  Lis- 
bon, June  9,  1884.     See  Piirtdoau 

Port.— The  harlior,  or  rather  road,  of  Lisbon  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  the  quays  are  at  once 
conven^ttt  and  beautiful.  Fort  St.  Julian  marks  the 
northern  entrance  of  the  Tagus.  It  is  built  on  a 
steep  projecting  rock.  Jhers'  la  a  light-house  in  the 
centre,  120  feet  alwve  the  level  of  the  sea.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Tagus  are  two  large  l>anks,  called  the 
North  and  South  Cachop:  There  are  two  channels 
for  entering  the  river;  the  north  or  little,  and  the 
south  or  great  channel,  exhibited  in  the  ordinary 
charts.  On  the  middle  of  the  South  Cachop,  about  1^ 
miles  from  Fort  St.  Julian,  is  the  Bugio  fort  and  light- 
house, the  latter  being  66  feet  in  height.  The  least 
depth  of  water  in  the  north  channel  on  the  bar  is  4 
fathoms,  and  in  the  south,  6.  The  only  danger  in  en- 
tering the  port  arises  from  the  strength  of  the  tide ; 
the  ebb  running  down  at  the  rate  of  7  miles  an  hour ; 
and  after  heavy  rains,  when  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
fresh  water  in  the  river,  the  difficult}'  of  entering  is 
considerably  augmented.  When  at  such  periods,  there 
is  a  strong  wind  from  the  sea,  there  is  a  complete 
break  all  over  the  bar ;  vessels  moor  up  and  down  the 
river  with  open  hawse  to  the  southward.  In  some 
parts  they  may  come  within  200  yards  of  the  shore, 
being  guided  by  the  depth  of  water,  which,  from  near- 
ly 20  fathoms  in  mid-channel,  shoals  gradually  to  the 
edge. 

Trade,  etc. — Lislran  is  one  of  the  best  situated  com- 
mercial cities  of  Europe.  But  notwithstanding  this 
circumstance,  the  excellence  of  the  port,  and  the  com- 
mand of  the  navigation  of  the  Tagus,  her  commerce 
is  comparatively  trifling.  Lisbon  has  a  royal  manu- 
factory of  fire-arms  and  powder,  and  a  cannon  foun- 
dery;  other  manufactories  comprise  silks,  porcelain, 
paper,  soap.  Jewelry,  and  trinkets ;  none  of  these,  ex- 
cept-tiw  laM,  is  in  a  tlouriahing  state.  The  despotism, 
intolerance,  and  imbecility  of  the  goverement  have 
weighed  down  all  the  energies  of  the  nation.  The 
law  and  police  being  alike  bad,  there  is  no  adequate 
security.  Assassination  is  ver}'  frequent.  Industry 
of  all  sorts  is,  in  consequence,  paralyzed ;  and  since 
the  independence  of  Brazil,  commerce  has  rapidl}*  de- 
clined. Formerly  Lisbon  hod  al)0ut  40U  ships,  of  from 
300  to  600  tons  burden,  employed  in  the  trade  with 
South  America.  But  at  present  there  are  not  above 
60  ships  belonging  to  the  port  engaged  in  foreign 
trade;  and,  of  these,  the  average  burden  does  not 
exceed  160  tons  I  The  produce  of  Portugal  sent  to 
foreign  countries,  is  almost  entirely  conveyed  to  its 
destination  in  foreign  ships.  The  trade  between  Lis- 
bon and  Cork,  is,  we  believe,  the  only  exception  to 
this;  it  being  principally  carried  on  in  Portuguese 
vessels,  which  take  salt  from  St.  Uljes,  and  bring  back 
butter  in  return.  About  200  small  craft  belong  to  the 
city,  which  are  exclusively  employed  in  the  coasting 
trade.  There  are  neither  price  currents,  shipping 
lists,  nor  official  returns  of  any  kind,  published,  in  Lis- 
bon. The  principal  exports  are  lemons  and  oranges — 
which,  however,  are  very  inferior  to  those  of  Spain ; 
whie,  particularly  Lisbon  and  Calcavella ;  wool,  oil, 
tanned  hides,  woolen  caps,  vinegar,  salt,  cork,  etc. 
4L 


BeaidM  colonial  produce,  the  priadpal  importa  ooaalM 
of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods ;  baidware,  aarth* 
enware,  dried  fish,  butter,  com,  ohecae,  timber  aad 
deals,  hemp,  etc. 

iTonqr.— Accounts  are  kept  In  rees,  1000  of  wfcloh 
=ml  milne.  In  the  notation  of  accounts  the  milrees 
ate  separated  from  the  teea  by  a  crossed  cypher  (0), 
and  the  milrees  ttom  the  millians  by  a  colon :  thus, 
B«.  2:700  e  600=2,700  milrees  and  600  rees.  The  crUp 
lado  of  exchange,  or  old  crusado— 400  rees ;  the  new 
emsado=480  rees;  the  testoon=100  rees;  and  the 
vinten  or  vhitem°=20  rees.  The  gold  piece  of  6,400 
ree8=86s.  lid.  sterling ;  the  gold  crusado~2s.  8d. ; 
and  the  miliee,  valued  in  gold'=67^.  sterlbig.  It 
appears,  however,  from  assa}-s  nlade  at  the  London 
mint,  in  1812,  on  modem  silver  cruaados,  that  the 
average  value  of  the  milree  in  siVrer  may  be  estimated 

at  60d.  or  6s.  sterling.     Weightt  and  ifeaeunt The 

commercial  weights  are,  S  ounce8=l  mare ;  2  marcs 
=■1  pound  or  arratel ;  22  poundss^l  arroba ;  4  anobas 
rol  quintal ;  100  lbs.  or  arratels  of  Portugal=101-10 
lbs.  .avoirdupoi8=4&-896  kilbgrammes=94-761  lbs.  o( 
Hamburg=92'918  lbs.  of  Amsterdam.  The  principal 
measure  for  com,  salt,  etc.,  is  the  moyo,  divided  into 
16  fanegas,  30  alquldres,  240  quartos,  480  selemis,  etc. 
The  n:ayo=28-08  Winchester  bushels.  The  principal 
liquid  measure  is  the  almude,  divided  into  2  potes,  12 
canadas,  or  48  quartellos ;  18  almudes=l  baril ;  26 
almudess>l  pipe ;  62  almudes=l  tonelada.  The  al- 
mude°=4-87  English  wine  gallons;  and  the  tonelada 
=227}  ditto.  A  pipe  of  Lisbon  is  estimated  by  the 
custom-house  (British)  at  140  gallons ;  and  this  pipe 
is  supposed  to  be  31  almudes.  A  pipe  of  port  is  160 
gallons,  divided  into  21  almudes  of  Oporto.  Of  meaa- 
ures  of  length,  2  pes=3  palmo8=:l  covado,  or  cubit ; 
If  covados=l  vara;  2  varas— 1  branga.  The  pe  or 
foot=12-944  English  inches ;  100  feet  of  Portugal^ 
107-8  English  feet;  the  vara=43'2  English  inches. 
For  freight  a  last  is  reckoned  at  4  pi()ea  of  oil  or  wine,  ' 
4  chests  of  sugar,  4000  lbs.  of  tobacco,  3,600  lbs.  of 
shumnc.  But  from  one  place  in  Portugal  to  another, 
a  tonelada  is  reckoned  at  62  almudes  of  liquid,  or  64 
almudes  of  diy  goods.  Coffee  is  sold  per  arralu ;  cot- 
ton, indigo,  and  pepper,  per  lb. ;  oil,  per  almude ; 
wine,  per  pipe ;  corn,  per  alqui^re ;  salt,  per  moyo, 
Grain,  seed,  fish,  wool,  azd  timber  are  sold  on  board. 
Weights  and  long  measures  are  the  same  throughout 
PortU((<u;  but  there  is  a  great  discrepancy  in  the 
mriiaures  of  capacity.  The  almude  and  alquiire,  al 
t'  «  principal  places,  are  in  Enj^lis'i  measures  as  foL 
lo«t  8 :  Lisbon  almude='5-37  gals.  English  wine  meas- 
ure; Lislxin  alquiere=3'07  gals.  Winchester  measure; 
Oporto  almude=6f  guls.  wine  measure;  Oporto  al- 
qui£re=3}  gals.  Winchester  measure  ;  Faro  almude=> 
i^  gals,  wine  measure ;  Faro  alqui6re=3t  gals.  Win- 
chester measure;  Figuiera  almude=:&f  gals,  wine 
measure;  Figuiera  aiquiere=3^  gals..  Winchester 
measure ;  Viunna  almude=G}  gals,  wine  measure ; 
Vianna  alqui6re=8|^  gals.  Winchester  measure. 

Bank  of  Liahun. — This  establishment  was  founded 
in  1822.  Its  capital  consists  of  about  £700,000  ster- 
ling, divided  into  7000  shares.  The  shareholders  are 
not  liable  beyond  the  amount  of  their  shares.  The 
bank  discounts  bills  not  having  more  than  3  months 
to  run,  ut  6  per  cent.  Its  dividends,  at  an  average  of 
the  3  years  ending  with  1831,  were  about  6  per  cent. 
It  enjoys  the  singular  but  valuable  privilege  of  hav- 
ing its  claims  on  all  estates  paid  off  in  full,  provided 
the  estate  amounts  to  so  much;  other  creditors  lieing 
obliged  to  content  themselves  with  a  division  of  the 
residue,  if  there  be  any. 

Port  regulaiiotu. — ^All  vesseh  entering  the  Tagus 
are  obliged  to  come  to  anchor  off  Belem  Castle,  where 
there  is  an  office  at  which  they  must  be  entered,  their 
cargoes  declared,  from  whence  they  come,  and  whether 
the  cargo  be  intended  to  be  landed  in  Lisbon  or  not : 
if  not,  the  master  applies  for  "/ranjuia,"  that  is,  foi 


LIT 


1266 


■igfi^' 


lwT«  to  rrauin  8  dsyi  in  the  port  for  the  paqMiM  of 
dltpMing  of  the  cargo  or  of  departing  witli  it.  Two 
ewtom-hoiiM  ofBcera  are  then  aent  on  board,  and  if  the 
Q^Tgo  is  to  be  discharged  at  Lisbon,  tho  vessel  pro- 
ceeds to  the  castom-house,  when  the  master  raalies 
entry,  delivering  the  manifest  and  bills  of  lading  at- 
tached to  the  certiflcate  of  the  Portuguese  consul,  at 
the  port  of  lading,  in  order  to  identify  the  cargo. 
The  officers  put  on  lioard  at  BtUia  are  then  relieved  by 
two  others,  who  rainain  until  the  vessel  lie  discharged 
and  vUitod  by  the  custom-house  searcher.  The  port 
dues  have  to  \ie  paid  in  different  offices ;  bat  the  ves- 
sel Is  not  subject  to  any  other  charges. 

AU  goods  sent  on  board  for  exportation  must  be  ac- 
companied by  a  perniit  from  the  custom-house.  When 
the  clearances  are  obtained,  the  papers  an  presented 
by  the  master,  or  the  ship's  agent,  to  the  authorities 
at  Belem,  who  deliver  the  signal  t'le  vessel  is  to  hoist 
when  going  to  sea. 

There  is  no  regular  warehousing  and  bonding  sys- 
tem at  Lisbon.  AH  imported  dry  goods  are  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  custom-house  stores  2  years,  and 
liquids  6  months,  without  being  charged  warehouse 
rent,  provided  they  are  intended  for  consumption,  and 
pay  the  duties  accordingly.  Bnt  if,  after  that  period, 
they  an  then  taken  out  to  be  exported,  they  are 
charged  2  par  cent.  duty. 

JWf  Chargtt. — On  a  foreign  ship  of  800  tons  enter- 
ing the  port  of  Lisbon,  with  a  general  or  mixed  cargo, 
and  clearing  out  with  the  same ; 

Koyal  passport. 7,200 

Potty  expenses  on  entering  *t  the 

Custom  house,  about 'TOO 

Anohvrage. BOO 

Ballast  clearance 400 

Tonnage,  100  rces  |icr  ton 80,000 

Ugbts,  So  rees  per  ton 16,000 

Contrlbation  to  board  of  trade . . .  1/SOO 

Petty  charges. 730 

Blllofbealtb 240 

Total fi6,2«0=£ll    68.00. 

Vessels  coming  with  a  cargo,  or  in  ballast,  and  d" 
parting  In  ballast,  pay  200  rees  per  ton  lights,  or 
times  as  much  as  if  they  sailed  with  cai'goes.     Y 
sels  coming  with  a  cargo,  and  sailing  with  the  snmd 
cargo,  pay  no  tonnage  dut}*. 

Commission — The  ordinary  ntos  of  commission  are, 
on  the  sale  of  goods,  2^  per  cent. ;  M  ereHere,  2^  per 
cent. ;  on  the  value  of  goods  landed  from  a  vessel  put- 
ting in  to  eifect'repairs,  1  percent. ;  on  ship's  disburse- 
ments, 6  per  cent. 

Insurances  are  effected  to  a  triiiing  amount.  There 
is  one  national  compuny  for  effectmg  insurances ;  but 
It  enjoys  little  credit. 

Tares  are  not  regulated  tiy  any  certain  rule.  Those 
allowed  are  generally  those  invoiced  or  marked  on  the 
package.  See  Annuoire  du  Commerce  Maritliiuf,  p. 
290;  Kiei.i.y'h  Cambist;  Consuls'  Answers  to  Circular 
Queries,  etc. 

Zatharge  (Ger.  OlOtte,  GISUU;  Du.  Gelit;  Fr.  Li- 
tharge; It.  I.ilarffivio  ;  Sp.  Atmarlaga,  VUarjirio;  Kus. 
Glet ;  Lat.  Lithargyrium),  an  oxyd  of  lead  In  an  im- 
perfect state  of  vitrilk'ation.  Most  of  the  lead  met 
with  in  commerce  contains  silver,  from  a  few  grains 
to  20  ounces  or  more  in  the  fodder :  when  the  quantity 
is  sufficient  to  pay  the  expense  of  separation,  it  Is  re- 
fined; that  Is,  the  metal  Is  exposed  to  a  high  heat, 
passing  at  the  same  time  a  current  of  air  over  the  sur- 
face: the  lead  Is  thus  oxydlsed  and  converted  into 
Marge,  while  the  silver,  remaining  unchanged,  is  col- 
lected at  the  end  of  the  process. — Thomson's  Chem- 
istry. Litharge  is  used  for  various  purposes  In  the 
arte,  by  potters,  glass  makers,  painters,  etc, 

Idtre.  The  French  standard  measure  of  capacity 
in  thd  decimal  system.  The  litre  is  a  cul)ic  decime- 
tre ;  that  is,  a  cube,  each  of  the  sides  of  which  are 
8-937  English  inches:  it  conteins  61-028  English  cubic 
inches,  and  is,  therefore,  rather  less  than  our  quart. 


four  and  ■  half  litrw  are  a  doaa  approach  to  tha  En> 
glish  imperial  gallon, 

LiT*  Oak.  Under  acte  of  Congnsa,  the  PrastdaDt 
of  the  United  States  ia  authorized  to  take  measures 
for  the  protection  of  the  live  oak  timber  growing  on 
lands  owned  by  the  United  Stetes  in  Florida  and  elsa« 
where.  Persons  cutting  or  removing  live  oak,  or  red 
cedar,  and  other  timlier  iwlonging  to  the  United 
Stetes  (without  authority),  are  subject  to  imprisan- 
ment  for  twelve  months  and  to  a  fine:  tha  vessels 
engaged  In  such  unlawful  removal  are  subject  to  foN 
feitnre,  and  the  captain  to  a  fine  of  $1000.  (Act  of 
1881.)    See  Oak. 

Liverpool,  a  borongh  of  England,  In  Lancashire, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  commereial  towns  in  the  world. 
Is  situate  on  the  Hersey,  along  which  it  extends  for 
nearly  six  miles.  For  five  miles  of  this  distenee  a 
line  or  chain  of  docks  runs  parallel  with  the  river,  and 
from  these  docks,  at  intervals,  streete  extend  yt  right 
angles,  tolerably  direct,  to  the  extremity  of  the  bound- 
ary. These  are  crossed  by  #treete  more  or  less  par- 
allel to  the  river ;  but  as  the  town  grew  up  rather 
suddenly,  no  great  attention  was  paid  to  regularity, 
The  boundaiy  line,  from  where  It  touches  the  river  at 
the  south,  to  its  termination  at  Bootle  Bay,  embraces  a 
circle  of  about  eight  miles.  As  yet  the  extremities 
are  imperfectly  filled  up,  but  in  som^  places  the  houses 
extend  beyond  the  line. 

History. — Local  archiBologists  have  been  eager  to 
invest  tlie  town  with  the  dignity  of  a  remote  antiquity  i 
but  their  labors  have  not  been  very  successful.  In 
Doomsday  Book  the  name  does  not  appear,  although 
sites  within  its  present  boundary  are  mentioned,  Mr, 
PIcton,  In  his  admirable  paper  on  "Ancient  Liver- 
pool," contends  that  the  place  mentioned  as  Smednm 
must  have  represented  Liverpool,  and  that  Smedone  U 
identical  with  Smithdown,  now  one  of  the  soutliern 
streets.  This,  however,  is  not  likely,  for  Smithdown 
was  remote  txom  ancient  Liverpool,  and  on  the  soulji 
side  of  the  Pool,  then  called  Mersey  Sea.  The  name 
been  a  subject  of  unsatistying  contention ;  for  al- 
gh  the  final  syllable  pool  is  derived  from  tho 
lily,  liver  is  of  doubtful  origin.  In  early  times  the 
. ,  xn.  was  called  indifferently  Lirpool,  Lilherpool,  IMh. 
pool,  and  Liferpole.  F  and  v  were  commutabla  ;  but, 
in  the  most  ancient  records,  the  name  is  written  in. 
differently  Lithepol  and  Lithepole.  Mr.  liuincs,  in  his 
History  nf  Liverpool,  is  disposed  to  think  that  lithe 
must  be  accepted  for  sea,  and  thus  the  derivation  will 
be  the  pool  on  the  sea.  Originally  the  place  was  only 
a  small  fishing  village ;  for  the  Mersey,  up  to  u  very 
recent  period,  was  remarkable  for  its  supply  of  salmon 
and  other  fish.  The  first  authentic  record  of  the  town 
Is  found  in  a  charter  of  Henry  II.,  in  the  year  11711, 
declaring  that  the  estuar}-  of  "  the  Mersey  shall  lie 
for  ever  a  port  endowed  with  all  the  liberties  belonging 
to  a  port  of  the  sea,  and  that  the  men  of  I.yrpul,  neur 
to  Toxteth,  may  come  and  go  from  each  side  of  tlie 
sea  with  their  ships  and  nierohandise  free  and  without 
obstruction,"  It  is  Hupposed  that  hia  majesty  In  this 
charter  had  reference  to  the  conquest  of  Ireland ;  f>ir, 
not  content  with  the  bestowal  of  a  barren  privilege,  he 
actually  erected  dwellings  called  burgage  houses,  the 
tenants  of  which  were  the  primitive  freemen  of  Liver- 
pool, These  houses  continued  to  yield  a  rental  to  tlia 
crown  up  to  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  and  constituted,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  dwellings  of  the  inhnblbints.  In 
1207  King  .Fohn  granted  the  town  a  cliarter,  as  ful- 
lows :  "  ICnow  ye,  that  we  have  granted  to  all  our 
faithful  sulijects  who  have  taken  burgage  haunes  bt 
Liverpool,  tliat  they  may  have  all  the  liberties  and 
free  customs  In  the  town  of  Liverpool  which  any  ntkor 
free  borough  upon  the  sea  has  In  our  territories.  And, 
tlierefore,  we  command  you,  that,  securely  and  In  our 
peace,  you  may  come  thither  to  receive  and  dwell  In 
our  burgage  houses ;  in  witness  whereof,  we  transmit 
to  you  these  our  lettere  patent.    Witness — Simon  de 


««,  wl 
fiillnai 
niunlci 
\mt\ 

done  i 
An»(lii 

tils  (In 

(ffrttio; 

ami  till 
'Ngbt 
cliantin 
nth«r 
pal  m« 
inark«< 
Um  flu 


LIV 


1267 


LIV 


PttMtini,  M  Wlficlimtor,  the  28th  d&y  of  Angnat,  in 
thtt  (Kh  ftu  of  our  reign." 

Tha  flmt  palpiilile  atep  in  advuice  talcen  by  tiie 
(own  WM  In  tli«  reign  cf  Charles  II.  A  new  world 
btil  (h«n  been  opened  to  the  enterprtae  of  the  old ; 
und  tilverpool  Invited  to  ita  port  auch  trade  aa  waa 
«r««(«d  by  the  Infant  manufactarea  of  Lancaahire, 
Yorkihlre,  and  Cheahlre.  Aa  the  plantations  in  Amer- 
1(11  InereMed,  so  did  the  ti-ade  of  Liverpool ;  and  froib 
in  lirty  period  he^  merchanta  took  a  prominent  part 
In  ilw  akveHrade.  She  sent  out  ships  to  Aft-ica,  con- 
Vayad  their  live  burdens  to  America  and  the  West 
Indtoi,  «nd  In  return  brought  back  to  the  Mersey  the 
IHgir.  Uthaeeo,  and  other  produce  of  those  regions. 
The  KMgllsh  merchanta  and  ship-owners  hod  competed 
»ae<!»»»m\y  with  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese ;  but 
It  WM  not  until  1708  that  the  first  slaver  was  de- 
|i|iflt«hed  from  the  Mersey.  Having  entered  on  the 
trnite,  they  soon  participated  largely  in  it;  for,  in 
Vli'if  lOl  Liverpool  merchants  were  engaged  in  the 
uliivn  traffic,  lil6  appertaining  to  I/mdon,  and  167  to 
itfJKtnl,  The  number  of  Liverpool  vessels  engaged  in 
(ll«  American  and  West  India  trade  was  106,  and  of 
tUiim  VB  were  slavers.  In  due  time  this  trade  greatly 
incfefised )  and  that  It  enriched  Liverpool  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  greater  portion  of  the 
We»t  Indies  belonged  to  merchanta  of  thia  place. 
Tills  trado,  however,  like  every  other,  was  affected  by 
war.  It  almost  ceased  during  the  French  war  of  the 
iRtli  eontury,  and  the  merchant  ships  unemployed 
were  eagerly  converted  Into  privateers.  At  first  the 
gain  w«M  Immense ;  but  subsequently  the  French  pre- 
dtmluated,  and  Liverpool  suffered  severely  by  the  pri- 
vateers uf  the  enemy.  On  the  return  of  peace  trade 
was  resumed,  but  not  with  any  accelerated  force  until 
(he  Inventions  of  Arkwright  and  others  created  the 
cotton  t'  'de  In  l.ancashire.  The  war  of  American  In- 
d<>|Hmd«nce  hud  the  worst  possible  effect  on  the  pros- 
Mfity  of  Llver|iool ;  and  the  late  war  of  tlie  French 
Itdvolutlon  at  first  operated  most  adversely.  Still,  two 
clrcumsf  antes  obviated  these  bad  effects.  The  great  In- 
urmi»«  of  (Hipulation  and  trade  in  the  United  States  of 
AinfricM  created  a  demand  for  British  manufactures, 
sitil  these  manufactures  had  nearly  all  to  pass  flrom  the 
MoMey,  which  received  In  return  the  raw  produce  in- 
dlrsi'ily  paid  for  them.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Liver- 
|MHil  was  still  advancing,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  within 
tlix  last  it)  years.  The  population  of  the  old  borough 
III  IWrt  was  77,(;00  j  in  1811,  94,000 ;  in  1821, 118,000 ; 
In  1H;I1,  20i),OnO  ;  in  1841,  in  the  new  borough,  286,000 ; 
ami  In  Mii,  870,OOO.  The  usual  rato  of  increase  from 
iHftl  to  1867  will  have  augmented  the  population  to 
more  than  400,000,  and  latterly  It  has  gonn  on  in  accel- 
srstfd  ratio.  I'roof  of  this  is  derived  from  the  fact, 
(hat  (he  numlier  of  new  houses  erected  in  1865  was 
\'M,  while  In  1860  It  was  1703. 

frt«te  qf  the  I'ort.— In  1750  Liverpool  had  only  20 
S'lllIng  vessels  engaged  in  the  continental  trade ;  now 
shn  has  treble  tliut  number,  and  fleets  of  screw  steam- 
«M,  wliloli  constantly  visit  every  port  in  the  Mediter- 
rnticnn,  and  render  the  Mersey  a  medium  of  com- 
munication between  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  and 
Ain«rlca,  The  Kast  Indies,  too,  have  been  opened  to 
lilvcrpool  enterprise.  Since  the  alteration  in  the 
Oiim|iany's  charter,  and  in  the  amount  of  business 
Ibine  In  the  l';ast,  Liverpool  stands  next  to  London. 
Amrtller  trade  she  has  almost  monopolized — the  Aus- 
trdliim  trade.  Her  clipper  vessels  are  admitted  to  be 
tile  llnest  In  the  world,  and,  in  consequence,  the  eini- 
ifiidon  (o  (he  antipodes  is  (ho  largest  from  this  port, 
and  the  return  cargoes  the  heaviest ;  for  necessarily  the 
freights  are  low,  as  more  goods  go  than  come,  and 
t'll«fl|iti«s«  Induces  shippers  to  send  their  wool  here 
fatiler  tiian  to  Loudon,  although  London  is  the  princi- 
pnl  nisfhet.  But  Liverpool  is  now  creating  a  wool 
market  of  her  own.  The  first  authentic  account  of 
tba  nuitll>er  of  vessels  entering  the  port  dates  from 


1677 ;  and  the  following  retumt  indicate  it  •  gUnet 
tha  progress  of  the  trade : 


ITOT. . 
1T80.. 
1800.. 
1820*. 

isao.. 

1840.. 

isno.. 

18M.. 


VauaU. 


1,871 
1,2«1 
4,T4« 
T,8TT 
11,114 
1S,998 
20,4AT 
fiU,886 


Tonnaft. 


480,000 
806,098 
1,411,864 
2,44A.703 
8,8811,887 
4,890,618 


Dock  dullai. 


sa,au 

8,IMS 

sa,8T« 

(4,419 
»1,8S» 
178,19* 
911,748 
896,801 


*  This  la  the  lint  year  when  goods  were  rated  as  well  as 
ships. 

The  custom-house  revenue  collected  in  the  port  was, 
In  1856,  <8,676,844,  28.  8d.,  and  1866,  i:8,824,177,  14s, 
8d.,  showing  an  increase  of  X247,843,  Tis.  The  last 
quarter  of  1866  exhibits  a  comparatively  further  In- 
crease  of  £118,681  over  the  corresponding  quarter  of 
1865.  The  town  dues  now  produce  more  than  £120,000 
a  year,  and  there  is  another  impost  culled  light-dues, 
which  produced  in  1856  £9<.l,965,  against  £86,182  in 
1865.  These  light-dues  go  altogether  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  and  are  disposed  of  as  passing  tolls,  The 
greater  number  of  vessels  frequenting  the  port  comes 
fVom  the  United  States  of  America;  for  the  great 
trade  of  Liverpool  is  in  cotton,  and  the  cotton  supplied 
comes  in  largest  quantities  from  the  southern  States  of 
the  Union.  The  following  returns  will  give  a  correct 
Idea  of  the  progress  of  this  trade.  In  1770  there  were 
imported  into  Liverpool  6037  bagSfj^  bales  3  barrel* 
of  raw  cotton ;  but  since  the  improvements  of  Hur- 
greaves  and  Arkwright  in  spinning,  the  trade  has 
greatly  increased.     Thus  the  importation  was,  in 


Poiindi. 

1780 6,766,618 

1800 66,010,782 

1820 148,672,666 


Pounds. 

1880 261,961,461 

1S40 6S3,4UO,000 

1860 68^60U,U«0 


In  1866  there  were  imported  into  Liverpool  2,028,860 
bales  of  cotton.  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  flour, 
grain,  and  com.     The  Imports  of  these  In  1866  were ;. ' 

Wheat qrs  1,870,161    il    Flour sacks    2.12,704' 

Com ^'       897,407    ||       "     ....barrel*  1,188,200 

Two  thirds  of  all  this  came  A-om  the  United  States, 
The  quantity  re-exported  Is  small.  The  total  sugar 
imported  in  1856  was  76,000  tons,  of  which  17,840  tons 
were  from  the  British  West  India  plantations,  18,656 
fh>m  Bengal,  and  19,996  from  Brazil. 

Docks. — For  carrj'ing  on  a  trade  so  large  great  facili- 
ties are  afforded.  In  1715  the  first  dock  was  con- 
structed with  an  area  of  3}  aA'es,  This  sufficed  for  42 
years ;  but,  at  an  interval  of  18  years,  another  dock 
appeared,  and  within  a  period  of  50  years  Ave  addi- 
tional docks  were  made.  In  1826  the  corporation  tilled 
up  the  primitive  dock  in  order  to  erect  the  custom- 
house on  its  site.  In  consequence  of  this  proceeding, 
and  the  rapid  increase  of  buildings,  none  of  the  docks 
run  inland,  but  all  extend  along  and  parallel  with  the 
river.  From  1830  to  1842,  eight  new  docks  were 
opened ;  and  from  1845  to  1852,  not  less  than  14  docks 
and  basins  have  been  added.  The  total  water  space 
afforded  by  the  docks  is  200  acres ;  and  the  quays 
measure  14  miles  in  length.  The  river  wall  Is  6  miles 
200  yanls  long;  the  total  area  of  the  dock  estate  la 
712  acres.  Ko  other  port  can  present  any  thing  to  be 
compared  with  the  Liverpool  Docks.  One  serious  in- 
convenience, however,  is,  that  running  along  the  river 
wall,  they  interrupt  the  approaches  to  the  ferries,  and 
when  the  gates  are  open,  stop  intercourse  for  a  short 
time  altogether.  To  remedy  tills,  an  Immense  landing 
stage,  constructed  by  Mr.  Cubitt,  has  been  placed  at 
St.  George's  Pier,  and  this  has  not  only  promoted  tha 
comfort  of  passengers,  but  served  as  a  very  popular 
promenade.  Another  landing-stage  has  been  con- 
structed, three  times  the  size  of  the  former  one,  at  a 
cost  of  £150,000.  Means,  too,  are  under  consideration 
for  facilitating  approach  to  the  ferries.  Until  1820 
there  w  u  few  warehouses  on  the  dock  quays.  Tho 
warehouses  are  in  general  up  the  town,  or  at  some  dU'k 


LIV 


1368 


uv 


tone*  ttma  th*  W*-  Th*  inconvtnienM  of  tbU  pn>- 
Toked  a  lively  agiution  among  the  nMrchanU,  and, 
through  the  great  exertion  of  several  meml-en  of  the 
council,  the  Albeit  Dock  was  constructed  and  sur- 
rounded, like  St.  Katherine's  Dock,  London,  by  piles 
of  ponderous  warehouses.  Stanley  Dock  has  since 
also  been  surrounded  by  warehouses,  and  the  new 
Wapping  Docks  are  to  have  the  samo  advantage. 
Extensive  as  the  dock  accommodation  is,  it  is  nu 
longer  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  port.  Several 
new  docks  are  projected  at  the  north  end,  on  land 
reclaimed  from  tlie  bay,  under  a  certain  understanding 
with  the  Karl  of  Derby ;  and  in  18M  the  vurporatlim 
became  purchasers  of  the  Birkenhead  Dock  and  estates 
for  a  sum  of  ;C1, 148,000.  But  these  docks,  to  l>e  ren- 
dered avaUal)lo,  will  requiiv  a  further  outlay  of  ^800,- 
000.  The  constitution  nf  the  dock  management  has 
nndergone  sonic  changes.  The  corporation  having 
been  the  first  projectors  and  supporters  of  the  docks, 
were  recognized  as  trustees  of  the  estate.  Under  the 
act  Slst  George  III.  the  committee  consisted  of  21 
persons,  all  members  of  and  appointed  by  the  common 
council,  and  this  continued  until  the  passing  of  the 
act  6tb  George  IV.,  1836,  when  the  dock  rate-payer* 
were  first  directly  represented  by  returning  8  mem- 
bers to  the  committee;  the  council  electing  111,  In- 
cluding the  chairman,  and  the  council  having  a  veto 
on  the  proceedings.  This  continued  until  the  act  of 
1861,  by  which  a  committee  of  24  is  appointed — 12  liy 
the  oouncil  and  lAby  the  dock  rate-payers.  The  com- 
mittee appoint  their  own  chairman  and  deputy-chair- 
man ;  the  chairman  being,  however,  one  of  the  12 
members  elected  by  the  council.  The  council  have 
also  a  veto  on  the  proceedings  of  the  committee  by  a 
majority  of  two  thirds.  The  care  of  the  port  is  divided 
between  the  dock  committee  and  the  corporatirm.  The 
latter  constructed  the  light-house  and  built  the  Wal- 
lasey embankment,  to  prevent  the  sea  encroaching  on 
the  district  and  impairing  the  channels  leading  to  tlw 
river;  and  the  former  provide  buoys,  and  a  marine 
surveyor  whose  duty  it  is  to  note  the  shifting  of  the 
sandbanks,  and  give  notice  to  the  pilots  and  mari- 
ners. 

Shipbuilding. — There  are  several  eminent  ship- 
builders in  Liverpool,  but  of  late  the  greater  part  of 
the  t:ade  has  l>een  in  repairing  and  in  the  building  of 
iron  ships.  There  are  live  building-yards  on  the  Lan- 
cashire side  of  the  river,  and  three  on  the  other  sida, 
Those  on  the  Chesbirri*  side  combine  graving  with 
building  docks,  and,  although  there  are  several  grav- 
ing docks  on  the  Liverpool  side,  they  are  found  to  Im 
inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  port.  As  might  \m 
expected,  a  large  trade  ia  carried  on  In  ships.  In 
1866,  694  ships,  of  328,991  tons  were  sold,  and  of  tbesa 
one  fifth  were  bought  by  foreigners.  Liverpool  is  a 
place  of  trade  rather  than  of  manufactures,  and  those 
manufactures  which  exist  are  more  for  the  supply  of 
local  wants  than  lor  jfeneral  purposes.  An  attttin|)t 
was  mode  to  establish  a  cotton  raauufactor}-,  but  witb* 
out  success. 

Next  to  London,  the  corporation  of  Liverpool  is  de. 
cidodly  the  richest  in  the  kingdom.  At  first  her 
income  was  miserably  small,  and  centuries  passed 
without  improving  it;  but  in  1777  the  corporation 
purchased  from  Lord  Molyneaux,  for  i,'2260,  bis  re- 
version, expectant  on  the  detenninution  of  bis  lease  In 
the  town  dues,  and  these  rose  gradually  from  4,'20,0<X) 
a  year  to  £130,000.  The  income  of  the  corporation  Is 
also  derived  from  land  within  the  town,  from  markets, 
and  from  police  rates — the  wliole  estimated  at  X2(i8,000 
for  1857.  The  claim  to  the  town  duos  has  often  lieen 
questioned.  A  case  was  tried  in  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench  in  1831,  and  decided  in  favor  of  the  corporation  | 
but  ia  1866  government  brought  in  a  bill  to  abolish 
tbem.  Great  resistance  being  offered,  a  select  com- 
mittee was  appointed  ;  it  beant  evidence,  but  m«d«  no 
lapoit.     The  people  of  Manchester  an  opposed  to 


lid  it  it  ballavtd  tbM  «MmMf  Vimm 
Must  \m  •  eiimpmnlM.  Tha  daea  consirt  «f  small 
sumt ,  bMdly  aptmNtUbla  In  anwuat,  c«IUc(ad  iw  rnvr^ 
ebandlM.  Tba  doch-ratM  belong  to  ao  *y««i»l  Utr 
tarast,  bainif  d«v»le<l  not  to  demands,  but  sijw^>-  it« 
Intarast  uf  monay  Iforrvwad,  and  the  cost  of  wofjk^wg. 

WItli  the  Increase  of  trade  and  weolUi,  the  bMU  «/ 
doing  busineM  underwent  a  great  chaog*.  At  (^ 
beginning  of  the  present  century  the  nerciiewt  Im4 
bU  wHmtinii-bouse  and  warehouse  Ijebtnd  W«  dwcUwgT 
bouse,  TJtese  maMloiM  may  now  be  seen  in  lltm^itf, 
street,  Duke-etrcet,  dael-strsst,  and  others,  Immtg 
still.  In  tlieir  arcbitecture,  evidence  of  cost  and  i^mUt, 
although  now  mostly  itevnted  to  meaner  uses.  iM 
years  Uler  the  mercantile  offices  began  («  g^mf 
alwut  the  Kxebangei  mean  buildings  wcw  U*)^- 
fornied  into  lordly  edifices ;  and  as  much  as  tmt  w 
^MOO  a  year  Is  now  (llf&7)  jiald  for  a  suite  of  vwm  m 
a  slngb)  floor.  Much  rente  are,  of  course,  UmfitiUtnn 
to  an  increase  of  ImiMIng* )  and  In  UK  as  wiu<  h  *4 
£47  a  square  yard  has  been  paid  for  buJbii«K-i*'M 
near  the  Tvwn-hall,  All  the  opulent  classes  If  v«  m  ttn> 
environs.  Vp  to  the  year  1838  Mew  BrigbiUw  wds  « 
sand-bill,  wltnout  a  single  tenement  os  it ;  m>w  k  i» 
covered  with  villas,  'llie  villas  r«vcr  the  hiUt  *»i 
crowd  tbe  gorges,  which  extend  from  the  Red  Numu  lUi 
Kock  Ferry )  while  on  tbe  l.encasltire  side,  Aigt>vr% 
Allarton,  Vfiio\Um,  Wavertree,  Old  Swau,  Kw^ty 
.\»h,  West  Uerl«y,  Walton,  C'rosl>y,  Litlieriand,  WviU-r- 
loo,  and  llootle,  have  lieon  entirely  oo^upied  by  thx 
mansions  and  villas  of  the  opulent  people  of  Uvcrpuvl, 

The  mercantile  offices  which  have  sprung  up  *rm»4 
tha  Kxcbange  are  remarkable  for  their  ar<'b»teiiMf«>i 
Iwauty,  »»  well  a*  for  their  conveoivoue.  W»t*r- 
street,  from  tbe  Town-hall  to  George's  Dock,  praaauii  * 
succession  of  such  bulbllngs.  On  the  site  of  tHw  uU 
tower,  tlie  last  remnant  of  the  Castle,  h^'Vi  Iwtw 
eroded  the  Tower  Buildings— a  moss  of  iaim»tif>i-- 
bouses,  ornamented  l<iward  tlw  river  by  »»  IfsHm 
tower,  now  used  as  a  semaphore  teUgrapb  tiuttiuti. 
Fenwick-street,  at  right  angles  with  wWrr4firAit, 
presents  a  succession  of  buildings  equally  han^M, 
Th*  (/'om  Kxcbange  Is  in  llr unswick-street ;  iiu>i  m  M/w 
same  street  Is  tbe  Unbm  Bsnk,  a  perfect  .ircbU«cti^i'«| 
bijou  I  and  a  little  further  on,  in  Jaues-strevt,  41^  il>« 
top  of  Fenwlck-strcet,  ii  the  North  and  iiuutb  Witht* 
Hank,  equally  entitled  to  m^tice.  In  (.'»«t)c-tAr«'A4t 
stands  tbe  Branch  Hank  of  Kngland,  cons(f^«e4  i/}- 
Mr,  Cockerell  |  and  in  tbe  same  street  the  Coww*r«^44 
Bunk  Buildings,  erct^ed  after  Mr.  Cunoingbm'o  iqU-- 
slgn.  North  •lohn-stroet,  which  runs  oiirvlM  »Uk 
Custle-street,  is  entirely  deviled  to  offices ;  imi  Ut 
Dale-street  are  situated  the  Koyai  Bonk  littMiinf, 
remarkable  for  iMildness  of  design.  The  I'ttti/m^-- 
bouse,  which  Ptands  at  the  fotrt  of  Uouth-«tfe«|t,  \^** 
built  after  a  design  of  John  Foster,  at  the  «v4  tif 
£-m,H04,  Tbe  estimate  was  £t7r,,im ;  sod  Mm^ 
tbe  bulMing  Is  an  Imposing  one  in  appcoriwtw,  U  U 
regarded  as  nut  fully  answering  its  purposes,  |«  frtmi 
of  It  I*  a  brunMi  stntue  of  Iluakissoa,  by  Hiix^m.- 
I'art  of  tbe  custom-house  Is  used  as  a  dock-ofHc.atj  mi 
another  part  of  It  as  the  post-ofBue;  for  »»M>^  i4 
which  is  the  building  pnrtlcuturly  suit»l>i«,  'ft>  tt>t) 
east  of  tlie  custiim-house  Is  the  Huiiurs'  lluiwe,  vUMt 
U  wlinirably  ada|ited  to  the  Intended  ol^ject  of  |lhe 
Marine  Board,  and  for  a  sailors'  d^pM.— |C.  ii 

llrmkuuttrr  fiif  /Jefrp«nl,—Mr.  George  U*mi»,  ('.■ 
?.,,  has  projected  for  the  port  and  barlwr  of  \Afi^f»tA 
a  Jetty  or  lireak water,  from  the  Black  U»vk  I'umt,  «^ 
tbe  entrance  of  the  Mersey,  on  the  (,'hei<hir«  ^tifn,  w 
a  Una  nearly  psMillol  to  the  I.uiics!<hlr«  sbur«.  il^ 
breakwater  will  tsUe  a  north-wcutcrly  direvtiiw  mi 
curve  imtward  toward  the  Victoria  Cb.i«*n*ii  «crwi4 
the  Braxll  and  BurlMi  Banks,  fur  a  dii>tsuue  of  uuy<i»i 
of  three  mibis.  when  it  will  be  ended  by  a  U^-^mmiv.' 
8lmultaneousty  with  the  constructi<«  of  a  briiJth-»itt*ff 
It  is  |iropo«ed  to  continue  the  IUm  of  quay  wM  t4  tit» 


LIV 


1260 


UV 


«  Sx»m, ''. 


<M«(ti  doeki,  la  •  dinetion  cnrTtng  inward  u  tu  u 
tlftlHtty  Point,  ao  M  to  uslmilBtc  the  form  of  the  en- 
tftnet  Into  tha  Mcney  to  •  trompet'a  mouth.  Th« 
AdMMtagM  proposed  by  thii  plan  are  said  to  be :  1. 
The  general  improvement  of  tlia  entrance  into  the 
biirtKir,  by  which  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the  tides  wiii 
he  mete  regolar  and  more  favorable  to  the  deepening 
iim<t  preserving  th^  low  water  channels,  and  to  their 
ff.ivtgatlen  generally.  2.  The  protection  of  the  north 
ifr>«li8  (oeeaaionally  inaccessible  in  stormy  weather), 
»lt4  of  the  Bootle  and  Formby  shores  from  the  violent 
e/Teets  of  the  prevailing  winds.  8.  The  acquisition  of 
fiaarly  3000  acres  of  valuable  land,  which  will  be  in- 
closed between  the  new  wall  and  that  shore.  4.  The 
talxable  conversion  of  (h>m  80,000  to  40,000  acies  of 
tttwd^brnks  now  rapidly  accumulating  and  rising  atiove 
lo\r  water,  along  the  whole  shore  In  front  of  the  Lea- 


sowes,  fWim  the  Rock  Point  to  the  entranee  of  the 
Dee  estuary  ut  Hilbre  Point.  6.  The  prevention  from 
enuring  into  the  harbor  of  vast  qnantltlaa  of  drift 
sand  which  come  from  the  North  Burbo  banks,  in 
south-westerly  gales.  6.  The  prevention  of  many 
shipwrecks  and  loss  of  lives  and  property  which  occur 
annnally.  7.  The  reduction  to  a  minimum  of  the  great 
expenses  now  incurred  in  mainUining  the  lighU, 
buoys,  Bteam-tuga,  dredgers,  etc.,  now  employed  In 
preserving  the  direction  and  depth  of  the  sea  chanilels, 
and  which  heavily  tax  the  40,000  ships  and  4,000,000 
of  tons  carried  by  them  annually.  Finally,  the  pres- 
ervation and  improvement  of  the  port  and  harbor  of 
Liverpool,  and  which,  like  its  neighbor,  the  estuary  of 
the  Dee,  will  lie  entirely  ruined  if  prompt  measures  ba 
not  taken  to  prevent  it.  The  following  tablu  showi 
the  grain  trade  of  Liverpool : 


tfoMfjlMaon  or  iMPoan  or  Obair,  xtc-  into  Livaaroci.  for  I'wklvk  Moictus  kndiho  QOtb  SamiiBCB,  1863.  1858L 

1854,  1^6^  ABO  1966.  ^       •.=«>« 


Twfi. 

wasAT. 

wLoum. 

OATA. 

aM  IrelABcl. 

ColMiUI. 

ro-ri|fc 

Brilbh. 

Forelri.              1    ColonlAl. 

HrlllAh.     ;    Fmlia. 

fMf 

()iurtari. 
30,080 

83,147 
3^e«6 
89,385 
68.817 

(tuArUn. 
91.730 
47,651 
48,021 
4,948 
66,857 

QuArt«n. 
476,799 
880,770 
76l,Ci6 
891,007 

1,017,605 

SAckl. 

81,584 
85,^'M) 
37,474 
61,411 
52,626 

SAcki. 
140,697 
907,896 
173,691 
804,808 
331,447 

HAmlL 

930,458 

1,080,658 

1,331,448 

70,674 

1,016,687 

HArrnli. 
78,055 

8J5,826 

77,707 

11,163 

181.816 

QuArtttr*. 

186.228 
171,948 
167.094 
ia.211 
183.371 

Uu«rt«rl. 

33,481 
6,416 
3,3(l« 
1,612 
4,731 

iS»::::. ;;;!::::::;: 

ISM 

i8iie 

««• 

COHPARISO 

f  or  Imports  or  Obaih,  ito.. 

NTo  Livaaroou— CunMniMff. 

Tmh. 

■ABUV. 

■  ■ANA. 

rSAA. 

OATIilAL. 

WDIAKOOftlf. 

INDIAH  COSH 
MIAL. 

BrilUh. 

Fonlgn. 

BriUab. 

rorelsn. 

BrilUh. 

Fotelfn. 

BriUtli. 

Foraign. 

Foralin. 

13*3 

QuArlera. 

33,103  • 
39,069 
16,941 
12,396 

QuArrcH. 
28,896 
18,034 
3^858 
10,891 
14,189 

QuArtert. 

13.189 
9,915 
9,685 
8,334 
2,776 

QuArtvn. 
113,886 
105,631 
76,247 
126,439 
137,218 

QOArten. 
7,768 

18,953 
7,582 
8,685 

16,949 

Ilipf 

LoAdi, 
277,812 
343,388 
824.621 
851,220 
287.710 

ilnArrera. 

211,526 
804.860 
814,008 
765.299 
776.894 

BAmlA. 

713 

333 

87,410 

4,382 

3.699 

im 

18M 

is5:::::::::;::::::. 

18M 

(kmpABlSoif  or  Exports  or  Grain,  bto.,  from  Livrrpool  roR  Twrlvb  Montus  rhdiho  SDtu  8rptr)IBRr,  1852,  1858, 
,  1951,  1855,  AND  1866. 


Ton. 

waiAT. 

nous. 

OATC.                       1                     BARLKT,                  1 

COAIIWIM 

AAd  IralAnd 

FonigD. 

CoAUwlHADdlnlAnl. 

Foralf^D. 

CoAitwU*. 

Foreign, 

CoACtwIae. 

Foralga. 

1853 

QuArun. 

197.607 
180.468 
116,258 
88,477 
10.3,933 

QuArtert. 
1,667 

6,811 

4,994 

972 

17,824 

SAcka. 

42,463 
72,098 
88,410 
69,614 
85,107 

BArrala. 

846.983 
328,440 
398,867 
87,987 

83,630 

BAmJa. 
39,246 
36,684 
13,330 
16,585 
89,095 

QuAHfr... 

750 
9.896 
3,034 
1,048 

893 

QuArtera. 

12,580 
13,527 
85,168 
42,629 

QiiArtttra, 

987 

627 

7,263 

2,989 

6,061 

QtiArtAra. 

384 
278 
810 
569 

13M ■ 

1354 

185S 

J8«« 

Ck>xPARisoic  or  Exports  or  Orain,  rto.,  from  Livrrpooi.— 0)fl«ntMdL 


run. 

pub. 

OA™.At.      1                   ..-A,  COBB.                  i-"°-"Ar"| 

COMlwliA. 

Fonlgn. 

CoAatwtaa. 

Foreign. 

BHtlth  and 
For»lin. 

CoAAtwtae.   J     Foreign. 

BrlU<h  am) 
Foraign. 

1868 

QiiArtora. 

13,068 
0,174 
7,758 
6,698 

11,917 

QuArtan. 

iis 

68 
69 
688 

quartan. 
419 
865 
343 
870 
4,999 

UnArtara. 

'iss 

104 
615 
968 

Load). 

18,747 

83.743 

3.911 

7,737 

Quarlara. 
135,.W4 
123,412 
482..VI1 
692.996 
361.038 

Quanera. 
"191 

3,277 
14,857 
5,196 

Batrala. 

8,431 

9.873 

32,798 

12,503 

6,499 

ISM 

1    lf*« 

<    19to 

I   18»«..,.. 

I'or  a  fall  exhibit  of  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain, 
iMladlng  a  statement  of  that  of  Liverpool,  see  articles 
6Ktj|t  Britain  and  England. 

lAmt.  From  about  the  year  800,  in  the  reign  of 
CWIemagne,  to  the  year  1103,  in  that  of  Philip  I., 
Itw  f  reneh  Here,  or  money  unit,  contained  exactly  a 
jntttld  weight  of  twelve  ounces  (poub  de  mare)  of  pure 
•liver.  It  was  divided  into  20  sols,  each  of  which,  of 
efflttra,  weighed  l-20th  part  of  a  pound.  This  ancient 
'itfWdard  waa  first  violated  by  Philip  I.,  who  dimin- 
hii^  considerably  the  quantity  of  pure  silver  contained 
k  the  sols.  The  example,  once  set,  was  so  well  fol- 
lowed np,  that  in  1180  the  livre  was  reduced  to  less 
thmi  iftmrth  part  of  its  original  weight  of  pure  silver. 
Im  almost  every  succeeding  reign  there  was  a  fresh 
4M«itttttion.  "La  Monnoye,"  says  Le  Blanc,  "qui 
ssl  la  pins  prteieose  et  la  plus  important  des  misures, 
•  ekangi  en  France  presque  auasi  souvent  que  nos 
twbita  ont  changi  de  mode."  And  to  auoh  an  extent 
tMd  the  process  of  degradation  been  carried,  that,  at 
dm  epoeh  ef  the  Revolution,  the  livie  did  not  contain 


a  $evenlt/-eighlh  part  of  the  silver  contained  in  the  livra 
of  Charlemagne.  It  would  then  have  required  7885 
livres  really  to 'extinguish  a  debt  of  100  livres  con- 
tracted in  the  ninth  or  tenth  century ;  and  an  indi- 
vidual who,  in  that  remote  period,  had  an  annual 
income  of  1000  livres,  was  as  rich,  in  respect  to  money, 
as  those  who,  at  the  Revolution,  enjoyed  a  revenue  of 
78,850  livres.  (Padcton,  Traiti  des  Meaures,  Poids, 
etc.,  p.  693.)  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  degrada- 
tions originating  in  the  necessities,  the  ignorance,  and 
the  rapacity  of  a  long  series  of  arbitrary  princes,  should 
be  made  according  to  any  fixed  principle.  They  were 
sometimes  the  result  of  an  increase  in  the  denomina- 
tion of  the  coins,  but  more  frequently  of  a  diminution 
of  the  purity  of  the  metal  of  which  they  were  struck. 
A  degradation  of  this  kind  was  not  so  easily  detected ; 
and,  in  order  to  render  its  discovery  still  more  difficult, 
Philip  of  Valois,  John,  and  some  other  kings,  obliged 
the  officers  of  the  mint  to  swear  to  conceal  the  fraud, 
and  to  endeavor  to  make  the  merchants  believe  that 
the  coins  were  of  full  value.    (Lu  Blanc,  p.  212.) 


LLO 


1270 


LOA 


Sometimei  om  apMln  uf  money  wu  reduced  without 
any  tlteration  lieing  niadu  in  (he  othen.  Mo  lariifr, 
however,  had  the  people,  In  their  deullngi,  munirested 
«  preference,  aa  they  uniformly  did,  for  the  money 
which  had  not  been  reduced,  than  itn  I'Irculutlon  waa 
forbidden,  or  ita  value  brought  down  to  the  aame  level 
with  the  rtat.  By  an  emtctnient  of  Congreim,  the  com- 
murclal  value,  in  tho  United  .SUtes,  of  u  livre  toumoia 
of  France,  ia  flxed  at  IHi  cent*. 

Uoyd'S,  a  nunilier  of  rooms  in  tho  Royal  Exchange 
of  London,  frequonled  by  underwriters,  merchanta, 
■hip-ownera,  ship  and  Inauranco  brokers,  and  others, 
chiefly  for  the  purpoae  of  obtaining  shipping  intelli- 
gence, and  of  transacting  business  connected  with  ma- 
line  insurance. 

Lloyit  Cap])  of  Appolnlmmt  of  tU  AQ»iif.—T\At  la  to 
certify  to  all  whom  It  may  concern,  tliat  tlia  comnilttoe  for 
managing  the  athlra  of  Uoyd'a  have.  In  coufomilty  wllli  the 

powers  vMlcH  In  them,  appointed to  act  an  agent 

for  the  subtcribeni  to  Lloyd's  at -.  subject  to  tho  follow. 

Ing  instructlona,  which  are  to  bo  oihlblted  on  all  oraaslona 
whore  the  agent  may  bo  required  to  net,  no  that  no  mlannder 
atandlng  may  arise  with  partloa  asaiircd,  or  their  reprcaenta- 
Uvea,  aa  to  the  extent  of  authority  veated  In  the  agent  No 
power  from  the  aubaoribera  to  Lloyd'a  can  divcat  the  aaanred, 
tlieir  ageuta  or  aaalgna,  or  the  maalera  of  veaaels,  of  that  liKht 
over  property  which  the  law  haa  given  them ;  bnt  It  la  pre- 
anmed  that  the  aaaurod,  or  their  ropreaantatlvca,  will  reaillly 
arall  thcniaelvea  of  the  aialatnnce  of  an  SRcnt,  wlio  la  appoint- 
ed by  the  general  body  of  anbarrlbera  to  act  on  their  lielialf, 
and  whoae  co.operatlon  will  facilitate  the  aattlument  of  loaa  or 
average  with  the  underwriters. 

ooPT  or  iivsTBVonoifS. 
7M(allf0«U!e.— The  agent  ia  to  furniah  prompt  and  rrgular 
advleea  of  the  arrival  and  aalling  of  veaaels;  of  acclilenta  or 
other  elicnmalancea  of  danger  or  dlatreai  that  may  occur ;  of 
the  appaafanco  of  an  ouemy'a  cnilsera  or  privatecra ;  and  gen- 
eraMy  auch  Information  aa  may  be  of  Importance  to  the  aub- 
eerlbera  to  Uoyd'a  . 

Ship*  driven  on  Short,  or»<i»  Watreaa.— Whim  veaaela  are 
In  diatreaa,  or  are  diiven  on  ahore,  in  the  nelgliborliond  of  the 
port  where  the  agent  realdea,  he  is  to  offer  to  the  niaater  auch 
aervicea  aa  the  nature  of  the  caae  may  rtqulre ;  and  in  caaea 
of  ahlpwreck,  where  neither  tiie  ownera  of  tlie  veaael  or  gooda, 
nor  their  repreaentatlvea,  are  on  the  apot,  the  agent  ia  to  take 
audi  Htopa  aa  he  may  deem  the  beat  for  the  preaurvatlon  of  the 
property,  giving  Immediate  advice  of  the  olroumataneea  to 
the  aaaured,  and  following  their  inatructlona  In  all  caaea  where 
be  can  obtain  them.  Where  salvage  or  remuneration  la  claim- 
ed for  aaaiatanee  rendered  to  veaaela.  It  la  proper  for  tho  agent 
to  attend  the  meetlnga  of  the  commlsalonem,  maglatratca,  or 
other  persona  legally  authorised  to  determine  the  amount.  In 
order  to  lebut  any  exaggerated  atatementa  on  the  part  uf  the 
satvora,  by  the  evidence  of  the  maatcr  and  crew. 

Rfpairt  of  !>««(«.— The  agent  will  aeo  that  Intelligent  pro- 
feaalonal  men  are  appointed  aa  aurveyora,  and  that  in  their 
survey  and  eatiroatea  they  diatlnguiali,  aa  far  aa  poa^lble,  be- 
tween the  damage  auatalned  during  the  voyage  on  which  the 
veaael  ia  actually  engaged  and  the  daraagea  or  defecta  exlat- 
ing  prior  thereto,  and  which  are  chargeable  to  the  owner*. 
lie  ia  alao  to  take  care  that  the  wages  of  tho  crow  are  not  car- 
ried to  the  average  account,  cither  directly  or  indirectly. 
When  attempt)  are  made  to  condemn  ahlpa  aa  nnacnwnrthy 
that  have  sustained  damage,  the  agent  la  to  uan  every  means 
in  his  po'ver  to  prevent  such  condemnation,  if  it  la  evident 
that  the  vessel  may  be  repaired  ao  aa  to  enable  her  to  prosC' 
cute  her  voyage.  And  In  caae  ahe  can  not  be  repaired  ro  aa 
to  proceed,  and  her  condemnation  becomea  unavoidable.  It 
will  then  be  hia  duty  carefully  to  Investigate  whether  the 
condemnation  ia  occasioned  by  any  natural  defect  or  decay. 
If  a  ahip  nrrivca  In  a  disabled  atata  at  an  Intermediate  port, 
ao  aa  to  be  Incapable  of  peribrming  her  voyage,  the  agent  la 
to  offer  to  co-nparata  with  the  aaaured  O"  hIa  repreaentative  In 
procuring  a  conveyance  for  the  cargo  to  Its  original  destina- 
tion In  the  beat  and  most  expeditions  manner,  and  to  pro- 
teat  against  any  sale  of  the  cargo  for  account  of  the  under- 
writera  unless  unavoidably  neeesaary. 

Salvage  ftir  Reeaplure.—U  has  frequently  happened,  when 
a  veaael  haa  been  captured  and  reeaptared,  that,  Inatead  of  the 
salvage  being  paid  and  the  veaael  proceeding  to  her  port  of 
destination,  both  veaael  and  cargo  have  been  aold  for  the  pay. 


■sent  of  salvage,  and  the  loss  of  the  underwriters  been  there- 
by much  Inersaaed ;  but  by  an  order  of  council,  dated  the  SOtli 

April,  1818,  a  copy  of  wlilch  la  ftimlshed  herewith,  iirnvlalona         •       ,,^  -.  , 

twve  been  made  to  prevent  such  a  practice.    It  la,  therefore,  i  eti,  and  left  to  move  freely 


iBcnmbeDt  on  the  agent  to  endeavor,  upon  every  eecaalon.  to 
taks  such  steps  aa  appear  rwiulnite  for  iin  adjualuii'iit  of  the 
salvage,  ao  that  the  veaael  may  proceed  with  iier cnrijo to hir 
port  of  daatlnatlon.  Advaiietk  for  the  amount  uf  aalvatia  and 
charges  may  In  most  cases  lie  effectually  aaciired  by  bills  of 
exchange  on  Hie  owners,  whhih  li  tlia  preferable  mode,  or  by 
a  bottomry  bond  on  the  vea^ul  and  cargo ;  bnt  rhmdd  tho 
agent  have  reaaon  to  entertain  any  doubt  aa  to  the  Nccurtly  of 
hia  advaiKea,  he  may  obtain  an  order  from  the  Court  for  the 
aalu  of  ao  much  of  the  cargo  aa  aball  be°  aufflclsiit  to  pay  Ihg 
salvage  and  charges. 

/Ibandoiiiiirnt.— In  no  esse  Is  the  sRent  to  accept  an  ahnn- 
tloninciit  of  cither  ahlp  or  gooda  aa  tho  repreaentative  of  the 
iiiid'rwrltera,  but  leave  the  partiua  who  abandon  to  act  upon 
their  own  roaponalblllty. 

Sta  Damage  on  (looii When  called  on  by  conaliinpaa  to 

aaeortaln  damage,  the  agent  la  to  act  aa  a  aiirvoyor  only ;  and 
In  thia  capacity,  to  require  the  preacnce  at  aiineya  of  ihs 
niaater  of  the  vessel  by  which  the  goods  have  been  Imported, 
who  ia  tn  sign  the  certlflcste  of  the  damage.  That  In  case  of 
refnaal  of  the  maater  to  attend,  or  that  he  be  prevriiti'd  at- 
tending, he  is  to  be  infonned  that  such  refusal  or  allcKed 
caiiae  of  prevention  la  to  be  noted  by  the  agent,  which  ho  la 
required  t<>  do  upon  uny  certificate  he  may  grant;  and  In  all 
porta  where  it  ia  cnatomary  to  dlschnrgo  gooda  into  llKlitrra 
or  craft  under  the  Jurladletion  of  the  cnsloiii.liousc  or  otlisr. 
wise,  the  agfnt  la  required  to  aacertain  whether  the  pprsim  in 
charge  of  ancli  lighter  or  oralt  haa  demanded  of  tho  iiiasler  or 
mate  of  llie  veaael  dlacharging  a  certificate  of,  or  himself  ulven 
a  receipt  exprosaing  any  apparent  ('aniage  or  defects  In  the 
gooda  delirend  over  to  iiini ;  and  whin  auch  provia  to  hi:  the 
case,  the  agent  Ih  to  iiiako  a  note  of  the  aauie  n|iuii  his  ^urvry, 
and  procure  the  original,  if  practicable,  or  a  copy  of  audi 
certificate,  to  accompany  the  vonchera  ho. may  furnish;  and 
ho  ia  further  deairod  to  ascertain  and  notify  whether  any  and 
what  Ronds  wen^  laden  on  deck. 

The  agent  ia  further  to  aee  that  the  sound  part  of  every 
packa;!e  is  aeparated  from  tiio  damagoil,  and  partlcularlts 
the  quantity  of  each  in  hia  certificate,  taking  care,  In  the  first 
Inatanco,  to  aatlafy  lilniai'lf  that  tho  gooda  were  properly 
Btowed,  and  that  the  daniigo  was  occasioned  by  scn-walLT 
wlillo  on  board.  If  tho  agent  be  further  called  m  by  the  cnn- 
algneea  tn  superintend  and  certify  aalea,  he  will  refer  to  lila 
original  survey,  which  specifies  tlie  quantity  damaBiil  In  each 
package, and  take  care  tliat  only  tho  damaged  part  or  plerea 
be  aold  on  account  of  the  average.  Tlio  aale  iiiust  take  plnrc 
within  a  rottfoiiable  time  from  the  period  of  landinu,  olhir- 
wlso  the  underwrltera  will  be  exonerated ;  and  In  aurli  com 
the  agent  ia  not  to  act.  A  certificate  ahoiild  iiltiaya  ho  fMr- 
nlalied,  to  show  what  the  market  price,  or  value  of  tho  Kno.It 
damaged,  would  have  been  at  the  timo  of  sale  for  ready  mon- 
ey had  they  arrived  without  damage,  taking  the  iitnioat  rare 
to  guard  againat  exiigKerated  and  fraudulent  valuations;  ami 
if  part  of  the  goods  arrive  In  a  sound  atnte  and  are  aold,  a  cer- 
tified copy  of  tho  aale  of  that  part  ought  alwaya  to  he  furnished. 
When  damaged  gooda  are  to  be  aold,  they  should  be  lotted  In 
auch  quantitiea  aa  are  beat  calculated  to  fult  purchasers  In 
general,  that  the  aalcs  may  be  made  aa  productive  as  poulblc. 
feliould  tho  separation  of  the  sound  gooda  from  tho  daninircJ 
not  be  aaaented  to  by  the  couhigneca,  the  agent  Is  to  notify 
his  objection  to  tho  proceedings,  and  Interfere  no  further  in 
the  sales,  or  in  certifying  the  facta.  A  discretionary  power  Is 
given  to  the  agent  of  agreeing  to  a  compromise  for  damage  in 
caaea  where  tho  claim  la  a<i  email  tlmt  it  would  ho  niueli  in- 
creased by  the  expense  of  notarial  dociimenta,  advcrtiia'meiits, 
and  other  chargea  of  public  sale.  When  auch  conipn.niise  is 
made,  the  certificate  of  sound  value  of  the  goods  must  accom- 
pany the  other  papers. 

Loadstone  (Oerm.  Magnet;  Du.  Magneti;  Fr. 
Aimant;  It.  Calamila;  Sf.Jman;  ^um.Magiiit;  I.nt, 
Afagnte).  M.  H»Qy  observes,  that  the  ores  in  whiili 
the  iron  contains  the  least  oxygen  without  heiiiR  en- 
gaged in  other  combinations,  form  iiaturul  mugiiets; 
and  he  calls  the  hadtonet  of  coinmerto,  which  are 
found  in  considerable  masses  in  Ocrmanv,  Sweden, 
Norway.  Spain,  Italy,  China,  Slam,  the  Philippine 
Isles,  Corsica,  and  Kthiopia,  oxgdulated  iron.  }m 
loadstone  is  characterized  by  the  followin(j  properties: 
A  very  strong  notion  on  thn  magnetic  needle.  Specilic 
gravity  4-2467  i  not  ductile;  of  a  dark  gray  color,  willi 
a  metallic  lustre ;  priiiiitivo  form,  the  regular  octahe- 
dron i  insoluble  in  nitric  acid.  It  does  not  appear  lliat 
the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  the  wonderful  prop- 
e-ty  which  it  has  of  turning  to  the  pole  when  suspend- 
.  .  — /^...  I-.      -j-jjg  natural  loadstone 


LOC 


1271 


LOO 


wonderful  (""P- 
oie  when  fusp*"'!- 
imtural  load»t""' 


hu  klM  the  qtulltjr  of  eommunloatlng  Iti  propertlea  to 
Iron  end  uteel ;  and  when  ptecea  of  uteel  properly  pre- 
pared are  tnoched,  aa  It  Is  called,  liy  the  loudetone,  they 
■re  denominated  artlHcinl  niRKnetK.  8ee  Compam. 
Ita  virtuea  wore  but  indiHtlnetly  known  to  the  ancienta, 
yet  it.4  attractive  iiuulity  hud  licen  taken  notice  of 
trom  very  remote  timea, — Slurmiut,  Ailatotle  aa- 
■urea  oa  that  Thulea  mode  mention  of  It,  and  Hippo- 
crates apeiika  of  it  under  the  name  of  atone  that  at- 
traeta  Iron  ;  and  Pliny  waa  struck  with  its  attructive 
power.  The  polar  attraction  of  the  loadatone  waa,  it 
la  said,  known  In  France  before  A.  i>,  1180 ;  Imt  this 
honor  la  accorded  to  Ko);er  Dacon  al)out  1207.  The 
Italians  diacovered  that  It  could  communicate  its  vir- 
I'jea  to  steel  or  iron ;  and  Flavio  (iiojo,  of  Amalfl,  was 
the  Inventor  of  the  mariners'  compaaa. — llagdn. 

Loan*.  Thoae  for  the  service  of  the  crown  of  En- 
gland were  generally  borrowed  at  Antwerp  until  after 
the  reign  of  Klizabeth.  In  1669,  the  queen  borrowed 
je*iOO,000  of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  re- 
form her  own  coin,  and  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  and  the 
city  of  Ixiiiilun  joined  in  the  security. — Rapin.  The 
amount  nf  the  English  loans,  during  four  late  memor- 
able perioda,  was,  viz. : 

Sovon  years'  war,  1755-1763 £.%2,100,000 

American  war,  1770— 1TS4 7»,(100,000 

French  Kovolutlonary  war,  17911—1313...  ll»,fiOO,onO 
War  against  Bonaparte,  IbUS— 1814    ....  ao«,80U,000 

Besides  the  property  tix.  In  1818  were  raised  two 
loans  of  21,mHl,(i<)fl  and  22,000,(100  ;  and  it  deserves  to 
be  recordeil,  that  a  aubacriptUm  loan  to  carry  the  war 
against  France  was  filled  up  in  I.ondon  in  15  hours  and 
20  minutes,  to  the  amount  of  £18,000,000,  December 
5, 1706. 

IiObos,  or  Seal  Islands,  two  groups  of  guano 
Islands  in  the  PaclHc  Ocean,  lying  oflf  the  coaat  of  Pe- 
ru. The  landward  and  northern  group  are  about  20 
miles  west  of  tho  mnin  land,  in  S.  lat.  6°  29',  W.  long. 
80°  63',  and  conaixt  of  one  large  island,  6  miles  long 
by  2  in  breadth,  with  several  rocky  islets.  The  sea- 
ward group  He  about  38  miles  from  tho  main  land.  In 
8.  lat.  0°  56',  W.  long.  80°  65',  and  consist  of  two 
islands  of  about  the  same  size,  viz.,  1  mile  long  by  1 
in  breadth,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  <i  narrow 
channel.  Both  belong  to  Peru,  although  unsnccoaa- 
ful  attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times  l>y  pri- 
vate companies  to  obtain  poaaoasion  of  them.  On  the 
north  group  there  is  estimated  to  be  a  deposit  of  guano 
of  about  400,000  tons,  and  on  the  other  islands  of  more 
than  2CO,000  tons.  The  only  inhal>ltimtj  are  those 
employed  in  the  shipment  of  the  manure,  and  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  Indians  and  Chinese. 

Lobster  (Fr.  JCcrevime ;  Lat.  Cancer),  a  flsh  of  the 
crab  species.  The  Scilly  Islands  and  the  Land's  End 
abound  in  lobsters,  as  well  as  several  places  on  the 
Scotch  shores,  particularly  about  Montrose.  But  the 
principal  lobster  fishery  is  on  the  coast  of  Norway ; 
whence  it  is  believed  about  1,000,000  lobsters  are  an- 
nually Imported  Into  London,  'Those  of  Heligoland 
are,  however,  esteemed  the  best ;  they  are  of  a  deeper 
black  color,  and  their  flesh  is  Hrmer  than  those  brought 
from  Norway. 

Looh,    The  Scotch  term  for  lake,  which  see. 

Lock,  in  Internal  Navigation,  is  a  part  of  a  canal 
included  between  two  floodgates,  by  means  of  which  a 
vessel  is  transferred  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level,  or 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher. 

Look,  Looks  (tier.  SchlSiter;  Du,  Sloient  Fr. 
Serruret ;  It.  Serrature;  Sp,  Cerraiuriu,  Ci.rajoti 
Riu.  Samki),  t  well-known  instrument,  of  which  there 
are  Infinite  varieties.  A  great  deal  of  art  and  deli- 
cacy is  sometimes  displayed  in  contriving  and  varjing 
the  wards,  aprlnga,  bolts,  etc.,  and  adjusting  them  to 
the  places  where  they  are  to  be  used,  and  to  the  occa- 
sions of  using  them.  From  the  various  structure  of 
locks,  accommodated  to  their  different  intentions,  they 
aeqoin  various  names,  as  stock  locks,  spring  locks, 


padlocks,  etc.  The  grand  diffloulty  to  Im  oTarcom*  In 
making  a  lock  la  to  conatruct  it  ao  that  it  may  not  bn 
opened  by  any  key  except  Ita  own,  nor  admit  of  being 
picked ;  it  ahould  alao  be  (maseaaed  of  aulilclant  strength 
and  duruliility,  and  not  lie  too  complex.  Many  inge- 
nious contrivancea  have  lieen  proposed  for  the  attain- 
ment of  the  desired  security— several  of  which  are 
possessed  of  considerable  merit.  Common  door-locka 
are  now  uaually  Inaerted  In  the  wood.  Instead  of  being, 
as  formerly,  acrewed  to  it ;  and  when  so  placed  are 
called  mor(Me*locka. 

Looast-tree,  The  Kobina  proudaoacla,  or  com- 
mon locust,  from  the  valuable  pro|iertte8  of  Ita  wood, 
and  the  beauty  of  Ita  foliage  and  fl(iwerB,  ranka  among 
the  first  trees  of  the  American  forvKts,  In  favorable 
•ttuationi,  it  attains  a  height  of  NO  or  90  feet,  and 
aometimei  exceeds  four  feet  In  diameter ;  but  ordina- 
rily, it  does  not  surpass  half  of  these  dimenaiona.  On 
the  trunks  and  large  limlu  of  old  trees,  the  bark  Is 
very  thick,  and  deeply  furrowcii,  but  on  young  trees, 
not  more  than  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  it  is 
armed  with  strong,  himked  prickles,  which  disappear 
altogether  as  they  grow  old ;  and  in  some  varieties 
they  are  wanting  even  when  young. 

"rhe  common  locust  naturally  alxiunds  In  the  conn 
try  west  of  the  AUeghanlcs,  as  far  as  Arknnaaa,  It 
Is  also  plentiful  in  tho  Canadas,  but  is  not  found  in 
digenous  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  river  Del- 
aware, nor  does  It  grow  apcmtaneously  In  tho  maritime 
parts  of  the  middle  and  southern  states,  within  the 
distance  of  60  to  100  miles  from  the  sea.  It  la  planted, 
however,  for  purposes  of  utility  and  ornument,  from 
Maine  to  Georgia.  It  was  observed  liy  Michaux,  that 
"  the  locust  forms  a  much  smaller  portion  nf  the  Amer- 
ican forests  than  the  oaks  and  walnuts,  and  that  It  is 
nowhere  found  occupying  tracts,  even  of  a  few  acres 
exclusively."  Hence'  the  tree,  where  It  is  met  with, 
la  often  spared  by  settlers, 'as  being  ornamental,  and 
comparatively  rare,  and  old  specimens,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  aboriginal  forests,  are  frequently  seen 
growing  In  the  midst  of  cultivated  fields. 

Of  all  American  trees  that  have  ))een  cultivated  in 
Enrope  there  is  no  one,  of  which  ao  much  has  been 
said  and  dc  le,  as  the  locust.  It  was  among  the  first 
plants  t'  1.  V'ure  carried  to  that  country,  and  it  has 
been  mo  -  ■  t^nsively  propagated  than  any  other, 
both  In  Brit,  'n  and  In  France,  where  It  has  been  al- 
ternate!}' exuUed  and  neglected ;  and  even  at  the 
present  day,  though  the  beauty  of  its  foliage  and  flow- 
era  is  universally  admired,  and  the  valuable  properties 
have  enthusiastically  Iwen  praised  and  acknowledged, 
it  is  not'  considered  as  holding  a  high  rank  as  a  timber- 
tree,  or  as  being  generally  planted  with  a  view  to 
profit. 

The  wood  of  the  locust,  which  is  commonly  of  a 
greenish-yellow  color,  marked  with  brown  veins.  Is 
very  hard,  compact,  and  suaceptilde  of  a  brilliant  pol- 
ish. It  possesses  great  strength,  with  but  littlo  elas- 
ticity ;  and  its  most  valuable  property  is  that  of  resist- 
ing decay  longer  than  almost  any  other  species  of 
wood.  When  newly  cut,  It  weighs  63  pounds  3  ounces 
to  a  cubic  foot ;  half  dr}-,  66^  pounds,  and  when  quite 
dry,  only  48^  pounds,  or  according  to  others,  only  46 
pounds.  According  to  &I,  Hartig,  the  German  den- 
drologiat,  its  value  for  fuel,  when  compared  with  that 
of  the  beech  {Fagtia  tykatica),  is  as  12  to  16,  For  dur- 
ation, he  places  it  next  below  the  oak  (QueMus  roiur), 
and  next  above  the  larch  (^Larix  europad),  and^the 
Scotch  pine  {Pinut  tylveslris).  Barlow,  In  Wither's 
TreatUe,  gives  the  strength  of  locust  timber,  as  com- 
pared with  other  woods,  as  follows : — Teak  (Tectomt 
grandis),  2462 ;  Ash  (/Voxinus  excelsior),  2026 ;  Locust 
(Kobuui  pseudacacia),  1867;  Oak  (Quercus  ro&ur),  1672 ; 
Beech  (Fagua  aylvatica),  1656 ;  Norway  spar  (^6te<  ex- 
celsa),  1474 ;  KIga  fir  {Pinut  syhettris  rigensU),  1108 ; 
Elm  {Ulmua  campestrui),  1018,  From  some  exper- 
imenti  made  at  Brest,  in  1823,  the  weight  of  tha  to- 


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1372 


LOF 


out  wood  WM  fonnd  to  Iw  on*  ilxth  hMvlar  Ihaa 
Uul  or  the  KnitlUh  oiik  |  Iti  itrength  u  1427  to  H'iO  i 
•Dd  Ita  •lutkity  M  n  to  9.  By  expcriiiMnt*  mad*  In 
Ih*  y«nl  of  the  roy»l  naviil  mlleKP,  it  Woolwich,  It 
•ppMM  that  the  lateral  atrpiiKth  of  the  Inciiit  tlinlwr, 
la  reabtlnx  fractura,  i«  Kreutar  thun  that  of  the  Urltiah 
oak,  in  the  proportion  of  KM)  to  7A.  Kroin  all  theae 
•xperlmenti,  however  widely  they  mar  diRer  In  their 
reaulta,  we  may  aafely  conclude,  thiit  aound,  well- 
aeaaoned  loouit  timlior  "  la  heavier,  harder,  atronxer, 
more  rl)(id,  mora  elnntlc,  anil  toucher  than  that  of  the 
lieat  KuKliab  oak,"  and  conaequently  la  more  auitabio 
for  trcnalla.  HIchaux  remarka  that,  "  if  tlie  trunka 
of  the  Iflcuat-trera  ){rown  in  the  north  of  I'ennaylrania, 
exceed  IS  inchea  in  diameter,  when  Ihey  are  cut  down 
and  aplit  open,  they  are  frequently  fi)und  to  lie  decaj-ed 
It  the  heart ;  but  that  thia  la  not  the  coae  with  treea 
that  have  ip'own  further  aouth ;"  which  would  tend 
to  ahow  that  a  poor  aoll  and  a  cold  climate  are  not  auf- 
liolent  to  produce  gootl  timber. 

There  are,  at  leaat,  three  popular  varietlei  of  the 
common  locuat,  diatlnguiahable  by  the  color  of  the 
heart>wood,  which  may  be  deaeribed  na  followa : 

1.  Jted  iM-iitl,  with  the  heart  ri'il,  and  la  eateemed 
aa  far  the  moat  beautiful  and  dnralile  timber.  PoatH 
of  thia  variety,  perfectly  aeaaoned  before  they  are  aet 
In  the  ground,  are  eatimated  to  laat  40  yeara,  or  twice 
a*  long  aa  thoae  of  the  white  locuat. 

2.  6'reen,  or  VMm  AoeiMt.-^Thia  ia  the  moat  com- 
mon variety,  lieing  known  by  ita  grecniah-yellow 
heart,  and  ia  held  next  beat  in  quality  to  the  red  locuat. 

8.  White  iMcutl,  with  a  white  heart,  and  li  con- 
ildered  aa  the  leaat  valuable  of  them  all. 

All  of  the  above-mentioned  variationa  are  auppoaed 
to  ba  owing  entirely  to  the  aoll  and  aituationa  in  which 
they  grow,  being  cauaed  in  a  aimllar  manner  oa  the 
varioua  colore  of  the  flowen  of  the  hydrangea,  which 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  earth  in  which  they  are 
planted,  and  even  on  the  color  of  the  water  with  which 
they  are  irrigated. 

In  naval  architecture,  the  timber  of  the  locuat  la 
much  eateemed  by  American  abipwrighta,  and  entera, 
with  the  live  oak,  the  white  oak,  and  the  red  cedar, 
into  the  npper  and  the  lower  parta  of  the  framea  of 
veeaeli,  though  in  very  amall  proportlona.  It  la  con- 
aldered  a«  durable  as  the  live  oak  and  the  red  cedar, 
with  the  advantage  of  being  lighter  than  the  former 
and  stronger  than  the  latter.  It  ia  uaed  for  trenails 
in  the  dockyards  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  in 
preference  to  any  other  kind  of  wood  ;  and  instead  of 
decaying.  It  acqulrea,  in  time,  an  extraordinar}'  degree 
of  hardneaa.  In  civil  architecture,  in  thia  country,  It 
enters  but  little  into  the  compoaition  of  houaes,  on  ac- 
count of  Ita  sea  .-city,  and  Its  value  In  abip-bnilding, 
and  for  posts  of  ural  fenoea,  etc.  When  employed  in 
the  construction  of  houaea,  it  is  more  particularly  ap- 
plied for  the  support  of  the  ailia,  which  usually  consiat 
of  mors  destructible  timber,  and  which,  if  they  were 
placed  immediately  on  the  ground,  would  sooner  de- 
cay. From  the  hardness  of  tlio  wao<l  when  seasoned, 
the  firmness  of  the  grain,  and  its  luatre  when  polished, 
it  baa  been  extenaively  used  in  cabinet-making,  and 
has  been  anbstitnted  by  turners  for  the  box-wood,  in 
many  species  of  light  work,  such  aa  small  domeatic 
wares,  toys,  etc.  It  has  also  been  employed  by  mllU 
wrigbts  for  cogs,  but  It  Is  less  valuable  for  this  pur- 
pose than  tMt  of  the  rock-maple. 

Tbe  most  important  use  to  which  the  locuat  is  ap- 
plied in  Britain,  is  that  of  farming  trenails  for  ship- 
fasteninga ;  and  large  quantities  are  annually  Imported 
into  that  country  from  America.  As  long  as  we  can 
supply  them  for  the  prices  which  they  at  present  bear, 
it  never  would  repay  the  grower  to  cultivate  them  in 
iCngland  for  this  special  purpose. 

In  France,  the  locuat  haa  been  extenaively  culti- 
vated in  the  Gironde,  in  copaea,  which  are  cut  at  the 
age  of  foiur  years,  for  vine-props ;  and  these  propa  are 


said  to  last  more  than  10  yean.  In  the  same  dlatricl 
old  treea  are  (lollarded,  and  their  branchsa  tupped  evsry 
third  year,  for  the  aaroe  purpoa*.  In  I'aria,  many 
small  artielea  are  mad*  of  the  wood;  such  aa  lalt- 
celUra,  augar-dlahes,  spoons,  forks,  aand-boxea,  pu|i«r- 
knivaa,  etc. 

In  Lonebardy,  the  wood  of  the  locuat  Is  uaed  fur 
many  rural  purpoaea.  Young  planta  of  It  were  form- 
erly much  employed  for  live  fenr«a  |  but  thia  practice 
has  long  since  Iwen  abandoned,  Ixcauae  the  tra*  was 
found  to  Impoverteh  the  aoll  |  ami,  with  age,  Idat  its 
pricklea ;  bealdea,  from  being  continually  pruned,  to 
keep  It  low,  or  ttom  being  croppeil  by  aninula,  the 
hedges  liecame  thin  aud  open  at  the  bottom,  and 
eventually  liecame  more  atunipa.  Italy,  aa  well  aa 
the  aiiuthem  Departments  of  France,  Mivhaux  consid- 
era  the  countries  in  which  tbe  greatest  advuiitagea  miiy 
lie  derived  from  the  rapid  growth  of  thia  tree.  In 
good  aoila,  in  auch  climates,  at  the  end  of  'iO  or  25 
yeara,  he  aaya  that  a  masa  of  wood  may  be  obtained 
from  the  locust,  twice  aa  great  as  from  any  other  spe- 
cies of  tree. 

In  countries  where  clover  and  root  crop*  are  not 
cultivated,  the  leaves  of  the  locuat  may  aerve  as  a 
aubatltute  for  theae  artielea  aa  provender  for  aolmala. 
When  thia  species  is  cultivated  for  thia  purpose.  It 
ahould  be  mown  every  year  t  or  the  treea  may  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  to  the  height  of  8  or  10  feet,  and  treated 
as  polianls,  the  branches  being  cut  off  every  other 
year,  which  should  be  done  at  mid-summer,  when  they 
are  succulent,  and  can  be  dried  fur  winter's  use.  In 
performing  this  operation,  one  or  two  shoots  should  ho 
left  on  each  tree,  to  keep  up  vegetation,  which  muy  lie 
pruned  off  the  following  winter  or  apring.  When  the 
ahoots  are  to  be  eaten  green,  none  ahould  be  taken  hut 
tboae  of  the  same  season ;  because  in  them  the  prickl«s 
are  herbaceous,  and,  consequently,  do  not  Injure  the 
mouths  of  the  animals. — Bkownk's  Trett  o/Amrrica. 

laOfodan  Islands,  a  large  group  of  islands  off 
the  north-west  coast  of  Norway,  stretching  north-cast 
to  south-west  from  N.  lat.  67°  80'  to  69°  80',  and  E. 
long.  12°  16'  80".  The  group  resembles  the  verte- 
briB  of  an  animal  in  form  ;  tbe  ialands  fitting  into  eacli 
other  so  closely,  that  from  a  distance  they  seem  tu 
form  one  long  continent.  The  islands,  which  are  all 
of  a  granite  or  limestone  formation,  are  precipitous, 
and  very  lofty  ;  tbe  hills  of  Vaagoe  rising  almost  per- 
pendicularly t<i  a  height  of  4U00  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  channels  which  separate  them  aro  narrow,  tortu- 
oua,  and  generally  of  groat  depth.  The  largest  islancU 
of  the  group  aro  in  the  north,  viz.,  Ilindoe,  Andoe,  and 
Langne ;  the  first  being  separated  from  the  muin  land 
by  a  paaaage  about  a  mile  in  width.  The  tail  of  Ihs 
chain  is  formed  of  a  number  of  amaller  islands,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  two  Vaagoes,  MoskenAsoe,  Vil- 
roe,  and  Rost,  separated  from  the  main  land  by  West 
Fiord.  This  gulf  is  much  dreaded  by  mariners  when 
the  wind  is  south-west,  on  account  of  the  great  swell 
which  rolls  in  from  the  North  Sea,  and  which  is  es- 
pecially dangerous  at  the  Slulstroem  channel  between 
V&roe  and  Moskenosoe.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  group  ran);es  from  28°  in  winter  to  &0°  in  sum- 
mer, which,  considering  the  high  latitude.  Is  compara- 
tively mild.  This  is  caused,  however,  by  the  exposure 
of  the  group  to  the  Gulf  Stroam.  Large  shoals  of 
herring  and  cod  frequent  the  I^ofodens  annually,  and 
attract  to  these  islanda  a  large  concourse  of  fishing- 
boata  from  aeveral  hundreds  of  miles  of  sea-coast.  In 
the  inclement  months  of  February  and  March,  gener- 
ally about  8000  boats  (mostly  open)  asseqible  here  for 
the  cod-flshing,  each  having,  on  an  average,  five  of  a 
crew,  while  the  aggregate  number  of  fiah  taken  amounts 
to  more  than  8,000,000.  Theae  ate  chiefly  dried  in 
the  sun  and  wind,  without  salt,  and  sent  to  Tromsoe, 
Trondhjem,  Bergen,  etc.,  along  with  large  quantities 
of  cod-liver  oil  and  cod-roe,  for  exportation  or  home 
consumption.    The  cod-fishery  ends  in  April,  and  is 


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Miowtd  bjr  tha  h*rr<nK-flihln|{,  whtoh  ti  Mrritd  nn  I 
till  th«  Imlnterouii  MMon,  nt  tho  and  of  ■utunin.  The 
)i«nn«nnnt  population  of  the  I.<ifnilf>nit  I*  vary  amall, 
gonalilfvrinff  Ilia  axtant  of  tarrltory,  and  in  auiitainail 
prin(il|ially  liy  tha  llaliarleii.  Hnma  cuttle,  howavar, 
■ra  kapt  in  tha  moit  ■haltarail  paiin  of  the  Ulanri, 
whara  ((nod  paaturaga  U  olitalnad  in  tha  aummar. 
BUiln,  in  tha  Inland  of  ITlvo,  la  tha  cliiaf  villaKa  of  tha 
group,  and  hai  communication  with  tha  porta  of  tha 
main  land  by  maana  of  a  tteamar,  which  vUlti  tha  Ixv 
fodana  In  lummar.  Kutiinated  population  of  group, 
4000. 

LOC,  an  app«ratu«  unad  to  maaaura  tha  rata  of  a 
•hlp'a  velocity  throuxh  tba  water.  For  thia  purpoaa, 
there  are  aeveral  Inventiont,  hut  the  one  moat  gener- 
ally uaed  ii  the  following,  called  the  common  log.  It 
la  a  pince  of  thin  boani,  forming  the  quadrant  of  a  cir- 
cle of  aliout  0  inchpa  nuliua,  and  baUncea  by  a  imall 
plata  of  lead,  nailed  on  the  circular  part,  lo  aa  to  iwim 
perpendicularly  In  the  water,  with  the  greater  part 
immerted.  Tha  log-line  is  fimteneU  to  the  log  by 
meani  of  two  leg*,  one  of  which  la  knotted,  through  a 
hole  at  one  comer,  while  the  other  la  attached  to  »  pin, 
flxad  In  a  hole  at  tha  other  corner  so  aa  to  draw  out 
occasionally.  The  log-line  lieing  divided  Into  certain 
apocea,  which  are  in  proportion  to  an  equal  number  of 
geographical  miles,  as  a  half  or  quarter  minute  is  to 
an  hour  of  time,  Is  wound  almut  a  reel.  The  whole  is 
employed  to  measure  the  ihip'a  head-way  In  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  the  reel  being  held  by  one  man,  and 
the  half-minute  glass  l)y  another ;  the  mate  of  the 
watch  Hxes  the  pin,  and  throws  the  log  over  the  stem, 
which,  swimming  perpendicularly,  feels  an  immediate 
rasUtance,  and  Is  considered  as  flxed,  the  line  being 
slackened  over  the  stem  to  prevent  the  pin  coming 
out.  The  knots  are  measured  from  a  mark  on  the 
line,  at  tlie  distance  of  12  or  15  futhoms  from  tho  log. 
The  glass  is,  therefore,  turned  the  instant  the  murk 
passes  over  tha  stern ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  sand  in  the 
glass  has  run  out,  the  line  la  stopped.  The  water, 
then  being  on  the  log,  dislodges  the  pin,  so  that  the 
board,  ijow  presenting  only  its  edge  to  the  water,  Is 
easily  drown  alward.  The  numlier  of  knots  and  fath- 
oms which  had  run  off  at  the  expiration  of  the  glass, 
determines  the  ship's  velocity.  Tlie  half-minute 
glass,  and  dlviaions  on  the  line,  should  be  frequently 
measured,  to  determine  any  variation  in  either  of 
them,  and  to  make  allowance  accordingly.  If  the 
gloss  runs  80  seconds,  the  distance  between  the  knots 
ahould  be  60  feet.  Whoa  it  runs  more  or  less,  it  should 
therefore  be  cui'i-«.< f. d  by  the  following  analogy:  as 
SO  is  to  50,  so  in  tho  number  of  seconds  of  the  glass  to 
the  distance  between  the  knots  upon  the  ir.ie.  As  the 
heat  or  moisture  of  the  weather  has  often  a  consider- 
able effect  on  tho  glass,  so  as  to  make  it  run  slower  or 
faster,  it  should  be  frequently  tried  by  the  vibration 
of  a  pendulum.  As  many  accidents  attend  a  ship  dur- 
ing a  day's  sailing,  such  as  the  variableness  of  winds, 
the  different  quantity  of  sail  carried,  etc.,  it  will  be 
necessai;-  to  heave  the  log  at  every  alteration,  and 
even  if  no  alteration  be  perceptible,  yet  it  ought  to  be 
constantly  heaved.  The  inventor  of  this  simple  but 
valuable  device  is  not  known,  and  no  mention  of  it 
occurs  till  the  year  l(i07,  in  an  East  India  voyage, 
published  by  Purchas.— G.  A. 

Logaxitbins,  so  useful  in  mathematios,  are  the 
indexes  of  the  ratio  of  numbers  one  to  another.  They 
were  invented  by  Baron  Merchiston,  an  eminent 
Scotchman  (Sir  John  Xapier),  in  l(il4.  The  method  of 
computing  by  means  of  marked  piecus  of  Ivory,  was 
discovered  about  the  some  time,  and  hence  called 
Napier'a  lines.  The  invention  was  afterward  com- 
pleted by  Mr.  Briggs,  at  Oxford. 

ItOg-Board,  two  boards  shutting  together  like  a 
book,  and  divided  into  several  columns,  containing 
the  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  the  direction  of  the 
winds  and  the  conrse  of  the  ship,  with  all  the  material 


oernrrencea  that  happen  during  tha  24  koort,  nr  ftam 
noon  to  noon,  togi<ther  with  tlie  latlluda  by  obaarva- 
tion.  From  thia  taldn  the  ofHcurs  work  the  ship's  way, 
and  compile  their  Journals.  The  whole  being  written 
with  chalk,  U  rulilml  out  every  day  at  noon. — K.  A. 

IiO|-Book,  a  liook  into  which  the  contents  of 
tha  log-lmard  are  daily  transcribed  at  noon,  together 
with  any  circumatance,  deacrvliig  notice,  that  mar 
hap|ien  to  the  ship,  or  within  her  cogniaancn,  either  at 
sea,  or  within  n  harimr,  etc.  The  intarme<liate  dlvia- 
lona  or  wotclins  of  a  log-lHMik,  containing  4  hours 
each,  are  usually  aigned  by  the  commanding  oflkar 
thereof.  In  ships  of  war,  or  F.uat  Indiamen. — K.  A,   . 

Log-Line,  the  lino  which  is  fastened  to  the  log. 

Logwood  (Fr.  Bnit  </«  Citmpkhr  i  Oer.  Kam/Mi- 
icholt;  Du.  (,'iimpfchroiit !  S^f.  I'ulo  de  Cnrnprchti'),  ih» 
wood  of  a  tree  {Hirmnlorylon  I'nmpfcManum,  I.ln.),  a 
native  of  America,  and  which  attains  the  greatest  per- 
fection at  t'ampeachy,  and  In  the  West  Indies.  It 
thrives  lieat  in  a  wet  soil,  with  a  large  pro|)ortion  of 
clay.  The  logwoml-tree  is  like  the  wliitti  thorn,  but  a 
great  deal  larger.  The  wood  is  hani,  compact,  heavy, . 
and  of  •  deep  red  color  Internally,  which  it  gives  out 
lioth  to  water  and  alcohol.  It  is  an  article  of  great 
commercial  importance,  being  extensively  used  aa  a 
dye-woo<l.  It  In  imported  in  logs,  that  are  afterward 
chipped.  (The  logwood-tree,  and  tha  adventures  of 
those  that  were  formerly  engaged  in  cutting  it,  are 
descril)ed  by  Dumpier ;  see  his  i'oyagrt,  vol.  11.,  part  2, 
p.  6U,  ed.  1720.)  We  borrow  from  the  learned  and 
able  work  of  Dr.  Bancroft,  the  following  curious  de- 
tails with  respect  to  the  use  of  logwood :  "  Logwood 
seems  to  have  lioen  Hrat  brought  to  Kngland  soon  after 
the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  but  the  various  end 
beautiful  colon  dyed  from  It  proved  so  fugacious,  that 
a  general  outcry  against  its  use  was  soon  raised ;  and 
an  Act  of  I'uriianient  was  passed  in  the  2Sd  year  of  her 
reign,  which  prohibited  its  use  as  a  dye  under  seven 
penalties,  and  not  only  authorized  but  directed  tha 
burning  of  it,  in  whatever  hands  it  might  be  found 
within  the  realm ;  and  though  this  wood  was  after- 
ward sometimes  clandestinely  used  (unilcr  the  feigned 
name  of  blackwoo<l),  it  continued  subjoc  t  to  this  pro- 
hibition for  nearly  100  years,  or  until  tlio  passing  of 
the  act  lUund  14  Chaa.  II.;  the  preamble  of  which 
declares,  that  the  ingenious  industry  of  modern  timea 
bath  taught  the  dyers  of  Knglund  tlie  art  of  fixing 
colors  made  of  logwood,  alias  bluckwood,  so  as  that,  by 
experience,  they  are  found  us  lusting  as  the  colon 
maide  with  ang  other  lorl  of  dyeing  wood  whatever  ;  and 
on  this  ground  it  repeals  so  much  of  the  statute  of 
FJizalieth  as  related  to  logwood,  and  gives  permission 
to  import  and  use  it  for  dyeing.  Probably  the  solici- 
tude of  the  dyers  to  obtain  this  permission.  Induced 
them  to  pretend  thut  their  industr}'  had  done  much 
more  than  it  really  hud,  in  fixing  the  colon  of  log- 
wood ;  moat  of  wliich,  even  at  this  time,  are  noto- 
riously deficient  in  regard  to  their  durability." — Ban 
CROFT  on  Permanent  Volort, 

Loire,  La  (unc.  Liger),  the  longest  river  in  France, 
rises  at  the  foot  of  Gerbier  des  Jones,  among  the  Ce- 
vennes  Mountains,  in  the  Department  of  Ardtsche,  and 
after  a  westerly  course  of  utU  miles,  falls  into  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  This  river  drains  a  district  of  France 
nearly  equul  in  extent  tu  one  fourth  of  tho  entire 
kingdom.  It  lieeomcs  navigable  at  Rounne,  and 
passes  the  flourishing  towns  of  Orleans,  Blois,  Toun, 
Saumur,  und  Nantes.  The  navigation  is  interrupted, 
however,  during  four  or  five  months  of  the  year,  by 
frost  or  floods.  To  oliviate  some  of  the  difficulties  in- 
cidental to  the  navigation  of  this  river,  a  lateral  canal 
has  been  farmed  along  a  part  of  its  coune,  extending 
from  the  Canal  du  Centre  to  the  Canal  de  Brums. 
The  Loire  communicates  with  thd  Rhone  and  Seine  by 
means  of  canals.  The  affluents  of  this  river  are  very 
numerous  and  important — many  of  them  navigable. 
Those  on  tho  right  are,  the  Arroux,  the  Nl^vre,  tha 


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WS 


Matoii  (formad  bj  tb«  anion  of  th*  Hiivtnn*  ind  th« 
H*rth«)  I  on  th*  Uft,  th«  Alllut,  lh«  l/>ir«t,  Ih*  Char, 
tiM  Indra,  Ihii  Vlannx,  Ih*  'I'hnuA,  and  Iha  .Savra-Nan- 
UIm,  Tci  pravant  Iha  l^ilra  fmm  aiirfailliiK  uvar  Iha 
tow  KraiiniU  alonK  Ita  eciunw,  It  hfin  iHwn  Imrikatl  In  hy 
dykaa,  liullt  inurh  alN)va  Iti  nrrliniiry  luval.  'I'liana 
ambankniaiiU  wara  navar  known  to  ((Ivn  way  )iravloiiii 
tn  tha  itr»*t  ttnoiU  of  IH-IO.  Thay  )|ava  way  ut  tha  nama 
plaea  during  tha  faarful  Inundntlonnof  .liini-,  WM,  car. 
rylnR  away  tha  lirhlita  and  ytt\»g»  of  Miivciiinlunx,  and 
inundatliig  tha  rominunna  of  \*  Kiiha-axtrii  nnil  l.a 
(Jbapalla-aux-Nauii,  raunInK  a  draadfiil  Iiim  of  Ufa  and 
pniparty.  Tha  moiitli  of  tha  rivi<r  Id  alH>ut  nvan 
milaa  wida,  maaaurad  fnim  Nt.  Naxara  In  Paiinlxiiur. 
8hipi  And  Rraat  dlfllvulty  In  taklnx  tha  mouth  of  the 
rivar,  owing  tn  tha  cx|M>«tHl  natiira  of  itii  poiitlon, 
•nd  to  tha  numaroua  aand-hanka  which  travrrxa  it. 

Lombard,  ■  tarm  anciently  iiund  in  Knuliind  for  a 
banker  or  money-lrndar.  'Iha  name  U  derived  frnm 
the  Italian  nierchanta,  the  Kreat  nnurani  or  money' 
lendem  of  the  middle  u^ea,  prlnrlpally  from  thn  citiea 
fit  lx>ralMnly,  whu  are  aaid  to  have  nettled  in  London 
in  the  middle  of  the  13tb  centurr,  ami  to  have  tiiken 
up  their  realdenca  In  a  atreet  In  the  city  which  atlll 
lieara  thair  name.  Lorolianl  uaurera  were  aent  to 
England  by  I'ope  (ircgnry  IX,  to  lend  money  to  con- 
venta,  communitiaa,  and  private  peraona,  who  were 
not  able  to  pay  down  the  tentha  which  were  collected 
throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigor  tliat  year, 
18  IIanr>-  III.,  12'2U.  They  hiiil  officea  in  l^omiiurd- 
■treat,  which  great  lianking  atreet  ia  cnlird  after  them 
to  thia  day.  Their  iiaurioua  trunaactiona  ciiiiaeil  their 
expulaion  from  the  kingdom  In  the  reign  of  KiiKiilMth. 
Stowe,  In  hia  Aurrry  nf  /Amiltm,  aaya,  "  Then  have  ye 
Lombarde-atreet,  ao  called  of  the  I^ngoliarila  and 
other  merchanta,  atrangera  of  diverae  natlona,  aaaeni' 
bllng  there  twice  every  day.  The  meeting  of  which 
merchants  there  continued  until  the  'i'M  of  l>ecenil)er, 
in  the  year  KUH ;  <m  the  which  diiy  the  Haid  merchanta 
to  make  their  meetings  at  the  lluraae,  it  place  then  new 
builde<l  for  that  purpo.^a,  in  the  wurd  of  (.'omhlil,  and 
wua  eince,  by  her  majenty  Queen  Klizulwith,  named 
the  Knyal  Exchange." 

IiOndon  (I.utin,  /^mdininmi  French,  l/yndrtt) 
Italian,  Omdra),  the  metropolia  of  the  Uritiah  empire, 
■nd  one  of  the  grentcat  citii-a  of  ancient  or  modem 
timaa,  la  aituate  on  Uith  lianka  of  the  Thamea,  aliout 
46  rollea  alnive  ita  mouth  ut  the  Nore,  anil  Ki  lielow 
the  higheet  tideway.  Though  chieHy  within  the 
county  of  MIddleaex,  I.rmdon  indudea  parta  nf  Hurrey 
and  Kent,  and  extends  into  Kxaex.  8t.  Haura,  the 
moat  etriking  object  in  the  citv,  ia  In  lat.  61°  30'  4H" 
N.,  long.  0°  6'  4«"  W.  of  (ireenwich.  Its  early  hla- 
tory  ia  loat  in  olwcurit}',  and  tlie  lirat  authentic  notice 
of  Iti  exiatenoe  Is  that  of  Tacitus  (.4nna/.,  lib.  xlv., 
cap.  3),  who.  In  alluiling  to  hmilinium,  says.  "  Cog. 
nomento  qiiidem  cnloniio  non  in^igne,  aed  coplu  nego- 
tiatorum  et  commeatuum  mnxime  celebre."  The 
derivation  of  the  name  "  London,"  has  been  the  aub- 
ject  of  mach  conjecture  ;  but  that  mentioned  l>y  Pen- 
nant {/Amdim,  p.  17)  )»>cms  most  feaalhle,  viz.,  IJgn, 
in  Celtic,  a  lake,  and  din,  a  town.  It  could  not,  how- 
avar,  have  liean  a  place  of  importance  at  the  period 
of  Julius  Cnaar'a  invasion,  aa  It  is  not  noticed  in 
his  Commetilarim.  About  100  years  thereafter,  the 
Romans,  under  Claudius,  took  possoaaliin  of  the  city, 
and  called  it  Aaguata,  in  honor  of  that  prince.  It  was 
erected  into  a  pnnfecture ;  and  the  Inhabitants,  nom- 
inally citizens  of  Rome,  were  goveme<l  by  Roman  laws 
and  Roman  magistrates. 

London  was  not  fortilied  at  an  early  period  of  the 
Roman  occupation;  for  in  A.u.  61,  the  DrltoM  under 
Boadlceu,  revolted,  captured  and  burned  the  city,  and 
massacred  the  inhabitants.  The  city  was  aoon,  how- 
ever, rebuilt,  but  ia  supposed  to  have  remained  open 
till  the  leign  of  Constantine  the  Oreat.  From  tha 
BBmber  of  eolna  of  hU  time  found  nnder  the  walla,  it 


mav  b*  Infbrrad  that  that  ampamr  eonalntrlad  th4 
waila  I  and  it  la  allegwl  that  ha  niada  Uindon  .in  «pU> 
copal  aa«.  Tha  ilinita  of  theae  walla  have  hann  pnitty 
exactly  aacerlainxil.  They  ciiininancHd  naur  the  alle 
of  the  prraent  Tower,  exlemlad  along  the  Miimrlaa 
and  iiack  of  lloundadltch,  acroM  lll«ho|Mgiit«->lrni>i,  in 
a  atralght  line,  by  l.onihin  Wall,  to  <!rl|i|ilaKi<t><| 
thence  aoulhwani  to  AliUragatii,  prniMiaillng  afterwiird 
liy  tha  back  nf  (Ihrlat'a  llaepltal  and  Old  Newgnta, 
paaaing  liahind  tha  aita  of  Nawgala  I'riaiin,  anil  ao 
reaching  l.udgata  i  again  pmceeding  waalwanl  to  Iha 
Hirer  Klort,  and  terininiitlng  at  a  fort  culli'il  afterward 
Itiiyniird'a  Caalle.  Tlieir  lompiiaa  woa  coniplatoil  liy 
itnother  wail  along  tlie  liank  of  tim  TImmea.  Kxlnntof 
the  walla  fnnn  and  to  the  aide  of  the  river,  'i  nillna  and 
1  furlong)  on  the  bank,  1  mile  and  l-10th|  unlfnrni 
height,  ii  feet.  Through  gate*  In  theae  wulla,  riniila 
led  tn  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  Tlin  gri'iit 
Roman  Itoada,  Watllng-alraet  anil  Krniln-atrtti<l,  Imd 
their  termini  at  the  l,ondun  Hlone,  or  Komnn  Milliarl. 
inn,  a  portion  of  which  atlll  nunalna,  ami  la  Inmirtiid 
In  the  moat  conapicuoua  part  of  HI,  Swilhln'a  Cliiirili, 
aliulting  on  Cannon-atrcel.  Tha  numea  of  the  gutea 
are  atlll  preaervnd  In  alrecta,  etc.,  via.,  I.UilgiilK,  Al< 
deragate,  Moorgate,  lllaho|»gate,  Aldgiite,  Newgate, 
Cripplegiite,  and  I'oalern  Row,  on  Tower  Hill,  After 
the  Romana  withdrew  their  foroea  fVuin  Kngliinil,  t>on> 
don  aulTered  aeverely  till  the  Huxiina  llxeil  Ihi'inaalvea 
in  the  country.  It  la  aalil  In  have  liecunin  then  Ilia 
cHpiliil  of  tha  Eaat  Hiixon  kingiliini)  at  iiny  ml",  it 
quickly  regained  ita  former  importunie,  ami  ia  cull  i\ 
by  Venerable  Uede  a  "  princely  town  of  Irmle,  ' 
.Soon  after  the  intruduotinn  of  Chrlalianllty,  Did  HI. 
Paul's,  and  St.  Peter'a  at  Weatinlnater,  Weru  fuiinileil, 
When  the  Haxon  mnnarchieB  wera  united  In  Ihii  |H<r«on 
of  Kgliert,  Uindun  Iwcanie  the  capital  of  the  cnnaol. 
iiluted  kingdom,  and  auch  It  has  oiintinuud  to  lie.  In 
the  reign  of  Alfred  It  rocovored  from  the  eiri'i'ta  of  Ilia 
Duniah  invasion,  aa  well  u*  from  thoaa  of  a  lire,  wlilch 
nearly  consumed  It  In  Hi)3, 

After  the  battle  of  Iloatings,  tha  city  aubiiiltleil  to 
William,  who  grunted  it  a  charter,  atlil  exiiintt  and 
who  commenced  liuilding  the  Tower  of  London  in 
lO'H.  Almut  thia  time  tlie  oupltul  aulTureil  axveridy 
and  frequently  by  lires,  especially  In  1077  and  tONil, 
In  the  following  reign  it  wua  vlalted  liy  n  hiyrii'iiiin 
and  an  Inundation  ;  the  latter  currying  iiwiiy  llii<  llmt 
wooden  liridge  over  thn  Thamea,  llenry  I,  grtiiitaii  a 
new  charter  to  the  city  In  UOO,  roatoring  the  privlli-gea 
It  enjoyeu  previoua  to  the  Conqueat,  and  uonferrlng  on 
the  citlzena  the  right  of  electing  thairown  niagl»lMt«<, 
It  is  said  that  this  document  aervail  *■  the  iiioilol  fur 
Magna  Charta.  The  papulation  in  1141  wua  eatliiiiitnil 
by  Peter  of  llloia  at  40,(MMI.  Tha  tille  nf  the  I'lilnf 
inagislrute  waa  changed  liy  llenry  II.  from  I'nrlrneva 
to  Uuiiilf;  and  In  llUl  he  ia  called  Lord  Mayor,  In  a 
document  Issued  by  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  In  lillN 
RIchird  I,  committed  the  duty  of  lixlng  a  milloniil 
standard  of  weights  and  meuauras  tn  tha  aherlll'ii  of 
I^ondon  and  Middlesex,  John,  by  aavarul  cli'irtcra, 
conferred  adilltlonal  favors  on  the  city  |  among  olhnra, 
the  juriadlction  and  conservation  of  the  Rivera  Thamea 
and  Medway ;  and  the  |iower  of  choosing  alierlffa.  In 
1221  the  lirst  atone  of  the  preaent  Weatmlnnter  Alilmy 
wua  laid  by  llenry  III, ;  and  In  123)1  wutur  was  ciin- 
veyed  iii  pipes  from  the  village  of  Tyburn  to  the  cily. 
In  125H  and  1270  the  city  woa  visited  by  fuiiilne.  Mini 
In  1848  by  a  species  of  plugua,  on  all  of  which  occa- 
sions it  suffered  grievously. 

Under  Edward  I,  l^ndon  woa  flrat  divided  Into  24 
wuriU,  each  to  chooaa  common  oouncilmun  anil  iin 
alderman.  Edward  II,,  In  1310,  pnihibitad  aa  u  nui- 
sance the  burning  of  coal,  then  lately  intmduceil,  Imt 
hIa  mistake  was  soon  discovered  and  rectlflad,  I'niliir 
Edward  III.  the  city  received  the  perpetual  riglit  of 
magistracy  over  Southwurk.  In  IIIHI  the  cltlxiuiii 
were  alarmed  by  the  liuurraotion  of  Wat  Tyler,  hut 


LOM 


127A 


LON 


MUi  WM  Mon  aappruHd.  HtrMt  Ump*  war*  flnil 
MMil  In  141<l.  In  thn  w*n  of  th«  IbMM,  l^nilnn 
ohUriy  fiiviirvil  lh«  Intxrantn  nf  lh«  lliiiu*  nf  York  i 
■n<l  nftor  th«  hittlii  of  liarnut,  in  1171,  Mwtnl  VI. 
kniKhtcil  th«  nmyor,  rmnnlrr,  nnil  I'i  (lilfrinen. 
Tlili  wu  th«  tn  or  thii  Aral  piintliiK-prnu,  ronntructxl 
■ml  workml  by  Caxion  In  Wmtnilnitar  Alilwy,  u 
wkII  m  thit  anotiiin  »t  waUr  iilatrrnit  ■ml  nmiluiti  In 
inTvrul  part*  nf  th«  I'lty  ami  •ulmrlii.  In  tha  rrliin  nf 
lli>nry  VII,,  ■  (IImum  i-iilti<il  th«  "  KwoHtlnti  nii'knaM" 
eirrlril  nlT  two  maynrit  iiml  nix  ulil«rniiin,  with  many 
cItlMni.  Hciin*  cunalilnriilila  lin|iruvemiiiit<i  war*  niatla 
in  thia  ralipi,  ■•  wall  «•  In  that  of  ilanry  VIII.,  to 
whii'li  tha  ■upprairiliin  of  rallntoui  liiiunaa  liy  tlia  liitlar 
malarlally  contrtliutPil  i  thaaa  KlvinK  way  to  achoola, 
lioa|iltalii,  anil  charitiitila  inatitutlona.  Ily  tha  alil  of 
Quaan  Kllinliatli,  tlie  pruaparity  uf  Lnmlon  raplilly 
■dvancpil  during  her  ralgn.  Tha  rafuijaaa  from  tha 
Natharlamla  Intnnluend  nurnvftia  niaiiufavtu.oa  lia- 
fora  unknown  in  Kn^lnml,  and  in  thl*  way  co.  larrad 
■•liaclal  liaiirHta  nn  London. 

Ily  ninpa  of  tht  tlina  of  Kllialwth  and  Jamaa  I.,  It 
may  lia  arm  thiit  the  chief  pjrt  of  London  than  con- 
■iatfld  of  NawKnta-ttrntt,  ('liaapalda,  tha  I'oultr}',  and 
Ciirnhlll,  and  tha  viirlnua  atrarta  and  allaya  lawlInK 
from  tliani  to  tha  Thuinaa.  Al<in((  tha  Htrnnd,  towartl 
Wvatniinatar,  wi'ra  houaea  nn  iHith  aidea — thoaa  to  tho 
•outh,  iind  ttiiuttlng  on  the  rivi-r,  IwImk  tha  pnlncaa  of 
tha  cliief  noliillty.  Tha  niimea  of  Hallaliury,  Norfolk, 
IlurkinKlium,  Arundel,  Kaaex,  Ha.,  have  liaen  |ierpet- 
uated  In  thv  atrveta  now  on  tha  altoa  of  pulucca  and 
Hanlvna  fumiarly  helonKlnK  to  thaaa  faniiliaa.  Sprin|{ 
Uardena  formed  a  teriaa  uf  wulka,  with  bowling  Rreen, 
etc.,  a.TtendIng  from  Charing  Oiaa  toward  Whitehall 
Palace,  whence  to  the  Alibey  there  waa  n  regular 
■troitt.  On  the  Surrey  aide,  there  were  not  ten  liuild- 
Inga  between  Lanilmth  and  the  weat  foot  of  Illack- 
friura  Ilridge;  liut  fri>m  that  point  a  row  of  houaea 
waa  continued  to  the  MoruUKh.  8uutliwark  than  ex- 
temlod  liut  a  abort  diatance  along  High-street;  and 
thrra  were  amall  icattered  houaea  from  T'i»ley-atreet 
to  llnraelydown.  In  the  reign  of  .lamea  I.  liHrk  waa 
Introduced  ua  a  aulmtitute  fur  wood  In  London  houaea, 
and  the  atreeta  were  llrat  paved  with  atonea,  Tha  city 
wua  aeverely  vlaitnd  l>y  the  plague  In  l(i04,  and  again 
In  tlie  reign  uf  Charles  I.  During  the  civil  wara  a 
majority  of  the  corporutiun  took  part  with  the  Com- 
mona,  and  the  city  treasury'  waa  of  great  iervlce  to 
their  party. 

After  tha  Reitoratiiin  I^ndon  Iwgan  greatly  to  re- 
Tive ;  but  a  aerloua  ciieck  waa  given  to  It  by  the  laat 
viait  uf  the  plague,  which  raged  from  June  till  the 
end  of  Uecemlier,  l<i(!r>,  and  destroyed  nearly  a  third 
of  the  population,  Thla  was  apeedily  followed  by  tha 
"  (irout  Fire,"  which  commenced  2d  September,  'l6(ifl, 
lasted  four  days  and  nights,  and  In  that  time  reduced 
to  aalies  live  sixths  uf  the  whole  city  within  the  •vulls. 
The  ruins  covered  a  apace  more  than  a  mile  lung  and 
half  u  mile  broad;  and  the  value  of  buildings  und 

goods  consumed  was  estimated  at  ten  to  twelve  mll- 
ons  sterling.  But  though  severe  at  the  time,  this 
visitation  contributed  materially  to  tlio  improvement 
of  the  city.  It  was  built  on  a  more  commu<lioua  plan 
by  8ir  Christopher  Wren  in  al>out  four  years.  From 
the  time  uf  its  re-cunstruction,  few  stirring  events  oc- 
curred. Tho  first  stone  of  St.  Paul's  was  laid  in  1675. 
The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Xantea  in  1685  l)mught 
to  l.ondon  many  French  Pmtestant  families,  who  peo- 
pled Spitaltields,  and  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
ailk.  The  continued  growth  of  the  city  in  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne  occasioned  the  act  of  1711  for  building 
fifty  new  churches,  the  cott  being  |)aid  by  a  tax  on  all 
coaia  brought  into  the  Thames.  The  streets  wore  tlien 
first  generally  lighted;  fire-engines  were  provided, 
and  measures  taken  fur  watching  the  city.  In  her 
reign,  Clerkeu-.rell,  Old-street,  the  lower  part  of  Shore- 
ditch,  Msrlborough-atreet,    Soho,  Bedford-row,-  Red 


l.lnn-aquara,  and  •  district  nortll  of  llolhom,  w*f* 
tnnaxad  to  tha  nialropidla. 

In  tha  nilgn  of  (tmirga  I.  soma  addillona  were  mnila 
to  I,i>mlcin,  riilally  to  tha  north  of  Oxfonl-atraat  and 
alMiul  llark»lay->i|uara.  In  the  ndgn  of  (lanrga  II, 
aonia  new  |uiriaht'a  were  emi'tad,  via.,  Ht.  (laorga'a, 
lliiM>maliury  ;  Nt.  Ann'a,  LImahouaa  ;  .St.  i'aul'a,  Dapt- 
fonl ;  and  Ht.  Mutthaw'a,  llethnal  tirnan.  Thu  HIvar 
Flaat  wo*  covrred,  and  a  market  built  on  it;  (iroava- 
nnr-a<|uara,  Wratudnatar  Itridga,  and  Oraat  (ieurgo- 
atraat,  were  liuilt ;  and  rouda  wara  funned  in  aavaral 
dlrw'tkma,  tha  principal  one  akirtliig  tha  nurtham  part 
uf  thu  city  from  I'uiblington  to  laliugton. 

Tha  accvaaiim  of  (ieorga  HI.  gava  a  fraah  atimului 
to  Improvement  and  axtanairm,  A  new  bridg*  ■! 
Blarkfrlara,  with  handa<ima  atreata  leading  tn  it,  and 
many  new  dweillnga  on  tho  Hurray  aide,  wara  areclad. 
On  tha  north-weat  aide  the  pariahea  of  Nt.  I'ancraa  and 
Maryleliona  were  formed.  At  the  auma  iiarind  the 
atraot  |)avem»tit  for  foot  paaaengara  waa  llrat  laid 
down,  the  kennnia  removed  from  tha  miildla  tn  tha 
aldaa  of  tha  atreet'i,  and  the  numlierlng  uf  houaaa  In- 
triMluued.  The  American  war  gave  a  teni|Hirur}'  check 
to  extanainn  ;  liut  acM)n  after  the  peace  of  17N3  the  ad- 
vunc*  Iwoama  more  ra|il>l  tlian  ever,  Docka  were  con- 
atrueteil,  tha  cnmmen  i  tho  city  rapidly  augmented, 
the  ground  near  the  water  aide  was  covered  with 
liuilcliuga,  anil,  westward,  Bedford,  Kuaaell,  and 
Brunswick  8<|uarea  i|uickly  aprung  up.  From  the 
Kegency  in  IHll,  London  advanced  in  extent  and  ele- 
gance still  more  rapidly,  Itagent's  I'ark  was  fomieil, 
und  surrounded  by  liumlsome  terraces ;  and  within  tha 
last  few  years  the  extensive  and  faahlunalde  dlatricta 
called  Belgravla  and  Tyburniu— the  furmer  to  the 
south  and  the  latter  to  the  north  of  Hyde  i'ark— have 
been  created,  und  literally  covered  with  liuuaea  uf  a 
high  class.  In  IN&I  there  were  llUi,uaa  Inhabited 
houses  In  the  metropolis,  and  there  ura  nn  leas  than 
6300  atrcets  enumerated  in  the  Luuiion  I'oital  iluidt  lor 
January,  1H57. 

The  situation  of  Londnn,  on  the  banks  of  a  great 
tidal  river,  la  also  peculiarly  favuralile  I'ur  a  large  city 
in  a  sanitary  |iulnt  of  view,  Tho  subsuil  is  partly  clay 
(the  I.<indon  clay  of  the  geulnglat).  The  valley  of  the 
Thames  bus  n  gradual  ascent  on  the  north  side;  and 
the  south  sill".  Ihiiugh  liclow  the  level  of  spring  tides, 
haa  been  well  itcuruil  uguinat  inundutiuus  by  embank- 
ments. The  air  is  temperate  and  rnther  dry  than 
moist,  and  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  has  gradually 
but  rapidly  improved  from  the  earlier  part  uf  lust  cen- 
tury, when  the  deatlis  were  annually  1  in  2U  of  the 
population,  whereas  ut  present  they  are  about  1 
in  40. 

It  is  diSicult  to  assign  any  distinct  Iwundarles  to 
the  metro|i(dis,  as  almost  continuous  lines  of  bouses 
stretch  like  branches  from  the  main  trunk  of  London, 
to  Chiswick,  Konstil  Green,  Kiiburn,  Hampstead, 
Ilighgate,  Stamford  Hill,  and  Upper  Clapton  in  Mil- 
dieaex;  Stratford  und  North  Woolwich  in  Fjisex; 
Greenwich  and  \jea  in  Kent ;  and  Uulwich,  Norwood, 
Clapham,  Wandsworth,  and  I'utney  in  Surrey. 
These,  too,  are  "instantly  increasing  in  length  and 
breadth ;  the  vacnnt  spaces  between  distant  lines  uf 
ruud  being  filled  up  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  The 
circle  formed  on  u  radius  of  four  miles  from  Charing 
Cross  excludes  a  large  portion  of  London ;  but  its  ex- 
treme length  may  be  set  down  as  ten  miles,  and  its 
breadth  at  about  six.  There  are  four  divisions  of  the 
metropolis  which,  though  rather  vague,  are  pretty  gen- 
erally understood  by  Ijindoners — these  are,  the  City, 
the  West  End,  I^mlieth,  and  the  Borough ;  the  two 
first  on  tlie  Middlesex,  and  the  otiiers  on  the  Surrey 
side  of  the  water.  The  city  of  London  proper  has  un 
area  of  725  acres,  and  contains  108  parishes — 97  within 
and  11  without  tlie  walla.  In  its  must  limited  sense, 
the  metropolis  includes  the  cities  of  Lomlon  und  West- 
minster, the  parliamentary  boroughs  of  Tower  Hum- 


LON 


1276 


LON 


leti,  Fii;Bbor}r,  Maiylabons,  Lambeth,  and  Sonthwark.  I  cities  and  boroughs  above  mentioned,  as  ascertained  by 
Annexed  is  an  account  of  the  population  of  the  various  |  the  different  censuses,  beginning  with  the  first  in  1801 : 


ClUei  Mid  Boroughs. 


fyondon  City 

Westminator  City. 

Tower  Ham  lots  Borough. . 
FInsbnry  " 

Maryleuone  " 

Lambeth  '• 

Bouthwark 

Total 


1841. 


1B6,3S9 
158,210 

iimMs 

184,616 
97,643 
4»,836 
04,818 


iau,i)o» 

1SN484 

163,085   - 

182,035 

28T,48T 

291,650 

167,130 

201,781 

126,666 

174.854 

76,806 

108,565 

108,768 

123,««S 

122,868 
201,812 
857,240 
259,128 
240,294 
160,568 
184,117 


878,964   I  994,746    1,207,483  |  l,47a,W8 


120,702 
219,980 
419,780 
205,04:1 
287,405 
197,412 
142,020 


1,652,902 


IDM. 


127,869 
241,611 
589,111 
828,772 
870,957 
251,846 
172,8li8 
2>i7,52S 


The  metropolitan  district  comprised  within  the  li'ills 
of  mortality  includes,  with  the  cities  and  boroughs 
embraced  in  the  foregoing  table,  other  integral  parts 
of  London,  like  Chelsea,  Brompton,  and  Kensington ; 
and  the  suburbs,  such  as  Greenwich,  Wandsworth, 
Hammersmith,  Putney,  etc.  In  this  view,  the  area 
of  the  metropolis  is  78,029  acres,  comprising  186  par- 
ishes and  the  present  population  may  be  estimated  at 
upward  of  2,500,000.  Annexed  is  an  account  of  the 
population  of  this  area  at  the  date  of  each  census, 
commencing  with  1801 : 


Yfftn.  Population. 

1801 958,868 

1811 1,188,815 

1821 1,878,947 


Yoart.  PopuUHon. 

1881 1,664,994 

1841 1,948,417 

1851 2,862,286 


But  muny  merchants  and  citizens,  taking  advantage 
of  the  easy  access  to  the  country  afforded  l>y  the  rail- 
waj-s,  occupy  houses  at  such  places  as  Kingston, 
Esther,  Walton,  Richmond,  Twickenham,  Staines, 
Windsor,  Keigate,  Brighton,  etc.,  making  daily  jour- 
neys to  and  from  the  city,  so  that  they  and  their  fami- 
''^     lies  are  not  included  in  the  foregoing  account. 

Commerce As  one  of  the  great  occupations  of  its 

inhabitants,  the  commerce  of  London  demands  the 
first  notice.  The  capital  of  a  great  empire,  with  im- 
mense wealth  concentrated  in  it,  having  easy  access, 
both  l>y  land  and  water,  to  all  parts  of  the  liingdom, 
and  every  facility  of  communication  with  foreign 
countries,  Iiondon  has  become,  with  perhaps  the  single 
exception  of  New  York,  the  greatest  commercial  city 
in  the  world.  The  commercial  growth  and  prosperity 
of  Ix>ndon  are  especially  to  be  ascribed  to  its  great 
river-port,  the  Thames.  This  famous  stream  has  its 
source  nithin  the  bordem  of  Gloucestershire,  a  little 
to  the  south-west  of  Cirencester,  and  becomes  navi- 
gable at  Lechlade,  138  miles  above  London.  It  is  first 
affected  by  the  tide  alraut  Id  miles  above  the  metropo- 
lis ;  Imt  before  reaching  this  point  it  is  swollen  by 
junction  with  the  Isis,  Kennet,  Coin,  and  Wey.  The 
city  corporation  are  the  chief  conservators  of  the 
river,  and  appoint  a  navigation  committee,  who  super- 
intend the  towing-paths,  bridges,  water-courses,  and 
whatever  relates  to  the  river,  as  far  as  a  stone  a  little 
above  .Staine's  Bridge.  Higher  up  the  supervision  is 
divided  lietween  the  city  and  a  l)ody  oliiefiy  composed 
of  the  landowners  on  lioth  sides  of  the  river.  The 
conservation  of  the  river  below  London  is  also  in  some 
measure  under  the  government  of  the  city  corporation, 
but  the  Trinity  House  has  concurrent  jurisdiction,  and 
no  ballast  can  be  raised  without  its  authority.  The 
appointment  and  control  of  pilots,  the  placing  and 
repairs  uf  land-marks  and  buoys  to  indicate  the  chan- 
nels, and  the  establishment  of  flo.iting  lights,  are  also 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Trinity  House.  Close 
to  London  Bridge  there  is  water  sufficient  for  vessels 
of  800  tons  burden,  and  the  legislature  has  planed  the 
shipping  of  the  port,  and  their  moorings,  under  the 
direction  of  the  harbor-masters,  nominated  by  the  cor- 
porat'.jn,  and  approved  by  the  Trinity  House.  The 
iinuositics,  currents,  and  siioals  in  the  river,  and  its 
varying  depth,  render  the  navigation  rather  intricate. 
The  river  pilots,  who  are  a  distinct  class,  conduct  ves- 
sels to  Gravesend,  where  they  are  relieved  l>y  the  sea 
pilots.  Down  to  1800,  the  commerce  of  London,  and 
the  shipping  interest,  suffered  materially  from  the 
crowded  state  of  the  river,  and  tlia  difBoulties,  delays, 


and  abuses  connected  with  the  berthing  and  mooring 
of  vessels,  and  the  landing  and  storing  of  merchandise. 
These  evils  led  to  the  construction  of  the  West  India 
Docks,  which  were  opened  in  August,  1802.  These, 
next  to  the  Commercial  Docks,  the  oldest  in  I^ondon, 
were  formed  in  the  gorge  of  the  Isle  of  Dogs,  on  the 
Middlesex  side  of  the  river.  They  comprise  the  im- 
port and  export  dock  (communicating  with  the  river 
at  Blackwall  and  Limebouse),  and  a  dock  of  19  acres 
for  Iwnded  timber. 

The  export  dock  occupies  about  25,  and  the  import 
dock  80,  acres.  The  gates  are  45  feet  wide,  and  admit 
vessels  of  1200  tons.  At  the  highest  spring-tides  the 
water  is  24  feet  deep  ;  and  withii:  the  docks  there  is 
sufHcient  space  for  (KM)  vessels  of  from  250  to  600  tons. 
The  import  and  export  docks  are  parallel  to  each 
other,  but  divided  by  stacks  of  warehouses.  There 
are  sheds  for  sheltering  the  goods ;  and  the  chief 
warehouses  are  capable  of  storing  170,000  hhds.  of 
sugar,  besides  coffee  and  other  tropical  productions. 
The  whole  space  occupied  liy  these  docks  and  ware- 
houses is  2S5  acres.  The  Kast  India  Docks  at  Black- 
wall  now  belong  to,  and  are  managed  b}',  the  same 
company  as  the  West  India  Docks.  They  were  com- 
menced in  180.S,  finished  in  1806,  and  were  intended  to 
accommodate  the  trade  of  the  East  India  Company. 
They  include  an  import  basin  of  18  acres,  an  export 
basin  of  about  9,  and  an  entrance  basin  of  2}  acres. 
The  entrance  lock  is  210  feet  wide,  the  width  of  the 
gates  48  feet,  and  the  depth  of  water  in  the  docks  is 
never  less  than  23  feet.  The  extent  of  warehouse- 
room  at  these  docks  is  comparatively  small.  The  East 
and  West  India  Docks  are  well  inclosed  and  guarded, 
and  the  buildings  are  fireproof.  The  London  Ducks, 
situated  l>etween  Katclilf  Highway  and  the  Thames, 
were  begun  in  June,  1802,  and  opened  in  January, 
1805.  They  consist  of  two  docks  ;  the  western,  cov- 
ering 20  acres,  and  the  eastern  about  7  acres.  The 
latter  is  entered  from  .Sbadwell,  and  the  former  near 
Wapping  Old  Stairs,  and  also  at  the  Hermitage.  The 
whole  can  receive  500  vessels  of  from  200  to  800  tons. 
The  entire  space  inclosed  Is  71  acres.  The  ware- 
houses are  very  fine;  the  most  extraordinary  licing 
that  for  bonded  tobacco.  The  roof  and  pillars  sup- 
porting it  are  of  iron,  and  the  whole  building  covers 
five  acres  of  land,  and  is  capable  of  containing  21,000 
hhds.  The  company  is  governed  by  a  body  of  direct- 
ors, of  whom  the  lord  maj'or  is  one.  The  regulations 
to  prevent  fire  and  pilfering  are  as  effectual  as  In  the 
East  Indhi  Docks.  St.  Katherine's  Docks,  situate 
between  the  London  Dycks  and  the  Tower,  were  ex- 
ecuted in  a  year  and  a  half,  and  first  opened  In  Oeto- 
iier,  1828.  The  whole  extent  of  the  property  is  24 
acres,  of  which  nearly  one  half  Is  inclosed  in  the  two 
docks,  communicating  by  a  basin.  The  entrance  lock, 
riear  Irungate  Wharf,  Is  180  feet  long,  and  45  feet 
broad,  and  admits  ships  of  from  200  to  800  tons.  The 
warehouses  are  very  large  and  commodious,  and  the 
regulations  and  charges  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
other  dock.  Victoria  Docks,  the  last  constructed, 
were  completed  in  1855.  They  are  situated  in  the 
Plaistow  Marshes,  immediatei}*  below  the  East  and 
West  India  Docks.  The  portion  of  this  property  ap- 
propriated i)y  the  Dock  Company  for  their  own  pur- 
poses is  about  200  acres,  but  the  dock  itself  occupies 
but  74,  and  alK>rds  28|  feet  depth  of  water.    The  en* 


» 


IX)N 


1877 


LON 


•  covers 


tnncA  look  «t  Bow  Orvck  U  DOO  fMt  long.  Mtd  SO 
wide.  There  U  A  hitlf-tlila  liM>ln  of  10  irnttii*  \  and  th« 
availabln  warehoute  (liMir  I*  Htaltid  to  Ihi  U|iwartl  of  11 
acrei.  The  onmpuny  hava  aUn  Ni<i|Ull«tl  almut  an 
acre  anil  a  hulf  lietwueii  Thanifii'litKot  anil  (h«  river 
for  the  erection  of  an  up-lown  wiirotiiiUM.  One  olv 
)ect  of  the  company  ti  to  withdraw  iViMn  tlia  Tliantea  a 
portion  of  the  lai'ifa  fleet  iif  i'lilllerd  whii'lt  lit  at  anchor 
in  the  Pool,  and  aerlDimly  nlmtriliit  tliH  trafHu  nu  the 
river.  On  the  othar  hank  of  Iha  Thamita,  «fit<<ndlna 
alon);  the  side  of  the  river  op|NMil«  lilm«hniiit«.  and 
terminating  nearly  appimlte  the  fntraniia  to  th«  Weat 
India  Docks,  are  the  Conininndal,  fiirniarly  the  Omen* 
land  Dookii,  which  exUted  In  the  iVtIi  iiontury.  Th«v 
are  now  of  great  extent,  Innlniilnif  Vii)  m'tm,  of  which 
70  are  water,  and  were  denlgned  to  racflva  vciiels 
laden  with  timlier,  corn,  and  iithi>r  tiommodltlei*  more 
bulky  than  oottly,  Tlieae  dooka  nro  cintared  liy  a 
baain  near  l)og-and<|)uuk  Htuira,  Hom«tini«a  ualled  the 
Bant  Country  Dock*,  and  the  niiiln  body  of  the  water 
within  la  divided  into  alx  unei|iml  part<,  H««  DncKS. 
Parallel  to  »'..'«  In  the  Hiirrey  Citniil.  having  an 
inner  and  out( '  dn.^k  at  the  entraiii'K  In  Kiithcrhlihe, 
by  which  ahlpa  uio  rei'ttlved,  and  alfititlng  conmiunl* 
cation  with  the  Croydon  Canal.  T!it<  ltt<g«nt'«  ('anal 
was  formed  to  save  expeniio  of  fartagi*  tlirouith  Lon* 
don  of  articles  brooKlit  by  aea,  and  iiftc f  ward  njrward* 
ed  for  consumption  to  the  north-went  |iiirti*  of  the  me- 
tropolis ;  and  ulao  to  uomntiinli'ata  with  tho  Orand 
Junction  Canal.  The  liegunfa  Canal  iHiioieii  from 
PaddinKton,  by  a  tunnel  under  Malda  Jllll,  to  the 
Regent's  Park,  thence  to  Islington,  under  wlili'h  It  Is 
carried  by  a  tunnel  three  <|uurtera  of  a  nillit  In  length, 
and  80  on  to  Hoxton,  Hackney,  and  t.lnieliouite,  It 
is  9  miles  long,  and  is  provldeil  with  Vi  larga  locka.  It 
is  not  easy,  within  a  nioduratu  oonipaDi*,  to  give  even  a 
sketch  of  the  foreign  connnerv^  of  London,  It  would 
be  an  epitome  of  that  of  th>^  world,  To  tile  tirltlsh 
capital  are  brought  the  priKlm'ts,  natural  and  artlflvlal, 
of  ull  soils  and  all  cllmiitos,  It  ha*  In  nturn  whatever 
the  ingenuity  and  industry  of  man  in  any  part  of  the 
globe  can  spare  to  exchange  for  what  liU  own  I'oiintry 
does  not  yield.  We  can,  thortifore,  do  llltlit  mora  than 
state  the  numl)er  and  »\*e  of  the  ve*iitila  that  Itelong  to 
and  frequent  the  port,  and  the  valua  of  the  prouuce 
and  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom  exported 
from  the  same ; 

Account  of  ma  NuMnaa  *Nn  To»rN/»Ma  ok  Vanaaw  aa- 
LONUINO  TU  TUa  I'liKT  iir  lillNOON  ON  IIIki'  llacMMaKN, 


OoiltTlptlOll  of 

v.i.nli. 

Under 

to  mm, 

Alwtii  to  luMi         1 

Vx.cll. 

■tmi," 

V....II, 

TliMI, 

Salllni;  Tossels. . 

Steamers 

Totol 

«1I 

1  «i,Doa 

1    mm 

l.alir 
40ft 

a»T;SoB~ 

Account  ov  tor  NuMHaa  «aii  TonxAoa  ol»  Vawaut  WHicn 
iiATR  RNTRsao  THK  PiiaT  OK  lioNOON  KHOM  Kciaaicia 

CoUNTUira  ANO  TIIK  I'nl.liNf Ml,  IN   KAHn   OK   tlia  f  IVa 
Ykaiis  enuino  wito  IWS, 
TpKrf,         VoiMtU.  Tiiimmr*-    I    \iinri,  V.tMp|i 


y.iiitr.atiH 


m\.  ...  10,841       8,1  T»,liM     1  »ft4, , , . ,  in,ii« 

1S52 9,9S«       «,lflO,I.M      IWift t(,Tt« 

1S53 11,708       ifiHtUa  I 

Account  or  the  NiiMiisa  *aD  ToaN*oa  OK  OoAstiao 
Vesseu)  that  KNTKaaii  TON  I'oBT  or  LoNlioN  la  ls6fi, 
uistinouibuini)  Uhitisu  raiiM  Kioikion, 


DeMrtptlDn  of 

HrllUli. 

l''llF«.|||fti                  1 

VftM'If. 

T^'tMWgH. 

V..w(.',    J 

ir 
1 
if— 

'I'lMIHNtfv. 

llifl 
l,ftO« 

Saiiliii?  vessels.. 

'steamers 

Total 

1T,TH9 

i.a»7 
i»,n«« 

»,4«8,8Tfl 
4i  1,4ft 

tl,IUio,ftir 

The  conveyance  of  cnaln  to  London  einployn  a  great 
deal  of  shipping.  Tlioy  are  clilully  brought  from  the 
north.«astem  district  of  the  kingdom,  and  are  sold  at 
the  New  Coal  Kxchange,  latidy  eroctt"!  In  Lower 
Thamcs-street. 

Very  large  quantities  of  coal  now  roach  l.(Midon  by 
means  of  the  railways  which  centre  In  th«  metropolis. 


Accotnn  or  rna  Ncuaia  or  Ships  iaden  wim  Coal 
WHICH  aNTcaao  Tna  Port  Jf  Loaooif  in  iaou  Yka 
raiiM  184S  TO  18S5  uioLvdiva. 


Yean.  ShlM. 

ltM8 H,»9T 

1M« 10,488 

1841 11,811 

1848 18,887 

1849 19,074 

1800 19,688  I 


Yon.  Skill. 

1851 ll.TW 

1891 19,085 

1858 19,111 

1854 11,875 

1856 10,7M 


DaoLAaKO  Valuk  or  British  and  Irish  Pkoudor  and 
Manufauturks  xxportrd  from  London  to  Forrion 
Countries  and  tub  Colonics  in  1866  and  186A. 

1866. £90,91^519 

186«. 26,966,088 

Cnitom-hmiM. — The  present  custom-house,  opened 
In  May,  1817,  stands  in  Ixtwer  Thames-street,  with  its 
principal  and  imposing  front,  48U  feet  long,  toward 
the  river,  and  occupies  the  site  of  a  similar  but  smaller 
one  destroyed  by  Are  in  1814,  as  a  preceding  one  liud 
been  in  1718.  The  Long  Room  is  a  noble  apartment, 
180  feet  long,  00  broad,  and  of  an  appropriate  height, 
with  desks  on  each  side  for  the  several  officers ;  the 
centre  being  left  for  such  of  the  public  as  have  busi- 
ness there.  The  other  parts  are  distributed  so  as  to 
suit  the  several  branches  of  the  office.  The  London 
customs  establishment  of  clerks,  tide-waiters,  etc., 
amounted  in  1850  to  2167 ;  though  as  but  1020  were 
required  for  all  the  other  English  ports,  it  would  seem 
as  if  the  numbers  here  were  excessive, 

Amodnt  or  Customs  Duties  collkoted  in  thk  Port  or 
London  in  1$6S  and  1966. 

1886. £11,526,185 

1866 12,287,619 

Trinity  Iloxue. — The  Socifcty  of  the  Trinity  House 
has  its  chief  establishment  '-i  a  large  and  handsome 
house  on  Tower  Hill,  built  by  Wyatt  in  1793.  It  was 
Incorporated  in  1815;  but  from  the  terms  of  its  char- 
ter, it  evidently  had  a  previous  existence,  and  was 
then  established  at  Depttcrd  Stroud.  Its  privileges 
were  confirmed  by  the  chrrter  of  1058,  and  its  mem- 
bers are  now  partly  men  of  high  rank,  and  partly 
those  remarkable  for  naval  ''.nowledgc  and  skill  in 
maritime  affairs.  Its  duties  as  to  pilots,  light-housea, 
buoys,  ballast,  etc.,  have  already  been  meutioned.  In 
process  of  time  this  society  acquired  large  property  ; 
the  net  revenue  under  its  management  having  in  1855 
amounted  to  ,£204,195.  Until  the  passing  of  the  act 
iBtb  and  17th  Vic,  c.  131,  the  society  spent  much  of 
Its  surplus  revenue  in  pensions  to  poor  and  disabled 
seamen,  or  their  widows  and  orphans;  but  this  act 
transfers  their  revenue,  as  well  as  the  charge  for  main- 
taining light-houses,  etc.,  to  the  Mercantile  Marine 
Kund,  It  would  appear,  from  a  parliaraentar}*  paper 
lately  published,  that  the  Board  of  Trade  expended  in 
1860  out  of  this  fund  ^£1388  as  rewards  for  the  salvage 
of  life.  The  Trinity  House  contains  some  portraits  of 
naval  lieroes,  naval  trophies,  etc. 

Mint. — The  Royal  Slint,  also  on  Tower  Hill,  was 
removed  thither  from  the  Tower  in  1811.  The  present 
building  which  is  exteusive  and  well  suited  to  its  pur- 
pose, was  completed  under  the  direction  of  Sir  R. 
Hiulrko.  The  interior  is  appropriately  arranged  for 
the  manufacture  of  coin ;  and  the  machinery  combines 
great  ingenuity  and  beauty.  In  consequence  of  the 
report  of  a  commission  in  1849,  the  old  company  of 
nioiieyers  was  abolished,  and  a  scientlHc  chief  has 
since  been  allotted  to  this  department,  instead  of  a 
|Hdltlcal  one.  The  amount  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
inimey  coined  here  in  the  last  three  years  has  been  as 
follows: 

Account  of  the  Total  Vai.ub  of  Ooid,  Silver,  and 
Cni'CEa  COINED  at  the  Mint  in  each  of  tub  Tuhrr 
Years  endinu  with  1850. 


Yf«r. 

"issr 

1866 
18&6 
Total 


iilB,169,980 


£4,858,529  I 
9,246,266 

6,476,060 

£113,876    I  £20.074.854  I 


'y  I 


LON 


1278 


LON 


Sanli. — ^The  Bank  of  England,  one  of  the  moct  at- 
tractive object!  in  tlie  city,  was  fonnded  by  act  of 
Parliament  in  1694,  and  its  huaineas  was  canted  on  for 
many  yean  at  Grocers'  Hall.  In  1788  it  was  trans- 
fornd  to  Tiireadneedie-atreet,  and  soon  thereafter 
the  present  hall  and  bullion  office  were  opened.  Be- 
tween 1770  and  1788  the  fafade  was  extended,  and 
two  wings  added,  under  the  directions  of  Sir  Robert 
Taylor  and  Sir  John  Soane.  Under  tlie  8U|>erintGnd- 
ence  of  the  latter,  the  front  and  wings  of  the  original 
structure  were  harmonized.  The  area  of  the  l)anl[  is 
an  irregular  quadrangle ;  the  south  or  principal  front 
is  365  feet,  and  the  north  -110 ;  the  east  246  feet,  and 
the  west  440,  Its  principal  entrance  is  fVom  Thread- 
needle-street,  the  other  two  from  Bartholomew  Lane 
and  Lothbury,  The  interior  contains  several  open 
courts,  the  rotunda,  or  circular  room,  numerous  offices, 
committee-rooms,  and  private  apartments  for  the  resi- 
dence of  olllcera  and  servants.  The  business  is  car- 
ried on  by  a  staff  of  about  800  clerks,  etc.,  whose 
salaries  amount  to  nearly  i:!!00,000.  The  bank  has 
received  nine  successive  renewals  of  its  charter  since 
it  was  first  granted  in  1604,  and  measures  have  l>een 
ti>ken  in  Parliament  this  session  (the  first  of  1867)  for 
tgain  renewing  it.  The  act  of  1844,  still  in  force,  sep- 
arated the  Bank  into  two  distinct  branches,  viz. :  1. 
The  Issue  Department,  devoted  to  its  business  as  agent 
of  the  State  in  creating  and  issuing  paper  mone}',  or 
bank-notes,  convertible  into  gold  on  demand  ;  and,  2. 
The  Bunking  Department,  whore  the  private  business 
of  dejMsit  and  discount  is  curried  on.  There  are  60 
privute  and  28  joint-stock  banks  in  the  metropolis. 
Some  few  of  the  former,  such  as  Child's,  in  Fleet- 
street,  were  established  before  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tur}' ;  while  tlie  joint-stock  l)unka  are  all  the  offspring 
of  the  last  few  years.  There  is  an  establishment  near 
Lombard-street,  called  the  Clearing  House,  where  a 
daily  exchange  of  checks  or  drafts  on  city  bankers  is 
effected,  and  this  process  tends  greatly  to  facilitate 
banking  business, 

lioyal  Exchange. — The  Royal  Exchange,  colossal  in 
proportions,  and  occupying  a  commanding  position  be- 
tween the  Bank  of  England  and  Comhill,  is  a  spot 
where  great  mercantile  transactions  are  daily  con- 
cluded. The  first  exchange  was  built  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gresbam,  completed  in  1567,  but  destroyed  by  the  great 
firo  of  1666.  It  was,  however,  speedily  rebuilt,  and  was 
opened  on  28th  September,  1660.  Again  destroyed  by 
fire  in  18il8,  it  was  rebuilt,  and  completed  in  1846  by 
Mr,  Tite.  The  present  building  is  quadrangular,  and 
the  interior  surrounded  by  arcades.  In  the  centre, 
which  is  uncovered  and  unprotected  from  the  weather, 
stands  a  statue  of  her  majesty  l)y  Lough.  The  out- 
side of  the  liuilding,  except  the  grand  western  en- 
trance, is  occupied  liy  small  shops  ;  and  on  the  upper 
floor  \»  Lloyd's,  where  the  Imainess  of  murine  insur- 
ance is  conducted  l>y  underwriters.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that,  on  an  average,  2ri0,000  persons  daily  visit 
the  exchange,  but  this  can  be  little  more  than  con- 
jecture. Merchants  and  brokers  resort  much  to  coffee- 
houses in  the  vicinity  of  the  Exchange  for  tlio  trans- 
action of  bnsiness.  Moat  of  the  larger  transactions 
are  negotiated  by  brokers,  who  in  general  confine 
themselves  to  one  branch  of  trade,  with  which  they 
are  thoroughly  acquainted.  Thus  we  have  colonial 
brokers,  insurance  l)rokera,  ship  l>rokers,  stock  lirok- 
ers,  liill  or  money  brokers,  etc.  Near  the  Royal  Ex- 
change and  the  Bank  is  the  Stock  Exchange,  where 
real  und  fictitious  sales  aro  made  of  property  in  the 
public  fundii,  etc,  ;  the  latter  for  the  most  part  being 
•  species  of  gambling, 

I^ndon,  whi'M  conipnrcd  with  some  of  the  towns  in 
the  north  and  west  nf  England,  can  scarcely  be  culled 
a  manufacturing  place ;  yet  the  various  articles  pro- 
duced hero  employ  many  thousand  persons.  The  silk 
luui^'ifacture  espec'uiUy  employs  a  large  number  of 
hands.     Originally  introduced  by  French  Protestant 


refugees,  many  of  their  descendant*  atlll  continue  tha 
trade,  which  employed,  in  18S1,  16,764  persons,  of 
whom  8277  were  females.  The  manufacture  of  Lon- 
don porter  and  beer  is  a  much  more  lucrative  businoHS, 
but  a  London  breweiy  requires  a  verj'  large  cupitul. 
Sugar-refining  and  clock  and  watch  making  also  pre- 
vail to  a  consideralde  extent,  the  latter  chiefiy  in  a 
district  called  Clerkenwell,  London-built  carriages 
are  generally  considered  the  beat,  as  they  are  nndoul)t- 
edly  the  most  elegant  in  the  world.  London  enjoys 
a  high  reputation  for  the  manufacture  of  numerous 
smaller  articles,  such  as  mathematical,  surgical,  and 
musical  instrumenta,  jewelry  of  the  superior  kinda, 
gold  and  silver  plate,  etc.  The  great  number  of  those 
employed  in  house-building  proves  that  the  metropo- 
lis is  still  rapidly  extending ;  and  though  this  liuainesi 
received  a  severe  check  during  the  late  war  with  Rus- 
sia, it  was  only  temporary,  as  evinced  by  the  general 
resumption  of  building  in  the  various  outskirts  of 
London. 

The  shops  in  London  are,  generally  speaking,  well 
managed,  and  many  of  them  are  handaomelj'  fitted  up, 
eapecially  those  in  Bond-street,  Regent-street,  and 
Oxford-street.  The  wholesale  shops  or  warehouses 
are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  city ;  the  retail  ahops, 
particularly  thoae  on  a  large  scale,  being  more  gen- 
eral in  the  weat  or  faahionable  end  of  the  metropolis. 
The  bazaars  in  London,  each  of  which  forms  an  aggre- 
gation of  shops  or  stalls,  are  not  now  so  attractive  us 
they  once  were.  They  deal  mostly  in  fancy  goods, 
furniture,  toys,  etc.  The  four  great  eatablishments  of 
the  kind  are  those  in  Soho  Square  and  Baker-street, 
the  Pantheon  in  Oxford-street,  and  the  Pantechnicon 
in  Ualkin-atreet,  Belgrave  Square.  The  Burlington 
and  Lowther  Arcades  contain  many  shops  for  the  sale 
of  the  like  commodities, 

Tablk  snowiKO  tuk  Ark\  in  Bquark  Milks,  and  the 
I'oruLATioN   or  Tlie  Metbopolib,  the  Numiikk   op 

Boi'SeS  TUESEIN,   AND    THE    NcUUEa    OF  FAMILIES  OC- 
CUfYING  THE  SAME  IN  1861. 


^Middlesex.. 
Surrey. . . . . 

Kent 

I    Total.... 


.•ii 

86 
.S5 
122" 


HolUM. 


,1  Unin-    Build 
ihAbited.    iDg, 


91B,279  in,6l8 
7a.»44l  4,624 
2(l,81()l    1,606 

805,«*J,  16,904 


=  s25j  Populn- 


8,M6l  895,708 1.746,6m 

1,1601110.0271    4S'.>,4W 

«09|  27,i560i_llU,2u2 

4,810  588,680  2,86J,2a8i 


Account  siiowino  tub  Nitmber  or  PKnaoNH  over  20 
Years  ok  Aoe  in  the  Mktroi'olis  in  1861,  diktin- 
onisiiiNit  THE  Married  rRoM  the  Unmarried. 


Sexei. 


Mules. . , . 
Females. 


OrtiiM  nfff  of  $0  and  upwnrd. 


Bathelori 
■ml  ■I<lni,ti>rl 


632.646 
762,418 


19«,W7 
246,124 


HuibHnda 
and  wivr^ 


\VidowiT»1 
,iul  wld"Wi. 


893,624     !      87,0tW 
406,266    I   110,1128 


From  different  qnurters  we  have  gleaned  the  fol- 
lowing estimates  of  the  annual  consumption  of  ccrtuin 
articles  of  Ix)ndon  food.  All,  however,  may  lie  con- 
sidered applicable  to  the  period  of  the  last  census  in 
1861: 

■Wheat 1,600,000  quarters. 

Bullocks 240,0(KI  head. 

Bliocp 1,700,000    " 

Calvce 28,0<M)    " 

PlM* aMKM)    " 

Poultry 8,748,0(H)    " 

Oame.etc 1,807,000    " 

Fisb,  wet  and  dry,  of  which  more 

than  half  wore  herrings 4.'i0,18O,900  lbs. 

Oyatcrs WifiXt  barrels. 

rotatocs 810,464,OfiO  11)9. 

Cabbages 89,672,000   " 

Onions. 1,489,600  " 

Applet 72.5,600  bushck 

Foreign  eggs, about    78,0UO,(XMI 

Milk,  the  produce  of. 18,000  eowa. 

*  Exclusive  of  largo  quantities  of  bacon  and  ham, 
irrrfer,— Although  London  is  supplied  with  many 
excellent  springs  of  fresh  water,  they  proved,  ccntU' 


//  f 


LON 


1270 


LON 


~St,uiW  I 

1UV«S    1 


loon  quarters. 
ln(K)  licad. 
10(10  " 
1,000  " 
|.{H>0  " 
1,0(10  " 
1,000     " 

Jl.OOOlbi".    , 
|,9!ir)  bnrrola. 
YoiiO  11)9. 
8,0(10    " 

h<m  "  ^ , 

h.NiO  bushels. 
il,0(Ml 
|(,000  cows. 

1  and  ham. 

td  with  many 

(proved, ccntu 


lie*  ago,  qalte  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  dtiiens. 
As  already  mentioned,  conduits  were  then  adopted  as 
a  substitute.  The  first  efTort  to  supply  water  on  a 
great' soale  was  made  in  1608  by  Sir  llugh  Hyddelton 
— a  spirited  citizen,  who  andertoolc,  at  his  own  risic,  to 
convey  a  river  of  fresh  and  good  water  to  the  city, 
from  this  we  may  presume  that  in  Myddelton's  time 
the  Thames  no  longer  merited  the  eiilrgy  of  Stowe, 
that  its  "  water  was  ns  cleere  us  that  of  the  sea."  In 
1613  the  River  Lea  water  was  let  into  the  basin  at  the 


New  Siver  head  at  Islington,  and  thence,  at  tba  pram 
ent  day,  the  Xew  Itivor  Company,  with  incraaaad 
means,  transmit  the  water  through  pipes  to  tba  bouie«| 
etc.,  supplied  by  them. 

BrUga — The  bridges  spanning  the  Thames  In  its 
passage  through  London,  are  nine  in  number,  eight  of 
these  being  adapted  for  carriages.  The  cost  of  New 
Westminster  Bridge  is  estimated  at  ^£235,000.  Tba 
following  table  will  show  the  cost  and  dbnensU>ns  uf 
these  various  bridges : 


Tabu  saowraa  Tna  MAnauL,  Cost,  «to.,  of  jna  Bbidoes  ovsb  xna  Tuahis,  ih  London  and  ns  Vioimrr. 


Nfttiwa. 

of  eom- 
plellon. 

MUtrlil. 

Co.t 

lMl»dln( 

Approftchei. 

Coat 
•  idtulva  of 
ApproscliM. 

£648,180 

884,(100 
1B7,M0 
679,915 

800^000 
98,760 

No>><b.r  1 

of           Lenith. 
Arfihei.  I 

BiMdtk. 

Tps^or 

coutrsl 
Arch. 

1881 
1819 
1T70 
181T 
1781 
1814 
1845 
18,17 
1770 

Granite 

£8,000,000 

800,000 

860,000 

1,180,000 

889,800 

Unknown. 

118,000 

SS,000 

Unknown. 

5 
S 
9 
9 
15 
9 
Nil. 

904 

800 

995 

1,880 

1,160 

840 

1,586 

982 

r«i. 

68 
48 
48 
48 
48 
86 
IS 
45 
•■ 

rail. 
180 
840 
100 
180    1 

76 

T8 

Boutbwark 

Iron  srcUes,  stone  piers.. 
Htono 

BlackMars... 

Waterloo 

Granite, 

Vsnshall 

Iron  arches,  stone  |>li'rs.. 
Brick  and  stone  pUrs... . 
Iron  piers  and  roadway. . 

Ilnngerford  Suspension. . 
Cholaes  Suspension 

•  ••> 

Tradt  o/ 1866.— The  East  India  and  China  Associa- 
tion have  published  their  usual  comparative  statement 
of  the  number  of  ships,  Iratli  British  and  foreign,  with 
their  aggregate  tonnage,  entered  inward  and  cleared 
outward  with  cargo  from  and  to  places  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  East  India  Company's  charter,  from  the 
1st  of  January  to  the  81st  of  Slarch,  1866  and  1856. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  the  vessels  entered  in- 
ward, the  return  for  the  port  of  I^ndon  shows  a  de- 
crease of  31  vessels  and  8971  tons,  the  dilTerence 
between  197  vessels,  with  the  capacity  of  109,484  tons, 
in  1865,  and  166  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  100,618 
tons,  in  1866.  Liverpool  figures  for  an  increase  of  8 
vessels  and  14,339  tons,  the  arrivals  in  the  former  pe- 
riod having  been  62  vessels,  with  n  capacity  of  39,364 
tons,  and  in  the  latter  70  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of 
63,703  tons.  With  regard  to  Bristol,  there  is  a  de- 
crease of  3  vessels,  with  an  increase  of  8U6  tons ;  the 
arrivals  in  1866  having  been  10  vessels,  with  a  capacity 
of  2917  tons,  and  in  1866  7  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of 
8723  tons.  The  return  for  the  Clyde  exhibits  a  de- 
crease of  2  vessels  and  an  increase  of  722  tons,  the 
difference  between  8  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  3414 
tons,  and  10  vessels  with  a  capacity  of  2629  tons.  A 
review  of  these  figures  shows  a  net  decrease  of  24  ves- 
sels and  an  increase  of  6452  tons ;  the  arrivals  in  1865 
having  been  277  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  165,179 
tons,  and  in  1866  263  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  160,- 
631  tons.  The  principal  arrivals  were  from  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Ho)ie.  According  to 
the  statistics  of  vessels  cleared  outward,  the  return  for 
the  port  of  London  exhibits  an  increase  of  6  vessels, 
and  5905  tons  ;  the  departures  in  1866  having  been  167 
ve9.ieis,  with  a  capacity  of  94,784  tons,  and  in  1856 
163  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  100,689  tons.  In  the 
case  of  Liverpool  there  Is  a  decrease  of  9  vessels  and 
11,197  tons,  the  difference  between  98  vessels,  with  a 
capacity  of  80,444  tons,  and  8'J  vessels,  with  a  capacity 
of  69,247  tons.  The  figures  for  Bristol  show  a  decrease 
of  2  vessels  and  459  tons  ;  the  departures  in  1865  hav- 
ing lieen  3  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  1641  tons,  and 
in  1856  1  vessel,  with  a  capacity  of  1182  tons.  With 
regard  to  the  Cl}'de,  the  results  show  a  decrease 
of  8  vessels,  with  2534  tons,  the  difference  between 
25  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  16,014  tons,  and  22  ves- 
sels, with  a  capacity  of  13,  510  tons.  Taking  the  re- 
sult of  the  whole  return,  there  is  a  net  decrease  of  8 
vessels,  with  8286  tons ;  the  departures  in  1865  having 
Iteen  283  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  192,913  tons,  and 
in  1856  276  vessels,  with  a  capacity  of  184,628  tons. 
The  principal  decline  has  been  in  departures  for  Aus- 
tralia, Calcutta,  the  Mauritius,  Java  and  Sumatra,  and 
Arabia.  For  a  full  exhibit  of  the  commerce  of  Great 
Britain,  including  that  of  London,  see  Great  Urit- 

AIH, 


Long  Island,  N.  7.  Situated  in  the  south-east 
part  of  the  State,  and  contains  1500  square  miles,  lying 
between  the  Atlantic  on  the  south,  and  Long  Island 
Sound  on  the  north.  It  contains  three  counties-. 
Kings  on  the  west  end.  Queens  in  the  middle,  and  Suf. 
folk  on  the  east  end  of  the  island.  A  cliain  of  liills 
runs  from  west  to  east,  on  the  north  of  which  the  sur- 
face is  somewhat  hilly  and  broken ;  on  the  south  it  is 
level.  The  north  shore  is  somewhat  bold;  on  tba 
south  it  is  a  l>each  of  sand  and  gravel,  inclosing  bays, 
with  various  inlets,  admitting  vessels  of  GO  or  70  tons, 
and  abounding  with  shell  and  other  fish.  At  the  eaist 
end  is  Gardiner's  Bay  and  Island,  and  Montauk  Point, 
a  bold  promontory,  on  which  is  a  light-house.  The 
north  shore  has  several  light-houses. 

Longitude.  By  the  term  geographical  longitude, 
is  meant  an  arc  which  measures  the  inclinations  of 
two  terrestrial  meridional  planes,  one  of  which  passes 
through  a  known  place  as  a  place  of  reference,  tlie 
other  through  any  place  whatever.  It  is  sometimes 
also  defined  as  tlie  distance  east  or  west,  along  tba 
equator,  of  any  place  from  a  certain  meridian.  I.tm- 
gitude  was  determined  by  Ilipparchus  at  Nice,  who 
fixed  the  first  degree  in  the  Canaries,  162  n.  c.  Har- 
rison made  a  time-keeper  in  A.  d.  1769,  which  in  two 
voyages  was  found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  tlia 
limits  required  by  .e  act  of  Parliament,  12th  Anna, 
1714  ;  and  in  1763,  he  applied  for  the  reward  of  .£20, 
000  offered  by  that  act,  which  ho  received.  The  cel- 
ebrated Le  lioi  of  Paris,  in  1766,  invented  a  watch 
that  keeps  time  better ;  and  the  chronometers  of  Ar- 
nold, Karnshaw,  and  Br(jguet,  bring  the  longitude  al- 
most to  the  truth.  Philosophers  have  sought  tiie  lon- 
gitude in  vain ;  but  Newton  has  said  it  will  yet  lie 
discovered  l)y  u  fool.  The  selection  of  a  8tati(m  from 
which  the  longitudes  of  all  other  places  are  to  bo  roeli- 
oned  is  entirely  arbitrary ;  British  astronomers  and 
geographers  have  choson  the  meridian  of  tlie  Itoyal 
Observatory  of  Greenwich  as  their_/iicii<  meridimt.  Tlie 
French  and  other  continental  nations  refer  the  lon- 
gitudes of  all  places  to  the  meridian  of  their  principal 
observatory.  The  longitude  of  a  place  may  bo  ex- 
pressed in  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  time,  or  in 
degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  s|)acc ;  if  it  be  given 
in  either,  it  may  be  translated  into  tlie  other.  The 
reason  of  this  is,  that  the  earth  revolves  on  its  axis 
from  west  to  east  in  24  mean  solar  liours,  thereby 
causing  the  lir-^t  meridian  to  describe  during  that  time 
a  space  equal  to  3(i0^,  imd  therefore,  in  one  hour,  15°. 
Ilence,  if  tlie  plane  of  the  first  meridian  pass  at  the 
present  moment  through  the  sun,  then  the  meridian  of  n 
place  16°  leeat  of  the  former,  will  pass  through  the  sun 
exactly  one  hour  after ;  if  the  place  be  15°  eatt  of  tho 
first  meridian,  the  plane  of  the  former  will  pass  through 
tho  sun  one  hour  before  the  latter.    The  sun  alway* 


LON 


1280 


LON 


panel  the  _m«ri<U«ii  of  any  place  when  higbeat  in  the 
beavena,  i,  «.,  at  mid-day,  or  12  o'clocli  mean  aolar 
time.  Wherefore,  placea  lying  to  the  eaat  of  the  firat 
meridian  will  have  every  hour  earlier,  but  placea  lying 
to  the  weat  of  that  meridian  will  have  every  hour  later 
than  it ;  so  that  if,  while  the  meridian  of  one  place  ia 
passing  through  the  aun,  the  time  In  known  Iwfare  the 
meridian  of  another  place  pass  through  the  sun,  then 
the  longitude  of  that  place  from  the  former  is  deter- 
mined, the  time  being  turned  into  space  at  the  rate  of 
1&°  to  the  hour.  Hence,  therefore,  places  will  have 
east  or  west  longitude,  according  as  they  lie  east  or 
weat  of  Greenwich  Obaervator}',  the  longitude  of  the 
meridian  of  which  is  zero. 

The  problem  of  the  longitude  may  be  reduced  to 
this — Given  the  hour  by  calculation  at  the  place  of  ob- 
■ervation,  to  find  the  hour  at  (ireenwich  Observatory 
corresponding  to  the  same  time  ;  the  difference  of  times 
gives  the  longitude  of  the  place  from  Greenwich,  The 
solution  of  this  problem  was  attempted  in  very  early 
times,  dating  even  from  tlie  time  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, but  the  results  obtained  were  very  inaccurate. 
Thosn  results  were  deduced  from  tables  of  celestial 
phenomena  calculated  for  a  certain  meridUin,  and 
then  the  times  were  compared  with  the  times  at  which 
the  same  phenomena  appeared  at  a  dilTerent  place ; 
actual  admeasurement  was  alao  employed,  liut  it  was 
not  until  after  tiie  invention  of  watclies  that  the  prol>- 
lem  was  rendered  solvable,  Harrison,  in  the  18th 
centurj',  was  the  first  who  gave  a  Irue  solution  by  a 
watch ;  but  the  first  accurate  resolution  of  the  prol>lem 
may  be  said  to  date  from  the  discovery  by  Galileo  of 
Jupiter's  satellites,  and  his  tables  of  their  motions. 
The  result  of  the  problem  at  this  period,  as  well  as 
now,  was,  as  Wolflus  has  expressed  it,  that  the  means 
might  be  found  whereby  the  art  of  navigation  might 
be  brought  to  its  utmost  pitch  of  perfection.  If  the 
advantages  of  determining  the  longitude  to  a  commer- 
cial and  maritime  people  be  considered,  it  will  not  ap- 
pear surprising  that  princes  and  others  should  have 
held  out  high  rewards  for  a  true  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, Philip  III,,  King  of  Spain,  saw  its  value,  and 
in  1598  offered  a  reward  of  lUOO  crowns  to  the  person 
who  would  solve  it.  The  States  of  Holland  imitated 
his  example  liy  a  prize  of  10,000  florins.  In  the  year 
1714,  the  British  government  offered  a  premium  of 
jC20,000  for  any  method  wiiereby  the  longitude  might 
be  determined  at  sen  to  within  BO  miles ;  jC15,000,  if 
the  proposed  method  would  give  it  to  within  40  geo- 
graphical miles ;  iHO.OOO,  if  it  would  determine  the 
longitude  to  within  GO  miles.  It  was  also  enacted, 
that  a  reward  of  £3000  would  be  given  to  the  inventor 
of  any  time-keeper  which  should  enable  a  ship,  during 
a  voyage  of  six  months,  to  keep  her  hmgitude  to  within 
CO  miles ;  £7600,  if  within  40  miles  ;  and  £10,000,  if 
within  SO  miles.  If  the  method  were  by  improved 
astronomical  tables,  the  reward  was  to  be  £5000,  the 
tables  being  compared  with  previous  observations. 
France,  also,  in  1716,  under  the  regency  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  offered  a  prize  of  100,000  livres.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  rewards,  many  and  various  methods 
were  proposed,  the  I)e8t  of  which,  at  least  as  respects 
frequency  of  observation  and  shortness  of  calculation, 
is  the  method  of  Lunar  Ditlances. 

Jean  Werner  of  Nuremberg,  appears  to  be  the  first 
who  proposed,  in  his  Ptolemy's  (leography,  l.')14,  a 
method  of  finding  the  longitude  by  the  distance  l)e- 
twcen  the  moon  and  a  star.  Tiie  lunar  method  was  also 
recommended  by  Oronce  Fin6  of  lirian^on,  in  his  iHwk 
Ve  Inveniemla  lAmgitudine ;  bj-  Gemma  Krisius,  in  his 
treatise  Structura  Radii  Attronnmici  et  (Jeometrici, 
1546;  l)y  Kepler,  in  his  HuJnlphine  Tables;  and  by 
Christian  Longomontanus,  in  ills  Aslronomia  Daniea, 
loa.  Gemma  Frisius  is,  moreover,  said  to  have  at- 
tempted the  longitude  by  a  watch  some  time  after 
1630,  Carpenter,  in  his  Geography,  1036,  says  that 
the  lunar  method  ia  to  be  ascribed  to  Pierre  Appian,  a 


Oermin,  bora  In  1496,  John  Baptiste  Morin,  In  IM4, 
attempted  to  improve  the  lunar  method,  and  received, 
in  1646,  a  pension  of  2000  livraa ;  but  bia  improvemtnll 
were  naeleai,  as  Paachal  declared,  owing  to  tb«  ibipar" 
feet  nature  of  the  existing  tables. 

The  tables  of  celestial  observations  previous  t« 
Flamsteed's  time  were  imperfect  and  erroneous  g  tboM 
generally  used  were  Tyclio  Brahe's,  or  Kepler's,  anil 
to  show  that  they  were  of  little  value  in  determining 
the  longitude,  although  invalualile  in  other  res|wL'|w, 
it  may  be  stated  th^t  Flamateed'a  observed  ditfnrinl 
fh>m  Tycho'a  computed  placea  by  6',  C',  or  more  j  ami 
the  tabulated  distances  of  tiie  latter  differed  from  the 
observed  distances  of  the  former  liy  16'  or  iO',  wlifch 
would  cause  an  error  in  the  longitude  of  about  16'^,  nr 
BOO  leagues,  Tycho's  lunar  Ouory,  and  tbu  tablet 
grounded  on  it,  were  in  error  12'  and  more,  The  un> 
certainty,  then,  of  these  tallies  being  known,  us  Wfll 
as  the  paucity  of  astronomical  observations  generally, 
a  Frenchman,  named  Le  Sleur  de  St,  Pierre,  contrived, 
in  1674,  to  get  his  pretensions  to  the  discovery  of  the 
longitude  brought  under  the  notice  of  Charles  ||,,  nf 
Britain  and  the  court.  Commissioners  ware  uppoinliii), 
and  St,  Pierre's  data  necessar}'  to  work  the  probliim 
were  as  follows  : — 1,  The  heights  of  two  stars,  und  »n 
which  side  of  the  meridian  they  were ;  2.  Tlie  huiijlits 
of  the  two  limbs  of  the  moon ;  3,  The  height  of  the 
pole ;  all  to  be  given  in  degrees  and  minutes  \  and  4. 
The  year  and  day  of  observation,  Flamstesd  lieiiig 
in  Ixindon  at  the  time,  was  appointed,  not  only  to  ui^t 
as  a  commissioner,  but  also  to  supply  the  necatmry 
data.  St,  Pierre,  having  received  the  data  wliinb  he 
required,  refused  to  work  the  pralilem,  because  lie  hI' 
leged  the  observations  given  him  were  feigned,  I'lam. 
steed,  on  this,  wrote  to  the  commissioners,  asturliig 
theiv  that  the  oliservations  were  genuine,  and  at  tlis 
same  time  stated,  that  the  longitude  could  not  be 
solved  by  the  conditions  proposed ;  liut  if  the  tables  of 
celestial  observations,  especially  those  i>f  the  muuii, 
could  be  rendered  more  accurate,  llion  tiie  lungltmlii 
might  be  determined  by  them.  On  the  letter  belni{ 
shown  to  Charles,  his  majesty  was  startled  at  tliu  »«> 
sertion  of  the  computed  places  not  agreeing  witli  til" 
observed,  and  said  with  some  vehemence,  be  niuct 
have  them  observed,  e.xamined,  and  corrected  aiiuw 
for  the  use  of  his  seamen.  It  was  this  simple  ini:ldent 
which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Koyal  ObservatJiry 
of  Greenwich,  the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  liy 
Flumsteed  on  the  10th  of  August,  1675  ;  and  It  was  in 
that  building  that  Flumsteed  iaiiored  for  44  yuurs,  uiu 
der  the  most  trying  circumstances,  to  correct  existliii} 
tables,  and  to  commence  the  Hriliih  Culalni/iie,  one  iif 
the  noblest  monuments  of  Britisii  perseverume,  No 
valuulilc  were  Flamsteed's  observations  to  Newton, 
that  they  enabled  him  to  form  liis  lunar  Iheon/,  wIiIlIi  ia 
now  of  such  consequence  in  determining  the  iunxltuile, 

From  the  improvements  made  in  watches  by  ||iiy> 
gens,  Hooke,  and  others,  previous  to  tlie  year  1711,  it 
was  thought  that  the  longitude  would  be  solved  by  tills 
machine.  Hence,  after  1714,  the  best  artiste  u|i|ilied 
themselves  to  the  construction  and  iinproveimnt  nf 
watches,  Henry  Suii)-,  an  Knglishman,  liut  nisidiiit 
at  Paris,  tried  in  1720  to  determiiio  the  longUmln  by  ii 
marine,  watch,  but  without  success,  Julian  Lciiiy, 
one  of  bis  pupils,  would  appear  to  lay  claim  tn  prinr' 
it}'  of  invention ;  but  it  lias  never  been  disputcit  lliul 
the  honor  of  solving  the  difficult  proldem  of  tliu  loilKJ' 
tude  by  means  of  a  watch  belongs  wholly  to  liurrium, 
This  ingenious  workman  begun,  at  a  very  early  period, 
to  make  experiments  on  pendulums  inadu  of  ililtV'r>^Ml 
metals,  in  order  to  counteract  the  eff'eets  of  lieut  iiml 
cold.  In  the  year  1736  Ilarriaon  was  brought  Into 
notice  by  a  pendulum  clock  whicli  he  hud  muds  In 
1726,  and  which,  for  ten  successive  yours,  kept  ronwrlt' 
ably  exact  time.  This  clock  was  tried  in  a  voyitgii  to 
Lisbon  during  August,  1736,  when  it  corrected  an  «'' 
ror  in  the  ship's  reckoning  of  1°  30',    At  the  siMtclol 


,Tr^r™i--  'T.  "[T  ■ 


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1281 


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nqtMtl  of  the  commissioners  of  longituda,  who  ad- 
Vtnecd  him  money,  he  continued  his  experiments  on 
w«tohe«  ft«m  1787  till  1711,  when  he  produced  three 
wdtohea,  or  time-keepers — tlie  third  the  most  accurate, 
■nd  about  4  inches  in  diameter.  This  watch,  or  chro- 
nometer, was  tried  in  a  voyage  to  Jamaica  as  to  its 
practicability  in  determining  the  longitude.  The  trial 
was  eminently  successful :  tlie  difference  of  time  as 
shown  by  the  chronometer  indicating  Greenwich  or 
rather  Portsmouth  local  time,  and  the  locM  time  of  the 
place,  being  4  seconds  of  time,  which  is  equivalent  to 
1  nautical  mile  in  the  parallel  of  Jamaica.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  vessel  at  Portsmouth,  it  was  found  that 
the  error  of  the  chronometer  was  only  1'  68*6",  or 
iM''87fi  for  the  entire  voyage,  which,  in  the  parallel 
of  Portsmouth,  would  be  equivalent  to  18  nautical 
tttlles,  Since  this  error  was  within  the  limit  prescribed 
liy  the  act,  Harrison  claimed  the  full  reward  of  £20,< 
000 1  but  the  commissioners,  considering  the  matter  in 
alt  its  detail,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  watch 
was  not  yet  sufficiently  tried.  In  order,  however,  to 
testify  their  appreciation  of  the  invention,  they  gave 
Harrison  a  grant  of  ^£6000,  and  requested  him  to  im- 
prova  the  watch  still  further  against  a  second  voyage. 
This  voyage  was  undertaken,  in  1764,  to  Barbadoes; 
and  that  no  misunderstanding  might  ensue,  Maske- 
lynn  and  Oreen  were  also  sent  out  to  make  the  neces- 
Knry  astronomical  observations  at  that  place.  The 
dllference  of  longitude,  as  shown  by  the  chronometer 
and  that  by  astronomical  observation,  was  48"  of 
time,  which  Is  equivalent  to  10'  45"  of  space,  or  longi- 
tude. In  consequence  of  the  success  attending  this 
and  the  former  trial,  the  House  of  Commons  ordered 
one  half  of  the  reward  promised  by  the  act  of  1714,  or 
i!10,000,  to  be  paid  to  Mr.  Harrison,  the  inventor  of 
the  longitude  clock ;  the  other  half  to  be  paid  him  when 
watches,  constructed  on  principles  stated  by  him, 
should  determine  by  trial  the  longitude  of  any  place 
to  within  80  nautical  miles.  Another  condition  an- 
nexed to  the  payment  of  the  other  ;eiO,000  was,  that 
the  Inventor  should  give  on  an  oath  a  full  explanation 
(rf  the  principles  on  which  the  watch  was  constructed. 
This  was  done  most  willingly,  and  Harrison  delivered 
oter  all  his  watches  to  government.  The  first  watch 
made  on  Harrison's  principles  was  that  by  Mr.  Ken- 
dall t  It  was  found  to  exceed  the  regularity  of  the  best 
of  Its  models.  This  instrument  was  committed  to  the 
care  of  Mr.  Wales,  In  his  voyage  round  the  world  with 
Cnptaln  Cooke,  during  the  years  1772, 1778,  etc.,  and 
tttch  was  Its  success,  that  in  1774  an  appeal  was  made 
lo  the  House  of  Commons  to  order  the  remaining  sum 
to  lie  paid  to  Mr.  Harrison,  which  was  accordingly 
(lone,  Harrison  realized  by  his  invention  alone  up- 
ward of  i:24,000. 

Several  other  parties  received  rewards  for  their  im- 
(iravements  in  chronometers.  Arnold  &  Son  received 
X8000,  and  Mudge  £600. 

Since  Harrison's  time,  remarkable  improvements 
have  been  made  in  time-keepers,  or  chronometen,  as 
they  are  now  termed ;  no  one  su3taining  a  good  char- 
Hler  that  gains  or  loses  mora  than  a  single  second  in 
one  day, 

llllt  while  watches  were  thus  gradually  being  per- 
fscted,  the  tables  of  celestial  motions  were  also  at- 
t««il«i  to,  Halley,  on  succeeding  Flamsteed  as 
Mronomer-royal,  continued  improving  what  the  lat- 
t«r  had  begun,  so  that  for  1780,  nnd  consequently  for 
the  future,  the  Caroline  Tables  were  presumed  to  give 
the  true  place  of  the  moon  within  the  compass  of  2' 
of  hfr  motion.  Hut  however  perfect  such  tables  may 
Ik  made,  they  will  be  useless  without  a  proper  instru- 
iwnt  with  which  to  take  angles  accurately  at  sea.  Dr. 
Ilslley  proposed  to  overcome  this  obstacle,  by  using  on 
•hiplioard  a  telescope  of  five  or  six  feet ;  but  the  error 
Id  siteh  a  ease  would  nearly  equal  2°,  or  under  the 
Ktuatof  lh«  longitude  would  be  in  excess  or  defect 
ibeirt  40  ItigUM.  But  in  1761  Mr.  Hadloy  communi- 
4H 


cated  to  the  Royal  Society  the  nature  of  the  utriaml, 
which  he  had  then  invented.  The  sextant  is  an  ln< 
strument  for  taking  angles  at  sea  with  surprising  ac- 
curacy; its  principle  depends  on  the  law  of  the 
reflection  of  light.  This  instrument  was  tried  In  sev- 
eral voyages  with  wonderful  success ;  but  it*  results 
were  most  accurate  when  used  with  I'rofessor  Mayer's 
Tahltt  of  the  Moon,  computed  for  the  meridian  of 
Paris.  Tliese  tables  first  appeared  in  the  Memoin  o/' 
GMingen  for  1742,  and  a  manuscript  copy  was  sent  In 
1765  by  Mayer  to  the  Boord  of  Longitude,  setting 
forth,  at  the  same  time,  his  claim  for  some  one  of  the 
rewards  which  he  might  be  thought  to  merit.  These 
tables  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Bradley,  aa- 
tronomer-royul,  who  compared  several  hundred  com- 
puted longitudes  of  the  moon  with  his  own  observed 
longitudes,  and  never  found  a  greater  difference  than 
1''5.  Dr.  Bradley  sliowed  the  commissioners  the 
value  of  these  tables.  Mayer  died  in  1702;  but 
having  in  the  interval  greatly  improved  his  tablen,  hU 
widow  sent  them  in  1763  to  the  Board  of  Longitude, 
These  are  the  tables  which,  in  consideration  of  their 
value  in  finding  the  longitude  at  sea,  were,  by  act  of 
Parliament,  honored  with  a  reward  of  X5O0O,  which 
was  paid,  in  17C5,  to  Mayer's  widow.  Dr.  Maskelyne, 
astronomer-royal,  was  at  the  same  time  requested  to 
improve  and  correct  them  as  far  as  possible,  so  that 
they  might  be  compiled,  and  form  the  baais  of  a 
hritith  Nautical  JCphemerii,  or  Almanat- ;  and  to  print 
the  same,  in  order  to  make  the  lunar  taljles  of  general 
utility.  The  first  of  the  series  of  the  A'autical  A  Imanac 
and  Aetronomical  Ephemeria  was  published  in  1766, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Maskelyne.  It  was 
published  yearly  by  the  Commissioners  of  the  Board 
of  Longitude.  'The  Nautical  Almanac  has  l>een  greatly 
improved,  corrected,  and  extended,  under  the  able 
superintendence  of  Mr.  Air}',  the  present  astronomer- 
royal  ;  it  is  now  published  four  or  five  years  previous 
to  the  observations  being  made  at  Greenwich  Observa- 
tory ;  hence  in  long  voyages  the  set  of  tables  may  L« 
taken  out. 

In  consideration  of  Maj'er  having  availed  himself  of 
Euler's  lunar  theory,  the  latter  received  from  govern- 
ment jCSOO. 

The  several  methods  for  finding  the  longitude  ore 
the  following : 

To  find  the  Longitude  by  a  CArononKter.— Suppose 
that  a  chronometer  is  warranted  to  measure  equal 
portions  of  time  uniformly,  and  always  indicates 
Greenwich  local  time;  it  is  evident  that,  were  this 
instrument  carried  to  any  station  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  where  also  the  local  time  is  known,  the  local 
times  of  Greenwich  and  that  place  can  be  compared 
with  each  other.  If  the  chronometer  be  carried 
to  any  station  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  the 
chronometer  and  local  time  of  the  place  will  always 
coincide ;  but  if  it  be  carried  to  any  station  west  or 
east  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  then  the  time  as 
shown  by  the  chronometer  will  he  in  excess  in  the 
former  case,  but  in  the  latter  in  defect  of  the  local 
time  of  the  place ;  the  difi'erence  of  local  times  gives 
the  longitude  of  the  place  from  Greenwich.  Tlie  time 
may  be  converted  into  distance,  at  the  rate  of  15°  to 
one  hour.  Chronometers  can  never  be  made  perfect ; 
they  require,  therefore,  to  be  daily  compared  with  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  order  to  ascertain  ii  their  motion 
has  l)een  uniform. 

To  find  the  Longitude  by  Lunar  Eclipset. — Since  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon  is  visible  to  one  half  of  the  earth 
at  the  same  time,  this  would  seem  to  be  an  excellent 
method  of  finding  the  longitude.  The  different  steps 
of  the  process  are — to  compute  the  time  at  which  an 
eclipse  is  to  happen  at  the  place  of  observation,  and  to 
compare  this  time  with  an  accurate  chronometer  show- 
ing Greenwich  time ;  or,  in  the  absence  of  this,  the 
Greenwich  time  of  the  happening  of  the  phenomenon 
must  be  looked  for  in  the  Navlical  Almanac;  or  it  may 


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b«  compared  hy  the  observer  (yom  th*  luaar  UliUli, 
But  this  method  of  determiriininK  the  lonKlCiul*  In 
r»rely  used,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  McertiitnlliK  th* 
exact  time  of  contact  of  the  ])enunil)rs  of  the  eitrth'* 
■hadow  with  the  moon's  limb  at  the  be|{lnnin|{  or  eml- 
ing  of  the  eclipse.  Sometimes,  indeed,  two  obMrvor* 
of  an  eclipse  at  the  same  place  niny  differ  more  than 
two  minutes  in  noting  the  time  of  contact ;  and  huneo 
the  error  from  this  cause  alone  would  Ihi  ulmut  four 
minutes  of  time,  which  would  he  e(|ulval«iit  tn  nmt\y 
1"  of  longitude.  It  was  proposed  In  tl|or  Vhiliwiphli'iil 
Traiuactiont  ot  1786  to  diminish  this  sourt'e  of  error, 
by  observing  the  contact  of  the  eiirtli's  shadow  with 
iome  remarkable  spot  on  the  moon's  face,  lint  al- 
though this  method  were  more  accurate,  the  unfni- 
qnency  of  lunar  eclipses  at  sea  render*  the  method  of 
little  use. 

To  find  the  Longitude  by  the  Kclipiti  nfJiipUtr'i  Mil- 
ttUitet. — Ever  since  the  discovery  l>y  Oalileo  of  Jiipl. 
ter's  satellites  the  observation  of  tlieir  ecllpMi  Siy 
their  primar}'  haa  been  used  as  a  method  of  finding 
the  longitude.  Tables  of  these  eclipses  were  ran- 
Btructcd  by  Galileo ;  and  It  was  the  disagraniMent  of 
these  tables  with  actual  observation  that  led  l{n»rn»r 
to  the  discover}'  of  the  gradual  propagstion  of  iJKht, 
See  LiOHT.  The  first  astronomical  solution  of  the 
great  problem  of  the  longitude  really  dates  from  the 
discoverj'  of  these  lecondaries,  for  the  tallies  of  their 
eclipses  were  framed  on  scientlHG  princlp|i>«,  Th« 
three  interior  satellites  of  ,luplter  puss  throUKh  his 
shadow,  and  are  eclipsed  at  ever}'  revolution  |  tlin 
fourtli,  or  outer  one,  at  times  e8ca|ies  ecllpM,  grar,t» 
the  umbra,  or  is  partially  eclipsed.  The  conuiutwl 
times  at  which  the  eclipses  are  to  liuppen  at  <>r«<>n' 
wich  Observatory  are  noted  In  the  Nautical  Atmnruu; 
published  three  or  four  years  In  advance ;  so  that  If 
these  tables  are  in  the  hands  of  any  one  dUtunt  from 
Greenwich,  he  has  but  to  observe  the  eclipse,  and  mh 
culate  the  time  at  which  it  occurs,  to  fliid  (Im  dlffi'r- 
ence  of  the  local  times  between  (jreenwich  and  the 
place  of  observation,  ar.d  thus  ascortuin  the  lonKltwIa. 
The  times  of  immersion  and  emersion  are  noted  willi 
much  greater  accuracy  than  the  contact  of  tlie  muon'N 
limb  with  the  earth's  shadow. 

But  before  these  eclipses  can  l)e  observed  with  oo 
curacy,  a  telescope  of  considentble  [M)wer  must  im 
nsed ;  and  as  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  dlre'i  a  t«lit' 
scope  properly  on  shipboard,  the  method  is  practli'aJjy 
useless  at  sea.  Dut,  again,  particular  caro  I*  r8(|ulri)d 
in  obser^-ing ;  for  two  observers  at  the  same  plaiw, 
with  telescopes  of  different  magnifying  iiowers  and 
apertures,  seldom  agree  within  a  second  or  two  of 
each  other ;  hence  the  mean  of  the  results  of  linmitr' 
sion  and  emersion  should  be  taken.  Dut  another 
source  of  error  Is,  that  no  two  or  mor«  observers  wlH 
agree  as  to  the  instant  of  the  total  Immersion,  or  of 
the  complete  emersion  of  the  satellite  ;  henca  the  only 
cise  in  which  this  method  Is  practically  useful  In  Ait- 
termining  terrestrial  longitudes  is  that  In  which  th« 
instant  of  immersion  and  emersion  are  oliserved  with 
the  same  telescope,  and  l)y  the  same  observer,  lines  In 
this  manner  he  will  And  the  precise  instant  of  tlie  ait- 
tcUite's  opposition  to  the  sun. 

To  find  the  longitude  by  Signali, — If  tlie  dlffinrani'O 
of  longitude  between  two  places  bo  small,  It  may  Sm 
easily  found  by  means  of  the  bursting  of  a  rocket,  tha 
oxy-hydrogcn  iimc-baU  liglit,  or  the  explosion  of  f{Mn- 
powder  flred  from  the  one  place  at  a  preiuncertAil 
time,  and  observed  at  the  other  place  ;  the  lucul  times 
of  these  places  being  accurately  ascertained,  tho  longt* 
tude  is  known.  These  artificial  signals,  when  fired 
from  an  elevated  spot  of  country,  may  lie  seen,  when 
the  atmosphere  is  in  a  proper  state,  at  distances  varj'- 
Ing  from  80  to  above  100  miles.  An  observer,  tber«' 
fore,  distant  from  the  spot  at  which  the  rocket  or  otb«r 
lignal  is  exposed,  has  only  to  oliservo  tlie  time  whan 
he  sees  it,  and  aifterward  compare  tbta  time  with  tb« 


time  whan  the  racket  was  set  up,  tka  4i<fir«vM»  t4 
timet  Klvia((  the  longitude  iit  the  ou«  ^Unx  (rm  din 
other)  If  at  one  of  the  places  tli*  (ire«ww««A  (#«>«  /./if.- 
rastKindlng  to  that  of  the  event  is  lutowM,  Uiiti  tt/tt^- 
tttim  lit  (he  places  from  that  merUiim  *ni  »it»  kmt^M.- 
It  Is  here  supposed  that  tli«  gradual  ^t>\f*i^^  ,^ 
light  leads  to  no  appreciable  error  iu  th«  mmii  (tiHm'tt 
Iwtween  the  two  places, 

If  the  'distance  between  the  two  platwa  ha  tm^/ii^.- 
ahle,  and  MNi  ro<!ket  sent  up  at  the  ow  itttt»*  t-m  M'4 
Iw  Mien  at  the  other  place,  the  lougitud«  ot'  »tMt  U  tK- 
<|iilrml,  then  a  scries  of  sigouls  mu»t  im  tttt^n  »h4 
noted  liy  ulMerrera,  placed  at  atatioM  mt'ifmi^m  in 
the  tit 0  extreme  places.      .„r 

Thus,  let  A  and  K  be  the  two  pl#««s,  itjl»e  Iw^imU 
lietweeti  wtdch  la  re(|nlred  j  B,  C,  aiid  li,  i4mni^!, 
at  intermediate  stations  {  w,  r,  y,  t,  eii^id  pim-a, 
and  let  these  place*  be  arranj^  j^  ti^  fm^im 
manner) 

A  111  Xi  m  C  y  U  f  t',, 
ttetim  the  slffnals  are  sent  up  at  tiw  pri»viw>l^  i**:- 
raniftMl  hours  from  w,  w,  y,  s,  tiw  locej  tim»»  uf  ti^ 
places  along  ttie  whole  Una  AK  are  mii^t^  Ui  im  ttn.- 
curntely  known.  I^et  then  a  eigoai  iGe  «i^^  lt^>M»'i 
and  noted  nt  A  and  B,  the  difference  ut  tim**  tif  Ni*r 
N«irvfitt(tn,  as  noted  by  the  vbronuiuet«r4  Mt  itlMx*'  i^n 
places,  will  give  the  longitude  AH.  IM,  *ijMtt,  mh-- 
olhttr  signal  lie  sent  up  at  x,  and  the  tM#«  t4  <tttpit^i.- 
anim  notml  at  II  and  V,  then  the  iillitfg»iM  t/f  Um-*t /i* 
shown  by  the  chronometers,  gives  tb«  iut^i^M*-  i/K- 
tween  II  and  C :  and  therefore  Lietwc«#  A  fttt4  (>'', 
MImilar  results  will  be  found  when  eignvU  w^  ^ifMl  up 
from  the  stations  y  and  at,  to  be  obseryud  «|t  t'  §)^'i  fi. 
Hand  Ki  and.  In  this  maniier,  tb«  wl*oie  )w(iijii<l,wil,> 
AK  Imtwern  the  extreme  stations  van  Im  (vit)t4.-  tit-< 
longitude  found  on  this  princijilv,  uud  tht  HMXJk  t/f  4.<.- 
diKfliig  the  most  advantageous  results  fffm  »  i^/miAttn-- 
tlon  (if  all  the  oliservatioiu,  is  fully  ttttM  iiyMfJi^ 
lleriHdiel  In  the  J'hilotnphical  Truutaiiium,  iftp)/  m  ill* 
hiffiriMf  nf  lAmgititdet  of(lre*nv^ich  m»l  t'ltrin, 

To  dtlfrmine  the  l/mnilude  by  UuoiM'itlmUliit'iiii 
/ttari.'^'fiiU  method  consists  in  AoMog  tin»  Ut^fumf'  lA 
the  moot)'*  right  ascension  in  the  ioUtfi^U  Mi#i>''>w 
the  tiftusage  of  the  moon  over  tlie  foart^n  >4  <>r*»#-- 
wl«b  and  over  that  place  whose  longitude  u  m^i4fi.4, 
It  is  necessary  to  And  the  right  »Aaen4mi4 littt  ttn^ttfa 
bright  llmti,  and  of  a  star  selected  on,  or  m  m.*f  Ml  f^vu 
slide  to,  the  tnoon's  parallel  of  decliMe(t«<;W;  »n4  AM 
diffxrlng  much  from  her  in  right  »»oeuiim  ttt  tim  (#" 
morkllHns  >  then,  tho  moon's  increase  «4  ntfM  x«*it-- 
skin  lielng  known,  the  difference  of  Utmpttt4ti  U  4*i*i^- 
mined, 

Let  T,  for  example,  be  the  time  wb«W  tt)f  ititii9lt> 
fiillgliteiicd  limb  triini>lts  the  ucridjau  luf  mf  |^a 
distant  from  Greenwich ;  I  the  tiioe  t4  \»i*#g/i  t,4  /t 
star  over  the  meridian  of  the  same  piatve  j  Ut  d^  #  iic 
•be  error  of  the  clock  in  the  counwi  of  tkf  ii*f  i  tit^'tt 
'H^n  will  lie  the  Interval  of  tiiue  ni/tfisitui  i»i»f-it 
two  successive  transits  of  tlie  saiue  et*f,  .¥N4  H  -  »:- 
T— /™iMH)^i  the  difference  of  right  i^t*■|e^^>m  (4 1*** 
mfKm's  bright  limb  and  the  star  at  ti>ti  Uftt-^  tif  tit" 
limb  liclng  on  the  meridian;  and  if  Vi  ihU  tiitt  fi^4 
ascension  of  the  star  lie  added,  the  ngM  #m<>w4.a, 
*»«',  of  tho  moon's  lirlght  limb  wiww  m  the  imiViUii 
U  determined.  Now  the  pro|x'r  etars  t^i  ttn  »ttf*n>4 
fur  this  purtKise,  as  well  as  th«  right  iuii.-«#4i'#  t4 1^ 
moim's  bright  limb  when  on  the  weri4M#  t4  tif^Ht-- 
wlcb,  are  given  for  every  day  of  tiUe  yntf  in  ti*  ,^'//>t~- 
llfiil  Atmnnnt',  from  which  the  daily  iftcr»W*Wt  «♦  fiiU 
OMenslfm  moy  lie  determined.  iM  a  i/tt  tb"  tijlt4  *■•- 
censlfln  of  tho  moon's  bright  limb  whe«  nm  ftf  WMTVt-- 
lan  of  (Irccnwich,  e  the  iiuTcraeot  ot  right  #i,»*#--i* 
in  the  time  lietween  two  successive  trw#^  M/^fiit* 
same  mcrldhin  |  then,  wliilc  the  mam,  i/f  Iw  f'fMHi* 
motion,  separates  from  the  lucridiaM  ik  WiwwwM  if 
an  angle  of  000°,  its  real  motion  in  right  »iif*#()/fN  h 
i  I  and  while  It  aeparates  by  an  a«g;|l«  «iprf  t«liitiM 


LON 


1283 


U>K 


ftfitiee  of  longltade,  the  motton  in  right  aacciMlon  ia 
ti' — a'  ;  and  therefore,  supposing  the  change  in  right 

a— a' 

atcenalon  uniform,  the  required  longitudes^ .860°. 

e 
Where  greater  accuracy  is  required,  the  difference  of 
longitude  corresponding  to  the  increase  of  right  as- 
cension 0 — a',  must  be  determined  by  interpolation. 
This  method  Is  contidered  niie  of  the  best  which  can 
he  adopted  for  determining  the  longitude  of  distant 
places,  when  the  observer,  furnished  with  a  transit  in- 
strument, can  obtain  a  landing, — Htmkr's  Attron., 
1840. 

To  find  the  Txmgitude  hy  the  pasmgts  of  the  Sfoon  over 
the  Meridian. — If  the  sun,  moort,  and  a  stnr  he  sup- 
posed to  be  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  at  the  pres- 
ent moment,  then  the  next  instant  the  three  bodies 
will  be  separated  from  each  other— the  star  will  be 
found  most  advanced  to  the  west,  the  moon  least  ad- 
vanced from  the  meridian,  while  the  sun  will  occupy 
an  intermediate  situation.  The  meridian  itself  also 
leaves  these  bodies,  but  will  approach  them  with  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  velocity,  and  reach  each  of  them 
after  certain  intervals  of  time.  It  will  pass  the  star 
after  the  lapse  of  a  sidereal  day,  or  after  having  de- 
scribed 360° ;  it  will  pass  the  sun  at  the  end  of  a  solar 
day,  or  after  having  described  360°  69'  8"-3 ;  and  it 
will  pass  the  moon  after  a  time=the  sum  of  24  hours 
and  the  moon's  retardation  for  that  time,  or  after  hav- 
ing described  an  angle=the  sum  of  3li0°  and  the 
moon's  right  ascension  in  24  hours.  This  always 
taltes  places  in  the  interval  between  two  successive 
transits  of  the  moon  over  the  same  meridian.  So  also 
a  spectator  on  a  different  meridian  will  notice  similar 
effects,  but  less  in  degree,  and  less  proportional  to  the 
distance  of  his  from  the  first  meridian.  The  sun's 
right  ascension  will  be  increased  (or  the  separation  of 
the  sun  from  the  star),  but  less  than  69'  8"*3 ;  the 
moon's  right  ascension  (or  the  separation  of  the  moon 
from  the  star)  will  also  be  increased  to  the  spectator, 
but  less  than  its  increase  between  two  successive 
transits ;  consequently  there  will  be  an  excess  of  in- 
crease of  the  moon's  right  ascension  above  that  of  the 
sun's,  but  less  than  the  excess  that  takes  place  be- 
tween two  successive  transits  of  the  moon  over  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich.  Wherefore,  since  the  spec- 
tator  at  the  second  meridian  may  compute  the  respect- 
ive increments  of  right  ascension  of  moon  and  sun 
that  talie  place  between  two  successive  passages  of  the 
moon  over  the  meridian  of  Greenwich ;  then,  since 
he  is  also  able  to  compute,  by  actual  observation,  the 
right  ascensions  of  sun  and  moon  at  the  times  of  their 
passage  over  his  own  meridian,  he  has  determined  the 
longitude.  The  spectator  may  choose  the  sun  and  a 
star,  the  moon  and  a  star,  or  the  moon  and  sun ;  the 
two  former  are  preferable. — Woodiiouse's  Astron., 
1821. 

To  determine  the  TAtngitude  by  mean/ of  Kclipfet  of  the 
Sfin,  or  by  Occultalions  of  Stan  by  the  Moon. — One  of 
the  most  exact  methods,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
simplest,  for  finding  the  longitude,  is  by  means  of  solar 
eclipses  and  occuttations.  If  the  commencement  and 
ending  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  or  the  immersion  and 
emersion  respectively  of  a  star  ftom  the  enlightened 
»nd  dark  limb  of  the  moon  or  of  a  planet,  be  observed, 
rt  is  only  necessary  to  deduce  the  true  time  of  conjunc- 
f  iori  for  Greenwich  and  also  for  another  place  of  obser- 
vation ;  the  difference  of  the  times  gives  the  difference 
of  meridians,  and  therefore  also  of  longitudes.  Kepler 
employed  this  method,  and  it  is  one  of  the  simplest.— 
Kept,f,r,  Astron.  para  opt.  The  only  inconvenience 
of  this  method  is  the  large  amount  of  calculation 
required. 

To  find  the  Longitude  by  Lunar  Distances ;  that  is, 
by  the  distance  of  the  Moon  from  a  Star  or  the  Sun.— 
This  method  supposes  that  the  face  of  the  heavens  is 
«  dial-plate,  the  stars  marks  apparently  irregularly 


distribntsd  upon  It,  and  the  moon  the  hand  moyabla 
among  them  and  round  the  earth  as  a  variable  centre 
Three  things  require  particular  notice  about  this  clock : 
1.  The  intervals  of  place  separating  the  principal  and 
secondarj-  marks  from  one  another  and  from  the  mov- 
ing hand— the  moon.  2.  The  exact  amount  of  the 
eccentricity  of  the  earth,  the  centre  of  motion  of  the 
hand.  3.  The  proper  motion  of  Imth  moon  and  earth 
at  any  part  of  their  respective  paths.  When  these 
data  are  properly  known,  the  time  as  shown  by  thla 
clock  may  be  read.  The  time  as  pointed  out  on  thia 
dial-plate  is  generally  read  at  Greenwich  Observator}-, 
and  tabulated  in  the  Nautical  Altaanac,  4  or  5  years 
beforehand,  for  every  three  hours.  But  this  clock  is 
supposed  to  be  accurately  seen  by  a  spectator  at  tlie 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  consequently,  since  observers 
are  on  the  surface,  the  moving  hand  liclng  rather  near, 
and  the  marks  immensely  distant  from  the  earth,  it  is 
evident  that  this  movable  hand  will  be  displaced,  or 
undergo  a  parallax  with  respect  to  the  stars,  which 
must  be  allowed  for,  ere  the  true  place  is  known  which 
she  occupies  in  space,  as  seen  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth.  A  reduction  must  also  be  made  to  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  The  necessar}-  steps  for  computing  the 
longitude  by  this  method  are :  (1.)  Find  by  a  sextant 
the  distance  between  a  star  and  one  of  the  moon's 
limbs ;  or,  between  the  limbs  of  the  sun  and  moon ; 
add  or  sul>tract,  in  the  former  case,  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  moon,  and  in  the  latter,  the  sum  of  the  semi- 
diameters  of  sun  and  moon,  which  gives  the  distance 
of  the  moon's  centre  from  tlie  star,  or  that  twtweon  the 
centres  of  sun  and  moon.  (2.)  When  two  observers 
are  making  the  observations,  one  should  take  the  above 
distance,  while  at  the  same  instant  the  other  takes  the 
altitude  above  the  horizon  of  the  moon  and  star,  or  of  the 
moon  and  sun.  In  the  case  of  one  observer,  he  must  take 
the  altitudes  immediately  l)efore  and  after  the  distance 
has  been  found,  and  allow  for  the  changes  of  altitude 
which  may  have  taken  place  in  the  intervals  between 
their  observations  and  that  of  the  distance.  (3.)  The  true 
altitudes  are  derived  from  the  apparent  and  observed, 
by  correcting  the  latter  for  refraction  and  parallax ; 
the  apparent  altitude  being  the  observed  altitude  cor- 
rected for  the  dip  of  the  horizon  and  instrumental 
errors,  (4.)  The  observed  is  also  an  apparent  dis- 
tance, and  must,  like  the  altitude,  be  corrected  for  par- 
allax and  refraction  in  order  to  find  the  true  distance, 
(5.)  Since  the  true  distance  is  found,  the  hour,  minute, 
etc.,  of  Greenwich  time  corresponding  to  it  will  also 
be  found  by  the  tables  of  the  Nautical  A  Imanac.  (6.) 
The  local  time  of  the  place  of  observation  is  now  to 
be  computed  from  the  true  and  corrected  altitude  of  a 
star  or  the  sun,  the  sun's  or  star's  north  polar  distance, 
and  the  latitude.  (7.)  The  difference  between  this 
local  time  and  Greenwich  time  gives  the  longitude. 

To  find  the  I/mgitude  by  the  Electric  Telegraph. — 
This  beautiful  and  ingenious  application  of  electricity 
for  recording  astronomical  observations  is  the  latest 
method  of  finding  the  longitude,  and  was  proposed  l)y 
Mr.  Bond  of  the  Cambridge  Observatory.  United 
States.  Mr.  Airy,  of  the  Greenwich  Observatory, 
has  also  carried  it  into  effect  with  great  improvements. 
During  the  summer  of  1847  experiments  were  made 
on  the  electric  '.eIet,Taph  connecting  New  York,  Phila- 
delphi.!,  nr.d  Washin^on,  for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing the  differences  of  longitude  between  these  three 
cities.  A  competent  oliserver  was  stationed  at  each 
observatory.  A  continuous  wire  connected  the  three 
cities,  so  that  telegraph  signals  might  be  exchanged 
between  any  two  of  them  at  pleasure.  In  some  of 
tho  first  experiments,  signals  were  exchanged  be- 
tween Philadelphia  and  Washington,  but  it  was  found 
impossible  to  transmit  signals  from  Jersey  City  to 
Washington,  the  power  of  the  battery  being  inade- 
quate to  that  distance.  This,  however,  was  remedied 
on  the  29th  of  July,  when  20  clock  signals  were  given 
at  Jersey  City,  and  moorded  both  at  Philadelphia  and 


LOO 


1284 


LOO 


WMhIngtoni  20  ilgnali  wen  given  at  PhlUdelphla 
and  ncordaii  at  Jersey  City  and  Washington;  and 
20  signals  were  given  at  Washington  and  recorded 
at  Jcnay  City  and  Philadelphia.  Thus  the  compari- 
son of  the  three  clocks  was  decisively  made  in  a  re- 
markably short  period  of  time.  The  success  of  these 
experiment*  amply  repaid  the  flrst  unsuccessful 
efforts.  The  differonce  of  longitude  between  Jersey 
City  and  Philadelphia  is  40"  8>  ;  and  between  Jersey 
City  and  Washington,  12"'  8* ;  omitting  in  each  case 
the  small  fractional  part  of  a  second,  which  was  ulti- 
mately allowed  for.  The  distance  between  New  York 
and  Washington  is  225  miles,  and  the  time  required 
to  make  a  communication  pass  betwixt  these  two 
places  was  a  ft'action  of  a  second  which  can  not  be 
measured. 

Soon  ofter  a  system  of  telegraphic  wires  was  erected 
on  the  principal  Knglish  lines  of  railway,  Mr.  Airy 
had  them  put  in  conimunication  with  Greenwich  Ob- 
servator}',  his  object  being  to  give  (Ireenwich  lime  on 
a  given  day  to  the  United  Kingdom.  It  was  at  flrst 
proposed  that  a  ball  should  be  dropped  flrom  the  upper 
part  of  Greenwich  Observator}',  so  as  to  touch  a  spring 
communicating  with  all  the  telegraphic  wires  in  the 
kingdom,  and  then,  by  the  striking  of  a  bell,  give  in- 
stantaneously true  Greenwich  time  to  Liverpool,  Man- 
chester, and  all  the  northern  towns.  ]iut  this  method 
was  found  impracticable,  owing  to  the  non-completion 
of  all  the  lines  with  Greenwich.  On  the  1st  of  Decem- 
ber, 1847,  true  Greenwich  time  was  communicated  di- 
rectly from  tiie  observatory  to  the  several  stations  of  the 
London  and  North- Western  and  Midland  lines  in  con- 
nection with  it ;  but  to  all  other  stations  of  these  lines 
special  messengers  were  sent  with  chronometers  indi- 
cating true  Greenwich  time.  Hence,  since  Greenwich 
time  is  used  over  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom,  if 
the  local  time  of  any  place  be  known,  its  longitude  from 
Greenwich  is  also  determined.  Since  submarine  cables 
connect  Greenwich  with  Brussels  and  Paris,  and  these 
again  with  the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  Mr.  Air>-  was 
very  lately  enalded  to  correct  the  latitudes  ond  longi- 
tudes of  their  observatories.  Hence,  also,  when  the  sub- 
marine cables  which  are  to  connect  India,  Australia,  and 
America,  with  Greenwich,  shall  have  l)oen  completed, 
the  true  longitudes  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  world 
will  easily  be  determined.— E.  B.  See  articles  Lati- 
TDDB  and  Lo.NniTUDR,  Earth  and  Deorkk. 

Loo-Choo  Islanda,  a  group  consisting  of  about 
36  islands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  between  Japan 
and  Formosa.  They  He  between  N.  lat.  24°  and  28° 
40',  and  E.  long.  127°  and  129°.  They  are  small  and 
insignificant,  with  the  exception  of  Great  Loo-Choo, 
which  extends  about  60  miles  in  a  north-easterly  di- 
rection, and  has  an  average  breadth  of  about  10  or  12 
miles.  This  island  is  entirely  encircled  by  coral  reefs, 
which,  however,  do  not  appear  above  water.  Along 
its  centre  runs  a  chain  of  hills,  covered  for  the  most 
part  by  forests  of  pine,  and  broken  at  intervals  by 
rupt  crags  that  bear  seeming  traces  of  volcanic  action. 
Their  slopes  in  many  parts  are  covered  with  terraced 
gardens  and  fields  of  grain,  and  are  watered  by  streams 
led  in  artificial  channels.  The  valleys  are  well  wa- 
tered, fruitful,  and  covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion. The  villages  are  almost  completely  hidden 
among  groves  of  bananas,  bamboos,  banyans,  and 
pines.  Rows  of  trees  overarch  the  roads,  line  the 
streets  of  the  chief  towns,  and  form  a  screen  in  front 
of  the  houses.  There  are  large  rich  fields  of  rice,  inter- 
mingled with  crops  of  sugar-cane,  wheat,  millet,  sweet 
potatoes,  plums,  oranges,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  The 
principal  surface-rock  is  argillaceous,  and  is  Inter- 
sected at  intervals  by  peculiar  ridges  of  limestone. 
The  diiintegration  of  the  former  rock  forms  the  chief 
ingredient  of  the  rich  adhesive  soil  which  is  most 
prevalent  in  the  island.  Situate  within  the  range  of 
the  trade-winds,  Loo-Choo  has  in  general  a  mild 
climate,    The  domutic  animal*  are,  geese,  duck«, 


fowl*,  plgi,  goat*,  a  imall  species  of  black  ox,  and  ii 
nimble,  and  hardy  breed  of  horses.  Wild  Iwurs  ubuund 
in  the  extensive  forests.  A  striking  trait  in  the 
zoology  of  the  Island  is  the  scarcity  of  birds  in  the 
woods. 

The  dress,  customs,  but  especially  the  language,  of 
the  Loo-Chooans,  indicate  a  Japanese  origin.  .Suh- 
pIcioMs  of  strangers,  they  arc,  nevorthelcxs,  gentle 
and  hospitable.  They  are  diminutive  in  stature,  and 
in  complexion  resemble  the  ChMese.  They  Imvo 
dark  eyes  and  black  hair,  plaited  Into  a  knot  on  the 
crown  of  the  head.;  and  the  character  of  the  halr-phi 
determines  the  sex  as  well  as  the  rank  of  the  wearer. 
The  women  wear  single,  and  the  men  double  hair-pini. 
Among  the  higher  classes,  these  articles  are  made  of 
gold  or  silver;  among  the  lower,  of  brass,  lead,  or 
pewter.  The  highest  grade  of  society  Includes  the 
spies  and  officers  of  the  government,  and  also  the 
mechanics  and  small  merchants.  Immediately  below 
them  are  the  literary  class,  who  pass  the  most  of  their 
time  in  smoking  tobacco  and  drinking  tea,  and  arc 
supiiorted  by  the  subordinate  rank  of  field-laborers. 
The  meanest  order  are  the  public  slaves,  possessing  no 
personal  freedom,  and  no  civil  rights.  Subjected  from 
mere  infancy  to  perpetual  toil,  closely  watched  by 
spies,  and  prevented  from  all  intercourse  with  strang- 
ers, the  lower  classes  are  spiritless,  uncomplaining 
drudges,  subsisting  upon  two  tenths  of  the  produce 
they  reap  from  the  soil.  In  the  same  slavish  lulior 
the  women  also  are  engaged.  The  Loo-Choouns  of 
one  village  seldom  intermarry  with  those  of  another. 
Their  dead  are  treated  with  great  respect ;  and  their 
capacious  tombs,  built  of  white  limestone,  appear  at  a 
distance  like  cottages,  checkering  the  hill-sidcH.  The 
huts  are  generally  placed  in  the  middle  of  well-culti- 
vated gardens.  Their  floors,  covered  with  thick  mnt^, 
are  used  both  for  sitting  and  sleeping.  A  grcut  part 
of  the  Industrial  population  are  engaged  in  weaving 
the  grass-cloth  that  forms  the  ordinary  garment,  and 
in  turning  wooden  implements  and  covering  them 
with  lacquer.  There  are  also  manufactured  tobacco, 
sugar,  and  small  quantities  of  salt.  Snki,  a  strung 
intoxicating  liquor,  is  distilled  from  rice.  All  the 
processes  of  agriculture,  and  especially  that  of  Irrij^n- 
tlon,  are  carried  on  with  great  success.  The  entire 
trade  of  the  island  is  with  Japan,  and  consists  cliieliy 
of  sugar,  saki,  and  grass-cloth.  The  government  of 
Loo-Choo  seems  to  consist  of  an  oligarchy  of  lllrruii 
subject  to  Japan.  Learning  is  limited  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  Chinese  character  and  the  Confucian  classic.'i, 
and  the  principal  means  of  disseminating  it  is  home 
education.  A  few  regular  schools,  however,  are  scat- 
tered over  the  island,  and  at  Napaklang  there  is  an ' 
advanced  seminary.  The  Loo-Chooans  have  no  na- 
tive literature.  Their  religion  is  a  hybrid  between 
Confucianism  and  Buddhism.  Concerning  the  history 
of  the  island  nothing  certain  is  known,  but  tradition 
reports  that  it  was  once  subject  to  three  distinct  sov- 
ereigns. 

The  principal  sea-port  Is  Napa,  or  Napa-Kcang,  situ- 
ated in  latitude  26°  13'  N.,  and  longitude  127°  36'  K. 
Tho  harbor  is  secure,  and  the  port  is  now  open  to 
American  vessels,  for  the  purposes  specified  in  the 
convention  concluded  July  11,  1854,  and  procluinicd 
March  9,  1855.  The  government  of  Japan  having 
virtually  disclaimed  any  jurisdiction  whatever  over 
the  Loo-Choo  Islands,  a  separate  compact  was  entered 
into  between  the  United  States  and  tho  kingdom  of 
Ixw-Choo.     It  is  as  follows : 

"  Hereafter,  whenever  citiiieng  of  the  United  .States 
come  to  Ixm-Choo,  they  shall  be  treated  with  great 
courtesy  and  friendship.  Whatever  articles  these 
people  ask  for,  whether  from  the  ofllcors  or  people, 
which  the  country  can  furnish,  shall  be  sold  to  them ; 
nor  shall  tho  authorities  interpose  any  prohibitory 
regulations  to  the  people  selling ;  and  whatever  either 
party  may  wish  to  buy,  ihall  b«  exchanged  at  reason- 


LOR 


1285 


LOT 


•bit  prioai.  Whenever  >hlpa  of  the  United  Statei 
•hall  come  Into  any  harbor  In  I.oo-Choo,  they  shall  l>e 
■upplted  with  wood  and  water  at  reasonable  prices ; 
but  If  they  wish  to  get  other  articles,  they  shall  be 
purchasable  only  at  Napo.  If  ships  of  the  United  States 
urn  wrecked  on  Great  Loo-Cboo,  or  on  islands  under 
the  Jurisdiction  of  the  royal  government  of  Loo-Choo, 
the  local  authorities  shall  dispatch  persons  to  assist  in 
saving  life  and  property,  and  preserve  what  can  be 
brought  ashore,  till  the  ships  of  that  nation  shall  come 
to  take  away  all  that  may  have  been  saved  ;  and  the 
expennes  incunod  in  rescuing  these  unfortunate  per- 
sona shall  be  refunded  by  the  nation  they  belong  to. 
Whenever  persons  ft'om  ships  of  the  United  States 
come  ashore  in  Loo-Choo,  they  shall  be  at  liberty  to 
ramble  where  they  please,  without  hinderance,  or  hav- 
ing officials  sent  to  follow  them,  or  to  spy  what  they 
do ;  but  If  they  violently  go  into  houses,  or  trifle  with 
women,  or  force  people  to  sell  them  things,  or  do  other 
!>uch  like  illegal  acts,  thoy  jhall  be  arrested  by  the 
local  officers,  but  not  maltreated,  and  shall  be  reported 
to  the  captain  of  the  ship  to  which  they  belong,  for 
punishment  by  him.  At  Tumai  is  a  burial-ground  for 
the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  where  their  graves 
and  tombs  shall  not  be  molested.  The  government  of 
lA)o-Choo  shall  appoint  skillful  pilots,  who  shall  be  on 
the  look-out  for  ships  appearing  off  tlie  island;  and  if 
one  is  seen  coming  toward  Napa,  they  shall  go  out  in 
good  boats,  beyond  the  reefs,  to  conduct  her  into  a  se- 
cure anchrage ;  for  which  service  the  captain  shall  pay 
the  pilot  Ave  dollars,  and  the  same  for  going  out  of 
the  harbor,  beyond  the  reefs.  Whenever  ships  anchor 
at  Xapa,  the  officers  shall  furnish  them  with  wood  at 
the  rate  of  3600  copper  cash  (43  rents)  per  1000  cat- 
ties ;  and  with  water  at  the  rate  of  600  copper  cash  for 
lUOO  catties,  or  6  barrels  full,  each  containing  80 
American  gallons." 

Loom  (Fr.  Afetier  a  tiiier ;  Ger.  WtbenluU),  is  the 
ancient  and  well-known  machine  for  weaving  cloth  by 
the  decussation  of  a  series  of  parallel  threads,  which 
nm  lengthwise,  called  the  warp  or  chain,  with  other 
threads  thrown  transversely  with  the  shuttle,  called 
the  woof  or  weft.     See  Jacquard,  article,  Woolkn 

MANIIFACTL-REa. 

Loroha,  the  name  of  a  coasting  vessel  used  in  the 
Chinese  seas.  One  of  those  vessels,  sailing  under 
British  colors,  was,  in  1856,  boarded  by  the  Canton- 
ese, had  her  flag  pulled  down,  and  her  crow  forcibly 
carried  off.  Governor  Yell  refused  either  reparation 
or  apolog}',  and  this  led  to  the  conflict  between  Britain 
and  China  during  the  same  year. 

Lorlent,  one  of  the  five  great  naval  ports  of 
France,  and  the  principal  town  In  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  the  same  name  in  the  Department  of  Morbi- 
han,  is  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  where  the  Rivers  Scarf  and  Blavct,  after 
mingling  their  waters,  fall  into  the  Bay  of  St.  Louis. 
It  is  a  large  and  flourishing  town,  strongly  fortified, 
tolerably  well  built,  but  not  very  clean,  standing  in 
an  angle  between  two  creeks,  one  of  which  forms  the  na- 
val, and  the  other  the  mercantile  port.  The  port,  which 
is  large  and  commodious,  is  walled  off  from  the  town, 
thereby  excluding  all  view  of  the  water  from  the  in- 
habitants. It  is  the  seat  of  a  maritime  prefecture,  of 
a  civil  tribunal,  of  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  of  a  col- 
lege, and  of  a  school  of  naval  artillery.  The  dock- 
yard is  the  first  in  France  for  the  building  and  equip- 
ment of  ships  of  war :  there  is  accommodation  on  its 
slips  for  the  simultaneous  construction  of  30  ships  of 
war.  It  has  on  arsenal,  a  park  of  artillery,  engineer- 
ing works,  masting-sheds  and  forges,  etc.  There  is  a 
good  trade  in  sardines,  marine  store;,  iron,  wax,  honey, 
etc.  The  town  is  quite  modem.  Founded  by  the 
French  India  Company,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  in 
1604,  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
that  the  company  took  full  advantage  of  the  accommo- 
dation of  Lorient.    The  greater  portion  of  the  town 


was  then  built,  and  the  port  fortified.  In  17'iri  II 
contained  85  frigates,  besides  a  very  great  number  of 
ships,  averaging  from  900  to  1200  tons  burden.  In 
the  comparatively  short  space  of  80  years  Lorient  hod 
risen  to  the  first  rank  of  towns.  On  the  dissolution  of 
the  company  in  1770,  It  was  made  oi^e  of  the  sUtioni 
for  the  French  navy.  Its  population  ond  shipping  de. 
clined  during  the  unsettled  period  of  the  Revolution, 
but  since  the  peace  of  1815  it  has  been  more  than  re- 
stored to  its  former  activity.     Populotlon  25,700. 

Loa  Angeles  (ike  Cily  n/Ihe  A  ngrh),  capital  of  Loa 
Angelos  county,  California,  850  miles  south  south-east 
of  San  Francisco,  and  In  a  direct  lino  8,000  miles  a 
little  south  of  west  from  Washington.  It  contains  a 
largo  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  1620  inhabitants. 
This  city  was  founded  in  1781,  by  order  of  the  Vice- 
roy  of  New  Spain,  Balillo  Frey,  Antonio  Bucareli  v 
Ursa,  and  Is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Porciii- 
neula  River,  which  copiously  waters  the  highly  fertile 
plain  on  which  the  city  stands.  Invited  by  a  genliil 
climate,  the  inhabitants  have  converted  this  plain  into 
a  delightful  garden,  covered  with  all  sorts  of  native 
fruits,  but  especially  the  vine,  which  is  cultivated  with 
care  and  extraordinary  success  (the  product  of  1853 
amounted  to  2,250,000  pounds).  This  valley,  famous 
for  Its  wines  and  liquors,  contains  the  missions  of  San 
Juan  Capristrano,  San  (iabriel,  and  San  Fernando, 
which  but  a  few  years  since  constituted  the  richest  es- 
tablishment  in  Oalifomla,  and  numbered  very  nearly 
500,000  head  of  cattle. 

Lotteries,  in  their  highest  application,  are  Insti- 
tutions for  raising  the  revenue  of  the  countrj-  by  grant- 
ing to  those  who  voluntarily  contribute  the  chance 
of  obtaining  a  reversion  of  part  of  the  money  collected. 
This  reversion  is  determined  by  lot.  Tlie  first  men- 
tioned in  English  history  began  drawing  at  the  west- 
em  door  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  .January  11, 1569,  and 
continued,  day  and  night,  until  May  6  following.  Its 
profits  were  for  repairing  the  fortifications  on  the  const 
of  England,  and  tho  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate.  The 
first  lotterj'  mentioned  for  sums  of  money  took  place 
in  1630.  Lotteries  were  established  in  1693,  and  for 
more  than  130  yeers  yielded  a  large  annual  revenue  to 
the  crown.  The  Irijh  state  lotterj'  was  drawn  in 
Dublin  in  1780.  All  lotteries  were  suppressed  in 
France  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Convention,  No- 
vember 15, 1793.  They  were  abolished  in  England  1826 ; 
and  an  act  was  pa';..i:d  imposing  a  penalty  of  £50  for 
advertising  foreign  r,r  any  lotteries  in  the  British  news- 
papers, 1836.  AI)olished  in  Bavaria  by  unanimous 
vote  of  the  deputies,  October  19,  1847.  They  have 
long  been  abolished  in  New  England :  ^  New  York 
they  were  prohibited  about  1830.  In  nearly  all  the 
States  there  is  a  penalty  against  lotteries  not  specially 
authorized  by  the  legislatures.  Tho  practice  may  bo 
traced  back  to  tho  Romans,  wlio  were  accustomed,  at 
least  in  the  days  of  the  empire,  to  enliven  their  festi- 
vals with  the  distribution  of  tickets,  uniform  in  appear- 
ance, but  entitling  tho  holders  to  receive  articles  of 
various  value.  Instead  of  granting  largesses  to  the 
leaders  of  tho  Plebs,  the  Emperor  Augustus  frequently 
distributed  his  gifs  on  the  same  principle ;  and  Helio- 
gobalus  has  the  merit  of  devising  in  sport  a  plan  fre- 
quently resorted  to  in  fraud  to  avoid  the  penalties 
against  lotteries  in  England,  of  making  prizes  really 
worthless  take  the  place  of  blanks.  In  the  middle 
ages  tlie  same  practice  prevailed  at  the  banquets  of 
feudal  princes,  who  distribucd  their  presents  economi- 
cally, and  without  the  fear  of  jealousy,  by  granting 
lottery  tickets  indiscriminately  to  their  friends.  The 
practice  soon  descended  to  the  merchants ;  and  in  Ita- 
ly, in  the  ICth  century,  this  became  a  favorite  mode 
of  disposing  of  their  wares.  In  1530  the  "  Lotto"  of 
Florence  was  established  for  the  necessities  of  the 
State,  and  the  example  was  quickly  followed  through- 
out Europe.  The  first  lotteries  with  numbered  tickett 
were  instituted  at  Genoa.    Mercantile  lotteries  were 


LOT 


1286 


LOU 


Mtabtliliad  In  France,  under  FrancU  I.,  In  1&30,  end  n 
litx  levied  nn  oai'h  ticket ;  but  tlieae  wore  lupplanted 
in  IflOO  by  lotterii-i  of  money,  under  the  direct  control 
n(  the  king.     The  lint  lottery  eatuliliiihed  in  Kn|{liind 
wan  drawn  in  1.16!).     It  vonniated  of  10,000  Iota,  which 
wore  fold  it  lUa.  nuch.     The  |irlxeH  were  piocen  of 
plite  ;  and  the  pmlits  wore  devoted  to  the  repnlra  of 
certain  harbor*  in  the  kingdom,     The  printed  pUn  of 
thbi  •chenie  U  atill  In  jMiaaeulou  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society  of  Louilun,     In  Uili  u  lottery  was  gnintod  In 
behalf  of  the  VirKinia  Company  ;  iind  in  lUHU  the  >ame 
privilege  woe  accorded  to  a  contractor  who  under- 
took to  supply  I^ondon  with  water.     From  i|iia  time 
forwanl  the  Mpirit  of  guniblinK  incrcui>ed  ao  rapidly, 
and  grew  lo  atronx,  that,  In  the  rei|;n  of  Queen  Anno, 
private  lotteriea  liad  to  lie  auppreaaod  aa  public  nui- 
auncea.     Tlie  tirat  parliamentary  lottery  waa   inatl- 
tuted  in  170U ;  and  from  thla  period  till  1821  the  puaa. 
ing  of  u  lottery  bill  waa  in  the  programme  of  every 
aeaaion.     U])  till  about  the  cloae  o'  the  16th  century 
the  prizea  were  generally  puiii  in  the  form  of  termin- 
able, and  aoniotimes  of  perpetual,  annuities.     Loans 
were  also  ruUud  by  granting  u  bonus  of  lottery  tickets 
to  all  who  subscribed  u  certain  amount.     This  gam- 
bling in  annuities,  however,  uespite  the  restrictions 
of  an  act  paaacd  in  1703,  soon  loJ  to  an  appalling 
amount  of  vlco  and  miaery;  and  in  1808  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  C'ommona  urged  the  suppression  of 
this  ruinous  mode  of  filling  the  national  exchequer. 
In  Octolier,  182G,  tlio  luat  public  lottery  was  drawn  in 
Britain.     In  France,  State  lotteries  have  been  aliol- 
ished,  but  they  still  exist  in  most  of  the  continental 
States  i  uiid  altliough  demonstrably  u  source  of  loss  to, 
those  who  embark  in  them,  they  are  uphold  as  a  very 
ready  uiodo  of  procuring  money  from  the  poor,  the 
miserly,  und  the  adventuroux.     Tlie  liumliurg  lottery 
affords  the  moat  favorable  representation  of  the  a^'stom, 
as  in  it  all  the  money  ruiae<I  by  tlie  sale  of  tickets  is 
re-diatributed  in  the  drawing«f  the  lots,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  10  per  cent,  deducted  in  expenses  and  other- 
wise,   lu  the  United  States,  lotteries  were  established 
by  Congress  in  1770,  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
southern  States,  heavy  penalties  are  now  imposed  on 
persons  attempting  to  establiah  them.     Private  lot- 
teries are  now  illegal  at  common  law  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland ;  and  penalties  are  also  Incurred  by  the 
advertisers  of  foreign  lotteries.     Some  years  ago  It 
became  common  in  Scotland  to  dis|)08e  of  merchandise 
by  means  of  lotteries ;  but  this  is  specially  condeumcd 
in  the  statute  42d  Geo.  III.,  c.  119.     An  evasion  of 
the  law  has  been  attempted  by  affixing  a  prize  to 
every  ticket,  so  us  to  make  the  transaction  resemble  a 
legal  sale ;  bA  this  has  liecn  punished  as  a  fraud,  oven 
when  It  could  be  proved  that  the  prize  equaled  In 
value  the  price  of  the  ticket.     This  decision  rested 
upon  the  plea,  that  in  such  u  transaction  there  was  no 
definite  side  of  a  specific  article. 

In  1844  art-unions  began  to  be  established  In  Britain ; 
and  as  the  principle  on  which  they  are  founded  involves 
that  of  the  lottery,  their  operations,  which  are  in  reality 
illegal,  were  immediately  suspended  by  order  of  gov- 
ernment. In  the  following  year,  however,  nn  act  was 
passed  to  indemnify  those  who  bad  embarked  in  them 
for  the  losses  which  they  had  incurred  by  the  ar- 
rest of  their  proceedings ;  and  since  that  time  they 
have  been  tolerated  under  the  eye  of  the  law  without 
any  express  statute  Ijeing  framed  for  their  exemption. 
— E.  B. 

Lotus.  The  lotus  (Ni/mpia  /utus)  is  a  nativ  e  of  the 
lakes  of  the  Cashmere,  and  its  stems  serve  us  an  ar- 
ticle of  food.  In  autumn,  after  the  plate  of  the  leaf 
has  begun  to  decay,  the  stem  bos  arrived  at  maturity, 
and  being  boiled  till  tender,  furnishes  a  wholesome, 
nutritious  diet,  which  Is  said  to  support  5000  persons  in 
Cashmere  for  nearly  eight  months  in  the  your.  This 
pUat  would  probably  succeed  well  in  the  muddy  bot- 
toms of  the  coves,  creeks,  and  sloughs  of  our  lakes  and  | 


streams  |  and.  If  not  relished  as  human  food,  ildu  :,tleis 
its  prmlucts  would  serve  to  nnuriah  anUnnU.-^l'ntaU 
Office  Rrp.,  IW. 

Lotlsh,an  Irish  term,  synonymouM with  tlio  Scntih 
/mi'A,  but  not  with  the  ICngllah  lake :  for  huh  and  loiigli 
are  applied  to  designate  arms  of  thn  sen,  an  well  na 
collections  of  fresh  water,  which  lake  la  not, 

Louis  d'Or,  a  French  coin,  first  struck  in  the 
yeiir  IG40,  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  ||y  thn 
French  mint  regnlations  It  was  ot  length  iniido  Vc|iinl 
to  24  livres,  or  XI  sterling.  This,  howover,  wiis  under- 
rating it  as  compared  with  silver ;  and  honce,  nsevnrv 
one  preferred  pa}ing  their  debts  In  the  ovor-v<dued 

coin,  silver  Irarumo  the  principal  currency  of  Friuioe 

the  gold  coins  being  either  sent  to  the  meltin;;-p(it  nr 
exported.  In  Great  Britain  the  process  was  reviT^cd, 
gold  having,  for  a  long  period,  been  overvalueil  by 
their  mint. 

Loulsisns,  one  of  the  southern  United  .States,  lies 
between  29°  and  8B°  N.  lot.  It  Is  240  miles  long 
from  north  to  soutli,  and-  216  broad,  containing  41,:Mil 
square  miles.  Population  In  1810  was  76/1^0 ;  in 
1820,153,407!  in  1830, 215,575 ;  In  1840,352,411 ;  nnd 
in  1860,  611,074.  The  State  is  divided  Into  47  piiriMica. 
Robert  do  la  Sain,  when  he  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
MlnaisBlppi  (1682),  introduced  the  name  f.oui»iani;  In 
honor  of  the  great  king,  as  the  name  of  the  country 
olong  thn  great  river,  "from  the  Illinois  to  the  (iiilf 
of  Mexico."  (CllAliLRVOix,  tom.  I.)  Mimy  other 
points  and  locations  were  vowed  round  thn  sanin  gidf 
to  the  same  name,  king  and  his  saint.  La  .Sale  (lii^,')) 
vowed  to  the  saint  and  to  the  king  "  the  Buy  of  ,St, 
Louis"  (Matagorda  Bay),  discovered  by  him  on  the 
coast  of  Texas.  M'hen  Iberville,  on  the  12th  of  April, 
1099,  discovered  that  little  bay  opposite  Cut  Island,  on 
the  coast  of  the  continent,  he  introduced  this  iniiiio 
■I  ;aln  Into  the  Mississippi  country,  by  nnndn;^  ths 
liarbor"/,fi  Ucii/e  Je  tSl.  iMiit."  In  the  year  1701 
Mr.  Bienville,  when  he  evacuated  Billoxi,  and  re- 
moved the  French  head-quarters  to  Mobile  Buy,  called 
his  fort  there  "fort  de  Si.  Louis,"  and  this  name, 
Fort  St.  Louis,  then  designated,  for  more  than  20 
years,  the  central  settlement  or  capital  of  the  Frciieh 
Mississippi  colony.  It  Is  cbrlous  tliat  the  nnmo 
"  /.ouUianv"  seems  not  to  have  been  much  used  licfure 
1712.  We  do  not  find  it,  for  instance,  a  single  time 
mentioned  In  the  Memoirs  of  ii,  Dk  Sauvoi.e,  written 
in  this  colony  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
In  the  year  1712  King  Louis  XIV.  adopted  ofHcialiy 
the  name  "  Louitiane"  for  that  province,  which  seemed 
now  promising  and  important  enough  for  such  a  grace. 
Ho  pronounces  that  the  countries  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Slisslsslppl  shall  henceforward  bo  culled  "  Im  Province, 
tie  la  Louisiane,"  lie  at  the  same  time  changes  also 
the  name  of  the  Mississippi,  and  says  that  it  shall  at 
present  be  called  "liiviere  de  St.  lAmis"  (the  St.  Louis 
Itiver).  The  French  extended  the  name  of  Louisiana 
over  the  whole  Mississippi  vallej',  Iretweon  the  Al- 
leghany Mountains,  the  Lakes  of  Canada,  Mexieo. 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  south  they  went  us  far 
with  their  pretensions  as  the  Rio  Bravo,  including  all 
Texas.  All  the  old  French  maps  go  with  their  "  I.mi- 
isiune"  as  far  south  as  the  Rio  Bravo.  On  some  maps 
even  the  peninsnla  of  Florida  was  called  "  /.a  Penimuk 
de  Louisiane ;" ' so  that,  according  to  these  French  pre- 
tensions, the  name  "  I^uisiane"  comprehended  tlio 
whole  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  which  belong  now 
to  the  United  States. 

The  Spaniards,  on  the  other  hand,  went  with  their 
name  "  Mexico"  as  far  as  Red  River  and  the  we»teni 
shore  of  the  Mississippi,  and  they  kept  in  Texas  their 
ground.  They  also  kept  up  their  old  dominion  in  the 
Eloridas ;  so  that,  in  time,  the  name  "Louisiane"  vas 
on  the  French  mops  more  contracted.  When  tlio 
Spaniards  acquired  (1763)  from  France  the  dominion 
of  Louisiana,  they  retained  that  name,  changing  it 
only  to  "  Louiticma,"  or  sometimes  also  to  "  Lusiana" 


LOU 


128^ 


LOU 


I'dlml 

Scotch 

roll  Ki 

In  the 
lly  thn 
3  oiiiinl 
I  Hndcr- 
n  every 
r-viiluert 
'nince— 
if^.jwtt  or 
ovi'r^i'il, 
ilueil  liy 

tntefl.lifn 
lies  long 
nR  41,!H« 
VftfiG;   In 
,411;  iinil 
i  pnrishofl. 
ath  of  the 
luitiani;  in 
10  country 
J  tho  (iulf 
[nny  othi'r 
same  unit 

Suio  (iwr)) 

I  Uiiy  of  ><t. 
lim'on  the 
!th  of  Aiiril, 
it  Islnnil,  on 
\  l\\\i  n«nw 
naniin;4  the 
,0  year  I'Ol 
oxi,  nnd  ro- 
p  Hay,  cullod 
i  this  nil'"'', 
lore  than  -20 
r  the  Vrcnih 
..   the  name 
h  used  liefori' 
.  single  time 
■oi.K,  written 
IHth  century, 
ited  officially 
ivhicli  seemed 
such  n  grace, 
mouth  of  the 
'  Tm  Province, 
p  changes  also 
lat  it  shall  at 
(the  St.  l.o»i» 
0  of  Louisiana 
ween  the  Al- 
nada,  Jlexico, 
ey  went  as  far 
"including  all 
th  their  "  /-""- 
On  some  maps 
"  r.a  i'efii"*"'* 
kso  Vrench  l>ro- 
prehended  the 
ch  belong  now 

»ent  -with  thoir 
Ld  the  western 
V  in  Texa.-*  their 
dominion  in  the 

rtoui'sin"*"  ^"f 
|j_  When  tlio 
|o  the  dominion 
\e,  changing  it 
0  to  "  i«s'«""' 


Mit  efin  to  "  TMcinna."  Thny  put  th*  laitim  limit 
'if  their  Mexican  province*  nnil  of  Toxim  at  tha  Klver 
Mermcntau,  quite  near  to  the  MhiaiHippI  Delta;  and 
tha  waatem  limit  of  the  Kloridas  waa,  aa  well  at  the 
llnie  of  tha  KnKllah  dominion  In  tha  Muridaa  (1700- 
17m:I)  aa  after  tha  retrocesaiou  of  these  provincoa  to 
Npain  (17MII),  considered  to  lie  at  the  oastemniost 
liranch  of  the  MIsslsalppi  (RIvlnre,  Iberville  and  the 
I.nkea  I'ontcharlrain,  etc.)|  en  that  during  thU  time 
(I7fi8-IH(KI)  the  name  "  l.un'nnn"  comprised  only  a 
very  amull  part  of  the  coasts  of  the  Klexican  Gulf. 
When  the  United  Statoa  acquired  the  dominion  of 
Loultlana  (lHI)'.i)  this  name  waa  at  flrst  quite  extin- 
guished on  tlie  shores  of  the  (iulf.  The  whole  southern 
part  of  old  Louisiana  waa  called  "Tho  Territory  of 
New  Orleans."  The  old  numo  was,  however,  revived 
again  in  the  year  IK  12,  when  a  part  of  the  old  French 
ciiluny  was  admitted  into  tlie  Union  un<lcr  the  name 
of  tho  "  .State  of  Louisiana."  After  the  final  settle- 
ment of  tho  houndnriea  of  this  State,  the  namv  I<ou- 
islana  comprised  all  the  shores  lietweon  tho  mouth  of 
Pearl  Uiver  to  tho  east  and  that  of  Snljino  Klver  to  the 
west,  the  wli:ile  Mississippi  Delta,  and  on  both  sides  a 
little  more.  We  may  remark  that  the  orthography  of 
tlio  namo  Louisiana,  which  we  have  adopted,  is  half 
.Spanish,  half  French.  Purely  French  It  ought  to  be 
"  f.otiuiaiie,"  and  purely  Spanish,  "  I.vuiana." — .T.  0. 
KuiiL. 

I'hijilial  Fealurei,  etc. — lielow  tho  mouth  of  Ked 
lllver,  the  Mississippi  divides  into  several  branches  or 
outlets,  which,  diverging  fn)m  each  other,  slowly  wend 
tlieir  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  divide  the  south- 
west part  of  tho  State  Into  a  number  of  large  islands. 
Tho  western  of  these  outlets  is  the  Atclmfalaya,  which 
leaves  tlic  main  stream  ut  the  mouth  of  Ked  Kiver, 
and  inclining  eastward,  flows  Into  Atchafalayu  Bay,  in 
tlie  (iulf  of  Mexico.  About  ViS  miles  below  the 
Atchafaluya  is  tho  outlet  of  Plaquemine,  tho  main 
stream  of  which  unites  with  Atchafalayu,  but  other 
portions  of  it  intersect  the  country  in  dilTercnt  direc- 
tions, ill  miles  below  the  Plaquemine,  and  82  above 
New  Orleans,  is  the  outlet  of  La  Fourcho,  which  com- 
municates with  tlie  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  two  mouths. 
Uelow  tlie  La  Fourche,  numerous  other  small  streams 
branch  oflT  from  tho  river  at  various  points.  On  the 
cast  side  of  the  Mississippi  the  principal  outlet  is  tho 
Iberville,  which  communicates  with  tlie  Gulf  of 
Mexico  through  Lukes  Muuropas,  Pontchartrain  and 
liorgne.  Tlie  whole  territory  between  the  Atchafalaya 
on  the  west,  and  Iberville,  etc.,  on  tho  oust,  is  culled 
the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  resemldanco  in 
sliape  to  the  Greek  letter  of  that  name.  A  largo  ex- 
tent of  country  in  this  State  is  annually  overflowed. 
The  alluvial  margin  along  the  Mississippi  lias  a  breadth 
of  from  one  to  two  miles,  and  is  of  great  fertility.  To 
prevent  the  river  from  Inundating  the  valualde  tracts 
in  the  rear,  an  artificial  embankment  has  lieen  raised 
on  tho  margin  of  the  river,  called  the  Levee.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  river  this  embankment  commences 
about  40  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and  extends  up 
the  river  for  a  distance  of  180  miles.  On  tho  west  side 
it  continues  with  little  interruption  to  the  Arkansas 
line.  Along  this  portion  of  the  river  there  are  many 
lieautiful  and  finoly-cultivated  plantations,  and  a  con- 
tinual  succession  of  pleaeant  residences.  The  south- 
western part  of  the  State  consists  of  sea  marsh  on  the 
margin  of  the  Gulf,  but  further  inland  of  extensive 
and  fertile  pruiriea,  which  contain  many  flourishing 
settlements.  The  surface  is  elevated  from  10  to  50 
feet  above  high  tide.  The  country  between  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Iberville,  and  Pearl  Rivers,  in  its  southern 
parts,  is  generally  level  and  highly  productive  in  cot- 
ton, sugar,  com,  rice,  and  indigo.  The  northern  part 
has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  heavy  natural  growth 
of  white,  red,  and  yellow  oak,  hickory,  black  walnut, 
sassafras,  magnolia,  and  poplar.  In  the  north-western 
part,  the  Red  Klver,  after  entering  the  State  by  a 


singti  channel  and  dowing  aliout  .10  milei,  apraada 
into  a  niimlier  of  ihannela,  forming  many  lakes, 
islands,  ami  swaftips,  over  a  space  of  (iU  miles  long  and 
6  brood.  The  lioltonis  on  the  river  are  from  1  to  10 
miles  wide,  an<l  very  fertile.  Tho  timber  is  willow, 
coltun-wood,  honey-locust,  pawpaw,  and  liuckeyef  on 
the  ricli  uplands,  elm,  ash,  hickory,  mulberry,  black 
walnut,  with  a  profusion  of  grajie  vines.  On  the  lass 
fertile  and  sandy  uplands  of  the  Statu  are  white  pilch 
and  yellow  pines,  jinil  various  kinds  of  oak.  There 
were  In  tliis  State  In  IH.^0,  l,fii)0,()2r)  aires  of  land  im- 
proved, and  U,uau,olH  of  unimproved  land  In  farms. 
Cash  value  of  farms,  (|7&,HM,:IUH ;  anil  the  value  of 
implements  and  machinery,  (ll,&;u,uai<. 

/.lie  .S/oci-.— Horses,  89,611 ;  asses  and  mules, 
4I,H.|0  J  milch  cows,  10u,5T(l;  working  oxen,  .M,9(!«i 
other  cattle,  4U,7im  J  alieep,  110,ll;l.lj  awinc,  697,801. 
Value  of  live  stock,  1111,152,27.'). 

AgricuUural  I'rmlucU,  »/r.— Wlieat,  417  bushels; 
rye,  475 ;  Indian  com,  10,2UU,II73 ;  oats,  89,(1:17  ;  buck* 
wheat,  8;  peas  ami  beans,  101,7112;  (Hitutoes,  96,(1.'52  j 
sweet  potatoes,  l,428,4.').'l;  rice,  4,425,JM9  lbs.  Value 
of  products  of  the  orchard,  ♦22,!t69  ;  produce  of  market 
gardens,  148,820.  Pounds  of  butter  made,  PiH.'I.OOO ; 
of  cheese,  1,957;  sugar,  hhds,  220,001;  maple  sugar, 
265  poumls ;  n<olasscs,  10,9:11,177  gallons;  bees'  wax 
and  h(mey,  00,701  ]>ounds ;  wool,  1()',),897 ;  cotton, 
178,787;  silk  cocoons,  2U ;  hops,  125  ;  tobacco,  20,878  ; 
hay,  25,762  tons ;  clover  seeds,  2  bushels ;  other  grass 
seeds,  07  bushels ;  and  there  were  made  l.'i  gallons  of 
wine.  Value  of  home-made  manufucturos,  189,232 ; 
of  slaughtered  animals,  1(1,458,090. 

Jilrrri,  fie. — The  Mississippi  Uiver  forms  the  honnd-  ' 
ary  of  tho  State  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  In  its 
lower  part  runs  wholly  within  tho  State,  and  enters 
the  (iulf  of  Mexico  by  several  chuiinels.  It  is  nav- 
igal>le  for  vessels  of  the  largest  size,  Ked  River  enters 
the  State  near  tho  north-west  comer,  aid  passes 
through  In  a  south-east  direction,  discharging  u  vast 
amount  of  water  into  the  Mississippi,  2:iU  miles  aliove 
New  Orleans,  Tho  Washita  runs  iu  u  south  direction 
in  tlie  north  part  of  the  State,  and  enters  Red  Kiver  a 
little  above  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  Kuyou 
La  Fourche  and  Atchafalayu  are  largo  outlets  of  the 
Mississippi,  The  other  rivers  and  streams  are  the 
Slack,  Tensan,  Sabiue,  Calcasieu,  Mermanteau,  Ver- 
milion, Teche,  Pearl,  Amitic,  Iberville,  etc, 

Mdtw/aiiiimi. — There  were  In  this  State  in  1850,  8 
establishments  with  a  capital  of  225,000,  employing 
8-17  persons,  ami  making  1,670  tons  of  castings,  etc, 
valued  at  812,600;  90  flouring  and  grist  mills,  120  saw 
mills,  10  tanneries,  47  printing  ofHces,  00  newspapers 
— 11  dully,  6  tri  and  semi-weekly,  37  weekly — and  one 
monthly  publication ;  aggregate  number  of  copies 
issued  annually,  12,41li,221,  Capital  Invested  in 
manufactures,  $5,304,924 ;  value  of  manufactured 
articles,  $7,045,814.  On  the  1st  of  .lanuary,  1850, 
there  were  7  railroads,  with  xil  miles  of  track  finished 
nnd  in  operation. 

The  principal  places  in  the  State  are  Baton  Rouge, 
tho  capital.  Now  Orlean.s,  .Tackson,  St,  Francisville, 
Opelous.as,  Grand  Coteau,  Alexandria,  Natchitoches, 
and  Shreveport,  There  were,  .Tanuary  1st,  1853,  7 
banks  in  tho  State,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$12,000,000,  Tonnage,  same  year,  150,273  tons. 
Total  value  of  exports  of  American  and  foreign  pro- 
duce, 1862,  $49,058,885,  Value  of  Imports,  $12,057,- 
724, 

I^uisiana  was  first  explored  by  the  l^ronch,  and 
received  its  name  in  1682  from  SI,  La  Sallo,  in  honor 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  settlement  was  attempted  in 
1684,  but  failed.  In  1G99  a  more  successful  attempt 
was  made  by  M,  Iberville,  who  entered  the  Mississippi 
and  founded  a  colony.  His  efforts  were  followed  by 
Crozat,  who  held  the  exclusive  trade  of  the  country 
for  a  number  of  years.  About  1717  he  transferred  hi* 
interest  to  a  chartered  company,  at  the  head  of  which 


LOW 


1388 


TiOW 


wu  lb*  notoriniu  John  I.»w,  whoM  Mllnnal  bank  Miii 
MUtlMlppI  •paculallon  InroWml  hdf  Iha  rrtnoh  no- 
bility. In  I7SI  lk«  rnmpany  nulgnxl  tha  cnnrarn  la 
Iba  ernwn,  whn,  in  I7<l'i,  raiUd  tha  roiinlry  »f  Lonliii- 
•na  tn  flpain.  In  IROII  .Spain  ra-convayril  tha  pri>vlnra 
lo  Frann,  tram  whom,  in  lltua,  tha  tlnitad  Mtataa 


pnnbaaail  tha  nitlrt  taHtory  tat  #IB,000  000.  Tha 
portion  not'  Intliulail  in  tlia  Mala  Ihrmail  amnilUu. 
lion,  and  ku  •ilmlllaii  liili.  Iba  rclon  in  IMII,  A 
uroml  cnnati>...lijn  w»<  atloptad  anil  wani  Into  4ipar». 
lion  In  llUft,  anil  Ilia  third  anil  praMUl  nna  waa  formad 
and  ailuptad  In  IMl. 


t'oaaiua 

CoMMaaoa  oi 

THa  »TATa  ur  Loi/uuha,  raoM  Ooroaaa  1,  1*10,  io  iltfi,T  1,  IIM, 

TMnnaii« 

M^ 

ImfmH. 

TMHfa  <1mk4. 

DiMrl'l  iMivf, 

OwailK, 

fmlo. 

7tltt. 

Tout. 

AaHHm. 

8r,iM« 

r»f«ii». 

«i;i«ir 

ibtiM...4. 1  *r£'.'iji,r^ 

tapt.  M,  IMI 

♦«,»0T^ 

miMn- 

if.iU.iU 

«II,«T»,TII 

l«fl 

T,l«l«,4«l 

«7MH4 

7,»7f*,*4A 

8,«17,9«H 

I0,7I« 

IM8 

«,TIW,4IU 

l.mW.Ml 

7.77»,079 

4,9WI,I«S 

rM,9M 

•MS 

l»*l 

«,M>.»M 

t,|ilft.it74 

7,»9«H90 

4M»,7M 

M,l»9 

9I,99« 

•  •         ' 

IH'ift 

in.iMft.'jiM 

I.AIT.Mi) 

19,n>i9,»94 

4,9M.n84 

M,«»f 

W.T7«         ...      1 

Iltl« 

l»,i)4.<,ftn« 

i,«IW,HT4 

10,9N4,8H0 

4,ia7JWl 

8N,I44 

«.»•    1      ....      1       .,., 

IWT 

lii.tiiV.HIM 

i,ia(,iM 

1t,79it,W7 

4M1,«4B 

li»,79a 

•  *•''          ....      1       .... 

IHW 

liMM,iMII 

l,7H4.nM 

11,»I7,40() 

«,9l7,NNt 

86,841 

8  ,781 

I8W 

lll,Hl)H,l»8 

1,4H7,H77 

l9,»M,l)«fl 

«,NA7,«I» 

87,»ft7 

■*179    ,      . 

imi)    

\*M1,14n 

«,44A,t)M 

1Mn>(,«M 

7,ftM,fM» 

IO«;OI7 

i'8»|T 

( •  ■  > 

Total 

"U*,I«4,W- 

^\K•m,»o» 

|I()S,877,1«9 

$4»,IM8,9'M 

'  oH,IBl  ■    1  ^m 

..., 

.... 

■apt  SO,  IWt 

|I9,MS,M1 

|8,M«.4M 

»1«,7«!,»H» 

(»,7M,«»8 

^0,..Mt 

iu"!!?* 

11,40^ 

M,9«9 

1M9 

lilUMIH 

9,49A.Hl'i 

lit,Mii,l»li) 

H,>l7l.(lft" 

NN.liM 

M>,WO 

I  •*) 

lisa 

H,IWI,«ft7 

■i,ii(7,»lit 

1\94I,!I7H 

»Mn>,'  ■ 

8«,n91 

tiiflm 

,,   , 

II.. 

tiM 

M,TA»,lk)T 

1(.7I»7,1»I7 

««,»7,BJ4 

18,7fll,8llt 

119,880 

■.1,899 

, , , , 

till 

fW 

HI,1l«ft.0IA 

R,II<)A,WI« 

8«,9ro,Mll8 

I7,MI».H14 

187,891 

W,77H 

,, , , 

1  >  •  ( 

1086 

»1,*M,M!> 

4,ilAil,tl«l< 

87,17l»,H'iS 

r,il7,«4» 

147,I«)H 

48,110 

•  1  •  t 

.... 

IK8T . 

«i,iM«,ari> 

8,7Vi,4W 

!l«,81«,m»7 

14,'<'I|,0I9 

t7^M8 

4A,ft9a 

, , , , 

Iti 

IW. 

m),i>;T.KM 

1.4»4,7U 

8l,HO.;,94S 

«,4IM,<i()H 

189,719 

4H.IH4 

•  III 

•  II. 

IM» 

HHMft,*."! 

»,lhft,Wt 

Hai>*l,187 

11(,IMM,1»4« 

177.987 

84,779 

1  ■  •  • 

1... 

)S40 

Total 

fll8A,iril),U»T 

l.llHM,Br7 
«8il,MH,llit 

84.9»«,M« 
|9H«,MI,Slft 

10,878,190 
Tl90,»UH,0«l 

977,091 

78,8M 
6*9,074" 

...• 

— Tffr' 

l,4lltl,<8V 

.... 

-'••*'•  !Sa:.-::::: 

»n9,s<in,«is 

II.MI.NOn 

|84,8S7  4ltll 

(10,9M,8SO 

>44,9Sii 

79,877 

M,rM 

*1,0OT 

ir,4'i7,4'i9 

»7«,797 

9N.K4.I48 

8,088,fl«O 

944,110 

78,««8 

1  •  •  • 

•  moa,     IMH 

l«,aM.N4 

78«.i>no 

97.8tNI,4»t 

H,I70,01B 

999,471 

811,497 

I  • .  • 

•  «•• 

JoaaW,  IMI 

mMiJiM 

1,II66,47» 

m.4»n,mn 

7,H9«,7H» 

987,179 

lOI.OtO 

•  >  1  > 

..•i 

IMfl 

9fi,H41,811 

l.niMM 

97,IB7,4IW 

7,8*4,897 

148,MA 

199,601 

, , , , 

•  f  •. 

1M« 

80,T4T,ftlW 

W«,I71 

8I,»7»,704 

7,998,090 

98ft,44a 

110,091 

>  >.. 

.».  . 

IMT 

41,7»8,rtO« 

tm,8M) 

49,OM,«8il 

9.9'J9,9«9 

974.111 

188.708 

•  •  I  • 

..* 

\MX            .. 

M,8fiO,l48 

i.aai.'iis 

40,971,8111 

9.8NII,489 

987,HH7 

MN.Oll 

• .  i  1 

III. 

184j 

»«,M7,I1» 

iiA4,ni» 

87,111 1,IW7 

10.IIA0,a97 

998,4M 

194,984 

•  •>. 

.  t     • 

WM   

Total 

I7,<W8,177 

41)7,078 

«s,in.\afl« 

|887,8SS,54il 

10,780,499 

»SN,978,886' 

911,800 

168,187 

•  *.* 

— 7.'.'. 

♦»48,na,8iw 

|»,U8t,l» 

'9,B^,0il 

ISiBsaSr 

.... 

JuwIM,  IWl 

|IW,»««.01II 

|4M,»M 

IM.4I8.0IW 

|19,ft98,4«fl 

999,954 

19MII 

8l.15fl 

ni,iw 

ISM 

4«,8(M,IM 

3M.716 

4l*,(l(w,H^.^ 

19,007.794 

870,741 

178,741 

•  •  t  • 

.  1 1 . 

IHM 

«7,7«II.7!M 

M8,9IV4 

(1H.2W,IWH 

18,«80,(W« 

440,788 

190,084 

.... 

i.ii 

IBM 

6i),(IM,IW7 

ll7R,SltB 

8i),»ni,K.vj 

14.49'i,IU 

448,499 

IM,96« 

, , ,, 

1  III 

19M 

l»,IIA«,OM 

8II,NM 

M,He7,»M 

19,01  Kl,>«91 

480,809 

l'M,900 

>  * .  * 

III. 

18M 

80,!)7«.aM 

1188,498 

80,8«ft,0i*0  1      H,(»i,8W 

B8«,747 

180^16    1       .... 

,... 

CcMur.^The  following  U  the  lumnury  of  tha  ceniU8 
returns  of  the  State  of  I/iuislana  for  the  year  1868 : 

Whitu  |in|juliitlon  of  llio  Statu 326,000 

•  f<laT«i 30.1, <00 

I'rM  eolor«tl lH.livt 

Total  population 040,971 

Aiwiud  raluo  of  taxable  property —  tlJ^v^Oitl!"? 


Of  which  New  Orleans  hai  . 

Aiuaaeil  taxea  tlioreoii 

In  Now  Orlraiii 

Bcliool  nion'^v 

Number  ol         ra  In  tha  8lale  . 
Educable  obllJren 


98,968,0110 

l,3'J8,il"8 

i    •  .  ■> 

e8,n4>; 

ifMilfS 


According  to  this  there  are  '2033  more 
colored  person.)  in  this  State,  and  39,371  more  trvu  men 
than  slaves.  Now  Orleans  owns  more  than  ono-foiirtli 
of  the  property,  and  pays  more  than  one-third  of  I  lie 
taxes  of  the  State.  That  city  is,  however,  allotted  but 
one>l1ftli  of  the  represontation. 

New  Orleans  is  the  principal  port  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  natural  dipAt  for  the  commerce  of  the  great 
central  valley.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  banic  of  tlie 
rl-.r,  100  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Me.\ico,  in  lat.  2a ' 
63',  and  long.  90°  7'.  Its  site  is  low  and  marshy,  and 
in  li.D  summer  and  fall  very  sicldy. 

Lowell,  an  important  manufacturing  town  in  Mid- 
dlesex county,  Massachusetts,  on  the  rlglit  bank  of  tlie 
Merrimack  Kiver,  at  its  Junction  with  the  Concord.  25 
miles  north-northwest  of  Boston.  Although  the  site 
of  the  town  has  considerable  inequality  nf  surface,  its 
streets  are  regularly  laid  out,  and  intersect  each  otiier 
«t  right  angles.  The  private  residences  aro  spueiouK, 
and  many  of  them  elegant  buildings.     Among  thu 


public  ediflcoi,  th*  clilaf  trt  the  courl-lidiiso,  ilm  mi.- 
chanics'  hall,  a  hospital  fur  sick  onvrulivi'ii,  iiml  n 
market-hnuso.  Tha  literary  initltutk'ns  of  tlm  lutvii 
aro  very  eflicient,  and  have  lieiin  of  t'onnlilcnililn  hitv- 
ico  to  the  community,  Tlie  Mechunirs'  AnaKuliitlon, 
incorporated  in  1H2A,  has  a  vuluulilu  library  uf  nliuiit 
60U0  volumes,  and  u  sciuntlllc  uppurutus  I'whilu  tlie 
city  school  library  contains  9500  vulumes,  ami  in  upen 
10  all  on  a  small  voarly  piiymont,  The  gront  iiilvaiit- 
n.;"  which  Lowell  enjoys  for  u  in»'  nfuuturliiu  tnwn 
■  J-i''"ed  fron.  o  d  '  of  00  iuet  made  liv  llio  Mit. 
I.  'I  >  k,  and  know  iliu  Tawluckot  FulU,  which, 

li;  I.  euns  of  canuls  and  locks,  provides  nbiiiidunco  uf 
water-power.  Dcsidea  tliuna  there  is  ii  spiicluiiii  ri'S- 
orvoir,  placed  on  un  elovutiun  euatwiird  uf  tlm  city, 
which  furnislies  an  immonso  suppl*  of  water  at  iiii 
times  in  case  of  lire.  Tlio  principal  good*  niiiiioriu'- 
tured  here  are  cotton,  wool,  and  iron.  Tliu  llrst  Is 
made  int*  cotton,  cloth  and  calico ;  tlm  micuikI  Into 
carpets,  cloth,  and  coarse  stulDii  and  iron  Into  ma- 
chinery and  wire  fences,  lieildei  tlieso,  liowovor, 
bleaching  is  carried  on  oxtenslvely,  ns  well  *<  iIm' 
preparation  of  dyes,  glua,  and  other  eisontluis  o(  tin- 
cotton  and  wool  manufactures.  In  .Inniiary,  IN.'i.i, 
there  were  12  nianufuctiiring  rompnnlim  In  l.imt'll, 
owning  52  mills,  and  working  II71,N!)N  splniili'ii,  and 
11,407  looms.  Tiie  agKraKata  i|uanlitio«  pruilui'i'd  ev- 
ery week  were  2,280,000  yards  of  cotton  cliilli,  illl.uio 
yards  of  woolen  cloth,  25,000  yards  of  n.irpi'tliiu,  mid 
lifty  rugs.  In  the  same  year,  |I4,AIK),II00  nl'  I'liplinl 
was  invested  in  tlio  whole  manufooturi's  of  the  pliiro; 
white  the  number  of  hands  employed  amounted  to 


LOW 


IIH 


RTfll  fttiBftltf .  Mil  -IMt  imI«-  Kv«ry  ittcntton  ti  p«M  | 
by  lhi>  mill  wneri  tn  th«  hn.i.;)'  and  mnrallty  of  th«ir 
i>ti«r»»lvt<i  '  'n«  of  th«  h-^t  pm-U  «t  th«  g«n«rHl 
Kiioal  ronilii.  t  of  thn  tiilll-wnrk«r<  h«ra  in  nhaifl'  '«  thn 
liirK*  ■nioiinlii  ilaixMllfil  I'y  lh«im  tn  Ih*  MvlnKi^hmik 
•ml  (Im)  In  th*  lnli<rr«t  il"<y  Uk«  In  thn  literary  unit 
•I'ldntlHc!  aavirUllnnii  rumi     twl  with  thn  fni  I'irliM. 

In  tha  rapidity  of  ltd  Krontli,  ami  in  thi<  rxtoHf  »f 
lla  inanufaeturca,  II  atanda  pr«-«r.ilnrnt ;  It  lina  attained 
lla  praaant  ponltlnn  alti)K«thar  fn>m  Iha  rxtml  of  it" 
manufacturing  farllltii'*.  A  trai't  nf  4110  ncraa,  ion. 
atitutlnic  thn  miMt  rantral  part  nf  Iha  prvaant  >-lty,  wii« 
laid  out  In  IN-il.  It  waa  purchnaad  fur  il(Nl,(i<M),  ami 
III*  nv/nara  wars  Inrnrporatail  tha  fnllowluK  ynr,  iin- 
(li-r  tha  Itlla  nf  MrrrimiK"  .ifiiniifiirlurinii  I'ominiHi/,  and 
thn  llrat  mill  arartrd.  Topulatlnn  IM'JII,  nlM)iit  W); 
IHliO,  B,477|  IHJKl,  17,»M!  IMIO,  'iO,7l)il,  tMM,  im,!W;J  | 
and  in  IH/M,  411,000.  In  tN;|.|,  llidvldrm  villaK« 
waa  adda<l  to  It,  niakluK  a  tnrritnry  of  noArlv  A  a<|uar«i 
inllaa,  and  In  INilll  it  WJia  inrorporatad  n*  it  city.  I,nw- 
nll  Ilea  on  tha  rl^ht  linnk  nf  Merrimack  Kiver,  at  thr 
junction  uf  Concord  River,  and  at  tlia  intnraectlon  of 
•eversi  tinea  of  rAllniadn.  It  waa  nrlKlnally  known  »• 
I'liwtucket  KalU.  Tho  water  |iower  la  very  extenalve, 
<ind  eaaily  ■vallalile.  A  ciiniil,  KK)  feet  wicin,  tA  feet 
ilcep,  and  1^  inllea  in  lenxth,  auppliea  thn  factorlea 
with  water,  taken  from  ths  (!onciird  Kiver,  at  I'liw- 
lucket  Kalla.  The  entire  deacent  ia  III  tmt.  1'h«  pro- 
prletora  of  thn  "  l.ocka  and  (.'anala  Conipany,"  acting 
under  a  charter  granted  in  I'D'i,  with  a  cnpltal  of  Itnw,. 
nno,  auppllea  the  water  |)ower  to  tha  different  nmnu- 
fiicturlnK  ••taliliahmanta.  The  iferrlmnr  Afimu/nr. 
Hiving  Vompani/,  waa  chartered  In  IH-i'i,  hna  a  capital 
•luck  of  •*i,000,nOO ;  with  A  cotton  factorlea,  with  tl7,. 
'M>  aplndlea,  and  1,U20  lonina,  employ*  l,tIOO  malea, 
imd  (Mft  feinaleii ;  manufacture)  1H,<N)0  yarda  of  printa 
and  alieetlnKa  annually,  (.'onneeted  with  thia  (.'om- 
pany  la  an  extenaive  print  work*.  The  Jfamillim 
Mnmifacturiag  Cnmimni/,  chartered  in  18'W,  with  n  cap- 
ital atock  of  #1,200,000,  haa  H  cotton  factorlea,  with 
lUI.'i'iH  apindlea,  and  1,00'^  loonia,  employ*  H7A  fomnlea, 
and  MOO  malea ;  manufacture*  10,000,000  yurda  of 
print*,  flannel*,  ami  *heetinKa  annually.  It  nlao  ha* 
un  extenalve  print  work*.  Thu  AppUlim  fiim/xinv  wa* 
incoriioratnd  in  IH'iH,  with  u  capital  of  liiflOO.lMH) ;  hna 
i  cotton  factorlea,  with  17,!)'iO  *plndle*,  and  AIM 
loom* ;  employ*  480  female*,  and  120  male* ;  manu- 
facture* 6,A0l),UOO  ynni*  *heetint!a  nnd  ahirtin^a  annu- 
olly.  The  AoicrW  .}fnnu/arlurinff  Compamj  wm  char- 
tered in  1828,  with  a  capital  of  •1,800,000;  haa  u 
cuttun  factory,  7,14'J  Mpindlea,  244  loom*,  and  a  carpet 
factory,  4,800  tpindle*,  and  HO  loom*,  the  whole  om- 
piiiyinK  600  female*,  and  225  malea ;  manufacturing 
4,1140,000  yard*  ru^*,  carpeting,  and  cotton  cloth,  nn- 
nunlly.  The  MiiliUenex  Mnnufmturing  Compnni/  wna 
chartered  in  18II0,  with  n  capital  of  ^1,000,000  ;  has  8 
mill*,  with  18,000  aplndle*,  46  broadcloth,  and  876  cai- 
alinore  looms,  and  8  dye-houae*,  employing  OAO  female*, 
jnd  H20  malea ;  manufacturing  n60,0ob  yards  of  hroad- 
cloth*  and  casslmeres  annually.  The  Suffolk  Afanu- 
fiKturing  Compamj,  chartered  In  1830,  with  a  capital 
of  ♦000,000,  has  2  factories.— See  Statistics  op 
Ma.h*.,  1865,  for  further  itema. 

IiOwertng,  among  distiller*,  a  term  employed  to 
■express  the  debasing  the  strength  of  any  spirituous 
ll(luor  by  mixing  water  with  it.  The  standard  and 
marketable  price  of  these  liquors  is  fixed  in  regard  to 
<i  certain  strength  in  them  called  proof;  or,  that 
strengtii  which  makes  them,  when  shaken  in  a  phial  or 
|»'ured  ftom  on  high  into  a  glass,  retain  for  some  time 
a  froth  or  crown  of  bubbles.  In  this  state  spirits  con- 
»iii|  "f  about  liolf  pure,  or  totally  inflammable  spirits, 
and  half  watPi- ;  a»d  If  any  foreign  or  home  spirit  be 
ex|K)8ed  f'.ir  sale  and  found  to  liavn  that  proof  wanting, 
ncan'^ly  itny  body  will  buy  it  until  it  has  boon  distilled 
SKain  and  l>rought  to  tho  proper  strength  ;  and  if  it  bo 
abova  that  strength  the  proprietor  usually  adds  water 


lit  lirfaiK  II  dnwn  to  Mw  tUm/Utk  TiMn  la  afiatto 
kind  nf  WiweriiiK  ilWg  (jte  nMbrs  nf  •plriluuiM 
liquorit  v.>  the  vulgar,  br  ra4wi<n(M  vmler  ifie  »lanil- 
ard  pnmf.  Whoever  ti<*  Ike  art  of  doing  this  withnul 
'■»«tMylng  Iha  hubhli>.|  i««f,  whl»ih  la  «»•((>■  •liwii'  by 
mc  I  ""f  noma  aildltliiu  which  give*  a  gri-4t<>i  Uwarlty 

to  thi.  („irts  of  lliii  diilrlfp.,  will  deceive  nil >lmt 

by  thu  priMif  alone,    in  Ibit  ciise,  tha  liest  h  ^i. 

of  lliiiiiir<  la  bv  th*  eyn  iind  the  tonuuK,  iinl      |.i 
by  the  iu.lriiiMdfil  .ajlcl  the  hydroini'ter 

LubbVi  1  ciiuM'iii|i|uou*  nnmo,  Kivrn  >'\  nalluni  i„ 
thoae  Willi  uniw  not  the  duty  of  .i  k,.umiuii.  l.iMtr', 
llnU  U  l\w.  vacant  "pace  l>*tween  the  head  ,.'  i  lowi>r 
ma>t  ami  th»  eilgv  of  the  lop.  It  i«  «o  Ipritt,..:  from  a 
«uppi"«»i"«  that  •  luMicr,  m>t  carlnj<  t»  tru»t  I  urlf 
up  thi^  futtwk  Hhrouds,  will  prefer  thai  way  uf  m-"",, 
iotii  thit  top. 

Lub«0,  onn  of  the  free  citle*  of  intvthem  llannn  If, 
and  nominally  tlio  chief  of  the  llanur'  '  )wn«,  it  ""e 
capital  of  11  siiuU  tcrrltiir)-,  is  aituate  cm  i  j;i.ntle  Hrt, 
between  th«'  riverri  Irave  and  Wakenil  Ml  milea  f»oir. 
the  Ml  iith  lit  thi  f.irmer  HI  TravemUndi'.  and  :i()  mUts 
north'  >Ht  lif  ll.umliurg.  I.uliec  i«  the  capitni  [if  *ha 
four  IV  "  iir  llam^rutlc  town*,  and  thn  seat  of  ttt»tr 
supri-iu  ">urt  of  appeal,  The  court  consist*  of  six 
niembci  lue  of  whom  I*  chosen  by  each  of  the  free 
towns :  rankfort  and  llrcmen  nominate  the  fiftli 
while  III  "Ixth  is  named  alternately  once  Ivy  Liiiic 
and  twice  v  Hamburg.  The  president  is  ihraen  ai 
niialU  by  i  "  lenutc!!  of  tho  four  towns.  The  present 
city  of  Ull  was  founded  In  1148  by  Adolphui  II., 
Oount  of  11.  Main  ami  .SchauniKurg,  by  whinn  It  waa 
ceded  In  11.  to  Henry  Diik.  nf  .Suxony,  surnaraed 
the  Mon.  In  '.'.Ml  It  was  made  a  free  lmp<  rial  city  by 
Frederic  II.  \t  this  time  it  was  nn  lmp<  rtant  com- 
mercial city,  ml  was  rapidly  Imreuiiing,  In  1241  it 
entered  into  ti'  ily  with  Hamburg',  and  tli  "i  laid  tha 
foundation  of  li-  llanseatic  League,  uf  wiuich  it  lie- 
came  the  head  Hi  lit  12110.  For  four  ceiitiirres  l.ulieo 
continued  in  a  ll<><  ishing  condition,  and  Is  miid  to  have 
at  one  time  contu'  <m1  200,000  |iersons.  After  the  dis- 
solution of  the  1..  li^ue,  which  took  place  in  lii:i2,  it 
gradually  fell  into  ecay,  and  has  never  again  attained 
its  former  import,  nee.  After  tho  battle  of  .lena  in 
IHOU,  the  Prussian  '"ueral  lllucher,  with  the  remaina 
of  his  army,  took  i  n^e  in  l.ubcc,  which  was  then 
atonned  by  the  Fre-  li,  and  sucked  and  pillaged  for 
it  wa*  annexed  to  tho  French 
1  till  after  tho  buttle  of  Keipilg 
restored  to  its  |iolitical  indo- 
ntly  Joined  the  (iernian  Con- 
It  has  one  vote  in  the  full 
t  council  it  has  only  one  in 
r  free  towns.     Lubcc  is  one 


three  days.  In  INI' 
empire,  and  sn  remain' 
in  IHlll,  win  it  wa 
pendonco,  ami  Nubsei)* 
fedorutlon  as  n  I'rce  cit 
council;  but  In  tho  scl 
conjunction  witli  the  nl; 
of  tho  most  plctuiesquc  Id  towns  in  Germany.  Its 
straots  are  generally  si  :i;;ht  and  regular,  ami  its 
public  buildings,  which  ;iv'  mostly  of  brick,  have  un- 
dergone little  change  sin  u  the  16th  century.  Many 
of  the  houses  ur«  in  tho  ol.Ufashioned  style,  with  their 
quaint  gables  toward  the  street;  anil  not  a  few  of 
them  are  reniurkablu  for  t'le  richness  of  their  archi- 
tecture. The  old  ramparts  'f  the  town  have  boon  laid 
out  in  public  walks.  The  t  uest  building  In  Lulioc  is 
the  Murlenkirche,  founded  in  UIO-I.  It  is  in  the  pointed 
(lothic  style,  constructed  nlin  ist  entirely  of  brick,  and 
surmounted  by  two  towers  ith  spires  rising  to  the 
height  of  4IU)fcet.  It  has  t.reo  naves;  the  roof  of 
the  centre  one  rising  to  tho  uinjsual  height  of  134  feet. 
It  contains  numerous  monuments  and  paintings — tha 
latter  by  Ilolliein,  Vandyck,  Overbeck,  etc.  The 
"  Dance  of  Death,"  dated  1403,  is  remarkable  ns  rep- 
resenting the  costumes  of  the  period.  This  church 
possesses  n  very  line  organ,  and  has  also  a  curious  old 
astronomical  clock,  constructed  in  1405,  The  Dom- 
klrche,  or  cathedral,  built  lietwocn  1170  and  1341,  U 
almost  entirely  of  brick,  and  has  two  towers  surmount* 
od  by  spires  300  feot  high.     It  contains  numerouf 


LTIB 


1200 


LUC 


mcinameiita  to  bishops  and  others  connected  with  Lu- 
bee.  The  icreen  of  the  choir  is  a  master-piece  of 
wood-carving  of  the  early  German  school.  In  one  of 
the  side  chapels  is  a  painting  by  Memling  ropresontlng 
the  Passion  of  our  Savioar  in  '23  distinct  groups.  The 
town-house,  on  the  marliet-place,  is  a  curious  old 
Gothic  brick  building,  completed  in  1517.  Here  in 
ancient  times  deputies  from  85  cities  in  Germany 
composing  the  Hansentic  League,  held  their  sittings. 
The  educational  and  charitalilo  institutions  are  nu- 
merous ;  besides  which  tliere  are  an  exchange,  mint, 
arsenal,  public  library  with  37,000  volumes  and  a 
theatre. 

Lubec  is  still  a  place  of  considerable  commercial 
importance.  It  trades  largely  with  Haml)urg  by 
means  of  the  Trave  and  a  canal',  and  also  with  Russia, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Finland.  A  branch  line  con- 
nects it  with  the  Hamburg  and  Iterlin  railway.  Keg- 
nlar  steam  communication  is  kept  up  with  Copen- 
hagen, Stockholm,  and  St.  Petersburg.  Vessels  draw- 
ing not  more  than  nine  feet  of  wntor  can  come  up  to 
the  town,  but  larger  vessels  load  and  unload  by  means 
of  lighters  at  Travemande,  between  which  and  LuImc 
small  steamers  are  constantly  plying.  The  chief 
exports  are — com,  cattle,  wool,  iron,  and  timber; 
ini|x)its — wines,  silks,  cottons,  hardware,  colonial 
products,  and  dj'e-stuffs.  In  18B5,  972  vessels,  carry- 
ing 65,2U6  lasts,  entered;  and  958  vessels,  carrying 
64,246  lasts,  left  the  port.  The  manufactures  are 
numerous,  but  not  large  or  important.  Among  the 
chief  are  woolen,  linen,  cotton,  and  silk  goods ;  to- 
bacco, soap,  paper,  playing-cards,  musical  instru- 
ments, hats ;  and  iron,  copper,  and  brass  wares. 

Its  trade  is  principally  carried  on  with  the  Baltic 
States,  to  which  it  exports  corn,  cattle,  wool,  fish, 
iron,  and  timber.  Its  imports  comprise  wines,  silks, 
cottons,  hardwares,  and  other  manufactured  goods; 
also  colonial  produce,  dye-stuffs,  etc.  The  territorj* 
belonging  to  Lubec  is  about  20  miles  in  length,  by  3 
miles  in  breadth,  containing  a  population  of  M,1G0, 
chiefly  employed  in  the  rearing  of  live  stock.  In  1852 
there  entered  the  port  of  Lubec  2086  vessels,  measur- 
ing 282,724  tons,  viz. ;  sailing  vessels,  1699,  of  an  ag. 
gregate  tonnage  of  170,096  tons,  and  387  regular 
steam-packets,  of  an  aggregate  of  92,628  tons.  Russia 
holds  the  first  rank  in  the  trade  of  Lubec.  Of  the 
whole  number  of  vessels  entered  in  1852  (208.')),  there 
weve  under  the  Russian  flag  456  vessels,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  86,730  tons.  The  total  imports  into  this 
port  in  18.52  reached,  in  weight,  122,000,000  kilos. 
(2-20  lbs.  each),  viz. :  by  sea,  94,000,000  kilos. ;  bv 
land,  28,000,000  kilos.  Tliis  was  a  falling  off  from  tli'e 
preceding  year  of  10,000,000  kilos. 

Among  the  imports  of  1852  were :  tolwcco,  l,04fl,l.S2 
kilos. ;  cotton,  drugs,  and  dye-stuffs,  4,034,849  kilos. ; 
coffee,  2,291,626  kilos. ;  sugar,  4,278,066  kilos. 

The  total  Imports  in  1851  amounted  to  132,833,000 
kilos. ;  but  the  increase  of  10,000,000  kilos,  was  at- 
tributable to  the  heavy  stock  of  material  introduced 
by  those  engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  railroad 
between  Lubec  and  Hamburg,  A  comparison  with  the 
preceding  years  of  regular  trade  will  show  a  steady, 
though  a  gradual  increase.  In  1850  the  total  imports 
reached  120,000,000  kUos.,  or  2,000,000  less  than  in 
1852. 

The  general  imports  of  Lubec  are  thus  classi- 
fied :  Manufacture*. — Including,  principally,  liquois, 
watches,  jewelry,  hardware,  gunpowder,  piece-goods, 
glass-ware,  13,954, 5»0  kilos,  Cvloninl,  or  tmu»-A  tlantic 
Merchandise. — Consisting  of  coffee,  cotton,  drugs,  dye- 
stuffs,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  tea,  11,708,795  kilos,  ^nj- 
mal  Subttancet. — Consisting  of  butter,  cheese,  wax, 
oils,  wool,  peltry,  silk,  2,827,4.'i8  kilos.  Metah. — 
('hiefly  of  iron  and  copper,  6,121,7.36  kilos.  MisceU 
laneout. — Including  salted  tish,  tallow,  grains,  timt)er, 
pot-ashes,  i>tc.,  88,424,913.  Total,  123,037,477  kilos. 
Manufacturea   represent  11^  per  cent.,  colonial,  or 


trans-Atlantic  merchandise  9(  per  cent.,  metals  5  per 
cent.,  and  all  other  imports  74  per  cent,  of  the  total 
trade. 

Statement    ihowing   the    Steam  Navigaiinn  between 

Lubec  a>ul  the  Baltic  Portt,  from   1849  to  1852 

1849. — Between  TravemOnde  (the  port  of  Luliec)  and 
Copenhagen — voyages,  67;  passengers,  1955;  re- 
ceipts, 162,0-16  francs.  1850. — Between  Travemunde, 
Copenhagen,  and  Gothenburg — voyages,  61 ;  passen- 
gers, 2858 ;  receipts,  194,788  francs,  1851. — Between 
TravemOnde,  Copenhagen,  and  Gothenburg — voyages, 
37 ;  passengers,  8,415 ;  receipts,  137,884  francs. 
1862. — Between  Lubec,  Copenhagen,  and  Gothen- 
burg—voyages, 20 ;  passengers,  8061 ;  receipts,  IM,- 
360  francs. 

The  merchant  marine  of  Lubec  in  1853  consisted  of 
63  vessels,  of  13,300  tons  aggregate,  viz.,  CO  sailing 
vessels,  of  11,826  tons,  and  6  steamers.  The  once  ex- 
tensive and  flourishing  trade  of  Lubec  had  dwindled 
down  to  the  mere  shadow  of  its  former  greatness. 
The  tardy  communication  with  Hamburg  (a  city  on 
which  it  depends  almost  exclusively  for  its  commercial 
activity)  by  canal  navigation,  contributed  much  to  de- 
press its  commercial  enterprise ;  and,  hence,  its  mer- 
chants have,  for  a  long  period,  been  strenuous  and 
unremitting  in  their  cffo'^s  for  the  construction  of  a 
railroad  that  would  connect  them  with  that  city. 
Denmark,  however,  jealous  of  any  enterprise  that 
would  be  likely  to  create  a  rival  for  tho  trade  of  Kiel, 
which  to>vn  is  also  connected  by  railroad  with  Ilam- 
liurg,  long  refused  permission  to  construct  the  contcni 
plated  railroad  across  any  portion  of  its  territories. 
The  dillicultips  were,  however,  adjusted,  the  road  con- 
structed, and  duriiig  the  past  few  rears  the  trade  uf 
Lubec  lias  risen  to  considerable  importance.  In  1850, 
before  the  connection  by  railroad  was  established,  the 
merchandise  which  passed  between  the  two  cities 
amounted  to  l)Ut  26,000  quintals  of  106-85  lbs.  oac  h ; 
in  185.1,  after  the  railroad  was  opened,  it  ascended  to 
207,380  quintals,  viz.,  89,576  Hamburg  merchandise, 
and  177,805  foreign  merchandise,  forwarded  via  Ham- 
burg. The  United  States  has  no  direct  trade  with 
Lubec,  such  of  its  staples  as  reach  that  market  Ijuing 
supplied  either  from  Uamlmrg  or  Altona,  chiefly  tlio 
former. 

The  tariff  is  that  of  December  eth,  1851. 

Moneya. — 1  marc  =  16  schillings  Lubec  courant  = 
28-79  cents. 

Weights  and  Measures. — 1  ship-pound  =  2J  cwt. 
of  112  lbs.  English,  each  =  280  lbs.  1  lis-pound  = 
14  lbs. 

Duties  on  Imparls. — All  goods,  whether  of  foreign  or 
home  production,  pay  J  of  1  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  as 
given  in  tho  invoices,  except  the  following  articles, 
which  are  free  of  import  duties :  Transit  goods  re-ex- 
ported within  three  months  after  cntrj- ;  effects  of 
travelers ;  household  furniture  used  ;  wool  brought  for 
the  Lubec  fair,  and  delivered  at  the  wool  wareliousc ; 
goods  on  boanl  of  vessels  nut  consigned  to  I.uliec ; 
wares  on  board  of  ships  entering  the  port  of  Trave- 
mOnde in  distress. 

None  but  citizens  have  the  privilege  of  clearing 
goods  in  tho  custom-house ;  American  vessels,  how- 
ever, are  exempt  from  this  regulation. — Com.  Itel.  U,  S. 

Lucia,  St.,  Olio  of  the  British  West  India  Islands, 
Windward  group,  lying  nlmut  30  miles  north  of  Jlar- 
tinique,  in  lut.  13°  60'  N.,  long.  00°  58'  W.  It  is  32 
miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  liy  12  in  extreme 
breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  about  2;15  square  miles, 
or  150,000  acres.  It  is  longitudinally  divided  liy  a 
chain  of  mountains,  generally  from  1200  to  1800,  and 
in  some  cases  2000  feet  high,  deiively  clothed  with  the 
finest  timber.  Tlieso  are  of  volcanic  formation,  and 
assume  tho  most  fantastic  forms,  abounding  in  deep 
chasms  and  pointed  eminences.  From  either  side  of 
this  chain  branches  of  lessor  altitude  go  off  toward  the 
coast,  forming  plains  and  valleys  of  various  sizes.   At 


tU  aonti 

origin,  e 

pendicul 

to  the  lie 

evergreo 

doej)  an( 

througliQ 

coast,  ar 

streams, 

is  divi(lo( 

Joowarii 

most  popi 

tors  and  ii 

and  CapJB 

is  also  vei 

wood  on  ti 

climate  is 

attract  the 

to  frequeni 

year. 

The  exti 
1864,  and  t 


Articli's. 

jCoeoaTTTTT^ 
Ooods,  Brit'  ini 
I   ract....pack( 

LiiBWood 1 

Molasses.,      a 

Kico •', 

Hum „| 

p«wr,  M-.8.,'.'.u 
Othor  articles. . 
I ^'otal  value 

The  total  va 
cles  of  British 
live  stock,  Inn 
and  tobacco), 
United  Kingilo 
■£26,4,13  from  t\ 
general  revenu 
duties  on  impor 
and  other  taxes, 
year  was  £ia,bi 

24,«3,  ofwhom 

11,081  male  and 

chief  town  of  t 

about  3000  perst 

English  settlers 

uriven  off  |,y  t 

effected  a  settle 

when  it  was  fln 

longed  ulternutel 

"nment  is  admit 

the  troops,  a  lie 

council,  oonsistin 

pey-general,  and 

IS  also  a  legislati 

and  five  non-offlc 

secretary  and  att 

Md  of  which  the  ( 


LUO 


12D1 


LUM 


tt«  soQthern  extremity  Ar«  twu  iiwuntitltiit  of  rokanlo 
origin,  called  tlie  HuKitr  l<o»vtiii,  wbluli  rlan  ornrly  per* 
pendioulurly  from  tliu  i»»,  In  tlin  fiirm  uf  tmra^lsl  conea, 
to  tlie  lioiijlit  of  ol)oiit  37IK)  fuet  |  tli«>'  nrtt  uuvt^roil  with 
evergreen  fullAge,  Hilfl  limrk  tlltl  itlltnttlcn  Ittln  the 
(laep  and  benutifiil  Itiiy  uf  HiMlfrli>r«,  Tlie  vuttevi 
tlirouglioiit  the  lalitnd,  iiit  wnll  it*  tlm  (ilnlnii  upon  the 
coast,  are  fertile,  lieliiK  well  witterpd  by  nuuioruua 
Btreuins,  iind  are  under  Kuiid  nitHlvHtliiii,  The  iaiand 
ia  divided  into  twu  terrttiirlei)'=llnHii«t»rre,  the  low  or 
looward  p<irtion,  whiiili  U  well  i<ultlvilted,  and  the 
most  populous,  thoUKJi  the  previtlcuii'n  of  atilgtinnt  wa- 
ters and  moruaiiea  renden  the  I'lliniltii  v»ry  unhealthy  t 
and  Capi«terro,  the  hluh  or  wliidwwrd  territory,  which 
la  also  very  unhealthy,  liut  I*  limiiiMilllK  leaa  ao  na  the 
wood  on  the  high  landii  l»  lieiiin  I'ltmred  uwoy.  The 
climate  In  very  nioiiit,  u'  the  treoa  on  tlin  nHiuntuina 
attract  the  clouds,  ami  lieniie  render  the  lalatid  auliject 
to  frequent  and  lieitvy  rulua  fur  U  ur  lU  tnoiitha  In  the 
year. 

The  extent  of  land  under  eitidi  itern'rlptloti  of  crop  in 
185-1,  and  tlio  three  preceding  yeiirD,  wua  i 


Canos. 

Coffiio 

Coca 

Provisions..,. 


Attrm, 

B,(l|5 

Ifll 
1,010 


H,fillll 
HIT 

mo 

1,|IM 


"  KM, 

III54, 

hrin, 

Arrpd. 

H,4n» 

IViSII 

Hill 

iir 

Nil 

t<T 

8,4ilil 

l,1M 

Tiie  (|uuntlties  of  various  itrtliilijii  |irudiiced  In  each 
of  the  aliove  years  were  i 


HuKar lbs. 

Coflfoo " 

Cocoa " 

lium galls. 

Molasses. 


istl. 

li,flor,W 
1H,IWI) 
1M«I 
4S,II5H 
IftB.ftM 


IHI, 

T,lM,fiW 
en,i)ii4 

4ll,Hr>M 
llll,|)'JU 

tiiii),iiii.^ 


ISH. 

lUH'j.lllll 

(I.IIM 
91,111111 
fi<,il4t 
UIUI'J 


7,414.100 
10,350 
17,410 
tT.tfil 

Dim,  lias 


The  i]uantitteB  and  value  of  Artleli'S  tot  ported  In  1864 
wore ; 


Articles. 


Cocoa lbs 

Ooods,  Brit.  nianU' 
fact..,.packagos 

Loawood tons 

Molasses galls.! 

Klcu owl, 

Ituni galls. 

Sugar,  M'-.s., ..owt. 
Other  articles. .... 

Total  voluo... 


.ifiti^m 


1'"  niiiini  ..'!''.',, 
Ki««'i „|||',',l|,'j'. 

Slalea. 

«ilT 

£T;4yI 



tin 

1,«S0 

sm 

l.oftT 
I.IUifi 

'v'itl 

tail 

4i,4iiy 

1100 

""rt 

i'.TiM 

»!4iloiTr 

t;rt,ii(lt  «i.i(J4 1 

The  totjii  value  of  Imports  In  JHSI  (prltuilnnlly  arti- 
cles of  Uritisli  inaiiufaotiire,  lliiiir,  dried  tlili,  liutter, 
live  stocic,  lumber,  salted  mewt,  iillv«  nil,  wine,  rice, 
and  tobacco),  was  j;UU,!)(IO  i  beliig  i'll.liml  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  .£'.'7,8«0  from  llrlllsh  tiolonlea,  and 
£26,4!)!)  from  foreign  Htiltes,  The  liett  lltlloilllt  of  the 
general  revenue  in  IHM  wiis  4I14,II|IH|  Iiii1m«,  cuatotn 
duties  on  iinports,  A'tHH'Jj  on  tonimuti,  Xr\i  |  nai^caied 
and  other  taxes,  i:tJH7'.t,  The  nett  exppiidlturn  for  that 
year  was  £lB,6li5.  '('lie  total  pupiiliillnii  In  IHM  waa 
24,183,  of  whom  480  w«ra  male  and  fil7  ftmale  whitea, 
11,081  male  and  l'2,0!Ki  feumlu  persiins  of  milor.  The 
chief  town  of  the  island  is  llttstrles,  wlilidi  tontalns 
alwut  !)000  ppTsonH.  Nt.  Uiieiii  was  llrat  uoloitlnnd  by 
English  settlers  in  ID.tt),  but  t\\»ne  wertt  auun  after 
driven  off  by  the  Carlba,  Almut  JHtiO  the  French 
effected  a  settlement,  and  from  that  ilm«  to  iHllll, 
when  it  was  Dnuliy  captured  by  the  I'.iigllnh,  It  be- 
longed alternately  to  France  and  ICngliiiid.  Tint  f{ov. 
emment  is  administered  by  the  uuminaiidltiK  nlllcer  of 
the  troops,  a  lieutenant-governor,  and  an  executive 
council,  consisting  of  the  oolonl. '  secretary,  the  nltor- 
ney-general,  and  the  second  mllltiiry  tilllcpr.  There 
is  also  a  legislative  council,  iinmposed  of  live  (illli  Inl 
and  live  non-oiiiciul  niembers,  in  which  the  colonial 
secretary  and  attorney-gpnunil  have  seata  and  votes, 
and  of  which  the  commanding  atHaer  Is  prealdviit.  Th» 


laws  of  St.  Lucia,  except  in  so  far  as  they  have  been 
altered  by  orders  of  council,  are  the  laws  of  France, 
antecedent  to  the  Code  of  Najmleon. 

Luff,  the  order  from  the  pilot  to  the  steersman  to 
put  the  helm  toward  the  lee  side  of  the  ship,  in  order  to 
nialie  tlio  ship  sail  nearer  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Hence,  luff  round,  or  luff  a-lec,  is  the  excess  of  thU 
movement,  by  whicli  it  is  intended  to  throw  the  ship's 
head  up  in  the  wind  in  order  to  tacli  her.  A  ship  if 
also  said  to  spring  her  luff -when  she  yields  to  the  effort 
of  the  holm  by  sailing  nearer  to  the  line  of  the  wind 
tlian  she  had  done  before.  J.uff  Tackle,  a  ncme  given 
by  sailors  to  any  largo  taclile  that  is  not  destined  for 
any  purthmiar  place,  but  may  be  variously  employed 
as  occasion  requires.  It  is  generally  somewhat  larger 
than  the  jigger  tactile,  althougli  smaller  than  tliose 
which  serve  to  hoist  the  heavier  materials  into  and  out 
of  the  vessel;  which  latter  are  the  main  and  fore- 
tacklea,  the  stay  ond  quarter-tackles,  and  so  forth. 

Lug-Bail,  a  square  sail,  hoisted  occasionally  on  the 
mast  of  a  boat  or  small  vessel,  upon  a  yard  which 
liangs  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  mast.  These 
sails  are  more  particularly  used  in  the  barca-longas 
navigated  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Lumber.  One  of  tlie  distinguishing  characteris- 
tics of  the  United  States  is  the  quantity  of  wood  ond 
lumber  they  furnish.  Of  the  well-wooded  countries 
of  the  world,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  America, 
this  countrj',  no  doubt,  ranks  as  lirst.  A  discriminat- 
ing writer,  Volney,  once  described  tliis  country  as 
"one  vast  forest,  diversified  occasional!}'  by  cultivated 
Intervals."  If  this  is  less  true  than  it  was  a  century 
or  even  half  a  century  ago,  it  applies  in  the  main  at 
the  present  moment.  Kvcn  the  oldest  States  of  the 
ITiiiun,  such  as  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  and  the 
(Jarollnus,  are  still  famous  for  both  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  their  lumber.  And  Maine,  that  had  some- 
thing like  settlements  before  any  other  portion  of  New 
Kiigluud,  is  to  this  day  the  great  lumber  State  of  the 
land.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  name  it  sometimes  gets — 
the  I'Ine-tree  State.  The  trees  of  any  countrj'  are 
valuable  for  at  least  four  distinct  purposes,  for  fuel, 
for  shelter,  for  the  food  many  of  them  afford,  and  for 
ornament.  In  the  last  point  of  view,  which  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  least  important,  trees  are  of  much 
consequence.  England  has  obtained  the  name  of  an 
extensive  garden,  very  much  through  its  beautiful 
shade  trees  and  shrubberj-.  One  half  of  the  beauty 
of  many  of  our  New  England  villages  would  be  lost 
in  tho  warm  season  without  their  elegant  natural 
Bcreens  in  the  shape  of  trees.  It  was  Lord  Bacon  who 
said  that  "  a  tree  in  full  leaf  is  a  nobler  object  than  a 
king  In  his  coronation  robes."  No  artist  would  ever 
think  of  presenting  a  line  landscape  without  trees. 
And  so  important  are  trees  regarded  as  objects  of  beau- 
ty and  shade,  that  ornamental  tree  associations  are 
springing  up  in  different  parts  of  tho  country,  whose 
objects  are  to  adorn  streets  and  highways  with  our 
Ireautiful  elms,  maples,  and  evergreens. 

It  is  stated  l)y  Michaux  that  in  the  United  States 
there  are  110  species  of  forest  trees  which  attain  a 
greater  lielght  than  30  feet,  while  in  France  there  are 
only  18  of  the  same  description.  And  we  suppose  that 
the  comparison  would  be  similar  if  extended  to  Great 
llrltahi,  Spain,  or  Germany.  No  wonder,  then,  that 
our  forest  scenery  so  much  surpasses  that  in  tho  west 
and  south  of  Europe,  and  that  Eurojiean  travelers 
thliilc  that  it  is  worth  while  to  cross  the  Atlantic  to 
see  our  for?st  scenery  as  painted  by  the  invisible  artist 
every  autumn. 

Ho  great  is  the  interest  in  portions  of  Europe  to  pro- 
mote the  growth  of  forest  trees  that  associations  have 
been  formed  in  Germany  and  other  countries  to  plant 
forests  upon  soil  adapted  to  their  growth.  The  vast 
UHlomit  of  forest  trees  annually  used  by  such  a  coun- 
try as  (Jrcut  Dritain  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that 
to  build  a  (0  gun  ship  40  acres  of  ship  timber  MO  w- 


_i ■ 


LUM 


1202 


LUM 


qnired.  In  the  Ugbt  of  such  a  fact,  it  may  be  aeen 
that  it  is  none  too  early  for  the  people  of  this  country 
to  exercise  due  economy  with  rcganl  to  the  use  of  for- 


ests already  existing,  and  to  promote  the  growth  of 
others — on  the  waste  lands  that  already  abound  in  va- 
rious sections  of  the  country. 


STATXUliNT  SnOWINO  TUK  ExPOBTg  Or  luHDKR  (BFECirVINU  TUB  KXrORTINO  DlSTBIOTS)  rBOM   TOE  UnITXD  STAT»>,  FOB 

TUB  Year  ending  Jitne  SOtii,  1866. 


DItlrlcU. 

8hlii|U«. 

Boftrdi,  pUnki,  .nd 

H«wn  llmlxr.           |0tll«r  lumb«r 
1 

Otk  bulc  uid 
other  dye. 

Allolhe,- 
maiiiiritciureB 

of  WOtKl. 

"n..iu,77~ 

19,2.'.S 
510 

5,C96 

8,474 
l^&W 

1,047 
419,6,57 

6,554 
27,  IW 
28,662 
10,078 

'iiio 

21,8.54 
410,404 

"oil 

22,489 

2S,l,',o 

11,139 

42,061 

10,671 

50 

87,7.58 

4,905 

34,458 

84,840  ; 

4,075 

778,783 

60,800 

41„')79 

164,579 

200 

ll'3',«io 

eV.iiii 

8,613 

"i25 
'l',329 

"iss 

l'9',822 
7 

2'3;640 

usii 

2,501,,5->:f 

Paasamaqnoddy 

MachiM.. ,. 

,M.  fen. 
844 
269 

""88 

'"'63 
256 

'4,068 

•"•65 

"m 

8,276 
"151 

""s 

.... 
"2'5S1 

"lis 

\\m 
"2,993 

'6,738 
6.684 
5,8.56 
],8S4 

""'m 

6,»43 

105 

282 

11 

8 

'"74 

lor 

""7i4 

"1,077 

"'82 

848 

1,983 

Dulr.n. 

1,416 
624 

"'ti 

■"83 
639 

12,261 

"  276 

"'882 
11,880 

"806 

"ir 
Hsi2 

"l",848 

"8.995 
l'3",660 

T,%m 

15,363 
18,340 
4,849 

"i.57 
19,826 
781 
928 
44 
40 

'  '254 

"533 

'4',i92 

'2,971 

"247 
1,640 
9,717 

M.  1.81. 

8,486 
3,681 

"l",693 

2 

1,713 

8,918 

"2',i65 
8,122 

'"86 

103 

8ir 

11,766 

""ia 

419 
157 
199 
44<t 

■  "68 

602 

3 

131 

27',4t)9 
947 

1,569 
115 

2,193 
146 
22 

"852 
630 

"269 
7,918 
2,476 
1,590 
3.388 
2,623 
8,106 
6,161 
4,885 

8,486 
360 

1,700 
105 

4,013 

"2% 

2,286 

75 

Dullan. 

86,241 
48,442 

2'7',821 

.82 

21,881 

118,906 

27,678 
106,418 

'l',858 

1,704 

14,687 

226,964 

"270 
6,506 
2,688 
4,040 
11,076 

'8,702 

6,669 

66 

2,88T 

6M',9il 
6,631 

27,741 
3,450 

8'9',483 

2,547 

399 

11.569 
6,796 

2,905 
111,441 
48,353 
24,556 
62,586 
36.126 
49,724 
68,878 
68,778 

109^853 

501 

41,118 

1,060 

84,486 

'3,059 

86.448 

1,515 

Ton.. 
"236 

'  '520 
3,197 

26^878 
"932 

"781 

'l'666 


Uullan. 
•6,867 

'8,470 
20,003 

18'9',i67 
'7,750 

'2',6i6 
'l',690 

l>ollari. 

4,692 
601 

"196 

56;642 
120,676 

••66 
8,616 

••'89 

•'78 

243,572 

1,401 

•"868 
1,446 

66J24 
1,229 

•■728 
9,880 

'8,888 
2,250 

"'65 

l'8',876 
19^936 

12's',938 
1,520 

"405 

14,500 

31,818 

126 

823 

'  '2i5 
25,389 
48,264 

DoJIsre. 
•6,508 

•  'm 

8,597 

"600 

350 

87,694 

763 

8'l',480 
8'4'S48 

"660 

Frenchman's  Bay 

WIscasaot..  .  . 

Bath 

Portland  and  Falmouth. 
8aco 

Belfast 

Bangor 

Vermont 

Qloiicester 

Balcm 

Boston  and  Charlestown 
Fall  Klver 

Now  Bedford 

Providence 

Bristol  and  Warren 

Newport 

New  London 

Sackctt's  Harbor 

Niagara 

Buffalo  Creek 

Now  York 

PhTladolpl.la 

Presquo  Isio 

fteorffetown,  I).  C 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth 

Plymouth,  N.  0 

Washington,  M.  C 

Ncwbern 

Beaufort 

Georgetown,  3.  C 

Mobile     

Kev  West .... 

St  John's    

New  Orleans 

Miami 

Pugct's  Sound 

Bun  Frandioo 

Total 

A"8 

166,207 

126,830 

1,9»7,()02  1     84,260 

234,959    i    803,684 

121,080 

This  table  shows  the  singular  fact,  that  Chicago,  the 
greatest  luml)er  marlcet  in  the  world,  exports  directly 
no  lumber  to  foreign  countries. 

The  State  of  Maine,  as  the  head-quarters  of  the 
lumber  and  ship  building  trade,  lias  for  a  long  time 
excited  much  interest.  Tlie  season  for  cutting  the 
timber  and  bringing  it  to  market  commences  in  De- 
cember or  earlier,  and  closes  in  March  or  April. 

According  to  a  careful  estimate  of  George  W,  Cram, 
Ksq.,  surveyor-general  of  lumber  for  Boston,  the 
amount  sold  at  that  port  in  18.'>4,  was  lill,900,000  feet. 
The  descriptions  were  40,000,000  of  white  pine  lumber, 
18,000,000  southern  pine  26,000,000  spruce,  10,000,000 
hard  wood,  1,800,000  mahogany,  2,100,000  clapboards, 
10,000,000  shingles,  20,000,000  laths,  4,000,000  hem- 
lock,  1,000,000  pickets. 

The  following  is  a  careful  etiimate  of  the  lumber 
boslness.  The  numlier  of  men  employed  in  getting 
the  lumber  to  market  is  120,000 ;  number  of  cattle 


and  horses,  80,000;  number  of  saw-mills,  3000;  num- 
ber of  vessels,  1000.  Pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  lum- 
ber is  principall.v  obtained  fronj  Bangor,  Ellsworth, 
the  Kennebec  Kiver,  Calais,  Machias,  Cherritield, 
Maine,  and  St.  John,  Xew  Brunswick,  wliiie  tlie  larger 
portion  of  the  hard  pine  grows  in  Xortli  and  Suuth 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  and  Alabama.  Pine  and 
spruce,  too,  are  brought  from  ('anada  to  Portland,  and 
is  thence  shipped  to  this  and  other  markets.  The  lum- 
lier  secured  from  St.  John  is  of  a  superior  quality 
Lumber  is  obtained  also  from  the  States  of  New  York, 
Ohio,  and  Michigan.  The  two  last  States  furnish 
black  walnut,  cherry,  asli,  white  wood,  and  basswood; 
while  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  furnish  a  share  of 
the  some.  The  railroads  bring  to  market,  oak  tinil)er 
from  tfassachusetts  and  New  Ilampshire.  The  south- 
em  and  western  States  grow  a  portion  of  the  same, 
and  fumisli  considerable  live  oak.  New  Y'ork  yields 
a  large  quantity  of  pine.     Delaware  and  Maryland 


LUM 


1203 


LUM 


All  ulher 
niiniifHctnrM 

of  WOtHl, 

"DiilStT" 

li),2.')S 

640 

6,696 

8,474 

1,1147 
419,667 

6,554 
27,1M 
23,66'j 
10,078 

'4,4io 
81,854 
410,404 

"611 
22,439 
28.150 
11,189 
42,661  i 
16,671 

60  I 
87,7,W  I 

4,905 
84,463 

84,840 

4,075 

778,783 

60,800 

41,579 

164,579 

200 

113^640 

Mjilt 
8,613 


125 

1,329 
"135 

19,822 


23,040 


14.811 
2,601 ,5>3 


anon  sparingly.  It  U  stated  that  the  best  hard  pine 
for  ship-building  grows  on  the  Alatamaha  River  in 
Georgia,  and  on  the  Waccamaw  River  in  South  Caro- 
lina. It  is  but  a  fow  years  since  hard  pine  has  been 
used  in  ship-building.  It  is  now  empioyed  extensively 
in  Mew  England,  and  is  considered  as  good  for  many 
parts  of  a  ship  as  oali.  During  the  year  1854  a  com- 
mission house  of  this  city  sold  about  23,000,000  of  feet, 
to  be  used  mostly  in  Massachusetts  and  Maine.  It 
will  be  perceived  that  this  house  sold  5,000,000  feet 
more  than  all  that  was  surveyed  in  the  city  for  that 
year,  showing  how  large  a  part  of  the  lumber  sold 
here  is  not  surveyed  under  our  surveyor-general. 
Formerly  there  was  no  hard  pine  obtained  at  the  South 
except  what  grew  immedaitely  upon  the  rivers.  But 
within  five  or  six  years  the  timber  upon  tlie  margin  of 
the  streams  has  become  scarce,  so  that  now  it  is  con- 
veyed for  several  miles  to  the  rivers,  and  in  some  cases 
is  floated  300  miles  to  some  sea-port,  from  whence  it  is 
shipped  to  the  North  or  to  foreign  ports. 

The  reciprocity  treaty  that  has  recently  been  effect- 
ed between  the  United  States  and  the  British  posses- 
sions in  North  America  is  quite  sure  to  increase  our 
luml>er  trade,  as  Canada  and  the  other  provinces 
abound  in  this  great  staple.  A  few  statistics  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  wealth  and  activity  of  the  British 
provinces  in  this  department.  In  1832  the  new  ships 
built  in  the  British  colonies  were  of  32,778  tons  bur- 
den ;  while  in  1841  the  tonnage  of  the  ships  built 
amounted  to  108,038  tons,  and  in  18S0  to  112,787  tons. 
Most  of  these  ships  were  built  for  the  British  market. 
In  the  city  or  Quebec,  according  to  Andrews's  Report 
on  Colonial  and  Lake  Trade,  there  are  about  25  ship- 
building establishments,  and  8  or  10  floating  docks. 
The  vessels  built  there  average  from  500  to  1500  tons. 
In  1849,  114  vessels  were  built  in  New  Brunswick,  of 
36,634  tons  burden.  Most  of  the  ships  built  in  New 
Brunswick  are  constructed  in  St.  John  and  St.  Andrews, 

DoHSSTio  ExFoars  or  Lumbeb  and  Naval  SToara  raon 
THE  U.NiTED  States. 


I 


Btavcs,  shingles,  boards,  etc.  12,678,149 


Other  iumbc 

Masts  nnd  .^'itrs 

Onk  barknii'l  dye. 

All  manufactures  of 

Naval  stores,  tar,  pitch,  { 

rosin,  etc i 

Ashes,  pot  and  pearl. 


123,748 

129,628 

118,894 

2,294,122 

1,406,488 

834,821 


Total.... 16,986,845 


isu. 


$5,122,884 

166,178 

180,622 

96,863 

2,837,270 

2,066,806 

822,728 


$10,740,701 


(4,609,666 

677,669 

806,643 

99,168 

8,688,420 

2,049,466 

448,499 


»11,874,510: 


Statihext  suowino  rna  Exposn  or  Lumit  (avd  m 
wnAT  CouNTBiEs  zxroETED)  rEou  THE  United  Stavm 
roE  THE  Yeae  endino  Juk»  SOiii,  1864, 


Of  these  exportations,  more  than  half  of  the  naval 
stores  go  to  England,  and  more  than  half  of  the  lum- 
ber to  Cuba. 

The  ship-building  interest  alone  of  Massachusetts 
consumes  a  vast  amount  of  lumber.  In  1837  the  ves- 
sels built  in  the  State  were  estimated  to  be  worth  $1,- 
870,(i49,  and  the  agricultural  and  domestic  articles 
consuming  lumber  were  worth  $2,952,317.  The  per- 
sons employed  in  this  handiwork  were  3950.  The  esti- 
mated value  of  ships  built  in  this  State  in  1854  was 
$5,000,000.  If  the  value  of  agricultural  and  other 
articles  requiring  timber  advanced  in  the  same  ratio 
the  value  was  fully  $10,000,000  for  that  year. 

There  were  built  in  the  United  States  in  1854, 1774 
vessels  of  all  descriptions,  with  a  tonnage  of  635,636. 
About  a  sixth  of  the  value  of  the  whole  we  And  to 
have  been  built  in  Massachusetts.  The  value  of  the 
wliolc,  then,  in  round  numbers,  may  be  stated  at  $30,- 
000,000.  It  is  true  that  the  demand  for  vessels  was 
unusual,  and  the  prices  obtained  the  same.  What  de- 
struction of  forests  was  made  by  the  ship-building  of 
that  single  year  I 

The  lumber  trade  of  this  country  is  immense.  It 
costs  $30,000,000  a  year  to  build  our  ships,  and  we 
may  form  some  idea  of  the  cost  of  all  the  buildings 
erected  in  the  ci  antry  for  a  year,  and  then  of  the  cost 
of  all  other  articles  made  of  wood,  and  of  the  cost  of 
the  lumber  material  required. 


WUUiir  aiport^. 


Russia  on  the  Bal- 
tic &  North  Seas.  , 
Sweden  and  Norwoy 
Swedish  West  Indies 
I>anlsb  West  Indies., 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Other  Gorman  ports 

HolUnd :.... 

Dutch  West  Indies. 

Dutch  Oulano. 

Dutch  East  Indies. . 

Belffinm 

England 

Scothind 

Ireland 

Gibraltar. 

MalU 

Canada 

Other  Br.  N.  A.  nos. . 
British  West  Indies.. 

British  Honduras 

British  Guiana. 

British  pos.  in  AlVlca 
British  Australia.... 

Now  Zealand 

British  East  Indies.. 
Franco  on  the  Atlan. 
France  on  the  .Mod. . 
French  N.  Amer.  pos. 
French  W.  ladles... 

French  Guiana. 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 
Spain  on  the  Modit, 

Canary  Islands 

I'hillppino  Islands... 

Cubs. 

Porto  Rico 

Portugal 

Madeira 

Capo  do  Verd  Islands 

Azores 

Sardinia 

Papal  States. 

Two  Sicilies. 

Austria 

Turkey  In  Europe 
Turkey  in  Asia.... 
Other  ports  In  Africa 

Hayti 

San  Domingo... 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

Now  Grenada. 

Venezuela 

Brazil 

Uruguay 

Buenos  Ayres. . . . 

Chill 

Peru 

Ecuador 

Sandwich  Islands. 

China. 

Whale  Fisheries.. 


Tou.    riolUn. 


968 

"'80 

"897 

12,161 

8,116 

1,118 


ToUI. 


781 

6,525 

841 


iMk  lixk  All  iiiwiT' 


'"'"'»''  I     dy..     I     in.,il, 

nnlUr.        thilUr.  Ik. lis..      ' 


73 
1,619 

"m 

"305 


1,128 


90 


20 


2,882 

"600 

7,664 
84,287 
22,183 

8,097 


2,616 

46,667 

2,661 


1,038 
11,726 


1,800 

'3!,226 
6,105 


6,686 


1,661 


290 


24  824 

685  4,«71 

646|  6,168 

600  8,899 


1,190 
869|     4,400. 

84,260  234,969 


DolUri. 

I>uUu.. 

DvlUr.. 

.... 

MO 



487 

T28 

•  •  .  t 

«0,TI1 

1,4M 

6,194 

tajim 

18,261 

9,834 

fi«,104 
44* 

«,l»l 

24,104 

10,28* 

19« 

%m 

4,136 

4.84k 

1,270 

898 

9,8.34 

762 

Vim 

76,936 

60,078 

168,1m 

140 

6,566 

18,1111 

665 

IK 

897 

1,TR« 
44« 

l'4,8i6 

i'o,s65 

280,n«il 

9,1165 

464 

67,IM 

4,027 

2,44il 

62,4iW 

166 

tm 

600 

B,9I( 

8,578 

10,4« 

21,660 

iil*t,1W 
6U 

12,581 

n,tM 

98,557 

16,27S 

%im 

18,199 

6,67(1 

I.TBI 

17( 

8,liM 

28; 

(111 

8< 

t,4W 

11,14< 

162 

4» 

16,711 

621 

1,140 

m 

I,9lM 

851,286 

4611 

1,19T,WH 

12,361 

107,241 

4; 

614 

4,TU« 

861 

&IC 

4C 

1,120 

41 

.. 

200 

40< 

400 

"m 

■••• 

140 

"m 

110 

1,79 

.... 

2h,42t 

8,os: 

.... 

11,208 

■8,!i!H 

1«,2«< 
8,l4fl 

6,051 

28,981 
18,560 

8,081 

87,841 

2,26( 



Mil 

7,5si! 
11,783 

1  :::: 

urn 

83,B«| 

1,972 

2,000 
4,831 

1  .... 

1»,B2« 

1  .... 

28,911 

24,29! 

1 

8,8211 

16,76.1 

.... 

M.SKi 

808,684 

121,080 

%'i>it\fm 

Lute,  a  substance  used  for  making  vessels  or  appara> 
tus  air-tight,  by  closing  the  apertures  of  their  joiuts,  or 
for  coating,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bear  a  higher  teni' 
perature,  or  for  repairing  a  fracture.  Clay  is  the  liasis 
of  many  lutes ;  whence  the  term,  from  lutum,  clwy, 
Among  the  principl  lutes  are  SloicerhriJge  clay,  in  iilie 
powder,  made  into  a  paste  witli  water;  Windtor  loam, 
a.  natural  mixture  of  clay  and  sand ;  Willit'i  lule,  u 
thin  paste  made  of  a  solution  of  borax,  in  boiling  wa- 
ter, with  slacked  lime.  Mixtures  of  borax  and  eluy 
also  form  useful  lutes.  What  is  called  fat  lule  is  » 
mixture  of  pipe-clay  with  drj-ing  linseed-oil,  Caustio 
lime  furnishes,  by  admixture  withorther  bodies,  a  vii> 
riety  of  lutes.  A  mixture  of  lime  and  white  of  egg,  or 
glue,  forms  a  powerful  cement.  Iron  cement  is  useful 
for  making  joints  tight,  as  is  also  white  lead  ground  up 
with  oil  and  spread  on  strips  of  cloth.  Among  tba 
other  substances  used  as  lutes,  may  Ije  mentioned 
moistened  bladder,  paste,  and  paper ;  paper  prepared 
with  a  mixture  of  wax  and  turpentine,  linseed-meal, 
and  caoatchonc.   The  last  named  substance  1*  in  •stea> 


LYO 


1294 


tYO 


•Ive  use  for  making  chemical  Joints  or  elastic  connectors, 
getting  rid  of  that  rigidity  which,  in  a  complicated 
arrangement  of  apparatus  is  so  liable  to  lend  to  accident. 
lAtte,  a  stringed  Instrument  of  music,  long  since  su- 
perseded by  the  harp  and  the  guitar,  but  for  centuries 
very  fashionable  in  Europe.  The  music  for  the  lute 
was  written  in  taUature. 

Luxury.  The  instances  of  extravagance  and  lux- 
nrj"  are  numerous  in  the  history  of  almost  all  countries, 
ancient  and  modem,  und  many  laws  have  been  enforced 
to  repress  them.  Ilorace  mentions  fowls  dressed  in 
Falernian  wine,  muscles  and  oysters  from  the  Lucrioe 
lake  and  Circean  promontory-,  and  black  game  from 
the  Umbrian  forests.— /.arrffKr.  I^ucuUus,  at  Rome, 
was  distinguished  for  the  immoderate  expenses  of  his 
moals.  His  halls  wore  named  fVom  the  different  gods  j 
and  when  Cicero  and  I'ompey  attempted  to  surprise 
him,  they  were  umuzed  by  the  costliness  of  a  supper 
which  hail  l)een  prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus, 
who  merely  ordered  his  attendants  to  serve  in  the  hall 
of  Apollo.  This  feast  for  three  persons  casually  met 
would  have  sufficed  for  300  nobles  specially  invited. 
In  England,  luxurj'  was  restricted  by  law,  wherein 
the  prelates  and  nobility  were  confined  to  two  courses 
every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food  in  every  course,  ex- 
cept on  great  festivals.  The  law  also  prohibited  all 
who  did  not  enjoy  a  free  estate  of  illOO  per  annum 
from  wearing  furs  (see  Funs),  skins,  or  silks :  and  the 
use  of  foreign  cloth  was  confined  to  the  royal  family 
alone :  to  all  others  it  was  prohibited  A.  D.  i3.S7.  An 
edict  was  issued  by  Charles  VI.  of  Franco,  which  said : 
"  Let  no  man  presumeMo  treat  with  more  than  a  soup 
and  two  dishes."     l;)IO. — Ilaydn. 

Lying-tO.  A  nautical  term  denoting  the  state  of 
the  ship  when  the  sails  are  so  disposed  as  to  counteract 
each  otiier,  and  thereby  retard  or  destroy  the  progress- 
ive motion  of  the  vessel.  The  fore  and  main  stay-sails 
and  mizzen  try-sail  serve  verj"  well  for  this  purpose, 
as  they  cause  but  little  way,  and  liavc  suflicient  power 
to  keep  the  ship  heeled  over,  and  therefore  steady, 
with  her  decks  turned  from  the  aea.  When  the  sea 
runs  very  high,  the  lower  sails  are  liable  to  be  be- 
calmed by  the  waves,  and  therefore  to  siift"er  the  ship 
to  roll  to  windward ;  the  maintop-sail  is  then  Used. 

Iiyons  (Fr.  I.yoti,  ancient  I.ufldiiniim),  the  capital  of 
the  French  Department  of  Rhone,  and  till  recently 
ranking,  in  point  of  population  and  commercial  im- 
portance, as  the  second  city  of  the  empire ;  but  the 
last  census  returns  siiow  that  in  tlie  former  of  these  re- 
spects it  has  Ijeen  exceeded  by  Slanieiiles,  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  junction  of  the  Saune  witli  the  Rhone,  and 
on  the  Paris  and  Marseilles  Ruilwa}',  31(i  miles  from 
the  former,  and  218  from  tlie  latter  "city ;  lat.  '15°  45' 
45"  N.,  long.  4°  49'  33"  E. ;  elevation  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  903  feet.  The  Rivers  Rhone  and  Saone  lie- 
ing  l)oth  navi{;al)le,  it  enjoys  great  facilities  for  trade ; 
but  it  is  as  a  manufacturing  city  that  it  is  chiefly  cel- 
ebrated ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  justly  entitled  to  the 
name  of  the  French  Manclicster.  Tlie  staple  articles 
of  manufacture  are  silk  stufl'a  of  all  descriptions,  and 
which  for  richness  and  lieauty  are  unequaled.  In 
this  manufacture  about  100,000  of  the  population  are 
either  actively  or  indirectly  concerned.  There  are  no 
exact  .«tatistics  of  the  silk  maRufacturc  at  Lyons  ;  but 
the  following  extract  from  a  letter  bj'  the  President  of 
the  Chaml)er  of  Commerce  at  Lyons,  dated  December 
10,  1S53,  is  said  to  give  very  nearly  the  exact  results : 
"  During  the  present  year,  and  the  two  preceding,  the 
manufacturers  of  silk  at  Lyons  have  employed  about 
fiO.OOO  machines  (meliera),  scattered  over  a  district  of 
aliout  40  miles.  These  machines  have  consumed  about 
•2,.''.00,000  kilogrammes  of  silk  (5,500,000  lbs.),  valued 
at  1GO,000,OUO  francs  ($32,000,000) ;  and  the  manufac- 


tnred  stnlTs  at  250,000,000  tnncs  ((50,000,000),  Tt  ll 
estimated  that  the  home  consumption  amounts  f)  on* 
fourth  or  one  third  of  that  quantity.  The  lialanea  \i »%. 
ported  to  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world  i  but  l>y  fur 
the  largest  foreign  market  is  found  In  the  Uiiit«<1 
States."  The  silk  manufacture  in  Lyons  Is  not  nurrlad 
on  In  large  factories,  but  on  the  domeittc  syitam,  In 
the  dwellings  of  the  master-weavers,  each  of  wlijnli 
has  usnally  from  two  to  six  or  eight  looms,  which,  with 
their  fittings,  are  generally  his  own  property,  I  line 
self  and  as  many  of  his  family  as  can  work  are  em. 
ployed  on  these  looms,  and  frequently  also  one  or  mnrn 
compaffnnni,  or  journeymen.  The  numl)er  of  mi)st«r> 
weavers  In  the  city  and  suburbs  Is  estimated  to  lia 
about  9000.  The  silk  merchants,  of  whom  there  nm 
about  600  in  Lyons,  supply  the  silk  and  pntterna  to 
the  owners  of  looms,  who  are  Intrusted  with  the  t»»M 
of  producing  the  web  In  a  finished  stntn,  The  wnaV' 
ing  population,  though  earning  comparatively  gixiil 
wages,  are  an  ignorant  and  degraded  race,  living  In  « 
disgracefully  filthy  state,  and  showing  littla  i|u«irs  (o 
improve  their  condition.  Few  of  the  journeyn)»H  «var 
raise  themselves  to  be  master- weavers.  The  silk  iiinntl* 
facture  was  established  here  l)y  Italian  refugens  In  ilm 
middle  of  the  15th  ccntur)'.  It  was  nearly  ruiiiHil  by 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  whicli  dUpxrWil 
most  of  its  best  workmen  to  SpitalHelds,  Ain»i«r<laiii, 
Crefeld,  and  other  places.  Lj-ons  has  numerous  ilyiu 
works,  printing  establishments,  founderies,  glsait> 
works,  potteries  tan-ynrds,  breweries,  chemical  wiirb«, 
boat-building  yards,  etc. ;  but  these  are  nil  lrii>l|{ii|||. 
cant  compared  with  its  chief  branch  of  Industry,  Tlis 
commerce  carried  on  by  means  of  the  rivers  U  vary 
considerable.  The  town  Is  built  principally  imi  iIik 
tongue  of  land,  or  peninsula,  between  the  Itlione  iiint 
Saone,  each  of  wliich  Is  crossed  by  eight  or  iiIiia 
bridges  communicating  with  extensive  suliurlii  lyliijj 
to  the  east  and  west.  The  old  portion  of  Lyons  I'uri. 
sists  chiefly  of  narrow,  crooked,  and  dirty  Btrnnlii, 
rendered  dark  and  gloomy  by  the  greot  lieiKlit  of  ilm 
houses  on  each  side,  which  are  generally  m^yun  nt 
eight  stories  high.  About  three  fourths  of  tt  iKnliiry 
ago,  the  point  of  confluence  of  the  two  rivers  wnn  ri<« 
moved  about  a  mile  further  soutii,  and  on  the  aiMlt|iin> 
al  territory  thus  acquired  the  sulmrl)  of  I'urrui  lie  vtm 
formed.  This  has  been  laid  out  on  a  regular  plan,  unit 
now  contains  many  elegant  streets  und  nonie  very 
agreeable  promenades.  The  snl)urli  of  La  ('rii|« 
Rousse,  to  the  north  of  the  town,  and  that  of  I'mir, 
viferes,  on  the 'right  bank  of  the  8a6ne,  aru  ihiully  in* 
hibitcd  by  silk- weavers.  Those  of  RntttnuuK  unit 
Guilbticre  are  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ithoil",  ilin 
best  view  of  tlie  town  and  neigliliorlioud  Is  obtujiii  r| 
from  the  summit  of  the  steep  hill  of  FoiirviirMa,  (m 
tlie  right  bank  of  the  Saune.  Tlie  furtiliralloiH  nf 
Lyons  consist  of  18  detacheil  forts,  arraiiKiil  In  a 
circle  of  12^  miles  around  the  town,  crowning  (lit, 
heiglits  of  St.  Croix  and  Fourviercs,  and  of  Criiix 
Rousse,  above  the  suburb  of  tliat  name,  und  inclinljiit; 
in  its  circuit  tlie  suburbs  of  llrotteaux  and  (Jull|iitlitri<, 
These  fortifications  are  required  mora  to  i|iit<ll  lii^ur' 
rections  among  the  inhabitants  than  to  wiiliatiMl'l  lit' 
tacks  from  without.  In  1831,  1884,  and  lMi)7,  fMtiiiliU 
aide  riots  took  place,  in  whicli  many  lives  wt-ru  lutt, 
Roth  banks  of  the  Saone  and  tlio  left  Imiik  of  Iliu 
Rhone  are  lined  with  quays,  some  of  which  iiru  pliiiiti-il 
with  trees,  and  afford  very  agreeable  proiiisiimlna. 

In  the  revolution  of  1793,  tiio  people  of  Lymn  IlilV- 
ing  declared  against  th»  revolutionary  party,  tlin  lity 
was  taken  by  tlie  conventional  army  after  a  ki^Iki'  iiC  uI" 
ward  of  two  months,  and  almost  reduced  t"!  ruiiin,  It 
suffered  severelv  from  the  inundations  ti(  its  two  riviirt 
in  June,  1866.  'Population  in  1861,  16U,1<W,— li,  U, 


pass 

asslgnc. 

liiny  un 

eriililj- 

Iwloiigii 

Canton 

season. 

In  1586. 

great  ! 

■'npan, 

etc., 

wmpan 

that,  if 

people, 

prosper 

senate  ( 

the  prir 

tlie  lian 

town. 

The  1 
it  and 
sufflclon 
anrlior  i 
from  flv 
All  ves! 
the  Port 
'own. 
generall 
Maca 
proceeds 
nation 


MAC 


1206 


MAC 


M. 


Mkoadom,  John  Loudon,  the  Introducer  of 
macadamized  road-making,  was  descended  from  nn  old 
and  reapectalile  family  in  Kirlccudbrightsliire,  and  was 
l)om  In  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  175G.  Jlis  plan  of  road 
improvement  occurred  to  him  when  actinj;  as  trustee 
for  a  district  of  roads  in  Ayrshire,  and  was  first  carried 
Into  practice  on  the  Bristol  roads,  of  which  he  had 
heen  appointed  surveyor-general  in  1815.  He  ex- 
plained his  system  fully  in  two  works — A  Practical 
Jiiiay  on  the  Scientific  Repair  and  Pretervalion  of  Pub- 
lic Jioaih,  London,  1819 ;  and  Remarks  on  the  Present 
State  of  Rond-makinff,  London,  1820.  In  1827  ho  was 
appointed  general  surveyor  of  roads ;  and  for  the  large 
sums  which  he  expended  while  performing  tlie  duties 
of  this  office,  ho  was  afterward  compensated  liy  two 
grants  from  government,  amoimting  together  to  £10,- 
000.  The  honor  of  knighthood,  which  he  declined, 
was  conferred  upon  his  ion  in  1834.  Macadam  died  in 
1836. 

Macao,  a  sea-port  and  settlement  belonging  to  the 
Portuguese,  on  tile  Island  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Canton  River,  in  China,  in  lat.  22°  12' 
46"  N.,  long.  113°  35'  E.  The  situation  of  Slacao 
strikingly  rcsemhles  that  of  Cadiz.  It  is  built  near 
the  extremity  of  a  peninsula  projecting  from  the 
south-west  comer  of  tlio  island  of  Slacao,  to  which  it 
is  joined  by  a  long  narrow  neck.  Across  this  Isthmus, 
which  is  not  more  than  100  yards  wide,  a  wall  is 
erected,  with  a  gate  and  guard-house  in  tlie  middle  for 
the  Chinese  soldiers.  The  greatest  length  of  tlio 
peninsula  belonging  to  the  Portuguese,  from  north- 
aast  to  south-west,  is  under  three  miles,  and  its  lireadth 
under  half  a  mile.  The  broadest  part,  to  the  north  of 
the  town,  is  flat,  and  of  a  light,  sandy  ooil ;  l)Ht  is 
well  cultivated,  principally  by  Chinese,  and  produces 
all  sorts  of  Asiatic  and  European  culinary  vegetables. 
Provisions  are  obtained  from  the  Chinese  part  of  the 
island  or  from  the  main  land;  and  whenever  the 
Portuguese  do  any  thing  to  offend  the  Chinese  au- 
tliorities,  the  provisions  are  cut  off  till  t'lcy  are 
obliged  quietly  to  sulimit.  Tlicy  are  seldom  allo^red  to 
pass  lieyond  the  narrow  precincts  of  the  territory 
assigned  to  them.  Tlio  population  of  the  peninsula 
may  amount  to  from  12,000  to  13,000,  of  whom  consid- 
erably more  tlian  half  are  Chinese.  The  functionaries 
tielonging  to  tiie  ICast  India  Company's  factory  at 
Canton  resided  here  during  tlie  whole  of  the  dead 
season.  The  Portuguese  olitained  possession  of  Macao 
In  1686.  it  was  for  a  considerable  period  the  seat  of  a 
great  tiade  carried  on  not  only  with  Cliina,  but  witli 
^apan,  Siam,  Cochin-China,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
etc.  j  but  for  these  many  rears  past  it  has  been  of 
comparatively  little  importance,  tliough  it  is  probable 
that,  if  it  belonged  to  a  more  enterprising  and  active 
people,  it  might  still  recover  most  part  of  its  former 
prosperity.  Tlio  public  administration  is  >'ested  in  n 
senate  composed  of  the  bisiiop,  the  judge,  and  a  few  of 
the  principal  inhabitants ;  but  all  real  authority  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  Chinese  mandarin  resident  in  tlie 
town. 

The  harbor  Is  on  the  west  side  of  tho  town,  between 
it  and  Priest's  Island ;  but  the  water  in  it  not  being 
sufflcicntly  deep  to  admit  large  ships,  they  generally 
iim  hor  in  the  roads  on  the  other  side  of  the  peninsula, 
ftoin  live  to  ten  miles  east  south-east  from  the  town. 
All  vessels  coming  into  the  roads  send  their  boats  to 
tlio  Portuguese  custom-house  on  tho  south  side  of  th.i 
town.     When  a  ship  arrives  among  the  islands,  she  is 

fcnerally  boarded  by  a  pilot,  who  carries  her  into 
lacao  roads.  As  soon  as  she  is  anchored,  the  pilot 
proceeds  to  Macao  to  inform  the  mandarin  of  the 
nation  she  belongs  to.    If  there  be  any  women  on 


board,  application  must  be  made  to  the  bishop  and 
senate  for  leave  to  send  them  on  sliore,  us  th»y  will 
not  bo  permitted  to  proceed  to  Whampoa  in  thg 
ship.  As  soon  as  the  mandarin  has  made  tha  nei'es> 
sary  inquiries,  he  orders  off  a  river  pilot,  who  lirlngs 
with  him  a  chop  or  license  to  pass  tho  Uocco  TlgrJH,  or 
mouth  of  the  Canton  Kiver,  ond  carries  tlie  ship  to 
Whampoa. 

The  Chinese  regulations  do  not  permit  any  vussels, 
except  such  as  belong  to  Portuguese  or  Spaniards,  of 
which  there  are  verj'  few,  to  trade  at  Macao.  Hut  tlia 
Portuguese  inhaliitants  lend  their  names,  for  a  trifling 
consideration,  to  such  foreigners  as  wisli  to  bo  assocl- 
ated  with  them  for  tlin  purpose  of  trading  from  tha 
port.  Independently,  however,  of  this,  vessels  of 
other  nations  usuallv  experience  no  dlfUcidty  in  oli- 
taining  the  conniviiuco  of  tho  Chinese  ofHcers  to  tlio 
landing  or  receiving  of  goods  in  the  roads  liy  means 
of  Portuguese  boats.  At  intervals  the  prohibitory 
regulation  is  strictly  enforced.  Vessels  of  other  mi- 
tions,  if  in  distress,  and  not  engaged  in  the  contraband 
trade,  are  admitted  into  the  harlior  for  repairs,  on  up. 
plication  to  the  senate. 

The  following  summary  exhibits  tho  diruct  trails 
between  tho  United  .St;itos  and  Macao  during  tlia 
j-ears  1854  and  1H.">5 — the  latter  year  up  to  March  (ith  i 
Arrived,  3  barks  and  1  ship,  measuring  1828  tons, 
liidcn  with  rice,  sundries,  salt  provisions,  and  nilscel. 
laneous  goods.  The  return  cargoes  were  chlslly 
Coolies. 

Port  Charges. — The  measurement  duty  paid  liy 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  vessel?  is  moderate.  When 
n  vessel  has  once  paid  the  full  amount,  and  is  admitted 
on  the  list  of  registered  ships  belonging  to  tho  port 
(limited  by  the  Chinese  to  25),  she  is  lialilo  only  to  a 
third  of  the  original  charges,  on  every  sulisequent  o«. 
casion  of  her  entering,  so  long  as  she  continues  on  the 
register.  Portuguese  vessels  fioui  Kuropp  do  not  pos- 
sess this  privilege,  unless  they  be  registered  as  belong, 
ing  to  a  morador  of  Macao.  Tlio  rates  of  measure, 
nient  duty,  w.  Ich  vary,  as  at  Canton  (wlilch  me),  on 
three  classes  of  vessels,  are  the  following ;  Dii  vessels 
of  154  covids  and  upward,  (i'223  t.icls  per  covid  j  on 
vessels  from  120  to  154  covids,  5'72  tacla  per  covid  | 
on  vessels  from  90  to  120  covids,  4  taels  per  covid. 

These  rates  arc  nearly  tlio  same  as  those  levied  on 
Canton  junks  trading  with  foreign  countries,  and 
ought,  in  fact,  to  bo  entirely  so.  The  dImonMons  ara 
tiikeii  and  calculated  in  the  manner  formerly  praiflccd 
at  Canton ;  but  the  Chinese,  at  both  places,  speak  not 
of  the  covid,  Imt  of  the  chang  of  10  covids.  lluwover, 
as  this  is  only  a  decimal  increase,  it  makes  no  dlllbr- 
cnce  in  tlie  method  of  calculation.  The  following  ad- 
ditional ciiarges,  to  be  calculated  on  tliu  amount  of 
measurement  duty,  arc  the  same  on  every  class  of  \  es- 
sets,  viz. :  2  per  cent,  for  inspectors ;  8  per  cent,  for 
difference  in  weiglit  by  the  treasury  Fcalos;  10  pur 
cent,  for  loss  in  melting ;  17  pet  cent,  for  making 
sycee.  Also  the  sum  of  70  taels  for  the  "  public 
purse,"  or  lioppo's  treasur}'. 

In  addition  to  these,  the  following  are  tho  charges 
levied  liy  tiie  hoppo  (collector  of  customs),  or  his 
deputy :  On  .i  1st  class  vessel  from  Kuropo,  i.'iO  taels ; 
If  lielonging  to  Macao  or  Manilla,  50  taels.  On  a  2d 
class  vessel  from  Kurope,  240  taels ;  if  belonging  to 
Macao  or  Manilla.  40  taels.  On  a  3J  class  ves.sel  from 
Kurope,  170  taels ;  if  belonging  to  Macao  or  Manilla, 
30  taels.  Ships  importing  rice  are  exempt  from  tha 
measurement  duty,  and  pay  only  $150,  as  fees  to  tho 
procurador  of  Macao  and  the  ofticers  of  his  depart, 
ment.  Portuguese  vessels  from  Europe,  In  addition  to 
the  measurement  duty,  have  to  pay  to  the  Canton 


MAO 


1296 


MAC 


hong  merchants  a  charge,  termed  lir  tli*  I'ortugtMMi, 
HanUtagem,  or  Consoo  charge,  wlilcli  U  uiiuall/  a 
matter  of  epeciflc  bargain,  varying  front  aliuut  (tVHI 
on  a  vessel  of  200  tons  to  (SUM)  and  uiiwaril  un  thimn 
of  600  tons,  and  of  larger  sizes.  The  I'lwrgtis  mi 
goods  carried  tiy  the  inner  passage,  li«twe«ii  CauUm 
■nd  Macao,  being  generally  lets  tliuu  tliiise  |ial<l  oil 
goods  to  and  from  Whainpoa ;  and  tli«  iluties  l«vf«d 
by  the  Portuguese,  on  articles  of  inercliiiiidliui  iiii|Mirt«d 
by  vessels  belonging  tn  Macao,  being  very  iiioiUirate  | 
the  Chinese  are  often  led  to  engugu  in  siwimUtlims 
on  board  the  Macao  vcHsels,  tliu  ri>l(  lieiiig  su  niui^li 
less  than  in  native  junlis.  If  the  sliip  iiwiuirs  cuul4 
manage  their  expenses  so  as  to  lie  satisfied  with  imlv 
the  same  freight  us  is  charged  liy  Kligllsb  v  nimU,  It 
would  probably  induce  many  more  Chineno  ft  m»k» 
remittances  in  this  way. 

Opium. — The  trade  in  opium  In  prohibited  at  Ma«fMi 
by  the  Chinese  government,  as  well  us  througliuut  III* 
rest  of  the  empire.  It  was,  uevertlieless,  foriiMirly 
carried  on  to  a  great  extent  liy  the  Purtuguesti  nii/ra- 
dores,  or  citizens,  to  (he  exclusion  of  all  others,  oven 
Portuguese  who  were  not  citizens,  Itut  tills  restrlo 
tioii,  having  occasioned  the  decline  of  (lie  Iroiht,  It  was 
abolished  in  1823,  when  the  senate  passed  u  reguhltioll 
throwing  open  the  trade  to  all,  witluiut  distiiii'tiuii, 
whether  Portuguese  or  foreigners  {  securing  Ui  tlie 
latter  "  hospitality  and  tlie  utmost  freetloiti  In  tb« 
speculations."  At  present,  however,  very  littlx  uplum 
is  imported,  in  consequence,  it  Is  saiil,  uf  tlie  lixavy 
bribes  demanded  by  the  Chinese  ofllcers,  Ui  Insure 
their  connivance.  The  trade  Is  now  prlii>'f|ially  car* 
ried  on  at  Lintin,  about  80  miles  from  Mucoii, 

Import). — Goods  imported  pay  at  the  I'ortuglMs* 
custom-house  a  duty  of  C  per  cent,  on  a  lix«d  valua- 
tion,  besides  some  fees,  and  Coolie  hire.  Till  folkiW' 
ing  are  a  few  articles  extracted  from  the  tarllf  i 


Vslstll'm, 

4 

l.ftHI 
W'MS) 
O'^fSI 
IWI 

vm 

H 

iffm 

I 'MO 
4 

)■<!«) 

Opium  Imported  In  Portuguese  ships,, , ,  ,per  elimt' 
foreign  ships ••       I 


ICotton p«r  picul 

Brood  cloth,  mlildling per  corlil 

better  than  urdliiury 
ordinary  or  coarse. 

Camlets 

Betel  nut per  picul 

Tin '■ 

Birds*  nosts,  1st  sort per  eatty 

Rattans per  picur 

Saltpetre,  Bengal " 

"        coast  of  Goo. " 

Pepper. 
"  ilui 


ISil^, 

'f  *•!.,"■ 

wm 
mm 
»»it 
liiitn 
itm» 
(HIT-; 

IM<III 
IMt 
(HIM 
S1t«l 
<H«I) 

m  dn, 

m  " 


Gold  and  silver,  whether  in  coin,  in  Imllion,  (ir  manti' 
factured,  pay,  on  importation,  2  |ier  cent,  i  ti%PK\tl  In 
Spanish  vessels  from  Manilla,  when  tlw  chargn  In  1^ 
per  cent. 

Exports. — Xo  duty  Is  levied  by  the  PortuglMM  «ii 
goods  exported  from  Macao ;  nor  d<;«s  the  custom' 
house  take  any  cognizance  of  tliem. 

Duties  and  Charges  on  Goods  landed  at  Afaemi, — 
Macao  is  a  place  without  any  manufactures  or  c<mi- 
merce  of  its  own.  Prices  are.  In  coiis<»{M«iic«,  gener- 
ally dependent  on  those  of  Canton,  Money  U  usually 
paid  at  72  taels  per  $100,  It  is  a  |Kiliit  uf  minm  itu 
tercst  to  ascertain  the  internal  duties  and  «ii|i«ns<ts  to 
which  goods  landed  at  Macao  are  liable  iMtforii  coming 
into  the  Chinese  purchaser's  hands  at  Canton.  Hut 
the  subject  is  so  involved  in  mj'stery  ami  uiiciirtiiinty, 
Mie  charges  vaq'ing  according  to  the  i|Uaiitity  of  goo«ls 
laden  in  one  boat,  etc.,  that  it  Is  scarcely  |Kwsibl«  to 
arrive  at  any  accurate  information  resfiectliig  It,  We 
believe,  however,  that  the  following  may  \m  consld. 
ered  as  a  pretty  close  approxlnutloa  to  the  real 
amount  of  charges  incurred  on  cotton  laiid«il  at 
Macao: 

Portuguese  duty,  fees,  etc,  2-6  moca  ft«r  picul  | 
duties  and  charges  on  conveyance  to  Canton,  ti-9 
m«c«  per  picul ;  Canton  cUargM,  dldTertuc*  ot  waigbt, 


lirokerage  on  sale,  etc.,  8  wac«  |>er  pjkwl  j  U4*i,  iti/m 
'2  taels  0-9  macs.  The  duties  «u4  liWi^*  '1M  M/ti^i.-^. 
ancfl  from  Macao  to  Ontou  are,  fur  (Xj/pirf,  ^  tttttftt  litti 
|ilcul)  rattans,  4  6  mace  (icr  f^/atij  imUi  ftttt^  ,j^^ 
mace  per  picul. 

The  homio's  examiner  charge*  90  i^tiU  ptf  k/itt  i>i 
Um  piculs,  the  largest  quantity  e)lo»iW|  |«  #«  «,y^. 
veyed  bv  a  single  Iwat ;  but  tine  um*  tlMf^-  i4  ftn 
taels  Is  levied,  although  tlie  l;o»t  th/mUt  "t4/  ff^iiu 
M)  piculs.  The  duty  on  exportjwg  t!f*'4*  (fi^  ('tin. 
Um  to  Macao  is  in  some  c«t>es  k**,  m  t4ii^f  /•■m^'n 
tttenUr,  than  the  Whampoa  duty.  Tbw*,  mtiti**it*  tt, 
Macao  pay  $2  per  KlO  less  thai*  lu)  Wtmmpm,  *M 
descriptions  of  silk  piece  goods  el»v  ^/  Uij»  iittfi. 
On  the  (rther  hand,  tea,  paper,  Cbm  *#«,  #(*,,  f«A 
a  higher  duly  to  Macao  thau  to  Wb*t)>f^m, 

fur  de  .lis  as  to  the  Wti/jhls,  ilt/tmrKii,  tt/t,,  #^  ^ 
UacK    •«.  Caktom. 

Por  further  particulars,  sue  HJmn/ft^if'ii  fr;,i^(  l„,t',^ 
(/uifltrer,  art.  Macvi  ;  Mjl.«i>*if's  MffUl,  Hum.--,  mi 
tlio  A  nylo-Ckinese  Kuieiidar  Cumfnuium  U)  fh*  Mmttmif, 

MlK'OO,  iWtVl, 

Macaroni,  a  species  of  wb«*te#  f«iMl#  (tiftmi  iMti 
long,  slender,  hollow  tulws,  used  imtmjl  it*  4fit<»f4 
with  cheese,  and  in  soups,  lirutiti,  H*;  Hitf4fimi  k 
the  same  substance  as  verwiuclU  i  tfyw  tmit  4idfimft, 
lietween  them  being  that  tM  iMt^  j»  ttm/U  iMa 
smaller  tubes.  Both  of  tlie«  #rc  f^^f0f(t4  itt  (f^i 
greatest  perfection  in  Naples,  whtiftt  mty  (Htm  (he 
favorite  dish  <^  all  <la8se»,  aitd  tif  Mitti^ifM  ^iti4 ftf 
the  bulk  of  the  population.  'I'ht  ntmr  i4  «#«  UmA 
wheat  (uraiu)  duro)  imported  (rimH>tt  IH/tf-i^  S*«#  j*  (^ 
l*»t  suited  for  the  manufacture  uf  mfH^tft^i,  lifitig 
mixed  with  water,  it  is  kite»4«d  hy  fmm*  i4  hin-^y 
WMKten  bim'ks  wrought  by  l«v#f*,  fjjf  U  Mftimtn '» 
siiflident  degree  of  tenacity;  it  U  timtl  fc^iswi,  tty 
simplfl  pressure,  through  a  mm>mr  t4  tt(4^f  w  ff*. 
trived  that  it  is  formed  into  huUmv  ^^iii»4«f*.■  ffce 
name  given  to  the  tubes  dcpewde  tm  ittMf  4UttmH:i 
those  of  the  largest  size  beiug  m**-4ffmi,  dm  W*»  (n 
them  vermicelli,  and  the  smoite^  M*(wj.-  M  (li^Viw, 
and  some  other  ploces,  the  paste  >ii  «i4^^*4  if^'  m  *i 
mixture  of  saffron ;  but  at  Najjles,  wImt*  Ni<  f^ttpitfjt.- 
iiun  Is  best  understood,  nothwif  w  >n*4  **»»■(*  *"»' 
and  woter  j  tlie  Ijest  Ijcing  mMf  uf  ttm  timf  i/f  hwij 
wheat,  and  the  inferior  sorts  of  M*e  dUnWiwf'.Wt  *(*«*♦. 
When  properly  prepared  ««4  WM  U*  »  mtijf. 
Neapolitan  macaroni  ossuuws  a  gftimkit  iWji^.-  H  h 
then  taken  out  of  the  alAfm,  4fl»*wJ  uf  m«  ##««, 
and  being  saturated  with  ivtM^ttffHM  imM  0it->y, 
and  sprinkled  with  fiuely-gro/Ud  *(,!(»**«,  ^  fi>im  g 
dish  of  which  all  classes,  frow  tli*  j/riw**'  U/  tiif  U^ 
gar,  (ire  passionately  fond.  JJwt  J^m-  mtf*fi^  Wfl»d  if 
tlie  |Kior  is  merely  Iwiled  in  jJaw  »ltM',  mt4  if  mfif 
eaten  with  any  condiment  wU»(tey*!f..  'fttf  ttm^m/iii 
usually  served  up  in  I'jighmd  w  mi,  t/jf  (*A>«#  f*«rtii*i> 
with  that  of  Naples,  to  be  »  4J.«gf*t(K<Ai tim  *WW>  » 
licars,  When  properly  prei>w*<j,  mt^»ft/iii  J*  wrt^i- 
tlous  and  easy  of  digestiou,  'fim  U//M'(tai  (Aim 
themselves  on  tlje  dexterity  »Hit  nitit4t  ftt^f  ,*»i«(h>* 
long  strings  of  raocaroui  mi  vietim^lii  Witii/m  l^imk- 
Ing  tliem, 

Mao*  (Gor.  ifacis,  ifuttuM^nUi/ffl^i  iht.-  fmllt. 
t'uelj),  ilusvaatlloum;  I't.  ifaei^,  kkuf  lU  itittsftl'tf ; 
It.  Mace;  8p.  Hacio;  P^rt.  ifumit,  yhf  li*  fiin  mtm- 
cmta;  IM.  tfueis),  a  thiu,  6M,,  fmmt/f»mm  (WM***^*, 
enveloping  the  nutmeg ;  of  a  Uv4f,  *»W(sfr  pH<«« 
color,  a  pleasant  aromatic  nmvUj  m>4  »  *#**,■  (.Hle*- 
Ish,  pungent  taste.  Mace  sbt/»i4  itt^  t-ittfftii  fi>i>^tt, 
lougli,  oleaginous,  of  uu  ex,tf«.#M'(y  ffMiffMM  ttttttt, 
and  «  bright  color— the  brii^U^  tim  t/Mtti.-  the 
smaller  pieces  arc  esteemed  thie  (**^..  ftm  pffftinfik 
mode  of  packing  is  iu  i>aleti,  pf»ssM  4mtt  «1^-«  iM^t 
firm,  whicli  preserves  its  ftogrwM*  ##4  w^lniHertce. 
It  is  Imported  from  the  Mt^tamif  t^imtt  d^  ittH  i*  to 
be  found.  The  import  tr«d<e  i»  mm^  ftif  U><H>«  tait- 
lUffltitlon  In  Great  Uritaiw  iCvr  jttoe#  }'mf§  (HiStig  #Ml 


MAD 


1297 


MAD 


81it  December,  1066,  wu :  in  1M4,  26,&84  Ibf. ;  in 
1865,  ii8,6C3  Iba. ;  in  18&0,  27,2U<J  llii.  The  proHcnt 
(1867)  duty  on  mace  imported  into  Greut  Britain  is  la. 
per  lb.  A  prodnction  ia  met  witli  on  tlie  cout  of 
Malabar,  so  like  inuce,  that  at  flrat  it  is  not  easy  to  be 
diathiguished ;  but  it  hoe  not  the  leiut  flavor  of  apici- 
neM,  and  when  chewed  lias  a  kind  of  resiny  taste, 

STATKMiiirr  snuwiNo  Tin  Imports  or  Macs  into  thb 
Unitxd  Htatu  roB  tub  Fuoal  Yiab  aitoiMn  June 
aotii,  ISSA. 

Whenr*  (miwrttd.  Poundi.  DoUtrt. 

Holland , 8,548  4,»8l 

Dutch  West  Inilles 640  171 

Dutch  East  Indies. IfiU  1,818 

England fi,»M  8,403 

British  Wt'St  Indies. 8  8 

British  East  Indlos 15,886  18,488 

China. 180  81 

ToUI 44,415  28,1K)» 

Machinery.  The  eSects  produced  upon  the  world 
by  the  interposition  and  general  use  of  uiacliinery,  are 
very  important.  Serious  obstacles  were  at  first  pre- 
sented and  objections  made  by  the  masses,  upon  the 
ground  that  the  use  of  machinery  was  opposed  to  the 
interests  of  labor.  Gradually  these  objections  wor^ 
away,  it  Iwing  found  that  there  was,  and  still  is,  em- 
ployment for  all  classes,  even  with  the  extraordinary- 
facilities  added  b}'  the  ma^}-  improvements  in  machin- 
ery. These  questions  have  been  fully  discussed  by 
some  of  the  ablest  writers  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  As  to  the  "  effects  of  machinery  and  accu- 
mulations," see  JiJin.  Rev.,  x.xxv.,  p.  102,  Ivi.,  913 ; 
Quar.  Sev.,  xxxi.,  801;  Fnuer,  viii.,  167,  ii.,  419; 
Am.  Monthly,  iii.,  24 ;  \V<uilm:  Rev.,  v..  101,  xiv.,  101 ; 
tforlh  Am.  Rev.,  xxxir.,  220,  xiv.,  401 ;  Am.  Quar., 
xii.,  300. 

Macintosh  Cloth.  The  manufacture  of  the 
Macintosh  cloth  is  a  singular  one.  The  material  is 
merely  two  layers  of  cotton  cemented  with  liquid 
India-rubber ;  but  the  junction  is  so  well  elTccted,  that 
the  three  become,  to  all  intents  and  purposen,  one.  The 
stout  and  well-woven  cotton  cloth  is  coiled  upon  a 
horizontal  beam,  like  the  yam  beam  of  a  loom ;  and 
from  this  it  is  stretched  out  in  a  tight  state  am'  a  near- 
ly horizontal  position.  A  layer  of  liquid,  or  rather 
pii!<te-like,  solution  is  applied  with  a  spatula,  to  a  con- 
siderable thickness,  and  the  cloth  is  drawn  under  a 
knife  edge,  which  scrapes  tho  solution  and  diffuses  it 
c(|ually  over  every  part  of  the  cloth,  which  may  be 
3U  or  40  yards  long.  The  cloth  is  then  extended  out 
i/n  a  horizontal  frujuework  to  dry  ;  and,  when  dried,  a 
second  coating  is  applied  in  a  similar  way ;  and  u  third 
and  fourth  may  be  similarly  applied  if  necessary. 
Two  pieces,  thus  coated,  are  next  placed  face  to  face 
with  great  care,  to  prevent  creasing  or  distortion ;  and, 
being  passed  between  two  smooth  wooden  rollers,  they 
are  so  thoroughly  pressed  as  to  be  made  to  unite  dura- 
l)ly  and  |)ermanently.  Cloth,  thus  cemented  and 
doubled  and  dried,  may  be  cut  and  made  into  garments 
wbicli  will  bear  many  a  rough  trial  and  many  a  delug- 
ing before  rain  or  water  can  penetrate. 

Madder  (Ger.  Fiirberuthe;  Du.  Mee,;  Fr.  Allzari, 
daranee;  It.  RMia;  Sp.  Oranza,  Rubia ;  Rus.  J/nri- 
ona,  Krap ;  Hind.  MunjUli),  the  roots  of  a  plant  (Rw 
bid  lindorum),  of  which  there  are  several  varieties, 
They  are  long  and  slender,  varying  from  the  thickness 
of  a  goose-quill  to  tliat  of  the  little  linger.  They  are 
semi-transparent,  of  a  reddish  color,  have  a  strong 
smell,  and  a  smooth  bark.  Madder  is  verj'  exten- 
sively used  in  dyeing  red ;  and  though  the  color  which 
it  imparts  be  less  bright  and  l>eautiful  than  tbiit  of 
cochineal,  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  and 
more  durable.  It  is  a  native  of  tlie  south  of  Europe, 
Asia  Minor,  and  India ;  but  ha.s  been  long  since  intro- 
duced into  and  successfully  cultivated  in  Holland, 
Alsace,  Provence,  etc.  Its  cultivation  has  been  at- 
tempted in  England,  but  without  any  beneficial  result. 
Our  supplies  of  madder  were,  for  a  lengthened  period, 
4N 


almost  entirely  derived  from  Holland  (Zealand) ;  bat 
large  quantities  are  now  imported  from  France  and 
Turkey.  Dutch  or  Zealand  madder  is  never  exported 
except  in  a  prepared  or  manufactured  state.  It  it 
divided  by  coiumercUl  men  into  four  qualities,  distin- 
guished by  the  terms  miiH,  gamen,  otHbra,  anil  cropt. 
The  roots  being  dried  in  stoves,  the  first  species,  or 
mull,  consists  of  a  powder  formed  by  pounding  the 
very  small  roots,  and  the  husk  or  bark  of  the  larger 
ones.  It  is  comparatively  low  priced,  and  is  employed 
for  dyeing  cheap  dark  colors.  A  second  pounding 
separates  about  a  third  part  of  the  larger  roots ;  and 
this,  being  sifted  and  packed  separately,  is  sold  here 
under  the  name  of  gainene,  or  gemeens.  The  third 
and  last  pounding  comprehends  the  interior,  pure,  and 
bright  part  of  the  roots,  and  is  sold  in  Holland  under 
the  name  of  lur  /crapt,  but  is  here  simply  denominated 
crops.  Sometimes,  however,  after  the  mull  has  been 
separated,  the  entire  residue  is  ground,  sifted,  and 
packed  together,  under  the  name'of  onberoo/Je,  or  om- 
bro.  It  consists  of  about  one  third  of  gamene,  and 
two  thirds  of  crops.  Prepared  madder  should  be  kept 
dry.  It  attracts  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
is  injured  by  it.  The  Smyrna  or  Levant  madder 
{Rubia  pereffriim),  tho  allzari  or  lizary  of  the  modem 
Greeks,  is  cultivated  in  Uccotia,  along  the  border  of 
Lake  Copals,  and  in  the  plain  of  Thebes.  It  also 
grows  in  large  quantities  at  Kurdar  near  Smyma,  and 
in  Cyprus.  Tlie  madder  of  Provence  has  been  raised 
from  seeds  carried  from  the  latter  in  17G1.  Turkey 
madder  affords,  when  properly  prepared,  a  brighter 
color  than  that  of  Zealand.  It  is,  however,  imported 
in  its  natural  state,  or  as  roots :  the  natives,  by  whom 
it  is  chiefly  produced,  nut  having  industry  or  skill 
sufficient  to  prepare  it  like  the  Zealanders,  by  pound- 
ing and  separating  the  skins  and  inferior  roots;  so 
that,  the  finer  coloring  matter  of  the  larger  roots  being 
degraded  by  the  presence  of  that  derived  from  the 
former,  a  peculiar  process  is  required  to  evolve  that 
beautiful  Turkey  red  which  is  so  highly  and  deserved- 
ly esteemed. — Tho.mson's  Chemiatry;  Bancroft  on 
Colors,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  221-278;  see  also  Beclcmann,  Hist, 
of  Invent.,  vol.  iii.,  art.  Madder. 

In  France,  madder  is  prepared  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  Zealand.  The  following  details  are  in 
regard  to  its  cultivation,  price,  etc.,  in  Provence. 

This  town  (Avignon)  Is  the  centre  of  the  madder 
country,  the  cultivation  of  whicli  was  introduced  here 
ohout  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  Alsace,  is  still  conlined  (In  France)  to 
this  Department  (Vauduae).  Tlie  soil  appears  to  be 
better  adapted  fur  Its  cultivation  here  than  anywhere 
else,  and  it  has  long  been  the  source  of  great  wealth 
to  the  cultivators.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  prices 
have  fluctuated  so  mucli,  that  many  proprietors  have 
abandoned,  or  only  occusionally  cultivated  this  root, 
so  that  the  crop,  wliich  was  formerly  estimated  to 
average  500,000  quintals,  is  now  supposed  not  to  ex- 
ceed from  300,000  to  100,000.  The  root  is  called  ali- 
zari,  and  tlie  ))0ttdcr  (made  from  it)  garance.  The 
plant  is  raised  t'runi  seed,  and  requires  three  years  to 
come  to  maturity.  It  is,  however,  often  pulled  in  18 
months  witliuut  injury  to  quality ;  tho  quantity  only 
is  smaller.  A  rich  soil  is  necessary  for  Its  successful 
cultivation;  and  when  tlie  soil  is  impregnated  with 
alkaline  matter,  the  root  acquires  a  red  color;  in  other 
cases  it  Is  yellow.  The  latter  is  preferred  in  England, 
from  the  long  habit  of  using  Dutch  madder,  which  is 
of  this  color ;  but  in  Franco  the  red  sells  at  2  francs 
per  quintal  higher,  being  used  for  the  Turkey  rod  dye. 
It  is  calculated  that  when  wheat  sells  at  20  francs  per 
hectolitre,  alizari  should  bring  35  francs  per  quintal 
i  (poids  de  table),  to  give  the  same  remuneration  to  the 
cultivator.  That  Is,  wheat  fills,  per  English  quarter, 
[  and  alizari  SMs.  per  English  cwt.  The  price  has,  how- 
j  ever,  been  frequently  as  low  as  22  francs  per  quintal. 
I  Prices  undergo  a  revolution  every  7  or  8  years,  touchi- 


MAD 


1208 


MAD 


\mg  the  minimum  of  22,  and  riainf;  u  high  as  100 
franci.  As  In  ever}'  similar  case,  the  high  price  In- 
(inrea  extensive  cuitivatlun,  and  this  generally  pro- 
duces its  full  effect  4  or  6  years  after.  The  produce 
of  Alsace,  which  is  inferior  both  in  quantity  and  qual- 
ity to  that  of  Vaucluse,  Is  generally  sold  In  Strakburg 
market.  England  employs  both  the  root  and  the  pow- 
der, according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended. The  Dutch  madder  Is  more  employed  by  the 
woolen  dyers,  and  the  French  by  the  cotton  dyers  and 
printers.  In  malting  purchases  otgaranrr,  it  la  essen- 
tial to  employ  a  house  of  confidence,  because  the  qual- 
it}'  depends  entirely  upon  the  care  and  honesty  of  the 
agent,  The^i'nMf  Is  produced  from  the  roots  after 
being  cleaned  and  stripped  of  their  bark.  The  lecond 
by  grinding  the  roots  without  cleaning.  A  third  by 
mixing  the  burk  of  the^'r>(  while  grinding ;  and  so  on 
to  any  degree  of  adulteration. 


Statkhknt  Siiowinu  ms  Ihpoets  or  Maddir  into  the 
Unitkii  Status  ro»  Tiiz  Fiscal  Ykah  esdinq  Jit.-)* 
80TII,  1HS8. 

Whtii^elmporttd.  Ponndi. 

Holland 4,26«,SM 

Belirium B01,66'i 

KnKlsnd 184,««S 

Malt*. T.TSO 

Brillsh  West  Indies »n 

Franco  on  the  Atlantic 886 

France  nn  tbu  Mtidllor IS,M«8,0SI 

Turkey  in  Asia. «9,1W 


ToUl 40,84T,47!J 


I>o1Urt. 

981,807 

84,973 

10,800 

4>0 

1 

20 

1,!87,IM6 

6,819 

1,671,80S 


Madagascar,  a  large  and  important  island  in  the 
Indiun  Occun,  about  300  miles  from  the  coast  of  Af- 
rica, from  which  it  la  separated  by  the  Itlozamblque 
Channel.  Cape  Amber,  its  northern  extremity,  is 
situate  In  S.  lat.  12°,  whence  it  extends  southward, 
slightly  inclining  tu  tjie  west,  about  937  Knglish  miles, 
to  Cape  St.  Mary,  in  S.  lat.  2n°  40'.  Its  extreme 
western  shore  is  in  F..  long.  43°  10',  and  its  most 
easterly  cape  in  E.  long.  50°  80'.  The  breadth  of  the 
Island  increases  gradually  from  the  northern  point  to 
the  centre,  where  It  is  widest,  being  about  350  miles 
across ;  while  the  average  breadth  of  the  southern 
portion  is  ulwut  250  miles.  It  has  been  estimated  to 
contain  ]f)(),0(XI,000  or  even  200,000,000  acres  of  land ; 
and  though  such  estimates,  in  the  absence  of  actual 
measurements,  car.  only  bo  regarded  as  approxima- 
tions to  its  actual  extent,  its  surface  is  equal  to  three 
fourths  of  the  territory  of  France,  and  larger  thon 
Great  Dritain  and  Ireland  combined. 

The  coasts  of  Madagascar  contain  a  number  of  bays 
and  harlKirs,  some  of  them  spacious  and  sheltered, 
and  capii1)le  of  affording  excellent  and  secure  anchor- 
ago  for  shipping  of  the  largest  dln\ensiona.  Among 
these  nitty  be  specified  Diego  Saurez  Bay,  or  British 
Sound,  near  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  island  ; 
Port  Loquez,  Antongll  Bay,  nnd  the  Bay  of  .St.  I.uce, 
on  the  eastern  coast.  Sumatave  and  Foule  Point, 
though  the  most  frequented  ports  on  this  side  of  the 
island,  are  only  oi)en  roadsteads,  protected  by  reefs  of 
coral,  St.  Augustine's  Bay,  a  port  of  frequent  resort 
for  vessels  trading  on  the  north-west  coast  and  ships 
engaged  in  tlie  whule  fishery-,  Tolia  Bay,  Boiana,  Bam- 
Ijetoku,  Majambo,  Kareenda,  Pasandava,  and  Chim- 
paykcc  Bays,  are  the  moat  import:int  on  the  western 
coast.  There  are  several  small  islands  adjacent  to  the 
noithcm  shores  of  Madagascar,  of  which  St.  Marj-'s, 
!)t  miles  long,  and  2  or  3  miles  broad,  on  the  eastern 
coast,  and  XosiliA,  a  somewhat  larger  and  more  com- 
pact island,  on  the  north-west  coast  are  the  most  Im- 
portant. Both  these  small  islands  are  now  occupied 
by  the  French — the  lattes-  having  been  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  them  In  1840, 

The  commerce  of  the  Island,  though  at  present  hut 
trifling,  is  capable  of  almost  unlimited  extension.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  cattle,  poultry,  rice,  rufla 
cloth,  matting ;  a  kind  of  grass  hat,  woven  by  hand, 
light  and  durable;  gums,   and  bees'  wax.      Coffee 


would  grow  well  In  many  parta  of  the  kland ;  hidlgo 
might  lie  produced  to  almost  any  extent ;  and  both 
might  ftimiah  valuable  artlclea  of  export.  Uood  sugar 
haa  bttn  made,  but  at  preaant  the  cane  la  only  culti- 
vated for  purposes  of  food,  or  for  distilling  from  Its 
Juice  a  atrong,  Hery  sort  of  arrack,  the  uae  of  which  it 
extended  among  the  people,  especially  at  tlie  ports, 
and  threatens  to  produce  the  most  disastrous  conse- 
quences. Other  articles  of  export  might  be  prodticnl 
in  a  country  so  fertile  and  extensive  ;  and  rice  miglit, 
with  but  comparatively  little  additional  labor,  be  raised 
In  much  larger  quantities  than  It  is  produced  at  pres- 
ent. It  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive  of  a  soil  mora 
adapted  for  the  cultlvati<m  of  rice  than  that  of  many 
parts  of  Madagascar,  or  more  fertile  than.  In  favuralile 
seasons,  it  often  proves — a  single  bushel  of  seed  yiuld- 
ing,  under  the  most  skillful  modes  of  culture,  in  a 
favorable  season,  100  bushels  of  grain.  The  <'r>i|i, 
when  ripe.  Is  reaped,  dried,  and  thrashed  on  the 
ground.  Their  process  of  thrashing  consists  in  taking 
up  large  handfulls  of  rice  and  straw,  and  beating  the 
ears  on  a  stone  or  (lortion  of  rock  fixed  in  the  midst  of 
a  dry,  hard,  thrashing-Hoor,  prepared  for  that  purpose 
In  some  central  spot  easily  accesaible  from  the  culti- 
vated fields.  When  the  grain' Is  thrashed,  it  is  carried 
on  the  heads  of  slaves  to  the  granaries  of  their  owners. 
These  granaries  vary  In  structure  in  different  parts  nf 
the  island.  On  the  eastern  coast  and  to  the  south- 
ward, the  grain  Is  stored  In  small  houses  raised  on 
posts,  with  projecting  ledges,  to  prevent  the  access  of 
rata  and  mice.  At  the  capital  and  some  of  the  central 
provinces,  the  rice  is  preserved  in  granaries  built  of 
clay,  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  with  only  one  aperture  on 
the  summit.  Some  of  these  granariea  are  built  above 
ground  adjacent  to  the  dwellings  of  their  owners ; 
others  are  conatrncted  of  the  same  form  and  dimen- 
sions under  ground — the  aperture  at  the  top,  generally 
about  a  foot  lielow  the  surface,  lieing  covered  with  a 
stone,  and  then  the  hollow  filled  up  with  earth  com- 
posing the  surface  of  the  court-yard,  in  which  the 
underground  granar}-  is  usually  sunk.  Kice,  by  these 
means.  Is  often  preserved  for  a  great  length  of  time  in 
excellent  condition.  With  land  so  fertile  and  adr.|>tcd 
for  the  growth  of  such  abundant  crops  of  rice  as  the 
plantations  in  the  interior  often  yield,  it  might  be 
raised  for  exportation  to  almost  any  extent ;  but  the 
absence  of  canals  and  public  roads,  and  all  means  of 
land  carriage,  precludes  the  possibility  of  conveying 
the  produce  of  many  of  the  provinces  to  the  aca-ports, 
excepting  in  comparatively  small  quantities,  and  thu; 
impedes  very  materially  the  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  island.  The  government  haa  been  de- 
terred from  constructing  or  encouraging  the  formation 
of  public  roads,  from  an  apprehension  of  the  facilities 
they  would  afford  to  a  hostile  force  invading  the  coun- 
trj-  and  seeking  to  penetrate  the  interior.  The  want 
of  good  roads,  therefore,  though  detrimental  to  their 
commercial  Interests,  la  preferred  )>y  them  as  a  means 
of  security.  This  disadvantage  might  be,  to  a  great 
extent,  compensated  In  some  of  the  provinces  by 
greater  attention  to  the  means  of  carriage  by  water. 
The  late  Radama  commenced  the  work  of  connecting 
some  of  the  principal  lakes  on  the  eastern  coast  by 
means  of  a  canal,  but  since  his  death  the  work  has 
been  discontinued.  Boats,  better  adapted  for  convey- 
ing grain  in  larger  quantities  to  the  places  adjacent  to 
the  ports,  and  accessible  by  water,  might  be  con- 
structed, and  would  assist  in  augmenting  the  exports 
from  the  island.  Their  Imports  are  chieily  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  wearing  apparel,  articles  of  domestic 
use,  fire-arms,  ammunition,  wines  and  liquors ;  and  to 
these  other  articles  will  doubtless  be  added  as  thcli 
means  of  purchasing  them  increase.  The  Hovas,  the 
paramount  race  in  the  country,  exhibit  many  of  the 
elements  of  a  thoroughly  commercial  people ;  keenness 
in  trade  seems  to  be  intuitive  with  many,  and  the  love 
of  bartering  almost  a  passion  among  all ;  scarcely  any 


MAD 


1299 


MAD 


MKXt;*"'''*"^  Interfsra*  with  tha  market,  and  multU 
tudes  employ  themaolvei  In  hawking  goo<ls  of  furaJKn 
or  (lomeatic  manufacture  about  the  country  for  tale. 
In  <  kU  occupation  many  peraonn  of  rank  and  property 
emp.'oy  their  nlavea,  giving  them  a  percentage  on  the 
imount  or  the  prollt  of  their  lalea.  The  dealings  of 
'.he  Ilovoa  are  teldom  tranxactlons  of  barter  or  ex- 
'thange,  but  unually  money  purchases.  The  only  coins 
I  hey  use  are  Spanish  dollars,  and  very  recently  five- 
franc  French  pieces.  For  all  the  cattle  exported, 
these  silver  coins  alone  are  received  In  payment.  The 
Malagasy  have  no  native  currency  ;  and  for  ordinary 
nse  among  themselves,  the  >SpanUh  dollar  Is  cut  Into 
halves,  quarters,  eighths,  and  smaller  portions,  even 
to  tba  l-72d  part  of  a  dollar.  The  cut  pieces  of  the 
dollar  are  weighed  in  every  Instance,  and  a  pair  of 
money  scales  with  their  appropriate  Iron  weights,  are 
nut  only  considered  essential  In  ever}-  house,  but  are 
often  seen  thrust  Into  the  girdles  of  the  men  when  em- 
ployed in  their  ordinary  avocations.  Money-changers 
are  a  distinct  class  among  the  traders,  and  the  rate  at 
which  whole  dollars  and  cut  silver  are  exchanged 
flualuatns  almost  dally  at  the  capital  and  other  princi- 
pal places,  as  the  one  or  the  other  are  most  in  demand. 
In  other  parts  of  the  island,  especially  those  remote 
fniin  the  capital  or  tho  ports  visited  by  shipping,  the 
trade  among  the  inhabitants  is  carried  on  to  a  great 
extent  by  exchange,  or  barter.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  by  the  foreign  traders  to  induce  the 
natives  to  receive  gold  coin  in  payment  for  cattle  and 
other  articles,  but  hitherto  without  success.  The 
Hovas  are  not  ignorant  of  the  relative  value  of  gold 
and  silver,  but  at  present  seem  only  to  value  rhe 
former  for  the  manufacture  of  jewelrj'  and  otl  er 
articles  of  per  jomil  ornament. 

Madeira.  The  Madeira  Isles  are  a  group  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging  to  Portugal,  from  the  south- 
west coast  of  wiilch  they  are  distant  600  miles  south- 
west. They  consist  of  the  islands  of  Slodeira  and 
Porto  Santo,  and  the  islands  called  the  Doscrtus,  situ- 
oted  between  32°  23'  15"  and  33°  7'  60"  N.  lat.,  and 
16°  13'  30"  and  16°  US'  W.  long.  The  largest  island, 
Madeira,  is  31  miles  long  and  12  miles  broad.  Popu- 
'ation,  1850,  108,464.  Capital,  Funchal.  It  consists 
■)t  a  mass  of  volcanic  rocks,  which,  in  Pico  Kuivo,  rise 
to  6056  feet  in  elevation.  From  the  central  mass, 
iteep  ridges  extend  to  the  coast,  where  they  form  pre- 
cipices of  1000  to  2G00  feet  in  height.  The' only  plains 
are  a  small  [lortion  of  the  west  coast,  and  the  table- 
land of  Paul  de  Serra  in  the  interior.  The  roads  are 
very  steep  and  unfit  for  carriages.  Oxen  are  the  only 
beasts  of  draught,  and  ponies  are  used  in  traveling. 
Climate  remarkably  equable,  and  celebrated  for  its 
salubrity,  on  which  account  numerous  vlsitars,  afflicted 
with  disease  of  tho  lungs,  constantly  resort  to  Madel.a. 
The  soil,  which  on  the  south  side  extends  2|  miles 
inland,  is  well  watered,  nnd  extremely  productive. 
Stipir,  once  extensively  cultivated,  is  now  neglected. 
Coifee  is  grown  of  superior  quality,  and  the  arrow-root 
is  excellent.  The  orange,  banana,  and  guava,  are 
abundant.  Wheat,  maize,  beans,  and  barley,  are  cul- 
tivated to  a  small  extent,  but  quite  insufficient  for 
home  consumption.  Ths  failure  of  tho  potato,  formerly 
the  chief  support  of  the  population  of  the  villages  and 
remote  districts,  has  added  to  the  existing  distress, 
and  the  condition  of  the  lower  orders  is  that  of  squalid 
poverty.  Madeira  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1431. 

It  is  sold  that  plants  of  tho  vine  were  convoyed  from 
Crete  to  Madeira  in  1421,  and  have  since  succeeded 
extremely  well.  There  is  considerable  differenco  in 
the  flavor  and  other  qualities  of  the  wines  of  Madeira ; 
the  best  are  produced  on  the  south  side  of  tho  Island. 
The  method  of  cultivation  most  generally  followed  is 
to  trench  the  ground  from  three  to  seven  and  seven  to 
nme  feet  deep,  according  to  tho  nature  of  the  soil,  and 
lay  a  quantity  of  loose  and  stony  earth  at  the  bottom, 


to  prevent  the  .■ooti  from  reaching  the  clayey  soil 
Iwaeath,  which  would  otherwise  oppose  their  growth. 
The  ground  is  watered  three  times  if  the  summer  has 
been  ver}'  dry,  the  sluices  l>elng  left  open  until  tha 
ground  is  pretty  well  saturated ;  the  less  the  ground  it 
watered,  tlie  stronger  the  wine,  but  tha  quantity  U 
dimlnlslied  In  proportion.  The  vines  ara  found  to 
bear  fruit  as  high  as  2700  feet,  but  no  wine  can  ha 
made  from  it.  Adjacent  to  Madeira  is  the  island  of 
Porto  Santo,  about  six  miles  long,  and  two  and  a  half 
broad.  It  is  high  and  rocky,  composed  principally  of 
sand-stone,  and  a  calcareous  tulTa  of  a  greenish  gray 
color.  The  vine  is  cultivated  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties, and  the  soil  yields  good  crops  of  wheat,  Indian 
com,  barley,  and  beans.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  1400,  and  there  are  !IUO  militia.  It  possesses  a  good 
roadstead,  liut  the  landing-place  la  bad.  Tho  Desertas 
are  small,  uninhabited  islands,  which,  with  Madeira 
and  Porto  Santo,  form  tho  group  culleil  the  Sladelraa. 
The  manufactures  of  Madeira  are  Insignillcant ;  their 
chief  ol>Ject  being  to  satisfy  some  of  the  simple  wants 
of  the  poorer  classes.  Ilaskets,  straw  hats,  coarse 
linen  and  woolen  articles,  and  shoes,  are  the  principal 
objects.  Artitlclul  feathers,  flowers,  and  sweatmeatt 
are  made  for  sale  by  the  nuns.  A  good  deal  of  needle- 
work embrolderj'  has  been  executed  of  late  years  by 
the  women  of  Funchal  for  exportation,  and  a  few  fancy 
articles  are  made  of  the  fibre  of  the  At/aee  Amrrirana, 
The  bulk  of  the  laboring  population  is  employed  In  ag- 
ricultural pursuits.  Wine  has  hitherto  been  the  chief 
article  of  export,  but  this  branch  of  trade  will  soon 
cease.  The  rearing  of  the  cochineal  insect  has  been 
lately  undertaken,  in  the  hopes  of  its  supplying  the 
loss  of  tho  grape.  Many  of  the  coopers  employed 
during  tho  existence  of  the  wine  trade  have  emi- 
grated ;  the  rest  cam  a  precarious  subsistence.  'I'he 
CMkn  they  made  possessed  repute  for  excellence  of 
construction. 


ARKIVALH   AMD 

DCPASTinilB   AT 

Fdnohai.. 

Vasn. 

BKITIna. 

Arrivtd. 

SaUad. 

No.  of 

Ton- 
nag*. 

No.  of 
Craw. 

No.  of 
Vaaaala. 

Ton- 

naga. 

No  of 
Crew. 

186i 
1858 
IB.'M 
1856 
1B50 

U8 

IDS 

107 

75 

76 

23,326 
21,431 
2.%003 
18,010 
18,000 

151)0 
10S2 
1787 
1050 
994 

% 
142 
1114 
7T 
TO 

2'2,8;i6 
24,579 
18,,^80 
10,515 

INS4 
1725 

17-26: 

1981 
878 

Vmii. 

- 

.    -- 

POKRION. 

Arrival!. 

1 

Sulad. 

No  of 

VoMli. 

Ton 
n«Ra. 

No.  of 
('raw. 

No.  of 
Vaiaali. 

Ton. 
nsira. 

No.  of 
Craw. 

1H52 
1853 
1854 
1355 
1850 

n5 

150 
!•.!(! 
117 
'.17 

2;i,fl92 
23,71» 
18,702 
17,274 
10,551 

ISOU 

20:i2 
1400 
1243 
1141 

176 
168 
127 
117 

ta 

23,746 
24,870 
19,019 
17,036 
16,213 

1826 
2I<3 

1471 
1260 
1140 

laroRTS  AND  KxroiTB  or  Fqhoual. 


Vaan. 

GstimHlatl  Vn 
In  BritUU 

10  of  Importa. 

Eallmatad  Va 

ua  of  Kipoita.| 

In  foraign 

In  Brillih 

In  foraiirn 

Veaiali. 

i;03,'240 

Veiaala. 

VcaMli. 

Vaaaali. 

1S62 

£811,1150 

i:ii4,oTo 

i;ti3,40O 

1853 

U0,5.'I0 

0.V570 

T-2,010 

20,'20O 

ISili 

03,400 

44,000 

89,2(10 

13,000 

1865 

59,200 

5(1,950 

68,1(10 

10, ISO 

1850 

T4,T0O 

4I,260 

47,S60 

29,300 

OovuERCE  OF  niK  ITnitkd  Statf-s   with   Pobtuoal  and 
Madeira  in  1850. 


National  charactar. 


From  Portugal. 
PortiiRucso 
Brlttsli 
SweiUsb 
Danish. 
Prussian 
Bremen. 
United  StatM 

From  MaJelra. 
PortU(!Ucso 
Uultod  States 


•    T 


MAD 


1800 


MAD 


OoMinMi  or  rnii  DiirrtB  Btatbi 

WITH  MaDI 

imA,  raou  Ooroimi  1,  18 

10,  TO  iVLX 

1,  IMM. 

1 

b|..U. 

Imparu, 

Wk«r«ir  Ihin  vu  !•  8<inioii 

Toutf  1  niarad.        1 

DowaUf. 

ronlfn. 

Tuial. 

T<M. 

■•inrM. 

tmmut. 

AmH.... 

rortlp,. 

8tpt.8'j,  mi 

iiMMi' 

■jilWlf- 

♦990,081 

*lt0.9a9' 

ti,oob 

♦10,986 

8,089 

ISM 

18«,9W 

4,1161 

191,814 

188,751 

6,600 

8,699 

Ill 

IS'JH 

Itr.SDA 

8,976 

191,661 

944,968 

486 

19,888 

4,078 

»M 

81^N9• 

96,847 

849,948 

947,810 

.   •  • 

99,9T1 

8,059 

1,             IMD 

l'M,!MU 

.W,H*1 

178,1116 

861,016 

68,000 

880 

6,861 

186 

.,     .    1M6 

1I9,I«8 

'AM9 

144,607 

994,«M 

19,160 

6,900 

4,990 

1«T 

KKI.IM 

18,981 

118,484 

999,989 

•      .  ■ 

ll.«M 

4,008 

1M« 

1(11,948 

9,98a 

111,988 

168,610 

1,167 

7,791 

4387 

911 

18W 

17^0I4 

18,1189 

190,168 

408,066 

60O 

9,660 

6,1)01 

6«9 

.  ,  ,    ,        IMO 

1M,T19 

19,888 

16H,n77 

989,689 

1.888 

6,000 

6,(180 

Total.... 

»1,W8,T88 

1198,940 

11,786,979 

|9,497,9i8 

♦70,990 

♦  100,896 

67,488     ■ 

'T,l96- 

BeptSO,  1M1 

|17I,B«8 

♦5,798 

♦177,991 

♦177,869 

♦8,667 

6,168 

im... 

lAMT 

999 

146.596 

998,818 

6,186 

4,098 

191 

IvSM 

JS»4 

II9,IM1 

15,1149 

1»»,»88 

819.849 

♦^48^ 

8,801 

869 

l()l).giO 

48,.MI.-, 

144,506 

494,699 

9,000 

4,089 

698 

188l» 

78,898 

98,598 

109.488 

581,266 

6,674 

9,61tS 

8,700 

Ml 

I8M 

88,  wa 

17.:<98 

66,888 

866,910 

4,011 

96 

9,414 

IMI 

88,747 

18,599 

1111,969 

672,789 

14,498 

4,950 

.... 

lf*S 

B«,«2 

4,.S85 

40,967 

8fl^274 

8,186 

.... 

8,46» 

ISIW 

M.O"* 

15,046 

79.198 

689,800 

14,148 

4,978 

1810 

Total.... 

9X819 
(991389 

92,858 
♦  179,848 

11^67T 
♦  1,100,989 

809,694 

14,019 

8,698 

8,968 

.... 

»8.9I>6,A91 

♦61,581 

♦99,188 

80,740 

1,497    1 

8»pt80.  IMt, ....... 

$107,908 

♦20,870 

♦128,275 

li.^99,519 

♦  19,920 

05,200 

4,626 

«J7 

mt 

4S,0M 

1,0.10 

44,984 

!J|6,1H9 

1,829 

100 

9,988 

9  moa.     114411 

87,649 

8,856 

41,506 

7,160 

9,606 

•  •  •  * 

1,067 

Juoaao,  IH44 

44,768 

7,598 

69,984 

99,904 

8,698 

9,404 

129 

18« 

A9,819 

1,T.H4 

61,096 

168,674 

9,1K)0 

*  t  .  • 

9,081 

491 

]84fl 

00,948 

8,257 

64,900 

197,070 

1,600 

8.885 

477 

1S4I 

li«,fl81 

1,889 

106.490 

9f.,867 

8,848 

1,046 

IMS 

110,849 

T,407 

118,949 

,*'fj 

699 

4,624 

1,444 

,   ,       1      1*49 

117,878 

759 

118,687 

78,759 

4,800 
868 

.... 

8,744 

1,678 

1850 

Total... 

I36,8T4 

8.5« 

148,401 

114,729 

4,189 

1.879 

t82V-'M 

♦.H»l>2 

♦s79,'OM 

♦995,286 

♦49,888 

♦5,800 

89,804 

6,959 

June  89,  l'«l 

(94.A89 

r,I76 

♦101,765 

♦102,448 

♦9,626 

8379 

1,.114 

IsM 

87,9Bi 

7,480 

95,419 

90,008 

7,000 

4,171 

606 

18M 

101,6il 

18,.^74 

1!7,09S 

77,598 

18,909 

8,707 

818     1 

ISM 

47,708 

47,708 

8>,007 

9,000 

821 

9S0 

18M 

48,609 

k261 

58,T«8 

9^g88 

3,986 

♦960 

1394 

811   : 

1886 

27,6S5 

9H9 

98,687 

19,788 

.... 

.... 

890 

870    ' 

The  cereal  crops  of  Madeira  are  «carce'y  equal  to 
one  third  the  con-iiiniption ;  liciico,  and  owiiif{  aliio  to 
the  general  poverty  uf  the  inhuhitant.'*,  u  decree  was 
parsed  ill  1M3  reduoinK  the  duties  on  the  loading;  for- 
eign imports  to  one  liulf  the  duties  levied  iu  Portugal. 
This  decree  is  in  furco  at  this  time,  and,  consequent!}-, 
but  half  the  duties  flxod  in  tlie  tariff  of  I'ortuKiil  are 
now  levied  on  foreign  imports  into  Aladi-iru.  In 
1843  the  ini|Hirts  from  the  Uniteil  States  anicunted  to 
il6!),900,  and  tlie  exports  from  Madeira  to  the  lJnitv<l 
States  to  $2750,  employing  !W  vessels,  \vitli  iin  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  8,'>.').1  tons.  The  coiniuerce  of  this  island 
with  foreign  nations,  and  especially  with  the  United 
States,  is  declining,  and  must  continue  to  decline  so 
long  as  the  vines  remain  diseased,  as  wine  is  the  onl)' 
article  of  export  from  ^ladeiru. 

See  .l»i.  Juiir.  Sriemv,  xxiv.,  '2117 ;  Xorlh  Jtrit,,  vii., 
7.S ;  A'nrtA  Am.  He,,.,  xlvi.,  836  (by  J.  W.  Wkhstkh). 
I'or  Madeira  Wine,  see  Wine. 

Madeira  Nut,  or  Persian  Walnut  {.Iii;ilims 
rfffia),  originally  a  native  of  Persia,  or  tlio  north  of 
China,  has  been  somewhat  extensively  distriliuled,  and 
appears  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  middle 
and  southern  latitudes  of  tlie  United  States.  A  tree  of 
the  "Titmouse''  or  "thin-shelled"  variety  (jui/lana 
regln  tenera),  about  20  years  planted,  45  feet  in  height, 
and  15  inches  iu  diameter,  standing  on  the  premises  of 
Colonel  I'eter  Force,  in  tho  cily  of  Washington,  is 
perfectly  hardy,  and  bears  yearly  an  abundance  of  ex- 
cellent nuts.  This  is  considered  the  most  valuable  of 
all  the  walnuts,  as  tho  tree  begins  to  bear  in  eight  or 
ten  years  from  plrnling  the  seed  ;  and  the  fruit  is  very 
delicate,  keeps  well,  and  is  ricli  in  oil.  In  Cashmere, 
where  the  walnut  is  the  subject  of  careful  cultivation, 
tht  re  are  four  varieties  :  Tlie  "  Kanak,"  or  wild,  the 
nut  of  which  is  diminutive,  with  a  thick  shell  and 
scanty  kernel;  the  "  Wantu,"  having  a  largo  nut, 
with  a  thick  and  hard  shell,  a  delicient  kernel ;  the 
"Uenu,"  also  a  large  nut,  with  a  thick  and  rather 


hard  shell,  and  a  kernel  large,  good,  and  easily  ex- 
tracted; and  the  "  Kaghazt,"  so  culled  from  its  slicll 
being  nearly  as  tliin  as  paper.  The  latter,  which  niny 
bo  readily  broken  by  the  hand,  is  tho  largest  of  all, 
having  a  kernel  easily  extracted,  and  producing  iin 
excellent  oil.  Its  superiority  is  said  to  be  attriliutiilile 
tc  it .  having  Iwen  originally  engrafted,  but  it  is  now 
raised  from  seeds  alone,  and  does  not  degenerate.  I'hc 
nuts,  .^fter  being  steeped  in  water  eight  days,  arc  plant- 
ed in  tile  beginning  of  March,  and  tho  shoot  genendly 
makes  its  appearunce  in  about  40  days.  If  reared  liy 
grafts,  the  process  is  performed  when  the  plant  is  live 
years  old.  The  head  being  cut  off  horizontally,  at  a 
convenient  height,  tho  stock  is  partially  split,  or 
opened,  and  the  scion  inserted  in  a  similar  manner  to 
that  adopted  by  our  cleft  method,  in  grafting  the  ap- 
ple or  pear;  but  clay-mortar,  worked  up  with  rice- 
husks,  is  put  roimil  it,  and  kepi  from  washing  away 
by  being  enveloped  in  broad  slips  of  birch-bark. — /'ii- 
lent  Office  Jtfport,  IS.'ia. 

In  Cashmere,  the  walnut-tree  begins  to  fruit, 
ordinarily,  when  seven  j-ears  old;  but  two  or  three 
years  more  elapse  before  it  is  in  full  bearing. 
Tho  average  annual  number  of  nuts,  brought  to  ma- 
turity on  a  single  tree,  often  amounts  to  25,000.  It 
has  been  observed  that,  after  a  few  seasons  of  fill 
liearing,  the  trees  fall  ofT  in  producing  fruit,  and  run, 
with  great  luxuriance,  to  leaf  and  brunch.  To  tliis 
latter  condition  tho  Cashmereans  apply  the  appella- 
tion of  "  must,"  and  to  remedy  the  evil,  cut  off  all 
tho  small  branches,  bringing  the  tree  to  the  state  of  a 
pollard.  The  year  following,  shoots  and  leaves  alone 
are  produced,  which  arc  succeeded  tlie  next  fason  l)y 
an  abundant  crop  of  nuts.  The  cut  ends  of  tho 
branches  swell  into  knots,  or  knobs,  which  are  some- 
what unsiglitly  in  the  tree,  until  they  are  concealed 
by  the  growth  of  the  young  branches  and  leaves. 
When  ripe,  the  fruit  of  the  Wuntu  walnut  is  ret^dlcd  in 
the  city  at  the  rate  of  about  2  cents  a  100,     Tho  nuta 


ror 


In  Mad 
fathoms 
W.,  2  mil, 
generally 
year,  in 
interval, 
October  th 
until  the  li 
coming  In 
soundings 
I'uint  Pah 
cording  to 
ance  office, 
Ing  the  sui 
nude  of  \ 
in  the  sea. 
Might  ren 
ence  of  tl 
time  in  g 
the  nwei 


MAD 


1)101 


MAD 


111 
am 


1,4!1T 
MT 


491 

477 
1,04« 
1.444 
1,678 
1,879 
"6,9M" 

1,814 

ftta 
2M) 
811 
870 


of  th*  Dnnu  an  wld  for  tbuut  1)  e«nU  per  100 1  and  of 
the  KukHhiI,  at  alwut  4  crntt  |>«r  KtU.  It  ii  a  cum- 
nion  practice  fi>r  the  country  peupla  to  cr^ck  the  waU 
nut*  at  home,  and  carry  the  keriwlii  ahme  to  market, 
where  they  are  Hold  to  oll-preieem,  forextractinif  their 
oil.  The  kemalu  yield  half  their  welKht  in  oil ;  and 
the  other  bulf,  which  ronslatii  of  ail-culiu,  Ih  much  val- 
ued an  food  fur  cowa  in  winter,  when  it  i»  iiKUally  ex- 
chan/ed  fur  ita  weight  of  rouith  ricn.  Alwiit  l,l(i(l,0(H) 
pound*  of  walnut  kornela  aru  unniiully  cunHi^ned  tu 
the  oll-prcaa  in  OanlimerK,  proilucinK  u  lurt(c  umiiunt 
of  oil  and  cake,  liaaldea  a  cnnaideralile  <|iianlity  euten 
by  roan,  or  cunaunied  liy  other  nio<laH.  Walnut  oil, 
in  that  country,  la  preferred  to  linnDcd  oil,  for  all  the 
purpoaea  to  which  the  latter  la  applied.  It  U  employed 
in  cookery,  and  alao  for  ImrninK  In  lam|M,  witliout 
much  cloKKhiK  the  wick  or  yielding  much  urnoka.  It 
la  exported  to  Thibet,  and  brinxa  a  cunildcrabia  prolit. 
Ily  ancient  cuatom,  the  crop  of  nota  woa  equally  di- 
vided lietween  the  Rovernnient  and  the  owner  of  the 
tree,  but  at  preaent,  the  former  takea  time  fourtlia ; 
yot,  even  under  thia  oppruaaion,  the  cultivation  of  thia 
product  la  extended,  and  Cashmere,  in  proportion  to 
ita  iurfacp,  pruducua  a  much  larger  quantity  of  nuta 
than  any  other  |iortlon  of  the  t(l<>hB-  KatimntinK  tlie 
product  of  each  tree  iit  a  buahol  of  nuta,  iind  auppoa- 
init  that  it  will  produce  that  quantity  in  12  or  Ifi  years 
after  planting,  and  conaiderinif  that  the  amount  Im- 
ported into  tiila  country  ia  valued  at  leaat  at  $100,000 
per  annum,  the  inducementa  fur  ita  culture  by  the 
farmera  and  pluntera  of  the  middle  and  aouthem 
Htatea  would  appear  to  Iw  sufHcieiitly  ample  fur  their 
immediate  attention. — Patrnt  Office  Heporl. 

MacUaa,  the  principal  emporium  of  tho  coaat  of 
Cororoandel,  or  western  shore  of  the  liay  of  llenual ; 
latitude  of  lighthouse  1»°  5'  10"  N.,  lunif.  80°  20'  E. 
It  ia  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  second  presi- 
de'.cy  of  British  India,  hnvint;  under  it  a  territory, 
Including  the  tributary  States,  of  187,482  square  miles, 
with  a  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1850-61, 
of  27,054,672,  paying  a  gross  annual  revenue  of  nearly 
£4,900,000  olerling.  The  town  is  situated  la  the  Car- 
natic  provincn,  a  low,  sandy,  and  rathe  r  sterile  coun- 
try. It  ia  without  yn't  or  harbor,  lying  close  upon 
the  margin  uf  an  open  roadstead,  thu  shores  of  which 


are  constantly  bent  by  a  heavy  surf      tU«Id»a  tbaai' 
^  diaadvantugea,  a  riipid  current  nma  uluiijt     lut  roaul 
anil  It  ia  within  tlie  nplicre  of  the  hurricimea  or  ty- 
plwona,  l)y  which  it  ia  occaaionnlly  vialled.     In  everj- 
I  raapni't,  indeed.  It  la  a  very  inconvenient  place  for 
trade,  and  its  coninverce  la  conaequetitly  greatly  Infe 
i  rior  tu  that  of  oitli.'r  Culruttii  or  Itomliay.     It  has 
I  lieen  in  tlie  imaai'anlon  of  the  ICngllah  oliove  two  ccn- 
I  turics,  liavliig  li«rn  founded  liy  tliom  in  l(131t,  and  ro- 
'  tulued  ever  nince.     Fort  St.  (icurgo  ia  a  atrung  and 
i  hiindauniu  furtlllcatlim,  lying  close  to  tlie  allure.     Tha 
j  llluck  Town  of  Madras,  aa  It  ia  culled,  atanda  to  tha 
1  north  and  euatwunl  uf  tlin  fort,  from  which  it  la  sep- 
j  arated  by  a  spacious  eHplaiiiide.     Here  reside  the  ao- 
tlve,   Armenian,    and    I'ortiigueao    inorcliunta,    with 
many  Eurcjpcana  uncuiinected  with  tlic  government. 
Like  most  other  Indian  towns,  it  ia  irregular  and  con> 
fused,  licing  u  mixture  uf  brick  and  banilioo  huuaes. 
Madras,  like  Culruttu  and  Doiiibay,  U  subject  to  En- 
glish IttWi    having  a  Supreme  Court  uf  .ludlfiituro, 
tho  Judges  uf  whicli  are  named  liy  ttiu  crown,  and  are 
altogether  iiide|ivndent  uf  the  local  government  and 
tho  East  India  Company.    Tlio  population  is  nut  ex- 
actly aacurtaineil,  liut  tliere  are  said  tu  lie  aliuut  400,- 
000  iwraons  within  a  radius  uf  2J  milea  round  Vurt  St. 
Cicurge. 

Sludras  is  tlio  scat  of  all  the  chief  government  offi- 
ces for  the  President  of  tlio  Supremo  i^uurt.  Hoards  of 
revenue,  admiralty,  education,  etc.  j  and  though  hav- 
ing leas  fnreign  trade  than  tlie  capitals  of  tlie  other 
preaidcnciea,  its  commerce  la  still  considerable,  nF  it 
is  tlie  chief  emporium  of  the  Oirunmndel  coast,  and 
trades  direct  with  (ireat  llrituin  and  tlie  ntticr  Euro- 
pean countries,  the  United  States,  Ccyiun,  and  south- 
oast  Asia.  Principal  imports  are  rice  unil  other  grains, 
cbietly  from  Uengul ;  cotton  piece  goods,  twiht,  and 
metallic  wares  from  Great  Dritain ;  raw  silk,  areca, 
lietel,  gold  dust,  spices,  and  teak  timber  from  Pegu ; 
spirits  and  wines,  coral  I>ead8,  horses,  drugs,  to  tho 
total  value.  In  1851-52,  of  Xl,9ri8,73«.  Exports  of 
cotton  stuffs  and  woid,  indigo,  pep|>cr,  tlnilier,  coffee, 
and  other  native  produce,  amounted  in  tho  same  year 
to  ^3,075,103.  The  site  of  the  city  furmed  tlie  first 
territorial  acquisition  by  the  Dritish  in  India,  pennis- 
siun  to  erect  a  fort  here  having  been  obtained  in  lG3i), 


SVHH'.RY  or  THR  KXTIiKXAl  CoUMKRCK  Or  Ml^DRAS   BY  8KA,    IN    1S49— AO  AND   ISAD— 51. 


for  Ui<  ;••»  1M(-U. 

Frivau  lrad«. 

Juliipun)'*  (rHiic 

J  Grand  tiilaL 

MircbaiKllM. 

Troaaw*. 

Tnlnl. 

Men-hiulJIw. 

Trrasiir.'. 

TouJ. 

Imports. 

Eiporta. 

I'x'.'l  riilw,.!, 

1.82,ir,T4a 
a,«it,HS,86» 

Cu.'«  nipMi. 

42,8«,514 
9,10,42T 

Cfi.'a  niiNM*. 
l,74,fi4,lSi6 
2,46,48,7K8 

Co.'i  niiHjci. 

2,80,S8« 

B  1,944 

Cu.'a  miKiui, 

69,70^000 

2,!)«,«1)9 
00,51,944 

Cii.',  rii)H-rt, 

l,7«,90,71t5 
«,06,(S  1,780 

Total 

8,«s,Bfl,101  1    61,4«,941 

4,20,IW,M2 

8.IS,488 

69,711,000 

62,»(i,4S>8 

1  4,82,91. .ViS 

ror  lb«  yean  1850-11. 

1,84,47,091      80,42,4.17 
2,81,22,274      11,»7,6I»1 
8,9»,69,8«6      72.40:128 

1,94,S»,528 
2,78,19,905 
4,08,09,498 

97,88.1 
1,81.078 

3,28,904 

«.1,Oflloi'K) 
8tt,IMI,00U 

97,838 
8481,073 
8^,28,900 

),»5.S7,S«1 
I  8,07,51,088 
!    6,08,88,:)1)9 

Kiports 

Total 

In  Madras  roada,  lar  je  ships  moor  in  from  7  to  9 
fathoms,  with  the  flag  .tafT  off  the  fort  bearing  W.N. 
W.,  2  miles  from  shoic.  From  October  to  January  is 
generally  considered  the  most  unsafe  season  of  the 
year.  In  consequence  of  the  prevalence,  during  that 
interval,  of  storms  and  typhoons.  On  the  15th  of 
October  the  flagstaff  Is  struck,  and  not  erected  again 
until  the  l&th  of  Deceiib  jr ;  during  which  period  a  ship 
coming  into  tha  road<,  or,  indeed,  anywhere  within 
soundings  on  the  coas'.  of  Curomandel  (r«ckoned  from 
Point  Palmyras  to  Ceylon),  vitiates  her  insurance,  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions  of  the  policies  of  all  insur- 
ance oCSces  In  India.  The  cargo  boats  used  for  cross- 
ing the  surf,  called  Afaaula  bouts,  are  large  and  light ; 
made  of  very  thin  planks  sewed  together,  with  straw 
in  the  seams  Instead  of  caulking,  which  it  is  supposed 
might  render  them  too  stiff.  When  within  the  influ- 
ence of  the  surf,  the  coxswain  stands  up,  and  beats 
time  in  great  agitation  with  bis  voice  and  feet,  while 
the  rowers  \rork  their  oars  backward,  until  overtaken 


l>y  a  strong  surf  curling  up,  which  sweeps  tho  boat 
along  witli  frightful  violence.  Every  ear  is  tlien  plied 
forward  with  the  utmost  vigor  to  prevent  tho  wave 
from  taking  tho  boat  buck  as  it  recedes ;  until  at 
length,  by  a  few  successive  surfs,  th,  liuut  is  tlirown 
hlgli  and  drj'  upon  the  beach.  The  boats  belonging 
to  ships  in  the  roads  sometimes  proceed  to  the  back  of 
tlie  surf,  bud  wait  for  tlie  country  buats  from  *he  beach 
to  cume  to  tliom.  When  it  is  dangerous  to  have  com- 
munication with  the  shore,  a  flag  is  dispLiyed  at  the 
beach-house,  which  stands  near  the  landing-place,  as  a 
caution.  The  flshermen  and  lower  classes  employed 
on  the  water  use  a  species  of  flouting  machine  of  a 
very  simple  construction,  named  a  catamaran.  It  Is 
formed  of  2  or  3  logs  of  light  wood,  8  or  10  feet  in 
length,  lushed  together,  with  a  small  piece  of  wood 
inserted  between  them  to  serve  as  a  stem-piece.  When 
ready  for  the  water,  they  hold  generally  2  men,  who 
with  their  paddles  impel  themselves  through  the  surf, 
to  carry  letters,  or  refreshments  in  small  quantltitl 


MAO 


isoa 


MAn 


tu  tblp*  whun  no  boat  run  vantiir*  ont.    ThKy  w«»rl  flom»rii«t<hira  (ha  ilUil  th»  I7lh  .Ian;  ItOI),  who  Ant 


u  (Miiiitwl  mil  niiidii  nf  limiting,  wlinm  tliry  anura  tha 
lail«r>,  whli'h  UkM  III)  <liiiii;i)(n.  Tlin  man  uro  oflait 
waaliail  ulf  thn  riitiiiiurun,  wlilcli  thry  ra|(iilii  hy  awhn- 
tnlng,  unlaai  intarru|itail  liy  u  alinrk.  Maiiula  ara 
ylvan  li>  tucli  I'uliiniitruii  iiiimi  iia  (llntloKiilah  Iham- 
lalvaa  liy  aavldK  iwrHima  lii  Anti^i't, 

Tlia  lliiiltail  axtaiit  iif  tlia  trdila  of  Muilrua  iia  I'oni- 
parixl  with  thiit  of  CiUiiitU  niul  ll<iiiil>iiv,  li  partly 
amrlliMliln  t<i  tha  liu<liii'.<i<  of  lt<  |Mirt  or  ri>ii(l>t<>a>l,  tho 
want  iif  liny  niivit(jil>li<  rivar  nr  iithar  aaay  maunii  iil' 
cuininunlfatlim  with  (hn  Intarior,  ami  Iha  Imikwnril 
•tata  uf  tlin  jiriivlncaa  iif  whii'li  It  In  tha  I'lipitiil,  hi  nun- 
ui|Ui'nva  lit  tha  heavy  iinil  llui'tiintin){  lumt  tux  to 
whli'h  thay  urn  aulijart.  In  lx:il)  III,  thara  iirrlvail  iit 
Mailraa  nu  fawar  thuii  Ti,  I'JII  vaanaU  (.ini'liiilliiK  thair 
re|>aiitail  vnyuKOH  nf  tho  nK)(ra)(iitn  liunlan  iif  illli'i,!!!.^ 
tiilia.  Hut  Ijy  fur  tlia  uri'Utar  nuiiiliar  of  tha««  ware  of 
vary  unitill  liiinlan  ;  ■>,KVi  lialii({  I'oiintry  iruft  from 
Iliiniliay,  N&:|  fnnii  ( 'ayhm,  unit  fiM.'i  frmii  lion.  In  tha 
ciiumo  of  thii  HUiiin  yviir  HI  va»iialii  iirrlvail  fruin  tha 
Unltuit  Klii({diiin.— II.vmii.tiin'm  A'(i<(  Imliti  dasillrer ; 
i!roy.  /tirt.f  art.  Maih'itA ;  MiultitA  Atmtinnr  for  IKII!), 
1810,  unil  1HI5 ;  OJffiiidt  Hrliinu  of  ihr  Tnulr  of  M,i<l. 
roj,  itr. 

Maelstrom, urMoakoe-Strom,u  whirlpool  In 
tha  North  8aa,  n«ur  tha  ULinil  Mimkiia,  In  aumnii'r 
it  la  liut  llttla  ilun)(»niuji,  Imt  it  U  vary  iniK'h  no  in 
wiutar,  «ii|ic>'iully  whan  tha  north-wast  winil  rantruin^ 
the  raSux  of  tlio  tlila.  At  nuih  time*  tha  whlrl|iiiol 
ruKan  violently  no  a.i  to  li«  heuni  hovituI  inilt'H,  unil  lo 
oiiifulf  aiuull  vcaiialit,  anil  «van  whulai,  whirh  u|h 
prouch  It.  >Sati  l.oroiiiiN  iHi.ANiin.  .Sca  ulnn  Kka- 
ikii'h  Mug.,  X.,  W'. 

Mugellan,  or  Magalhaana,  Straita  of,  ilivlda 

the  continent  of  Siiutli  Ainerlcu  from  tha  Inlunil  Tiarru 
del  I'lie^o;  the  aunt  antMiii'e  in  fornii'd  liy  (':ipM  da  In 
Vir^liioH,  on  thu  inulnlanil,  iinil  liy  Cupa  ilal  Fjiplritii 
Buiito  (Quoi'ii  (,'uthiirlnn'it  Forelund),  on  one  of  tha 
lurKest  inluinU  i'oiii|Mining  Tlerra  drl  l''iia)(ii.  Length 
nearly  illJV  nillan,  axtandInK  lietween  hit.  M"  10'  und 
66°  8.,  and  lonn.  M°  20'  and  7.'i°  W.  Navi({utlon 
dlfllcult.  Dlnt'ovarad  In  i!)W  liy  Karnnndu  Mn)(ul' 
huenii.  Ferdinuiid  Do  Mii)((dlan,  or  MaKalhacnn,  tha 
dUi'uverer  of  the  atruitn  tliut  liear  liin  name,  wua  liy 
Idrth  a  I'ortii^ueHe.  Mo  nerved  with  honor  In  the 
Kunt  Indian,  and  In  lolO  dintinituinhad  liimnalf  ut  the 
liultle  of  Malui'i'u.  Ho  entered  into  the  eniploynieiit 
of  C'harlea  V.,  King  of  Npuln,  und  in  conjunction  with 
Ituy  Kolero,  formed  the  liold  denign  of  dIncovurinK  a 
new  panHngo  liy  tho  wont  to  the  Molucca  InUndn.  On 
the  °JOth  iSeptoinliar,  I'lll),  ho  nulled  from  Han  I.ncue, 
with  live  nhipn  und  '2M  men.  After  iiiuny  cxertionn, 
he  induced  two  of  hin  nhipn  to  pronvcuto  the  entire 
voyage ;  und  entering  upon  the  ntruitn  which  now  Uiur 
hin  nuino,  he  noon  reuched  tho  .South  8au.  Tha 
weather  wun  no  uuifurmly  teiii|i«ruta,  und  the  neu  no 
culm,  that  they  called  the  ocean  I'ucitic.  Mugallun 
vinited  plucen  nean  for  the  llrnt  time  tiy  Kuro|ionnn; 
and  in  vinitint;  Mutan,  the  nutivon  gave  liattio,  und 
Magellun  wun  nluin,  in  tlie  your  15'il.  Hut  for  thin  he 
would  have  boon  tho  llrnt  clrcumnuvigutor  of  the 
world,  which  honor  wua  necured  hy  Cuno,  who  brought 
hin  nhiiu  home  liy  the  luint  Indies, 

MagnaalB  (Fr.  Magnetie;  Ger.  (lehraunlt  Magiie- 
$ia ;  It.  Magnula),  one  of  tho  primitive  earths,  having 
a  metallic  banin.  It  in  not  found  native  in  a  state  of 
purity,  but  in  easily  prepared.  It  Li  inodorous  and  in- 
sipid, ill  the  fonn  of  a  \ery  light,  white,  soft  powder, 
having  a  spocitic  gravity  of  2'3.  It  (urns  to  gr«an  the 
more  delicate  vogetulde  blues,  in  infusiiilo.  and  requiran 
for  its  solution  2tX)0  parts  of  water  at  (10".     See  M.\n- 

UANESE. 

Magnet.     Sturmius,  in  hin  Kpitlola,  dated  r.t  Al- 
torf,  1882,  observes  that  the  attractive  quality  of  the 
magnet  has  been  taken  notice  of  from  time  iinmemo- 1 
rial ;  but  that  it  was  Roger  Bacon,  of  Ikhestor,  in  i 


dUi'ovarail  Ita  prii|Hirty  of  pointing  In  Ihn  mirth  piila. 
'I'ha  Italians  dUinvarad  thai  II  voiild  coniinunlculu  lu 
virtiia  lo  ntaul  or  Inin.  Tha  variation  not  lmlni(  alwuys 
tha  nam*  was  taken  notlca  of  by  llavallna,  Ivm^  ,,„| 
others,  Havio  (lliija,  of  Naiilas,  Invantnl  or  inipr'uvail 
tha  niarlnnr'n  conipaas  In  iml.  'I'ha  lni|Hirlaiit  illaciiv. 
ery  of  tha  Imllnathin  or  dip  of  tha  niagnallc  naadla 
wun  inuda  ulHiiit  Ki7ll(pulillsh«il  iriWI)  by  Itnbart  Nor. 
niMii,  of  l.iiniliin.  l)r,  llllliart's  axparlmahl  Wna  iiimln 
In  lillKI.  Artllleial  magnsts  ware  Invaiiind,  nr  rather 
IniproTad,  in  ITi'il.  A  niagnrtb'  clock,  invanlad  by  Dr. 
l/ocka,  of  Ohio,  announced  at  Wanhlngton,  ilanuary  A 
INK).       NmiCoMfAW,  ' 

Magnolia.  Tha  inagnollu  ronapiciiu,  or  lliy- 
llnwerHil  magnolia,  na  Ita  naiiia  Imileutaa,  la  a  liauuliriil 
anil  nhowy  traa,  and  dlallngnlahabla  from  all  nthcra  of 
Iha  gaiitia  by  tha  axpaniling  of  Iha  lliiwera  iiafnra  any 
of  the  laavea.  A  full. grown  traa.  In  lis  native  iiiiin. 
try,  la  nalil  In  atluiii  a  height  of  forty  or  tifly  fact,  nnd 
it  hun  arrived  ut  nearly  Iha  aania  alavutlon  In  |'',iira|ia 
ami  America.  The  itim  was  llrst  Intrmlucad  into  V.n. 
gland  by  Mir  .biaaph  llunka,  in  I'NU)  but  It  wua  muhy 
yearn  iH'fora  It  altrac(«d  much  attanlinn,  being  cunald- 
ared  inaraly  iin  a  grasn-houa*  or  conaarvatiiry  plant. 
Within  tha  laat  20  yaura.  It  liua  baan  dlaiovari'd  to  In 
neurly  an  hardy  aa  tha  Ameriniii  mugnollna,  ami  la 
now  moat  axtanalvfly  cultivated  In  the  nuraerlaa  of 
llritain,  ciintinantal  Kurup",  and  the  Cnilad  .Statea.  I| 
llowern  fraaly  every  vsar,  an  a  nlandunl  In  the  nelgh. 
Inirhoml  of  London,  New  York,  und  I'hiladalplila,  wliiui 
the  wiHid  haa  been  proiierly  rliiaiiad  during  tliepraiml- 
ing  numniiirj  und  at  VVIiltn  Knlghta,  In  Kiiglaiid;  at 
Froniont,  ami  vurbiiia  other  plui'as  In  Francif;  and  at 
Monisa,  In  Italy,  luid  llrooklyn,  In  Naw  York,  it  haa 
ripened,  seeds  from  which  young  plants  have  liaau 
raiaad.  I'mfxTlirt  iiwl  f 'do,— Healdaa  thn  valiiii  of 
the  magnolia  conaplciia  as  an  ornaiiiantal  plant  nr  tree, 
the  ('hliiene  pickin  tha  llowar-liuds,  after  having  nu 
inovail  their  calyxes,  and  iisfl  tliain  fur  lluvorliig  rli;e. 
Madicinully,  the  saada  are  tukan  In  powder.  In  cniila, 
und  inHammatloni  of  the  cheat.  It  In  also  ragurdeil  na 
stomachic  j  and  wulor,  In  which  It  has  lM<en  atne|iail,  la 
used  for  bathing  the  eyas  whan  Inllained,  und  fur 
clearing  them  of  gum, 

(Inigmphy  imil  lliilunj. — The  inugnollii  glaiiiu  haa 
tho  inont  axtvnnivtt  range,  es|Hiclally  near  tha  nea,  nf 
any  of  tha  genua.  It  abounds  from  MuaauchuaaKa  'ii 
Louiaiunu  unil  IMisaouri.  Ita  moat  iiorlharn  liomiilar)' 
niuy  be  considered  a  •heltared  nwuiiip  In  Muiicluater, 
(Jajie  Ann,  alwut  DO  mllai  northerly  of  ilnatun.  It 
hero  attains  but  a  small  aina,  and  In  fraquanlly  klllr  I 
to  the  ground  by  suvaro  wintera,  In  thn  niurltlino 
purtn  of  tha  Fhiridus  und  lower  Lotdnlnnn,  It  la  one  nf 
the  most  abundant  unmng  thn  traas  which  gruW  in 
moranaes  or  wut  gronndn.  It  In  not  uaiially  mot  with 
fur  Interior,  nor  to  tha  went  of  tho  Alleghuiiiof.  In 
the  (JundlnuB  and  Ueorglu  It  grows  only  within  llie 
limits  of  tha  piiie-barrsna.  This  s|iaclas  wua  liitni- 
ducod  into  Kngland  by  llev.  .lohn  llanlator,  who  Ncnt 
it  to  illnhop  Coinpton,  at  Fulliuni,  in  liMN,  It  waa 
soon  uftarwurd  genarally  propagutad  by  Anierliiin 
seeds,  und  lieuamu  known  throughout  ICuro|io  iiiniiy 
yearn  liafora  any  of  tha  other  s|iacion.  At  Wdliiirn 
Farm,  ('hertnay,  there  wna  fiirnierly  ■  row  of  Wvn 
trees  20  feut  high,  and  Hourly  A  century  olil,  wlilrli 
froquondy  rl|iuned  their  seadn.  In  Frani'a,  and  amitli- 
ern  Kuropa  gonerully,  thin  apnniss  in  not  vary  aliuiul- 
ant,  from  tho  great  haiit  of  tho  summers,  ami  (lie 
general  dryness  of  Iha  uir.  At  Varnailtas  and  tlin 
Petit  Trianon,  ua  well  us  In  llalgium,  It  has  ultaineil 
the  height  of  lA  feet,  In  (ha  north  of  (larmuny,  niul 
in  Sweden  and  Kusaia,  it  la  m  grann-houno  planl.  At 
Monzu,  In  Ituly,  It  is  found  in  all  of  Its  varlatiei.  In 
general,  this  traa  can  only  ba  iisiid  for  omumantnl  pur- 
poses, and  no  oolloction  should  be  without  it.  Tho 
wood,  hownvor,  is  aomotlinos  oinployod  for  making 


MAtl 


1308 


MAI 


licit    llllK 

•I'll,  "f 

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iiiiiiliir}' 

lllliKtlT, 

tun.  It 
\y  kllli"! 
iirlllmo 

4  dill'  of 

iiW  III 
t  with 
>.     In 
Hliln  III" 

UK    IlllM- 

wliii  »i'nt 

It    WIIK 

Anicrliun 
jm  inmiy 
t  Wuliiini 
■w  iif  til'"'*' 
111,  whii'li 
mill  iiiiiitli- 
ry  iilmiiil- 
mill  III" 
mill  III" 
I*  iiltiilnt'il 

miiiiyi '""' 
pliint.  At 
li>tl««.  I" 
nuntul  put- 
,t  It.  Tho 
rut  nwWIivii 


jBlnan*  timti ;  tnil  tb*  h*rh  la  tlm  ua«4  In  torn*  p«rt« 
nf  Ih*  ri>iintr>',  llkii  Ihiil  iif  tha  I'lnrhiina,  In  tha  raaa  of 
InUrmltlanl  ami  rfiiilttrnt  favara.  It  la  irnmnlli'  ami 
pilBK«nt,  amuirantly  mnra  mi  than  tha  nthar  aparlaa, 
Whan  illxtllli'il,  it  hiia  «  |M>riilUr  flitvnr,  ami  an  ampy- 
raiimalli'  amrll.  In  «  ilry  >tala  It  nlTiihla  a  lUtU  raain, 
Tha  arnmn  U  vnlatlla,  iinil  pMlmlily  rnntalna  an  aaaan- 
lUI  ull,  or  •  varlaty  of  raniphiir.  tha  liark,  aaada,  ami 
rimaa,  «rn  rnipliijail  In  tinitiirr,  In  I'hnmlr  riMUiniu 
lUm.  Thut  rrom  th*  cimm  la  vary  lilliar,  ami  la  amna- 
llmaa  uanl  to  riira  <'iiii|{ha  ami  pactural  illaaaaaa,  ami 
tut  pravi-ntlnK  niituninal  favara.  Tha  rinwara  In  a 
driail  aliit*  may  li«  uaad  In  ilrawlnK-niima  fur  put 
fmnrri,  aa  a  Hiilialltnta  fur  Ihoa*  uf  tha  Illy  of  tha 
Tallay.     llniiwuK'a  Trtrt  itf  Amrrien. 

Maho(mny,  th*  wimmI  <if  a  Ira*  (/(wiWaniii  MnAitg- 
ant)  KTnwInK  In  tha  Waat  Inillraanil  < 'antral  Amarli'a. 
Thar*  ara  twii  nthar  apvi'laa  iif  .Swiatania  fnunil  In  tha 
Eaat  Inillaa,  liiit  thay  ara  not  mufh  known  In  thia 
rountry.  Muhn)(any  U  on«  nf  tha  moat  iimjaalic  and 
Iwaiitlfiil  of  treaa ;  tta  trunk  la  oftan  40  faat  In  lanxth, 
•ml  )l  fact  III  illainrtnr ;  iinil  It  ilivlilaa  Into  an  many 
inaaar  arma,  unil  throwa  tha  ahaua  nf  Ita  ahlnln^  Kr«mn 
taavaa  nvar  an  vii^t  iin  axlvnl  of  anrfdrc,  that  faw  mora 
DiaKnIllrpnt  olijacta  ara  to  lia  mat  with  in  tha  v«Katiilil« 
world.  It  la  aliiiml.int  In  ('iilin  iiml  lliiytl,  and  It  uaad 
to  lia  plantlful  In  ,luniiil<'ii ;  hut  In  tha  Utt<>r  lalami, 
moat  of  tlia  larKar  treaa,  at  leaat  In  ai'nraatlda  altua- 
linna,  liiivo  liaan  lut  down.  Tha  prlni'lpal  lni|iortii- 
linna  into  (iraat  llritain  ara  miida  fnim  llonduraa  ami 
('atn|M>ni'hy.  Tliiit  whlih  la  liii|Hirtad  from  tha  lalanda 
la  cnllcil  Npaniah  muhoKimy  ;  it  la  not  ao  liirKx  aa  thut 
from  llonduriia,  lieinK  t(anariilly  in  lo^a  from  '.'()  to  'itt 
inchaa  a(|unra  and  10  feat  loiiK,  while  tha  luttar  la 
uaually  fnmi  'i  to  4  feat  aiiuara  nnd  I'i  or  14  feat  loni{, 
hut  aoma  IngK  ora  imii'h  liiruar.  MahoKiiny  la  a  vary 
beautiful  itnd  vuluahla  a|w('lea  nf  wnod  ;  ita  colnr  la  a 
red  brown,  of  dilTarant  ahndua,  and  varlnua  daxreca  of 
briKhtnoaa ;  anmatimi'a  yaUowlah  hrown  ;  often  very 
much  veined  nnd  ninltlcd,  with  darker  ahiidei  of  tha 
inme  color.  The  texture  la  uniform,  and  the  annual 
rlDga  not  very  diatinot.  It  hiia  no  luritar  aepta;  liut 
the  amaller  aeptn  are  often  very  visible,  with  porea 
between  them,  which  In  the  llon.luraa  wood  are  ((an- 
erally  empty,  hut  in  the  8punlsh  woml  are  inoatly 
filled  with  n  whitiah  auliatiincn.  It  haa  noithnr  taate 
nor  amall,  ahrlnka  very  little,  and  warjia  or  twiata  leaa 
than  any  other  apeciea  of  timlier.  It  la  very  durable 
when  kept  dry,  but  does  not  laat  lon^;  when  ex|M>aed 
tn  the  weather.  It  la  not  attacked  by  worm*.  Like 
the  pine  trllw,  the  timber  ia  liest  on  dry  rocky  sella,  or 
in  expoaed  altuationa.  Thut  wlilcb  la  moat  acceaaible 
at  llonduraa  gToyi»  upon  moiat,  low  land,  and  ia,  |{en- 
erully  apankinK,  decidedly  inferior  tn  that  brim^ht 
from  Culm  nnd  lluyti ;  \mng  toft,  courae,  and  apon^y, 
while  the  other  la  cloae-Kruiiied  and  hard,  of  a  darker 
colnr,  and  aometimca  atrungly  Hffured.  Ilondurua 
muh<i|;any  haa,  however,  tlie  udvuntUKe  of  buldln); 
glue  ndmiralily  well ;  and  ia  frequently  uaed  aa  n 
grouailon  which  tn  lay  vcneera  nf  the  liner  aorta. 

N't  long  aince,  Meaara.  liroiidwood,  the  piano-forte 
mnnufacturera  of  Uindon,  Rave  the  immenae  aum  of 
jC.1000  for  three  loga  nf  muhngany  I  Theae  loga,  the 
produce  of  a  tingle  trte,  were  each  about  15  feet  long, 
and  88  Inchea  aquure :  they  were  cut  into  venecra  of 
eight  to  nn  inch.  The  wood  was  particularly  beauti- 
ful, capable  nf  receiving  the  hlgheat  polliih,  and,  when 
pollahed,  reflecting  the  light  in  the  moat  varied  man- 
ner, like  the  aurfuce  of  a  cryatul ;  and,  from  the  wavy 
form  of  the  porea,  offering  a  different  figure,  in  what- 
ever direction  It  waa  viewed.  Ueulora  in  mahogany 
generally  intmiluce  an  auger  before  buying  a  log ; 
but,  nutwithstanding,  they  are  seldom  able  tn  decide 
with  much  preciaion  aa  to  the  quality  nf  the  wood,  ao 
that  there  ia  a  good  deal  of  lottery  in  the  trade.  The 
loga  for  which  Meaars.  Uroodwood  gave  an  high  a  price 
wen  brought  to  England  with  a  fUU  knowledge  of 


thair  anptrlor  worth.     Maho||*ny  w«*  UMil  In  rtpalf. 

liiK  Mimi'  of  .Sir  W.  H^laluli'a  ahlpn  at  Trinidad  in  IW7, 
MiihiH/<iHi)/i,r  .sAi/i-hHilJiui/.-lH  conacquenua  uf  tlic 
Increaalng  uarcilv  of  goial  oak  linilwr  fur  aliip-liiilld 
log.  tha  uin  uf  liomluraa  nialiouany  aa  a  lulMtllula 
haa  laixly  vary  much  iiicraaaed,  iMith  In  KngI  mil  aii.l 
nthar  parta  of  I'.urop".  M.  ,\rnun,  Iht  wall  knnwii 
•hlp-liiilliiar  at  llnrdaaux,  In  lN,i7  rnoile  aonie  anp  ri- 
nia'ita  to  aararlaiii  tha  a'.reugth  nf  mahuHanv  aa  com 
pared  with  oak  and  Irak.  A  (.lora  of  aacii  kind  of 
wooil,  alaiut  four  inchaa  aquare,  w.ii  placed  acroaa  the 
machine  mad  for  proving  chain  (ni.le,  and  a  pleie  nf 
chain  waa  altai  had  to  a  ring  fixe  I  In  tin  caiitre  of  It. 
A  atrain  Inlnir  laid  on,  the  uak  lirnlm  under  a  force  of 
IMH)  kllograma  |  tha  tank  with  tli..t  of  XKNI,  and  III* 
Honduraa  mahoKany  of  a4lH).  Thu  oak  and  leak  ap- 
peared aa  if  cruahed,  lint  without  a  complete  ilixjuiic- 
tion  nf  (he  llbraa;  the  mahoKanv  >liowndlung  a|ilinKiri<, 
indicating  a  much  longar  gruin  or  libra  than  the  olbara. 
M.  Arniaii  cnnalilara  Ihia  raauli  ua  a  concln«ive  prmtf 
that  mahogany  ia  auparinrfor  many  kliidaof  thip  iiulld- 
Ing  purpoaaa,  though  It  ia  laaa  llexllile  than  go<Hl  trench 
oak.  MM.  I,n  Mire  unil  Hon,  bulldera  at  Koma,  give 
the  reault  of  uaing  mahogany  in  u  veaael  which  they  had 
bulll,  the  4i<<'/<,  racenlly  re  uniaii  from  a  long  vnyage, 
The  cnptuln,  in  a  tailor  to  the  liiiilders,  givea  a  inuat  aal- 
lafaclory  account  of  the  alale  of  thu  veaoel. 

iMFnara   or    Maiihixny   ami  ornaa   Wonna    into   thi 
t'MiTin  NTATia  ma  Tua  \  bar  anniaa  Jdni  uii,  idM. 

ImpoH*.  Mtnulkfitiml.     rauiauufNrlura^. 

Cabinet  ftiriillurn $«1,7'<I                

I  'eilar,  inabuiniiy,  elo 'it.Mtl  1440.1!  IA        ■ 

Willow I'jft.miH  »»,!M 

l!ork »IW,MI  It,)*) 

live  w»o<i9 n»,im 

Oiliera  II 'tapijclllod 4'i«.'JIB  M,lft; 

Total (IMI,8;H        $l,W)7,*mV 

There  are  aavaral  vurletiea  of  muhngany,  muili  ad- 
mired, and  aoiight  after,  for  the  lieuuty  of  their  tigiiroa, 
nnd  the  gradatinna  of  their  colora,  which  may  be 
deacrilind  aa  fnllnwa : 

1.  ri.Air*  Maiioiiant.  i4cii;oii  hhi  of  the  French, 
the  wood  of  which  la  of  one  color,  and  equal  through- 
out, 'i.  VKiNr  Maiiimiany.  Acajou  m'ni<,  French. 
The  wood  nf  thia  variety  ia  veined  inngitudiiinlly  with 
the  grain,  dlapliiying  alternately  dark  and  light  atroaka, 
coiitlnuoua,  interrupted,  or  re-u|i|i«aring.  il.  Watkkki> 
Maikhiany.  /I tii;'i>u  miiiVii,  French,  Thia  variety  hi 
known  by  the  trunaverae  wnvea  which  exhibit  tu  the 
aye  an  effect  aimilar  to  tbnae  nf  u  wuterod  ribbon.  4. 
Vki.vkt-corii, orl'ATBiiiMl.i.AR  Maiiouany.  Acajou 
chmilU,  French.  Thia  vnrlety  ia  diatinguiahcd  by  ita 
whitiah  linea,  accompanied  by  a  figured  ahiide  nf  frag- 
meiita  of  roaeute  apriga,  here  nnd  there  diapoae,'  ding- 
onnlly,  longitudiniiily,  interrupted,  or  cmasing  oi  «  an- 
other. 5.  l>inii'a-KYK  Maiiouany.  Acajou  mom  lieli, 
F'rench.  Thia  variety  ia  beaprinkled  with  little  nval 
knota,  whicli,  when  duly  proportioned,  render  tho 
wood  half  light  and  half  dark.  6.  Fkhtoonkii  Ma- 
lloaANY.  .  I  I'ly'oii  iimccur,  French.  Thia  variety  ofTem 
in  ita  color  a  mixture  of  light  and  ahude  uaui  lly  re- 
sembling ahcuves  of  wliuiit.  fealhera,  wreutaa,  fes- 
toons, or  llgitrea  of  abrulia.  Aa  the  woo<l  of  inahnguny 
ia  generally  hard  and  takoa  a  fine  polish,  it  is  found  tn 
serve  better  than  that  uf  any  other  tree  for  cabinet- 
making,  for  which  purpoae  it  ia  universally  admired. 
It  ia  very  strong,  and  answers  well  for  beams,  Joists, 
plank.'<,  boards,  and  shingles,  for  which  It  was  formnrly 
much  used  in  Jamaica.  Its  uduptution  to  a)iip-bullding 
we  have  already  mentioned  in  the  history  of  thia 
tree. — Hr.iwsk's  Trfe»  n/ America. 

Maine,  the  most  north-easterly  State  of  the  re- 
public of  tlie  United  States  of  America,  extends  from 
lit.  43°  to  47°  '24'  N.,  and  lietween  long.  6°  and  10° 
K.  from  Washington,  and  contains  an  area  of  85,000 
square  miles.  Population  in  1790  was  96,540;  In 
IHOO,  151,719;  in  IHIO,  ■2'2H,705;  in  18'20,  '298,886;  in 
1830,  399,996 ;  in  1840,  601,793;  and  in  1850,  688,088. 


^k 


%>'l 


MAI 


1304 


MAI 


Sabaatian  Cabot,  who  was,  after  the  time  of  Colum- 
bus, the  first  European  nnvi^ntor  along  the  coasts  of 
Maine  and  its  viclnit}',  appears  not  to  have  given  a 
nam*  to  the  countries  discovered  by  him.  The  eldest 
and  greatest  name  in  these  parts  of  North  America  ia 
that  of  "  B(tccalao»" — a  name  given  by  the  Biscay  flsh- 
ermen  at  flrst  to  Newfoundland,  and  then  also  to  all 
the  countries  which  they  found  near  this  inland.  On 
some  old  maps  the  name  "  Haccalaot" — that  is  to  say, 
the  oud-flsh  countiy — reaches  over  a  great  part  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  America,  but  it  appears  more  particu- 
larly in  the  regions  of  our  State  of  Maine.  Stephen 
Qomex  was  the  Drst  Spanish  navigator  who  discovered 
(1526)  and  explored  the  coasts  to  the  west  and  to  the 
north  of  Capo  Cod  a  little  more  |iarticularly,  and  we 
therefore  see  on  the  Spanish  maps  these  regions  desig- 
nated with  the  name  of  "  Tierra  de  Gomez"  (Uomez's 
I^nd).  So,  for  instance,  at  first  on  that  of  Kibiero 
(1529),  and  afterward  on  many  others.  After  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,  when  Gomez  was  more 
and  more  forgotten,  another  name  was  introduced  for 
these  regions — that  of  "  Norumbec."  We  can  not  ex- 
actly point  out  the  occasion  at  which  this  name  was 
invented ;  but  we  find  it  in  tlie  latter  half  of  the  16th 
anil  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  on  nearly  all 
the  maps  of  these  regions.  The  name  seems  to  be  of 
Indiiin  origin,  like  the  name  of  Kcnnel>ec,  Quebec,  and 
different  others  which  have  bee  for  the  last  syllable. 
Perhaps  some  unknown  sailors  heard  it  pronounced  by 
the  Indians,  and  introduced  it  among  the  geographars, 
who  were  always  fond  of  new  namen.  It  was,  how- 
ever, changed  and  spelled  in  many  different  ways: 
Norubec,  Noromiwc,  Aramlwc,  Norumberge,  Norum- 
tierque,  Norimbequa,  etc. 

The  savans  of  the  time  supposed  that  there  was  in 
the  interior  of  this  northern  country  a  large  city  of  the 
same  name,  like  that  old  famed  "  Temistilan,"  in  Mex- 
ico, and  that  through  this  city  was  running  a  large 
broad  river,  which  was  also  called  the  Biver  of  Norum- 
berge. It  is  probable  that  with  this  name  our  Penob- 
scot Bay  and  its  rivers  were  designated.  They  from 
this,  therefore,  called  the  whole  ountrj'  "  Im  Terre  de 
Norumhenpie"  or  the  coasts  of  Arambec. 

Kngliih  Setllert.— At  the  same  time  the  English 
introduced  here  another  name,  that  of  Virginia,  under 
which  they  comprised,  since  1584,  pretty  much  the 
whole  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America.  Custom  and 
use  already  intro<luced  ver}'  soon  a  division  in  the 
Southern  and  the  Northern  Virginia  coast.  The  royal 
patent  of  1606,  by  which  the  two  Virginia  companies 
were  established,  made  this  custom  legal  and  official. 
After  this  ;,atent  the  whole  section  of  the  country  north 
of  the  40th  degree  of  latitude,  comprising  our  Maine,  was 
designated  as  "  Northern  Virginia,"  or  also,  since  some 
attempts  at  settlement,  "  the  Northern  Plantations," 
or  also  "  the  Second,"  or  "  Plymouth  Colony,"  because 
the  king  had  given  this  latter  name  to  that  particular 
societ}-  of  merchants  who  had  taken  upon  themselves 
the  exploration  and  settlement  of  Northern  Virginia. 
In  the  year  1616  the  name  of  "  New  England"  was  !n- 
tn>duced.  The  celebrated  Captain  John  Smith  was  no 
doubt  the  inventor  of  it,  and  I'rince  Charles  approved 
of  it.  Smith  says  this  himself  in  his  history  of  New 
England,  and  states  that  he  gave  this  name,  which 
made  some  opposition  against  the  neighboring  French 
name  of  "  New  France"  and  the  French  p'<etensions ; 
and,  secondly,  he  did  it  in  contraposition  to  the  coun- 
try on  the  Pacific  side  of  America  which  was  discov- 
ered by  Drake,  and  named  by  him  New  Albion,  and 
which  was  under  the  same  latitude. 

Sir  Fernando  Gorges  gave,  in  the  year  1636,  to 
the  territory  Iwtween  PIscataqua  and  Kennebec  Riv- 
ers, the  name  of  "  New  Somersetshire,"  from  the 
shire  In  EngUnd  where  he  was  bom.  Sometimes  the 
whole  vast  region  was  therefore  then  called  "  Somer- 
wtshire ;"  and  we  find,  even  when  the  name  of  Maine 
waa  already  introduced,  once  the  oxpresston  "  Maine 


or  Somersetshire."  In  the  same  way  the  wiiole  of 
Maine  was  also  sometimes  called  "  Lacona,"  from  a 
part  of  the  country  to  which  this  name  was  given  for  a 
time.  We  find  on  a  map  by  Seller,  of  the  beginning  of 
the  18tli  century,  written  with  great  letters,  "  the 
Province  of  Lacona  or  Maine."  The  early  English 
settlers  on  the  coast  of  New  England  bad  for  Maine 
the  popular  name  of  "  the  Eastern  shore,"  or  "  the 
Eastern  country." 

The  name  Maine  was  first  introduced  in  the  year 
1639,  when  King  Charles  I.  granted  to  Sir  Fernando 
Gorges  all  the  land  from  Piscataqua  Kiver  to  Sagada- 
hoc, to  which  tract  of  land  he  gave  the  name  "  Prov- 
ince of  Maine,"  "in  compliment  to  the  Queen  of 
Charles  I.  who  was  a  daughter  of  France,  and  owned 
as  her  private  estate  the  province  of  Sluine  in  France." 
This,  at  least,  is  the  opinion  of  the  first  good  historian 
of  Maine,  Mr.  Sullivan.  But  Sullivan  gives  no  au- 
thority for  this  opinion,  which  has,  however,  been 
adopted  as  a  pretty  general  and  popular  one.  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that  it  can  not  be  proved  that  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria  had  any  rights  at  all  in  Maine.  An 
old  author  on  Maine  observes,  "  it  is  ver}'  curious  that 
the  name  of  our  countr}'  has  been  made  shorter  l>y  nn 
'  e'  than  the  French  Maine."  In  fact  the  word  is,  in 
old  documents,  very  commonly  written  "  Slain "  or 
"Mayn."  From  this,  one  could  be  induced  to  sup- 
pose that  the  name  originated  in  the  English  expres- 
sion for  terra  firma  or  continent :  "  Main"  or  "  Main- 
land." Nearly  all  tlie  first  English  trading  and  fishing 
establishments  along  the  shore  were  on  the  numerous 
islands  of  the  coast.  From  there  the  explorers  mmlo 
excursions  "  to  the  Main,"  to  trade  with  tlio  Indians 
and  to  explore  the  country.  Tliere  are  innunieral>Ie 
allusions,  in  their  traveling  ro|)orts,  to  "  the  Muyn," 
Could  not  from  this  have  grown  the  custom  of  chilling 
the  country  "  Main  ?"  From  similar  reasons  and  cir- 
cumstances the  north  coast  of  South  America  is  called  l>y 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Antilles  and  Caril)l)ean  Islands, 
"  Cottafirme"  or  "  Tierra  jirrne." — J.  G.  Kohl. 

The  name  Maine  extended  at  first  only  a  sinull  dis- 
tance along  the  coast.  By  degrees,  and  in  the  course 
of  time,  in  consequence  of  growing  settlements  and  of 
many  treaties  and  grants,  it  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended as  far  east  as  Penobscot  Bay,  and  at  last  as  far 
as  St.  Croix  Kivor,  and  in  the  year  1819  the  "  Prov- 
ince of  Maine"  was  erected  into  the  "  State  of  Maine." 

There  were  in  this  State  in  1850,  2,039,596  acres  uf 
land  improved,  and  2,515,797  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms;  cash  value  of  land  in  farms,  $54,861,748;  and 
the  value  of  implements  and  machinery,  $2,284,557. 
Live  Stock, — Horses,  41,721;  asses  and  mules,  45; 
milch  cows,  183,556 ;  working  o.xen,  83,893 ;  other 
cattle,  125,890 ;  sheep,  451,577;  swine,  54,598;  value 
of  live  stock,  $9,705,726. 

Agricultural  Product!,  «<c.— Wheat,  290,259  bushels  j 
rye,  102,916;  Indian  com,  1,750,056;  oats,  2,181,037; 
barley,  151,731 ;  buckwheat,  104,523;  (Mas  and  beans, 
205,541 ;  potatoes,  3,436,040 ;  value  of  products  of  the 
orchard,  $342,865 ;  produce  of  market  gardens,  .{;122,- 
387  ;  pounds  of  li)Uttor  made,  9,243,811 ;  of  clicese, 
2,434,454 ;  maple  sugar,  93,542  pounds ;  molasses, 
8,167  gallons;  beeswax  and  honey,  189,618  pounds; 
wool,  pounds  produced,  1,364,034 ;  flax,  17,081 ;  silk 
cocoons,  252 ;  hops,  40,120  pounds ;  hay,  tons  of,  755,- 
889 ;  clover  seeds,  9,097  bushels ;  other  grass  seeds, 
9,214 ;  flax  seed,  680  bushels ;  and  were  made  724  gal- 
lons of  wine;  value  of  home-made  manufactures, 
$613,699 ;  of  slaughtered  animals,  $1,646,773. 

Rivers,  Ijoket,  etc. — It  has  been  estimated  that  one 
sixth  part  of  the  surface  of  Maine  consists  of  water. 
There  are  numerous  lakes,  the  largest  and  most  noted 
of  which  are  Moosehead,  Sel>ago,  Cbesuncook,  and 
Umlutgog.  A  part  of  the  waters  of  the  latter  extend 
into  New  Hampshire.  Some  of  tliese  lakes  are  Justly 
celebrated  for  the  picturesque  beauties  of  thoir  scen- 
ery.   A  tteamboat  boa  been  built  to  ply  on  the  waters 


1M8. 
IW4. 
11W. , 

1-  The  prlnnlr 

fitly,  situated  c 

'»yof  Casco  a«i 

'»»«.,  70°  18'  ai 

"fe>  and  umonic 

protected  by  i,|„ 

"y  ice,  and  has  a 

enough  for  ve.se 

Of  the  port  in  18 

"o  Kennebec,  12 

Pnncipal  towns 


MAI 


1306 


UM 


of  Hao>eba«d  Liika,  Tli«  K«nn«li«a  nnd  th«  Penotv 
•out  ars  tha  two  miiat  liH|iiirtiil)t  xtrtiniiiii )  th«  furmer 
U  nnvlKulila  to  AuKiiKtit,  unit  tlin  liittcr  to  UatiKnr. 
Tholr  akoraa  ura  mliiriiwl  with  vlllnKtiiii  onil  the  inttr- 
valet  sInnK  tliair  iniiriiInK  iiro  th«  miiiil.  fnrtllg  nnd  lient 
cuUivutod  hi  tha  NtutMi  Tho  Hni'ii,  AndriiKuoKiiln, 
and  St.  Oolx  Itlvar*  xntor  tho  Athinth*.  Ht.  Juim, 
and  it!  ouullunntu,  tlia  M'ttlhiiiitnok,  AllaKnnh,  and 
Arnostoiik,  dmhi  tha  niirthnrti  (iitrt  ut  the  Htate,  The 
St.  Jiibn  furnit  it  |wrt  iif  tha  iinrth*>rii  (iiiH  of  the  State 
by  the  lata  treat)'  iif  WitxhhlKliiti,  mid  It*  waten  are 
open  to  tha  fraa  iiavl)(Hthiii  tif  iiiith  nations.  The 
principal  buyu  ara  (Jawit,  i'aiiuhiiiitit,  Mui'hliii  and  I'as- 
aauiai|uaddy. 

Mimiifiii'iuiv«,-^'\'\wn  wara  In  thU  fltite  In  IHfiO,  18 
oitton  farturieii,  with  it  t'lipKiil  liiVHKtnd  iif  1fli,li-iT ,700, 
cinphiying  H4U  nmlun  and  II,(I7J  feiiiiitcM,  iiriidiicing  il3,- 
lUH.SuU  yunia  of  nheotliiK  viillisd  at  i|<'i,lli)(l,01U  |  46 
woolnn  faeturlea,  with  li  t)ii|iltill  uf  tO't  l,'20(),  einploy- 
iiii;  iWli  malei  and  illlU  ftiMiali-ii,  iiiiinufai'tiirhiK  'ifi'ii,- 
aio  yarda  uf  uliith,  and  1,'iUU  Ilia,  itf  yarn,  valued  at 
|!li)4,02!l;  1  eitalilialiMiaiit  niHkltiH  plK-lruti,  with  a 
capital  uf  f'.il'liiKIO,  ainpliiylllK  71  (Hiraima,  priMliicinK 
1,484  tuna  uf  |ii|{'lriin,  atl'.,  VHlumI  lit  l|ill(l,UlU|  iift  cs- 
tslilishmenta,  with  A  impltill  of  tl'MlildO,  eniploylnf^ 
244  persona,  and  niakliiK  IM'HI  tciua  of  uiiKtlnxa,  val- 
ued at  i|i2(i&,UUU  I  mil  rluurlllK  linil  Kriat  intlla,  ;&2  naw 


mllli ;  218  tanneries,  with  a  capital  of  (732,447,  em> 
ploying  780  persons  j  value  of  products,  $], 020,036; 
46  printing  offices,  4  dally,  8  tri-weekiy,  4  semi-week- 
ly, 48  weekly,  and  1  monthly  publication ;  aggregate 
number  of  copies  published  annually,  4,203,()(i4.  Cap- 
ital invested  in  manufactures,  jil4,7U0,462 ;  value  of 
manufactured  articles,  $24,644,480. 

There  were,  January  18uG,  11  railroads  in  this  State ; 
494  miles  completed  and  in  operation,  and  90  miles  in 
course  of  construction.  The  only  canal  in  the  State 
is  the  Cumberland  and  Oxford,  20J  miles  long,  con- 
necting navigation  from  Portland  to  Sebago,  and  by  a 
lock  in  Saco  River,  navigation  is  extended  to  Long 
Pond,  80  miles  further. 

The  receipts  on  the  principal  lines  of  railroad  in 
Maine,  during  the  List  four  years,  have  been  on  follows : 


Ungth.       U61.     j     18H.         18»5.     1     ![!.'«      | 

Milf«.      iJollAri.  '  l>>llKr*.     PollHr*.  i  DollKru.  1 

A.  and  SL  L 

147 

«i6,i8s,  4Tft,(WT  ^'.a.4*s  t<m.m 

Anil,  and  Kunncbee. 

86 

LVl.lWl  ITS.S.'W  196,1M2 

212,998 

Audroscojrjtln 

naniror  and  Oldtowii. 

20 

19,1.5'i 

2»,S9t)  NVHiirn 

2a,S(>6 

18 

48,lll>( 

44,ss9 

4ii.l7o 

8.^,698 

(^nlnls  and  Daring;. . . 

6 

2S,0SS 

81,640 

87,172 

89,880 

Kcu.  and  Portland  . . 

m 

177,03.1 

297,857 

228,064 

22.1,290 

IVnobscot  and  Ken. . 

63 

Now. 

112,702 

Portland,  9.  ajid  P'a. 

L_61 

262,0771 270,800 

i-'ixm 

2l«,180| 

There  were,  Januarj-,  1854, 60  banks,  with  on 
gate  cash  capital  of  $5,918,870. 


aggro- 


Foitainw  OiiMMIIHflH  nr  tim  Bf  At*  of  Maish,  from  Ootoukr  1,  1820,  TO  July  1,  1868. 


Mnn  m\t«t 

-- 

DuniKHlIf, 

BeptBO,  1N2I 

1,UIII,nTiI 

11.22 

18'W 

Nllh,0|ll 

1824 

NTII,87I 

182.1 

Hll4,llM 

18211 

I.ihii.nTA 

1»27 

l,lW«,ni)6 

1828 

1,0lHI,fl4'J 

1821) 

TlHMofl 

laHU     

lt4H,4ll6 

Total 

(»,llll,tru 

Boot.  80,  1881 

♦TIW.Tia 

1882 

WIT.UMt 

1888 

M.lil 

1884 

Nl.VJTT 

IS8B 

1,ll4<,fl6l 

1888 

NHil,ii74 

1887 

«4r,4TA 

1888 

Vlfi,li7ll 

18.-II) 

8I8,4!I4 

1840 

t,IHHt,tt|0 

Total 

|ll,HMID 

Sept.  80,  1841 

$l,iiTa,iKiH 

1842.. 

1,048,  i;ii 

9ma9.,     1848..,,,,,, 

(I80,1IM 

Juno  80,  1844 

l,l(H,ltlM 

1846 

l,l«T,lHll 

mi 

l,MIVK)l) 

1H47 

1,fll4,0tl 

1848 

l.iiHT.iain 

1849 

1,IH«.IWI| 

1»60 ,,, 

l,Mll,N|H 

Total 

«lll,aKU,llKM 

June  80,  1 861 

»l,6IT,4aT 

mw 

t,rtllH,tfT4 

1868 

l.nil.MU 

1884 

1,0110,0111 

1866 

((,648,014 

1868 

«,«W»,H4t 

Kiiwiia. 

Importi. 

ToniuigB  Cle«r»d.         |          Dlilrif  I  Toninj..          | 

*'«fp||((i. 

Tol«1. 

Tolsl. 

American. 

Foreign. 

Registered. 

EoroUedud 
U,;,'ii.,'d. 

i|4iUi2h 

11,041,148 

♦980,294 

111,854 

820 

60,884 

76,188 

iiy.7ii» 

1.086,(M2 

94.%775 

10,1,880 

4,4,12 

«o,hlS 

896,691 

801,044 

70,773 

1,379 

<»,n24 

(loo.ton 

768,048 

98,477 

774 

iNt.4m 

1,081,127 

1,169,940 

118,381 

8,250 

6o,T(Nl 

1,1162.675 

1,24.1,288 

11.6,060 

2,240 

8T,09» 

l,UiO,ll|4 

1,8.1.8,890 

94,660 

2.896 

1fi,a?ft 

1,019,617 

1,246.809 

9.'i,066 

],7S8 

H,T«8 

787,882 

742,781 

8,6,718 

2.706 

»T,08T 
f886,h|ll 

670/i83 
19,^466,288 

672,66$ 

91.629 

6,168 

♦9,80.%177 

9S2,448 

26,166 

in,aafl 

74.167 

♦906,678 

♦941.407 

81.682 

49.972 

69,753 

93,814 

981,44.1 

1,12.1,826 

67,128 

64,720 

Ho.nu 

1,019,881 

1,880.808 

66,488 

98,7:)6 

IN,8»0 

8114,157 

1,000,121 

62,8.19 

99,674 

14,418 

1,059,807 

888,389 

6.1,043 

64.0:!1 

141)18 

860,988 

980.086 

71,1,W 

74,686 

M,iirrt 

966,962 

801,404 

81,899 

74,160 

20,4Ail 

986,682 

899,142 

64.810 

66,715 

17,061 

896,486 

982,724 

77,908 

61,1197 

42IM,lliiir 

1.018,3811 

628,762 

82„184 

7.1,0.15 

♦9,869,806 

♦9,680,669 

698,4-6 

728,645 

lii.nm 

♦  1,091.686 

♦700.961 

90,764 

66,079 

118,819 

189,971 

t.^ifli 

1.060,628 

600,804 

86,827 

68.721 

9,1611 

n«8,»91 

2,60,200 

60,4.M 

8.1,974 

11,171 

1.170.186 

670,824 

01,020 

61,929 

•  >  •  • 

MT,4rtft 

1,266,106 

8,V),M6 

88,602 

62,901 

lO.'iAII 

1,828,808 

787,092 

90,739 

72,OM 

.... 

«o,iN<i 

1,(1.84,208 

674,0,nfl 

104,169 

69,609 

yo.Hap 

1,967,896 

705,,'S05 

1,12,026 

89,449 

I.tfaii 

1,280,081 

721,409 

127,86.8 

08,081 

.... 

1111,094 

t40H,6A(l  ~ 

1,606,912 
ifl8,(«8,778 

8.66.411 
♦0,719,087 

111,128 

91,014 

_1— __. 

1.009,U91 

614,408 

f8n,ftfti 

♦  1,661,488 

♦  1,176,690 

12n,897 

74,&14 

867,380 

178,985 

4(1,6 14 

1,717,818 

1,094,977 

MI,3«S 

8,8.18 

y?H,"<ft8 

2,040.787 

1,880,189 

179,669 

62,014 

.... 

1160,010 

2,689,041 

2,361,100 

198,7.13 

62,627 

»,80a,ltW 

4,861.207 

2,927,448 

261.836 

62,006 

7l»l,o«» 

2,»(l8,(m 

1,940,77.1 

2.10,208 

60,787    1      ....      '■        ....      1 

1.  Tha  prinnlpal  jHirta  Hro  J'urllnml,  iilty  nnd  port  of 
entry,  situated  on  a  p«iiliiaiilt«  at  tha  wostKrn  extrem- 
ity of  Casco  Buy  i  hit,  iMuiiiit  .liiy),  411"  lilt'  62"  N., 
long.,  70°  18'  84"  W.  Tha  Imrhor  la  (miiachuia  and 
safe,  and  among' the  beat  uii  tha  AtUntln  oimat.  It  Is 
protected  by  islunda  from  atoniia,  aalduin  uliatriivted 
by  ice,  and  haa  a  guild  aiilriiiina,  'I'Iih  water  la  deep 
enough  for  veasela  of  tha  lar^caat  iilaaa,  'I'lie  tonnage 
of  the  |)ort  in  IHIIil,  wiia  llltl,|/).|  tuna,  'J,  tlitlli.~i\n 
the  Kennebeu,  12  iiiilua  frniii  tha  ooriiti,  la  ni,e  of  the 
principal  towns  uf  tha  Htata,  ninl  Ihs  larijest  ship- 


liuilding  port  in  tlie  world.  A  tiranch  of  the  Kenne- 
bec and  Portland  Kailroad  connects  the  city  with 
Portland.  The  tonnage  of  the  port  is  the  largest  in 
Maine,  and  in  1856  amounted  to  193,320  tons.  3.  Hel- 
/tuL—At  the  liead  of  Belfast  Bay,  30  miles  from  the 
ocean,  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  luinlier  and  lisli.  Its  chief  industry,  how- 
over,  is  ship-lmilding.  Steamboats  ply  to  Portland 
and  Ho-iton.  The  tonnage  of  Belfast,  in  1866,  was 
7(1,812  tons.  4.  Hangar,  on  the  Penobscot,  Tonnage 
In  180B,  38,048  tons. 


m 


im 


-ft'll 


MAL 


1806 


MAL 


Finaneei  of  .he  Stale. — The  wbote  amonnt  of  tho 
fDnded  debts  of  the  State,  December  81, 18S6,  woa 
f  699,000;  of  that  sum  $30,000  became  due  March  1, 
1857,  and  the  current  expense  of  tho  year  will  be  dis- 
charged, without  resorting;  to  other  {neans  thiin  the 
usual  tax  imposed  b}-  the  Legisliiture.  No  I.cgi.ila- 
ture  will  be  required  to  provide  for  the  payment  of 
that  sum.  Receipts  and  disbursements  for  the  year 
ending  December  81,  1860.  Receiptn,  balance  from 
year  1855,  $89,180  37.  From  all  other  souices,  S6n;),- 
812,04.  Total,  $632,442  41.  Dlsbursomenti ,  $l8li,- 
165.  Dalance  in  the  treasury,  ^146,277  1).  Hoe 
Iforfh  Am.  Rev.,  Ivill.,  299  (Saiiink),  xxxvil.,  419 
(Leonard),  iii.,  362  (Uand);  Nii.ks's  Reg.,  xl.,  399 
(H.  Clay);  Hunt's  Mag.,  ii.,  313  (Lanman),  xvii., 
677;  Jo.  of  8c.,  xxxvi.,  143;  Am.  Quar.  Reg.,  v.,  105, 
X.,  154,  xiT.,  148,  xiil.,  144;  Am.  Whig  A'ei\,  ii.,  262; 
De  Bow,  xii.,  603 ;  Ntm  Kng.  .Mag.,  ii.,  394. 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn  (Kr.  liltd  de  Turquie ; 
Ger.  Turkitrh  kom,  Mags;  It.  (Jrano  Turco  o  Sicil- 
iano ;  Sp.  Trigo  de  Indias,  Tri'gn  de  Turquia),  one  of 
the  cereal  grasses  (Zea  Mays),  supposed  to  be  indigen- 
ous to  South  America,  being  the  only  8{fecies  of  corn 
cultivated  in  the  New  World  previously  to  its  discov- 
ery. It  was  introduced  into  the  Continent  about  the 
beginning,  and  into  Knglund  a  little  after  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century.  Its  culture  has  spread  with  as- 
tonishing rapidity;  l)eing  now  extensively  grown  in 
nio.Ht  Asiatic  countries,  and  in  all  the  southern  parts 
of  Kurope.  It  has  the  widest  geographical  range  of 
all  the  cerealia,  growing  luxuriantly  at  the  equator, 
and  as  far  as  the  50tb  degree  of  nortli,  and  the  4Uth  of 
south  latitude.  It  has  l)een  raised  in  Kngland,  in 
nursery  gardens  near  the  metropolis,  for  more  than  a 
century  ;  und  recently  it  has  l)een  attempted  to  raise 
it  in  the  iields,  but  with  indifferent  success.  Lilce 
other  plants  that  have  been  long  in  cultivation,  it  has 
an  immense  number  of  varieties.  The  ear  consists  of 
al>uut  COU  grains,  set  close  togetlier  in  rows,  to  the 
number  of  8,  10,  or  12.  The  grains  are  usuall}-  yel- 
low ;  l>ut  they  arc  sometimes  red,  liluish,  greenisii, 
or  ulive-colored,  and  sometimes  striped  and  variegated. 
The  maize  of  Virginia  is  tall  and  robust,  growing  7  or 
8  feet  high ;  that  of  New  England  is  shorter  and  low- 
er; and  the  Indians  further  up  the  country  had  a 
still  smaller  sort  in  common  use.  The  stulic  is  jointed 
111(0  the  sugar  cane.  Tho  straw  mulics  excellent  fod- 
der; and  the  grain,  as  a  bread  com,  is  lilted  by  some  ; 
but  though  it  aliounds  in  mucilage,  it  contains  little 
or  no  gluten,  and  is  not  lilieiy  to  be  much  used  by 
those  wlio  can  procure  wheaten  or  even  rye  bread. 
See  CoHN. 

Malachite.  Until  1851,  so  little  was  Icnonn  about 
it,  except  to  mineralogists,  tliat  tho  public  Itnew  nut 
wiiether  it  was  a  stone  or  a  composition.  The  indus- 
trial history  of  the  substance,  Ituwever,  is  exceeding- 
ly curious.  Malachite  is  a  peculiar  variety  of  green 
carbonate  of  copper,  found  in  a  few  localities  in  Siberia 
and  South  Australia.  It  is  softer  but  heavier  than 
marble,  and  much  more  diflicult  to  woric.  It  can  rarely 
be  found  in  masses  weighing  more  tlian  from  10  to 
20  pounds ;  and  the  tiner  specimens  have  a  ver}'  high 
value.  There  is  a  mine  in  Siberia,  where  a  mass  of 
malachite,  supposed  to  weigh  500,000  |>ound8,  lies  im- 
bedded ut  a  depth  of  280  feet  in  a  copiwr  mine ;  and 
there  is  every  indication  that  the  mulaclilte  has  Iwen 
formed  by  the  solidlliLation  or  [letrefaction  of  a  liquid 
carbonate  of  copper,  on  some  such  principle  as  tho 
stalactites  in  the  Derbyshire  caves.  Tho  material 
brealis  so  readily,  that  it  is  generally  pieces  of  only 
two  or  three  pounds'  weight  that  can  be  l)raught  safely 
to  light. 

MM.  Demidoff,  the  owners  of  this  valuable  mine, 
have  established  a  malachite  manufactory  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. The  production  of  large  dnors,  or  vases,  or 
other  articles  in  this  substance,  is '  exceedingly  di Al- 
cult.     The  ftsjpnents  of  malachite  are  ilrst  sawn  into 


thin  plates,  thu  thickness  of  which  varies  from  a  twelfth 
to  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  The  cutting  is  effected  by 
vertical  circular  saws,  .controlled  by  very  delicate  ma- 
chinery, and  moistened  with  sand  and  water.  For 
curved  surfaces,  the  malachite  is  cut  by  bent  saws  of 
0  peculiar  kind,  the  working  of  which  is  extremely 
precarious  und  difficult.  The  malachite  has  uiurkin);3 
in  different  tints  of  green,  wliich  give  to  the  material 
no  small  part  of  its  beauty.  The  artistic  workman  de- 
termines what  convolution  or  pattern  these  markings 
shall  present  In  the  tinisbed  article ;  and  he  so  selects 
the  veneers  or  small  pieces  as  to  attain  that  end.  The 
pieces  are  cut  at  the  edges  to  join  with  great  nicety ; 
and  to  make  these  joints  accord  better  with  tlie  mark- 
ings, they  are  often  made  curved.  The  grinding  of 
the  edges  is  effected  by  the  aid  of  rapidly-revolving 
copper  wheels.  The  substance  on  which  the  malaclilto 
is  veneered  is  generally  iron  or  copper,  but  sometimes 
stone  or  marble.  When  the  |ileces  have  been  fixed 
down  with  cement,  small  interstices  are  filled  up  with 
a  cement  mixed  with  fragments  of  malachite,  and  col- 
ored  with  a  powder  of  the  same  material.  After  this 
the  surface  is  ground  and  p<ili»hed.  The  price  of  the 
raw  malachite,  in  average  pieces  as  brought  up  from 
the  mine,  is  about  $3  50  to  $4  per  pound ;  but  very 
groat  waste  occurs  in  the  working;  and  this,  coupled 
with  the  lengthened  time  required  in  tlie  working, 
will  account  for  the  great  costliness  of  doors,  vuaes, 
etc.,  made  in  this  material.  The  malachite  dnorj 
which  occupied  so  prominent  a  place  in  tliu  Great  ICx- 
hibition,  London,  employed  30  workmen  for  a  wbulo 
year. 

Malaga,  a  city  and  sea-port  of  Sp  in,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Granada,  in  lat.  36°  i^'  N.,  long.  4°  25'  7" 
W.  Population,  perhaps,  65,000.  JIalaga  has  an 
excellent  harbor.  It  is  protected  on  its  eastern  side 
by  a  fine  mole,  full  700  yards  in  length.  At  its  ex- 
tremity a  light-house  has  lieen  constructed,  furnislicd 
with  a  powerful  light,  revolving  once  everj'  minute. 
At  a  distance  it  appears  obscured  for  45  seconds,  when 
a  brilliant  flash  succeeds  for  the  otiier  15  seconds.  A 
shoal  has  grown  up  round  the  mole-head ;  and  the 
depth  of  water  throughout  the  harbor  is  said  to  be 
diminishing.  Latterly,  however,  a  dredging-machine 
has  been  employed  to  deepen  't,  by  clearing  out  the 
mud  and  accumulating  sand.  The  depth  of  water  at 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor  and  witliin  the  mole  is  from 
26  to  30  feet ;  and  close  to  the  city  from  8  to  10  feet. 
The  harbor  could  easily  accommodate  mure  than  450 
merchant  ships  :  it  may  be  entered  with  all  wind^,  and 
affords  perfect  shelter.  Owing  to  the  want  of  olHcial 
returns,  and  to  the  prevalence  of  smuggling,  wliitb 
may  be  said  to  have  annihilated  all  fair  trade,  it  is  ncit 
possible  to  obtain  any  accurate  accounts  of  tho  trade 
of  Malaga,  or  indeed  of  any  Spanish  port.  The  great 
articles  of  export  are  wine  and  fruits,  particularly  rais- 
ins and  almonds,  grapes,  figs,  and  lemons ;  there  is  also 
a  considerable  exportation  of  olive  oil,  with  quantities 
of  brandy,  anchovies,  cummin-seed,  aniseed,  barilla, 
soap,  etc.  The  lead  exported  from  Malaga  is  brought 
from  Adra,  The  imports  are  salt  fish,  iron  hoops,  ijai 
iron,  and  nails ;  cotton  stuffs,  hides,  earthenware,  etc., 
with  dye  stuffs,  all  sorts  of  colonial  produce ;  liutter 
and  cheese  from  Holland  and  Ireland,  linen  from  Ger- 
many, etc.  The  trade  with  Kngland  seems  to  be 
diminishing;,  and  that  with  the  United  States  to  be  in- 
creasing. This  is  a  consequence,  no  doul)t,  of  Malaga 
wine  being  very  little  in  demand  in  the  former,  while 
it  IS  pretty  largely  consumed  in  the  latter.  The 
Americans  are  also  tho  largest  consumers  of  Malaga 
fruit.  See  Marcy's  Com.  Rel.  U.  S.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  68, 
64,  published  1858-7. 

Commerce  with  the  United  States. — The  following 
table  will  show,  approximately,  to  what  extent  the 
direct  trade  between  tho  United  States  and  Spain  has 
fallen  off  within  the  past  few  years.  Most  of  this  trade 
is  carried  on  through  Uie  port  of  Malaga: 


broug 

interic 

freigh 

the 

qualit 

the  A 

high( 

Th( 
valua 
fullest 
of  Ma 
pende 

"I 


MAL 


1307 


MAL 


ctcd  by 


ToNNAOi  or  Amksioah  VnaaRU  xntxrcd  at  mx  Fobt 
or  Malaoa  in  the  followinu  Yeaiib, 


Ytkn.  Ton*. 

1848 1»,476 

1847 12,388 

184S 15,699 

IMK 1S,652 


Yeon.  Tons, 

18S0 18,600 

1861 11,9H 

18S2 12,610 

1868 11,875 


The  fulling  off  in  tonnnge  which  the  above  table  ex- 
hibits is,  however,  perfectly  reconcilable  with  the  com- 


parative tables  for  1854  and  1832,  when  we  tiika  Inla 
consideration  the  fact,  thnt  at  leaat  one  tliiril  of  tb« 
exports  to  the  United  States  is  carried  by  privilB|{«4 
vessels;  and  oven  national  vessels,  notwithalundiflK 
the  discriminating  duty  of  10  per  cent,  to  which  tlisy 
are  subject  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  p»rH«(. 
pate  largely  in  this  currying  trade,  for  the  puriKwa  lif 
returning  with  cargoes  of  cotton  for  Malaga  soil  li»te». 
lona,  or  with  codlish  from  Newfoundland. 


Exports 

rBOM 

\tlALAnA  TO 

TiiK  United 

States  from 

1st  .January 

TO  iBT 

Jo  IT 

1864. 

FUg..         1       Wine.      |      lUliiiu. 

Kr"an.. 

1,081 

800 

Lax). 

Red 
lead. 

UiiHorice  Uijiiorive 
pMte.    1     root. 

Wril 
.e»d. 

M«U.    Ollvea. 

~^:  i  v^«..  1 

United  States 

British 

Spanish 

Prussian 

Danish 

Tuscan 

Total 

l-Jfk. 

2,170 
125 
680 
469 

2(H> 

iihi.. 

6(H) 
100 
840 

Huktit. 
M,.')24 
21,885 
10,476 
411 

Cn.k.. 

1,2.')9 

441 

Uuicii. 
640 
lU 
106 

Boxen, 

1,998 

698 

176 

Tnn». 

576 
245 
294 
175 
66 
276 

Ken. 
1,264 

710 
"82 

Cnxee. 

10 
46 

'k 

96 

UtIIHllei. 
1,060 

i.oe") 

Uiindiee 
789 
237 
l.V) 
891 
176 

1,748 

Ualra. 
768 

284 
870 
150 

sSi 

800 

1-4  .■'!.. 
472 
275 

160 

l)..li,rf, 
i'tlfiM 

T».7«T 
ftT.tt** 

mm 
Km 

8«,»T4 

afiu 

940  ,  88,295 

1,700 

1,381  I    840 

2,772 

1,6.11 

2,006 

1,512 

1,160 

897 

"Wtm 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  the  commer- 
cial report  of  Muluga,  dated  the  Slst  of  January,  1857, 
communicated  to  the  Department  of  ."^tate :  "  The  im- 
ports from  the  United  States,  which  nii  usually  limited 
to  staves  by  American,  and  one  or  two  cargoes  of  cot- 
ton by  Spanish  vessels,  have  lieen  increased  l)y  a  few 
cargoes  of  flour  and  wheat,  toward  the  end  of  the  year, 
under  the  late  royal  decree  admitting  breadstuffs  free 
of  duty  until  June  next ;  the  approximate  value  of  im- 
ports of  American  produce  for  the  last  year  amounted 
to  $228,030,  and  of  foreign  produce  from  the  United 
States  to  .92,700,  making  a  total  sum  of  $260,730.  The 
exports  to  the  United  States  have  not  lieen  large  in 
quantity,  owing  to  short  crops  the  past  year.  The 
high  price  of  ever)-  article  of  exportation,  however, 
brings  up  the  value  equal  to  any  former  period.  The 
amount,  as  per  proximate  returns  of  American  vessels, 
is  $1,210,907,  and  by  foreign  vessels  $407,360;  mak- 
ing a  total  sum  of  $1,648,267.  The  ruisin  crop  has 
been  very  short,  the  lust  vintage  being  estimated  at 
not  much  over  600,000  boxes  of  Jfuscatels.  Other  de- 
scriptions of  raisins  show  a  i-till  greater  decrease,  ow- 
ing to  the  cenizn,  a  disease  of  the  vines  which  has 
been  very  general  tlie  two  last  years.  Tlie  culture  of 
the  grupe  is  extending  throughout  the  province  ;  and 
the  Muscatel  vines  would  probably  yield,  in  a  favorabe 
season  1,500,000  boxes.  Over  two  thirds  of  this  de- 
scription have  been  shipped  the  last  year  to  tlie  United 
States :  the  liner  quality  is  shipped  to  England  and 
France ;  and  when  very  abundant,  at  low  prices,  large 
shipments  would  be  made  to  Germany  ami  the  north 
of  Europe.  Prices  have  ruled  very  high,  averaging  $2 
for  il.  R.,  and  $2  25  for  ordinar}-  layers,  for  the 
American  market ;  fine  London  layers  from  $3  to  $4 
per  box.  The  slock  existing  ut  the  end  of  the  year 
did  not  exceed  30,000  boxes,  about  two  thirds  of  which 
may  go  to  the  United  States.  The  various  produc- 
tions of  this  and  the  adjoining  provinces,  for  want  of 
good  roads  and  rapid  communication  in  a  mountainous 
country,  can  not  be  brought  to  market  so  as  to  com- 
pete with  the  same  of  other  countries,  consequently 
they  are  not  increased.  Outside  of  five  or  eight 
leagues,  little  is  received,  but  at  such  u  high  cost  of 
transportation  that  many  bulky  articles  can  not  be 
brought  at  nil.  Sumac,  for  instance,  is  worth,  in  the 
interior,  from  20  to  25  per  arroba,  or  25  pounds.  The 
freight  of  this  article  to  Malaga  is  more  than  doul)le 
the  cost.  It  is  considered  by  chemists  of  a  better 
quality  than  the  Sicily,  but  it  can  not  be  aftbrded  for 
the  American  market,  although,  notn  ithstanding  the 
high  cost,  considerable  is  shipped  to  France." 

The  following  details,  extracted  from  Mr.  Inglis's 
raluttlde  work,  entitled  "  .Spain  in  1830,"  contain  the 
fullest  and  be.st  account  we  have  met  with  of  the  trade 
of  Malaga.  The  authenticity  may,  we  believe,  be  de- 
pended upon : 

"  Wine. — The  wines  of  Malaga  are  of  two  sorts, 
■weet  Hd  dryi  sad  of  the  former  of  these  there  are 


four  kinds ;  first,  the  caramon  '  Malaga,'  known  ititil 
exported  under  that  name.  In  this  there  is  a  wrtttin 
proportion  of  boiled  wine,  which  is  allowed  U)  burn, 
and  which  commuuicates  a  lightly  burnt  taats  to  tlta 
'  Malaga.'  The  grajw  from  which  this  wine  U  niad«  la 
a  white  grape ;  and  every  pipe  of '  Malaga'  cont.ilns  It/i 
lejs  than  eleneit  gallons  of  brandy.  Secondly,  '  itlomit. 
ain.'  This  wine  is  made  from  the  suinu  gmpa  «• 
the  other,  and,  like  it,  contains  coloring  matter  unit 
brandy;  the  only  difference  is,  that  for  'Mountain'  tliH 
grape  is  allowed  to  become  ripe.  Thirdly,  '  \,agr\mm,' 
the  richest  and  finest  nf  the  sweet  wines  of  MaUg«  | 
the  name  of  which  almost  explains  the  muniwr  in 
which  it  is  made.  It  is  the  drop|)ings  of  the  ri\m 
grape  hung  up,  and  is  obtained  without  the  upplU.'ii> 
tion  of  pressure.  The  dr}-  wine  of  Malaga  is  pruduvAd 
from  the  same  grape  as  the  sweet  wine,  but  preiJS«d 
when  greener.  In  this  wine  there  is  an  eighth  iMirt 
more  of  brandy  than  in  tlie  sweet  wine ;  no  Ut>»  tll4ll 
]-12tli  part  of  the  dry  Slalaga  being  brandy,  Tim 
whole  produce  of  the  Malaga  vineyards  is  estimitt«d 
at  from  85,000  to  40,000  pipes ;  but,  owing  to  the  iii> 
creasing  stock  of  old  wine  in  the  cellars,  it  i^i  fuipo^ 
sible  to  be  precise  in  this  calculation.  The  cximrta  of 
all  sorts  of  Malaga  wine  may  be  stated  at  ulioiit  'i7,(HI0 
pi|>es.  The  principal  market  is  the  United  States  itlili 
South  America ;  and  to  these  the  cx|)ort  is  U|Hin  tlis 
increase.  The  average  price  of  tlie  wines  sliippAd 
from  Malaga  does  not  exceed  $.95  [ler  pipe  ;  but  wine*i 
are  occasionally  exported  at  the  price  of  .'j'170,  MiiHy 
attempts  have  been  made  ht  Malaga  to  |iroilucs  »\>erry, 
but  none  with  perfect  success.  The  slierry  grups  bits 
been  reared  ut  .Malaga  upon  a  soil  very  biiiiiljr  U)  tbut 
of  Xeres ;  but  the  mcri'li.ints  of  Malaga  have  not  vsqi 
tured  to  enter  the  wine  for  export.  One  reason  of  tllD 
very  low  price  of  tlie  wines  of  .Malaga  is  to  bo  fmini\  In 
the  cheapness  of  labor :  field  labor  is  only  2^  reals  u 
day  (lU  cents).  In  the  fruit  and  vintage  tiuia  t(  U 
about  double. 

"  Fruit. — Next  to  its  wines,  the  chief  export  nf  Mtt- 
laga  is  fruit,  cnnsi.iting  of  raisins,  ulmond.-i,  grupM, 
tigs,  and  lemons ;  but  of  these,  raisins  are  priiiiipally 
exported.  I  have  before  me  a  note  of  the  uKpiiits  of 
Malaga  for  the  months  of  September  and  ih:Ui\mt, 
183C — the  ciiicf,  thougli  not  the  solo  exporting  Mluntbf 
— and  I  find  that  during  that  time  the  export  of  ritlslM 
amounted  to  268,845  boxes,  and  31,U1U  sin.iller  pitclt< 
ages.  Of  this  quantity  125,3{tl  lioxes  were  ent«rti4 
for  the  United  States ;  45,513  for  England ;  tlte  rib 
mttining  quantity  being  for  France,  the  WaBt  liidiM, 
the  Spanish  ports.  South  America,  and  lluibiiid,  Tbs 
raisins  exported  from  JIulagu  are  of  tliree  kinds,  mut' 
catel,  bloom  or  sun  raisin,  and  lexiaa.  The  mU'cittot  is 
the  finest  raisin  in  the  world.  In  its  preparatio))  nil 
art  is  used ;  the  grape  is  merely  placed  in  tlie  sun,  And 
frequently  turned.  The  bloom  or  sun  raisin  is  n  Hf- 
ferent  grape  from  the  muscatel,  but  its  prepuratiun  (l 
the  same.    The  lexias  acquire  this  name  from  tiM 


MAL 


IS08 


MAL 


liquor,  or  lev,  in  whiuli  th«y  are  dipped,  and  wliich  is 
compnaed  of  water,  ashes,  and  oil ;  these,  after  being 
dipped,  are  also  dried  in  tlie  tun.  All  inuEcntel  raisins 
■re  exported  in  Itoxeii,  and  also  it  part  of  the  l>laom 
ruisins.  In  1829,  the  ex|>orts  of  niUHcatel  and  bloom 
niisins  were  326,(K)0  boxes  of  '2r>  lbs.  each;  in  nil, 
8,125,000  lbs.  This  quantity  is  independent  of  the 
export  of  bloom  raisins  in  caslis,  and  nf  loxias ;  the 
Litter  amounting  to  about  80,000  arrobns.  The  export 
of  raisins  to  England  has  fallen  oft',  while  that  to 
America  has  considerably  increased.  In  1824,  75 
ships  <!lcured  from  Malaga  for  Knglnnd,  with  fruit ;  in 
1830,  down  to  the  1st  of  November,  M  vessels  had 
cleared  out.  Of  the  other  fruits  raised  near  Malaga, 
grapes,  almonds,  and  lemons  are  the  most  extensively 
exported.  In  the  months  of  Septemlier  and  October, 
1830,  11,612  jars  of  grapes  were  shipped  fur  Kngland, 
6429  for  America,  and  1650  for  Kussia.  Huring  the 
same  months,  53.15  arrobas  of  almonds  (133,375  lbs.) 
were  shipped  for  Knglund,  this  being  nearly  tlie  whole 
export.  There  were  also  exported  during  the  same 
period  3740  boxes  of  lemons  for  Knghind,  4201  boxes 
for  Germany,  and  840  boxes  for  Russia. 

"  Oil. — There  is  also  a  large  export  of  oil  from  Mala- 
ga ;  but  the  export  during  the  latter  part  of  1830  would 
lie  no  criterion  of  the  average,  because  the  Greenland 
whale-tishery  having  failed,  extensive  orders  had  been 
received  from  England." 

Monfij, — Accounts  are  kept  in  reals  of  34  maravedis 
vellon.  For  the  coins,  and  their  value,  used  at  Malaga, 
see  Cadiz. 

Weii/hti  and  Metuiire). — The  weights  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Cadiz.  The  arrotm  or  cantara  =  4'19  En- 
glish wine  gallons  ;  the  regular  pipe  of  Malaga  wine 
contains  So  arrobas,  hut  is  reckoned  only  at  34  ;  a  botn 
of  Pedro  Ximenes  wine  =  53J  arrobas ;  a  Iwta  of  oil  is 
43,  and  a  pipe  35,  arrobas ;  the  latter  weighs  al>i>ut  860 
lbs.  avoirdupois;  a  curga  of  raisins  is  2   baskets,  or 

Tabu  suowinq  tuk  Co.nsuxption  or 


7  arrobas ;  a  cask  contains  as  much,  though  only  cdIImI 
4  arrobas ;  as  u  last  fur  freight  are  tau]umu4-—i  liota* 
or  8  pipes  of  wine  or  oil ;  4  liales  of  i)r«rinM,(iti«) ,  /) 
pipes  of  Pedro  Ximenes  wine  or  oil  i  10  ea<lu  of  Hlnioiiit* 
(each  about  !!3S  1I)b.,  English)!  20  iheat^  of  iHiiiiiiiit 
and  oranges ;  22  casks  of  almonds  (of  H  arriiliim  mnU)  i 
44  casks  of  raisins  (of  4  arrobas  each)  i  HH  tiiilf  vmkt 
of  vaisins ;  60  baskets  or  ItiO  jars  f>f  rulainv. 

Part  C/iargen. — Tlie  port  and  harbor  imn  aiDoiillt,  «n 
an  English  vessel  of  300  tons,  to  about  412 1 1  on  ^ 
Spanish  vessel  of  the  same  burden  tluty  would  Im 
alrout  £11  10s. 

Warehouilng. — Goods  may  be  wareliousmi  f./r  \<i 
months,  paying  2  per  cent,  ad  valorem  in  IIkii  of  ii|| 
cliarges;  but  at  the  end  of  tlie  year  tliey  MiiKt  Im 
cither  entered  for  consumption  or  re-t|ii|i|wd,  'I'lm  'i 
per  cent,  is  charged  whether  they  lie  a  dity  or  tli« 
whole  year.  See  also  Townsend's  Truntln  in  Hmiii, 
vol.  iii.,  pp.  10-42. 

Malmsley    See  Wine. 

Malt(Ger.  J/o/.y,-  Du.  .\fnut;  Vx.  Xfiil,  nUilntmtf 
It.  Mallii;  Sp.  Cebada  relonada  u  inldllii iitn i  (linf, 
SoloJ;  Lat.  Mnlliim).  Tlie  term  malt  U  M|i|ill(u|  u> 
designate  grain  which,  being  steeped  In  wut«r,  U  iii,wl« 
to  germinate  to  a  certain  extent,  aftor  whii^lt  (liit  pn^ 
cess  is  checked  by  the  application  of  htiat,  TIiId 
evolves  the  saccharin^  principle  of  the  grain,  wliU'li  U 
the  essence  of  melt.  The  procena  followwl  in  tli« 
manufacture  is  very  (iniple.  Few  change*  Imvx  Iwxii 
made  in  it ;  and  it  is  carried  on  at  tliib  nwiiK'nt  vttry 
much  in  the  same  manner  that  It  was  i.'iirri«4  on  by 
our  ancestors  centuries  ago.  Uice,  and  itluio^t  nvi  ry 
species  of  grain,  has  been  used  in  malting  i  but  In 
Europe,  and  especially  in  ICnglund,  mult  U  prcfmrsd 
almost  wholly  from  barley.  It  is  the  principiil  Ingr** 
dient  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  and  is  littln  n*t<il  *%. 
cept  in  brewing  and  the  distillation  of  splrlli,  Ita  I'lin- 
sumption  in  the  United  States  is  rapidly  iniTtWDlng, 

Okain,  and  the  rRouuoTioN   or  Malt  and  Hpikituous   htniiiim,  l<f  thh 
Unitko  States  fok  tiik  Year  IfWSO. 


Maine 

Vonnont, 

Masaaehusetts. 

Kbode  Island. 

Connecticut. 

Now  York 

New  Jersey 

I'ennsylvsnia 

Maryland 

Vlrgl.ila 

North  Carolina. 

South  Carolina. 

Oeorgls.  

Alabamta 

I.oulHiana 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Missouri 

Ohio 

Indians 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

New  Mexico  Territ . . 

UUU  Territory 

Dlit.  of  Columbia.... 
Total 


Bll^llrl•. 


D.ill>,.. 
17,000 

T.nofl 

457,500 
17,000 
i,\5nn' 

2.5'<1.9tlU,2,()fl2,2.')0{ 
■lii'.'.tiSi   li><,700| 

I,Tlil,980  650,105j 
lM7,ino!     76,900 


In  veiled. 


(iuftntlUe*  and  kind!  of  ffniin,  dr.,  coDiuuied. 


Barley. 


Corn, 
Builieir" 


2,nfloI 

80,000' 
U,50tl| 


100,915' 
il,98ij 
8,475 
7,150 

8,.VI0 
16S,8»5 
60.125 


29S,9iW    124,441) 


1.262,974 


8U8,400 
189,425 
19,600 

»$,7ao 

7,'m 
8,0011 
12,000 


20,000 


10,000 
65,1150 
8,000 


,<I80,990 


884,950    lltJ.l.VI 


98,000 
82,0.10 

»i,m 

1,000 

b,oua 


19,400 

2(),0('lO 

1,647,206 

V.'Vt.UOO 

l,4'ia,5» 

166,100 
2.'»,T00 
64,650 
18,100, 
20,1511; 


551, aw 
2.'SS,4 10 
309.200 
8,581,140 
1,417.900 
708,.VIO 
212,800 

29,900! 
2,000, 


Rye. 

Onlt,  I 

B>i<h«Ji.    U.i.hel> 

ii,m    '.'.'.'. 

injm  '.'.'.'. 

009,067    0,707 

6MW    .... 

617,180  24,790 

M,8no      460 

62,fiS0'      460 

4,700;    .,.. 

2,500   I'eoo 

80^520    '.'.'.'. 

6,4811    ..,. 

24,900    .... 

281,750  10,600 

48.700!    1,000 

48,700 

2,200 

19,150 

7,20(V 

9,200 

12,900 

M4.S,92I 

6«,M7i 

Api>Iet,    MoIaBMt 


Buiheli. 


Hhd*, 
2,000 

85ii30 


10 

m.om  24,6iio 

409,700 
61,200        10 


6,000 


25 


Hopi. 


1 

29 

6 

2 

581 

42 

2611 

26 

14 


10 
18 

"si 

178 
18 
80 
16 


pl'ryed. 


8.a'M,2548,78'^  19641,0iir,7rtl  2,14.8,921  6«,M7i  ,VJ6,S4«'  61,075 


n 

2 

181 

9 

20 

1,1)80 

197 

Ull 

126 

12B 

76 

m 

16 
2 

8 

274 

160 

179 

1,088 

287 

274 

98 

19 

08 

21 

B 

«^ 0 

1,294  16,487 


((iiaatliiat  at  llnuun  |ir«tllw4> 


Ale,  ete, 


WbUllrit 


800 
26,800 
8,000 

644',fl'M 
84,7ro 

l>i9,68| 
'J6,B80 
6,600 


8,001) 
19,600 

44,860 
96,041) 
IUI06 
27,926 
10,820 

81,1)20 


Hum, 


,,,,  j  •iin.im 
viiim     I, '/no 

|,260,A!XI| 
fl,fi4a,i.|«, 

T'>7,4«0 

«0,«(l| 

bV),IIHO| 
4l),UiKI, 


tMi 


«i/,lfi» 

i^i'.fW 
om.m 

2,8)6,11110 
Atfn.OMt 
Ittl.DOH 

42,<aiO 


SIflMI 


'  HjnEj^llUm.Mi 


Owing  to  malt  liquor  having  early  become  the  { 
favorite  beverage  of  the  |>eopIe  of  England,  the  manu-  { 
facture  of  malt  has  been  carried  on  in  that  country,  ' 
for  a  lengthened  period,  on  a  very  large  scale.  In-  j 
stead,  however,  of  increasing  with  the  increasing  I 
wealth  and  population  nf  the  countri-,  it  was  nearly  i 
stationary  for  the  100  years  ending  with  1816.  In  ' 
proof  of  this  we  may  mention  that  the  quantity  of 
malt  that  paid  duty  in  England  and  Wtles,  at  an  av-  { 
erago  of  the  12  years  ending  with  1720,  was  24,191,301  j 


bushels  a  year ;  whereas  the  annual  uvxragn  i|lliintltv 
that  paid  duty  during  the  12  years  andl'ig  with  IMlii, 
was  only  23,197,764  bushels.  ThU  «pp  jrcndy  iiii'itn- 
alous  result  is  probably  in  aoins  iiieaaura  to  I'H  fii'< 
counted  for  by  the  increased  eonsumptiiin  nf  t"*  mid 
coffee ;  but  t'lere  can  not  lio  a  rjiieatiun  Mmt  it  l»  niftiti' 
ly  owing  to  the  exorbitant  duties  with  which  nmlt, 
Slid  the  ale  or  beer  iiianiifut'tiired  fruiil  it,  Imvn  lifon 
loaded,  and  to  the  opprcsalve  rugiihi'.luna  liH|ioat>d  on 
the  manufacture  of  malt  and  the  aaU  of  h««r,    Jiul 


inhabit 

amount 

ported 

from 

Island  i 

than 

100,000 

their  i 

all  sort 

arc  lur; 

import 

tared  ( 

tolmcc 

used  to 

monopt 

varyin) 

were 

ished,  I 

sumptli 

stitutei 

ities, 

advant 

trade  o 

houses 

excava 

ted  of 

Thewt 

liidefin 


MAL 


1809 


MAL 


the  public  attention  being  at  length  forcibly  aU 
tracted  to  the  subject,  and  the  effect  of  the  exor- 
bitant dutiei  on  malt  and  beer  in  increaiing  the  con- 
■umption  of  ardent  tplrits  having  been  clearly  pointed 
out  (lee  Edinburg  Review,  No.  OK),  the  lieer  duty  in 
Oreat  Britain  was  lepeuled  in  18S0. 

Malta,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  belonging 
to  the  British,  nearly  opposite  to  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  .Sicily,  from  which  it  is  almut  S4  miles  distant. 
Valetta,  the  capitiil,  is  situated  un  the  north  const  of 
the  island,  the  light-house  in  the  castle  of  St.  Elmo 
being  in  lat.  85°  hi'  6"  N.,  loi  g.  14°  31'  1"  E. 
Malta  is  about  20  miles  long,  and  10  or  12  broad. 
The  island  of  Gozo,  about  a  fourth  part  of  the  size  of 
Malta,  lies  to  the  north-west  of  the  latter,  at  about  four 
mile*'  diKtance  ;  and  in  the  strait  between  them  is  the 
■mall  island  of  Cumino.      In  1847  the   population 
of  Malta  amounted,  excluding  the  garrison  (except  the 
Maltese  re{;lu<ent),  to  108,140.      The  population  of 
(tozo,  at  the  same  period,  was  15,130 ;  the  total  popu- 
lation of  l)otli  islands  malting  123,270,     The  entire 
revenue  collected  in  Malta  usually  amounts  to  alwut 
jE100,000  a  year,  of  which  about  £28,000  is  derived  from 
the  rent  of  lands.     Valetta,  the  capital  of  the  island, 
Is    defended    liy    almost   impregnable   fortifications. 
"These,"  says  Mr.  Brydone,  "are,  indeed,  most  stu- 
pendous works.     All  the  boasted  catacombs  of  Komo 
and  Naples  are  a  trifle  to  the  immense  excavations 
that  have  ))een  made  in  this  little  island.    The  ditches, 
of  a  vast  size,  are  ail  cut  out  of  the  solid  rocic  ;  these 
extend  for  a  great  many  miles,  and  raise  our  astonish- 
ment to  think  that  so  smiill  a  State  has  ever  been  utile 
to  make  them."     (Timf  through  Sicily  and  Malta.) 
Since  the  island  came  into  the  possession  of  Great 
Britain,  the  fortifications  have  been  considerably  im- 
proved ;  so  that  at  present  it  is  a  place  of  very  great 
strength.     After  the  capture  of  Rhodes  by  the  Turks, 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  made  a  present  of  Miilta  to 
the  Knights  orSt  John  of  .lerusulem,  in  whose  |    sses- 
ston  it  remained  till  1798,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
French.     It  was  taken  from  the  latter  by  the  English 
in  1800,  and  wuo  definitely  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in 
1814.      The  island   consists  mostly  of  a  rock,  very 
thinly  covered  witli  soil,  a  good  deal  of  which  has  been 
brought,  at  an  immense  expense,  from  Sicily ;    but 
being  cultivated  with  the  utmost  care,  it  produces  e.K- 
ccllcnt    fruits,   particularly    the    cil"l)ruted    Maltese 
oranges,  corn,  cotton,  witli  small  qu:i     icies  of  indigo, 
saffron,  ond  nugar.     The  principal  il'     11116000  of  the 
inhabitants  is  on  tlieir  cotton ;    the       ip  of  which, 
amounting  to  al)OUt  1,000,000  llis.  a  ye,,     is  partly  ex- 
ported raw,  and  ])artly  manufactured  t.,  Mh'  value  of 
from  1400,000  to  iroiio.OOO.     The  corn  rai  rd  on  the 
island  is  not  sufBcient  to  feed  the  inhabitants  for  more 
than  five  or  si.x  niontlis,  and,  at  an  average,  about 
100,000  quarters  of  foreign  ".sheat  are  required  lor 
tlieir  use.     In  addition  to  cum,  cuttle,  provisions  of 
all  sorts,  including  dried  fish,  fruits,  Spanish  peas,  etc., 
are  largely  imported.     The  other  loading  articles  of 
import  comprise  cottons  and  most  sorts  of  manufac- 
tured goods,  sugar,  coffee,  and  otlier  colonial  products, 
tobacco,  oil,  wines,  timber,  etc.     The  trade  in  com 
used  to  l)e  monopolized  by  government ;  and  after  tlie 
monopoly    was    abandoned,    duties    on    importation, 
varying,  like  those  in  this  country,  with  the  price, 
were  imposed.     But  in  1835  these  duties  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  fixed  duties  on  corn  entered  for  con- 
sumption, specified  in  the  subjoined  tariff,  were  sulv 
stituted  in  their  stead.     Malta  presents  unusual  facil- 
ities,  which   have    not  hitherto  been  taken  proper 
advantage  of,  for  l)ecoming  the  entrepot  of  tlie  corn 
trade  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea.     Iler  ware- 
houses for  corn  are,  like  those  of  Sicily  and  Barbar}-, 
excavated  in  the  rock ;  and  are,  perhaps,  the  best  fit- 
ted of  any  in  Europe  for  the  safe  keeping  of  com. 
The  wheat  lodged  in  them  may  be  preserved  for  an 
Indefinite  period;  and  it  is  aliirmed  that  though  it 


should,  on  being  deposited,  be  affected  by  the  WMvll, 
it  is  verj-  soon  freed  from  that  destructive  insect.  It  II 
not  often  that  com  can  be  l>rought  direct  from  OdesM, 
Taganrog,  etc.,  to  England,  without  the  risk  of  Iwing 
damaged ;  but  were  it  brought,  in  tlia  first  liittMtoa, 
to  Malta,  and  bonded  there,  it  might  afterward  be 
conveyed  in  the  best  order  to  the  Knglish  nwrkat. 
Malta  is  also  admiralily  well  suited  for  becoming  • 
centre  of  the  com  trade  of  Esrvpt,  Barbury,  Italy,  «Us, 
During  the  wars  of  1800-1>.15,  particularly  during  tilt 
period  when  Napoleon's  anti-=ommerciul  •yataiii  wn» 
in  operation,  Malta  became  a  great  entrepot  for  colo- 
nial and  other  goods,  which  were  thence  conveyed, 
according  as  opportunities  offered,  to  the  adjacent 
ports,  'riiis  commerce  ceased  with  the  circumntaiwei 
that  gave  it  birth ;  and  for  soma  years  after  tlia  return 
of  peace,  the  trade  of  the  island  was  depressed  below 
its  natural  level,  by  the  imposition  of  various  oppriis< 
sive  discriminating  duties.  In  1811),  tbl*  vaxatiuu* 
system  was  partially  obviated, 

Ndubeb  and  Toxnaok  or  Sailiho  Vembls,  olaimd  ao, 
coaniNo  to  Tohnaok,  wiiicu  uilohuid  to  tub  Ui,anm 
or  Malta  on  tub  31bt  Ukoeuiikb,  18SS  ano  ISbS, 


ClftM  of  VetMli. 


50  tons  atid  iiiidoi' 

.Vbove  .10,  not  exceeding  100 
"  100  "  "  200 
"    20J    "         "         800 

''    SOO  and  upward 

Total 


Tuni, 


61 
2« 
61 
81) 
BT 


776 
t,01,t 
7,MT 
7,186 
I3,yj6 


iii,'iia 


a},m 


Nduoie  and  ToNNAoe  or  Vessels  entebeii  anu  I'LEARau 
AT  Malta,  fbom  and  to  vabiocs  CocMTHiEa,  IN  RAOK  or 
tub  Yeabs  13S5  AND  1SS4. 


Coantrtsi. 


United  KtiiJidoiii 

Ifritisli  I'o&sessluns 

United  States 

Other  foreign  countries . , 
Tntal 


I86S,        Jl      _    ImI 
VtMeli.|_^roni«.  '|"v»wU-|    T>wr 
•iOOMi 


Countries. 


United  Kingdom 

Britisli  I'ossesaions 

United  States 

Other  foreign  countries . . . 
Total 


INTIHKn. 


'.I4U 
610 
02 

2(m 


ii6li) 


W.,71" 
5!t,4illi 


4  0 
K> 

111 
'.jiat 


KiS.itlU 
7,SII 

474,11'/ 
ii4>(,-il 


IMS. 
VmmIb-I    Tuiii 


00:1 

407 

«l 

203:1 


8AU 


4D,Sr)T 
6I,4'J8 
Jllfi.O.'ll 


ii'il,2lll 


MM 


V«M«|:, 

4U:i 

■it 
28011 


&!*>» 


li(4,«S 

vv,.im 

IT.TIU 
4H4D1 

ii;i6,7)i'i 


Total  estimated  Value  op  the  Impobts  and  I'.xports  or 
Malta  in  tub  Yeabs  1X16  and  ISM. 


United  Kingdom  . . . 
Ili'ltlsh  Fofldessions  , 

United  Stales 

Other  foreign  states., 

Total 


mh.     I 


1S66^      I 

'  f"  r 

64,S7.1 1 

»,7i);)i 

30,22^ 


ns,o.wl 

l!l,i)40 
30,118 
984,937  |2,0J0;0'.I8  lTII,!iH6| 


\m^  I     l«it: 

i  r   * 

4l,0fii)'l,0IT,«4'/ 

ni,iiit|    Wtiwi 

832 1       4,7l)i« 
T87,40« 


I,IHI3,331  |-,i,724,',ll»U, 1)81,421)1  l,n;iH,<4« 


Note.— Tho  large  increase  in  the  imports  and  oxpmls  In 
IS.'^ti  is  principally  owing  to  the  increased  arrivals  and  de> 
partures  uf  vessels  witti  cargoes  of  n  heat. 

PorCLATION    of    SIALTA    in    the    VEAB    ISBS    (INCLDIIINO 

Oozo). 


CIVILIANS, 

Maltese  (including  the  It.  M.) 

Fenelbles) ) 

British  residents 

Foreigners 

Total 


HILITABT. 

Qticcn's  troops 

Wives  of  ditto 

Fersoni  in  military  departments 

Wives  of  ditto 

Persons  connected   with  the' 

army 

Children ! 


Total. 


Mftlea. 


C3,67« 

4«7 
826 


04,1^6^ 

8,730 
"69 

Od 

492 

"14,226 


VamWieil  |     T»l«l    1 


00,353 

«46 

249 


U7,tMS 


B7T 

"40 

U 

486 


ISO.filM 

l,tl« 
1,074 


lHiJ,li4 

8,T30 

6!T 

0) 

40 

80 


m,tm  \~iii^l\ 


MAN 


1310 


MAir 


LuT  or  Veuku  atLONOiMu  to  tiir  biAND  of  Uauta,  tm 

THE   llT  or  jAKVAKr,    INM, 


Bhipi. 

BvU 

Brigs 

Briganttno 

Snow. . 

Cultrra 

Kotch 

Brf^  Rchoonors 

BGhboncra. 

Bombardik 

Paranu. 

Bpcroiiuras '     K 


ToUl 


The  central  poaltloii,  nxcellent  port,  Hinl  KfMt 
atrength  of  Maltii,  muk«  it  hii  ailinlrolito  ii«v«l  ntulUm 
for  tlie  repair  .and  aecommixiatluii  of  tlio  miiiHif-w»r 
and  nierchant-8hi|)«  frequeiitinf;  thu  iMiUirrummu, 
and  render  its  poi.>es8iun  ut  material  liii|ii>rtani'«  to 
the  liritish  empire.  Since  Malt^uimilt  v«»mU  wi>r« 
admitted  into  ports  of  the  United  KiiiKiluiii  on  th« 
same  ternifi  as  those  of  liritUb-liuilt,  the  triuhi  iif  •hi|i' 
building  has  materially  increaaed  in  tliu  ialand,  ThiK 
Maltese  sliipwriglits  are  diligent,  exjH^rt  v/i>rkim>n  | 
and,  their  wages  being  moderate,  it  in  a  faviirulilit  (iliwe 
for  careening.  Owing  to  the  want  of  a  i\ry  iltH'k,  all 
ships  above  the  size  of  u  sloop  of  war,  that  ri'<|iill'«  to 
have  their  bottoms  examined,  have  to  loirMt Ui  F.tigUlid 
for  that  purpose.  This,  surely,  ahonld  Iw  olivi«t«<d. 
Quarantine  is  strictly  enforced  at  Mattii ;  but  UiKte  In 
every  facility  for  its  perfcirniunce,  and  Ills  ('liMr({««  are 
less  than  at  any  other  port  in  the  Mwllterranenn. 

Malta  is  now  the  centre  of  a  very  exti'Mnlvs  *it«fltit' 
packet  system ;  the  steauierit  from  iCiiglaild  fur  the 
Ionian  Islands,  Constantinople,  Alexaiulrht,  and  (/tlier 
ports  of  the  Levant,  touching  here,      Tlie   Krencii 

CouUERce  or  tius  llaiTEii  Kt*t»i  with  M* 


»t«Min«ra  from  tbue  porU  UMwUy  prfvfw  wmttt**U*l« 
at  Malta. 

M<mtg.~ln  IHif),  Hrltisb  *ijy«f  mmf  »*,  iMtit, 
dueed  Into  MalU  j  the  HpaaiWi  iitAl»f  imtt^  m*1U  Ut^^i 
Uindmt  at  the  raU  of  4h.  M. ;  t4*  »i<i>M#  *4W  H  if,, 
iA,  t  and  the  sciido  of  Halt*,  at  l»,  >i4, 

Wfiflhlii  and  Muuuret.~'lU.9  u>mnA,  Hf  tudMN. i^mw 
merclal  weight  ^  ao  omie  ^  U'i%6  tU^aHtk  KMt^t, 
Hence  100  rottoll  (the  «»utwo;  —  iliiitn,  #«,^rtrtu 
poU,  or  7»-H  hilog.  Mercbjwto  »mmt  fffltt/H  |ft« 
canUro  at  1 76  ll».  The  aiawa  t4  «vf #,  >*tv-1f*n  tu^^^ 
ur«  •»  8221  Winchester  bui^helti  j  hmiii'4  ttitiitfitiK  ^ 
reckoned  10  per  <»iit.  luore.  't'Uv  K*m»N,  (.f  fttfrnnftt 
tor  oil,  contains  r^  J'^'^lhih  Htlt/im  ^  lltfM*  iHf^<i, 
The  liarrel  is  douldc  the  vattm,  'fUtt  *J#l(^t#  f»t4  — 
11  l-fllh  Kngllsh  inches  ^  •!«*>  tmtff*,  'tfpi  t-mm  = 
n  i«ilml  =  »l-aKngli»h  ini^het  ^  ^i/^(t  )mttv<  M*i. 
chants  usually  convert  Malta  mm^fn  Urtti  hifftitit  in 
the  jiroportion  of  8|  paliui  to  »  ym4,  m  i  t^/fh  futth 
to  1  canna. 

Hills  on  (.ondon  are  usually  4f)kVH  t4  IM  ntnl  M 
(lays'  sight,  The  deputy  n-Ammmtf^  Kfmfiii  h 
obliged  to  grant,  at  all  tiuej,  tiiih  >W  »#*»  ''fft/§*iiff  f^i^ 
for  Uritish  silver  teudtrcd  to  bm,  itt  Urn  ftttfM'n  tUn 
bill  for  ever)'  illOl  10s.  silver,  w**j>Wi,  M>  Ott:  ffttm 
time,  other  silver,  at  a  fiiM*t«*tv«5  ff4f  i4  i^imiti(H, 

Vummtrtinl  lldiUiuiu  vUli  Ihn  lUiiUd  filttlni.—:%\i^ 
commercial  Intercourse  of  irl*e  ^'.»Utt4  Hitk.^-<i  *i«fe 
Malta  Is  dependent,  as  is  that  wf  iM  Htitff  nMit^^,  m 
the  regulations  and  legislatjy*;  if^M'<iiiV<vMl*  </t  t(w 
intAher  country.  The  tr»d«  >4'tim  t:nH*4  <HM^-<  with 
this  Island  is  not,  however,  >yfy  imfiitftitM.-  tliiwi^h 
nn  examination  of  the  Mluvmif  tit/t*'  mtt  ■sitim  tt  pet- 
cetrtlbli)  increase  in  the  awvvMt  ff  //ttf  Jcwtt*^*,  ttt,4 
but  little  variation  iu  the  yi4m  fit  Mif  fHplffts  (ttttihg 
the  years  which  they  «iubr»c«; 


(,TA,  raoM  October  1,  18»S,  to  4f!f/y  t,  im. 


Tcan  •ndtDf 


BeptSO,  1888. 
18.S4 
1S83. 
18»«. 
1S8I. 
1S38. 


1840 

ToUI. 


1S41 

1842 

9  mos.     Win 

Jane  80,  1844 

184S.... 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

mw 

Total. 


Juno  80,  1851 . 
1SS2. 

IBftB. 

18S4. 
1888. 
18'W. 


Douuttlc. 


|All,S28 

«r,4«« 

100,1185 
88,8IT 

lOO.IMA 
NI,W» 
85,870 
14,610 

un.m 

♦27,869 

11,644 

6,4.16 

0,752 

12,909 

28,764 

28,096 

BS.I28 

61,288 

75^«_ 

♦277,150 

♦64,061 
96,847 
165.819 
148,528 
<l2,89r 
28I,04A 


♦I2I,24A 

189,892 

mjm 

4,078 

84,126 

4,''>,«M 

♦518,(191 

♦21,070 
H.26I 
11,471 
7,24« 

)6,9ft» 
62.7S4 

mm 

'♦(!W,2M 

♦  12,288 
l«,97A 
«2,1W7 
«I,»4A 
T2,4M 
88,MI 


TuMI. 


I  ♦6(i,82)t 
»7,42« 
I  2IKI/I98 
I  178,709 
I      874.171 

I      >A>m 

99,996 

I         n9.9»6 

'  ♦t,oi8,oMr 

19,906 

iim 

16,998 
12,91(9 
tH/)8l 
47,«»T 
49,088 
1I»,9«7 
1I4,»>I0 

♦76,299 
118.822 
l87/<66 
169,778 
«84.849 
8l4,fiM 


lrfr|«ft«. 
tun). 

HI.i<67 
84,890 
86.961 
16,866 
94,9)8 
28^71 

♦264,(194 

♦  1.461 

7/8)0 

27 

16 

92.811 

21,689 

"884 

♦72,846 

♦26,167 
114,864 
80,068 
88,696 
«24l« 
44.224 


•Qd  8jitde. 


Eipur4«4< 


♦881 


♦881 


tmft»>t4.- 


♦2,«0« 


tm 
am 

m 
m 

m 
*** 


i.m  ' 

»,m  : 
i.m  [ 


7#f 


■m 

Vim 

■tfA 

i.m 

m 

4S8 
Ui 

8W 

4m 


No  spirits  or  conllaU,  except  rum  and  uplrlts,  the 
product  of  (treat  liritain  or  of  the  liritish  colonies,  can 
be  admitted  for  consumption,  if  they8x/.'««d  j)  (wromt, 
over-proof.  The  following  are  the  legal  rat«a  for  pi* 
lotage  charged  on  all  veHHcU  entering  the  liarlior  of 
Malta :— Vessels  of  UN)  tons  burden,  fi  ;  101  to  1/8), 
#3  04  ;  151  to  2&0,  (1 ;  U!)l  to  .W),  (5  01 ;  tUil  and 
upward,  $6. 

Vessels  discharging  merchandl((n  in  tlio  Island  of 
Malta,  on  clearing  outward,  pay  for  tvery  ton,  or  any 
part  thereof,  including  al>  (wrt  charge*,  12  cents. 
There  is  a  pulilic  hospital  u  Malta,  to  which  Itrlllsh 
iailon  are  udmitted  free  oi  chitrga,    AuMirkan  and 


other  foreign  sailors  are  4m  >t.imHtf4  irt  i»  cfi.rt^e  of  20 
cents  per  diem,  the  puywewt  t4'  #*M^*  mttxi  Im  gnar- 
antied  li^r  their  respective  «iw»ii|il«,  ivc  tf^  ttm  ((tnsipt- 
een  of  the  vessels  to  wlwti  tfeey  M(»»)^.' 

For  trade  of,  travel  w,  tHu.,,  Mdtit,  «n>f  />/m.  //fr., 
vl.,  11)1;  North  Am.  /iet:,  ^x*y,..  yjS*  (/^,  U.  t)tr.K- 
KTT),  X.,  22ft  (K.  Kvp^iKJT)  j  Af'/A/*..  /M.-  Ht/Sf..  X.. 
728,  Ix,,  86,  103,  vii.,  WJ*I,  jy..,  'jmi,.  *.-,.  l»ft;  Chr. 
Kxiim,,  li.,  2&«  (.Iaii.  H'4».K(h:*i^  s  ((i/hk-  Uff.y  J.*..  1. 

M«li,  I»l«  of,  U,  »e  «y*fy  tm"  km>*f^  nMrtXfed  in 
the  I  rich  Hca,  at  aU'Ut  m  y>^»iti  4HtiHf«  ttorti  Kn- 
cland,  Hcotland,  and  lr4»tvt,  H  U  tit/trtH  SW  rtiilfs 
long,  and  10  or  12  itnm4.-    '***  UiUifm  kmrn^tm* 


Woolen  ., 
twine,  pins,  L 
large  quontil 
chemical  wo/ 
lied  at  4:i2,(j 
Birmingham  I 
W-)  raiiroadi 
i'ivcrpool,  1)1 
Manganf 

Urulnstem;  I 
It.  ManpatiftX 
ifanganesiunl 
grayish  whitl 
of  brilliancyJ 


MAN 


1311 


MAN 


•iJ 


m 
m 


m 


Hi 

mi 

4w 


RU,  Bnd  the  soil  nowhere  vuiy  prodnctlve.  Popnlatlon 
In  1861,  52,887.  This  inUnd  uaed  to  be  one  of  the 
principal  atatlonn  of  the  herring  flsherjr ;  but  for  s 
cnnxlderable  period,  It  han  been  comparatlveljr  deserted 
by  the  herrint;  skoaln,  a  circiimatimce  which  is  not  to 
he  Tegnttei  ;  fur  the  fishery,  by  withdrawing  the  at- 
tention of  the  inhaliitants  from  agriculture  and  manu- 
facturen,  and  leading  them  to  engage  in  what  haa 
usually  been  a  gamlding  and  unproductive  buaineas, 
has  been,  on  the  whole,  injurious  to  the  island.  The 
steam  pacltets  from  Glasgow  to  Liverpool,  and  from  the 
latter  to  Belfast,  touch  at  the  Isle  of  Man  ;  which  is, 
in  consequence,  largely  frequented  by  visitors  fTom 
tliese  cities,  and  otiier  |Mirts  of  the  empire,  whose  in- 
flux has  mitterittl.y  contriliuted  to  the  improvement  of 
Douglas,  the  principal  port  in  the  island,  and  other 
tovms.  The  feudal  sovereignty  pf  Man  was  formerly 
VP!<ted  in  the  Karls  of  I)erl>r,  and  more  recently  in  the 
Dultes  (if  Athol,  a  circumstance  which  accounts  for  the 
fact  of  the  duties  on  most  commodities  consumed  in 
the  island  having  lieen,  for  a  lengthened  period,  mnch 
lower  than  those  on  tlie  same  commodities  when  con- 
sumed in  rireat  Krltain.  This  distinction,  which  still 
subsists,  has  produced  a  great  deal  of  smuggling,  and 
been  in  no  ordinary  degree  injurious  to  the  revenue 
and  trade  of  tlie  empire.  1  he  customs  revenue  col- 
lected in  the  Isle  of  Man  in  18o'2,  amounted  to  jC28,- 
077  i  but  from  this  sum  £14,.S73  was  deducted  on  ac- 
count of  expenses  of  collection,  public  works,  internal 
government,  etc. 

Manchester,  a  city,  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  and  parish  of  Kngland,  county  Lancaster. 
Area  of  parish,  including  the  liorough  8alford,  33,553 
acrea.  Population,  '>»2,158.  Inhabited  houses,  63,697. 
Population  in  1801,  110,938  ;  in  1841, 858,390 ;  in  1861, 
401,321,  of  whom  310,218  were  in  the  borough  of  Man- 
chester, and  86,108  in  tliat  of  Salford.  The  town 
stands  on  a  plain,  and  consists,  with  Salford,  of  a  dense 
mass  of  buildings,  extending  alwut  two  miles  from 
east  to  west,  by  somewhat  less  from  north  to  south, 
and  covering  about  3000  acres.  It  has  a  lirunoh  of  the 
Banic  of  England,  6  joint-stocli  banlcB,  and  5  weekly 
newspapers.  Marl<.et,  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Satur- 
day. The  proximity  of  an  abundance  of  coal,  the  im- 
provements introduced  into  spinning  and  weaving  ma- 
chinery by  Hughes,  Arkwright,  Hargreaves,  and 
Crompton,  and  tlie  applicatun  of  steam  power,  have 
raised  Manchester  to  its  eminence  of  monopolizing 
two  tiiirds  of  the  cotton  manufacture  of  Great  Britain. 
Its  manufactures  arc  mostly  conducted  in  large  mills 
and  factories.  Of  these  in  1853,  there  were  in  Man- 
chester and  Salford : 


C«tton  spinning 

Cotton  woavlng 

Cotton  spinning  and  weaving 

Woolon  ond  worsted  spinning  I 

and  weaving f 

Silk  throwing  and  small  ware 

Flax  spinning 

Print  works 


Total. 


No.  of 
works. 

Psrsoiu 
em{>toy.>(l. 

Steam 
Power. 

5,292 

T,T09 
1T,858 

1,520 
1,080 
4,706 

8 

290 

80 

50 

8 

85 

7,520 
1,120 
2,985 

5S0 
198 

288 

42,2M 

8,185 

Woolen  fabrics,  machinery,  hats,  paper,  ropes, 
twine,  pins,  and  numerous  other  goods,  are  made  in 
large  quantities;  and  there  are  many  bleaching  and 
chemical  works,  and  breweries.  Annual  export  val- 
ued at  .£12,000,000.  Manchester  communicates  witli 
Birmingham  and  London  by  the  Grand  Junction  (N. 
W.)  railroad,  and  by  other  railrooda  and  canals  with 
Liverpool,  Bolton,  Preston,  Rochdale,  Sheffield,  etc. 

Manganese  (Ger.  Braimstein,  Ulasseise;  Du. 
Bruinsteen ;  Fr.  Manganese,  Magalese,  Savon  du  rerre ; 
It.  ^fanpanfsla ;  8p.  ifanganesia;  \a\\,.  Magnesia  nigra, 
Manganetitim),  a  metal  whicli,  when  pure,  is  of  a 
grayish  white  color,  like  cast-iron,  and  has  a  good  deal 
of  brilliancy.     Its  texture  is  granular;  it  has  neitlier 


taate  nor  smell ;  It  ta  softer  than  caat-iron,  and  may 
be  filed ;  ita  specific  gravity  is  8.  It  is  very  brittle, 
and  can  neither  be  hammered  nor  drawn  out  into  wire. 
Its  tenacity  is  nnknoitn.  When  exposed  to  the  air.  It 
attracts  oxygen  with  consideralde  rapidity.  It  soon 
loses  its  lustre,  and  becomes  gray,  violet,  brown,  and 
at  last  Idack.  These  changes  toko  place  still  more 
rapidly  if  the  metal  lie  heated  in  an  open  veaael.  Ores 
of  manganeae  are  common  in  Devonabire,  Somerset- 
shire, etc.  The  ore  of  manganeae,  known  in  Derl)y- 
shire  by  the  name  of  black  rnidJ,  is  remarkalile  for  Ita 
spontaneous  inflammation  with  oil.  Oxyd  of  man- 
ganeae is  of  considerable  uae ;  it  is  employed  in  mak- 
ing oxymuriatic  acid,  for  forming  bleaching  liquor. 
It  is  also  used  in  glazing  Idack  eartlienware,  forgiving 
colors  to  enamels,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
It  is  the  substance  generally  used  l>y  chemists  for  ob- 
taining oxygen  gaa.— Thomson's  Chemitlrt/,  etc. 

Mangel  Wursel,  or  Field  Beet  (Fr.  Setie- 
ravet;  Uer.  Mangold  Wunet;  It.  A'cUo^a),  a  mongrel 
between  the  red  and  white  beet.  It  has  been  largely 
cidtivated  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  partly  as 
food  for  cattle,  and  partly  to  lie  uaed  in  diatillation,  and 
in  the  extraction  of  sugar.  Its  culture  in  Great  Britain 
is  very  recent ;  and  Mr.  Ix)udon  questions  whether  it 
has  any  advantages  over  the  turnip  for  general  agri- 
cultural purposes.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  ex- 
actly the  same  as  for  turnips,  and  immense  crops  are 
raised  on  strong  clays.  The  produce  per  acre  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Swedish  turnip ;  it  is  applied 
almost  entirely  to  the  fattening  of  stock,  and  the  feed- 
ing of  milch  cows. — Loiiuon's  Kncg.  o/Agr, 

Manger,  tlio  space  near  the  hawse  holes,  bounded 
on  the  upper  side  l)y  a  partition  across  the  bows,  called 
the  manger  board,  to  receive  the  water  while  it  enters 
the  hawse  holes  and  prevent  it  from  flooding  the 
deck. 

Mangle  (Kr.  Calandre;  Ger.  Mangle),  this  is  a 
well-known  machine  for  smmithing  table-cloths,  table- 
napkins,  as  well  as  linen  and  cotton  furniture,  and 
much  used  in  hotels.  As  usually  made,  it  consists  of 
an  oblong  rectangular  wooden  chest,  filled  with  stones, 
which  load  it  to  a  degree  of  pressure  that  it  should  ex- 
ercise upon  the  two  cylinders  on  which  it  rests,  and 
wliich,  by  rolling  l)ackwar<i  and  forward  over  the  linen 
spread  upon  a  polished  table  underneath  render  it 
smooth  and  level.  The  moving  wheel,  beii  -nished 
with  teeth  upon  both  surfaces  of  its  pen,  ',  and 
having  a  notcli  cut  out  at  one  part,  allows  u  pinion, 
uniformly  driven  in  one  direction,  to  act  alternately 
upon  its  outside  uiid  inside,  so  as  to  cause  the  recipro- 
cating motion  of  the  chest.  This  elegant  and  much 
aJmired  English  invention,  called  the  mangle-wheel, 
has  been  introduced  witl<  great  advantage  into  the  ma- 
chinerj-  of  tlie  textile  manufactures. 

Mango  (mr.nyon  marum,  in  the  Tamul  language 
of  India),  is  a  very  largo  fruit-tree,  iuhaliiting  tlio 
tropical  parts  of  Asia,  tliroughoiit  all  which  it  is  as 
extensively  cultivated  as  the  apple  and  pear-trees  are 
in  Europe.  Old  specimens  iiave  beeix  seen  with  a 
trunk  from  10  to  15  feet  in  circumference.  The  fruit 
is  something  like  a  nectarine,  but  more  compressed, 
longer,  and  more  curved.  It  contains  a  large  stone, 
covered  with  coarse  filires,  which  lose  themselves  in 
the  succulent  flesh.  Tlie  wild  and  inferior  varieties 
of  the  fruit  tnstc  so  strongly  of  turpentine  as  to  l>e 
wholly  unfit  for  use  by  Europeans ;  but  in  the  fine  va- 
rieties this  flavor  is  replaced  by  a  rich  sugary  quality, 
which  renders  it  very  delicious.  In  this  country  the 
mango  has  rarely  ripened  its  fruit,  but  it  is  common 
in  the  shops  in  a  pickled  state.  The  fruit  of  the  Man- 
gifera  Indica,  a  tree  cultivated  in  Asia,  is  also  called 
mango. 

Manifest,  in  commercial  navigation,  is  a  docu- 
ment signed  by  the  master,  containing  the  name  or 
names  of  the  places  where  the  goods  on  board  have 
been  laden,  and  the  place  or  places  for  which  they  are 


MAN 


1312 


MAN 


nspcctlvcly  destined ;  the  name  and  tonnnge  of  the 
Teasel,  the  name  nf  the  master,  and  the  name  of  the 
place  to  which  the  vnssel  belongs ;  •  particular  account 
and  description  nf  all  the  packages  on  hoard,  with  the 
marks  und  numbers  thereon,  the  goods  contained  in 
such  packages,  the  names  of  the  respective  sblp|iera 
and  consignees,  as  fur  as  such  particuturs  ai«  know  n  to 
tho  master,  etc,  A  separate  manifest  is  required  for 
tobacco.  Tlie  manifest  must  be  made  out,  dated,  and 
signed  liy  the  captain,  at  the  place  or  pluce.4  where 
the  gomis,  or  any  part  of  the  gon<ls,  are  taken  on 
board. 

Manilla,  the  capital  of  Luconia,  the  largest  of  the 
Plillippine  iHlandH,  und  the  principal  settlement  of  the 
Spaniards  in  the  Kust,  in  lat.  14°  iW  «"  X.,  long.  120° 
68'  80"  K.  Population  about  100,000,  of  whom  from 
4000  to  6000  nittv  be  Kumpeans.  Manilla  is  built  on 
the  shore  of  a  spuciims  bay  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  river  navigable  for  small  vessels  a  consid- 
erable way  into  the  interior.  The  smaller  class  of 
ships  anchor  in  Manilla  Koads,  in  6  fathoms,  the  north 
bastion  bearing  N.  87°  K.,  the  flshery  stakes  at  the 
river's  mouth  N.  18°  E.,  di!<tunt  alwut  a  mllr ;  but 
large  ships  anchor  at  C!avlta,  about  8  leagues  to  the 
southward,  where  there  is  a  good  harbor,  well  shel- 
tered from  the  west  and  south-west  winds.  The  arse- 
nal is  at  Cavita,  which  is  defended  by  Fort  St.  Philip, 
the  strongest  fortress  on  the  islands.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  and  towers,  und  some  of  the  bas- 
tions are  well  furnished  with  artillery.  Thr-ugh  situ- 
ated within  the  tropics,  the  climate  of  the  Philippines 


Is  sufficiently  temperate ;  the  only  considerable  disad- 
vantage under  which  they  labor  in  this  respect  being 
that  the  principal  part  of  the  group  comes  within  the 
range  of  the  tvplio'ins.     The  soil  is  of  verj'  diflerent 
qualities;    but  for  the   most  part  singularly  fertile. 
They  are  rich  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  pro- 
ductions.    It  is  stated  in  a  sti'tisticul  account  of  tlie 
Plillippines,  published  at  Manilla  in  IHIH  and  1811), 
I  that  the  entire  population  of  the  islands  amounted  to 
2,24»,85a,  of  which  ],. 170,222  lielonged  to  I.uconla. 
'  The'.-«  were  at  the  period  referred  to  only  2N;i7  Kuro- 
I  peans  In  the  islands,  und  little  more  thun  UOOO  (Jhlncsu. 
j  The  natives  are  said  to  be  the  must  active,  bold,  und 
I  energetic,  of  any  belonging  to  the  eastern  Archipclugo. 
[  "  These  people,"  says  a  most  intelligent  navijjutiir, 
I  "  appear  in  no  respect  inferior  to  those  of  Kuropo, 
They  cultivate  the  earth  like  men  of  undcrstundin^ ; 
I  are  carpenters.  Joiners,  sniitlis,  guldsmilh",  weavers, 
I  masons,  etc.     I  have  walked  through  tlieir  villages, 
'  and  found  thorn  kind,  liorpitublo,  and  communicutive ; 
'  and  though  the  Spaniards  speak  of  and  trcut  them 
i  with  contempt,  I  perccivnl  tliut  the  vices  they  attrll)- 
uted  to  the  Indians,  ought  ruther  to  bo  imputed  to  tlio 
govemmeitt  they  have  themselves  established." — r»^. 
agt  dt  Af.  De  Id  I'erome,  c.  xv. 

The  principal  articles  of  export  consist  of  sugar, 
hemp,  indifro,  segars,  cotton,  coffee,  rice,  supan-wixid, 
motlier-of-|>earl,  hides,  ebony,  gold  dust,  etc.  Tlio 
principal  articles  of  import  are  stuffs  fur  cloth- 
ing, iron,  hardware,  furniture,  fire-unus,  und  uiuiuu- 
nition,  etc. 


Account  or  xn*  tJuANTiTiRs  and  Dkstijiatioii  or  tiik  Paonnoa  Expobtbd  rsoii  Manilla  is  18<S(X 


AMIdM. 


Tn  Orinl 


Tit  Ihc  Cind-  {To  Um  Auatrn-' 
nent  of  Kuropc  lluicolonlet, 


jBugsr peculs 

Hemp '* 

Cordage " 

Segan M. 

Leaf  tobacco quintals 

Sapun  wood arrobos 

Coffee pecnis 

Iiiillija qnlutals 

Illdus peculs 

Illilo  cuttini(s " 

Mothor-of-pearl  shells    ** 

Tortoise-shell cuttles 

Klco '■ 

Dcche  do  Mer poeuls 

Oold  dust tails 

C'aniaKon(eban)'  wil.tpticuls 
jUrasi-olotb pieces 


Hats. 


.No. 


146,lt;26 

M.orn 

10,81» 

105 
8,IM0 

"m 

2,081 


115 


5(1,H))0 

^,.^68 

476 

ll,S«T 

42,029 

14,4X8 

B,870 

21  a 

218 

"888 

6S0 

6,576 


1,218 
18,253 


142,869 

°8^7S8 
13,5(1 


1,481 


9,400 


I' 

The  qnantity  of  rice  and  paddy  shipped  to  China 
flrom  the  islands  can  not  be  usccrtuinecl  with  nny  de- 
gree of  exactness ;  whut  goes  from  Muniiia  is  very 
small,  because,  before  arriving  there,  it  hus,  by  its 
trunsport  expenses,  added  tn  the  price  at  which  it  is 
obtainable  in  the  districts  where  it  is  produced,  which, 
of  course,  prevents  its  being  shipped  from  the  capital, 
Probably,  however,  about  1,000,000  coyans,  each  ol 
which,  one  with  another,  weighs  about  a  China  pecul, 
or  13ilj-  lbs,,  may  lie  annually  ex|)nr».e('.  Tho  export 
is  reguluted  l>y  the  supposed  scarcity  or  abundance  of 
food  in  the  country. — M'Mickin',s  Afanilla,  p,  270. 

The  principal  currency  of  Manilla  consists  of  Sp.inish 
dollars,  of  8  reals  und  98  grains  ;  but.  South  American 
dollars  are  also  current.  The  weights  in  use  ure  the 
Spanish  pound,  which  is  nearly  2  per  -ent.  heavier  than 
tho  English  ;  the  urmba  =  .5^  Knglish  I'^s.  nearly ; 
the  quintal  =  102  lbs.,  and  the  |iecul  of  5  urrobas,  or  1^ 
cwt.  Knglish.  The  coyan  is  a  inea.suro  f:>r  rice,  etc., 
varying  from  96  to  VM>  lbs.  According  to  a  recent 
lUt,  there  arc  in  Mnnillu  47  Spanish  merchants  and  11 
foreign  firms.  The  Spunisli  merchants  have  a  cham- 
ber of  commerce  and  a  joint-.-tock  insurance  society. 
Tlie  United  States,  Kruiice,  und  Uelgiiim  have  consuls, 
and  each  of  the  Canton  marine  insurance  companies 
has  an  agent  here.  There  are,  however,  neither  tire 
nor  life-offices  nor  agents  ;  nor  it:  any  newspaper,  price- 


'^iJ.r.'T'J.d'iToc.iif,,™-..!    T„(h.    1 

,     iJJraUi"     "I"'  >!'•  f"^»'  V»'i"i  »1«1M-; 


Toul,       I 


1.783 
9,262 

18,043 
100 
Uncertain, 
1,009 


5M 

Uncertain. 

4,84S 

5,008 

794 

600 

6,115 


12,749 
6(4 

6S0 
20,S69 

iy,887 
250 


1,913 


9,115 


29,Ut 

3,i87 
1,707 


1,073 


1,467 


6,tO 
600 


7T,»1U 

4.'iU,927 

02,181 

124.8(17 

310 

9,U->4 

914 

78.4.89 

.... 

42.629 

9,015 

9fl.r9s 

2,06;i 

it.sm 

8,768 

4.225 

.... 

4,m 

3,419 

i,K>:> 

74 

1,4U2 

469 

.^,.W7 

.... 

Uncertain 

4,84S 

,').(MiS 

2,242 

22.975 

n7,,M2 

35,870 

60,000 

current,  or  other  periodicul  publication  issued  in  Manil- 
la, I'ousidering  the  great  icrtiiity  und  varied  iirodiic- 
tions  of  the  Philippines,  and  their  peculiarly  favor- 
able situation  for  currying  on  commerce,  the  limited 
extent  of  their  trude,  even  with  itJ  lute  increu>e,  may 
excite  surprise.  Tliis,  however,  is  entirely  u  con«e- 
(jueuce  of  tlie  wr:'t|^d  policy  of  tho  Spani.ih  govern- 
ment, which  perseveroil  until  very  recently  in  oxdiid- 
iug  uU  foreign  ships  from  the  ports  of  thi  Phill|i|iiiiM, 
confining  tlio  trade  between  them  und  Mexico  and 
South  America  to  a  single  ship  !  Kvcn  ships  and  set- 
tlers from  China  were  excluded,  "  Provisions,"  says 
I.u  Pernusc,  "  of  ull  kinds  ure  in  tho  greutcst  aliun.l. 
uncn  here,  und  extremely  cheap ;  but  clothing,  ICuro- 
poau  hurdwure,  und  furniture,  bear  an  excessively  hinli 
price.  The  want  of  coni|ietition,  togetlier  witli  pro- 
hibitions  and  restraints  of  every  kind  luid  on  com- 
merce, render  the  productions  and  merchandise  of 
India  and  China  at  least  a<  dear  as  in  Europe !"  Hap- 
pily, however,  this  miserable  policy  tlie  effeots  of 
which  have  been  admirab.y  depicted  liy  M.  De  la  i'c- 
rotiso,  hus  been  muteriull,"  moditied  during  the  List 
few  years.  The  events  of  uie  lute  war  destroyed  fur 
ever  the  old  colonial  system  of  Spain  j  and  the  sliips 
of  all  nations  are  now  freely  admitted  into  Manilla  unJ 
the  otlier  ports  in  the  Philippines.  An  unprecedentcJ 
stimulus  has,  in  consequence  been  given  to  all  sorts  of 


MAN 


1313 


MAN 


indiidtry ;  and  Its  progrons  will,  no  doubt,  become  more 
rapid,  ucoording  u.i  a  wider  oxpcrlnnce  und  acciualnt- 
anc(  with  fureignern  miikn  the  natives  better  nwaro  of 
the  advantages  uf  cnmnierco  and  indiistr}',  and  dUa- 
buses  them  ■<{  the  prejudices  of  which  they  hnvo  been 
10  long*''        '.ves. 

Port  <:/iiiiffei. — On  foreign  vessels,  2  reals  per  ton, 
and  one  h.ilf  on  such  as  neither  load  nor  unload  cargo, 
besides  feen,  amounting  from  $S  to  $15,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  vessel. 

/mjmrl  Ihilira, — Spanish  commodities  liy  Spanish 
vessels,  pny  9  per  cent,  ud  valorem,  nn<l  R  by  foreign. 
Foreign  commoilitlcs,  liy  foreign  vessels,  I'l  \Mt  cent,, 
and  7  by  8pani.'*h  ;  In  general,  being  8  per  cent,  under 
national  tiug  from  .Singapore,  and  0  from  China. 
Spirits  and  strong  liquors,  produce  of  Spain,  by  Span- 
ish vessels,  10  per  cent.,  und  26  for  foreign;  If  they 
be  foreign  produce,  by  Spanish  vessels,  ilO  jwr  cent., 
and  00  l)y  foreign.  '  Cider  und  beer,  produce  of  Spain, 
l)y  Spanish  vessels,  ii  per  cent.,  and  10  by  foreign;  if 
tliey  lio  foreig-.i  produce,  by  SpanLih  vessels,  20,  and 
26  foreign.  All  Spanish  wines,  by  national  vessels,  3 
per  cent.,  and  H  by  foreign.  Foreign  wines,  by  Span- 
ish vessels,  40  per  cent.,  and  50  liy  foreign,  except 
champagne,  wliich  pays,  liy  Spanish  vaasols,  7  per 
cent.,  and  14  by  foreign.  (Cotton  twist,  gray,  black, 
blue,  and  purple,  knives  or  bolos,  such  as  the  natives 
use,  reudy-made  clothes,  lioots,  shoes,  preserved  fruits, 
confectionery,  and  vinegar,  by  Spanish  vessels,  20  per 
cent.,  and  :I0  by  foreign.  Uritish  und  otiier  foreign 
cotton  and  silk  manufactures,  made  In  imitation  of  na- 
tive cloths,  chiefly  stripes  or  checks,  of  black,  blue, 
ami  purple  colors.  Madras  and  Ilcngal  gray,  white, 
and  printed  cottons,  towels,  table-napkins,  and  talile- 
clotlis,  15  per  cent,  by  Spanish  vessels,  and  25  by  for- 
eign. Heche  do  mer,  rattans,  diamonds,  tortoise-shell, 
mother-of-pearl-shell,  and  birds'  nests,  1  per  cent,  by 
Spanish  vessels,  and  2  by  foreign.  Machincr}-  of  all 
sorts  for  the  promotion  of  the  Industr}*  of  tlie  country, 
cotton  twist  of  red,  rose,  yellow,  and  green  colors,  gold 
and  silvc^,  coined  or  uncoined,  plants  and  seeds, 
free.  Tropical  productions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Philippines,  also  arrack  and  gunpowder,  are  prohibited. 
Opium  is  only  admitted  to  be  deposited  for  re-exporta- 
tion. Swords,  fowliag-piccps,  muskets,  pistols,  and 
warlike  stores  may  be  deposited  for  ro-ex|)ort,  and  can 
not  be  introduceil  without  the  special  license  of  the 
government;  but  cannon  and  dress-swords  are  ad- 
mitted. 

Erport  Dutiet. — Commodities  and  produce  of  everj- 
description  to  Spain,  by  national  vessels,  pay  1  per 
oent.,  and  2  by  foreign ;  elsewhere,  1 J  by  Spanish  ves- 
sels, and  3  by  foreign.  Hemp,  by  national  vessels,  to 
whatever  destination,  1  jier  cent.,  and  2  by  foreign. 
9,  by  Spaniah  vessels,  free,  and  4|  per  cent,  by  for- 
eign. Manufactured  tobacco,  and  cordage  of  Manilla 
hemp,  free  uv  all  flags.  Gold  dust,  gold  in  bars,  and 
silver  in  bars,  free. 

Entrepot  Duties. — One  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  and  1 
per  cent,  at  the  exportation,  with  1  per  cent,  more  if 
the  commodities  should  be  kept  there  more  than  12 
months,  two  years  being  the  longest  time  allowed 
for  it. 

Port  and  Cuitom-house  Regulations. — Vessels  newly 
arrived  are  not  to  communicate  with  the  shore  until 
having  lieen  visited  by  the  port  captain's  boat ;  and 
within  30  hours  after  this  visit,  a  manifest  must  be 
presented,  stating  packages,  marks,  and  Ui  nbers ;  but 
the  vessel  may  retain  her  cargo  10  days  in  transit 
without  stating  whether  for  consumptmn  or  deposit, 
and  without  being  obliged  to  land,  or  Incurring  any 
charge  on  the  same,  e.tcept  gunpowder,  pocket-pistols, 
and  forbidden  arms. 

Terms  for  Sales  and  Purchaser. — Sales  and  purchases 
made,  duty  paid,  at  3  to  5  months'  credit,  occasionally 
at  2}  per  cent,  discount  for  prompt  payment,  and  ex- 
ports an  bonght  for  cash.    See  Fhilipfine  IsLAKoa. 
40 


Manloo,  Is  the  Indian  name  of  the  nutritious  r  >l> 
ter  of  tlio  sliruli  _/Vi/ru;)Aa  manihut,  from  which  casiaea 
and  UtptDca  aro  made  in  tlie  West  Indies. 

Manna (Fr..Vii;mc;  (ier.  Munnaetche;  It.  Afimmi) 
the  concrete  Juice  uf  the  Fnuiniiummi,  u  species  of 
ash  growing  in  the  south  of  Kurope.  The  Juico  exudes 
spontaneously  in  warm  dry  weather,  and  concretes  in- 
to wldtisii  tears ;  but  the  greater  port  of  the  manna 
of  cominerco  is  obtiiincd  liy  making  in-isions  in  the 
tree,  and  gathering  llio  Juice  in  baskets,  wliero  it  forms 
irregular  masHes  of  a  raddish  or  lirowuish  color,  often 
full  of  impurities.  JIanna  is  im|M)rte<l  in  chests,  prin 
cipally  from  Sicily  and  Calabria.  The  best  is  in  oli- 
long  pieces  or  Hakes,  moderately  dry,  friable,  llglit,  of  a 
whitlsli  or  pule  yellow  color,  and  in  some  degree  trans- 
parent:  the  inferior  kinds  are  molKt  unctuous,  und 
brown.  It  has  u  slight  peculiar  odor,  and  a  sweet 
taste,  with  :ionio  degree  of  bitterness  not  very  pleasant, 
and  leaving  a  nauseous  impression  on  the  tongue. 

Mantua-maker.  The  word  is  supisisod  liy  some, 
and  we  think  riglitly,  to  bo  a  corruption  from  munltau, 
French.  Utliers  assert  that  a  court-dress  was  early 
known  In  Kngland  by  the  name  of  Mantua,  either  on 
account  of  its  having  lieen  invented  at  Mantua,  or 
from  the  celebrated  Manto,  in  honor  of  whom  tliut 
famous  city  was  built  liy  her  son,  Uianor,  or  Ochnus, 
about  1000  n.c. — IIuti.ku. 

Manufacture,  u  commodity  produced  from  raw 
or  natural  nuiterials,  either  by  the  work  of  the  hand 
or  by  machinery. 

Manufacturer,  one  who  works  up  a  natural  pro- 
duct into  an  urtllicial  commodity. 

BTATEMKNT  SUdWINO  TUP,  ANSIIAI,  MANirPAimiKKS  OK  TUK 
HOST  PHOJIINKNT  CuUNTBIKS  IM  IU«  WoBin, 

Austrian  Empirt. 

Spindles  I,.'i00,000 

Auntrian  Italy— Annvuil  Produce. 

t*llk lbs.    7,OflO,flOO 

Kcitlsterod  manufsctnrlos 1 1,004 

British  Empire,  flS-i.lfiO.OOO  e»timalt. 

Cdtion £a\n(in,ooo 

Woolen 24,IKI0,(KK) 

Iron  and  hanlwaro 2li,nO(),noo 

Leatlier I.S,,'i<m,('0O 

T-lnon S,000,000 

Silk 10,0(10,1)00 

OIoss  ond  earthenware 4,2S<i,IXIO 

Hats 2,4(HI,000 

Paper 2,0IKP,(K)O 

Watches,  Jowclrlos,  etc 8,000,000 

France,  £08,200,000  estimate. 

Raw  silk £1 2,000,000 

Woolen 10,600,000 

Linen 10,400,000 

Cotton 9,0011,000 

Iron,  brasf!,  eto 8,000,000 

Keflned  me»r 4,4SO,000 

Other  kinds 88,120,000 

Prussin. 

Number  of  manufacturint^  catabllshmonta  la 

l»4tf .        78,4119 

Mscliino  splniiint;. _         2,008 

Wcavlnp. 2,728 

Connected  with  wearing, 2,SliO 

Mills 87,590 

Metal 12,098 

Other  kinds 20,006 

Russian  Empire. 

Spindles  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1949 348,000 

Producing  38}  banks  pur  day. 
Russian  splndlci 700,000 

Vnited  States. 

Cotton  manufactnrcd  a  year. lbs.  200,000,000 

Woolen  manufactures "       4,89S,n2 

Produce  of  manufactures 11,020,000,000 

Bataria. 

Manufiicturing  establishments  mostly  on  a 
small  scale. 

Belgium. 

Woolen  clotb,  1838 £8,000,000 

Spindles,  ls4fl 400,000 

Koanod  sugar  c-tportc-I lbs.    1,014,800 

Bratil. 

Hides  exported  No.    1,768,100 

Cotton       "     bags      124,408 


Denmark. 

Sugar  produce— Banlah  colonies. toni 


8,000 


MAN  18U 


MAN 


For  w»nt  nf  ftjrl  tho  country  Is  III  tdtpfaiit 
for  innniinu'turet.  In  ill  tho  cotton  fttoto- 
rlua  ihtro  wiiro  In  um: 

Spinning  JanniM 1,4A9 

I.onini 1,810 

OmeA 

MtnufkrtnrlMK  Inilnitry  Is  ronllned  to  artl- 
clfs  for  iloinoitlo  use. 
Ifamburff. 

Wool  exported,  IM». ewt.       106,00S 

IfoUaiid. 

Dutch  West  Indlet— sugar  produced. .  .tons.        18,(100 
■F»v». "  00,000 

Jffmtco. 

Oold  and  sllrer  coined  1848 ai,0ni,«61 

Woolen  and  cotton value     I.UiKl.iliK) 

Spindles No.       181,480 

Papal  Statu 

Hemp lbs.  67,«00,000 

Bilk "        800,000 

Portng^l. 

These  arc  conflned  to  coarse  and  Inferior 
woolen,  common  cotton,  aud  linen. 

SarilltUa. 

mik lbs.    8.flflfl,000 

Hump  produced £400,000 

The  capital  Invi'stod  In  the  cotton  ftictorlos 
la  Mild  to  be  about £200,000 

Stceilfn  and  Xoneay. 

Hvrcden—MannfllcturM,  IMS No.  9,400 

"          Ixioms !i,8«l 

Value  produced £1,748,405 

Turkfu. 

Halonlco.  184,%— Silk  produced. lbs.  KT.WO 

Brussa,  1848 "  OM.U.V) 

Two  SU-lllM. 

8llk lbs.  1,800,000 

Woolen  cloth pieces  70.000 

I^-allier bales  8,000 

Cotton  ...   spindles  M.ftdO 

Yum lbs.  1,040,000 

Chinii. 

Silk,  Oreat  Brit,  80th  .Tune,  1840— 50.  .bales      lOl.OM 
811k,  (Ircat  Britain,  July  1, 1850,  to  May  »>, 
1851 bales        10,281 


C'oumiml 

BritUh  Po»Hulont~IniHt: 
Cotton  oxpnrieil  f^m  Inilla  nor  annum. lbs,  \V^fli\m 

ColTea  to  Uraat  Britain  la  1850 cwt    8,H4ri,8AT 

Bugar "       1,11411,(1 

Kum galls.      4ia,tmi 

Canaila. 

Maiilo  sugar,  1847 lbs.    S,7iM.iUII 

Fisnerlus,  1840 ti%m 

Property  movable  and  ImmoTable,  valued 
In  1 847  at 1  I7,5(Hi.ih)o 

Cape  «/  (load  Ihpt, 

Alloi',  1812 lbs.      4m5,,'i74 

Ivory "  Hj,;i.Mi 

Whulu  oil galls.         ll.'.itu 

Wine "       l,2m,sil 

A\utriUia—tr»U) Himth  Waif. 

Wool  «x|)orted,  1848 Ibsi  88,001,481 

Tallow cwt        0!<,2I8 

Wetttm. 
Wool  eiport<id,  1848. lbs.      801.005 

Vdn  DimnttCn  Land, 
Wool  exported,  184S lbs.    4,0.'<5,U0'4 

South. 
Wool  exported,  1848 ' Ibi.    2,762,(172 

Jamaica. 
Kxportod  to  Oreat  Britain  ttom  tho  Welt 
Indies  anil  British  GuUna  In  i860. 

Sngor cwt.    2.5'*(1,429 

Itiiin galK    8,57(1,(170 

t'olfee cwt    4,81^1.,'Wo 

t'ocoo. "       I,0s7,i6fl 

Ceylon. 
Coffee  exported  to  the  V.  Klngd., I860... lbs.  80,8,%e,00(l 
Total  Cinnamon  exported,  1848. "        4ll'<,211 

Mauriltuti. 

Bugar,  1848. lbs.  121,2(11,800 

Bugar  exported  to  Great  Brit.  In  1860. . .  cwt    l.(10:i,'.Mi(l 

Cotfee "  2ii.:Wll 

Kum galls.        24,107 

french  Poueitiont—Uaytl.    Ettlmatt  ls!)7. 

Bugar lbs.  80,1(in,iioo 

(.'olTeo "    24.WI,iii«i 

Cotton "      l,(i5o,in>u 

Spanlnh  Pouentlotu—Cuba. 
ColTfO  exported  1S60 lbs.    4,2I8,J.')5 

Dutch  PoitMttont—Java. 

Cuttee,  1 84S lbs.  17  :  VI,.laB 

Cotfee,  l-iSO cwt    l.liiD.liiil 

Sugar "      l,'iI):i,-;72 

t.'ochliieal lbs.       l»»,lu« 

See  I^KoNE  Lkvi's  StiUitlical  Chart, 


MANi:r>0Ti7Bu  or  thi  Umitbu  Statu  roK  thk  Yiar  iNDino  tTimp.  I,  I860. 


SlalM  ud  Tanltof  !«•. 


Aluliania 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia  . 

I'lorida 

OeorgU 

Illlnola 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Haaaacliusatts 

Michigan 

Missiisippi 

Mlasourl 

New  Hampshiro 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Kliode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tenneasce 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

New  Mexico 

Ore^dn 

Utah' 


Total 121,093 


Capital. 

93,460,008~ 

30.%01.'S 

1,01 8,  lOT 

«3,>^9li,!)4S 

2,078,945 

1,001,575 

547,000 

5,466,483 

6,217,T(i5 

7,750,402 

1,202,875 

11,810,403 

5,(tt2,424 

14,69'.>,I52 

14,701,450 

83,357,643 

6,503,060 

1,816,820 

8,576,6)7 

18,242,114 

22,183,580 

00,904,403 

7,821,746 

ao,OI'.t,538 

94,473,810 

12,023,178 

8,063,200 

6,6;7,T29 

530,290 

6,001,877 

18,109,143 

0,38.M4S 

94,000 

68,300 

843,6110 

44,400 


$525,14'.t,108 


Coat  af 

raw 
Malarial. 

$.',824,960 

816,TS9 

1,201,154 

23,580,n97 

2,884,0OT 

l,4fl^871 

a3l),611 

3,404,917 

8,9511,327 

10,389,700 

2,ii66,8SI 

12,16,5,075 

2,461,503 

13,.568,t4^t 

17,394,436 

85,856,771 

0,130,328 

1,275,771 

12,708,861 

12,745,486 

21,900,236 

184,665,674 

4,602,501 

34,073,010 

87,2(W,377 

13,183,009 

8,787,534 

6,116,880 

804,042 

4,172,553 

18,101, I3I' 

5,414,931 

24,300 

110,220 

80n,5fl0 

837^81 

J554,78i;iiT7 


Mali 

ramala 

Hanilj. 

llandl. 

4,3CT 

639 

812 

30 

B,'J84 



31,287 

18,483 

3,237 

651 

2,036 

534 

870 

116 

«,6'.0 

1,718 

10,068 

493 

18,T48 

692 

1,887 

80 

10,570 

1,900 

6,468 

TOO 

2I,K63 

6,16T 

23,678 

T,48S 

98,261 

69,677 

8,900 

854 

!l,046 

106 

14,880 

088 

14,103 

12,980 

28,547 

8,762 

147,737 

&1,013 

10,630 

1,704 

47,1164 

4,437 

124,088 

22,078 

12,837 

8,014 

6,993 

1,074 

11,080 

054 

1,042 

24 

6,804 

1,551 

26,790 

8,320 

5,798 

891 

03 

a  -   ■  a 

81 

286 

01 
[713,154 

.... 

Iiii6,491 

Coal  of  Labor. 


«l,UlO,624 

158,070 

3,717,18(1 

11,6'.15,238 

OOO.CSI 

757,584 

199,452 

l,TiiT,064 

8,132,336 

8,728.844 

473,016 

5,108,048 

2,083,928 

7,480,588 

7,886,832 

39,784,110 

2,710,124 

771,528 

4,892,048 

6,123,876 

0,202,880 

49,131,000 

1,781,604 

13,407,156 

87,103,322 

5,008,656 

1,127,712 

2,247,492 

.    828,368 

2,802,408 

5,434,476 

1,712,490 

18,640 

20,772 

889,020 

9,984 


$232,967,440 


Valut  of 
I'rpducl. 


*4,5.N,!(76 

537,'.dS 

1?,S0.',5JJ 

46,11(1,102 

4,0t<i,V9(> 

2,690,!l.'iS 

0(W,;i3r> 

7,082,07,', 

16,534,27:' 

18,7!i6,4'.':i  I 

,1,5,M,7SJ  i 
21,710,212 
6,770,4i; 
24,661,1157 
32,5,11,892 
151,l:i7,145 
li,lC.9,l)0-.' 
2,91'.',0(!'i 
24,3l'4,41S 
23,164,r.03  I 
89,711,206  I 
837,597,'J49  I 
8,86I,0'.'6  I 
62,691,2T'.I  I 
155,044.910  ' 
22,093,'.'.">'* 
7,045,477 
0,7'.'5,(i(iS 
l,166,5:i'i 
8,670,92'! 
20,602,r.n- 
9,2('3,i6S 
58,;!II0 
240,1110 
!,2n6,640 
291,2'i" 


$1,01(1,028,779 


'    New  V« 
North  Ci 
Ohio.,   . 
IVnnsvl 
South  Va. 
Teimessei 
Tu,\as. . 
Vermont, 
Virginia., 
WIscousli 
■Minneaoli 
ToUI. 


Tht  IgntiM  capital  invcBted  in  manufactures  in  tlie 
Unit^  States  on  the  1st  of  June,  1860— not  including 
any  estab)isbm«Dts  producing  less  than  tho  annual  val- 


ue of  $600— amounted  to  $625,000,000;  value  of  niw 
material  consumed,  $564,000,000;  amount  paid  for 
labor,  $232,000,000;  value  of  articles  manufactured 


MAP 


IS15 


MAP 


,s.    4,'218,'J!)5 


l?,Sfl>,6-ii 

4D,n(i,ini  ' 
4,8«>,iSW 

S,«90,»S 

T,082,<nr.  I 

1«,R34,'2T2  1 

l(l,7SB.4'.':i  I 

21,110,'il'i  ! 
(1,-7!>,41'  I 
i:4,6fll,i'M 
3V,B'.il,8'.l'i 
lBl,l;n,14S  , 

li.lM.''"-  I 
!i,91'.',nf.< 
24,3.!4,41S  ; 

83,lf>4,f'0a  \ 
39,71  l,'?Oii 
2;a,M>7,'.'4'.> 
8,861 ,0'-:6 
C'.'.ti91,'i"l' 
1M>,044,910  ; 
2V,093,'iW  I 
7,046,47: 
0,7«,0"S 
1,16B,M'* 
8,&7n,9J"  ' 

9,2P3,i;«S 

B8,:twi  I 

249,1110 
9,206,1140 
291.2ill. 
fT;01IS«'.:8,'779  I 

value  of  raw 
I'ount  paid  f"' 
I  manufactureJ 


iluring  ypnf,  $1,020,1100,000;  numlMir  of  p«n(ooa  rm- 
pluji'd,  1,0,10,000.     Mpo  I'MiTUti  Statk(4. 

Kcir  "  Amerlriin  MiinufHctiireii,"  Mtn  JV.  A.  Kn:, 
XXX.,  105  (A.  H.  Kvr.iiKTT),  xvll.,  18«,  1.,  W!)  (N. 
Hai.k),  XXXV.,  '.'«:>!  Nit.kk'h  Hrg.,  x\\v.,•in■^  (.1.  Q. 
Adams),  xxxli.,  2117,  11112.  "  Miinuruotunii  at  thn 
Smith,"  nee  Nil.Bs'ii  Rfi/.,  xxxv.,  18ft.  Of  tho  llnl- 
toil  Stntiw,  lltiST'H  Afaii.,  vll.,  2H9  (Wai.tkh  I'imi- 
ward"),  xIv.,  152,  XV.,  8(1!) ;  l)K  Hrtw'H  Krv.,  Ix.,  li;i;. 
Miiniilartnrlnjf  Syntein,  nee  A'cir.  tiunr,,  vlll.,  ;il!) 
(M.iiTiii;Y)i  AV/.  tiei:,  Ixxvll.,  101,  xxxlll.,  ;W2. 

Maple  Sugar.  Tim  .state  of  Nor  York  prfi(lih'>>H 
iimre  mifjiir  thiin  any  other  Ntnt«  in  the  llnlon,  excopt 
I.iiuUlanii.  The  wlioln  cnno  itUffitr  crop  of  the  country 
in  IH.IO  wiui  a»  follows  ; 


r»iind«. 

TiMinoMdo •Ut.im 

Kuiitucky !2)i4,(KHi 


Kouth  Carolina.. . .  67o,iMN) 

OuorKln...., 1,64'J,iiUI) 

Florlilo. !(,7IW,0(W 

Alabama 8,212,(100 

MIsolMlppI HSM.iKIO  I 

UmHIaiia 22(I,IKII.IHKI 

Tuxas 7,»1,0(W 

TiBLK  tnOWINd  THR    I'llolllIOTIONS    or   HuuAa   IN  Tiia  IJ. 
St*ti»  in  IhM. 


Total iMT,n7:,iHrO 

Maple  inxar  crop . .  04,2A''l.  IM6 

Total  auifar  crop.2Sl,SUi,4JM 


[=:: 


autM  ind  Terrilorlti. 


Alabama 

Arkuniuifl 

('oiinoctiout 

Klorlila 

Ooorfria 

Illinois 

Iiulluno.  

lown 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Muiiit' 

Marytau'l 

MoiisacluiscttJi. . 

MIclilKnn 

.Missouri 

N.  HuMipslilru. 
Nowiliirscy. .   . 

Now  York 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

IVnnsylvanln.. . 
South  Carolina. 

Tcnnciuou 

Toxos 

Vermont 

Vlrjtlnlo 

Wlscousln 

Minnesota 

ToUI 


Mnpl*  lUf  ir.   I    Cwta  *uir«r.    I 
87 


Ibi. 

6t8 
»,880 
BO,7D0 

"bo 

2,021,103 

78,407 

487,40A 

2&B 

08,M2 

47,740 

7IW,B2fl 

2,480,704 

17»,0IO 

1,209,868 

2,197 

10,8.17,484 

27,082 

4,888,200 

2,826,fl2S 

200 

188,557 

8,840,857 

1,227,665 

610,976 

2,050 


8,750 
M6 


10 
826,001 


77 

s 

7,851 


The  States  which  produced  1,000,000  i>ound8  and 
over  of  maple  sugar  in  1850  were  as  follows : 


NcwUainpsblrc.    1,298,863 

Vermont 6,840,257 

Now  York 10.857,484 

IVnnsy  Ivan  la. ... .    2,826,524 


Pound*. 

Virginia 1,227,065 

Indiana 2,921,122 

Ohio 4,.'W8,200 

Michigan 2,480,TO> 

Tho  .State  of  Louisiana  produces  four  fifths  of  all 
tho  sugar  cn>p  of  the  Union,  Iroth  maple  and  cane. 

The  production  of  maple  depends  very  much  upon 
tho  circumstiinces  of  tho  marlcet.  Its  manufacture  is 
not  a  regular  liusiness,  lilce  that  of  cane,  hut  is  prose- 
cuted or  not,  verj-  much  to  suit  the  convenience  of  tho 
farming  population  among  whom  the  sugar  orclmrds 
lie.  Nothing  hut  a  verj-  high  price  of  sugar — so  high 
as  to  mnl<o  its  purchase  a  severe  burden — stimulates  a 
large  production  of  maple.  Accordingly  we  find  that 
from  IS.W  to  18.55  the  product  of  maple  sugar  in  New 
York  State  fell  from  10,3(i7,484  pounds  to  'l,9.t."),«15 
pounds — a  reduction  of  more  than  one  half.  If  the 
falling  off  in  price  from  1860  to  1855  reduced  the  pro- 
duction one  half,  we  are  inclined  to  think  it  not  ex- 
travagant to  estimate  that  tho  present  increased  price 
has  doubled  the  production  of  1850,  and  we  accordingly 
estimate  the  maple  sugar  crop  of  the  present  year  in 
Now  Y'ork  State  at  20,000,000  pounds.  It  is  wortii 
not  less  than  12J  cents  per  pound,  making  its  total 
value  $2,600,000 ! 


Adopting  tti«  anme  estimate,  would  give  tho  mapU 
iugur  crop  iif  the  whole  I'nicm  for  tho  prment  sprliin 
as  (W,r.O«,no(i  pounds,  and  It*  vulun  as  i(J<,5il2,5(K)_ 
iiuiklng  the  iiuaiitlty  and  vnluo  very  nearly  ri|nnl  In 
one  half  thii  ciiiiB  procluit  of  last  year— and  ccmtrlliut- 
liig  in  a  vnry  lin|xirtaiit  degree  to  relieve  the  last 
year's  deflilency.     .Sen  HroAK. 

Maple-tree  (»iiit  miiluninnm)  known  as  tho 
rock  iimplH,  hard  maple,  liiril's-oyo  maple,  sugar 
inaplo.  rill!  (i,v,.  miilKuiuum  Is  iine  of  the  most 
iioldo  and  majestic  of  AmiTican  trees.  In  favoraldo 
hituntloiis  it  sometimes  gniws  to  a  height  of  TO  ur  8(1 
feet,  and  from  J  to  I  feet  In  diameter ;  but  utiiaily  it 
does  not  exceed  an  elevation  of  f>(»  or  tJU  foet,  aiid  a 
diameter  of  12  or  IH  inches.  The  trunk  In  generally 
straight,  though  often  studded  with  projections  and 
excrescences.  In  all  houltht'iil  anil  vlgunms  trees,  the 
outwarl  bark  is  light-cohired,  by  which  thev  may 
readily  I*  distinguished.  Wiien  growing  in  open  sit- 
uations, with  room  to  s|!read  on  every  side,  where  all 
its  branches  ore  exposed  to  the  freo  action  of  light, 
this  tree  is  an  object  of  great  Ix^auty.  It  somewhat 
rcM'inbles  the  Knglish  oak,  in  Its  outline,  in  tli-i  lurm 
of  its  trunk,  and  disposition  of  its  branches,  and  In  the 
dense  and  massy  cliaracter  of  its  foliage. 

The  wood  of  the  iirer  mThurimim,  when  newlv 
cut.  Is  white,  but  after  being  wrought  and  exposed  bir 
some  lime  to  tho  light,  it  takes  a  rosy  tinge.  Its  grain 
is  lino  and  close,  and  when  polished  its  lustre  Is  silky. 
It  is  very  strong  and  heavy,  but  wants  tho  proper!  c 
of  durability,  for  which  the  Knglish  and  Americun 
white  oaks  are  so  higlily  esteemed.  The  northern 
wood,  when  dry,  welglis  .IG  iM>unds  to  a  cub  :  foot,  but 
that  grown  south  weighs  much  leas.  When  cut,  .md 
pro|)erly  dried.  It  mokes  excellent  fuel,  which  Is  equally 
esteemed  by  some,  for  that  purjiose,  with  the  oak  and 
hickory.  When  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  moist- 
ure and  dryness,  it  soon  decays,  and  for  this  reason  it 
is  not  much  used  in  civil  and  naval  architecture.  In 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  further  north. 
where  the  oak  is  not  plentiful,  the  timber  of  this  tree 
is  substituted  for  it,  in  preference  to  that  of  tho  beech, 
tlie  birch,  or  tho  elm.  When  jicrfcctly  seasoned, 
which  requires  two  or  three  years,  it  is  used  for  axle- 
trees,  Sjiokes,  runners  of  common  sleds,  mill-cogs,  and 
for  chairs,  and  cabinet-work.  It  is  also  sometimes 
used  for  the  frames  of  houses,  keels,  and  the  lower 
frames  of  vessels,  piles,  and  foundation  pieces  for 
mills,  canal  locks,  and  for  many  other  pur|x>se8  where 
strength  is  required,  and  tho  work  is  nut  exposed  to 
the  altematiiin  of  moisture  and  dryness.  The  wood 
of  this  tree  exhibits  several  accidental  forms  In  tho 
arrangement  of  its  tibrc,  of  which  cabinet-makers 
take  advantage  in  manufacturing  beautiful  articles  of 
furniture,  such  as  bedsteads,  writing-desks,  and«tlicr 
fancy  works,  and  for  inlaying  mahogany  and  black 
walnut,  in  bureaus,  i)iano-fortes,  etc.  These  forms 
or  varieties  may  be  classitied  and  described  as 
follows : 

1.  Cmti.RD  Maple.  KrabU  grit  onduU,  French. 
Tho  undulations  or  medullary  rays  of  this  variety, 
like  those  of  tiie  red-flowered  maple,  arc  lustrous,  and 
in  one  light  appear  darker,  and  in  another  lighter  than 
the  rest  of  tho  wood.  Sometimes  the  zig-zag  lines  are 
crossed  by  beautifully-colored  veins ;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, the  lustre  of  these  shades  disappear  by  long 
exposure  to  light  and  air. 

2.  Dihd's-evk  Maple.  Kmble  mouchilf,  French. 
This  variety  exliil)it«  small  whitish  spots  or  eyes,  not 
exceeding  a  tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  sometimes 
occurring  a  little  way  apart,  and  at  others  contigu- 
ously disposed.  Tlio  more  numerous  these  spots,  the 
more  beautiful  and  valuable  the  wood.  They  are  seen 
onl)'  In  old  trees,  which  are  still  sound,  and  appear  to 
arise  from  an  Intlection  of  tho  fibres  from  the  centres 
of  their  trunks  toward  tho  surface  across  tho  grain. 
To  obtain  the  finest  effect,  the  wood  should  bo  sawed 


MAP 


ISlfl 


MAf 


d«  nurly  ■•  poMllilii  lu  ■  clirw^tlon  (luritUi'l  with  thu 
riiticpiUrlo  i'lri*li>i*. 

In  mlJltliin  to  llie  »li<ivii-immml  varli'tlim,  two  uIIht 
kliidit  uclur  In  tli«  i/r<«,  nr  c'»ir««(i'ii<n»,  wlileli  uniw 
iin  tli«  trunk  cir  riKita  nf  tlii«  trnn,  ami,  llkii  tlii>in,  urn 
iiiverril  with  Imrk.  Tim  niimt  viiluulil"  viirli'ty  \* 
known  hy  tlm  nimiii  of  yuriii/nli'l  Miiiilr-hiuh,  or 
Imii/ii-  tl'rnilil'  ill-  rimUur*  rtirirrt,  of  tlm  l''r«iKli.  It 
|iriiHi'ntK  nn  iKMiinliliiKu  of  hIuuIi-k,  iiKri'i'iilily  iII'ihikiiiI, 
"omvtlmea  riwuniliUiiK  Aruljk:  cliiirai'ti'm,  wliirli  rem. 
(lurit  tlio  wiMiil  very  upproprlata  for  fumy  work",  imil 
from  itn  MTjinlty  it  unuully  ooniinumU  IiIkIi  lirlii-n. 
Mm  otlii-r  vurli'ty,  known  i)y  tli«  nuui'i  nt  Nilnr-iihili' 
MiiliU-kniili,  or  /i/u/n'  d'eiiMf  Mum-  wi/ihI),  of  the 
Irenth,  uxhlliitN  »  iillvi«ry  luntrn  liy  (ha  urruriK'cmnit 
of  lt«  lll>ri'i«,  unii  Ih  lii«lily  l>rl/.roi  for  tlm  nuinu  (mr- 
jioMiH  a*  thi<  jirecudlnK.  ultlioU)(li  more  lonnnun. 

Tlm  wood  of  this  »l«'<li>rt  la  cnHily  cli'.liiiKulHhiKl 
fnnn  thut  of  tlm  rini-lloworMil  niuple,  whi.  h  It  nmm- 
\<\m  In  uppnirunii',  hy  lt«  wciKlit  and  li:irdrii'HH,  TImri' 
li,  iKinldim,  a  n'ry  nhnplo  Jind  ii'rtuin  ti'»t.  A  frw 
drop<  of  Wiitiir  HUtitniti'd  with  roppiTin  (anlphutii  of 
iron),  litdnK  iiourud  U|Mm  nainpliw  of  dlll'i'rcint  woodii, 
that  of  the  Hiinar  niaplii  turn.i  Kr<'''"i'lii  "'"l  the  white 
niiipio  and  III"  rcil-UoworcMl  niiipli-  clianKO  to  a  ilui>p 
Idue.  Thn  UHlms  of  the  iintjir  niaplo  aro  rhh  in  tlio 
alkaline  principle,  and  It  hu.n  licon  Uic<ertril  that  they 
furnish  four  hfthn  of  tlm  |iola-<li  exported  from  tlm 
United  States  to  Kuropi'.  In  thu  forxen  of  Maine, 
New  llanip»hlro,  Vermcut,  and  places  further  north 
whc^ru  thin  tree  (jroWK,  lt<  charcoal  li  preferreil  to  thiit 
of  any  other  wood  ;  and  it  in  Hald  to  lie  one  tifth  heavier 
than  that  niu<le  from  tlm  nanm  npecien  in  the  middle 
and  southern  8tutL"<. 

The  extraction  of  nuKar  from  thin  tree  Ih  a  vjilualde 
reMource  In  a  new  country  where  it  ali<nni(lii;  liut  it  U 
ohvlouit  that  thi.'*  mode  of  olituiniuK  Hu^ar  Ik  only  den- 
lined  for  a  certain  Htage  in  the  proKrc»a  of  widety,  and 
eventually  ((Ivea  way  to  tlm  »u^aT  of  commerce,  pro- 
duced hy  cane.  For  thin  reanon  we  ahull  not  detail  the 
proceM  of  ItH  inanufjK^ture,  aa  it  can  not  lie  reKanled 
an  u  matter  of  practical  utility.  In  a  country  like  tlm 
I'niti"!  Sjtaten,  intersected  liy  can  iN,  rallroadn,  anil 
other  hunneU  of  Inter-oommunicuiion,  where  lalior  in 
ex|K  iisive,  and  fuel  la  liecomluK  nmr;:  and  more  valua- 
ble, tlm  manufacture  of  thin  article  can  not  fall  to  lie 
an  unprofitalile  occu|>atlon.  lleshlon,  the  annual  draw- 
B({e  of  the  nap  renders  ttm  Ireea  nickly,  unit  causes  a 
premature  Jucay. 

From  the  )(reut  liel)(')it,  extended  hranchea,  re){ulur 
and  often  pyramidal  I'urm,  and  the  rich  venlure  ami 
ideanllneiiri  of  the  foliage  in  nprinK  and  Hunnner,  the 
HUifar  maple  in  accounted  an  one  of  our  llnost  shade- 
trees,  ami  in  hi)(lily  recommended  'o  he  planted  aloni; 
streets  and  avenues,  In  pastures,  and  urnumontal 
grounds.  And  It  is  no  less  lieuutiful  in  our  forest  or 
wo(Mll.iiid  scenery  in  autumn,  wimn  it  puts  on  its 
liri|{lit-orani;e  and  doop-crlmson  rohes.  At  llrst,  the 
extremities  uf  the  houghs  alone  chan);o  their  color, 
leaving  the  internal  and  more  sheltered  parts  still  in 
their  vcnluro,  which  "  gives  to  the  tree  the  ell'uct  of 
great  depth  of  simile,  and  displays  advantageously  the 
light,  lively  coloring  uf  the  sprays."  Later  in  the 
season,  nn  the  contrary,  when  the  tints  liecoine  more 
and  more  gorgeous,  and  the  full  heams  of  the  nunnhlno 
fall  \i|xin  the  large  mosses  of  foliage,  the  warm  auil 
glowing  cidors  of  the  whole  summit  possess  a  great 
deal  of  grandeur,  and  add  much  to  the  beauty  and 
effect  in  the  landscape. 

The  wood  of  the  acer  eriocarjmm,  or  white  maple,  is 
very  white  when  newly  cut,  and  of  a  line  texture  ;  but 
it  is  softer  «nd  lighter  than  that  of  any  other  maple  in 
the  United  Statin ;  and  from  the  want  of  strength  and 
durability  it  is  little  used.  When  dry,  it  weighs  '68 
pounds  to  a  cubic  foot,  and  in  seasoning,  loses  nearly 
half  of  its  weight.  It  is  Bometimcs  used  in  cabinet- 
making,  instead  of  tho  holly  or  other  light-colored 


wimhI,  for  Inlaying  furidturn  of  nialnigaiit , ilmrry-lm*, 
and  lilai  Ik  wulnut ;  though  It  Is  Icm  nullulilrf  liir  IhU 
purpose,  an  It  soon  i  hungvi  lohir  by  «ii|Hi>ure  to  light, 
WiHHlan  bowls  are  also  mad><  of  it,  when  thut  of  uah 
or  tullp-truu  can  not  bo  obtuliiHd,  i'he  i  hunoal  of  this 
wimmI  Is  preferred  by  hattcrn  and  dyern  to  every  other, 
as  It  alfordn  a  heat  more  uniform,  and  of  lunger  dura- 
tion. Tlm  sap  Is  In  inollon  earlier  In  this  spi'ilen  tlniii 
In  the  sugar  maple,  lieglnnliig  to  asiind.  In  the  mlddlu 
.States,  alniiit  the  IMh  of  .laiiiiary  i  no  that  when  It  U 
employed  for  making  sugar,  the  o|>eriitlonn  are  minrh.r 
completed.  Mko  the  nap  of  the  red-llowered  muphi,  it 
yiehin  not  mure  than  oim  half  of  llm  product  of  nugir, 
from  a  given  meamire,  as  thut  of  the  mrr  mtfilinnniim. 
Its  Imier  burk  priidiucs  a  black  preilpltate  with  i'o|i- 
pcran  (sulphate  of  iroiil,  and  In  aomellmcs  employml  In 
donientic  dyeing. 

Tho  wMoil  of  the  iifrr  nilinim,  or  red  initfile,  whi'n 
dry,  weighs  11  pounds  to  a  ciililo  font,  and  when  green. 
It  Is  noft,  full  of  ui|iicoiia  mutter,  and  loncn  In  drying 
nearly  one  hiilf  of  Its  weight,  In  this  tree,  as  In  othera 
hIiIi'Ii  grow  In  wet  plucca,  the  aap-wiiod  bears  a  large 
proportion  to  the  heart-wood,  tlm  latter  of  wlihdi  nin- 
slsta  of  an  Irregular  cidumii,  alar-IIke  In  Ita  Iranntersn 
sectliHi,  and  occupies  the  central  parts  of  large  trunks, 
with  Its  |Hiliiln  priijei'lliig  Into  the  aup-Wood,  TIiIh 
wood  liua  but  little  strength,  la  liable  to  Injury  fniiu 
insi'i'ta,  and  ferments,  and  apeeillly  decays  when  ex- 
posed to  tlm  alternation  of  ninlnturo  and  dryness,  Vet 
it  Is  solid,  and  for  many  piirpoaen  la  preferred  by 
workmen  toother  kinds  of  wood,  It  Is  harder  lh:iu 
that  of  the  white  maple,  and  of  a  liner  and  clnser 
grain  ;  hence  it  In  uaally  wrought  In  the  lathe,  and  uc- 
i|ulrea,  by  pollahlng,  a  gloasy  and  silky  surface.  It  Is 
priiu'lpally  enijihiyed  In  the  inanufu'tiire  of  cliiilrs, 
saddle-trees,  shoe-laala,  ox-yojies,  brooin-humlles, 
and  various  other  artlclen  of  donu'ath:  use.  It 
soinetlmea  happens  Ihul,  In  very  idd  treen,  the  grain 
of  the  wood.  Instead  of  following  a  per|Hiiidli'ubir 
direction,  is  unilulateil  {  and  this  variety  bears  the 
name  of  i-iirliil  miijili:  This  slngiilur  arrungeinciit  Is 
never  found  In  young  trees,  nor  even  In  the  br.oiclies 
of  such  as  exhibit  It  In  tin  Iriink  i  It  Is  also  less  ci,n- 
spicuons  in  the  centre  of  the  tree  than  near  the  liiirK. 
Trees  oll'erlng  this  dis|Hialtlon,  however,  are  rare.  The 
serpentine  direction  of  the  llbres,  which  renders  this 
wood  ililllcult  to  split  and  to  work,  produces,  in  tin' 
hands  of  a  skillful  mechanic,  the  nmat  bcnutlful  I'll'ei  I  < 
of  light  and  shade,  These  elfecta  are  rendi'red  iiinn 
striking.  If,  after  ainiHithlng  Hie  surface  of  Hie  wih„| 
with  a  double-Ironed  plane,  It  Is  rubbed  with  a  little 
sulphuile  uchi,  arid  afterward  with  llnaeed  Oil.  iiii 
examining  it  attentively,  the  varying  shades  are  bnnid 
to  be  owing  entirely  to  the  lllllecthiii  of  the  rays  of 
light  j  whhdi  Is  mora  aanalbly  |H<rcelvi'd  In  vii  AJiig  it 
in  dllTerent  dlrectlnna  by  candle-light.  Ilefore  niuhog- 
aiiy  became  ganerally  faahlonable  In  Hie  rnited  Stales, 
the  beat  furiiituro  In  ilsu  waa  made  of  Hie  red-lloncrcd 
maple,  and  liodsteads  are  still  made  of  It,  which  lu 
richness  of  liistrn  exceed  tlioae  of  the  ilncst  iiiipiirtid 
wuikIs,  Hut  one  of  the  must  const. ml  uses  to  wlili  li 
the  curled  maple  Is  applied  Is  for  the  stocks  of  rillcs 
and  fowling-piecea,  wlilcli,  to  elegame  aiil  lightness, 
unite  toughness  and  strength,  tlm  result  id  the  tortu- 
oiis  direction  of  the  llbres.  Tlm  cellular  mutter  of  tho 
inner  bark  is  of  a  duaky-red,  liy  bulling,  It  yields  a 
purplish  colored  llipiiir,  which,  with  the  addition  of 
sulphate  of  iron  (cop|Hiras),  uci|ulres  an  Intense  dark 
blue,  or  black  ;  and  Is  sometimes  employed  ih  ink  by 
American  youth  in  vllhiga  schools,  Kor  this  purpose, 
however,  it  is  very  Inappropriate,  as  It  never  dries 
properly,  and  in  damp  weather  tho  writing  becomes 
glutinous,  and  bluta,  A  lluld  prepared  In  a  similar 
manner,  by  aildlng  sulpliatii  of  alumina  (iiiniiiion 
alum).  Instead  uf  copiwriia.  Is  also  used  for  iljeing 
black.  The  French  I  unadlana  nutko  sugar  from  tho 
sap  uf  till)  innplo,  which  thoj'  call  plitine ;  but,  as  in  tho 


i'laiie, 
surfaiv 

(Ifllif 
fng  tho 
two  objecl 
to  exhibit  I 
tho  diflerei 
»  dcllncatl 
kiinivloilgo 
very  nearl 
■iciitation 
Hrst  of  thoi 
to  attain 
"lo  globe 
ordinary 

this    ll!»pccl 

earth's  surf 
tent,  pi.siti, 
lents  and 
seas.     To  i 
of  the  eart 
'""lid  it  nci 
countries  ar 
proportions 
nearly  as  po 

VitT  the 

'ij'potheses 

construction 

'fi''",  and  tl 

snntcil  accoi 

'"Pposltion 

the  sphere,  , 

'""y  be  incr 

9UpI)oac(l  to 

tained  nnsw(| 

roprcaenteil 

or  projcctiugi 

»oen  tho  siiI 


MAP 


1317 


MAP 


•oil'  lll;lh"H- 

,|.ll„«vrc'il 
wliii'li  ill 
t  irinmrtt'il 
,  111  wliii  li 
U*  of  rllU'i 
,1  llt{litni«»i 
,f  till'  tortu- 

llttlT  Cif  tllO 

,  It.  yii'lil" " 
luMitii'ii  (if 
liitcMi-.'  'I^iik 
ml  in  iiil'  '')■ 
llih  piiri'i'Ki'i 
novel-  (Irlfx 
InK  lii'i'cini>'< 
In  u  Kiiiiilii' 
nn  (ciuiiiii"" 
fur  ilyi'iiiH 
Hjiir  froi"  ''"> 


{iMomltntt  KfHti'lrA,  lh«  pnulurt  iif  II  ff\vfn  mKimurn  U  nut 
iiiiirn  tliim  mill  liiilf  ii*  Kruiit  ii«  timt  of  Ihn  i<ii)(iir  iiiii|ili>.  ' 

Tim  ihir  l•rlm/l<,^^•c,  or  tli'M  miipli',  In  fiiiiiiil  lhri>ii)(li- 1 
nut  till*  iiililillii  StiilPK  nf  Kiirii|iii,  miil  In  tlin  mirth  nf  ' 

Ailii.    A rillii)(  to  I'lilliiM,  it  iiIiihiiiiIk  In  New  llumilii,  | 

ami  aliiMit  ruuruiiiK.  It  Ix  ciinimnn  In  Iii-iIkoh  nnil 
llili  ki'tH  In  tlifl  inliMIn  riiiiiitli<«  anil  noiltli  iif  l'',n|{1iinil ; 
liiit  III  tint  iiiirtlii'rn  rmintli'K,  iiml  In  Nciitliinil,  It  in 
riirn.  It  Ix  nut  lnill|(i'iiiinii  to  Iri'liiml,  nnil  |ii'rhii|iit 
nut  til  Si'iitltiiiil.  'I'liii  wiiiiil  (if  tliu  lilt r  ritnijifMfri', 
wlii'ii  iillnwcil  til  ln>riiiiio  II  triMi,  nnil  nf  ii  |irii|i(>r  nno,  I* 
vory  ('iiiii|Mi't,  pimm'iiKi'K  a  IUki  Kfi'liii  «"iii('tlnii'H  licau- 
llfiilly  vi'Ini'il,  anil  Ih  i>uii('«plllil(>  (if  a  IiIkIi  phIIdIi. 
Wlii'ii  dry,  It  wclnliH  M  piiiiiuN  tii  ii  ciilili'  font.  It 
inaki'H  i>xi'i<|li'nt  fuel,  ami  prmlin'oH  cliari'iinl  nf  tlin 
lm.4t  ipiiillty,  wlilcli  In  nnnictlnicH  iMnplnyiiil  In  tlin 
iiiiiniirxi'liirn  iif  ^iinpiiwiliT.  It  «««  ccli'tiriiti'il  aniiiii)( 
tliii  anrlcnt  Ituiiiaiix  for  talilcn  ;  iiml  I'lliiy,  who  lian 
triMtwl  lit  lin^th  iiiKii  llin  lirunn  ami  mtiUimni,  thn 
liiiini'x  iiiiili'r  which  the  kiiolm  unit  oxitoai'i^iicch  of  thU 
trill  wi'rii  kniiwii,  inl'nniH  ii»  that  ciililnct-wnrk  of  Ihn 
iniint  roxMy  ilinirlptliin  was  falirlratoil  fniin  thfni.  In 
I''ranii>  ami  olhcr  Kiirnpcan  oounfrli'K,  It  I*  kIIII  p\- 
tiMi"lvi'ly  iiKi'il  liy  tiirncri, carvprn, and  lalilnot-inakorH, 
ami  till!  wiiiid  of  Ilin  roiiti,  whlili  It  often  knottoil  ami 
(iirloiHh-  iiiiirlili'il,  l<  wrnii){lit  Into  sniitT-linxi'n,  pipcn, 
and  varliiiin  other  artliles  of  faney. — llnowNK'n  7Vcc» 
lyM  inirint. 

Maps  and  Charts.  They  wern  Invented  by  An- 
n.<ciiiiaiiiler,  tlie  Mili'sian  philnspher,  it  ilUi'ipIn  nf 
ThaleM,  ami  the  earliest  phlhiiophii'il  nHtrnnnmer  nil 
reenrd.  .ITU  n.  v.  lie  wn»  aNo  the  llr^t  who  ennntriiet- 
ed  Kpheres.  \  oeleitlal  I'hart  wai,  it  In  said,  cnn- 
striii'ted  in  Cliinii  In  the  titli  eentiiry. — h'rrnl.  And 
KOi-eharti  wei-e  llr»t  lir'iii;;lit  to  Kn>{land  liy  Ilarthnl- 
oiiiew  I'nlniiiliii'i,  to  llliintrate  hN  lirntlier'n  theory  re- 
speetiii';  a  western  enntineiit,  .\.  T>.  1 IHD.  The  (■arliest 
map  of  KnylamI  wan  drawn  liy  (ieiirjje  I.ily  in  l.WO. 
Mi'v,  d  'i''ii  I'hart,  in  whiih  the  world  wan  taken  a.s  a 
plane,  was  invented  in  l.'i.'ill.  A  map  of  the  inomi's 
sarfaoi  wa.s  llrst  drawn  at  l)ant/.le  In  ll'il". — IIaviin. 

fJ/V/ii'  ('iiii.ftriirlliiii  nnil  l'.ir  nf  Afiipf, — In  n-prenent- 
hij;  tho  (;eo;;raphieal  (lIvisioiiH  of  the  earth's  Hnrfai'T', 
two  olijects  are  tn  lie  kept  in  view  ;  on  the  one  hind 
to  exhihit  aeciirately  to  thii  eye  thn  ndativo  ponltieii  of 
tho  different  countries,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  ti>  nivo 
a  delineation  Hufliciently  minute  tn  furnish  a  di«tinet 
knnwlodgo  of  tho  necessary  details.  As  a  jrluho  his 
very  nearly  tho  exact  lli;'"'"  "f  the  enrtli,  tho  repre- 
seiitatiou  which  It  nlTonls  of  the  mirl'aci)  fullllls  tho 
llrst  of  those  olijecta  in  the  most  perfect  manner  ;  lint 
to  attain  tho  second  it  wonld  he  re  piisite  In  enlarjjo 
tho  glolio  beyond  nil  convenient  si/,..  .\  j^Iu'ie  of  tlio 
ordinary  dimonaions  serves  almost  no  "i''  purpose  in 
this  respect  but  to  convey  a  clear  i  tinn  of  tile 

earth's  snrfaco  as  a  whole;  exhiliitiiiL;  the  tl){nre,  ex- 
tent, position,  and  general  fe.itiires  ni  Mio  great  conti- 
nents and  islands,  with  the  iiil  erven  i;;  oceans  and 
seas.  To  obtain  a  detailed  pi, resents  ni  of  any  part 
of  tho  earth's  surface,  (;eo;;iaphers  liavo  therefore 
found  It  necessary  to  have  recnurso  to  maps,  in  which 
countries  are  delineated  on  a  ])tano,  whilo  tho  mutual 
proportions  of  the  distance  of  places  are  preserved  as 
nearly  as  possible  tho  same  as  on  tho  globe. 

For  the  construction  of  maps  difFerent  mathematical 
hypotheses  have  been  adopted.     By  ono  method  of 
construction,  that  of /inyVc/iim,  tho  boundaries  of  conn- 
tries,  and  their  more  remarkable  features,  are  repre- 
sented according  to  tho  rules  of  perspective,  on  tho 
supposition  of  tlio  eye  being  placed  on  some  point  nf 
tho  sphere,  or  at  some  given  distance  from  It,  which 
may  be  increased  indellnitoly.     Wherever  the  eye  is 
sup])osod  to  bo  situated,  the  representation  thus  ob- 1 
talned  answers  very  well,  provided  the  surface  to  bo  I 
represented  is  of  small  extent,  and  the  point  of  view,  ' 
or  projecting  point,  is  nearly  over  tho  centre ;    but  I 
when  tho  surfaco  is  of  great  extent,  for  e.xamplo,  a  I 


whide  homUphom,  thnso  plactis  which  arii  iltiiatxd  n»iir 
the  lioriler  of  the  projiicllon  ani  In  all  of  thxtn  iniieh 
ill'tiirted.  Anoth«r  iiiethnil,  that  of  ,trirl,ipm,nl,  \t 
foiinil.d  on  tho  supposltliui  that  the  spherical  surface 
tn  lie  represented  Is  a  |sir1liiii  nf  a  cone,  nf  which  th« 
vertex  is  nltiinted  soinewhere  in  the  |Hdir  nxU  ptt)- 
diieeil,  mid  tho  iniilcal  surface  Is  aup|i<i«ed  nithor  to 
tniii  h  the  sphere  III  tlis  nildille  parnliri  nf  the  map,  or 
to  fall  within  tlin  sphere  of  the  nildille  parallel,  and 
witliniit  it  at  the  extreme  parallels.     The  surfaco  of 

th lie  Is  then  silpposeil  tn  be  spread  nut  Intil  n  plane. 

Knr  the  "History  and  Ciinstrintinii  of  Maps,"  ten 
Krlrr.  Itn\,  XXV.,  Illl.lj  snine  artiil*  In  Lirmi/  Age. 
xxl.,  'AM;  Sinilhtouiiin  Auniiul  Hfpnrl,  lH.j(l-7. 

A  third  methnd,  which  depends  on  the  devehipment 
nf  n  cylindrical  surface,  is  that  aicnrilliig  to  which 
maps  are  sn  delineated  as  tn  have  the  parailiils  of  lull- 
tilde  anil  circles  of  lnn^;ltlll|e  ri?»pectivelv  represented 
by  parallel  straight  lines,  liy  this  mellind  marine 
charts  are  consfrin  led.  As  the  rhiiiiib  makes  eipial 
angles  with  every  ineridlan,  it  necessarily,  according 
to  this  method  of  didimiatlnn,  becomes  a  straight  line. 
.Such  a  represeiitalinn  nf  the  earth's  surface  is  com- 
monly called  Ml  riuiliiv'.t  I'/iiirl,  althnugh  llio  invention 
Is  due  tn  an  Kngllsh  mathematician,  I'.dward  Wright. 
Theso  are  the  tlireo  principal  iiethnds  employed  tn 
represent  to  the  eye  the  sever.il  countries  on  tlin  sur- 
faco nf  the  earth.     See  (  'iukth  and  (  ii  \sr  .Sihvky. 

The  maps  and  cli.irts  nf  niii- intry  and  Ihn  cnanti. 

besides  being  of  great  geueral  interest,  am  of  such 
Importance  tn  the  i  unniercial  lonimiinlty  th.it  any 
accou.it  of  tho  progress  made  in  this  direction, 
slinnld  bo  made  known  as  matter  of  common  in- 
terest. The  I'niled  States'  Coast  .Survoy  have 
completed  the  surveys  nf  a  largo  pnrllun  of  our 
coast,  ami,  with  a  view  nf  obtaining  tlin  important 
facts  "eliitivo  to  the  idd  surveys  of  the  cniintry,  have 
omi  '  yed  Mr.  .1.  (J.  Knhl  tn  investigate  tho  earliest 
rei  ,irils  extant  nf  the  history  of  our  maps  and  charts. 
Mr.  Kohl  has  extended  his  researches,  and  In  a  series 
nf  lectures  before  tho  .Sniithsimlan  Institute  (and  pub- 
lished in  their  last  lieport),  li.is  embodied  a  general 
history  of  the  origin  of  the  chartographical  art,  and 
from  these  lectures  wo  in  ike  sonio  extracts  that  have 
an  'special  relation  to  lire  early  history  of  our  own 
country;  'I'lio  Chartographical  Art  originated  proba- 
bly everywhnro  with  travelers  by  land  and  sea  and 
their  requirements;  all  the  maps  wliich  wo  see  men- 
tioned in  ancient  times  were  probably  more  or  loss  nf 
this  kind ;  as,  for  instance,  those  which  tho  (ireeks 
received  frnm  tlin  I'henieians,  and  which  they  im- 
prnvcd  upon  ;  sn,  tnn,  the  maps  nf  the  Itomans,  who 
scarcely  mentinn  any  other  than  travelers'  maps, 
called  "  itineraria  picta'  (painted  itineraries),  of  whicb 
a  separate  class  was  formed  liy  Uio  "  itineraria  mnriti- 
ma"  (marine  itineraries). 

liy  fur  the  greater  part  of  the  maps  painted  during 
tho  middle  ages  belonged  to  this  class,  and  more  es- 
pecially to  the  class  of  marine  maps;  because  tho 
greatest  map-iiiikers  of  that  time,  tho  Venetians  and 
other  Italians,  were  also  the  greatest  navigators. 
T'hus  we  see  that  tho  art  of  nia|i-inaking  particularly 
flourished  aimuig  the  great  trading  and  navigating 
nations— the  I'henieians,  Greeks,  and  Italians,  The 
dilTerent  classes  of  chartographical  works  for  whiiib 
they  had  imiiies  in  the  middle  ages  related  all  of  them 
more  or  less  exclusively  to  the  liydregraphy  of  the 
sea.  Very  coiiiinon,  for  instance,  were  tho  so-called 
"  |iortnlaii,,-  "  nr  indicatnrs  of  harliors.  Tho  "isola- 
rins"  (liook^  of  islands)  form  a  very  curious  sort  of 
composition,  also  probably  designed  for  tho  special 
use  of  mariners.  In  these  insularies  tho  authors  rep- 
resented and  described  all  tho  most  important  islands 
of  tho  wnrld,  which  they  separated  from  their  enr- 
rounding  continents.  From  the  class  of  maps,  made 
by  comiuerors  and  distribiitnrs  of  land,  have  grown 
oiir  orticial  government  surveys,  which  often  are  very 


m 


I 

iiil 


1 


MAP 


1318 


MAR 


valuable,  bacarse  the}'  are  made  without  a  too  great 
fear  of  expense.  They  generally  contain  the  most 
important  infonnntion  ua  regards  the  |Militicul  divisions 
of  the  country,  and  for  the  adjustment  of  boundary 
questions.  Sometimes,  being  particularly  destined 
tor  government  use,  they  have  not  been  given  to  the 
public,  or  at  least  not  to  any  great  extent.  With  re- 
spect to  America  we  have  many  most  important  pub- 
lications of  tliis  character  made  by  the  French  and 
British  governments  for  Canada,  l)y  the  British  Ad- 
miralty for  nearly  every  part  of  America;  liy  the 
Spanish  hydrographical  depot  in  Madrid,  for  Spanish 
America,  and  liy  the  Land  Office,  Topographical  Bu- 
reau, Coast  Survey  Office,  and  other  branches  of  the 
United  States'  government,  for  different  parts  of  the 
territory  of  the  United  States.  Tlie  governments  of 
Brazil,  of  New  Uranada,  and  other  South  American 
States,  have  likewise  caused  splendid  publications  to 
be  made,  descriptive  of  the  territories  under  their 
dominion. 

Until  the  time  of  Columbus  and  (lamn,  nations  had 
no  accurate  Itnowlodge  of  the  world,  except  that  of 
tlieir  own  Immediate  neighborhood,  llcnce,  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  the  art  of  constructing  maps  made  but 
little  progress.  The  maps  that  were  in  use  at  the 
time  of  Columbus  wore  not  much  better  tliun  those 
made  for  the  work  of  Ptolemy  a  thousand  years  be- 
fore. Thoy  do  not  include  a  greater  extent  of  coun- 
trj',  they  exhibit  no  now  facts,  nor  do  they  show  any 
greater  accuracy  in  the  locution  of  points  on  the  earth's 
surface.  After  the  discovery  of  America  and  tlie 
countries  bordering  on  the  Pacilic  Ocean  and  the  In- 
dian Sea,  the  extent  of  the  known  and  habitable 
world  Was  much  iuorcasod,  and  the  tiguro  of  the  con- 
tinents and  the  limits  of  the  oceans  were  more  cor- 
lectly  given  on  tlie  maps.  But  it  was  still  ve.'y  long 
ore  the  classes  of  interesting  facts  represented  on  the 
maps  were  enlarged,  and  the  manner  of  depicting  them 
improved. 

Water  remained  for  a  long  time  a  blank  on  all  the 
old  maps.  It  was  not  known  that  the  ocean  offers  so 
much  variety  in  color,  deptli,  temperature,  and  titness 
for  motion  ns  the  dry  land  itself.  The  Spaniards 
Icnew  that  some  parts  of  the  ocean  are  rough  and  bois- 
terous, and  called  a  certain  part  "el  Golfo  de  los 
(,'abellos"  (the  Horse  Gulf),  and  a  quiet  portion  "el 
(Jolfo  do  las  Damas"  (the  Ladles'  Gulf).  Some  of  the 
regular  currents  of  the  ocean  were  also  of  early  dis- 
covery. The  Gulf  Stream  was  known  as  early  as 
1512,  or  since  the  first  voj-age  of  I'onco  do  Leon  to 
Florida.  We  find  on  muuy  maps,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Florida,  legends  like  the  following:  "Here 
the  water  runs  continually  to  the  north."  It  would 
have  l)een  easier  to  have  designated  this  by  a  few 
strips  of  color ;  and  yet  it  required  the  Inventive  ge- 
nius of  Franklin,  for  it  was  he  who  first  located  defi- 
nitely the  Gulf  Stream  In  our  maps. 

The  regular  trade  winds  between  India  and  Arabia, 
with  their  nature,  direction,  and  changes,  were  not  only 
known,  but  daily  taken  advantage  of  by  navigators 
for  centuries.  So  too  tho  trade  winds  of  the  Atlantic 
were  described,  discussed,  and  used,  at  least  since  the 
time  of  Culaml>us.  Nevertheless,  though  there  are 
currents  that  flow  with  nearly  the  same  regularity  as 
rivers,  no  ma|>-maker  gave  any  visible  hint  respecting 
them  to  the  navigator  to  whom  he  pretended  to  fur- 
nish useful  charts,  until  tho  time  of  our  model  u  Ken- 
nell's  Wind-maps,  which  are  also  a  very  lato  limova- 
tlon  of  our  century. 

Tho  existence  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  was 
known  to  the  very  first  discoverers  of  tlio  eastern 
coast  of  North  Anionca.  Nay,  for  a  long  time  these 
banks  were  the  most  frequented  part  of  the  Nortli 
American  waters,  lieing  visited  since  tho  year  1501 
l)y  whole  fleets  of  French,  Portuguese,  Spanish,  and 
Fnglish  fishermen.  To  have  a  true  conception  of  tlicir 
configuration,  extent,  varying  depths,  currents,  and 


other  circumstances,  was  almost  of  greater  importance 
for  all  the  navigating  nations  of  Euro|)e  than  to  know 
the  configuration  of  tho  coasts  of  the  great  continent 
itself.  Yet  at  a  time  when  the  whole  cast  coast  of 
North  America  was  already  very  well  represented  on 
the  maps,  we  see  the  Georges  Bank,  Nantucket  shoals, 
and  the  other  great  banks,  before  this  coast,  cither  not 
given  at  all,  or  else  in  a  sb.tpo  so  little  like  reality  that 
it  would  have  been  almost  better  to  leave  tlicin  out 
altogether.  Tho  other  qualities  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  its  deep  valleys  and  lofty  mountain  ranges,  were 
of  course  not  noticed  in  an  ago  which  did  not  possess 
our  deep-sea  sounding  instruments,  and  which  had  also 
no  practical  occasion  for  such  explorations.  This 
practical  interest  has  existed  only  since  the  question 
has  been  mooted  where  we  can  lay  with  safety  our 
electric  wires  for  the  connection  of  the  two  coutincnts. 
For  this  purpose  we  now  explore  those  hidden  recesses, 
and  we  may  expect  that  ere  long  our  pictures  uf  tho 
oceans  will  present  as  groat  variety  of  scenes  as  do 
those  of  the  dry  land  itself. 

Wo  should  endeavor  to  collect  and  preserve  uU  the 
old  records  and  charts  of  our  early  maritime  history. 
These  are  valuable  to  science,  and  are  objects  of  curi- 
osity and  interest  to  our  merchants,  anil  it  should  he 
the  object  of  tho  Chamber  of  Commerce  to  collect  and 
preserve  these  records  of  the  past. 

Maranham,  or  Maranhao,  a  province  of  Bra- 
zil, In  South  America.  This  name,  which  is  couunou 
to  the  province,  the  capital,  the  island  on  wliich  it 
stands,  the  Kiver  Meary,  and  the  Amazon,  is  derived 
from  Marufian,  tho  appellation  which  the  nnvi(,'atiir 
Pinzan  first  liestowed  upon  the  estuary  of  tlio  Am:i- 
zons,  upon  finding  tliat  its  waters  did  not  possess  the 
ealiue  iiroporties  of  tlie  occun.  It  lies  bewccn  1°  iO' 
and  10"  50'  of  south  latitude,  and  -15°  10'  and  5:i°  W 
of  west  longitude,  being  nearly  100  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  having  an  average  breailtli 
of  about  200  miles.  Muranham,  or  St.  Luiz,  tlio  capi- 
tal, is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  iiaiiic  uf  uliuut 
42  miles  in  circumference.  It  forms  the  soiiHi-cast 
side  of  tho  Bay  of  ilarcos,  having  to  tlio  eastward 
the  Bay  of  San  Jos6,  in  lutituile  2°  32'  south,  and  loiij;- 
itudo  •13''  40'  west.  It  Is  fertile,  and  well  iiiliiibitcd, 
there  being,  besides  the  capital,  numerous  small  liuiii- 
lets  belonging  to  the  natives.  Much  difliculty  is  ex- 
perienced in  reaching  this  island,  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  of  three  rivers  at  the  moutli  of  which  it  is  situ- 
ated. The  harbor,  which  is  formed  by  a  narrow  creek, 
is  of  a  sufficient  depth  to  admit  of  luerchantiiieii  loiter- 
ing ;  but  it  is  so  beset  witli  shoals  as  to  require  a  pilot, 
and  its  depth  is  diminishing.  Populat  ii  ii  about  30,000. 
Chief  public  edifices,  an  episcopal  palace,  college,  luis- 
pltal,  theatre,  and  numerous  convents  of  tho  Francis- 
can and  Carmelite  ordcis.  It  is  the  residence  of  tlie 
governor,  and  has  a  lyceum  and  schools  of  navlgiitioii 
ond  commerce.  Chief  exports,  cotton,  rice,  and  sar- 
siiparilltt.  Chief  Imports,  slaves.  Tho  average  num- 
ber of  slaves  imported  between  the  years  1H40  and  181o 
averaged  5000  annually,  for  whom  a  considerable  duty 
was  derived.  With  regard  to  exports  and  imports,  there 
are  no  returns  which  can  be  relied  on  later  than  the 
year  1820.  From  1815  to  1820,  the  average  niiiuber 
of  bags  of  cotton  exported  was  08,000.  The  exports 
of  rico  varied  during  these  years  from  50,000  to  82,000 
bags.  The  other  articles  sent  out  of  the  country  con- 
sisted of  hides,  tunned  and  untanued,  skius,  and  gums. 
The  entire  population  of  the  province  amounted,  in 
1821,  to  182,000.  This  province  might  be  made  one  of 
great  importance,  for  it  possesses  vust  capabilities;  but 
as  yet  it  is  in  an  infant  or  seuii-barbarous  state. 

Marble  (Gor. ,  Bus. ,  and  Lat.  J f anno ;  Va.  ifdrma- ; 
Fr.  Marbre;  It.  Marine;  Sp.  Marnwl),a.  genus  of  fos- 
sil <,  composed  chiefly  of  lime;  being  a  bright  and 
beautiful  stone,  moderately  hard,  not  giving  lire  witb 
steel,  fermenting  witli  and  soluble  in  acid  menstrua, 
and  calcining  in  a  slight  tire.     Dipumus  and  Scyllls, 


llroinon 

Ifoilnnd 

Uulgiurii.,.. , 

I''ii(iluni1 

8i'iitlariii.,,,, 

Malta 

i'nniula 

Hrltlsli  Kast  |i 
Jrnni'o  on  Ihu 
f  raiien  iin  t||„ 
llnrtiiKal,..,,, 

iSarillnla 

ITiiseanv. . ., 
iTivo  Blulll.is. . . 
jChliia 

I  Total... 

Brando  divl 
Int  1  classes,  on 
1-  Unl-coloreil 
the  black,  'i, 
lur  spots  or  VB 
nniiniil  reiiiali 
with  irregular 
4.  Slinll  murlil 
In  the  ualcarei 
tirely  ouui|io8e 


MAR 


1319 


MAR 


■tiitii«rli)«  of  Vnto,  w«r«  tha  itrat  nrttats  who  sculp- 
tureil  niitrlilH,  niii)  |ittllihttit  ttietr  works  i  nil  atatuen 
pr»vli)ii»l,v  to  tllfir  Hull  Iwlng  nf  wood,  608  n.o.—Plini/. 
Miirlilii  »rt«rwiiril  imnw  Into  ima  for  atataes  nnd  the 
anlinnnii  nild  nniitiil«H(ii  nf  (hie  butldltiKa  |  and  the  edi- 
iioita  itnd  iniiimmtintii  iif  ttonie  w«ro  conatructed  of,  or 
orimiii«nted  with,  Dnt*  niiirlite,  The  riilna  of  Pnlmjrra 
prove  timt  It*  lim((i)lll>'*'t>t  atritctiiroa,  which  were 
cliJBlly  ot^  wiiitB  niitrliitt,  wwrtt  fur  more  extenaivo  and 
itpltindid  tllitl)  tiinmi  of  ttv«ti  Konia  Itaelf,  Tliese  latter 
were  liiacovurHil  \iy  aoillA  I'lllKllali  trnvvlera  near  Alep- 
po, \,  i>,  J(I7M, 

'I'lie  nolom  liy  wllloll  ttliirlitna  urn  dlntlngutahed  are 
uliiiobt  iniillMlomlillt,  Nonitt  nrn  ((Uite  Idacic,  othera, 
iiga>ii,'nr«  of  It  »mtwy  wllitii  t  aoiitn  nrn  xreeniali,  others 
Kriiyiah,  ruddloll,  iillliah,  yiillowiah.  ilc.  t  while  some 
iiro  vnrieKiitnd  nnd  fi|iiittitit  witli  mimv  different  colors 
nnd  BliudBa  of  iHilorUt  't'lin  lliicat  aolld  nimlcrn  marlilos 
iirti  Ihoxii  of  Ittily,  llliilil((<llliurft,  i'riince,  FInnders  and 
tlio  irnitiid  HliitDH, 

It  ilv  proilili'fi  It  moat  vitlimlito  mnrldo,  nnd  Its  cx- 
portiitum  iiiiiliKii  It  i'oiia|di<r«lil8  lifiilicli  of  her  forolgn 
comniuri'o,  'j'lio  lilili'lt  Itlld  tlio  mllli-wiiitu  ninrlde  of 
('nrani.  In  tliu  diii'liy  or  Miiaail,  are  particularly  ea- 
tonnind,  Tlie  nmrlilti  of  (Itirinniiyi  Nin'wny,  nnd  Swc- 
di«n  aro  vury  liifitrlor,  li«lii((  \n\xm  with  n  aortof  sealy 
liniKHtonx,  Miirlilt)  la  of  an  Imrd,  and  cninpact,  nnd  lino 
a  toxtiirii  114  roitillly  to  tiiltn  n  Imniitiriil  pollali,  That 
most  oxtiftinioil  liy  NtiltMiirli'a  la  liroiixlit  from  the  ialnnd 
of  I'.inm,  III  tllti  Ari'hl|il«lll«o,  It  wna  emphiyed  by 
I'nixltnlnH  mill  IMlldlitai  liotll  of  Mliiioi  were  nativeaof 
that  island  i  wlumm  iilao  thu  fiiiiii>na  Arnnd>-lian  ninr- 
lilea  waro  lirollulit,  'I'llii  miirliii"  of  Cnrnm  ia  lilie- 
wlsn  ill  liljjli  ruiMita  iililoiiK  aiMilplora.  Tho  apocillo 
(gravity  of  mrtpliiii  la  fhiiii  'i'TfHI  to  U'SOO.  lllack  mar- 
hln  owoa  \U  I'olor  to  It  alight  lalxtliro  of  Iron, 

HTATKJIKNTIinclWIXO   'IPII4    H^I'OllTn   (If  TUB  MAHUFArTURES 

iiH  M.MililK  moM  'IIIH  llNltl'li  ■ItAtm  roH  TIIK  FiacAL 
Vbau  knmino  rliiMB  llOtit,  lafid, 


WlillLiir  .nik.tl.ii, 

Duli'li  ilulmiii, ,,, 

K.niilioiil ,,,, 

li'itlanil, ..,,,,,,, 
(Ilhnillar.  ,.,,,,, 
OiUtllila,. 


Other  llr.  N.  A,  n"»  , 
llrltUli  Wi'xt  IiiiIIi'IIm 
llrillbli  lliijiiliii'iia.  ,, 
llrlllsli  1IMI-.  In  Afrlc'it 
Drlllsli  Aiulmllii..,, 

()uh» 

Porto  itiuo,, , 

Mailulra 


|iiillnr<, 

no 
,.  i,iiaft 

,,        Ml 

»ii 

,,|ltfi,MHIl 


lO.iMt 

II  IN 

III! 

IIII4 

I  all 

illl.aat 
T-tll 
|N| 


WlilllfPtPlli'.rleil.  IX.II«r«. 

Tdfliry  III  Europe..  815 

Itnytl 1,«.W 

Man  lloinliiKu KM 

Mexico 3,0fiS 

Oeiilrnl  llrpiibllc....  4(10 

Npw  (Iraiintia 195 

Vpiii'iiilfla 105 

lll-n/.il «T0 

llilioioa  AyrpB. MB 

(thill 2,004 

Hniidwich  lalnmla....  4,269 

Tirtal 10a,3TO 


Statkmknt  uiniwitiii  TliM  Im'iiiita  of  Maiiiii.i'.  into  tiik 
ItNiriio  Htatw  pioi  fiitt  I'laoAi.  Ycab  rsdiso  .ItNE 
miTii,  iHftii, 


Unlnniiiirar- 
lunul. 


Wl,»i..«lm|».rl«,l,  Mamijjrimci 

ii7oiiiiii, , . , . , , ■TTTTTiTr, ,       lliffl 

llnllnnd ,f,,,,,,,,  tn 

llulgluin ,,  ,.i,.,.i,,,,  IT 

Knulmol , t ,,,,,,. ,  11,017 

He.itlaiiil , 1,14ft 

Malta , ,.,  170 

Canaiia t.,.,,,,,,  IM 

llrltish  Kaat  liii||r<4 8A 

Krnni'iMiii  lliii  Allaiitli', ,     ,,,,,,  8,4117 

Praiirn  on  tlm  MiiiiltarrHni>aii , , , ,  H,7fl7 

I'nrtaKul ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,  , , , . 

iSariUiila ,,,  II.ISH 

iTuwiinv ,,,,,,.,,,,,,.,  lft,a<H 

iTwoWdll.n ,  Ih4 

iChliia, , ,,,,,,  17H 

I  T'ltal ,  "mSiJ" 

llrando  dlvldaa  iMnrliia,  iii'iMirdlnK  <"  '■'"''''  localities, 
int  1 1'iasaea,  uui'ii  of  which  cOHtilllia  t<i^ht  aolidlviaiona : 
1.  Uni-colored  miirlilBa,  IncliidliiK  only  tlm  white  and 
the  lllack.  !.',  Varlftfilti'd  mitfliltia  (  thoae  wiHi  irrpK'i- 
lar  apola  or  veliia,  II,  Mndr^piirli'  mnrldca,  preacntinK 
aniiniil  reniiiina  ill  Iho  hIiimik  of  white  or  ijrny  apota, 
with  irrounlarly  dl»|Poaitil  ilota  or  atnfa  in  the  cciitro, 
4.  Siieil  niarlilHui  with  only  ii  ffw  ahclia  intcrapcracd 
in  tile  oalcaruiioa  Imoo,  A,  l.timnclielia  ninrliica,  en- 
tirely oonipoied  of  slislla,    II,  (!i|iiilln  mnrliloa,  con- 


I19S 
2fl 


14 
1,B41 

H,1S8 

B2,S,W 
140,8«) 


"lirt.WlT 


taininj;  veins  of  greenish  talc.  7.  Breccia  marbles, 
formed  of  a  number  of  angular  fragments  of  different 
marbles,  united  by  a  common  cement.  8.  Pudding- 
stone  marbles ;  a  conglomerate  of  round  pieces. 

0/ Cutting  and  Polishing  Afarble.—Tbe  marble  saw 
is  a  thin  plate  of  soft  iron,  continually  supplied  during 
its  sawing  motion,  with  water  and  the  sharpest  aand. 
Tlio  sawing  of  moderate  pieces  is  performed  by  hand, 
but  that  of  large  slabs  is  most  economically  done  by  a 
proper  mill. 

Tho  firat  substance  used  in  the  polisiiing  process  ia 
the  sharpest  sand,  wliich  must  be  worked  with  till  the 
surface  becomes  perfectly  flat.  Then  a  second,  and 
even  a  third  sand  of  increasing  fineness  is  to  be  op- 
plied.  The  next  substance  ia  emery  of  progressive 
degrees  of  fineness,  after  which  tripoli  is  employed ; 
and  the  last  polish  is  given  with  tin-putty.  The  body 
with  which  thu  sand  is  rubbed  upon  tho  marble,  is 
usually  a  plato  of  iron ;  but  for  the  sulisequeiit  process, 
a  plate  of  lead  is  u.sed  with  fine  sand  and  emery.  The 
polishing-i  jbbers  are  coarse  linen  cloths  or  bagging, 
wedged  tight  into  an  iron  planing  tool.  In  every  step 
of  the  operation,  a  constant  tricltling  supply  of  water 
is  required. 

Marbling,  the  method  of  preparing  and  coloring 
marbled  paper.  There  are  several  kinds  of  inarliled 
paper,  but  tiie  principal  ditferonce  between  them  con- 
sists in  the  forms  in  which  the  colors  are  laid  on  tlio 
ground ;  some  being  disposed  in  whirls  or  circo'^.ivo- 
lutions,  others  in  jagged  Icngtha,  and  other-  only  in 
spots  of  a  rounder  oval  figure.  The  i^c.ieral  manner 
of  managing  each  kind  is  r.:, .  ertholess,  the  same, 
namely,  the  iup|/mj;  the  paper  in  a  aolotion  of  gum- 
tragacanth,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  gum-dragon, 
over  which  the  colors,  previously  prepared  with  ox- 
gall nnd  spirit  of  wine,  are  first  spread. 

Marine,  a  general  name  for  the  navy  of  n  king- 
dom or  state,  ns  nlao  for  tho  wliolo  economy  of  naval 
affairs,  or  wliatovor  respects  tlio  building,  rigging, 
arming,  equipping,  navigating,  and  fighting  of  ships. 
It  comprehends,  likewise,  the  government  of  naval 
armaments,  and  the  stale  of  all  the  persons  employed 
therein,  whether  civil  or  military. 

Marines,  or  Marine  Forces,  a  body  of  soldiora 
raised  for  the  navtti  service,  and  trained  to  fight  cither 
in  a  naval  engagement  or  in  an  action  on  shore. 

Mariner's  Compass.  The  Cliinese  ascribe  tlie 
inventitm  of  the  compass  to  their  Emperor  Hong-Ti, 
who,  they  say,  was  n  grandson  of  Noali ;  and  some  of 
their  historians  refer  the  invention  of  it  to  a  later  date, 
1115  I!. I'.  The  honor  of  its  discover)-,  tliough  much 
disputed,  is  generally  given  to  Fiavio  de  (Jioja  or 
(Jiovia,  a  native  of  Amalll,  an  ancient  commercial 
city  of  Naples,  a.i>.  I.'W2.  Tho  variation  of  the 
needle  was  first  discovered  by  ('olumbus  in  his  voy- 
ages of  discovery,  1 1!)2 ;  and  it  was  observed  in  Lon- 
don in  1.580.  The  dipping-needle  was  invented  by 
Robert  Norman,  a  compass-maker  of  KatcIifTo  in  that 
year.     See  (JdMp.vss  ;  Am.  Jour.  Sc,  xl.,  212. 

Maritime  Lavr.  Hy  maritime  law  is  meant  the 
law  relating  to  harliors,  ahipa,  and  seamen.  It  forms 
an  important  branch  of  the  commercial  law  of  all 
maritime  nations.  It  ia  divided  into  a  variety  of  dif- 
ferent departments  ;  such  ns  those  with  respect  to  har- 
bors, the  property  of  ships,  tlie  duties  nnd  rights  of 
masters  and  seamen,  contracts  of  affreightment,  aver- 
age, salvage,  etc.  The  reader  will  find  those  subjects 
treated  of  midor  their  respective  heads. 

Sketch  nf  the  Progress  of  Maritime  Imw. — The  earli- 
est system  of  maritime  law  was  supplied  by  tho  Rhodl- 
nns,  several  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
moat  celebrated  authors  of  anthiulty  have  spoken  in 
liigh  terms  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Khodian  laws ;  luckily, 
however,  we  lire  not  wholly  left,  in  forming  our  opin- 
ion upon  them,  to  the  vague,  commendatory  state- 
ments of  t.'ieero  and  Strabo.  (CicKno  pro  t/tge 
Mnnillia;  Strab.,  lib.  xiv.)    Tlie  laws  of  Rhodes 


ill 


,.  I  'I 
i  f  if 


m 


MAR 


1820 


MAR 


•rere  adopted  b}'  Augustus  into  the  legislation  of  Rome ; 
and  such  was  the  estimation  in  which  thoy  were  held, 
that  the  Emperor  Antoninus,  being  solicited  to  decide 
n  contested  point  with  respect  to  shipping,  is  reported 
to  have  answered,  that  it  ought  to  l)e  decided  l)y  the 
lihodiun  laws,  which  were  of  paramount  authority  in 
such  cases,  unless  they  happened  to  be  directly  at 
viirianco  with  some  regulation  of  the  Roman  law. — 
("  Ego  quiihm  mundi  dominua,  lex  autem  marif  legis  id 
Jikiidiii,  qua  de  rebus  nautieis  prnscripla  est,  judicifiir, 
qiiiUenua  nulla  nostrarum  legum  adversatur.  Hoc  idun 
Dims  qnoque  Augustus  jndicarit.")  The  rule  of  the 
Khudiun  law  with  respect  to  average  contriliutions  in 
the  event  of  a  sacrifice  being  made  ut  sea  for  the  safety 
of  the  ship  and  cargo,  is  expressly  laid  down  in  the 
Digest  (lil>.  xiv.) ;  and  the  most  probable  conclusion 
seems  to  be,  that  most  of  the  regulations  as  to  mari- 
time aftiiirs,  embodied  in  the  compilations  of  Justi- 
nian have  been  derived  from  the  same  .".mirce.  The 
regulations  as  to  average  adopted  liy  all  modern 
nations,  arc  Irorrowcd,  with  hardly  anj-  alteration,  from 
the  lEoniau,  or  ratlier,  as  we  have  seen,  from  the 
Khodian  law ! — a  conclusive  proof  of  the  sagacity  of 
those  liy  wliom  ttiey  hod  betn  originally  framed.  The 
only  authentic  fragments  of  tlie  Khodian  law  are  those 
In  tlio  Digest.  The  collection  entitled  Jus  naeale 
R/ioiliiirum,  published  at  ndle  in  l&fil,  is  now  admitted 
by  ail  critics  to  be  spurious.     See  iin/p,  pp.  1188-1192. 

The  first  modern  code  of  maritime  law  is  said  to 
have  lieen  compiled  at  Amalfl,  in  Italy,  a  city  at 
present  in  ruins  ;  but  which,  besides  twing  early  dis- 
tinguished for  its  commerce,  will  be  forever  famous 
for  tlie  discovery  of  the  Pandects,  and  the  supposed 
Invention  of  tho  mariueris  compass.  The  Amaltitan 
code  is  said  to  have  Ijecn  denominated  Tabula  Amal- 
Jilnmi.  Hut  if  such  a  Iwdy  of  law  really  existed,  it 
is  singular  that  it  should  never  have  been  published, 
iior  even  any  extracts  from  It,  M.  I'ardessus  has 
sliuwn  tliat  all  the  authors  who  have  referred  to  the 
Amaltituu  code  and  asserted  its  existence,  have 
copied  the  stutemeRt  of  Frcccia,  in  his  book  i)e  Suh- 
Jeudis.  (^Collection  des  Imx  .Ifarilimes.')  And  as 
Freccia  assures  us  that  the  Amaltitan  co<le  continued 
to  lie  followed  in  Naples  at  the  time  wlien  he  wrote 
(1570),  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  it  could  have  en- 
tirely disappeared ;  and  it  seems  most  probable,  as 
nothing  peculiar  to  it  has  ever  transpired,  that  it  con- 
sisted principally  of  the  regulations  laid  down  in  the 
Roman  law,  which,  it  is  known,  preserved  their  ascend- 
oncy  for  a  longer  period  in  the  south  of  Italy  than  any 
where  else. 

Uut,  liesides  Amalfl,  Venice,  Marseilles,  Pisa, 
(icnoa,  Barcelona,  Valencia,  and  other  towns  of  the 
Mediterranean,  were  early  distinguished  for  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  carrietl  commerce  and  navigation. 
In  tlie  absence  of  any  positive  information  on  the  sub- 
ject, It  seems  reasonalile  to  suppose  that  their  maritime 
laws  would  lie  principally  liorrowed  from  those  of 
Home,  but  with  such  alterations  and  modilications  us 
might  be  deemed  requisite  to  accommodate  them  to  tlie 
particular  views  of  each  state.  But  whether  in  this  or 
In  some  other  way,  it  is  certain  that  various  conflicting 
re,^ulations  were  estuldished,  which  led  to  much  con- 
fusion and  uncertainty ;  and  the  ex|)eKenco  of  the 
Inconveniences  thence  arising,  doubtless  contributed 
to  the  universal  adoption  of  the  Consulato  dtl  Mare  as 
a  code  uf  maritime  law.  Nothing  certain  Is  known  an 
to  the  origin  of  this  code.  Azuni  (Droit  ^faritime  de 
rKurope,  tome  i.,  or  rather  Joltio,  Codice  Ferdinamlo, 
from  whose  work  a  large  portion  of  Azuni's  is  literally 
translated)  contends,  in  a  very  aide  dissertation,  tluit 
the  Pisans  are  entitled  to  the  glory  of  having  compiled 
the  whole,  or  at  least  the  greater  part,  of  the  dmsnlalo 
del  Mare.  On  the  other  hand,  Don  Antonio  de  Cap- 
many,  In  his  learned  and  excellent  work  on  the'  com- 
merce of  Barcelona  (Antiyuo  Vonurcio  de  Harcelona, 
tume  i.,  pp.  170-183),  has  endeavored  to  show  that  the 


Consohto  waa  complied  at  Barcelona ;  and  that  it  con- 
tains the  rules  according  to  \  i.i<  h  the  con^ls,  which 
the  Bircelonese  had  ustablisli  vl  in  foreign  places  so 
early  as  1268,  wore  to  render  their  decisions.  It  is 
certain  that  the  Cc  ;uolato  was  printed  for  the  first  time 
at  Barcelona,  in  1502 ;  and  that  the  early  Italian  and 
French  editions  are  translations  from  the  Catalan. 
Azuni  has,  Indeed,  sufHciently  proved  that  the  Pisans 
had  a  code  of  maritime  laws  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  that  several  of  the  regulations  In  it  are  substan- 
tially the  same  as  those  in  the  Consolalo.  But  It  docs 
not  appear  that  the  Burcelunese  were  aware  of  the 
regulations  of  the  Pisans,  or  that  the  resemblance 
between  them  and  those  in  the  Consolalo  is  more  tlian 
accidental ;  or  may  not  fairly  Imj  ascribed  to  tlie  con- 
currence that  can  hardly  fail  to  obtain  among  well- 
informed  iiersons  legislating  upon  the  same  topics,  and 
Influenced  by  principles  and  practices  derived  from 
the  civil  law. 

M.  Pardcssus,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  excollenl 
work  already  referred  to,  appears  to  have  lieoii  suffi- 
ciently disposed,  had  there  been  any  grounds  to  go 
upon,  to  sit  up  a  claim  in  favor  of  Marseilles  to  the 
honor  of  being  tlie  birth-place  of  the  Consulato ;  but  he 
candidly  admits  that  such  a  pretension  could  not  be  sup- 
ported, and  unwillingly  adliercs  to  Capmaiiy's  opinion. 
"  Quoique  Fran<,'ttis,"  says  ho,  "  quoique  portco  par 
des  aentimens  de  reconnoissance,  qu'auc.n  ovonement 
ne  sauroit  affoildir,  6  faire  valoir  to>"  <  .;u<  e»t  en  fa- 
vour de  Marseilles,  je  dois  reconnoll'  ^  '>:  ',:  -i  -"t  que 
les  probabilltos  I'emportent  en  faveur  ,    '  me." 

— Tome  ii.     But  to  whicliever  city  tl     ;.  .■  com- 

])iling  the  Consolalo  may  be  due,  there  .■j.u  ml  no  cloulit 
that  its  antiquity  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  It  is 
affirmed,  in  u  preface  to  the  different  editions,  that  it 
was  solemnly  accepted,  subscribed  and  promulgated, 
as  a  body  of  maritime  law,  by  the  Holy  See  in  1075, 
and  by  the  kings  of  Franco  and  other  potentates  at 
dlftcrent  periods  between  1075  and  1270.  Hut  Caii- 
raany,  Azuni,  and  Pardesaus,  have  shown  In  the  clear- 
est and  most  satisfactory'  manner  that  the  circumstan- 
eos  alluded  to  In  this  sketcli  could  not  possibly  liave 
taken  place,  and  that  It  is  wholly  unworthy  of  atten- 
tion. The  most  probable  opinion  seems  to  be,  tliat  It 
was  compiled,  and  began  to  be  introduced  alxuit  the 
end  of  the  13th  or  beginning  of  the  llth  century. 
And  notwithstanding  its  prolixity,  and  the  want  of 
precision  and  clearness,  the  corresiMuidouco  of  the 
greater  number  of  its  rules  with  tlie  ascertained  prin- 
ciples of  justice  and  public  utility,  gradually  led,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  any  agreement,  to  its  adoption 
as  a  system  of  maritime  jurisprudence  by  all  the  na- 
tions contiguous  to  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  still  of 
high  authority.  Casarogis  says  of  It,  though  perhaps, 
too  strongly,  "  Conaulatus  marin,  in  maleriij  mariti- 
mis,  lanquam  universalis  consuetudo  habens  rim  legi.f,  in- 
violabililer  allendenda  est  npud  omnes  prorincias  it  nn- 
tiones," — Disc.  214. 

The  collection  of  sea  laws  next  in  celebrity,  but  an- 
terior, perhaps.  In  point  of  time,  is  that  denominated 
the  Roole  des  Jugenients  (TOleron.  There  is  as  much 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  these  laws,  as 
there  is  with  respect  to  tlio  origin  of  the  Consnlnln. 
The  prevailing  opinion  in  (ircat  Hrltuin  has  been,  that 
they  v.-ere.  compiled  liy  direction  of  Queen  Eleamir, 
wife  of  Henry  II.,  in  her  quality  of  niiihcss  of  Gul- 
enno ;  and  tliat  they  were  afterward  enlarged  and  im- 
proved by  her  son  Richard  I.,  at  his  return  froui  the 
Holy  Land ;  but  this  statement  is  now  admitted  to 
rest  on  no  good  foundation.  The  most  probable  theory 
seems  to  be,  that  thoy  are  a  collection  of  the  rules  or 
practices  followed  at  the  principal  French  ports  on 
the  Atlantic,  as  Bordeaux,  Rochelle,  St.  Malo,  etc. 
They  contain,  indeed,  rules  that  are  essential  to  all 
maritime  transactions,  wherever  they  may  lie  curried 
on ;  but  the  references  in  the  code  sufficiently  prove 
that  it  Is  of  French  origin,    The  circuuutunco  of  that 


Mik.' 


fw 


MAR 


1321 


MAR 


monairh's  having  large  posBesstons  in  France  at  the 
period  when  the  Kales  of  Oieron  were  coliected,  natu- 
rally facilitated  their  introduction  into  England ;  and 
they  have  long  enjoyed  a  very  high  degree  of  authority 
in  thnt  countrj-.  "  I  call  them  the  laws  of  Oieron," 
said  a  great  civilian  (^Sir  Leoline  Jenkiiu,  Charge  to  the 
Cinque  Portt),  "not  but  that  they  are  peculiarly 
enough  English,  bebig  long  since  incorporated  into 
the  customs  and  statutes  of  our  admiralties ;  but  the 
equity  of  them  is  b6  great,  and  the  use  and  reason  of 
them  so  general,  that  they  are  known  and  received  all 
the  world  over  by  that,  rather  than  by  any  other 
nnniB."  MoUoy,  however,  has  more  correctly,  per- 
haps, said  of  the  laws  of  Oieron,  that  "  they  never 
obtained  any  otiier  or  greater  force  than  those  of 
Rhodes  formerly  did ;  that  is,  they  were  esteemed  for 
the  reason  and  equity  found  in  them,  and  applied  to 
the  case  emei-gent." — De  Jure  Maritimn  tt  Navali. 

A  code  of  raaritinle  law  issued  l)y  Wisby,  in  tho 
island  of  Gothland,  in  the  Baltic,  has  long  enjoyed 
0  high  reputation  in  the  north.  The  date  of  its  com- 
pilation is  uncertain ;  but  it  is  comparatively  modem. 
It  is  true  that  some  of  tlie  northern  jurists  contend 
tliat  the  laws  of  Wisby  are  older  than  the  Rules  of 
Oieron,  and  that  the  latter  are  chiefly  copied  from  the 
former  I  But  it  has  lieen  repeatedly  shown  ttiat  there 
is  not  so  much  as  tlio  shadow  of  a  foundation  for  this 
statement.  See  Parressus,  Collection,  etc.,  tome  i., 
pp.  425,  402  ;  Foreign  Quarterly  Reriew,  No.  13,  art. 
Ilamcatic  League.  Tlio  laws  of  Wisby  arc  not  cer- 
tainly older  than  the  latter  part  of  the  14th  or  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  centurj'  j  and  have  obviou-ily  been 
compiled  from  the  Comolato  del  Mare,  the  Rules  of  Oie- 
ron, and  otlier  codes  that  were  then  in  use,  Grotius 
has  spoken  of  these  laws  in  the  most  laudatory  man- 
ner : — "  Qiiai  dc  maritimis  ncgotii»,"  says  he,  "  insula 
Gothlandim  habitatoribui  placueruiU,  tantum  m  se  habent, 
tuni  equitalis,  turn  prudentice,  ut  omiies  oceani  accola  eo, 
nan  tanquam  propria,  led  velut  gentium  Jure,  ulantur." — 
Prolegomena  ad  Procopium,  p.  ft!. 

Besides  the  codes  now  mentioned,  the  ordinances  of 
the  Hause  Towns,  issued  in  1597  and  1C14,  contain  a 
system  of  laws  relating  to  navigation  that  is  of  great 
authority.  Tlie  judgments  of  Uamme,  the  customs  of 
Amsterdam,  etc.,  are  also  often  quoted.  A  translation 
of  the  law  of  Oieron,  Wisl>y,  and  the  Ilanse  Towns, 
is  given  in  the  3d  edition  of  Malynes's  /*x  Mercatoria, 
but  ttie  edition  of  them  in  the  work  of  M.  Pardessus, 
referred  to  in  tho  text,  is  infinitely  superior  to  every 
otlier.  But  by  far  the  most  complete  and  well-digested 
system  of  maritime  jurisprudence  tbat  has  ever  ap- 
peared, is  that  comprised  in  the  famous  Ordonnance  de 
It  Marine  issued  by  Ix)uis  XIV.,  in  1G81.  This  excel- 
lent code  was  compiled  under  the  direction  of  M.  Col- 
bert, by  individuals  of  great  talent  and  learning,  after 
a  careful  revision  of  al!  the  ancient  sea  laws  of  France 
and  other  countries,  and  upon  consultation  with  the 
different  parliaments,  the  courts  of  admiralty,  and  the 
chambers  of  commerce,  of  the  different  towns.  It 
combines  whatever  experience  and  the  wisdom  of  ages 
had  shown  to  be  best  in  the  Roman  laws,  and  in  the 
institutions  of  the  modern  maritime  states  of  Kuroi)e. 
In  the  preface  to  his  treatise  on  the  Law  of  Shipping, 
Lord  Tenterden  says : — "  If  the  reader  should  be  of- 
fended at  the  frequent  references  to  this  ordinance,  I 
must  request  him  to  recollect  tbat  those  references  are 
made  to  the  maritime  code  of  a  great  commercial  na- 
tion, which  has  contributed  much  of  its  national  pros- 
perity to  that  code :  a  code  composed  in  the  reign  of  a 
politic  prince ;  under  tlie  auspices  of  a  wise  and  en- 
lightened minister ;  by  laborious  and  learned  persons, 
wlio  selected  the  most  valuable  principles  of  all  the 
maritune  laws  then  existing ;  and  wliieh,  in  matter, 
method,  and  style,  is  one  of  the  most  finished  acta  of 
legislation  tbat  ever  was  promulgated."  Tho  ordi- 
nance of  ItiSl  was  published  in  1700,  with  a  detailed 
and  most  elaborate  commentary  by  M.  Valin,  in  2  vol- 


umes, 4to.  It  is  impossible  which  to  adinlra  mint  ill 
this  commcntarj-,  the  learning  or  the  sound  (('""1  »m»» 
of  tlie  writer.  Lord  Mansfield  woa  Indelitud  for  m 
inconsideralde  portion  of  Ids  superior  kn'iwIuijjjB  ut 
tho  principles  of  maritime  jurispruUenca  U>  »  vitrtifMt 
study  of  M.  Valin's  work 

Thnt  part  of  the  Codt  de  Commerce  wliluh  treat*  of 
maritime  affairs,  insuranti,  etc.,  is  copied  with  Vttry 
little  alteration,  from  the  ordinance  of  1081,     'J'llw  f»W 
changes  that  have  been  made  are  not  always?  liH|iriivii> 
ments.     No  system  or  code  of  maritime  law  hn*  ovtir 
teen  issued  by  authority  in  Great  Britain.    The  litwn 
and  practices  that  now  obtain  among  thom,  in  rsfar- 
ence  to  maritime  affairs  have  been  founded  prliiel|iii||y 
on  the  practices  of  merchants,  the  principles  luld  i\uwn 
in  the  civil  law,  the  laws  of  Oieron  and  WUIiy,  II14 
works  of  distinguished  jurisconaulU,  the  judUlnl  i|<i. 
cisions  of  their  own  and  foreiijn  countries,  ettu     \  \itw 
so  constructed  has  necessarily  been  in  a  progruislvti 
state  of  improvement;  and,  though  slill  8iisi!e|itllilB  i.f 
amendment,   it  corresponds,  at  this    niuiiieiit,   inorH 
neorly,  perhaps,  than  any  other  system  of  niurittlllA 
law,  with  those  universally  recognized  prin'ljilua  iif 
justice  and  general  convenience  by  which  tlio  traiis.M!. 
tions  of  merchants  and  navigators  ought  to  li»  r«^H. 
lated.    Tho  decisions  of  Lord  Mansfield  Jld  inmU  to 
fix  the  principles,  and  to  improve  and  perfect  the  iiM(f» 
itime  law  of  England.     It  is  also  under  grout  ulilljj  . 
tions  to  Lonl  Stowell.     The  decisions  of  thi'  Uttfr 
chiefly,  indeed,  respect  questions  of  neutrality,  gr.iw. 
ing  out  of  the  conflicting  pretensions  of  bclllgereiits  urid 
neutrals  during  the  late  war;  but  the  primli  |»a  atfl  ■ 
doctrines  which  he  unfolds  in  treotInK  "•"--  .(Uustluns, 
throw  a  strong  and  steady  light  on   .l-.ose  braiiehus  of 
maritime  law.     It  bus  occasionally,  Indeed,  Ijeeii  ul> 
leged— and  tho  allegation  is  probably,  in  soma  d«iif«i« 
well  founded — that    his    lordship    has  coneedod  ton 
much  to  tho  claims  of  belligerents.     Still,  howitysr, 
his  judgments  must  be  regarded,  allowing  for  this  «<. 
cusoble  bias,  as  among  the  noblest  monuments  of  jiidU 
cial  wisdom  of  which  any  country  can  boast.     "  Th<'y 
will  be  contemplated,"  says  Mr.  Serjeant  SLiralmli, 
"with  applause  and  veneration,  as  long  oa  rlcjifl)  i,f 
learning,  soundness  of  argument,  enlightened  wisitoni, 
and  the  chaste  beauties  of  eloquence,  hold  any  plni'* 
in  theestimationof  mankind."— On  Inmrame,  j'fullm. 
Disc.     The  Treatise  of  the  Law  Relative  to  M'l'ihimt 
Ships  and  Seamen,  by  the  late  Chief  Justice  of  tlia 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  does  credit  to  the  talents,  eru. 
dition,  and  liberality  of  its  noble  and  learned  iiiitlmr. 
It  gives,  within  a  brief  compass,  a  clear  and  adiiiiraljla 
exposition  of  tho  most  important  branches  of  our  imt' 
itime  law  ;  and  may  be  consulted  witli  eiiuul  hr\\\ty 
and  advantage  by  the  merchant,  the  general  scliola)-, 
and  the  lawyer.     Mr.  Serjeant  Marshall  has  onteruj 
very  fully  into  some,  and  has  touched  upon  most  polntA 
of  maritime  law,  in  his  work  on  Lisurance;  ami  hiia 
discussed  them  with  great  learning  and  sagacity,     TIm 
works  of  Jlr.  Justice  Park,  Sir.  Holt,  and  u  few  otiu 
ers,  are  also  valuable.     Of  the  earlier  treatl-so-s,  tlw 
Lex  Mercatoria  of  Malynes  is  by  far  the  best  j  iMid* 
considering  the  period  of  its  publication  {Wii),  U  a 
very    extraordinary    pcrformencc.      See   Sorlh  An, 
Rer.,  vi.,  323  (J.  Stouy),  ii.,  218,  xiii.,  1  (II.  WliKV 
TON) ;  Hum's  Mag.,  xiii.,  232,  455,  x.,  337,  Is.,  2iil,- 
358,  513,  xiv.,  547,  xv.,  75,  xxiv.,  191. 

The  marine  law  of  tho  United  States  is  the  same  a* 
the  marine  law  of  F.urope.  It  is  not  tho  law  of  a  partic- 
ular country,  but  the  general  law  of  nations ;  auilXord 
Mansfield  applied  to  its  universal  adoption  the  ux|irus.s. 
ivo  language  of  Cicero,  when  speaking  of  the  etxriial 
laws  of  justice ;  "  Noc  crit  alia  lex  Roina>,  alia  .\tlij)nU ) 
alia  nuiu',  alia  postliac ;  sed  et  omnes  gcntes,  et  omni  tent' 
jxire  tma  lex  et  serapltcrna,  ct  inimortalls  coutineblt," 

In  treating  of  this  law,  we  refer  to  its  pac^lllo  eharao. 
ter  as  the  law  of  commerce  and  navigation  in  time  of 
peace.    The  respective  rights  of  belligerouta  and  noil. 


i:f';t  || 


W' 


m 


ill! 


".'W.^'PIT'^ 


MAR 


1822 


MAR 


trals  iu  time  of  ~n  constitute  tlie  code  of  prize  law, 
•nd  that  fonns  a  >Btinct  law  of  inquiry,  Wlien  Lord 
Hansflold  menti-jned  tlie  law-merclmnt  as  l)ein|{  a 
brancli  of  public  law,  it  was  l>ocau8e  tliat  law  did  not 
rest  essentially  for  its  cliaracter  and  authority  on  the 
positive  institutions  and  local  customs  of  any  particu- 
lar country,  but  consisted  of  certain  principles  of 
equity,  and  usages  of  trade,  which  general  commerce 
and  a  common  sense  of  justice  huil  estaMirhed  to  .'ei^u- 
late  the  dealings  of  merchants  and  mariners  in  all  tlie 
commercial  countries  of  the  civilised  world. 

In  the  study  and  cn'tivation  i^f  maritime  law  our 
improvement  has  been  rapid,  and  Aur  career  illustrious, 
since  the  adoption  of  the  present  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  The  decisions  in  federal  courts,  in 
commercial  cases,  have  done  credit  to  the  intpllectual 
and  moral  character  of  the  nation,  and  the  admiralty 
courts  iu  particular  have  displayed  great  research  and 
a  familiar  knowledge  of  the  principle!)  of  the  marine 
law  of  Europe. 

The  reports  of  judicial  decisions  iu  the  several  States, 
and  especially  in  the  States  of  Massachusetts,  New 
Yorlt,  and  Pennsylvania,  '?vince  great  attention  to 
maritime  questions ;  and  they  contain  abundant  proofs 
that  our  courts  have  been  doalini}  largely  witli  that 
business  of  our  enterprising  and  commercial  people. 
Dedaratiim  r^apectini/  Afaritime,  Lair  aii/ned  by  the  Pleni- 
potentiaries  of  Greet  liritain,  Aiistri'i,  Frat<-i;,  Prtiii- 
sin,  Rusiia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey,  aatembled  ill 
Congress  at  Paris,  April  16,  185*5 : 
The  plenipotentiaries  who  signed  tlie  Treaty  of  Par- 
is, on  the  '".Oth  of  Murch,  1H50,  a8seml)led  in  confer- 
ence, considering :  That  maritime  law  In  time  of  war 
hiis  long  been  the  suliject  of  deplorable  disputes  ;  that 
tlio  imcertainty  of  the  law  and  of  the  duties  ill  such  a 
miitt.-r  gives  rise  to  differences  of  opinion  between  neu- 
tr.ils  and  belligerents  which  may  occasion  serious  difll- 
culties,  and  even  conflicts ;  that  it  is,  consequently, 
advantageous  to  e8tai)lish  a  uniform  doctrine  on  so  im- 
portant a  point;  that  the  plenipotentiaries  assembled 
in  Congress  at  Paris  can  not  better  respond  to  the  in- 
tentions liy  A'hich  their  governments  are  animated, 
than  l>y  seeking  to  introduce  into  international  rela- 
tions tixed  principles  in  this  respect.  The  aljove-nien- 
ticmcd  plenipotentiaries,  being  duly  authorized,  resolved 
to  concert  among  theniselvrs  as  to  the  means  of  attain- 
ing this  object;  and  having  ;oine  to  an  agreement, 
have  adopted  the  following  solemn  declarations : 

1.  Privateering  Ls,  and  remains,  abolished.  2.  The 
neutral  Hag  covers  enemies'  goods,  with  th  exception 
of  contraliaiiil  "f  war.  3.  The  neutral  goods,  with  tilie 
exception  of  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  cap- 
ture under  enemy's  fiag.  4.  Blockades,  in  order  tu 
be  liinding,  must  '  -IFective;  that  is  to  say,  main- 
tained l)y  a  force  t^  cut  really  to  prevent  access  to 
the  coast  by  the  eniuiy. 

The  governments  of  the  undersigned  plenipotan- 
tiarlos  engage  to  bring  the  present  declaration  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  States  which  have  not  taken  part  in 
the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  invite  them  to  accede  to  it. 
Convinced  that  the  maxims  which  they  now  proclaim 
can  not  but  bo  received  with  gratitude  by  the  whole 
world,  the  undersigned  plenipotentiaries  doubt  not  that 
th"  ettorts  of  their  governments  to  obtain  the  general 
adoption  thereof  will  be  crowned  witli  full  success. 
The  present  declaration  is  not,  and  shall  not  bo  bind- 
ing, except  between  those  powers  who  have  acceded 
or  shall  accede  to  it. 

Dbne  at  Paris  the  16th  of  At..-il,  1856. 
(Signed,) 

B00I/-SCUAUEN8TKIS,  HatZFELDT, 
IIUBNEIt,  OllLOKF, 

Walewski,  Bbunnow, 

■    BOURQIIKNEV,  CaVOUK, 

Cl-AntiNUON,  De  Vii.i.amarina, 

Cowi.EV,  Aali, 

Manteitfpbl,  MeiirmmedDjemil. 


The  United  States'  Eicecutiv«,  throUKb  th«  l^tifntU 
ment  of  State,  communicated  to  tltn  Vtamh  KDynrtt' 
ment  its  reply  in  August  lH6(i,  viii,  i 

These  four  pol'its  ura  indicitUjln,  \mmmm  \m  um  mit 
accept  the  ttrst  point — the  abolltl/iii  ui  \iA¥»UmAii^, 
Governor  Marcy  respectfully  pmpwMS,  lti(W«V«r,  two 
distinct  amendments : 

1.  Either  to  add  to  the  jlrit  pruiMNltUm  In  tllo  "  da. 
claration"  of  the  Congress  uf  l'aris~- 

"  And  that  the  private  proiwrty  uf  t\m  niibjucts  i,t 
citizens  of  a  belligerent  on  the  l.lgli  imm  slmll  Im  «%. 
empted  from  seizure  by  public  MriiMi4  Vti»Mtl«  of  thn 
other  belligerents,  except  it  be  coiltritlwHil,"  ill 

2d.  To  adopt  the  2d,  3d,  und  4Hl  |»ro|Ki(ilt((in»,  »lth- 
out  the  flrst. 

The  argument  contained  In  tlw  rsplyof  (IdVPfddr 
Marcy  is  historical,  argumentutlvs,  itiiit  fori'llde, 

It  goes  to  say,  that  no  nation  bus  it  rf«l(l  to  \,ie. 
scribe  to  anotlier  what  shall  cuti»tltuti<  litir  iiillltiiry 
or  naval  force ;  and  that  ws  can,  (.'uintintoiilly  «i|j, 
our  institutions  and  policy,  neitliitr  iigr«o  tdit  lo  prn 
ploy  volunteers  on  land,  nor  prlvdtwrs  oti  the  liijji, 
seas.  When  a  nation  having  a  larga  stKlidliijj  iifiiiv 
is  threatening  a  nation  *lth  a  siimll  iitittli1itif(  nffifv, 
the  latter  musli  have  rc?oursa  U)  v«lHl»t««?)i  (  iitid  sn 
when  a  nation  with  a  largo  navy,  iiiitkffii  witr  mi  an- 
other .irith  an  luforiur  navy,  tliu  litttxr  tiitiiit  hnKi  te- 
course  to  privateers,  otherwise  tlia  tmtlmi  with  n  iiifiii. 
navy  could  employ  a  portion  of  Imr  n«vy  Ui  \itv\,  tli.. 
inferior  navy  of  her  enemy  In  i'li«i*,  mvS  Willi  t\v 
rest  sweep  the  commerce  of  the  lattar  frimi  thn  wcmi. 
Parity  of  imsitloii  could  only  Iw  tmw\m\  If  tim  ttr\mi\ 
cruisers  of  the  superior  navy  and  otiliir  tmtliitinl  slilpf 
of  war  would  forego  iiiakii:|/  lapturus  of  Hi«  PiiPiiiVi 
property  on  the  high  seas,  or  If  the  lliitloH  Witli  rtii  lii- 
ferior  navy  armed  privateers  to  lidllct  »*  niiuli  rl,iiii  i;,'i. 
on  the  commerce  of  the  greater  niivilt  \iii*ivl  »<<  Ihi' 
latter  does  on  its  inferior  utittmy,  TIm<  itottiliiilliii; 
portion  of  Mr.  Marcy's  reply  is  as  fiilliivrs ! 

"  In  discussing  the  effect  of  the  pciilioiidd  iii(i(islifi-- 
the  abolition  of  privateering — a  ruf«r«lMW  tii  tlm  cshI- 
ing  condition  of  nations  is  aliiioi>t  Miwvolilitlilc,  An 
instance  will  at  once  present  il««lf  In  WfiUfiS  to  Uin 
nations  where  the  commerce  uf  emh  is  nlnmt  enua), 
and  about  equally  widc-sprea4  ovmr  thtt  wiirid,  A^ 
commercial  jiowers  they  approach  to  till  wiimllty,  l.lit 
as  naval  powers  thers  ii  g»uat  dlspttrlty  Iwtwwii'HiMn. 
The  regular  navy  of  one  vastly  kikwbiIs  tlmt  n*  tlif 
other.  In  case  <if  war  between  tll»m  only  iiti  lirii.ti- 
sidcrnble  part  of  the  navyof  tha  oiia  wmilillHt  fcqiilffd 
to  prevent  that  of  the  other  front  Iwltt^  i;»«|  funic - 
fense  or  aggression,  while  the  reinalxdur  would  he  de- 
voted to  the  unembarrassftil  employiiintit  of  (l(i»tf(i,t  liiij 
the  commerce  of  the  we.iker  in  niiVttI  slfcti^tli,  IIji- 
fatal  consequence  of  this  great  l(iM((imllty  of  imv.il  fw" 
between  two  such  belligerents  woiihl  Iih  In  part  M'm- 
edied  by  the  use  of  privateers  i  in  Ihilt  I'mi',  wliilf 
either  might  assail  the  coininercu  i.i  ttl»  (rtllcf  III  ever; 
sea,  they  would  be  obliged  to  distrtlillto  (iHil  i'iii).l)i.r 
their  respective  navies  in  the  work  of  protci  tlmi.  Tlii' 
statement  only  illustrates  whut  would  l«i  tlic  inw 
with  some  inodllioatlon,  ill  ai/ety  witt  wIipm  tlirrc 
may  be  considerable  disparity  in  tlm  naval  utrciifjtli  i.f 
the  belligerents. 

"History  throws  much  light  iiiwm  thw  qHcslinii. 
France,  at  an  early  period,  was  withiiiit  n  navy ;  ami 
in  her  wars  with  Great  nritalii  aivl  Himlti,  Initli  nnvnl 
powers,  she  resorted,  with  signal  ({wnl  clfti't,  to  pii- 
vateoring,  not  only  for  protacthm,  but  micciissfiil  njj- 
gression.  She  obtained  iiiaiiy  prlviit«i<tii  from  Hol- 
land, and  by  this  tune  gained  dtiildi'd  flilviititfitiM  oii 
the  ocean  over  her  enemy,  Whllo  lit  Hint  ((itwllti'in 
Franco  could  hanllyhave  Iwen  extwi^lcd  to  orlf^iiiilx 
or  concur  in  a  proposition  to  nIioIIoIi  iirlvHtcctliiK- 
The  condition  of  many  of  tll»  siiialli  r  ntiitos  iit  tlm 
world  is  now,  in  relation  to  iirival  powprs,  dot  miiili 
unlike  that  of  France  in  the  mi4itl<i  uf  tllK  l(All  i'«lttili',i' 


MAR 


1328 


MAR 


'ite- 


At  a  later  period,  during  the  reign  of  LouU  XIV.,  sev- 
eral expoditions  were  fitted  out  by  him,  composed 
wholly  of  privateers,  which  were  most  effectively  em- 
ployed in  prosecuting  hostilities  with  naval  powers. 
Those  who  may  have  at  any  time  a  control  on  the 
ocean  will  be  strongly  tempted  to  ntgulate  its  use  in  a 
manner  to  subserve  their  own  interests  and  ambitious 
projects,  Th'3  ocean  is  the  common  ''  operty  of  all 
nations ;  and  instead  of  j-ielding  to  a  measure  which 
will  be  likely  to  secure  tn  a  few — possibly  to  one — an 
bscendancy  over  it,  each  should  |)ertinacionsly  retain 
all  the  means  it  possesses  to  defend  the  common  herit- 
age. A  predominant  power  upon  the  ocean  is  more 
menacirg  to  the  well  being  of  others  than  such  a 
power  on  land  ;  and  all  are  alike  interested  in  resist- 
ing n  measure  calculated  to  facilitate  the  permanent 
establishment  of  such  a  domination,  whether  to  be 
wielded  l)y  one  power  or  shared  among  a  few  others. 
The  injuries  likely  to  result  from  surrendering  the  do- 
minion of  the  seas  to  one  or  a  few  natior  >  which  have 
powerful  navies,  arise  mainly  from  the  practice  of  sul)- 
Jecting  privote  proportj'  on  the  ocean  to  seizure  by  bel- 
ligerents. Justice  ami  humanit}*  demand  this  practice 
should  lie  abandoned,  and  that  the  rules  in  relation  to 
such  property  on  land  should  be  extended  to  it  when 
found  upon  the  high  seas. 

"  The  President,  therefore,  proposes  to  add  to  the  first 
propoi'ltiim  in  the  '  Declaration'  of  the  Congress  at 
Paris  the  following  words :  '  And  that  the  private 
property  of  the  subjects  or  citixens  of  the  belligerent 
on  the  lili'li  SF.as  shall  be  exempted  from  seizure 
by  public  armed  vessels  of  the  other  belligerent,  ex- 
cept it  lie  contraliand.'  Thus  amended,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  will  adopt  it,  together  with 
the  other  three  principles  contained  in  that '  Declara- 
tion.' 1  am  directed  to  communicate  the  approval  of 
tho  President  to  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  propo- 
sitions, independently  of  the  first,  should  the  amend- 
ment he  unacceptable.  Tho  amendment  Is  recom- 
mended by  so  many  powerful  considerations,  and  the 
principle  which  calls  for  it  has  so  long  had  the  em- 
phatic sanction  of  ull  enlightened  nations  in  militnrr 
operations  on  land,  that  the  President  is  reluctant  to 
believe  It  will  meet  with  any  serious  opposition.  AVith- 
out  tlie  proposed  modification  of  the  first  principle,  he 
can  nut  convince  himself  that  it  would  be  wise  or  safe 
to  cliange  the  existing  law  in  regard  to  the  right  of 
privateering. 

"  If  the  aioendment  should  not  lie  adopted.  It  will  be 
proper  for  the  United  Stales  to  have  some  understand- 
ing in  regard  to  tho  treatment  of  their  privateers  when 
they  shall  liave  occasion  to  visit  the  ports  of  those 
powers  which  are  or  may  become  parties  to  the  declara- 
tion to  the  Congress  at  Paris.  The  United  States  will, 
upon  the  ground  of  right  ond  comity,  claim  for  them 
the  same  consideration  to  which  they  are  entitled,  and 
wluch  was  extended  to  them  under  the  law  of  nations, 
before  the  attempted  modification  of  it  by  that  Con- 
gress. 

"  -\s  connected  with  the  subject  herein  discussed,  it  is 
not  inappropriate  to  remark  that  a  due  regard  to  the 
fair  clii'-  \s  of  the  neutrals  would  seem  to  re(|Uire  sonic 
modiftccion,  if  not  an  abandonment,  of  the  doctrine  In 
relation  t"^  contraband  trade.  Nations  which  preserve 
the  relations  of  peace  should  not  be  Injuriously  affect- 
ed in  their  commercial  intercourse  by  those  which 
choose  to  involve  themselves  in  war,  provided  tho  citi- 
zens of  such  peaceful  nations  do  not  compromise  their 
character  is  neutrals  by  direct  interference  with  the  i 
military  operations  of  the  belligerents.  The  laws  of 
•lege  nod  blockade,  it  Is  believed,  afford  all  the  reme- 
dies against  neutrals  that  tlio  parties  to  war  can  justly 
claim.  These  laws  interdict  all  trade  with  the  be- 
•lef^ed  or  blockaded  places.  A  further  interference 
T7ith  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  neutrals,  in  nowise  to 
blame  for  an  existing  state  of  hostilities,  is  contrary 
to  the  obvious  dictates  of  justice.     If  this  view  of  the 


subject  could  be  adopted,  and  practically  oliMrvad  \iy 
all  civilized  nations,  the  right  of  sonrcli,  wlileli  Imi 
been  the  source  of  so  much  annoyance,  and  of  nu  n  iny 
injuries  to  neutral  commerce,  wouhl  be  runtrlctiid  t<> 
such  cases  only  as  justified  a  suspicion  of  an  uttsMipt 
to  trade  with  places  actually  In  a  stats  of  »Uiga  or 
blockade. 

"  Humanity  and  justice  demand  that  the  catiimlthi. 
incident  to  war  should  be  strictly  mnited  to  tliu  Imlll- 
gerents  themselves,  and  to  tho.ie  who  voluntarily  tiikit 
part  with  them;  but  neutrals,  ubntuluing  hi  Kood 
faith  from  such  complicity,  ought  to  bo  left  to  purnun 
their  ordinary  trade  with  either  Ijelligeront  wltlioiit 
restrictions  in  respect  to  the  article ;  «  .    ring  Into  If, 

"  Though  the  United  States  do  n  ,t  propose  to  unibnr- 
rass  the  other  pending  negotiations  rehitlvn  tii  tlui 
rights  of  neutrals,  by  pressing  this  clmuge  la  the  luw 
of  contraband,  they  will  be  ready  to  give  it  thoir  »miii> 
tion  whenever  there  is  a  prospect  of  its  favoralilu  ritcuii- 
tion  liy  other  maritime  powers, 

"  The  undersigned  avails  himself  of  this  op|«irtuiilty 
to  renew  to  tho  Count  de  Sartlgos  tho  ussuranio  i.f  hlit 
high  consideration, 

"  W,  L.  Mail  r," 

The  points  here  settled  are  all  of  thuni  liiiportiiiit. 
Privateering  has  been  tho  scourge  of  tho  octiin— ii 
lawless  sort  of  warfare  between  belligereMtK  tiieirl- 
selves — a  grievous  annoyance  and  d-ii  ige  Ui  ni'Utrulii, 
and  a  most  prolific  school  of  piracy,  Thimu  wliowi 
recollection  extends  back  30  or  40  years  ruiiieinlifr 
when  the  ocean  was  traversed  by  pirates,  (ralticd  (m 
their  fiendish  business  by  the  long  wars  of  the  eurllur 
years  of  tho  ceiiturj'.  The  liest  men  of  nuHlem  I'lirlii 
tendom  hud  never  ceased  to  protest  against  tho  ny*. 
tem,  Sweden  and  Holland  attempted.  In  the  17tli 
century,  to  put  an  end  to  the  practice,  but  without 
effect.  The  United  States  and  Prusi^iu,  in  171^6,  en- 
tered into  stipulations  against  privateering,  uh  litj- 
tween  themselves,  but  did  not  renew  the  provlnliin, 
The  French  Legislature,  in  1792,  made  u  Kinillitr,  but 
fruitless  effort.  Privateering  was  dcstiiivd  to  juivu 
one  license  moro  for  perpetrating  its  atrocltiuii,  iirnl 
shocking  the  sense  of  mankind.  ,Jurl<tts  luinented  tli» 
practice,  but  were  forced  to  acknowledge  It  a  pnrt  of 
tho  law  of  nations,  and  gave  up  in  despair  ull  .txpeetii. 
tion  of  an  early  abandonment  of  tho  lugullzed  iiui. 
rage. 

^  hen  the  late  war  between  the  United  Htatea  aikI 
Mexico  occurred,  it  was  matter  of  general  gratulution 
that  the  circumstances  of  the  case  saved  tl'x  world  from 
the  curse  of  privateering;  r.nd  much  more  did  the 
world  rejoice,  at  the  commencement  of  the  late  Euro- 
pean war,  when  England  and  France  announeeil  their 
intention  to  grant  no  letters  of  mariiue.  With  thii 
conclusion  of  that  war— as  part  of  the  conclusion.  In- 
deed— we  have  the  solemn  compact  of  the  groat  pow- 
ers of  Kurope,  that  "privateering  Is,  and  renialioi, 
abolished."  It  is  an  important  step  in  tho  pro/jreim 
of  humanity. 

The  declaration  that  "  the  neutral  flag  covers  ene- 
mies' goods,  with  tho  exception  of  contratiand  of  war," 
diminishes  greatly  the  liabilities  of  the  world  to  futiiru 
strifes.  Until  the  breaking  out  of  the  recent  war, 
Great  Briiain  had  steadily  maintained  the  contrary 
doctrine  as  the  law  of  nations.  The  Knipress  of  Kim. 
sia,  in  1780,  set  forth  precisely  the  doctrine  of  the  latu 
Paris  Conference,  and  gained  tlis  concurrence  of  most 
of  the  States  of  Kurope,  and  of  the  government  »f  tho 
United  States.  Great  Britain  refused  to  yield,  (.ltd 
the  other  nations,  one  after  another,  submitted  to  t|i« 
interpretations  of  that  power.  Even  Kussla  benalf 
conceded  that  point,  and  in  1801  agreed,  by  treaty, 
that  an  enemy's  property  was  not  protected  In  neutral 
ships.  Jurists,  our  own  with  the  rest,  regarded  the 
question  of  international  law  as  settled  »n  the  ilrltUh 
interpretation.  The  qualified  accession  of  Kiigland,  In 
the  Declaration  of  ISH,  to  tho  principles  of  thu  Arnwl 


'"'ii 


MAR 


1824 


NAB 


Neutnillty  occanioneil,  tlMir«riir«i  umioriti  unit  iftitMy- 
ing  Hurpriite.  It  then  erifai-reil  tli«  tiilndo  </f  nimt,  how- 
over,  that  within  two  year*  alin  woillil  nmkx  hor  foil 
accDsHlnn  to  thoB«  |)rin<^i|il«ii,  liy  «  («itn|Hi''l  with  thnw 
very  ]Kiwcni  againat  wliorn  on  tliU  •mim  <|iwiill<m,  nhe 
had  levclml  the  l)roaili>i<l>i>  of  h«r  II  <Ht»,  In  rnK""'  t" 
thin  particular,  KuniiU  in  tlin  vl<'t<iri<in«  |«irty,  nnil  her 
triumph  i»  a  note  of  human  |ir<>Kr«*M'.  'I'lirkny,  Uxi, 
hns  a  proud  dUtinctiiin  In  tlitt  ilm'liiriitloti,  for  in  iict- 
tlin^  tlic  point  that  free  iihipit  niakti  trim  tfond*,  nhn  in 
but  pulilishini;  anew  whut  iih<'  wa»  tlio  llmt  t'l  ilRitlnre 
250  yearn  ago.  The  li'.lKin  of  our  own  )(iiv«rnment 
have  l)oen  in  the  Hamu  direi'tion  through  tlin  whole 
period  of  our  national  hIatJiry.  Our  ((overnnimt, 
while  ndmittinK  the  I'.nKliih  rulM  »»  (o  tiM  law  of  na- 
tions, liaK  deehired  that  tlia  rul«  hicl  no  fotlii.lntion  In 
naliiriii  rl^ht,  and  in  rH|i«at«.t  Umtim  h»»  ifiilnnA  tlie 
insertion  of  the  diH'trtna  iviw  pro'^hiim'^it  In  I'arla, 

'I'liu  third  item  in  the  lata  |)«i'l(irMtMn  liiln  fm<n  !«•• 
the  ooconion  of  ili(ftrKni'«»  tliun  thtt  xtwmvi.  The 
fourth  U  a  cuncluaive  tettinioiiy  aKiiivift "  |ia(i<'r  l/lock- 
ad,'s." 

Wliether  our  t(overnnK!nl  will  "»««««ln"  In  form  to 
tlie  pointH  niimcd  may  liu  doulitJtil,  IIioukIi  nvery  one 
of  them  is  a  cimceMlon  to  |irln>'i|il'*<<  or  tiMi((«»  for 
wlih'li  wo  have  contcrnleil,  and  all,  It  may  im  lio|ied, 
vlll  have  our  uniform  ami  liaarty  prai'tii'nl  rmicur- 
TL'nie.  It  haa  Iwcn  generally  th«  fmUry  tit  our  Klntea- 
mcn  to  keep  our  government  <i«iir  from  nlllnnceii 
wliieh  might,  under  any  clrruni'tilM'''",  In'  (fnlinrrnoa- 
iiig,  and  tliat  diaiaiaition  niiiy  ilentiiiid  for  ua,  even  In 
this  instance,  an  attitiula  of  lnd«|Mindftii'>',  llownver 
this  may  lie,  the  moral  aeiiaa  of  (liii  tmtion  will  iicceiit 
M'ith  thankfulneaa  th«  reaulla  of  the  I'nrla  Conference, 
mill  the  (^lirijtian  will  ace  new  forxlokeiilnga  of  that 
day  wild  nations  aliall  learn  war  no  inori'. 

Maritime  Loait*.  'I'ha  »inlracta  of  Imi/omr// 
und  rtspimli'ullu  are  niaritima  loana  of  n  v^ry  high 
tiiid  privileged  nature,  and  they  nrn  ulwnya  nplield  liy 
tlii^  iidmirally  witli  u  atrong  hand,  wlinn  rat<ired  into 
bmui  file,  and  witliout  any  aH»|ili^l')il  of  fraud.  The 
piiiiciplo  on  which  they  are  foimdwi  and  anjiported  la 
of  great  antiquity,  ai.d  |ioHetr«t<w  ao  deeply  Into  It, 
th.it  Kmerigon  aaya  iU  origin  can  not  ^m  traced.  It 
was  borrowed  by  the  Itomana  friiin  th«  ancient  Kho- 
diuns,  and  it  is  deeply  ruited  iii  th«  niKrltltne  gciieral 
law  of  ICtirope,  from  wliich  it  Ima  lieon  lrjina|ilniited 
intii  the  law  of  tliia  country,  Tlin  olijcct  of  hyfiothe- 
cntion  liondii  ia  to  procure  the  nectfamry  auppl'ca  I'or 
sliip.'  which  hap|ien  to  li«  In  lUatriiaa  in  fordgn  (lorta, 
wlierotlie  master  and  ownara  are  wltlMiUt  credit,  and 
in  cas  in  ivhich,  if  uaaiatunca  could  not  im  procured 
by  means  of  aucji  instruiiienta,  tha  voaa^la  nnd  car- 
goes must  be  left  to  periali,  Tlin  authority  »f  the 
master  to  bypothecata  tlia  ahip  and  freight,  nnd  even 
tlie  cargo,  in  a  cam  of  neceaaity,  la  indi>|>iltiililn.  The 
vital  princlplo  of  a  liottomry  bond  la,  that  It  Im  taken 
in  a  case  of  unproviiled  ncxaaity  when  the  owner  haff 
no  resources  or  credit  for  obtaining  nii'vaaary  supplies. 
If  the  lender  knew  tliat  tha  owtwir  had  an  «ni|>owrrcd 
consignee  or  agent  in  tlia  |»irt,  wllllttg  to  simply  his 
wants,  th'3  taking  tlie  loan  la  «  frau/l  t  but  if  fairly 
taken  under  an  ignoranea  of  tlin  fact,  tha  courts  of 
atlmiraity  are  diapoaed  U)  uphohl  ailch  bonds,  as  neces- 
sary for  tlio  BUpiHirt  of  cornm«r<w  lit  H»  extremities  of 
distress.  And  if  tlie  lender  of  mi/iwty  on  a  bottomry 
or  respondentia  bond  lie  willing  t"  stnkn  the  money 
upon  tint  safe  arrival  of  tii«  alilp  or  cargo,  and  to  take 
upon  himself,  like  an  iuaurer,  tha  riak  of  sea  |ierils,  It 
is  lawful,  reasonable,  ami  juat,  that  he  should  lai  au- 
thorized to  demand  and  rec«lvfl  an  extraordinary  in- 
terest, to  bo  agreed  upon,  ami  which  thn  lender  shall 
deem  conimensurata  to  the  liaxard  Iwt  runs, 

A  liollomry  borul  U  a  hian  of  mmicy  ii(Xin  the  ship 
or  ship  and  accruing  freight,  at  an  iiatra/irdlnary  in- 
terest, u|>ou  mai-itiina  riaka,  U>  im  \Hmm  \iy  the  lender 
for  a  speciQc  voyage,  or  fur  •  ilallnit«  (leriod.    It  U  In 


the  nature  of  a  mutti^t^,  ii^  «ii^  f^  sMp-owner, 
.TT  tlie  master  oii  bis  ^ltAn4(,  *iM)(i">«  «*«  sMp  as  a  se- 
carlty  for  the  mouey  (Aorrwv.  o^,  ^ttt^  U  S(V*i«r«  {!»  freight 
of  the  voyage,  or  liuri'^  #  lj*wf<#4  dW*"/  A  rffpnmkn- 
lilt  lamd  is  a  loan  U|>o«  Hm  iM^  i4  tk*  f iKfgo,  thongh 
an  hyfiothecatlon  of  lw«fe  litip  #*4  ttitxtt  miy  f*  mudn 
in  one  bond ;  ajid  It  i)m»»»(*  #(t  m*M  (ft  i»rt  ef(riitalilo 
lien  on  the  salvage  w  taw  ^'  i,ntt,  'fitg  erm<}\ti<ii,  „f 
the  loan  ;s  tlie  hmCu  »friv.4  t/f  t$m  s*<ij«ct  hypothe- 
cateii,  and  tht  entire  i>riu*ii4f  m  W^fl  H*  iWerest  is  at 
the  risk  of  the  leiuier  ttttmill  ttm  «nirllf(n.-  The  lint- 
t(jmry  holder  uudert«iti««  |t^  titk  i4  i1^  ♦oyngn  ns  to 
the  enuinerateil  jmtjIji,  (Wi*  w*  m  U<  tW*  «h!-h  ^iriso 
from  the  fault  or  i»iww*'r*'i>  i4  ttiti  tUMafeT  or  owner. 
The  money  is  loaueij  w  tfm  h>ff//W^fi  rtjs.n  condition 
that  if  tlie  subjiM*  vMawl  tm  UM  iij/  «  Jieril  of  the 
sea,  the  lender  t>ha«(  m%  im  ffp/ti^t,  A^STJi*  to  the  ex- 
t<int  of  what  reuiawji,  *»<?  if  mi  ***ijisrt  sirrives  sufe, 
or  if  it  shall  not  )j»y«  tmm  ih)ttiti4.-  STWe^*  l>y  Hs  own 
defect,  or  tlie  f»i;lt  «f  rtie  w*ti*f  i/f  miritttt/,  the  I  .or- 
rower  must  return  th"  mm  Wfowevl,  together  wi'h 
tlio  inaritiiue  iuti'Wui  ttJlfuM  Hpi/tt.-  ntsA  tiir  the  rojmy- 
inent  tlie  prrsuu  i>(  tiw  iMffifVrtH'  U  ttfflltxl,  us  will  -is 
tlie  property  pledge/*,  't'Ui*  i*  i^'  ((efitiitfin  of  the 
contract  given  l>y  i'tititwr,  iWii^  H  ##»  fKktU  from  the 
Komuii  laws,  and  btu  *»»w  n4f/p(*^  tif  fctrtetigon,  and 
he  says  the  defiuitiow  U  fiyttl  itt  rtewfly  ffio  same 
terms  liy  all  the  uieritiw*  }«WW..~(4*;«i>'s  f'nm. 

Mark,  or  MarQ,  a  m^kctH  >p»>i  in  several  parts  of 
ICiiroijc,  for  various  f/ttttttt/i/ii(.i«.t;  esirt>ci*|(y  gold  and 
silver.  Ill  I'ruui*,  |l/,w  m/trtf^  **<  rtifvJ'led  info  s  ozs. 
=M  drachms^lW  4mm*  W  (s»yi'tt:»*«ights^;t,'103 
grains,  in  liollaMd,  «*e  imtit  *e1i^  Wks  alsfi  called 
Troy  weiglit,  and  »»s  m>t4t  iti  titift  (4  t/fnlite.  When 
gold  and  silver  *t<t  nM  i>p'  *<#(  mttlif  jt  it  divided  Into 
24  carats. 

The  pound,  or  llftv  /f/it/iH  tl<<  miff,  ttw  weijjht  nio«t 
coininoniy  uaed  Jw  r*it#j(  ^ffAi^i*  <fc*ivrtg1ivmt  I'ranop, 
previous  to  ihx  JieywMJWo  »**  f<\lin\  in  %  m.irc-:,  ami 
consequently  ivutwiMd  W  (».■*.— iH  dri»chins=381 
<bn.=9,ilt>  g.aiiis.  Ow*-  fcJt'.fe^slWfWe  h  nearly  eqiiiil 
to  2  llvres.  SMi4oiw*'4  j*  #  ii^^  nt  ji»re«  palds  ik 
mure,  from  I  to  W,  tiW»'jtrt,»4  WrfiV  Itflojjf^aimmes.  Any 
greater  iiuuiUt  way  M  J*>WW>4  fcy  »  sfwple  miilti;ili- 
catiou  and  addiUoi^, 


livrvt. 
1 

_^ 

fil 

iT  : 

«•!«?« 

2 

-; 

mm 

*««fi 

» 

=- 

»*«J|6 

!  *     - 

tmm 

i 

= 

ji'«^ 

1  *     ^ 

4-*ifi<» 

» 

= 

*■«?# 

'  w     = 

.fvl*! 

Mark,  is  a  tjtim  mmiititm*  mM  tuf  «  rthiney  of  ac- 
count, and  ii.  oime  mttmv*  fnf  *  WiW.-  The  Knglish 
mark  is  jds  of  «  ^tmM  H*ftitltti  '**'  1*>.  ♦<'■ ;  ai,.l  tlie 
Hcotch  murk  is  jdii  »4'  #  WiWWJ  .*»Mch.  The  mark 
l,ul)S,  or  l>ul>e.c  wwfej  11^4  i#  U/tmtmtK^  U  a  money 
of  account,  cijuai  fj>  ;*Vi  f'*w**,-     See  U.Kyittt  RU. 

Market,  a  l><l>ik  lii***'  W  *  eWy  or  town,  where 
provisions  are  sold.  Sm  tmtiiH  js(«(*  Icept  within 
7  miles  of  the  city  »f  f/^ttt  i  trtlt  *((  btrtchor*.  vii  t- 
ualers,  etc.,  may  Uif"  4iliU  Ittlli  s^SdWtJrtffs  in  tlif  flesh- 
markets  there,  m)4  "'W  mint  >M*4  ftthef  provisions. 
livery  person  wko  !**»  #  amii^i  M  etttWIed  fo  receive 
toll  for  tlic  things  t*M  iff  it }  ^ti4  ftf  srncient  cu^tmn, 
for  tilings  rfandjug  W  tim  tmit^iittum^h  not  sold ; 
Imt  those  who  Itaep  #  )H»*%H  Jrt  #«y  other  manner 
than  it  is  gi-aiitedj  W  (e^llv^lt  UAU  If  fees  wt.are  none 
are  due,  forfeit  tli«  am**.-     fiff/  VntHf.- 

Mar«eilie4,  a  lef^  ^wmmff(■M  cft.v  and  soa-port 
t)t  Krunce,  on  the  tf*xiJ|l>W«IWslM,  int.-  isi^  17'  W"  N., 
long.  6"  tH'  a.     t'opHtliifm..  M'ti  HieUiiVmy  suh- 
'  urbs,  195,207.     TiliW  imftx^.-  ♦♦**  iKceMs  to  which  is  de- 
fended l>y  eevef«i>  4fmi  (iliilifAhHii,.  hi  in  the  centre 
I  of  the  city,  forwi»g  «  i/^j^  ffH'^  f.lttumii  in  length,  by 
I  aliout  152  fatUouw  i»  ifff'tt4tii.-     'tfifi  tMa  is  h.irdly 
!  Bcnsible ;  but  tlte  .if^h  l4  »*♦♦*'  irt  (he  entrance  to 
^  the  horlwr  vwilea  (ft>i^  id  Ut  Ui  feet,  lieing  lowest 
I  when  the  wiud  u  mr^-Wii^f  itnA  ki^sl  when  it  ia 


MAR 


1325 


MAR 


]17'  to"  N., 
Iludins?  ^»'i- 
1  whi<h  ir;  i>e- 
Itn  the  contro 
In  Icnjitli,  l>y 
|lo  is  hiirdly 
cntmiKT  to 
l*ing  l"W03t 
1st  when  it  is 


ttouth-vest.  Within  the  biuin,  the  depth  of  water 
mrieH  fro!T!  12  to  24  feet,  Leing  Bhallowost  on  the  north, 
nncl  deepest  on  the  south  side.  Dredging  machines 
are  constantly  at  work  to  clear  out  tho  mud,  and  to 
prevent  tho  harbor  from  filling  up.  Though  not  ac- 
cessible tu  tho  largest  class  of  shipa,  Marseilles  is  one 
of  the  bejt  and  safest  ;  rrts  In  the  world  for  moderate- 
sized  mer''hantmen,  of  which  it  will  accommodate 
abovo  1000,  Ships  in  the  bitsln  lie  close  alongside  the 
quays ;  and  there  is  every  facility  for  ge'  'ing  them 
speedily  loaded  and  unloaded.  The  Isles  ae  Katton- 
eun  and  Pomegues,  and  the  strongly  fortified  islet  or 
rock  of  If,  lie  W,S,W,  from  the  port;  the  latter, 
which  is  the  nearest  to  it,  being  only  If  miles  distant, 
and  not  more  than  }  of  a  mile  from  the  projecting 
point  of  land  to  the  south  of  the  city.  There  is  good 
anchorage  ground  for  men-of-war  and  other  large 
ships  between  the  Isles  de  Kattoneau  and  Pomegues, 
to  tho  west  of  tho  Isle  d'lf,  Wlien  coming  from  the 
south,  it  is  usual  to  make  the  Isle  de  lilanier,  in  lat. 
48°  U'  54"  N.,  long,  6°  l.S'  59"  E.  A  light-houso 
erected  on  this  island  is  131  feet  high ;  the  flashes  of 
the  light,  which  is  a  revolving  one,  succeed  each  other 
every  half  minute,  and  in  clear  weather  it  may  be 
seen  7  leagues  off.  Sliips  thrt  have  made  the  Isle  de 
Planier,  or  that  of  Le  Maire,  lying  east  from  it  about 
4^  miles,  steer  northerly  for  the  Isle  d'lf,  distant  about 
7  miles  from  each,  and  having  got  witliin  ^  or  J  a  mile 
of  it,  licave  to  for  u  pilot,  who  carries  them  into  a  har- 
bor ;  it  is  not,  however,  obligatory  on  ships  to  take  a 
pilot  on  board  j  Imt  being  obliged  to  pay  for  one 
whctlior  they  avail  themselves  of  his  services  or  not, 
they  seldom  dispense  with  them.  Tlie  charge  is  4 
sous  per  ton  in,  and  2  sous  per  ton  out,  for  French 
vessels,  and  the  vessels  having  reciprocity  treaties 
with  France.  Thero  is  a  light-house  in  the  fort  St, 
Jean,  on  the  north  side  of  tlie  entrarce  of  the  port, 
Tho  Itiinretlo,  which  is  one  of  the  best  in  Kurope,  lies 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  city ;  and  there  is  an  hos- 
pital on  Rattoneau  Island,  for  individuals  whose  !>ealth 
is  duliious.  With  the  exception  of  the  above  charge 
for  pilotage,  and  the  charges  for  such  vessels  as  per- 
form quarantine,  there  are  no  port  charges  on  ships 
entering  at  or  clearing  out  from  Marseilles. 

Usages. — As  soon  as  the  master  has,  on  his  arrival, 
made  his  declaration  at  the  Health  Ofilce,  and  received 
pratique,  he  is  directed  to  an  office  close  by,  called  the 
Patache,  where  he  makes  two  similar  declarations, 
the  one  for  the  captain  of  the  port,  and  the  other  for 
the  custom-house;  the  day  and  hour  of  the  latter 
being  made  is  marked,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  the  reg- 
ular manifest  of  his  cargo  is  delivered  at  the  custom- 
bouse  within  24  hours  after,  us  required  liy  law.  As 
soon  as  these  declarations  are  made,  tiie  master  is  ac- 
costed by  one  or  more  public  brokers,  who  alone  are 
authorized  by  law  to  enter  ships  at  tho  custom-house 
and  other  public  offices,  and  to  interpret,  if  it  be  neces- 
sary, for  the  master.  Tho  broker  whom  he  may  select 
then  gives  the  master  all  the  necessary  information 
respecting  the  usages  of  the  port  as  regards  the  ship 
and  cargo,  and  goes  through  all  the  formalities  re- 
specting them  that  the  law  or  local  regulations  require. 
Independent  of  the  regular  manifest  which  it  is  usual 
in  all  ports  for  the  master  to  give  in  to  tlie  custom- 
house, lie  is  here  required  to  give  in  a  full  and  com- 
plete list  of  all  tho  ship's  stores,  provisions,  etc,  that 
he  has  on  board  for  bis  own  use,  and  that  of  his  crew ; 
and  he  can  not  be  too  carefu^to  make  this  list  as  cor- 
rect as  possible,  as  when  it  is  subsequently  verified  on 
board  by  tho  custom-house  and  excise  officers,  any 
variation  subjects  the  ship  to  penalties,  Tliis  is  par- 
ticularly the  case  with  tobacco,  v;hich,  being  a  gov- 
ernment monopoly,  is  watched  with  the  greatest  vigi- 
lance. All  the  tobacco  on  board  over  that  which  the 
crow  have  in  their  chests  for  their  own  use,  must  be 
declared,  and  any  attempt  at  concealment  or  smug- 
gling ii  visited  witlt  heavy  fines.    When  the  ship 


sails,  tho  stores,  provisions,  etc.,  are  again  examined, 
and  an  excise  duty  cliarged  on  siicli  prii\  isioiis  and 
otlier  excisable  articles  as  may  liave  been  consumed 
in  tlie  port.  No  lire  or  liglit  is  allowed  on  liourd,  and 
the  cooking  is  all  done  on  shore.  Klarsuilles  is  u  city 
of  great  antiquity,  and  lias  long  enjoyed  a  very  ex- 
tensive commerce,  Havre,  partly,  no  doubt,  from  lis 
being,  as  it  were,  the  port  of  Paris,  used  to  enjoy  a 
greater  share  of  tho  trade  of  France;  but,  notwith- 
standing the  increased  importance  of  the  former,  it  liua 
recently  been  surpassed  l)y  Marscillcd. 

This  statement  shows  conclusively  that  tho  trade 
of  Marseilles  is  not  only  increasing,  but  that  it  is  al- 
ready very  extensive.  She  is  the  grand  emporium  of 
the  south  of  Franco,  and  the  centre  of  Mine-tenllis  of 
her  commerce  with  the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean 
and  Ulack  Sea,  The  exports  consist  principully  of 
silk  stuffs,  wines,  brandies,  and  liquors;  woolens  and 
linens;  madder,  oil,  soap,  refined  sugar,  perfumery, 
stationery,  verdigris,  and  all  sorts  of  colonial  products. 

7>a<i«  o/1857. — "There  has  been  no  important  va- 
riation in  tlie  trade  with  tho  United  Kingdom,  tiie  ba- 
sis of  which  continues  to  be  the  importation  from  thence 
of  coal  and  iron,  and  the  exportation  thereto  of  mad- 
ders and  oil-cake,  with  some  general  assorted  cargoes 
of  French  produce,  and  such  other  articles  as  may  llnd 
advantage  in  the  respective  markets  of  either  country. 
The  quantity  of  coal  imported  in  British  ships  has  lieen 
about  21,000  tons,  and  in  foreign  48,000;  and  about 
7000  tons  of  iron  in  English  ships. 

"Tlio  exportation  of  madders  to  the  United  King- 
dom  has  amounted  to  <!2U0  casks  and  3100  bales,  iind 
1700  casks  of  garancine.  This  trade  has  partaken  of 
the  general  depression  which  was  felt  especially  during 
the  last  autimin,  and  which  is  shown  liy  the  large  iiinii- 
l)er  or  English  ships  which  have  been  obliged  to  sail 
in  Imllast,  amounting  to  153,  the  major  part  on  account 
of  being  unable  to  find  any  employment,  and  tho  con- 
sequent  reduction  of  freights  to  n  losing  rate, 

"Tlio  importation  of  wlieat  has  f!iven  employment 
to  about  110  ships,  which  include  almost  all  tlic  )lal- 
tese  anil  Ionian  vessels ;  and  ,33  steam  vessels  have  ar- 
rived  with  tlie'Tndian  and  Australian  mails,  and  have 
brought  about  10,000  Imlns  of  silk  ;  and  34  have  sailed 
with  those  mails,  and  have  exported  from  hence  about 
£3,000,000  ill  specie,  principally  in  silver,  for  various 
ports  of  India  anil  China. 

"At  the  port  of  Toulon  fifteen  British  ships  havo 
arrived,  wliereof  seven  with  coal  ami  t\io  with  coal 
and  iron  from  tho  I'liitcil  Kingdom,  tliree  with  ship 
timber  .'  'in  tlio  Unitid  States,  one  witli  wheat  from 
Franco,  one  with  hemp  from  Venice,  and  one  in  iml- 
last; and  the  same  havo  sailed — one  with  preserved 
in>;at3  for  Liverpool,  one  witli  salt  for  QuSbec,  one  with 
coal  for  Marseilles,  and  twelve  in  ballast. 

"At  the  port  of  Cettn  fifteen  British  ships  havo  ar- 
rived, whereof  eight  from  the  I'nitcd  Kingdom  with 
coals,  tlirco  from  \'enioe  and  Alexandria  with  corn, 
and  four  in  liallast;  and  fifteen  lune  sailed,  wliereof 
eight  with  ciirgooa  of  Krencli  produce  for  the  Baltic, 
Uio  Janeiro,  and  Quclicc,  and  seven  in  ballast, 

"As  regards  the  foreign  trade  nt  the  port  of  Mar- 
seilles, I  regret  that  it  is  not  in  my  power  to  transmit, 
as  I  have  usually  done,  a  return  of  the  amount  of  the 
principal  articles  of  inipovt  and  export  during  the  year, 
as  tho  custom-Iionso  has  unexjicctedly  ceased  to  pub- 
lish it,  and  it  is  impossible  to  procure  it  from  any  other 
source,  Tlie  total  number  of  ships  of  all  descriptions 
which  have  irrived  during  tho  year  has  amoiinfed  to 
10,104;  tonnage,  1,67.3,772  tons;  being  585  sliips  and 
135,595  tons  less  than  in  the  ya»r  185G. 

"There  has  been  a  considerable  falling  off  in  tho 
trade  and  commerce  of  Marseilles,  especially  during 
the  last  quarter  of  1857;  tho  custom-house,  which 
vieldeu,  in  1850,  £1,450,000,  has  only  given  £1,382,000 
in  1857,  and  a  great  etagnation  prevails  in  all  the 


I 


MAR 


1828 


MAR 


lirnnflioiioffrndottml  \ni\\MTy."—nritiah  ComulTntm- 
Hiii.t's  Ufpo'i,  April  (!,  18S8. 

We  arc  unnhia  to  lay  before  the  reader  any  very 
recent  account  of  the  import  and  export  trade  of  Mar- 
nclilcK.  We  liellevo,  however,  that  the  value  of  the 
llmt  was,  in  1H63,  entimatetl  at  altout  200,000,000  fknncn, 
and  that  of  the  exports  at  al>out  as  much.  For  in- 
forinntinn  aa  to  money,  wei(;ht.i,  meanures,  dutien,  etc., 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Fiiancr  and  Havrk,  under 
wlili^li  heads  he  will  And  an  account  of  the  trade  of 
t'riinco. 

The  trade  of  Marteillen  has  Iwen  much  Increased  by 
the  occupation  of  Algiers,  she  being  the  f^rand  centre 
of  the  intercourse  carried  on  with  that  country.  But 
indo|>endently  of  this  circumstance,  MameiUes  en- 
grosses by  far  the  largest  share  of  the  extensive  coro- 
nicrco  carried  on  between  France  and  the  east  coast  of 
Spain,  Ita!>-  Greece,  and  the  I,evant.  See  FbXncb. 
Maitlu.so,  or  Martinique,  one  of  the  French 
West  India  Islands,  in  the  windward  group,  Iwtween 
lat.  1|0  24'  and  U°  63'  N.,  and  long.  C0°  60'  and  61° 
1«'  W.  Population,  1850,  121,14S.  It  is  mountain- 
ous, and  contains  several  extinct  volcanoes ;  the  nu- 
merous small  rivers  are  used  to  turn  sugar-mills. 
About  one  quarter  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  dense 
furests.  Soil  fertile,  but  only  one  fifth  of  the  super- 
ficies is  cultivated.  Chief  pro<lucts,  sugar,  coffee,  and 
ciicao.  This  island,  called  by  the  natives  Madluna, 
«  us  discovered  by  tlie  Spaniards  in  1493.  The  French 
founded  a  colony  on  it  in  1686.  It  was  taken  by  the 
F.uglish  in  I'tii,  but  resigned  In  1703 ;  tliey  again  oc 
cupied  it  from  1794  to  1809,  and  it  was  finally  given 
up  to  Franco  in  1814.  The  capital  of  the  colony  is 
I'ort  Koyal,  but  St.  Pierre  is  the  most  populous  town 
and  the  centre  of  commerce.  The  Island  is  nearly 
at)  miles  in  length  by  about  16  in  breadth,  and  com- 
prehends an  area  of  360  square  milei.  Tlio  surface 
is  uneven,  and  intersected  in  all  parts  by  steep  and 
rugged  rocks.  Piton  de  Corbr^t,  one  of  the  highest, 
is  about  812  feet  above  klio  level  of  the  sea.  The 
sliapo  of  this  calcareous  bill  resembles  a  cone,  and 
it  is  on  thift  account  vcr/  difScu'.t  of  access.  The 
palm-trees  w^ith  which  it  is  covered,  become  more  lofty 
1111(1  abundant  near  the  summit,  and  the.^e  continuallj- 
attruct  the  clouds,  which  occasion  noxious  damps,  and 
cuntributo  to  render  it  moro  rugged  In  apjiearance,  and 
morn  dangerous  to  ascend.  There  are  also  two  other 
mountains  conspicuous  from  their  elevation,  and  from 
these,  particularly  from  the  fir&t,  descend  numerous 
streams,  which  irrigate  the  island,  Martinique  is 
better  supplied  with  water,  and  less  exposed  to  hurri- 
canes than  Guadaloupc,  while  the  productions  are 
nearly  the  same.  Of  75,321  hectares,  the  superficial 
area  of  the  island,  17,622  are  employed  in  raising 
sugar-cane,  3861  in  coflfce,  719  in  cocoa,  491  in  cotton, 
17,191  arn  pasturage,  niid  19,997  are  woods.  The  an- 
nual production  is  valued  at  21,000,000  francs.  In 
1824  the  Isluiid  consumed  French  products  to  the  val- 
ue of  16,000,000  francs,  and  exported  to  the  mother 
country  goods  to  the  amount  of  18,000,000  francs. 
The  tonnage  engaged  in  this  commerce  amounted  to 
33,500  tons.  The  revenue  in  1823,  was  4,000,000 
francs.  The  commerce  of  Martinique  has  continued 
nearly  the  same  since  the  period  at  which  the  above 
estimate  was  made. 

Port  Itoyul,  the  capital  and  seat  of  the  courts  of 
justice  of  Martinique,  is  situated  on  one  of  the  several 
bays  «'hii'h  Indent  the  island,  and  ))03sess  one  of  the 
safest  and  most  capacious  harbors  in  the  West  Indies, 
or  oven  in  the  world. 

The  commercial  relations  of  Martinique  and  Guada- 
loupc are  regulated  b^hc  roj-al  decree  of  February 
5,  1826,  and  by  such  other  decrees  as  have  subse- 
quently been  promulgated.  Foreign  and  national 
ships  may  import  Into  all  oiicn  ports  of  the  islands  (in 
Martinique,  the  ports  of  St.  Pierre,  Port  Royal,  and 
Trinity ;  in  Guodoloupe,  Moule,  I.a  Basseterre,  and 


Potn-i-Pitre ;  and  In  Marlegalante,  or  Orandlioarj, 
the  prlncl|>al  town  and  only  port  of  the  island),  arti- 
cles of  merchandise  enumerated  In  the  following  tariff; 

TAairr  roa  all  Flaos,  National  and  FoaiiaH. 
DtDomliuiUnn  uf  mtreb.      Nu.,  w«l|btortii«uuH.       Rait  of  duly. 

Animals,  llTlng 10  per  ct  ad  rtL 

Iteef.talL 100  klloL=WO  Ibi.      |j|  Su  4-ft 

CodOtbih  other  salt  flsh.      "  >'  1  80  l-A 

Indian  oorn.  In  grain....!  bect=:'J  4-5 bush.  87  l-A 

Vogotablei,  dried "  "  64  41! 

Rice UO  Ibi.         1  80  1-5 

Halt "  B8 

Tobacco 7  per  ct.  til  val. 

Iloop-polos 1,000      11  an 

( In  Ibr.  ships,  ti" 


'o-Oo. 


Wlao,  foreign, 1  hoot =80 gals..  ( i„  „,(_ 

titoneoaal....'. 220  Ibi.      |0  09 

By  decree  of  March  10,  1856,  salted  provisions 
(meats)  of  every  description  pay  only  6  I  centimes 
(0'8  cents)  per  100  kilogrammes.  Wood  of  all  sorts, 
other  than  hoop-poles  j  tar,  pitch,  and  other  extracts 
of  pine,  etc. ;  hides,  with  the  hair  on ;  forage,  green 
and  dry ;  table  fruits,  and  seeds,  pay  4  per  cent,  ad 
valorem. 

No.  2. — Free  of  IhiUj. — Ammonia,  nnpulverizcd ; 
animal  substances  used  In  medicine  and  pei-fiiinery : 
bones  and  horns  of  animals ;  cassia ;  cochineal ;  cocoa- 
sheila  ;  copper ;  elephants'  teeth ;  fats,  except  of  fish ; 
ginger ;  gloves ;  gums ;  indigo ;  .lesults'  bark ;  kernies ; 
lac ;  load ;  medicinal  balsams,  juices,  roots,  barks, 
herbs,  leaves,  and  flowers ;  motlier-of-poarl ;  nutmegs ; 
peltries ;  pepper ;  [lotash ;  quercitron  ;  rocou ;  rushes 
and  reeds  ;  seeds  hard  to  be  crushed  ;  skins,  drj-  and  un- 
dressed ;  sumach  ;  tin,  unwrought  i  tortoise-shell,  tur- 
meric ;  vanilla ;  vegetables,  green  j  M'ux,  not  worked ; 
whale  fins ;  wooils,  o<lorlferous,  dye,  and  cabinet.  For- 
eign vessels  importing  the  almve  enumerated  mer- 
chandise are  subjected  to  no  other  port  charges,  light- 
house and  tonnage  duties,  than  are  levied  on  French 
vessels.  All  goods  not  enumerated  in  the  above  tar- 
iff, ond  imported  ftom  foreign  countries,  either  in  for- 
eign  or  french  bottoms,  are  liable  to  confiscation. 

The  articles  enumerated  in  lists  Nos.  1.  and  2,  as 
well  as  all  articles  Imported  from  France,  may  lie  le- 
exported,  duty  free,  from  one  colony  to  another,  hut 
only  in  French  vessels ;  on  condition,  however,  that 
the  importer  of  merchandise  contained  in  list  No.  1 
proves  that  the  duties  have  been  discharged  in  the 
colony  of  original  importation.  Foreign  vessels,  n.i 
well  as  F'rench,  may  export,  duty  free,  to  foreifjn 
countries,  articles  lmporte<l  into  tho  two  colonies, 
whether  from  Franco  or  elsewhere  ;  but  these  e?  port- 
utions  can  only  l)e  allowed  from  the  poi  ts  opcni  d  by 
the  ordinance  of  February  5,  182(1,  for  the  importation 
of  merchandise  enumerated  in  lists  1  and  2..  Foroi);n 
flour  may  be  imported  (if  necessity  or  urgency  mithnr- 
ues  the  importation)  for  a  fixed  duty  of  i?:l  91.2  per 
80  kilogrammes,  or  177^  lbs. ;  but  then  It  can  only  ho 
done  if  a  special  order  by  the  governor  permittini;  tho 
importation  has  been  issued,  which  allowaiico  will 
never  extend  tieyond  tho  term  of  three  months. 

Maryland,  one  of  the  central  United  States,  lies  be- 
tween 38°  and  39°  4-1'  N.  lat.,  and  between  75°  10'  nnd 
79°  21'  W.  long.  It  is  196  miles  long  and  120  liroad, 
containing  11,000  square  miles.  Population  In  ITIiO, 
319,728  i  in  1800,  34o,t'24 ;  in  1810,  3S0,,5-16 ;  in  ISiO, 
407,.SS0  i  in  1880,  446,913 ;  in  1840,  469,232 ;  and  In 
1850.  .583,0,15. 

Early  History  nf  Maryland. — In  tho  year  1GI!2  King 
Charles  I.  gave  a  chart»r  to  Cecilius  Calvert,  Lord 
Birttimore,  and  granted  to  him  a  tract  of  land  lyinf,'  in 
that  peninsula,  between  the  ocean  and  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  round  the  northern  extremities  of  tliat  same 
bay,  and  ordered  this  land  to  lie  called  "  Maryland," 
in  honor  to  tho  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  the  consort  of 
Charles  I.  She  was  of  the  Catholic  religion,  like  Lord 
Baltimore  himself,  and  likewise  the  greater  part  of 
the  settlers  which  he  carried  out.  The  name  appears 
for  the  first  time  in  the  charter  of  Mar}-Iand  of  the  20th 


1*0  Potomi 
Virginia,  is  35 
miles  to  Wash 
mouth.    The 


MAR 


nm 


MAR 


Jane,  ini)2.  It  In  poaalhle  thiit  I.onl  Baltlmora  and 
hU  aanoriiiti'D,  in  |im|Miiilii);  to  tho  kiriK  <hut  name,  had 
iilau  lit  the  .iiiina  time  the  old  8|iaiil»li  mnjiii  of  North 
Amcrlnn  Iwfore  their  eyen,  on  which  ''howpeulca  Uay 
la  called  "St.  MiiryV  Uay  "  (ttahin  ih  /ianin  Maria)  And 
thnt  thny  had  a  dnalrn  tn  carry  It'  .  .  to  thia  l>ay  that 
old  and  hintoriciil  name.  It  may  l>e  a  more  accident 
tliat  tlie  nuinn  Maria  was  aa  wuli  in  modem  aa  in  an- 
cient tiinea  applied  to  the  anme  regions,  Huf  hat  we 
call  accident  in  hiatory  la  often  aecretly  iinitod  together 
iiy  an  aanocintlon  of  ideaa  which  eacapea  our  roKearch. 
Othora  think  that  the  Calverta  and  their  aasociatoa, 
and  their  Catholic  mlaaionarlea,  who  explored  and 
nettled  tho  territory  of  Maryland,  thought,  in  k'^'^K 
thia  name,  oxcluaivelr  of  the  Queen  Henrietta  Maria 
iind  not  at  all  of  tho  Holy  Virgin,  It  waa  amon)( 
Spaniards  and  French,  and  anioiin  all  Catholic  colon- 
ists and  discoverers,  very  customary  to  -ow  a  new 
country  or  place,  to  whicii  tliey  gave  a  n  imo  in  honor 
of  some  person,  at  the  aaniu  time  to  tho  protection  of 
that  saint  which  liore  thn  same  name.  They  would, 
for  instance,  call  n  place  named  after  Christopher  Co- 
lumlma,  not  " Ohristophoro,"  ■  -t  "St,  Christophoro," 
l>ecauso  they  thouglit  at  op  .e  ,  well  of  the  man  aa  of 
his  protecting  saint.  T'lat  something  similiir  was 
going  on  at  the  l)aptism  of  Maryland  k  jms  not  un- 
likely, from  the  circumstance  tiiat  the  (Irst  principal 
settlement  of  Maryland  waa  called  Nl.  Mary,  ar.d  that 
this  settlement,  as  well  as  tho  surrounding  country,  is 
so  called  to  tills  day.  I'lio  fact  that  tho  old  forgotten 
name  Mary,  in  later  times,  returned  to  tlie  same  re- 
gions, appeara  one  of  the  so-called  "  curious  coiuci- 
(Icnccs  In  history  wortliy  to  be  pointed  out." — J.  O. 
Koiri,. 


Phijiical  Ftalun;  tic — tjiatern  Maryland,  or  that 
part  of  tiir  l-ttate  eaat  of  the  Cliesapeuko  Hay,  Is  nmstly 
level.  The  country  on  tho  west  sliore  to  tlio  head  of 
the  tidea  ia  similar  to  the  eastern  shore ;  the  soil  of 
thia  portion  ia  :>  aerally  fertile,  producing  wheat, 
Indian  corn,  toliacco,  etc.  Aliovo  the  tidea  tl:e  surface 
ritea  into  liills,  anil  the  weatern  part  attatna  un  ele- 
vated region,  being  crossed  liy  tho  Alleghuiiy  Mount- 
ains. Tho  western  jiart  coutaina  much  lino  land, 
lulaptcd  liotli  to g.uln  and  graxing.  Kxtenaive  beds  of 
coal  and  Iron  ore  ixiat,  Tliero  were  in  this  State  i'l 
1H50,  2,797,1)05  acre  <  of  improved  land,  and  l,83G,4-'5 
of  unimproved  land,  In  farms ;  cash  value  of  farms, 
$87,178,515;  and  the  value  of  implements  and  mo- 
chlnery,  I5i'j,4(i3,4  ill. 

Live  iV<o<'*.— Horses,  ''5,084 ;  aties  and  mulea,  5044  j 
milch  cows,  80,861))  working  o.ten,  a4,lH5;  other 
cattle,  98,51)5 ;  sheep,  17'i  ,902 ;  swine,  «5.!,911.  Value 
of  live  stock,  i!l7,9fl7,0;i4. 

Agriailliiral  I'roilnrta,  /c— Wheat,  4,494,080  iiush- 
els  j  rye,  220,014 ;  Indi  ui  corn,  ll,104,C;il ;  oats, 
1,242,161  J  Imrloy,  745;  In  ckwheat,  103,071  j  peas  and 
beans,  12,810 ;  potiktoes,  704,1)39 ;  sweet  potatoes, 
208,993.  Value  of  produc  s  of  the  orchard,  J)  0-1,051. 
Produce  of  market  gardens  isi2flO,80U.  I'  unds  of  but- 
ter nuide,  3,800,180;  of  c  icese,  3975;  maple  sugar, 
47,710;  molasses,  1  IDi)  galliins ;  bees'  wax  and  honey, 
74,802  pounds  ;  wool,  poun  Is  produced,  480,220  ;  (lax, 
35,080;  silk  cocoons.  39 ;  lups,  1870;  tobacco,  21, 407,- 
497  |H)unds ;  hay,  tons  of,  157,950 ;  clover  seeds, 
16,217  bnsliels ;  (jtlier  grass  i  cods,  2501 ;  llax  seed, 
2440  linsiicls ;  and  were  made  1431  gallons  of  wine. 
Value  of  honie-niado  manufactures,  $111,828 ;  of 
slaughtered  anlnmls,  1,05-1,800. 


FoilEION 

CosiaERCF  or  xnii  SrAxa  or  Makvlahd,  kbom  OnTonaa  1,  Isao,  to  July  1,  1858. 

YMnendbg 

EiporU, 

ImporU. 

T.iiinajo 

cl=«r>-d. 

Dlilrici 

TotuiRtn. 

DoniMlk. 

FoF^Ign. 

Tou). 

Tout. 

Amerlmn. 

Foreign. 

Regliland. 

linr.  Ili-il  iiiij 
Uc<-n>oil. 

8ept  80,  Wil 

(2,714,850 

(i,i;ja,M4 

♦8,S60,S94 

(4,II7(',.S42 

6I,6'>7 

1       4,877 

48,012            80,244 

\»ii 

8,41W,9!W 

1,039,803 

4,,'W6,798 

4,79-',4S6 

59,790 

'       9,169 

18-.'8 

4,17.1,113 

1,8.57.|I8 

6,ll!10,22a 

4.948,179 

62,911 

7.815 

1S24 

8,M1),!1,M 

l,31H,i78 

4,S8:1,28;1 

4,M  1,842 

7(1,610 

8,017 

.... 

Wis 

8,09i,3tl5 

1,-108,939 

4,5()1,;104 

4,751,818 

86,228 

:i,ta5 

....       1 

16^8 

2,1147,^2 

l,06:),-896 

4,oli),748 

4,92i,.5ri9 

82,212 

2,931 

1S27 

i),45r,(191 

1,058,715 

4,516,406 

4,4OT,708 

87,4:!() 

4,191     1      .... 

is-is 

8,107,819 

1,228,808 

4,*)4,422 

6,629,894 

59,.5:I2 

8,881 

182D 

8,082,278 

1,142,192 

4,804,465 

4,sil4.|:l6 

,'>4,9>:l 

8,890 

I'JOO 

Total.... 

ii,o;5,ua5 

715,497 

8,791.492 

4,,52:),S88 

,55,020 

S,S86 

»i)3,a7s,397 

HI,961,0Sl 

(45,289,478 

(47,404,936 

022,403 

56,102 

8ept.80,1S81  

♦8,7;ln,.^n(i 

(579,141 

(4,808.847 

(4,928,577 

66,870 

10.276 

2^959 

47,953 

1S!H 

«,oir),s73 

1,484,045 

4,499,918 

4,629,3(13 

49,3^0 

1.5,6»9 

1*« 

8,!K)1,UI4 

761,45:) 

4,062.467 

6,487,ll,'i7 

47,181 

25,499 

1834 

8,012,108 

1,1M,B87 

4,168,216 

4,6J7,4S:| 

41,7(12 

17,«.50 

1S35 

8,17«,S6« 

7-tS,88.9 

8,926,234 

5,647,1,V3 

4,5.-)98 

18,526 

1S86 

8,028,1)18 

C.K1..559 

8,676,476 

7,181,887 

89,418 

18,507 

1H8I 

8,311.5,178 

424,744 

3,789,917 

7,557,033 

.S9.UI5 

.8.5,799 

1888 

4,18,\188 

3,59,407 

4,624,.576 

5,701,869 

M,421 

22,(185 

1889 

4,8I,8,IS9 

288,872 

4.576,561 

699,5,285 

49,298 

19..V)8 

1840 

Total.... 

5,495.1120 

273,748 

5,788.788 

4.910.748 

87,7 1» 

2,5.648 



»80,604,483 

(8,893,874 

(4.3,299,8117 

(57,7*4,378 

495,979 

209,891 

8cpt,80,lWl 

(4,780,180 

(169,006 

(4,917,186 

(6,101,313 

6.1,858 

23,699 

41,935 

64,920 

1842 

4,«!15,5fl7 

269,259 

4,904,788 

4,417,079 

81,417 

21,280 

.... 

Omos.      1W3 

2,920,214 

195,842 

3,01,^556 

2,479,1.32 

41.473 

15,481 

Juno  80,1844 

4,841,950 

291,218 

M83,188 

:),917,7oO 

69,834 

21,206 

1845 

4,94«,2!17 

275,740 

5,221.977 

3,74I,S)4 

69,718    1 

22,842 

1S4« 

8,744,1 10 

124,945 

6869,056 

4,042,915 

S3,4li4 

80.887 

1947 

9,6:12,880 

129,'«4 

9,762.244 

4,4.92,314 

114.802 

66,223 

184H 

7,018,034 

113,749         7,129,782 

6,:i43,643 

81,709 

86,221 

1849 

7,786,895 

218,986        8,IHHI,080 

4,976,731 

119,278 

81,852 

1850 

Total.... 

6,539,481 

877,872        0,907,353 

8,124,2(11 

89,296 

37,628 

$59,801,748 

(2,'.49,977  j  (61,951,725 

(A'-'T^s-^l    1 

801,818    j 

295,3*7 

Jane  80, 1951 

$5,41 6,798 

(218,988  j    (,5,(V)5,780 

(6650.845 

75,406 

80,393 

96,675 

108,300 

\«a 

8.514,641 

158,220        6,887,861 

6.719,986 

88,806 

42,637 

135.? 

7,788,224 

I38,2.'W        7,906,159 

6..3:i0,(i78 

87,219 

68,879 

1S.M 

11,6,'»,250 

127,882  1    11,782,632 

6,7S7,r^52 

138,.5-?4    1 

64.750 

1858 

9,882,219 

618,766  1    10,39.5,9-'4 

7,78S949 

111,098    1 

47,494 

1856 

19,850,637 

264,761  1    11,121,898 

9,119,907 

118,872 

40,4-39    1      .... 

"flie  Potomac  River,  which  divides  the  State  from 
Virginia,  ia  350  miles  long,  and  navigable  about  150 
miles  to  Washington  city.  It  ia  7^  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth.    The  great  falls  are  U  miles  above  Washing- 


ton ;  the  perpendicular  descent  is  76  feet,  and  tlie  rap- 
ids extend  for  several  miles  up  the  river,  and  form  a 
very  picturesriuo  view.  The  Susquehanna  is  n  largo 
river  which  enters  into  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  in 


MAR 


1828 


MAS 


thin  Statu.  It  In  U  ">"<*"  wl*!"  *t  It*  ninuth,  l>ut  Is 
imvl)(iil>lo  only  6  miles,  hcInK  k'x'Vo  timt  iiiiuh  oli- 
struituil  l>>  fails  ami  rapMH,  Tho  I'atiipscu  In  a  small 
rlv«r,  iiikvittalile,  liowevnr,  M  miles  to  llnltiiiiurn  for 
•lil|is.  The  i'atuxeiit  is  110  mllns  ImiKi  »iiil  Is  navi- 
gMi  for  M  milns  for  vessels  of  'iM  tons.  'I'lio  other 
rivers  aro  I'.lk,  HasuMlVas,  Choster,  (Mioptiiiik,  Niinti- 
cok«,  anil  I'oconioki'.  The  (^'hesapeiikn  Hay  Is  'ill)  miles 
loni;,  an<l  fnmi  70  to  '20  wiile,  iinil  liy  its  nuniuroiia 
inlets  furnishes  many  line  liarlmrs. 

MiiHu/nrtnrin,  tic. — 'I'herB  were  in  tho  State  in  186(t, 
88  cotton  factories,  witli  a  ca|iital  iiivxtvil  of  |'2,'.MH,- 
OUO,  om|iloyiuK  1''21'^  males  anil  WM>  IViniili's ;  proiluots 
valueil  at  i^°2,0'21 ,8UII ;  18  woolen  fAvtorioH,  with  u  vap- 
Ital  of  $2&H,100,  employing  'iM  males  anil  Kit)  fumnies ; 
priHiiii'ts  valueil  at  t81l>,'J  10  j  l!lestal>lishments  making 
plK  iron,  with  n  Capital  of  i|l,0.'l,'l,r)00,  enipliiyinK  1851 
persons,  proiIucinK^8,lMI  tons  of  pig  Iron,  «to,,  valueilat 
IJill,0'IH,2.'iU ;  10  eatuhilshnicnts,  with  a  I3upit«l  of  ii>8fi0,- 
100,  employing  701  persons,  and  making  0214  tons  of 
canting  I'tr.,  ilueil  at  i|i(iNr>,000  ;  17  estaiili^hnients, 
with  It  rupital  of  l$7HO,050,  employinK  bdtt  (Hirsons, 
mannfiu'turing  10,000  tuns  of  wtuiight  iron,  vaiueil  at 
Iii771,'t81 ;  8t)J  flouring  ami  grist  mills  ;  180  saw  mills; 
110  tanneries,  with  a  capital  of  iiiU2H,lH)0,  employing 
479|iersons;  value  of  proilucts,  ifil, 108,181);  uO  print- 
ing-offices ;  6  daily,  4  trUweekly,  M  weekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  '2  mouthly  publications.  'I'horo  were  in 
tills  Stale  (.lanuary,  18uU)  8  railroads,  with  400  miles 
of  road  llnisheil  and  In  operation,  unil  80  miles  in 
course  of  coustruction,  Tho  (Jhesupcake  and  Ohio 
Canal,  IH I  miles  long,  is  mostly  In  this  State.  Ca|)- 
ital  invostcd  in  manufactures,  4il4, 76.1,148;  value  of 
maniifiictured  articles,  ij(.'l'.',477,702. 

'I'lie  principal  places  In  the  iStato  are  Ualtlmoro,  tho 
metropolis;  Anna|iolls,  the  capital;  Havre  ile  Urace, 
Frederick,  llagurKtown,and  Cunilierland,  There  were 
(.lanuary,  1H54)  23  banks,  with  an  aggregate  cosh 
capital  of  {!'J,,'i5H,401l,  The  ex|>orts  of  Maryland  In 
ltt62  of  domestic  produce  In  American  vessels  amounted 
to  the  value  of  1^,801,01)2 ;  in  foreign  vessels,  $2,122,- 
949.  Foreign  produce  in  American  vessels,  l|tl20,129 ; 
in  foreign  vessels,  iji8H,0l)l.  Total  value,  .|«,C07,e01. 
The  ini|K)rts  same  year  In  American  vessels  amounted 
to  $i5,02l),114  ;  in  foreign  vessels,  $1,099,872.  Total, 
<iO,71!),«««.      Tonnage,  1852,  201,180. 

For  History,  Finances,  etc.,  of  Maryland,  see  Am, 
Uiiar.,  ix.,  488;  Hunt's  May.,  v.,  60;  Jiank.  Mag.,  i., 
894;  Jo.  iSc,  xxvii.,  1 ;  Vr.  How's  Hei:,  x.,  645. 

The  principal  port  is  Baltimore,  situated  on  tho  north 
eiile  of  tho  I'utapsco  Kiver,  alwut  14  miles  above  Its 
entrance  into  the  Chesapeake  Day,  in  hit.  39°  17'  N., 
long.  76°  80'  W.  Tho  harbor  Is  spacious  ond  conve- 
nient, and  the  water  deep.  Its  tonnage  in  1856  amount- 
ed to  183,344  tons.  In  the  liscal  )ear,  1856-0,  there 
were  built  at  this  port,  12  ships,  8  barks,  48  scliooners, 
8  sloops,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  15,898  tons. 

Annaiiolis,  city,  port  of  entrj-,  and  capital  of  Marj-- 
land,  on  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  at  the  entrance  of  Sev- 
ern Kiver.  The  State  House  is  remarkable  as  the 
building  in  which  the  American  Congress,  during  the 
rc\'i>1iitiunary  war,  held  some  of  Its  sessions.  The 
Semite  Chamber,  which  witnessed  tho  last  scene  of  the 
great  drama  of  tlie  Kevolutioii,  Washington's  resigna- 
tion of  his  commission  to  tho  Congress,  has  been  pre- 
served unaltered.  The  Unite<l  States'  Naval  Academy, 
at  Fort  Severn,  hag  7  jirofessors,  and  70  midshipmen 
as  students.  Tonnage  of  the  port  in  1850, was  1882  tons. 

Numlicr  of  vessels  built,  and  their  tonnage,  in  the 
State  of  Maryland,  during  the  year  ending  J  vme  30, 1850 : 


DliCric-t. 

Hl>l|»  t 
bnrki. 

Urlgl. 

Sohrion-  Sloop,  A 
ttrt.      cuuu  b'u 

ToUl 
No. 

toniuge. 

Baltimore  . . 

Oxford 

Vienna...... 

Bnow  Hill. 
Annapolis . . 

la 

8 

48 

26 

83 

T 

i 

8 

«6 
25 
88 
7 
8 

15,898 

2,001 

1,920 

469 

183 

Totd..... 

IS 

i 

no 

8 

188 

19,918 

MAMaOhuiatU,  one  of  the  riwtarn  ITnltad  States, 
lies  lietwoen  H  '  '28'  and  42°  52'  north  Int.,  and  lie- 
twcen  09°  UO'  and  78"  llll'  west  Uing.  It  Is  about  IIM) 
miles  long,  with  an  averagu  brimilth  nf  90  miles,  ami 
rontalns  I'i'iO  sipiare  milos.  I'npulatlon  In  17911  was 
1)8H,7'27;  in  1800,  4'22,84fi ;  in  1810,472,010;  In  iNjn, 
5'2a,'287  ;  In  WM,  010,408 ;  in  1840,  787,099 ;  ami  in 
1850,  094,409. 

A'nr/y  /litlmti. — The  llrst  and  most  aniiont  imines 
whlrli  were  given  by  historians  to  the  territory  of  the 
.State  of  Massachusetts  were  more  or  less  the  xiiiiiu 
with  those  of  Maine,  ami  we  need  not  re|i<'at  tliem 
here.  I'he  namo  "  /,«  i.'iili:  ilfH  .I/hi"«i7(iV/«ii'»"  (iho 
Coast  of  tho  Aliiiiiuchii|Uois  Indians),  which  the  French 
introduced,  and  whicli  the  Dutch  geographers  fre- 
quently i'li.ingeil  to  "  ]'/ie  hiiul  iiJ'.Uiiiiithiliiiint"  ciiv- 
ored  particularly  the  whole  extent  of  Massachusutti. 
This  latter  name  was  llrst  intnHluccd  by  the  Knglish 
navigators  and  explorers.  The  word  is  said  to  be  cnui- 
posed  of  the  Indian  wonls  .I/us  (. I /voirAnii/^  ami  ItV- 
liiait  (hill).  The  pure  and  correct  orthography  of  Hie 
coin|iuund  word  Is  from  this  said  to  be  .Mumveliiiiel,  tlio 
lilil  in  the  shape  of  nn  arrowhead.  The  king  of  uu 
Indian  tribe  Is  said  to  have  resided  on  such  a  bill  near 
the  shores  of  Massachusetts  Hay,  and  Ills  tribe  of  In- 
dians received  from  this,  tho  namo  "  Tlif  /nilinii.i  of 
Momittlniel,  The  name  is  alreaily  montiiineil  liy  Cap- 
tain .'ohn  Smith  under  the  year  1010.  llo  writes  it 
,MiUimihii»ii.  In  the  early  times,  tliii  name  was,  lum- 
ever,  corruptoil  in  many  difTerent  ways.  Captain  llir- 
mer  writes,  in  his  celebrated  letter  on  his  iliscovcrie.H, 
iftuaarhutit  (1019).  In  a  letter  from  I'lyniunth  in  the 
year  1029,  the  name  is  written  .Maomchulrla  liny,  and 
in  tho  patent  of  Sir  F'ernando  ( iorges,  repeatedly  .l/ii,<. 
$nchimack.  In  tho  earliest  time  of  tho  I'ly mouth  Col- 
ony tills  name  included  only  tho  country  round  lIuNtnu 
harbor,  and  the  name  was  principally  given  to  tliat 
great  bay,  of  which  Boston  harbor  is  a  part,  and  wliirli 
was  called  MansiiihimUii  Jlat/.  The  llrst  Knglish  inl- 
ony  or  province  was  therefore  not  called  from  the 
country,  but  from  the  bay,  "  T/ie  Vohmi  nf  Mn^mchn- 
aelts  Hiiij"  (.since  1020).  The  territory  wliicli  this 
name  covered  was  at  llrst  not  extensive,  but  l>y  ami 
by  It  became  the  greatest  name  throughout  the  whole 
of  New  i;ngland.  In  the  year  1092  the  country  of  tlie 
I'lymouth  Colony  was  united  to  it,  and  for  tho  wliiile 
was  now  introduced  the  name  of  "  The  J'nirimt'ii/.llin- 
mchuselln."  So  long  also  as  New  Hampshire  ami 
Maine  were  united  to  the  niiijhty  Massachusetts,  dur- 
ing tho  greater  part  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  tlie 
geographers,  forgetting  local  names,  extended  the  name 
of  Massachusetts  often  over  the  greater  half  of  all  tlio 
Now  England  seas  and  countries ;  while  sinpo  1774  the 
numo  "  SUtle  (if  Maasachugeili"  includes  the  coiist.i 
between  Merrimack  liivor  in  the  north  and  Naragaii- 
sett  Hay  in  tho  south. — J.  G.  Kohl. 

Phi/siral  Fealurei. — This  Stato  presents  three  di?- 
tiuot  zones.  The  iirst  toward  the  ocean,  is  a  marine 
allnvion  but  little  elevated  alKive  the  sea  ;  it  is  mostly 
sandy,  and  the  least  fertile  and  smallest  in  extent  m' 
tile  chree  sections.  This  plain  is  followed  by  a  line 
hilly  tract  which  crosses  the  State  from  north  to  soutli, 
elevated  in  some  places  300  feet  above  the  sea ;  from 
these  elevations  the  rivers  flow  in  every  direction. 
The  Kccond,  or  middle  zone,  includes  part  of  thi!  beau- 
tiful valley  of  the  Connecticut,  and  is  followed  by  the 
mountainous,  but  highly  fertile  county  of  Berkshire, 
which  comprises  tlie  whole  western  part  of  the  State. 
Through  Berkshire  passes  two  mountain  ranges,  tiio 
Tughkarlc,  on  tho  western  border  of  the  State  and 
between  tho  Housatonio  and  Connecticut  Rivers,  tlic 
Green  Mountain  range  here  called  the  Hooaick  Mount- 
ains. Mount  Holyoke,  near  Northampton,  is  near 
1200  feet  aliove  tho  level  of  the  sea,  and  Wachiisctt 
tlountain  In  Princeton,  is  an  elevated  peak  from  2000 
to  8000  feet  high.  Saddle  MounUln  in  the  Taghkanic 
range  in  the  coTth-west  comer  of  the  State  ia  4000  feet 


'I'llU 


1SS7.. 

1845.. 

1856., 

That  is, ' 

ud  62  per  ( 


MAS 


1330 


MAS 


kl(|h,  knd  Mount  WnnhlnKtun  In  the  ■mnf  riiiiKit  In  tlin 
mutli-wMt  I'lirnerortlifl  Ntntii,  li  Hliuut  U<^H)  fvntlilKli. 
Tliu  vuUryN  »r  lli«i  ('iinn«c  ticut  iiru  furtiln,  uj<  iirii  ulnii 
tlioxe  uf  tliu  llDUKiitiinlr.  Tlicru  wiTo  In  thl.'<  Nlatii  In 
1M5II,  -.iil.'lll.'ianneruK  iit  liirid  lin|jriivi!(l,  iinil  l,'.>'iV,A7li 
ot  unlniproveil  lunil  In  fiirnin ;  niwli  value  of  farnm 
itl»9,07(S,iM7,  anil  tli«  viiluo  of  iMiplemant*  unil  init- 
chlnery  <i:i,2()!l,r)H|.  Mvn  ntock— liiirm'ii,  I'.', '.'Ill  j  iikhok 
anil  muli'9,  lit;  milch  niwK,  lllOilKIU;  workhiK  oxen, 
4<I,(II1;  ilhcr  tattle,  Na,2NI;  nhoep,  INM,!).')!  ;  iiwinn, 
»*l,lt<Ji  value  nf  live  ntoik,  i{<l), 017,710. 

Ai/ririilliinil  PiiHliicts,  «^\  -Wlioat  :tl,'ill  liuiheU  ; 
rjo,  181,021  i  Inillan  corn,  •J,:Hfi,400  j  oatu,  l,l(iri,Mii ; 
liarloy,  112,1185;  I'lickwhnat,  1(IA,N05  ;  poas  nnil  licanw, 
4.'l,7nU;  potaliii".  .'l,.'i8ri,l)M4.  Value  uf  prmlurts  nf  the 
ori'lianl,  iji  lii;i,',Mi ' ;  priiilnro  of  market  uariU'UN,  ifilKlO,- 
O'.'O ;  piiunils  vt  liuttor  niailc,  H,071,.'I70;  ul' cheene, 
7,08H,1 12 ;  maple  "UKar,  7!l<'i,'^>'.'j  poundu  ;  m<ilai<»eM, 
41193  galliinH;  lieeswax  ami  himoy,  r>!l,r>IIH  poiniilH ; 
wnul,  poiiniN  pruiUueil,  Xur>,1!ltl;  tlax,  1102;  HJlk  I'o- 
ciioMN,  7  ;  hiipn,  l'Jl,ri!l5po  inli ;  toharro,  1118,21(1 ;  hay, 
tons  of,  l!.'il,807  ;  cIuvim'  »cci1,  1002  hunlicls;  other 
gmx^  di'cilii,  fiOH.)  j  (lax  aeeil,  72  liti'hclii ;  unil  wuro 
niailo  -1088  itallnnii  of  wine.  Value  of  lioinn-mailu 
nianuf  u'turi'K,  4'2ori,:i;t3 ;  of  slau^htcrvil  animiilH,  i|!2,- 
f.0O,!i:'  i 

'I'liii  |>rin>'lpal  rivers  are  the  rnnnoctirut,  u  nolilu 
Ktream  wimlin);  for  50  nilleii  arroas  the  IState.  llou- 
natunic,  wlilili  risen  in  llcrksliiro  county,  and  (Iowh 
through  the  wi'xt  part  of  the  Statu,  and  Morrimae, 
which  ri.seH  in  Nuw  Hampshire,  and  has  a  course  of  50 
miles  in  the  north-east  jiart  of  the  8tato,  and  enters 
the  ocean  below  Newlinryport.  It  Is  iMtvl){alde  for 
lar);fl  vessels  to  Haverhill,  15  miles,  llcsides  these, 
there  are  Nashua,  Conconl,  Tauntun,  and  lllackstone 
Itlvers,  Massachusetts  has  numerous  good  harbors. 
There  are  several  important  islands  olf  tlio  south  sliore 
of  this  St  lite,  to  wliichthcy  tiolon){.  The  largest  U  Kan- 
tucket,  15  miles  long  and  11  miles  broad,  and  which 
constitutes  a  coimty  of  its  own  name.  Slarthu'a  Vine- 
yard, west  of  Nantucket  Is  20  miles  long  and  from  2  to 
10  miles  broad,  which,  with  other  small  islands,  con- 
stitutes Duke's  county.  Tlie  shores  of  Massachusetts 
are  divorslllcd  by  some  bold  promontories  and  cupii- 
clous  bays.  Of  •'  latter,  Massachusetts  Uay,  be- 
tween Capo  Ap  .  on  the  north  and  Capo  Cod  on  the 
south,  ia  about  10  miles  in  breadth.  Buzzard's  Day 
is  on  the  soul  h-wost  side  of  Cape  Cod,  and  is  20  miles 
long.  Cape  Ann,  in  the  north  part  of  the  State,  is  a 
rocxy  promontory  15  miles  in  length.  Cape  Cud  is  a 
peninsula  in  the  south-east  nart  of  the  State,  extending 
75  miles  long  and  from  2  t'  -0  miles  broad,  with  u  bend 
in  the  middle  nearly  at  right  angles.  The  peninsuhi 
of  Xahant,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  harbor  of  Boston, 
is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  Lynn-beach  two 
miles  long.  It  has  liecunie,  on  account  of  its  cool 
breezes  and  wild  sea  views,  a  place  of  fashionable  re- 
■ort  during  the  summer  months. 

There  were,  January,  185G,  43  railroads,  of  which 
1409  miles  were  finished  and  in  operation,  and  48  miles 
in  course  of  construction.  The  Middlesex  Canal,  27 
miles  long,  connects  Boston  with  Lowell.  The  Black- 
stone,  and  the  Hampshire  and  llamdcn  Canals  are  both 
in  disuse. 

The  value  for  the  year  of  the  products  of  industr}-, 
as  found  by  adding  the  separate  returns  throughout 
the  State,  is  found  to  be  $295,820,081.  If  allowance 
be  made  for  defective  and  erroneous  returns,  the  Sec- 
retary thinks  the  whole  amount  would  be  at  least 
♦350,000,000.  The  returned  value  without  allowance, 
shows  an  enormous  increase  of  thu  productive  energy 
of  the  State  us  compared  with  the  previous  returns,  viz. : 

Prmluetion.  Prtpulatiitn. 

ISar. »S8,292,G18  TOO.dOO 

IMS. 124,749,4.'iT  &«i,0«0 

1885. 298,820,681  l,183,l'i8 

That  ia,  while  the  population  has  increased  only  34 
ud  62  p«r  cnt.  reapectirely ;  tlie  value  of  the  product 
4P 


of  Industry  (returned)  Imn  in'Teasod  l.'W  and  '2I'J  |mp 
cent.  The  amnunt  nf  rapita!  invpated  in  munufac- 
lurrs  and  oilier  priiduitions  in  Maiaaeliuietta,  is  showu 
to  lie  i|il20,000,iioi),  anil  th«  gniHS  val.ui  of  pruduclt 
♦'.'95,iHKI,0(Mi  annually.  The  number  of  hands  «m 
ployed  is  2l.'i,»0H.  'fhn  leading  pniilui  la  of  the  Slate 
In  1855,  and  the  anuiunt  of  capital  employed  In  1815 
and  1855  are  ns  follows : 


ValM, 


C'ottoa  Romli, 

t'»ll<-o 

O'HxIa,  liliaebiiil  anil  colnred. 

Wooliin  |/(iniln 

Kiilleil  mill  allt  Iroi),  ami  iirtia 
Moljiiw  wnru  anil  eualliiKn..., 

MaeliliuTV 

Hiram  eriiilnea  aioi  Imllira ... 
I<iilli'i>ai1  eaiA  l■llal'llll^  etc. . 


^•^M^I,  Caulial. 

ISIH.  IMJt. 

Ih.lUo.     '      I'r  llir".  l>..|lNri. 

2il.l|i>,lNHIIII,'MI|.laKII7,78U.llOII 

^^IM,INHI    I.UtlMUNI  l,(lll,IHNI| 

MII.INH)        l'„M).ll<NI  'JOO.IHSH 

ll{.l»,"l,IH)l)    7,.'10ft,(SIII  8,()04,»(S|! 

8,ril'J,l»l0    'i,:IM.IIINI  l,VIMl,IHHl| 

IVM.INKI     l,ll|H,IKH)  Tla.lKHl' 

•1,(1111,11110   'i.lil.lKIO  1,1(W,(KK1 

ll,'i18,IIIHI    'J,ll:ll,(HKI  1^7,1111(1 

'J.iift'j.iaai     ii.Mi.iiiHi  tM.im 


(lilKM      I  'i,(Ms,(HHl;  !,SO.\IHMI  7llll,,HHl> 

I'aper -^MI.ihhi  '/..wi.ihki  i,|  i«,i>ih|{ 

Miiali'al  liislruiiieiila 2,'^vn,islfl  1,'Jsii,ihiii  'JUM.ihiii' 

IWatelioa.  chroiioniuttTa,  |{oli|  ' 


anil  silver  war*. 

Ciinlaue , . 

Vt'ssi.'!ii. 

Huuar,  refined 

Hpunii  ranillea  aiiil  oil . . . 
Heap  anil  tallow  eaiidles  . 
Clialra  and  ealdnut  ware, 

lii-iitlier. 

lioots  and  slioea 

8lraw  liiiiinols 

Ilrleks 

Aleiiliiil  and  lliiiion 

Ilread 

Ololhlnn 


[•i,ll«l,iiUiil 
2,47H,IIOol 
4,f'4il,0(IO 
2.11811,1100 
fl,K18,(HI0 
7,7'iO,(^(Kl 
»,0(n),IKMI 

12,2(16.IMm 

87,4'^»,0fl(l 

4,WI.VMK1 

2,(l'i7,ll(Hl 
H.l.Ml.lllKI 
H,8W,I»»1 


7'Jo,(aHi 

flim.ism 

1,I(I0,IKI«' 


l'i(l,IH10l 
MH,OOo| 
4rn^iiiW 

«,'iS2,(llHI   2,4ftl,lKHi 
1,8i'i,IHHl,     40.'i,IKSl, 

1,111:1,000 

4,8-fll.lNHl 


(KW.IHKl 
Dlll.lMMll 


477,IHKI 
l,IIISI,IHIO 


V,IHII.0IK1   'J,770,IHHIi 


Tho  actual  expenditures  and  receipts  for  1855  are 
contrnstod  with  those  of  1850  (mostly  actual,  though 
a  portion  necessarily  estimated),  and  with  Iho  esti- 
mates for  1857,  in  the  foUowing  table  : 

K.xi'KNOirraKH  vnn  ISVi  ano   l»<irt,  roNtaAaTRU  with  Es- 
TiHATia  roR  l»87. 


Legislative  nnil  Kxecullvo 
Hclcntine  and  Kilninllonal 
Cliarltablu  anil  Humane, . 

MlllUiry 

Uuforiiiatoryilk  (Jorrocllonal 

Inluresr. I 

Public  bnlUllngs I     180,4(10 


Total 


liU. 


iin. 


(AI'i,4(lU  I 
llt,l'.iO 

Biai.ono  I 

7\'m  I 

1I10,:IIKI  , 

l,"ui,|i(«)  I 
Ts.ilftO 


t4s  1,11(10 

is,M8n 

808,400 

711,(100  I 
•ill  1,880 
l:18,0OO 


..'tl,4ll,'J87  ll^.U'iU  tl,278,8U0  i 


KECKIPTS   FOB  1855  and   ISSU,  ClDIIBASTll)  WlIU 

lis'         \I1UI 

pun  1857. 

mu. 

ISM. 

1911, 

Uank  tax 

$378,988 

1888,800 

(885,0(10 

StatelRX 

42M()8 

6(K),Un(l 

. . , , 

1,288 
77S 

2,200 
9(10 

2,000 
1,000 

AllencBtates 

l.^«49 

81  H97 

1«,S0(1 
61,7(10 

18,000 
80,00(1  1 

Western  U.  K.  Smk'g  I'uml 

Western  I'..  It.  Dlvliknil... 

4il,.ll»2 

49,892 

49,100 

Interest  nn  ileposlts 

7»« 

1,800 

I,0fl0 

Hawkers  ami  peilillors 

806 

800 

Courts  of  I  n.iolvenc.v 

.... 

116 

12,000  1 

Attorney,  Suffolk  Ciiiiiir.'. . 

8,719 

fiSO 

I'roiniuni  anil  bit,  oused|i. 

4,803 

12,(1(10 

.... 

Charles  I!,  &  West  BrlilRe,. 

9,Mrt 

Sundry  ni'counts 

ii.'iii 

4,i»(l 

State  tax  of  1>.')fl— balance. 

66,600 

Cash  on  Land 

l'8,6io 

h),m 

Total 

11,668,425 

tl,4S2,6«U 

1781,800 

Kor  Manufactures,   Finances,   Commerce, 
Ma.^.sachu.sett.s  see  Xvrlh  Am.  Hei:,  ]..  -323  (N. 
11.,  '277 ;  I)E  Bow's  Rev.,  iv.,  459,  Ixvi.,  190 ; 
am.,  xlii.,  294. 

Comix  Manupactobus  in  MAssAcni'ims  ix 

Cotton  mills,  294 

Number  ofsplndles 1,819,.'527 

Cotton  oonsuincd lbs.  108,881.749 

Cotton  eliitli yds.  814,996,:.«8  »24,1 

tinnianul'act'd,  cotton  yarn. lbs.      8,821,146 

Cotton  thread lbs.        634,898 

Cotton  batting Tbs.     4,82.8,686 

Caoltol  invested "i 

^  Males  employed ....  11,987 

Females     ''      ....  22|8S0 


etc.,  of 
Hai.k), 
t'A.  Kx- 


1955. 

'alu*. 


.IVi9,2l2 
680,546 
285,9tU 
89^874 
,««1,000 


MAS 


l.'lliO 


MAN 


In  IIAO,  tho  tiitul  vnliiD  iif  I'uttiiii  innniifkitiirM  In 
MmiMi'liuaiitlia  wiia  #lll,7l'i,'l'II  I  In  IMM,  It  wii«  •'i)l,- 
7U0,(Mltl,  an  Imraaao  of  IM  p«r  ciinl.  In  k  parlotl  »!  Ilv* 

foMiuii  I'diimimji  or  Till  Htatii  or  MAMiiiitiirnj,  moil  Oiniiia*  t,  IIW,  to  .Iviy 


y»»n,  'I'Im  uplul  liicrittaail  In  th«  Mnin  (ixrliHl  from 
«,M,M&,lliM)  to  $»l,lHII,(M)tl,  in  Inrnua  of  only  I'i  p«r 
iwnt. 


liM. 


Tvari  •mllnff 

lliiiiiwalli'. 

Kiptiru. 

liii^>ri4. 

TitHMf* 

UUmi4. 

lit<lil.'l  T'.anaca.         | 

r..r.i,ni.    1       Tiif.i. 

T..UI. 

AMt*rl.'i|i) 

m.UT 

i.ifrr 

ll>|lil«f«<l.  1  '"'""••I  •»! 

i»ti,i/Tr  TnnMiiH  1 

••Pt  W>,    iMil 

|H,lU<M,Mi; 

♦  ••.IIK.lJ* 

»I^4n4.77I 

tl4.x'ill,7IM 

"iti 

4,07^,  IIW 

N,^Jl;   IMI 

u.riv\t>iri 

l»,IUi7,H'*t 

lilA,-*! 

MWT 

H,»44,V<<A 

l»,Til\iV4 

IH,flHH,'jH0 

1 7.1)117.  IIWl 

IHMHl) 

l,7<iA 

>  f  •  f 

•  ••  t 

flg4 

4,nBM,M« 

MUft.ilM 

|IK4H4,H»H 

IM7»,7M 

IHI.Mll 

4^ 

I  •  •  • 

d5^ 

4,!I<M.III4 

7,17(1,  "nil 

lt,4M)l,UH7 

IA,>I4B,I4I 

I4A,«T« 

4.II4II 

I  •  1 1 

Mi 

ll,»HM,|IW 

Ml(l,7ll4 

l(l,IH<l),nin 

l7,iMil.4«11 

IH«,T4« 

4,AI» 

■  lit 

•  «.. 

|if , ,, 

ii.niiii,:mu 

tl,il<i4,ili»4 

1II,41I4,IMI 

IH,M7IKM4 

IHII,ilM 

fl.Dftl 

•  •  •  • 

Bf , , 

♦,IH»fl,<»W 

4,yw,7m 

».ltlB,7« 

IA.07ii,444 

INM.IIW 

4,>ll» 

ift,  111,11 

H,UIU,7M 

4.HllA,ln« 

N,«ft4,M7 

ll,Mlit,r44 

l*l,mT 

ii,<im 

1 « *  * 

i  • .. 

Totoi!!!!.' 

H.WW.IIM 

H,«liUt'i 

7,IIIH,llt4 
♦l(i6,ilftr,ori "" 

lo,4AH,M4 
|IN>,47H,>wir' 

l«».IM 

l,H7»,«ftl 

M7( 

ii,m 

•  *t* 

•  41. 

(HV,H1I,IIH» 

♦«il,*W,«Tr 

8«pt«o,  l«ni 

$4,IWI,'.'»I 

JH,7cl«.r)(Vi 

|7,7IW,7M 

|I4,'JM,0M 

lM.tM 

T.tHIt 

'rir\,Ti6 

UlMdi 

IBM 

4.i»«,IM.'» 

7,3H7,I'IH 

U.»W.HH 

IH,II'<,I)IHI 

•iM.'iin 

IIM7II 

....     '      ....     I 

IM 

6.l.^),IVI* 

4,Mll,NM 

V,«HH,W'i 

ll).l)4li,VII 

mi.iiiiT 

Hl.7«« 

•  > . . 

tm4 

4,«T«,T4ll 

^I7II,IIT4 

III,  UH,  Hid 

ir,ll7!l,IW 

IHil.Ml 

HI. VIM 

1 1  f  • 

.... 

IHM 

6,A«4,4>I) 

4,47»,ilfll 

in.mH,Tu(i 

1«.>«I0,H7H 

'iln.iKIt 

HN,|ii7 

.  • « • 

iNtM 

^IIH,l«a 

MUT.IWl 

lll,HK.I.R|ll 

'i.MlHl,4<l'J 

'jlli,iift7 

AA.IVIH 

IHHT 

'(.Nri.Uitl 

4,NA<I,'JHU 

V,7'i*.IO<l 

IIM»s4,lt«i 

INH.MUI 

fM».Af« 

1 1  •  • 

IBJW 

((.lAlAM 

«,UIII,W«t 

(I,I04,*IW 

IH.UHI.IM.t 

yHI,iiiM 

Hi.UIIA 

•  •«• 

I«» 

Wll«,I.Vi 

n,74»,iwi> 

ll.»TtMH1 

Ill.HMft.rM 

IIIII,H7h 

4r>,i>W 

t  •  >• 

•  •• . 

1*10 

ToUl 

♦a»,uo»,»m 

8,«I>*.I(U) 

10  wH.vei 

in.fil.l.xftH 
»ltl,it()7,.'iOA~ 

IN7.IWI 
l,'.»Iil,(lM  " 

ft«,7llA 

.... 

.... 

lltf'^iiiMiill 

♦ll»..'79,(l«T 

llll'V.44<l 

.... 

Sapt.  HO,  \'H\ 

tr.Htr.iiM 

|4.nxi),n,M 

♦ll,4s7,«4H 

♦WIIM.IKW 

WM,N7tt 

T  I.OHH 

Hie,MM) 

wo,nio 

iMi 

t,7iv,im 

HiiS7,iHifl 

ll,HII7,IIO 

l7,IHil,4ll'l 

m:m 

NH.Nll 

«••! 

»  mon..      1+41 

4,4flO,()H| 

i,!.n,flaii 

«,4llft,?ll7 

IS,7N|i,4M 

VIH.IM 

4ll,iAI| 

.... 

Juno  HO,  l><44 

(VH7I.SHA 

'i.Tii,i.y> 

I),IIUI|.VH« 

»0,WH,IHI7 

INtt,«><l 

|0A,IH 

I'na 

7.:M,mi« 

'J,AII4,liHi 

IU,ilAI,ll«ll 

M,?"  1,0144 

WI.IKIH 

m:m 

IhW 

T-U,iil« 

a,47rt,iMa 

10,8  III.  II 4 

»t.lWI,IM(i| 

'«I7.H>.I 

1117,117 

1S4T 

H.'.'M,777 

l,»Nn,iwfl 

II.WMil' 

H|,177,OIIH 

VHA.HIHI 

iH';,iiii4 

IMS 

».«iN,iaT 

4,  III, HIM 

IMIIi.'li'U 

•^\ill7,7llT 

XlHI.tNIt 

1^,717 

.... 

IMff 

M7»,(W7 

2,lK)0,lllA 

10,iiH,-iia 

VI.7I.MIIT 

IWMlT 

«44,0<I7 

IHM 

Total 

K,yM,47B 

lO.IWl.TiM 
♦  lll!l,0f«,'<'<(l 

Hii.il7l.iH4 
tMi,lli)7,llil 

il7t(,ll7* 
1I,H(W,hTT' 

'i7M74 

|7A,MI,»!II) 

l,4l»,IWH 

JunetIO,  tsAI 

i»,flft7.^87 
14,14»,iiol 

««,41».MIB 

tl'J,H.V2.ll-l3 

»a!l,7in.H« 

•m,'<m 

l«(l,IW7 

fll>4,87« 

1M,03« 

IWi 

V,4<)y,4(IH 

lll,MH,4IHI 

HH,nm,7Ni) 

Him.riHu 

lim,l»74 

KW 

l(l,H|Mt,iin4 

H(lft»,l)7'i 

lll,U,V,\'V7ll 

4l,ilil7,UM 

HH7,'UIJ) 

H7»,0'iM 

InM 

17,H9R,7.W 

fl,M2,7«« 

!>l,4HN.rwi4 

4-*,rMIH,7HH 

m.lllA 

H7."i,nBI 

i  ..1 

KW 

M.4li,l«H 

H,77K,0(HI 

:t4,l90,ll'JA 

4A,IIH,774 

4H'i.lllll 

Hso.xAo 

K'pH 

'i6,!I.Vt,HIH 

H,4B7,ai7 

W.vij.^in 

4H,HI4,HM4 

411.11^1 

Il7'/.'ilil 

.... 

Tim  iirincipiil  |ii)rt.M  are-  1.  llonton,  liit.  IP  'i'V  N., 
lant(.  71°  l'  W.  Tlin  city  in  Hitiiiitcil  iit  tli«  lioail  nf  u 
deep  liiiy,  on  ii  iwiiinaulii,  liein;{  Miirrotmiluil  on  tliri'ii 
nIdoH  liy  water.  (jPiiiTttlly  tliiTo  \»  Kufliiii'iit  ilpptli  of 
watvr  to  i-nalilv  tli«  larxuHt  rlilpn  to  conio  up  to  tliu 
e!ty  tit  nil  tliiii'H  of  tlie  tiiln ;  iiiul  th«y  UHUiilly  moor 
HlonifHliln  of  clocks  wliuro  there  Im  perfect  safety.  Tlin 
depth  of  Witter  in  tlie  clmnnel  viirleii  from  10  to  HU 
feet.  It  in  tho  ({rent  ceiitro  of  tlie  coinniercu  of  Now 
Knglund,  iiiul  in  thin  capiicity  reeeivui'  unil  dixtriliuteii 
one  llftli  of  the  wliolu  coniniereial  inuteriiil  of  the 
Uniteil  States,  'I'ho  tunnu|{e  of  lloaton  in  JNrill  waa 
521,117  ton.i.  .See  lloHTON.  2.  S»lom,  eity  and  port 
of  entry.  It  in  cliiefly  liiiilt  on  ii  tongue  of  limil  fornioil 
by  two  InletK  from  the  sea,  culled  North  and  South 
Kivers ;  over  the  former  are  two  lirldnes  (one  of  which 
la  crossed  liy  the  railroad),  connecting  it  with  llcvoriy. 
The  harl>or  has  i;o(k1  anchorage  ground,  liiit  vcsselu 
drawing  more  tliun  12  or  11  feet  of  water  mu»t  lie  par- 
tially unloaded  licforu  they  can  conio  to  its  wharves. 
The  tonnage  of  iSalem  in  IH&U  was  2',I,U7U  tons.  II. 
Nantucket.  Tonnage  in  18I>6,  1G,M5/  tons.  4.  New 
Uodford.  &.  Full  Kivor.  8,  Newliuryiwrt.  7.  Glou- 
cester, 

CoMUittcE  or  IluBTOX,  IbSA— AH. 


Yt.n. 


Cuitom  Kouis  Forslim 

ntvfniiH.  Rrrlvftli. 

IWW |8.H.'i7,IV.i4  2,990 

liAS 7,778,7»4  2,90« 


Mast,  a  long  piecp,  or  system  of  pieces,  of  timber, 
placed  nearly  |)«rpendicularly  to  the  keel  of  a  vesHel 
to  support  tlio  yards  or  galfs  on  whuli  tho  aails  are  ex- 
tended. When  the  mast  is  one  entire  piece,  it  la  called 
a  pole-mast ;  but  in  all  larger  ves.sels  it  is  composed  of 
several  lengths,  called  lower,  top,  and  top-gallant 
maats :  sometimes  a  fourth,  called  a  royal  mast.     The 


iiii'tliod  of  Kiipporting  each  mast  on  the  one  next  Ijelntr 
it,  is  peculiar,  (In  lh»  sIiIm  of  the  lower  niast,s>iiiie  I'ert 
below  tho  head,  lire  placed  checks  I  on  these  ore  lixcd 
horlnoiitally  two  short  piHces  of  wiKid,  fore  iiiid  aft, 
callail  trestle  trees.  Ai'ross  theiie  at  right  angles  are 
laid,  before  and  abaft  the  mast,  two  or  iiiurn  h>iiKer 
and  lighter  pieces,  I'alliid  truss  trees,  which  give  the 
name  to  tlie  entire  syatnin.  On  the  mast  head  itself 
Is  a  cap.  The  topmast  being  placed  up  and  ihiwii,  tlio 
fore  slilu  of  th«  lower  mast  Is  swayed  up  between  tlm 
trestle  trees,  and  through  the  round  or  foremost  liirle  In 
til*  cap.  When  raised  so  high  that  the  lieid  of  the  U>]i- 
mast  la  nearly  up  to  the  snrfacn  of  the  cross  trceti,  a 
piece  of  Iron,  called  the  lid.  Is  put  through  the  hidi'  in 
the  heel  for  the  pur|Hisn  |  and  on  this  lid,  of  which  the 
ends  are  supisirtci'i  on  the  trestle  trees,  the  tiipniast 
rests.  When  ilildi'd,  the  topmast  Is  stayed,  and  the 
rigging  or  shrouds  set  up  to  the  dead  eyes  in  the  emls 
of  the  crosn  trees,  These  dead  eyes  pull  from  tlio 
lower  rigging  ladow,  and  thus  the  cros,i  trees  serve 
merely  to  oxteiid  the  rigging.  Tho  topgallant  ii  mp- 
ported  ill  lli«  same  manner  on  tho  topmast.  When  tho 
mast  is  to  be  taken  down.  It  Is  tirst  raised  to  relieve 
the'  lid  ;  wlilch  being  drawn  nnt,  the  mast  is  lowered. 
Tho  masts  are  sup|Hirted  by  n  strong  rope,  leading 
forward,  called  the  stayt  by  others,  leading  alt  on 
each  side  of  the  ship,  called.  In  general,  backstiiys, 
and  by  others  abreast,  culled  shrouds,  and  also  breii4 
backstiiys  Large  lower  masts  are  com|)ased  of  picien 
and  have  for  some  years  Isien  made  of  several  lengths 
aliout  a  foot  or  so  sipiare,  and  the  whole  supporteil 
merely  iiy  hoops  ut  Intervals.  The  mainmast  is  iicur 
the  inlddlu  of  tliii  vessel,  tlin  foremast  is  tliat  whicli  H 
nearest  the  fore  part,  anil  the  inl/./.eninast  is  abiift  (he 
uulnmiiat.    TUt  old  rule  for  the  leniftb  of  the  main 


liediciicy  of 
iecting  a  pei 
lie  as  worti 
that  this  sp 
that  all  opi 
oliviiitcd,  it 
re  .sponsible 
petlipc'iite,  01 
repuira  exec 
the  voyage  ; 
IHitliccated  i 
has  no  lien  i 
ailvunccd  b; 
Judgment  ii| 
"  As  to  wiigi 
ship  shiiiilcl 
th.at  piirpni 
the  dealing, 
considered  I 
the  owner; 
respect,  bcei 
SDiis  belonfj 
have  its  fn 
gators ;  for,  i 
evcrj-  day, 
vcniencc, 
havinr,  or  ni 
keep  tho  shi 
Kngland  is  i 
of  I  he  emplo 
[lothccato  th 
Ihe  tradesmi 
that  they  mi 
master  is  bo 
tlon  in  the  i 
•rty  to  enter 


MArt 


mat 


MAR 


tl7,4M 


tii«'«r  iiiiut  la  tn  tiiliit  «n*  Imir  th«  •urn  of  th«  IriiKlh  (if 
tlix  liiwcr  iloi'k  kiiil  I'KtrKmo  limmllli:  Ihn  fdmiiiut  In 
rlltlit  iiliiUm  "t  til*  innlnniiuit,  tho  inlai'nniMt  I'lin- 
•Idi'Mlily  ■iiiHllvr.  Ths  topmnxt  I*  iilKiiit  thrm  tlfllm 
uf  thn  lowar  init^t  'riinun  ruli<ii,  m  wvll  »»  otlinn  fcir 
lh«  Ihk'kncKriKi),  rto.,  iir«  mxnly  ri>r  iniiviiiilrnrr, 
Iwnfil  on  nil  mai'liiinli'*!  iiriiirlplK,  anil  an  \<y  ni> 
mi'an<  atrictly  fiilliiwvcl. 

MnntA  nr«  Ktlll  Imllt  up  In  pltrvii,  lint  liy  th«  iilil  iif 
iniirln»  k'""-  ^  joint  iii>cMiri«l  liy  thin  gXu*  U  Ixnn  rnnlly 
iirpiiriilili  innn  thn  ai'tual  lllirnii  nf  tlin  wikmI  itiieU,  In 
Ihn  Kmiit  KxlilMtlop  iif  Loniliin  thnrx  w>  rn  many  nirlouit 
'pcclnii'na  lllimlrattva  of  thn  iiaa  of  thin  rxtrannllniiry 
iTnirnt.  Onn  wn<  a  ]iliii'«  of  thn  miint  of  tlifl  "hip 
riirajmi,  foiinil  hufpiiraliln  rVfn  liy  lhi<  wfiljjo.  An- 
nthor  wim  part  of  u  nmlnniant,  from  whlih  n  kIoi'iI 
friiitriipnt  wan  torn  iiway  only  aftor  »  forrn  of  '2'i  ton* 
hiiij  lii'xn  upplli'il.  A  llilril  wiia  n  liloci'  if  I'Ini,  Jolni-il 
with  K'""i  "  W'<  v!(|>l"'l<'<l  l>y  K""'  xliT,  liut  tlin 
Joint  dill  not  ylwld.  Annthxr  wait  an  o.ik  cnnnon-liall, 
nicoln  of  two  kI""!  pi'<'i'";  It  had  Impn  lln>d  with 
•i)(ht  ouniKK  of  piiwdi'r,  lint  thn  Joint  hrlil  fiiat.  An- 
other waK  a  ilral  liliirk,  whirh  liroke  in  tho  lllirra  liy  a 
fiiri'R  of  four  tons.  Othern  wnre  pieces  '  inanti,  In- 
tpuili'd  to  iihow  how  Intcnurly  ntninp;  a  niu  t  li('com<"ii 
whi'ii  Imllt  up  with  pliM'oH  whlrh  aiu  Joined  liy  tlila 
((lue.  It  la  not  only  a  g\»D  :  it  In  alao  a  auliatltutc  for 
pltrh.  Many  venHid't  huvn  tli  ■  ncania  payed  or  ralkrd 
wllli  thia  g\w,  whlrh  la  found  much  niuro  durulile  for 
tlia  purpoae  than  onllnary  pid  h. 

Master,  in  coininerrjiil  o  v  ligation,  t4in  |M>rNon  i  - 
truntfil  with  th«  raro  and  navii;atinn  of  tho  ahii. 
"  Thn  niiiati'r  la  tho  I'linl)  Vntiai  aervant  or  a)(ont 
the  owMora  J  and  In  confiirndty  to  tho  rulea  and  max- 
ima of  law  the  owners  am  iHiund  to  thn  performanro 
of  every  lawful  lontnut  miidn  liy  him  relatlvo  to  the 
uauiil  employment  of  tho  aliip." — AnnoTi  on  Ihr  /jtir 
of  Nhlpiiing.  Krom  this  rulu  of  law  It  followa  that  tho 
uwnera  are  lioind  l<i  answer  for  u  lirnach  of  contract, 
thoU|{l>  committed  liy  tho  master  or  mariners  nKilnnt 
their  will,  anil  without  their  fault.  Nor  can  tho  e  . 
jiedlency  of  this  rule  Iw  doulitcd.  The  owners,  liy  se- 
iectlni;  a  pcraoii  as  master,  hold  him  forth  to  tho  puli- 
Uc  as  worthy  of  trust  and  contldnncL.  And  In  order 
that  this  selection  may  lie  niailo  with  duo  can',  and 
that  all  opportimitie.H  of  fraud  and  collusion  may  lin 
olivlatcd,  it  Is  Indlspcnsaliln  that  thoy  should  lie  made 
responsililo  for  his  acts.  Tho  master  has  power  to  hy- 
pothecate, or  pledge,  lioth  ship  and  cargo  for  necessary 
repairs  executed  In  foreign  ports  during  the  course  of 
the  voyage  J  but  neither  the  sli-  i.- "argo  can  lie  hy- 
IKithecated  for  repairs  execute  '  '  :•'  ■  .•.  Tho  master 
Ima  no  lien  upon  tho  ship  for  hi*  a  i;;ts,  nor  for  money 
advanced  liy  him  for  stores  or  repairs.  In  delivering 
Judgment  upon  a  case  of  this  sort,  i.ord  Mansfeld  said: 
"As  to  wages,  there  Is  no  pa;.lcHlnr  contract  that  tho 
»hip  should  lie  a  pledge  Jiero  is  no  usage  in  trade  to 
that  purpose ;  nor  any  iviiplication  from  tho  nature  of 
thn  dealing.  On  the  lontrarj",  the  law  has  always 
(■(insidered  tho  captain  as  contracting  (lersonally  with 
the  owner ;  and  the  case  of  the  captain  has,  in  that 
respect,  liecn  distinguished  from  that  of  all  other  per- 
sons belonging  to  the  ship.  This  rule  of  law  may 
have  its  foundation  In  policy  for  the  bcuelit  of  navi- 
gators J  for,  as  ships  may  ho  making  profit  and  earning 
everj'  day.  It  might  bo  attended  with  great  incon- 
venience, if,  on  tho  change  of  a  captain  for  mislie- 
havlnr,  or  any  other  reason,  he  should  be  entitled  to 
keep  tho  ship  till  ho  i.s  piiiil.  Work  dono  for  n  ship  in 
Kngland  Is  supposed  to  \\v  dono  on  tho  personal  credit 
of  I  he  employer :  in  foreign  parts  the  captain  may  hy- 
pothecate tho  ship.  Tho  defendant  might  have  told 
the  tradesman,  that  ho  only  acted  as  an  agent,  «nd 
that  they  must  look  to  tho  owner  for  payment."  The 
njaster  Is  bound  to  employ  his  whole  time  and  atten- 
tion in  the  service  of  his  employers,  and  Is  not  at  lili- 
erty  to  enter  into  any  engagement  for  his  own  benclit 


that  may  occupy  «n,v  portion  of  his  limn  In  nthsr  tnti 
orna  j  and,  llinrf  for*,  if  he  dn  so,  and  the  price  of  ■iicli 
engagement  h«p|i*n  to  Iw  (lald  Into  the  hands  of  hi- 
ownera,  ihey  may  retain  th«  money,  anil  h«  can  not 
recover  from  them.  -Aiihiirr  on  Skiiipmg. 

Willfully  lUntroylng  or  caallng  iiway  thn  ahlp,  or 
priKurlng  thn  aaiiin  to  U  done  by  thn  niaatnr  or  mari- 
ners, to  thn  prejudice  of  thn  ownnra,  fnlghlen,  or  In- 
surnra  |  ruuuing  away  with  thn  cargo ;  anil  turning 
pirates  I  an  nftenaea  puulahaldn  by  trnn<|Hirlatlon  be. 
yond  »ea«  for  not  le«»  than  15  yeara,  or  by  Imprl.on- 
mnnt  for  not  more  than  11  jeara.  After  the  voyagn 
h»s  lieen  commnncnil,  thn  iiiiiater  miiat  proceed  illriMt 
to  til*  place  of  hia  deatlnutlon,  without  unneceaaarily 
•topping  at  any  intermediate  [Mirt,  onbivbillng  from 
tho  short!  it  eouran.  No  such  deviation  will  be  aanc- 
tlonnd,  iiuieas  It  baa  been  occaaioni'd  by  atreaa  of 
weather,  tho  want  if  neceasary  re|ialr,  avoiding  ene- 
mies or  pit.itea,  auci  orlng  of  ahlpa  in  illatrena,  aiikneas 
of  f  l.e  miiater  or  marlnnra,  or  the  mutiny  of  the  crew. 
—  Makhiiai.i,  o«  In.nnmrr,  To  juatify  a  dnvlntlon, 
the  neceaalty  muat  bo  real.  Inevitable,  and  imperious, 
an  ■  it  muat  not  be  prolonged  one  moment  afterthe  ne- 
1  lalty  has  ceB<fld.  A  ('  vitttlon  « illimit  auch  necea- 
.  y  vltlites  ;  '  lnsuranif<  upon  the  ship  and  cargo, 
rnd  ex|Ki»es  i  owners  to  an  action  on  tho  part  of  the 
froighlera.  ihip  bo  captured  in  ciiiiai'i|iii  nee  of 

devlatloi  ■  n  .icrcbant  la  entitled  to  recover  from  the 
owners  t  .■  prime  coat  of  the  gooda  with  shipping 
"barges  ;  but  ho  is  not  en'';ieil  to  more,  iinlesa  he  can 
•  -iv  that  lliogoods  were.  ■>  inced  in  value  beyond  the 
kur  above  mentioned  it  u  merchant  ship  has  tho 
ml'ii'./rtune  tn  Ihi  att:i,  ked  by  pirates  or  enemies,  tho 
master  Is  iKiiind  to  do  his  duty  as  a  man  of  courage 
and  capacity,  and  tn  make  Ihn  best  reslntauce  that  the 
comparative  ktrengtii  of  the  ship  and  crew  will  allow. 
Hy  the  common  law,  the  master  has  authority  over  all 
the  mariners  on  board  thn  shi|i — it  being  their  duty  to 
obey  his  commands  in  all  lawful  matters  relating  to 
tho  navigation  of  the  ship,  and  the  jireservatlon  nf  good 
order.  Kiit  the  master  should  in  all  cases  use  his  au- 
thority with  moderation,  so  as  to  be  the  father,  not  the 
tyrant,  of  his  crew.  On  his  return  home  hn  may  be 
called  upon  by  action  of  law,  to  answer  to  a  mariuiir 
hn  has  either  beat  or  Imprisoned  during  the  course  of 
the  voyagn;  and  unless  he  show  sullklent  cause  for 
chastiiiing  thn  mariner,  and  als.i  that  the  chastisement 
was  reasonable  and  moderate,  ho  will  be  found  liable 
In  damages.  Should  tho  master  strike  a  mariner  with- 
out cause,  or  use  a  deadly  weapon  as  an  instrument  of 
correction,  and  death  ensue,  he  will  be  found  guilty, 
according  to  tho  circumstances  of  tho  case,  cither  of 
manslaughter  or  mnnler. — Amhott,  part  ii.,  c.  4.  The 
master  may  by  force  restrain  tho  commission  of  great 
crimes :  but  he  has  no  Jurisdiction  over  the  criminal. 
His  business  is  to  secure  his  person,  and  to  deliver 
him  over  to  tho  proper  tribunals  on  his  coming  to  his 
own  country. 

T'ho  master  must  not  take  on  board  any  contraband 
goods,  by  which  tho  ship  and  other  parts  of  tho  cargo 
may  be  rendered  liable  to  forfeiture  and  scinure. 
Neither  must  ha  take  on  board  any  falsn  or  colorablo 
papers,  as  these  might  subject  the  ship  to  the  risk  of 
capture  or  detention.  But  it  is  hia  duty  to  procure 
and  keep  on  boani  all  the  papers  and  documents  ro- 
(luired  for  the  manifestation  of  tho  ship  and  cargo,  by 
the  law  of  the  countries  from  and  to  which  the  ship  is 
bound,  as  well  by  tho  law  of  nations  in  general,  as 
by  treaties  between  particular  States.  These  papers 
aiid  documents  can  not  bo  dispensed  with  at  any  time, 
and  arc  ipilte  essential  to  the  safe  navigation  of  neutral 
ships  during  war.  It  is  customary  in  bills  of  lading 
to  insert  a  dauso  limiting  the  resiousiblllty  of  tho 
master  and  owners,  as  follows :  "  The  act  of  God,  en- 
emies, lire,  and  every  other  dangers  and  accldenta  of 
the  seas,  rivers,  and  navigation,  of  whatever  nature 
and  kind  soever,  save  risk  of  boats,  as  far  as  ships  are 


r-sfS-?^- 


MAS 


1832 


MAS 


liable  thereto,  excepted."  When  no  bUl  of  lading  ia 
signed,  the  master  and  owners  are  bound  according  to 
the  common  law.  The  most  difficult  part  of  ttie  moa- 
ter'a  duty  is  when,  through  the  perils  of  the  sea,  the 
iittaclis  of  enemies  or  pirates,  or  other  unforeseen  acci- 
dents, he  is  prevented  from  completing  his  voyage.  If 
bis  own  ship  have  suffered  from  storms,  and  can  not 
be  repaired  within  a  reasonable  time,  and  if  the  cargo 
be  of  a  perishable  nature,  he  is  at  liberty  to  employ 
another  gliip  to  convey  it  to  the  place  of  destination. 
He  may  do  the  same  if  the  ship  have  been  wrecked 
and  the  cargo  saved,  or  if  his  own  ship  be  in  danger 
of  sinliing,  and  he  can  get  the  cargo  transferred  to  an- 
other; and  in  extreme  cases  he  is  at  liberty  to  dis- 
pose of  the  cargo  for  the  benefit  of  its  owners.  The 
most  celebrated  maritime  codes,  and  the  opinions  of 
tbo  al)le8t  writers,  have  differed  considerably  la  to 
these  iwints.  According  to  the  Rhodian  law  (Pand.  1. 
10,  §  1)  the  captain  is  released  from  all  his  engage- 
ments, if  the  sliip,  by  the  perils  of  the  sea,  and  with- 
out any  fault  on  liis  iiart,  become  incapable  of  proceed- 
ing on  her  voyage.  The  laws  of  Oleron  (art.  4),  and 
those  of  Wisby  (arts.  1(5,  87,  65),  saj-  that  the  captain 
may  hire  another  sliip;  harmonizing  in  this  respect 
with  tlie  present  law  of  England.  The  famous  French 
ordinance  of  1C81  (tit.  Dii  Frit,  art.  11),  and  the  Code 
(In  Commerce  (art.  29*!),  order  the  captain  to  hire  an- 
other ship ;  and  if  he  cnn  not  procuie  one,  freight  is  to 
be  duo  only  for  that  part  of  tlie  voyage  which  has  been 
performed  (jtro  rati  ilineru peracti).  Valin  has  objected 
til  this  article,  and  states  that  practically  it  meant  onl}- 
tliat  the  captain  must  hire  another  ship  if  lie  wouiv. 
earn  the  whole  freight.  Emerigon  (torn.  i.  p.  428) 
liolds  that  tlie  captain,  being  the  agent  not  onl}'  of  the 
owners  of  the  ship,  but  also  of  the  shippers  of  the 
goods  on  board,  is  bound,  ip  tlie  absence  of  both,  to 
n^c  his  best  endeavors  to  ;'ru«ervo  the  goods,  and  to 
do  whatever,  in  the  circumstances,  he  thinks  will  moat 
conducb  to  the  interest  of  all  concerned ;  or  what  it 
may  lie  presumed  the  ahippiTs  would  do  were  they 
present.  This,  which  seems  t»  bo  the  Ijest  and  wisest 
rule,  has  been  laid  down  by  Lords  Mansfield  and  Toii- 
terdcn,  as  stated  aliove,  and  may  be  regutnled  as  the 
law  of  England  on  this  point. 

Hut  to  use  the  words  of  lord  Chief  Justice  Tenter- 
den,  "  the  disposal  of  the  cargo  by  the  master,  is  a 
matter  that  requires  the  utmost  caution  on  his  part. 
Me  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  his  duty  to 
convey  it  to  the  place  of  deilinalion.  This  is  the  purpose 
for  which  he  has  been  intrusted  witli  it,  and  this  pur- 
pose be  is  bound  to  accomplish  by  every  reasonable  and 
;:racticabln  method.  What,  then,  k  the  master  to  do, 
if,  by  any  disaster  happening  in  the  course  of  liis  voy- 
age, ho  ia  unable  to  carry  the  goods  to  the  place  of 
destination,  or  to  deliver  them  there  ?  To  this,  as  a 
general  question,  I  apprehend  no  answer  can  b?  f?:iven. 
Kvcry  case  must  depend  u|)on  its  own  peculiar  circum- 
stances. The  conduct  proper  to  he  adopted  with 
respect  to  perishable  goods,  will  be  improper  with 
respect  to  a  cargo  not  [lerishable ;  one  thing  may  be 
fit  to  be  done  with  f1;<h  or  fruit,  and  another  with  tlm- 
lier  or  iron  ;  one  method  maj'  lie  pniper  in  distant  re- 
gions, another  in  the  vicinity  of  the  merchant ;  oae  in 
a  frequented  navigation,  another  on  unfrequented 
sliores.  The  wreck  of  the  ship  is  n<it  necessarily  fol- 
lowed by  an  iinpossiliility  of  sending  forwanl  the 
goods,  and  does  not,  of  itself,  make  their  sale  a  meaa- 
urc  of  nucessity  or  expedience ;  much  loss  can  the  loss 
uf  the  season,  or  of  the  pro|)er  course  of  the  voyage, 
liave  this  effect.  An  unexpected  interdiction  of  com- 
merce, or  a  sudden  war,  may  defeat  the  adventure, 
and  oblige  the  ship  to  stop  in  her  course ;  but  neither  of 
these  eventa  doth  of  itself  alone  make  it  necessary  to 
sell  the  cargo  at  the  place  to  which  it  may  be  proper 
for  the  ship  to  resort.  In  these,  and  many  other  cases, 
the  master  may  be  discharged  of  his  obligation  to  de- 
liver the  cargo  at  the  place  of  destination ;  but  it  doea 


not  therefore  follow  that  he  is  authorized  to  sell  it,  or 
ought  to  do  so.  What,  then,  is  he  to  do?  In  gen- 
eral, it  may  be  said,  he  ia  to  do  that  which  %  wise  and 
prudeiU  man  mill  think  moil  cotiducive  to  the  benejit  of 
all  coHcertted.  In  ao  doing  he  may  expect  to  bo  sale, 
because  the  merchant  will  not  have  reason  to  be  ills- 
satisfied  ;  but  what  this  thing  will  be,  no  general  rules 
can  teach.  Some  regard  may  be  allowed  to  the  intur- 
est  of  the  ahip,  and  of  its  ownera ;  but  the  interest  of 
the  cargo  must  not  be  sacrificed  to  it.  Transliipmcnt 
for  the  place  of  destination,  if  it  bo  practicable,  is  tlio 
first  object,  because  that  is  in  furtherance  of  the  origi- 
nal purpose ;  if  that  be  impracticable,  return,  or  a  sul'c 
deposit,  may  be  expedient.  A  disadvantageous  sale 
(and  almost  every  sale  by  the  master  wil'.  lt  disadvan- 
tageous) ia  the  last  thing  he  should  think  of,  because 
it  can  only  be  justified  by  that  necessity  which  super- 
sodea  all  human  laws." — Law  of  Skipping,  part  Hi,, 
c.  3. 

The  master  of  a  ship  is  liable  for  goods  of  whliu 
she  is  robbed,  in  part ;  and  the  reason,  as  Lord  Alans- 
field  sUted,  is,  lest  room  should  be  given  for  colliisinn, 
and  the  master  should  get  himself  robbed  on  purpose, 
in  order  that  he  might  share  in  the  spoil.  The  mas- 
ter is,  however,  entitled  to  indemnify  himself  out  of 
the  seamen's  wages  for  losses  occasioned  by  their  iii>^. 
lect.  If  any  passenger  die  on  board,  the  master  is 
obliged  to  take  an  inventory  of  his  effects ;  and  if  no 
claim  be  made  for  them  within  a  J'ear,  the  master  lie- 
comss  proprietor  of  the  goods,  but  onswerablu  for  tlieiu 
to  the  deceased's  legal  representatives.  Bedding  and 
furniture  become  the  property  of  the  master  and  mate ; 
but  the  clothing  must  be  brought  to  tlio  deck,  anil 
there  appraised  and  distributed  among  the  crew.  If  a 
master  die,  leaving  money  on  lioard,  and  the  mate,  be- 
coming  master,  improve  the  money,  he  shall,  on  allow- 
ance being  made  to  hiin  for  his  trouble,  aeeount  for 
both  interest  and  profit.  The  conditions  under  wliicli 
seamen  and  a|iprenticcs  are  to  be  taken  on  board  ship, 
and  the  obligations  of  the  master  with  respect  to  tlicni, 
are  fully  set  forth  in  the  article  Seamen,  in  this  work; 
and  to  it  also  the  reader  is  refened  for  a  statement  of 
the  duty  of  the  master  with  respect  to  tlie  registry  of 
seamen,  and  the  contributions,  etc.,  due  to  the  corpo- 
ration for  the  relief  of  decayed  seamen,  their  wiilm  •, 
etc.  For  the  duties  of  the  master  as  respects  custom- 
house regulations,  .see  the  articles  Coxsiii.s,  Fiir.i.iiiT, 
Seamen,  United  St.vtes,  and  Insukanii;,  etc. ;  anil 
for  a  further  discussion  of  this  important  subject,  see 
the  excellent  work  of  Lord  Tentehiien,  On  the  Law 
of  Shipping ;  Parsons  On  Commerced  Law;  Kent's 
Commentaries ;  Ciiitty  On  Commercial  Lam,  vol.  iii,  j 
and  the  articles  CuAUTER-i'AUTy,  Freight,  etc. 

QiialiJicatioM  of  Masters.  Means  by  Which  They 
Should  be  ,/ljcer<aine(/.— Considering  the  important  na- 
ture of  the  duties  which  the  master  of  a  ship  has  to 
perform,  it  has  been  customary  in  some  countries  to 
require  that  all  persons,  previously  to  tlieir  beinj; 
nominated  to  act  in  that  capacity,  should  nnderj^o  an 
examination  by  some  public  lioard  respecting  their 
knowledge  of  seamanship,  and  their  possession  of  the 
various  qualifications  necessary  to  act  as  masters,  and 
that  none  should  be  appointed  without  their  being  li- 
censed by  such  board  or  other  competent  authority. 
Wo  are  inclined  to  think  that  this  practice  is  consistent 
with  sound  policy.  "  The  interposition  of  government 
in  a  case  of  incapacity,  is  not  only  absolutely  just  and 
necessary,  but  it  is  conformable  to  the  highest  author- 
ity. The  famous  French  ordinance  of  IC81,  has  the 
following  article  : — '  Aucun  no  pourra  ii-apr6s  etro  rei,'u 
capitaine,  maitre,  ou  patron  do  iiaviro,  qu'il  n'ait  nav- 
igu6  pendant  cinq  ans,  et  n'ait  £t6  examine  pubiique- 
nient  Bur  le  fait  do  la  navigation,  et  trouve  capable  pur 
denx  anciena  mnitres,  en  pr^isenco  des  olHciers  de  I'Anii- 
raut6  et  du  Professeur  do  I'Hydrographie,  s'il  y  on  a  duns 
le  lieu.'  A  like  article  has  been  Inserted  in  the  d  de  Se 
Commerce;  and  in  1826,  the  French  government  issued 


MAT 


1833 


MAT 


nn  ordlnnnca  (i|».i'l(^'lii({|  In  rtrtnll,  »hp  (inMIflcntlonn  that 
arn  iini'dBBiiry  liffdw  any  nn«  rnn  nlitaln  «  ccrtlfloate  of 
Ills  fltiidii*  t(i  Kiiinmnnil  n  Dlilp,  pltlmr  on  n  foreign  or  n 
c'onstlnu  v()yiia»  |  tlin  |ifr«itn«  wlin  «ro  to  examine  can- 
illdatna  I  Hnn  ttio  rull<ii  tii  liti  (ilmprvcd  In  the  examination. 
A  similar  Byatniii  liitfi  liei<n  ndniitpd  In  I'runsla ;  and  wo 
can  Mot  Bntflrtillll  a  dnillit  that  It  would  be  of  the  great- 
est norvlofl  worn  it  llllrodllddd  Into  ttil.i  country.  The 
authority  iif  thfl  iniiiittir  Is  no  vory  groat,  and  the  trust 
roposud  In  lilni,  liii'liidInK  not  merely  the  ship  and 
goods  of  Ills  flMi|iloyi'r«i  liut  the  lives  of  the  crew  and 
passonaors,  so  vpfy  dKtdlisWe,  that  It  Is  the  lioimdcn 
iluty  iif  the  imlillii  ill  pruvldc,  In  ns  far  as  practicaldo, 
that  It  lie  imt  I'MiMinlltnd  tn  Ignorant  or  Incapable 
hands,  At  pruannt  tlin  C!tM  ii'  'lie  lives  of  hnndrcds 
of  piisBBnyprs  niay  lie  t'otiimli'<(l  witiiout  check  or 
ciintrol  nf  any  mirt,  and  without  their  knowing  any 
tiling  of  (liB  ninltnr,  to  iiny  incnpalile  blockhead  who 
may  lio  nlilu  »'i  prevail  on  lui  owner  to  ajipolnt  him  to 
u  ship,  No  doubt  It  is  fof  the  lutcrest  of  the  owner  to 
nppnint  thn  bust  ciiplalii  liii  can  llnd  )  but  ho  may  bo 
uiiaidii  t"  form  a  correct  ci-tlmale  of  the  <iHallllcatlons 
ucccssary  for  snrli  a  slluatloii  i  and,  though  this  were 
nut  tiio  (nan,  li  liwls  III'  circumstances  may  conspire 
to  Irliiid  his  Jiiiliimciit,  and  to  make  him  select  a  mas- 
t(M-  who  Is  really  Muwoflhy,  Hence  tiic  advantage  of 
the  pridluilimry  oinmliiaHiPti  by  competent  parties, 
whlcji,  if  uiadh  cflli'lciit,  would  cortiiitily  afford  a  pow- 
erful guarauly  ii(ialMsl  llio  chance  of  an  nnlit  person 
lioing  appointed," 

MmMo,  MB»tleh('(lef,  ,1Am//>;  Vu.  ifasti/i ;  Fr. 
Maalio;  It,  .Miitllci- ;  Hp,  Mmnilini,  Mmuclija;  Araii. 
-Irii/i),  This  resinous  substance  Is  the  produce  of  tlie 
I'itliioia  !,i-iitlti'iiti,  It  native  of  the  liovant,  and  particu- 
larly abundant  l»  thn  Island  of  Chios.  It  Is  obtained 
by  making  Irausversn  Inclslnus  In  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  Ihe  (fees,  whence  thn  nuistio  slowly  ex- 
udes About  WW  ewf,  are  annually  exiairted  from 
Cldris,  part  of  wlili'h  l«  brought  to  this  ciumtry,  packed 
in  .hosts,  'I'lni  best  Is  In  the  form  of  dry,  lirlttle,  yel- 
lowish, transpiicent  tears )  It  Is  nearly  inodorous,  ex- 
cept wlien  lieatttd,  and  then  It  has  an  agreculdo  odor ; 
L'hewed,  It  Is  almost  Insipid,  feeling,  at  llrst  gritty,  and 
altiniatolv  soft,  lis  virtues  are  trilling.— Ainsi.ik's 
Mill' rid  IiiiUm;  Ttimisdi^'s  l)l»iniimt<jry. 

Mate,  In  a  nu<rcliai:t  ship,  the  deputy  of  the  master, 
taking.  III  his  iilisence,  the  command.  There  Is  soine- 
thnes  only  iini",  itnil  sometlnies  two,  throe,  or  four 
niutiis  In  I)  ineri'liantmnn,  at'cordlng  to  her  sii«e— dc- 
nonilnateil  (Irst,  seeiilltl.  third,  etc,  mates.  The  law, 
however,  recognl»BS  only  two  descriptions  of  iiersons 
la  a  mBrchaiitmniwthe  nmslef  and  mariners;  the 
mates  being  Included  In  the  latter,  and  the  captain 
Iwiiig  respoMslblu  for  tlwlr  proceedings.  In  men-of- 
war,  tliB  ofllcors  Immediately  suliordliiato  to  tlio  cap- 
tain aro  called  llBiitMmiiits,  Hut  the  muskr,  or  officer 
whoao  peculiar  duty  It  Is  to  take  charge  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  ship,  has  certain  mates  under  him,  termed 
master's  mutes,  siiniBtlmes  selected  from  the  mid.shii)- 
nwn,  Tha  boatswain,  guihlcr,  cariientcr,  etc.,  have 
each  tlioir  mates  or  lieputlea,  taken  from  the  crew. 
Sco  articles  Misri'.H,  Hiiit'iMMi,  and  t'dxnci.s. 

Ti.o  male  Is  tim  lUiKt  l«  the  master  on  lioard,  and 
wpoii  his  (bMitli  or  iibseil'e.  the  tmite  succeeds,  vivMe. 
njliril,  to  the  earn  of  the  ship  Mild  the  government  ond 
inaiiagemuiit  of  tllfl  crBW,  I  In  does  not  cease  to  be 
mute  In  such  cases,  but  hits  thrown  upon  him,  cumu- 
latively, tha  duties  of  master,  lie  Is  f/imji  master, 
»ith  tliB  tame  geiiBral  |HPwers  and  responsibilities,  pm 
httv  iw,  and  with  tlis  priiservaf  Ion  of  his  character  and 
privileges  as  inatB,  lie  may  sue  In  the  admiralty  for 
Ills  wages  as  mate,  and  Is  eiillfled.  In  that  character, 
to  bo  curod.  If  sleli,  lit  the  tiKlianso  iff  the  ship.  The 
master,  anS  flvun  tha  coiislgiiees,  may  appoint  a  siib- 
stituto  In  «  foreign  port,  In  eases  of  necessity,  Kvcn 
«  eapercargo.  In  easBs  of  necessity,  and  acting  with 
reasonubla  discretion,  niiiy  bind  the  owner. 


Matches,  Xiuolfer.  Acordlng  to  Dr.  B.  Hoett- 
gcr,  in  Animlrn  der  Chemie  timl  Pharmade,  vol.  xlvii., 
p.  3.1J,  take  phosphonis,  four  parts ;  nitre,  ten  parts  ; 
line  glue,  six  parts  ;  red  ochre,  or  red  lead,  flvo  parts  ; 
smalt,  two  parts.  Convert  the  glue  with  a  little  water 
by  a  gentle  heat  into  a  smooth  jelly,  put  It  into  .n 
slighty  warm  porcelain  mortar  to  liquefy;  rub  tbc 
phosph',  IS  down  through  this  gelatine  at  o  tomper.- 
tiire  of  alioiit  110°  or  V)0°  Fahr. ;  add  tlio  nitre,  then 
the  red  powder,  and  lastly  the  smalt,  till  the  whole 
forms  a  uniform  paste.  To  make  writing-paper 
motches,  which  bum  with  a  bright  (lame  and  diffuse 
an  agreeable  odor,  moisten  each  side  of  the  paper  with 
tincture  of  benzoin,  drj-  it,  cut  it  into  slips,  and  smear 
one  of  their  ends  with  a  little  of  the  above  paste  by 
means  of  a  hair  pencil.  On  rubbing  the  said  end  after 
it  is  dry  against  a  rough  surface,  the  paper  will  take 
fire,  without  the  intervention  of  sulphur.  To  form 
lucifer  wood  matches,  that  act  witliout  sulphur,  melt 
ill  a  flat-bottonicd  tin  pan  as  much  white  wax  as  will 
stand  one  tenth  of  an  inch  deep ;  take  u  bundle  ol 
wooden  matches  free  from  rosin,  rub  their  ends  agaiu.-t 
a  red-hot  iron  plate  till  the  wood  lie  slightly  cliarred  ; 
dip  them  now  in  tlie  melted  wax  for  a  miancnt,  shake 
them  well  on  taking  them  out,  and  linally  dip  them 
separately  in  the  viscid  paste.  When  dry,  they  will 
kindle  readily  by  friction, 

T/ie  ilamifacture  vf  Fri'vlion  MiUches. — .\mong  ar- 
ticles of  great  demand  that  have  become  of  import- 
ance, though  apparently  insignificant,  there  is  nothing 
more  worthy  of  notice  than  the  friction  or  lucifur 
match.  About  20  years  ago  chemi.stry  abolished  the 
tindor-box ;  and  the  burnt  rag  which  made  the  tindci 
went  to  make  paper.  Slowly  did  the  invention  spread. 
The  use  of  the  match  is  now  so  ostablislicd,  that  ma- 
chines aro  invented  to  prepare  the  splints.  In  New- 
York  one  match  manufactory  annually  cuts  up  a  large 
raft  of  timber  for  matches.  The  Knglish  matches  arc 
generally  square,  and  tlius  ilO,000  splints  are  cut  in  a 
minute.  The  American  matches  are  round,  and  tln' 
process  of  shaping  being  more  elaborate,  but  1500  s|iliiits 
are  cut  in  a  niHlute.  Wo  find  that  a  bundle  of  If^OO 
thin  splints,  eacii  4  inches  long,  is  linally  convertel 
into  .1000  matches.  Witliout  being  separate,  cacli  eml 
of  the  liundle  is  fir^-t  dipped  into  sulpliur— wlieu  dry, 
the  s]dints  adhering  to  each  other  Ijy  means  of  tlie 
sulphur,  mu.st  be  parted  by  what  is  called  dusting. 

Mats  (Du.  J/««('«  ;  Fr.  Xatirs;  Gcr.  Matten;  It. 
Sluoje,  Slnje;  Port.  Ksteirus;  Bus.  I'riiffos/iti;  Sp. 
I'sleras),  textures  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  flags, 
reeds,  the  bark  of  trees,  rushes,  grass,  rattans,  old 
ropes,  etc.  In  tills  country  mats  are  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes.  The  coarser  sort  are  very  largely 
employed  in  the  packing  of  furniture  and  goods ;  in 
the  stowage  of  com  and  various  otlier  arti<  les  on  board 
sliip;  in  horticultural  operations;  in  covering  the 
floors  of  cliurclies  and  otlier  public  buildings,  etc. 
Tho  finer  sorts  are  principally  employed  in  covering 
the  floors  of  private  houses.  In  Europe,  mats  are 
principally  manufactured  for  sale  in  Kussia,  where 
their  production  is  a  prominent  brancli  of  national  in- 
dustry. Tlicy  consist  of  tlie  bark  of  the  lime  or  lin- 
den-tree, and  are  known  in  lliis  country  by  tho  name 
of  hast  mats.  The  Russian  peasants  manufacture  this 
sort  of  material  into  shoos,  cordage,  sacks  for  com, 
etc.,  and  employ  it  in  an  endless  variety  of  ways.  In 
consequence  of  the  vast  quantities  of  matting  tliat  are 
thus  made  use  of  at  home  and  sent  aliroad,  the  dcuiand 
for  it  is  innncnse.  It  is  principally  produced  in  tho 
govcmmcnt  of  Viatka,  Kostroma,  and  those  imme- 
diately contiguous ;  and  in  the  months  of  May  and 
.Tuno,"tlie  period  when  the  lurk  is  most  easily  de- 
tached from  tlie  stem,  the  viUa^  s  in  the  governments 
in  qiic-fioii  aro  almost  deserted,  the  wlndo  population 
being  ibcn  in  tiio  woods  employed  In  stripping  tho 
trees.  The  aeadeiiiician  Kiippeii,  who  bos  carefully 
investigated  tills  curious  subject,  estimates  the  average 


MAT 


1334 


MAU 


lOnual  production  of  mata  in  European  Russia,  as  fol- 
lows: 

OoTanunftnt  of  PItMi. 

VUtluu 8,000,000 

Kostroma. 4,000,000 

Kasan 1,000,000 

NUnl  Novgorod 1,000,000 

Vologda,  Tainboir,  Simbirsk,  and  Penza. .. .  2,000,000 

Total 14,000,000 

Kuppon  further  estimates  tliat  about  one  fourth  part 
of  this  vast  quantity,  or  &i  millions,  are  exported,  the 
rest  being  consumed  at  home.  It  is  obvious  from 
tliose  statements  that  the  annual  destruction  of  linden- 
trees  must  be  quite  enormous ;  and  it  may  well  excite 
astonishment  that  they  are  not  already  all  but  ex- 
hausted. But  whether  it  bo  from  the  rapid  growth  of 
tlie  tree,  or  the  vast  extent  of  the  forests  in  which  it  is 
fdund,  the  gloomy  forebodings  of  Mr.  Toolio  as  to  its 
ilcstruction  have  not  hitherto  been  realized  (View  of 
Ft'issia,  iii.,  202),  and  mats  have  not  become  either 
scarcer  or  dearer.  It  is,  however,  liurdly  possible  to 
suppose  that  such  should  continue  to  be  the  case,  see- 
ing the  rapid  increase  of  population  and  of  the  con- 
^unlption  of  matting  in  most  parts  of  the  empire.  But 
in  tlio  event  of  its  becoming  scarcer,  tlie  inhabitants 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  substitutes ;  so  that 
we  agree  in  opinion  with  tliose  who  thinli  it  would  Ijo 
liad  policy  to  impose  any  restrictions  on  this  branch  of 
industry,  in  tlie  view  of  averting  an  evil  wliich  may 
never  occur;  and  which,  if  it  do  occur,  may  be  easily 
■ibviated. — ^m  Supplement  mi  Journal  de  I  Intericur  de 
Petersburg,  for  1841. 

Archangel  is  the  principal  port  for  the  shipment  of 
mats ;  and  it  appears  that  at  an  average  of  the  years 
l.'<51  and  18,')2,  the  export  of  mats  from  that  port 
amounted  to  G15,3G0  pieces  a  year.  Large  quantities 
are  also  shipped  from  Petersburg,  Riga,  and  other 
ports  i  and  nio.st  descriptions  of  Russian  produce  sent 
abroad  are  paclced  in  mats.  Various  descriptions  of 
reed  mats  are  extensive  ,  .  1 1 .  jfacturcd  in  Spain  and 
I'ortugal;  some  of  them  icin:,  .  .^ry  beautifully  varied. 
In  Spain  largo  quantities  ut  -lutting  ijure  made  of  the 
IC:ipartu  rush.  Rush  floor  mats,  and  rattan  table  mats 
of  a  vcrj'  superior  description,  are  brought  from  China. 
They  should  be  chosen  clean,  of  u  bright  clear  color, 
and  should,  when  packed,  be  tlioroughly  drj-.  The 
mats  of  tlie  iTupancse  arc  soft  and  elastic,  serving  them 
iKith  for  carpets  and  beds ;  they  are  made  of  a  peculiar 
species  of  rush  cultivated  for  the  purpose.  The  bags 
in  which  sugar  is  imported  from  the  Mauritius  consist 
of  matting  formed  of  the  leaves  of  a  tree  growing  in 
the  island,  interwoven  in  broad  strips.  They  are 
very  strong  and  durable,  and  may  lie  washed  and 
cleaned  without  sustaining  any  injurj-.  Being  im- 
ported in  large  quantities,  they  are  sold  very  cheap. 
(Beside  the  works  already  referred  to,  see  Mii.nnnN's 
Oriental  Commerce,  and  the  valuable  little  work  en- 
titled Vegetable  Subslanres,  3fateriah  of  Manufactxiret, 
published  by  the  Society  for  the  Dilfusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  London.)  It  is  probable  that  mats  formed 
the  first  sort  of  woven  fabrics  produced  by  man ;  and 
it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  but  few  savage  tribes  have 
been  discovered  which  have  not  attained  to  consider- 
able eminence  in  their  manufacture.  On  the  coast  of 
(jiuincaand  other  places  in  the  west  of  Africa,  pieces 
of  fine  mat,  about  a  yard  long,  and  of  a  pretty  uniform 
texture,  weru  denominated  makkules,  and  formed  a 
sort  of  money  ;  the  value  of  commodities  being  rated 
and  estimated  in  th  n.-  ^foUKl.i.KT,  Prospectus  d'un 
Dictionnaire  de  Cuii'i'rce.  They  enjoyed  this  dis- 
tinction, no  do'i'ijr,  inm  vhoir  utility,  and  the  groat 
care  and  labo'  'i.toHu-il  r.-i  ilieir  preparation.  There 
is  hardly  an  is  -id  ir  tiij  SoiiM  Seas  in  which  the  na- 
tives have  not  f  yr.tei'i  gr- ..'  nilland  dexterity  in  tlie 
making  of  mat '  !'■'  'inev  jrts  consist,  generally,  of 
lived  reeds  or  giy  .-.i  ■  -ud  ii»vo  a  very  brilliant  appear- 
ance. 


Maulmaln,  or  Moulmein,  a  sea-port  town  of 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  capital  of  the  British  prov- 
ince of  Martaban,  at  the  mouth  of  the  great  River 
Than-lueng,  having  north  the  Burmese  town  of  Marta- 
ban, on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  west,  the 
island  of  Balu,  which  serves  as  a  natural  breakwater 
to  defend  the  port  from  the  heavy  seas  that  would 
otherwise  bo  thrown  in  from  the  west,  100  miles  S.S.K. 
of  Rangoon,  27  miles  N.X.E.  of  Amherst,  lat,  1G° 
30'  N.,  long.  97°  38'  E.  It  was  founded  in  1825,  wlieii 
the  site  was  selected  by  Sir  A.  Campbell  as  eligible  as 
well  for  a  commercial  as  a  military  statiim.  It  is  aliout 
200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river,  and  extensive 
and  fertile  plains  stretch  eastw^ard  from  it  toward  the 
mountains.  Its  port  is  good,  and,  from  its  extensive 
command  of  internal  navigation,  it  promises  to  become 
a  considerable  emporium.  The  principal  articles  of 
export  are  teak-timber  and  rice  ;  but  there  is  also  a 
considerable  export  of  tobacco,  stick-lac,  betel-nut, 
ivory,  cutch,  cocoa-nuts,  etc.  The  imports  consist 
principally  of  European  cotton  goods  and  marine 
stores.  The  principal  trade  of  the  place  has  hitherto 
been  carried  on  with  Calcutta,  Jfadras,  Rangoon,  anil 
Penang ;  but  in  1837  a  direct  trade  was  commenced 
with  London.  Owing  to  tho  facility  with  which  su])- 
plies  of  teak-timber  are  obtained,  ship-building  is  cur- 
ried on  very  extensively.  The  population  in  18 18  was 
estimated  at  about  35,000.  Tlie  principal  article  of 
commerce  at  Maulmain  is  teak-timber,  witli  whirli 
from  25  to  30  ships  annually  load  for  England.  The 
quantity  of  teak  exported  to  that  country  from  1840 
to  1847,  and  its  estimated  official  value,  was  as  fol- 
lows : 


Y<>n. 

No.  of  tons. 

Price  per  ton. 

Value. 

Ki. 

.1 

I8W 

4,952 

25 

12,»50 

IMl 

6,899 

25 

15.98^ 

1842 

11,847 

25 

28,717 

184-'} 

10,528 

30 

81,.W4 

1844 

14,245 

30 

42,875 

1845 

13,B60 

40 

^3,4^•i 

1846 

16,798 

45 

76,593 

1847 

7,878 

GO 

89,.8l!5 

Maulmain  is  a  free  port,  on  the  same  footing  as  Sing. 
apore,  etc.  There  is  no  custom-house,  and  no  duties 
on  sea-borne  goods  ;  but  foreign  sugar,  and  sugar  frmu 
Singa[)ore  and  Malacca,  is  contraband.  Tlio  coins  in 
use  are  the  Company's  rupee  and  its  subdivisions,  the 
same  as  are  current  in  Calcutta.  The  English  sove- 
reign is  generally  worth  11  rupees,  and  tlie  Spanisli 
dollar  220  rupees  per  100  dollars.  The  weights  are  tlic 
Madras  viss,  equal  to  3'065  lbs.  avoirdupois,  or,  say,  3} 
lbs. ;  in  this  there  are  100  ticuls.  The  Bengal  Ijazaar 
maund  of  82  lbs.,  is  also  occasionally  used.  Tlie  meas- 
ures principally  used  are  called  baskets  :  they  are  of 
uncertain  size.  A  basket  of  cleaned  rice  is  aliout  (j.'i 
lbs.  in  weight ;  of  mixed  about  CO  lbs. ;  paddy  51  llis. 
Ship-building  Is  well  adapted  to  the  place  ;  and  some 
of  the  finest  teak-ships  in  the  world  have  been  built 
here.  There  are  several  dry  docks,  though  not  of 
a  verj'  efficient  description,  for  repairing  vessels.  Tlie 
British  government  bought  here,  during  18 17,  upward 
of  5000  tons  of  teak  for  the  royal  dockyards  in  En- 
gland. 

The  Jfautma!n  Almanac  for  1852  contains  the  follow- 
ing statements:  "The  value  of  tlie  imports  by  sea 
into  Maulmain  during  18,50  amounted  to  22,57,9-13  ru- 
pees, and  the  exports  to  23,,32,951  rupees  ;  while  in  the 
first  10  months  of  1851  the  imports  increased  in  value 
to  28,78,487,  or  X287,848,  and  the  exports  to  28,70,707 
or  £287,979.  The  town,  which  20  years  back  iiui- 
taiiied  only  a  few  miserable  fishing  huts,  is  thus  slioivn 
to  have  a  trade  of  nearly  £000,01)0  a  year,  wliioli  is 
still  increasing.  The  value  of  the  piece  goods  imported 
from  Europe  during  1851  amounted  to  i'G.'i»229 ;  coals, 
X5408,  and  iron  £1849.  Provisions  were  imported  to 
the  extent  of  £3496,  and  wines  of  tho  value  of  £102 ; 
military  stores  £1653,  etc.    The  articles  of  export  pre- 


MAU 


1335 


MAU 


I  Uie  foUow- 
iports  liy  sea 
•22,r)7,0f<3  rii- 
;  while  in  tlic 
ased  in  value 
;3  to -28,79,707 
irs  back  lon- 
is  thus  shown 
■ear,  which  is 
oods  impurtc^l 
Ull^i!) ,  coals, 
a  imported  to 
uluoofXUVi; 
of  export  pre- 


fent  no  remarkable  feature  of  interest,  except  timber, 
tlie  value  of  whicli  in  1850  was  £56,108,  and  in  the 
flrnt  10  months  of  1851,  £81,6G1.  The  town  possesses 
a  large  and  thriving  European  population,  and  40  ves- 
sels, of  an  aggregate  burden  of  17,170  tons,  have  been 
launched  from  its  dockyard  since  1830.  It  contains 
three  printing-presses,  seven  places  of  public  worship 
(live  of  which  are  Protestant),  besides  eight  schools, 
Knglish  and  native." 

Mauritius.    Tho  Islu  of  France  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese,  A.  D.  1500,  but  the  Dutch  were  the 
tirst  settlers,  in  1598.     The  Mauritius  was  so  ciUed  liy 
the  Dutch  in  honor  of  Prince  Maurice  ;  but  it  was  first 
settled  by  the  French  in  1720;  and  is  indebted  for 
most  part  of  its  prosperity  to  the  skillful  management 
of  its  governor,  the  famous  M.  de  la  Bourdonnais.     It 
was  taken  by  the  English  in  1810,  and  was  definitive- 
ly ceded  to  them  in  1814.     Mauritius  is  fertile,  a  con- 
siderable |>urt  of  the  surface  lieing,  however,  occupied 
by  mountains.     Its  shape  is  circular,  being  about  150 
miles  in  circumference.     The  climate  is  healthy,  but 
8ul>ject  to  hurricanes.     The  principal  product  of  the 
island  is  sugar,  which  is  now  cultivated  to  the  almost 
total  neglect  of  every  thing  else  ;  but  it  also  produces 
excellent  coffee,  indigo,  and  cotton.     Tlic  bluckwood, 
or  el)ony,  of  the  Mauritius  is  very  abundant,  and  of  u 
superior  quality.     Very  little  corn  or  grain  of  any 
kind  is  raised  in  the  island,  most  articles  of  provision 
being  imported.      Previously  to  1825,  the  sugar  and 
other  iirticlea  brought  to  Great  Britain  from  the  Mau- 
ritius were  charged  with  the  same  duties  as  the  like 
articles  from  India ;  but  in  the  above-mentioned  year 
this  distinction  was  done  away,  and  it  was  enacted 
that  all  goods  of  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture 
of  the  Mauritius  should,  upon  importation  into  any  port 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  be  subject  to  the  same  duties 
and  regulations  as  the  like  goods  being  of  the  growth, 
produce,  and  manufacture  of  the  British  colonies  in  the 
West  Indies ;  and  that  the  trade  with  the  Mauritius 
should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  same 
footing  as  that  of  the  West  India  Islands.    This  was  a 
great  boon  to  tlie  Mauritius,  and  the  exports  of  sugar 
from  it  have  since  rapidly  increased.     According  to 
Milburn  (Oriental  Commerce,  ii.,  568),  they  amount- 
ed, in  1812,  to  about  5,000,000  lbs.      In  1818  they 
amounted  to  alrout  8,000,000  lbs. ;  and  in  1824  to  23,- 
334,558  lbs.    Since  1826  nine  tenths  of  the  sugar  raised 
in  Mauritius  has  been  shipped  for  the  United  Kingdom. 
Sugar  Trade — Tho  recent  removal  of  the  interdic- 
tion against  tlie  importation  of  coolies  into  the  island 
of  Mauritius  has  contributed  largely  to  the  prosperity 
of  that  colony,  and  materially  augmented  the  sugar  re- 
turns of  1856-67  over  those  of  preceding  years.     Ad- 
vices from  tlie  island,  under  date  of  July  11.  refer  in 
glowing  terms  to  the  prosperous  condition  of  tlie  sugar 
planters,  and  inform  us  of  tho  gratifying  tact — the 
more  gratifying,  inasmuch  as  the  price  of  sugar  has 
sensibly  declined  sincu  that  date — that  "just  as  we 
are  about  to  harvest  the  largest  crop  ever  made,  and 
the  removal  of  the  interdiction  to  emigration  from  In- 
dia at  the  same  time,  has  wonderfully  improved  the 
position  of  every  landed  proprietor,  and  has  placed  the 
colony  in  a  high  state  of  prosperity."     In  1856  the 
shipments  were  235,958,460  lbs.,  amounting  in  value  to 
$12,433,492,   equal  to  5-26  cents  per  pound.     From 
Januarj-  to  Moy  there  were  shipped  98,445,286  lbs., 
valued  at  $6,042,600,  or  6-13  cents  per  pound.     The 
average  price  in  1856  was  65  26  per  100  lbs. ;  and  dur- 
ing tlie  first  live  months  of  the  present  year  it  rose  to 
$6  13,  showing  an  advance  of  87  cents.     Tho  ship- 
ment of  the  old  crop,  it  was  believed,  would  be  brouglit 
to  a  close  by  the  end  of  July,  and  would  reach  nearly 
220,000,000  lbs.,  against  235,000,000  Ibj.  produced  in 
185li.     This,  howevv,  was  the  largest  crop  ever  made 
en  the  island.     The  next  crop  (1857-58)  it  is  estimat- 
ed will  reach  240,000,000  lbs.,  or  20,000,000  lbs.  more 
than  the  crop  now  closed.     We  annex  a  statement 


showing  the  production  of  sugar  In  UfturittiM  dutlng 
the  past  seven  years : 

Yean.                          Pouiuli,       [  Y«ftn,  PwfMfi, 

ISSO— 61 116,0(10,000    !  Iti54-K,       nhmM) 

jasi-es 186,000,000  ,  is&v-iw ,,,  qittimjim 

1^2-M 160,000,000    \<m-t>i ,  mmm 

18&J-54. 202,000,000  'I  ISBI— 68 HO,imim 


Abbut  one  fourth  of  the  number  of  mllU  in  tlw  Inl- 
and were  already,  in  (July)  in  operation,  and  \iy  tlic 
first  of  August  sugar-making  would  be  gniiar*!.  M«tHt' 
few  parcels  had  reached  market,  and  "oM  i\t  lllxh 
prices  to  complete  a  cargo  to  Australia,  TIlMK,  fi/f 
vacuum  cluirced  $9  76  to  $10 ;  good  and  (!iib  yu\U)W, 
$8  76  to  $9  26  per  cwt.  The  news  from  V,utti\m  hun, 
however,  before  this  time  arrested  tlie«B  «4vitllt'inK 
rates,  and  our  next  advices  will  show  a  i!i)fl»iil«r«l(t«< 
decline. 

With  the  exception  of  molasses,  elHmy,  »ni\  A  f«w 
other  unimportant  articles,  sugar  is  alinuet  tll«  imU 
article  of  export.  Tho  principal  Imimrts  ciiti»tat  «f 
provisions,  particularly  grain  and  Hour  i  tli«  bU()|(ly  w- 
quired  for  the  use  of  the  island  being  alniott  mmri>\y 
derived  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Mad>t|{i»>>Ditri 
India,  Bourbon,  etc.  Eartlienware,  inucliliiitry,  furnU 
turo,  hardware,  piece  goods,  wine,  etc.,  are  itUo  Imrijel) 
imported.  The  total  declared  valiio  uf  tllH  8«p')it« 
from  the  United  Kingdom  to  the  Mauiltlus  in  ixli'i 
amounted  to  £243,045.  In  1851  the  [wpulaHun  flf  the 
Mauritius  amounted,  including  military  ami  ^isitiiMtl,  t<i 
183,506  souls,  of  whom  between  UOOO  and  lo,OiM  Wdfo 
whites.  The  population  of  the.  Seychelles— swhII  |s|> 
ands  dependent  on  the  JIauritius— amountod  Ht  tht< 
same  time  to  8000.  The  emancipation  of  tl)ii  nUytm 
was  little  less  injurious  to  tho  Mauritius  timii  t<i  (Im< 
sugar  colonies  in  the  West  Indies.  But,  owing  ta  !»• 
more  convenient  situation,  vast  numbers  of  liilUuwtt^it 
and  other  laborers  from  India  have  been  enticfd  »w»y 
and  imported ;  and  to  this  the  increase  uf  |Hipuli«tliHI 
and  of  the  exports  of  sugar  are  wholly  to  liu  a^icribi'il. 
The  principal  imports  from  the  Ilnltiid  Ntilt«s  Arc 
beef,  pork,  butter,  cheese,  candles,  lard,  and  Mimim 
The  discriminating  duties  in  favor  of  Britisli  \trn4wi< 
and  manufactures  limit  Ameri  an  exports  to  tha  Alll-- 
cles  above  enumerated.  Ad  i:u'oreiii  duty  10  pur  iwnt,, 
and  s;iecific  duties  various :  On  tobacco  uniiUMfllfitti' 
tured,  6  cents  per  pound ;  manufactured,  H  cents  (lOf 
pound;  segars  and  snuff,  24  cents  per  pound.  All 
foreign  nations  enji  '  ciiitl  commercial  iirivil8|{(ii>, 
The  ports  of  the  Mamitiii>  aii  Mahebourg,  Port  liUuU, 
and  Seychelles  Islai^' 

There  is  some  ^iirect  tp:ule  between  tha  l/»lt«(l 
States  and  the  Mauritian.  Occasionally  a  c»r|{i»  i)t 
lumber  arrives  from  Culifornia,  but  as  yet  this  triwi^ 
has  not  been  profitable. 

Maury,  Matthew  T— Lieutenant  Maury  1*  » 
native  of  Virginia.  Ho  received  an  appointment  tw 
midshipman  in  tho  navy  in  3825,  and  was  iirilernd  t« 
the  Hmndywine,  then  fitting  out  ut  Wusliingtun,  t'f 
convey  the  illustrious  Lafayette  to  France,  Hs  f' 
turned  home  in  that  vessel,  and  in  the  spring  of  iH'iH 
again  sailed  in  her  to  the  Pacific,  and  was  ulisunt  rtboil* 
four  years,  returning  in  the  Vlnrenwa  oloop,  PrtM= 
ing  his  examination,  he  was  ogain  ordered  to  til"  I'* 
cific  station  as  master  of  the  sloop-of-war  Folnuiiilli 
From  the  time  of  his  entrance  into  the  navy  lie  w«s  A 
close  student.  He  made  himself  master  uf  tlw  S(»»ll« 
isli  tongue,  by  studying  a  course  of  piatlMilDdtica  4n<l 
navigation  in  that  language.  His  work  on  "  Kitvlij/l" 
tion"  he  commenced  in  the  steerage  of  the  Viin'itiuet, 
and  it  was  completed  in  the  frigate  Potumiw,  U>  wtlk'lf 
he  was  ordered  as  acting  lieutenant,  whan  the  /'></ 
mouth  was  about  to  return  to  the  llniteij  Htutsii, 
When  again  Lieutenant  Maury  came  home,  lie  wiw 
regularly  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy,  and  was  appulntml 
astronomer  to  the  South  Sea  Exploring  l'U|)edtli<'n, 
under  Commander  Thomas  Ap-Cutesliy  Junes.  Me<m 
after  that  officer  gave  up  the  command  of  tlis  «xil(i4i-' 


ill 


MEA 


1336 


MEA 


tlon,  Ll«u*.enaiit  Manry  retired  from  it  also,  and  wao 
afterward  put  in  clinrge  of  tho  d6pot  of  charts  and  in- 
struments wliicli  has  served  us  a  nucleus  for  tho  na- 
tional  otiservator}'  and  hydrogrsphical  oflice  of  tho 
United  States,  of  which  he  now  has  cliurgo.  His  la- 
bors in  orf^anizlng  tlie  observatory  wcro  great  and 
cITicicnt,  and  ho  was  successful  in  ut  onco  putting  it 
on  a  respectable  footing.  The  investigations  of  Lieu- 
tenant Maiir}-  as  to  tlio  winds  and  currents  of  the 
ocean,  the  charts  whicli  he  has  constructed,  mapping 
out  better  paths  and  more  rapid  routes  across  the  track- 
less depths,  and  the  incalculable  benefits  wliich  he  has 
thus  be<towod  upon  the  inorcantila  and  marine  inter- 
ests of  tho  world,  are  well  known.  See  ifloulk.  Ut. 
Jffjw.,  vii.,  5G0,  ii.,  4,'>4  ;  Hiint'o  xUaif.,  xvili.,  616. 

Mayagiiez,  oi  Mayaguas.  This  is  the  most 
importuut  [lurt  on  tlic  isliind  of  Porto  Uico.  It  pos- 
sesses large  capital,  and  contains  several  costly  and 
iino  dwellings.  Kupidly  rebuilt  after  tlie  groat  con- 
H.igration,  by  whicli  it  was  destroyed  in  18H,  Maya- 
gftez  lias  gained  in  prosperity;  having  l)een  before 
that  disaster  but  un  inconsiderable  vilbigts,  it  hog  now 
become  the  nuist  important  cit}  on  the  island.  The 
Hurrouiiding  district  produces  large  quantities  of  cof- 
fee, thciugli,  since  1840,  tlicre  has  been  a  sensible  di- 
minution in  that  article.  For  tliat  year,  tlie  exports 
amounted  to  HU,O0U  quintals,  while  in  18&.S  they  fell  to 
4.S,oOO  quintals.  The  cotfee  nf  Mayaguez  stands  in 
such  high  repute  in  America  and  Germany,  that  pur- 
chascj  are  frequently  mad"  in  advance  of  the  crop. 
Hence  cu:nes  also  the  best  sugar  of  the  island,  which 
is  mostly  imported  in  American  bottoms  into  the  Uni- 
ted States.  In  18.")o,  there  arrived  83  American  ves- 
sels, of  13,272  tons,  carrying  freight  to  tho  value  of 
i}223,ri00;  and  there  cleared  76,  of  12,680^  tons.  i;aking 
cargoes  worth  $46U,013.  The  molasses  from  this  port 
is  always  of  the  best  quality,  and  much  sought  after 
by  American  and  English  shippers.  U.  .ddes  coffee, 
in  185.'t  there  were  ex(>orted  165}  hogsheads  of  rum ; 
8,221  hogsheads  of  molasses ;  20,766,033  pounds  of 
sugar;  but  only  4,468  pounds  of  tobacco,  showing  a 
decrease,  compared  with  tlio  preceding  year,  of  over 
jO,0UO  pounds.  Tliere  were,  besides,  1,000  hogsheads 
of  rum  mixed  with  tabasoo  pepper  {:nalngafta),  a  prep- 
aration constituti.ig  now  a  new  and  )irotitable  branch 
nf  domestic  industry.  Imports  from  the  United 
Stales  a!i('  Hpgland  are  generally  similar  to  the  im- 
ports into  San  Juan. 

Mead,  or  Metheglin  (Ger.  Afeht,  Meth;  Su. 
Steede,  .Merdnmk ;  Fr.  JJiidrvmel ;  It.  Idromele ;  Rus. 
I.ipez},  tho  ancient,  and  tor  a  long  time,  the  favor'te 
drink  of  the  noithem  nations.  It  is  a  preparation  of 
honey  and  water. ' 

Meal  (tier.  Afehl;  Du.  Med;  Fr.  and  It.  Farine., 
Sp.  Farina;  Uus.  Muka;  Lat.  Farina),  the  edible 
part  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  pulse  of  diller- 
ent  kinds,  ground  into  a  species  of  coarsu  flour.  See 
C'oiiN,  Fi-otiB,  Whkat,  and  Bi!EAiisTui.rs. 

Measures  and  Weights.  They  were  invented 
by  Phidion  of  Argos,  86!)  ii.c. — Ariind.  Marbles. 
They  became  general  in  most  countries  soon  after- 
ward ;  and  were  verj*  early  known  in  England.  Stand- 
ards of  weights  and  measures  were  provided  for  the 
whole  kingdom  by  the  sheriffs  of  J^ondon,  8  Kichard 
1.,  A.u.  ll'J7.  Standards  were  again  fixed  in  En- 
gland, 1257.  They  were  equalized  for  tho  United 
Kingdom  in  1825.  Meajiire,  in  legal  and  commer- 
cial sense,  denotes  a  certain  quantity  or  portion  of  r.ny 
tl  ing  bought,  sold,  valued,  or  the  like.  See  WEiaiiTS 
and  Mhasiikks. 

Meats,  Preserved.  The  interest  which  has  of 
late  attached  to  the  subject  of  such  meatp.  warrants 
U!  in  bringing  under  .xamination  tlie  principles  and 
pt  .ctice  on  which  thii-  important  branch  of  industry 
is  based.  The  art  itself  in  of  modeni  inventi<m,  and 
differs  in  everj*  respect  from  tho  old  or  common  modes 
of  'irvserving  animal  food.     These,  ns  is  well  known, 


depend  on  the  iu«  of  culinary  salt,  Mlt|Mtrf<,  •utfar,  nr 
similar  aubatances,  which,  witan  In  wimtiix).  on  lUit 
possess  the  power  of  absorliing  n»yn»n  i{i«»,  hiiiI  thnrx- 
fore  cut  off  effectually  all  occass  ut  »ir  Ut  th«  mfat 
they  protect.  It  might  Iw  iiiuii;<iiiut  tlwt  WDUy  aliKin 
would  answer  this  purimsa ;  hut  th«  I'linlritfy  in  dm 
case,  for  pure  water  absorbs  oxygon,  kiid  Ik,  ttlttfflfdfn, 
all  the  less  adapted  for  presarvlng  meat,  In  Vfi<i>"nUm 
as  it  Is  free  from  saline  i.iatter,  sini'a  it  h  tli«tt  wi  murU 
the  more  capable  of  comiiinln;;  wUli  onygun  «in. 
Thus,  snow,  which  is  pure  water  >'ry>i(illl/.iii1,  luti*  H  prrw* 
er  of  pnxlucing  the  panary  ferniunf»t|i)it  whdtf  fiiUcd 
with  flour ;  ancl  this  it  is  able  to  do  In  I'lmMnnnniii  tit 
Ihn  'arge  quantity  of  gaseciui  ii-iV)(mi  widrll  It  C'lH- 
tains.  Siuiilarly,  rain  water,  (.imI  H«|i(i(di(lly  ilcw, 
will  bring  on  the  putrefitctlon  of  jitlmiil  tnattcr*  tillliti 
sooner  than  spring  watur;  and  Hia  villmftr  litfjltdire 
respecting  tho  effect  of  Hui  moan'n  r/tyi  in  tUK'n^ffniing 
the  corruption  of  meat,  is,  Iwyond  ditliltt,  ilcliMiiloiit 
upon  the  fact,  that  during  ^^luar  limiMgUt  li)|;bl^( 
there  is  always  a  large  d«|M)iiitlon  of  dww  t  nnil  tIrU 
having  fallen  in  a  minutely  divldait  i>t«l«i,  (tiieiHt^iuiii 
tho  largest  amount  of  free  iixyg«n,  wlilc'i  jtiifA  or  dli' 
tilled  water  is  capable  of  al>M)rbing  from  tin*  aftri'M' 
phere,  and,  therefore,  lias  a  |iro|Hirli<in«tA  iminet  itt 
dccon^posing— just  as  it  also  hax  nf  \iii>iU'MliK,  tlitli 
far  our  remarks  have  \ieen  appUKd  wil«ly  Ut  fftw  nf 
uncooked  meats  (  bnt  the  praetimtl  imitt\n)(  itt  tlif)  ii)c 
ject  which  we  have  in  hand  r«»Uy  \*MiU  Ut  titi«n 
which  are  more  or  less  cooked  or  \if»i»tvm\,  It  In 
with  reference  to  provisions  of  tills  kind,  tlwtt  rt  \iM- 
liameiitary  inquiry  is  now  in  ]tronr»ii*  (  /mil  wn  ciin 
not  do  better  than  show  the  great  JlH|HirtillM'«  iif  silrli 
a  sulijoct  to  a  maritime  nation,  by  utiitlnifi  thrtt  tlion 
provisions,  when  sound,  urn  an  alMiiluta  |iriiviititlv«  of 
sea-scurvy — a  disease  said,  on  giKul  »\ti\uif\iy,  Ut  hdve 
destroyed  more  life,  and  to  liavu  dniM'  nii»r«  ilumfliiii  to 
commerce,  than  ail  tho  eneiiilAs  ami  l«nt|H'»t«  itlilrli 
shipping  ever  encountered.  W«  n»«l  not  ««  far  In 
search  of  evidence  to  prove  the  faarfiil  Imvon  idiiacd 
by  this  disease  ;  for  we  are  well  t>i,'ttU\m\  \iy  tlin  lit'- 
tory  of  Admiral  Anson':!  insinnrabla  i<n\m\Mim,  to 
damage  the  interests  of  Kpain  In  ilia  J'ui'KI  Ocwiii,  by 
intercepting  the  annual  treasiiriitHilhp  iif  ^iiD^ni  mi  Iiit 
return  to  l';uro|>e.  In  splta  of  evii/y  tlilnif  ttinl  latn 
and  experiencn  could  do,  Au«im  t«||4  ui  tllllt  lin  ioat, 
in  nil,  fully  four  fifths  of  his  ixuipla  by  ni'Mfvy,  (If 
41/)  men  with  whom  the  i.'enliiriiin  I'icjmrtwii  from 
England,  only  200  lived  to  reaidi  tli«  lulitnil  of  .tiidti 
Fernandez,  and  no  more  than  1  of  tlli-w'  wcflt  i'rt)i(itrlc 
of  doing  duty ;  and  but  for  a  sHjiply  of  iitlii'r^  lit  ^t. 
Helena,  there  would  not  h«v«  lieun  utrKniftll  rMniiiit- 
'••■.^  to  carry  the  ship  to  her  aiudmrrtgi',  Mtff  di'eifll" 
ing,  in  tho  most  pathetic  inaiiner,  tliM  ilrniwlfiil  siiffrN 
ings  of  hia  crew,  and  rejoicing  at  Hw  l)n(rt''>'/pini'iil 
caused  by  the  sojourn  at  ,i\,an  VetmuiU/,.  tbf  writer 
concludes — "  I  therefore  uliall  »nm  iip  Hi«  Uttn\  of  oiir 
loss  since  our  departure  from  Kiigliirid,  tim  lirtlcf  to 
convey  some  idea  of  our  |iaet  atitturSn^*  ami  ii'ir  pfi"«- 
ent  strength.  We  hail  hiirii'it  on  ln/iiril  tlix  ('miu- 
rion,  since  leaving  St.  Helana,  'iVl  Wxit,  iinil  lidd  re- 
maining on  board  214.  Thie,  will,  iliiiibtli's»,  iipircnf 
a  most  e'.traordlnary  mortality  (  lull  yi't,  on  li(«rd 
the  GloHCfHer  (his  other  ship  of  war)  It  liifl  imnn  tiliich 
great!-:  for,  out  of  a  much  siimllnr  «r«w  tliaii  oi'-<, 
they  had  buried  the  sama  nntiitor,  Mint  liml  imly  X^ 
remaining  alive.  It  might,"  continiwiii  Anaim,  "  ituvn 
been  ex]K;cted  that,  on  Iwianl  (Iih  7V//(|/  (n  (ir«vl«lnfi 
ship),  the  slaughter  would  liava  lwi>n  ttl'Kt  (nrrlliln  i 
but  it  happened  iilherwlso,  fur  aha  aai^i|i«il  iniirii  favor- 
r.bly  than  the  rest,  since  slia  imln  biirimi  H,  und  lias 
now  89  remaining."  Tho  real  oiijant  of  tlm  voynK'' 
was,  however,  not  yet  cominfiiiuail  (  (Imiii|{Ii  nwt  of  WfO 
men  with  which  the  threa  vensfls  Inft  Kntflniid,  CM 
were  dead  before  this  time. 

It  is  almost  su|ierfluous  to  multiply  Inttani'ca  of  the 
same  kind ;  though,  In  or>Ur  to  (kmuniitrittii  tli«  tfimi 


MEA 


133? 


MRD 


Kill  (111  lll'f 
(lilt  mfn 
ml.  Iin  l'"t, 
itfvy,  Of 
(turn 
(if  >tii!in 
rn  ('(iiiiitild 
K'fa  lit  SI. 
rcimiiii- 
-r  di'scril" 
tflll  Bllffrf- 

vptin'nt 
iitftl  iif  i'"t 

llrttrf  to 

(lllf  llf("J- 
tllti  rn.'i/- 

mt  tiiiil  f<" 
>'»«,  I1ll)l''llt 
nil  ti(iiiri\ 
iwMi  miicti 
tliitit  "*''■ 
ml  imlv  "i 
im,  "  itnvc 
rt  (irnvlalnii 
it  twffHili" '. 
IIKIfd  fftvi.f- 

44,  i»(irt  li«» 
|.|lfi  viiViiK'' 
.  .mtdfWK; 
Ii«lntii1,  •''■!" 

ilicp;*  (if  the 
(t  tiM  iCOi't 


ntlltty  of  prenerved  meats  in  the  navy,  Tre  ihall  give 
two  or  throe  other  examploa. 

In  October,  1788,  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Keppell  came 
into  harbor,  and,  before  the  end  of  December,  liad  sent 
8,U00  Hiclc  to  the  honpital  at  Haslar.  In  1770,  tlie 
(Channel  fleet  under  Sir  C.  Manly,  iient  2,500  to  the 
hospital,  and  retained  more  than  1000  on  board  for 
want  of  hospital  accommodation.  Within  4  months 
diirinf;  a  subsequent  year,  C),Wi  were  sent  to  Ilaslnr, 
iind  ^ir  II.  Hawldns  ussertK,  that,  within  the  space  of 
20  years,  to  his  own  knowledg';,  not  less  than  10,000 
men  had  died  of  scurvy.  When  Admiral  Geary's 
fleet  returned  to  Portsmouth,  after  a  10  weeks'  cruise 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  '2,400  men  were  ill  of  the  scur- 
vy ;  and  the  gross  numlier  of  admissions  into  the  hos- 
pital that  year  was  ll,7it2,  of  whom  90'J  died.  Now 
the  highest  medical  authorities  in  this  kingdom,  and 
also  on  the  continent,  liavn  all  expressed  the  opinion 
tliat  this  fearful  disease  and  mortality  is  altogether 
caused  by  tile  use  of  salt  provisions;  and  tiie  evidence 
of  n  iiost  of  navy  surgeons  and  officers  can  be  adduced 
to  corroborate  the  truth  of  this  view  ;  tlierefore,  not 
only  motives  of  humanity,  but  also  of  self-interest, 
imperatively  demand  that,  wherever  unsalted  provis- 
ions can  be  used,  tlieir  employment  sliould  be  insisted 
on  by  the  voice  of  the  entire  nation.  Such  being  tlie 
case,  it  becomes  necessary  fur  us  to  inquire  how  fur 
the  art  of  preserving  unsalted  provisions  has  reached 
that  degree  of  uniformity,  and  certainty  of  result, 
which  alone  can  warrant  their  introduction  into  the 
navy. — Hrande'a  Did. 

Meat-Biacniti. — The  American  meat-hiscuita,  now 
coming  extensively  into  use,  are  a  kind  of  preserve 
differing  from  most  others.  The  manufacture  is  lo- 
cated chiefly  at  Galveston,  Texas.  The  prairies  of 
tliat  country  alwund  in  cattle  of  good  quality,  which 
ure  prociied  at  so  low  a  price  as  to  justify'  the  manu- 
facture on  tlic  spot,  thus  saving  the  expense  of  trans- 
porting the  useless  portion  of  tho  meat.  Tlio  meat- 
liiscuit  contains  in  u  concentrated  state  and  portable 
form  all  tho  nutriment  of  the  meat,  combined  with 
wheaten  or  otiier  flour.  One  pound  of  tliis  biscuit  is 
said  to  contain  tlie  nutriment  or  essence  of  Ave  poimds 
of  good  meat ;  a  22-gallon  catjk  can  contain  the  con- 
centrated nutriment  of  500  pounds  of  fresli  meat  with 
70  pounds  of  flour.  As  compared  with  corn  or  flour, 
the  meat-liuiscuit  is  said  to  be  less  liable  to  heating  or 
molding  during  long  voyages,  and  less  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  weevils  and  other  animals.  It  may 
be  easily  preserved  in  all  climates,  and  for  n  gr^.^t 
length  of  time  ;  though  it  is  not  pretended  that  it  pos- 
sesses the  lasting  quality  of  well-canistered  fc  id.  The 
United  States'  Army  in  Mexico  was  'u  ulied  with 
these  meat-biscnits  ;  and  their  use  is  rap)  i:  prcading 
in  America.  The  meat-biscuits  are  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing way : — Good  beef  is  selected,  and  boiled  by 
steam  until  all  the  nutritive  qiulities  arc  extracted. 
The  liquor  is  strained,  allowed  to  settle,  and  tlicn 
ev;i[jorated  by  heat  to  the  consistence  of  thick  treacle ; 
the  fat  is  skimmed  olT  as  it  rises.  Wliilc  the  liquor  is 
yet  lu;  ;  ir  is  added  to  it,  and  both  ure  kneaded  up 
into  a  slilf  dough,  which  may  t'en  bo  rolled,  pressed, 
uiado  into  biscuits,  and  baked.  '  >>'■  'iscuits  are  cither 
kept  whole  or  are  ground  to  pov.  ,>  r,  and  are  preserved 
in  air-tight  cases.  For  making  into  soup  tlie  pow- 
dered biscuit  is  mi.xcd  with  hot  water,  and  boiled  with 
the  addition  of  salt  and  otlier  condiments.  Professor 
Iiindloy,  in  a  lecture  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  ex- 
pressed an  opinion  that  the  meat-biscuit  "  is  one  of  the 
most  important  substances  which  the  exhibition  of 
IKol  has  brought  to  our  knowledge." 

Meat,  Prices  of.  Prices  of  Meat  and  Hread  in 
Cities. — The  following  table  of  tho  prices  of  wheat- 
liread,  beef,  veal,  and  mutton,  in  20  cities  of  tho  world, 
near  Ifovembcr :  'ith,  1856,  is  derived  from  tlio  report 
of  a  society  in  the  city  of  New  York  for  the  improve- 
ment ef  the  condition  of  the  poor ;  the  quantity  of 


each  {lound  avoirdupois,  and  tho  pri.m  In  cmiJk  •ml 
hundredths  of  a  cent,  American  widglit  iiid  iiiiiii«y  i 


Rome j/bb 

I-ondgn 6'70 

I'arls '  4-44 

OInsuov.- ;;i  ,V4,| 

LIvorpool j  4-9)) 

Dublin \'}  5()ij 

Antwerp \'.\\<  B+t 

BrussL'js 1  4-03 

Amstorilam '.'.',:  Vi9 

Dantilc i  0-6!) 

Oporto '  644 

Santandcr, 1  4'1I4 

Nii'o 4'ilK 

Milan 5-02 

('onstantlnnplu 8'7(i 

Smyrna fi'OB 

New  York 678 

Boston 626 

I'lillndclplila 6-2,5 

Cincinnati 4  00 


Ib.Cu,  imrW 
7-iW 

11  74 
Tl-88 
|:)IW 

12  90 
Ili'lW 
12l» 
1276 
14-88 
111-114 

8-(W 
6-80 

noil 

lO-HD 
S-17 
«'66 
Wlb 
1 4^00 
11-60 

10-00 


v.«t. 
Ciij»7'i7 

r«7 

1(|(W 
14-114 
M-IVi 
IS-Vii 
IB-ft7 
tl|-(V; 
Vlli 
lT-24 
l;i-(l;( 
VIM 
hlHI 

i\n 

lO-IKI 
H-17 
1IHW 
U'bl 

u-no 

12  60 


MnxUnL 

<!>«,  r>  III' 

II  HI 
IftftT 
liI'M 
I2'«tl 
IJ1N) 
12'lW 
Ifi'W 
IV-7lt 
HM 

flu 

11-70 

S-IHI 
llVi 

7'l(l 

H-17 
lOIK) 
l.'ilKI 
IH'IKI 

iiino 
lomi 


Medalfl,  are  pieces  of  metal,  generally  in  tliii  fonn 
of  a  coin,  and  impressed  with  somu  peculiar  ntmiip,  iii. 
tended  to  commemorate  some  hidivldmil  or  n'tliiii. 
Medals  are  of  verj- different  prices— varying  Hcciinlliig 
to  their  rarity  and  preservation,  tlio  fliiciienit  of  thii 
metal,  the  lieauty  of  the  workmanship,  etc. 

Mechanics.  Tlie  time  when  tlie  Kiiiipjii  iiii'ihiiii' 
ical  powers  were  first  introduced  is  so  uni^erlnlii,  and 
perhaps  so  little  known,  that  they  have  liecii  uni't'llieii 
to  the  Grecian  and  otlier  deities  of  tlio  hiiatlieii  my- 
tliology— for  instance,  the  ax,  tlie  wedge,  wlinlilo, 
etc.,  are  said  to  be  tlie  invention  of  Dajdulus,  We 
know  iiotliiiig  of  tbc  machinery  liy  whicli  tliii  iiiiiiiciiiiii 
masses  of  stone  which  are  found  in  some  of  the  iiiii'l«lit 
edifices  were  moved  and  elevated. 

The  first  writing   on   mecbaulcs  was  by   Arl«lotli>, 

about no.    WM 

Tho  statcra  Itoinnna  Invented , , , . ,     , , 

The  fundamental  property  of  tlio  liivi-r  and  ollur  lii^ 

Btruincnts  was  dcinonstratiid  by  Arolilinudi'* V/S 

Tho  liand'inlll,  or  quorn,  wii-*  vi'ry  early  In  urn  j   tho 

Uoinans  found  ono  in  Yorkshire 

Cattle  mills,  molo) ,iumenlariir,  weiu  also  In  luu  by  lliu 

Koiuans,  and  In  parts  of  Europe 

Saw-mills  aro  said  to  Imvoboen  In  usoat  Aii'/shuri/.A.  Ii,  I8IKI 
Theory  of  the  inclined  piano  InvestlKatud  by  Caiilnii, 

about .,,,,,  ,  Ifllll 

Work  on  Statics,  by  Stuvlnus , If/kit 

Theory  of  falllni?  bodies,  Oullluo lltlH 

Theory  of  oscllliillon,  Iliiygens ,  |IM7 

Laws  of  collision,  Wallace,  Wren ,  JDM 

EpIcycloUlal  form  of  (In,  teeth  of  wheels,  llueiiier,, .,,,  107(1 

Perensslon  and  nniiiml  ineelmnlc.«,  Horelll ;  ho  died 1079 

The  water-mill  was  probaWy  Invonteil  in  Asia;  llio  ltr«l, 

that  was  described  was  near  one  of  the  dwclltitKH  of 

Mlthridatcs »,  «,      70 

A  water-mill  Is  .said  to  have  been  eroctod  on  lim  rlvi-r 

Tiber,  at  Home (10 

Floatlnit  mills  on  tho  Tiber *,  u.    IVM) 

Tidc-mllbi  wore,  many  of  them,  in  use  In  Veitleii,  al,oiiL  lii7l^ 
Wind-mills  ■  jro  in  "very  (jeneral  n^o  In  tlw  Iwiiltlli 

century. 
Appllcatlcin  of  meclmnlos  to  astronomy,  parallelucdiim  of 

force  ,  laws  (if  motion,  etc.,  Newton 1079 

rrobloi'.i  of  the  catenary  Willi  the  analysis,  Dr.  (jreitiiry  I W 
Spirit  level  (and  manv  other  Inventioi  .t),  by  Dr  Hook, 

from  16(10  to '. 17«» 

The  Mcelmnles'  Institute  in  London  was  forinod  hi..,,   11124 
Mcehanii -'  ':       nto  in  New  York  formed IWW 

Medi.  Ti  ,.nean  Pass.  I'jio  nature  »f  this  «or, 
of  instnuncr.'  has  been  dcscrlh.  \  liy  Mr,  llucvcd,  In 
his  Treatise  t  n  the  f.aw  i-f  Shijipiiii/,  as  follows !--"  \,i 
tlie  treaties  that  hav  i  en  made  witli  tlir,  Hiir(i-4»_, 
States,  it  has  been  agr.  nt  tho  suljjcits  of  tho  Ii  in]t 

of  Great  Britain  shouia  pass  tlio  seas  iiiimolnsti'i,'  I  y 
the  cruisers  of  those  States  ;  and  for  better  asi-ertallil'if; 
what  ships  and  vessels  belong  to  llrltish  sutijci-ts,  It  ht 
provided  that  they  shall  procluceu/M/M  under  tim  Itund 
and  seal  of  tlie  Lord  High  Admiral,  or  the  Lord*  (!iiin' 
mi.ssioners  of  tho  Admiralty.  In  pursuance  of  tliaitn 
treaties,  passes  are  made  out  at  the  Admiralty,  <!"il- 
I  tuiuing  a  very  few  words,  written  on  parchment,  wItU 


*  'I 


MRD 


1938 


Mm 


ornamentii  at  the  top,  tlirouKli  wliiifh  •  iie.4>]Uifmi\  Iti- 
ijniura  in  mode ;  tht  teoUofinl  liijii  «ni  wtit  in  Dur- 
bury:  and  li«ing  |iut  in  iMitneuiiiii  itt  ihn  <  t  .Kf-r*, 
the  cnmmiinders  uro  Instruitvd  Ut  nunVr  •til  ]i>fnm>  (■• 
pngs  who  have  paMeathut  will  (It  th'  «■•  *m\Ui\ii-\  topx, 
The  p:'otectloii  uflfordvl  \iy  tUutu  (,(>«()*  U  «'■<•.•>,  that 
no  iihipH,  wbicli  tiavame  tli«  "I'lia  tn  n»i\!nh'ii  *  •-  i  h«M 
rovern,  e"er  fall  to  furiiUh  thi'iitw)"-*  *l!?i  '..'mm, 
whether  in  the  tnido  of  il;i)  l<»«t  In  ).<•«,  tlip  l«^«nt, 
8;ia!n,  Italy,  or  any  pun  ..'  tli«  Me''^''  uu  I(«m  ,'  A 
from  th«  I'orc  pnrtieular  .•.*i.i  of  tli>„i  in  lli«  Imti'i, 
they,  no  dou'l,  tJitaineil  ihn  immim  of  \'itlil'rrnnriin 
pnstea.  1"  ir  XU:  n.-xommixi,.! .  in  lit  mititU,n'.»  Itt  (ll«- 
i.mt  parts,  M  .ii!.  {>aaiie»,  »l|<n-  <-'  ''^  ttitt  i<«n)ii  of  the 
.'Mlniiriilty,  .ly  :  ■'.^•■'.i  with  the  fnvfriniro  alirowl,  and 
^^ilh  the  Bri'ixli  umsula,  tu  Iw  Krdlltml  i"  tlioM  who 
ciiinply  with  (lie  ruquMttn  iMuMtMitry  tuf  "taliiinx 
thorn.  A«  this  piiouofni  -it.v  In  <!'  ;'f(wl  wluiUy  (ton- 
tl"'  Htijmlationn  uj  l.t  hy  lh<-  x  wtr  I'l'll  tt  foreign 
IHn'ur,  the  entiro  rigulatl'-i  mut  >,i/itnt^<'io'"it  of  It  Uit>\ 
bi'tM  under  tlie  dire<'tioii  »(  hi"  ,<;ij«'.^y,  l*l"i,  ,<iih  '.'■■ 
a'lvli'o  of  the  privj- coiiiii  ;i  iia«  i fCKi-rllw'f  ''wi  t«fi-.. 
.iii<(  .conditions  on  whi-h  tiift*  pio>.»i'«  kJiall  fi-.  ,  rntitod. 
^  iuimg  others,  ur>j  the  foltowljit; ,  — Tli-y  a.":,  to  de 
RruuCed  for  none  but  Ilrltinh-huilt  »lii|.«,  or  KhlpK  randc 
free,  niivi({ated  with  a  master  and  thrm  fotirJhn  of  the 
nj  irincrp  Uritish  nubjeirts,  or  fort)j<n  IVot^-ntatitu  made 
denizens.  Hond  U  to  bo  ^^U^'n  In  (hx  mim  of  t'lW^  If 
the  vessel  is  under  100  toin,  .im)  in  £im  If  It  li  of 
tli!t  or  more,  for  ileliverlnif  iij/  lh«  pufiit  within  Vi 
niimths,  unless  in  tho  caii)  of  .'-liv^  UtvWnn  from  one 
foreign  port  to  another ;  and  »it'  !i  \m>i*<'»  ftcsd  net  he 
returned  in  less  thuii  three  yeari  It  tiitu  Ik-cii  fonnd 
expedient,  at  the  ion<:iusioti  '•(  v.ar,  mid  wimntlmes 
diirinj^a  peace,  to  reoal!  and  latli* '  dl  pajnenthat  have 
licen  issued,  and  to  is»ue  others  Itt  a  l)M»  form,  'Hiis 
hns  been  done  for  two  reasons.  )  i-  'I'lwt  the<e  nsc- 
ful  instruments,  l/v  various  iw^'ins,  ►lilo-r  nccldpntal  or 
fraiMlulent,  canie  into  tiji  hand*  of  ("Wijtners,  who, 
uniler  cover  of  them,  earrlejl  on  |i|  •.('ciirity  n  trade 
wlii.  h  otherwise  would  beionn  f«  U<itl«)i  Mlbject",  and 
i7bi<.'Ii  had  l>e(n  purehaae't  by  tlia  >"riiwn,  nt  the  ex- 
pense of  keepini;  np  tiiix  tort,  lit  ullfwd'*,  'ii\.  That 
tlie  Uarbary  States  eoinplalned  that,  adlinrlnjj  to  the 
rule  of  littint;  tlie  otiier  part  of  tlw  Inihrtitiirn  to  the 
uassc',  they  were  ()l/ili{ed  to  suffer  »hl(n(  to  |«»«<i  that 
did  not  belong  to  liritish  subJoLls,"  Wn  have  thoii)(ht 
it  riijlit  to  give  tliis  expUiiatUii.',  Ihnunh,  (dnce  the  oe- 
cupiition  of  Algiers  ijy  Hw  I'reneh,  utt'l  the  dlsnp|irar- 
niice  of  the  corsairs  of  the  othtr  Marlwry  (lowefn,  Jled- 
itcrranean  puiscs  have  fallen  l)it'>  dliM^t.'. 

Mediterranean  Bea  (.i/a,':  Inirmum),  »n  In- 

lane  sea  indoHecl  Ijy  Asia  on  tli-:  tr-iiat,  Africa  on  the 
iioii'.h,  and  Kuro|><!  on  the  north-  and  eomtnimlcatrs 
witli  tilt)  Atlantic  by  the  (Strait  of  Ollfraltnr  on  th* 
west,  situated  hetw -en  lat,  nP  W  mid  ■13''  north,  and 
Ions:.  6°  and  .17°  ;tO'  east,  WIthIrt  thin  xpaee  if  In- 
cludeii  the  TjThennian,  Unian,  atid  Adriatic  Hfm,  mid 
the  .Sea  of  tlie  Gr«c'hin  Archiiwtigo.  'J'h«  He»  of  Mar- 
n'ora,  the  Blaclt  Hea,  and  tiie  Keaof  Azov,  which  com- 
municate with  it  by  tlie  Ktralt  of  the  l>ardarielle»i,  are 
considered  as  seiairate  oeaa,  T(|«  Jilincipal  rivers 
A  hich  flow  into  the  Medlterranc  Mit  i.\m  Chrn,  llhone 
Arno,  and  the  Tilier  in  Kuroj, '  / '  t'  -  Mie  in  Africr. 
The  principal  Islands  are  f 
tloditerranean  int^i  an  east, 
Cyprus,  Crete,  Malta,  and 
east,  and  Sardinii?.  Curslci. 
in  tile  west.  Tii;  ■,•  !;, 
in  (taly,  I^ponto  |p  '  ■)<•  :■' , 
b'iry,  in  the  easte 
I.ycin  in  France,  ' 


'  J.!'lch  dirldca  t'.ie 
•rBntnrti  |ioTt|cn), 
.1  Islands  )ti  tlie 
•  iltl«^«i'lc  I' lands 
•nt  ((illfs  are  'farant" 
•'■■:■',  ,  tU  and  Calies  in  har 
■.f.v't :  if..d  VaUrtcIa  ',i  «pa|(», 
.  '"  '.;ily,  and  Tiinis  tn  Africa, 
in  tlie  we.st.  T;.e  w'-  i  ■  lh|«  iM«  aro  ver  variable ; 
the  tides  are  little  .ili  .  i  »>;ry  If rftgwl/.f.  Fish  Is 
almsdaut    in    tlie    i).  V4-:'r. :.  p»(tec'ally  tunny, 

anciiovieg,  pilchards,  an4  iti  i,    "■      and  './in  (in'»t  co- 
ral, sponge,  and  amb*r({rl ',  Krc  ;  .  ■  utid,    'f  lio  Med- 


llerraneu  wa»  c«Ue4  '.>!/  ttm  lt>MttW»  »ttm  ftmrt 
»«•."  Tte  J'heuici«w  lurit  ttlti  ftr«i  pn</f4t<  lk>.ot,n  to 
t.av*  •xUnded  tiuiir  wmm^ttm  ttlmti  ***  «-"««« ;  the 
tJr<i.k»  afterward  di»|»i4**  H  »#fc  itititt.  After  the 
(!'.f»."rtioi  .  X  <Jaitl)»ji;«,  Hm  tifmmt*  #eTe  sole  mas- 
t.';f:i  of  it.  lorec;  i»  ttw  wmM)* *)<i»,.  tfi*  Venetians 
tiionopolli'.i.i  ..■;  wumuffv,  mi4  s»  pttni^M,  Rngland, 
h-.  tlw  pi  ,*•  I  a  of  «ijAif#Mw,  M/tU/t,  nM  Ifce  Ionian 
Ial»nd», ,,.  i?*  i'tuigr/mt«ttttt#m^t<mitiiiif^:,nt«!i, 
::.!    'iiBw-i  >  n 

It  if  cf-ci...,  I  that  tiitutt  iitm*  **  Wrtefi  water  as 
the  Me(!!tt'riiii»«u  rwHyt^  (tt/m  >«»  risers  is  evap- 
(rt'Hted  from  ■'«  avirftww.  i'i^U  m1ii'i«  ftHitifikl,  (ir.o- 
(iBAi-ur,  f.iiri/rti.j'mliu  /(rU'imiifit,    tW*  mn«  h«  m 

iver  Mtiinute,  hot  tim  (itxt,  t^i4  teiy»pt9t/tHfyti  timn  it  is 
In  exce*8  of  the  ; .rwijiitaitiw*;,  ri<i  mipt  ttttfkrtt!'  I.y  the 
currenf  wldi;.  'he  Art»«4*'  «**.'?»  Wtlw  (Hhror((?h  the 

tiralt;  of  (iili  Atur ;  wMi  ttt*  ^/#Wew•^.  ««  may  rest 
aas^uofi.  wliether  it  Ix  wwfc  t/f  Jjjulef,-  k  CMffd  off  to 
ino<'';j  t  lin.atc  elsewtuM*-^* Mrf«4t  #H!fc «hower.<  and 

oak*-  fn/ltful  f-ouut  wtfc*/  mm  tiftfttt  .•wrtfc.   The  great 

.land  bui.)>i  i>{  Aeiik.  in  vmi*l*fn  A fMilttt^th*<'i\<if, inn 
rteas,  ie  ;  •(liated  o«  tlie  r«/Mt«  »itki*  i7*^  hypothesis  re- 
ipilres  these  thirsty  wi»4»  fr'/m  .W-WdV-i'^H  frade-wiml 
Africa  and  America  U/  tftk*  j  tm4  w  «■■*«  )1  vapor  nrp 
these  winds  when  tlwy  itrmtt  W  thh  tmiti  tint  thev 
have  no  moieture  to  Ji'ili**  **>iiMiii'#  <  jfttrit  as  much  as 
they  pocr  down  tiiey  itajk*  ttp  #«#W  #W(  es/rry  off.  We 
know  tliat  the  volunie  uf  Wflt*f  ffii*fti«4  tfjr  the  rivers, 
the  rains  and  the  dews,  W*<<  **ic;  «1Me(0^»ati,  i.s  ex- 
actly equal  to  tile  voImw*  ^hif-U  tii*i  ^itt^ nt-nm  gives 
back  to  the  atmos);lier«  j  ««  fyf  M*  fMf  itiWi-rfiedge  ex- 
tends, the  level  of  einii  (4  tii4'-'f  (t»Ai  «**•!  ?*  its  permii- 
neiit  as  that  of  tlie  gr*«t  *M*'04  H*^'.-  Therefore,  the 
voimne  of  water  dj«-fcar»<«*  i>^  ri**r«,.  th*  rairns,  and 
the  dews,  into  tUe^  «,w«  ftesfrf,.  U  (if**i1lly  i-tfmi  tn  the 
volume  which  tUeae  twi)  *»♦»  fli^K  (mtlt  *»  ♦afpor  to  the 
atmosphere.— Mii'ity,  /'Ayf.  f/t//ff.. 

C'oiiimn-ie  ufOt£  MirdilKi>fm*m.-=^ti*«  IfftHed  .States' 
<'onsul  at  'J'ricste  ..owwwi>iA'iMt.e.«  jliv  <t)W«  f»e]t«rfmont  of 
Htate,  the  following  <1'*W>«  #*  id  JM'frtd'ed  stean  nav- 
igation with  the  w\Muem  iWlU  t4  !th*'  .WedHerranean : 
"The  project  of  *.-4j,it;Ji4iiWsf  «^*M  eo*y»mnnicati(.ii 
with  the  Me.diter,'i*«>e#»  k**  U^  iff*i*  M  tHvorite  one 
with  a  re»|)*ctatji«  <•*»*»  ii.pf'  tfn-feiMMit  in  the  ..\t- 
fantic  States ;  and,  if  t  <m  mt-  miHttktIi.  the  ex[..'r- 
linent  of  a  line  to  titf^tm  ifit*  itiM  it(*tr)*i  years  ii,'n, 
but  without  su. .  es«.  'fitttftt  U  wwy  |rfO!>pect  of  the 
accoinpiii.hmfiit  of  tkU  impt^ftM.  cWpjVet,  fmder  the 
Immediate  putroua^  i>ftU«  AiM(*j#«  j!<.r>*ernment.  It 
Is,  in  fact,  )>roiX)sedto«WH^*'iH.'1l«*if(«-  Sfsf-c'  ssst"...i. 
ships  of  .'J'200  t«u.s,  bMit4«  !'  '*^ff'imiili,  and  KiiiO 
horse-jxjv/er,  t<;  '•uii  l,.lt»**'#  'fti»4f  Itiitl  .NFew  VoTk, 
making  J 1  trijis  ca<  h  .way  V^  #WWWrt,-  «w1  tonchinj,'  ,it 
Corf- ,  Malta,  Algiers,  Hmx-.-  **■♦  lA»*«W.  The  ve.s- 
■*lf  would  carry  thu  m*ih,  im^HHf^'^i  «*'(  goods  from 
the  l''ji»t,  received  by  p^  (M>|>  s^eWiWefs  kM  those  of 
the  Oriental  HU'iUH  JsTavigArfv^  *:V*<^rty,  MM  prohaMy 
those  of  the  grea/*r  i^aflt  tif  tUt.-  tnm  ml  jiorts  of  the 
iHc^ditcrranean,  to  lie  l'»U'^4  S«*feit,  «Wl  rirr  rfM.i. 
'i'he  running  time  »*,-♦,  fri>m  T>V»>*»  to  Sfew  Ynrlt, 
would  be  W  days  mi  UU^ftf*)  h*.  '">,  (■■  m  New 
York  to  Trieste,  i'i 4ay«  §  Jv.,^,.-..  U  •..  .  t  s'„u  .,•>«((? '. 
The  steamers  womM  \)»  MH  »  ^.  •  M.rfc,  I'lii.  .  ■. 
under  the  Austr  ■'  ||ta|g,     T  ;:iM4t>f  of  this  en- 

terprise is  Mr.  J/j<.«ey,  ttn»  -'^  .Mrt  .'-Wrtl-gerieral  nt 
New  York— a  geutiewjIW  >■■•  ■^ft^  tm^tifiK-f.  -vhcr  ha.s 
resided  for  the  p«s(t  ii  jc«i.  ^  ff^  r«iit>^  St.ites.  I 
am  credibly  iufoiuie4,  i^so..  ttmt  ttt-'<  rte*  Wiini.ster  c.f 
finance,  Uaroii  de  lirMt%,  »Mmh  U^iifn  the  scheme. 
lie  was  foricrjy,  Ut^Mi  #  Uft/>iHf(  r;ie>'hanf  in 
Trieste,  ai  .'>  ,«  (oimiffF  t4'tt>^  Amtftxlt  Lloyd's  Steam 
Navigation  Cumpm}  if  !*i*  ;f('ijef(  (eeeeds,  its  ef- 
fect upon  die  conwfwcial  1,1^  pi4Hif:ti1  relaitSons  of  the 
United  State-  and  tumtifm  t^mr/pn  mw.^t  be  very 
g  ..at.  While  It  viH  j^wi^  #  Hmum  <o  e^terfion,  l>y 
opening  ucw  ekmm:<IJi  (tv.    Ifef  hltft**ify  of  the  Old 


Olbrallar . 
.Jtfalta. .... 
France  on 
Spain 

Ita'i'-. 
piclly. .... 
'"^lesle... 
jTurkoy. . . 

From  T 
1842,     Ti; 


MED 


1330 


MED 


World,  it  must  neceaf<arily  increnao  tho  dsnianil  fur 
the  precious  ami  abundant  raw  material  and  manufuc- 
turea  of  the  United  States. 

"  Tho  nmiiunt  of  goods  exported  direct  from  Trieste 
to  tlio  city  of  New  Vorlc,  during  tho  years  1860,  1851, 
1852,  niid  1853,  amounted  to  $2,086,282)  and  tlie 
amount  of  imports  during  the  same  years,  from  New 
Yorli  direct,  amounted  to  $1,550,616.  Tho  amount  of 
imports  during  tlie  year  1862,  from  the  porta  of  Phil- 
adelphia, BoAton,  Savannah,  Richmond,  llaltimore. 
Mobile  and  New  Orleans,  amounted  to  $1,628,700. 
But  it  would  be,  very  unfair  to  take  these  tigurcs  ua 
any  criterion  of  the  business  of  the  future.  This 
country  had  then  but  partially  recovered  from  tlie 
financial  and  political  embarrassments  of  1848-9,  and 
confidence,  without  which  commerce  necessarily  dwin- 
dles, had  not  been  firmly  established ;  while  the  means 
of  internal  communication  and  transiHirtatiun  were 
comparatively  limited.  l'>en  now  the  success  of  this 
steamship  project  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon 
the  completion  of  tho  balance  of  tiU  miles  of  railway 
between  Trieste  and  Vienna — the  last  Unit  in  the  chain 
which  connocto  Trieste  with  the  principal  cities  of  Eu- 
rope This  work  is,  however,  in  a  state  of  forward- 
ness, and  will,  probably,  be  finished  in  the  course  of  a 
twelvemonth."     See  Tkieste  and  Tciikky. 

Commerce  of  the  United  Stafe»  with  the  I'ovta  nf  the 
Metli/ermnenn. — The  trade  of  the  United  States  with 
the  countries  on  the  Slediterrunean  and  in  the  Levant, 
is  very  irregular,  and  not  yet  developed.  Tho  statis- 
tics which  wc  possess  arc  of  some  value.  MacOregor 
gives  the  best  report  on  general  commerce,  and  speaks, 
in  reganl  to  the  Mediterranean  trade  in  1812,  us  fol- 
lows : 

"  The  conunerce  of  the  United  States  to  tho  ports  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic,  consists  chicHy  in  the 
export  of  cotton,  sugar,  dried  and  salt  fish,  whale-oil, 
etc.,  which  are  shipped  to  Trieste  and  other  Austrian 
ports.  The  American  ships  take  home  in  exchange 
wines  and  other  manufactured  articles.  To  Spain, 
the  United  States  export  cotton  and  other  produce, 
for  which  they  take  wines,  etc." 

A  few  words,  with  some  statistics,  will  suffice  to 
show  the  condition  of  American  commerce.  Since 
that  time  this  commerce  has  increased,  and  in  some 
respects  received  a  considerable  impulse,  but  on  the 
whole  it  presents  nothing  of  much  greater  importance. 
The  causes  are  clear :  the  Americans  have  paid,  until 
now,  very  little  attention  to  tliis  Important  trade  j 
thcj-  are  not  enough  acquainted  with  it,  while  their 
successful  rivals  are  thoroughly  conversant  in  its 
sources,  chances,  and  necessities. .  Knglish  and  French 
merchants  have,  so  far,  tho  control  of  commerce  in 
these  important  regions ;  they  have  agencies  and 
branch  houses — English,  French,  and  Austrian  steam- 
ers running  in  the  Mediterranean  regularly  from  port 
to  port ;  while  the  Americans  have  not  a  single  agency, 
and  not  one  of  their  numerous  steamers,  such  as  nav- 
igate the  ocean,  the  Pacific,  and  numerous  rivers,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Klediterranean  and  Adriatic.  Not- 
withstanding the  passiveness  of  American  commerce  in 
these  regions,  it  is  still  progressive,  as  the  following 
statistics  will  show : 

Tlij  exports  and  imports  of  the  United  States,  in 
the  year  1812,  were  as  follows : 


GlbraUjr t466,WT 

Afalta. 11,(144 

France  on  the  Mcdittii .  l,6T4,Tno 

Spain 221,893 

Italy B15,6T5 

81clV. I   8S7.861 

Trlfsle 708,179 

I'furkoy 125,461 


Ktiwrla. 


DomesHc 
produce. 


V.MV     l!),9fl5        7,30(l| 
T8,««S;l,74S,4a8|  98\C7S 


for  the  same  year  was  $98,600.    In  1853  they  amounted 
to  $81,000,  all  oi  which  were  in  foreign  bottoms. 
The  same  in  the  your  1854,  was : 


I  linportj. 


Gibraltar 

iMalto. 

jfraiioo  00  tbo  Mcdltcr 

Spain ,.,*,„„, 

't<ily 1i,5sb',iii>7 

81<:»y I  a4«,IM 

anrUlrila 18t(:«i5 

Tuscany njsf, 

Trlestn  Jt  oth.  Aus.  ports'l.dO?  S19 
|Turk<-y I  2\9,im 


»44a,«BI  «Nf,H27||4i(7,779|'»ft9,«78' 

'■"      21,a4S|    169,»7»      ha.RPBi 

201,874  l,420,l(W2,8S9,«72i 
8 1 ,04fl'«,24:i,4  ni'  1 ,5711,074' 
071,0741 

u.'iu.mioi 

W,07ffl 

l,1f.2,7i;| 

74I,!l||tl 

80.S,114| 


lM,489'l,7nUllt! 


IS.SW) 
2,020 

87,082 

200.200  ., ,„,.., 

108,70S|   828,19s 


2I)0,('&I 

190,828 

4S,7fl7 

l,lPOH,0(i» 


1C,67S 
804,940 
19^797 
186,520 

76,516 


23S,47iVl,0«.'),(M0 
820,517;  9S7,.''2-> 
4vi1,65sl  M9,419 
8*4,705'  413,210 
202,036    370,248 


From  Tupcimy  and  Sardinia  wo  havi  no  reports  of 
1842.    The  exports  from  Morocco  to  the  United  States  | 


From  these  figures  it  can  be  seen  that  tho  com- 
merce in  question  lias,  as  it  regards  some  Stutes, 
greatly  increased.  Tho  most  remarkable  is  tliat  of 
Spain,  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  export  to  that 
country  has  augmented  1,1  times.  Also  an  imiKirtant 
increase  is  seen  in  Malta,  Italy,  Trieste,  and  Turkey, 
Tho  commerce  of  France,  however,  on  tho  ilediterra- 
nean,  diminished  considerably,  also  that  of  Sicily. 
From  both  these  rcjiorts  we  learn  also,  that  tho  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  in  the  Jlediterranean  has  not 
been  developed  in  such  an  admirable  manner  as  with 
other  transatlantic  countries,  to  which  numerous  mail 
lines  and  other  steamers  are  running.  What  infiuencc 
tliese  communications  have  on  trade  and  commerce, 
the  comparison  between  the  trade  of  France  on  tlie 
Jlediterranean,  and  of  France  on  the  Atlantic,  shows : 

KxrORT  TO,  AND  ImPOIIT  OF,  TIIK   USITEI)    STATES    IN    TIIK 

Vkar  1s,54,  from  Fiianck. 

Allnnlir.  Meditorriuieon. 

E.vport— Doniostli'  prod. . .  $29,749,400        jl,218,7S6 
Foreign       "...         97,s8.VS  201,874 

Totol 130,727,821         |1,420,160 

Import 82,892,021  2,889,872 

The  commerce  in  the  first  direction,  where  the 
steam-line  exists  from  Havre  to  New  York,  shows 
$83,01.'),842 ;  and  the  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  Franco  on  the  Mediterranean,  where  no 
steam  communication  exists,  was  only  84,309,532. 
The  difleronce  is  enormous !  Marseilles  is  much  be- 
hind Havre,  which,  by  its  direct  steam  communication 
with  New  York,  attracted  the  greatest  part  of  com- 
merce.    See  FiiAXCE. 

Let  us  take,  now,  a  view  of  tho  countries  on  tlie 
Mediterranean  in  general.  All  depend  for  the  expe- 
dition of  their  letters  upon  the  linglish  post-offices,  if 
they  do  not  prefer  to  send  them  via  Trieste,  Ostend, 
and  Liverpool  j  for  in  both  cases  the  postages  ore  very 
high  and  expensive,  and,  as  the  letters  have  to  pass 
through  several  different  offices,  the  loss  of  time  is,  in 
both  ways,  very  great.  These  difficulties,  and  wo 
might  add  nuisances,  have  an  influence  in  keeping  the 
commerce  back,  and  to  them  it  is  chiefl}-  attributable 
that  the  commerce  of  these  countries  with  the  United 
States  lius  progressed  no  faster.  Mr.  Baker,  who 
lived  for  several  years  us  American  consul  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, and  observed  pretty  closely  the  greot  pro- 
gress of  commerce  between  these  parts  of  the  globe, 
hinted  to  his  countrj-raen,  several  times,  to  pay  more 
utteiition  to  the  Mediterranean  trade. 

"  Thousands,  o  ;  both  sides  of  the  Mediterrranean," 
says  Mr.  Baker,  "[rif"r  American  to  other  produce. 
Especially  are  flour  and  rice  highlj-  prized.  The  com- 
merce with  dried  and  salted  fish  is  profitable.  Tho 
greatest  part  of  the  staves  and  lumber  wliich  are  used 
on  the  shores  of  Spain,  are  mostly  imported  from  the 
United  States.  Also  other  produce,  such  as  biscuit, 
different  kiuds  of  oats,  sperm-oil,  spermaceti  candles, 
lard  and  provisious,  find  here  ready  and  good  markets. 
The  port  of  Malaga  is  much  frequented  by  American 
vessels  ;  the  sumo  may  be  said  of  Barcelona,  the  great 
emporium  of  Spanish  wines  and  brandies,  where 
American  import  articles  find  good  sale.    But  very 


III 


Met) 


1340 


MET) 


hw  American  vcsseln  visit  Oartagonn,  Allrnntc,  nnil 
Viilencla,  where  Amcrlcun  produco  \vniil(t  he  snliihle, 
with  prnllt. 

TIki  nnrgocK  whitli  American  Hhipii  takn  up  In  thoiii 
placen  nro  mostly  lirui^lcH,  red  iind  wliltc  wlne^,  iillk 
gdoilH,  kIii.wN,  rloths,  woolen  noi)d»,  pajior,  hwe*,  mif- 
Truii,  niitH,  raialns,  and  other  dried  rriiitH,  (divna,  etc. 
An  to  the  commerce  with  Franco,  only  Jturneillea  i«ir- 
tlcJpatea  In  It,  and  thl<  vcrj-  little.  In  comparison  with 
tlio  groat  trade  with  the  United  Stutc^s.  Tin'  iidvun- 
tages  (if  Havre  have  already  tioen  atated.  i  H'  e<im- 
merclul  portn,  wo  name  alao  (icnoa,  LeKhorn  and 
llcsainii.  The  old  plan  to  connect  (icnoa,  by  n  regii. 
hir  ateimiship  line,'  with  Now  York,  hua  now  lieen  taken 
up  anew,  and  will  soon  lie  in  rcadineas.  Thia  connec- 
tion la  expected  to  give  ii  powerful  Impulse  to  the 
Italian  commerce,  and  also  to  awaken  greater  intoreat 
on  the  |i:irt  of  the  Americana.  Until  now  the  Itnllan 
coinmerco  with  Mie  United  States  haanot  lioonof  much 
linportunco,  compared  with  what  It  would  be,  had  It 
freipicnt  and  regular  communication.  Of  American 
arthdea,  there  aro  augara  of  I.oulalana  and  Cuba,  aa, 
also,  Ainericim  grain,  hl(;lily  appreciated.  Imported  by 
(ienoa,  and  again  shipped  to  tho  Levant  and  other 
ainidler  porta.  On  tho  other  hand,  tho  articlea  im- 
ported from  (ienoa  are  many,  and  in  tlie  United  States 
in  fui-  demand.  'J'hey  conaiat  in  freah  and  dried  fruits, 
(dive-.iil,  a  jp,  allk  goods,  damaaka,  velvets,  linen, 
glovea,  ribbima,  liquors,  prepared  marlile,  etc.  Amer- 
ican .irtiidcs  for  export  to  (jenoa,  are  luiligo,  dye-roi)t3, 
honey,  provisions,  butter,  et<'.  Koain  and  pitch  are 
liouglit  freely  in  (ienoa,  and  ro-sold  to  other  smaller 
ports  in  the  Sloditcrrauean. 

Tho  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Tuscany 
l)re!ients'  interesting  features.  Tuscany  exported,  in 
the  year  1851,  to  the  United  States,  a  value  of 
lucrchandi  i)  of  $1, LIS, 717 — much  more  than  Trieste 
and  tho  littler  Austrian  ports  together.  The  United 
.States  e.tported  to  Tuscany,  of  her  own  and  foreign 
produce,  not  more  than  i!ilH,7G7.  Tills  small  figure  is 
more  remarkable,  as  American  produce  is  in  fair  de- 
mand at  Leghorn.  For  Sicily,  the  [lorts  of  I'alermo 
and  .VTi'sina  are  the  most  prominent.  From  these  are 
exiKirted  tu  tlie  United  States,  wines,  fruits,  extracts, 
oil-',  brandies,  argols,  tongues,  sardines,  prepared 
marlile,  senna,  cantharides,  soap,  leeches,  etc.  Tho 
Americans  export  there  stockliali,  salt'  1  and  dried 
meat,  sugar,  zinc,  lead,  indigo,  cochin,  ,1,  dye  woods, 
cotton,  cocoa,  cotfee,  flour,  toliacco,  etc.  Tho  com- 
merce of  .Sicily  is  important.  Knglund  has,  however, 
as  will  lie  seen,  tho  lion's  part. 

As  Mac(iregor  relates,  tlie  import  in  .Sicily  was,  in 
tho  year  1844,  X74l,iiaO ;  the  export,  il,(t35,02(i.  The 
whole  commerce  with  tho  exterior,  £I,i7!t,(!5G.  Of 
this  the  United  States  oxixirted  only  X58,489,  and 
imijortcd  from  there,  i:-224,988.  In  the  year  1864, 
the  United  States  exported  to  Sicily  only  ||2BO,051 
(£i>-J,mi);  and  imported  from  there,  i5i'Jj'J,"300(£191,- 
8(i0),  which  shows  a  decrease  on  both  sides.  This  de- 
crease is  a    uliar  fact,  if  wc  consider  tho  (luantity 

and  ijualit^  of  the  articles  there  consumed.  It  can 
only  lie  expluiueil  by  the  great  activity  of  Knglaud, 
and  tiio  little  uttent!  m  |,:ud  to  this  quart.er  by  Ameri- 
cans. Kusicd  wiih  the  gieat  commercial  projects  on 
the  Atlantic,  and  culture  in  the  interior,  they  have  nut 
yet  found  time  to  pay  more  attention  to  this  commerce, 
and  not  lieing  much  |wsted  up  in  tlio  market  prices  in 
.Sicily,  they  ignore  partly  tho  iniportauco  of  that 
trade. 

It  is  now  time  to  act  with  energy.  The  energy 
will  not  be  missed,  while  the  c /mra'i  >'  with  the 

Kledilcrrancan  will  be  fsiilitatcd  an  >      >i  eased. 

Tlio  coHimeri.e  of  the  United  States  v  b.    '  •  and 

other  Austrian  ports,  is  not  satl»ft;to. '  ':  great 
wants  in  tho  trans-Atluiitic  markets,  no.  '  i.c  sales  of 
Austrian  manufactures,  which  are  consid.  cud  of  very 
govjd  quality.     Cloths,  woolen  goods,  linen  and  silk 


goods,  can  be  had  from  Austria,  at  ohoap  prtoes  anil  m 
f.ilr  i|uallty,  Nevertheless,  tho  Import  of  the  said 
articles,  In  IH.l;),  was  i!i7:t,!KH,'2:t7.  Other  Austrian 
articlea  would  also  llnd  good  market  hero,  by  a  regular 
aud  quick  communication. 

As  to  tho  Austrian  ships,  very  few  sail  into  tlio  At- 
lantic. In  the  year  1864  only  four  Austrian  ships 
came  to  the  United  States.  (Considering  the  passivity 
with  which  tho  commerce  with  tlie  I'nited  States  is 
regnrded,  it  will  not  surprise  us  that  so  little  is  dona 
between  them.  Wliiit  has  lieen  exported  from  .Viistria 
to  tho  United  .States,  during  1854,  via  Trieste,  and 
other  Austrian  |s>rts,  was  not  more  than  iii741,019 ;  in 
fact  a  great  sum  compared  to  the  many  good  indus- 
trial articles,  and  its  navigation,  as  also  its  ports,  of 
which  especially  Trieste  and  the  wurlil-ronowneil 
Venice  seem  to  lie  called  to  play  a  great  part  in  tlie 
future  coniinerco  of  tho  United  States.  The  export  of 
the  United  States  to  Trieste  Is  much  larger  than  their 
import  from  Austria,  and  was,  in  the  year  1854,  nut 
less  than  ii>l,!)U3,l>0U. 

Tho  direct  commerce  of  tho  United  States  with  Tur- 
key is  fixed  by  the  following  data :  to  Turkey,  the 
United  States  e.vported,  in  1H5-1,  merchandise  in  value 
of  lii;)25,198  ;  Importing  from  there  $803,714.  This  Is  a 
vcj'  poor  trade.  If  we  consider  the  means  of  botli  par- 
ties. This  trade  is  in  its  llrst  development  and  will 
soon  lie  Increased,  if  tho  Americans  will  take  hold  of 
it  with  their  usual  enterprise,  (jrocco  and  the  Ionian 
Islands  uro  entirely  forgotten  by  tho  Americans ;  no 
direct  coramorco  is  curried  on  from  there  to  the  United 
States. 

Mr.  Raker  saj-s,  "  The  commerce  with  the  Jlorea 
would  be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  Americans, 
if  they  would  only  iittompt  and  explore  it.  Tho  great 
((Uantity  of  produco  would  easily  procure  re-cargo  to 
American  vessels.  Tho  demand  for  nine,  lead,  etc., 
is  permanent,  also  offish ;  rice,  tlour,  and  other  Amer- 
ican produce,  wuulil  find  easy  market.  The  same," 
says  ]Mr.  lialcer,  "  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  where  a  good 
trade  wciild  result." 

IndiivH  Ctimmern: — .\8  to  the  indirect  commerce  of 
tho  United  States  to  the  Mediterranean,  there  are  very 
meagre  data.  The  total  export  of  the  United  States  in 
1851,  to  all  ports  in  the  Mediterranean,  of  goods  not 
produced  In  the  United  States,  was  only  ij'953,417. 
These  foreign  productions  consist  in  coffee,  tea,  cocoa, 
leather,  skins,  ])eppcr,  rum,  dye-woods,  sugar  from 
(.lulia,  sogars,  cochineal,  and  honey. 

As  to  the  yVinerican  indirect  import  from  those  coun- 
tries, it  is  ditHcult  to  find  It  out.  The  lists  of  naviga- 
tion give  only  the  direct  trade;  and  at  the  nominations 
of  the  value  of  importation  from  the  States  on  the 
Mediterranean,  no  port  is  named  from  where  sent. 

Kngland,  which  has  the  greatest  trade  witli  the 
Mediterranean  (lorts,  and  which  is  from  there  extended 
in  all  directions,  keeps  no  direct  ship  commuuicatioii 
from  there  to  the  United  States.  Of  the  8608  Itritish 
ships,  tonniigo  1,748,380,  which  came,  in  1854,  to  the 
United  .States,  not  more  than  820  tons  were  from  (iili- 
raltar ;  nut  one  singlo  ton  from  Malta !  The  cause  is 
natural.  Knglund  finds  it  more  in  her  interest  to  do 
the  commercial  trading  with  the  Mediterranean  and 
Levantine  produco  to  the  Uni'  d  St  /es,  not  direi'tly, 
but  from  Liverpool  and  other  pori.i.  The  advantage 
of  tl|is  proceeding  is  easily  explained. 

The  Knglisli  merchants  receive,  through  Liverpool, 
regular  reports  by  tho  (Collins  and  Ciincr  imers,  of 
tho  standing  of  the  trans-Atlantic  ma d  <  i.  ids  puts 
them  in  the  way  to  use  there  all  the  i  .'i.uuc  olTering 
to  dispose  of  tlie'r  rich  stocks  of  .Mei  oli!™  nuu  "  \  '  ico 
with  ai'  to  the  United  states.      .  lie  sank   is 

the  cast  in  "i  r  ports  of  tho  European  lontiiicnt, 
which  follow  tie  same  policy.  In  this  way  consi  'er- 
ablo  quantities  of  red  and  white  wines,  fruits,  drugs, 
and  other  produco  of  the  Meditorraneuu,  rume  by  indi- 
rect comniorca  to  iVmerica, 


MED 


1841 


MEL 


hose  coun- 
navit;ii- 
jminutiona 
on  the 
int. 
with  tlio 
extcni\ctl 
nunk:ili«n 
,0«  lUilisU 
51,  to  tho 
from  <iili- 
lie  <:iiuso  is 
rest  to  do 
aueim  and 
t  airoi'tly, 
advuntago 

T.iveriiciol, 
^vn\ers,  of 
nis  piita 
,  olTiTing 
.u"  '.■■  ICO 
lie  811HK  13 
rontimnt, 
ly  con^•i  'iT- 
uits,  drua?, 
me  by  indi- 


We  take,  for  example,  the  corlnthea,  which  are  ex- 
ported from  /ante  and  Corfu  to  England,  and  other 
Kiiroprnn  port!*,  from  where  they  are  lent  to  tlie 
United  States  In  mnnll  quantities.  It  in  the  same  witli 
other  artlc'iea,  to  conntrioH  where  the  Americans  have 
no  direct  communication.  In  addition  to  the  ports 
already  named,  we  can  add,  under  the  same  category, 
the  rich  islands  of  the  TurldBh  dominions  in  ICurope 
and  Asia,  viz. :  (,'yprus,  Uhodes,  Candia,  Samosi,  My- 
tilone.  Kvon  from  ports  regularly  visited  liy  Amer- 
ican vessels,  goods  arc  sent  indirectly  to  the  Uniteil 
states.  This  is  the  consequence  uf  tlie  isolation  in 
which  tho  United  States  uro  placed,  in  relation  to 
those  iwrts.  In  Smyrna,  tlie  largo  storing  place  of 
the  produce  in  tho  Levant,  where  merchants  of  uU  na- 
tions have  a  counting-room,  there  is  no  American,  It 
is  the  same  in  other  ports  of  tho  Mediterranean,  the 
Adriatic,  and  Levant.  This  isolation  is  advantageous 
to  the  Indirect  intercourse  of  tlie  Englisli  and  French 
with  tho  United  States;  liothare  in  the  fortunate  situ- 
ation to  turn  tlie  chances  of  loth  bemisphcros  to  their 
advantage.  Mr.  Ilalcer,  in  speaking  of  tho  commerce 
of  the  United  States  with  the  French  dominions  in 
Africa,  viz.,  Algiers,  Tunis,  Triiioli,  and  Morocco, 
says:  "  It  would  l>o  very  prolitaldc  for  our  commerce 
if  the  Americans  would  engage  in  this  liranch ;  they 
would  convince  themselves,  very  soon,  that  such  an 
undertaking  would  1)0  very  prolitahlo.  This  advice 
has  not  liceii  followed  up  to  tills  time ;  at  least  there 
are  no  statistics  tiiat  tliure  have  been  any  imports  from 
there.  Thoso  aro  ulmoat  exclusively  African,  apd 
mentioned  only  in  general  terms,  without  brandies  of 
commerce  in  these  dominions." 

The  American  export  to  Africa  in  gencml,  in  the 
year  ]H.')4,  amounted  to  lill,801,72U ;  tho  imports  to 
$1,38«,5G0  ;  of  which  proportion,  ♦47,708  and  $.')0,007 
belong  to  Madeira,  Tenerlffc  and  otiier  Canarian 
Islands,  $20,117  and  $39,fiD8;  Cape  of  tiood  Hope, 
$2'J!),!)»8  and  $118  ' '  There  is  no  data  for  the  other 
African  territorie!>.  Vucording  tu  late  disclosures,  tliere 
are  considerable  numbers  of  vessels  which  leave  Amer- 
ican ports  to  embark  secretly  in  the  s'.avr '.rade,  land 
them  at  Cuba,  and  import  a  ccmsideraldo  quantity  of 
goods  from  Africa.  Americans  can  buy  many  kinds 
of  African  produce  from  the  great  caravans  of  the 
Mecca  pilgrims,  which  traverse  Africa  in  its  greatest 
extremity  to  tlie  tlediterranean. 

From  tho  abo  u,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Americans 
ajipear  in  the  Mediterranean  as  well  as  in  tiie  Levant 
OS  far  less  tlian  a  mercantile  ^  ,)wer  of  tlie  tirst  class. 
And  it  is  but  too  plain  that  tlicse  great  and  rich  terri- 
tories, for  hundreds  of  years  the  centre  of  shipping 
and  commerce  of  well-advised  nations,  are,  by  the 
Americans,  very  much  iiotjiected.  England  and  France 
are  in  opposition  with  steamers  and  manufactures  on 
the  Mediterranean,  Adriatic,  and  Levant.  Tiie  mail 
lines  of  Cunard,  Collins,  Bremen,  and  Havre,  ar^ 
not  guificient  for  our  steam  commerce  with  Eunp: . 
and  a  Mediterranean  line,  alone,  will  be  found  to  ar- 
swer  tlio  interests  of  American  commerce.  And 
through  all  this,  tho  great  project  of  the  Pacific  Rail- 
road and  Marine  Telegraph  across  the  Atlantic  will  the 
sooner  be  brought  to  completion.  It  is  to  bo  lioped 
that  Trieste  and  the  Austrian  commercial  couimuuity 
in  general,  will  not  allow  such  progressive  movements 
to  pass  witliout  considering  that  the  same  which  has 
been  done  by  the  small  city  of  Bremen,  can  be  done 
'.'  "'riesto,  with  its  powerful  resources.  Bremen  can 
l^ivi  satisfactory  proof  of  tlio  importance  of  a  steam 
conanunication  with  the  Now  "  orld.  Bremen  has 
ox,  t'ted  in  185'!,  not  less  tiian  |il  1,013,927.  Bremen 
is  much  ahead  of  Hamburg,  on  account  of  its  steam 
communicatior.  with  New  York,  -iS  its  exports  in  18Jhl 
were  only  $',>,o22,971.  Trieste  would  have  double  tlie 
adv.mta,je ;  it  would  have  all .  I.c  direct  commerce  with 
Austi  I..',  nad  the  indirect  tonnection  with  the  Mediter- 
raao^u  wd  the  New  World.    The  project  U  great,  but 


promises  well-paying  results.  It  can  be  developed  by 
a_  direct,  regular,  and  quick  conncition  with  New 
York,  It  is  also  well  to  mention,  tliut  Austria  would, 
by  these  means,  come  into  a  more  productive  relation- 
ship with  the  Orient,  as  tlie  coinmerco  of  Austria  can 
look  to  a  very  prosperous  future,  on  account  of  the 
Marine  Telegraph  from  Sardinia  to  Constantinople 
and  Alexandria,  as  the  connection  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  tho  Bed  Hm.—Xaullcnl  Mitgazinr.  For 
Commerce,  ■  ;,,  of  tiie  Mediterranean,  .see  h'J.  Hev., 
vi.,  478 ;  Hint's  .1%.,  vl.,  201 ;  Fuaskii,  zxvii,  377  j 
Qimr.  he,:,  Ixxv.,  280;  same  article  in  tXlectic,  V,, 
33;  Living  Age,  v.,  301. 

Melbourne,  the  capiUl  of  the  British  colony  of 
Victoria,  formerly  Port  Philip,  in  Australia,  occupy- 
ing the  south-east  portion  of  tliut  continent,  stretching 
through  9°  of  longitude,  from  Cape  Howe  on  the  east 
to  the  Glenelg  Kivcr  on  tlio  west.   The  town  is  situat- 
ed on  tho  north  bank  of  the  Yarra-Yarra  Hivcr,  about 
nine  mlleii,  following  its  windings,  from  Its  mouth,  in 
tho  basin  of  Port  Philip,  latitude  87°  49'  5"  S.,  long. 
144°  58'  35"  E.     It  was  founded  in  1837,  and  ex- 
tends along  the  banks  of  tlie  river.     In  1851  it  had  a 
population  of  23,000 ;  and  such  has  been  tiio  immigra- 
tion consc(iuent  on  the  discovery  of  tho  gold-fields, 
tliat,  including  suburbs,  it  had  on  tiie  24th  of  April, 
1851,  71,188  inhabitants.    A  considerable  |>ortion,  how- 
ever, of  tills  immense  population,  is  to  bo  regarded  us 
migratory  only,  and  as  residing  in  town  merely  till 
their  ultimate   destination   has  been  decided    upon. 
This  sudden  increase  of  population  raised  house  rent 
to  an  unparalleled  height ;  and  for  some  considerable 
tiniu  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  was  not 
housed,  but  encamped  under  tents.   But  partly  through 
tile  extraordinary  stimulus  which  was  tiius  given  to 
Imildlng,  and  partly  through  the  mc'cuntile  failures 
ci'-it'equent  to  tho  overtrading  of  1853  and  1854,  thore 
'  i»  been  a  very  heavy  fall  of  rents,  which  di.  not  now 
(K  '"o)  exceed  half  their  amount  in  1852.     Tiie  site  of 
the  I  wn  i     nf-irtunate  ;  for  tlie  river  being  obstruct- 
ed by  a  Imri'       diallows,  it  is  not  generally  navigahlo 
for  ves    1»  '  .   .nore  tlian  t!0  tons  burden;  and  it  has 
the  furtlier  (li.-.ail  vantage  of  being  low,  and  li.ibb  to  be 
flooded  by  the  overliowing  of  the  river  during  tlu  ivet 
season.     It  has  been  proposed  to  facilitate  the  trade 
of  tho  town  l>y  removing  the  li.ii-  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  deepening  its  channel :  but  this  would  lie  a 
vcrj-  expensive  undertaking,  and  one  of  which  tiie 
success  would  be  not  a  little  doubtful.     The  ox<itva- 
tion  of  a  ship  canal  from  the  deep  water  in  tho  i>ay  to 
Melbourne  has  also  been  proposed ;  and  it  prolnliiy 
would  be  the  preferalde  plan  ;  but,  in  the  mean  time,  a 
railway  has  been  conimeuii'ii,  and  is  in  progress  to  tlie 
liay,  which,  when  completed,  as  is  probalily  tlie  case, 
will  obviate  many  of  tlie  inconveniences  whicli  are 
now  experienced.     It  seems,  however,  not  unlikely 
'■  ■•     '  ,  IraJu  of  the  town,  and  the  greater  part,  per- 
':\   ,    '  i'.s  population,  will  ultimately  centre  at  Wil- 
liainstown,  a  village  a  few  miles  distant,  on  a  head- 
land extending  into  the  bay,  opposite  to  which  all 
largo  vessels  coming  to  Melbourne  are  obliged  to  an- 
clior.     Tlio  principal  objection  to  Williamstown  is  the 
scarcity  and  bad  quality  of  the  fresh  water ;  but  this 
serious  defect  miglit,  perhaps,  bo  obviated  liy  sinking 
wells,  or  by  conveying  hither  a  supply  of  water  from 
some  of  the  adjacent  streams.      Notliing  can   more 
strikingly  illustrate  the  present  unfavorable  situation 
of  the  town  for  commercial  puriKises,  and  the  extraor- 
dinary state  of  things  wliich   was  lately  prevalent 
there,  t'  an  tho  fact  that  while  tb"  ordinary  charge  for 
the  freight  of  goods  from  England  to  Melbourne  Koads 
was  in  November,  1853,  £3  lOs.  a  ton,  it  was  £5  to  the 
quays. 

There  are  very  few  goods  or  articles  exported  from 
the  colony  to  tho  United  States.  Tlie  principal  articles 
have  been  gum,  in  small  quontities,  a  few  hides,  and 
some  bonea.    With  the  exception  oi  ^^dd,  on  which 


ml 


■1^<\ 


Wi 


MEL 


I 


th«rn  in  ii  duty  of  60  ceiita  \itit  ounce  (i».  M.),  none  an 
liitlilu  til  tliity. 

iMfOHTII,    RlPUKTII,   AND    PnPIM.tTION    nr    Till    COI.OXX    Or 

ViimiHU  moil  XHSt  to  IBM,  both  iKci.uiiir*. 


1342  MRL 

RiPtmn  or  VicniaiA,  IMklMW, 


IHW... 
1840... 
IMI... 
IM9, , . 
1X48  .. 
H44... 
I*«ft... 

iHia... 

1841.. 

1<M8... 
Mr . , , 
IWl... 
KM... 
I8A1... 
1W8... 
ISS4... 


Tolnl  of 

r«|iuuiiiiii, 

Imrorla. 

■llwrM. 

•ilvrniil 

■v«riiff* 

IrwiK. 

ufytar, 

To<^o~ 

£we,iiiM) 

i!T>«,IIOO 

i'/WI.IKNI 

89-i,IKX) 

IM.OOd 

MT.ooo 

KUMKI 

ri'«,0()0 

I8Q,IMM) 

474,MHI 

14,000 

'iM,no() 

'2UI.0OO 

4flH,0(KI 

10,000 

llt'l,IMIO 

87t,lllH) 

401,00(1 

2«,noo 

lAI.IMIII 

M-,000 

44>H,INK) 

« 1,000 

■i4KIKIII 

404,INIO 

7l'i,000 

liS,000 

810,01111 

4'A0l)O 

41,000 

81,000 

■•iHOoo 

6W,00(I 

1,I07,0(» 

4'.',flfl0 

KKt 

A7S.0II0 

l,(M0,IKIO 

AUiOlMI 

*)0l>00 

■■  -,(MK) 

l.SHft.OIH) 

flO,IMI0 

746,000 

l,ln:,0'KI 

i,;'T,0(ifl 

70,000 

l,ftM,4:i: 

1.41ii),«l9 

li,WI,IM« 

00,000 

4,(i4;).sM 

T,4ftl,.M9 

11.108.44.'^ 

1H0,000 

5,sii,ftil 

S,lHfl,01l« 

«,7SH,7iW 

I8,AS7,404 

[ll,m,Wi 

iO,0«0,OW 

!J»i,l'H'K) 

The  foUowin);  ittatemont  exhibltH  the  quantity  of 
gold  v.xportod  from  tlio  noverul  portii  in  Au»traliik  In 
Oiioh  year  from  the  coinmenconiont  of  the  |{oM  iIIbcov- 
(irloK  lu  th«  end  of  the  ycor  18S6;  the  ex|)orts  chiofly 
diisthied  for  (Jreut  Urituhi  and  coluniul  puMeMioas : 


(Ij'iJ  cipoHMi  from  New  Ri>nlh  Wftlti, 

qmnllty. 

Vdlim. 

t^M  Mlh  Mar  to  Blot  Doc... 

lS,Vi 

IMS 

1864 

at.  tlwK    Urt. 

141,110  17  1« 
80'i,»78  10  1» 
.M8,0.S!!  19  Vl 
iW7,i>10  1.1  28 
ttMM  14    H 

f  2,841 ,080 

18,0(HI,SflO 
■»,0ll,'i,Vi5 

ii,80(;,o4n 

1885 

1,(MO,»0 

Total 

(84,iao,710 

Hold  tiiinrM  from  VlctoiU. 

Quantity. 

V«lu.. 

IWl 

th.  (iwt^.irw. 
14.M87    «  13 
1,98H,W«  10  HI 
a,497,7M  Ift  10 
8.144.099    9  10 
2,676,746    4  17 

I'M  98,885    1 

1-142 

msa 

8O,07»,04«    , 
411,822,045 

l8,^4 

41,277,750    ! 

1986 

ToUl 

60,819,900    1 
♦  174,292, 820  "i 

Kf'gB  during  last  4  yoan 

»4»,678,»08    1 



To  the  precedini;  itatement  we  annex  an  official 
return  of  all  the  gold  eoinotl  nt  Mm  mint  in  (ireat 
Hrituiii  each  year  from  .lanuary  1,  184(i,  to  Uectmlier 
al,  W>5: 

Gold  coined  in  Great  Britain  in — 


1»4« »21.n74,55« 

1^(7 26,702.200 

1S4H 12,2:.:l,995 

1849 I0,8V.U75 

1850 1,461,191 

1851 22,(Ky.',0M 

1852 48,711,861 


1858 ♦59,7«I,9M 

1951 20,700.915 

1850 4A,04;l,;llll 


Total...  ♦209.;i.W,'i99 


Average    |20,98,\029 

F"i'  further  details,  see  tlio  Articles  (^ii.oxikm, 
Pkf:<;ioi9  Met<i.s,  and  Cai-ikouSia.  Here,  us  in 
other  parts  of  Australia,  wool,  down  to  the  discnvcry 
of  the  golcl  fields,  was  the  principal  article  (jf  produce 
ond  I'cport.  And  it  is  seen  from  the  lidlowinj?  st.ito- 
iiient  that  its  exportatinn  went  on  increasing  down  to 
the  pre^ont  year. 

\ooor       or  tub  Wool  siiipi'KD  nrniNU  the  Ykaiw  end- 
INU  IOtii  Octobkb,  1853,  1854. 

IA53. 
Iba. 

Melbcnme ...  9,870,781 

Ooclong 7,019,900 

Portland 8,475.919 

Port  Fairy  1,281,825 

PortAlburt «:i«,880 


1«54. 

Il,lii4,|:)0 

5,(U^t,400 

4.102,482 

1,450,800 

282,370 


ToUl 21,906,104  22,.%99,n88 

A  continuous  hiijh  price  of  wool  in  tiie  Knglish 
markets  will  atrord  great  encouragement  to  tlie  "ct- 
tlers  to  struggle  with  these  two  tendencies  so  greatly 
deterion  ive  to  our  wool ;  and  the  manufacturers  of 
Great  Dritain  will  have  to  afford  that  encouragement, 
or  they  must  gradually  teach  themselves  to  look  else- 
where for  a  supply. 


Yaan. 

rrinliiM  of 
VIoMla. 

Urillili 
iiiftRufhrlMrM 

Urill.li 

rolonltt. 

Vfrnimttl 
fcnlfti 

■ut««. 

Tololi, 
i!4lJ8,Mr 

18^ 

*lfll,7l>^ 

J;:f<,47» 

iillHI 

Mm 

1848 

4««,8I>I 

10,152 

5,280 

425,201 

1847 

862,122 

18,450 

2,989 

OAl.OU 

1848 

667,910 

18,210 

2,188 

2,004 

07l,ll.'l» 

1849 

787,087 

13,072 

721 

4,400 

7.Vl,«20 

1850 

l,«22,0«4 

12,946 

196 

8,592 

l.l)41.7«A 

I8AI 

1,««2,2«7 

29,588 

2,107 

9,IKI2 

1.422,1109 

1852 

7,887,(1*/". 

M,898 

t,-m 

62,292 

7,4.M.M9 

1S8S 

10,4II0,9M 

141,01)4 

24,1180 

805,105 

11,001.513 

Population  of  census  BOth  April,  1Hri4,  2.12,000  HJiitw 
Ing  tliat,  exclusive  of  the  excess  nf  immigrants  over 
emigrnnts  hy  sea,  the  |xipuliitioii  hud  gained  17,25:)  liy 
overland  arrivals  and  otlier  causes. 

Aucoi  sr  or  tiik  Nuuiirk  anii  T"NN,»m  or    ruH   Hiiips 

r.NTKItKI)    InWAHO  lit  TIIK   PollTH    ntr    Vl(m»RIA    IN    ls6], 

1862,  A!«ti  1868,  HPiU'irviNo  Tiia  OorNTaiBi  to  wiii'-t 
Tiiar  ii«i.<iNiiRii,  AND  Tua  NvMnaa  and  Tomnaon  ur 

TIIUHR    UKLONUINO  TU   KACU. 


IHM . 

IMJ. 

1 

8hl|». 

,  •'■•■"•■ 

kM|«. 

■r„i,., 

Hlil|u. 

96 

61.021 

261 

108,919 

830 

591 

07,116 

1,804 

22.\440 

1,740 

8 

74« 

18 

5,820 

110 

28 

0,924 

29 

8.081 

105 

712 

129,4281  1,0.%7 

408.2 10 

2,594 

mi. 


284,7111, 
851.oi;o: 

58.9881 

81,70"! 
721,473 


ir.  kingiloin... 

Hrtttuli  cotoiilu.^ 

Ilnltml  Hlnlos.. 

Other  fur.  status 

I    Totals... 

Scnlf  of*  Cnmmfrcial  Chnrgfg  ittlnptfii  at  a  Sjwcial  (irn- 

md  Mfftliiq  iifthif  }fi-lhnume  Chamhrr  nf  Commerce, 

Ulh  .lf«y,  \%M. 

Commimiimi, — On  cisli  payments,  when  not  in  funils, 
.I  per  cent,  j  on  cash  payments  wlieii  in  funds,  2J  per 
cent. ;  on  purchase  and  sliipmont  of  gold  dust,  1  pi>r 
cent.  ;  on  piirchnse  and  sliipment  of  gold  dust,  if 
drawn  against,  21  per  cent. 

On  the  amount  of  invoice  in  either  case. 

On  [MrcliJiKi  lid  shipment  of  merchandise  and 
(Ml  other  purcli:.^  ■  when  not  in  funds,  5  per  cent,  j 
on  purchase  nn^'  'lipmcnt  of  mepli  iiidiso  and  on 
other  purchases  ■  n  in  funds,  2J  per  cent. ;  on  pri- 
vate  sales,  includi.  the  purchase  of  hills  for  remit- 
tance, 5  per  cent. ;  on  guaranty  n.'  sales,  including 
remittances,  .'>  per  ci'mI  ;  on  goods  received  for  sale 
and  reshipped,  and  i  u  i  Mnsignment"  of  inercliundi^o 
withdrawn,  im  invoiie  val'  ",  2}  pci  rent. ;  on  dclits, 
rents,  and  other  acc!''nts  collected,  recovered,  and  re- 
mlttcil,  fl  per  cent. ;      i  granting  of  Ir  •  ters  of  crijdit,  -'J 

per  cent. ;  tm  letters  il'  credit  acteil ,  an  additional 

charge  of  'i\  per  cent,  on  freiglit  or  barter  procured 
for  vessels,  and  freight  or  I'lssage-nuney  ctdliM'ted,  5 
per  cent. ;  on  freight  paid  at  port  of  departure,  '.'J  per 
cent. ;  on  ships'  disbursements  nud  oiitHts  when  not  in 
funds,  6  per  cent. ;  on  ships'  disbursements  and  outlits 
when  in  funds,  2^  per  cent. ;  on  guaranty  of  captains' 
drafts  on  owners,  tolten  for  balanco  of  ships'  disKurse- 
r.icnts, ,')  per  cent. ;  on  money  otitaineil  oh  bottomr)'  or 
respondentia,  5  per  cent. ;  on  insurance  effected,  or  or- 
ders written  for  insurance,  on  the  assured  value,  \  p(?r 
cent. ;  on  insurance  losses,  partial  or  total,  settled,  or 
on  premiums  recovered,  h  per  cent. 

All  sales  of  goods  understood  to  lie  guarantied,  un- 
less there  bo  special  orders  to  the  contrarj'. 

Guaranty  on  security  for  contnicts,  5  per  cent. ; 
acting  as  trustee  on  nasignments,  .'>  per  cent. ;  on  ad- 
vances on  produce  for  shipment,  i^  per  cent. 

Auctioneers'  commission  and  brolioragc  to  be  charged 
>vlien  incurred. 

Advances  and  current  accounts  not  liquidated  at  tlw) 
end  of  the  season,  JIarch  Slst,  the  balance  to  be  charged 
as  a  fresh  advance,  subject  to  a  commlssi(m  of  5  per 
cent. 

Interest. — On  advances  for  duty,  freight,  and  lighter- 
age, and  im  amounts  occurring  per  annum,  10  per  cent 

Charges. — For  passing  accounts  with  the  govern- 
ment for  emigrant  ships,  A'21 ;  for  entering  sliip  in- 
ward at  the  custom-house,  when  the  original  port  of 
departure  is  Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  or  New 
Zealand,  £2  29.;   for  clearing  ship  outward,  when 


Memel, 

of  light-hoii.« 
Illation,  in  18 
sost  side  of  t 
lliif,  near  if. 
a»«ntly,  the  | 
'ly  the  Nicmi] 
I'omnierce.     1 
but  the  bar  al 
dom  more  th.l 
than  13  or  14  r 
feet  water  arJ 
part  of  their  I 
Is  but  indillerJ 
north-west.    I 
feet  in  heighfl 
of  the  cntrnif 
flted  and   pol 
Weather  at  iil 
buoy  lies  in  ol 
•Ight-houfo,  J 
east.     The  cl| 
white  buoys  o1 
Three  beaconf 
into  a  line,  leJ 
•lowever,  as  tH 


i-'iwJiAii-.-.^-.-v.:..  . 


MKM 


1348 


MEM 


I  28-1,7 10, 
8.M,0C.6' 

^8,98^| 

81,70lll 
I  721,478 


cent. ; 
on  ail- 


Ihn  pnrt  nf  (Ii'kI illation  U  AimtriilU,  A'  <  Dlamnn'ii 
l.niiil,  (ir  Nuw  /xiilunil,  1'2  '!•. ;  fur  cntiiriilK  iihip  In- 
wiinl  I'roMi  (itlinr  |Hirtii,  XH  An,  ;  f<  r  rtdarinK  "'''P  *>'■'- 
wtril,  AT)  JiK.;  for  ultrnilinft  lUlivrry  uf  car^ii  from 
ll;;lit«ni,  anil  kI<')"K  ootiio  to  i'i<nilKn««»,  lfi>-  |>«r  iluy  ; 
It'll  Tor  purli  nurvi'vor  within  thit  city,  £l  la.  i  foe  for 
Hurvpy  of  tiitti'liii!)  unil  ntowiKn  of  mr  to,  £1  Ik,;  f«o 
for  Kurvey  of  hull  of  vnsiiel,  X&  (in.  \  ii  wool,  for  re- 
inivInK,  w«l)(hln){,  iiiirkinKi  und  ilullverhiKi  i'l'  |>«r 
load ;  in  aililltlon  to  th«  tura  on  wool,  un  alluwanco  fur 
ilruft  of  1  III.  |i<ir  iwt. 

I'aoTMB  lUrn  at  McLimrim,  18(M 


t'riitn  without  th*  Hi<ailiito  Mol 
bouriiii  or  ()evliiii)(,  and  tia*\ 
tfrtd,  [MT  ton 

Fniiii  within  the  Meads  to  Mi>l 
boiiriiii  or  (leiilnnir,  anil  ff<Ml 
ri*/'«d,  pur  ton 

Into  or  out  of  I'lirt  Albert,  n.  ton 

Into  or  out  oral!  otlicr  porlii 

Kctis'i't'ii  Mi'Ibourni' 


■  I" 
A  (Jr 


'lonff. 


liimm. 

Mini- 
mum. 

t 

i: 

100 

IB 

60 

10 

60 
40 
40 

0 
4 
4 

'I'liD  ubovi!  rulct  IncluiUi  two  removes  by  tlio  pliola. 


master  of  Kiirh  ahlp  hi'hllnK  a  i-nrtilieatn  ftrom  the  PIIol 
H'wril  thiit  h«  It  lompctiint  to  act  us  |illot  to  suih 
tra'lii  ),  nnUsa  Iha  Sdrvli-M  of  a  i  ilot  shall  havn  born 
ai'tu.illy  recBlvml  j  ami  all  thJiis  not  hiivlnif  actually 
mreivpil  thn  siirvliiss  of  a  pilot. 

Th«  bi<«in  of  port  I'hillp,  whiih  n-ci-lKis  the  Yurra- 
Yarra,  anil  othur  rivers,  is  a  InrKn  circular  liuy.nr  inlut 
of  tho  urn,  whnnrii  thn  (•iilouy  ilerlved  Its  fiimier  nnniu. 
It  has  a  nurriiw  entrance,  m'lt  more  than  \\  miles  in 
width,  partly  occiipleil  with  rocks  anil  shoals.  A  light- 
house has  lioen  erected  near  Iho  extremity  of  Tolnt 
bilisilalo,  near  the  west  (bin  of  thn  entrance,  lit.  iW 
10'  H.,  lon({.  1 10'  Id'  K.,  anil  another  on  I'oint  (iclli- 
liranil,  near  tho  head  of  the  bay,  Imtween  Williams, 
town  andthu  niimth  of  the  Viirra-Varra  lilver,  lat,  .'17° 
hi'  H.,  biiiK.  II  \ '  fift'  K,  The  bay  is  alsiut  4(1  miliis 
in  depth  from  xoutli  to  north,  and  where  widest  Is 
shout  ID  miles  from  east  to  west.  It  is  said  to  cover 
an  area  of  above  hOO  miuuro  miles,  and  inixht  uccom- 
niwlute  all  the  navies  of  all  the  countries  in  the  world. 
The  whole  trade  of  the  colon  v.  which  Is  already  \.-rv 
extensive,  nnd  is  liiireasiii);  with  extraordinary  rii- 
piility,  Is  at  present  carried    n  from  this  luisin.  '  And 


I  from  its  ndvaiitaKeoiis  sllual  i  and  its  strctchinK  so 
Kjrtmptumi. — All  ships  beloiminn  to  her  majesty,  uU  i  far  inland,  it  is  probable  it  w  ,  .ilwnys  continue  to  eii- 
ships  (Hittlttinjj  to  or  retittintf  from  the  llsherics,  uii  ^ross  tho  larnnit  share  of  tlii'  trade,  tiiough,  no  doubt, 
ships  einpbij-cd  iu  tlie  coastin^j  trade,  all  ships  rejju-  it  will  liu  partly,  oImi,  carried  on  from  other  piut-i. 
larly  trading  liotween  any  port  of  Victoria  and  of  any  |  (icebiii({,  at  tho  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  west  siiie 
of  the  I'lilonioB  of  Now  South  Wales,  Van  Diemen's  .  of  the  basin,  has  u  largo  population,  and  a  ver}'  con- 
Laud,  Now  /ealunil.  West  uinl  .South  Australiii  (the  '  slJerablo  trade. 

CoiiMKMOR  or  Tim  Unitkd  rtT\Tits  wrrn  AurtKALiA,  from  Ouronaa  I,  1837,  to  Jui.t  1,  1886. 


Y»srl  ending 

CxtKirU. 

!.,.»«.           Wli.rsor  lh..r«  WH  In  Bullion 

Import*.                       «ii(18p«cl«.                        TonniigtCUsritd. 

OomeiUe. 

Foralri. 

Total. 

ToUl.     '  1     !!ip<irl.'il. 

Importtit.     1  Amarliin.  |     ror.lipi.    | 

Sept.  80,  1M88 

1880 

1840 

Toial    .. 

1S41 

1812 

Oraoi.     1848 

Judo  80,  ISM 

1848 

1846 

1847 

Total.... 

.lunoSO,  ISVi 

1«.")8 

KM 

INM 

IS.'W 

«I)8,M6 

6,790 

84,847 

$816 

184.862 

6,790 

90,869 

(80,5*8    ■ 
68,844 
122,141 



'■'•• 

620 
l,(i.Vl 
1,868 
8;041 

1,787 
690 
41S 

9,792 

9.818 
.^0,044 
80,421 

4.S,8IV4 

42,8(15 

.... 

17,010 
I8,01U 
4.0-.9 
2.479 
4,;-.'2 

»l«i,lH8 

««8,781 
R2,(lftl 
67,805 
20,607 
69,521 
48,783 
88,889 

t886,,'i00  '" 

4,148,S'i8 
2,»»»,685 
2,708,048 
4,909,025 

$6,81« 

^112,,^B7 
iV,28a 

"790 

1188,021 

(176,841 
52,661 
69,087 
29,607 
70,811 
48,788 
88,289 

(211,028 

(86,706 
28,698 
41,910 

"iaa 

'i|i60;48i~ 

(214,2(Vi 
228.598 
184,152 

(101,621 
'6,720 

(108,841 

(7,493 

8',ii2 

(87,126 

•87,1^ 

(197,581 
10,980 

♦124,570 

111,718 
1.88,174 
140,444 
820,rsi6 
125,047 

1480,079 

(208,267 
4,2S7,0f)2 
8,140,079 
8,028.649 
6,081,972 

Memel,  i>  commercial  town  of  east  Prussia,  lot. 
of  light-houBO  5,')°  a' ',"  N.,  long.  21°  0'  2"  K.  Pop- 
ulation, in  184G,  91ft().  Slemel  is  situated  on  tlio  north- 
east side  of  tho  great  bay,  denominated  the  '  'fi-wrAc 
llnf,  near  Its  junction  with  tho  Bnltlc.  It  i.s,  .'ni'.i,-.. 
qu«ntly,  the  principal  entrepot  of  the  country  tru'-  ir  ••  1 
by  the  Nicmen,  and  as  such  enjoys  a  pretty  exfs-a^iv  ■ 
commerce.  The  harbor  of  Memel  is  lar;se  nnl  «at\); 
but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ourrische  llif  bus  sel- 
dom more  than  17  feet  water,  and  sometimes  not  more 
than  li!  or  14  feet ;  so  that  .ihips  drawing  more  than  l(i 
feet  water  are  frequently  obliged  to  load  nnd  unload  n 
part  of  their  cargoes  in  the  ro.ids,  where  the  luichorage 
is  but  indiflerent,  particularly  when  the  wind  is  north  or 
north-west.  A  light-houso,  originally  7.'i,  but  now  100 
feet  in  height,  lias  been  erected  on  the  nortii-enst  side 
of  tho  entrance  to  the  harbor.  Tho  light,  which  is 
fixed  and  powerful,  may  be  diitinguished  in  clear 
weather  at  inoro  than  20  miles'  distance.  Tlio  outer 
buoy  lies  in  6  f.ithoms  water,  about  n  milo  without  the 
light-house,  which  boars  from  it  south-east  by  east  J 
east.  Tho  channel  thence  to  the  harbor  is  marked  by 
white  buoys  on  the  north,  and  red  on  tho  smitli  side. 
Three  lieacons  to  the  north  of  the  town,  wlien  brought 
into  a  line,  leod  directly  into  the  harbor.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  the  channel  is  subject  to  frequent  changes, 


both  In  depth  and  direction,  it  is  always  pruiient,  on 
arriving  at  the  outer  buoy,  to  heave-to  for  a  pilot ;  but 
this  is  not  obliiratory ;  and  tlio  Prussian  authorities 
have  issued  directions  for  ships  entering  without  a 
pilot,  which  may  bo  found  in  Noiiik'8  Sailing  Direc- 
tinnx  for  thf  Oit/ff/af  and  Jtiiltic,  p.  .'Id.  Timber  forms 
the  principal  article  of  export ;  for  though  that  of 
Dantzic  lie  considered  better,  it  Ls  generally  cheaper, 
and  almost  always  nioro  abundant,  at  Memel.  Hero, 
as  at  Dantzic,  the  liest  quality  of  all  sorts  of  wood  ar 
tides  is  culled  klinm,  or  crown,  the  2d,  brnci;,  and  tlio 
3d,  lirnvtn  hrnrk\  Large  (luantities  of  hemp  and  Hax 
are  also  exported,  as  are  bri.-tles,  hides,  linseed  (tho 
liuest  for  crusliing  brought  to  Kngland),  wax,  pitcli, 
tiir,  etc.  The  cxjiorts  of  grain  are  sometimes  very 
considerable.  Tho  wheat  of  Lithuania  is  reckoned 
the  best.  All  flax  and  hemp  shipped  from  Memel 
must  be  bnirketl,  or  assorted,  by  sworn  selectors.  Sea 
Ki.AX  and  IIk.mi'.  The  imports  consist  principally  of 
salt,  herrings,  coffee,  sngar,  spices,  dye-woods,  tobac- 
co, tea,  iron,  cotton  stuffs  ard  yarn,  cutlery,  wine,  etc. 
Mercliants  at  Memel  generally  send  their  liills  to 
Kiinigsberg  to  be  sold,  charging  their  correspondents 
with  1  per  cent,  for  bank  commission,  postages,  etc. 
The  navigation  generally  closes  about  the  latter  end 
of  December,  and  opens  about  tho  middle  of  March 


MElt 


1844 


MK.lt 


Maroautlla  Aganoy  Byatam,  U.  ■— Tin  Mtr- 1 

otnlil*  Xgtnr.y  U  •  naniii  iiipllnl  lo  varloiu  Iiijiim4  In 
IhaliiailliiK  dti««ortli<'  I'liUml  Himna,  iin<l  in  MiMilrvul 
•ml  t,unilun.     '1  liu  prJDi'lpiil  iilijucl  of  Ilia  AKini'y  li  lo 
•u|i|ily,  to  aiiiiiml  nuliAcrllHTi,  iiifurniiiiliiii  railirclliiK  i 
thii  I'liimi'trr,  caimilty,  nnil   p"i  unliir)   I'lmilltluii  of  ' 
paruina  anklnK  rrxllt,     'I'lm  vnliiiilili)  ■iirvlieit  It  lia«  i 
rundcrol  tn  lliu  lUinmiitic:  triidii  o|   lliu  country,  »»  i> 
rliuck  upon  our  inuUt  ayiitiiin,  aro  acknowjiidKrcl  hy 
till)  nxrc'iinllla  cumniunlly.     ItH  liiitory,  toKnlluir  willi  | 
an  oxpUnaliun  of  il>  niodu  o(  o|i«rritlon,  inity  not  U< 
without   intaratt  to  the  ({onorul  reader  and  foralKo 
nicrchant, 

'Ilia  AK»ncy  waa  lint  aalaliliiihpd  In  IMIt  in  thn  idly 
of  Nbw  York,  l>y  Mr.  I,rwi»  Tappiiii,  iiiid  wn»  condiii't- 
ad  liy  hlin,  npun  it  I'oniparativply  llnilli'd  ncalu,  iiiilil 
IHIil,  when  Mr.  Itaiijniiilii  liouKlnni  luriinii'  hit  rmid' 
Jutor,  and  aMuniod  tlin  i  liiuf  iiiaiinK''inciit  I'roiii  lhl> 
tlnin  tlin  buniiiciia  Incri'imud  rupldl\,  mid  iiMiimcd  ii 
parnmnont  and  rr'ouKiiiiind  puaillon  among  tlia  inorcan- 
tllfl  liislltutiona  ofthn  lountry. 

Our  llniils  will  not  pi'rmit  us  lo  Iraiv,  step  liy  »lop, 
tti«  growth  of  tlio  Anoncy,  or  lo  clwidi  upon  tlin  pcr- 
aonal  nspcclii  of  ita  hlnlory.  hmndt'd  upon  thn  InliT- 
Ofit*  of  iiiprrhants,  and  coiidiiiicd  from  tho  licKiniiiriK 
liy  nii'ii  of  ability,  I'nparity  for  work,  IiIkIi  ihiiriirli'r, 
nn<l  thorouKh  knuwled|{c  of  tlio  wauln  of  mi'rrniiiili' 
liuainc^a,  it^  pro^rraa  hnn  lircii  iininhTriiplcd.  Kroin 
New  York  it  hna  cxtendod  its  lirniu'lifs  and  nnnoilnli' 
oilici'ii  to  acvi'iiU'iMi  otliir  eitliM,  vi/.. :  I'hiladidphiii, 
HoHtoii,  Montreal,  llulliinotu,  lliihmoiid,  IVliirHhurK, 
t'harlenton.  New  Orliaiu,  l'itlal)urj{h,  (^lovidmid,  (!in- 
cinniiti,  Chii'iiKo,  Milivniikie,  L)ii)iui|iii',  St.  Loiila,  l)C' 
troll,  and  Luiidun,  ICngluiul.  All  thi'irn  lirunchea  uru 
und'T  tliii  direi'lioii  of  tlio  proprivtorH  at  New  York,  and 
aro  ((ovcrnt'd  liy  iinirorm  rulivi.  A  daily  iiilor<jliuii);ii 
of  iiil'urnialion  fuillitates  thn  aiiHWi'riiig  of  thu  lni|uirlu« 
of  the  respective  siiliAcribi'raforall  parl.s  of  the  country. 

It  ia  obvlouK  that  tlio  giganlic  lulioruf  reportInK  lln' 
liuaincHB  men  of  raniida  and  tho  I'niti'il  .Slatoa  could 
not  liu  purfurnu'd  by  any  piio  ollice,  nor  could  thu  ox- 
peiiau  be  iMirno  by  the  mnrchanta  of  any  oiio  city.  It 
ia  porformod  by  meana  of  their  Hvatcm  of  Ijrmich  (dliiiH, 
each  aiipported  by  Hie  aubacriptioni  of  tho  merchanla, 
bankers,  and  manufacturers  of  the  city  In  which  it  ia 
localcl.  The  diatrict  allotted  tu  each  odico  ia  the 
connlry  of  which  its  city  in  tho  centru  of  trade.  I'or 
inatance,  tho  Uoston  office  rcportH  that  portion  of  the 
New  Kii);laiul  States  of  which  it  haa  llic  chief  trade; 
the  Oubuiiue,  tho  grcotcr  part  of  lown;  the  Milwuu- 
kie,  Wisconaiii;  tho  Charlcatoii,  .South  Carolina  and 
(ieor^ia;  while  the  Ohio  Valley  is  divided  between  tho 
oflicoa  at  I'itt»l)urgh,  Cincinnati,  and  houisville. 

Thia  Biibdivi»ion  of  labor  ia  the  mcana  of  aecurlni;  a 
minutcneas  and  accuracy  of  reports,  which,  to  any  oiiu 
unacquainted  with  the  machinery  of  tho  Agency,  ia 
very  Kmat.  The  operations  of  u  branch  oftieu  do  nut 
embrace  a  largo  extent  of  country.  They  uro  usually 
limited  to  the  15U  or  '200  counties,  the  majority  uf 
whose  traders  liny  tlieir  good.i  chiefly  at  the  city  where 
it  ia  eslabliahcd.  In  each  of  these  counties  the  princi- 
pal of  tlio  oflice  secures  one,  two,  tliriy!,  or  more  curre- 
apondeiita,  the  number  varying  with  the  population, 
and  lh>-  division  of  the  local  trade  among  towns.  Theau 
corrcapondunts  aro  selected  for  their  integrity,  long 
residence  in  tho  county,  general  acquaintance,  business 
experience,  and  judgment.  Their  duties  are  tu  advise 
tlie  Agency  promptly,  by  letter  or  telegraph,  of  every 
cliangu  alfecting  the  standing  or  responsiliilily  of 
traders ;  to  notify  it  of  suits,  protests,  murtgagea, 
luaaea  by  lirn,  imiorscnicnts,  or  otherwise ;  to  answer 
all  special  inquiries  addressed  tu  them  by  any  of  the 
associate  oflices ;  and  to  revise  before  each  trade  sea- 
son, or  oftener  if  required,  the  previous  reports  uf  ev- 
ery trader  in  the  cuunty,  nuting  any  change  for  the  bet- 
ter or  worse.  No  report  is  considered  full  unless  It 
embracaa,  in  regard  to  eacli  trader,  Iiia  business,  tlio 


lenk'lh  of  tlinii  liu  liua  piirauuil  ll,  Ilia  aiirroa  or  llie 
cuiiirar^ ,  hU  aga,  i  hariwlur,  habits,  capacity,  niaaiii, 
protpai  ts,  proparly  out  uf  buailiaaa,  n<al  aalala,  JuiIr- 
nmnls,  niortgagna,  ur  olhsr  liana  upon  his  propi>rly 
Tliti  graalast  cara  Is  lakaii  In  aiilaclliig  Ihn  agmits,  who 
furniab  lliu  bulk  of  Ihn  liiforniallon  lo  Dm  Ag■'l|c^ . 
Ihi'ir  liitiigriiy  of  character,  frmidnm  from  prcjuiliic, 
uml  from  any  iiiilanKlliig  coniiiiclioiia  with  iiicrcauiil, 
men,  which  might  blua  tlivm  In  Ihidr  rcporla,  tlicli 
><H  lal  poaltlon,  liilliianca,  and  oppnrluiillli'a  fur  kiio». 
lug  llioriiughly  llio  man  llicy  ara  raporllng,  aro  all 
tuki'ii  curufiilly  Inlu  ciiiisldnratlon,  uiid  Ilin  very  greit 

ail 'US  and  impHliaion  of  thn  iiualnciia  la,  wu  liuve  III. 

till  doiibl,  tu  III)  allrlbuli'd,  In  u  gnul  iiicuaiiri',  to  tin 
JiidgniKiit  and  luri'fui  dl><  rimiiiallon  whldi  \m^  liiin 
cxcriiaiid  III  lliia  purlliulur,  Nuvnrthidraa,  uflur  all 
tlila  I  am  In  tlio  aclci  lion  of  thn  agnnta,  prudeiicn  woiilil 
M'l'iii  to  rcqiiirii  aoiiiv  i lu'ik  upon  Ilium.  Tlila  ia  iIoim' 
liy  travnllng  agaiila  who  aru  sent  through  liiu  couulri, 
and  who  report  the  trailers  upon  their  own  roouniH, 
and  giiniiriilly  wltlimit  any  knowledge  of  what  liu 
local  agent  lm«  privli.ualy  reporlcd,  Tliuir  reporl« 
am  cuinpari  d  cand'ully  with  tlioaa  o^tlui  local  agiiit, 
ami  aii,\  lilaircpum y  llioroiighly  liivcallgalcd,  Again. 
iiiiich  Inforinalion  of  a  moat  valnabla  character  ia  il<. 
rived  fntin  apecial  rorrnapofidcnta,  as  bank  caaliii  r<. 
Iiiaiirance  aganiK,  notaries  public,  alierlUa,  and  ollii'r». 
wlioao  ofHclal  poslllim  gives  them  peculiar  opporliiiil. 
Ilea  of  knowing  nut  only  the  raMiiirces  and  churai  lii 
of  biialneaa  men,  but  also  thn  degree  of  proniptuii'i 
with  which  lliiiy  maet  tlinir  biialneaa  obligations,  Aii- 
ullicr  aoiircii  of  Infiirinatlon  la  that  alTordcd  by  mer- 
chaiila  tliciiia<dves,  who  frei|ueiitly  tnaku  "slatomcnlt" 
of  tliuir  own  atlitlra  from  their  books.  These  are  given 
under  thoir  uwii  aignaturu,  with  tlia  avowed  purpose 
of  having  tlium  iiaud  by  the  Agency  as  a  basis  fur 
credit.  Tkii  laading  facta  conlained  in  aiieh  "state- 
nients"nru  of  vuuraa  always  tnadn  matter  uf  special  in- 
vcstlgatlim,  As, fur liialanen, •inonhantlnlils "slalo- 
munt"  says  lin  owna  a  farm  nr  a  numlHir  of  town  lulu, 
in  a  curtain  county,  worth  n  rnrtain  sum.  The  reinnLi 
of  thu  county  aru  axumlnml  lo  urn  If  any  suoli  property 
slaiida  In  his  naina;  tho  oslimala  ho  puts  upon  it  is 
cumparud  with  that  given  by  peraons  acquainted  uilli 
the  valiiii  of  prupnrty  in  that  locality ;  and,  lastly,  a 
careful  uxainlnatlon  la  niadn  to  aacerlalii  if  any  iiicuin- 
hraneu  exlats  against  It  not  munthmed  in  the  volun- 
tary alatninent  of  thn  niarchant.  All  the  other  facts  in 
hia  Blateinent  ara  acriillnUed  In  like  manner,  and  it  is 
thus  snbjerted  In  •  very  searching  analysis,  licpiirls 
oblaliiud  with  thn  caru  thua  uxhlbllnd,  and  from  smli 
a  variety  of  sources,  must  certainly  approach  as  near 
perfection  aa  la  practlcabtn  under  any  circumatanceH. 

The  recorda  of  each  olllcn  are  arranged  acconlliig  lo 
cminllea,  Kacli  partnership  ami  Indlvhinal  name  i- 
indexed  fur  convonluiicn  of  rnfnrenco  on  impiiry  \mn^ 
inadu  by  subscrlliers,  The  reports  coming  In  daily  arc 
copied  without  delay  In  tho  book  fur  thn  county  to 
which  they  refer,  and  transmittuil  i.y  mail  ur  expni" 
to  the  next  or  cniilral  ulll<».  All  unfavorable  infurum- 
tlon  Is  promptly  copied  on  slips,  and  sent  slmiiltaneoin- 
ly  tu  all  thu  ofllcea  whoso  subscribers'  IntcrcKls  arc 
probably  Involved  ihnrulii,  Norious  cmbarrassmeiii!-, 
assignments,  and  failures,  aro  tulegraphod.  Thu  mass 
of  iiifurinullun  thus  contrlbutud  by  tho  branches  tu  the 
ceulral  uOlcii  pusses  Inlu  tliu  hands  uf  llio  diicf  clcrl<, 
Is  diatrlbutud  by  him  to  the  heads  of  departments,  by 
them  In  their  turn  parculed  out  among  the  clerks,  an<l 
by  tlieso  Inst  ruciirdiid  and  Indvsed  in  the  proper  books. 
Tho  records  uf  Ihu  Now  York  ollice  of  tho  Mcrcaiilile 
Agency  contain  tint  aggrvgalo  knowledge  of  traders 
pussuascd  by  tho  sovontnen  moat  extensive  morcaiitilu 
uummuiiiliet  In  Nurth  America. 

A  comparison  uf  the  system  of  the  Mercantile  Agen- 
cy will)  that  uf  the  "  (.'ummerclal  Traveler,"  which  it 
suporaodud,  la  iniich  tu  tho  advantage  of  the  furnicr,  as 
rsKardi  tbo  Item  of  coat  at  well  ai  Infurinatlou,    From 


a  largo  dry-Kooda 

sxpanaea  for  trav 

it  was,  to  a  vaxa 

who  war*  anxloui 

Inn  waa  too  often 

Mllty.     Now  it  h. 

men,  who  travel  r 

collccilona,  and  o] 

It  has  lieen  urgi 

it  la  term  i-i  Its  o| 

"crver  it  partakes 

age,  seemingly  at 

of  open  dealliig  s 

usages.     This  oliji 

Klvnn,  will  appear 

confidential,  and,  ti 

because   auch   com 

What  merchant,  h 

company,  who  ask 

tlon  as  that  kept  b 


.New  Viirk  (Jlly,  Nl!> 

Altiany 

lliiiralo ,\\'^ 

Oaivego 

Itocliuatcr  ....,'.'.",', 
Hyraciiao  . . . , 

Troy 

i;tlo» '.'.',','.'. 

IluUiico  of  tii'o"  sVs'i 

lloston,  .^tass«(•hllsetl 

llalaneaof  thn  His 

Philadelphia,  I'ennaj 

I'lltaliurKh 

llulsnco  of  till,  Htai. 

ClilooBo,  llllonis 

Dalunro  nf  the  gtali 
I'lnclnnatl,  Ohio  .... 

Clevelaiiil 

Halanpoof  tho  KtiiN 
New  Orleana,  LoulaU 

Dalanco  of  the  Stale 

Ht.  Loula,  Mlaaouri... 

Halsneo  of  the  Slate 

Pi.ivlilenee,  Itlioila  Is: 

llalanre  of  the  fime 

IlBltlmore,  Maryland. 

Ilnlnncii  nf  tho  state 

llotroll,  Mlclil^n 

llalanco  of  tho  State 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Halanooofthn  Stkio 
Loulavllle,  Konuicky 
llalsneo  of  tho  State 
Cliarleaton,  South  Cai 
ilalaneooftho  btale 

Terrltoriea 

Indiana .".. 

Illchmond,  Virginia    i 
Balance  of  the  SUtei 
Mllwaukle,  Wlaconsln 
Usiancoof  the  Slate. 
North  Carolina  ... 

New  Joraey 

Connecticut  ... 

•Maine " 

Now  Hampshire'."," 

Vermont . . 

Ocurgla ]'," 

Delaware  and  District! 
Arkansas 

I  Atabama 

.Mississippi .'.'.' 

Tennessee . 

Horlda 

Texas ■■'■ 


I  Toronto,  Canada  West. 

IWanco  of  Canada  W 

Montreal,  Canada  East. 

I  „"»'»"»«  of  Canada  Ea 

I  Nova  ScoUa  and  New  Bi 

Total  BrlUah  Provlni 
Totol  United  BUtp.  . 


MKU 


1845 


MEn 


a  \»Tge  ilry-KiMiilfi  hnum  wn  Inarn  that,  in  nid  tlin*!,  Ila 
expeiiiiii  for  truvnliiri  I'uuiiltil  \<y  IhiiuMncU,  ■ml  Ihal, 
it  wu,  to  k  vtxallonii  axttnt,  In  lh«  power  uf  rlnrkt, 
who  wan  anxloui  to  maka  lalut,  and  whoM  kooiI  opin- 
ion waa  too  often  won  liy  rlvilltUa  than  i<y  reapunnl- 
liility.  Now  it  liotili  an  offlrient  rh«i-k  upon  Itn  nitlcn. 
mm,  who  travel  not  to  rhooio  cuiloniori,  Imt  lo  mako 
rrillrc'tiona,  ami  olitain  oniiT*. 

It  linn  licpn  tirKoil  aa  an  olijnrtlon  to  Ihn  Agnnry  that 
it  in  iterel  Ifi  Ila  nprrallonii,  anil  that  In  lli>  rnniial  ol>- 
rn-rvBr  It  parlakca  of  tho  natiiro  of  a  nvalrni  of  cuplnr. 
Aif,  aonnilnKly  at  varlain'i  with  that  rnnilor  an<l  lovn 
i<f  open  ili'alinK  ao  rliaractKriatlr  of  mir  commercial 
iianKF*.  'I'hla  oljcrtlon,  with  tho  axpUnationi  hrrein 
Hlven,  will  appear  utterly  futile.  It  la  neccaanrtly  of  a 
cnnlidentlal,  anil,  lo  a  rertain  oxiont,  of  a  acrrct  nature, 
liei'auao  iurh  communlcatloni  miiat  alwaya  be  an. 
>Vhat  merchant,  hanker,  or  prealilont  of  an  Inauranco 
company,  who  aakeil  for  ami  rccoivoil  auch  infiirmu* 
lion  aa  that  kept  by  tho  Agency,  from  a  buaineai  cor- 


reaponilent,  wouM  Ihlnk  of  uainff  It  In  any  other  wa^ 
than  aa  confidential,  ami  to  b«  kept  strictly  aecrut? 
Who  wnulil  i{l\i>  iucli  Information,  liiiwcvcr  pure  tha 
Incpilier'a  niollvii  niiKht  lie,  unli'Ki  hn  were  anaurnl  Ihal 
ho  could  Implicitly  ruly  upon  thi«f 

Mercantilv  nKenciea  are  now  eatubllahed  In  New 
York  city,  by  Meaara.  H,  DouKlimt  &  Co.,  anil  by 
Meaara.  Tnppan  &  M'Klilnp.  They  hiiv«  brHnchca  In 
the  leuilliii;  citiea  ami  lowna  of  the  riilled  Slntea,  In- 
cludiiiK  lloaliin,  Philadelphia,  lliillimore,  Cincinnati, 
I^ulaville,  Ht.  I.oul",  New  Orleona,  Chiirlealiin,  I'ltta- 
burnh,  Richmond,  ChlcnKo,  Cloveliind,  Ohio;  Hatrolt, 
MichlKim;  Dubuipie,  |.,wiii  and  Mllwuukie,  Wlacon- 
liil ;  ulan  In  Canada,  and  In  l.imdon,  Theaa  UKcnclea 
arc  now  conaidcred  ■•  ciiiiMrvutlvn  check  upon  uiiduo 
credit,  and  aa  hi(?bly  conducive  to  aimlnininK  tfie  cred- 
It  of  aubatantbl  and  IcKltimalo  purticn— ihcy  aid  tha 
credit  of  tho  aound  man,  while  Ihey  promptly  reveal 
the  woaknoaa,  and  fraud,  and  all  caaaaof  dlalrual  ainons 
thoau  not  fully  untitled  to  credit. 


BTATitTHa  or  lUnKaonoT  im  tui  L'mitxd  HrATca  ma  tux  Vma*  ISTiT. 


.New  York  city.  Now  Yurk"  , 

AU)any 

llllfTilIn 

Ohwcko , 

IlndicHtcr  ,  ••• « •  I 

HyraciiKe 

■Ifoy 

Iltloit 

llulaiicn  of  tlio  State 

ItnHtnn,  .Maa«<arhuHPtta 

Hulanco  of  tite  Ktale 

I'lillailvlphla,  I'ennajirania  , 
I'llUhurKh 

Hulanco  of  tliii  Htsto 

(')ilcago,  llllnnla 

Ilaliinro  of  the  State 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

(Mevelalul 

Ilalnnco  of  the  Htale 

Now  Urieana,  Loulalaaa 

Balance  of  the  Rtate 


Ht  I^uia,  Miaaourl 

Hulanco  of  the  State 

Pi.iviilence,  Rliodfl  laland 

Ilnlanre  of  the  Htate 

llaltimore,  Maryland 

Hnliince  nf  the  Htato 

Detroit,  Mli'iilinn 

Ilalancu  of  the  fltate 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Halanco  of  the  Htate 

I.oiilsvillc,  Kentucky 

Halanco  of  the  State 

Cliarlcaton,  South  Carolina 

Halanco  of  tho  State , 

Territorlca 

Indiana 

Itlchniond,  Virginia 

Ualance  of  tho  state 

Milwaukic,  VVisconain 

Balance  of  tho  State 

North  Carolina 

New  Joraey 

Connecticut 

.Maine , 

New  Hampahlrc 

Vermont , 

Ocurgla 

Delaware  and  Dlatrict  of  Columbia. 


Arkanaaa , 


Alabama . , . 
Misiiiaalppl  , 
Tcnneaaee . . 
Florida.... 
Toxaa 


ToUl  United  States 

Toronto,  Canada  Wcat 

Balance  of  Canada  Wett 

.Montreal,  Canada  East 

Balance  of  Canada  Eaat 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick 

Total  Oritiah  Provinces 

ToUl  United  SUtes  and  British  Prov. 


Numbtr 


I3,HM 
721 

wo-t 

408 
BOB 

891 
SOS 
Iti,876 
4,»Tt 
10,8(17 
7,4M 
l.nT4 

l.aM 

ii,4na 

V,6I3 

bco 

W,748 
<,'J30 

1,007 

1,B80 
4,S5l 
1,100 

1,970 
8,808 

040 
8,700 

403 

4,:ios 

1,080 
6,7IB 

one 

2.683 
1,60T 
T,88T 
l.NSB 
T,78l 
633 
8,7B7 
8,233 
4,433 
4.209 
4,013 
2,700 
l,l>6a 
B.88l> 
2,T27 

1,170 

2,<94 

2,236 

4,83T 

TS3 

2, -(IT 


204,Ut!l 

389 

3,444 

S09 

1,704 

1,797 


8,31)3 


212,364 


rallun 


Nmiilxr, 

VIA 

M 

72 

13 

81 

99 

24 

2U 

417 

2B3 

230 

2H0 

28 

22il 

117 

IVO 

06 

30 

220 

68 


49 
20 

85 
4 
68 
41 
114 
08 
SO 

vm 

ID 
81 
SI 
24 
08 

ISO 
80 
00 
19 

101 
62 
86 
61 
81 
TO 
6T 
82 
20 


IS 

11 

40 

T 

16 


4937 
25 
109 
IS 
IS 
22 


180 


6123 


UnbllUUi. 

(lUb.i'.'O.nflo 
8a8.niai 

4,224,lino 
101,000 
B6l),(Nin 
4IIO,()00 

1,007,111)0 

bss.mK) 
6,"h;),oi)o 

41,01(1,0111) 
2,011,000 

82,961,000 
l,IS0,(IO0 
2,2811,001) 
6,672,000 
2,700,1)00 

8,tiON,ni)o 

01!I,IIOO 
2,367,001) 
6,28^00l) 

310,000 

6,B'22,0OO 

4:m,oiio 

4,604.(100 
1U6,0(I0 

8,200,000 
726,000 

1,614,000 

1,004.000 
785,000 

1,33.1,1100 
767,000 

1,007,000 
922,000 
806,000 

1,7(15,000 

l,6M,nfl0 
781,(K10 
082,000 

aso.ooo 

1,2-14,0(10 

1,171,000 

1,142,000 

1,129,000 

l,OflO,(KiO 

928,000 

478,000 

926.000 

201,000 

809,000 

296,000 
445,000 
712,000 
260,000 
803,000 


OrUlnary  railurtt. 


$291,760,000 
2,714,000 
2,172,000 
62.1,000 
1,267,000 
1,376,000 


1*8,061,000 


Nuinkir. 
6(H) 

IS 

68 

12 

27 

22 

12 
0 
378 
212 
202 
165 

22 
204 

82 
149 

09 

24 
178 

36 

2 
26 
17 
22 

3 
89 

H7  I 
24  j 
71    I 


2.1 
20 
46 
114 
22 
70 
14 
92 
42 
7'i 
50 
71 
60 
49 
21 
18 


14 

10 

28 

5 

12 


8703 
17 
73 
12 
13 
21 


I. HO 


$299,801,000  I     3839 


(.(■lllllll,.!. 

"$'<ll,9ni,(HI()" 

480,000 

2,71I6,0(M) 

16(I,(MI0 

707,000 

268,000 

C8.',0flfl 

876,000 

5,505,000 

C2,2.'i5,0O() 

1,711,000 

16,9!5,0(I0 

918,000 

2,()OS,00() 

4,671,000 

2,o.i;i,ooo 

2,387,000 

3911,0110 

1,742,000 

4,388,000 

20,000 


Cl.  i)i() 
10»  !■" 


■  i :  0(10 

■■■  t  ■   J , . 

1,41  i.r 

694, '00 
74»,(i00 
ni2,oon 
1,1N  uOO 
668,000 
836,000 
996,000 
832,000 
776,000 
882,000 
681,000 
268,000 

286,000 

206.000 
436,000 
618,000 
220.000 
36,1,000 


$192,305,600 

1,270,000 

1,031, 000 

445,000 

06,000 

1,363.000 


$4.776.000 


$197,080,600 


lluw  niAnv  kava  a^ 

ranaa.l  wUli  Cnilllan, 
^■ii-l  at  <»li»t  Avtragt. 
21H.  an  nu(l^51  eta. 

10,  average  42  eta. 
1>1,  BveraKC  43  cti. 

8,  aviTaue  48  cli. 
4,  avei'n|{e  31  eta. 
8,  nvera^'i.'  48  ct«. 
6,  average  47  ctt 

182,  average  J8  eta. 

6;i.  avcrnKc  64  eta. 
23,  average  47  eta. 

11,  average  (S4  eta. 

64,  average  48  eta. 
10,  average  47  ct>. 

8,  average  66  eta. 
(1  amounting  to 
\$18,000,  paya  50  c. 

•*.  average  60  ct». 

12,  average  40  ctH. 
1 T,  average  44  eta. 

^  tvcrngo  41  eta, 
I      1  i-sge  44  eta 


i,  iverage  42  eta 

16,  average  49  cts, 
8,  average  63  ct>. 

8,  average  73  eta 


;  1  Rmountlng  to 
over  $10fl,0(KP.  will 
.  pay  nearly  all. 

2,  average  60  cts. 

S,  average  63  cts. 


S,  average  68  cts. 
8,  average  46  eta 
4,  avernge  62  eta 
8,  average  86  eta 
3,  average  60   ' ' 


^h  1^-. 


4Q 


*  Includes  Brooklyn  and  Williamsburg. 


MER 


1346 


MER 


Mercantile  La^r.  Among  the  ancient  Ramans, 
trade  and  manufactures  were  accounted  degrading  and 
dislionorttl)le  employments ;  and  wlmt  was  done  in  that 
way  was  performed  by  slaves.  None  who  had  been 
employed  in  trudL,  or  v,iiose  father  had  been  a  slave, 
could  be  chosen  into  the  senate ;  and  no  senator,  or 
father  of  a  senator,  could,  by  law,  keep  a  bark  above 
a  certain  small  burden,  in  order,  no  doubt,  to  prevent 
his  engaging  in  commerce.  The  Coniurists  likewise 
despised  trade;  and  at  the  Council  of  Melfi  it  was 
solemnly  determined  that  none  could  exercise  any 
truilic,  nor  follow  the  profession  jfthe  law,  with  a  safe 
conscience. 

These  notions,  however,  were  singular,  and  very 
different  from  thu  policy  which  has  ever  prevailed  in 
England.  According  to  a  law  of  Athelftan,  if  any 
mirc'hant  made  three  voyages  on  his  own  account  be- 
j-oucl  the  British  Channel,  or  narrow  seas,  he  was  en- 
titloil  to  the  privilege  of  a  Thane ;  and  it  is  especially 
provided  by  Majna  Charta  (e.  30),  that  all  merchants, 
unless  publicly  prohibited  beforehand,  shall  have  safe 
conduct  to  rtepa.t  from,  to  come  into,  or  to  tarr)'  in 
and  go  through  the  realm,  for  the  exercise  of  mer- 
chandise, witliout  any  unreasonable  imposts,  er'cept  in 
time  of  war ;  and  that  if  a  war  breaks  out  with  an- 
other country,  the  merchants  of  that  place  shall  l>o 
attached,  l)ut  in  their  person  only,  till  the  king  is  in- 
formed how  our  merchants  are  treated  in  the  land 
with  whicli  wu  are  at  war;  and  if  oui  nierchants  are 
secure,  theirs  sliall !)«  so  too.  Upon  this  Montesquieu 
remarks,  with  admiration,  that  the  ICnglish  have  made 
tlic  protection  of  foreign  merchants  one  of  the  articles 
of  their  national  liber.'/ ;  and  also  that  the  English 
know  much  better  than  any  other  people  on  earth  how 
to  value  at  the  same  time  tliesc  three  tilings,  religion, 
liberty,  and  coiniiierce.  These,  indeed,  are  the  com- 
mon rights  of  mankind.  They  are  also  inseparably 
connected  together ;  and  as  liberty  is  tlie  life  of  com- 
merce, so  commerce  is  in  its  turn  tlie  parent  of  man's 
advantages,  moral  and  physical,  personal,  and  political. 
Us  protection  und  encouragement  are  now,  therefore, 
an  established  principle  of  the  law  of  nations. 

Trade  anil  connnerce  being  thus  the  immediate  off- 
iipring  of  natural  lil>erty,  the  lix  mercatoria,  or  the  law 
of  mcrchunt»',  is  less  a  branch  of  tliis  or  that  system 
of  municipal  law,  than  the  law  of  nations,  or  that  uni- 
versal law  which  reason  teaches  all  men.  It  is,  if  one 
may  so  call  it,  an  amlmlatory  system  of  civil  law,  not 
confined  to  any  one  place  or  locality,  but  attaching  to 
the  persons  of  men  in  all  their  commercial  transac- 
tions tliroughout  tlio  world ;  the  custom  of  merchants 
!  eing  everywhere  acknowledged,  as  tlieir  persons  and 
property  ore  'ly  tlie  law  of  nations  everywhere  pro- 
tected. 

Thus,  not  to  enter  here  at  large  into  all  the  details 
of  mercantile  law,  which  will  l)0  found  in  other  parts 
of  this  work,  divers  sorts  of  writing  useil  among  mer- 
chants and  trading  people  in  commercial  transactions, 
are  sustained  in  iiur  courts,  after  tlio  example  of  other 
States,  although  not  executed  witli  all  tlie  formalities 
of  common  deeds.  Missive  letters,  in  i\-.  mercatoria, 
are  valid,  although  not  holograph,  and  commissions 
from  mcrcliant  to  merchant,  though  not  signed  before 
witnesses ;  nor  do  fitted  accounts  among  merchants, 
in  mercantile  matters,  require  the  writer's  name  or 
witnesses.  Hut  of  all  obligations,  bilU  of  exchanr/e,  \ 
wliich  owe  their  origin  to  merchants,  are  the  most 
Jttvoreil,  Tlie  risks  und  accidents  of  trade  have  also 
caused  particular  favor  to  lie  extended  to  iiersons  en- 
ga;;pil  therein,  wliii  have  fallen  into  liankruptcy  ;  ]iro- 
vision  being  maile  liy  statute  for  their  entire  discharge 
on  fheir  surrendering  their  elVccts  to  tlieir  creditors. 
Set  Laws  ok  (Jo-mmkuck. 

Mercator  Gtorard,  one  of  the  most  celelirutcd 
geographers  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Itupelmondo,  in 
1612,  He  applied  himself  with  such  industry  to  ge- 
ography and  mathematics  that  he  is  said  to  have  fre- 


quently forgotten  to  eat  and  drink.  The  Emperor 
Charles  V.  had  a  particular  esteem  for  him,  and  the 
Duke  de  Juliers  made  him  his  cosmographer.  Ho 
composed  n  >,hronology,  some  geographical  tables,  and 
an  atlas,  having  engraved  and  colored  the  maps  lilm- 
self.  He  died  in  1594.  His  method  of  laying  down 
charts  is  still  used,  and  bears  the  name  of  Aferealor'i 
Charts. 

Meroator'a  Charts.  The  true  inventor  of  these 
charts  is  said  to  have  been  a  Mr.  Wright,  who  made 
several  voyages ;  and  in  his  absence  Mercator  ]iub- 
lished  the  charts  in  his  own  name,  1656. — I'aiiuon, 
They  are,  however,  now  confidently  ascribed  to  Mer- 
cator's  own  ingenuity'.  In  these  charts  the  meridians 
and  parallels  of  latitude  cut  each  other  at  riglit  an- 
gles, and  are  both  represented  by  straight  lines,  en- 
larging the  degrees  of  latitude  as  they  recede  from  the 
equator. 

Mfrcator's  Chart,  or  Projection,  is  a  representation 
of  the  splicre  on  a  plane,  in  which  the  meridians  are 
represented  by  equidistant  parallel  straight  lines,  and 
the  parallels  of  latitude  also  by  straight  lines  pcrpeu- 
diculartothe  meridians.  This  projection,  which  is  uni- 
versally adopted  for  nautical  charts,  liy  reason  of  the 
facilities  which  it  aflTords  in  navigation  from  tlie  cir- 
cumstance tliat  the  rhumb,  or  sailing  course  lietwcen 
two  points,  is  represented  by  a  straight  line,  was  In- 
vented by  Gerard  Mercator  (his  tree  name  >vas  Kai'ff- 
man,  of  which  Mercator  is  the  Latin  equivalent),  a 
native  of  Rupelmonde,  in  East  Elanders,  born  in  the 
year  1512.  Itut,  though  Mercator  gave  his  iiaiue  to 
the  projection,  it  does  not  appear  tliat  ho  knew  tlie  law 
according  to  which  the  distance  of  the  parallels  from 
the  equator  increases.  The  true  principles  of  the  con- 
struction were  found  by  Edward  Wright,  of  Cains  (,'ol- 
lege,  Cambridge,  who  explained  them  in  his  treatise, 
entitled  The  Correction  of  certain  Krrors  in  A'ami/ation, 
published  in  1599,  and  are  as  follows ;  Suppose  one  of 
the  meridians  on  the  glolie  to  bo  divided  into  minutes 
of  a  degree ;  one  of  these,  taken  at  any  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, will  be  to  a  minute  of  longitude,  taken  on  tli^it 
parallel,  us  the  radius  of  the  equator  to  the  radius  of  tlie 
parallel ;  that  is,  as  radius  to  tlie  cosine  of  the  latitude, 
or  as  the  secant  of  the  latitude  to  radius.  This  |mi- 
portion  holds  true  on  the  map  in  this  sense,  tliat  if  a 
minute  of  the  equator  lie  taken  as  the  unit  of  a  scale, 
and  that  unit  be  considered  as  the  radius  of  the  tables, 
then  the  re[)rescntation  of  a  minute  of  latitude  will  be 
expressed  by  the  number  in  the  trigonometrical  tables 
whicli  is  the  secant  of  that  latitude.  Heme,  in  the 
map,  while  the  degrees  of  longitude  are  all  cipial,  the 
degrees  of  latitude  marked  on  the  meridian  form  a 
scale  of  which  the  distances  go  on  increasing  fniiii  the 
equator  toward  the  poles,  each  being  (approximately) 
the  sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  iiiinutes  of  latitude 
in  the  degree,  T'  ■?  nuinliers  resulting  from  tlie  addi- 
tion of  the  secants  of  the  successive  miiiutos,  reikimcd 
from  the  equator,  form  a  scale  of  meridional  parts, 
which  is  given  in  all  books  of  navigation.  The  very 
remarkable  property  of  this  projection,  namely,  that 
the  divisions  of  the  meridian  are  analogous  to  the  ex- 
cesses of  tho  logarithmic  tangents  of  half  the  respective 
latitudes  augmented  by  45°,  above  the  logai-itliin  of 
tho  radius,  was  discovered  by  Hond  alioiit  the  year 
l(i45 ;  but  was  first  demonstrated  by  .lames  Gregory,  iu 
his  Krercilalionea  ifalhcmalirir,  publishcil  in  Kiiix. — 
Ure's  J)icl. 

Murcator's  Sailing  is  that  which  is  perfornicd 
!)}•  Mercator's  cliarts. 

Merchant,  a  jiefson  who  buys  and  sells  coiiinioill- 
ties  in  gross,  or  deals  in  exchsnges,  or  one  who  tralVus 
in  the  way  of  commerce,  cither  by  importation  or  ex 
portation.  The  merchants  of  London  and  .\uisterda  i 
wore  accounted  tho  most  enterprising  und  richest  in 
tho  world.  An  attempt  was  made  by  tjueen  ,\nne's 
ministry  to  exclude  merchants  from  sitting  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  in  1711 ;  but  it  failed.     The  Mor- 


MER 


1347 


MER 


I  perfori 


o1i«nl  Atlvsntiirsr'D  Booloty  was  ostabllubod  by  the 
Diik^  Ht  KrHliniit  Itt  1200,  It  extended  to  England  in 
Kitwitrtl  Uti'ii  tv\nn,  and  wan  formed  into  an  Engliali 
Bornomtliiit  In  Ifidi.'-ltAtim. 

/,(iH'»  ij/'  ,\hi'i'hmlii,^'tha  laws  controlling  merchants 
HDil  tiitiiinitirdlal  traitnnctlons  are  numerous,  and  ero 
treiiteil  of  In  (letall  In  tlio  article  Laws  ok  Commerce. 
\»  an  iiii«I>"nI*  of  tliese  laws,  It  may  bo  stated,  tliat 
moat  uf  tllH  ICnrojictiin  and  American  countries  have 
left  mii'nntriill<ti]  tlM  freu  action  of  the  merchant.  In 
raiUno  nvsry  inprcliant  Is  required  to  be  a  citizen. 
Kueula  lm«  HMtttlillslied  numerous  restrictions.  The 
body  of  ni§r('llHntit  are  divided  into  three  guilds  or 
clKuuen,  to  wllluh  nuriM  but  Itusslnn  subjects  or  denizens 
(/■  «.  niituriillKed  fortil({MBr»)  may  belong.  In  each 
Ifulld  n  t!(<rtHlll  tax  Is  lni|iosed,  and  a  determinate 
uninunt  of  ('atiltnt  Is  re(iulred ;  also,  the  nature  and 
extant  of  tliti  cnniinorclitl  o|iorations  permitted  have 
l)ro|iortliineil  llniltHlliin-i.  Nearly  every  country,  ex- 
je|it  (il'fiitl  lirllaln,  France,  and  the  United  Stately 
|irfliiiirllai«  tl,ti  enrollment  Iti  n  |iubllu  register  of  com- 
UH'ree,  of  tliti  tntine  of  the  tnercluint,  the  nature  of  his 
business,  till*  nitntB  of  ea(!li  partner  of  the  (Irm,  and 
tlia  dnrniiint  iMftners  Itu'ludcd  In  the  firm  and  com- 
pany, Hl«  [luwsp  conferred  on  any  party  to  act  per 
prnuiiratlon,  and  tivnry  particular  connected  with  the 
fiirniiitlon  and  illssoliltlon  of  the  partnership.  In  some 
countrle*  tllXHti  di'talU  niUi>t  be  pulillshcd  in  the  gazette 
and  nuw!ipiipi)r«i  'I'lils  rej^Uter  Is  either  eatiiliiishcd  at 
the  trlbUMilN  of  I'lmnnercc  or  at  the  civil  courts.  Every 
publicity  U  ylvcn  til  such  enrollments ;  and  any  per- 
«mi,  !iy  iHiyluj!  a  sniall  fee,  may  ol^'ain  extracts  from 
thuui,  rilH  plirllfH  Interdicted  from  engaging  intrude 
urn,  with  a  fiiw  fXCfptlnns,  only  those  wlio  are  labor- 
ing undiir  a  civil  illmiuatlllcntlim, 

(leiirriil  ll''iiiilii>i'niiii,^l'ht'  Institutions  of  guilds  or 
privllcgnd  companies  aro  of  lliuuan  origin.  Traces  of 
thuMI  xtlll  i<!tl°t  In  l/iindotl  and  In  .Scotland ;  but  the 
convivial  HU'rllniia  in  whlnh  are  expended  the  grants, 
which,  in  iini'itint  Hines,  they  received  from  govern- 
ment, ara  tha  only  PVldenccs  of  periodical  revival. 
The  word  "kmIIiI"  was  orlj^lnally  applied  to  a  society 
of  :nari'hiints,  iia  by  the  statutes  of  the  guild  in  1283, 
and  liy  tha  i>t4tuta  of  William,  c  85,  but  out  o*"  tliem 
ariisa  all  th"  dlffarent  corporatliuia  of  craftsmen.  A 
liacioo,  arbitral,  pfoiHt(l({atcd  In  Kdlnburg,  dated  from 
"  llalyrnlillMiHua,  llmtwiMity-twa  dayof  Apryl,the  ycir 
of  (bid,  ona  Ulciusand  ionrd  hundred  fourscore  three 
years,"  tlius  a>iprii»sas  the  union  of  merchants  and 
cruftsincn  In  til"  jjlllldry  l  "Towa.  t  the  lung  contro- 
verslus  fur  tlii<  UMililflit,  U  Is  llnally,  with  common 
consunl,  appoynlit,  axrelt,  and  concludit,  that  ais  well 
craftsinmi  its  niarclianla  sail  ho  received  and  admitted 
gild  brathar,  and  the  anc  iint  to  bo  refuslt  nor  secludit 
thcrnfra  miilr  tha  ulher,  they  being  burgesses  of  tlio 
burgh,  Hi  i  mat  and  qnalllled  t!iairfore ;  and  that  gild- 
hratiier  to  liava  llliarly  to  Mse  nuirchandice  ;"  and  liy 
th"  sama  dacraa  It  Is  ordered,  "  That  na  manner  of 
peifliin  lia  sulfarlt.  to  Use  nicrchnndice  or  occupy  the 
liardlawark  iif  any  frra  craft  within  this  burgh,  or  yet 
to  uxurcH  th"  lltiarty  and  privllcdgo  of  the  said  burgli 
without  ha  Im  liurnass  anil  freeman  of  tl  c  same." 
Thirt  ducraa  was  ratllh'd  In  t'arllaincnl ;  nnd,  therc- 
fiira,  aflar  this  parlod,  the  (jcneral  right  of  the  ovii^iiial 
gulidUiif,  or  siiclaty  of  lucrchants  of  the  rcalci,  was 
iiliridgod  so  far  that  Ihcy  could  not  tnule  in  Ivlhiliurg 
uuioss  thay  Wal'M  itilinllted  as  burgesses.  Tiic  cmu- 
nia.'ciul  rtigulatluiis  of  l.uliec  are  Ptill  foiiiubMl  on  the 
sumo  systaiui  Ilia  nn'rclianls  are  divided  Into  nine 
cumiianlas  and  coltajjca,  and  administrators,  all  nf 
which  bear  thu  stanili  of  antlc(iilty.  Kussia,  besides 
tlio  fiir.uliig  of  Hiarclinnla  Into  nuilils,  divides  ((iiu- 
mercH  into  varlnos  branches,  and  siicrllics  wlnit  com- 
uuirclul  opiirathins  Include,  with  sdiiic  notices  i.f 
coMiniurcii  with  palcnl,  I'Vance  determines  what  aro 
acts  of  trada  with  rwji.inl  to  ttie  competency  of  triliii- 
naU  of  conimarus.    Ilolland,  Wurteinburg,  and  a  few 


other  countries,  have  similar  determinations  of  what  is 
comprised  in  commercial  operations.     ' 

Who  mag  be  Parties  to  Mercantile  Contract! It  was 

once  the  doctrine  of  the  English  courts,  that  the  law-  . 
merchant  did  not  apply  to  any  contracts  between  par- 
tics  wiio  were  not  merchants.  But  this  view  has 
passed  away ;  and  it  has  long  been  a  well-established 
rule  in  that  countr)-  as  well  as  tins,  tliat  the  law  mer- 
chant applies  to  mercantile  contracts,  such  as  nego- 
tiable notes,  l)iils  of  lading,  chortcr  parties,  policies  of 
marine  insurance,  and  tlie  lilie,  whoever  may  lie  the 
parties  to  them.  All  mercantile  transactions  begin 
and  end  in  contracts  of  some  kind— express  or  implied, 
executed  or  to  be  executed  ;  and  the  tirst  clement  of 
every  contract  is  the  existence  of  parties  capable  of" 
contracting.  Generally,  all  persons  may  bind  them- 
selves by  contract.  Whoever  would  resist  a  claim  or 
action  founded  on  his  contract,  on  ground  of  incapacity, 
must  make  this  out.     See  Parson's  Mercantile  Law. 

Minors. — Ry  the  English  law,  a  minor  can  not  con- 
tract commercial  engagements ;  yet  he  may  act  as  a 
partner,  and  perform  other  functions  for  beneficial 
purposes,  without  being  liable  for  contracts  entered 
into  during  his  minority.  In  Scotland,  a  minor  may 
become  a  trader  j  and  when  he  holds  himself  out  as  a 
major,  he  becomes  responsibly.  In  France,  minors, 
l)y  being  emancipated,  may  engage  in  trade  previous 
to  the  18th  year  of  their  age,  when  authorized  by  a 
registered  act,  either  of  their  parents  or  family  coun- 
cil, or  iiy  civil  authorities.  They  are  allowed,  in  this 
case,  to  pledge  or  mortgage  tiieir  estates.  Similar 
principles  are  adopted  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Prussia, 
etc.,  etc. 

The  age  at  winch  minority  ceases,  is ;  In  England, 
Scotland,  Britisli  Colonies,  United  States,  Hungary, 
Roman  .States,  Franco,  Normandj-,  Two  Sicilies,  etc., 
21  years;  in  Mauritius,  British  Guiana,  24  years;  in 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  Holland,  25  years ;  in 
Gurnsey,  .Jersey  (Coutume  of  Normandy),  20  years. 

Married  Females. — In  London,  a  married  female 
may  engage  in  trade  as  a  feme  sole,  but  she  must  trade 
within  the  city,  and  on  her  account ;  siie  is,  tlierefore, 
liable  to  bo  a  bankrupt.  In  P'ngiand  she  may  engage 
in  trade  when  autliorlzed  liy  lier  husband,  but  slie  is 
not  responsible.  Her  endorsement,  acceptance,  nego- 
tiation of  liilis  of  exchange,  are  null,  and  no  action 
can  be  maintained  against  her.  The  husband  is  ilalile 
for  the  debts  contracted  liy  lier  in  a  separate  trade. 
In  Scotland,  parties  may  settle,  liy  marriage  contract,, 
their  several  rights  and  interests.  A  married  female 
can  not  act  by  or  for  herself. 

In  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Prussia,  and  Sardinia, 
the  authority  of  the  husband  is  necessary  for  her  en- 
gaging in  trade.  Her  property  by  dowry,  and  that 
lield  in  common,  aro  rcsponsililc  fcr  tlie  obiigatione 
she  contracts  with  reference  to  trade.  The  authority 
of  the  iiusliaud  ought  to  be  made  putdic,  as  also  the 
revocation  of  tlic  same.  In  .\merica,  the  common  law 
of  England  is  generally  retained,  with  some  exception, 
in  Pennsylvania,  Louisiana,  and  South  Carolina.  In 
Lower  Canada  and  St.  Lucia,  same  as  the  (Volume 
of  Paris  ;  and  in  the  JIauritius  it  is  regulated  tiy  the 
civil  code.  In  Slaita,  a  married  woman  may  engage 
ill  trade  with  the  consent  of  her  husband,  l)ut  slic  can 
not  be  imprisoned  for  debt.  In  Luliec,  married  fe- 
males must  receive  tlie  authoritj-  of  tlie  Senate  for 
opening  a  shop.  In  Wallachiii,  a  married  female  can 
not  engage  in  trade  without  a  marriage  contract. 

,\lifnsl—\n  Crest  Britain,  United  States  and  Amer- 
ica generally,  aliens  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  na^ 
tives  with  regard  to  trade.  In  France  they  enjoy  the 
greatest  liberty,  and  tlie  same  rights  as  the  natives, 
in  Uiissia  and  Sweden,  a  variety  of  provisions  are  en- 
acted with  regard  to  aliens,  but  a  restriction  prevails 
in  ail.  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  aliens  not  naturalized 
may  cnga'jo  in  trade,  but  they  arc  cstiblislicd  accord- 
ing" to  existing  treatises  with  their  respective  govoim- 


•\M 


■^if:r,yiviff^y^^f^jr^^r^y^ei^jr^!^yiytT^^ 


MER 


1348 


MER 


ments.  In  Lubec,  the  reatrictions  on  foieignera  aro 
extended  even  to  deny  them  the  power  of  establishing 
themselves  as  residents,  without  the  authority  of  the 
tribunal  of  judicial  police.     See  Lkvi's  Com.  Law. 

Mercury,  or  Quickailver(Fr.  Vif  argent;  Gcr. 
Quicksilber ;  It.  Aryento  I'ieo ;  Sp.  Azogue ;  Run,  Rtut ; 
Lat.  Uyilrwgyrum ;  Arab.  Zibakh ;  Hind.  Parah ;  Sans* 
Fdradrt).  This  metal  was  known  in  the  remotest 
ages,  and  seems  to  liave  been  employed  by  the  ancients 
in  gilding,  and  separating  gold  from  other  bodies,  just 
iis  it  is  by  tlio  moderns.  Its  color  is  white,  and  similar 
to  that  of  silver ;  hence  the  names  of  hydrargyrum,  ar- 
genlum  vivvm,  quicksilver,  by  which  it  has  been  knovyn 
iu  all  ages.  It  has  no  taste  or  smell.  It  possesses  a 
'  good  deal  of  brilliancy ;  and  when  its  surface  is  not 
tarnished,  it  makes  a  very  good  mirror.  Specilic  grav- 
ity lli'flfiS.  It  differs  from  all  otlier  metals  in  being 
always  fluid,  unless  when  subject  to  a  degree  of  cold 
equal  to  — 39  ^,  when  it  becomes  solid.  The  congelation 
of  mercury  was  first  observed  in  1759. — Thomson's 
Chemistry.  Slercurj'  is  found  iu  various  parts  of  tlie 
world.  Among  the  principal  mines  aro  those  of  Alma- 
den,  near  Cordova,  in  Spoin ;  Idria,  in  Carniola ; 
Wolfstein  and  Slorstield,  in  the  Palatinate  ;  Guanca- 
velica,  iu  Peru,  etc.  Most  of  the  ores  of  mercury 
are  readily  distiuguishcd  from  those  of  any  otlier 
metal ;  in  the  first  variety,  globules  of  the  metal  are 
scon  attaclied  to  or  just  starting  on  the  surface,  which 
is  at  once  a  i^uHicient  criterion,  mercury  being  unlike 
every  other  metal ;  in  the  second,  by  the  fine  white 
color,  and  tlie  action  of  the  blow-pipe,  wliich  suldimer 
the  mercury  and  Icuvss  the  silver  liehind ;  the  third 
by  its  beautiful  di-ep  red  tint,  varying  from  cochinea. 
to  scarlet  red,  excepting  in  ihose  termed  hepatic  cin 
nabars,  wliidi  are  generally  of  a  lead  gray  ;  the 
fourth,  l>y  its  gray  color,  its  partial  solubility  in  wa- 
ter, and  it:,  complete  volatilization  by  heat,  emitting  at 
the  same  time  an  arsenical  odor.  Before  tlie  blow- 
pipe, these  varieties  burn  witli  a  blue  flame  and  sul- 
j>hurous  odor,  leaving  more  or  less  residue  behind 
tliciii,  and  wliich  may  consist  of  eartliy  matter,  as  silcx 
and  alumina,  together  witli  tlie  oxyds  of  iron  and  cop- 
per.—J  <jyi:i;'s  Chem.  Mill. 

llercury  is  often  adulterated  by  the  admixture  of 
lead,  liis  -.luth,  ziuc,  and  tin.  AVhen  the  metal  quickly 
loses  its  lustre,  Ls  covered  with  a  film,  or  Ls  less  fluid 
and  mobile  than  usual,  or  does  not  readily  divide  into 
round  globules,  there  is  reason  to  suspect  its  purity. 
Our  supplies  of  mercury  are  derived  almost  wholly 
from  Sjiain.  The  'mports  usually  amount  to  from 
2,000,001)  to  3,000,000  lbs.,  of  which  about  300,000  lbs. 
are  retained  for  home  consumption,  the  surplus  being 
exported  to  South  America,  France,  the  East  Indies, 
etc.  The  exports  of  quicksilver  from  Spain  in  1848 
amounted  to  18,808  quintals,  of  which  nearly  40.000 
quintal  were  furnished  by  the  mines  of  Almaden. 
The  province  of  Idria,  in  Austria,  has  also  some  rather 
productive  quicksilver  mines.  And  the  produce  of 
this  metal  in  Califon:ia,  and  other  parts  of  in  South 
America,  is  said  to  be  ah"ady  considerable,  and  to  be 
increasing.  There  are  two  sulphurets  of  mercurj' ;  the 
black  or  elhiojis  mineral,  and  the  red  or  cinnabar. 
When  mercury  and  sulphur  are  triturated  together  in 
a  mortar,  the  former  gradually  disai.pcars,  and  the 
whole  assumes  the  form  of  a  black  powder,  dpiiomi- 
iiated  ethiops  mineral.  If  this  powder  bn  heated  red- 
hot,  it  sublimes  ;  and  on  a  proper  vessel  being  placed 
to  receive  it,  a  cake  is  obtained,  of  a  fine  reii  color, 
which  is  called  cinnabar.  This  CMkc,  when  reduced  to 
IKiwder,  is  well  known  in  commerce  by  t)\e  nameof  ccr- 
milion.  Cinnabar  may  be  prepared  in  various  other 
waj's.  C'uiomel,  or  protocblorlde  of  mercury  (jnerru- 
riu.i  dulcia)  is  the  most  useful  of  all  the  preparations  ob- 
tained from  it.  It  is  in  the  form  of  n  dull  white,  semi- 
transparent  mass,  having  a  siHicific  gravity  of  7'17U. 
It  is  more  generally  employed,  and  with  better  efl"ect, 
thaa  almost  any  other  remedy  in  the  whole  range  of 


materia  medico.  Besides  its  uses  in  medicine,  mercury 
is  extensively  employed  in  the  amalgamation  of  the 
noble  metals,  in  water-gilding,  the  making  of  vermil- 
ion, the  silvering  of  looking-glasses,  the  making  of 
barometers  and  thermometers,  etc.  For  the  imports 
of  mercury  into  the  United  States,  sec  Quicksilver. 

Meridian,  in  geography,  a  great  circle  supposed 
to  be  drawn  through  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  and  the  two  poles,  and  to  which  the  sun  is  al- 
ways perpendicular  at  noon.  In  astronomy,  this  circle 
is  supposed  to  be  in  the  heavens,  and  exactly  perpen- 
dicular to  the  terrestrial  one. 

Meridional  Distance,  in  navigation,  is  the  same  with 
departure,  or  easting  and  westing,  being  the  difference 
of  longitude  between  the  meridian  under  which  the 
ship  now  is,  and  ony  other  meridian  which  she  was  un- 
der before.  Meridional  parts,  miles,  or  (ainutes,  in  navi- 
gation, are  the  parts  by  which  the  meridians  in  a  Merca- 
tor's  chart  increase  as  the  parallels  of  latitude  decrease. 

Meridian,  First.  The  meridian  from  wliich  longi- 
tudes are  reckoned.  The  choice  of  the  first  meridian 
is  entirely  .arbitrary;  and  most  nations  reckon  the 
longitudes  from  their  capital,  or  meridian  passing 
through  their  principal  observatories.  Thus,  in  En- 
glish  works,  the  longitude  is  reckoned  from  Green- 
wich; in  French,  from  Paris;  in  Russian,  from  St. 
Petersburg,  etc.  Ptolemy  employed  the  Canary  Isl- 
ands, the  French  formerly  reckoned  from  Ferro,  and 
the  Dutch  from  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe.  Mercator 
chose  the  Island  Del  Corvo.     See  Lohgitddk. 

Meridian  Line.  A  line  traced  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  coinciding  with  the  in.,er3ection  of  the  meridian 
of  the  place  with  the  sensible  horizon. 

Meridian  of  a  Globe,  or  the  Ilrajs  Meridian,  is  a 
graduated  circular  ring,  within  which  the  globe  is  sin- 
pended  and  revolves,  and  by  means  of  which  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  frame  bearing  the  horizontal  scale. 
Meridian  lines  aro  also  traced  on  the  globe  itself,  usually 
at  15°  distance,  or  a  difference  of  longitude  correspond- 
ing to  an  Iiour  of  time.  It  is  proliable  that  these,  with 
tlie  parallels  of  latitude,  suggested  to  Descartes*  the 
idea  of  co-ordinates,  whicli  he  applied  so  siiccpssfully 
to  connect  algebra  with  geometry. 

Merino  Sheep.  A  breed  of  sheep  till  lately  pe- 
culiar to  Spain,  but  now  reared  in  Saxony,  Kngliiiid, 
and  more  particularly  in  At!'*-  Ma,  chiefly  i'ur  the  su- 
perior fineness  of  their  wool.  The  word  miriifi  sifjiii- 
fies  overseer  of  pasture  lands,  and  is  applied  to  this 
breed  of  sheep,  because  in  Spain  they  are  kept  in  im- 
mense flocks,  under  a  system  of  sheplierds,  with  a 
chief  as  a  head,  and  with  a  general  right  of  pastura;;o 
all  over  the  kingdom.  The  best  flocks  of  Spanish  me- 
rinos are  found  in  Leon  and  Castile  :  of  the  Saxon  va- 
riety, at  Stolpen  and  Rochsberg ;  but  merinos  are  to 
lio  found  'u  North  America,  the  Cape  of  (iood  IIo;  e, 
and,  above  all,  in  New  South  Wales,  which  promises 
to  be  one  of  the  principal  wool-growing  countries  in 
the  world.     See  Wool. 

Mersohaum  (Oer. ;  Eng.  sea-froth ;  Fr.  F.cmne  de 
Mer  Magnesie  carbonatie  silicif'ere'),  is  a  white  inincnil, 
of  a  somewhat  earthy  appearance,  alw.iys  soft,  but  dry 
to  tlie  touch,  and  adhering  tn  the  tongue,  Specili'' 
gravity  2'fl  to  3'4  ;  affords  water  by  calcination  ;  fuses 
with  diftieulty  at  the  blow-pipe  into  a  white  enamel, 
and  is  acted  upon  liy  acids.  It  consists,  according  to 
Klaproth,  of  silica,  41-5;  magnesia,  18-25;  water 
and  carbonic  acid,  3!).  Other  analysts  gi-o  silica  50, 
magnesia,  25,  water  25.  It  occurs  in  veins  of  kidney- 
shaped  nodules,  among  rocks  of  serpf  "tine,  at  Egrilios, 
in  the  Island  of  Negropont,  Eski-Schidiir,  in  Anatolia, 
Hrussa,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  at  Italdissero, 
ill  Piedmont,  in  the  seriientine  veins  of  Cornwall,  etc. 
When  first  dug  up,  it  Is  soft  an''  grca.sy,  and  lathers 
like  soap ;  and  is  on  that  accoun'  ..  'cd  by  the  Tartirs  in 
wasliiiig  tlieir  linen.  The  well  known  Turkey  tobacco- 
pijies  are  made  from  it,  by  a  process  analoj^us  to  that 
for  making  pottery-ware.     The  bowls  of  tha  pipes, 


■  'f'T:rV''V*Wf 


MES 


1349 


MEX 


■when  imported  into  Germany,  are  prepared  for  sule  by 
soaliiDg  them  first  in  tallow,  thm  in  wax,  and  finally 
by  poliohing  thorn  with  shave-grass. 

"  Mc  asina,  Zancle  and  Meamna,  a  city  and  sea-port 
of  Sicily  capital  of  a  province  on  tl\o  Strait  of  Meanina, 
ciglit  miles  north-west  from  Reggio.  Latitude  of 
light-lioiiso  38'^  11'  10"  N.,  long.  15°  ;il'  7"  E.  P(ip- 
ulutioii  83,772.  It  is  built  on  the  west  side  of  a  noble 
harbor,  inclosed  by  old  walla ;  has  wide,  handsome 
streets,  ])avod  with  lava,  and  lined  with  white  stone 
houses.  Tlio  port,  defended  Ijy  several  fortifications, 
U  fiirinod  by  u  long  curved  tongue  of  land,  projecting 
ntrth-east  from  the  main  land,  and  then  bending  west- 
ward in  the  form  of  a  sicltle,  whence  its  ancient  Greek 
name.  It  is  about  four  miles  in  circumference,  hiis 
deep  water  throughout,  and  large  vessels  can  load  and 
nnload  close  to  the  quays.  Tlie  trade  is  ccmsiderable. 
The  exports  comprise  oranges  and  lemons,  silk,  olive- 
oil,  wine  and  spirits,  linseed,  salt,  lisli,  etc.  The  im- 
ports consist  of  colonial  produce,  cotton  and  woolen 
fabrics,  liardware,  and  other  manufactured  goods.  It 
has  an  active  tunny  and  other  fislieries,  and  manufac- 
tures of  damasks  and  satins.  Population  of  the  prov- 
ince in  1851,  .'!4a,-181.  The.  Sirail '/  Mi.i.viia  {Fem  di 
Me.mmi),  separates  Sicily  from  South  Italy,  and  unites 
two  Ijasiiis  of  tlie  .Mt;dlterranean.  Length,  north  to 
soutli,  'li  miles ;  Ijreadth,  10  miles  to  2J  miles  at  its 
north  extremity,  between  the  I'aro  Tov.ir,  Sicily,  and 
the  Itock  of  Scj-lla.  No  liottoiu  lias  Ijeen  nrdud  in 
it  with  200  fathoms  of  line.  On  its  sliores  are  ;lie  cities 
of  Rcggio  and  Jlessina,  opposite  which  laticr  is  tlie 
whirlpool  of  Cliarybdis. 

A  treaty  of  reciprocity  between  tlio  United  States 
and  'he  'I  wo  Sicilies  was  concludi'il  on  the  1st  of  De- 
cember, 1815,  and  ratilicd  on  the  1st  of  June,  181G. 
Tlin  terms  of  tile  treaty  are  faithfully  adliered  to,  inas- 
mucli  as  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  treated 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  subjects  of  tlie  Two  Sici- 
lies. Tlie  commercial  intercourse  of  the  United  States 
is  dependent  solely  on  tlie  regulations  of  the  mother 
country :  tlie  existing  re;{ulatiim3  are  neither  tempo- 
rary nor  fixed  to  a  deliuiti  period,  but  permanent. 
There  are  no  privilege:,  permitted  to  the  commerce  of 
otiier  nations  wliich  .re  denied  to  the  United  States. 
Tliere  are  restrictions  imposed  on  commerce  of  otliers 
which  have  not  treaties  of  commer.;e  wiili  tlie  Sicilian 
government,  as  to  be  seen  in  the  custom-liouse  regnia- 
tioDS.  All  goods  imi.orted  by  privileged  ves.;rls  have 
a  per  centage  allowed  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  import 
duty,  and  the  vessels  :'.-m.«elves  enjoy  all  tlio  privi- 
leges and  exemptions  of  national  vessels,  except  the 
coa.sting  traue.  The  fe«-  articles  shipped  to  the  United 
States,  on  which  an  export  duty  is  paid,  are  brim- 
stone, oil,  and  linen  ragj  ;  if  shi  led  by  American  o' 
Nea-,)olitan  vessels  to  the  United  States  thej-  enjoy  a 
drawback  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  export  duty.  Tlie 
port  charges  consist  of  the  tonnage  duty  unit  some 
aniiiU  charges  in  the  police,  the  custom-house,  and  the 
health-office.  The  tonnage  duty  is  8  Sicilian  graina, 
or  4  Neapolitan  bajocs  per  ton,  which  is  eipiiil  to  .'(J 
American  cents.  The  small  charges  amount  to  nearly 
the  same,  consequently  the  whole  [xirt  charges  are 
from  7}  to  8  cents,  United  States'  currency,  per  ton. 
Viliitago  is  $5  for  a  vessel  of  any  size.  The  trans- 
shipment of  goods  in  vessels  belonging  to  the  United 
.States  is  not  permitted  for  another  port  in  tlie  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  although  it  is  allowed  for  foreign 
ports  without  an>  privilege  or  restriction.  United 
States'  vessels  may  complete  their  cargoes  in  one  or 
more  ports  of  this  kingdom,  or  on  the  Island  of  Sicily, 
without  being  subject  to  pay  the  tonnage  duty  more 
than  once.  The  inonej-s,  weights,  and  measures  known 
and  in  common  u  ^n  at  the  difterent  ports  are  not  the 
same  as  tlioso  established  by  the  supreme  bus'  of  the 
mother  country  ;  and  they  are  even  at  variance  in  the 
ports  of  Messina,  Catania,  and  Syracuse. — Com.  Jiel, 
C.  S.,  1866-7. 


Metalliquea,  a  kind  of  Austrian  »Umk,  mi  «iill«  I 
because  the  interest  is  paid  In  the  pr«eli)M»  mutitl",  and 
not,  like  the  interest  of  other  stocks,  in  |»«|«ir  iimiii")' 
The  name  was  afterward  used  in  UiMniji  nnh  otlisr 
countries,  for  stocks  of  a  similar  klii<l,-^K,  A. 

Mexico.  Discovered  in  A.  d.  )5)H,  It  wtt«  mitt-- 
quered  by  tlie  Spaniards  under  Cortai!,  wIiuhh  ttmtf  l-- 
infamous  on  ufcount  of  his  cruelties  to  the  viimiwl»ll''<(, 
A.  n.  1521.  The  mint  of  Mexii'o,  tlis  rli'l(«at  In  the 
\yorld,  was  begun  in  VM.  This  comitry,  likn  iitllfP 
States  in  tlie  Now  World,  has  recoveriid  iu  l(l(l«)("ll(l 
eiice.  Iturbide  made  emperor,  May,  iNa.',  MxHli'itM 
constitution  proclaimed  by  the  prusld'illt,  Viftorti 
October,  1823.  Iturbirte  i-iiot,  ,luly  JO,  Jx^H,  Tfufity 
of  commerce  with  Great  Uritain  ratillud,  Aliflt,  l>*'iti, 
Titles  suppressed.  May,  1820.  Tim  oKpuUloii  of  ill" 
Spaniards  decreed,  March,  1829.  KpuMi.-ii  im|itiili(l<in 
against  Jlexico  surrendered,  SeptambiiriH,  iH'ifl,  M«!«.- 
ican  revidution  ;  tlio  president  Guerrmo  iteposed,  |t.i 
ccmlier  32,  1820.  The  inde|)endeuce  of  MhhIi'o,  pfo 
viouslj'  recognized  by  the  great  ICuroi^aii  powtifp,  iil^n 
recognized  by  the  Hniperor  of  lira/.il,,liin»,  Ixik),  Civil 
war  between  Bustameiite  and  Santa  .\iiimi,  ImDjJ,  HiitltA 
Anna  elected  president,  JIarch,  WM.  \hmlnriiHiin  i,f 
war  against  France,  November  30,  WM,  ( '4*tl«  u( 
San  .luan  de  Ulloa  taken  by  the  I'lcncli,  N'orMMllicf, 
27,  1H38.  This  war  terminated  March  0,  Jk;W,  (,'lvll 
war,  with  change  of  leaders  at  various  times,  MilHta 
Anna  displaced  Bustamente  ugali;,  (Ictol.ar  <l,  1X11, 
Insurrection  of  General  I'aredes  against  Haiita  Alllrit, 
November  5,1811;  succeeds  without  bloodal).  d.  Mild 
Herrera  made  president,  December,  J><l(,  I'iifBiKs 
overturns  Herrera,  December,  18IS.  War  wHIl  tlw 
United  States,  1840;  Mexiiuns  defeated  at  I'alo  Altfl, 
May  8, 1840,  and  subsequently  ut  Mat  luioraa,  Hailtrt 
Vi  captured,  August  23,  and  Monterey  iS.'pteiiibui'  '^t. 
1840.  Mexican  Congress  authorized  thoir  jjuvitm 
ment  to  raise  $15,01)0,000  for  tlio  war  agaliiat  tlin 
United  Sta'es,  upon  the  mortgage  or  sale  of  cliiii'i'l; 
l.i-operty,  J:inuary  8,  1817.  llattle  of  llui'lHl  Vlsl.l, 
February  22,  1847.  Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  llxiliiriti 
Scott,  liarch  29,  1847.  Battle  of  Cerro  tiordii,  Alifll 
18.  General  I'aredes  landed  at  Vera  t'ruz  In  dlsi{ill»i<, 
August  14,  1847.  Battles  of  Contreias  and  (,'liiiiiibiiii. 
CO,  August  20,  1847  ;  of  Chepnltopec,  Wiiptiiiiilwi'  li, 
Surrender  of  City  of  Jlexico  to  American  Gi'ilBfill 
Scott,  September  11,  1847.  Treatj'  of  peace  witli  tlf 
United  States  ratified  at  (Jucu-otaro,  May  DO,  WH 
Mexico  ov.icuated  by  the  .American  troops,  .Iimmi  Jii, 
Parii'es  excites  a  res'olt  at  at  GiianaxUii'o,  ■Iiiiim  16, 
Herrera  becomes  president,  .liily  li.  Itiintaiiii'ntii  (|8* 
feats  Paredes,  .Tidy  18.  Vera  Cniz  fciirreiidi'rml  by 
the  United  .States,  August  1.  Signor  dc  |;i  llosii  (Irsf 
Mexican  minister  to  the  United  .States  after  lliu  Wdf, 
presented  his  credentials,  December  2,  184M,  H'c 
JIaykh'h  -l/i'.dVo ;  PoixsKir's  Xotn  mi  .\tvrini ;  l)n 
Bow's  lilt.,  ii.,  27,  1(55  (,I.  I!.  Pdis.sctiJ,  v,,  40)  i 
Xorth  Am.  h'lr.,  xUii.,  220  (.liidgo  Bi;l.l..iiilij,  im,,  Tl 

(,1.  SlAUKs);    Hli.NT',S.1/ilJ.,  X.,  118  (,H,  MAVI'.H),  «V„ 

250,  xvi.,  4.55. 

The  territory  constituting  the  repuiilic  of  Minfii^o 
has  an  area  of  855,9(i4'49  square  miies,  and  for;(ia,  in 
its  political  divisions,  21  States,  a  Federal  District,  mill 
three  Territories.  The  population  lias  Boniewlint  miH' 
iiHutcd  since  tho  time  of  its  iihiiqiendciice,  and  Ills 
census  (Tejada's)  of  1850  states  its  position  uimI  llttlil' 
bers  as  follows  : — Xo  two  authorities  agreo  as  tii  tlw 
area  and  population  of  jlexico. 

Sq.  !e*i?ilcs,  Sq.  leBKUeB.  Sq.  leoguel, 

lilli.Olj'iT  10!),9«-SU  100,06T-4I  T,"W..»I9 

*  liy  tlio  treaty  of  Dec.  80,  IH."):!,  di-fluliih'  iiioru  iii>ciir)tt«l* 

•ho  boundary  between  Mexico  and  the  Ibilteil  Ht»ti'8,  uddb 

tioiml  ti-rrilory  was  ceded  lo  tho  latter,  for  the  eoiutibii'fttloii 

'  orjio,iKm,oi)0. 

More  recent  returns  wouhl  indicats  a  greater  lit' 
1  cro.ise  of  tho  wdiite  than  other  classes  of  population  i 


fojHjIijIii/H  in 
(111, 


MEX 


1350 


MBX 


Iiut  it  is  prob.ihly  explained  liy  the  fact  that  oorfain 
literary  uequireinnnts  deflne  color,  anil  that  suceessful 
eftbrts  h»vo  hi  ."n  made  to  advance  the  common  educa- 
tion in  many  of  ihn  Mtat<-s.  A  cmsUH  stated  to  have 
been  taken  in  IK'A,  makes  some  verj'  A'lj^ht  alterations 
in  the  preceding  table      It  raises  th(t  population  to 

7,85;),;i!ii. 

Aloujj  the  c  istern  deelivity  of  the  Curdlllera  of  the 
Andes,  from  liOOO  to  lOnO  feet  ohove  tlie  li'S  el  of  the 
sen,  grow  the  coffee  and  toliacco,  lioth  of  unusual  ex- 
cellence ;  hui  the  coffee  is  heavilj-  liurdene'l  with  the 
internal  taxes  of  tho  States,  and  the  sale  of  whaeco  is 
R  monopoly  of  i  he  ^jovcrnniont ;  so  that,  with  thest^ 
restrietions  upo'i  them,  their  cultiva.ion  languishes. 
From  this  elevation  to  tho  sea  is  the  country  of  cane, 
of  the  product  of  which  little  is  at  present  exported. 
Cochineal,  which  has  greatly  dlniiuished  in  iiiiantity 
within  the  piist  few  years,  has  become  of  little  im- 
portance. Wheat,  tho  growtli  of  the  table  hinds,  is 
iM^ual  to  the  best  in  the  world,  and,  when  not  abso- 
lutely forbidi'cn,  u  heavy  duty  rests  upon  tliu  imported 
article,  whidi,  unless  in  times  of  sc :\rcity,  is  equal  to 
a  ]irohibitioii.  'lue  lands  of  thb  people  of  tlie  hot 
und  temperate  climates  are  chiefly  taxed  with  this 
great  difference;  and,  in  conseiiueneo,  tho  ilour  is 
liniught  to  them,  often  'i  distance  of  'JIIO  miles,  on 
mule-back,  instead  '  lieing  received  at  a  fair  and 
cheaper  rate  froir  abroad,  by  tho  sea.  This  weight 
falls  heavily  upon  the  State  of  Vera  (!ruz,  and  exists 
for  the  beuelit  of  tho  proprietors  of  tho  wheat-lields, 
principally  of  I'liebhi ;  but  force  and  wealth  prove 
ever  to  al)ide  with  the  latter  State,  in  every  attempt  to 
obtain  relief.  Nnr  do  the  burden  and  vexation  stop 
here.  Xotwitli-tanding  the  exemption  .seemingly 
given  to  the  imported  article  from  other  tlia.i  tho  fed- 
eral duties,  the  owner  has  often  to  jiuy  other  sums  ,it 
the  |)orts  of  entry,  in  the  nature  of  municipal  duties, 
and  at  every  reinovo  from  State  to  State. 

Maize,  althougli  indigenous  to  the  table-lands,  and 
growing  in  every  climate  of  tlin  repuldic,  is  rarely  to 
bo  fimnd  at  a  low  price  anywiiere  ;  and  Ibis,  not  from 
any  failing  of  industry  or  a  want  of  knowledge  in  its 
cultivation,  but  from  droughts  that  continue,  at  limes, 
for  ye.irs,  aid  sometimes  until  districts  are  half  dc' 
(wpulateil.  Ktcu  in  tlie  fertile  vallej'  of  Mexico, 
about  the  capital  itself,  corn  usually  bears  a  price  ot 
about  iJJ  the  bushel.  The  cotton,  wherever  it  has 
been  attempted  lo  be  raised,  has  been  materially  und 
di.sciuiragingly  affected  by  insects ;  and  tho  article  is 
yearly  tlie  suIijim  t  of  special  licenses  to  individuals, 
to  be  introduced  at  Vera  Ouz  at  rates  lower  than 
tho.se  designated  by  tho  tariff,  to  supply  the  calls  of 
cotton  manul'act'  ric's.  The  vino  and  the  olive  have 
been  attempted  to  be  I'ultivated  since  tho  revolt  from 
Spain,  but  with  poor,  or  only  partial  success.  Tho 
lirice  of  tho  tirii/iiri/,  botli  in  its  natural  state  as  piilqi'e, 
and  as  the  distilled  liijnor  made  from  it,  nieariil,  is  an 
important  item  in  ;bo  economy  of  considerable  terri- 
tories, but  i>f  no  CO  isideration  in  coinincrce.  The 
pith  of  some  varieties  i,f  the  plant,  baked  like  a  jiota- 
to,  is,  ill  many  places,  tlie  food  for  nearly  the  year 
round  of  the  half-wild  tribes  of  tho  sii'iTd  • ;  and  tho 
s])irituous  extra>  t  is  the  inebriating  draught  that  keeps 
u  large  portion  of  the  population  about  tho  cities  and 
towns  wliere  it  can  bo  raised  or  bought,  in  a  state  of 
wretcliedness  and  physical  destitution. 

Tlie  principal  inanufac^tiires  of  Mexico  are  sugar 
and  rum.  ahies,  wine,  und  brandy,  earthen  and  stone 
ware,  glass,  paper,  and  tissu^fr  of  cotton,  wool,  and 
silk.  M.  Lerdo  ile  Tejad.i  estimates  the  entire  value 
of  the  manufactures  of  all  kinds  iti  Mexico,  annually, 
at  *BO,l)0(),Obi)  to  $«(),00l),0()0. 

The  producti.  II  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  repuiilic 
Im*  arrived  at  a  state  of  great  prosperity  ;  but  the  iu- 
ft4equate  supply  of  iiuicksllver  is  (lit  as  u  considera- 
ble ubstai.'le  to  the  still  greater  development  of  the 
mineral  wealth  of  Mexico. 


Jfanu/Mturet.— The  prinelpitl  priNluiiU  iit  Mnnlenil 
indiutry  are  brandy,  and  sugar  imAtt  (rum  ('Khp,  mej- 
cal,  made  from  the  Juice  of  tli«  riiogiKiy,  oil.  mim,  mid 
branilx  made  from  grapes,  eurlhiiii  iiMii  Klfiim  wares, 
paper  and  spun  anil  wovsii  etiWm,  ullk  kh/I  wwilen, 
Sugar  is  made  in  mll'a  on  all  Hl8  «»t»t»"i  wliers  Hie 
cane  is  cultivated,  and  wliicli  ara  fotlllil  rlll«<lly  in  the 
States  of  Vera  Cruz,  Tabasco,  Yui'Mm,  MhxIco,  (Jiier- 
lero,  J'ichoacan  and  fluudalujiira  j  an ',  bmiidy  iiy  stills 
in  most  .:f  iliem.  Although  tlwt  nufUmt  ttii'l  hii|MT- 
feet  system  is  generally  piirsweil,  Sfiirw  lm|fr(ive)iiehts 
have  begun  to  Iw  introduced,  of  witlidl  imy  tin  cited 
the  apparatus  lately  put  up  on  tfm  lini:l«ti(lil  of  La 
Puga,  near  Tepie,  that  of  San  (,'arliii.,  In  tti«  ('nfieda 
of  Cuautla,  end  in  Silv..,  four  U)»({i(*s  (riiut  Hiin  .hian 
Buutista  de  Tabasco,  for  sugar-makiM);  Mtiil  ilUtillIng 
brandy.  For  the  making  of  oil  thtifA  nn  alfendv  in 
the  capital  li)  mills,  besiib'S  tliosa  In  I'm'UUityit,  Tobicii 
and  Piiebla.  Not  only  oil  is  iiiadH  In  tliwm  (rum  olives, 
which  nearly  supplies  tli«  consiinifiHoii,  but  trim  njon- 
jote,  linseed,  rape-seed,  colwor*,  Mniinruh,  uliniilids, 
cacahuuto,  small  nut-  1  rtiiallj'  (mm  <'»lves'  niid 
pigs'  feet,  etc.,  to  •  and  /»«<  lilti'-ry     With 

respect  to  grape-  v  '  ndy,  llHImil^U  Ulilf:  ni'te 

vineyards  in  sevoiu.     '  thxy  Ht"  mnillldliilltnii 

only  in  those  of  ''    iiiajuut),  Coalmilii,  l^mtir  CilKfof- 
nia,  Sonora,   ano      'ilhiiabMU,  (fimi  til'i  Iflst  lit  ttln 
are  annually  made  than  IVK)  ImrruU  lit  bfn/iily, 

iiOO  of  wine,  and  2(10  tieroes  of  ritUlns,     tat  liw  iimmi- 
facture  of  earthen  vessels  ii(  /ill  kind*  lUum  rtfe  esfad- 
lisliincnts  in  the  republic,  whers  tUfy  urn  (Hikle  with 
much  skill,  the  bist  in  Mexico,  <fH(tlni^MII»i(,  »w\  limi- 
dalajara.      In  line  poUnry,  grealt  ImiiniVfUiellU  luivp 
been  recently  made  in  )'ucbT«,  wlittriB  (liii  bl(=)/ie.ss  tins 
been  carried  on  from  vi'r>'  ri<n)ot<i  (linits,  in  MutrttMiKicd. 
in  the  state  of  (iiianajuato,  uivl  littxly  in  (Ile  ( fl|iltal 
a  manufactory  excels  all  the  rent,     TIlKfc  nrtt  fi.iif  es- 
tablishments for  plain  glass  in  Hi"  (Kpltrtl,  (llid  (he 
States  of  Mexico  and  I'uelda,  the  product  ii(  ViiitiU  ex- 
ceeds the  ciuisiiiiiplion.   Tliero  iir«  'i^Ut.  fiiitifr  mills lii 
the  Federal  District,  and  the  Mtates  of  hUotli'ii,  I'llcbia 
and  Jalisco,  whirli  not  only  supply  tlin  ilcnmrd  (or  (he 
press,   but  for  other   purposes,   pdrtli'HJrtriy    *tlliiig- 
paper  equal  to  that  of  other  coi.ntrhw      'I'm"  S(  fiti  i(y 
of  linen  rags  requirej  most  of  tll«i  p  |mf  In  !«■  mnde 
of  cotton,  though  some  is  iniule  of  linen  nnd  iilso  nf 
the  filaments  of  llie  maguey,     AllhoKgd  mmiy  lifiiid' 
j  wheel  looms  are  useil  in  malting  cotton  fillirtfo,  as  re< 
,  bozos,  maiit  IS  and  other  ordinary  nrliiU't,  tilcre  ntn  (ij 
large  e.itablishmonts  moved  iiy  miuUinufy,  In  (lie  ('pil- 
era!   District,  and  tlie   IStat'S  of  ( 'oiiliiillrt,   ItiiMlljJf?, 
I  Jalisco,  I'ur Ida,  Mexico,  (jiu'rcturo,  (ind   Vcta  Cfiiz, 
I  Although  some  pretty  line  linens  (if«  nmilcin  tliciii, 
;  tliey  arc  but  few,  the  chief  part  lining  UWitMi  rtli/l 
I  maiitas,  whicli  in  IHI.^  amounted  t'l  'il,llilllilliUI  fsoilids 
of  the  hihiz.'is  und  l.l)iKI,l/i)i|  iiicics  of  tint  Uillnr,     the 
I  manuljctory  of  rcoozo .  in  tlie  city  of  /(tnii.rd  '  i  1/if 
'  State  of  Morelia,  is  worthy  of  |wir»ii  iliir  notice,     I'of 
i  woolen  fabrics,  liesi'les  the  nutnam/is  ii|(H|si  in  ttlili  li 
are  manufucturcri  ordinary  cloths  and  viitioKit  coiiimnn 
articles,  there  are  seen  largo  estiibllnllincnl^  in  llie  dl-s- 
trict  and  tho  States  of  M«xl<Mi,  l/Merntdf",  /«  iil"(ii« 
and  tho  territory  of    lloxcalu,  In  wlilcll  nfe  ni.ide 
cloths,  cassiineres,  caipels,  buize,  «li',,  itliii li  ('oiM|ii'te 
with  those  importwl,  both  in  n>i»Uly  and  In  pfiie,    /» 
spinning  and  winding  silk,  ni/ir«  tllitn  'iO  liitnd  infi- 
cliines  are  in  the  capital,  I'mdda  and  (ill'MinlaJflM,  iind 
( the  products  are  preferred  to  the  (iir-iiiin,     ill  Hie  cap- 
.  ital  is  1  im>cliiiie  by  horse-|ii,H ~>r,  untim  I'tpncli  plan, 
I  which  can  spin  above   Uhl  lbs,  it  day.     Aliiuit  tli.OOll 
lbs.  are  estimaicd  to  ij«  spun  in  i/lnM\m  annually. 
The  only  wo\en  silk  yet  miiiifi  urti  miliw  rebozos  and 
bands.     All  kinds  of  fancy  trIni.'Uing*  urn  nidde  in 
Mexico,  as  buttons,  cords,  braid*,  and  many  orn,  - 
mentn  of  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  j  and  tils  («'«t  factory 
is  that  of  the  Ilopicio   for  tli«  poor  in  lli<t   lapltai, 
where  they  are  us  veil  inaibi  as  in  i'.uriipn,     (lold  and 


If 


MEX 


1361 


MEX 


•liver  thread  of  all  kindj  are  made,  ttni  bugles,  span- 
glex,  galloon,  corda  and  belta  of  silver  uivd  gold,  and 
hells  of  silver  and  copper.  Oil-cloths  are  made,  of 
quullticH  and  patterns  equal  to  forei^'n.  Many  other 
minor  articles  are  also  manufactun<d,  to  a  considera- 
ble amount  annually.  An  establisliment  for  stearino 
candles  has  been  commenced,  under  an  exclusivo  priv- 
ilege. According  to  the  estimates  of  Scrtor  Quiros  in 
1817,  this  t)ronch  of  products  amounted  to  $16,011,818 ; 
they  are  now,  orobably,  not  less  than  $80,000,000  or 
^90,000,000. 

Mineral  HeamiTces  of  Mejeico, — In  a  period  of  27 
years,  from  1825  to  1851,  l)otli  inclusive,  the  average 
value  of  the  precious  metals  annually  exported  was 
$!),  I81,04'2,  OS  appears  from  a  recent  work  of  Miguel 
Lerdi,  do  Tejada,  "  Comercio  tie  Mexico  ilea  de  la  Cun- 
qiiisla  hnsia  hoi/,"  which  gives  the  following  table  of 
the  amounts  leyalli/  exported  in  coin  and  otherwise, 
during  the  period  dt^signated  : 

YcRra.  V«ke. 

182,-> »:),7l)2,44T 

run; .'i,*4T,79.% 

1S27 »,C(iO,423 

ISliS 12,!H7,2SS 

From  .July,  18i»,  to  June,  1S80 12,n22,:n3 

1,'flO       "        18;)! 10,M4,974 

»           ISiil        "         1*12 7,2S0,808 

1S.S2        "         1&« 14,180,Ufl 

"            law        "         1884 l:^,M7,7.^9 

"         1SB4      •'       Isa5 fi,ni)2,2i!t 

"           1*»       "        -,s:)6 12,7a'-.,4;i 

"            1H!)8        "         ls:)7 S,47I,S2« 

"            ll«7        "         ISas 4,4.-i9,745 

1^39 1  l,02,'i,148 

ls4l] 0,402,18,5 

ISII ll,«(il,491 

1<U 8,.')ll.fi56 

1^43 10,1)4.5,0*1 

1844 11.061,298 

ls46.- 11,830,901 

1810 9,flS7,S29 

is  17 «W,195 

Frojii  ./iimiaiy,  Uh.  lo  .Iiinc,  IS48 10,U94,73S 

From  .lulv,  ISJ9,  to  .turii',  1850 12,100,S06 

"      ■     1«50        "         1861 8,008,081 

Aiiitri-'KHtf »2.87,02«.081 

.\vcrogo 9,481,043 

It  is  lii'lji'vcd  Mint  imincn'H  i|unntities  of  sulphur, 
BiililL'leiit,  It  is  stiti'ii,  ti>  »ii|.|ily  the  manufacturing 
wauls  <if  the  wliol'!  world,  are  in  he  fou.id  in  tlie  State 
of  I'uelilu.  A  late  Mexicaii  paper  says,  in  reference 
to  those  .'^ulpliur-hcds :  "  'flic  volcano  of  Popocata- 
pctl  is  no  iMK-ortain  or  cliance  eiiforprise.  It  i)ossesses 
a  rciil  and  cc'tain  trc.isure,  iMid  that  t  jasurc  is  the 
iiiexhaustililo  amount  (jf  pure  sulphur  whicli  is  spring- 
ing up  every  d  ly  In  liillui:,e  abundance  from  its  Imw- 
els."  The  iSiijIo  newspaper,  puh'isliei'  in  Me.\ico, 
says :  "  The  United  Slates  consume  annually,  in  manu- 
faiturcs,  sulplinric  ai'id  to  clio  amount  of  the  enormou.'' 
sum  of  i|i]8,000,000  to  *22,»0  ),000 ;  and,  perhaps,  it 
wonlil  not  he  out  of  the  way  to  estimate  the  imports 
of  sulphur  into  (ireat  Ilrllalii  at  nearly  the  same 
amount.  In  these  two  countries  alone,  we  sliould 
find  a  market  for  over  $30,000,000  worth  annually. 
Thi'  prii  u  of  sulphur  is  now  at  aliout  .$,"iO  per  ton,  in  the 
Kngli^li  and  American  markets,  for  the  article  brought 
from  Vesuvius  and  the  sulphur-lieds  of  Italy.  The 
article  from  I'opocatupetl  would,  of  course,  omuiand 
a  higher  price,  from  its  superiority.  *  *  *  The 
supply  in  Vesuvius  is  limited,  while  that  of  Popoca- 
tapetl  would  lind  little  diminution  hy  the  labor  of  a 
century."  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  of  the  exist- 
ence of  incalciilalde  quantities  of  pure  sulphur  in  llif 
vicinity  of  this  volcano.  Fnun  observations  actu  illy 
made,  and  estimates  formed  on  the  spot,  by  seieiitilic 
olllcers,  it  is  believed  that  the  siilphcr  thrown  up  and 
liardened  may  be  set  dowr,  ut  millions  of  millicjns  of 
arrtih'is.  The  governinoiit  of  Me.vico  lias  alrculy 
given  attention  to  this  subject.  The  stipulations  by 
which  commercial  relations  between  tlio  United  States 
and  the  republic  of  Mexico  are  regulated  arc  found  in 
the  treaty  of  April  h,  iKIll,  and  that  of  May  ,'tn.  IS  18; 
the  latter  known  us  the  treaty  of  Uuadalujio  Hidalgo. 


Article  8d  of  the  latter  treaty  prov|il««  tlltt  all  tho 
custom-houses  then  In  |)o«ses»loii  of  oflleitrr  lit  tiui 
United  States  should  be  immediitely  rHulorml  to  the 
Mexican  authorities,  together  with  all  bolidn  and  ovl- 
dences  of  debt  for  duties  on  Imports  and  iixmrlii  not 
fallen  due ;  and  further,  that  all  duties  colUiiteil  at 
such  custom-houses  by  the  United  States'  o(llc«r»,  from 
and  after  the  ratitication  of  the  treaty,  shall,  wfter  dn- 
ducting  the  cost  of  collection,  he  dellvurud  ov(ir  to  tlin 
Mexican  government,  at  tlio  city  of  Mexico,  within 
three  months  after  the  exchange  of  rntilieatloti<i, 

Articles  fi  and  7  relate  to  the  uavlgHtloti  of  tllii  Clillf 
of  California,  the  Klvers  (.'ohirado  and  lllo  llravo  dol 
Norte  (annulled  by  •Itli  arthdo  of  the  treaty  of  !»«• 
cember  80,  18ij3,  ratiticd  and  exchanged  itOtli  .(uiin, 
1854).  Article  17  revives  treaty  of  |.<!ll  for  M  ynnfti, 
with  tho  usual  stipulation  oi  I'J  months'  notice  by 
eitlier  party  desirous  of  terminatln:{  the  ^ainii,  I'l-ipin 
the  treaty  of  1831  the  "  adillti.imil  artli'le"  U  «x- 
cepted,  and  also  such  stipulations  n*  are  irii'oiiipiitl- 
ble  witli  the  treaty  of  1848.  Article  W  iiiidliiui's  In 
force,  for  60  days  after  tho  ratillcatlon  of  the  treaty, 
the  tariff  estalilished  by  tho  United  Ntatcs  «t  ports 
and  places  occupied  by  their  forces,  Arllcle  'J|  pro< 
vides  for  the  appointment  of  commissioners  or  arhllra- 
tors  to  settle  any  disagreements  which  may  liereMfler 
arise  between  the  two  governmiuits  I'oncuriilrig  tint 
political  or  commercial  relations  of  tlin  two  couiitrhw, 
Article  22  prescrilies  rules  and  proceedings  to  be  f(d- 
lowed,  should  a  war  unhappily  bfeak  out  hi'tweeii  tliii 
two  republics,  and  covenants  pintectlun,  c'l',,  fir  tliti 
citizcis  of  each  residing  in  the  otiier ;  and  al«o  pro- 
vides that  tins  article  shall  not  be  annullml  under  Ihn 
jiretense  that  war  disscdves  all  treaties,  or  under  liny 
other  pretense  whatever. 

Tho  treaty  of  18;il,  revived  by  tho  17tli  rirtlelo  of 
the  treaty  of  1848,  secures  to  the  citl/eiis  of  each 
country,  in  the  territory  of  the  other,  equal  CooIIiik 
witli  the  citizens  and  subjects  of  all  foreign  imtlons, 
and  provides  tliat  neither  country  shall  grant  any 
particular  favor  to  other  nations  In  reaped  of  mm- 
merco  and  navii;ation,  that  shall  not  Inmiedlately 
become  coniuuMi  tu  the  other  party  j  no  higher  of 
other  duties,  imposts,  or  fees  wluitsoover,  to  he  piild 
by  tlie  citizens  or  vessels  of  either  country  In  tliu  porlr. 
of  the  other,  than  are,  or  may  he,  piiid  by  the  cltl/,e||S 
or  vessels  of  the  most  favored  nation  i  all  ineri'han- 
dise,  the  produce,  growth,  or  manufacture  of  either 
country,  imported  into  the  other,  to  he  snhjeet  Ici  nii 
higher  or  other  duties  than  similar  linportatloi;  i  from 
any  other  foreign  country;  no  export  duties  or  pro- 
hibitions to  lie  prescribed  by  either  country,  that  hIiuII 
not  equally  apply  to  all  other  foreign  nalliii^s;  !lii) 
vessels  of  both  countries,  in  the  ports  of  cither,  lo  bii 
placeil  on  the  footing  of  natioial  vessels,  us  ri'iipiieU 
tonnage  duties,  light  or  harlmr  dues,  pihitage,  salvagu 
in  case  of  damage  or  shipwreck,  or  any  other  local 
charges,  the  coasting  traiie  being  reservcil  liy  each  of 
tlie  high  contracting  parties  to  its  own  vessels,  respei^t' 
iveiy;  tl.:;  duties  on  imports  and  exports  uf  articles, 
the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  either  couii- 
try,  to  or  from  the  ports  of  the  ether,  to  he  the  same, 
wliether  such  importations  or  exportatlons  take  plauo 
in  vessels  of  the  United  States  or  of  .Mexico ;  ii|| 
merchants,  captains,  commanders  of  vessels,  and  olliar 
citizens  of  either  country,  to  have  full  liberty  to  man- 
age, themselves,  tlieir  own  allairB,  or  choose  their  own 
brokers,  t'acton,  agents,  or  iitcr|jrcters  in  I  lei  ports 
and  territories  of  the  other.  The  fourth  section  of  tho 
,'!4th  article  saves  from  the  operation  of  this  treaty  all 
former  or  existing  treaties  with  other  .sovereign  Mt«t«« 
or  powers. 

Meiisiiri's  of  Weiijht. — The  largest  me  isiire  for 
brandy,  wine,  and  other  llipiors,  is  iho  jarva,  which 
contains  18  cuartillos,  of  1  pound,  or  16  ounces  of  dl** 
tilled  water  at  the  t.Muperaliiie  of  its  greatest  density. 
IJrandy  barrels  are  distinguished  Into  inHiUdus  and 


I-    '.f' 


I  -.m 


MRX 


ia62 


Mm 


Kdoiuloa.  The  furiiier  I'unluln  Vni  «u«rtill<M,  iin<l  tli« 
latter  IGO.  'I'lis  reiLiuilii  l»trr«l  itt  witin  i^ontniii*  IM) 
GiiurtilluH.  Oil  in  huuifht  uml  miIiI  lit  wliolniinla  l>y 
weight;  but  ut  ri>t:ill  ii  (wrtkiiUr  I'liiirtlllii  U  uMfl, 
ContiiiiiiiiK  17  auiiiMin  miil  U  ilrni'lini*  of  ilintlllnl  wntcr. 
Fur  olivu  uil  tlio  hiiiiui  ruurtilUi  lo  UMtil  H*  for  liran<1;r, 
wiiu-s,  etc.  At  tilt!  iiiiiiitii  tli«  iimri»i  I*  imwt  tut  guU 
and  Hilver.  The  i/;iM  iii»r<'u  tn  ilivUlml  into  M)  i:iift!t- 
lauuH,  of  8  tujiiiiii.-it  of  1^  KmltlK.  'I'lin  ullvrr  marr  i 
liuM  H  ocIioihIs,  of  t)  UitiiiilH'  iif  Vi  ur»Ui;  Amnyrri, 
to  ilcterniiiio  tli«  purit)'  uf  tli«Mi  tifii  tiiHlalfi,  nm  the 
samu  iiiarco.  For  Kulil,  llio  i.'««t«lliJllii  (*  illvldod  Into 
24  (|iiiluteii,  uf  4  KriiiioH  <)«  \fy,  eot'ti  Kfitno  m|Uivalntit 
to  r>l)  iu  wi'i^lit.  For  nilvitr,  tli«  itiari'o  U  tltvldad  Into 
12  (lincron  uf  24  tfraiww  ilu  Ivy,  iiii<^li  Krntio  lr«ln^  ei|iilv- 
ttlcnt  to  11!  iu  wi'lKJit,  I.ii|il4iir)i<*,  fit  tlui  nimny  of 
prvciouit  HtoiiKH,  UKK  till!  iiulUtA,  wlifi'li  li>  tli8  tmth  of 
an  ounie,  A|Hitliu>.'arlitii  mm  ttin  lllifii  tnn<li('lnal, 
whioli  is  (liviiltMl  iitt'i  ll'  ■ 'ritlliiiiii  iiimim  of  dfftit 
(Iruelims,  uf  .1  tii.ru|ileii,  ut  -,11  kmikw, 

Munitj  ill  /'iriiil/Ul.ii, — lliirmi  lliiiiiliol'lt  fnltntnted, 
in  ItiOll,  the  viiluu  of  tliu  itu)ii«>'  n<'('iiiiiiilnt«d  in  Mex- 
ico to  1)0  ij'oii.iKKt.iKM)  or  ifMi'iiXli'Hiil  i  ¥  Mi\i  ntim  toin- 
(lared  witli  tlic  |Hi|iulatlou  tlivn  exUl'iltti  hi  N'«w  M|inln, 
corresponded  in  |iro|iortiun  to  iffUt  foroixh  Jnhalilt/int. 
Talcing  tliin  i^ileulatioii  for  a  lia<i»,  nild  rtinaldcrinK 
the  prosperity  in  niiiiiuK  from  (Imt  tiiiiit  to  tlilx,  tlirre 
in  no  liuziird  in  M}'iii({  tluit  tl)«  valilK  of  tlie  mimey  now 
in  tlie  re|)ulilie,  iiotwItlutHiMlliiK  tli«  ((rent  cxixirtiitloii 
past  and  present,  unioiiiit<  U)  $;Hl,iMm,ll(Kt  ut  tWl.ODI),- 
0(!l).  A1tlic>u(;li  tliiij  duui  U,  doiilftli^**,  niiniirlcnt  for 
nil  tlie  oporutionii  of  tl>«  iiit<^rii«r  tnwln,  wlili-li  in  yety 
HmM,  as  well  in  H({ri<'ulturu  an  in  tiwiiiifni'tiirfi!!  nnil 
connncrce,  the  clri-uin»t«n>M  lit  Urn  xrmitsr  (mrt  Iwlng 
conlined  to  n  few  liands  on  tllii  ollx  nldn,  nfid  on  the 
otlier  the  want  of  <u)iirtil«')i<«,  itiiMiHtii  the  freiiucnt. 
sciiriity  of  the  money  in  eirculati'iti,  i'itil<>lii(;  the  rare 
phenomena  of  a  country  whh'h  prmliii'i^ii  ^(iiM  and  f^il- 
vcr  fi)  ahundantly,  paying  «  hiijlMif  llltf^rmt  on  money 
than  in  countries  in/t  yi«ldiMj{  it. 

TliB  geoj^rapliical  (Kxiitloii  of  thn  MtnlfB  and  Terrl- 
toriea  of  Mexico  in  thus  d«tiM«d!  I,  /■Itmlri'H  nr  (lulf 
Coast. — The  States  of  Vuciilufi,  ( 'hl.'i(<»ii,  'i'nUmit, 
Vera  Cruz,  and  'i'uin»ull|«l«.  2,  Wmfmi  or  I'liiijk 
Count. — TliO  States  of  (»ajai»,  I'MIiIiIa,  and  Territory 
of  Tlascala;  Stat«  of  Mekiio,  aii'l  I'whirnl  lllitrlctj 
States  of  Miclioacan,  .l»lt«<iu,  and  'IVffit«ry  of  ( ;(dima ; 
States  of  Sinaloa,  SoiKjra,  tJiiMfrcofo,  and  Ttrritory 
of  r.owcr  C'uiifornla.  i).  Jntrfinrr—'liw  Mtnte«  of 
Qncretaro,  (iuanajualo,  /ncatt^can,  Nun  l/llla  iVrtoil, 
New  l.eon,  (.'oahuila,  UurauKo,  and  (fhlhoahna, 

I'ucaldii. — TliH  Stotc  of  Vucttlail  iifiM\i\n*  the  \t,teat- 
er  portion  of  tlie  peninsula  whh  U  IrfHiltdfi  the  mnitliern 
edge  of  tl'e  tjidf  of  Mexico,  It  ei/inprlwii  an  area  of 
about  r)2,!l  17  s<iuai'u  luiles,  and  (i<ml>ilit.<i  n  \iii\i\\\ny\'m 
of  fi«l),'J4H. 

The  principal  prodiutl/ms  of  Vwcatan  are  maize, 
cotton,  rice,  tolmcco,  pep(.Br,  »Hj<iif-('«iie,  dye-woods, 
hides,  and  soap.  I'oreigii  traila  with  Vn<at»n  Is  dis- 
tributed between  the  l'iiit«d  ^nUi*,  Vrnmi',  Kn(<l(ind, 
Spain,  and  otiier  uountrijis.  Tin)  iiCKiiortlonn  may  lie 
ostinuited  from  tli«  folluwlii);  tnhlv,  ohowInK  the  value 
of  imports  ijito  Yucatan  ilnrliiK  th«  year  IH.'iO,  from 
each  of  the  countries  alioved<'«l«imt*d !  H|>«ln,1,!)iV),OI)0 
•rancs ;  Knglaud,  l|llK),(»i")  franc*  j  Cnltwl  Ht»t«i>, 
l,(XtO,0«0  fraiii  s  ;  I' ranee,  '^.ift.'KlO  francs  (  other  coim- 
trios,  925,000 franca  j  t.utal,  U,tm,m)  f.aiiw,  or  ♦1,023,- 
000. 

The  principal  ports  in  Vuc»;j|«  arf  i'amiieche  and 
Sisal.  l)otli  open  to  foreiga  ciyrornerce.  In  tlie  former, 
the  water  is  so  siiallow  that  ye»w<|it  arn  ob|l|(ed  to  an- 
chor some  ( oui-ideralilu  dl^tancn  from  the  t<i«n  of 
Camjiuche,  and  discharge  and  take  in  l^nt\^l»•n  by 
means  of  lightens  and  cau'w'S,  Ml»al  (K/<»e«Mi»  a  deejH'r 
port  tinin  (,'ani|K'che,  but  it  Is  iii(if«  ft«|K.««d  to  tlin 
no-th  winds,  wlii<;h  prevail  in  th»  <iiilf  of  Mexico 
from  October  tu  April,     It  U  thn  ib<|N>l  for  the  Import 


and  export  trad*  of  )K«rt*»,  «*#  t'»^\  of  Tneatan, 
and  for  all  oiercUiMidW*  H»*tiipntU4  itt  nt  from  the  In- 
terior of  Uie  State.  Hj^tttiitifitu  ttH:iit*«i1i  ftnder  the  an- 
cient rule,  a  high  lij/gntu  uf  w/ttrt**/' Jul  pimpttity.  It 
enjoyed  a  mouojwly  of'  *4(  I**'  impi/ttf  titK\  exports  of 
the  province;  but  rfw,*'  MMt  iluh'pflvUtK'fi  of  Mexico, 
Ita  coinmerc«  has  ^UmA-it  fV^H  tttitHght  ahtmt  by 
t'i«  opening  of  vtiwf  (AWflt*  ttt  /jswwint  itftiH!,  as  well  as 
by  ita  difticulties  »w  fJ*«  tt^fttt  «fwrtnmenf,  and 
!ho  fearful  ravt^je*  uf  lej^lUwiny  i/y  *hieh,  in  one 
year,  fully  two  dfttti  nil  U^  pttp^nrittti  were  car- 
ric'l  off. 

C/iiiipiu.—Tlui  fiM4i  iWf'  CUittpm  pttf^'ife-f  tnit  little 
commercial  interej*,  |(t  w#«  itifttt'pntiltf.t}  hitn  the  ter- 
ritory of  Mexic^j  i»  >***j  fi/fttiWfii  imtinis  that  year,  a 
portion  of  the  UirriUtfj/  (4  (>tm(*tttttU.-  /(s  produc- 
tions are  c<;rn,  <WA>a,  w*^*',  Mtflft'ti,-  indigo  (of  the 
very  (inesit  quality,  i/ut  m  «WrvM  i'(W«M(<ies),  tropical 
fruits,  and  tiiul^r  t4'  #)w*i«*  ^t-W  »i«riefy.  I.ikc 
Vucatan,  this  Stati' ^ert-y*--*  it*fiii*'i  interest  from  tlie 
an<ient  reuiaius  t4'  it  ftft'Htt^  mi^ttlit-Ki  civilization 
within  its  terfit(;ri.eji,  t>t'>.*rittli  4*^*  tryitji  frftterioT  to  the 
Spani.<h  (ajiKjuest,  'J'lAt  fltittt  //(  ('j«le*(rte,  in  f  Ihiapas, 
and  <if  1,'xuiul  nuH'Ukiit'ii;  M  t«f*«*(v,  i«»e,  perhaps, 
the  must  w oi>dcrtV( ''f  #W  tttitff  l»#*#  t««n  discovered 
hitliert<j  on  the  wi*iej'#  fiffttiitttat: 

TiiIhwi). — 'l'Di>*i»t),  rtw  im^iUtfi  S«t«<«  of  the  con- 
federacy, was,  j>r«y)i(^*  p>  (^  iK<ilA*HSi<ilf  a  province 
belonging  to  tUe  wUtttfUitfy  ut'  V>y*  f'rrtz.  Jts  [)rin- 
cipal  productions  are  iiw.<«,,  «/#>*.  pf~pp^i^  *nf<ar,  tam- 
arinds, arrow-i^uot,  ^mimHUh  Hid  <»/ttHi  tolmcco.  lis 
capital.  Villa  lie  Hm  imti  Htttt(i>4/tf  <!<•«  ttUmt  70  miles 
from  tlie  tjulf,  aMd  U  ffMt-itM  i/f  vessels  of  light 
draught.  Its  a>mm''ft'V  U  fl^f  iHftlM  0*1  v»ith  tho 
adjoining  States  a^it  wT^tJ^  (ii^t(t,-iiij,iit.- 

Vera  Cruz.—Tkn  S**l*  t4  Vff/t  (Utt/,  (i«s  nnder  th" 
burning  sky  of  tlie  |tp^*'*j  ttM  ii  tttmpt\iic(\  within  a 
long,  but  somewhat  n^ffi/it/,  ^flfi  i4  (etritory  al«r  k 
tli(^  (iulf  of  Mexico,  l!»mtitHi  tf'ittt  ttm  Month  of  the 
Tainpico  Kiver  in  thn  It/tttitj  f<tth*i  <>n.-*sacnalco  ami 
the  boundaries  i>f 'J'a'**!**'.!/ </W  <Im' s""!**!*.  (t  contain- 
an  area  of  .HVJOt)  K<f*W«  JA'^ifMe*,.  tttift «  fsipnlation  of 
2W,72.y  inhalAta^ts.  'tits  piiii  fit'  ^ffit  ()ttl7.  lies  in 
19^  n'  bi"  a.  l«t.,  mi  <«'*  -iff  W  W.  J<«ng.  from 
I'aris,  on  a  »»i)Ay  lAt^H,  ittt^f-^ftui  «ith  marslic^, 
which  Ijound  the  fittif  ttf  M»':*.W  tv.-  fV(iWr  the  month 
of  May  to  that,  of  &VitWl'*»Vj  (l#*«  ttttiltl  period  dnriri;,' 
which  tli.e  northers  c*#i«  ijh^Wir.-  tix«  nnhe.-iltbincss 
of  Vera  (.'ruz  i.-<  umfxrtfmi.-  'ttt^  ptW-^ptll  production.s 
of  the  State  o»  ''^m  t'fm  Itf*  iMttU-t-iyf  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  corn,  ba.„y,  wim^,  pUp,>!ltfttHp«fi\U,  vanilla. 
mahognny,  ebony,  4j-(tt.-»>w4i»,  tmit  e'Veyy  variety  of 
tropical  fruit.  'I'lw  j»ort  f4  Vt^ti  C-ftt/  fttppHe^  a  great 
part  of  the  republic,  4tt4  U  ftittfitUil^i  iff  tut  the  most 
imnortaut  shipping  jmiw^  mt  fUttt'i'fitfl-^.  foreign  ves- 
sels lira  aUowe4  to  i^iltW***'  fittniiii  tUltt  effects  from 
foreign  countries  '>«)y ,  .w^  iit^-i'  ttfn  pttttliUca  to  enter 
but  one  ]Kirt  lor  diwlwi'^' >  tit^^  iti/ty  thfit  proceed,  in 
ballast,  to  auy  t>t|j*f  jittft  itt  rtw  ffptiiti'if  for  the  pur- 
p<>8o  of  taking  iu  «afj5<*»*  ttf  titf  fffmlut*  of  the  < nun- 
try,  louring  the  y«w  ih'fi  (ttt^tt  iWyivert  »t  the  |iort 
of  Vera  t>uz,  fjxw  nH  (tw*i^ff  (■itttitttif^!,  )7S  vessels, 
with  an  aggregate  «f  ;ttji;^-%iit/tif,.  'Jhe  total  value 
of  mer<hajidiiU)  «x(»ort*»<,  itt'itMinte  f^M  and  silver, 
was  iH0,44a,O7O  Of;.  Dftttti  *ie<*i>'l*  rwinwed,  there  were 
49  American.  HieaM|i*ilW  ^HH-'Ul  Mtts.-  The  character 
or  value  of  tUeif  'um*f4  fttff^flf*  U  tint  given  in  the 
United  States'  t-Mititiitr  ft4ttnt'i  Itttt  lj*e  hnport  duties 
are  stated  to  have  mt/tttHtM  Ut  iitMfjfKtl  20.  Amoimt 
of  silver  expurt«il,  ♦•tv-^/*'? i  iff  ^'iti^  $.'r,">,««4;  other 
j  product*,  i-M)!),l.i/li  M*J  »#!««  of  fcoMtWard  cargoes, 

|«14,322. 
I       l>uring  tlie  imm  y«!W?  rt#«  #«?*«<  ftorti  (Ireat 
lliitain  :i«  vessels,  w^  tm  ltfi§t'^'^.'<f«  nt  ifi'io-li  tons. 
I  Total  amount  'jf  exj*^*,  ^,|7.V«*  S?;  ftf  Which  silver 

'       •  A  c«uau*  tajuai  mi  t«M  ^'Mm«  <^  M«M<ier  to  274,e>)«. 


MEX 


1363 


MEX 


:ifin  I'f 


.  from 


until 
1  (luring 


iiull:\. 
r'Ktv  "f 
iriMl 
hp  nio-^t 
;n  %•?■;- 
■ts  fnmi 
to  enter 
eeed,  in 
the  p«r- 
ctmn- 
lie  iK'rt 

ll  Vlllllfi 

silver 
■re  were 
laraoter 
in  in  the 
Tt  (liitie- 
lAmonnt 
(ithei 
[•iirgnes, 

(;re;>t 
>  tons. 
Ill  silver 

l4.6>i«. 


covered  t8,56o,359  ,12,  and  Rold  $47,952.  France  holds 
tho  next  rank  in  the  trade  of  Vera  Oiiz.  The  numljer 
of  l-'rench  vesiiels  arrived  in  1852  was  28,  of  6717  tons. 
Inward  car)^es  not  ascertained.  Outward,  total  value 
11421,935;  of  which,  silver  *118,921,  gold  $45,5,->4. 
Number  of  Spanish  vessels  arrived  at  Vera  Ouz 
during  the  year  1852,  20,  with  an  aggregate  of  3211'67 
tons.  Total  value  of  cargoes  exported  S'141,287,  chiefly 
silver  and  gold.  The  residue  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
this  port,  (luritig  tho  same  year,  was  distributed  be- 
twcen  82  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  411t9  tons,  car- 
rying, respectively,  the  Belgian,  Danish,  Hanoverian, 
Mexican,  Portuguese,  Sardinian,  ond  Venezuelan  (lags. 
From  Hamburg  there  were  8  vessels,  exporting  a  total 
value  of  |i23,196. 

During  the  prevalence  of  the  northers,  the  port  of 
Vera  Cruz  is  considered  to  be  very  unsafe.  In  1840 
the  United  States'  brig-of-war  Momert  was  lost  in. 
sight  of  the  city,  making  the  third  I'nited  States' 
national  vessel  lost  during  that  season,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  A  norther  generally  continues  two  or  three 
days.  "  It  comes  on,"  says  a  publication  elicited  by 
the  loss  of  the  Somers,  "gradually,  .  i  that  tho  mari- 
ner who  is  unaccustomed  to  navigate  the  Gulf  of  Jilex- 
ico  is  often  unsuspicious  of  danger,  and  flatters  himself 
with  the  idea  that  the  'stiflT  lircezo'  wliich  impels  his 
vessel  onwnnl  will  soon  carrj-  her  to  her  ])ort  of  ile.sti- 
nation.  And  so  it  does,  but  not  in  safety;  for  tlie 
'  still"  breeze'  freshens  into  a  gale,  and  tho  gale  into  a 
hurricane;  and,  at  length,  the  vessel  strikes  on  one 
of  the  rocks  with  which  the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz  is 
studded.  In  that  harbor  the  anchorage  ground  is, 
perhaps,  tho  worst  in  the  world.  At  Vera  Cruz  no 
number  of  anchors  hardly  will  keep  n  vessel  from 
going  asliore  in  a  norther.  All  that  the  captain  of  a 
vessel  c.nn  ilo,  under  such  circumstances,  is  to  slip  his 
anchors  and  stand  out  to  sea  immediately.  Vessels 
of  war,  even  those  belonging  to  friendly  powers,  are 
not  allowed  by  tho  Mexican  government  to  enter  the 
liarbor  of  Vera  Cruz.  They  always  anchor  at  Sacri- 
licios,  a  liarren  island  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor. 
At  Sacrilicios  the  anchorage  is  pretty  good.  Mexican 
men-of-war,  when  there  are  any  such  in  tho  harbor  of 
Vera  Cruz,  are  always  moored  to  rings  set  in  the  walls 
of  the  castle  of  St.  .luan  do  UUoa,  and,  by  that  means, 
are  secured  from  tho  effects  of  a  norther."  The  offlcial 
account  of  tho  loss  of  the  Somers,  bearing  date  De- 
cember 12,  184fi,  in  oil  tile  in  the  Navy  Department, 
and  contains  many  valuable  sugges.sion3  relative  to  the 
dangers  to  which  navigation  is  exposed  in  tho  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Tamaulipas. — This  State  is  bounded  north  by  the 
.State  of  Texas ;  north-west  by  the  Mexican  State  of 
Coahuila ;  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  New  Loon, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  and  Vera  Cruz  ;  and  on  tho  east  by 
the  Gulf  of  Btexico.  In  breadth  it  varies  from  12  to 
55  leagues.  This  State  has  more  than  .S50  miles  in 
length  of  sea-coast,  and  is  fringed  with  lagoons  vary- 
ing from  4  to  18  miles  in  width,  divided  from  the  gulf 
by  a  bank  of  sand.  Tho  shallowness  of  the  shores 
along  tho  coast,  and  the  dangerous  bars  which  choke 
the  month  of  the  riv-^rs,  render  the  navigation  difficult 
and  dangerous  for  vessels  of  almost  all  classes.  Pop- 
ulation in  IPJO,  110,074 ;  thouga  the  census  of  1804 
gives  Imt  1 00,0(i4.  •  1  no  chief  productions  of  this  State 
are  similar  to  those  found  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz. 
The  coasting  and  foreign  trade  is  conducted  principally 
in  the  ports  of  Tampico  de  Tamaulipas  and  Matamoriis. 
From  these  places  large  quantitiee  of  European  and 
North  American  manufactures  enter  tho  middle  and 
northern  States  of  the  republic.  Querctaro,  San  Luis, 
Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  Zacatecas,  Jalisco,  Durnnp;o, 
Chihuahua,  and  Sonora,  receive  most  of  their  foreign 
siipiilies  from  these  points.  Tampico  de  Tam.'iiilipiis.  : 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Paniico,  is  the  principal  i 
commercial  port  of  this  State.  Its  bar  is  dangerous,  j 
and  its  harbor  considered  unsafe.  Tho  towu  is  situated  ! 


in  the  midst  of  extensive  marsihcs,  and  can  not  be  ap" 
proached  by  large  vessels.  Its  foreign  commerce  ii 
represented  as  increasing  (vide  SIayek's  Mexko,  vol. 
Ii.,  p.  200),  tliough  a  consular  return  from  that  jxirt, 
hearing  date  Kebruary  17,  1854,  says  that  the  trade 
with  tho  United  States  is  on  the  decrease,  owing  to 
"  high  rates  of  duties,  both  impost  and  consumption ; 
as  also  circulation  and  municipal." 

Tampico  exports  hides,  sarsaparilln,  goat-skins, 
fustic,  vanilla,  wool,  jerked  beef,  and  Blexican  hemp. 
Tampico  is  the  outlet  of  the  metals  and  other  prodnc- 
tions  of  Sun  Luis  Potosi,  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and 
purango,  consiilercd  to  be  the  richest  mining  districti 
in  Mexico.  The  foreign  trade  of  Tampico  <luring  the 
year  ending  December  HI,  1852,  was  as  follows  ;  Total 
value  of  inward  cargoes.  ijil,228,n48 ;  total  value  of 
outward  cargoes,  iiiia,2«e,G:+l ;  total  foreign  trade, 
i5i4,49o,582. 

Total  number  of  American  vessels  included  in  the 
above,  22,  with  an  aggregate  of  2207  tons.  Value  of 
inward  cargoes,  4190,930  ;  value  of  outward  cargoes, 
iJ237,944 ;  total  trade  in  American  vessels,  iS!4:)4,8ao, 
Total  number  of  Hritish  vessels,  17 ;  aggregate  ton- 
nage not  ascertained.  Of  these,  14  belonged  to  the 
Hritish  Koyal  Mail  .Steamship  Company,  and  3  were 
sailing  vessels.  Total  value  of  inward  cargoes  (ex- 
clusive of  1000  flasks  of  quicksilver,  value  n(pt  ascer- 
tained), .^£87,500;  total  value  of  outward  cargoes, 
•'!>2,928,4I8  ;  total  trade  in  British  vessels,  $3,215,918. 
Total  number  of  French  vessels,  9,  of  1,315  tons. 
Total  value  of  inward  cargoes,  $398,000 ;  total  value 
of  outward  cargoes,  .>S|2080 ;  total  trade  in  French  ves- 
sels,  $100,080.  Total  number  of  Spanish  vessels,  7, 
of  728  tons.  Total  value  of  inward  cargoes,  iJ139,.'t00 ; 
total  value  of  outward  cargoes,  §50,176  ;  total  value 
of  trade  in  Spanish  vessels,  iJ189, 17C. 

Tlio  residue  of  the  trade  at  the  port  of  Tampico, 
during  1852,  was  distributed  between  Sardinia,  llam- 
burg,  Holland,  and  Jlexico.  Matamoras  lies  on  tho 
right  iiank  of  the  I!io  Grande,  or  Kio  Bravo  del  Norte, 
at  the  di.stanco  of  nearly  .30  miles  from  its  month.  For 
purposes  of  navigation,  this  river  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
important  in  INlexico,  ami  has  proved  navigable  by 
steamers  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior. 
Keeent  returns  from  this  port  are  not  nt  hand,  Iiiit  the 
general  trade  of  Matamoras  is  not  of  much  import- 
ance.  The  following  facts  relative  to  its  tra<le  are  de- 
rived from  French  official  rctunis :  Imports  into  tho 
port  of  Matamoras  consist  chiefly  of  hreadstulfs,  spices, 
provisions,  and  cloths,  from  New  Orleans ;  exports,  of 
specie.  hide=,  and  wool.  In  1844  there  entered  33 
vessels,  of  2054  tons,  floating  inward  cargoes  of  tlia 
v.-lue  of  1,033,000  francs,  and  outward  about  an  equal 
amount.  Two  thirds  of  all  commercial  operations  at 
this  port  are  under  the  American  flag.  In  1811  com 
mercial  movements  w ith  the  United  States  reached  tho 
sum  of  2.3,0110,000  francs— 12,000,000  for  inward,  and 
11,000,000  for  outward  cargoes.  Of  the  imports, 
British  niercha':  iise  imjiorted  in  American  bottoms 
reached  5,000,000,  while  American  produce  and  manu- 
factures amounted  to  only  2,500,000.  French  merchan- 
dise in  American  bottoms  figured  as  high  as  1,300,000 
francs,  and  German  1,080,000.  Cotton  cloths  (mostly 
British)  reached,  in  this  trade,  5,136,000  francs'.  Tho 
export  trade  to  tho  United  .States  during  this  year 
covered  9,000,000  francs  in  sjiocie,  and  over  2,000,000 
in  hides. 

Chihiiiihua. — The  principal  port  in  this  State  is  F,l 
Paso  del  Norte,  lying  on  thu  right  bank  of  tho  Kio 
Grande.  "  The  position  of  this  town  is  an  important 
one,  inasmuch  as  the  road  by  it  is  the  only  practicable 
one  for  wagons  leading  frot.i  Santa  F6  to  Chihuahua." 
--Mayer's  Afi-xico.  'Iho  valley  of  El  Paso  is  the  most 
fertile  in  Jlexico,  producing  maize,  wheat,  and  almost 
every  variety  of  fruits.  The  commereo  of  tho  United 
States  with  this  port  has  decreased  since  1851,  not  half 
the  amount  of  merchandise  having  been  imported  from 


J^'lRa 


I 

'■if  *'tii 


M¥ 


pif  ^ 

Ml 


MEX 


1364 


MEX 


th«  United  States  in  1852  at  in  1H60  ami  in  1861.  Tliia 
decline  in  uttribiited  to  tliu  riiliuro  of  tliu  crupn  in  ttie 
Ntiite  of  Clilliiiiiliiiu,  and  tlio  liiftli  diiticn,  wliicli  amount 
almost  ti)  a  pruhlliitici.  Mexican  and  foreign  mer- 
chantfi  Kond  to  the  United  StiitPK  wine  and  l>ran(lv', 
manufnctiired  in  tlie  Kl  I'nno  valley,  and  m^m,  aoap, 
r«l>08an,  KaddieH,  l>rldle!i,  leather,  xeKarx,  niatx,  and 
frnitH,  aincmnting  unniially  to  about  it70,U()l). 

Oajnra. —  i'luH  State  lian  a  Hea-couxt  on  the  I'acilic 
extending  IIH  league^*,  and  cuniprines  an  area  of  about 
4U>0  i<(|uare  leaf(ueii,  cuntainiu^  a  population  of  S'^n.lOl 
inluililtantH.  Tlie  fortiUiy  of  noil  and  riidiucsK  of  pro- 
ductions render  tliin  Statu,  in  a  commercial  anpect,  one 
of  the  niont  ini|H>rtu:it  in  Mexico.  'I'lierc  in  not,  how- 
ever, any  jiort  open  to  foroij{n  commerce  on  tliis  part 
of  the  I'Mcilic,  from  tlio  lioundary  lino  of  (iuatemala  to 
Acapidco,  a  distance  of  nearly  UOO  milcH.  Tlie  coast- 
ing trade  is  nearly  nominal,  aitiiounh  tlio  State  pos- 
(pssos  nine  soa-ports  or  anchoraRCS,  namely :  Tchuan- 
tppno,  lluatuico,  Kscondido,  Cliacaliua,  and  Jamdtepec. 
Corn,  cotton,  colFoe,  sugar,  cocoa,  vanilla,  tobacco, 
cochineal,  wax,  lioney,  and  indigo,  are  tlio  staple  pro- 
ductions. The  indigo  crop,  produced  in  the  dpart- 
nient  of  'reliuuntcpec,  is  estimated  at  f)00  garr  ,nes,  of 
175  pounds  each,  nnd  ti^at  in  the  vaile}'  of  Sonoia  at 
(JOO  garnmes,  making  the  wliole  crop  ol'  indigo  equal  to 
1112,601)  pounds.  The  price  paid  to  planters  is  6-'J 
cents  to  I?!  per  pound.  Krom  a  nic^sagu  of  t!ie  (iov- 
craor  of  Oajaca  to  tlie  National  tJonnrcss,  it  appears 
that,  during  the  17  months  previous  to  March  1,  1H,'>I, 
the  crop  of  cochineal  produced  in  the  State  of  Oajaca 
reached  as  high  us  l,248,.'i.">U  pounds.  The  price  usu- 
ally ranges  from  ,'iO  cents  to  75  cents  per  lb.,  according 
to  quality.  This  State  possesses,  also,  considerable 
mineral  wealth.  There  are,  at  present,  silver  mines 
worked,  1 ;  not  worked,  il ;  gold  mines  worked,  6 ; 
lead  mines,  1.  Annual  product  of  all  the  mines, 
ifXrlfim ;  annual  products  of  iron  nii'ies,  211,000 
pounds.  On  both  siiles  of  the  Uthmus  of  lehuante- 
jiec  great  (luantitiea  of  niahoguiiy  and  otiier  cabinet 
woo<is,  gums,  etc.,  are  produced,  i'lio  cocoa  raised  in 
some  parts  of  tiiis  State  is  of  so  superior  a  ipiality, 


that,  while  the  country  belonged  to  Spain,  it  waa  re> 
served  for  the  royal  family.  It  still  haa  a  deservad 
reputation. 

(luci  ifro. — This  State  comprises  tlie  diatrictf  ,)f  Aca- 
piilco,  Cliilapa,  Tasco,  and  Tlapa,  and  the  municipality 
of  Coy  ucan.  Its  princl|ial  port  Is  Arapulcn,  so  spacious 
and  secure  that  5(M)  vessels  can  lie  at  anchor  in  it  with 
[lerfect  safety.  Tlie  trade  of  Acapuico  is  incoi  ler- 
able  J  the  foreign  vessels  entering  the  port  being 
either  freighted  witli  loals  for  the  racilic  Mail  Steam- 
ship (Company,  or  in  distress — tlie  former  being  com- 
pelled to  dear  in  ballast.  Uy  decree  dateil  Kobniury 
■1,  185-1,  the  Supremo  (iovernment  iiiado  a  reduction  in 
the  tonnage  dues  upon  all  vessels  arriving  in  that 
port  laden  with  coal,  and  consigned  to  any  steamboat 
company  h.iving  a  depot  of  coals  in  the  harbor,  vl/,. : 
60  cents  per  ton,  instead  of  l^l  50,  as  formerly.  Dur- 
aing  the  year  18."i3,  there  entered  the  ]iort  of  Acapuico 
81  American  steamsliips,  of  107,007  tons;  8  sailing 
vessels  (ships)  cnrrying  4,30!)  tons ;  1  bark,  and  2 
sciiooners.  llesides  Acapuico,  there  are  other  [xirts  on 
the  I'acitic  ((Mst  open  to  foreign  trade ;  bu:  o  De- 
partment is  Hut  in  possession  of  inform  n\  res|)ecting 
them.  They  possess,  however,  no  coi  ,  rcial  import- 
ance. The  other  States  of  Mexico,  ■  "'g  eithei  in 
the  interior  of  tho  republic,  (.r  posicsaing  no  ports 
o|)eii  to  foreign  coniincvce,  arc  not  deemed  of  siiflicicnl 
commercial  cnnsidcnitluii  tn  demand  separate  notice. 
Keturiiing  to  tho  general  cuiumeice  of  Mexico  with  for- 
eign nations,  particularly  with  tho  United  States,  it  is 
foiiiiil  tluit  the  principal  articles  of  importation  from  the 
latter  to  that  country  are,  machinery,  articles  of  iron, 
small  wares,  linen,  wcoleu,  and  cotton  cloths ;  silks, 
flour  (when  not  prohibited),  raw  cotton,  timber  for  the 
construction  of  houses,  prepared  medicines,  household 
furniture,  vehicles,  harnesses,  horses,  salt  meats, 
sperm,  paper,  marHo  and  otlier  stone. 

The  imports  into  the  United  States  from  Mexico 
consist,  |)riiicipally,  of  gold,  silver,  dyewooils,  ilye- 
studs,  hides,  skins  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  other  produc- 
tions of  less  value.  The  following  statement  show.^ 
a  decrease  in  the  import  ince  of  our  coinmercu. 


Commerce  or  tub  Unitrd  States  with  Mexico,  from  Octoiier  1,  IS24,  to  Jtriv  1,  1958. 


Yuan  fnditiK 


Ezltortt. 


Doine«tK\     |       Furtlgn. 


Hept.  tW,  Itl'iS. 


If27 

18'W 

Is29 

ISSO 

Total.. 


tt)AI,U40 
],024,2i6 
8stl,9nT 
W2,iil« 
495,626 
«S6,764 


$'«,IJ05,U2S 


Sept.  ?0,  1M1 »I,n!)1.4S9 

mu S4S,7;7 

183» !  1,649,HI4 

1884 1  ], 102,640 

1888 '  8,016,6113 

1886 1  1,500,689 

1887 1  989,618 

1888 j  1,040,900 

1819 N10,6«0 

1840 1  9li9,98S 

Total....' »13,i)6a,»94 
I 

Sept.  80.  1841 $isO,518 

1S42 
9mos.      1*4h!!!!! 

June  80,  1S44 

1»<45 

i:4« 

184T. 


rt69,:!n 
9117,745 
1,292,752 
7--4,161 
901,*)8 
N36,64l 

1848 2,09,\4S;> 

18»» I      1,047,999 

1850 1,49^,791 

Total....  ♦10,92'M,i>4 

Juno  80,  ia5l '  (1.0l4,iie() 

1882 l,4U«,«7a 

1858 2,829,770 

18,54 2,n91,S70 

1S.VS  2,25.'),8il^ 

1866 1  2,46»,»4a 


(5,619,104 
5,2.16,778 
a,2S6,.')50 
2,361,468 
l,->i)6.5-25 
8,!55 1,691^ 
t22,118,916 

$5,086,729 
2.021.764 
W,75'>,777 
4,072,407 
6,012,609 
4,540,996 
2,940,710 
1.123,191 
1,970,702 
1,84,5,408 
«83,678,2S3" 

»1,1.50,107 

.564,S62 

564,193 

602,0Ml 

BOs,|77 

629,S47 

1,W,7S7 

1.962,951 

1,042,869 

_    5i4,l)38 

»7,4M,909~! 

$567.0M 
878,687 

1,029,084 

l,i)4.1,B1fi  1 
609,4  )R 

1.287,297  I 


Tolal. 

"«M7iM44 
6,2s  1,0,50 
4,t78,2r.7 
2,8S6,4S4 
2,331,151 

4^f'37,15S 

♦20,979,541 

|«,;78,21S 
8,467,541 
5,405,091 
6,26,'i,0,')8 
!),029.22I 
6,041,635 
«,b,s0,823 
2,101,097 
2,787,302 
_2,51,5,841 
|40,7Ti0,S82 

(2,086,020 
l,M4,2.*3 
1,471,9.37 
l,794,8;t8 
1,1.52,381 
l,.58l.lt0 
fl92,42S 
4,0,5f,4.36 
2,090,Mi« 
2,0I2.<27 
|1?,375,693 

(1..5K1,"S8 
2,284,929 
3..\5,S,S24 
3,135.186 
2,922,804 
8,702.239 


Imporln. 


Wbertiof  t)i«r«  WAd  in  UiiUluu 
nnj  SiK-.-if, 


ToDiisffe  Cltfareil. 


Tol.l. 

T»,044,04f 
3,016,198 
8,28', 807 
4,814, 2.')8 
6,020,761 
_  5^235,241 
♦2«,208,972 

1,5,100,745 
4,298,9.51 
,5,4ii,SI8 
8,000,068 
9,490,446 
8,6l.'i,819 
0,6.54,002 
3,,5(H),709 
8,127,153 
4,n,5,(H)l 


(54,542,715 

(8,284,957 

1,995,096 

2,782,400 

2,Ss7.0U2 

1,702,930 

1,880,621 

740,818 

1,.5»1,247 

2,216,719 

_2,135,3M 

♦20,669|768 

(1,804,779 
1,649,206 
2,107,985 
3,403,190 
2,882,880 
8,568,081 


ExLHJTt. 

(T9"9794(l^ 

1,,5«0 

890 

4,880 

4,040 


»211,73tr" 

(24,210 
1,00(1 
1,41') 

8,.S95 


22,73:^ 
4,200 

"  (02,547" 

(6,204 
S.OSI) 

11,825 
0,000 

'1,440 


6,290 

■(4o;43jr 


$1,200 
450 


(13,159,335 

(1,088,998 
l,l)98,»42  I 
1,411,885 
2,825,.334  ' 
1 ,97s,liwl 
2,714,923  I 


Tlii«e 

Up  from  t 

It  will  u 

two  count 

in  the  abn 

activity,  , 

reaching  t 

18.30.     'J'l, 

was  i{i,1,4(; 

a  total  of  ^ 

year  JN40, 

iwrtations 

illustrated 

I'or  a  |)erio( 

included,  tl 

wjis  iji82,24( 

Ca2,()()0,()00 

I  irl,  were  a> 

''IK    apparel 

printed  book 

nitur,    ,urri. 

'on,  eartheni 

and  cutlery, 

'•-•ad,  projiaro 

tur  ^s  of  (lux 

instruments. 

cotton  rank  li 

I'ortatiou  for  ( 

$57,000,000,  V 

comes  next  in 

000,  leaving  o 

the  aggregate 

""'•iln  Into  Ji 

ehaiidise  enter 

Me.\ico  with  I 

"le  year  185],  , 

'he  olllcjal  i„tt| 

"lents  thltlipr  „ 

amounts,  is,  tl 

ulway,i  bu  1,,'oro 

country. 

I'M,Tl,,|l0Tl„f  „„,„,, 

Manafs.  ofsllk... 
,"  cotton , 
„         won), . . 

p  (.'lass.. 

f'f ''vln«»,b'k.,,cl 

Ai-ins ,'_' 

?,'»,""'.  of  niotai."' 

l^b hit  .t  haro'sk's 
''•■■■5.  .t  oil,,  tools 
l)rc9scilskln.«.. 
Ciitliirv 

fisli.plckiuii.'otc" 
-Artlllolal  Uowcrs  & 

fancy  Kooda  . . . 
Spirits  m,\  liqueur; 
Mniiufs.  of  (lax  a„,| 

lii'mp 

Jim  iinportatio 
pnncipally  of  lin, 
creas,  etc.,  etc.  ;  t 
''ties,  some  chini 
cloths,  cassimeres 
■"on  hardware,  an 

'J'lie  quantities  o 
Bromen  to  Vera  Ci 
designated,  were  n; 

(     _  Xlula  oriiu, 

Slleslan. . 

Cre.ij. . . , ," 

Kuancs .'.'.[ 

I'rotatias. .  * 

l-stoplllaa..'] 
iistaUos.,.. 
f*»n«bniok 
''ascrlllas. . . 
f 'nnaniaiofi. . 
Cities. 


MEX 


1S8« 


MEX 


■,.||!n.    I 

%\a 

4,719 
3>'>1J 

10,019    I 

4,».'>9    1 

11,1«9 
4,r.s3    \ 

4,01s  i 

'l.VK>    I 

r.,c/io  I 
auw  ' 

"00,914 

4.9;«  i 

1,'Bll    1 
2,rt60 

1,804 
4,fiOO    ' 

4,M« 
10.140 

05,714    ■ 

20.146 
1T,974 
15,804 
15,173 
10.428 
7.106 


This  exhibit  may  Im  rnlied  upon,  having  been  niRile 
up  from  olHc'Iul  repi)rtn on  "  (,'uinmrice  utiJ  yarigatiou," 
It  will  be  periwlvc  I  timt  the  commerco  b  'ween  the 
twi)  ((Miiitrlu!!  Ui'crciiSBil  ilurini^  tlio  110  yoni .  onibrnced 
In  tho  ab«vo  tuUk.  InlNiM  ituxprrloncodcontidorublu 
activity,  exuucdin);  in  vuluu  tho  totuU  of  lH.'iO,  but  not 
reuiJiinK  thuao  of  IMlO,  and  still  furtlier  iielo  tr  those  of 
18110.  Tho  viilu3  of  iuipDi'ts  In  IHM,  us  already  Kiven, 
wan  iiia,4C3,li)0 ;  and  of  exportit,  i|ia,lilA,'i'<() ;  inultinK 
a  total  of  iii(!,&U8,i;7(i — Wmg  ^Ulfidli  less  than  for  tho 
yuar  1N40,  and  itl>,474,023  less  than  for  IMIO.  Tlie  lin- 
|>ortationH  from  trei  t  ilritain  into  Mexico  may  bo 
illuittrated  from  a  report  made  by  order  of  I'arlianient, 
Fur  n  period  of  tivun  ye'irs,  from  1840  to  184)!,  both 
Included,  t^.'     i'    .  1  f  the  value  of  the  Imports 

was  i{i8'.','.'IO,7Uu,  nial^  '  ,  an  average  value  of  nearly 
012,1)00,(100  per  annum.  Tho  principal  urticlos  of  ini- 
|>  irt  were  as  follows  ;  drugs,  haberdashery,  and  wenr- 
iii^  apparel,  arms  an  I  ammunition,  nmit  lii|Uors, 
printed  liouk.  manufactures  of  brass  and  copper,  fur- 
niton  carri  s,  coaln,  coribigc,  manufactures  of  cot- 
tun,  earthenware  uf  all  kinds,  glixna  wares,  hurdwaro 
and  cutlery,  hats,  on  and  steel  in  bars,  nianufai  turcd 
lead,  prepared  skii  harnesses  and  saddles,  manufac- 
tures of  llax,  machinery  and  machines,  and  musical 
instrunu'nts.  Of  tlicso  articles,  the  manufactures  of 
cotton  rank  )ii„'lie8t ;  the  estimated  value  of  the  ini- 
)iortation  for  tlic  seven  years  amountiu);  to  more  than 
$57,000,000,  w  liilo  that  of  manufactures  of  linen  (which 
comes  next  in  order  of  value)  wa.i  more  tlum  i*12,000,- 
000,  leaving  only  some  $1-.',000,000  or  4!ia,000,000  as 
the  aggregate  value  of  all  the  other  imports  from  Great 
Urit:iin  into  Mexico.  Tho  clmractor  and  value  of  mer- 
chandise entering  into  the  coKnnercial  movement  of 
Mexico  with  I'lancr  may  bo  exomplilled  by  those  of 
the  year  1851,  us  exiiibitod  from  tlie  data  furnished  by 
tlic  ullicial  letiirns  of  I'r  nice.  Tho  reason  of  the  ship- 
ments tliltlie'-  of  the  p  uious  metals  being  in  so  small 
amounts,  is,  th:tt  tlie  exchange  with  Knglaud  can 
always  bo  more  conveniently  arranged  than  with  that 
country. 

I>eiicriptlon  of  meKlt.  Vuluei. 

P-rfT.iery t4i!,057 

I'rccloiis  stones 4ii,000 

:  Clocks  and  watches.  89,94.') 

'  Carriages,  etc 82,6:10 

.  wolry 85,M3 

I'urnlture 82,591 

I  Maclilnos    and    nia- 

]      cliliiory  26,541 

I  Musical  iuatruuients.  23,00* 

Stoailnooll 21,675 

'  Medicines 19,S07 

Iron  and  steel 19.747 

Prepared  skins 1!>,29S 

I  811k  (raw  &  maiiuf.).  IS.MU 

'  Toys ].'.,073 

Ollvcol! 1,3,976 

I  Umbrellas  and  para- 
sols, silk 13,,525 

1  Sundries 221,000 

Tho  importation  to  Me..ico  from  Germany  consists 
principally  of  linen  textures,  such  as  Silesian  linen, 
creas,  etc.,  etc.  j  tu  wliicli  are  added,  '.n  smaller  nuan- 
tities,  some  chintzes,  muslins,  silk  hnndkerciiiefs, 
cloths,  cassimeres,  crystals  plain  glass,  fine  and  com- 
mon hardware,  arms,  can'   .;  'i  furniture,  and  pianos. 

Tho  quantities  of  linen  e.v ,  urted  from  Hamburg  and 
Bremen  to  Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico,  during  the  years 
designated,  were  as  follow  s : 


DesfHnOoii  of  mrrch. 

Valu.." 

Manukofsllk tl.'.'i    ,.,J 

"        cotton . . 

6-i     ... 

"         wool 

62.'.,  ■  ■• 

"        jrlais. . . . 

82^,'.-l 

£ii!.'ravlnj,'s,b'ks,cto 

27S.O0." 

Wines 

24  ,i'.li3 

2:11     19 

Manl's.  of  metal 

l7..,s->0 

llaln'Wlaslicry,  etc 

120..149 

ItabMt  &  hare  sk's. 

604,210 

Me.'h.  .fc  olh.  tools. 

103,1110 

Prvs.fcd  skins 

67,017 

Cutl.^rv 

^6.K61 

Fish,  pickled,  etc.. 

6.MW6 

Artificial  flowers  & 

fancy  ^oods 

47.  10 

Spirits  anil  liqueurs 
Mnnul's.  of  flax  and 

47,.  M 

Lomp 

45,021 

Klndioriiuon. 

1839. 

I»40. 

1841.      j 

I'loffs. 

.'jaceK. 

rlrr,... 

110,220 

6!Ma8 

20,754 

1,1.55 

52,854  ' 
19,654  ; 
1,470  ! 

Creas 

20,.'>«6 

Ruancs 

1,073 

Brotailos 

12,795 

11,0>2 

4,160  : 

Kstoplllas 

7,177 

7,1.50 

6,S'88 

Llstados 

7,508 

10,442 

2,3i5  ' 

Osnftbmck...                   

4,940 

1,040 

1ft) 

Ca^crlllas 

10,852 

4,104 

20;) 

Cananiazos. 

8,885 

1,164 

l,8.-i(l 

Cotles 

753 

1,960 

1,559 

STATmr.nT  iiiowixo  tiir  \'\i.vm  ov  Impoiit.!  rmm  Hau. 
uriui  ASH  lliiKMKN  i«o  ruK  I'liHTs  or  Vkra  ('in'» 
Axn  Tampico,  witu  tmi  Ncmd»rs  or   VKsania  «»• 

UAIiHD  IIUKINU   TIIK   YtAIUI  SPKCiriltll. 


Y»n. 

llwitliiirir. 

111  vvut'U  from 
lirniui'll.        Bulb  fvrta. 

V«lii**nfniprrh 

M  piT  iiin.t..e. 

1887 

1888 

1H30 

1840 

1841 

10 
11 
11 
14 

la 

6 
S 
6 
4 

1 

'i 

$I,466,INI0 
1,7(W,000 
l,070,«flO 
1,750.IMK) 
1,48^2IHI 

Aggrexato.. , . 

♦8,432,000 
~   ],«86,4U0 

Av.  an' lvalue 

Statitmknt  KxniniTiMi  Tim  amocst  op  Import  Ditiks 
coiircTKn  at  Tim  Pout  or  Vfra  (Jrui  ouhiso  tii<< 
Jour  1  ears  kniiinu  with  18M,  as  oompilvd  raou  tik 

CisTOM-llousK  Hooks  op  that  Port. 


YmK.        I 

IWI... 
18.53... 
1858... 
1854... 


T.rlir.  _ 
I       rilrilnrt. 

1,0.54,888  87 

'2,91.5,.5»1  30 

2,484,723  0,8 

'i,5»8,ll3ll  74 

i\Ki;reg'o,9,018,839  68 


ATerU  liiipoin.  1   Mola  Im.  T.irnli. 

Ili.|llir».  I      niillnri.  iMi.tr». 

4.35,012  14  110,007  13  2,Mo,on7  (ul 
200,988  40  !  100,548  88  R.2,;8.128  121 
242.670  82  ,  l'i4,770  95  2,8iii,17i)  8nl 
'278,514  04  ,  114,4-9  27|  2,9M,lU0  95| 
1,15S(I02  .'10  4.56,415  6811,f,2V.-47  56; 
Average.  2. l78,8iU  89t^81Mi'28  ()7tJ^14,108  02  2,8si,9(H  8(i{ 

The  foregoing  is  oxchisivo  of  city  and  hospital  con- 
tributions, and  iiitfrnnciun,  or  internal  duty,  levied 
upon  tlio  samo  gooil.s  when  dispatched  to  tho  interior. 

Tlio  commerce  of  Mexico  is  contined  to  tlie  reception 
of  foreign  goods  sulFicient  for  the  necessities  or  luxiirv 
of  a  very  sinall  class  of  tho  population,  for  which  is 
given  in  exdiange  a  largo  portion  of  the  jirodiicts  of 
tho  mines,  and  some  few  products  of  tlie  soil.  As  the 
yield  of  the  mines  is  estimated  only  at  $2(;,0()0,(I00  an- 
nually, the  amount  of  commerce  can  not  much  exceed 
that  sum.  The  total  number  of  Mexican  merchant 
vessels,  all  of  whicli  are  small,  does  not  exceed  50,  and 
of  these  more  than  half  belong  to  the  merchants  of 
Yucatan. 

The  following  account  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of 
the  republic  for  tho  year  1851-52  is  compiled  from 
tho  olllcial  returns : 


Torn. 


Tol.1.    ! 
Toiuuife.  I 


ArHve.1.  I  Depftrteil, 


Vera  Cruz 28.208 

Tampico 7,704 

Campcncliy ' 6,1)112 

Si  111 4.'2:19 

Tabasco 8,789 

Acopulco ,  llil,380 

Maiizanlllu '  1.402 

.  ..    "las I  3ij,321 

Mazatlan '  10,762 


Altata. 

Ouayamas. 

Total.. 


1,158 

4,8:16 

266,692 


1,429 

178 

4,976 

43 

SI 

81,212 

11 

4,803 

5,095 

81 

J18_ 

48,816 


1,840  I 

126  I 

1  I 

95 

21 

28,640  I 

4,9'io 
6,000 

9 

85J 

4(MMj 


Of  the  vessels  arriving,  C8  belonged  tn  Mexico,  4H5 
to  the  United  .States,  108  to  Kngland,  C'J  to  France, 
CO  to  Spain,  13  to  Hamburg,  24  to  Peru,  5  to  lielgium, 
8  to  liremen,  an.l  1  each  to  Portugal,  Nicaragua, 
Sweden,  Hanover,  and  Venezuela. 

Among  tho  arrivals  were  219  steamers,  viz.,  115  at 
Aeapulco,  7  at  Vera  Cruz,  4  at  Tampico,  27  nt  .San 
Bias,  115  at  JIazatlan,  and  1  at  Guayam;i3.  Of  these, 
145  were  United  States'  vessels. 

Of  the  classes  of  vessels,  beside  steamers,  there  were 
55  frigates  (vessels  of  war),  114  barks,  105  brigs,  (i3 
hermaphrodite  brigs,  155  schooners,  and  (W  pilot  boats. 

The  chief  coasting  trade  of  the  republic,  on  tho 
Gulf  of  Jrexico,  is  performed  by  schooners  between 
Tampico,  Tuspan,  Sisal,  Campeche,  Tabasco,  Minntit- 
lan,  Alvarado,  and  TIacotalpan.  For  this  trade,  a  few 
vessels  exist  of  about  a  hundred  tons  burden,  built  at 
Campeche,  and  are  equal  to  American  ves.sels  of  like 
qiialitv  in  respect  to  capacity,  sailing  properties,  and 
durability.  National  vessels  make  voyages  only  to 
the  port.s  of  New  Orleans  and  Cuba  ;  and  in  the  year 
1852  only  seven  sail  were  thus  employed,  and  the 
amount  of  coasting  in  the  same  time  was  very  sinall. 
There  appears  to  be  no  increase  in  this  trade,  nor  in 
tho  building  of  vessels.     Tho  commerce  with  foreigu 


MEX 


18S0 


MfC 


eountrlea  Is  ro|M)rteJ  recontly  to  lu^  ■  '?^cr«ain>il  i  mul 
with  tlie  United  Htatt.^,  In  |iHrtleul,>r,  I  -  ^''>  on  the  ili>- 
cllnn.  The  ciiu«e  nf  thin  chttng"  !•.  i'  »  'jlered  to  Im 
th»  hl)(h  rntos  cif  iIiitlrH,  hoth  on  importH  unit  I'xpnrtii, 
anil  th«  uililltliinni  <'hiir)(i's,  liii^iil  iii  woll  as  internal. 
It  U  known  that  Ihn  hitn  I'rc.iiili'nt  of  ]\tpxic'(>  (Nantit 
Anna),  n  nhnrt  tinio  lial'oro  hlH  uliilicntlon,  hiul  ^'nintuil 
prlvilpgPK  ami  i<|iO(lal  ionceK»lonn  to  oortiiin  Kuni|Mian 
hoiidcn  for  tho  Introcluc linn  of  foreln"  niorrhandi^n  on 
tho  I'ui'lllo  I'oaot,  lit  from  'Jo  to  110  per  mnt.  lo»«  than 
thn  refjuliir  ImpoHt  t.y  tht>  pntahll.ihvd  tarirt'.     An  thin 


for  «nt«rln((  «nd  clanring,  $H  ftO  j  pilotage,  olthf-r  way, 
per  foot,  ♦'i  So  ;  pllot-hoat,  with  four  or  nix  oarn,  tS  j 
hllln  of  hoiillh,  If  mpilri'd,  #4  ;  to  ("on'od  of  ronntrj" 
whern  drstlni'd,  ft  i  vinit  of  health  odIcHr,  fi'i.  Wharf. 
nxB  and  nuinhlpal  dn«n  aro  very  ln'<i^rnlll('ant.  The 
nionoyn,  wclxhtn,  and  meanuren.  In  o^-e  In  Mexico,  am 
tlio  name  an  thine  of  Hpaln.  At  tli  pnrt  .'f 'I'aniplro, 
the  diien  and  clmrnQH  ore  quite  the  naiip  n  at  Vera 
Ouz.     Ilonpltal  duen  at  the  former  port  arc  ♦10. 

Tnriff  Ww/n ' ''iVinn.— The  tariff  ri'mdatlonn  of  Mex- 
ico have  lieen  nuhjeot  to  frequent  cliangpn  of  late.    'I'lio 


Involved  a  palpuldo  violiilion  of  the  treaty  lietweeir  I  rates  entaldlnhed  by  the  tarilVii  of  INir),  IM.W,  and  IH.Iil, 
tho  I'nlted  Mtaten  and  Mexico,  the  An.erlcan  mlnUter  |  will  ho  found  in  the  (hmjmrntiiv  Tariffn  Isnued  liy  thii 
to  that  country,  under  date  of  April  ll>,  IH.W,  protented  '  State  department,  I'art  11.  The  detalln  of  the  tariff 
against  nuch  prlvlletfen  and  npecli.l  concennionn.  Un-  '  of  Januarj'  ;il,  IHW),  are  as  follown  : 
dcr  niieh  a  syntom,  American  merc'mntn  were  rednceil  IJhnryes  <,n  ]'v>aeh. — TonnaK"!  'S'l  per  ton  ;  free  of 
to  the  uecennity  of  witueiwin({  the  proijiicts  of  tho  Unit-  tonnnge,  If  In  hull  t  to  load  loj^wood,  npecic,  etc.  j  or 
cil  Stuten  contriliUtinK  to  the  rortumw  of  l.uropoan  If  lirlnjjinn  eoal  forilic  Mexican  deponltn;  or  If  only 
merchuntn ;  while  they  were  denied  the  rl)(ht,  notwith- '  lirhiKln);  passeuners  or  mails. 

standing;  treaty  stipulationn,  of  iniportlni;  .similar  mer-  J'mhiliiliniu, — llraudy,  of  sugar-cane  ;  and  all  oilier 
rliandine  on  tho  name  terms,  under  a  penalty  of  uonlis-  except  that  made  ont  of  (;rape — excepting;  ^i'li  fimi, 
cation,  and  a  lino  to  the  extent  of  the  market  value  of  and  olliern  nameil  in  tli>'  tariff,  in  liottlen,  or  jar< ;  nii- 
the  '  ar^iwri  at  the  placid  of  importation.  jcam,  of  nil  kiiidn  ;  rice  ;  Imttons,  with  tho  Mexican  or 

T/if  I'riiiiiiuit  /'I'l/ji  arc  Acaiiulco,  lat.  Hi"  TiO' HO"  foreign  arinn  ;  cofl'ee  ;  wax,  made  up  In  candles;  oli- 
north,  long.  HO'-'  'Hi'  wc»t,  tlio  la  .-t  sea-port  on  tho  scene  pamphlets,  Iiooks,  etc.  ;  flour  of  wheat,  "yiept 
western  coant  of  Mexico,  and  Is  capalde  of  containhi);  at  Acapuico,  Yucatan,  Tampico,  Matamoras,  and  tlie 
n  large  navy  with  perfect  safety.  Tampico,  a  eounlil-  cuntom-liou4eH  of  the  northern  frontier.  Kor  regulu- 
eralile  cummerclnl  I'ort  on  tho  eastern  coast  of  Slexico,  tionn,  see  t'limparnlirc  Tnri'JI'n,  i'art  1 1.  Hoots,  shoes, 
in  lat.  22°  15'  110  '  north,  long.  !)7°  .VJ'  west.  Tho  slippern  of  leather  with  soles  ;  rein-hlltn  and  spurs  of 
shirting  of  the  har  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  Mexican  fashion  ;  hooks  prohiliited  liy  <  ompetent  au- 
shallowness  of  tho  water  on  it,  wlihh  Is  somctlmen  un-  thority  ;  lard,  suliject  to  tho  same  exceptions  (nmittini; 
dcr  8  feet  and  rarely  ftljovol.i feet,  are  serhiusolistaclea  Acapuico)  as  Hour;  saddles,  and  appurtenances  of 
to  tho  growth  of  the  port.  Vessels  that  can  not  enter  Mexican  fashion  ;  playlng-iards,  of  Mexican  fashiim; 
tho  port,  load  and  uaload  liy  means  of  lighters,  moor-  scarfs,  Mexican  fashion,  of  all  kinds ;  speckled  or 
liig  outside  the  liar,  so  that  In  event  of  a  gale  from  the    printed  textures  imltallng  the  same  ;  wheat,  and  all 


north,  they  can  readily  get  to  sea.  Vera  Cruz,  the 
principal  nea-port  on  tho  eastern  coast  of  Mexico,  lat. 
1!)°  11'  «•.'"  north,  long.  WP  H'  If)"  west.  The  har- 
lior  lies  lictween  the.  town  and  tho  island  of  .San  Juan 
do  t'lloa,  aliout  "JlOO  feet  wide  ;  it  is  in-secure,  the  an- 
diorage  being  very  bad,  and  no  vessel  in  safe  unless 
made  fast  to  iron  rings  tlxed  into  the  vt  ill  of  the  castle 
on  the  island,  and  even  then  accidents  sonietiinen  oc- 
cur, (iuaymas,  ii  sea-port  town  of  Souora.  on  tho 
liiilf  of  ('uliforuia,  at  the  mimtli  of  a  loii-ideruMe 
river,  lat.  27°  55'  north,  long.  110°  ]B'  west.  It  is 
neither  large  nor  well  built,  but  its  harbor  is  tho  best 
on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico,  and  it  has  an  active 
anil  increasing  tmde. 

.Viic  I'ort;!  Opin  fur  Foreign  Trmle. — (luaymas,  Ca- 
inargo,  Jlier,  Piedriui-negrtts,  Slonterey,  Laredo,  Ton- 
itiii,  /apaluta,  (iuutzacoalcos,  \a  Ventosa, 

'i'oniHitjti  JJufttH  and  Port  Cfitirgfis  (it  Vera  Cruz. — On 
foreign  ships  and  national  vcsBels  from  foreign  ports, 
per  ton  (tlie  Mexican  ton  is  12  per  cent.  leas  than  that 


kinds  of  grain  and  seeds ;  blankets,  woolen  or  cotton, 
or  mixed,  excepting  coverlets  and  bed-coverings  of 
phpic,  without  seams. 

Aildiliniiiit  Dull/  to  Tariff.— \.  Slmiicliml  dut\' will 
will  be  12J  cents  on  each  package  of  H  arrobas  weight,, 
payable  at  the  time  of  importation.  '1.  For  inipiove- 
ment  of  the  country,  20  per  cent,  on  the  import  iliity. 
3.  Inlernatioiial  duty,  10  per  cent,  on  importation  duty, 
payable  at  tho  time  of  sending  tho  goods  to  the  iiiU'. 
rior.  1.  Contra  reiiitro,  is  20  per  cent,  on  iiiipiirt, 
payable  at  tho  final  place  where  goods  are  sent.  ."i. 
Amortization  duty  of  tho  public  debt  liquidated  and 
consolidated :  this  duly  will  lie25percent.ontheiuiiiort 
duty,  and  lie  jiayablo  in  full  at  the  (ieneral  Treii^iiry 
I  )epartment  of  tlie  nation,  with  lionds  of  the  public  debt 
liquidated  and  eonsoliduted. 

Kj-jHirt  Dull/. — (_)n  coin  and  wrought  gold,  IJ  per 
cent.;  on  coined  silver,  SV  percent.;  on  silver  bars, 
stamped  by  mint,  7  percent.  All  the  remaining  good!', 
products,   and  national  manufactures,    not  specilied. 


of  the  United  Stotes),  $1  50 ;  fees  of  captain  of  tho  ,  may  bo  exported  without  paying  any  duty, 
port,  ii3  50 ;  water  dues  (Mexican  vessels  in  tho  coast-  i  AH  laws,  decrees,  circulars  and  orders,  whicli  are  in 
iiig  trade  pay  OJ  cents  per  ton,  as  water  tax,  but  are  '  condict  witli  this  tariff,  directly  or  indirectly,  will  cease 
exempt  from  tonnage  duty),  12J  cents  ;  stamped  paper  i  immediately  after  jiubllcation  of  the  present  neiv  one. 

ritO  FOKMA    I.SVOICB   I'NDKR  NKW  TaUIFF  OP  JANL'AIIY  filflT,  1S5G. 

irvK^ct o/tfiefolloalng gooiU »Mpped hy  the  tubserlbtr  for ,  Captain toth» eoiiiigmnent 

qf. ,  tnercAuiitt  ofUteporl  of  Vera  Criu  ( Jfiw/co),  whilAer  thta  vemfl  h  bound. 


MatIc*.     Namberi. 

1 

Numtwr  of  1  Oroii  weight 
pockaifi'*,   j       ufcach. 

D«soripti<)o  of 

|l*ckll||M. 

Tolnlnrl  wilghlor 

each  which  |ny 

hy  w«l){hl.' 

ToIhI  mcMi.reincnt 

hv  Ifiijflhof((ooa» 

wIiIbIi  i>Hy  liy  meiw- 

urviiient. 

WlJlh  or  gmiit 

ozccc.llne  Olio 

vnn..* 

Cll(«>  of  KiKMll 
SlWClllcd. 

Value. 

P.  ]tf.U. 

itoio. 

10  (ten). 

1  (onol  quin- 
tal. 

Kales  of 

common 

elze. 

lOO.OWt  (one  hun-'l  (one)  yord. 
drod  thousand) 
yards. 

White 
ordinary 
cotton. 

New  York,  (date.) 
*  100  yoi'ds  English  are  equal  to  100  11-100  Mexican. 


(SIgnoturc). 


In  this  manner  all  invoices  are  to  bo  made  ont,  spe- 
clfying  every  one  of  its  packages.  The  total  number 
of  packages  to  be  speciHed  in  words  also. — Com.  Hela- 
tiotu,  U.  S. 


Michigan,  a  north-western  State  of  tho  republic, 
Ilea  between  lat.  41°  43'  and  48°  north,  and  between 
82°  25'  and  90°  34'  west  from  (ireenwicli,  or  i>'^  24' 
and  13°  33'  weat  from  Washington.     It  consists  of 


two  penli 

fojiiilatioi 

31,li;illi  in 

i'Aytioai 

aoutherii  j 

ovationn  w 

rlur  in  gen 

lakes  to  thi 

giiiii  may  I 

ilOO  letabi 

forests  of  tl 

eastern  shoi 

"I'  ly  file  w 

barren  and  i 

ron  and  .Sag 

'lie  Uiilt.-d 

fowl  and  gai 

'hero  wor 

land  improve 

farms ;  cash  i 

of  Implement 

— ''ornen,    58, 

fl!),fi7(i;  work 

Blit'cp,   7l<;,4;i 

♦8,008, 7.'U. 

^Itfiiii/tura 
ol"!  ryo,  lofl  < 
OM;  barlev,  : 
beans,   7.1,254 

^'"7;  value  0 
I'roduce  of  p,,,, 
made  7,0(;5,8-| 
!f,439,7!)4;    mo 
honey,  ;15!I,2,12 
flax,  7152 ;  sili 
tobacco,  U'lg. 
lfi,!»8U  bushels  i 
'  ■ishcla  I  and  w. 
of  lionie-nmile  n 
animals  ,«i]  ;i2h  : 
Of  the  northi 
"  I'ortiiins  of  it 
scenery  which  p 
portion  of  the  cot 
rivurn,  and  fores 
outline  which  mn 
;i"r  type  of  Nort 
'on  embraces  the 
for  the  Uses  of  n 
»inall  lakes.    Ont 
largo  hays  and  ■ 
aero  have  discov 
ore ;  on  the  south 
of  lofty  bluffs  am 
ni'co  of  ruins,  toll 
J'f'/f.ortlieArchei 
character,  as  are  t 
also  several  plctur 
llio  southern  pi 
several  largo  rive 
Winch,  rising  in  t 
westerly,  and  norti 
fa  and  Huron  Kivt 
"ifo  Detroit  .Strait, 
Strait  of  St.  CJair, 
f'onofTitibttwass^, 
inaw  Hay.      j^ul, 
'"I'o  smaller  strea, 
?»ph,  Grand,  Kalani 
"to  Lake  Michigan 
stocked  with  fish  of 
^nor.     This  State  I 
„."•■  J^rio.  Huron,  JI 
O'Pal  rivers  of  the 
iluron,  Menomonee, 

"«•    The  principal  ij 


MIC 


1357 


MIO 


licli  !>rr  in 
I  new  one. 


I  roimlilici 

1  or  5'^  «' 
tonsista  of 


two  pcnlnaulnn,  and  contalna  50,24.1  aquure   mllea. 

roiiuliitlon  In  lull),  wa«  -U'M ;  in  1H20,  0I4H  ;  In  1N30, 
ai,(i;W  i  in  lH4n,  -Jli/iTt) ;  nnil  In  1H50,  ll«7,0()l. 

I'hgtinil  t'eulurm,  rtc. — Tlui  «urfuc(i  uf  tlio  lower,  or 
noutliiirn  |>*niii»iilii  \»  K«niirii!ly  levul,  ImvinK  fiiw  oU 
uvutiunA  wlilcli  mu3'  lie  ilenuniinutuil  hllln.  The  into- 
rlur  Ih  Kentty  iniiliil»tiii)(,  rlHinK  t^ruilunlly  from  tho 
litkust  tu  the  ccntru  nt'  ilio  ptuiinKtilii,  TIiIk  ivntrM  te- 
kIiiii  mil}'  Ih)  ri>|{»r<l'  ix  ii  titl>li<  land,  vluvuted  nliiiiit 
!IU(M' et  itbovn  til  'f  tliu  litkoH,  covervil  witli  lino 

•".  and  prairli's,     Alon)(  tlii; 
'M  «rt<  mindOiilln,  tlirouii 
.1         fornid  ({•"'"'riiily  quili; 
ing  l)Otn'oon  Ltiko  llu 


«nd  swiimpy.     No  piirt  uf 
«iiT>|>Ued  with  flsh,  ac|Uuti(' 


forrst.1  of  tlnilxM 
oastem  »hoto  of    „(« 
up  liy  tho  wiuils  int 
liiirreri  itiid  naked, 
ron  and  Sagluii>    ' 
tlio  t'niti'd  Still      I 
fowl  and  |{iiin«. 

'IhtTo  wcri',  ih    hi-  '.'lO,  1,929,110  acres  of 

land  iinprovod;  und  res  of  unlmprovod  in 

fariUH;  <a»h  valuoof  t':;  m-i,  ^■''1.S72,I10,  and  tlie  valun 
of  Impli'mi'htu  and  machinery,  iS<'2,H91,!)71.  l.ivo  stock 
— liorses,  5H,50(i  j  asucn  and  muU«,  70 ;  milch  cows, 
99,(!7ti ;  worliing  oxon,  f)5,l)r)0;  other  cattle,  119,171  j 
sheep,  7't(i,-l.'lu ;  swino,  205,817;  valim  of  live  stock, 
*8,OnH,7.'ll. 

AgnculturnlPnHlmts,et(;.—\\\\mt,  1,925,888  bush- 
els! rye,  105,871 ;  Indian  corn,  5,1)11,420;  oats,  2,8(;t!,. 
050;  iiarley,  75,219;  Imckwheut,  172,917;  peas  and 
licana,  74,254;  potatoes,  2,ii59,897 ;  sweet  potatoes, 
1177;  value  of  products  of  tlio  orcliard,  iSlll2,G50; 
produce  of  nuirket  H'lrdcns,  ijl  1,738  ;  ])outids  <  f  Imtter 
made  7,005,878;  of  checiio,  1,011,492;  niaplo  sugar, 
2,439,794;  molasses,  19,823  ({"Hons;  beeswax  and 
honey,  359,232 ;  wool,  pounds  produced,  2,(H3,283 ; 
flax,  7152  ;  siltt  cocoons,  108;  hups,  10,003  pounds;  of 
tobacco,  1245 ;  hay,  tons  of,  404,934  ;  clover  seeds, 
10,989  liushelM  ;  other  grass  seeds,  9285  ;  llax  seed,  519 
'  'islicls  ;  and  were  made,  1054  gallons  of  wine ;  value 
of  hcinie-made  nianufacturos  $340,947 ;  of  slaughtered 
animals  SI, 328, 327. 

Of  tlie  northc'n  jjeninsula,  Mr.  Schiiolcraft  says  :— 
"  Portions  of  it  are  tlie  mere  dcvelopement  of  suldiine 
scenery  wliioh  pertains  to  that  comparatively  elevated 
portion  of  the  continent.  Mountainti  und  lakes,  plains, 
rivars,  and  forests,  spread  over  it  with  a  boldness  of 
outline  which  may  lie  said  to  constitute  almost  a  iiecii- 
liur  ty|)e  of  North  American  Geography.  This  divis- 
ion embraces  the  mineral  regicn.  It  is  of  little  value 
for  tho  uses  of  agriculture.  Tlie  interior  abounds  in 
small  lakes.  On  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior  are  several 
largo  bays  und  good  harbors.  Kccent  explorations 
here  have  discovered  iniinenso  deposits  of  rich  copper 
ore ;  on  the  southern  shore  of  Luke  Superior  is  a  series 
of  lofty  blutl's  and  isolated  rocks,  having  the  appear- 
ance of  ruins,  tottering  walls,  and  caverns.  La  Cha- 
jtdh,  or  the  Arched  liuck,  is  a  beautiful  i-|)ceiinon  of  this 
character,  as  are  the  Pictured  Kocka,  etc.  There  are 
also  several  pictnrestiuo  cascades." 

The  soiitlicrn  peninsula  of  %Iichigan  is  drained  by 
several  largo  rivers  and  numerous  smaller  streams, 
which,  rising  in  tho  interior,  pass  off  in  easterly, 
westerly,  and  northerly  directions  into  tho  lakes.  Rai- 
sin and  Huron  Kivers  tiow  into  Lake  Erie,  liouge  River 
into  Detroit  Strait,  Cllinton  and  lllack  Rivers  into  the 
Strait  of  St.  Clair,  Saginaw  Kiver  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  Titibawasse,  Mint,  and  Cass  Rivers  enters  Sag- 
maw  Bay.  'J'hunder  Hay,  Cbeboigan  River,  and 
some  smaller  streams  fall  into  Lake  lluron.  St,  Jo- 
seph, Urand,  Kalamazoo,  and  Slaskegon  Rivers  flow 
into  Lake  ^lichigan.  Many  small  lakes  of  pure  water, 
stocked  with  lisb  of  fine  quality,  are  found  in  tho  in- 
terior. This  State  borders  on  four  of  the  great  lakes, 
viz.,  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Su|)erior.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  the  upper  peninsula  are  Ontonagon, 
Huron,  Menomonee,  Montreal,  St.  Mary,  Eagle,  Ce- 
dar, White  Fish,  Black,  Sturgeon,  Rapid,  and  Manis- 
tic.     The  principal  islands  are  Urummond,  Sugar,  St. 


IsH. 

l«8J. 

WtT.IIS 

(viii.'igR 

MIT.l.V.I 

7:lT,sin 

,'.^r,  is'j 

C-."J,>-M 

.loaeph,  Bola  Dlunc,  Mackinaw,  Manltnu,  and  ll«aver 
Island,  In  Ukes  Huron  and  Michigan ;  Mo  Royala 
»«d  tho  Apimtles,  in  Lake  Superior. 

Mimiifiiihinii,  r^•.— There  were  In  this  Stato  in  18150, 
15  woolen  faitnries,  with  a ,  aplt.il  of  i|<94,000,  employing 
78  males  and  51  females,  maniifuituring  14I,B7'»  varda 
of  cloth,  valued  at  i»!m,2l2 ;  1  establishment  making  pig 
iron,  with  a  capital  of  i||i|5,imfl,  emploving  25  por-on«, 
priHlucing  000  tuns  of  pig  iron,  etc.,  vaiufl .  l-.'lidBO  | 
03  establishments  with  a  capital  of  iHOS...).  ■■•'■\:  ilag 
i.J7  pjrsons,  and  making  2070  tona  '  (  ,•!;;:,<  '..;.„, 
valued  at  i«279,i '17 ;  231  tliiuring  •  .  m  •.  ,.,ii;<,  <I77 
saw  mills,  45  tanneries;  57  print        .  ».•>  ii'/». 

papora,  8  daily,  2  aeml-wi-cldy,  -i;  weekly,  i  scnii- 
inonthly,  ami  3  monthly  piiblicationH.  Aggreg.ito 
number  of  copies  iiuldished,  3,247,730,  Capital  In- 
vested  in  manufactiire-*,  ♦5,701,045;  value  of  manu- 
factured articles,  41(1, 107,285,  There  wore,  .lanuary, 
18,50,  590  miles  of  railroad  In  operation. 

The  principal  places  in  the  State  an  Detroit,  the 
metropolis,  Monroe,  .\nn  Arbor,  Vpsiiaiiti,  Adrian, 
.lackson,  Marshall,  Kalamazisi.  I.aii^lng,  tho  capital, 
St,  .losephs,  Mackinac,  Grand  Haven,  and  Sault  .St. 
.Marie,  There  were  in  185.1,  0  banks  and  1  branch, 
with  an  oggregate  capitiil  of  .♦1,084,718.  Experts 
(^1852)  In  American  vesscN,  of  domesti.  prtMluce,  to 
the  value  of  iJlOO.lSO  ;  in  I'orr.ign  vessels,  t31,9;iOr  of 
foreign  produce  in  \inerican  vessels,  .f  I.'IW  ;  in  fon'ign 
vessels,  48448,  Total  value,  .tl4.'>,l42.  Imports  in 
American  vessels,  ijl91,970;  foreign  vessels,  iji42fl4. 
Total  value,  ?190,2I0.     Tonnage,  1853,  4,591,284. 

The  shipments  from  Detroit  were  as  follows : 

Flour bills. 

Wliint bush. 

Imllan  corn '* 

Whilr  I'itih. — One  of  the  largest  and  moat  impoUant 
items  in  the  commeri'e  of  Detroit,  is  the  trade  in  white 
Hsh.  Ei-oni  the  head  of  Lake  Erie  to  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior,  including  Lake  Michigan,  dining  the  tall 
and  spring  months,  tho  llslierics  form  an  important 
branch  of  our  western  comuiene.  Hut  proliiilily  there 
is  no  ]dace  of  the  .same  area  along  our  lakes  and  rivers 
which  is  so  valuable  in  this  particular,  as  the  rivor 
contiguous  to  this  city.  Eroni  I'ightiiig  Island,  t.i  the 
northern  point  of  Helle  Isle,  a  distance  of  17  miles, 
there  Is  (uie  complete  lishery,  from  which  lar;,'e  num- 
bers of  Hsh  are  yearly  taken.  The  cost  of  taking  tlieni, 
when  the  run  is  line,  is  very  light,  and  i'sheriiien  realize 
largo  profits.  They  are  known  through  all  the  States, 
and  are  esteemed  among  the  diolccst  delicacies  to  be 
had  in  any  market,  Tho  large  demand  creates  a  corres- 
jionding  valuation,  and  in  every  city  they  have  become 
the  iiist  brand  of  lisii  sought.  The  river  tish  arc  gen- 
erally larger,  fatter,  and  better  Havered  than  those  of 
the  lakes,  and  are,  therefore,  always  in  greater  de- 
manil,  and  always  command  better  prices.  In  New 
York,  llostun.  Now  Orleans,  and  even  San  Francisco, 
tho  Detroit  Kiver  « liite  Hsh  are  eagerly  sought  for. 

The  season  of  1855  was  a  remarkably  good  one.  At 
the  fisheries  (about  50  in  number),  between  Fighting 
Island  and  Helle  Isle,  over  7000  barrels,  or  home 
700,000  lish,  have  been  taken.  About  half  of  theso 
have  been  sold  fresh,  at  an  average  of  11  cents  each, 
bringing  in  a  revenue  of  SliSSO.  The  remaining  por- 
tions are  mostly  held  by  tho  fishermen  until  naviga- 
tion shall  o|icn  to  them  the  southern  and  eastern  trade. 
Theso  3500  barrels,  when  sold,  will  nett  the  holders 
about  1*30,000,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  $8  or  ^'9  per 
barrel.  From  the  fislicries  upon  Hello  Isle  ubioit  7000 
lish  were  'iken,  a  majority  of  which  were  sold  fresh. 
Tile  remuindcr  of  them  were  caught  below  tho  city, 
moslly  upon  the  American  side  of  tlie  river. 

The  method  of  catching  fisli  hero  in  the  river  differs 
somewhat  from  the  means  adopted  fur  lake  fishing. 
There  gill-nets  are  the  principal  agency  employed, 
while  seines  are  the  iustrumcuts  here  used. 


i 


M  i 


I 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


12.8 


m  m 


■  2.2 


u 


^ 


|l.25  ||U    IJ4 

^ 

6"     

► 

fliotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SN 

(716)  •72-4S03 


\:  -.r.'^-.i 


j|i::5'v; 


O^ 


MIC 


1368 


m 


The  number  of  barrels  caught  annually  in  the  lake 
fisheries  is  nearly  as  follows : 


BUi. 


Lake  Bnperlor, 8,000 

Lake  Mlohlgmu. 1^000 

Uko  Huron li,000 


IskeErle 8,000 

DetMlt  Blyer 7,000 

ToUl B?!oO 

These  are  sold  at  an  average  price  of  $11  per  barrel, 
the  aKgregato  amount  of  sales  being  $462,000,  or  nearly 
$500,000.  Probably  one  sixth  of  all  the  fish  cauglit 
in  Lalics  Michigan,  Huron,  and  Superior,  are  trout ; 
the  remainder  being  irhite  fish.  They  are  commonly 
caught  by  gill-nets,  set  some  10  miles  distant  from  the 
shore.  Large  quantities  of  the  fish  are  talcen  trom 
the  Detroit  Klver,  which  they  ascend  from  I<ake  Erie 
to  spawn.  On  their  return  to  the  lake  they  are  cap- 
tured. The  number  of  fisheries  in  the  river  is  60. 
In  some  of  the  rivers  that  How  Into  the  lakes,  enor- 


mous quantities  of  pickerel  are  caught.  Kot  less  than 
1000  barrels  are  taken  annually  from  Fox  River,  Wis> 
consln ;  ftom  Saginaw  River,  Michigan,  IfiOO  iiarrsls  | 
St.  Clair  River,  Michigan,  1500  ;  Maumea  River, 
Ohio,  8000  barrels,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  bass,  mul. 
let,  etc.,  making  a  total  of  10,000  barrels,  which  are 
sold  for  $8  60  per  barrel,  or  $86,000  in  the  aggreguto, 
The  annual  product  of  the  lakes  and  tributary  riven 
is  thus  shown : 


The  Lakes 8S,000 

DetroltBlver 7,000 

Otberrivers. 10,000 

Total 69,000 


Vslu, 
|IWft,000 
77,000 
8fi,000 

|M7,000 


&ie  Hunt's  Mag.,  vi., 
LiAMs),  xxii.,  181. 


xix.,  19  (J.  B.  Wiu 


FoBiiOM  CoHHiRca  or  Tua  State  or  HioinOAN,  mom  Ociobxb  1,  1820 

,  TO  JULT  1,  1866. 

Yean  fnjlug 

KiporU. 

ImporU. 

Tonniig. 

Olearwl, 

Dlitriot  Tfmiume,        1 

DODMIUO. 

roralan. 

Total. 

Total. 

American. 

Foralgn. 

RagltMrad. 

Enrulle4  mm) 
Ucanibil, 

Buptao,  lt«21 

168,290 

.... 

$58,290 

$29,076 

802 

UU4 

18M 

694 

.... 

694 

18,377 

■    •  .  . 

18« 

1,010 

1,010 

2,169 

.... 

•    ... 

'           1844 

.... 

.... 

1,886 

.... 

1826 

.... 

.  •  .  . 

^69e 

.... 

.... 

.    1846 

1,320 

1,820 

8,774 

.... 

.... 

1847 

.... 

.... 

.  ..• 

8,440 

.... 

1889 

.... 

.... 

.... 

9,967 

■ ... 

1380 

Total 

1,588 



1,688 

91,816 

60 



.... 

.    .    ,, 

^7,902 

.... 

$67,902 

$88,679 

60 

••.. 

SoptSO,  1881 

«ia,892 

.... 

$12,892 

$27,299 

48 

.... 

1.903 

1882 

9,234 

.... 

9,284 

22,648 

.... 

1838 

9,054 

.... 

9,064 

68,876 

644 

210 

1884 

36,021 

36,021 

106,202 

2,707 

216 

■  •• . 

1886 

68,480 

$1,3S0 

64.830 

130,629 

1,680 

629 

1886 

57,1SI 

4,050 

61,281 

602,287 

760 

803 

1887 

69,790 

.  .  .  ■ 

69,790 

1,879 

8,268 

1 1. 

1888 

126,660 

•  •  •  • 

12.\660 

256,662 

1,480 

1,548 

'ft 

1889 

133,805 

138,805 

176,221 

3,708 

1,986 

1840 

162,229 

162,229 

138,610 

4,786 

6,870 

Total 

(678,840 

$6,400 

$683,746 

$1,424,434 

17,787 

14,964 

.... 

Sept  80,  1841 

188,529 

$Sa629 

-  $137,800 

875 

4,734 

11.531 

1843 

262,229 

262,229 

80,784 

1,714 

4,640 

Bmoa.,     1848 

262,904 

262,994 

76,370 

439 

1,507 

June  30,  1844 

298,901 

293,901 

120,673 

18 

^7,'57 

1846 

261,220 

251,220 

41,952 

1,807 

8,542 

1846 

251,890 

261,890 

154.928 

MO 

27,920 

1847 

93,795 

98,705 

87,603 

410 

86,171 

1848 

111,194 

«4«1 

111,686 

115,760 

180,800 

87,614 

1849 

127,844 

5,007 

182,861 

99,141 

»l,019 

90,606 

1860 

ToUI 

182,045 

182,045 

144,102 

7,982 

46,719 

$1,875,641 

$6,448 

$1,881,089 

$1,008,118 

228,634 

314,209 

.... 

June  30,  1S61 

$183,448 

$7,978 

$191,426 

$182,146 

7,266 

A109 

4i,m 

1852 

182,866 

12,786 

145,152 

196,240 

4,884 

65,097 

1868 

295,809 

67,876 

8.58,686 

211,280 

8,005 

71,928 

.  •  •  ■ 

■    1854 

405,131 

29,814 

48  (,496 

904,286 

9,405 

22,790 

.... 

1865 

620,826 

41,266 

668,091 

281,879 

24,415 

88,196 

•trt 

1856 

89,%624 

85,404 

031,028 

830,668 

22,072 

27,128 

■     .,.. 

The  principnl  port  is  Detroit,  a  large  and  flourisliing 
city  on  the  Detroit  River,  opposite  Windsor,  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Great  Western  (Canada)  Railroad,  which 
here  connects  by  ferry  with  the  Michigan  Central 
Railroad,  together  forming  a  convenient  line  between 
Niagara  and  Chicago.  It  is  also  tlie  south-western  ter- 
minus of  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee  Railroad ;  and  a 
lino  (tho  Detroit  and  Toledo  Railroad)  ia  now  in  prog- 
ress to  connect  wi^h  the  railroads  centering  at  Toledo. 
It  hu9  one  of  the  rincst  harlwrs  !n  the  United  States, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  for  commerce.  It  has  also 
extensive  manufactures,  chiefly  machinerj*,  agricul- 
tural implements,  etc.,  and  a  large  trade  in  lumber. 
On  the  wliole,  it  is  a  most  flourishing  place,  and  ranks 
as  the  first  city  of  the  State.  Population  in  18B5, 
50,448.  Detroit  was  founded  in  1700  by  tho  French, 
and  was  for  many  years  the  .State  capital.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago  it  had  only  2000  inhabitants.  Tiie  ton- 
nage' of  Detroit  in  1856  was  68,688  tons. 

Pitrl  Huron. — A  town  at  the  mouth  of  Black  River, 
on  the  St.  Clair,  and  two  miles  south  of  Lake  Huron. 
It  has  a  large  lumber  business  and  fine  general  trade. 


Microscopes.  Invented  nearly  at  the  sanu-  tlnia 
in  Italy  and  Holland,  A.  D.  1621.  Those  with  iluiililo 
glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of  ru- 
fraction  was  discovered,  about  1624.  The  honor  of  this 
invention  is  awarded  to  Drebel  and  Torrleelli.  Solor 
microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In  ICii- 
gland,  great  improvements  were  made  in  tho  mit'ro. 
scope  by  Henry  Baker,  F.R.S.,  who  wrote  two  treat- 
ises  upon  it  about  1768. — Biog.  Diet. 

Mile  (Lat.  mille  pasauum,  a  thousand  paces).  Tha 
Roman  pace  being  five  feet,  and  a  Roman  font  being 
equal  to  11 '62  modem  English  inches,  it  follows  tliitt 
the  ancient  Roman  mile  was  equivalent  to  1614  Kn- 
glish  yards,  or  very  nearly  ll-12tbs  of  an  Kngllsh  stilt' 
ute  mile.  Tho  English  statute  mile  was  deliiieil  (lnci< 
dentally,  it  would  seem)  by  an  act  passed  in  tlin  Il5(li 
year  of  tlie  reign  of  Queen  Klizabeth,  by  which  persons 
were  forbidden  to  build  within  tliree  milet  of  London  | 
and  the  mile  was  declared  to  be  8  furlongs  of  40  perch- 
es of  16}  feet  each.  The  statute  mile  is,  therefuro,  17(10 
yards,  or  6280  feet.     See  Weights  and  MB.'sunRU. 

The  mile  is  used  as  an  itinerary  measure  in  almosi 


All 

friia; 


m 


MIL 


13S0 


MIN 


1«M  thiin 

iver,  Wl». 
)  >iarr«U| 
ee  Rlvar, 
baia,  muU 
which  are 

tar)'  rlvari 

V.liii. 

)ga\ouo 

TT.IKM) 
8P,(M0 

|M7,UW 

I.  B.  Wiu 


Tftnmige, 


KnrulUil  Mid 
Licalileil, 


m 


11,594 


41,174 


he  siimc  timn 
with  ch)ul)lo 
he  hiw  of  ri>- 
honor  of  this 
■icellt.  Mat 
[)ke.  In  Ki»' 
in  the  micro, 
ito  two  treat- 

pncos),  Tha 
un  foot  bolnR 
fullowA  that 
to  Kill  Kn- 
KnKll"''  *'"*' 
dellneil  (Im^l- 
jd  in  tho  llfttll 
whi<'h  (leraon* 
PS  of  London  | 
;8  of  -1(1  porch- 
therefore,  17(10 

MKAaDRRM. 

are  in  ftlmort 


tit  cotintriM  of  Europe,  particularly  those  which  were 
ftirmitrl)>  under  the  sway  of  the  Komans ;  but  it  is  very 
dlAli'iilt  to  conjecture  the  cause  which  has  given  rise 
to  tl<e  ureat  diversity  of  its  values.  It  haa  been  sup. 
noted  tfiiit  In  some  countries  the  Roman  mile  was  con- 
rounded  with  the  ancient  Celtic  league.  The  following 
table  shows  tho  length,  in  statute  miles  of  1760  yards, 
of  the  mn<lern  mile,  and  also  the  leagues  of  various 
countries  In  Kngllsh  yards : 

*  Mit,a  or  DirrMEira  Nations. 

.     .  billih  T'da. 

Aritblanmlle 1,144 

l»Uc<llilgi 10,187 

trsbsnt 


Ihlliese  flls 698 

Istilah  uillo 8,244 

CtlKllth 1,760 

iHl^lliih  UteoK.) S,08S 

Bnv.  I  Mo)). )  leagues . ,  6,070 

^lelilliill 6,869 

,  ff eni^h  art,  leagues. . ,  4,860 

"     nmrlno  "   ...  6,076 
"      teiial  leagues, 

of  8,000  tolsea 4,268 

Osrinnu  ndlcs  (geug.).  8,100 

"           "     (lonij),,  10,126 

"          "     (short)  6,8S» 

ttamtiurgulle 8,244 

llaoovcr. ,,, ii,r>6» 

lleMe 10,MT 

ItHtcl 0,896 


Eogllih  ;>d>. 

Irlshmtle 8,038 

Italian 2,025 

Lithuanian 9,7S4 

Oldenburg ; . . .  10,820 

Persian  Pa-asanx. 0,080 

Polish  (Short  mile) . . .  6,095 

"      (longmllo)....  8,101 

PortUKiieso  leguos...  6,760 

Prussian  mile 8,468 

Boinau  (ancient) 1,618 

"       (modern) 2,035 

Russian  versts. 1,167 

Saxonmlle. 9,906 

Scotch 1,984 

Blloslan 7,083 

Bpanlsb  loguas,  legal. .  4,630 

"           "      com..  7,416 

Buatlsnmlle 10,126 

Bwedlsb 11,704 

Swiss 9,160 

Turkey  berries 1 ,821 

Wostphallan  mile. . . .  12,166 


llungsriau 9,lia 

Mllford-Haven,  a  harbor  of  England,  on  a  basin 
or  deep  Inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  coast  of  South 
Wales,  county  Pembroke,  forming  one  of  the  htst  ports 
III  tile  Mrltlsh  dominions,  Latitude  of  St.  Anne's 
Heads,  the  north-western  extremit}'  of  the  entrance, 
and  nn  which  are  three  light-houses,  with  fixed  lights, 
Sie  41'  N.,  long.  B0°  W2a"  W,  Length  of  haven 
about  16  miles  t  average  breadth,  2  miles.  It  is  com- 
(iktely  land-locked,  has  deep  water,  and  the  whole 
shipping  of  the  empire  might  ride  here  as  safely  as  in 
tindk,  In  any  weather ;  wliile  the  access  is  easy,  and 
th«  «gross  can  be  accomplished,  by  aid  of  the  strong 
••lib,  «veli  In  head  winds.  It  has  for  some  tinio  been  a 
favorite  scheme  with  the  southern  States  to  have  a  line 
of  Btvamers  between  this  port  and  Norfolk,  Virginia, 
and  tlii<reby  secure  a  portion  of  the  importing  and  car- 
fyltitf  trade  now  absorbed  by  the  ports  of  New  York 
iiud  lluston. 

MUk  (Kr.  /mU;  It.  Tjitfa;  Lat.  Imc),  a  fluid  se- 
orxled  by  the  female  of  all  those  animals  denominated 
mimmmin,  and  evidently  intended  for  tho  nourish- 
ItlBnt  of  her  offspring.  T\\r  milk  of  every  animal  has 
ocrtilin  necullarltles  which  (li.-'jinguish  it  from  ail  other 
milk,  lint  the  animal  »hoso  milk  is  most  used  by 
mail,  and  with  which,  cor^cquontiy,  we  are  best  ac- 
(|imlMted.  Is  tho  cow.  The  external  character  of  all 
milk  it  that  of  a  white  opaque  fluid,  having  a  sweet- 
ish taste,  and  a  speclAo  gravity  somewhat  greater 
tlliin  that  of  water.  When  allowed  to  remain  at  rest, 
It  sepitrates  Into  2  parts ;  a  thick  whitish  fluid  called 
irmm,  collecting  In  a  thin  stratum  over  its  surface, 
ami  A  more  dense  watery  body,  remaining  below. 
Milk  which  haa  stood  for  some  time  after  the  separa- 
tluH  of  the  cream,  becomes  acescent,  and  then  coagu- 
UteSi  When  the  coagulum  is  pressed  gently,  a  serous 
fluid  Is  forced  out,  and  there  remains  the  caseous  part 
df  the  milk,  or  pure  cheese.  Butter,  one  of  the  most 
¥«]UHble  animal  products,  is  solidilied  cream,  and  is 
obtained  arttflcially  by  churning.  Milk  has  always 
listin  a  favorite  food  of  most  European  nations,  and 
ONlwclally  of  the  lirltlsh.  Lacte  et  came  vimmt,  says 
C!«'"iir  of  our  ancestors  j  and  the  same  articles  siill 
t'oiitlniie  to  form  a  targe  part  of  onr  subsistence.  See 
Brtlules  Hni'tun,  Ciiersk,  Dairy. 

MlllOt  (Ger.  Uirie;  Fr.  Millet,  Mil ;  It.  Mli/lio, 
Pnni<<mll'ftto  /  8p.  Mijo ;  Lat.  Milium,  Panicum  mitia- 
e*um),  There  aro  3  distinct  species  of  millet ;  tho 
Polish  millet,  the  common  or  German  millet,  and  the 
ladltfl  tnltlel,     It  U  cultivated  as  a  species  of  grain  ; 


and  is  sometimes  employed  to  feed  poultry,  and  aa  • 
substitute  for  rice.  The  Indian  millet  grows  to  a 
large  size ;  but  the  autumns  in  England  are  seldom 
Ary  and  warm  enough  to  allow  of  its  being  cultivated 
here. — Loodon's  Encyc.  of  Agriculture, 

Milliner.  Defined  by  Shakspeare  and  Johnson 
as  a  seller  of  ribbons  and  dresses  for  women,  a  ver}- 
ancient  occupation ;  the  term  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
fh)m  Milan,  There  are  men-milliners,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  such  a  trade  by  the  male  sex  has  been  strongly 
and  justly  censured.  In  1810,  men-milliners  and 
other  classes  of  an  epicene  character  were  very  strong- 
ly censured  in  the  Society  of  Arts,  Young  females 
are  employed  at  all  seasons,  and  in  all  weathers,  to 
carry  bandboxes  through  the  streets,  exposed  to  tho 
insolence  of  libertines,  and  the  perils  of  vicious  exam- 
ple, while  the  perfumed  coxcomb  ["  He  was  perfumed 
like  a  milliner." — Shakspeare.']  measures  ribbons  safe- 
ly at  home,  or  folds  gauzes,  and  lisps  the  while  in 
lady  phrases  to  females  of  distinction. — Butler. 

Mlll-Btonea  (Ger.  MOhUtetm;  Fr.  Pitrres  men- 
li'eres ;  It.  Mole  macine ;  Sp.  Muelas  de  Molina ;  Rus. 
Schemowoi  hameti),  the  large  circular  stones,  which, 
when  put  in  motion  by  machinery-,  grind  corn  and 
other  articles.  The  diameter  of  common  mill-stones 
is  from  5  to  7  feet,  and  their  thickness  varies  from  12 
to  18  inches.  These  stones  have  been  principally  Im- 
ported from  Rouen  and  other  parts  of  France ;  the 
burr-stones  of  that  country-  being  supposed  to  be  more 
durable  than  our  own.  The  island  of  Milo,  in  the 
Archipelago,  furnishes  mill-stones  of  a  very  excellent 
quality.  They  are  exported  to  Greece,  Italy,  and 
other  countries  on  the  Mediterranean,  where  they  are 
employed  in  grinding  the  hard  wheat,  or  grano  dnro, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  vermicelli,  ctu. 
The  quarries  are  wrought  on  account  of  government, 
and  the  stones  sold  at  moderate  prices  lixed  by  a 
tariff,  which,  however,  leaves  a  handsome  proAt  to  tho 
State. — ToDRNEFORT,  Voyage  au  Levant,  Strong's 
Greece,  The  stones  used  by  millers  are  of  various 
sizes,  according  to  tlio  intensity  of  moving  power  oli- 
tainable.  Technically,  tlie  two  stones  are  called  the 
runner  and  tho  bedder ;  and  the  operation  of  "  hnnj^- 
ing  a  runner,"  or  adjusting  the  upper  stone  over  the 
lower,  is  one  of  some  delicacy;  since  not  only  mu?t 
tlie  two  be  rigorously  parallel,  but  the  distance  be- 
tween them  must  depend  on  tlie  fineness  of  the  flour 
to  be  produced  and  on  the  rapidity  with  which  tho  up- 
per stone  rotates.  Other  things  being  equal,  tlio 
greater  tlie  velocity,  the  closer  must  the  stones  be  to- 
gether, else  the  centrifugal  force  would  drive  away 
the  com  unground  or  half-ground. 

Mineral  Pitch,  Maltha.  A  solid,  softish  bitn- 
men,     Sp.  gr.  about  I'd. 

Mineral  Tar.  The  bituminous  substance  called 
petroleum.  It  is  brown,  viscid,  and  unctuous.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0'88.  It  is  found  in  Britain,  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  the  West  Indies  (Bar- 
badoes  tar),  and  in  Persia.  It  may  be  resolved  by 
distilLition  into  naphtha  and  petroleum. 

Mines  (_Mine,  Fr. ;  Micyn,  or  Mum,  Welsh),  a  sub- 
terraneous work  or  excavation  for  obtaining  metals, 
metallic  ores,  or  other  mineral  substances. 

Statistics  siiowrso  Tim  Productions  or  tuk  Minis  or 

TlIK  PRISCIPAL  COU.MKIBS  IN  TlIS  WOELD. 

Aiutrlan  Empire. 

Iron— Avcrago  produce. . . .cwt  80,000,000     £8,000,000 

Ooal quintals.    4,289,841 

Copper "  44,800 

Gold insrcs         6,600 

Silver "  94,195 


Bumian  Empire. 

Silver Iba. 

Copper tons 

Tin " 

Load " 

Iron  , 


Coal,  1S50 


17,500 

18,000 

6,600 

BO,(HXI 

1,850,000 

88,000,000 


£60,000 
1,200,000 
560,000 
1,000,000' 
9,000,000 
19,000,000 


Salt,' alum,  etc 1,600,000 


MIN 


1360 


/ 


JVoncA  ..,  ,,...:> 

Annaal  valae  of  mlntnl*. £19,TT9,BT0 

Coal  prodace,  184S, tons   4,141,S1T 

'         Plglron "        60(»,000 

Salt "        8»8,U00 

Pnu»ia. 

Value,  1949. £5,298,480 

I'rodnce  of  mines. l,nis,177 

Produce  of  foanderies. 8,fi«ij,«63 

i         Zinc owt    2,B74,)*61 

Copper. "         708,951 

Coat. tons  18,197,188 

Peat "      8,778,«2« 

Bar  and  pig  Iron "        200,000 

Btu$ian  Umpire. 

Gold,  1849 lbs.        71,711 

Fine  gold £8,860,728 

Iron tons      160,000 

United  StaU*. 

Bee  article  Unitio  Btath. 

Bataria. 

Iron,  1847 tons 

Copper  refined owts. 

Belgium. 

Iron,  mannfiutured,  1850. tons 

Coal " 

BrtuU. 

Qnld  and  silver  produced  In  1860  In  tho  old 
Ainerloan  mines £7,000,000 

Denmark. 

Iron tons 

Bgypt. 

There  Is  an  iron  fonndery,  and  they  are  able 
to  cast  50  cwt  of  Iron  per  day,  employing 
60  cwt  of  coal. 
Greece. 

Insignificant  qoantities  of  minemls  are  ez- 
tntoted. 


16,000 
11,012 

280,000 
4,600,000 


18,000 


271,688 


7,000 

2,000,000 

750,000 

4,000,000 


8,000,000 
22,000 


1C9 £808,000 

tons        18,000 


ITamburg. 

Zinc  exported,  1 849 cwt*. 

Bolland. 

There  are  largo  engineering  establishments. 

Maeieo. 

Pure  gold marcs 

Papal  SUUeii. 

fiar  iron lbs. 

Cream  of  tartar " 

Sulphur. " 

Portugal. 

Sardinia. 

Salt lbs. 

Iron tons 

Spain. 

Value— Estln^  -•: 
Iron 

Oteeden  and  Koraay. 

Sweden,  1848  to  1847— Average. 

Oast  iron tons 

Bar  iron " 

Steel  wares. " 

Silver 01. 

Copper. ewta. 

Brass. " 

'.'nrkey. 

l\noSiciUe».    ■ 

Sulphur  exported  from  Sicily,  1S4T. . .  .owts. 
Sumac. " 

China. 

Colon  IKS : 

Britiek  PoMeuiont—Tndie*. 
Canada. 

White  pine,  1346. pieces  404,690. . .  .feet  24,698,260 

Bcdpine "      141,706....  "      ^287,MS 

Oak. "       68,102....  "      2,689,754 

Elm »       97,204....  "       8,472,808 

Property  assessed,  1847 £8^667,001 

Cape  o/Oood  Hope. 
AutlraUa—y»tc  South  WaU», 

Coal.lM8 ton*       45,441 

Gold  mines  at  Bathurst 

Weetern—  Van  Diemen't  Land, 
South. 

Copper  ore  exported,  1348 ton*       10,681 

Jamaioa, 
Ceylon. 
MaurUiut. 
J,     French  Poetetrtnnt—HayH. 

Copper  mines. 
8p<tnieh  Poieeettone—Cuba. 

Copper  ore  exported,  1348, ton*       81,182 

Dutoh  Poeieiitione—Jata, 

Tin  exported,  1849 Ib*^    8,606,865 


166,907 
86,218 
10,518 
774 
81,798 
1,572 


1,618,858 
147,000 


ttnr 


The  amalleit  liquid  meunre,  generally 
regarded  aa  about  equal  to  one  drop.  Tlio  fluid 
drachm  is  divided  into  CO  minims. 

Minnesota,  a  north-western  Territory  of  the  Unit- 
ed  States  of  America,  lies  between  lat.  42°  t)U'  and 
49°  N.,  and  long.  91°  and  10.1°  5"  W.  Area,  141,83'J 
square  miles.  Population,  1850,  whites,  6,038;  col- 
ored, 88;  total,  6,077  ;  in  1867  estimated  at  160,000. 

Physical  /Va^ures.— Minnesota  is  an  elevated  tublo- 
land,  with  a  surface  but  little  varied,  being  mostly  a 
rolling  prairie,  abounding  with  lai^es  of  pure  wiiter, 
and  streams  which  flow  in  all  directions,  excepting  to- 
ward the  west.  The  soli  is  a  fertile,  sandy  loam,  easily 
cultivated,  and  well  adapted  to  agricultural  purposes. 
The  Missiasippi  River  rises  centrally  in  tho  Territory, 
in  Itasca  Lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water.  The  river 
flows  first  in  an  eastern,  thence  in  a  southern  direc- 
tion, to  the  confines  of  the  Territory,  in  its  course  to 
the  ocean.  It  is  also  drained  by  the  Missouri  and  its 
numerous  tributaries,  the  Re<l  River  of  tho  Kurtli, 
whose  waters  pass  off  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  St. 
Louis  entering  Lalce  Superior  on  the  eastern  border  of 
the  Territory'.  Forests  of  pine  and  other  valuable 
woods  for  timber,  border  the  principal  streams,  and 
lead  and  copper  ore  have  been  found  to  some  extent, 
and  iron  ore  on  tlie  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  There 
were  in  tho  Territorj'  in  1850,  6,035  acres  of  improved 
land,  and  28,846  acres  of  unimproved  land  in  farms. 
Cash  value  of  forms,  ^161,048;  and  the  value  of 
implements  and  machinery,  $15,981.  Line  Stock. — 
Horses,  860 ;  asses  and  mules,  14 ;  milch  cows,  fi07 ; 
working  oxen,  655;  other  cattle,  740;  sheep,  80; 
swine,  784.  Value  of  live  stock,  92,859.  Agricul- 
tural Product). — Wheat,  1,401  bushels  produced ;  rye, 
125;  Indian  com,  16,726;  oats,  80,582  ;  barley,  1,216; 
buckwheat,  515.  Value  of  the  products  of  market 
gardens,  $160;  pounds  of  butter  made,  1,100  lbs.; 
maple  sugar,  2,950 ;  beeswax  and  honey,  80 ;  tons  of 
hay,  2,019 ;  potatoes,  21,145  bushels ;  wool,  86  Ibi  ; 
sweet  potatoes,  200 ;  peas  and  beans,  10,002.  Value 
of  slaughtered  animals,  #2,480,  The  common  travel- 
ing roads  and  military  roads  are  the  only  improve- 
ments yet  constructed.  The  route  of  tho  great  North- 
em  Pacific  railroad  has  been  explored  across  the 
Territory.  Congress,  in  May  1866,  appropriated  over 
1,000,000  ocres  for  the  construction  of  railroads. 

The  French  were  the  first  Europeans  to  explore  the 
region  now  comprised  in  Minnesota,  and  tho  tlissis- 
sippi  River  was  explored  by  the  Jesuit  fathers,  even 
beyond  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  first  American  military  post  was  estab- 
lished here  in  1819,  and  called  Fort  Snclling.  This 
county  has  formed  a  part  of  several  territorial  govern- 
ments :  the  last  were  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  It  was 
formed  into  a  Territory  with  its  present  name  (in  1849), 
which  it  derives  from  the  original  Indian  name  of  St. 
Peter'*  River. 

Mint.  Athelstan  first  enacted  regulations  for  tho 
government  of  the  mint,  about  a.d.  928.  Tliero  were 
several  provincUl  mints  under  the  control  of  that  of 
London.  Stow  says  the  mint  was  kept  by  Italians, 
the  English  being  ignorant  of  the  art  of  coinmg,  7 
Edward  I.,  1278.  The  operators  were  formed  into  a 
corporation  by  the  charter  of  King  Edward  III.,  in 
which  condition  it  consisted  of  tho  warden,  master, 
comptroller,  assay-master,  workers,  coiners,  and  sub- 
ordinates. The  first  entry  of  gold  brought  to  the 
mint  for  coinage,  occurs  18  Edward  III.,  1343.  Tin 
was  coined  by  Charles  II.,  168-1;  and  gun-metal  and 
pewter  by  his  successor,  James.  Between  1806  and 
1810,  grants  amounting  to  £262,000  were  made  by 
Parliament  for  tho  erection  of  the  present  fine  struct- 
ure in  London.  The  new  constitution  of  the  mint, 
founded  on  the  report  of  the  Honorable  Mr.  Wellesley 
Pole,  took  effect  in  1816.  The  master  is  now  the  chief 
officer. 

The  general  appropriation  bill  makes  proTilion  for 


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1301 


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the  expenses  of  the  mint  and  branchu  of  the  United 
States  for  the  liacal  year,  to  the  following  effect : 

MtntatPhlladolplila |177,900 

"      NewOrftain, 68,200 

»      CharloUe,  N.  0. 11,600 

•'      Dahtonega,Oa 10,880 

'•      BanFranobco 277,800 

"      Mew  York  Auay  Office 82,200 

Congress  loses  light  of  the  fact  that  the  coinage  of 
the  branches  nt  New  Orleans,  Dahlonega,  and  Char- 
lotte, could  be  easily  dispensed  with,  and  with  decided 
advantage  to  the  Treasury.  Those  branches  were  es- 
tablished at  periods  when  the  bulk  of  American  gold 
was  produced  In  the  southern  Atlantic  States.  Now 
the  supplies  are  mainly  from  California,  and  the  ex- 
penses at  the  three  branches  named  are  a  dead  weight 
upon  the  Treasury.  The  coinage  at  Dahlonega  and 
Charlotte,  particularly,  is  too  trifling  to  render  either 
necessar}-  or  expedient  any  further  operations  there. 
The  coinage  at  each  place  last  year,  and  the  appropri- 
ations for  the  coming  year,  are  as  follows : 

CtilnftM— I88S.  EiMHMt— 1U9, 

Phlladolpbta $12,045,762  98  $177,200 

New  Orleans 2,868.600  00  68,200 

Dahlonega. 116,778  60  10,850 

Charlotte 217,985  60  11,600 

SanFranclBco 21,121,762  48  277,800 

New  York  Auay  Office.    20,441,818  63  62,200 

Total (56,812,782  99        (602,880 

The  coinage  at  Philadelphia,  in  1855,  was  suspended 
for  several  montlis,  in  order  to  make  extensive  im- 
provements, and  to  make  the  building,  for  the  first 
time,  fire  proof.  The  coinage  of  the  parent  mint  has 
of  late  years  been  over  50,000,000  annually.  The 
above  statement  will,  however,  show  that  the  coinage 
at  Xew  Orleans  costs  nearly  3  per  cent.,  Dahlonega  9 
per  cent.,  and  Charlotte  over  6  per  cent.  A  Keport  of 
the  Committee  on  Commerce,  in  1860,  demonstrated 
that  the  actual  cost  of  coinage  for  a  series  of  years  was 
as  follows : 

P«r  cent. 

At  Philadelphia. 2-28 

New  Orleans 6-68 

Charlotte 9-00 

Dahlonega 9-97 

This,  be  it  rememl)ered,  was  when  the  coinage  at 
the  southern  branches  was  more  than  double  wii,it  it 
now  is — the  production  of  gold  in  that  region  being 
either  actually  less,  or  its  profits  less.  The  coinage 
at  the  three  southern  branches  has  now  dwindled  down 
to  such  smuU  sums  as  to  demand  the  closer  attention 
of  the  government,  and  indicates  the  expediency  of 
cessation  at  all  those  points.  The  following  is  a  sum- 
mary of  the  gold  of  domestic  production  for  each  year, 
1850—1865: 


Y«rf.               i     New  Orleftiu. 

Chilrlotte, 

Dahlonegn. 

1860 

1B61 

1858 

1868 

1854 

1865 

(4,580,021 

8,770,722 

8,777,784 

2,006,678 

981,511 

411,617 

(820,2S9 
816,061 
430,900 
805,157 
213,606 
216,988 

(247,698 

879,309 
476,789 
462,290 
280,225 
116,652 

Thus  the  production  of  gold  which  was  at  the  two 
small  branches  $667,000  in  the  year  1850,  has  gradu- 
ally became  reduced  to  #333,000,  and  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  show  of  coinage  at  these  two  points,  an  annual 
expenditure  of  $22,000  is  by  Congress  deemed  expe- 
dient, when  the  same  work  could  be  done  at  Philadel- 
phia for  §0000.  Since  18ii8,  the  gross  product  of  the 
gold  mines  of  North  Carolina,  as  far  as  indicated  by 
the  mint  returns  was  $4,238,236,  and  of  Georgia  $5,- 
686,864;  total,  $9,025,100;  and  the  aggreg.ite  ex- 
pense of  maintaining  them  $22,000  annually,  or  about 
$400,000  for  the  whole  period.     See  Coinage. 

Mirage  (Fr.),  an  optical  illusion  very  common 
at  sea,  and  especially  in  high  latitudes,  and  sometimes 
also  witnessed  on  land,  particularly  in  Egypt  and  Per- 
sU,  and  on  the  margin  of  rivers  and  lakes,  or  on  the 
•ea-shore.  It  arises  from  unequal  refraction  in  the 
4R 


lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  and  causes  remot 
objects  to  be  seen  double,  as  if  reflected  in  a  mirror, 
or  to  appear  as  if  suspended  in  the  air.  When  the 
effect  is  confined  to  apparent  elevation,  the  English 
sailors  call  it  homing;  when  inverted  images  are 
formed,  the  Italians  give  it  the  name  of  fata  Morgana 
(see  the  term).  Ships  in  the  whale  fisheries  are  often 
descried,  and  sometimes  known,  by  means  of  the  mi- 
rage, at  considerable  distances.  Captain  Scoresby 
recognized  his  father's  ship  at  the  distance  of  more 
than  80  miles,  and  consequently  when  below  the  hori- 
zon, by  its  inverted  image  in  the  air,  though  he  did 
not  previously  know  that  it  was  cruising  in  that  part 
of  the  fishery.  The  mathematical  theory  of  the  phe- 
nomenon is  given  by  lilot,  in  the  Memoirea  de  I'lntti- 
tut  for  1809.  See  aliio  Caddinoton's  Optics;  Biot's 
Traiti  de  Phyiique,  tome  ill.;  Brbwsteu's  Optici, 
Cabinet  Cyclopadia, 

MiMluippl,  one  of  the  southern  United  States, 
is  situated  between  80°  10'  and  35°  N.  lat.,  and  be- 
tween 80°  80'  and  81°  36'  W.  long.  It  U  839  miles 
long  from  north  to  south,  and  150  broad,  containhig 
47,151  square  miles.  Population  in  1810  was  45,929, 
in  1820,  75,448;  in  1830,  136,806;  in  1840,  375,661; 
and  in  1850,  606,665. 

The  tract  of  land  which  now  belongs  to  the  present 
State  of  Mississippi  was  in  olden  times  comprised 
under  all  those  different  ancient  and  general  names 
under  which  the  whole  northern  shore  of  the  Mexican 
Gulf  became  known  to  Europe.  '  In  the  year  1798  the 
name  of  the  river  was  for  the  lirst  time  given  to  a  Ter- 
ritory, and  the  great  "Mississippi  Territory"  was 
erected,  which  included  also  the  present  State  of  Ala- 
bama. In  the  year  1817  the  eastern  portion  of  ^ils 
Territory  was  separated  from  it  and  received  the  name 
of  Territor}-  of  Alabama,  while  the  western  portion, 
with  a  very  limited  sea-shore  (from  Pearl  River  to 
Grande  liuy),  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  the 
State  of  Mississippi. 

The  southern  part  of  the  State,  for  about  100  miles 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  mostly  a  sandy,  level 
pine  forest,  interspersed  with  cypress  swamps,  open 
prairies,  and  inundated  marshes,  and  a  few  hills  of  a 
moderate  elevation.  This  region  is  generally  healthy, 
and  by  cultivation  produces  cotton,  Indian  com,  su- 
gar, indigo,  etc.  As  you  proceed  further  north,  the 
country  becomes  more  elevated  and  agreeably  diver- 
sified, and  the  soil  is  a  deep  rich  mold,  producing 
abundantly  cotton,  Indian  com,  sweet  potatoes,  indigo, 
peaches,  melons,  and  grapes.  The  natural  growth  of 
timber  consists  of  poplar,  bickor}',  black  walnut,  sugar- 
maple,  cotton-wood,  magnolia,  lime,  and  sassafras. 
The  country  in  the  north  of  the  State  is  healthy  and 
productive,  and  the  lands  watered  by  the  Yazoo 
through  its  whole  course  in  the  north-west  are  very 
fertile. 

There  were  in  this  State  in  3850,  3,444,358  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  7,040,001  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms;  cash  value  of  fiirms,  $54,738,634,  and  the 
value  of  implements  and  machinerj',  $5,702,927. 

Live  Sloek, — Horses,  ]  15,460;  asses  ond  mules, 
54,647;  niildi  cows,  214,231;  working  oxen,  83,485; 
other  cattle,  4.W,25l;  sheep,  304,929;  swine,  1,582,- 
731.    Value  of  live  stock,  $19,403,062. 

Ayrimltural  rroductf,  e/c— Wheat,  137,990  bushels ; 
rye,  9.606;  Indian  corn,  22,416,652;  oats,  1,503,288; 
barlev,  228 ;  buckwheat,  1121 ;  peas  and  beans,  1,072,- 
757 ;" potatoes,  261,182;  sweet  potatoes,  4,711,795; 
rice,  2,719,856  pounds.  Value  of  products  of  the  or- 
chard, $50,405 ;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $46,250. 
Pounds  of  butter  made,  4,310,231 ;  of  cheese,  21,191; 
sugar,  hogsheatls  of,  388;  molasses,  18,318  gallons; 
beeswax  and  honey,  397,460  pounds ;  wool,  pounds 
produced,  659,619;  cotton,  484,293;  flax,  666;  silk" 
cocoons,  2 ;  hops,  473 ;  pounds  tobacco,  49,960  ;  hay, 
tons  of,  12,604;  hemp,  7  tons;  clover  seeds,  84  bush- 
els;  other  grass  seeds,  633;  flax  seed,  26  bushel*   and 


MIS 


IIM 


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wara  inada  407  galtoni  of  wina.  Valuo  of  hom<-m«da 
manufacturas,  91,164,020;  of  slsughtarad  •nlRlkla, 
i»8,630,682. 

Tba  MiuUsippi  River,  with  its  viiriou*  winding*, 
forms  tlie  entira  wastem  boundary  of  tlia  Stata,  and 
its  margin  conaUta  of  Inundated  awampa,  covarad 
witli  a  larga  growth  of  timber.  Back  of  this  tba  aur> 
face  suddenly  rises  Into  what  are  called  blulfH,  and  Iw- 
hlnd  them  tlia  country  la  a  moderately  elevated  talila 
land  with  a  divarsiftad  snrfaoe.  Cotton  Is  the  prlniU- 
pal  production  of  the  Stata.  The  Yazoo  is  the  largest 
river  that  haa  Its  whole  course  In  the  Stata.  It  risas 
in  the  north-west  part,  and  after  a  course  of  260  niilaa, 
enters  the  Mississippi.  The  Posoagoula  Itlvar,  after 
a  course  of  260  miles,  enters  the  Gulf  of  Uaxioo.  At 
its  month  it  widena  into  a  bay.  It  is  navigabia  for  a 
considerable  distance  for  small  veaaela.  Tha  Itig 
Black  River,  after  a  course  of  200  milas,  enters  tba 
Mississippi  just  above  Qrand  Gulf.  It  ha*  a  boat  nav- 
igation of  50  miles.  Pearl  River  rises  In  tha  central 
part  of  the  State,  and  passing  through  it  to  the  suulti, 
farming  in  its  lower  part  the  boundary  between  tills 
State  and  I^uisiana,  enters  Lake  Korgne.  Its  naviga- 
tion is  much  impeded  by  sand  bars  and  ol>atructiiiii8 
of  timber.  The  Homochltto  is  a  consideralila  river 
which  enters  the  Mississippi.  Beside  tliesa,  there  are 
a  few  other  small  rivers  and  creeks.  A  cliain  of  low, 
sandy  islands,  six  or  aeven  milea  from  the  abors, 
enclose  several  bays  or  sounds,  the  largest  of  whi«h 
are  Mississippi  Sound,  Pascagoula  Sound,  and  Lalia 
Borgne. 

Manufacturet,  etc. — There  were  in  the  Stata  in  1860, 
2  cotton  factories,  wilh  a  capital  invested  of  138,000, 
employing  10  males  and  17  females,  producing  171,IMN) 
pounds  of  yam,  valued  at  $BO,500 ;  8  establlsbnients, 
with  a  capital  of  #100,000,  employing  112  iiersoiia, 
and  making  924  tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  (117,- 
400;  1&7  flouring  and  grist  mills,  2(S«  saw  mills,  IHO 
tanneries,  53  printing  offices,  56  newspapers,  2  tri> 
weekly,  2  semi-weekly,  and  52  weekly  publications, 
Capital  invested  in  manufactures,  $l,8i'l5,HU5 ;  value 
of  manufactured  articles,  i|2,962,038.  There  were, 
.Jarinar}-,  1R56, 10  railroads  in  the  State,  87  roilas  com- 
plated  and  in  operation. 

Tba  principal  places  in  the  State  are  Jackson,  tba 
capital,  Natchez,  Grand  Gnlf,  Washington,  Viuks. 
burg,  Columbus,  Alrardeen,  and  Holly  Springs,  On 
the  1st  of  January,  1854,  there  was  one  bank,  with  • 
capital  of  $240,000.  Total  tonnage  of  the  Stats,  1860, 
2,609,000  tons. 
DiBccT  FouioN  CouHKHcs  Of  TiiR  Stati  Or  Husiaairfi. 

Y«an.  EtporU.  lin|)oHl, 

183«. %vojm 

18M. 6,«0 

1987 $804,681 

Juna80,18MtoJnne80,18M 4,888 

1851»nd]852 0,781 

These  returns  are  very  incomplete,  and  only  Include 
the  direct  commerce.  Most  of  the  imports  for  Missis- 
aippi  are  entered  in  the  port  of  New  Orleans, 

MiMlMippl  River,  tho  largest  river  of  North 
America;  and  in  length  of  navigable  tributaries,  and 
In  extent  of  facilities  afforded  to  commerce,  tlie  great' 
est  river  in  tho  world. 

DUcovry  of  ike  Mitnuippi. — ^There  seems  ta  Im 
little  doubt  that  Pinedo,  the  Captain  of  Uaray,  saw 
for  the  first  time  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  when  be 
accomplished,  in  the  year  1510,  his  flrst  circumnavlga- 
tion  of  the  whole  Mexican  Gulf.  We  have  no  sjiecial 
report  of  Pinedo's  proceedings.  But  on  the  few  maps 
or  sketches  of  tho  Mexican  Gulf  which  were  made  In 
Spain  aoon  after  Pinedo's  return  (of  the  years  1 520, 
1521,  and  1629),  there  is  to  bo  found,  near  the  centra 
of  the  northern  gulf  shore,  a  large  inlet  called  "  Mar 
'  pequefia"  (the  little  sea),  and  a  mighty  river  leading 
into  it  called  "  Rio  del  Espiritu  Santo."  Diego  Itibaro, 
on  his  large  and  accurate  map  (of  1629),  which  ha 
made  for  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  has  this  Iwy  and 


lit*  mouth  of  lh«  rlv«f  already  under  30''  north  laU. 
tuda,  wbhih  U  v«fy  ntmarkable,  iMinauaa  it  Is  th«  triM 
Utl(H4«  iif  tba  Mlsslaslppl  mouth,  and  Iwnauaa  It 
naitrly  itw>i'1«a  tli«)  iiutistlon  that  not  Moblia  Bay,  «« 
soma  bavf  nuppoaoit,  hut  the  Mississippi,  was  iiidi<'iit«4 
by  it,  NwlMKly  <'<iulil  have  mads  this  discovary,  givun 
Iheaa  iiamtis,  Mitit  liroti)(ht  liomn  tha  news  of  it,  Imt 
I'lnwlii,  HitMW  that  time  tha  "  Mar  paquafta"  and  tlm 
gruftt  lilvnr  "  Dal  I'IsplrItu  Manto"  apiwar  on  tha  ul4 
iiM|w,  Wa  iiAii  trat'H  and  fiiliow  them  on  the  Mpuiijsh 
maps  lliriiugh  tlin  wlmla  of  tlia  10th  cantur^',  and  tinil 
thaiH  »\'K»y»,  with  avine  slight  variations.  In  tba  iiiii|. 
dU  part  tir  tlis  ti<irtli«rn  ijulf  shore,  and  generally  uit. 
ibir  tha  Utttuils  '.mm  2»"  to  flO'^  north. 

it  la  tlwmifllt  tllMt  with  the  naina  "  Mar  paquaDu"  U 
•naant  tliitt  nr«8t  hay  wbicli  Is  Includail  iMtwenii  tli* 
priijwtiliK  priiHloiit<>rl«s  funned  by  tlia  Mlaiii4a||,|i| 
lasatia  itttd  tli«  liortborn  gulf  slmra,  and  for  wbii.'li  wa 
Imva  iHi  giiiiaral  tiNiiin,  The  Mississippi  passes  iim«( 
liava  H^i|i«it>'Kil  to  tho  old  Hpanlsh  navigut4ira  as  vtiry 
daiigMrims nnd  (liltlciilt  of  approach.  And  wary  utuu 
(liay  imt  (Iw  imms  of  the  lloly  Cross  to  capes  of  this 
dasi'ri|itlmi. 

Tim  svi'tmit  intvaltir  after  Pinedo  who  saw  and 
crossad  Ilia  Mi'sinslppi  w(a  no  doulit  Cab«i;a  du  \ii'% 
liiiit  Ilia  i'iitii|Mnlon!i,  between  tba  years  15:CM5:i.'i, 
I'roMI  ( 'illlllwi,'!*  it«  Vacu's  relxirt.  It  Is  eviilent  llmt  hi* 
luiiDinitiMliir,  Narvaefs,  and  his  i.'oinpanlons,  got  Imt 
alwut  Mnblla  or  P«rdidu  llav,  or  aomawhare  elw  nut 
v»ry  far  t«i  th»  «as(  of  the  Mississippi,  Once,  ho  ssii, 
tbav  liallavad  thatflMlvns  to  have  arrived  at  the  "  Itsy 
(if  Rspirllil  Matllii,  lii'Ht  tha  Mississippi."  Afterward 
l!atiai;a  Hinl  his  fiillownrs  wandered  westward  In  tba 
liirai'tloti  of  N<iw  Mdfilco  (  so  they  must  have  cromml 
tha  Mlii»Usi|ipl,  Hut  that  Is  all  we  can  say.  Ha  iiii-ri, 
tiniis  so  iiiimy  tfrititt  rivers  In  bis  report,  that  wa  can 
not  raiiiigilltta  among  tliem  tha  true  "Klo  tiranda," 
tha  MisaUsltipl. 

Jh  Miiliii-^Vffnnitih  de  Soto  was  the  third  discoversr 
and  prllliillHtl  (lilt  N|iiittlsh  explorer  of  tba  Missimiijiiil, 
lla  nrrivwi  at  Its  liimlcrs,  In  tba  naigblmrlKMid  of  tbu 
SOHWIM  rbiimsHW  litiin's,  1512,  and  ascended  and  du- 
aeaiiilad  tba  river,  which  In  tlie  reports  of  bin  ('xiii'- 
ditlons  is  umtfuHjf  only  called  "  Hlo  Grande,"  up  and 
down.  I  III  (lldil  on  tliH  shore  of  the  river,  and  w»s 
huriad  ntiitr  Its  wiit(<rs  somewhere  about  the  moutli  of 
tba  Arfcanaas  Ml¥(<r,  l)e  Soto's  successor,  Mutfim, 
oarrtail  tha  rust  of  the  Mpnnlsh  army,  In  tho  year  l.tt;), 
down  tha  wliiila  rlvi<r,  ntid  he  whs  the  first  conimundiir 
wild  sallad  friilK  Itid  innulh  of  the  river  into  tba  si>», 
Wliiuli  (if  tha  pKssiis  it  Was  can  not  be  made  out,  Iti' 
adinii,  una  uf  tha  writers  un  De  Soto  and  Mosoiso,  and 
lino  iiftlialri'iiliipanlotis,  states,  however,  tliat  the  riv»r 
bad  A\K»tmi  tnuiitba  and  branches.  In  one  of  tliu 
raporta  m  Vs  HnUi'n  expedition  (liy  Garcilassii  il«  la 
Vaga)  it  h)  attM  that  the  Indian  naina  of  the  gr«iii 
rivar  wia  "  Chui^MKUa,"  Probably,  in  consci|ucni»  of 
this,  (ha  gaflgraphera  put  sometimes  on  their  niups  tlix 
imiita  "  (Jitiuiaxim"  to  ilia  river.  Generally,  howaynr, 
tha  old  imma  uf  "  lllii  del  Ksplritu  Hantu"  (River  uf  tlm 
lidly  (Ibiml)  (iravallnd  after  lie  Soto  for  a  long  tliuc 
Ona  of  tlia  lilstorlans  of  Do  Soto,  the  so-called  "  Vuf- 
tngiiasa  gaiitlitiiian  of  Klvas,"  sometimes  calls  it  "  tliu 
(Iraat  llivar  uf  (iiiif  lioya."  Guacboya  was  oiiu  of  tlis 
plains  ahitiii  (ha  river  where  De  Soto  encamped,  "In 
Uuaahoyit,''  nnyn  llarcllasso,  "  the  great  river  Is  callsd 
'  Tamallsau  i'  In  Nlico,  '  Tnpala ;'  in  Coija,  '  llico  ['  at 
tha  (Hirt  (ir  tiiuiith  It  la  called  ■  HI,'  " 

l,imit,^\n  (ha  year  1657  the  Governor,  I,un»,  was 
aant  to  CaHnitwila  Hay,  and  from  thence,  witli  bis  cap- 
tains Nliit  niaii.  ninde  many  inroads  into  the  intariur 
toward  tlm  nurtli  nnd  west.  It  Is  very  possible,  tliuugh 
It  h  niiwhara  (<<(NK(ly  stated,  that  some  of  bis  men  aluo 
got  AS  far  SNst  Its  tha  Mississippi. 

Martiiwlln  unit  l.n  SatU The  French  Uariiustta 

(liirtt)  and  soon  Hf(«r  him  the  Sleur  de  la  Salia  (titN2) 
ra4l«D0T«rad  (h«  Mississippi,  and  saw  a  greater  par* 


MTS 


1863 


MIS 


Ith  111*  «»!>• 
Iha  Interim' 
llila,  tlwugU 
lu  men  a-Ui 


tt  tlM  Hr«r  than  wm  ever  neen  before  them.  Do  In 
Ml*  WM,  «ft«r  MoacoMi  (1MB),  the  flrat  who  tailed 
(IWtT)  down  the  whole  river  to  its  mouth,  and  entered 
thn  Mexican  Onlf.  He  explored  in  boats  the  whole 
dMia  nf  the  (laaneii,  and  raw,  without  however  naming 
thKm,  nil  the  principal  pauei,  A  little  above  the  di- 
vMlnf(  point  of  the  pnanes  he  erected  a  monument  with 
the  arm*  of  Vrance.  Thia  was  on  the  8th  of  April, 
lAWt,  On  the  7th  of  the  same  month  he  had  ex- 
plored the  principal  branches  of  the  river  and  seen  the 
•««.  He  observed  alao  the  latitude  of  this  place ;  but 
there  Is  a  great  diversity  about  the  resuits  of  his  ob- 
iMrvatlons.  Some  say  that  he  observed  the  latitude 
17°  north,  as,  for  instance,  that  remarkable  document 
of  the  taliInK  possession  of  the  countr}-  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  by  La  Halle.  Also,  Barcia  says  that  La 
Halle  observed  the  latitude  of  the  mouth  between 
n"  and  28°  north  latitude,  "  though,"  he  adds,  "  some 
hMfd  !/•  Halle  say  that  the  mouth  was  l)etweon  28° 
and  20°  north  latitude."  After  this.  La  Salle  as- 
(iMided  the  stream  again  to  the  north. 

father  Marquette  (1672)  was  the  person  who 
Introduceil  for  the  first  time  into  geography  the  In- 
dian name  of  the  river,  "Mississippi."  lie,  how- 
jrer,  k*v<<  to  It  at  the  sainv  lime  the  Christian  or 
ll'rench  name  "  Riviere  de  C-mception."  La  Salle 
MMfMS  to  have  ratiled  this  latter  name.  He  called 
(Im  river,  after  the  great  French  minister,  "  Riviere 
it*  Ciilherl,"  On  some  mapa  even  the  whole  upper 
Mississippi  country  is  called  "  La  Colbertie"  (Col- 
l)«ft's  Innid),  The  name  Hiviere  Colbert  may  be  called 
t*  Hnlie's  name  for  the  Mississippi.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, soon  to  have  given  way  to  the  Indian  name  Mis- 
slsslptd,  which  really  was  already  longer  known  to 
th«  ICnropean  missionaries,  and  whicli  was  already 
(iftener  adopted  in  books  and  in  commerce  than  those 
WW  Inventions  of  the  European  discoverers. 

7V>n(i,— The  next  man  after  De  la  Salle  who  came 
'lown  the  Mississippi  was  tha  Sieur  de  Toiiti,  or  Tonty, 
who  had  already  accompanied  La  Salle  on  his  first 
navlfffltion.  De  Tonti  had  heard  that  La  Salle  had 
ae(  out  from  franco  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  he 
came,  In  the  year  1085,  down  to  me«t  him  at  the  shores 
III  the  Ouif,  He  arrived  there  during  "the  Holy 
Week"  (Knster)  of  lfi8(!,  but  did  not  And  La  Salle,  who 
had  reached  the  coast  of  Texas  instead  of  that  of  the 
MiKslssIp])!  passes. 

Orlffin  n/lhg  Name. — "  One  of  the  names  of  the  river 
tmder  which  Iberville,  In  1609,  had  heard  it  called," 
my»  Cbarievoix,  "  was  Malbouchia."  But  the  name 
Mississippi  seems  already  then  to  have  \ieen  quite 
common.  At  least  the  first  journal  written  In  this 
colony— that  of  Captain  Sauvol  (1099,  1700)— uses 
always  the  name  Mississippi,  and  not  once  that  of 
Kivlere  (/olliert.  In  the  year  1712  an  attempt  was 
tfiade  to  give  the  river  stilt  another  name.  The  great 
Kltlft  nf  France  himself  ordered,  in  the  letters  patent 
to  CroKat,  that  the  great  river  "  heretofore  called 
Mlssl»sl(>pr'  should  henceforward  be  called  "  Riviere 
Mil  /louliii"  But  this  name,  newly  sent  out  from 
France  liy  royal  authority,  did  not  keep  Its  ground 
S|{Alnst  the  (ltd  long-ago  adopted  Indian  name.  Char- 
levo)*,  who  traveled  along  the  river  in  1721-22,  and 
pllbllshml  his  work  in  1744,  never  uses  it.  He  always 
calls  It  "  Mitiiiiippi"  or  "  Micitsipi."  Into  general 
tine  the  name  Hiviere  St.  I^uls  has  certainly  not  come ; 
(rtrt  (m  maps  made  by  royal  geographers  or  great  sa- 
vans  like  D'Anville,  we  find  it  stilt  nsed  in  the  year 
HWi.  though  always  beiiilet  the  name  Mississippi. 

Tne  name  "  Mississippi"  Is  an  Ojlbbeway  word, 
which  the  first  discoverers  of  that  stream  heard  pro- 
nminced  In  their  missions  round  Lake  Superior.  Ac- 
cording to  some.  Its  meaning  is  "/A«  Great  Wakr," 
Others,  for  instance  the  Reverend  Bishop  Baraga,  ex- 
plalff  It  as  "  rivers,"  or  "  waters  from  all  sides." 

The  Frencti  authors  generally  write  "  llisaisipl ;" 
MtMUilah  authors  have  always  "Mlsisipi."    We  now 


donbtd  ever}'  consonant  in  it,  and  write  "Mississippi," 
in  which  word,  I  have  no  doubt,  some  letters  could  be 

spared J.  O  Koiii.. 

I)e$eripti(m. — Its  extreme  source,  according  to  the 
explorations  of  Schoolcraft,  July  1.1,  1832,  is  Itoska 
Lake,  47°  10'  N.  tat.,  and  96°  64'  W.  long.,  at  an  ete- 
vation  of  1600  feet,  and  the  distance  of  8160  miles 
aliove  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Itaska  Lake  is  a  beautiful 
sheet  of  water,  lying  among  hills  surmounted  by 
pines.  The  outlet' of  the  Uke  Is  10  or  12  feet  broad, 
and  from  12  to  18  inches  dci-p.  Its  course  is  then 
northwardly  and  north-eastwardly,  and  It  passes 
through  Lakes  Irving  and  Travera,  and  then  east- 
wardty  and  south-eastwardly,  and  through  some  small 
lakes,  to  Lake  Cass.  This  lake  is  of  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  contains  a  large  Island,  182  miles  below  Its 
source,  and  Its  surface  is  elevated  1380  feet  above  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  course  Is  west  to  Lake  Winnipec, 
then  south-west,  through  Little  Winnipec  Lake,  until 
It  receives  Leech  Lake  Fork,  the  outlet  of  a  consider- 
able  lake  of  the  same  name.  The  most  northern  point 
nUalned  by  the  river  is  a  few  minutes  short  of  48°  ; 
it  then  pursues  a  winding  course  eastwardly,  passint; 
through  some  small  lakes,  until  tt  attains  a  southward- 
ly direction.  The  average  descent  of  thn  Mississippi, 
from  Its  source  to  Its  entrance  Into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
is  a  fraction  over  five  inches  per  mile.  The  region 
about  the  r.ource  of  the  Mississippi  is  an  elevated  table 
land,  abounding  in  small  takes  of  pure  water,  and  fed 
chiefly  by  springs. 

ExTKNT  OK  Steam   Natioatio»  on  tub  Uitkiu,  Batoub, 

ETC.,  CUNNECTKI)    WITH    TIIK    MlBSIBSIm    «y   CuANMELS 
NAVIOABLR  FUR  STKAMF.RS,  10,674  Mll.RS. 

MlSAlSSU'PI   AND  ItKANOIIES,  BAVOVS,  RTO. 


Mllei. 

Mississippi,  proper 2,Uiiu 

8t.Crolx 8;i 

8t  Potcr'8. 1,120 

Oblppeway 70 

Black 6ft 

Wisconsin 180 

Rock 250 

Iowa 110 

Cedar 60 

Dos  Moinos 2S0 

Illinois 245 

Msremeo 60 

Koskaskla. 150 

Big  Muddy 6 

Obion 60 

Forked  Deer 195 

BIgHatchu 76 

Bt,  Francis 800 

White  BOO 

BIgBlack 60 

Missouri  and  Branches. 

Mllri. 

Missouri,  proper, 1,800 

Yellowstone 800 

Platto  or  Nebraska  ....      40 
Kansas. 150 


MlUk 

Spring 60 

Arkansas  (navlffablo  at 

high  water,  850  m.)..  600 

Canadian 60 

Neosho 60 

Yozon flOO 

Tollahateheo 300 

Tallabusha 80 

Big  Sunflower 70 

J.lttio  Sunflower. 150 

BIgBlack 90 

Bayou  do  Glaze, 140 

"     Oaro 40 

"     Rouge 60 

"     LaFourchl 12 

"     Pl.iqnemlno....  96 

"     Tocho 13 

Grand  River 

Bavou  Sonf  II 13 

■"     Chlon S 


Mllai. 

Osago 275 

Grande 100 

BlgSloux 160 


Outo  AND  Branches. 

Mll«. 


Ohio,  proper 1,000 

Alleghanv 200 

Monongshela 6^ 

Muskingum 70 

Kanawha 65 

BlgSandy 50 

Bcloto 60 

Red  River  and  Beakciiks. 
Mllei. 

Red  River,  proper 1,500 

Washita. SK 

Snllno IWt 

Little  Missouri 60 

Bayou  d'Arbonnc, 60 

"     Bartholomew...    150 

"      Biuf 150 

»     Mncon 175 

"     Louis 80 


Mlln. 

Kentucky 63 

SaltRlvor. 85 

Green 160 

Barren 80 

Wabash 400 

Cumberland 400 

Tennessee 720 


Mllu. 

Tensas 150 

LakoBlstenaw 60 

Lake  Coddo 75 

Sulphur  I'ork 100 

Llttlo  River 65 

KlamchI 40 

Boggy 40 

Bnvou  I'lerro 160 

Atchafaloya 880 


The  average  width  of  the  Mississippi  below  the  Mis- 
souri  is  about  a  mile ;  but  the  large  rivers  which  en- 
ter It  greatly  increase  its  depth.  Its  medial  current 
is  about  four  mites  an  hour.  At  the  head  of  the  delta, 
the  depth  is  from  75  to  80  feet ;  at  Now  Orleans  it  is 


MM 


1M4 


Mia 


100.  At  tba  ilttuHtm  itt  UH  mll««  UUm  Naw  OrlMiu, 
by  tha  oourau  iif  (Iim  rlvNr,  liHt  00  In  n  dlract  cnnru, 
this  niiijiiilir  rUumnUiro  l\m  tiiiUnt  Maxico  dy  nav- 
arul  muMtiM,  llw  |irWMii|Ml  tiC  ttltlall  ara  ciIImI  Iha  Un- 
Uia,  or  Vofth-tmH  I'm*,  Ih  ilW^  CM'  Wl"  M,  l«t.,  and 
Hl)0  01'  1i"  W,  l«n«,  l»niNlHM  »  mmty  of  over 
1,000,000  »nmra  miimi  Ut  antaut,  It  ^niild  tiaturally 
Im  axpoitail  tl)«(  it*  mminn  AmiiU  mmM  im  vunt  i  and 
III  coiiui(U8iiuN  lit  tbaiit,  l(  Mfarllott*  It*  tianka  at  that 
■aaion  tu  «  waat  «iii«Hl>  Krnm  tiM  aourcafi  to  tlie 
iiioutb  of  tita  mmmrt,  tiM  tittm]  rimmtni^M  In  March, 
and  dua*  n•>^  iti»lwi4«  MittH  tlia  laH  nf  May,  at  an  «▼- 
uraga  baiubt  itf  U>  faat,  Vtum  tiM  Mlaaourl  to  the 
Uhla  it  ri«a»  M  M,  »h4  imUiw  th«  Ohio,  for  a  grfiat 
dUtawia,  M  fimt,  At  Witty  ttimd  It  onfipreada  ■ 
country,  uliiarty  mi  Ita  w*»t«fH  aide,  from  10  to  80 
miUa  wida,  W)  iHilaa  (mm  il«  mouth.  Thla  river  la 
oxtraiiMily  wlinliiiK  ill  it*  cimiI'm  |  and  anmetlmea  a 
lieiul  will  ui'iwr  iii  W)  mil*'*  1)1  Kfilailt.  In  which  the 
dUtanua  »ur<i**  tlia  iiwlt  will  not  me»mi  a  mile.  Thla 
viruunwtaniw  mimIumIAwII/  IwtaHlea  the  onrrent,  and 
tbqa  favura  uavinatiMi, 

Tbara  ara  tlwaa  lit^hl^lMm**!*  at  the  paaiea,  and  one 
at  tbs  bead  h(  Um  N«/trtli  J'Maa,  «ttl.  l  the  one  at  thr 
iiurtb-iiikat  i«  »  lived  litfllt.  ab*VMtwt  1$(miI  aliove  the 
aurCaca  ut  tlw  liuif,  »m  vMUU)  1M(  nautical  mllen)  at 
the  Huutb  I'll**  ia  »  ravolvlHK  IlKht,  on  a  tower  of  St 
fast  alwva  tlw  W14 1  »t  tha  MiUtlkWeot  ptuii  In  n  flxed 
light,  elevatail  li<i  (u^l,  niHiit  the  allffave  of  the  Oulf, 
and  vUlltls  l!l  iiaMtiiial  Htilfa  t  and  one  with  a  flxed 
lii;ht  at  the  haad  nt  tliK  Nolltli  I'a**,  Imllt  of  Iron  In 
18ft3 !  It  abowa  a  linad  IlKhl, 

The  ac<)ui«iti<in  of  i.»Ht*i«ti«  itn4  t'toflda  by  the 
United  Hiatu*  ImviHtf  ilMilMd«<d  within  llielr  Imiindary 
the  whiila  river  froMt  it*  tiUfif  Ui  Ihn  (lulf  of  Mexico, 
and  the  utiimlatiiiii  in  tlu'  traatf  of  Una,  neourlng  to 
MritUb  aultjeiit*  »  right  to  |Mrlii<i|tit(«  In  It*  navigation, 
not  having  Iwaii  ranawad  Ifj"  the  Treaty  of  Mhent,  In 
1H14,  the  right  of  n«vifj«(ltig  llie  Mlmlfmlnpl  ia  now 
vested  axfilusivBly  in  tlia  DtiitedMuten,— Wmkaton's 
/nlermUiutml  fjiiu,  p,  iM, 

"  Tba  riglit  of  tlia  (ffilM  Mate*  to  naHlclpate  with 
Spain  in  tba  nuvigfittoii  of  tite  lliver  MI<iDls*lppl,  waa 
rented  by  tlia  Auierinan  governmeot  on  the  sentiment 
writtun  ill  duap  i^iiaraitter*  on  ilia  heart  of  man,  that 
the  ocean  ia  free  to  all  iHeii,  and  Jta  rIteM  to  nil  their 
inliabitanta,  Titia  natural  ri^bt  waa  found  to  lie  uni- 
versally aii:iiii4>wbi4g«d  and  protected  In  all  tracts  of 
country,  unit«4  MIKbT  tbi*  *i«m«  tmllllcal  noclety,  by 
laying  the  navigable  river*  open  to  nil  their  Inhabit- 
ants. Whan  tlie**  rivara  «HI«r  the  limit*  of  another 
sooiety,  if  tlia  riglltl  of  (Im  Upper  inhabitant*  to  dn- 
acand  tba  atraaiii  waa  ifi  atty  i'a*«  olwtructed,  it  was 
au  act  of  force  by  »  alroHger  w/ciety  a)<(aln*t  a  weaker, 
condemned  liy  tba  judglflent  »(  mankind,  The  then 
recent  ease  of  tile  atta)MI/(  fit  the  Km)(eror  .Joseph  11., 
to  open  tlia  iiavigatbiH  of  tb#  N((h«Mt  from  Antwerp  to 
the  sea,  was  iwnuiilartNi  M  a  atrikluK  pout  of  the  gen- 
eral union  of  aeMtilHeht  m  Ibi*  point,  a*  It  was  be- 
lieved that  Aiiistardam  had  warcely  an  advocate  out 
of  Holland,  and  avau  (here  her  tifeten*lans  were  ad- 
vocated on  tlw  groH«4j  of  Ireatle*,  ami  not  of  natural 
right.  Tbia  wntimattt  of  fight  in  favor  of  the  upper 
InhabiUiits  inuat  \tm»im  nttmgtt  in  the  (iroportlon 
whtcli  tiieir  extent  itt  mmMry  bear*  to  the  lower. 
The  United  Mtatea  liebl  im,im  *i|U«r«  miles  of  inhab- 
itable territory  011  th«  Mi**i*«ippi  and  It*  lirancbea, 
and  Uils  river  witli  ita  ((faiM'he*  afforded  many  tbou- 
■anda  of  mibia  of  navlf^ifie  water*  penetrating  this 
territory  in  all  it*  (i»rt»,  Tlie  inhal/ltalile  territory  of 
Spaia  I)bU)w  their  laotHdary,  and  leirderlng  on  the 
river,  which  alona  emtU  jitMHend  any  fear  of  lielng  iu- 
commudud  liy  tiieir  i«ini  of  tlM  river,  was  not  the  tbou- 
sandtb  part  of  tliat  «Kt«Ht,  Thla  va*t  portion  of  the 
territory  of  (lia  Ullile#l  M(at««  bad  no  ether  outlet  for 
ita  productiona,  and  tbe*«  prutlucllons  were  of  the 
bulUaat  Uwt.    An4,  (a  t<Mt»i  tlMlr  paasage  down  th« 


river  might  not  only  ba  Innocent,  aa  to  the  Spanish 
subjects  on  the  river,  but  would  not  fall  to  enrich  them 
far  beyond  their  actual  conditloD.  The  real  interests, 
then,  of  the  inbabitanta,  upper  and  lower,  concurred 
In  fact,  with  their  reapectiva  righta."— WuK.VTo!i'a 
iMimational  Law,  pp.  258,  2&0. 

IflMOUrl,  one  of  the  western  United  States,  is 
situated  between  80°  and  40°  80'  N.  Ut.,  and  between 
m°  and  06°  .10'  W.  long.  It  Is  2H7  miles  long,  un<l 
330  broad,  containing  05,037  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion in  1810  was  10,H3S  { in  1820,  6C,68«  |  in  1830, 1 10,- 
074 ;  in  1840,  888,702 ;  and  in  18&0,  682,048. 

Pkj/iical  t'eaturu,  etc. — This  State  presents  a  great 
variety  of  surface  and  soil.  Alluvial  or  bottom  land 
is  found  on  tbe  margin  of  the  rivers ;  receding  from 
them  the  land  rises  in  some  places  gently,  and  in 
others  very  abruptly,  into  elevated  barrens  or  rocky 
ridges.  In  the  interior,  bottoms  and  barrens,  naked 
hills  and  prairies,  heav}-  forests  and  streams  of  water, 
may  often  lie  seen  at  one  view,  presenting  a  diversi- 
Hed  and  beautiful  landscape.  The  south-east  part  of 
the  State  has  a  very  extensive  tract  of  low,  inartliy 
country,  abounding  in  lakes,  and  liable  to  inundations. 
Back  of  this  a  hilly  country  extends  aa  far  as  the 
Usage  River.  Tbia  section  Is  rich  In  minerals.  The 
lead  region  covers  an  area  of  more  than  8,000  square 
miles.  In  St.  FrancU  county  Is  tbe  celebrated  "  Iron 
Mountain,"  elevated  300  feet  above  tbe  surrounding 
plain,  and  1 J  miles  across  its  summit,  and  80  per  cent. 
of  ita  mass  pure  iron.  Five  miles  distant  is  the  I'ilut 
Knob,  80<)  feet  high,  and  with  a  base  a  mile  and  a  half 
In  clrcuniforenoe  of  the  same  species  of  rich  ore.  lie- 
tween  the  Osags  and  Missouri  Kivers  is  a  tract  of 
country  ver}'  fertile,  and  agreeably  dlvorsilled  with 
woodland  and  prairie,  and  abounding  with  coal,  suit, 
etc.  The  country  north  of  the  Missouri  is  emphati- 
cally "the  garden  of  the  West,"  There  Is  no  part  of 
the  world  where  a  greater  extent  of  country  can  be 
traversed  more  easily  when  in  its  natural  state.  The 
surface  is  for  the  most  part  delightfully  undulating 
and  variegated,  sometimes  rising  into  picturesque 
hills,  then  stretching  away  into  a  sea  of  prairies,  oc- 
casionally interspersed  with  shady  groves  and  shining 
streams. 

There  were  in  this  State  in  1850,  2,938,425  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  6,794,245  of  unimprov«d  land  in 
farms;  cash  value  of  farms,  $03,225,5-18,  and  the 
value  of  implements  and  macbiner}-,  $8,981,525.  /,it>« 
Stock. — Horses,  225,819;  asses  and  mules,  41,067; 
milch  cows,  230,169;  working  oxen,  112,168;  other 
cattle,  449,173 ;  sheep,  762,511 ;  awine,  1,702,625 ;  val- 
ue  of  live  stock,  $19,887,580. 

Agricultural  ProducU,  etc Wheat,  2,981,652 ;  rj'e, 

44,268 ;  Indian  com,  86,214,537  ;  oats,  5,278,079  ;  bar- 
ley, 9,681 ;  buckwheat,  23,641 ;  peas  and  beans,  46,- 
017  ;  potatoes,  939,006  ;  sweet  potatoes,  835,505 ;  rice, 
700  pounds;  value  of  (he  product  of  the  orchard, 
$514,711 ;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $99,454;  pounds 
of  butter  mode,  7,834,359 ;  of  cheese,  203,572 ;  maple 
sugar,  178,910 ;  molasses,  5,636  gallons ;  beeswax  and 
honey,  1,828,972  pounds ;  wool,  1,627,164  pounds  pro- 
duced; flax,  527,160;  silk  cocoons,  186;  bops,  4,130; 
tobacco,  17,118,784 ;  hay,  116,925  tons ;  hemp,  16,028 
tons ;  clover  seeds,  619  bushels ;  other  grass  seeds, 
4,846  ;  flax  seed,  18,696 ;  and  were  made  10,603  gal- 
lons of  wine.  Value  of  home-made  manufactures, 
$1,674,705 ;  of  sUiughtercd  animals,  $3,367,106.  The 
Mississippi  winds  along  the  entire  eastern  boundary 
of  the  State  for  a  distance  of  400  miles,  and  receives 
in  its  course  tbe  waters  of  the  Great  Missouri,  which 
Indeed  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  main  stream. 
Through  tbe  central  and  richest  part  of  the  State  the 
Missouri  rolls  iU  immense  volume  of  water,  l)eing  nav- 
igable for  Ave  months  in  the  year  for  steamboats  1,800 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Mississippi.  Tlie  La 
Mine,  Osage,  and  Gasconade  on  the  south,  and  the 
Grand  and  Chariton  on  the  north  side,  are  navigable 


Twr.. 

1M9.... 
I8S0.... 
1858.... 
1854.... 
18.V5.... 
1886.... 

MIS 


1965 


Mon 


frihutariat  of  the  Mlnitourl.  Marameo  IllveT  riinii 
through  tho  mtnvrnl  diatrict,  in  a  navlifalile  ■traam, 
and  enters  tli«  Mlnaianlpiii  18  mllei  below  8t.  lA>uia, 
Salt  Klver,  whirh  la  alao  navigable,  enten  the  Miaala- 
•ippi  N5  milea  above  the  Miaaourl.  The  White  and 
St.  Frnncia  drain  the  aouth-eaat,  and  the  tributariea 
of  Neoaha  the  aouth-waat  part  of  the  State. 

Munufacturr;  tie. — There  were  In  the  State  in  IRfiO, 
3  cotton  fiK-torlea,  with  n  capltiil  inveatod  of  (102,000, 
employing  75  malea  and  80  femalea,  producing  articlea 
valued  at  f  142,000 ;  1  woolen  factory,  with  a  capital 
of  920,000,  employing  16  malea  and  10  femalea,  manu- 
facturing 12,000  yarda  of  cloth,  and  6,000  palra  blank- 
eta,  valued  at  (66,000 ;  S  eatnbllahmenta  making  pig 
iron,  with  a  capital  of  (619,000,  employing  884  per- 
sona, and  producing  19,260  tona  of  pig  iron,  etc.,  val- 
ued at  (314,000 ;  U  oitabliahmenta,  with  a  capital  of 
(187,000,  employing  297  persona,  nnd  making  6,200 
tona  of  castinga,  etc.,  valued  at  i!i;i3U,  195 ;  2  eatal>lish- 
uionta,  with  a  capital  of  (42,100,  employing  101  por- 
aona,  manufacturing  963  tons  of  wrought  iron,  valued 
at  (0H,700 ;  75  flouring  and  griat  niilla,  1138  aaw  milla, 
210  tanneries ;  56  printing  oflicea,  5  daily,  4  trl  and 
semi-weekly,  45  weekly,  and  7  monthly  publications. 
Capital  invested  in  manufactures,  (9,194,999 ;  value 
of  manufactured  articlea,  (24,250,578. 

Tho  principal  places  in  this  Stuto  are  St.  Louis,  Jef- 
ferson Cityi  tho  capital,  St.  Charles,  Palmyra,  Colum- 
bia, liberty  and  Lexington.  There  were  in  ,lanuary, 
1854, 1  bunk  with  6  branches,  with  a  cash  capital  of 
(1,215,406.  There  were  6  railroads  in  the  State ;  50 
miles  of  road  complete<l,  and  963  in  the  course  of  con- 
struction.    Tonnage,  1863,  45,441  tona. 

UlBECT  FOBKION  COMHKBCK  OF  TUE  HtATB  Of  MlSSOUal. 

Importi, 
From  October  Itt,  1881,  to  October  1st,  1B40    ^mfiM 
1840,  to  July  Ist,  1860. .  l,0a4,41T 
"     July  1st,  1860,  to  July  1st,  1866 2,888,180 

District  tonnage  enrolled  and  licensed,  34,065  tona. 
Tho  returns  of  the  foreign  commerce  are  very  incom- 
plete, and  only  include  the  direct  exporta. 

The  following  statement  exhibita  a  rapid  increase 
in  the  population  of  Missouri  for  tho  years  mentioned : 
Population. 

1850 6S9,90T 

1868 7M,8T1 

1866 900,000 

The  statt-ment  below  ahovs  1 1  lost  gratifying  ad- 
vancement in  the  number,  qur  i  '  v  and  value  of  the 
chief  objects  of  taxation  in  u  .'  ::';e.  The  years 
mentioned  are  selected  merely  for  :  '-.e  reason  that  the 
aggregates  for  those  years  are  tho  most  accessible, 
without  making  la1>orlous  additions.  Any  other  pe- 
riods would  exhibit  the  same  flattering  results : 


Ymfi. 

PoUi. 

Lwd. 

Ptnoluil 

properly. 

Acre*. 

V«lu«.   ' 

Vulu.. 

1849.... 

88,798 

8,808,608 

(81,612,000 

$7,780,000 

1850.... 

88,846 

9,511,261 

86,099,000 

10,797,000 

1858.... 

07,470 

11.236,485 

51,740,000 

19,021,000 

185*.... 

103,988 

12,901,287 

67,744,000 

22,974,000 

18.V1.... 

106,160 

15.890,a»4 

79,010,000 

24,342,000 

1866.... 

Ul,488 

18,668,1«8     1  89,702,000 

80,346,000 

For  mineral  resources,  etc.,  of  Missouri,  see  North 
Amer.  Rev,,  xlviii.,  514  (W.  G.  Eliot);  Hdst's 
Mag.,  viii.,  535  (0.  C.  Wkittlbsby),  xlii.,  222,  xv., 
28,  xvi.,  177. 

Missouri,  a  large  river  in  the  United  States,  rises 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  takes  its  name  after  the 
union  of  three  branchea,  denominated  Jefferson,  Gal- 
latin, and  Madison,  in  45°  10'  N.  lat.,  and  110°  W. 
long.  The  spring  sources  of  Missouri,  and  those  of 
tho  Columbhi,  which  flows  west  to  the  Pocilic,  are  not 
more  than  a  miie  apart.  At  tho  distance  of  411  miles 
lYom  the  extreme  point  of  navigation  of  its  hood 
branches,  the  Missouri  passes  through  the  Kocky 
Mountains  by  what  Is  denominated  the  Gates.  For  a 
distance  of  six  miles  the  rocks  rise  perpendicularly 
from  the  water's  edge  to  the  hcigUt  of  nearly  1200 


feet,  and  tba  rfver  la  only  IW)  fnrt\t  wMx,  Iff)  t„ttna 
below  this  and  (fll  mllna  frolM  \U  mtmi'i;  ntH  Oi»  <lf«.il 
Falls,  2,675  milas  alxiva  It*  tntfUHtm  Uitii  Ihfi  Ml«l»- 
aippi.  Tlia  rivar  d«»i»iMl»  MftT  fiml  lit »»  wll*»,  hr  a 
auccesaion  of  falU,  'llui  Y«||ji«r»t<m«  Idmr, mm  ) aVda 
wide  at  Ita  rooutb,  anUra  llta  IHiwM«Mli  ffm  muih-wnat 
1211  milas  from  ita  aimr>«  and  I.WM)  Ifnm  ^^»  mnulh 
The  Miaaourl  enUra  tlw  l|i>4i«<if|i|«t  H,im  mllxa  ffoiii 
ita  Bource,  wlibh,  adilad  U,  littlft  mWn;  ll(«  illatnnr*  to 
tho  Gulf  of  Mexini,  iimkua  (||u  wIiiiIm  U»Hth  4,491 
mUes.  Througli  thia  wluiU  lnM^ttt  UiHrH  la  m  a».fl<riia 
Impediment  to  navigation  B«.»,,rf  tll*i  (Iwat  Falls. 
The  principal  triliut«ri«»  »>•>  «MvfK«lit«i  (mm  100  to 
500  milea.  Sea  timmitim  l(»VK«,  'ttm  Mla.otlfl 
through  the  greaUr  uart  uf  IN  ,mm  l«  fHlild  no.l 
turbid,  and  alH)ut  a  mlla  in  wUMt,  'Mw  |il«(  tif  ^Hi-v 
of  ita  banks  is  axcaadlpigly  furtlli*  mh4  ftirtrt  fl  to  26 
milea  wide  on  eai'li  aiitni. 

Mobile,  city,  iM)rt  «f  aiitry,  hhA  i-»\M»i  t>t  MuUU 

county,  Alal>ama,  200  utiUa  »<yM(lM««.t  lit  MiiWtgom- 
ery,  217  miles  south  liy  Wfat  u(  'fttmniiHi^A,  170  milea 
east  north-east  of  New  Ort*aH«,  l)fi  mil"*  Hort  by  tiofHi 
of  Pensttcola.  Hobila  ia  «itHitt«4  mt  (((#<  wcH  dUU  of 
a  river  of  the  same  iiaina,  «t  it*  mtimiim  inUi  Mi,. 
bile  bay,  80  milea  north  Moliild  i'liint,  ttt  Km  tnolith  of 
tho  bay,  and  at  the  coninuiMtwHH'Mt  ii(  llw  Mobllf.  nnd 
Ohio  railroad.  Ut.  00"  41'  »«"  H,,  !//««,  M°  i' 
29"  W.  from  Grsenwiclt,  Xni{l»)t4,  t'liiiukHim,  1830, 
8,194 ;  1840,  12,672  (  1850,  W,m  (  I W4,  'Jn,m,  Mo- 
bile  Is  situated  on  »  l(saut)f)(|  myi  mttfuiUni  p\^\f,^ 
elevated  15  feet  aliove  tlni  )ll)(b«rt  IM***,  iiprn  to  re- 
freshing breezes  from  Hm  l«y,  Mn>t  KiiimmniUnn  " 
l>eautiful  prospect.  It  Is  MtfUiM  wUU  «/»#,  *W(1  atifi- 
plied  with  pure  water broMgllt  ffon»  "flic  i'prirt^"  tw.it 
Spring  Ulii,  a  diatunco  of  It  inll«'<',  >n4  iMfiimlifii 
througliout  the  city  in  Iron  I()(»ia,  '( l(«  fMHiiM  In 
Mobile  Hay  la  l)etweeu  MobilH  Colnt  im  tli«  iitiH,  and 
Dauphin  Island  on  tlw  west,  hUiiM  f(|  iwdfa  dpsft, 
the  deepest  channel  having  16  (fui  nmtft  Hi  hm  tMi  s 
but  vessels  drawing  mors  tiMH  « itf  )(  fort  Wjttfft  cult 
not,  owing  to  a  abosl  in  tl»a  Iwy.  tum'h  (Iw  Umn  ex- 
cept ot  higli  water.  A  Ujthi-mi'f  Pfwlwl  im  i|i|. 
point,  lat.  30°  16'  N.,  long,  *»"  )«'  W„  Ksl/ibUs  ,i 
fixed  light  elevated  fib  t»et  »Ih>v»  tim  level  i/f  liie  .«e  i. 
Vcs.sels  drawing  mora  titun  8  faet  w»(«f  (i/jim  up  ft(M((- 
ish  River,  6  miles,  uroun<i »  nwr»liy  Uimni  Uilu  Modllc 
River,  and  tlicn  drop  down  Ut  llltf  illy,  It  l.i,  mnl  to 
New  Orleans,  tlie  greatest  cotton  ffl»rt  lit  <(*«  WmmKi  : 
681,000  bales  were  ex|)«rte<l  in  III*  ymt  Wftfl,  'I'iif 
exports  amount  to  from  ♦|2,U0O,WI/i  tii  ♦(fl,»JO0j0n« 
annually.  Tonnage  of  tlio  l»'lt  Ufiii,  iliUHih  Jl  h 
defended  by  Fort  Morgan,  ('ifliwrty  Vliti  lil(»W,  sit- 
uated on  a  long,  low,  aundy  (wiHt  /tt  ll'«  m/»Htfl  tit  iUl> 
bay,  30  miles  lieiow  tlifl  city,  fimf  (imipHUi  (stand 
is  tlie  anclioruge  fur  large  (.Is^ia  vnitiitiin,  wtietH  may  be 
seen  at  times  u  fleet  of  50  or  W  hU,  (t  #«.<(  antten- 
dered  to  tlie  Americans  by  Wp»in  id  )«f,'(,  (IwHffed  «« 
a  town  in  1814,  ineor|iorute4  us  H  fity  in  iiiUI,  H  hria 
suff'ered  tevercly  l)y  (ire :  170  liMiMlHi}^  *««  l(UHI«d 
in  1827,  and  600  in  18t(U,  ilMt  it  imn  IWMI  tuilUiH, 
with  additional  beauty  Bn4  mnv^nl^nm, 

Statkmrnt  or  thr  Vaiub  oc  fnmmi  ♦*«  (»(>ft(*s  At  tliii 
Port  ok  Mobilr  run  fitu  V>;*»  (»fi*),  A!>u  tO»  ♦«* 
First  anb  StxoNO  il)MABT>i|ti  u)/  )»/)7, 


lat  quarter,  1356.. 
2d       "  "  .. 

8d       "  "  .. 

4tb      "  "  .. 

Total,  18,16... 

"     1856. 

"     1854. 


1st  quarter,  1857. . 
2d       " 


ImflHUr 


DullabU.  I     fiL-n,    I     Tsliri.. 

|9VSi?fUI,T4«>*HW 

■  mm 

"lim 
'fin,im 


OHfilHi, 

6ujl,iii' 
6.iim, 


ftiriu- 


*ii.m«    mm 


MOB 


1866 


MOB 


t'uiiRiaN  Kiroan  nan  Tin   I'omt  or  Mobili  rn«  tui 
TlA>  IIUMI,  AID  roi  Till  riMT  iix  MoNTiw  or  laST, 


\< 


~1i  Ainai^M 
vmmU. 

UMKm 

!I8«,8»0 
l,7T6,97li 

—Tii  ftir.l».- 

»4a.tn 

Tolal. 

g,r>iA,A40 

7lW,Bt7 

|I»,I>I7,)M4 
l«,HIII,(l(iA 

ia,i»it,'i'ii 

titquMiw,  IMM..... 

ill      "          "  

;til      "         •'  

4lh     " 

Tot»I,1SM 

"      IKM 

"     JaiM 

:::: 

:::: 

tut  qnartor,  18S7 

•M       " 

ToUI,  <  inonthi.. 

|H,m7,l87 
8,imi,Q6t 

|4^,S4T 
8a8,l))IS 

$l9.iti47,5)M 

itaa.omi 

17,7!JO,R8a  1 

lAiLii  or  hxTain  and  Ci.«A«Aiicni  or  Vkmhu  at  tii« 

I'uItT  or    MoHILK  (KXCLUIIIVK  ur  HtIAHIIWI   and  OTIIW 
ORArr     NAVKIATINn    TUR   KiTIU  AMD    BaY),   rOK    TIK 

Traii  nmiicnu  .lum  ROtii,  18ft7. 


ClwrMter, 


Auierlcan. . 

Kori'Igii . . . 

CoMtWllO. . 

Total.... 


RnirUi. 

' 

CiMirHMM.                   1 

V.u.l.|    Tun.. 

Or.w. 

VtmU 

ltJ7 

217 
466" 

Tom.      Cr«w. 

uiM  a,o«i 

44,H8I  l,2&8 
71,8111 2.'i84 

m,t>M  8,8oa 

6H       4»,7Bfl 
SMI    |t)47.l>S4 
7uO   JUS7,4UH 

y.084 
1.418 

0,7«0 

Kxrom  nr  ('otton  to  Fokxion  Poiiti,  with  tii*  Wkimiit 
and  Valum  attacusd,  roll  tuk  Ymab  inuinu  Auoi'it 
SlBT,  1867. 


BnlM, 


Ponlidl. 


(It  Urluln,  In  Am,  tomoU 
"  Brit.      " 

!       ToUl  to  Ornt  Britain. 

Ifranee,  In  Amor.  vcH«Ia,. 
"  S»ril.        "     .. 


Total  to  Franco. 


,Bi3lglam . 
'Hweden., 


Ilumburf^. 

UuskIs 

Ilullana 

Denmark 

Hpain 

Total  to  othar  tor.  porti|   18,B|g 
Total  tonign, 


1VH,7I3 
81,148 
1,1)71  I 


84,ft84,4))7 

41,'i(>ti,ll0ll 

«0(I,48G 


211,201    100,440,682 


84,80S 
14fi 


49,78l>JMt 
72,UV4 


8t,840     42,862,627 


1,167,801 
1,088,261) 
l,80^478 
4,1A060 

760,M4 

87",«.<)8 

611,119 

».678,7(in  111.288,648' 
814,989  168,921,840  |t2U,206;491 


9,297 
1,068 
1,646 
8,190 
1,470 
1,128 
1,2'26 


V.lw.      I 

$8,878,741 
6,2111,681 

88^7 

tl8,6M,218' 

(^294,0I4 

9,614 

16^808,628 

$161,424 
122,826 
166,676 
646,9.^ 
91,186 
74,200 
86,464 


CoMPAUATivK  Viiew  or  TiiR  KxpoRTB  or  Cotton  keom 
MoniLR  KOB  Four  Ykabs,  oommrnoixo  Ist  HKrTKMiirR. 


Pom. 


I  18M-t1.  I  lUt-H.  :  1)54-1S.  '  18U-t4. 


Liverpool 

Hull 

OUugow  and  Oroonook 
Cowes  and  a  markoL . . 
I    Total  to  Great  Britain 


ilIa»ro 

IBochello,  etc.     

Hanelllcs-aud  DIuppe . . 
Total  to  Franco . . . 


ArngtordamARottordam 

Antwerp 

Ilamb'  gLBronion,Ht  I'et. 
Stockholm,  Oliunt,  etc.. 
Olbraltar  and  Barcelona 

Havana,  oto 

Genoa,  Trlwto,  eto. . 
Other  ports 

Total  to  oth.  for.  ports 


New  York 

Boston 

Provldonco 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

New  Orleans 

Other  porta 

Total  coastwise . 

Grand  total 


SRCAriTULATION. 

Great  Britain 

Franco  

Other  foreign  porta. . . . . 

Total  foreign 

Total  United Btotes... 

'    Onodtotol 


B»l»<.     I     H>lr>.  I     Bule.. 

196,866    310,812    118,616 
4,774       .... 
8,069       6,188       .... 

6,588       6,696  |     1.681 


211,281 

04,668 
181 
146 


81,840 

1,470 
2,297 
10,786 
2,068 
1,226 


1,128 


18,918 

28,786 
47,411 
22,982 
6,681 
6,898 
60,036 
1,610 
174.066 


489,044 

211,231 
84,840 
13,018 


814,989 
lT4kOM 
48«,044 


117,462 

vis 


861,690    216,148    281,230 


94,011 

804 

1,946 


110,074 
1,016 


96,262    111,090 


966 
9,901 
10,7(9 
7,881 
6,017 

8,080 


87,083 

28,492 

66,807 

17,672 

2,076 

4,6«8 

73,707 

8.SS5 

196,286 


681,821 

a'51,B90 
96,262 
37,088 


485.036 
196,186 
WW 


1,900 
1,689 
1,660 

8,777 

V,9S9 
1,268 


18,978 

80,986 
26,968 
1^875 
1,813 
8,8M 
82,087 
1,^00^ 

112,792 


76,817 


76,827 

1,960 
6,087 
8,894 
1,626 
8,406 

100 
6,709 

418 


29,094 

S^414 
48,280 
28,406 
6,M7 
8,921 
64,686 
2.931 


468,108 

215,248 
111,090 
18,978 


r78,806 
616,'666~ 

281,280 

76,827 
20,094 


840,811  18.87,181 
111,792  1178,506 


468,103  616,686 


OoTToH   Caor  or  Boutii   Alarama   roi  TwRNTT-iinirr 
Yrar*. 


1880 
18H1 
1182 
1H88 
1884 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1840 
1841 
IfUl 
1848 


Onf. 


101,684 
118,076 
126,6(18 
120.HA6 
149,618 
197,847 
187,690 
282,686 
8011,807 
261,742 
446,726 
817,642 
817.8161 
482,6611 


77,121 

19(^988 

■■«78 
164,816 


sa 


AmiiiaI    AnnuAl 
iDerMM.  4MnM«. 

■Kf 

11.866 

10,891 
12,680 
8,761 
90,147 
48,884 
89,748 


4,906 
68^066 
126^068 


YMit.     Onf. 


AnniiAl     Annuftl 

lllflriM*.'4wraUf, 


1844 

1846 
1846 
18»7 
1848 
1849 
1860 
1861 
1861 
1868 
1864 
1806 
1866 
1667 


llRUt,    {' 

46N,I2« 

6I7.BN) 

42i.mio! 

822,61(1 
488,824 
6I7>M 
860,207 
461,697 
649,772 
646,614 
688,110 
464,,^96 
669,788 
608,177 


49,424 


ll^8IIH 
79,622 

10I,4(K) 
98,076 


106,148 


11,6(16 
80,161) 


187,640 


8,2'jS 
8,404 
8i),BI,1 


HtOOK  or  OuTTON    AT  Till    PORT    Or     MoBILR    IN    PhKKIIIIII, 

Warxiiovsiis,  and  OH  BiiirBOARU,  AvuuaT  8Ut,  1887. 

PIlMltiir'i  Rhl|> 

mitrk,  llMrli«J. 

DtlH.  BaIx. 

Factor's  press  and  waroliouies ....    987  1,477 

Shipper's  "                  "            ....     689  219 

Alabama   "  "  ....    196 

Bolina  warehouse 14  .... 

Plokcrlns,  stores,  eto IS 


Arrived  by  railroad 16 


.1,796 
.      18 


Toliil. 

\M,i. 

8,184 

778 

1U8 

14 

IS 

2(! 


Total... 
Arrived  since . 


1,696 


4,401 


Total  stock,  Aog.  81, 1867. ..  1,808  1,696  4,604 

COHPABATIVK  IliFORTS  Or  TIIR  rol.LOWINO  STAPI.K  AKTICLRS 

INTO  TIIR  Poiit  ur  MoiiiLR  roB  rivR  Yrahs. 


Arllilai, 

Bogging pieces 

Bale  rope, colls 

Bacon hhds 

ColTee sacks 

Corn ' 

Flour ....bbls. 

liny bales 

I.ard kegs 

Uine bbls, 

MolaMua *' 

Outs tacks 

Potatoes bbla 

Pork " 

Ulcc tlcroosl 

Halt sacks 

!<agar hlids. 

Whisky bbls.  I 


ISM— T.   lUS-4. 1  ISM-t.  I  IMS— 4.  { ISil-3. 

"^,088: 
31,.^97l 
I8,929| 
23,9U6| 


18,460 
82,7i)l 
21,416 
32,086 
1411,482 
78,58(1 
01,998 
14,108 
28,1(8) 

7,007 
29,896 
17,695 
13,802 

2,898 
172,015 

0,183 
31,244 


28.176. 
8S,Hlltf( 
12.828! 
8il,6,t6l 
48,438 
69,078 
18,,\56 
16,692 

6,790 
17,895 
88,912 
19,8118 
19,944 

1,981 
234.81.1 

7,570 
26,80S 


101,225' 
41.0201 
17,868 
22,088 
14,632 
29,880 
83,089 
12.099 
12,440 
11,421 

189,901 
7,431 
19,702 


21,068; 
21,.582 

17,744 
20,878 

189,029 
62.057 
2.5,I(lll 
16.7S3| 
11,U,VI| 
80,71191 
60.4281 
28.281 1 
14,iO()i 
2,8411 

180,0111 

8,n9«; 

24,095 


22,827 

2i,iii; 

1H.22- 
84.5(l:l 
92,1(14 
IU,I4I 

22,V1(I 
22,8-1) 
2I,'.W 
19,(W| 

2I.IMI 
1.5,S1I 

r2.i.'.'i;ii 

2I,T5I 


COXPABATIVR    ViRlV     Of  TIIR    StoOXS    Or    TIIR    roI.I.OWISU 

Btaplr  Artiolrs  TO  Date  at  Modilr,  roR  six  Ykaiis. 


Arllclel. 


Bogging....  pieces 
IBale  rope...  colls 

Bacon hhds 

(.'otton bales 

Coffee socks 

Corn " 

Floor bbls. 

Ilay bales 

Lord kegs 

I.tmu bbls. 

Molosoes. 

Oata socks 

Potatoes bbls. 

Pork 

Klco tierces 

Salt socks 

Sugar hhds. 

••vElsky bbls. 

Candles boxes 


isti. 


6,282 

4,946 

706 

4.604 

6,802 

6,729 

2,003 

2,680 

1,171 

MO 

314 

4,632 

307 

948 

601 

47,149 

174 

7,079 

18,73 


lUS.        18SS.        18M.       ieS3.       I8S: 


8,695 
1,288 

607 
6,006 
4,184 
2,277 
2,222 
1.296 
1,000 
1,117 

794 

4,f 

48 

461 

146 
«23,689 

8831 
8.551| 
1,688 


6,068 
4,290 

422 
28,619 
1.197 
8.,M0 
1,')68 
2,180 
1(427 
8,1^5 

846 
2,824 

828 

148 

72 

10,706 

810 
1,918 
1,885 


3,013 
8,874 

464 
29,278 
1,478 
7,434 
1,848 
3,492 

868 

1,6,50 

2,1.58 

4,677 

89 

630 

224 
28,174 

606 

1,680 


8,783 
7,-602 

273 
7.618 
8,982 
q,8,V) 
1,235 
2.991 

520 
8,118 
1,288 
1,1.53 

174 

408 

48, 

14,883 

878 
8,493! 

8S2^ 


1,852 
2,21)0 
.\5(; 
2,819 
l.+W 
1,900 

2.1:2 

518 

2,176 

7oa; 

SIS, 
179 
&l5i 
23' 

8,,M7i 
118< 

3,208; 

1,304 


*  Including  8,800  bogs  French  ond  700  of  Turk's  Islond. 
ExpoBTS  or  Cotton  rnoii  Mobilb  rRoti  1846  to  ISSl,  cov- 

MBNOINO  BRPTXMBBB  IST. 


Greot  Britain., 

France 

Other  for.  porta 

Total  foreign. 

Total  U.S... 

Grand  total.. 


326,641 


IMS-4g.  :  I84T— «8.    184t-41. 


B^u. 

290,886 
68,290 
44,.'>26 
893,681 
140.998_ 
639,042 


Juno  30, 


Mobih  J 
Gulf  of  M 
age  12  ml 
by  two  ati 
'i'he  strait 
drawing  m 
between  th 
and  the  clu 
'i'hore  is  a  1 
has  only  ]] 
u  on  tile  ( 
Lat.  80° 
Shows  a  K 
level  of  tlic 
l^al  miles, 
is  Siind  Isla 
02'  west, 
thu  sea,  1 
miles.     Wii 
Mobile,  Is  t 
/rcrf  light, 
^y,  ana  is 


MOB 


1807 


MOO 


8,2M 

K,4«4 
8!(,6in 

1 166,661 


llnlM. 

8,164 

778 

196 

14 

IS 

211 

4,401 
18 

4,604 


I  1841-8. 1 

2l,l"7 
IS.     " 

84,Mtl 
92,li'4l 
1    64,141 
I   2i,^:i" 
1   22,IW» 
'j   21,'i6'i 
lU.lltl 
4S,«(l."ll 
21.IU1 
15M1 
!      I,:W'.I 
I'il.'.'i'rii 
H,i\ri_ 
21,7.^1 


8,7881 
7;602 

1.862 
2,2!in 

1!78       » 

T.516    2.819 

8,982    l.f'ft 

0,6.V>    1,90(1 

1,285       6i9 

2,991    2.1;5 

62f       !M 

a,113    2,1.6 

1,286     7ua, 

1163      M% 

174      19; 

40a       B15; 

«j      ii 

14,888    8,.wy 

678       ll'l 

1   8,498    3,208| 

{    m.  i,'»', 

ark's  Islauil. 

6  TO  1B.M,  con- 

ll-iS. 

1846-41. 

8,829 

131,166 

1,812 

89,293 

9,070  1  19,7M 

9,211    190,288 

0,850    116,674 

10,561 

[806,907] 

Tariff  of  Chargt*  on  CoUon  lU  MobiU.—Tht  proprie- 
tors of  Ihe  Mveral  preiui  and  warebouaea  at  Mobile, 
have  adopted  the  fullowInK  uniform  tariff  of  charges 
on  cotton !  Kootor'i  storage  on  cotton  for  the  seasun, 
20  cents  |>er  bale  |  compressing  cotton,  60  cent*  iwr 
bale  j  extra  ropei  on  compressed  cotton,  eaidi  0|  cents 
per  Inle ;  hilmr  on  ship  marked  cotton,  5  cents  |wr 
iittlu  I  drayage,  compressed  cotton,  6  cents  per  bale  i 
wharfage,  compressed  cotton,  5  cents  per  bale ;  stur- 
ag«  on  cotton  going  coastwise,  per  week,  6  cents  |wr 
Iwle ;  turning  out  and  re-stortng  cotton,  b  cents  per 
l>a!e  I  arrunging,  8  cents  |)er  Irnle, 

Aliihnma  t'immcft, — The  Comptroller  and  Treasurer 
of  this  Htitu  have  published  the  liienniul  re|jort8  for 
Ihe  riscal  year  ending  ISeptemlier  HO,  1H5U,  which  show 
•  total  of  receiptr  into  the  treoaury,  from  all  sources, 


of  #7M,'KM  4H I  <  r  whl«li  sMttt  t«lll,nm  if,  w*a  on  the 
asseseiiMint  of  te««s  (iit  Urn  year  IWifi,  j  the  Iwlance, 
•«I,H4  HI,  HMkiNg  lip  IIm  r.r«l  Slim,  was  derived  tiom 
Uunot  IHH,  \M1,  IdftI,  \m,\t,  J*frl.  from  Mate  Bank 
braiulws,  Uinus  Uum  m>mk  Itanks,  Marietta  and  Olil.i 
IUIIro«4,  141b  mH\tm  fiiwl,  end  3  and  n  |wr  cent, 
funds,  Bti.,  ilia  dU/vn  mm  iit  fe<^elpt«,  ♦71»H.008  4fl, 
with  the  ImUiM*  III  tll«  tr*il<lirr,  NeJteiiibeifl,  1855, 

of  f)i,vn,im  i«»,  iiMkm  tt,mi,im  h.  i hemshurs*. 

iiuiits  f.,r  Ilia  yaar  oiidliig  With  «c(rt«mb«r  last,  amount 
to  ♦4»«,tHl7  M,  of  whli'll  i|lf*,f)M  21  were  paid  for  ed- 
u<!at|i>iia|  |H«r|afS«s,  «|iiiyiiil|  Ut  Hank  Cominlssloner, 
•1)1,745  5i»  Ui  pay  mmimf  iit  Ihe  l,»glslatur<.,  etc., 
4i2«,ll5l»  117  Ui  Umm  lw/«|ill»l,  awl  the  balance  to  the 
Judiciary,  Miilfvrsily  rmid,  et*(„  etc. 


There  woi  In 
til*  treasury  im  M«p{«mlwr  (W,  IMO,  ♦1,608,788  90. 
KoawuN  ComiKacB  or  tiik  8tat»  or  Ai.ak*hs,  rum  K/inma*  I,  iwtn,  in  Jm.t  I,  \%M. 


Vmh  mdlof 

KiporU. 

lw|wru, 
TvW, 

'»«**,.  tUmt*, 

ISilrkt 

Tonriift. 

OooMiUe. 

ronlfl. 

ToUl. 

AimfUnt,, 

»"««•#«, 

M«*lH«rMt. 

Knrc  ll.d  mi 

U«IM«). 

Kept  80,  18lt 

1829 

1828 

1824 

1N26 

1826 

1827 

1H88 

18» 

1880 

ToUl.... 

Bept.  80, 1831  

1882 

1888 

181M 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1840 

Total.... 

Sept.  80, 1841 

1842 

Oinos.      1848 

.lune  80,  1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1860 

Total.... 

June  80, 1861 

1852 

1888 

1S64 

1SB5 

;866 

1108,960 

209,748 

202,887 

457,726 

691,897 

1,518,701 

1,880,770 

1,174,787 

1,670,886 

8,291.825 

788 

8,411 

4^694 

7,S22 

14,678 

8,129 

«88,26* 

11,083 
2,888 
5,740 
6,760 
2,664 

873 
6,898 

196 

"  »26,89(r 
$11,445 

V,«9 
22,964 

T^OM 

(108,960 

2119,748 

202,8«7 

460,727 

6»'2,«86 

1,627,112 

1.876,864 

1,182,669 

1.090,958 

2,294,954 

(9,749,404 

(2,418,894 
«,78«,«87 
4,627,961 
5,670,797 
7,674,692 

11,184,166 
9,658,808 
9,688,244 

10,8;w,169 

12,s,%4,604 

VI,I|<I4 
118,411 
179,654 
2<I|,9U» 
ITI.WW 
«8»,T*l 
I44,>.2» 

(224,485 
H<I6,«4A 
24AJIU 
»»A,IUtl 
626,tf.V) 
661,618 
6(»9,8»ft 

mt,,m 

674,661 

i 

»,<■«« 

l»,«»it 

mm 
ti.m 
•I'lm 

M,m 

H,M7 
l»,7(H 

27,191 

in.m 
m,m 

M.'M 

79,  («r 

47,il»7 
wynW 
*),«« 

wm 

67/74 
7«>iM 

»*.ui 
mm 

w/m 
Mm 

li»i,7W 

WM  1 

'"Il 

.,::} 

4m 

4/lW 
IMiMlt 

I9,»M 

9,'/<4 
IIKAIi 

11,996 

'~Wf 

19,666,185 

12,412,862 
2,788,664 
4,629,221 
5,e64,m7 
7,572,128 

11,188,788 
9,669,910 
9,68'<,(M9 

10,838,169 

12,864,694 
t76,622,412 

(10,969,826 
9,96.6,676 
11,167,460 
9,000,185 
10,616,274 
6,260,817 
9,05l,5so 
11,920,698 
12,82!1,725 
10,544,858 
1102,118,608  ' 

118,628,824 
11,888,681 
16,786,918 
18,911,612 
14,270,666 
28,726,215 

i.m 

8,926 

>      ■■•• 

(76,647,802 

(10,981,271 
9,966,676 
11,167,460 
9,907,664 
10,688,228 
6,260,817 
9,0,^4,680 
11,927,749 
12,828,725 
10,6«,868 

(4,978,911 

m»,m 

IWI,))!! 
R60,«6A 
442,K|« 

478  f'l 

890,161 
41»,8Wt 
fl*7,H7 
845,802 

mfifr 

«,79ft 

titiMm 

M,t«H 
02.491 
AMlif 
4nM 

1:^1 

bjm 

10,125 

(42,914 

♦i;i28 

7,955 

(102,161,617 

(18,528,824 
17,88^70< 
18,786,918 
18,911,612 
14,270,668 
28,784,170 

(4,r6tl,i)il7 

(418,444 

6»«,ll»2 

mm 

726,610 
619,944 
708,614 

mm 

KO,** 

»J»19 

18,749 

Mobih  Bay,  Alaba 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
age  12  miles  broad, 
by  two  straits,  one 
The  strait  on  the  w( 
drawing  more  than  6 
between  the  island  an 
and  the  channel  pass 
There  is  a  bar  across 
has  only  11  feet  wato 
is  on  the  east  side  o 
Lat,  80°  13'  48"  t 
Shows  a  revolving  1 
level  of  the  sea,  and 
cal  miles.     Three  ni 
is  Sand  Island  light, 
02' nest.     Shows  a^ 
thu  sea,  and  is  visi 
miles.    .Within  the  1 
MobUe,  Is  the  Choctt 
fixed  light,  elevated 
buy,  ami  is  visible  fo 

na, — Tho  ba 
is  30  miles  l< 
It  commun 
)n  each  side 
ist  side  will 
feet  water ; 
d  MobUo  Poi 
3S  within  a  f( 
the  bav,  neat 
r.     The  Mol 
f  the  entran 
lorth,  long, 
gbt,  elevate 
visible  for  u 
ilea  south-H 
lat.  30°  11' 
txed  light,  el 
jle  for  a  dis 
lay,  a  little 
iw  Point  lig 
54  feet  abov 
r  a  distance  o 

y  seta  up 
)ng,  and  or 
Icates  wit! 
of  Dauph 
not  admit 
that  on  tho 
nt,  has  22  f 
w  yards  of 
its  upper  e 
ile  Point  I 
ce  into  Mo 
88°  00'  3 
d  57  feet 
distance  of 
est  of  Mol 
18"  north, 
evated  54 
tance  of  1 
south  of  t 
it-house ; 
0  [he  surfi 
f  11  nautic 

from  the 
1  an  avcr- 

1  tho  gulf 
n  Island, 
of  vessels 

east  side, 
eet  wuter, 
the  |K)int. 
nd,  which 
ght-house 
bile  Buy. 
0"  west, 
ibuve  the 
12  nautl- 
)ile  Point, 
long.  88° 
feet  above 

2  nautical 
le  city  of 
t  shows  u 
ce  of  the 
al  miles. 

Mooba,  1 

quenteil  by  1 
Yemen,  about 
Uab-vl-maiidu 
east.    Popula 
liaps,  uiiiouiit 
with  walls,  uii 
from  tliK  sua 
margin  of  a  i 
shore,  betwuii 
form  a  buy, 
may  anchor  h 
town;  but  la 
roiuls,  in  5  u 
Hearing  ua^it 
the  town  .'out 
the  shore,    '1 
coffee,  which 
quality.     It  1 
■stlmute  of  tl 
nay  be  takjuu 
greater  portio 

litf  prlH('l(ii 
;iirif|waiia, 

40  miUm 
b,  hi,  i!i'> 
lUin  vnridi 

I'l  frirtll  7 
4  UiAWum 

is  illltWI>iH 

ry  siiiMly  \ 

i    tWII   (Kill 

ithlii  IliU 
gill  nMfnt  t 
r  1  M\m 

suilllMiilat, 

I  by  #ast,  ( 
lie  grant  M 
a  Hllfvfr<8l 
s  iM't  \mi*\ 
\»  l(M>lllti(J 

lit  \a,m 

II  iij  mni  Ui 

nl   plltt  it 
It  tllAt  p 

Ui  tim  tin 
J!t'  "Ml" 
fiy  ♦'slftrt 
mt  ui  70 
ii\y  tiitM 
\t,    JMocd 

lnlH,     It 

tl  lit  hm 
mfii^  frof 
tmy  Mt  ft) 

Nl'illf  *i 

w  wntw^ 
«ikI  tho 
llfilant  nt 

llcic  llf  P 

II*-  wlm.tt 
l)l«  U>  tiif 
«j»fK/ti« 
t"Mi>,  in 

the  Ite< 
ttt  of  Am 
fth  of  tht 
north,  ion 
tied)  liiit 

m.    It  Is 

eil     Its  a 
a  la  sitlia 
is  (rtlllt  c 
which  p 
(1 10  to  12 
»)iit  n  mil 
lioiit  the 
-till)  grnn 
(ml  to  th 
<r(it  two  r 
*(Kitt  fron 
ed  to  l)fl  0 
n  tiny  ver 
1  j  but  we 
letiiaps  tn 
lid  8ll«:e) 

1  Sea  fre. 
bia  called 

Strait  of 
g.  43°  20' 

may,  per- 

encircled 
ppearanco 
ed  on  the 
lose  to  tho 
roject  and 
feet  water 
e  from  the 
bay  In  the 
d  mosque 
e  sooth  of 
nlles  from 
1  Mocha  is 
f  the  finest 
y  accurate 

believe  )t 
ore.     The 

but  there 

\  I 


MOO 


1968 


IfOI 


l<  •  prKlty  UrK«i  axport  In  HomlMjr,  inil  othur  piirta  of 
Indlii,  whxni's  minin  In  iunt  to  Kunip*  i  wi-Mlonnlly, 
hnwnvrr,  Ihii  iiii|><irtii  IV<>ni  Mix'b*  ami  MixlaliU,  Unci 
IViiiii  Kiin>|i«,  ar*  rrry  M)n«iiUr*l>l«,  Hatiilm  uoITm,  th( 
_^'  |irtni'l|Nil  artli'lfit  of  axpnrt  ar*,  <Ut«»,  ■iljiiiiii,  or  paaU 

inailii  of  ilnUa,  myrrh,  gum  Aralid',  nlllwnuni,  aann* 
(niMiri  jmNa),  aliiirka'  Ana,  tratfiwixith,  lioriia  ami  hkha 
of  Iho  AlniH-ania,  Ixlin  of  (lllaail,  Ivory,  nuM  iliiat, 
I'lvat,  tloca,  a«Kn|i«nuni,  oto.  'I'h*  prliii'l|iul  artlrlaa 
of  Import  arc,  rir«,  place  Komla,  Inm,  nn>l  hanlwara, 
(itc.  Tha  Ivory,  roM  iluat,  ami  rivpt,  mat  with  at 
MiH'lin,  ir«  limiiKht  from  th*  (ipjHxiltn  coiiat  of  Aliya- 
uliilii,  whanra  ara  aUo  lir<>Ut(ht  aUvoa,  ght9,  ate. 
Th«  Kranlar  part  of  tha  foralKH  trniln  of  Morh*  la 
Iranxttctail  liy  tha  llanlaiia ;  ami  It  Ik  iiiuih  aufar  to 
iloiil  with  Ihem  thiin  with  i<Uh«r  'I'lirka  or  \raha,  Ku- 
ruiwiin*  |uiy  u  iluty  of  !l  par  cant,  ml  nilmvm  on  all 
'  ./  KiHnlpt  ImiMirtail  liy  them  from  Kuro|Mt,  liidlji,  or  ('hliu  | 

/  thn  duly  Ix'tiiK  levhicl  on  thn  nmoiiiit  of  the   aalea. 

The  liuyrr  piiVH  lirokitruK",  •'oolle  iiiid  Ijoiit-hlre.  All 
kind*  of  fnrvl)(n  kikhI*  urn  anlil  oil  crrdil,  unil  th«  piiy- 
mvnt  U  iniidK  l>y  tlirpu  inntaliiii'iiti),  ornt  ii  •'vrtnin  day, 
ucoordliiK  n"  »>ny  '"'^"  '""■'  UKreed  on.  ( 'oDVe  la  alwaya 
piild  for  III  rnaily  money,  (In  the  «al«  of  other  )(iioila, 
thn  priHliK'o  of  the  country,  ■  crvillt  l«  kIvuii  ;  or  if 
roiidy  money  he  paid,  a  diacouiit  U  allowed  at  tha  ruto 
of  0  per  cent.  When  gtMMla  are  dlaclmrKlnK  the  nuinter 
inuat  furnUh  tha  cuatom-houne  ottteer  with  n  munlfent, 
or  account  of  the  niarka,  niinilierit,  and  contents  of 
each  package.  He  then  0|)ena  two  or  throe  liiilea  taken 
ut  random ;  and  if  thoy  vuixefptmd  with  the  account 
deUvered,no  further  examination  la  made  ;  but  If  they 
ilo  not  correspond,  the  whole  linlea  are  opened,  and 
double  duty  U  cliurt(pd  upon  the  exce^a.  The  qiiantl- 
tlei  lielnit  Ihua  aaccrtainad,  their  value  la  learned  from 
the  account  of  aalea  rendered  l>y  the  aallcr,  und  the  duly 
■'harifed  ucrordlngly.  In  thia  reapect  there  la  nothing 
to  oliject  to  at  Mocha ;  but  a  good  deal  of  extortion  la 
practiced  in  the  exaction  of  port  cliargea,  proaenta,  etc., 
which  may,  however,  be  defeated  by  proper  llrmiieaa, 
Tha  |>ort  chargea  on  ahlps,  or  Ihrtt-miut  veaaela,  inuy 
amount  to  almut  100  Mocha  dollnra,  and  thoae  on  briga 
to  about  half  »a  much.  Provlalona  are  plentiful  and 
cheap  ;  but  water  la  dear ;  that  in  the  vicinity  being 
bracklah  and  unwholesome,  whatever  U  used  for  drink- 
ing, by  all  but  the  pooreat  persona,  ia  brought  from 
Mosa,  about  '20  inilea  off.  Fiah  are  abundant  and 
cheap,  but  not  very  good. 

Mogadore,  a  aea-poit  town  on  the  west  coaat  of 
Morocco,  lat.  81°  60'  north,  long.  0°  20'  weat.  Pop- 
ulation about  10,000.  It  la  Indifferently  furtitied ;  the 
country  in  tlie  immediate  vicinity  la  low.  Hat,  aandy, 
and  unproductive.  Water  la  acaree  and  rather  dear ; 
lieing  either  ri^n-water  collected  and  preserved  in  cU- 
terna,  or  brought  from  a  river  aliout  1^  inilca  distant. 
The  port  ia  formed  liy  a  small  Island  lying  to  the  south- 
ward of  the  town  ;  but  as  there  is  not  more  than  10  or  12 
feet  water  in  it  it  ebb  tide,  large  ahlpa  anchor  without, 
the  long  battery  bearing  eaat,  distant  \\  miles.  The 
principal  Imports  are  English  woolen  and  cotton  stuffs 
and  hardware,  (ierman  linens,  tin,  copper,  earthen- 
ware, mirrors,  glaaa,  sugar,  pepper,  paper,  and  a  vari- 
ety of  other  articles.  The  exports  principally  conslat 
of  sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  gum  Arabic,  and  other 
gums,  beeswax,  cow  and  calf  skins,  ivory,  ostrich 
feathers,  gold  dust,  olive  oil,  dates,  etc. 

"  The  duties  levied  on  imiwrted  articles  are  not  paid 
In  money,  but  in  kind,  and  on  English  manufactures, 
army  and  navy  cloth,  brass,  copper,  tea,  and  sugar, 
and  In  fact.  In  all  cases,  with  few  exceptions,  are  rated 
at  20  per  cent.,  or  a  fifth  part  of  the  goods,  whatever 
they  may  be,  that  are  landed.  This  primitive  mode 
of  business  Is  also  accompanied  by  disadvantages,  and 
assists,  in  conjunction  with  the  high  tariff,  to  cripple 
any  endeavors  attempted  to  bring  the  lUrbary  States 
!u  closer  mercantUn  allhince  with  ourselves."  It  Is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  government  of  Blorocco  may  become 


alive  to  the  nilachlavnua  eona«|Uancea  of  tbia  aynlam. 
Nothing  would  do  so  much  to  promota  Imliiatry  niultlv 
lUsatiim  In  tha  iiounlry,  as  tha  elTactuai  mductlmi,  or 
rather  tha  total  n|Mial,  of  the  axlatlng  diitiaa  on  axiHirta. 

Mohair  (Oar.  Mukri  Vt.  Mtiir* ;  It.  .l/urrrii;  Sp, 
Muf,  Uufr),  the  h»lr  of  a  varli-ty  of  tha  nimnuin  koiiI, 
famoua  for  living  aoft  and  Hne  aa  silk,  and  of  a  allva ry 
whltanesa.  It  is  not  pmduceil  anywhere  but  In  the 
vicinity  of  Angora,  In  Aala  Minor.  Tha  exiairtation 
of  thia  valuable  and  Iwautiful  article,  unlasa  In  tha 
ahajie  of  yarn,  was  formerly  pnihlbitad  |  but  it  may 
now  Ih)  exportiid  unapun.  The  production,  prr|iara- 
tion,  and  auin  of  mohair  have  long  engnisaeil  the  jiiin- 
ripal  attention  of  the  Inhabitants  of  Angora;  and  It 
used  to  fonn  an  lm|Mirtant  article  of  Venetian  iiim. 
inerce.  It  is  manufactured  into  caniiata  and  other  ex. 
IMinalve  stuffs.  Hitherto  but  llttlu  has  been  liii|Hirtiid 
Into  Kngtand.  Hee,  fur  further  imrticulara,  Toiiiink- 
roirr,  I'oi^di/tilu  /.^fiin^andUltguiiAHTun  I'urh ij mid 
ill  HriKurcri, 

Moire  Antique.  In  an  oniinar)-  woven  gixuls 
the  threads  irosa  each  other  at  right  angles  ;  the  lung 
thread*  forming  the  warp,  and  the  aliort  thriMiii:*  the 
weft.  According  as  the  fabric  is  of  high  quality,  so 
do  these  tlireads  Intersect  In  a  regular  and  cipialila 
•liiality  ;  but  he  It  as  good  as  It  may,  there  are  nlwuys 
aume  irregularities ;  they  may  escaira  the  eye,  l>ut  tliey 
liecome  apparent  in  a  singular  way.  If  good  silk  lie 
wrap|ied  tightly  and  ciireleaaly  round  n  roller,  it  iiiuy 
become  miiire  much  against  the  Inclination  of  thn  pos- 
aesaor ;  it  will  have  acquired  an  irregular  kind  of  glowing 
In  aonie  parts  rather  than  in  othera ;  and  this  irn-giilnr 
glossing,  when  viewed  from  ■  little  distance,  preiieiits 
somewhat  of  the  appearance  of  moiro,  or  watering— 
who  knows  ?  Perhaps  an  accident  to  a  piece  of  nijlcd 
silk  auggeited  the  first  Idea  of  watering  as  u  dUtinct 
mode  of  iidomment  to  ailken  goods?  Hiuh  iiiciilimts 
have  fre(|ui)iitly  occurred  in  the  history  of  niuiiufac- 
turea.  However,  accident  or  no  accident,  watered 
silks  ha>  e  long  lieen  In  use,  Iwth  in  this  country  and 
in  France.  If  a  pattern  be  engraved  U|Hm  one  cylin- 
der In  relief,  and  a  similar  pattern  on  unotlier  cylin- 
der, In  sunken  devices  ;  and  if  one  of  these  be  hcutt'd 
from  witliin,  and  if  a  piece  of  silk  or  velvet  bo  drawn 
lietween  the  cylinders,  then  will  the  silk  or  velvet  ac- 
quire an  emboascd  pattern,  because  some  parts  of  the 
surface  are  more  pressed,  nnd  are  consequently  mure 
glossy  than  the  rest.  Numerous  varieties  of  this  pro- 
cess are  employed  In  the  preparation  of  fancy  goods. 
But  thia  is  not  exactly  watering.  For  this  process  two 
layers  of  silk  are  laid  face  («  face,  and  are  pressed 
tightly  between  rollers.  What  follows?  However 
close  the  threads  may  lio,  there  are  still  interstices  lie- 
tween them  i  tliey  follow  each  other  in  ridge  nnil  hol- 
low fashion  tiiroughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
piece.  Now,  if  the  slightest  IrrcgiiUrity  exists  in 
the  pressure,  some  of  the  threads  It'iome  pressed  in 
particular  parts  more  than  others;  and  the  over- 
pressed  portions  present  a  greater  gloss,  a  greater 
power  of  reflecting  light  than  the  rest.  Tlie  more  ca- 
priciously these  proportions  distribute  themselves,  the 
more  undulatory  and  cloudy  will  be  the  result.  Wa 
do  not  say  that  the  actual  process  is  nothing  more  than 
thia,  but  that  this  is  the  basis  on  which  the  whole  is 
founded.  The  goods  may  be  sprinkled  with  water  pre- 
viously or  not  j  the  rollers  may  lie  Iwth  heated  or  lioth 
cold,  or  one  heated  and  one  cold ;  the  rollers  may  lie 
plain  or  variously  indented ;  they  may  move  smoothly 
over  each  other  or  may  have  a  slight  lateral  move- 
ment— how  these  variations  of  method  would  produce 
variations  of  effect  every  one  will  se*  The  adjective 
"antique"  is  most  likely  given  to  the  silks  thus  jiro- 
duced  from  their  resemblance  to  the  tabby  silk  dresses 
worn  In  former  times.  It  is  chiefly  produced  In 
France ;  but  In  Spltaltlelds,  England,  Its  weavers  and 
moirours  combined,  have  lately  copied  the  art  so  clev- 
erly as  actually  to  excel  the  French.    But  Spitallleldi 


MOL 


I860 


MOL 


Kuarrin  tin  iixcr*!  m  imluloualy  m  lh«  m»K<i'Un  In  » 
(Wiry  lain  Kunnli  th*  c*|itiv«  prlnrM*  In  th«  vut\m, 
unit  will   nut    1*1  lh«  world  hav*  «  pM|>  *t  thtir 
dolnoa. 
Molaaaaa,  or  M«Iiiu«a  (i^r.  .simp  lU  SHm,  »r. 

Inuft  I  H*t,  iVyrK/i;  It.  Mirlnttn  iti  tufrhrr»  t  Np,  Mifl 
tit  ttiHvnv,  Chttnrwrt ;  Port.  Afftntm*^  Auiirar  in/uiih ; 
KiK.  I'lilitkn  tucKnmnjn),  lit*  uncryKt«lll<ahlii  |iiirt  nt 
thn  Juli<«  of  th*  auKir  citn*,  ii«|Mriiteil  fnini  tliu  iiiKitr 
(luring  lt«  nMniifiirtiim.  It  U  of  a  lirown  nr  iilnck 
color,  thii'k,  anil  vUclil;  hai  a  iMciiliar  utlor,  ami  a 
■wnet  «m|iyninniatln  tiuta,  AI>oiit  N  Kiillonii  of  pttxit 
uplrlt  may,  it  la  aalil,  bn  ohtalnml  rmm  a  rwt.  iif  mi>- 
luKiwa,  nui'h  ai«  hna  rarantly  lieen  linportoil  {  but  thin 
lUlMncln,  of  I'ourar,  wholly  on  thn  rii'linvii)  of  the  nio- 
la«M>K.  I'lirt  of  thn  rnfiiKn  thiit  rninulna,  aftnr  rnllnlnK 
inunrovailo  "U^ur,  Ik  a  awKft  "yrup,  whbh,  iin  w«ll  an 
thn  iiyrup  thut  remaliii  aftar  lH>illnK  inolaHmoi  to  ohtuln 
luMtanl*,  |4  rallnil  trniicla,  llut  thn  tmai'ln  ohtalnnil 
from  the  forniar  lit  alwayii  pmfnrrpil  to  that  olitalnml 
fniiii  tha  liiltcr,  anil  feti'haa  SO  centt  |M)r  rwt.  mora. 
.MoliiiiAM  la  aoniatlmra  uasil  In  preparing  the  coaraer 
aort  of  preacrvea ;  and  on  tlin  Kuro|M>an  vontlnent 
11  la  extenalvely  iiai'd  In  the  inunufartum  of  to- 
luicco.  The  following  atiitiatlca  ahow  thn  foreign 
trade  uf  the  ITniteil  Htntea  in  moluaaea,  and  alao  k*  'y 
the  receipts  to  tha  foreign  nnd  homo  of  thia  at  /  . 
The  laat  table  ihowa  thn  average  value  of  thn  different 
litnds  of  niolaaaea  at  the  port  of  New  York  fur  two  yean ; 

AXNIIAL  HTATKUItlT  ailOWINII  THa  iMPOkT,  Kxi-OHT,  STOCK, 

ANO  KariUATKO  CuNaiiMi'TioN  nir  MuiAaniw  in  Tiia 
IInitko  HTATca  (axniaivK  or  OALiroaNiA  Ann  Oai- 
uuN),  riiR  Tiia  Y«Aa  ii.tnixu  UaomutB  tflar,  liiM. 

Tl^rei.*.  HmrvltTi 

B.Ti)6'  «,8W 


IU<»lved  al  Na»  York  thiin 


Uuba... 

I'ortoKloo 

ItarbailiNii 

Trliililacl,  I'.  H 

IK'ini'rnro. 

Bt  KUta 

AntlKUa 

St.OioIx 

\M»au,  N.  I'. 

Ollior  (bri'lxn  porta 

Total  roct'lpls  >r  foreign  dlttct 

Loulalana , , 

Utbvr  coastwlao  porta, 

Total  roiwlpta 

Add  atock  Jail,  Ist,  1896 


Tutiil  supply . 
■  anil  III 


Dodnot  px'port  and  Inland  shipmenta  I 
to  Canada. { 

Dodnct  stock,  Jan.  lit,  1857 

Taken  from  this  port  fl>r  consumption  (11, 176 


"nu 

B9,6I0 
14,6614 
1,4,VI 
1,047 
189 
19S 
8ft 
98 
141 
»9 


Wt 


10 


mi! 
T9 
84 

"i 

"2 


A7,414{  4,n8»{   7,l«4 
....  I      198  8^H«8 
4711 1»,IIIW 
4,(MIS  ftft,MU 

_U\ 917 

I, «89  65,747 


7,6ii9| 
M,»48r 

tt5,'i9l 
9,250. 

1,798 


99    l.sas 

~4~S<lo' 58,909 
....  [  1(K» 
4,5«U  61I.HOII 


aatloni.  OaIIodi, 

Oontalnlngr. »,8ls,9ia  ftorcign  tniptd.  dir.  0,906,175 

lotalconsuiup,  1855  19,S70,434  "          "         "    5,9yO,b78 

Decroaae,  1SS0..    8,057,511  Incrcaao,  ISJM    969,997 


_  IUmIwJ  at  N«w  Yuik  (I8M)  frmii 

'Cuba 7....... 

lI'ortoKlco. 

llarbadoea 

Port  8paln,  Trinidad 

j8t  VIncoiit 

lAntlgua 

jOthor  Ibrolgn  ports 

Total  receipts  of  Ibrolgn  direct. . 

Iliuatilana 

Other  coastwise  ports, ., 

Total  receipts 

Add  stock,  Jan.  1st,  1855 

Total  supply 

Deduct  export  and  inland  ablp' 

menta  to  Canada 


:\ 


Deduct  stock,  Jan.  1st,  1856 

jlaken  ftom  this  port  for  eonsnmp. 


Jllhdi. 

4»,188" 

6,818 

404 

106 


194 


49,049 

980 

91.158 

71,780 

976 


Ttsrcea.  |  BftrnI*. 


8,870 
908 


4,188 

805 

_476 

4,979 


7,194 
287 


81 

7,5J9' 

94,878! 

7.124 

1U9.5I9| 


aalloDi.  flsllon*. 

OonUlnIng 12,S76,4»4  foreign  Imptil  dlr.  6,086,878 

Totaloonsuuip.,  1854  11,742,080         '•  "       "     6,4^9,278 

Increase,  1S55..    l,m,404  447,605 


Haiaipti  or  foaaioa  Mni.Aaaaa  m  thi   Harraii  Htati^ 
roa  ma  Yaaa  uoiau  UuiMaw  Slar,  185« 


'N.wTork ■ 

Boaton-friiMiCnha 

"         "     Hartnam 

'''  "     I'orto  Kteo,  at 

rortlan.l  -(Voni  tulm,  ale 

jNiiw  lliivi.ii  Ooni  I'urlo  Hleo,  ate. . 
OliMii'iatiir  ,k  I'rovlduni'i'-  fin.  Iluba 
Niiwhiiryport,  H«li.in,  llrl^tul,  War- 1 
I  rin,  tiiil  othnr  cMlvrn  |iurt»—  V 
I        from  Cubn,  Hiirliiani,  ut«  .        ( 

IMilliiclulphlii    rriMo  fnba 

"  "      Tortn  Hlni,  «to, 

llaltlmorii-  ftn.  Culjii.  Puri,,  Ulco.ati 

Nuw  t>rUan»-  rroiii  Cuba 

Mavannah,  ('harl,'Bt»n,  uiid  utlicr 
aoullirrn  purla-foi.  Cuba,  ale. 

Tnlul  r.o.Mpla 

Add  stock  at  all  porta.  Jan.  I,  IHM 

Total  supply 

Di'dui't  r<|Jorta  and  ablptiiants  | 
inlanil  to  ('anuila,  from  allV 
the  ports,  In  lH,'i6 ( 

Doii.  aloi'k  at  all  ports,  .Tan.  I,  li5li 
Total  ronnuiiiptlon  offlirtlgn 


I'^.'i.W  12,11)6  1 12,811 

_  '<,25«    ....     I  .... 

178,1)118  12,104  {19,811 


18,014,878 

16,591,0(10 


Containing 

Add  crop  of  I.oiil»l«na,  Texas,  Klorlda,  ete,.'of 
|Hli5— 5)1,  tlin  most  of  wlildi  ranio  to  market 
In  18.VI,  nnd  assuiiilnit  tliu  stuck  uf  this  do- 
acrlpllon,  Int  Jan.,  uf  incli  year,  to  bo  e(|ual 

Would  iiiakn  thn  total  consumption  In  ls56.  89.61  ih,h78 
Total  consumption  In  1>M 47,26il,0S5 

Ui'orease  In  1856 7,657,907 

llKoaiPTH  or  KoKRioN  Mui.Asam  in  tiik  ITNiTin  Ktatim, 
roK  TUB  YtAa  r.shi.Nu  Dickhhkr  nisr,  1>(55. 


I'urli. 

llUi. 

r49,»W 

62,498 

1,491 

29,147 

2,N91 

1^066 

9,658 

11,666 

570 

2,618 

Tlitrct,. 
4,188 

Harrili. 

Sow  York 

Boston— from  Cubo 

"         "       Hiirlnani 

t;ii9 

1,897 

1          Ao 

88 :     .. 
969S       rnr 

"         "       from  other  fbr.  porta,. 
Portland— ft-om  Cut)fi,  etc 

l'rovliloni-<— n-om  Cuba,  etc 

New  Haven— ftom  I'orto  KIco,  eti-.. 

Nowburyport.  (lloucealor,  Kaloni, 
Ilrlstol,  Warren,  K.  1.,  and  ntlier 
eoaterii    ports  —  ft-om    Cuba, 
Porto  Rleo,  Hurlimiii,  etc 

Pblladelphla-IVoni  Cubo 

'•              "      I'orto  Hleo,  etc.. 

Ilnltlinoro— fr.  Cubn,  I'orto  liico,  etc. 

New  Orlcanft — fl'uin  Cuba 

7 

40O 
1,146 

io9 

114 

258 

9(\ 

658 

976 
69 

181 
2,951 

769 

.Snvnnnnli— from  (^iba,  etc 1 

Charleston — from  Cuba,  etc 

Other  Bouthoru  ports— iVom  Cuba. 

10,015 

Total  receipts 

Add  stock  at  all  the  ports,  Jan.  IVM 

1MI,62A 
6.051 

18,407 

16,898 

200 

Deduct  exports  and  shipments    ' 

Inlniid  to  Coiiado,  IVoin  all  .      7,881 
the  porta.  In  ls56. ' 

485 

1,808 

Ded.  stock  at  all  ports,  .Tan.  1, 1850 

1M,K45, 
1,701 

12,982  1 14,228 
84  1        57 

Total  consumption  of  foreign 

ll«2,144 

12,948  1 14,160 

Containing 

Add  crop  of  LouisUnn,  Texas,  Florida, 
etc,,  oflS54— M,  tho  most  of  which 
came  to  market  In  l$5,\  and  assum- 
ing the  stock  of  this  description,  1st 
Jan.,  uf  each  year  to  bo  eiiual 

Less  export  of  domestic,  not  included 
in  above  statement  of  shipments . . . 


iislloni. 
28,5ea,42S 


Oalloni. 
24,119,749 


•       887,080 


.  28,789,( 


Would  make  tho  whole  consumption  iu  1V>5.  47,266,085 
Total  consumption  in  1854 50,493,019 

Decrease  in  1855 9,220,984 

It  will  1)0  seen  by  tho  foregoing  statistics,  that  the 
receipts  of  foreign  molasaca  In  the  United  States  for 
tho  ypnr  ending  December  31,  1856,  were  25,035,724 
gallons,  against  total  receipts  in  1855  of  24,162,446 
gallons,  and  the  total  consumption  of  this  description 
in  1866  was  23,014,878  gallons,  against  •  consumption" 


MOL 


1870 


MON 


of  foralgn  in  1866  of  R8,&88,428  gallons,  beln^  •  de- 
creaao  in  the  conaumption  of  foreign  in  INfifl,  M  com- 
pared witli  1855,  of  2'20  per  cent,,  while  i'\e  total 
consumption  of  foreign  and  domestic  in  186U  was  80,- 
60H,87H  gallons,  against  n  consumption  in  1855  of 
47,2liti,085  gallons,  beinf,  a  fulling  off  in  186(1  of 
7,667,207  gallons,  or  the  large  decrease  of  lfi-20  per  cent. 


Tba  cODtumptton  of  all  kiuds  in  1866,  a«  shown,  wo* 
](i'20  i)or  cent,  less  than  tliat  of  1856,  whlln  that  of 
18.,,')  was  16^  per  cent,  smaller  than  the  consumption 
of  18,'i4.  Thii"  continued  large  decrease  is  attributable, 
in  a  groat  measure,  to  tlie  rapid  decline  in  the  yield  c* 
Louisiana  cane.  The  fallowing  table  shows  tho  aver- 
age value  of  molnseos  in  New  York  for  two  vears. 


Moi. 

»Bsi».— Its  AvERAoa  Valuk  at  New  York  for  Two  Yraim. 

Monlhi. 

im. 

16U. 

NairOrliui. 

I'orto  nico. 

Cub.  Muaoor. 

Cub«l1»viHl. 

Naw  (Mmiu. 

Porlo  nicw. 

Cuba  Muicov, 

Cubii  Clayed. 

Tanuary 

C«at)». 

24—28 

25-28 

28— 27t 

98—82 

2T— 88 

27-88 

211—88 

88-37 

84-S8J 

87-89 

86-83 

86—49 

rem*. 
24—80 
25—82 
25— !t8 
2.%-82 
85-83 
26—82 
28—88 
82—36 
84-89 
87-39 
86—40 
40—48 

Ont*. 
28—27 
24—27 
22-97 
28-29 
28-30 
26-80 
27—80 
29—83 
81-86 
86-87 
84-88 
40—48 

22  —26 
28  — 2.'> 

20  -22 

21  -28 
28  —26 
25  —26 
a6J— 27 
21J— 81 
80-84 
84—86 
88  —87 
80—42 

Olil*. 
45—19 
41—46 
40—46 
42—47 
46-48 
47-52 
60-,V4 
62-56 
54-56 
54—56 
65—80 
70—80 

IVnin. 
41— H 
4.8—44 
48-44 
87—16 
8»— 45 
40-46 
4.1-60 
48—48 
48— IS 
45— .SS 
60—60 
66-60 

C*nu. 

41—48 

86—42 
84—88 
82—88 
82— .88 
87—12 
41—16 
42-46 
40—46 
4-.'— 48 
4T-62 
4S-M 

Cfiili, 

42-.. 
8:1—40 
88-38 
80—84 
80— .■12 
84  ^6 
8<  -II) 
87—40 
87—40 
89—11 
40—42 
49—.. 

March 

April 

iUy..... ......... 

June 

Inlv 

August 

Septi'inbor 

November 

Decou^ber 

Average  for  the  y'r 

82 

82t 

80i 

28i 

52 

46i 

41J 

.83 

STATF.MRNT  SUOWINd  THE  DOMESTIO  EXPORT  Or  MoLASSXS 
rROM  THK  UnITKD  STATIS  rOR  TlIK  Yk.ab  KNUIMU  JirNK 
80TII,  1866.  


WhIUiar  aiportail. 


Gallona. 

~~\J.9Sf~ 

411, MS 

6,671 

2,265 

1,9»5 

41 

4,028 

511 

10,769 

Total 464,815 


lllamburg 

Il'anaila 

Otber  Uritliih  N.  Amer.  pos. 

IllrlUsh  Wc»t  Indies 

IPorts  in  AMcs. 

JMexlco 

New  Ornnailn 

iChlll 

Wbalo  Fisheries 


Valua. 


(4,076 

140,885 

8,864 

667 

746 

25 

1,499 

276 

4,102 


«I64,6S0 


HTATHMKNT  MIOWINO   THK  FoRKKlN    E.fPORTS    OF  MULASSES 
.'BOM  THK   U.MTKI)  8TATt3  FOR  THF.  YkAR  KKOINU  iluNE 

Sllrir,  18,10. 


Wlillliar  ai|>ortail. 


Russinn  poMossluns  In  N.  Amcr. . 

Hamburg 

Ctlbrnltar. 

'Cannila.' 

ItHlior  Hrlllsh  North  Amor.  pan... 

jFrenoh  North  American  pos 

jFreiH'h  Wont  Inillc.i 

Mailelrii. 

Torts  111  Afrli'tt 

Ilaytl 

Chili 

Wbalu  Kbberios 

ToUl 

From  warehouse 

Not  from  warehouse 


Qalloni. 


60U 

16,784 

2,103 

1,079,887 

10i),US9 

26,413 

2,18.8 

76 

480 

1,282 

22,000 

6,989 


1,261,140 
966,818 
294.822 


Valua. 


1862 

4,818 

720 

2.M,800 

31,694 

7,709 

784 

80 

189 

860 

6,600 

2,814 


«806,1B0 


(282,680 
78,600 


BTATKMr.MT  SHOWING  THR    IMPORTS  OF  MOLASSES  INTO  THE 

HNITF.D  States  for  the  Year  endino  June  80rif.  1866. 


I 


Wlienca  imporlad. 


I 


Uallona. 


DauUb  West  Indies 

Dutch  West  Indies. 

Dutch  f  lulsnn 

Dutch  Fast  Indies 

Kngland 

Canada 

Other  British  North  Amer  pos.. 

British  West  Indies 

British  Host  Indies 

British  (iiilana 

French  West  Indies 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean 

Cuba 

Porto  Kico 

Central  Republlo 

Traill 

Sandwich  Islands 

Total 


5,970 

26,123 

782,810 

80 

1,232 

810 

8,6,4S» 

782,022 

856 

6.V77 

8,704 

1,094 

19,4*12,854 

8,521,946 

11,0!M 

82 

a«,4S8 


Value. 


$908 

8,760 

94,282 

4 

89 

106 

8,585 

154,299 

47 

12,419 

1,007 

164 

8,610,600 

68^687 

1,010 

10 

10,882 


23,617,674    ,  »4,881,668 


See  iSuoAR, 

Mole,  in  architecture,  a  massive  work  formed  of 

large  stones  laid  in  the  sea  by  means  of  cofler  dams, 

oxtendeil  either  in  a  right  lino  or  un  arc  of  a  circle, 

before  a  port,  which  it  serves  to  close  j  to  defend  tho 

'  TWbuls  in  {Hirt  from  the  impetuosity  of  tlio  waves,  aud 


to  prevent  the  passage  of  ships  without  leave.  It  is 
frequently  fortilicd.  Mole  is  sometimes  used  to  sig. 
nify  tile  harbor  itself,  which  it  serves  to  form  or  defend. 
Money.  Wlicn  the  division  of  labor  was  first  in- 
troduced, commodities  were  directly  bartered  for  each 
other.  Those,  for  example,  who  hud  a  surplus  of  corn, 
and  were  in  want  of  win<;,  endeavored  to  lind  out  those 
who  were  in  the  opposite  circumstances,  or  wlio  had  a 
surplus  of  wine  and  wanted  corn,  and  then  e.xclian;;ed 
the  one  for  tho  other.  It  is  <)l>viuus,  however,  tliut  the 
power  of  changing,  and,  conse(iuently,  of  dividing 
employments,  must  have  been  siibjoc^ed  to  perpetual 
interruptions,  so  long  hs  it  was  restricted  to  mere 
barter.  A  carries  produce  to  market,  iind  It  Is  desirous 
to  purchase  it ;  but  tho  (irodueo  belonging  to  It  is  not 
suitable  for  A.  C,  again,  would  like  to  buy  It's  pro- 
duce, but  n  is  already  fully  supplied  with  the  cquivii- 
Icnt  C  has  to  offer.  In  such  cusos — imd  tliey  must  be 
of  a  constant  occurrence  whoiovcr  money  is  not  intro- 
duced— no  direct  exchange  could  take  place  between 
the  parties ;  and  it  might  bo  very  difliciilt  to  liring  it 
about  indirectly.  The  difliculties  that  would  arise  oii 
such  occasions,  and  the  devices  that  would  be  adopted 
to  overcome  them,  have  been  very  well  illustrated  by 
Colonel  Torrcns,  in  his  work  on  the  I'rodiuiion  lif 
Wealth,  p.  291.  The  extreme  inconvenience  attending 
such  situations  must  early  have  forced  themselves  un 
the  attention  of  every  one,  Kflorts  would,  in  conse- 
quence, bo  made  to  avoid  them ;  and  it  would  speedily 
appear  that  the  best  or  rather  tho  only  way  in  wliich 
this  could  bo  effected,  was  to  exchange  either  tlie 
whole  or  a  part  of  one's  surplus  produce  for  some  cem- 
modity  of  known  value,  and  in  general  demand ;  and 
which,  consequently,  few  persons  would  be  inclined  to 
refuse  to  accept  as  an  ci|iiivalent  for  whatever  they 
had  to  dispose  of.  After  tlii.s  commodity  had  liogim  to 
be  cniplo}'ud  as  a  means  of  exchanging  other  com- 
modities, individuals  would  become  wllliiig  to  purchase 
a  greater  quantity  of  it  than  might  be  required  to  pay 
for  tho  products  tliey  were  desirous  of  inuiicdiatcly 
obtaining ;  knowing  that  should  tlicy,  ut  any  future 
period,  want  a  furtlier  supply  either  of  these  or  other 
articles,  they  would  be  able  readily  to  procure  them 
in  exchange  for  this  universally  desired  commodity. 
Thougli  at  first  circulating  slowly  and  with  didiculty, 
it  would,  as  the  advantages  arising  from  its  use  were 
better  appreciated,  begin  to  pass  freely  from  hand  to 
hand.  Its  value,  as  compared  with  other  things, 
would  thus  come  to  be  univi^rsally  known;  and  it 
would  at  last  bo  used,  not  only  as  tlie  cnmiuon  medium 
of  exchange,  but  as  a  standard  by  which  to  ineasuro 
the  vtdue  of  other  things.  Now  this  commodity, 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  money. 


MON 


1371 


MON 


An  inflnlta  varieiy  of  commcxlUies  have  boen  used 
u  money  in  difTerent  countries  and  periods.  But  none 
can  lie  advuntagoously  used  as  such,  unless  it  possess 
several  very  peculiar  qualities.  Tbe  slightest  reflec- 
tion on  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied,  must,  in- 
deed, 1)0  sufliuicnt  to  convince  every  one  that  it  is 
indispensable,  or,  at  '.east,  exceedingly  desirable,  that 
the  commodity  selected  to  serve  as  money  should  (1)  be 
divisible  into  the  smallest  portions ;  (2)  that  it  should 
admit  of  being  liept  for  un  indotinito  period  without 
dotoriornting ;  (3)  that  it  should,  by  possessing  great 
value  in  small  bulk,  be  capable  of  being  easily  trans- 
ported from  place  tu  place;  (4)  that  one  piece  of  money, 
of  a  certain  denomination,  should  always  bo  equal,  in 
magnitude  and  quality,  to  every  other  piece  of  money  of 
the  same  denomination ;  and  (6)  that  its  value  sliould  bo 
comparatively  steady,  or  ns  little  subject  tu  variation 
at  possible.  Without  the^><<  of  these  qmilities,  or  the 
capacity  of  being  divided  into  portions  of  every  diD'cr- 
ent  magnitude  and  value,  money,  it  is  evident,  would 
be  of  almost  no  use,  and  could  only  be  exchanged  fur 
the  few  commodities  that  might  happen  to  be  of  the 
same  value  as  its  indivisible  portions,  or  as  wliole  mul- 
tiples of  them ;  without  the  second,  or  the  capacity  of 
being  kept  or  boarded  without  iletcriorating,  no  one 
would  choose  to  exchange  commodities  fur  money,  ex- 
cept only  when  he  expected  to  bo  able  speedily  to  re- 
exchange  that  money  for  something  else  ;  witliout  the 
thinl,  or  facility  of  trans|)ortation,  money  could  not 
bo  conveniently  used  in  transactions  lietween  places  at 
any  considerable  distance ;  without  the/uiiii/i,  or  perfect 
sameness,  it  would  be  extremely  diflicult  to  appreci- 
ate the  value  of  different  pieces  of  money ;  and  with- 
out the  Ji/th  quality,  or  comparative  steadiness  of 
value,  money  could  not  serve  as  a  standard  by  wliich 
tu  measure  the  value  of  other  commodities ;  and  no 
one  would  be  disposed  to  exchange  the  produce  of  his 
industry  for  an  article  that  might  shortly  decline  con- 
siderably in  its  power  of  purchasing. 

The  union  of  the  dittercnt  qualities  of  comparative 
steadiness  of  value,  divisibility,  durability,  facility  of 
transportation,  and  perfect  sameness,  in  the  precious 
metals,  doubtless  formed  tho  irresistible  reason  that  has 
induced  every  civilized  conmiunity  to  employ  them  as 
money.  The  value  of  gold  and  silver  is  certainly  not  in 
variable,  but  generally  speaking  it  changes  only  by  slow 
degrees :  they  are  divisible  into  any  number  of  |>art8, 
and  have  the  singular  property  of  being  easily  reunited, 
by  means  of  fusion,  without  loss  ;  they  do  not  deterio- 
rate by  being  kept ;  and  from  their  Arm  and  compact 
texture,  they  are  very  ditticult  to  wear.  Their  cost 
of  production,  especially  that  of  gold,  is  so  consider- 
able, that  thoy  iiossess  great  value  in  small  bulk,  and 
can,  of  course,  be  transported  with  comparative  facility ; 
and  an  ounce  of  pure  gold  or  silver  taken  from  the 
mines  in  any  quarter  of  the  world,  is  precisely  equal, 
in  point  of  quality,  to  an  ounce  of  puro  gold  or  silver 
dug  from  the  mines  in  any  other  quarter.  Xo  won- 
der, therefore,  when  all  tho  qualities  necessary  to  con- 
stitute money  are  possessed  in  so  eminent  a  degree  by 
the  precious  metals,  that  they  have  been  used  as  such, 
in  civilized  societies,  from  a  very  remote  era.  "  They 
became  universal  money,"  as  Turgot  has  observed, 
"  not  in  consequence  of  any  arbitrary  agreement  among 
men,  or  of  the  intervention  of  any  law,  but  by  the  na- 
ture ond  force  of  things."  When  first  used  ns  money, 
the  precious  metals  were  inan  uufashioncd  state,  in  burs 
or  ingots.  The  parties  having  agreed  about  thu  quan- 
tity of  metal  to  bo  given  for  a  commodity,  that  quantity 
was  then  weighed  otf.  Hut  this,  it  is  plain,  must  have 
been  u  tedious  and  troublesome  process.  Undoulitcd- 
ly,  however,  the  greatest  obstacle  that  would  be  exjic- 
rienced  in  early  ages  to  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  as 
money,  would  be  found  to  consist  in  the  difficulty  of 
determining  the  degree  of  their  purity  witii  sufficient 
precision  j  and  tlio  discovery  of  some  means  by  which 
ibeir  weight  «nd  Unenesg  miglit  be  readily  and  cor- 


rectly ascertained,  would  bo  felt  to  lia  IndlspaniAbtt 
to  their  extensive  use  as  money,  Fortunatel/  Ihaap 
means  were  not  long  in  bcmg  discovered,  The  fubrj. 
cation  of  coins,  or  tho  practice  of  impretsjiig  pleiien 
of  the  precious  metals  with  a  stamp  indicutiiiK  Ihulf 
weight  and  purity,  belongs  to  the  remotest  Hiitiqiilty, 
GoUQET,  Dc  I'Origine  de»  loix,  etc,  tome  |,,  p,  'M, 
And  it  may  safely  be  affirmed,  that  there  bavo  liHPIl 
very  few  inventions  of  greater  utility,  or  that  hilVB 
done  inoro  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  IniliruveillBrit, 

It  is  material,  however,  to  observe,  that  tha  iiitrU' 
duction  and  use  of  coined  money  make  no  clmii({ti 
whatever  iu  the  principle  on  which  exchanges  wvti' 
previously  conducted.  The  coinage  saves  the  troillilM 
of  weighing  and  assaying  gold  and  silver,  hut  It  ibiM 
nothing  more.  It  declares  the  weight  and  purity  of 
the  metal  in  a  coin ;  but  the  raliw  of  timt  metal  nr 
coin  is  in  all  cases  determined  liy  precisely  the  nmm 
principles  which  determine  the  value  of  other  roiii. 
mudities,  and  would  bo  as  little  affected  by  lieing  rs- 
coined  with  a  new  denomination,  as  the  burden  iif  A 
ship  by  a  change  of  her  name.  Inaccurate  iiulliinn 
with  respect  to  the  influence  of  coinage  senni  to  hiiva 
given  rise  to  the  opinion  so  long  cutortuined,  that  I'lillis 
were  merely  tho  sii/ns  of  values  I  Hut  it  U  tiBar  tliiiy 
have  no  more  claim  to  this  designation  thuu  hi)N  tif 
iron  or  copiwr,  sacks  of  wheat,  or  any  othor  iMiin= 
niodity.  They  change  for  other  things,  bociiusii  Hiiiy 
uro  desirable  articles,  and  are  posHoased  of  rBAl  iritrllb 
sic  value.  A  draft,  chock,  or  bill  may  not  iMipiiiiiurly, 
perhaps,  be  regarded  as  the  sign  of  the  nmnuy  to  fiB 
given  for  it.  Hut  that  money  is  nothing  liiit  it  uoiil- 
modity ;  it  is  not  a  sign— it  is  a  tiling  BigiilllBd, 

Money,  however,  is  not  merely  tho  universal  oqillv!' 
alent, or  menliamHae buiiale,  used  liy  scii'iety  i  |t  is  itliii 
the  standard  used  tu  compare  the  values  of  all  sorts  of 
products;  and  the  stipulations  in  the  grunt  bulk  of 
contracts  and  deeds,  us  to  tho  delivery  and  disposal  iif 
property,  Iiavo  all  rcfcranco  to,  uiid  are  cuuMUonly  »%• 
prcssci  in,  (luantilles  of  money.  It  is  plainly,  tliefB' 
fore,  0  the  utmost  importance  that  its  value  slinilld  l)B 
preserved  as  invariable  as  possible.  Owing,  liowBVsr, 
to  improvements  in  the  arts,  tho  oxhuustiou  of  obj 
mines,  and  the  discovery  of  new  ones,  the  value  of  the 
precious  metals  is  necessarily  inconstant  |  tll0U|{ll| 
if  wo  cccept  tho  cITccts  produced  in  the  Itlth  cuutUPy 
by  tlio  discovery  of  the  American  mines,  it  does  not 
appcir  to  have  varied  so  mucli  at  other  tiuies  as  might 
have  been  anticipated.  Great  mischief  has,  biiWBVer, 
been  repeatedly  occasioned  li}'  the  changes  that  llltve 
been  made  in  most  countries  in  tlie  weight,  and  soine- 
times  also  in  the  purity,  of  coins;  and  sinco  the  InipoU 
icy  of  these  changes  has  been  recognized,  similar,  itltd 
perhaps  still  mure  extensive,  discords  have  spriini; 
from  the  improper  use  of  sulistitutcs  for  coins,  It  Is, 
indeed,  quite  obvious,  that  no  change  can  take  plitd; 
in  tlie  value  of  money  witliout  proportionally  affoclliijj 
the  pecuniary  coiidltlons  in  all  contracts  uml  agfUB^ 
inents.  Stuili,  Iiowevcr,  of  the  influence  of  a  >liHng(i 
depends  on  its  direction.  An  increase  iu  the  vulliu  (if 
money  is  uniformly  more  prejudicial,  iu  u  pulilii'  point  of 
view,  than  its  diminution;  tho  latter,  though  liijiirlouit 
to  individuals,  may  sometimes  be  productive  of  natloil^ 
al  advantage ;  but  such  can  never  bo  the  case  with  lllB 
former.  See  Priiicipks  of  Political  Kconomy,  by  MH' 
Ct;i.i.ocii,  ;td  cd.,  pp.  510-515. 

No  certain  estimate  can  ever  bo  formed  of  tho  iiusn- 
tity  of  money  rcijuircd  to  conduct  the  business  of  imy 
country ;  tliis  quantity  being,  in  all  cases,  duterilllltad 
liy  tho  value  of  money  Itself,  tlie  services  it  bus  tu  \mf- 
form,  and  the  devices  used  for  economizing  Its  em= 
ployment.  Generally,  however,  it  is  very  consldBfulilB  | 
and  wlien  it  consists  wholly  of  gold  and  silver.  It  oc. 
casiuns  a  very  heavy  expense.  There  can,  IndBBrt,  I'B 
nu  doubt  that  tho  wish  to  lessen  this  expense  has  buan 
one  of  the  chief  causes  that  have  led  all  civlllzBd  mill 
commercial  nations  to  fabricate  a  purtlun  of  IbBtr 


MON 


13Y2 


MON 


money  of  some  less  valuabla  material.  Of  the  various 
Bubstitntes  resorted  to  for  this  purpose,  paper  is,  in  all 
respects,  the  most  eligible.  Its  employment  seems  to 
have  grown  naturally  out  of  tlie  circumstances  inci- 
dent to  an  advancing  society.  When  govemmont  be- 
comes suiBciently  powerful  and  intelligent  to  enforce 
the  observance  of  contracts,  individuals  possessed  of 
written  promises  from  others  that  they  will  pay  certain 
sums  at  certain  specified  periods,  l)egin  to  assign  them 
to  tlioso  to  whom  the}'  are  indel)ted ;  and  when  the 
subscrilwrs  are  persons  of  fortune,  and  of  whoso  solv- 
ency no  doubt  can  be  entertained,  their  obligations  are 
readily  accepted  in  payment  of  debts.  But  when  the 
circulation  of  promises  or  bills  in  this  way  has  contin- 
ued for  a  while,  individuals  begin  to  perceive  that 
they  may  derive  a  profit  l>y  issuing  them  in  such  a 
form  as  to  fit  them  for  being  readli}-  used  as  a  sulisti- 
tute  for  money  in  tho  ordinary  transactions  of  life. 
Ilenco  tho  origin  of  banic  notes.  An  individual  in 
whose  wealtd  and  discretion  the  public  have  confi- 
dence, being  applied  to  for  a  loan,  say  $5000,  grunts 
the  applicant  his  bill^rnoto,  payable  on  demand,  for 
that  sura.  Now,  as  this  note  passes,  in  consequence 
of  the  confidence  placed  in  tho  issuer,  currently  from 
liand  to  hand  as  cash,  it  is  quite  as  useful  to  the  l>or- 
rower  as  if  it  had  been  gold  ;  and  supposing  that  the 
rate  of  interest  is  5  per  cent.,  it  will  yield,  so  long  as 
it  continues  to  circulate,  u  revenue  of  $250  dollars  a 
year  to  the  issuer.  A  banlicr  who  issues  notes,  coins, 
as  it  were,  his  credit.  He  derives  tho  same  revenue 
from  the  loan  of  his  written  promise  to  pay  ii  certain 
sum,  that  he  could  derive  from  the  loan  of  the  sum 
Itself,  or  of  an  equivalent  amount  of  produce  I  And 
while  he  thus  increases  his  own  income,  he,  at  tho 
same  time,  contributes  to  increase  tlio  wealth  of  the 
public.  The  cheapest  species  of  currency  being  sub- 
stituted in  the  place  of  that  which  is  most  expensive, 
the  superfluous  coins  are  either  used  in  the  arts  or  are 
exported  in  exchange  for  raw  materials  or  manufac- 
tured goods,  by  the  use  of  whicli  both  wealth  and  en- 
joyments are  increased.  Ever  since  the  introduction 
of  bills,  almost  all  great  commercial  transactions  have 
been  carried  on  by  means  of  paper  only.  Notes  are 
also  used  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness of  society;  ond  while  they  are  roadibly  ex- 
ciiangeablo,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  holder,  for  coins,  or 
for  the  precise  quantities  of  gold  or  silver  tliey  profess 
to  represent,  their  value  is  maintained  on  a  par  with 
tho  value  of  these  metals ;  and  all  injurions  fluctua- 
tions in  the  v^lue  of  money  are  as  effectnaily  avoided 
OS  if  it  consisted  wholly  of  the  precious  metals. 

In  common  mercantile  language,  tlio  party  who  ex- 
changes money  for  a  commodity  is  said  to  bu}' ;  the 
party  who  exchanges  a  commodity  for  money  lieing 
said  to  sell.  Price,  unless  whore  the  contrary  is  dis- 
tinctly mentioned,  always  means  the  value  of  a  com- 
modity estimated  or  rated  In  money.  For  a  further 
account  of  metallic  money,  see  the  article  Coix. 

Seo  Banlxra'  Mag.,  v.,  309,  .181,  ii.,  1,  641 ;  Hu.vt's 
Hag.,  I.,  50  (C.  F.  Adams);  Ed.  Rev.,  x.,  284,  xiii., 
35,  xxxiii.,  668;  West.  Rev.,  i\.,  00;  Vr  Bow's  Rev., 
vi.,  243,  vii.,  601. 

Monopoly.  By  this  term  is  usually  meant  a 
grant  by  competent  authoritj',  conveying  to  some  one 
individual,  or  number  of  individuals,  the  sole  right  of 
buying,  selling,  mailing,  importing,  exporting,  etc., 
some  one  commodity,  or  set  of  commodities.  Such 
grants  were  very  common  previously  to  the  accession 
of  the  house  of  Stuart,  and  were  carried  to  a  verj- 
oppressive  and  injurious  extent  during  the  reign  of 
Queon  Klixabetli.  Commercial  monopolies  reached  to 
such  a  height  in  England,  that  Parliament  petitioned 
against  them,  and  they  were  in  consequence  mostly 
abolished  about  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  1602. 
They  wore  further  suppressed,  as  being  contrary  to 
law,  19  James  I.,  1622 ;  and  were  totally  abolished, 
and  it  was  decreed  that  none  should  be  in  future  cre- 


ated, as  was  previously  tho  custom,  by  royal  patent, 
16  Charles  I.,  1640. — ANDBnsoN'a  llinton/  of  Cum' 
merce.  The  grievance  became  at  length  so  insupport- 
able, that,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  govern* 
ment,  which  looked  upon  the  power  of  granting 
monoi>olie8  as  a  very  valuable  part  of  the  prerogative, 
they  were  abolished  by  the  famous  net  of  1024.  Tha 
act  of  James  I.  declared  that  all  monopolies,  grunts, 
letters  patent  for  the  sole  buying,  selling,  and  maliing 
of  goods  and  manufactures,  shall  be  null  and  vnlil, 
It  excepts  patents  for  14  years  for  the  sole  working  or 
making  of  any  new  manufactures  within  the  realm, 
to  the  truo  and  first  inventors  of  such  manufaoturea, 
provided  they  he  not  contrary  to  law,  nor  mischievous 
to  tile  State.  It  also  excepts  grants  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment to  any  corporation,  comimny,  or  society,  for  tha 
enlargement  of  trade,  and  letters  patent  coucurnliig 
tho  making  of  gunpowder,  etc.  This  act  effectually 
secured  the  freedom  of  Industry  in  Groat  Britain  j  and 
has  done  more,  perhaps,  to  excite  the  spirit  of  Inven- 
tion and  industry,  and  to  accelerate  the  progress  of 
wealth,  than  any  other  In  the  statute  book. 

Monsoons  (from  the  Malay  muuin,  season), 
periwiical  trade  winds,  which  Idow  six  months  In  ono 
dfrection,  and  the  rest  of  the  year  in  an  opposite  ono, 
They  prevail  in  the  Indian  Ocean  north  of  the  10th 
degree  of  south  latitude.  From  April  to  Octolier  n 
violent  south-west  wind  Idows,  accompanied  witli 
rain,  and  from  October  to  April,  a  gentle  dry  north- 
east l)reeze  prevails.  The  change  of  tho  winds  or  Ihn 
breaking  up  of  the  monsoons,  as  it  is  called,  Is  accoin. 
panied  by  storms  and  hurricanes.  These  periodical 
currents  of  winds  do  not  reach  very  high,  as  their  prog- 
ress is  arrested  by  mountains  of  a  moderate  height. 

Monsoons  are,  for  the  most  part,  formed  of  trado- 
winds.  When  at  stated  seasons  of  the  year  a  trarle- 
wind  is  deflected  in  its  regular  course  from  one  quiid- 
rant  to  another,  or  drawn  in  by  overheated  diiitriiits. 
It  is  regarded  us  a  monsoon.  Thus  tho  African  ninu- 
soons  of  the  Atlantic,  the  monsoons  of  the  (iulf  of 
Mexico,  and  tho  Central  American  monsoons  of  the 
Pacific,  are,  for  the  most  part,  formed  of  tho  trade- 
winds,  which  uro  turned  l)ack  or  deflected  to  rcstiire 
the  equililirium  which  the  over-heuted  plains  of  Af- 
rica, Utah,  Texas,  and  New  Mexico  have  distiirlierl. 
When  the  monsoons  prevail  for  five  months  ut  a  tinm, 
for  It  takes  about  a  month  for  them  to  ciuuige  an<l  hn- 
como  settled,  then  both  they  and  tho  trado-wimls, 
whicli  they  replace,  are  culled  monsoons.  Tho  nortli- 
cast  and  the  south-west  monsoons  of  the  Indian  Dciiun 
afford  an  example  of  this  kind.  A  force  Is  oxurtod 
upon  tha  north-east  trade-winds  of  that  sea  by  tli« 
disturbance  which  the  heat  of  summer  creates  In  tliii 
atmosphere  over  the  interior  plains  of  Asia,  wliich  Is 
more  than  sufHcient  to.  neutralize  tho  forces  which 
cause  those  winds  to  blow  as  trade-winds  ;  It  urrests 
them ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  peculi.-.r  conditions  of 
the  land  about  that  ocean,  what  are  now  culioil  thn 
north-east  monsoons  would  blow  the  yeur  round  i  thci'u 
would  bo  no  sauth-weft  monsoons  there ;  und  llie 
north-east  winds,  being  perpetual,  would  lieconie,  jill 
tho  year,  what  in  reality  for  several  months  they  urn, 
viz.,  north-east  trade-winds. 

As  long  ago  as  1831,  Dove  muintuined  that  the 
south-west  monsoon  was  the  south-east  trado-wind 
rushing  forward  to  fill  tho  vacant  pinces  ovi'P  tlio 
northern  deserts.  Dove  admits  tho  proofs  of  this  to 
lie  indirect,  and  acknowledges  the  difllculty  of  finding 
out  and  demonstroting  the  problem. — Animlm  iler 
Physik,  No.  94.  Translated  by  Dr.  Ilosengarton  (hi 
the  .4meric«n  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xx.,  (io. 

The  north-east  and  south-east  trade-winds  meet,  wo 
know,  near  the  equator,  where  they  produce  tho  bidt 
of  equatorial  calms.  All  vessels  that  pass  from  oiiii 
system  of  trade-winds  to  tho  other  hive  to  cross  this 
calm  belt.  Sometimes  they  clear  it  in  a  few  iioufs 
Sometimes  they  ore  delayed  in  it  for  weeks ;  and  the 


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MON 


«»lm  it  no  itlll  and  th«  ,  •  ^^^^  UfWr 


»yllth.o«8t  tf«de.„|  ,j  "f  *r^'  '•  O'l  the  other  hand,  the       X    AP'-"-Ma..«v;  X  L      i*'/  "'  ""^l"  or 
l'l«-m  where  the  oq  a  iril'n^',,'^'""'  ''  "rrive.  at  the   descrn"^'/?"-^'^"  '''~t  -S^'^-  ''•^'^%*''- 
»»  |"«.'l  With  tJmoTly'^^'''r^'>'o^onttoZrJT^^  thu, 

'"«'-«,t  trade,,  are  drawn '^'^°"".«  ''""=«  <'™ra  the   I„, ,^7  "S**  P'«"«'l« 'he  sta-hreT^       '  »"<»>  that  the 
'Wnl-pl,«re.     iioJJXl°,T  """  "«'  ''orthe™   of  f/'  •""'^  "«  -""^ompanled  with  ^""'""y  ~ntinue 
riolB",  thplr  tendency  1,1,    """  «•>"»'»'•  toward  th^  ,1  ^^  "''' '  ""»'-  on  the  contn.^  I..""  "P'^"'^  moth.n 
mmlon,  II,  well  „T«       ol'eythe  force,  of  dlnr^.?     ^  '»"<l-breezo  are   in  h     7' """'«  ^hlch  precede 

Into  the  other.     Thi*n„„«, '''*''''  o^  ""e  one  wind   ihT    ^"'"""  ^^"^W".  in  the  North  i' .,  ""  '^^'''  'n  'ha 

•"Hth-WMt.  The,  ■  ""l *<>°  N.  77  observations  w  n  i ?  '""*''*"'  hemisphere  /,«„',  '"'''"'"'  '"'""«  'n 
^Mlly  taught  tHunr,'"""'  ""  "°^  •«  we  „,;  Z  L'"'"p '""'•' <^''i„a /earndm  tZ  r'T'  '™"«-wind 
""Hlo  time  nil  "'"PP""-  fommence  or  end  at^th "".  *""'  '"'''"n  ArchineWo  ♦.  ^"'"•■'"  O-'^on;  in 
""'•'  'wlow  Calcutta  ^  '■;'"''"  0™«n.     In  the  «.  f    ?''' •'  ■•""'  ^cre,  y.hXZ'l'  """'  '"'""oon  pre" 


'!«tl«ml.m..t  wind  f^?!'^  ""'■"■    They  now  romrr''^"'"'''"^»'""'0  tr«deL„d  »7^  '"  ""'"'""«  "'e 

•"'  "omo  timet  t,.o"7"'^"^«'^™omhra^rrr^^r^  '""  '""«'  'he 

"•'rtlMH»t  .«(m"oon,  ,r.  ^.  P"''  °^  September     iT:     ,'  "*''?  '»  ''^'•'■''«  ^"htther  monthi."  •  "'"^''^'''ions  will 
«'';'hl.««rrdo°rjtl"::,'*'"°'''«"«*^he\';„fl^^^^^  ^nthejT.?^i;''2^''«'',<;<'-'''»''ot 

!.  "«•"  P««  of  N„:;!J  .r™.  ""i  ■"-«  vi«„r  S   l  it"'.?.?:'  '"o --*  monsoon':; 'ri'-  "'o"'" 


t''»  lliirth^a,t  »;„«!     '  T'^een  15°  and  20°  V  i  i'"  ""''•■  "'"}'  «re  often  fifii^?  ,   '^'''"8  "P  from 

^'  '^  "»'«''' '  RoP^Wic  of  UruX  o7the'north  l''\««P'"'l  of  th, 
«"»J ,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Bio  de 


MON 


1374 


MON 


la  Plata,  lat.  84°  54'  11"  S.,  long.  6G°  19'  18"  W. 
The  population,  which  la  variously  estimated^  may 
prol)ably  be  about  12,000.  The  town  is  built  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre,  on  a  rcgnlar  plan,  and  is 
woU  fortifled.  It  has  suffered  much  from  the  various 
revolutions  to  which  it  has  been  subject  during  the 
last  80  years.  Montevideo  is  situated  2°  3'  88"  W. 
of  Ca|>e  St.  Mary,  the  northern  limit  of  the  embou- 
cliure  of  the  La  Plata.  Vessels  ftrom  the  north  l)ound 
to  Montevideo  generally  malce  this  cape,  entering  the 
river  between  it  and  the  small  island  of  Lobos,  in  from 
14  to  17  fathoms.  The  course  is  thence  nearly  west 
to  the  Isle  of  Flores,  on  which  is  a  light-house  112  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  with  a  revolving  light. 
■  Prom  Flores  to  Montevideo  is  16  miles  in  a  direct  line, 
and  the  course  west  by  south  by  compass.  A  light- 
house, 476  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  been 
erected  on  the  summit  of  the  Montevideo,  whence  the 
town  has  its  name.  The  latter  is  built  on  a  projecting 
tongue  of  land,  the  port  being  on  its  south  side.  This, 
wliich  is  the  l)est  on  the  La  Plata,  is  a  large  circular 


basin,  open  to  the  south-west.  Generally  the  water  ii 
shallow,  not  exceeding  from  14  to  19  feet;  but  the 
bottom  being  soft  mud,  vessels  are  seldom  damaijed  by 
grounding.  It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  the 
depth  of  water  in  the  harbor,  as  well  as  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  depends  very  much  on 
the  direction  and  strength  of  the  winds.  The  south- 
west wind,  called  pamperoi,  blows  right  into  the  Bay 
of  Montevideo  with  much  force,  not  unfVequently 
causing  a  rise  of  a  fathom  or  more  in  the  depth  of 
water  I  But  it  rarely  occasions  much  damage  to  ves- 
sels properly  moored  with  anchors  to  the  south-west, 
sonth-east,  and  one  to  the  north.  (Bldnt's  American 
Pilot,  edit.  1867  j  Coulier  tur  let  Pharet,  etc.)  Mon- 
tevideo has  a  considerable  commerce.  The  great 
articles  of  export  consist  of  animal  products,  or  of 
hides,  beef,  tallow,  hair,  bones,  grease,  wool,  etc. 
The  imports  principally  consist  of  British  cottons, 
woolens,  and  hardware,  flour,  wine  and  spirits,  linens, 
sugar,  tobacco,  boots  and  shoes,  salt,  etc.  The  follow- 
table  shows  the  exports  from  these  \WTt»  for  five  years : 


Account  or  sundbv  Expobtb  raosi  Bursos  Atues  and  Mostbvidko  in  the  roLLOwixa  Ykars. 


Vmk. 

Dry  WHl  Mitcil 
01  A  cow  hlilttk. 

lions  hldu. 

Horn  hnlr. 

Wool. 

ShetpaklM. 

NuUlalkliu. 

Tslluw  anil 

■Oftp. 

Horu. 

1983 

No. 
1,218,101 
1,262,408 
1,819.S27 
8,562,988 
2,980,040 

No. 

64,596 

49,798 

48,804 

177,508 

140,855 

Arrobn.. 
80,5:16 
49,832 
81,101 
177,096 
115,S11 

ArrobM. 
199,058 

72,062 

96,611 

969,067 

516,798 

l»Mn». 
58,965 
10,804 
10,851 
211,694 
102,424 

Doitiu. 
71,745 
21,S.S9 
1»,.M0 
97,904 
97,628 

ArrobM. 
814,288 
407,892 
876,474 
1,222.086 
511,785 

No. 
1,080,000 
1,199.000 
1,142,(186 
2,687,972 
2,183,919 

1889 

1840 

1841 

1842 

Dntitt  on  /mportH,  in  National  or  Forelr/n  VtMeli,  at 
Montivideo. — 1,  Machinery,  agricultural  implements, 
instruments  used  in  the  arts  nnd  sciences,  boolcs, 
prints,  and  maps,  free.'  2.  8ill(,  raw  and  wrought, 
iai'es,  blonde,  gold  and  silver  embroidery,  watches, 
jewelrj',  saltpetre,  plaster  of  Paris,  coal,  timber,  cot- 
ton fringe,  and  wooden  hoops,  6  per  cent.  3.  Powder, 
pitch,  tar,  rosin,  and  naval  stores,  13  per  cent.  4.  All 
raw  materials,  and  manufactured  articles,  not  included 
in  tlie  preceding  enumeration,  15  per  cent.  5,  Sugar, 
['Uruguay  and  China  teas,  cocoa,  cassia  lignea,  and 
cinnamon,  spices,  drugs,  and  provurions  in  general,  20 
\h:t  cent.  G.  Furniture,  pictures,  looking-glasses, 
musical  instruments,  all  sorts  of  carriages,  carts,  etc., 
and  harness,  saddles,  horses'  furniture  (excepting 
liurse  cloths  of  the  manufacture  of  the  adjacent  prov- 
inces, which  pay  15  per  cent.),  ready-made  clothes, 
boots  and 'shoes,  licjueurs,  brand)',  wine,  vinegar,  ale 
and  porter,  cider,  tobacco,  and  soap,  25  per  cent.  Suit, 
2  reals  the  fanego,  say  lid.  per  290  pounds.  7.  Hides 
of  all  classes,  hair,  horns,  tallow,  silver  and  gold,  in 
bullion  or  coin,  free.  A  small  charge  is  mode  fur 
warehousing  'and  porterage  on  passing  through  the 
custom-house.  Goods  may  be  bonded  for  an  indefi- 
nite period,  during  which  time  they  are  subject  to  a 
moderate  warehouse  rent.  Foreign  flour  pays  as  fol- 
lows :  .$8  per  i)arrel,  when  wheat  is  wortli  #2  to  $8 
per  funegu,  about  224  pounds;  (J6  per  barrel,  when 
wlieut  is  worth  $8  to  $5  ;  $-1,  when  wlieut  is  worth  >ti5 
to  $7;  $2,  when  wtieat  is  worth  $7  to  $9;  $1,  wlien 
wheat  exceeds  $9.  Wheat:  §3  per  funegu,  when 
wheat  is  worth  $2  to  $3  per  fanegu ;  fi'i,  when  wheat 
is  worth  $3  to  $6;  $1,  wlien  wlieut  is  worth  $6  to 
SilO;  nothing,  when  wheat  is  wortli  above  ^X(t  per 
funegu ;  goods  transhipped,  or  sliipped  out  of  bond, 
pay  2  per  cent.  Foreign  goods,  shipped  in  vessels  of 
less  than  150  tons  burden,  for  [wrts  of  the  Uruguay 
and  Paraguay,  pay  only  1  per  cent.  8.  All  gotids 
imported,  paying  duties,  are  subject  to  pay  un  mi- 
ilitiunul  1  per  cent,  to  the  ronsuluJo ;  \  |)cr  cent,  to 
the  hospitul ;  and  for  the  extinction  of  cop|)er  inop>{y, 
1  per  cent  additional  on  all  goods  tlint  pay  5  per 
cent.  (This  has,  much  to  the  honor  of  tlie  autlior- 
ities  and  people,  Ijeen  ulreudy  accomplished ;  l>ut  tlie 
duty  is  iiiaintuincd  for  general  pur|)oses.)  Un  nil 
goods  that  pay  13, 15,  and  20  per  cent.,  3  per  cent. 
On  all  goods  that  pay  25  per  cent.,  6  per  cent.  On 
Sour,  10  par  cent.     On  wheat,  3  per  cent. 


j  Duties  on  Kxporta,  in  National  or  foreign  Vessels. — 
I  Ox  and  cow  hides,  2  reals,  25  centesimos,  for  recon- 
;  nidor  valuations  of  $1,  and  1  per  cent,  consuludo. 
Horse  hides,  1  real  for  reconnidor,  on  valuations  of  5 
reals  for  reconnidor  each,  and  1  per  cent,  consulado. 
All  other  produce  of  the  country  puj-s  4  (ler  cent,  on 
the  market  value,  and  1  per  cent,  consulado.  Jerked 
and  salt  beef,  pork,  etc. ;  also  all  foreign  goods  that 
have  paid  the  import  duty,  fVee.  Gold  and  silver, 
coined  or  in  bullion,  1  per  cent. 

Port  Charges. — Tonnage  from  beyond  sea,  foreign 
vessels,  3  reals;  national  vessels,  2  reals.  During 
loading  and  unloading,  both  classes  pay  $1  per  day. 
Pratique,  with  pilot,  foreign  vessels,  $8 ;  national  ves- 
sels, $4.  Bout,  with  pilot,  foreign  vessels,  $2 ;  na- 
tional vessels,  $2.  Without  pilot,  foreign  vessels,  $4 ; 
national  vessels,  $2.  National  and  foreign  vessels 
that  neither  discharge  nor  load  cargo,  and  that  do  not 
remain  more  tlian  six  days,  pay  nothing ;  those  tliat 
remain  in  the  harlior  mora  than  six  days  pay  one  tliird 
of  the  above  tonnage  dues.  National  vessels,  and 
vessels  belonging  to  the  provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
employed  within  the  Itiver  Platte,  called  coasting,  pay 
fur  a  license  for  each  voj'age,  if  8  to  7  tons,  4  reals ;  8 
to  15  tons,  10  reals,  or  $1  02  ;  16  to  30  tons,  18  reals, 
or  $2  02 ;  81  to  45  tons,  26  reals,  or  $3  02;  46  to  GO 
tons,  30  reals,  or  $8  06 ;  61  to  80  tons,  88  reals,  or 
$4  06 ;  81  to  100  tons,  46  reals,  or  $5  06 ;  101  and 
above,  54  reals,  or  $6  06. 

Hospital  Dues. — National  nnd  foreign  vessels,  sailing 
for  a  foreign  port  beyond  sea  nr  in  the  Itiver  Platte, 
pay  $2  for  the  vessel,  4  reals  for  the  captain,  2  reals 
for  each  seaman,  1^1  for  each  passenger. 

Pilotage  from  Montevideo  to  Buenos  Ayres  to  lie 
paid  in  Montevideo.  If  the  draught  of  water  do  not 
exceed  9  feet,  Burgos  measure,  $50 ;  9  to  10  feet,  $60 ; 
10  to  11  feet,  $70 ;  11  to  12  feet,  $80 ;  12  to  13  feet, 
$100 ;  13  to  14  feet,  $120 ;  14  to  15  feet,  $140  ;  15  to 
16  feet,  $160  ;  16  to  17  feet,  $190 ;  17  to  18  feet,  $220. 

Monigs,  Weights,  and ^feafures. — Paper  money  there 
is  none.  Current  money,  tlio  Brazilian  patacon  and 
Spanish  dollar;  they  pass  for  960  cente.simos.  100 
cents  make  a  real ;  800  cents,  or  8  reals,  make  a  dol- 
lar; 960  cents,  or  9  reals  60  cents,  make  1^  current 
dollar,  or  1  hard  dollar  or  patacon.  Weights  and 
measures  same  us  tliose  of  Spain ;  fur  which,  see 
Cadiz. 

As  regards  the  commeice  of  the  United  States  with 


Monte' 
years, 
nine  y 
which 
withoul 
breedin 
been  dt 
the  war 
Rozas  a 
or  no  pi 
from  th 
proceed 
return  ci 
of  late  hi 
ticularly 
which  flo 
of  a  few; 
to  supply 
In  exchai) 
vast  consi 
steam  mil 
as  yot  (Se 
this  count 
the  eiiterp 
and  horse 
present  tli 
streams  of 
heen  broug 
chiefly  of  8 
the  latter  i 
tributed  to 
navigation 
ia  gradual!) 
niiig  regu'a 
and  others  t 
ing  freight  i 
sidered  as  vi 
fuel  is  a  ser 
quarter,  as  n 
used  comes  i 
▼ery  dear  rat 
not  realized  s 
^ort  Chan 
Reis  to  the  M, 
mooring,  $4; 
150,  if  not  mu 
"W ;  stamps  fc 
day  while  di 
$30;  stamps, 
patched,  $25 
ing  to  the  nui 
pilot  to  Friinqi 
fees,  if  for  bui 
I'ei'c,  $12.     Si 
800  reis.     Vcs 
rival  without  i 
Jand  samples,  i 
their  cargoes. 
Montreal, 
Mst,  and  the  I, 
seat  of  comine 
[lie  left  l)ank  o( 
"ne  south-west 
<3°  25'  west. 
«7,716;  1854,  «; 
as  that  of  Quel 
Perior  to  that  c 
nead  of  the  ship 
""ak-  its  confluen 
"atiun  with  resi 
™y  makes  it  „„ 
a<'a.     Theharl.0 
»el»  drawing  15 
If»  general  dopt 
ouadvantage  cun 
mile  below  the  ci 
't  difficult  to  steii 


v."-/;-: 


MON 


1375 


MON 


Itatea  with 


Montevideo,  we  find  tt  has  mnch  diminlsheil  of  late 
yearn,  which  may  he  attributed  to  the  late  civil  war  of 
nine  years'  duration.  The  interior  of  the  country, 
which  formerly  abounded  in  horned  cattle,  in  now 
without  a  sufRciency  to  supply  the  "  Estanclas"  for 
breeding  those  useful  animals,  millions  of  them  having 
been  destroyed  for  their  hides  alone  in  the  course  of 
the  war  before  mentioned,  by  the  troops  of  Generals 
Rozas  and  Oribe  ;  and  the  consequence  is,  tliat  little 
or  no  produce  conies  in  from  the  country.  Vessels 
from  the  United  States  with  their  outward  cargoes 
proceed  onward  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  they  find 
return  cargoes,  which  are  easily  obtained.  Capitalists 
of  late  have  turned  their  attention  to  agriculture,  par- 
ticularly to  the  cultivotion  of  wheat  and  Indian  com, 
which  flourish  here  in  a  high  degree  ;  and  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  this  country  will,  probably,  be  enabled 
to  supply  Brazil  witli  the  article  of  Hour  in  abundance, 
in  exchange  for  coffer,  sugar,  tobacco,  etc,  articles  of 
vast  consumption.  There  is  a  One  opening  here  for  a 
steam  mill,  for  the  grinding  of  wheat  and  corn,  none 
as  yet  (September,  1854)  having  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  and  it  is  worthy  the  attention  of  some  of 
the  enterprising  citizens  of  the  United  States.  Wind, 
and  horse  power  for  mills,  are  the  only  means  used  at 
present  throughout  the  country  ;  and  although  its 
streams  of  water  are  innumerable,  that  power  has  not 
been  brought  into  action.  Tho  manufactures  consist 
chiefly  of  soap,  tallow  candles,  chocolate,  and  leather, 
the  latter  of  verj*  inferior  quality,  which  ma}'  be  at- 
tributed to  the  species  of  bark  used  in  tanning.  Steam 
navigation  on  the  Kio  de  la  Plata,  and  its  tributaries, 
is  gradually  increasing.  There  are  two  steamers  run- 
ning regularly  between  this  city  and  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  others  to  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  Kivers,  carry- 
ing freight  and  passengers ;  however,  it  ma}'  be  con- 
sidered as  yet  in  its  infancy.  The  very  high  price  of 
fuel  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  steam  navigation  iu  this 
quarter,  as  no  coal  mines  are  found  here,  and  the  coal 
used  comes  from  England  and  the  United  States,  at  a 
very  dear  rate,  and,  in  consequence,  the  steamers  liavc 
not  realized  so  profitable  a  business  as  was  anticipated. 

Port  Charges  on  Foreign  Vessels  at  the  Rate  o/"800 
Jieis  to  the  Monteeideun  Dollar. — Pilotage  inward,  .$10  ; 
mooring,  iJ4 ;  tonnage  duty,  .BOO  reis  per  ton  (say  on 
150,  if  not  more),  $43  OG ;  free  of  entry,  if  to  discharge, 
$8 ;  stam|is  for  ditto,  ijil'2 ;  custom-house  officer  .$1  per 
day  while  discharging  and  loading,  aay  for  30  days, 
$U0;  stamps,  in  cuso  of  loading,  and  on  being  dis- 
patched, f '25  04 ;  hospital  fees,  from  $4  to  $G,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  hands  on  board  the  vessel,  §5 ; 
pilot  to  Franquia,  $4 ;  bill  of  health,  $4  04 ;  escribano's 
fees,  if  for  balance  of  cargo,  $8,  or  if  tho  vessel  lade 
here,  $12.  Spanisli  127  to  1000  reis,  or  .$158  00  at 
800  reis.  Vessels  are  allowed  to  lay  12  days  from  ar- 
rival without  entering  at  the  custom-house,  and  may 
lunil  samples,  so  as  to  dispose  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
their  cargoes. 

Montreal,  a  city  and  river  port  of  entry,  Canada 
East,  and  the  largest  and  most  populous  city  and  cliief 
.seat  of  commerce  of  British  .\morica.  Situated  on 
the  left  banii  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  142  miles  in  a  direct 
line  snuth-wo<it  of  Quebec.  Lat.  46°  30'  north,  long. 
73°  25'  west.  Population,  1840,  27,297;  in  1852, 
67,716;  1854,  fi5,000.  Tlie  site  is  not  so  commanding 
as  that  of  Quebec,  but  it  is  in  every  other  respect  su- 
perior to  that  city.  The  position  of  Montreal,  at  the 
head  of  the  ship  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
neai-  its  confluence  with  tiie  Ottawa,  as  well  as  its  sit- 
uation with  reaiicet  to  the  city  of  New  Yoriv,  necessa- 
rily makes  it  one  of  the  greatest  emporiums  of  Can- 
ada. Tlie  harbor,  though  not  large,  is  socuro,and  ves- 
sels drawing  15  feet  water,  may  lie  close  to  tlio  shore. 
Its  general  depth  is  from  3  to  4J  fathoms.  Its  chief 
disadvantage  consists  in  the  rapid  St.  Mary,  about  one 
mile  below  the  city  wharves,  which  vessels  often  find 
it  difficult  to  stem,  without  tho  aid  of  steam-tugs.     To 


obviate  the  obstructions  in  the  navigation  above  Mon- 
treal, the  Lachine  Canal,  9  miles  long,  20  feet  wide, 
and  5  feet  deep,  was  undertaken  in  1S21,  and  completed 
at  an  expense  of  i:i80,000.  The  communication  with 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  Is  carried  on  by  several 
steam  and  other  vessels ;  and  during  the  summer  a 
regular  steamboat  communication  is  kept  up  with  Que- 
bec. At  this  season  vast  rafts  of  timber  come  down 
and  pass  the  city  of  Quebec ;  ond  scows,  batteaux  of 
about  six  tons,  and  Durham  boats  bring  to  Montreal 
the  produce  of  Upper  Canada.  Neither  is  the  trade  of 
Montreal  suspended  in  winter,  like  that  of  Queliec. 
Numerous  sledges  may  be  seen  coming  in  from  all  di- 
rections with  agricultural  produce,  frozen  carcases  of 
beef  and  pork,  firewood  and  other  articles.  Montreal 
is  the  centre  of  the  commerce  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  carried  on  by  Ijike  Champlaln  and  the 
Hudson,  and  not  only  is  it  the  depot  of  all  the  adja- 
cent country,  but  most  of  the  business  done  in  Quebec 
is  carried  on  by  l)ranclies  from  the  Slontreal  houses. 
See  Kjyorts  nf  Camilla,  p.  853.  Tlio  imports  in  185,'), 
amounted  to  je3,(i03,G9fi,  and  the  net  amount  of  duties, 
.£447,089.  In  the  same  year,  4885  vessels  entered  tho 
port,  of  491,928  tons  burden.  The  wharves  of  this  city 
are  constructed  in  a  manner  unequalcd  upon  this  con- 
tinent ;  the  entire  line  of  which  is  over  two  miles  in 
length,  and  considerable  additions  (to  meet  tlie  rapidly 
increasing  trade  of  tlio  city)  will  be  speedily  com- 
menced. The  Lachine  Canal,  with  its  locks  and  ba- 
sins, is  anotlier  of  those  public  works  of  whicli  the 
city  may  well  be  proud.  The  Champlain  and  St. 
Lawrence  Railroad,  commences  at  Brewsterviile,  op- 
posite tho  city  and  connects  with  the  lines  to  Now 
York  and  Boston,  at  House's  Point,  a  distance  of  13 
miles.  Tills  road  is  now  completed  and  the  cars  run 
daily.  The  Lachine  Railroad  connects  the  city,  by  a 
Hue  of  road  9  miles  in  length,  with  the  village  of  that 
name.  The  continuation  of  this  road  from  Caughna- 
waga  till  it  connects  with  tho  Ogdensburg  Road  at 
Moors,  is  now  complete,  and  the  whole  line  is  known 
as  the  Montreal  and  New  York  Railroad.  The  St. 
Lawrence  and  Atlantic  Railroad,  connecting  Montreal 
with  the  city  of  Portland,  a  distance  of  292  miles,  is 
now  complete.  A  line  from  Quebec  to  Melbourne,  a 
distance  of  100  miles,  is  also  iu  course  of  construction, 
and  will  be  completed  in  1854.  The  Grand  Trunli 
Railroad  to  connect  Montreal  witli  Kingston,  Toronto, 
etc.,  is  now  in  course  of  construction.  The  entire 
length  of  tho  road  from  Trois  Pistoles  to  Sariiia,  will 
be  1112  miles,  and  it  will  probably  be  completed  in 
185G.  The  Montreal  and  Bytown  Railroad  will  pass 
through  a  fine  district  of  country,  and  is  in  progress 
of  construction.  The  length  will  be  about  121  miles, 
and  will  be  opened  in  1856.  The  Victoria  Briihje. — 
Tliis  splendid  and  useful  structure  is  to  cross  the  St. 
Lawrence  from  Point  St.  Charles  to  the  south  shore, 
a  total  length  of  9437  feet,  or  somewhat  over  a  mile 
and  three  quarters.  It  is  to  be  built  on  tlie  tubular 
principle,  and  will  have  a  track  for  railroad  cars  in  the 
centre,  wliile  on  the  outside  of  tho  tube  there  will  bo 
a  balcony  on  each  side,  with  a  foot  path  for  passengers. 
The  bridge  will  rest  on  24  piers  and  two  abutments  of 
limestone  masonry,  the  centre  span  being  330  feet 
long,  and  60  feet  high  from  summer  water  level.  The 
iron  used  iu  its  construction  will  be  tho  best  boiler 
plate  T  iron,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  work  is  to  be 
i:i,500,000  sterting,  or  §7,500,000.  Formerly  this  city 
WHS  the  hciul-quarters  of  the  fur-trade,  but  its  interest 
in  it  has  greatly  declined.  It  has  establishments  for 
the  manuriicture  of  cotton  goods,  India  rubber,  steam 
engines,  railroad  cars,  axes,  etc.,  cast  iron  i'oiiniler;es, 
dislilleiies,  breweries,  soap,  candle,  and  tobacco  manu- 
factories, several  ship-building  establishments,  etc. ; 
various  articles  of  hardware,  linseed  oil,  floor-cloth, 
etc.,  are  made  in  the  city.  The  markets  are  al)und- 
antly  supplied  with  flesh,  flsh,  poultry,  fruit,  veget- 
ables, etc.     About  three  fourths  of  the  population  aro 


m 


MON 


1876 


MON 


/ 


of  French  descent,  the  remainder  can>li>ting  prlii' 
cipally  of  ei&lgmnts  from  Great  Brltaiu, 

A  letter  fh>m  the  United  States'  Consul  at  Mnn< 
treal,  dated  Octolwr  9,  1866,  remarlui — "  Hliica  my 
last  communication,  the  only  material  alteratluH  IW' 
tween  the  trade  of  the  two  countries  has  Imbu  the  rat- 
IHcation  and  adoption  of  the  reciprocity  treaty,  wliluli 
has  proved,  so  fur,  at  least,  as  has  come  under  my  nli' 
serration,  highly  satisfactory  to  the  provincial  govern' 
ment,  and  to  the  people  of  Canada  ut  large ;  and  tliure 
is  every  appearance  of  its  increasing  In  usefulness,  tu 
this  countr}'  at  least.  It  is,  if  I  may  jje  alluwud  to 
use  the  expression,  commercially  speaking,  tanta- 
mount to  annexation ;  while  its  lienellclal  olfects  liava 
shown  themselves  in  the  increased  value  of  furnis  and 
landed  estates  on  this  side  of  the  line,  and  I  am  ii»' 
duced  to  believe,  by  careful  observation,  that  there 
has  been  a  corresponding  advantage  received  by  tlw 


Unit«4  Ntat«K,  pttrtleularty  the  larger  sea-port  town*. 
'I'M*  (maty  lias  liecn  InstrumeutuI  In  doing  muili  tut 
tllH  «4vitMt«Kil  lit  tlie  (tarrying  trade,  by  umveyiiig  llw 
prutlunts  lit  (his  ticiivlni'fl  over  the  rallrowis  and  caimU 
of  tlia  IhiUm,  thereby  placing  (luna<la  and  tliu  limor 
liruvili'iNil,  M(  far  tu  tlleir  trade  Is  concerned,  In  tlia 
IhwKIvii  (if  mm  ut  tli«  Htates  of  the  Union,  'I'lieru  liaa 
mmi,  kIiii'm  my  last  cumtnunli.'utlon,  bitliertu  ulluilml 
tu,  but  iim  puMitmvht  on  (lie  part  of  the  l.'aiiiflian 
gov*trMiii)>tit  in  reliitlim  to  the  trade  between  lliu  i'nlt' 
ail  Ntatp*  and  (,'Hn«d«,  which  was  to  the  effei't  that  tba 
Huwrmt  In  I'ouncll  hod  nliollshed  the  duty  leviml  uii. 
on  tita  i/rltfltiMl  paiikages,  containing  products  of  Ilia 
I'ltlteit  HtHttoi  iiuported  Into  this  province,  under  tlm 
provUkiMS  lit  tli«  reciprocity  treaty," 

Tim  fiilluwlng  llgiiros  will  show  the  luiinpurativN 
liH|iort»iw«  ut  IIm  trad*  of  the  principal  cltlas  of 
Oaiimia  t 


CITIKI, 

.    iHFonn.                          1                          myninii,                         |               tm—  toutma,            ] 

itsa. 

18M. 

IIU.         1         ISM, 

"£7Hii,'(»«~l  vvm.iM" 
8,0(1  l,0«l     .    I.HnH.TKH 
1,401,4M    i       'W.m 

ItM, 

MWi(4 

II7IMMII 

IMt,         {       IIM. 

IIM,       1       IISU.      1 

Qnebec 

Montreal . , 
Toronto,.,. 

£1,141,595 
8,881, MO 
l,lfB,US« 

£I,TM,82() 
3,Ml(l,«S2 
l,,Sfl2,70« 

m,iv,» 

1B0,(«8 

£l7il,|ll« 
<<TH,(|(I» 

nwun 

The  St,  Lawrence,  however,  with  all  Its  aoknowU 
edged  capacity,  is  not  without  its  drawl)acks,  Fore, 
most  was  the  long  winter,  which  sealed  Its  waters 
during  six  months  of  the  year;  and  next  may  ba 
riasscd  the  dangers  of  a  navigation  of  7IM)  miles  ba> 
tween  Belle  Isle  and  Quebec.  There  were  other  cir- 
cumstances which  threatened  that  commercial  iiroS' 
perity  which  once  appeared  to  be  the  undoul)teii  np' 
panage  of  the  most  convenient  port  of  this  large  river 
^using  the  term  "  most  convenient"  In  reference  to 
breadstuff's,  the  chief  produce  of  tlin  West,  and  to  manU' 
factored  goods,  the  chief  article  in  demand  by  the  West, 
The  principal  of  these  was  the  discovery  that  the  nioitt 
fertile  lands  lay  beyond  the  barrierformed  by  Niagara, 
Hence,  the  population  which  would  otherwise,  in  the 
natural  order,  have  fllled  up  the  nearest  land  lirst,  was 
tempted  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Krie  and  the  country 
lying  between  that  lake  and  the  head  waters  of  the  Mis. 
sissippi.  It  has  been  In  this  region  that  the  great  eni' 
igrant  population  has  chiefly  established  Itself,  leaving 
the  less  fruitful  shores  of  the  St,  Lawrence  and  I<aka 
Ontario  comparatively  bare  of  inhabitants. 

Import!  to  the  Port  of  ifontreal.— hi  1816,  4*,(H4,. 
911 ;  1846,  412,303,908 ;  1865,  4:3,093,145  i  1860,  <!»,, 
993,000,  The  export  trade  generally  has  received  a 
great  impetus  during  the  past  year,  owing  In  part,  no 
doubt,  to  ther  establishment  of  the  ocean  steam  line, 
The  exports  from  Montreal  for  the  first  three  quarters 
of  the  year  1855  were  but  £333,610 ;  for  the  year  INftfl 
they  have  amounted  to  £716,475,  or  more  than  double, 

The  population  of  the  city  is  steadily  increasing,  and 
it  is  1>elieved  that  at  no  former  period  was  Its  trade  and 
general  business  on  a  more  healthy  footing.  In  INIHI, 
the  population  was  9O0O ;  181C,  16,000  ;  1826,  22,0(M)| 
18.31,  27,297;  1851,  57,715;  1856,  76,000,  at  a  very 
moderate  estimate. 

Rtgulationa  in  /Vrcf.— Merchandise  shall  not  ba  u»». 
laden  in  Canadian  ports  except  after  due  entry,  at 
places  designated  for  that  purpose,  under  jwnalty  of 
forfeiture.  Merchandise  shall  not  be  imported  exrept 
into  some  port  at  which  a  custom-house  is  estalillslied, 
under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  vessel  and  goods,  if  under 
the  value  of  $1000 ;  if  above  that  sum,  they  shall  lie 
retained  as  security  for  the  payment  of  that  amount, 


Whunee  Imported. 


OrcatJirltaln... 
N.  Anier.  Culonios, 

West  Indies. 

Unltcil  States 

Otb.  for.  countries. 
Total 


vas 


£4,624,280 

16S,IS4 

869 

«,«46.6!I6 

268,B07_ 

£T,9«B,88» 


£5,7*«.*W2 

16s,I7!i 

668 

8,8(M,2T4 

888,771 


£10,182,881 


£i3,826,8«iS"" 
216,4116 
n,R8R 

6,aor,i«» 

£»,02i,fi4« 


Hiinli»  mnnn'tnt  with  Montreal. — Montreal  liaing  » 
larti«  cuMtintirclal  rontre,  the  banking  facilities  alfonhid 
tu  the  liilnllKii'K  ctinitiitinlty  are  on  an  extemied  tcitlv, 
Tlia  blinks  iif  Caiindn  have  been,  on  the  whohi,  pru- 
dently ami  jllillclitusly  tnnnnged,  and  have  proveit  tu. 
inunerntiva  Ui  thn  shHreliolders,  while  thurs  bus  .vet 
bean  IMi  innlilticti  of  the  stoppage  of  a  Canadliin  bunk, 
Tha  naint<N  tind  (lapltal  ut  the  banks  currying  on  tliclr 
busluKW*!  ill  Miilitr(<Hl  are  here  given,  selected  from  the 
ulH(4iil  iitittmNfillt,  with  «  statement  of  whether  the 
ultli'a  ba  a  )wm\  ofltce  of  agency,  'rhnso  bunks  ull, 
will)  (iiiH  ft<t('(i|itlnn,  triinsni't  bu<ilness  under  ( 'aiiu'liun 
chiirtur',  himI  thdr  stockholders  are  Ibibia  In  doulilx 
tlia  Mmiiunt  of  {heir  shares.  The  bank  of  lirltlsh  N'ortli 
Atiierica  lioMi*  a  royal  charter,  the  bead  oHice  Iwing  In 
l/ondnti,  but  th«  tfiiK^ltinl  colonial  offlca  Is  In  Muntreal, 
ll»*(H(  Mtinn  vniiM  C'lrARTrs.— Inft6. 

«»™<,fB.hl.,  f.Hl,l.«.kort»4     (Juiw 

(!il^  It'k  of  MnnlrcSl,  prlltclpnl  ofllco.  tl,2(lO,(HiO  (l,o47,in»l 

KsnItofMiMili'i'Hl,  tiHiii'l|wl(iffl<?ii  ..,  6,0(Ni,(i(M)  t>;m.im 

(JoiMMii'ri'lnl  Mtiiih  iirCfltiiwIa,  BKuncy.  4,00U,(NW  ■i/iW/m 

nAlik  of  t'liliiir  ('hiiwIa,  SKi'iicy 4,00(1,000  2,i)tl>i,<ii»l 

JtumiHH  (III  I'cKlilc.  |ifliii(p«l  olllce. . .  8(KI,000  tvtimi 

Molwip's  Itdllli,  l;Mlic((inl  "•"ci' 1,000,000  («V"W 

llailk  111  Krltlah  Xnnli  America 0,000,000  H/Hmmi 

X  (JiiMfAKATlvn  Nt.4tn«»!aT  nr  run  rmurten,  Aari' (m 
iMlioltfitM  into  Oakaua  ikiriho  tuk  Ki.r.vss  Motnix 

NmillM  lll!«»iMltkH  tbtll,  IHAfi  ANU  IMX, 

OmiiU  paying  spedfln  duty £l,8<»,0IO 

"        »       aTlpofpont 67.4ftl 

••        »        13t  SI"!  in  per  cent 6,22A,«lil 

••         ••        2t<o6peraent 7IV,iM 

VmKmt'i*''"' 2,W7,041 

T(rt«l,,,,, eio,m,m 

Tlia  ('(illtltl'ti'S  from  which  these  Imports  came  ; 

(IrKaHltliali £4,B6W*t 

llhtlKli  Nortli  AiiidflpB. 2(w,l** 

Hrtllih  West  iHdIes 4,4/«» 

Ulllloil  Elates 6,676,1  a7 

Ullicr  0<r«l|jii  countrle 404,1  ii<l 

Tlia  total  amount  of  duty  collected  during  the  yant 
]R6ltwaa4:i,127,'i20, 

Tlia  followliif;  is  A  cointinratlve  statement  of  imporU, 
avtlibillng  In  <;niittiist  the  value  of,  and  anviunts  uf 
duties  I'liriacled  on,  K'mU  entered  for  cunsumpti'm  in 
<i»n»<U  (iMrltid  tho  years  1868, 1854, 1865,  and  WWJ, 
TSjrT^' JllZn 

1M«. 


KM 

«4,ft6»,(»( 

mi4'« 

4,404 

ft,«T6,IW 

WlilWtL 


gio^^im 


IIH, 


etjmfiJd 


«i,wt,m 


MflH»M  iii,nmi 


nil. 


£881,446 


-miw 


et,t2T,«a 


ti,WM 


Thttd 
from  the 

Mnlnials  a 
wrrleriltm 
Inanursein 
'nimr srdo 

jVsluo  of  I 
OneWp. , 
IKsflmsled  I 
I  |mrl»,s(io 
I   Inland  pa 

i_     Orand  I 

The  foil, 
*»1n«  of  )r 

ywrs  1865  I 

1MB  over 

IV4 1 

tMn, 

TSSST. 

IHMi.. 
I        <»04,. 

The  niiinhei 

*'"'  2»(  their 

|««««ge  41,681 

thoif  tonnage  4 

^'immar//  i,f 

i'"r<t  in  f;,mmk 

oiK'npt  after  du 

mune,  under 

"Wrtll  not  be  br 

WHeHier  by  ,«„ 

"im,  whether  du 

(»la<(«fltwhhhn, 

"'"J"'  penalty  o 

»n(U,t  the  value 

r — '" 

I  'fiineSo;  fSjj — 

tm.::] 

Total. 

''«M«o,  im 

IW6.. 
I  IMM., 

Moor,  In  navit 
"/•^ll-ytwoanoh* 
'm  »  in  ridr,  hv  c| 
'*;«'<«  (,ther  Win, 
,;;'«''»'  "<■  chains  , 
''•«•«  •"■'Kht' are  c, 
»mmm,  mnnri,,,,,. 

woroooo,  or  im 

»fl««(imlof/e„tbe 

imtxtM  fr,m,  tht  ij 
«*•'     H  Is  red,  Mac 


MOR 


1377 


2,tll(l,"'»l 

7l)ft.oO'l 

»■/<.'«»» 

6,II0(».»"" 

I  Alilli  I " 


..(,148 
4  4,4tt» 

■V.IM 


f  Import*. 
Luuntu  <n 
LiitUm  in 


i«», 

fci,m,«»  I 


MOR 


The  fallowing  Is  a  comparative  Btatement  of  exports 
f^otn  the  province  of  Canada  for  tliree  years : 


lIM. 


PriHrnoe  nf  the  inino >      £74,780 

87,427, 

2,49^«41 

208,818 

1,829,040 

M.I60I 

11,246' 


ica 

(brott. 

Aniniata  and  tlioir  product! 
Aitrlcditnrol  products. 

MAnufsolnroa 

Ollinr  Hftlolei 


Total  rnluo  of  exports. 

VsIho  of  ships  built  at 
Onebcr 

Ksflinatcd  stiiiiiint  of  ox- 
tmrts,  short  rotumcdat 
InlRiiil  ports 


i81,453l'' 

114,980| 
1,986980 

893,790 
8,267,699 

119,019 
17,140 


i^,70O,264  i»,V2&,975 
552,062 

442,470 


804,886 
310,258 


Orand  total  of  oxporU.I  £5,7.54,797  £7,047,115 


£41,411 
114,0861 
2,504,970, 
Ml,014[ 
8,74:1,068' 
98,407 
10,799} 
£7,148,749, 


528,726 


£8,011,754 


The  folhiwliig  is  a  comparative  statement  of  the 
valtie  of  Imports  and  exports  of  Canada  during  the 
years  W>r>  and  IHJO  ; 


i«r. £7,()47,11» 

IMX) 8,01  l,7M 


Impnrti. 

£9.021,543 
lO,806O()6 


Toiai. 

£16,063,067 

13,907,861 


ltiprf»<o  nf  llio  commerce  of 
1 3(Wt  orcr  1 856 £2,889,198  or  17-67  per  ct. 


The  nett  comparative  revenue  from  custom  duties 
for  the  past  flvo  years,  after  deducting  cost  of  collec- 
tion, return  duties,  and  balances,  is  as  follows ; 


1862 £706.814 

1868 930,597 

18M 1,168,013 


1866 £318,319 

1866 1,028,906 


The  following  Is  a  stntement  of  the  tonnage  inward 
and  outward,  showing  the  amount  of  coasting  and 
ferriage  on  Canadian  Inland  waters,  and  the  inter- 
course by  inland  navigation  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1850 : 

_      ,  Toni. 

Total  ontword 6,046,888 

"     Inward 6,199,829 

Total 12,246,667 

The  following  is  a  subdivision  of  this  grand  total : 

Canadian  steam...  6,2S7,S97  '1  American  stiam. . .  4,708,826 
sail 880,736  11  "       sail 846,213 

The  following  tables  exhibit  the  number  of  vessels 
entered  outward  for  sou,  their  tonnage,  number  of  men 
employed,  and  the  countries  whence  they  came,  during 
the  year  1850,  and  the  two  preceding  years  : 


YMft. 

laM.::,": 
1866 

1864..... 

Tolnli. 

Orrat  Britain. 

Britlih 

(.Ionian. 

l^nlM  Htalfi.         (Xher  rurelRii  rountria^.l 

Nuitilar, 

i,Sw~ 

1,219 

2,018 

Tom. 

"578A^" 
461,241 
781,765 

Man. 

Nunib«r.  1     Tom. 

Number. 

Tom. 

Numbor. 

Tom.      1  Number.  :     Tow. 

19,880 
15,314 
20,280 

Ill 

4.50 
835 
487 

2^,028 
27,.M6 
87,778 

37 

24 
16 

8,675 
8,(H)0 
1,401 

41 
60 
29 

6,147    1 

7,914 

4,808 

The  following  is  the  statement  of  the  same  inward : 


VMM, 


ISSfl,. 
ISfif... 

1854.. 


ToUI. 


Turn. 


Men. 


1.494 
1,163 
1,890 


f),50,5ia 
419,558 
706,842 


18,976 
14,253 
24,401 


I 


Number.  [     Tone. 


611 

523 
1,051 


858,520 
279,930 
601,433 


BrUlah  colonloi. 
rambor.  1     Tom. 


508 
424 
499 


47,196 
60,780 
68,836 


Unite  j  3l«l«i.         |Olh«^lbrelnn  coimtrlee.l 


Number.   |      Tom. 

80 
1.SS 


83,849 
88,706 
86,401 


The  number  of  steamers  built  in  Canada  in  1856 
nN8  83)  their  tonnage  a'uu.  Sail  vessels  26;  their 
Intinngn  41,5X1.  Total  number  of  vessels  built  148; 
Ihrit  tonnage  4.'>,88i). 

Hummarii  of  Ihe  Rtgulatiunt  in  force  at  the  different 
I'nflu  in  dmutila, — Merchandise  shall  not  be  unladen, 
<me«[A  after  due  entry,  at  places  designated  for  that 
litlftMrne,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture.  Merchandise 
•hitll  not  lie  brought  or  Imported  Into  the  province, 
Iflietlier  by  sea,  land,  coastwise,  or  by  inland  naviga- 
tion, whether  dutiable  or  not,  except  ipto  some  port  or 
pJiuiA  nt  which  a  ciisttmi-lionse  is  or  may  be  established, 
under  penalty  nf  forfeiture  of  vessel  and  goods,  if 
umler  the  value  of  (1000 ;  if  above  that  sum,  then 


217      I    113,022 
141  60,181  I 

207      I     64,623  | 

the  vessel  and  goods  shall  be  retained  as  security  for 
the  payment  of  that  amount.  This  applies,  nmUttis 
mutandis,  to  goods  brought  into  the  province,  by  land, 
in  carriages  or  other  vehicles.  Other  regulotions 
have  reference,  principally,  to  frontier  smuggling, 
and  to  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  officers  cliarged 
with  its  prevention.  They  convey  no  general  com- 
mercial information,  and  are,  therefore,  omitted.  Most 
of  the  articles  on  which  a  discrimination  in  favor  of 
importations  from  Great  Dritain  exists,  are  embraced 
in  the  third  article  ("  schedule")  of  the  Reciprocity 
Treaty.  The  foregoing  regulations,  etc.,  apply,  with 
some  slight  modifications,  to  all  the  other  colonial  pos- 
sessions of  Great  Britain  in  North  America. 


COMMKROK  or  Till  UnIIID  STATES  WITH  OANADA,  rROH  JuLV  1,  1341,  TO  JDLT  1,  1856, 


Ytsfi  endInK 

Exporte. 

Import*. 

Whereof  there  wae  In  BullloD 
and  Specie. 

Tonnage  Cleared. 

PomeeUo. 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Total. 

Exported. 

Imported, 

American. 

Foreign. 

ifMHeflO,  1849 

186(1 

Total.... 

1861 

<»«tl«80,  1863 

\m 

IMft 

1866 

$2,320,827 

4,641,461 

$6,981,778 

$6,886,834 
4,004,908 
4,006,612 

10.M0.878 
9,960,764 

16,194,783 

$1,914,401 
1,339,870 

$4,284,728  '  $1,481,033 
,5,9.80,321  1    4.2a5,470 

$131,500 

$417,330 
420,869 

890,204 
919,616 

668,910  ; 
456.627  j 
l,l>3(i,487 

510,833 
639,846  1 
734,(129 
618,289 
90.3,.502 
1,312,693 

$8,208,771 

$2,098,806 
2,712,097 
8,328,587 
6,790,a88 
8,769,630 
5,683,458 

$10,165,549 

$7,929,140 
6,717,064 
7,829,099 
17.300,706 
18,7';«,».t4 
20'jS8,24l 

$5,706,552 

$4,9,50,471 
4,589,909 
5,2T8,1I6 
6.721..589 
13,183,314 
17,438,197 

$131,500 

$284,301 
166.8.50 
617,009 
444,177 

$343,749 

$1,863,737 

588,969 

9*4,219 

75,000 

1,809,719 

927,013 
765,94.5 

1,062,036 
880,941 
890,017 

1,113,731 

Moor,  In  navigation,  signifies  generally  to  fix  a 
V(i»»c1  liy  two  anchors  In  nearly  opposite  directions,  so 
that  she  ridrt  by  cither  In  certain  winds,  or  partly  by 
liotli  lit  other  winds.  Also,  to  secure  a  vessel  to 
wcljjiil"  Of  chains  sunk  In  harbors  for  the  purpose. 
'I'htisfl  weight'  nro  called  mooring  bloch,  and  the  whole 
dWinrntll",  miiariiifis.  "' 

MOrOOOO,  or  Maroquin  (Ger.  Saffiam ;  Fr.  Ma- 
fiiuiiln;  \l,  Midrnrrhino;  Hp.  Afarroqui ;  Has.  iSnfian), 
a  (lfl((  kind  of  leather  prcpcrcd  of  the  skins  of  goats, 
Impottcd  from  the  I.,evant,  Barbary,  Spain,  Flanders, 
«t«t,  (t  Is  red,  Mack,  green,  yellow,  etc.  It  is  ex- 
Un»Wii\y  tiMd  In  tha  binding  of  books.  See  Leather. 
4S 


MorOOOO.  In  Africa  gcnerall}',  barbi\rism,  with 
all  its  attendant  evils — ignorance,  superstition,  and 
cruelty — still  characterize  not  only  the  several  govern- 
ments, but  most  of  the  countries  of  Africa,  if  wo 
except  Egypt,  the  European  settlements,  and  the 
republic  of  Liberia,  Balbi,  the  distinguished  Vene- 
tian geographer,  in  his  great  work,  Balance  Politique 
du  Globe,  remarks :  "  The  title  of  African  statistics 
may  be  rejected  as  absurd ;"  and,  Lence,  he  persisted 
for  a  long  time  m  his  determination  of  excluding  Af- 
rica, Oceanica,  and  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  from  con- 
sideration. Since  Balbi  composed  his  work,  however, 
civilization  baa  made  encouraging  progress  in  some 


11 


■Mh 


MOft 


1S78 


MOR 


iwrtlnii*  at  WtfotafH  ^fliift,  Viiini  OnllonM  haa  b«en 
bruuKlit  witttiii  (Imi  liH't(4,  unit  imiUt  tlin  liiiinanl/.lng 
Inllutiiii  u.,  i,(  H  yimilK,  vlK(if(M(«,  Hnii  Cflfldtliin  repirb- 
lie,  Wlwrx  Urn  »Uvit  fminfU'*  ime*  nUuu],  piilpim  are 
noMT  araotwl  i  mui  n^VM^h  trilwit,  nniI  Imrlmrnus  vhlefn, 
iiuteiKi  of  WKfriii)}  wttit  Ml  ll  'rtliof  firr  liiiinnn  plunder, 
h4vii  tUJit  HWtf)'  ll««  tlHlilciNctiti*  (pf  (urniiKe,  and  now 
•aak  a  t'uiMMU'lf  lirilt*)  (i<ilt  III  <ll«  |ili)»  HlKltlie  goapel. 
(iaountpliiuitllj',  M^'MrMffitr  illyiilvn  Afrlcn  Into  (even 
greut  rt<giuM«  I 

]8t,  fliB  mgUm  lit  till*  XIIk,  iimter  whkh  may  lie 
uiinprUed  Kuyiii,  NhIiU,  kiiiI  Karfliiffln,  2(1.  Tlie  re- 
giun  u(  tlia  iMirili,  kiOmtMl  Ix'tttraii  tlie  Mediterranean 
uiid  tlw  grMMd  (l««crt  fiC  M«li«M,  aiid  extending  from 
Kgypt  wuiit  t«(  (Iw  Atl/llilli',  Mffierally  known  an  the 
8tatt!ii  uf  H«rl«ir»'-^l«lli»>l>',  Morocco,  Tunis,  and  Tri- 
poli, 'I'lia  will  mill  f'|||imt«i  of  llil<  tegimi  are  eminently 
favurulilu  U)  tll«  niltlint  miiiI  f^rnwtli  of  the  eholcent 
produrlloHs,  ltd,  'CliK  tliird  region  comprehends  the 
vast  ilBKort  of  Mttloirit,  wcH  ffotrt  VpMim  and  Uarfour 
to  the  Athiiilli',  Miiit  mmtU  ffum  the  Itnrbary  States  to 
Hunogumtila,  HoiMtmi,  «»id  (tortioil.  4lh.  The  fonrth 
region  i'oiM|irii||aiid«  Nlaillk,  of  western  Africa,  ex- 
kiidiiig  from  tin*  noiiiliTioMiidiry  of  the  western  des- 
ert to  thu  Milllll  liimmUfy  at  llengiieia.  In  alwiit  lati- 
tuiltt  lif^  voMtll,  ilielwtillK  ilin  repiililic  of  Mberia. 
ftth.  Tlia  lifdi  rctflwH  «om(rt'«)lelids  the  (Jape  of  (Jood 
II(i|ie  ijiloiivi  (Im  I'tilliitry  of  the  (laffres  and  llotten- 
tota  I  ii|)>l  tlia  aiit«i||iifv«t  t\tji  desert  coast  north  of  the 
llottt'ntJit  loiiiitfj',  t<i  lleilj<lielaj  and  the  great  un- 
known wiMtlierii  denert,  litli,  ihe  sixth  region,  or 
eujiturn  Afrii'it,  |iiilUiwliii|^  along  the  sen-coast,  and  to 
an  Mnkliowil  ilil«li4  limit,  from  hehigoa  Day,  in  lati- 
tiula  '.iii'^  wmdi,  U)  Hie  frontiers  of  Aliyssinin.  7th. 
The  aaveiitll  raglim  wmi((fellelMls  tlin  States  of  Aliys- 
siiiia  »ii/t  HomaMU,  ««teiidlllg  from  t'aiie  llns-asaer,' or 
(iuardafo,  fi  'AitySnU,  mid  aTotig  the  lied  Sen  to  the 
tarritorisi*  of  tlia  I'im'Iim  of  Kgj-pt, 

Of  tlia  •avail  (l(vl»|jm«  thtis  given  liy  Mncgregor, 
tha  Jst,  ■Ifli,  ftili,  mid  Otii,  imly,  possess  any  commer- 
cial i|i)|)oit*»(e  (  tlie  lifst,  ('omjfrlsing  the  Harhary- 
Htatea ;  (ha  foiirtll,  (lie  reptll/ll(!  of  Llherin ;  the  flfth, 
tiia  folimy  of  UoimI  ((o(ie  (some  account  of  which  will 
l>a  found  )n  tlia  l»lgest  of  (tritlsh  Colonial  Posses- 
Hlimn)!  »ii4  His  nktli,  Hie  African  possessions  of  the 
Sultan  of  Muneitl;,  ilUilmtitlf^  the  Island  of  Zanzi- 
bar. 

JIarbnrj/  Mliilti,=.\liiii»f  (lie  collective  denomina- 
tion of  liarlwty  Wniei,  «fe  grouped  together  the  coun- 
tries which  form  the  tiortliern  const  of  Africa,  viz. : 
Morowo,  '('Mllia,  mwt  Tri|»oll,  I'riirT  to  the  submission 
of  Algerl»  to  tlie  li'rem'li  arms,  this  division  was  also 
compraliaii'lK'd  miller  the  snme  general  name.  Ileing 
now  a  VmtuU  vuiimf,  it  is  iticltided  In  the  Digest  of 
t'reiM:)!  tUiluiM  I'leotNfisitiMs, 

JiiHiiiir  iif  IHiifm'iiii,=^imHi'ii  Is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  tlia  \hl\mty  Mates,  nod  comprises  an  area 
of  UM),im  <!i(U»re  miles,  with  a  ixipulation  estimated 
at  K,&iKl,iltlO,  AIHniu^Ii  agrlcliltiire  Is  In  the  most 
backwuril  lt^m,  tlie  soil  fields,  in  great  abundance 
an4  of  tlis  rtiiBrt  i(imlity,  wheat,  hatley,  maize,  olives, 
lienip,  uii4  Kott^m  |  mid  lemons,  grapes,  figs,  oranges, 
aliiioioU,  ami  vmrlWW  frilifs  are  grown  in  the  greatest 
profutiim.  Tlie  nugm-'-iMlie,  the  tolmcvo-plant,  and 
tlia  data-tree  llirive  wlierevef  they  are  cultivated. 
Undar  a  lilieral  giivefiimeiit,  and  with  ordinary  Indus- 
try, iUtinmt  i!«iil4  lie  mnde  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tlvu  I'uiiiitriei)  ill  tlie  world,  Islamlsm,  however, 
wheriivar  it  euteiiijn,  epreads  its  withering  lillght  over 
every  iiraio-li  of  jiidiisti'ial  lliipfovenient.  Among  tiio 
varlcl  |i|iyiil<i«(  reiwiMrc**  are  mines  of  Iron,  tin,  m\y- 
par,  aiitiiii/iiiy,  mi4  mit  \  (lie  last  of  which  only  ap- 
pear to  Iw  worlwd,  Tt»«  treaties  of  peace,  friendship, 
etc.,  an4  for  (be  iseeitritj'  «f  persons  and  proi^rty, 
bavu  been  lutmilmied  liy'the  Unlte<l  Htatcs  with  Mo- 
rocco I  tlia  former  li«Hrf»t(  dnte  January,  1787,  and  the 
latter,  Nejiteiiilier,  i<*'Mi    Tb«  ]/rinclpal  stipulations 


relating  to  trade  and  commerce.  In  the  treaty  of  188t^ 
are  embodied  In  the  following  summary : 

Article  8.  If  any  vessel  of  the  United  .States  slmll 
meet  with  a  disaster  at  sea,  and  put  Into  one  uf  uur 
ports  to  repair,  she  shall  be  at  lilierty  to  land  anil  re- 
load her  cargo  without  paying  any  duty  wliatcvcr. 
14.  The  commerce  with  the  United  States  shall  lie  on 
the  same  footing  as  is  the  commerce  with  .Spain,  or  us 
that  with  the  most  favored  natlim  for  the  time  licing; 
and  their  citizens  shall  >ie  respected  and  esteemed,  iiiiil 
have  full  lilwrty  to  pass  and  repass  our  country  unil 
sea-ports  whenever  they  please,  witliout  interruption. 
ID.  Merchants  of  Iwth  countries  shall  employ  only 
such  interpreters  and  ftuch  other  persons  to  assist  tiicm 
In  their  business  as  they  shall  think  proper.  No  cdiii- 
mander  uf  a  vessel  shall  transport  ids  cargo  on  iHniril 
another  vessel ;  he  bball  not  lie  detained  in  port  iuii|{cr 
than  lie  may  think  proper;  and  all  iwrsona  eiiipioycil 
in  loading  or  unloading  goods,  ur  in  any  otiu'r  iiiljur 
whatever,  shall  be  ]iaid  at  the  customary  rules,  not 
more  anil  nut  less,  17.  Stcrchnnts  shall  nut  lie  cum- 
pelicd  to  buy  ur  sell  any  kind  uf  guuds  Ijut  sucii  us 
they  shall  think  pruper,  and  may  buy  and  sell  all  surts 
of  merchandise  but  such  as  arc  proliiliitcd  to  the  otiior 
Christian  nations.  18.  All  goods  shall  lie  wcl^^lini 
and  examined  before  they  are  sent  on  lionrd  ;  ami,  to 
nvuid  all  detention  of  vessels,  no  examination  »iiuii 
afterward  be  made,  unless  it  shall  first  lie  provoil  that 
contraband  goods  have  been  sent  on  board  ;  in  which 
case  the  persons  wiio  took  tlie  contra'innil  gooiis  on 
lioard  shall  lie  punished  according  to  the  u.sa^e  ami 
custom  uf  thu  country,  and  no  otiier  person  whatever 
shall  be  injured,  nor  siiull  the  ship  or  cargo  incur  any 
penalty  or  damage  whatever.  19.  No  vessel  shall  lie 
detained  in  port  on  any  pretense  whatever,  niir  be 
obliged  to  take  on  board  any  article  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  commander,  who  shall  bo  at  full  Hlierty  to 
agree  for  the  freight  of  any  goods  ho  takes  on  liuard. 
The'  treaty  to  cuntinue  in  furce  AO  years,  with  tiie  usual 
12  months'  notice  after  tiie  expiration  of  thut  period. 

Thu  principal  ports  of  Morocco  are  Mogadorc,  on 
the  Atlantic,  with  a  safe  harbor  for  vessels  of  loU  tuns ; 
Tangier,  Tetuan,  Dar  al  Kaida,  Mazagnn,  Salli,  liu- 
liat,  and  Lnrocho.  The  import  duties  are  often  arljj- 
tnirily  raised,  and  frequently  corruptly  levied.  Witli 
the  exception  of  cochineal,  coffee,  cotton,  irnn,  raw 
silk,  sugars,  and  tea,  on  which  articles  there  are  spec- 
Ifled  duties,  and  tobacco,  which  can  lie  sold  only  tn 
the  temporar}-  assignees  of  the  emperor's  mnnopuly, 
a  general  duty  of  10  per  cent,  is  levied  on  all  impnrt.4. 
When  thus  sold,  it  is  admitted  free  ;  tiiu  price  of  tlic 
mono|>oly  varying  according  to  tlie  nuinlier  of  liiil- 
ders,  but  usually  reaching  as  high  iis  ,*100,00O.  Tlic 
assignee  realizes  from  nett  sulcs.about  $180,000.  lie- 
aides  tobacco,  the  sultan  reserves  the  monopuly  of 
brimstone,  gunpowder,  and  lead.  Kvory  article  en- 
tering into  the  export  trade  of  Morocco  is  subject  to 
arbitrary,  and  frequently  oppressive  duties.  On 
leeches  and  cork-bark  the  sultun  retains  the  monoiio- 
ly,  whicii  is  annually  sold  to  tiie  highest  bidder,  and 
sometimes  adds  to  tlio  sultan's  revenue  as  much  a* 
$100,000  per  annum.  If  we  compare  this  lur|,'e 
amount  with  the  total  value  of  these  articles  annually 
exported,  viz. :  lecclies  $120,000,  cork-bark  $110,(1(10 
(about  50  per  cent,  of  which  is  paid  for  the  monopoly), 
it  can  be  seen  at  once  how  much  the  trade  in  these 
articles  is  affected  by  these  burdensome  internal  taxe.". 
Morocco  maintains  an  extensive  trade  with  tlie  inte- 
rior of  Africa  by  caravans,  the  principal  of  whicli 
uMally  accompanies  the  pilgrims  across  the  wliolo  con- 
tinent uf  Africa  to  the  Red  Seu,  and  the  tomb  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  Mecca.  The  value  of  the  investments  in 
this  caravan  has  been  usually  estimated  at  $2,000,000. 
The  caravans  trading  with  the  interior  depart  from 
Tetuan,  Morocco,  and  Fez,  and  meet  at  Tafilct,  in  or- 
der to  cross  together  the  great  desert  of  Sahara.  The 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  the  empire  of 


!      Ve,n. 

IS.'W... 
ISM... 
lS\'i... 

issa... 

ToUl. 
Average 


MOR 


1979 


MOR 


Morocco  la  principally  indtArt,  through  the  porti  of 
Marseilles  and  riibraltar,  and  U  conducted  for  the 
moKt  part  In  Frenrli  and  HrltUh  liottomi.  It  It  nug- 
geated  to  tho  Department  of  State,  by  the  United 
States'  consul  at  Tangier,  that  this  carrying  trade  could 
be  secured  to  American  vessels  If  our  Import  duties  on 
produce  in  general  of  Morocco,  especially  on  coarse 
wool,  were  reduced  to  the  same  standard  that  rules  in 
Kngland.  In  18S8  the  carrying  export  trade  of  the 
United  States  to  Moro<;co,  amounting  to  $84,000,  was 
entirely  effected  In  foreign  vessels.  In  18A2,  of  the 
474  vessels  of  all  sizes,  measuring  an  aggregate  of 
80,426  tons,  engaged  In  the  foreign  trade  of  the  em- 
pire, there  were  but  four  American  vessels,  measuring 
In  all  1,100  tons.  Tho  imports  Into  the  United  States 
from  Morocco  consist  of  coarse  wool,  gums,  siclns, 
ootrlch  feathers,  etc.  The  exports  from  the  United 
States  to  Morocco  are  raw  cotton,  coarse  domestics, 
brown  sugar,  rice,  and  to)>acco.  The  latter  article  is 
supplied  almost  exclusively  from  the  United  States. 

In  1848  the  maritime  commerce  of  Morocco  reached 
15,040,079  francs  (i|2,71)8,788),  viz. : 


InipoHi. 
Kriinci, 

Merchandise 8,747,604 

Bpcclo 258,800 


Total. 


...  9,001,804 


Riporta. 

B,0H9,27S 
856,400 

<),l)4^075 


In  this  general  movement  the  returns  assign  to  the 
port  of  Mogadore  amounts  as  follows  :  Imports,  2,281,- 
038  francs ;  exports,  2,S84,804  francs  j  total,  4,805,842 
francs.     See  MonADoRK,  ante,  p.  1368. 

This  leaves  10,181,187  francs  for  the  other  ports— 
Mazngnn,  Tangier,  Tetuan,  Dar  ol  Baidu,  Laroohe, 
and  liubat. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  general  move- 
ments for  1847  aro  given  as  follows  :  Imports,  7,077,- 
208  francs ;  exports,  0,910,946  francs ;  total,  18.988,- 
164  francs. 

Compared  wich  1846,  these  figures  show  a  diminu- 
tion of  890,647  francs ;  but  when  compared  with  the 
returns  for  1848,  they  exhibit  an  increase  of  1,058,825 
francs,  exclusively  on  imports.  The  diminution  prin- 
cipiilly  ufftcta  the  trade  with  France  j  thus,  in  1847, 
the  trade  of  this  country  with  Morocco  amounted  to 
2,814.1M  francs— (Imports  520,905,  exports  1,793,189) 
—while  in  1848  It  fell  to  1,656,386  francs— (imports 
40-1,906,  and  exports  1,251,480)-— showing  u  decrease 
of  057,708  francs.  With  every  other  coun  .ry  engaged 
in  this  trade  tlioro  wa.i  an  augmentation  iir  1848,  both 
in  imports  and  exiiorta.  In  one  article,  ratiier  suspi- 
ciously called  "Americanos,"  Kngland  largely  aug- 
mented her  export  trade  to  Morocco — the  whole 
increase  in  1848  being  upward  of  $1,600,000.  This 
description  of  merchandise  is  thus  explained  in  an 
official  dispatch  transmitted  to  tho  Department  of 
State  from  Tangier :  "  Throughout  the  whole  empire, 
from  the  sultan  down  to  the  lowest  subject,  the  article 
which  we  call  '  coarse  domestics'  ia  used  under  the 
appellation  of  Anifricanos.  It  is  the  principal  article 
of  import,  and  Is  an  imitation,  by  the  manufacturers 
of  Manchester,  England,  of  the  coarse  domestics  of 
Massachusetts.  *  •  •  •  •  u  took  with  the 
Moors,  who  wore  so  enthusiastic  In  their  praise  of  it, 
thut  tlie  English  manufacturers  dispatched  an  agent  to 
this  country  to  examine  and  report  on  the  fabric,  and 
the  probable  demand.     They  then  set  to  work  to 


manufacture  mi  tHU'U)  Ih  dVdff  mp^H  nimiUt  \  and. 
stealing  tli*  itanu,  Uu>y  mmmumi  to  iindnrsell  our 
countrymen  and  uummuMtm  IIm  tnittiiH."  The  tabu- 
lar stateiiiuutu  that  fiiihm,  tfivlttu  it  iimiUnneii  view 
of  thu  trails  and  iiavlgitdxo  nf  Miifwiii,  are  brought 
down  to  the  IttaH  jwrl'i'l  (nf  i^hinU  niitlwntlr  data  aro 
accessible.  Ilwy  ^r*  r«HH(rfM  ttm  fllUlh  (ifflclal 
publications  i 

Tiiiutia  HiATaNKiir  iummniH  nn  tw^wi  tit  Moaooco 
I'"*  i*4».  i'mn4Hmi  wim  «n. 


Tsnirier 
Tetuan. 
LaroL'lie .... 

Kabat 

DarallisliU 

Mazsitaii IHIMH" 

Mogailure •i.mhmi 

Total IMImi 


Official  returns  gtvw  Ul  Kltjjtwkl  tlw  (rflnclpal  ihnre 
of  this  traile— un  adfitHtjtuw  wMlh  •)(«  (■lijiry,",  imftly 
because  of  lliu  proiciwily  tit  I  Hi  if  nil  Hf,  btii  milnly  be- 
cause she  niono|xiliiws  )Im<  Uf^u  built  lit  tUn  cnrrylng 
trade  Iwtween  the  (,'»(|t*i|  Hmttm  »«d  Mmmtn. 

The  im|)ort8,  Umm  ynttr*,  mininWii  iit  cottons 
(^Americimiii)  und  wimtm  i  l'(H(»,  titw  sllli,  Iron,  steel, 
copper  and  li/u/J,  uugnf,  niffim,  iffHUm,  ilfMgs,  hard- 
wares, tea,  und  mmUi  Hm  Hiniiiftit  *cM  Wool,  bides 
ond  skins,  Uficlws,  gM(ll,  iiihu.-iiH.  Wotiwco  leather, 
and  ostrich  fouthurs,  'dm  Kfimm  euliwintce  of  the 
Mediterranean  in  ll*.')4  )M»f«(ti*4  imli'tMif  over  that 
of  1853 ;  tlie  iiicrtosii  him,  rlll^lly  »j(li  ftfialfi,  Morocco, 
Sardinia,  the  Uiiltud  Hti*(«»,  miA  TdsiaMJ', 

Nuviynliun.—'l'Ua  (uW'miHH  *«•'•*  «*(lll/ils  the  ««tl' 
gation  of  tlie  jwrU  of  Miifmm  in  imi(l i 

N«Uuii«lii)r..  W«,(rf»fl 

EnKlttiid ,,,,,,,,,,,  m 

Fran™ .,,,,,,,  U 


8paln 

Portugal 

Turkey 

Other  countries. 


T' 

(«,«<<« 

(,«« 

t,m 

(.^4(1 

n 

1//28 

Total. 


mi 


M,l5fi 


The  principal  iiiipi)r(«  Kr»  iitltim  ffHiiU  lit  nil  klnd.4, 
cloth,  silk  stuffa,  v»|y«ts,  i»(i(i^f,  iffJHi  <i(c«i(,  hard- 
ware, cochineal,  llldigw,  Diui  tihff  rtycsj  Ifrt,  coffee. 
sulphur,  paper,  glass,  Imiul^,  mm,  "(/'..  The  e.^porta 
consist  in  hides,  waif,  mm\,  \mi\m,  il(lt«s,  olmonds, 
oranges,  und  otiier  fruit,  («*rk,  fl»«,  itdttVi,  woolen 
sashes,  liuicks,  Uooriuli  tljjijii^rit,  ^:, 

The  following  tablfl  si$li)b)M  tll«*  v«lllc<i  fif  this  trade 
during  a  period  of  ftv«  yi>»r*  fffJlH^  «H(l  l»Mi 


_Aversgo[_  JftW^ 

Tliat  our  comiiwrclnl  rnwVH  IHWy  s«#  the  share 
which  Great  Dritaiii  ImiI4»  it*  f  Iw  tf/trfw  of'  TftHj^Ier,  we 
sulijoin  a  taliulur  .stati'ineiit  i!]w¥i\n^i\i«m^\tUttiiin  lit 
this  port  during  tl«s  6H>m  mf\ii>\,  4i.<!tbl)$Hiahlng  the 
number  uiul  tonnage  uf  Kri(!^t)  mm\i  1 


y.»r.. 

EDUn.ll. 

Cl«^«4, 

British  ihlpt. 

Korellfii  .Ulpi. 

BrilUb  .lill)..         I        fml^  »Wt»; 

VeiMtU. 

Til  tilt. 

V«u«l«. 

I'cni. 

Veuelii.         Tont. 

Vr..eli. 

Tmu.     1  ytmil: 

fim* 

4,f«* 

rm^:  t   ^Trtrf.- 

lS5i.... 
1858.... 
1S54.... 
1365.... 
1S56.... 
Total. 
Average 

159 
176 
187 
158 
208 

4,699 
T,2«l 
12,846 
12,897 
10,883 

102 
174 
123 
»U 
110 

2,S1)C 
8,8.VJ 
6.984 
8,218 
4JS0 

261    1     7,495 
850    !    15.014 
205    1   1S.7.S0 
243    1   15,610 
813    1   15.663 

159 
178 
188 
153 
201 
831" 
168' 

7,261        m 

iiim      »r 

10,934         III) 

I 

IS.463 

^t;.m 

I».tl4 

828 

47,936 

604 

26,170 

1,4.S2    '   73,162 

48,017         ew     1  MjWrj 

),4fe   1  li^m* 

166 

9,697 

121 

6,085 

2S0     i   14,082 

9,608         m    1     mi 

m 

1  \*m 

MOR 


1880 


MOR 


In  1861)  th«  uommrrcUl  movementii  at  thn  port  of 
MnKudore  macliad,  Import!  and  exiHirta  united,  10,r)92,- 
J'lA  fMnea ;  of  which  lm|ii>rtit  covurud  tiUH-lgV^O  francs, 
ind  itxporU  6,tlUtl,026  franca.  In  IH&'i  tha  total  wo* 
•  inly  6,920,A'.'i>  franca;  of  which,  for  Iniporta,  thei« 
wen  1),267,176  franca,  and  for  export*  lJ,lir>a,llfiO 
t'ranea.  Thert  waa,  therefore,  an  Increase  In  1H6U  of, 
importn  l,717,OIA  franca,  exporta  1,U5'>,U7S,  making  a 
total  of  U,(i;i,7;iU  francH. 

Navlitation  returna  ahow  that  67  vessola  entered, 
ineaauring,  In  all,  74HB  tons,  viz.:  Kngland,  H7; 
France,  0  ;  I'ortUKsl,  'i ;  Uelgium,  1 ;  Spain,  1 ;  other 
iiatlona,  7. 

The  trade  of  thia  port  (Mogadore)  in  IHa-l  exhibit*  a 
total  value  of  &,U4ll,0U6  franca  ;  of  which  there  waa 
tor  imports  '2,M10,(M5  frunca,  and  for  ex|)orta  3,186,050 
I'ranca, 

Naviuation  or  Moaocco  in  1A44,  coxPAtcii  with  that 
or  1847. 


IMS. 
IMT., 


Knuratl. 
1»7 

81  e 


ToUl  Vnnaaff*. 

S8,84« 
81,4U 


Ueoroaso  In  1<)4H.      ID  U  »,OMS 

The  general  foreign  commerce  of  tlio  empire  in 
lt<48  and  1860  is  ahown  by  the  following  atate- 
inont : 

Y«iin.  tmporti.  Eiporti.  TnUI. 

1B4« fl.loaltiOO  t\fim,200  |8,TS9.400 

1860 1,f)'J«,H00  l,«88,tM0  U,fiO«,000 

The  commerce  for  theae  years  waa  thus  distributed 
lietwcon  the  ports  of  Morocco : 


Porli. 


ImpotU. 


Kiporti. 


I84>. 


ISM. 


IIM*. 


J      Krano*. 

Tatifflpr '  2,18«,0(M) 

Totuan I  »,497,00() 

l.aroche '.  eS.S.fltXI 

lUhat '  I,S87,(I0« 

iDiiralBalda....  716,000 

'Miuaitan 68.000 


Kraiici. 
1,614.000 

Mi.noo 

I.SiM.OOO 

wo.ooo 

496,000 


I  MoKodorc 2,786,000_i3128,0(:0 

'       Total IO,6tl8,IN)0  j  9,  il  4,000 


I'rnne*. 
1,649,000 

1,116,000 
B8'.t,000 
477,000 

I.A'AOOO 
344,000 

i,m,m 

8,416,000" 


I  1,048,000 

I     617,000 

866,000 

1,146,000 

I  1,116,000 

410,000 

I  8,792,000 


8,3»(,000 


The  following  tubular  Htutcment  shows  the  countries 
which  participated  in  the  trade  of  1860 : 


Counlrirb. 


Import!. 


'England.., |  $1,808,800 


I  France  . 

ISnaln 

il'nrtufnil.. 
Sardinia., 
llelgluin.. 
Austria. . . 
I       Total. 


896,000 
48,100 
47,400 

14,66o 
8,800 


11,822,800 


Kiportl. 


|»7«,400 

621,800 

87,400 

7,800 

38,000 

11,900 

11,688,800^ 


Toul. 

|3;286,200 
1,017,400 
8^600 
66,200 
38,000 
26,800 

8,800 

18,606,000 


The  principal  ports  of  Morocco  are  Tangier,  Tetuani 
Laroche,  Kubat,  Dar  al  Uaidu,  Mazagan,  and  Moga- 
dore. The  town  of  Tangier  occupies  an  eminence  at 
the  western  extremity  of  a  capacious  bay,  within  the 
limits  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  nearly  opposite 
to  the  Spanixh  town  of  Tarifa.  The  peculiar  advan- 
tages of  its  situation  render  it  the  most  frequented 
imrt  of  Morocco.  The  town  contains  900  houses,  and 
about  ^500  inhabitants— consisting  of  tiOOl  Moors,  3200 
•lews,  and  840  Christians.  The  inhabitants  are,  com- 
paratively speaking,  civilized  and  tolernnt.  Chris- 
tians are  treated  with  greater  respect,  and  Jews  with 
loss  severity,  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire — 
privileges  for  which  they  are  indebted  partly  to  the 
presence  of  the  chief  representatives  of  foreign  pow- 
ers and  partly  to  the  liberality  o{  the  present  able 
imd  energetic  Pasha,  Sid  Mohamed  Uen  Abd-el- 
Maleck. 

Port  Charge). — The  port  charges  and  dues  are  sim- 
ply for  anchorage,  and  vary  from  f  2  to  $25,  with  a 
gratuity  to  the  port  captain  of  from  $2  to  $4.  This 
gratuity  secures  thj  services  of  this  officer  in  obtain- 
ing abundant  provisions  and  other  supplies  for  the 
vesMi,  free  of  duty.    The  anchorage  dues,  as  above, 


range  between  tlin  two  •xtremes,  according  to  the 
friendly  or  unfriendly  terms  which  may  aulisiat  be- 
tween the  local  authoritiea  and  tlie  contul  of  the  na- 
tion the  tlag  of  which  the  vsaael  may  bear. — Com, 
Ktl.  U.  S. 

Contular  Bei/ulalioiu  with  Ihe  t/nilej  iSlalet, — It  is 
stipulated  by  the  19th  and  tha  three  following  articles 
of  the  treaty  concluded  Iratween  the  United  States  and 
Morocco,  OctolKtr  1,  1H87,  tliat  if  any  of  the  citizens 
of  the  I'liited  States,  or  any  iwraona  under  tlieir  pro- 
tection, shall  have  any  dispute  with  each  otlier,  t\w 
consul  shall  decide  between  the  parties ;  and  wliencvcr 
the  consul  shall  require  any  aid  or  aaalatance  from  the 
government  of  Morocco  to  enforce  Ilia  decisions.  It 
abail  be  immediuteiy  rendered  to  him.  If  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  ahouid  kill  or  wound  a  Sloor,  or, 
on  the  contrary,  If  a  Moor  ahall  kill  or  wound  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  the  law  of  the  country  iihull 
take  place,  and  equal  Justice  shall  l>e  rendered,  the 
consul  nsaiating  at  the  trial;  and  if  any  deiiii(|ui<nt 
ahull  pinko  ilia  esca|)e,  tlio  conaul  ahall  not  be  uii<iwor- 
able  for  him  in  any  manner  whatever.  If  an  Ainrr- 
ican  citizen  ahull  dio  in  Morocco,  and  no  will  nliull 
ap|>car,  the  consul  ahall  take  possession  of  hix  oirccts ; 
and  if  there  shall  bo  no  consul,  the  efTccts  shall  be  de- 
posited in  the  hands  of  some  person  worthy  of  trn.it, 
until  the  party  shall  appear  who  has  a  right  to  liu- 
mand  them  ;  but  if  the  heir  to  the  person  deceuscil  lie 
present,  tlie  pro|)erty  ahall  be  delivered  to  him  witliniit 
interruption ;  and  if  a  will  ahull  appear,  the  property 
shall  descend  agreeably  to  that  will,  as  soon  as  the 
consul  shall  declare  the  validity  thereof.  Tiie  consul 
of  the  United  States  is  permitted  to  reside  in  any  sea- 
port of  the  diimiuions  of  the  emperor  of  Jlorocco  tluit 
he  shall  think  proper ;  and  he  shall  be  respected,  and 
enjoy  all  the  privileges  whicli  the  consuls  of  any  other 
nation  enjoy ;  and  if  any  of  tlie  citizens  of  the  United 
States  shall  contract  uny  debts  or  engugements,  the 
consul  shall  not  bo  in  any  manner  answerable  I'ur 
them,  unless  he  shall  have  given  a  promise  in  writing' 
for  the^iwynient  or  fulfillment  thereof ;  wltliout  which 
promise  iu  writing  no  application  to  him  for  any  re- 
dress shall  be  made. 

Mortgage.  A  mortgage  is  a  conveyance  or  truns- 
fer  if  real  or  personal  estate  to  secure  the  grantee  or 
assignee  tiie  payment  of  some  debt  or  the  pcrforniiincc 
of  some  agreement,  with  a  condition  or  understunilin|{ 
that,  in  case  of  the  debt  being  paid,  or  tlie  agrccnieut 
being  performed,  within  a  certain  time,  and  in  the 
specifled  manner,  the  conveyance  or  assignment  sliull 
be  void,  and  the  land  or  personal  property  revert  to,  or 
rather,  still  belong  to  the  mortgager.  The  Kngllsli, 
and  so  the  American  mortgage  of  bind,  is  mcjstiy  bor- 
rowed ttom  the  civil  law  (see  Kent's  Commentariei, 
vol.  iv.,  part  iv.,  lect.  Ivii. ;  UitowN's  Civil  Lmr,  vol. 
i.,  p.  200),  or,  at  least,  many  of  the  rules  and  inci- 
dents of  the  Roman  hi/potheca,  coincide  with  ours  rela- 
ting to  mortgages.  The  essential  characteristic  of  a 
mortgage,  however,  according  to  the  impart  ond  dell- 
nitlon  of  the  term,  must  be  the  same  in  all  countries, 
namely,  thot  the  property  convoyed  or  transferred. 
whether  real  or  personal,  shall  not  absolutely  go,  and 
belong  to  the  grantee  or  assignee,  in  case  the  dolit  in 
tended  to  be  secured  shall  be  paid,  or  the  contract, 
whatever  it  may  be,  intended  to  be  guarantied,  shall 
be  performed  within  the  time  and  terms  agreed  upon. 
The  rules  and  incidents  of  such  a  hypothecation  will, 
therefore,  have  some  resemblance  under  all  codes  of 
laws.  There  is  no  limitation  of  tlie  kind  of  debts  or 
contracts,  the  payment  or  performance  of  wliich  may 
be  secured  by  mortgage,  for  all  legal  ones  may  be  .so 
guarantied.  What  will  be  a  sufHcient  conveyance  of 
the  property,  whether  real  or  personal,  will  again  de- 
pend on  the  laws  of  the  place.  A  conveyance  of  land, 
for  instance,  must,  in  most  countries,  be  made  in  writ- 
ing, and  with  certain  formalities.  So,  in  England,  tlie 
right  of  property  in  a  ship  must  appear  by  a  bill  of 


MOR 


1311 


MOfl 


e  or  tr:ini- 
(frantce  or 
!rfi)rmuiicu 
iirstaiidinn 
ugri'i'iueiit 
mil  ill  tlio 
meiit  sha\l 
evprt  to,  or 
,e  Knglisli, 
ncjutly  bor- 
nmenUtriei, 
1m«;  vol. 
and  inci- 
.  ours  rclu- 
leristic  of  a 
and  deli- 
.  countries, 
tanaferrcd. 
ely  go,  ai>'l 
ho  debt  in 
„  contract, 
ntlod,  shall 
jreed  upon, 
cation  will, 
,U  codca  of 
of  debts  or 
which  may 
may  be  no 
iveyanco  of 
11  again  dc- 
nce  of  land, 
\ade  in  writ- 
tnuland,  the 
by  a  bill  of 


11 


nl«,  WIlHtavor  than*  rulm  arc  hy  which  thn  aliio- 1 
!utfl  tranxrvror  pr(i|i«rt}- 1»  r«Kiilat«il,  th«y  will  miually  ' 
•pply  tn  K  conveyance  or  aiiiil|{nment  by  way  of  hy.  I 
|M)tlirciitlon.  Aa  real  entate  la  uaually  ra<|iiir«il  hy  tlw  j 
I'lWK  to  lifl  rnnvoyed  hy  written  dncumenta,  anil,  n\ 
cnrdlnit  to  th«  law*  of  most  placea,  thena  convryani'iit 
are  eviilenced  hy  piilillc  reconia  of  the  Initrumenta  hy 
which  they  are  made,  there  is  no  neneialty  of  an  open, 
vUlbla  ponaeaiion  of  the  estate  hy  the  K'*>itee,  that 
the  public  may  take  notice  of  the  Rrant,  for  they  may 
find  the  evidence  of  It  at  the  office  of  public  rei^onl. 
The  case  Ik  not  the  name  with  (leriianal  property,  thn 
title  to  which  is  uauall}'  eonflrmed  and  establUhed  to 
the  piirchanrr  by  a  delivery  of  the  article  Into  lili  pon- 
neAHliin,  In  respect  to  all  chattels,  of  which  manual 
pnnsrsslnn  and  transfer  from  place  to  place  Is  prai'tlca< 
bio,  tho  delivery  by  tho  vender,  and  actual  |)osiesslon 
by  the  purchaser,  aro  very  material  circumstances  in 
establlKhintt  the  right  of  property  in  the  latter.  It  Is, 
indeed,  laid  down  as  a  maxim  of  tho  Knglish,  and  also 
of  tho  American  law,  that  movables  can  not  bo  validly 
solil  or  mortnaged  without  a  delivery  actual,  or  con. 
itructlve,  to  tlin  purchaser  or  mortgagee,  and  a  |)»sses- 
sinn  by  him.  Hut  this  rule  Is  very  much  modilleil  and 
relaxed ;  not  that  a  delivery  to  and  a  possession  hy 
thn  venden  and  mortgagee  are  not  cimsidered  requlslta 
to  establish  his  title,  but  a  very  lil)eral  taterpretatlon 
has  been  put  upon  circumstances  showing  a  eon- 
atriictlvo  delivery  and  possession.  Tho  oliject  and 
p(dicy  of  the  law  Is  to  leave  the  movable.  Just  aa  it 
does  land,  to  bo  used  either  by  the  mortgager  or  mort- 
gagee, without  affecting  their  mutual  rights  and  obli- 
gations as  to  the  property  In  the  thing,  as  far  as  this 
indulgence  can  l>e  carrieil  without  loading  other  per- 
sons into  a  misapprehension,  and  exposing  them  to 
fraud  and  Imposition  in  giving  credit  to  the  mortgager, 
iipim  tiie  supposition  of  his  l)ping  tho  absolute  owner 
of  tho  property  hypothecated.  Tho  various  rules  and 
distinctions  by  which  the  mortgage  of  chattels  Is  rcgu- 
lated  in  tills  respect,  constitute  an  essontal  part  of  the 
law  upon  this  suliject.  Hut,  after  all,  wo  may  lay  it 
down  us  an  essential  doctrine,  that  a  mortgaged  chat- 
tel must  be  in  possession  of  the  mortgagee,  in  order 
to  render  his  title  secure;  and  when  the  mortgager 
has,  by  tho  law,  been  permitted  still  to  use  the  thing, 
it  is  only  in  cases  where  his  possession  is,  in  legal  con- 
struction, that  of  tho  mortgagee. 

The  most  material  consideration  relating  to  mortga- 
ges, whether  of  lands  or  chattels,  is  the  eft'ect  of  the 
non-performance  of  tho  condition  by  the  mortgager. 
This  will  depend,  it  is  true,  in  part,  upon  tho  terms  of 
the  contract  of  hypothecation  or  mortgage.  If  it  he 
agreed  between  the  parties,  that  in  case  of  non-per 
formance  of  tho  condition  of  the  hypotheoation,  the 
mortgagee  shall  sell  tho  thing  hypothecated,  whottier 
land  or  goods,  and  account  to  the  mortgager  for  tho 
proceeds  in  satisfaction  of  tho  doI>t,  or  discharge  of  the 
oljligation,  intended  to  he  secured,  and  pay  over  the 
surplus,  if  any,  this  is  all  that  justice  or  tho  law  can 
demand,  and  this  is,  In  effect,  wliat  the  law  aims  at 
where  the  parties  do  not  mal<e  any  such  stipulation  ; 
but,  on  tho  contrar)',  agree,  either  expressly  or  im- 
pliedly, that,  In  case  of  a  non-performance  of  the  con- 
dition, the  thing  mortgaged  shall  bo  absolutely  and 
immedhitely  forfeited  to  tho  mortgagee,  without  any 
right  on  the  part  of  the  mortgager  to  redeem  it,  or  to 
call  upon  tho  mortgagee  to  sell  it  and  account  with  him 
for  the  proceeds.  Thus,  in  the  common  form  of  mort- 
gaging land,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  mortgagee  with  a 
provision  that  unless  he  shall  pay  n  certain  debt,  or  do 
a  certain  thing  within  a  time  specifled,  the  convej'ance 
shall  bo  void.  According  to  tho  literal  construction, 
therefore,  if  this  condition  is  not  complied  with,  the 
thing  henceforth  belongs  absolutely  to  the  mortgagee. 
But  here  tho  law  steps  in  and  controls  the  agreement, 
and  attempts  to  prevent  it  from  operating  as  a  penalty 
or  forfeiture,  at  the  same  time  giving  it  all  its  force  as  a 


fiif  thlnjiiirpn**,  dllTerenl  moder 
ifif  Nwd,  all  of  which  a'/ree 


—"iiMynfgmmnty, 

ar«  iut<i|il«|  III  ((lif.rani  I'uiss  ri  , 

in  applyliiK  IIm  valiix  i^  (Im  thliiK  morfgiged.  In  »ii«l» 
faitloii  and  ilixliMfKx /.f  llm  dsht  nriibllgalliin  Intended 
to  Ihi  M,  iirwl  I  Ml  llmt  ).*  all  Ihr  ciNles  Justice  Is  done,  It 
thurii  U  m  sMrplMn  valiw,  IIm  If  there  Iw  a  aurplii,. 
valiui,  iwiiiMi  ,4  III*  i'mt«s  will  reach  II,  and  others  not 
ami  th*  >»m»  mnU  will  rxiii  h  It  In  regani  to  one  kind  oi 
pUdgn,  HKirtKHKx,  „t  hrpolhecsllim,  and  not  another 
^oranaiiipl,.,  |,)'lh«  ^/.„^\M,  „^)  Amerlcin  law,  If  a 
il«l,tor  \iMg»,  bill,  „f  tni'tmnit",  w  nnv  personal  prop 
erty  fur  «  lUW,  )>,  an  amount  eicredlrii;  Its  value,  th- 
■•mdltiir  »nH«t  iM'i«Mi«ii  riirlll«|rr,ii'eeds.  and  pay  over  thi' 
surplii*  Ui  llw  dvtitor  1  but  III  Ciitfland,  and  so  In  somi 
of  tiM  I'iiIImI  Mal««,  If  lite  ilnMor  mortgages  lamls, 
of  whii'll  tlw  tfuWUif  lakM  fummUm  tax  breach  ol 
I'onditlon,  lh«  MiUn  lian  ihrc*  years  to  redeem  It,  al- 
ter whii'h  tiiiMi  ll*«  laii'l  Is  alrsolutelv  gone,  though 
twiietliaaHKiuhlortlMiilebtln  raliie.  'llie  law,  In  tlil- 
I'aiw,  nupiMw*  thrco  v»»rs  (o  U  time  en<Migh  to  allow 
the  dul/tiir  U)  rmtmrn  H,  In  caw  of  an  execM  i,f  value 
of  llw  land  1  mi4  thi*  •ilpfiiMlUm  Is  net  wholly  unrea- 
sonabla,  hIh' «  Urn  duMor  has  all  that  time  td  sell  the 
land  If  Im  eaii  k«{  imtn  than  thn  ammmt  of  the  debt 
for  It,  'l'h»  civil  Uw,  MS  mote  generallv  administered, 
where  It  !<«•  Iwuiii  mmU  tlw  Inisls  of  modern  cmle-,  anil 
NO  ths  laws  of  tiiany  lit  llm  UnUni  mates  adopt  a  dlf- 
fermit  »|i«ti»,  \irfwriUUiu  nn  ffp(rt'al«einent  of  the  mort- 
gaged land,  ufui  IiMvMIhk  that  It  mnv,!*  sold  by  aue 
tlon,  If  twti  third*  of  dm  n(()ftal«ed  raltie  Is  lild'for  ll 
and  tlia  |»r<«'««d«  of  thw  sale  are  afiplled  In  satlsfactloii 
of  tha  (Jiibtor  olillKatlon  Kitarantled  br  the  mortgage. 

and  tha  sMrpliM,  If  any,  |mldorerto  the  debtor K.  A. 

Mom.  Ii'iliiwl  ifittf  (I'rimria  /nlnnili'n),  a  speedes 
of  lli'hi'il,  »  natlVH  of  thn  monntxlnous  heaths  and 
v/o»d«  III  th«  Alpini*  (tarts  of  Heotland,  and  of  the  As- 
turias,  III  H|Hi>t),  »»  t»w1l  »•(  In  (eeland  and  thn  north  nl 
liermaiiy,  It  Kfmtia  tii  «  |i«li<lit  of  only  two  or  thre- 
Inches,  aiMl  hasfatlnf  «  fM««ed,  bushy  apimirance,  an.l 
doubtluss  would  thrive,  and  (wrhap<  with  profit,  in  th^ 
northern  («rts  of  fho  United  Mates,  particularlv  in 
Minnesota,  W)»"oii»tH,  Mlchljjan,  northern  New  Ynrlt. 
Vermont,  fi»w  llamfnhlrx,  and  Maine.  In  Feelanl 
and  Lapland,  thU  jilitnt  U  n^ed  as  nn  article  of  diet, 
being  boilud  in  liroili  or  tnilli,  after  (wing  freed  from  its 
bltt/irnnis  by  repc/tliKj  mw*  erstlnn  In  water ;  or  dried 
and  madu  Int-i  lif«*),  '( |i«  dried  plant  differs  but  lit- 
tle from  (tii  ntmnttmnim  In  a  recent  state,  Medicinally, 
it  is  toni<!  itn<}  lUimHU'Pllt,  'Mm  decoction,  as  ordered 
in  tlw  |di«rniitt'iii(»'la4,  i<  mi  UUUf  as  to  prevent  many 
persons  from  taklntf  lt|  itMd  when  deprived  of  its  rlis- 
agraeabltt  tantw,  It  can  imh  im  viewed  as  a  demulcent, 
and  Is  hardly  <»)Mi(l  Itt  lia  fltnU  to  linseed,  quince- 
seed,  and  ii)ari|i--Hialloin,  (t  ceftalnly  dws  not  cure 
phthisic  pulmon4li4  i  bnt  Itl  (he  Inst  stage  of  that  dis- 
ease, when  solid  fiirni  U  oppressive,  nnd  the  diarrhica 
ap|«ur»  Ui  im  k")*  ((It  by  tl(«  ncrld  contents  «[  tin 
stimiacli  and  Ixmul*,  It  l(«*  (ippenred  to  check  the  lat- 
ter, and  Ui  imimrt  tuitli  vlffor  nnd  nourishment  to  the 
digestive  itrnmii-'I'ilhHl  Ofirn  Ufp,     See  (cklanii. 

Monftio  Otold.  Viir  th«  cottUHnitUm  of  tliis  pecu- 
liar alloy  of  <'o(,(,iif  iin<1  i<lfie,  called  also  ()r-muhi. 
Messrs.  Parkor«((d  llatnill'm  obtained  a  patent  in  No- 
venilwr,  \Wlfi,  Vii\m\  ((((antltles  of  cqiper  nnd  zinc 
are  to  be  "  |((«IM  nt  (Iw  lrtw««t  tetnjieralure  that  cop- 
per will  fuss,"  whli'li  Mna  stirred  to)(etber  so  as  to 
produce  a  |ierfi«'t  (t(t»Ml!iHi((f(4  of  the  metals,  a  further 
quantit)'  of  'f-Uw  U  K/liM  Ih  small  portions,  until  the 
alloy  in  tliu  n(>iltlni;-|«tt  \mpimf^  of  the  color  required. 
If  the  teiil|ieratl(ra  of  llm  C«|((ief  Iw  too  hi(}h,  a  portlou 
of  the  /ini'  will  (ly  (tlf  In  vn^f,  nnd  the  result  will  be 
merely  siwltsr  «f  linrd  »o1(l«f  1  b(lt  If  the  operation  be 
carried  on  at  as  \tm  »  lent  ns  hnsslble,  the  alloy  will 
assume  (irst  »  hr»»s$'  y»\\tm  mun  then,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  small  \wH\im»  n(  if.itw,  It  will  take  a  pnrple 
j  or  violet  hua,  (*((d  will  nltltnntett  become  perfeotly 
I  wliite  i  whk'b  U  tM  (lp|W(tntmt«  ut  tho  ptoper  compound 


MUL 


1383 


MUL 


in  It*  fuMil  lUt*.  ThU  (llov  m»y  Im  poariHl  Into 
liiKoU,  I  liul  •■  U  U  dlllloult  to  |iri»«rti>  lt.<  churadi', 
wlimi  n>>mtltiHl,  it  shouM  lis  nii<l  illreril>  In!)  tha  litr 
iin«l  niiilcU,  Tho  |i«t«nt«M  i^nliii  tlm  i- <  iiiiive  riuiit 
of  I'oniixiumliiiK  <>  'nntul  riinalatliiK  nf  rnun  M  to  lib 
|iurta  lit  i\uv  nut  nf  KHI,  Moulc  |{<>lcl,  th«  nurum  tin. 
i/i'»Hi  (if  th«  iilil  rlioniltta,  U  •  miliiliiinit  of  till. 

ACoaalo  ( .l/»<ui7N<',  l''r.  I  MmaiMih,  Uvrm).  'lh»n 
urs  ai>v«riil  kimU  of  mimiilf,  liut  all  iif  lliem  raimliil  In 
iiiilHMlilliiK  frii)(iiwiitii  of  (lltrcrrnt  i'iilftr«<l  ■uliatanina, 
iiaually  kUm  or  atonai,  In  ii  ri'iin'iit,  mi  ud  to  |iriMluc« 
tlia  ii(r«rt  of  ■  |ilrtun.  'I'lm  liraiitlfiil  i'Iiii|hiI  of  Muint 
l.iiwrcni'o,  In  Klorenvn,  wlilfli  rcmtnlna  th«  tonilia  of  tlin 
Mcdirl,  him  Iwrn  |(rciitly  uilnilrcil  liy  urtUta,  on  •<> 
I'oiint  iif  tlio  vaat  niiiltltuil*  of  |ir«iiiou»  miirlilio,  J«»- 
liiira,  iiKatim,  uvunturlnitM,  inalurliUiiii,  «ti-.,  *|i|illi«l  In 
Hiomilr,  ii|N>n  ItH  wnlU.  Tim  ilrtttilpil  iIIki'UioIou  of 
tlilH  milijtit't  li«l(inKi  to  u  troatlun  U|Hin  tli«  llns  nrta, 

Moaqulto  Ooaat,  Moaqultla.  Tim  llniK  ■ 
tlilM  |imiuito  Ontriil  Ainiirlviui  Ntutx,  Mom  'Itlu  or  : 
Miii>i|iilto('niist,  iirii  no  inilvlinltn,  iinil  itanxtont  '  '  i  < 
n>  lin|M'rfiu'tly  Hii<'prtaltii>d,  that  avin'rl;  iiiniu  kI  i  - 
IhiMu  I'hurtti'tpr  rnn  lis  ksIiI  ri>ii|H«'tliii:  it  phyalmlly. 
tliiin  |Milltli'iilly  or  cominerclitlly.  It  la  »ii|i|Hiap(l  to 
extoiiil  from  t'lipe  llaniliiruH  toth*  mouth  of  tlio  lllvnr 
.Siui  •liiiin,  hiivln^  weat  the  >Stiii'  «  of  lloii<liiriia  iiuil 
Nli'urii){UH,  anil  north  mil  nnat  Ihti  t'trllilicnn  Hon,  anil 
to  einlinu'K  iiliout  VII.UOO  ai|Uiire  inlli>a,  Tim  Monqulto 
Imliana,  Iti  imt|va  anil  ainuiat  only  liihahltuiitii,  aro 
reiirrsentvil  aa  an  nctivii  anil  il»rlii)(  raco,  imviir '  roUK<  t 
uniUr  auliniiaalon  liy  the  Mpanliirila.  Tho  Sun  Uiun 
liivnr  la  I'lainivil  aa  Ita  aoiitli  iHiiiniliiry,  Ita  caiiital  la 
lllnwilelila,  ami  It  I'ontalna  Hevprul  otliiT  amull  vilhiKna, 
liihaliitKil  I'hietly  liy  natlvii  Indiana  ami  aomo  fuw 
llritlah  I'ohiniata,  The  iMiuntry  la  fortlln,  ami,  unilor 
|irii|ii5r  iMiltlvalion,  woulil  |iro(lucn  cocoa,  cotton,  aii|{ar, 
lnili|((>,  \  anilla,  anil  logwood  ;  hut,  until  sonin  chanf(a 
takua  pliu'c  rithcr  in  tho  inndp  of  cultivation,  or  the  form 
of  Kovurninent,  itn  rvaoiircua  have  hut  aiiiuU  chance  for 
(lovuhi|>ment.     See  1Iiimi>i:h.vh. 

Mother  of  Pearl  (AVktb  <le  IWIm,  Kr. ;  I'rrltn 
miillfv,  licrin.)  la  the  hard,  ailvery,  lirilllant  intrrnal 
l.iyiT  of  aevcral  kiiida  of  ahelU,  particularly  oyatora, 
wliich  la  often  varieKateil  with  chanKhiK  purple  and 
azure  colora.  The  large  oyatera  of  the  Indian  aoua 
alone  accrete  thU  coat  of  aufticlent  thickneaa  to  ren- 
der their  ahclla  availahle  to  tho  purpoaea  of  nmnu- 
fucturera.  The  genua  uf  (hell  llah  called  prntmlina 
furniahua  the  liiioat  pearia,  us  well  aa  mother  of  pearl ; 
it  la  found  In  greatcat  perfection  round  the  coaata  of 
Ceylon,  near  Oriniia  in  the  I'craian  Uulf,  at  ('ajie 
('oniorln,  and  among  aonie  of  the  Australian  aeo-a. 
The  lirilllant  hues  of  mother  of  |iearl  do  not  de|iend 
u|ion  the  nature  of  itie  lulitance,  hut  upon  Its  atruc- 
ture.  The  mic  ..  ,i''  > '  ..iji  or  furrows  which  rur 
acroaa  the  surface  of  '"-ri  i  •■  net  upon  the  ri<ttwfcd 
light  in  such  n    f'    i«  i'   -,      •  ••   .hochroniaii  , 

fur  Sir  David  '  '  '  r  '  .1,  '  <  i<rn,  that  if  v.c  take, 
with  very  fine  i..»'  .  .ux,  or  with  tho  fuailile  alloy  of 
U'Arcet,  an  hnpresalon  of  mother  of  |iearl,  it  will  pos- 
sess the  irriileacent  apjiearance.  Mother  of  pearl  is 
very  delicate  to  work,  but  it  may  lie  fuHliioned  hy 
aawa,  files,  and  drills,  with  the  aid  sometimes  of  a  cor- 
rosive acid,  such  us  the  dilute  sulphuric  or  muriatic; 
and  it  la  poliahed  hy  colcothur  of  vitriol, 

Moiamblque,  a  fortillod  maritime  city,  and  the 
capital  of  tho  I'ortugueae  posseasiona  in  eastern  Africa, 
on  an  island  at  the  entrance  of  Mcaaril  lluy,  an  inlet 
of  tho  Mnzumliiiiue  (.'liunnel,  6^  miles  broad,  and  G 
miles  in  length,  and  receiving  il  smuU  rivers,  its  en- 
trance lieing  sheltered  also  hy  the  islunds  St.  (ieorge 
and  St.  -Ittgo,  which  help  to  bound  its  harbor.  Mozam- 
bique Isluml,  in  lat.  i;>°  2'  S.,  long.  10°  4H'  E.,  is 
aliout  I^  miles  in  length,  low,  and  of  coral  foriuation. 

Mulberry.  Soil,  Situation,  Propagalim,  etc. — 
Tho  wiorus  nigra,  or  black  mulberry-tree,  will  grow  in 
almost  any  soil  or  situation  that  is  tolerably  dry,  and 


In  any  cllmct*  not  much  colder  than  most  parts  of 
llrllain  and  tl.a  IFnittd  Ntates.  It  la  very  eaaily  pni|v 
.igateil  by  truncheons  or  plrcea  of  tlm  lirnmhea,  I'iKht 
or  nine  feet  In  length,  and  of  any  thickneaa,  iH'iiig 
planted  half  Ihtir  ile|ith  In  tolerably  good  aiill|  when 
they  will  Iwar  fruit  the  following  year.  Aa  It  la  iix- 
Irsmeiy  tsnacluua  of  life,  every  part  of  the  rout,  trunk, 
buugha,  and  bramhei  may  Iw  converted  Into  plant*  liy 
aeparatlon  \  the  roollels,  and  iiiiall  ahoota  or  apraya, 
lieiiig  made  Into  tuttlnga,  the  larger  Iniugha  into 
atakra,  the  arms  into  truncheona,  and  the  trunk,  atiMil, 
and  mots,  liein».  'Ut  '  lo  fr  gmenta,  leaving  a  port  inn 
of  the  bark  op  .  '>  m  \  planting  tlium  after  the  ItnU 
Ian  mod"  r<  -tin    'he  olive-tree.     Tlie  iiiuilicrry 

may    I'm  ae  Ml  aeeiia,  hy  layera,  or  by 

grs  '  I- ami  I  nidi.,,  t  his  tree,  from  its  alowneaa  of 
<>i\\  ,  out  us  leaves,  eing  rarely  injured  liy  aprliig 
I'roa  in''  hiaves  Iwlng  seldom  or  never  dinnurnl 
liy  an;  inr.  xcept  the  silkworm,  and  never  tniiilieii 
vith  mihlew,  viry  seldom  falls  to  produce  a  gooil  imp 
'  fruit.  Thia  fruit,  however,  though  excellniil,  ami 
exceedingly  whiilenome,  dues  not  keep,  and  la  m  f.ir 
truubie'<iimn,  tb  it  it  la  only  good  when  it  la  i|uitii  ripe, 
and  la  lieri  when  it  la  aullered  to  fall  from  the  trie 
itai  If.  I'Vir  thia  roaaon,  mullierry-treea  are  generally 
planted  on  a  liiwn  or  graaa-plut,  to  prevent  tlie  fruit 
that  falia  from  lieing  injured  liy  the  gravel  or  dirt. 
This  practice,  however,  is  objectionable,  aa  no  tree, 
perhaps,  reioivea  more  lienelit  fnim  the  apade  and  tlie 
dunghill  than  the  mulberry,  and  it  ought,  tlierel'nre, 
to  be  frei|uently  dug  ulHiut  the  ruota,  and  ol'ca.^illllaiiy 
ua.iiated  with  manure.  Tlie  ground  under  tlie  tree 
sliould  bo  kept  free  from  weeds  tbrougboiit  tlie  mini- 
mer,  particularly  when  tho  fruit  is  ripmiing,  ua  the 
rcllected  light  and  heat  from  the  liare  aiirface  of  the 
soil  la  thua  Increuaud.  In  a  ciml,  moiat  cliiiiiite,  like 
thut  of  Uritain,  the  fruit  ia  alao  very  tine  if  the  tree  be 
trained  aa  an  eapaller,  with  tho  rellertion  of  the  Kimth 
aide  of  a  building  or  wall.  Aa  a  standard  tree,  whether 
fur  ornament  or  fruit,  the  mulberry  roi|iiires  very  llttio 
pruning  or  uttentiun  of  any  kind,  other  than  that 
which  is  given  almve,  Aa  it  increases  in  age,  it  in- 
creasea  in  productiveness,  and  in  full-grown  trees  the 
fruit  is  much  larger  and  butter  liavured  than  in  tlmau 
wliich  aro  young, 

I'mperliet  anil  Utm. — The  wood  of  the  mont»  niijni 
ia  leas  compact  tlian  even  tliat  of  the  white  iiiui- 
lierry,  and  when  perfectly  dry,  weighs  only  abuut  10 
pounds  tu  A  cubic  foot.  It  is  said  to  be  duralile,  and 
has  been  empluyed  in  Kngluiid  fur  various  purpuaea  of 
carpentry,  for  hoops,  bowa,  whoela,  and  oven  ribs  fur 
small  vessels,  instead  of  oak.  In  l"'ance,  this  wood  is 
ciinaidered  of  but  little  value,  i'\  ept  fur  fuel.  In 
snmo  ]iArts  of  Spain,  in  Sicily,  and  m  I'er»iii,  the  leaves 
of  this  species  are  said  to  be  prelVrred  to  tliose  of  tlic 
whifi  I.  iliorryfcr  tho  food  of  sill  >vorma,  Tho  leaves 
are  also  eaten  by  cattle,  sheep,  and  goata,  Tlie  roots 
have  an  ocrid,  bitter  taate,  and  aro  considereil  aa  an 
excellent  vermifuge,  when  taken,  in  powder,  in  ilosea 
of  half  a  drachm.  The  tree,  in  every  part,  contiiiiia  a 
milky  Juice,  which,  being  coagulated,  is  fuund  to 
form  a  course  kind  of  eluat  ■:  gum.  Tlio  fruit  of  tliis 
tree  is  of  an  ugreeable  acid  «ud  inimatic  llavur,  and  la 
entcn  raw,  as  u  dessert,  or  may  bi»  formed  into  an 
agreeable  preserve ;  and  Evelyn  saystlint,  mixed  witli 
the  Juice  of  cider  nppica,  it  nial*.  s  a  v.  ry  .strong  and 
agrcoablo  wine.  Dr.  Clurko  iV'^tTvea  that  lie  saw 
some  Greeks,  in  tiie  Crimea,  1  ipbiyc  1  in  distilling 
brandy  from  mulberrie  whieli  lie  dcM  ribes  as  "u 
weak  but  palatable  spirit,  as  clear  .'*  water."  A  wine 
is  ulso  made  from  it  in  Fraiiw ;  but  it  rennircs  to  be 
drunk  Immediately,  us  it  very  aoon  becomes  acid. 
The  fruit,  when  ripe,  is  regarded  as  cooling  and  laxa- 
tive, allaying  thirst,  and  being  grateful  in  cases  of 
fever.  When  mode  into  a  syrup,  it  is  cunaidereil  ex 
cellent  for  a  sore  throat.  Like  tho  straw  lierry  and 
raspberry,  it  is  suld  to  undergo  tho  acetous  fermeuta- 


MUL 


13M 


MUL 


tiM  In  Mm  tloniHih,  und  thanAm  m»f  to  mkHf  mIhi 

><v  |M>i>«ini  •HlU-tail  with  tlio  thiiMiMMMI  W  wwi.     All 


itinn  niijrii 

■liitis  iiiul- 

,   iil.nllt  -10 
milili-,  mill 

II  rilw  fur 
lis  wdinl  1» 
fiwl.     In 

HlO  ll'llVCK 

of  tlie 
'I'lui  Icnves 
Tlii^  roots 
reil  A*  aw 
•r,  111  ilos''" 
ont:ii«»  11 
fuiinil  to 
fruit  of  tli'w 
or,  Hiiil  ii" 
A  into  an 
niixcil  wltli 
itronii  a'"' 
mt  ho   saw 
ilistiUini? 
ilics  UK  "  u 
A  wine 
(ilres  to  1)1' 
•oiiii'x  aciil. 
^  iiiul  la""- 
iii  canes  of 
is'ulnreiJ  I'x 
w\K>rry  and 
IS  fermtuta- 


Hii!  I '  <>r  poultry  an  iixi<ii«'*tvtily  fnaut  of  thia  /mH,  nnd 
divuur  II  Mflfh  irlditr,  wHanavsr  within  ihvlr  rvm  >i. 

IntrHt  and  Itit  "*  -Ihe  Icavaii  of  the  montt  ''4i», 
or  whila  lnulberr^ -trae,  m  *lwv«l  to  Im  Mtan  1.  no 
othar  liiMct  hut  r'he  allkwurm  ' -u.  ' ^r  iii'Ti).  M.  I'uI- 
Ivln,  iiiiwavarr,  maila  axiMiHnunii^  with  v«rli"H  khiilii  of 
llir-vi'ta,  liiit  lliry  all  h-jni'tiitl  Iha  iiiulbcrr/  leiif  fiif 
fiHnI,  nxvupt  '  it  KrmtD  wuriii,  alHiiit  an  iii<:h  IdllKi  ami 
ua  thlik  ait  uii  out  atraw  Altluiit({li  hi.  follDHl  ll  ii|ioii 

It  iiitlllwrrv,  It  wua  hia  Iwlief  that  It  wi>  not  pwi  iiliarto 
that  trM  ahiiiK.  luit  roiinil  ita  ws,v  tintrc  liy  «<  >  lilaiit. 
Tim  wliltn  MiiilluTrv,  iiowavuf,  la  uliacki'il  hy  iiumrr- 
una  illaanai'a,  ori'ii>luniiil  partly,  >i><  'htaht.  Iiy  Iha  im- 
nalnral  inunnxr  In  whh'h  ll  i^  tniatvil.  h,v  \y»\n^ 
>trl|i|Hul  of  Ita  folliit(i'.  <  )iia  of  tlitiiM  i]iaeiiai>^  la  liroiiKhl 
nil  liy  iinv  anilileii  rliiu'k  KJvt'ii  )ii  ihi<  tr.iiia|ilriilloii  of 
llio  li'iuiiN,  nhhli  turn  yolluw,  iiml  I'nII  olf,  ahortly 
iil'tor  I'aUHliiK  Ilia  trim  to  illr  Anolhor  in  thu  ilaath  of 
tha  roota,  which  la  accuiuiiunlad  hy  th»  I'orinatioii  on 
Ihi'iii  of  luirualtic  fun)(l,  Tha  iMvm  ara  alan  apt  tu  hu 
attiii'lo'il  with  lioncy-ilvw,  Blll<lH*t  tint,  nnii  otliur  ilia- 
niiai'a,  which  rniiiliir  them  uiiHt  I'l  '  thn  fnoili  uf  Iho  allk- 
worm,  'IhoHii  laiivva  covttrail  with  lioiiuy^iftrw  limy  ha 
waalii'il,  mill,  when  thnriMi|(hly  ili  may  l>*  ((Ivan  to 
tho  liiaiicia  w  llhoiit  injury  ;  l>ut  lin  otiu'r  illaauauil 
Icavca  alimihl  lia  llirown  uwiiv  If  Ivavua  covured 
with  Imnay-iliiw  aru  ainployail  o-in  iit  w,iahiiiK,  they 
caniit  ill  acntcry  anil  ilentli  tw  the  wii  na.  Aa  it  la  not 
onr  intcnilon  to  treat  of  Iha  wli<ile  in  ,>(  tho  rrarliiK 
unil  inaniiKainoiit  of  the  allkworin,  »i  uc  i  umiielluil  to 
refer  tho  rt^mlcr  to  a  "  fivittitii'  on  tht  '*f''*  <nt't  Vrti* 
i/rm/iiv  liiijinifrmrnt  nf  tlir  Nilk  Mum  :iiiuv,"  Mng 
tilt) 'J2il  voluino  of  Ihe  Ijonilon  I'alilnii  t '  \  clopii'illa  ; 
ulaii  to  thu  work  of  Connt  Diinilolo,  1 1  litlail  "  JhW 
Aril'  ili  i/imnmi-x  i  Jlnnhi  ilit  .VW«,  Kknkii'k'h 
"  .1  miri'i'in  •SiU-limwi'r't  lliiide ;"  unci  l,  moat  of  the 
aKrh'iiltural  journala  uf  the  ilay, 

I'mpirlirn  ivul  /  »i'».— The  wood  of  thu  'rim  iilhit, 
when  dry,  wolt(ha  11  |Hiunda  to  a  culiii  fiuit.  In 
Kranco,  tha  |>rini'lpal  nana  of  that  of  the  ti  iik,  U  for 
varioua  purjaiaea  of  turnery,  and  car|H'ntr  and  for 
the  inaklii){<d'  wine-caaka,  fur  which  it  la  hl)(l  >  valued, 
ua  it  la  aalii  to  impart  iin  uKreealila  violet'llk'  llavor  to 
white  winea.  Tho  liraiicliea  are  ined  for  \  ""-propa, 
laiala and  niila  to  rural  feniex,  and  for  fuel,  i  n  liaric 
may  ho  converted  into  linen  of  the  tinoneaa  (  ailk. 
Kiir  thia  pur|aia«  tlie  youn^  wood  la  ^atlierod  in  >  J|(uat, 
ilurtiiK  thu  aecoiiil  aacent  of  the  aap,  nnd  iiniiiei  "^1  for 
three  or  four  days  in  alill  water.  It  i,i  .  hull  tali'  i  nut, 
at  aunset,  apread  on  the  grttim,  and  ri'turnuil  ■  the 
wilier  at  aiiiirlap.  After  ropeatlii|f  ilii .  proccK  '..illy 
for  aoinu  time,  it  la  tinully  takun  out,  dried,  ain  ure- 
|uired  like  Ihix.  Tho  Imrk  la  ulao  uaod  like  tliat  tlie 
Kunipean  lime-tree,  for  ninkiiiK  bust  for  iiuiIk  tr, 
Thu  hark,  iind  more  capeclally  tho  leavea  of  tho  \>  litii 
mulberry,  abound  in  a  milky  Julcu,  which  in  foun  to 
IMiaaeaa  inoro  or  leaa  of  the  projierties  of  caoutchi  iic, 
aecordin^  to  tlio  climate  in  which  the  tree  ia  ((row  ii. 
It  ia  douhtieaa  owin);  to  thia  pniperty  in  the  leavc^  of 
tho  iiinllierry,  that  the  cocoons  of  the  nilkworm  liii .  o 
ao  much  more  tenacity  of  flhro  than  thuau  of  any  oth'  r 
insect  Mint  feeda  on  the  leaves  of  treea.  Hence,  aim 
the  ailk,  like  the  tobacco  and  wine  of  warm  climate- 
and  of  puor,  dry  aoila,  in  alwiiya  superior  to  tliat  pro- 
duced In  colder  climatea,  and  from  rich  and  moisl 
aoila.  To  verify  this  opinion,  we  quote  the  following 
very  jndlcioua  oliaorvatioiis  from  tho  "Joiirwil  irAi/ri- 
ctiUiire  lie  Piiijd-Hoii,"  which  will  not  only  show  the 
iinpmcticability  of  prolitalily  raiaing  silk  in  the  liinlicr 
lalitudca,  but  will  servo  as  an  Infullililu  jjuido  in  tlie 
choico  of  a  soil  and  climate  for  thia  a|)«cies  of  ii);ricul- 
ture  :  "  Tho  mulhorrj'-treo  is  found  in  different  cli- 
nmics  ;  liut  tho  juice  of  tho  leaves  grown  in  tho  north 
ia  much  less  auitablo  for  tile  iiroduction  of  ^{oiid  silk, 
than  that  of  the  leaves  of  the  south.     In  thia  reaiiect, 


ntulhavry  )««ave<  Ut>\  ailk  illirar  u  moeh  u  wlnai,  •«■ 
Mii^UMlf  to  Iha  vlimatii  anil  soil  In  which  Ihay  ara 
pnxhaiwd.  In  Kanaral,  every  cllmala  anil  loll  that 
will  giMw  Kiii'O  wliaal  will  priHluea  Urifn,  aucculanl 
mwlWrry  lam  ea  j  but  tbaaa  laatvaa  will,  In  many  i  lUiaa, 
lit  t'lii  iiMlriltvfi :  that  1^  tlicy  will  haro  tmi  niuili  aap, 
anil  too  niurli      ilartmn.'  and  luoi  ulencv.      The  wild 


mulliarry,  will' 

a  aull,  than  lli. 

A  Ki'imral  ruli     mil 

liiullwrry,  !.■  |irn|ii, 

aoll  and  ex|>o.Hurii  tU.n 

boNi   hIiic        Kxiiiiiuii, , 

llonrUlin.l  '  \  I.       •  1  ({iitlu 

inu('l>  belli .    p^,.    iia  imiri' 

Jaettivlh.an  dlai'       ^,  vtblil, 

which  liaTM  U.en  r.     "     Kail  i, 

extreimidy   rii  li  i-oil  I  ho  frii 

la  If-n  ,i>'iil  ttian  thu 

atnila  ut  I  ''     \,iri«liiv 

tii'HuUii,  t     uaed  fur 

aalil  to  III     •iiiiirkabK  , 

The  perfuct  woimI  o>     i.. 
Iierry-tri'ii,  which  ir  rtHa-stm 
IlKlit,  la  of  a  yellowish  h"      • 
It  poaaeaana  atreiiKth  nii' 
aeaaoned,  it  la  ainioat  u^ 
which,  by  many  periiiii 
dockyarila  ut  PhiUdiiii.i 
aouthorn|»irta,  It  Heini' 
the  upper  unil  biwer  fruiins 
liuibera,  etc.  j  and  la  prelerri 
»  mid  fur  Irenuila,  except  tliut 
Ion,  .South  Carolina,  it  la  aoiu 
ribs  uf  luri{i'  Uiiita.     ll  la  ul>i 
country  wIiith  It  aiwmida,  fm 
which,  friiiii  -lieir  durublilti 
tliuaii  III'  the  .     uat,     Aa  the   1 
thick,  riiiiKli.    unil  hairy,  wliil 
pro|i«r  fur  the  ^Hld  of  silkworin  ! 

vantiiKe,  In  n  rold  liiinale,  only 
acme  of  its  vurictli'i.     Thu  red  >  i 

aervln)(  of  cultivation,  liolh  fMiii 
foliuKv,  and  thu  a){reealile  Ihivor  ol    ; 

The  woihI  of  tlio  paper  mulberry 
aponK}',  and  brittle,  ia  of  little  vuliii 
The  leaves  are  too  rou|{li  and  course,  n 
for  the  fiHiil  of  ailkworina;  hut  they  in 
excellent  fodder  for  cattle  ;  and  aa  llic  ii.k  will  ^row 
raplilly  in  aliiioat  every  aoll,  and  tliri)ws  mit  nuiiieroua 
lufta  of  leavea,  it  Ima  been  au){Kcateil  that  it  nilKlit  he 
valuable  to  cultivate,  in  aunie  aituationa  uiid  clinmtea, 
for  that  pur|K)se.  Tho  Juice  of  thia  tree  l<  aulllclently 
teniicioua  to  he  used  in  China  as  a  ^lue,  eiilier  In  Kiid- 
ing  leather  or  paper.  The  liiieat  and  wliiteat  clotli 
worn  liy  Ihe  inliabitants  uf  Otaheite,  and  of  tlie  Munil- 
wich  Islands,  ia  madu  of  its  bark.  Uut  tlic  principal 
use,  however,  to  whic'i  tliis  treeap|)eara  to  1»-  upplied. 
Is  for  the  manufacture  oi'  paper.  Tho  fo'.iiiii  ing  la  an 
ulirldgnient  of  Kicinpfer's  account  of  tlio  pmceaa  of 
making  thia  article  in  .Iiipan,  aa  (|Uotcd  from  the  lifth 
vulunin  of  the  London  "  t'nmi/  (.'i/clojualia  :"  "The 
branches  of  the  current  year,  l)elng  cut  into  pieces 
about  a  yani  lung,  are  boiled  until  tlie  bark  shrinks 
from  the  wood,  which  is  tulicn  out,  ahd  thrown  awoy  ; 
and  tlio  liark,  Iiciiig  dried,  Is  preserved  till  wanted. 
In  order  to  make  paper.  It  Is  soaked  for  throe  or  four 
hours  in  water;  after  which,  the  external  akin  (vpider- 
'Ilia),  and  III"  greon  internal  coat,  are  scraped  otf,  and 
•lie  strongest  and  lineal  pieces  are  selected ;  tlio  pro- 
duco  of  the  younger  shoots  biiiig  of  an  Inferior  (luality. 
If  any  very  old  portions  prociit  tiieni«elvoa,  they  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  rejected  us  too  coarse.  All  knotty 
parts,  and  every  thing  which  iiiight  impair  the  beauty 
of  tlie  paper,  are  also  removed.  Tho  chosen  bark  ia 
boiled  in  a  lixivium  till  ita  downy  fibres  can  bo  sepa- 
rated by  a  touch  of  the  finger.    The  pulp,  so  produced, 


ii'iavMi,  auawara  beltur,  fur  audi 

I  uiulliurr)'.  wllh  large  laavaa. 

■<>  Iw  delicndad  on,  la,  that  tha 

best  ailk.  raquiraa  thu  aamo 

ine  >.loaa  to  pnalit  «  tha 

,  >■'  vad  that  aiUwurni* 

•11    *  dry  aitil.  auceeuil 

IW.  '     \  am  laaa  aul 

11   >  I    iin,  lliun  the     ■ 

rtv*->  |iriMlucttil  I      lit 

iif  the  whitii  mill     rry 

the  bln<  >  apaclea,  and  I  lat  of 

"-'i'uhurl}    if  tha  Morii- . I.  miiA 

M,'  rob-      .111  ayrin  .,  unrt  la 

l':i:  'AUli   ,  rlilimtlia. 

iiriif       '■'■•'     ir  red  niul- 

^1  uii         iiipaci,  thuiigh 

'  'lulungtu  leinuii-culur. 

•I  id,  when  |irii|Mirly 

IM     lllllt     uf    llHllut,    III 

le«m«l   -  i|Uui.       Ill  till' 
HII1II1      iiiil  the  niuri' 
lecoim^ructlonuf  liiilh 
esaela,  fi.ir  knees,  tloor- 
to  every  utliur  kind  nf 
'I'locuat     In  Ciiiirlea- 
srlei  led  for  Ihe 
the  |iarta  uf  thu 
'•  1  "t  riinil  fences, 
:i  ll  esteemed  us 
bis  species  are 
I      they   are  im- 
!i  feed  with  nd- 
/  iiicin  ii/A(i,  or 
II'    ia  well  de- 
ll k  and  aliadv 
I'll  fruit." 
'"   I'   suft, 
I'l.r  fuel. 
.  ll  \ture, 
iiiiil  to  he 


MUS 


1884 


MUS 


Is  then  agitated  in  water  till  it  resembles  tufts  of  tow. 
[f  not  sufficiently  l)oiled,  tlie  paper  will  bo  coarse, 
though  spungy;  if  too  much,  it  will  be  white,  indeed, 
hut  dcllcicnt  in  Btrongth  and  solidity.  Upon  the 
various  degrees  and  modes  of  washing  the  pulp,  much 
also  deponils  as  to  the  quality  and  l)eauty  of  the  paper. 
Mucilage  obtained  from  boiling  rico,  or  from  a  root 
called  oreni,  one  of  the  mallow  tribe,  is  afterward 
added  to  the  pulp.  The  paper  is  finished  much  after 
the  European  mode,  except  tliat  stailcs  of  rushes  are 
used,  instead  of  brass  wires."  The  article  thus  made, 
constitutes  the  India  or  Cliina  paper  used  liy  engrav- 
ers for  tailing  proofs,  and  l)y  chemists  for  filters. — 
Bkom'nk's  Trees  of  America. 

Munjeet,  a  species  of  Jitibia  tinelorum,  or  madder, 
produced  in  Nepaul,  and  in  various  districts  of  India. 
That  which  is  lirought  to  Kngiand  is  imported  from 
('iilcutta,  and  is  cultivated  in  tlie  Iiigh  lands  about 
Natpore  in  I'urnea.  The  roots  aro  long  and  slender, 
and  when  broken  appear  of  a  red  color.  It  is  used  in 
dyeing ;  tlio  red  which  it  produces  lieing,  tliough  some- 
what peculiar,  nearly  the  same  as  tluit  produced  l)j- 
Kuropean  niuddcr.  Dr.  Bancroft  says  tliat  the  color 
which  it  imparts  to  cotton  and  linemis  not  so  durable 
as  that  of  madder ;  but  that  upon  wool  or  woolen  cloth 
its  color  is  brighter  and  livelier;  and,  when  proper 
mordants  aro  used,  nearly,  perhaps  quite,  as  perma- 
nent.— Ptrmanent  Colors,  vol.  ii.,  p.  279.  The  bept 
munjeet  is  in  pieces  about  the  bigness  of  a  small  quill, 
clean  and  limi,  brealiing  short,  and  not  pii)y  or  chafty. 
Its  smcil  somewlmt  resembles  liquorice  root. 

Murlatio  or  Hydrochloric  Acid;  anciently 
tnarifif  arid,  and  spirit  of  salt.  (.'I  cide  hi/drochlorique, 
aud  Chlorhydriqiie,  ¥r. ;  Salzsaiire,  Germ.)  This  acid 
is  now  extracted  from  sea-salt,  liy  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  a  moderate  heat ;  l)Ut  it  was  originally 
(il)tained  from  the  salt  l)y  exposing  a  mixture  of  it  and 
of  common  clay  to  ignition  in  an  earthen  retort.  The 
acid  gas  whicli  exiialcs,  is  rapidly  condensed  by  water. 
100  cubic  inclios  of  w.iter  aro  capa1)le  of  absorbing  no 
less  than  -18,000  cubic  inches  of  tlie  acid  gas,  whoreliy 
the  liquid  acquires  u  specitic  gravity  of  1"2109;  and  a 
volume  of  M'2  cubic  inches.  The  muriatic  acid  of 
commerce  lias  usually  a  yellowish  tinge,  but  when 
chemically  pure  it  is  colorless.  It  fumes  strongly  in 
the  air,  emitting  a  corrosive  vapor  of  a  peculiar  smell. 
The  cliaracteristic  test  of  muriatic  acid  in  the  most 
dilute  state,  is  nitrate  of  silver,  which  causes  a  curdy 
precipitate  of  chlorid  of  silver. 

Muscat,  a  city  and  sea.  port  situated  on  tlie  east 
coast  of  Arabia,  about  96  miles  N.  W.  of  Cape  Kassel- 
gate  (l{as-cl-had),  in  lat.  23"  iiS'  N.,  long.  58°  37J'  E. 
Population  uncertain ;  but  estimated  liy  Lieutenant 
Wellated  at  4H,00t),  whicli  we  incline  to  thinli  beyond 
the  marlt.  Tlicre  are  more  Banians  here  than  in  any 
other  city  in  Arabia.  There  are  among  them  some 
very  extensive  mercliaiits,  wlio  engross  almost  tlie 
whole  pearl  trade  of  tlie  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  supply 
of  corn  from  India.  The  negro  slaves  aro  numerous, 
and  aro  generally  stout,  well  made,  and  active.  The 
liarlior,  wliicli  is  the  best  on  tliis  part  of  the  Arabic 
coast,  opens  to  tlie  iiortli,  and  is  sliaped  lilse  n  horse- 
shoe. It  is  liounded  on  the  west  and  south  by  the 
lofty  projecting  shores  of  the  mainland,  and  on  the 
east  by  Aluscat  Island,  a  ridge  of  rocks  from  200  to 
.'too  feet  high.  The  town  stands  on  u  sandy  beach  at 
the  south  end  or  bottom  of  the  cove  or  harbor,  about 
1^  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  depth  of  water  near 
the  town  varies  from  three  to  four  and  five  fathoms, 
idhips  at  anchor  aro  exposed  to  the  north  and  north- 
west winds  ;  but  as  the  ancliorage  is  cverywiiere 
good,  accidents  aro  of  very  rare  occurrence.  The  har- 
bor is  protected  by  some  pretty  strong  forts.  Vessels 
are  not  allowed  to  enter  after  dusk,  nor  to  leave  be- 
fore  sunrise.  If  the  usual  signal  bo  made  for  a  pilot, 
one  will  come  off,  but  not  otherwise.  It  is  best  to 
make  them  attend  till  the  vessel  be  secured,  as  they 


have  excellent  boats  for  carrjdng  out  warp  anchors, 
Muscat  is  a  place  of  considerable  importance,  being  at 
once  the  key  to,  and  commanding  the  trade  of,  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  dominions  of  the  imaum,  or  prince, 
are  extensive,  and  his  government  is  more  liberal  ami 
intelligent  than  an}-  other  in  Arabia  or  Persia.  The 
town,  situated  at  the  liottom  of  a  high  hill,  is  ill-built 
and  filth}' ;  and,  during  the  months  of  July  and  August, 
is  one  of  the  hottest  inhabited  places  in  the  worhl.  The 
country  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town  is  ex- 
tremely barren  ;  but  it  improves  as  it  recedes  from  the 
shore.  Dates  and  wheat,  particularly  the  first,  aro  the 
principal  articles  of  produce.  The  dates  of  this  part 
of  Arabia  are  held  in  high  estimation,  and  aro  largely 
exported,  those  of  Bushire  and  Bussorah  being  im- 
ported in  their  stead.  A  date  tree  is  valued  at  from 
$7  to  $10,  and  its  annual  produce  at  from  $1  to  $1^. 
An  estate  is  said  to  bo  worth  2,000,  3,000,  4,000  date 
trees,  according  to  the  number  it  possesses. 

Hut  the  place  derives  its  whole  importance  from  tlie 
commerce  and  navigation  of  which  it  is  the  centre. 
The  imaum  has  some  large  ships  of  war,  and  iiis  suli- 
jects  possess  some  of  the  finest  trading  vessels  to  be 
met  with  in  the  Indian  seas.  The  part  of  Arabia  ad- 
joining to  Muscat  is  too  poor  to  have  any  very  con- 
siderable direct  trade  ;  but,  owing  to  its  favorable  sit- 
uation, the  backward  state  of  the  country  round  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  the  superiority  of  its  ships  and  sea- 
men, Muscat  has  become  an  important  entrepot,  and 
has  an  extensive  transit  and  carrying  trade,  tlost 
European  ships  bound  for  Bussorah  and  Bushire  toucli 
at  it ;  and  more  than  half  the  trade  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  is  carried  on  in  ships  belonging  to  its  merchants. 
(See  BusiiiKi:,)  But,  exclusive  of  the  ports  on  the 
gulf,  and  the  south  and  west  coasts  of  Arabia,  ships 
under  the  flog  of  the  imaum  trade  to  all  the  ports  of 
British  India,  to  Singapore,  Java,  the  Slauritius,  the 
cast  coast  of  Africa,  etc.  The  pearl  trade  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  is  now,  also,  whollj'  centered  at  Muscat. 
Ail  merchandize  passing  up  the  gulf  on  Arab  bottoms 
pays  a  duty  of  one  half  ]ier  cent,  to  the  imaum.  lie 
also  rents  the  islands  of  Ormuz  and  Kishmee,  tlic  port 
of  Gombroon,  and  some  sulphur  mines,  from  the  Per- 
sian government.  In  the  magazines  of  Muscat  may 
be  found  every  species  of  produce  iinported  into  or  ex- 
ported from  the  Persian  Gulf.  Various  articles  are 
also  imported  for  the  use  of  the  surrounding  country, 
and  for  the  internal  consumption  of  Arabia.  Among 
these,  the  principal  ore  rice,  sugar,  coffee  from  Sloclia, 
cotton  and  cotton  cloth,  cocoanuts,  wood  for  building, 
slaves  from  Zanguebar,  dates  from  Bushiro  and  Bus- 
sorah, etc.  Payment  fur  these  is  chiefly  made  in  specie 
and  pearls  ;  but  they  also  export  drugs  of  various  de- 
scriptions, ivory,  gums,  hides,  ostrich  feathers,  horses, 
sharks'  fins,  .i  sort  of  earthen  jars,  called  martuban,  to 
Tranquebar,  dried  fish,  an  esteemed  sweetmeat  calleil 
hiilinUi,  and  a  few  other  articles.  The  markets  of 
Muscat  are  abundantly  supplied  with  all  sorts  of  pro- 
vision. Beef,  mutton,  and  vegetables  of  good  (piality 
may  be  had  at  all  times,  and  reasonably  cheap.  The 
bay  literally  swarms  with  tlio  greatest  variety  of  most 
excellent  fish.  Water  is  excellent,  and  is  convoyed 
to  the  beach  in  such  a  manner  tliat  the  casks  of  a 
vessel  may  lie  filled  in  her  boats  while  afioat.  I'ire- 
wood  is  also  abundant,  and  is  cheaper  than  at  Bom- 
bay. A  duty  of  five  per  cent,  is  laid  on  imports,  all 
exports  being  duty  free.  Tlie  entire  value  of  the  im- 
ports has  been  estimated  at  i:900,0G0. 

Motley,  Weights,  and  Measures, — Accounts  here  aro 
kept  in  go/,  and  mamoodies  :  20  goz  —  1  niamoody 
and  20  mamoodies  ;=  1  dollar.  All  Persian,  Turkish, 
and  Indian  coins,  as  well  as  French  and  (iernian 
crowns,  and  Spanish  dollars,  are  mei  with  ;  their  value 
fluctuati;ig  with  the  demand ;  and  they  are  generally 
sold  by  weight.  Tlie  weights  are,  the  cuclia  and 
maund  ;  24  ciichos  =  1  maund  ^=  8  lbs.  12  oz.  avoirdu- 
pois,    Niebuhr  thinks  that  Muscat  occupies  the  site 


MUS 


1385 


MUS 


lioro  arc 
liuoinly 
Turkish, 
Idermiin 
Tir  viiliio 
l^ncruUy 
Lha  iind 
liYoinlH- 
Ithc  sito 


of  the  Moica  of  Anian  and  other  Greek  writers 
(Voyage,  en  Arable,  vul.  II.,  p.  71,  cd.  Amst.  1780)  ;  a 
conjecture  which  seoins  to  bo  confirmed,  not  merely  by 
the  resemblance  of  the  name,  but  also  by  the  terms 
iijiplicd  by  Arrlan  to  Mosca  being  sufficiently  descrip- 
tive of  Muscat ;  and  as  the  port  is  bounded  on  all  sides 
by  rocks.  It  must  now  present  almost  the  same  appear- 
ance as  In  antiquity.  Dr.  Vincent,  however,  though 
ho  speaks  doubtfully  on  the  subject,  Is  inclined  to 
place  Mosca  to  the  west  of  Cape  Itasselgate. — Com- 
merce and  Navigation  of  the  Ancienii,  vol.  11.,  pp.  S44- 
!H7.  For  further  particulars,  besides  the  authorities 
at)ovo  referred  to,  see  Hamilton's  Xan  Account  of  the, 
JCmt  Indies,  vol.  i.,  p.  63 ;  B"kazer'.s  Journeg  to  Kho- 
mstin,  pp.  5-19  ;  Wkixsted's  Trnieh  in  Arabia,  I., 
pp.  14-25.  The  longitude  given  aliove  Is  that  of  Ail- 
iinwsMiTu'H  Chart  of  the  Persian  (liilf. 

Commerce  with  the  United  Stales. — The  Sultan  of 
Muscat  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  United  States, 
September  21,  183.1,  and  it  took  effect  June  24, 1837, 
the  daj'  on  which  the  President  of  the  United  States 
made  his  proclamation.  Its  stipulations  establish  per- 
petual peace  between  the  two  countries,  and  open  the 
ports  of  cacli  to  the  vessels  and  citizens  of  the  other, 
with  unrestricted  llbertj-  of  trade,  reserving  In  the  Isl- 
and of  Zanzibar  the  sale  of  muskets,  powder,  and  ball 
to  the  government  only,  but  leaving  the  trade  In  these 
iirticles  In  all  other  ports  of  the  sultan's  dominions  free 
from  every  restriction.  The  treaty  further  stipulates 
that  vessels  of  the  United  States  entering  any  port 
within  the  sultan's  dominions  shall  pay  no  more  than 
live  per  cent,  duties  on  the  cargoes  landed,  which  shall 
1)0  In  full  of  all  lm|)Ort  and  export  duties,  tonnage, 
license  to  trade,  pilotage,  anchorage,  or  any  other 
diarge  whatsoever ;  that  no  charge  shall  be  made  on 
tliat  part  of  the  cargo  which  may  remain  on  board 
and  lie  re-exported  ;  that  no  cliarge  shall  be  made  on 
any  vessel  of  the  United  States  which  may  enter  ony 
of  the  sultan's  ports  for  the  purpose  of  relitting,  or  for 
refreshments,  or  to  inquire  the  state  of  the  market.  It 
is  further  stipulated  tliat  the  American  citizen  shall 
pay  no  other  duties  on  export  or  Import,  tonnage,  li- 
cense to  trade,  or  other  cluirge  whatsoever,  than  the 
citizens  of  the  most  favored  nation  shall  pay ;  and 
similar  equality  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States  is 
extended  to  the  vessels  and  citizens  of  the  sultan. 

In  the  report  to  the  Department  of  State,  of  the 
agent  by  whom  tills  treaty  was  negotiated,  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  occur :  "  The  Sultan  of  Muscat  Is  a 
very  powerful  prince.  He  possesses  a  :nore  efficient 
naval  force  than  all  the  native  princes  coninii.od,  from 
the  Capo  of  Good  Hope  to  Japan.  His  resources  are 
more  than  adequate  to  his  wants.  They  are  derived 
from  commerce,  running  himself  a  great  number  of 
merchant  vessels ;  from  duties  on  foreign  merchandize ; 
and  from  tribute-money  and  presents  received  from 
various  princes ;  all  of  which  produce  a  large  sum. 
His  possessions  in  Africa  stretcli  from  Cipo  Dolgado 
to  Cape  Guardafui,  and  from  Cape  Aden,  In  Arabia, 
to  Kas  el  Hand  ;  they  extend  along  tlio  northern  coast 
of  Aman  to  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  ho 
claims  al.so  the  sea-coast  and  islands  within  the  Persian 
(Julf,  including  the  lialirein  Islands,  and  the  pearl- 
lishery  contiguous  to  them,  with  the  northern  coast  of 
tlie  gulf,  as  low  down  as  Scindy.  •  "'  *  In  Africa 
lie  owns  the  ports  of  5Iongliow,  or  Mongallow,  I.yndy, 
Qiiiloah  (Keelwah),  Melinda,  Larmo,  Patta,  IJrava, 
iMagadosha  (alias  Mogadore),  and  the  valualile  islands 
of  Monfeca,  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Socotra  (Socotera)," 
etc. 

The  exports  from  the  African  part  of  his  dominions 
are  gum-copal,  aloes,  gum-arabic,  columbo-root,  and  a 
great  variety  of  other  drugs,  ivory,  tortoise-sliell, 
rhin  eros'  horns,  hides,  beeswax,  cocoanut-oil,  rice, 
millet,  etc.  l''rom  Muscat  tlio  ex^iorts  are  wheat, 
raisins,  drugs,  dates,  salt,  dried  lisli,  etc.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  seven-eightlis  of  all  the  ivory  im|iortc(l  in- 


to the  United  States,  and  all  the  oopsl  of  tliit  AMUt 
quality,  are  from  the  island  of  XunKilmr,  Tii  (hid 
place  all  the  goods  collected  for  tills  |i(rx«  I  mild  nm 
Imported,  and  sold  to  the  Uanians  and  IliiMliiiiu  h(  hIk 
months'  credit.  The  United  States  mipiilv  hv  ftir  tll8 
most  Important  goods  for  all  tlia  onittt  'trii'ilo,  vln,  l 
Lowell  manufactured  sheetings  and  alilrtlniid,  IHIiitr 
goods  In  demand  for  tlie  coast  trade  are  nowijur,  tMU*< 
kets,  brass-wire,  glass-beads,  aiul  India  ruiiliui-  uoiiilii, 
Ihe  currency  of  Muscat  dltfers  materially  Cnilii  tliitt 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  or  Africa,  and,  wUli  lt«  wt  luliU 
and  measures.  Is  peculiar  to  the  country,  The  Njiitnixh 
dollar  is  current,  and  the  Hpaul.U  duiililuuit  vi«r|t<i*  111 
value  from  *11  to  flti.     See  Zanzuuh, 

Muscat,  Imamat  of,  an  extenaiva  unit  r  >^rflil 
State  of  Arabia,  cmnprising  the  eabtuni  pott  .i  f  t||it( 
peninsula,  Its  authority  also  extoiidiuK  iiv  .  :iiiltll» 
east  coast  nearly  as  far  as  Aden,  and  iivei  >iiii'U  of  thti 
coast  of  Persia  on  the  Persian  Oulf,  and  tlwt  ill'  ii||>>t 
Africo  from  the  equator  south  to  Capa  IIuIkiiiIo,  Af^ift 
and  population  not  ascertaineil.  Hesiilfis  MH«(i|it,  |||g 
capital,  this  dominion  comprises  tlie  tuwiin  iif  lloiititk, 
Muttra  in  Arabia,  and  Julia,  Melinda,  Monilias,  Mum- 
doxo,  Bravah,  Qulloa  and  I.yndy  in  Africa,  with  llin 
islands  Zanzilmr,  Socotra,  ulc,  and  it  lias  an  tii'tlvtt 
trade  with  all  tlie  adjacent  cumitriea,  and  wlHi  lli'lljiiji 
India.  The  iinaum  bus  a  patriarchal  and  i|i'a|iiit|y 
sway,  and  the  most  efficient  naval  furca  of  any  liativil 
prince  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  ,lii|iaii,=-J/«yj. 
cat  or  Maectia  (probably  the  Mosca  of  Arrlail),  |«  fiifH» 
fied  maritime  city  of  east  Arabia,  capital  above  iliinilit^ 
ion,  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Arabian  Ssa,  hit,  ^11'  117' 
N.,  long.  58°  I!,'/  K.  Population  estiiiiutoil  lit  (0,11(10 
to  50,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  lielghta  all  stFolial*' 
fortified.  The  harlmr  of  tlie  city  is  well  oluiltuftJii, 
and  has  deep  water.  Muscat  is  tlie  grand  iilllpiifiiini 
of  oast  Arabia,  and  the  key  to  the  eiitwili'B  iiC  tlia 
Persian  Oulf.  Im|iorts  estimated  iii4,ft»il,(Jlli)  jn  viiliw 
annually,  and  consist  cliielly  of  almonds,  ahws,  ii^iiii. 
foetlda,  gum  ammoniac,  sulphur,  nitra,  guni  I'cipitl, 
frankincense,  coffee,  pearls,  ivory,  lioritb,  liiiU'a,  WilM 
from  Persia  and  Africa,  most  of  wlilili  ar>i  la^a-iiim ti.il 
to  India  and  the  Kast ;  tlie  returns  tliemo  liehlfj  iiiiiiln 
in  British  and  India  cottuu  goods,  shawls,  Cjilnii 
manufactures.  Large  quantities  of  i|at«s,  i\a  iiUii 
wheat,  horses,  salt,  and  dried  llsh,  are  amung  t||u  pfju, 
cipal  exports.  The  port  is  usually  toiiujied  at  liv  VM*i 
sels  going  up  the  Persian  Gulf.  Though  tll«  umilitcy 
around  it  is  sterile,  a  plentiful  supply  of  pi'uvjiiliiiM 
may  generally  be  obtained  at  Muscat. 

Commercial  lielations  with  the  [Jiiittil  ,V/i/^frf,- Th't 
treaty  made  by  the  United  States  in  Ihij/,  witli  i|m 
Sultan  of  Muscat  has  been  duly  observed,  iniil  it  vtifv 
friendly  disposition  shown  by  the  autliorltli's  to  nil 
Americans.  Tlie  present  existing  lomniurclut  ;ii..ji(» 
latious  arc  fixed  and  permanent.  Tlieru  are  iin  privi= 
leges  permitted  to  other  nations  wlilcli  iira  i|H|iitti|  Ui 
our  own.  There  are  no  port  charges  or  iitlini'  1I11114 
levied  on  vessels  of  the  United  States,  T|ibi«  1.-,  mi 
drawback  of  duties ;  merchandise  from  oiia  VMa=nl  t« 
another,  or  landed  for  re-shipmeut,  iiuut  pay  n  thiiy 
of  5  per  cent.  The  German  crown,  and  pica.  Mild  ply, 
from  the  Kast  India  Company's  ]iossusaiui|s,  iir,i  tjii* 
only  currency.  Tlio  number  of  pica  fur  a  'ial'limtl 
crown  (belter  known  in  tlieso  countries  as  th»  \i\Av\i 
dollar)  varies,  according  to  the  supply,  fi'iim  Jill  ti) 
1l'8.  At  this  present  time,  120  pice  are  given  (i>t  nm 
black  dollar,  and  3  pic  make  one  pice,  Hpanisli  nilit 
Mexican  dollars  are  worth  no  innro,  and  do  mil.  i  ifiMl. 
late  freely.  They  are  purchased  fur  tlio  llyiDlmy 
market,  usually  at  a  premium  of  2  to  3  pai'  cant,  ||( 
the  commencement  of  the  south-west  inonsoiiit,  In 
April,  ami  also  near  its  close,  in  Sopteniliar,  uild  lllPl 
their  way  from  thence  to  Chiua.  American  half  ennlaa 
are  worth  65 ;  ICnglish  sovereigns,  ^l.ln  j  Hpaili»ll 
and  Portuguese  doubloons,  fill  j  Spanish  quarters  and 
cigliths  pass  freely  at  25  and  12J  cents,  and  Alliurlui«l4 


\  ■> 


MUS 


1386 


MYR 


dimes  and  half  dimes  at  10  and  6  cents.  Merchan- 
dise is  bought  and  sold  for  doiiurs  and  cents. 

/fory. — This  article  varies  greatly  in  price,  accord- 
ing tu  quality  and  size.  The  superior  liinds,  and 
largest  and  liest,  are  sent  to  the  United  States,  In 
lots,  average  weight  70  lbs.  and  upward,  $40  to  $44 
per  frasla  of  85  ilis.  Ivory,  60  to  60  lbs.  average 
weight,  $37  to  $40  per  frasla.  Tortoise  shell  per 
pound,  of  8  lbs.  Knglish,  $2  to  $5.  Uum  copal,  per 
frasla  of  85  lbs.  English,  $6  to  $7.  Hides,  per  conge 
of  20  lbs.,  $10  to  $15  per  conge.  Cloves,  per  frasla 
of  85  lbs.,  $1.75  to  $2.50. 

Commissions  usually  charged,  2}  per  cent.  As  for 
freiglits  and  insurance,  there  are  no  rates  to  the  United 
States.  Cargoes  imported  from  tlie  United  States  are 
invariably  sold  at  (i  months'  credit.  If  cash  is  wanted 
for  a  sak',  a  discount  is  made  of  4^.  per  cent,  fur  G 
months.  As  for  exchange,  the  captains  of  whuie  ships 
draw  upon  their  owners  for  the  cash  they  require,  and 
the  usual  charge  is  20  per  cent.  Duties,  5  per  cent. 
on  all  cargo  landed.  No  duties  on  exports  to  the 
United  States.  There  are  no  internal  taxes  of  any 
kind  paid  by  the  people  of  this  island  directly.  The 
sultan's  revenue  is  derived  from  duties  on  ail  articles 
of  commerce  brought  from  the  neighboring  coast,  lied 
Sea,  Aden,  Persian  Gulf,  Dombay,  and  the  Malabar 
coast.  The  negro  slaves  are  almost  the  only  common 
lalwrers,  and  receive  per  day  about  12^  cents,  or  $2.50 
tn  $3  per  month.  The  higher  order  of  servants  to 
oversee  the  work  in  preparing  and  shipping  cargoes 
are  paid  from  $7.50  to  $10  per  month.  Native  work- 
men in  the  various  branches  of  mcclianic  industry 
receive  about  $5  to  $7  per  month. 

No  steamers  are  owned  or  built  here,  and  there  are 
no  facilities  for  ship-building,  or  even  repairing,  to  any 
extent.  The  sultan  lias  a  few  sliips-of-war  built 
either  at  Bombay  o:  ut  places  on  the  coast  of  ]Malal)ar. 
'I'hey  are  manned  by  slaves  and  officered  by  Arab.ii. 
Tlie  only  vessels  owne<l  here  l)y  natives  are  called 
dowa,  and  seem  to  answer  the  purpose  verj-  well,  but 
are  tlie  rudest  kind  of  ship  possilde  to  conceive  of,  and 
never  undertake  to  get  to  any  place  against  tlie  mon- 
soon. They  soil  fast,  and  are  of  very  peculiar  con- 
struction. Kanziliar  is  a  large,  fertile,  and  populous 
island,  and  the  favorite  residence  of  the  sultun,  who 
is  far  superior  to  his  brother  princes  in  intelligence, 
and  has  a  disposition  to  introduce  improvements  into 
his  dominions.  But  his  subjects,  like  ail  Arabs,  are 
far  behind  otlier  nations,  and  despise  all  improvement. 
Cloves  are  produced  upon  this  island  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  the  annual  increase  is  considerable.  All 
other  articles  of  export  are  brought  from  other  places. 
See  Com.  Ret.,  U.  S.,  vol.  ill.;  180C-57,  pp.  307-368. 

Musk  (t'r.  Muse ;  Ger.  Bisam ;  l)u.  Miishis ;  It. 
Muzchio ;  S,)-  Alntizele ;  Kus.  Muscus ;  Arab,  and  I'ers. 
Mishk)  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  deer  (^Moschus 
mosrhifenis)  inhabiting  tlie  Alpine  mountains  of  the 
east  of  Asia.  The  musk  is  found  in  a  small  bag  under 
the  belly.  Musk  is  in  grains  concreted  together,  dry, 
yet  slightly  unctuous,  and  free  from  grittiness  when 
rubbed  between  the  lingers  or  chewed.  It  has  a  ))o. 
ciiiiar,  oromatic,  and  extremely  powerful  and  durable 
odor ;  the  taste  is  bitterish  and  heavy  ;  and  tlie  color 
deep  lirown,  with  a  shade  of  red.  It  is  imported  into 
England  from  China  in  caddies  containing  from  60  to 
100  oz.  each ;  but  an  inferior  kind  is  lirouglit  from 
Bengal,  and  a  still  baser  sort  from  Russia.  The  best 
8  that  which  is  in  the  natural  follicle  or  pod.  Being 
a  very  high-priced  article,  it  is  often  adulterated. 
That  which  is  mixed  with  the  animal's  blood  may  be 
discovered  by  the  largeness  of  the  lumps  or  clots.  It 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  a  dark,  Iiighly  colored,  friable 
earth ;  but  this  appears  to  the  touch  to  be  of  a  more 
crumbling  texture,  aad  is  harder  as  well  as  heavier 


than  genuine  musk.  20  cwt.  of  musk  are  allowed  tu  « 
ton.  It  waa  not  permitted  to  lie  iirought  home  in  tha 
China  ships  belonging  to  the  East  India  Company..— 
Thomson's  Dhpematory;  Milbuhn's  Orient.  L'mn. 

Mualin  (Ger.  Muasdin,  Xeaaeltuch)  IJu,  Xclelilueh; 
Fr.  Mouaseliiie ;  It.  MouaaiiUna ;  Sp.  iloaelina ;  IliM, 
Kiaaea)  is  derived  from  tiie  word  mouaale  or  mimaelii,  » 
name  given  to  it  in  India,  where  largo  quantitlioi  uro 
made.  It  is  a  tine  thin  sort  of  cotton  cloth,  with  ii 
down}'  nap  on  the  surface.  l''oriuerly  all  muslins  wiiru 
imported  from  the  East ;  but  now  they  are  nianul'iiu. 
turcd  in  immense  quantities  at  Manchester,  (ilasgiiw, 
etc.,  of  a  lineness  and  durability  which  rirni  lluiau  of 
India,  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  very  cunslduriiljly 
cheaper.     See  Cotton. 

MtUtard  (Ger.  Mualeri,  Sett/;  Vr.  ifuiilnnle  /  ft 
MoatanUi;  Sp.  Moslaza;  Rus.  Horlachim;  I.at,  Sinn- 
pia;  Arab.  KlnnUil;  Hind.  Ildi),  a  plant  {tiimtjiia)  nS 
which  there  are  several  species.  It  is  a  native  of  Ivii. 
rope,  and  is  now  naturalized,  and  a  common  wceil  In 
some  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  besldun  vury 
commonly  cultivated  for  the  sako  of  the  seeil^,  which, 
when  powdered  and  mixed  with  vinegar,  form  u  well 
known  pungent  condiment  in  daily  use.  The  runt  U 
annual ;  the  stem  three  or  four  feet  lil|;h  \  the  lownr 
leaves  are  lyrato,  and  the  upper  ones  landulato  ami  en- 
tire. The  tlowers  are  small  and  yellow.  It  biilon)(a 
to  the  natural  family  cruclj'erw,  and  is  known  by  tlix 
smooth  four-cornered  pods  which  are  presneii  ilosii  to 
the  stem.  Table  mustard,  mixed  with  warm  wiiti'i', 
and  taken  in  considerable  quantities,  acts  us  an  vnixlii', 
and  us  such  is  so  much  the  nioro  valuablu  friini  Iti 
being  always  at  hand.  The  white  mustard  (.V,  »//«) 
is  milder  than  the  preceding,  and  on  tills  acconnt  U 
more  agreeable  to  some  palates.— E.  A. 

Mutiny  of  the  Bounty.  Memorublo  ninthly 
on  board  the  liountij  armed  ship  returning  I'lcuu  I Ita- 
lieito  with  br^ad  fruit.  The  mutineers  put  tliL'ii'  i  M|ir 
tain,  Bllgh,  and  19  men,  into  an  open  biiat  ni'iir 
Anuamooka,  one  of  the  Friendly  Islancls,  April  -'M, 
1780,  mid  they  reached  the  island  of  TInioi',  smith  .<l' 
the  Moluccas,  in  June,  after  u  perilous  voya^'x  iif 
nearly  4000  miles,  in  which  their  preservation  wm 
next  to  miraculous.  The  mutineers  were  tiiucl  hip. 
tember  15,  1702,  when  six  were  condemned,  of  wlmin 
three  were  executed. 

Myrobalans  are  the  dried  fruits  of  dilVcrent  vii- 
rietiea  of  ttrmimilia.  Tlio  frnit,  varying  fruni  tlm  ni/.i' 
of  an  olive  to  that  of  a  gall-nut,  consists  of  a  vvlilti 
pentangular  nut,  covered  by  a  substuiuo  about  two 
lines  in  thickness.  The  latter,  which  is  the  only  vul- 
uablo  part,  is  mucilaginous  and  highly  uslriii({inii  | 
and  l>eing  separated  from  the  nut  is  enqiloyuil,  witli 
the  best  elfect,  both  by  dyers  and  tanners,  c-^peLiiilly 
by  the  latter.  It  produces  with  iron  a  strong,  dibalilii, 
black  dye  and  ink ;  and  with  uliim,  a  very  lull,  tlimit^li 
dark,  brownish  yellow.  The  Imports  vary  iinisidur- 
ably. — Bancuoft  On  J'ermnnriit  dilora,  i.,  iijl,  ore, 

Myrrh  (tier.  Myrrhen  ;  Du,  Mivrliit ;  I'r.  Mi/rrlif ; 
It.  and  Sp.  Mirra;  Lat.  Afi/rrha;  Arab.  .Miint,  a  ru»- 
inous  sulistance,  the  produce  of  un  nnkiiu»ii  linn 
growing  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia.  It  is  iinpin'ttul  in 
chests,  each  containing  from  one  to  two  cwt,  Aliys- 
sinian  myrrh  comes  to  us  through  the  Eiist  Inilius, 
while  that  produced  in  Arabia  is  liiought  by  tliu  way 
of  Turkey.  It  has  a  jiecullar,  rather  fragrant,  oilur, 
anil  a  bitter  aromatic  taste.  It  is  In  small  irrngiiliirly 
shaped  pieces,  which  can  hardly  be  culled  tears,  (Jnod 
inyrrh  is  translucent,  of  a  reddish  yellow  color,  briltln, 
lireaking  with  a  resinous  fracture,  and  easily  pulver- 
ized, its  specilic  gravity  is  1-36.  AVlien  it  la  opui|iiii, 
mixed  with  impurities,  and  either  white,  or  of  ii  dark 
color  approaching  nearly  to  black,  with  a  disugreoiiblo 
odor,  it  shauld  be  rejected. — Tuomson's  JJiipituaior]/, 
I 


"  fVT'A'*-'" 


NAN 


1987 


NAN 


N. 


.ireiit  VII- 
jiii  tliii  »i/.i' 

llllOIlt   twii 

liiily  Vii\- 

»lr'mni'"l  1 

lyiul,  wHli 

if|iiM-iiilly 

,  liiir.ililiii 

ill,  thoim'i 
idusiilnr- 

;1J1,  mi'. 


NallM  (Qor.  Ndgel,  Spiktr;  Du.  Spt/hera ;  Fr. 
t'/"«»  I  It.  C/iiodi,  t'hiovi,  Aguti ;  Sp.  Clavos ;  Rus. 
(Iwmili)  nre  small  spikes  of  iron,  I)ra8s,  etc.,  which, 
lieliiK  driven  into  wood,  serve  to  bind  several  pieces 
toKStlier,  or  to  fasten  something  upon  them.  The  con- 
Kinnptitin  of  nniis  is  immense ;  and  the  aggregate  value 
(if  thoRo  nnnuull}-  produced  is  very  large. 

BTAtRMK,:*!  minwiNO  thk  Domestic  Ksports  ok  Iron 
iNaim  rnoM  thk  United  States,  fur  the  Year  end- 
INII  'lUNE  ilUtii,  ISSd. 


OlttricU. 


'wniimiiqiloilily 

I'unliiiid  anil  Knlinouth. . 

llaiiXMr 

t'ortiiiiiiMilh 

VcniiiiMt 

Nowbilrypnrt 

tllimcostfr 

Miili'iii 

Ilnflttih  mill  C'lmrlestown . 

h'ltll  Itlvpr 

Niiw  lli'ilftird 

I'nivlilini'c 

llrlsliil  unit  AVarron 

lNt>w|init 

,New  liuniloii 

(tlunraue 

(lnWi'Kil 

iNliii-'iirii 

Itllltiili)  t'rei'k 

lOnWi'Klltrllie 

'New  York 

I'hllii.lHplila 

llnllliniin' 

Illi'liniiiiiil 

WlliiilnuUiii 

tJhiiili'Miiii 

Knvunimli 

Now  Oilonnn 

]l)iiyiiliiiu« 

llcll'Dlt 

H«n  l«'ranclsi?o 

total 


118,900 

(e>,8i)9 

20,094 

804 

12,000 

600 

100 

6 

T.flOO 

290 

8,000 

880 

1,200 

48 

86,000 

l,66n 

2,T7S,100 

102,897 

2,900 

100 

23,600 

960 

411,000 

1,550 

07,700 

2,933 

10,000 

400 

7,6S1 

791 

14,214 

743 

^17,841 

21,424 

60,740 

1,240 

58,700 

2,.V29 

4H,822 

2,152 

1,8S0,172 

60,360 

flS2,i).V) 

14,446 

109,850 

4,518 

15,600 

650 

5,000 

200 

1,000 

43 

2,,W0 

110 

0,026 

707 

10,800 

471 

16,700 

907 

91,290 

6fi<<i 

6,736,580    I  »238,38;l 


KtAtCMnNTSHUWlNd  TllK  ImI'OKTS  OK  IrON  NaI1.»,  Sl'lKF.8, 
AMP  TapKH,  INTt)  TIIK  UNITED  STATES,  FOR  TllK  YEAR 
h^lllNII   .lUNK  30TII,    1850. 


Mllrlelf. 


I       Poondi. 


Piuwiiliiniltloilily 

]Vi'tiii"nt 

ttiiDNiii  uiiil  C'liarlu.Htown. 

tlsWfai' 

lOKWi'Siiitchlo 

Now  Viirk 

R'lllin  Vliiri'Ot 

I'lilliiilolplila 

Ilnllliiinn' 

Il'lmi-li'slon 

(HiiviiMimli.. 

iMiil.lli. 

INi'W  OrliMins 

iltptfiilt 

jt'lili'iiao 

Jnn  Francisco 


6,200 

10,100 

83,212 

220 

10 

1,SS1,029 

1,200 

92,416 

M,'176 

17,578 

8,644 

4,7W) 

115,837 

10 

3,370 

19,7IK) 


Value. 

^»16S  ' 

1,071 

11,624 

13 

1 

,73,.508 

61 

12,016 

6,486 

1,.577 

375 

694 

18,898 

2 

77 

1,619 


Total •    2,292,096    i  $127,879 


Hoi-  I  HUM  niid  IlAunwAnK. 

lYltllgaaaoki,  a  seu-port  town  on  the  south-west 
count  of  the  island  of  Ximo,  one  of  the  .Japanese  islands, 
lieliid,  iwrordlng  to  Krnscntern,  in  liit.  32°  4:t'  40"  N., 
liilljf.  liW^  It'  47"  ]■).  The  harbor  extends  N.  K.  and 
M.W .  about  2J  leagues,  being,  in  most  places,  less  than 
H  IiiIIb  In  width.  .Ships  lie  in  5  or  G  fathoms  water, 
witlilii  a  gunshot  of  the  town,  near  the  middle  of  the 
liny  wlicrn  they  nre  protected  frojn  all  winds. 

MAtikeen  or  ITankla  (Ger.  Nmikini) ;  Du.  Xan- 
Itliiti^  liiinrn  ;  I'r.  Tuih  Kimkin ;  It,  iXanqiiino ;  Span. 
Niinr/iiimi),  a  species  of  cotton  cloth  in  extensive  use 
In  tills  I'oiintry.  It  takes  its  name  from  Nanking,  in 
I'liliin,  n  Kiii'opraii  corruption  of  Kyang-ning,  the  caj)- 
illil  of  the  pxtensive  iirovlnco  of  Kyang-nan,  where  it 
Is  pHlii'lpally  produced,  and  wliieh  also  furnishes  tlie 
grantrr  part  uf  the  green  teas.     In  the  East,  the  man- 


ufacture is  wholly  confined  to  China.     The  cloth  is 
usually  of  a  yellowish,  though  occasionally  it  is  of  a 
blue  color,  and  of  different  degrees  of  fineness ;  the 
broad  pieces  called  "  the  Company's  nankeens,"  are 
generally  of  a  better  quality  than  the  narrow  ones,  and 
are  most  esteemed.    The  color,  whether  yellow  or  blue, 
is  given  to  the  cloth  by  dyeing  j  for  though  yellow  cot- 
ton wool  be  raised  in  tlie'Kast,  the  cloth  made  from  it 
is  too  glaring.     The  nankeens  brought  to  England 
como  under  the  general  denomination  of  piece  goods. 
They  are  mostly  made  into  trowsers  and  waistcoats  for 
gentlemen's  wear  during  summer,  ladies'  pelisses,  etc. 
In  some  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  Europe,  the 
warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  America,  and  the  Uritish 
settlements  in  Africa,  nankeen  is  worn  by  both  sexes 
all  the  year  round,  and  constitutes  the  principal  article 
of  attire.     Latterly,  however,  they  have  become  un- 
fashionable in  this  country,  and  their  imiwrtation  has, 
in  consequence,  all  but  ceased.     See  article  Cantos. 
Nankin,  or  Nanking  ("court  of  the  South"), 
a  city,  and  the  ancient  capital  of  Cliina,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Kiangsu,  near  the  Yang-tze-Kiang,  about 
yO  miles  from  its  mouth.     Lat.  32°  2'  N.,  long.  118° 
49'  E.     Population  estimated  at  400,000.     Its  ancient 
walls  can  be  traced  over  liill  and  dale  for  35  miles,  but 
Nankin  has  so  greatly  declined  since  the  transference 
of  the  scat  of  empire  to  I'ekin  by  Kublui-khan  in  the 
latli  century,  that  the  modern  walls  arc  of  much  less 
extent,  and  the  city  scarcely  occupies  one  eighth  part 
of  the  surface  inclosed  by  them,  and  it  is  commanded 
by  hills  es])ccittlly  on  tlie  cast,  and  otherwise  ill-calcu- 
lated for  defense.     Principal  objects  of  interest  are 
the  famous  porcelain  tower  of  9  stories  and  200  feet  in 
height,  completed  in  14.'!2  at  a  cost,  as  stated,  of  about 
$3,500,000;  and  the  "  tomb  of  kings"  (supposed  to  be 
of  the  Ming  dynasty,  A.i>.  1.328  to  11)21),  leading  to 
which  is  a  line-paved  road  with  an  avenue  of  gigantic 
armed  figures.     Tho  governor's  palace,  and  an  ob- 
servatory, are  worthy  of  notice.     Here  are  important 
manufactures  of  crape,  satin  of  tlie  finest  quality,  pa- 
per, artificial  flowers.  China  or  Indian  ink,  and  nan- 
keen, which  hence  dt     'cs  its  name,  but  is  also  made 
throughout  the  wholi,  province.     It  is  the  centre  of  a 
very  exiensive  trade,  and  by  the  great  canal  which 
crosses  tlie  Y'aiig-tze-kiang,  about  50  miles  eastward, 
it  communicates  directly  with  I'ekin,  to  which  city  a 
good  deal  of  fish  is  sent  hence,  among  other  arti- 
cles.    It  is  also  the  place  of  a  grand  viceroy,  with 
authority  over  the  Kiang  provinces,  of  a  great  mili- 
tary depot,  and  tlie  chief  seat  of  literature  in  the  em- 
pire. 

Nantes,  a  large  commercial  city  and  sea-port  of 
France,  on  the  Loire,  about  31  miles  from  its  mouth,  in 
lat.  47°  13'  «"  N.,long.  1°  32'  -U"  W.  I'opulation, 
in  1851,  8G,3t)2.  Vessels  drawing  18  and  19  feet  water 
come  up  to  Paliuboeuf,  about  24  miles  lower  down  the 
river;  but  no  vessel,  drawing  more  than  11  or  12  feet 
can  come  up  to  the  city,  unless  at  liigh  water  a  day  or 
two  before /«(/  and  change.  There  are  three  entrances 
to  the  Loire.  The  first  and  most  generally  frequented 
is  between  the  bank  called  T,e  Four  and  Point  Croisic ; 
there  is  a  second  between  Le  Four  and  the  bank  called 
fji  Handle ;  and  the  third,  which  in  southerly  winds  ' 
is  mucli  resorted  to,  between  the  latter  and  the  rocks 
called  La  Counmne.  The  navigation,  which  is  naturally 
rather  difficult,  has  been  much  facilitated  by  tho  erec- 
tion of  llght-liouses  and  beacons.  Of  the  former,  one 
has  been  recently  constructed  on  the  north  part  of  Le 
Four,  about  a  league  from  Croisic,  in  lat.  47°  17'  58" 
N.,  long.  2°  38'  3"  W.  It  is  66  feet  high.  The  light 
is  a  revolving  one ;  the  flash,  which  continues  for  7 
seconds,  being  succeeded  by  a  dark  interval  of  63  seo- 


IliS 


NAN 


1388 


NAP 


onds.  Two  liglit-houses,  cnllcd  the  Aiguillon  lights, 
Btanil  on  the  north  »l(Ie  of  the  river,  near  its  moiitli ; 
tlio  lower  light,  adjoining  Point  de.  Levi,  l>eing  in  liit. 
47°  11'  33"  N.,  long.  2°  15'  1(!"  W.  The  light  ia 
fixed,  and  Is  111  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea.  The 
upper  Aiguillon  light,  situated  aliout  a  mile  N.  31°  K. 
from  the  lower,  is  127  feet  liigh ;  it  also  is  a  tixed  light, 
varied,  however,  by  a  flash  every  3  minutes.  A  beacon 
tower,  called  the  Turk,  is  erected  on  the  southernmost 
extremity  of  La  Blanche ;  the  course  for  vessels  enter- 
ing between  it  and  lia  Couronne,  is  to  bring  the  Aguil- 
lon  lights  in  one.  The  dnpth  of  water  on  the  bar  at  the 
moutli  of  the  river  varies  from  2  to  2f  fathoms.  At 
springs  tlie  rise  is  14,  and  at  neaps  7  or  8  feet.  High 
water  at  full  and  change  3J  hours. 

Her  situation  renders  Nantes  the  emporium  of  all 
the  ricli  and  extensive  country  traversed  liy  the  Loire, 
so  that  sho  has  a  pretty  consideriil)lo  import  and  export 
trade,  particularly  with  the  West  Indies.  The  exports 
ccmsist  of  all  sorts  of  Krowch  produce,  but  principally 
of  lirandy,  wine  and  vinegar,  silii,  woolen  and  linen 
goods,  relined  sugar,  wheat,  rye,  biscuits,  etc.  The 
priiu'ipal  imports  are  sugar,  coffee,  and  other  colonial 
products,  cotton,  indigo,  timber,  hemp,  etc.  Nantes 
is  a  considerable  entrepot  for  the  commerce  of  salt, 
large  quantities  being  made  in  tlie  Department,  prin- 
cipally at  Noirmutiers  and  Croisic.  During  the  time 
that  the  slave  trade  was  carried  on,  Nantes  was  more 
extensively  engaged  in  it  tlian  any  other  Frencli  port. 
The  custom  duties  of  Nantes,  exclusive  of  those  on 
salt,  produced,  in  18ul,  10,817,001)  francs;  she  being 
in  tills  res|)ect  inferior  only  to  Marseilles,  Havre,  and 
Bordeaux.  There  belonged  to  the  port,  except  river 
craft,  coasters,  and  steamers,  on  the  .'ilst  December, 
lt>ol,  560  ships,  of  tlie  burden  of  (i8,121  tons. 

The  port  charges  levied  on  vessels  of  the  United 
States  are  the  same,  and  no  more  tlian  the  ))ort  charges 
leviecl  on  French  vessels,  except  the  tonnage  duty, 
which  is  94  cents  per  ton  register,  the  same  as  the 
French  vessels  pay  in  the  United  States.     The  tran- 
shipment in  vessels  of  the  United  States  of  goods  is 
IHjruiitted  to  any  port,  except  from  a  Frencli  port  to  an- 
other French  port,  which  would  be  considered  as  a  coast- 
ing trade ;  and  no  vessels  of  any  nation  whatsoever  are  al- 
lowed to  do  that  trade,  except  the  Spanish  vessels,  Spain 
having  an  ancient  treaty  with  F'rance  to  that  effect. 
Amount  and  Chahaotkk  of  tiih   Port  I^iiaiioks  i.kviko 
ON    Amkhican  Vessels  ano  FaKNcii  Vi-»skij*  at  the 
Pout  of  Na.sti:s,  the  Vfj^skl  heiso  si'itoseo  to  he 
OF  A  iiriiOEX  of  299  Toss  I'Kn  Ueoister,  axd  uraw- 
IMG  11  Frkt  American. 


Port  cliflrRi'! 


Banttary  board  at  St.  Nozairc 

(Kntry  of  the  vessel 

:l*llotag'i  from  Belle  Ilo  to  Pafnibuuf. 
Pilotage  fi'om  Palmbauf  to  Nantes.. . 

ri'oiinase  duty 

jKlver  (lues 

jConsulsr  fees 

|Hlxty  tous  of  stone  ballast,  at  V2')  fr. . 
PlIotoRO  from  Nantes  to  I'alnibiiuf. . . 

Ptlotoi'O  fk'om  Palmbteuf  to  sea. 

Clearances  oat 

Brokerago  on  .461  tons  delivered,  at  I 
50  centimes ( 


rencli     [   Ain«ricnti 
asuN.       I       VuvavIh. 


FrtiJii'*. 

64  S5 
13  00 
If.)  6i 
00  55 

ir'io 
f.Vno 

49  5.1 

an  in 
12  m 

140  50 


Dollar.. 

a  28 

121  iitf 

11  5.1 

2s7  00 

8  87 
4  00 

14  28 

9  44 
6  63 
2  26 

84  83 


Pilotage. — Vessels  under  80  tons  (if  French  or  as- 
similated by  treaty)  are  not  obliged  to  take  a  pilot  at 
sea,  l)Ut  must  have  one  for  the  river.  Tlie  rates, 
which  are  fixed  by  law,  are  paid  by  the/on/  from  the 
sea  to  PaimboDuf,  and  from  thence  to  Nantes  for  uU 
ves.sels  under  80  tons.  Above  80  tons,  they  are  per 
ton.  The  master  of  a  vessel  bound  to  I'aiuibncuf  or 
Nantes  has  merely  to  give  a  note  to  the  pilot  stating 
where  the  pilot  boarded  him,  wliero  he  left  him,  tlie 
name  and  draught  of  water  of  his  vessel  in  Jint/Uah 
feet.  The  note  will  be  deposited  at  the  pilot's  oftico, 
and  the  pilotage  lie  received  from  the  ship's  broker. 
No  foreign  vessel,  however  small,  can  be  removed 
from  one  anchonigo  to  another,  or  to  or  from  a  quay, 


but  by  a  pilot.  Every  vessel  is  boarded  at  St.  Nazalie, 
and  if  she  has  a  foul  bill  of  health,  or  disease  on  board, 
is  instructed  where  to  go.  Hiver  Dues  on  vessels  as- 
cending from  PaimlKciif  to  Nantes  are  about  l^d.  ]ier 
ton.  At  Paimbccuf,  and  below  it,  none  are  levlcil.  If 
a  vessel  under  sail  causes  damage  to  anotlier  that  is 
properl}'  moored,  she  must  pay  all  the  expenses  of  re- 
pairs i  if  to  a  vessel  nt  single  anchor  (unless  inten- 
tionally done)  or  under  sail,  the  expense  of  the  repairs 
of  both  are  added  together,  and  each  pays  a  moiety. 
The  same  rule  ia  enforced  if  damage  bo  caused  by  one 
vessel  properly  moored  driving  on  board  another  in 
the  same  situation  ;  but  if  either  wore  riding  at  single 
anchor,  the  one  properly  moored  ia  indemnified ;  if  botli 
were  at  single  anchor,  both  bear  the  loss  alike. 

ITapleB,  a  large  city  and  sea-port  in  the  south  of 
Italy,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  same  name, 
the  light-house  being  in  lat.  10°  50'  12"  N.,  long.  11° 
14'  15"  K.  Population,  in  1861,  41(5,475.  Naples  is 
well  situated  for  commerce  ;  but  the  policy  of  the  gov. 
ernmeiit  has  hitherto  been  most  unfavorable  to  its 
growth,  and  has  confined  it  within  comparatively  nar- 
row limits.  The  Bay  of  Naples  is  sjiacious,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  picturesque  views.  The  harbor  is 
formed  by  a  mole,  built  nearly  in  the  form  of  tlie  Utter 
L,  having  a  light-house  on  its  elbow.  AVitbin  tl.o 
mole  there  is  from  3  to  4  fathoms  water,  tlie  ground 
being  soft.  The  water  in  the  bay  is  deep,  and  there  is 
no  bar;  it  is,  however,  a  good  deal  exposed  to  the 
south  -westerly  winds ;  and  to  guard  against  their 
effects,  vessels  lying  in  the  bay  moor  with  open  liawso 
in  that  direction.  There  is  no  oliligation  to  take  a 
jiilot  on  board,  but  it  is  usual  to  take  one  the  first  time 
that  a  ship  anchors  within  the  mole.  The  light-hoii.so 
has  a  revolving  light.  Tlio  period  of  revolution  is  2 
minutes,  during  the  first  of  which  the  full  strength  of 
tlie  light  is  continued,  and  during  the  second  iiiiiuito 
its  brilliancy  rapidly  decreases.  The  lieiglit  of  tlio 
light  is  Kil  feet  obovc  the  sea,  and  it  is  visible  nt  the 
distance  of  18  or  20  miles.  At  the  extremity  of  tlie 
mole  is  a  low  fixed  light  to  guide  vessels  round  its  licail. 

KXPOKTS  FROM  THE  C'oNTISENTAI,  STATES  OF  THE  Two 
JSlcIT.lES,  lIV  liANU  ANO  llY  Sea,  IN  NATIONAL  AND 
FORKION  V»SELS,  in  KACII  YeAK  from  iKllI  To  IvSJjO, 
noTlI   INCLUSIVE. 


Yofirfl. 

By  Innd. 

By  ai-a.                 1 

In  iiuttoDiil 

In  furel^ 

1        %-fS8Rl8. 

v.'asi'ls. 

UllCftt*. 

IhirHlK. 

IhirnlH. 

1S40 

401  ,.59.^ 

7,22»,2:« 

4,l«7,278 

I'm 

72(i,.'!.')7 

7,.').')2,093 

6,628,616 

1S42 

B(»2,168 

9,524,804 

8,9S9,8.W 

18« 

.18.'),fl79 

7,826,160 

2,644.298 

1844 

293,Si10 

8,844.870 

2,82s,l,'>« 

1846 

2-.%961 

9,9S4,7,5t 

2,441,927 

1848 

27'i,600 

ll,l78,l.'>t 

2,897,824 

1847 

:isr,900 

8,871,810 

8,14.3,.'i.'Mi 

1848 

262,700 

6.60i1.fS9.5 

8,104,.')8.'J 

1849 

2.-)l,.M5 

^.-irt  1,960 

4,962,691 

1350 

429,823 

9,489,948 

4,'i4ll,629 

IhiPnt*. 
11,728,112 
18,607,046 
13,870,324 
10,86,6,1371 

9,971,4161 
13,702,039 
14,:WO,0s4 
12.102,766 

9,9,80,678 
13,776,096 
14,760,420 


SIPrline. 

1,9.64.6n'i 
2,267,^41 
2,312.720 
1,72.6,8.V, 
1.661.91 13 
2,288,773 
2,89I.6S1 
2,017.128 
1,IW.MI8 
2,296,016 
2,460,070 


The  exports  princlp-ally  consist  of  the  products  of 
the  adjacent  country.  Of  these,  silk  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Olivo  oil  is  also  a  most  important  article ; 
but  it  is  principally  supplied  by  (lallipoli,  u  town  in 
the  Terra  d'Otranto,  wlience  it  is  commonly  <  ailed 
Gallipoli  oil.  The  entire  exports  of  oil  from  tlio  king- 
dom of  Naples  have  been  estimated  at  about  200,000 
salme,  or  3I),383  tons,  a  year,  whicli,  taking  its  iii?an 
value  when  exported  at  SlOO  per  ton,  is  eqniviilent  to 
the  annual  sum  of  fi:!,G;i:!,:iOO.  See  Oi.ivK  On..  'Phe 
other  articles  of  export  are  wool,  wine,  hninily,  dried 
fruits,  red  and  white' argol,  tallow,  liquorice,  gloves, 
madder,  hemp,  linseed,  cream  of  tartjir,  bones,  lamb 
and  kid  skins,  oak  and  chestnut  staves,  rags,  saffron, 
etc.  There  is  a  groat  variety  in  the  Neapolitan  wines. 
The  most  esteemed  is  the  lacrima  Chriali,  a  red  lus- 
cious wine,  better  known  in  England  by  name  than  in 
reality,  the  first  growths  lieing  conlined  to  a  small 
quantity  only,  which  is  chiefly  reserved  for  the  royal 


NAP 


1389 


NAP 


oellan.  There  are,  Iiowover,  large  quantities  of  sec- 
ond-rate wines  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples, 
such  us  those  of  Pozzuoli,  Ischia,  Nola,  etc.,  which 
are  sold  i  iider  the  name  of  lacrima  Chrisli,  and  are 
largely  expo>tet1.  Several  parts  of  C'alaliria  produce 
sweet  wines  of  superior  quality. — Hkndkrson'h  An- 
citnt  atui  Modeiti  Wines,  p.  239.  Tlie  price  of  wine 
at  Naples  depends  entirely  on  the  aliundance  of  tlie 
vintage.  The  imports  consist  principally  of  cottons 
and  cotton  twist,  hardware,  iron  and  tin,  woolens, 
sugar,  coffee,  indigo,  spices,  etc,  Naples  is  a  good 
mariiet  for  pilchards,  and  it  requires  a  large  supply  uf 
dried  and  barreled  cod, 

"  The  existing  regulations  as  to  commercial  inter- 
course with  the  United  States  appear  fixed.  When 
our  treaty,  however,  shall  expire,  if  not  renewed,  a 
cliange  ma}'  follow,  as  well  for  tonnage  dues  as  for 
the  additional  10  per  cent,  on  the  duties  of  merchan- 
dise. I  know  of  no  privileges  permitted  to  the  com- 
merce of  other  iiutious  which  are  denied  to  the  United 
States,  nor  are  there  any  restrictions  on  the  commerce 
of  other  nations  and  not  on  the  United  States.  Tlie 
amount  and  cliaracter  of  the  port  charges  and  other 
dues  levied  on  vessels  of  the  United  States  are  as  fol- 
lows :  On  cnlri). — Tonnage,  4  grains,  or  3  and  one  fifth 
cents  per  ton,  when  there  is  a  treaty ;  without  treaty 
and  indirect  voyage,  40  grains,  or  32  cents  per  ton. 
Light  money,  $1 ;  presentation  of  manifest,  &1 ;  cus- 
tom-house visit,  80  cents ;  liquidation  of  manifest  and 
boletta,  35  cents ;  customary  present,  60  cents.  Total 
amount  on  entry,  except  tonnogo,  $3.76.  On  clear- 
ance.— blglietto  of  departure,  $1 ;  bill  of  health,  $1  j 
roll  of  police,  25  cents  ;  roll  of  port,  25  cents ;  usual 
present,  60  cents  j  "  spedizionieri,"  or  broiler's  com- 
pensation, S2.  Making  a  total  amount  on  clearance 
of  $5.10.  National  vessels  pay  the  same,  but  the 
presents  are  greater  by  them.  The  health  officer  has 
for  granting  pratique  on  arrival  $5.  Should  the  ves- 
sel bo  subject  to  quarantine,  the  cliarges  increase 
according  to  circumstances,  and  still  more  so  when 
sent  to  Visita  to  perform  it.  Transhipment  in  vessels 
of  tlie  United  States  of  goods,  either  to  another  port  in 
the  kingdom  or  to  a  foreign  port  is  prohibited,  as  well  as 
in  other  vessels,  except  the  Neapolitan  steamboats. 
It  is  allowed  by  f»v!>r  when  the  manifest,  on  arrival, 
specifics  the  goods  and  the  port  to  which  ...ey  are  in- 
tended to  be  transhipped. 

"Exports  from  this  port  have  been  put  on  board 
free  of  any  duty,  at  prices  as  follows :  Refined  argols, 
at  20  cents  per  iMund ;  refined  yellow  pink,  at  23  cents 
per  pound  ;  cream  tartar,  at  25  cents  per  [lound ;  lic- 
orice paste  (Corigliano)  at  16  cents  per  pound  ;  licor- 
ice, Baracco  and  other,  at  15  to  15J  cents  per  pound ; 
olive  oil,  in  casks,  at  78  cents  per  gallon ;  oranges,  per 
box,  $2.20  to  $2.25;  lemons,  $3  to  $3.20;  filberts, 
4 J  cents  per  pound ;  walnuts,  5  cents  per  [lound. 
There  have  been  exported  during  the  year,  from  the 
first  of  July  last,  about  60,000  lbs,  of  sewing  silks — 
first,  second,  and  third  qualities — at  :I4.20,  $3.«0,  and 
$3.61)  per  lb,  of  16  oz, ;  also  about  i'5,000  llis.  of  EUch 
silks,  raw  or  undyed,  at  $3  per  lb,  of  16  oz.  These 
are  shipped  by  steamers  for  JIar',oilies  or  Liverpool 
for  the  most  part.  In  like  indirect  way  are  also  sent 
clay  pipes  with  reed  tulies,  of  little  value,  musical 
strings,  coral  and  luva  ornaments,  l)Ut  no  prices  can 
lie  quoted,  as  their  value  depends  on  the  beauty  of  the 
article  and  tlie  execution  of  the  work.  Itctween 
wholesale  and  retail  prices  there  may  lie  a  dilVerencc 
of  about  10  per  cent.  Five  or  six  foreign  vessels 
(Neapolitan  and  English)  have  loaded  in  part  with 
oranges  and  lemons  for  the  United  States,  and  gone  to 
Sicily  to  fill  up,  or  first  talio  a  part  cargo  in  Sicily  and 
fill  up  hero.  About  20,000  boxes  are  shipped  in  the 
year  from  this  port,  but  tlie  prices  vary  coutinually  ; 
they  are  now  double  what  they  were  in  the  beginning 
of  the  season."— Com.  Hel.  U.  S.,  1856-7, 

Commercial  Policy. — The  policy  of  the  Neapolitan 


government  with  respect  to  commerce  was  for  a  length- 
ened period  the  most  objectionable  that  can  well  be 
imagined.  Articles,  whether  of  import  or  of  export, 
were  burdened,  alike,  with  oppressive  duties  and  re- 
strictions ;  and  even  the  warehousing  of  foreign  good* 
could  hardly  bo  said  to  bo  permitted.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, we  are  glad  to  observe,  the  administration  ap- 
pears to  have  liecome  alive  to  the  injurious  influence  of 
this  feU)  de  »c  system,  and  hug  given  its  sanction  to  sev- 
eral measures  of  a  comparatively  liberal  character, 

Tlie  duties  on  imports  have  also  undergone  various 
modifications  Those  on  ftsli,  sugar,  and  other  colo- 
nial pro<luct3,  have  been  reduced  fully  a  half.  But 
we  sulimit  in  illustration  of  these  changes  tlie  follow- 
ing statement  of  the  old  and  new  rates  of  duty  on  cer- 
tain artictes : 


Herrings cantar  gross 

Coilflsli " 

Cocoa " 

Cofloc " 

Carnplior,  raw " 

"        rofliipd rottolo 

Cinnamon,  fn  sorts ' 

Cassia  ligncs,  of  any  sort,,  .cantar 

Cloves *' 

Nutmegs rottolo 

I*eppcr " 

IMIulianls,  etc cantar  gross 

Stockflsli " 

Sugar,  any  tif ml,  ill  powder    " 

"       "      fn  loaves      " 

Vaullla " 


Old  duly,      I     Ngw  duty. 


due,  c. 

5  nt 

6  T 
16  60 
24  76 
85    0 

1  12 

1  64 

60    (I 

77    0 

1  64 
8  26 

2  47 
4  CS 

22    0 

f»    0 

2  79 


due.   Q. 

8  0 
8  20 
8  0 
12  0 
24  0 
»  71) 
0  (K) 
80  0 
80    0 

0  80 
7    0 

1  20 
U    0 

10  0 
16  0 
1  80 


We  have  no  doubt  that  the  beneficial  influence  of 
these  wise  and  liberal  measures  will  lead  to  furtlier 
changes.  The  duties  on  iron,  with  those  on  cottons, 
woolens,  and  other  descriptions  of  manufactured  good.', 
are  a  great  deal  too  high.  These  duties  were  imposed 
partly  for  tlie  sake  of  revenue,  and  partly  in  the  view 
of  encouraging  domestic  manufactures  ;  but  they  luva 
not  accomplished  either  object.  See  Two  Sicii.iks 
and  It.vi.v, 

Naphtha,  A  limpid  bitumen,  which  exudes  from 
the  eartli  upon  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and  siiiiie 
other  eastern  countries.  Near  the  village  of  Ainiano, 
in  the  State  of  Parma,  there  exists  a  spring  which 
yields  this  substance  in  sufficient  quantity  to  illumi- 
nate the  city  of  Genoa,  for  which  purpose  it  is  em- 
ployed. It  has  a  peculiar  odor,  and  generally  a  yellow 
color,  but  may  be  rendered  colorless  liy  distillation. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  about  0,75,  It  boils  at  about 
160°,  It  is  highly  infiamniable,  burning  with  a  white 
smoky  flame.  It  appears  to  be  a  compound  of  36  of 
carbon  witli  5  of  iivdrogen,  and  is  therefore  a  pure 
hydro-carbon.  A  liquid  very  similar  to  mineral  nupli- 
tha  is  obtained  liy  the  distillation  of  coal  tnr.  It  lias 
sometimes  been  used  in  lamps,  but  is  apt  to  smoke. 
This  variety  of  naplitlia  is  in  great  request  as  a  solv- 
ent for  caoutchouc. 

Napier,  John,  Baron  of  Mercblston,  Cel- 
elirated  as  the  inventor  of  Logarithms.  Horn  1550, 
and  educated  at  tlio  university  of  St.  Andrews.  On 
returning  from  liis  travels,  in  1574,  his  learning  and 
accomplishments  attracted  great  attention,  and  would 
have  raised  him  to  the  highest  offices  of  State ;  but, 
declining  all  civil  employment,  he  devoted  himself  to 
scientific  researdics  and  to  tiieology.  In  1614  he  pnli- 
lislicd  his  Jjif/arilhworum  Cnnonis  Utarriplio,  To  Na- 
pier science  is  indebted  for  considerable  improvements 
in  splierical  trigonometry,  etc.  He  is  principally  cel- 
ebrated, however,  by  liis  Rtibdiilogij  and  I'rnmptuuni 
of  Muln'plicalion,  or  instruments  and  tables  for  the 
more  easy  perforniaiice  of  great  arithmetical  opera- 
tions, connected  with  which  were  the  rods  of  ivory, 
etc.,  known  as  Xupier'i  botua.  In  addition  to  his 
scientific  treatises,  he  wrote  several  works  on  theolo* 
gical  suljccts.  He  died  in  1617,  in  his  68th  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  St,  Giles,  at  Edinburgh. 


NAT 


lfl90 


NAV 


Narrowa,  The,  n  channel  between  T^ng  Iiliin4 
and  Staten  Island,  connecting  New  Yurk  liny  with 
the  Atlantic,  nine  miles  south  of  New  York.  Tlia 
channel  is  1005  yards  wide,  and  is  well  deranded  Uy 
fortft  and  batteries. 

Natal,  a  colonial  possession  of  fireut  llritiiln,  on 
the  south-east  coast  of  Africa,  between  Ist.  '27°  W 
and  30°  -10'  S.,  ond  long.  29°  and  Bl°  10'  I',.,  Iinvlng 
south-east  the  Indian  Ocean,  west,  the  Drakanlierg, 
or  Kuhlamba  Mountains,  separating  it  from  Ilia  tarri' 
tory  between  the  Oraiign  and  Vaal  Hlvers,  reoantly 
annexed  to  the  Cape  Col  ny ;  and  nortli-enst  the  Jluf> 
falo  iind  Tugela  Kivers,  dividing  it  from  the  /iioIihi 
counti}-.  Estimated  area,  18,000  square  miles,  I'op- 
ul.'itioii  uncertain.  Surface  undulating,  well  watered, 
uiiil  mostly  covered  with  tall  grass.  Timber  in  the 
interior  grows  only  in  clumps,  l>ut  the  sea-cimut  id 
bordered  l)y  a  belt  of  mangroves.  Climate  luout 
healthy,  and  the  soil  is  reported  to  bo  fur  mora  furtlla 
thun  in  the  Cape  Colony,  Cotton  and  indigo  grow 
wild,  and  the  former  has  been  produced  fur  axportiiT 
tion,  of  the  finest  quality.  Sugar,  coffee,  wheat,  oatd, 
heuns,  and  tobacco,  are  important  crops.  Sii|)erior  coal 
has  been  found  in  the  interior;  building  stona  Id  found 
all  over  its  surface,  and  iron  ore  is  abundant,  Huttar, 
corn,  hides,  ivory,  tallow,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  wool, 
were  lately  among  the  chief  exports.  Value  of  »Kr 
ports  in  18.51,  $1.5,000.  Imports  same  year,  vuiuod  nt 
f '.'80,000.  The  territory,  wliich  is  u  dependeni'y  of 
the  Cape  of  Uood  Hope,  is  administered  liy  a  lieuten" 
ant-governor,  assisted  li}-  an  executive  and  u  legislii- 
tive  council. 

It  is  subdivided  into  thu  districts  Il'llrlian,  I'lclni-- 
m.nritzburg,  Xlmvoti,  Impafane,  Upper  Tugclii,  and 
Umzinzate,  exclusive  of  a  tract  in  the  soutii,  hitliarto 
without  an  estaldished  magistracy.  IMetdriuaritji- 
l)urg,  the  capital,  is  50  miles  inland  from  I'url  \iilnl, 
which  is  near  tlie  centre  of  the  coast  Hue.  This  col- 
ony derives  its  name  from  the  fact  of  its  having  Iihbu 
discovered  on  Christmas  day  (1498),  l)y  tlia  I'ortu- 
gucse.  It  was  revliited  in  167.5  liy  order  of  King 
Scliastian. 

National  Debt.  The  first  mention  of  parlia- 
mentary security  for  a  debt  of  the  Kngiish  nation,  oc- 
curs in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  Tlio  present  national 
debt  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  It  had 
amounted,  in  the  year  1607,  to  aliout  fivu  niillionn 
sterling,  and  the  delit  was  then  thought  to  be  of  alarm- 
ing magnitude. 
1"0'2,  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  the  debt 

tinonntcd  to i!l4,OrtO,n<KI 

1'1't,  On  the  accession  orituo.  I ri4,0U0,0l«l 

1749,  Geo.  II. ;  alter  thu  Spanish  war. Tx.Ollo.ililo 

17«),  Oco.  III. ;  end  oftho  I  yeais'  war lim.OiKi,»iHI 

ITSd,  Three  years  after  the  Atnorlcan  war aiW.OOO.iHKI 

1I9H,  The  elvll  and  forditn  war M'/i,»'*VM> 

IML',  Close  of  the  Froaoli  revolutionary  war ftJI.iKHI.OOo 

1314,  Close  of  the  war  acalnst  Bonaparte bil,5,iSHI,00U 

1817,  When  the  Irish  anil  Kngllsli  cxcheiinera 

were  consullilatuil  i>4i,'i»'J,4T7 

laso.  Total  am't  of  the  fiindod  and  unfnndeil  debt  S40,|ii|,0'^'il 

ISIO,  Total  amount  of  ditto 7i!l,()Tn,oiMI 

!■«.%  Kunded  debt 7ih,7nll,(liS) 

1857,       "  "    7iil,MilO,ilU() 

The  national  debt  of  the  United  States  originated 
in  consequence  of  the  exjicnBes  incurred  during  tlia 
revolutionary  war,  and  amounted  in  the  year  17111  to 
about  $75,000,000.  The  revenue  of  the  government 
enabled  it  to  curtail  thedel>t  until  the  year  IHl'J,  w  jian 
it  was  only  $45,000,000.  Tito  war  witli  Kngiand  ill 
1812-1.5,  ndded  largely  to  this  debt,  the  loans  iiecadi 
sary  for  war  expenditures  Ijeing  raised  at  a  coiislileralila 
loss.  At  the  end  of  the  war  tlie  del)t  was  over  ^illlil,- 
0110,000.  This  was  rapidly  curtailed,  and  liy  tlia  yaar 
18.'I5  was  fully  liquidated,  besides  an  appropriation  of 
several  millicms  of  surplus  revenue  to  tha  individual 
States.  In  18311,  tlie  revenue  was  less  tlian  tlia  oKpuii- 
diture,  and  anotiier  debt  was  created  whicii  liuil  liuuii 
nearly  liquidated  up  to  the  year  1845,  when  tliu  war 
with  Mexico  rendered  further  loans  necessary,     'i'lts 


'm:,.. 

,,,,  »7i,4(W,47(t 

\m..,. 
fim,.,, 

....    7T,ll'i7,»tl4 

,,..    J«,llf<!l,(W4 

\m,,,, 

,,,,    *P,747.M7 

I7I«I,,, 

,,.,    dWM.lIK 

i7tfr,,,, 

....    Kl.ll«4.47» 

ITW".,,, 

....  |I,'A%MII 
....      1.4IW.07« 

ITW,,,, 

NKI,,,, 

.,.,  m,mmn 

IWII,,,, 

....  *iH,iiiii.oni 

iwm,,,. 

,.,,    WP,7l'i,(liW 

Iww,    , 

,,.,   11. m.nin 

IwH,,,, 

,,,,   KM'ii.yn 

Nift,,,. 

....  m»%itin 

loilll,,,, 

....    7ft,fiW,a7l 

NiT,,,, 

,,,.  m,%\\im 

NW,,,, 

....   itA.iiirt.Hm 

IKOO,,,. 

....  hijim.m 

I"!",,,, 

,,,.  fiiu7H,iiir 

ItK,,,, 

, , , .     4«.(Klfi./iM 

Mt,,,, 

,,..    4/i,i((il»,1tfl» 

lolH,,,, 

....  Ui.vm.wn 

Jlll,,,, 

....    "l.tlJ.'UO 

Islfi,,,, 

,,.,     KH.wW.itflO 

INJII,    ,, 

,..,  I1I7,!1IW.»'U 

imr,,,, 

....  I1IH.4»M»0N 

IM«,,., 

....  IliMllU.flM 

iiiii,,,, 

,,.,    Wi,hi(»,rt4H 

\WM, . , , 

,.,.    Dl.n'h.Mfl 

Mi,,, 

.,,.  W,II'7.4M 
....    lfH,A4lt,Ot7 

ixtl,,,, 

mi,,,, 

,,,.    «0,MM»T 

\ito%f»i»  of  lh«  Mtlonal  dfllit  from  17tl  to  lt(7  wu  m 
follown  I 

t#it.,  n.).i~-ir,  s, 

wu %\tn,wt,iu 

IMV) I«l),7>»l,4»ll 

iw M,m,im 

1''27 7»,W,W 

\m* «7,47ft044 

ItM. 8",4'il.4U 

IWIO 4«,ft<ifi,4iut 

itiii wi,\i\\n 

i«iw u.m.'iM, 

IHHII 7,01)l,lllW 

IHH4 4,Il|l),lWi 

\m, 87,71)11 

IMflfl 87,MH 

iw wvm 

IHiM 4,W7,'M* 

IHW ll,»«il,7'M 

1»«1, M«ft,i»T8 

m\ <,TH7;i«>t 

is4a iR,i)a«,4td 

ISffl KD.WVJ.W 

1M( m,\vw.m 

IMA. lll,>(i||,il4T 

l«i« '»;m,M>f> 

IH47 4.'),ii«/.il.'/tf 

IttS M,Xo4,4M 

1«49. U,1»t,«M 

I  SAO um*,*'^ 

im\ «a;)(W,iWft 

im 47,WIO,!i»ft 

IWid M,WW,1.'/T 

ItM 44,U76.4M 

IW) H9,9(W,7;il 

moiNuv.  IB)  mfiixwMi 

Vi)t  fiindcil  dnl.ts  of  various  Kuro|iean  nalioiis,  ««« 
urtiidn  jJ'.iiiiiil't',,  |i,  im. 

Naval  Aroblteotura.  In  the  small  spues  w« 
vm  mAnw  Ui  this  subject  wo  shall  merely  endeavor 
to  iwHVtiy  It  UPtltiml  notion  of  tlia  principius  and  pro- 
i>u»»  of  i'oii>itrili'tluii,  Hliips  arn  built  In  dillerent 
forillii,  Mi'i'iirdlllif  to  tlin  service  lliey  are  Intanihid  ('ir, 
and  tlia  liiirit()|is  tliny  have  to  carry.  It  is  in  iiiuii-of. 
war,  wlilidl,  httsldcs  possessing  In  an  eiiiinaiit  ■!•  grea 
tha  gaiiKfal  ijilHlltles  of  u  ship,  have  to  support  u  lix.ivy 
uriimiiiaMt  of  caiilKin,  and  which  are  destined  to  xuvuru 
and  loii|j--i'OHllMiiwl  service,  that  the  principles  of  con. 
elriu'tioii  Imvx  liecit  carried  to  the  greatest  |wrf"i'li"ii, 
TIlH  fiiriM  iif  thfl  ship,  her  strength,  or  tho  seuiilliiig 
iiai'aiiaitry  for  IIih  services  rei|uired  of  her,  are,  from  oar 
iMlparf.fi't  klliiwled^i*  of  hydrodynamics,  tlie  results  .it 
Mi||iarli'iM'il  hIiiik'.  When  a  ship  Is  to  bo  buill,  Inr  form 
ja  |iroJt<i't)<d  ill  three  difloreMt  planes  per|iendi>'uiur  Ui 
«aii|i  otliKf. 

lot.  Tilt"  illlPri'  ili'iiiif/lil,  wiiieii  is  the  sido  >i<'w,  or 
projiwdiiti  oil  tlic  plane  of  the  keel.  <Jn  tlii»  ai'u  laid 
iitf  tlia  Itui^thi  till)  heights  of  all  the  parts  from  tlia 
k«»l,  tlltl  IcwUloll  and  rake  of  tlie  stem  and  st.'riipost, 
tint  principal  frniiies  ur  timbers  of  tho  slilos,  tliu  jioi'i.,, 
4^cl«Bi  idiaiiliels.  place  of  the  greotest  breudili  or  mill- 
olljp  fmtlKt,  stations  of  the  masts,  etc.  Thu  I'ruiii.'s  be. 
fora  tliH  lilldslilp  frame  aro  distinguisiied  by  |eiii>i'i>i 
Hlwet  It,  liy  Mlllilbers,  The  midship  frunie  is  iiiit  cKUcliy 
ill  tha  llllililln  of  tlio  length,  but  rather  before  it. 

'M,  The  liiiilfi  nltin,  or  end  view.  Tills  hliovs.i  Hm 
I'oiltoilf  of  llm  sides  of  tli«  ship  at  certain  points  of  lier 
lailgllli  Itllii  slues  the  two  sides  are  exailiy  alil>e,  tliu 
laft  llitlf  fti(if("»(i|il9  the  vertical  sections  in  tli«  ufu^r 
pitrtof  tlin  body,  and  tiie  right-hand  liuif  tliocu  in  tli« 
fora  pnH.  The  base  of  the  projection  is  tlie  iiiiilslijp, 
or  larijast  Nmition,  called  also  the  i/im/y/.i/,  within  whiiili 
tlin  othfr  stti'tlolls  are  delineated.  On  this  uiu  exhili- 
itail  iilwi  thtt  beams  of  the  deiks. 

II,  Tlw  llorl/,»ntal  or  floor  plane,  called  uImu  i\w  lull/ 
hvmillh  fihin,  The  base  of  tliis  is  tlie  section  niailii  liy 
tlia  liiiri/ohlnl  siirf'iice  of  the  water  aioi  the  outsidu 
uiirfaca  of  tllii ship,  and  is  caii»d  tlio  Ujipir  witlir  //«.', 
or  liiiid  U'lllff  till''.  If  tiio  sliip  now  bo  supposed  fi  li" 
llgliti'iiad  iiiilforinly,  she  will  exhibit  anotiier  wut^r 
Una,  Hllil  tlllia  ntiy  number  of  like  parallel  sections  at 
aqiiut  ilUtHtlcfS  diiWn  to  tlio  keel.  On  tills  projeitlim 
tlia  wataf  lines  appear  hs  I'urves,  on  the  sheer  diaiigUt 
itn  utritlKllt  lltttis  parallel  tu  the  keel.     Tliedu  thrao  nuc 


NAV 


1301 


NAV 


mil   |:lill 

roipi  llw 
,'rii|/ii=li 

111'  iiii't' 

■Ulll"*  I)"' 

|t<tU>l'>i! 

l'KUi:tly 

H. 

lows    tllH 

lis  .if  lii-r 
illk",  till 
tlm  iifu^r 
1^11  ill  III" 
miibliil'i 
II  wlii>:li 

I'U  L'Xllill' 

I  till!  W/ 
jiiiiulii  liy 

\ilir  lull', 

ttuil  til  l<" 

|nT  wut  ir 

I'ti'iii'i  III' 

|,riijL>rtluU 

f  (Iwiinltt 

Itliroo  »tu;- 


tlonfl  corr«!>pond  to  euch  other  upon  the  snme  scnlo,  nnil 
niiy  piilnt  In  one  U  immodiutely  roferalilo  tn  the  other 
two  (irojcc'tions.  The  several  parts  arc  drawn  from 
tlii»(i  plann  In  their  full  size  on  the  floor  of  the  mold- 
loft,  and  worked  from  the  molds  or  model  so  taken. 

'I'lin  piano  ill  which  the  ship  is  built  is  called  a.  )l!p. 
In  the  middlp,  and  leadiiit;  to  the  water,  is  a  row  of 
plies  (if  stout  pieces  of  wood  called  the  bloch,  having 
n  dectivity  towards  the  water  of  aliout  one  inch  in  one 
font.  On  these  the  keel,  which  is  of  elm,  is  laid,  and 
Its  component  lengths  scarfed  together.  Under  the 
kept  Is  placed  the  false  keel  for  defense.  At  the  end 
farthest  from  the  water  is  raised  the  jlem,  wiiich  is,  in 
fact,  the  keel  continued  upwards.  Inside  the  stem, 
and  Just  nljove  the  keel,  is  the  npmn,  a  curved  timber 
connecting  both.  On  each  side  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  stem  Is  fixed  an  upright  timber  j  these  are  called 
the  knii/ht  hraJ),  and  the  bowsprit  lies  between  tliem. 
\i  the  other  end  of  the  keel  is  the  sternpost,  at  which 
the  planking  flnislics  abaft,  and  on  which  tlie  rudder 
Is  hung.  Inside  (or  before  this)  are  tiie  inner  post  and 
other  |i!Oi'ca  for  strength.  Upon  the  keel  is  fixed  a 
layer  of  timber  of  the  same  breadth,  and  rising  for- 
waril  and  aft,  called  the  liewl  wood;  on  this  arc  jilaced 
the  Jliinr  limbrrt ;  these  consist  of  one  wliicli  cro8.ies 
the  keel  to  wlilch  it  is  coaked,  and  tiie  two  parts  of  a 
like  timber  firmly  joining  it,  and  projecting  lieyond  its 
ends,  The  several  pieces  are  got  into  tlieir  places  by 
shifting  shears. 

'Vht\l'mmrii  consist  of  pairs  of  timl)er8  composed  of 
pieces  of  difl'erent  lengths,  joining  tlie  floor  timbers, 
Hiiil  carried  upwards.  Tlie  length  joining  the  floors  is 
called  the  first  futtock,  the  next  the  second  futtock, 
and  so  on,  ending  in  the  top  timbers.  The  pairs  are 
bolted  liy  iron  lioits,  and  of  lato  adjacent  pairs  have 
lieen  tlius  connected.  Tiie  frames  are  supported  teni- 
|«irarily  liy  being  fixed  to  the  cross  spnlh,  long  fir 
planks  laid  horizantiilly  aluiut  tlie  heiglit  of  the  gun 
deck.  Those  frames  w'  osc  planes  are  perpendicular  to 
the  keel  are  called  .^^»(ire  yrn/Hc.^ ;  at  tiie  head  and 
stern  these  planes  incline  toward  tlio  extremities,  and 
sre  called  mnt  frames.  These  divisions  of  tlie  ship  are 
cillcd,  accordingly, square  and  cant  bmlies.  When  the 
fraiiiliig  has  assumed  its  form  the  ribamis  are  fi.xei'  ; 
these  are  thick,  narrow  planks  at  wide  intervals,  ex- 
tending the  length  of  the  vessel,  marking  tlic  direction 
of  the  planks ;  they  are  firmly  shored,  and  removed 
when  the  planking  comes  on.  The  riband  lines  ajipear 
on  tlie  tialf  breiultli  plan  as  diagonal  lines.  Upon  the 
keel,  and  over  the  floor  timliers,  to  wliich  it  is  scored, 
is  laid  the  kelson,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  second  keel  over 
the  flrst.  The  stern  of  square-sterned  ships  is  formed 
iil«rn  the  icinr/  <rnn»om,  the  uppennost  of  the  liorizontal 
pieces  of  timlicr,  called  trnnsoms,  crossing  the  stern- 
post  inside.  The  wing  transom  is  secured  to  the  tim- 
bers of  the  side  by  a  strong  horizontal  knee.  Wlieii 
the  framing  is  complete,  the  outside  planking  is  laid 
on.  The  miles,  tliick  planks  above  the  water,  are  lirst 
secured  to  the  rilis.  The  clumps  are  thick  planks  in- 
sliln,  to  support  the  ends  oi  the  lieains  of  the  decks. 
'I'lio  beams  support  the  decks,  rest  on  the  clamps,  and 
afe  secured  to  the  side  by  hiees.  The  breast  honks  are 
strong  curved  pieces  of  timber  crossing  the  stem,  and 
Joining  the  bows.  The  deck  hooks  are  the  same,  lieing 
ut  the  decks.  The  crutches  answer  a  like  purpose 
lielow  In  the  after  part.  The  ]mrt  sills  are  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  ports.  The  spirketling  is  tlio 
plunk  of  the  side  lietweon  the  water  way  and  tlio  port 
"III.  The  rimin  miles  are  tliick  planks  of  tlie  outside 
to  receive  the  chains  and  preventer-bolts  for  the  support 
if  the  rigging.  'I'hpfoot  iralini/,  or  ceilini/,  is  the  plank 
lining  the  inside  of  the  ship  lielow.  The  llmbi  rbmirds 
nro  short,  thick  iiieces  of  wood  resting  against  the  kel- 
son for  the  convenience  of  keeping  a  clear  passage  to 
the  well.  The  k-nee,  of  the  head,  also  called  the  cul- 
umler,  Is  the  projecting  part  of  the  head  ;  it  is  secured 
*o  tha  bows  by  knees  called  cheeks. 


In  order  to  bend  wood  into  the  necessary  curvature, 
it  is  steamed  in  places  for  the  purpose.  When  the 
planking  is  all  complete,  the  ship  is  caulked  and 
painted.  The  fastenings  of  timber  are  efTected  by 
bolts,  treenails,  or  coaks.  The  present  metliod  of 
framing  siiips-of-war  is  chiefly  due  to  Sir  Kobert  .Sep- 
pings.  We  shall  describe  it  here  generally  i  for  par- 
ticulars, see  tiie  Vhil.  Trans.,  IHM,  and  tiie  pulilislied 
reports  on  the  suliject.  As  the  timbers  or  ribs  can  not 
be  procured  entire,  or  of  the  proper  curvature,  various 
methods  have  Ijeen  used  for  joining  the 
several  pieces  together.  A  method 
used  till  lately  consisted  of  an  angular 
chock  C,  fastened  by  treenails  to  the 
ends  A  It  of  the  timbers.  Hy  this  plan 
all  stress  upon  the  joint,  in  whatever 
direction,  falls  on  the  treenails ;  and 
when  the  chock  decays,  no  support  is 
nflforded  in  any  sense  wliatevcr.  At  present  the  square 
ends.  A'  11',  are  brouglit  together,  while  a  coak  C',  or 
small  oak  cylinder,  is  let  into  each. 

Hy  tills  plan  the  two  faces  resist  any  effort  by  press- 
ure  from  without  to  close  the  timbers,  and  the  coak 
itself  resists  the  ett'ort  (perpendicular  to  this  hist)  to 
make  one  timber  slide  past  the  other  liy  the  whole  force 
necessary  to  cut  it  oft"  flusii  with  the  section.  In  the 
single  case  of  lifting  one  face  exactly  perpendicularly 
oil'  the  ether,  the  coak  oftcrs  no  resistance  ;  this  etl'ort, 
wliicli  is  that  produced  by  llie  strain  of  the  rigging  on 
the  sides,  is  opposed  liy  other  numerous  connections. 
The  method  is  very  ancient,  being  used  in  tlio  construc- 
tion of  the  pillars  in  the  temple  at  llalbcc ;  tlio  ad- 
vantages of  its  application  to  ship-building  is  seen  in 
the  frames,  wliicli  undergo  no  cliangc  of  form  while 
hoisting  into  their  places.  The  elliciency  of  the  plan, 
however,  does  not  appear  in  a  single  length,  but  In 
the  system  of  frames,  each  joining  of  wiiich  is  placed 
near  the  middle  of  tlie  next  jiicce. 

A  shelf  piece,  coaked  and  bolted  to  the  timbers  or 
ribs,  and  resting  on  sliort  verticil  pieces 
of  timber  called  chocks,  and  sometimes 
scored  to  the  ribs,  is  carried  like  a  hoop 
entirely  round  the  ship.  On  this  the 
beam  ends  aro  coaked ;  and  over  these 
again  is  laid  a  strong  water  way  scored  to 
the  beams,  and  coaked.  licsides  these  the  beam  end 
is  clasped  by  two  arms  of  an  iron  knee,  of  w  liich  the 
third,  wliiiii  is  vertical,  is  bolted  to  the  chock.  The 
shelf  binds  liniily  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  ship  to- 
gether, and  resists  like  an  arch  all  external  pressure. 
T'he  spaces  between  the  timbers  beiow  are  filled  up  by 
dry  wood  driven  in  tight,  and  caulked,  thus  rendering 
the  bottom  solid  and  water-tight,  independently  of  the 
planking.  One  of  the  most  important  improvements 
is  the  diagonal  I'ranicwork  lielow,  Instead  of  the 
former  planking  in  the  hohl  aro  placed  braces,  crossing 
the  ribs,  to  wliiidi  they  are  coaked,  at  an  angle  ot  'l.'i^  ; 
those  in  tlie  fore  hody  incline  (or  rake)  aft,  and  those 
in  the  alter  body  forward.  They  butt  against  the  kel- 
son, and  extcnil  nearly  to  the  water ;  they  are  in  gen- 
eral placcil  under  every  other  licam,  but  closer  at  the 
extremities. 

Longitudinal  pieces  of  timber  are  laid  nearly  paral- 
lel to  the  keel  over  the  heads  or  joinings  of  tiie  timliers, 
and  bolted  through ;  these,  crossing  the  diagonals, 
form  a  scries  of  rhomboidal  figures,  across  which,  in- 
side, arc  lirinly  dri-en  trusses,  lying  tlie  opposite  way 
from  the  diagonals;  thes?  are  bolted  through,  and, 
wlien  necessary,  are  furtlier  tightened  by  driving  in 
thin  iron  plates  at  the  cuds.  Tiie  diagonals  act  liy  tlie 
len.'lou  o(  the  fibres,  tile  trusses  by  the  thrust,  and  the 
whole  thus  resists  every  efi'ort  to  change  the  figure  of 
the  sliip.  Tlio  .system  was  first  put  into  complete  prac- 
tice in  tlie  7'remeiubms,  74,  in  INIO ;  which  ship  evinced, 
in  several  severe  trials,  a  firmness  and  dryness  not 
known  before.  51,  C.  Dupin  lias  shown  {I'hil.  Trans., 
1817)  that  the  principle  of  diagonal  framing  hud  aug- 


WAV 


1302 


NAV 


gMto4  U»e\(,  »h4  iiinn  (iriwl  Uy  tmrtital  French  en- 
ginsura,  but  u»  iifUtll  Mlwililiiti)<il,  Tim  iiiorit,  tliere- 
f«io,  of  Mr  H,  HtHfittnn,  In  fwlililiig  to  praeti(3e  a 
tyittiim  wliji'lf  I'l  itilHtro  ImiI  Iwfti  nttonitcd  witli  in- 
■upsruliUiilintoMltiiM,  imro  Hm«  (■('(n(icniiiilefi  the  want 
(if  novulty  In  t\m  t4«i«  UwlC,  Jhe  niiclent  siiimre, 
niiwdlvs,  Imt  w»»k  »(*»«<,  (irtVfl  lispii  feplftcoil  hy  Sir 
H.  Heppliig*  \>y  fi/HI(4  lil«ra»,  t'OfCPsiiondlntc  In  Cdn- 
itrmtlun,  mul  HtBCtftiW  fit  nKflinlh,  to  the  how. 
TliBii*  Imva  m{4iM  M»«1«rKiilM4  V«rl((iM  ulterHtloTis,  tend- 
ing to  coiiiIiIho  tlttt  otroMUth  irf'  tlin  new  with  the  Im- 
posing ini^^rtmim  t>(  ♦Im  (uriiu't  utern,  It  l«  iinly  now 
hy  (uditriwtiitg  Hm  wilM  ami  iiiinwvrthte  fninie  with  the 
furnwf  wsitliL  md  mmiiml^iil  rttflclnre,  tlmt  we  cnn 
fully  |»ircii|v*i  tJM*  UwnU'imi'f  lit  the  niiclent  construc- 
tion, ill*  tJn)lw»4,iM«)fAit  iif  fotmhix  »"  Independ- 
ent 8}'iit8Mi,  w«r»  MfM'M  MHumtlM  In  imrt  hy  the  phink- 
hirf  itself,  AS  is  Um  ti*t(«  hi  Uimln,  The  masts,  rostinR 
only  upon  tlwlr  #(*(«,  iii«l«iMt  of  Hnmg  |platlorni» 
which  dilfasa  ||m  prfuMurx  mi  nil  sides,  and  pressed 
downwuvds  hy  lhi»||'  Wffi^lit,  mid  hy  the  enormous  strain 
of  thu  ligging,  itMiitt  floltl  Hie  wind  on  the  sails, 
forcuil  tUa  kn4  iloWH,  yimt  imiin  the  ship  leaky.  The 
tluihuru  and  frumnwurtl,  liclllX  «»  tlKht  Bn«les,  with- 
out mutual  sup(»«lt,  (In<  wIioIh  stress  at  the  ship  came 
im  the  faataniiiga  (  unit,  liuHt,  the  safety  of  the  ship 
dupaiidart  mtMy  H)«»ll  (Imt  of  the  outside  plank,  the 
part  most  Bi||HiiiMt  Ut  Uliuty, 

Thu  planks  of  (lia  Afimn  tldve  also  s<imetlme9  lieen 
jdacad  diagonally  )  mirt  j«t<il/  Irwi  dlaj^onal  straps  have 
heen  adihid  Ui  Hifl  MppW  Wiirk'l  inside,  The  extremi- 
ties heing  un«Hpo»it*d  MiiW  hy  the  water  droop,  or 
tlia  ship  hoi/ii,  n  tlirw.-ilfoilfiii''  fofiiief ly  drooped  at  once, 
on  huing  lauiU'hwl,  Hjii«  jii(<lies  at  each  end,  whicli  in- 
creased with  liar  IwigHl  of  serth.'e  j  at  present,  such  a 
ship  droo|w  only  fij  iiwUl><>,  which,  when  the  materials 
are  sot,  sulfara  liHl*  wf  no  increase,  Exposure  to 
moisturu  |)«ii)g  a  imum  of  Uw  decay  of  timher,  huild- 
ing  nnihiraivuf  Ima  liiitg  liecii  firittlced.  This  also 
protects  the  (Mail  f'foill  Hw  weaHler,  The  wood  usually 
employed  in  sllip-lolilillllfi  is  "«t<i  Mm,  which  does 
not  split  rioidily,  is  «ii|i(|oye<l  for  the  keel,  and  for  the 
caps.  JCast  hiili«  ta#fc,  n  vej^y  heavy  durahlo  wood, 
which  does  (Kit  shrink,  llor  is  liahle  "to  splinter  from 
shot,  is  nvw  vary  mm\t  used,  African  teak  is  also 
much  used,  t'if  fa  um]  (nf  lifjlit  works,  masts,  etc. 
The  ImttoHW  of  slllji*  «tN  liahle  Ui  hecome  covered  witli 
weeds  and  shells,  iiii4  u>  l;«  eaten  through  hy  worms. 
To  prevent  fhasa  avijii,  (llfl  h(rtt<ini9  were  "formerly 
covered  with  a  thin  slieathinj^  of  Wooil,  which  was  re- 
placed whan  wofll,  imii  lias  also  heen  used.  Ships 
are  now  sliBatliad  ullIM*!  tmivefsrtlly  with  thin  sheets 
of  copper, 

For  fnrthai-  infurtflltHim  on  this  siilgect,  reference 
may  '.te  ma4a  U)  tlw  followirttf  Wotks :  Uoiiookk, 
Tmili  ilu  NiiKive ;  (!|,*(HH(i(fl,  'JyuiH  Mpmentaire,  etc.  ; 
(JiiACM^N'a  NimU  A  ,vhil„  #ith  ?(otes  hy  Or.  Inman  ; 
STKKi.'a  l<h\r,eiiu,  Willi  ii;i  Ajipelldl*,  hr.T.  Knowi-es, 
F.ll.S.  i  Fimuh+h's  llulthiH  !</  Nh!p4mUdin;i ;  the  ar- 
ticle "  Mhiprlwildiflg"  in  tlie  new  edition  of  the  Ency. 
Jlrilcuiniia, 

Nav4l  OdUrtS  At'ft  (rihutntts  estahllshed  as  occa- 
sion may  raiinira,  tsMm  on  {ii«  hif^li  seas  or  In  foreign 
parts,  or  at  Iwina,  fof  m^mUt^  into  and  dealing  with 
various  mattacs  i^i-tfiiniiifj  to  inaritime  nlTalrs. 

Haval  §tof#l»,  Tlia  \<t\m\\m\  i<t  these  are  tar, 
pitch,  rosin  and  Hifpcntinei  Hlouj/li  other  articles  used 
in  liuiWiiig  and  W(nippinu  vessels  are  sometimes  in- 
cluded. The  (/'iiitwl  Mtiites  are  so  ahundantly  supplied 
with  naval  stofas,  fliat  notwilhstandinft  slie  Is  more 
extensively  einphi}  wt  in  alii|Mhuildin((  than  any  other 
nation,  slia  a^ports  iwvrti  stores  III  large  (|uantities. 
NAVii,  HroHM  v.^^^tmm  ymm  tm  Msmti  States  to 

l(«»><f  litflMlN, 
Year  )<>4«-.,,.,,,,  »ft4«,f#  l    tea*  iva $945,224 

"     \>M ,,,,     VHMiV      "     lSf,9 I,099,,'i82 

"     Jfcft).,  „,,,,,     *(),«^(1    '      «     tSftt 1,56«,6.<H 

»     1861,,,,,,,,,    Wt^  I      *■     tm 1,188,866 


STiTKMRNT  SnOWINO  TUK  KXPOBTS  OT  NavAI.  BtOKES  FBOM 
THR  IjNITliD  STATUI  roR  TUK  YkAR  KNniNO  JuNR  OOtU. 
1HS6.  ^ 


WhllherniporteiJ. 


PrnssU 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Danish  West  Indies 

Ilatobnr^ 

MromiMi 

Otiior  Gornian  ports 

Holland 

Uutcli  West  Indies 

Dntcli  Onlann 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Belgium 

KnKland 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Gibraltar. 

Malta 

Canada 

Otlior  Brillsli  N.  Amer.  pes. 

Hrltlah  West  Indies 

Urltlsh  Honduras 

Ilritlsh  Onluna 

nrltisl.  Possess.  In  Africa.. 

Jtrltlsh  Australia 

Hritlsh  KoKt  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

Franco  on  the  Medlter 

French  North  Amor.  puss.. 

French  West  Indies 

Freucli  Guiana. 

itpsin  on  tlio  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Modltorranean 

l.'ulm 

I'orto  lilco 

Portugal 

Madeira 

Cape  do  Vord  Islauds.. . . 

Azores 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Two  Sicilies 

Austria 

Austrian  possess,  in  Italy 

Turkey  In  Europe 

Turkey  In  Asia 

Other  ports  In  Africa. . . . 

Ilaytl 

San  Domingo 

[Mexico 

[Uontral  Uopublic 

|Ncw  Granada. 

Venezuela 

Brazil 

Uruguay 

Iluonos  Ayrcs 

Cblll 

Peru 

'Ecuador 

fSae.dwlcb  Islands I 

iCblna 

;  Whale  Fisheries ' 

I 


Twuilliltoh,     Hoaln  A  turlMuitlnw, 
liitrrori, 


AI6, 


Dullan. 
V,«91 


SO, 

f.a 
(ml 

A31 

9,7IT 

'  'T24 

1,91 9' 

ll,9.'iT 

12,(W8 

V!.4T« 

2H» 

746 

(W7 

1,140 

»,9(l:) 

"iin 

218 
808 
102 
600 
816 

11,912 
292 

1,061 

Hfi 

K, 

800 


268 

80 

4S0 

898 

OS-I 

182 

626 

!18 

941 

3S0 

678 

100 

400 

1,165 

1,041' 

49 

2521 

1,860, 

ill' 


161 
141 

m 

1,668 

72,872 
29,2S!)I 

'l',7M 
4,896 
lH,lt9S 
27,flS)) 
5,949 

1,887 

I.IWO 

2,Ss6 

21,697 

'  370 
550 

1,674 
:)18 

1.729 

2,580 

10,759 

7.1'i 

2,3S7 

96 

172 

495 


575 

125 
1,087 
2,141 
1,681 

495 
2,043 

128 
2,.539 
1,005 

i.aMi 


9,')0| 
2,7,'=4' 
2,6:i4' 

147| 

8871 

4,3081 

1421 


llarrnl<. 

4,227 
1,076 

l.')N 
16,8,W 
16,894 

102 
87,070 

'"io 

757 

68,867 

2,'i7,24s 

22,676 

2,626 

786 

2,,590 

6,S7S 

8,290 

820 


906 
6,118 
4,946 

5,860 
17,118 

'  '222 

'I'.flOO 

876 

615 

22 

1,643 
100 


2,9S7 

2,787 

1,240 

1,729 

2,204 

2,928 

824 

9,59 

262 


226 
1,608 
17,181 
2,675 
1,455 
2,259 
2,080 

'"'so 

874 


U<,lli 
8,006' 

89ll' 
2Ssl:i 
27,962, 

172: 
70,0,'W, 

'"ill 

t,696l 

i2s,a«)i 

702,872 

50,:|ll9l 

4,77.H 

l,3,sl 

4.911 

26.1)6,', 

7,174 

667 


1,934 

10,4671 
9,,VI8, 
10,27.^ 
82,41>i, 

"liiki! 

'2',i>io' 

1.4161 

2,88s 

,'i5 

8,(1*2 

231 


,'1,4.%' 
4,.'I89 
1,994 
8,237 
8,li'.li 

1,626| 
l,97ll 

-715 

"im 
"uv 

3,71s 
31,210 
4,437 
2,4,'>9i 
4,512' 
4,631 

"isi 

990 


I  Total '   87,705  235,487  ,524,799  1,222,UI10, 

Navigation  (Lat.  navis,  a  ship),  is  that  branch 
of  science  by  which  the  mariner  is  taught  to  conduct 
his  ship  from  one  part  or  place  to  another.  To  tin- 
derstand  the  principles  of  navigation,  and  their  prac- 
tical application,  it  is  necessary  that  the  mariner  should 
be  acquainted  witli  the  form  and  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  the  rel'itive  situations  of  the  lines  conceived  to 
be  drawn  on  its  surface,  and  have  charts  of  the  coasts 
and  maps  of  the  harbors  which  ho  may  have  occasion 
to  visit.  He  must  also  understand  the  use  of  the  in- 
struments by  which  the  direction  in  which  a  ship  is 
steered,  and  the  distance  which  she  sails  are  ascer- 
tained ;  and  bo  able  to  deduce  from  tlio  data  supplied 
by  such  instruments  the  situation  of  his  ship  at  ony 
time,  and  to  find  the  direction  and  distance  of  any  place 
to  which  it  may  be  required  that  the  ship  sliould  be 
taken.  A  curve  passing  through  any  two  places  on 
the  earth,  and  cutting  every  intervening  meridian  at 
the  same  angle,  is  called  a  rfitimb  Hue;  the  angle 
which  such  a  curve  makes  witli  each  meridian  is  called 
the  course  between  any  two  places  through  which  the 
curve  passes ;  and  the  arc  of  that  curve  intercepted 
between  any  two  places  is  called  their  nautical  di^lance. 
This  distance  is  more  than  that  measured  on  the  arc 
of  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  two  places,  un- 


less hott 

"le  equal 

incldo, 

places  Is  i 

parallels 

and  the  u 

nr  the  anj 

<'f  the  phi 

Vltudes  ol 

with  rospt 

ence  Is  {,m 

'mt  when 

their  difle 

Latitui>k, 

Navlgat 

about  1500 

nted  with  ti 

liave  of  un 

nicians  saili 

destruction 

its  eoinmeri; 

the  Komans 

It  passed  si 

nnil  Ilanso  ' 

and  from  tin 

I'lane  charts  a 

Variation  of,, 

That  thi,  oWlq 

Nonius.. 

titat  treatise  0 

Tlio  lo«  llrst  ni 

Mcrrator's  cba 

Davis's  qiiniiriii 

J^Karlthrnle  tn 

Middle  latitude 

Miinaiiratlon  of 

lladley's  <iu,„lr; 

Harrison's  tiniu 

Nautical  aboant 

Harlow's  tbeory 

See  Co.MPAi 

Wavigatl< 

portaut  brand] 

are  understood 

lieen  passed,  di 

manned,  the  p( 

the  conditions 

lowed  to  engag 

importers  or  ex 

commodities  fro 

^i-e/ch  of  the 

'''"'■•«— 'Tlie  orij 

which  are  the  fc 

feign  of  Kichan 

period.     But,  as 

»nd  contradictor 

epoch  could  be  cc 

't  is  sulliciout  ti 

Vir.,  two  of  the 

law  were  distinci 

'lie  Importation 

ported   in  ships 

"'anned  by  E„gii 

W'an  of  J';iizabet 

excluded  from  th 

re|)Ulilitan  Purlia, 

navigation  laws,  1 

allshqw,  ofnilfoi 

W'th  the  plantutio) 

viousiy  obtained  u 

rather  intended  to 

ferent  jwrts  and  d 

regulate  iatorcours 

lowing  year  (Oth 

i  arhament  passed  1 

"et  had  a  double  0 

promote  British  na 

«ive  blow  at  the  na 

engrossed  almost  th 

and  against  whom  V 


NAV 


1303 


WAV 


4,l"<3 

D.IW-i 
B,4.W 
1,W« 

-  m 

'  'i-w' 

"mi; 
njis 

!I1,2S0 
4,4S7' 

4,r)K' 
4,oaij 

"isi 


loM  Imth  placnn  nre  on  tlio  winiu  meridian,  or  both  un 
therqiiutor,  when  the  rlitinil)  lino  unil  i^ront  lirdo  lo- 
incidci,  Tlin  lUffirencK  nf  lallliiilf  lii'twcen  any  two 
plicox  U  un  ure  uf  a  nieridiun  intiTiTptcil  lii'tween  tliu 
|mrallol.4  of  lutitudo  on  which  tho  |iIiicc.h  iiru  ^itnatecl ; 
and  tho  ilijfireiicf.  iif  tomjiluile  is  thu  urcof  the  «i|Uiitor, 
or  the  unglo  at  the  (hjIo  inuludud  between  tlio  nierldluna 
of  tho  places.  Hence,  when  tho  lutitude!i  or  tho  bin- 
i;ltni|e.H  of  two  pbiccH  are  of  tho  aanio  dononilnution 
with  respect  to  nmlh  or  south,  aint  or  ii-enl,  the  dltVer- 
enco  h  found  by  oulitructlng  the  le.tK  from  the  |{ruutor ; 
but  when  of  different  ilenominiition.f,  wimt  i.<  culled 
their  diH'eronce  Is  found  by  tukin|{  their  Huni.  iSeo 
Latitudk,  LoNciiTunE. 

Navigation  owcq  it.'4  origin  to  thu  I'henlcluua, 
about  loiM)  ii.c,  Tho  firxt  luwx  of  nuvitfjition  origin- 
ated with  tho  lihodiaiiH,  Dili  ii.u  Tlio  lirat  account  we 
have  of  any  consilderublo  voyage  is  tliut  of  tho  I'ho- 
nleiuns  auiling  round  Africa,  liOl  n.c.—Ur.Ailt.  On  the 
destruction  of  Thebes  by  Alexander  the  (ireut,  33.j  ii.c:. 
it.s  connnerce  passed  to  Abixundria,  unil  8Ub8e(|Uontly 
tho  Konians  bccume  tho  chief  uiudturs  of  coniiuurce. 
It  puaacd  successively  from  tho  Venetians,  (ionouso, 
and  Hnnso  Towns,  to  tho  Portuguese  and  Spunlurdsj 
and  from  these  to  tho  ICnglish  and  Uutch,— IIaviik. 

Plane  charts  aiul  inarlnurs'  cuuipuss  uscil  about . , . .  A.  i>.  1420 

Varliitlon  of  tho  oonipass  dlscoviTed  by  t'ohimbus H'Ji 

Ttiat  the  oblique  rhumb  lines  are  spirals,  <llscovurod  by 

Nonius 1587 

First  treatise  on  iiuvltiatlou 1&4A 

Tlio  loi;  llrst  iiieiitluiioil  by  Bourne 1677 

Mcroator's  chart l.M)9 

DaTis*H  qiiailrant,  or  buekstalf.  for  tnoasiirint;  angles,  abt  1000 

Logarithiiiie  tallies  applloil  to  navigation  by  (lunter. . . .  1020 

Middle  latitiKlo  sallliiit  Introduced 10311 

Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood 1081 

Hadley's  quadrant 1781 

Harrison's  tliiiu-kecpcr  nscd 17M 

Nautical  abimiiac  llrst  published 1707 

Barlow'stlieory  of  the  deviation  of  the  compass 1320 

SoO  (JoMI'ASS,  LATITUIIE,  I.llNUTITlMlK,  ctc. 

Navigation  Laws.  Those  laws  form  an  im- 
portant brunch  of  maritime  law.  In  this  country  they 
are  understood  to  comprise  tho  various  nets  thu'  liavo 
been  passed,  delining  tho  wuy  in  which  ships  are  to  be 
manned,  the  peculiar  privileges  enjoyed  by  them,  and 
tile  conditions  under  which  foreign  ships  shall  bo  al- 
lowed to  engogc  in  tho  trade  of  the  country,  cither  as 
importers  or  exporters  of  commodities,  or  as  curriers  of 
commodities  from  one  part  of  tho  country  to  another. 

likelch  of  the  //ijlori/  and  Priiicljiks  of  the  Xarigation 
iMin, — Tlio  origin  of  tho  navigation  laws  of  Knglund, 
which  are  tho  foundation  of  ours,  may  be  traced  to  the 
reign  of  liichurd  II.,  or  perhans  to  n  still  more  remote 
period.  But,  as  no  intelligllilo  account  of  the  varying 
and  contradictory  enactments  framed  at  so  distant  un 
epoch  could  'le  compressed  within  any  reasonable  space, 
it  is  suHicieut  to  observe,  tlir.t  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII.,  two  of  the  leading  principles  of  the  navigation 
law  were  distinctly  recognized,  in  the  prohibition  of 
the  im|)ortation  of  certain  commodities,  unless  im- 
ported in  slilps  belonging  to  Kngllsh  owners,  and 
manned  by  Kngllsh  seamen.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  (3  Eliz.  c.  6),  foreign  shi|)S  were 
excluded  from  the  lisheries  and  coasting  trade.  The 
ropiildlcan  Parliament  guvo  a  great  extension  to  the 
navigation  laws,  by  the  act  of  IGoO,  which  prohibited 
all  ships,  of  uU  foreign  nations  whatever,  from  trading 
with  the  plantations  in  America,  without  having  pre- 
viously ulituined  u  license.  These  acts  wore,  however, 
rather  intended  to  regulate  the  trade  between  the  dif- 
ferent |)orts  and  dopeudcncios  of  tho  empire,  than  to 
regulate  iutercourse  with  foreigners.  I!ut  in  tho  fol- 
lowing year  (0th  of  October,  Ifiol),  the  republican 
Parliament  passed  tho  famous  Act  nfKavigntion.  This 
act  had  a  double  object.  It  was  intended  not  only  to 
promote  British  navigation,  but  also  to  strike  u  deci- 
sive blow  at  the  naval  power  of  tho  Dutch,  who  then 
engrossed  almost  the  whole  currying  trade  of  tho  world, 
and  against  whom  various  circumstances  hod  conspired 
4T 


to  Ineeme  tha  ICnKll»l(,  TIm.  mi  in  (((Wotlim  declofsd, 
that  no  goods  or  i'oHilllodill»<  mUHUiffftiit  lUf  utiiKih, 
production  or  mumiUitunt  uf  Attn,  Ahin  or  Amctlon, 
sboiibl  bo  iui|ioftud  i/iHii*'  ii)Ui  ^,liulitlM  iif  (ridand,  of 
any  of  tho  p|uiitut|i)l(s,  uintnil  U)  «/ljp<  boloii^liig  to 
iMiglihh  subjeiti,  and  >i(  whi<  I*  ()*m  limti't  mid  the 
greater  im.ulwr  of  llm  mw  t»uf«  hI<mi  tf^intMi,  Itav- 
iiig  thus  secured  tlio  iMi|i»rl  »»*(«  „(  A.l-i,  Attha  and 
America,  to  the  Ijigli.h  >ldp.»witKf«,  iIik  mi  went  on 
to  secure  to  tlieiii,  us  far  a*  (Im(  ♦»**»  (K(Mlld«,  Ihp  llii- 
ptirt  trade  uf  |;uro|»i.  hif  iM,  |,((f(„««,  u  riirllior 
enacted,  that  no  good»  uf  lliu  (j^mdl,  \/tmUiHUm,  or 
mamilaiauru  of  any  mumn  III  i'MflHn',  »li»itli|  l,«  iin- 
iwrted  into  (iruat  IWtaiit,  «ii..-|rti  U>  Ittlthli  slilps,  or 
in  such  ahipi  lu  irtre  llu  ruil  ftniiitfli/)/!/),.  iimtilKn/'lAii 
iwinlrg  or  jilare  in  whirl,  lli«  yimh  iiNiiimliwil,ur 
from  uhirh  Ihrg  roiild  onl//  lii,  nr  mat  iimmllii  mn-^,  er. 
im-lrd.  The  latter  imrt  uf  tjw  t^\HU^«  nn^,  fintlrelr 
leveled  against  Iho  l)ut.:|,,  wlix  Itmi  but  llltlx  imtiTo 
produce  to  ex|)ort,  and  wluiM  <.|(i(«  ^titifH  (itiiK  l|-«lly 
employed  in  carrying  tlw  pfodww  iif  iitlipf  loiinlrles  l« 
foreign  niarkols.  ,Sui  |»  wuiu  tllx  imUtiK  (ifiivislirns  of 
tills  fainous  ait.  'llwy  w«>u  mUniiPii  l,f  titn  regal 
government  which  sm  cuiu(«,(  (,>(/)mwkI|,  Mild  ttitm  the 
basis  of  tho  uct  of  thu  litll»,'»f,  i,  wliMi  M.iiMliiled,  t<i 
u  very  recent  period,  (u  Iw  Hm  rul<i  I/*'  ttliiili  (mval  In- 
torcourso  with  otiior  ioi(litlji.s  t»«4  I'lmililf  tcxiilatMl) 
und  has  been  poiuiwusly  d-u.iijiwtwl  tlw  f'/iiirln  Mitri- 
lima  of  Knglaiid  I 

American  View  of  the  Uii/hH  ,/  Siii4ilMm.—  tU« 
liberty  of  passage  U,  be  eiijoyud  lij'  ii»»  INiJoll  tlituligh 
tho  domhiions  of  another,  w^  tinirf^d  li^  ||i«  mmi  eiif 
inent  writers  on  puldic  law,  nt  n  n»tthlkA,  meiwlonal 
exception  to  tlie  purumoiiiit  rigliU  iif  i(t'iy|wtly,  They 
mudo  no  distinction  lietwei.ii  (jia  rij^jit  „(  j,(j«(,rt^e  \,y 
u  river,  (lowing  from  tliu  |Ki»o#«ij;iii*  uf  i/im  iialUrti 
through  those  of  another,  to  tliu  mmil,  Kli/t  tl(»  same 
right  to  be  enjoyed  by  iiieaiKi  of  mty  llijjllttdf,  *licllief 
of  land  or  wuter,  generally  ao  «»sily|«  Ui  tl'w  liilifiblt> 
ants  of  tho  earth.  Tho  liglil  ut  (W«*(i^Pj  tiled,  must 
hold  good  for  other  pii)|»i».js,  bugjij^i,  lUim  lit  IradB  i 
for  objects  of  war  as  well  us  (or  iinisn  n(  (k^ki^k  j  (ut  all 
nations,  no  loss  tlian  for  uny  iiatlifli  in  ((•iHicKhit,  awl 
be  attached  to  artlHcial  u.>  well  as  in  imUlfni  Uifilmitfa, 
The  principle  coulil  not,  tlwitliirii,  bti  ili.-ic(«(  un  iff 
the  Americuu  goveriiiiuiiit,  Mllhiss  j(  »<<!  (/lej/argd  to 
apply  the  same  princjplu  jiy  iniiipfinitj.,  jn  f^tur  ut 
British  subjects,  to  tlio  iiuviguti«ll  i/f  tll«  iMisals-ilwil 
und  the  Hudson,  access  to  wliiwii  (mn  ('»l(l*(i4  ttllj^ht 
bo  obtained  by  a  few  inihis  of  )4l|iJ  rmU^i't  iif  \if  tba 
urtiliclul  communii^itiuii  ci'uatu)  \iy  i[i#  i  .,im<>  iif't^eW 
York  und  Ohio.  Hence  tho  luu'-miHy  ^Ukii  iwts  boetl 
felt  by  the  writers  un  pulilic  |»i»,i)f  I'lHtlfiiitill^  tii« 
operutiun  of  a  principle  so  e^teiisjva  miii  lUllfSffiiUK,  Uf 
restricting  the  riglit  of  transit  to  [iit^m^ita  ut  iiiijot«(it 
utility,  to  be  exclu.^ively  det«fliliii*4  liy  tli«  i)im{  syy^ 
ereign.  Ilcuce  tlie  right  in  i)M|ist)iiH  is  t^fiitfii  Irjt 
them  an  Imperfect  riglit.  Kut  tliulu  WKii  HMlilni<  In 
these  writers,  or  in  the  stipMlatjiills  iif  (Im  {tfialie-i  of 
Vienna,  respecting  tlie  navigafiiOB  of  thf  ({tfrtt  thefa 
of  Germany,  to  couiitenaiioc  tlis  Amnfiiiit)  ihii  IfiM  uf 
un  absolute  nutuiul  right.  'I'Ikhsh  i6ti(rt||«Mj(||3  *gfg 
the  result  of  mutual  consent,  ('iHmM  mt  i-imsUUfitliiim 
of  mutijul  interest  growing  out  uf  (lia  fn}»ti('f  aiHiadoii 
of  tho  dilferent  Stutea  concerijM  III  UlW  HiMHiltim. 
The  same  observation  woubi  aplity  Ui  flw  Vi(ti»M»  ««/t« 
ventionul  regulations  which  hail  liwiHlt  ilJfti'fpKt  fmt- 
iods  applied  to  tlie  navigation  of  tJMi  Itivi'*'  Mis>is4ptii/ 
As  to  uny  supposed  right  tlurivM  frwiH  tlw  sitmiUilB^ 
caus  uciiuisition  of  tlie  ,St.  IjiwrKIIwi  by  Hl«  litliyi 
and  American  people,  it  could  not  Iw  uliM*-'!  Ui  U»fH 
survived  the  treaty  of  17«li,  by  whi*.|l  Hi*  UffVimMcnm 
of  the  United  States  was  ai'tnowMgniJ,  4m  »  p(*fH-- 
tion  of  tho  British  dominions  in  Kortli  AlfWtit!*  ««» 
made  between  tho  new  goverAnwit  Mid  (tM(  (rf  t)i« 
mother  country. 

This  argument,  it  was  repl)«4|  sn  iM  |Mrt  <^  tb& 


ill  '1 


M 


w  'M 


NAV 


1304 


NAV 


United  Statps,  that,  If  thn  St.  I.awrancn  wore  rcnarded 
M  K  Rtriilt  conni'rtlnK  niivl)(nlil«  hpiih,  ii«  It  nii){ht  prnhii- 
bly  to  li«,  thiTo  would  lie  loss  cnntrovi^rKy.  Tlin  prln- 
clpln  (in  which  the  right  to  niivl({iito  Rtniltii  di-iicnilii,  l», 
Ihiit  thoy  nni  iiri'esiiorliil  to  thono  sens  which  they  tinltp, 
ind  the  rl|{ht  of  niivlKntliiK  which  In  not  oxclunlvn, 
hut  common  to  nil  niiMonH  ;  the  right  to  navl)(Ute  thn 
acn<  drnwliig  nfter  It  tliiit  of  piiii^ing  the  ptriiltx.  The 
United  Stiiti'H  nnd  (irciit  Hrit  lin  hiivn  lietwcen  them 
the  exclusive  right  of  nuvigntlng  the  liikcH.  The  St. 
Lawrence  connectx  Ihom  with  the  oceiin.  The  right 
tu  nnvlgate  lioth  (the  liikcA  and  the  ncenn),  include* 
that  of  panning  from  one  to  the  other  through  the  nat- 
ural llnic,  WuN  it  then  reanonahle  or  JUKt  that  one  of 
the  two  co-proprietors  of  tho  luken  nhould  altogether 
exclude  hln  aKHociute  from  the  iiho  of  a  common  hiiun- 
ty  of  nature,  necennnry  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  them  ? 
The  diHtinctlon  between  the  rlglu  of  piiHHagn,  claimed 
h,  one  nation  through  the  tcrrltirlen  of  another,  on 
land,  and  that  on  navigahic  wat  r  th.iugh  not  alwayn 
clearly  marked  liy  tho  writer"  \'r{  puMic  law,  has  a 
manifest  exlxtence  in  the  nniiir.  >f  thIngH.  In  tho 
former  cam,  the  panaage  ca..  haidly  ever  take  place, 
cnpccinlly  if  it  ho  of  nunu'roun  iiodiex,  without  Homo 
detriment  or  Inconvenience  to  tho  State  whose  terri- 
tory' h  travemed.  Hut  In  the  caso  of  a  paKsagn  on 
water  no  Buch  Injury  Is  nustalned.  Thn  American 
government  clid  not  mean  to  contend  for  any  prlu<l- 
ple,  the  lienellt  of  whi(^h.  In  analogous  circumstance.", 
it  would  deny  to  (ireat  Britain.  If,  therefore,  in  tlie 
further  progress  of  discovery,  a  connection  should  he 
developed  lietween  the  Misslssiiipi  and  Upper  (.'anada, 
similar  to  *.\u*,  which  exi.«t»  Iwtween  the  United  States 
and  the  ."'  Lawrence,  the  American  government 
would  ho  .ilAiiyn  ready  to  apply,  In  respect  to  tho 
Mississippi,  the  sane  principles  It  cimtondcd  for  In  re- 
spect to  the  St.  Lawrence.  Hut  the  ease  of  rivers, 
which  rise  and  debouch  altogether  within  tho  limits 
of  the  same  nation,  ought  not  to  he  confounded  with 
those  which,  having  their  sources  ami  navigable  por- 
tions of  their  streams  in  States  above,  finally  dis- 
charge themselves  within  tlio  Units  of  other  States 
below.  In  tho  former  case,  vlio  (piestion  as  to  open- 
ing tho  navigation  t}  other  nations,  depended  upon 
(he  same  considerations  which  miglit  intluence  the 
regulation  of  other  commercial  intercourse  with  for- 
eign States,  and  was  to  lio  exclusively  determined  by 
Hie  local  sovereign.  Hut  in  respect  to  the  latter  the 
free  navigation  of  the  river  was  a  natural  right  in  the 
upper  inlvibitants,  of  whieli  tliey  could  not  bo  entire- 
ly dejirived  by  the  arbitrary  caprice  of  the  lower  State. 
Nor  was  the  fact  of  sulijccting  the  use  of  this  right  to 
treaty  regulations,  as  was  proposed  at  Vienna  to  be 
done  in  respect  to  the  navigation  of  tho  European 
rivers,  sufficient  to  prove  that  tho  origin  of  the  right 
was  conventional,  and  not  natural.  It  often  happened 
to  be  highly  convenient,  if  not  sometimes  indispensa- 
ble, to  avoid  controversies,  by  prescribing  certain  rules 
for  the  enjoyment  of  a  natural  right.  The  law  of  na- 
ture, though  sufficiently  intelligilde  in  its  groat  out- 
lines and  general  purposes,  does  not  always  reach 
every  minute  detail  which  is  called  for  by  the  compli- 
cated wants  and  varieties  of  modem  navigation  and 
commerce,  llencu  the  right  ot  navigating  tho  ocean 
itself,  in  many  instances,  principally  incident  to  a 
state  of  war,  is  subjected,  by  innmnerablo  treaties, 
to  various  regulations.  These  regulations — tho  trans- 
actions of  Vienna,  an<l  other  analogous  stipulations — 
should  be  regarded  only  as  the  spontaneous  homage  of 
man  to  the  permanent  Lawgiver  of  the  universe,  by 
delivering  his  great  works  from  tho  artificial  shackles 
and  selfish  contrivances  to  which  they  have  been  arbi- 
trarily and  unjustly  subjected. — Wiik.\T()N's  Inlema- 
tional  I.nii',  pp.  •2fi3-2(iti. — [Thin  rlmpterin  Mil.  WiiKA- 
ton's  jeork  fvrnifhts  the  beat  ivVic,  m  brief,  of  the  rights 
of  naviguli'in  if  the  St.  iMwrcnce,  the  Mii,sifsij)pi,  the 
Rhine,  and  of  the  rights  of  Territory, — Eds.  C.  of  C] 


Laws  of  trade  and  navigation  can  not  affect  fnr< 
elgnors,  beyond  the  territorial  limits  of  the  State,  bui 
they  are  liinding  U|Hin  Us  citi/ens,  wherever  they  may 
lie.  Thus,  offenses  against  tlie  laws  of  a  State,  pro- 
hibiting or  regulating  any  particular  traflii',  may  lia 
puulshed  by  Its  triliunals,  when  cuminittcil  liy  its  citi- 
nens.  In  whatever  place  ;  liut  If  coinmiltoil  by  foreign- 
ers, such  offenses  can  only  bo  thus  punished  when 
committed  within  tho  territory  of  the  Stale,  or  <>n 
board  of  Its  vessels,  in  nomo  place  not  within  the  jurl.^- 
dlctlon  of  any  other  State.— Wiieatum,  Int.  Imw,  n. 
17ft. 

Claims  to  Portions  of  the  Sen  upon  the  (Iroiimi  of  Pre- 
sm'jition, —WcMen  those  liays,  gulfs,  straits,  mouthn 
of  rivers,  and  estuaries  which  are  inclosed  by  ciipcs 
and  headlands  belonging  to  the  territory  of  the  State, 
a  jurisdiction  and  riglit  of  property  over  certain  other 
portions  of  the  sea  have  been  claimed  by  dilTcrent  na- 
tions, on  tho  ground  of  immemorial  use.  Sucli,  fur 
example,  was  the  sovereignty  formerly  claimed  by  tho 
republic  of  Venice  over  the  Adriatic.  Tho  nuiritiine 
supremacy  claimed  by  (ircut  Britain  over  what  are 
called  tho  Narrow  Seas,  has  generally  been  asserted 
merely  by  requiring  cert.iiii  lion<irs  to  tho  British  Hug 
In  those  seas,  which  have  lieen  rendered  or  refused  iiy 
other  nations,  according  to  circumstances,  but  the 
( lalm  itself  has  never  lieen  sanctioned  liy  general  ac- 
({uiescenco.  Straits  are  passages  coiiimunicatiiig  from 
one  sea  to  another.  If  tjio  navigation  of  the  two  seas 
thus  connected.  Is  free,  tho  navigation  of  the  chaiui.l 
by  wlilcli  they  are  conn octed  ought  also  to  lie  free. 
Even  if  such  strait  bo  bounded  on  both  sides  liy  the 
territory  of  tho  same  sovereign,  and  is  at  tlie  saino 
time  so  narrow  as  to  lie  commanded  by  cannon  slmt 
from  both  shores,  tho  oxciu.sivo  territorial  jurisdictinn 
of  that  sovereign  over  such  strait  is  controlled  by  the 
right  of  other  nations  to  communicato  with  tho  seas 
thus  connected. 

Such  right  may,  however,  bo  modified  by  special 
compact,  a(hipting  those  regulations  which  are  mdis- 
peiisably  necessary  to  the  security  of  tho  State  wlmse 
interior  waters  thus  form  the  channel  of  communica- 
tion between  difl'erent  seas,  tho  navigation  of  wliich 
la  free  to  other  nations.  Thus  tho  passage  of  tlie 
strait  may  remain  free  to  the  private  merchant  vessels 
of  those  nations  having  a  right  to  navigate  the  sens  it 
connects,  while  it  is  shut  to  all  foreign  armed  ships  in 
time  of  peace. — Wiik.vton'h  Int.  Imio,  pp.  2.18-310. 

Navigation  of  the  Mississippi. — Hy  the  treaty  of 
jicace  concluded  at  Paris  in  17(i.1,  between  France, 
Spain,  and  Groat  Britain,  tho  province  of  Canada  was 
ceded  to  Great  Britain  liy  France,  cid  that  of  I'loriiia 
to  the  same  power  by  Spain,  and  tho  boundary  be- 
tween tho  French  and  British  possessions  in  North 
America  was  ascertained  by  a  line  drawn  through  the 
middle  of  the  River  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to  tlui 
Iberville,  and  from  thence  through  the  latter  river  and 
tho  lakes  of  JIaurepas  and  Pontchartrain  to  the  sea. 
Tho  right  of  navigating  tho  Slisslssippi  was  at  tlio 
same  time  secured  to  the  subjects  of  Great  Britain 
from  its  source  to  the  sea,  anil  ^ho  pf-.^sages  in  and  oat 
of  its  mouth,  without  being  stopped  or  visited,  or  sub- 
jected to  the  payment  of  any  duty  whatsoever.  The 
province  of  Louisiana  was  soon  afterward  ceded  liy 
France  to  Spain ;  nnd  by  tho  treaty  of  Paris,  178;i, 
Florida  was  rotroceded  to  Spain  by  Great  Britain. 
The  independence  of  tho  linited  States  was  acknowl- 
edged, nnd  tho  right  of  'nviuating  tho  Mississippi  was 
secured  tc  tho  citizens  of  tho  United  States  and  the 
subjects  of  Great  Hritain  by  tho  separate  treaty  lie- 
tween these  powers.  But  Spain,  having  thus  become 
possessed  of  both  banks  of  tho  Mississippi  at  its  mouth, 
nnd  a  considerable  distance  above  its  mouth,  claimed 
Its  exclusive  navigation  below  the  point  where  the 
southern  boundary  of  tho  United  States  struck  tho 
river. 

This  claim  was  resisted,  and  the  right  to  participate 


NAV 


1.100 


NAV 


0  participiito 


In  tho  iiavl(;ntlon  of  tho  -Ivflr  from  U»  lourrt  •»  Iha 
ira  wiiH  liiHliitcil  on  l>y  tho  t'lilteil  NtitUa,  un<lvr  llii 
trimtipd  of  1711.1  and  ITHH,  hh  well  IM  liy  tlia  Uw  i,t 
niitiire  anil  nntlonn.  Tlin  illnputo  waa  terniinitteil  liy 
the  trouty  nfSnn  Lorenzo  ol  Heal,  In  1705,  liy  (lia  4th 
nrtirle  uf  wlii<'h  hia  Cuthiillc  inuJoHty  atfrniMl  tlmt  (li« 
niivJKiition  of  the  Miioils»lp|ii,  In  ItK  whole  lircuilth,  trum 
Iti*  aoiiri'e  to  tho  ocean,  nlioiilil  lie  froe  to  thei'itizeiii  iiC 
tho  rnlled  Staten  i  anil  liy  tho  2'2il  nrtlile  thi-y  werH 
|ierniitti<il  to  (le|Kialt  tliclr  Koo<lii  at  tho  |Mirt  of  Nuw 
OrliMini),  and  to  export  them  from  thenco,  without 
paying  any  other  duty  than  the  hire  of  the  wurchouava, 
The  nulmeiiucnt  ncijui^ltion  of  I.oiiiHiana  and  I'lorl'lii 
liy  tho  United  State*  having  included  within  tlu'ir  ter- 
ritory' tho  whole  river  from  lt«  noiireo  to  tho  <iiilf  of 
Mexieo,  and  the  Btipulation  in  the  treaty  of  I7m:I,  hu. 
curing  to  llritiuli  aulijot'ta  n  right  to  partliliiatu  in  ita 
navigation,  not  having  lioen  renewed  liy  the  treaty  of 
Ghent  in  INM,  the  right  of  navigating  tiie  Minalimiplii 
i«  now  vented  exehisively  in  tho  I'nited  Htat«».— 
Wiikaton'h  /nl.  /.nil',  pp.  257,  25H.  Tho  navigation 
of  tho  continuous  waters  of  tho  United  Stutea  and 
Canada  la  provided  for  in  the  following  articlea  of  the 
treaty  of  Juno  5,  lM,'it.  Tho  third  iirtii'lo,  whoao  oper- 
ation may  lie  alTocted  at  the  will  of  the  Ameriiun  gov- 
ernment, liy  a  auspeiision  of  tliia  privilege,  ua  atlpu- 
lat6<i  In  tho  fourth  article,  on  Ihn  part  of  (ireal  llrituin, 
providea  for  a  reciprocal  trade,  free  of  duly,  hetween 
tho  United  Statoa  ami  tlie  Kritlah  cidoiiieH,  in  the 
articlea  of  their  rcapectivo  growth  and  produce,  ua 
enumerated  in  tho  schedule  thereto  annexed. 

"  It  is  agreed  that  the  citi/.ona  and  inlmliitanta  of  tlia 
United  States  ahall  have  tliu  right  to  navigate  thu 
liiver  St.  Lawrence  and  tho  eanala  in  Canada,  uaed  ua 
the  mouna  of  communicating  between  the  (ireut  liUkea 
and  tho  Atlantic  Ocean,  with  tlieir  vcaaela,  liouta,  and 
crafts,  aa  fully  and  freely  ua  the  aulijecta  of  her  llri- 
tannic  majenty.  8ulijei:t  only  to  tho  aume  tolla  and  other 
asaesamonta  a.  now  are,  or  may  hereafter  be,  exacted 
of  her  majeaty'a  auld  subjocta  j  it  being  underatood, 
however,  that  the  Kritiah  government  retalna  tlio  riglit 
of  aiiHpending  this  privilege  on  giving  due  notice 
thereof  to  tho  government  of  the  Uniteil  States.  It  la 
further  agreed,  that  if  at  any  time  the  liritinh  govern- 
ment should  exorcise  the  auld  reserved  right,  the  gov- 
ernment of  tho  United  States  shall  have  the  right  uf 
suspending,  if  it  think  lit,  tho  operation  of  article  it,  of 
the  present  treaty,  in  so  fur  aa  the  province  of  (!unttiltt  la 
afl'ected  thereby,  for  so  long  as  tho  suspension  of  the  free 
navigation  of  tlio  lilver  St.  Lawrence  or  tlio  c  uiials 
mny  continue.  It  is  further  agreed  that  British  i-uii- 
jcels  shall  have  the  right  freely  to  navigate  Lake 
Jllchigun  with  their  vessels,  boats,  and  crafts,  ao  long 
aa  tho  privilege  of  navigating  the  River  St.  Lawrence, 
secured  to  Americana  by  tho  above  clause  of  the  pres- 
ent article,  shall  continue ;  and  tho  goveniment  of 
the  United  Stutcs  further  eng  igea  to  urge  upon  tiie 
State  governments  to  secure  to  tho  aulijecta  of  her 
Britannic  majesty  tho  use  of  the  several  Si-ate  cunuls, 
on  terms  of  equality  with  the  inhabitants  f  tlie  Uniteil 
States." — Wiieatos'm  IiiI.  I.aii;  pp.  2(ifi,  iii7.  | .  I  full 
understanding  nf  this  sttbjefl,  and  of  the  uMc  lu'cii's  of 
lln.  WiiK.VTON,  c«n  he  hoA  only  by  a  careful  reading 
of  his  elnborale  and  highly-prized  work  on  Inttrnatiunal 
//!?('.— Ki>s.  C.  of  C.  I 

Navigators'  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
soHtiicm  Pacific  Ocean,  remnrkablc  for  their  extent, 
fertility,  and  population.  They  are  about  10  in  nuin- 
licr,  and  are  situated  between  1G9°  and  172°  :10'  Vf. 
long.,  and  from  lat.  13°  25'  to  an  uncertain  lioundury 
southward.  When  seen  from  tho  ocean,  they  present 
a  lofty  appearance,  and  are  mountainous,  but  neither 
surrounded  with  a  low  border  nor  inclosed  liy  reefs, 
like  the  Society  Islands.  Tlie  first  discovery  of  these 
islands  was  made  in  1722,  by  Roggewin  and  Ilunman, 
who  full  in  with  tho  oastornmost  of  the  number  j  ivliile 
Bougainville,  in  1768,  added  another ;  and  Perouse,  in 


17*7,  itlaoivtrtwl  ^hm  two  treafxrnmott,  which  are  thi* 
l»rg»at,  Iwlii^  mtt»  than  Mi  mile*  In  length.  The  luat 
navlgatiir  wint  \i\1iifmm\  of  Ihfeo  more  In  the  aouthwanl, 
Tlw  whoU  groHp  »««  «'l<l(»|  In  17!il  by  Captain  Rl- 
wurda,  'IIki  SuhnUlitliU  utr  «  alniit  and  well-nmde 
r»<«,  of  ilm  iirillnarx  li*lght  of  fi  feet  «  or  11  imhna. 
They  «r«  HUiiKi^Urt  aityagfi  In  their  mnnnera,  which 
are  aal>l  tii  \m  r«nii«rlialily  Indecent.  They  are  also  of 
Ih*  nuial  furoi lim*  i)l«|x"lll>m.  The  leist  dispute  be- 
two^n  lh«m  U  foljowwl  by  |,|»W4  from  clubs,  atlcka, 
or  pa<|/||«a,  und  la  oflati  alienileil  with  the  loaa  of  life. 
Ilwy  ar«  mry  liiKonloiia.  an,|  Mshlon  their  work  dex- 
teron.ly  with  UittihH,  thapd  like  ail/.ea,  and  nmilo  of 
yary  Mux  ami  iimi(K« t  ImaaUa,  With  these  they  finish 
worka  in  tn»i.l,  mtii  k1*«  them  »..  high  a  |ioliih  that 
thay  itmwar  (<i  im  loafed  wifli  the  finest  Tarniah. 
'I'hi-y  ttlao  MlUftuflf  lltrx  a  ii|»i  les  of  i  loth  which  poa- 
aeaaiia  gfwat  ulrfllittU  and  (.llabllltv,  nnd  Is  well  culcu- 
latJid  for  tlu<  aalla  iit  ramiea.  The'nnma  of  Navigators' 
laUnda  waa  titfVi¥imi  liv  lloiigalnvllle,  from  the  prac 
til  H  wiilrli  iifovalU  «l(i(fti«  the  Inhabitants  of  continu- 
ally travvllfig  tn  cawoca,  We  have  no  data  upon 
which  WM  r«M  f'ftli'iflalo  Ih"  amoimt  of  tho  population, 
but  it  IHMat  (i«  coMiidlcfaMe,  lonsiileri^g  that  these 
jajunila  ara  miumn  lh«  tnoat  fertile  In  the  South  Seas. 

irnVV  DupartnMnt.  The  Mavy  llepurtinent  was 
craalxd  by  an  ail  of  ( '((()«fe««,  iMifh  April,  17!IM,  and  is 
unilur  tliM  i(lr«<'»)(i((  nf  Ih"  Hi-itHnry  of  the  Navy.  Tho 
IfupartintiMt  loiidMila  ll«  IrMslness'ln  several  bureaux, 
naniuly,  t)«»  iUirvtiH  of  lloiha  and  Navy  Yards;  the 
liuruau  of  ( friln  tfii  >•  and  ((rdrogrophy  ;  the  Bureau  of 
ConelrUitlun,  l')<(l(l|rt»«(lla,  and  llepiiirsj  tho  Bureau  of 
l'roviaionaan<ICI«llilf(t<t  lh«  llureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgical  tH'ifiimi-iil;  elc  i  and  the  National  Obscrva- 
tiiiy  at  H'aahlHKlon  U  under  the  charge  of  this  Depart- 
ment, 'i'hti  llliftlafffbfl  duties  of  these  several  bureaux 
waru  (iiriiwrtjf  fixcrclaw)  by  a  Board  of  Navy  Com- 
niiaaliiMiura, 

Hrrrelni'lriKifihr  ,Viii'f/,—(initKif  Caliot,  Mass.,  'lay 
;i,  J7'.fN(  llnnjiiflilft  moddntd,  Md.,  May  21,  179Hj 
Itiiliert  HmMi,  Ml),,  -laniiatf  m,  imrz  ;  .lacob  Crownin- 
ahiold,  M»aa„  March  3,  IWifi;  Paul  iiamilton,  S.  V., 
March  7,  l>lWi  Willfntn  -(ones,  Penn.,  .lanuary  12, 
INlltj  BttlljatflJM  W/ f'rotfnlnshlelil  Mass.,  December 
17,  IH)((  Hinllh  'tlumnmn.  ti.  Y.,  November  110, 
iMlNi  NainilW  L,  Ni/llthard,  N.  .L,  December  9,  1H23; 
.lohn  Huwh,  H,  C,,  March  (i,  1»t29)  I/-vi  Woodburj-, 
N.  )!,,  Amfuil,  iHAt  j  Malilon  Dickerson,  N.  J., 
,luna  :iil,  mi  j  .latMM  K,  Cauiillng,  N.  Y.,  .luno  30, 
IH.W  i  ((«/rg«  K  Umiiinr,  M.  ('.,  Mi-rch  5,  IHll ;  AIki 
P.  Upahur,  Va„  MK<)ii«fnli<>r  l<l.  If*tt ;  David  llcnslia'r, 
Mass.,  .luly  ii,  m;U  Thonina  W.  (illmer,  Va.,  r<b. 
ruary  1ft,  )»<((  j  liilltf  V,  Mnsim,  Va.,  March  14,  1814  ; 
tjeorga  Kaiiiriift,  Mat'.,  Mufch  10,  lH45j  ,lohn  Y. 
Mason,  V»„  WWi  Wllllatn  B.  Preston,  Va.,  March  \ 
mui  William  A,  itfnUitm,  N.  ('.,  ,luly  20,  in50; 
.luniea  I',  ^UilMil,  fl,  C.,  March  5,  1X53;  Isaa.i 
'I'omey,  I'tmt,,,  M»mI(,  iMiT, 

S'ary  t'tirdi  nf  Ihr  Ifnitrd  Hlitln. — I'ortsmouth, 
CliurlvatoHfl,  lltoolilyfl,  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
fiosiairt,  Punsai  Ilia, 

S'my  llefi  //«/<i,-^(.!h(tt(est(rt»n,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Peiisuciila,  ltoa|i»r(, 

Unittd  Hliiltii'  iS'itffi  Mimitdrnnii. — Kast  Indian,  Pa- 
cific, African,  llfa/,(liaff,  .Mediterranean,  Home  (West 
Indiea), 

.Viii.1/  ll'iiiiil'iU.^i'.Mimn,  Mass.,  New  York,  Ports- 
numlli,  Va.,  i'f\MU'ii\n, 

Sural  MnfiihJurt,  -<'(f»rlesfnwn,  Mass.,  New  York, 
Wushingtotl,  (Suffolk,  (Vwaacola. 

National  <  flieiif cat'ify,  Washington  ;  Naval  Acade- 
my, Aii»»(ii/li6  i  Naval  A»t'  <fn,  Philadelphia. 

Navy.    'I  h«  fic'l  (lew* »'  K^'lf^y'i  '■'"'  *'"""'  "f """ 

Danes,  was  bitiU  by  Alftwl,  A,(.,  >I97.  In  the  time  of 
Henry  VIM,  ftw  (M»i«lt  navy  consisted  of  1  ship  of 
1200  liim,  i  of  mt  UiMf  aifil  (i  or  7  smaller ;  the  larg 
est  wan  m\UA  til*  )lmU  Iturfj/.     Kllzabeth's  fleet  at 


NES 


1306 


NCT 


til*  Urn*  of  tho  Sgiuniali  Ariiiuilii,  In  IMH,  cniiaUlccl  at 
unly  VH  vMiirl',  nciiia  liirK«r  tliiiii  frlKiitxii.     Jumra  I. 
lulilml   10  ililiiit  cif  IKN)  tiiiu  xui'li,  mill  01  guim,  tils 
Urnniit  than  nvor  liullt. — Uiiiiiii<t'i«  t'timdrn. 
Aoi'ui'KT  ur   tiik   rmiiiiKMivii   Inoiiiitaii   nr   tun   Kotii. 

N«*T  iir  KMui.«iin  raoH  IUnik  VIII'*  Kaiun  TuTim 

(iLiMa  or  Tiia  War,  t*\t. 


■  IMI  ~ 

»hi|.. 
'  III 

T..1I.. 

Man  >..l«.l. 

N««j  •■iluial*. 

nil  Mcuunl. 

r.Mi 

IMS 

W 

lo^miii 

«.TIH) 

tt 

1(|IM 

4J 

IT.iifift 

N.nifl 

" 

i(vw 

IM 

r>7,iiiHi 

11,1110 

*' 

laiM 

i;« 

IIII.MI'i 

41,111)11 

M 

im 

ST'J 

imi.i>'iii 

4«,llO(t 

tl,liM,»IA 

ITlHI 

411 

H'il.llll 

7ii,0<)il 

H.li7,llll 

ITV'I 

4IM 

im.'M 

4A,lN») 

NWfl.imi 

IMHI 

Till 

mH,74» 

l;iA,iNiii 

il,iti.0»1 

ImW 

NIIU 

NUJ,*i() 

1  ui,'<iai 

l7,llMl,ii«T 

1«I4 

«01 

PM.O'JU 

1111,000 

l*,?^,!^* 

Ifaap,  or  Neap  Tldaa,  an  thn  Inwaat  tliloa,  li«. 
In^  tlinaa  wlilcti  am  proiluci'tj  when  thn  uttriK'tlniia  of 
th«  auii  iinil  iniHin  on  tliii  wiitiTa  of  the  orriin  am  <ix- 
rrtail  In  iliri'itlon*  |ivrp«nill>'uliir  to  cuili  otlmr,  Wtit-n 
thn  two  forciia  ai't  in  thn  auiiin  or  nxiii'tly  o|i|Mialln 
illriK'tlona,  tJMi  ipriiiy  or  hlKheat  tlili'a  urn  pniiluiiMl, 
The  nnap  tiilca  tiiku  pUre  aUjut  four  or  llvn  iliiya  liu- 
fura  the  ii«w  ami  full  miMmx.     >S<a  Tiiikh. 

Neadlaa.  They muko a loiialiU'riiliie iirtlile of com- 
nirrce,  iia  well  aa  uf  liumn  triiile  In  KiikI'»i'I-  Oitriimn 
mill  lluiiKarinn  atpol  la  uf  iiio't  repute  for  iiceillea. 
'I'lin  llrat  thiit  were  niiiilo  in  i'.iiKhuiil  wcrs  fiilirli.'iiti'il 
in  (:beu(Hiiile,  London,  In  the  time  of  the  aiiiiKulnsry 
Mary,  liy  n  nrKro  from  Spain ;  liut,  iia  lie  woiiM  nivt 
iinpiirt  thn  HPcrct,  it  wua  lost  at  lila  ileiith,  iiiiil  nut  rr- 
I'oven'il  aifiiin  till  iritill,  in  thn  rnign  of  Kli/iilicth,  wlien 
Kllaa  ()rowi>n,  ii  (ivrinan,  ti>U){ht  llio  art  to  thn  Knifliah, 
who  have  hIiico  lirou(;lit  it  to  the  lilf(linat  ilo^rou  of 
perfection. — Stowk.  The  family  of  the  (in-nnliina,  un- 
I'oatora  of  Lord  Doruheater,  eatulilltliKil  a  iii>cille  iiiunn- 
fai'tory  in  Hucka  uliout  thia  tiiiie.—ANi'KUHON, 

Noeillea  are  made  from  the  liest  ateol,  rediii'ed  liy  n 
wire-drawing  machine  to  the  aultalilu  diameter.  The 
nianufacturn  ia  aiipiMiacd  to  liuvu  origlnuti'd  In  Spain, 
and  to  have  lieen  intnidurod  into  KiiKlaiid  alMiiit  tho 
year  l.'iliA,  liy  Kllaa  Krauae,  ur  (irowao,  who  tlicii  net- 
tled In  Ijunilim.  Dr.  Ure,  in  \\\*  llieliimanj  nf  Alia, 
Htatna  that  "the  cunatructlon  of  a  needle  rei|uirea 
abimt  120  opcratiuna;  but  tliny  are  rapidly  and  unin- 
terruptedly succeaaive,  A  child  can  trim  the  eyea  uf 
4000  needles  per  hour.  When  wo  aurvuy  a  manufaiv 
ture  of  tlili  kind,  we  can  not  fail  to  uliaervo  tliat  the 
diveraity  uf  ojierationa  which  tho  needled  undergo 
l>eara  the  inipreaa  of  great  mechanical  relinement.  In 
the  arta,  to  divido  labor  ia  to  abridge  it ;  to  multiply 
o|ieratlona  ia  to  aimplify  tlieni ;  and  to  attacli  an  u|iera- 
tlve  oxcluaively  to  one  proceaa,  ia  to  render  him  much 
more  economical  and  pruductlve." — E.  A. 

Stat«mk>t  biiowini)  tiif.  Iwi'DKTa  or  Nr.icni.Ka  into  rna 
Unitki)  Statks  ton  Tiir.  Ykah  kniiinu  June  Di^ii,  1SS6, 

Portland  and  Falnioutli ♦27fl 

Boaton  anil  Clurleatown 8e,il.W 

Npw  York Wi,iM 

riillsililphla. B,NI« 

Maltlinoro B29 

Charleston Mi 

Niiw  Orlvona •. 1)h8 

t)an  Francisco 897 

Total $240,060 

ITaata,  Baoulent.  A  species  of  nesta  built  by 
awallowa  peculiar  to  tlio  Indian  lahinda,  and  very 
much  eaf^incd  In  China  and  otlior  parts  of  the  world. 
Those  nexts  resemble  in  form  those  of  other  swallows  ; 
they  arc  formed  of  a  viscid  substance,  and  in  external 
appearance  as  well  as  consistence  are  not  unlike  flbrato 
ill-concocted  Ulnglass.  KsciiUnt  nests  are  principally 
found  in  Java,  in  caverns  usually  situated  on  tho  soo- 
coaat.  Nothing  satisfactory  Is  known  as  to  the  sub- 
stance ef  wbich  tliese  nests  are  composed. 


IVat  (Kr.  t'iltl,  ntfnui  (l*r,  AV(«),  !•  a  taxllU 
fabric  of  knotted  nieahra  for  i'atcliiiik(  ll-lt  and  iithar 

fiurpoana.  Vju-it  ni*all  ahiiuld  \m  •»  <"  .i<d  ita  to  Ik 
ni  apaldn  of  riilargMnnnt  or  dlmiriiiti<  <  I'lm  I'rnnrh 
giiveriiini'nt  iill'eri'il  in  iMint  a  prl/«  nf  lii,0<)ii  frunri  to 
thn  iH'moii  who  aliould  invent  a  iiiai  hlno  for  muking 
nrta  u|Miii  automatic  primlplca,  and  adjudgnd  It  to  yf, 
Huron,  who  prcaciited  hia  iiiechaiili  iil  iiivi-titinn  to  iJin 
CuturrvtiUtii'n  ilrg  Arit  MiUm,  It  dona  not  up|ii>.ir, 
hownver,  that  thia  niachinn  ban  aci'iinipliabml  tlin  ob- 
ject in  vliiwj  for  no  eatabllaliiiiKnt  waa  ever  liioiiiitnl 
to  carry  it  Into  excriitbin.  Ncti  arc  uaiiully  iniidx  by 
the  llahnriiinn  and  Ihrir  famlllca  during  thn  pcrlnili  nf 
leiaiire.  The  formation  of  a  mnali  la  tiMi  almplu  a 
inalti'r  to  rei|uiro  dearriptbin  in  tlila  dictionary. 

Natt  (It.  nilhi,  piirv),  tiiat  wliich  roniaiiia  of  a 
weigiit,  i|iiantlty,  nlc,  ul'tur  making  certain  di'diic- 
tiiina.  'Ihiia,  in  mnrcantlln  lanituagn,  the  nrll  mii/hi 
ia  thn  wnight  of  any  article  after  deducting  tare  and 
tri't ;  nrll  pnijilt,  iwnmr,  rlr.,  la  tlin  almoluto  pnillt  or 
iiii'iimo,  after  dndui'tiiig  ox|ieiisra,  Interoat,  etc.  It  ia 
opIHHcd  to  i/i'iiM  (lirltto). 

Nattlnca,  in  a  ship,  a  sort  of  grutea  mailn  of 
small  M|x<a  nni/ed  togi'tlirr  with  ro|M'-yarn,  or  tnliii', 
and  lixi'd  upon  tlin  i|Uartcra  and  In  the  topa.  Tliry 
are  aoiiii'tliiipa  atrctibud  u|Hm  tbu  leiigca  from  the 
wal»t-trei<a  to  tho  ronf-treca,  from  tho  top  uf  the  forc- 
laatle  to  thn  |Hiop,  and  aumetimea  are  labl  in  thn  walHt 
of  a  ahlp  to  acrve  Instead  of  gratlnga. 

Natbarlanda  (Kinsdom  of  ttaa),  or  Hollaud 

(Dii.  Kimiiiijrijk  ihr  S'ali  rliimli  n ;  Vt.  Ilnniviiiv  (In  I'm 
lliu),  a  State  of  wnaturn  Kuro|H>,  un  the  llcriiiiii 
Ocean  (capital  Ainatorilam),  compoaod  of  thn  N'ctiicr- 
lanila  pro|H-r,  or  the  nnilcnt  rcp.ibllc  of  thn  Scviii 
I'liltcd  I'liivincea,  and  part  of  the  Diicby  of  l.imhur;,', 
altuati'd  l»-twoi'n  bit.  M"  111'  and  .1:1"  ^1'  N.,  and  Imi;;. 
11°  21'  and  7°  12'  K.,  iMiiiiiiU'd  ea«t  by  Hanover  ami 
I'ruaala,  aouth  liy  lli'lgiiim  and  Ibn  (irand  Duchy  of 
Luxemburg  |,tlin  Hoiith-eaat  portion  uf  which  ia  held 
by  lliu  King  uf  thn  N'ctherluniis),  and  went  anil  iiorlli 
by  tiin  (icrmun  Ucean.  Kxtent  and  pupiilatlon  iia 
follows : 


I  Pmvlncai. 

Ilrabttiit  (  NorliijTT 

Ui'Mirlaiiil 

liiilland  (Houtin... 
Hollaiiit  (North)... 

Zeolttilil 

J'lrcrht 

■Frieiland 

lOverii'Uul 

lUroiilniton 

Orcntlin 

Llinburi{— iJuchy.. 


Qraiid  Duchjr  of  Lnxom- 

burg,  Dec.  81st,  1891. . . 

Total 


Arvaln  i|«o(.' 
iiilliia.      I 

IW'BOB 
98-790 
M-JT5 
4A'188 
St'OVI 
tJS-Ut 
fiO'5S9 

au'ftsi) 

41  TUT 

4SVV29 

_4l)i00 

48  too 
139 -uiF 


PiiuulailuH 
liiiait. 


Srllri,.!!. 

l««l. 

♦is  ' 
401) 
41)1) 
Ml) 

IM 
HM 
IWH 
2411 
140 
■   210 

8,168,006  I       8,298 


408,«MT 
II8S,MS4 
&S4,6»8 
AlX,iM)6 
ie8,:l1H 
1M,M« 
2fiA,9l5 
«-i4,778 
19B,2IV( 
86,78A 
21I),27S 


194,619 
8^862,025" 


AMenilunr^. 

861,016 


Tho  leading  features  of  the  new  navigation  laws  of 
the  Netherlandfl  may  be  gathered  from  tho  following 
summary:  1.  Unconditional  repeal  of  discriminating 
favors  granted  to  the  Dutch  flag,  liy  suppression  uf  tho 
rules  allowing  to  this  flag  preference  above  foreign  flags. 
2.  Conditional  similarity  of  flag  in  the  navigation  to  and 
frum  the  Netherlands'  culonies.  3.  Stipulations  by  law 
concerning  tho  trade  and  navigation  in  tho  colonies  of 
the  realm  carried  un  by  other  nations.  4.  Uepoal  of 
interdiction  to  grant  Netherlands  registers  to  foreign- 
built  vessels,  by  their  admittance  for  registry  (natural- 
ization) at  u  duty  of  4  percent,  of  their  value.  5.  Diniin- 
ishiiig  of  import  duties  on  principal  materials  fur  sliip- 
building.  0.  Suspension  of  the  shipping  duties  on  the 
Rhino  and  Yssel.    7.  Total  aliolition  of  transit  dutios. 

Public  revenue,  in  1H.53,  71,0H5,772  florins,  of  which 
amount  nearly  half  is  raised  by  direct  taxation  and 
excise  dutios.  Expenditure,  70,086,078  florins.  Na- 
tional debt,  l,2U6,4Ua,380  florins.    The  marine  force  in 


NRT 


1307 


NET 


4111) 
4IVI 
MO 
IM 
IM 

ts» 
M« 
140 
'210 


1  lllWS  I'f 

fdUciwiiiii 
imliiiitini; 
isloii  of  ttui 
reign  H-'K'' 
itlon  to  mill 
ons  liy  liiw 
colonii's  iif 
Ui'peal  of 
to  foreigii- 
'  (ntttural- 
'  5.  Dliiiln- 
la  for  sliip- 
itios  on  tliu 
isit  duties. 
,  of  wliioU 
xution  and 
irins.     No- 
ne force  in 


•HmI  ■•rvl''<tnn  1>l<luly,  iHA'i,  rninpHiiMt  AnA7  m*n, 

■>xi'luiilv«  of  lh»«it  In  tn«  rolonlm.     Thu   iiiMnlmnt 

miirinn  Ik  ('ciiii|irli<ril  of  'iiK)0  vr«»i'l>,  iiK)|ri<|(iilii  |jiirili<n 

'.'(I, DIM)  litalv       rh»  f»ll.iwlM)t  tillilx    nlloWD  tlin  xnlntit 

anil  piipulitiii;i  of  thn  rnlonlnl  |Kmiir«iilonii  nf  tlm  klii^- 

ilnm  of  thn  Nnthnrliinila  In  IHII)  i 

1  i>.tiii><i'» 
I    la  law. 


lul 

J»f  m  »nd  »iU«(>«nt  UlMd* 

Muiniitni,  WkhI  t-fiut 

'*        IWiikiili'ii 

"       ldiiii|H>niti. 

"        l'*l«inb*n( 

Inilnwirl ,, 

Aauhan.HiliM!,  K»n,  Mrd*,  mill,  Xo. 

Ilaiirii 

Itlilii 

[Boriiro.  Hnmhw 

'■       W.'iit™»»( 

"       Hnulli  itnd  ••*!  ouut, 

iMartMar,  Cilalxi, 

'  Ainhiivna > 

iMi'iiailo 

Trrnalo 

'  Itiiniln 

rriiiKir 

Ixiinbook 

Naw  Uulnat 

Total 


ar«a  III 
fiirif,  mlU*. 


1,U4II 

4M« 

4Tno 

l,BA*t'4 
«Ttl» 
RMS 
HMt) 
Ut« 
94411 

a.Min 

MWIS 

>.I4»'0 

4Tt» 

i.iwr 

411  » 

l.nttn 

luin 

JI,'2I0'0 


9,819-B 
lT^t 


MO-0 
IM.'iMI 


t.MO.mti) 

miMvi* 
i)ii,n;a 

h'J.tNHI 

IT'i.oiiii 

Al  1,000 
lOII.IHIII 

4:1,111  HI 
BIMHlfl 
4'l,<il» 

iu^,o;4 

IIII.IIMI 

l.fMli.iHm 

aiT.niM 

lidl,(IIHI 

IW.Tdft 
l,(iM,*iii 
l,lllft,IKI(l 

l6,47H,lllr 


M,97n 
«Mii 

'     IINMiOfl 

in.iMw.Tis 


Ahiiioa, 

Onlana 

Oura^'iia  and  Ht.  KiMlaclit' 

Araioa. 
CoMt  nf  Oulnra 

Orsnd  total 

Tim  Netlierlonila  it  i\  nnmo,  wlili'li,  fur  upvcrul  ceii- 
tiirivK,  won  nppliiid  to  tlin  nmiitrli'H  now  forming  the 
kingdoms  of  ll<<l)(liini,  uiid  tlm  NidlicrliiniN,  and  pirt 
of  tlio  nortli  of  l''riini'n  (l)«purtnuiiitt<  Nord  mid  I'lix- 
il((-('iiluii*).  Till*  coniitry  lieloii|{i'd  oliiioHt  cntirtdy  to 
('liiirli'K  V.  I'nltod  to  !''riini'he-C'iiiiiti',  it  fonu'd  llio 
i:ircla  of  llur)ruiidy.  l''nim  tliia  aovun  of  tlio  north 
provliKi'B  Kopanitcd  theni»clvo«  In  l.')79,  and  formed 
the  repnld!!;  of  llolUnd,  or  the  .Seven  llnitod  I'rov- 
Ini'PK.  I'ort  of  the  low  roiintry  waa  t'oni[iierrd  by 
I.ouiH  XIV.,  and  oallcd  thu  Kri'mli  Nothcrlands ;  thi> 
rent,  lirnt  iinilvr  the  dominion  of  .Spain,  paKscd  In  I'M 
tn  that  nf  Aualria,  and  wua  lullod  .Spaninh  Netlicr- 
lanil.i,  AuKtrlan  Netlicrlanda,  or  Ilclginin. 

The  following  is  on  extract  from  an  cflloial  report  of 
the  British  consul  at  Rotterdam,  under  dale  of  Dwciii- 
bcr  81, 1H.J7  {Varliamentimj  Vociimcnls  nf  IX.')8,  No.  (1) ; 

"  Holland  has  not  acted  a  very  Important  or  con- 
apicuoiia  part  in  the  late  commercial  tragedy  of  tlio 
world ;  and  although  she  lias  undoulitcdly  sullcrcd  se- 
verely, in  common  with  other  countries,  yet  the  sound 
principles  upon  whicli  her  trade  in  general  is  cstalillah- 
cd,  the  judicious  and  cautious  character  of  the  majori- 
ty of  her  ntercliants,  the  limited  supplies  of  colonial 
produce  and  corn  which  have  been  imported  on  pri- 
vate account,  a  wise  commercial  code,  and  last,  not 
least,  the  soundness  of  her  financial  policy,  li:ive  pre- 
served her  from  that  general  collapse— that  degrading 
universal  suspension  which  has  been  exhibited  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  Hamburg,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  and  the  results  of  whicli  have  been  »o  dis- 
astrous, not  merely  to  the  unprincipled  cvcrtrader,  but 
to  that  rlass  of  honest,  careful,  nnil  prudent  men  who, 
without  having  done  any  thing  beyond  the  ntrict  prin- 
ciples of  sound  business,  ore  nevertheless  hxept  away, 
unable  to  withstand  the  impetuous  current  of  general 
panic  and  alarm. 

"  There  being  no  private  banks  of  issue  in  the  coun- 
try, the  entire  note  circulation  proceeds  from  tlie  Neth- 
erlands Bank,  and  such  Is  the  ability  and  caution  with 
which  that  establishment  is  conducted,  that  the  possi- 
bility of  a  run  upon  the  bank  by  the  public,  or  the  ne- 
cessity of  having  to  suspend  specie  payments,  arc  con- 
tingencies which  have  never,  during  the  worst  times 
of  discredit,  been  contemplated. 


"Whan  the  Hank  of  KnKl,iiiil,ln  Nnramhar,  1KS7, 
wni  riiiiipi>lliMl  Id  ri-«nrt  In  a  nuaprniiim  of  the  Hank- 
t'hiirirr  Art— when  It  .»aa  iiimiiallml  to  raian  Ilia  ral<' 
uf  ill^ooiiMt  to  10  per  rant.,  and  thn  nmniint  nf  linllbin 
In  Ihii  liiiiik  bad  fiilUu  to  an  nl.irinlnijly  Inw  Hgiirf ,  tlii' 
iiHi'liil  rotn  of  dlii'uiint  at  thn  NdliarbiTicbi  llaiik  waa  7 
per  flint.  ;  aa  the  larKrut  nione^ -lender  and  ilUrounlir 

In  the  country.  It  wa*  aaalnilng  the  ri>niiiiarilal  r 

munlty  by  an  axlanilon  of  Its  dlaooiiiiln;  lliora  wa« 
llltla  or  III)  fi'or  of  any  undue  ilralii  oniirrliig  on  the 
bank's  rofTera,  and  rutnefjiuinlly,  beyniid  a  miiiewhat 

closer  «iriilliiy  into  Ihn  rharaclerof  r niiiiilul  bills 

pre»nileil  („\  diai'ouni, no  oxtniiiiUniiry  niijaaiirta  had 
to  bfl  adoptud  to  insure  Ihn  Kafiily  nf  lli«  i  Klublliihinant 
and  the  regularity  of  Its  Im-iincis. 

" There  ore  no  jolnt-Klnck  liunkn  in  this  inuiil ry,  and 
their  utility  would  Im  \ory  nuiillonabln.  In  Kniiland. 
Joint-slnek  banks  arc  a  iiicuns  of  bringing  lillii  rapltal 
Into  I  Iriulalion,  and  fdntujiicutly,  in  theory,  tlm  plmi 
looks  wi'll.  'Ibii  ixperlcnco  of  the  Iml  \  fur,  liowevnr, 
haa  aliowii  how  crruneoua  Is  lliii  Ihrory,  and  Imw  In- 
ililVorently  It  ban  I  ecu  fiiiiiid  to  »ork  In  praiiiie. 

"  In  liidland  tlin  |iriln  Iple  of  ilniiteil  liuliillty  |., 
found  to  work  u  Ivuiitageniialy.  A  person  eiiii  Invest, 
witlioii'.  rliKing  Ids  whulo  riirliuie,  a  lerliiin  aniuiint  in 
a  busiiiiKS  which  lici  is  able  to  Inviiiitlgjite  and  watch. 
But  fur  this  llmiteil-llabllily  law  ho  hihiIii  probably 
have  to  deposit  tbu  nioiiuiit  for  investnioiit  in  tlie  hainls 
of  public  companies  or  bunkors,  who  can  srareeiy  bo 
supposed  to  lake  the  same  iiitirutt  In  liinlliig  a  »ufo  and 
ctrtoin  investment  as  the  invm  r  klnisell'.  The  princi- 
ple of  liinited  liability  haa  coiincipiently  uiiduiibted  ad- 
vantages." 

I'oiniiiRoi  or  Till  NsTuaRLtNiia  i 


t'oanlrlM. 


Aiiitrnlla 

Iiel|{liini 

Ilrnill 

Iln-iuun 

(  hliia 

Tiilia 

Ciirnviia. 

lleiiMinrk 

Krarici* 

<irurii  limit,  oto 

(irial  tliilitl 

llaniliiirK 

I  luniivcr  anil  ( ilUcnbiirg 

.lavn.ele 

Ciuiury  iNtniuIf,  etc 

rajiiii  .MtntoN 

(.'nnnt  nroolnaa 

I.ubeck 

.MeeklL'nt)urtf 

NiijiU'H  anil  Sicily 

fnllril  stales 

Nurivay 

Aimti-ia 

I'lillipphie  iHlnnilH 

l*ortu[;nl 

ItOMlii, no  Uiillli' anil  Whlf..  Hens 

Ilnssla,  on  the  lllsck  Scu 

Harillnla 

Hpain  

Ainorlrs,  excrpt  I'niteil  States. . 

Hiirlnniu 

(terman  (.'iistnnis  Union 

Tiiwany 

Turkey,  (Jrocre,  etc 

Hveden 

UthorportH 

Tiital,  I-,M1,  (loilns 

Totiti,  is%r> 

Tolal,  ISM 

Total,  18.%.; 


Ilntitirti. 
t'lurlnt. 

!)l,liT'.:',M42 

ii.oNa.i'.n 

l,nlf),!NT 
il,;i.".;',lll7 
i,oi:i,r.nii 
'.'Ti.ss; 
9,4it4,»i.U 
17,iH',:;ii4 

M,i:is 
tnn,oon,iri 

4,'/r>><,iisii 

4,17.',;!(S 
0l,44l,|.|'i 

io,ai.ii,a(iB 

iios.flofl 

ai,s.'.ii 
(iii,7;.s 

1,liOO,ll<U 
|n,tWS,iUi 
B,74;i,IIIM 

i)4'.',!;fli 

Sl!i,7IO 

r>iii,44.'i 

lB,>isrt,.MI.'. 
^Jl.T'.ti 

8;'S,TI.'i 

Tlo,^7:i 

73.%  904 
4,8Ait,M7 
7l>,7l(i,o7U 

T.'i'j,s;in 

1,7|-.',lWS 

i,7ii«,m;i 

_   iiia,;i74 

41 1,741, in.'t 
8i'.>,i:H,(Ki:i 

8B8,4H4,r>l!i 
B2l,nM,T«!i 


ISM. 
rigtlai. 

7o,o;ij 

0D,IWl,73fl  I 

sT.s-.n  I 
t(i9,ati4  I 

■IJ  ,1.-.. 
211,1ft: 

4:i4,VA 
1,»4ll,lii;!  ' 

i'it,a7(),s.);  j 

74,iiV3,4BO 

a,n<iA,4i!i 

tl,llll,(l6s 

97,'-ai,'(70 

•iso.nn 

131,817 

4in,fl4n  ' 

80,18S 
7f),94fl  I 
8,0I4,0SH  ■ 
S,'j!l%«4(t  I 
1,1114,11117 
4,.'>iV*l  I 

mV,«78  I 
11,WI,48B  i 

4ri,4ii«  I 
5,9i;i,7ii:i 
i,4.s!),;in3 
i,»i,a24 

I,ti87,(t4l> 
12li,iiOI,U3J 
'.',094,1130  : 
n,Bin,9'.'3  ' 
I.IO'i.BOB 

814,1103,078 
!i08,TRO,S01 
27'2,sOI,(i(«l 


SniPi'iso  IN  19Bt  ANU  UBS. 


VaiuU. 


"T!n' 


LonileiUlSM).. 

In  ballast 

J'otallnlSN. 
Loriili'd(ISW). . 
In  ballast 


T,l'i8 
474 

T^BM^ 
"7,788 
469 


Total  In  19».      8,'/87        1,884.648 


l,l.'i4.4.So 

8ii,es9 

1,80I),4BO 
Sl,«98 


-r(.^i.rtil.- 


4JS!W 
8,991 


Turn. 


829,788 
461.898 
7.H'j4  I  "1,984,681' 
4,94'J  I  810".19fl 
4,'20a  I  688,644 
8,445      I  1,448,670 


'4 


f 


NEU 


1308 


NEU 


Neutral*.  Of  the  General  Ki'ghlt  and  Duties  of 
■Viulntl  yaliona. — The  rights  and  diitios  which  i)clong 
lo  u  utiite  of  iieutmlity  form  a  very  interesting  title  in 
tlio  code  of  international  law,  Tlioy  ought  to  Ije  o1>- 
jects  of  particular  study  in  this  country,  inuHniuch  as 
it  i8  our  true  policy  to  cherish  a  Kpirit  of  pouco,  and 
to  keep  ourselves  free  from  those  political  connections 
which  would  tend  to  draw  us  into  tlie  vortex  of  Ku- 
ropcan  contests.  A  nation  that  muiut.ains  u  firm  nnd 
scrupulously  impartial  neutrality,  and  commands  the 
respect  of  all  other  nations  by  its  prudence,  justice, 
and  good  faith,  has  the  best  clianco  to  preserve  unim- 
paired the  blessings  of  its  commcrco,  the  freedom  of 
its  institutions,  and  the  prosperity  of  its  resources. 
Itulligcrcnt  nations  are  interested  in  the  supjrart  of  the 
just  rights  of  neutrals,  for  tlic  intercourse  whicli  is 
licpt  up  by  means  of  their  commerce  contriliutes 
greatly  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  war.  Tlio  public  law 
1)1'  I'^irojie  has  estaldislicd  the  principle,  tliat,  in  time 
>if  war,  countries  not  parties  to  the  war,  nor  interpos- 
ing in  it,  sliall  not  be  materially  affected  l)y  its  action ; 
but  they  shall  bo  permitted  to  carry  on  their  accus- 
tomed trade,  under  the  few  necessary  restrictions 
which  we  shall  hereafter  consider. 

A  neutral  has  a  riglit  to  pursue  his  ordinary  com- 
merce, and  he  may  become  the  carrier  of  the  enemy's 
goods,  without  being  sul>ject  to  any  contiscation  of  tlie 
ship,  or  of  the  neutral  articles  on  l>oard  ;  though  not 
without  tlio  risk  of  having  the  voj-age  interrupted  by 
the  sei/uro  of  the  hostile  property.  As  the  neutral 
has  a  right  to  carrj'  the  property  of  enemies  in  his  own 
vessel,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  his  own  property  is  in- 
violable, though  it  be  found  in  the  vessels  of  enemies. 
But  the  general  inviolability  of  the  neutral  character 
goes  further  than  merely  the  protection  of  neutral 
property.  It  protects  the  property  of  the  belligerents 
when  within  the  neutral  jurisdiction.  It  is  not  lawful 
to  make  neutral  territory  the  scene  of  hostility,  or  to 
attack  an  enemy  while  within  it ;  and  if  the  enemy 
bo  attacked,  or  any  capture  made,  under  neutral  pro- 
tection, tho  neutral  is  bound  to  redress  the  injury,  and 
ulTect  restitution.  The  l>o<iks  are  full  of  cases  rccog- 
ni/.ing  this  principle  of  neutrality.— Kknt'.s  Com. 

I'Hzft  brought  into  Neiilml  Ports. — A  neutral  has  no 
right  to  in<iuire  into  the  validity  of  a  capture,  except 
in  cases  in  which  the  rights  of  neutral  jurisdiction  were 
violated;  and,  in  such  cases,  the  neutral  power  will 
restore  the  property,  if  found  in  tlio  li.inds  of  the 
offender,  and  within  its  jurisdiction,  regardless  of  any 
sentence  of  coiulenmation  by  a  court  of  a  belligcrous 
captor.  It  belongs  solely  to  the  neutral  government 
to  raise  tho  ul)jection  to  a  capture  and  title,  founded 
on  Hf^  violation  of  neutral  rights.  Tho  adverse  belli- 
gerent has  no  right  to  complain  when  the  prize  is 
duly  libeled  before  a  coni|)etent  court.  If  any  com- 
plaint is  to  lie  made  on  tlie  part  of  the  captured,  it 
must  be  by  his  government  to  tho  neutral  government, 
for  a  fraudulent,  or  unworthy,  or  unnecessary  submis- 
sion to  a  violation  of  its  territory,  and  such  submis- 
sion will  naturally  provoke  retaliation. — Ibid. 

Arming  in  Neutral  VoHs. — Tlie  government  of  tho 
United  States  was  warranted,  by  tho  law  and  pnctice 
of  nations,  in  the  declarations  made  in  17!i.'l,  of  the 
rules  of  neutrality,  which  were  particularly  recognized 
as  necessary  to  be  observed  by  the  belligerent  powers, 
in  their  intercourse  with  this  country.  These  rules 
were,  that  the  original  arming  or  cciuipping  of  vessels 
in  our  ports,  by  any  of  the  powers  at  war,  for  military 
service,  was  unlawful ;  and  no  such  vessel  was  en- 
titled to  an  asylum  in  our  ports,  Tho  e(|uipment  by 
them  of  government  vessels  of  war,  in  matters  of 
which,  if  dune  to  other  vessels,  woulil  be  applicable 
equally  to  commerce  or  war,  was  lawful.  Tho  equip- 
ment by  them  of  vessels  fitted  for  merchandise  and 
war,  and  applicable  to  either,  was  lawful ;  but  if  it 
were  of  a  nature  solely  applicable  to  war  it  was  un- 
lawful.   And  if  tho  armed  vessel  of  one  nation  should 


depart  from  our  jurisdiction,  no  armed  vessel,  being 
within  the  same,  and  belonging  to  an  adverse  belli- 
gerent power,  should  depart  until  24  hours  after  the 
former,  without  being  deemed  to  have  violated  the 
law  of  nations. — Ibid. 

Prizes  in  Xeutral  Ports. — Though  a  belligerent  ves- 
sel may  not  enter  within  neutral  jurisdiction  for  hos- 
tile purposes,  she  may,  consistently  with  a  state  of 
neutrality,  until  prohibited  by  the  neutral  power, 
bring  hci  prize  into  a  neutral  port,  and  sell  it,  Tho 
neutral  (lower  is,  however,  at  liberty  to  refuse  this 
privilege,  provided  the  refusal  be  made,  as  the  privi- 
lege ought  to  be  granted  to  both  parties,  or  to  neither. 
The  United  States,  while  a  neutral  power,  frequently 
asserted  the  right  to  prohibit,  at  discretion,  the  sale 
within  their  ports  of  prizes  brought  in  by  the  bellige- 
rents ;  and  the  sale  of  French  prizes  was  allowed  as 
an  indulgence  merely,  until  it  interfered  with  the 
treaty  of  ICngland  of  1794,  in  respect  to  prizes  made 
bj'  privateers. — Ibid. 

Neutral  Property  in  an  Knemy's  Vessel. — It  is  also  a 
principle  of  the  law  of  nations  relative  to  neutral 
rights  that  the  effects  of  neutrals,  found  on  board  of 
enemy's  vessels,  shall  be  free ;  and  it  is  a  right  as 
fully  and  firmly  settled  as  the  other,  though,  like  that, 
it  is  often  changed  by  positive  agreement. 

The  two  distinct  propositions,  that  enemy's  goods 
found  on  board  a  neutral  ship  may  lawfully  be  seized 
03  prize  of  war,  and  that  tho  goods  of  a  neutral  found 
on  board  of  un  enemy's  vessel  were  to  bo  restored, 
have  been  explicitly  incorporated  Into  the  jurispru- 
dence of  tho  United  States,  and  declared  by  the  Su- 
preme Court  to  be  founded  in  the  law  of  nations. 
Tho  rule,  as  it  was  observed  by  the  court,  rested  on 
tho  simple  and  intelligible  principle,  that  war  gave  a 
full  right  to  capture  tho  goods  of  an  enemy,  but  gave 
no  right  to  capture  the  goods  of  a  friend. 

The  neutral  Hag  constituted  no  protection  to  enemy's 
property,  and  tho  belligerent  flag  communicated  no 
hostile  character  to  neutral  property.  The  character 
of  tho  property  depended  upon  the  fact  of  ownersliip, 
and  not  uiion  the  character  of  the  vehicle  in  which  It 
is  found. — Ibid. 

(>/  Ilestrictiou.i  upon  Neutral  Trade.  — Tho  princijial 
restriction  which  tlic  law  of  nations  imposes  on  tlii\ 
trade  of  neutrals,  is  the  prohibition  to  furnisli  tlie  bel- 
ligerent parties  with  warlike  stores,  and  otlier  articles 
which  are  directly  auxiliary  to  warliko  purposes. 
Sucli  goods  are  denominated  contraband  of  war ;  but 
in  the  attempt  to  define  them,  the  authorities  vary,  or 
are  deficient  in  precision,  ar.d  the  subject  has  long  been 
a  fruitful  source  of  dispute  between  neutral  and  belli- 
gerent nations. 

Contraband  of  War. — In  tho  time  of  Grotius,  some 
persons  contended  for  the  rigor  of  war,  and  others  for 
the  freedom  of  commerce.  As  neutral  nations  ure 
willing  to  seize  tho  opportunity  which  war  presents,  of 
beceming  carriers  for  tho  belligerent  powers,  it  is  nat- 
ural that  they  should  desire  to  diminish  tlic  list  of 
contraband  as  much  as  possible,  Urotius  distinguishes 
between  things  which  ure  useful  only  in  war,  us  arms 
and  ammunition,  and  things  which  servo  merely  for 
pleasure,  and  things  which  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  and 
useful  both  in  peace  and  war.  He  agrees  with  other 
writers  in  prohibiting  neutrals  from  carrying  articles 
of  tho  first  kind  to  tho  enemy,  as  well  as  in  permitting 
the  sicond  kind  to  be  carried.  As  to  articles  of  the 
third  class,  which  are  of  indiscriminate  use  in  peace 
and  war,  as  money,  provisions,  ships  and  naval  stores, 
he  says  that  they  aro  sometimes  lawful  articles  of  neu- 
tral commerce,  and  sometimes  not ;  and  tho  question 
will  depend  upon  circumstances  existing  at  tho  time. 

Imw  of  blockades. — A  neutral  may  also  forfeit  the 
immunities  of  his  national  character  liy  violations  of 
blockade ;  and  among  the  rights  of  belligerents,  there 
is  none  more  clear  anu  incontrovertible,  or  more  just 
and  necessary'  in  tho  applwition,  than  that  which  gives 


NEU 


1300 


NEU 


the  be\- 

artiolcs 

purposes. 

nir;  lint 

ary,  or 

ong  \wn\ 

ind  lielli- 


rise  to  the  law  of  blockade.  Bynkerahoeck  says,  it  is 
founded  on  the  principles  of  natural  reason,  as  well  as 
on  tlio  usage  of  nations ;  and  Urotius  considers  the 
curryini;  of  supplies  to  a  besieged  town,  or  a  blockaded 
port,  as  nn  offense  exceedingly  aggravated  and  injur- 
louj.  They  both  agree  that  a  neutral  may  bo  dealt 
with  severely ;  and  Vattel  says  he  may  be  treated  as 
an  enemy.  Tlic  law  of  l)lockade  is,  however,  so  liarsh 
and  severe  in  its  operation,  tliat,  in  order  to  apply  it, 
the  fact  of  the  actual  Idockadu  must  be  estublislied  by 
clear  iind  unequivocal  evidence ;  and  the  neutral  must 
liave  hud  due  previous  notice  of  its  existence  ;  and  the 
squadron  allotted  for  the  pur))oses  of  its  execution 
must  bo  competent  tu  cut  off  all  communication  witli 
tlie  interdicted  place  or  port ;  and  the  neutral  must 
have  l)eeu  guilty  of  some  act  of  violation,  eitlier  l)y 
going  in,  or  attempting  to  enter,  or  by  coming  out  witli 
a  cargo  laden  after  tlie  commencement  of  the  l>lockade. 
The  fuilura  of  eitlier  of  the  points  requisite  to  establish 
the  existence  of  a  legal  blockade,  amounts  to  un  entire 
defeasance  of  tlie  measure,  oven  though  the  iiotilication 
of  the  blockade  liad  issued  from  tlie  authority  of  the 
government  itself. 

Jliy/it  of  Search  at  Sea. — In  order  to  enforce  the 
rights  of  belligerent  nations  against  the  delinquencies 
of  neutrals,  and  to  ascertain  tiio  real  as  well  us  as- 
sumed character  of  all  vessels  on  the  high  seas,  tlie  law 
of  nations  arms  them  with  tho  practical  power  of  visit- 
ation and  search.  Tlio  duty  of  self-preservation  gives 
to  belligerent  nations  this  right.  It  is  founded  upon 
necessity,  and  is  strictly  and  exclusively  a  war  right 
and  does  not  riglitfully  exist  in  time  of  peace,  unless 
conceded  by  troaty.  All  writers  upon  the  law  of  na- 
tions, and  the  highest  authorities,  acknowledge  the 
right  in  time  of  war  us  resting  on  sound  principles  of 
public  jurisprudence,  and  upon  the  institutes  and  prac- 
tice of  all  great  maritime  powers.  And  if,  upon 
making  tho  search,  the  vessel  be  found  employed  in 
contraband  trade,  or  in  carrying  enemy's  property,  or 
troops,  or  dispatches,  she  is  liable  to  be  taken  and 
brought  in  for  adjudication  before  a  prize  court. 

Neutral  nations  have  frequently  been  disposed  to 
questio'i  and  resist  the  exercise  of  this  right.  This 
was  particularly  the  case  with  tho  Ualtic  confederacy, 
during  tho  American  war,  and  with  the  convention  of 
the  lialtic  powers  in  18ui.  The  right  of  search  was 
denied,  and  the  (lag  of  the  State  was  declared  to  bo  a 
substitute  for  uU  documentary  and  other  proof,  and  to 
exclude  all  right  of  search.  Those  \)0wer3  urnicd  for 
tho  purpose  of  defending  their  neutral  pretensions  j 
and  Kngluud  did  not  hesitate  to  consider  it  as  an  at- 
tempt to  introduce,  by  force,  a  now  code  of  maritime 
law,  inconsistent  with  her  belligerent  riglits,  and  hos- 
tile to  her  interests,  and  one  which  would  go  to  extin- 
guish the  right  of  maritime  capture.  Tho  attempt  was 
speedily  frustrated  and  abandoned,  and  the  riglit  of 
search  has,  since  that  tune,  been  considered  incontro- 
vertible. 

This  right  of  search  is  confined  to  private  merchant 
vessels,  and  does  not  apply  to  public  ships  of  war. 
Tlieir  immunity  from  the  exercise  of  any  civil  or  crim- 
inal jurisdiction  but  that  of  the  sovereign  power  to 
which  they  belong,  is  uniformly  asserted,  claimed  and 
conceded.  A  contrary  doctrine  is  not  to  bo  found  ui 
any  jurist  or  writer  on  tlio  law  of  nations,  or  admitted 
in  any  treaty  ;  and  every  act  to  tho  contrary  has  been 
promptly  met  and  condemned. 

Neulnil  JJominenIs, — A  neutral  is  bound,  not  only 
to  submit  to  search,  but  to  have  his  vessel  duly  fur- 
nished with  the  genuine  documents  requisite  U)  support 
her  neutral  character.  The  most  material  of  these 
documents  are,  tlie  register,  passport  or  .sea  letter, 
muster-roll,  big-book,  charter-party,  invoice  and  bill 
of  lading.  The  want  of  some  of  these  papers  is  strong 
presumptive  ovidence  against  the  ship's  neutrality ; 
yet  the  want  of  any  one  of  them  is  not  absolutely  con 


taa  poicit  tubveniemlum  eat"  Tha  I'nnu^iillllitHt  lit 
papers  material  for  the  preservation  nt  llitt  llttlitnil 
character,  justilies  a  capture  mid  carryllltf  llitii  \»iH 
for  adjudication,  though  it  dues  not  absullitely  rti||Ulri< 
a  condemnation.  It  is  good  ground  tu  refiiiiii  iiiint  mill 
damages  on  restitution,  or  to  refuse  flirtlltir  jiruiif  lu 
relieve  tho  obscurity  of  the  case,  wliuru  IIih  I'liilNtl  |||< 
bored  under  heavy  doubts,  and  tiiuro  wits  jii'lmil  J)li<li' 
ground  for  condemnation  independent  of  lliti  tiiilii'tiHU 
ment. 

Tho  spoliation  of  papers  is  a  still  iiicira  i(g|jmviit«it 
and  inflamed  circumstance  of  suspiciiiii,  llmt  fiH'l 
may  exclude  furtlicr  proof,  uiid  jje  su|Uii|d|i(  u>  luff  f 
guilt ;  but  it  does  not  in  Knglaiiil,  as  it  dues  liy  tlit> 
maritime  law  of  other  countries,  iruutu  nil  itlii<(ilu(t< 
presumption  juris  et  de  jure ;  and  yet,  a  I'lCM  tluit,  ««. 
capes  with  such  a  lirand  upon  it,  is  siivoil  i>ii  hs  by  llfg, 
Tho  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  Stittes  hits  dtlliiWMit 
tlie  less  rigorous  ICnglish  rule,  and  held  l||i|t  tllM  ii|iiillil= 
tion  of  papers  was  not,  of  itself,  ai|fllii|ii||t  gfiiMllit  fiif 
condemnation,  and  that  it  was  a  circiniistiMUti  iipcM  fur 
explanation,  for  it  may  have  arisen  from  DciiitMHli  llt<= 
cessity,  or  superior  force. — Kknt's  (.'umin,,  vol,  I,  Msii 
Wiieaton's  luh'ruatitmal  Imw, 

Neutral  Trade, — The  present  pusitlnii  of  the  I'lllitiil 
States  in  regard  to  neutrals  iimy  be  leariltid  friilll  tllt< 
following  extract : 

"  Soon  after  the  conimencemeiit  of  the  jiita  will"  III 
Europe,  this  government  sulimitted  tu  the  unnaliUiriltlllM 
of  all  maritime  nations  two  principles  fur  the  tafi'lirltv 
of  neutral  commerce ;  one,  that  the  iieutrill  llil|{  lahiiMlit 
cover  enemy's  goods,  except  artii'lus  roiilritlMlliI  iif 
war ;  and  tlio  other,  tliat  neutral  projitirty  nil  liiilll'il 
merchant  vessels  of  belligerents  sliuiilil  be  mkii|M|I( 
from  condemnation,  with  the  exception  of  I'lililrfiliHlliI 
articles.  These  were  not  presented  lis  hmw  rules  (if 
international  law,  having  been  geiiuriilly  ilniiiiiiit  by 
neutrals,  though  not  always  admitted  by  liulli)j|iri<lltti 
One  of  tho  parties  to  the  war  (Itusslu),  its  widl  ilfi  NfV: 
eral  neutral  powers,  promptly  acceileij  In  theeii  iiriiiiii: 
sitions  ;  and  tho  two  other  principal  belligerents,  ( Irflll 
Urituin  and  France,  having  consented  to  observe  tlli<lll 
for  the  present  occasion,  a  favorable opporlllllity  i-fnwu 
ed  to  bo  presented  for  obtaining  a  general  reiiii|jllililill 
of  them  lioth  in  Kurope  and  America, 

"  But  (ireat  Uritain  and  I'raiice,  In  ciiniiniill  wUll 
most  of  the  States  of  llurope,  whilu  forbeiirlilu  til  fP-- 
ject,  did  not  afTirmatively  act  uiiun  the  overturns  of  il|(i 
United  States. 

"  Willie  tho  question  was  in  this  poslHuii,  (lit>  rti|i- 
resentatives  of  Kiissia,  Kraiico,  (ireut  Itrltilill,  Allslrlil, 
Prussia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey,  assembled  iit  I'lilla, 
tC'.'V  into  consideration  tho  sulijott  of  iiiarltl'lie  rlfjIltK, 
and  put  I'urtb  a  declaration  containing  the  two  prliu 
ciplcs  which  this  govcr-iinent  had  subinittBit  noiirly  two 
years  before  to  the  coiisidoiutiMii  of  murltillie  piiwain, 
and  adding  thereto  tho  following  proposltioiia  i  '  j'fU 
vatcering  is  and  remains  abolished,'  and  '  llliiikitdiiiii 
in  order  to  he  binding,  must  be  effective,  that  Is  to  illj', 
maintained  by  a  force,  sullKieiit  really  to  pruviMll  lie- 
cess  til  the  coast  of  tho  enemy  j'  anil  to  tlie  ileilitrtl- 
tion  thus  couiposed  of  four  points,  two  of  wlll|i||  liitd 
already  been  proposed  by  the  United  States,  tills  ({iiv, 
eminent  has  been  invited  to  accede  by  all  the  piiwar* 
represented  ut  I'aris,  except  (ireat  Itrltaln  mill  'l'llf» 
key.  To  the  lust  of  the  two  additional  prupiiaitliiiiK^ 
that  in  relation  to  blockades— there  can  uerlalllly  be  nil 
objection.  It  is  merely  the  definition  of  what  slliill 
constitute  tho  effectual  investment  of  u  bliickiiiltiil 
place,  a  definition  for  which  tliis  goveriiiiiBiit  lius  itU 
ways  contended,  claiuiing  indeinnity  for  lossns  wliefo 
u  practical  violation  of  the  rule  thus  delliiod  liiis  litiull 
injurious  to  our  commerce.  As  to  the  reiiuilnin){  Hr> 
tide  of  tho  declaration  of  tho  conference  of  Paris, '  timi 
privateering  is  and  remains  abolished,'  I  certainly  (i|»ll 
not  ascribe  to  the  powers  represented  In  tile  I'lillftir" 


elusive.     "  Si  aliMiU  M  aukimiibua  lieficial,  cum  ejai-l  ence  of  Paris  any  but  liberal  and  plillanthru|ilii  vl»W» 


NEV 


1400 


NEW 


in  the  attempt  to  change  the  unquestionable  rule  of 
maritime  law  in  regard  to  privateering.  Tlieir  propo- 
sition was  doubtless  intended  to  imply  approval  of  the 
principle  that  private  property  upon  the  ocean,  al 
though  it  might  belong  to  tlie  citizens  of  a  belligerent 
State,  should  l)e  exempted  from  capture  j  and  had  that 
proposition  been  so  framed  as  to  give  full  effect  to  the 
principle,  it  would  have  received  my  ready  assent  on 
hehulf  of  the  Uniteil  States.  But  the  measure  pro- 
.  ])oaeil  is  inadequate  to  that  purpose.  It  is  true  that  if 
adopted,  private  property  upon  the  ocean  would  be 
withdrawn  from  one  mode  of  plunder,  but  left  exposed, 
meanwhile,  to  another  mode,  which  could  be  used  with 
increased  effectiveness.  The  aggressive  capacity  of 
great  naval  powers  would  be  therefore  augmented, 
while  the  defensive  ability  of  others  would  be  reduced. 
Tliough  the  surrender  of  the  means  of  prosecuting 
hostilities  by  employing  privateers,  as  proposed  by  the 
conference  of  Paris,  is  mutual  in  terms,  yet,  in  prac- 
tical efl'ect,  it  would  be  the  relinquishment  of  a  right 
of  little  value  to  one  class  of  States,  but  of  essential 
importance  to  another  and  a  fur  larger  class.  It  ought 
not  to  have  been  anticipated  that  a  measure,  so  inade- 
quate to  the  accomplishment  of  the  proposed  object, 
and  so  unequal  in  its  operation,  would  receive  the  as- 
sent of  all  maritime  powers.  Private  property  would 
lie  .still  left  to  the  depredations  of  the  public  armed 
cruisers. 

"  I  have  expressed  a  readiness,  on  the  part  of  this 
government,  to  accede  to  all  the  principles  contained 
in  the  declaration  of  the  conference  of  Paris,  provided 
that  relating  to  the  abandonment  of  privateering  can 
lie  so  amended  as  to  effect  the  object  for  which,  as  is 
presumed,  it  was  intended,  the  immunity  of  private 
property  on  the  ocean  from  hostile  capture.  To  effect 
this  ol)ject,  it  is  proposed  to  add  to  the  declaration '  that 
privateering  is  and  remains  abolished,'  the  following 
amendment :  '  And  that  the  private  property  of  sub- 
jects and  citizens  of  a  belligerent  "^  the  high  seas  shall 
lie  exempt  from  seizure  by  the  pxblic  armed  vessels  of 
the  other  belligerent  except  it  be  contraband.'  This 
amendment  has  been  presented  not  only  to  the  powers 
which  have  asked  our  assent  to  the  declaration  to  abol- 
ish privateering,  but  to  all  other  maritime  States.  Thus 
far  it  has  not  been  rejected  by  any,  and  is  favorably 
entertained  by  all  which  have  made  any  communica- 
tion in  reply. 

"  Several  of  the  governments,  regarding  with  favor 
the  proposition  of  the  United  States,  have  delayed 
definite  action  npon  it,  only  for  the  purpose  of  consult- 
ing with  others,  parties  to  tVe  conference  of  Paris.  I 
have  the  satisfaction  of  stating,  however,  that  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia  has  entirely  and  explicitly  approved 
of  that  modification,  and  will  co•^perate  in  endeavor- 
ing to  obtain  the  assent  of  other  powers ;  and  that  as- 
surances of  a  similar  purport  have  been  received  in 
relation  to  the  disposition  of  the  Emperor  of  the 
French. 

"  The  present  aspect  of  this  important  subject  allovs 
us  to  cherish  the  hope  that  a  principle  so  humane  in  its 
character,  so  just  an<l  equal  in  its  operation,  so  essen- 
tiol  to  the  prosperity  of  commercial  nations,  and  so 
consonant  to  the  sentiments  of  this  enlightened  period 
of  the  wofld,  will  command  the  approbation  of  all  marl- 
time  powers,  and  thus  bo  incorporated  into  the  code  of 
international  law." — Message,  President  United  States, 
J)tc.,  1850.  See  Maritimk  Law,  Navio/  tioj»  Laws. 
Nevia,  a  West  India  island,  belonging  to  Great 
Kritain,  leeward  group,  in  lat.  17°  10'  N.,  long.  62° 
40'  W.,  separated  from  the  south  end  of  St.  Christo- 
pher's by  a  channel  two  miles  across.  Area  about  20 
square  miles.  Population  in  IS.'il,  10,200,  Shape  cir- 
cular; the  surface  rises  to  a  central  peak  2,500  feet  in 
elevation.  Soil  generally  fertile,  and  in  1850,  the  to- 
tal  produce  exported  amounted  in  value  to  .£27,101, 
sugar  standing  for  £20,527.  Total  value  of  imports  in 
I85i>,  .CS-l.^fK).     The  legislature  is  composed  of  the  ad- 


ministrator of  the  government,  a  legislative  cnunol), 
and  a  house  of  assembly  of  15  members.  Salary  cif 
administrator,  .£500.  The  island  consists  of  6  parishes, 
Cbarlestown,  the  capital,  is  at  its  soutli-west  extreni' 
ity.  Pul>lic  revenue  in  1850,  £8,110.  A  letter  from 
the  United  States'  consul,  dated  Decemlier  6,  infifi, 
says :  "  The  legislature  of  Nevis  has  passed  a  law,  to 
go  into  operation  on  the  1st  of  Marcli  ensuing,  reinov. 
ing  all  duties  on  imports,  exports,  and  tonnage  duties 
on  vessels,  thereby  creating  a  free  port.  The  cou.se, 
quence  will  be  that  the  commercial  intercourse  with 
the  United  States  will  be  very  considerable." 

Novr  Bedford,  a  port  of  entry  in  Massachusetts, 
55  miles  south  of  Boston,  28  east  of  Newport,  -10  south- 
east of  Providence,  226  east  of  New  York,  481  from 
Washington  ;  in  41°  3S'  10"  N.  lat.,  and  70°  65'  1(1" 
E.  long.  Population  in  1830,  7,592  ;  In  1840,  IJ.OH?  | 
in  1850,  16,448 ;  in  1851, 18,014  ;  and  in  1854,  Jll.tlllO, 
There  are  33  manufactories  of  all  sorts ;  the  most  lin> 
portant  of  which  are,  15  foroil  and  candles,  the  jiroduct  of 
the  whale  tisherj-;  one  large  cotton  factory,  called  the 
Wamsutta  mill,  propelled  by  steam,  containing  l'.',,'iOil 
spindles,  288  looms,  employing  230  hands,  and  turns 
out  daily  4,800  yards  of  cotton  cloth,  which  has  nh. 
tained  several  medals  for  its  superior  quality  i  una 
cordage  factory,  with  an  invested  capital  of  iJtT.'iillOi), 
employing  100  hands,  and  producing  annually  l,(lill) 
tons  of  cordage,  celebrated  for  being  of  the  best  quiil. 
ity ;  a  large  paper-hanging  manufactory  which  turns 
out  400,000  rolls  of  paper  annually ;  also  a  rivet  fiii', 
tory  worked  by  ■  .earn,  and  two  iron  fonnderles  |  four 
printing  offices,  issuing  two  daily,  three  weekly,  nnil 
one  mouthy  publication ;  and  186  mercantile  aUiriio, 
There  are  two  marine  railways,  one  of  them  capalilo  uf 
taking  up  large  ships.  Railroad  cars  leave  three  tiiiii<« 
daily  for  Boston  and  Providence,  and  ever)'  gflernouu 
for  Fall  River  and  Stonington  to  connect  with  Bteani- 
boats  at  those  places  running  to  New  York.  'I'lio  wlmle 
flsherj'  is  the  principal  business  which  is  carriuil  (Jii  «t 
New  Bedford,  and  has  been  the  means  chielly  of  imllil. 
ing  it  up  to  its  present  importance  in  population  unil 
wealth.  As  early  as  1764,  small  sloops  of  40  to  60  l(rii« 
burden  wer(  fitted  out  to  cruise,  during  tho  siininior 
months,  off  the  Capes  of  Virginia  and  Hatteras  for 
sperm  whales ;  taking  care  to  return  to  port  before  tlni 
equinoctical  gales  commenced ;  the  blubber  was  brought 
into  port  and  tried  out  on  shore,  (iradually  the  voy. 
ages  were  extended  in  larger  vessels  to  tho  Itay  of 
Mexico,  and  about  the  West  India  Islands,  thence  to 
the  Azores,  and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  nnil  cnust  of 
Guinea,  In  1791,  a  ship  called  the  Rebecca,  was  l|ttB(t 
out  for  a  whaling  voyage  to  the  Pacilic  Ocean  |  this 
ship  was  the  first  A  merican  whaler  that  ever  eiitiireil 
that  oceah  in  pursuit  of  whales ;  her  voyaga  was  suc- 
cessful. From  those  small  beginnings,  the  whale  fish- 
ery hos  steadily  increased  to  its  present  iuiportunio, 
with  the  exception  of  the  interruption  of  tlio  revolu- 
tionary war,  and  of  the  war  of  1812  with  Great  Urltaiii, 
until  New  Bedford  has  become  tho  greatest  wliiilliig 
port  in  the  world.  Her  ships  now  circumnavigate  the 
globe,  and  explore  every  ocean  and  sea  from  the  Arc- 
tic to  the  Antarctic  in  pursuit  of  whales.  The  nuiulier 
of  vessels  employed  in  the  whale  fishery  from  \'w 
United  States  at  this  time,  1862,  is  620,  their  tonnage, 
193,990,  of  which  there  arc  belonging  to  the  illntrlut 
of  New  Bedford,  372  vessels,  employing  upwards  of 
10,000  seamen.  Tliere  were  entered  Into  the  United 
States,  during  the  year  1851,  of  sperm  oil,  99,501  blils,  | 
of  right  whalo  oil,  328,483  bids. ;  of  whalebone, 
3,916,500  lbs. ;  amounting  in  value  to  i|<10,02H,fl89,  of 
which  there  were  imported  into  the  district  of  Now 
Bedford,  of  sperm  oil,  00,465  bids. ;  of  right  whale 
oil,  175,460  bbls.  i  of  whalebone,  2,47;l,500  Ilia,  ( 
amounting  in  value  to  #5,781,118;  of  which  value, 
about  $5,000,000  was  brought  into  tile  port  of  New 
Bedford.  The  average  length  of  tho  voyages  of  the 
right  whale  ships  are  36  months ;  sperm  whale  ship* 


NEW 


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NEW 


ii  niontlis,     New  Bedford  is  the  great  nursery  for 
soiinien  In  the  United  States.     See  article  On,. 

New  Brunswick,  a  British  province,  oast  coast 
of  Nortli  America,  int.  4.5°  B'  to  -18°  -10'  N.,  long.  G;i° 
fiO'  to  OH''  W.  i  bounded  west  by  the  State  of  Maine ; 
north-west  Lower  Canada,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  tlio  Kiver  Rcstigoucho ;  north.  Bay  of  Chaleurs ; 
I'ust,  Oulf  of  St.  La^vreIlCe  and  NorthumI)erland  Strait, 
tliii  latter  separating  it  from  IVmce  Edward  Island  ; 
and  south,  the  Hay  of  Fnndy,  and  part  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia. Its  coast-line  is  about  500  miles  in  length,  inter- 
rupted only  at  the  point  of  junction  with  Nova  Scotia, 
where  an  isthmus  of  not  more  than  10  miles  in  breadth 
cuuticctij  the  two  provinces,  and  separates  the  waters 
of  Northumberland  Strait  from  those  of  the  Bay  of 
Futidy,  which  it  is  proposed  to  unite  by  means  of  a 
canal.  The  most  remarkable  bays  and  harbors  are 
llathurst  Bay,  on  the  north  coast ;  Sliramiclii  Bay,  on 
till)  east  const  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  and  St.  John 
harbor,  on  the  .uuth  coast.  There  are,  besides  these 
lurKcr  Indentations,  numerous  smaller  liarliors,  particu- 
larly on  the  south  portion  of  the  east  coast.  Area, 
27,704  square  miles. 

Tlie  population  of  this  province  is  principally  com- 
posed of  British  settlers  and  their  descendants.  The 
remnant,  of  French  extraction,  are  settled  around  the 
Hay  of  Chaleurs.  There  is  still  a  few  of  the  aborigines 
left,  consisting  of  the  Micmacs,  SIclicites,  and  others, 
amounting  in  1851  to  1,1]()  persons. 

Phijsiml  Features,  etc. — The  general  surface  of  the 
country  presents  a  series  of  bold  tmdulations,  some- 
times rising  Into  mountains,  or  continuous  ridges  of 
lltgh  land.  The  latter  are  seldom  of  any  considerable 
height  J  but  their  precipitous  acclivities,  sharp  outline, 
and  deep  ravines,  give  them  an  alpine  and  picturesque 
I'luiracfer  that  t\ne\y  and  strikingly  contrasts  with  the 
llch  valleys  and  sheltered  plains  which  alternate  with 
the  more  rugged  scenery.  The  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  Northumberland  Strait,  however, 
present  ditfercnt  and  far  less  pleasing  features.  There 
the  luiul,  for  about  12  miles  inland,  is  low  and  sandy, 
covered  with  trees  of  a  stunted  growth,  and  skirted 
with  extensive  marslics,  large  deep  morasses,  and  long 
sniid  beaches.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Cha- 
leurs and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  gray  sandstone 
lind  gray  clay-slate  predominate,  with  detached  rocks 
iif  granite,  quartz,  and  ironstone  ;  on  the  south  coast, 
limestone,  graywacke,  clay-slate,  with  sandstone,  in- 
terrupted occasicmally  by  gneiss,  trap,  and  granite. 
Specimens  of  amethyst,  cornelian,  jasper,  etc.,  have 
been  picked  up  in  various  places.  Coal  is  plentiful, 
and  iron  ore  abundant ;  the  former  is  said  to  extend 
over  10,000  square  miles,  or  above  one  third  part  of 
the  whole  area  of  the  province. 

New  Brunswick  is  drained  liy  numerous  rivers  and 
sfiall  streams,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  St.  John, 
navigable  for  vessels  of  fiO  tons  to  Fredericton.  The 
HBltt  river  In  Importance  is  the  Sliramichi,  which  rises 
Hear  the  west  limits  of  the  territorj-,  whence  it  iiows 
Horth-oast,  and  falls  into  Miramichi  Bay.  on  the  east 
coant,  about  lat.  47°  6'  N.,  long.  G4°  5!!'  W. ;  its 
whole  course  is  upward  of  110  miles,  it  is  navigable  for 
nearly  40  miles,  and  admits  vessels  of  GOO  or  700  tons 
The  Kestlgouche  is  the  next  considerable  river ;  it  forms 
the  north-west  limit  of  the  province,  and  falls  into  the 
li«'ad  of  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  after  a  course  of  about 
100  miles.  There  are  a  number  of  small  lakes  in  New 
Brunswick,  particularly  in  the  northern  part,  but  none 
of  any  considerable  size.  In  the  south  there  are  a 
few  somewhat  larger,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
Orand  Lake,  20  miles  long,  by  aliout  5  miles  broad; 
nrtil  Washcdemoak  Lake,  about  20  miles  long,  by  2 
miles  broad — both  lying  between  St.  John  and  Freder- 
icton. 

Staniifitrliirrs,  etc. — There  were  in  the  province  in 
iHfll,  62  woolen  factories,  employing  9G  persons  j  2C1 
grlit  mills,  employing  366  persons;   584  saw  mills. 


employing  4,,n02  persons ;  125  tanneries,  employing 
255  persons  ;  11  foimderics,  employing  242  persons ;  H 
breweries ;  52  weaving  and  carding  establishments  (5,- 
475  hand  looms),  employing  96  persons ;  90  of  various 
manufacturing  establishments,  employing  95:1  persons. 
Coals  raised,  2,482  tons;  iron  smelted,  810;  lima 
burnt,  35,599  casks;  grindstones  quarried,  58,849; 
gypsum,  5,465  tons  quarried. 

Products.— C\oth,  622,237  yards ;  and  100,975  gal- 
lons malt  liquor.  Value  of  Ixjots  and  shoes  made, 
£89,367  ;  leather,  ;£45,165  ;  chairs,  cabinet  ware,  and 
wood  ware,  ,£33,977  ;  candles,  f  19,860 ;  soap,  £18,562  • 
hats,  £0,3B0 ;  iron  castings,  £20,025. 

The  principal  places  are  °t.  John,  the  metropolis, 
and  Fredericton,  the  capital.  There  were  in  1854  sev- 
eral railroads  In  course  of  construction ;  5  l)anks,  ag- 
gregate ciipital,  £337,500;  a  savings' institution,  and 
4  insnr.ince  companies. 

I  'series  nf  New  Bnmswick. — TLcro  were  French 
fishing  establishments  in  that  part  of  Acadia  now 
known  as  New  Brunswick,  as  early  as  1638.  The 
English  succeeded  to  these  at  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
in  1713 ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  formed  many 
others  until  after  the  cession  of  Canada,  in  1763."* 
Among  the  first,  I  suppose,  was  that  of  Lieutenant 
Walker,  of  the  royal  navy,  in  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs, 
which  was  extensive,  controlling  the  fur  and  fish  trade 
of  that  region  for  several  years.  There  were  similar 
settlements  on  the  River  St.  John ;  but  from  the  esti- 
mates of  Mr.  Grant,  ni.ide  in  1764,  at  the  rci|Mestof 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Stiles,  the  whole  population  of  British 
origin  could  not  have  exceeded  1000. 

At  the  peace  of  1783,  several  thousand  "  Tories,"  or 
loyalists,  compelled  to  aliandon  their  native  land,  set- 
tled in  New  Brunswick,  and  transferred  thither  the 
jurisprudence,  the  social  and  political  institutions  of 
"  the  old  thirteen  ;"  and,  the  year  following,  were 
allowed  to  organize  a  separate  colonial  government. 
Like  those  who  went  to  that  part  of  Acadia  still  called 
Nova  Scotia,  many  of  the  loyalists  were  gentlemen  of 
education,  eminent  private  virtue,  and  distinguished 
consideration.  Some  obtained  olliccs  of  honor  and 
emolument ;  others  adopted  agricultural  pursuits ;  and 
another  class,  fixing  their  aliodes  on  Islands  and  tho 
shores  of  the  main  land,  resolved  to  earn  tlieir  support 
on  the  sea.  Of  the  latter  description,  several,  though 
compelled  to  toil  and  exposure  in  ojwn  fishing  boats, 
had  liecn  persons  of  note  and  pro|)erty.  But,  ruined 
by  the  confiscation  laws  of  the  Whigs,  or  by  the  gen- 
eral disasters  of  a  civil  war,  they  resorted  to  the  hook 
and  line  to  relieve  tho  pressure  of  immetliate  want, 
indulging  the  hope  of  "  better  times,"  and  more  con- 
genial avocations.  Few,  however,  abandoned  the  em- 
ployment, and  their  children,  trained  to  it  from  early 
youth,  and  acquiring  fishermen's  habits,  succeeded  to 
boats,  fishing-gear,  and  smoke-houses,  as  their  only 
inheritance,  and  continue  it  at  the  present  day.  I 
have  often  met  with  common  boat  fishermen  of  this 
lineage,  whose  earnings  were  hardly  sufficient  to  pro- 
cure the  absolute  necessaries  of  life. 

The  fisheries  of  New  Brunswick  are  prosecuted  with 
neither  skill  nor  vigor.  The  ajtparent  exports,  small 
as  are  the  statistics,  do  not  Indicate  their  real  condi- 
tion ;  since  it  is  certain,  that  of  the  products  of  the 
sea  shipped  to  other  countries,  a  part  is  first  imported 
from  Nova  Scotia,  and  form  a  proportion  of  the  ex- 
ports of  that  colony,  t  The  number  of  vessels  sent  to 
Labrador  and  other  distant  fishing  grounds  is  ne.er 
large,  and  often  almost  nominal.  The  cod-ftsherj'  in 
tho  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  is 

•  The  Frcncli  built  two  forls  on  tlio  Klvcr  St.  .lolm  prior 
to  tliu  puace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  which  they  reimireil  in  1764, 
iilthougli  tlie  country  had  been  ceded  to  hngland  quite  half 
a  ccnturv. 

t  Tlic'  imports  into  St.  John  from  Nova  Scotia  for  Inreo 
inonlhB  only  (.Inly  M  to  October  1(1)  of  tho  year  ISB'2,  were 
7,«01  quiutuls  of  dried  fish,  8G0  barrels  of  mackerel,  i,«8 
barrels  of  herring,  and  other  ptcklcd  liah. 


NEW 


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NEW 


not  A9  extensive  as  might  be  reasonably  expected  from 
the  long  experience  of  the  inhabitants  there,  nnil  the 
general  safety  and  productiveness  of  the  harbors  and 
indentations  of  the  coast. 

Tho  same  remarks  need  slight  qunliUcatiun  when 
applied  to  the  I3ay  of  Fundy,  and  its  principal  branch, 
tho  Hay  of  Passamaquoddy.  Cameron's,  Uoggett'a, 
IJrake's,  Woodward's,  Money,  and  Whale  Coves ;  Dark 
Harbor,  Long's  Eddy,  Grand  Harbor,  and  Long,  Uuok, 
Nantucket,  and  Kent's  Islands,  v/hiuli  are  all  in  the 
group  of  islands  known  as  "(irand  Jlenaii,"  atford 
excellent  facilities  for  catching  and  curing  cod, 
polluck,  and  herring,  in  large  ({uantities.  In  the 
waters  that  surround  Campo  IlcUo,  Deer,  and  Iniiian 
Islands,  as  well  as  in  those  tliat  wash  Bean's,  Ailanis's, 
I'arkcr's,  Minister's,  Hardwood,  and  Fish  Islands,  and 
along  the  coast  between  L'Etitn  Passage  and  Point 
Le)ireau,  embracing  Mace's  and  Back  Ilnys,  Bliss' 
Island,  Seclj's  Cove,  Crow,  Beaver,  and  Dcadmun's 
Harbors,  the  advantages  for  lishing  ufc  very  good. 
Every  place  here  mentioned  is  witliin  a  few  hours'  sail 
of  the  frontier  |>orts  of  Maine,  and  many  of  tlicm  are 
within  cannon-shot  distance  of  the  shores  of  the 
Vnited  States.  Tho  fishermen  of  both  countries  meet 
on  tho  same  fishing  grounds  j  borrow  and  lend  "  bait  j" 
ask  after  each  other's  "woman"*  at  lionie ;  narrate 
the  wonderful  cures  of  tho  last-discovered  remedy  for 
tho  "reumatis;"  complain  of  tlie  "  scacity"  of  tisli, 
and  the  low  price  of  "  ile ;"  discourse  about  '•  llat- 
hooped  Hour;"  and  generally  conduct  toward  one 
another  as  friends  and  bretliren,  owing  allugianco  to 
one  government.  Indeed,  the  oliservution  of  quite  °25 
yoars  authorizes  me  to  say  tliat  the  colonists  always 
a.^ree  far  better  with  tho  Americans  than  with  each 
other.  Our  countrymen  are  not  often  considered  in- 
terlopers when  they  leave  the  lishing  grounds  nearest 
home  and  visit  those  of  Grand  Menan  ;  liut  the  fish- 
ermen of  Campo  Bellu,  and  tho  other  islands  on  the 
British  side  of  the  Passama((uuddy,  are  sometimes 
roughly  accosted  and  "  twitted'  wlien  they  venture  to 
take  tile  same  liberty.  Frequent  attempts  have  been 
made  to  disturb  the  friendly  relations  wliich  have  gen- 
erally existed  between  the  people  of  the  two  Hags,  but 
without  (uccess.  The  efforts  of  otiicious  individuals, 
and  of  functionaries  of  the  colonial  government,  have 
l>een  alike  disregarded.  The  captains  of  the  British 
ships-Mf-war  on  the  station,  gentlemen  in  their  feel- 
ings, have  stjadily  refused  to  stoop  to  wage  a  petty 
warfare  against  the  American  boats  that  cross  tlie 
imaginary  boundarj  line  in  tho  waters  of  the  Passa- 
maquoddy, though,  of  course,  they  have  altraijs  obeyed 
their  instructions.  Yet,  in  the  spirit  of  Nelson,  who 
looked  at  the 'signal  he  meant  to  disobey  witii  his 
blind  eye,  they  have  never  been  able  to  sh'  a  "  Yan- 
kee," or  to  distinguish  one  from  a  subject  of  her  nnij- 
esty.  Some  of  them — as  I  rcmeral>er  the  stories  of 
by-gone  years — admitting  tho  necessity  of  driving  oft" 
the  aggressors,  have  asked,  "  How  are  we  to  know 
them — are  they  mnrkedl"  Others,  sending  their 
barges  into  the  He  it  of  boats,  have  directed  that  "  uU 
who  say  they  are  Americans  must  be  told  to  go  to  their 
own  side  of  the  line ;"  but,  strangely  enough,  the  un- 
broken silence  of  the  fishermen  to  whom  tlie  question 
was  propounded  afforded  proof  that  all  were  "  Blue- 
noses."  Still  others,  satisfying  themselves,  by  peer- 
ing through  glasses  from  their  quarter-deck,  that  all 
the  Iwats  in  sight  mvM  belong  to  the  islands  in  New 
Brunswick,  have  thought  the  sending  of  barges  to 
inipilre  u  needless  ceremony.  One,  in  1811)— the  cap- 
tain of  the  Ringdove — in  his  ofhcial  re|iort,  rccoin- 
mtiided  that  "every  British  boat  should  have  a 
license;  otherwise,"  said  he,  "it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
criminate them  from  Americans." 

Those  who  seek  to  put  an  end  to  this  stato  of  things, 
whatever  their  motives,  do  not  take  into  the  account 


*  They  thus  apeak  of  tbelr  wives, 


that  the  instant  they  shall  accomplish  their  object 
border  strifes  will  follow  of  necessity.  Before  rcnew^ 
ing  their  eft'orts,  they  may  bo  kindly  asked  to  consider 
that  harmony  and  guod-fellowsliip  between  the  inhali- 
itants  of  frontier  settlements  are  indispensaljlo,  rnd 
far  better  securities  against  tlie  marauder's  torch  and 
bludgeon  than  armed  ships  or  bodies  of  troops.  The 
produce  of  the  boat-fishery  of  tho  Bay  of  Fundy,  and 
of  the  Passamaquoddy,  is  not  only  small  in  valuer,  but 
generally  inferior  in  quality.  An  increase  of  this 
fishery,  under  present  circumstances,  is  not  desirable. 
The  fishermen  dress  and  cure  the  cod,  pollock,  hake, 
and  haddock — the  kinds  usually  dried — in  a  slovenly 
manner. 

It  is  stated  in  an  ofHcial  document  that  in  1850,  at 
the  dill'creiit  fishing-stations  mentioned  as  within  these 
bays,  there  were  employed  G2  vessels  of  1,2()8  tons, 
(Mi  opp;.  Ijoats,  o5  weirs,  and  1,3,')7  men,  in  catching 
and  curing  the  sevc.-al  kinds  of  (ish  just  referred  to; 
and  that  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  various 
liranclies  of  the  fishery  were  jt'33,080  currency,  or 
4!l3'2,;i20.  These  facts  show  that  tho  fishermen  re- 
ceived a  miserable  pittance  for  their  toil ;  since,  with- 
out allowing  for  the  use  and  depreciation  of  the  capi- 
tal invested  in  the  vessels,  boats,  weirs,  nets,  and 
other  fishing-gear,  they  earned  for  the  year  less  tlian 
$100  each.  We  may  lament  that  men  who  pursue 
their  avocation  both  day  and  night,  'mid  rains  and 
gales,  are  so  poorly  r"warded.  Wo  may  lament,  too, 
that  the  people  of  Grand  Meiian,  falling  short  of  those 
of  Campo  Bello,  West  Isles,  and  the  parishes  on  the 
coast  of  the  main  land,  earn  even  less  than  the  aver- 
age. But,  what  then  ?  The  fault  is  their  own ;  en- 
tirely so.  They  may,  if  they  will,  produce  as  sweet 
and  as  well-cured  polluck  and  cod  as  do  their  brethren 
of  Harrington,  and  as  good  colored  and  flavored  smok- 
ed herring  as  do  those  of  Digby,  and  obtain  prices  to 
correspond  with  the  (piality. 

Tlie  general  poverty  among  them  is  not  to  be  attri- 
buted entirely  or  principally,  as  they  aver,  to  the  occa- 
sional loss  of  boats  and  nets,  nor  to  glutted  markets 
and  bad  seasons,  nor  to  the  interlopers  who  visit  their 
lishing  grounds,  but  to  their  own  want  of  industry, 
thrift,  cleanliness,  and  honesty.  The  few  "'  who  work 
it  right,"  acquire  property,  and  enjoy  the  entire  coiili- 
dence  of  the  dealers,  command  credit  for  supplies,  ami 
high  prices  for  their  commodities  when  offered  for  sale. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Itay  of 
Chaleurs,  and  of  tlio  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Tlie 
county  of  liestigoiiclio  borders  on  Canada,  and  the 
counties  of  (ilouccstcr,  Northumberland,  and  Kent, 
are  favorably  situated  for  adventures  in  these  waters. 
The  fishing  grounds  are  safe,  and  generallj'  close  to 
tho  shores  ;  and  those  near  Caraquet,  in  (iloucostcr, 
ara  much  frequented  by  boats  from  Gaspc,  and  owned 
by  residents  of  Canada.  Since  18o5,  the  catch  of  both 
cod  anil  herring  by  the  fisliermen  of  licstigouclio  imd 
Northumberland  has  fallen  oft"  inoro  than  lialf,  and  in 
Kent  has  nearly  become  extinct.  But  the  inhabitants 
of  tho  iKirt  of  Caraquet,  availing  themselves  of  the 
advantages  of  their  position,  have  actually  produced  a 
large  portion  of  the  dried  cod  exported  from  the  colo- 
ny for  some  years.  These  four  counties  are  more  re- 
mote from  the  capital  of  New  Brunswick,  and  from 
the  markets  of  tlie  United  States,  than  the  county  of 
Charlotte,  which  embraces  Grand  Menan,  and  the 
other  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  (where  the  lish  are 
so  badly  cured),  and  tho  attention  of  tlie  people  is 
divided  between  sevi-ral  branches  cf  industry ;  but 
fishing,  us  an  occasional  and  irregular  employmeut 
merely,  has  commonly  proved  a  source  of  profit,  or  at 
least  has  afforded  a  fair  reward  fur  the  labor  and  capi- 
tal dt  tooted  to  it.  Tlie  fish  shipped  at  Caraquet  are 
in  much  better  repute  llian  those  caught  in  tlio  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  the  remark  is  true  of  the  produce  of  the 
Bay  of  Chaleurs  and  St.  Lawrence  fisheries  generally. 
It  may  be  presumed  that  ihert  tho  herring  does  nvt 


NEW 


1408 


NEW 


"become  rotten  before  Halting;"  that,  when  Eold  as 
the  "gibbcd"  article,  it  h  not  pacl(ed  witlioiit  taking 
out  the  entrails;  unil  tliut  the  cod  is  wnslied  after 
being  split,  and  luit  salted  and  put  in  "  kincli'  in  all  its 
bloud  and  dirt, — Sauink's  Ameririm  Fisheries. 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  value  of  im- 
ports and  exports  to  and  from  the  United  States  and 
New  Brunswick  during  the  years  1849  and  ItJ&O : 


Kxporls  to  Now  Brunswick. . . 
Imports  froui  " 


,  |l,822,sio 
267,910 


I8U). 

$1,810,740 

887,000 


The  following  abstract  of  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  the  port  of  St.  John,  Now  llruns- 
wick,  shows  the  number  of  ships  and  tonnage  entered 
inward,  and  the  value  of  imports  at  that  port  during 
the  year  ending  31st  December,  1851 :  Vessels  in- 
ward ;  C05  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  ltj(j,952 
tons ;  value  of  imports,  §1,  l.')8,205.  Vessels  outward : 
859  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  64,344  tons ; 
value  of  exports,  Iti312,8!)5. 

The  United  States  export  to  New  Brunswick,  prin- 
cipally, books  and  stationery,  Indian  corn,  flour, 
Tvlieat,  lumber,  salted  provisions,  rice,  coal,  tobacco, 
timber,  and  various  kinds  of  manufactured  goods,  and 
mcrcliandise  ;  and  receive,  in  return,  timber  of  differ- 
ent kinds  (except  pitch-jiine,  oak,  locust,  hickory,  and 
black  walnut),  lumber,  staves,  laths,  .shingles,  spars, 
and  lish.  Coal  and  timl)er  being  classed  among  the 
staples  of  both  countries,  an  examination  has  l)een  in- 
stituted with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  probable  effect  of 
the  Reciprocity  Treaty  on  the  trade  in  those  articles 
between  tlie  United  States  and  New  IJrunswick.  To 
meet  this  innuiry,  it  is  necessary  to  know  whether  the 
coals  and  timlier  of  New  Hrunswick  and  tlio  United 
States  are  similar  in  chain  tcr  and  kind,  or  whether 
they  differ  in  both,  and  in  tlio  u^es  to  wliich  they  are 
applied;  each  having  their  own  peculiar  advantages 
for  certain  purposes. 

Dr.  .lackson,  an  American  geologist  of  ability,  in  a 
eketch  "of  the  early  history  and  of  the  i>rcsent  state 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  geology,  etc.,  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Hrunswick,"  referring  to  the  mineral  pro- 
ductions of  tbe^e  i)rovinces,  says  :  "  Tlie  coals  of  Nova 
Scotia  are  of  \  ious  kinds,  and  are  wlioUy  different 
from  those  of  tb'  "nited  States;  at  least,  they  dilVer 
from  all  the  coaU  hich  are  found  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Apalachiau  iintains,  so  that  they  do  not  enter 
into  competition  \vi  the  coals  obtaine<l  from  mines 
in  the  United  States.  Iiich  supply  our  coast."  In  a 
subsequent  part  of  this  essay  Dr.  Jackson  remarks,  in 
substance,  tlnit  recent  explorations  in  New  Brunswick 
have  brought  to  light  a  beautiful  and  before  unknown 
variety  of  highly  bituminous  coal,  containing  GO  per 
cent,  of  gas-making  bitumen  and  40  per  cent,  of  coke. 
This  coal  is  a  new  variety,  particularly  adapted  to  the 
uses  of  the  gas-house ;  and  it  is  represented  by  Dr. 
Jackson  as  tlie  very  material  wanted  by  gas-manu- 
facturers to  enrich  the  products  of  our  semi-bituminous 
coals  of  Maryland  and  Virginia.  In  tlie  formation  of 
gas,  this  New  Brunswick  production  can  not  be  used 
alone,  but  is  mixed  with  otiier  coals,  in  the  proportion 
of  from  one  tifth  to  one  third ;  and  thus  gives  the  best 
material  that  can  be  obtained.  It  also  gives  greater 
value  to  the  coke  of  our  mora  ash-bearing  coals.  If 
these  facts  are  to  be  relied  upon  (and  they  are  support- 
ed by  high  authority),  it  follows  that  the  importation 
of  the  New  Brunswick  coal  into  the  United  States,  so 
far  from  interfering  » ith  the  sale  of  our  own  coals, 
would  contribute,  in  a  great  measure,  to  m.ike  availa- 
ble, in  the  manufacture  of  gas,  much  of  these  which 
woulil  otherwise  be  unsuitable  for  that  purpose,  ^\■|th 
these  distinctive  charautors  and  different  applications, 
the  coals  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  will 
always  he  required,  whatever  may  be  the  supply  of  our 
own  mines  of  Pennsylvania,  Slaryland,  and  \irgiiiin. 
Indeed,  the  mine  near  Klchinond,  Virginia,  is  the  only 
«ue  in  the  United  States  tliat  furnishes  bituminous  coal 


that  will  fully  serve  in  the  place  of  the  coals  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

From  the  imports  and  exports  of  timber  between  the 
United  States  and  New  Brunswick,  it  will  be  seen  that 
New  Hrunswick  imports  from  the  United  States  largo 
<iuuntities  of  pitch-pine,  oak,  locust,  hickory,  and 
black  walnut,  none  of  which  are  found  in  that  prov- 
ince; while  the  United  States  receives,  in  return, 
boards,  scantling,  deals,  various  kinds  of  lumber,  and 
fish.  The  interchange  of  these  products  must  be 
greatly  increased  under  a  system  which  relieves  them 
from  all  imixirt  duties.— f/.  ,S'.  C'otii.  ltd. 

Newcastle.  The  following  information  is  from 
the  United  States'  consul  at  Newcastle  in  answer  to  a 
circular  issued  by  the  State  Department :  "  In  this 
port  there  are  no  privileges  that  British  or  any  other 
vessels  have  which  American  vessels  have  not  to  the 
same  extent ;  but  there  are  restrictions  and  extra 
charges  at  this  port  on  the  vessels  of  some  other  na- 
tions that  have  not  treaties  of  reciprocity  with  Kn- 
gland,  viz.,  France,  Two  Sicilies,  and  Portugal, 
French  vessels,  taking  cargoes  to,  or  l).inging  them 
from,  any  place  but  France  proper,  are  subject  to 
douljle  the  ordinary  light-house  dues ;  also,  to  double 
harbor  lights,  double  liamsgate  dues ;  ond  in  case  the 
vessel  loads  coals  or  grindstones,  instead  of  paying  4 
cents,  or  2d.,  per  chaldron  town  dues,  as  the  vessels  of 
nations  in  reciprocity,  16  cents,  or  8d.,  per  chaldron,  is 
charged.  When  the  vessel  goes  to  any  jihice  but 
France  ]>roper,  such  vessels  also  pay  12  cents,  or  (id., 
per  foot  extra  pilotage.  Vessels  belonging  to  the  Two 
Sicilies  are  subject  to  the  same  extra  charges.  Ves- 
sels belonging  to  Portugal  have  the  additional  privi- 
lege of  taking  cargoes  to  or  from  their  own  colonics  on 
the  same  terms  as  ta  Portugal  proper,  but  to  or  from 
any  other  country  they  are  subject  to  the  above  extra 
charges.  There  arc,  also,  other  nations,  such  as  some 
of  the  South  American  States,  whose  vessels  are  sub- 
ject to  these  extra  charges,  but  such  vessels  never 
visit  this  port.  These  extra  local  dues  are,  neverthe- 
less, payalile  liy  all  foreign  vessels  coining  to  this  port, 
but  the  British  government  satisfy  these  claims  on  the 
vessels  of  nations  in  reciprocity. 

"  The  port  charges  on  vessels  of  the  United  States 
are  the  same  us  on  British  vessels.  Annexed  are  par- 
ticulars of  the  cliarges  on  a  vessel  of  400  tons  register, 
carrying  200  clialdrons,  or  630  tons,  of  coals  and  00 
tons  of  other  goods.  Vessels  belonging  to  the  United 
States  (by  a  law  passed  this  (1854)  session  of  Parlia- 
ment) are  allowed  to  carry  goods  of  any  kind  coast- 
wise without  any  restriction,  and  with  every  privilege 
that  British  vessels  enjoy. 

List  of  t'l.nAniso  Oiiaroes  at  the  Port  of  Newcastli!, 

OlIAROF.])  ON  AS  AmRRICA.V  VeSSF.I,  OF  FoUR  ilUNDRKD 
Toss  RKlilSTKlt,  CAKRYIN'O  TwO    HuNDltF.D  CUALDRONS 

OK  Coals  and  Sixty  Tons  of  other  Goods. 


charges. 


Low  llghti 

Life  boats  (onco  a  year). . 

riurducs 

NlRlit  olHco 

Brindllnston  pier 

Wliltby  pier 

Kiver  wutch 

Itiiinsijato 

Trliilly  lights 

Tower  .lues  [^^[«°:;;;; 


U.  S.CHrrency.        SlorliDg. 


Total. 


to  ui 

£0  'i  a 

73 

8    U 

8  0~i 

1  18    4 

4S 

8    0 

1  21 

5    0 

3  02i 

8    4 

2  02i 

8    4 

4  84 

10    0 

64  5H 

11    B    5 

8  07 

1  13    4 

77 

3    2 

(Sa39 

til    4    T 

"  If  the  vessel  bring  ballast,  there  is  an  additional 
charge  on  it  of  Is.  Od.,  or  about  30  cents,  per  ton  on 
the  ballast.  Sea  pilotage,  in  winter,  Is.  Od. ;  and  '.n 
summer,  Is.  3d.  per  foot.  Towage,  according  to  dis- 
tance,  from  5s.  to  .£3. 

"  Insurances  are  mostly  effected  in  the  States ;  the 
rate  here  runs  from  2 J  to  5  per  cent.,  according  to 
season  and  class  of  vessel.  Freights  from  $4  84,  or 
203.,  to  i!!7  74,  or  323.,  per  ton,  according  to  circum- 


11 


NEW 


1404 


NEW 


■tanneg,  Commlaslon  for  purchasing  is  usually  31  per 
cent.  Sales  are  made  either  l>y  direct  corresponaanfla 
or  through  agents  resident  here.  Terms  vary,  with 
the  articles,  from  2  to  4  months.  Bills,  und  a  various 
discount  for  cosh,  are  the  ordlnar}'  terms,  Thara  is 
no  export  duty  payable  on  goods  to  the  United  Htstas 
There  are  no  internal  taxes  levied  on  any  of  (ha  com- 
modities mentioned,  either  in  a  crude,  partially  wani^' 
factured,  or  wholl}*  complete  state." 

Newfoundland,  Colony  of,  is  In  lat.  46°  40' 
and  51°  89'  N.,  and  long.  62°  44'  and  69°  81'  W, 
Area,  35,913  square  miles.  Extreme  length,  ahoul 
420  miles,  and  extreme  breadth,  about  BOO  miles, 

Newfoundland  is  an  inland  lying  on  the  narth<«Mt 
side  of  the  (iulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  Is  bounded  on  ths 
whole  east  shore  liy  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  tlis  north* 
west  and  north  by  tho  Strait  of  Belleisle,  which  separata* 
it  from  Labrador,  on  tho  west  by  the  Qulfof  St,  I*W' 
rence,  and  on  the  south-west  it  approaclies  at  Ca|ia 
Ray  toward  Cape  Breton,  so  as  to  form  the  main  ait^ 
trance  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  St,  Lawrence,  (!ap' 
ital,  St.  John's,  The  island  is  of  a  somewhat  triangular 
form,  but  without  any  ajiproach  to  regularity,  aiicli  of 
its  sides  lieing  broken  into  numerous  bays,  barlioni, 
orcelcs,  and  estuaries.  Its  perimeter  Is  not  less  timn 
1000  miles.  From  the  sea  It  has  a  wild  and  sterile  a|)» 
pearance,  and  its  general  character  is  that  of  a  ruggad. 
and,  for  the  most  part,  a  barren  country.  Hills  ana 
valleys  continually  succeed  each  other,  tlia  former 
never  rising  into  mountains,  and  the  latter  rarely  eip- 
panding  into  plains.  Of  various  cliaructer,  tha  hills 
sometimes  form  long,  flat-topped  ridges,  and  are  ac* 
cosionaiiy  rounded  and  isolated,  with  sharp  peaks  and 
craggy  precipices.  The  vtlieys  vary  also  from  gently 
sloping  depressions  to  rugged  and  al>rupt  ravines,  Tha 
soa-clilfs  are  bold  and  lofty,  with  deep  water  to  timtr 
bases ;  and  tho  rough  character  of  the  country  is  in' 
creased  by  tho  existence  of  vast  boulders  scattartK) 
over  It,  This  uneven  surface  is  naturally  distill' 
guislied  into  woods,  marshes,  and  l)arrans,  Tha 
"  woods"  are  spread  over  tho  whole  country  wh''r8VBf 
there  is  any  water-course,  and  are  even  found  uriiwil' 
ing  the  summits,  and  near  the  sea-coast  are  especlitily 
luxuriant.  The  trees  consist  principally  of  nine, 
spruce,  lir,  larch  (or  hackmatacli),  ami  liirch  |  in  soma 
districts  the  mountain  ash,  the  alder,  tlie  aspen.  And  A 
few  others  are  found.  Most  of  the  wood  U  of  small 
and  stnntcd  growth,  although  the  character  of  tha 
trees  is  greatly  varied  in  this  respect  according  tii  soil 
and  situation,  and  in  small  groups  wood  of  fair  growth 
and  length  may  l)e  found.  The  open  tracts  are  genBr< 
ally  called  "  marshes."  These  are  not  necessarily  low, 
or  even  level  lands,  but  are  frequently  at  a  considurit- 
ble  height  above  the  sea,  and  have  often  un  uiidllUtlllg 
surface.  They  are  open  trvcts,  covered  with  moss, 
sometimes  to  (he  depth  of  several  feet.  This  lliiiik 
coating  of  moss  is  precisely  like  u  great  sponge  snread 
over  the  country.  At  tha  melting  of  tho  snow,  It  lia> 
comes  thoroughly  saturated.  Numerous  small  hulas 
and  pools,  and  in  the  lower  parts  small  sluggtall 
brooks  or  gullies  are  met  with.  But  in  most  eases 
the  surface  is  sufficiently  eligible  for  drainage,  and 
when  tlie  moss  is  stripped  off,  dry  ground  ur  bara  rock 
is  generally  found  beneath.  The  "  barrens"  ooeu|iy 
the  summits  of  the  hills  and  ridges,  and  other  elevatad 
and  exposed  tracts.  They  are  covered  with  a  thin 
and  scrubby  vegetation,  consisting  of  lierry-liearing 
plants,  and  dwarf  bushes  of  variuus  kinds,  llara 
patches  of  gravel  and  Iwulders,  and  crumiiling  tf^H' 
ments  of  rock  are  frequently  met  with  upon  the  barrens, 
which  are  geuerully  altogether  destitute  uf  vegetalita 
soil.  Tboa  different  tracts  are  none  of  tlioin  of  greitt 
extent;  v.  -.da,  marshes,  and  iiarrena  frequently  itltar' 
nating. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  features  of  tim  island  are 
its  lakes  and  ponds.  These  are  found  in  every  dirxu' 
tion,  and  in  almost  ever}-  situation,  not  only  in  tim 


vallayn,  hut  on  (h«  highlands,  and  even  In  the  hollow* 
of  »ll«  nummlts,  «nd  on  tlie  very  top*  of  tli«  hills 
Thay  y»ty  In  iIm  ttom  poAIs  of  W)  yards  In  <iiainat«r 
to  Iskas  m  Itllltis  In  length,  and  from  4  to  ft  miias  wide, 
Ttw  niimlicr  KMcewlIng  2  miles  In  extent  amount  t/i 
savaral  liundred*,  wlille  those  of  smaller  size  are  alM> 
lutalv  (umntliiiiii, 

'/'w  A'/M«Wp#,— Tho  following  talila  »hows  lli«  quuii. 
titia*  ef  dried  cwt  and  seui  oil  exported  from  N.w- 
fMUiidlniid  for  cttcli  year  from  1861  to  J«65,  a  quintal  of 
fl»lth«lMt$IOlllb«,i 


¥••«, 

brt«lL-od. 

HMlllil 

guinlali. 

Tui.i. 

IWI , 

1,0IT,IW 

«,«»i* 

!«fij!...... 

\)Vt,Vil 

V,:iii:i 

"hi .•!. 

ii'i.iia 

tt,l!i( 

{"hi,,,,,,,,, 

714,117 

5,1)1)7 

Iidh,,,,,,, 

1,I(I7,3S9 

!l,7iii» 

Tilt*  Hiimb«r  of  vessels  that  entered  In  IH^Kwas  IM, 
and  tlidlr  iotinitge  100,503  j  tliosa  that  cleared  wirn 
1017,  Hnd  llieir  tunnago  137,613.  The  total  vuluu  of 
(JMi  llllpuits  III  the  same  year  was  £1,142,212, 

/i'Mi'^"Tli8 most remarkaldefuatura  connected  Mid) 
Mewrulimttmid  is  tlie  foga  which  prevail  on  Its  roaili, 
Tlin»8  of  tlio  iiulf  of  Ht.  Lawrence  are  attributed  lo  1I14 
KoldlMitM  of  the  Uulf  waters,  whicli  is  iiippuiied  Ui  tm 
liDniliilient  11  few  feet  below  the  surface,  us  well  us  ut 
Urwul  deptlli  The  fogs  on  tiie  banks  of  NawfouiMitiiiid 
Hftt  ttlldolilitedly  cbielly  duo  to  tlie  meeting,  in  iImI 
jiiilllt,  of  (ho  cold  nir  transported  along  witii  tli>!  poliir 
uiif  mill  w  Itli  llie  Warm  utmos|ilicre  0  vor  tlia  (>  ulf  ^iruiiiii, 
On  ilm  ufmt  Itank  (he  surface  of  tlie  water  is  many  da- 
urncH  eii\ikt  limn  It  is  In  (lie  nulglilioring  seu,  und  iiiuirji 
hm  (liiiii  llmt  of  the  Oulf  Stream,  which  is  wUhlii  it 
KJIMfl  tll!<littice  of  It, 

l'ri'itiiitiuni,^"'l'he  most  valuable  vc^utalda  pro. 
duiitliilis  Nfe  potatoes  and  cabliages ;  and,  next  to  litum, 
liirili|i'*i  viirrols,  parsncps,  railislies,  and  otlier  gurdeii 
tiiiitu,  yield  (lie  most  abundant  crops.  There  wuiu  in 
llm  Inlillld,  nccording  to  tim  census  of  IHib,  2409  lii/rnui, 
iiliti)  liiirned  cattle,  6760  sheep,  and  6791  guat<i.  I'.no 
llilim  ilmi',  lienvers,  foxes,  wolves,  and  twars  uIwuimI, 
H*  wall  A<i  file  wclldnowii  Newfoundland  dog,  iIm  Iiiih 
lifMeil  of  wlilcli  lins  liecoine  very  acarce,  lietlde*  lIik 
armt  flliipla  uf  the  island,  llth,  wiiich  is  lieru  uiiiU'ii. 
stood  U>  msitn  cud,  the  numerous  large  aiii<  siiiull  aliwis 
of  WAlitr  libiiiiml  In  divers  kinds  of  excellent  tioiil,  iiiid 
wU  of  A  f^trnt  sIm,  and  lobsters,  lam  <'  herrings,  iiii|i i. 
and,  niid  xAlmon,  nro  in  great  abundance ;  pluli  e,  eolu, 
IiiiIIImiIi  Afid  tliofnlmck,  nro  likewise  found  on  the  rouai, 
ill"  impidAii  nrrlroK  periodically  in  such  imnienin  sliouU 
f*  (n  <ilmtif{«  the  colors  of  (ho  sea.  Herrings  lilti'wlMt 
nrrlva  duritt|$  tho  spring  and  autumn  in  '^fMnUim 
llimilwM,  As  n  prudnct  of  tlie  coast  may  h  iiieutioiM'd 
kxlp,  whioh,  wltli  other  sea-weed,  is  u»ed  us  niuiiuru. 
TliH  litipnrlnnce  of  tliis  colony  lias  exclusively  ui'i«im 
from  lis  rtslli'fles.  The  dilT-rent  settlements  are  scut. 
tflffld  prlNcljinlly  on  tho  shoros  of  tlie  eastern  and  toiitli. 
pni  bIiIps  (if  (lie  Island,  but  especially  on  tliu  fofoiur, 
Thrty  iirii  (jciicfully  found  at  tlio  heads  of  tlio  Imyi!,  pur. 
ilcillui'ty  ('uil('p|itlon  Hay,  tlionco  to  Ht,  Joiiiis,  und 
simtliwrtrd  In  CapB  Hnce.  Tho  prinelpal  are,  lifl»ld«s 
Ht,  ilohlis,  llln  liny  of  Hull,  Brigus,  (Ju|ia  llroyla  hur. 
Iinr,  I'nfrylitlidi  I'prmoro,  and  Kenowes,  Ht,  .loliiis, 
(lis  ou|iltNl  ofthn  island,  is  a  place  of  considuruldu 
streiiglll,  sltiintod  ntiont  70  miles  to  the  north  of  <:u|»« 
Hrti'x,  N,  l«t,  47"  ar,',  W.  long.  62"  W.  Tlio  \m\i(ir  In 
mm t)( tlia  IicbI In  Newfoundland,  being foriiud  lielwiwn 
two  liKmMlnlns,  the  eastern  point  of  widcli  leave  un  «ii. 
tr»ne»  m\M  (ho  Narrows."— /'.Vk^c  llrit,,  IH.W, 

Tlia  AVSf/lgo  sl/o  of  Newfoundland  vessels  U  «l»OHt 
i!10  tiiiis,  Tho  chief  coasting  Irado  consists  in  ''airyliig 
lirovlsltini  And  supplies  for  tlie  lleliery,  and  l)iiiinliig 
IiB('l«  (lie  prucocds  of  the  voyage. 

NBwfolllldlGIld  proper  Is  divided  Into  nine  rtlefrlcts, 
tlia  popiitition  of  which  in  1846,  tliu  last  censu*  ytiui, 

WAS  AH  follows  I 


I'<l(l, 

l'<4l.. 

f*l!(.. 

I'M.., 

!■<«.., 

I'W.. 

'■(IT... 

ISIH.. 

1M9... 

isieo... 
IMl... 


NEW 


1405 


NEW 


r  uiU'l"" 

I  WUIU  III 

9  lliyieu*, 

.  i:iH' 
uIwoimIi 
IIm  nil" 

«llll!*  ill* 

u  iiimI"!'' 
ill  ^.IliiUlU 
I'.llll,  Ullll 

f,  Bl*|«, 
.111!  IIIIISI- 

itii  hImidU 

llltiwlw 

U'llKiiiil* 

llOMllllll") 

mitiiiif-'' 

|ly  iifU'iii 

lire  ami' 

IimI  tlHItl)' 

f.iriiiur. 
Iwyi!,  i'*'' 

lIlllK,    "ll'l 

ti'ylfl  IW* 
It,  .liilllli*, 
]atduritlil<* 
of  (^itl* 
llidcliof  I* 

iv><  ml  f  !>' 

IW, 

Is  uli'iul 
ciiiryliiK 
lillll(4ll"« 

J  rtlstrl' l*> 


ICImoral  Diilriiu. 


TwIllliiKald  and  Fogo  . , . . 

BonnirMn  Hay 

Trinity  Itay 

Uonconllui'i  Day 

St.  ,?ufm'ii 

Kcfrylnml 

I'larvnlla  and  Ht.  Mary's. . 

Hiirin 

Fortuno  Day 

ToUU 


Malti. 


FemalN. 


8,771 
8,948 
4,689 
14,899 
18,177 
2,413 
8,.578 
2,4sa 

&a,0(U 


2,973 

8,28t 

4,112 

18,127 

12.019 

1.9.57 

2,s9.5 

1,h78 

1,001 

44,231" 


Toul. 

7,227 
8,801 
28,028 
2.5,196 
4,870 
0,473 
4,a58 
6,  UK) 
BB,'295~ 


The  population  of  Newfoundland  at  various  perlwls, 
from  INOG,  lm9  been  as  follows ;  in  ISOfi  it  was  '20,505  ; 
ill  IHIB,  52,072;  In  1823,  52,1,J7  i  in  1825,  66,7I!ti  in 
1828,  00,088;  in  1832,  59,280;  ill  18:10,  73,705;  and  in 
1845,  as  aliove  stated.  Tlio  [mpulation  in  1861  was  es- 
timated ut  101,000  souls. 

The  chief  statistics  of  the  ogrlcultural  rondltioii  of  the 
I'olony,  as  gleaned  from  the  census  of  1845,  are  exhib- 
ited in  the  subjoined  table,  sli(JwinK  ^^^  disposition  of 
land,  number  of  live  stocli,  and  agricultural  products ; 


KiMltral  Dlilrltu. 

Undln 

Uml  In 

Uvo  Block  ownod.                                   1 

Agrlciiltiinil  {iro(lii<!li. 

diUlvatton.  iwAHesslun. 

llflrMi, 

Cmile.         SliDep.     1      ?\gt.     1     OoaU. 

I'olntori. 

Dgilntlii~ 
18,682 
2.5,071 
29,6i8 

152,878 

4S.M8 
28.658 
2<.7.59 
11,081 
2,067 

arnln. 

H.y,  otc 

TwIlllnKatc  and  Fogo. . . 
Ilonavlsta  Hay 

ACM*. 

4oe 

012 
1,070 
8,793 

19,099 

1,'202 

2,200 

1,047 

211 

Arrnp. 

591 

808 
1,478 

8,875 

63,777 

2,270 

4,272 

1,M1 

326 

9 

103 

287 

1,320 

908 
3.50 
475 
170 
0 

276 

OTO 

1.033 

1,.576 

1,607 
1,'.'06 
3,281 
1,772 
673 

569 
1,804 

795 
2,710 

Uuili.l.. 
14 

272 

8 

6,798 

8,488 
666 

588 

20 

8 

Tylli. 

52 

857 

518 

2,829 

4,313 
013 

1,678 
777 
176 

Trinity  Hay 

Oonccpllun  Boy 

ftt.  John's 

•228 
315 
1,'J83 
127 
439 

677 
1'29 
613 

lol 

85 

1,125 

278 

226 

8 

7 

Plarontia  and  Ht.  Mary's 
Hiirin 

Kortuno  Hay 

Total 

20,646 

88,428 

•• 

_._  ' 

■"■''"" 

' 

Tlie  manufactures  of  the  colony  are  verj-  limited, 
nnd  consiit  only  of  tlie  following  establishments :  ut 
Ht.  .lohn's,  2  corn,  1  saw,  nnd  1  bone  mill,  1  iron 
fmindery,  and  1  brewery.  The  city  has  gas  and  water 
works.  At  llri},'us,  Conception  Bay,  there  is  1  corn 
mill ;  at  llarl)or  Grace,  1  com  mill  and  gas-worivs  ;  in 
'J'rliiity  Hay,  1  saw  r.iill ;  and  at  Green  Hay  2  saw 
mills.     These  are  all  that  are  noted. 

As  before  stated,  the  chief  wealth  of  the  colony  con- 
tlsts  in  its  lisherios.  The  extent  and  value  ofthe.se  will 
l)B  best  appreciated  by  perusal  of  the  statistical  returns. 

In  1815  the  number  of  fishing-boats,  etc.,  was  as 
follows  :  iKiats  from  4  to  15  ((uiutals,  80'J2 ;  boats  from 
15  to  tlO  (]uintals,  1025 ;  boats  from  30  quintals  and 
Upward,  i)72 ;  cod  seines,  879 ;  and  seal  nets,  •1508.  ' 

The  value  of  property  employed  in  the  fisheries,  on 
an  average  of  four  years,  ending  in  1849,  has  thus 
been  stated : 

8tl  vessels  onttogcd  In  the  seal  fishery tl,028,0fl0 

80      "  "  coastlnc  «fc  cod-llshory        80,000 

10,089  boats  cngneeil  In  the  cod-flshcry 7.56,675 

HtaKcs,  fi'  .i-lionsc'S,  and  flulics 125,000 

i/M  nets  of  all  descriptions 68,500 

879  cod  seines 110,000 

Vats  for  iiinkliiK  scol-oll 2.50,000 

Fishing  linpU'iiionts  and  casks  for  liver. .       160,000 

Total 12,568,175 

The  value  of  the  annual  products  of  the  colony 
during  the  samo  average  period  is  thus  stated  : 


The  outfit  for  the  seal-fishery  la  1851  and  1852  is 
.shown  in  tho  subjoined  table : 


From 


St  John's 

Harbor  Grace 

Spaniard's  Bay,  etc 

('arbonear 

Brlgus,  Cupids,   Port  I 

do  Grave,  otc f 

Trinity  and  Oatallna.... 
New  Porlican  ic  Hants  ) 

Harbor f 

Grecnspond,  otc 

Boy  Bulls,  Aquaforto  I 

and  Kcnows ) 


TOIIB, 


I  Men.  {  Vei. 


9,'JOO!  8,480 

5,949,  2,398' 

480|     192 

3,408'  1,226| 

.5,309'  2,019' 

I 
2,573 


927 
1,740 


I 


999| 
807. 


15 


Ions. 

10,118 

6,120 

671 

8,3M 

6,407 


1,8'24 


Men. 

2,494 

'.^87 

l,18Ii 

2,456; 


949,169  quintals  fish  e.iported. 

4,010  tloroes  of  salmon 

14,475  barrels  of  herrings 

608.446  sealskins 

6.'2(I0  tons  of  soal-oll . 


$2,610,000 

60,,500 

42,600 

254,000 

860,000 

8,990  tons  of  cod-oil 626,1)00 

Fuel  and  skins 6,000 

Halt  sold  to  the  French 69,760 

Vaino  of  agricultural  produce 1,011.770 

Fnol 800,000 

•loMui.  vcnUon,  nnd  wild-fowl 40,000 

Thiiber,  boards,  staves,  hoops,  otc.       250,000 

Frosh  fish  used  by  Inhabitants 12.5,0110 

Halted    "         "               "         ...  176.000 

on  consumed  by             "         ...  _42,,500 

Total t6,3.52>20 


The  chief  foreign  trade  of  Newfoundland  vessels  is 
with  England,  Kcoi'  1.  Ireland,  Spain,  I'ortiigal, 
Hamliurg,   Brazil,  Vest   Indies,  United  .States, 

and  British  North  A  a.     The  time  occupied  on 

the  voyage  to  Kuropc  and  liack  is  from  si.K  to  ciglit 
weeks.  To  (Ireat  Britain  the  cargo,  generally,  is  oil, 
and  to  tho  other  Kuropean  countries  dried  codlish.  A 
voyage  to  the  West  Indies  and  back  reijiiircs  aliout 
nine  weeks.  The  outward  cargo  is  dried  cod  and 
pickled  fish,  and  the  inward  cargo  West  India  jiroduce. 
Vessels  from  the  West  Indies  sometimes  return  by  the 
United  States,  bringing  flour  and  provisions.  Vessels 
proceeding  to  Brazil  with  dried  fish  generally  go  from 
thence  to  Europe  with  cotton,  sugars,  etc.,  nnd  on 
their  return  to  this  consulate  bring  manufactured  goods 
from  Great  Britain,  This  voyngo  occupies  them  from 
three  to  four  months.  The  trade  with  the  United 
States  and  Canada  is  almost  exclusively  in  the  im- 
portation of  provisions.  American  vessels  could  be 
advantageously  employed  in  tho  foreign  trade,  particu- 
larly in  carrying  breadstuft's,  provisions,  etc.,  to  tills 
colony,  and  ilricd  fish  hence  to  the  West  Indies,  etc. 

The  following  table  cxhiljits  ihe  quantity  and  value 
of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  exported  for  the  eleven 
years  ending  1851 : 


Drieil  hih.            1                oils. 

SvoUklni.            1               Salmon.               1              Herrlnji.             j 

Y»«r«. 

(liiliilaN.    {      Valuf. 

Qalloni.    1      Value. 

N.>.        j      Value. 

TiiTcen. 
~K,896'~ 

3,642 
4,715 
4,058 
3,7f).8 
»..545 
4.917 
8,822 
6,011 
4,600 

4:;o25 

Value. 

Barrels.            Vulue. 

1810 

1841 

184'/ 

1X13 

18H 

1815 

18(7 

1818 

1»19 

i860 

mi 

01.5,795 

1,009,725 

1,(KI7,0s(l 

036,202 

H.52.162 

1,0(10,883 

N87.973 

020,866 

1,176,167 

1,089,182 

1,017,674 

€576,245 
605,014 
561,9.50 
.532.104 
4h2,4s0 
fi:)(V.t90 
489,010 
491,924 
688,728 
682,069 
493,014 

3,206,,583 
2,67.8,.574 
•2,26'2,081 
8,111,812 
8,60,5,86') 
2,219,801 
2,224.283 
2,6IO,s20 
2,23'2,496 
2,686.800 
2,744,010 

£80,5,107 
266,8.82 
238,313 
88.'i,0"5 
31.5,690 
248,610 
2.'9.I72 
S.'«1.579 
21.8,742 
,809,928 
819,977 

631,8.85 
417,U5 
344,6^:) 
651.870 
685..520 
3.5'2.'202 
4.86,^)1 
,521,004 
806.072 
440,  S28 
511,680 

£.89,408 
20,!I61 
23,200 
40,497 
39,648 
40,123 
46,280 
68,426 
33,780 
66,3.5(1 
76,596 

£12,939 

12,303 

13,073 

12,218 

11,945 

12,794 

9,782 

6,597 

10,815 

9,'200 

12,024 

14,686 
9,965 
13.S39 
9,649 
18,410 
20,003 
9.008 
13,872 
11,471 
19,656 
36,259 

£0,086 
6.801 
7.119 
4,670 
6,065 
11,2.84 
5,111 
7,644 
5,871 
9,779 
18,261 

''    ■•    . 

il  ll 


NRW 


1406 


NEW 


Tlia  unmK«i\  U  mt  mvnimi  nt  th«  renaela  and  ton- 1  cleared  outwanl,  of  the  colony  of  Nowloundland,  In  th* 
nuga,  iMitIt  llritloh  mimI  CurslKn,  entered  Inward,  and  |  year  ondint;  6th  January,  18&2 : 


OwwMm, 


OrfutBrlUJK,,,,,',,,,,,,;, 
f)lbr»lt»r, ...,,.  ,,,,,,,,,, 
Jiincf  wid HHunrnj/,, ,,,, 

«l>»l" ,,,,r,lt, ,,,!,, 

Kuitiig*!., ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, 
Ktiiiimrif. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

«urin»i»)r.,, ,,,,,.. /></;(.. 
N»|ili;». .,,,„, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 
ttarilliil*  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
U»ii)»iiHW)i«,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
'taimtny  ■,,,,,,,,,,,,,,•, 
Alum*. ■■,.,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 
Wii'lly ,,,,,■•,,,,<  ,,, 

Mailulrit J  ■  i  .•,,,.•  < 

iiriiidi  N.  Mmt,  lUimtrt,, 

irilllmtlillttllll.    ......  ,,,;,;, 

llrlllsli  Wi»t)i|*)(ti«„,,,,., 
Hiiaiilali  WlH  ilMu* ,, ,,,, 
l/uiiUI)  Wi.t))ii1(«(..„,,,, 
lltrwll, . , . ,  ...,,,,,,,,. 
Bl.  I'lurr-;  I (^rt»«(i),,  „..,,, 

I  'r«H«|. .,,,,,,, ....,, 


6 
M 

? 


«l 


S 
M 


t.'MA 

11,(141 

MM 

Mm 

6,78« 

4«7 

l!<l 


I4,«M 

lfH),W9" 


rorflign  TOHtlt, 


i 


36 

1 


8 
11 


19 


Tout. 

480 


4,«U 

T6 

474 

],a89 


im 

1.907 
V,478 


Britiih  ftiMli. 


'r<inf. 


11,»» 


lira 
11 

8 
18 

»0 

1 

80 

j 

0 

1 
1 
1 
1 

604 

SI 

71 

16 

1 

48 
10 


1«,U7 

1,1M) 

401 

9,178 

II.IMIH 

107 

8,860 

■«« 

1,158 

94 

195 

155 

62 

55,866 

8,U1 

10,919 

1,990 

188 

8,841 


Foreign  vvimIi. 


T..IM. 


86 
1 


16 

i 


1,01(7      I     117,778 


79 


1183 
149 

4i27« 
76 


1,917 
"147 


1,514 
813 
ISO 
170 
9110 

1,999 


11,119 


Making  mi  WggWgnJ)*  ii<  ilM  tes^els,  and  142,407 
tuns  (iimHiM'il  Uy  »Wi  ((M<«»i  fnlered,  and  a  total  of 
IlOii  v«s»«|»,  MM/I  li(*,W»  itmn  (with  7741  men), 
.  leurud,  ('>'!(»  U(i«  f  <(ll(l(it  It  will  Im  seen  that  tli« 
arrivulii  frm»  Urn  \'llit«i\  Wales  (greatly  exceed  the  de- 
l>arturii»  (iif  tlilt  l'mllllry^  lliereliy  nlinwlng  thj  bal- 
an™  of  ifmU  U>  Im  atfmnijr  against  this  colony. 

Tha  mimwf*  Itllii  «l«aranc«!i  for  the  pant  four  years 
bavs  bean  nn  ft4l'm>  i 


1651 

im4 


him       t»fr(*fi 


"~f,(ifr 

l,(iS7 
1.084 
1,108 


Tom. 

^9n,64^^ 

108,795 
141.678 
198,»90 


TI»B  stuHstl*!*  1)1  «l|)|Ml«ttJldlng  for  a  series  of  years 
exhibit  tliA  M\im\ng  r«*iilt<i  i 

Vit^rf.  ffHt        'ftilt^i    1 1  inn*. 


m 


i«». 

I"*!. 


No. 

19 
80 
.  80 
,  88 


Ton.. 
701 
1,054 
1,497 
1,800 


^bip  »wii«4  m»\  rctffi>t«r«d  In  (he  colinv,  on  the 
Dlst  VrnmnSmr,  tdftl  (  m^,  »fW  j  tons,  62,078. 

Tlia  tutal  V»t(W  «f'  *((«  ('(rtllHlerco  of  the  colony  for 
the  part  ()Ki  y»M*,  Midltlfj  Oth  ilanuary,  19fi2,  has  been 
oa  6«blhtM')H  i\w  fidl<«WJtif(  tahle  i 


mf,,r,77r, 

1»4«,. 
|S4».. 

I«5>,, 


J  V)ttHfitfiitiii"fi*i 

lit  ,m 
wj.jfirt 

«MJ!«I 


Vh^m  of  f  tptffu." 

Mt.Ml 
9f«,fi«f 
075.770 
9W,7M 


totnl  ralur.' 


£1,760  014 
1,667.9119 
1.M«.767 

l.'M-'t.O'ill 

1,909,949 


COUI/AmV¥H  (*f.4fti((»'»t  Of  *!(«  (UffNIC  *.SI)  EXPKNI)!. 

JUlim  (II  TH»  ¥»!*((»  (M»,  186(1,  ASI>  1351. 


.  (  .  iw,  - 

;«te.                 issi. 

tllhudBtl  «fi  *"'**'  *  * 

.... 

IJ«l.t4*M ..,,!     |,w««  ?   « 

«A«,«ai  19    0  £74.905    4    1 

a,«»o  10  11 

9,407  18     8 

I- rum  iiijitfii  i.Mrt   -   a 

6,143    8    0 

8,722  11    5 

TotaU ..««,«(((    ft    1 

*0((.»IB    8  11 

£80,895  14    2 

.KHmim^fii    1  ««,»«;(   '^    1 

fl,W7    1    5 

76,770    5    1  1 

Tu?*(.  Amiiim  KH'Nmw  **«  (•*<«  roa  tub  Ykab  k.nd- 
I1(*  «(*»■  KKCkWdtd,  1851. 


C»8l«w»  rfiffflMf  .■..,,..,,,,.,..., £74,305  4 

t<lflll(lM»«i,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,...,, ........      9,467  18 

U««<^fMH*i. ....,,,,,, ;,,,,.■,, ,,.,-.-...        1,601  .8 

LIri.llsu  f(|))4... ,....,,,,,,,.,  .,..,.,..,          849  n 

*  ues  r'roM)  (/«l(l(<i  offlcer*, . . . , 772  2 

yrow  N,  A, *l«rif)'< miiiiuM ,.,,,,,,..       6oo  o 


TtmHf  tiiiiimittn 


.  £80,895  14    9 


BXPENUITUBM  roR  TUB  TKAB  1861. 

Civil  (lopartnipnt £6,990    0  0 

Cuitoois  I'StaMisliuicnt 4,809  18  10 

Juillcltti  iliipartment,  etc 6,804  10  7 

Polk'o  and  nmiilstrncy 6,K28  10  0 

EccldslMllcal  ilcpartment 600    0  0 

LcaWotlvo              "         4.126  19  6 

rrliitInK  and  statlonory 645    4  8 

Jail  oxpi'nscs 687    4  0 

Coroners 280  12  1 

Kuu'i  and  IlKht 610    4  8 

Ki'pairs  of  court-houses,  etc 509  10  5 

"        government  buildings 245    1  8 

Relief  of  tlio  poor 0,829  18  10 

Koada  and  brIdeeA 6,765  18  10 

Postage  and  Incidentals, 107  12  2 

•Public  institutions. 475    0 

Education 7,748    6 

Llulit  iiouses 2,828  IS 

Registration  of  voters 80    0 

Interest  on  loans 6,788  10 

Pensions 161    4 

Crown  lands  act 281  11 

Loans  paid  off 6.780    0 

St.  iTohn's  rebuilding  acts 2,881  16  10 

Ferries  and  pa<;i(ots. 619  10  0 

Postnl  aet 1,%5  18  7 

Klopirie  telegraph 088    1  9 

Harbor  Grace  streets  acts 886  18  4 

Ht.  .John's  burjing  ground 602    0  0 

Steam  coiiimunication 500    0  0 

Miscellaneous 2,884  18  8 


Total £75,770    5    1 

The  Labrador  coast,  as  before  observed,  is  the  resort 
of  a  largn  number  of  flshermen.  Since  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  this  fishery  has  increased  more  than  si.vfold. 
No  accurote  account  of  the  products  can  be  ascer- 
tained, but  the  following  is  considered  to  be  nn  nppro.':- 
imation.  The  salmon  fisheries  average  annually 
about  80,000  tierces.  The  herring  fisheries  are  aUo 
very  large,  and  the  seal  fisheries  are  equal  in  vuluo  to 
those  of  Newfoundland.  The  imports  of  Lai>rador 
have  been  estimated  by  the  authorities  of  Newfound- 
land at  $600,000  per  annum,  and  the  following  is  an 
approximation  to  the  value  of  the  exports : 

Americi  in  vessels (480,000 

Nova  8.  otia  vessels 480,000 

Canada  -csseis 144,000 

Voasols  twned  or  cliartered  by  English  and  ,Jerse> 

liousej  l'd«  ing  establislmients  on  tlio  coast 480,000 

Vessels  owned  or  chartered  by  the  people  of  New- 
foundland   1,200,000 

Total $2,781,000 

The  total  exports,  however,  are  by  some  persons 
estimated  at  $4,000,000. 

[Authorities:  OIBcial  Abstract  of  Census,  1846; 
Return  shmoing  the  Value  of  Articles,  etc.,  imported, 
and  the  Neiefoundtand  Almanac  for  1853,  furnished  by 
Hon.  James  Crowdy,  Colonial  Secretary ;  Martin's 


NEW 


1407 


MW 


11,112   J 


19    8 

4    8 

4    0 

Vi    1 

4    S 

10    6 

1    S 

19  10 

IS  10 

Vi    2 

n   0 

5    0 

IS    6 

0    0 

10    5 

4    0 

11    2 

1  n  0 

16  10 

i  10    0 

i  13    T 

t    1    9 

118    4 

1    0    0 

)    0    0 

lis    B 

.  «4So,noo 

480,000 
144,000 

430,000 

1,200,000 

..$2,TS4,O0O 

no  persons 


Urilith  Colonlf  (Lonilon  edit.) ;  AjfonBWH's  Rpporl  im 
Colonial  will  Ijde  Commerrr  (IT.  S.  Sen.  l)oc.  ll'2, 
part  vlll.,  p.  671))  ;  llrpnrt  o/lhf  Commitlee.  (C'ana<lu)  lo 
prrjxire  n  Statevirnl  qfthf  Pnpiilnlion,  /nmme,  K.-pnul- 
ilure,  anil  Drbl  of  the,  Proriniea  of  UritUh  North  Amer- 
ica (.Juiiii,  1863),  etc.,  etc.] 

Trade  u-ith  the  United  tllattt. — The  great  Htnple  of 
t\\\»  colony  U  (lerlved  from  Ita  cxtenHlvo  flHlierloH.  An 
otitlinruto  and  interflAtin);  account  of  these  may  lio 
found  in  Mr.  Andrews's  Iteport  on  Canada,  etc.,  al- 
ready referred  to. 

IStO.  IHtl. 

Imports  from  Nonrfaunilliind  Into  IT.  8. . .  |0U,2TO  %\S%fM 
Kxports  to  Nowroundlanil  ft-om  U.  £) T07,IUO         9M,'iO(> 


The  troiU  of  Httmfllm^Unl^  #l(h  Mfccf  connfrlen 
than  the  IJiilt*.!  HM^,,  \MH\iuUt\f  ullh  Npiihi,  Por- 
tugal, Italy,  uiid  tlw  KrioitI*,  U  timiU  mof«  enlensivo, 
111  |iro|j<)rtloii  U>  i|«  nitimmiM  cnlrtihllltlcs,  than  In 
that  of  uiiy  oCitr  N«/r<li  ^^wtil'ltH  iiihny.  The  lienvy 
littlance  uKain»t  that  U\m\,  \u  IM  ititiU  with  the 
I'nlU'il  ,Slu»ci,  may  •M|<«*"*  «  ^c»«rti  why  It  speks  n 
Kuropcaii  niarkit  tut  ui  Urijx  H  initlUni  <it  H<  prodrirts. 
Thu  l,'i>ll»l  Ktulii  ui((*,rt  In  XB»f/rt(ml(«(i(l,  liwf,  p<prk, 
pitch  un<l  tar,  riir)H»M't((,  H)iilf,  tit*,  tnhniiii,  and  ({en- 
erul  nup haiidls-f.  U  >imy  Itf  mi-tl  tmm  the  frdlowlnn 
tall.,  that  tUiut  nitAimtit  nmimiil  In  tiiiU  three  fourths 
of  the  total  exjiorl*  (folii  IhU  H.HHlty  (n  Jlewfoundland. 


t'OMl'AKATIVr.  8TATK1IRNT   BXIIIDITINO   TllK    QVAMTITIXa    AND    VAUIM  i)K  TMK  futkl  tl//)l,   A»flMM    iu>f,| 

I'ORT  OK  f»T.  .Ioun's,  N.F.,  nioM  TUB  Unitid  Statiu  or  AuKaiiA,  maisii  |M«  ♦>♦»*  Niii,  K»»   ' 


DcMrlpllon  t>f  goutli. 


Uuwmlty. 


Apothecaries'  «  are ' 

Bacon  and  liams cwta.! 

Boof,  salted bbls.; 

Bread cwts.l 

Butter "    I 

Candles lbs.! 

Coffoo cwts. 

ludlaii  corn bush. 

Indian  meal bbls. 

Flour *' 

ilardwaro  and  cutlery 

Leather  and  leather  wares 

Malas>»'9 Kails. 

Pork,  salted bblsj 

Rum Kails. 

Tea lbs. 

Tobacco,  innnufacturud 

Miscellaneous 

Total 


T,9I0 

1,649 

84,908 

210 

US 

R,0S6 

6ft,117 


12,IW0 

9,'iSi9 

14,281 

90,078 


Vtlm. 

(997  08 

8,082  01 

0,8tl<)  44 

29,867  6S 

97,«S8  72 

11,104  28 

2,789  08 

608  12 

IM,R10  tw 

279,>ViA  01) 

tlH2  IIU 

18,246  10 

8.410  (Ml 

lasNflfl  00 

9,724  20 

2,\077  44 

4,\4I8  2.1 

8S,668  ,V) 

~Sll,SOI  91) 


QuMilIly. 

1,WT 

74.|!>» 

242 

11.498 
1)1,494 


;itl.9.V< 
ll,!iW 
18,994 
169,7&i 


mm  f» 
■tuM  |« 

im  -fii 
imn  it) 

lll.iHi  IW 

!«>■«  « 
1ii,i«i  mi 

■■it>,m  -it) 
'tm,  Hi 


STATRMRNT  ExniltlTINO    TUP.  ARTIOLea  MAUe  FKBR  nV  TUR 
KrCIPROCITY   TuKATV,  TUR    VaM'R    of  SITH    1.MP0RTR0, 

AND  TUR  Amount  of  Dutiks  taio  tiirhron,  urRisu 
TUK  Fiscal  Year  Esuisa  Juxr  80,  l».'i4. 


lit*   IMPfi 

imr.ti  mrn  thi 

^(»l,  K.», 

»»n  ItWS, 

(»s».                  1 

qiiimi~ 

V.ln..    ' 

•■  •  •  i  - 

«(.4M  «4' 

Vfi 

4.190  00 

i,ifm 

ll.IMl  IK) 

li.mi 

89,105  00 

'i.m 

n«,6sn  no 

(!«.(«« 

17,407  W 

Wl     r 

8.8K0  H* 

9,1(10  00 

'i.W.'i  no 

MI.A'28  60 

mi 

6,479  80 

•    -J 

»),«87  26 

mi 

2,210  no 

iti.m 

287,010  00 

».?(>• 

i.sor.  48 

*l,7tl> 

)n,<26  00 

1  nt 

8ft,.1Sl  W) 

1  i.-i 

n«,i6fl  SI 

._  •  -ft 

f,OT,78<  M 

AnlelM. 


Rnte  tit 

duty   I 

(HT  cent 


Stai'i.r  Kmuti^  1,1/  t>iu/l>l:ttf,  4*W  illr.lti  (Jiantitirs, 
KxpoRfKi)  |-R<,K  iut:  t'litL'l  /,>  m.  .>((«-»'»,  Nf.wrot'MO- 
I.ASO,    TO    TO*:    I'iUm    »M^M    lit    ^y|t.llll^^,    in  tmi 

Vrakk  ^^^■),  !«(((,  4iiW  WA 


Valiinortr- 
Iklel. 


20 


flrain.  Hour,  and  breadstuffs.. . . 

Animals,  ft-oc 

"       dutiable 

Fresh,  smoked,  and  salted  meat 

Cotton-wool,  fr.'c 

Seeds,  plants,  shrubs,  etc.,  free 
"  "  dutiable 

Vegetables 

Indrlcd  fruits. 

Dried         "    

Fish  of  all  kinds 

Products  of  flsh,  and  of  all 
I    other  creatures  livlnx  In  tiie 

water. 

Poultry 

Kftm 

Hides  and  skins 

Furs,  undressed 

Tails,  undressed 

I'nwronght  stone 

Unwrought  marbl* 

Butter 

Cheese 

Tallow I    10 

Lard 

Horns 

Manures 

Ores  of  metals,  free 

•'         "      dutiable. . . . 

ICoal 

Il'ltcli,  tar,  am'  turpentine. 

I.\»hcs 

iFIro  and  other  wood 

All  other  wood 

'Pelts , 

;Wool 

iFlsholl 

KIce 

iBroom  corn 

Bark 

iGypsum,  ground 

I       "        unground,  fTcc. . 

.Grindstones 

Ih-o  stuffs. 1      6 

lllemp,  flax,  tow,  unnianuf'd 
Tobacco,  unmanufactured . . . 
Bags. 

Total 


(8,900,078 

7.'>,406 

225,612 

B,184 

125 

13,210 

102,806 

18 

18,692 

901,671 


1,016 
5,500 
84,729 
13,920 
8 
10,768 

126,811 

127 

37 

887 

1,421 

18,790 

,M0 

254,776 

75 

4,441 

72s,6'iS 

574,051 

24,6.89 

69,1^2 

110,402 


20 

97S 

20 

8.58 

113,812 

5 

2:1,265 

5 

14,717 

80 

2,915 

."i 

12,696 

Oiitlea. 


(781,214 

45,128 
1,036 


111 

20,501 

2,788 

6 

130,884 


203 
1,100 
1,786 
1,392 

1,075 

25i362 

38 

8 

167 

71 


las 

76,482 

15  I 

884 

213.600 

114,810 

4,927 

20,754 

22,080 


195 
70 


1,108 
785 


DiuHytitM  «/  tt»'44. 


(•*»,._! 

KM. 

({nsnOly. 

tlmu»*.- 

«|MM«y. 

iim 

MM' 

60,3,17 

im 

\.mn 

2,145 

m>> 

n 

8,010 
98 

m 

41 

187 

tifm 

.... 

IFIsb.eod ,...,, (h1hU»; 

"    salmon w-ffn* 

I    "    licrrl«(f,.,..,,,.,,)(h(#J 

,'>d.8<al ,,„„,,„»«Wl 

'   "   cod ,,.,,,,„  " 

i8klii»,8eal...'.... Jffl.l 


NuMBRR  AND  'fimmmn  n¥  Vvfrnt  ^t^iti'  Vcwrm  sRHtr- 

l.vcl  AT  ASO  rhU^KIUli   tK/iH  ittti   I'llkt  lit  8t.  iIoMN's, 
nCRIMi   Dll    V>:A»»  I^H    Nil,  *fl)l   I^SlTl. 

*'j*.«4..  cifntnl. 

Veftrl.         , -^- -^^?  ^ -■—' , 

iy>S l/»  t,Hti  III  1,8(U 

1S.M 18  »,)W  J(  2,S68 

1666 42  lljiif  43  9,107 


874  i 
084J 

(7,898,868  (i;5^,677  | 


"  Article  .1,  ft  Is  aijffiimj  that  <(/«  ffftidesennmer- 
ated  in  tlie  sihedMJjs  lwf»'«H(" mtleiteii  (the  preceding 
list!,  I)eiii{{  tlifi  growth  mui  {/miluin  <<t  the  nforesoid 
British  colonies,  of  of  tlw  J.'HUcd  Hittfn,  shall  he  ad- 
mitted iiiti)  each  aiUHlfy,  fceli^flj^cly,  free  of  duty." 
The  colonies  referrnd  t'i  in  Ullt  fnffffiiitlg  nrlkles  are, 
Canada,  New  |)rHi)s*ci*.fc,  fiiiiit  Sc/rfhi,  and  Prince 
Kdward's  Island.  With  f»'«(«»*  t  io  Sewfoiindland,  ar- 
ticle li  proviiles  as  folh/»s  (  '•  Auil  it  Is  hereliy  further 
agreed,  that  the  proyjiW/is  »iiii  .»lij(«(«(lMis  (rf  the  fore- 
going articles  shall  «*Nl4  In  »((«  Island  at  Newfound- 
land, so  far  as  tliey  #W  mipiii't»iiin  in  that  colony. 
Hut,  If  the  imperii^  l'#riW)*tt'**(i,  ih«  Jitirvincial  Par- 
liament of  NHwtoM((/JI»wl,  W  th«  Crtited  Slates,  shall 
not  embrace  ill  tlwif  l»»Sj  mUtlM  (nt  carrying  this 
treaty  into  effect,  (}(«  txJHjfy  nf  ?<e*f(>iindl<ind,  then 
this  article  shall  (*b  uf  im  ^(twf  j  (rtit  the  (rrnisslon  to 
make  provision  \iy  \4W  U)  uivn  it  effect,  by  either  of 
the  legislative  hollies  #t)/fesi)i((,  sl/iid  not  id  any  way 
impair  the  reinainiHg  #rti*.|*«  iif  tilis  treaty. "  This 
treaty  is  limited  U}  (tell  y«»f«,  with  (he  tlsiiai  notice  of 
12  months  by  eitli«r  of  t'liw  iti^i  entitiM-Uhg  parties  who 
may  wish  to  terMlliMM  Mlf  amm:  iM(«  nt  exchange 
of  ratilications  of  ttw  tfnniy  «(«(♦»  referred  to,  Sep. 
tember  9,  18r>4      D^  i4  ffpsj^lcwl'i*  proclamation  of 


NKW 


1408 


NEW 


thcMmc,  8cpl«nil>«r  II,  IMal.  Dutenf  Itmccrptanrn 
\iy  ('iinmlti,  '2'M  Ni'iitiMiilivr,  IHM  ;  livXcw  HriitiHwlrk, 
lull  NovchiIht,  IH.Vlj  liy  Novu  Sidtlii,  Diiccmlipr  ITp, 
IHM;  l.y  I'riiuo  I'Mward'H  IhIiukI,  lltl  Octiiljur,  IH.'il ; 
ami  liy  "Newfdimclluiiil,  lltli  NnvcmliiT,  Ix.Vi.— </.  .V. 
I'lim.  Ihijitl,  IHolI.  Sue  Ili.Nr'H  J/iv.  .I/ri(/.,  .x.,  JIWII  j 
FiiAsnii',  xxxli.,  7I«;  AV/ir.  tin:,  xlll.,  ,'lltl. 

Mew  Oranada  h  tlio  iiiont  Iniportant  of  t)i«  tliron 
ropiililUis  into  which  tho  Soiitli  Ainrriiaii  rrpulilir  of 
('oloml>ia  renulviMl  itflolf  ut  tlm  lii^oiciliition  <if  thiit  imi- 
feiieriitioii  ill  18;ll.  Till  IHIO  it  wiih  ii  vico-royulty 
timlvr  tho  Spuninli  crown,  liiit  viilM«i|iuiitly  ii  pjrt  of 
tho  rop\il>lic  of  Ciildniliiii,  tlic  micldlv  iiiiil  wcHlurn  por- 
tiuiiH  of  which  it  now  rnilinici's,  Nuw  (ininiiihi  ii 
bounded  on  the  north  liy  tlm  Ciirililionn  Hcii,  on  the 
ciMt  liy  tho  republic  of  \>nu/.iiul«,  i>n  tho  Biiutli-eimt 
by  Ilru/.ilian  (iiiiiina,  on  th»  south  by  tlio  rcpuldic  of 
Kciiiiclnr,  iind  on  the  went  by  tiie  I'Hcillc  Ocoiui.  It 
lies  nioKtly  lictwecn  tho  cqiiutor  und  12°  N.  int.,  nnd 
between  70=  and  Wi°  \V.  long.  Area  about  IMU.OOO 
aipiure  miles, 

The  t'uinoii  or  plains  of  tlio  Orlnoci)  extend  over  tli« 
entire  tract,  stretchintt  away  to  the  wcr.tern  liaiilis  of 
tho  Orinoco  ami  to  tlie  CaHoiciuiare,  between  tlio  Ilio 
Ne^ro  on  the  south,  and  the  Hio  Apure  on  tho  norlli. 
As  fur  sDUtii  as  the  Vichada,  tho  nortiirrn  part  is  a 
complete  level,  averHf{in){  only  1100  feet  above  sea-level 
near  the  mountains,  whence  it  ({riiduaiiy,  but  almost 
Imperceptibly,  declines  toward  tho  Orinoco.  With  tho 
exception  of  n  few  polms  that  occur  at  nfeut  intervals 
all  over  the  plain,  and  some  low  bushy  trees  aloii(;  the 
rivers,  tills  district  is  (piito  destitute  of  trees.  I  Miring 
tho  rainy  season,  wliidi  is  from  April  till  November, 
rain  fulls  in  torrents,  ai^conipanied  with  feiirfiil  lliun- 
der-stiirms,  which  usually  occur  between  two  and  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  ;  but  the  contrast  is  very 
strikiiijf  in  Deceiniier,  .lanuury  and  February,  when  a 
cloud  never  crosses  the  sky.  This  immense  plain  is 
not  at  all  lit  for  cultivation  ;  but  i  .nuraeralile  iierdsof 
cattle  nnd  horses  Iind  abundant  pasture  on  it  during 
tlio  rainy  season,  tlioiigh  they  suil'er  much  durin){  tlie 
dry  months,  from  Noveinlier  till  April.  The  wet  sea- 
Ron  is,  on  an  average,  8=  Kalir.  hotter  than  the  dry, 
and  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  80°  Kahr. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Now  Granada  are  the  Slaj;- 
dalena  and  ('iiuca,  whicli  run  their  whole  course  witliin 
tile  territory  of  the  republic,  taking  their  rise  in  tlie  .An- 
des near  the  southern  frontier,  anil  after  (lowing  nearly 
the  entire  lengUi  of  tho  country  from  south  to  north, 
unito  in  one  channel,  anil  dlschuri^e  their  comliined 
waters  through  a  delta,  by  three  channels,  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  about  W.  long.  7o°.  Hesidoa  these 
two  principal  streams,  a  large  number  of  tlio  triliii- 
taries  of  tho  Orinoco,  having  their  sources  in  tho  dif- 
ferent ranges  of  the  Andes,  drain  tlie  //(inuj  of  the  cast. 
Of  these,  the  principal  are  the  Apura,  Meta,  Vicliada, 
Giinviarc,  Kio  Negro  and  ,la|iura,  on  the  mutual  boun- 
dnrj'  with  Kcmidor.  The  lakes  of  Now  (iranada  are 
inconsidorablr;  the  most  celebrated  Is  tho  Guatavita, 
not  far  from  the  city  of  HogotA,  Into  which,  it  la  af- 
firmed, large  treasures  were  thrown  by  tho  natives 
durinf^  the  Spanish  invasion  and  conquests. 

Tho  mineral  riches  of  New  Granada  are  consider- 
able, and  mostly  occur  in  the  western  declivity  of  tlio 
three  chains  of  the  Andes.  They  consist  of  salt-rock, 
lead,  iron,  copper,  mercnri',  platinum,  silver,  and  gold. 
Along  all  the  central  and  western  declivity  of  tlie 
Andes  gold  is  found,  and  is  ol)toined  by  washing  tho 
Kami  of  the  rivers,  as  well  as  that  on  tho  sides 
and  foo^f  some  hills.  It  is  found  on  the  plateanx  of 
Cuciita  and  (iirona  in  tho  eastern  Andes,  where  silver 
also  is  obtained  In  considerable  quantity.  There  are 
also  some  very  rich  mines  in  the  mountain  region  be- 
tween the  Rlos  Cauca  and  Magdalena,  north  of  N.  lat. 
fi\°.  Platinum  Is  found  in  the  western  declivity  of 
the  western  Andes,  anl  mercury  In  tho  valley  of 
Santa  Rosa,  near  Antloqula,  and  near  tho  Pass  of 


(Julndlu  In  the  central  Andes.  «:opp(r  is  found  in 
the  eastern  Andes,  near  I'limplona,  and  imrtli  of 
Tuiija.  Iron  and  coal  o'liir  in  tlie  moiiiitains  iionler- 
ing  on  till!  tabie-liiiiils  uf  llogota,  ami  leuii  In  various 
parts  of  the  eastern  Andes.  In  some  mountains  iiortli- 
ea^t  of  llogota  large  masses  of  rock-salt  are  fiiiiiid,  and 
it  Is  worked  by  the  government.  Liirge  quiiiitities  of 
salt  are  furnished  also  by  salt-springs  In  the  same 
mouiitiins. 

From  tlie  great  diversity  of  surface,  soil,  and  cl|. 
mute  of  New  Graiiaila,  the  natural  ]iroiluctlons  are  ox- 
treiiivly  varied,  e.iibraiing  almost  every  variety  fiiiind 
ill  the  temperate  as  well  us  in  the  tropical  /.one.  Tlie 
chief  objects  of  ciiltiirn  over  the  talile-liinds  of  Itogotu, 
and  the  district  nurtli  of  It,  along  the  western  slopes  of 
the  eastern  riinge,  are  the  cereals  as  in  lairope,  tlie 
aracaclm-roipt,  iinil  potatoes  ;  but  in  the  river-valleys, 
and  on  the  ciui^t-piuins,  maize  is  the  chief  grain  cuiti- 
vatod,  witli  rice,  sweet  |Kitatoes,  and  plantains.  As 
articles  of  I'onimerce,  are  cultivated  coll'eo,  cotton,  co- 
coa, toliacco,  some  sugar,  and  indigo.  The  forests 
alioimd  witii  numerous  kinds  of  useful  timber  trees ; 
liut  those  converted  into  articles  of  export  are  the  log- 
wood, llra/.il,  Nicaragua,  and  fustic  trees,  whicii  grow 
most  abundantly  in  the  forests  of  the  .Sunta  Marta 
I'lialn.  The  balsam  of  Tolii,  so  named  from  a  village 
near  Cartagena,  !,  collected  largely  on  tho  banks  of 
the  Itio  Miiiu,  and  ipecacuanha  on  those  of  the  liio 
Magdalena ;  cincliona,  or  Peruvian  bark,  is  olitaiiieil  in 
largo  quantities  in  tlio  region  of  the  Sierra  do  .Santa 
Marta,  as  well  as  i;-  several  other  places  ;  cocliineal  of 
the  Unest  (|uality  i.<  procured  froii  the  banks  of  the  ,Si>- 
gaiiiiizo.  I'revious  to  tlio  discovt  r  v  of  this  countiv  liy 
F.iiropeans,  horses  and  cattle  were  unknown  in  tlicse 
regions  ;  lint  now  tasajo,  or  Jerked  beef,  and  hides,  i\<< 
articles  of  commerce,  aro  furnislied  liy  the  immenso 
herds  of  cuttle  which  the  llmmi  sup|iort ;  and  mules, 
horses,  and  cuttle  aro  exported  to  the  West  Indies. 

The  )Hipulation  of  New  Grunuda  are  descendants  of 
the  Spaniards  who  have  settled  there  during  tlie  three 
last  centuries,  and  some  of  the  native  trllies  Intermixed 
with  a  few  negroes.  Verj-  diirereiit  degrees  of  livil- 
i/.ation  are  found  iiinong  the  native  tribes.  Before  the 
invasion  of  the  Hpuniurds,  tlirtse  of  tho  taiile-Iuiids 
ulong  the  eastern  Andes  liad  organi/.ed  a  political  sys- 
tem, and  made  some  progress  In  the  simpler  orts  of 
civilization.  These,  witli  tlie  Indians  in  tho  iulley  of 
tho  up|ier  Mugdulena,  are  still  the  best  husbandmen 
in  the  republic,  lletween  tho  Pucilic  and  the  western 
Andes,  nearly  all  tlve  population  are  descei'.lants  of  the 
aboriginal  iiativi!  trilics,  wliose  progress  in  tlie  arts  of 
civilized  lib)  is  very  small,  and  almost  exclusively 
owing  to  tho  few  Spanish  priests  scattered  among  them 
us  missionaries.  Nono  but  tho  descendants  of  Kuro- 
pcana  dwell  in  tlio  treeless  llwma ;  and  their  occupation 
is  the  caro  of  the  lierds  of  mules,  horses,  and  cattle. 
Wandering  Indians,  still  in  a  very  birliarous  state, 
occupy  tlie  southern  wooded  portion  of  the  llanot.  Tho 
numlicrs  of  tho  respective  rai  es  occupying  Now  Gran- 
ada liave  lieen  estimated  by  Huliner  as  follows  : — 

White  Cauciislans '. ■IM.IWO 

Nntlvo  cIvlUzoil  Aimrlcaiis 801,000 

Ni'urocs KO.OOO 

Metis  (lU'Scenilants  of  i^paDlunls  and  natives)   0911,000 

Mulaltoes 2S;l,000 

Hnuiiivcs 120,000 

Zainbos  (in  .Maffilabna) 100,000 

(Juadroncs 30,000 

Total  estlrnatoil  populntlon  In  1S68, 2,36:1,000 
Agriculturo  liolds  the  tirst  place  in  tlie  industry  of 
New  (iraiLida.  Kice,  cotton,  toliacco,  cocoa,  sugnr, 
and  tropical  fruits,  are  among  the  jiroductions  of  the 
coust  region ;  while  tho  elevated  plains  yield  maize, 
wheat,  and  all  tho  products  of  a  temperate  zone.  Tho 
cultivation  of  tho  soil,  however,  is  curried  on  very 
carelessly ;  and  reclaimed  land  boars  but  a  small  pro- 
portion to  the  whole.  On  tho  llaikoa  toward  the  Ori- 
noco, almost  the  sole  occupatiun  of  the  pcoplo  is  the 


NKW 


uuo 


NKW 


lUIH) 
litry  of 
I  sugar, 
lof  the 
|inuize, 
Tho 
very 
111  pro- 
Tie  Ori- 
1  is  the 


Maring  of  cattla  tnA  honimt.  AKrioultur*  U  cliU(l)r  in 
th«  hunilii  of  thn  cuiiverteil  liiiDitni,  who  manifnat  a 
*«ry  (loctileil  prmlilnctiun  for  tliiiia  Uburi  of  |ki«i'h, 
ManufartiirliiK  induitry  in  of  no  llttia  Iniportanu*  tli«t 
It  run  Imrilly  Imi  ruIiI  to<"ii<t  In  the  repuhlic.  It  U 
llmitml  to  hoine-iiiaile  coiifie  wih)!!!!!*  itn<l  miUint, 
•■laiite<l  fur  the  unn  of  Ijie  \"^\  it  ilauMs  only.  At  l(u> 
gntft,  the  cupital,  and  the  othiT  priiii!i|iiil  tciwni,  imlawl, 
•traw  hatn,  car|>etii,  anil  auiue  other  iirtlvloa  urn  iiiuiUt, 
but  in  n..  ouiie  doea  the  native  industry  Immniuiu  rmii- 
mannurate  with  the  ilemands  of  the  country,  ao  that 
nearly  all  mnnufactured  kooiU  In  um  are  lni|H)rtiii|. 
MininK  la  carried  on,  hut  only  to  a  very  inrunajdvralila 
deitree.  There  ia  a  ailver  niiix'  nt  Surta  Ana,  in  Itu- 
got&,  the  only  one  now  wnriied  ;  and  Kold  U  nil- 
lei'ti'd  In  a  few  luvnlitleK.  I'.iiiiiraldA,  iliunionda,  and 
pearia,  are  alno  ol>tulned.  I  he  nalt  inlnea  of  /ipai|ulra 
are,  however,  uxtenxively  workoil.  With  tlie  tixi'e|>> 
lion  of  thJK  laiit,  the  niinlnK  bualnen't  of  the  country  la 
left  entirely  to  the  poor  and  iKnorunt. 

The  principal  porta  of  New  Oranada  are— <in  t|j« 
Caribbean  Seu,  Hunta  Marta,  t'artagena,  (^hiigrea,  lUii 
de  la  llaeha,  and  I'ortoliello  ;  on  tliu  Pai'Ulc,  I'uiiaiiu 
and  Uuenaventuro,  Hteaniera  now  navit(ute  tile  Man- 
dalena ;  and  tho  only  ruilwuy  In  the  uouutiy  la  that 
from  Aapinwall  to  Panama. 

Chrlatopher  Columbus  discovered  terra  flrma  In 
149H,  and,  during  bis  fourth  voyaK»,  on  the  '.^d  of  Nu- 
veralier,  150'i,  found  Cha|;res  and  the  liav  of  l.iniiinas, 
called  uIno  Navy  Ituy,  Diflenmt  Kuvernmenta  liava 
been  cstublished  thriiU|;hoiit  the  (iraiudiun  turritory, 
while  Spanish  colonies ;  a  vice-royalty  was  at  leni{tli 
formed  in  17i'l2,  of  what  are  now  tho  repulilics  of  New 
<Jrana<U  and  KcuaJor.  In  IHIO,  New  (iraniula  sepa' 
rated  hersidf  from  the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  main- 
tained a  constant  war  until  IH'il,  when  the  SiHinish 
army  was  conquered  by  the  republican,  of  whlcli  two 
thirds  consisted  of  Colombians.  liolivar,  the  moat 
diatint(uished  leader  of  tho  Spunish-Amuricun  revolu- 
tion, was  the  first  proposer  of  tlio  union  of  Venezuela 
and  New  Urunuda,  in  1H18 ;  and  wlion  the  Congress 
of  AnKostura  met,  early  in  IHIO,  the  fundamental  law 
was  enacted  which  established  Coloml>iu,  on  tlie  I7tli  of 
Decemlicr  of  that  year.  Venezuela  separated  herself 
in  Novemlwr,  1821),  and  Ecuador  in  May,  IHIIO;  and 
the  central  part  of  Colombia  instituted  itself  tho  re- 
public of  New  (iranada  on  the  '21st  of  Noveml)er,  18:)1, 
In  1832,  the  constitution  of  the  State  was  sanctioned, 
under  the  form  of  a  democratic  republican  govprnment, 
by  dividing  the  supreme  imwer  Into  the  executive, 
legislative,  and  Judicial,  under  a  central  regimen,  but 
giving  to  the  provinces  a  munici|)al  corporation,  that 
each  section  might  legislate  in  its  local  uifairs.  The 
republic  was  divided  into  provinces,  these  into  can- 
tons, and  the  cantons  into  parochial  districts.  Tlie 
State  recognized  no  national  religion ;  but  has  declared 
that  it  will  pay  lor  the  Catholic  worship,  and  protect 
Granadiana  in  its  exercise.  The  law  of  Colombia, 
which  attributed  to  itself  the  law  of  patronage  exer- 
cised by  Spain,  lins  continued  in  vigor  to  the  present 
time.  The  republic  was  first  divided  into  18  provinces ; 
.and  they  have  since  been  increased  to  36,  Tlie  con- 
■titution  of  1832  was  reformed  in  1843,  without  any 
Tariation  in  the  form  of  government. 

Commercial  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
New  Granada  are  regulated  by  treaty  of  December  1% 
1840,  proclaimed  June  12,  1848.  The  following  sum- 
mary presents  the  principal  commercial  foatutes  of  this 
treaty : 

There  shall  be  a  perfect.  Arm,  and  inviolable  peace 
Hid  friendship  between  the  two  republics.  No  favors 
to  be  granted  by  either  party  to  other  nations,  which 
shall  not  become  common  to  the  other.  Mutual  bene- 
fits in  trade  and  residence  to  be  equally  enjoyed.  The 
coasting  trade  reserved  by  each  country  to  itj<  own 
flag.  Kqualization  of  duties  grunted  by  each  country 
on  Toasels  and  their  cargoes.  The  privileges  respecting 
4U 


ilrawlNMika  af|iMllMd  In  the  flan  ot  each  in  the  porU  of 
■Ithar,  liH|i»nall»ii«  and  eaMirtallons  of  articles,  the 
prmlui'*  lit  Hta(iufa<'l(ir*  of  eltUr  country,  into  or  from 
III*  iitliar,  miMall/ml  as  to  diillea  with  similar  liii|Kirta- 
tioiis  and  «»|ior(atl<iti»  of  any  other  foreign  cniintry. 
All  prohlliillons  as  In  artlilM  of  im|  irf,  or  export  to  lie 
•■lual  ill  •«<  h  iiiHlilty  as  truinln  the  flag  of  the  other; 
tlia  Ihua  yim  nUiiit  •lltiiiUlkins  to  apply,  whether  the 
vasMiU  proi'««i|  Unm  their  own  |Kirts  or  from  foreign 
l«<rt»,  rNS|Mi||vir|),  The  illl/.ens  of  either  country  to 
be  fraa  Ui  mini»^  |Mr  own  lio.lnoss,  as  well  with  r*. 
•|aii t  III  shiiiiilnK  »n<(  Its  Inildsnts,  as  to  purchases, 
wiUa,  Bti ,,  III  iIm  imiiity  Iff  the  other  i  and  this  privl- 
l«ga  III  Iw  n,\iiymi  \mtnmMy  ut  by  ageiita— they  Inilng 
ill  all  tllKw  1  aai"i  treated  as  dll/.ens  or  subjei-ts  of  the 
moat  fuviirud  nallofi,  ll  law  of  emlmrgoes,  detention 
of  vaaaula,  a),,,  f„f  |,„|,)|,.  ,„  private  uses,  full  In- 
ilaiiiiiKy  1(1  Im  alliiwnt,  I  he  vessels  of  either  partv 
saaliliig  rafHg*  ill  Ilia  (nrrts  of  the  other  to  lie  pro- 
Uctail,  Vaasala  («|i(uri»l  by  pirates  to  bn  delivered 
up  til  ttiH  iiwiMfa,  AssUlsrics  to  lie  given  In  casei  of 
•lilpwiai'h,  kU',,  III  llie  (sifts  of  each  to  the  vessels  of 
the  ollkur.  III  Ilia  saiMn  manner  as  to  thn  nationsl  flag. 
( 'ill/j>Ha  iif  aillifr  I'liliiiirr  aiitiiorlxed  to  dls|si«e  of  their 
imraiiiial  giaiits'aiiil  teal  estate  within  the  Jorlsdiition 
of  tlia  iitliar,  by  snle,  donation,  testament,  or  other- 
wiaa  I  ami  llialr  rutireawnlalires,  being  citizens  of  the 
olliar  riiillltfy,  III  al,  lesd  lo  their  said  |KTsonal  goods 
or  real  nalala,  tt|ii>tlier  liy  testament  or  nb  inlettato, 
aiul  III  taka  \iii»»»iH\iin  lliereof,  either  by  themselves  or 
othura  oi'tiiiK  iiit  (hem,  and  to  dl^irfise  of  the  same  at 
tlwlr  will,  |i«>liiKiitily  siiih  dues  as  the  Inhabitants  of 
the  ciiimlry  afa  siiIiJm  I  to  In  like  case h.  Protection  to 
(wraona  ami  |iro(i*rty  furmally  guarantied,  whether 
audi  |wraiiiia  «rii  transient  or  dwellers  In  the  teh'ltories 
uiid«r  Ilia  Jill1«dl(tl<(ll  irf  either  party,  respectively; 
and  ai'1'i-..a  In  Ilia  liigal  trililinals  of  each  country,  free 
and  i|iir»»lr('  lad,  ^rallied  to  lh«  ellizens  of  theother, 
on  lliu  aaiiia  lurills  MS  III  the  native  or  other  I'ltiiiens  of 
auiii  roiiiilrv,  l,llii>rtf  of  (imsdeni e  and  the  free  end 
uiiraatrlctad  ritaa  iif  liiiHat  guarantied.  Moth  partiei 
at  liliarty  U>  trai1i<  wllli  lliirte  at  enmity  with  the  other 
Kraa  ablpa  In  Mialle  .'fee  gmxls,  conlraliand  of  war  e» 
■'e|itad,  I'iliKliiy'a  \it»]mHy,  to  be liroteiteil  by  a  neu- 
Iral  Hag,  iiiiist  \m  shipped  within  two  months  aftei 
dei|iirati/m  it(  war,  Aftldes  contraband  of  war  specl- 
tied,  llloi'lMita  itellni'd  in  lie  the  besieging  or  blockad- 
ing of  tliiiMH  pUiwa  only  which  are  actually  attacked  by 
a  iNilllgHriiiit  fiifi'tt  I'apaliln  of  |rreventiiig  the  entry  of 
tlia  nautfal,  All  Konlfahaiid  articles  liable  to  conflsca- 
tlou.  Ill  '■»*»  lit  l/loikade,  vessels  f'>  be  turned  away, 
but  nut  ilnlalMwl,  Vessels  entering  brrnre  lilockade 
may  ipiil  uHimil>i>lcd,  Itlifing  a  visit  at  sea,  armed 
veaaela  Ui  mimUt  "lit  "f  c  iKrton-sliot.  In  case  of  war, 
sea-lettura,  mr'iliimt**  iit  cafgo,  etc..  to  he  furnished, 
showing  111  wfimi  tlia  pfiit«rty  belongs,  ?n  case  of 
war  li«lw««B  tlw  Iwii  tiailoNs,  merchants  n'iowed  time 
Oi  niontli!!  til  tlmw  fcsiding  In  ports,  and  12  months  to 
thoaa  reahillig  l»  Ida  (Hleffif)  to  arrange  fte  ;r  business, 
tr4iis|iiift  (half  alfada,  elc,  Citizens  of  ot  ler  occnpa. 
lions,  who  may  Im  fslnlillshed  In  the  territories  of  the 
United  Ktatna  iif  of  M»w  Of««»da,  to  bo  respected  and 
msiiitaiiittd  ill  llw  full  enjoyment  of  their  personal 
lilierty  Slid  (ifijaifly,  lllla  ((fotecllim  being  de|ipndenl 
on  tliuir  I'oiidmi,  Sii  i  iniliscadon  of  debts,  etc.,  in  the 
event  of  war,  CItl/i'Ma  itf  the  United  States,  their 
vessels  ami  llWfl'lwildlse,  |i)a«ed  on  the  same  footing 
as  those  uf  }iaw  iit4lliuU  in  the  ports  of  Panama. 
Itlglit  of  traiiait  (lifii**  llie  Istlitnns  of  Panama  guaran. 
tied  to  I'ilizaiia  of  IliK  I'fliled  Mates,  and  no  other 
or  higher  tiilla  tii  Iw  etnai'ted  from  them  than  from 
citizens  of  fiawlinrntnU.  1  he  t'nlted  Ntates  guarantiea 
I  to  New  (jranifta  flia  per lect  nelilrallty  of  the  Isthmus. 
'  Citizens  to  M  iHild  la'fMfNftlly  respotvsible  for  infrin^ 
ing  any  arttiiji'a  of  tHA  treaty )  lifit  reprisals  not  to  b« 
authorized,  nnr  war  i1«(d«r«(t(  until  jnstlce  hok  bom 
dsuiand«d  and  rafMiHwt. 


NEW 


1410 


NEW 


Ad  idilltlond  trtlrU  provMfn  Ihiil  lh«  two  npohllei 
will  hold  mill  lulmit  mi  ni4'limiil  •hliM,  iif  nn*  «r  tha 
otbar,  nil  thiiM  thiit  iliull  l«<  iiriiviilml  liy  thitir  nii|Mii-- 
Itv*  guv^rniiiriitii  with  •  piitnit  luauml  tiTonllUif  to  lln 
Uwt.  The  Iraitty  to  I'lnitiiiiia  In  font  twenty  ynn 
fruin  tlin  lUl*  iif  It*  riillllriilliin,  vnil  after  that  iwrlml 
th«  uaual  twvlva  inonlhii'  iiiitU'a  rvqiilrad.  Th«  navi- 
gation ami  taiilf  rrKulntliinn  of  N«w  (Iranaila  ara 
marki'il  hy  a  aplrlt  of  lllH-rallty,  thnuKh  tlia  fiiralKn 
cuiiniiiiri'ii  of  tha  republic  hiia  not,  an  yal,  attainail  any 
conniili'mlila  lni|Kiniini'(i.  Ilia  I'ninmari'a  of  tha  l'nita<l 
Htnto,  liowavar,  with  that  rapuhllc,  In  thoiiKht  tu  la- 
bur  uiiiirr  aoina  illnailviiitiiK*",  aa  ap|i«ara  from  tha 
follow  InK  extract  from  a  lata  nmaular  ratiirn  :  "  Our 
ciiiiiiiiarra,  liy  treaty,  la  put  on  the  fiKitln)(  of  the  moat 
favori'il  nutlona.  Hut  thla  la  nominal  only  i  for,  In  the 
Hat  of  iliitlalile  artiilva,  thiiae  aupplieil  liy  the  United 
Htiiti'a  ara  tuxeil  at  a  hl^liKr  rate  than  auch  a»  cnma 
fruiii  Kn|{liinil,  Fmif-a,  anil  Uermany.  I  can  not  now 
Ifive  you  many  Uiatancea  ;  liut  my  racollactliin  la,  that 
lluur,  liacon,  and  provlalona  |{«nerally,  aa  wall  aa  com- 
mon liata,  iKHita,  and  ahoea,  may  Im  anumaratad.  The 
•rticlua  mainly  produced  liy  the  United  fltatoa  lielng 
taxed  at  a  hlifhar  rate  than  artlclea  produced  by  Kn- 
gland,  etc.,  etc.,  creatInK  a  practical  diacrlminatloo 
•gaiiint  III,  neceaaarlly  o|M-ratea  aa  a  double  Injury  In 
the  exchiinga  for  tha  proilucta  of  thla  country.  •  ♦  • 
These  inattera  ahould  lie  correctml,  and  there  ahuuld  be 
a  atlpulatiun  Inaerted  in  the  treaty  (ahiiuld  a  new 
tnaty  lie  entered  Into)  prohibltln);  the  provlncea  from 
Mldlutc  any  tux,  direct  or  indirect,  except,  |)erbapa,  to 
•nforce  hottajiile  ina|iection." 

The  principal  commercial  porta  of  New  Granada  are 
Santa  Martha,  Cartagena,  and  runania ;  the  aggre- 
gate trade  of  which  porta,  for  the  year  186'.!,  la  given 
la  the  following  atatemant : 

Comiiaai  or  Niw  Obanadi,  ISAl. 


PrilMl|»l  peril. 

1 IiiUr«l.               1               CUm*.              1 

Rhlja. 

Toai. 

iibip.. 

Ton.. 

Oartaitona 

Rt  Manila 

I'anama 

Total 

M 
811 

14,«71 
4,167 

14»,!IIW 

iiii 

4H 
»7 

4.^4 

1»,7H4 
4.197 

I8a,i«w 
if.i,«»i 

Val»  tmUni.  Value  rlear#'l. 

Cartaffena....        »'<I.V4«  llrr.  atari.     9tf,2<i7  Itvr.  atari. 
Bl.  MarlliB....  H«,7»4       "  l^ll»!)       *• 

Paimiiia. 8()9.9&^U00  franca.      S,47<),0u»       '• 

The  aulijulned  nnalyaia  of  thla  atuteinent  will  ahow 
the  dlMtritiuti.m  of  the  commerce  of  Mew  Granada  for 
tho  year  ap^^tilied : 


P#  f •nt. 
En^linil  tnil  colonlea  nOW 

Kraiipc 7'41l 

lliillwl  -utee 4-9S 

Curacii* 9'M 

Bt.  Tli..inaa l-dl 

Banllnla.... OM 


P«r  ctnt. 

Cuba. 0-flO 

Holland 0'49 

llatiaaTowoa OW 

Mexico 0'17 

Siiain 0-M 

Nicaragua 010 


The  inipxrta,  during  the  janie  year,  conainted  of 
printed,  d.'ed,  and  white  cotton*,  calicoea,  and  otiwr 
aimiUr  tlrauea ;  aillia,  llnena,  wuclena,  hardware,  fur- 
niture, m  inufacturea  of  metala,  m»u  icinal  druga,  wi^ea, 
4plrita,  huur,  and  provlalona  genorully.  The  chief  ar- 
ticle of  export  wan  gold,  of  which  the  amount  fur  thla 
year  was  alwut  #1,0011,000. 

A  conipariaon  of  exporta  fur  u  number  of  year*  ex- 
hibita  the  fact,  that  the  quantity  of  gold  exported  has 
either  remained  stationary  or  slightly  diminUh^d. 
The  cause  la  not  found  in  any  ueticiency  In  the  auri- 
ferous resources  of  the  cjuntry,  as  the  mines  of  Antio- 
quia,  and  those  in  thi'  country  along  the  Pacillc,  on 
Uie  Uio  Zulut  and  the  Itlo  Hacha,  cuntuin  larxe  quan- 
tities of  the  precious  metals ;  but  the  dilKcuities 
attending  the  transportation  of  heavy  machinery,  in- 
disiM'nsnUe  in  working  tho  mines  uf  Antioquia,  seem 
t«  lie  insuperable,  lieyond  a  certain  weight.  Until 
gowl  roads  shall  have  liecn  established,  and  the  mines 
tharebjr  rendered  more  accensible,  but  little  iinpruvo- 


menl  In  the  mlelng  Industry  of  this  region  (the  rieliett 
In  New  Granada)  can  be  axpectad. 

Iiarga  quiintltlea  nf  gidd,  In  Ingots  anil  diiat,  enter 
into  the  rlnndealhia  triiila  of  tlia  repulillc,  nf  whii.h  no 
account  ran  be  taken  In  the  olHcial  returna. 

Next  to  gold,  tolMi'i'o  la  tha  moat  iin|Mirtant  article 
In  the  ax|Hirl  traile  of  New  (intnada,  and  its  most  \it\u 
dui'tlva  alaple.  Tha  anil.  In  many  |iarts  of  tha  rapiilx 
lie,  la  peculiarly  aiU|itad  to  the  gmwth  of  lobaccn,  and 
Ha  priKlui'tlon  might  be  inailn  it  aource  nf  the  prlju  ipal 
agricultural  wealth  of  tba  .State,  nnilar  a  iliirerant  aya> 
tein  of  properly  ragubitrd  industry.  I'hu  ipiantity 
exported  In  IMP  excaadad  that  of  tba  preceding  yaar 
by  IIA  |M>r  rant.  ;  and  tha  retuma  fur  aavaral  prscailing 
yeara  exhibit  a  regular,  though  not  ao  large,  augment- 
ation. 

('ablnet-maker's  woihI  and  dye-atulfa  rank  next  In 
the  exjKirta  of  tha  country,  in  IKIH,  they  amounted 
In  value  to  (lltl.AOO.  The  large  bulk  of  tbeae  products 
la  aent  to  the  I'liited  Htatea,  In  part  exclmnge  fur  pni- 
visliina,  cotton  giHHia,  furniture,  medicinal  druga,  und 
aundrlea.  Kxcellent  roflee  and  cocoa  are  nilaeil,  chirtly 
In  the  valley  of  ('uciita  ;  whence  transported  to  MarH» 
ralho.  In  Vanesuela,  they  enter  Into  the  returns  uf 
Veneiueliin  exports. 

In  addition  to  these  products  of  New  Granailn,  • 
new  apecles  of  bark  has  recently  lieen  diacovured, 
which  pnimlsea  to  liecome  a  valuable  article  of  com- 
merce. A  letter  from  a  mercantile  house  in  l^indon 
to  a  carrea|iondent  In  New  Graiiudu,  written  in  IHI.'i, 
says ;  "  We  Imported  biat  year  17,(HI0  aeroons  ( bum. 
|>ers  or  buskela)  of  New  Gninadii  and  MM)  seroona  of  llo- 
iivinn,  bark.  The  New  Grumida  all  anld ;  but  the 
Ilolivlan  being  held  for  a  miiiin[Hily  price,  is  atill  in 
the  market — proving  that  thla  kind  bus  very  littla  de- 
mand." 

Delondre,  In  hia  new  work  on  quininn  harka,  give* 
an  anulyaia  of  n  Now  Granndinn  bark  containing  quite 
as  much  quinine  as  Ilolivlan  cnllsayn.  If  tbecalUuvHof 
Santa  K6,  or  fumigasiign  and  pitaya  Imrks  of  New 
Granada,  bad  been  introduced  Into  the  nmrket  befura 
the  lluliviun,  there  would  bo  no  qiieatlon  about  thi 
quality  of  the  alkaloids  they  yield. 

There  aeems  u  pnibablllty  that  thla  New  Grins.ii, ^ 
liark  will  siHin  enter  largely  Into  the  export  i  i  r 
that  country.  The  chemical  test  to  wliicli  it  Imi^  i.,..  i\ 
subjectnl  In  Kngland,  has  ulreudy  atunipnl  '  t-.  n  vml- 
uahle  acqulaition  to  the  materia  mcilica  '  the  ^asr- 

iiMllcal  Bcurcity  of  quinine,  which  aomeliiii«  -  lisea  that 
article  to  a  most  exorbitant  price,  win  mailer  it  still 
more  |>opular.  In  n>ference  to  thla  h.irk,  and  other 
valuable  products  of  New  Graniida,  a  ro|iort  aubinltte<l 
in  July,  IMSC,  to  the  French  government,  relative  to 
the  commercbil  movements  uf  Kram-o  in  NewGrunada, 
says  :  "  Formerly,  that  republic  hml  no  other  cqurva- 
lent  to  offer.  In  exchange  for  forcl^'ii  merchamlise,  than 
the  gold  of  its  mines."  The  abolition,  in  185;l,  of  the 
monopoly  of  tobacco,  however,  has  given  a  new  stim- 
ulus to  agricultural  industry,  and  attracted  numbers 
to  the  cultlvatiun  of  timt  article.  This  agricultural 
movement  Is  not  the  only  bonclit  accruing  to  New 
Granada  from  the  suppressiim  of  this  monopoly.  In 
bringing  the  capitalists  of  the  country  in  contact  with 
foreign  merchuiits,  it  has  taught  them  to  appreciate 
better  than  fortuerly  the  liiiiin'nse  wealth  to  be  found 
in  the  soil  of  tho  republic.  I'hus,  (|iiinqulna,  which 
has  remained  almost  unknown  aince  the  departure  of 
the  Spaniards,  has  been  a  second  time  discovered  in 
1H5II,  and  has  already  entered  into  tlicir  exports,  nnd 
will  Boun  become  »  conalderabln  article  among  the 
staples  of  New  Granada,  The  cultivation  of  cocoa, 
formerly  limited  to  the  conaumplion  of  the  country, 
has  also  lieen  largely  extended,  and  Is  now  become  an 
article  of  export. 

The  navigation  laws  of  NeW  Granada,  by  a  decree 
of  the  Senate  and  ('hamber  of  Representatives  of  that 
republic,  beating  date  May  27,  IH&U,  a  transUtion  Of 


NKW 


1411 


NKW 


whlod  It  •ulijiilnml,  UDil«rK<i  Mini*  nuxllActUona  In  r»- 
vor  of  tiinign  ciiinini>r««,  ••  fi>llii«rii  i 

Artii'i.k  I.  Thit  fiilliiwInK  |Hirt«  ind  UrrUorU*  of 
til*  provliii'it  cif  ChiKii  ahitll  Im  fri'*  for  (ll  nallnnn  In 
thn  wiirlil,  friiiii  .Innuary  I,  IHM,  fur  twrnty  yn«r«  ; 

1.  Tim  |K>rl4  iif  tli«  Atliinllo  ami  thii  Urrltiiry  w*> 
trri'il  liy  thn  Itlvvr  Atriitn,  fn>rn  Itn  iiiniith  tn  it*  I'lin- 
lliixni'ti  with  Ihit  Klvrr  (liiltii,  cnniiirKlicnilrcl  Iwtwann 
(li«  wnatxrn  tlmlii  of  tlix  Anilim  ami  thiti  Imnih  of  It 
liiwnnl  tlm  puatward  wlili'h  upur*l«a  ulil  pn>vlnc« 
from  that  of  AiitriiM^hln. 

'i.  'I'hx  portii  of  the  PariHo  ami  lh«  turritory  watarcil 
by  thu  Klvsr  Han  Juan,  from  It*  umlHoii'liurn,  aa  far  aa 
tha  city  of  Navlta,  o<iiitaln«cl  iH'twron  tha  alHivn- 
mfhtlonml  chain  of  thit  And**  ami  thut  liranch  of  It 
which  rip|iaratvii  it  toward  the  aoutliward  from  tha  pro- 
vlnca  nf  Iturnuvfhturii. 

Aht,  '.',  (!cin««(iuiinlly,  no  cuatom-housda  can  iw 
aatalilinhad  iu  said  (lorta  ami  territoripx  within  tha  tima 
•prcitiiid  ;  nor  can  any  dutli>«  Iw  Itvied,  M\if  thoM  of 
toll,  piiaKAK",  o«d  axciitc,  corri-ii|Hindlnt(  to  tha  muni- 
cipiil  ravanuaa,  and  in  coufornilty  with  tha  cxiatiu|{ 
Uwfi, 

Aht.  n.  In  onler  to  rvcover  thn  dutiea  on  im|iorta- 
tlon  of  fornlKn  niorchumllso  whiili  may  Iw  introduced 
for  the  coniumpliiin  nf  tha  interior  of  ths  rent  of  tlio 
province,  and  otiier  provinren  of  the  rrpuldlc,  thrrn 
•hull  Iw  rataldi'ihpcl  twiicuntoni-houiisa,  nnn  in  th«  city 
of  QuIIhIo,  and  thu  other  in  tha  elty  of  Navtta,  with 
neceimary  ofllcern,  etc.,  etc. 

Anr.  4.  Thu  executive  power  la  authorized,  when 
It  decma  it  indiKpcniial>le  for  wci((hty  nintlvea  of  pul>iic 
convenience,  to  lumign  other  [Kirts  for  cutom-houiies 
thiin  those  exprcHHed  in  tliin  law;  in  which  cane,  thn 
maritime  ports  expromied  in  article  1,  and  the  territory 
comprised  lietwecn  the  coaittH  and  the  xpot  on  which 
•uch  cuetom-houses  shall  he  lined,  alunu  can  enjoy 
freedom. 

A  ship  canal  which  shall  connect  th  Atlantic  and 
Pacinc  oceuhH  U  at  present  a  great  co  .unercial  desld- 
erutuni.  ily  fiuch  a  canul  ihc  soiling  distances  between 
various  points  would  l)0  ^ll"rle^c(l  hy,  not  hundreds, 
but  thuu.sunda  of  miles,  while  the  duiii^crs  now  incurred 
in  doulding  Capes  Horn  and  (iwd  llopo  would  lie 
•voided. 

There  are  at  present  no  les^  than  seven  canal  routes 
proposed  —  the  Trliuantipfc,  the  llnaJuriu,  the  AVcn- 
ragiian,  tlie  Panama,  the  iScm  Migutl,  the  Chipo,  nnd 
tlio  Atinlo.  The  liitter  route  is  thr<iu(;h  an  open  cut 
from  the  sea  to  the  Maters  of  h  navi^alde  river,  in 
which  there  is  sufficient  depth  to  float  the  largest  men- 
of-war  and  merchant  ships.  This  route  lies  in  the 
Republic  of  No»  (iranndu,  und  l«twecn  the  seventh 
and  eighth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  ami  the  seventy- 
■oventh  and  seventv  uighth  degrees  of  went  longi- 
tude. 

Mr.  Andrew  Kcuy,  of  New  York  city,  fitted  out  an 
expedition  in  1853.  at  his  own  expense,  for  the  purpose 
of  surveying  this  r  >ute.  He  was  led  to  do  tids  from 
what  had  l>een  aai>  liy  Itaron  Humholdl,  and  also  by 
General  Mwsquera,  cx-I'residentof  New  Granada.  The 
result  of  this  expedition  was  not  favoraide ;  but  the 
fourth  expedition,  after  an  absence  of  several  months, 
reported  that  a  route  had  been  discovered  by  wliicli  a 
canal  could  bo  built  connecting;  the  Atlantic  and  I'a- 
ciAc  oceans  without  lodes,  and  at  such  a  cost  as  would 
render  it  available  to  commerce.  Mr.  Ward,  of  New 
York  city,  made  a  speech  in  the  House  of  Iteprcsenta- 
tivesin  relation  to  tiie  proposed  canul.  lie  staled  lliut 
the  total  tonnage  owned  in  the  United  States  tlint  would 
iiao  this  canal,  if  constructed,  is  1,857,00U  tons.  The 
cargoes  he  values  at  $10<),2!I4,000,  nnd  the  vessels  at 
$92,000,000,  making  the  amount  of  value  afloat  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  (193,000,000.  Upon  this 
basis,  he  states,  the  saving  to  this  country  from  the 
use  of  this  canal  would  be  1)36,000,000.  The  aggregate 
of  the  trade  and  tonnage  of  all  nations  which  would 


pass  Ihmugh  lh«  rnnni  Is  rsllinaled  at  ♦■l()7,n(l«,00(i, 
ami  the  tot.il  saviuK  nnnually  at  |il!t,filM»,n(H).  The 
•■llnialril  cost  of  the  worji  \,  #r;l,ia)O,0lMI,  and  It  la  pr.. 
poMil  that  the  I'nitetl  Niatea  slmuld  guarunlae  to  pay 
tha  inlarast,  at  the  rata  of  Hto  per  cent,  upon  thu 
amount  ex|i«ncled  In  tlm  proreu  of  ilin  work,  from  year 
to  va,ir,  for  the  |kuI<nI  ..f  twelve  years.  This  pro|intal 
I"  bastil  upon  thu  •up|Hisiilim  that  this  country  is  i  ■ 
build  the  canal.  Slioubl  Ko^Und  uikI  |.'Mnc«  Join, 
then  the  amount  wci  »„iil(l  lie  exiMcled  to  pay  would 
be  ♦l.,(m.l,iMW.  If  ||,„  interest  only  of  the  amnnnl  ex. 
peniled  in  making  the  canal  lie  guiirniiteecl.  the  p.irthi 
engagad  in  the  project  exiieet  to  he  able  to  i.n.*  all 
tin  money  nncessury  on  the  must  fnvuraMe  terms 
The  ciinal  shoubl  be  KM)  f,„i  wide  and  lUl  feet  in  ileptll 
at  low  water.  New  (iniuuda  is  fuvoi  aid.,  to  the  enter- 
prise, and  has  cotieedeii  the  right  to  the  projectors  of 
constructing,  muiutainlug,  and  oiieralin,- llio  cuimlfor 
ever. 

Tlie  coasting  trade  of  New  Granada  Is  open  tn  all 
foreign  vessels,  Imt  only  foreign  steamers  are  permit- 
ted to  navigate  the  rivers  of  the  repulilic.  This  Is  an 
imiKirtant  privilege  to  foreign  vessels,  and  one  which 
is  destined  to  stimulate  American  enterprise  In  this 
neighlHiring  repulilic.  When  tijn  repairs  of  the  cannl 
connecting  the  harbor  nf  Cartagena  with  the  Miigda- 
iena,  now  1m  progress,  uiiilerllie  superintendence  of  on 
American  engineer,  shall  liave  been  completed,  thn 
internal  trade  nf  New  (iranudu  will  be  the  means  of 
developing  more  fully  its  great  resources,  and  bringing 
to  market  the  toliacco,  Imlia  ruliber,  quinia,  hides, 
com,  cocoa,  colfee,  sugar,  etc.,  the  pniductlon  of  which 
cun  be  increased  to  uii  incredilile  extent.  When  this 
cunal  shall  have  been  completed,  (Cartagena  wUI  he- 
cfinin  tln>  great  em|Kirlum  of  New  Granaibi — at  least  of 
'JO  of  the  principal  agricultural  provinces,  containing  a 
[Mipidatlon  of  l,fl2H,171  inhabitants.  The  present 
tarilT  regulations  of  New  (iranadu,  to  lie  found  in  Part 
II.,  have  been  in  force  since  May  1,  IN.U ;  but  by  n 
late  act  of  (''ingress,  the  manumission  duty  of  'IQ  per 
cent.  Is  to  be  suppressed,  and,  in  lieu,  the  additional 
duty  of  'i.'i  per  cent,  on  the  total  uuiomit  of  the  Import 
duty  is  to  lie  increased  to  fiO  |icr  cent.  The  port  regu- 
lations  of  New  (irunada  are  such  as  are  duenieil  neces- 
sary. AS  well  in  view  of  the  general  convenience  and 
safely  of  vessels,  as  to  answer  proper  police  anil  harlmr 
discipline.  Places  are  polnteil  out  into  which  ull  ruli- 
bish,  etc..  Is  to  be  thrown.  Ilullast  is  to  be  taken  in 
and  thrown  out  under  written  authority  of  pniper  of- 
Hcers.  Cannon  ure  not  to  be  iired  without  permission 
of  the  captiiin  of  the  port,  At  Cartagena,  it  is  for- 
bidden tn  sound  the  upper  or  interior  cliannels  of  tho 
port,  or  to  have  any  communication  with  the  shore 
between  eight  o'clock  ut  night  and  live  o'clock  in  tha 
morning.  It  is  also  forbidden  to  disembark  any  indi- 
vidual before  the  visits  of  the  ollicers  of  customs  and 
captain  of  the  port.  For  the  violation  of  any  of  these 
regulations,  Anes  ure  imposed,  varying  from  lU  to  40 
dollars,  according  to  the  nature  of  tlie  case. 

There  are  no  quarantine  regulations  at  any  of  tho 
porta  of  New  Granada,  and  consequently  no  bills  of 
iieulth  are  required.  No  liglit  or  hospital  money  is 
I'uied.  No  local  Imjiost  is  charged.  At  the  port  of 
Savanilla  there  is  a  water-tax  upon  oil  vessels  arriving 
there  of  i(4  each,  imposed  by  the  provincial  legislature. 
Pilots  are  employed  and  paid  by  government.  Their 
duty  is  to  visit  all  vessels  requiring  their  assistance, 
and  all  vessels  coming  from  a  foreign  jKirtare  required 
to  pay  the  full  fees,  whether  they  take  on  board  n 
pilot  or  not.  The  fee  is  (11,  in  and  out.  There  it 
also  a  fee  of  $6  40  to  bo  paid  to  the  captain  of  the  port 
on  visiting  the  vessel,  and  $1  CO  for  the  interpreter. 
With  tho  exception  of  the  interpreter's  fee,  this  amount 
Is  also  levied  on  New  Grunadian  vessels.  Ily  a  decree 
of  tho  Congress  of  New  Granada,  bearing  date  Juno 
19,  1856,  which,  like  that  of  July  20,  already  given, 
comet  to  hand  as  these  sheets  fit  to  press,  new  regu' 


NEW 


1412 


NEW 


Utiona  respectinif  tonnago  due*  are  eatabliahed,  of 
which  a  trunnUtioii  is  given  as  followH:  "Tonnage 
dues,  port  dues,  pilotage,  and  visit  feeK,  shall  be  the 
(.ame  in  all  the  ports  of  the  reputilic,  including  the  free 
ports  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Cartagena,  Chnco, 
Buenaventura,  and  Tumsco,  and  the  following  sums 
iball  be  collected :  1.  Every  vessel  under  100  tons 
■hall  pay  40  cents  per  Uranadinn  ton  for  her  capacity. 
2.  Every  vessel  exceeding  100  tons  shall  pay  40  cents 
per  ton  for  the  first  100  tons,  and  20  cents  per  ton  for 
each  ton  over  the  same,  8.  Tonnage  duos  shall  only 
be  paid  at  the  first  port  at  which  a  vessel  touches,  pro- 
ceeding from  foreign  countries ;  vessels  proceeding 
from  one  port  to  another  in  the  republic  shall  not  pay 
tonnage  dues.  4.  War  vessels  of  the  couutiy,  or  of 
friendly  nations,  and  transports  assimilated  to  tliem, 
which  may  touch  at  the  ports  of  the  republic,  shall  not 
pay  tonnage  dues.  5.  The  executive  may  exempt 
from  tonnage  dues,  and  p<!rmit  to  coast,  sail  or  steam 
vessel*  that  agree  to  convey  the  mails  between  the 
ports  of  the  republic,  and  carry  such  correspondence 
gratia  as  may  Iw  entrusted  to  them.  Those  that  do  not 
agree  to  this,  shall  pay  tonnage  dues,  cash,  in  hard  dol- 
lar* of  the  country.  6.  Vessels  arriving  in  balUst,  or 
which  load  in  New  Granada,  shall  not  pay  tonnage 
dues ;  neither  shall  those  chartered  to  bring  immi- 
grants to  the  republic,  when  the  number  of  the  same 
exceeds  60.  Tonnage  dues  shall  be  charged  at  the 
Isthmus  ports  from  the  Ist  September  next ;  the  pro- 
duct shall  bo  divided  equally  between  the  State  and 
general  government.' —tVmt.  Ilel.  U.  S.,  vol.  iii.,  1857. 
Since  January  1,  1850,  Panama,  and  all  the  other 
))orts  on  the  Isthmus,  have  been  free — Aspinwall,  of 
course,  included.  The  only  duties  levied  at  these  free 
ports  are  navigation  does,  as  above  given;  from 
which,  however,  the  vessels  in  the  service  of  the  Pan- 
ama railroad  at  Aspinwall  are  exempt  by  charter. 
In  February,  1855,  Panama  was  erected  into  an  inde- 
pendent State,  witii  the  power  vested  in  the  legislature 
to  establish  custom-houses,  or,  in  other  words,  to  abol- 
ish the  existing  freedom  of  its  ports.  It  is  not  very 
likely,  however,  that  the  new  State  will  be  disposed  to 
take  any  legislative  action  by  which  the  existing  fran- 
chise of  Aspinwall  would  be  abolished,  or  even  abridged. 
This  new  State  bus  now  Income  the  principal  centre  of 
commercial  interest  in  this  republic.  In  1852  there 
entered  and  cleared  at  its  Pacific  port  (the  port  of  Pan- 
ama) 609  vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  277,735 
tons,  of  which  312  entered  floating  cargoes,  including 

CoMMKRCC  or  THIS  UkITKD   STATI*  WITH   NKW  O 


specie,  to  the  value  of  $60,478,000 ;  and  then  cleared 
297  vessels,  with  cargoes  valued  at  nearly  $500,000, 
In  this  movement,  the  number  of  vessels  under  the 
American  flag  was  159,  measi\fing  an  aggregate  of 
168,113  tons;  under  the  British  flag,  IBS  vessels, 
measuring  in  all  88,070  tons ;  and  under  the  French 
flag,  20  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  5836  tons.  The 
freights  under  the  United  States'  flag  were  valued  at 
$51,9.15,000 ;  those  under  the  British,  at  $8,000,000 ; 
and  the  nniainder  of  the  total  given  alwve  was  dis- 
tributed lietween  the  South  American,  French,  and 
other  European  flags.  The  American  and  British 
freight*  included  the  gold  dust  brought  down  from 
California  by  the  steamers  for  the  former,  and  the  sil- 
ver  brought  up  the  coast  for  the  latter,  in  neither  case 
including  the  large  amounts  in  the  hands  of  passen- 
gers.    See  Panama. 

The  total  amount  of  gold  and  silver  which  passed 
through  Panama  in  transit  in  1853  was  $,'>2,037,785. 
The  countries  whence  this  sum  was  exported,  and  the 
amounts  from  each,  ara  given  as  follows : 

CallfornU (42,627,852 

Mexico 2.765.006 

Porn  and  Chill 6,5S4,S76 

Australia 60,&57 

Total (62,087,788 

The  total  number  of  passengers  who  crossed  the 
Isthmus  the  same  year  was  23,690,  of  whom  13,937 
came  from  California,  and  0753  were  proceeding  to 
that  country.  In  1855  the  total  number  of  passengers 
that  crossed  the  Isthmus  was  28,704.  Of  this  num- 
ber there  came  from  California  10,015,  and  there  pro- 
ceeded to  that  State  16,289,  all  in  American  steamers ; 
by  the  British  steamers  there  came  from  Europe  1300 
passengers,  and  there  proceeded  to  Europe  1100.  The 
transit  of  gold  and  silver  the  same  year  amounted  to 
$40,407,907.  This  amount  was  brought  from  the  fol- 
lowing points : 

Ban  Francisco (81,671,816 

Clilll  and  Puru 6,854,578 

Mexico 1,367,961 

Panama 51.3,558 

Total (40,407,907 

The  total  exports  of  New  Granada,  during  the  year 
ending  December  31,  185.'?,  amounted  to  $30,819,595 
65.  Of  this  aggregate  amount,  Cartagena  exported 
$17,91.1,146;  Cucuta,  $4,153,898;  Guanapolo,  $14,- 
312 ;  Rio  Ilac'.ia,  $628,069  40 ;  SavaniUa,  $8,105  728 
25 ;  Tumaco,  $34,442. 
RANAPA,  raoji  October  1,  1840,  to  Jult  1,  1856. 


Thk  cnalng 

Kiporli, 

ImporU. 

Whareor  thfro  wu  In  Bullion 
K&d  Spocie. 

Tonnaga  C1«ftrad. 

DoiiMiUc. 

Foreign. 

ToUl. 

ToUl. 

Eiported. 

Imported. 

AniericfUi. 

F<,ri.l((ii. 

Sept  80,  1841 

9  mos.  1848'!!!!!'.! 
June  80,  1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1(*( 

1849 

1850 

ToUl.... 

18,51 

June  80,  ls52 

ISW 

18.^4 

1856 

18.56 

(60,662 

67,863 

72,009 

75,621 

48,717 

61,849 

58,665 

79,166 

244,460 

970,619 

(1,704,020 

(2,607,701 

1,»VA36 

7.58,891 

8,\5,254 

892,245 

1,444,848 

(59,tt7S 
46,861 
89,944 
49,225 
80,260 
24,095 
19,405 
45,488 
68,824 

285,610 

(110,485 
1P8.724 
161.958 
124,846 
78,977 
7,%944 
78,060 
124,608 
297,784 
1,256,219 

(144,117 
176,216 
11,5,7.38 
189,616 
171,921 
67,043 
166,6.54 
213,296 
168,960 
591,992 

(14,153 

ii'.iso 
\im 

52,077 
27.1,000 

(42,182 
41,5,84 
89,714 
62,605 
47,389 
82,100 
7.5,179 
77,600 
62.562 

430,089 

M3 

1,015 

1,245 

1,091 

1,562 

1,069 

665 

7*1 

25,094 

121,763 

"156,860 

20,5,390 
1,8.1,875 
2a5,fi03 
1711.460 
121.,563 
129,518 

722' 
161 

"298 

7.14 

],.567 

1,.1.54 

6,237 

11,003 

12,595 
5,158 
8,810 
1.1M 
1.658 
1,812 

(708,526 

(M.3,121 
217.,558 
108,079 
82.062 
169.800 
166,649 

(2,407,,545 

(8,(VI0,822 

1,51.5,794 

856,470 

«37,80« 

1,062,048 

1,611,892 

(1,988,648 

(69.5.606 
7.50,527 
NV1,.523 
1,478..520 
1,799,672 
2,8aS,019 

(860,710 

(6.5,895 

60,461 

8,4l!2 

2,017 

278,804 

267,474 

(911,104 

(49,5,759 
4.56,744 
29.5,9,56 
885,022 
478,944 
232,490 

Principal  Ports. — Chagres,  a  sea-port  town  of  New 
Granada,  Central  America,  on  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres 
Kiver,  on  the  Carilibean  Sea.  Latitude  of  fort  San 
I*revon°  18'  6"  N.,  long.  79°  i)9'  2"  W.  It  is  a 
mere  collection  of  huts,  with  a  harlmr  only  for  vessels 
drawing  10  or  12  feet  of  water ;  but  it  has  frequent 
trafflc  with  Panama,  and  is  sometimes  resorted  to  by 


shipping  from  the  United  States,  Cartagena,  and  the 
British  West  Indies. 

Panama,  a  city  and  sea-port  town  of  New  Granada, 
on  the  Paciflc,  38  miles  soutli-eiist  of  Chagres,  lot.  8° 
56"  N,,  long.  79°  31'  2"  W.  Populotlon  cstiniafpd  at 
7000.  It  stands  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  projecting  into 
the  Ray  of  Panama,  and  has  an  imposing  aspect  from 
the  tea.     It*  streets  are  well  ventilate>!,  and  it  t*  aatd 


NEW 


1413 


NEW 


Cleftrad. 
Foreign. 

722 
161 


298 

734 

1,567 

1,361 

6,237_ 

Tl,063 

12.585 
6,158 
8,810 
1.164 
1.653 
1,812 


,  and  the 

lOrnnadn, 
Is,  lat.  8° 
limntpd  at 
Ttini;  into 
Ipcct  from 
n  it  Is  aald 


to  bs  cleaner  than  moet  Spanish  American  cities.  It 
is  encircied  by  irregular  and  not  very  Btrong  fortilica- 
tions,  constructed  at  different  periods.  The  houses 
are  partly  of  wood,  straw,  and  other  fragile  materials. 
The  tides  daily  rise  and  full  from  20  to  27  feet,  so  that 
it  ic  |;ieculiarly  well  fitted  for  thr  repair  and  building 
of  ships.  The  Panama  railroad  has  one  of  its  termini 
here,  and  another  at  Aspinwall,  on  Manzanilla  Island, 
Navy  Bay.  Trains  talce  about  four  hours  in  passing 
from  sea  to  sea.    See  Panama. 

Cartagena,  or  Carthagena,  a  strongly-fortified  city 
and  sea-port  of  New  Granada,  South  America,  of  which 
republic  it  is  the  chief  naval  arsenal,  capital  of  the 
province,  on  a  sandy  peninsula  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
Lat.  of  the  dome  10°  26'  86"  N.,  long.  76°  34'  W. 
Population,  10,000,  nine  tenths  of  whom  are  a  mixed 
blucli  race.  Its  excellent  port  is  defended  by  two 
forts,  and  is  the  only  harbor  on  the  north  coast  of  New 
Granada  adapted  for  repairing  vessels.  Cartagena  is 
the  principal  dcput  for  the  produce  of  the  provinces 
watered  by  tlie  Cauca  and  Magdalena  Rivers,  and  is 
connected  with  the  Magdalena  by  a  canal.  It  exports 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  hides,  specie,  b'lllion, 
etc.  Under  the  Spaniards,  this  city  was  the  seat  of  a 
captain-general,  and  one  of  the  three  tribunals  of  the 
Inquisition  in  America.  It  was  the  tlrst  town  that 
proclaimed  independence,  and  in  1815  endured  a  most 
vigorous  siege,  and  was  subdued  only  by  famine. 
Population  of  the  province,  103,7H3. 

ITew  Hampshire.  It  is  situated  between  lat. 
42°  41'  and  45°  11'  N.,  and  70°  40'  and  72°  30'  W. 
long.     It  contains  8,030  square  miles. 

PopuUtion  in  1790,  was  141,885;  in  1800, 138,858; 
in  1810,  214,4ti0;  in  1820,  244,101 ;  in  1830,  209,328; 
in  1840,  284,674  ;  and  in  1850,  317,864. 

Kuril)  History. — John  Mason,  one  of  the  first  emi- 
nent settlers  of  the  north-eastern  coast  of  New  En- 
gland, having  agreed  with  Sir  Ferdinando  Georges  to 
make  the  Pidcataqua  the  division  line  between  them, 


took  subsequently  from  the  Plymouth  (^oimoll  •  pn- 
tent  of  whot  lies  between  thut  rlvBf  mill  Mufrlniilt'k, 
ond  he  called  that  tract  of  laiiil  "  A'««>  //kw/mAiW," 
because  he  had  been  Guvarnor  of  I'urtillllimth,  in 
Hampshire,  in  England, 

In  the  year  1680  New  llamimhlra  liO|mMtBl1  fhtttl 
the  province  of  Mossachusotts,  And  w»»(  trntnlillKlltxl  hk 
an  independent  royal  province,  U  WM  ilftufwyiril 
united  agoin  with  MassachusBtts,  liMt  III  1?4II  llliullv 
separated,  and  has  existed  blnca  (Imt  %\\m  «i  m  iHile- 
pendent  community,  first  under  the  imniB  of "  Htf  J'mi'' 
ince  of  New  Hampahire,"  and  slnoa  177U  Mllikf  ihllt  of 
"  the  Stale  of  A'ci."  Hnmpthire," 

The  Connecticut  Itiver  has  Its  snurex  III  tllS  lllt|ll- 
lands,  on  the  nortli  border  of  the  Htuto,  mill  iU  WBst 
branch  forms  the  boundary  line  butWBBlt  Nuw  ilnillti' 
shire  and  Canada  to  within  one  mila  of  tlio  4ftUl  ilHtjfse 
of  north  latitude.  It.s  general  uuHrw  is  Mmtll  liy  wsdl, 
and  dividing  New  Hampshire  and  VsPMUmt  ll  \m*»» 
through  tlw  western  part  of  MusnAclmtHHii,  Htlil  (he 
central  part  of  Connecticut,  where  It  siiUrs  \m\^  U. 
land  Sound.  Merrimack  Ulver,  th»  IVnilijcWiiitsIl 
branch,  rises  near  the  Notch  In  the  Wlilto  MmiihIiiIhi., 
and  is  joined  l)y  tl:e  Winniplseugea,  TO  mjltiit  Imluw  the 
source  of  the  former.  It  here  takes  the  mhiiio  (if  MKf. 
rimack.  The  Amlro«coggin  ami  Huou  lliver*  rliw  niiil 
have  a  part  of  tlieir  courba  in  tliis  Ntiite, 

Granite  is  plentiful  tlirougliuut  the  Mtilte,  Hint  itUe 
marble  and  limestone.  Iron  ore,  kIhh,  ||m,  ItiDij,  on,) 
copper  exist,  some  of  which  have  been  wofkoil  to  ||(U 
vantage. 

There  were  in  this  State  In  '-,160,  3,3n|,4HH  wntt  uf 
land  improved,  and  1,140  ':^U  of  milm|lPiiVMil  lilliit  III 
farms.  Cash  vslup  ui  farms,  tfio.y^D.OH?,  gtlil  tll« 
value  of  iniphiucnts  and  machinery,  ♦a,lll-|,l'Ji1,  J,im 
.J<oc«.— Horses,  34,2.33;  asses  and  mules,  1(1  j  milyy 
cows,  94,277;  working  oxen,  6U,0-,!7i  utjiff  wttlk, 
114,606 ;  sheep,  384,75o ;  swiue,  fl3,4»7  |  VitlHS  uf  live 
stock,  $8,871,901. 


FOBEIOM  COMUiiKCE  OF  TUE  Statk  Of  Nkw  IKupsuiuk,  FKOU  OoTOllEa  1,  1820,  TO  iIlI|,V  I,  HMi 


Yun  ending 

Eiporti.                             1 

Imports.        i         Tonnagfl  Charsil. 

ni.ir1f:(Ti)niMgi,       1 

DomealU. 

Foreign. 

Tiil.l. 

Tolal. 

Amtiricui. 

Foreign, 

Kegdlttrad, 

|iiiFull»l  init 

8ept80,  1321 

1822 

1828 

1824 

1825 

(180,129 
188,882 
182,916 
178,,508 
181,M0 
160,682 
165,680 
115,947 
98,261 
98,499 

(80,6.36 

10.817 

64,760 

6,875 

16,810 

16,893 

21,813 

8,486 

7,476 

2,685 

(260,765 
199,699 
287,705 
1n5,883 
198,680 
167,075 
177,1)98 
121,433 
105,740 
96,184 

(860,021 
880,0,52 

871,770 
216,618 
831,2+1 

848,609 
802.211 
290,849 
170,839 
1.30,828 

8,*!7 
8,816 
7,563 
8.018 
7,.5«6 
7,177 
6,849 
6,391 
6,748 
4,1132 

4,691 

lT,4ii? 

t  :  It 

1826 

1627 

1828 

1829 

1830 

Total 

BeptSO,  18,31 

1882 

1838 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1^37 

1838 

(1,526.276 

(109,466 
116,582 
14.5,.3.\5 
79,666 
7,5,076 
15,016 
26,(K)0 
66,108 
74,914 
20,761 

(226,786 

(1,766 

9,903 
1,214 
6.605 

606 

8,641 

18,,567 

7,080 

21S 

(1,7,53,062 

(111,222 
115,682 
15.5,2.53 
811,870 
81,681 
1.5,520 
84,641 
74,670 
81,941 
20,979 

(2,889,986 

(146.205 

115,171 

167,-.M 

118,695 

71,614 

68,912 

81  ,.550 

169,93.5 

60,666 

114,617 

71,060 

4.326 
4,777 
6,0(12 
4,330 
8,877 
2,4;!6 
2,676 
11,191 
3,849 
1,925 

4,601 

"iso 

■"78 
119 
574 
420 

1,615 
678 

2,989 

8,T0O 

(HI 

MID 

1889 

IMO 

Total 

SeptSO,  1S41 

1842 

9raos.,     lS4:t 

Juno  80,  1844 

1315 

1846 

1847 

18+S 

1819 

1850 

Total 

JoneSO,  1.8,51 

18.52 

1858 

1864 

1855 

1856 

(717,918 

(10,261 
28,119 
41,669 
6,994 
2,874 
4,997 
1,407 
7,807 
6,8,52 
8,722 

(64,449 

(97 

:28 

115 

690 
10 
75 

288 

*)6 
28 

205 

(772,367 

(10,843 
28„M7 
41,774 
6,081 
2,8''4 
6,072 
1,690 
8,213 
6.873 
8,927 

(1,100,098 

(78,701 
60,481 
8.289 
81,4i0 
22.689 
15,486 
16,986 
61,303 
64,361 
49.079 

45,288 

1.475 

1.241 

1,018 

201 

169 

898 

281 

8,229 

l,(i23 

682 

6,682 

2,.380 
8,612 
2,'i66 
4,616 
2,819 
8.113 
1,671 
2,639 
6,819 
7,681 

17,071 

im 

(120,192 

(4.949 

67,201 

1,126 

918 

1,523 

6,163 

(2,056 
(2,2M 

■  iis 
"io7 

(122,.547 

(1.919 
09.458 
1,126 
1.081 
1,628 
6,276 

(408,738 

(.V8,023 
8,1,319 
82,608 
31,.V)5 
17,786 
21,339 

10,162 

2,386 
2,284 
S46 
1,648 
2,4(15 
2,263 

86,686 

5,307 
6,182 
8,692 
2,619 
8,061 
8,479 

IT,M» 

lilt 
till 

i^  II 


^  T^'TT^r^fV?^^ 


NEW 


1414 


NEW 


MimufactHret,  etc, — Then  were  in  the  State  in  1860, 
48  cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of  910,974,- 
700,  employing  2,916  males  and  9,'236  females,  pro- 
ducing sheetings  valued  at  9^,861,749 ;  01  woolen 
factories,  with  a  capital  of  $2,647,600,  emplo}-ing  878 
males,  and  1,021  females,  manufacturing  9,712,840 
yards  of  cloth,  and  166,200  ll>s.  of  }'arn,  valued  at  92,- 
489,967 ;  1  establishment  with  a  capital  of  94,000,  em- 
ploying 80  persons,  producing  20O  tons  of  pig  iron, 
etc.,  valued  at  917,200 ;  26  establishments  with  a  cap- 
ital of  9282,700,  employing  874  persons,  and  making 
6,764  tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  9371,710 ;  2  es- 
tablishments with  a  capital  of  94,000,  employing  6 
])ersons,  manufacturing  110  tons  of  wrought  iron  val- 
ued at  910,400 ;  178  flouring  and  grist  mills,  80  saw 
mills,  165  tanneries,  with  a  capital  of  9441,976,  em- 
ploying 613  persons ;  40  printing  offices,  2  daily,  86 
weekly,  1  semi-monthly,  and  2  monthly  newspapers. 
Capital  invented  in  manufactures,  918,242,114 ;  value 
of  manufactured  articled,  923,160,608. 

Agricultural  Productt,  etc. — Wheat,  185,668  bush- 
els ;  rj-e,  183,117 ;  Indian  com,  1,578,670 ;  oats,  978,- 
881;  barley,  70,266;  buckwheat,  65,265;  peas  and 
beans,  70,866 ;  potatoes,  4,804,919 ;  value  of  products 
of  the  orchard,  9248,563;  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$56,810;  pounds  of  butter  made,  6,977,056;  of  cheese, 
8,196,563;  maple  sugar,  1,294,868;  molasses,  9,811 
gallons ;  l)eeswax  and  honey,  117,140  pounds ;  wool, 
1,108,476;  flax,  7652 ;  silk  cocoons,  4,191 ;  hops,  257,- 
174  ;  tobacco,  50 ;  hay,  tons  of,  698,854 ;  clover  seeds, 
829  bushels ;  other  grass  seeds,  8,071 ;  flax  seed,  189 ; 
and  were  made  344  gallons  of  wine.  Valne  of  home- 
made manufactures,  9393,456 ;  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals, 91,622,873. 

Principal  Port. — Portsmouth  is  the  onlj'  sea-port  in 
the  State.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  Pis- 
cataqua  River,  on  a  peninsula,  three  miles  from  the 
sea,  lat.  48°  40'  N.,  long.  70°  45'  W.  The  harbor  is 
one  of  the  best  in  the  world  ;  it  has  42  feet  water  at 
low  tide  through  the  whole  channel,  and  the  current 
is  suflicient  to  prevent  it  from  freezing.  The  United 
States'  Xavy  Yard  is  located  on  an  island  near  the 
main  bank  of  the  river.  The  city  has  valualile  manu- 
factures and  a  large  foreign  and  country  trade,  and 
being  intersected  by  the  line  of  railroads  between  Bos- 
ton and  Portland  is  connected  thereby  with  all  the 
New  England  and  Canada  towns ;  a  railroad  also  ex- 
tends to  Concord.  The  tonnage  of  Portsmouth  in 
1866,  was  84,590  tons. 

The  principal  places  in  this  State  are  Concord,  the 
capital,  Jlunchoster,  Portsmouth,  Dover,  Exeter  and 
Nashua.  There  were  in  1856,  15  railroads,  with  660 
miles  of  traqk  completed  and  in  oiwration,  and  24  in 
course  of  construction.  The  only  canals  are  those 
facilitating  the  navigation  of  the  Merrimack  River. 

For  comniurco,  resources,  etc.,  of  New  Hampshire, 
see  Hunt's  Merch.  Mag.,  iv.,  846;  Am.  Jo.  Science, 
xlix.,  27 ;  Am.  Quur.  Ueg.,  xiii.,  170;  Sforth  Am.  Rev., 
xviii.,  33. 

New  Jersey  lies  between  88°  65'  and  41°  24' 
N.  lat.,  and  between  73°  69'  and  75°  29'  W.  long.  It 
is  168  miles  long  and  62  broad,  and  containing  6,851 
square  miles. 

Population  in  1790  was  184,189;  in  1800,  211,149 ; 
in  1810,  245,592 ;  in  1820,  277,575 ;  in  1830,  820,779 ; 
in  18-10,  373,!t06  j  and  in  1860,  489,555. 

J'iarlij  llislory  of  New  Jeney. — The  shore  and  ter- 
ritory of  the  present  State  of  New  Jersey  were  at  first, 
since  IGUU,  a  part  of  the  great  English  province  of 
northern  Virginia ;  and  then  (Nince  about  1621)  it  was 
considered  (at  least  by  the  Uutch)  as  a  part  of  their 
Ne\o  Nctherlandi. 

The  ICnglisli,  however,  always  claimed  the  country; 
and  in  the  year  1648  Sir  Edmund  Ploydnn  and  some 
English  gentlemen  received  a  charter  and  grant  of  a 
great  tract  of  country  "lying  midway  between  New 
England  and  Maryland,"  tu  which  the  name  of  A'ew 


AlhioH  -mn  given,  Thia  is  the  fint  English  mhm 
which  this  country  received.  The  charter  had,  how- 
ever, no  ,{r(\>t  consequences.  The  Dutch  ramainud  In 
possession, .  nd  the  name  New  Albion  was  forgotton. 

When  the  English  conquered  the  New  NutlierlKlids 
for  the  Duke  of  York,  all  thia  land  was  included  In 
the  large  territory  given  to  the  Duke  of  York,  llut 
the  Dnke  of  York  very  soon  sold  (as  early  as  the  year 
1664)  that  part  of  his  grant  which  was  lying  Itetwean 
Delaware  and  Hudson's  River  to  Sir  Oeorga  Carterat 
and  John  Lord  Berkeley.  The  grant  which  he  gava 
to  them  is  dated  on  the  24th  x>f  June,  1604,  'I'lia 
country  received  at  once  the  name  of  New  Jersey,  in 
compliment  of  Sir  George  Carteret,  whoaa  ancestor* 
came  from  the  Island  of  Jersey,  and  who  was  biinsulf 
Governor  of  the  Island  of  New  Jersey. 

The  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivera  flow  on  tho  eaat> 
em  and  western  sides  of  this  State.  The  Karttan  U 
navigable  17  miles  to  New  Brunswick,  and  it  entern 
RaritanBay;  the  Passaic  is  navigable  fur  small  veib 
sels  fur  alwut  15  miles,  and  enters  into  Newark  Hity  | 
the  Ilackensack,  navigable  15  miles,  also  enters  Nuw> 
ark  Bay.  Great  Egg  Harbor  River,  navigable  >iO 
miles  for  small  craft,  passes  through  a  bay  of  the  siinia 
name  and  enters  into  the  Atlantic.  The  j)rilM'l|ial 
bays  are  Newark  and  Raritan.  Delaware  Bay  U  on 
its  south-eastem  l)order.  It  hoa  two  important  oamw, 
viz..  Capo  May  on  Delaware  Bay,  and  Sandy  Houk  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  New  York.  It  contain* 
quarries  of  gi-ou  i  "'  stone,  valuable  mines  uf 
zinc  and  of  iron,    "        •  ,<    outh  parts,  beds  of  mitrl, 

The  principal  r' •.!'  >.  i!"  State  are  Trenton,  tlta 
capital,  Princeton,  '  ".unswick,  Rubway,  Ellzii. 
bethtown,  Jersey  Oity,  Hobuken,  Paterson,  Ha»kun> 
sack,  Murristown,  South  Amiray,  Freehold,  Burllnglun, 
and  Camden.  There  were  in  the  State,  July,  jH.'iy, 
88  banks  with  a  paid  capital  of  95,147,741,  The  t4itiil 
tonnage  of  the  State,  Januar}',  1853,  amounted  tu  |t,1,. 
300  tons. 

The  northem  part  of  the  State  is  mountainous,  lining 
crossed  by  a  branch  of  the  Alleghany  Ridge;  tho  niii|> 
die  portion  is  agreeably  diversified  by  bills  and  viiU 
leys;  while  the  southern  part  is  level,  sandy,  and 
mostly  covered  with  pines  and  a  scanty  growtli  of 
shrub  oaks.  The  northem  and  middle  portions  uf  tba 
State  have  a  fertile  soil. 

There  were  in  the  State  in  1860,  1,767,001  acres  uf 
improved  land,  and  984,956  of  unimproved  in  farnix, 
Cash  value  of  farms  9120,237,511 ;  and  the  vajuit  uf 
implements  and  machinery  94,425,503.  Live  Ntiii'H\-^ 
Horses,  63,955 ;  asses  and  mules,  4,089 ;  niiUh  cows, 
118,736;  working  oxen,  12,070;  other  cattle,  80,)ftft| 
sheep,  160,488 ;  swine,  250,370 ;  value  of  llva  stuck, 
910,679,291. 

Agricultural  Products,  rtc— Wheat,  1,601, 1!)H  JMiali. 
els  produced;  rye,  1,255,578;  Indian  com,  H,7ft9,70-I  | 
oats,  3,378,063;  barley,  6,492;  buckwheat,  878,(l.'ll( 
peas  and  beans,  14,174;  potatoes,  8,207,236 1  .iWMut 
potatoes,  608,015 ;  value  of  products  of  the  orulmrd, 
9607,278 ;  produce  of  market  gardens,  9475,24'^ ;  Ilia, 
of  butter  made,  9,487,210;  of  cheese,  865,766 )  niitjila 
sugar,  2,197 ;  molasses,  964  gallons ;  beeswax  illid 
honey,  156,69-t  lbs.;  wool,  375,396;  flax,  IMJ.imS  | 
ailk  cocoons,  28 ;  liops,  2,138 ;  tobacco,  310  ;  buy,  4II,>,- 
950  tons ;  clover  seed,  28,280  bushels ;  other  grasi 
seeds,  63,051;  flax  seed,  16,625;  and  weru  made,  ),• 
811  gallons  of  wine ;  value  of  bonie-niada  ninnilfiiu- 
tures,  9112,781 ;  of  slaughtered  animals,  9'^6;iM,55'i, 

Manufactures,  etc, — There  were  in  the  Statu  In  INftl), 
29  cotton  factories  with  u  capital  invested  uf  i|l|liil|,' 
000,  employing  739  males  and  1,299  females,  iiruilii. 
cing  8,122,580  yartis  of  sheeting,  etc.,  and  2,0lNt,0U0 
pounds  of  yarn  valued  at  91,289,648;  61  woolen  fai'> 
tories  with  a  capital  invested  uf  9410,1160,  enijiluylng 
407  males  and  137  females,  manufacturing  771,lllO 
yards  of  cloth,  etc,,  valued  ut  9784,772;  U  «stulilUlt> 
ments  making  pig  iron,  with  a  capital  Invastud  uf 


NEW 


1415 


NEW 


»ore»  iif 
In  Utmo, 

VllllIB  uf 

Ndii'd',— 

'h  cowii, 

tU),\b!i  I 

Iva  Ktiivk, 

L',114  liiiiil)- 
,7M',7i>-l  I 

H7K,U!I'I  I 
!ltll   JWMOt 

iiruliiinl, 

,21!!  1  111*. 

all  I  iilit|il« 

iwitx    Hll>) 

lH'i,|lllft  I 

liiiy,  til.S- 

tliBf  isroim 

ma(l»,  J  I' 

inriDiil'ittt- 

,(iilH,fiM, 
Ui  III  IHW), 
if  ♦l.lWl,. 
«,  (IMllll- 

i.oim.iioo 

roolmi  fiW' 
em|ilii)'lil|{ 
It?  771, HI" 

UHtUlllUlt- 
kVUIitud   uf 


#•67,000,  emploTing  600  persons,  producing  24,081  of 
pig  iron,  etc. ;  entire  value  of  products  $917,000 ;  46 
Mtebliihments  witli  a  capital  of  (698,260,  employing 
108  persons,  malcing  10,269  tons  of  castings,  valued  at 
#686,430 ;  68  establishments  with  a  capital  of  |!l,016,- 
M8,  employing  693  persons,  manufacturing  8,162  tons 
of  wrought  iron  valued  at  $629,273 ;  891  flouring  and 
grist  miUs  I  76  printing  offices,  61  newspapers,  8  daily. 


60  weekly,  and  8  monthly  publications.  Capital  ia- 
vested  in  manufactures,  $22,184,710 ;  value  of  manu- 
factured articles,  $39,134,614.  The  Delaware  and 
Raritan  Oanal,  42  miles  long,  and  the  Morris,  102  miles 
long,  are  the  canals  in  this  State.  There  were,  Jan* 
uary  1, 1856,  11  railroads  with  an  aggregate  length  of 
604  miles  in  operation,  and  29  miles  in  course  of  con* 
r.truction.  The  State  of  Xew  Jersey  has  no  public  debt. 


FoaKIUN  COVMKBCE  Of  TUK  STATU 

or  Nsw  Jk.' 

lET,  raoH  OcioDEK  1, 1920,  to  Jolv  1,  1886. 

Xtm  andinf 

EtpurU. 

Import*.       i 

Toouagt  cloarad.          1 

Diatrlct  Tomui^o. 

DotlMltlA. 

Fonlgn. 

ToUI. 

Total. 

Anw.lcAD. 

Fclpi. 

Rflfflattrtd. 

KurolMud 
Ucunied. 

8ept  80,1881 

188,618 

|98 

$88,711 

$17,606 

281 

207 

84,048     ; 

1822 

88,651 

«... 

88,851 

108,190 

2,802 

i 

1823 

28,064 

«... 

26,n«t 

5,988 

1,293 

1824 

28,989 

28,9S9 

687,518 

1,468 

1 

1825 

48,980 

8,288 

47,218 

27,6!(8 

1.687 

....       J 

182« 

80,859 

7,106 

87,965 

48,004 

1,088 

1 

1827 

25,627 

25,627 

888,497 

933 

871 

I 

182H 

1,899 

1,892 

706,872 
786,247 

ISO 

....       1 

1829 

8,022 

•  •  •  > 

8,022 

414 

.... 

1880 

Total.... 

8,224 

100 

8,824 

18,44t 

627 

1200,821 

•10,587 

$801,858 

$2,684,999 

10,718 

871 



8epi80,1881  

tll,480 

$11,480 

708 

1,284 

80,973 

1882 

68,991 

$7,803 

61,794 

$70,460 

782 

800 

1888 

80,858 

1,900 

Si,irA 

170 

1,4-24 

1884 

8,181 

8,131 

4,492 

790 

236 

1888 

68,8«8 

7,678 

74,041 

18,082 

2,837 

1888 

88,769 

24,040 

62,809 

24,268 

8,076 

.... 

188T 

19,640 

24,577 

4»,217 

69,152 

427 

9,002 

1888 

20,010 

•  •  •  • 

28,010 

1,700 

090 

1889 

78,484 

19,645 

99,079 

4,182 

8,904 

847 

1840 

Total.... 

14,888 

1,198 

16,076 

19,209 

725 

.... 

t850,504 

$86,886 

t487,840 

(212,660 

18,158 

10,838 



Bept.80,1941 

$19,166 

$19,166 

$2,315 

2,789 

842 

62,762 

1842 

64,931 

8,976 

70,907 

148 

2,801 

.... 

Binos.      1843 

8,083 

2,583 

10,621 

W, 

June  80, 1844 

18,899 

4,800 

18,189 

17,670 

009 

.... 

1845 

•  .  •• 

.... 

,, 

82- 

1848 

4,0S7 

4,087 

es6 

181 

1847 

18,428 

700 

19,128 

4,887 

852 

615 

1848 

62 

•  •  •  • 

62 

1,888 

220 

1849 

865 

8 

868 

4,258 

429 

1880 

ToUl.... 

1,655 

1,655 

1,494 

180 

931 

$180,606 

•13,572 

$1H178 

84,013 

6,662 

2,244 



June  80,  mM 

tl89 

.... 

$189 

(1,111 

928 

877 

88,818 

1862 

1,483 

•  • .. 

1,483 

2,491 

1,898 

1888 

1,881 

t . .  • 

1,854 

8,&'i9 

.... 

2,681 

ISM 

2,225 

■  •  - . 

2,228 

8,971 

.... 

2,029 

1855 

68T 

687 

1,478 

606 

....      1 

1866 

890 

.... 

890 

2,783 

603 

....    1     ....    : 

Principal  Porta. — Jersey  City  is  a  flourishing  city  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River,  opposite  Mew  Yoric 
oity,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the  southern  railroad 
travel,  and  also  of  the  New  York  and  Erie  Railroad 
and  of  the  Morris  Canal.  Though  a  separate  muni- 
cipality, it  may  be  considered  as  a  suburb  of  the  great 
metropolis,  with  which  it  connects  by  several  ferries. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  manufacturing  industr}-, 
•hip-building,  and  commerce,  and  it  is  the  American 
station  of  the  Cunard  line  of  New  York  and  Liverpool 
steamships. 

Paterson  is  situated  immediately  below  the  falls  of 
the  I'ussaic  Uiver,  17  miles  from  New  York.  It  ranks 
next  to  Newark  in  manufactures,  and  is  the  third  city 
in  the  State  as  to  population.  Its  principal  products 
ue  cotton  and  silk  goods,  locomotives,  machinery, 
paper,  etc.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the 
manufacturing  town  of  Manchester.  Puterson  com- 
tnunicates  with  New  York  by  the  Paterson  and  Hud- 
son Railroad  and  Morris  Canal. 

The  other  towns  of  note  are  Newark,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Camden,  Trenton,  and  Princeton. 

New  London,  Connecticut,  is  situated  on  the 
Thames  Kivor,  it  miles  from  the  ocean,  60  miles  east 
of  New  Haven  by  railroad.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  In  the  United  States,  but  is  seldom  visited  by  for- 
eign vessels.  The  whale  fisheries  constitute  its  main 
interest,  and  it  has  also  a  lar^te  coasting  trade.  Sev- 
eral railroads  connect  it  \.'ith  the  interior,  New 
York,  and  Uoston,  and  regular  steamboats  ply  to  and 


from  New  York.    The  tonnage  in  1866,  was  40,371 
tons.     Population  in  1830,  4360 ;  in  1854,  10,000. 

New  Mexico,  a  Territoty  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  lies  Ijetween  lat.  32°  30'  and  38°  82'  N., 
and  long.  103°  and  110°  W.  from  Greenwich,  En 
gland.     Area,  210,744  square  miles. 

New  Mexico  is  a  mountainous  country,  with  an  ex- 
tensive valley  in  the  middle,  running  from  north  to 
south,  and  formed  l)y  the  Rio  del  Norte.  The  valley 
is  generally  about  20  miles  wide,  and  Iwrdered  on  the 
east  and  west  by  mountain  chains,  continuations  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  have  received  here  dif- 
ferent names,  as  Sierra  Blanca,  de  los  Organos,  Os- 
cura,  on  the  eastern  side,  and  Sierra  de  los  GruUas,  de 
los  Mimbres,  toward  the  west.  The  height  of  the 
mountains  south  of  Sante  Vis  is  from  6000  to  8000  feet, 
while  near  Sante  F^,  and  in  the  more  northern  regions, 
some  snow-covered  peaks  rise  tVom  10,000  to  12,000 
feet  al>ove  the  sea.  The  mountains  are  principally 
composed  of  igneous  rocks,  as  granite,  sienite,  diorite, 
basalt,  etc.  On  the  higher  elevations,  excellent  pine 
timber  grows;  on  the  lower,  cedars,  and  sometimes 
oak;  in  the  valley  of  Rio  del  Norte,  mezquite.  The 
main  artery  of  New  Mexico  is  the  Rio  del  Norte.  Its 
head  waters  were  explored  in  1807  bj-  Captain  Pike, 
between  37°  and  88°  N.  latitude;  but  its  highest 
sources  are  supposed  to  be  aliout  2°  further  north  in 
tlie  Rocky  Mountains,  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Arkansas  and  the  Kio  Grande  (of  the  Colorado  of  the 
west).     Following  a  generally  southern  direction,  it 


."T^'- 


NEW 


i4ie 


j:ew 


runs  through  New  Mexico,  where  i  ,j  principn'.  afflu- 
ent is  the  Uio  Obamaa  from  the  -rost,  and  winds  its 
way  then  in  a  eoutb-eastern  direction  along  the  Irar- 
d  I  of  Chihuahua,  Coahuilii,  and  Tamaulipas,  to  the 
(iuS  of  Mexico,  in  26°  66'  N,  lat.  Its  trihutaries 
below  El  Paso,  are  the  Pecos,  from  the  north;  the 
Conchos,  8alado,  Alamo,  and  San  Juan,  from  the 
south.  The  whole  courte  of  the  river,  in  a  straight 
line,  would  be  near  1,200  miles ;  but  by  the  meander- 
ing of  its  lower  half,  it  runs  at  least  2,000  miles  from 
'he  region  of  perpetual  snows  to  'he  almost  tropical 
climate  uf  the  Uulf.  The  elevation  of  the  river  above 
the  sea  near  Albuquerque  is  about  4,800  feet ;  at  el 
Paso  del  Norte,  about  d,H00 ;  am!  at  Keynosa  (between 
800  and  400  miles  from  its  mouth),  about  170  feet. 
The  full  of  its  water  between  Albuquerque  and  el 
Paso,  is  from  2  to  3  feet  in  a  mile,  and  below  Keynosa 
1  foot  in  2  miles.  The  fall  of  the  river  is  seldom  used 
08  a  motive  power,  except  for  some  floi'r  mills,  which 
are  oftener  worked  by  mules  than  water.  The  pHnci- 
pal  advantage  which  is  at  present  derived  from  the 
river,  is  for  agriculture,  by  their  well-munaged  sys- 
tem of  irrigation.  As  to  its  navigation  in  New  Mex- 
ico, even  canoes  could  not  lie  used,  except  perhaps 
during  May  or  June,  when  the  river  is  in  its  highest 
(tatf  from  the  melting  uf  the  snows  in  the  mountains. 
The  river  is  entirely  tao  shallow,  and  interrupted  by 
too  many  sand-bais,  to  promise  any  thing  for  naviga- 
tion. On  the  southern  portion  of  the  river,  the  ncent 
exploration  by  Captain  Sterling,  of  the  United  States' 
steamer  Major  lirown,  iios  proved  that  steamboats 
may  ascend  from  the  Gulf  as  far  as  I^redo,  a  distance 
cf  700  miles.  Altliough  tlie  steamboat  u.ied  did  not 
draw  over  two  feet  of  water,  yet  the  explorers  of  that 
region  express  their  opinion,  that  "  by  spending  some 
$100,000  in  tt  proper  improvement  of  the  river  alMve 
Mier,  (writs'  drawing  four  feet  could  readily  pi}'  be- 
tween the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  iiiul  Laredo." 

Thsre  were  in  this  Territory  in  1850,  lfiG,201  acres 
nf  land  improved,  and  124,H70  of  unimproved  land  in 
farms.  Cash  value  of  farms  $1,G5.'),052,  and  tlie  value 
of  implements  and  machinery  $77,960.  Live  iStoci. — 
Horses,  6,079 ;  asses  and  mules,  8,651 ;  milch  cows, 
10,635;  worlving  oxen,  12,257;  other  cattle,  10,085; 
■iieep,  877,271 ;  swine,  7,814 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $1,- 
494,629. 

Agricultural  Products,  He. — Wheat,  196,510  bushels 
produced  ;  Indii^n  com,  365,411 ;  oats,  5 ;  barley,  5 ; 
buckwheat,  100;  peas  and  lieans,  15,688;  potatoes,  3; 
Vk^ue  of  products  of  the  orchard,  $8,2:11 ;  produce  of 
the  market  gardens,  $6,679;  pounds  of  butter  made, 
111 ;  of  cheese,  5,848  ;  molasse' ,  4,236  gallons ;  bees- 
wax and  honey,  2  pounds;  ..ool,  82,901;  hops,  60; 
tiil.ucco,  8,467 ;  and  were  made,  2,368  gallons  of  wine ; 
value  of  liome-niade  manufactures,  $6,033;  of  slaught- 
ered acirnils,  $82,125. 

Besid  rriculture,  the  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico 
pay  a  gr  leal  nf  attention  to  the  raising  of  itock,  as 
hones,  mulus,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  Their  stock  is 
all  ratlier  uf  a  small  size,  l)ecause  they  lare  verj*  lit- 
tle for  the  improvement  of  the  breed ;  but  it  increases 
very  fust,  and  as  no  feeding  In  stables  is  needed  in  the 
winter,  it  gives  theut  very  little  trouble.  There  are 
large  tracts  of  land  too  distant  from  the  water-courses 
to  be  cultivated,  or  in  too  mountainous  parts,  which 
afford,  nevertheless,  excellent  pasturage  for  millions 
of  stock  during  the  whole  year ;  liut  unfortunately  the 
raising  uf  the  stock  has  been  crippled  liy  the  invasions 
of  the  hostile  Indians,  who  consider  tliemselves  secret 
partners  in  the  business,  and  annually  take  their  share 
away. 

A  third,  much  neglected  branch  of  industry  in  New 
Mexico,  are  tlie  mines.  A  great  many  now  deserted 
mining  places  in  New  Mexico,  prove  that  mining  was 
pur8ue<l  with  greater  zeal  in  the  old  Spanish  times 
than  since,  which  may  be  accuunted  for  in  various 
fwjre,  as  the  want  of  capital,  want  of  knowledge  in 


mining,  but  eapecially  the  unsettled  state  of  the  ooniw 
try  and  the  avarice  of  its  arbitrary  rulers.  The  mount- 
ainous parts  of  New  Mixico  are  very  rich  in  gold,  cop- 
per, iron,  and  silver.  Gold  leems  to  be  found  to  a 
large  extent  in  all  the  mountains  near  Santa  i'6,  south 
of  it  in  a  distance  of  about  100  miles,  as  far  as  Oran 
Quivira,  and  north  for  about  120  miles  up  to  the  River 
Sangre  de  Oristo.  Throughout  this  whole  region, 
gold  dust  has  been  abundantly  found  by  the  poorer 
classes  of  Mexicans,  who  occupy  themselves  with  the 
washing  of  this  metal  out  of  the  mountain  streams. 
At  present,  the  old  nnd  new  Placer,  near  Santa  ¥i, 
have  attracted  most  attention,  and  not  only  gold 
washes,  but  son*  gold  mines,  too,  are  worked  there. 
They  are  the  otiy  gold  mines  worked  now  in  New 
Mexico.  Several  rich  silver  mines  were,  in  Spanish 
times,  worked  at  Avo,  at  Cerrilios,  and  in  the  Nambe 
Mountains,  but  none  at  present.  Copper  is  found  in 
abundance  throughout  the  country,  but  principally  at 
las  Tijeras,  Jemas,  Abiquiu,  Gaudolupita  de  Mora,  etc. 
There  i?  but  one  copper  mine  worked  at  present  south 
of  the  placers.  Iron,  though  also  abundantly  found, 
is  entirely  overlooked.  Coal  has  been  discovered  in 
different  localities,  as  in  the  Katon  Mountains,  near 
the  village  of  .feinez,  south-west  of  Santa  F6,  and  in 
a  place  south  of  the  placers.  Gypsum,  common  and 
selenite,  are  found ;  most  extensive  layers  of  it  exist 
in  the  mountains  near  Algodones,  on  the  Kio  del 
Norte,  aI^d  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  celebrated  "  Sa- 
linas." It  is  used  as  common  lime  for  whitewashing, 
and  the  crystalline  or  selenite  instead  of  window- 
glass. 

Santa  F6  is  the  capital  of  the  Territory.  There 
were  in  1850,  3  printing  ofHces  in  the  Territory,  Issi!- 
ing  a  weekly  and  a  tri-monthly,  and  a  monthly  publi- 
cation. In  tbo  «Hme  year  there  were  1  academy,  with 
40  pupils ;  146  lioman  Catholic  churches.  Totol 
amount  of  church  property  valued  at  $188,200, 

The  climnte  of  New  Mexico  is  of  course  verj-  ditfer- 
ent  in  the  higher,  mountainous  parts,  from  the  lower 
valley  of  ttie  Rio  del  Norte ;  but  generally  tukan,  it  is 
temperate,  uniform,  and  healthy.  The  summer  heat 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  will  sometimes  rise  to  nearly 
lOO'^  Fahrenlieit,  but  the  nights  are  always  cool  and 
pleasant.  The  winters  are  long  and  severe ;  the  higher 
mountains  are  always  covered  "/ith  snow,  and  ice  and 
snow  are  common  in  Santa  F6 ;  but  Rio  del  Norte  is 
never  frozen  with  ice  tliick  enough  to  admit  the  pass- 
age of  boi»<.9  and  rarriuges,  as  was  formerly  believed. 
The  sky  is  generally  clear,  and  the  atmospliere  dry. 
Between  July  and  ')ctober,  rain  falls ;  but  the  rainy 
seasons  are  here  not  so  constant  and  regular  us  in  the 
southern  States.  Disease  seems  to  be  very  little 
known,  except  some  inflammations  and  typhoidal 
fevers  in  the  wint-ir  season. 

Of  the  hiptory  of  New  Mexico  we  authentically 
know  but  little.  The  Spaniards,  it  seems,  received 
the  first  information  in  regard  to  it,  in  li'>81,  from  a 
party  of  adventurers,  nimraanded  by  Captain  Fran- 
cisco de  I.evyu  Bonillo,  who,  finding  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  and  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  to 
l>e  similar  to  tliose  of  Mexico,  called  it  New  Mex- 
ico. In  the  year  1594,  the  Count  do  Alonteiey,  then 
viceroy  of  Mexico,  sent  Jnun  de  Ofiate,  of  Zacutecas, 
to  take  formal  possession  of  the  country,  in  the  name 
of  Spain,  and  to  establish  colonies,  missions,  and  pres- 
idios (forts).  They  found  many  Indian  trilws,  which 
they  succeeded  in  Christianizing  in  the  usual  S|>anish 
wu}',  with  sword  in  hand,  and  made  them  slaves. 
The  villages  of  the  Christianized  Indians  wore  called 
Puebloi,  in  opposition  to  the  wild  and  roving  tribes 
that  refused  such  favors.  Many  towns,  of  which  only 
ruins  exist  now,  were  established  at  that  time  ;  mimy 
mines  were  worked,  and  the  occupation  of  the  oonntry 
seemed  secure,  when,  in  1680,  a  general  insurrection 
of  all  the  Indian  tribes  broke  c  ut,  and  the  Spaniards, 
who  were  quite  unsuspecting  and  unprepared,  wem 


NEW 


Ull 


NEW 


maiaitcTed  almoat  to  a  man.  The  Governor  of  New 
Mexico,  Don  Antonio  de  Otermin,  after  a  liard  «tru)(- 
gle,  retreated  from  Santa  F6,  and  raarclied  as  far  south 
88  Paso  del  Norte,  where  lie  and  his  fuUowera  met 
with  some  friendly  Indians,  made  a  stand,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  town  of  that  name.  The  war 
with  the  Indians  lasted  10  years,  when  the  Spaniards 
reconquered  the  whole  couutry.  Subsequently,  sev- 
eral insurrec'iori  have  taken  place,  none,  however, 
have  been  so  d'^iostrous  as  the  first,  but  the  deep  ran- 
cor of  the  Indian  race  against  the  white,  has  contin- 
ued to  the  present  time.  There  has  grown  up  a 
hatred  between  the  Indians  and  the  Mexicans,  never 
to  be  subdued  but  with  the  extinction  of  the  race. 

Santa  Fd  was  taken  hy  General  Kearney,  Septem- 
ber 8, 184G,  and  the  Territory  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  the  treaty  ol  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  February, 
1848,  and  the  present  territorial  government  estul)- 
lished  in  185U.  The  legislative  assembly  consists  of  a 
council  of  13  members,  elected  for  2  years,  and  a  house 
of  representatives,  of  2U  memljcrs,  elected  for  1  year. 
Governor  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  for  4  years.  Kvery  free  white  inhabitant,  21 
years  of  age,  and  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  is  a 
legal  voter. 

New  Orleans,  the  capital  of  Louisiana,  one  of 
the  United  States,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, about  106  miles  from  its  mouth,  lat.  29°  57'  45" 
N.,  long.  90°  9'  W.     Population,  in  1850,  119,461. 
The  new-built  streets  are  broad,  intersecting  each 
other  at  right  angles ;  and  the  houses  are  mostl}'  of 
brick.     It  is  the  grand  emporium  of  all  the  vast  tracts 
traversed  by  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  their 
, tributary  streams,  enjoying  a  greater  command  of  in- 
ternal navigation  than  any  other  city,  either  of  the  Old 
or  New  World.     Civilization  has  hitherto  struck  its 
roots,  and  begun  to  flourish  only  in  some  compara- 
tively small  portions  of  the  immense  territories  of 
which  New  Orleans  is  the  sea-port ;  and  yet  its  prog- 
ress has  been  rapid  beyond  all  precedent.     It  appears 
from  the  accounts  printed  by  order  of  Congress,  that 
during  the  year  ended  the  30th  June,  1852,  the  value 
of  the  native  American  produce  exported  from  t'uis 
city  amounted  to  $48,808,1G9,  while  the  value  of  that 
exported  from  New  York  was  $74,042,681.     With  re- 
spect to  imports,  the  case  is  materially  different ;  the 
value  of  those  of  New  Orleans,  in  the  year  just  men. 
tioned,  being  only  $12,057,724,  whereas  those  of  New 
York  amounted  to  $152,329,306.     It  is  believed  by 
many,  seeing  how  rapidly  settlements  are  forming  in 
the  "  West,"  that  New  Orleans  must,  at  no  very  dis. 
tant  period,  exceed  every  other  city  of  America,  as 
well  in  the  magnitude  of  its  imports  as  of  its  exports ; 
and,  considering  the  boundless  extent  and  extraordi- 
nary fertility  of  the  uncultivated  and  unoccupied  basins 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  the  anticipations  of 
those  who  contend  that  New  Orleans  is  destined  to  be 
come  the  greatest  emporium,  not  of  America  only,  but 
of  the  world,  will   not   appear  very  unreasonable. 
Steam  navigation  has  been  of  incalculalde  service  to 
this  port,  and,  indeed,  to  the  whole  of  the  valley  of 
the  Mississi^ipi.     The  voyage  up  the  Mi.'<sissippi,  that 
used  formerly  to  be  so  difticuU.  ond  tedious,  is  now 
performed  in  commodious  steam  packets  with  ease,  ce- 
lerity, and  comfort.    "  There  have  been  counted,"  saya 
Mr.  Flint,  "  in  the  harbor,  1500  flat-boats  at  a  time. 
Steam-boats  are  arriving  and  departing  every  hour ; 
and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  50  lying  together  in  the 
harbor.     A  forest  of  masts  is  constantly  seen  along  the 
levee,  except  in  the  sultr}-  months.     There  are  often 
6000  or  6000  boatmen  from  the  upper  country  here  at  a 
time ;  and  we  have  known  30  vessels  advertised  to- 
gether for  Liverpool  and  Havre.    The  intercourse  with 
the  Havana  and  Vera  Cruz  is  great,  and  constantly 
increasing,"     As  a  shipping  port.  New  Orleans  now 
ranks  third  in  the  Union ;  l)eing  in  this  respect  infe- 
l^r  only  to  New  York  and  Boston.     Vessels  of  the 


largest  burden  may  navigate  the  river  several  hna> 
dreds  of  miles  above  the  city  The  aggregate  burden  , 
of  the  shipping  l>elonging  tf  the  port  on  the  80th  Juna,  ' 
1852,  amounted  to  266,015  tons ;  of  which  162,637  were 
employed  in  steam  navigation.  In  the  year  ending 
3l8t  August,  1852,  the  arrivals  of  steamers,  principally 
from  the  interior,  were  2784.  The  depth  of  water  lu 
the  river  opposite  to  New  Orleans  is,  at  a  medium, 
about  70  feet ;  and  it  maintains  soundings  of  80  feet 
till  within  a  mile  of  its  confluence  with  the  sea.  Ha. 
sides  tliree  or  four  of  inferior  consequence,  the  Missis, 
sippi  has  four  principal  passes  or  outlets.  In  the 
south-east,  or  main  pass,  at  Balize,  the  water  on  th«  • 
bar,  at  ordinary  tides,  does  not  exceed  12  feet ;  and  af 
the  rise  o!  i .  i  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  not  mart 
than  2  or  H  feet,  vessels  drawing  muili  water  cao 
not  make  their  way  from  the  ocean  to  Nnw  Orleans, 
Tlie  unhealthiness  of  the  climate  is  the  great  draw* 
back  on  New  Orleans.  This  probably  arises  from  th« 
low  and  marshy  situation  of  the  city  and  surroundinK 
country,  which  is  under  the  level  of  the  Mississippi, 
being  protected  from  inundation  by  an  artiticial  levea 
or  mound,  varing  from  5  to  30  feet  in  height,  and  ex- 
tending along  the  bank  of  the  river  a  distance  of  100 
miles.  The  unbealtliy  season  includes  July,  August, 
and  September ;  during  which  period  the  allow  fever 
often  makes  dreadful  havoc,  particularly  among  the 
poorer  classes  of  immigrants  from  the  North  and  from 
Kurope.  La 't.ly,  great  efforts  have  beou  made  to 
improve  the  health  of  tlio  city,  by  supplying  it  abun. 
dantly  with  water,  paving  the  streets,  removing 
wooden  sewers,  and  replacing  them  with  others  of 
stone,  etc.  Many  places,  where  water  used  to  stag, 
nate,  have  been  filled  up  j  and  large  tracts  of  swampy 
ground  contiguous  to  the  town  have  been  drained. 
And  as  such  works  will  no  doulit,  lie  prosecuted  on  it 
still  larger  scale,  uncording  to  the  increase  of  commerce 
and  population,  if  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  ravages  of  fever 
may  be  mulerially  abated,  though  the  situation  of  the 
city  excludes  any  very  strong  expectation  of  its  ever 
being  rendered  quite  free  from  tliis  dreadful  scourge. 
It  has  latterly  been  proposed  to  bring  earth  from  the 
upper  parts  of  the  Mississippi,  and  to  employ  it  in 
forming  a  site  for  a  new  city  raised  some  feet  aliove  tho 
level  of  the  river.  It  is  believed  that  this  would  be 
tlie  most  likely  means  to  guard  against  fever ;  and  the 
object  in  view  is  of  sucli  paramount  iuiportanco,  tluit 
the  expense  of  tho  scheme  should  be  reckoned  a  very 
inferior  matter. 

Several  cotton  presses  are  among  tlie  most  imposing 
structures  in  the  citi  .  The  Orleans  cotton  press  is  on 
ground  632  feet  long  and  308  wide,  wliich  is  nearly 
covered  with  buildings.  It  contains  a  centre  uiuiul.i„, 
three  stories  high,  surmounted  l>y  a  cupola,  which  af- 
fords a  flne  view  of  tlie  city.  The  wings  are  two  sto- 
ries high,  and  very  extensive.  It  presses,  on  an  av- 
erage, 150,000  bales  of  cotton  annually,  but  its  capacity 
is  much  greater.  There  are  other  cotton  presses. 
Several  of  the  bunks  have  fine  buildings,  and  some  of 
the  hotels  are  magnificent.  Two  of  these  hotels  cost 
$600,000  each.  The  United  States'  branch  mint  has 
an  edifice,  282  feet  long,  and  108  feet  deep,  with  two 
wings  29  liy  81  feet,  tlie  whole,  three  stories  high, 
which  cost  $182,000.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water 
raised  by  powerful  steam-engines  from  the  tlissisaippl 
River  into  a  reservoir  constructed  on  an  artiticial 
mound,  21  feet  high  at  its  base.  The  reservoir  is  250 
feet  square,  built  of  brick,  and  plastered  with  hy- 
draulic cement.  It  is  divided  into  four  compartments, 
to  allow  the  water  to  settle  before  it  is  distributed  over 
the  city  in  cast-iron  pipes,  which  are  laid  to  the  aggre- 
gate length  of  18  miles.  The  water  works  belonged  to 
tlie  Commercial  Bank,  and  cost  $722,004.  TLo  city 
lighted  with  gas.  A  draining  company,  with  a  capital 
of  $64,000,  has  two  steam-engines  for  draining  thq 
marslies  of  35  miles  in  extent  between  the  city  and 
Lake  Pontchartrain.     There  ore  in  tho  city  a  United 


! 


*  : 


NEW 


1418 


NBW 


States'  land  office,  aeveral  pabllo  and  private  bankn, 
,  having  a  large  capital,  and  several  insurance  com- 
panies, witli  commensurate  capitals. 

The  manufacturing  estalilislimenti  of  this  oily  are 
comprised  under  the  head  of  furnaces,  founderies, 
machine  shops,  sugar  refineries,  cotton  factories,  dis- 
tilleries, tobacco  fuctories,  saw  mills,  etc.  The  whole 
employed  a  capital  in  1860  of  $2,902,000,  and  manu- 
factured articles  valued  at  t4,462,!M4;  since  which 
time  the  increase  has  been  v«r)'  rapid,  and  in  1854 
were  estimated  to  have  doubled  the  amounts  of  1850. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  opposite  to  New 
Orleans,  connected  by  a  steam  ferry,  is  Algiers ;  and 
Vijoining,  the  suburb  of  Macdonough,  where  are  the 
United  iStates'  Marine  Hospital  and  many  pleasant 
residences.  Algiers  contains  aeveral  large  machine 
shops,  iron  founderies,  and  ship-building  establish- 
ments. 

There  are  steam  and  3ailing  packet  lines  to  all  the 
large  sea-port  cities,  sailing  woekl}.  Also,  steam 
packets  weekly  to  Vera  Cruz  and  other  ports  in  the 
Gulf. 

For  commercial  purposes.  New  Orleans  occupies  a 
very  superior  and  commanding  situation.  It  is  the 
natural  entrepot  for  supplies  destined  to  all  parts  of 
the  Miusissippi  valley,  us  well  as  the  dipAt  for  those 
products  of  that  salubrious  region  which  seek  a  market 
seaward.  By  means  of  the  Slississippi  River  and  its 
tributaries,  an  inland  trade  is  opened  to  her  grasp,  the 
magnitude  of  which  has  never  been  equaled.  Steam- 
ers may  leave  her  wharves  and  proceed  on  voyages  of 
several  thousand  miles  without  lircaking  bulk.  The 
Mississippi  and  its  alHnents  are  flanked  on  either  side 
by  extensive  territories,  unsurpassed  in  richness  of 
soil,  which  readily  yield  a  harvest  to  the  lalx>rs  of  the 
agriculturist,  whether  it  be  cf  sugar,  'X)ni,  or  cotton. 
These  are  the  principal  staples  of  the  valle;-,  and  the 
receipts  of  each  of  their  products  at  New  Orleans  are 
rapidly  increasing.  Heretofore,  the  river  has  been 
the  only  channel  depended  upon  for  their  transporta- 
tion. Several  linos  of  railroad  are  iu  procef  s  of  con- 
struction now,  however,  to  facilitate  the  traiisjiortation 
of  cotton  and  sugar  produced  at  a  distance  from  the 
river,  to  market,  and  thus  enlarge  the  area  of  production. 
These  bulky  products  will  nut  l)ear  an  exten!<tve  land 
carriage  liy  the  old  mode,  and  result  in  wealth  to  the 
producer ;  but  the  construction  of  railroads  for  their 
cheap  transit  to  the  river  even,  will  not  only  change  the 
prospects  of  tliu  interior  planters  for  the  l>ctter,  lii't  will 
add  greatly  to  the  wealth  and  onimerce  of  New  Orleans, 
which  is  eminently  a  place  c  xchange  and  distribution. 
It  is  tlie  great  depot  of  the  south-western  planiationa, 
where  cotton  and  sugar  crops  are  Imught  and  s^ld 
while  still  in  the  field,  or  "  advanced"  upon  prospect- 
ively if  necessary.  It  has  also  an  extenslv<)  trade 
with  Texas,  Mexico,  and  the  Gulf  ports,  as  well  as  a 
very  hea-zj'  foreign  export  trade.  She  has,  besides,  a 
large  coasting  trado  with  Atlantic  ports,  the  value  of 
which  can  only  l>e  Known  generally  l)y  its  results. 
Her  commercial  life  may  be  said  to  date  after  the  ces- 
aion  of  I^uisiana  to  the  United  States,  in  1803,  as  pre- 
vious to  that,  her  commerce  was  insignificant ;  and 
yet,  in  this  short  period  of  at.out  40  years,  she  already 
ranks  as  the  fourth  city  of  the  world  for  the  magni- 
tude and  value  of  her  commerce.  The  facilities  and 
convenience  of  transacting  business  at  New  Orleans 
are  fully  equal  to,  and  in  many  respects  superior  to 
those  of  au}'  other  place.  It  is  the  centre  of  immense 
exchange  operations,  and  an}'  amount  of  funds  can  at 
all  times  be  ol)taincd  at  the  shortest  notice  under  good 
letters  of  credit,  and  bills  negotiated  with  great  readi- 
nei'S  and  facility  on  any  prominent  point  in  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  the  commercial  cities  of  western 
Europe ;  and  the  hanking  institutions  afford  all  reason- 
able accommodations  to  the  local  wants  and  trade  of 
the  city.  Some  European  cities  can  show  more 
aplendid  quays  or  magnificent  docks  for  the  accommo- 


dation of  shipping,  and  tli*  Uiutllitf  ifld  \tmiMnt  nfmf 
goes,  far  exceeding  in  apiMaraHuii  mil  <liiMli||iir  aiir 
thing  of  the  kind  in  Wsw  tirlaaiw,  Itut  In  m,  way  p-npa. 
rior  in  point  of  actual  oonvsntanua  l4i  (Im  uiiprRt'oiidlna 
wharves  of  tha  city.  As  Is  gaiMtmlly  kttown,  thi'  sun 
face  of  tiia  alluvial  soil  of  l.(HiliiiNtiit,  llDiliidlng.  of 
coune,  the  site  of  tiia  «||y,  Is  eimf.!il«ml*l,y  ImIow  itia 
river  in  ordinary  stiigm  of  high  W(tl»f,  Httd  (h«  country 
is  protected  from  iiiundatiun  liy  «  fi-l.tiil  and  solid  nm« 
l>ankment  called  the  "  iMvaa,"  anttniilhtg  (m  linllisldaa 
of  the  river  lieiow,  and  a  graat  lUntmu'n  aliovn  tlie  city. 
Outside  of  the  iavea  ths  Imiik  (if  tlw  dyer  Is  milled  tha 
"  battura,"  which  In  many  \t\mm  i*  lni'r*>i.slti;(  from 
the  continual  alluvial  daiHMlts,  wlilja  In  .ithor  placel 
the  river  hus  what  ii  callttil  ••  a  fitllInK  Unnk,"  and  tlis 
water  gradually  ancroachan  on  tit*  laiiit,  li,  lie  for. 
mer  case  the  levt  j  is  advaiuieil  aa  tlia  ImtMira  Inrimises, 
and  this  hf»  liKon  tha  uasu  in  a  lnr^M  |«ifllim  of  tha 
front  of  New  OHeaiia,  wbara,  to  w.iiMtjiarts,  the  leves 
has,  in  the  left  26  years,  advaiMwl  fully  (WJO  fent ) 
and  the  front  warehousas  now  ntmii  tot  »  Itititf  entcnl 
that  distance  from  the  watar,  MtriUnu  »  Nplxtidld  spoca 
for  the  vast  bulk  of  prmluwa  timt  U  atiniwlly  landed 
and  shipped.  Tha  wharvaa  ara  (<(m«Jr(ii'i#(l  outslda 
the  levee  on  niassiva  pllaii,  drivatl  with  a  haavy  iron 
ram  into  tha  mud,  and  aKtandini;  <iv«<f  tim  flvn'r  Into 
the  water  sufBciantly  da«|i  t<t  admit  tliit  heaviest 
steamboats  and  ships  to  lia  Hi)  nifnU''t  llwin  |  lienvy 
sleepers  connect  tha  piles  at  tilMlf  tii|n,  atld  Irti  these 
piles  the  platform  it  luld,  of  (jihik  jilaiikihi,',  the  edges 
of  which  are  separataii  alxiHt  »iim  Imilt,  In  jiwvent  tha 
accumulation  of  dirt,  whiuli  fulls  tliriillgli  these  Ititor- 
stices  into  the  rivar  (lowing  Italitw,  himI  111  five  inlniitea 
after  the  heaviest  storm  tha  wJMila  Ktirfiicd  Is  in  |i«rfect 
condition  to  receive  any  ilsuBfljiUdil  of  fliefchiitidlze. 
These  wharves  are  thus  plaiik«d  liank  fill  tUey  Join  the 
crown  of  the  liiveo,  in  winia  \i\mwil  im  to  liOu  fnet, 
which  is  niado  lirni  and  solid  liy  «  iioimtilllt  wiBlIng  of 
shells,  and  always  ke|it  in  good  iir^lar.  Out)  of  these 
wharves  presents  un  Miibrokan  .yiMt  mi  th«  tiret'.it 
1600  feet,  and  .itliers  ItOO  t(i  MNI  fatit,  and  i>)  the  busl- 
ness  season  it  is  usual  tn  saa  tliana  froiitii  i>ntirttly  occu- 
pied with  liteambniits  lying  Ihiw  im,  and  oanli  wllli  her 
stage  rigged  oiit  to  tlia  wharf,  millvcly  ctigngcd  In 
loading  or  unloading,  Tha  wlmrvKS  UnmuM  for  sea- 
going vessels  are  datauhwl  friiiM  aacll  iitliKi-  with  an  in- 
tervening dock,  and  ea<i|»  wliiiff  accimitnodntcs  a  tier 
of  vessels,  whlcii,  unlika  Hi»  otoainlHrnts  are  moored 
up  and  down  tha  river,  una  oiitalihi  thd  otiief,  three, 
four,  and  five  tiers  daap,  with  a  hriwd,  coininwi  stage 
communicating  with  tha  javaa,  at,.;  (ia(«iidlng  on  tha 
bulwarks  of  tlie  vesnal  to  tllS  OBtnlrta  tim  :  the  tlmlief, 
plank,  and  all  tlie  oonveniani'aa  for  (Ills  staging,  lielng 
furnished  by  the  city,  who  avan  aloii  s(l|/()ly  tarpaul- 
ins to  protect  the  goods  in  nana  of  rain, 

New  Orleans  waa  foimilad  liv  tll»  VfuwH  In  1717. 
In  1702  it  was  convayad  t^i  tha  M|)anl«li,  who,  In  1800, 
re-conveyed  it  to  the  l^rsni'll,  and  (fl  180il  It  was  in- 
cluded in  tha  puriliasB  of  tioiiiaiana  liy  the  United 
States.  On  .lanuary  Nth,  IMIft,  (ha  llrltlsh  nnder 
General  Packenham  marta  an  a(ta«lt  m  (ho  city,  ap- 
proaching it  througli  l.itka  lloftjiia,  lint  were  signally 
defeated  by  the  AnierliMina  tllnlaf  Umicfal  .lackson. 
The  British  loss  in  killad  and  wiiunftf<d  was  iHHHI  men, 
and  General  Packenham  wa«  klllwt  |  (llfi  Aiiierlcans  loit 
only  7  men  killed  and  H  wiinndad,  In  1718  HIenville. 
at  that  time  governor  of  tlia  pfovlnca,  Kt-iecfed  the 
present  site  of  New  Orleans,  liH(  owing  to  diftlctiltlea 
he  had  to  encounter,  it  was  nut  liinitpit  nnti!  1722,  In 
1727  the  .lesuits  arrived  ami  wnra  located  In  a  tract  of 
land,  on  a  portion  of  wliidh  Ht,  (!li»flcs  Hotel  now 
stands.  In  17<lit  thay  wara  wiinpalM  In  .(('It  l,nulsi- 
ana  by  an  order  from  Popa  (ilitmnnt  XIII,,  and  alt 
their  pro[)erty  uonflscatBiJ,  tliiin  n^tlmatud  (o  lip  worth 
$180,000,  wliich  it  now  worth  ovor  i1i2(i,(KHi,000,  !n 
1789  tha  first  oasa  of  yollow  fcviir  known,  was  Intro, 
duced  by  •  Britith  slavar  wlib  a  «arg«  from  Afrlofc 


Null 


l-lMI 

M«< 

k 

■iii\ 

ll«< 

Vf< 


NEW 


1419 


NEW 


fn  177W  Im  ffonllmr,  lh«  flr«t  n«wspap«r,  was  pa\>- 
IIdImhI  )  tUtirti  urn  now  1]  dalllea  and  aa  many  weekly 

fW|wr«  imtiilaltmt,  (n  INK)  the  flrnt  itreot  was  paved 
n  Htiw  DrldKtt*.  At  thl*  tiuw  auch  was  thu  state  of 
th«  »tfmt»  itttmf  »  rain,  that  aieda  wore  used  U,  drug 
ii<Htiin,  whirl)  |mI;1  I|1  a  bale.  In  18IM  gus  and 
W«(«r  WdfK  lMtr(><'i«!«d,  The  |>r«!,ent  area  of  the  elty 
If  nift  Car  Inim  '«)  aquare  mllea,  double  the  oize  of  New 

K»¥iiwn  (iir  UnrtnH  aan  Tohaoco  rioM  New  Orlkani 

Add 


York.     In  1826  the  grounds  above  Canal-street  and 
billow  Esplanade-street  were  principally  plantations. 

The  following  statistics  give  a  complete  view  of  the 
trade  of  this  great  acd  growing  emporium.  Its  prepon- 
derance in  shipment  of  cotton  is  as  decided  as  that  of 
Alanchester  in  its  manufacture :  for  further  information 
refer  to  articles,  Cotton,  Cottok  MANurACTUBB, 
,  GBEA.T  Britain,  Louisiana,  United  States. 

roR  Six  Ykabs,  cosiiiKNOiNO  Uirriiiiica  1,  ado  rmdino 
IT  81. 


I 


Wilitlnif  »ip«ttMl, 


Wmpwil,, .,,,,,,,,,, 
liiHimiii,  ,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
Utdiliii/illfi'HtimkM^. 
lUiwm,  k«liNi/H(h,  ele, 
llitrH,  llnlfatl, «t«,,.... 
tUvfd,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Smtiun , , , , ,,,, 
arnwlll'* , , , . , 

Aniirt«f'l«(ii,,,,.,,„,, 
lUiiUifikm  and  Ohent, 

Hmmii ,,,,,,,,,,,.,, 
Aiitwi-rii,  nif,  ,,,,,,,, 

lUiiiliiirit: .,,, 

Hinlfiili'iiAniimkhiitm 
*tv*lNi(>nir«llar,  (ft/i,., 

M««l('«,  nlll,,,,,,.,.,, 
thium,  'lilituld,  tdtt. , , . 

Mt,  I'clcrtl/MfKiPtB... 

immrtiifftifitiHirtii,.., 

Umiiifk,..., 

\UiHmi, ,,,,,,, ,,,,„,, 
IViivMoii'i.,  H,  t,. ,,,, 

i'MMxIl'l/la 

HahlMiiirf,  .,,,,.,,,,, 
I'tirltiwiiitU,., ,,,,,.,, 
inUi'ti'imlwtiUipnf^., 

WftUirii  Mlat«i.< 

'r«tol 

a«uftK/(,*tw(», 

Or^iitttrllalN. „,,,.,. 

I/rum,,,,,,, ,,,,..., 

N»ftl|i»f  K.i(fn(i»,,,.,, 
M,  K/itri'tii',  M«.«l(!0,ete, 


T4«.4V> 
itiO.ViO 

T«UI 'iM»,9ii 


HM-H. 

Billnl, 
ni.lll 

A,4M 

W,Hflft 

i«.w» 

>»,3«4 

ftM,ftHO 

iT,7»r 

4n,<m 

riii,m 
m,m 

I,'ifi5 
"'»4 


r,ir«;^i 


lUt-M. 

»8IAtl 
2a,oi8 

8,005 
30,4A'i 
X'iT.lIU 

8,819 

«,II89 

7,H07 

6,40(1 

ft<(,88S 

18,147 

21,3'*a 

SIM  07 

8H.174 

17,291 

7H,»47 

8il,S84 

61,840 

16t,4A9 

2,VU 

1»,R82 
8,178 
1,MU 
1,31'i 


IU3-U.  I  IIU<-5>.    l8SI-tl.  18M-M.|1SU— 5e. 


996,622 
!244,NI4 
162,«7n 
17S,H12 
232,100 


BaliK. 

7(B,M1 

8,621 
8,460 
1,H78 

loft.nso' 

1,814 

8,4861 

4,S78 

1,87» 

1,907 

29,461 

7,877 

6,661 

1^861 

47, 1M 

18,787 

4S'i'i» 


69,969 

118,676 

1,468 

8,106 

4,070 


60  269 

i;TS6,028i1,J70;25ri,429,180 


UalDi. 

779,021 

12,861 

15,611 

6,268 

186,264 

1,285 

2,019 

6,018 

4,211 

1,810 

82,849 

9,010 

28,709 

18,162 

68,796 

24,9%; 

62,240 

9,684 

68,168 
113,861 

HOM 
4,057 


717,828 
178,828 
62,632 
109,164 
202,817| 


818,736 
198,671 
98,876 
136,971 
192,627 


Hllei. 

869,886 

50 

89,767 

12,434 

802,957 

2,817 

5,098 

1,1M 

1,375 

1,982 

14,621 

22,282 

10,531 

7,892 

51,448 

20,693 

76,902 

87,602 

73,043 
161,6S0 
16,028 
19,362 
6,126 

"387 
1,200 


llalu. 

781,173! 


I 

ii,7oo; 

7,211' 

2,1.^9 

183,054 

l,.^^4 

4.808 

7,! 
369 

1,507 
10,249 
24,562 
17,694 

6,6'M 
47,616 
11,919 
7.^,09.1i 
15,046 

101,939 
129.629 

4,561 
15.591 

4,746 

■"46 
1,200 


1,6U,981 1,485,815 


922,086 

211,626 

95  686! 

14»,03S' 


772,243 

196,264 

75,980 

184,6.^7  18,««5 
256.712i   8,682 


ilhili. 
6,16* 
6,179 

"io3 

"148 
218 
932 

'"■i4 

623 
10,667 
8,725 

"m 

4,671 

6,467 

3,637 
6,246 
1,446 

"848 


.V),181 


11,446 

1,298 

1,M,W 


1,796,023,1,270,261 1,429,180 


l,Mi991 1,435,815  ,'»,191 


llhiii. 
2,931 
4,660 


8,844 

194 

1,904 


660 
8,240 
8,747 

"823 
14,279 

4,473 

4,824 
7,176 
1,408 

"4lO 

"i62 
69;d74' 


7,,'»1 
6.942 
13.370 
23,076 
9,156 


isii-M.|ia6)-ia.  lui— II. 


llhili. 
5,272 
7,571 

"619 

8,480 
8,066 
0,661 

"ioo 

6,398 

2,492 

46 

904 

7,618 

4,947 

'8ji4 

6,019 

789 

"is9 
103 

"'97 


Hhili. 
6,360 
6,048 

Hlidi. 
9,468  ! 
6,063  1 

678 

610 

6,707 
2,31T 
4,428 

1,482 

169 

1,267 

624 

644 
7,970 
8,926 

"768 
6,292 

800 
282 

15,053 

4,084 

125 

414 

10,175 

'1,123 

'2,479 

4,818 

126 

1,966 
3,647 

'7,281 
1,381 

100 
60 

688 
124 

110 

"i47 

992 

'9,066 
1,916 
2,976 

'1,167 

222 

15,616 

7,«19 
476 

1,229 

7,662 

l'l',i84 
8,6.33 

l'8',347 
1,9(1 

'l',296 
896 

"28O 


63,043  1 64,075    98,716 


11,991 
12,447 
13,932 
9.S,S9 
4,794 


{16,150  14,023 
2,908  18,948 
20,799  26,814 
14,699  21,731 
9,.^21  '  17,199 


59,074  I  64,100  ;  68,048  1  64,076    93,715  | 


(JvNI'4a«'rif«  Katm  Ut  FaaiunT,  on  Cotton  and  Tobacco,  to  Livxspnoi.,  ilAVRK,  and  New  York,  on  the  1st  or 

«ACU   MONTU  roE  THE  PAST  TwO   YeAKS. 


CoHon,  |Mr  pniind. 

TobACfo,  p«r  hoKibend.                                   | 

MMIM, 

HM-B1. 



ISJt-M. 

Iim-57. 

1S55-M,                     1 

((••r.. 

L'aoii. 

N«w  York'Uv.rponl. 

ll.vre. 

Mew  York 

Llrerponl. 

Hiivrc.    'Vew  Y<irli'Liverpool, 

H«Tre.     New  York] 

CVnta, 

Vfftee. 

CenU. 

Oenu, 

1.    d. 

1.    d. 

(*<'iil<tml«tf,,,. 

»-8 

1 

8-9 

8-1 

1  1-3 

1 

43    6 

(S  50 

)12  60 

110  00 

13 

T-16 

7-9 

1  7-8 

1 

42    6 

6  00 

HiiiniiUHr,,,, 

lft-»3 

1 

1-2 

7-9 

1  8-4 

0  3-4 

46    0 

600 

12  no 

U'epiiiliKr , , , , 

17  (» 

1  1-18 

1-2 

1-2 

1 

0  1-2 

42    6 

600 

13  00 

750 

ilnmnry , , , , , , 

9  16 

1  8-16 

9-16 

8-4 

1  1-2 

0  1-2 

65    0 

7  76 

7  76 

fvUfUHtf 

O-lfl 

1  8-16 

9-16 

1-2 

1  1-18 

OS-16 

T75 

7  60 

itaMi  ,  

16-82 

1 

1-2 

5-8 

1  1-4 

0  8-4 

40   '0 

7  75 

.... 

8  60 

r;.::;::;; 

r,\r. 

0  3^ 

8-8 

6-9 

1  1-4 

0  .9-4 

a5    0 

6  00 

8  60 

9-16 

0  7  18 

1-4 

6-16 

0  6-8 

0  7-16 

27    6 

2  50 

6  75 

'bMiH/i ,,,,,,, , 

fi-16 

OB-S, 

8-16 

11-32 

03-4 

0.8-9 

80    0 

2  60 

36    0 

.... 

4  75 

,lH\t 

ll-M 

1)  8-4 

3-16 

1-4 

05-8 

0  1-4 

80    0 

2  50 

80    0 

360 

AlHIiM,, 

T-16 

1 

6-16 

7-16 

0  3-8 

86    0 

3  60 

37    6 

450 

C'«NC«a/('nv«  I'atiiM  or  Miihiuno  to  kair  Cotton  at 

NKW   <(«(,»l/»»a,  ON  tub    I'lSHT    I)AV     OK    KAOH    MONTII 
IIIHIHII    4    fKNIMII  Of    KlVF.  YKARS,  TOOETHER  WITH  TlIE 

'I'lifti,  Hp,i  tifin  AT  New  Orleans  and  tue  Total 

t'milllt  llf  TIIM  I/NITEI)  HTATr.S. 

M«MIh,        I  lliM~H,  I  iDli-t*. 


WoWolHlmf, , , , , 

<».^-/l».f,. 

HiimiMiKt, , , , , 
IMullllwf,,,,, 

•lummy,,,,.,, 
roUrimtf,,,,,, 
>t*H'U,,,,,,,,, 

Aliill 

K»y 

ilHHi",,, 

Mr 

^ut(lM, ,,,,,,, 

l(«<i«l(rt(iatN,0, 


U  -IB 


in 

18) 
111—18 
"       Ifl 

l»t 

\t, 

-IB 
14- 
1»- 

l<iii>< 
l,ftl«,347 


Onte, 

Si-IOi 
«1-10l 

-lit 

10- 

lOi 

-11 
» -11 

10. 
10 
10 
10 

flile 
I,7fi9,293 


1I1J4^M.  1  1SS3-54.  1 18S2-S3. 


Onli. 

9i- 
H- 

Hi-IOI 
8|— 101 

8  —10 
8  —10 
8- 
9 
10 
9 
9 


CentM. 
10* 

lOi 

9i 


ll«le< 
l,2S4.768 


8'i 

n 

9>__^ 

Bate*.     I     Hftles. 

,440,779il,6C>4,8G4 


».iW«,()«nft,637,846]2,847,8392,»80,027i3,220,000 


OOMP.'.BATivF.  Abrivaij!,  Exports,  AND  Stocks  or  Cotton 
AND  Tobacco  at  New  (Iblrass,  roR  Ten  Years, 
from  1«t  Beptemiier  e/cii  Yeah. 


Ye.n. 


0-ttton, 


1966— .17 

is-^v-ee 

19.54— M 
186:1-64 

1S.')2-.V! 
1S51— .W 
18.W-,"i1 
1949—50 
1948—19 
1847—49 


ArrivBla.     Expom. 

rT>iCJ7~r  »»?««• 
1,513,2471.616,921 

!l,759,29Sil,79.5,ii2:< 
1, 294,769;  l,27l>.2M 

11.440,7791,429.180 
1,664,964;  1,614,991 

:1,42!),19:il,4.'55,S15 
99.5,0361    997,459 

I  887,72:^  8:19,891  i 
1,142,!)82  1,16T,S0:V 
1,21:1,8051,201,897 


Stock*. 
"iillel. 

7.3?1 
6,995 
89,.)  26 
24.121 
]0,,522 
9,769 
16,390 
16,612 
1,5,490 
87,401 


TobACCu, 


Arrlvnll. 


llhdi. 

66,067 
66,090 
69,818 
48,905 
7.5,010 
99,676 
64,030 
00:164 
62,-36 
55,992 


Exports, 


Hhd<. 
50,191 
69.074 
64.100 
63,04:1 
64,076 
98,715 
54,,501 
67.965 
52,996 
60,86* 


Stockx, 


Hilda. 
18,711 
9,126 
12.663 
24,046 
29,166 
18,8,31 
28,871 
14,949 
13,298 
14,9.51 


Commerce  of  Xew  Orlans. — The  following  tables, 
which  we  have  compiled  from  our  records,  present 
aonio  leading  facts  connected  with  the  commercial 
progress  of  this  city,  and  will  be  found  valuable  tot 
future  reference  by  the  readers  of  this  work : 


NEW 


1430 


NEW 


BTAramm ornia  Runm  Ann  Kirocii  of  llimulf  iknn 

TOMAOOO  AT  TU«  I'ORT  III'  NnW  UHUIM  HI  ItttlM  J  »»», 

rKOMl322-SSTol9M-AT,il>iiiiiunurTHI»Tl''l'l»KTIl<tM«. 


YMn. 


18M— 98 
\»t»—U 
ISM— S5 
lH2&-tl« 
lSi«-2I 
lKi(— »^ 
18'i4— » 
IHtW— 80 
IfWO-fll 
1881—31 
1881— 88 
184S— M 
IISM— SS 
188a— 88 
1886— »T 
1887—88 
ISSS-BS 
1889—10 
1840— »1 
1841—41 
1842—48 
1848— M 
1844— 4B 
184fi— M 
1846—47 
1847—48 
1848— «» 
194»— 60 
1840—51 
I8ftl— 52 
1861— 58 
1858— &4 
18M— M 
1856—56 
1856—67 
ToUl.. 


CoUM. 


Riflglplt. 


1«1.»M 

14I,6M 

Sfl«,8A8 

14»,881 

836,578 

1WV,85S 

168,68» 

861,»7T 

4S9,8n 

846,646 

608,888 

467,184 

586,171 

495,441 

605,818 

741,71() 

678,514 

«M,44S 

8M,S70 

740,156 

1,089,611 

910,854 

979,188 

1,058,688 

740,669 

1,118,806 

1,141,881 

887,728 

99.\086 

1,419,183 

1,664,864 

1,440,770 

1,184,768 

1,759,298 

1,518,247 


EipoM*. 


171,671 

148,h4» 

108,914 

lA«,««i 

BMfil9 

804,078 

867,786 

861,287 

418,941 

858,104 

410,514 

461,014 

686,991 

490,495 

688,969 

^88,818 

.  7U,179 

949,81') 

821,288 

749,267 

1,088,870 

895,876 

984,616 

1,064,857 

714AM 

1,201,807 

1,167,808 

888,591 

997,458 

1,486,816 

1,644,981 

1,4*'*,1S4) 

1,270,244 

1,795,028 

J  ,616,941 

27,181,869 


IT.TM 

iW,4M 
W,44« 

Mm 
"'•'li 

ii6,i>ri 

ii5,oAy 
tfifitih 

HT/Ml 


{»,*'( 
Wf 

m,ih 
mm 
«»,*« 

m.*iit 

mm 

4ii,m 
MM 

him 

liiiMi 

mm 

MM 

M.m 
M.tim 


17,201,866 

Upon  the  luppositioD  that  tha  »vsr«(;ii  ynim  nl  hiW 
ton  and  u*>i>cco  for  thy  3b  ya*r»  8liuv«  nM^id  m»f  im 
fairly  estimated  at  (40  per  liaUi  fur  tiM  ftitnwf,  NHil 
(7C  per  hogshead  fur  the  UtUr,  it  WuitM  UJVN  »  li/ifti 
value  for  these  two  articles  aluiia  uf  f  t,20!l,0|.'t,il|0, 
Ijfrona  or  Bpkcik  at  Nkw  OaLiAtis,  ¥'in  TWKkVH  VMM, 

rKOM  1st  tiEITEllUIlK  TO  8I»?   ivitVWt, 
Itm.  VuliM, 


1868-57. 16,600,015 

1865—56. 4.918,ri40 

I       1854—6!). 8,746,087 

1868—54 6,867,IW6 

1851-58. 7,86.M26 

1861—61 6,2it},628 


1850-61.,.,,,  %i.inim 
1840-6<»....,,  tim,iim 
1848— ♦»,,..,,   tm.Vtn 

1-547— W.,..,,  \,*Ui,¥m 
)»4U— 47 »J^vum 

1846-46 i,<>nm 


Dnllun, 

6  -6i 
9-6 

?=?' 
9-7 
7-74 

iti 

7-7 
6i-4 


m 

81— 9 


e-6j 

9-64 
6  -6} 
6|-6l 


IU4-U.  I  IHi-M.  I  lUt-u, 

T>ini«s.~ri).iii«r«." 


UuMfiSttiri  PmoM  or  Fuitiii,  on  tiii  1st  ur 
Month  roi  Fiva  Yiahs, 

S*Jrt<*(nbfr, . 

(julnlwf 

(IwcMitwf.. 
ttfimnfr  ■■■■ 
('(■(/fn«f»... 
MMfU.  .... 

Awll 

M»f 

'lofie 

.Hit 

AHgOIlt,    ... 


7i-  8i 
«1-T 
8  —  R»! 
8  —  9 
—  9 
-»♦ 
-»» 
-91 
Id  -11 
9J— 9 
8  —  H, 
T|-8i 


-6, 
—7 


6 
6 
6 
6 

Tl-71 
T-7» 
6  -M 

«;-7 

T-7J 

ej-7 

8|-8i 


tv.JUri. 

8[ 

4-1 

■» 

4-6' 

4l,-6J 

4J-5 

4  —41 

8i~tt 
8|-4i 

J,J-6J 


OuMfjiN/ttlrl  riKniw  or  Oohn,  Sacks,  at  Nkw  Orirani 
ON  tm  1st  or  KAou  Muntii,  roB  t'lvc  Ykars. 


U'Mht. 


)«»•— »1. 


pcpfpffihw. 

^tt-uih^t. 


lUS-M. 


Crall.  Ooikl 

70  —  90  70-76 
60-75  60—68 
96  —  70  05-75 
68  —  65   88—90 

69  —  61   (MV— 6s 

Colrf osrjr 106  —1 10  66—72 

Mnfch ,  fl«J—  70  48—54 

Milr 

i(rt((e.< 

,\u\f 

AokusI,.,,. 


CMtltt. 

70—86 

80—  80 

t>—  87t 

86—90 

87—  90 

98— 0£ 

00—  92 

61"—  76  48—58  94—  07 

70  —  78  48—48  100—120 

,  100  —110,  64—571  96—115 

,1  76  —  86,  46-60  70—  88 

,    70  —  86  68—71  75—  95 


IM4-U. 


ISU-M.  llflBl-U. 


(.'••nta. 
,'i2-58 
.VS— 62 
66-60 
l»-«0 
62—68 
42— £  I 
8,->— 16 
84—16 
44—60 
48— ,V2 
.■id— 60 
6l'-76 


58—66 
68—69 
65—70 
.^7—66 
60—70 
80— 90 
60—70 
52—111 
68—65 
52—60 
46— M 
60-60 


iUtUPkkhii^K  Katra  or  KxoiiANOR  on  LoNnoy.  Vauih, 
ANti  Nrw  York,  at  Nkw  Ublkans,  un  tiir  Ibt  or 
«A«M  Month  ruR  Tiir»  Tsaus.    (6U  Ua<  Hills.) 


1 

ls»-n.       1       iiu-tg. 

1S54-S! 

. 

i 

1 

^ 

1 

i 

. 

1 

j 

1 

1 

1 

i 

* 

I 

1 

k 

« 

|>in. 

fr* 

dl.. 

I.m. 

per  ». 

i\>. 

piii. 

V"  » 

.11.. 

Sclit... 

n 

6  10 

!| 

»J 

6  15 

•i 

«» 

ei.'i 

U 

(tf(«l/(.f 

9 

6  12 

8 

5  20 

2 

SI 

6  12 

n 

fjotcm. 

8 

6  26 

Ti 

6  80 

2i 

5  Vi 

u 

Ilfpum 

6  27 

2( 

7 

6  28 

'i\ 

H 

5  J.'. 

2 

te"^ 

6  80 
6  HO 

^! 

l\ 

5»0 
6  85 

2t 

7 
7 

5  28 
5  25 

2 
I 

MmM.. 

6  27 

^ 

8 

6  25 

2 

84 

5  2^ 

A  Of  II... 

M«y.... 

525 

A 

8 

6  25 

2 

9t 

5  li) 

n 

9 

5  17 

li 

9 

5  1» 

1 

10 

8  Vi 

1 

lUine.... 

5  12 

9 

5  20 

1 

lot 

:,  o; 

} 

.Mr.,.. 

10 

6  10 

9 

8  16 

1 
1 

lOi 

6  01 

1 

Aiij^iiKt. 

»l 

5  15 

9 

8  16 

«i 

5  in 

•-'t 

ExposTS  or  SuoAH  AND  MuLASSED  fiMw  Utiw  f )8l,«!4l»fl,  fiiH  Ymnrk  Yraha  (UP  TIII  RiVEK  kxoeptkd),  ruuu 

T»i*M»  l»f,  t«ft4,  ill  At'dOST  «l(pr,  1857. 


8ep- 


Whltlier  ttported. 


Now  York 

Phibwlolptala 

Charleston,  S,  C 

BsTanDsh 

PrnTlJonce  &  Bristol,  U.i. 

Boston 

Baltlinoro 

Norfolk,  Richmond  and  I 

Petcrsbnrg,  Va. I 

Alexandria,  D.  C 

Mobile 

Apalachlrola  &  Pcnsacolo. 

Other  ports 

Total 


HM-M, 


BugK/. 


IUi4>. 
887 

66 
171 

88 


m 

6,060 

689 

1,944 


itorntli. 
4U 


6T8 
1,870 


9;87r  9m 


COHPABATITI  PBICER  OP  BuOAIt   A«M    MtllflUmm  /If  ftHW  Ollt»/»*»,  ON  THB  FlBST  OP  «ACII  MONTII,   POR  KlVK  VbAKS. 


UcoUu. 

»S)W, 

■|ft 

MoUlMI.                                                           I 

IBM-41. 

l«W-M. 

IS«4-4#. 

iii*r-*f. 

l«H-  ST. 

I8SS-U. 

1HS4-S5.         1853— M. 

18.SS-M. 

CenU. 

Ceuu. 

<:.)Sr- 

( 

»-«4 

CVi.l.. 

Onr^. 

(Vlit«. 

liopteinber. . . 

6—9 

6-7| 

»»-♦ 

H 

=*) 

«0  —48 

18-«2i 

8  —18 

13  —20 

16-28 

October 

8—10 

4  -8 

»-* 

'4 

'^ 

»-t 

00  — 4'i 

21—80 

9  —134 

18  —20 

l.V- 28 

November. . . 

8—10 

rit 

8-^ 

t 

^ 

2    -0 

50  — M 

24—81 

10  —24 

20  —224 

a*!— 26 

December... 

8f-10 

•i-f> 

1 

i 

«     /. 

67  — .W 

27-80 

12  —IS 

12  — 1H4 

2;V-284 

■Fanuary, 

7^10 
7J-11 

6-8 

'm 

«..=4 

«-f. 

604-08 

87-40 

14  —164 

IS  —18 

17— 2-^ 

February.... 

6—8 

i^'t 

»  -A 

58  —024 

80—88 

18  -174 

124-18 

21—244 

March 

7  -11 

4t-8 

»--6 

'ik  4 

«-» 

68  -08 

88-844 

184-191 

12  —174 

lS-244 

April 

7  -11 

4-S 

»(-«» 

t    -4 

»-f« 

46 —".S 

80—88 

124-211 

9  —\r>\ 

17—24 

May 

7i— 12 

4  —8 

4-6 

1  —t 

1,  -ft 

60—62 

80—874 

22  —29 

9— 18 

l,V-20 

lune 

9  -12 

44-9 

4  -4 

^ 

ft» -67 

86—484 

20  -23 

8  — lU 

14—22 

fuly 

9  -11 
10  —11 

6-94 

ta 

t  =64 

» --« 

47-68 
4f-«8 

88—18 
80—48 

20  —28 
20  —28 

7  -11 

8  -li! 

11— 20J 

August 

H 

< 

u 

»-« 

lS-19 

L-T- 


I-lbe,  Wo! 

Lead 

bar.. 
,  white. 
Mulssscs . 
Oats.... 
Onions, 
on,  linseed 
castor, 
lard. 
Pickles.... 
Potatoes. . 
Pork.. 


Sosp 

Shingles... 
|8taves . . . 

'allow 

'obacco,  lea 
;      Che 

Twino...' 
Whisky.. 
Wheat... 


NEW 


1411 


NEW 


ExpoRTa  or  Flodi,  Pork,  Baooh,  Laid,  Bur,  'Wiiukt,  ahd  Cobn,  rot  Two  Ysau,  rioH  Birr,  t  m  Avdk  tU 

Porta. 


I 


NowYork 

Btnton 

I'bllxU'lpliUi 

Baltlinurt' 

Othnr  coaat  porta. . 

Great  BrtUI II 

Cuba 

Other  furolgn  porta 


Total. 


riour.  I   Pork.    I  Bwon, 

BurreiT  ^~~" 

t41,4»4 

14l,48«, 


I  lUrri.U. 
41I.«2H 


141,143 
TS,T»S 
11,874 

1W0,II6 


S,84T 

]»,>*74 

15,9,V4 

1.4'^(l 

4,7iM 


>I)4,>1V  14MT4 


Urd. 
2,1)79  l>iH,ll-.s' 


I  BMr,   |WbUky|    C.r 
tl»rTtt)i.:U«mi]i. 


!i,72H 

4,716 

1,740 

IM4 


88,447 


6,ri87 

^7,llul^  i(),«t7 


1,4W 
17,941 
llUI.IIlt 

1W,()9(I 
4U,7&3 


1,229 
814 
908 


l.9.'i« 

8,92.^ 

8t9 

,  .« 

46,884 


1,(WS 


I  riour.  I 
Tiwrei..  hi 


2I),()H7|  I8l,r>91i    6ll,(W2 
66,822  200,1 79i   52,624 


648,866  18,TS6|  60,(»9 


204,608 
2.NI,64I 
B«,7.'«y 
tl6,2aA 


711,628 


Pork.    IBmc. 
lUrrelt.  '  t'uliT 

4,124 
4,878 


4,ft6B 

1«H,6H6    80,707 

99,862      »,h68 

8,947'     S,8,W 

J^sfi^77j   17,688 

729,442  178,682 


24,6tS 

1.991. 

1,488 

442 


87,01A 


1,M8 

26,8AI 
180,624 
'!  12,771 

74t,817 


IM,7v4  14,147    1,7m      flM 
122.216  18,IW»    4,46(1    ||M,iMi 

••••  I     l»T      ,,,, 

ijMbt,m'  mm 

4,»4«    ....  UUmi 

m  ....       hm 


In  the  aboT*  the  exports  to  Mobile,  etc.,  via  the  Pontcbartaln  Uallroad  and  New  Cant\  are  lodadcd. 

Imports  ixto  New  UaLiANa,  raoii  tiir  Imticrior,  rnit  Tkn  Yiars,  prou  the  Iit  Brptmbei    tu  tur  31*?  hVdUWt 

IN  KACII  Yrab. 


Apples bbia 

Baciiu    .BASt.  CBtka,  etc. 

bbla.  Abxa 

ham.'< lihda. 

Inbuilt Iba. 

B'"gln(t pieces 

Pnlo  rope rolls 

Beans bbls. 

Butter koKS 

"     bbls 

Beonwax " 

Beof. lbs.  A  tea. 

(Iriuil lbs. 

Buflhlo  rubes pcks. 

Cotton. 

La.  anil  Miss bales 

I^ko 

N.  Ala.  and  Teiin. 

Arkar^us 

MontKoniory 

Mobile 

Florida 

Texas 

Corn  meal bbls. 

In  eara *' 

shelled sacks 

Cheoso bxK. 

Candles boxes 

Cider. bbls. 

Coal,  Western.. 
Dried  peaches. . 
Dried  apples. . , . 

Flaxseed tierces 

Flour bbls 

Furs bbds.  bis.  bdls. 

Feathers bags 

Glassware  boxes 

Hemp bales 

Hides 

Hay bales 

Iron,  pig tons 

Lard hlids. 

tcs.  Jc  bbls. 

kejjs 

Ltfaie,  Western bbls. 

Lead pigs 

bar kegs. 

white " 

Molasses bbls. 

Oats bbls.  4(  sacks 

Onions bbls. 

on,  linseed 

castor 

lard 

Pickles kegs* 

Potatoes. 

Pork tcs..*; 

boxes 

bhds 

In  bulk lbs 

Porter  and  ale bbls. 

Pt-cklng  yarn reels 

Bkins,  oeer packs 

Shot ke(?8 

Sugar hhds. 

"    bbls. 

Soap boxes 

Shingles M 

Staves M 

Tallow bbU. 

Tobacco,  lent .   . .  .hhds. 

"       chew boxes 

"       bales 

Twine bundles 

Whisky bbls 

Wheat bbls.  <Sc  sacks 


■I 


t     ['] 


NEW 


1433 


NRW 


Ixrom  or  Sooai  fbom  Niw  Oiuam,  noa  m  Tub 

I8M  T<l  IWfi  IHOLDIIVI. 


Tmt, 


18M 

1«» 

18M 

1S8T 

IHM 

18W 

1S40 

1841 

IHitI 

IHM 

1M4 

1SH8 

IMfl 

1M7 

IH+S 

1M» 

1H6() 

ISftl 

im 

law 

1854 

18M 

ToUI... 


Octnbar  IBl 
NoTemlMr  & 

1. 

Ootobtr  17.  ' 
•'      W. 


4,%ano 

t«,800 

HBoo 

N,(MO 
4I,M0 

DMUO 
18,000 
<A,UOO 

lu.oon 

101,000 
7»,000 
4AfUI0 

Ht.imo 

VO,IHN) 
INVIOO 
4A,IN)il 

4'i,n*io 

NV.(WII 
1M,(K)0 
l^i.iKNI 

8I«,I88 


fil5~ 

4<S0O 

KM)')" 
a^uoo 

M,Ario 

B8,fl0« 
4«,M0 
10,000 

<o,noo 
ss,nni) 

70,00(1 
7h,0lXI 
7(1,000 
11S,(H)0 
lllN,(IIIO 
liA.llOO 
liH,(HlO 
140,(100 
V(N),(|00 
1N.\000 
I4J),00(| 
lHI,(lt7 


1,816,()8» 


I,984,nil7 


14. 

18. 
I'i. 
•M. 

a. 

4. 

T. 

«. 

6. 
11. 
17. 
ID. 

». 

«. 

4. 
10. 


OoiiPABATiv(e  raion  or  Ubh  amu  I'hiur  I'ohk,  at  N.  O., 

ru  HABBIILiO))  Till  1ST  or  lAOU  MuNTU,  FOR  TWII  YlAUH. 


Mai*. 


PHmtf. 


September. 
October.... 
Movonibor. 
December.-   .. 

January '  14  —Ui 

February 1  !il  —21^ 

March VI  —214 

April i  in— ml 


1»J— «(» 
II  —tilt 
ttl  — <jli 
— *) 


May. 
Juno.. . 
July. . . . 
Auguit. 


»2  — UH 

2«l-'i44 

Wi—'i* 


18  -19 

10  -l«t 

17J  -is 

U  —IH 
IS  — l»t 
n^—i» 
IT»— 1» 
17t-18t 


*     ItiiMvi. 

SO  -wi 

80  —21 
21  -M 
19  —20 

i.W-m 

I6t-17 
I  1.%J-1« 
I  IIH-I5I 
I  16  — 16{ 

17J- 

1»  — I9t 
!  20  — 20J 


l>oll>r>. 

17<- 
I7J- 
17»- 
ISJ- 
18  — 

14J— 
I2i— 13 
18  — l»t 
Ul-I.")* 
16- 
16  — 


VALua  or  Frodcor  nr  tiir  Intirior. 


Oolton 

»"?»' 

Tobacco  

Flour 

Pork 

Urd 

Lead 

Uolaaaea 

Bacon 

Corn 

WhiBky 

Wheat 

Bainiing 

Beef 

Hemp 

Bale  rope 

Butter 

Hay 

HUei 

Coal 

I'otatooa 

Btavos 

Tallow 

Fentbcm..  ... 

UaU 

(Jurn  meal .... 
Other  artlolea.. 
Total 


IIK-il. 


IV.IUn. 

86,2&\o7> 

8,187,860 

1I,VM,S4A 

»,()»4,17» 

^W»,287 

4,202,958 

9I,4M 

8,(M,8U9 

6,772,241 

2,5:«,2.H7 

1,829,182 

2,827,886 

612,448 

484^45 

890,090 

1,128,460 

860,550 

296,806 

679,411 

1,150,500 

185,882 

45.\000 

3.S,9,V) 

41,150 

629,078 

4,280 

9,557,967 

189,06i;869 


I8U-M. 


I>«ll»r<. 

70,871,720 

1I119»,M90 

8,072,775 

8,4()i,805 

6,5»4,506 

3,881,278 

409,940 

4,581.141 

4,570,868 

8,020,081 

1,7N6.086 

l,781,47d 

610,290 

824,289 

504,540 

1,018,810 

8»5,0«6 

612,8.V) 

454,298 

441.150 

456,890 

182,8.VI 

82,265 

81,676 

681,180 

960 

_838yi2 

144,256.081 


Y«ftn.  Tola]  valaa. 

1846— »T....  190,088,251 

)84.V— 16....  77,198,464 

1844—45....  67,196,111 

l»l8-w(4...,  60,094,716 

1842—18....  58,782,064 

1841-42....  45,716,046 


Ytan.  Total  value. 
1858— M....|U&,8S«,798 

1S52— 68....  I»4,*t8,7:« 

1851—62....  108,051,708 

1850—51....  106.924.ii88 

1849—60....  96,897,878 

184.*— 49....  81,989,692 

1847—48....  79,710,161 

From  the  aliove  table  it  results  that  the  total  value 
of  all  the  productii  receivod  at  this  port  from  thu  in- 
terior from  September  1,  18-11,  to  September  1,  1857,  a 
period  uf  16  years,  amounts  to  ^1, 526,662,970. 

The  fallowing  is  a  statement  of  the  import*  at  New 
Orleans,  for  the  last  four  fiscal  years : 


JniH  lUl. 

Tmt  •Mllllf 

Juiw  IU4. 

Yr«r  •nrflriK 

>m.  IHM, 

H,g«(i,5N8 

6,417,595 
1,776,148 

ir,i8ii;ii«r 

Ihllari 
N,019,I12» 
4,272,252 
1.862,882 
18,654,118 

IV.II.ri. 

8,272,419 
II,ST6,67H 
2,258.128 

14,802,850 

Ihilliiri. 

6,989,(1(12 
4,297,171) 
1,6x7,488 
11,9«MUN 

Dutiable. 

Free 

BulMonA  apecle 

ToUI 


Valiir  of  I'rikhicr  or  tue  Utrriob.— \  Tablr  siiowino 

TUB  KK-KII'IW  (ir  tiir  rRINIIPAL  ABTInl.U  rHOM  TIIR 
InTBUKIII,  IIURINU  TIIR  YrAB  RNDINU  AuiII'HT  alaT,  \Ht)J, 
WITH  TliaiB  BaTIMATRU  ATBBAOB  AMD  TOTAI.    VaLUR. 

r..i 


AnIelM. 


QuaUl;. 


Apples bbls. 

Uaoon,  BHorted . . .  hhili.  A  ctlu, 

"  "        boxes 

■*     hams bliilikAtri. 

"      Inbulk lb«. 

Bacglng pU'oi'S 

Baifl  rope colla 

Beans...  , bbli. 

Batter kegs  A  Hrklns 

•'     bbli. 

Beoswan 

Beef 

"    tlorcns 

"   dried lbs. 

Cotton liali'S 

Corn  meal bbls. 

In  car  

shelU'd sacks 

Cbeono boxer. 

Candles, " 

Cider. Will. 

Cold,  western *' 

Dried  apples  ,k  poaches. . .    " 

Feathers bags 

Flaxseed tlercei 

Flour bbls. 

Furs ... .  hhds.,  bundles  Je  bo.ves 

(llassware put-kaiii 

Hemp bales 

Hides No. 

Hay bales 

Iron,  pig tons 

Ijird bbls.  ii  tlori^es 

Lsril ke){s 

l..eatbor bundles 

Mine,  western bids. 

Lead plK^ 

ba." kegs  Jc  boxes 

white keirs 

Molussus  (I'Stlinated  crop)  galls 

Oats bbls  Je  sacks 

Onions bbls 

K)ll,  lliisoed " 

I   "  castor " 

lard •' 

IPolatoes. '• 

Pork tierces  dc  bbls. 

I    "     bo.\cs 

I    "     hhds. 

"    Inbulk lbs. 

IPortcr  and  ate bbls. 

Packing  yarn reels 

Kum bbls. 

Skins,  doer packs 

Shingles M 

Shot kens 

Soitp boxes 

SUves M 

Sugar  (estimated  crop) . . .  bhds. 

Spanish  moss balo' 

Tallow bbls. 

Tobacco,  leaf. hhds. 

I        "       strips 

"       stems 

!       "       ohdwing.kegsJi  boxes 

Twine bundles  d(  boxes 

Vinegar bbls. 

Whisky 

Wheat bbls  /l  sacks 

Other  various  articles,  cst'm'il  at 
Total  value 


86,612 
89,127 

K,8M 

81,8(V4 

1,MU 

82,(KJ8 

112,846 

8,189 

81,845 

1,060 

87 

2»,IKI7 

1,061 

BUSSO 

1,518,247 

856 

14,719 

1,487.051 

48,1>79 

74,891 

17 

1,770,00(1 

680 

828' 

261 

1,290,697 

1,74fl 

8(I,H59 

18,008 

165,54(1 

59,861 

77 

108.027 

98.S60 

^1N4 

2'*,8(itl 

18,291 

8(16 

8.1 

4,'''i2,«s(i 

898,171 

14,67li 

111 

956 

8,074 

74,1118 

148,228 

10,924 

2,872 

^,417,840 

1,788 

1,485 

485 

794 

6,000 

2,745 

9,688 

7,000 

78,976 

8,475 

965 

47,867 

5,850 

1,850 

8,261 

8,182 

1,854 

179,1*4 

775,902 


|irl.i..  ^ 
i>»ll>fi. 
6  (HI 
IHO  00 

45  IHI 

15  (HI 
10 

16  00 
10  00 

8  IKI 
111  0(1 

85  00 
50  00 
15  IK) 
25  00 

12 
67  00 

5  (III 
1  25 
1  76 

6  00 
8  Oil 

6  00 
95 

8  00 
50  00 
12  00 

7  OO 

'500 
80  00 

8  50 

5  (10 

86  no 
a5  (HI 

7  00 

87  50 
1  75 

6  (HI 
21  26 

5  at 
K> 

1  60 

5  00 
40  00 
60  (HI 
4.')  00 

2  !*\ 
20  » 
46  00 
60  00 

N 

10  00 

6  00 
80  00 
80  00 

8  00 

17  00 
400 

66  0>l 

110  00 

80  00 

80  00 

210  (10 

800  00 

6.H  00 

25  00 

12  00 

6  00 

18  00 
8  00 


Vsli». 

^i.ii.Tri 

1S8,II60| 

8,U12,7lHI 

ltlN,l75 

3,I60,HIHI 

7611 

612,418 

1,128,460 

2.M12 

828,480 

87,1  IKI 

4,.'),VI 

489.005 

41  275 

8,7115 

86,286,079 

4,2N0 

18,89S 

2,514.vfl9 

241,896 

.VJ,'i,128 

88 

1,150,6110 

5,1^1 

41,l,'iO 

8,182 

9,081,1711 

6(HI,IHHI 

]5t,'» 

890,119(1 

579,411 

296,,*i5 

2,695 

8,60,^,946 

687.013 

I9I,4INI 

49,510 

Ill,4.t6 

7,766 

4.VI 

2,ft8.'i,309 

029,073 

7«,8,'i(l 

4IHI 

67,860 

80.8,81(1 

1KV)32 

4,864,.'i(10 

491.580 

229,760 

278,887 

17,880 

8,010 

18.0,'i0 

2n,82(> 

18,000 
74,116 
88,161 
455,000 
8,137,880 
2.M,250 
28,950 
10,0,t2,070 
1,755,000 
85,050 
81,626 
87,584 
8,124 
1,829,182; 
2,827,886, 
6,600,00(1 
[15^,061,869, 


Bkobiptb  and  Stocks  or  Hat  at  tub  Post  or  Nrw  Or* 

LBAMS,  rKllH  SxPrRlillEB  IsT,  1S65,T(>  Al'Ut'ST  .llsT,  1857. 
ISSg-6T.  l!tS-M. 

Btockonhand,  Sept  1,  (all  Western).    82,720  6,000 

Kecelpts,  Northern  and  EasU'rn 88,s48         21.883 

"       Western 59,801        146,787 


Total 180,924 

178,075 

Increase  in  total  supply T,849 

"           Northern  and  Eastern    67,505 
Decrease  la  Western 87,a7< 


178,075 


NEW 


1428 


NKW 


MoimiT  Arihviui  or  Bam,  Baiu,  Bum,  eoiioniiiM,  and  HnAMMinL  r»»  Tnmi  tliU,  mm  ttrrmtm  1 

TO  Auiivn  81, 


BoMdmbar. , 

Oolobor. 

Novtiiiibpr. 
Iiurcinbar . 
lUnuary . . . 
( nbrniry . . 

Vlnrch 

Ajirll 

u»r 

Juna 

July 

Augnit... . 
To(«I... 


IM-M. 


T»    m 

tl.t     IS 

11    11 

80  I    0 

7«  mi 


i 

1 

i 

» 

10 

1(1 

i» 

HI 

in 

w 

XI 

IT 

vt 

M 

IB 

v\ 

W» 

w 

m 

48 

111 

Hft 

7i» 

« 

VI 

M) 

18 

IK 

4« 

88 

yt 

R4 

88 

12 

m 

18 

» 

11 

10 

S81 

M 

111 

i\ 

Ml 
IMI 
8IM 
IM 
Mil' 
88*1 
8iit 

IHH 

m, 

1814: 

or 

Ml 


181:  87 

884I  M 
87V,I»4 
88II  DO 
IMilHO 
8MT  «8 
W*\  M) 
SODJKH 
VU>  48 
8Il)|  08 
181)1  87 
118!  10 

H,74fiM4 


i 

i 

i 

i 

11 

18 

81 

14 

8* 

8B 

8(1 

to 

Bl 

4i 

III) 

8* 

40 

84 

H4 

88 

B» 

87 

4» 

n 

84 

8« 

H» 

II 

M 

88 

48 

28 

48 

84 

4() 

80 

18 

17 

at 

18 

84 

IB 

8ft 

81 

81 

14 

8S 

19 

10 

« 

IX 

18 

87B 

Nf 

m 

884 

»1 
88I' 

8«T 
IM 
8111 
88(1 
III! 
1(18 
Id* 

B7; 


IB« 

VH 

m 

m 

8*4 
8*7 


8BBi  BA 
•  Hi  78 

87(li  M 


INB 

IM 


8.148  8.»B«l7(ll 


I'llJll 


4 
HI  I  i« 

i«!  i« 


17  I 
in 

n 

m  I 

M 

1*1 

i{! 

14  i 


l«7 
8(ili 
81* 
W« 
l»» 
IM 
171% 
I4« 
IIA 
M 

m 


4 
III 


171 

8m 

wi 

8B« 
IM 
IM 
141 


Monthly  Ahiiivau  or  KLATOOAn  roi  t(II  fait  Siason, 


Waptombcr 


h 

^ 

i 
s 

1 

i 

} 

1 

n 

1 

t 

1 

_^ 

,, 

,, 

1 

8 

a 

^^ 

8 

1 

,, 

B 

8 

,, 

,  , 

8 

8 

2 

1 

^^ 

1 

1 

1 

8 

IB 

18 

^, 

1 

8 

1 

8« 

18 

7 

1 

8 

8 

88 

17 

9 

80 

a 

48 

8 

8 

la 

1 

181 

4 

18 

« 

(1 

1 

N 

1 

BO 

7 

40 

t 

SO 

1 

11 

84 

A 

IB 

84 

,, 

16 

«8 

1 

4 

1(1 

,, 

IT 

8 

48 

1    1 

17 

18 

811 

., 

Bl 

71 

M   18ft 

B 

118 

18 

U 

84 

8 

llSl 

October. 
November . 
Dfcombor. 
Jtnnkry. .. 
F('hru«ry . . 

Mtroh 

April 

M»y 

June 

July ^ 

August 11 

Tot»l  " 

DiiEirr  iMcoKTs  or  Ciiri'ii(%  Siiqae,  an(i  Salt,  roB  Tukei 
Ykakx.  from  Hkptiimheii  1  to  Aikiust  81. 


TTSgs 


1811- 


^1. 

if 

440.008 
89,807 
81.8114 
8,1)06 
84,4M 
8lt,Ml 


lus  -u. 

l(i>86 

8W,9H2 

8I,66A 

e,6(l» 


18t4-t5. 

"2,287 

S4I,18K 

20,111 

448 


114 
8.261 


122 

,051,111(1  l.»8l)!8M4  6U!<,20H 
608.77N:   7a.'i,2.'-2,  3y.i,29S 


Co?rbo— I'ubmeto...- 

"    — Ulo \..    •• 

Buunr— Cuba bxs.  &  bbln. 

"    — Cubn. hlids. 

"    — llrasll.  cte bxs.  &  bnn"! 

Unlnjuts— Cuba blida.  &  tea. 

"      —Cuba bblM 

Salt— Llvi'rpnol »ack»| 

"  —Turk's  lalgnil,  t'tr        ulieltl 

JVoe  Orleani  1^-  ce  Dun. — The  Bulijoined  ordinance, 
paaaed  by  the  <'ommon  Council  of  the  city  and  ap- 
proved by  the  111  lyor,  May  28,  1862,  is  now  in  force : 

An  Ordinaticti  lo  Jtegulate  the  lAret  and  Wharfage 
Dun  on  Shipi  antl  Ve^teU  arriviiuj  from  Sea,  and  on 
Sleamhoati,  Flat»,  Barget,  fir.  -Artioi.k  l.Thiit  from 
and  after  the  passage  of  this  .irdinunce  the  levee  or 
wharfage  ratoa  on  ships  or  other  sail  vessels,  steam- 
ships, steamboats,  flats,  liarges,  and  other  craft,  shall 
bo  tixed  as  follows:  On  all  ships  or  sail  vessels  of 
1,0(H)  and  under,  'i'l  cents  per  ton.  K.icess  of  tonnage 
over  1,000  tons,  20  cents  per  ton.  On  all  steamships, 
V^  cents  per  ton.  On  all  steamboats  of  1,000  tons 
and  under,  15  cents  per  ton.  Excess  of  tonnage  over 
1,000  tons,  10  cents  per  ton ;  provided,  the  boats  ar- 
riving and  departing  more  than  once  each  weeic,  shall 
pay  only  two  thirds  of  those  rates.  On  each  flutboat 
not  measuring  over  80  feet,  $10.  On  each  flatboat 
measuring  80  to  100  feet,  $12.  On  each  flatboat 
measuring  over  100  feet,  $16.  On  each  barge  more 
than  70  feet  long,  $12.  On  each  barge  less  than  70 
feet  long,  and  not  exceeding  15  tons  burden,  $8.  On 
each  stcnmlwat  hull  used  as  a  barge,  $25.  On  eacli 
scow  and  coastwise  pirogue,  $2.  For  every  flatboat, 
barge,  or  other  vessel,  not  including  steamboats,  em- 
ployed in  the  transportation  of  briclt,  Inmber,  or  other 
building  materials,  or  in  bringing  produce  from  this 
and  neighlioring  parishes  to  this  city,  and  measuring 
not  over  25  tons,  the  levee  and  wharfugo  dues  shall  be 
$80  per  annum.  From  25  to  50  tons,  $00  per  annum. 
Over  60  and  not  exceeding  75  tons,  $80  per  annum. 
Over  76  and  not  exceeding  100  tons,  $126  per  annum. 
Ov«r  100  tons,  $200  per  annum. 


Article  8.  Kvery  propiW^ff  </f  itny  •moll  <t»H  nt 
the  description  abuvHiiioiiliiJiM"),  wlwi  •hnll  f1«*)r<i  ia 
enjoy  the  privilege  ai.ordod  by  III*  |ifM»fil  (itillnanra, 
must  apply  to  the  truaKuror  of  llMf  lly  ii(  Kkw  Ort««n» 
for  the  purpose  of  oUsiiiing  «  IMwhimi,  «|i|ififVt"t  try  lh« 
mayor,  snil  ('ouiil«r»igniii|  by  lti«  i'»rilri/l|tir,  which  lt< 
cense  shall  specify  the  nuiitbur  iif  imnm  lit  sMch  cf«fi, 
which  shall  be  puiutud  In  •  mnniiiimmi  placo  on  lh« 
side  of  the  said  craft, 

Aktici.k  8.  Hereafter  It  sliill  ni4  \m  UmM  fof  »tiy 
pirogue,  flutlHiut,  liarge,  IkiuI,  nr  knxUmM,  U)  remain 
in  port  longer  than  fight  lUyn,  Miiilxr  Ihn  sMrne  pro. 
visions  and  penalties  contaiiiwl  In  Artl<tt«i  ^.  iit  nn  or« 
dlnunc*  of  tho  Gewral  Couwll,  niiiitimtia  May  30, 
1848. 

Aktici.k  4.  That  the  {wynxnt  iii  i\i»  lutm  diiM  on 
ships  or  sail  veesda,  st«ainiihi)M,  miil  ulewmloHls,  <hail 
lie  exacted  and  colIc('ti>d  by  thu  <'<ill«'i"rK  ti^l  l«V(i«  dues, 
ind  an  extra  duty  of  ouit  tliint  tkvwi  Hivn  shall  \m 
paid  by  all  sail  vusseU  ut  *('<*iHKlit|M  wlildi  may  t«- 
main  in  port  over  two  m»iith»,  ll«i»«m«  fii  b*  tnui- 
erod  at  tlio  coninieiiieiKBitt  of  IIm  IhlH  tnimlh  (  and  If 
over  four  month!*,  an  Md/|iti»iwl  Auli  iilimn  iliird  thesa 
rates,  hteumlioats  shall  Im  «M(itl«.il  In  rpiirnln  Ihlrty 
(lays  In  port  afti-r  imyiDHMt  iif  IIih  lUlfn,  All  (rv«r 
tlifrty  days  l»  |iuy  an  oilditbrnMl  lUty  lit  ^i  |>)rr  lUy, 

AnTici.K  5.  That  all  vusmiIs  turn  ill  (xtft,  and  thai 
have  paid  a  dally  or  weakly  ^imtfitge,  slutll  lie  nl 
lowed  (and  the  collviiurs  «r«  hi<f«l/y  itutliiiit/n\  < 
deduct  the  amount  so  |Mht  (mm  tlin  raM*  mrw  lo  i« 
collected.  All  ordiiianiMis  iif  |Htrts  iif  iitiiiniiwiiit  coif 
flicting  with  the  fureguing  Im,  »iu\  (Im  Mtrw  »r»  IxmN 
by,  re|ieulu>l. 

TAsirr  or  Commi'ii  i»(,  CiumirM  »vii  HtnM  tDtintn  m 
TiiK  Nkw  (jai.i.  .as  lliimHitu  •ir  Itimunum,  in  1M4 

AMU  18U4,   ANI>   .IIKXOSI)   Ma*    I",    IV/f 

rommiMlon  un  ttnUt, 
Sugar,  cotton,  lobacra,  lead,  Muur,  im4  MiMf 

pro(]uets  of  the  soil t,,trtfn,,,,,,, , 

Domestic  manufacturM,  •u4  ail  (iifiii0t  mtn^ 

chandlse ,,,.,,,.,,,/,,,, 

Guaranty  of  aules  on  llsaa >,,,tt, ,,,,,,,, 

Purchase  and  shlpinrnt  of  in«r«tMlwll(M  ut  fm 

dUCe r>>  >  •  ■  nf  >  ,t    ,m, 

Bales  or  purrbaae  of  stut-k  sh4  buHUm, ,,,,,,,,, 
Collecting  and  reiiilttliiK  divUuWis. ,,,,,,,, ,,,, 
Helling  vesnula or  stt aiulxxl*. ,,,,,,>•!, ,,,1,1,1 
I'urcbasing  "  ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

rrociiring  freights ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Collecting  freight*  tram  forsigii  |Mri«< ,,,,,,,,, 

Coastwise ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.<., 

(Intflts and  dibbursementa, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Effecting  Uisurana? ,,,,.  ■•,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Adiustlng  or  collecting  UMuranM  '(f  muit  iMmt 

without  litigation .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,  S| 

With  litigation , ,,,,,,,  b 

Purchasing  and  remitting  drafts,  ur  rmt4rii*ii  m 

paying  money  on  which  no  otlutr  mimmMmim 

has  been  charged ,,,,.,,,./,,,,  1 

If  bills  remitted  are  guaraniii«4, io  «44MI'(H, ,,,  i^ 
Bills  and  noU's  remittui,  for  iv>ll>wt)»H  |«r«<4(M«4 

and  returned ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.  1 

Landing,  custody,  and  re-sbip»iw  mttt^mtim 

or  produce  from  veisels  in  diatrnKNI/.. >>//"/<  4 
Ditto,  bullion  or  apecle...,,,,,,,,, ,,,,„,  III  <<  1 
Adjusting  and  coUcctlog gaaarai aviMtf*, ,,,,,,§ 


ttpfitm 

fi 

It 

** 

M 

it 

« 

1 

» 

1 

tt 

«i 

II 

ft 

M 

A 

•f 

H 

H 

fi^ 

1 

M 
U 

NKW 


1494 


NEW 


Pi>mm(w<im  on  Sitl*»—mntiniu(l. 

CflnittrnmnnU  of  in«rrh«ndlM  wltbdr«wn  or  rii 

«lil|ip4><l  iMT  orJvr,  III!  Kfiiiiiiiit  of  «tivauc«ii  mid 

r«i|M>iiittillltl«a — full  romiiilMlon. 
1)11  ItiH  iiirpltM  ftnioiitit  of  ttivuli't'M  of  inch  ron* 

■li{nm*'Dia,  di4diictlng  ftdr«ne«ia  and  llabUUIaa 

--half  rominlNalun, 
Dnnflntf,  Iruloralnf,  or  noKoUatlDg  fornlun  bllla 

of  HxrluinKa 1|       ** 

Dlllu,  oil  doniaitlfl  bllla  of  airhanfn i         " 

Hrm  Iflnf,  nitorlan,  and  nahliipInK  marohan- 

dlao  U)  a  forvltfn  port— on  amuuiife  of  Invoice,.  I         ** 
On  amount  of  ndraiuxia,  chargua,  and  llabUilliia 

on  «nia , 1)       ■■ 

For  drawtnc,  aecopting,  ni>gotlatlng,  orlndoralng 

noma  nr  iFrafU  without  funda,  prKluro,  or  bllla 

of  lading  In  hand ii       " 

On  raah  advaiirp*  In  all  eaaaa it|       *' 

For  nntoring  and  bonding  niorrbauilUo  for  tha 

Interior— on  amount  of  dutloa,  frflght,  and 

rhargi«a  (boaldaa  thu  rugular  cbargu  for  for- 

warillngi H       " 

Agenrf  fur  ataftmbuaUi — according  lu  ipwlal  coa* 

tract. 

Thi<  foregoing  ratoa  to  be  ticluaira  of  brokaragc  and  chargca 
already  Incurred. 

iittvi  tilnff  and  Foruiardlnff  Mfrehttiulif,  KxttuiM  of  Charytt 
ai'tiutltu  ituiurri'J, 

Hugar,  niolaUM,  and  lobocru por  hhd.  KO   inta. 

Cotton p«r  bnls  AO  " 

Hemp "  HO  •' 

M.ia "  10  " 

rrovUloaa  or  bwMD per  hhd.  ili  " 

"  "     perllerco  m  " 

Pork,  beef,  lard,  tallow per  bbl.      ft  " 

ll<i«  pork per  box  1ft  " 

Flour,  grain,  and  otbur  drjr  Iwrrula B  " 

I.«rd,  nalli,  and  ahot per  li    (      'H  " 

Lead P«r  pig      1  " 

Corn,  whoat,  bvaua,  oata,  and  otlior  grain,  per  bag     8  " 


Liqudtn, 


Ilpea  and  bogibeada 

Half  pipea  and  llercca. .... 
Onarli'r  eaaka  and  barrela. 

WhlakT 

Uli* 


.per  bbl. 


Sleragt  and  Labor  ptr  Month. 


50  centa. 
«5       " 
Vik     " 
10       " 


I'ottonand  wool per  bale 

Tobacoo per  hlid. 

Hams,  per  bale  not  exceeding  lUX)  llio. 
'.  "  '•  4W)  ■■ 

»  .1  .1  flflo 

"  "  •'  800 

Moaa per  liale 

UA|f)ftug  and  rope 

rdlrlei. 

Illdea each 

U'ad per  pig 

Hollow  ware per  tun 

Bar  Iron  and  caatlnga 

lUllruad  lr.>n  and  pli;lran 

Haeon  and  provlfionH per  hlid 

I'ork,  beef,  lard,  tallow,  etc.. per  bbl. 

Molaaaea,  oil,  and  whiakjr 

Flour 

I^rd per  keg 

Sugar  and  molaaaea per  hhd. 

**    llaTMna per  box 

Ooro,  wheat,  oata,  and  other 

grain per  bag 

CotTce,  aplcea,  etc 

.Sail. I 

Candles,  aoap,  wlni*,  tioh,  ralalni,  ollfl,{ 
aweetmoata,  M.'Kiirrt,  etc.,  per  box  or. 

baaket I 

Ditto,  In  half  buxea { 

Nalla per  keg, 

Dry  gooda not  exceeding  10  feet 

••        "  »)    * 

"        "  110 

•'        "  over  80 

Crockery per  caak  or  crate 

"        half  caak  or  half  crate 

Hardware per  caak, 

*•         per  tleroi! 

"         per  libl. 

Llqnida per  pipe  or  hhd. 

'*      per  half  pipe  or  tierce 

**      per  quarter  caak  or  bbl. 

Claret per  cask 

Ounny  baga per  bale 

Indlu  hagglng. | 


'•1  Unntll. 

f«r,u. 

t>nls. 

!fO 

10 

Ml 

'if, 

10 

UT 

IB 

10 

20 

IB 

KB 

IS 

10 

Od 

06 

oa 

10 

OT 

Oli 

01 

01 

01 

I'iB 

IB 

TB     . 

BO 

BO 

m 

m 

!« 

(« 

oe 

10 

08 

05 

04 

02t 

OJ 

40 

!8 

m 

10 

Ot 

03 

OB 

113 

03 

Oi 

04 

03 

Oi 

01 

03 

on 

IB 

10 

tiO 

IB 

'if> 

ia 

4U 

•if> 

iiO 

20 

IB 

10 

4(1 

t!B 

i!0 

IB 

10 

04 

41) 

311 

'if, 

18 

10 

0^ 

!i() 

IS 

10 

08 

IB 

10       1 

aanlft 


Ibi. 


Hundriu, 
DolM,  balM,  eaM*,  Irunka,  and  other  paokaga*, 

drir  giKida. III-AO 

Karllien  and  hardware per  paekaga  tUV-M 

har-lruu  and  caMllnga p«r  ton    TB 

llallroail  Iron  and  pTg  Iron N) 

Hollow  warn imi 

Muau,  eanillea,  winea,  ale par  Ihii      B 

('Otfue,  auleea,  etc .....par  bag     (1 

Uuuyowaar. per  keg    'li 

Ml per  aaek      3 

HVffM  9f  Qnin  pit  Buthtl. 

Wheat  and  rjre..,, M 

('om HA     •• 

Uata 31      *• 

Ihrt: 
I.ard,  butter,  cheeaa,  tallow,  atearlna,  auger,  rire,  eelual  tare. 
Coffee  In  baga 2  |H'r  cent. 

For  coiniiiarce,  etc.,  of  Now  DrIeiinK,  »e«  llimkrri' 
ifiti/nzine,  il.,  ill.,  Iv.  j  IIiint'd  .Ver.  .}fu(/.,  Iv.,  v.,  vl., 
vll.,  Ix.,  xl.,  xlll.,  XV.,  XXV.,  etc.  J  |)K  How's  HfV., 
II.,  6;i  (l.y  W.  I,.  IliilMiK),  lii.,  m,  TX>,  Hi  (\,y  8. 
.1.  I'BTKiix),  vl.,  i;i:i,  vlll.,  I.,  xl.,  IW7,47t,  vil,,  412, 
X.,  Al)5. 

New  South  Wales.    Trior  to  1n:ii;,  ,.m<  lul  ra- 

tuma  exhibit  no  evldetue  of  tiny  tnide  lietweim  tlit 
United  Stuten  and  New  .Soulli  Wales,  lu  tliiit  year 
hIx  AmeriiMin  veineln  nntered  tile  lurluir  of  .'Sydney 
with  tr'e\nhU  viiliied  ut  iji«!»,rill),  and  curryltm' lioiiie 
ataploH  nnil  otlier  colonliil  iirodiiie  to  tli«  uniiin  it  of 
|$'.I'.',!I70.  Kroiu  thiit  |i«ri(Hl  to  Ixril)  Imt  lltlln  Hilvnnce 
WUH  iiinde  oitlier  in  the  ini|Hirt  or  ex|>ort  triidn  witll 
tliat  cnluny  ;  the  lii;;lieNt  return  lieiii);  that  fur  iHtl, 
which  nhowH  llin  fiilliiwln^  xuinmnry  : 

Vcnaela  fnini  tlio  riiltml  .Sttttea  ciiternd  Iho  |)ort»  of 
New  South  Wulei,  in  1»<U,  l;t  j  tonnune,  4,751. 
Tr*ii»  With  tiii  Ukitid  St*t«». 


Iinporta  from  V.S tlK41li 

KxporUtoU.  8 1M,1»* 


1151. 

(1IH.4IM 

'iA,4<iA 


|l,oim,D7lt 
tB,l40 


The  prineipiil  importe  from  the  I'nited  .Stiitea  to 
New  South  Wiiles  nro;  Appurel,  l>«n«  and  rnrku,  Imt- 
ter  and  chei'se,  I'luulleH  (tulluw  and  Kjierin),  eartsi  and 
wagona,  collVe,  pnwerveH,  drUj{H  and  medicines,  suit 
fish,  flour  Htid  lireiid,  fruits,  furniture,  ({lusswnre,  nats, 
rice,  and  hurley,  liardwure  and  irunnionnery,  ice,  lea- 
ther manufactures,  linens,  pniviaions,  spirits  (^chietly 
rum  and  whisky),  stationery  iind  IhioIcs,  HU|;ar,  tohac- 
CO,  woodenwiire,  watches  and  clocks,  and  wine.  The 
principal  exiMjrts  to  tlin  United  .States  from  New  .South 
Wales  are;  Coals  anil  coke,  hinl,  etc.  The  leading 
staple  oT  New  .South  Wales  is  wool ;  hut  it  can  not  he 
Imported  into  the  United  States  sdvunta);eously,  while 
it  Is  admitted  free  into  llritish  ports.  Tliu  total  ex- 
ports of  wcKil  from  New  South  Wales  during  thu  four 
years  endini?  with  IHftH,  were  5C,U»4,9il8  pounds,  valued 
in  the  colony  at  91li,4ll5,;i'i(). 

Newapapert,  publications  in  numbers,  consist- 
ing commonly' of  single  sheets,  and  pulilishcd  at  short 
and  stated  intervals,  conveying  intciilKciico  of  passing 
eventii.  It  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  tills  work  to 
consider  the  moral  and  political  effects  produced  by 
nowspa|i«rs  ;  of  the  oxti'nt  of  their  inHucncn  there  is 
no  doubt,  oven  among  those  who  differ  widely  as  to  its 
effect.  Their  utility  to  commerce  is,  however,  un- 
questionable. The  ndverti.Hements  or  notices  which 
they  circulate,  the  variety  of  facts  ond  information 
they  contain  as  to  the  supply  and  demand  of  cointnodl- 
ties  in  all  quarters  of  the  world,  their  prices,  and  the 
regulations  by  which  they  are  affected,  render  ncwi^ 
papers  indispensaldo  to  commercial  men,  supersede  a 
great  mass  of  cplstolarj'  correspondence,  raise  mer- 
cliants  in  remote  places  toward  an  equality,  in  point 
of  information,  with  those  in  the  great  marts,  and 
wonderfully  quickcn'all  the  movements  of  commerce. 
But  newspapers  themselves  have  iieconio  an  important 
commercial  article. 

The  first  newspaper  published  in  Knglaiid,  which 
might  truly  be  considered  as  a  vehicle  of  general  la- 


NRW 


U3S 


NRW 


(hniMlloa,  wu  uUbllnhnl  hy  HIr  KiiK*r  J.'VMr»nyt», 
in  llHi:) ;  it  waa  riitltlnl  tlia  /'uMii'  InltUii/rnirr,  anil 
cnnllniiail  iiaariy  lliran  yanra,  wlinii  it  laaaetl  nil  tlin 
apptiarani'a  of  thn  ihurllr.  A  |iul>licatiiin,  wllli  f«w 
( Iriiiiia  imwavcr  to  lb*  I'iiaraidir  iif  a  nauiipii|i«r,  iiail 
prHviouily  »|i|>«nr«d  i  it  waa  railitrl  tlie  K'nffli'lt  Mrr- 
cuiy.  anil  rninn  .lUt  iinil*r  lliii  authority  of  (juoan 
Kllialx'tli,  an  early  aa  lAHH,  tli«  |ii>rli)<l  iif  tlia  S|Mnlali 
Ariiiadii,  An  rsrly  i'i>|iy  of  thia  |>a|Mir  la  ilalxil  July 
V:l,  in  that  year.  In  tlin  ri<lKn  nf  .lainra  I,,  1ll'.''J,  ap- 
(ii'iircd  tlin  /.oni/iiit  H'lrHi/  ('oiiriwl,  anil  in  th«  yoar 
liIIH  (tliK  |>frii><l  of  til"  I'ivil  war)  wern  printail  a  va- 
rliity  iif  pulillcationa,  irrtalnly  In  no  rmiMct  rntitlnt 
to  thit  nama  of  nawapa|iera,  of  T/bich  tha  fulluwInK 
wrri'  tli«  tltli-a ; 

Kii)fliin<l'.i  Memornlila  Ari'ldrnta,  The  KIntrdnm'a 
lntollit(<'iiii'i,  Tha  Diurnal  of  Cortain  I'liaaa  h  in 
I'arlliiiiivnt,  The  Marcuriua  AuUimik,  Tha  Hmi.' a  In- 
telliKtnrar,  Tha  i'arliamant'a  Hrniit,  The  I'uriiumant'a 
Mouut'a  Dianivory,  or  Cartiiln  Inrnrniatlon,  Tha  Mor- 
ourlu.i  Civli'UK,  -ir  London'it  intaillKancnr,  Tha  Dnun- 
try'a  ('mnpluiiit,  ate,  The  Weekly  Acrount,  Merturn  a 
Uritannli'UH. 

A  paper  rallrd  the  f.imilim  (liv-fltt  waa  publlahed 
AiiKUHl  'i'i,  KM'i.  The  hmihu  (la:tllK  of  the  exintlng 
aiirieii,  waa  pulilishad  llrKt  nt  Oxford,  tha  court  lieing 
thi>rii  on  Hi'count  of  thn  plague,  NovKinlxT  7,  lllllA,  and 
afti-rwardut  London,  Kaliruury  ft,  KlWi.  The  printing 
ul'nKwnpapi'.-Hund  painpiili'ti  wasproliii  iti'dlll  CharUia 
I.,  lllHd,— Salmon's  Chron.  Ncwupiipcra  wore  llrat 
stumped  In  1713.  Numlierof  tha  itumpa  laaued  In 
Kiiglund  : 


Yi.«r.  N.I 

17.W T,41I,7IM 

ITim lt,404,7tHI 

1774 I'i.lWXMXH) 

WW l4,(VW,())t9 

IHiHi 10,0IM,0O,t 

ISIO lJ0,lTi,M7 

18'il) }4,t<*>li,IS(l 


YMt.  No. 

\*ifi il«,9Wi,fl98 

11.10 10,lfW,74l 

l^ltt 1W,H74,9.VJ 

lS4n. 4»,0.'l«,HH4 

1S43 ftn,44H,977 

lS4tt 7«,Mri88 


The  total  nunilier  of  nowapap«ra  published  In  the 
United  Kingdom  in  IHIO  was  lJO;i,  viz. :  lliO  in  Londnn, 
'iVi  III  the  KiiKlish  provlncea,  117  in  Iruliiml,  mid  '.It  In 
Siotland,  The  numlier  of  advcrtlsemontn  inserted  In 
the  London  nowspupors  in  1SI9  wai"  "Hti.lOS,  l)aying  n 
gross  duty  of  .£GU,4,18  2s. ;  In  the  Kni;lish  provincial 
nowapapors,  8;)l,729,  vleldiu);  to  the  rrown  u  revenue 
of  i:(i2,fiai  ISs.  6d. ;  in  the  Irish  pai^rs,  220,,'iJ4,  pr.y. 
Int;  jCI  1,020  4s.;  and  In  the  Scotch  papers,  210,11]  1, 
paying  In  duty  i;i8,075  16s.  Cd. 

.Vewtpapern,  etc.,  in  the  United  Statei, —  i  f}r,' ""  jiton 
NtwM  Lttttr  waa  catublisbcd  In  1704,  wh/  ■  .  >•  con- 
tinued till  1774 ;  the  second  was  the  iioston  uazette, 
1719;  the  third  the  American  Weekli/  Mer'ury,  at 
Philadelphia,  started  one  day  after  the  last.  First 
A'eio  York  Uazette,  In  1725;  first  ncvvspnper  in  the 
Carolinaa,  at  Charleston,  1731-2;  iii.<t  RkoiJe  Island 
(ItatUe,  at  Newport,  1782 ;  first  1  irginia  Hazille,  at 
Willlamaburg,  in  1736.  In  1775  there  were  in  all  the 
colonics  37  newspapers  ;  In  1810,  In  the  United  States, 
858  ,  In  1828,  802  ;  In  :83i),  1555,  and  In  1850,  25«». 

\ewiipapcrt  in  France. — The  first  was  the  (lazette  de 
France,  established  by  Kenairdot,  in  1631,  and  contin- 
ncd  with  few  interruptions  till  1827,  when  it  ceased  and 
another  paper  assumed  its  name.  The  Afoniteur,  com- 
menced in  1789,  has  been  since  1800  the  olllcial  jonnial 
of  the  government.  The  Comtllutionelle  and  the  Jour- 
nal dea  Dehata  have  long  had  the  largest  circulation. 
There  were  874  newspapers  publlslicl  iii  Franco  in 
1832.     See  FenioDicAi.  LiTEiiATiinK.  , 

Newtpapera,  Irish. — The  first  Irish  newspaper  was 
Pi'e's  Occumncet,  published  in  1700.  Faui-kneh's 
Journal  was  established  by  George  Faulkner,  "  a  man 
celebrated  for  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the  weak- 
ness of  his  head,"  in  1728. — Supplement  to  Swij't.  The 
oldest  of  the  existing  Dublin  newspapers  is  the  Free- 
nan'a  Journal,  founded  by  the  patriot,  l)r.  Lucas,  about 

the  year  1756 Wettm.  kev.,  Januan-,  1830.  The  iJm- 

4X 


rrirk  VhnmieU,  the  oldest  of  th*  provincial  prInU,  WM 
eatiilillnhed  in  17t|N._/i^m. 

S'oliitg  n/  Srv'iifmptr: — Tha  hiatory  of  nawa|ia|i«n, 
and  of  imrliMlical  literature  In  general,  raniaiiii  to  be 
written  I  and  were  the  task  executed  by  an  Individual 
of  competent  ability,  and  with  dun  care,  it  would  bo  a 
moat  Inlnraating  and  lin|iortant  work.  It  appvara, 
from  tlie  re«nariiie«  of  Mr.  Chahnara,  that  the  drat 
newipaper  pulilishrd  In  modorn  Kurope  made  Ita  a|>- 
jiearance  at  Venice  in  1536 ;  but  the  Jealouiy  of  tha 
government  would  not  allow  of  its  being  printed  ;  »o 
thr.t,  for  many  years.  It  waa  circulated  In  munuacrlpt  I 
It  would  amim  that  n«w«pa|*r«  were  llr»t  iiiaued  in 
Kngland  liy  autlio'  ly  during  the  alarni  ncciisioned  by 
tlie  approach  of  the  Armada  to  hur  ahorea ;  In  oriUr,  aa 
waa  stated,  by  glv''ig  real  itifurmatloii,  to  allay  the 
general  anxletj.  uiiii  to  hinder  the  dl^nemination  of 
falsa  and  fuggeralod  stutementa.  Krmn  thia  era, 
newtpapera,  of  one  sort  or  other,  have,  with  a  few  in- 
temibfllon'T  generally  apiwarud  in  I.ondon,  aonin- 
tlmea  at  re,  .lar,  and  aoiiietliniM  at  irregular  intervala. 
During  "ii  civil  wars,  both  par, "a  had  lliclr  newa- 
papers.  t.e  earliest  i  ipiiper  pU'dishud  in  Scotland 
made  Ita  appearance  i  '-r  the  aii»pice.<  of  CnmiwoU 
In  1652.  The  Cijnin  i.  Mereury  was,  however,  the 
llrst  of  the  Scotch  i,.  »  iiupcra  of  native  manufacture  ; 
It  made  Ita  uppearinicu  at  Kdlnburg  under  tlie  title  of 
Mercu  '  fCiiUdoniua,  In  ll)6(»;  Iml  iiublicution  waa 
soon  I '.  1  id  interrupted.  In  171  .  newspaper  waa, 
for  th  I  WtrX    'me,  attempted  In  Olungow. 

Tc  'lostoii  belongs  tho  honor  of  establishing  the 
first  newspaper  In  North  America.  It  was  issued  in 
the  year  16110.  It  was  deposited  in  tho  State  I'upor 
Ollice,  in  Limdiiu,  and  stopped  by  the  government. 
It  was  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  slieet  of  letter  paper. 
One  copy  of  it  alone  was  known  to  bo  in  existence, 
and  that  it  was  that  shared  the  luckless  fi<  e  aliovo- 
named.  The  first  regular  paper  that  was  issued  waa 
also  of  Iioston.  Its  title  woa  the  Newa  Letter,  itkdate 
was  1704,  and  it  <vas  printed  by  John  Allen,  in  Pud- 
ding Utile.  We  have  seen  some  of  its  early  numbers, 
and  they  are  peculiar.  Its  latest  news  from  Kngland 
was  dated  one  hundred  and  twenty  days  previously, 
and  consisted  of  a  siieech  of  Queen  Anno  to  Parlia- 
ment. An  advertisement  informs  us  that  the  mail 
between  Hoston  and  New  York  set  out  once  a  fort- 
night. Negro  men,  women,  and  children  were  adver 
tisod  for  sale,  and  an  urgent  appeal  appeared  In  one, 
calling  upon  a  female  who  hail  stolen  a  piece  of  fine 
lace,  valued  at  14  sliillings  n  yard ;  and  upon  another 
who  had  conveyed  a  piece  of  fine  calico  from  its 
proper  destination,  under  her  riding-hood,  to  return 
the  same  or  suffer  exposure  in  the  newspapers.  For 
74  years  this  paper  continued  in  existence  as  tha  lead- 
ing Tory  paper.  About  these  days,  the  revolutionary 
struggle  drawing  near,  the  Uoston  Gazette  was  issned 
at  Watertown  as  tho  organ  of  the  patriots.  When 
the  war  broke  out,  there  were  37  newspapers  being 
published  in  the  I'nited  States  ;  eight  of  them  were 
committed  to  the  interests  of  the  British,  and  five 
others  were  brought  over  to  tho  government  side. 

Old  Papera. — Tlie  Worcester  Spy,  published  In  1770, 
Is  tho  oldest  existing  paper  of  Sfassachusetts.  There 
are  copies  extant  of  the  Albany,  Journal,  or  the  Mont- 
(jomrrii,  Washington,  and  Columbia  Intelligencer,  printed 
in  1788.  It  was  issued  semi-weekly,  at  a  eubscription 
price  of  12  shillings  per  annum.  Its  size  was  about 
11  by  13  inches.  Charles  K.  and  George  Webster  & 
Co.  were  its  publishers.  Its  leading  article  is  an  ex- 
tract from  a  letter  from  Philadelphia,  dated  February 
20,  as  follows:  "On  .Saturday  last,  upon  tho  arrival 
of  the  news  of  tlie  ratification  of  tho  Federal  Consti- 
tution by  the  powerful  State  of  Massachusetts,  the 
bells  of  Christ  Church  were  rung,  and  congratnlotlona 
of  joy  have  appeared  in  every  part  of  the  city  for 
several  days."  The  "latest  news  from  Europe"  is 
made  a  feature  of  the  slieet ;  it  bears  date  December 


NEW 


1420 


NEW 


1787,  by  which  it  would  appear  that  it  took  some 
threo  months  to  cross  the  water. 

New  York  ami  her  Netetpapert. — The  position  which 
this  city  sustains,  as  compared  with  any  other  city  of 
the  world,  in  the  number  and  circulation  of  her  jour- 
nals, can  be  adjudged  l>y  a  glance  at  the  followin,<; 
table,  which  give)  the  supposed  number  of  newspapers 
in  the  world,  1852—66  : 


Austria 10 

Africa. 14 

Asia SO 

Gn-at  Britain  and 

Ireland 600 

Russia  and  Poly- 
nesia.   50 


Belgium OS 

Denniaric 85 

(rennanic  States..    850 

rortugal in 

Spnln M 

United  8Utos 2,800 


whila  the  particulars  with  respect  to  the  othera  wen 
in  part  estimated. 

From  these  returns,  etc.,  it  appears  that  the  aggre- 
gate circulation  of  papers  and  other  publications  was 
about  6,0u0,000 ;  and  that  the  entire  number  of  copies 
printed  annually  in  the  United  States,  amounted  to 
about  422,600,000.  The  following  table  sliows  the 
number  of  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  and  other  issues, 
with  the  aggregate  circulation  of  each  class : 


Of  these.  New  York  alone  issues  122  sheets,  as  fol- 
lows :  secular  journals,  daily,  morning,  8 ;  evening, 
6;  semi-weekly,  2;  weekly,  59  j  German  dailies,  3; 
weeklies,  8 ;  French  daily,  1  \  Spa.iish  weeklies,  2 ; 
Welsli,  3 ;  of  religious  woclclies,  there  are  29  sheets. 
It  is  ditlicult  to  obtain  a  correct  estimate  of  the  pres- 
ent circulation  of  so  many  jiapers.  Of  the  daily  po- 
pers,  at  least  250,000  copies  must  bu  circulated ;  while 
18  religious  weeklies  are  spread  before  160,000  sub- 
scrilwrs. 

The  whole  number  of  newspaperu  and  periodical 
publications  in  the  United  States  on  the  Ist  of  June, 
1852,  amounted,  according  to  the  official  returns,  to 
about  2,800.    Of  these,  2,494  were  fully  reported  upon. 


I       No. 


Dally  Journals. 

Trl-wcekly 

Soml-weokly... 

Weekly 

Semi-montbly. . 

Monthly 

Qaartorly 

Total 


850 

160 

125 

2,000 

60 
100 

25 


Ctrculatlon, 


760,000 

7.%000 

80,000 

2,S75,000 

800,000 

000,000 

20,000 


_J>rlnM»niiiiftllj 


2,S0O     I     6,000,000 


ii85,(KI0,UflO 
11,700,000 
S,32(l,0flO 
140,600,000 
7,20O,0(* 
10,800,000 
80,000 


422,600,000 

Four  hundred  and  twenty-four  Journals  were  issued 
in  the  New  England  States  ;  876  in  the  Middle  States ; 
716  in  the  .Southern  States  ;  and  784  in  the  Western 
States.  Of  the  whole  2,800  publications,  about  2,200 
were  newspapers,  properly  so  called  ;  tlio  residue  being 
scientilic,  religious,  and  educational  journals.  The 
average  circulation  of  the  mere  papers  was  1,785. 
There  was  one  publication  for  every  7,161  free  inhabi- 
tants in  the  United  States  and  Territories.  The  fol- 
lowing summary  is  based  on  the  official  returns : 


NKWSl'ArERB  AMD   rp.BIODICAU   PuHLISIIED  IN  TUE   UnITF.D   i^TATES   IM  1860. 


StatM  k  Tnrilorlei.1 


I 


No. 


Dally. 
Nir 

Ut' 

ully. 


i  Tri-wevkly  and  . 

I    s«ml-wfcK]y.     I 

pie.  P 


Weekly. 


Semi-monthly.   ;      Monthly. 


Quarterly. 


printed  annu*!  No.  I  prlntea  all' 


No,  eoiilee  | 
rlnteaan 
niially. 


I  No.  eiiplea 

No.   .prioled  annU'l  ^fo. 

!        ally-        I 


No.  copies 
printed  nn-  <  No, 
I     naally.    ' 


Alabama. 
'Arkansas 

UUferiUa 4 

Iliat.  Columbia.  I      6 
Oonnectlcut....,'      7 

'I>olawaro I  -. 

;Florlila i  .. 

Geurf;la !      5 

illlinols i      N 

Indiana '     9 

Iowa 


880,201 ;    6  I     286,500 


026,0O0i 
6,14»,lt)8, 
1,752,800 


Kentucky.. 
Louisiana. - 
Maine . 


0 
11 

4 

Maryland I     6 

■■        •  22 


UusctU. 

Miclili^'an 

Ml»sl."i|)pl 

MiSMurl 

N.  Haoipihire. 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania..  .- 

Uiioiio  Island- -- 

South  Carolina.. 

Tcnncsioo 

Texas 

Vt^rinont 

Virpinia 

Wisconsin 

iMIuiiesota  Terri. 

IN.  Mcvlco 

lOrciton 

lUtah 

I       Total... 


1,088,000 

1,120,000 

1,168,0001    t 
2 

2,248,684 

9,047,140 

984,040 

15,8118,500 

40,498,444 

1,262,000 


8,880,400 

2,175',!i,"iO 
68,928,685 

I4.2h6',0J« 
60,41"JS8 
1.768,4.-)0 
W/0,8<lfl 
4,407,666 

172,i50 
4,992,850 
1,058,245 


1,208,610 
874,400 
82,400 
81,200 
146,880 
214,500 
195,000 
677,200 

1,126,280 
678.000 
8e..,90(l 
499,700 

2,421,018 

52,000 

245,440 

278,000 


21     8,892,460 


414,810 

1,M7,980 

140,4011 

25,200 

649,2JO 

266,249 

525,400 

228,800 

l,4t6,,'S60 

198,250 


481     1,609,0101  1 

9l       877,0001  ,. 

185,200'  .. 

8,769,428  .. 

2,117,282  .. 

858,800  .. 

283,600!  ,. 

2,609,776  6 

8,576,986!  8 

2,920,738  1 

828,000  .. 

8,068,024'  8 

1,646,684<  .. 

2,906,124  .. 

8,166,124  1 

20,871,104  8 

1,68.5,786  3 

1,807,064  .. 

2,406,660  .. 

8,588,162  1 

1,900,288  a 

89,205,920  9 

1,6.30,204  6 

18,884,201  28 

27,859,884  19 

968,800  .. 
1,41.'},  8801 
2,189,644 
771,624 
2,142,712 
2.518,668 
1,896,992 


87 
81 
96 
25 
88 
87 
89 
64 

126 
47 
46 
46 
85 
48 

808 
40 

201 

261 
12 
27 
86 
29 
80 
65 
35 

"l 
2 


20,800 
68,968 


18,000 


228,600 
48,20(1 
48,000 

16b',960 


48,000 

01,800 

184,400 


J64  286,1 19,M6 146   17,876,816,1,902158,120,7081  95 ]ll,708,480 100  8,887,608,19    108,600 


15,600 
.  28,040 
1,704.000 

76,060 
1,781,640 
6,972,000 

102,600 


■267,600 


18,000 


N.i.  coplea 
printed  an- 
nually. 


6,000 


147,200 

12,600 

146,400 
80.000 
92,400 
1,857,200 
123,600 

186^600 
18,800 

6,629,808 


127,200 

24,000 
24,000 
18,000 


No,  copies 
No.   prlntedan- 
i   Dually. 


8,800 


000 


24,000 


24,600 

24,000 
7,600 

9^600 


4,000 


AKgrejrate. 


I  Nil.  copies 
Jo.  prliiletl  annu- 
I        ally. 

60| '  2,662J41 
91  377,000 
7        701,200 

is!  1I,127,2W 


46 
10 

in 
61 
107 
107 
29 


4,267.932 
42I,2IK) 
819,S00i 
4,070,86111 
6,102,276 
4,316,828 
1,512.8001 
6,592,838' 
12.4I«,224 
49;  4,203,1164 
6s:  1(1,812,724 
2091  tt4,820,'i(14 
i<  8.247,731) 
50  l,7,')2,>'iOl 
61  6,19S,.'i6ll 
88  8,0fi7,,W2 
51 1  4,098,678 
428:ilJ5,as.'),4ri 


2,020..W 
311,473,407 
84,898,  f,T2 
2,750,950 
7,145,9311 
6o)    6,941 1,7,'i0 


2,526 


1,296.924; 
2,567,602! 
9,228,06^ 
2,666,487| 

88',8('ki 
68,9681 

, :•••  I 

420,409,978 


PUBUCATIONS  AND  THni  ClBOITLATION  IN   TUK  PbINCIPAL  CiTlKS  IN  1850, 


Albany Now  York..... 

Baltimore Maryland 

Boston Massaebuf^etts. . 

ChnrlcKtiin South  Carolina. 

Chicago Illinois 

Cliu'liinatl Oliio 

Louisville Kentucky 

Mobile Alabania. 

Now  Orleans I.rf)ulnlaiia 

New  York New  York 

Bt  Louis Missouri 

Pblladelplila Pennsylvania . . 


8 

81 
113  . 

12 

17 

89 

28 
4 

18 
104 

18 

61 


Annual  clreulatlon 


16,060,460 
20,711,100 
54,482,644 
6,675,800 
1,680,952 
8,758,200 
8,186,688 
1,002,000 
1,260,860 
78,''47,60O 
4,190,080 
48,iS7,340 


Avera^re  olrcQla- 
tlon. 


2,006,307 
668,100 
482,147 
472,983 
110,997 
224,441 
13S.,S50 
2.^i,.VK) 
fi2.\fl08 
7r>7,188 
271,668 
900,142 


Annual  circulation 
to  each  while 
inliabltanl. 


821 

147 

404 

284 

114 

78 

88 

77 

126 

157 

6A 

125 


NEW 


U21 


NEW 


68,068' 


821 

UT 

4(14 

2Sl 

M 

78 

88 

IT 

126 

IBT 

66 

m 


See  Am.  Aim.,  1885,  98,  266;  If.  Br.  Rev.,  11.,  164, 
xiii.,  86 ;  J\r.  ^m.  Jlev.,  Ivi.,  229  (C.  C.  f  ei.ton)  ;  For. 
Quar.,  XXX.,  197,  xxxi.,  182,  250;  Lio.  Age,  iv.,  780 ; 
Wealm.  Itev.,  x.,  216,  466,  il.,  194,  xii.,  69,  xxv.,  264 ; 
Southern  Lit.  Meit.,  vii.,  690 ;  Frasbr,  xxxiii.,  674, 
Iv.,  127,  810,  xiii.,  620;  Dem.  Rev.,  xxiv.,  219;  Ed. 
Rev.,  Ixi.,  96. 

New  Style.  Ordered  to  be  used  in  England  in 
1761 ;  aqd  the  next  year  eleven  days  were  left  out  of 
the  calendar — the  3d  of  September,  1762,  being  reck- 
oned as  the  14th — so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  tlie  Gre- 
gorian Calendar,  rMch  tee,  and  also  article  Cai.kk- 
D.VR.  In  the  year  a.d.  200,  there  was  no  difference  of 
st5'les ;  but  there  had  arisen  a  difference  o'  eleven  days 
between  the  old  and  the  new  style,  the  'ifiter  being  so 
much  beforehand  with  the  former :  so  that  when  a 
person  using  the  old  style  dates  the  Ist  of  May,  those 
who  employ  the  new,  reckon  the  12th.  From  this  va- 
riation in  the  computation  of  time,  we  may  easily  ac- 
count for  the  difference  of  many  dates  concerning  his- 
torical facts  and  biographical  notic3S. — M. 

Ne'W  7ork,  one  of  tho  United  States  of  America, 
situated  lietween  40°  .SO  ,iid  45°  01'  N.  Int.,  and  be- 
tween 71°  .W  and  79°  ■•<>'  W.  long.,  and  contains  an 
area  of  46,000  square  miles.  The  population  in  1700 
was  340,120 ;  in  1800,  580,050 ;  in  1810,  959,049 ;  in 
1820, 1,872,812 ;  In  1830, 1,918,508 ;  in  1840,  2,428,921 ; 
and  in  1850,  3,097,394. 

Early  History  of  New  York  Stale. — The  Spaniards 
comprised  the  territory  of  the  present  State  of  Xew 
York  under  their  great  name  of  Florida,  and  desig- 
nated it  also  on  their  maps  of  the  sixteenth  century 
particularly  as  the  "Tierra  de  Stephen  Gomez,"  or 
shorter  "  Tierra  de  Gomez,"  because  Gomez  (1525)  was 
for  a  long  time  the  only  Spanish  navigator  who  was 
known  to  have  explored  especiall}'  these  coasts.  The 
Knglish  comprised  it  since  1585  under  the  name  Vir- 
ginia, and  since  160G  under  the  name  of  Northern  Vir- 
ginia, or  tho  Northern  Colony.  Since  1616  they  con- 
sidered it  as  a  part  of  New  England,  which  name  took 
the  place  of  the  old  name  of  Northern  Virginia,  and 
went  down  like  this  as  far  south  as  the  fortieth  degree 
nf  north  latitude.  The  Dutch  began  soon  after  the 
discovery  of  Hudson  (1609)  to  call  it  "  Nicuw  Neder- 
landt"  (the  Now  Netherlands).  This  name  may  al- 
ready have  been  in  use  for  some  time,  but  it  occurs  for 
the  Arst  time  in  a  public  document  in  the  year  1614. 
They  also  sometimes  called  it"Nieuw  Holland."  It 
is  on  maps  also  sometimes  called  "  New  Belgium." 
They  at  first  gave  to  it  very  extensive  boundaries,  as 
fi\r  cast  ns  Cape  Cod,  including  the  whole  Barnstable 
peninsula,  and  south  as  far  as  the  Delaware  River  and 
lifeyond  it.  With  these  limits  we  find  it  represented  on 
iniiiiy  old  Dutch  maps.  Tho  southern  limit  on  the 
Delaware  River  remained  pretty  much  unchanged  on 
the  Dutch  maps.  Not  so  the  eastern  boundary.  On 
later  maps  we  see  this  advancing  only  as  far  as  Nas- 
sau Bay,  Rhode  Island.  Since  1630  or  1035  tho  maps 
have  it  only  as  far  as  the  Connecticut  River,  where  at 
this  time  the  English  had  already  arrived  with  their 
plantations.  AVhen,  in  the  year  1664,  the  Knglish 
conquered  tli,  whole  countrj',  it  was  named  the 
"  Province  of  New  York,"  in  honor  of  James,  Duke 
nf  York,  brother  of  Charles  II.  It  lost  in  tho  same 
year  a  part  of  its  coast  by  the  grant  which  the  Duke 
of  York  made  to  a  company  of  gentlemen  who  founded 
the  province  of  Now  Jersey,  between  tho  lower  Hud- 
son and  tho  Delaware  Bay. — .1.  G.  Koiii,. 

When  tho  province  became,  in  1776,  a  State,  the 
name  remained  unchanged,  and  also  the  limits  along 
tho  coast. 

Physical  Features. — This  State  is  divided  into  three 
unequal  parts,  by  two  groat  valleys,  viz.  :  Ist.  The 
valley  of  the  Hudson,  including  the  depression  in 
which  Lake  Champlain  is  situated,  or,  more  properly, 
the  valleys  of  tho  Hudson  and  Champlain  united.  2d. 
The  valleys  of  tho  Molmwk,  and  Oneida  Lako,  and 


Oswego  River,  united.  The  eastern  division  is  a  long 
narrow  belt,  extending  from  New  Y'ork  island  to  the 
head  of  Lake  Champlain.  Its  eastern  limits  are  the 
borders  of  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and  Vermont, 
with  a  slope  westward  to  the  Hudson,  traversed  longi- 
tudinally by  several  narrow  valleys.  This  division 
comprehends  tl.  western  slope  of  the  Taghkanir 
mountains,  wlikli  fonn  the  watershed  that  separates 
the  waters  flowing  into  the  Hudson,  from  those  which 
flow  into  Ix)ng  Island  Sound.  Tho  north  division  of 
the  State  is  traversed  by  the  Clinton  range.  There 
are  several  subordinate  ranges  connected  with  this 
group.  It  begins  at  Little  Falls,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mohawk,  and  pursues  a  north-east  course  across  the 
country  to  Tremldeau  Point,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain,  There  are  numerous  lofty  peaks  which 
formed  a  remarkable  group,  and  have  been  styled  tho 
Adirondack  mountains.  Mount  Marcy,  the  highest  of 
the  range,  attains  to  an  elevation  of  5,467  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  ridge  presents  the  water-shed  of  the 
region  dividing  the  waters  of  the  Hudson,  or  those 
which  flow  south  into  the  Atlantic,  from  those  which 
flow  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Tho  south  division 
is  situated  between  Lake  Ontario  and  tlie  Mohawk, 
and  the  Hudson  valleys  and  Pennsylvania.  It  rises 
with  a  gradual  ascent  until  it  reaches  its  maximum 
height  near  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State.  Tho 
south-eastern  part  of  this  division  is  comprised  in  three 
ranges,  viz.,  tho  Highlands,  broken  through  by  the 
Hudson,  the  Shawangunk,  and  the  Catskill.  There 
were  in  this  State  in  1850, 12,408,964  acres  of  land  im- 
proved, and  6,710,120  of  unimproved  land  in  farms. 
Cash  value  of  farms,  $554,656,642,  and  the  value  of 
implements  and  machinery  was  $22,084,926.  Live 
Stock. — Horses,  447,014;  asses  and  mules,  963;  milch 
cows,  931,324 ;  working  oxen,  178,909 ;  other  cattle, 
767,406  i  sheep,  3,453,241 ;  swine,  1,018,252  ;  value  of 
live  stock,  $73,570,499. 

Agrimltural  Products,  e^c— Wheat,  13,121,498  bush- 
els; rye,  4,148,182;  Indian  corn.  17,858,400;  oats, 
26,652,814 ;  peas  and  beans,  741,546;  barley,  3,585,059 ; 
buckwheat,  3,183,955;  potatoes,  15,368,368;  sweet 
potatoes,  5,629 ;  value  of  products  of  the  orchard, 
$1,761,950;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $912,047; 
pounds  of  butter  made,  79,766,094 ;  of  cheese,  40,741,- 
413 ;  maple  sugar,  10,357,484 ;  molasses,  66,639  gal- 
lons; beeswax  and  honey,  1,755,830  pounds;  wool, 
10,071,301  pounds  produced  ;  flax,  940,577 ;  silk  co- 
coons, 1,774;  hops,  2,536,299  pounds  ;  tobacco,  83,189; 
hay,  3,728,797  tons  ;  hemp,  4  tons;  clover  seed,  88,222 
bushels  ;  other  grass  seeds,  96,493 ;  flax  seed,  57,963 ; 
and  were  made  9,172  gallons  of  wine ;  value  of  home- 
made manufactures,  $1,280,333;  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals, $13,573,883. 

The  principal  rivers  are  tho  Hudson,  324  miles  long, 
navigable  156  miles  to  Troy.  The  Mohawk,  135  miles 
long,  which  enters  tho  Hudson  a  little  above  Troy ; 
the  Genesee,  125  miles  long,  which  enters  Lake  On- 
tario, having  at  Rochester,  5  miles  from  its  mouth,  2 
falls  of  96  and  75  feet.  Black  River,  which  rises 
near  the  sources  of  the  Hudson,  and  flows  120  miles 
into  Lake  Ontario ;  the  Sarnnac,  65  miles  long,  enter- 
ing Lako  Champlain  at  Plattsburg ;  the  Oswegatchio, 
100  miles  long,  flowing  into  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  tho 
Oswego,  proceeding  40  miles  from  Oneida  Lake  into 
Lake  Ontario;  the  Au  Sable,  rising  in  the  Adirondack 
mountains,  and  having  a  course  of  75  miles  to  Lake 
Champlain.  Tho  majestic  St.  Lawrence  forms  a  part 
of  the  northern  boundary  of  tho  State.  The  head 
tir.inchcs  of  the  Susquehanna,  the  Alleghany,  and  tho 
Delaware,  rise  in  this  St;ite.  Besides  I.  ikes  Ontario 
and  Erie  on  the  north,  and  Champlain  on  tho  east, 
which  are  but  partly  within  it,  there  are  wholly  within 
the  State  many  picturesque  sheets  of  water,  viz., 
Lakes  George,  Oneida,  Skanoatelcs,  Owasco,  Cayngii, 
Seneca,  Crooked  Lake,  Cannndaigua,  and  Chautauquc. 
Tho  islands  belonging  to  Now  York  are— Long  Island, 


NEW 


1428 


NEW 


120  miles  long  from  wost  to  east,  with  nn  average 
Avidth  of  about  16  miles,  within  whose  waters  on  the 
oast  are  Fisher's,  Shelter,  Robin's,  and  some  other  isl- 
ands; Staten  Island,  southw<ist  of  the  harbor  of  New 
York,  18  miles  long,  and  8  wide ;  Manhattan  Island, 
on  which  the  city  of  'Sew  Yoric  stands,  13}  miles  long, 
and  at)0nt  1)  wide  at  an  average  breadth;  Grand 
Island,  in  Niagara  Fiver,  12  miles  long,  and  from  2  to 
7  wide,  and  extending  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
Falls.  The  harbor  of  New  Yorlc  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  United  States.    On  the  bar  at  Sandy  Hook  it  has 


a  depth  of  from  21  to  27  feet.  Sag  Harbor  on  the  east, 
and  Brooltlyn  on  the  west  end  of  Long  Island,  have 
good  harbors ;  Sackett's  Harbor  has  a  good  natural, 
and  Oswego  a  good  artificial  harbor  on  Lake  Ontario. 
BufTalo  and  Dunkirk  are  harbors  on  Lake  Eric. 

Banh  of  the  Stale  of  A'eio  York.—lho  following 
table  exhibits  the  aggregate  items  of  the  liabilities 
and  the  resources  of  all  the  banks  doing  business  in 
the  State  of  New  York,  as  shown  by  their  quarterly 
reports  of  the  month  of  June,  in  each  of  the  following 
years : 


ixkmvmta. 

Capitd 

Circulation 

Undivided  proflta 

Due  other  banlcs 

Due  others 

Treasurer  StJite  of  N.  York 

!  Due  depoettora 

I  MUcellaneous 

Total 


UHOCBOES. 

Loans 

Overdrafts 

Dug  from  banka 

Keal  estate 

Specie 

Cash  items 

f^tocks,  etc 

Bonds  and  mortgages  . . 
UiUs  of  other  banks. . . . 

Expense  account 

Totol 


80th  Dair  o( 
J|1D«.  1SI». 


4t,029,MS 
21,919,(110 

T,OTO,(«)0 

80,094,078 

040,«KI 

3,835,903 
S^604,»99 

1,011,889 


13e,(Ma,D06 


8S,S38,528 

164,848 

12,022,436 

3,SI4,487 
lOibTl,.-!!: 

0,497,829 
12,822,002 

2,663,826 

2,691,420 
611,015 


1311,705,068 


till  D>y  of 
Jam,  ihl. 


S 
66,580,181 
27,811,787 

0,232,478 
28,860,186 

1,183,916 

1,226,127 
54,467,682 

1,638,727 


174,009,028 


115,677,239 

■979,994 

10,00^060 

8,76^392 

6,078,918 

18,51fl,68» 

16,206,601 

3,069,343 

2,833,611 

670,403 


174,812,146 


nth  Day  of 
JUM,  liu. 


9 

73,183,281 

80,066,86() 

10,202,728 

31,889,120 

1,074,183 

1,610,197 

79,996,628 

8,836,416 


2U2,B17,9.S6 


181,206,983 
412,249 
13,6-20,764 
6,006,709 
13,381,410 
17,8S3,MS 
19,078,149 
6,822,070 
4,372,026 
013,240 


232,606,101 


Sd  Day  of 
Jun«,  ISW. 

$~ 

86,032,621 

28,662,396 

10,868,672 

24,000,232 

1,010,614 

2,817,100 

83,537,767 

_2,772,l«8 

2J!!,60B,898 


105,106,907 

888,986 

12,720,800 

^726,027 

16,921,467 

16,932,480 

20,l,'i6,B16 

7,888,065 

8,248,982 

1,123,667 

248,213^796 


I4th  Day  of 
Juna,  ISU. 


$ 

92,334,172 

80,706,081 

12,046,901 

20,780,686 

1,031,041 

8,261,421 

96,267,287 

_Sjl84jW8 

268,463,686^ 


174,141,775 

498,978 

12,266,098 

6,724,103 

13,610,835 

20,168,336 

23,511,223 

8,881,601 

8,087,102 

_],19yi94 

268,461,004' 


Sth  Day  of 
June, 18&T. 


108,061,777 

32,395,802 

18,049,030 

27,319,817 

1,010,576 

8,264,877 

104,350,426 

1,764,886 

287,990,280 


190,808,832 

607,137 

11,643,830 

7,428,016 

14,370,434 

23,737,430 

25,747,472 

9,299,794 

3,004,293 

1,802,923 


287,094,800 


nth  Dnvof 
Juna,  1858. 


$ 

109,340,r>41 

24,079,193 

18,603,650 

84,200,766 

874,838 

2,710,034 

98,040,876 

1,567,974 

281,479,871 


178,863,146 

331,002 

13,509,231 

7,899,058 

33,697,211 

16,019,241 

23,097,001 

8,615,305 

1,919,!105 

1,570,(102 


284,47»,9il 


SumiABT  or  Capital  invested,  vai.de  of  kaw  Matkbials  anh  PRonocrs,  irra,  of  tiii  State  of  New  Yoek,  coMrir.En 
FEOsi  the  State  Ce:<8vs  RETcnNa  of  the  Yeae  18f)6. 


I'enuok  f^mpUiyflil. 


■5S    , 


u 


Capital  iiivesleit. 


In  Real 
EaUl*. 


In  Toole 
and  Ma- 
chinery, 


Of  raw  Ma- 
terials. 


Of  menu 

fnctiired  Ar- 

Ucles- 


Agrlcultnral  tools  and  implement«. 
MetaltuTKy  and  manuf.  of  metals, , 
Manuf.  of  fibrous  and  textile  subsk 
Chemical  processes,  manufactures, 

and  compoundri 

Calorifics— lumps,  stoves,  etc.  . . 
Steam-engines,  locomotives,  etc. 
Navigation  and  maritime  Implem'ts 
Hathematiciil,    philosophical,   and 

optical  instruments 

Civil  enginefiring  and  architecture. 

Ijand  conveyance 

Hydraulics  and  pneumatics 

Lever,  ecrev,  and  other  mechanical 

powers 

Grinding  mitts,  mill  gearing,  etc. . . 

Lumber,  including  tools,  etc. 

Stone,  clay,  p<ittery,  and  glass 

I.eather  and  mnnitfttp.  therefrom. . 
Houaeholil  furniture,  machines,  etc. 
Arts,  polite,  tine,  and  ornameutal. 
Fire-arms  and  iiiiplcnicnts  of  war. 
Surgical,  medical,  and  dental  In- 

stniments 

Wearing  apparel,  toilet  articles,  etc. 
Miscellaneous  manufactures 

Total 


302 

4,783 

889 

1,S51 

67 

82 

236 

49 

654 

1,462 

•44 

12 

1,,')18 

0,704 

806 

.3,016 

959 

382 

70 

84 

1,010 

497 


2,843 
30,384 

7,280 

11,944 
1,722 
4,118 
4,441 

304 
5,140 

V 

493 

77 
8,505 
20,767 
11,291 
16,902 
7,493 
8,813 
608 

143 

11,481 
4,092 


24,83:11165,159 


0 
474 

6,726 

941 
1 

16 
2 

11 
29 
12 


55 
90 

2,216 
789 

1,247 


40 
24,3S4 
_719 
31,771 


122 
8,048 
2,914 

1,276 
148 
214 
343 

21 
139 

362 
18 

2 
114 

697 

896 

088 

1,172 

1,250 

60 

28 
987 
949 


40 
2750 


9 

6 

87 

237 

225 

641 

6 


1348 
480 


120 
802 
606 

115 


2 

97 

126 

7 

1 

1172 

4274 

140 

433 

174 

12 

9 


66 
600 
103 

246 
28 
20 
14 

9 
63 
99 

6 

1 

100 
722 
90 
142 
67 
89 
6 


8 

271    22 
16     48 


$ 

749,608 
10,078,305 
5,204,029 

11,497,274 

610,900 

1,412,300 

2,070,160 

106,660 

1,606,080 

2,205,432 

0,900 

2T,960 
8,160,940 
9,961,174 
8,896,690 
4,489,182 
1,977,279 
2,420,717 
172,146 

111,2.V) 
2,604,873 
1,782,072 


$ 

B44,R.^6 
6,4-26,it78 
^406,8^5 

7,691,362 
201,963 

1,218,860 
351,245 

125,440 
443,.M1 
819,164 
79,466 

18,100 

2,171,W3 

3,004,875 

1,132,8,'->1 

1150,917 

8.'M,994 

1,()0.'>,209 

140,640 

19,000 

791,049 

1,112,631 


1,236,929 
21,806,828 
10,8(V(,178 


8,120,409 
43,192,087 
19,043,02S 


86,692,784   61,527,08.1 

949,135^     2,348,431 

2,274,7871     4,331,800 

3,992,723,    8,208,1011 

169,080'  637,010 

1,067,S08'  3,653,398 

2,810,009  0,977,818 

2S1,6S6j  691,076 

41,121 '  168,790 
42,866,603  62,196,4'iO 
12,206,957]  24,208,041 
2,24.3,609;  9,494,217 
14,921,706  27,370,l«:l 
8,705,357i  0,186,348 
8,871,TSS;  8,331,101 
539,751]        092,liflS 

73,549'  256,863 
12,066,115  22,0+%22'J 
6,309,269      8,U0(l,Ui)4 


16,730,6233 


75ril,2414 


71,130,407 


35,219,670 


178,394,329  317,4;8, 331 


The  tons  of  wheat  and  flour  shipped  at  Buflfalo  and 
Oswego,  from  tho  y^ar  1836  to  ItJoS,  at  Black  Rock, 
from  1839  to  1858,  tnclusiv,  a.|>|  -t  'i'on&wanda,  from 
tSbO  to  1868,  anci  the  tpUil  ions  uf  wheat  and  flour 
which  arrived  at  the  Hitdrju..  hiv? r,  '•-  •  re  as  follows : 


1                ISiS. 

T-r    /..,•.««..   I      J'.-'-M  aad 
<.     Mile.      1           -1.    1  . 

Av.  per  Ton 
ofia  Mile. 

1  N.Y.  Central  UK. . 
1  N.Y.  and  Erie  H.H. 
j  Canals 

U2,.-'t.-.->;  ««,.:.•  10  44 

166,    -i.nr-'    8,8-:-  il0  77 
664.   1        ■ '    ?  :  i  ,754  00 

2'66  eta. 
2-32 
3-71  mills. 

Total 

873,428,iiu8  1  $»,654,3B6  21 

110  ct». 

The  canal  averages  do  not  cover  the  forwarder's 
charge  for  traiuportation,  which  may  be  assumed  at 


one  cent  a  ton  per  mile,  althongh  the  succeeding  tables 
will  ahow  this  assumed  cost  too  high  by  nearly  one 
half.  The  gross  receipts  are  only  given,  so  that  the 
net  receipts  or  net  earnings  do  not  appear  in  these 
statements. 

A'ero  I'tK't  Cana7«.— Tho  fallowing  table  represents 
tho  total  tonnage  of  ail  the  property  on  tlic  canals,  as- 
cending and  descending,  its  value,  and  the  amount  of 
tolls  collected  for  the  twenty -three  years  preceding; 
also  the  total  tons  coming  to  tide  water  from  Erie  and 
Champlaincanalsfor  each  of  the  last  twenty-three  years, 
and  the  aggregate  valne  thereof  in  market ;  also  the 
whole  quantity  of  wheat  and  flour  whicli  came  to  tlio 


l«l 

It! 
ID' 
l«< 


Til 
Til 


NEW 


1429 


NEW 


:he  east, 
id,  havB 
nntural, 
Ontario. 

'oUowlng 
inbilitics 
lainess  In 
nunrterly 
following 


llh  Dny  of 
[une,  m»- 


19,340,611 
M,n7»,193 
18,603,060 
34,21)0,700  , 
874,838 
2,710,034 
98,040,876 
_1>7,974 
1M,47»,871 


178,863,146  1 
331,002 
13,609,231 
7,899,(158,1 
33,597,211 
15,019,241  , 
23,097,061  ! 
8,616,305  1 
1,919,9(15  I 
1,670.002  I 

'281,479,921  ; 


I    Of  mantt 
foctiired  Ar- 1 
ticlti. 


29 1  S,120,4(W 
m\  43,192,C'<7 
178    19,643,02S 

rS4'  61,527,0«1 
1351  2,348,431 
7871  4,331,800 
123 1     8,268,100 

080!  6,37,010 

808'  3,663,398 

009,  6,977,818 

6S6i  691,076 

m'  168,700 
,663  62,1(15,4261 
,957 1  24,208,041 
609',  9,404,217 
706  27,370,163 
,357,  9,186,34S 
,7S,Sj  8,331,101 
754        902,(16^ 

.6491  266,863 
115  22,04.^22(; 
,269  8,900,634 
'■iiV  317,4i8,33l] 


cceeditig  tables 
by  nearly  one 
en,  so  that  the 
ippoar  in  these 

able  represent!-; 
,  tlio  conaU,  ns- 
the  amount  of 
lars  preoedingi 
r  from  Erie  and 
inty-threeyears, 
larket ;  also  the 
Icli  came  to  the 


Iludion  Blvef,  from  1884  to  1858,  inoloslve,  with  the  1  tolls  i-acelved  on  all  the  wheat  and  flour  transported  on 
RKKregato  morkot  value  of  the  same,  and  the  amount  of  I  the  canals  in  each  year,  from  1836  to  18.58,  Inclusive : 


Vim 

Totfti  '^onaaga. 

From  Krl.  aod  Champlaln  Canala   | 

BrtadstufTa. 

"T,iio,ii6T 

Valuo 

Tolla. 

Toni 

Valua 

Ton. 

Valw. 

Tolla.         1 

mi., 

««7,eB4,84S 

91,614,342 

696,374 

$•28,032,479 

124,982 

$9,796,540 

Motaicect'd.; 

1»»T.. 

i,ni,«Mi 

60,809,283 

1,292,628 

611,781 

21,822,364 

116,491 

9,640,166 

$301,789     1 

imiN, , 

1,1139,011 

06,746,669 

1,690,911 

640,481 

23,038,610 

133,080 

9,883,816 

880,161 

INllIt, , 

1,48(1,111) 
1,416,046 

T8,B»9,764 

1,816,382 

602,128 

20,163,199 

124,683 

7,217,841 

404,080 

mn.. 

60,803,898 

1,770,747 

669,012 

23,213,.673 

244,882 

10,862,862 

T0O,0Tl     1 

mil,, 

l,MI,fl«l 

9il,202,929 

2,034,982 

774,334 

27,225,322 

201,300 

10,1(:6,365 

621,046     1 

|HW,  , 

1,336,931 

60,010,008 

1,749,196 

666,626 

22,751,013 

108,231 

9,284,778 

006,TiT    ! 

IMII,, 

l,nia,4fl» 

70,870,900 

2,Oi31,600 

836,881 

28,453,408 

248,780 

10,283,484 

781,816    1 

1144,, 

1,fltA,»1« 

90,921,  t53 

2,446,374 

1,019,094 

34,183,167 

277,866 

11,211,677 

816,711     , 

MA.. 

i,ffu,ait 

100,068,246 

*'"5'JS] 

1,204,943 

46,462,321 

320,463 

15,982,0,10 

861,633     ' 

un,, 

«,iltK,A03 

115,613,109 

2,766,106 

1,362,319 

61,105,286 

419,366 

18,8.36,412 

1.099,826    ! 

*»,. 

8,KltO,itlO 

101,608,428 

8,63^8S1 

1,744,283 

73,092,414 

551,205 

32,800,938 

1,4611,424    i 

m*,, 

«,fl1fl,«S0 

140,096,187 

8,262,213 

1,447,9115 

80,88.3,907 

431,641 

21,148,421 

1,126,138    1 

1*49.. 

v,m,rsi 

144,789,286 

3,268,226 

1,579,946 

62,376,621 

434,444 

19,308,595 

1,128,064    i 

IWlffl,, 

9,f)7(),61T 

160,897,929 

8,273,890 

8,033,863 

55,474,637 

461,781 

20,218,183 

1,114,619 

tthl., 

ll,0ia,733 

169,981,801 

8,329,721 

1,977,161 

53,927,603 

467,024 

18,487,862 

867,881     1 

HM, , 

8,'WII,441 

190,608,517 

3,118,244 

2,2i!4,823 

00,8(13,103 

076,772 

22,664,250 

096,160     ; 

WD,, 

4,!14T,i*ni 

207,179,670 

8,204,718 

2,50.6,797 

73,688,044 

fllH,S53 

30,034,571 

998,962     1 

Ixhi,, 

4,ld6,<Ml 

310,284,812 

2,773,566 

2,223,743 

72,120,681 

24(1,856 

18,482,377 

363,763 

(•"Ml,, 

4,(W2,rtlT 

204,890,147 

2,80,5,077 

1,895,693 

74,377.937 

801,126 

23,103,681 

048,946     1 

llflit,, 

4,11fl,fl"lJ 

218,327,002 

2,748,203 

2,123,409 

74,280,734 

476,386 

29,098,973 

709,640 

IKBT.. 

8,844,061 

180,997,018 

2,045,641 

1,617,187 

61,190,018 

263,141 

14,043,581 

466,350 

im., 

»,mi>,m 

189,568,844 

2,110,754 

1,985,142 

61,630,061 

464,831 

19,032,087 

629,204 

Tanndfft,  1\)IU,  Freight  of  Canals  and  Railroads  of  ling  year;  also  the  tolls  and  freight  paid  on  the  tonnage. 
S'm  row.— Tha  following  tablo  shows  tho  separate  I  The  tons  of  property  carried  in  1853  and  1858  are  ncar- 
lommgn  of  tho  canals  and  two  railroads,  and  the  nggre-  ly  the  same.  The  aggregate  cost  of  transportation 
((«(«  uf  lioth  for  six  years,  1853  to  1858,  inclusive,  with  was  $2,073,572  more  in  1868,  owing  to  tho  large  pro- 
the  luiKe*  and  gains  of  each  compared  with  the  preccd-  i  portion  of  tonnage  being  carried  by  rail : 


em»\i  mill  Kallfoaili. 

Tonnage. 

ToIlB  and  Freight                                 j 

1053                 IXM 

Gain  In  18S4. 

Lon  In  1B54. 

1853. 

1854.         I  Gain  In  1864. 

Lon.in  I8S4. 

New  Vuilctiiilinli. 

NpwYrirk(!ntitrnl  lt.lt. 
NttwYurkaddKrlalLn. 

Nnw  Ynrii  Ontintu 

Nn*  VorkOolitPnlll.a. 
Now  Viirit  mill  KrlolLR 

Nkw  York  (IntisU 

NwwYol'kOotilriilH.li. 
N^wYarkntidllrlon.n. 

Nnw  Ymk  Ontinti. 

NiiwYiiriit)«iitnillt.ll.. 
M^wYtfrkittiillMeU.K. 

NSW  Ynrfc  ftntlBl* 

Nnw  Vnfl(»!pntriiin.n.. 
NiiwYM:-kiiliitlCrleH.H. 

4,247,863 
360,1)00 
631,039 

6,288,892 

ia64. 

4,165,862 

M9,Rfl4 

743,260 

4,16.6,862 
649,804 
743,2.V» 

189,804 
112,211 

81,991 

$3,294,718' 
l,838,830t 
2,637,214t 

$2,773,566 
2,479,820 
3,369,690 

$64(1,990 
832,370 

$431,182 

5,463,916 

ISIS. 

4,022,017 

070,078 

842,048 

302,015 

Gain  In  18S5. 

120,269 
98,798 

81,991 

Lota  In  1855. 
143,245 

$7,580,782 

1864. 

$2,773, 666' 

2,479,82flt 

3,309,690t 

$8,622,978 

1856. 

$2,805,077 
3,189,003 
3,0.')3,0O2 

$1,473,300 

Gain  In  1855. 
$31,611 
709,783 
283,413 

$431,102 
LoH  in  1956 

6,458,910 

IMS 
4,022,917 
070,073 
842,048 

5,634,738 

llist 
4,110,082 
776,112 
943,215 

219,067 

Gain  In  18S6. 
9.3,466 
100,039 
101,167 

143,246 
Lou  in  less. 

$8,022,976 

1855. 

$2,80,6,077« 

3,189,603t 

8,6r)i!,002t 

$9,847,883  !$1,U34,706 

1856.            Gain  In  I86(. 

$2,748,212 
4,328,041    -1,188,433 
4,54,5,783         892,780 

....  ! 

LoH  in  1858  1 
$66,866  1 

6,634,738 

mt 
4,116,083 
776,113 
943,216 

5,836,409 

1867. 

3,344,061 
838,791 
978,080 

8,160,913 

1SS8. 

8,685,193 
765,407 
816,951 

300,671 
Gain  In  15S1 

02,679 

34,S.'->1 
97,63(1 

Gain  In  1859. 
321,131 

Lo!,  In  1951. 
772,021 

";7/,F2T~ 

l.o>!  In  tS5j. 

7'3'.11S4 
161,112 

$9,047,883 

1851. 

$2,"4S212" 

4,32S,041t 

4,51,'>.7.S-2t 

$11,022,035 

1856. 
$2,04,'>,64r 
4,.V>(),270I- 
4,097.610  f 

$11,022,038 

1B5T. 
$2,045,641 

4..Vi'l.276 

.;  (K'.'.iu  > 

18.18 

K^.no.T.M 

3,:.lll,"70 
3,643,310 

$2,031,218 

Gain  in  IS5T. 

$23i,23i5 

$86,868  ! 

LoH  in  IBM.  1 
$703,671  ' 

448,172 

6,836,409 

t«57. 

8,344,061 

838,791 

978,066 

$231,235 

Gain  in  1868. 
$06,313 

$1,180,748 

LoulDieiS.  1 

$8.69,'M6  j 
2M,800 

6,160,918 

6,'M7,653 

321,131 

234,4(18 

*i0,7il2,5-27 

$9,654,3.14 

$68,313 

$1,113,806 

Tolls. 


C'AICAL  AND  C'ENTBAL  RaILBOAD  COMrAEEO,  1S53-'&S. 


i  Freight. 


Vim. 

ranal.. 

N 

ew  York  '  .-niral  Kailrnail. 

Toni  oartipii. 

TuIIh  received. 

Averanfl  per  Ton,  VU. 

Tons  carried. 

FreiK)it  rtceive.l. 

l;l,S3;^,^3()  iio 

AveraKO  per  Ton. 

Ithil 

4,247,863 

$2,965,097 

09  et 

36(I,IKI0 

$6  111-74 

IHM 

4,160,863 

9,5»7,4S8 

6115 

M9,S05 

2,479,  S26  00 

4  60-00 

\m 

4,022,617 

2,610,420 

64-89 

670,078 

3,180,803  OO 

4  70-00 

\m 

4,110,083 

2,554,216 

02  05 

776.113 

4,.371,339  20 

6  07  09 

1«M 

8,884,061 

1,897,451 

66 -91 

838,791 

4,659,275  88 

0  43-85 

IIM 

8,666,103 

1,902,276 

63  ■27 

766,407 

3,700,270  44 

4  83-46 

AVSVAOSB  OK  VT  AMD  DOWM  FbEIOHT  FOB  TOT  LABT  TWKNTT-NINB  YeabB,  1830  TO  1S68 

. 

1    1  1          im                                                                                ,...., 

Arerago  Otiarge  on  up  Preight  per  100 
Poundi  from  Albany  to  Buffalo. 

Average 

charge  on  down  Freight  per 

Pcttodi. 

Bbl.,  SIS  Pounda,  from  Buffalo  to  Albany.  | 

Toil. 

rr..glil 

Whole  Charge. 

Toil. 

Freight. 

Whole  Chargt. 

Cenu. 

CanU. 

Cenla. 

Cenu. 

CanU. 

Cenu. 

1«IWt«1«4 

46 

46 

91 

43 

45 

93 

lillhieKee , 

83 

66 

S-J 

SB 

40 

75 

iMautim 

83 

83 

66 

88 

83 

68 

I»4l>l«li4» 

26 
18 
13 

15 
11 
10 

41 

29 
23 

82 
28 
31 

81 
29 
27 

63 
04 
43 

IMtOlflUMM 

IWflifll** 

'''Im  (Uf  fdiit,  nf  foiluctlon  from  the  period  ending 
t,  Ith  mi  to  Ihn  prrlmt  ending  wH),  1&(9,  la. . . . 

43 

66 

08 

83 

49 

61 

Tll«  Iwr  rntll,  uf  r«(liictliin  from  tlie  period  ending 
wiili  (■I4U  to  tlin  perioil  enillng  tritli  1868,  it.... 

84 

80 

33 

44 

84 

18 

TllK  iwr  mill,  nf  reiliicllon  from  the  period  ending 
_  Willi  1184  tu  the  period  ending  with  1868,  Is. . . . 

71 

77 

78 

64 

40 

4S 

NEW 


1430 


NEW 


otherwise  an  increuse  in  the  receipts  of  tolls  would 
tiitve  been  the  reAiilt. 

But  this  statament  also  oxiiibits  the  aniount  of 
freight  earnings  on  these  railroad.s,  and  tolls  received 
on  the  canals,  including  the  toU!>  on  boats  and  passen- 
gers during  the  above  period,  together  with  these  total 
movements.  These  cpmparativo  statements  sho'-v  the 
rapid  and  successful  ^jrogress  nl  the  former,  and  the 
immobility  of  the  latter : 

18S3.  F-elffbt  And  Tolli. 

N.Y.  Cen.R.R.,  tons  moved  1  mile,    (64,901,850       l,S3i(,830 
N.Y.  and  Erie  R.B.,         "  101,626,522       2,537,214 

Uansis,  "  T0},889,933       8,204,718 


TotHi (860,717,805 

1W«. 
N.Y.  Oen.  K.11.,  tons  moTed  1  mile,    (81,163,090 
N.Y  and  Erie  R.R,         "  Iii0,9fl9,0;)4 

UanalB,  "  669,669,044 


7,690,762 

2,479,fi2.1 
S,B69,B90 
2,778,666 


Total (889,635,169 

I8S5. 

N.Y.  Cen.  R.  It,  tons  moved  1  mile,    (99.605,936 
N.Y.  and  Erio  K.R,         "  160,673,099 

UanalB,  "  819,170,051 


8,622,976 

3,199,003 
3,61)3,002 
2,906,077 


Total (869,450,485       9,647,692 

18E6. 

N.Y.  Cen.  R.K.,  tons  moved  1  mUo,  (14.^, 793,678       4,329,041 
N.Y.  and  Erie  ttlt,         "  l'jj,453,016       4,616,792 

Canals,  "  692,009,003       t,74S,212 

Total (921,20!,3:T      11,622,036 

This  statemfct  alco  shows  the  total  tonnage  of 
freight  on  these  roads  for  1855  and  18;';6  separately  from 
other  tabular  calculations,  from  which  it  appears  the 
increase  on  through  freight  ia  one  year  ^vas  182,358 
tons,  and  on  way  14,847  tons. 

The  operations  of  these  loaUs,  for  the  year  ending 
Septemlwr  30,  1855,  were  as  follows : 


1         Rm4>. 

Thronfrb 
rnlghl. 

rrtlgL 

...™kL-       movflmont    cwial  Mite* 
»"■"'"'■     ormlle,,..  |   In  lUS. 

18S5. 

N.  T.  A  Erie. . 
N.  Y.  Central.. 

Tuna. 
156,469 
156,194 

Tun.. 
636,596 
518,879 

8l'2"06.5ll50,878,99s!(t49,lS5 
870,078!  99,605,8831  487,019 

Total 

811,6681,200,465 

1,512,128  249,279.8il4;(980,204 

'             19M.                               1 

N.  Y.  Central..  263,238    622,824 
]N.  Y.  AErle..'             |        Not 

1                   1 
776,112 146,78.8,07s  (491,451 
reported!                 \ 

(3,0X3,992 

98-8() 

2,866,386 

7419 

2,956,697 

69-61 

2,547,438 

61  16 

2,610,420 

64-09 

2,664,216 

62-06 

The  New  York  and  Erio  Knilroad  received  on 
through  freight  in  l«5r,  $1,461,419  18,  equal  to  $9  40 
per  ton,  on  the  quantity  transported,  .ind  in  the  samo 
year  the  New  Yorlt  Central  received  $1,289,700  97  rn 
through  freight,  which  gives  an  average  of  $8  25  7-10 
per  ton  on  the  amount  carried. 

The  comparative  tabular  statement  herewith  sub- 
mitted is  a  condensed  view  of  the  total  tonnage  and 
receipt!  of  toll  on  all  the  canals  on  the  ditferent  descrip- 
tions of  property'  carried,  for  the  period  of  six  years : 

YfiW.  Toiw  r*rri,'ii.         Tv.lU  reiTeivfld.      Av.  per  ton. 

1861.    3,592,7,33  

1882 3,863,442 

1858 4,247,963 

18S4 4,166,862 

1866 4,022,617 

1886 4,116,083 

The  receipts  of  toll  above  given  are  upon  the  prop- 
erty carried  exclusive  of  the  tolls  on  boats  and  passen- 
gers, and  the  average  must  bo  affected  by  the  rates  of 
toll  charged  and  received,  and  the  distance  that  prop- 
erty or  freight  ia  transported  on  the  canals.  The 
average  of  1851  on  the  tonnage  of  1856  would  give 
i$3,542,178  of  tolls.  The  Auditor  is  satisfled  that  the 
rates  of  toll  .s  arranged  in  1851  may  Im  imposed  on  most 
of  the  property  transported  on  the  canals  without  any 
injury  to  tr-ije,  if  the  legislature  will  interpose  its  con- 
stitutional .-luthority  to  protect  the  trade  of  the  canals. 

The  canal  debt  of  1846,  to  which  the  aiiiiuul  Sink- 
ing Fund  ol'  !(l,700,00()is  applic-ible  and  constltuiion- 
ally  pledged,  was,  on  tlie  30th  September,  !8o6,  ijilS,- 
223,704  3i),  the  annnal  interest  of  wliich,  payable 
i{uartcr  yearl/,  amounts  to  $792,193  28,  and  j,'j,7.'!9,- 
024  70  of  this  debt  are  fur  loans  made  upcn  the  credit 


of  this  Sinking  Fund  to  supply  the  deflciencies  which 
existed  in  that  fund,  to  pay  the  debt  as  it  fell  due  after 
1847.  Former  financial  officers  of  the  State  have  esti- 
mated thnt  the  Sinking  Funds  established  by  article  7, 
section  1,  of  the  Constitution,  would  be  ample  to  meet 
all  the  charges  upon  them  from  year  to  yeor,  and 
finally  to  liquidate  the  Canal  debt,  of  $10,944,815  57 
outstanding  on  tho  30th  of  September,  1816,  in  18 
years  and  8  months,  with  a  surplus  of  $95,333  48  on 
the  1st  of  Jf.nuary,  1865,  when  it  was  assumtd  the 
whole  of  the  debt  would  be  paid. 

CiKAL  DKBT.— STaTEMENI  BHOWLVd  TUB  AM0I;."< T  OF  PlllN- 
Cn'AI.  AND  InTEIIKST  «0TUAII.V  PAYASLK  IN  EACH  YeaS, 
TOaKTilEII  '.'ITU  TUB  BeSULTS  OE  THE  dlNKINQ  FuSD, 
UNBKR    THE    CONSTljtUTIOH,    AkT.  7,  SeU.    1,   FKO.M    SEP- 

TEMUKR  SOrn,  1850;  Also  toe  Amouni  ut  8uki>i.uh  ox 
Septembeh  30th,  OF  xAcn  Yeab,  and  tub  Amount  of 
Annual  Intebkst  on  tub  saue  at  Five  per  Cent. 
pee  Ammvu, 


Yeor. 

M  r'ttir 

Surplus  on     Intuiestun 
Sept.  80th,  of    ■UTpli.j  Id 
eaeli  year.      each  yesr. 

1856  surplus 

1857 

18.59 

19.59 

1860 

1861 

1902 

1868 

1864 

1805 

1800 

1907  

1-69 

Ii69 

l.«0 

1971 

1972 

1878 

1874,  Jan.  1st 

Total  debt,  prin- 
cipal A  interest 
Surplus  on  Jan. 
lBt,1874 

(3,059',IX!5 

943|i('i0 

2,192,974 

900,000 

40<1,fl6o 
1,789,024 

4,000^000 

(692,193 

8,718,666 

639,268 

1,468,216 

2,598,619 

;,258,841 

828,:m 

•(22,841 

2,017,290 

200,000 

200,000 

200.000 

200,000 

2O'i,O0O 

200,000 

200,000 

200.000 

4,0.50,000 

(1,259,901 
2,889,708 
4*4,672 
1,617.148 
1,929,794 
1,142,628 
1,641, -118 
8,09.5,142 
4,227,6,';9 
4,121.6.55 
4,127,789 
4,m,125 
4,140,931 
4,147,972 
4,155,200 
4,103,029 
4,171,181 
4,179,740 
191,997 

(0-J,995 

110  ^35 

21,  M) 

80,957 

96,4S9l 

67,131 

92,1170 

154,7,57 

211,377 

21)0,092 

200,390 

200.700 

207,041 

207,393 

207,703 

209,151 

209,.5,59 

62,240 

(13,223,'04 
I 

[       •••• 

(18,072,198 
181,997 

Iiiter.-9t  on  1 
nurplua     ) 

(2,594,279 

(19,164,190 

The  following  statement  shows  the  tonnaye  of  all  tlie 
canals  of  the  Stnt".  from  1850  to  1855,  incliiiive,  the 
total  movement  in  the  years  stated,  and  tho  total  value 
of  all  tl'.o  property  carried  on  the  canals  in  eucli  year. 


Yearf. 

Total  tonoace. 

Total  movement. 

Total  valo.  or 
prr.perly  rrtrrli-il. 

1S50 

0,070,617 

.... 

(150.397,929 

1851 

2,588,788 

1.59,991,901     j 

1852 

8,802,441 

602,800,919 

196,003,617 

:853 

4,i57,868 

700,899,9.*! 

207,179,570 

1854 

4,166,862 

669.659,OH 

210,294.812    ; 

1866 

4,022,017 

619,1711,061 

2M,890.147    ! 

The  two  lines  of  railway  in  the  State,  whicli,  dur- 
ing the  reason  of  canul  navigation,  mcst  effectually 
and  seriously  compiv.i  with  tho  canals  in  the  transport 
of  freight,  are  the  New  York  and  Erio  and  tlie  New 
/ork  Central  Uailronds.  Thn  operations  of  tliese 
lines  in  the  transportation  of  frefyht  during  the  years 
stated  below,  show  a  steady  and  progressive  increase. 

Tho  largest  amount  of  tolls  in  any  fiscal  year  was 
in  1851,  when  the  receipts  wore  $3,703,999  31;  and 
the  per  centago  of  the  cost  of  collection  on  the  gross 
amount  received  was  $2  03.  This  was  before  tlie  re- 
peal of  tho  lawp  imposing  tolls  on  freight  transported 
on  certahi  railroads,  and  the  cimsequent  reduction  of 
tolls  on  tho  canals,  to  enable  tlio  State  to  compete  for 
the  carrying  trade.  In  1861  tho  tonnage  of  all  the 
canals  was  3,582,733.  Tho  tonnage  of  all  the  canals 
in  1855,  was  4,022,617  ;  4.39,881  more  than  in  1851 ; 
while  the  tolls  weru  na\y  $2,032,906  U,  being  $1,071,- 
093  23  lees.  The  tonnage  of  1855,  at  the  rates  of  toll 
as  they  were  fixed  in  1851,  would  have  yielded  about 
$4,108,000,  or  about  $1,536,000  more  than  were  ac- 
tually received ;  tho  very  natural  and  perfectly  Icgit- 
ipiate  results  of  a  policv  adopted  by  the  State  before 
it  was  prepared  by  tho  completion  of  tho  enlargement 
to  encounter  an  active  and  vigorous  competition. 


NEW 


1431 


NEW 


HCrAN 

»0,«9I 
57,1311 
82,1170 
1^,757 
lill,»77 
20ti,0S2 
a06,!)8li| 
'200,708 
207,041 
207,:IU3 
20V,7f>3 

aos.i.')!! 

208,.V)9, 
5'2,240 


aliii*  of    ] 

jerly  nirtii'tl.  J 

981,801     I 

r,ii;i,5i7    1 

179,.'i70  I 
2lvl,!!l'2  \ 
,,390.147    1 

rhich,  dur- 
iffectually 
transport 
tlie  New 
of   these 
the  years 
increase, 
year  'Vus 
)9  .91 ;  and 
the  gross 
ore  the  re- 
.ransported 
eduction  of 
lompcte  for 
of  all  the 
the  canals 
in  1851; 
jg  $1,071,- 
■ates  of  toll 
dded  ahout 
n  were  ac- 
'cctly  legit- 
^tato  before 
nlargemeiit 
titiou. 


Table  belotv  shows  the  amount  of  the  new  debt 
created  since  1846,  the  interest  of  which  is  paid  by  the 
General  Fund";  the  specillc  objects  for  which  the  sev- 
eral stocks  were  Issued,  and  the  date  of  redemption  of 
each,  followed  by  a  recapitulation  of  the  whole  canal 
debt  of  the  State : 

CANAL   DSBT. 

8'«  duo  1st  ,Iuly,  1872 |3,2B0,000 

6'»    "   1st  January,  1878 1,1100,000 

«•»    "    lstJuly,lS73 1,260,000 

Cb   "   Ist  November,  1873 2,2^,0,000 

a's    "    Ist  October,  1874 3,260,000 


(9,000,000 
1,600,000 


600,000 


Total  debt  for  the  cnlargoment 

and  completion  of  the  canals 

ffs  due  iBt  July,  1878 

6'a    "   1st  Januarv,  1874,  to  provide  for  dcfl- 

cicncles  to  pay  tne  Interest  and  redeem  the 

principal 

(11,000,000 
SKOAPrrnLATioN  or  tue  oamal  sbut. 
To  pay  the  Interest  and  redeem  the  principal 
under  Article  7,  Section  1,  of  the  Oonstltu- 

tlon (18,228,704  33 

To  pay  the  Interest  and  redeem  the  principal 
under  Article  7,  Section  3,  of  the  Constitu- 
tion      11,000,000  00 

The  interest  paid  by  the  General  Fund 442,6S&  49 


Total  debt  Ist  January,  1857 (24,«06,2S9  82 

Of  the  debt  paying  interest  there  was  held  on  the 
30th  September,  1856 : 

On  the  United  States"  account (18,992,289  82 

On  foreign  account 3,424,000  00 


Total  canal  debt  to  30lh  September,  1960 (22,410,289  82 

The  interest  on  the  debt  is  a  fraction  over  5.51  per  cent. 

On  the  1st  of  July,  1858,  thero  will  be  re- 
deemed by  the  Sinking  Fund  under  section 
one,  all  the  Ave  per  cent,  stocks  then  falling 
due,  say (3,058,606  34 

The  new  debt  will  probably  be  Increased  by 
a  resort  to  the  credit  of  the  Sinking  Fund 
under  §  3,  on  the  30th  September,  1853 818,839  44 


Decrease  in  aggregate  of  canal  debt (2,239,705  90 

If  the  surplus  of  the  canal  revenues  during  the  cur- 
rent fiscal  year  shall  not  be  sufficient  to  meet  the 
whole  annual  contribution  of  $350,000  to  the  General 
Fund  Del)t  Sinlcing  Fund,  the  deficiency  should  be 
made  up  from  tlie  receipts  from  taxes  transferred  to 
the  Canal  Fund  during  the  year. 

The  premiums  on  loans  constitute  quite  an  import- 
ant item  of  receipts  to  the  State. 

FBEunnis  OS  loans. 
The  premiums  received  and  paid  into  the  treasury 
on  loans  made  since  the  1st  of  January,  18-^1  <   have 
been  as  stated  below : 

On  loan  of  June  22, 18M,  of  (1,000,000  if ; ,  ■■:M  25 

••  Aug.  31,        "  1,260,000  lii7.24(i  Ri 

"  Feb.  22,  1S55,  of      1,000,000  l.tl.SSOft) 

"  June  21,        "  1,260,000  234,600  00 

"  June  20,        "  1.600,000  C.  R.  C.  259,406  00 

"  Oct.   24,        "  1,260,000  204,611  60 

On  Ionics  to  supply  deficiencies 
In  Sinking  Funds,  Docembtir 

18, 1S65  <^  -  "- rent) 4,600,000  31,98120 

On  K.  anrf  '■     .<i.ut,  March  25, 
1S6« 1,000,00"^  17070900 

Aggregate  to  September  30, 1880. 


(1,376,439  62 


171,380  60 


On  the  18th  October,  1856,  a  loan  of  (l.'I.MJ,- 
000  for  E.  and  O.  was  made  at  a  premium 
of. 

Total  of  premiums (1,546,820  02 

Of  Xnii  COST  FOB  ENI.AEOrJIENT  ANO  COMFLKTION. 

The  Ute  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor,  Hon. 
John  T.  Clark,  In  his  report  to  the  Legisla- 
ture In  1860,  CBtimatod  the  cost  of  complet- 
ing all  the  canals,  after  the  31st  of  Decem- 
ber, 1853,  Including  10  per  cent,  for  contin- 
gencies, the  cost  of  engineering  and  land 
damages,  at. (13,131,808  74 

To  this  cost  he  apt'ed  the  constitutional 
loans,  under  8  3,  arUclo  7 9,000,000  00 


And  estimated  a  deficiency  of (4,131,803  74 

which  is  a  pretty  large  addition  to  any  estimate  here. 


tofore  given  by  the  engineers  of  the  total  cost  of  en< 
largcment  and  completion. 

Trade  and  Tonnage  of  the  Cat.  ih. — From  the  tables 
furnished  the  Auditor  of  the  Canal  Departmeut  wo 
compile  the  annexed  statement  of  the  trade  and  ton- 
nage of  the  canals  for  the  year  1850.  The  tables,  ob- 
tained from  the  same  source,  of  the  movement  for  tho 
years  1854  and  1855,  are  also  published,  for  the  pur- 
iwso  of  giving  a  comparison  in  both  value  and  quan- 
tity with  the  business  of  1356.  The  statement  will 
be  found  of  much  interest. 

It  will  be  found  that  in  tho  products  of  the  forest 
the  Report  of  1856,  compared  with  that  of  1855,  pre- 
sents an  increase  in  the  articles  of  furs  and  peltry, 
timber  and  ashes,  while  in  the  other  articles  there  is  a 
large  decrease,  both  in  value  and  quantity.  Corap:»r- 
ing  the  same  products  with  those  of  1854,  the  increase 
is  in  the  articles  of  furs,  shingles,  and  ashes,  both  as 
to  value  and  quantity. 

Under  the  head  of  agriculture  the  receipts  of  1856 
show  a  large  increase  in  some  important  articles,  such 
as  pork,  wheat,  rj-e,  com  meal,  barley,  oats,  peas  and 
beans,  imtatoes,  dried  fruit  and  hops.  In  other  arti- 
cles, under  the  same  head,  there  is  a  largo  deficiency ; 
such  as  beef,  bacon,  cheese,  butter,  woo),  lard,  etc. 
The  products  under  tho  same  head,  compared  with 
those  of  1854,  show  a  different  exhiljit  from  those  of 
1855.  There  is  a  large  deficiency  in  jiork,  beef,  ba- 
con, lard,  wool,  corn,  corn  meal,  and  clover  seed; 
while  in  the  articles  of  cheese,  butter,  hides,  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  bran,  and  ship-stuff,  peas  and  beans, 
potatoes,  dried  fruit,  and  flax  seed,  there  is  an  in- 
crease. 

The  first  constitution  of  New  York  was  adopted  by 
the  Provincial  Congress,  April  20th,  1777,  was  rati- 
fied by  the  State  Legislature  July  2Cth,  1788,  and  was 
somewhat  amended  in  1801.  On  the  third  Tuesday  of 
June,  1821,  a  convention  called  by  the  Legislature 
met  at  Albany,  and  having  made  a  revision  of  the  con- 
stitution, the  same  was  ratified  by  tho  people  in  De- 
cember following.  The  third  and  present  constitution 
was  adopted  in  convention  at  Albany,  October  9th, 
1846,  was  ratified  by  the  jjeople  on  the  ensuing  2d  No- 
vember, and  went  into  operation  Jani'ary  1,  1847. 
Among  tho  |)rovisions  of  the  existing  oonstitution  are 
these : — A  sinking  fund  to  pay  the  State  Canal  Debt 
shall  be  thus  formi  1 :  from  the  surplus  revenues  of 
the  State  canals  from  Juno  1,  1846,  to  June  1,  1865, 
v'1,300,000,  annually;  Slivo.  June  1,  1855,  thencefor- 
ward, $1,700,000,  anniuiUy,  including  $300,000  then 
to  be  borrowed  until  tho  delit  is  wholly  paid.  After 
thus  appropriating  tliero  shall  be  annually  set  apart 
$350,000  out  of  tho  surplus  canal  revenues  fiom  June 
1, 1846,iintil  the  canal  debt  is  paid ;  and  after  said  pay- 
ment, then  $1,000,000  annually,  which  aijpropriations 
shall  form  a  sin'..ing  fund  to  pay  the  general  fund  debt 
of  the  State,  After  thus  appropriating,  $200,000  or  less 
shall  be  annually  paid  from  the  surplus  canal  revenues 
to  the  Statu  treasury  for  general  State  expenses.  And 
the  remainder  of  tho  surplus  canal  re  .'enues  shall  be 
applied  to  the  comijletion  of  the  canals.  If  the  above 
sinking  fun.V  -  nsuflicient  to  satisfy  the  creditors  of 
the  State,  etii.  .'■•'  taxes  sliall  be  laid.  ♦  •  •  The 
credit  of  the  .r .  • ;  shall  not  be  loi'.iic.l  to  any  individual 
corporation.  To  meet  casual  defiiil,  the  State  may 
contract  debts  n^it  exccedin;.  "1,000,000.  Other  debts 
may  be  contracted  if  sub'  ■•'  ■■>.  by  the  Legislature  tfl 
the  people,  with  provisioii  ;■  v  payment  by  direct  tax- 
ation, and  ratified  by  the  people.  «  ♦  *  Corpo- 
rations are  to  be  formed  under  general  laws,  except 
those  for  municipal  purposes.  Municipal  corporations 
are  to  lie  restricted  by  the  Legislature  in  their  power 
of  taxation  and  contracting  debts.  Stockholders  in 
banks  are  individually  responsible  for  the  debts  of  their 
corporation  to  the  amount  of  their  shares  of  stock.  *  ♦ 
The  capit.ils  of  the  common  school  literature  and 
United  States  deposit  funds  are  inviolate. 


NEW 


U32 


NRW 


The  agfrre^ata  statoment  showa  an  increase  in  the 
down  tonnitK^  In  18.50  over  1865  of  200,844  tons,  anil .« 
decrdikse  in  value  of  (2,674,537. 


lu  wipent  to  tiM  u|iw«r(l  liioyiiitwn*,  Ihefa  la  an  In. 
i;t.  ;i^  »f  u.iin»ipt  In  INftA  „yp,  jnftfl  of  li6,ino  tons. 
undmv.lua  ;f  ♦»«,BHr,H4(, 


BcuTKmifT  anowiNO  tur  Total  QaiNTiTT  add  T,-/'MAivin   \'iivt  or  .t^i  i.;  \H' 
KiT»  ox  ALL  Till  Cahal'.  iiuiuin  tsr'.  Ykau  t'^  iW 


<U4. 


I  It   Wtllllll   0,tMN  to  Tlla   HUMOU 

<>'ii  ttM. 

~        IM, 


TUH  FOBIWT. 

Fur  inil  pe'.try lbs 

Produott  of  WOO'  i 

BoaiitA  ami  Acantling f~ 

Shiiigli's Ml 

Tlmbnr ui. ;!.' 

fitev.- iiw.j 

Wood cordai 

A.<hj«,  iKitanil  pearl bbls. 

AOBII-ULTtjItK. 

Prodnci  i  /  animah.        ' 

Pork bbls. 

Bsof " 

Bacon Ibn. 

Cbooso ** 

Butter. " 

Hide- " 

Won " 

!Lit<'.  t.illi>w,  and  lard  oil....  " 

]  ytgetablt  focil. 

il'liur bbN. 

.  W'ueat bush. 

i  Itjre " 

jtioru " 

Corn  meal bbla. 

Bailey bush. 

lOntfl " 

Brun  aiul  .shipatiilf lb». 

I  I'eiis  an  1  beans  bush. 

Potiiloui, " 

nrlid  fruit lbs, 

Another  agrlcuW  al  proiluctt. 

ICJullnn lbs. 

iTTnumnafacturcd  tobacco. ..  " 

(Homp " 

jClovor  and  Kto&s  seed '* 

K1«K  seed " 

Ilo'.iS '■' 

Domestic  spirits gallii. 

Oil  lucal  and  cake Iba 

iLiathar. " 

|Fitrnltu.-j '• 

Bar  ainl  pig  liad " 

iPlglri..., " 

Bloom  and  bar  Iron " 

Castinis  and  Iron  rare " 

Domestic  woolens ** 

"         cottons " 

salt " 

Forolitn  lalt " 

Merchandise ^ 

Otiikk  Articlim. 

Livi^  eattle,  hotc^and  sheep. lbs. 

,fitone,  lime  and  clay " 

Oypsum " 

Mineral  coal " 

Copper  ore ** 

'Sundrtea " 


Quutl'jr. 


ffi.-JtO 


BJ2,478,mi.'5 

4,4A6,()3I) 
182,081,401 

iW.i'.lO 


14i,-4fl 
W.I  OT 
13,82;.,.'J6 
f.,6T6,VVJ 
•iSM.lOil 
«01,OT« 
«,11W,&S7 
18,808,210 


1,24»,4.W 

8,62:1,704 

2-AH62 

I2,876.41U 

I7\417 

1,941»,J70 

B,n.W,121 

17,014,W8 

17(1,748 

C2fl,4S0 

603,481 


788.'^^i2 
6,G»4,(W8 
2,287.924 
948,nl)> 
181,851 
914,018 


2,088.721 

18,U22,7» 

«,217,a7!l 

770,941 

8jO,778 

ll,91.\5«k 

]S,6V6,715 

1,786,878 

8<B,572 

1,810,57.'. 

8,Sft.\087 

1,248,490 

81,488,000 


187,520 

187,511,277 

16.199,989 

111,171,940 

8,576,190 

S01,984,814 


$8^f^9.• 


'816,42{, 
194,674 

927,958 

882,8211 

8S,245 

»-%,a4» 


Jl,T':"l,9i« 

624,681 

;, 6*3,298 

818,405 

•«8,fll(! 

81,2:14 

1,091,885 

1,718,788 


11.414,807 

7,047,570 

278,770 

10,848,806 

774,298 

V, 188,108 

'.>,nT6,.18T 

191,223 

.■50,8a1 

4'iT,li2 

.VVI59 


71,«19 
l,191,4i'« 
1.5<i,T.'>8 
*t,28fi 
4.5S7 
82:',«99 


778,865 

88."i,879 

1,292,868 

77,094 

58,581 

182,709 

461.103 

60,024 

271,186 

873,  LVi 

64,186 

80.9.86 

6,816,828 


ri.Oit 
902,008 
80,400 
461,610 
798,190 
4,088,686 


ClAl-'liy, 


Vsl«». 


4.1,713 


'191,776,759 

7l,«il.- 

a,l89rl4rt 

199,787,885 
10,199 
12,i-,'i, 


b:    ,. 
9,M;i,iii ' 

9,607,12:! 
4,841,085 
461,288 
4,824,945 
0.45«,458 


1,290,140 

6,426,288 

777,884 

9,848,776 

2,846 

1,674,489 

4,607,988 

44,088,682 

90,728 

689,M8 

888,410 


•6,874 
2,844,»»8 
448,828 
592,484 
428,888 
880,478 


1,829,888 
11,1441,487 

7,4,58,019 
72,440 

2,780,810 
81,888,2118 
15,060,440 

1,512,258 
8211,848 

1,106,198 

6,085,1104 

88,112,000 


128,600 

16«,877,28N 

6,871,840 

86,065,040 

282,618 

149,480,908 


Huulttf, 


»*rt,»jT 


7,88t,T8» 

to*  lift 

'MM'" 

■n,m 


llfri,7o8 
Ml  fll 

08,58(1 

1,4011,888 

ttT'^,8«a 


12,88li,i|iiH 

1 1,802,077 

971,1174 

9,128,871 

11,'il'^l 

»,8I8,4I() 

2,878,uill 

448,1187 

2'^^T»8 

4»0,M'« 

8l,V8:l 


10,8(6 

812,780 

>.2,«IIT 

H->,2<T 

fio.iot 


8M,|.)8 

84'.I,N» 

1.1/08,570 

121,12 1 

ltfl,8W 

558,i|>M 

42«,i;fiO 

4«,95i* 

17,706 

II6,4M 

87,900 

1(0 1 

t,m,m 


18,Hn8 

27,810 
107,4118 
57,8«lt 

B,7ii;iJHI<l 


VllM, 


»n,iKio 


li:<l|  6WI,4'H) 

87,180 

tl,'»l»(.7(»0 

flo,lW7 


RI,OI'< 

41.080 

rt,K8«.(KI0 

8,182,000 

n.182,000 

AU.IMNI 

«,788,(KIO 


l,iiin,8<iit 

ll,t«8,((H3 

11,^,714 

M,«fil 

tf.ll^.ilKI 

8,IHt8,«l8 

4llMtfljm 

1,148,288 

iTOiJlW 


It  (,000 

1,188.000 

74,000 

8^»,wm 


«,7W,1fifl 

4,871,000 

710,000 

8{|8,iKiii 

M,498,iNHi 

l2,2i(i,o<Hi 

il,  1 84,000 

MS.omi 

l,fl<iV,ono 

H.Vif  «"l 

810,1100 

tl7,l48,lK« 


HlO.Oflfl 

118.7*1,000 

1,1188,000 

81,188,000 

l»,t|8,000 

48,888,000    I 


4117,910 


8,180,847 
9 18.781 

8S0,n59 

741.596 

49,070 

2,177,870 


♦  1,700,427 
822,101 
888,411- 
B.'.8,f>rrt 
728,41.7 
112,194 

n-/.im 

807,205 


8.511,804 

«o/.l',169 

1,09'.,716 

8,2111,1109 

H2,4S8 

2,499.428 

8,4'<5,518 

881,948 

054.895 

487,.126 

78,799 


30,074 
288,119 

fi,5.<8 
78,778 
88,494 
67,807 


817,080 

170,425 

1,988,200 

71.817 

87,918 

792,412 

(188,892 

8fi,24'' 

!'i4,8,i, 

i((5,6fl8 

l-<,828 

l,or.« 
6,897,788 


1(112.628 
107,649 
2,IM4 
1115,897 
410,809 
8,497,701 


Stathiiknt  snowiNo  tu«  Aogbsoatb  i!»  Tons  a:>:d  tub  Aoobeoatk  Vai.i/b  or  tnt  l'«oi'«8f*  wotmi  im"  to 
UuusoN  Kivi:a  ON  ALL  tui  Canals,  dufiku  -uk  ':'£ARS  1854, 1855,  A8i>  tN56|  VMBHH  tH8  DlVlsiuk,:)  as  Hen  r. 
in  tub  ABo-a  Tablb. 


Vain: 

Wl 

ToDi. 

1,132,931 
'28  540 

w 

MerchandiAO 

Othor  Brtlrlen 

Total 

i.t'i  ^~ ' 

ISM, 

ISII 

Ton. 

Vslw, 

Tom, 

1,0811,417 

80,4M 

U,07>1 

178,754 

9,IW,449 

V           ,*3 

.i6,40B 

>.Ogl,O0B 

;>,8ie,n28 

8,285,820 
yt.  1,7287265 

884,6,58 
787,688 

48,878 

16,^ifl 
188,811 

1,983,688    " 

»I«,»(KW 

48,087,1/89 
4,884,819 
6,189,989 
T,WIO,04I 

♦7«,IWi,U7.' 

VaIuv. 


./IO,44«,S8i> 
49,8n8l2 
4.4s  ((27 1 
(•.897,788 
'l.';36.628 

|74,888,T3r 


gTATHBNTSIIOWIilOTIIBAaaBBOATR'^      i 

or  tub  PnorFBTT  wiiioii  w«kt     i 

IHG  Tlia   YEABS   1.'i65  AND  1866. 

Km. 

Tona 6a5,59T 

Value 1118,441,868 


-  \ND  VaLDB 
.'a.SAU"  dub- 


8TATBIIB»TBIIflWII(D'rH8,V*««8ll4tl(<JI'*11-lTtAIin  VaI.UB 

or  tub  I'wi'bbt*  f,pi»t  nv  AIM  *((it  uf  tiik  Oanam 
iiuBiNQ  TUN  Vbadi  Ii85  aim  IiM, 

Tons 8,890,748  «,77MI11  88.(«)9 

Value .,,,{190,406,184        «!HN»,4li,441        118,!!.    ..;' 


NEW 


1483 


NEW 


ffoninen  floMMiioK  or  rm  bTAT»  ot  N»w  Yoek,  fboii  Ootodib  1, 1820,  to  Jolt  1, 19MI 


•-•  TO 

1  (.pri  i'. 


Mst/.'/Tl 

..ain.iiw 

Jmn  VAi.ui 


Vwi  tMittfi 

Eiporto. 

1 

ItnporU,                 Tooiugs  c 

cared. 

Diitriet  Tootuce, 

Oomtillg. 

Vonlgn, 

ToUl. 

ToUI.            Ani«riraa.    1 

Foralgii, 

D..^.,.»j   i  KnroHed  oM 
Rllliund.  1     ucnied.- 

"liji-itf,  wl 

timm 

$B,2M,8IH 

♦18,160,918 

♦28.029,246 

1M,174 

10,720 

118,760 

180,416    1 

m 

io,Mr,i«T 

8,118,818 

17,100,489 

.'»,445,62« 

186.666 

17,784 

w 

11,8«9,»»S 

7,875,995 

19,088,990 

29,421.849 

198,521 

28,658 

«» 

i8,<»8,eM 

9,868,480 

M,s97,l,t4 

86,113,728 

222,271 

18,142 

:m 

'« 

t«,mfM 

14,607,708 

85,259,261 

49,089,174 

265,878 

19,851 

1I,4M,7I9 

10,451,072 

21,947,791 

8S,  11 5,680 

214,081 

21,865 

m 

Mft 

18.M0,«9T 

9,9:1,810 

98,884,187 

88.719.044 

289,968 

83,876 

19,868.01R 

10,41  ^684 

92,777,849 

41.927.792 

217,118 

42,378 

■w» 

imi 

TbUI,... 

ta,086,Ml 

8,082,450 

90,119,011 

84,748,807 

219,674 

82,856 

6,079,706 

19,607,983 

86,624,070 

229,811 

86.674 

♦87,979,177 

♦215,888,856 

♦808,879,603 

2,106,270 

W6,692 

HK(rt,WI,  IM)  

»in,78«,118 

♦9,809.020 

♦26,535,144 

♦57,077,417 

264.881 

72,414 

180,939 

ie9,90« 

(Wil 

lf.,llf.7,«flO 

10,948,695 

26,000,945 

6,8,214,402 

242,749 

101,967 

IWB 

1A,411,2»e 

9,088,821 

25,89,M17 

N5,918,449 

881,175 

168,606 

IWM 

18,M»,4«9 

Il,6n2..%t5 

2,5,512,014 

78,188,694 

861,606 

288,650 

(KM 

«t,7n7,Sf,7 

8,687.807 

80,846.264 

88,191,806 

589,S.56 

848,078 

IS!?:::::::' 

19,N  16,520 

9,1(M,118 

28.920,688 

118,268,416 

477,524 

.%'»,69l 

lfl,OS8,l)60 

ll,2.'H.4,'i0 

2T,8Ji8,419 

79,801,722 

48!i,008 

404,734 

i«» 

16,482,488 

6..'i7n.os8 

28,008,471 

68,458,200 

515.789 

828,768 

1MW 

«fl,«»fl,9»» 

9,971,104 

88,988,099 

99,882.488 

569,780 

880,666 

IM<l 

ToUl,.., 

22,67»,6()9 
tlSO,(l5it,62a 

ll.f.87.471 
♦99,629,0861 

84,264,080 

60,440,750 
♦753,921,099 

618,202 
4,846,076 

818,114 
2,672,023 

.... 

—  .r'r 

♦279,688,191 

Nnl>t,IW,1MI 

121.279,608 

♦8,860,225 

♦a8.1.'!0,S,<l8 

♦7,5,718,426 

600.807 

86.5,241 

287,957 

248,696 

IMi( 

2{i,789,2'(8 

6,887,402 

97,576,778 

67,87.5.604 

N56,9S9 

810,520 

Vmm,      IMA 

18,448,'^84 

8.819.480 

16,762.681 

81,850,640 

881.281 

174,874 

ifUMft  m,  tHU,., 

88,009.177 

6,852.868 

82,861,540 

6,5,079,616 

978.813 

414.026 

IIW 

2f>,W9,9fl4 

10.246,894 

80,17.5,298 

70,909,085 

926.280 

414,688 

IMfl 

29,n8»,S68 

7,819,547 

86.985,418 

74,261,288 

1,120,914 

425,942 

IMT 

H'*I0.4HO 

6,027,888 

49,844,868 

84,167.852 

1,010,840 

48a765 

I»W 

8H,77I,209 

14,679,948 

58.861,167 

94,62.5,141 

1,001,316 

706,378 

(MB 

8fl,7«H,21B 

9,224,886 

46,968,100 

92,667,869 

l,a58,648 

781,614 

•  •  • . 

IV^» 

Tot.1..., 

4l,602,SuO 
t8ul,41A,779 

11,209,989 

62,712,789 

111,128,624 

1,411, .5,57 

787,589 

♦88,507,156 

♦885,322,936 

♦767,571,840 

9,379,470 

4,851,571 

.)«B»IW,1'>W 

»»<1,1M,M2 

♦17,902,477 

♦86.007,019 

♦141,M6..58a 

1,688,818 

878,819 

618,575 

622,489 

HM 

74,042,ftSl 

18,441,875 

87,484,4.56 

182,829,806 

l,.57n,927 

906,703 

!•*» 

flfl,08fl,HS8 

12,176,985 

78,206,290 

178,270,999 

1,9,'j9.002 

1,084,742 

(»M 

1(in,M)1,74n 

16,992,908 

122,684,646 

195,427,988 

1.018,817 

1,036,164 

•  .*. 

Jlttt 

96,414,808 

17,816,480 

118,781,2.88 

164,776,611 

1,861,682 

1,140,197 

tnlHi 

109,848,609 

9,262,991 

119,111,600 

210,162,454 

2,136,877 

1,836,677 

....   1    .... 

WV'-' 


lli)«l.4NM  hirrlyn  Commerce  of  the  United  Statea. 

Viir  Nbw  York  (JHnslii,  see  fTortk  Am.  Rev.,  xiv., 
SIWI,  H%\n,,  tm,  xl,,  120,  xlv.,  543.  For  Trade,  Com- 
limfcw,  l>t<ifiii,  (it<'.,  of  New  York,  see  Hunt's  Afer. 
Mill/,,  »¥W,,  Ma.  xxlll.,  610,  xxiv.,  XXV.  (by  A.  C. 
Cl.Aitd))  tlimkrriiAf(ignzine,v\i.,v'm,,ix  ,x.,x\.  Min- 
•imI  lUtmmrrM*,  sm  M  K.  Jim.,  w.,  71,  v.,  477,  viii., 
KMI|  Am,  ,ln,  Hmenre,  xxxix.,  D5,  xl.,  7.S,  xlii.,  227, 
kIvI,,  Ml),  lltvlll,,  2»fl,  I.  (N.  8.),  48,  iil.,  57,  164. 

Ad  'Mtr  limits  iirerent  our  giving  full  statistics  of 
niitlty  lttl|Hirt«nt  etements  of  commerce,  we  refer  to 
tliHUft  sHl^Jfli'tit  tinilor  their  proper  heads.  For  par- 
tli'Hkf  Ittfiirmfltlon,  sen  articles  Emioratiox,  Tojt- 
«i*(iB,  New  VdiiK  Vn\,  BiiNKiNo,  Commerce, 
'yAM¥¥,  NltlfPino,  KAit.HOADs,  Casai.s,  and  Uni- 

Wew  York,  metfopolis  of  the  State  of  that  name, 
mill  (111  <'f>nifni>r('liil  metropolis  of  the  United  States,  on 
tlm  Mi'ltllArn  extromity  of  Manhattan  Island,  at  the 
iwlnt  iif  AXtfllMtKre  of  the  Hudson  River,  which  sepa- 
ri)t««  MMihAttAn  from  New  .lersey,  with  East  River, 
wlil.ili  Mttiitriitos  It  from  Ixing  Island,  In  lat.  40°  42'  N., 
Kltd  liilt>?,  li"  h'  y/.  New  York  Bay,  or  inner  harbor, 
l«  ims  iif  iliK  ttiost  i!»p«oinus  and  finest  in  the  world  ; 
It  U  r'iimhiot«ly  land'locked,  and  affords  the  licat  an- 
•liftfltw,     'J'h*  Mltfance  to  the  bay  through  tho  Nar- 

,*i»  U  nxlrmitxl V  Iwn^'  "fiil.  On  each  side,  tho  shore, 
tlMiliKlt  wn<Nl4t<1  (  wn  to  (ho  water's  edge,  is  thickly 
(I'lMlteJ  with  fmr  «,  vltlpgeii,  and  countr.v  Beats.  At 
tim  il|t|,Nf  >ini1  are  smn  the  spires  of  tlio  city;  and  in 
tiM  (ll)iti<-ic«  thit  iKild  preplpltcjs  banks  of  tho  Hudson. 
I'riim  N»  m  Yurk  to  the  bar  between  Sandy  Hook  Point 
m\  Hi'hfyflf's  Istiind  (the  divldon  lietweantho  outer 
Iwy  or  liitrlKif  und  tho  /tlnnlic)  is  about  17  miles. 
►■'irtlftditlKmit  have  Iwen  erected  at  the  Narrow.'*,  Gov- 
•mor'ii  Mnnit,  nnd  other  places,  for  the  defense  of  the 
i^ity  unit  slilptHnf(, 

M^iitlmtldii  w«s  ilrst  discovered  and  expln^d  by 
ihmiMn    Hudson   l«i  1C09.     Hudson  <i3cended  tb-i 


river  which  now  bears  his  name  as  far  as  the  present 
site  of  Albany.  _  The  ship  in  which  he  made  the  voy- 
age from  Holland  was  of  about  80  tons  burden,  and 
called  the  Half  Moon.  In  IfilO  a  ship  was  sent  by  the 
Amsterdam  merchants  to  trade  with  Indians  for  furs, 
etc.  In  161B  a  small  fort  was  erected,  and  four  houses 
were  built,  under  the  superintendence  of  Hendrick 
Corstiaensen,  wlio  explored  the  bay  and  tlie  several 
inlets,  creeks,  etc.  But  no  permanent  settlement 
seems  to  have  been  made  until  about  1625,  on  the 
south  point  of  the  island.  After  the  formation  of  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  they  took  immediate 
measures  for  establishing  a  permanent  colony.  Under 
their  fostering  care,  bonweries,  or  farms,  were  soon 
taken  up,  a  substantial  fort  erected,  and  the  dwellings 
of  the  colonists  clustered  around  it.  In  1652  it  was 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  New  Amsterdam,  and 
was  governed  by  2  burgomasters,  6  schcpens,  and  a 
schout  or  sheriff,  and  continued  in  their  possession 
until  1664,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  English,  and  tho 
name  changed  to  New  York.  In  1673  it  was  retaken 
by  the  Dutch,  and  called  New  Orange,  but  they  held 
possession  only  one  year,  when  it  was  again  occupied 
by  the  English,  and  continued  in  tlieir  possession  until 
the  period  of  the  Revolution.  The  assessors'  valuation 
of  property  in  the  city,  in  li84,  was  about  i|Ji20,000. 
In  '  690  a  congress  of  the  commissioners  of  the  several 
colonies  v.  a  i  held  at  New  York.  In  1694  there  were 
60  ships,  25  sloops,  and  40  boats,  belonging  to  the  city. 
In  1696  Trinity  Church  was  built.  Tliis  building  was 
burned  in  1776.  In  1725  tho  first  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished in  this  State, 

In  169y  it  contained  6000  inhabitants.  In  1774,  pre- 
viously to  the  commencement  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, tho  population  amounted  to  22,750.  During 
the  war  tlie  population  continued  stationary ;  but  since 
1783  its  increase  had  been  quite  extraordinary.  In 
1790  the  popnlation  amounted  'to  33,131 ;  in  1800.  to 
60,48S) ,  in  1820,  to  123,700 ;  in  1830,  to  above  218,000 ; 


■^^sm 


,s;-.i2k" 


NBW 


1484 


NEW 


in  1840,  to  312,710 1  ami  in  tutit),  U)  lt\!),m,  •m», 
however,  in  exclusive  at  llui  \>i>\m\Mim  iil  \if>mM*n, 
wliicb,  ill  IM&O,  aniouiiteil  Ui  U<i,H:|«,  ntvS  U  Na  MtMi  n 
part  of  New  Yoric  iw  lllrluiiluiitd  l>  iif  l/tvKru«fl. 
Uriginally  tlie  lioufea  wiiru  iiMMlly  nt  Himil,  nm  i\m 
Htrcets  narrow  and  conlliif<l.  \n  IIiuhi  mf\\i'»Uf», 
liDwevcr,  a  va:,t  inipruveineiit  liiw  Uki'lt  \nm¥  iImHiik 
ttio  loHt  liulf  century  ;  Mwot  \t»n  lit  llw  iiM  lli(li««>« 
tiaving  l)een  pullfd  down  and  ri'iiiiilt  HUlt  \if\ii\t,  '\\m 
now  streets,  wliidi  are  liroail,  and  Inlorsctt  «*'((  iiiUot 
at  riglit  anicles,  am  well  |i;ivi'd  awS  liijIilMt,  \Uiim\- 
way,  tlie  principal  street,  ia  oiut  nt  \\lu  l/(f«(irt  »ui\ 
Hnest  in  the  world.  Many  of  lim  \m\i\\)\  ltMili||ti|(»  ntf 
commodiouH  and  elu|{aut.  'I'liu  jiooU,  tliat  HcrH  liitin- 
erl.v  abundant  in  tlie  city  and  \U  vif  )n)l) ,  l«4V«  l(c<<tl 
completely  tilled  up ;  a  iiKtaiiure  lliat  It4a  litiW  lllMid  in 
improve  the  health  of  the  |»ipululi/in.  \n  ti'>\K'i\  nt 
cloanlinenH,  however.  New  Voili,  lli</<«i;lt  Iflll'lt  Im- 
proved, is  still  rather  delicii'iit.  Viifiii)tf\y  tUntu  ^m 
hardly  such  a  'Jiiiig  an  a  sink  or  iinnmm  fetter  JM  tliA 
whole  city ;  the  iiijjht  soil  and  liltif  nipf^  (xllc*  t«l  ftl 
the  pits,  of  which  there  was  ona  in  ulftify  \mtii«,  «((d 
liciiig  conveyed  to  the  nearest  ijuu)  s,  wcff  iUfm^U  \lHii 
the  water;  and  as  these  were  inailu  t4  iitlll»i',  Mlill 
many  projections,  a  great  deal  of  rtllll  ¥IM  rHiitltlcd 
aliout  them,  prml'iiiiig,  in  hot  weatjifr,  MM  »\i>imUl»\i\i' 
stench.  lluS  in  tiicsc  respects  a  grsill  WIMWMlllCKt  hiis 
been  cITected ;  aii.i  tile  iletichiii y  of  mMft,  MIMlcf 
which  the  city  formerly  laliored,  has  \mui\  inm\i\Hp\y 
obviated  liy  the  construction  of  l\m  t'.fiiUiH  Sn^iUii, 
uliout  10^  miles  in  length,  a  wurk  l/iiinUy  lit  Mnft 
ranked  with  the  noldest  of  tlia  ojij  Hnmnn  «<|fl(>- 
ducta. 

Now  York  l»  indelited,  for  her  w»lMl*<ffHl  i(M  f»i«W«', 
to  her  ndmiruldc  situation,  wliii  h  has  t»\li\tin>i\  Sift  tlip 
greatest  cniporiuni  of  t  e  New  Wofhl.  '( hn  (iw  lit  (he 
tide  is  about  fi  feet,  and  even  at  «bl(  (h»»»i  Mf  1 1  feel 
water  on  the  bar;  and  the  water  in  OwKiHtursild  itltrcf 
bays,  uud  in  the  river,  is  so  <|jtiep  that  ehi|«*  of  thn 
larijest  Imrdeu  lie  close  to  the  <jua>>,  #»»')  tnw  ((«('.«■«( 
to  a  great  distance  up  the  river,  '(\m'm<i\0iUiU  of  Klo 
bay  is  rarel)  impeded  l<y  ice,     '( h«  UfCrtit  s(ifp((f<(l(  of 


the  tide,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  invmi,  kfvu  11  Uplift- 

miuithi'  mni  I  hi 
Hajs  are  frozen  over.     TIuj  iiimttiiit  iit  tint  UiUi  k 


ally  opiu,  even  when  the  <  hesawMka  am  ((pw*arc 


felt  in  the  Hudson  »s  far  at  'Jfo>,  tW  milcft  /*l/fc 
New  York,  afTordiug  peculiar  fai  i)iti*s  till  U'  t(«*i,,  - 
tion.  Those  natural  advantages  hava  \imH  t'doll)'  ex- 
tended by  a  system  of  canals,  whjcli  \m*  fOHltociM)  (lie 
Hudson  not  merely  with  J^ka  Ontafiw  mu\  l/dfc"  VitXf 
liiit  with  the  Ohio  iliver,  and  •m»m^mni\jl  #10)  tlM 
Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  iiu^iiv !  tin  |/r<««1l($l</Hs  n 
command  of  internal  navigation  is  ni/t  iii^iffii  \iy  any 
other  city,  with  the  exception  of  ^'t•■*  llflnniiii  iilit 
the  readier  access  to  tlie  |)ort  of  fiuw  iiifk,  (ll(<  fitml 
salubrity  of  the  climate,  and  lur  nitmiUm,  Will  ac«Mr« 
her  hereafter  the  prejwaderance 

New  York  JIarbur. —In  April,  I"'*//,  I'fufii^tt  (IfMlift 
of  the  United  States'  Cnn  l  tiurvoy,  (tifiMii'ii  llw  l/)f« 
Saving  Association  wiili  his  HnHllit/  llifnlliinl  fnf 
Handij  Hook  anil  ili  Apprumltti  finm  Htii,  tit  •»l(l(  )i 
6()U0  copies  have  been  prlnt4i4  I'  i»>;oplil«l  foftn,  A 
|xirtion  of  these  has  liecn  pl»:a»d  In  tl.o  llwttfU  of  IIh' 
dealers  in  nautical  iiistruniciits  in  (Imi  fniiimillH  porN 
for  gratuitous  distriliuiioii  ti;  /  airf4)n>  of  «>» af^in, 
namely.  New  York,  I'ortland,  Mu.,  ('nfl'iiiiiiilU,  tii  II., 
Boston,  Mass.,  Philadelphia,  UaltiHi/ffw,  fiit^intmti,  Mi)' 
bile,  New  Orleans,  Norfolk,  ('AuitUisUtIi,  IMit  ''•t'l''/ 
of  these  pamphlets,  for  tho  Ilka  ^|Uf^llm•,  Ifa  Imtui 
forwarded  to  the  United  Htatss'  ijidhhU  itt  <.i 
IJubliu,  llelfast,  Hri.'tid,  fardilf,  UtH,  Mi/wletl- 
Portsmouth,  8ciithainpl.in,  liUeiiiiw,  UhiiiUp,  Ih  I- 
pool,  London,  Havre,  Maruillms,  Alttwiitp,  iUtm  i 
Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  itotterdani,.  miA  HaVAtm. 

Iinn;ie  l.ii)hUfrum  t'lut  l.iut '/  Htdiii^n  lUiilliwi,  Af 
tvtm  Hmulij  lloiik  niul  l''li/im't  /{iiul/.^fwii  ()  «C((  Uahlfi 

located  near  Vimt  Comtuit,  tfaw  JttMjf,    'tite  Ituut 


I  IImM  will  he  exhibited  fniin  a  lantern  on  the  keeper's 
dwelling,  which  Is  located  near  Hn  lieach,  ami  painted 
while,  with  the  top  of  the  lantern  liliick.  The  rear 
UnM  Is  located  three  quarters  of  a  mile  distant  from 
the  frimt  one,  and  will  be  exhil)iteil  from  a  tower 
Irnlnled  white,  with  tlie  head  of  it  and  lantern  lilack. 
Die  keeper's  dwelling  is  north  of  it  ami  painted  white. 
'Che  front  light  is  lo,  and  the  rear  one  7li  feet  abiivo 
till'  mean  level  of  the  sea,  and  should  be  seen,  under 
'"  liriary  stale  of  the  atmosphere,  outside  the  liar. 
iMirIng  the  day  the  front  building  can  be  readily 
feidgni/.ed  from  other  buildings  in  tlio  vicinity  by  tlio 
Iftntern  on  Its  centre,  and  tlie  rear  one  by  the  liiiitern 
of  llie  tower  lieing  projected  on  the  sky  nlwvo  the 
trees. 

AMn  Mhiji  Cbnnncl  Rmige  Liffhit. — Two  fixed  lights 
localed  <m  the  New  .lorsey  shore  west  of  Highlands 
of  Naveslnk  Tlie  front  light  will  be  exhiliited  from 
a  lower  near  the  lieach,  painted  witli  2  white  and  I 
red  hori/.ontal  banils,  and  the  roof  of  tlic  lantern  also 
of  the  latter  color.  The  keeper's  dwelling  is  we»t  of 
llin  tower,  and  painted  white.  The  rear  liglit  is  located 
on  the  north  side  of  Chappel  Hill,  1}  miles  distant 
from  the  fr<rut  light,  and  will  bo  exhibited  from  a 
lantern  on  the  keeper's  dwelling.  The  dwelling  is 
painted  white,  and  the  top  of  the  lantern  red.  'Ihe 
ftimt  light  is  (ill,  and  the  rear  one  224  feet  above  the 
mean  level  of  the  sea,  and  botli  should  lie  seen,  under 
ordinary  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  length  of  tlie 
range  line.  During  tlio  day  they  can  be  leadily 
fecogni/.ed  by  tlie  shape  and  colors  of  the  towers  of 
llie  front  liglit,  and  by  the  lantern  of  tiio  keeper's 
dwelling,  and  isolated  portions  of  tlio  rear  one.  It  is 
nlxmt  1  mile  east  of  I'igeon  Hill. 

Hirimh  f'/iiiiiiif.l  Itaiiife.  Lifihti. — Two  llxed  lights  lo- 
cated on  Stateii  Island,  Now  York.  Tlie  front  liglit 
Will  be  exhiliited  from  a  tower  near  the  site  of  the 
"<(|d  KIni  Tree"  lleacim,  painted  witli  2  white  and  1 
fed  hori/.ontal  liands,  and  the  roof  of  the  lantern  also  of 
(lie  hitter  color.  Tin  keeper's  dwelling  is  south  of  tlie 
tower,  and  painted  white.  The  rear  liglit  is  located  on 
n  hill,  near  New  Dorp,  alsiut  Ijt  miles  from  the  front 
light,  and  will  bo  exiiibitcd  from  u  lanteni  im  tlie 
keefier's  dwelling.  Tlie  dwelling  is  painted  white,  and 
Ihe  top  of  tlie  lantern  red.  The  front  light  is  o!)  feet, 
and  tlie  rear  light  IHU  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  tlie 
sea  ;  and  laith  should  bo  seen,  under  ordinary  st,ito  of 
Ihe  atmosphere,  well  outside  of  tho  bar  at  Sandy 
H(«)k.  During  the  day  they  can  lie  readily  recognized 
by  the  shape  of  tiie  tower,  and  colors  of  tho  front 
light,  and  by  the  lantern  on  tho  dwelling,  and  isolated 
position  of  tlie  rear  one. 

Miiiliiiji  I lireitioni, — Masters  of  vessels  intending  to 
enter  by  (iedney's  Channel  around  tlie  south-west  Spit 
Ihioy,  should  run  on  a  north-west  half  west  course 
from  the  light-vessel  for  the  black  and  white  perpen- 
dlciilar-stri|ied  Nun  Uuoy  nt  the  outside  of  (iedney'a 
(Jhannel,  and  from  it  we'.t  by  north  tin  uigh  tlio  clian- 
nel.  keeping  between  the  buoys,  until  tho  range  lights 
f(sar  Point  Uoinfort,  New  Jersey,  are  in  one,  when 
haul  up  for  them,  and  oontinuo  upon  the  range  until 
the  two  main  channel  lights  are  brought  in  range,  which 
will  also  l)«  shown  by  tlie  main  liglit  nt  Sa  ly  1!  -^k, 
being  «  little  op<m  to  the  southward  of  the  '.Vest 
Iteacon,  From  this  point  tho  Main  Ship  Cliannel  range 
will  take  them  up  clear  of  tlio  "West  Hank"  and 
Craven's  .Slioal.  Masters  of  vessels  intending  to  pas" 
through  tho  Swash  Cliannel,  can  bring  tlie  light 
range  outside  the  bar,  and  run  for  them,  until  the  ..•  i 

■  II  Huoy,  No,  8  (which  marks  the  upper  miildioj,  la 
,    '1,  or  until  tho  7      ■    -    'p  Channel  range  is  on, 

■  !;■■-,  tiaul  up  on  thai   ,au  ,«.    iitil  clear  of  tho  "  West 
•■>.':."     Vessels  drawing  n  ore  than  17  feet  should 

!>'.,  lie  taken  through  tliib  channel  on  the  range  line 
it  low  water.  A  foot  more  water  may  be  carried 
through  this  channel,  after  crossing  the  liar,  '■•  '..  ')- 
\tt^  A  little  to  starboard,  and  opening  (Ue  fivnt  liH't 


NEW 


1435 


NBW 


clMr  of  thft  rear  one.  The  Swiuih  Channnl  range 
line  inilivutes,  liy  tliu  must  recent  Hurvey,  IH'  feet  ut 
low  water. 

There  are  67  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York,  with 
an  iiK^roKuto  capital  of  |GO,()i)n,OOU,  8  marine  insur- 
unco  companies,  unil  t!()  lire  Insurance  companion,  with 
an  UKKreftate  cnpiUil  of  t'iO,OOU,l)OI) ;  beaides  8  lifo  In- 
Hurnnce  companies.  There  are  lU  Bavlngfi'  banks,  and 
15  markets. 
CoMFAiiATivK  VALm  uv  Hkal  anii  Personai.  Kstatr  or 

Tim  C'lTV   ANO  COUNTV   OF    NbW   YoKK,   AS1>    .\U0UHTg 

hamkd  «t  Tax,  rauu  tuk  Vkar  ISM  to  IMMI. 


Yaiir. 

Rail  nlUa. 

■■enoiul  •lUM. 

Tmai. 

ISM 

♦  Ill.lll)l,ft91 

|04,7H»,M2 

»I,9S8,81S 

1S4S 

nT,3()7,l»!H) 

62,787,627 

2,090,191 

18.10 

18S,4'«),M4 

01,471,470 

2,620,146 

1847 

lS7,315,IWn 

69,887,918 

9,681,770 

1S.J8 

1»»,02I),U76 

01,164,447 

2,718,610 

]84» 

197,741,919 

5S,465,21M 

8,0OB,7fl'2 

I8,V) 

207,142,870 

78,919,240 

8,2811,088 

1851 

227,0IS,S8« 

99,(196,0111 

2,924,45,5 

ISM 

2fil«,27S,a84 

98,«0,042 

«,8Sfl,611 

1858 

294,087,290 

118,094,187 

6,000,(198 

18M 

«8ll,m)(l,,')9fl 

1«1,721,:I88 

4,816,880 

18M 

8.'ifl,97a,Srtfl 

180,022,812 

5,348,822 

ISM 

840,972,093 

170,774,898 

7,075,425 

Afnnufucturea. — The  mimnfacturea  of  Now  York  ab- 
sorb A  large  amount  of  capital.  The  amount  cinployci'. 
in  1H.')0  was  ij;U,2:t2,H-J2,  and  the  value  of  articles 
manufactured  was  $10,'),il8,:)08.  The  number  of  es- 
tablishments was  U387,  employing  53,703  males,  and 
«>,917  females. 

lUtrR.NS  Of  THK  PrODUOTIVK  KmTADLISHME.VTS  at  TUB  r-  IV 

or  Nkw  Yohk.— Ck.nsus  ok  18.10. 


Wnnlf. 

tnonnflictur- 
]n|{  eiUbs. 

Capllal 

lUVtiitVkl. 

No.  ot 

li«ii,li 

*lnl>lov.'d. 

"^I.  7 

AnDiMl 

|>r(Kluott. 

First 

107 

li,(iri,Biio 

t8,9u  6,887 

Socund  

351 

12,<'72,996 

88,704 

81,310,012 

Third 

9 

.;  -.IH) 

600 

1,801,700 

Fourth 

189 

■    .  ■  v'<0(l 

2,895 

4,336,311 

Fifth 

48 

1,227,802 

2,146 

4,478,214 

Sixth 

160 

1,12.6,880 

4,040 

8,822.191 

Seventh 

422 

;.,49a,275 

8,917 

O.itll.i'.s 

KlRlith 

2:18 

801,890 

2,785 

4,080,434 

Ninth 

1S9 

708.800 

2,414 

2,88),,180 

Tonth 

00 

!!iiI,roO 

1,0.85 

1,678,422 

Eleventh 

149 

2,(>51,S,'>0 

4,484 

20,050,109 

Twelfth  

19 

841,880 

420 

620,6(K) 

Thirteenth.. . 

172 

299,110 

1,281 

2,078,028 

Fourlecnth.. 

72 

1108,700 

],.600 

1,.M8,927 

FIflit  nth .... 

9.1 

1,04.6,660 

1,176 

1,876,818 

8l.\toenth.... 

129 

8,2S0,.'i80 

2,768 

4,308,175 

Seventeenth.. 

145 

892,400 

1,.S  6 

2,679,812 

Klghtcentb  . . 

109 

1,227,780 

2,i;i8 

2,920,760 

Nineteenth. . . 

94 

at4.600 

070 

1,293,860 
♦  lll.\213,808 

Total.... 

.8,837 

♦•84,282,822 

8.8,620 

The  Croton  aqueduct  commMues  at  the  Croton 
River,  6  miles  from  the  Hudson,  in  Westchester 
county.  Tlie  dam  is  2S0  feet  long,  70  feet  wide  at  tlio 
bottom,  and  7  at  the  top,  and  40  feet  high,  built  of 
stone  and  ccnioiit.  It  creates  a  (Kind  5  miles  long, 
covering  a  surface  of  400  acres,  and  containing  SOO,- 
000,000  gallons  of  water.  From  the  dam  the  aqueduct 
proceeds  j  sometimes  tunneling  through  solid  rocks, 
cros-ing  valleys  by  embankments,  and  brooks  by  cul- 
verts, until  it  reaches  Harlem  Kiver,  a  distance  of  33 
miles.  It  is  built  of  stone,  brick,  and  cement,  arched 
over  and  under,  G  feet  3  inches  wide  at  bottom,  7  feet 
8  ip'he  at  top  of  the  side  walls,  and  8  feet  5  inches 
high ;  has  a  descent  of  13^  inches  per  mile,  and  will 
dischargn  m. 000,000  of  gallons  every  24  hours.  It 
cros.ses  t'  .  ii  irlein  liiver  on  a  magniticent  bridge  of 
stone,  14,50  •".  et  long,  with  14  piers;  8  of  tV.em  bearing 
arehc"  of  8(1  '.et  span,  and  7  others  of  50  icet  span,  Ui 
feet  .ibove  tiJe-water  ut  the  top.  The  receiving  reser- 
voir at  Kigiity-sixth-str  et,  38  miles  fron  the  Croton 
dam,  covers  35  acres,  a'.'i  holds  150,000.0  '0  of  gallons. 
The  distributing  leiervoir,  on  Murray'.  Hill,  at  Forti- 
eth-street, cc  re  4  tt<res,  and  is  constructed  of  stone 
and  cement,  1."  feet  M|(h  ab  .-e  the  street,  and  holds 
20,000,000  ol' .  anions.  Ther.cc  the  vater  is  distributed 
over  the  c  y  i-.i  iron  jjipos,  '.&si\  i  „  deep  under  ground 


as  to  lie  secure  from  frost.  Thu  v\uiU  w»(  ,^  i|i« 
work  has  been  about  ♦13,000,000.  Tim  viHtMf  U  ((fih* 
purest  kind  of  river  water.  Tlurii  ntu  |»J4  \mUm  tim 
distributing  reservoir  In  Fortieth-»tr««t,  iiuim  Umii  Vltt 
inilcs  of  pipe,  front  0  to  ,10  iniliea  in  ,li»mtif,  Huh 
AijUKDUi.ra.  There  are  not  moru  lhu»  fimr  tHU*  tft 
l'.uro,«  larger  than  New  York,  vU.,  |^,(m1«H,  l'#fK 
Lonstantlnoplo,  an '  St.  I'utershurg. 
Statkmest  buowinu  tuk  Am.justo*-  Tahu,  tliillm^-Hl 

18.60  '  ""'  ■"'*'  *""*   "*"'  "*'<  "''<'  '»*<' 


llpftdauf  AMvunia. 


Alni.«*houso 

Aqueduct  repairs 

"         constrnrtlon. 
liottery  enlarKomcnt.. 

Itoanl  of  health 

City  In«peetur'»  iltpirt 

Ooriin.TS'  fees 

Oluanlnu  docks  and  slips! 
(;ouiity  coutlnitenclcs. . .  I 
Ooninion  t'ounill,  pay  H 

of  inenihors f 

Contingent    expensi'sH 

of  (.luiuuion  Council.  ( 
Rocks  Jc  »llp5(  new  work ) 

"  repairs 

nonnllons 


im. 

IV.Hira 
4<)0,(K)0 
2(I,ISI0 
8,UUU 

M,m 
lo',6(Jo 

3,000 
10(J,00U 


10,000 

80,000 
4.6,000 
16,000 
h.lSKI 
8,000 

90,0(S) 


I  Election  expenses., 
I  Errors  ami  ilellnquouehs 
,Flre  (lopartment 

Int.  on  revenue  lionils. 

"     assessment  bundsi 
jlntestato  i' .Uites 

r.an(lsan(l  places 

Lands   pureliaseil   for 
assessments 

Markets 

Mayor  itv  fees 

onto,    .'i.  es 

I'olUe  .,    !  lire  telegraph 

Printing..     20,0(si 


8,(jOO 
8,(UX) 

26,000 

5,(XK) 

126 

80,000 


ipnlli 


Repairs  and 

Ilenis 

Heal  estate 

"        expo?  ^it, 

Roads  and  avenues. 

"     Sth  avenue,. 

Station,  ry 

Sunken  vos'ls,  (removV) 
Sewers  (rep'r'gA  cleanV) 

Salaries 

Statistical  fables  (;.  A.  { 

dcpsrtnient ) 

Water  pipes  and  la)  lUf;. 

('loaning' .streets J 

Street  exp'n.s  A:  rep'rs.  ( 
Com.  scliooU  (for  Statu). 
"  (for  City).. 

Comnils'ners  of  KccorJ. 
Bulldlni;   loan   stock,  t 

Nos.2and3 f 

Indexing  rcco.ds,  Co.  i 

olllr's f 

Judge-  ''.p'e'Mi"  '""urt 
M^'lUinu  ..:    •■   ■  :tt  ::!.. 

IN.  Y  ,-.  :  ., V-Vluui 

Juvu.ille     " 
"       Asvl.  for  Idiots 
Institution  fur  mind... 
*'    for  Deaf  Ju  Dumb 

Police 

Public  education  stock. 

State  ndll  tax 

Washington  squ.  Iron 

rallin;!  stock 

Water  loan  Interest . . . 
Arrearages  of  prev.  years 
Blasting  Diamond  Reef. 
Repairing  County  Jail. . . 
'.Monument,  Mi\|or- 1 
I    ( Jen .-ral  Worth     ...  f 

Grooving  Broadwu.' 

IPaving    Bowery   and  I 
Chatham-street . . . .  f 
.Orading  lOth  avenue.... | 
Ward  maps  .t  surveys  I 


UW.     I 

.890,01)1) 
tlU,OU) 

Wtitii, 

120,000, 

26/)0o| 


lf;,(»00 
12.W)0] 
8.l)</o| 
70,()00| 
76,000 

Vm 
iwm 

80,(Mo! 

7,00o' 

160 

.8.6,1)001 


Mum 


IfifM       uMif) 


mum 

8/«M 


mmW 

'mm*. 

ti.jm 
Kifim 


7>0,(N)0 

2,(S)0 

15,000 

10,000 

m,im 
9,im 

200,000 


140,000 

200,000 

8,144 
267,969 

60,000 


136,000 
127 


720 

2,1 

492,000 

m,m 

6,000 

1S6  689 
280,941 


4J),000| 
6i).(s«0 

8,00U 
.80,000 
60,000 
40,000 

7,60.) 
20,1)00, 

2,000, 

12,000, 

226,000 


for  Tax  Comnds'rs 

ISurg.  dcpartm't  of  poUc'oj 

Central  park  interest.. . .' 

iSoclety   for   relief  nfl 

I    Juvenile  delinquents  ) 

i       Total  tax  levied ....  8,280,lSO»;878,S8t  4,8«J  mi^Vhhr, 


310,01)0 

l.S6,64l 
502,016 

60,000 


200,000 
8«2 


720 

2,980l 
540,000 

176,.^58 
8,000 

18',b83 


8»0I' 

■  ■  ■  ■    TM 
mmi   hiiim 

lf>/M,      ....  1 

2,'M/        ilHHf 

2(iO/*/0|    iiiyi(,200J 

Hl),'MI'l    2W.*2* 

**>,*)<  \tmm 

■  •■■  I  iftim 


dm 

8,876' 
82|,«*6 

4.*>»2, 

872,7(5 
8W,i85 


128,Jt» 


ifHtlf 

tfiml, 

m 

i'f.m. 


mm 
dm 

mfinu 

mm 

16m 

ism 

um 

am 
mm 

i,'m 


NEW 


1496 


NEW 


BitATin  Titn  or  m  Biai  amd  rmvmAi  IbTin  in  tu*  Citt  amii  Ooomtt  or  New  Vou,  t»  Miano  m  IHi 

AKU  IIM 


1  

t 

II , 

4 , 

B 

« 

T 

8 

» 

10 

II 

li..    

18 

14 

1ft 

18 

17 

18 

10 

«0 

21 

22 

Non-rulilouU.., 

Total 

Luidiicroue. 
Total  loorcaM. 


AimuomrU,  IIU. 


AMMMMnti,  list. 


H.  buu.  I   r.  CilaU.      R.  iMMa.   I  F,  buw. 


tSltat.. 
tt,076,260' 
M,448,167 
n,T4^6«A 

f,87N,S0o 
18,866,800 

(,608,680 
19,47M68 
18,261,600 
18,787,100 

8,144,400 

7,6«4,71M)I 

■•  .  ^Un, 
',),.'t76,800 
9«,a'iT,86o! 
14,k74,860| 
n.6«2,400 
8I,9'M,206 
V,802.tNI6 
18,986,600 
21,706,876 
10,600,120 


UuO«n.     I  IU\in.      i      Dull...,. 

66,177,S06,  87,1011,610  Oi),0>-l),OIS 

6,1 1  K,6«0' 22,7X7,056      

H,420,022{  22.728,2.SH{ 

1,044,431)  V  I4l),07() 

»,160,MII  14,282,460 

1,700,867  9,667,3141 

8,186,6161  12,674,6981 

l,H2;l,7.'6  1(I,I62,0I1U 

2,602,Srt4'  ia,M99,0OO 

l,12l,:i8n!  8,281,600 

621,9s7l  7,II1I4,0IN)^ 

'■Oft.HlKII  7,8»1,2HM 

740,664        I21,4(H 

2,,II9,646{  iM, 261,400' 


TgUl. 


lui.      I       IM4. 

D,i(!vi.  I^liat^ 

9i,iM,i46  eT,2si,n 


ilUti. 

1,698 

lijVUri'  27i66(1,:><7i  20,661,097 

9  8416811  8(1,166  6721  82.(1<I4,U1» 

1,76'<'646|  11,(12  <  12(k   11,2(17,616 

1  9,'i8'9!)2  ln,(ll.',, -■^3    l.\2.'16,442| 

l,.M()'422l  11,200,1)07    11,097,7461 

8,82N,l66i  16,661,474    I6,902,H«4| 

2,lMi;,«.'.H  '/,(IH.\226    19,1170,8271 

1I,0S1,8J»  16,870,664    16,0M(I,H76| 

1  ll«!l,484!  0,266,786      0,864,9841 

847,8461  8,0Nllt887      8,481,1146 

76«,076|  9,807,288     8,l40,86O| 

6l6,IOOl  8,884i666     6,6illl,WKl. 

'.',261,428  12,194,048^  l'i.616,S2a 


K.  KmM,  F.  Ibuu, 


TMia, 


Un—u.    DtcrvMH 


Dull»n.  rh.lUr.,  I>.  Iltrl. 

1,217,3.10  1,911,116'  6,128,.M6 

8)19,768  1,661,6411  1,094,810 

971,688,      021,6081  1,890,248 


7(M'<0 

41 1   160 

0(',774 

08,740 


114,116 


142.660 


901,469    1,08«,642 
181,:i(K)     470,011 


20,042.047|  2^691,600l  21,991.120   46,890,807    47,682,620, 

2,60'2,H(Hl!  16.."i66.'2ll0|     H,M(l,.Vi      •■•■'•—•■    '-" 


4,79>,2)I0,  l.\y21,879 

14,2011.16(1  811,»,V4,H,V)^ 

l87,OlH)i  8,041,188, 

466,'200|  14,8l)4.960| 

6,0117,7001  »l,026,trr 

78)'.  176'  10,'iHO,022{ 

14,401,630 


I7,474,06o;  l(',li)4,7'W. 

>,Vi\:  'i\  20,«6li,(l!li),  21.647,116: 

10.992.442  I6,232.;l,".6,  40,040,702 

I,r810,(l00  9,629.986  0,001, 18Hi 

l,OI0.'^6O  14,8H  1,700  I.Vl-24,'iOO 

6,686,002  '26,K.8«,()76  27,611,117 

780,076  11,82S.B06l  111,969.697 

18,600,206  14,401,680-  1 1,600,266 


187,100 
69,mH) 

67,41)6 
886,100 
8iH.16o 
60)l.:t.M>, 
26~,!)7U' 
liOW  l|6|  2,696;299 
1,4'28,000 


828,867 


1,940,082 

036,788 
027,600 


868,460 


674,080 
1,848,802 


184,206 

220,680 

241,800 

I.OAIOI 

610,811 

09,199 

804.,^67| 


Suilai 


100,961 


820,877! 

2,3H8,232| 

l,rtafl,l.'«8 

1,H0,4H6' 

8,714,4117' 

71,247' 

942,W)ii' 

T77,W2 


1,247,876 
108,t06i 


I  fl6'<,6(i7 


4,llW,7a6|  4,108.786 

'887,088,626160,0)12,819  840;oTl,4OH''iri,067,78l  487,1)60,888  618,080,270  7,607,882 18,687,144  28,702.241  1,013,700 
'  '  '  '  '  '  ....   [_1,91^3,700, 

....  i26,a78,441| 


Dbut  or  ms  Citt  or  Niw  Yobi,  Jitlt,  I8A8,  ■idiiiiia- 

ItLE  rtOM  Tint   HlNKINd    KdNII   AND   rSDH    I'AXATInN. 

rrulii 
nlnkini  ruiKl. 

Fiom 

TuUI. 

1861 

$109,160 
2,6O0|00O 

402^708 
8,076,000 

imiooo 

1,2S4;700 

2,i47;000 

2,682,1)00 

1,000,000 

073,000 

14,030,428 

8,083,3T» 

11(11,047,053 

$eO,IK8) 
60,000 
07,000 
67,00<i 
07,0(1') 
67,Oi)() 
07,(10(1 
67,000 
07,01,0 
67,000 
67,(K)() 
60,7(8) 
60,000 
60,000 
1.0,0)0 

204,000 
60,000 
60,0(H) 
60,000 

.fMO,K.o 
.'.0,000 

2,507,000 
1)7,000 
67,000 
67,000 
07,000 
07,1101) 
67,0(10 
07,000 

4iui,;c8 

60,700 

8,1  ■-'■%(  KlO 

6(1,000 

60,000 

810,000 

60,000 

1,334,70(1 

f.0,(HIO 

2,147,0011 

2,1182,1)00 

1,(MK),000 

673,1)00 

1,'',,I64,|-.'S 

3,1133,376 

ISBO 

1«00 

1,';6I 

1802 

1868 

1884 

1886 

1866 

1881 

1868 

1880 

18T0 

1871 

18T2 

1873 

1ST4 

1K7B 

1X76 

1  s~,0 

18-17 

1S90 

iy)8 

.Mnklng  Fund  . . . 
T'.lal 

j(  1,273,700 

,1il2,3.'0,7,'.2 
.      1,6(X),0()0 

1869 

Tho  whole  debt  Lcars  6  per  cent,  iiit.^rest,  except 
the  Central  I'arlc  fund,  $3,350,800,  which  bciirs  6  per 
cent. 

This  last  item  of  |1,CO'),^1<)0  is  redeemable  from 
Central  Park  asscsamonti. 

'fbo  purposes  'or  ^vllicB  this  debt  was  created  may 
be  enumer  ted  as  follows : 

Cr,''         "AtcrSto'-k $0,101,760 

N  vs  nrolr 1,020,100 

F    "  mnlty 402,768 

B..     !..„  l.o»n. 11)0,000 

Central  I'mrk  .. .       8,866,800 

r.>y:oBull.lin(f 460,000 

Dwknand  .lllp 600,000 

Puhilc  Kducatlon  Slock 164,000 

Tompkln*  Market 160.700 

Total $16,364,128 

If  Xew  Vork  is  truo  to  itself  In  Its  financial  and  com- 
mercial movements,  the  city  will  have  in  tho  year 
1875  a  population  of  a  million  and  u  half,  a  foreign 
export  trnde  of  two  hundred  millions,  an  import  trade 
of  three  hundred  millions,  and  a  coasting  trade  of  still 
greater  value. 

The  canals  and  railroads  of  the  State  already  pour 
their  hundred  of  miUloiu  of  property  into  the  city  an- 


nually, enriching  the  interior  iarKcly,  and  tl)c  cily  in 
a  Hinaller  ratio,  in  finding  foiei^'n  und  doincitic  cliun- 
nc'U  of  consumptlim  for  our  piodiicls.  The  tuo  iulcr- 
csls  of  tho  .State  licniand  u  lilieral  policy  toward  tlicso 
great  channels  of  comniuniculinn,  l.y  Iron  nod  l.y  wu- 
tcr,  between  Lakes  Kric  and  Ontario  and  llio  iiioiilli 
of  the  Hudson.  Tlio  proposed  uppropriiilioii  and  cx- 
'    ndituro  of  three  and  a  ii  df  million  of  dollars  fur  ll)o 

inpletion  of  Ihc  iiials  '  iliis  Slam  will,  IT  carried 
.nto  elTect,  liing  loilUons  ujhk  inlllioiis  into  llio  Shitc 
at  large,  and  permanently  l  (It  its  annual  rov(  noes 
from  canal  lolls. 

Wo  have  prepared  a  sumin...;-  showing  the  popula- 
tion of  the  city,  of  other  portlcii  of  tho  Slate,  und  of 
the  whole  State,  at  each  tiiklii  'f  the  Census  from 
1790  to  1855.  To  this  we  add  an  c  iiiiiate,  based  upon 
the  growth  (if  the  past  sixty,  as  to  the  growth  for  forty 
yean  to  come. 

I'opiri.ATio.x  or  thb  fixt  AMn  -tate  or  Nkw  ^    ..it. 


Veara. 

Cily. 

Olhpr  r-urOoni. 

Malf,  'lutal. 

I7S10 

33,131 

60,489 

rfl,373 

1-6,619 

123,700 

160,(«0 

197,112 

27(1,0^0 

812,710 

87l,2-.'3 

6I6,MT 

620,004 

3(M.,lls'.l 

8'.N,1I4 

80.6,616 

(140.301 

1,24!l,10« 

1,44S,370 

1,710,019 

l,nil4,4-.8 

2,110,211 

'.',2:3,-j;2 

2,6')  1,847 

2,836,303 

il40,i*) 
,'.8-i,7ll3 
('6l,8>8 
l,08e,'.ilO 
1,!17'2,S13- 
1,0I4,4,^6 
1,1'I3,I31 
2,1. -4,6 17 
2,4'JH,;)21 
2,604,4116 
8,007,!«i4 
11,400,212 

1800 

1810 

1815 

18'20      

1S26 

1880    

IK88 

1840    . .. 

1345 

ISW      

UK> 

Tlic  avcrago  annual  increa.ie  of  the  city  l)as  been 
I'C  per  cent.,  and  of  the  interior  32  per  cent.  As- 
Sliming  these  for  the  future,  the  growth  of  New  York 
will  be  as  follows  : 


N«w  York  Clty 
B  S.'.SO 
0^9, 1^8 

7--'o,>-:  0 

7.M,0M 

788,737 

82.'>,OI8 

862,li('8 

1)02,004 

044,180 

087,618 

l,2l:6,64S 

1,618,471 

1,r88,020 

2,427,822 

8,O«0,IKi2 

8,600,542 

4,T66,S69 


liilfhnr. 

"~2,y27,07(r 
11,112(1,766 
3,1I7,3'J9 
3,'.'17,166 
3,3'2(),106 
:i,420,345 
8,53,'.,'.88 

."..nio.uo 

8.7(6.012 
8,S(i.6,3l0 
4,.'>17,fl;i 
6,323.164 
6,230,761 
7,2()8,0!'4 
4630,666 
!),!.92,051 
11,6:16,696 


_w-hol«  stalt._ 
3,t>'>.>,ll60 
/3,7(i'.i,!)'.;4 
3,s:,s,-  SO 
8.0'.  I,'-'  7 

4,1(N.N.'2 
4,-.'.'il,303 
4,lli'-,(  ;,0 
4,,W1,8"4 
4,710,008 
4,872,931 
6,784,-l((9 
6,8T1,626 
8,1011,671 
«,i2(l,'  10 
ll,67(l,.'i(;S 
13,79S,6!13 
16,46  .',065 


NEW 


1487 


NKW 


■r..i«i. ' 

■.;4ii,.*> 

:,s-,'(i3 

l'«l,S-8 
l,(i35,'.ao 
i,;n'2,si'J 

l,fll4,4r>8 
r,<,M3.131 

2,i<4,i>n 

3,(191,"'-",     , 

1,119  been 
cent.  A'" 
Hew  York 


Wh(.l«  Sl«ll._ 

B.O'.i.'!  1 
4  li«,vri 
4,r,i,M-.3 
.i4'.>N'.:fl 

4;u»,i»8 
4',sri,»3l 
B,:8-l,4ii0 
0,MT1,0';5 

Bi«',6;' 

13  T9S,W3 
16,46.','«1» 


JI»rown  rsoM  Niw  Tow  to  I'ommw  Po»t»  ro«  nn  •rtiiii,  UuiTia  or  tni  rami,  Vi in  ii«m«i«  tii «■  Wkii,  IMT. 


TiSS' 


Juljr 

Annit 

RopUmbflr 

Ooiobi<r. , . 

Novvmber 

Decauibtr 

January IDfiT 

Faliruary 

March.,. 

Ajirll 

May 

Jaou 


TnUl,  lM*-flT. 

"    law— W, 
"     1888— M. 


nwnKsfKllia. 

Vr>r«ln 

Rwrt-huiaiM, 

JulUbU. 

mvrrliiuSiM,     1 

t«,Vfll,il7« 

tlUH,«|T 

tt*,*u 

^«lll,>t«tl 

lll.VM 

»xMt 

T,04JS,IHM 

MD.TM 

<I7.H'M 

«,1»»,81IT 

180,MT 

71, Ml 

I^I,M5 

nmm 

I»,IMM 

8,a4<,4«8 

4<T^)I 

W),H« 

4M8,IH« 

18lt,4<H 

IM.NU 

S,«M,IOf 

nn,HiH 

17n,7c)« 

7,0<H4B1 

ti».(mt 

4Vi,iU)0 

n,itti,im 

8I4,I«) 

l(»ft,«W 

tintll,*^) 

S94,SIW 

llW),4/il 

.■■,;iW.:M'1 

Bl'i,84» 

«a,H»H,t»U«  ~ 

ti.KVtisM'i 

iH.iW'j.ym) 

7n.ntl^»M 

8,907,710 

1,7U,S04 

M,M1,40« 

B,eA«,TS8 

4,0M,(1«T 

eo,iMi,08n 

S,16»,HI« 

1,88U^S 

~if.iiiM«i< 

6,VliMiill 

im.m 

7,7a*,i|/X) 

k.xvr.iii 

4,MM,l7il 
MM*,  714 
«,»IT,n»l 
A,il7l.l»iA 

it.riiii.utM 

)l,l|i'IU,Tis» 

7u,KM'.  IM 
M,ilW/>nl 


!  ir.rTi^ii 

I       N,TK«/.I7 

tl.l7«,MA 
'     ft  7««.»<((( 

7.l»iW/M.l 

♦«1,'JW,»(( 

H«>lft»M4 


t  -Ml  ••^rU, 

|l4,<MM.illll 

v,iir,.iin 

II.IMIII.,<fM 

I  i,>iw,nfift 

lli,7M,|ii« 

ui.nm.tm 

f,7»",M» 

•/||W,7W 

I »/.)«,  I  w 

|l'i',l'r'i,l(H 

l(H,M7,7«l 

f«<.<H|,P|ft 


Thn  lieiivy  wftrcliou»ln({  of  (jiuhIs  during  the  punt 
tlirvn  inuiitlii,  tu  necuri,  tha  beiiellt  uf  tKi'  iirw  titrllT, 
will  nut  eaciipe  obMrvntion.  'Iho  lin|i<irt  uf  iii>*rclian- 
(Ukii  i«  morn  tliuu  9.'l,0UO,UOU  Inaa  than  in  tli«  I'urre- 
Hponiling  llirtw  nioutbi  of  isrxs,  Imt  ii  nearly  equal 
total  import  Ih  made  up  of  specie  and  liulllnii. 

'Min  annexed  ntntenient  exhiliitxtlio  value  of  certain 
artli'luA  iiii|Hirted  into  and  ex|H>rte<l  from  thin  port  dur- 
ing the  year  IHM,  compared  with  lHu& : 

CoMUKKrK  or  TUic  Port  or  New  Youk, 

Vai,u«  or  IiiTOHia  amp  Exi"jbt8.       

liw.      ",     ~fiii.       I 


Irn'oan. 

ri(t»r« 

l'«tfCI3 

Ilardwnro  and  outltiry 

Jliac!' 

1-.*! 

Llijuor 

MnlaAMfl 

Itntlroad  iron 

Htuxl  and  Iron 

HuRar 

Tin 

Tub 

Tubncco 

Matches 

Wln.'« 

Dry  goudi 

K-vpor™, 

f'olton 

Kluur 

Wlicat 

Oorn 

Rye 

Uoef 

Pork 

Hams,  bacon  and  shoaldorn.. 

Ilutter 

Cheese 

Urd 

Sngar 

Tea 

Coffee 

KIcc 

Tobacco 

Naval  stores. 

Hporm  oil 

Ollcako 

Whalebone 

India  rubber  Koods 

Furs  and  skins 


$i,R(»,i(rr 

11,070,918 

B,718,««1 

6,A«M16 

4,160,4A1 

9,986,000 

4,»I»,MS 

6,97^O0O 

1,454,7SS 

il,081,T80 

1,809,HM 

9,662,000 

8'iO,6HO 

1,817,949 

M0,7lll» 

8,076,0.^9 

4,49-i,aM 

6,619,000 

T,840,04B 

14,8s8,96S 

4,48l,N7» 

4,099,918 

2,940,47,% 

4,106,878 

6S1,4S8 

80.%,Sfl9 

S,83U,134 

9,6H4,M6 

l,414,nHl 

9,0<HI,(IOO 

6»,446,4&3 

99,904,989 

16,1120,010 

10,ftVi,l'<9 

10,7113,(174 

14,9H1,WS 

fi,6>«,571 

18,800,1142 

B,79.\91t» 

9,U4x,»(KI 

^S9,876 

IM,94« 

],B4«,il),'i 

>*«,079 

884,*4'i 

2,17ii,H09 

1,480,481 

2,,V>.S,11)4 

188,1)09 

70,937 

8l)ll,6»5 

;m,268 

3,487,007 

1,404,287 

B49,a'W 

170,588 

682,894 

198,800 

1,B8,VB92 

4N1,27- 

829,fllVS 

711,06(1 

8,48(),78S 

2,2»0,248 

a,986,IW0 

1,406,8* 

1,503,961 

802,li.» 

436,886 

808,7.1\i 

688,698 

1,001,670 

],e».\768 

200,000 

i)48,784 

267,994 

I 

EXPORTH  FROM  NrW  VORK  TO  FoRRIOH  PORTV,  roR  THR 
LAST  QlIAKTRH  or  THR  KUOAL  Y«AR8  F.NOI.tU  JUNR 
BOTH,   ISW,    ISiO,   AND   1S57. 


Domestic  merchandise. . . . 
Foreign  mdse.,  <lutlable.. . 
"  free 


isu. 


.  »1.S,87S,640 
1,8.17,862 

892,028 


1»S1. 


(19,066,09.*,  116,884,1 1.V 
899,888  1,121,831 
984,663   927,770 


Total  nMrchaDdlsc...|«15,627,980«20,2.'Mi,)l46|18,6.S.S,4l6 

Specie 'J2,495,692!    8^286,273]  n,oS3,428 

Total il8, 128,022  I|2»,(i80,ti  1 9|»:(5,7  i  G,!*4 1 

The  figures  above  given  for  the  last  three  months, 
although  presenting  many  points  of  comparison  with 
the  same  time  In  185(>,  show  little  or  nothing  more,  in 
comparison  with  those  of  18&u,  than  a  steady  increase, 
except  perhaps,  in  specie,  in  which  the  increase  is  rel- 
atively large. 


VAiuRur  Ahtulm or  Mttu tURKlon.n*' |li«tr*tlr,  Orowth 
AND  MA«urA.)TiFitti,  »!»c.mr»(ti  h^.k  Maw  ynai,  to 
THR  Vrar  knimru  iflw  KI|«|1»  Kj,  IVA,  '  '" 


AHkIn, 


Alcoliol iiaili/Hft 

'Appl«i....... ,WftlJ 

Anli.s,  iM)t  and  pearl Um4  .i/Ort 

"'■""■•■ lb*,  ilmijm 

llark,  oak , ,  '  ^ 

UseS"!' tmfluU  •tttm 

\\<">t  •»it ii«r««  iurni 

Beeswax Iba,  IM/tim 

Biscuit  or  •hipkrva<l...bMa,*kiiitf>  (i^/,«)fy 

iBrlcks,  cumiiiiin i  , 

ignttcr ((„,  UMjiAli 

f^«»dlc» ,,,,,,  »  Ijm^fUl 

CiTOSe.... »  «,|'/«^«| 

I'JIover  a*'ed ....,.,,,,.  , . , . 

|Coal,anlhraulUi4ibllundnuii»,  .Ml*  lll/iMM 
-Copiiur  or,',  pin,  pipe  k  >hL'<  t        [ 

]Corda)(n  &  cabli-i |U.I  ln«/INn 

Corn,  ahfllid |ig«||  il/»tMJt»it 

:Corn  meal M,|i.  rM,|«A 

t!otton hale.  m/fH 

Cotton  goodi,  printed  or  lulorvil, .  , , , , 

"            uiiculorud ..,...,, ,  ,,,, 

Karthonwarc , , . , 

Flour bbis,  mtm 

OInsent! Ibn.  T'/,74<» 

Hi'uip,  common -  IKMinl 

llhlcs Hn,  V.IH 

Hogs,  live •'  4 

Hops lijs.  im.lll 

W'lna Hi).:  nil 

Iron  cast'KS  i^  oib.  niaouAi.  of  Iron  , 

urd (b»,  »,mim 

Leather >•  (/M.TM 

Lumber,  pine,  heoiloek,  |i"pl»r,  1 

oak,  mapio,  black  walnut  aiMIV  1ll,iU 

cherry ) 

Molasses ga|«,  m/iVI 

Oil,  lard ,   »  |*(,7«K 

I  "   llnsccd <»  Kft/tT 

Onions. , , ,  f,,, 

jPalnt,  mineral ,,,, 

Pork (I«ri!£«  'im 

"    I(bl»,  (W,«M4 

l'.,l,.'.oes,  comuiim '•  lW,ft(*l 

ui<:' ifc-rW  tnm 

•      W)l»,;  11/41) 

liOHiO ••     I  tHltlJIIfll) 

':um yaUl  I,4I4,»«> 

Kyo buih  U»um 

Kyo  meal bbls.  9fl,((W 

Sheep  and  lambs No.  I.Tij 

Snulf lbs.  Hflmi 

;Splrlts  of  turpentine gaU.'  MIC,*4# 

t^taves  and  heailiii;;  M,<  i¥J>\t 

Suear  eano Ijis.  tillj^ 


iTallow Iba. 

Tar  and  piteh I)bl».l 

[Tobacco,  leof. IduU.I 

I       "       strips balus 

I       "       stems cast's, 

I       "       chewing lU, 

\'inei;ar gaU- 

W  lieitt bush. 

Whisky gala. 

Total ,,,,. 


I,»«4,TII« 

»Mi 

•A.alft 
fih,vtn 


tiriM. 

».9)r> 

4W,}!Ki 

l.'i9l,'iA» 

W,M6 

I   l,»70/>*i 

49,l»« 

911.711) 

(C.iKM 

9*i,mf7 
«in,W6 

miAw 

I7.7>ll 

»i.|0» 

Mt,6.-.l 

197  .Mft 

Mllitt.-, 

9!<7.ll» 

1».nfi7.(«ift 

IW.RW 

M7'i,4'rt 

VII I 

»/»W.(17!I 

n.r.in 

Kn.lMi 

(,v/;<i.4wi 
m,VA) 
won 

T«,4A4 

98,M« 
9M)(>0 

I  tfitim 

ft'.HI 
}     9I?,»M 

mm 
IMH 

i.m 
mM« 

m.m 

im.mi 

I      mMfi 

WH,(W» 
H,9»l 

M/fU 


Large  as  was  the  export  of  eperla  for  tti«  (tacnJ  y««f, 
it  is  less  than  $'J,0IM),000  in  esifiss  of  mi  titi.  Th« 
export  of  domestic  produce  is  it  trida  hrnot  tluatt  ket 
year,  with  prices  averaging  al)0«t  tlm  i>i«m»  f (utton 
and  provisioDS  belni;  bigher,  »u4  MrnwtHufl'*  l«WMr< 


ii'lO 


■jWtlwnv 


NKVV 


1138 


NKW 


(MrflRi«  iMTO  nil  Ton  or  Niw  ToiK  nott  rnMi'ix  Phiit*  rni  tri  iirnAL  Mortiu  or  t»  Tatnu  Trai  tMDtita 

Jvnn  W),  INt?. 


frm  gMji. 


TuUI  Aif  •on- 


Jilf... IhM  TFv.OM.hhA  ll.jHD.IMl 

AiifUit |i,HTft,»'«l     l,8iill.7»il, 

'Hii|iU<inb«r lv,IMl,i!W 

(H'lolH'r '     •,iNM,ui)l 


NuToiiitMr, 

'December 

,lanuar]r InftT 

Ki'hruary 

M»cb 

April 

iMay 

Juno 


ToUl,  IsM-  AT, 
••  l»AA-fi«. 
"  IxM  fiA, 
"     liflH-A4, 


MI.TDI 
l,ll7V,A'i4 
I,l4l,»ii< 

NAll.HVM 
'i,4IT.><»U 
a,H«'<,ll7U 

»ftA,»iH 
I,II74,1|{| 

1>A7.M(H1 

$UI,HM«),IM.1|lll.lllViHl 
l»0,OHH,|Wj  |7,llW,lll'i 
KrT.llM.'JIll  Mrr.HKifiV 
l47,IMtt,V4l    l'i,7»l,l).V) 


t,T8U,4!N 

lM()o,iiiu 

|lt,AUM,»l8 
lll,«Ail,4A7 
n,IAA,Mi) 
^4AI,IVI 
9,471,7'iH 


iii,ii:»,'T« 

II.IHIIl.tUll 

lcl,i|»il.7"'i 
I(I.|||IU.I>AH 
11,117  J.  U7 
lit,inii.M7 
*i,li.M,7M 
U.Ai'.MM) 
li.MII.DAH 
7,riil,ll<>l 
8,4W,l(Ml 

'JIft;,iii\«i!i 

lltT.Wn.i'i* 

iiiii,7';i>,«<i 


Wan. 

(4UIT~IIHU 
4,IIM.7lll 

1I,WMI,7"I 
tt,lll'<.S4'J 
t,IIUll,'J4l 
l.llilll.^lM 

h,.m;i,w«1i 

A,IJ',:f.': 
Mil -.,11.' 
iii,niiN,«ji 
II.AMM  III. 
#i)V.;l7ii,l.'ii'i 

l«,OW,ll«ll 
'J7,4I7,IIIU 


T«tal  iwlM,      ll|»<'l-  tut 
MMrH.           UllUn. 

Tut«J  ln|iorl. 
♦  *Mil*,H'i« 

WilWr.,.u 
fr-m 

Oai.k.MIM 

"  'i:!s:r 

|<A,4n7,4IIn      ti«H,\HH 

i't,\i1,mj 

fti.itn.tiH 

«l,NII1,4ll'i        ||)H,I7:I 

aii.mii.iiM 

•i.Mi.vn'.   w.'iii.Mi  1 

IA,*J«,Mfi          M,IK>7 

lA.inw.mig 

»,4,17,ftW 

lMI\iiiT 

18,7lt(l,Ml<          \K>,iri» 

III.^HA.Wi 

H,'i7ll,lWl| 

Il.til7,7iv« 

14,l!tMlini       8y|,7AU 

ll,4AI),A4A 

i.TUiMI 

U,MA,4ll7 

ll,7«H,ilil>.|       •J4«,s7*l 

I'Min.tiii 

l.ll'iA.dAII 

10,IH)7,!77 

\<t,m,W\\        HMI,AllU 

IU,IKM.7ll'i 

7,fl7H,7(Vl 

li,'<'Jl,71J 

ai,AO(),74'<,    i,(i'j«,7H 

t\riit,VM 

'j.rMii.iiun 

M,4.'V<,(H 

'iii,u«7,livi     i,n«i,H8ii    il.l'j^im 

•imi:m 

17.WH,iiW) 

ao,«c,i(Ki      v!W,»h!   'ii.'iiv'is 

VM.MK 

1  i,mi-<,'i7ii 

l7,itii«,4J'i     l,u7ii,'<im'    iH.yiiA.'iAA 

vm,m 

It.ilii.lTl 

KDOV.lNAI       »«n,IN)l'     IA.I«lll,l:<il 
ni»,7'i7,7;i  |8,MI.:i4it'i<i  .liHI.I'/M 

ThLikmc 

4,V1(I,|11 

tJ7,ll,'>ii,iirir|iNVi!m,iKi  1 

luy.lW^ltAii,     l,l'ill,in»7    IIIMM,7I7    'Jl.UiK,!!!!!,   1-II,4,14,HA» 

IM,a'<l,>kMl|     M.VI.Iilll     lAl.mift.Md    'il.AlllJil!   l4t,llNI,i'i7 

,  1)M,I87,4M|    V,»II7,II4H   1UI.II7I,AI4   IU,N7tt,44.'><  |sii,rjgil,74l 

It  wilt  lid  Heen  fruiii  th«  nliiivn  Hint  thn  vuliiu  of 
giHxU  |iiit  U|K)U  tliii  iiiurkut  fiilU  nlitirt  or  tlio  totiil  viiluii 
of  tli«  liii|iart  iif  meri'lmmllni',  alKiut  «iM,f>iM),(MI0,  mul 
Wu  have  ){<>«<l  rnnnnn  tii  net  iliiirii  tlin  vuliin  iif  Kiiiiilii  In 
lioiiil  July  I,  IM.Id,  ttt  4ilO,iM)U,(HNl  nt  liuat,  making  thn 
total  vitliin  of  )(u<mIii  in  Imnil  .Inly  1,  1H,J7,  nlMiut  $4ri,- 
IHMI.IMHI,  wlik'li  U  4i(l,<KHI,IHM)  or  4i7,OilO,UlM)  Krunter  than 
wu>  to  bavB  liflon  exiwcteil  from  hui'Ii  r<i|iort«  n*  wo 
liiive  Imit  from  tiini!  to  tinin,  \Vi<  niuiit  not  forifi't  to 
|il  K'K  tu  the  rreillt  of  the  yunr,  au  Imjiortittion  of  i>|hu:I« 
mill  hulllon  of  4itl,&<M),INIU  uKainiit  ii  littln  mora  than 
{i1,UIX),U00  tho  previouii  year.  Thn  tot,il  Import  of 
inerchanilliie  in  it'J2,0INI,0INI  in  oxi'usji  of  tlin  |irHviouii 
year,  ami  it  h  not  a  llattrriti)(  fiict,  that  w«  luivo  liceii 
ImpnrtinK  must  fri'iOy,  when  if  was  eviilcnt  that  utockii 
were  ai'i'uniulatinK.  1  l>e  nierihaMt  lan  not  ilevuto  u 
few  houra  more  prutltalily,  than  in  a  careful  ncrutiiiy 
of  the  aliove  talilen. 

The  extent  t<>  whirli  kuo<1'<  have  lieen  warchuuHoil, 
cauiied  the  riiih  reiniptH  at  tho  cuiituni-liouw<  to  fail 
Im'Iow  thoHo  of  laiit  year,  an  i*  uliown  in  the  following  : 

I'Ain  1)1  rirji  nKoaiviu  at  rum  I'iiht  ihhinu  thk  Kinr.Ai 
Ykah  iinui.nu  Junk  80tm,  Hri7,  loMi'AUicn  witu  tuk 
TWO  i-aicviui;»  YiAKa. 


Months. 

IU4-U. 

ti.'il4,IMl) 
8,4m»,49H 
i,4il'i,lia 
l,7Al,i)W 
1,A(«,T'2() 
'^,.1011,1184 

9,ea&,i«s 

K,8<W,i(s6 
I,W4,71I 
a.400,48;< 
'i,»l(i,Wi 
|80,(U8,8Tli 

IU>-il. 

».'I,7«W9" 
4.KVIP.71M 
K,A48,H7(I 
ll,:«»,IW 
li,l7l.7i)H 

8,6n:l.tlM 
«,A7«,ai9 
4,«vi,i07 
a,9lH,KN'i 
!(,4AT,IM 
8,A2T,4'J5 
|4i;65W,"480  " 

IIM-tt. 

July 

(.\44l,A4t 
A,«NN,8U» 

i),7iia,ii« 
s,m)i,'Aii 

8,774,  t«8 

a,8i*i,97ii 

4,»l7,8i8 
M17,li.'W 
a,7»2,iM 

8,H«I,807 

1,9U7,1I90 

677,811 

||4V,'iT8,44« 

Anmt 

8ei>t<>mbur 

Novi>iiib»r 

Decoinb«r 

Fttbriiftrv 

March 

Aorll.  

Miy 

Juno 

Total 

The  final  reiiult  of  this  expansion,  if  cimtinueil,  will 
111!  the  lo»<  of  orcilit,  anil,  an  a  roni<ci|uenio,  a  rciluc- 
tlon — not,  however,  until  wo  nhall  have  enilureil  all 
tlic  peiialtieM  imiilent  to  hnnkruptiy.  With  the  real- 
ization of  the  present  proH|H.'ct,  f^nuil  orops,  anil  the 
continued  development  of  the  nianufiii'tiires  of  our 
country,  we  i:an  expect  prosperity,  if  we  can  only 
avoid  the  evil  of  excessive  consumption,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, iin|iartation  of  forei);n  nianiifacturvs.  Wo 
have  prepared  u  statement  sliowin);  the  ex[iorts  of 
France,  (ireat  Ilritaiii,  and  the  Uiiitcil  States  for  a  pe- 
riinl  oxtendint;  from  IH-IT  to  IHull,  inclusive.  This 
statement  enaliles  us  to  compare  the  increase  in  ex- 
ports, anil  ri>nsui|uently  in  wealtli,  of  the  three  priiici- 
|>:il  maritime  countries  in  tiie  world.  With  rcganl  to 
tho  increase  of  wealth,  a  country  is  in  a  similar  po- 
sition to  an  individual.  The  exports  of  one  are  equiv- 
alcnt  to  tlie  income  of  the  other;  and  the  im|Kirts  of 
one,  on  tho  other  hand,  are  equivalent  to  the  expenses 
of  the  other.  In  the  casu  of  this  country,  the  aU  riilu- 
ivm  tarilf  prevents  us  from  olitaininK  a  correct  valua- 
tion of  the  inqiorts,  :n  order  to  obtain  the  exact  dilTer- 
ence,  or,  in  other  worda,   the  increaae   of  wealth, 


thmuKh  the  foreign  ccinnnercn  of  the  country.  Wn 
may,  however,  Jud|{«  In  a  nieasiiro  from  the  rhitriuiri' 
of  the  Imports  of  the  pmlialile  \t,n\n  of  wealth.  If  Ihcy 
are  luxuries  Instead  of  necessaries,  or  nianufactures 
that  I'oiilii  lie  home-made,  liiHtead  of  the  products  for- 
eli^n  to  our  soli  and  climate,  we  may  Justly  put  Ihiit 
nation  down  on  the  extrava)(ant  list.  And  this  Is  the 
IMisitinn  of  the  Inlleil  Hiates.  In  the  |ieriiid  of  10 
years  lielow  ({i*''n.  the  increase  of  exports  to  the 
I'nitcd  .States  has  hten  equal  to  107  |K>r  cent. ;  the  in- 
crease of  iin|Hirts  has  been  (for  the  samt  ,Hiriiiil)  equal 
to  111  (Hir  cent.  .Showing  lliut  even  with  our  enor- 
mous proiluitive  |iowers,  and  the  great  wants  of 
Kuriqw,  our  exports  have  not  kept  pace  with  our  de- 
mand fur  luxuries.  We  are  apt  to  congratulate  our- 
selves on  the  uneqiuileil  growth  of  our  country,  uiiil  its 
commerce.  ( )f  the  former  we  have  reason  ;  liut  of  the 
latter,  the  llgures  do  nut  prove  our  statements.  In 
the  last  10  years  tho  ex|»irts  of  tho  l/'nitcd  .States  have 
inireased  1U7  |ieri:ent,  while  the  inereaso  in  the  ex- 
ports of  I'Vaiue  for  the  same  lairiod  Is  equal  to  1:10  per 
cent. ;  and  tho  increase  in  tho  exports  of  (ireat  llritain 
fur  the  same  |>erloil  is  equal  to  !i:i  per  cent. 

.Stateniont  showing,  separately,  the  total  ex|Kirts  of 
domestic -|irodui'0  of  France,  (ireat  llrituin,  and  the 
I'nlteil  States  for  tho  past  10  years : 


Year. 

Vrmn^t. 

Onal  llrluln. 

I'lillMlsinlat. 

I-^?" 

)I4II.ISMI,IIIH) 

»?U:l,ISSI,UI»l 

IIW.UIHI.IIIH) 

IH48 

l;lA,IIOII,niMI 

aiW.IPflll.lSKI 

l,M,ISH>,IHIO 

IS49 

18,\ISSMKKI 

81.VP1S)(HK) 

I4.V>IIHI,IMMI 

IHAO 

Vtl.lNMMHM) 

8.'ill,l)IKI,(HH) 

I.V.'.OIIO.ISX) 

INSI 

'WS.IMW.IXH) 

U7ll,IKN),IKH) 

aiH.IHIO.ISK) 

tWi 

HUA.UOO.INN) 

898,1  WK1,IHK) 

alll,ISH),l)IIO 

lua 

ii4A,n()o.iini) 

4tlll.lSIII,UflU 

2.'II,(MSI,ISIII 

18M 

«SI),(H8MIIJ0 

4s8,IK)IP,()(KI 

i!7l,IHH),OIIO 

ISAB 

™s,IKIO,000 

47.'>,ISHM«IO 

'.>7.\I*III,IHIII 

i8sa 

»2B,IH)0,000» 

A7,\I)I)II,U(I0 

«20,UOU,U00 

...       ^ 

tvstlihatiil. 

The  exports  of  a  country  are  the  best  exponent  of 
Its  commercial  prosperity,  and  in  a  measure  It  is  in  a 
direct  ratio.  For  although  the  protit  which  '.^i  made  on 
the  articles  exported  may  vary  aivoriling  as  they  arc 
tho  natural  products  of  tho  soil,  or  manufactures,  the 
raw  material  of  which  is  the  growth  of  another  coim- 
try,  yet  there  are  other  allowances  to  be  made  which 
compensate  for  this  ilifTorcnce.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  any  financial  troubles  wo  may  have  must  bo 
the  result  of  our  extravagant  imporli.  These  we  have 
shown  to  have  increased  more  rapidly  than  our  ex- 
ports, even  with  tho  valuation  of  our  imports  by  nn 
ml  viiliintn  tnriflf.  The  correction  to  be  applied,  if  wo 
wish  to  continue  prosporons,  is  self-evident ;  ami  this 
correction  will,  under  our  present  course,  become  ere 
long  a  nccessitv.  A  nation's  balance-sheet  is  equival- 
ent to  tho  relation  of  receipts  and  expenditures  with  nn 
individual ;  .md  national  bankruptcy  will  surely  follow 
when  the  imports,  for  a  long  series  of  years,  arc  greater 
than  tho  exporti). 

The  exports  of  doraettic  cottons  from  tljc  port  of 
New  York  to  foreign  ports,  for  three  years  past,  has 
been  aa  follows : 


Maslro  .. 
Dnieb  Wsi 

Nwsiii.h  n 

naiilali  W4 
Hrlllah  #< 
KlHihish  W 
Hun  Diiinlii 
Mrlllali  Nu 
New  (IraiM 

Itiasll 

Veliesueia, 
Arvanllnii  I 
''loitrui  Am 
We«r.  eniut 
Ifiiiiiliiru. , 

Africa 

Aualralla... 

Kant  Inillei 

Ailotbora... 

Toltl, 

Mnrilim"  A 
ttnut  of  this  ( 
1  ity  as  a  con 
ilemonstratoil 
(Irst  showing 
this  |)ort  fnir 
cninmencing  \ 
Yffari, 

\m\~~... 

I885 

1880 

188B 

1840  .... 

I84fl 

ISM 

184T 

1848 

184l> 

ISBO 

IsAI 

JH.VJ 

IS.VI 

lN%4 

ISSfl 


The  increasi 
lliirty  years, 
American  tonii 
than  seven-foil 
nearly  lhirli/.\ 
plains,  more 
the  growing  in 

the  affairs  oft. 

foreign  ton  nag 

years  immedii. 

In  consequence 

not  only  tho  (; 

a  vast  a'r.junt  i 

V'BisEii   n 


Clau. 


Stcimsblps 

Otli.  sloani  vess . 

fOilns ; 

Uarksand  brlijs. 
Hchoooors,  etc. . 

ToUl... 


We  give  tw 

Commerce  and 
mcrco  of  the 
destination  of  i. 
country  from 
bound;  also 
enables  us  to  . 
commerce  of  N 
our  relations  tc 
or  unfavorable 
statistics.  In  1 
tonnage  bolonj 
*e  have  a  fai 


NBW 


i4a» 


NRW 


■l^MMlM. 

IIU 

l,7iH 

WM 

H 

147 

IKM 

m 

IftH 

u 
II'J 

9,IM.'J 
«sx 

I.U't 

411 

Wltl 

270 

l,o«7 

M» 

19,41111 

AM 

lUI. 

2,»7'J 

1W7 

0 

fi 

4V9 

1,1411 

411 

in 

nil 

9,7lV4 

l,m*4 

IIW 
41t« 

1,1  r,9 

lol 

l,n'il 

Miiw 

II.D9V 

2A1 

-|»M. 

MaaU 

4,1llt 

Diilrh  W-t  ImlUl. 

Hw«<ll>ll  W.'.l  iNdlM 

DkiiMi  W<'»t  liidlM 

IM 

10 

4»T 

HrllUli  W.'Kt  Inill.'fi 

Hiwiilih  Wi«tliicll»i 

Hun  IftiihliiKD   

MO 
IM 
22'< 

llrllUli  Nurth  Amiirim 

Ni'W  (JrKiiikdtt     

2.1 
D-tn 

Hrxll 

8,1.4 

Vviioxiii'U      

»» 

AUO 

IIKI 

West,  oniut  of  Mouth  AniiTlr*. . 

IAS 
IIKI 

Afrlon 

1,M74 

Auatrftlln ,1 

2,0tlll 

Kwt  InOloii amlOlilnu. 

Allotben 

17,(174 
287 

T^UI 

H4,Th« 

Afnritimf  Ailennermmt. — Wedimlil  wli«tli»r  lh«  pro- 
l^reaa  nf  tlii'«  niuiitry  a*  n  iiuirllliiie  |Hiwi>r,  unci  nf  thin 
I  Ity  Hit  a  I'oininnri'UI  mii|iiiriuin,  can  Im  muni  clenrly 
ili'iiioniitrato<l  thiiii  In  tliv  milijoinucl  Hini|>lfl  tiilili'x ;  tlin 
llr»t  nliiiwlntt  tliu  t<>iinii|{e  of  tin'  !ilil|)|iln|{  tliiit  cntereil 
till*  |H>rt  from  forulKU  |M>rtii.  f't  it  iiuiiiliar  uf  yean, 
ciinimeiicInK  with  IM',>I : 


Thu  IniTPOiiH  In  the  totiil  tiinniiKo  froni  1K21  to  1H,51, 
thirty  ycurs,  wiis  iiearly  tiMi-fnIil,  Tim  Inercaao  in 
Anivrlcaii  tMnniign  during  the  minia  period,  wim  more 
tliiin  «oven-fuld.  The  iiicreann  In  f()ri'i)(n  tonnuife  wuh 
iieiirly  Ihirty-tiM — about  'J,'J(10  jier  cent.  Thin  ex- 
pliiinn,  inoro  clearly  thnii  any  other  fuct,  the  cauao  of 
the  (jrowlnn  Interest  felt  by  Kuro|>eaii  Boveniments  in 
the  ulTuiri*  of  thiit  country.  The  groat  falling  off  in  the 
fureiftn  tonnage  In  1H5I,  in  comparison  with  uevernl 
yeurii  iniinediately  preceding,  won  doubtless  mainly 
in  coniiequcnce  of  tho  Eastern  war,  wliich  cinployecl, 
not  only  tho  C'unanI  ntoamera  running  to  this  port,  but 
a  vast  a'r.,>unt  of  Hritish  shipping  of  all  descriptions,  an  i 

VlSliEM     01III.T     AT     THI     PoBT    Or    NllW     YoKK,     IKrI.t'DINO    TUK 

OUIiRNPaUT. 


tninaport*.  The  inactivity  In  fnlKhla  honeo  wai  «)m 
IKitaiit  In  liillucii.'*.  Thar*  la  mi  reasun  to  doubt  that, 
with  tha  raturn  of  iiaaia,  th«  foreign  shipping  enterlntf 
this  |sirt  ye  itly,  will  eipml,  If  not  surpass  In  tonnage, 
any  former  year. 

Tho  almvB  table  showa  only  the  extent  nf  the  trail* 
of  this  cHy  with  foreign  iMirls.  The  coaaling  trada 
since  1HI7  |s  shown,  piirtlally,  In  the  following.  Ilul 
It  must  be  rememlH'red,  that  coasting  vessels  to  or 
from  ports  north  of  the  northern  lioimdary  of  (ieorglu, 
are  not  i'om|»dlod  to  enter  or  clear,  unless  distilleil 
spirits  are  of  the  cargo.  It  will  at  once  be  seen  that 
this  exhibit  of  the  triidi'  of  this  city  coastwise  is  far 
from  iH'liig  1  omplct...  'I'lio  same  fact  will  also  explain 
tlia  disparity  Intweeii  the  tonnage  entered  and  claandl 

Ytsrt.  KnUf,..!. 

IMH 402,148 

1H4B 4'i4,ll7ll 

IsM 4Nl),lillO 

IsAl 4AA,M2 

KVi 4»7,f>40 

IsAH nilT,AIII 

IsM Wi),4n2 

1'<AA 814,018 

liut  tho  increase  In  tonnage  Is  not  alone  remarkable. 
It  Is  n  common  observation  that  the  largest  slilps  of 
lilt  years  ago  did  not  exceed  In  tonnage  the  ordinary 
coasters  of  the  present  day.  'I'hen,  u  ship  of  700  or 
MM  tons  was  a  wonderful  achievement  of  ca|iital  and 
mochanlsin.  Now,  ships  of  more  than  2,000  tons  havo 
ceased  to  be  regarded  us  out  of  the  ordlnaiy  course. 
The  foUow  ing  is  u  statement  of  the  number  of  vessels, 
foreign  and  American,  that  entered  this  |)ort  in  tha 
years  inilicalcd,  their  total  and  average  tonnage.  The 
statement  of  tho  cntrie.i  for  IH.io,  shows  a  diminution 
in  tliH  average  tonnage  of  foreign  vessels,  to  below 
that  of  IH'IO ;  which  makes  it  quite  clear  that  the  di- 
minlshed  tonnage  of  the  year  was,  us  wo  have  said, 
caused  mainly  liy  tlio  use  of  a  great  number  of  large 
sliipa  for  purposes  incident  to  the  war  between  tho 
Allies  and  lEussia.     Fr,  -i  ISS.'i  to  lM.'i4,  tho  American 


riinn..!. 

MIO.KOH 
kDA.AnO 
1,0211,070 
l,2ll,»22 
1,1178,789 
l,8l»,iM»T 
I,4UV,II8S 
l,87s,s«l) 


tonnage  increased  al 
ships  increased  onl'  . 
loniiiigo  about  11/  per 
foreign  tonnage  al'  .i>t  ' 


4..    ..'. 

801,     'I 

1,442,2  I'll 

,810,261 


ur-fidd,  but  tho  number  of 

lur  cent,,  the  average 

ceding  the  average 


YiiArl, 

' 

No.  .r  1 

¥»»•■           1 

1W 

~iA-  '' 

1S40 

1,4. 

1'<4,1 

l.4-i4 

KM! 

1,NII2 

18.V4 

2,888     1 

tS55 

2,4ST     I 

Fonlfli. 

X 

ToUl 

Krtr»ttv 

■  .nnlT'*. 

L  ^iinsjrt.. 

i: 

«,w» 

198 

i.C 

irt,l88 

2M 

.  ,i| 

.IO,H.'>'^ 

207 

;.'i..i 

441,7.^7 

804 

111 

477,088 

888 

m 

209,000 

228 

Huie-YARiis   or  BroOoLY.n,   VTiLiuuaiiVBU,  axd 


CIsu. 

LsaDcbed  In  Uie  yesr 

On  l)i«  stock!  ;.t  the  ctoi«  of  tb«  yasrt                      1 

11(4. 

18U. 

ISM. 

ISM. 

ISM. 

IBSi.            1 

Sleamstilpa 

otii.  steom  vess. 
Mlilns ; . 

No. 

19 
28 
80 
18 
21 
108 

TonitMB. 

24,8<S) 
8,1187 

8»,8'<0 
8,181 
8,292 

No. 
4 
4 
8 

10 
18 
"87 

Tdnnsgit. 
11,100 
2,'.'00 
9,180 
4,8ftl 
8,TH.'> 

~2i»,s07 

No. 

15 
8 
11 
12 
18 

56 

Tonnsiie. 

18,900 

1,!I(S) 

12..%8fl 

0,800 

3,'!20 

49,470 

18 
1 
A 
2 
4 

18 

T..™.,,.. 
»,'J00 

rsio 

S,'.'(K1 

1,000 

1,188 

20,088 

No. 
3 
9 
« 
4 
8 

17"' 

Tonntwe. 
9,000 
1,180 
8,1,50 
2,.'UW 
1,1'iO 

No. 
6 
8 
4 
8 

TonnAffa. 

T.480 

9,780 

2,180 

680 

^18,000" 

llarkaandbrlKB. 
Hcboonors,  etc. . . 

Total 

81,320 

21,720 

18 

We  gi\'e  two  tables,  arranged  from  the  report  on 
Commerce  and  Knvigation,  showing  tho  complete  com- 
merce of  the  port  of  Now  Vork,  and  specifying  the 
destination  of  all  vessels  when  outward  bound,  or  the 
country  from  whence  they  arrived  when  inward 
bound  J  also  showing  tlicir  nationality.  This  table 
cnaliles  us  to  sec  at  a  glance  tho  distribution  of  tho 
commerce  of  Now  York,  and  gives  u  clear  exiiibit  of 
our  relations  to  other  countries  in  regard  to  favoralilo 
or  unfavorable  tariffs,  and  shows  some  very  curious 
statistics.  In  our  trade  to  Kngland,  four  llftlis  of  the 
tonnago  belongs  to  the  United  States,  showing  that 
We  have  a  fair  field  for  enterprise  j   wliilo  to  the 


Rritish  North  American  possessions  wo  have  less  than 
one  fourth,  showing  that  we  are  inferior  in  enterjiriae 
to  our  neighbors,  or  thoy  have  some  tarifT  advantage. 
We  absorl)  four  fifths  of  tho  carrying  trade  to  I''rance, 
while  to  the  northern  Knropean  countries  we  have  but 
an  equal  amount.  Tho  carri'ing  trade  to  South  Amer- 
ica goes  almost  entirely  in  American  bottoms.  Tho 
('ul)a  trade  is  Oi)  per  cent,  in  American  vessels,  while 
to  Portugal  only  almnt  one  third;  showing  f'lt  the 
tariff  is  in  favor  of  that  countr)'.  To  Han"  ;.,  w« 
have  less  than  one  fifth;  which  is  probai  oviii^, 
partly  to  mora  ecooomy  practiced  by  tho  Dutcli,  m.!* 
lower  wages. 


m 


NEW 


1440 


NEW 


Statement  Exnisrrmo  the  Ndiibkb  and  Tokmaok  or 
Ahebiran  and  Fobeion  Vesseu  which  k.^tbbbd  intu 
THE   Disthiot  or  New  Yoric,  and  the  Countries 

rBOM   WniOK  THET  ARRIVED,  DURUIO  THE  FISCAL  YXAB 

ENDING  June  8O111,  1HA6. 


Arrlrcd  from 

Aowriciin  TfltMU.|Forelgn  t«imU. 

Totid.          1 

No. 

Tou. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

ToDt. 

RnulB. 

1 
8 

683 
1,48« 

"a 

.... 
2,871 

1 
11 

603 

3,867 

8w«dcn*Norw'y 

Swell.  W.  Indies 

f 

e6e 

6 

056 

DanlsliW.  Indies 

V 

8,48C 

f 

822 

Id 

8,6021 

IlBmburg. 

8 

4,b4( 

41 

24,91( 

411 

20,460j 

1t 

26,768 

K' 

44,816 
208 

101 

71,569 
208 

Other  Oor.  ports 

1 

1 

Holland....:.... 

14 

P,»61 

2il 

0.40« 

M 

18,451 

Dntdi  W.  Indies 

1( 

8.24T 

t 

.« 

21 

8,001 

Dutch  K  Indies. 

C 

2,808 

(1 

2,868 

Uelglum 

21 

21,612 

1 

m 

80 

22,1.18 

England 

482 

616,46$ 

85 

60,844 

617 

676,815 

Scotland 

81 

17,667 

l* 

11,761 

4tj 

20,421 

Ireland 

4 
4 

a,22T 
T8D 

2 
2 

840 
862 

0 
6 

8,076 
1,161 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

"1 
4!, 

"245 
8,671 

1 

8io 

262 
4V,8i0 

1 

1 

856 

203 

245 

40,081 

OlhcrR.N.A.pos. 

Ilrltlsh  W.  Indies 

107 

10,746 

12a 

17,2681 

280 

87,008 

Hrltlsh  Honduras 

U 

8,448 

, , 

14 

8,448 

Ilrltish  Gulsna.. 

17 

8,088 

2 

870 

10 

4,858 

llr.pos9.ln  Africa 

IS 

2,081 
208 

8 

408 

16 

8,424 

1  Hrltlsh  Australia 

1 

1 

203 

I  Itrltlsh  E.  Indies 

IC 

11,082 

Ij 

1,828 

10 

13,810 

France  on  AtlaL. 

lit 

122,360 

24 

12,602 

1*) 

Ills,*:? 

France  on  Med. . 

85 

16,600 

4 

1,040 

80 

18,240 

Fr.  N.  Amcr.nos. 
Fr.  West  Inillcs. 

,  , 

10 

1,100 

10 

1,106 

1 

200 

1 

200 

4paln  on  Atlantic 

12 

8,464 

8 

1,000 

20 

^46;) 

Spain  on  Mcdlt.. 

41 

11,618 

10 

8,«U 

60 

l.VW. 

Canary  Lslamls.. 

ft 

OSS 

1 

180 

6 

1,177 

Philippine  iBls... 

12 

12,018 

1 

1,000 

18 

13.078 

m 

100 

24.V>00 
10,444 

,10 
48 

8,»01 
7,248 

728 
14.8 

2.52,:.01 
20,087 

I'orto  Klco 

Portugal 

26 

8,787 

24 

6,627 

60 

14,801 

Madeira 

,. 

2 

284 

2 

284 

Capo  do  Vcrd.. . . 

» 

1,840 

, , 

0 

1,840 

2 
4 

801 
2,041 

"0 

2,607 

l'^ 

801 
6,,MS 

'Sardinia 

,  Tuscany 

1» 

0,868 

10 

8,886 

20 

12,724 

Papal  Htates,... 

1 

86b 

.... 

368 

Twoaicllles 

4- 

10,064 

.■12 

8,470 

SO 

24,643 

Austria 

4 
8 

1,505 
1,260 

4 
2 

2,284 
873 

t 

8,739 
1,620 

Turkey  In  Asia. . 

Kjrypt 

H 

1,081 

8 

1,081 

Utb.  ports  Ah-ica 
llayti 

22 

4,S68 

.. 

22 

4,858 

182 
2 

28,218 
808 

20 
3 

3,8.1'. 
S.'iO 

162 
6 

27,050 
662 

San  Domingo . . . 

Mexico 

.•17 

0,088 

6 

730 

42 

10,874 

Central  Republic 

82 

81,174 

2 

402 

81 

81,670 

New  Uranada. .  ■ 

72 

58,.S10 

8 

741 

6 

50,051 

Venezuela 

61 

16,601 

22 

4,660 

88 

21,170 

Urazll 

110 
4 

28 

81,48.S 

028 

8,9.M 

26 

"a 

6,830 
"860 

188 
4 

80 

37,822 

oiis! 

0,8101 

Ilrugaay 

iluenosAyres... 

Chill 

1 

I 

321 

6,021 
4,808 

"1 

"212 


1 
8 
4 

8'il| 
5,2*1' 
4,30.1 

Sandwich  Islands 

China. 

661 

61,018 

2 

1,096 

67 

53,004 

Total 

2,4»8 

1,881,726 

I,U33 

200,988 

8,520 

1,681,869 

The  greater  Increase  of  the  commerce  of  New  York 
over  the  otUer  cities,  is  shown  by  tho  tables  from  the 
annual  report  on  commerce  and  navigation.  The 
tonnage  built  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  185(),  in 
all  the  States,  was  469,393  tons,  tlie  leading  States 
ranging  .19  follows : 


!  Maine !  156 

!Mas.<iachasett&  84 

NewYorV....!  24 

'All  others.....'  83 


I 


I/,  q  I    rn 


1 
161 


843     818  i  186 


4      816,  140,007-88 

184  8fl,8*»-88 

806i  70,30112 

»47i  10a,116HI0 


Total. 


103  I  640     470  ■  221  .  1,708  460,303-78 


Maine,  it  appears  from  this,  builds  an  amount  of  ton- 
nage nearly  as  liirgo  as  JIas.sachusetts  and  New  York, 
together,  and  also  nearly  as  large  an  amount  as  all  the 
other  States  of  the  Union,  omitting  Massa'diusctts  and 
Now  York  ;  so  tliat  there  is  built  on  the  coast  of  Slaino 
almost  0  1  third  of  the  aggregate  tonnage  of  the  Union, 
i'robably,  leaving  out  of  view  stoamships,  canal  boutr., 
and  river  craft,  Maine  buUila  fully  one  half  of  the  ton. 
oage  of  the  iJnion. 


Taking  the  leading  ship-owning  States,  we  have  tha 
following  result  as  to  tonnage  owned : 


Jims  80,  1854.  Juno  80, 1855. 

Ton».  Ton*. 

Now  York 1,508,808  1,464,216 

Massachusetts. 801,360  070,206 

Maine 780,170  806,609 


Tom. 
Inc..  44,687 
Dec..8T,848 
Deo..26,4a« 


ToUl 8,180,338       3,250,020 

8,180,888 


Decrease  In  tha  year  1866 60,687 

The  following  table  shows  tho  relative  amount  of 
tonnage  owned  in  the  large  ports  which  have  over 
60,000  tons  registered  at  the  custom-house  of  the  dis- 
trict : 


New  York 

Boston 

Philadelphia... 

Baltimore 

Bath 

New  Orleans. . . 
Waldoborough. 
New  Bedford... 

Portland 

Buffalo 

Chicago 

Cleveland 

Detroit 

Belfast 

Barnstable 

Clin  rioston 

Ban  Francisco.. 
Cuyahoga. 


'.' 


Tom. 


621,117 
107,2-28 
183,844 
108,320 
168,808 
165,873 
163,000 
180,1.54 
80,020 
67,407 
60,010 
68,088 
"0,612 
63,136 
60,128 
80,780 
60,916 


Tom. 


540,208 
294,806 
188,103 
175,268 
200,836 
148,806 
160,086 
187,317 
76,052 
60,972 
51,578 
65,058 
70,762 
80,616 
60,410 
87,842 


The  most  remarkable  decline  is  that  shown  in  Phil- 
adelphia. New  York  exhibits  the  greatest  invroase 
of  tonnage,  according  to  these  returns. 

Of  tonnage  employed  in  steam  navigation,  New 
Y'ork  stands  at  the  bead  by  a  large  amount.  The 
iigur^^s  are  as  as  follows : 

Tonii. 

Ne'V  York  State 166,786 

New  Orlcans.f 61,761 

St.  Louis 88,746 

Pittsburg 37,606 

Ra-tes  of  Commissions  beoouuended  iit  the  Chahueb  or 

COMMERI'F.,  to  IIB  CIIABOED  WHEBE  NO  EXFBESS  AOBEI* 
UEN-^  TO  THE  OONTUABV  EXISTS. 

Bankitvf. 
On  purchase  of  stocks,  bonds,  and  all  kinds  of 
securities,  including  the  drawing  of  bills  for 

the  pR>Tnent  of  same 1  per  cent 

On  sale  of  stocks,  bonds,  and  all  kinds  of  securi- 
ties. Including  remittances  In  bills  and  guar- 
anty   1         " 

On  purchase  of  sale  of  specie  and  bullion ^       '* 

Kemlttances  In  bills  of  exchange ^       " 

Remittances  In  bills  of  exchange,  with  guaranty.  1         " 

Drawing  or  endorsing  bills  of  exchange 1        '* 

Collecting  dividends  on  stocks,  bonds,  or  other 

securities i       " 

4. 'ollertlng  interest  on  bonds  and  mortgages 1         ** 

Receiving  and  naying  moneys  on  h  hlcli  no  other 

cummiSKlon  is  received .' ^       ** 

Procuring  accrptanco  of  billB  of  exchange  pay- 
able in  foreign  countries I       ** 

On  Issuing  letters  of  cr"dl*    ,  travelers,  exc]usl''o 

of  foreign  bankers' charge 1         " 

Where  bills  of  exchange  aro  remitted  for  col- 
lection, and  returned  under  protest  for  tho 
nun-acc,>ntance,  or  non-payment,  the  fK,j^Q 
coramlfldlons  are  to  bo  charged  as  though  they 
were  duly  accepted  and  paid. 

General  Biuintu, 

For  sales  of  foreign  mcrrbandlse 5        *' 

On  domestic  merchandise 2^       '* 

Guaranty H      " 

On  purchase  and  shipment  of  merchandise,  on 

cost  and  charges,  with  funds  In  bond 2^       '* 

CoUecting  delayed  and  litigated  accounts 5         ** 

Effecting  marine  1  isurance,  on  amount  insured,    i       '* 
No  amount  1 7  b'^  charged  for  etfcctliig  insurance 

on  property  ci>UBigued. 
I,.andtng  and  re-Hhipplng  goods  from  vessels  la 

dlHtress,  on  value  of  Involco 2i       '* 

Landing  and  ri-shippinK,  on  specie  and  bullion..    \      ** 
Receiving  and  forirardlng  merchandise  entered 
at  custom-house,  on  invoice  value  1  per  cent, 

and  on  expenses  Incurred H       " 

On  consignments  of  merchandise  withdrawn  or 
re-phlpped,  full  commissions  aro  to  be  charged, 
to  the  ezteut  of  adrancec  or  rosponsiblliliep  in- 


NIC 


1441 


NIC 


In 
hi 

hi 

16 

i 


in 


Oeneml  Bmtntti. 
curred,  and  one  half  conuulBsioQ  on  the  resl- 
(luoof  thoTaluc. 
On  giTinK  bonds  that  passengers  will  not.  become 
a  burden  on  the  city,  on  the  amount  of  the 

bonds 2i  per  cent. 

The  risk  of  loss  by  robbery,  fire  (unless Insurance 
be  ordered),  thcf^,  popular  tnmnlt,  and  all 
other  unavoidable  occurrences,  Is  In  all  casca 
to  be  homo  by  the  owners  of  the  floods,  pro- 
vided duo  diligence  has  been  exercised  in  the 
care  of  them. 

Skipping. 

On  purchase  or  sale  of  vessels H       " 

Disburscmenta  and  outfit  of  vessels 2^       " 

Procuring  freight  and  pusseugers  fur  I'^uropc, 

Kiist  Indies,  and  in  Ameriejin  vessels 2i       " 

Po.  do.  in  foreign  vessels 5        ** 

Du.  do.  coastwise 5         " 

Coilocting  freight 2i       " 

Collecting  insurance  losses  of  all  kinds 2i       ** 

Chartering  vessels,  on  amount  of  freight,  actual 
or  estimated,  to  be  oonsidernd  us  due  when  the 

chartiT-parties  are  sigued 2^       ^^ 

But  no  charter  to  be  considered  binding  till 
a  mcmoratulum,  or  one  of  the  copies  of  the 
charter  lias  been  signed. 
On  giving  bonds  forvesseid  unjerattaclimcnt  in 

litigated  cusee.  oil  amount  of  liability 2^       ** 

The  foregoing  commiBHion..!  to  be  exclusive  of  brokerage, 
and  every  charge  actually  incurred, 

Nicaragua,  San  Juan  de.  A  sea-port  town  at 
the  mouth  of  tlie  river  of  the  same  na- 13,  State  of 
Costn  liica,  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
lat.  10°  r,a'  N.,  hing.  SA°  -iS'  W.  The  port  is  excel- 
lent, nnd  19  considered  the  best  on  thi.s  part  of  the 
coast.  Till  lately,  the  town  was  quite  inconsiderable, 
and  consisted  of  little  else  than  a  cluster  of  huts ;  but 
latterly  It  has  no  doubt  lieen  improved. 

This  place  has  risen  into  importance  from  its  being 
at  the  western  extremity  of  a  proposed  line  of  water 
communication  liotween  tlie  Car'iibean  Sea  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  This  line  is  to  consist  partly  of  the  River 
San  .luaii,  flowing  from  tlie  Lake  of  Nicaragua  cast  to 
the  sea  at  San  Juan,  partly  of  the  lakt,  and  partly  of  a 
canal  to  lie  constructed  from  the  latter  to  ths  Pacific 
Ocean.  Tliis  irojcct  lias  been  often  mooted ;  hut  the 
discovery  of  the  extraordinary  mineral  riches  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  tlio  consequent  emigration  to  and  inter- 
cour.ie  with  that  country,  have  given  it  an  incomparably 
greater  interest  than  it  formerly  possessed.  Tlie  coun- 
try appears  to  present  greater  facilities  for  pftecting 
this  great  work,  than  any  otlier  part  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, except  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  or  Panama.  The 
River  San  Juan,  about  90  miles  in  length,  is  said  to 
have  lieen occasionally  ni  -igaiile  throughout  its  entire 
course  for  ..a-going  vessels,  till  the  Spaniards,  to  pro- 
tect tiiemselvcs  from  the  attacks  c  the  buccaneers, 
sunk  vessels  loaded  with  stone  in  its  bed.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  interruption  thus  given  to  the  stream,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  water  was  carried  oft"  liy  a 
new  channel  called  the  Kio  Colorado. — CiiF.v.' i.iek, 
L'hthme  <k  Panama,  etc.,  p.  84.  The  San  Juan  is 
still,  liowei  >r,  navigated,  thougli  with  much  dilliculty, 
in  the  v.i'iiy  reason,  liy  steamers  and  other  vessels 
drawing  little   vater. 

The  lake  itself  has  deep  water  throughout,  and  is 
adapted  for  ships  of  the  largest  burden.  The  distance 
between  its  so'ith-western  shore  and  tlio  Gulf  of  Papa- 
g.yo,  on  the  Pacific,  is  only  29,N«0  yanls,  or  15f  miles ; 
and  though  the  intervening  country  lie  laid  down  in 
uuiny  maps  as  mountainous,  the  greatest  actual  height 
of  any  part  of  it  above  the  level  of  tlio  l,.ko  i.-'  nnly  I'.l 
feet ;  at  least,  such  is  the  result  given  by  a  .ic-ries  of 
347  lc\els,  aliont  lOU  j-ards  ajiart,  taken  in  1781. — 
TiioMrsoN',s  (luatemala,  Append.,  pp.  ol2-5-.'n.  The 
surface  of  tlie  lake  is  l-.'8  feet  ;t  inches  (KnglislO  above 
the  level  of  the  Pacific ;  u'  ascent  which  might  lie 
overciime  by  a  succession  of  locks.  The  difVnrcncc  in 
the  level  of  the  two  oceans,  formerly  siipiiosed  to  lie  so 
serious  an  obstacle  to  the  undertaking,  is  said  liy  llimi- 
Ooldt  not  to  exceed  20,  or,  at  most,  ;'  1  lect.  (A'lmi'. 
Etpaipu;  i,,  223,  ed.  1«25.)     At  its  western  extremity, 


the  Lake  of  Nicaragua  is  connected  by  a  small  rl¥*r, 
the  Tipitapa,  with  the  Lake  of  Leiin  ur  ManagllH) 
The  latter,  65  miles  in  length  by  nearl}'  tlO  in  bruitdth, 
is  also  said  to  have  deep  water  throughout,  Alltl  ths 
plan  which  appears  to  be  at  present  preferred  U,  ta 
make  the  channol  uniting  these  two  lakes  navigable, 
and  to  excavate  a  canal  from  the  latter  to  the  piii  t  at 
Realejo,  on  the  Pacific.  Mr.  Squier,'lata  vhuqii  ihn 
affaires  of  tlie  United  States  at  Nicaragua,  has  |iill|i 
lished  the  following  statements  in  regard  to  this  rimts. 

Length  of  the  route  by  Lake  Nicaragua,  etc,,  i«urns( 
the  American  Continent,  from  tlie  Atlantic  to  thu  Pit- 
cific  Oceans:  River  San  Juan,  90  miles  j  Lake  N|i!iir«» 
gua,  necessarj-  to  lie  traversed,  110  miles  j  llWur 
Tipitapa,  18  miles;  Lake  Managua  or  Loon,  fi&  niilus  | 
from  Luke  Managua  to  Realejo,  40  miles  j  total,  flOII 
miles.  Height  of  tlie  various  lakes  to  lie  passed,  anil 
the  elevations  of  land  :  height  of  Lake  Licarugiia,  Ijf 
feet  9  inches  aliove  Atlantic,  128  feet  3  inches  aliuvfl 
Pacific;  height  of  Lake  Slanagua,  17(i  feet  6  iiiuhen 
above  Atlantic,  156  feet  11  inches  above  Pacific ;  Mg\), 
est  point  of  land  to  be  passed,  231  feet  11  inches  aliuvs 
Atlantic,  212  feet  5  Indies  above  Pacific, 

The  River  San  Juan  reaches  the  ocean  by  ssvural 
mouths.  The  divergence  takes  place  aliuut  2U  inilxD 
from  the  sea,  forming  a  low  delta,  penetrated  by  nu» 
merous  canals,  or,  as  they  are  called  on  the  lower  M|s> 
sissippi,  bai/oii.i,  and  lagunas.  The  princi|)al  branch  It 
the  Colorado,  which  carries  off  at  least  two  tllilds  ii( 
the  water  of  the  river,  and  whieli  empties  Into  ths 
ocean  some  10  or  15  miles  to  the  southward  of  the  port, 
There  is  an  almost  impassalile  bar  at  the  entrance,  whl'dl 
would  preclude  the  ascent  of  vessels,  even  if  the  depth 
of  water  a!>ove  permitted  of  their  proceeding  after  it 
was  passed.  The  little  steamer  Urus,  nevertheless, 
after  repeated  trials,  succeeded  in  passing.  There  U 
another  small  channel  called  the  Taiiro,  which  reaches 
the  sea  midway  between  the  iiort  and  the  mouth  of  tha 
Colorado.  The  branch  emptying  into  the  harbor,  ths 
one  through  which  the  ascending  and  descending  boatd 
pass,  carries  olT  only  alwut  one  third  of  the  water  of 
the  river.  It,  too,  has  a  bar  at  the  mouth,  i,  e„  at  lt» 
point  of  debouchure  into  the  harbor,  upon  which,  n| 
low  tide,  there  are  but  three  or  four  feet  of  water. 
This  passed,  the  bed  of  the  river  is  wide,  and  stuildei) 
with  low  islands ;  but  excepting  in  the  clianiiel,  which 
is  narrow  and  crooked,  the  water  is  very  shallow.  U 
has  been  suggested  that  the  Colorado  branch  might  iia 
dammed,  and  a  greater  column  of  water  thrown  into 
the  other,  or  San  Juan  branch.  I)ut  the  suggestion 
can  only  be  made  by  those  who  are  wholly  unutw 
qualnted  with  the  suliject.  Allowing  it  to  he  [jossibls 
to  build  a  dam,  the  stream  would  probaldy  find  a  new 
channel  to  the  sea  ;  or,  if  it  took  the  direction,  of  the 
harliorj  till  it  up  during  the  first  rainy  season  witU 
sand,  or  at  once  destroy  the  sandy  liarriera  which  now 
protect  and  form  it.  It  can  not  be  made  navigalilc  for 
ships  or  vessels  of  any  kind,  except  of  the  ligjittisli 
draught,  by  any  practicalde  system  of  improvenienta. 
The  lioats  used  ii|Km  tlie  river  for  carrying  freight  and 
passengers  are  exaggerated  canoes,  called  litntyini, 
Some  are  hollowed  from  a  single  tree,  but  tlio  lietter 
varieties  are  built,  with  some  degree  of  skill,  from  tlia 
timber  of  the  rnlro,  a  very  light  and  durable  kind  of 
wood,  which  grows  abundantly  about  the  lakes.  Tim 
largest  of  these  carry  from  8  to  10  tons,  and  draw  2  op 
3  feet  of  water  when  loaded.  They  arc  long,  ami 
rather  deep  and  narrow,  and  have,  wlien  fully  inaiinuil, 
from  8  to  12  oarsmen,  who  drive  the  boats  by  means 
of  long  sweeps  and  setting-poles.  Sails  are  seldom,  if 
ever,  used,  except  upcm  the  lake.  The  masts  are  im» 
shipped  and  left  at  tic  head  oli  the  river  in  descending, 
anil  resumed  again  in  returning.  These  boats  iiava  A 
small  space  near  the  stern  called  the  "  ehima,"  covureil 
with  a  iniard  roof,  a  thatch  of  palm  leaves,  or  with 
hides,  which  is  assigned  to  the  jiassengers,  Thu  real 
of  the  bout  is  open,  and  the  oaismcu,  or,  as  they  call 


iri 


^^■f?>S")TW?T'^^*'^^*f 


NIC 


1442 


NIC 


themselves  mafineros  (sailors),  are  without  protection, 
and  slco^  upon  their  Ijenclica  at  night,  covered  only 
witli  their  lilanltct?,  and  with  tlio  (;unwalc  of  the  boat 
for  a  common  i)illow.  The  captain,  or  patron,  is  tlin 
steersman,  and  occupies  a  narrow  decli  at  the  stern, 
called  tlie  pineta,  upon  wliieli  ho  also  sleeps,  coiling 
himself  up  in  a  knot,  if  the  boat  is  small  and  the  pine- 
ta narrow.  The  freight,  if  liable  to  damage  from  ex- 
posure, is  covered  with  raw  liides,  which,  between  sun 
and  rain,  soon  dift'use  an  odor  very  unlilie  the  perfumes 
which  are  said  to  load  the  breezes  of  Araby  the  Blest. 
The  usual  freightage  from  San  Juan  to  (iranada  — 
a  distance  of  1(10  or  170  miles  —  is  from  ;iO  to  50  cents 
per  cwt. ;  if  the  articles  are  bullty,  it  is  more.  The 
boatmen  are  paid  from  seven  to  eiglit  dollars  the  trip, 
down  from  Grenada  and  liack,  which  usually  occupies 
from  twenty  to  thirty  days,  although  with  i)roper  man- 
agement it  might  be  made  in  less  time.  Time,  how- 
ever, in  these  regions  is  not  regarded  as  of  much  im- 
portance, aiul  every  thing  is  done  very  leisiiridy. 

ITicaragua,a  Ropublicoft'entral  America.  Itcx- 
tends  from  lat.  10°  ii/  to  13°  iO'  N.,  at  the  Bay  of  C'on- 
chagua,  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  long.  SI!"  10'  to  87°  40 
W. ;  having  west  the  Pacific  Ocean,  east  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  part  of  the  so-called  Mosiiulto  territory,  north 
the  .State  of  Honduras  and  San  Salvador,  and  .South 
Costa  Hica.  Ar.:a  about  10,000  ?(iuaro  niile.s.  The  He- 
puldic  is  divided  into  five  Depart menls,  each  of  which 
has  several  judicial  districts,  as  f(dIowi : 

llepitrlmcnu^ [     Pop.    ^  DUtricU. 


.Meritliuimt . 
Oriental  . . . 


Oi'clilcntal 

Septentrional  of  Ma^agalpn 
Septentrional  of  Segovia 

Total IMTJNH^ 


20,(M)U 

»r.,(KI(l 

90,l)fl« 
41.000 
fi.unO' 


Hivus  or  N'icaragna. 
t  Acayopaorl'liontales, 
}      (Iranada,    Masaga, 
(      and  Managua. 

[.( on  unti  Ctaiiandcga. 

Matdgalpa. 

Segovia. 


Tile  populaiion  here  given  is  tlie  results  arrived  at, 
in  round  numbers,  by  a  census  attempted  in  1846.  It 
was  only  partially  successful,  as  tlie  people  supposed  it 
preliminary  to  some  military  conscription,  or  new  !a.\. 
The  principal  towns  of  the  State,  with  their  estimated 
population,  are  as  follows : 


PneMaNuevo •2,900 

Xagorote l.SDO 

.Souoi 2,600 

Managua 12,000 

Massaya l.MBO 

(iranada 10,000 

Nicaragua 8,00(1 

.Si'govia S.U'KI 

Matagalpa 2,000 


I^on  (the  capital),  in 

eluding  Snbtiava...  28.000 

Wiinandega    11,0011 

Chinandego  \  ifjo it. 000 

Realejo 1.000 

Chichigalpa 2,Sl«l 

Poaultoga 900 

Telica 1,000 

Somotillo 2,000 

Villa  .Neuva 1,'KK) 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  females  greatly  exceed 
the  males  in  number.  In  the  Department  Occidental, 
according  to  the  census,  tlie  projiortions  were  as  three 
to  luu.'  The  civili/.cd  Indians,  and  tho.'e  of  .Spanish 
and  ;Kgro  stocks  crossed  with  them,  constitute  the  mp.s' 
of  the  population.  The  individuals  of  pure  Kuropean 
extraction  constitute  bit  a  small  part  of  the  whole, 
Vind  are  mure  than  cijualed  in  number  by  those  of  pure 
uegro  blood.  Tlie  entire  |>'>pulation  may  be  divided  as 
/oIloHs:  Whites,  20,000;  i,egroe.s,  1,')J0(M);  Indians, 
C9,n00 ;  mixed,  1:10,000.— Total,  -.'.JO.OiX).  Most  of  these 
live  in  towrs,  many  of  them  going  two,  four,  and  six 
miles  djiily  to  labor  in  the  fields,  starting  before  day 
and  returning  at  ii'glit.  The  plantatiuu.s,  "haciendas," 
"  hattos,' "  raiicho.s,"  and  "  chacras",  are  scattered  pret- 
ty equally  over  the  country,  and  are  readied  by  paths 
so  obscure  as  almost  wholly  to  escape  the  notice  of 
travelers,  who,  passing  tliroii;;li  what  appears  to  be  a 
contiuuul  forest  from  one  town  to  another,  arc  liable  to 
fall  into  the  error  of  supposing  the  country  almost 
wholly  uniuhuliited.  Their  dwellings  an-  usually  of 
canes,  thatched  with  palm,  many  of  them  open  at  the 
oidcs,  anci  with  no  other  tlour  but  the  bare  earth,  the 
occiipati<iii  of  w  hich  is  st  lutly  contested  by  pigs,  calves, 
fowls,  and  children,  'i'liese  fragile  structures,  soeipia- ! 
bli  and  mild  is  the  climate,  nre  adeijuatc  to  such  pro- 1 


tcclion  as  the  natives  arc  accustomed  to  consider  neces- 
sary. Some  of  them  are  more  pretending,  and  have 
the  canes  plastered  over  and  whitewashed,  with  tile 
roofs,  and  other  improvements;  and  there  are  a  few, 
belonging  to  largo  proprietors,  which  are  exceedingly 
neat  and  comfortable,  approaching  nearer  our  ideas  of 
habitations  for  human  beings.  A  large  part  of  tliu 
dwellings  in  the  towns  are  much  of  the  same  character. 
The  residences  of  the  better  classes,  however,  are  built 
of  adobljs,  are  of  one  story,  and  inclose  large  courts, 
which  are  entered  under  archways,  often  constructed 
with  great  beauty.  The  court-yard  has  generally  a 
number  of  shade  trees,  usually  orange,  making  the  cor- 
ridors, upon  which  all  the  rooms  open,  exceedingly 
pleasant. 

In  October,  IS.'iu,  Walker,  an  adventurer  from  Cal- 
ifornia, landed  in  Nicaragua  witli  a  force  of  one  Imii- 
dred  and  fifty  men,  and  being  favored  by  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  8uccee(led  in  ell'ecting  a  revolution.  I'loiii 
this  time  until  1857  he  held  possession  of  the  country, 
though  with  varied  success,  against  all  forces  brougiit 
against  him.  In  1857,  his  expected  reinforcenioiits 
from  the  United  Slates  failing  to  arrive,  he  was  forced 
to  retreat,  and  with  an  almost  total  loss  of  his  army, 
and  finally  had  to  accept  the  oiler  of  the  United  Slates 
sloop  St.  Afarij  to  convey  himself  anil  command  to  the 
United  States. 

Unfortunately,  agriculture  is  at  a  very  low  ebb,  and 
but  a  small  portion  of  this  valuable  land  is  niude  avail- 
able. The  productions  are  indigo,  of  which  from  8110 
to  1000 zeroons are  manufactured  yearly ;  sugar,  coII'il', 
cac  ,0,  and  cotton  —  the  last  of  superior  quality,  anl 
for.  lerly  raised  in  large  cpiantiiies;  Indian  corn,  rice, 
bet  s,  and  plantains,  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  are 
rai'  d  in  abundance ;  wheat,  also,  is  grown  in  the 
mot'.iitaiuous  and  cooler  parts  of  the  country.  Fruits, 
of  various  kinds,  arc  plentiful,  including  excellent 
oranges  and  lemons.  One  of  the  principal  sources  of 
wealth  consists  in  cattle,  of  whi.'h  there  are  great  mini- 
hers  in  all  parts,  particularly  in  the  districts  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  lake,  where  extensive  and  excellent 
pasturage  is  met  with.  The  chief  exports  of  the  Stale 
arc  indigo,  Xicaragua  wood,  and  hides.  The  executive 
has  the  title  of  Supreme  Director,  with  two  couuselois, 
a  legislative  chamber  and  senate.  Prom  the  reports  of 
the  Minister  of  Finance,  it  was  estimated  that  the  re- 
ceipts into  the  State  Treasury  fo^  .i.e  year  ending  ;i0tli 
June,  1851,  would  amount  to  $l"-'2,(!8'2,  and  tlie  ex- 
penses to  §17.1,040,  leaving  a  deficit  of  J."j0,y4(i.  4'liis, 
added  to  the  standing  debt  of  the  Slate,  $523,005,  iiiakcs 
a  total  debt  of  $574,80il. 

Commfrre.  irilh  tlie  Culled  States.  —  On  the  Htlli  day 
of  April,  IS.jO,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  tin' 
United  States  and  Great  liriiain,  in  respect  to  a  pro- 
posed ship-canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pa- 
cific, by  which  both  governments  slipiilato  and  de- 
claro  that  "neither  the  one  nor  the  other  will  ever 
obtain  or  maintain  fur  itself  any  exclusive  control 
over  the  said  ship-canal."  The  8th  article  further 
stipulates  that  the  two  governments  shall  "extend 
their  protection,  by  treaty  stipulations,  to  any  otlni 
practicable  communications,  whether  by  canal  or  rail- 
way, across  the  isthmus  which  connects  North  ami 
South  Anierica,  and  especially  to  the  iiiter-ocean'c  coiii- 
munications,  should  the  sijiiio  prove  to  be  practicable, 
whether  by  canal  or  railway,  which  are  now  jirupiised 
to  be  established  by  the  way  of  Tehuantepec  or  Pan- 
ama." This  treaty  contains  other  stipulations  relative 
to  the  Mosquito  coast,  ( 'eiitral  America  generally,  etc., 
but  nothing  of  cammeirial  interest.  General  informa- 
tion respecting  the  Central  .\nierican  States  is  exc'ced- 
iiigly  limited;  (hough,  both  for  its  productions  and  its 
geographical  position,  the  country  is  one  of  great  in- 
terest and  importance.  It  abound  n  all  the  precinus 
and  useful  minerals,  and  proilucesuliiiost  spontiineoiis- 
ly  the  varied  and  luxuriant  stajdes  of  the  tropics.  It 
has  been  termed  the  portage  or  stepping-stone  between 


NIC 


1443 


Nn. 


li  mid  il» 

Tniil  in- 

liaiiuuus- 
lics.  II 
llictwei-'ii 


thffommprneof  KiirnpeandKttstcmAsin,  nndlictwcon]  SiiK'o  the  manufacturo  of  Oormon  silver  or  Arjjoii- 
lllf  Allillltin  nmt  the  Pacliic  possessions  of  tlio  United  !  tan  became  an  olgect  of  commercial  importance,  a  grout 
HlNli'Hl  iind  on  tills  account  is  hot.  the  scene  of  active  1  deal  of  attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  nickel  bv 

i.l...MullntlM      A._      fM#.l1Untin»      X  t  r,      *„^^t,tt  i^P     tUn     *«»>.<.        1 1 t     ..•  ..  «...  .  ..*' 


(i|ii'f«tloni  for  facilitating  its  transit.  Of  tho  many 
ruillPK  liy  wlilcli  the  passage  is  deemed  practicable, 
timt  by  the  viay  of  tho  Kio  San  Junn  and  Lakes  Nic- 
lirn^llll  and  Leon  la  said  to  be  the  most  so ;  and  here, 


mineralogists,  chemists,  and  nickel-workers,  and  its 
extraction  fron\  its  ores  lias  been  undertaken  upon  a 
considerable  scale.  It  is  sparingly  found,  and  in  com- 
paratively few  localities,  and  even  in  those  it  is  usually 


ihtiCBfiire,  tho  great  inter-oceanic  canal  may,  it  is  I  associated  with  cobalt.  In  consequence  of  its  rarity  it 
ihiMlghl,  lie  eventually  constructed.  The  routes  vary  [  is  generally  clashed  among  the  precious  metals.  It  is 
In  ti'linlli  from  1  ail  to  270  miles.     By  these  routes,  in   -"^  -         '    '  •  '  ' 

I'ifnipiirlsDU  with  the  older  ones,  the  distance  from  New 
York  til  Cnifton  ivill  bo  reduced  from  17,100  to  12,600 
tlilli'K ;  III  Calcutta,  from  15,000  to  It, 000 ;  and  to  Sin- 
(Jllpiirc,  from  15,800  to  llt.OOO;  while  from  F.ngland  to 
IIhisi"  places  tho  distance  will  bo  materially  increoscil. 
"  til  11  coluniercliil  point  of  view,  therefore,"  .says  a  late 
ilallslli'iil  pulilleatlon,froin  which  these  facts  are  glean- 
I'll,  "  I'.liKlrtnd  can  care  Init  little  about  the  canal  as  pro- 
p(i«i'il,  uliiee  without  it  her  advantages  are  much  supc- 
rliif  Id  lliiine  of  the  rnltcd  States  in  the  Asiatic  trade." 
'I  III'  ll'ndiiwlth  the  I'niled  States  has  been  decreasing 
fur  ft  lilJlnber  of  years,  as  is  shown  by  the  following; 

Exporl^  to        Imports  frnm 
t'uiteil  titHles.     t'QUed  Htntcs. 

'I'nifti  (rnile  from  isan  to  I<i40....f'j.o:i7,iio(i..  .t2,con,i.oo 

1H4II  tn  IS.'iO...    l,'JtT>,OOI). ..        !'i;4,f(» 


when  pure,  almost  as  white  as  silver,  and  both  ductile 
and  malleable,  citln  r  when  hot  or  cold.  It  may  bo 
inade  into  marinors'  conipasses,  being  susceptible  of 
magnetism.  It  does  not  oxidize  or  rust  by  contact, 
with  air,  and  only  melts,  w  ben  pure,  at  an  intense  heat. 
It  makes  other  metals  harder  and  brittle  when  alloy- 
ed with  them.  The  nickel  used  for  alloys  is  usually 
obtained  from  what  the  (iermans  call  Kuflcr  Nickel  or 
Copper  Nickel,  which  is  an  arseniurct  or  compound  of 
arsenic  with  nickel,  whii-h  is  hard  and  has  a  metallic 
lustre  of  a  coppered  color  inclining  to  brown  or  gray, 
and  displayiii;,'  I'll  the  hues  of  the  rainbow.  It  con- 
tains .")C  iiarts  of  arseiiii'  and  41  of  nickel,  when  pure, 
but  usually  contains  a  little  iron,  lead,  sulphur,  and 
antimony. 

The  Chinese  probably  first  made  use  of  nickel ;  their 

If  loaragua,  or  Peach  Wood  ((lor.  Xicami/aholz, '  white  copper,  or  paek-fong,  contains  alout  ;i2  nickel,  10 

lllliildill- 1  Till.  Ulunllumt;    Kr.  Uais  de  Srtng,  linw  tie  ,  copper,  l'.')  zinc,  and  '.\  iron  ;  but  the  |jroportic.  s  vary 

Shii'iijiw  I    It.  I.etinii  timtiu'ijno ;   Sp.  Pdlo  *  snnjre ,' more  or  less.     The  composition  known  as  British  plate 

I'lifl,  /'((('  tniii)umliii),  a  iree  of  the  same  genus  (Co.ml- ,  is  an  alloy  of  nickel,  the  ores  from  which  the  Birming- 

liiimi)  n*  the  llrazil  and  sapan  wood  ;  but  tho  .rprcies  i  ham  people  extract  it  being  imported  principally  from 

llil»  Hid  been  e.xactly  ascertained.     It  grows  pnneipal-  ]  Norway  and  Hungary.    In  Saxony  they  produce' tweu- 

I)'  III  tho  vicinity  of  the  lake  of  Nicaragua,  whence  its    ty  tliousan('  pounds  of  nickel  a  year,  and  in  Prussia 

lllllllf.      It  Is  said  by  Dr.  Bancroft  to  be  almost  as  red    about  nine  thousand  pounds.     In  Ocrmany  liny  make 

Itlld  llrnvy  as  the  true   Brazil  wood,  but  it  does  not '  it  into  (ierman  silver,  and  in  this  country  our  Mint  is 

I'lillliumily  nIVord  more  than  a  third  part,  in  cpiantity,  |  busily  engaged  in  making  it  into  nionev. 

iif  llii'  riiior  of  tho  latter:  and  even  this  is  rather  less  j      Nickel  is  obtained  at  Chatham, in  Connecticut;  also 

iliirilbli'  and  less  ber.iitiful,  though  dyed  with  the  same  1  in  Missouri,  in  the  chionic  mines  of  Maryland  and 

niiitdiilils,     Nicaragua,  or  peach  woods,  dill'er  greatly  I  l*enn.sylvauia,and  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania. 

Ill  (111  Ir  i|tiallly  as  well  as  price ;  one  sort  being  so  de- !      Nile  (.Vi7«.s^,  a  great  river  of  Kast  Africa,  formed  by 

lliji'lll  III  ciilipriug  niatler  that  •m\  pounds  of  it  will  only    the  union  of  Ihc  Jlalir-cl-Ahiud  (White  River)  and  the 

dve  nn  much  wool  orelolh  asone  poundof  B..izil-wood,  I /inAc-f;-.lnt')l-  (Blue  liiver).     The  first,  wiiich  is  re- 

wlille  nllollier  variety  of  it  'vill  produce  nearly  half  the    garded  as  the  true  Nile,  is  supposed  to  rise  on  the  cast- 

iifli'i'l  of  .in  ei|Ual  iliantity  of  Brazil-wood,  and  will  sell    em  edge  of  the  table-land  of  Kast  Africa,  about  lat. 

[ii'iimif  lliMinlly  dear.— B/iNcUdrT  on  Colon,  vol.  ii.        I  2°  S.,  long.  ;M"  E.,  but  its  source  is  unknown.     Kx- 

Wlekfll,  »  scarce  met  ;i1,  which  occirs  always  in  C01.1-!  peditions  sent  by  the  Pacha  of  Egypt  in  1810-2  traced 

lilllillloll  with  other  metals,  from  which  it  is  exceeding-    it  to  lat.  1°  12'  N.,  in  long.  30°  .58'  E.     Here  the  nav- 

ly  iJlllli'llU  to  separate  it.     When  pure,  it  is  of  a  fine    igation  was  interrupted  by  a  ledge  of  rock;  it  llows 

while  ciibir  feseinblliig  silver.     It  is  rather  softer  than    generally  north,  with  a  w iclth  of  from  one  to  two  i  iles, 

Iron  1   ll<  speclllc  gravity,  when  cast,  is  8'27!l;  when    and  jol, is  the  Hahr-el-Azrek  at  Khartum,  in  Nubia  (lat. 

IminiilM'eil,  H'llil'J.     It  is  malleable,  and  may  without    15"  37'  N.).     The  second  rises  in  Abyssinia,  in  lat.  lO" 

ilKlliMllly  bo  hammered  into  plates  not  exceeding  one  i  59'  25"  N.,  long.  ."(!'  5,V  30"  E.      It  Hows  north  55 

llilllilleiilll  pnit  of  an  Inch  in  thickness.     It  is  attract-   miles,  when  it  enters  Lake  Dcmbcah  on  the  ;outh- 

(•i|  by  the  magnet,  and  Is  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the    west ;  emerging  from  the  lake  on  the  southeast,  it  (lows 

lllf,  mil'  by  being  kept  under  water      It  is  employed  in  '  in  the  form  of  a  curve,  first  south,  then  west  and  iiorlh- 

|ifi||t<rleit,  fttid  In  the  inauiifaeture  of  porcelain. — Tiiom-  '■  west,  traversing  lU  its  course  several  mountain  cliaiiis, 

Hdh's  i'linniflt'fi.     The  eobpill  ores  are  commonly  cm- 1  and  descending  by  niiiuerous  falls  into  the  plains  of 

idoyi'd  III  llie  .  Jttractlon  of  nickel,  and  they  nre  now  j  Nubia,  where  it  passes  Scnnaar.     Its  conflucnco  with 

Inilleil  by  llie  iiielhodof  Wipblertoctt'ect  thoseparalion  '  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  forms  tho  Nile,  which  from  this 

iif  tile  hvii  lilelal".     The  arsenic  is  expelled  by  roasiiiii,-    point  llows  northeast,  north,  and  northwest  past  llal- 

llli'  (imvilried  rprmr,  llrst  by  itself,  next  with  the  .'iddi-    fay,  Shendj-,  and  Berber  to  lat.  19°  20',  where  it  turns 

lieu  of  I'lmrcnnl  powder,  till  the  garlic  smell  be  no  luiiiier    to  the  southwest,  forming  a  wide  curve  called  the  Great 

linnelvMil,     The  resiilunni  is  to  be  mixed  with  three    Bend.     In  lat.  18°  it  again  turns  northward,  and  cun- 

pllI'lK  of  Klllpliur  and  one  of  potash,  melted  in  a  cruci-    tinues  in  a  northerly  direction  past  Dongola,  Girgeh 

ill"  ttllll  n  gentle  heat,  and  the  product  being  eduleo- 

ritbd  with  water,  leaves  a  power  of  metallie  lustre, 

wlibli  Is  II  Piiliihutet  of  nickel  free  from  arsenic;  while 


Siecit,  and  Cairo  to  its  mouth,  near  Assouan ;  and  from 
tbr  jiuietion  of  its  hejd  streams  to  its  delta  its  basin  is 
formed  by  two  parallel  chains  of  mountains,  which  in 


III"  nr«i'llb'  associated  with  the  sul|diur,  and  combined  some  places  close  upon  it  and  form  rapids,  and  in  oth- 

ollll  the  fesiillliig  t.ilphuret  of  potassium,  remains dis-  ers  open  up  and  leave  fine  plains  between  them  and  tho 

*"Ued,     .SIhiiiIiI  any  arsenic  still  be  found  in  the  sul-  river.     It  forms  the  first  cataract  (in  ascending)  near 

jihiilrl,  ns  may  happen  If  the  first  roasting  heat  was  Kssouan,  lat.  21'  10'  N.,  the  second  being  in  lat.  21'' 

•on  HVeal,  (he  above  process  must  be  rejieated.     The  52'  20"  N'.,  and  the  third  in  lat.  19"  10'  N.     Its  banks 

•iil|ilim'i'l  itiiisl  be  llnally  washed,  dissolved  in  coneeu-  arc  generally  elevated  in  Nubia:  tliey  are  loss  so  in 

Iraiml  niilphurlc  aii.l,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  ni-  Midille  Egypt, and  absolutely  Hat  in  the  Delta.    From 

trie,  the  metal  Hunt  be  precipitated  by  a  carbonated  al-  Kssouan  to  the  sea  the  average  fall  is  two  inches  to  a 

Itnll.  ami  the  cnfboiiatn  reduced  with  cliareoal.    Nickel  mile,  and  its  mean  velocity  is  about  threi'  miles  an  hour, 

fui'lim  iwilvi'  per  cent,  of  the  new  cent  aulliorized  by  Its  length  from  su;iposed  source, following  its  bends  to 

'  ''Jliurmii  III  1007.  "  tho  sea,  is  about  SOOO  milcg  (direct  distance  2300  milesV 


i 


I'I'I 


m 


Nm 


uu 


NOR 


Thf  delta  of  the  Nile  commences  in  lat.  30°  7'  X.,  wl.crc 
its  waters  spread  out  into  numerous  streams  in  the  form 
(if  atriangb-,  extending  at  its  liaso  on  tlie  Mediturrunoan 
over  a  spao'  of  12C  miles ;  tlio  two  principal  moutiis  arc 
tlie  west,  or  Kosetta  braucli,  and  the  oa»t,  or  Uamictta 
liranch.  The  others  aro  tlic  liourlos  and  Dibc  mouths. 
The  system  of  the  Nile  is  a'l  anomaly  amung  rivers :  in 
ascending  it*  course  no  -.idliu'iit  is  met  wilh  for  MOO 
miles,  the  lirst  l)cinc  the  Alljaia  in  Kubia,  whicli  joins 
it  on  the  right,  'J7  miles  soutli  of  Uerber.  It  is  the 
only  great  tropical  river  wliich,  by  its  periodical  inun- 
dations, fertilize^  a  country  surrounded  throut''out  a 
great  i)art  of  its  cou  •:  e  by  sandy  deserts.  The  «  atiirs 
iiegin  to  rise  in  Juii  ■  aui!  they  subside  in  Septcnibi"'. 
— .lee  Envi'T.  l''re,u  limo  immemorial  the  Egyptians 
have  nmde  use  of  canals  for  the  purpose  of  extending 
Iho  Inundations.  Tlin  rise  of  tliu  Nile  appears  due  to 
the  periodical  rains  which  fall  in  tlio  tropical  regions 
of  Africa  from  .Imio  to  September.  In  I'ppcr  Kgypt 
the  swelling  of  the  river  nmou  .Is  to  about  oO  fi:ct,and 
at  Cairo  to  21  feet,  perpendicular 

Nillg-po,  a  :ity  of  (,'hiua,  provlncn  of  ("he-kiang, 
and  one  of  the  live  port"  rcceiuly  opened  (u  foreign  Ira'le, 
on  the  Takia,  or  Ning-po  lih'cr,  the  niuutli  of  which  is 
directly  opposite  Chiisan,  1)5  miles  east-soutlii'ast  of 
Ilang-chow-fuo,  on  a  tongue  of  land  at  the  iiillu.K  of 
an  artliiont  into  thu  river,  h''  crossed  by  a  bridge  of 
boats;  lat.  29°  51'  N.,  lo  ^.  121°  !12'  i)0"'  E.  I'oiinla- 
lion  estimated  at  betv.een  '.niO.O'iO  and  liUO.OOO.  I'lie 
city,  six  miles  in  circumference,  inclosed  by  walla  25  feet 
in  height,  and  ejitered  by  six  gales,  is  surrounded  by  a 
(iiie  plain  covcrcil  wilh  villages  and  watir-courses.  It 
has  well-supplied  sliojis,  a  temple  of  largo  size,  hexag- 
onal tower  150  feet  high  ;  a  missionary  hospital,  op'  i- 
cd  In  1RI3;  nn  active  trade  in  junk-buildiug.  and  a 
large  manufacture  of  silks  fir  export  to  Japan.  It  has 
been  reported  that  about  (170  junks  come  to  it  annu- 
ally from  Shang-tung  and  Leao-tong  with  oil,  provi- 
sions, fruil^i,  caps,  cordage,  lioiiis,  drugs,  rice,  and  silk  ; 
I'iliO  from  I'o-kicn  and  llai-nan  willi  sugar,  alum,  pep- 
per, black  tea,  indigo,  salt,  rice,  iind  dye-wuods;  from 
C'anton  and  the, Straits  t'oine  vessels;  and  fruni  the  in- 
terior about  1000  small  craft  yea.ly ;  the  toli:l  imjiorts 
being  estimated  at  $7,050,000  annually.  It  exports 
large  quantilies  of  wood  and  charcoal  to  Sliang-hai,  the 
trade  of  which  jiort  it  has  crippled,  from  licing  by  sev- 
eral days  nearer  to  the  green-lea  districts.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Brilisli.  wilhout  resistance,  in  l^'ll,  when  was 
captured  a  ponderous  liell,  ijow  in  tlie  Ilrlli'^b  .Mnscuui. 

Nitric  Acid,  Aquafortis  U'r.,  Arlle  Mtrii/ue: 
Germ.,  .W/»/i;r,Mi/iiTi,  exi.sis,  in  luinbiualion  with  the 
bases  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnceia,  in  bolh  the  min- 
eral anil  vegetable  kingdoms.  This  acid  is  never  found 
insulated.  It  was  distilleil  from  salljieire  so  long  ago 
as  the  I.'Jth  century  by  igniting  that  salt,  nu.\ed  with 
copperas  or  clay,  in  a  retort.  Nitric  acid  is  generated 
when  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nilrngen  ga.ses,  conlined 
over  water  or  an  alkali. .e  solution,  has  a  scries  of  elec- 
trical explosion.s  pinsed  I'lrougli  it.  In  this  way  the 
salubrious  atmosphere  ma^  be  converted  iiilocorrip.iive 
aquafortis.  When  a  little  hydrui/cn  is  introduced  into 
the  mixed  gases,  standing  over  water,  the  chemical 
agency  of  the  electricity  becomes  more  intcn.se,  and  the 
acid  is  more  rapidly  formed  from  its  elements,  with  tl.e 
jirodiiciion  of  .some  nitrate  of  ammonia. 

Woble,  an  ancient  money  of  account,  containing  six 
shillings  and  eightpence  sterling,  or  in  Tnited  HtatCi 
< urrenr,  r (juivalent  to  one  dollar  and  sixty  cents. 

North  America  lies  betwic  n  the  lOth  degree  of 
rorth  latitude  and  the  Arctic  Oicari.  It  is  more  ir- 
regular in  form  than  South  America,  but  of  greater 
uniform  breadth,  larger  in  area,  and  more  deeply  in- 
d'Hlr  I  with  gulfs,  I„iy9,  and  inlets.  Two  extensive  el- 
cvali  '18  or  mountain  ridges  extend  near  and  parallel, 
lhf>  i-ne  In  its  east  and  the  other  to  its  west  coast.  He- 
iween  these  is  a  vast  jdain,  the  largest  in  the  world, 
'tretching  from  the  (iulf  of  Uuxito  to  the  Arctic 


Ocean.  In  this  plain  arc  situated  the  great  lakes  of 
North  America,  and  through  it  tlow  the  rivers  Missis- 
sii.'pi,  tlie  Mackenzie,  and  tho  St.  Lawrence,  tlio  ona 
forming  a  southern,  the  other  a  northern,  and  the  third 
an  eastern  drain  for  its  superfluous  waters.  Its  coast 
indentations  and  inlets  are  Ualhu's  Bay  and  Hudson's 
Day  on  the  north ;  tho  CJolf  of  St.  Lawrcncu  on  the  east 
coast ;  the  (inlf  of  Aluxico  on  the  south ;  the  Gulfs  of 
California  and  Georgia,  and  Cook's  Inlet,  on  tho  west. 
The  coas^  if  North  America  is  very  exte  isivc,  extend- 
ing in  all  iruguiar  line  from  Davis's  Strait  to  tho  Flor- 
ida Channel  about  ISUO  miles,  ai  d  from  the  latter  along 
the  inland  sea  to  Teliuuutepec  about  oOOO.  The  w  liulo 
length  on  the  I'acilic  side  to  Kehriiig's  Strait  is  about 
10,000  miles.  The  extent  ot"  tlio  north  mid  northeast 
sliores  can  not  probablv  bo  le.-is  tlan  3000  miles.  Tho 
entire  extent  will  thus  be  22,H00  miles.  The  most  re- 
markable physijal  characteri.itics  of  North  America 
are  il.s  .sandy  deserts,  treeless  steppes,  and  prairies; 
tile  lir-^t  stretch  along  the  base  of  the  Itoeky  Sloimtaina 
to  till'  1 1st  degree  of  north  latitude,  havi'ig  an  average 
breadth  of  2110  lo  fiOO  miles.  The  6te|'pos  form  another 
!  cheerless  and  e.xtcnsiv  :i  in  the  northern  |  .art 

of  the  conlinrnt.     Tb  or  savannas,  ncculiar 

characteristics  of  Nl  -a,  are  cliiedy   in  tho 

j  Mississippi  Valley.  Tliey  cui'sist  of  cxlcnsivo  and 
,  generally  irregular  '  la  without  trees,  covei'd  in  the 
spring  with  bilglit\  'I-  "iterniingled  with  fragrant 
flowers.  A  vast  cxti.  .:>  also  occupied  liy  fori  sis, 
comprising  probably  not  le«8  Ifaaii  000,000  siiuiiro 
miles. 

j      Mitunliiins.--i  If  the.^e  there  arc  four  priiii  Ijial  sys- 
t  teins  in  North  Auicnea  :  the  tjregon  or  Itoeky  Mount- 
j  uiiis — a  continuation  of  llin  Andes — the  Sierra  Nevada 
'  or  Snowy  Mouulains  of  California,  merging  in  its  jiiis- 
sagc  northward  into  the  coast  range,  and  the  Allcglui- 
nies  or  Appalachian  range,  extending  northeast  paral- 
lel with  the  coast.      The  Itoeky  Mountain  range  i.<  a 
i  continuation  of  the  Andes,  forming  the  elevated  talde. 
j  laud  pa^.'sing  centralh  through  Mexici;  thence  trend- 
ing north,  divide  the  waiers  entering  the  racific  and 
.Atlantic  Oceans,  and  continue  to   the  Antic  coa.'it. 
.Several  peaks  rise  above  the  lino  of  perpetual  snows. 
j  The  Sierra  Nevada  of  California  and  const  range  e.\- 
teiul  nearly  parallel  with  the  Kocky  Mo  iitain  range, 
and  are  connected  with  the  latter  by  sevi  .al  traiisver.'sc 
ridges.     The  Alleghany  range  stretches  cloiig  the  east- 
I  em  portion  of  the  continent.     It  rises  in  tlii;  gently 
j  undulating  ridge  dividing  the  waters  of  tlie  Tennessee 
from  thoe  llowing  into  the  Mis-sisslppi  and  the  (inlf 
I  of  Mexico,  and  trending  across  the  country  in  the 
I  same  general  direction  from  southwest  to  the  north- 
!  east,  terniinates  in  the  headland  of  Gaspe. 
I      Itivirs  and  J,(drs. —  I'lie  principal  ri\  ers  are  the  Jlis- 
!  sissippi,  with  its  utilneiit  the  Missouri,  and  the  St. 
1  Lawrence.      The  lirst  is  the  largest  river  in  North 
I  America,  and  one  of  .'.c  p  eatesi  on  the  earth,  occupy- 
ing, wilh  its  tributaries,  the  whole  of  the  souther  .  jior- 
'  lion  of  the  great  central  basin  of  Xorii;  America.      It 
!  has  its  origin  in  the  junction  of  stieunis  formed  on  the 
I  eastern  declivity  of  tlie   Kocky  Mountains,  betv.een 
i  lat.   12    and  5o''  N.,  and  enters  into  the  sea  in  tlio 
j  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  lat,  20'   N.     Its  whole  course,  «.iich 
j  is  from  north  to  south,  is  caleulatid  to  exceed  llOO 
miles.     The  St.  Lawrence  rises  under  tlie  name  of  the 
'  St.  Louis,  in  lat.  47  "  'li'  N.,  long,  o;!'  W. ;  entering 
Lake  Supei   ir,  it  Hows  a  soutlieast  and  a  northeast 
cour.se,  anil  enters  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lav.rcncc  at  Capo 
GaspJ),  w'lero  it  has  expanded  tj  me  liundrei;  miles  in 
width.     Tho  Mackenzie  issues  from  tho  Great  .Slave 
Lake,  from  which  it  flows  nearly  due  north,  and  enters 
the  A'C'lc  Sea,  lat.  fiu     10'  N.     In  the  niimoer  and 
magnitude  of  its  lakes  North  America  is  uneiiualed. 
I'liey  form  one  of  its  most  noted  featuios,  and  in  con- 
junction wilh  its  rivers  present  a  niediiui  of  coinmer- 
ciiil  iuiercourse  wholly  unsurpassed.       The  principal 
are  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Kiie,  and  Unta- 


NOB 


1445 


NOR 


Tio,  which  together  cover  an  area  of  100,000  Sfiimro  itv  of  the  Allefjhnnie!".  The  cmil-nehls  aro  of  prodi-- 
n.ilcs.  Following  the  chain  of  Inkos  which  crosses  the  ious  i  xtont,  the  Appaladiiun  siretcliiiig  without  in- 
country  in  a  nortliweslcrn  cilrcction,  there  oc"U'-  I.al<os  terruplion  720  miles,  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  'J8(i, 
■\Vinnip(>g,  Woolastoii,  Deer  I.alic,  Atlml.iaca,  Great  anil  occupying  an  area  of  (13,000  6(iuaro  miles.  Tlu' 
Siavc  Lake,  and  Great  Hear  Lake.  Tho  Great  Salt  I'ittslmrg  seam,  ten  feet  thick,  exjioscd  on  the  lank.s 
Lake  in  Utah,  and  Mono  Lake  and  I.ake  Chapola  in  of  the  Monongahela,  extends  horizontally  225  miles  in 
Mexico.  There  are,  Ijesides  these,  many  smaller  yet  length  and  100  in  breadtli,  and  covers  an  area  of  11  000 
considerable  bodies  of  water,  viz.,  St.  Clair,  midway  square  miles.  Besides  the  coal-lields  named  there 
between  Lakes  Huron  and  Eric:  tho  Lako  of  the  '""O  various  others  of  great  extent  in  diflcrent  parts  of 
■\Voods,  between  Lakes  Superior  and  Winnipeg ;  Nep-  North  America,  including  New  Brunswick,  Xova  Sco- 
pissing,  Sinicoe,  Champlain,  and  many  others  of  lesser  tia,  and  Vancouver  Island.  Iron  is  also  extensively 
magnitude.  !  worked.     Salt  is  widely  diffused  throughout  the  conti- 

islindn. — In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  tho  principal  are  nent. 
Newfoundland,  Anticosti,  Prince  Kdward  Island,  and  '  Cllmnle. — The  predominating  character  of  tho  eli- 
Cape  Hreton,  all  lying  at  tho  embonchuro  of  the  St.  '  mate  of  North  America  is  intense  cold  although  in 
Law  rence ;  Nantucket,  Long  Island ;  tho  Bahama  Isl-  some  parts  an  oppressive  heat  prevails  during  a  por- 
ands,  oT  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas ;  and  tho  (^olum-  ;  tion  of  tho  summer.  Above  the  50th  de;'ree  of  latitude 
liian  Archipelago,  comprising  tlie  islands  of  Culia,  !  the  cold  is  so  severe  as  to  rend  r  tlie  country  all  hul 
Ilayti.  Jamaica,  Porto  l!ico,  Santa  Cruz,  Antigua,  !  uninhabitable,  while  frosts  occasi„:ially  occur  as  low 
Guadaloupc,  Martinlqie,  St.  Lncia,  Barbadoes,  St.Vin-  down  as  llie  30th  degree  of  latitude.  In  winter  a  keen 
cent, Tobago, Trinidad,audothersmall islands.  On  the  and  piercing  northwest  wind  prevails  throughout  all 
northwest  co.'ist  the  principal  arc  Jic  California  group;  North  America,  adding  greatly  lo  the  rigor  of  the 
A'anconver,  Queen  Cluirlottc,  Pr.nce  of  Wales,  Sitka,    northern  climate,  and  carrying  its  chilling  influence 


into  tlie  more  .«;outherlv  regions. 


mg 
Tlie  transitions  from 


cold  to  hot,  or  from  winter  to  summer,  are  very  sud- 
den, especially  in  Canada.  Among  the  causes  of  a 
lower  temperrturo  than  obtains  in  AVestern  Europe 
may  bo  mentioned  the  small  portion  of  tlie  continent 
lying  in  the  torrid  zone,  tlie  Rocky  Mountain  langc, 
and  also  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  near  the  Paciliv 


iiiul  Adniiially  Islands ;  and  on  tho  extreme  northwest 
tlio  Aleutian  group.  In  the  Arciic  Ocean  there  are  a 
vast  number  of  islands  of  w  liieh  but  little  is  yet  known. 
Geoluii'ij,  Miiieraliigij,  etc. — A  remarkable  analogy  ex- 
ists in  tlie  structure  of  the  land  in  North  America  and 
Central  and  j.'orthern  Kiirope.  Gneiss,  mica,  schist, 
and  gninltii  prevail  in  wide  areas  in  the  Alleglianies, 

on  the  Atlantic  slope  and  the  northern  latitude  of  the  |  Ocean,  prevent  the  warm  winds  from  the  Paeitic  pene- 
Ameiican  continent,  and  in  the  high  and  middle  lati-  trating  tlio  interior;  the  great  expan.sion  of  the  land 
tildes  the  .•^ilurian  strata  extend  over  iOOO  miles.  Crvi!-  north  a'ld  nortlieast,  and  the  almost  level  jdain  in  those 
tallliie  and  Silurian  riiiks  fore;  the  substratum  of  Mex- j  directions,  allow  full  scope  for  the  piercing  Arctic 
ico,  fur  the  most  part  covered  with  Plutonic  and  volean-  ,  blasts.  The  narrowness  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the 
ic  formations  and  secondary  limestone.  Tlie  Kocky  I  prevailing  winds  taking  the  same  general  course  car- 
Moiintiiins  aro  mostly  silurian,  except  the  eastern  !  ry  away  from  tills  continent  the  hot  circumambient 
ri<lge,  wliiili  is  of  ."triilnii  il  crystalline  rocks,  ainygda-  '  air,  a  source  of  warmth  to  Western  Kurope;  and  the 
loiil,  and  ancient  voli  anic  productions.  The  coast  '  cold  polar  oceanic  current  brings  down  the  icebergs  ni' 
range  lias  the  same  character,  with  inimense  tracts  of  '  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland  to  tho  shores  of  Labrador 
vplianlc  rocks,  botli  amlent  and  modern,  especially  oh-  .  and  Newfoundland. 

iiiian.  In  North  Aniirlc/i  vcjleaiiic action  \^  entirely  |  Tho  territorial  limits  of  the  United  States  include 
cendiieil  l»  tlie  coast  and  high  liiljd  along  tho  Pacific,  j  that  portion  of  the  continent  of  North  America,  cx- 
Tlie  priiiilpfll  niiiiiiiil-i  are  gnbl,  silver,  copper,  iron,  |  tending  from  the  Ail.iiitie  to  the  Pacillc  Ocean,  whieli 
lead,  and  coal.  The  lirst  three  are  found  in  greatest  is  bounded  by  llic  liritish  po.'^sc.-^.'^ions  on  the  north,  and 
abuiidanco  in  Mc'xir-o,  where  there  are  nearly  3000  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Mexican  Kepublic  on 
mines  of  gold  and  siivi  r  alone.     Since  IHIM  the  great '  tho  South. 

Held  for  gold  gathering  lias  been  Callfoniia,  wi. ere  large  I  The  supcrlicial  area  of  the  Union,  according  to  a 
(luaulities  have  been  olitained,  and  btilli  silver  and  computation  made  liy  the  Topographical  Bureau  at  the 
ciuiclisllver  have  bei-n  found  to  abound.  The  .sil-  close  of  1853,  and  subsequently  reviewed  and  amend- 
ver  supplied  liv  tin'  Mesleai.  veins  is  extracted  from  a  ed.  amounted  on  the  first  of  January,  1851,  to  tiiu  inil:- 
great  variety  of  iiiinirals,  pure  or  native  Filvcr  being  i"ii.<  iiiiir.  Itumlre-.l  unit  thiiti/sij-  tl,ou:antl,  tue  /luiidnd 
of  loinparatively  rare  ucciirrenee.  Tho  principal  de-  (iti'!  firti/six  x'luarc  mil,s,  being  somewhat  more  than 
posits  of  gold  in  the  United  Stales  besides  California  me  third  of  the  area  of  the  continent  of  North  Amer- 
occur  III  lliu  primary  rocks  of  the  southeastern  decliv-    ieu. 

Abea  or  NonTii  Amebioa,  EXCLpaiVE  cf  the  West  iNniEs. 


Terrilory. 


fniti.'d  HtatcB,  as  nscertnlneil  by  lite  't'oiiogniphicat  Uurcuii . 

SNew  llritAiu* 
rpjuT  mill  Lower  1,'aimiliit 
Nova  i-ii 


I  Pqunro  .MilM. 


L  .^ciilU,  New  Brunswick,  Capo  liroton,  &e. 


Mojlio 

Centriil  America 

IfiiKSian  Auierirat 

JLiiiisli  .\merica  (Cirecalan<])(. 
Tulnl  Rf|iiare  niilpB. ... 


2,5!i>i.S,')7 
.'HO.  8(10 
104,Tol 


•  Aceonllng  to  Ilallii's  estimate  of  the  area  of  Nortli  America.  Another  estimate  b1\ts  New  Dritain  liut  1,800,000  square 
milts. 

t  M'''ii||„rii.    Tlie  iati't'iinadlanreiisiiB  i;ivis'Jti.4S2sn.uarc'  miles  as  the  area  over  wliicii  jurisdiction  is  actually  extended. 

t  (iiiibcrt  pivcs  tf(r2,5oo  itilouielres  carreB,  or  ilTl.Oi  I  square  miies. 

{  i:p  eiilami,  from  I'lv^riit  information,  would  aiipear  Id  lie  a  IrilatenI  islniiil,  l.'iOO  miles  lonfr  and  COn  miles  bi  its  Rrcat- 
PBt  brtndlli.  J(s  (iren,  lllerefure,  can  not  In-  preatt-r  tlinn  wr  Ft:ite  almve.  <inil)ert  fiives  tlie  areii  of  Danish  America  3b61 
Bqiiiire  milcg,  and  M'Cullorh  only  ITo,  meaning?  only  that  jnjrtinn  wlilrh  has  been  exiilnrod. 

(  The  area  of  the  rontinent  of  Nortli  America  in  variously  cstimattd  hy  i;eoBrapherK  at  from  five  to  seven  millions  of  Bqu&rc 
miles     (iiiyot  ("  Ijirlli  aiid  Man")  estimate:-  it  at  r>.4I'i,eiNl,  and  dial  of  Cumpe  nt  U.OSS.OOO,  txciusiveiy  of  islands. 

The  treaty  of  iH.'il  with  Mexicii  settles  the  bnumla-  j  ready  defined  and  established  according  to  the  M\  ar- 
ries  of  I  lie  two  republics  as  I'ullows;  "  lielaining  tlic  tide  of  the  treaty  of  Guada'upc  Hidalgo,  tho  limits 
same  dividing-line  between  tho  two  Califoniias  as  al- 1  between  the  two  Itepublics shall  bo  as  follows ;  Begin- 


NOR 


1440  ■ 


NOlt 


ning  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  three  Icnguea  from  Unil, 
opposite  tlie  inoutli  of  tlic  Kiu  Urando,  as  provided  In 
the  6th  article  of  tlie  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo ; 
thence,  as  doflncil  i,i  the  said  article,  up  the  middle  of 
that  river  to  the  point  where  the  parallel  of  HI"  17' 
nortli  latitude  crosses  the  same;  thence  duo  west  one 
hundred  miles;  thence  south  to  the  parallel  of  31°  20' 
north  latitude;  thence  along  the  said  |iarallcl  of  31° 
20'  to  the  Uth  meridian  of  longitude  west  of  Green- 
wich ;  thence  in  a  straight  line  to  u  point  on  tlio  Colo- 
rado Kivcr,  t«onty  English  miles  below  the  Junction 
of  the  Gila  and  Oulorado  Uivors  ;  thence  up  the  middle 
of  the  said  Kiver  Culorudo,  until  it  intersects  tlie  pres- 
ent line  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico." 

For  early  history,  etc.,  of  Nortli  America,  see  New 
Knglmul Mayaziiu,  vii.  169;  Christian  lleview,  xiv.  010; 
.Voi</»  Ameriiim  Kiview,  Ixxiii.  210 (F.  Uowe.n). 

North  Carolina  lies  between  33°  50'  and  30°  30' 
X.  lat.,  and  lietwecu  75°  '15'  and  81°  W.  long,  from 
Greenwich,  and  between  C  20'  'iV  .,  and  V'  33'  15.  long, 
from  Washington.  Area,  45,500  sciuare  miles.  I'op- 
nlalion  in  17!)0,  393,754;  in  1800,  478,103;  in  1810, 
555,500;  in  1820,  038,829;  in  1830,  738,470;  in  1840, 
753,419;  and  in  1850,  808,903. 

Physical  Features,  etc. — Along  the  entire  iioosl  of 
this  State  there  is  a  ridge  of  sand  separated  from  tlie 
main  land  in  some  places  by  narrow,  and  in  other 
places  by  broad  sounds  and  bays.  Tlic  passages  or 
inlets  through  it  are  shallow  ami  dangerous,  Ocracoke 
Inlet  being  the  only  one  through  which  vessels  pass. 
Cape^  Ilattcias  and  Lookout  are  projecting  points  in 
this  belt,  and  off  them,  particularly  the  former,  is  tlie 
most  dangerous  navigation  on  the  coast  of  tlie  United 
States.  Cape  Fear  is  on  an  island  off  the  mouth  of 
Cape  Fear  Kivcr.  For  CO  or  80  miles  from  the  sliore 
the  country  is  level,  the  streams  sluggish,  and  tliere 
are  many  swamps  and  mai'slies.  The  so;l  is  sandy  and 
poor,  excepting  on  tlio  margins  of  the  strcuni!^,  wlieio 

t'ouuiiai^E  or  tue  Statk  or  Nobtu  <:Aaoi.iM.v  ibiiiiwimi 

FttoM  Oi!r.  1,  mil 


Sept  30, 1831 

183-.' 

18SS 

183  ■) 

ISSJi.    ... 

18;!« 

1S3T 

18.18 

183B 

1840 

'l'ot»l. 


Sept.  00, 1841 . 

I  18« . 

l»mo«.,    1S43* 

Juno  30, 1841.. 

184.'>. 

184li. 

1847, 

1841. 

1849. 

18.W. 


Total. 


June  30, 1861.. 
j  1852 

1863. . 
I  18M. 

I  185;>. 

!  18B6. 


I|I840,9T3 
338.!i4fl 
4.Ti.'J8d 
471.410 
31'J.;i27 
4i8,418 
648.876 
r>44.tin'i 
4/ll.»34 
387,4S4_ 

$47H9,,')iid~ 

$383,066 
a44.8.V) 
171,0119 

i';»8,40i 

37'.(.96fl 
414,8118 
'2*4,919 
b40,028 
270,(176 
416.601 


$9,303,088 

$K'0,748 
6Vi,'i1i 
3t4.14'j 
;19I.S97 
433.818 
.370,174 


,$167 

3795 

49 


14:m 

•2919 
i471 
9W 


:|i90'i9 


$4347 
4l'i3 


it  la  frfli()i«ntl>  very  fcHllB.  The  natural  growth  of 
this  region  U  imiii*II>  tim  liltoh-iiltie.  This  tree  ulfordf 
tar,  pitili,  turiiulltinii,  hikI  looiuor,  which  conslllute  an 
IniliorlaMt  part  nf  lliy  ffttiurli)  of  the  Hlale.  In  the 
sWAinpa  riuu  uf  »  fliio  iiunlUy  |«  raised.  Hack  of  the 
Hat  coMOlry,  Hint  HXtfhdliiK  t"  ^li"  '"wer  falls  of  ihu 
rivers,  Is  It  ImU  of  JAIIil  nIiuiiI  10  miles  wide,  of  ii  mod- 
erately untivuii  »»ffnm  I  M  anody  null,  and  of  which  the 
pitcli.pinu  U  IliM  lO'MVHltlnii  natural  growth. 

'I'hroiiglloMt  Ihn  filMa  Indian  corn  Is  raided,  and  In 
Booici  jmrta  vunaldKritlilij  tnttun,  In  the  low  wuuiitry, 
grapes,  pliMiia,  blHuklrarrlen,  and  ntrawherrii's  grow 
tpontiiiiuiniiily  i  itiiit  on  Ihd  lolervnles  canes  grow  In.t- 
urlanlly,  tliu  luiiVMi)  u(  Mrjiltli  eunllnuliig  greeji  iliiriiig 
wlnlnrfuroiali  fond  fur  Mttln.  In  lheclevnlec|i;ouiiiry, 
oak,  walnul,  liooi,  «hd  cherry  trees  of  a  large  growth 
abound,  l'rim'l|iiil  iiiiiifrnln  coal,  Iron,  and  guM.  It 
!.■*  tlio  only  NiHlH  In  the  Union  where  every  arllcle 
enuineratud  In  Ihtt  I'tosiin  Is  produced. 

/limvt.—'lUu  lirloi'ljittl  rivers  are  (ho  Cliowan,  400 
inilusloiigj  imvl^aliln  rur small  vessels  aomllcs;  lioan- 
oke,  |'ttiitll>'o,  iiitvltJHhlii  for  ill)  lulled ;  Tar,  Nimiso,  t;iipe 
Fear,  the  largnst  rivur  In  llio  Ninle,  2H0  miles  long,  with 
eleven  fuut  of  W(il(<r  lo  WllnilliHlon ;  Ilio  Yudklri,  which 
forms  a  part  of  tin'  (lri<nt  t'edee  In  Huiilli  Carolina. 

Tiiu  prIiM'IpMl  |iliM'i's  III  tli't  Hlato  are,  liali'i|{li  the 
capital,  Nuwliuni,  WlliolnHlon,  Fnyelleville,  I'Mcnton, 
Kli/:abii|hl!ity,  llniliifurl,  aiidCliurloUc  On  .laiiuary 
1st,  1850,  ilimii  ttii|«  ihri'H  talltuads,  w  ith  liHI  miles  of 
track  liiilahiid  nod  in  o|i«ralloii.  l'/y,piirN,  IM.Vi,  valued 
at  i|i570,!l97,  liii|i«il=.,  same  year,  $:)00,1H8.  Ton- 
nage of  lliu  8(itl",  iH/iII,  f)0,lt75  tons.  The  llrst  per- 
niuntiit  bi>ll|i<MiMiil  in  tills  Hlale  was  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  Ilia  I'howuil  ttlver,  about  ini;o,  by  emigianlit, 
who,  ill  tii||»(iii||ii||TO  of  religions  pprsccntloi,,  (led  from 
Nansumoiid,  Vlrtjllllrt,  'J'lie  coii.''liliitloii  of  the  I'liilcd 
Slak'b  WHS  udiipli'il  In  lunvcntlon  Novemlier  27lli, 
1789,  V"ii=,  (Dili  »«>■>,  To. 
Ai.ao  Till-;  |rii>i|iii  r 'I'lomAiiit  in  iVi\,  191)1,  1811,  and  isriii 

I,  tu  .lill.V    I,   l«M, 


.f  341, 140 
34'i,04l 

4:i3.ii:in 

47I.4IW 

aiu,iw 
fir)l,7u6 

4'^7,9'.B 

__3.s7.4h4 
^■4;J49Vvii8" 

$.383,066 
344,660 
171  099 
'i9.'(,40l 
;179,960 
414  ll'J8 
'284,1119 
;i4'l,0'.'8 
'2711,076 
416,601 

■ia,'308,i»»»r 


$I3I,I|0I> 
li"0,!199 
BI4.l4'i 

Jitll.filS 
376,174 


Ti4«l 
'268,7(11 

|Hii,ir»i 

466  81(1 
311.  HI  N 
il«I,()lfi 
•27(1  7  i| 
'.'6.-1  016 
•2MI,;U7 
'2'2(,UO-2 

*'2ih38  826 

■216,181 
11I8.7M 

tv/.m 

'241, ll'"! 
197,116 
■27 1 0211 
•291).  4(«) 
•2'2U,'23;l 
'.'62,632 

*-2;3 16,660  ■ 

$'220,360 
)'<7,4'H 
l.0,M6 
S(K»,1C2 
•230,476 
124'J.^h'J 
I4'J.II"4 
11(6  814 
113,146 
_   8'il3,6j» 

$'2i(6,Uttl 

Uisi,4>t>< 
tl7l  2!N 

iii'2,6i);t 

'24il,0''3 
'27-1, 960 


Nine  niuutlu  to  Juue  30,  and  Usual  /uar  livilloi  Jul/  I,  1*1481 


'f«(l««g«llM(»ll 

IJi»tripl  'rmiiiHge.          ( 

A(f(«il^Hn, 

¥nti\ntt, 

I1fl{lft(»re<l. 

i.lcenii-ii 

«T  iHiP" 

'"  TiiT' 

13,376 

n.tm 

Ito  illH 

l,VII8 

'Mm 

l'(W 

.... 

iuM'i 

4,447 

.... 

41,1311 

il.4ri.t 

_     , 

.... 

41 6'<t 

ll.t.ilt 

ill),  613 

11.164 

J 

M  (i()» 

1.362 

6l,!(l<j 

1.61'; 

36  M'l 

1,773 

.... 

39I,W( 

''jr.fcr 

ilil,4fiO 

i,viio 

lfl,'277 

U.sdo 

WMVi 

3.4l'J 

I(t.(lil4 

iM'n 

WI.((4I 

4.4m 

11/  Oil 

il,'2H 

Hl,i6» 

fi.lOl 

In  1,1-, 

1.616 

V(i,6t( 

3,496 

*i6(h 

t.MIR 

111,130 

H.HS 

3(ifi,hJf  ' 

■111,  ['if" 

.... 

.... 

iw.iii 

3.114 

10,932 

IT.fiill 

31,111 

'2.6118 

30,111 

l.<2»2 

.... 

ii6,4?(l 

4.(168 

iw.im 

6.1  Jo 

(11,471 

3.711 1 

lil,3'.J 

'i.U',i 

.... 

. .  ■ . 

37  313 

iM'l'l 

VtK'WI 

3,11(1 

imm 

11, 493 

.... 

.... 

m,m> 

UMi' 

.... 

... 

iO'im 

13,901 

l!l,79» 

02,DHU 

4(l,((ii1 

13,(161 

.... 

Ko.aoi 

1,611 

t   •   •  • 

'/ft  M! 

h.'/f.l 

m,Vi\i 

4,»IH 

...» 

«T,6tl 

4,'2at 

L^V' 

m,       * 


NOR 


1447 


NOR 


I'rinrlp'il  /Vi'-^».— Honiifort,  at  tlic  mouth  of  Newport 
Jltvcr,  )<i  fiiinuii.^  UH  po^iteNHiii^  the  tincHt  hurbor  on  tlic 
•iilitlii'rii  Atliiiilic  Huu-lioard.  It  M'ill  bo  the  eastern 
liiriiiliiiiii  or  Ihu  Atlnntii:  uiiil  North  Carolina  railroad, 
whli  li,  when  built,  will  open  to  Its  coninicrco  an  ini- 1 
nioiiKii  Interior  region,  hitherto  isolated  from  the  coast. 
Thu  linpi'dluient  in  t!io  growth  of  thi^<  place  >ip  to  this 
(Imih  hiu  been  in  tlio  want  of  iuturiial  facilities  for 
iiMnniiifco.  The  tonnace  of  Beaufort,  in  1850,  was 
IIIIH  lonK.  WiliniiigtoM,  city,  port  of  entry,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  (Jape  Fear  Itivcr,  just  below  the  con- 
fluiincu  of  llio  Mortheasl  and  northwest  branches,  about 
ililrty>IIVM  niik'N  from  thu  sea.  It  is  well  situated  for 
Iriido,  but  the  localiuu  is  accounted  uiilicallliy.  The 
hiirlior  ndinlln  vessels  of  iMMI  tons,  but  thu  entrance  has 
B  d<in)(or(ins  oliuul.  Opposite  the  town  are  two  islands, 
tllvidltiK  tho  river  into  tliree  cimnncls.  Tliey  ullbnl  tliu 
I'mwt  rke-liehU  in  the  State.  In  1HI!»,  two  hundred 
bldlilliiK-i  were  destroyed  by  (Ire,  a  loss  of  Ipl, 000,1)00. 
'ChH  lonUHKO  In  IKM  was  '2I,4'.'0  tons. — See  .V<r.'A| 
Amrt'tiiin  Jiriirii',  xxiv.  IfiH;  xii.  2ir,  (.1.  Sp.vuks); 
AfilrHiiiii  Jimrmd  of  Srirnre,  .xiii.  li.'lO;  /iuutlurn  Uc- 
»il<ii',  I,  'I'Aii;  1)1'.  lldw'M  Ilcfieu:,  ii.  :)0.  10.5. 

Northwest  FaSHage.  The  attempt  to  discover 
n  liirrlhtvest  passage  was  made  by  a  I'orlusuese  nameil 
(loftirenl,  abont  A.i>.  l.'iOO,  It  was  attempted  Ijy  the 
ICoftllsli  in  lo')!!;  nnil  the  project  was  greatly  enoour- 
(ijjed  by  (iui'en  ICiizabeth  in  I.W."),  in  which  year  a 
I'otnp/iny  was  associated  in  London,  and  was  called  the 
"Fellowship  for  the  ULscovery  of  the  Northwest  I'as- 
»»p;"  From  17l'>  until  IMIH,  Parliament  otVered 
,i70.000  for  this  discovery.  In  181H,  the  reward  was 
modllltd  liv  priiposiuK  that  .£.'iO(IO  should  bo  paid  when 
ehlief  110  ,  li!0  ,  or  l.'IO  W.  lonfi.  should  bu  passed; 
iilMi  of  wlilili  paynu'nls  was  made  to  Sir  K.  Tarry. 
I'liC  Iheir  labors  in  the  voyages  enumerated  in  the  list 
li'iiiii,  I'orry,  Kraiiklin,  Itoss,  Back,  and  Uiehardson, 
»'  le  hlilijhled.  The  honor  of  coiuplclin{;  the  norlb- 
t»"sl  pniisai;e  Is  due  to  Captain  MMTnrc,  who  soiled  in 
the  fift'fMir/itfnr  in  company  witli  ('onunodore  Collinsun 
Id  (1(11  Knlvqiriff,  in  search  of  Sir  .lohn  Franklin, 
ilanimfy  'iO,  Ih.'iO.  Oji  .Septemlier  (i  he  diseo\ered 
lil^h  land,  which  he  named  ltarinK'.-<  Land;  on  the  '.)th 
othir  land,  which  li<!  named  alter  I'rince  Alljert;  on 
(he  (I'lili  (he  slii(i  was  frozen  in.  Kntertaininga  strong 
I'oovli  (Ion  that  the  waters  in  whicli  the  liireftiiiator 
(ll"(l  lay  commnnieadMl  with  llarrow'.s  Straits,  he  set 
i/(((  i/H  October  '/I,  with  tt  few  men  in  a  sledge,  to  test 
Ilia  views.  On  ((((ober  'Jll  he  readied  Toint  Itussel 
(/.'I  ;il'  N.  bi(.  Ill  11'  W.  long.),  where  from  an  ele- 
♦  Htloil  of  (iOOleet  he  .saw  I'arry  or  iMelville  Sound  be.' 
(leadl  (hi'tn.  The  strait  connecting  the  I'acilie  and 
Adatillc  (Icenns  ho  iianu'd  after  (he  Prince  of  Wales. 
The  Inritliiinliit'  was  (he  (irst  ship  wliieli  traversed  the 
I'lildf  Men  from  llehring's  Straits  to  Baring  Island. 
I(didll){eiien  of  (his  dl.scovcry  was  brought  to  Knglaud 
liy  ('oninnidore  Inglelleld,  and  theadniiralty  chart  was 
|n(li|l«l("d  Oc(olier  II,  IH.');),  Captain  M'Clnro  returned 
to  Knuland  September,  IHM.  On  dune  IH,  IHiw,  a 
wih'ci  coiniidllee  of  the  House  of  Commons  wa.s  ap- 
(lo)ii(id,  on  (he  niodon  .)f  Mr.  W.  Mackinnon,  to  con 
shier  (ho  ebilins  of  M'C'lure  and  his  companions.  Sir 
<l,  llaek,  HIr  .lames  Uoss,  Sir  I{.  T.  Murchison,  and 
('a(il»lln  M'(  lure,  Kidlett,  and  ^lollinson,  were  ex- 
ddiloed,  Tlio  report  )iaa  received  ,Iuly  :'0  in  which 
ll(e  eoiiinilden  recommend  that  XJOOO  be  paid  (o 
'  'ti|i(iil(l  W'(  :l(iri'.  and  ATiOOO  be  dis(ributed  between  tho 
(illleers  mid  crew. 

IfM,  mt  lliiKh  WKIeimhliy's  ejpciKlIon  to  fiml  n,  northwost 
|rii>snt(n  I"  Clilnn,  sailei(  from  the  Thames,  ^(uv  'id. 

IWtf,  tflf  M/irda  Frodislicr's  ntteinpt  to  (iiiil  a  northwest  pa.i- 
»«((e  (oCMnii. 

IM   ('Miilalo  (iiivlfl'sex|>cilIt(ontufln(1  anorthwcst passage, 

IWt    tlBfp|i(r,*»ex|ieilltlon. 

Illi«,  Weynioiilh  Slid  Kiii^'hfs. 

Ifl'l,  lliolseii'n  veysKPs,  (he  Inst  undertaken  (scf  11  U'hon' s 
Iklii.) 

Ml,  NIr  'I'hotiins  Ihitton'i 


Kill).  Baflln's .""eo  Daffin't  Day. 

1031.   Kove'fl  ex|ie(Iitloo. 

[A  lonelier  of  enterprises  undertaken  by  various  eounlrlos 

fiidowcd.] 
IT42.  Middleton's  cxpedillon. 

l"4fl.  Moore's  and  flmlth's. 

17011.  llcnrno's  land  expedition. 

ma.  Captain  I'lilpps,  afterward  lord  Mulgravc,  his  expedi- 
tion. 

lull.  (Jaiilain  Cook  in  the  RemMion  and  Uincoiicri/,  July. 

17s:i.  Mackenzie's  cxiicdition, 

ITliO.  Captain  Duiiean's  voyage. 

17li5.  The  Vixpnterj,  Cupinlii  Vancouver,  returned  fVom  a 
voyage  of  survey  and  diai-ovcry  on  tho  northwest 
coaei  of  America,  Se|itcnil)cr  '24. 

1SI5.  bleutenant  Kotzelnie's  expedition,  October. 

1S18.  Captain  Ihiclian'sand  l.ioiitoiiuntl'raiikUn'B expedition 
111  the  Uvrothctt  and  Trent. 

1818.  Caiitiiin  I'.osB  and  I.iuiitcnant  Parry,  In  the  Imbella  and 
Ah'xandpr. 

ISM.  I.lciilcnnnis  I'nrry  and  Liddon,  in  the  Iln-la  and  Gri- 
per, yUiy  4. 

1*20.  They  return  to  I.citli,  Novcinlicr  !5. 

l<'21.  Ca|italiis  I'nrry  and  Lyon,  in  tho  Funi  and  llecla, 
May  8. 

lS-24.  Captain  I'any's  third  cxpoditlun  with  tho  lltda,  May  8 

1S2B.  Captains  rranklio  and  l.yoii,  after  liavini;  attempted  a 
land  expedition,  aguiii  sni!  from  Livcrpoid,  Feb.  10. 

1S37.  Caplnin  I'nrry,  iignln  in  the  llecla,  sails  from  Dcptford, 
.March  ■>[,. 

1827.  And  returns,  (Jrtober  C. 

ISOo.  Captain  Itofs  arrivial  at  Hull,  on  his  return  from  his 
arctic  expedition,  after  an  nhsenco  of  four  years,  and 
wlien  all  iiope  of  his  return  had  been  nearly  aban- 
doned, Dctolier  I'i. 

193?).  Captain  ll.-irk  niid  hi.-i  companions  arrived  at  Liverpool 
from  tlivir  pcriioiia  Arctic  Land  E.xpedition,  after 
having  visiled  the  (ireat  Fisli  Kiver,  nod  examined 
its  course  to  llic  Polar  Sens,  Septemlier  8. 

lS3li.  Captain  lluck  saiii'd  from  Cliatliain  in  command  of  Ills 
Majesty's  aliip  Terror,  on  an  exploring  adventure  to 
Wnger  Ulvir.  [Captain  Hack,  in  the  mouth  of  De- 
cember, ls:ir>,  was  awarded,  by  tlie  Ijeogi'apliical  So- 
ciety, the  kiofj's  nnnied  premium  for  his  polnr  dis- 
coveries and  eiiterpri.-e,  June  21.] 

18.19.  Pease  and  Simpson  traveive  tlie  intervening  space  be- 
tween the  discoverie-'  of  Ito.^s  and  I'arry,  and  establihh 
that  there  i.s  a  northwest  passage,  October. 

1S4j.  Sir  Joiin  Krankllii  and  Captain  Crozlcr,  in  the  Erebus 
and  y'crror,  leave  Ciigland.  May  24. 

1S49.  Captain  Koss  reliiriied  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
in  stNircli  of  Franklin. 

1850.  Anottier  expedition  (one  sent  out  by  Lady  Franklin)  in 
search  of  .Sir  .lohii  Franklin,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
sailed  from  Knginiul.  April-May. 

1^50.  Still  another,  coneistiiigoC  two  vessels,  the  Advduce  and 
liesrue.  liberally  purchased  for  the  purpose  by  Henry 
(irinnell,  a  Xew  York  merolKiut,  and  manned  at 
Goveriiuient  cost  (Voiii  (lie  I'liMed  States  navy,  under 
command  of  Lieutenant  Ue  Haven,  sailed  troni  New 
Ycrk,  .May. 

Is50.  Commanders  Coliinson  and  M'Ciure,  in  the  Entcrpri/tr 
and  Jntu'tttijalor,  sailed  eastward  in  search  of  Sir 
.Jolm  Franklin,  Jauiinry  20. 

18.50.  Northwest  Passage  discovrred  by  M'tJIurc,  October  20. 

1S5;J.  The  second  .\mcrican  Arctic  Kxpeditioii  left  New  York 
in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  for  the  purposes 
of  science,  .itay  31. 

(S55.  Jl'Ciiiru  returned  to  Knglaud  In  October,  1864,  and  Col- 
iinson in  May. 

--See  Amrriran./ourniil  of  Science,  x.  13«(I.SAAt)  Lea); 

Xurth  Amrrii'an  Hicinc,   Ixix.    1.  (FoRci-:);    IltiNx'.s 

Mirchimt's  Mni/iniiii;  iii.  o2;  J-Ahiiliuri/h  Jii'cieir,  xxx. 

1,  xlviii.  I'.';!;  .iimriian  (litcrlrrbj,  iii,  .'ill,');  Uunriirlij 

Hcrieir,  xvi.  14,1,  xxi.  '2\^,  xxv.  i'.\  xxx.  'illLlvi.  1. 
Norway,  king'lom  of  (Swed.  .VirnV/c,  tier.  Nor- 

inyciiy.  a  .oiintry  of  Northern  Europe,  united ,io  the 

crown  of  Sweden,  and  forming  the  northwesioni  part 

of  the  .Scandin  ivian  peiiiiisnlu,  capital  Chri  jtiana.     It 

extends  from  Tape  Liiidesnaes,  lat.  ."iT    57 '8',  to  the 

North  Cap-,  lut.  71"  10  :i"N,,aiid  between  long. 4° 50' 

and  31"  15  1'..     The  mountains  of  Norway  contain  rich 

minerals  ;  but,  from  the  diliicuity  of  trnnoport  and  the 

want  of  fuel,  mining  industry  is  b.it  little  developed. 

The  only  mines  in  <i(,eratioii  are  those  of  silver,  copper. 

iron,  cobalt,  and  chrome.     The  chief  product  is  iron. 


11 

•I 

m 


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if 


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Iho  iiiinoa  of  wlit<|i  «ru  tUmtmi  inintiy  in  (he  Oidf  of 

Clii'lsiiiiim;  (lio  (ilvur  iiiIik'  iif  Kiiiftinf^  l<  n(  |>r('i'''<nt 
oiii'  <>r  till!  I'ii'liiitl  ill  t'lUfiifi",  Willi,  tii>j«(  III  llip  r<i|i|ipr 
mini'  iif  l(oriiU!i,  tliu  iimsl  )iil|iu)lMMt  III  lllf  klliK'lom. 

MaiiufucliiiLii,  (ii-.)|)i'rly  m  t'MJIfil,  miitiiiy  i>)il9i  In 
Norway.      Ilruiidy  i|i>l|||urlw>i  miiiI  hmh^IiiIIU  nfii  tlin 
only  t•xtell^ivu  IiihikIms  iiCiiiiliiiilry  l  Mi'-il.  In  tlic^o  ure  { 
fortji'.i  unci  iiU'lult'cmiiiliciifa,  llin  (ifiidlli ciifnlllifi  In  ex- 1 
porei'il  111  a  mw  slnU',  ij)(r»(i(:  wlin)  1^  iisiil  In  (lin  (imiiii- } 
fuel  lilt!  ufuinis  ui  KiiiiigslMiiK,  iiini  ill  III"  midiiifni  tiiriis  I 
of  iron  wuiu  mii|  nulls,     'llin  liwilMfwcdific  of  clotli, 
Vmcn,  mill  colloii,  u^  wull  «»  lUi'  |iH'|iilf(l(lo(i  of  nklni)  | 
.r:  1  lealliir,  uni  ulniont  uMlif  h  >Uil»t"lU',     'I'lii'  otiii'r 
niiiniifui'turun  <'oiii|iriiu  llmso  iif  ijIum,  |iii|ii'I',  oil,  >;>»<- 
powiler,  nuap,  liilnoni,  uM'l  siiij.i*'  fuliliili^,     'tup  (prliiii- 1 
pal  forcats  iiru  In  llii;  |||l.f|ji(|-;  lliii  llliil/ir  l^i  filled  In 
nnluiiin  and  uiiiti'i',  ami  U  inllVKimt  in/hf  iIm  kIihw  In  ' 
the  (oust.      Ilolluiid  i;i  HiJW  flltf  I  lliff  IIIMfljid  f'lf  Nor- 
wi'i^iuii  tiniliir.     l''ioli  U  u!Sp)i»(<.'(  ffimi  nil  (lie  drwiM 
on  tlie  wost  ('■)ll^t,  lint  lliitijud  J4  (luf  illlif  I'lilri'pi'd. 
Tli«  mint  iinporliiiil  |yf)))|i'||"»  iif  (llj»  ItH'l"  «fi'  dried 
llsli  nnd  siilicd  licriiiiijU,     ')'I|«  tnHiiiH  iif  ((illicKil  (iroil- 
ni'ts  is  loss  tliun  inJjilil  |i«  B!(p«/i'(»ril(  ffiiKI  III"  (iiimliT 
of  mini's;  tlR>  prill' ipiil  »rn  fivil),  ii/|i|ii'f,  nrtil  siV  .r. 
Thu  ilili'f  iinporls  h|i'  mill,  ij»vi|(|,  ,lllii  i  idmdill  pr  idiii  n. 
ConiiniTii.'  in  iliu  int'.rioi'  of  llic  i nullify  li  nt(Kl)y  im- 
pcMli'd  for  wiint  of  iinaiis  of  iiiiiiiiiiiiififtMMi :  iiom   of  i 
til.'  rivers  are  imvjgulitd  (iv«|d  lunr  their  inoi.lln.  ' 
(loud  roads  exist  oiily  lielwn"it  III"  f'lttlK  of  the  soiidi  j 
raasi  and  the  priiioipal  viillnys  ill  ?<i'nl(»liil  and  Hn- ! 
iiiarU;  the  u>iiiil   roinii|i|iiJi  i|lji/i|  la  lit  iten,      Anioni;  j 
the  iiuinerons  islands  oh  iIk'  tH'»|.  I'iiit»l4  (lluro  nre  vio- 
lent and  iriej.'iilarenrieiil»,  mIiIiIi  nidtcMlipionsliinvi- 
fjation  daiiifeions.    Anioni;  llinsu  in  (lie  i ulidifaled  Mc  I- 
ttniiii,  or  Moskeines-titroili,  »Im'  <lilHii"f  friiili  wliiili  lid"! 
Iieoii  ijrenlly  exoggeratmil,  sjlin'  ll  ititi  III  lii'iirly  nil 
times  lie  passed  over  ifvui)  liy  mtfll  Itiiiil^,      ll<'<iiiliir 
comniunieatioiis  have  sMeeesslVMl^  Ik'HI  I'stald'slii'd  he- 
tween  the  priiieipal  towiia  of  |||«  iiirtsi,  fmni  (jlirislifliia 
to  IlaninierCe.-l,  and  sltaiii  »«ss<'l«  ply  III  llie  Onlf  of 
Cliristiana,  ami  on  lliu  lakes  of  Mpi«'i|  wild   lyrlllord. 
Norway  has  a  national  disioiiiil  (i«ll(tj«'5(dMI«lied  If^lT, 
whieh  has  the  exeliisiva  riglil  of  Issidiij/  piipiff  money. 
foMMBIM  (i  (If  »ll»|l||*4f  I*  l<ft». 


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i;ri.<i«3 

Owlfij?  to  tho  dIBIoulty  of  trunaport,  all  tlio  ncalu  of 
Industry,  and  tlio  only  towns,  aru  on  thu  eoast,  and 
chiefly  on  tlin  (Inlf  of  Christiana.  Ship-lniildinR  U 
aollvi'ly  rrrriod  on  in  the  ports.  In  Ihn  Middle  A  ;es, 
tho  comineri^o  of  Norway  consisted  exclusively  in  tho 
exportation  of  Hah,  and  this  is  still  the  most  important 
article  of  trudu.  Next  to  this  is  the  uxport  of  tlnilier, 
which  win  commenced  hy  tiie  Dutch  In  the  siMeei:  ' 
century;  nnd,  lastly,  tlui  product*  of  tho  mines  and 
metal  forces.  'I'lie  timlier  exported  annually  amounts 
to  20(1,(100  lastcs,  value  1,IW"),(I00  specie  dollars. 

Norway  possesses  nearly  tho  eamo  natural  advnnt- 
nKcs  as  Sweden.  The  inlmliitaiit.i  are  chleliy  employed 
in  Iho  hrecding  of  liorsos,  sheep,  ^oats,  and  thu  rein- 
deer; cultivating  small  farms,  lishin^',  mining,  and  such 
other  occupations  ns  a  country  rich  in  its  foresis  and 
minerals,  nnd  enjoying  a  fuvoralile  position  for  con  - 
incrco,  usually  all'ords.  Historians  represent  the  an- 
cient nuvipilioM  ami  trade  of  Norway  ns  liein^  in  a 
highly  tlourishing  condition,  especially  w  hen  lis  towns. 
In  ihi  twelflli  I'.ntnry,  joined  the  Ilansealie  l.iague. 
.\s  early  as  Iil7,  Knglund  concluded  a  treaty  (lli  at 
she  ever  mado  with  a  foreign  power)  w-  '■  \orway, 
slipnlating  an  entire  reei|irocity  of  trade  ;  ween  the 
two  conntries.  'I'hi^  trade  of  Norway  ha>  i'"  ays  con- 
sisted of  the  intei'changc  of  tlio  produce  of  lier  I'onsls, 
of  her  copper  and  iron  mines,  nnd  of  her  llslieries,  for 
such  articles  as  she  reipiireil  from  foreign  ciuintrie.-. 
The  principal  sea-ports  are  licrgen,  TtouiDieiin,  Chris- 
tiana, llainmerfest,  and  its  outport  Wariliolauis.  Den- 
mark o<cupics  tlie  tirst  rank  in  the  foreign  trade ci'Nor- 
way .  So  much  of  its  trade  passes  through  the  ports  of 
this  country,  particularly  .Mtona,  that  Dennmrlv  may 
lie  justly  ciuisidercd  the  coninierciiil  entrepot  of  Norway, 
lis  commercial  relations  witli  nearly  all  the  conntries 
of  Knropeare  conducted  through  these  ports;  and  it  was 
not  until  during  the  recent  trouliles  in  the  duchies  of 
Denmark  tliat  Norway  manifested  any  disposition  to 
export  direct  from  the  producing  conntry.  Tho  iiiari- 
tiiiie  industry  of  the  Norwegians  cou'litntes  tho  com- 
mercial lioml  wiiicli  unites  them  witii  Denmark.  Swe- 
ll' n,  on  the  other  hand,  heii.,,  separated  from  the  more 
populoi's  and  industrious  divisions  of  Norway  liy 
mounlainons  and  sterile  tenitorici,  necessarily  con- 
fiuis  her  commercial  relatiinis  with  tho  sister  king- 
dom to  the  southern  frontier  or  tho  coa.«t;  and,  ns 
their  principal  productions  are  generally  similar,  these 
relations  nru  not  suscvptiblo  of  any  great  develop- 
ment. 

Tho  Ilanse  Towns  have  long  heen  tho  principal  en- 
Irepols  for  the  commercial  movements  of  the  nortli  of 
l''.iiropo.  The  relations  of  llnmburg  with  Norway  nre, 
even  at  this  day,  consiilernldc  ;  but  for  the  past  few 
years  they  have  been  stationary,  with  rather  a  de- 
creasing teoilency.  With  Knglttiid,  on  the  other  haiul, 
tho  trade  of  Norway  is  becoming  more  important  every 
year.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  Iho  liberal  commercial 
"system  of  the  former  country,  under  which  Norway  is 
enabled  to  compete  willi  llritish  colonial  po.sscssions,  in 
America,  in  supplying  the  l!ritish  markets  with  the 
varied  productions  of  her  forests.  France  and  Holland 
chielly  import  into  tho  markets  of  Norway  colonial  or 
raw  produce:  but  neither  of  those  countries  find,  in 
Norwegian  markets,  a  profitablo  exchange  for  their 
manufactures :  HoUnud,  bccansc  she  has  but  few :  nnd 
Kranco.  for  l!io  reason  that  Jer  works  of  art  nnd  tasto 
aro  too  costly,  ond  jierhaps  not  very  «.  11  adapted  to 
meet  the  waiits  of  a  people  whose  cold  and  inhoiipitablc 
climate,  ns  well  a>  their  maritime  occupations,  would 
seem  to  demand  (lie  coarser  iiualities  of  manufactures. 
Kmni  otiicial  documents  recently  pnblislied,  it  appears 
I'jrtt  in  IHIH  the  population  of  Norway  was  l,'i01),OUO 
sonis;  their  merchant  marine  couuteil  3400  vessels, 
measuring  an  aggregate  of  ■J4il,ni»  tons,  and  employing 
lii,,'iiiil  persons  as  ollicers  und  iiew  a.  This  would  give 
to  Norway  one  vessel  for  every  li.'ii  lidiabitants,  and 
make  every  seventy-third  suljject  a  sailor.     At  the 


NOU 


1449 


NU« 


■amo  period,  tlio  totnl  niiinlmnt  mnriiio  of  Frnnro  roii- 
tistud  of  1  t,'2ii5  v«!isi'l!>,  iiiuasiiring  an  afgrogato  of 
1)70.000  tons. 

With  tlio  Uniteil  States  tlio  trnilo  of  Norw  i  •  ii  chiefly 
Indirect.     Tobir    <  and  cotton  am  tlic  princl])^!  articics 
of  American  |iruduca  wlilcli  ontitr  into  tiio  consumption 
and  manufut'ur™  of  tlio  N«r\vc)^ian9.     The  .cutrlctive 
churiietcr  uf  llio  taritfof  i'nrway,  however,  liiio  that  of 
her  slater  l(ingdom,  uiid  the  fullacioiin  principles  on 
V'liich  her  Itscal  and  commercial  legislation  lins  been  so 
I'jiig  maintained,  must  ever  prove  nn  iiisuperalile  oli- 
Btacio  to  the  cxpnnsion  of  licr  foreign  trade,  and  the 
consequent  development  of  h(!r  vast  internal  resources. 
So  long  as  N'orv  ly  adheres  to  the  now  generally  ol>to- 
leto  idea  tl    I 'I'    '.:        .    v  to  raise  revenue  and  relieve 
tiie  lam'.-owncr  i:  t'>  i"  y  higli  duties  on  all  goods  ini- 
linrted  into  the  country,  so  long  will  her  nihilions  witii 
I  'leign  countries  he  limited  to  tho  exclmngo  of  such 
urlicies  of  necessity  as  'un  not  ho  elsewhere  procured, 
'I'he  decline  .  hlch  her  iron  trade  has  experienced  during 
the  I'  V  3'Cii      past,  liuth  In  Knginud  and  tho  United 
States,  will  necessarily  compel  llio  govenuneiit  of  Swe- 
den and  Norway       lool(  for  a  mariiet  lu  Franco;  and 
It  la  understood  Ihi'   the  latter  govtrnmcut  is  not  averse 
to  uich  amelioration  of  her  tarilf  ns  will  open  h"r  nmrlc- 
cts  to  this  great  staple  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  liy  a 
muterial  ro(lUi.tion  of  her  pres-nt  seventy  per  cent,  duty 
on  iron.     Tlio  only  e(|uivaleut,  however,  which  could 
siUisiy  Frunco  for  so  libenil  a  concession  would  bo  a 
total  change  in  tho  S  "ediali  and  Norwegian  tarllfs,  by 
which  her  own  mnnufactuns  could  enter  tho  ports  of 
the  united  kingdom,  and  tind  a  prolitablo  as  veil  as  a 
ready  market.     Nor  could  such  a  change  in  any  man- 
ner liavo  an  injurious  effect  upon  tlio  manufacturing 
Industry  of  either  <  '  these  countries,  as  the  great  de- 
mand would  lie  for  fuch  heavy  and  coarse  manufac- 
tures as  are  most  ncedid  in  so  northern  a  latitude,  and 
which  never  have  bee.i,  and  perhaps  never  will  he,  suc- 
cessfully manufactured  in  Sweden  or  Norway — at  least, 
to  any  extent  approximating  the  great  cons.nnptlon  of 
the  kingdom.     Such  a  result  would  extend  its  benelits 
to  otiier  countries  Ik  sii'es  Franco;  and  if,  in  addition 
to  a  remoditlc.ition  c     i"-  S^v.uiliaii  and  Norwegian  tar- 
ills  In  respect  of  mami  '•  turcs,  the  present  exorbitant 
cent-per-cent.  iluties  o..  A  "erican  tobacco  were  liberal- 
ly reiluced,  the  tradi  beli>  ■  n  tho  United  States  and 
Sweden  and  Norway  would  bo  materially  henefi'''!. 
and  exports  and  impi..ts,  direct  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, largely  augmented. 

Tho  Norwegian  taritfdifl'ers,  in  many  essential  par- 
ticulars, fron\  that  of  Sweden.  Its  range  is  consider- 
ably lower,  and,  owing  to  tliis  fact,  and  to  tho  ad>'ant- 
nges  resulting  from  diO'erent  weights,  it  will  he  fmind 
(for  Instance)  that  tobe  'co  blades  nmy  be  imported  into 
Norway  at  a  rate  neai;.-  ;ii!.;!  per  cent,  less  than  into 
S'.vcdc  n.  Tho  oppressive  system  of  lictltious  valuation, 
in  practice  in  tho  Swed:  'y  nistoni-houses,  is  unknown 
in  the  sister  kingdom;  and,  l>esides,  greater  considera- 
tion is  shown  to  the  poorer  inhabitants  of  remote  jirov- 
inces.  At  Uroilo  and  Trouns'io,  in  tho  northern  part 
of  Norway,  many  articles  arc  admitted  at  half  rales  of 
duty ;  ond  nt  Hammcrfesi  und  otlu:r  ri^mote  ;  rts  the 
duty  is  altogether  rcmltte  '  This  considcrarliin  is  not 
shown  to  the  inhabitants  of  i.'ar-o(fprovmce.s  in  Sweden; 
indeed,  in  districts  no  farther  off  than  Ualecnrlia  many 
necessaries  of  life,  which  tho  country  can  not  supply  to 
them,  must  be  purchased,  if -it  all,  by  Mio  poorer  peas- 
iiitry,  ./ith  the  additional  costs  of  inian  1  transportation 
and  tho  coast  navigation  <'  the  Gulf  of  liolhnia.  The 
tarirt'now  in  operation  came  in  foico  on  January  1,  ISA't, 
and  will  expire  on  tl.e  .'tlst  December,  lH;"i7.  The  du- 
ties on  tot"'  .'O  '■.■\\i  h'  M  raised  nearly  to  (ho  level  of 
these  of  Swet  u  '  latter,  upon  tobacco  liladcj,  is 
still  one  cent  .L  I'l^hi;.     Tin^  augmentatioii  of 

the  duty  on  tliis  aiuple  o."  t'-e  United  .Slates  was,  doubt- 
li"-i,  designed  as  nnpuij'o'  al  argument  in  any  neuotin- 
tiuua  which  might  h-j  lu   piscd  by  tho  government  of 


Sweden  nml  Norway  rulaliyii  to  lim  |f»H  ttllHf*  lit  (M 
Unite  1  Slates. 

The  foliiiwing  lirh'f  siimimiry  i»  MWM/ti|«"l  tiU\ii>  ttf^f 
tarilf.  It  will  sliow  llie  A»\\,a  levinl  im  tfHHill  AlIM' 
lean  prcdiue  by  ijic  old  and  n..w  HiifW><iiUu  liifilt^i 

Tnlm;;,.~(fiWm  au<l  blu.le),  ,,tU:,t  (f„ti,  ti  In  «  kMU 
hugs  per  lb.  Tho  skilling  |;i  ii.»f|y  »iHltv«t«llt  In ime 
cent. 

Wce.-Uiulwing,-,!;  namely,  N)  tmUm'  yf  i<Httoi 
(in  husk),  or  1 4  skllili.gs  p.rlb.,  w(llw/i,(  hn^U  xfufmiUii. 

CottM.—Uayi,  unchuuged i  wi..',hi«)(  tUimu  Iff 
pound  ' 

.U,n:e,  ung,-oml.~Uv,cmi  (mm  Ti  tMltlllu.  In  (fl 
skillingi  per  locude  (barnl  ii(,u  ufiy  fmif  htl=M') 

J/r«;:c,.v,vH„,/._^|.„„,.,i.d  from  ii)t),i|)i,(fc,  m'/i  .fclf. 
lings  per  iispimd  ( ITO  lb*.  Hvoirdiip,i)ii|. 

IIVi^K.— Unchanged;  72  bkillioys  imf  Uffi  do- 
ende).  ^ 

/■7()«)'.— 10  ekillings  per  lispunrt. 

Tlie  prinelpal  pons  of  Norway  »l«<'(/ri«(iff««,  Uff- 
gen,  and  llan.merfesl,  or  Allen  UmmwrfuH,  ((ic  (hjpf 
port  of  I'imnark.  (  lirisliuna  is  n  ditp  «.7(.-fi(ii((  (iHV- 
Ing  at  all  seasons  frou;  six  lo  hmc),  Mitnim  (('■(,()(  t^ 
water  dose  to  the  ipiay.  It  i^i  (h</  i»);)|«)  i,f  ffhfUiHf^ 
and  has  some  feiv  talnics  of  wiiuUn,  isi#s.>,  tmfiUitii'f 
soap,  lealh<'r,  cordage,  lobue, „,  tic,  '({(k  (j,,,,!,,  (,|-  ,),l, 
port  have  ever  been  celebralc  d.  Us  IfmU'  Uh=  (tWiN 
Ished  as  far  liatk  as  17'.»-.'.  in  Hbi.  h  V'lf  III"  mimf.i  t  nt 
j  ships  arrived  was  .Oil,  of  whith  .v)«  (Wwl  *Mil  dif- 
goes  of  deals.  Hergeu  has  a  safe  un<t  tit^ffi  UttrtfOf  ( l(.se 
to  the  town,  but  u  jiilol  id  iieeefsijry  fiif  >i  s?#.|«  (./der-- 
ing  or  departing,  on  ueeoiiut  uf  iIib  iniimriiU^  fhiUs. 
It  has  a  few  mannfaelories  of  toi,aero  /((((((■Ifflw'K- t*rtfe,. 
severnl  ropo-works  and  disliihri. »,  ship.^fjfd,,  rnfuff] 
and  other  eslaldisinnents  of  ordinary  \mn4ii'flitl,  1u 
lisheries,  however,  are  lis  chief  re.-oiiict,  m>>i  Hs  (nfi  igd 
trade  is  principally  eoriline.l  (o  UamlmiiS,  Unmili'lfiil 
has  an  extensive  trade,  cliiiliy  wil|(  y.n^itnni,  ()(f,,(if/|, 
tho  port  of  Hamburg,  lis  exports  itru  '<Jj/(«  t,  lUUit 
stock-tish, salted  lisli,lish-oil,rejn-deertfcj))e,|i(j(|5,ci(j/(jSj 
walrun  hides  and  teeth,  featliers,  (im  mi4  ulUcf  ciiUf, 
elc.  Finnnirk  has  always  eiijuyed  4  |)jj/|)  /fuj^^f,),'  n( 
commercial  prosperity,  lis  reveniies  ni^iHui  Uii  (.<;. 
peinlllures  by  njiward  of  two  millions  nf  iliitiitn,  (I9 
chief  wealth  depends  upon  its  lisliefies,  n  titufv  (i(  ti- 
munernlive  industry  that  ne\er  fails,  i'uf  CMKllrio 
beck,  observes  Jlaegrcgor,  not  a  sinylx  ..sssi^jif^'  iitii 
lie  g.ven  of  a  total  failure.  'I  he  value  ufilttm^  lUh^th^ 
may  be  esllniated  from  the  fact  that )))  (iyji  inttfts.  Kot.- 
iiigwith  li<H,  the  produce  of  eod,  selh,  m}4  hilMilH  *«s 
about  ."illO.nOO  tons,  and  'i(),mi>  iiarrels  of  oil,  miUiifllth 
eiitly  of  what  was  taken  by  the  itustlans. 

Coarse  cottons  and  woolens  are  well  .4d»Jl(iti1  Inf  (t(« 
mark -Is  of  Norway,  more  especially  of  )''j)(M(K»fc ;  hjit 
the  coimnercial  priiilege.i  reserved  to  Husjia,  liy  (tKil^, 
liave  hitherto  secured  to  that  power  (he  (ttiitiin,n\f  ii( 
thislraile.  Her  linens,  raven's-ducU,  and  yflf)"((J  oilier' 
manufaetures,  are  admitted  free  into  Vlnimiki  ¥iti}U< 
duties,  varying  from  M  lo  100  per  ctnt,.  nn  lit"  (est 
price,  are  interposed  on  similar  l»a(^Hfl^'^^^f¥'>  Itf  ulhl/f 
foreign  countries. 

Were  cottons  and  woolens  admittei}  cvbd  §1  n  ((wilfcf' 
ate  duty,  American  and  Uritlsli  nianufa.c(li(VDo  (/f'<l(((( 
deseriptlun  would  soon  supersede  the  ulincst  f'UM'ts} 
use  of  Husslan  fabrics. 

The  present  condilioii  of  '.he  Iradi'  ii(%ufViny  mtijf 
lie  gathered  from  the  following  suniniaij  f  Sh(m(*+'  iff 
vessels  from  all  countries  entered  in  IH'ill,  *f)|?,  IKerts^ 
iirlng  in  the  aggregate  1,171,.')0I  tons;  uf  lUiisf  (|i«.ttf 
were  Norwegian,  riHIS  vessels,  of  f<8i,:J:i»)  tmi,  f'flrttt 
the  United  States  there  arrived  but  uU]f-  y«sjae|4=^!(i*eH 
carrying  2051  tons  of  merchandise,  sijd  iwt)  tifUi^  ill 
ballast— all  under  the  Norwegian  llajt.  'OiB  Jirilltitysl 
couulrles  of  departure  of  nearly  all  the  ii>|)m.|;j  WW  Klk 
gland,  Ilollixnd,  and  Prussia. 

During  the  same  year,  there  cleared  fCHiH  iS</f»cu1(Jtt 
ports  S17'J  vessels, measuring  l,l82,;);ii  t«Ms,    OHime 


NOT 


1450 


NOT 


•I'lvri  into  a  k<'^M  nr  cnrporiitinii  (trhnlii),  under  a  pre- 
iiiiliiiK  ollloer  lalliiil  primicriim.  Tlir  Male,  aiilhoiillcii 
Ih'^ui),  more  mid  iiiore,  tu  (wurcUe  nurvi'lllunco  uvor 
tlii'iii,  wliirli  ini'ii  went  »u  far  that  tlir  iiwiKiatriitPii  iW- 
tcmiliicd  whi'tliiT  11  piTtuii  Hliould  liii  adiiiitli'il  Into,  or 
an  unworthy  in'mon  Iw  rcniovi'<l  frnin,  IIiIh  Knilil  ol'di- 
heltiimti.  i'licke  porsonn  prepared  nil  ^^lnlU  of  W\in\ 
documenlH  unit  paper*,  liuL  tliev  rtlll  lurrl"!  <jn  llicli 
linslnussin  tlin  piililii-  niurliet-plaie.  U>vn>Mionrouiiil 
nueeiisarv,  for  jii<liiiul  purpixien,  to  ileline  l>y  liiw  wliiit 
nliould  be  till'  ri'i|ui!illi'»  of  niicli  nolurbil  mis  and  »ri(- 
In^ii  tu  niiike  tlieni  lefful  e\ldenee.  It  hud  Ixionn'  u 
usn^i',  in  iniporlnnl  nmltem,  to  liavu  wilnesHcH  iilmi  u|. 
lost  the  paperH  drawn  up  liy  IIii'm^  pnlilii'  lorilun  in'  ^i- 
bi-tlimtef,  and  it  wnit  llniillv  rei|nired  liy  htw  tliiit  Ihree 
wilne.<«i's  Hhonld  iittVHt  u  doiiniicnl,  in  rai>o  the  prim  !■ 
'  pulti  could  write,  and  tivu  witneswH  if  the  piirlien  loulil 
not  write.  It  wan,  niorenver,  r<'i|iiii'nd  tliut  the  nolniy 
(liihel'iii)  »\>in{\i\  lie  pre^eiil  in  iiemo'i  "i  the  driiuiiiK  "p 
of  liiu  doeuniint,  and  nise  ntlix  liis  itignaturc  and  the 
dull'  of  ixei'iilion. 

Duriiin  the  Kinpire  nnuihcr  class  of  oflicern,  (alK.l 
labuliirii,  eunio  up  in  the  eilies.  Thuir  fuiielloiis  re»eiii. 
Ided  ^onleullut  our  ari'hivnriex  and  nuditora.  They 
ulso  uiadi-'  out  eertiiin  dot-iiiiieiit^,  uiid  tltimo  liore  Finiiir* 
limes  the  naine»  hoih  of  n  lubillin  and  u  Idt/iiliirlut; 
hut  at  a  later  (H'riod  holh  names  are  used  as  syiiniiy- 
niousi.  Inder  the  Kraiikish  kin(;>4  Itomuii  InHliliilioiiii 
were  imilaled.  In  the  imperial  Iniieaux  the  oniperiii> 
needed  and  employed  persoiiH  for  drawini^  up  ilo'-u- 
uientK  and  i'Oiinli'rsii,'ninK  them.  The.se  ollieera  Mere 
for  the  ctimpM-atiee  ftalimml  nf  Ihe  foinmcire  oj'Ihe  culleil  rifiiemlitrii,  ameilliirii,  anil  noliii-ii.  The  eliief 
i'lillid  Sliitia  iiil/i  .S'hc,.'i/i  (ii»/  ,\uruii!/,  txhibltinij  llii    yf  these  olliiers  was  culled  iirrliiiiiitoriiia  or  lumiiiiit  w- 


th«r«  wero  dnitinod  fur  the  llnilod  Statr'H  ni  veiicU, 
HoalliiK  i;i,l"«lonB  of  merelwindise;  ild  ■  i  'indirtho 
Murwegian  (loK,  and  one  lieinK  forcit  i  !i  .m  tlicie 
fttfures,  It  will  l)U  neon  that  tliero  arri'  i  :',i-.ii  Norway 
ill  the  United  Statoi  111  vessels,  carry  Inft  1H,17M  tuns  of 
Norwegian  produels,  against  ninu  cleared  from  iho 
Unltoil  blalei  for  Norway  with  American  produeU  to 
the  amount  of  liOJI  tons;  or  a  dilfurencc  of '.'J  veaaeU 
and  l(),ri'.2l  tuni)  of  nierehuiuliiie  against  tlio  United 
Stales  in  the  direct  trade  with  Norway.  '1  he  restrie- 
tlve  tarilf  rcKulalioiis  of  the  latter  country  will  readily 
aecomit  for  this  great  inec|iialily.  In  IHjO,  Norway 
Impurtcd  upward  of  1,7(111,(1110  ll>».  of  cottci.  In  IMiV.', 
thu  toloi  Importation  uf  cotton  Huiunnted  In  value  to 
J,0'27,il)O  francs ;  viz.:  from  Great  Iritain,  1,071, '-'(lO 
(Vanes:  from  tlio  United  .SlaieH.  (IfiO.'dO  frnius:  IVoiii 
othfT  places,  '.'O.^liliO  francs ;  making  u  lu'.i\  of  1 ,1I27,W10 
francs,  or  #-.'«(J,'j:i()  I".  In  l((,'i(),  there  we  e  ii"iiorted 
into  Norway  ;),(HKt,0O()  Ihs.  of  loliacco,  H,(H)0,(MMi  Ihs,  of 
sugar,  ti,f)0(i,00i(  llis.  of  eolt'ee.  During  the  same  year 
the  offoctivu  merchant  marine  of  Norway  consisted  of-- 


VtHali  of 

Number 

Tona. 

Cnin. 

I'lidur  'JH  Inns 

l-'rom  *s  tons  to  7 1 ... . 
from  "I  tons  to  177.  . . 
From  177  tons  to  :1M.. 
From  ll.M  tons  aiitl  over 

Totul  In  Kil 

ToUlla  1W8 

Total  in  IHW 

Njtt 
);illl 

iil7 
4s» 
47ft 

;iiiiis 
-Mi  " 

BJ.'.'IW 

(Mill*! 

V.'S  :i7'.i 

illt.  «77 

i>'  ;i  m 

llil.lMS 

I,7IIU 
4aH« 

:i,47ri 

ll.li7ft 
ft.l.:ift 

i(t.o;i7 

I'j.wir. 

ll.'J7'i'" 

"«/«('  of  tw/iiu'ld  to  anii  imp'trtiij'ruHt  etifft  fou  iti't/y  and 
Ihe  /..-HHiye  ojWvivrirttii  tiit'l  oj' ^iirttlish  and  Sonctffian 
ri'Sfels  ai'rit'iiiff  from  imd  d<jitrtitif/  to  €Ocft  I'onittri/^ 
dni'ing  thi  i/i:ara  (ugif/natol,  see  S\vkdi;x. — l\dinbiinjh 
l{ervn\  l.vv.  '.'I,  x.iii.  1  lo,  xxiii.  71> ;  W'l  stiniuxlir  Ite- 
riiii;  xxvii,  llii:  .\oiih  Jti-ilish  liiritw,  ix.  \i\i;  linw- 
terti/  llei  ten; ii.  101 ;  Fniair,  xxiii.  17?t;  AmericiinQiiai- 
lerti/Uiiiialci;x\v.  ir.l(,Uev.  Ur.U.liun);  Hunt's  ,1/ic- 
chain's  Mai/ir.iiic,  xvi.  l.'IK. 

Notaries  Public.  The  origin  of  that  class  of 
puhlie  olhcers  now  called  notaries  puldic  may  lie 
traced  as  far  hack  an  the  aneicnl  lioman  Ki  piihlli'. 
although    thoir   fiineliona    now    are    dilli'ient.       We 


liirhia,  hut  at  u  later  period  niiiii-llnriii',  lis  a  more  liiiii- 
iiiahlu  title.  The  I'runki.sh  kings,  as  early  as  the  yi  nr 
SOI),  appointed  llieso  oHicers,  and  issued  laws  to  pre- 
vent tlie  aliiise  uf  their  power.  It  l.eenino  later  lliu 
sole  prerogative  of  Ihe  kings  to  appoint  these  iioliiiii>, 
liut  Ijy  degrees  the  l'ope.s  <if  lioine  al>o  nssuiiied  iln 
same  right;  and  we  find  in  documents  notnri's  n.iiiieil 
who  were  appointed  hy  princes  and  liisliop.s,  ami  en ii 
liy  cloisters.  The  legal  powers  of  notaries  during  I  lie 
Middle  Ages,  and  their  coudllioii  as  a  distinit  cla>>  ol' 
ollicors,  are  distiiiclly  seen  in  the  llalian  cities.  'Iliev 
acted  either  liy  authority  of  the  Kmperor  or  that  ul 
Ihe  I'ope,  nnd  were  engaged  for  drawing  all  the  vari- 


lind,  at  the  lime  of  the  liepuldic,  sf.riliu:  and  libmrii,  j  ous  legal  document*,  and  espei  ially  last  wills  and  tesl- 
who  were  puldic  secretaries.  The  private  secretaries  auienls.  which  were  received  in  all  the  courts  of  Ian 
wero  culled  vji-fptoret,  and  also  nutarii,  if  tlu^y  were  j  us  full  proof.  They  were  formed  into  n  guild,  lullcil 
short-liand  writer.'),  whiuh  service  was  frer|uenlly  per-  j  mllti/iuni,  and  hud  their  own  prefects,  culleil  ruMn!  >. 
formed  by  slaves.  The  public  secretaries  were  tlio.se  .  A  candidate  for  admission  i;itii  this  college  hud  In  uii- 
whom  the  authorities  of  state  appointed  nnd  paid  to  i  dergo  an  examination.  -Minute  and  strict  rules  I'er 
assist  them  in  their  duties  of'ulllcc,  und  they  uppenr  to  the  druwing  up  of  iustrunn'tiis,  uiid  their  .itteslalioii, 
imvo  corresponded  to  our  present  uctuuries  und  secre- ;  were  prescrilieil.  The  sliidv  of  notarial  functions  was 
taries.  It  does  not  nppeur,  however,  thut  legal  docu- 1  reduced  to  rules, and  notarial  schools  were  cstublislieil 
inents  were  drawn  up  liy  publiu  functionaries  rcseni- !  in  many  cities. 

Ming  our  notaries  pulilie.  iJuring  the  Kmiiire  the  pub- 1  Notaries  camo  to  be  regardeil  at  an  early  period  as 
lie  secretaries  increased  both  in  number  und  import-  j  u  kind  of  judges  (jmlu-  rliarliihiriim),  and  a  [iractiri' 
ance.  They  appoar  to  have  been  secretaries  working  grew  up  among  them  of  inserting  in  bonds,  or  olhir 
in  the  cabinet  of  tho  Kmperor,  in  di.stinct  departments,    documents  of  indebtedness,  a  power  for  the  creditor  of 


and  llicy  had  nn  overseer,  ealleil  mayiittr  scrinioruin. 
Distinct,  however,  from  these  persons  were  those  who 
may  be  compared  to  our  |irescnt  notaries  public,  and 
who  were  called  tabdlioiKg.  It  seems  that  what  even 
at  tlio  present  day  may  be  seen  in  Italian  cities  was  al- 
ready customary  in  tho  early  days  of  ancient  l£oine ; 
namely,  that  in  the  public  market-place,  or  forum, 
scribes  olTered  their  services  to  persons  who  wanted  to 
have  letters  written  or  documents  drawn  up. 

This  class  of  persons  were  culled  tahetlioncj/ori'iues, 
or  pertotiai  jmbltca.  They  occu|iied  thumselvcs  wilh 
drawing  up  legal  instruments  ..nil  documents,  nnd  oth- 
er writings  (/iieW)  or  statements,  to  be  presented  to  tho 
courts  of  law-,  or  other  authorities  of  state.  It  appears, 
from  a  "constitution"  of  Diocletian,  that  a  tarilf  of 
fees  was  cstulilished  for  them.  The  nuiuuer  of  label' 
lionei  constantly  iucreascd.     They  then  formed  them- 


tuking  out  execution,  by  application  to  the  court,  in 
case  of  non-fullillment  of  tho  contract,  which  laid  (he 
founilation  of  the  so-called  '•  executory  process,'' » liii  li 
prevails  still  in  the  Civil  Law  countries,  and  wliieli 
corresponds  somewhat  to  the  worrunt  of  attorney  to 
confess  judgment  in  tho  Knglish  law.  We  sliull  see 
that  the  foreign  law  on  bills  of  exchange  on  the  Con- 
tineiit  of  Kurope  gives  this  right  of  "  executory  [iroe- 
ess"  to  tho  creditor  of  these  mercanlilo  instrument.s, 
und  thus  strengthens  the  security  of  the  creditor. 

J-'raiice. — In  France  tiie  notaries  have  always  playnl 
an  important  part  in  her  judicial  institutions,  and  lliey 
do  so  still.  Tlie  king  regarded  it  as  his  prerogative  lo 
appoint  them,  but  Ihe  popes  also  arrogated  this  piiwi^i, 
and  the  lords  of  provinces  (srii/nriiyn)  assumed  it  like- 
wise. They  were  regarded  there  us  )«//(■  ordinaire,  and 
inserted  in  their  documents  this  executory  power  or 


NOT 


USl 


KOT 


iumm«ryeiicciitloii  (^fxtcuiion  panr).  Tlio  Uili  of  ihf  ^  Irih  fiillimol  iti  lu  nuin  ruiliirr*,  In  (Icrinniiv,  Imw. 
nresi'iit  riKliU  uml  diitl.K  of  notarlm  In  Kruimo  wii»  «vur,  lli.  hukkU.  iHrMjiy  Iml  «  uMlK.f.llimtn  imlIi'ioh  In 
UUl  liy  tlio  law  of  17'J1,  "lilcli  ri.ei)«nlml  no  1ouk«»  |  ni.»t  nntu.,  und  li  |i««  Im«m  mm  •InitiDl  K"»«riillr  <i- 
uiy  r»)»\  iiolaridi.,  Iitit  imlv  nularUt  puhtU;  ;»|'l"'li>l"tl  UIiII.IkcI  l.y  lu»  i||«t  iiliif  fH-fim*  »)■»  Imw  •tmll<(l 
by  ihu  ({encrul  t;'>y«rnment.     Tlio  law  of  tliB  elovciilh    Uw  for  wvaral  J  »»r»  i<«il  U  ii|>|»ilnlril  ii«  niilnrlon. 

I'iill>"i'<t-  li*  InuU))'!,  iiiilMrli'ii«tfrnKniiitna«  put- 
111'  ortliMi*  liufiir«  lltv  NiiMiiNM  I  m\i\mii\,  nnd  m  «  vnry 
I'Uiiy  |wrl<i<l  llcy  inrfu  •<tii|,|<i)'t«l  W  dllfdl  niiil  aiilli«n- 

V       lint 
'•'pii  In 


•A  k 


'-«y 
'I'  try 
III  ili'- 


ygur  of  tlio  ltii|iiilillc  roco^iiijsil  tlimn  uk  public  ollicort, 
tplKiinteil  for  tliu  ptiipunoof  ilritMln)(  up  all  paperaaml 
uunirjtcta  whit'li,  tlllicr  ucconUii^  to  tixpri'ss  laws  or 

till' Mill  of  piirlluii,  uri' to  Uavu  tlio  ilVictirf  iniUlli;  Joe.    liiain  iiiiiruiiMnU  </(  Mii'itiml  «iii|  wiUir 
mil'  UK,  ami  of  tlxii      tliu  duti'i  tlivrouf,  of  lioLlinif  in  {  wliatvvir  lliuir  iloii<i«  Nnil  fitiii  lli/ii<  mr 
■Ml.   kuopiiiK  III'  ixxl  of  iiiiikliii;  out  copk'a  of    ftirimir  liini'a,  iil  |>ii'm.m1  iWy  «r«  iW  i". 

'liiM  concornLil.     All  Uocu-    lliilunl  lli'milii',  in  Itia  <t««llMi  i/ii  th  >  'ili' 

iri'  iif  two  iiolai'luK,  or  nf  j  puijlli:  of  I.iikIuiiiI,  ««  fii\\ii**\  "  ',  ; 
^o..  tml  ttttcslodliy  tlioin,  ri>  I  i»  8  pulilii' oliirtr  of  IliK  il»ll  «(ii  (uflii  ' 
lU.  v  iilsof  law,  anilaioex-|  iivu»  lii^  fa.  ully  or  MMlJKirlly  In  ,.f»ctlc(i  iroiii  the 
.nU.  riio  orlHiiml  ^wi'iili/. )  I'ourt  nf  ia.  ulli« »  uf  llm  Af<  liliMiop  i.f  Cunli-fhiirv,  In 
tiniiU  of  tlio  notary,  ami  j  l^nrtoii,  tliu  tlihif  dUIi  .r  of  hIiIi  I.  I*  ilic  Mn«lof  of  ilio 
(Hily  to  tlie  iiitiTcHleil  |  I'aciilrli  .H,  lo  hIiomi  »|<plliMtti/tl<  at"  iiiuiln  for  tlm  ad- 
weroil  liy  the  courts,  j  iiiIkhIoh,  or  niiiioM«|  .i(iil"r  miy  npi'ilxl  (■Irciinisianio", 
.1-  ill  whii'li  tlio  pri'iiemu  ^  of  noiarios.  In  lli"  iii«IMitli<«  of  Ihc  Irfiwi  of  Kntjliind 
siutiuu  of  iiiBtninKiils  aril  ca- '  ilm  Court  of  l'aiidll<'»  U  ulalMltili* 'moiirt,  nllhoujtli 
soutiul;  e.  y.,  witli  tcatanivntn,  donutioiH,  niurrla^u  it  lioldutli  no  plra  of  I'uiilrovxrula  lllliii  tlm  rnurt  of 
contiaclii,  prolt'dls,  ulo.  In  most  niscs  It  i.t  lilt  to  the  Aiidii'iin!  noul  liiifuro/,  It  lixli/nKfitli  lo  tlic  nrilililnli. 
cliolrc  uf  purlli'H  to  viiiploy  a  iiuturv  in  lliv  mukiiiKout  |  op,  ami  liis  otlinr  la  i  ull«d  ,U)if/ii>i'  r  ml  hinillalet.'" 
of  liiMtruinonld  and  doiunicnlA.  Itiii  tliti  couri.H  oflcii  'llio  I'unrlloiis  and  |ioi»'  >•  of  M  lliiUry  In  Kiiulnnd  are, 
ap|i<iiiil  tlii'in,  l>  iiiidrrtiiko  tin.'  parlof  nudiutoriiiMiino  ,  to  draw  uml  pn'paKi  i|>>d'  Mlnlliitf  lo  r"'!!  anil  person- 
jiulii'iul  proiTuiliiinH;  for  instanw,  in  ou'iis  of  divoni',  |  iil  proporly,  lo  nolo  and  |.(ol('«l  Idlls  of  cxcIihiikc,  to 
or  ill  making  out  iiivi'iitorii'S,  or  in  dividiii.;  and  dis-  j  piipuni  mln  of  lioiiof,  lo  NiilliofiOiiitii  and  ccrlifv  I'.x- 
triliut^ii);  properly  and  rstali's,  or  in  taking'  and  iiiak-    uiniinil  lopii's  of  iim  otMi'tll',  lo  liri'pnrc  and  nltcst  in- 


tliiuii  for  tliu  118 
iiiuiiln  niauo  uul 
oiR<  notary  ami  tnu 
cidvo  full  crudcnci' 
cculoiy  tliroiii;' 
of  tliu  nit  rvni     ,. 
copios  arii   dlov    d  |. 

pai'tiOH,     Ullll'H!)       pii 

Tlio  law  points  out  n 
uf  a  notary  and  IiIk  u 


in^'  u|i  aoioiiiits,  liko  Ilm  Mastcrn  in  (liumiii  In  Kii- 
glikli  law.  T'liii  nutarii's  an'  appoinlud  for  lilV;,  and  ran 
lie  reinovi'd  only  liy  a  judirial  duciitiini.  liy  llnir  of- 
Ik'iul  position  tlii'v  hreunui  tliu  advlscru  iufaniilius  and 
tlio  coiiliiUiiiln  of  tlii'in.  'i  liry  bcconiu  tim  niidiatora  in 
dispiiti'a  liiitwcen  tlii'  parties,  and  particularly  hi  rugu- 
liitiii);  and  itullliiiK  cstulcs,  and  in  tliu  diutributioii  uf 
properly. 

Till'  law  of  Ilm  seventh  year  of  tlio  Kcpuldicrciiuiii's 
.'uit  all  acta  and  duenniunts  niiido  out  by  notaries  be 
registered  witliiii  ten  day.s,  tbo  lees  for  wliiili  aro  very 
lilcli.  lleneu  it  ul'icii  happens  that  tiie  notary  must 
iiilvance  the  money  fortho  registration,  and  lliisotdiges 
liini  tu  liavo  sums  of  monoy  always  ut  his  disposal. 
Tims  notaries  hiivu  gradually  come  to  deal  in  money 
alliiirs  in  general,  liy  loaning  and  Investing  iiioiipy,  and 
proeiiring  money  fur  lorrowers.  llciuo  it  is  that  per- 
sona of  properly  intrust  their  money  and  property  to 
the  hands  of  notaries,  as  being  the  littesl  persons  to  in- 
vest it  safely  and  advanlagcously.  The  great  iiillucnee 
which  tliey  thereby  must  ui'<iuiru  in  families  nml  in  all 


.-.irimnnis  goin^  abroad,  tu  rwclm  Ilm  nllidavils  or 
del  larutions  of  nianiairn  and  mn^ifirii  i,l  slilp«,  and  lo 
draw  up  llielr  pro|ii*t>,  «nit  lo  .olnintil/.n  all  oilier  no- 
tariid  iieis,  "ilia  uklif'"i>\m  Wiliifliit  ml"  says  .Mr. 
lli'ooke,  "is  onu  Mlibli  ||««  «  linliftli'fll  inennliiK.  and 
it  siiiiis  generally  K(»»|di.»"d  U>  »(K(dfy  Ilm  act  of  aii- 
tlieniiiating  or  cirtlfylotf  aonin  di«ilf(i(-nt  or  (ircinn- 
sluinu  ly  a  writhn  lni>|»uinKIM,  muUt  Oip  signature 
and  ollieial  seal  of  »  Molury,  ut  ii(  iinlhcntli'ating  or 
certifying  us  u  iioiary  wmi"  fad  or  ilrniiiisinnco  by  a 
wriiteii  instrument,  utMlur  UU  ulanaliirc  inly."  The 
Kiiglish  notaries  liavu  nlway*  iion/ildcfcd  lliom«elves 
cniitleil  lo  admiiiUtur  utttlia,  Mlliiliitrllii,  and  nnirma- 
lions,  as  within  th'i  inmnn  And  fiiMi'lloiiii  of  a  notary; 
and  the  act  of  &ili  and  «i|t  Wllllftm  (V,  lins  pUiod  It 
beyond  dispute,  Thu  r<^i|MUItlHfiii  for  admission  to  the 
Faculty  of  Noiarlcs  in  KukIkioI  »ti;  all  apprcnllcfshlp 
or  elerkshi|)  of  li\o  yarn  »)|||  «  iiolary,  n  rerlllleate 
from  two  notaries  vurlUyillK  U>  till  tandldale'd  skill 
and  probity,  and  that  l«(  (»  *  jirMppf  person  to  beconio 
u  notary.     L'pon  duu  pruof  iit  lllenfl  fads,  the  Master 


classes  of  society  is  manifest :    ami  this  great  jmwer    uf  I'Vulties  will  oilniit  hint  tlpiilt  Uh  Inking  Ihc  pre- 
could  not  but  lead  to  great  abuses.     An  ordiiianco  of  I  scribed  oaths,  which  at'i)  |||«  iialll  of  allf-glnnce,  tho 


IMA  prohibited  notaries,  under  heavy  penalties,  from 
cnleriiig  into  stock  speeulaliuns,  from  acting  us  money. 
brokers,  from  investing  money  intrusted  to  them  in 
their  own  names,  etc.  Tho  reiiuisites  fur  becoming  a 
notary  in  France  are,  that  tho  candidate  bo  a  I'Veneh 
citi/.on.  twenty-live  years  of  oge,  and  that  he  has  served 
as  clerk  with  a  notary  fur  si.\  years.  Hut  no  man  witli- 
out  property  can  expect  to  olituin  a  |dace  us  notary,  be- 
cause he  is  obliged  to  buy,  often  for  un  enormous  price 
(which  in  I'ari.s  often  amounts  to  from  •200,000  to 
aOO,000  francs,  in  smaller  towns  to  100,000  francs, 
and  in  small  communes  to  10,000  francs),  from  a  no- 
tary who  is  about  to  retire,  or  from  the  heirs  of  a  de- 
ceased notary,  a  study-room  or  ollicc  (iluile),  with  the 
acts  and  documents  belonging  to  it ;  fur  without  such 
an  oIKce  tho  mere  appointment  of  notary  is  of  little 
value.  There  arc  also  established  by  law  in  France 
notarial  chambers,  which  consist  of  a  number  of  depu- 
ties, chosen  by  the  notaries,  who  regulate  thu  discipline 
among  them,  decide  on  tho  admission  of  candidates,  ad- 
just disputes  which  may  arise  among  themselves,  and 
hear  and  decide  on  the  complaints  of  third  persons 
against  notaries,  and  the  punishments  of  delimiuent  uo- 
taries. 
/(a/y.— In  Italy  the  French  eastern  of  notaries  lias 


oath  of  supremacy,  thu  oatll  u(  liim  wtvleo  under  the 
articles  of  clerksliip  oiid  (uf  tUf  faithful  enerciss  of  the 
olHco  of  iiolaiy.  A  nulary  l»  liable  Ui  («■  struck  off  the 
ItoU  of  Faculiios  for  any  Hialprmllfio  (if  tnlseonduct  In 
Ids  ortice,  on  a  coniplainl  iMailii  Ui  ilw  Master  of  the 
Faciillies,  ami  supported  by  alliilavlf  (if  oilier  proof. 

Iiiiled  .SMid.—iii  lh«  I'liilwd  Mlalfs  tlio  duties  and 
functions  of  nolariis  cesBiMldii  tUmn  ii(  the  same  officers 
in  Kngland.  'I  In-y  aru  a|i|ioliil«iil  by  the  rofipeclive 
governors  of  the  Stales  fuf  a  llmlKid  iiMtnlief  of  years, 
or  during  good  behavior,  and  dcflvs  ihslf  povrers  by 
I  he  statute  laws  of  tliii  Klal«« )  «ll4  ill  eaiies  vihete  these 
laws  do  not  specify  their  |«m»'f»--a!>,  for  Instance,  In 
itlassachusetts — it  must  hu  ftnimmmi  that  ait  the  pow- 
ers which,  by  general  usagu,  ()|A  custtttll  of  (nerchants, 
and  law  of  nations  ara  utmtMy  «)li«fcl.»ed  by  these 
ollicers,  aro  also  vestiid  in  tttoni/  Wd  ntay  stale  their 
general  and  customary  fMlietidHK  Ut  be,  lo  demand  ac- 
ccptani  '^  and  |iayment  of  (urni^n  and  ilitand  bills  of 
cxclian|.;u  and  proiiiiasury  niHm,  AHti  to  protest  the 
saiiiu  for  non-accepian<M  »»»♦  «(ffl^i«yinetit )  to  note 
and  draw  up  ship  protests,  aimI  ail  iitllef  (irolests  which 
aro  customary  acrardiiig  tu  (he  Uftnts  ut  tnerchants ; 
and  to  exercise  such  otlmr  mmm  attd  duties  as  by  tho 
law  of  nations,  and  iusofmugi  (9  «4«»iiMetclal  usage,  ot 


^ 
'^X"^' 


^'ft.^. 


> 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


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LiB2j8     12^ 

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|I.25|U   |,.6 

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► 

Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  145S0 

(716)872-4303 


'^'^^ 


4^ 


;;:-*■•.  TV  V, 


NOT 


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srot 


)iy  tho  Uwi  of  any  other  iUt«,  fpivtrnment,  or  coun* 
try,  in«y  b«  par(brm»d  by  notarlsi  public.  But  al- 
thouKli  iiotMdi  publlo  am  ganorally  coniidcred  a*  ao. 
•radltetl  ofllaart  In  other  eountrloe,  and  affidavit*  ewom 
bofora  and  Initrumenta  attthantlcated  by  them  are  re- 
•elved  In  ovldenoe  In  foreign  court*,  It  Is  required  by 
foreign  oourti  that  the  ooneuU  of  the  respective  fsreigo 
•tatM  In  whioh  the  document  is  to  bo  used  certify  to 
the  fact  that  the  iMraoii  whose  signature  and  seal  are 
affixed  la  a  notary  publlo  duly  appointed.  This  Is, 
howevor,  not  neeoMary  In  a  protest  for  the  non-accept- 
ance or  non<paymont  of  a  bill  of  exchange.  Tho  laws 
of  the  dinbront  Htatos  of  tho  Union,  lu  some  h  stances, 
give  sonii)  pfluuliar  powers  In  (heir  notaries,  and  honce 
the  laws  of  each  Htate  must  hu  consulted  In  regard  to 
them,  Tlio  principal  functions  of  an  American  notary 
are,  to  protest  liills  of  excliange  and  promissory  notes 
on  their  Iteing  dishonored,  and,  as  a  part  of  this  func- 
tion, to  present  and  demand  payment  of  these  mercan- 
tile luslruinonts.  AUIioiiKh  the  notaries  with  us  ger- 
erally  givo  notice  of  tlio  dlnhonor  of  bills  and  notes  to 
anteueduiit  |)artl*s.  It  is  not  their  duty  to  do  so,  unless 
niada  so  liy  statute,  or  thoy  undertakd  so  to  do  as  a 
part  of  their  duty ;  and  then  they  are  liable  for  any 
negligence  In  tho  dlschnrgo  of  this  duty.— See  Manual 
fir  Nutantt,  8vo.  pp.  2aO,  New  A'ork,  1867. 

NotM,  Promluory.    i^e*  Uankino  and  Banks. 

Nova  Bootia  (Kr.  Aomilu},  a  British  province, 
forming  a  puninsula,  coiinoctod  with  tho  main  land  by 
an  lathmua  oiUy  H  miles  liroiul,  having  the  Bay  of  Fun- 
dy  on  tho  one  sidn,  and  Norlliumborland  Straiten  the 
other.  It  llus,  Including  Cape  Breton  Island,  between 
lat.  4a''  ir>'  and  'Ifl'  N.,  and  long,  m'  45'  and  C6°  80' 
W,,  and  la  bounded  north  by  Northumberland  Strait, 
which  separate*  It  from  Prince  Kdward  Island,  north- 
east by  tho  Out  of  Cansoau,  flowing  between  It  and  the 
island  of  Uapo  lireton  (which  forms  a  part  of  the  gov- 
tmmont  of  Nova  Scotia),  south  and  southeast  by  the 
Atlantic  Oboan,  west  by  tho  Bay  of  Kundy,  and  north- 
west by  Naw  Urunawltk.    Area,  18,746  square  miles. 

Its  southeast  coast  Is  remarkable  for  the  number  and 
capacity  of  Its  harbors,  tiiore  being  no  fower  than  twelve 
porta  oapabia  of  receiving  ships  of  the  lino,  and  four- 
teen of  suflleiont  deptii  fur  moroliantmoii,  l)otween  Hal- 
ifax and  Capa  Oansaau,  a  disianoe  of  not  more  than 
IIU  mllu*.  The  surface  of  Nova  Scotia  seldom  rises  to 
a  height  exceeding  tlOl)  feet  alinve  tno  level  of  the  sea. 
A  rldgo  of  high  land  extends  through  the  peninsula  in 
a  direction  east  to  west,  and,  with  lens  prominent  hills 
and  undulations,  gives  a  pleasing  variety  tu  tho  scen- 
ery. Tho  principal  rivurit  n*  tho  province  are  the  An- 
napolis and  Hliubenecailie  i  the  latter  rises  in  Grand 
Laka,  llallflut  County,  and,  after  a  rapid  and  circui- 
tous course  of  ov«r  QU  mlirs,  enters  Col)equtd  Bay ;  by 
means  of  a  canal  thli  river  forms  a  navigable  commn- 
nloatlon  fhini  Halifax  harbor  to  tlio  Bay  of  Fundy.  It 
I*  navigable  fur  some  distance.  The  rise  and  fall  of 
tho  tide  at  tlio  month  1*  aliont  60  feet.  Tho  Annapo- 
lis, after  a  course  of  76  miles,  In  which  It  receives  the 
waters  of  Moose  and  Hear  rivers,  enters  Annapolis  Bay. 
It  Is  navigable  for  largo  vessels  W  miles  nlwve  Annap- 
olis. At  I'lotott,  the  Kast,  West,  nnd  Middle  rirers,  all 
throa  navigable  for  large  vcsnuls,  enter  the  harbor. 
The  Avon  recelvea  the  waters  of  tho  St.  Croix,  Ken- 
neteook,  and  aaveral  others,  and  smptlea  itself  into  the 
Bay  of  Mines  I  It  Is  navigable  to  Windsor.  The  La 
Have,  Memey,  and  Madway;  the  Shelhurne  (which 
forms  Uto  lino  harbor  of  that  nanw) )  the  Clyde,  one 
of  tho  niuat  Iwautlfiit  streams  of  Nova  Scotia ;  the  Tus- 
ket  and  Its  numarous  tributaries ;  the  St.  Mary,  which, 
at  it*  emliottDhure,  fmrrna  tho  fine  harbor  of  St.  Mary ; 
tfaa  ftlaooau,  Nappaii,  and  Qaspereau ;  the  Musquedo- 
bolt,  Salo,  and  Jordan  |  these  fbrm  but  a  fow  uf  numer- 
oui  atroania  of  Nova  Sootla.  The  tide  rises  with  as- 
toolahlng  rapidity  In  tha  Bay  of  Mines  to  the  height 
«f  75  foot,  while  on  tlw  south  shoro  and  In  tho  Gulf  of 
St.  Lkwnuo*  It  do«*  not  rise  mora  than  .6  foet.    There 


are  bnt  fow  large  lakes ;  the  largest  is  Lake  Roslgnol,' 
about  30  miles  in  length ;  Lake  George  is  another  sheet 
of  water  of  considerable  size,  and  the  entire  peninsula  i* 
dottcsd  over  with  innumerable  small  lakes.  The  mines 
and  minerals  of  Nova  Scotia,  though  but  imperfectly 
explored,  arc  known  to  be  valuable.  Granite,  trap, 
and  clay-slate  rocks  predominate.  The  most  abundant 
variety  is  the  gray  granite,  which  prevails  along  tha 
shore,  and  is  well  adapted  for  mill-stones.  Clay  slate, 
of  tine  quality,  is  of  extensive  formation  in  the  eastern 
section  of  the  province,  and  grjywacke  slate  along  both 
shoresbf  Chsdabucto  Bay.  Several  extensive  and  beau- 
tiful grottoes  are  to  be  found  on  diflbrent  parts  of  the 
coast ;  and  grindstones  of  superior  quality  aro  obtained 
from  a  stratum  of  sandstone,  found  between  tho  coal 
and  limestone.  Coal,  and  iron  in  combination  with  It, 
abounds  in  many  places.  Copper  ore  also  exists,  but 
the  attempts  to  work  it  have  been  hitherto  unsuccess- 
ful ;  gypsum  is  plentiful,  and  furnishes  an  active  and 
profitable  trade.  The  soils  of  Nova  Scotia  are  various ; 
along  the  south  shore  the  granite  forms  the  basis,  ex- 
tending in  many  places  20  miles  into  tlie  interior. 
This  region  is  the  least  fertile,  but  there  are  elsewliere 
extensive  alluvial  tracts  producing  the  most  abundant 
crops.  Many  fine  fertile  districts,  also,  aro  met  with 
on  the  north  coast,  along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  the 
heads  of  bays.  The  climate  of  Nova  Scotia  is  affected 
by  its  almost  insular  position,  and  is  characterized  by 
a  remarkable  salubrity.  The  springs  are  todious,  but 
the  summer  heats  being  for  a  brief  season  excessive, 
vegetation  is  singularly  rapid,  and  the  autumn  is  de- 
lightful. Th»  thermometer  ranges  from  18°  to  70°. 
It  is  estimated  that  at>out  7,000,000  acres  are  still  cov- 
ered with  primeval  forests.  There  were  in  this  prov- 
ince in  1861,  40,012  acres  of  diked  laud,  and  799,310 
acres  of  other  improved  land. 

Live  S<ofi-.  — Horses,  28,789;  neat  cattle,  156,857; 
milch  cows,  86,866;  sheep,  282,180;  swine,  51,633. 

Agricultural  Products,  etc. — Wheat,  297,167  bushels 
produced ;  rye,  61,438 ;  Indian  corn,  37,475 ;  oats,  ■ 
1,884,437  ;  peas  and  beans,  21,638  ;  barley,  196,037 ; 
buckwheat,  170,810;  potatoes,  1,980,789;  pounds  of 
l)Utter  made,  8,613,890 ;  of  cheese,  662,069 ;  of  maple 
sugar,  110,441 ;  hay,  287,837  tons  made ;  grass  seeds, 
3686  bushels;  and  were  made  89,976  gallons  of  malt 
and  distilled  liquors.  Nova  Scotia,  however,  does  not 
yet  supply  her  population  with  bread,  even  in  good 
seasons;  large  importations  of  fine  flour  being  yearly 
made  from  the  United  States.  The  apple  orchards  of 
the  western  counties  are  very  productive.  Apples  and 
cider  arc  annually  exported,  and  tho  domestic  supply 
is  cheap  and  abundant.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised 
in  considerable  numbers,  and  are  exported  both  to  New 
Brunswick  and  Newfoundland ;  but  the  breeds  are  in- 
fferior,  and  little  attention  is  paid  to  their  improvement. 
The  cod  and  haddock  fisheries  are  actively  prosecuted 
all  along  the  south  coast.  Mackerel  and  herrings  are 
also  taken  in  great  quantities ;  but  tho  salmon  fishing 
has  greatly  fallen  off,  from  the  erection  of  grist  and 
saw  mills  on  tho  streams.  The  fisheries  employed,  in 
1861,  812  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  43,338  tons, 
manned  by  3681  men,  and  5161  bnits,  manned  by  6713 
men ;  the  catch  amounted  to  16t>'.'  barrels  of  salmon,  j 
8636  of  shad,  100,047  of  mackerel,  68,200  of  herrings, 
and  648  barrels  of  alewives ;'  total  value  of  fisheries,  j 
£217,220 ;  and  there  were  manufactured  189,260  bar* ! 
r«ls  of  flsh-oil,  valued  at  £17,754.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  prosecute  the  whale  and  seal  fish- 
eries, but  hitherto  with  no  great  success.  The  manu- 
factures of  Nova  Scotia  are  yet  but  very  limited.  Coarse 
cloths,  called  "homespuns,"  are  made,  and  are  goner- 
ally  worn  by  the  farmers,  fishermen,  etc.  There  were 
In  this  province,  in  1851,  81  woolen  factories,  employ- 
ing  119  persons,  and  11,090  hand-looms,  producing 
119,698  yards  of  foiled  cloth,  790,104  yards  not  fulled, 
and  219,362  yards  flannel ;  total  value,  £36,178;  9  iron 
foundories,eniploylngl88  persons,  maklngcas  tings,  etc.; 


NOV 


1453 


NOV 


to  the  •moUBtof  £8121 ;  S98  grist-milb,  1163  r  tv-inUla> 
287  Uniieries,  and  10  factories  moved  by  steam  power. 
Cash  valua  of  agricultural  implements  mauuCtutured, 
£16,640. 

The  houses  of  Kova  Scotta  are  mostly  constructed 
of  timber,  excepting  in  Halifax  and  the  larger  towns, 
vrhere  some  good  stone  and  .brick  houses  are  to  be 
seen ;  yet  stone  for  building  abounds  iu  the  province 
— granite  of  the  finest  quality  on  the  south  coast,  free- 
stone all  along  the  north  shore,  and  excellent  slate  in 
the  central  region. 

The  foreign  trado  of  Nova  Scotia  was  very  limited 
previous  to  1824 ;  since  that  period  it  has  extended  to 
the  Baltic,  Mediterranean,  China,  Mauritius,  East  In- 
dies, the  Brazils,  and  the  Havana.  The  total  amount 
of  imports  at  Halifax  and  the  outports,  in  18C2,  was 
(6,300,894,  of  which  $1,445,043  were  from  the  United 
Stales.  The  exports  during  the  same  period  amount- 
ed to  $3,925,227,  of  which  $941,607  were  to  the  United 
States.  Of  these  the  principal  articles  were — iiiacfc- 
erel,  valued  at  $280,143;  salmon,  $30,030;  other  fish, 
dry  and  pickled,  $218,693 ;  skius  and  furs,  $8165 ;  mo- 
lasses, $3626 ;  potatoes,  $4152 ;  sugar,  $3000 ;  cord- 
wood,  $33,990;  coals,  I'ictou,  $151,215 ;  cools,  Sidney, 
$35,983;  gypsum,  $32,823 ;  freestone  and  grindstones, 
$4500 ;  oil,  tish,  $48,916.  The  number  of  vessels  that 
entered  and  cleared  during  the  year  were,  72  to  Great 
Britain;  1757  to  British  colonics ;  11,429  to  the  United 
States;  other  countries,  158.  Total  tonnage,  383,400 
tons. 

The  population  of  Nova  Scotia  is  now  chiefly  com- 
posed of  tlie  descendants  of  the  English,  Irish,  and  the 
Scotch.  The  western  and  midland  counties  are  prin- 
cipally occupied  by  the  descendants  of  the  loyalists, 
mostly  of  English  extraction.  The  county  of  Lnuen- 
burgh  is  inhabited  by  a  race  sprung  from  a  body  of 
German  and  Swiss  Protestants  who  emigrated  from 
Botterdam  in  1753.  Thero  are  also  several  settlements 
of  French  Acadians,  The  Indians  are  still  a  distinct 
people,  but  there  are  only  a  few  hundreds  of  them  left 
in  the  province. 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  description 
and  value  of  imports  and  exports  to  and  from  the 
United  States  and  Nova  Scotia,  during  the  years  1852 
and  1863,  respectively.  For  the  convenience  of  calcu- 
lation the  £  is  estimated  at  $5 : 

Imports  from  Nova  Scolia,  1852. — Coal,  fish,  gyp- 
sum, lumber  and  plank,  staves,  spars,  etc.,  wood  and 
bark,  potatoes,  turnips,  miscellaneous.  Total  value, 
(1,289,246. 

Exports  to  Xoea  Scotia. — Beef,  pork,  books  and  sta- 
tionery, bread  and  biscuit,  burning  fluid,  corn,  com 
meal,  cotton  manufactures,  drugs  and  medicines,  flour 
■  (of  rye  and  wheat),  hardware,  rice,  tobacco,  wheat, 
miscellaneous.  Total  value,  $1,739,216.  Showing  a 
balance  in  favor  of  the  United  States  of  $449,070. 

Imports  from  Nova  Scotia,  1853.— rPrincipal  articles 
the  suuic  OS  iu  1852.     Totol  volue,  $1,389,731. 

Kxpiivis  to  Nova  Scotia. — Principal  articles  the  same 
as  for  1852.     Total  value,  $2,079,546. 

The  preceding  tables  exhibit  the  course  of  trade  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Nova  Scotia  during  the 
periods  indicated.  The  fallowing  are  introduced  to 
show  the  proportionate  volue  of  supplies  furnished  to 
that  province  by  the  United  States,  compared  with  the 
value  of  imports  from  the  mother  country,  from  1849 
to  1853,  both  years  inclusive : 


Vtitn. 

UiMt  BriUiD. 

VDlled  SMtei.             1 

loipoits  from. 

Iiportita. 

Imports  from. 

Uxporta  to.    I 

1849 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
Tohil. 

$1,489,016 
1,692,020 
2,183,056 
2,137,001 
2,868.240 

$260,785 
202,946 
142,245 
S18.3S0 
B11,0!10 

$1,7*4.786 
1,012,676 
1,390,U6B 
1,739,220 
2,079,517 

111-'"' 

*       — — 

$10,010,671   1  $1,401,015 

$8,6ST,092 

$6,297,r4SJ 

Total  trade  of  Great  BriUtn  with  Nova  Scotia. . 
,  "       "        United  BUtes    »       «       ••    , 


,  $11,601  680 
.    1S,8SS,M0 


A  glance  at  the  preceding  tables  will  suggest  th« 
inferences  which  they  are  designed  to  convey. 

In  reference  to  the  coal  trade  of  Nova  Scotia,  Con- 
sul General  Andrews,  in  his  report  on  the  "  Tnde  and 
Commerce  of  the  British  North  American  Colonies," 
says :  "  The  principal  exportation  of  coals  from  Nova 
Scotia  and  Cape  Breton  is  to  ports  in  Massachusetts 
and  Rhode  Island,  witli  a  small  quantity  to  New  York. 
Many  American  vessels  in  this  trade,  especially  sioc« 
the  change  in  the  navigation  laws,  obtain  freights  for 
Nova  Scolia,  Newfoundland,  the  French  ishuid  of  St. 
Peter,  Prince  Edward's  Island,  and  the  New  Bruos. 
wick  ports  on  tho  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  load  with 
coal  as  their  return  cargo.  One  hundred  chaldront 
of  coal,  Pictou  measure,  are  equal  to  120  cbaldrona, 
Boston  ineanure.  The  usual  freight  from  Pictou  to 
Boston  is  $2  75  per  chaldron,  Boston  measure.  To 
this  must  be  added  insurance,  2  percent.,  and  commis* 
sion,  2i  per  cent.  Anthracite  cool  docs  not  exist  in 
any  of  the  colonics;  and  they  bid  fair  to  become  con-' 
sumers  of  Pennsylvania  anthracite,  the  importation  of 
which  has  already  commenced  to  some  extent  iu  New 
Brunswick  for  steamboats  and  founderics.  Under  lib- 
eral orrangemtats  on  both  sides,  the  consumption  of 
anthracite  coal  would  greatly  increase  in  the  colonies, 
and  even  in  Nova  Scotia,  it  being  for  many  purpose* 
better  fitted  and  more  economical  than  the  bituminous 
coal  of  that  colony." 

Cord  or  firewood  is  largely  exported  from  the  porta 
along  the  coast  to  the  United  States,  at  a  cost  last  year 
of  $2  per  cord.  Thi.s  year  none  has  been  shipped  for 
less  than  $2  60,  and  latterly  $3  per  cord ;  retail  price 
at  Halifax,  1853,  $3  60  to  J^3  60;  1864,  |4  to  $4  60. 
Wood  knees  for  ship-building  have  been  shipped  in 
some  quantities  at  $2  each  for  sizes  averaging  eight 
inches,  and  a  reduction  of  20  cents  for  each  inch  under, 
and  a  like  addition  for  each  inch  over,  the  average. 
Sawed  lumber,  in  small  quantities,  has  been  shipped, 
but  none  prior  to  80th  June,  1864.  Many  cargoes  of 
potatoes  were  shipped  from  the  western  ports,  costing 
from  40  to  60  cents  per  bushel. 

Insurance  during  the  year  to  ports  from  Virginia  to 
Maine  average  one  per  cent. ;  a  half  per  cent,  addition- 
al is  charged  in  tho  winter  months  to  Pennsylvania 
and  farther  south.  Freights  to  ports  from  Maine  to 
Virginia  range  IVum  25  to  50  cents  per  barrel,  A  com- 
mission of  2 ';  iier  cent,  is  usually  charged. 

The  usua.  mode  of  selling  is  liy  private  contract  on 
terms  generally  of  thrco  months'  credit ;  sometimes  a 
longer  credit  is  allowed;  cash  payments  only  when 
specially  provided  for.  Public  auction  is  a  favorite 
mode  ot  this  port.  Brokers  are  sometimes  used,  but 
it  is  an  exception  to  the  usual  mode. 

The  par  of  exchange  is  4^  per  cent. ;  the  Mexican 
and  Spanish  dollar  being  current  by  an  act  of  tho  pro- 
vincial Legisloture  (chapter  83  Revised  Statutes),  at 
59. 2^(/,,  or|l  4^  each.  The  rate  ofexcbango  with  the 
United  States  during  the  year  ranges  from  2  to  3^  per 
cent.    There  are  no  internal  taxes. 

Remuneration  for  personal  services  in  commerce  and 
trade  ranges  from  £40  to  £150  per  annum.  Mechan- 
ics, soy  house  carpenters,  joiners,  etc.,  from  July  1, 
1863,  to  Juno  1, 1864,  ninety  cents  to  a  dollar  per  day ; 
ofter  June  1,  1854,  they  received  $1  50  a  day.  Ship- 
wrights, to  December  1,  1853,  $1  60 ;  frim  December 
1,  1853,  to  1st  Jul)',  1864,  $1  76  to  $2  per  day.  .  Day 
laborers,  up  to  June  1, 1854,  were  paid  60,  and  some- 
times 70  cents  o  day.  Since  the  1st  June,  1864,  they 
hove  received  |1  a  iloy. — See  North  American  Jieviev, 
xix.  127  (J.  Spabks),  xxx.  121  (C.  W.  UpiiAm)  ;  West- 
minster Iieview,xix.  300;  American  Journal  of  Science, 
xiv.  805,  XV.  132,  301,  xxx.  330. 

Nova  Zembla  (properly  Novala  Zemlia, ' '  new 
land"),  an  insular  region  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  consid- 
ered to  be  comprised  in  Europe,  and  dependent  on  the 
Russian  government  of  Archangel,  between  lat.  70°  80* 
and  76°  80'  N.,  and  long.  62°  and  66°  E.    Ungth  et- 


NUT 


1454 


NUT<'' 


tlmated  at  470  miles,  and  aTorage  breadth  tt  66  miles. 
It  consists  of  two  islands,  separated  by  the  channel 
Matotshkin-shar.  Surface  on  the  western  side  rises 
generally  to  2000  feet,  and  in  some  places  to  Avm  3200 
to  8500  feet  abofu  the  sea;  but  the  eastern  shores 
are  comparatively  low  and  barren.  Black  clay-slate 
and  limestone  are  tho  principal  constituent  rocks,  as 
In  tho  Ural  chain,  of  which  Nova  Zembla  may  be  con- 
sidered an  insular  continuation.  Its  coasts  are  tn- 
qnented  by  walrus  hunters  In  summer,  but  nowhere 
permanently  inhabited.  Subterranean  stone  laby- 
rinths of  great  antiquity  have  been  discovered  here, 

Nat,  or  Hasel-nut  (Qerm.  Ilasclnuau ;  Fr.  JVbi- 
lettes,  Avelina ;  It.  A'accinole,  Avelane ;  Sp.Acellamu; 
Port.  AveltSas;  Lat.  AvtUana),  the  fruit  of  dilTerent 
species  of  Coruli,  or  hazels.  The  kernels  have  a  mild, 
furliiaolsons,  oily  taste,  agreeable  to  most  palates.  A 
kind  of  chocolate  has  been  prepared  from  them ;  and 
they  have  sometimes  been  made  into  bread.  The  ex- 
pressed oil  of  hazel-nuts  Is  little  inferior  to  that  of 
almonds.  Besides  those  raised  at  homo,  we  import 
nuts  from  different  parts  of  France,  Portugal,  and 
Spain,  but  principally  from  the  latter.  The  Spanish 
nuts  in  the  highest  estimation,  though  sold  under  the 
name  of  Barcelona  nuts,  are  not  really  shipped  at  that 
city,  but  at  Tarragona,  a  little  more  to  the  south.  Mr. 
Inglis  says  that  the  annual  average  export  of  nuts  from 
Tarragona  is  from  25,000  to  30,000  bags,  of  four  to  the 
ton. 

Nnta  (Oround)  (Arachii  hypogaa),  known  in 
French  commerce  as  "  arachiiles"  in  America  as  pea- 
nuts, and  In  Africa  as  ifandubim,  th-!  fruit  of  a  papili- 
onaceous plant,  rising  to  tho  height  of  about  16  inch- 
es, being  very  like  the  field  pea,  with  yellow  flowers. 
The  branches,  after  flowering,  bend  down  till  they 
touch  the  ground,  into  which  they  work  themselves, 
and  upon  them  grow  the  pods  that  contain  the  nuts. 
When  the  nuts  are  ripe  tho  plant  dies.  It  is  then 
pulled  up,  and  the  nuts  which  adhere  to  the  twigs 
are  collected.  The  pods,  which  are  of  nn  elongated 
figure,  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  In  length,  and 
half  an  inch  in  circumference,  and  brittle,  usually  con- 
tain two  nuts,  but  sometimes  only  one,  and  very  rare- 
ly three.  They  are  elliptical  at  one  end  and  flattened 
at  the  other.  Ground-nuts  are  grown  in  light,  sandy 
soils  In  most  tropical  countries.  They  have  been 
used  as  food  from  time  immemorial  in  Africa,  India, 
Brazil,  and  other  parts  both  of  South  and  North  Amer- 
ica. The  best  are  raised  on  the  banks  of  the  Kiver  Gini- 
bia,  where  they  are  extensively  grown  in  large  fie'  la, 
the  ground  being  prepared  for  their  reception  by  tbe 
natives  after  the  rude  fashion  of  the  country.  Tho 
plant  is  very  prolific;  it  Is  also  said  to  be  highly  ex- 
haustive of  the  soil,  though  this  Is  perhaps  questionable. 
Ground-nuts  yield  large  quantities  of  oil ;  and  with- 
in the  last  20  years  they  have  begun  to  bo  grown  in 
Africa  as  an  article  of  commerce,  and  are  now  largely 
exported  for  crushing.  A  mill  for  cxproiistng  oil  from 
them  was  constructed  In  London  in  1835.  But  the 
French  Government  having  a  few  years  after  imposed 
high  duties  on  most  descriptions  of  oil  seeds,  the  oil- 
crushers  of  Marseilles  and  other  towns  endeavored  to 
find  out  seeds  not  included  in  the  tariff,  or  less  heavily 
taxed  than  the  otiiers.  They  were  thus  led  to  Import 
brachida  or  ground-nuts,  which  they  found  to  answer 
extremely  well.  France  has,  In  consequence,  become 
the  great  market  for  this  peculiar  product.  The  ex- 
ports from  the  Gambia,  which  In  1835  did  not  exceed 
47  tons,  had  increased  in  1851  to  not  less  than  about 
12,000  tons.  Of  this  quantity  about  800  tons  went  to 
the  United  Slates  (where  they  arc  eaten  at  dessert, 
roasted,  as  arc  clicstnuts  elsewhere),  700  tons  to  En 
gland,  and  the  rest  to  France,  principally  to  Marseilles. 
The  total  Imparts  of  arachidft  into  France  in  1851 
amounted,  according  to  the  ofliclal  returns,  to  10,472,662 
kilogrammes,  or  10,180  tons. 

Knt*  ore  also  exported  from  the  Bio  Grande,  the 


Rio  Knnex,  and  firom  Sierra  Leone,  and  the  adjoining 
rivers.  And  though  there  are  no  accounts  of  the  ex- 
act quantities  sent  ttom  each,  it  is  believed  that  their 
aggregate  amoont  is  fully  equal  to  the  exports  from 
the  Gambia.  IVithin  the  last  three  or  four  years  con- 
siderable quantities  have  been  shipped  from  the  Senegal 
River.  The  oil  expressed  from  the  nuts  differs  in  quality 
and  price  according  to  the  care  with  which  It  Is  refined. 
That  made  in  I.«ndon,  which  is  equal  to  fine  olive  oil, 
sold,  in  1863,  at  from  £60  to  £62  a  ton.  In  Franco  the 
oil  is  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  ;  and 
being  inferior  to  the  former,  U  only  worth  from  £45  to 
£48  a  tor.  Besides  being  used  for  the  like  purposes 
as  other  oil  in  food,  In  the  woolen  manufacture,  and  in 
lamps,  the  oil  of  ground-nuts  is  said  to  be  especially  well 
fitted  for  lubricating  heavy  machinery,  including  the 
locomotive  engines  on  railways.  The  Belgians  use  it 
for  this  latter  purpose  in  preference  to  all  other  oils. 
Ground-nuts  are  worth  at  present  (September,  1863) 
from  880  francs  to  890  francs  per  1000  kilogrammes  (a 
ton)  In  Marseilles ;  £18  16<.  a  ton  in  London  ;  and  from 
£9  to  £10  a  ton  delivered  to  a  French  ship  in  the  Gam- 
bia. Sierra  Leone  nuts  bring  from  £1  to  £2  less  than 
those  from  the  Gambia. 

Hutmag  (Ger.  MuthatennOtse ;  Du.  MuskaSii;  Fr. 
ifuicadet,  Nuix  mrucadei;  It.  tfoee  mtucada ;  Sp.  Afos- 
caJa  !  Arab.  Jowzalteib ;  Sans.  Jitiphala ;  Malay,  Buah- 
pala),  the  fruit  of  the  genuine  nutmcg-trco  (Jilyriatica 
Afotchala),  a  native  of  tho  Moluccas,  but  which  has 
been  transplanted  to  Sumatra,  Pcnang,  etc.  An  infe- 
rior and  long-shaped  nutmeg  is  common  In  Borneo; 
but  the  fruit  nowhere  attoins  to  tho  same  perfection  as 
in  the  Moluccas.  Of  the  several  varieties  of  tho  tree, 
that  denominated  the  Queen  Nutmeg,  which  bears  a 
small,  round  fruit,  is  the  best.  The  kernel,  or  proper 
nutmeg,  Is  of  a  roundish  oval  form,  marked  on  the  out- 
side with  many  vermicular  furrows,  within  of  a  fleshy, 
farinaceous  substance,  variegated  whitish  and  bay. 
Nutmegs  are  frequently  punctured  and  boiled,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  c  'il  oil,  the  orifice  being  afterward 
closed ;  but  t.  ':  '.»  easily  detected  by  the  light- 

ness of  the  \\"  Thomso.n's  Ditpetuatary ;  Ains- 

i.ie's  Matena  J  :a.  Nutmegs  should  be  chosen 
liirge,  round,  heavy,  and  firm,  of  a  lightish  gray  color 
on  the  outside,  and  the  inside  beautifully  marbled,  of 
a  strong  fragrant  smell,  warm  aromatic  taste,  and  a 
flat,  oily  body.  They  are  very  subject  to  be  worm- 
eaten.  The  best  manner  of  packing  them  is  in  dry 
chnnam.  The  oblong  kind,  and  the  smaller  ones, 
should  be  rejected.  15  cwt.  are  allowed  to  a  ton. — 
Mii.burn'8  Orient.  Com.  The  dried  produce  of  a  nut- 
meg-tree consists  of  nutmeg,  mace  (which  see),  and 
shell.  Supposing  tho  whole  produce  to  be  divided  into 
100  parts,  there  are  13J  of  mace,  83  J  of  shell,  and  63J 
of  nutmeg.  In  tho  ancient  commerce,  and  down  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  monopoly,  nutmegs 
were  always  sold  and  exported  in  the  shell.  The  na- 
tives, whenever  the  commerce  is  left  to  their  manoge- 
ment,  continue  the  practice,  which  is  strongly  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  Crawfurd.— AWern  Archipelago,  vol. 
ill.  p.  896. 

The  jealous  policy  of  the  Dutch  has  reduced  tlio 
trade  In  nutmegs  to  a  mere  trifle,  compared  to  what  it 
would  otherwise  have  been.  They  have,  In  so  far  at 
least  as  it  was  possible,  exerted  themselves  to  exterm- 
inate tho  nutmeg  plants  every  where  except  in  Banda. 
The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  this  Island  have  been  ex- 
patriated, and  the  land  parceled  among  settlers  from 
Holland,  under  the  name  ot  park-keepert.  These  per. 
sons  have  about  2000  slaves,  who  cultivate  and  prepare 
the  nutmegs.  The  prices  paid  by  the  cultivator  are 
ail  fixed  by  Government;  and  it  deser>es  to  be  men- 
tioned, as  aflbrding  one  of  the  most  striking  lilustra- 
tlons  of  tho  ruinous  eflfects  of  monopoly,  that  the  fixed 
price  which  tlie  Government  is  now  obliged  to  pay  for 
nutmegs  is  five  timet  greater  than  the  price  at  whick 
they  bought  them  ahen  the  trade  waefree  !    We  can  not 


NUT 


1I8« 


OAK 


conceive  how  lo  enlightened  and  liberal  a  Government 
as  that  of  Holland  ahould  continue  to  tolerato  iuch 
scandalous  abuses,  more  especially  since  it  has  estab- 
lished a  free  system  in  Amboyna,  Java,  and  its  other 
possessions.  M.  Temniinck  estimates  the  produce  of 
tho  Banda  Islands  at  about  600,000  pounds  of  nutme)^, 
and  160,000  pounds  of  mace.— Potiemimu  NeerlamlcMU 
ilatu  VInde.  A  rchipelagique,  iii.  283.  During  tho  period 
that  the  English  liad  poas>;8eion  of  the  Spice  Islands, 
nutmeg  plants  were  carried  to  Penang,  Bencoolen,  nnd 
some  of  the  West  India  islands.  In  tho  latter  thoy 
have  altogether  failed,  at  least  as  far  as  respeols  any 
useful  purpose ;  but  very  good  nutmegs,  and  in  consid- 
erable quantities,  are  now  raised  at  Penang  and  Ben- 
coolen. Mr.  Crawfurd,  however,  alleges  that  the  cost 
of  bringing  them  to  market  is  there  so  high,  that  the 
restoration  of  a  free  culture  in  the  native  country  of 
tho  nutmeg  would  instantly  destroy  this  unstable  und 
factitious  branch  of  industry.—A'cMfern /I  rcAip«%o,  vol. 
iii.  p.  409.     Ste  American  Journal  ofSciencf,  .xii.  112'i. 

Statement  suowimo  tub  iMPonts  or  Ndtueus  into  tub 
United  States  ran  thb  Year  esiiixo  ,Idsb  !'A  ISM. 


whence  innjurtad. 


Hamburg 

Holland 

Dutch  Wmt  Indies 

Dutch  Eut  Indies 

UelKiiim 

ICniiland 

Kritlsh  West  Indies. . . . 

British  East  Indies 

France  on  tho  Atlantic . 

Hayll 

China 

Total 


Found!. 


1,2T.^ 

BOTH 

ST.OiS 

1I,4T8 

UT,t)2i» 

459 

193,8^1 

18,698 

110 

400 


684,813 


Vnlua. 

$861 

I53,n89 

1,018 

'  18.6J0 

6  662 

41,7i!5 

16T 

88  560 

il,Ml 

01 

28S 


$.120,I8J 


XTutlla,  or  ITeuttla,  the  commercial  names  for 
tho  skins  of  Myopftamua  llnnarimsu  (Comniersun),  the 
Cojpou  of  Molina,  and  tho  Quoii/a  of  D'Azara.  In 
France,  the  skins  were,  and  perhaps  still  are,  sold  un- 
der the  name  of  racoontla;  but  in  England  thoy  are 
imported  as  nutria  skins — deriving  their  appcllatiou 
most  probably  from  some  supposed  similarity  of  the 
animal  which  produces  thein,  in  appearance  and  hab- 
its, to  the  otter,  the  Spanish  name  for  which  is  nutria. 
Indeed,  Molina  speaks  of  the  coypoit  as  a  species  of  wa- 
ter rut,  of  tho  size  and  color  of  the  otter.  Nutria  fur 
is  largely  used  in  the  hat  manufacture,  and  has  be- 
come within  the  last  15  or  20  years  an  article  of  very 
considerable  commercial  importance.     The  imports 


fluetuato  considerably.  In  1N41  they  amounted  to 
1,136,313  skins ;  but  In  some  years  they  are  much  less  t 
and  In  IIMO  amounted  to  only  343,700.  Those  entered 
for  home  consumption  pay  a  duty  of  \t.  per  100  skins. 
They  are  principally  brought  from  tho  Bio  do  la  Plata. 
—Het  Fun  TiiADR. 

The  co^u  or  quMna  Is  n  native  of  South  America, 
very  connnon  In  the  provinces  of  Chill,  Buenos  Ayrcs, 
and  Tucunmn,  but  more  rare  in  Paraguay.     In  size  it 
Is  less  than  the  lM>aviir,  which  it  resembles  in  many 
points.    The  head  Is  large  nnd  depressed,  the  ears 
small  and  rounded,  the  neck  stout  und  short,  the  muz- 
zle sharper  than  that  of  tho  benvcr,  and  the  whiskers 
very  long  and  slltV.    Thorn  are,  as  In  the  beaver,  two 
Inolsor  tooth,  and  eighteen  molar,  uliove  and  below — 
twenty  teeth  In  oil.     The  limbs  aro  short.     The  fore 
feet  Imvo  each  live  lingers  not  wclibcd,  the  thumb  be- 
ing very  small  i  the  hind  feet  have  the  same  number 
of  toes;  the  great  too  and  three  no.\t  tncs  being  Joined 
by  A  <veli  wlilcli  o.<(tends  to  Ihelr  ends,  and  the  little 
too  being  free,  but  edged  with  a  membrane  on  Its  limcr 
aide.     Tho  nails  nro  rompressod,  long,  crooked,  and  ° 
sharp.     The  tall,  unlike  that  of  the  beaver.  Is  long, 
round,  and  hairy ;  but  the  hairs  are  not  numerous,  and 
permit  Ihii  scnly  texture  of  Ihe  skin  In  this  part  to  be 
seen.     The  back  Is  uf  n  brownUh  red,  which  becomes 
redder  on  the  ilnukH;  tho  belly  Is  of  u  dirty  red.    The 
edges  of  Ihe  lips  and  cxtremlly  of  the  muzzle  are  white. 
Like  the  beaver,  the  cnypou  la  furnished  with  two 
kinds  of  fur;  viz.,  the  long,  ruddy  hiiir  which  gives 
tho  tone  of  color,  nnd  the  lirnwnliih  ash-culored  fur  at 
Its  base,  which,  like  the  down  of  Ihe  beaver,  is  of  much 
importance  In  hal-nmking,  and  tho  cause  of  the  ani- 
mal's coinniorclnl  vnlne.    Tho  coypou  Is  easily  domes- 
ticated, and  Its  innnners  In  captivity  arc  very  mild. 

Nux  VomlOR  (.Fr,  iVui>  rimii'/H«,-  Hind.  X'nocA- 
Id),  tho  fruit  of  a  species  of  iSrryrAnos,  growing  in  va- 
rious places  In  the  East  Indies,  The  fruit  Is  about  the 
size  of  un  orange,  covered  wllli  a  sniouth,  crustaceous, 
yellow  bark,  and  tilled  with  a  llcsliy  pulp.  In  which  are 
imiicdded  several  orbicular.  Hat  led  reeds,  about  three 
quarters  of  un  Inch  in  dinnieler,  Nux  vomica  Is  ino- 
dorous, and  has  a  very  liiller,  uorld  lusle,  which  re- 
nutlns  long  on  tho  pnlute.  It  I:*  known  as  a  very  vir- 
ulent poison.  A  suspicion  liiis,  however,  been  enter- 
tained that  It  has  been  used  In  porter  breweries ;  but 
its  introduclliiu  Into  them  Is  prolilhilod  under  heavy 
penalties.— TiiuMsuM'a  Vinptiualaiy,  tto. 


0. 


Oak  (Ger.  Eiche;  Dn.  .ffiJIi;  Dan.  Eeg;  Swed.  A'*; 
Fr.  CAene;  It.  Quercia;  Sp.  Jioble,  Carbal/o;  Port.  Jto. 
ble,  Cai-balhu;  Russ.  Dub;  Pol.  Dab;  Lot.  Quercua; 
Arab.  Baalut).  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  val- 
uable tree ;  but  the  common  English  oak  (^(iuercus  ro- 
bur)  claims  precedence  of  every  other.  The  knotty 
oak  of  England,  the  "  unwedgeable  and  gnarled  oak," 
as  Sbakspeare  called  it,  when  cut  down  at  a  proper  ago 
(from  50  to  70  years),  is  the  best  timber  known.  Some 
timber  is  harder,  some  more  difficult  lo  rend,  and  some 
less  capable  of  being  broken  across,  but  none  contains 
all  the  three  qualities  in  so  great  nnd  equal  propor- 
tions ;  and  thus,  for  at  once  supporting  a  weight,  re- 
sisting a  strain,  and  not  splintering  by  a  cannon  shot, 
the  timber  of  the  oak  is  superior  to  every  other. 

A  fine  oak  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  trees ; 
it  conveys  to  the  mind  associations  of  great  strength, 
nnd  of  ail  but  endless  duration.  It  stands  up  against 
the  blast,  and  does  not  take,  like  other  trees,  a  twisted 
form  from  the  action  of  the  winds.  Except  the  Cedar 
of  Lebanon,  no  tree  is  so  remarkable  for  the  stoutness 
of  its  limbs ;  they  do  not  exactly  spring  from  the  trunk, 
but  divide  from  it ;  and  thus  it  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  know  which  is  stem  and  which  is  branch.  The 
twisted  brunches  of  tho  oak,  too,  add  greatly  to  its 


beauty;  and  tho  horizontal  direction  of  its  boughs, 
spreading  over  a  large  surface,  completes  the  Idea  of 
its  sovereignty  over  nil  the  trees  of  tho  forest.  Even 
n  decayed  oak,  such  as  that  described  by  Spenser: 

" .- dry  niid  dead, 

Still  clad  nltli  relliiiios  of  Its  trophies  old. 
Lifting  to  honvon  Its  aged,  honry  head, 
Whole  foot  on  earth  has  got  but  feeble  hold," 

is  strikingly  bcouliful.    To  such  on  oak  Lucan  com- 

pared  I'onipey  In  his  decline  ; 

■'quails  fruglftiro  (iiicrens  subllmU  In  agro  • 

Exiivlui  velorcs  popiill,  saeinUque  Bcntons 
Dona  diicuni  1  noo  J«ni  vnlldU  rniUillius  hs-rcns, 
I'onrtere  flxa  suo  osli  nudosqiio  |ief  iiiim  rnmos 
Emindoiis,  tninoo,  non  frondlbus,  elllclt  imihram. 
At  quamvis  prinio  nutut  casurn  sub  Euro, 
Tot  clri-iim  sllvie  tlnno  so  robore  tollant, 
Mela  tamon  colUuv."— (Mb.  I.  lln.  1118.) 

The  oak  Is  rnUod  from  neorus,  sown  either  where  the 
oak  Is  to  stand,  or  In  n  nursery,  whonco  the  young  trees 
are  transplanted,  Tho  color  of  oak  wood  Is  a  fine 
brown,  nnd  Is fauilliir  to  every  one ;  It  Is  of  dlflferent 
shades ;  that  liicllm  .1  to  red  is  tho  most  inferior.  The 
larger  transverse  scpio  nro  In  general  very  distinct, 
producing  beftutlflil  ttowcrs  whon  cut  obliquely.  Whore 


OAK 


1456 


OAT 


tbe  sepU  ara  small,  and  not  vory  dUtinct,  tho  wood  U 
much  the  (trongoat.  Tho  texture  ia  alternately  com- 
pact oud  porous ;  tbe  compact  part  of  the  annual  ring 
Ixing  of  the  darkest  color,  and  in  irregular  dota  sur- 
rounded by  open  porei,  producing  beautiful  dark  veina 
in  aonio  kinda,  particularly  pollard  ooka.  Oak  timber 
lias  a  jiorticular  smell,  and  the  taste  is  slightly  astrin- 
gent. It  contains  galUc  acid,  and  is  blackened  liy  con- 
tact with  iron  when  it  ia  damp.  The  young  wood  of 
KnglisU  oak  is  very  tough,  often  croaa-gralned,  and 
diOieult  to  work.  Foreign  wood,  and  that  of  old  treea, 
is  mure  brittle  and  workable.  Uak  warps  and  twials 
much  in  drying,  and,  in  seasoning,  shrinks  about 
l-32d  of  its  width.  Oak  of  a  good  quality  ia  more  du- 
rable than  any  other  wood  that  attains  a  like  size. 
Vitruviua  says  it  is  of  eternal  duration  when  driven 
into  the  earth:  it  is  extremely  durable  in  water;  and 
in  a  dry  state  it  has  been  known  to  lost  nearly  1000 
years.  Tho  more  compact  it  ia,  and  the  smaller  tho 
pores  arc,  tlie  longer  it  will  last. 

Jienmrlioble  Oaks, — Tho  oldest  oak  in  England  stands 
'  in  the  moat  ancient  park,  belonging  to  the  Duke  of 
Portland.  It  b  called  the  I'orliamont  Oak,  for  it  is 
said  that  Edward  I.  held  a  I'arliument  under  its  branch- 
es. It  is  supposed  to  be  luOO  years  old.  Another  re- 
markable oak  ia  at  Wclbeck  Abbey,  in  Nottingbam- 
ahire,  which  is  famous  for  its  oaks.  This  treo  is  called 
'•  Tho  Uuke'a  Walking-stick."  It  ia  112  feet  high. 
Three  others  of  these  noble  trees  claim  attention  for 
their  extraordinary  size  and  longevity,  of  which  the 
Greendale  Oak  is  the  largest.  Through  its  trunk  a 
coach  road  is  cut,  and  its  branches  cover  a  space  of  700 
square  yards.  The  Two  I'orters,  standing  near  one 
of  the  park  entrances,  are  each  100  feet  high ;  the 
third  ia  called  the  Seven  Sisters,  from  its  having  seven 
sterna  riaing  00  feet  in  height  from  the  trunk.  Tho 
Cathorpe  Oak,  in  Yorkahire,  is  noted  as  being  the  larg- 
est oak  iu  England.     Its  girth  is  78  feet. — The  Half 

The  supply  of  oak  timber  in  this  country  is  plentiful, 
but  not  inexhaustible,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
serve tho  forests,  and,  by  a  judicious  use  of  the  timber, 
avoid  tho  great  waste  that  has  been  going  on ;  for 
upon  a  supply  of,thia  lumber  dependa,  in  a  meaaure, 
our  aucceas  as  a  maritime  nation.  Though  aome  prej- 
udice has  exiatod  in  Europe  against  the  quality  of  our 
oak  timber,  it  ia  now  coueedcd  by  all  to  be  unsurpassed. 
By  means  of  tho  Mississippi  Uiver  and  itb  tributaries 
we  are  enabled  to  use  with  advantage  tho  oak  forest  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  even  in  the 
forest  of  Michigan,  and  tho  West  will  soon  bo  a  rival 
to  the  Eaat  in  abip-building.  -Kentucky  especially 
abounds  in  the  finest  oak  forests,  as  yet  unmolested, 
but  destined  to  add  greatly  to  our  wealth, — See  Ship 
and  Ship  Building. 

GalUiul  Oak  (Quercus  infectoria),  a  native  of  Per- 
sia, Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Morocco,  and  Alge- 
ria, in  its  natural  habitat,  is  an  cvcrgr  en  shrub,  with 
a  very  crooked  stem,  and  seldom  attains  six  feet  in 
height.  From  the  circumstance  of  its  growing  near 
Paris,  where  it  bears  the  winter  quite  well  in  the  open 
air,  though  losing  its  leaves  in  tho  autumn,  it  doubt- 
less would  be  adapted  to  the  climate  of  our  Middle  and 
Southern  States.  On  this  shrub  is  found  tho  well- 
known  "gall-nuts"  of  commerce,  which  are  extensive- 
ly used  in  the  manufacture  of  writing-ink  and  in  dye- 
ing. These  excrescences  are  the  product  of  tho  gall-fly 
(Cympa  ivriptorum),  a  small  insect  of  a  dale-brown  col- 
or, which  may  often  be  found  inclosed  in  the  galls  sold 
in  the  shops  of  the  druggists,  collected  before  tho  fly 
had  made  its  escape.  There  are  two  kinds  of  gall-nuts 
known  in  commerce;  those  which  still  contain  the  in- 
sect, and  aro  known  in  tho  trade  under  tho  names 
of  "Black,"  "Blue,"  or  "Green"  galls,  termed  yerly 
by  the  native*  of  the  country  in  which  tbey  are  col- 
lected; and  those  from  which  the  insect  has  escaped, 
ud  which  ate  oaUed"  White"  galU.    The  latter  cou- 


taln  not  more  than  two-thirda  of  tho  astringent  quaU> 
tiea  of  the  former,  and  are  of  a  pale-brown  or  whitish 
color,  being  not  so  heavy  and  leas  compact. 

The  A^gilopi,  or  loAmia  Oak  (Quercus  ieg<lup»),  is 
indigenous  to  the  iaianda  of  tho  Archipelago,  and,  in- 
deed, to  all  Greece,  and  often  grows  to  a  height  of  lifty 
or  sixty  feet.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  the  climate  of 
England,  from  which  it  may  be  luferred  that  it  oho 
would  grow  in  favorable  localities  in  our  Middle  and 
Southern  States.  The  cups  and  acorns  of  this  tree  are 
annually  conveyed  to  Europe,  where  they  uro  in  great 
demand  for  tanning,  and  arc  believed  to  contain  more 
tannin  than  any  other  vegetable,  in  proportion  to  tlieir 
bulk.  These  acorns,  which  are  conmionly  called  "  Vo- 
lonia,"  form  a  very  considerable  article  of  export  of 
the  Morea  and  the  Levant,  being  worth  in  England 
from  $ti0  to  $70  a  ton.  Tlie  more  substance  there  is 
in  the  husks,  or  cups,  of  these  acorns  tho  better.  They 
are  of  a  bright-drab  color,  which  they  preserve  as  long 
as  they  are  kept  dry ;  but  dampness  injures  them,  as 
they  turn  black,  and  become  impaired,  both  in  quality 
nnd  strength.  A  kind  of  gall  is  found  on  this  tree 
somewhat  similar  to  that  on  the  Quercus in/eilaria,  and 
which  is  employed  for  tho  same  purposes.  These  galls 
are  rugose,  of  an  angular  form,  and  arc  cither  the  fruit 
itself,  distorted  by  tlie  puncture  of  tho  insect  (fignips 
quercus  calycis),  or  merely  the  scaly  cup  which  is  en- 
larged into  a  gall. 

Oakum,  the  substance  into  which  old  ropes  are  re- 
duced when  they  are  untwistti'.,  loosened,  and  drawn 
asunder.  It  is  principally  used  in  calking  the  scams, 
tree-nails,  and  Ijends  of  a  ship,  for  atopping  or  prevent- 
ing leaks.  . 

Oar,  a  long  piece  of  timber,  long  at  one  end,  and 
round  or  square  at  the  other,  used  to  make  a  vessel  ad- 
vance upon  the  water.  The  flat  part,  which  is  dipped 
into  the  water,  is  called  the  blade,  and  that  which  is 
within  the  board  is  termed  the  loom,  whose  extremity, 
being  small  enough  to  bo  grasped  by  tho  rowers,  is 
called  the  handle.  To  push  the  boat  or  vessel  forward 
by  means  of  this  instrument,  tho  rowers  turn  their 
backs  forward,  and,  dipping  the  blade  of  tho  oar  in  tho 
water,  pull  the  handle  forward,  so  that  the  blade,  at  the 
same  time,  may  move  aft  in  the  water.  But,  since  the 
blade  can  not  bo  so  moved  without  striking  the  water, 
this  impulsion  is  the  same  as  if  the  water  were  to  striko 
the  blade  from  the  stem  toward  the  head ;  the  vessel  is 
therefore  necessarily  moved  according  to  the  direction. 
Hence  it  follows  that  it  will  advance  with  the  greater 
rapidity  by  as  much  as  the  oar  atrikea  the  water  more 
forcibly ;  consequently,  an  oar  acts  upon  the  side  of  a 
boat  or  vessel  like  a  lever  of  the  second  class,  whoso 
fulcrum  is  the  station  upon  which  the  oar  rests  on  tho 
boat's  gunwale. 

Oata  (Ger.  JIafer;  Du.  ITaetr;  Dan.  Havre;  Swed. 
1/ttfre;  Fr.  Aroine;  It.  Vena,Avena;  Sp.  Avena;  Port. 
A  vea  f  liuss.  Owes ;  Pol,  Oicies),  a  species  of  grain,  tho 
A  vena  saliva  of  botanists.  There  are  innumcrablo  va- 
rieties of  this  grain.  It  is  the  hardiest  of  all  the  cereal 
grasses,  growing  luxuriantly  in  cold  northern  climates, 
and  in  coarse  mountainous  di8tricts,whcre  ncitherwhcat 
nor  barley  can  be  advantageously  cultivated.  It  thrives 
best,  and  is,  indeed,  chiefly  raised,  in  northern  lati- 
tudes; being  but  little  known  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
In  Scotland  it  forms  a  largo  part  of  the  food  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  is  far  more  generally  cultivated  than  any  other 
species  of  grain.  There  are  four  leading  varieties  of 
this  grain  cultivated;  viz,,  white,  black,  gray,  and 
brown  or  red  oats.  Tho  sub-varieties  of  the  white 
are  numerous.  That  denominated  the  potato  oat  is 
at  present  almost  the  only  one  raised  on  land  in  a 
good  state  of  cultivation  in  the  north  of  England  and 
tho  south  of  Scotland,  and  usually  brings  a  higher 
price  in  the  London  market  than  any  other  variety. 
It  was  accidentally  discovered  growing  in  a  field  of 
potatoea  in  Cumberland  in  1788 ;  ond  from  the  prod- 
uce of  that  aioglo  stalk  has  been  obtained  the  stock 


OAT 


1457 


OCB 


■ow  in  general  cultivation,  Blacit  and  gray  oata  are 
little  cultivated,  except  in  aome  placea  in  tlio  nortli  of 
Scotland.  The  red  oat  ia  chiefly  conllned  to  dienli- 
ire,  Derbyablre,  and  Htaflbrdahire.  A  apeciea  of  na- 
ked oata,  provincially  called  pillar,  ia  raiaed  in  Corn- 
wall.— I>ou  DoN'it  Kncycloptdia  i{f  Agriculture ;  Brown's 
Rural  Economg. 

Tlio  oat,  when  conaidered  in  connection  with  the 
artiflcial  graaaea  and  the  nouiiahment  and  improvo- 
meut  it  aflorda  to  live  atock,  may  be  regarded  aa  one 
of  tlie  moat  important  crops  we  produce.  Its  hiitory 
is  highly  interesting,  from  the  circumatance  that,  while 
In  many  portiona  of  Europe,  when  ground  into  meal, 
it  forms  an  important  aliment  for  man,  one  sort  at  least 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  days  of  Pliny  on  account 
of  its  superior  fitneas  as  an  article  of  diet  for  the  nick. 
Tho  country  of  ita  origin  ia  aomewhat  uncertain,  though 
the  most  common  variety  ia  said  to  be  indigenous  to 
the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  Another  oat,  resem- 
bling tho  cultivated  variety,  is  also  found  growing 
wild  in  California.  This  plant  was  introduced  into  tho 
North  American  colonies  soon  after  t°..eir  settlement 
by  the  Knglisb.  It  waa  sown  by  Gosnold,  on  tho  Eliz- 
abeth Islands,  in  l<i02;  cultivated  in  Newfoundland  in 
1622,  and  in  Virginia,  by  Berkeley,  prior  to  \6ili. 

The  oat  is  a  hardy  grain,  and  is  suited  to  climates 
too  hot  and  too  cold  either  for  wheat  or  rye.  Indeed, 
its  flexibility  is  so  great,  that  it  is  cultivated  with  suc- 
cess in  Bengal,  as  low  as  latitude  2f>  degrees  north,  but 
refuses  to  yield  profltablo  crops  as  we  approach  the 
equator.  It  flourishes  remarkably  well  when  due  re- 
gard is  paid  to  the  selection  of  varieties,  throughout 
the  inhabited  parts  of  Europe,  the  northern  and  central 
portions  of  Asia,  Australia,  Southern  and  Northern  Afri- 
ca, tho  cultivated  regions  of  nearly  all  North  America, 
and  a  largo  portion  of  South  America. 

In  this  country  the  growth  of  the  oat  is  couflned 
principally  to  theMiddie, Western,  andNorthem  States. 
Tho  varieties  cultivated  are  the  common  white,  the 
black,  tho  gray,  the  imperial,  the  Hopetown,  the  Po- 
lish, tho  Egyptian,  and  the  potato  oat.  The  yield  of 
tlio  common  varieties  varies  from  forty  to  ninety  bush- 
els and  upward  per  acre,  weighing  from  twenty-flve  to 
fifty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  The  Egyptian  oat  is  culti- 
vated south  of  Tennessee,  which,  after  being  sown  in 
autumn  and  fed  off  by  stock  in  winter  and  spring, 
yields  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  per  acre.  In  the 
manufacture  of  malt  and  spirituous  liquors  oats  enter 
but  lightly,  and  their  consumption  for  this  purpose 
does  not  exceed  sixty  thouaand  bushels  annually  in 
tho  United  States.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
exhibit  that  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Virginia, 
and  Illinois  are  the  largest  producers  of  oats,  and  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  here  placed. 
FacDccrioH  of  Oats  in  im  I'mited  States  ctntnia  the 
YiAB  185(1. 


StnlMandTerri- 
lorlei. 

Gall, 
Buiheb. 

Sutu  Mid  Terri- 
toiiea. 

OHb, 
Buihela, 

Alabama 

2,»6B,6»6 

Missouri 

5,'iT8,0T9 

Arkannas 

0ft6,l83 

N.  Hampshire. 

973,  C81 

Lalifornla 



New  Jersey  . . . 

3,378,003 

Columhia.  D.  of 

8,134 

New  York 

20,662,814 

Connecticut 

1,258,738 

Nortli  Carolina 

4,062,078 

Delaware 

004,518 

Oliio 

13,472,742 

Florida 

00,530 

Pennsylvania. . 
Rliode  Island.. 

21,638,166 

Georgia 

3,820,044 

216,232 

Illlnola 

10,087,241 

South  Carolina 

2,322,165 

Indiana 

5,055,014 

Tennessee 

7,703,086 

Iowa  

1,524,845 
8,201,311 

Texas 

Vermont 

199,017 

2,307,7S4 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

89,037 

Virginia 

10,179,144 

Maine 

2,181,087 

Wiseonsin  .... 

8,414,672 

Marjriand 

2,242,151 

Minnesota 

80,682 

Masfiacbusetta  . . 

1,106,140 

New  Mexico. . . 

6 

Micliigan 

2,860,050 

Oregon 

01,214 

Miasiuippl 

1,603,288 

Utah 

10,900 

Total  bushelB 

140,078,890 

Tho  oat,  liko  rye,  never  has  entered  much  into  our 
foreign  commerce,  as  the  domestic  consumption  has  al- 
ways been  nearly  equal  to  the  quantity  produced.   Tho 
annual  average  exports,  for  several  years  preceding 
4Z 


1817,  were  seventy  thouaand  bushels.  By  the  Cenans 
returns  of  1840,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  produce 
of  the  United.Statc8  was  128,000,000  bushels ;  of  1860, 
146,678,890  bushels.— VnUtd  Slatet  Patent  Office  Report. 

A  few  years  since  the  oat  crop  of  the  WesUrn  States 
sold  at  80  or  40  cenU  per  bushel.  At  the  present  time 
(October,  1850),  owing  to  the  larger  number  of  horses 
employed  in  the  West  and  tho  East,  tho  price  is  steady 
at  40  to  60  cents  in  the  West ;  and  46  to  60  cents  in  the 
States  of  New  England  and  New  York. 

ObMnratoilet.  The  first  is  supposed  to  have 
been  on  the  top  of  the  temple  of  Belus,  at  Babylon. 
On  the  tomb  of  Osymandias,  in  Egypt,  was  another, 
and  it  contained  a  golden  circle  200  feet  in  diametev ; 
that  at  Benares  was  at  least  as  ancient  as  these.  The 
first  in  authentic  history  was  at  Alexandria,  abontSOO 
B.C.  The  first  in  modem  times  was  at  Oassel,  1661. 
Tho  Boyal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  wris  founded  by 
Charles  II.  A.n.  1075;  and  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich all  English  astronomers  make  their  calculations. 

First  modem  meridional  inatmment,  by  Copernicus, . . .  1540 

First  obwrvatory  at  Cawel )601 

Tyclio  Ilralic's,  at  Vranibourp 1570 

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen 1667 

Royal  (French) i(i«T 

Royal  Observatory  at  Oreenwlcb 1675 

ObMrvatory  at  Nuremberg 1078 

At  Utrecht 1690 

Berlin,  erected  under  Lclbnili's  direction 1711 

At  Bologna 1714 

At  I'etersburE jfi  6 

Oxford,  Dr.JiadcHffe 1772 

Dublin,  Dr.  Andrevi» 1788 

Cambridge,  England 1824 

Obtervalvriet  in  the  United  State*. 

Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn 1828-1830 

Williams'  College,  ManachuBetta 18.16-1837 

Western  RcBerve  College,  Hudion,  Ohio 1837-1838 

Military  Academy,  West  I'olnt,  New  York 1SP7-1838 

High  School,  rhiladclphia,  Pennsylvania 1840-1842 

National  Observatory,  Washington,  D.  C 1842-18-14 

Georgetown  College  Observatory,  I).  C 1843-1844 

Cincinnati  Observatory,  Olilo 1843-1844 

Cambridge  Obscrvatoiy,  Massachusetts 184.')-1847 

Sharon  Obsen-atory,  near  I'hiiadclphia,  Fenn 1645-1846 

Tuscaloosa  Observatory,  .Mabama 184S 

Lewis  M.  Rutherford's  Observatory,  New  York  City  .... 
Dartmouth  College  Obscriatory,  New  Hampshire  .... 

Amherst  College,  Obscrratory,  Maasachnsetts 

Shelby ville,  Kentucky > 

Dudley  Obsenatory,  Albany,  New  York 1866-18S6 

— See  Christian  Review,  v.  89 ;  North  American  Review, 
viii.  205,  Ixix.  143  (B.  A.  Gould);  American  Journal 
of  Science,  xlvii.  88,  xii.  N.  S.  295;  Edinburgh  Revieir, 
xci.  159 ;  Southern  Literary  Messenger,  xiv.  4  (Lieuten- 
ant Mauuy),  XV.  30-1;  Professor  Locmis's  "Recent 
Progress  of  Astronomy,"  New  York,  1850. 

Ocean  (Or.  aKeavo;.)  In  Geography,  the  vast 
body  of  water  which  surrounds  the  continenta,  and  is 
the  receptacle  of  all  their  running  waters.  It  is  divided 
by  geographers  into  five  great  basins ;  viz.,  the  Pacific 
Ocean  (so  called  by  reason  of  ita  comparative  stillnrss), 
which  separates  Asia  from  America,  and  ia  the  largest 
of  all  the  basins ;  2.  The  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  has 
Europe  and  Africa  on  its  eastern  shore,  and  America 
on  its  western;  3.  The  Indian  Ocean,  which  washes 
the  south  of  Asia,  and  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Africa ; 
4.  The  Arctic  Ocean,  which  surrounds  the  north  pole ; 
and,  6.  The  Antarctic,  which  surrounds  the  south  pole. 
Other  smaller  portions  of  the  great  connected  body  of 
water  are  called  teas,  of  which  the  Mediterranean,  the 
German,  the  Baltic,  and  Black  seas,  are  the  most  con- 
siderable. The  superficial  extent  of  the  several  great 
basins  is  not  known  with  any  certaintj-,  nor,  indeed, 
can  their  limiu  be  exoctly  defined.  From  the  nearest 
estimation  that  can  be  made  of  the  extent  of  the  con- 
tinents and  principal  islands,  it  is  supposed  that  near- 
ly three-fourths  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe  are 
covered  by  water.  The  Pacific  Ocean  alone  exceeds 
the  whole  surface  of  the  dry  land. 

Jkplh  oftht  Ocean.— li  the  superficial  extent  of  the 
ocean  can  not  be  easily  ascertained,  it  will  readily 


Jf"-r^t..:,    i"*^ 


OCE 


1468 


OCR 


Im  tappowtt  tliiit  i(ii  depth  it  k  prolilam  uf  miioh  Rr«*i- 
•r  (lUHi'nUy.  Tlie  botiom  apprarn,  wbftrcv«r  It  hu 
been  rcni'liud  hy  the  loundlnK-lliin,  to  li»vii  •iiiillur  in- 
•qtmlltliit  tu  Ilium'  of  th«  iiurr«nii  of  the  land :  hence 
th«  depth  muiit  bo  uxtrcmdy  varloiu ;  and  It  might 
t«  luppuwd  from  aiialony  that  the  graatcit  depth  of 
Uia  ocean  U  at  leaat  equal  lu  the  height  of  the  hlgheit 
mountain!  above  Iti  lurfaue.  LonI  MulKtave  found 
nu  biitloni  In  tha  North  Atlantic  Ocean  with  a  lound- 
InK-liii"  of  4'MO  feet,  and  Mr.  Scureeby  louniled  to  the 
depth  of  7200  feet  without  tlio  lead  touching  the 
ground,  Theee  oxperlnionte  are  not  altugellier  to  be 
depended  on  fur  the  dutcrnilnatlon  of  aueh  great  depthi ; 
for,  the  preaiure  buconilng  very  great,  the  lead  may  be 
drawn  out  of  the  perpendicular  direction  by  current*, 
of  which  it  may  encuunlor  mure  than  one,  Howing  in 
(lllferont  diroctiuui.  Over  a  great  portion  of  the  At- 
lantic and  raciltc  oooanii  no  lK>ttoni  faai  lieen  found. 
The  depth  uf  tho  ocean.  In  general,  and  the  form  of  tlio 
bed  on  which  It  rulU,  can  nut,  thurefuro,  bu  determined 
by  experiment.  The  nmllipninticnl  thuury  uf  the  oa- 
cilUtiona  of  Huldi  hai,  however,  thrown  aomo  light  on 
the snltject.  Lnplace  demonalrotod  thnt  tho  dlflbronca 
which  in  Indiralod  by  obaervatlon  between  tho  height 
of  two  conaccutlvo  tide*  depends  on  the  law  of  tho 
depth  uf  the  eoa,  and  that,  but  for  tho  influence  of 
•cceaaory  circuinatancca,  It  would  diKnppcar  altogeth- 
er if  tho  depth  were  conatant.  It  fulluwa,  thorofura, 
that,  ainco  the  ditrerenoa  between  the  conaecntlve 
(Idea  is  extremely  imall,  tho  depth  of  the  aca,  taking 
in  a  Inrgo  extent  of  wenn,  niuat  bo  nearly  uniform ; 
that  la  to  aay,  there  must  lie  a  certain  mean  depth  fW>m 
wliii'h  tho  variations  are  not  cunalderublo. — AUc,  Ce- 
kUt,  book  xlii. 

I^rtl  of  Ike  Ocean, — Were  It  not  for  the  diaturbing 
•ction*  of  tho  aun  and  moon,  and  of  the  winda,  tho 
level  of  the  ocenn  would  bo  every  where  the  aanio,  and 
It*  aurfaco  wouM  hnvo  tho  form  determined  by  the 
nttractinn  of  tho  whole  niaea  of  tho  earth,  combined 
with  tho  centrifugal  force  belonging  to  Its  velocity  of 
rotation ;  that  Is  to  any,  the  aurfaco  would  be  that  of 
an  oblato  spheroid  of  revolution.  This  uniformity, 
however,  can  never  bo  oatabliahod.  The  tide  at  every 
Inatant  is  at  different  heights  in  different  part*  of  the 
ocean ;  and  therefore  tho  form  of  tho  surface,  within 
the  llmlta  of  tho  riao  and  fall  of  tho  tidca,  ia  variable. 
But  even  if  wo  neglect  thi;  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  tho 
water  which  constitutes  tho  tides,  and  take  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  at  ila  mean  height,  it  la  foimd  by 
accurate  leveling  that  nil  its  parts  do  not  coincide  with 
tho  surface  of  the  same  spheroid.  Qnlf^  and  Inland 
seas,  which  comrannlcnte  with  tho  ocean  by  narrow 
opcninga,  are  afTected  acccording  to  their  poaitlon  with 
regard  to  the  prevailing  winds.  The  level  of  the  Ked 
Sea  was  found;  by  the  French  engineers  in  Egypt,  to 
be  8*2}  fbet  higher  than  that  of  the  Mediterranean, 
which  is  supposed  to  l>e  a  little  lower  tlian  the  ocean. 
Humlioldt  concluded,  from  obncrvations  made  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  that  tho  waters  of  the  Gulf  of 
McnIco  are  about  two  feet  higher  than  those  of  tho 
Pacillc  Ocean.  The  Baltic  and  Black  seas  rise  in 
spring  fVom  tho  great  quantity  of  river  water  poured 
into  them,  and  are  lowered  In  summer  by  the  joint 
effects  of  n  small  supply  and  increased  evaporation. 

Color  o/thfi  Oitan. — The  usual  color  of  the  ocean  Is 
a  bluish  green,  of  u  darker  tint  at  a  distance  from  land, 
and  clearer  toward  the  shores.  According  to  Mr. 
Scorosby,  the  hue  of  tho  Greenland  Sea  varies  from 
ultramarine  blue  to  olive  green,  and  from  tho  purest 
transparency  to  great  opai'ity.  The  surface  of  tho 
Mediterranean,  In  its  upper  part,  Is  said  to  have  at 
times  a  purple  tint.  In  tho  Gulf  of  Guinea  tho  aea 
sometimes  appears  white ;  aliout  the  Maldive  Islands 
black ;  and  near  California  it  has  n  reddish  appearance. 
Various  causes  co-operate  to  produce  this  diversity  of 
tint.  The  prevailing  lilue  color  may  be  ascribed  to 
the  greater  refrangibility  of  tho  blue  rays  of  liijht, 


which,  hy  reason  of  that  property,  pus  In  greatest 
abundance  ihrough  the  water.  The  other  colors  are 
ascrlUid  to  the  ealatence  of  vast  numbers  of  minute 
animalciila  |  to  marine  vegetables  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face ;  to  tha  color  of  the  soil,  the  tnfuilon  of  Mrthy 
•ubstanoes;  and  very  frequently  tho  tint  is  moditled 
by  the  aspect  of  the  sky.  The  phosphorescent  or 
ihlning  appearance  of  the  ocean,  which  ia  a  common 
phenomenon,  I*  al*o  aaerllied  to  animalcuIsB,  and  to 
**mi-pntrescent  matter  dlffhsed  through  the  water. 

1'*m]>f>'nlim  n/thn  Oftnn. — Water  being  a  slow  con- 
ductor of  heat,  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  la  much 
mora  uniform  than  that  of  tho  atmosphere.  At  a  cer- 
tain distance  fVom  the  equator,  it  follow*,  though  not 
very  cloeely,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  correspond- 
ing latitudes,  the  solar  action  being  greatly  mudKled 
by  the  oxiatunee  of  current*  which  convey  the  tem- 
iwrature  of  one  region  to  another;  ao  that  at  any 
place  the  temperature  of  the  water  depends,  In  aomo 
measure,  on  tho  direction  of  the  currents,  Within  Iho 
tropica  the  /-ean  temperature  at  tho  aurfaco  la  about 
HO"  of  Fahrenheit,  and  generally  rangea  between  77° 
and  H4°.  At  great  depths  the  temperature  is  probably 
nearly  tho  same  under  every  latitude.  In  the  torrid 
zone  it  is  found  to  diminish  with  tho  depth ;  in  the 
polar  sea*  it  Increase*  with  tho  depth ;  and  about  tho 
latitude  uf  70°  It  is  nearly  constant  at  all  depths.  But 
tho  small  number  of  observations  which  have  yet  been 
made  on  this  lubject  do  not  Indicate  any  uniform  law, 
according  to  which  the  variatlonsof  temperature  at  dif- 
ferent depths  Is  regulated. 

Sallneu  nf  Ike  Ocean. — The  ocean  hold*  in  aolntio  i 
■  variety  of  saline  matters,  of  which  by  far  the  most 
abundant  I*  common  salt,  constituting,  in  general, 
about  two-third*  of  the  whole.  The  saltnes*  of  sea- 
water  at  particular  places  is  influenced  by  temporary 
causes — storms,  for  example;  as  well  as  by  the  neigh- 
borhood Of  large  rivers,  and  permanent  accumulations 
of  Ice.  A  series  of  experiments  on  this  sulject  were 
made  some  year*  ago  by  the  late  Dr.  Marcet,  and  the 
following  aro  the  general  conclusions  which  he  deduced 
from  them:  1.  That  the  Southern  Ocean  contains  more 
salt  than  tho  Northern  Ocean,  In  the  ratio  of  102019  to 
1'02767.  2.  That  the  mean  speclflc  gravity  of  sea- 
water  near  tho  equator  is  1-02777.  8.  That  there  Is 
no  notable  diflbrence  between  sea-water  under  differ- 
cnt  meridian*.  4.  That  there  Is  no  satisfactory  evi- 
dence that  the  sea  at  great  depths  is  more  salt  than  at 
the  aurfaco.  0.  That  the  sea,  in  general,  contains  more 
aalt  where  it  ia  deepest,  and  that  its  saltness  is  always 
diminished  In  tho  vicinity  of  large  masses  of  Ice.  6. 
That  amall  inland  aeaa,  though  communicating  with 
tho  ocean,  are  much  lesa  ^lalt  than  the  ocean.  7.  That 
tho  Mediterranean  contain*  rather  larger  proportions 
of  salt  than  tho  ocean. — Phito$ophiaU  TramactioM, 
1819;  Piiout's  Bridgewaler  Treatite;  Dli.\NliE'g  Jiic- 
tionnry.  The  peculiar  bitter  taste  of  sea-water  does 
not  appear  to  belong  to  it  beyond  a  certain  depth,  and 
Is  ascribed  to  the  vegetable  and  animal  matter  held  in 
a  stute  of  dccumpoaition  near  the  eurfuce. — ^ee  TiUF.8, 
Ati..\ntio  Ocean,  Gdi.f  Strf.au,  and  Soondinos; 
MoMachuritti  Quarterly,  11.  308;  American  Journal  qf 
Scifttce,  V.  128,  v.  N.  S.  41 ;  Foreign  Quarterly,  xiv.  8C9. 

Ooeanloa.  Geographers  have  divided  "Occan- 
ica"  into  thrco  distinct  portions ;  viz.,  Malaysia,  Aus- 
tralasia, and  Polynesia.  So  comparatively  little  is 
known  of  its  component  parts,  that  it  is  onl^  possible 
to  state  tho  statistics  of  such  countries  as  most  fre- 
quently come  under  tho  notice  of  civilized  nations,  and 
this  is  done  in  the  annexed  accounts :     . 

I.  Malaytia. — This  portion  includes  most  of  the  Isl- 
ands of  tlio  Indian  Archipelago,  and  has  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  the  Malay  race  aro  its  most  prominent 
inhabitants.  Malaysia  is  naturally  composed  of  Ave 
grand  divisions. 

1.  Sumatra,  Java,  Ball,  Sumbawa,  ahd  about  two- 
thirds  of  tlie  western  portion  of  Borneo  as  far  as  116° 


OOB 


iisi 


onw 


of  the  id- 
iame  from 
prominent 
led  of  five 


I.  torif(.  t  >■  CcUbf*,  with  th*  imaltar  ItUmlii  tlxtnt  Hi 
eoMt,  and  the  «ait«rn  portion  of  Hnnwo  np  to  11"  N. 
tat. ;  II.  'I'ho  Splci^  InlaniU ;  4.  Th*  B.i«-loo  Arehlptilk- 
gn,  MliiiUnnu,  a«cl  the  nortliMft  oornir  of  Borneo; 
•nit,  K.  Thn  Phlllpplna  UUndi. 

Then  Mvsrtl  dlrltloni  ar*  poonllar  In  phjmlcal 
fbrmatlon,  In  tllmate,  production!,  and  Inhaliltanti, 

II.  Auilralatii  axtcud*  from  1"  N.  to  56°  H.  lat., 
and  riroin  112"  to  IHU"  H.  lonft.,  and  lt«  compononti  aro, 
Australia  or  N«w  Holland,  Van  DIamen'i  Land,  Naw 
Zealand,  i'apna  or  Kaw  Unlma,  N«w  Hrltain,  Now 
Ireland,  tliu  Arm  Inlands,  Solomon  lilanda,  New  (Cale- 
donia, Now  Ilebrldea,  Queen  Charlotte'i  lilandi.  Now 
liunovor.  Admiralty  lalandt,  and  many  •mailer  itlandi 
scattered  over  the  Intervening  leaa. 

III.  I'olgnaia  Includes  the  numerous  groups  of  Isl- 
ands scattered  over  the  Paclflo  between  AsU,  Malay- 
sia, and  AustralasU  on  the  west  and  southwest,  and 
tho  western  coast  of  America.  Tho  following  is  the 
most  approved  classification  of  those  groups:  the  Bo- 
niii  or  ArzobUpn  Islands,  tho  Ladrone  or  Marian  Isl- 
ands, the  (Jarollns  Inlands,  tho  Kcqjaa  Islands,  tho 
ToiiKO  or  l''rl«ndly  Islands,  Navigator's  or  Samoa  Isl- 
ands, Cook's  or  the  Hervey  Islands,  the  Hodety,  Geor- 
gian, and  I/)w  Islands,  the  Austral  Islands,  the  Mar- 
quesas and  Washington  Islands,  the  Hawaiian  or  Sand- 
wich Islundx,  the  Kormadoo  Isles,  and  scattered  and 
isolated  Islands,  among  whioh  are  Oamliior  Islands, 
I'ltcairn  Island,  etc.,  etc.  The  Malnytian,  with  tho 
oxcoptlun  of  tho  I'lililpplno  Islands,  belong  chiefly  to 
Holland,  and,  according  to  the  latest  ofliclal  reports, 
tho  following  are  tho  statistics  of  tho  Dutch  posses- 
sions !  The  superdclos  of  Netherlands  India  is  '27,81)2 
square  KcoKranliical,  or  8(I,HH7  Anicrlc^in  miles.  Tlia 
population  of  Java  and  Madura,  exclusive  of  the  army, 
is  U,^!,!;^;  vl{.,  Europeans,  etc.,  10,409;  Chinese, 
110,481 ;  other  easterns,  27,(!H7  ;  and  natives,  9,420,563. 
Sumatra  has  ll,4!IO,000  Inhabitants ;  llanka  and  depend- 
encies, fiO,00() ;  Khio  anil  dependencies,  70,(100 ;  Bor- 
neo and  depondoncics,  1,'20(V)00;  CelolMs,  R00,000 ;  Mo- 
lucca Islands  and  dependencies,  71N,n00;  Timor  and 
dependonrles,  HOO.OOO;  Bali  and  Mmbok,  1,20.^,000. 
Total,  10,47H,500.  Total  population  of  Dutch  Ii.lln, 
'20,057,080.  iitttA  Britain  is  the  first  power  in  A  u$ti  nl- 
arid.  The  statistics  of  the  following  nolonica  refer  to 
the  commencement  of  the  >-ear  18M : 


same  flirmghmi  Amerls*  and  idmHHtimil  »tn  wwM 
In  laiin  the  Islands  were  vIsIM  bv  sfNitlt'iw**,  and 

about  m*)  died  of  tlis  spti|sMll»,      A  MHW  I'CHiWS  was 

UVen  at  the  comniHni mnt  of  Hftf    tdo  ialfifll  irf 

the  cultlvallun  of  sugar  in  llisi«  |4|»hi(«  U  ihuwn  III 
the  anneaed  table  i 


ColonlM. 


Ne*  South  Wslsii 

Vlrtorla 

floutli  Australia  . 
Wast  Australia . . 
Van  Dtoiiion's  IaqiI 


iD'i.ooa  j 
TT.ano 

«T.48n 

6,  NHS 

To.iau 


Vulu^of 
Imporio. 
"  ■  1 

S,07H,.18A 

84.'».6T« 
61,351 


Valua  of 
Riporto. 


X 

'i,S89,figO 
BTO.Slfl 

I,  I  TAMO 


Tuiin«n 


firt.M!) 

IBIMM 

UllH.OSl 


Of  tho  exports,  as  above,  tho  following  is  the  vnlue 
of  wool  from  each  colony  in  IS&O  i  Now  South  Wales 
and  Victoria,  £l,614,'241 ;  South  Australia,  ^£181,780; 
West  Australia,  £\b,i»i;  and  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
X451 ,20;).  The  value  of  minerals,  chiefly  copper,  from 
•South  Australia  In  the  same  year  was  £362,508.  Since 
the  above  rnttirns  gold  has  been  discovered  in  Austra- 
lia, an<l  the  fields  have  been  more  productive  than 
those  of  California.  The  quantity  yielded  in  the  year 
ending  80th  December,  1852,  was  3,998,321  ounces,  val- 
ued at  over  £15,000,000,  or  |75,000,000.  The  popula- 
tion and  every  interest  has  increased,  and  perhaps 
doubled,  under  the  stimulating  influence  of  this  show- 
er of  gold.  Among  the  islands  of  Polynetia  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  hold  the  flrst  rank,  whether  viewed  in  re- 
lation to  their  position,  products,  pop-iiation,  or  civil- 
ization. The  population  in  .January,  1849,  was  80,641. 
The  excess  of  deaths  over  births  in  1848  had  bt^en  0405, 
or  8  por  cent.  Alraut  10,000  died  of  measles  and  hoop- 
ing-cough in  1847-8.  At  this  rate  of  mortality  the 
population  In  1860  would  be  82,224 ;  in  1870,  14,073 ; 
in  1880,  6134 ;  in  1890,  2667 ;  and  in  1900,  only  1102. 
In  1960  the  Hawaiian  race  would  be  extinct.  Such  is 
the  influence  of  civilization  on  aboriginal  races— the 


■i;iiiu» '.'.:•;; 

Kolas 

Ilousliula,  Maui, 
Msliiiwuu,     "    , 

llsns 

Wslmoo,  llsvall 
liU 


Tiilsl 

Average  yield  per  acre,  '.HNIII  lbs,  i  nmuM  vitliiP,  flve 
cents  per  lb.  ft  i 

Tho  MynftinK  of  jotfi  ,UnH«fy,  \m,  rttfurrttitt  to 
tho  year  Just  psswid,  fiinililins  Hin  rKllimttlk  ri'latlflg 
to  the  commeri'M  nf  llmse  falamls  \ 

"  ImjMirit.-JUimt  Is  a  Ur^u  fitlJlMK  nff  jn  Hm  titliin 
and  amount  of  goods  Irniioridd  (iir  Mili«ii)ti|itl</H,  the 
value  of  goods  Imported,  m  mmimd  wfiti  i/r«vlutii 
years,  Is  as  follows  i 

..an 


ISM. 

tl,l)ilb,UA«  TO. 


.«|,ll«l|,i,l(l  «« 


I  At 


—  giving  as  an  avflrag*  «f  liiiicirls  tiif  ^hm  ♦««f«, 

♦1,206,249,  ' 

"  hUpinii.-Thd  following  I'omjmrlsmi  >tf  iumi-  tit  the 
staple  nxporiB  for  llio  Ulatuls  hIiIi  Ihnsn  i/f  tumft 
years  shows  nt  a  gl«nn«  lh»t  (liu  w^iii^rls  fitf  1»n2  i|i, 
not  equal  tliDse  of  IMfiO,  UmgU  »  l(»f|l{»i  gnlli  on  Ihoit! 
of  1861  Is  apparent. 


SU|)I«|. 


Hiigsr 
Hyrup  . . . 
Molttmos . 


{Hiiinilii. 
>  Kslloiis. 


Colftje pomiits. 

Hslt Iiunlius. 


IMI 

!«*•.     '. 

wr 

M'.m 

IHWtl 

41,»i»W 

W,IW» 

tl|.«in 

M.iM 

"  The  oiistom-house  reiwliils  In  l«Wl  mmmfKi\  In 
♦121,606  73;  in  1H5I,  to^m.m  ll»|  «tld  In  )«M,  ((/ 
•  118,0!ll  m ;  the  rccnlpts  of  |||s  Uttuf  yfHf  Ihllk  show- 
ing a  decreaso  of  *<7,ft|0  W  »•  immmri<i\  with  Mi. 
and  of  $7414  .r.  „  compared  witti  l»w,  'ftif  iimnimt 
of  merchBnt-\  i  that  vI«)»b(|  Ilia  tiku(i<i  In  (xfiO 
was  409 ;  in  W,i,  .  ■•O ;  and  In  m'i,  m,  U  U  impiiu 
sible,"  adds  tho  Pi,  //ni-mn,  "  Ul  bIvm  llid  nilHlbKr  of 
'  whalers'  that  have  vlsil«d  f  JM"  i«l»n<N  In  MW,  liKt  Ihe 
number  Is  almut  BOO,  which  Is  nin'tl  miifh.  (Imn  the 
number  in  1851  or  IHfiO.  It  moy  Im>  fiiM  tlit'lij  jh  re- 
gard to  the  number  of  nier('h»nl'VB»»>'ls  In  11.W  and 
1851,  that  a  large  proportion  of  Ihani  mn  stlldll  ♦*».. 
sels  engaged  In  the  potato  trftde,  wllijs  tn  Wi'i  ((((« ti>»i 
sels  have  been  generally  iif  ft  Urger  l>hm  Amihtt 
reason  for  the  large  number  given  (n  l»<niu  gnil  (flsi 
was  the  fact  that  vetsels  mufe  g»n«r»1ly  (llcH  t»/«thed 
at  several  ports,  which  would  jfiHfSMS  (()«  mmiit'f  Ih 
the  custom-house  returns,  thoHgh  In  t»i>t  ti  lihmM  Hot, 
The  ports  being  now  more  gBiieruHy  knuMtHj  Vcswls  fo» 
produce  go  directly  to  (ha  port  Vihf>f»  Ibdy  mu  oblaltl 
their  cargoes."  In  a  cnminercio)  polfll  of  vltiw,  fi<i  an 
entrepfit  between  tho  western  (!0»«t  of  AtOBfji'd  ami 
Eastern  Asia,  these  islands  are  of  (h»  gf«/»!Mt  jitipofi* 
ance ;  and  In  view  of  the  vast  nnmmi'tf^  HOW  iijiflrtg- 
ing  up  in  the  ParKic,  and  wtijih  will  nvfMmiW  fevo- 
Intionlzo  the  trade  of  the  world,  U  Is  posejl/ls  |H«t  the 
United  States  may  see  fit  to  ftci.spt  Ills  ofl^f  iO  Sttfle* 
them  to  the  national  territory,  Alroody  lllB  OH««ll(/«  has 
been  before  Congress,— .4  mfcfcnB  flliitiiilimi  AhdUiiI, 

Odessa,  a  flourishing  searport  of  HoilitlBfH  tluiiiJa, 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  flisnk  Uuft,  IjciWWfl  the 
rivers  Dneistcr  and  Bug,  in  Ut,  41"  'M'  64"  V,,  lOHg, 
80''43'2'2"E.  Population  In  l«60, 71,'W),  fimfminh 
ations  of  Odessa  were  laid  so  lately  Aii  I7ft9,  \)f  titAvf 
of  the  Empress  Catharine,  after  tlia  pB^r-ii  of  limf.  It 
was  intended  to  serve  as  an  entrBpAt  for  th«  Wfntii«t'C9 
of  the  Russian  dominions  on  (be  m»lik  >^ii  *A<t  ttw  M«« 


ODE 


14«0 


oms 


of  A«>r,  •nil  hii  In  •  gnat  inaaiura  anawend  tha  «k-  lag  •«  fa  miM  Mw  m»f)  t4  *miMxt*  Nnaala,  and  trae- 
paotatlona  of  Ita  foundera.  \\y  an  imparlul  ukaac,  daUd  iuK  liut  rMl  mA  it%ttm4*il  tfnUtm  wfilrh  «r«  trihatarx 
tha  7th  of  Kutiriiary,  1H17,  It  waa  decUrad  a  freu  |>ort,  lu  ita  vitrtum  ^mi»,  'ftm  ttmiif»  and  Ita  liranchaa, 
and  tha  inhaliitanta  axamptad  h'om  taxation  fur  thirt/  Iba  l)Hlt)§Wr,  ttm  M«%  IhtUfnt,  Utm.  ami  tavaral 
yean;  alnce  which  period  ita  increaaa  haa  liaan  »*■■  i  Uaaar  riv«ra,  *w(/</  lUtitt  «M*#a  Ini«  lh«  lllack  N«a. 
trcmeiy  rapid,  Tho  liay  or  roadatoad  of  Odaaaa  ia  ax-  j  Odiaaaa  la  MtHMM  tm  »  tmf,  W  rnitm  from  (h«  moulli 
tanalvo,  the  water  deep,  and  the  anchoraga  good,  tha  |  o<  tl»a  huinMm,  imt  tUlfftm  (fc«l  Af  Iha  Mirer  Dnieper, 
bottom  being  Ana  aand  and  gravel ;  It  is,  however,  ex^  '  Tha  iMy  i«  mtmrii  ttitit  »*HMMhU>,  ami  Mhlom  cloned  l>y 
poaed  to  the  aouthoaaterly  wind,  which  rcndera  It  laaa  lea.  'I'Im  pufi  i*  pft4tifUi4  iif  ltt»  Miole*,  'ixh  axlend- 
lafa  in  winter.  Tho  port,  which  la  artlllclal,  being  ing  SI&  hlUumt,  mi4  f»hn4  7^  l**t  alKfVc  tlio  aurfarc 
formed  by  two  moloa,  ono  of  which  projecta  to  a  con-  uf  tli«  ata  j  w«4,  (J)m«  (nftHKt,  Hi*  ill  affirrd  .unpla  pro- 
alderabia  diatanco  Into  the  ica,  ia  Httod  to  contain  levtlMi  tu  lw»  ittm4fn4  iM'tc^-nHMd  rnafila.  Akerman 
•boat  800  ihipa.  It  haa  alao  the  advantaga  of  deep  ■  U  allw«lA4  m»r  Itm  M»tM  nf»,  im  lh«  lagoon  on  tho 
water.  Thore  la  a  convenient  laiaratto,  on  the  modal  Uuiaiwr.  U  l«  Itm  prittfiitd  tmlttt  of  tho  produce  of 
of  that  of  Maraeillfia.  Tho  want  of  freah  water  uaed  to  lU\U:Ui  i'vMl»,  »0i  tifi>lltiil4»,  The  lagoon,  or  11- 
be  tho  groateat  diaadrantago  under  which  the  inbabiu  diwi,  d#  mUUih  klwtmm  )•  MitMnf,  la  aald  to  pro. 
•nta  laborod ;  but  thia  haa  been  obviated  by  tho  con-  |  due*  aUMMlly  T0Mf»m  pimiUl  (:2ffl,tttKi,tm  pound*) 
Itructlon  of  a  canal,  which  convoya  an  abundant  aup-  ^  at  »«|l.  '|'b«  pttti  U,  Uttwuifff  liio  ahallow  for  veatela 
ply  of  water  Into  tho  town.  There  are  no  troea  in  the  drawing  w«r  mvnH  (m4  i4  imM.  Khernon,  Nicola- 
vicinity,  which  haa,  In  conaoquonce,  a  bleak  and  arid  ief,  and  •wtaMU^  utn  lUti  MMaJMlng  principal  porta 
appearance.  I  of  tbtiw  m««. 

liyM-houif.  —  A  llght-houao  haa  been  erected  on  ]  'lb*  MU»)tin)f  tri4»  mtMiAU  lb«  lonntge  of  Odeaaa 
Capo  Fontan,  about  til  nautical  milea  aoutb  of  Odaaaa.  ;  ia  l/lbit 
The  tight,  wliich  formerly  revolved,  ia  noyi  JUrJ,  and 
ia  about  2011  (Uuaalan)  feet  above  tho  level  of  I  lie  aea. 
At  the  diatanco  of  eleven  leaguea  S.K.  by  E.  ^  E.  from 
Odeua,  on  the  north  end  of  the  long,  narrow,  low  Isl- 
and of  Ten<lra,  a  light-house  haa  been  erected,  of  great 
uae  to  ahlpa  approaching  Odesaa  from  the  south  or  west. 
The  lantern  ia  elevated  1)2^  (Kuision)  feet  above  the 
level  of  tha  aea.  It  conaiata  of  three  reUoctlng  lights, 
auspended  in  tho  form  of  a  triangle,  revolving  In  tho 
apace  of  four  minutes,  so  that  each  lamp  arrivea  at  ita 
maximum  of  brilliancy  after  an  Interval  of  one  minute, 
twenty  aeconda.  Being  also  of  a  rtd  color,  thia  light 
ia  readily  distinguished  from  Fontan  light,  and  the  oth- 
er lights  In  the  Black  8ca.  In  foggy  weather  a  bell  la 
kept  ringing. — Coulter  mr  let  I'harei,  2d  cd. ;  Norhik'.s 
Sailing  Direetiont  far  the  Mediterranean  and  Hlmk 
Seat,  etc.  Not  being  at  tho  mouth  of  any  great  river,  1'Im  pr««w4fM(  >«M«  fitUitAlK  »  Mai  of  2221  vesaels 
nor  having  any  considerable  manufactures,  Odessa  is  |(«nUtrc4  m>4  hii»ft^)f  nHU  m  agi^egale  of  (il't,&98 
not  a  port  for  the  exportation  of  what  may  be  called   tons,  Mug  «m  Uttri'imi  ttvttf  f*A(  of  KiO  vessels,  with 


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artlclea  of  native  growth ;  but  in  couaequence  of  her 
convenient  aituation,  excellent  port,  and  the  privilegea 
ahe  er\]oya,  ahe  ia,  aa  already  remarked,  the  emporium 
where  most  part  of  the  produce  of  Southern  Kusaia  des- 
tined fur  foreign  countrlea  ia  collected  for  exportation, 
and  where  moat  part  of  the  foreign  artlclea  required 
for  home  conaumptlon  are  primarily  imported.  The 
aballownees  of  the  water  at  Taganrog,  and  tha  aiiort 
period  during  which  the  Sea  of  Azof  is  navigable,  tend 
to  hinder  foreign  veaaela  of  considerable  burden  from 
entering  the  Strait  of  Yenikale;  and  occaaion  tho  8hl|>- 
ment  of  a  considerable  portion  of  tho  produce  brought 
down  the  Don  in  lightera  \o  Caffa  and  Odessa,' espe- 
cially the  latter.  All  the  jjroducta  brought  down  the 
Dniester,  the  Bug,  and  the  Dnieper  are  exported  from 
Odessa ;  but  owing  to  tho  difficult  navigation  of  the 
first  and  lost  mentioned  rivers,  by  far  the  greater  part  |  tlM  two  puilitS)/  «m4  fh«  »ce<tti4  eighteen,  annually. 


an  »ggrvg«l«  fi(  P^,iKfi  Mm,  U  to  the  flgnres  given 
ill  tbe  tabbi  U  »d4M  tUn  ttmntitltf  trade,  viz.,  2304  ves- 
sels, wjtb  im  tmtK'U*^  U*tltt»ge  of  118,4'lfl,  the  total 
navigttloi*  u(  tUf  j#i*1  «f  (iiUuMi  in  1«&2,  will  amount 
to  4526  v»*«*i»,  mth  *«  ltHKl^s(i>i*  of  l,'»3JI,0iH  tons. 
An  awalyiMs  wf  tUf  iitttif  n^'"*  t«  Austria  tho  first 
rank  lu  lb«  m^iliMUm  (4'  (hi»  p<>lt.  Total  tonnage 
enter«4  »»4  niftrutt,  ^H,-!if0  fotis:  Austria,  Il0,il22 
toua.  I'4nsiitti4  UmM*  ttt*i  Wfowt  rank,  viz.,  1.37,776 
tona;  tU*H)i)tf4ini»f(tiAV*tim»i  Oreece,  S8, 637  tons ; 
Sweden,  W,«(7  Um»,  Tti*  i»tfj«««*Uation  in  1852  over 
1(161  givM  Amtm  M.JV7*  Um»  m«re ;  .Kngland,  61,631 
toua  mnrH)  fi»fMm»f  M^^l  (M*  mot»;  and  (ireece, 
13,677  toM»  mwt,  tttt<  !tt*ltm  MVlgation  of  Odessa  is 
uuuut«inc4  kjf  ttu  (Wiv  Utt*'  t4  (  onsixntinople  and  tho 
Danube,    'Ittf  HtDt  W«k^«  (fcif  ty-ftix  voyages  (between 


of  the  corn  brought  to  Odessa  from  I'odolia,  tbe 
Ukraine,  etc.,  is  conveyed  to  the  town  in  carta  drawn 
by  oxen.  The  roods  traversed  by  these  carta  are  only 
practicable  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year ;  and  nothing 
would  contributo  so  much  to  Increase  the  commerce  of 
the  port,  and  tbe  prosperity  of  Southern  Rusaia,  aa  tlie 
opening  of  improved  communications  with  the  interior, 
whether  by  removing  obstructions  in  the  channels  of 
tbe  rivers,  conatructing  canals,  or  rallwaya,  or  good 
common  roads.  Among  tho  articles  of  export  from 
Odessa,  corn,  especially  wheat,  occupies,  as  every  one 
knows,  the  highest  rank;  but  tallow  is  also  an  im- 
portant article ;  and  next  to  U  are  linseed,  wool,  bides, 
copper,  wax,  caviar,  potash,  beef,  furs,  cordage,  sail- 
cloth,  tar,  butter,  iainglass,  etc. 

Poiti  of  the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea  ufAzof,  and  the  Crim. 
ca. — The  Importance  of  the  Black  Sea  aa  a  cbaanel  of 
Uuaalan  commerce  will  be  easily  nnderstood  by  cast- 


Tb«  tOimHmtim^  Utm  *M«Veye(I,  in  1862,  1214  pas- 
aeogera;  tlwt  (4  (M  tfamitittf  (146;  making  a  total  for 
botb  lu««a  nfWit  p»»mnKet»,  The  first  of  these  trans- 
ported i»  04>»im  i»mfnUltfl4im  mtd  specie  amounting 
Ut  iiiUfiW  (rmfO,  mi4  tUe  Mher  359,620  francs. 
Tbera  was  ni^f^tM  Ut  (^wsismtinople  by  (he  first 
line  BM»rKb#**4w  ^iAmh4  M  I,66«,108  fr<mcs;  and  to 
tlw  porta  n(  Mm  Umnim,  ^  the  other,  merchandise 
to  tlie  »mnuM  (4  >i!(i,1^  (f«iif».  Government  steam- 
ers keep  HU  Hm  mmmmkMkm  Imtween  the  ports  of 
Kheraow,  fiittAtU^,  tim  HiittHftti  ami  the  Caucasus.  In 
U62  iimjf  ma44>  i^mtf'^ii«  '«'<^«ge9  from  these  differ- 
ent  p<^iM#  (#  (i4m»,  tnumtmtmg  paaaengers  and  mer- 
rhandww. 

Tb«  4i0lmitt  §Uimmf§  #fri«tl  mak*  Odessa  their 
»t»tiine^Hl  mmlff  Ut  iftdif  H9  voyages,  transport- 
ing iOiim  ommitgDf»f  «m4  M«feh«ndise  to  the  amount 
or  W,m,m  Umm,  m^  t0  #2,000,000  nearly. 


ODE 


1461 


ODE 


('omiiiiM'i  nr  (tniMA, 

IMt. 


Kiportt, 
tmporU . 


Total,  Knnri IS0,t49,4TII         hB,iwu,hV4 


]HesM  their 

transport- 

|fa«  amount 


Tbe  principal  export!  warn : 

Uralnt,    ralua Sff.TM.NM  htnen 

Wool,  "    I7,IM4,TI«      " 

IJiKMil,       "    T.OflB.IWil      " 

Tullow,        " I.MT.rt*      " 

Thn  prlni'ipal  Importi  In  l>t!>\-'!>'2  woro :  raw  cotton 
and  cotton  yami,  olive-oil,  ilyc-atuffli,  drug*,  metala, 
winca,  antl  aiittar,  In  18ftS  the  total  value  of  the  for- 
el^n  trade  of  Udeasa  waa  |'JA,n&a,W)7,  viz. :  exporta, 
|t8,A8:i,'^0n;  linporta,  #7,870,514.  (iralna  constituted 
the  chief  export  in  IHAa.  Thna,  of  the  |2n,()OU,0<)0 
(In  round  nuinlicra),  graina  amounted  In  value  to 
|li:i,00l),l)(M) ;  linaoed,  wool,  tallow,  and  cordage  covered 
|ri,()0<),UOO.  In  18M  thia  linincnao  trade  muat  have 
been  completely  parillyzed,  aa  an  official  notification 
waa  pulilished  at  Odeaaa  on  Ud  March,  18fi4,  prohibit- 
ing the  exportation  of  grulna  of  all  kinda,  (Vom  all  porta 
of  the  Black  and  Azof  8eaa,  until  the  lat  of  September 
following.  ThIa  prohibition,  however,  la  now  removed ; 
and  oOicial  returns,  when  received,  will  ahow  how  far 
the  blockade  of  the  Ituaalan  porta  by  the  allied  powers 
BfTectcd  the  trade  of  the  lilack  Sea.  Uy  declaration 
published  at  St.  I'etersburg  7tb[inth]  April,  ISM,  all 
tho  mercantile  hartwra  of  Kusala  are  open  to  tbe  mer- 
chant vessels  of  neutral  countriea. 

The  total  value  of  the  trade  of  tho  ports  of  the  Sea 
of  Azof  (Taganrog,  Kertch,  Itostolf,  Mariopol,  and 
Bordiansk),  waa,  in  IHOl :  imports,  U,!)02,000  fi'anca ; 
exports,  '27,IH2,(K)0  franca. 

The  importa  were  chiefly  from  Turkey,  the  Two  Sici- 
lies, Ionian  Islands,  I'rancc,  and  Greece.  The  exporta 
were  ilcstincd  to  Turkey,  England,  Sardinia,  Tuscany, 
Ionian  Islands,  and  France.  The  total  value  of  the 
trade  at  the  commercial  ports  of  tbe  Crimea  (Kujjato- 
rla,  Ilalaklava,  Thcodosia,  and  Kertch),  in  181)2,  waa : 
imports  (including  specie),  1,002,&00  francs;  exports, 
e64,6fl0  francs.     Total,  1,747,000  francs. 

Compared  with  1851,  the  imports  increased  12  per 
cent.,  and  exports  decreased  nearly  60  per  cent.  Im- 
ports consisted  of  cottons,  raw  cotton,  coals,  oil,  and 
fhiits ;  exports,  of  wool,  raw  hides,  butter,  caviar,  and 
grains Uniltd  Slalea  Cimmrrcial  lielnlioni. 

The  United  States  Consul,  undur  date  of  July  1, 
18S4,  communicates  tbii  foliowing  information:  There 
exists  a  treaty  of  comn  i-!i\(  Itefveen  the  United  States 
and  the  Imperial  Russian  government,  which  was  con- 
cluded at  St.  Petersliurg  on  the  0th  [18th]  December, 
in  tho  year  18B2,  and  was  ratilied  at  Washington  on 
the  nth  May,  1888,  to  which  the  Russian  govenmient 
abides  with  strictness.  Tho  city  and  port  of  Odessa 
was  declared  as  por/o^mnco  by  a  decree  of  tho  imperial 
government  In  the  year  1828,  which  was  put  into  exe- 
cution only  on  the  16th  August,  in  the  year  1824,  by 
which  the  importation  of  all  kinds  of  merchandise  wns 
allowed,  on  paying  only  one-fifth  of  the  entire  duly 
paid  in  other  ports  of  this  empire ;  and  this  one-fifth 
duty  was  employed  to  defray  the  annual  expenditure 
for  the  benefit  of  this  city,  such  as  pavements,  foot- 
paths, repairing  streets,  lights,  government  l)uildings, 
and  for  the  expenses  of  all  the  local  administrations. 
The  importation  of  all  kinds  of  merchandise  is  allowed, 
even  tlio'.e  articles  which  are  prohibited  at  ail  other 
ports  of  the  empire,  but  they  are  not  allowed  to  be 
transported  into  the  interior  from  hence,  as  tea,  refined 
augars,  strong  spirits,  cloths — black  and  green— print- 
ed cottons,  silks,  and  wools.  These  articles  arc  to  be 
consumed  at  Odessa.  The  term  of  these  privileges  for 
Odessa  expired  in  the  year  1849,  but  his  majesty  the 
emperor,  wishing  to  favor  this  city,  granted  a  pro- 
longation of  the  same  privileges  for  a  period  of  five 
years,  which  ends  on  the  14th  August,  1854.  During 
this  last  period  tbe  duty  won  augmented ;  instead  of 


on«-flflh,  It  li  now  two-fifths  of  the  entire  duty  on  the 
Import  uf  any  kind  of  merchandise,  with  the  exception 
of  tobacco,  rum,  and  other  atrong  spirits,  on  which  the 
entire  duty  Is  paid,  aa  at  all  other  porta  of  Kusala.  He- 
fined  Biigara,  tea,  and  winoa,  have  to  pay  thrtc-fiAhs 
uf  thn  entire  duly,  one-fifth  of  which  la  deatlned  for  ex- 
penaea  of  thIa  city,  and  tho  remainder  in  favor  of  gov- 
cmmont.  There  doea  nut  exiat  at  this  port  any  privi- 
lege granted  to  any  nation.  In  any  way,  which  la  de- 
nied to  clllxens  of  tho  United  Slatca.  The  only  reatrlc- 
llon  existing  at  Odeasa  ia  on  ahlps  under  French  and 
Neapolitan  culors,  they  not  being  allowed  to  impart 
any  merchandise  from  foreign  countriea  to  Uuaaia,  un- 
lesa  paying  50  jwr  cent,  more  on  the  Import  duly,  in 
I'tiinparldon  to  Aiuerliana,  or  ahipa  of  other  natlona. 
Thia  dilference  un  French  and  Neapolitan  vesaels  ex- 
ists by  the  commercial  treatli's  between  the  reapectivf) 
powers,  by  which  it  ia  also  prohibited  for  Russian  ves- 
sels to  Import  to  France  or  to  Naples  merchandise  ft'om 
foreign  porta  not  Russian  produce,  as  the  cargo  muat 
be,  and  from  a  Russian  port.  There  are  no  dlirerencea 
In  tho  charges,  or  any  other  dues,  on  ships  of  the  Unit- 
ed Slatea  and  Russian  vesaels.  A  Russian  vessel  of 
150  laata  (e<|ual  to  1100  tons)  paya  tho  aame  charges  as 
an  American  of  the  sania  size,  Tho  following  affords 
a  comparative  statement : 

Lasts,  161,  at  IT-IDO  per  last B.  K.2.'>  60  =  $I(»  IS 

l.iKhtdiii's T  16=     6  38 

(juaranlliio  dues,  custom-house  charges 
andfcea 2000=:   16  04 

The  tonnage  and  light  duea  are  a  fixed  charge,  and 
eslabliabed  by  law  ;  the  i|uarantine  and  custom-bouse 
dues  are  not  so.  The  amount  of  tho  latter  charges  ia 
generally  paid  partly  for  stamp  paper,  fees,  and  other 
trifics,  which  reaclus  the  sum  above  stated,  and  which 
every  one  pays  witliuiU  opposition,  as  it  is  the  custom 
and  has  been  for  many  years  past,  and  l)y  which  means 
business  is  greatly  facilitated.  It  is  prohibited  by  law 
ttf  rosbip  merchaiiilisu  from  one  ship  to  another,  even 
if  the  merchandise  rcshlpped  bo  destined  for  another 
Russian  port,  and  no  matter  under  what  coloi"  it  is 
brought  to  this  port.  The  merchandise,  before  nship- 
nient,  must  first  be  landed  and  visited  IJy  the  custom- 
house authorities,  and  tho  whole  amount  of  doty  paid, 
lieforo  permission  can  bo  obtained  fur  such  merchan- 
dise to  bo  shipped  and  transported  to  another  Russian 
port.  liut  If  such  merchandise  bo  destined  for  a  for- 
eign port,  it  has  to  bo  landed,  and  after  being  visited 
by  tho  custom-house  officers,  a  certificate  to  that  efiect 
is  given  to  the  shippers  of  the  cargo,  allowing  tho  re- 
shipment  and  exportation  to  a  foreign  port.  All  for- 
eign, as  well  as  American  vessels  are  allowed  to  sharo 
in  tho  coasting  trade  from  one  Russian  port  to  another 
in  the  DIack  Sea  or  the  Sea  of  Azof.  The  current  coin, 
weights,  measures,  etc.,  are  tho  same  at  Odessa  as  at 
St.  Petersburg.  The  value  of  a  silver  ruble  is  75igg„ 
cents  of  an  American  dollar;  one  pood  weight  is  ilU 
F.nglish  pounds;  one  arshlne  measures  28  English 
inclies ;  one  chetwert  of  wheat  is  5}  English  bushels. 

The  only  cargo  exported  from  hence  for  America 
since  the  1st  of  July,  186.S,  consisted  of  common  washed 
wool,  505  bales,  weighing  6!)72  poods,  23  pounds ;  and 
linseed,  1200  chctwerts — the  whole  shipped  on  board 
of  an  Americon  bark  of  380  tons,  bound  for  New  York, 
and  cleared  from  hence  on  the  10th  November,  1858. 
The  duty  on  the  cargo  amounted  to  342-80  silver  rubles, 
or  $257  80,  being  on  the  linseed  olonc,  as  there  Is  no 
duty  on  the  exportation  of  wools.  No  insusances  have 
ever  taken  place  here  for  the  United  States,  but  tbe 
general  custom  is  to  insure  in  England  for  America, 
The  custom  in  purchasing  any  kind  of  merchandise  for 
exportation  at  this  riaco  is  to  pay  ready  cash,  and 
without  any  discount  whatever;  but  in  the  sale  of 
colonial  and  other  goods  imported  from  abroad  some- 
times a  credit  of  six  or  eight  months  is  granted  to  the 
buyers.  There  is  no  established  rate  of  exchange  here 
for  the  United  States,  but  tlie  value  of  the  dollar  is 


ODE 


uoa 


OFF 


nomln*!  at  1)  •Itrcr  rubU.  Tho  amount  (f  il'il/  |i«lil 
burn  on  marcbtnillin  •xporMil  fur  Aniarica  ilurliiK  the 
Uit  period  •inuiiatt  (ii  |'i&7 ;  but  no  lni|)ort  iliit/  wu 
p«ld  herr,  M  no  iiiorchandlH  arrlvail  fruni  Aniirica. 
Tbaro  la  no  duty  Uvled  In  Uuiila  liy  Kuveriimoiit  on 
prodiico  nxporlnd  in  Ita  n«w  itata,  or  paitly  niaiiufao- 
turad,  or  antlnly  lo;  tlia  only  exiatln({  duty  la  on  raw 
augara,  on  wlilch  (ha  reflnara  of  Uuaala  pay  an  exclao 
to  ||uviimmant  of  jUi  ailvor  ruhlua  pi'r  pood  on  llio  ra- 
fluad  autfara,  or  '"V^Mv  <>*■<>'*  In  Amariuan  currtnoy. 
Laborvra  am  t(«n«raUy  pnlil  liar*  by  tlio  day,  and,  Ihu 
rat*  uut  bcliiK  Itxad,  fluctualun  according  to  tlia  wauta 
of  luob  rocB— riaioK  from  -^j  to  ono  allvar  ruble  por 
day,  or  from  Hi  to  7&  caou  par  day,  Auwricaa  uur- 
raosy. 

A  tribunal  of  commeroa  wa*  oatubliabod  at  Odaiaa 
In  IM'i-l,  wboaa  Juriadiction  axtamla  ovar  all  diapiitoa 
counaclad  wllli  trado.  Tburu  la  no  appoal  from  ita  da- 
cUlona  «xc«p(  to  tlie  Sanatu,  'I'bura  urn  twalvo  aworn 
broliara,  approved  and  llcanaud  by  ibo  Tribunal  of  Com- 
niarcv,  who  have  daputica  ap|H)lnl*)d  by  thaniaolvua, 
Thay  reglitar  all  tranaaotiona,  and  rocalvo  (  par  cent, 
ftom  each  party  aa  conimlaalon,  Tboro  la  a  dlacount 
or  loan  bank,  aatabliabed  in  M'iS,  and  marina  and  Ore 
tnauraoco  aoclatiua.  Moat  arlicloa  of  provlalon  aro 
cheap ;  and  Itib,  wlilch  coatn  next  to  notbinR,  la  excel- 
lent. Fuel,  however,  la  aiarco  unil  dear.  WUIiln  tbo 
laat  thirty  year*,  tho  Merino  breed  of  Bhcop  baa  been 
oxtenalvoly  Introduced  Into  tbo  governuienta  of  Taurl- 
da,  Cheraon,  and  Ekaterinoalov,  au  that  there  ha*  been 
uo(  only  a  great  iucreaaa  in  tho  i|uantity,  but  al*o  a 
v*ry  decided  improveroant  in  the  quality,  of  the  wool 
exported.  Com  'fVaJe.— Theprincipal  trade  of  Udoua 
la  with  Conatanlinuplu,  Hniyrna,  and  other  town*  in 
tba  Levant,  Naplea,  Leghorn,  (lenoa,  Mararillca,  etc. 
"  It  1*  generally  itated,"  aaya  Mr.  Jacob  (Memoir  on 
tha  TnuU  oj'tht  Hliuk  Uta,  In  tho  Appenilit  to  the  oo- 
uvo  edition  of  Tnu-tt  on  iKe  Com  Trade),  "  that  the 
aupply  of  Conitantinople  requiroa  annually  1(M),()()U 
quarter*  of  Ulack  Uea  wheat.  Tho  (ireek  Island* 
scarcely,  on  the  average  of  yean,  produce  luSIcient 
wheat  for  their  own  conauniptlon,  and  In  some  years 
require  a  largo  aupply,  which  is  furnished  partly  from 
the  neighboring  continent,  and  partly  from  the  Ulack 
Sea.  The  Asiatic  coast*  pf  the  Turkish  iCmpire,  espe- 
cially In  Anatolia,  are  nearly  in  tlio  same  predicament. 
At  times  the  market  of  Smyrna  ia  very  favorublo  for 
tb*  *ala  of  the  com  of  Southern  Kussia.  Tho  islands 
of  Malt*  and  Uozo  produce  only  about  half  a*  nmch 
corn  as  the  1'20,()00  inhabitant*  require,  Sicily,  though 
It  has  greatly  declined  froni  it*  ancient  produutivenoss, 
ha*  BtiU  a  quantity  of  grain  to  spare  fur  tho  loss  fruit- 
ful part*  of  Italy  in  moat  year*,  and  Us  wheat  enters 
into  competition  with  that  of  the  Ulack  Sea,  in  the 
porta  of  Naples,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn.  There  are  few 
yaari  in  which  Tuscany  grow*  a  sufHeiency  of  wheat ; 
and  It*  chief  port,  Leghorn,  being  one  of  those  in  which 
•hips  can  unload  their  cargoes  of  corn,  without  being 
detained  to  perform  quarantine,  ha*  been  at  ail  time* 
•  plaoe  of  de|>oslt  fbr  tho  wheat  of  the  Black  Sea.  A 
market  at  some  price  may  always  lje  found  there,  as 
the  capitalists  are  dlspoied  to  purchase,  relying  on  the 
uncertain  proiluctivonesa  of  aonie  adjacent  coimtry,  in 
which  they  may  realize  a  prolU  at  no  great  dUtance. 
Genoa,  like  Leghorn,  is  a  jiort  where  wheat  can  b«  im- 
loaded  within  tlio  bounds  of  tbo  lazaretto.  The  coun- 
try around  it  yield*  but  little  wheat ;  and  at  aomo  pe- 
riod* it  «i\joys  a  trad*  in  that  article  even  aa  far  a* 
Sandeviand.  This  intornal  demand,  and  the  chance 
of  •dvantogcoua  re-exportation,  induce*  much  trade  in 
corn.  There  i«  said  to  be  seldom  lees  than  100,000 
quarter*  in  stora  at  tho  two  ports  of  Genoa  and  Leg- 
horn,  and  at  somo  period*  a  far  greater  quantity.  Nice, 
though  not  having  tha  aame  adTantagoous  quarantine 
regulations,  and,  conaequently,  not  being  a  d^'if  for 
com  beyond  it*  own  demand,  from  the  sterile  soil  that 
.<jrrounds  U,  Nqoiroa  every  year  a  large  importation 


of  whaal.  That  of  Sicily  an  J  Udaiaa  rraatea  a  camp*> 
lltlon  la  Its  port,  and  the  guMirnment  draws  a  ravanua 
by  Imposing  a  hnavy  duly  on  both.  Thmigb  lliu  corn 
law*  of  Franca  have  krpt  the  ports  closrd  against  the 
Introduction  of  foreign  cum  for  dumi'iitic  use,  yet  It  Is 
allowed  tu  be  bonded  fur  ro-«xporlaliun.  Knim  the 
frci|uent  local  and  partial acanllisa  which  occur  on  tlia 
eaati.m  ooaal  of  Npaln,  at  which  |Hirbii|s  wheal  la  al- 
lowed to  be  lawfully  Imported,  and.  It  it  miiil,  from  the 
facility  if  it*  lntro<iuctlon  by  contraband  wliun  not  le- 
gally allowiiil,  Marsaillea  ha*  lieen  a  great  Jrpi'ii  for  the 
wheat  of  tb*  lllaok  Sea.  from  thence,  a*  also  from 
Gibraltar,  wborn  there  I*  generally  some  in  tlnre.  It 
can  easily  bo  transported  to  Spain,  lo  Sardinia,  tu  Cor- 
sica, tu  Tunis,  to  Tripoli,  or  wherever  scarcity  has  cre- 
ated a  bcnolicial  inarkat.  The  coasts  of  Uiiiliiiry, 
though  often  having  a  surplus  of  wheat,  much  of  »hlch 
occasionally  assists  tu  feed  Portugal,  in  aome  aeason* 
have  lieen  ulTected  with  moat  deficient  harvests.  Till* 
was  recently  the  ca*e  In  a  remarkable  degree.  Tripoli 
and  Tunis  uxperlenoed,  in  the  year  IN'20,  a  harvest 
moat  miserably  short,  and  were  *uppllud  from  other 
countries."  Tlio  warehouse  rent  of  corn  at  (Odessa  is 
from  eight  to  ten  copecks  por  cbetwert  por  muiitb.  M. 
l>e  Ilogeineiater  suppoaes  that  Turkey  and  tliu  diflur- 
out  port*  of  tlie  Mediterranean  require,  at  an  average, 
an  annual  supply  of  1,'IU0,(M1U  clietworts,  or  about 
l,0r>O,U0O  quarters,  of  whicli  ^OiH),U()()  chetwerts,  or 
7f>U,000  quartera,  are  furnished  by  Suutheni  Kussia,  and 
principally  shipped  from  Odessa.  Wallacbia  and  M'lU 
duvia  are  both  very  fertile  In  cum ;  and  wuro  tranquil- 
lity and  good  order  Introduced  into  tliem,  ami  the  free 
nuvigaliun  of  the  Danube  secured,  Oulacx  and  Urailulf 
wiiuld  be  two  of  the  principiil  Kuropean  grain-Hbippiiig 
purt*.  —  Neo  the  excellent  Ueport  of  ll.VdKMiilsTKli 
u»  the  Trtuk  if  the  lllaik  Sea,  p.  9(1-114,  Kngl.  Trans. 
Kxclusivo  of  cum,  the  other  articles  mentioned  iis  be- 
ing exported  from  Odessa  tiinl  their  way  to  tho  differ* 
cut  markets  in  tho  Mediterranean.  Those  shipped  for 
Turkey  are  iron,  tallow,  sail-cloth,  cordage,  anchors 
for  ships  of  war,  butter,  etc.  The  exports  to  Italy  and 
other  Kuropean  countries  are  similar.  Tho  linportu- 
tloii  of  all  foreign  articles  into  tho  Uussian  duminiuns 
on  the  Uluck  Son  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  is  confined  to 
Odessa,  Theoilosla  or  Kafi'a,  and  Tugiiiirog.  The  im- 
port trode  Is,  however,  of  inferior  Iniportanco  when 
compared  with  tbo  expert  trailo.  Tho  principal  ar- 
ticles are  sugar  and  coll'ee,  dye-woods,  wine  and  bran- 
dy, cotton  stuffs  and  yarn,  woolen  and  silk  manufac- 
turcs,  spices,  cutlery ;  oranges,  leinuns,  dgs,  and  otiier 
fruit ;  lemon-Juice,  oil,  tin  and  tin  plates,  dried  fruits, 
paper,  silk,  *pecie,  etc. 

Odessa,  in  addition  to  its  great  and  rapidly  incrca*- 
ing  trade  with  Constantinoplo  and  tlio  cuuntrio*  on  the 
Mediterranean,  bad,  liofurothe  warof  IHSI-lHuCi,  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  Kedout-kal6  at  tho  mouth  of  the 
I'hasia,  and  with  Trebizond  and  several  port*  on  the 
south  coast  of  the  Ulack  Sea.  Georgian  and  Arme- 
nian merchant*  aro  already  conaidcraUe  purchasers  at 
the  Lelpsic  and  other  Gorman  fairs,  and  civilization  U 
beginning  to  strike  its  roots  throughout  all  tho  cxteni- 
ivo  countries  between  the  Ulack  Sea  and  tbo  Caspian. 
It  ia  prolmble  that  at  no  very  remote  period  tho  Pba- 
si*  win  be  frequented  by  British  ship.s;  and  that  mer- 
chants, without  any  enchantress  to  aid  them,  and  do- 
pending  only  on  tbo  superior  cheapness  and  excellence 
of  their  goods,  will  be  liospitably  received  in  tho  an- 
cient Colcliis,  and  liear  away  a  richer  prize  than  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Ja*on  and  hi*  compeers.— 5re  Kuimia. 

OSng,  or  Offini  In  Xa»tical  languagt,  that  part 
of  the  aea,  a  good  diatanco  A-om  *horo,  whore  there  is 
deep  water  and  no  need  of  a  pilot  to  conduct  the  ship. 
Thus  if  a  ship  from  shore  be  seen  sailing  out  to  sea- 
ward, they  say,  "  Sbo  stand*  for  the  ofHng ;"  and  if  a 
ahip,  having  the  shore  near  her,  have  another  a  good 
way  without  or  beyond  her,  toward  the  sea,  they  say, 
<•  That  ship  ii  in  the  offing." 


oil  I 


•4w0 


OIII 


■  incrcat- 
Ftoa  on  the 
1)56,  a  cun- 
itli  of  the 
lu  on  the 
Ind  Anno. 
L-hascrs  at 
Uization  U 
lie  cMont' 
CuBpiun. 
tho  riia- 
I  that  mcr* 
._  and  Jo- 
Bxcellouce 
In  tho  an- 
Von  fell  to 

|that  part 
,  tliere  is 
tho  ship, 
lat  to  soa- 
1"  anil  if  • 
lior  a  good 
1  thoy  80)i 


OUOi  on*  of  tha  Itnllcil  HtalM,  llot  h«twe*B  Ut 

»'■  nu  and  W  S.,  «n<l  batwrnn  Iimik.  Ml'  IIA  ind  M' 

47'  W.     It  !•  'ilO  milca  lonx  frum  north  to  iiuuth,  and 

DM)  nilh'n  liroad.     Ari'a,  !IU,U*t4  wiuar*  mllci.     'I'h* 

pi>pulark<n  In  1700  wa>  ilUlK);  In  IHUI),  4&.B«Ui ;  In  INIU, 

'iiU>,7lXI:   In  IH20,  5HI,liM;   In  IWIi),  »il7,eil7;  in  UK), 

l,Alli,4«7;  anil  In  IHAO,  l,UH0,4W.     'ih<  land  In  ih« 

Intvrlor  uf  th«  Statu  and  UirdnrlnK  on  I.ako  Krlo  la 

g«n«rally  level,  and  In  •onin  placra  niar>hy.     Krnin 

una  quarter  to  onn  third  of  tha  NlalK,  cuniprcdirnd' 

tiiK  tiin  eaatern  and  xiulhaaitarn  paria,  lH>rderlnK  on 

the  Ohio  Klvar,  la  Rnnerally  hilly  and  liruken,  hut  in  !  alit  rulirimdn. 

no  part  niounlainoua.     On  tha  maruin  of  tha  Ohio   i<i|  and  In  npi'ralloii,  and  lA7Hln  rouraa  (ifconalrui'llaii, 

Klvpr  and  aturral  of  ita  Irlhutariea  are  alluvial  Unda  ,  lonniiK"  uf  lli"  Statn  In  IHM,  iti^mi  tuna, 

of  Kraat  furllllty.     The  vallrya  uf  tho  Hclwto  and  the        Mimiijmliint,  fd-.— Thrre  were  in  the  SInIc  In  IWIO 

Ori'at  and  l.lllle  Miami  are  the  moat  pxlenaivnaci'tlons!  right   loiinii   I'liilorli'ii,   with   a  capital   invoiml  of 

of  level,  rich,  and  fertile  land*  In  thn  Stale.     At  tho  '  |Xl7,()l>0,  miployinK  1:12  uiulea  and  'inn  fi'umli  >,  pro> 

headflf  tho  Muaklngum  River  aril  pralripa  of  ronKidcra-j  dui'inK  '2<^0,0<)0  yanln  of  aherllnKa,  etc.,  and    1111,01)0 

klooxtenl,  aoinoofwhirhare  wet,  thiiiit;liK<''<erally  dry    pcunila  of  yarn,  vniiiiMl  ut  4>nnt,7llO;  llkl  wmdni  fnito* 

•nd  fertile.     Tho  hol|{lit  of  land  which  dlvldea  thn  wo* '  riea,  wlthacapilal«ri|iH70,2M, ploying UOBninlca  and 

tera  which  fall  Into  tho  Ohio  from  thoae  which  fall  Into  '  200  feiimlea,  manufacturing  I,ir7l,l)87  yanla  uf  rlnth, 
Lako  Krlo  la  the  moet  marahy  of  any  In  the  Stale,  andUA.OdnpiMindaaf yum, valucdat^l, 111,027;  lhlrly> 
while  the  land  on  the  margin  of  tha  rivers  Is  Rcnerally  live  ealalillahnionia  making  pig-Iron,  with  a  taplial  of 
dry.     Wheat  may  he  rc{(ardod  aa  tint  atnplo  prodiic-   91,ri01),n<i(),  ptiiplnylng  'ii\!i  pcraima,  producing  r>2,llM 


Tha  CMyahoga  rlaoa  In  the  north  part  of  the  Stale,  and 
after  a  rnrvi-d  courao  of  »l»ly  nilica,  rnlera  Ijika  Krie 
at  Clovrlaiiil.  It  haa  it  numlicr  of  falla,  which  furnlah 
valualde  nilll  aaala.  Ilraldca  Iheaii  Iher*  are  Huron, 
Vnrnilllun,  lllack,  Orand,  and  Aahtabula  rivers,  which 
enter  Lake  Kriu. 

Tliii  principal  placea  nrn  t'liirlnnati,  th*  melropollat 
Coluinliua,  thn  t'lipital;  Clovrland,  Snndiiaky,  llaV' 
ton,  Sprlngllold,  /ancaville,  Marietta,  ami  I'ortmioulh. 
There  were  In  Kcl.ruary,  1854,  alxly-ei((ht  honka,  with 
a  pal>l  capital  uf  ♦m,7|h,i«|(I;  in  January,  JHfirt,  furty- 
ulirimdii,  (if  which  27iti  mlica  of  track  were  Itnlah- 


tlon  of  tho  State,  though  Indian  corn  and  other  grains 
•ro  largely  cultivated.  It  Is  rich  In  mineral  wealth. 
Iron,  coal,  limestone,  marldc,  and  superior  huildlng 
stone,  grind-atnnos,  etc,  Tlirru  are  many  valunldo 
saltsprlngs.  Thoro  were  In  thia  Stale  in  IBM),  0,8fil,4ua 
•urea  of  land  Improvoil,  and  8,140,1)00  of  iinlniprovud 
land  In  farms;  cash  value  of  farnia,  CUaH,7AH,(1on;  and 
tho  value  of  Implements  and  machinery,  4>12,750,&t4&. 
/.ire.  iSYiH'i— homes,  4(ltl,B97 ;  asaps  nnd  mulca,  94211; 
milch  cowa,  044,490 ;  working  oxen,  Oli.IWl ;  other  cut- 
tle, 740,nA7 ;  sheep,  9,942,920 ;  swino,  1,904,770.  Value 
of  live  stuck,  #44,121,741. 

AgHcullurnl  I'rmUictt,  e<d.— Wheat,  14,487,861  hush- 
els;  rye,  425,918;  Indian  com,  89,078,696;  onta, 
ia,472,742;  harloy,  864,958 ;  buckwheat,  0118,000 ;  peas 
and  lipona,  (10,108;  potatuea,  6,067,700 ;  sweet  pii'ntoca, 
187,901.  Value  of  products  of  the  orchard,  $CU(.,'i-31  , 
of  the  market -gardens,  (1214,004.  I'ounds  of  huttcr 
niaile,  81,449,870;  ofchreae,  20,819,542;  maple  sugnr, 
4,588,209  ;  molasses,  197,308  gallons ;  liecswax  and 
honey,  804,275  pounds;  wool  produced,  10,19(1,371; 
<lax,'44a,ll82;  silk  cocoons,  1552;  hops,  08,781 ;  tobac- 
co, 10,464,449;  hay,  tons  of,  1,483,142;  hemp,  150; 
clovor-seeda,  10:1,197  bushels ;  other  grass  seeds,  87,810 ; 
flax-seed,  188,880 ;  and  were  made,  48,207  gallons  of 
wine.  Value  of  homo-made  manufactures,  $1,712,190; 
of  slaughtered  animals,  #7,430,243. 

Riven,  tie. — The  Ohio  Klver,  which  gives  name  to 
the  State,  washes  its  entire  southern  border.  Tliia 
river  Is  1004  miles  long  from  I'itlsburg  to  its  mouth,  by 
lis  various  windings,  though  it  Is  only  014  in  a  direct 
line. — See  Ohio  Rivkii.  The  Muskiugum,  the  largoat 
river  which  flows  entirely  in  this  State,  Is  formed  by 
the  Junction  of  the  Tuscarawas  and  Walhonding  riv- 
ers, and  enters  the  Ohio  at  Marietta.  It  is  navigalilc 
for  boats  100  miles.  Tho  Scioto,  the  second  river  in 
magnitude,  flowing  entirely  within  the  State,  la  nhoiit 
200  miles  long,  and  enters  the  Ohio  at  Portaniouth. 
Its  largest  branch  is  the  Whetstone,  or  Olcntangy, 
which  Joins  it  immediately  abovo  Columbus.  It  is 
navigable  for  boats  130  iiiiles.  Tho  Great  Miami,  a 
rapid  river  In  the  western  port  of  the  State,  is  100 
miles  long,  and  enters  the  Ohio  in  the  southwest  cor- 
ner of  tho  Stale.  Tho  Littlo  Miami  has  a  course  of 
seventy  miles,  and  enters  tlic  Ohio  seven  miles  above 
Cincinnati.  Tho  Maumeo,  100  miles  long,  rises  in  In- 
diana, runs  through  the  northwest  part  of  the  St.ito, 
and  enters  Lake  Erie  at  Maumce  Bay.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  steamboats  to  Pcrrysburg,  eighteen  miles  from 
the  lake,  and  above  tho  rapids  is  boatablo  for  a  consid- 
erable distance.  The  Sandusky  rises  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  and,  after  a  course  of  about  eighty 
miles,  enters  Sandusky  Hay,  nnd  thence  into  Lake  Erie. 


tonsof  plg-lron,  etc.,  and  Ih  i  iiro  value  of  pmducia, 
#1,255,850;  183  cHlabilahnienla,  with  a  capital  nf 
#2,008,050,  cmphiyiiig  2758  persons,  and  making  87,399 
tons  of  iron  caatinga,  etc,  valued  at  #8,0(19,860;  eleven 
estaldiahmonta,  with  a  capital  of  #020,81)0,  amplnying 
708  pcranns,  manurnct  uring  1 4,410  tons  of  wrought  Iron, 
valued  at  #1,07(1,192;  1082  flouring  and  griat-nilils| 
1780  saw-mills;  243  priiitlng-ofticca,  802  newapapers, 
twenty-eight  dully,  six  trl-wcekly,  four  acml-weckly, 
222  weekly,  aeven  acmi-montldy,  twenty  monthly,  and 
one  yearly  publicatiun.  Capital  inveated  in  manufac« 
turca,  #28,012,130;  value  of  manufactured  articles, 
#61,9l5,0;i(i.— .SVc  I'DiiK  for  further  information. 

y.tlucalioniil  EtUMiihmKtlt,  etc, — The  University  of 
Ohio  at  Athens,  the  Miand  I'nivcrsity  at  Oxford, 
Frnnklin  I'oilege  at  New  Alliens,  tho  Western  Rracrvo 
Coilpge  at  Hudson,  Kcnynn  College  at  (iumbicr,  (Iran- 
vill«  (.'ollegc  at  (iranvilU,  Marietta  Cullcgo  nt  Marieti 
ta,  Olicrlin  Cnllcgo  at  Olicrlln,  St,  Xavior  at  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio  Wcslnyuu  University  at  Delaware,  Witten> 
berg  College  nt  Sprin^rlicld,  Willuughby  ITniveraity  at 
Willoughby,  I^nv  I  lieoliigical  Seminary  at  Cincin- 
nati. 'I'licro  are  also  tlicological  departments  at  Ken- 
yon,  Western  lieserve  nt  Hudson,  Uranville  at  (Iran- 
villo,  Oborlln  at  Olicrlin,  Wittenberg  at  Springlleld, 
and  a  seminary  of  the  Asxoclato  Koformed  Church  at 
Oxford,  Western  Rcsor\'o  Medical  College  at  Cleve- 
land.  Medical  College  of  Ohio  at  Cincinnati,  Medical 
College  (llonioopathlc)ot  Clevclund,  Storling  Medical 
College  at  Columbua,  and  (.'incinnati  Law  Collcgo  at 
Cincinnati,  Tho  whole  having,  in  18,'i0, 11021  students. 
There  were  also  200  ocadcmies,  6052  pii)iils;  11,061 
scliools,  484,153  scholars;  352  liliraries — aggrcgalo 
number  of  volumes,  180,820.     School  fund,  #304,474. 

The  llrat  permanent  aettlcment  in  Olilo  was  made 
in  1788  nt  Marietta.  In  1802  Ohio  was  admitted  into 
tho  Union, 

Tho  progress  of  banking  in  tho  State  of  Ohio  ii 
shown  in  tho  following  summary : 


Year. 

Numlxr  uf  Paiika. 

Caiiltsl. 

! 

1Sll^ 

1 

JiOO.WM) 

isii 

4 

H»R,oon 

tKI6 

I'i 

1,484,000 

1S1« 

81 

2,U61,000 

1S2I) 

20 

l.TilT.OOO 

1H.W 

24 

n,Ri9,n()0 

1WI8 

»S 

9,247,000 

i 

I81U 

IIT 

10,6117,000 

1 

ista 

8 

2,171,000 

iwn 

A6 

7,120,000 

ISM 

60 

S,0OB.90O 

^ 

1S6T 

B4 

6,808,000 

The  frce-lianking  law  of  Ohio  was  adopted  In  the  year 
1H61,  and  forms  at  present  a  part  of  the  banking  sys- 
tem in  operation. 


OHI 


1464 


01*1 


FoBnoic  Comonoi 

OF  TBI  STAII    of  OmO  (BHOWIRO    AlBO  THB   DiSTBIOt  TONKAQI  IN  1831,  1831,  1811,   A»D  1881) 
FBOM   OOTOBSB  1,  1820,  tO  JUIT   1,  1866. 

Yean  tnding 

Biporte. 

Import!. 

Toniug*  ClMred. 

Dtatriet  Tonnage.         { 

DomMtle. 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Total. 

Amtrlaui. 

Foroiia. 

Reglaloied. 

Enrolled  and 
l.leenaed. 

Sopt.  30;  1821 

18!2 

1823 

18!4 

1825 

1820 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

Total. . . 

Sept.  80, 1831 

I8;i3 

1833 

1834 

1836 

1830 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1849 

Total... 

Scpl.  30, 1841 

1813 

9mo«.,    1843' 

June  30, 1844 

1846 

1840 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1860 

Total... 

Jane  80, 1861 

\sr>i 

1853 

1864 

1855 

1850 

$i66 

l',8i6 

.... 

$166 

isio 

2004 

$12 
190 
1(1 

'293 
162 

"si 

'809 
"lit 

"49 

881 

716 

$3,919 

$14,728 

68,  .194 

226,644 

241,.l51 

97,001 

8,718 

133.844 

189,827 

95,864 

991,954 

$140 

$8^19 

$14,728 

68,894 

226.644 

241,461 

97,201 

8,718 

132,844 

139,827 

96.864 

991,964 

$813 

$617 
12,392 

8,363 
19,707 

9,808 
10,960 
17,747 
11895 
19,230 

4,915 

468 

91 
269 
2,041 
2,999 
2,166 
106 
4,249 
1,141 
4.716 
8,708 

49 

188 
1,841 
4,fJ6 
8,768 
4,871 
2,948 
4,653 
2,438 
1,987 
8,266 

120 

1622 

$2,001,375 

$793,114 
899,786 
120,108 
64.1,866 
321,114 
862,030 
778,944 
147,599 
149,724 
217,532 

$140 
. .  i . 

$ioo 

$2,001,615 

$798,114 
899,786 
120,108 
613,856 
821,114 
862,680 
778,044 
147,699 
149,724 
217,632 

$116,784 

$11,818 

18,051 

10.774 

86,015 

78.106 

102,714 

90,081 

186,726 

149,839 

682,694 

26,485 

0,600 
14,890 
1,245 
2,053 
6,824 
0,222 
7,144 
7,066 
6,067 
18,486 

28,922 

2,624 
8,596 
5,170 

14,162 
1,201 
4,881 

10,228 
6,858 
9,821 

18,322 

:::; 

25,111 

$4,324,407 

$305,126 
36.1,514 
168,418 
743.004 
847,148 
1,046,052 

$100 

$iesa 

$4,824,607 

$895,125 
363,514 
158,418 
744,684 
847,143 

1,045,052 

$1,261,903 

$636,381 
982,216 
847,760 
7911,082 
600,6SO 
403,478 

77,685 

18,720 
14,344 
22,630 
87,054 
26,309 
28,252 

80,808 

11,866 
11,222 
9,939 
18,234 
18,890 
42,676 

68,382 

*  Nino  months  to  June  30,  and  fiscal  year  hegins  July  1, 1843. 

FlNANOES  OP  THE  .STATU  OF  OnlO. 


riKal  Yean. 

Foreign  and 

Domestio  Stat* 

Debt. 

Aonaal  Interest 

on  Stale 

Debt. 

TaiAble  Property 
of  State,  R^al 
and  Personal. 

Oroae 

Revenuea  of 

8UU, 

Gross 

Ezpendituns  of 

Bute. 

1888 

$1,750,000 
4,891,661 
4,979,287 
6,857,833 
6.186,516 
0,9C5,790 
10,030,162 
14,012,230 
16578,864 
•     10,947,326 
13.063,321 
19,276,75; 
10,2,'>1,180 
10,2K!.0O2 
19,233,847 
19,17.1,223 
19,020,200 
18,741  .^94 
l,'5.r>-i4,S98 
15.V20,768 
15,218,129 
14,524,886 
14,00.8,206 
14,0<»,2r4 

$2S8,000 

293.500 

294.767 

361,470 

808,190 

414,843 

601,809 

770,822 

934,401 

1,016,839 

1,120,099 

1,107,444 

1,140,708 

1,164,280 

1,168,609 

1,169,893 

1,147,854 

1,124,636 

923,343 

919.496 

901,191 

869,,596 

82'»,263 

829,263 

$78,019,,'>26 
75,508,812 
94,438,016 
85,812,832 
91,591,746 
106,063,018 
111,224,197 
113,037,861 
128  353,667 
1.12,843,835 
133,063,704 
1,16,142,066 
144,160,409 
150,293,132 
409,897,379 
410,897,230 
429,065.029 
439,870.840 
462,148,620 
507,631,911 
698,896,848 
806,929,982 
860,877,351 
820,601,087 

$208,739 

261,820 

201,766 

301,069 

827,863 

451,757 

655,905 

800,498 

266.832 

292,224 

829,270 

371,963 

1  533,450 

2,0S1,3S4 

2,614,785 

2,473,702 

2.511,119 

2,5,10.558 

2,878.656 

8,010,403 

2,80.'>,007 

.1,715,103 

8,001,178 

8,633,363 

$288,789 

277,949 

236,365 

269,660 

287,560 

824,702 

632.823 

295,090 

192,279 

227,803 

283,402 

239,141 

1,869,937 

2,038,027 

2,307,006 

2,137,194 

2,383,135 

2,961,581 

2,61!6,309 

2,730,060 

2,090,118 

8,893,253 

3,512,844 

8,712,206 

18.14 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1833 

1839 

1840 

1811 

1842 

1843 

1841 

1846 

1816 

1847 

1848 , 

1849 

law 

1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 ' 

1S65 

1860 ... 

Cincinnati,  the  metropolis  of  Ohio,  capital  it  Hamil- 
ton connty,  and  one  of  the  Icadinf^  commercial  places 
west  of  tlic  AUcghany  Slouiitains.  It  is  situated  on 
the  right  haiilt  of  th«  Ohio  River,  455  miles  helow  Pitts- 
burg, 1548  miles  above  Now  Orleans,  and  502  miles 
from  Washington.  It  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  north  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  fifth  in 
population  in  the  United  States.  Population  in  1800, 
750 ;  in  1810,  2540 ;  in  1830,  24,881 ;  in  1840,  46,338 ; 
in  1845,  65,000;  in  1850,  115,488;  in  18i)3,  160,141. 
The  Ohio  River  at  Cincinnati  is  1800  feet,  or  about  one- 
third  of  a  mile  wide,  and  its  mean  annual  range  from 
low  to  high  water  is  about  fifty  feet ;  the  extreme  range 
may  be  about  ten  feet  more.     Depressions  are  gener- 


ally in  August,  fcptcmber,  and  October,  and  the  great- 
est rise  in  December,  Itlarch,  May,  and  June.  The  up- 
ward navigation  is  in  winter  very  rarely  suspended  by 
floatmg  ice,  a'.id  in  some  winters  not  at  all.  Its  cur- 
rent at  its  mean  height  is  about  three  miles  an  hour ; 
when  higher,  or  rising,  it  is  more ;  and  when  very  low, 
it  does  not  exceed  two  miles.  Cleveland,  Toledo,  and 
Sandusky,  on  Lake  Erie,  export  largely  in  grain,  lum- 
ber, and  manufactured  goods. — See  yorth  American 
Review,  Ixiii.  820  (Hii.dretii),  xxii.  459  (Sparks), 
xlvii.  1  (J.  H.  Perkins),  xlix.  69;  American  Journal 
of  Science,  xlv.  12  j  De  Bovi's  Review,  iii.  129;  Bank- 
era'  3fai;a!:ine,  1856;  Hvtrfa Merchanls' Magazine,  xxl, 
389. 


ora 


1465 


OIL 


!,'2:9 

',803 
1,402 
I,U1 
l,93T 
l,02T 

.006 

.194 

,135 

,6S1 

1,309 

i,0«0 

1,118 

;,253 

.844 

,m      I 

le  great- 
The  up- 
nded  by 
Its  cur- 
11  hour ; 
cry  low, 
ido,  and 
in,  \um- 
merkan 
parks), 
Journal 
Bank- 
line,  xxi. 


Ohio,  a  large  rtver  of  the  United  States,  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Alleghany  from  the  north  and 
the  Monongahela  from  the  south  at  Pittslmrg,  in  the 
western  part  of  Pennsylvania,  lat,  40°  32'  N.  and  long. 
60°  2'  W.,  at  the  height  of  1188  feet  above  tide-water 
in  the  Atlantic  It  proceeds  in  a  direction  west-south- 
west, dividing  the  states  of  Virginia  and  Kcnt-icky  on 
the  south  from  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  on  the  north, 
and  enters  the  Mississippi  in  lat.  37°  N.  and  long.  SH" 
68'  W.  Its  length  from  Pittsburg  to  its  mouth,  by  the 
course  of  the  river,  is  948  miles ;  but  the  distance  in  a 
direct  course  is  only  614  miles.  It  has  a  descent,  in 
its  whole  course,  of  895  feet,  making  an  average  de- 
scent of  not  quite  Ave  inches  in  a  mile.  The  width  of 
the  Ohio  varies  from  400  to  1400  yards ;  its  average 
width  is  634  yards,  opposite  to  Cincinnati,  which  is 
about  equidistant  from  Pittsburg  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Mississippi,  where  it  is  about  900  yards  wide.  The 
great  valley  drained  by  this  river  contains  over  218,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  over  6,000,000,  which 
is  rapidly  increasing.  There  are  no  considerable  falls 
in  this  river  excepting  at  '  -nisvillc,  Kentucky,  where 
it  descends  22^  feet  in  t  vo  iiiles.  These  falls  have 
been  obviated  by  a  canal  aiound  them,  which  admits 
of  thd  passage  of  the  largest  steamboats ;  but  l-oats  as- 
cend and  descend  these  rapids,  when  the  water  is  high. 
Tito  current  of  the  Ohio,  when  low,  does  not  exceed  two 
miles  an  hour ;  when  at  a  mean  height,  three  miles ;  and 
when  higher  and  rising,  four  or  Ave  miles.  The  high- 
est water  occurs  in  December,  March,  Hay,  and  June ; 
and  the  lowest  in  August,  September,  and  October. 
The  average  difibrenco  between  high  and  low  water  is 
40  feet :  its  extreme  range  on  record,  G4  feet  (at  Cincin- 
nati). During  eight  or  ten  weeks  in  the  winter,  the 
navigation  is  obstructed  by  floating  ice.  Of  the  two 
confluents  which  form  the  Ohio,  the  Alleghany  is  the 
most  important,  being  navigable  for  boats  260  miles  to 
Olean,  New  York,  and  will  hereafter,  by  means  of  the 
Genesee  Valley  Canal,  terminating  at  this  place,  and 
extending  to  the  Eriet  Canal,  form  au  important  com- 
munication between  the  city  of  New  York  and  the 
West.  The  principal  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  on  the 
north  are  the  Beaver,  Muskingum,  Scioto,  the  two 
Miamis,  Whitewater,  and  Wabash ;  those  on  the  south 
.^re  the  Kanawha,  Sandy,  Licking,  Kentucky,  Green, 
Cumberland,  and  Tennessee,  Some  of  these  are  navi- 
gable at  high  water  to  a  great  extent  by  boats  and 
steamboats.  The  Tennessee  is  navigable  by  boats  for 
1000  miles;  the  Cumberland  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats to  Nashville,  and  for  keel-boats  300  miles  fur- 
ther; the  Wabiish  is  navigable  for  200  miles;  Green 
River,  200  miles;  Kentucky,  160;  Great  Kanawha,  64 
miles,  to  the  salt  works.  The  Ohio,  with  its  tributa- 
ries, has  6000  miles  of  navigable  waters. 

The  whole  fall  of  the  Ohio  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo 
is  estimatec)  at  426  feet,  and  the  distance  is  977  miles. 
The  average  fall  per  mile  is  therefore  less  than  live 
inches.  The  fall  of  the  liiver  Thames  is  greater  than 
this,  being  an  average  of  nearly  seven  inches  per  mile 
for  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  Indeed  few  rivers 
of  equal  length  and  volume  of  water  have  so  few  falls 
or  rapids  impeding  navigation  as  the  Ohio. 

Its  fall,  however,  is  not  distributed  equally  over  its 
whole  course,  as  the  following  table  will  show : 


Dlitance. 

'^uii. ' 

AversKc*- 

HUM. 

t'nt. 

Inchn. 

From  Pittsburg  to  Wheeling. . 

S8 

v.< 

10-77 

From  Wheeling  to  Cincinnati. 

374 

18S 

0 

From  Cincinnati  to  LoulsTiile, 

18« 

05 

4-2 

From  IjOulsvUlo  to  Falls 

S 

'i1 

100 

From  Falls  to  EvansvlUo 

100 

33 

ZS5 

From  KvansviUe  to  Cairo 

1S7 

4fi 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  were  it  necessary 
to  "  canalize"  the  whole  river,  from  its  mouth  to  Pitts- 
burg, it  would  bo  the  most  magnificent  chhnnel  of  trade 
on  the  face  of  the  globe.  No  canal  was  ever  construct- 
ed, and  probably  none  could  be  constructed,  of  equal 
length,  with  comparatively  as  little  lockage  as  this. 


The  Krie  Canal  has  about  tivc  times  the  lockage  in  pro- 
portio»to  its  length ;  and  the  Pennsylvania  Canal,  from 
Pittsbnrg  to  Johnstown,  has  more  than  ten  timei  as 
much.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  will  b« 
unnecessary,  for  the  purpose  of  making  this  great  im- 
provement, to  overcome  all  this  fall  of  426  feet  by 
means  of  locks  and  dams.  A  large  part  of  this  whole 
descent  is  due  to  the  gentle  flow  of  the  river,  through 
the  long  pools  wldch  make  up  the  most  of  Its  distance, 
and  which,  in  their  natural  condition,  aflbrd  a  sulB- 
cicnt  depth  of  water  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  for  the 
purposes  of  navigation.  What  proportion  of  this  wliola 
fall  of  425  feet  is  thus  duo  to  these  pools,  which  need 
no  improvement,  we  are  unable  to  determine ;  but  it 
must  be  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  it,  and  would 
leave  a  comparatively  small  aggregate  to  bo  overcome 
by  locks  and  dams  or  wing  dams.  It  would  bo  un- 
necessary to  construct  these  dams  so  high  as  to  flow 
back  the  water  from  one  to  the  other,  but  only  to  rise 
from  one  of  these  pools  to  another,  or  perhaps,  in  some 
cases,  to  unite  one  or  more  of  them  in  one.  To  reduce 
the  whole  river  to  a  series  of  long  levels,  as  in  the  con- 
struction of  canals,  would  not  bo  required,  and  indeed 
would  be  liable  to  grave  objections  on  the  score  of 
health.  A  depth  of  about  live  feet  at  the  lowest  stage 
of  water  would  be  all  that  would  bo  necessary  to  ren- 
der the  Ohio  the  most  important  channel  of  conunrrco 
in  the  world.  This  depth  could  be  had  without  alfecl- 
ing  unfavorably  the  healthfulness  of  the  river,  and 
would  bo  enough  for  the  flrst  class  of  steamers  which 
now  ply  on  the  river. 

Tlie  volume  of  water  in  this  stream,  in  an  improved 
condition,  would  tje  ample,  for  ten  or  eleven  months  in 
the  year,  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  comnier-n  largo  enough 
to  tax  to  tlio  utmost  the  capacity  of  ter  canals  e(|ual 
to  the  Erie  when  enlarged ;  and  so  favorable  is  tho 
climate,  that  the  obstructions  from  ice  would  be  of 
very  short  duration,  if,  indeed,  such  ln>nodimonts  would 
ever  occur.     It  is  well  known  that  I'lo  tlouougaliela 
suffers  less  inconvenience  from  ice,  in  its  present  con- 
dition, than  it  did  bcrorc  it  was  imprcvcil  by  lucks  and 
dams,  and  no  good  reason  can  bo  given  why  tliu  Mnnio 
results  would  not  follow  tlie  improved  navigation  of 
tho  Ohio.     That  the  growing  dcniniuls  of  triuln  iu  tho 
Great  West  will  imperatively  re(|uiro  lliis  great  worlc 
to  bo  speedily  accomplislicd,  no  man  who  has  at  all 
considered  tliis  snlycct  can  for  one  moment  doubt. 
Soying  nothing  of  the  great  staples  of  agricHlturo, 
which  already  seek  our  Eastern  cities  through  tho 
valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  which  will  continue  to  inc-oaso 
in  a  ratio  that  will  almost  defy  computation,  thero 
arc  immense  resources  of  undeveloped  mineral  wealth, 
whoso  tonnage  will  soon  exceed  that  of  all  tl\e  traflio 
now  done  upon  the  river,  and  upon  all  the  railroads 
running  nearly  parallel  with  it  through  the  Western 
States.     The  vast  treasures  of  coal,  iron,  and  salt,  aro 
tliere  in  store  for  tho  scores  of  millions  which  will  soon 
inhabit  the  rich  valley  of  tho  Ohio.     But  admilting 
that  the  river,  when  improved  by  locks  and  dams, 
would  impose  a  lieavy  expense  for  lockage,  still  tho 
actual  expense  of  navigation  would  be  far  less  than  is 
j  now  imposed  upon  it,  in  consequence  of  tho  ruinous  de- 
!  lays  and  disruptions  of  business,  arising  from  the  sud- 
I  den  rise  and  fall  of  the  river.     Though  suljectcd  to 
j  tolls  at  the  locks,  the  certainty  and  regularity  with 
which  steamers  could  make  their  trips  would  more 
than  compensate  this  expense.     Tho  whole  system  of 
passage  and  freight  would  be  systematized,  and  in  tho 
aggregate  rendered  far  less  expensive  and  hazardous. 
'  Indeed,  in  whatever  light  this  grand  scheme  may  bo 
!  viewed,  it  is  matter  of  surprise  that  public  attention 
has  not  been  fully  directed  to  it  before,  and  that  states- 
\  men  should  not  long  ago  have  urged  its  paramount 
1  importance  upon  the  attention  of  Congress.— Sm  article 
j  Mississirri  River. 

OH  (Fr.  lliiile;  Germ.  Oel;  It.  OUe;  Lat.  Oltimi 
!  Russ.  Mailo;  Sp.  ^IceiVe).    The  term  oil  is, applied  t» 


OIL 


1466 


OIL 


dMlKHAt*  •  nutnlior  of  iiuctuoug  liquors,  whicb,  when 
llru|i|ii<il  U|iuii  |i«per,  sink  into  it,  and  make  it  seem 
Hinl>triiiii|)nrent,  or  givo  it  what  i<  called  a  greasy 
itnllli  Tliiisa  bodies  are  very  numerous,  and  have  been 
In  uonimon  use  from  time  immemorial.  Chemists  have 
dlvlilud  (hint  Into  two  classes;  namely,  to{»<t&  and 
Jirinl  iilla,  Oil  was  used  for  buruini;  in  lamjia  aa  early 
■N  llin  ('|tach  of  iSbraliam,  about  1921  u.c.  It  was  the 
•tuplu  vommndity  of  Attica,  and  ajar  full  was  the  prize 
At  llin  I'anathunivaii  Kamos.  It  was  the  custom  of  the 
Jews  to  anoint  with  oil  persons  appointed  to  high 
Ollluos,  n«  tliii  priests  and  kingn,  Psalm  cxxxiii.  2 ;  1 
Hiim.  X.  I,  xvii  III.  Tlio  anointing  with  tliis  liquid 
•evnis  iilso  to  have  been  reckoned  a  necessary  ingre- 
(tlunt  in  a  funtlvul  dross,  Ilulh,  ill.  8.  The  fact  that  oil, 
if  piMsiHl  through  rod-hot  iron  pipes,  will  bo  resolved 
into  It  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to  chemists; 
and  rtftor  llio  process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made 
appiirciil,  Messrs.  Taylor  and  Martincau  contrived  ap- 
pnraliis  fur  producing  oii-gas  on  a  largo  scale II  atdn. 

\Vm  burrow  from  Ur.  Thomas  Thomson  the  following 
ilali'Minnt  witli  respect  to  the:«  bodies : 

!•  Voi,.vrtl.K  Uiijt,  called  also  esienlial  oU»,  arc  dis- 
tliiguUlii'd  by  tlie  following  properties :  1.  Liquid,  oft> 
eti  almost  a*  liquid  as  water,  sometimes  viscid;  2.  Very 
I'unibustlbU)  U.  An  acrid  tasf)  and  a  strong  fragrant 
uilor  i  4,  Volatllitod  at  a  temperature  not  hii^ber  than 
'JIT  ;  6,  Holuble  in  alcohol,  and  imperfectly  in  water; 
(I.  ICvApornto  without  leaving  any  stain  on  paper.  By 
tills  last  test  It  is  easy  to  discover  whether  they  have 
bi'i'ii  ndiiltcratcd  with  any  of  the  lixed  oils.  Let  a  drop 
of  the  vulalllo  oil  fall  upon  a  sheet  of  writing-paper, 
and  tlieti  apply  a  gentle  heat  to  it ;  if  it  evaporates 
without  leuving  any  stain  upon  the  paper,  the  oil  is 
|iurii  i  but  if  it  leaves  a  stain  upon  the  paper,  it  has 
iieoil  rdiitamlnatcd  witli  some  flxed  oil  or  other.  Vol- 
nlllu  oils  are  almost  all  obtained  from  vegetables,  and 
tlliiy  exist  in  every  part  of  plants— tho  root,  tlie  bark, 
the  wood,  the  leaves,  the  liower,  and  even  the  fruit, 
thuugli  they  ar<!  never  found  in  the  substance  of  the 
ciityiudoils;  whereas  the  lixed  oils,  on  tlio  contrary,  are 
Almost  always  contained  in  these  liodies.  When  the 
volntilo  oils  aro  contained  in  great  abundance  in  plants, 
tliuy  urii  sometimes  obtained  by  simple  expression. 
This  is  tho  ease  with  oil  of  oranges,  of  lemons  and  ber- 
Kninot  j  but  in  general  they  can  only  be  obtained  by 
(llxtlllnllon,  Tlio  part  of  tho  plant  containing  the  oil 
Is  put  Into  n  slill  with  a  quantity  of  water,  which  is 
disllllnil  oft  by  the  application  of  a  moderate  heat. 
Thii  oil  eonies  ovor  along  with  tho  water,  and  swims 
upon  lis  surface  in  tlio  receiver.  By  this  process  are 
oblnlrind  the  oils  of  peppermint,  thyme,  lavender,  and 
A  KCeiit  innuy  others,  which  are  prepared  and  employed 
by  lliii  perfumer,  Others  are  procured  by  the  distilla- 
tion of  resinous  bodies.  Tills  is  the  case  in  particular 
with  oil  of  turpentine,  which  is  obtained  by  distilling 
A  kind  iif  resinous  juice,  called  turpentine,  tliat  exudes 
from  tho  juniper.  Volatile  oils  arc  exceedingly  numer- 
ous, They  have  been  long  known  ;  but  as  their  use  in 
ehniiilitry  Is  but  limited,  they  have  not  hitherto  been 
•ul|Jvcte(i  to  an  accurate  chemical  investigation.  They 
dllliir  greatly  In  their  properties  from  each  other,  but  it  is 
iinpusniblo  nt  jiresent  to  gWe  a  detailed  account  of  each. 

1.  Tho  greater  number  of  volatile  oils  are  liquid; 
niAiiy,  Indeed,  ore  as  limpid  as  water,  and  have  none 
of  that  Appenrailcu  which  we  usually  consider  oily. 
Tills  Is  tlio  case  with  tho  following ;'  namely,  oil  of 
turpentine,  oranges,  lemons,  bergamot,  roses.  Oth- 
ers Imve  tlid  oily  viscidity.  It  varies  in  them  in  all 
degrees.  This  Is  tho  cuse  with  tho  oils  of  mace,  car- 
dainoni,  lasiafras,  cloves,  cinnamon.  Others  have  the 
property  of  becoming  solid.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
oils  of  parsley,  fennel,  aniso  seed,  balm.  Others  crystal- 
Uo  by  slow  evaporation.  This  is  the  case  with  oil  of 
thyme,  peppermint,  marjoram.  The  oil  of  nutmegs 
has  usually  tho  cnaiatuuco  of  butter.  This  is  the  case 
thio  with  t)ie  oils  of  hop!  and  of  pepper.    2.  The  color 


of  the  volatile  oils  is  as  various  as  their  other  prop- 
erties. A  great  number  are  limpid  and  colorless;  a* 
oil  of  turpentine,  lavender,  rosemary,  savine,  aniso 
seed :  some  are  yellow ;  as  spike,  bergamot ;  some  are 
brown ;  as  thyme,  savory,  wormwootl :  others  blue ;  as 
camomile,  motherwort:  others  green;  as  milfoil,  pep- 
per, hops,  parsley,  wormwood,  cqjcput,  juniper,  eiige, 
valerian :  otliers,  though  at  tirst  colorless,  become  yel- 
low or  brown  by  age ;  as  cloves,  cinnamon,  sassafras, 
8.  The  odors  aro  so  various  as  to  defy  all  description. 
It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  all  the  fragrance  of  tlie 
vegetable  kingdom  resides  in  volatile  oils.  Their 
taste  is  acrid,  hot,  and  exceedingly  unpleasant.  4, 
Tlieir  specific  gravity  varies  very  considerably,  not 
only  in  dillcrent  oils,  but  even  in  the  same  oil  in  dif- 
ferent circumstances.  When  the  volatile  oils  are  heat- 
ed in  the  open  air,  they  evaporate  readily,  and  without 
alteration  dithise  their  peculiar  odors  all  around ;  but 
there  is  a  considerable  difl'ercnce  between  the  dilTercnt 
oils  in  this  respect.  AVhen  distilled  in  close  vessels, 
they  do  not  so  readily  assume  the  form  of  vapor.  Hence 
they  lose  their  odor,  become  darker  in  color,  and  are 
partly  decomposed.  Oils  do  not  seem  very  susceptible 
of  assuming  the  gaseous  form,  unless  some  other  sub- 
stance, as  water,  bo  present. 

II.  FixKU  Oils  are  distinguished  by  the  following 
characters:  1.  Liquid,  or  easily  become  so  when  ex- 
posed to  a  gentle  heat;  2.  An>i.nctuon8  feel;  8.  Very 
combustible;  4.  A  mild  taste;  6.  Boiling  point  not 
under  600° ;  G.  Insoluble  in  water,  and  nearly  so  in 
alcohol ;  7.  Leave  a  greasy  stain  upon  paper. 

Those  oils,  which  aro  called  fat  or  expressed  oils,  are 
numerous,  and  are  obtained  partly  from  animals  and 
partly  from  vegetables,  by  simple  expression.  As  in- 
stances, may  be  mentioned  whale  oil  or  train  oil,  obtain- 
ed from  the  blubber  of  the  whale  and  from  cod:  olive  oil, 
obtained  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive ;  linseed  oli  and  al- 
mond oil,  obtained  from  linseed  and  almond  kernels. 
Fixed  oils  may  also  be  extracted  from  poppy  seeds,  hemp 
seeds,  beech  mast,  and  many  other  vegetable  substunccs. 

All  these  oils  differ  from  each  other  in  several  par- 
ticulars, but  have  also  many  particulars  in  common. 

1.  Fixed  oil  is  usually  a  liquid  with  a  certain  de- 
gree of  viscidity,  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  glass 
vessels  in  which  it  is  contained,  and  forming  streaks. 
It  is  never  perfectly  transparent ;  has  always  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  color,  most  usually  yellowish  or  graen- 
ish ;  its  taste  is  sweet,  or  nearly  insipid.  When  fresh 
it  has  little  or  no  smell. 

Tliere  exist  also  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  a  con- 
siderable number  of  bodies  which,  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere,  aro  solid,  and  have  hither- 
to been  considered  as  flxed  oils.  I'alm  oil  may  be 
mentioned  as  an  example.  The  various  substances 
used  in  India  and  Africa  as  substitutes  for  butter,  and 
as  unguents,  may  likewise  be  mentioned. 

2.  All  the  fixed  oils  hitherto  examined  are  lighter 
than  water,  but  they  ditVer  greatly  from  one  anotlicr 
in  spccilic  gravity.  The  same  difference  is  observabio 
in  different  samples  of  the  same  oil.  Fixed  oil,  wlicn 
In  tlie  state  of  vapor,  takes  flro  on  the  approach  of  an 
ignited  body,  and  burns  with  a  yellowish  white  iiiime. 
It  is  upon  this  principle  that  candles  and  lamps  burn. 
The  tallow  or  oil  is  first  converted  into  a  state  of  vapor 
in  the  wick ;  it  then  takes  (ire,  and  supplies  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  heat  to  convert  more  oil  into  vapor;  and 
this  process  goes  on  while  any  oil  remains.  The  wick 
is  necessary  to  present  a  suiBciently  small  quantity 
of  oil  at  once  for  the  heat  to  act  upon.  If  the  heat 
were  great  enough  to  keep  the  whole  oil  at  ft  tempera- 
ture of  000°,  no  wick  would  bo  necessary,  as  is  obvious 
from  oil  catching  Are  spontaneously  w  hen  it  has  been 
raised  to  that  temperature.  When  oil  is  used  in  this 
manner,  either  in  the  open  air  or  In  contact  with  oxy- 
gen gas,  tlie  only  now  products  obtained  aro  water  and 
coriotii'fl  acid.  The  drying  oils  ore  used  as  tho  vehi- 
cle of  paints  and  varnishes.     Linseed,  nut,  poppy,  and 


4'l. 


r^ 


OIL 


1467 


OIL 


arc  liglitor 
jno  anotlier 
lobservalilo 
oil,  wlicn 
I'oach  of  an 
Itiito  flnmc. 
imps  burn. 
Ite  of  vapor 
la  sufllcicnt 
[apor;  anB 

I  The  wick 

II  quantity 
If  the  heat 
In  tempcra- 
1  is  obvious 
it  has  been 
[sed  in  this 

;  with  oxy- 

.  v-attr  and 

|s  the  vehi- 

joppy, and 


hemp-aeed  oils  belong  to  this  clou.  These  oils  in 
their  natural  state  possess  the  property  of  drying  oils, 
but  imperfectly.  To  prepare  them  for  the  use  of  tlio 
painter  and  varnish  maker,  thoy.are  boiled  for  some 
time  in  an  iron  pot,  and  sometimes  burned  till  they 
become  viscid. .  When  they  burn  for  some  time,  their 
unctuous  quality  is  much  more  completely  destroyed 
than  by  any  method  that  has  been  practiced.  Ilouce 
it  is  followed  frequently  in  preparing  the  drying  oils 
for  varnishes,  ond  always  for  printers'  ink,  which  re- 
quires to  bo  as  free  as  possible  from  all  unctuosity. 
Mut  oil  has  been  found  preferable  to  all  other  oils  for 
printers'  ink ;  though  the  dark  color  which  it  acquires 
during  boiling  renders  it  not  so  proper  for  dM  ink  as 
for  black.  Linseed  oil  is  considered  as  nextTfter  nut 
oil  in  this  respect.  Otlier  oils  can  not  be  employed, 
because  they  can  not  be  sufficiently  freed  from  their 
unctuosity.  Ink  made  with  them  would  bo  apt  to 
come  olT  and  smear  the  paper  while  in  the  hands  of  tlic 
bookbinder,  or  even  to  spread  beyond  the  mark  of  the 
types  and  stain  the  paper  yellow. 

The  kind  of  oil  used  foi'  burning  in  lamps  varies,  in 
dlfTcront  parts  of  the  world,  with  the  sources  of  supply. 
Whale  oil  is  used  in  Great  Britain,  but  seal  oil,  fluh 
oil,  and  oils  obtained  from  seeds  by  pressure  are  also 


largely  consumed.  In  Paris  the  oiU  of  rape-Mcd  and 
of  poppy-aced  are  used;  and  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  in  Italy,  an  inferior  kind  of  olive  oil,  and  also  the 
oil  of  the  earth-nut,  are  employed.  In  the  Utter 
country  a  lamp  oil  is  expressed  from  grape-stones.  In 
Piedmont  walnut  oil  is  common  ;  oil  of  sesamum-seed 
is  burned  on  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean ;  while  in  tropical  countries  coeoa-nut 
oil,  whicli  is  solid  in  tlio  climate  of  Great  Britain,  Is 
generally  used.  In  China,  tlie  C'amdlia  (^i/'em  is 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  obtained  from  its 
seeds ;  also  a  shrub,  C'roton  gebifcrum,  the  ft'uit  of  which 
yields  a  useful  oil.  In  cuusequcnce  of  the  deflcieot 
supply  of  talluw  during  tlie  late  war  with  Russia,  in- 
quiries have  been  set  on  foot  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  as  to  the  seeds  and  other  vegetable  products 
from  which  oil  may  be  obtained,  and  the  result  of 
tlicse  inquiries  has  already  shown  tliat  many  oil-yield- 
ii\i,  substances,  not  before  known  in  commerce,  exist. 
The  export  of  oils  from  the  East  Indies,  especially 
gingetlijy  has  greatly  increased.  Pistachio-nut  oil  is 
becoming  common,  as  is  also  ground-nut  oil  from 
Africa.  Ail  these  oils  are  used  for  burning  in  lamps. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  plants  which  yield  the 
ordinary  unctuous  oils  of  commerce : 


Uauni  UBltatisslmuiii  et  poreniio L>. 

Coiylus  avcllana)  p 

Jiiglansrcgia      )   

I'aiiavcr  Bonmifcrum D. 

Cannabis  aatlva D. 

Scsamum  orientale G. 

Olea  Kiiropea .- G-. 

AmygdnluB  coinmnniB G. 

Guilandina  molirlnga O. 

Cucurbita  pcpo,  and  melapcpo D. 

FitguB  BiWatica G. 

.Simipts  nigra  et  arrensis G. 

llelianthuB  annuua  ct  porcnnis D. 

Itras8ica  napuB  ct  campcBtris G. 

HfcinuB  comniunts D. 

Nicotlana  taoacum  ct  rustica D. 

rriiiius  domcstlca G. 

VltiB  Tlnlfera D. 

Thcobroma  cacao G. 

('ocoa  nucifcra G. 

('oeus  butyracca  rel  avolra  elais G. 

Laurua  nobilis G. 

ArachlB  hypogica G. 

Vatcria  indica G. 

HcDpcris  matronalia D. 

Myagrum  Hativa D. 

Uuscda  luteola D. 

Lepidium  Bativum D. 

Atropa  bcUadnnna 1). 

Crossypium  Ilarbadcnse D. 

Itrasstca  campcatria  olclfcra G. 

Hrasslca  pra^cox (i. 

liapliaiiuB  Bativus  olclfer G. 

Trunus  cerasus G. 

Pynis  maltis (K 

KtionymuB  Kuropffius (r. 

(^urnua  sauguinca (r. 

Cypents  Rseulout4i G. 

Hyosciamus  niger G. 

.I'^Bculus  bippocaBtanum G. 

rinus  abiefi 1>. 


Linaeed  oil . 
Nut  oil 


Poppy  oil 

Hemp  oil 

Oil  of  BCBaininn 

Olive  oil 

Almond  oil 

Oil  of  bchen  or  lien 

Cucumber  oil  

Beech  oil 

Oil  of  mustard 

Oil  of  Bunflower 

Rape-seed  oil 

Castor  oil 

Tobscco-Beed  oil 

Plum-kernel  oil 

Grape-seed  oil 

Butter  of  cacao 

Cocoa-nut  oil 

Palm  oil 

Ijkurcl  oil 

Ground-nut  oil 

Pincy  tallow 

Oil  of  Julienne 

Oil  of  camel;  la 

Oil  of  weld-seed 

Oil  of  garden  creHsoB 

Oil  of  deadly  nlglit-shado 

Cottoii-Bocd  oil 

Colza  oil 

Summer  rapc-sccd  oil 

Oil  of  radisli-seed 

Clicny-stone  oil 

Applc-Bced  oil 

Spindle-tree  oil 

Comil-berry  tree  oil 

Oil  of  the  roots  of  cyper  grosB. 

Ilcnhane.soed  oil 

llorsc-chcBtnut  oil 

IMnetop  oil 


Specific  Gravity 


0-11347 

0D260 

0-9248 
OflSSTd 

o-oiie 

0  9180 

d'<6281 
0'99'25 
0-9180 

o^isa 

O-OIM 
OtIOIl 
0-9283 
0-912T 
0-9202 
0-892 

0'-»fl8 


0'92fS 

0-!)'281 

0-9282 

0-93RS 

0-9240 

0-9260 

0-6i88 
09139 
0-9181 
0-92S9 

0-9380 

o'-iiso 

0-9130 

0-027 

0-286 


CamUii. — A  fair  crop  oryicld  of  olive  oil  is  estimated 
at  two  million  gallons,  and  two  aud  a  half  millions  an 
abundant  crop.  Although  immense  numbers  of  olive- 
trees  were  cut  down  during  the  "  Greek  war"  and  the 
civil  commotion  in  1810,  the  population  is  still  insuffi- 
cient to  attend  to  them,  and  the  only  culture  they  re- 
ceive is  slightly  plowing  the  ground  on  which  tliey 
stand.  The  fruit  is  allowed  to  drop  from  the  tree, 
when  it  is  collected  by  women  and  children,  who  re- 
ceive for  their  trouble  one-third  the  quantity  they  col- 
lect; if  the  crop  is  abundant,  generally  one  quarter  is 
lost  for  want  of  hands  to  collect  it.  In  the  district  of 
Opokoio  tlio  fruit  is  beaten  from  the  trees,  evidently 
to  its  injury,  for  it  is  smaller  in  that  section  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  island.  The  fruit  is  collected  in 
heaps  and  taken  to  a  wooden  mill  of  very  primitive 
and  rough  construction,  operated  by  four  men.  The 
oU  from  the  first  pressure  belongs  to  the  owner  of  the 


olives,  out  of  which  the  government  receives  one-tenth ; 
the  mass  is  again  pressed,  and  one-third  quantity,  in 
comparison  with  .the  first  pressure,  is  obtained,  al- 
though of  an  inferior  quality;  this  is  divided  into 
tenths,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the  government,  two 
divided  among  the  workmen,  and  the  remaindeT  be- 
longs to  the  owner  of  the  mill.  

WHALE  OIL. 

STATEIimrP  OP  THE  QUANTITIES  OF   OIL  AKD    DOHK  TBA>- 
BlIirrSD   AT  THE   SanUWIOH   ISLANDS  IN   1664. 


TowhatCounlry, 

ScMon. 

Si-erm  OU. 

Whale  Oil. 

Bmm. 

Uillonl. 

Oalloni. 

Poundi. 

United  States 

Spring 

49,801 

267,380 

28,766 

do. 

Fall. 

00,449 

],269,398 

T62,8fl» 

do. 

do. 

46,674 

104,769 

864,241 

Bremen 

do. 

.... 

10,244 

26,288 

Havre 

do. 

26,172 

46,810 

Total  1.V4 

.... 

166,484 

1,665,9-Jl 

1,508,443 

do.    1863 

176.396 

B,7R7,348 

2,020,264 

OIL 


1468 


OIL 


IHVOSTATIOKB  or  8pnUI  AKD  WHALK  nil,  AtrO  WRAMBOm 
INTO  TUa  I  NITXII  HTATKB  IN  IHA6. 


1  8p«nn  UU.  1  Wh«l«  UU. 

Wlialabooi. 

Now  Bedford 

Fairhaven 

BainU. 

B.>,S86 

6,696 

1,027 

1,247 

979 

293 

Uamli. 

81,782 

9,648 

1,899 

384 

868 

8i 

l-iMiniU. 

1,087,000 

26,800 

8,400 

1,600 

Weitport 

Mattapolaett 

Blpplcan 

Dis.  of  New  Bedford . 
Bandwloh 

«2,12T 

880 

807 

288 

1,227 

6,018 

889 

480 

879 

281 

141 

BO 

8,073 

700 

961 

121 

220 

664 

675 

i,'oss 

98,664- 

140 

2,477 

890 

6,171 

T,86i 

8,806 

889 

842 

219 

144 

1,941 

11,903 

ai,80S 
6,146 
6,307 
4,087 
18) 
S,6»rt 

18,097 

1,128,800 
1,000 

18,400 

2,000 

104.300 

67.61)0 
4.000 
3,000 

28,600 
1,200 

ii.'ew) 

109,000 

849,900 
09,000 
41,600 
82,200 
4,000 
27,000 

691,200 

Fatuouth 

Ilolmaa'a  Uole 

Edgartown 

Nantuclict 

Provincetown 

Boston 

gitieni 

BeverlT 

Fall  River 

Warren 

Newport 

Now  London 

Myatlc 

Stonlngton 

gag  Harbor 

Oreenport 

Cold  Spring 

New  York 

Total  for  188J. . . . 

80,941 

197,890 

2,682,700 

Imports  or  kacii  Momtii  or  1860. 


January,  no  arrivals. 

February 

March 

April 

May 

ilune 

July 

August 

Soptember 

October 

November 

December 

Totol 


8p<nii  Oil. 


Bsrrelj. 

2,'7'39 

8,074 

0,8;i2 

18,328 

12,826 

18,W11 

6.677 

6,094 

8,487 

4.8:(7 

2,030 


80,941 


Wli«l«OII.  I     Whtl«boDe. 


B>rrali. 

S.'iil 

20,967 

49.860 

62,246 

87,6ii9 

13,683 

8,118 

8,304 

2,090 

l,;i6'2 

388 


197,890 


Poundi, 

48.300 
678,900 
838,000 
418,300 
824,800 
162,000 

4;i,900 

88,800 
8,200 

80,600 


8,602,7110 


In  addition  to  tlie  above  tliere  bavo  been  imported 
into  tlie  port  of  Boston  from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland, 
3129  barrels  seal  oil,  124  barrels  whale  oil,  and  20  bar- 
rels sperm  oil. 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  the  impor- 
tations of  oil  and  bono  into  the  United  States  for  the 
past  sixteen  years : 


Vim. 

Sparoi  Oil. 

Whala  OU. 

WhalaboDB. 

Bamli. 

Puundi. 

Imports  for  1841.. 

15;).304 

207.848 

2,000.000 

** 

1842.. 

106.6;7 

161,041 

1,600.000 

li 

1843.. 

16D,«86 

206,727 

2.00)),  OOO 

tl 

1844.. 

133.6:14 

262.047 

8.682,446 

i* 

184-i.. 

167,917 

272.730 

3,107,142 

li 

1840.. 

95,217 

207,493 

2,270,989 

11 

1847  . . 

120,763 

813,160 

3,341,680 

II 

1843.. 

107.976 

2811,656 

2,003,000 

II 

1849.. 

100,944 

248,492 

2,281,100 

II 

I860.. 

92,893 

200,008 

2,809,200 

II 

1861.. 

99,691 

82S,4S3 

8,916,600 

u 

1852  . . 

73,872 

84,211 

1,269,900 

II 

1863.. 

103,077 

260.114 

6.0.i2,300 

II 

1854.. 

76,096 

319,837 

3.446  200 

II 

1865.. 

72,649 

181,016 

2,707,600 

" 

1S66.. 

80,941 

197,890 

2,692,700 

Etatkhcht  or  tiik  avkbaue  I'nir 

ES  or  8pgii 

4  AND  WlIALB 

on.  AM) 

WUA1.I!D(I. 

<F.  rott  BIXT 

EE}<  Yeabs 

FAST,  AT  New 

yOBK  AN»  NkW  HkI>FOKI». 


Vaan. 

Sperm  on. 

Whale  on. 

Whalebone   i 

^841     

100c. 

94 

78 

68 

90i 

83 

871 
lOOf 
108  9-10 
120  7-10 

mt 

128J 
1241 
14S| 
177  2-10 
162 

30io. 
8li 
88( 
84t 

mi 

82J 

83t 

30 

89  9-10 

49  6-10 

46  6-16 

m 

mi 

68J 

71  8-10 
79t 

19c. 
191 

23 

851 

40 

m 

84 

80) 

81  8-10 

84  4-10 

84t 

60J 

841 

89  1-8 

4JH 

68 

1S42    

1848      

1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

184S 

1849 

1800 

18B1 

1868 

1863 

1SB4 

Igfls 

1886 

NOHTII  PACIFIC  riRHEHY. 
Tabm  snowiNo  THE  Nciideb  or  Ships  enuaued  in  tiis 
NoBTH  HAOirin  Kibueby  rna  the  last  rirrEEic  Vxarb, 

AND  TUX  AVEEAUE  (4UANTITT  or  OIL  TAKEN. 


Vean. 

Shipi. 

1841. 
1842. 
1848. 
1844. 
1845. 
1849. 
1347. 
1848. 
l»t». 
1861. 
1881. 
1863. 
186:1. 

Number. 
20 

29 

103 

170 

268 

292 

177 

160 

166 

jm^ 

144 

.!t::::;::;:::: 

138 
883 

288 

1854. 

1366. 

282 

217 

Average. 

Barrajar~ 

1412 

1627 
1349 
1623 

968 

100 
1069 
1164 
1384 
1692 

026 
1848 

912 

7i'4 

878 


In  1856  about  181  ships  cruised  in  the  Nortliurn 
Seas,  two  of  which  were  lost,  and  three  have  not  been 
reported  during  the  season. 

United  States  Vessels  EHPLorxn  in  tue  WnALi  Fisn- 
EBY,  Januabv  1, 1S67. 


'a^-ir 

Barke. 

Driia. 

Sehoenere. 

Tonnafa. 

New  Bedford 

Falrhaven 

Weatport 

Dartmouth 

329 
47 
14 
10 
12 

i 

"i 
'6 

1 
1 
1 

i 

3 

111..164 

16,666 

8.983 

2,700 

8,530 

319 

874 

Mattapoisett 

Sipplcan 

Wareham 

Dis.  of  New  Bedford 

Sandwich 

Falmouth 

Holmes's  Hole 

Edgartown 

Nantucket 

Provincetown 

Beverly 

Lynn 

Orleans 

418 

"b 

8 
14 

88 
6 
2 
1 
1 
3 

16 
1 
4 

50 
6 
6 

14 
9 
6 

9 

1 

'i 
"i 

2 
"2 

"4 
'8 

0 

'a 

2 

16 

133,926 

166 

1,106 

1,219 

4,966 

18.620 

2,736 

462 

823 

616 

716 

6,043 

2(18 

1,2(10 

18,999 

1,340 

1,949 

6,261 

2,652 

2,129 

Fall  River 

Warren 

Providence 

Newport 

New  London 

Mystic 

Stonlngton 

Sag  Harbor 

Grcenport 

Cold  Spring 

Total  Jan.  1.  1357 . 

533 

22 

40         i  ■204,2110  1 

Showing  an  addition  of  eight  ships,  one  brig,  and 
eleven  schooners,  with  an  addition  in  the  aggregate 
tonnage  of  50U8  tons. 

Of  the  abovo  arc  owned  in  the  State  of — 


Shipe 
and 
Barki. 

Briga. 

Sfboonen. 

Tonnage. 

Massachusetts 

Khodc  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

483 
20 
63 
28 

16 

4 

2 

27 

ii 

2 

1(I4.N32 
6  647 
22,783 
10.('42 

Total 

603 

22     1        40 

204.208 

The  number  of  vessels  and  amount  of  tonnage  em- 
ployed in  the  Whale  Fishery  since  1844  lias  been  as 
follows: 


Veara. 

Shine 
Barke. 

Briga. 

Schoonere. 

Tonnage. 

January  1,1344.... 

695 

41 

0 

2WI,147 

"          1.S45 .... 

043 

!I6 

17 

218066 

"          1846 .... 

678 

38 

22 

283.  mo 

1847  .... 

670 

31 

21 

2811,218 

1848.... 

621 

22 

16 

210.603 

1349  .... 

681 

21 

18 

196,118 

"           1860 .... 

610 

20 

18 

171,484 

"          1861.... 

502 

24 

17 

171,fr71 

"          1868 .... 

6rv3 

27 

86 

193.990 

"           1858.... 

599 

80 

88 

206.286 

"          1884.... 

602 

28 

88 

208.399 

"          1868.... 

684 

20 

84 

109.848 

"          18B6.... 

686 

81 

29 

169,141 

—Xea  Btdfard  Shipping  LUt. 


OIL 


1460 


OIL 


Ewo«T«  o»  DoMuno  OiM  FioM  m  VmnD  Htatm  fou  Tin  FwoAt  Yiam  iiioiMa  Jpin  80, 18MI 


133,026 
106 
1,106 
1,219 
4.056 
13,020 
2,736 
462 
823 
616 
716 
6,043 
2f.8 
1,200 
18,999 
1,840 
1,949 
6,261 
2,«b2 
2,129 


IM.Hil'i 

0  54T 

22,-SS 

10.l'42 

r204.20S 


page  em-  ^ 
been  as 


2WI,147 
|2ISC6K 
233.  ISO 
230,218 
210,603 
190,112 
171,484 
171,1.71 
198,990 
206,280 
208,899 
199,842 
199,141 


Wlillhn  Kipoitad. 


Kuulan  I'oshhIoiw  In  North  Amerin 

I'rawla •  • 

Swedtn  and  Norway 

Bwediah  Weat  Indlea 

Denmark 

llaniah  Weat  Indiea 

IlanibuTK 

Bremen 

Other  Oennan  porta 

Holland 

Dutch  Weat  Indlea 

Duleh  Guiana 

Dutoh  Eaat  Indlea. 
Ilelglum 
Kngland 
Scotland 

Canada -  - -     - 

Other  Urltlah  North  American  Poaaeaalona 
Britiih  Weat  Indlea 

IlritUh  Oulana 

Brltlah  Poaaeaalona  In  Africa 

British  AnatralU 

Bi'itUh  I'^st  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

French  North  American  I'osaeaaloni 

French  (rulana 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean 

Cubs 

Porto  Itlco 

Cape  do  Verd  Islanda 

llayti 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

New  Uranada 

Venezuela 
•Brisil 

Chill 

Peru 

Sandwich  Islands 

Whale  Fisheries 
Total  year  lSe6-'63 


Statembht  giiowiNO 

THK  IHPOBTS 

OF  OH.B 

INTO  Tua  Unitkd  Htatkh  fon  tun  VitAn  ttiditNO  .Ickk  30, 1850. 

Rai^t  M.4 

NMt'H-rooi 

Kmo. 

Olln, 

Oliv., 

Culor. 

LiuHd. 

■nd 

••tlm. 

fttiil  ulhcr 

II.I 

Id 

In 

Wh«DC«  Importad. 

Hamp  H*i, 

Kiiltnftl. 

OIU. 

railii. 

BoltiM 

Valu., 

Osllau. 

V»lu.. 

Gsllou. 

Vslw. 

U.II.. 

Vslug, 

(islbM, 

V.lu.. 

Vftlue, 

V.lu,,- 

V.lue, 

« 

« 

■»■■■ 

t 

■■'♦  ■■■■ 

* 

* 

• 

Danish  Weat  Indies .... 

.... 

.   •   •   > 

1,016 

071 

Hamburg 

. .  •■ 

886 

T87 

20,018 

1U,2N 

I  1  •  > 

«... 

■  III 

8,004 

3,009 

Bremen 

<  •  •  • 

,  .  ,  , 

120 

INI 

till 

•  I  1  a 

6 

18,007 

Holland 

. .  *  > 

8,480 

6,241 

96 

6*1 

■  III 

.1.1 

lilt 

l,05t 

I    .    .    1 

Dutch  East  Indies 

I  1  •• 

<  a  >  • 

I  a  t  1 

S 

.    1    .    . 

.... 

Belgium 

6S1 

805 

.  .      . 

40 

25 

*  1  1  t 

1,020 

.... 

England 

66,686 

42,189 

1,091,205 
05 

1,048,010 

16,127 

0,191 

S>4,4Tt 

1 1,012 

4  1  a 

21,208 

0,i65 

4,230 

Scotland 

01 

.11. 

Ireland 

.... 

•  ••> 

•  .  •  • 

>  1 .  > 

•  .  a  1 

•  t  .  . 

Olbraltar 

.... 

. . .  t 

<  •  .  • 

1 . 1  • 

a  a  a  1 

t  .  1  a 

.... 

.... 

.... 

MalU 

>  •  •  • 

.... 

.... 

■  1  1  a 

a  1  .  • 

1  .  .  . 

0,910 

Canada  

>  •  •  ■ 

46 

25 

.... 

1  1  1  1 

1  1  1  1 

'244 

10 

22 

286 

Other  British  N.  A.  Foas. 

III. 

no 

.... 

British  Poss.  in  Africa  . . 

*  •  •  • 

.... 

.... 

.... 

U(lH,()1iO 

TT.TOT 

t  .  .  I 

.... 

.... 

Other  ports  in  Africa  . . . 

.  .  .  • 

<  t  .  a 

•  I.I 

UlO,5»0 

a25,7r>2 

27 

.... 

British  Australia 

•  .  •  • 

«  I  .  1 

•  III 

1  •  .  . 

1 . . . 

.... 

.... 

British  East  Indies 

87,816  K,8a7 

I  •  >  1 

.11. 

t  1  t  t 

8,701 

France  on  the  Atlantic . . 

11,478 

7,700 

11,4;'U 

0,4117 

I  I  t  a 

1 1  > . 

1  I  I  I 

12,2SI 

811 

5:i.4.'ii 

France  on  the  Med'n, , . . 

.  ■  .  • 

• .  • . 

ail. 

<  •  1  a 

>*  1  1 

18,ftstl 

18,005 

249,708 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic .. . 

tilt 

I  1  t  1 

till 

767 

ii,h:ii 

.  .   .  ■ 

Spain  on  the  Med'n 

1  .  .  a 

•  lit 

1  1  .  1 

.  .  .  • 

18,881 

893 

Cuba 

a  .  t  i 

.  •  t  1 

a  I  a  a 

85 

939 

1,701 

Porto  Klco 

80 

64 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

r.,'04H 

""2 

Portugal 

Sardinia 

all. 

lilt 

.... 

M4 

6010 

87,10-.' 

Tuscany 

.11. 

tilt 

,, ,, 

720 

0,038 

28  034 

Two  Sicilies 

a  .  .  a 

t  1  t  a 

.... 

17,360 

13,81^8 

8^8 

Austria 

•  I  .  > 

a  a  1  a 

.... 

4,KI9 

77 

Turkey  in  Europo 

•  >  >  • 

t  •  ■  • 

•  *  .  > 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1  ..  . 

.... 

.... 

3,407 

Turkey  in  Asia 

. 

■  •  •  > 

*  •  .  • 

.... 

...» 

•  1  .  . 

.ill 

.... 

.... 

882 

.... 

Mexico 

SO 

26 

.... 

.... 

.... 

""4 

""n 

•"• 

"20 

'.'.'.'. 

Now  Rrsnada 

Braiil 

.... 

.... 

.... 

660 

tfiO 

.... 

197 
20,812 

.... 

■"io 

China 

Whalo  Fisheries 

Total 

.  •  .  • 

^003,771 

Riii529 

833 

4lo.nit 

.... 

....!,... 

— 

148,681 

06,371 

li7TI»,208 

20,15il 

1,1111,6(7 

4t(r"|ll9.488j94,lfl3 

l376,85«| 

An  instance  of  tbo  denianil  for  oil  is  manifest  in  the 
palm-oil  trade  with  the  west  coast  of  Africn.  A  few 
years  ago  —  probably  less  than  fifteen  —  palm  oil,  in 
the  west  of  Africa,  was  worth  a  dollar  a  gallon,  and 
a  late  account  from  that  region  says  not  one  thousand 
gallons  left  the  country  in  a  year.  Now  the  tratllc 
in  that  article  with  Great  Britain  alone  amounts  to 


/OO.OOO  Kalloni  a  year,  at  an  overage  of  thirty-three 
cents  a  gallon ;  and  with  tlio  L'nltod  Slates  as  much 
moro.  For  lubricating  machinery,  particularly  in 
steam  factories  and  on  railroads  in  (Ireat  Britain,  this 
oil  is  uiod  more  than  any  or  all  other  articles,  being 
both  cheaper  and  Itettor.  There  Is  now  a  monthly  Ifce 
of  steamers  from  Southampton  to  the  weit  coMt  of  Af- 


,-..^ 


OtI 


uih 


OM 


rica,  the  Madeira  and  Canary  U\e».  Bristol  has  fifty- 
four  ships  in  tho  trade  with  that  coast;  Liverpool 
thirty-flvo ;  and  the  entire  number  flrom  tireat  Dritain, 
both  steamers  and  sailing  vessels,  is  not  less  than  one 
hundred.  Sotne  of  these  ah)  ships  of  1000  tons  burden. 
President  Roberts,  of  Liberia,  says  twenty  ship-loads 
of  palm  oil  go  from  Slonrovia  every  year.  Tho  import 
of  oils  into  tho  United  States  has  been  as  follows : 


ISM. 

lUI.                  1 

QllloM. 

V>llM. 

$I2,8(M 

Qlllool. 

\>in. 

Whale 

8l),a«e 

10.1,894 

(I86,i)li7 

OUve 

81,600 

6D,J8T 

12«,478 

88,646 

OUve  In  bgt 

•  •  *  • 

t  •  •  • 

88,690 

816,154 

Llnieed  .... 

1,168,«4T 

487,|i20 

1,248.085 

.      7T6,0T7 

Kape-seed  ., 
Palm 

18« 

at 

45,881 

26.-668 

. .  <. 

.... 

767,784 

296,211 

Neit'a-foot.. 

6,SI84 

2,899 

ToUl 

1,2«6,U62 

${>a),«3o 

2,830.062 

$l,Ml,g02 

IncruK . . , 

1,(188.01)0 

986,882 

The  table  does  not  include  the  domestic  catch  of 
whales,  but  only  tho  wlialo  oil  Imported  mostly  from 
tho  Uritish  Possessions  and  China.  Tho  ollvo  oil  In 
bottles  has  been  estimated  In  gallons,  and  is  mostly  of 
French  origin.  Tho  linseed  is  almost  altogether  En- 
glish.—See  Olive  Oil. 

Benzole,  or  CoiU  OH,  is  a  new  discovery  of  producing 
oil  from  certain  kinds  of  bituminous  coal.  At  Clover- 
port,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  Klvcr,  arc  extensive  new 
works,  ninning  twelve  retorts  night  and  day,  consum- 
ing from  eight  to  ten  tons  of  coal  every  twenty-four 
hours,  and  producing  750  gallons  of  crude  oil.  Re-dis- 
tilled, this  quantity  yields  COO  gallons  of  refined  oils ; 
viz.,  125  gallons  of  benzole,  7.5  of  naphtha,  iib  of  lubri- 
cating oil,  and  175  of  oil  for  Illuminating  purposes. 
Jlonzole  readily  sells  at  $1  60  per  gallon ;  Inbricating 
oil  at  ft  25;  naphtha  and  burninf:^  at  eighty  cents. 
Preparations  are  making  at  Cloverport  for  the  manu- 
facture of  a  beautiful  semi-transparent  candle  from  the 
substance  called  "  paraffine,"  resembling  spermaceti, 
and  which  is  formed  in  pearly  crystals  in  the  dark  oils 
of  the  last  distillations  after  they  have  cooled.  The 
paraffine,  as  remarked  by  Professor  Sillinian,  Jun., 
docs  not  exist  ready  formed  in  the  original  crude  prod- 
uct, but  is  a  result  of  the  high  temperature  employed 
In  the  process  of  distillation,  by  which  the  elements 
arc  newly  arranged.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  un- 
alterable nature  of  tho  substance  under  the  most  pow- 
erful chemical  agent.  Tiie  residuum  from  tho  lost  dis- 
tillation makes  the  first  quality  of  asphaltuni,  used  fbr 


smearing  vaults,  etc.,  now  imported  and  sold  at  thirty 
dollars  per  ton. 

Oil-painting.  Painting  in  which  tho  medium  for 
using  the  colors  is  oil.  It  Is  said  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the  ancients,  and  not  used  earlier  than  tho 
fourteenth  century ;  Its  Invention  being  attributed  to 
John  Van  Eyck,  sometimes  called  John  of  Bruges. 
By  him  it  was  supposed  to  have  been  imparted  to  one 
Antonio  da  Messina,  who  lirst  brought  it  to  Venice. 
Giovanni  Bellini,  by  a  stratagem,  got  possession  of  the 
secret  from  him,  and  then  made  it  publicly  known. 
Oil-painting  has  tho  advantages,  above  all  other 
modes,  of  affording  great  delicacy  of  execution,  a  union 
and  insensible  blending  of  the  colors,  and,  above  all, 
that  of  Imparting  great  force  to  its  ofTcrts,  The  vari- 
ous colors  chiefly  used  in  oil-painting  are  white-lead, 
Cremnltz  white,  chrome,  king's  yellow,  Naples  and  pat- 
ent 3'cllow,  tho  ochres,  Dutch  pink,  terra  da  Sienna, 
yellow  lake,  vermilion,  red-lead,  Indian  and  Venetian 
red,  the  several  sorts  of  lake,  brown  pink,  Vandyke 
brown,  burned  and  unburned  umber,  uUrauiarino, 
Prussian  and  Antwerp  blue,  ivory  black,  blue  black, 
asphaltum.  The  principal  oils  are  those  extracted 
from  the  poppy,  nut,  and  linseed.  With  the  latter, 
driers  are  introduced. — See  Paints. 

Oldenburg,  a  state  of  Gcnnany,  in  tho  northwest, 
with  the  title  of  Grand  Ducliy,  composed  of  three  sep- 
arate portions :  1st.  Tlio  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  which 
forms  eight-ninths  of  tho  territory.  It  is  surrounded 
by  Hanover  on  the  east,  south,  and  west,  and  bounded 
north  by  the  North  Seo ;  capital,  Oldenburg  |  2d.  Tho 
Principality  of  Lilbcck,  orEiUin,  inclosed  in  the  Duchy 
of  Ilolstciu  (Denmark) ;  and,  3d.  The  Principality  of 
Birkenfcid,  between  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Ilolstcin 
Ilomburg;  capital,  Birkenfcid.  Area,  2121  square 
miles.  Population  in  1852,  281,92,1.  Oldenburg  lies 
in  tho  basin  of  tho  North  Sea,  and  Is  entirely  flat. 
Soil  in  general  fertile,  but  in  several  places  arc  extens- 
ive sand  dunes  and  marshes.  Corn  raised  insutncicnt 
for  consumption.  Pasturage  excellent ;  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  extensively  reared.  Manufactures  confined 
to  Uncn-weaving  and  coarse  woolens.  Revenue  (esti- 
mated), 1854,  8ill,000  thalcrs;  expenses,  979,000  tlia- 
lers;  public  debt,  1,000,000  tlialers.  Oldenburg,  tho 
capital,  is  sitnntcd  at  the  conflux  of  the  Huntc  with 
the  Ilaarcn,  which  hero  forms  a  small  port,  eiglity 
miles  wcBt-soiithwcst  of  Hamburg.  Population,  7829. 
It  is  the  residence  of  tho  Grand  Duke.  Population  of 
circle  in  1852,  89,453. 


C'osiMiRCE  or  (iLDENyrBa  IN  1S64  and  1S66. 


Enliireit. 

Cleutd.                                      1 

Niunlwr. 

Tonnige. 

Kqufpmenl. 

Number. 

T«m)aK«. 

EquiprQent. 

S67 

6871 

fl.'>,Ml 

77,r,«6 

r).S(l» 
13.677 

89S 
5964 

68.076 
66,169 

11.761 

Coasting  resflels 

Total  in  1S64 

TT38 

6668 
2(180 

142,896 
84,124 

ri8,77-J 

19,446 

12,599 

fi,847 

6862 

6054 
1S08 

183,234 

T9,7S2 
6t,l62 

.    17,766 

11,464 
O.ifll 

Foreign 

Total  In  1866 

6966 

131,9!)1 

17,613 

6080 

l'Jl,760 

1.^,791      . 

Ollbanum  (Ft.  Kncen>;  Gcr.  Weimnch;  It.  Oliba- 
no ;  Arab.  Ijxban),  a  gum-resin,  the  produce  of  a  large 
tree  (/,{6<mtM  (hurifera)  growing  in  Arnliia  and  India. 
It  is  imported  in  chests,  containing  each  about  one  cwt., 
from  the  Levant  and  India ;  the  best  comes  from  the 
former,  and  is  the  produce  of  Arabia.  Good  olihanum 
is  in  semi-transparent  tears,  of  a  pink  color,  brittle, 
and  adhesive  when  warm.  When  burned,  the  odor  is 
very  agreeable ;  its  taste  is  bitterish,  and  somewhat 
pungent  and  aromatic  ;  it  flames  for  a  long  time  with 
a  steady,  clear  light,  which  is  not  easily  cxtlnguislicd, 
leaving  behind  a  black  (not,  as  has  been  said,  a  whitish) 
ash.  Olibannm  Is  the  frankincense  (thui)  of  the  an- 
cients, and  was  extensively  used  by  them  in  sacrifices. 
— Pliny,  Nat.  Hitt.  It  has  also  been  used  In  tho  cere- 
monies of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches, — Ainslik's 
AAiteria  Tndica;  Thomson's  Chemittry;  Kiprmoii, 
Antiq.  Bom.      .     . 


Olive,  Olivee  (Fr.  Olives;  Gcr.  Oliven;  It.  Uiive, 
Olive;  Sp.  Aceitunat;  Port.  A::ritona$;  Lat.  Olivai),  a 
fruit  yielding  o  large  quantity  of  oil,  the  produce  of  the 
Olea,  or  olive-tree.  The  wild  olive  is  indigenous  to 
Syria,  Greece,  ond  Africa,  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount 
Atlas.  Tho  cultivated  species  grows  spontaneously 
in  Syria,  and  is  easily  reared  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  tho 
soutii  of  Franco.  It  has  even  been  raised  in  the  open 
air  in  England,  but  its  fruit  is  said  not  to  liave  ripen- 
ed. The  fruit  is  a  smooth,  oval  plum,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  half  an  incli  in  di- 
ameter; of  a  deep  violet  color  when  ripe,  whitish  and 
fleshy  within,  bitter  and  nauseous,  but  replete  with  a 
bland  oil ;  covering  an  oblong,  pointed,  rough  nut. 
Olives  intended  for  preservation  are  gatlicred  before 
they  arc  ripe.  In  pickling,  the  object  is  to  remove 
their  liitterness,  and  to  preserve  them  green,  by  im- 
pregnating them  with  a  brine  of  aromatized  sea-salt; 


OLI 


1471 


OLI 


It.  Ulkt, 
1  Ulivir),  a 
luce  of  tho 
Eenous  to 
[of  Mount 
|tnncously 

J  and  tho 
1  the  open 
live  ripen- 
tut  thrce- 
lich  in  di- 
liitish  and 
Lte  with  a 
])Hgh  nut. 
J-cd  before 
lo  remove 
|n,  by  im- 

i  sea-salt; 


for  thU  purpoie  various  methodi  are  employed.  The 
wood  of  tho  olive-treo  is  beautifully  veined,  and  has  an 
agreeable  smell.  It  is  in  great  esteem  with  cabinet- 
mak><rs,  on  account  of  the  tine  polish  of  which  it  is  sus- 
ceptible. 

Olive  Oil  (Oer.  Baumol ;  Fr.  Uuik  cfolieet ;  It.  Olio 


etc.  Depositors  pay  at  the  rate  of  20  gnnl  a  year  for 
every  salma  of  oil  to  the  party  holding  it  In  deposit, 
and  who  is  bound  to  account  for  it.  Tlie  caricatnri  of 
Bari  and  Monopoli  furnish  oils  for  the  consumption  of 
l!ppor  Italy  and  Oerminy,  through  the  medium  of 
Venice  and  Trieste.     Ihey  also  draw  supplies  from 


Suliea;  Sp.  Aceite  dt  Meituruu;  Lat.  Oleum  olharum).  Ilrlndisi  and  Utranto.  The  caricalori  of  Taranto,  of 
The  olive-treo  is  principally  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  Kostcrn  Calabria  or  Hetromarina,  and  of  Western  Co- 
lU  oil.  This  is  an  Insipid,  inodorous,  pain  greenish-  ]  lobria,  tho  principal  of  which  is  Gioja,  funiish  supplies 
yellow  colored,  viscid  fluid,  unctuous  to  the  feel,  in- 1  for  Marseilles,  etc.  Itut  the  cai-<cn/ari  now  mentioned, 
flammable,  incapable  of  combining  with  water,  and  having  no  conveniences  for  clarillcatlon,  produce  only 
nearly  Insoluble  In  alcohol.    It  is  tho  lightest  of  all  tho     "    " 


flxed  oils ;  and  is  largely  used,  particularly  In  Gn^ecc, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  as  an  article  of  food,  and  In 
medicine  and  the  arts.  It  in  also  very  extensively 
used  In  England,  particularly  in  the  woolen  manufac- 
ture. The  ripe  fruit  Is  gathered  in  November,  and  im- 
mediately bruised  in  a  mill,  the  stones  of  which  are  set 


the  thick  oils  used  for  soap-making.  The  oils  of  Sicl- 
ly,  like  those  of  Tunis,  are  too  thin  to  bo  used  singly  in 
tho  making  of  soap ;  and,  being  used  only  for  mixing, 
arc  less  valuable  than  most  others.  A  full  crop  of  oil 
in  the  province  of  Terra  d'Otranto  is  supposed  to  yield 
obout  aOO,000  salme,  or  41 ,066  tuns.  To  facilitate  trans- 
actions,  orders  or  etilulei  are  circulated,  representing 


so  wide  as  not  to  crush  tho  kernel.  The  pulp  is  tlien  quantities  of  oil  deposited  in  the  provincial  cnricniori. 
subjected  to  tho  press  in  bags  made  of  rushes ;  and  by  |  These  orders  are  negotiable,  like  bills  of  exchange,  and 
means  of  a  gentle  pressure,  tho  best,  or  virr/in  oil,  flows  |  are  Indorsed  by  tho  intermediate  holder,  who  receives 
first;  a  second,  and  afterwani  a  third,  quality  of  oil  is  |  their  value  In  cash,  without,  however,  becoming  liablo 
obtained  by  moistening  the  residuum,  breaking  the  for  their  duo  satisfaction.  Tlio  only  rcsponsiblo  par- 
kernels,  etc.,  and  increasing  the  pressure.  When  tho  j  ties  are  the  drawer  and  drawee.  The  latter  Is  obliged 
ft-uit  is  not  sufliciently  ripe,  tho  recent  oil  has  a  bitter- 


ish  taste ;  and  when  too  ripe,  it  Is  fatty.  After  the  oil 
has  been  drawn  it  deposits  a  white,  llbrous,  and  allm- 
minous  matter;  but  when  this  deposition  has  taken 
place,  if  it  be  put  Into  clean  glass  flasks,  it  undergoes 
no  further  alteration ;  the  common  oil  can  not,  how- 
over,  bo  preserved  in  casks  above  one  and  a  half  or  two 
years.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  admixture 
of  poppy  oil. — Thomson's  IHtperuatori).  Tho  best  ol- 
ive oil  is  said  to  be  made  In  tho  vicinity  of  Aix,  In 
France.  That  which  is  bronghl  from  Leghorn,  In  chests 
containing  thirty  bottles,  or  four  English  gallons,  is  also 
very  superior ;  it  Is  known  in  our  markets  by  the  name 
of  Florence  oil,  and  is  used  mostly  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. Olive  oil  is  the  principal  article  of  export  from 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  —  Het  Napi.kh.  Apulia  and 
Calabria  are  the  provinces  most  celebrated  for  its  pro- 
duction. The  Apniian  U  the  best,  and  is  preferred  by 
the  woolen  manufacturers,  by  whom  it  is  extensively 
used,  lly  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  olive  oil  brought 
to  England  is  in  general  imported  from  Italy,  prinoi- 
paily  tVom  Galllpoli,  on  the  cast  coast  of  tho  Gulf  of 
Taranto  (which  see),  whence  it  Is  commonly  known  by 
tho  name  of  Galllpoli  oil.  But  besides  Italy,  Spain, 
Turkey,  tho  Ionian  Islands,  etc.,  send  us  largo  quan- 
tities. 

Oil  Trade  of  Ifaplet.  —  Tho  oils  of  the   kingdom 


to  deliver  the  oil  at  sight  of  the  order,  or  to  hold  It  at 
the  bearer's  disposal,  till  the  10th  of  November  for  the 
caricalori  of  Apulia,  and  till  the  81st  of  December  foi 
those  of  Calabria.  If  tho  contract  be  for  timo,  that  Is, 
fh)m  one  year  to  another,  the  oil  is  usually  placed  at 
tho  purchaser's  command  on  the  1st  of  March,  Pur- 
chases for  time  are  etfected  by  means  of  a  contract, 
wherein  tho  vendor  undertakes  to  deliver  the  oil  by 
tho  end  of  January,  on  receiving  payment  of  the  mon- 
ey ;  but  the  oil,  as  observed  alMive,  is  not  really  at  the 
purchaser's  disposal  l>eforo  tlie  beginning  of  March. 
Honcc,  In  time  bargains,  the  payment  of  tho  money 
precedes  the  delivery  of  tho  oil  more  than  a  month : 
scarce  an  instance  is  on  record  of  nn  engagement  of 
this  sort  having  been  broken,  and  the  order  is  as  read- 
ily ncgotlablo  as  nny  other  security.  In  purchases  of 
oil  at  command,  payment  likewise  precedes  tho  deliv- 
ery of  the  article;  but  in  this  caso  the  advance  is  con- 
Hned  to  the  five  days  necessary  to  transmit  the  order 
to  the  cariealore  where  the  oil  is  kept  for  delivery.  The 
oil  remains  in  the  caricatore  under  tho  care  and  respons- 
ibility of  the  vendor,  to  l>e  delivered  on  demand  to  the 
bearer  of  the  order,  free  of  all  costs  and  charges  what- 
ever for  tho  first  year;  but  for  every  successive  year 
from  25  to  30  grains  per  salma  are  charged  for  keeping, 
ond  for  renewal  of  warranty.  (Wo  are  indebted  for 
these  details  to  a  verj'  valuoblo  Keport  by  Mr.  Steel, 


of  Naples  are  produced  in  Apulia,  from  Bari  to  its  '  British  vice-consul  at  Galllpoli,  and  to  a  brochure  of 
southern  extremity,  the  Capo  di  Leuca,  a  district  com- !  M.  Slillenet,  entitled  Coup  tie  (Ed  sur  le  Rot/aume  dt 


prising  the  territories  which  export  from  Gallipoli  and 
Taranto;  and  in  Calabria  from  liossano,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Taranto,  across  to  Gioja.     The  whole  coast  from 


Sap'.es.    Naples,  1832.)    for  the  trade  in  Olive  oil,  see 
article  Oii.s. 
Olive-tree.    The  wood  of  the  olive  is  heavy,  com- 


Gjoja  as  far  as  Gaeta  is  covered  with  olive-trees.  !  pact,  fine-grained,  and  )>rilllant.  The  sop-wood  is 
They  are  also  abundant  in  tho  Aiiruzzi  and  the  Terra  I  white  and  soft,  anil  the  heart-wood  hard,  brittle,  and 
di  Lavora ;  bnt  Apulia  and  Calabria  furnish  liy  far  the   of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  tint,  with  the  pith  nearly  ef- 


greatcst  quantity  of  oil.  The  principal  magazines,  or 
caricalori,  for  oil,  are  at  Gallipoli  and  Giojn.  Gol- 
lipoli  supplies  England,  Holland,  the  north  of  Europe, 
and,  in  short,  all  those  countries  that  require  tho  most 
perfectly  purified  oil.     It  Is  clarified  fu  the  highest  de. 


faced,  as  In  the  box.  It  Is  employed  by  cabinet-mak- 
ers to  inlay  the  finer  species  of  wood,  which  are  con- 
trasted with  it  in  color,  nnil  to  form  light  articles  of 
ornament,  such  as  dress'ng-cases,  snuff-boxes,  etc.  Tho 
wood  of  file  roots,  vliicji  is  agreeably  marbled.  Is  pre- 


greo  by" merely  keeping  It  In  cisterns  h(dlowed  out  of  !  ferred  to  that  of  tlio  trunk.  On  account  of  its  hard, 
the  rock  on  which  tho  town  Is  built.  The  voyages  It  ness  and  durability,  tho  wood  of  tills  tree  was  anclent- 
hos  to  perform  being  long,  it  is  put  into  casks'  so  well  ly  used  for  the  hinges  of  doors ;  and,  before  metal  be- 
constructed  that  it  frequently  arrives  at  Petersburg  in  '  came  common,  it  was  selected  by  the  Greeks  for  the 
the  heat  of  summer  without  the  least  waste  or  leakage  I  linages  of  their  gods.  From  Its  resinous  and  oleagin- 
an  advantage  attributed  to  tho  seasoning  of  the   mis  nature,  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  exceedingly  coin- 


staves,  which,  beforo  they  arc  put  together,  are  well 
aoaked  in  soa-water. 

Tho  oil  received  into  the  cisterns  in  Galllpoli,  either 

belongs  to  the  proprietor,  who  buys  it  of  the  plimtor,  or    

is  received  in  deposit  on  account  of  some  other  party,  i  bitter  principle,  and  is  regarded  as  tonio  and  febrifu- 

who  gets  a  receipt  (Aii;iie«odin«j(7jOiino)  specifying  tiie  j  gal.     Tho  leaves  are  astringent. 

quantity  of  the  oil  received  on  his  account,  its  quality,  |     The  olives  are  first  bruised  by  a  mill-stone,  auffi- 


liiistililc,  and  Imrns  as  well  before  as  after  It  is  dried. 
There  exudes  from  its  wood  n  gum,  which  is  sometimes 
sold  for  gum-clemi.  There  is  also  extracted  froin  this 
tree  a  substance  called  olivine.     The  bark  contains  a 


OMN 


1472 


OPA 


clently  hard  ai  not  to  break  tlia  kerneli,  and  are  then 
put  into  lacks  of  coane  linen,  featlier-grau,  or  or  wool, 
and  suljcctcd  to  heavy  presaure,  by  which  means  the 
most  fluid  and  the  best  liqucr  is  forced  out,  and  is  call- 
ed virgin  oil.  It  is  received  into  vessels  half  tilled  with 
water,  from  which  it  is  skimmed,  and  put  into  tubs, 
barrels,  and  bottles  for  use.  Several  coarser  kinds  of 
oil  are  afterward  obtained,  by  adding  hot  water  to  the 
bruised  fruit.  The  best  olive  oil  is  of  a  bright  pale- 
amber  color,  without  smell,  and  bland  to  the  taste. 
Kept  warm,  it  becomes  rancid,  and  at  38°  Fahr.  it 
congeals.  It  is  of  the  same  nature  as  all  mild  ox- 
pressed  vegetable  oils ;  of  these  the  most  fluid  are  pre- 
ferred, and  hence  the  oIIh  of  olives  and  of  almonds  arc 
those  chiefly  used  in  medicine.  One  of  the  most  es- 
teemed kinds  of  oil  is  that  produced  at  Aix  (^Uuita  d'Aix 
en  Provence').  Florence  oil  is  also  a  line  kind,  imported 
from  Leghorn  in  flasks  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  not- 
work,  formed  of  the  leaves  of  u  monocotylcdonous  plant. 
These  are  the  kinds  of  olive  oil  in  moat  frequent  use  at 
the  table  fur  salads  (hence  they  are  called  Salad  oiU). 
Lttcea  oil  is  imported  in  jars  liolding  about  nineteen 
gallons  each,  (itnoa  oil  is  a  lino  kind.  GaHipoU  oil 
is  imported  in  casks,  and  constitutes  the  largest  por- 
tion of  the  olive  oil  imported  into  England.  Sicily  oil 
is  of  an  inferior  quality.  Spanish  oil  is  the  worst. 
The  foot  deposited  by  olive  nil  i»  used  for  ailing  ma- 
chinery, under  the  name  of  Dropiiingt  of  Sweet  oiJ. 

Another  important  advantage  aflbrded  by  this  tree 
is  its  fruit  in  a  pickled  3tate.  It  is  gathered  unripe, 
and  sull'ercd  to  steep  in  wutur  for  some  days,  and  is  aft- 
erward put  into  a  lye  of  water  and  barilla,  or  kali,  with 
the  ashes  of  olive-stones,  or  with  lime.  It  is  then  put 
up  in  earthen  bottles,  or  in  barrels,  with  salt  and  water, 
and  in  this  state  is  ready  for  use.  Olives  are  eaten  be- 
fore, as  well  as  after  meals,  and  are  believed  to  excite 
appetite  and  promote  digestion.  The  flnest  kind  of 
prepared  fruit  is  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of 
Picholine$,  after  one  Pichulini,  an  Italian,  who  flrst  dis- 
covered the  art  of  pickling  olives.  The  fruit  of  the 
olive  is  of  a  pleasant  taste,  and  is  eaten  by  the  mod- 
em Greeks  during  Lent,  in  its  ripe  state,  without  any 
preparation,  except  with  the  addition  of  a  little  pep- 
per, salt,  and  oil.  From  the  value  of  its  products,  in 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  aside  from  other  consider- 
ations, the  culture  of  the  olive  strongly  claims  the  at- 
tention of  the  American  agriculturist,  and  the  trial 
should  be  made  in  every  place  where  its  failure  is  not 
certain,  and  for  this  purpose  young  grafted  trees  of 
hardy  and  choice  varieties  should  be  obtained  from 
Europe,  and  the  formation  of  nurseries  immediately 
begun.  A  portion  of  Texas,  Louisiana,  the  islands  of 
Georgia,  and  chosen  exposures  of  the  interior  of  the 
last-named  State,  as  well  ns  of  some  of  the  Western 
States,  California,  or  of  Oregon,  will  lie  the  scene  of 
this  species  of  culture,  if  ever  attended  with  success  in 
North  America. — Uiiownk's  Trees  of  America. 

Omnium,  a  term  used  at  the  I'^nglish  Stock  Ex- 
change, to  express  the  aggregate  value  of  the  different 
stocks  in  which  a  loan  is  now  usually  funded.  Thus, 
in  the  English  loan  of  ^£36,000,000  contracted  for  in 
June,  1815,  the  omnium  consisted  of  £130  3  per  cent,  re- 
duced annuities,  £44  3  per  cent,  consols,  and  £10  4  per 
cent,  annuities,  fur  each  £100  subscribed.  The  loan 
was  contracted  fur  on  the  14th  of  June,  wlien  the  prices 
of  the  above  stocks  were — 3  per  cent,  reduced,  54;  3 
per  cent,  consols,  &5;  4  per  cents.,  70;  hence  the  par- 
cels of  stock  given  for  £100  advanced,  were  worth — 

t    I.    i. 

X130  reduced,  At  r>4 TO    4    0 

£44  consols,  at  bS 24    4    0 

XIO  4  per  cents.,  at  TO .TOO 

Together 101    8    o' 

which  would  be  the  value  of  the  omnium,  or  £1  8<. 
per  cent,  premium,  independently  of  any  discount  for 
prompt  payment. 
Onion  (Ger.  Zwiebelf  Fr.  Oignoat  It.  CipoUa;  Sp. 


Cebollai  Rum.  Luk),  a  well-known  bulboi^s  plant  (_AlH- 
urn  Ctpa,  Linn.)  cultivated  all  over  Europe  and  the  U. 
States  for  cuiinary  purposes.  The  Strasburg,  Span- 
ish, and  Portuguese  varieties  are  the  most  esteemed. 

Ontario,  a  lake  of  New  York  and  Canada,  eastern- 
most and  smallest  in  extent  of  the  Ave  great  lakes  of 
North  America.  It  is  between  48°  10'  and  44°  N.  lat., 
and  between  70°  and  88°  W.  long.  It  receives  Niagara 
Kiver,  the  great  outlet  of  the  upper  lakes,  In  its  south- 
western part,  and  has  its  outlet  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  in  its  northeastern  part,  in  which,  immediately 
below  the  lake.  Is  tho  cluster  denominated  the  "  Thou- 
sand Islands."  Its  shape  approaches  to  a  long  and 
narrow  ellipse,  being  190  miles  long,  and  6&  wide  in  its 
widest  part,  and  about  480  miles  in  circumference.  It 
is  in  some  places  over  600  feet  deep,  so  that  its  bottom 
is  considerably  below  tho  level  of  the  Atlantic.  Its  sur- 
face is  830  feet  below  the  level  of  Lake  Erie,  and  134^ 
feet  above  tide-water.  In  every  part  it  has  sufficient 
depth  of  water  for  tho  largest  vessels.  It  has  many 
good  harbors,  and  is  rarely  frozen  excepting  in  shallow 
parts  near  tho  shore.  The  principal  rivers  which  enter 
it  from  the  southern  side  are  the  Genesee,  Oswego,  and 
lilack  rivers,  and  a  large  number  of  creeks.  The  Day 
of  Quinte  is  a  long  and  irregular  l)ody  of  water  on  its 
eastern  part,  which  receives  a  considerable  river,  tho 
outlet  of  several  small  lakes,  and  liurlington  Bay  is  in 
its  western  part.  Both  these  bays  are  in  Canada.  It 
has  several  important  places  on  its  shores,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  Kingston,  Toronto,  and  Coburg,  in 
Canada;  and  Oswego,  Sackett's  Harbor,  Port  Genesee, 
or  Charlotte,  in  the  United  States.  It  is  subject  to 
violent  storms  aud  heavy  swells.  It  is  connected  with 
tho  Erie  Canal  by  the  Oswego  Canal,  aud  from  thenco 
the  Erie  Canal  forms  a  navigable  communication  with 
the  Hudson  Kiver,  a  distance  of  209  miles;  and  much 
of  the  trade  of  New  York  for  tho  West  passes  through 
it  and  through  the  Welland  Canal,  whicli  is  28  miles 
long,  with  27  locks,  and  admits  the  passage  of  tho 
largest  vessels  which  navigate  the  lakes.  This  canal 
commences  at  Sherbroke,  near  the  mouth  of  Grand 
Kiver,  on  Lake  Erie,  and  terminates  at  Port  Dalhou- 
sie,  on  Lake  Ontario,  nine  miles  west  of  Niagara  vil- 
lage. Its  entrance  being  a  considerable  distance  weftt 
of  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie,  it  is  open  earlier  than  the 
Erie  Canal  at  Buffalo,  where  the  ice  often  accumulates 
in  the  spring.  The  Rideau  Canal  forms  a  navigable 
communication  with  the  Ottawa  Kiver,  120  miles.  It 
has  15  light-houses  on  the  American  sliore,  and  18  on 
the  Canadian  side. — See  Lakks,  Commerce  of. 

Onyx  (Ger.  Onyx;  Fr.  Onit,  Onice;  Sp.  Onigue; 
Lat.  Onyx).  Any  stone  exhibiting  layers  of  two  or 
more  colors  strongly  contrasted  is  called  an  onyx,  as 
banded  jasper,  chalcedony,  etc.,  but  more  particularly 
the  latter,  when  it  is  marked  with  white,  and  stratified 
with  opaque  and  translucent  lines.  But  tho  Oriental 
onyx  is  considered  a  substance  consisting  of  two  or 
more  layers  or  bands  of  distinct  and  different  colors. 
A  sard,  or  sardoine,  having  a  layer  of  white  upon  it, 
would  be  called  an  onyx ;  and  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  layers  it  would  bo  distinguished  as  an  onyx  with 
three  or  more  bands.  Some  of  tho  antique  engravings 
are  upon  onyxes  of  four  bands. — Mawe's  Treatise  on 
Diamonds,  etc. 

Opal  (Ger.  Opal;  Fr.  Opak;  It.  Opah;  Sp.  Opalo, 
Piedra  iris;  Poil.Opala;  hat.Opalus),ii  stone,  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties,  found  in  different  parts  of 
Europe,  particularly  in  Hungary,  and  in  the  East  In- 
dies, etc.  When  flrst  dug  out  of  the  earth  it  is  soft, 
but  it  hardens  and  diminishes  in  bulk  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  Tho  opal  is  always  amorphous ;  fracture  con- 
choidal ;  commonly  somewhat  transparent.  Hardness 
varies  considerably.  Specific  gravity  from  1'968  to 
2'54.  The  lowness  of  its  specific  gravity  in  some  cases 
is  to  bo  ascribed  to  accidental  cavities  which  the  stone 
contains.  These  are  sometimes  filled  with  drops  of 
water.    Some  specimens  of  opal  have  the  property  of 


OH 


1478 


am 


Sp.  Opalo, 
I,  of  which 
t  parts  of 
J  East  In- 
it  is  soft, 
xposure  to 
icture  con- 
Hardness 
1-968  to 
some  cases 
1  the  stone 
1  drops  of 
roperty  of 


emitting  various  colored  rays,  with  «  particular  olTUl. 
gcncy,  wlieii  placed  bctucon  the  eye  and  the  llKlit, 
The  upaU  which  possess  this  property  are  I'llstiiigulah- 
ed  l>y  lapidaries  by  the  epithet  Oi-ienlali  anil  often,  by 
mineralogists,  by  the  epithet  nubilii.  This  property 
rendered  the  stone  much  esteemed  by  the  ancients. — 
Tiiomson'h  Chem'utrji ;  see  also  ruNY,  lliit.  Nal.  lib. 
xxxvii.  c.  (I,  where  there  are  some  very  curious  details 
as  to  this  stone. 

Opium  (Qer.  i1/oAMa/7;  Vt.Opinm)  \t.Oppio;  Sp. 
and  I'ort.  (>j>io,'  Lat.  Opiumi  Arab.  Ufyooni  Hind. 
I'fcim ;  Turk,  ifadjoon),  the  concrete  Juice  of  the  white 
puppy  (_I'apaoer  lommferum'),  which  is  most  probably  a 


oly  of  the  governmaiK,  mM  niii  in  Pmk  Mttii  tiiflwy. 
It  was  tint  Imporlud  iiilii  I'IiImh  \if  llin  I'lirtiiKUese  | 
but  up  to  the  y<«r  I7<i»  itiH  Hli«(l«  i|U«ttllly  Imporled 
did  not  exceed  rroiii  |IHI  lit  'm  itmln  Nllllllitll^.  Tlio 
East  India  I'oilipitlll'  uimmwmii  ll«  liiipiirliilluii  In 
177:l-'4i  ami  lit  17*)  SMmll  ildjiOM  tut  IM  sole  were 
eataldished  a  llltlu  miiUI)  u(  Mttimi,  ttlK  Ifailn  ron- 
tliiuod  to  inireata  f«)i|(||y  fmm  UliUn  llMlll  l7KI,  when 
large  Kiigllah  ahlpa  fMU)|il  H  )iriilllMlili'  Id  «nc((«r  near 
W  harnpoa,  fur  (ifleun  MMMlllt*  wt  A  tiMiK,  •filing  opium. 
In  18()0  its  bhIu  lioit  rlauH  („  4\„,m  ',||MI«I  t'||c«M|  but  »fr> 
cently  its  furllisr  imporlwlimt  UlUi  <  lijiirt  4*its  pfolillH 
itod.     Since  that  iwrbiij  ||mi  mtmiH  sHcccods  the  le- 


P"l'l'y  y.'  "P"""  'iimnticruaij,  niiiwu  u  uiuai,  |iiuuauij>  it  i  uuu.     oiiica  uiai  iwF)iii)  iiMi  nimijitim  »H((ceil»  the  le- 
nativo  of  Asia,  though  now  found  growing  wild  in  the  j  gal  importer  j  and  ^MmnU  |Im<  Umimimiiill  h  iitt  Ion- 


southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  in  England.   Opium 
Is  chiefly  prepared  In  India,  Turkey,  and  Persia;  but 
the  white  poppy  is  extensively  cultivated  in  France 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  on  account  of  its  capsules, 
and  of  t)ie  useful  bland  oil  obtained  from  its  seeds.    It 
has  also  been  cultivated,  and  opium  made,  in  En- 
i;land ;  but  there  is  very  little  probability  of  Us  ever 
being  raised  here  to  any  considerable  extent.     The 
poppy  is  an  annual  plant,  with  a  stalk  rising  to  the 
lieight  of  three  or  four  feet;  its  leaves  resemble  those 
of  tho  lettuce,  and  its  flower  ha*  the  appearance  of  a 
tulip.     When  at  its  full  growth,  an  incision  is  made 
in  the  top  of  the  plant,  from  which  there  issues  a 
white  milky  Juice,  which  soon  hardens,  and  is  scraped 
oR'  the  plants,  and  wrought  into  cakes.    In  India,  these 
are  covered  with  the  petals  of  the  plant  to  prevent  their 
slicking  together,  and  in  this  situation  are  dried,  and 
packed  in  chests  lined  with  hides  and  covered  with 
gunny,  each  containing  forty  cakes,  and  weighing  two 
maunils,  or  149]  lbs. ;  they  are  exported  in  this  state 
to  tho  places  where  the  opium  is  consumed.     Turkey 
opium  is  in  flat  pieces,  covered  with  loaves,  and  the 
reddish  capsules  of  some  species  of  rumex,  which  is 
considered  an  indication  of  its  goodness,  as  the  inferior 
kinds  have  none  of  these  capsules  adhering  to  them. 
According  to  Dr.  A,  T.  Thomson,  Turkey  opium  has  a 
peculiar  strong,  heavy,  narcotic  odor,  and  a  bitter  taste, 
accompanied  by  a  sensation  of  acrid  heat,  or  biting  on 
the  tongue  and  lips,  if  it  be  well  chewed.     Its  color, 
when  good,  is  a  reddish  brown,  or  fawn  color ;  its  tex- 
ture compact  and  uniform.    Its  specilio  gravity  is  1-336. 
When  soft,  it  is  tenacious ;  but  when  long  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  becomes  hard,  breaks  with  a  uniform  shin- 
ing fracture,  is  pulverulent,  and  affords  a  yellowish 
brown  powder.     East  Indian  opium  has  a  strong  em- 
pyreumatic  smell,  but  not  much  of  tho  peculiar  nar- 
cotic, heavy  odor  of  tho  Turkey  opium ;  the  taste  is 
more  bitter,  and  equally  nauseous,  but  it  has  less  acri- 
mony,   1 1  agrees  with  the  Turkey  opium  in  other  sensi- 
ble qualities,  except  that  its  color  is  blacker,  and  its 
texture  less  plastic,  although  it  is  as  tenacious.    Good 
Turkey  opium  has  been  found  to  yield  nearly  three 
times  the  quantity  of  morphia,  or  of  tho  peculiar  prin- 
ciple of  tho  drug,  that  is  yielded  by  East  Indian  opi- 
um.    Opium  is  regarded  as  bad  when  it  is  very  soft, 
greasy,  light,  friable,  of  an  intensely  black  color,  or  mix- 
ed with  many  impurities.    A  weak  or  empyreumatic 
odor,  a  slightly  bitter  or  acrid,  or  a  sweetish  taste,  or 
the  power  of  marking  a  brown  or  black  continuous 
streak  when  drawn  across  paper,  are  all  symptoms  of 
inferior  opium. — Dispetuatory.     The  raising  of  opium 
is  a  very  hazardous  business ;  tho  poppy  being  a  deli- 
cate plant,  peculiarly  liable  to  injury  from  insects, 
wind,  hail,  or  unseasonable  rain.    The  produce  seldom 
agrees  with  the  true  average,  but  commonly  runs  in 
extremes ;  while  one  cultivator  is  disappointed,  another 
reaps  immense  gain.    One  season  does  not  pay  the  la- 
bor of  the  culture ;  another,  peculiarly  fortunate,  en- 
riches all  the  cultivators.    This  circumstanoo  is  well 
suited  to  allure  jnan,  ever  confident  of  good  fortune. — 
Colbbrookb's  Hiubandry  of  Bengal. 

Tke  Opium  TVode.— This  drug  is  chiefly  grown  in 
BritUh  India,  whert  it  has  long  been  »  (trict  monop- 
6A 


ger  conducted  In  |Im>  v<i«u|aiif  i\w  l',(t«t  I  ((did  Company, 
it  is  extensively  cMUiv»(«d  miift  lliclr  (wi.nopolt,  and 
sold  by  them  tu  prlv«t4i  ifmWt*,  \,</  i,\m»  It  la  Inlfo- 
Uuccd  into  the  prullil<ll)'d  lim^lixU  i/f  ('lillfit< 

Coiuuinplioi,  will  Tiwln  i/liiiliim  in  tUiii.-OpUm 
is  pretty  oxtuiiaiv>.'|y  iiaw|,  liMlll  ttn  «  tlWsllCHliirr  and 
in  smoking,  in  'iufkuy  ftltii  llMtti  l/ld  Hn  tjtont  con- 
sumption  is  in  t'liin*  mn\  tlitt  mmmnUllis  (•(.(mtrlei., 
where  the  liuliit  of  SHtukllllj  it  Unit  hfiiiim  Hllfiust  uhl- 
versttl.  Tho  VMnmu  liiiil  iil  p^fiUtt  tll«  miiU  upluin ; 
and  l)y  this  process  the  iH)|Mirltlf*,  ffmiitln  unil  Rum- 
my matter,  are  sopsrutflrt,  tout  (lie  mmMm  extrart 
only  is  reserved  fur  itsu,  'J  Ima  liCfliOfcd,  ((l«  iIKik  loses 
its  ordinary  strong  And  urfi'Mait'x  nnmmiU'  uiiiit,  and 
has  even  a  ft-agraiit  and  ^nmMf  mfmm,  A  matt 
ball  of  it,  inserted  in  »  iHrgH  ¥,miim  |il|i«  »lt((  snme 
combustible  matter,  is  Ilgh|4<i1,  m{  il(M  mnitlHit  pro- 
ceeds to  inhale  four  ur  livM  wMtf»,  ^llcti  lie  lies  do»n 
and  resigns  himself  tu  lit*  (\fmm»,  MtUMi  Hfe  said  to 
have  no  inconaicluritblii  rwHiMMHiim  l**  (he  wtisailons 
produced  by  inlmliitg  tliu  ()»yij  it(  m^,  'f  ((o«,  who 
do  not  carry  the  iiiriulgHim  Ut  ti«WM  (Ui  m^,  It  Is  said, 
experience  any  \inA  Blfentit  ffuMI  U.  MlH«--tc(itln  of  tlia 
supplies  of  opium  fur  tjtti  i:m)<>UI(lt)li<H«l  ut  rldni*  hate 
always  been  derived  from  IpmIw,  »  w»W|(«H(tltply  small 
quantity  only  lieiiig  Aufivmi  fmm  'fiimt,  the  (fade 
has  always  been  c<mtr»lw(Ml,  (lltt  iMmiM\utt  ut  (ho 
drug  having  ^^mn  prohllilKiit  liy  thf  ChJHi^se  gorern- 
ment.  Until  about  l*l<»  (||«4  tiiKin  ll*1  mil  MltHHed 
much  attention,  or  hamm  nf  »Hy  ittf  «fc«t  Import- 
ance, but  it  has  since  iiu«)|  v«ry  i(lim\f  (■*(*Hd«(l,  «Md 
has  been  sinco  XHM  of  Hist-iviltt  W*li»«(|((C«c«;  The 
trade  was  at  llrat  carriud  oil  i.  (•  Wh»m(j«»,  About  Hf(«Btt 
miles  below  Canton ;  nu^t  ,ii  ktm'mt,  ^IWHCfi  ft  was 
driven  by  the  exwolioMs  uf  (It*  l'»»KM(j«i's('i  «(i(1  (here- 
after in  tlie  Hay  of  lUnin,  Ihff  (Im*  lipkm  is  kept  m 
board  ships,  connnonly  <;»||«)  rmmm^  nhjps,  of  which 
there  are  often  ten  or  ttCBlvc  lyJHtf  UmlUpf  Hi  fthchoC. 
But  latterly  the  trade  \m  imii  imtfm  m  «tl  it\atig  ths 
southeast  coast  of  Cliii)»,  liy  HWm»  t)f  A  iit)(<ci«s  of  f«s(- 
sailing  vessels  called  »' liljjipefii/'  Iwiji  «jiipf«s8ty  for 
the  trade  and  strongly  »rMt«l,  Th«  Sa1««  Afe  tnmliy 
eflected  by  the  English  APld  AfHCrieAH  «B«Ht»  1(1  t'«(l'- 
ton,  who  give  orders  fuf  the  (Iclivsf/  W  (h«  (/plum  j 
which,  on  producing  tl)e  OFdec,  is  hAHilwt  i/tsf  (o  (ha 
Chinese  smuggler,  who  chihbs  »hhi(J  side  A(  (lit<ht  to  re- 
ceive it.  Frequently,  however,  Hw  mmijSukf  pHrellAses 
the  opium  on  his  own  AccaiiMt,  fmyilltf  t'llf  U  Ull  (h«  spot 
in  silver;  it  being  a  rule  of  tim  tmw,  m¥tf  lUpMleA 
firom,  to  receive  the  money  liefiirs  Hie  (Jf«(J  in  (l«liy««d, 
During  the  first  ton  ye^Vs  of  li'M  (/fCS^Hl  HvMUff  tho 
exports  of  opium  from  IndJA  tn  IMim  At((fAga«1  About 
2C0O  chests,  of  Utik  pounds  ench.-  Hot  »(M  (he  ihlto^ 
duction  of  Maiwa  opiun)  ifdu  (Ne  H(Al1t«<t«  ot  Ufimhty 
and  Calcutta,  tlie  cxijurls  IwgHtt  f»{Miif  (#  itlPfeAse; 

According  to  the  I  ruml  itf" In'lk  ^VMnilllB,  0«tO^ 
ber,  1865,  the  opium  si^ids  fur  tim  lfV8  ("'^^i"!!  f^^* 
were  as  follows : 

134»-'B0.,. Chests Bo(d,  Sft,8«>S,„,{»f»(*«di*,»i,«ijnoO  ItS; 

1S60-'51...         '*  IH,m:,,,       "        S3i§()(),«W)  " 

1S62    ...      "       m,m::,,     »     m,HH,m  >•  , 

18IM      ...        "         80,<«i,,,,       »       k»4(*»«  " 

ISM    ...      't       **,8W,,,,     »     m«,om  " 

The  price  paid  to  (ba  «Hl(iv»t«r  h  »t)»«(  tt8.  iMO  A  eti«a(< 


OPI 


1474 


OPI 


Am  AdooiTNT  or  Tn  (jiiANTiTitr  Ann  Piion  (iiini,iiDii<« 
FttAcTioNa)  or  Tin  lurrKUK^T  M'KtuKH  or  I.ait  Jiii>ia 
(IriiiM  iMi-OHTiiii  INTO  China  riicmi  tiikj^kaion  IhiiI.  ImiT, 

1M1WN  TO  Tim  HllAaON  HHT-IM'if),    WIIKN  Tin  Thaii*  wai 
IHTIIlUrTIIII. 


rnm  April  III  to  Manh  9UI. 


WI6-MI.... 
IHII-MS.... 
Wl»-' !».... 
lNIS-'!(0. ... 
ItUlU-'il.... 

iHjU'n. . . . 

1SM-'«S. ... 
I«.'S-'M.... 
IHM-'U. . . . 

lattiu'M. . . . 

18W2I.... 
1847  'iW. . . . 
1H28_'W.... 
li)W-'8n.... 
tSIW-'flt..., 
ISBI-'iW. . . , 

isaa-'BA.... 

18Sa-'84. . . , 
IHtM-.'!U>. . . , 

isso-'ao.... 

IMM-'IIT. . . 
IHR.'U... 


Nankar  of 

Valatia 

rbaila. 

UulUn. 

H.'ill) 

8.«0T,<MU 

B.Attl) 

t,9Ui,itM 

4M) 

i.lbJ.iW 

4<ino 

MM9M0 

4,110 

8.4UI),(IUU 

4.  OSS 

8,ai4.«IM 

n.H'il 

T.DH^.VSO 

T,(Wi 

8,6ir..lU0 

8,<Mt 

T,6IU.IM6 

U,6il 

l.nm.tuii 

»,««;» 

».6IU.0t« 

ll.tlUft 

10,4«.«TB 

i:i.i8'i 

I'iftBMIt) 

14.<KI<) 

li,(6I,IBI 

ISJ(MI 

ll.Ui4'.t«U 

IU,MI 

10,«II1,I)06 

mum 

IMIKMW 

lll.TMO 

IHIIMI>4I) 

iar>!4 

V.HOO.U'J 

l(l,7*« 

!;..;..>ii  s7!) 

ll.NIO 

l4^T.aii<) 

w,a4'i 

I0,N8»,IM 

Coi^cnlivn  of  Opium  in  181)!).— Opium  liu  ilway* 
been  pruhibited  is  China,  ami  coiiie<|iiciiUy  iU  iin|H>r- 
taliON  lias  always  Ijcen  loolicd  upon  as  a  sinuKgliuK 
apecuUUoB.  There  would  seem,  however,  lo  Ite  guud 
grounds  for  thinliing  that  the  prohibition  of  the  impor- 
tation of  opium  was  all  along  intended  to  bo  more  aj>- 
parent  than  real.  At  all  events,  it  is  certain  tliat  the 
trade  graw  gradually  up,  frnm  a  small  beginning,  tjj 
be  one  of  great  extent  and  value ;  and  it  is  contrudii- 
tory  anil  absurd  to  suppose  that  this  should  liawo  buen 
the  case  bad  it  encountered  any  considerable  opposi- 
tion from  the  Chinese  authorities.  Uut  the  truth  is, 
that  these  funclionarios,  instead  of  opposing  the  trade, 
or  even  merely  conniving  at  it,  were  parties  to  ila  being 
openly  carried  on,  and  received  certain  regulated  and 
large  fees  uii  all  the  opium  that  was  imported.  It  ban 
even  been  alleged  that  a  part  of  tliese  fees  foxnd  Jts 
way  into  the  Imperial  treasury  at  I'eldn,  tbouf^i  that 
Is  more  doubtful.  The  appetite  for  the  drug  inrreased 
with  the  increasing  means  of  gratifying  it ;  and  llierc 
appeared  to  be  no  assignalile  llniils  to  the  quantity 
that  might  be  disposed  of  in  the  empire.  The  rajMd 
extension  of  the  trade  seems  at  length  to  have  drawn 
tbe  attention  of  the  court  of  Tekin  to  the  sul>ject.  We 
doubt,  however,  notwithstanding  what  has  been  al- 
leged to  Hie  contrary,  whether  a  sense  of  the  injurious 
conseiiuenccB  of  liie  use  of  the  drug  had  much  to  do 
in  the  matter.  This,  indeed,  is  a  port  of  the  sulject  as 
to  which  there  exists  a  great  deal  of  misappreheitsioo  ; 
and  we  are  well  assured  that,  provided  it  bo  not  car- 
ried to  excess,  the  use  of  opium  is  not  more  injurious 
than  that  of  wine,  brandy,  or  other  stimulants.  I'be 
alarm  of  the  Chinese  government  was  probably  not  so 
much  about  the  health  or  murals  of  its  subjects  as 
ubout  their  bullion!  They  are  still  haunted  by  the 
same  visionary  fears  of  being  drained  of  a  due  supply 
of  gold  and  silver,  that  formerly  haunted  the  people  of 
this  country.  The  imports  of  opium  having  increased 
so  rapidly  as  to  be  no  longer  balanced  by  the  ex|M>rts 
of  tea  and  sillc,  sycee  silver  began  also  to  be  exporuii ! 
The  paternal  government  of  Peliin  miglit  have  tolerated 
what  are  called  the  demoralizing  effects  of  opium  with 
stoical  indifference,  but  the  exportation  of  silver  was 
not  a  thing  to  be  endured.  It  is,  however,  only  fair 
to  state  that  the  Chinese  statesmen  are  not  all  of  the 
school  of  )hin  and  Gee,  and  that  some  of  them  appear 
to  have  taken  an  enlightened  view  of  the  question,  and 
to  have  emancipated  themselves  from  the  prejudices 
that  still  influence  the  minority  of  their  colleagues. 
The  statesmen  in  question  contended  that,  whether  the 
use  of  the  drug  were  Injurious  or  not,  the  taete  for  it 
was  too  deeply  seated  and  too  widely  diffused  to  admit 
of  its  effectual  prohiliition ;  and  they,  therefore,  pro- 


liuawd  lk»l  H*  tmp»t1tii4km  ohttnM  lif  Irgatl/od,  sulject- 
iiig  (1,  at  tim  mmi  (IW*,  tn  »  fi»i»vy  duty.  There  can 
luH  tm  «  4MtM  ItnU  tUi»  #«*  <>H<  prirprt  mode  of  deal- 
ing »tlb  ttui  mi^ti,  in  Ihf  «>nil,  however,  the  gov- 
emoMMit  i4  ('»*»«,  itltintma*^  liy  nnfonnded  Ihcuries 
as  to  llw  »»)(»»-#*(«*»rt»««#a/-|  nflM  export  of  the  preriuus 
UMIaia,  '■■*mf  Ui  » lUlt^futt  nmflnnion,  and  resolved  to 
put  a  »<«J*  («  «>**  li»tHf,  ffii  KMrtifT  had  this  rcsolu- 
llun  IxwM  §4i/i/t»iit  tUntt  »  tn*t»i  extraordinary  change 
ai>p««rs  U)  )*«♦•  ^»h*ft  tAltfti  l«  (he  conduct  of  the  Chi- 
u«s«  mlburilUf*  i  »h4  iMr  Mranl  mnllon  seems  to  have 
wholly  itmmM  lUtm,  'th*y  wm  fiecame  as  prcclpi- 
tat«  «4i4  ywfcfWH  #«  Ihff  ttit4  pffthmnty  Imcn  slow  and 
ilriuKMiiwtj  «m4  w««I»M  m.  all  haiiards  to  attempt 
forcibly  tit  fttl.  'ttmn  ttl*  U»Af.  To  acrompllah  this, 
all  fotiiy^mt*  mufii,  \ti  ^nuh,  l*ilf»,  prohibited  from 
Uaviwg  i'mtUm  i  m>4  rmnfmUtity  measures  wore  at  the 
sanw  iimtt  fmtrifA  In  fiff  fC/WpijIIng  them  to  deliver 
up  tlw  »n>i»m  itt  iMf  fiwwesslon.  How  the  affair 
might  bav*  m^4,  ttnA  th«  ^.ngllsh  at  Canton  been 
i«ft  to  itut  ^■l^^^i^n  »f  iMf  wwrt  jftdgment  in  this  crisis, 
it  i«  imtitmitU  Ut  mf^  imi  ««  have  been  assured  by 
Ibow  o«i  wUtmt  <itmttli*-M»l>nntn  dLaposed  to  rely,  that 
tt*ey  tmM  mtM  ittMmMy  Nave  snrceeded  in  getting 
uut  of  (t  )iiUU  AWWJ(*ri»*>*«iy  ((»()<•  ?o!<«.  Instead,  how- 
aver,  «f  t^iiuK  (ttf  ih^fttiH-Ufo,  Ihfy  had  to  act  in  obc- 
diwM'A-  ll,l^t^luf4^f|>^4Mt.  >'.II)<>(,  chief  superintendent 
of  lite  UriHttt  (ftt^  itt  Cmttnn  j  and  he,  while  under 
i-miDtritiht,  #»»#*■/*!/<  (ty  cowUnemenl  to  the  factory, 
a>mu>»tt4n4  ittt  lUfttpinnt  >*(«wglng  lo  British  subjects 
l«  Iw  Kiv>nt  M)' ««  Mm  fttf  A*htety  to  the  Chinese  nu- 
tboritl*»;  4*-'imittfi,  M  ftm  same  time,  that  "failing 
the  nunvHiUf  t4  th*'  m»M  i,t,1tim,"  (he  Urilish  govcrn- 
nwHt  titmtM  **»■  frw*  "i4  i»l»  wiMsnres  of  rcsponaibillty 
or  li*l4tUj/  itt  ffiifmtt  >/(  MriOsh-owned  opium." 

W*  4»  ft>4  MKitm'  ffi  nltft  nny  opinion  as  to  the 

niifA'«»)ily  #r  pi^i     ,4  (hU  (^weeding  on  the  part  of  the 

supcriN(«N4M«( ;  tM  iti  ftiti»**fn*nce  thereof,  and  of 

the  HuJHuti^^tAt)  pfiiH'*M'hf(ii  lit  the  Chinese,  above 

iA)/m  li^ttn  n(  i^ttttt  mtiff  (leliverert  np  to  Mr.  Elliot 

j  by  lirilUM  imfjt»ift,  »n4  t/y  httn  to  the  Chinese  anthori- 

1  til's;  »>)4  Urn  UUti',  tti4  n«(l«Aed  with  the  possession 

I  of  lb£  mtium,  ^Ukit  it  #«»  rtwlr  duty/to  have  placed 

ia  «  tt»tM  uf  »ft-vtify  ()(f  (fid  miitleri  with  respect  to  It 

shvuM  )«t  i»rf#«(j»v*,  ittnti*i1iiilf1f  proceeded  to  destroy 

'  it!     Havi^^i;  ftfftffiifti  thns  tat,  (he  Chinese  next  In- 

:  »ist«4  »b#t  tttti  Uifi^H  tmtthnnta  should  subscribe  a 

,  ixMii,  fiMi/ittg  (Uttttii^^f^  itot  to  import  opium  Into 

I  any  fmri  »(  iltimi  Mf  i^i  If  (hey  did,  they  were  to 

Iw  ^»(t|y  \MA»  Ui  ttm  t^imUy  of  thafh.    But  this  con- 

:  dittoN  Mng  fi4»*t^f  Ittut  tKt  nrrangement  having  been 

I  cotm  U>,  Mr-  H(M  >fmp*fl<ltA  the  trade  on  the  TM  of 

'  May.     tf»f  f^■0U^^^  lUt  tlei  reqnire  lo  be  told  that  a 

war  witb  i^i#»  ffftm  ««(  ot  rtiese  extraordinary  pro- 

ce»aJwg«.. 

Ituitimitfi  /m'  Ih*  flpkm  ilftlrnged  in  China.— The 
questioN  #»  (^)  tit*i  »mmM  of  (he  compensation  that 
tlnmH  tm  im/itf4t:4  in  ttlti  putties  who  delivered  up  the 
'.  opiwi  i/i)  (Utt  <^t'*'*^iiteitii*^t  in  China  has  since  at- 
I  tr«tiUi4  f'mti'it'flttAn  ttlleatioil.     The  merchants  con- 
!  teii4c4  thtti  H)*f  #*f«*  tnlitie4  to  i(s  cost,  or  to  the 
prix»  at  »^ti^it  il  f^uMf  (i«»«  Invoiced  to  them,  or  to 
^  al*)y«  Ai^^mj0)O,     U  *«,  fm^ever,  admitted  on  all 
hands  th»t  ♦)(*  jifi^'H  nf  wjyintti  i.i  exceedingly  fluctu- 
ating, wwl  ^it§t  »  if  irtflwinced  in  a  very  high  degree 
by  \itn»Ht>m  iti  tit*'  fltfiiilien  tot  smuggling  into  China. 
And  it  »«»  mmttmAM  ity  government,  that  such  were 
i  tlu!  iA)H»Kii«i  (iif»»n  itt  the  #ay  of  its  clandestine  im- 
I  poftHlm  whAW  tiif  litiii-tt'fy  ««»made  in  1839,  that  the 
•  pric«  of  uftimt  ttH4  fltiitu  to  lew  than  half  its  invoice 
cost,  a»4  titM  >mittin<4iiK  the  Merchants  had  retained  it, 
j  they  umH  m^^iifitiiiy  hn^e  .atfstained   a  very  heavy 
!  loss.     I<#»iw{f  t#imi  liii<t  *lew  of  (he  matter,  govem- 
meut  prtffitttiA  tiltti  in«iffrniity  should  be  made  at  the 
I  ruljtofS'H  pf  (ttt/H  (f  tJ.a'Mii/KlO  in  all),  being  (though 
littl«  wo»«  tittm  iiKit  the  fttttn  claimed)  considerably 
»im§  (tm  *#«***  pfi««  tHlopitimiii  Canton  previously 


OPI 


14T5 


mt 


to  ttii  being  (IclWoreit  iip.  A»  mlp[ht  hav«  b«en  ox- 
poctod,  this  dcclnion  WM  much  round  fault  with.  On 
the  whole,  however,  we  think  It  eminently  fair  and  I 
resionahla.  No  one  doubti,  thouf(h  not  a  pound  of  the 
opium  had  liccn  delivered  up  to  Captain  Klliot,  that 
Iti  owncra  must,  In  conMqnence  of  the  Incroancd  dlffl- 
cultlea  in  the  way  of  Ita  sale,  have  lost  heavily ;  and, 
under  the  circumstancoa,  wo  see  no  ((round  for  contend- 
InK  that  government  was  bound,  because  thrlr  agent 
had  interfered,  to  place  the  merchants  In  a  better  posi- 
tion than  they  would  have  lieen  In  but  fur  that  Inter- 
feronco.  All  that  they  could  Justly  roqulrv  wus,  that 
It  should  not  be  permitted  to  Irjure  them. 

Ciilliention  nf  Opium  in  India — Monnpoly — Revenue, 
etc.— Ofilnm  Is  produced  In  Dcngal,  principally  in  the 
provinces  of  Dalmr  ami  Uenarea,  In  parts  of  Honihay, 
and  In  Malwa,  In  Central  India.  In  Hongal  the  pro- 
duction of  opium  Is  a  monopoly,  no  person  being  al- 
lowed to  grow  the  poppy  except  on  occount  of  govern- 
ment. Thelattormakoadvancestothocultlvators,  who  i 
deliver  the  entire  produce  Into  their  hands  at  a  flxod 
price  of  about  3>.  6tl.  per  lb.  It  Is  afterward  sold  by  the 
Company  for  about  lis.  par  lb.,  so  that  the  profit  of  the 
latter  amounts  to  about  7«.  M.  per  lb.  Opium  may  be 
grown  and  manufactured  In  Uomliay;  but  It  is  sub- 
Joctod  to  the  same  high  duty  that  is  imposed  on  opium 
Imported  Into  the  Presidency.  The  olijoct  of  this  high 
duty  Is  to  "discourage  its  production."  Government 
purchase  what  little  Is  produced  In  Bombay,  supplying 
through  licensed  dealers  all  that  Is  required  for  homo 
consumption.  The  poppy  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Malwa,  in  Central  India,  and  yields  a  largo  revenue. 
Down  to  1831,  It  was  produced  under  a  monopoly. 
Rut  In  that  yon'  the  business  was  thrown  open  to  the 
public,  and  the  revenue  collected  by  Imposing  a  duty 
on  the  opium  when  passing  through  the  Company's 
territories  to  Bombay.  The  capture  of  Sclndc,  by 
closing  the  route  for  tho  smuggling  of  opium  through 
Kuruchoo  to  tho  Portuguese  settlements  of  Domaun, 
etc.,  enabled  a  largo  addition  to  bo  made  to  tho  transit 
duty  on  Slalwa  opium,  which  was  raised  In  1847  to  400 
rupees  per  cheat,  affording  a  revenue  to  govcnimcnt  of 
about  5s.  Sd.  per  lb. — (We  have  borrowed  thcso  au- 
thentic details  from  tho  Ofncial  Papers  relative  to  In- 
dia, p.  "3-7.5,  published  in  18"i3.)  No  one  doubts  that 
opium  is  an  e.Ycellont  subject  for  taxation ;  and  the 
higher  tho  rate  to  which  tho  duty  on  it  can  bo  raised 
without  encouraging  smuggling,  so  much  the  better. 
But  a  great  deal  has  been  said  for  and  against  the  sys- 
tem under  which  tho  opium  revenue  is  raised  in  Hen- 
gal  and  other  parts  of  India;  and  perhaps  It  might  lie 
the  better  policy  to  open  the  culture  of  the  plant  to  tho 
unfettered  competition  of  the  public,  imposing  a  high 
duty  on  tho  drug  when  grown  or  wlien  exported. 
Without,  however,  entering  on  tho  discussion  of  this 
dlfHcult  question,  wo  may  shortly  ol>sorve  that  the 
monopoly  docs  not  appear  to  have  tho  consequences 
stated  by  Mr.  Colebrooko;  who  tolls  us  {llmhandryof 
Bengal,  p.  118)  that,  except  in  a  few  situations  that 
are  peculiarly  favorable,  its  culture  Is  unprofitable; 
and  that  the  peasants  ongago  In  It  with  reluctance, 
being  tempted  thereto  only  by  tho  advances  made  by 
the  government  agents.  But  if  such  were  the  case  for- 
merly, it  would  seem  that  circumstances  have  changed 
in  the  interval;  for  it  appears  from  the  ofBcial  ac- 
counts that  tlie  production  of  Bengal  opium,  which 
amounted  to  17,858  chests  of  ICO  lbs.  each  in  1840-'41, 
had  increased  to  about  30,000  chests  in  18l8-'49.  The 
number  of  chests  of  Malwa  opium  (140  lbs.  each)  ex- 
ported from  Bombay  during  the  same  period  has  con- 
tinued pretty  stationary  at  about  16,000  a  year.  The 
whole,  or  nearly  the  whole,  of  this  immense  supply  of 
above  50,000  chests,  is  sent  to  China.  Latterly  it  has 
produced  to  the  government  of  India  a  clear  revenue 
of  considerably  more  than  ^£3,000,000  sterling  a  year. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  tlio  use  of  opium,  when 
taken  in  moderate  quantities,  be  so  injurious  as  has 


been  represented.  That  It  may,  like  apirlta  and  wina, 
l>e  al>usrd,  is  abundantly  certain ;  but  It  has  not  Iwen 
shown  that  it  Is  more  liable  to  abuse  than  either  of 
these  articles.  And  the  Chinese,  by  whom  It  is  prin- 
cipally consumed,  are  a  highly  Industrious,  sober,  fru- 
gal people. 

It  is  computed  that,  had  China  no  silk  nor  teas  to 
give  in  part  payment  for  tho  opium  consumed  In  tho 
Celestial  empire,  the  drain  of  specie  during  the  last 
30  years  would  have  amounted  to  fRon.OOO.OOO.  It  la 
stated  in  a  memorial  presented  to  tho  Kmpcror  of  Chi. 
na,  on  tho  subject  of  the  opium  trade,  that  tho  drain 
from  the  Imperial  treasury,  to  supply  this  destructlva 
luxury,  was. 

From  1S20  to  Isai $24,000,000 

"    Isni  to  1S34 vH.noo.OrtO 

"      l9,'4lol888 40,0(10,000 

The  latter  sum,  it  is  stated.  Is  about  tho  average 
annual  outlay  at  the  present  time;  and  It  is  considered 
l)y  an  Intelligent  commercial  eorrespondont  at  Macao 
qidto  problematical  whether  the  Chinese  would  have 
taken  moro  cotton  goods  and  other  Imports  from  the 
United  States  and  England,  had  they  not  expended 
so  much  for  opium.     The  profits  of  tho  F.ast  India 
Company,  who  are  entitled  to  whatever  of  credit  or 
discredit  may  attach  to  keeping  up  tliij  lucrative  trade 
in  opium,  are  stated  at  (18,000,000  per  annum.    If  tho 
company  succeed  in  opening  ni^w  markets  for  tho  drug 
(and  it  Is  represented  that  they  are  establishing  retail 
shops  all  over  tho  Indian  empire),  they  will  1)0  amply 
reimbursed  fur  their  diininishod  importations  Into  Chi- 
na, since  tlio  importutiun  of  Turkish  opium  in  Ameri- 
can bottoms  has  so  considerably  Interfered  with  their 
previously  almost  exclusivo  monopoly  of  this  trade. 
It  should  lio  added,  tliat  the  importation  of  opium  into 
China,  though  illegal,  is  openly  tolerated  by  tho  Chi- 
nese ofUcials,  and  no  difhculty  Is  experienced  In  finding 
cash  customers  for  any  quantity  Imported.    From  200 
chests  In  1756,  when  the  trade  was  legal,  the  importa- 
tion has  risen  to  from  70,000  to  80,000  chests  per  an- 
j  num  In  1850,  when  Us  Introduction  is  prohibited  by 
I  law.     Tho  value  of  opium  imported  in  175(!  was  about 
tl,000,000;  tlio  value  at  tho  present  doy  has  risen  to 
$10,000,000.    The  basis  of  foreign  exchange  with  Chi- 
I  na  is  as  follows :  General  imports,  opium  (wliich  makes 
nljout  .10  per  cent,  of  tlie  whole),  bullion  nnd  specie,  or 
[  drafts  on  I.ondim, — Commercial  Helations  of  the  I'nited 
States,  1850-'57. 
I      CultiiMliun  in  the  United  Statu     A  variety  of  tho 
!  "  Common'' or  "  Opium  Popp_,''(/V/p<ii'(T»(wtHi/'(;n;i»), 
{  indigenous  to  tho  warm  and  temperate  parts  of  F.urope 
'  and  Asia,  from  Portugal  to  Japan,  and  especially  cul- 
:  tivated  in  Chino,  India,  Turkey,  Egypt,  ond  in  the 
Iklorea,  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
and  has  proved  itself  susceptible  of  easy  cultivation 
'  on  very  rich  soils,  and  is  well  adapted  to  tho  climato 
1  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States.    The  flowers  of  the 
1  "  White  Poppy"  {Papaver  a.  alba),  the  variety  with 
which  the  experiment  was  made,  may  be  cither  entire- 
ly white  or  red,  or  may  bo  fringed  with  purple,  rose, 
or  lilac,  variegated  and  edged  with  the  same  colors, 
'  but  never  occur  blue  nor  yellow,  nor  mixed  with  these 
'  colors,  eacli  petal  being  generally  marked  at  the  bot- 
tom with  o  black  or  purple  spot.    The  seeds  are  black 
in  the  plants  having  purple  flowers,  nnd  light-colored 
;  in  tliose  which  arc  white ;  although  the  seeds  of  tho 
'  latter,  when  of  spontaneous  growth,  are  sometimes 
',  black.      The  largest  heads,  which  are  employed  for 
medical  or  domestic  use,  are  obtained  from  the  single- 
flowered  kind,  not  only  for  tho  purpose  of  extracting 
'  opium,  but  also  on  occount  of  the  bland,  esculent  oil 
tliat  is  expressed  from  the  seeds,  which  are  simply 
]  emidsive,  and  contain  none  of  the  narcotic  principle. 
Fcr  tho  latter  purpose,  if  no  other,  its  culture  in  this 
country  is  worthy  of  attention. 

I      With  regard  to  tho  cultlvotion  of  this  plant,  with 
'  the  view  of  obtaining  opium,  there  can  bo  but  littlo 


OPO 


1476 


OPO 


doubt  that  our  cU«r  tky,  fervlil  miintnnr  lun,  anil  heavy 
diiwi  would  KrfHtly  ftvur  the  |iruilucllon  uf  Ihia  arllilu  ; 
liut  huw  far  IhsM  rlrcumiliiu'ea,  lii  connuctloii  with 
American  InKenuity  lu  duvUinK  lin|irovi'd  nmthodi  tot 
IM  extractiiin,  would  allow  ut  to  roni|icte  with  tlia 
cheapnesa  of  lalwr  in  the  Kaal,  can  nnlv  lie  duturnilned 
by  actual  trial.     Certainly  it  la  an  alfjcit  worthy  uf 

fiubllo  encouraKcmimt,  aa  the  annual  ainuiint  ofoiiiuni 
inported  into  tliu  I'liiteil  Hlatva  ia  valued  at  upward 
of  (-107,000,  a  cuntidcralilu  portion  of  which  niluht  tw 
aaveil,  and  tbereliy  add  to  our  reaoiircea,  Ilcaldui,  If 
we  were  to  raiao  a  (urplua,  it  could  lie  icnt  to  China 
In  (xchangn  for  tea.  The  aucoaafnl  cultivation  of  the 
plant,  however,  rei|uirea  tlio  provialon  of  good  toil, 
appropriate  manure,  and  careful  iiianaKoniont,  The 
itrvnKth  of  the  Juice,  acc(irdiii|{  to  lit.  Ilutlcr,  of  Ilrit- 
lah  India,  dependa  tnuih  upon  tho  quantity  uf  nioial- 
uro  of  tho  climalu.  A  dullcieney  uvcii  uf  duw  pruvenia 
'.he  proper  flow  uf  tho  peculiar  nnri.'utic,  niiliiy  Juice, 
which  abounda  in  ainiuat  every  part  of  tlio  plant,  wliilu 
an  eaceu,  liciidui  waahinK  oil'  thit  niilk,  cauaea  addi- 
tional mischief,  l>y  dephratiii);  tlio  aolublo  from  tho  iii- 
■oluble  parta  of  thii  drug.  Thii  not  only  datvrioralea 
its  quality,  but  Incroasoii  the  quantity  uf  moiaturc, 
which  must  afterward  lie  !{ot  rid  of. 

STATtliailT   SUOWIMa    Tl'4    iMrOKT*    Or    OriDU    INTO    TUI 

I'DiTin  Htatu  ruB  -ua  Yia»  snuinu  Juki  30,  ln!A 
i  ~  Wk«i«  liKP.rUl. 


KoRland... 
llrlUah  Kv 

HardlnU 

Aiiatrt* 

Turkey  lu  Aala 

China 

Total 


liidlua. 


ll»,lilli) 

1,01  in 

OS 

1.810 

V,46I 

M.litM 

15T^HU 


Vaiut. 

lun 

I.HM 

se.fiuH 

ITO.UM 


|(480,IU<1 


Besides  tho  works  provioubly  referred  to,  wo  have 
consulted,  In  compiling  this  -i-'i'  ,  Ainhi.ik's  Slatirui 
Inilicn;  Mli.nuHN's  Orienln>  •  ummerct;  M'ii^kinnii.n's 
Citmmtrce  qf  Htnjal  (I.  1  .  M'Cii.Loi'ii);  American 
Almanar,  1841,  p.  6H  PaletU  nfflce  Report,  1858; 
Hunt's  Aftrchant$'  M<ii/azine,  11.  '.m,  U.  0(F.  Wiiaii- 
ton),  xxlil.  28, 147  i  Eettclic  Ureltw,  vl.  468 ;  FiiASRit, 
xxl.  805)  NlLfcV  Itegitler,  xxlil.  219;  China  War  and 
Opium  Trade ;  Commercial  Rtlatiom  oftkt  i'niled  Stalea, 
1850. 

Opoponax  (Qor.  Opopnnax;  Fr.  Opipinax  j  It. 
OpoponoHO !  Sp.  Opopaniu-a ;  Arab,  Jaieethfer),  a  gum- 
resin  obtained  from  tho  Paitinaca  O/m/iottnT,  a  species 
of  par.inop.  It  Is  a  native  of  tho  soiitli  of  I'^uropo  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  stem  rises  to  tho  hclglit  of  four  or 
Ave  feet,  with  a  thick  branched  yellow-colored  root. 
The  roots  being  wounded,  a  milky  Juico  flows  from 
them,  which,  being  dried  In  the  sun.  Is  the  opopnnax 
of  the  shops.  It  is  In  lumps  of  a  reddish  yellow  color, 
and  white  within.  Smell  peculiar.  Taste  bitter  and 
acrid.  Specific  gravity,  l-i'  "  It  Is  Imported  from 
Turkey.  Being  used  only  to  a  small  extent  In  medi- 
cine, tho  consumption  Is  inconsiderable. — ^Tiio.M8un'8 
Chf.mitlry ;  AiNHi.iK's  Materia  fndica. 

Oporto,  or  Porto,  a  largo  city  and  sea-port  of 
Portugal,  on  tho  north  bank  of  the  Douro,  about  two 
miles  from  Its  mouth,  Int.  41°  10'  30"  N.,  long.  80°  87' 
18 "  W.  It  Is  a  beautifully  situated,  well-built  city, 
and  Is  supposed  to  contain,  Including  the  suburbs  of 
Villanora  and  Gaya,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  tho  river, 
aboul  f«0,000  inhabitants.  The  harbor  of  Oporto  is  a 
bai  harbor,  and  'an  only  bo  entered,  at  least  by  vcs- 
f  At  of  considerable  burden,  at  high  water;  and  it  is 
s.'Idom  at  an}  tlr^e  practlcablo  for  vessels  drawing 
more  than  sixteen  !i:et.  On  the  north  side  of  the  en- 
trance Is  the  castle  of  St.  Joao  de  Foz,  whence  a  ledgo 
of  rocks,  some  of  which  are  at  all  times  abovo  water, 
extends  in  a  southwest  direction.  The  outermost  of 
these  rocks,  named  Filgueira,  which  Is  always  visible, 
is  left  on  the  left  or  larboard  side  on  entering.  Cabe- 
delo  Point,  forming  the  southern  extremity  of  the  en- 
.  trance,  U  low  and  nnAy.    Tho  bar  being  liable,  from 


the  action  of  the  lldsi,  and  nfaudilan  awrlllngs  or/WaA- 
«<  in  the  river,  to  perpetual  aii>'raliuiia,  It  1^  uacnadliig- 
ly  dangeroiu  for  any  vesatil  matiauipt  •'I'H'HiliiK  It  wlili> 
out  a  pilot.  I'iiola  are  alw»y*  'iii  the  alerl.  and  rvady 
til  iiinir  their  servicra  when  .>  vtaul  cunies  in  aiulit, 
unless  the  weather  lie  ao  bad  that  lliay  can  not  |[»  ulf. 
On  annul  Ittw  uccaaiuna  of  tills  aort,  vu.aids  batu  lieru 
dniaiiicd  for  three  weaka  ull'  tiio  purl,  wilhuut  bating 
an  opportunity  uf  vnturtug.  Tlie  diaiiel  uf  Hi.  t'atli- 
crino  ill  a  lliifl  with  that  uf  St,  Miuiiai'l  leads  over  Ihu 
bar.  The  ordinary  riie  of  spring  tidea  ia  from  ttn  lu 
twelve  feel,  and  uf  neaps  from  alx  to  eight  feut.  A 
iight-houao  witli  a  revolving  light,  having  tho  luiiicrn 
'.'20  feet  aliovu  the  Ivvrl  uf  the  aua,  ia  erected  on  rlniii/^ 
ground  aliout  (KM)  yarda  north-nurlhweat  uf  St.  .luau  ' 
Foi.  Tho  swellings  of  tho  river,  or  frrtkr$,  a'  .  ,ey 
aro  called,  moat  cuuimunly  occur  in  uprlntr,  a.  .1  r« 
caused  by  heavy  rain,  and  by  the  iiielliiig  <  i'  the  nuw 
oil  the  niouulaiiis,  Tlio  rise  uf  water  al  Mch  ti.  '  I 
frequently  as  much  as  forty  fee' ;  and  i  '  i  iddily  and 
force  uf  lliu  current  are  so  vcr;  great  '  '  depeiid- 
enea  can  lie  placed  on  aiuhora  in  •'  >  i,  Forlu- 
iiatidy,  mJVeth  never  occurs  wilhuut  pn  .  luu.i  v  arning ; 
and  it  ia  then  tho  practm  i  >  moor  with  a  cable  niiuiu 
fust  to  trees,  or  stone  pillars  erected  on  the  slinre  fur 
that  purpose For  fMitlier  Infi'rinatiun  as  to  the  har- 
bor of  Oporto,  sea  I'l  kuv'm  Sailing  Oifecliuiit  /or  lh» 
11(11/  of  Hill-ay. 

0|iurto  is  tho  emporium  of  a  largo  portion  of  tho 
kingdom  of  Portugal,  and  ei\|oys  a  pretty  coiislderaide 
foreign  rommcice.  Tho  weil-knovu  red  nine,  dciiuni- 
inated  Port,  from  its  being  exclusively  aliippcd  at  lliis 
city,  funns  by  far  the  largest  articiu  of  export,  'liio 
exports  vury  in  difTerent  years,  from  about  2A,IIOO  to 
abovo  40,(lll0  pipes.  Knglaiid  is  much  lliu  largcti  cuii- 
suinor  of  port.  The  high  discriuilnaling  duties  on 
French  wine  originally  Introduced  port  into  the  llril- 
ish  markets,  and  gave  It  a  prefcrcncu  to  which,  though 
an  excellent  wine,  it  had  no  Just  title;  this  prcfcrciico 
first  generated,  and  its  long  continuance  has  since  ho 
confirmed  tho  taste  for  |>urt  among  tho  great  bulk  of 
the  population,  that  it  bids  fair  to  maintain  lis  ascend- 
ency as  an  aflcr-dinnor  wine,  notwithstanding  the 
equalization  of  the  duties,  At  an  average  of  the  nine 
years  ending  with  1851,  there  wcro  shipped  from  Opor- 
to for  England  '.'2,801  pipes  a  year.  Next  to  Kugluiid, 
Brazil,  Kussia,  and  tho  north  of  Europe  nro  tiiu  prin- 
cipal consumers  of  port;  but  it  appears,  from  the  sub- 
Joined  account,  that  the  total  exports  to  them  do  nut 
amount  to  a  half  of  those  sent  to  England.  The  uliicr 
exports  aro  oil,  oranges,  and  other  fruits,  wool,  rellned 
sugar,  cream  of  tartar,  shuniac,  leather,  cork,  etc.  Tiio 
Imports  are  corn,  rice,  beef,  salt  fish,  and  other  articles 
of  pr<\  ion;  sugar,  coffee,  etc.,  from  Brazil;  collim 
am'  '  I  u  I  C'  dg, '  iirdwarc,  tin  plates,  etc.,  from  En- 
gland ;  I  •  nip,  fln.v,  and  deals,  from  tho  Baltic,  etc  !  i- 
sh'   I    ''(J  .'    ■  1    .iiifacturcd  (  nportcd  into 

r  ''  ...  r*..  I'  ..  the  natives,  .•  uiisidcrable  quan- 
li,.j  1.^  ii'jtined  toi  the  consumption  of  Spain;  icing 
smuggled  Into  that  country  through  Braganza  and 
other  towns  on  tho  frontier. 

VisULS  KNTiaisn  and  cLBABm  AT  OroBTo  IN  TUB  loo- 
NOMio  Vbab  I8M.'6B. 


V»n  »il 

Moollii. 

VMHb  KDUrtil. 

V«Mll  ClKllll.                1 

NnUonal. 

ror'n. 

■tm. 

NMlonal. 

For'n.  1   Tom.    | 

■   1864.     ■■ 

.luly 

August... 
September 
October  . . 
November 
December 

I8U. 

.Tanoary . . 
February . 
March.,.. 

April 

May 

June .... 

ToUI  .. 

81 
98 
101 
67 
Ti 
48 

75 
1 

86 

80 

104 

79 

84 
20 

i» 

21 
21 

81 
B 

43 

ei 

42 
2T 

lo.nofl 

14,04A 
12,1 27 

8,133 
10,272 

»,\M 

11,M8 
tut 
18,00.1 
18,676 
10,024 
11,002 

74 
02 

89 
80 
7S 
80 

D6 
B 

40 
b'i 
TB 

89 

20 
81 
88 
10 
14 
26 

23 

8 

89 

46 

42 
86 

1fl,6B6 
18,813 
18,20<J 
11,442 
9  867 
9,866 

10,838 
602 
11,960 
11,064 
10,763 
14,449 

S-5 

S6R 

181  4831      788 

844    |I26.'88| 

ORA 


1477 


ORA 


UtroMAtm"  or  Wi- 


•rMHliui 


llctmtT  m  TKs  Kci  irovii- 'ln(l«inm«t>l».  mirt  <if  ■«  «i 


IH  TI1»  loo- 

.cuilMlIIIl 

roF'n.  1 

Tom. 

v> 

10,060 

Bl 

13.818 

8S 

15,M9 

19 

«,44S 

14 

9B6T 

20 

0,865 

23 

10,838 

A 

099 

89 

11,960 

46 

11,064 

42 

10,703 

AS 

14,449 

US' 

|l«0,-88 

Wliin-iilijUtlltx, 


"       til  r)iiitlltr,  (or  iHiri 
llnndjr— l>ttu*Mt)t,for  no 


iMirulii  kitriiiM 

All!  of  F.iir«)p« 
•*         lint    .*{   Utar 
Kliigdiim  •lilt  Itt'oilur 
rU  mil  iif  I    rxiii' 
lOrUlii  r.«t> 
nut  of  V'.ur»\ 
"  "        out 

Kkiidom  viil  III 

Tiii»r 

Ti.liil  K.n.iiu U,'i7:i,U(HI. 

(ji'Axtit*  nr  I'onT  Winii  ixrokrun  riuiii  imhiitii  in  InTm, 

AHIITIIMl.'niiNTllUTO  Wllll'll  ll\l11KTIell 


of  r.iiroiH' 

of    llni\ 

UUiiil>/ 


l^    .1: 

twnUu  cftqinU  .'K  r«ll»,  m  iUIi 
ant)  julc*,  •mlMs  iiiilliil  l>,r  " 
nry  nkin,  ndlatliiK  from  ili 


iKi>nt  UH*i.    TW  ll»> 
I'll  iiiDi  fmm  i*in*  <• 

•  Miiiln  thu  fv-ilp,  Mvrit, 
I  liitlih  [Kllirh*  or  li'urh- 

•  litre  tn  Ihr  rinil,  anil 


rwuuiriM. 


llrit>U 

Ilri>iiiii|i  

<  IIIIKil.l *,. . 

Iiiinniarli 

I  llllinl  Hutu* 

KritMre 

ilri'iit  llrltaln 

lUlnltiirii ttii 

Hi>ltlll  .,,,,,,, ,.,., 

Miirurco ,,, . .  n  ,.  i . 

HllHNtit 

I'nrtiignl  anil  piiKNeuluiia  . 

Hwmluii 

Nuwfuuiiilland 

Tiilal 


fill- 

Aliia. 

I'aiii 

u,ou 

I'i 

U 

iii:i 

9<l 

« 

iiiift 

«fl 

0 

4un 

H 

1 

Onll 

ir> 

9 

■n 

III 

N 

M,TftB 

II 

11 

1,0T« 

10 

ili 

3 

.... 

IS 

11 

'^6ll 

n 

H 

HIT 

« 

N 

tHH 

14 

9 

IHO 

19 

9 

»4,IIK*I 

I'J 

11 

'I'utal  vnllon 11,16^900.— «J.  I). 

Orangei(,<iiir.  I'oMtmir.fii i  \)a.  Drnit'itni  Vr.  fr- 
on,'/<« ;,  ll.  ,)Mininn ;  S|).  S'ltninjiu ;  Him.  I'lirn'rnnaii ; 
lllnil.  Nnningf;  .Mnliiy,  Ni'mi'i-niiiiiMl,  tliii  fruit  of  thu 
<)r«n)(e-tr«o.  i'hn  I'oniinoii  or  swocl  oraiiKO  (Cilrui 
linenilt,  or  Cilnit  nohilis),  oiirt  Ihn  iSovllIc,  or  l)lttbr  or- 
an);i<  {Vilrutniintnliiim),  aro  imtlvcaof  Chinn;  mid  tliu 
I'ortiitfin'iio  urn  cntiiloil  to  thii  honor  of  ImvInK  truns- 
ferroil  lliu  plant  lu  other  countrii'H.  rorliviiliir  nporics 
of  )'ili'ii»  m'oni  to  ho  InillKcnoiis  to  vnrloiw  KnHtcrn  coiin- 
trles  ;  hut  thu  hirth-phico  of  tho  proper  orange  niny  Ix' 
(lUthictly  traccil  to  (.'hlna.  It  U  now  to  hu  found  in 
our  Krecn-lioUAoii.  Orniignn  nrn  imported  in  clii'sls  nnd 
boxes,  pai'ltc'd  si'parntuly  in  pnpnr,  Tho  liuat  conio 
from  the  Azorn,  Spnin,  und  Culm ;  very  (;ood  oiion  iiro 
alio  lirouKht  from  I'ortuyul,  Italy,  Malta,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  other  plaeei. 

T'lui  oranfto  trade  curried  on  hy  this  rountry  In  of  con- 
•tderablu  valiio  and  importanco,  OraiiKCK  are  not 
mui'h  more  cxponnlvo  thun  niont  of  our  miperinr  do- 
mestic friiilfl,  while  they  aro,  pcrliaps,  tho  most  rofresh- 
InK  and  wliolesonio  of  those  of  warmer  vliniates. 

Tho  Cilnii  unraiitinm,  or  ^olden-fruilod  orange-tree, 
under  favorable  cireumstanees,  usually  attains  u  liclKht 
of  twanty.flve  or  thirty  feet,  and  is  ifrarvM  in  all  its 
parts.  Tho  trunk  is  npright,  and  liranclies  into  a  reg- 
ular or  symmotrical  head.  The  Imrk  of  the  twigs  is  of 
a  Boft  and  almost  translucent  green,  wliiie  that  of  the 
trunk  nnd  older  branches  is  of  a  delicate  ash-gruy.  The 
leaves  are  moderately  large,  lieaiitifiilly  shaped,  of  ii 
flnfl  healthy  green,  and  shining  on  tho  upper  sides, 
while  tho  under  sides  have  n  slight  appuaraneo  of  down. 
Tho  flowers  occur  in  llttlo  clusters  on  thu  sides  uf  the 
brancht!«,  uro  pleasing  in  their  form,  of  a  delicate  white 
in  tlie  sweet  oranges,  and  in  tho  more  acid  varieties 


may  iiiiily  h«  Mparated  will  hu  wu«(>iig  llic  jHin, 
Tim  svctls  iff  solllary  or  s(ivi>i,il,  and  are  attai  hud  'o 
the  innar  anuto  of  the  iiirpnl,  and  in  some  varieties  ''"" 
fnlimly  wanting. 

Tho  wood  of  the  oraii((»-tree,  when  dry,  wef^he  ftir«y- 
fiiiir  •rounds  ti>  a  enKie  fi.».|,  i  hanl,  ■■iini|met,  (l»«lhhi, 
sliKhity  iidiirifrrii'  .,  anil  Ir  iiisieptllili'  iif  lielnK  pol- 
l«hi'i|.  When  i.,.riitly  i'»ii  It  U  of  n  Mlliiwith  hue 
hut  In  the  ruiii>i:  of  time  it  fades,  Kkhii  Its  ncarrilv 
and  •mall  sizn,  It  U  but  ll||b>  riiiploynl  in  (he  arts,  iW 
I  only  partliiiJiRr  hmi  Ih  whirh  It  Is  appliwl  Udng  |i> 
I  niako  hoxis,  i>ret»lng-i'ase«,  and  other  arliefcis  of  fancy 
land  In  Khirlda,  enmiilrralde  ipianlilles  i\if  siriiighl. 
young  shonis  an^  iiii,  and  shipped  in  lumi'lle"  to  Im' 
iiiadu  into  walkliig.raiies. 

I  Tho  fruit  of  tliii  iiruiign  may  Im  obtainei'  n-iili  in 
any  n^gion  of  thr  glutie,  and  at  aliimst  nvi  r\  mun  of 
ihi<  year.  I'he  aroinullr  oil  and  llio  rind  primrve  li 
from  llie  elli  is  Imtli  mf  bent  nnd  uf  riild  ;  and  the  m= 
ridlty  of  till'  Virnii'r  rennlers  It  primf  against  the  attacks 
of  insRclH.  I  M  true  irhat  orniigeii  deeny,  like  other 
fruit ;  but  Ibr  loes  not  happen  for  a  long  lime,  if  thi' 
rind  reinaiiii  ininjurcil,  and  they  are  kept  from  hu- 
midity, and  >i,  "nill'ited  us  not  to  ferment.  With  re- 
gard to  the  qunl  ly  of  this  fruit  In  various  places,  l(»»i' 
appears  to  lie  n  iverslty  of  opinion.  Home  cnnthier 
tbosii  of  M/iltu  til  lust ;  others  those  of  SI.  Mb'hael'i; 
while  others  prufi  '  those  of  Uubia,  ll^tvnna,  or  of  Hi. 
Augustine. 

The  Miillnr  nmi>  <  nre  usually  Inrge,  the  rlml  thick 
nnd  spongy,  and  tin  i;l»nds  wbUli  secrete  tho  volatile 
nil  aro  prominent.  Hie  pulp  Is  red  nnd  delieion<,  al- 
though sometimes  Hi  ™  is  n  trace  uf  lillUrness  ii.  '.heir 
taste.  Tliey  are  sbipiicil  in  boxes  of  an  irregular  ilse. 
and  aro  generally  pni  i 
The  iSI.  Mirhdil'tni 

liinils  small,  wliiili  secrete  Iml 
Ip  ligiit-culured,  nnd  of  a  de- 
<ynrc  put  up  in  liuxus  of  three 
hundred,  wltii  each  fruit  cn- 


is  Ihin  anil  sniuoth,  tin 
littlo  viiiutile  nil,  llie  , 
licinns,  sugary  taste.     I 
liundreii  and  flfiy  to  foi. 
volopcil  ill  pnpir,  or  in  i 

Tile  celebrateil  Xdfi't  ■ 
cult  transport  to  Kuropii  n 
sei|uence  of  the  length  <il 
niidity  and  waniilb  of  the 
have  to  pass.     If  ibcy  an 
nnd  suspended  In  tho  air  nl" 
the  vessel,  In  netting,  tlie.t 
voyage. 

The  Ifainnn  ornngta  are  n 
a  moilerutely  rough  rind,  an 
deliciuns  jnlec.      I'Voiii  the  »li 
niiy  of  liie  American  markets,  i 
ported  during  the  winter  mom 
Cuba  at  the  end  of  October,  an 
arrcls  of  two  hundred  nnd  llflv 


I  III  Kbavlngs  or  snw-dust. 
Ill  4  lire  of  a  siiinii  size,  the  riinl 


busks  of  innize. 
ii'/cit  of  Iluliiu  aro  of  dllTl- 
I  the  I'nited  States,  In  con- 
ic voyage,  and  of  tho  hu- 
iiiiatu  through  which  they 
.■nthcrcd  green,  however, 
■    !•  deck,  or  nl  the  stern  of 
ill  endure  through  the 


illy  of  a  good  slio,  with 
I  "pulp  well  fllled  with 
tiiess  of  the  voyage  to 
■y  may  be  safely  trans- 
-I.     The  fruit  is  ripe  in 
is  nsuully  shipped  in 
0  four  hundred  fk'uita 
in  each,  put  up  loosely,  witliout  ;iiiy  envelopes. 

Tho  SI.  .XuijiistiiK  ornmiis  are  -iiporior,  lioth  In  size 


llightly  tinged  with  pink.  In  some  plants  they  have  ]  and  quality,  to  tlioso  of  t.'uba  o  tho  Jlcdlterrnnean 
a  more  powerful  odor,  and  aro,  for  the  moment,  more  They  resemble  those  of  Havana  ii  llnvor,  but  aro  much 
rich ;  but  in  tho  orange-grove  there  is  n  fragrance  in    larger,  nnd  bring  from  twenty  to  i  lirty  ]ier  cent,  more 


tk*  aronin  which  never  satiates  nor  offends;  nnd  ns 
the  tree  is  nt  one  and  tho  same  time  In  all  stages  of  its 
bearing — in  flower,  in  fruit  jnst  set,  and  in  golden  fruit, 
inviting  the  '•  Imnd  to  pull  nnd  the  palate  to  taste"— it 
is  hanlly  possible  in  conceive  or  imagine  any  object 
more  deli^'litful.  There  Is  something,  ton,  peculiar  in 
the  orirnniiatlon  of  the  fruit  of  this  troa.  Its  rind,  or 
external  coverluj;.  is  of  a  spongy  texturo,  contoining 
but  little  Juii'e  or  sap  of  any  kind  in  its  substance ;  but 
the  external  -oirfnco  is  covered,  or  tubcrcidnted  witli 
littlo  glands,  which  secrete  an  acrid,  volatile  oil,  very 


in  the  New  York  and  Hoslon  mark  is.  Of  tho  smollcr 
sizes,  it  requires  about  three  hun  ircd  fruits  to  All  a 
barrel,  but  of  tho  largest  ones  only  one  hundred  arc 
neccssnry. 

In  Europe,  tho  Vnlenrin  ornnget  are  eagerly  (ought 
nfter,  on  account  of  their  cnrly  appearanee,  large  size, 
and  lieantiful  color.  They  nre  |)ut  up  in  lioxea  of  two 
hundred  nnd  twenty  to  two  hundred  and  forty  frulta  In 
eaib,  enveloped  in  brown  puper. 

The  Sicilian  ormijei,  and  those  of  tho  south  of  Italy, 
may  bo  regarded  as  nearly  of  tho  same  quality.   They 


ORA. 


1478 


ORE 


are  of  •  medium  size,  with  a  fino  color,  and  are  rather 
acid  in  their  flavor.  Those  sliippcd  from  Messina  arc 
put  up  in  boxes  of  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and 
ten  fruits  in  eauU,  and  those  of  Palermo,  which  mature 
later,  are  shipptd  in  boxes  of  tliruo  hundred  or  more 
fruits  in  each.  'Ihe  oranges  of  Kuggio  ripen  very  early, 
so  much  80,  that  it  is  not  unusual  to  send  them  away  by 
the  '20th  of  October.  They  arc  packed  in  boxes  of  two 
hundred  and  forty  fruits  in  each,  and,  lilic  most  of  the 
oranges  of  the  Mediterranean,  are  cnveta|ied  in  paper. 

The  Proveiice  oranya  come  to  great  perfection,  and 
may  be  classed  with  those  of  Genoa.  Along  the  Uivcr 
Var,  they  have  two  harvests  of  the  orange,  the  first 
commencing  from  the  10th  to  the  lotli  of  November, 
when  tlie  fruit  begins  to  turn,  and  continues  till  the 
4th  of  Ueceniber ;  the  second  begins  about  the  10th  of 
January,  and  is  prolonged  nearly  to  the  end  of  Febru- 
ary. They  are  put  up  in  boxes  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  to  three  hundred  and  sixty  fruits  in  each,  ac- 
cording to  their  si/.e  and  qualities. 

With  the  i!>'ct'i7/e  uranget  may  be  classed  (hose  of 
Faro,  St.  Ubes,  Oporto,  Andalusia,  Malaga,  and  the 
bitter  oranges  of  Cuba  and  Florida.  Tliis  fruit  is  usu- 
ally of  a  good  size,  of  a  beautiful  color,  but  unfit  to 
eat,  on  account  of  its  bitter  flavor.  Those  shipped 
from  Seville  are  put  up  in  large  boxes,  of  one  thou- 
sand fruits  in  each  ;  while  those  of  Faro  and  St.  Ubes 
arc  badly  packed  in  cases  of  three  hundred  to  three 
hundred  and  lifty  in  each.  Those  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal are  principally  carried  to  England  and  the  Ualtic, 
and  are  employed  in  cookery,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  cordials  and  other  aromatic  liquors.  The  essential 
product  of  tlic  fruit  is  in  the  rind  or  peel ;  it  is  cut  into 
quarters,  sopiirated  from  the  pulp,  and  caused  to  be 
quickly  drUd.  It  is  used  in  Holland  in  aromatizing 
a  liquor  calluil  ciirai'oa. — Uiiowsi;'.s  Trees  of  Amirka. 

llirOBTATION!!  4IK  OBANOBS,  1.KU0N8,  OTURK  liUF.EN  FBI'IT, 
AND  IMIESEUVKU  I'RCIT,  INTO  THE  rNITEII  ST.VTKS  Ht'KI.NO 
THE  KIS    AI,  VeaK  KSIJINC)  .IlTNE  ilfl.   1856. 


Whence  imported. 


.n.l  l.iinV..         •■"'"• 


Swedinh  Wfrtt  Iiitlii'4, . . 

Danisti  West  Indies 

Hamburg 

Ureniuii 

Ilollaiiil 

Dutch  (iiitatm 

Dutch  VAHi  IndicH 

EnglAiid 

Scotland 

Canada 

British  N.  A.  PoRsessions. 

Uritisli  West  Indies 

Ilrilisli  Honduriis 

Hritisli  (iniaiia 

British  Austnilln 

British  Kast  indies 

Franco  on  the  .Vtluntic  . . 
Franco  on  tins  .McdUi-r'n. 

French  West  Indies 

French  Oniuna 

Spain  on  tlic  Atlantic  ... 
.^paln  on  tin-  Mcditcr'n  . . 

Philippine  Islands 

<;uba 

I'orto  KIco 

Portugal 

Madeira 

An>res 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Two  Sicilies 

Austria 

Turkey  in  Asia 

Africa 

Ilayll 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

New  (iranada 

Venezuela 

Brazil 

Chill 

Sandwich  Islands 

•Japan 

China 

Whale  Fisheries 

Total 


$6 

ism 
'  'in 


»,'J.S1 
14 


6,I112 

23 

TO 

bi 

&1,!J40 

8.'>!.W0 

2,11.') 

ISD 

10,115 

1,712 

487,341 


82 

00 

1,203 

9 

.J3 

■'271 

11,709 

910 

8.^0 

24,872 


»640,«70 


$4,f)41 

"iil 


46 


01 

28,402 

7,i30 

'.9 


S!! 
312 
8US 

"     0 

1,421 

di.iig) 

8li0 


l*rr«erved 
Frull. 


.T4 
l.O.^* 
1,271 
2,3ii7 

4& 

3 

1,15B 

1,213 

1,146 


$193 

10 

710 

2:i3 
in 

60 
•JO 

72.'> 
CO 
IS 
12 

238 


9 

40,740 

1,380 

13 

1,3.')7 

4S(i 

1,630 

9 

ii,n30 

141 

112 

8 

'/791 

S7,4g8 

1,41)8 

90 

« 

5 

270 

S 

' '  22 

13 

41 

101 

"643 
10.481 


$117,S3'J     $124,480 


OrohlllaWeed,  Orchella,  or  Archil  (Ger.  Or- 

seille;  Fr.  Orseille;  It.  Ovicello,  Orcella;  Sp.  Orchilla), 
a  whitish  lichen  (^hichtn  orcelUi)  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Portland ;  but  that  which  is  used  is  imported  from  the 
Canary  and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  Madeira,  Barbary, 
and  the  Levant.  From  it  is  obtained  the  archil,  or 
orchal,  of  commerce,  which  yields  a  rich  purple  tinc- 
ture, fugitive,  indeed,  but  extremely  beautiful.  The 
preparation  of  orchilla  was  long  a  secret,  known  only 
to  the  Florentines  and  Hollanders;  but  it  is  now  ex- 
tensively manufactured  in  England.  Orchil  is  gen> 
erally  sold  in  the  form  of  cakes,  but  soinclinies  in 
that  of  moist  pulp ;  it  is  extensively  used  by  dyers ; 
and  in  times  of  scarcity  the  weed  or  lichen  has  sold  as 
high  as  .£1000  per  ton ! — Tiiom.so.n'.s  /lispenfalori/. 

Ordinary,  in  Nuulknl  lanyuaye,  denotes  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  persons  employed  by  government  to 
take  charge  of  the  ships  of  wiir  which  are  laid  up  in  the 
several  harbors.  These  are  principally  composed  of 
the  warrant  officers  of  the  ships,  as  the  gunner,  boot- 
swain,  carpenter,  deputy  purser,  and  cook.  There  is, 
besides,  enrolled  in  the  list  of  tlie  ordinory  a  crew  of 
laborers,  who  pass  from  ship  to  ship  occasionally,  to 
pump,  moor,  move,  and  clean  them,  whenever  it  is 
necessary.  The  term  otdinary  is  also  applied  some- 
times to  the  ships  themselves,  a.id  it  is  likewise  used 
to  dl.Hlingulsh  the  inferior  sailors  from  the  most  expert 
and  'liligent.  The  latter  are  rated  uhU  on  the  navy 
books,  and  liavo  higher  pay  than  those  who  arc  rated 
as  wdinui-y. 

Oregon,  territory.  United  States  of  America,  bor- 
dering the  Pacific  coast,  lies  between  the  parallels  of 
12°  and  W  10'  N.  lat.,  and  west  of  the  Uocky  Mount- 
ains. Areo,  210,000  square  miles.  Much  of  this  terri- 
tory is  mountainous,  but  it  abounds  in  fertile  valleys. 
It  forms  three  sections,  separated  from  each  other  by 
nearly  parallel  ridges,  and  following  the  general  di- 
rection of  tlio  coist  line.  These  several  sections  have 
each  distinct  characteristics  of  soil,  productions,  and 
climate.  The  division  extending  from  the  Pacific  coast 
to  the  Cascade  range  has  a  genial  climate  throughout 
the  year.  The  valley  of  the  >\'illanictte  is  exceeding- 
ly fertile,  the  intervales  and  prairies  form  the  best  of 
farming  lands,  and  the  uplands  afford  good  pasturage, 
and  abound  with  valuable  timber;  and  there  is  much 
fertile  land  bordering  the  Sliastl  and  Uinpqua  rivers. 
The  division  between  the  Cascade  range  and  the  Blue 
Mountains  has  generally  a  light  sandy  soil,  but  with 
many  valleys  of  rich  alluvion ;  altogether  .«aid  to  be  a 
fino  grazing  region.  The  portion  lying  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  east  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  in 
extent  full  one  half  of  the  territory,  is  mostly  a  rocky 
and  rough  country,  with  some  few  narrow  valleys  of 
great  fertility.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  terri- 
tory gold  has  been  extensively  found.  There  were  in 
Oregon  and  Washington  territories  in  I8,')0,  132,857 
acres  of  land  improved,  and  2U!I,»J1  of  unimproved 
land  in  farniii.  Cash  value  of  farms,  $2,8111,170;  and 
the  value  of  implements  and  macliiiieiy,  $18.1.1-3.  Live 
Slock:  Horses,  8006 ;  asses  and  mules,  120;  milch  cows, 
9127;  working  oxen,  8111;  other  cnttle,  21,188;  sheep, 
lo,.382;  swine,  80,235.     Value  of  live  stock,  l,87(i,189. 

AyrkuUural  Pioilucis,  etc. — AVIicat, 211,913  bushels ; 
rye,  lOG;  Indian  corn,  2918;  oat.",  01,211;  peas  and 
beans,  C56G;  potatoes,  91, 32fi;  value  of  products  of  the 
orchard,  $1271;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $'J0,211 ; 
pounds  of  butter  made,  211,461;  of  cheese,  ;tli,980; 
molasses,  21  gallons;  wool,  29,686  pounds  produced; 
llttx,  010;  tobacco,  325;  hay,  tons  of,  373;  clover  and 
other  gross  seeds,  26  bushels.  Value  of  slaughtered 
animals,  $UU,,')30.— See  Census  lieliinu,  1850. 

The  Columbia  forms  its  north  boundary  for  a  dis- 
tance of  300  miles,  and  the  east  part  is  almost  entirely 
drained  by  the  south  branch,  called  Saptin  or  Lewis 
River,  and  its  tributaries ;  a  very  small  portion  only  in 
the  southeast  corner  is  drained  by  the  head  sources  of 
the  Kio  Colorado,  hero  culled  Green  River ;  and  also  by 


■■-y'''W^- 


ORG 


1479 


ORP 


lughout 
ceeding- 
bcst  of 
isturagc, 
nmcb 
rivors. 
ic  lilue 
but  with 
to  le  a 
of  the 
itaiiis,  in 
a  rocky 
ttlleys  of 
be  tcrri- 
wero  in 
13-.',8u7 
mprovcd 
0;  and 
!3.   Live 
Icli  cows, 
;  slieep, 

,87(!,l«9- 
lusliols ; 
iptts  and 
ts  of  llio 
$'.I0,211 ; 

;!«,980 ; 

odiiccf' ; 
over  and 
ughtercd 

or  a  dis- 
cntirdy 
lor  Lewis 
In  only  in 
Turces  of 

Id  also  by 


the  Bear  River  of  Great  Salt  Lake ;  Urnatillah,  John  pire,  and  was  first  applied  to  rollfflous  dovotlona  in 
Days,  and  Willametturivera  enter  the  Columbia  Ulvercliiirclics  in  A.i).  058.— Uki.i.aiimi.nk.  Organs  worn 
on  the  south ;  and  the  Shastl  or  Rogue,  Ump<iua,  Sc-  :  used  in  the  Western  elmrches  by  I'opo  Vilallanus  In 
(luatchie,Yaquina,KiIamook,  and  several  small  streams  058.— Asimo.nus.  It  is  aflirmod  that  the  organ  was 
enter  the  Piicillc  on  the  west.  Tho  principal  places  known  in  France  in  the  time  of  Louis  I.,  815,  when 
are  Salcni,  the  capital,  Portland,  at  tho  head  of  navi-  one  was  constructed  bv  an  Italian  priest.  '  St.  Jerome 
gation,  Oregon  city,  and  Astoria.  The  principal  arti-  ^  mentions  an  organ  with  twelve  pairs  of  bellows,  which 
cles  of  export  arc  lumber  and  agricultural  produce,  might  have  been  beard  a  mile  off;  and  another  at  Jo- 
Tonnage  in  185,1,  IOCS  tons.  There  were  in  the  terri-  rusalcm  which  might  have  been  heard  on  the  Mount 
tory  in  1850,  thlrty-sovon  saw-mills  employed  In  the  of  Olives.  The  organ  at  liaerlcni  Is  one  of  tho  lorgeit 
manufacture  of  lumber.  The  lisheries  of  Oregon  arc  ;  in  Europe ;  it  has  (iO  stops  and  8000  pipes.  At  Sovlllc 
important  and  valuable.  Tho  rivers  abound  with  is  one  with  100  stops  and  oilOO  pipes.  Tho  organ  at 
salmon,  especially  tho  Columbia  and  the  Willamette,  '  Amsterdam  has  a  set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of 
which  arc  taken  in  largo  quantities  below  the  fall,  human  voices. 
The  bunting  and  trapping  of  tlio  fur-bearing  animals  i      Orgol.     •SVt  Aiinoi,. 

has  given  employment  to  a  great  number  of  persons,  ]  Orinoco,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  South  Amor- 
and  tho  rivers  and  coasts  abound  with  wild  fowls.  The  ;  lea,  ranking  in  .size  and  importance  immediateh'  after 
governor  is  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  ]  the  Amazon  and  Plata,  north  of  which  former  Its  ba- 
States  for  four  years.  The  Legislative  Assembly  is  :  sin  lies.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Venezuelan 
composed  of  a  council  of  nine  members,  elected  for  I  Guiann,  winds  successively  west,  norlli,  and  east, 
three  years,  and  a  IIouseofKepresentotivcs  of  eighteen  ^  through  the  centre  of  the  Venezuelan  territory  and 
members,  elected  annually.  The  elective  franchise  is  '  enters  the  Atlantic  by  numerous  mouths,  in  hit.  8'  40 
enjoyed  by  every  free  white  male  inhabitant  twenty-    N.,  and  long.  (11°  W.     Total  course  estimated  at  IflOO 

miles,  for  more  than  the  hitter  half  of  which,  or  to  the 


one  years  of  age,  and  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 

On  the  7th  of  May,  179J,  Captain  Robert  Gray,  in 
the  ship  Columbia,  of  Boston,  discovered  and  entered 
the  Columbia  River ;  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 


rapids  of  Atures,  it  is  uninterruptedly  navigalilc.  Area 
of  its  basin,  252,000  s(iuaro  miles.  'l  t  receives  miinor- 
ous  large  afllucnts,  principal  the  Meta  and  Apure, 
his  vessel,  lie  was  the  first  person  that  established  ,  each  having  a  navigable  stream  of  500  miles,  the  (Jua- 
tho  fact  of  the  existence  of  this  great  river,  and  tliis  viara  and  C'aroni.  By  the  Cassi<|ularo  it  has  a  siugu- 
gives  to  the  United  States  tho  right  of  discovery,  in  lar  navigable  communication  with  the  Hlo  Negro  and 
1801-'5,  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  under  the  direction  Amazon ;  and  In  the  upper  part  of  its  course  are  sov- 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  explored  the  oral  large  cataracts  and  long  rapids.  At  200  leagues 
country  from  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  to  tlie  mouih  from  the  ocean,  its  breadth  is  about  throe  miles ;  and  at 
of  the  Columbia,  and  spent  the  winter  of  1805-'C  at  tho  city  of  Bolivar,  between  250  and  300  miles  from  its 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Tills  exploration  of  the  <  mouths,  to  which  place  the  tide  reaches.  It  is  four 
River  Columbia,  the  first  ever  made,  constitutes  an-  inilesncross,  and, when  lowest,  05  fathoms  deep.  About 
other  ground  of  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  the  !  100  miles  from  tlic  ocean,  it  separates  into  a  <lelta  of 
country.  In  1808,  the  Missouri  Fur  Company,  at  St.  numerous  mouths.  It  rises  gradually  from  Klarch  to 
Louis,  established  a  trading  post  beyond  the  Rocky  September,  yearly,  usually  from  00  to  70  feet,  but  In 
Mountains,  on  the  head-waters  of  Lewis  River,  the  one  narrow  place  to  120  feet.  Its  banks  are  clothed 
first  Ivor  formed  on  any  of  the  waters  of  the  Columbia,  w  Ith  dense  forests,  which,  like  its  waters,  abound  with 
In  1810,  the  Pacific  Fur  Compaiy,  under  John  Jacob  ,  animal  life.  Like  all  great  rivers,  its  upper  waters 
Astor,  of  New  York,  was  formed ;  and  in  1811,  they  separate  into  several  branches,  and  it  does  not  appear 
founded  Astoria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  as  the    that  the  main  source  has  been  ascertained  with  anv 


principal  trading  post,  and  proceeded  to  establish  others 
in  the  interior.  A  little  later  in  tho  sani'^  year,  the 
Northwest  Company  sent  a  detachment  to  form  estab- 


degree  of  certainty.  According  to  La  Cruz  d'Olmc- 
dilla,  it  issues  from  a  small  lake  called  Ypava,  situated 
in  north  latitude  5°  5',  whence,  by  a  bend  of  a  spiral 


lishments  on  the  Columbia;  but  when  they  arrived  at  form,  it  enters  the  Lake  Parlma;  but  although  the  ex- 

the  mouth  of  tho  river,  they  found  the  post  oiciipied.  istence  of  this  sheet  of  water  has  been  determined. 

In  conse(|uencc  of  the  exposure  of  Astoiia  by  the  war  doubts  are  entertained  whether  it  may  not  owe  its  ori- 

of  1813,  the  post  was  sold  out  to  tho  Northwest  Com-  gin  only  to  the  temporary  overflowing  of  the  river, 

pany.     At  tho  close  of  the  war,  Astoria  was  restored.  From  this  lake  it  is  said  to  issue  by  two  mouths ;  and 

by  order  of  tho  British  goverrniciit,  to  its  original  after  a  very  circuitous  route  of  upward  of  fifteen  hun- 

founders,  agreeably  to  tho  first  article  of  tho  Treaty  of  dred  miles,  including  its  windings,  it  How  s  into  tho  At- 

Ghent ;  but  Britain  still  persisted  In  claiinlng  this  ter-  lantic  Ocean,  o|ipositc  the  island  of  Trinidad,  by  about 

ritory,  south  to  the  42d  degree  of  latitude,  until  1815.  fifty  mouths,  seven  of  which  are  navigable.      The 

In  1821,  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  Northwest  Company,  Grand  Boca,  or  principal  mouth,  which  is  six  leagues 

who  had  previously  been  rivals,  were  united,  and  since  wide,  is  southeast  of  Trinidad,  in  lat.  8"  30'  N.,  and 

that  time  have  greatly  extended  their  establishments  long.  5'j"  50'  \V. 


in  the  region  of  Oregon.  It  was  held  In  joint  occU' 
paney  until  the  treaty  of  1845,  when  Britain  gave  up 
all  claims  south  of  tlie  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude. 
It  was  organized  with  a  territorial  governnient  in  1848. 
The  portion  _ 

off  by  an  act  of  Congress,  Slarch,  1853. 

FOBEION  IMPOBTS  ANI>  ExPOBTS  of   flBEOOX. 


Orpiment  (Ger.  Operment;  I'r.  OrpimtrUi  It.  Or- 

pimento ;  Sp.  OropimeiUc  ;  Lat.  A  iiripiijmi'iiliimX  the 

name  usually  given  to  sulphuret  of  arsenic.     When 

artificially  prepared,  it  Is  in  the  form  of  a  fine  yellow- 

ow  tho  Territory  of  Washington  was  set   colored  powder;  but  it  is  found  native  in  many  part» 

of  the  world,  particularly  in  Rohemia,  Turkey,  China, 
and  Ava.  It  is  exported  from  tho  last  two  in  consid- 
erable quantities,  anil  is  known  in  tho  Kast  by  the 
name  of  hartal.  Native  orpiment  is  composed  of  thin 
plates  of  a  lively  gold  color,  intermixed  with  pieces 
of  a  vermilion  reil,  of  a  shattery  follaccous  texture, 
Hcxible,  soft  to  the  touch  like  talc,  and  sparkling 
when  broken.  Specific  gravity,  3'45.  Tho  inferior 
Organs.     Tho  invention  of  the  organ  is  attributed   kinds  are  of  a  dead  yellow,  inclining  to  green,  and 

to  Archimedes,  about  220  ii.c. ;  but  tho  fact  does  not   want  the  bright  appearance  of  the  best  specimens. 

rest  on  sufficient  authority.     It  is  also  attributed  to    Its  principal  use  is  as  a  coloring  drug  among  painters, 

one  Ctesibius,  a  barlicr  of  Alexandria,  about  100  ii.c.  ,  bookbinders,  etc. — TllOMHON'd  Chemitlri/ /  Mll4BUHM'it 

The  organ  was  brought  to  Europe'  from  the  Greek  em- 1  Orient.  Comm. 


Gx|iurti. 

Iiii))orU. 

.  oniiane  Cleareil.    | 

nomeBtlc. 

Foreign. 

Total. 

T,.l»1. 

Aniertfnn. 

KimMifn. 

IS.'* 

$43,707 

128,612 

6,284 

$\iO 

*12,S.7 

128.612 

6.234 

$is.«:i2 

».6fifl 
2,724 

772 
106B 
38S 

•Wl 

ORS 


1480 


OYS 


Onadaw.Onldue,  M«nb«lm  or  Dutch  Oold 

(litii'.  I''liilterii»lil  I  Uii.  K tiileiyvud :  Vt.  (Jripcau,  (Hi- 
giiiinl  I  \\.,lh]iM>i  Hp.  (MipiT),  an  inferior  sort  or  gold 
Iviif,  |irti|iiiruil  uf  co|ipar  and  zinc.  It  is  somctinios 
oalli'ii  triif  liniss.  It  Is  principally  manufactured  in 
Mmilii'lin, 

Oatrioh  Faathera.    See  Fkatheiih. 

OawagO.  Oswego  is  ono  of  the  most  thrivinf;  cit- 
Ivs  ill  till)  T'ninii  Willi  a  population  of  2U,0U0,  it  does 
««  much  liusiii'  1  ns  many  cities  of  twice  its  popula-  ' 
linn,  The  Wcllnnd  Canal  has  given  it  advantages  j 
OViir  oven  tluOulo,  and  hence  its  trade  grows  enar- 
lliniiiily,  lis  Increase  hns  been  so  steady  that  U  will 
Cdiilltiiii'  to  grow  with  every  improvement  in  the  West- 
em  Slates.  I 

'I'lie  receipts  of  flour  and  grain  by  laico  for  threo  aco- 
•ont  nru  given  na  follows : 


ISM.              I8U. 

wt.     1 

Flour,  Imrrels 

lOr.'iOT        ii;4,fl48        Ill2,ll!i0| 

""*"                                          1 

Wliii»l,  liudu-lM 

V.im\,         "     

Ilye.             "     ■ 

Hurley,       "      

Pens,          "      

2,4  2.333 

2,1132.274 

43,218 

101,430 

34U 

32.1.2110 

B,:)fli).-S8 

2,S,lft,ll01l 

2!II.U21 

112,210 

51,100 

22S,(19T 

8.282,8»8 

2.5:10,211 

8!t9.608 

UO.fllO 

41.410 

lira.TBi) 

Otts,          '* 

TiiUl 

Ily  ttoti  vcrtliiu  t  ho  tliiiir  Into 
wlii'Kt,  at  b  bualu'ls  per 
Imrrel,  Itm  ninoiuit  wuulil 
Ihi 

6,41t2,0()3 
8»fl,3.l;> 

S,llB9,nfl 
1,123,215 

12,032,808 

'I'lilnln 

(1,  *2!I,'.'3S 

i(),();)2.Hrti 

13.14«.V.'>6 

Hliowlng  nn  Inrreaac  in  1850  of  0,717,717  bushels  over 
IHfil,  ami  (MHIl.nOl  liushels  over  1855. 

The  iiiinuiil  review  of  Its  commerce  for  1850  says,  of 
tlio  griiln  warchousea  of  Oswego,  "There  ore  ten  cle- 
vntorK,  which  are  capalilo  of  elevating  in  the  aggregate 
over  II7,(H)(>  liimhels  of  groin  per  hour,  and  storage  room 
for  over  lim  million  biulieh."  This  is  about  the  same 
AS  Milwaukee.  There  are  in  Oswego  si.xteen  mills, 
with  elglily.six  run  of  stone,  cap.'ible  of  manufacturing 
8(HHt  ImrreU  of  Hour  a  doy,  or  over  1,8(H),00()  barrels  in 
n  yiuir, 

Out  of  Trim,  the  state  of  a  sliip  when  she  is  not 
jiruperly  linlunced  for  the  purposes  of  navigotion,  wliich 
may  be  oicusloned  by  a  defection  in  the  rigging  or  in 
the  stowage  of  llie  hold. 

Outrigger,  u  strong  Iwom  of  timber,  of  which 
there  (ire  neverol,  fl.xed  upon  the  side  of  a  ship,  and 
|iroJiietiiig  from  it,  in  order  to  secure  the  masts  in  the 
net  of  (••reening,  by  counteracting  the  strain  they  suf- 
fer fniin  the  efl'ort  of  llie  careening  tackles,  which,  be- 
ing applied  to  III!'  nin^t-licad,  draw  it  downward,  so  as 
lo  ttcl  upon  the  VI  ««i'l  with  the  power  of  u  lever,  whose 
Aili'riiiit  Is  In  hi^r  (  ulre  of  gravitj'.  Outrigger  is  also 
n  suiiill  linnm,  occaAiunally  used  in  the  top  to  give  ad- 
dltliiiiiil  seeiirlly  to  the  top-mast. 

Owners  of  Bbipa.  The  ownership  or  title  to  a 
•hip  <'Nii  be  nci|uired  in  several  ways,  as  by  purchase, 
bulliliiig,  or  inpture.  In  regard  to  the  first,  it  is  gcn- 
nrally  doiu'  by  h  bill  of  sale,  of  which  there  are  two 
klliilt  1  the  (Irst  is  where  the  ship  passes  from  the 
bulliter  III  the  llrst  purchaser,  and  is  called  the  grand 
bill  of  sole  I  the  second  is  wliere  the  owner  of  the  ship 
nut  being  the  builder,  transfers  his  interest  to  another 
imrclmser.  I'pon  the  death  of  the  owner,  his  inter- 
I'sls  '■iviilve  upon  his  executors  or  his  personal  rcpre- 
•enlatlves.  Hpeclal  coudllions  may  be  introduced 
which  nmy  vest  the  property  in  tlie  purchaser,  al- 
llioilgh  the  property  may  not  have  been  completed, 
KUi^h  iS  a  payment  of  a  certain  part  of  the  purchase- 
niunny,  when  a  part  of  the  vessel  has  been  completed ; 
*nil  h«  may  insist  ii|ion  the  completion  of  that  vessel, 
•ml  Iha  builder  can  not  require  him  to  accept  any  oth- 


er.— AnnoT.     A  ship's  boat  does  not  constltuto  a  part 
of  a  vessel's  tackle,  apparel,  furniture,  etc. 

Property  in  shljis  is  sometimes  acquired  by  capture. 
During  war  ships  and  private  ships  having  letters  of 
marque,  are  entitled  to  make  prizes.     But  before  the 
captors  acquire  a  legal  title  to  such  prizes,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  they  should  be  condemned  in  the  admiralty 
or  other  court  constituted  for  that  purpose.    When  this 
is  done,  the  captors  are  considered  to  be  in  the  same 
situation,  with  respect  to  them,  as  if  they  had  built 
or  purchased  them.  —  See  articles  PniVATEEHS,  I<i'.T- 
TKRs  OK  Marque,  Pkikks,  and  SiiirH  and  SiiirriNo. 
Oyater,  a  well-known  edible  sliell-flsh,  belonging 
to  the  genus  ottrea,  occurring  in  most  ports  of  the 
world.     Tlie  European  oyster  (p.  edulit),  wliicli  forms 
a  considerable  article  of  trade  on  the  coasts  of  England 
and  France,  is  taken  by  dredging,  after  which  tlie  ani- 
mals ore  placed  in  pits  formed  for  the  purpose,  fur- 
nished with  sluices,  through  which,  at  spring  tides,  tho 
water  is  sufiercil  to  flow.     In  these  receptacles  they 
acquire  the  green  tinge  so  remarkable  in  the  European 
oyster,  and  which  is  considered  as  adding  to  their 
value.     This  color,  whicli  at  one  fiinc  was  supposed  to 
lie  owing  to  some  mineral  impregnation,  has  recently 
been  oscertoined  to  arise  from  the  conftrvof,  and  other 
marine  vegetable  matter,  on 'which  the  animal  feeds. 
Tlie  oysters  brought  to  the  dillbrent  markets  in  the 
United  States  are  furnished  by  several  species,  which 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  discriminate,  and  are  known 
among  the  venders  and  epicures  of  this  food  by  ap- 
pellations derived  from  the  places  from  whence  they 
are  brought.     The  business  of  taking  these  alicU-fish 
employs  a  great  many  hands,  and  no  inconsiderable 
'  amount  of  tonnage.     In  many  places  oysters  are 
\  planted,  as  it  is  called ;  that  Is,  large  artificial  beds  are 
5  formed  in  favorable  situations,  where  they  are  pcr- 
;  milled  to  fatten  and  increase.     The  breeding-time  of 
j  oysters  is  in  April  or  May,  from  which  time  to  July  or 
[  August  tlio  oysters  are  said  to  be  sick  or  in  the  milt. 
This  is  known  by  the  appearance  of  a  milky  Bulistaiue 
j  in  tho  gills.     Oysters  attain  a  size  fit  for  the  table  in 
about  a  year  and  a  half,  and  are  in  their  prime  at  tlirce 
I  years  of  age ;  though  what  the  natural  term  of  their 
j  lives  may  lie,  it  is  difHciilt,  if  not  impossible,  to  determ- 
ine with  any  degree  of  accuracy.     Many  curious  dis- 
cussions have  arisen  as  to  whether  03'stcrs  possessed 
tho  faculty  of  locomotion.     It  is  well  known  that,  in 
;  general,  they  are  firmly  attached  to  stones  or  lo  each 
I  other;  and  it  has  been  stated,  and  generally  believed, 
that  they  were  not  endowed  with  any  powers  of  chang- 
ing their  position.     From  the  obscrv-ations  an<l  experi- 
ments of  naturalists,  however,  it  appears  that  they  can 
move  from  place  to  place  by  suddenly  closing  llicir 
shells,  and  thus, ejecting  the  water  contained  littwccn 
them  with  sufficient  force  to  throw  themselves  back- 
ward, or  in  a  laterol  direction.     Oysters  form  the  basis 
of  many  culinary  preparaiions,  l)Ut  arc  much  more 
digeslililc  in  their  raw  state  than  after  an}'  mode  of 
cooking  them,  as  this  process,  in  a  great  measure,  de- 
prives them  of  the  nourishing  animal  jelly,  whicli  forms 
BO  large  a  portion  of  their  sulistance.     The  shell  of  the 
oyster  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  animal 
matter,  and  was  at  ono  time  supposed  to  posses?  pecul- 
iar medical  properties;  but  analysis  has  shown  that 
tho  only  advantage  of  these  animal  carbonates  of  lime 
over  those  from  the  mineral  kingdom  arises  from  their 
containing  no  admixture  of  any  metallic  substance. 
The  lime  obtained  from  the  calcination  of  oyster-shells, 
though  exceedingly  pure  and  white,  is  better  suited  for 


worlt  which  does  not  require  great  tenacity,  as  for 
plastering  rooms,  than  for  the  common  purposes  of 
building,  as  it  does  not  form  as  hard  a  compound  with 
sand  as  the  mineral  limes. 


-r 


PAC 


1481 


PAO 


P. 


PaolfiO  Ocean,  a  vast  watery  expanse  extcndin;; 
from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  circle,  throiigli  l'.>7° 
of  lat.,  and  between  America  on  the  cast,  and  Asia,  tlic 
Malay  Archipelago,  and  Australia  on  the  west.  In  its 
widest  part,  at  the  equator,  it  is  10,000  miles  across ; 
it  narrows  especially  toward  the  north,  where  it  coni- 
ni>;nicate8  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Bchring's  Strait ; 
and,  including  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  contains  upward 
of  70,000,000  of  square  miles,  or  more  than  all  the  dry 
land  on  the  globe.  Its  coast  line  on  the  American  side, 
though  generally  bold,  is  very  little  broken  by  inlets ; 
on  the  Asiatic  side  it  is  very  irregular ;  and  the  Cel- 
ebes, China,  and  Yellow  seas,  witli  the  scac  of  Japan, 
Okhotsk,  and  Kamtschatka,  are  inlets  of  this  ocean. 
It  is  studded  with  a  great  number  of  island  groups,  the 
principal  of  which,  proceeding  from  west  to  cast,  are  the 
Ladroncs,  Carolines,  Solomon,  (Jueen  Charlotte's,  New 
Hebrides,  Fccjcc,  Friendly,  Society,  Low,  Morqucsas, 
Sandtvich,  and  Galapagos  islands,  and  New  Zealand, 
besides  a  vast  multitude  of  solitary  islands,  reefs,  and 
sand  banks.  The  great  equatorial  current  of  this 
ocean  originates  in  tlio  Antarctic  drift  current,  which 
Hows  north  along  the  shores  of  South  America,  and 
then  west  through  the  Pacific,  where  it  occupies  the 
entire  space  between  the  tropics.  Strong  land  cur- 
rents sweep  round  the  shores  of  East  Australia  and 
Japan.  The  northeast  trade-wind  prevails  uninter- 
rnptedly  between  lat.  5°  and  23°  N. ;  the  southeast 
trade-wind  commonly  blows  from  the  ccjuator  to  lat. 
26°  S. ;  between  them  is  the  region  of  calms,  extending 
over  5°,  and  varying  in  position  according  to  the  sea- 
son. Greatest  equatorial  temperature  of  Pacific  88°-5 
Fahr.  In  lat.  56°  26'  the  temperature  of  the  sea 
throughout  its  depth  is  39°-5  Fahr.  This  ocean  be- 
came first  known  to  Europeans  in  1513;  it  received  its 
name  from  Magalhacns,  who  sailed  across  it  in  1521. 
In  the  18th  century  its  diilerent  parts  were  explored  by 
Behring,  Anson,  Hyron,  Uongainvillc,  Cook,  Vancou- 
ver, IJroughton,  La  Pcrouse,  etc.  In  the  present  cen- 
tury by  D'Entrccosteaux,  Krusenstern,  Ueechey,  I'itz- 
roy,  D'Urvillc,  Wilkes,  and  Sir  James  Uoss. 

Current  nfthe  I'acijic. — Lieutenant  Uciit,  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  navy,  recently  read  a  paper  before  the  Geo- 
graphical and  Statistical  Society  of  New  York,  of  which 
the  following  is  an  abstract,  upon  "  the  great  ocean  cur- 
rent of  the  Pacific,"  corresponding  with  the  Gulf  Stream 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Japanese  have  known  it  for  many 
years,  and  call  it  the  Kurosino,  or  Black  Stream,  from 
its  dark  blue  color  compared  with  that  of  the  adjacent 
ocean.  The  fountain  from  which  this  stream  springs 
is  the  great  equatorial  current  of  the  Pacific,  which  in 
magnitude  is  in  proportion  to  the  vast  extent  of  that 
ocean,  when  compared  with  the  Atlantic,  Extending 
from  the  tropic  of  Cancer  on  the  north,  to  Capricorn, 
in  all  probability,  on  the  south,  it  has  a  width  of  nearly 
three  thousand  miles.  With  a  velocity  of  from  twenty 
to  sixty  miles  per  day,  it  sweeps  to  th'>  westward  in 
uninterrupted  grandeur  around  three-eighths  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  globe,  until,  diverted  I)y  the  continent 
of  Asia,  and  split  into  innumerable  streams  by  the  Pol- 
ynesian Islands,  it  spreads  the  genial  influence  of  its 
warmth  over  regions  of  the  earth,  some  of  which,  non- 
teeming  in  prolific  abundance,  would  otherwise  be  but 
barren  wastes.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
off-shoots  is  the  Kuro-Suro,  or  Japan  Stream,  which, 
separated  from  tho  parent  country  by  the  Bashce  Isl- 
ands and  south  end  of  Formosn  where  its  strength 
and  character  are  as  decidedly  marked  as  those  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  on  tho  coast  of  Florida.  This  northward- 
ly course  continues  to  the  parallel  of  26°  N.,  when  it 
bears  off  to  tho  northward  and  eastward,  washing  the 
whole  southeastern  coast  of  Japan  as  far  as  the  Straits 
of  Sangar,  and  increasing  in  strength  as  it  advances, 
until  reaching  tho  chain  of  islands  to  the  southward  of 


the  Gulf  of  Yedo,  where  its  maximum  velocilv.as  shown 
by  our  observations,  is  80  miles  per  day.  its  average 
strength  from  the  south  end  of  Formosa  to  the  Straits 
of  Sangar  is  found  to  be  from  35  to  10  miles  per  twen- 
ty-four hours  at  all  seasons  that  we  traversed  it.— Sci- 
entijic  Annual,  1857. 

The  Pucijic  Trade  nfthe  Cnited  Stata.—Tha  whole 
number  of  arrivals  in  the  United  States  from  ports  In 
the  Pacific  during  the  year  1858  were  69 ;  and  in  1855, 


AT  BOSTON. 

Honolulu, via N.  London..  1 

8    Iqulqup 1 

Vcru  Uluuca '.',\\  i 

„.,,    ,„„  Total  for  185(1 li 

Total  in  1855 uj 


Titlcaliiinna . . . 
Vulpiiriiiso  . . . . 
Caldcra,  Cliifi  . 
Tougoy,  Cliili . 


AT  NEW  YOBU. 


<Ja"no 10  ,  Arica i 

•  nllfonila a    (JalilLia ■"■    i 

Honolulu 4  I  CoUao  via  Valencia ...'.'.'.    1 

Total  in  IS.W gj 

"      "1865 ;;  88 

A"  BALTIMOttE. 

Callao 14  j  t'ofniimbo i 

Valparaiso 1  |  Toiigoy,  Chill i 

Total  In  1850 yj 

"      "  IHtiG ^8 

AT  nilLADKLPniA. 

C'allao  10|Iquiquo 1 

Total  in  1  S5fl ft 

"     "  1SD5 10 

AT  SOBFOIK. 

Callao 0  Totallnl85« 6 

Total  in  1865 19 

Boston,  14;  New  York,  20;  Baltimore,  17;  Philadel- 
phia, 11 ;  Norfolk,  0;  New  London,  1.     Total,  69. 

Whole  number  of  clearances  for  the  Pacific  in  1855 
were  237  ;  and  in  1856, 201,  of  which  there  were  cleared 


FKOM 

California 

Australia 

Valparidso 

Honolulu 

Callao 

California  via  X.  York. . 

Australia  via  St.  John  . . 

"         "   London... 

New  South  Wales 

Callao  via  I/indoll 

W.  C.  Central  America  . 


nOSTON  FOB 

n4 
IS 
II! 


Total  for  1S55. 


W.  C.  Central  America 

via  Philadelphia 

Guayaquil 

Valparaiso  via  St  John  . 
Callao  via  Liverpool .... 
Valparaiso  via  Lihcriu  . . 
Panama  via  Now  York. . 

Arica 

Australia  via  Iticbmoiid.      2 

Tohltl 1 

Total  for  ISSfl lOS 

.05 


FBOM  MEW  VOEK  FOB 


California T\ 

Australia IP 

Valparaiso Pi 

New  South  Wales 6 

Hobart  Town 1 


W.  (;.  Central  America  .      2 

Honolulu 1 

Iquique 1 

Panama 2 

Acapulco I 

T ot al  f 0 r  1  S.')<i llT 

"      "  ISB.'i 113 

FROSI   UA1.T1M0KF.  FOB 

W.  C.  Central  America. . .    4  1  ^'alparaiso 1 

California 2  I  Valparaiso  via  Itio 1 

Acapulco 2  I  Arica _1 

Total  for  is.'ifl U 

'■      "  1S,% T 

Boston,  108;  New  York,  117;  Baltimore,  11;  Philadel- 
phia, 5  :  New  London,  2 ;  Bangor,  1 ;  Charleston,  S.  C, 
1 ;  Providence,  1 ;  Portland,  1 ;  Savannah,  1 ;  Salem, 
1 ;  Now  Orleans.  2.     Total,  251. 

Package,  Scavage,  Baillage,  and  Portage, 
were  duties  charged  in  the  port  of  London  on  tho 
goods  imported  and  exported  by  aliens,  or  by  denizens 
Ijcing  tlie  sons  of  aliens.  During  the  Dark  Ages  it  was 
usual  to  lay  higher  duties  upon  the  goods  imported  or 
exported  i)y  aliens,  whether  in  British  or  foreign  ships, 
than  were  laid  on  similar  goods  when  imported  or  ex- 
ported by  natives.  But  according  as  sounder  and 
more  enlarged  principles  prevailed,  this  illiberal  dl»- 


ksc;. 


PAO 


1482 


PAL 


tinction  was  gradually  inodifled,  and  was  at  length 
wholly  abolished,  in  so  far  at  least  as  it  was  of  a  public 
character,  by  the  act  of  21  (jco.  III.  The  duties  thus 
preserved  to  the  city  wore  not  very  heavy ;  but  the 
principle  on  whichtliey  were  imposed  was  exceedingly 
objectionable,  and  their  collection  was  attended  with  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  and  inconvenience.  Not  being 
levied  in  other  places,  they  operated  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  trade  of  the  metropolis.  The  act  U  and  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  66,  authorized  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  to  pur- 
chase up  the  duties  in  quwtion  from  the  city.  This 
was  done  at  an  expense  of  about  illJO.OOU,  and  the 
duties  were  abolished. 

Packet,  in  ^yarigaiion,  meant  originally  a  vessel 
appointed  by  government  to  carry  the  mails  between 
the  mother  country  and  foreign  countries  or  her  own 
dependencies.  It  is  now  used  as  nearly  synonymous 
with  an  ordinary  vessel,  chiefly  of  small  burden,  that 
freights  'goods  or  passengers. — .S'ee  Ni;w  York,  I'as- 
BENUKiis,  and  Po-st-okfice. 

Pack -horse,  a  horse  employed  to  carry  goods 
on  its  back  in  bundles,  called  packages  or  packs.  In 
countries  not  yet  intersected  by  regular  roads  this  is 
the  only  mode  of  transporting  goods  from  one  part  to 
another.  In  Britain,  horses  were  formerly  employed 
for  this  purpose,  but  for  these  carts  and  wagons  are 
now  substituted.  In  Spain,  mules  and  asses  are  still 
so  employed,  and  in  Asia  and  Africa  camels  and  drom- 
edaries. 

Fadang.  This  settlement  lies  on  the  west  coast 
of  Sumatra,  and  receives  its  imports  almost  exclusive- 
ly from  Java.  It  has  no  direct  importations  from 
foreign  countries.  Port,  harbor,  and  other  cunnncrcial 
regulations  the  same  as  at  Java,  to  the  government  of 
which  island  Padang  is  subordinate.  Under  the  oper- 
ation of  high  tarilt' duties,  especially  on  American  cot- 
ton goods,  the  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
Padang  is  insignificant. 

Painter.  In  Naval  language,  a  rope  used  to  fasten 
a  boat  either  along  side  of  the  ship  to  which  it  belongs, 
or  to  home  wharf,  quay,  etc.,  as  occasion  requires. 

Painta.  The  coloring  substances  or  pigments  used 
in  tlie  arts.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal 
pigments  and  coloring  substances  included  in  the  com- 
mercial name  of  Paints,  and  coloring  substances : 


Asphaltum, 

J^ad,  red  and  white. 

Vronzc  Powders, 

Mineral  White, 

Brunswick  Orceo, 

Ochre, 

Brunswick  Blue, 

OxydofZinc,  etc. 

British  Lustre, 

Plumbago, 

Chalk, 

Piimlce-stono, 

Cftrraine, 

Painter's  Colors, 

Dry  Ochre, 

Paints  In  Oil, 

Emery, 

Putly  Oil, 

Kmerald  Green, 

I'arla  Green, 

Gum  Damar, 

Shellac, 

Gum  Sandrac, 

1  itraroarine. 

Gum  Animi, 

Vennilion, 

Gum  Oopal, 

Venetian  Red, 

Ivory  Black, 

Venligrls, 

LuatFo, 

White  0»>d  of  Zinc 

Litharge, 

Whiting  and  Paris  White, 

Lampblack, 

Zinc  Paint. 

Impobts  of  Paiktb  into  the 

rNITKD  STATM  foe 

TUB  Viae 

KBniHo  .(r 

sK  :io,  is-to. 

Dry 

Bed  nnJ 

WhillKK 

WlicDC*  ImpoTtfld, 

While 

And  Paris 

L.xl. 

While. 

ValM. 

Value 

Value. 

Hamburg 

.... 

$1T 

l)l'8 
2H4 
702 

'iin 

Holland 

Belgium 

England 

$2,830 

1S6,681 

21,74.S 

Scotland 

.  .  .  • 

&r> 

16,022 

19 
3,234 

1,498 

France  on  the  Atlantic  . . . 

France  on  the  Medltcr'n. . 

463 

!'«0 

•   •   •    i 

Bpain  on  the  Atlantic 

.... 

3,686 

.... 

Spain  on  the  Medlter'n  . . . 

2»,lil>0 

.... 

Tuscany 

1,1128 

.  .   •  . 

Two  Sicilies 

21B 

Total 

*21,033 

$174,126 

$23,S23 

KxpoBTB  or  Paiiiib  or  Fobkion  Manofaotdki  raoM  TUi 
t  MiTxu  States  fob  tuk  ^  kab  endinii  June  30, 18B6. 


Whilher  F-iported. 


England 

Canada  

Other  British  N.  A.  Poss.. 

Haytl 

Han  Uomlngo 

Mexico 

Sandwich  Islands 

Total 


Dry 
Oehre. 


V.llM. 

$4960 


Whil. 

Lead. 
""V.lue. 
$1431) 

8223 

1026 
24 


ins 
Md  P.ru 
WhlU. 


12T 


$6S91 


$et8 


F.xpobts  ok  Paints  ani>  Varnish  of  Domkstio  Mancfau- 

TrnU  KliOM   THE  I'NITliU   STATES    FOB  TUB   VeAB    IMIlSa 

.luxE  30,  185fl. 

Whilher  Exported.  Vnlue. 

Sweden  and  Norwiiy $1,201 


Danish  West  Indies. , 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Holland 

Dutch  Guiana 

Belgium 

Kngland 

Scotland 

Gibraltar. 


4,180 

400 

802 

90 

278 

210 

4,660 

302 

10 

Canada 100. 678 

Other  British  North  Auicrlcan  Possessions  ....        6,012 

BritlBii  West  Indies 2,(  84 

British  Honduras 6'>2 

Brillsh  (iulana 343 

British  Possessions  In  Africa 2,077 

Other  ports  In  Africa 1 ,430 

Britisli  Austrnlia 1.3.'>6 

British  (last  Indies 629 

Franco  on  the  Atlantic 6,T70 

Franco  on  the  .Mediterranean 104 

French  N'ortli  American  Possessions 334 

Philippine  Islands ^8I) 

Cuba ]3,!.83 

Porto  Klco 071 

Porlugnl 691 

Cape  dc  Verd  Islands 43 

Two  Sicilies 71 

Austriiin  Po.siiCsBlons  in  Italy 60 

Hiiyll 4,220 

San  Domingo 40 

Mexico 9,0 1 8 

Central  Uepublic 136 

New  Granada 6.9.^8 

VeneEueia 4, '218 

Brazil 2,419 

I'ruguay,  or  CIsplatlne  Itepubllc 1.9::9 

Buenos  Ayrcs 4  079 

Chili ; 13.370 

Pern 8,032 

Equndor 160 

Sandwich  Islands 4  471 

China C.?*") 

Whale  KlDheries 5: 0 

Total  value $217,179 

Paletmo  (anciently  Panormus),  a  large  city  and 
sea-port,  the  capital  of  the  noble  island  of  Sicily,  on 
the  north  coast  of  which  it  is  situated,  the  light-houic 
being  in  lat.  38"  8'  15"  N.,  long.  13"  21'  56"  K.  Pop- 
ulation, 170,000.  The  Hay  of  Palermo  is  about  live 
miles  in  depth,  the  city  being  situated  on  its  southwest 
shore.  A  line  mole,  fully  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length, 
having  a  light-house  and  battery  at  its  extremity,  pro- 
jects in  a  southerly  direction  from  the  arscnsal  into 
nine  or  ton  fathoms  water,  forming  a  convenient  port, 
capable  of  contoining  a  great  number  of  vessels.  Tills 
immense  work  cost  about  £1,000,000  sterling  in  il6 
construction ;  but  the  light-house,  though  a  splendid 
structure,  is  said  to  bo  very  ill  lighted.  There  is  nii 
inner  port,  which  is  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  arsenal. 
Ships  thtt  do  not  nieon  to  go  within  the  mole  may  an- 
chor about  half  a  mile  from  it,  in  from  si.T:teen  to  twen- 
ty-three fathoms,  the  mole  light  bearing  N.W'.  J  W. 
A  hoavy  sea  sometimes  rolls  into  the  bay,  but  no  dan- 
ger need  be  apprehended  by  ships  properly  found  in 
anchors  and  chain  cables.  In  going  into  the  bay,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  cleor  of  the  nets  of  the  tunny  fishery, 
for  these  are  so  strong  and  well  moored  as  to  be  capa- 
ble of  arresting  a  ship  under  sail. — Smytu'h  Sicili/,  p. 
70,  and  Append,  p.  4. 

Import*  and  t'xporlt.—The  great  articles  of  export 


'-fr: 


PAL 


U83 


PAL 


OH  TIIF 

ISM. 

fhUlnl    I 
id  PalU 
WklU. 


$6r8 


*M18 

IXNBKAO- 

S    KSIU.NO 

VnliU. 

4,1S(1 
400 
mi 
dO 
2T8 
210 
4,66» 
802 
10 
10fl.6T8 
6,012 
2,c84 
6Vi 
»4i! 

2,on 

;  1,4!!0 
l,8f<5 

MU 
.        O.TTO 

104 

a.14 

6S0 

671 

691 

43 

II 

60 

4,220 

40 

9,618 

185 

e.orxs 

4,218 
2,419 

l.«;;9 

4  079 
13.;'.76 
8,632 
160 
4  471 
0.745 

$217, ITO 


from  Sicily  are,  oUve  oil,  Kru'"*  particularly  wheat  anil 
barley,  sill(,  briaistono,  wine  and  lirandy,  barilla,  loin- 
ens  and  oranges,  lemon  juice,  manna,  Bhuniae,  liuiccil, 
fruit,  salted  tish,  and  salt;  with  argol,  liquoriie,  pum- 
ice-stone, rags,  skins,  honey,  cotton  wool,  sairrun,  t<tc 

AsTiGLKS  ExroBTun  rnoii  A»n  Impobteu  imto  I'ai.rhmu  in 
196.'. 


g»MlllHl.|     VnlUM. 


Owt. 


Argols  and  craam  of  tartar. 

Ilriiustone — 

Cantharldos — 

GhGRtfea — 

Corn,  grain,  and  pulse Quarten. 

Eisences roiinda. 

Fish,  salted Cwt, 

Fruits,  dry  and  picked  ....  — 

Oranges  and  lemons Doxes. 

Linseed Quarters. 

Liquorice  paste Cwt 

Manna — 

Oils,  olive Gallons. 

RaRS Cwt 

Sliumao — 

Skins Number. 

Wlno  and  nv'  rits Onllons. 

Other  a',  ticles Value. 

Total £ 


7,B6M 

184,880 

6 

lai 

2.I0II 
29,420 

8,4Tfl 

2,143 
40!),OSI 

4,117 
14,229 

189,910 
81,7il6 

28J,r)'4 
80,100 

107,850 


i:il,740i 

22,217 

00 

8110 

4,:4'jo 

20,678 

4  45) 

2,72(1 

10:1,503 

8,H34 

2.\t<32 

34  140 

21,745 

15  NII7 

309,  U7S 

834 

23,984 

82,090 

~fl98,Ui 


Cocoa Cvt't. 

Coffee — 

Indigo — 

Pepper — 

Rum Gallons. 

Spices Owt 

Sugars — 

Tt>a Pounds. 

Woods Cwt 

Cottons Packages. 

Cotton  yarn Cwt. 

Cotton  and  linen Packages. 

Cotton  and  wool — 

Earthen-ware  and  glass. ...  — 

Fancy  goods — 

Hardware — 

Linen? — 

Silks — 

Woolens — 

Copper Cwt. 

(Jonis Tons. 

Ileal  boards Number. 

Drugs  and  colors Packages. 

Fish,  cod Cwt. 

Herrings Darrcls. 

Hemp Cwt. 

Hides — 

Iron — 

Lead — 

Tjeathcr — 

Pitch  and  tar Parrels. 

Saltpetre Cwt. 

Stationery  and  books Packages. 

Steel Cwt. 

Tin  in  bors — 

Tin  in  plates — 

Tobacco — 

Wax — 

Wool — 

Other  articles Value. 


40ft 

4,4'U 
6ll 

2,209 

1,000 

0,1 

11,044 

3iK) 

2,000 
834 

7,199 
80 
50 

1,398 

100 

45S 

75 

101 

604 

005 

10,01)0 

1,010,197 

1,271 

7,750 
85 
470 

8,049 
11,4U0 

4,900 
220 
639 
444 
140 

1,603 

32) 

9-."i 

1.5,S,'iO 

2,672 
207 


Total 


^1 

i;i,ii45 

11,200 

1,430 

4,470 

82(1 

090 

23,002 

on 

1,090 

41,400 

65,032 

2,250 

4,4S0 

41,940 

4,0.)0 

13,940 

6,000 

10,t00 

60,31)0 

2,8.)S 

10,000 

50,950 

12,710 

6,813 

170 

1,904 

4,9,29 

5,749 

3,775 

4,4-»0! 

1,079 

M.)S 

2,141 

1,500 

1,00(1 

2,0)i! 

(I3,4l)0: 

19,T1M 

2,!l."iO' 

85,0001 


006.0931 


I'urcliuscs  of  |iroituco  arc  always  paid  for  In  cash,  gen- 
erally half  oil  making  the  purchase,  and  the  other  half 
on  duliviiry,  nhuii  in  I'ulornio,  and  on  receiving  order 
fur  delivery,  on  the  coast,  Tliu  imports  consist  of  cot- 
ton yarn,  wool,  and  stuO's ;  sugar,  codec,  cocoa,  dyo 
stiill's,  iron,  oartliuii-wiini,  spices,  tin,  hides.  Newfound- 
laud  cud,  tlniliur  fur  liuiUliiig,  etc.  Tlie  best  of  the  old 
accounts  of  the  traiio  of  Sicily  that  wo  have  met  with 
Is  I'oiitiihicd  hi  SwiNmiiiNi;'»VVurc/«mMe  Two  ^'iciViVs, 
Ito  cd„  vol,  II,  p,  lUl-lia. 

PKlm  (,l<at.  pulmii,  the  hunit).  An  ancient  measure 
of  length  tiikiiii  from  the  extent  of  the  hand.  There 
wuru  two  illlVeruiit  palms;  oiio  corresponding  to  tlie 
length  of  tlio  hand,  and  tiie  other  to  the  l>rcudtb. 
Tliu  Ituniaii  pulm  wus  ubuut  eight  and  a  half  English 
iiiclios.  Tliu  Kngllsh  palm  Is  understood  to  be  three 
Inchus. 

Pulm  on  (dor.  ralmiili  I'r.  /luih  dr.palme,  Jluih 
{la  iSeuri/nti  It.  Olio  ili  imliiia ;  !Sp.  Aceile  tie iHilma)  Is 
olitained  I'ruin  thu  fruit  of  sovurul  species  of  palms,  but 
especially  from  that  of  the  ICIai)  dumcenm,  growing 
oil  thu  west  coast  of  Africa,  to  the  south  of  Fernando 
I'u,  and  ill  Uracil,  AVhcn  Imported,  the  oil  is  about 
thu  cunslsluncu  of  iiuttcr,  of  a  yellowish  color,  and 
scarcely  any  piirllctilor  taste  ;  hy  long  keeping  it  bc- 
coiiiea  ruiicld,  loses  Its  color,  which  fades  to  a  dirty 
white,  and  In  this  atato  is  to  be  rijjcctcd.  It  is  some- 
times iinltutud  Willi  hog's  lard,  colored  witli  turmeric, 
and  scented  with  I'loreiitlnc  trls  root.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  tlio  coast  of  Uiitnca  employ  palm  oil  for  the 
sumo  purposes  that  we  do  butter.  Our  supplies  of 
palm  oil  aril  almont  wholly  derived  from  tlie  west  coust 
of  Africa,  of  wlilcli  it  is  llie  staple  article  of  export.— 
LisWIn'm  Miilcria  Mulini;  Tiiii.mhos's  Dhpemalonj. 

Canilles  are  niiiilu  of  pulm  oil  and  cocoa-nut  oil,  of 
which  many  thousand  tons  per  annum  uro  now  em- 
ployed.    Tills  modern  substitution  of  vegetable  fat  for 
uiilmul  ful  is  rvmnrkablo.    It  Is  bringing  Central  Af- 
rica Into  tntlmiitu  commercial  relations  witli  civilized 
countries.     Thu  palm  oil  is  liquid  in  Africa,  but  it  as- 
sunr-  c  solid  statu  In  a  coldc-  •llmatc.    Tiie  casks  con- 
taining It  have  sloam  furceil  into  tticm,  by  which  the 
oil  Is  moltod  mill  mudu  to  liow  out;  and  tiio  oil  is  tlicn 
purllled  and  bleached  lo  various  degrees  of  whiteness, 
according  to  thu  purpose  to  which  it  is  lo  bo  applied. 
Tiiu  whllciicd  cakes  of  pulm  oil  nro  cut  into  slices  by  a 
j  machine  ;  thu  slices  are  dcpunilcd  on  mats  of  cocoa-nut 
libru;  thu  mals  ai'u  plied  in  heaps,  with  iron  plates  be- 
tween them ;  the  heaps  ore  |iiarej  in  hydraulic  presses, 
,  where  Intunsu  prcssiiru  brings  the  palm  oil  to  the  state 
i  of  dry,  tliln  nilies.   Aflur  a  lltllo  more  purilication,  the 
,  palm  oil  is  littcd  fur  melting,  previous  to  the  making 
of  cuiiillcs. 


les  of  export 


Wheat  is  largely  exported.  It  Is  of  a  ml.xcd  ipiallty, 
hard,  and  is  generally  sold  from  the  pulilic  magazines, 
or  caricalori,  by  measure,  without  weight.  Hut  the 
best  hard  wheat,  grown  in  the  neighborliood  of  Tulcr- 
mo,  is  sold  by  the  salma  of  272  rotloll=47C  lbs.  Kii- 
glish ;  the  dllTercnce  between  wclglit  and  measure  be- 
ing made  good  by  the  seller  or  buyer,  as  the  cnso  imiy 
be.  Wine  is  principally  shipped  from  Marsala ;  lem- 
ons, oranges,  and  Icinon-julcc  from  Messina;  salt  I'roin 
Trapani;  and  Imrllla  from  the  southern  cuast,  Hut 
all  the  articles  to  bo  found  on  the  coast  may,  for  the 
most  part,  bo  had  at  Palermo;  unless,  however,  the 
quantity  required  be  small,  it  is  usually  best  to  slilp 
tb.ein  from  the  outports,  tho  oxpenso  of  their  convey- 
ance to  Palermo  being  very  heavy.  Tho  crops  of  bu- 
rllla  and  ahumac  come  to  market  in  August ;  but  lirlin- 
Btone,  salt,  oil,  wine,  rags,  etc.,  may  generally  lie  lind 
all  tho  year  round.  The  first  shipments  of  leiiiuiis  uiul 
oranges  may.  ho  mado  iu  tho  beginning  of  Xovomber. 


iMl'IIBTS  «!'   P*I,M  fill.  INTO  TIIR  I'niTKn  StATT.B  rOB  TUB 

Vi;,>li  KMiiKii  .Ii;nk  30,  19M. 

Dlitrli'U  i)ii|iorlt'>l  liiio.              t       ((nlliinii. 

Value. 

Sttleiiiaiid  lUiveiiy 

lIuHlou  and  Cliai'lottowii 

New  lledford 

0i;0,O79 

76,001 

1122 

4,95S 

4,(>i3 

307,562 

650 

40 

$23S,417 

26,10-2 

92 

2,079 

1,607 

143,994 

196 

50 

New  York 

Iliilllinoro 

.Mobile 

Tiitnl 

1,149,617 

1(416,317 

Palms,  Willed  by  I.lnniciis,  from  tlieir  noble  and 
sinlcly  iippearnni!!',  tliu  princes  of  tho  vegetable  king- 
dom, are  a  natural  order  of  arborescent  cndogens,  chiefly 
Inhaliitiiig  tho  truplcs,  dlslinguishcd  liy  their  fleshy, 
colorless,  sl.x-partcd  (lowers.  Inclosed  within  spathes ; 
tlieir  ininulu  cmliryo,  lying  In  the  midst  of  albumen, 
and  remote  from  lliu  liilutn  ;  and  rigid,  plaited  or  pin- 
nated liiurtlculuti'd  leaves,  sometimes  called  fronds. 
Wine,  oil,  lliix.  Hour,  sugar,  and  salt,  says  Humboldt, 
are  tho  proiliicu  of  tills  trllio ;  to  which  Von  Martiug 
adds  thread,  iilensils,  weapons,  food,  and  habitations. 
'I'liu  most  cunimoii  «|ioi;les  Is  tho  cocoa-nut.  Their 
I  wounded  stoins,  or  spathes,  ylold  in  ttbundancc  a  sac 


PAM 


1484 


PAN 


charino  fluid,  known  In  India  by  tho  name  of  toddy. 
The  succulent  rind  of  tho  (Into  ia  n  most  nutritious  as 
well  as  a.t;rcca))le  fruit.  Sa);o  is  yielded  by  tho  inte- 
rior of  the  trunks  of  nearly  nil,  except  .•Irecd  cnlechu, 
tho  well-known  jtimnri,  or  betei-nut.  Tho  fruit  of  the 
latter  species  is  remarkable  fur  its  narcotic  or  intoxi- 
coting  power.  Tho  common  canes  or  ratana  of  tho 
shops  qro  tho  floxiblo  stems  of  species  of  the  genus 
Cnlnmui, 

Pampas.  The  name  given  to  ono  of  tho  great  sys- 
tems of  !South  American  plnin»,which  can  scarcely,  with 
propriety,  bo  called  deieits,  inasmuch  as  they  are  cover- 
ed with  luxuriant  herbage,  and  inhabited  by  vast  herds 
of  wild  cattle  ond  droves  of  horses.  The  region  of  the 
Pampas  forms  the  liasins  of  the  Paraguay  and  La  Pla- 
ta, and  includes  the  vast  plains  of  Buenos  Ayres,  ex- 
tending from  tlie  foot  of  the  eastern  ridge  of  the  Andes 
to  tho  "sea-like  Plata," and  stretching  southward  into 
the  deserts  of  I'atugonin.  —  TitAu.i.'s  Phijaicnl  Geoff- 
rnphy.  Seo  Ciuarterli/  Keview,  xxxv.,  114  (KouEitT 
8oi;tiikv). 

Pamphlet,  a  small  book,  usually  printed  in  the  oc- 
tavo or  duodecimo  form,  and  stitched  with  paper  cov- 
er, popularly  understood  to  comprise  from  fifty  to  two 
hundred  pages. 

Panama,  a  city  and  sea-port  of  New  Granada,  on 
the  I'acitlc,  tliirty-eight  miles  sonthoast  f^om  Chagres, 
lat.  8°  5fi'  N. ;  long.  79°  31'  2"  W.  Population,  7000. 
It  stands  on  a  rocliy  peninsula,  projecting  into  the  Bay 
of  Panama,  and  has  an  imposing  aspect  from  the  sea. 
Its  streets  arc  well  ventiiateci,  and  it  is  said  to  be  clean- 
er than  most  Spanish-American  cities.  It  is  encircled 
by  irregular  and  not  very  strong  fortitications,  construct- 
ed at  diHercnt  periods.  The  houses  arc  partly  of  wood, 
straw,  and  other  fragile  materials  ;  but  many  are  sub- 
stantially built  of  stone,  the  larger  having  court-yards, 
or  patios,  in  the  old  Spanish  style ;  and  no  doubt  it  has 
been  much  improved  within  the  Inst  two  or  three 
years.  Its  roadstead  is  ono  of  the  linest  in  tho  world. 
There  are  a  number  of  islands  a  siiort  distance  from 
the  main  land,  which  aflbrd  secure  ancliorage  for  ships 
of  any  burden,  and  from  which  supplies  of  provisions, 
Including  excellent  water,  may  easily  be  obtained. 
Tlie  tides  daily  rise  and  fall  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
seven  feot,  so  that  it  is  peculiarly  well  fitted  for  the  re- 
pair and  building  of  ships.  Previously  to  1710,  when 
the  trade  with  the  Pacific  first  began  to  be  carried  on 
round  Cape  Horn,  Panama  was  the  principal  entre- 
pot of  trade  between  Europe  and  Western  America. 
From  that  period,  hojvever,  it  fell  off';  and  its  decay 
was  peculiarly  rapid  after  the  independence  of  South 
America,  and  tlio  opening  of  the  other  ports  of  tlie  Pa- 
cilic.  But  since  the  occupation  of  (.'alilbmia  by  the 
Americans,  .md  especially  since  the  discovery  of  tlie 
auriferous  deposits  in  that  country,  it  lias  again  rapid- 
ly increased.  And  now  that  a  railway  is  carried  across 
the  isthmus,  it  will  in  all  probat)ility  attain  to  great- 
er connnercial  distinction  than  ever.  In  the  course  of 
the  year  ]Su5  as  many  as  twelve  steamers  were  em- 
ployed in  the  trade  between  Panama  aiul  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Tliere  is  a  treaty  of  commerce  between  tho  United 
States  and  New  Granada,  the  terms  of  which  are  com- 
plied Willi  by  New  (iranadii,  but  nro  .somotimes  broken 
by  the  local  governnu  nt  of  the  province,  which  placed 
a  tax  upon  passenger-carrying  vessels,  at  tlie  rate  of 
ono  dollar  for  each  passenger,  which  has  been  recently 
annulled  bj-  the  supreme  government  of  New  Granada. 
The  commercial  intercourse  of  the  I'nited  States  is 
alone  dependent  on  the  regulations  made  by  the  gen- 
eral government  of  New  Grnnaila,  wliidi  latter,  by  an 
act  of  Congress,  has  made  Panama  and  other  ports  on 
tho  Isthmus  ft-ee  ports  of  entry  since  tho  1st  of  Janu- 
arj',  1860.  Tliere  are  no  privileges  permitted  to  the 
comnicreo  of  other  nations  which  are  denied  to  the 
United  States,  and  there  are  no  restrictions  imposed 
on  the  commerce  of  other  nations  othor  than  what  arc 


imposed  upon  that  of  the  United  States.  Tho  sum  of 
$0  40  is  collected  tram  each  American  vessel ;  viz., 
$4  80  to  the  captain  of  tho  port,  and  $1  UO  to  the  inter- 
preter. The  samo  charge  is  made  against  New  (ira- 
nadian  vessels,  except  the  interpreter's  fee.  The  trans- 
shipment of  goods  from  ono  port  to  another  in  New 
Granada,  or  to  a  foreign  country,  by  United  .Stales 
ships,  is  permitted  without  restrictions.  The  c unciiry 
of  this  country,  by  a  recent  law,  is  eslabiislud  at  leii 
dimes  to  the  dollar.  The  weights  and  measures  arc 
the  same  as  used  in  France,  but  as  yet  arc  not  brought 
into  u"'  in  this  country.  The  French  silver,  by  a  law 
of  New  Granada,  is  made  a  legal  tender  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  cents  to  tlie  one-franc  piece,  although,  com- 
pared  with  the  value  of  United  Stales  silver,  it  would 
only  bo  worth  18'0  cents.  New  Granada  does  not  ex- 
port any  thing  from  here  other  than  a  very  few  liides, 
and  the  imports  of  the  United  States  to  this  place  con- 
sist only  of  coal  and  provisions  for  the  steamers  which 
carry  passengers  to  and  from  the  isthmus.  Tlie  iaiiorer 
in  this  consular  jurisdiction  receives  from  two  to  three 
dollars  per  day;  mechanics  from  six  to  eiglit  dollars 
per  day ;  and  clerks  from  liiiridO  to  $i;i00O  per  annum. 
There  are  no  price-current  slieets  puldishcd  in  this  ccm- 
sular  jurisdiction. — Commercial  Itelations  oflhc  l.'iiiled 
States. 

Panama,  or  Darlen  (Isthmus  of),  connects 

North  (or  rather  Central)  and  South  America,  niul  is 
comprised  in  the  republic  of  New  Granada,  see.,  Lslli- 
mus,  forming  a  province  between  lat.  0°  and  10°  N..  ond 
long.  77"  30'  and  81°  W.,  having  north  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  Gulf  of  Darion,  and  south  the  Gulf  of  Panama. 
Lengtii,  west,  to  cast,  about  200  iiiilcs,  average  breadth 
40  miles,  but  in  long.  70°  it  is  narrowed  to  less  than 
30  miles.  Surface  undulating,  the  hill  chains  wiiidi 
extend  through  the  isthmus,  uniting  the  mountain  sys- 
tems of  Central  and  South  America,  arc,  near  Panama, 
not  more  than  260  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific. 
A^rcat  quantity  of  rain  fulls ;  in  the  months  of  July, 
August,  and  Septcinlpcr  it  rains  incessantly.  Soil  very 
fertile;  products  conipri.se  tine  timlier,  in  great  vari- 
ety, fruits,  rice,  maize,  sugar-cane,  coflee,  cocoa,  caout- 
chouc, vanilla,  dyes,  drugs,  hides,  limestone.  On  its 
north  coast  are  Aspinwoll  (colony),  Puerto-Hello,  and 
Chttgres;  on  its  south  side  is  Panama.  A  coniieclion 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  lias  liccii  pro- 
posed at  diHerent  points  of  Central  America:  viz.,  at 
Tehuantcpcc,  at  Cliliiuimula,  at  Nicar.igua,  and  at  the 
narrowest  part,  where  a  railroad  lias  Ijcen  couslriiclcd 
between  Aspiinvail  and  Panama. 

J'assai/c  acrosn  the  Inlhmus  of  Panama  or  Dnrlcn. — 
Latterly,  or  since  the  discovery  of  the  mineral  liclics 
of  California,  the  isthmus  bos  become  a  great  thorough- 
fare, vast  numbers  of  individuals  liaviiig  crossed  from 
the  port  of  Chagres  on  the  Cariljlican  Sea  to  Panama 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  ond  conversely.  The  jiort  of 
Chagres  is  within  the  mouth  of  the  rivcrof  that  name, 
in  lat.  9°  IH'  G"  N.,  long.  79'  f)9'  2"  W.  A  liar  ut  the 
mouth  of  the  river  has  only  from  10  feet  to  12  feet 
water,  though  witliin  the  bar  tho  ri\cr  deepens  to  from 
four  to  six  fathoms.  It  is  proliabio  that  the  bar  might 
be  deepened  without  much  ditTicuity,  and  a  canal  might 
bo  cut  from  the  bottom  of  tlic  liny  of  Slanzanilia  to  tlie 
river,  from  whicli  it  is  only  three  miles  distant.  A 
short  while  ago  tlie  town  (if  so  it  might  be  called)  was 
a  mere  cluster  of  huts,  unhealthy,  and  without  any  ac- 
commodation for  passengers.  But  having  latterly  Iie- 
conio  one  of  the  starting-points  in  the  nearest  and  short- 
est route  fronv  the  cast  to  California,  it  has  been  consid- 
erably  improved.  A  joint-stock  company  was  formed 
in  New  York  for  the  construction  of  n  railway  from  or 
near  Chagres,  at  the  bottom  of  Manzanilla  Hay,  to 
Panama,  a  distance  of  about  ,14  or  .'15  miles.  This  rail- 
way has  been  completed,  and  is  now  in  operation.  Tho 
undertaking  reflects  great  credit  on  American  enter- 
prise and  perseverance.  Tho  dilTicultics  to  bo  over- 
come were  of  a  very  formidable  description,  partly  from 


PAN 


1485 


PAN 


sum  of 
il;  vU., 
10  intor- 
ow  (irn- 

10  trnns- 
iii  Now 

11  Stlltl!B 

ciirrpiicy 
;(1  lit  icn 
surcB  aro 
t  broiitjlit 
by  11  law 
le  rate  of 
l(;ll,   lom- 
,  it  would 
c8  not  cx- 
few  liiiles, 
place  coll- 
iers wliUh 
.'lie  laborer 
vo  to  three 
i;lit  iloUars 
ler  niiiKini- 
in  this  loii- 
'thc  Viiiled 

),  conncots 

rica,  nml  is 

I,  sec.,  Isth- 

ilO^^^N.-and 

0  Ciiribbean 
of  I'ananm. 

raKc  breailth 
to  less  than 

haius  which 

louiitttin  sys- 

car  I'anama, 

f  the  I'acific. 

iitlis  of  July, 

,-.  Soil  very 
1  prcat  vnri- 
cocoa,  eaout- 
oiiP.  On  its 
to-lUUo,  and 
A  coiuiection 
ins  been  pro- 
rica:  viz.,  at 
la,  and  at  tlio 
constructed 

,„    /)»n'cn.— 
lineriil  riches 
;iit  thorough- 
crossed  from 
.1  to  ranama 
The  port  of 
of  that  name, 
A  bar  at  the 
et  to  Vi  feet 
:peiis  to  from 
ihe  bar  niisht 
I  canal  might 
zanilla  to  the 
distant.     A 
,c  callecO  w(is 
^thout  any  ac- 
Ig  Inttcily  be- 
Icst  and  short- 
^  been  consid- 
•  was  formed 
[iwnv  from  or 
nilla  Hay,  to 
This  rail- 
Iration.     The 
Icrlcan  cntcr- 
j  to  be  over- 
h,  partly  from 


the  nature  of  the  ground,  which  not  unfrcquently  con- 
siatod  of  deep  uiarahcs,  but  mora  from  the  luxuriance 
and  strength  of  tho  vegetation  through  wlilch  it  was 
necessary  to  pcnetruto,  and  the  heat,  moisture,  and  un- 
licalthiness  of  tho  climato.  Unluckily,  tho  desire  to 
aeeoinplisli  their  task  in  tho  shortest  time  and  at  the 
least  expense,  tempted  the  engineers  to  execute  tlio 
V'ork  in  a  ve.y  superlicial  manner,  substituting  bridges, 
viaducts,  pillars,  etc.,  of  wood  for  those  of  stone,  mortar, 
and  iron.  In  a  country  whore  tho  decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter  is  so  very  rapid  this  was  as  false  and 
spurious  a  species  of  economy  as  can  well  be  imagined. 
Already  several  miles  of  the  railway  have  had  to  be 
repaired,  or  rather  reconstructed,  by  tho  substitution 
otliyiium  rita  and  other  hard  woods  for  tho  softer  ones 
that  were  lirst  used.  This,  however,  will  do  little  mure 
than  palliate  the  evil ;  and  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that 
eventually  stono  and  iron  bridges  and  viaducts  will 
have  to  bo  used  instead  of  wooden  ones  every  where 
along  the  line.  Trains  take  about  four  hours  in  pass- 
ing from  sea  to  sea;  but  were  the  railway  properly 
flnished,  the  passage  might  Imi  performed  in  less  than 
half  that  timo.  A  station,  called  Aspinwall,  has  been 
erected  on  Slanzanilla  Island,  in  the  Caribbean  Seo. 
Uut  it  is  extremely  unheulthy,  and  there  is  little  pros- 
pect of  its  ever  becoming  a  place  of  nmch  importance. 
— To.Mp;8'8  I'anama  Uailroad,  New  York,  ISou,  pasiim. 

Uut  supposing  (which  is  not  the  case)  that  this  rail- 
way weru  every  thing  that  could  be  desired,  still  it  is 
plain  that  the  grand  desideratum  is  the  carrying  across 
the  isthmus  of  a  water  communication  lictwcen  the 
Atlantic  and  raciiic  oceans.  We  do  not  mean  by  this 
a  canal  suitable  only  for  coasters,  or  vessels  of  com- 
paratively small  burden.  Such  a  channel  would  bo  of 
little  use,  except  to  the  countries  contiguous  to  its  ter- 
mini. What  is  really  wanted  is  a  canal  that  will  ad- 
mit ships  of  tho  largest  burden,  and  bound  on  the 
longest  voyages.  The  advantages  that  would  result 
from  having  the  isthmus  perforated  by  such  a  channel 
can  not  be  easily  exaggerated.  No  other  project  that 
appears  to  be  within  tho  limits  of  |)0ssibility,  perhaps 
not  even  the  carr^'ing  of  a  ship  canal  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Suez,  would  give  so  great  a  stimulus  to  com- 
merce and  navigation.  It  would  remove  the  barrier 
which  renders  the  navigation  between  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts  of  America  so  tedious  and  difficult. 
And,  by  doing  this,  it  would  enable  ships  from  Kuropc 
to  reach  tho  latter  and  the  racitic  in  less  than  half  (lie 
timo  they  do  at  present,  while  it  would  greatly  facili- 
tate the  voyage  to  Australia  and  China. 

And  n  grand  project  of  this  sort  is  on  foot.  It  is 
proposed  to  cut  a  canal  that  shall  admit  ships  of  1000 
tons  burden  and  upward,  between  I'orto  Escoccs  (lat. 
8"  5'  N.,  long.  77°  21'  W.),  near  Point  Coledonia,  in 
the  Gulf  of  Uarien,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Hio 
Savana,  which  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Sun  Aliguel,  on  the 
I'acilic.  The  intervening  space  (about  38  or  4U  miles) 
is  said  to  lie  comparatively  (lat ;  tho  ports  at  each  ex- 
tremity aro  easy  of  access,  and  have  deep  water;  and 
it  is  proposed  that  tho  canal  should  be  constructed 
throughout  on  the  same  level,  and  have  no  locks.  The 
cost  of  the  project  is  estimated  at  from  12  to  1.^  millions 
sterling.  And  considering  the  vast  importance  of  such 
a  work  to  the  United  States,  to  Kngland,  and,  indeed, 
to  all  maritime  nations,  this  expense,  heavy  as  it  may 
appear,  should  be  reckoned  a  subordinate  matter.  Were 
the  country  through  w  hich  it  is  to  pass  in  the  possession 
of  England  or  tho  United  States,  it  would  most  jirob- 
ably  have  been  undertaken.  But  the  unsettled  state 
of  Central  America,  and  the  knotty  questions  that 
might  eventually  arise  as  to  the  property  and  manage- 
ment of  tho  canal,  aro  serious  obstacles  to  its  being 
proceeded  witii.— See,  for  ample  details  on  this  inter- 
esting subject,  tho  work  of  Vt.  Clklen,  entitled  Isth- 
mus n/Varien  S/iip  Canai. 

Tho  route  by  which  tho  railroad  passes  is  in  every 
respect  the  most  desirable  for  this  purpose,  and  the 


means  by  which  tho  character  of  tiie  rountry  could  bo 
best  known,  as  far  as  its  topography  and  the  features 
essential  to  tho  object  in  view  could  l>o  seen.  It  was, 
in  fact,  the  direct  means  for  tho  accoinplishinent  of  the 
purpo'<e.  It  is  supposed  that  tho  canal  will  bo  united 
with  the  waters  of  the  I'acilic  on  either  side  of  the  city, 
and  that  a  channel  might  bo  dredged  to  tho  depth  of 
thirty  feet,  to  meet  the  navigable  waters  for  ships  of 
large  draught.  Tlio  bay  then  expands  into  an  ample 
harbor,  where  the  winds  aro  said  never  to  blow  with 
violence,  sufficiently  comprelionsivo  for  the  commorce 
of  tho  world,  and  studded  with  islands,  convenient  for 
all  tho  great  purposes  that  tho  condition  of  things 
would  call  for,  by  tho  construction  of  a  canal  through 
tho  isthmus. 

Tho  isthmus  itself  seems  to  present  no  serious  ob- 
stacle to  science  for  the  construction  of  a  canal.  Tho 
whole  extent,  from  tho  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  is  made 
up  of  swamps,  hills,  and  plains ;  and  the  highest  point 
of  land  where  the  railroail  pusses  is  not  more  than  286 
feet  aliovo  the  level  of  the  sea.  On  tho  whole  route, 
most  if  not  all  the  hills  through  which  the  canal  would 
pass  would  be  requiredfor  embankments  overthe  plains 
and  swamps ;  and  there  are  no  insuperable  obstacles  to 
piercing  tho  highest  part,  so  as  conveniently  to  iiiako 
tho  waters  of  tho  Chagres,  Obispo,  and  liio  Grande 
available  for  tho  wants  of  a  canal.  In  a  climate  less 
unfavorable  to  tho  white  man;  the  question  of  "  feasi- 
bility" would  not  be  raised.  It  seeins  to  Ijo  conceded, 
from  experience,  that  tho  African  race  alone  persist- 
ently lalior  in  this  climate.  A  few  thousand  of  free 
blacks  might  be  obtained  from  tho  West  India  Islands ; 
but  this  resource  would  be  inadequate,  as  was  experi- 
enced by  the  operations  on  the  Panama  Koad.  Tho 
want  of  men  to  labor  would  seem  to  be  the  great  ob- 
stacle to  tho  successful  accomplishment  of  a  work  of  so 
much  magnitude. 

On  the  Atlantic  side  tho  canal  would  enter  tho  Bay 
of  A.pinwall.  In  approaching  this  point,  it  would 
pass  a  few  miles  from  the  Chagres,  and  enter  the  bay 
near  the  River  Mindi.  Here,  it  will  bo  seen,  as  in  tho 
Bay  of  Panama,  extensive  dredging  for  a  channel  to 
meet  tho  deep  water  would  be  neccssory.  The  bay 
expands  for  the  distance  of  about  live  miles,  lictwcen 
two  headlands,  and  is  open  to  the  sea.  A  breakwater 
would  be  necessary  here.  With  such  an  one  us  would 
aftbrd  (he  necessary  protection  against  the  ocean  swell, 
the  Bay  of  Aspinwall,  like  the  Bay  ol  Panama,  would 
aflbrd  ample  room  for  the  commerce  of  Kurope  as  well 
as  America;  and  in  contemplating  these  two  bays  with 
tho  eye  of  a  seaman,  and  in  reference  to  the  great  work 
in  question,  it  would  look  as  though  nature  had  pro- 
vided them  for  the  especial  convenience  of  man  in  his 
laborious  undertakings  in  tho  extension  of  commerce, 
and  a  place  where  all  nations  may  meet,  in  their  varied 
pursuits  on  the  great  highway  of  the  ocean.  In  a  work 
like  that  of  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Durien,  it 
is.  to  be  supposed  that  the  requirements  of  commerce 
and  navigaiion,  in  its  mostextended  application,  would 
alone  be  considered;  and,  taking  this  for  a  standnrd,  a 
cunal  two  hundred  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet  deep  would 
seem  to  be  the  appropriate  dimensions.  With  such  an 
avenue  from  the  Atlantic,  the  stormy  and  distant  seas 
of  the  South  would  lie  abandoned  by  Europe  as  well  as 
America,  and  we  should  meet  there  on  neutral  ground, 
pursuing  with  a  common  purpose  thr,  paths  of  peace 
and  industry,  which  by  its  means,  we  may  suppose, 
would  effect  a  moral  revolution  such  as  tho  world  has 
never  known,  and  surpassing  in  importance  that  which 
would  be  ellccted  in  tho  revolution  of  tho  commercial 
world. 

Appended  is  a  paper  sulimitted  liy  Colonel  G.  M, 
Totten,  containing  dimensions  and  other  data  for  the 
proposed  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama : 

IHmcnsions  and  other  Data  nf  the propoted  Ship-Canal 
across  Ihe  Isthmus  of  Ponanw,— Length  from  shore  to 
shore,  45^  miles.     Length  from  five  fathoms  -water 


PAP 


1486 


PAP 


In  Navy  Hiiy,  on  tlio  Atlantic,  to  throo  fathoms  wa- 
ter In  Panama  Hay,  on  the  Pacllle,  IN)  inlica.  The 
prism  of  water  to  ho  150  feet  wide  at  the  liottom,  270 
feet  wide  at  nurfnee,  and  111  feet  deep.  The  locks  to 
bo  too  feet  in  clear  length  of  chaniher,  and  00  feet  In 
dear  width.  The  summit  level  will  ho  150  feet  above 
mean  tide  of  the  Atlantic  and  Paclflc  oceans.  The 
summit  cut  will  be  about  four  miles  long,  'flic  deep- 
est cutting  on  this  level  will  lio  li)0  feet,  and  the  aver- 
age depth  of  the  cut  will  bo  10  feet.  The  KlvcrOhagres 
yields  an  ample  supply  of  water  for  the  canal  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  summit  level  will  bo  sup- 
plied by  a  feeder  about  twenty-four  miles  long,  which 
will  tap  the  Klvcr  Chagrcs  about  twcnty-ono  miles 
nliovo  the  town  of  Crnces,  whore  the  level  of  tho  river 
is  alotit  one  hundred  and  eighty-live  feet  above  mean 
tlilc,  and  about  thirty-five  feet  above  the  summit  level. 
The  cost  of  this  canal,  including  the  reitnlsito  harbor 
Improvements  atcach  end,  will  not  exceed  $80,000,000. 
— CoMMODonK  P.vri.niNo's  Rejiort  tu  the  Nari/  Depart' 
iinttl,  United  States,  1H57. 

The  fallowing  figures  will  show  the  comparative  dis- 
tances from  Now  York  to  San  Francisco  of  tho  four 
routes,  exclusive  of  tho  land  travel : 


Routei. 

Diilanp*  on 

AllAtltlC 

DuUlK«  OB 

Puiltic. 

Tolnl. 

MiIki. 

m>i 

24U3 
2l&i 

Milur 
WIS* 

'J8(in 

2305 

Miln 

OUT 
S-rtiT 
4:07 
4&'il 

NturaRUft 

Teliuantepcc 

Tho  several  transit  distances,  and  tho  total  distances 
Prom  New  York  to  8an  Francisco,  are  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

Routei. 

Tr«n«il  DiilAMM. 

Total  Dutancci. 

ni 

131 
101 

Milri. 
01V8 

Tchimntopec 

2!10 

48IT 

Papal  States.  This  portion  of  Italy  comprises 
nn  area  of  17,210  square  miles,  and  contained  In  W)!) 
a  population  of  !l,00fi,77l  inhabitants.  The  chief  pro- 
diictlons  of  the  Papal  States  arc  wheat,  ninl/.e,  pulse, 
hemp,  wine,  oil,  ond  tobacco.  There  arc  numerous 
mines  of  iron,  Icod,  sulphur,  alum,  vitriol,  and  other 
volcanic  products ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  sul- 
phur mines  near  KImini,  they  are  unproductive.  Tho 
quantity  of  this  orticle  annually  manufactured  amounts 
to  about  S4,000,000  founds.  The  manufactures  of  the 
Papal  States  comprise  silks,  leather,  gloves,  paper,  mu- 
sical strings,  iron  and  glass  ware,  a  few  cotton  goods 
(at  Rome),  crape  and  sausages  (at  liologna).  and  cord- 
age, soap,  cream  of  tartar,  and  glue.  There  is  no  di- 
rect trade  between  the  I'nited  States  and  the  Papal 
Stales — the  latter  deriving  their  supplies  of  cotton, 
sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  rum,  etc.,  from  the  ports  of  ricnon 
and  Trieste.  The  foreign  commerce  of  these  states  Is 
conducted  chiefly  through  the  ports  of  Ancona  and 
CIvita  Vccchl.i — the  former  with  the  western  shores 
of  tho  Adriatic,  and  the  latter  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean ports.  The  celebrated  Roman  cement  Is  export- 
ed from  tho  port  of  rivita  Vecchia. 

Foreir/n  Trntte.—\n  IN.'iO,  the  foreign  trade  of  Anco- 
na represented  $1,1(14,000,  viz.,  imports,  4i2,97(!,00O  ; 
exports,  $I,I8H,0(M).  This  trade  was  distriliuted  be- 
tween Austria,  England,  and  its  dependencies  in  Ku- 
rnpe,  these  countries  appropriating  mori"  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole.  During  the  same  year  the  for- 
eign trade  of  Oivita  Vecchia  amounted  to  $3,821, 0'J8 : 
viz.,  imports,  $2,!)20,.11 1  ;  exports,  $802,014.  The 
countries  participating  in  this  trade  were  France,  Sar- 
dinia, England,  Holland,  and  tho  Two  Sicilies.  The 
wholo  foreign  commerce  of  the  Papal  States  In  1850 
amounted  to  $19,208,080 ;  and  in  1851  to  $20,454,240. 
All  foreign  vessels  are  permitted  to  engage  In  the 
coasting  trade  of  tho  States  on  the  paj-ment  of  tho  fol- 


lowing dues :  Anchorage,  on  French,  Austrian,  and 
American  vessels,  three  hi\]occhi  per  ton — about  three 
cents.  Foreign  vessels  putting  Into  harbor,  either  for 
anchorage  or  through  stress  of  weather,  pay  half  of  tho 
above-named  d-ity.—  Stt  Italy. 

Clenranre  fhily. — Tor  each  vessel  of  ft-om  1  to  149 
tons,  ten  bi^Jocchi  (ten  cents) ;  and  for  150  tons  ami  up- 
ward, twenty  bujocchl  (twenty  cents).  No  vessels  en- 
joy an  exemption  from  tho  custom-house  duties  on 
imports  ond  exports.  These  duties  have  recently  un- 
dergone several  reductions,  applicable  chiefly  to  arti- 
cles of  necessity ;  on  articles  of  luxury.  In  which  sugar 
is  included,  the  duties  have  been  proportionobly  raised, 
— Commercial  Relations  n/the  I'niltd  Utatei. 

Paper  (fier,  and  Du.  I'apirr;  Vr.  Papier;  M.Ciirtit; 
Sp.I'apfl;  Russ.  Aumnr/n;  l.at.  6'AiiWn;  Arab.  Kartat; 
Pors.  Kaghan).  This  highly  useful  substance  is,  as 
every  one  knows,  thin,  flexible,  of  different  colors,  but 
most  commonly  white,  being  used  for  writing  and 
printing  upon,  and  for  various  other  purposes.  It  Is 
manufactured  of  vegetable  matter  reduced  to  a  sort  of 
pulp.  Tho  term  poper  is  derived  from  iho  Greek 
word  7rairvpo(,  pnpijnt,  tho  name  of  the  plant  on 
tho  inner  bark  of  which  (f.iber,  /Ji'/i^oj-,  whence  our 
word  Jooil-)  the  ancients  used  to  write.  Paper  is  madn 
up  Into  tlieett,  quires,  and  reams,  each  quire  consisting 
of  twenty-four  sheets,  and  each  ream  of  twenty  quires. 

Historical  Sketch  of  Paper.  Difference  between  an- 
cient anil  modem  Poper.— HomB  of  those  learned  and 
Ingenious  persons  who  have  Investigated  the  arts  of 
the  ancient  world  havo  expressed  their  surprise  that 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  though  they  possessed  an  im- 
mense number  of  books,  and  approached  vcr}'  near  to 
printing  in  the  stamping  of  words  and  letters,  and  sim- 
ilar devices,  should  not  have  discovered  the  art ;  tho 
first  rude  attempts  at  typography  being  siifliciently 
obvious,  though  much  time  and  conlrivanco  have  been 
required  to  bring  tho  process  to  its  present  state  of 
perfection.  But  they  should  rather,  perhaps,  havo 
wondered  thot  the  more  civilized  nations  of  antiquity 
did  not  invent  paper,  an  inveiitien  which,  it  may  easi- 
ly be  shown,  necessarily  preceded  that  of  priming. 
But  this  was  an  exceedingly  difficult  task ;  the  more 
so,  that  the  vast  importance  of  paper  could  not  be  ap- 
preciated, or  even  imagined,  till  after  it  had  been  gen- 
erally Introduced.  At  first,  the  memory  of  important 
events  appears  to  havo  been  handed  down  by  inscrip- 
tions cut  on  rocks,  pillars  of  stone  or  marble,  and  the 
walls  of  ediflces ;  and  this  primitive  iisuge  is  still  re- 
tained in  the  monuments  in  our  churches  and  ceme- 
teries. In  a  later,  though  still  very  remote  age,  men 
were  accustomed  to  write  upon  portable  surfaces  of  va- 
rious kinds.  Every  body  knows  that  the  Dec.iloguo 
was  written  upon  tables  of  stone;  and  Joshua  wrote  n 
copy  of  the  law  upon  tho  like  materials. — ./ns/i.  c.  vlii., 
v.  ;t2.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  engraved  lows,  tiont- 
ics.contracts,  and  other  Important  documents,  on  plates 
of  brass ;  and  It  Is  staled  that  a  fire  which  broke  out  in 
tho  capilol,  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  consumed  above 
3000  such  bronze  muniments.  —  Mourenu  Traili'  de 
/tiplomalifpie,  i.  451.  But  exclusive  of  plates  of  this 
sort,  which  were  necessarily  inconvenient,  cosily,  and 
quite  unfit  for  ordinary-  use,  thin  and  flexible  plates  of 
lead  and  other  metals  Qfnh,  c.  xix.,  v.  '2ii,  21),  thin 
pieces  of  wood,  .skins,  parchment,  linen,  and  a  variety 
of  similar  substances,  were  used  in  writing.  Cheaper 
materials,  such  as  the  leaves  and  bark  of  trees,  palms, 
etc.,  were  also  used  from  a  very  remote  period  for  the 
same  purpose :  hut  leaves  (xi!fiTai,rli(irla')  being,  when 
dry,  apt  to  split  in  the  direction  of  tlio  fibres,  it  was 
found  tp  bo  necessary,  in  preparing  them  for  writing, 
to  glue  them  together,  so  that  the  fibres  might  cross 
each  other  in  oppoailo  directions.  The  texture  of  tho 
leaf,  or  sheet,  if  wo  may  so  call  il,  is  thus  greatly 
strengthened ;  and  when  it  has  been  smoothed,  pol- 
ished, and  fitted  for  use,  it  Is  less  Inconvenient  and 
better  looking  than  might  bo  supposed.      Such,  in 


PAP 


U8T 


VAV 


Inn,  nnd 
Jilt  three 
Blthcr  for 
«lf  of  tho 

1  to  Via 
B  mill  ii|i- 
■C8«cl«  cn- 
dutics  on 
ccnlly  un- 
ly  to  artl- 
hich  sugar 
bly  ralseil. 

•  U.Cartn; 
lb.  Kartttf, 
Mice  In,  as 
colorB,  liiit 
Tiling  and 

09CS.       It  1* 

to  a  sort  of 
the  Greek 
iO  plant  on 
whence  our 
iper  is  made 
ro  consisting 
iciity  quires. 
:  beltveen  nn- 
Icnrncd  anil 
I  the  arts  of 
surprise  that 
scsscd  an  im- 
ver)'  near  to 
ters,  and  slm- 
l  the  art ;  the 
ig  sufficiently 
ncc  have  been 
cscnt  slate  of 
lerhaps,  have 
Is  of  antiquity 
1,  it  may  easl- 
t  of  priming, 
isk ;  the  more 
iild  not  lie  ap- 
bad  lieen  gcn- 
f  of  important 
wn  liy  inscrip- 
nrble,  and  tho 
igc  is  still  re- 
ics  and  ceme- 
.icte  ago,  men 
surfaces  ofva- 
tho  ncc.-iliiguo 
loshua  wrote  a 
-.Ml.  c.  viii., 
•d  laws,  tront- 
Lents,  oil  plates 
h  lirokc  out  in 
msuincil  above 
.■eau  Traill'  (h' 
f  plates  of  this 
int,  costly,  and 
•xible  plates  of 
.  23,  il),  tliin 
[  and  a  variety 
ing.     Cheaper 
)f  trees,  palms, 
period  for  the 
[„.')  being,  when 
|o  filircs,  it  was 
ini  for  writing, 
res  might  cross 
.  texture  of  the 
[3  thus  greatly 
Isinoothed,  pol- 
:onvenient  ami 
5cd.     Such,  in 


fhct,  la  the  principle  on  whidi  the  paper  of  the  ancients  I 
was  formed.     This,  however,  which  was  called t'lmrti 
Hyt/iiliacn,  from  the  place  of  Its  manufacture,  dii)  not 
consist  of  leaves,  hut  of  tho  inner  bark  of  the  famous 
reed  or  rush,  the  Cijpfruf  Papynia,  found  along  the 
lianks  of  the  Nile,  or  rather  In  tho  pools  and  ditches 
which  communicate  with  the  river.     Tho  ancients  ap- 
plied this  useful  plant  to  an  immense  variety  of  pur- 
poses ;  but  here  wo  shall  only  notice  that  from  which 
It  has  acquired  an  Immortality  of  renown.     The  inner 
liark  having  been  divided  by  a  needle  or  other  sliarp 
instrument  Into  very  thin  and  broad  layers  or  tila- 
mciits,  portions  of  these  were  placed  sido  by  side  Ion- 
gituilinally,  and  glued  together  at  tho  ends ;  another 
portion  being  glued  cross-wise  on  tho  backs  of  the  lat- 
ter, to  give  the  page  the  requisite  strength.      I'liiiy 
!ind  other  writers  have  described  the  process  (Hist. 
Xat.  lib.  xiii.  c.  11,  12,  18),  which  has  licen  further 
elucidated  by  Ilardouin  and  other  commentators.    Hut 
tho  fullest  and  ablest  discussion  of  this  curious  sulijcct 
Is  contained  In  tho  very  learned  and  elaborate  work, 
the  A'i)i(i'ea«  Traile  de  Diplomatique  (1.  p.  'HM-6'il), 
where  the  most  interesting  partioulars  respecting  tho 
history  and  manufacture  of  papyrus,  as  well  as  of  tho 
greater  number  of  the  other  writing  inalerlals  used  in 
antiquity,  have  been  collected  and  set  in  the  clearest 
point  of  view. — See  also  the  Diclionimire  Diplumatique 
of  De  Vaines,  art.  I'aimkii,  ii.   I»i5-17l.     Uruce  has 
given  a  summary  of  the  authorities  in  the  seventh  vol- 
ume of  the  octavo  edition  of  his  Travels ;  and,  not  sat- 
isfied with  this,  ho  attempted  to  make  paper  from  the 
papyrus,  in  which,  not  being  very  successful,  he  im- 
pittcB  his  failure  to  errors  in  the  statements  of  I'liny ; 
nut  reflecting  that,  had  he  endeavored,  trusting  to 
written  directions,  without  experience  and  traditional 
art,  to  make  modern  paper,  or  even  a  pair  of  shoes,  he 
would  most  probably  have  been  equally  infelicitous. 
Egypt  enjoyed  for  a  lengthened  period  a  natural  mo- 
nopoly of  this  valuable  article,  and  even  attempted,  in 
anticipation  of  a  later  policy,  by  prohibiting  the  growth 
of  the  papyrus,  except  in  certain  locttlities,  aid  limit- 
ing Its  supply,  to  sell  its  produce  nt  an  artificially  en- 
hanced price! — Ameimion,  Commerce dea  Kyypliuns,  p. 
2.'I8.     But  this  policy  ceased  on  the  conquest  of  I'gypt 
by  the  Komans,  who,  having  imported  tho  plant  into 
Home,  succeeded  in  preparing  from  it  a  very  superior 
article.     Pliny  enumerates  the  various  kinds  of  paper, 
from  tho  coarsest,  which  was  used,  like  our  brown  pa- 
per, for  packing,  to  the  most  expensive  and  finest. 
Tho  latter,  which  was  made  of  the  innermost  lilamcuts, 
was  of  a  snowy  whiteness  ;  and  when  properly  dressed 
and  polished,  was  easily  written  upon.     The  consump- 
tion was  very  considerable;  and  being,  after  the  foun- 
dation of  Alexandria,  principally  made  in  tliat  city,  it 
formed  an  important  article  in  her  commerce,  and  fur- 
nished employment  for  many  workmen  and  much  cap- 
ital.    Flavins  Vopiscus  relates  that,  in  tho  third  cen- 
tury, the  tyrant  Firmus  used  to  say  there  was  so  much 
paper  there,  and  so  large  a  quantity  of  flie  glue  or  size 
used  in  Its  preparation,  that  he  could  maintain  an 
army  with  it :  "  Tmtnm  habuiase  de  charlia,  vt  piihlire 
airpe  diceret,  excrciium  ae  alere  poaae  pnpi/ro  el  glulino." 
Wo  may  doubt  whether  the  value  of  the  paper  at  pres- 
ent belonging  to  any  single  city  would  do  the  like. 
Charia  Egyptiam  is  very  ancient,  having,  notwith- 
standing the  assertion  of  Varro  and  I'liny  to  the  con 
trary  (^Hiat.  Xnt.  lib.  xiii.  cap.  11),  been  in  common 
use  long  before  the  ago  of  Alexander.     This  is  evident 
from  tho  statement  of  Herodotus,  who,  though  he  lived 
about  a  century  before  that  conqueror,  tells  i;s  that  in 
former  times,  when  papyrus  was  scarce,  tlie  loninns 
wrote  on  the  skins  of  goats  and  sheep,  and  that  that 
practice  continued  to  be  customary  among  several  bar 
barous  nations. — Lib.  v.  cap.  68. 

Though  white,  smooth,  durable,  and  not  ill  adapted 
for  writing,  ancient  paper  was  not  suited  for  the  print 
er;  by  reason  of  tho  closeness  of  tho  grain,  it  would 


not  have  r«ti!|v»d  llin  Ind  ffiittl  M|i«  imitf  klndlvfliin 
sliaviiiKS  of  wood,  Dili)  nw\l  IlliK  fiifilerlnis;  and  Ms 
texture  WHS  mi  mry  \ifUf\»ltiM  II  wiitiM  have  shirered 
lo  pioies  under  III"  |ir«ii«  1 1  ¥,»<>,  \H  ihilli,  an  liiartl- 
lli'ial  inuis  cU'iiiifd  iiitnt  i-ifmllum  lirrhiirim"),  no 
great  iiiveiiiiiiii  iir  iiiunHMily  Iii'Imu  dldfdvercil  In  Ha 
preparuflini.  Miiiluril  li(i(iBf,  i,n  ||in  mher  hand,  Is 
wliiilly  artiiiciiil  i  and  ()i«  mMf\iiM\if«  ftif  lis  mniiu- 
laituro  are  nmrvulMiiii  M||ku  Uf  tlln  «((i«ki  lly  dvlncod  In 
their  dtsigii  and  Itmil'  \,m'\m\  f|()M(i|(cy.  iJke  the 
paper  of  aiiili,uily,  It  U  fiiMiiBd  (if  IIik  nhiltienls  of  va- 
rious surfs  of  V8gu|i»l;|u«iili,(«,(iip,,,|pf|»ed  pflnclpallv 
from  the  tearing  In  p|«i;,  „f  jimhimIImh  iiilbm  and  llri- 
en  rags,  and  siniilai'  timl"fli(l*,  mkn\  with  water. 
This  prncefs  in  ntljiiit  \,m\m  IIibIM  Irtli,  piilp;  and 
when  examined  nilh  n  liilt-Kitini*,  |)i«  llnaHng  flla- 
iiients  are  fimnd  to  bu  Hull  HIIkiI  fw  ndlfoHug  liigeih- 
er,  hulng  jagged  and  m\ti\\,  mi\  IllUH  lii  tirery  possi- 
lilo  way.  A  poiliuM  nf  Hi)*  imUMiIa  i>t  iiiilp  being, 
when  properly  \m\imn\, \m»fu,\  n|iiili  tfitiildn  or  uleres 
of  rinu  woven  wire,  llm  wiHt-f  U  dtftltiMl  off,  ami  the 
suspended  filirus  fajlinu  In  lll«  l«d((it(l,  fdftti  a  Invpr  or 
sheet,  wliich,  being  i'ii||»n|ji|A|iiit  liV  |iH"Mi(tP  nnd'drled, 
iiecomes  paper,  its  mrufiiilli  mt\  K»»i/lfieM  depending', 
of  course,  in  a,  g|ii»t  mumm,  m  IIh'  ((iwllty  of  (he 
rag  or  other  niulerlat  nf  Hjijili  It  In  madp.  Caper 
used  lo  bu  manulVlurud  by  (1i|iliiht;  otevps  or  frames 
into  tho  pulp,  thu  linrliMM  ii<  mnwM*  M  lifted  up 
forming  tlie  bhuet  (if  \,i^^mf:  Mtll  lli«  aiipllcnihm  of 
rotary  mufinn  to  lliu  nwm(mm'  \m<>  em.(l(d  a  tolnl 
change  in  Iho  inndii  In  wlijil*  if  ^((q  crtfrlMl  nn:  in- 
stead of  dipping  lliii  sluviis  tw  tfmWf  ItflK  flip  ilitern 
of  pulp,  a  cirnilur  »aii,  of  fmifiil  liitvel  (if  Woven  wire, 
revolves  hori/.onfslly  Minlcf  III"  ♦(«(!(  (technlcnilv 
called  (ho  vat),  ce.elves  |h(i  ((«|(i«>it,  cotiVPts  It  awav, 
and,  h>  an  ailjustiiieni  oftujlwo-diKKfy  dellVnct,  (rniis- 
fera  it  uninjured,  llinngli  H4  ffWijilw  li^i  k  #pt  Vobweb, 
to  a  similar  ruvolviiig  Inwcl  of  Mlj  iIkid  mi  endless 
web  of  paper  is  spiiii,  as  jiinii,  a)  (pb.Ij  »i  (li«  tnaehlna 
continues  to  niiive  and  jiMlji  jii  ii|it(titi(<d, 

Tho  pervious  and  spi)iiiry  Wi^wm  (if  t"l(*^  Innlfe  It 
readily  imbibe  and  l'-t»in  (hu  jnlt  iiiijin.jseil  (ui  It  liv 
types  in  printing,  and  liy  Iliu  ]mn  in  ¥itm\u ;  in  tough- 
ness hinders  it  I'runi  l/ejng  ii((tj|y  {,m  i  and.  In  a  wcll- 
boiind  bonk,  under  favumliln  Ammi'Um-f^,  lis  dura- 
fion  is  iiiilefinili),  nml,  foe  hII  (iW  III  rtl  |i(f(-)ii)ses,  eleni- 
ail  It  is  Irun  (hat  li'gdl  iliii (IMICIIM  «(■«  sdmedmes 
written  nr  printed  on  pan Imii(i|iI,  »l|jil(  In  Ics  llaMe 
lo  be  torn  or  injured  by  iMliliiiiB  j  (Im  JM^llfy  of  (ypog- 
rapliy  ooen.-ionally,  alen,  usjlijbjlii  d  f(/«.  j/niiVciinlfnis  of 
a  splendid  work  upiin  VtllMlllj  «)(i1  il  in  fiil-lher  Iriie 
that  these  sulisfa»ces  wufo  Me(-4  f"f  WHdtlg  upon  by 
tho  aucienfj;  Imt  they  SIB  lid  eeadl-ily  cspeMsive,  anil 
tlie  cost  (if  cillier  I'af  (.'liiuwls  \\w  mmif  ijt  the  great 
iiiajoiity  of  book  linyefs  -sii  |M|  (|  *(/((ld  lie  allogelh- 
er  iiiiprciiiialilu  lo  cast  lyps,  (((  viilt'lfUH  (rtesses,  and 
to  incur  the  vuriuns  niid  liuHvy  (Imfjifiii  ii(  an  (■sfaldish- 
ment  for  priming,  niijens  H^  (iomijsiiwI  h  elienper  ma- 
terial on  whiuli  to  jiiiill.  AlllKinl  (ill  l(l«  ilintp  ancient 
and  valualde  exisliiig  OiBi  k  ond  l.rtlin  Kinnitscrlpls 
are  written  either  on  pan tlllKfll  (if  Vflllllllj  lifil  gener- 
ally on  the  liiller.  |t  is  tingi(|/|f,  jdmeKif^  (hnl  while 
such  is  fhe  case,  all  or  iiliiiusl  nil  llic  vefy  old  charters 
and  diplomas  are  wr)ll«ll  (HI  (i);iiyH|i!:  ((((teed,  Ihn 
learned  authors  nf  the  Siiui"i»l  Tt'iiilhh  llliiliimntl'iKK 
affirm  that  no  panhineiit  linnl^f  (i/iit  Umt  discovered 
anterior  to  the  sixth  I'miMify, 

It  appears  0)  be  snltiiiun'||y  (iii|((ti|ie)(pil  (tiaf  paper, 
fabricated  like  that  iiuw  ill  l|»n,  (if  I'llliiK  (((id  other 
vegefabie  inaferittls,  and  (if  tiln,  Ills  lieen  Kiniiufne- 
tureil  in  C'liiiiii  from  a  vt^ry  fi^liiiiiH  cjiiielt,— .Vi/defrti* 
7'iYi<Vii  de  flipliimiilifie,  TIm'  Afrtll  hisKltJiins  State 
that  similar  paper  was  )i)9||i(f/(i;(((f(ii(  i(i  Meeirt  Irt  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  csilltlfy  (AllliKfe?',  Ilrlyin«  « 
I'riigresai  d'  (Igni  letleriitiifn,  »ii4  (lll*li(i«li  I*.  873)  j 
and  most  probably  the  iiiudadf  i(»  (d-wlflilidll  #««  ihert 
also  known  to  the  (ireeks,     U  «fitl(i(tfs  {«  IWVS  beotl 


PAP 


utm 


PAP 


(Oon  after  introduced  iiilu  Kurojie,  l>ut  it  ii  duulitl'ul 
wlivlliur  tills  wcru  dunu  iiy  tliu  Aruliiuim  or  (iivvlm. 
Tlui  iiiiidii  uf  fuliricutiiiK  |>u|icr  rroiii  coltuu  uiid  uilu-t 
veRvtalilu  iiiutiiriain  Li'iii|{  uiuu  diHiovurcd,  ita  fubri>'»- 
tluii  fruiii  liiiuii  ru^a  wui  u  luiiipurativul^  cutty,  «iid  iii 
Kurupc,  wlivru  ciittuu  was  tliuii  vxtreinely  wti/i'v,  uu 
•II  Init  noc'cwury  iili'|i.  It  ii*  itln((uiur,  liuwuvvr,  lliitt 
we  Imvu  nu  |>oiiitivu  inruruiutioii  I'itlmr  u«  tu  tliu  cuuu< 
try  wliuro,  or  tliu  cpocli  wlivii,  pu|ivr  from  ruKo  iMgwi  to 
bo  iimnufui'turi'd  lu  Kuropu.  Mtiit  on  tie  jitul  muUr 
ton  iureHlUM  pltu  liiril,  iiu'au  i'ni.ivini'  lUdi,  ni  tun 
luivjf  uidtHuire  uu-dilii  Ju  QuaUirzirme.  —  Auuiiau 
Tniite,  me.,  i.  bU.  lii  fitct,  K){y|itlaii  |ia|jvr,  or  |>«l- 
per  iiiudu  of  papyruH  in  llic  iimiiiier  duscribed  uUivl', 
coiitliiuoU  to  be  purtially  employed  down  to  tli"  luid- 
die  of  the  cloventli  century,  IIioukIi  pttriliiiuut  utu 
Uien  tlic  principal  uiatcriul  uned  in  nritiu|{.  It  i»  <  u- 
rieU3  to  observe  liow  very  iiliurtly  tlie  introduction  of 
paper  preceded  the  invention  of  printing,  to  wiiiclj, 
indeed,  as  already  seen,  it  waa  an  iiidinpeni  ible  pre. 
liininary.  Muratori  attributes  the  i((iiorai<cu  of  tli« 
barliurous  ages  principuily  to  tlia  scarcity  and  liigit 
price  of  paper,  ami  tlio  superior  iiiii'Uigeiice  of  iiiu<leru 
times  tu  its  abundance  and  cheapncM.  —  AM>iti',9,  i. 
'iOO,  And  whatever  opinion  may  be  eiiterluincd  us 
to  the  llrst  part  uf  tliis  statement,  tliere  can  Itu  uo 
question  that  the  latter  is  perfectly  well  founded. 

Not  only  are  wo  iu  the  dark  as  to  the  history  of  niud- 
crn  paper,  but  wo  are  unable  to  make  any  very  suiis- 
fuctory  conjectural  cstiinuto  of  the  mode  in  » liicii  it  u  as 
invented.  It  is  all  but  certain  that  the  invention  must 
have  been  suggested  Ijy  accident,  or  by  observiug  tlie 
ell'ects  produced  by  t^io  accidental  drying  of  triluraleil 
vegetable  matter,  or  in  tome  sucli  way ;  aud  lliut  il<e 
hint  thus  allorded  was  gruduully  inipruve<i  upon.  i> 
is  nut  possible  to  imagine  that  the  invciitiuu  »huuli. 
have  been  wliully  tlio  result  uf  design  ;  for  we  can  uulv 
conceive  liow  any  one  without  any  previuus:  kuuwicdge 
should  have  proposed  to  himself  to  produce  paper  Ijy 
pounding  rags,  or  other  vegetable  matter,  mixing  tiie 
mans  in  water,  and  then  pressing  and  drying  the  de- 
posit, liiit,  witliout  indulging  in  unprolltable  cunjec- 
tures,  it  is  at  all  events  certain  that,  liuwever  und  by 
whomsoever  discovered,  no  invention  iius  been  of  great- 
er importance.  ChurtiB  uau  iiuixime  /iiinmiiilus  iilir 
cvtuUt  It  iHemoria, —  I'l.lNV, //iW.  .\al.  lib,  xiii.  cap. 
11.  The  processes  by  whicli  tlie  most  worthless  and 
vilest  materials  are  converted  into  such  adniiiuble  Mub- 
stances  as  jiaper  and  glass  are  probably  the  grcatesit 
triumphs  of  liunian  talent  an<l  ingenuity,  'iliey  have 
more  than  realized  tlie  dreams  of  the  uichcniists,  and 
have  lieen  incomparably  more  advantageous  Ihun  if  ue 
had  become  aojuainted  with  a  means  of  transmuting 
the  inferior  metals  into  gold. 

Ill  IMlil,  Dr.  Coli|uhoun  estimated  the  value  uf  pa- 
per annuali)'  produced  in  Great  Dritain  at£'^,iMl,ilfM; 
but  Mr.  titovenson,  un  incomparably  belter  uulliurity 
upon  such  subjects,  estimated  it  at  only  half  ibis  sum, 
l''rom  information  obtained  from  those  engaged  iu  tlie 
trade,  we  incline  to  think  that  the  total  annual  value 
of  the  jiapcr  manufactured  in  the  United  Kingdom,  ex- 
clusive of  the  duty,  may  at  present  amount  to  about 
Xl,(i«0,000  or  il, 700,000.  There  aro  about  700  paper- 
mil!'-  in  Kiiglnnd,  and  from  70  to  Hi)  in  .Scotland.  'I'hi: 
number  in  Ireland  is  but  inconsiderable.  Of  tiio^' 
mills,  wo  believe,  very  few  have  lately  been  uiiein|iloy- 
cd.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  collect  the  rags  ujed 
in  the  manufacture  into  large  heaps,  in-order  that,  by 
their  heating  andfermentation,  they  might  be. the  more 
easily  reduced  to  tilanients.  Hut  this  injured  the  lu^s ; 
and  it  is  now  the  practice  to  tear  them  to  jiieecs,  uitii- 
out  any  such  preparation,  by  powerful  uiacliines  cun- 
■tructcd  for  the  jiurposc.  During  the  present  century 
this  manufaeti  ro  has  been  signally  promoted  by  the 
combined  influence  of  science,  ingenuity,  and  mechan- 
ical skill.  These  have  been  successfully  exerled  m 
the  preparatipo  of  the  pulp  i  tbe  GonvwMou  «f  Out  ^i4f 


iuUt  ^a^t.  »h4  fU*  l/iiivifwn  of  materials;  and  in 
IWUM  hm  tmil  IttHtttn**  f^m  mi>r»  remarkable  than  in 
(Im  I««(,  'tM»i»t^)(t*M  Itom  Ihit  fact  that,  while  tlio 
tumitfmimi'  km  Um  nxiin  than  double<l  since  1H'2U, 
tiM'  'ttmrnfi  (i/»  t  i/tilimftt»\  rags  and  other  foreign  nia- 
urial*  U»*  iiftt4tiHt  t*n>  rmliK'wl  within  that  time,  in 
wt^^t:t^ttt'^t^ti  i4  ittK  itttlttftt**  liomfl  supply  we  derive 
(fuut  »uti»ttt»t*fit  |i«««kmsl/  r«Karde<l  as  worthless,  and 
tmiUMi  in>  ttlwm,  'th*  awitepings  of  cotton  ami  IIuk 
milUiUWUtit  Ut  tU*  nt^Mm  atxt  din  with  which  they  are 
MilMul  1*1^,  n^fn,  ttftM  within  these  few  years,  of  no  val- 
ue »)**<*•♦•»,  »«**^t  M  mntintx.      The  chemical  mid 

1  uu^i.h)t4tkitt  tttt**fi>*n  iff  wl>i<'li  these  materials  are  pu> 
lititui,  !»U»t.itni,mtii  MiMle  available  for  the  production 
uf  tfi^^-f,  #Kh*M  lli*it  strength  Ix'ing  impaired,  are 
iwt  uui)  »v»*'((«(((^  in(«rcs(rng  in  themselves,  but  aro 
uf  Ifftirt  HiHWrnttt  Http</tl»ltt«;  and,  by  reducing  the  cost 
'4'  iMtjMf,  UitOK  tUttiti  l»w  t\m*»  more  to  lower  the  price 

,  uf  Imm4«,  mttt  tiiltmt  tH»i<iinte,  than  all  the  eflbrti  of 

j  all  <b«  u»)ttiUfti  t^,.^^  <if»r  existed. 

1  'Utii  ^r*l  i4*%  ttt  »  'tm^hint  for  ronvcrling  pulp  Into 
imi»r  Uiiii)im>*-4  )»t  ttmtft,  the  inventor  being  an  In- 

!  (j^jjivw  #w»»i*,v  rr  '-<!«  na.'ne  of  Ixiuis  liobert.     A 

I  iuu>M  i4'  thif  M  -lUVt-  wm  lirought  to  Kngland  by  M. 

.  Uti^if  HiiitH  >  mt4  fViWgh  at  first  it  was  far  froiii  giv- 

i  iiig  lut  *wMi>M^A  i/t  pncemn,  it  iiufticed  to  iiidiico  Kii- 
gliefc  K»Mt»t)tt*  *M/4  engineers,  particularly  Sir.  Dun- 
ki»,  |U>  MU/w  »ff  ttHf  K-ht-me ;  and  in  the  course  of  a 
tV-w  y«.iar#  Umy  himi^i  it  to  a  high  degree  of  jierfec- 

'fU»t  Mitt^ittn  tittittUt  «4»(emenl  exhibits  the  aggre- 
iiMU^  nMmttUi**,  <>itiitn<,  Mwi  prires  per  pound  of  rugs 
i)iHMrU4)U<iititK  fnitMl. Stales  from  allcountries,  ili^- 
!ini,(M/*^Mi';^Mi«wfADfi«(«-rr>himn  the  (pmntities  received 
ftutu  htttjf  ttmittn  •  f>«rio<l  of  ten  consecutive  years, 


fmh 


UnfnntA 
ttom  ItAlv. 


».(i*r.',«iri 


Kiwi  l^w*.^y(- 

MtfUllllH 

♦f «»♦.'.*?;  !.1.S08,0«(1 

*«,.*»«  «.*,  vi:H(\!>r> 

#2l,*(:,f.V»;  ■U.i-m.MI 

fii.Wff.frfl*  m.»4«/ll4 

_W,<>jl*fWl|  M,iW<>,Olftt 


*?KJ."* 

per 

Pountl. 
o'nti. 

Iliillnr.. 

R><,'S,(I20 

!1-M',I 

804.177 

11711 

t'id.UO 

it  C,s 

t.'2l,l!l7 

■l-Ui 

747,ir.7 

II  til 

9(W,«'.tl 

ll4tl 

«2-i,s;t) 

il4J 

98.5,4f!f. 

4  111 

l,fi07,R'2« 

!l-ill 

1,!C.'4,4I.1 

II  (HI 

*7,MH,TUI 

781.872 

Vftm  ttm  iffftxAitifi  fnijk  it  will  be  seen  that  during 
tl*c  4«**W«)i»J  J*fi<i«<  ending  with  18,')U  the  aggre(.:iite 
<(«#«»( J'l'/fjiSjfiiwi^rftedinlothelJnitedStalcs  from  all 
parts  w««  plfiJ/iitiiHii  Ilis.,  while  the  aggregate  ijuuii- 
tity  fi^mimt  Uim  ((«(y  reached  as  high  asMR.DOd.l.V'i 
IIm.,  'iintumuui  munutt  tor  (lie  period  designated  will, 
lw»v»r,  tm'M44  H  WWiT«  statistical  basis  for  ascerluin- 
JHg  titte  fittMUa  ittlp</t(itt><-e  of  Italy  coniparotl  willi  all 
otiMf  t»t$Mfk*  *♦  (("«  ptin<-ipn\  source  of  supply  upon 
»bU)(  titu  t  nittii  Wsites  must  rely,  with  any  degree 
of  fMifftitthi  ("t  *«  «r(!(l«  (he  consumption  of  wliich 
is  »u  »■#(*)(/  !Wf>e*;!ng  (hero;  even  during  the  jia-st 
yittf,  »)f  /ttitftitihg  (Jefif  iency  of  the  manufactured  ma- 
t*ri,ai  •'*§'>  l*iitii4fif  apprehended  by  the  conductors 
<,if  iv*ii^  f»fi(t/tkiii  Mtid  *i«wspaper  journaia.  The  avor- 
aij^'  mmtmi  UttHHtH}  itnportcd  into  the  United  States 
'  <ff)Ut  *U  ewWttWje*  (faring  the  period  designated  was 
I  il),iitll>i,S7i  iWi  tfc*  a!*erage  annual  <piaiitity  received 
(ruiii  tish  »#»  it^titMii  llis.  Thus  it  is  sliiwn  that 
i«»lv*i(  t'/f  mtt---(H-h  I(«(y  actually  furnishes  nearly 
twoHlfcW''(#  t4'  M  titti  ragj?  imported  into  tlio  United 

'i'im  KtmsimttiiMi  ttf  paper  in  the  United  States  is 
tajwal  ttj  »(**»  t/t  t'tMtieti  and  Kngland  combined.  In 
ut)»*.f  »(ur4«y  th«  1»iiKKl,(>fK>  inhabitants  of  the  United 
tititt*:*  fViUfUim  «#  ttiweh  paper  as  the  04,000,000  in- 
lmt4HU)4§  (4  t'ttrntti  Mid  Kngland,    This  is  vcr/  near- 


I  ' 


■^  .n"^." 


PAP 


1489 


PAP 


1  found.  I 


1173 
11  OS  1 


»0I 


3  40  I 
■Mi 

4;ii 

3-1 '■> 
»-00 


ta  States  i» 
kbincd.     In 

llio  United 
1,000,000  in- 

,  vciy  near- 


ly correct.  Tlio  atatlitU'n,  howuver,  will  p'ove  IiiUt-  |  Ihci  »l(K'k  for  roniiiini|itloii  mi>,!it  vary  iIlKhlly,  liut  not 
citiii);.  'ItiB  niiinlior  of  |ia|i(ir-iiiilla  in  iipuratlun  In 
England  in  INiia  wai  7fiO,  and  thn  annual  value  of  tlio 
paper  manufaclun-d  rooihed  as  liit!li  as  |tl,(K)«,0(K). 
At  that  period,  however,  thu  inanufacturn  uf  paper  wu 
burdened  with  an  excliu  duty  ainountlii);  to  more  than 
three  times  as  much  as  the  total  waxen  of  thn  hiiiiila 
employed  In  making  it,  and  the  c|uantUy  annually  pro- 
duced did  not  exceed  .^:i,ll«MI,lHIO  llis.  of  lirst-cluits  and 
Jti,00<),0<H)  Ihs.  of  second-clttss  paper,  re<|ulrinK  a  sup- 
ply of  obout  100,0<)(),IH)0  Ihs.  of  rags. 

Improvenienls  in  muchlnory  and  mode  of  manufnc- 
ture,  and  lliii  application  of  steam,  have  reduced  the 
numher  of  mills  in  Ciniat  llrltain  and  Ireland  to  ilHii, 
occordinK  to  the  latest  statistical  returns;  while  the 
quantity  of  t»g»  annually  consumed  has  risrn  to 
201,(1110,000  lbs.,  or  over  1(10  per  cent.  We  have  com- 
piled from  a  recent,  though  in  this  country  n  rnre 
Dublin  publication  on  statistics,  the  followinj;  tubular 
•tuteinent,  showing;  the  quantity  of  paper  manufuc- 
tured,  consumed,  and  exported  in  (ireat  llrltain  for  a 
period  of  nine  years,  endiii({  with  18.')l : 

CoMr.in\TIVF;    StATKJKNT    Sl'OWINrt    TUB    (iUANTITIEH    OV 

I'AeKR    MAMiirAnTrnKo.   rnSHrMKn,   am>  kxi'outko    in 

UllCAT   llKITAIN    rilO.II    IHIO  TO    l*)4. 


l-UUDdl  or  i'«|W 

HoiiiiiIj  uf  I'atwr  ri. 

Ponadi  of  !'»)>«* 

Vmh. 

iuanufiir(ur*(l 

Uintcl  for  CiMiiitiiiptt.in 

•  Iliurtflit  friilll 

~Tnnr 

In  (Irani  llrluin 

in  Urem  Hrllnin. 

(Iriiit  llrluin 

I27,40(I,(KI(I 

122.11(10,(1(11) 

4,S,|0,(KI0 

IS  17 

121.9fln.0(K) 

llfl,lUII,IKI() 

5,n;>2,uki 

1844 

.  12 1,811(1,  mm 

110,0ll(l,(MH) 

B,1S0,(KI0 

1841 

132,I(1(I,(I(K) 

120, 11111,(101) 

5900,0110 

isn;) 

l4l,iMiii,iino 

I83.2IIII.(KN) 

7,70.',()IK) 

lNf>l 

lon,iioo,oiHi 

142Bin.0(H) 

8„305,l)00 

|H'.2 

IM,4KI,ll0() 

141.11111,1)  M) 

7,328,n(MI 

l8,^3 

177,0iKI,(MIO 

104,3110,(100 

13,200,000 

18;>4 

177,80C  ono 

101,7(10,000 

10,112,0110 

France  turns  Into  paper  annually  about  ZSUi'iOOjOOO 
lbs.  of  rags,  producing  about  15C,H0O,0O0  lbs.  of  paper. 
In  the  Dnited  States  there  are  ToO  paper-mills,  which 
work  up  each  year  about  iOOiOOO.OOO  lbs,  of  rags.  As  • 
sumiug  (the  usual  estimate)  that  1^  lb.  of  rags  yields  1 
lb.  of  paper,  wo  have  the  following  comparative  state- 
ment for  the  United  States,  and  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain combined : 


lliiltiMl  Htutes 

(ireat  Britain  and) 
I'runco  cnmbtnedl* 


I'duikIi  uf 
Rati*  annually 

coniumsil. 
ToROlW^OIIO 

436,100,000 


PuuniU  of 
Pa)ier  annually 
niniiufai 


7 

27o7kIo,"oou" 

291,209,000 


Pni>er  par 

I'aplln. 

10  81) 
4K 


matiTially,  the  above  re»ulls.  The  preceiling  slate- 
meni,  however,  omits  the  c|uaiitill('s  annually  imported 
and  exported  by  cnih  of  the  countries  respectively, 
Items  without  whicli  no  rulculallon  us  to  consumption 
can  be  accurately  mnde.  The  lm|K>rtatioii  of  paper  of 
all  kinds  into  France  in  IH.^:!  cliil  not  exceed  .'l»7,im 
llis.,  while  the  exports  amounted  to  I7,0.'').'t,(ir)7  Ihs. 
I'hiii  gives  an  excess  of  exports  over  imports  to  lie 
supplied  from  tln!  stock  of  ilomi^tic  innniifacture,  of 
lO.illl.fi.'i.'l  lbs.  Deduct  this  from  iri(l,N(K),(HMl  lbs.,  the 
<|uantlty  nmniifui'turDd,  und  we  have  left  for  consump- 
tion I  lO.OKll,  117  U.S.,  or  ;1K1I  Urn,  p,r  mpiia  of  the  pop- 
ulatlon. 

During  the  simio  year  there  wore  imported  Into  Kn- 
glond,  according  to  the  ltc|)ort  on  Trade  and  Naviga- 
tion, liOll.'ifiO  lbs,  of  puper.  The  report  gives  this  quan- 
tity for  the  last  six  months  of  the  year  only ;  assuming 
tliut  the  iniportalion  during  the  ilrst  six  months  was 
equttl  to  that  fiT  tlio  lust  as  above  given,  and  'he  total 
Importation  would  reach,  say  iOO,000  11,^.  The  quan- 
tity exported,  wo  huve  seen,  wos  lll,2!IO,t<"l  lbs.,  leav- 
ing  an  excess  of  exports  over  Imports  of  l.'l,(!9(!,H7 1  lbs. 
Iteccnt  and  important  improvements  have  been  made, 
by  the  use  of  refuse  tanned  leather,  bark  of  the  cotton- 
Htalk,  pulp  from  the  libres  of  endogenous  plants,  osrnw 
umteriulsfor  the  nianulacture  of  paper. — Srinitijir  Ann. 

KxrORTB  op    f'AI'RU   .\N0   STATInNKUY  OF   IIOMKHTMI   MaNIT- 
KACTIUir.  rnoMTURl  NITWlSTATKS  rollTIIH  Vkau  ENmNO 

Junk  30,  ls:0. 

Whithar  l^ipuHail.  Vnlu*. 

Itiiisla  nn  the  lliiltlc  ninl  Nortli  Sum $300 

lliissinn  I'DSHcrtHintiH  In  North  America 014 

Danish  West  Indies J,5jBT 

Itromen 380 

Dutch  West  Indies BOH 

Kngland 20O 

Canada ' 03,032 

Other  Ilritlsh  North  American  I'ossesalona 20,074 

llrilish  West  Indies 8,832 

Ilrltlsh  Honduras 202 

Ilrltlsh  Guiana 2,309 

britlsh  roHHcsflioiiH  in  Africa 304 

Ilrltlsh  Australia 1,046 

Ilrltlsh  Hast  Indies ISO 

Krunre  on  the  Atlantic 1,200 

Cuba : 4.'l,lSfl 

I'orto  HIco 5,024 

(;ape  do  Verd  Islaiuls 124 

Other  ports  in  Africa 547 

Haytl 8,059 

San  Domingo 49 

Mexico 10,965 


From  tills  slutement  it  appears  that  ths  United 
States  consumes  .11,800,000  lbs.  of  rags,  and  manufac- 
tures 21,200,000  lbs.  of  paper,  less  lln'i  Great  Dritaia 
and  I'Vanco  combined,  while  tho  quantity  of  paper 
manufactured  pir  capita  of  the  popiila'ion  of  the  for- 
mer is  more  than  double  that  assigned  lothe  combined 
population  of  the  two  lutter.  The  i/aantity  of  paper 
imported  in  Great  Britain  and  Franco  and  added  to 


Central  Itepuljllo  . 

New  Granada 

Venezuela 

llrazU 

Uruguay,  or  CUplatine  Itepuhlic 

IhienoB  Ayrcs,  or  Argcntiuo  Itcpubllc  . 

Chill 

rem 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 


713 

T.irs 

11,068 
9,295 
403 
883 
2,7BT 
1,B33 
4,330 
3,391 


Total  valu  a $203,u;3 


Imports  or  Papfb  anp  Mancpactubrs  op  Paper  into  tub  Vnitbd  State,'  for  tub  Year  KNnisa  June  30, 18.10. 


Wbcnea  loiportad. 

Pnpler 
.M;ifho 
Artli-le.. 

.11771  " 

6,409 

B2 

238 

9,285 

■■49 
9,'l8T 

Paper 

HanKinga, 

Papar  noiaa 

and  Pnnry 

Hokk. 

Papar  and 
.Mnniirac 
turps  (pf. 

nlank 
nookB. 

'VriUns 
Paper. 

Shaalhini; 
Paper. 

Pl.ylni! 
Card!. 

11"  aburg 

Ilremen 

,1II,J41 
1,474 
4004 
8,006 

50,050 

loi.'iieo 

■■42 

*5P0 
0,405 

"  141 

T,412 

75 

" '  'lb 

' "  '12 
21,323 

'  '837 

"100 
287 

■■"s 

$.',(IS9 
17,4S2 
4,984 
2.430 
02,047 
449 

"   "4 

' '  19 

84,519 

13 

■  '327 

■  ■  38 
205 

8,886 

6,OT6 

1«4.'>3 

9.')4 

2 

141 

5,301 

3S 

B,58S 
.... 

"im 
"Hi 

$3,301 
14,777 

711 
72.410 
08.808 

807 

' "  "is 

12 

102,'354 

i,'l33 
1,211 
5,492 

" "  93 
062 

■■■44 

$6630 

$293 

483 

83 

2.516 

2,382 

2,'846 

'  433 

885 

"2.^7 
376 

"m 

Holland 

(tibraltar   

(Janada 

British  West  Indies 

British  East  Indies 

France  on  tho  Atlantic 

Franco  on  tho  Mediterranean. 
Spain  on  tho  Mcditcrrancau. . 
Cuba 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Chill 

Peru 

China 

Total  value 

$25,061 

$228,577 

$36,700 

$135,107 

$12,940 

$n2,nio 

$6630 

$19,677 

6B 


I'AP 


1400 


PAR 


Poftr  /livttt, — The  nunuficdiro  oMioxf  <  from  |i«per, 
or  ralhur  |ia«l«lioar(t,  liaa  Imu'ihii*  »  vprr  InrK*  on>, 
fruin  tliK  i.'iiiluiii  of  •(>  niiny  tiianuraciun'rii  m'IIIiik  Ihtir 
Kuoili  III  lhr»«  lioxra.  It  l»  aaiil  that  In  I'aria  four 
thouiaiiil  imrioiia  am  i'in|i|i>yril  In  llilt  trailii  alunii. 
Th«  Irailii  In  illvlileil  liitii  nix  Ijranchrn.  Tlin  ilriit  ciim- 
prliaa  the  inoit  olalMiraloly-lliilalKil  anil  KmamrnUil 
ii«xi!i,  for  (h«  illiplay  uf  arlllUlal  Huwi-n,  rl  h  v«lva(i, 
rllilioiii,  •llkt,  trlinmlnK',  niailalt,  mlnlHliiroa,  anil  ror- 
liolllai  for  wuiiilInK  primontii.  Tlir  ii'iuiiil  ilau  eun- 
•Ida  of  Ikiici'i  anil  •mall  ornanii'niii  fur  conficlionera. 
'I'liii  tlilril  kinil  aril  uti'il  for  imuklnu  toja  ami  trlnkoti 
of  tniall  iil«.  The  fuurlli  klinl  am  lor  prrfiiiiivry,  fann, 
kIovi'ii,  I'll'.  The  llflli  coiiiprliii'i  lurui'  iiuxim  for  ihawU 
und  rlhlionii  for  uxportatlon.  Thv  alxtli  am  plll-boxr i, 
wafi'r-lnixi'*,  and  olherii  of  tlio  mnallett  kliiil.  Thi' 
Fri'ni  li  proiliK'tioni  In  till*  iluparlincnt  of  inanufacturra 
nru  miporior  to  any  olhrr  In  neatneu  of  axecutlun  and 
tiwli'  of  ornanienUliiin. 

C/iinrre  /'iiprr. — 'Ilia  Cliinrta  maku  it  Alameiitoua 
kind  of  paper  much  aiipurior  to  ancient  papyriii;  It 
nlitaini  in  KiiKland  the  name  of  rlcr-paprr ;  lint  aulK- 
cicnt  in  now  known  uf  it  to  lUiow  that  thin  la  liy  no 
mtana  a  correct  doaiRiiation,  %)r  l.ivhiKatoni)  liitru- 
diicuil  Chinctu  ricc-papcrln  Kngland  aliout  half  ■  cen- 
tury »no  ;  it  had  ((rcat  favor  aa  a  material  fur  arllllclal 
llowcra.  It  waa  many  years  afterward  that  Informa- 
tion wua  olilaiiicd  cuiu'crniiiK  tlio  mode  adopted  by  the 
(Chinese  in  making  llicau  ainall  liut  very  oxponaivu 
•hceta  of  paper.  There  la  a  le|{Mniiiioua  plant  growing 
in  China  nnil  India,  tlie  atom  of  which  la  cut  Into  piecea 
eight  or  tun  inches  in  length ;  and  theau  aro  cut  liy  the 
(Jhincae  into  one  loiitiniioua  apirnl  tlim,  on  tlio  aaine 
principle  aa  Ilia  modern  niodo  of  veneer  cutting,  hut  liy 
iho  dexteroua  use  of  hiind-tools.  These  inniiiitt!,  heing 
spread  out  and  preimcd  tlut,  lorm  thin  ahevia,  which, 
after  heing  dyed  and  otherwiau  prepared,  conatitulo  thu 
ricc-papcr  of  the  C'hinean. 

Tlio  same  ingenious  people  mnk«  paper  of  liamlioo. 
The  haniiioo  stems,  wlieii  aliout  three  or  four  iniheH 
thick,  are  cut  into  pieces  four  or  live  inches  long. 
These,  when  softened  in  water,  are  noshed,  cut  into 
lllamcnts,  dried  and  Ideaclieil  in  tlio  sun,  lioiled,  licatcn 
to  a  pulp,  and  made  into  thin  sheets  of  paper.  This 
is  truly  paper,  which  the  former  examples  are  not; 
and  the  art  must  have  made  a  considerable  advance 
before  such  a  method  could  have  aiiggeated  itself. 

/'a;ifr-.6(in^mi7».— Stamped  paper  fur  this  purpose 
was  llrst  made  in  Spain  and  Holland  about  A.n.  loon. 
Madeof  velvet  and  tlosa  fur  hanging  apartments,  about 
1C20.  The  manurnotiire  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly 
improved  in  (ireat  Urituinfrom  early  in  tiie  eiglitceiith 
century;  niul  It  haa  now  been  lirought  to  great  perfec- 
tion. Since  this  important  and  elegant  substitute  for 
the  ancient  "  hangings"  of  tapestry  or  cloth  camo  into 
use  aliout  'JOO  years  iigu,  the  inaniifucturo  has  under- 
gone a  gradual  succession  of  improvements,  and  has 
now  reached  a  high  statn  of  beauty  and  perfection. 
The  patterns  on  tliesc  papers  are  sonietimcs  proiluced 
by  stencil  plates,  but  mure  commonly  l>y  blocks,  oneli 
color  licing  laid  on  by  a  separate  block  cut  in  wood  or 
metal  upon  a  plain  or  tinted  ground.  Thn  patterns 
aro  sometimes  printed  in  vnniish  i  <•  size,  and  gilt  or 
copper  leaf  applied ;  or  bisulpliuret  of  tin  (aiirum  muii- 
num)  i.4  dusted  over  sn  as  to  adiiere  to  tiic  pattern  ;  nnd 
in  wliat  arc  ca\\vi\  /ork pnpfm,  dyed  wools  minced  into 
powder  are  similnriy  applied.  Powdered  steatite,  or 
French  clialk,  is  used  to  produce  the  peculiar  gloss 
known  under  the  name  of  «ii/in,  Striped  papers  arc 
■oinetimes  made  liy  passing  llie  paper  rapidly  under  n 
trough,  which  has  pariilloi  slits  in  its  bottom  through 
which  the  color  is  delivered;  nnd  a  number  of  other 
very  ingenious  and  lieautiful  contrivances  have  lately 
been  applied  In  this  important  branch  of  art.  The  in- 
vention of  tlio  puper  machine,  by  which  any  length  of 
paper  may  bo  olitained,  elVcctcd  a  great  cliangn  in 
paper-hanginga,  whicli  could  formerly  only  bo  printed 


upon  sfparal*  ahttia,  and  w>ra  mueh  mora  InconvcD' 
itn*  to  print  as  w«l|  aa  t»  apply  to  iha  wnlia. 

Paplar-maolM,  a  nam«  glvau  to  arlli'Ira  manu- 
factured of  tha  pulp  uf  paper,  or  uf  ulil  paper  ground  up 
liitu  a  pulp,  liliachvd.  If  necraaary,  and  luuuliled  Into 
varioua  forma.  Thia  article  has  lately  lirin  uaed  upun 
an  axtenslva  acala  fur  thn  manufacture  uf  niuuldliiga, 
roaelira,  and  otliar  archlteclurul  ornainrnia  ;  pllastera, 
capllala,  and  even  llgunia  ui  large  aa  life,  have  alto 
heeii  mad*  of  It.  It  la  lighdr,  mure  durable,  and  leaa 
brittle  and  liable  to  damage  than  plaslar,  aii'l  admlta 
of  being  colurad,  gilt,  or  otherwlao  urnamonted.  An- 
uther  article  aumotiinea  gora  under  the  aame  iiunie 
which  it  more  like  paalebourd,  conalsting  uf  shueta  of 
paper  pasted  or  glued  and  powerfully  pressed  together, 
ao  as  to  acquire,  when  dry,  the  hardness  of  liuard,  and 
yet  to  admit,  while  moial,  of  curvature  and  flexure :  tea- 
trays,  waiters, anulMioxea,  and  aiinllar  arlicies  are  thua 
prepared,  and  afterward  carefully  covered  by  Japan 
or  otiier  varnlshta,  and  often  beautifully  ornamented 
by  llgures  or  landscapes  and  other  devices,  etc.,  occa- 
sionally inlaid  with  mother  of  pearl.  A  mixture  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  i|ulckiime,  and  glue,  or  white  of  egg, 
with  tlie  pulp  for  papier-mache,  renders  it  to  a  greater 
extent  water-proof;  and  the  further  addition  of  borax 
und  phosphate  of  soda  contrilmtes  to  make  it  alinust 
tire-pruof.  The  chief  papier-mache  manufactory  in 
Kngland  is  that  of  llielefeid,  in  Wellington  Street, 
Strand,  who  has  recently  published  ii  concisu  history 
uf  the  manufacture,  embcllishi  d  with  numeruiia  iilus- 
Iratiuns.  There  are  manufactories  of  pnpier-macliu 
goods  now  established  in  Massachuactta.  Kor  tlie  im- 
ports of  articles  uf  pnpler-mache,  ter  Pai'KIi. 

Para,  or  Belem,  a  sea-port  city  of  Hra/.il,  capital 
of  the  province,  7U  miles  from  thn  Atlantic,  latitude  of 
Korl  St.  I'edro  1"  W  8.,  long.  AH°  flo'  b"  W.  Population 
estimated  at  lO.tXXI,  mostly  of  Kuropean  descent.  It 
stands  on  elevated  ground,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Way 
of  (iunjuara,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pura,  or  Tocan- 
tins,  and  has  aline  appearance  from  the  river.  Chief 
edilices,  the  governor's  palace,  cathedral,  several  other 
churches,  convents,  barracks,  arsenal,  episcopal  palace 
und  seminary,  formerly  a  ilesuits'  college;  a  prison, 
and  an  unnnUhcd  theatre.  Vessels  of  hirgi'  draft  cnn 
lie  near  the  city,  and  the  cocoa,  caoutchouc,  isinglass, 
rice,  and  drugs,  exported  from  llrur.il  are  chiefly  from 
Para.  It  has  also  a  trade  in  cotton,  vanilla,  annutto, 
dye-woods,  honey,  wax,  and  a  great  variety  of  other 
vegetable  and  animal  products.  Tiic  trade  is  mostly 
»ith  l.iverpuol,  London,  Uarlmdoes,  Cayeune,  und  the 
North  American  and  other  llraziliaii  ports.  The  Hiver 
Para,  liounding  the  island  of  Mar^jo  south  ward,  extends 
lietwecn  long.  48°  10'  and  60 '  40'  W.,  receives  the  To- 
caiitins  and  Annnpu  from  tho  south,  nnd  is  connected 
northwestward  with  the  Amazon. 

Para  enjoys  an  advantage  possessed  by  no  other  sea- 
port town  in  llrazil — that  of  an  unolistructed  iiitercuuise 
by  water  with  tho  interior.  The  comniurclal  resources 
of  this  province,  nnd  tho  admirable  trading  positinn 
uf  tho  city,  nro  unsurpassed ;  Imt  inhabilants  urn  want- 
ing to  develop  these  elements  of  commerce  and  civili- 
zation. In  IH40,  somo  American  citizens  estuldislied 
several  suw-mills  at  Maguery,  in  Iho  vicinity  of  Para; 
hut  wlietlicr  they  met  with  better  success  than  did 
tlio  Olnsguw  merchants,  whoso  property  to  the  amount 
of  ^I'luO.lHlO  was  pillaged  in  tho  same  place  during  a 
revolt  ill  1H,15,  has  not  been  ascertained.  The  cotton 
of  I'ara  has  lieen  liiglily  prized.  Caoutchouc,  tho  uan 
of  which  was  llrst  discovered  in  1735  by  French  acade- 
micians sent  to  Brazil  to  mako  astronomical  observa- 
tions, is  abundant,  and  is  extensively  mauufuctured 
into  shoos,  etc.  Were  this  article  admitted  into  the 
I'nited  States,  as  in  Kngland,  free  of  duty,  it  would 
become  one  of  the  staple  exports  to  this  country.  A 
well-informed  American  merchant,  residing  at  Para, 
addressed  a  letter  on  this  subject  to  one  of  tho  oflicers 
of  Lieutenant  llcnulon's  CNpcdition  to  tho  Amazon, 


TAR 


1401 


PAR 


inv««« 

in*nU' 
iinil  u|i 
,.,\  tlllo 

*ll  U|>l>ll 

ililliiK*< 

IV  ■•  *Uu 
■ml  Ittt 

I  *<liiilM 
cl.  An- 
no name 

loKiMlic'i 
imnl,  »nil 
,ure  i  tm- 
•  am  tliui 
liy  Jiii>»n 
nonicnteil 
fti'.,  iicra- 

llXtUTO  of 

ill!  of  <KK, 
1  ft  Rrcftler 
n  of  liiirax 
I  U  Mniupit 
(factory   In 
ton  Slrci't, 
tlHO  liUtory 
Lcrunn  lllun- 
(|il»r-inatlii! 
For  tho  Ini- 

•«/.n,  <«iiii»i 

•,  latltuile  of 

'  ropulftllon 

(\oBCcnl.     I' 

)rcofllioll">>' 

►•a,  or  Toi'Bii- 

Ivcr.     Clilcf 

several  other 

nfopal  jialacc. 

;o;  a  prUon, 

r({.'  ilraft  oun 
,  IsinjjlaM, 
liiully  from 
.Utt,  annntto, 
■k'ty  of  otlier 
mlc"  i»  mostly 
cnne,  iiml  tlio 
.    ThoUivcr 

»ril,<'XtlMl>l!l 

ivi»  tho  To- 
lii  conncctoil 

no  otlicr  »c«- 
i\  inlercouvac 
•|«\  vfnonroes 
ling  jiositlon 
intsarnwniit- 
rco  anil  civlli- 
cstiilili»li«'' 
inily  ofl'ara; 
•CSS  than  <Uil 
(0  llic  amount 
Uaco  liming  » 
Tlio  cotton 
•hone,  tho  uii» 
[Vrcncli  aeailo- 
nical  obsorva- 
nianufiictnreil 
jittc.1  into  tho 
[luly,  it  woiil'l 
1  country.     A 
din}!  at  Vixn, 
of  tho  officers 
tho  Amaieon, 


iiritlnR  tha  illnaHvantaRfi*  nmlor  which  Amnriran  mm- 
mfri*  Uhor<.  aa  i-ompaml  with  that  of  <ln'«t  llrllalii, 
ill  iho  caoiil.  houc  traile.  -.S.c  "  Utl«r  fmni  IhK  .S».rr- 
lary  of  lhi>  'I'rranury,  IranmnllllnK  ropy  "f .  IriiiUr  lol- 
ter  and  n't'll""  thereto,  In  rofnremn  In  ih"  'I'arlir, 
March  «,  IHM."      ThU  artlcin  la  now  lionnnlnK  Ih' 


hr«aiUh  of  ahniit  200  nillta,  ami  rsnlatna  an  afva  of 

alioiit  Mil,iiiHUi|iiarn  mile*.    i''<piila(l»n  IHki.iNm)     I'apl- 

lal.  A rliiii.      rii«  nainn  I'arawnav  at  uik'  lima  waa 

iini-il  111  a  very  rtti'nilvn  hi'Imi*,  io  at  |t>  Incliitia  lh« 
wholi*  of  tint  lininPliKt  r**Kloiu  of  Soiilh  Aitii*rlra,  b«- 
Iwi'en  lal.  1*1    S.,  anil  the  Nlralt  of  kiatfvllan,  anil  lia- 


chli'f  alapln  of  tho  provlnca  of  I'ara;  ami  an  varimia    tw i  (hill  ami  I'lrii  on  lhi<  we>t,  ami  llraail  on  Ih* 

ami  innltlforni  ar»  thn  uiiva  In  which  It  la  applli  aMc,  caul,  now  conniii'il  lo  Iha  rvpiihllc  pnipurly  in  rallad. 
holh  In  thfl  aria  anil  In  iluniaallo  crononiy  — no  linpnrl-  j  On  thn  north  thu  llinlla  of  ihU  itala  wiih  llraull  an 
ant  a*  an  artlcin  of  commarco  haa  It  alrcaily  lH<iiiin<',  { imt  ili-llnllcly  trllli'il,  Imt  In  nlher  illrecliniia  II  ha*  Iha 


Ihal,  oven  axainiit  tho  Import  iliity  of  |i»  per  cent.  In 
Iha  (Tnllcit  Slatea,  It  coiulltulri  ainioit  M  per  nMit.  nf 
our  Iraile  with  I'ara.  'Iha  folhiwln«  «lalenieiit  ex- 
hllilM  tho  ipiantltlaa  of  Imlla-rulilier  Impnrlcil  from 
I'ara  inlii  tho  L'nlled  Statea  during  tha  yaura  daalg- 
iiatod  i 

Valiw, 


tItO l.MHMHH) 

IHM »,!1.1»,IKM  ... 

IllOn 1I,T40,0(HI     II.WHl.lKV) 

Tho  cxporta  from  I'arii  to  foreign  countrlea  conaitl 
of  caipntchoiio,  collon,  rico,  ciiatoroil,  copalva,  unUo- 
aeed  oil,  cocoa,  clovea,  cinnamon,  lildea,  horna,  lilii- 
gliiaa,  rcrnvlan  hark,  etc.  Kroni  IHUl  to  IHi'i',  tim  ex- 
ports from  this  provlncci  averaged  annually  ♦h60,|;i1. 
Tloi  fiillowInK  augiinary  exhitiita  tho  total  trado  of 
I'ara  for  IMIfc  Inward—Veaaela,  flU;  tonnage,  II, UK!; 
valmi  of  carnooa,  t  !!•''>,!"" ;  of  which  tliero  entered 
from  tho  I 'idled  Stales;  Voasela,  'JM  ;  tonnage,  :i'J-.'li; 
value  of  laigoeit,  ♦•i;ifi,'2(H).  Cleared  to  all  eounlricn — 
Vendola,  70;  tonnage,  II, 11.^;  value  of  cargoea,  t''\7,- 
fl'.'.'i.  'I'll  tho  I'nlled  Htatea— VenaeU,  'i7 1  tonnage, 
Mli'.'M  ;  valuo  of  cargoea,  f'.'Ut.ii'ii).  In  thia  province, 
tho  lugar  and  cutfeo  plantatiuna  do  not  produco  iufll- 


itilvantaiin  i>rgriat  natural  JHiumlarlia ;  the  I'arana  on 
the  ea«t  and  amiih,  and  lla  irilmtary  the  I'aragiiay  nn 
thn  weat.  'Ihe  vtlinle  aurfai e  Ihua  lieliinga  to  tho  ha- 
alna  of  tlinan  two  rivera,  a  niiiuiilain  range  of  lonaidar- 
aide  elevation  atmlclilng  lietween  them  iiuiili  lo  aoiilh, 
ao  aa  to  form  their  waler-ahed,  and  aen  I  thn  drainagn 
In  oppiiaite  illriii'lliiiia,  hut  nearly  In  eipial  portlona. 
I'lin  dlalance  of  the  water-ahed  from  Ihe  river  acarcaly 
any  whera  exceeda  IINI  mllna,  and  henco  the  triljiilarlea 
liy  which  the  draiiiiige  la  conveyed  arn  more  remark- 
iilde  for  their  niinilM'r  than  Iheir  magnitude,  liy  far 
the  largeat  la  Ihe  Tlliimarl,  which,  owing  lo  an  ruatom 
litml  In  the  water-ahcd,  Ima  lla  course  conalderahly 
prolonged,  and  lieliig  angineiileil  Ia  <i'veral  largo  afllu- 
«nla  from  Iho  north,  U'coniea  a  nolde  atreaui  lieruni  It 
reachea  the  raraKuay.  The  aiirfain  la  niouiilainuua 
in  the  centre,  and  alao  in  Ihe  norllieaal,  where  a  rami- 
I'callon,  known  liy  thn  name  of  Ihe  Sierra  de  Maracay, 
or  Cordillera  do  .Maracara,  hreaka  oil' from  Ihe  central 
chain,  and  proceeding  eaat  lo  tho  lianka  of  tho  I'arana, 
inlerrupla  the  navigation  of  that  river,  and  forma  one 
of  Ihe  most  reniarkalilo  cataracts  in  tho  world. 

Paraguay  ia  ono  of  tho  llnoat  countries  in  Iho  world. 


--    .  ,  ,  ,,  ,,    >  It  la  almost  incloaod  liy  rivera,  and  tho  Interior  la  alao 

clout  for  homo  cnnsninptlon,  and  supplies  aro  iisually    ,,„,„„if„„    „„(,„„,.     ■,  h„  ex,„rlor  waters  aro  navlga- 
imported  from  tho  nelghliorlng  provinces.      Iho  Im-    ,_,     ^,,,,  /„,„„i,„„  „,„  ^  „vcnue,  which  are  dea- 

porls  from  foreign  countries  conslat  of  cotton  goods, 
sllk-i,  hardware,  wines,  apirits,  salt,  Hour,  salt  provl- 
viuns,  gunpowder,  etc.  The  only  manufactnrei  are 
ordinary  cotton  cloths  for  sacks  and  liaminocka,  and 
India-rnlilior  shoes;  l>nt  these  manufaclnres  seem  not 
to  thrive,  from  n  want  of  skill  to  direct  tliom. 


Total  NfMiiKn  nr  VKHKKi.a.  » iTii  Tiiain  ToxxAiia,  ax- 
iiAiir.ii   IN   tiir.  Tkaiir    okt»kkx    I'aua    ano   riuiKiiiM 

('olrNTKIBS,    AN1«  V'Al.ia  OK   I'.XIHiaTa    ANII  IXI'OIITS    XTII  , 
It    IK41    AMI)    IS.VI. 


IKIH. 

V.mIi. 

Tom 

KmnrR 

KlltlTi'll 

NS 

li.X'iH 

inipnl'ls.  :i.'^!<h.lHSI 

Cluarod 

HU 

lli,OJ.I 

Kxporla,  4»'<I,0I)I 

iHtU. 

Knlered 

M 

M.RTT 

Imports  .1  loO.OIHI 

rlenri'il 

Vi 

lll,4iW 

KxiKiriM,  7,.l't-.'.0lPII 

hie, 

lined  to  liecome  the  highways  of  Ihe  commerce  of  • 
magnillcenl  interior  country,  rnlike  the  open  coun. 
tries  surrounding  it,  Paraguay  ia  well  wooded,  and 
among  Its  trues  are  many  valuable  In  the  arts  and 
nianiifaclures.  It  also  ahoiindu  In  medicin..'.  prod> 
nets,  as  rhuliarl),  sarsaparilla.  Jalap,  sassafras,  dragon's 
hlooil,  copiilva,  mix  vomica,  liquorice,  ginger,  etc.,  all 
;  of  tho  lineal  qualily.  Of  dye-stuffs,  loo,  there  is  an  Im- 
i  ineiiao  variety  ;  as  cochineal.  Indigo,  vegctahlo  vermil- 
ion, satfron,  etc.  Many  of  the  forest  trees  yield  valu- 
able guni.a,  and  they  comprise  some  of  the  most  dell- 
linns  perfumes  and  incense  that  can  bo  imagined, 
I  Hhers,  again,  are  like  amber,  hard,  hrlllle,  and  Insolu- 
ble in  water.  The  sirinijn,  or  rubber-tree,  the  product 
of  which  Is  now  almost  a  monopoly  with  I'ara,  and  also 
Ihe  pnliimnUi,  which  produces  tho  gum  giilacum,  crowd 
the  forests,  and  the  swect-tlavored  vanilla  is  abumlant. 
I'pon  tho  hills  tho  celebrated  verba  inalA  flonrlshoi 
luxuriantly.  Tho  cultivated  products  aro  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  mandioca,  Indian  corn,  etc.  On 
Iho  plain?  thousands  of  cattle  range,  and  large  i|uanti- 
llea  of  hides,  hair,  horns,  bones,  tallow,  etc.,  are  lost  for 
want  of  transportation.  'I  he  country  is  not  celebrated 
for  its  minerals ;  but  in  all  that  constitutes  an  agricul- 
luial  Country,  rich  IoulIs,  a  lino  climate,  and  abundance 
of  water.  It  has  no  enual.  Hitherto,  however,  it  ha* 
been  shut  out  from  tho  world  by  the  arbitrary  will  of 
and  a  great  variety  of  toxtilc  plants,  medicinal  I'lrugs,  j  despotism ;  and  its  future  commerce  can  only  bo  mcas- 
and  dye-woods  of  the  richest  qualities.  The  present  i  iircd  from  Us  resources  and  facilities.  The  recent  revo- 
population  of  I'ara  is  about  '20r>,000,  though  tho  prov-  lutioiis  in  tho  states  of  iho  Plata  havo  opened  the 
inco  is  said  to  be  capable  of  maintaining  some  millions  i  inagnilicent  rivers  of  this  country,  and  there  Is  certain- 
of  inhabitants.  With  such  a  population,  its  natural  ly  no  further  iinpcdimeni  to  commercial  enterprise, 
resources  might  lo  more  fully  doveloped,  and  Para  j  This  state,  formerly  a  province  of  Huenos  Ayrca, 
thus  placed,  In  point  of  position  and  commcrciol  iin- '  withdrew  from  tho  connection  in  IHll,  and  tho  Span- 
portance,  in  the  very  first  rank  of  Urazilian  ports.—  ;  ish-American  revolution  breaking  out  about  that  date 
Comm'rcial  lldalioin  with  Ihe  I'nited  NIalea.  j  secured  it  from  molestation.     The  policy  of  Its  rulera 

Paraguay,  a  ropublic  or  consulship  of  South  .\mcr-  has  been  the  exclusion  of  foreigners  from  the  country, 
ica,  extends  from  lat.  21°  to  27°  20'  S.,  and  long.  M"  to  and  under  Dr.  Francia,  so  celebrated  In  connection 
58°  40'  W.  Tho  space  thus  inclosed  forms  a  very  coin-  with  its  annals,  the  utmost  dospotiam  waa  exercised, 
pact  territory,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelogram,  I  The  tyrant  dying  in  1H40  the  government  was  changed 
about  430  miles  lung,  north  to  south,  with  an  avcvagc  i  in  its  character,  and  a  more  liberal  policy  obtained, 


Ktavle  I'aomiiiTioNB  ok  I'Aax.  bklativkly  cuNsiiiKaai), 

WITU  KHSPKIT  TO  TIIK  (JUANTITIKS  ANNUALLY  C.M'OUTEU: 

rnoiitclioiio :>3,1100  jirrnhas. 

»,'u(oa 'ioii.noo       " 

IJotton n.l'iO 

Hldoc IB.MI  I  plerea. 

Copalra .1  :in<l  poU. 

Itico mo.Olin  iirrotms. 

KIco  In  the  huak m.im  nlqiilirra. 

Hugar 'il..^lll  arrnb.is. 

india-rubber  shoos IDi.liOi)  piUra. 

The  above  are  tho  leading  exports  from  Para;  but, 
besides  these,  the  province  produces  various  kind^  of 
timber  admirably  adapted  lor  ahip-building  purposes, 


PAR 


1492 


PAR 


and  ultimatply  it  has  become  in  form  an  Glecitvo  re- 
public. As  early  as  1H12,  Paraguay  accoicil  to  the 
opening  of  its  rivers  to  forcii^i  commerce ;  but  until  the 
overthrow  of  Rosas,  the  tyrant  of  liuenos  Ayres,  who 
exercised  authority  ovor  the  estuary  of  the  Plata, 
the  concession  was  of  no  vulne.  The  successors  of 
Rosas  have  now  fully  conceded  free  ingress  and  egress 
tvith  the  sea.  These  important  revolutions  in  the 
policy  of  the  two  countries  will  eventuate  in  tho  de- 
velopment of  the  vast  resources  of  the  southeastern  and 
middle  portions  of  South  America — countries  which  are 
unsurpassed  in  agricultural  wealth  and  valuable  com- 
mercial staples.  For  further  information,  see  Ameri- 
can iStnlistienl  AnniiiU;  Amencan  Whiff  Reviewj  yi.  245 
(U.S. Consul  Hopkins);  Xorth  American J{ecieu),xxvi. 
444  (A.  II.  Kvkrbtt);  DubUn  Vnieenity,  xii.  474; 
Qunrlerly  Riciew,  .xxvi.  277. 

The  commercial  policy  of  Paraguay,  however,  is  not 
of  that  liberal  character  to  attract  foreign  merchants 
to  its  ports.  In  addition  to  the  expense  of  purchasing 
stan\ped  paper,  by  means  of  which  every  official  trans- 
action in  the  republic  is  conducted,  and  without  which 
foreign  merchants  can  not  cuter  the  markets,  tho  in- 
ternal taxes  arc  such  as  to  discourage  efforts  to  develop 
the  resources  of  the  country,  and,  as  a  consequence,  to 
oppress  its  commercial  industry.  The  aggregate  of 
these  (axes  bearing  specially  upon  commerce  is  stated 
to  amount  to  20  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  every  article 
sent  to  market.  They  consist  of  diezmos  (tithes),  10  per 
cent. ;  export  duty,  10  per  cent. ;  and  on  rent  of  lands 
(almost  wholly  owned  by  the  state,  and  flxed  at  a  high 
valuation)  G  per  cent.  If  to  this  be  added  an  import  duty 
of  20  per  cent,  on  almost  every  article  which  the  United 
States  could  send  to  the  markets  of  Paraguay,  it  can  be 
readily  comprehended  why  the  name  of  this  republic 
does  not  appear  among  those  of  other  foreign  nations  the 
details  of  whose  commerce  are  minutely  set  forth  in  the 
annual  Report  on  ( 'nmmerco  and  Navigation,  prepared 
by  the  Department  of  tho  Treasury  of  theUnited  States. 
The  "  stamps,"  to  which  allusion  has  been  made,  are  di- 
vided into  eight  classes :  those  of  the  (irst  class  cost  25 
cents;  of  the  second,  37i  cents;  of  the  third,  ^1;  of 
the  fourth,  $2 ;  of  the  iiflh,  $8 ;  of  the  sixth,  $8 ;  of 
the  seventh,  $16;  of  the  eighth,  $26.  Permia.«ion  to 
discharge  or  to  load  a  vessel  of  21  tons,  or  2000  tons,  can 
only  be  obtained  on  a  stamp  of  this  last  description ;  so 
that  to  unload  •  cargo  valued  at  $100  will  cost  $26 — 
all  the  same  as  if  it  were  worth  $100,000 ;  and  in  like 
manner  as  to  taking  cargo  on  board.  The  foreign 
trade  of  Paraguay  is  conducted  chiefly  through  the 
ports  of  the  Argentine  Confederation,  especially  that 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  those  of  the  Republicof  Uruguay. 
The  exports  consist  of  verba  mat6  (with  whicli  the 
hills  of  tho  country  aro  literally  covered),  tobacco, 
cigars,  woods,  hides,  hair,  leather,  molasses,  rum,  white 
stari'h,  mandioca,  peanuts,  beans,  and  oranges ;  of 
which  latter  article  not  less  than  110,000  bushels  nre 
said  to  be  exported  per  month.  The  exports  from  the 
United  States  which  would  most  readily  find  a  market 
in  Paraguay  are  cotton  domestics,  calicoes,  plain  cloths, 
clocks,  boots  and  shoes,  gunpowder  and  shot,  saddlery, 
and  agricultural  implements. 

If  the  navigation  of  the  River  Vermejo,  an  affluent 
of  the  Paraguay,  were  opened  to  foreign  connnercc,  or 
were  even  permitted  to  the  Argentine  Hag,  the  United 
States  would,  it  is  believed,  soon  enjoy  the  entire  for- 
eign trade  of  the  upper  provinces  of  tho  Argentine  Con- 
federation. This  privilege,  however,  is  refused  by  the 
government  of  Paraguay,  notwithstanding  tho  River 
Vermejo,  in  its  entire  course,  lies  within  tho  territories 
of  the  sister  republic.  Hitherto  n  selfish  and  illil>eral 
policy  excluded  foreign  vessels  from  the  port  of  Albu  • 
queripie,  a  place  1600  miles  alrove  Asuncion,  the  capital 
of  Paraguay,  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Matto  Orosso, 
which  the  government  of  that  empire  has  declared  open 
to  the  commerce  of  the  world.  Brazilian  vessels  were 
not  permitted  to  descend  the  River  Paraguay,  which 


takes  its  rise  in  this  province,  nor  are  foreign  vessels 
allowed  to  ascend  higher  than  the  city  of  Asuncion; 
thus  cutting  olf  all  traile  with  the  richest  portions  of 
Bolivia  and  the  fertile  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  in 
Brazil.  The  claim  of  Paraguay  to  exercise  jurisdiction 
over  both  banks  of  this  river,  by  prohibiting  its  navi- 
gation  above  Asuncion,  and  l)y  closing  tho  navigation 
of  the  Vermejo,  both  to  the  citizens  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  to  foreigners,  lins  never  been  admitted, 

A  treaty  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil  was  duly 
signed  and  ratified  Juno  14,  IS.M,  by  which  it  is  stipu- 
lated that  the  waters  of  tho  Upper  Paraguay  shall 
henceforth  be  open  to  general  navigation  and  com- 
merce. This  will  bring  not  only  tho  produce  of  the 
Brazilian  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  but  also  the  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  wealth  of  Bolivia,  to  an  Atlantic 
market  The  value  of  these  mineral  resources  may  lie 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  there  are  stated  to  exist  in 
this  region  upward  of  a  thousand  valuable  mines  un- 
workcd,  it  having  been  found  impossible  hitherto  to 
convey  machinery  thither,  across  the  mountains,  from 
tho  Pacific  coost.  A  highway  to  the  spot  is  now  open- 
ed from  the  Atlantic,  as  broad  as  the  Jlississippi,  and 
equally  accessilile.  The  rich  province  of  Matto  Grosso, 
with  its  diamonds,  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  is  also 
brought  in  connection  with  the  good  and  contiguous 
Bctt-ports,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo,  by  the  Para- 
guay River;  and  Ci^aba,  its  capital,  in  the  centre  of 
the  mining  districts,  can  easily  be  reached  from  Asun- 
cion. Dianantino,  about  two  hundred  miles  from  Cu- 
jaba,  sends  its  produce  to  Santarem,  on  tho  Amazon, 
and  thence  to  Para.  This  tedious  and  circuitous  route 
is  now  superseded,  as  the  Paraguay  connects  these 
markets  with  the  estuary  of  the  Plata.  A  Paraguayan 
journal,  "  Im  Xacional,"  of  August  11,  1856,  publishes 
the  subjoined  regulations:  "All  vessels  from  foreign 
ports  to  the  Brazilian  ports  above  shall  take  pilots  at 
Asuncion,  Concepcion,  the  junction  of  the  Apa,  and 
Olimpo.  The  vessels  that  descend  that  river  from  tho 
upper  Paraguay  aro  obliged  to  take  pilots  from  Olimpo, 
the  junction  of  the  Apa,  and  Concepcion;  and  the 
wages  of  the  said  pilots  are  to  be  agreed  upon  at  the 
captain  of  the  port's  bureau  in  Asuncion." 

In  1853,  the  United  States  steamer  Water  Wilih, 
of  400  tons  burden,  and  nine  feet  draught,  was  dis- 
patched, under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Tlionuis  J. 
Page,  to  make  an  exploration  and  survey  of  tho  tribu- 
taries of  the  River  La  Plata.  Tho  results  of  tliis  ex- 
pedition will,  doubtless,  contriliute  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree to  the  advancement  of  commerce  and  the  promo- 
tion of  science.  The  navigation  of  the  Paraguay 
River,  which  empties  into  the  Parana  at  the  distance 
from  Buenos  Ayres  of  800  miles,  was  extended  to  (he 
parallel  of  18°  south  latitude ;  making  the  entire  dis- 
(ance  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay,  through 
which  this  small  sea-steamer  had  passed  from  Buenos 
Ayres  to  Corumba  (an  interior  military  post  of  Brazil), 
equal  to  about  1700  miles.  There  is  no  doulit  that  tho 
navigation  of  tho  Paraguay,  during  the  season  of  high 
water,  could  have  been  carried  by  the  Water  Wilili  (o 
a  still  greater  extent ;  but  at  the  time  of  (his  explora- 
tion any  further  ascent  was  prohibited  by  Brazil. 
Permission  was,  however,  subsequently  granted  by  tlio 
imperial  government,  but  refused  by  that  of  Paraguay. 
The  expedition  was  thus  restricted  to  a  more  limited 
exploration  of  the  upper  waters  of  this  river  than  had 
been  anticipated.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  all  such  prohibitions  will  bo  re- 
moved, and  this  interesting  region  of  unknown  country 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  world. 

The  navigation  of  tho  Paraguay  has  thus  been  ex- 
tended beyond  Asuncion,  to  the  distance  of  650  miles. 
This  fact  has  induced  tho  Brazilian  govrnmicnt  to 
avail  itselfofthis  important  channel  of  comnmnication, 
bystcam,with  her  northwestern  province,  MattoGrasso, 
in  which  is  found  the  most  valuable  diamond  region 
of  the  empire. 


PAR 


1493 


PAU 


vessels 
iincion ; 
ions  of 
osso,  in 
sdiction 
ts  iiavi- 
vlgation 
rgunlino 
dmitted. 
pas  duly 
is  slipu- 
lay  sliall 
ind  coul- 
ee of  tlie 
tliu  agri- 
I  All  an  lie 
Bs  may  lio 
0  exist  ill 
mines  un- 
itlicrto  to 
ains,  fiom 
now  opcn- 
isippi,  and 
ttoG  rosso, 
er,  is  also 
eontifiuous 
y  the  i'ara- 
0  ecntro  of 
from  Asun- 
es  from  Cu- 
lie  Amazon, 
uitous  routo 
meets  these 
Paraguayan 
i6,  publishes 
Tom  foreign 
akc  pilots  at 
»e  Apa,  and 
vcr  from  tho 
rom  Olimpo, 
m;   and  Iho 
upon  at  the 

\Valer  ]Vlt<-h, 
iht,  was  dis- 
[it  Tlionins  J. 
of  tho  trilm- 
of  this  ex- 
eminent  de- 
the  pronio- 
Te  Paraguay 
the  distauco    , 
.ended  to  tho 
lie  entire  dis- 
lay,  throunh 
from  Muenos 
ist  of  Hrazil), 
kibt  that  tho 
|;afon  of  liinh 
li(p)'  iridVi  to 
this  explora- 
^l  by  Ura/.il. 
ranted  by  tho 
if  Paraguay. 
I  more  limited 
vcr  than  had 
|t  tho  time  is 
,9  will  he  rc- 
lown  country 

Ihus  been  ox- 
lof  C60  miles. 
Ivcmmcnt  to 
inmunication, 
[MattoGrasso, 
tniond  region 


An  expedition  was  dispatched  by  the  French  gov- 
eminent,  n  few  years  since,  for  the  exploration  of  the 
Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers ;  and  the  following  pas- 
sage is  translated  from  a  report  made  in  March,  1856, 
by  Captain  Pi'-ard,  to  whose  charge  it  had  been  com- 
mitted :  "  When  we  consider  the  excellent  means  of 
communication  which  nature  has  opened  to  tho  prov- 
inces of  the  Argentine  Confederation  and  tho  Kepubliu 
of  Paraguay,  we  can  not  but  regret  to  see  them  unem- 
ployed and  deserted.  Tho  absence  of  population,  con- 
tinual civil  war,  and  the  administrative  policy  of  Para- 
guay, have,  so  far,  been  the  chief  obstacles  to  progress. 
Lot' us  indulge  the  hope  that  tho  day  is  not  distant 
when  tho  aspect  of  things  will  change,  and  these  mag- 
nificent countries  will  flourish  under  the  blessings  of  a 
more  advanced  civilization." 

Paraguay  can  hardl}*  be  said  to  possess  a  merchant 
marine.  In  1851  there  were  distributed,  between  the 
two  ports  of  Asitncion  and  Villa  del  Pilar,  12  vessels, 
averaging  each  about  42  tons.  In  1852  there  wero  11 
of  the  same  description,  and  in  1853  only  9.  Besides 
these,  there  is  one  brig  belonging  to  the  government, 
which  is  said  to  monopolize  almost  exclusively  the 
commerce  of  the  state.  The  foreign  vessels  engaged 
in  the  trade  of  Paraguay  in  1862  were  81,  with  an 
aggregate  of  4582  tons,  from  the  Argentine  provinces 
south,  below  the  Paraguay  River,  and  three  American 
vessels,  tonnage  not  known.  All  these  vessels  trade 
with  the  ports  of  Asuncion  and  Villa  del  Pilar,  which, 
with  the  port  of  Sncarnacion,  on  the  Parana,  were  alone 
open  to  foreign  commerce.  There  is  no  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Paraguay.  With  England  r. 
treaty  was  ratified  November  2,  1853,  by  the  second 
article  of  which  tho  Republic  of  Paraguay  concedes  to 
the  merchant  flag  of  Great  Britain  the  free  navigation 
of  the  River  Paraguay  as  far  as  Asuncion,  the  capital 
of  the  republic,  and  of  the  right  side  of  the  Parana, 
from  where  it  belongs  to  her,  as  far  as  tho  city  of  En- 
carnacion.  It  stipulates,  also,  that  British  subjects 
shall  be  at  liberty,  with  their  ships  and  cargoes,  freely 
and  securely  to  come  to,  and  to  leave,  all  tho  places 
and  ports  of  the  said  territories ;  hire  ho'iscs  and  ware- 
houses; and  trade  in  all  kinds  of  produce,  manufac- 
tures, and  merchandise  of  lawful  commerce,  subject  to 
the  usages  and  established  customs  of  the  country : 
also,  that  they  may  discharge  the  whole  or  part  of 
their  cargo  at  the  ports  of  Pilar  and  where  commerce 
with  other  nations  may  be  permitted,  or  proceed  with 
the  whole  or  part  of  their  cargo  to  the  port  of  Asuncion, 
according  as  tho  captain,  owner,  or  other  duly  author- 
ized person  shall  deem  expedient ;  and  that,  in  the  same 
manner,  shall  be  treated  and  considered  such  Paraguay- 
an citizens  as  shall  arrive  at  the  ports  of  Great  Britain 
with  cargoes  in  Paraguayan  or  British  vessels. 

There  is  an  American  company  established  in  Para- 
guay, under  a  charter  from  tho  State  of  Khodo  Island, 
which  has  been  engaged  in  commercial  operations  for 
some  time,  under  the  title  of  "Tho  United  States  and 
Paraguay  Navigation  Company."  Tho  chief  object  of 
this  company  is  to  introduce  steam  navigation  on  the 
rivers  of  Paraguay ;  but  how  far  it  has  progressed  in 
tho  accomplishment  of  this  object,  information  is  not 
at  hand.  The  only  direct  trade,  however,  yet  opened 
between  the  United  States  and  this  republic  consists 
of  some  shipments  of  cigars  and  samples  of  wood  made 
by  this  company.  All  other  articles  of  Paraguayan 
produce  which  reach  tho  United  States  come  through 
tho  ports  of  Buenos  Ayrcs  or  Montevideo,  and  are  in- 
cluded in  tho  custom-house  returns  to  the  Treasury 
Department  of  exports  from  tho  republics  to  which 
these  places  respectively  belong. 

Tho  government  of  Paraguay  puts  forth  no  statistics 
relative  to  the  commercial  movements  of  tho  ropulillc, 
and  it  is  said  to  be  quite  impossible  to  obtain  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  from  its  administrative  ofBcials. 
Complete  commercial  statistics,  which  may  bo  viewed 
as  strictly  accurate,  can  not,  therefore,  bo  looked  for. 


"Tho  amount  of  tho  oxport  and  import  trade  nf 
Paraguay  during  the  year  1857  exhililts  a  large  in- 
crease on  that  of  tho  previous  year.  Tho  dlfTeronco  in 
Iho  amount  and  character  of  tlio  trade  consiatod  in  an 
incrousod  production  and  exportation  of  tho  principal 
articles  of  export — namely,  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay 
tea,  and  tobacco,  and  tho  fulling  off  in  tho  production 
of  articles  of  home  consumption,  which  rendered  tho 
importation  of  such  articles  necessary.  This  circum- 
stance produced  an  increase  in  the  quantity  and  value 
both  of  the  exports  and  imports.  It  can  not  bo  said, 
however,  to  have  matoriully  improved  tlio  condition  of 
tho  country,  or  to  bo  a  sign  of  growing  prosperity. 

"  The  demand  for  tobacco,  sinco  its  introduction  Into 
European  markets,  caused  its  cultlviilluii  almost  en- 
tirely to  su)ierscdo  that  of  articles  of  homo  consumption, 
ind  provisions  rose,  in  tho  year  1857,  almost  to  famine 
prices,  which  were  only  partially  reduced  hy  importa- 
tions from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  subsequently  by  the 
coming  in  of  the  now  crops  at  the  closo  of  tho  year. 

"Thus,  although  agriculturists  realized  larger  prof- 
its on  the  tobacco  crop,  tho  entire  populiition  siilTercd 
greatly  from  tho  .sc.ircity  and  dearnuss  of  provisions, 
and  tho  country  paid  high  prices  in  a  foreign  market 
for  necessaries  which  it  could  Itself  have  produced  very 
cheaply.  The  foreign  trade  of  Paraguay  is  almost  en- 
tirely coiiliuod  to  Buenos  Ayros,  to  which  place  all 
produce  for  consumption  there,  or  for  re-exportation, 
is  sent,  and  from  tho  bonded  warehouses  of  which  all 
supplies  of  foreign  goods  aro  Imported.  The  value 
of  exports  in  1857,  amounting  to  15)1,070,571  (.£885,811), 
includes  that  of  exports  on  account  of  the  government, 
amounting  to  $G58,40()  (£131, UHO),  leaving  about 
$1,018,OOJ  (£203,000)  for  exports  by  the  trade. 

"According  to  the  custom-houso  valuations,  the  Im- 
ports during  the  samo  year  amount  to  $1,184,207 
(£220,841).  These  valuations  are,  however,  about  25 
per  cent,  below  tho  markot  value  of  tho  articles,  and 
the  imports  may  bo  calculated  as  nniounting  in  reali- 
ty to  about  ;|l,417,000  (£283,400).  A  portion  of  tlic>-o 
imports  wero  either  imported,  or  subsequently  pur- 
chased by  tho  government. 

"No  direct  British  trade  was  carried  on  with  Para- 
guay during  tlio  year,  and  tho  indirect  trade  wiis 
limited  to  two  voyages  of  a  British  vessel  between 
Buenos  Ayres  and  ABuncion.  Tho  coasting  trade 
is  insignificant,  ond  is  carried  on  exclusively  in  Para- 
guayan vessels  and  boats.  No  changes  have  taken 
place  in  the  port  beyond  the  building  of  a  wooden 
pior,  wliich  is  principally  "sed  for  govornmont  vessels, 
but  occasionally  by  trading  vesac!"*.  which  pay  in  that 
case  a  duo  of  2  rials  (Is.)  per  ton  as  wliun'ign. 

"  There  was  little  or  no  change  during  Iho  year  ISW 
in  tlio  markot  prices  of  imported  goods  from  those  for 
1850,  with  tho  exception  of  tho  lirico  of  flour,  which 
rose  from  $11  to  §30  per  barrel, 

"  If  the  picture  of  the  state  of  Matto  Orosso,  drawn 
in  the  newspaper  publislied  in  Cuyabo  bo  correct,  many 
changes  have  to  lie  elfoctod  before  it  can  acciniro  Iiii- 
porlance  in  a  commercial  or  an  industrial  point  of  view. 
In  an  article  of  May  10,  1857,  the  Xotici:idi>r  Ciiytibaiio 
says,  that  agriculture  in  tho  province  is  in  a  state  of 
complete  depression,  and  all  but  extinct;  that  tho 
roads  aro  imiiassalilo  for  want  of  bridges ;  lliat  life  and 
property  are  in  continual  danger  from  Iho  incursions 
of  wild  [luliaiis;  that  commerce  is  inactive,  and  com- 
mercial transactions  entirely  without  security;  that 
tho  trade  by  the  river  is  of  little  or  no  licnollt,  owing 
to  the  distance  of  tho  custom-houso  from  the  capital, 
the  diincuUies  of  tho  navigation,  and  tho  exorbitant 
prices  exacted  for  canoe  hire  to  transjiort  goods  to 
Cuyalia,  which,  added  to  tho  high  freights  necessarily 
paid  from  Buenos  Ayrcs,  raise  tho  prices  almost  to  a 
level  witli  Ihoso  of  goods  brought  overland  from  Rio  d(i 
Jaueiro."— C  mmerciai  Report  by  Mr.  IIcnukksdn, 
British  Consul  in  I'araguay,  onfAe  Trad»  o/lhatJitpublic 
for  the  Year  1857, 


PAR 


1494 


PAR 


Paramaribo,  the  capital  town  of  Patch  Guiana, 
im  tho  went  liatilc  of  the  Surinam,  live  niiivs  from  its 
month  In  the  Atlantic,  lot.  5°  49'  N.,  Iohr.  55°  22'  W. 
Kitlniateil  population,  20,000,  mostly  blacks.  It  is 
roKutarl)'  and  wull  liullt :  streets  iinpavcd,  but  oma- 
tninteit  with  rows  of  tamarind  and  orange  trees ;  and 
It  has  Lutheran,  ('alvinistic,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Kn- 
kIIsIi  churches,  Portuguese  and  Cicrnian-Jewish  syna- 
KOffiien,  and  is  tho  centre  of  the  trade  of  the  colony. 
I''urt  /vvlandlu,  north  of  tho  town,  is  the  residence  of 
tho  govornur.  In  a  hospital  for  lepers,  on  the  right 
Iwnk  of  the  Coppenamc,  -150  patients  are  maintained 
lit  tho  oxpenxe  of  tho  colony.  The  Kwattn  Canal,  be- 
gun in  1H4I),  Is  tho  lirst  public  work  executed. by  free 
labumrs. 

Paramo  (xometlmes  rendered,  though  incorrect- 
ly, liy  ileierl  or  heath'),  Tho  name  given  in  South 
Amorirn  to  a  mountainous  district  covered  with  stunt- 
I'lt  trees,  ex|M)scd  to  tho  winds,  and  in  which  a  damp 
cciUl  pcrpctuully  prevails.  Under  tho  torrid  zone  the 
t'oramiii  nro  generally  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  in 
height,  Nnow  often  falls  on  them,  but  remains  only 
a  few  hours ;  In  which  respect  they  arc  distinguished 
from  tho  Ariadot,  which  enter  the  limits  of  perpetual 
BiHiw,  Tho  Paramos  are  almost  constantly  enveloped 
In  a  cold,  thick  fog ;  so  that  when  a  thick,  small  rain 
falls,  aiTumpanlcd  with  a  depression  of  the  tempera- 
ture, they  say  at  Bogota,  or  at  Mexico,  cue  uu  para- 
mill),  Ilrnec  has  been  formed  the  provincial  word  em- 
jxtmniariie — to  be  as  cold  as  if  one  were  on  a  paramo. 
— Hl'»ini)i,i)T'H  I'ert.  Nar.  ii.  p.  2b2. 

Paraaang,  a  Persian  measure  of  length ;  accord- 
ing to  llorodotus,  equal  to  30  stadia,  and  (reckoning 
light  sladin  to  the  English  mile)  equal  to  i)}  English 
miles,  The  length  of  tho  parasang  was  reckoned  dif- 
ferently by  dill'erent  authors;  and  such  are  the  dis- 
I'rnpant  estimates  of  tho  ancients  that  sonic  have  as- 
slgtKMlit  tho  length  of  UO  stadia.  The  word  is  supposed 
to  Im  dcrhed  from  tho  Persian  feng,  signifying  a  alone. 

Parcel,  n  term  indifl'erently  a))plicd  to  small  pack- 
ngna  of  wares,  and  to  large  lots  of  goods.  In  this  lat- 
ter sense,  20  hogsheads  of  sugar  or  more,  if  bought  at 
'ino  price,  or  in  a  single  lot,  arc  denominated  "a  parcel 
of  tiigar." 

Paroals,  Bill  of,  an  account  of  tho  items  compos- 
ing n  panel, 

Parohment  and  Velliuu.  The  former  consisU 
of  tho  skins  of  sheep  and  goals,  and  the  latter  of  those 
of  calves,  prepared  In  such  a  manner  as  'o  render  them 
sultnlilo  for  licing  written  upon,  for  covering  books, 
nnd  other  purposes.  The  consumption  of  these  articles 
Is  very  considerable.  In  this  and  most  other  countries 
It  is  custoiniiry  to  use  them  instead  of  paper  in  the 
drawing  up  of  a  great  variety  of  deeds  and  other  legal 
Instruments.  They  nro  also  extensively  used,  espe- 
I'lally  In  Itnly,  in  the  binding  of  books.  The  finest 
copies  of  tlii^  nmgnlfieent  classics  which  issued  from 
tho  Dutch  presses  In  the  17th  century,  and  tho  early 
part  of  tho  IHth,  were  all  bound  in  vellum.  Parch- 
ment is  coarser  than  vellum,  and  not  so  well  adapted 
for  writing  upon.  The  qualities  of  both  articles  differ 
very  widely;  so  much  so  that  the  best  parchment  is 
preferable  to  inferior  or  even  middling  vellum.  The 
goodness  of  each  depends  partly  on  the  i|uality  of  the 
skins  of  which  they  are  made,  and  partly,  ami  indeed 
III  A  very  high  degree,  on  the  care  and  skill  Avith  which 
thoy  ore  manufactured. 

The  history  of  these  ortlcles  is  involved  In  some  oli- 
scurlty,  Varro  and  Pliny  {Hisl.  Nul.  lit),  xiii.  cap. 
11),  who  have  been  generally  followed,  slate  that  they 
were  originally  muniifai'tiired  at  Pergamus,  in  Asia 
Minor,  tho  capital  city  of  Eunicnes  II.,  one  of  Alex- 
iinder's  successors,  during  the  reign  of  that  prince; 
iind  that  parchment  owes  to  this  circumstanco  its  clas- 
sical name  of  charin  I'ergiimena.  Dut  there  seems  to  he 
llttla  If  any  foundation  for  this  statement.  We  have 
i-enn,  In  the  |irocodlng  article  on  paper,  that  Herodotus, 


who  flourished  rather  more  than  a  century  before  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  states  distinctly  that,  previously  to 
his  era,  when  paper  (eharta  Kgypliaca')  was  scarce, 
the  lonians  were  accustomed  to  write  on  the  skins  of 
sheep  and  goats,  and  that  that  practice  was  then  fol- 
lowed (viz.,  in  his  time)  by  several  barbarous  nations. 
— Lib.  V.  cap.  58.  And  it  is  all  but  certain,  seeing 
that  till.'  practice  of  writing  on  skins  had  been  in  use 
for  at  least  i\  centuries,  and  probably  inrch  more,  pre- 
viously to  the  era  of  Eumenes,  that  their  preparation 
would,  in  the  course  of  that  lengthened  period,  be  so 
much  improved  as  to  render  them  little  diirercnt  from 
parchment.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that  their  manu- 
facture may  have  been  improved  in  Pergamus;  but 
we  incline  to  think  that  parchment  owes  its  name  rath- 
er to  the  extensive  demand  for  it  in  that  city,  in  con- 
sequence of  Eumenes  having  amassed  a  large  und  val- 
uable library,  than  to  any  thing  else.  He  was,  in  fact, 
compelled  to  use  parchment  and  velluhi  in  the  copying 
of  books,  as  his  contemporary  Ptolemy  Philadelplius 
hud  prohibited  tho  exportation  of  paper. — Plinv,  uhi 
supra.  The  scarcity  of  parchment  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  in  antecedent  times,  led  to  the  practice  of 
obliterating  the  writing  on  old  parchments,  by  rubbing 
them  with  pumice-stone,  immersing  them  in  boiling 
water,  and  such  like  devices ;  and  there  can  be  no  man- 
ner of  doubt  that  tho  prevalence  of  this  practice  has 
been  most  injurious  to  literature,  and  that  it  has  most 
probably  occasioned  the  total  destruction  of  some  of 

I  the  noblest  chefa-d'auvre  of  antiquity.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  these  were  erased  that  room  might  be  made  for 

'  some  worthless  treatise  on  scholastic  theology  or  logic ! 

]  Sometimes,  however.  It  happens  that  the  ancient  writ- 
ing is  not  so  much  obliterated  but  that  it  may  still  be 

!  read ;  and  to  that  circumstance  the  recent  discovery 
of  a  portion  of  Cicero's  treatise  TJe  Jieptibllca  is  to  be 
ascribed.     It  had  been  effaced  to  make  room  for  a 

,  commentary  of  St.  Augustine  on  the  Psalms.  Parch- 
ments  that  have  been  erased  in  this  way  arc  called 


I'alimpiesli  (from  TraT^iv,  again,  and  ^au,  In  efface  or 


I 

clean),  or  repeatedly  cleaned  parchments ;  because  tliey 
have  been  repeatedly  cleaned,  renewed,  or  prepared  for 
writing  upon.  If  the  learned  world  is  ever  to  bo  giat- 
ilicd  by  the  recovery  of  the  lost  comedies  of  Menander, 
or  the  lost  books  of  Polybius,  Livy,  and  Tacitus,  it  will 
most  probably  be  by  finding  them  under  some  homily  or 
such  like  trash. — Xouceau  Traiti  dc  Diplomatique ;  Dim 
de  I'ai'nM. 

Paris  'anc.   Luletia  Parisiorum),  tho   capital  of 
France,  and,  after  London,  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lous city  in  Europe;  lat.  (obser\atory)  48°  50'  12"  N., 
long.  79°  23'  O*?'  Ii.  from  the  national  observatory, 
Washington,  and  long.  2°  20'  30''  E.  from  London. 
Population  in  1851,  l,021,5aO.    Situated  193  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  on  both  sides  and  on  two  islands 
of  the  Seine,  111  miles  from  its  mouth.     It  lias  recent-' 
I  ly,  and  at  the  expense  of  about  $100,000,000,  been  sur- 
I  rounded  with  fortllicatioiis,  consisting  of  a  wall  33  feet 
'  in  height,  bastioncd  and  terraced,  lined  with  a  fus.sc 
about  20  feet  deep,  and  embracing  botli  banks  of  the 
Seine,  with  a  continuous  inclosure,  and  of  outworks 
I  composed  of  14  detached  forts.     These  fortilications 
I  take  in  much  of  the  suburbs,  and  even  of  the  surround- 
ing country;   but  the  proper  limits  of  the  town  are 
j  traced  by  an  interior  v  all,  eroded  at  a  much  earlier 
:  date,  for  fiscal  purposes.     In  this  wall  are  50  gales  or 
I  barriers,  which  form  tho  proper  entrances  of  Paris,  and 
at  which  tho  oc'roi,  or  duties  on  goods  brought  into  it, 
are  levied.     Many  of  these  barriers  are  magiiiliccnl 
structures.     Among  others  may  be  specified  tiie  Har- 
riiire  do  Neuilly,  consisting  of  two  pavilions,  and  hav- 
ing in  front  the  splendid  triumphal  arch  Ue  I'Ktoile ; 
tho  Barri&res  do  Vinccnnes,  de  St.  Martin,  do  Konlaine- 
bleau,  do  Keuilly,  de  Chartres,  and  de  Passy.     Out- 
side the  barriers  and  their  connecting  wall  is  a  largo 
zone,  finely  planted,  which  nearly  makes  the  circuit 
of  the  town,  and  forms  an  excellent,  though  not  very 


PAR 


1495 


PAR 


capital  of 
most  po|iu- 
f  60'  12"  N., 
Dbservalory, 
)m  Lonclun. 
)3  feet  aliovo 
two  islauils 
It  has  recent-' 
JoO,  licen  sur- 
wall  83  tcct 
fwith  a  fosse 
jBiiks  of  the 
lof  outworks 
Ifortilieations 
llic  surroiiml- 
]ho  town  arc 
Imuch  eorlier 
}e  50  gates  or 
|of  I'aris,  niul 
)Uglit  into  it, 
niapnilicent 
Ificil  the  Bar- 
t)nB,  onil  liav- 
1)0  I'Etoile ; 
(\o  Fonlainc- 
>8»8V.     Oul- 
loU  is  a  largo 
\g  the  eircuit 
igh  not  very 


much  frequented,  promenade.  It  receives  the  nam»of 
Outer  Uoulcvards,  to  distinguish  tliein  from  tbo  Inner 
Uoulevards,  whieh  form  s  similar  internal  zone,  con- 
sisting, in  their  Hnest  parts,  of  a  magniliccnt  central 
thoroughfare,  bounded  on  cither  side  with  a  double  row 
of  trees,  under  wliieh  a  broad  and  elevated  patliwav 
has  been  formed,  and  lined  by  elegant  shops  and  niaii- 
sions,  tlie  whole  forming  a  scene  of  animated  gayety 
and  splendor  whicli  no  other  capital  in  Kuropo  can 
equal. 

The  Seine  traverses  the  city  in  a  west-northwest  di 
rcction,  and  has  a  medium  breadth  of  about  4&0  feet, 
nearly  one-third  less  than  that  of  the  Thames  at  Lon- 
don. It  is  shallow,  and  navigable  only  by  barges  and 
small  steamers.  Its  quays  are  built  of  solid  masonry, 
and  form  large  terraces,  with  a  roadway  in  the  centre, 
and  a  footpath  on  cither  side,  generally  planted.  They 
extend  about  11  miles,  and,  in  addition  to  the  spl  lid 
walks  which  they  aftbrd,  serve  the  important  purpose 
of  protecting  the  lower  parts  of  the  city  from  inunda- 
tions, from  which,  previously  to  these  erections,  it  oft- 
en suffered.  The  number  of  bridges  is  twenty-seven, 
all  of  stone,  with  the  exception  of  seven  suspension 
bridges,  three  of  a  combination  of  stone  and  iron,  and 
one  of  wood. 

ManvJ'uctures  and  Trade. — The  government  possess- 
es only  two  properly  manufacturing  establishments — 
that  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gobelins,  celebrated  for 
its  tapestry  and  carpets,  made,  however,  not  for  sale, 
but  the  supply  of  the  palaces,  and  for  presents ;  and  th.it 
of  tobacco,  which  the  government  holds  ar  a  monopoly, 
and  carries  on  in  a  vast  establishment  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Seine,  producing  about  a  fifth  of  all  the  snuff  used 
in  the  kingdom,  and  yielding  an  annual  proiit  estima- 
ted at  $11,000,000.  In  the  other  branches,  whicli  are 
free,  the  most  important  manufactures  aro  articles  of 
jewelry  and  precious  metals ;  ebony  and  ivory  trink- 
ets, line  hardware,  paper-hangings,  saddlery,  and  other 
articles  in  leather ;  cabinet-work,  carriages,  various  ar- 
ticles of  dress,  silk  and  woolen  tissues,  particularly 
shawls  and  carpets;  lace,  embroidery,  artificial  llow- 
crs,  combs,  machines,  mathematical  and  optical  instru- 
ments, types,  Looks,  engravings,  refined  sugar,  chemic- 
al products,  etc.  Tlie  value  of  all  the  industrial  prod- 
ucts of  I'aris  in  1847  was,  after  a  very  careful  investi- 
gation, estimated  at  $292,72.'),670.  In  1848,  during  the 
turmoil  of  the  last  revolution,  they  fell  to  less  than  one 
half  of  what  they  were  before.  The  value  of  the  ex- 
ports, composed  almost  entirely  of  the  above  articles 
of  manufacture,  was  declared  at  the  custom-house  of 
Paris  to  amount  in  value,  in  1850,  to  $li, 01)5,945.  The 
estimated  reve.iuc  of  the  city  for  1852  wos  $9,303,630 ; 
and  the  expenditure  $9,703,030. — .s'"e  iirtirle  KitASii;. 
For  commerce,  etc.,  of  I'aris,  st'i'  llrNx'.s  Merchmtls' 
Magazine,  xviii.  (iO;  Quarlerl;/  Keiiew,  Ixxviii.  141!; 
Lieing  Age,  ii.  404,  xiil.  219;  J'oreign  Quarterly,  xxxi. 
182;  Kdinburgh  Rerieii;  Ix.xxv.  39;  Cotnm.  liel.  U.  S. 

The  commercial  intercourse  between  the  United 
States  and  this  consular  district  depends  on  *hc  regu- 
lations of  the  custom  laws  of  the  empire,  and  on  tlie 
local  legislation  of  tho  city  of  I'aris,  by  which  ocinti 
duties  are  levied  on  many  orticles  brought  into  the 
city,  whether  foreign  or  domestic,  but  especially  on 
spirits  and  articles  of  subsistence.  'I'licse  regulations 
are  fKcd,  and  rest  only  on  the  contingency  of  altera- 
tion by  legislative  enactment.  There  are  some  privi- 
leges accorded  to  Spain  by  ancient  treaties  which  will 
be  found  set  forth  in  tho  tWe  dea  JJouaiies,  Code  Mari- 
time, and  the  Turifdea  I/roiti.  We  aie  not  aware  of  any 
privileges  accorilcd  to  the  commerce  of  other  nations 
and  denied  to  the  United  States,  or  of  any  important 
restrictions.  The  books  referred  to  above  gi\e  full 
information,  in  tabular  statements,  on  tfiis  question. 
Tho  transhipment  of  goods  belongs  to  the  coasting 
trade,  and,  liy  law,  onl)  Froncli  vessels  are  entitled  to 
engage  in  this  tiade.  Full  information  will  be  found 
upon  this  point  in  the  Code  Maritime. 


Hates  of  Insurance,  by  steamers,  on  goods,    J  to  U  per  cent. 
I'  "  byslilps,  "         1    to  IJ        " 

'  "  liy  Bteunicrs,  vuluubles,    3  to    ]        " 

"  "  by  slilps,  "  1  to  1  " 

Coramlsslons  for  sliipplng 3  francs  cacli  package. 

('onimiiiBtons  for  purctiojiliig  In  Inrgo 

qiunlltlej 8  per  cent. 

('oiiiniissions  for  purclmsing  in  snmll 

Muamltles 6        " 

Average  rate  of  cxdmnge  lictwcen  New  York 

""'•  I'af  1" B 13J  francs. 

Sales  of  goods  are  made  upon  cash  or  upon  orders, 
with  credits  from  thirty  days  to  six  months.  Com- 
mission houses  are  in  the  habit  of  odvancing  for  many 
of  their  customers.— Sec  Tarif  des  iJroita,  HegulalioM 
det  Dmiaues,  and  Ulalislique  Induslriel. 

Parrel.  In  Saml  language,  the  collar  of  greased 
rope,  or  trucks,  by  which  the  yard  is  confined  to  the 
mast,  while  it  slides  up  ond  down  it. 

Partnership.  A  partnership  is  an  ugreement  be- 
tween two  or  more  to  share  in  the  profit  and  loss  of 
the  use  and  application  of  their  capital,  labor,  and 
skill,  in  some  lawful  business,  whether  one  supplies 
capital,  and  another  skill  and  labor,  or  each  both  labor 
and  capital.  The  benciits  of  a  union  of  the  means 
and  advantages  of  different  persons  for  the  conduct  of 
a  branch  of  business,  in  many  instances,  are  too  obvious 
and  common  to  need  illustration.  A  partnership  is 
not  constituted  merely  by  an  interest  of  different  par- 
ties in  the  same  thing,  but  it  depends  on  a  participa- 
tion of  profits  and  joint  liability  to  loss.  And  .t.' 
there  are  some  exceptions  to  this" rule,  for  it  has  Duen 
held  that  seamen  shipping  on  shares  in  a  shipping 
voyage  are  not  copartners  with  the  owners.  And  so, 
where  a  certain  sliare  or  commission  is  allowed  to  n 
clerk  or  agent,  depending  on  the  success  of  tho  bu-si- 
ness  or  amount  of  profits,  in  addition  to  his  other  com- 
pensation, it  has  been  held,  in  many  cases,  not  to  make 
liim  a  copartner.  It  is  difficult  to  point  out  the  cri- 
terion by  which  cases  of  this  description  are  distin- 
guished from  those  of  copartnership ;  and  some  of  them 
look  more  like  an  exception  of  cases  which  strictly 
come  within  the  definition  of  copartnership.  A  ques- 
tion bus  been  made  whether  joint  owners  of  a  ship  are 
copartners,  and  the  general  doctrine  is  that  they  are 
not  so ;  and  yet  it  is  gencrnlly  held  that  each  one  is 
liable  for  the  whole  ainoiint  of  repairs  and  expenditures 
:  in  the  navigation  of  the  ship ;  liut  still  the  ownership 
'  is  not  joint,  for,  in  the  ease  of  the  decease  of  one,  the 
property  in  tho  whole  ship  does  not  survive  to  tho 
'  others,  as  would  bo  the  case  if  it  were  partnership 
I  property,  but  tho  property  is  held  in  common,  each 
,  part-owner  having  a  distinct  title  to  his  share;  and 
one  jiart-owncr  can  not,  merely  as  such,  convey  a  title 
to  the  whole  ship,  or  to  any  share  except  his  own.  As 
to  the  share  of  each  partner  in  the  profits,  or  his  lia- 
bility for  losses,  if  there  is  no  agreement  on  this  suli- 
ject,  all  the  partners  stand  upon  an  equal  footing. 

As  to  the  ol)jects  of  copartnersliip,  thcj-  arc  not  con- 
fined t!  commerce,  though  most  frc(|uent  in  that  branch 
of  industry,  but  may  embrace  manufacturing,  the  car- 
rying on  of  any  mechanic  art,  agriculture,  the  practice 
'  of  law  or  niedieine,  and,  in  short,  every  lawful  liranch 
I  of  business.     Copartnership  is  more  usually  formed  by 
a  w  ritten  agreement ;  and  by  some  codes  and  in  re- 
gard to  certain  copartnerships,  formal  stipulations  arc 
required  liy  law  in  order  to  constitute  a  copartnership, 
1  This  is  not  a  general  rule, however,  for  in  many  branches 
j  of  business  parties  may  agree  (rally  for  a  participation 
I  in  [uolit  and  loss.     These  associations  are  divided  into 
j  (lifl'crent  classes,  distinguished  by  their  objects,  and  tho 
I  extent  of  tbo  liability  of  each  partner.     The  Roman 
'  law  allowed  of  general  copartnerships,  extending  tho 
community  of  properly,  and  joint  profit  and  loss,  not 
only  to  the  business  pursued,  but  also  to  all  acquisitions 
by  either  party,  whether  by  legacy,  inheritance,  gift, 
or  as  the  fruits  of  industry.     Hy  that  law,  and  so  by 
the  laws  of  France,  Spain,  Louisiana,  and  other  codes 
derived  from  the  Roman  law,  a  man  and  his  wife  may 


FAB 


149G 


PAK 


be  copartners ;  and,  in  making  tlio  marriage  contract, 
tlic  kind  and  oxtcnt  of  copartnership  ia  agreed  upon, 
the  form  of  tlie  stipulation  for  this  purpose  being  par- 
ticularly pointed  out  liy  the  French  code.  It  wa»  be- 
tween the  parties  to  the  nuirriago  contract  that  the 
general  copartnerships  uhovc-niciitioned  were  most 
frequently  formed.  In  this  respect,  however,  the  Roman 
law,  and  those  codes  derived  principally  from  it,  leave 
the  parties  at  liberty  to  agree  upon  a  universal  copart- 
nership or  a  limited  one,  or  a  separata  property. 

Copartnersliips  are  usuilly  conllned  to  tlie  prosecu- 
,tion  of  a  particular  brancli  of  Inisiness,  and  it  very 
often  happens  tliatcach  copartner  is  concerned  in  other 
branches.  The  term  gtmrtd  copurlnen/iip  is  also  ap- 
plied to  one  formed  fur  trade  genernlly,  or  bueiness 
generally,  without  limitations;  but  where  tlie  joint  in- 
terest extends  only  to  a  particular  concern,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  freighting  of  a  ship,  it  is  called  a  tpecial 
coimrtnrrahip.  And  so  a  partnership  is  called  tjtecial 
when  the  parties  enter  into  stipulations  modifying  and 
rcstruining  the  riglit  and  powers  of  the  members,  in- 
stead of  leaving  them  to  tlio  operation  of  tlie  laws  gen- 
erally applicable  to  such  associations;  and  this  is  the 
usuiil  meaning  of  such  copartnerships.  Another  de- 
scription is  that  of  limited  copartnerships,  in  which  one 
or  more  partners  put  in  a  certain  amount  of  capital, 
which  is  liable  for  the  contracts  of  the  firm;  but  be- 
yond ihis  the  party  or  parlies  are  not  liable.  This 
sort  of  partnership  is  particularly  provided  for  in  the 
Fxench  code,  and  is  not  unfrequent  in  France.  It  is  a 
very  useful  provision  of  the  law  that  allows  of  such 
associations,  fur  it  enables  persons  of  fortune,  and  re- 
tired from  business,  to  put  a  part  of  their  capital  at 
risk  in  trade,  without  risking  their  whole  property ; 
and  it  accortlingly  operates  very  favorably  upon  the 
enterprise  of  the  community;  for  a  young  man  who 
has  only  his  talents  and  industry  to  put  into  a  concern 
can  thus  more  easily  obtain  the  caj)ital  necessary  to 
give  his  activity  and  enterprise  scope,  and  every  com- 
munity ouglit  to  open  all  practicable  channels  for  the 
intellectual  and  physical  exertions  of  its  members. 
This  species  of  copartnership  has  accordingly  been  par- 
tially introduced  into  tlio  United  States,  being  provided 
for  in  the  code  of  Louisiana,  which  is  modeled  on  the 
French  code,  and  having  been  introduceil  also  into  tlie 
laws  of  New  York  by  a  statute,  tho  provLsimis  of  which 
were  closely  copied  from  tho  French  code— the  first  in- 
stance (as  Chancellor  Kent  remarks  in  his  Cuninient- 
aries)  in  which  any  other  foreign  law  than  tho  English 
had  been  adopted  in  tho  particular  structure  and  pro- 
visions of  a»  American  statute,  in  those  States  of  whose 
co<lcs  the  ICngilsh  law  is  tho  basis.  This  ppccies  of 
partnerships  has  also  been  authorized  by  statute  in 
Massachusetts,  Khodo  Island,  Connecticut,  Vermont, 
New  Jei'scy,  I'ennsylvania,  Maryland,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Indiana,  and 
Michigan.  We  will  now  proceed  to  a  more  extended 
account  of  limited  partnerships. 

Tho  condition  of  a  liiiiiteil  partnership  is  that  tho 
name  of  the  person  whose  liability  is  thus  limited  must 
bo  used  in  the  firm,  and  particular  provisions  aro  made 
as  to  paying  in  the  amount  of  capital  stipulated ;  and 
another  suitable  provision  in  such  case  is  the  provision 
for  soinp  registry  by  which  it  may  appear  to  those  who 
wish  to  make  the  inquiry  wliat  ainouiit  such  partner 
pays  in.  Sumo  partnerships  are  t'cret;  that  is,  some 
one  agrees,  upon  terms,  to  share  profits  w  itii  ostensible 
partners  without  any  notice  to  the  public  of  his  being 
a  member  of  the  firm.  Kaih  partner  lias  a  joint  inter- 
est ill  the  whole  personal  property,  and,  unless  the 
articles  stipulate  otherwise,  may  transfer  it. 

Each  partner  may  also  bind  the  whulo  firm  by  his 
contract  made  in  the  course  of  the  business  of  tho  tirnr, 
unless  it  lie  otherwise  agreed  lietwecn  them ;  and  even 
when  it  is  otiicnvisc  agreed,  still,  if  a  party  with  whom 
a  partner  contracts  has  a  legal  rii;lil,  from  the  manner 
in  which  the  Joint  affairs  are  managed,  to  presume  that 


a  partner  is  authorized  to  coniraet  for  and  to  bind  hit 
copartners  in  regard  to  tho  subject  of  any  contract,  the 
firm  will  be  bound  by  such  contract.  Uut  if  tho  party 
contracted  with  has  notice  that,  by  tho  articles  of  co- 
partnership, a  partner  has  not  authority  to  make  a  con- 
tract, the  company  will  not  be  bound  by  it.  So  if  a 
partner  contracts,  in  the  partnership  name,  in  a  manner 
which  tho  party  contracted  with  knows  is  not  within 
tho  business  of  the  firm — as  if  he  makes  a  ncgotiablo 
note  in  the  nanio  of  the  firm  for  his  own  separate  debt 
— the  contract  will  not  hind  tho  Arm  to  tho  party  thus 
contracted  with ;  but  still,  if  this  contract,  being  trans- 
ferable in  its  nature,  and  holding  out  on  the  face  of  it 
the  responsibility  of  tho  whole  Arm,  is  negotiated  to 
those  who  havo  no  notice  that  the  paper  was  made  for 
the  private  accommodation  of  the  partner  w'lo  signed 
tho  partnership  name,  tho  company  will  bo  liouiid  in 
respect  to  such  assigirce ;  that  is,  the  firm  having  given 
notice  to  tho  world  that  they  are  copartners  in  a  certain 
branch  of  business,  every  one  has  a  right  to  presume 
that  all  acts  dono  by  each  of  them  in  regard  to  it  are 
authorized  by  the  terms  of  their  contract,  or  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  unless  ho  has  notice  to  the  contrary. 
Hut  certain  acts  are  not  authorized  by  the  general 
powers  of  copartners,  and  those  no  one  partner  can  be 
presumed  to  have  power  to  do;  as,  for  instance,  one 
partner  is  not  merely,  as  such,  authorized  to  make  a 
deed  in  tho  namo  of  the  other,  or  to  act  as  his  attorney ; 
and  ho  can  not,  accordingly,  convey  land  belonging  to 
the  members  of  the  company ;  for,  though  it  may  havo 
been  acquired  and  paid  for  with  tho  property  of  the 
<irm,  yet  when  acquired,  it  belongs  to  the  members  in 
common,  if  the  title  be  in  them  all,  and  each  member 
can  himself  convey  only  his  share ;  and  in  order  to  the 
conveyance  of  that  of  another,  ho  must  bo  specially 
empowered.  But  a  partner  may  release  a  debt  due  to 
the  firm  if  it  be  done  fuirly,  and  without  collusion  be- 
tween him  and  the  debtor.  It  has  been  held,  however, 
that  one  partner  can  not  by  deed  submit  a  question  to 
arbitration.  A  partnership  may  bo  dissolved  by  its 
own  limitation,  tho  death,  bankruptcy,  or  insanity  of 
a  member,  or  by  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  between  the 
countries  to  wliich  the  members  belong. 

A  question  is  also  made  whether  a  member  may  dis- 
solve the  copartnership  voluntarily  before  the  time  for 
which  it  was  formed  expires,  and  the  opinion  sccnis  to 
be  that  he  may  do  so  by  giving  sutlicient  notice  to  this 
cfl'ect ;  and  this  seems  to  be  necessarily  incident  to  new 
associations ;  for,  though  he  would,  in  such  case,  be 
auswerablo  to  his  copartners  for  tho  L>cach  of  his  agree- 
ment, yet  it  would  be  exceedingly  inconvenient  if  a 
partner  were  irrevocably  bound  to  give  his  copartners 
tlio  right  of  his  credit,  and  of  disposing  of  his  properly,  ■ 
after  all  his  confidence  in  them  had  ceased.  In  case 
of  mismanagement  by  any  partner  having  charge  of 
the  partnership  effects,  so  that  tho  other  partners  aro 
liable  to  be  materially  injured,  they  may  make  appli- 
cation to  a  Court  of  Chancery  to  appoint  a  receiver  to 
take  charge  of  the  concerns  of  the  company,  and  wind 
up  its  affairs,  iii  case  the  partnership  has  already  been 
dissolved,  or  in  case  there  appears  sufficient  reason  to 
disi'iolve  it.  But  where  there  is  no  ground  for  such  ap- 
plication to  a  Court  of  Cliancery,  and  the  company  is 
dissolved  by  tho  death  of  one  partner,  the  joint  prop- 
erty will  survive  to  the  other  partner,  who  may  dispose 
of  it,  and  collect  and  pay  the  debts  of  the  concern,  and 
will  be  liable  to  account  to  tho  personal  representatives 
of  the  deceased  jiartner  for  his  proportion  of  the  surplus 
projjerty.  In  case  of  the  decease  of  a  partner,  his  per- 
sonal representative?  do  not  become  copartners  with 
tho  surviving  partners,  but  tho  afVairs  of  tho  concern 
must  bo  settled  with  reference  to  tho  time  of  the  death 
of  the  deceased  partner.— E.  A. 

J.imiletl  Pinlnersliip  in  New  I'oi'l:.  —  1.  According  to 
the  lievised  Statutes  of  the  State  of  New  York,  limited 
partnership  for  transaction  of  any  mercantile,  mechan- 
ical, or  manufacturing  business  within  the  State  may 


•;#'\">r,7-('VT».' 


PAR 


1407 


PAR 


ind  hta 

ict,  the 
■i  party 
I  of  co- 
I  a  con- 
So  if  ft 
manner 
,  within 
joliablo 
ato  ilobt 
rty  thus 
ig  trans- 
'ace  of  it 
tinted  to 
made  for 
■  0  signed 
l)0und  in 
ing  given 
a  certain 
I  presume 
1  to  it  are 
le  circum- 
I  contrary, 
le  general 
nor  can  be 
tiince,  one 
to  make  a 
s  attorney ; 
;longing  to 
t  may  have 
crty  of  the 
memljers  in 
ich  member 
order  to  tlie 
be  specially 
debt  due  to 
■olliision  he- 
ld, however, 
,  question  to 
)Wed  by  its 
:  insanity  of 
between  the 


1  According  to 
lYorli,  limited 
Vile,  niechan- 
Eio  State  may 


be  formed  of  two  or  more  persons;  but  the  provlnlouH 
of  the  act  will  not  authorize  any  audi  partnuri*hi|i  I'ur 
the  purpose  of  banlrlng  ur  mailing  intiuraacu,     'i.  Suiih 
partnerships  may  consist  of  one  or  mure  persuuH,  wlio 
sbnll  bu  called  general  partners,  and  who  ■hull  bu  Joint- 
ly and  severally  responsible,  as  general  partners  now 
are  by  law ;  and  ono  or  more  jjorsona  who  hIiuII  eoii. 
tribute,  in  actual  cash  payments,  u  specitlc  sum  as  eap- 
ital  to  tho  common  stock,  who  shall  be  culled  special 
partners,  and  who  shall  not  be  liable  for  thu  duljis  of 
tlie  partnership  beyond  tho  fund  lio  contributed  by  him 
or  them  to  tho  capital.     3.  The  general  partners  only 
slmll  bo  authorized  to  transact  business  and  sign  lor 
tho  partnership,  and  to  bind  tho  same.     4.  Tho  puvsous 
desirous  of  forming  such  partnership  shull  make,  and 
severally  sign,  a  certilicate,  which  shall  coutaiu ;  1.  Thu 
name  or  lirm  under  wliich  such  partnership  is  to  bo  con- 
ducted.    II.  Tho  general  nature  of  tho  business  to  bu 
transacted.     III.  The  names  of  all  tho  general  and 
special  partners  interested  therein,  distluguislilug  which 
arc  general  and  which  are  special  parlners,  and  their 
respective  places  of  residence.    IV.  The  amount  of  cap- 
ital which  each  special  partner  shall  have  conlrlbiited 
to  tho  common  stock.     V.  Tho  period  at  which  the 
partnership  is  to  commence,  and  the  period  at  which  it 
shall  terminate.     6.  Tho  certilicate  shall  bo  aekuowl- 
edged  by  the  several  persons  signing  tlio  same,  before 
tho  Chancellor,  a, Justice  of  tho  Supremo  Court,  a  Cir- 
cuit Judge,  or  a  Judge  of  the  County  Courts ;  and  8u<'li 
acknowledgment  shall  be  niado  and  cortlliud  In  thu 
same  manner  as  the  acknowledgment  of  couvoyancu  of 
land.     C.  The  ceitilicato  so  acknowledged  and  certllied 
shall  be  fdcd  in  the  oflico  of  tho  clerk  of  tho  county 
iu  whieli  the  principal  place  of  business  of  tho  partner- 
ship shall  bo  situated,  and  shall  also  bo  recorded  by 
him  at  large  in  a  book  to  be  kept  fur  tho  purpose,  open 
to  public  inspection.     If  the  partnership  shall  havo 
places  of  business  situated  in  dill'ereut  counties,  a  tran- 
script of  the  certificate,  and  of  thu  acknowledgment 
thereof,  duly  certified  by  tho  clerk  in  whoso  olllco  It 
shall  be  fded,  under  his  official  seal,  shall  bu  tiled  uid 
recorded  in  like  manner  in  the  oflico  of  Iho  clerk  ol 
cry  such  county.     7.  At  tho  time  of  liling  the  orlgii 
certificate,  with  tho  ovidenco  of  tlio  uoknowleilgnu 
thereof,  as  before  described,  an  affidavit  of  ono  or  nmi 
of  the  general  partners  shall  also  bo  filed  in  the  same 
office,  stating  that  tho  sums  specified  in  tho  certillealo 
to  have  been  contributed  by  each  of  tho  special  ])ait- 
ncrs  to  tho  conunon  stock  havo  been  actually  ami  In 
good  faith  paid  in  cash.     8.  No  such  purtnersliip  shull 
bo  deemed  to  have  been  formed  until  a  certilkulo  shull 
have  been  made,  acknowledged,  filed,  auil  recorded,  nor 
until  an  affidavit  shall  have  been  filed,  as  above  diifi  i- 
cd;  and  if  any  false  statement  bo  nmdo  in  sucb  ciriiil. 
catc  or  nflldavit,  all  the  persons  interested  In  such  part- 
nership shall  i'O  liable  for  all  tho  cngageuiunts  thereof 
as  general  partners.    9.  The  partners  shall  publixh  thu 
terras  of  the  partnership,  when  registered,  for  at  least 
si.K  weeks  immediately  after  such  registry,  in  two  news- 
papers, to  bo  designated  by  tho  clerk  of  tho  county  in 
which  such  registry  shall  be  made,  and  to  bu  publish- 
ed in  tho  senate  district  in  which  their  busincssx  shall 
he  carried  on ;  and  if  such  publication  be  not  maile, 
tho  partnership  shall  bo  deemed  general.     10.  Affida- 
vits of  tho  publication  of  such  notice,  by  the  printers 
of  tho  newspapers  in  which  the  same  shull  bu  publish- 
ed, may  be  filed  with  tlio  clerk  directing  the  snme,  and 
shall  be  ovidenco  of  the  facts  therein  contained.     II. 
Every  renewal  or  continuance  of  such  partnership  be- 
yond  tho  time  originally  fixed  for  its  duration  shull 
be  certified,  acknowledged,  and  recorded,  and  an  nlll- 
duvit  of  a  general  partner  bo  mado  and  lileil,  nn<l  no- 
tice be  given  in  tho  manner  lierein  reiiuireil  fur  its  mig- 
inal  formation ;  and  every  such  partnership  which  shull 


ho  otherwise  renewed  or  continued  shall  be  deenicil  n 
general  partnersliip,  12.  Kvery  alteration  wliich  shall 
ho  made  in  the  names  of  tho  partners,  in  tho  nature  of 


tlio  bualno**,  nr  In  tho  capital  or  shares  thereof,  or  in 
any  otlii'i'  matter  specified  In  the  original  certificate, 
shall  lie  deemed  a  (llssolutioii  of  the  pa<-;-(ershlp ;  and 
every  audi  partnership  wlil'h  shull  In  any  manner  be 
carriud  on  after  any  such  alteration  shall  have  been 
made,  ihall  bu  deemed  a  general  partnership,  unless 
r.'iiewed  as  a  special  pnrtuership,  according  to  tho  pro- 
visions of  last  suction,     ID.  Tliu  business  of  the  purt- 
liershlp  nliuU  bu  conducted  under  a  linn,  in  which  tho 
nuiiieH  of  thu  general  partners  only  shall  be  Inserted, 
wIllioMt  the  addition  of  tho  word  "  Company,"  or  any 
oilier  gc^iienil  term ;  and  If  tho  iiamo  of  any  special  part- 
ner shall  bu  used  In  such  linn,  with  his  privity,  he  shall 
bo  deemed  a  general  partner.     11.  .Suits  In  relation  to 
llio  busliiuss  of  the  purliiemhlp  may  be  brought  and 
eouiluctiid  by  and  against  tliu  general  partners,  in  the 
suiiin  manner  us  If  there  were  no  special  partners.     15. 
No  part  of  thu  sum  which  any  special  partner  shall 
havu  contributed  to  llio  capital  stock  shall  be  wlth- 
ilrawn  by  hliii,  or  piiid  and  transferred  to  him,  iu  tho 
sliapn  of  dividends,  profits,  or  otherwise,  at  any  timo 
during  the  cuntiiiiiaiieu  of  the  partnership;  but  any 
pai'tiiur  may  uiinually  receive  lawful  interest  on  tho 
sum  so  contrlliiited  iiy  him,  if  the  payment  of  such  iu- 
teresl  shall  not  reduce  thu  original  amount  of  such  cap- 
ital ;  iiii'l  if,  after  the  payment  of  such  interest,  any 
prolltH  hIiuII  reiiiuln  to  bu  divided,  ho  may  also  receive 
Ills  poi'tluii  of  such  prollts.    IU,  If  it  shall  appear  that, 
liy  tliii  puyiiienl  of  Interest  or  profits  to  any  speciHl 
parlner,  the  original  capital  has  been  reduced,  the  part- 
ner reeelvltig  the  same  shall  be  bound  to  restore  the 
iiiiKiuiil.  necessary  to  niako  good  his  share  of  capital 
with  I  iiurust.     17,  A  special  partner  may,  from  time 
tu  tiiiiii,  usamino  Into  the  state  and  progress  of  tho 
partnership  concerns,  anil  may  advise  as  to  their  niaii- 
ugomuiit ;  but  lie  shall  not  transact  any  business  on  ac- 
count of  the  partnership,  nor  be  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose as  iigeiil,  atluriuy,  or  otherwise.     If  he  sbnll  iii- 
turfero  contrary  to  these  provisions,  he  shall  be  dciincd 
u  general  purtiier.     IH.  The  general  purtiieis  .shall  be 
llaiilc  to  ai'coiiiit  to  each  otiier,  and  to  the  speciiil  piirt- 
ncrs,  for  their  maiiageiiient  of  the  concern,  both  in  luw 
and  eiiully,  iis  oilier  partners  now  are  by  law.     19. 
I'Aery  purliier  w  bo  shall  Ijo  guilty  of  any  fraud  in  the 
iH'alrs  of  tlie  piirliii'rshlp  shull  be  linlde  civilly  to  tlio 
u  ly  Injured  to  the  extent  of  tho  damage,  and  shall 
III  "  lielialile  to  nil  iiiillctmentfor  amisdemc-mor,  pun- 
Isliable  by  liiiii  or  iiiiprlsonment,  or  both,  in  the  discrc- 
lioii  of  tlie  court  by  which  ho  shull  be  tried.     20.  Kv- 
ery sale,  assignment,  or  transfer  of  any  of  tho  property 
or  I'll'ucis  of  such  partnership,  made  by  such  partnei- 
i.liip  wlieii  liiKolvelil,  or  111  coiitcniplalion  of  insolvency, 
or  al'ler,  or  In  euiileinplatlon  of  the  insolvency  of  any 
IMirtiier,  wllli  thu  Intent  of  giving  a  preference  to  any 
iriidltor  of  such  parluership  or  insolvent  partner,  over 
other  eieililiirs  of  such  purtnersliip,  ai\d  every  judg- 
lueiit  eoiir.'i'reil,  llcii  created,  or  security  given  by  such 
piirtmu'hlilp  under  I  lie  like  circumstances,  and  with  the 
llko  Intent,  shull  be  void,  ns  against  the  creditors  of 
such  purliiershlp.     '21,  Kvery  such  sule,  assignment, 
or  truiii'l'cr  of  niiy  of  the  property  or  ell'ects  of  a  geiier- 
ul  ur  special  pui'tiier,  inude  by  siidi  general  or  special 
paillier  wlieii  limolveiit,  or  in  contemplation  of  iiisolv- 
e;i(  y,  or  iil'ter,  or  Iu  coiitemplation  of  the  insolvency 
of  ilie  partnership,  wllh  tho  Intent  of  giving  to  any 
creditor  of  ids  own,  or  of  the  parnership,  a  preferenco 
over  ciTditors  of  thu  partnership,  and  every  judgment 
coiiferind,  lien  created,  or  security  given  by  any  such 
partner  under  I  he  lilie  circumstances,  and  with  the  like 
iiilenl,  shall  bu  voM,  ns  nguliist  tho  creditors  of  tho 
purtnersliip.    'JU,  livery  special  partner  who  shall  vio- 
lulo  any  provision  of  tlio  two  lust  preceding  sections, 
and  who  sliull  eoiiciir  In  and  assent  to  any  such  viola- 
tion iiy  the  partnership,  or  by  any  individual  partner. 


shall  i">  lUblo  as  n  general  pnrtner.  2,1,  In  cr.se  of  tho 
Insolvency  or  bnnkruptcy  of  the  partnership,  no  special 
partner  shull,  under  any  circumstances,  bo  allowed  to 


PAR 


1498 


PAR 


cltlm  na  a  creditor  until  tlio  claims  of  all  llie  other 
creditors  of  the  iiartuorsliip  shall  bo  satisllcd.  24.  No 
dissolution  of  such  purtncrsliip  l)y  the  acts  of  the  par- 
ties shall  take  place  previous  to  the  time  spccillcd  in 
tlie  certiticato  of  its  formation,  or  in  tlic  ccrtiflcato  of 
its  renewal,  until  a  notice  of  such  dissolution  shall  have 
Iicen  filed  and  recorded  in  the  cleric's  oflice  in  which  the 
original  certilicato  was  recorded,  and  published  once  in 
each  week  for  four  weeks  in  a  newspaper  printed  in 
each  of  the  counties  where  the  partnership  may  have 
places  of  business,  and  in  the  ^ttatc  papers. — Lkone 
liEVi's  Cotnmercial  Jmw  nflhc  Worlil. 

Anulijtia  of  the  general  Jjtm  of  I'arinerthipt. — Part- 
nership in  Great  Uritain  is  a  contract  entirely  free, 
and  subject  to  no  furnialitics;  it  belongs  to  the  parties 
themselves  to  regulate  the  conditions ;  the  law  is  mere- 
ly circumscribed  in  protecting  the  rights  of  third  par- 
ties, and  to  see  them  respected.  Partnership  in  com- 
mon law  is  divided  into  three  classes — universal,  gener- 
al, and  limited  or  special.  They  are  also  divided  into 
private  partnerships  and  public  companies.  Public 
companies  arc  divided  into  unincorporated  companies 
or  associations,  tnd  incorporated  companies,  and  cor- 
porations chartered  by  government.  Hy  the  law  of 
■Scotland  partnerships  are  divided  into  ordinary  part- 
nerships, joint-stock  companies,  and  public  companies. 
In  the  first  the  firm  is  a  distinct  person  at  law,  and  the 
partners,  althougli  jointly  and  severally  liable  for  all 
the  debts  and  contracts  of  the  firm,  are  so  as  guaran- 
tors of  the  firm.  This  is  general  partnership.  Special 
partnership  is  one  contracted  for  a  particular  branch 
of  business. 

There  arc  principles  connected  with  the  law  which 
nre  identical  in  every  country ;  namely,  that  all  mem- 
Ijcrs  of  an  ostensible  partnership,  or  in  collective  name, 
lire  responsible  in  solidum ;  but  diftcrcnces  appear  in 
points  regarding  the  continuation  or  cessation  of  part- 
norsiiip  after  the  decease  of  one  of  the  partners.  Thus 
in  Prussia  or  Frankfort,  tlio  heirs  continue  the  partner- 
ship until  the  end  of  the  year,  and  if  tliey  do  not  give 
notice  of  their  retirement,  or  if  they  are  not  excluded 
by  the  other  partners,  they  do  not  cease  to  form  part 
of  it. 

In  Franco  partnership  ends  of  full  right  at  the  in- 
stant of  the  death  of  u  partner,  unless  by  contrary 
agreement  this  last  regidalion  has  been  generally 
adopted.  It  is  the  same  for  tliat  by  which  tlie  profits 
distributed  among  partners  ore  not  to  be  returned  to 
the  ])artncrsliip  fund,  whatever  may  liappcn  afterword, 
unless  there  be  fraud,  and  the  provision  is  added,  that 
a  partner  who  brings  in  only  his  labor  can  not,  in  any 
case,  return  the  dividends  which  be  has  received. 

Almost  every  legislation  except  that  of  (Jrcat  Brit- 
ain recognizes  the  existence  of  three  kinds  of  commer- 
cial partnerships.  1st.  Ostensible  partnerships  (in 
collective  name) ;  2d.  Partnerships  in  <0)H.it(iH(/iVd;  M. 
Anonymous  partnerships. 

The  Portuguese  code  specifics  cnch  kind  of  partner- 
ship, indicating  their  rules  at  some  length.  In  efi'cci, 
besides  tlie  partnership  anonymous,  dormant,  or  secret, 
and  in  collective  name,  that  of  capital  and  liil>or  is  made 
prominent;  in  this  ca.so  the  partner  -with  capital  alone 
is  responsible  beyond  his  investment,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  law  characterizes  this  association  as  ir- 
regular. Then  I  umc  partnerships  in  participation,  with 
limited  or  unlimiied  capital,  called  Parceria,  either  for 
an  indivisible  oi  jcct,  or  for  a  determinate  end;  but  in 
all  cases  it  is  nc  iissary  tliat  it  should  refer  to  a  com- 
mcriial  operation,  and  that  there  be  at  least  one  mer- 
chant oitlier  dormant  or  ostensildo.  Tliero  are  in  this 
code  some  regulationsworthy  of  being  noted;  ii'imely, 
that  a  contract  which  would  free  the  provider  >.  .'unds 
from  all  obligations,  wlien  he  has  a  share  in  the  p.  ofits, 
is  null,  but  then  lie  l)Cconies  an  interested  party,  and 
not  a  partner.  A  contract  is  declared  usurious  which 
ihould  allow  to  a  lender  of  money  the  profits  liosides 
the  iotorcBts,  without  subjecting  him  to  the  losses, 


which  is  very  proper  and  jusf ;  because  the  principle 
of  equality  ought  to  govern,  above  oil,  matters  of  part- 
nership; consequently  this  lost  clause  ought  to  be  an- 
nulled If  it  existed.  In  general,  a  minor,  even  not  u 
troder,  may  not  be  a  partner;  but  he  has  power  to 
make  use  of  the  privilege  of  restitution  in  case  of  loss. 
If,  ot  his  coming  of  ago,  he  has  not  declared  that  he 
wishes  to  retire,  he  becpmes  responsible  for  all  further 
acts  of  the  partnership. 

It  is  most  essential  in  partnership  in  collective  nomc 
that  the  partners  should  oil  he  responsible  t»  solidum. 
In  this  the  Dutch  code  is  equal  in  oil  points  to  llic 
French  code ;  but  the  former  code  contains  o  deroga- 
tion from  this  rule  surprising  at  first,  because  it  says 
that  a  collective  partner  who  has  become  nmmandi- 
laire  is  not  responsilde  in  mi'uhim.  The  reason  of  Ibin 
extraordinary  regulation  is  founded  upon  the.  usage 
■which  permits  the  continuation  of  ancient  commercial 
houses,  known  under  llie  mimes  of  their  founders,  al- 
though these  have  still  their  capital  invested  in  them  ; 
true  it  is  that  third  parties  ought  to  have  been  a<- 
quainted  with  it  liy  tlie  liquidation  of  the  preceding 
house,  or  by  the  publication  of  the  dissolution. 

In  the  Spanish  code  there  is  a  regulation  different 
from  any  other  legislation  in  matter  of  constitution 
of  anonymous  partnerships,  by  subjecting  the  articles, 
not  to  the  exomination  of  the  government,  but  of  the 
tribunals  of  commerce.  The  Spanish  code  ond  that  of 
Portugal  prescrilie  o  measure  the  some  as  that  of  the 
Code  Nopoleon,  whicli  consists  in  making  inlerests  to 
run  in  full  right,  on  the  investments  of  the  partners, 
from  the  day  in  whicli  they  ought  to  be  mode.  WMx 
regard  to  the  nomination  of  managers  of  portnersliip, 
in  France  the  law  has  no  provision  for  it.  In  \i\\r- 
tcmberg  and  in  Spain,  when  the  manager  is  nominated 
by  the  articles,  it  is  allowed,  should  his  action  be  in- 
jurious to  the  interests  of  the  company,  to  add  on- 
nthcr  member.  In  liussia  it  is  prohil>iled  to  confer  by 
the  articles  the  management  of  the  partnership  on  cer- 
tain parties  for  all  its  duration  and  without  a  renewal. 

All  legislation  is  silent  upon  the  interests  of  the 
capital  investe<l  by  the  shareholders.  It  is,  in  fad, 
dear  that  an  investment  of  funds  in  a  parlncrsiiip  is 
not  an  employment,  but  a  sum  bestowed  for  mere  oper- 
ations, and  which  can  only  allow  to  raise  sums  on  tlic 
realized  profits,  either  every  year,  or  ot  the  time  wlicii 
liolancc-shects  ore  drown  up  according  to  law,  or  ul 
any  other  time,  periodical  or  not.  Bnt  m  Hungary  the 
"  commandilairef,"  improperly  called  partners,  Ijccausc 
they  ore  then  only  considered  as  lenders  of  money,  inny 
stipulate  for  interests  beyond  the  legal  rate  which  tin 
other  partners  ought  to  yz/,  even  if  they  should  sull'ei 
losses.     It  is  the  same  in  Prussia. 

With  regard  to  the  emission  of  shares  and  thiii 
transference,  the  Hungarian  code  contains  very  im- 
portant regulations.  It  says  that  all  persons  may  Imy 
shares,  but  it  proscribes  shares  to  the  bearer — a  regu- 
lation which  was  reproduced  in  the  Itnssian  code  and 
in  the  Wiirtemljcrg  code.  It  soys  olso  tliol  no  invesl- 
ment  of  capital  can  be  made  nor  interests  claimed  tic- 
fore  the  constitution  of  the  partnership,  and  that  only 
when  all  shares  are  disposed  of  the  shareholders  mny 
establish  the  articles.  Lastly,  there  is  the  remarkable 
regulation,  that  when  the  majority  of  shareholders 
littvo  voted  for  a  change  or  modification  in  the  arti- 
cles, of  a  nature  to  alter  the  object  of  the  partnership, 
the  minority  have  power  to  retire. 

Tlie  Kussian  code  proscril)C3  several  very  curious 
measures.  Tlie  sale  of  sliarcs,  or  jiromiscs  of  shares 
on  credit,  is  prohibited,  A  portion  of  tlio  profits  inusi 
lie  taken  to  constitute  a  reservo  fund ;  the  unreclaimed 
dividend,  after  ten  years,  is  united  to  tlic  social  fund, 
or  may  bo  divided  among  the  other  shareholders, 
Lastly,  if  the  directors  are  divided  in  their  delibera- 
tions, the  dissenting  minority  may  exact  that  mention 
bo  made  of  their  opinion  in  the  verbal  process.  Tlie 
same  code  indicates  tho  mode  of  terminating  disputes : 


PAR 


1499 


PAS 


rinclplc 
of  part- 
)  be  nn- 
in  not  u 
lowcr  to 
e  of  loss, 
tlmt  lie 
11  further 

Ivo  name 
1  soUdum. 

Its   to  till' 

a  (IcroRa- 
so  it  says 
•cmmaiid'- 
ion  of  tlii» 
the.  usagu 
onimcrcinl 
uiilcrs,  al- 
\  in  them ; 
3  been  a(- 
prcccding 
ion. 

in  clilferent 
•onstitution 
he  aititlci', 
,  but  of  the 
and  thatof 
that  of  the 
interests  to 
lie  partners, 
lade.     "NVilh 
partnershi]!, 
t.     In  Wiir- 
is  nominated 
action  be  in- 
■,  to  add  an- 
te confer  li.V 
irship  on  ccr- 
iit  a  renewal, 
crests  of  the 
,t  is,  ill  fact, 
artnersliip  i^ 
or  mere  opcr- 
sunis  on  tlic 
lie  time  wlicii 
.0  law,  or  at 
Hungary  the 
tners,  liecansc 
if  iiumey.may 
lite  which  tlic 
should  sutVci 


res  and  thiii 
ins  very  im- 
•sons  may  Imv 
jarer — a  rcgii- 
isian  code  and 
liat  no  invcst- 
ts  claimed  be- 
and  that  only 
rcholdcrs  may 
he  remarlialilc 
.  shareholders 
,n  in  the  arti- 
purtnership, 


.  very  curious 
nises  of  shaves 
lie  profits  musl 
ic  unreclaimed 
lie  social  fund, 

shareholders. 

their  delibcra- 
that  mention 

process.     The 

iting  disputes : 


between  shareholders  or  directors  tlioy  may,  with  tlieir 
consent,  be  decided  by  the  general  meeting,  or  liy  ar- 
biirators;  when  third  parties  are  concerned,  it  stands 
always  with  the  tribunal  of  arbitrament  to  decide  as  a 
forced  jurisdiction.  In  France  the  same  clause  is 
0(|ually  precise.  liut  various  modern  legislations  in- 
■ertcd  regulations  against  this  mode ;  thus  the  i  ode  of 
Wiirtemborg  permits  parties  to  derogate  from  it;  tlie 
Hungarian  code  says  that  disputes  among  partners 
shall  bo  brouglit  before  the  Tribunal  of  Commerce ;  and 
If  it  regards  bills  of  exchange,  or  in  case  of  insolvency, 
they  shall  be  acyudicatcd  upon  by  thu  ordinary  tribu- 
nals. The  Lombardo-Venetian  code  does  not  repro- 
duce the  section  of  the  French  code,  called  On  Dhputea 
among  J'arlnera.  The  recent  codes  of  Nassau  and  Sar- 
dinia do  not  contain  any  regulation  on  this  matter. 
In  England,  when  a  reference  is  depending,  made,  or 
determined,  it  may  be  a  bar ;  but  the  agreement  of  the 
parlies  does  not  oust  cither  courts  of  law  or  equity,  as 
the  former  will  not  allow  their  jurisdiction  to  be  oust- 
ed by  any  private  arrongemcnt,  and  equity  will  not 
decree  a  specilic  performance  thereof. 

'I'lio  law  of  merchants  differs  from  the  common  law 
in  the  power  of  binding  a  partner  by  deed. 

Lord  Kenyon  said,  in  Harrison  v.  Jackson,  7  S.  U. 
210 ;  "  The  law  on  merchants  is  part  of  tlie  law  of  the 


passengers  to  bo  taken  on  board  ships  as  compamd 
with  tlieir  tonnoge,  tlie  <|uantity  of  water  and  provl. 
sions  as  compared  with  the  passengers,  etc.  Hut  this 
is  no  very  easy  tusk.  If  tlio  limitations  be  too  strict, 
that  is,  if  comparatively  few  passengers  may  be  car- 
ried, or  if  the  stock  of  provisions  to  be  put  on  board  bo 
either  unnecessarily  large  or  expensive,  tlie  cost  of  em- 
igration is  proportionally  enhanced,  and  on  artilicial 
and  serious  impediment  is  llirown  in  the  way  of  what 
should  bo  made  as  easy  as  possilde,  consistent  with  se- 
curity. Hut,  on  the  other  hand,  if  too  many  passen- 
gers bo  allowed,  their  health  is  lialile  to  sutler;  and 
should  the  supply  of  provisions  be  inade(|uute,  or  the 
({uality  bad,  the  most  serious  consequences  may  ensue. 
In  some  respects  passengers  may  bo  considered  as  a 
portion  of  the  crew.  They  may  bo  called  on  by  the 
master  or  commander  of  the  ship,  in  case  of  imiuinent 
danger  either  from  tempest  or  enemies,  to  lend  their 
assistance  for  tlie  general  safety ;  and  in  the  event  of 
their  declining,  may  be  punished  for  disobedience. 
This  principle  has  been  recognized  in  several  cases; 
but  as  the  authority  arises  out  of  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  it  must  be  exercised  strictly  within  the  limits  of 
that  necessity.— Bo//cii  v.  Jimkliffe,  1  Campbell,  58.  A 
passenger  is  not,  however,  bound  to  remain  on  board 


the  ship  in  the  hour  of  danger,  but  may  quit  it  if  he 
laud,  and  in  mercantile  transactions  it  never  wa.5 1  liave  an  opportunity ;  and  he  is  not  required  to  take 
doubted  but  that  one  partner  might  bind  the  rest,  i  upon  himself  any  responsibility  as  to  the  cuH(/i/f<  of  the 
Hut  the  power  of  binding  each  other  by  deed  is  now  |  ship.  If  he  incur  any  rcsponailiility,  and  perform  ex- 
for  the  lirst  time  insisted  on.  A  general  partnership  ,  traordinary  services  in  relieving  a  vessel  in  distress,  he 
agreement,  though  under  seal,  does  not  authorize  the  ]  is  entitled  to  a  corresponding  reward.     The  goods  of 


partners  to  execute  deeds  for  each  other,  unless  a  per 
ticular  power  be  given  for  that  purpose.  Yet  in  com- 
inun  law  a  partner  has  power  to  bind  his  copartner  by 
deed." 

Although,  in  the  words  of  Ilobart,  C.  J.,  "The 


passengers  contribute  to  general  average. — Auuoi-ron 
the  Jaiw  of  Shipping. 

I'msengcr  Act  if  the  United  States. — It  is  made  tlie 
duty  of  tlio  Secretary  of  State,  by  the  second  para- 
grapii  of  tlie  18lh  section  of  the  act  approved  !ld  of 


custom  of  merchants  is  part  of  the  common  law  of  the  ,  Jlarcli,  IHii,'),  to  give  notice,  in  the  ports  of  Kurope 


United  Kingdom,  of  wliicli  the  judges  oiiglit  to  fake 
notice ;  and  if  any  doubt  arise  to  tliciii  about  tlieir  cus- 
tom, they  may  send  for  the  merchants  to  know  their 
custom,  as  they  may  send  for  the  citizens  to  know  their 
law;"  yot,  on  the  other  hand.  Lord  Holt  says,  "AVe 
take  notice  of  the  laws  of  merchants  that  are  general, 
not  of  those  that  are  particular  usages." — See  W'lstmhi- 
itir  Jieview,  xx.  58;  .Inierican  Quarterlg  Ileriew,  xix. 
48 ;  Hunt's  Merchants'  Jfagazine,  xxiv.  (Wi,  xxxiii. 
457,  XXXV.  720.  See  also  Leone  Levi's  Commeiviiil 
1.UW  of  the  li'orW,  Ito, 
Commentaries,  vol.  iii. 


and  elsewhere,  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  to  regulate 
the  carriage  of  passengers  in  steamships  and  other 
vessels. 

The  special  attention  of  United  States  consular  offi- 
cers is  called  to  this  act,  and  also  to  the  instructions 
which  have  liecn  issued  by  llio  'rreasiiry  Dcpartnutnt 
in  reference  to  it.     It  will  be  observed  that,  while  this 
act  prescribe,!  spaces  of  certain  clear  .superliciai  feet  of 
deck  to  eadi  passenger  (other  tlian  cabin  passengers), 
it  moreover  ll.xes  a  maximum,  by  restricting  the  nuni- 
London,  1854 ;  and  Kent's  I  bcr  of  siicli  passengers  allowed  to  be  carried  in  any 
such  vessel  in  the  projiortiou  of  one  to  every  two  tons 
Partners  of  the  Masta,  tlio  wood-work  round  i  of  said  vessel's  tonnage  measurement,  excluding  chil- 
the  mast  at  the  deck,  to  strengthen  and  support  the  ,  dreii  under  the  age  of  one  year  in  the  computation,  and 


deck  igainst  the  pressure  of  the  mast.  The  term  is 
aUo  applied  to  the  similar  supports  round  the  capstan 
and  pumps. 

Partridge  Wood,  a  variegated  wood  imported 
from  Martini(iue;  it  is  said  to  be  the  produce  of  tlie 
Ih'islerta  coccinea. 

PaSBengers,  in  Commercinl  navigation,  are  indi- 
viduals conveyed  for  hire  from  one  place  to  another 
on  board  ship.  Passage  ships  are  those  peculiarly  ap- 
propriated to  the  conveyance  of  passengers.  Passage 
ships  are  generally  jilaced  under  certain  regulations: 
and  the  extent  to  wliieh  emigration  is  now  carried 
renders  it  of  the  utmost  importance  tliat  tlicsn  regula- 
tions should  bo  carefully  compiled.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  emigrants  are  in  hunililo  life :  few  among  them 
know  any  thing  of  ships,  or  of  the  precautions  neces- 
sary to  insure  a  safe  and  coiiifortablo  voyage ;  they  are 
also,  for  the  most  part,  poor,  and  exceedingly  anxious 
to  economiuc,  so  that  they  seldom  hesitate  to  embark 
in  any  ship,  liowever  unlit  for  the  conveyance  of  pas- 
sengers, or  inadequately  furnislicd  with  provisions.  If 
it  bo  cheap.  Unprincipled  masters  and  owners  have 
not  been  slew  to  take  advantage  of  this ;  and  in  order 
to  prevent  the  frauds  that  would  otherwise  bo  practiced 
on  tlio  unwary,  it  has  been  found  indispcnsalile  to  lay 
down  lome  general  regulations  as  to  the  number  of 


coiuputliig  two  cliildren  over  one  and  under  eight  years 
of  ago  as  one  passenger.  It  follows,  that  though  a  ves- 
sel might  allbrd  clear  spaces  of  the  dimensions  indica- 
ted for  n  greater  number  of  jiassengers  than  one  to  ev- 
ery two  tons  of  her  tonnage  measurement,  yet  if  the 
number  shall  exceed  that  allowed  by  her  tonnage  nieas- 
Hreiiieiit  the  penalties  imposed  by  the  law  would  at- 
lacli ;  or  if  lier  tonnage  measurement  sliould  allow  a 
greater  number  of  passengers  than  according  to  the 
clear  spaces  prescribed  by  law  she  could  carry,  yet  if 
tlio  number  shall  exceed  that  allowed  by  the  clear 
spaces  prescribed  by  law  the  penalties  imposed  by  tlip 
law  would  eiiually  attach.  In  other  words,  the  one 
rule,  as  to  the  niinilier  of  passengers  a  vessel  is  entitled 
to  carry,  is  a  limitation  upon  the  other.  Tho  tonnage 
of  each  vessel,  according  to  custom-house  measure- 
ment, must,  therefore,  bo  ascertained,  as  well  as  tho 
measurement  of  tho  spaces  allotted  to  passengers,  in 
order  to  determine  the  number  of  passengers  she  is  en- 
titled to  carry. 

In  order  to  dctermino  the  number  of  passengers  a 
vessel  is  entitled  to  carry  in  accordance  witli  the  spaces 
lirescribed  liy  tills  act,  tho  height  lietwoen  decks  must 
be  measured,  not,  from  tho  bottom  edge  of  the  carlines 
or  deck  beams,  but  from  tho  under  surface  of  tho  upper 
deck  to  the  top  floor  below ;  and  no  space  sball  be  war 


PAS 


1500 


PAS 


liilorod  avalliililo  for  |)uiisi'ii){ora  timt  liax  not,  wlirri 
ineaaiirod  in  tliia  maniiiT,  tliu  IiuIkIiI  culled  fur  liy  tho 
law,  a»  tho  canu  iiiiiy  \m  ;  nor  xliall  any  space  in  tliu 
Vvuul  Ufa  luNH  wiiltli  tliaii  fuiir  fuct  l>u  nicuiinrcd ;  pro- 
vided, however,  if  tlio  vessel  sliali,  in  aoeordaneo  witli 
tho  provisions  of  the  first  section  of  tids  act,  carry  any 
portion  of  lier  cargo,  or  any  other  articlo  or  articles,  on 
any  of  tho  decks,  cabins,  or  other  places  ap|iropriatud 
for  the  nsu  of  passengers,  in  lockers  or  inclusures  pre- 
pared for  tho  purpose,  tlio  height  between  decks  sliall 
bu  measured  from  tho  Iwttoni  edge  of  the  carlines,  or 
deck  liea.ns,  to  tho  upper  surface  of  said  lockers  or  in- 
closed spaces,  whicli  sliall  ho  deemed  and  taken  to  bo 
the  ilec,(  or  platform  from  which  mcasuremeiii  shall  bu 
nmdo  fur  all  the  purposes  of  this  act,  and  the  spaces 
occniiicd  by  said  lockers  or  inclosed  spaces  shall  ho  de- 
ducted from  the  spaces  allowable  for  thu  uso  of  passen- 
gers, i'or  example :  tlio  spaces  in  tlio  main  and  poop 
decks,  or  platforms,  and  in  tho  deck  houses,  if  any  there 
1)0,  will  bo  10  X  ti=9«  feet;  lower  deck,  18  X  0  =  lOK  feet; 
two-deck  vessels.  It  X  7 J  =  lOJ  feet.  Tho  cncuinbcrini; 
by  incrcliandiso  or  stores,  not  tho  personal  baggage  of 
tho  passengers,  except  in  lockers  or  inclosurcs  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  of  any  part  of  tho  space  occupied  by 
the  pas>engers,  will  vitiate  tho  whole  space,  unless  tlie 
part  so  encumbered  bo  separated  from  that  so  occupied 
by  n  substantial  bulkhead.  The  deck  or  platform  must 
bo  of  n  permanent  nature.  Hush,  and  impervious  to  thu 
wafer. 

Pafisport,  a  warrant  of  protection  and  authority 
to  travel,  granted  to  persons  moving  from  place  to 
plnco  by  tho  competent  oHicer.  The  word  appears  to 
1)0  derived  from  the  marifimo  usage  of  sumo  Continent- 
al countries  of  giving  similar  antliorities  from  tho  ad- 
miral of  a  naval  station  to  vessels  leaving  liarliors 
within  his  jurisdiction.  As  passports  are  not  required 
111  our  own  country,  the  only  species  known  to  our  trav- 
elers is  that  of  foreign  passiiorts,  which,  for  traveling 
on  tho  continent  of  Kurope,  are  usually  mado  out  by 
the  resident  minister  or  consul  of  the  country  he  in- 
tends first  to  visit,  or  by  tho  Stuto  Department.  They 
aro  subject  tot'Mii,  or  inspection,  by  tho  proper  author- 
ities at  tho  |)lace  wlicro  tho  traveler  disembarks,  and 
also  at  other  places  where  lie  may  reach,  according  to 
the  polico  regulations  of  eaidi  particular  country,  and 
on  passing  tho  frontiers  of  states.  Austria  is,  we  be- 
lieve, the  only  Kurupeun  statu  which  at  this  time  ic- 
cpiircs  absolutely  the  i'mu  of  an  embassador  or  minister 
of  her  own  for  travelers  entering  her  domains  by  land. 
In  France,  and  in  many  (Continental  countries,  homo 
passports  are  necessary  for  the  native  traveler.  Ac- 
cording to  tho  letter  of  tho  French  law  (since  179fi),  a 
Frenchman  can  not  pass  thu  limits  uf  tluj  canton  in 
which  ho  is  domiciled  without  n  passport ;  but  in  prac- 
tice it  is  not  re(|uired  within  the  extent  of  thu  depart- 
ment. Legally  speaking,  Mie  strict  formalities  of  an 
internal  passport  in  France  require  the  direction  of  a 
journey  to  bu  specified,  and  its  exact  execution  attesj- 
^d  by  the  fi.«M  and  signatures  of  the  police  authorities 
at  every  place  mentioned  in  it ;  and  these  laws  are, 
from  their  severity,  so  incapable  of  conipleto  execution, 
that  it  is  0  common  saying  that  no  man  but  a  rogue  is 
ever  entirely  en  reyle  with  respect  to  his  passport,  sus- 
picious characters  being  usually  tho  most  particular  in 
their  attention  to  formalities,  for  fear  of  detentiou  A 
Frenchman  traveling  without  a  propcrly-authi':iticatcd 
passport  is  liable  to  arrest  and  detention  fur  a  period 
not  exceeding  a  month.  Tho  fees  fixed  in  France  are 
two  francs  for  a  passport  to  trcvel  at  hnnie,  and  ten  to 
go  abroad. 

By  tho  twenty.first  section  of  the  act  of  August  18, 
1856,  the  Secretary  of  Statu  of  iho  United  States  is  au- 
thorized to  grant  and  issue  passports,  and  cause  pass- 
ports to  be  granted,  issued,  and  verified  in  foreign  coun- 
tries by  such  diplomatic  or  consular  ofHcers  of  tho  Unit- 
ed States,  and  under  such  rules  as  the  President  shall 
designate  and  prescribe,  for  and  on  behalf  of  the  Unit- 


ed States,  and  no  otlior  person  shall  grant,  issue,  or 
verify  any  such  passport;  nor  shall  any  pussp^jrt  bo 
granteil  ur  issued  to  ur  verified  fur  any  otlicr  pcrsung 
than  citl/ena  of  tho  United  States;  nor  sliull  any 
charge  be  made  for  granting,  issuing,  ur  verifying  any 
passport,  except  in  a  foreign  cuiiutry  ;  and  in  any  case 
the  fee  allowed  therefor  shall  nut  exceed  thu  sum  of  one 
dollar,  nor  shall  any  such  charge  l)e  made  fur  mure  than 
one  such  verification  in  any  foreign  country ;  and  if  any 
person  acting  or  claiming  to  act  in  any  oflice  ur  eupac- 
ity  under  the  United  States,  or  any  of  flic  Slates  of  the 
United  States,  who  shall  not  be  lawfully  aiifhorizcd  io 
to  do,  shall  grant,  issue,  or  verify  any  passport,  ur  uih- 
er  instrument  in  the  nature  of  a  pai^sport,  tu  ur  fur  any 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  to, or  fur  unt'  per>.on 
claiming  to  be  or  designated  as  such  in  siiili  past-port 
or  verification ;  or  if  oiiy  cunsiilur  officer  m  hu  shall  bo 
authorized  to  grant,  issue,  or  verify  passports,  shall 
knowingly  and  willingly  grant,  issue,  or  verlf^-  any 
such  jiassport  to  or  for  any  person  nut  a  citi/.en  of  tho 
United  States,  the  person  so  ufl'ending  shall  be  deemed 
and  taken  to  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on  eun- 
viction  thereof  shall  be  imprisoned  not  exceeding  ono 
year,  or  fined  in  a  sum  not  to  exceed  five  hundred  dol- 
lars, or  lioth ;  and  may  be  charged,  proceeded  against, 
tried,  convicted,  and  dealt  \i\\\i  therefor  in  tho  district 
wlicro  he  may  be  arrested  or  in  custody.  It  is  likewise 
made  tho  duty  of  all  persons  who  shall  bo  authori/.ed, 
pursuant  to  tlio  provisions  uf  the  act,  to  grunt,  issue, 
or  verify  passports,  to  inuko  return  of  the  same  to  tho 
Secretary  of  State ;  aud  such  :ctiirns  shall  specify  tho 
names  and  all  other  particulars  of  the  persons  to  whom 
the  same  |liall  be  granted,  issued,  or  verified,  as  em- 
braced in  such  passport. 

From  the  foregoing  provisions  of  tho  net  it  will  bo 
seen  that  passports  can  only  be  issued  by  the  Secretary 
of  State,  and  such  diplomatic  and  consular  ofllcers  of 
the  United  States  in  foreign  countries  as  he  may  ex- 
pressly authorize,  and  they  can  be  granted  to  citizens 
ol  tho  United  Slates  only.  Passports  will  be  granted 
by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  by  the  diplomatic  reiue- 
scntatives  of  tho  United  Slates  in  foreign  counlrics, 
frco  of  charge ;  but  when  issued  by  a  consul  general  or 
consul,  tho  feu  of  onu  dollar,  as  proscribed  in  these  in- 
I  structions,  is  to  be  collected  in  eery  case.  As  pass- 
l)ort8  granted  by  the  Secretary  of  Stotc  secure  to  the 
bearers  facilities  from  foreign  governments  not  accord- 
ed to  those  issued  by  diplomatic  ofliccrs,  consuls  gen- 
eral, ur  consuls,  it  wilf  always  be  to  the  interest  of 
travelers  to  procure  their  passports  before  leaving  tliu 
United  States,  and  this  course  is  earnestly  recoinniciid- 
od  by  the  Department  of  State,  In  any  country  where 
there  is  n  diplomatic  representative  of  the  Unilcd 
States,  no  consul  general  or  consul  is  authorized  to  II- 
s  10  passports,  except  in  tho  absence  of  such  represent- 
ative from  the  jdacc  of  his  legation,  AVhenever  lie 
may  bo  so  alisenf,  authority  is  given  to  consuls  general 
and  consuls  only  to  tssno  passports ;  but  in  all  cases 
the  said  consuls  general  or  consuls,  as  the  case  may  be, 
will  report  to  the  Department  of  State  the  names  of  tho 
persons  to  whom  passports  have  been  issued  by  them, 
together  with  the  evidence  of  their  being  citizens  of 
thu  United  States,  and  a  copy  of  thu  same  ;'cport  will 
bo  foi'wardcd  to  thu  legation  of  thu  United  Stales,  if 
tl'.ere  bu  any  in  thu  country.  In  case  there  hIioiiUI  bo 
no  diplomatic  representative  accredited  to  tli  i  country 
in  which  a  consul  general  or  consul  may  resi  li'  tlieii 
these  officers  are  authorized  to  grant  passports,  having 
regard  to  tho  general  lustruclions  to  consular  ofiicers 
in  reference  thereto;  they  will  transmit,  in  all  cases, 
to  thu  Dupartment  of  State  the  information  in  regard 
to  citizenship  required  by  this  section. 

Whenever  a  foreign  government  shall  require  the 
ran  of  a  passport  of  any  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
it  shall  bu  given  by  the  consular  officer  of  tho  United 
States  at  the  jilaco  where  it  is  demanded,  and  he  shall, 
for  each  passport  so  viaaeJ,  collect  aud  account  fo;  the 


FAS 


IfiOl 


PAT 


HSUP,  Ot 

ijiort  bo 

ittll  «ny 
iliiK  «ny 
uiiy  ittno 
ml  of  imo 
loru  tlian 
in\  if  uiiy 
ur  cuiim> 
it«»  of  tllB 
lori/.i'il  ■•10 
,rt,  ur  olli- 
or  for  i\iiy 
„y  pcn-uii 
li  imspiiort 
111  shall  lio 
lurts,  sliuU 
verify  any 

i/.C'll  of  tl>o 
lie  ilctincil 
»nil  P"  '^""" 
futiliiM  ""o 
umlrcil  ilnl- 
Jcil  aiiainst, 
I  tlio  ilistrlct 
,t  U  liliL'wiso 
)  autliori/.cd, 
grant,  issue, 

I  samu  to  Iho 

II  spocify  the 
sow  to  whom 
rilii'il,  as  cm- 
net  it  will  ho 

the  Secretary 
liar  olliccrs  o( 
as  he  may  ex- 
ited to  cilizena 
•ill  he  Kranteil 
ilomalic  rcprc- 
igii  countries, 
,Mil  ^cucral  or 
oil  in  these  in- 
asc.     As  liass- 
secure  to  the 
its  not  accord- 
^,  consuls  yon- 
ho  interest  ot 
,ro  Icuvini;  tlio 
,ly  reconunend- 
country  whrro 
ot   the   UnitcA 
^thoriicd  to  iS- 
Buch  reliresent- 
■\Vhonevcr  ho 
—oonsuls  noncrnl 
Liut  in  all  cases 
he  case  nuiy  he, 
he  names  of  tho 
ssucd  by  them, 
ing  citizens  ot 
Bine  -eiiort  will 
iiitcd  !>late3,  it 
there  should  bo 
to  th  >.  country 
hnv  resi  Ic  then 
issports,  having 
(onsnlar  otlkers 
[it,  in  all  cases, 
lation  i"  regard 

Lu  require  the 
1  United  States, 
|r  of  the  lnite<l 
Id,  and  ho  shall, 
[account  to;  the 


he  prcicrllied  In  thi  ...<tructlon«,  noting  on  the  pais- 1  Koyiel  raeomm<Mil«  Hie  (:,Humi»it  iniftfAitnU  to  form 
port  that  tills  has  been  done ;  and  no  charge  shall  there-  a  compound  huvlMg  ll)H  Mmn  »|(C(inc  gravity  «■  the 
after  bo  made  by  any  officer  of  tlio  l!iiltcd  States  fur  i  Oriental  dIaiiiuMd,  »»'\  »IM  (llln  HiMUM  Hin^lilpfed  m<- 
Biiy  lUa  of  that  pa«»port  In  tho  same  country.  Vnu.  puriur,  as  it  muru  iiiiKflv  Itmmmihui  (lif  gcin  "IHi  re- 
ports aro  granted  upon  tho  ground  of  international  gard  to  Its  ic»rucl(ni  ))((i(  (|ji,i,MMit«  |i(i*ffM  j  Imt,  Ilka 
courtesy,  and  as  atlbnling  evidence  to  tho  diploinallo  tho  funiiur,  it  i'ui|ii|ri<ii  In  In/  (,>ni{  tiit  mini'  (no or  three 
aud  other  agi^nts  in  foreign  countries  that  the  bearer  \  days  in  u  disuil  i>ti«(u,  III  imiff  Ui  fn\m\  llin  oiippraluind- 
thcreut  Is  a  citizen  of  tho  United  States,  and  entitled  '  ant  alkali  uiid  lo  puffw't  lllf  rvibllnu.  A  nioderale  do- 
to  full  protection  an  «uch.  A  passport,  iu  proper  form,  ]  gree  of  hem  (iiimis  it.  '( ||ti|'»|limlH|i  l<  ll«  Mniiiioslllnn  ; 
must  contain  a  description  ot  tho  bearor,  with  his  »ig-  {  Tuku  of  whiiu  aaiiij  |ii||jliw(  liv  li^ltig  wnKlied,  (lr«t  In 
nature;  It  must  also  rcqunst  all  w  loin  it  may  concern  i  muriatic  udd  uiid  itHumnfii  hi  |ii(rK  italer  iinlll  all 
to  permit  the  bearer  thereof,  being  a  citizen  of  the  traces  of  acid  »iu  fu|),i)V(i((,  (id)  ((kh,,  ffiliiityd  of  lead 
United  States,  safely  and  freely  to  pass,  and.  In  case  (minium)  |»l»  parUt  iitliiMi'il  |inlM«tl  IMI  to  n.'i  parts; 
ot'ie.'dt  to  give  him  all  lawful  aid  and  protection  while  calcined  luirax  IM;  uml  k^^iJ  nr  n^M'IIIi'  1  purl.— See 
Bo  doing.  It  must  bo  signed  by  tho  diplomatic  repre-  tho  J'liliileiliiiin  .hmmmi  lu'f  iliily,  («l|,  Hio  term 
Bcntativc,  consul  gonoral,  or  consul,  and  sealed  with  paste  Is  also  uppliuij  In  Hih  lifiHll^  tliUllirfi  tor  p<ittery 
thu  scat' of  tho  legation  or  consulate.  Consuls  general  and  ponelulii ,  u|,i(  |u  ilKOyJi,  nhiI  tn  (lin  sniiilloii  of 
and  eonsuU  arc  expressly  instructed  that  when  an  aii-  starch  or  wheat  Aimr,  mmU  li)r  llnii  tdUliig  It  with  n 
plicutiun  is  made  for  a  passport  by  a  native  citizen  of"  proper  purlioii  of  luU  tmlwf,  iuii  (lififi  ndding  Imlllng 
tho  United  States,  before  granting  it,  the  applicant ;  water  midur  roiistailt  '(jfritlfj,  M  Mn  In  form  nn  even 
must  lilo  in  the  consulate  an  affidavit  staling  that  fact,  '•  solution.  Aluii»  in  trflwil  *t(l«(l  III  pdnte  to  slreiigthcn 
and  also  his  age  and  place  ot  birth ;  this  must  be  sign-   it.— llit.iNin;'K  lliiiimiiii'i/, 

cd  and  swrrn  to  by  himself  and  Olio  other  citizen  of  tho  Putel  (l,at.  imilllfitt),  In  (idjiillng,  n  crayon 
United  States  named  therein,  to  whom  he  Is  personal-  funned  with  any  luliiF  himI  tflllH  »«(pr,  fut  palnling  on 
ly  known,  and  to  tho  best  of  whoso  knowlcdgi^  and  he-  paper  or  parclmiiiiit,  '(  Iim  atf^H  ikfecl  of  (Ids  mode  of 
lief  tho  declaration  made  by  him  is  true.  It  tho  a|ipli-  painliiig  is  its  wi«Mt  iif  ilMCfthJllli', 
cant  be  a  naturalized  citizen,  a  passport  can  only  be  |  PatentM,  A  pNli'Mli  MM  Kfdihtf  {»  iho  deniiltlnn  of 
grante<l  upon  his  exhibiting  a  ccrtllicato  of  naturaliza-  Mr.  I'liilps,  is  a  ^m\\  by  fjix  f»(i((«  ti(  (lio  exclusiro 
tioii,  or  a  certiliod  copy  thereof;  an  authenticated  copy  privilegii  of  making,  M'tiltf,  Hlld  Vi  lldlrtg,  nnd  author- 
of  which  must  bo  transmitted  by  tho  consul  general  or  Izlng  others  to  in«k«,  l(»ti,  mt\  ii'WiS,  (1(1  Ihtentlon. 
I  jiisnl  to  tho  Department  of  State.  When  the  appll- '  The  first  act  uf  UiiMUfcw  (ill  (lljn  nldijcct  was  pasfcd 
cant  is  accompanied  by  his  wife,.cliildren,  or  servants,  i  April  Itltli,  17110,  mid  jt  oiillwi-liKid  (ll(>  Hocrdary  ot 
or  by  females  under  his  protection,  it  will  Iw  sufficient 
to  state  tho  names  and  ages  ot  such  persons  and  their 
relationship  to  the  applicant. 


UNITKI)  STATES  CONSltf.AU  PASarORT. 


CONsni.ATK  OF  THE  UnITKD  STATBS  OF  AUEniOA. 

To  all  tu  whom  these  presents  shall  come,  greeting: 


Age,      jt«n. 

SUIuri, 

Forehaad, 

Gyel, 

Note, 

Mouth, 

Chin, 

Hair, 

Coinplaxioo, 

Fac«, 


I,  the  undcnlgned,  consul  of  the  United 
Stales  of  America  for  - — — ,  and  the  rte- 
licndcnclos  thereof,  hereby  request  all 
whom  it  may  concern,  to  permit  safely  nnd 

freely  to  pass, ,  a  citizen  of  the 

United  Sttttes,  and  In  cacu  of  need  to  give 
him  all  lawful  aid  and  protection. 
Given  uii'Jur  my  hand  aiitl  the  seal  of  tho 

conaulnte,  at  — ^,  thU iluy 

of ,  A.D.  18—,  nnd  in  the 

[t«AL.]  j,p„f  „f  ji,^  Imluiienilcnco  of  the 
United  Stntcs 


State,  (lie  Sucretary  )iC  Wuf,  Mild  llw  AdoHicv  Ocneral, 
or  any  two  of  iIiumi,  fii  (jiMllf  tUtlcNtd  for  fUiih  new  in- 
venthinsaiiildisioVBFiwij  nt  Wmi  nllMllId  deein  sufficient- 
ly useful  and  impiiflmil,  'Oim  m  i.»((!tided  eiiiiilly 
to  aliens,  ami  tjiu  \mm\  »^m\m\  ((m  ptdrer  of  rcfiis. 
Ing  paU'iits  for  want  i/f'  iMiVcIt  t  m  (Hillly.  This  net 
was  repealed,  aild  n  mtt  m'{  \mm\  m  ll(«  iUi  Feliiii- 
ary,  17!lH.  It  Loiiliiiiid  |ii«l(i|i|<i  («  ()ii<  clll/.ens  of  the 
United  Stales,  mid  \\wy  HcfM  In  lip  pmloiX  by  lliu 
Secretary  of  Statu,  i>i|l(ji«.(  )((  |||(<  Kivisiod  of  llle  A(- 
(orney  (ienei«|,  'I'lin  Ki.'t  (jdvp  M  yimH  (o  (he  Hicre- 
tary  of  State  |u  ifufum  A  |i»(<i(|(  fiif  »(((((  of  novelty  or 
usefulness,  and  (Iw  BWIIfillif  (if  (lie  (irtlcht  l/ccaiiie  a 
more  ministuri^l  duly,  '\i\m  |ii')i'j|(ig(<  (if  suing  out  a 
patent  was,  by  ihu  w  (wf  \n\\  Aj/fili  l«»",  eslended  to 
aliens  of  two  years'  imMnmv  III  (lis  IllKwl  States. 
Tho  act  of  July  )il(||,  W'i,m\\i  tfi^meiX  (lie  alien  (o 
bo  a  resident  at  Hia  limi*  (if  (Iik  K(((/li(«(lnn,  and  to 
have  declared  lijs  i||Mlll|il|i,  *.(«|-l1iHg  (tf  lit*,  (o  be- 
come a  citizen. 
Hut  as  every  pBiWH  »»»  (<lill(}ci1  («  («tit!  out  «  p«l- 
Faate  (Fr.  pate).  In  Gem  Sculpture,  a  prepara- !  ent,  on  complying  with  (JiM  jif(iii('til/("d  (^(•((u,  without 
tion  of  glass,  calcined  crystal,  lead,  and  other  ingrcdi-  '  any  inateiial  iniiiilrj',  at  lnKiit  «( ()«<  I'nliidl  (Jfflce,  re- 
ents,  for  imitating  gems.  This  art  was  well  known  (o  ,  specting  the  iiseliilnuss  mA  MII(i(iflHII('C  t/t  (lie  Invehdon 
the  ancients,  and,  after  being  long  lost,  was  restored,  or  improvement,  a  greut  nmw  WI/HlllcM  flhd  fraiidu- 
at  the  end  of  tho  tifteenth  century,  by  a  Milanese  paint- ,  lent  patents  were  (s»i|ui1,  (tlld  (Iw  tftlK*  trf  (lie  (ifltllego 
or.  Some  modem  artists  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  '  was  degraded,  ond  ill  »  gCPKl  (IcgfCCilfSlHtteih  It  lie- 
a  composition  possessing  a  hard,  line,  and  brilliant ;  came  necessary  to  givu  a  nuw  (iFgHIIJ/dllwi  (o  (lie  l'ii(- 
lustrc  or  appearance ;  \mi]xxs1ea,  or  mock  diamonds,  as   ent  Office,  and  to  elHVfttiB  \\i  (IlKf'rtt  Icf)  dtld  confer  upon 


they  aro  called,  depend  most  for  brilliancy  on  tho  art 
displayed  in  setting  tho  foil  or  tinsel  behind  them. 
Several  recipes  have  been  given  by  M.  Kontanien; 
but  the  most  useful,  and  that  generally  employed  for 
tho  produc  lion  of  artificial  diamonds,  is  tho  following : 
Take  of  litharge  20  parts,  of  silcx  12,  of  nitre  4,  of 
borax  -t,  and  of  white  arsenic  2  jiarts.  These  ingredi- 
ents arc  to  bo  well  nii.ied  together  in  a  crucible  and 
melted;  tho  fused  metal  is  thrown  into  water;  and 
should  any  of  the  lead  employed  bo  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state,  it  bccome.i  separated  by  this  process, 
and  tho  glass  is  remcltcd  for  use.  For  tho  finer  kinds, 
rock  crystal  is  used  instead  ot  Hint  or  sand,  as  it  occurs 
in  a  much  purer  stato ;  i.  «.,  more  tree  from  tho  admix- 
ture of  metallic  oxyds,  which  give  to  vitreous  com- 
pounds their  dilTerent  colors.     In  place  ot  the  above, 


more  cfficie  il  pimsf,  'I'lli*  W(t<i  ((tnie  \ii  iiw  net  of 
Congress  of  July  Ull,  l«)l(i,  wtliill  rcjlf»l«d  all  former 
laws  on  tho  subject,  imd  f»--cil»('(C(1  tiw  (i«(e(H  system 
with  essential  )mpmvem(i|)l6,  A  J'((((iHl  (Iffice  Is  now 
attached  to  t ho  JiitHriuf  I »n|mf  lH(«ll( , «(|(t  g (•(tWItlissionct 
of  patents  appointed:  A|i|ill(.<<fiiKl<)  fiif  f(fl(«(i(s  are  (o 
lie  made  in  writing  to  (liw  (!(iHMlli««i(rtlP(-,  by  «ny  per- 
sons ha^  ing  discovered  rif  |)iV(i||(«1  «HJ-  (le*  and  use- 
ful art,  machine,  insHllfftcKlfH,  (if  (W(l(iflsi(Joi1  of  mat- 
ter, or  oiiy  new  and  ifssfiil  im}if((¥f(t(e((l  (/((  (itiy  art, 
machine,  nmiiufoctiirB,  OC  wi(H|lO<tl(i(m  iti  (fl«ll(!f,  not 
known  or  used  by  others  licftirB  llj<i  (lisCBV(?(^  tit  Kiven' 
tion  thei-eof,  and  not  At  tllB  tllllp  Itt  lliit  Mttttlie«(loti  fof 
a  patent  in  public  dsb  or  on  wlc,  #illl  JliS  etmsBlil  Of 
allowance,  as  tha  (nvBllteF  or  rtis((rt'«f«f.  the  dpfill-' 
cant  must  deliver  »  written  4«l8(iiij>ii«f(  d^  hit  iUTetltloll 


PAT 


iim 


r\t 


or  ilitrovery,  and  of  Iho  manner  niul  jtroceuot  mtkUtif,  ' 
conntruc'tliiK,  iialiiK  uiiil  i'um|iuuncliii)(  tlir  •uim^  In  full, 
cU'ar,  aixl  exact  torini,  avuUlliiK  iiiiiirocMsury  jirulixily, 
to  aa  lo  eiiablo  any  peraun  aklllcil  in  tlin  art  ur  Kiinut'' 
to  wliicli  It  appcilalni,  or  is  muat  nearly  cuiiiuckiil,  tu 
make,  coiiatruct,  cunipcunil,  and  use  tliv  naiiii' ;  oiid  b"  ^ 
niuit,  in  tlio  coae  of  a  niacliinc,  fully  vxploiii  (lui  priu-  I 
cipio  and  tliu  application  uf  It,  liy  which  It  may  Im  di<i- 
tiiiKuiahcd  from  other  inventions;  and  ho  niuit  par- 
ticularly apocify  the  part,  iniprovcineni,  or  cuinbiuotlou 
which  ho  claima  aa  his  own  Invenliun  or  diacwvvry 
lie  must  accompany  Iho  same  with  drawing*  and  writ- 
ten references,  where  tlie  natuic  of  the  raav  udniils  u( 
drawings  or  apecinicna  of  InKrcdienta,  and  uf  Ike  ami' 
position  of  matter  suflicient  in  ((uuntily  fur  the  pur|w«v 
of  experiment,  where  the  invention  ur  discovery  iauf  a 
conipuslllon  of  matter.  He  must  llkcwlitr  furuiab  » 
model  of  his  Invention,  In  cases  which  admit  of  rvpr«' 
sentatlon  liy  model.  The  applicant  ul.^o  iiiuKt  uialu' 
outh  or  afllrmation  that  he  believes  lio  1.4  the  uritjiiial 
and  flrst  inventor  or  discoverer  uf  the  art,  niachiuv, 
composition,  or  improvement  for  v  hlch  ho  Milicits  a 
patent,  un<l  that  he  docs  not  know  or  believe  that  (lu- 
tumo  was  ever  liefore  known  or  used,  and  he  muat  fur- 
ther state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citizen. 

If  the  applicant  be  a  citizen,  oran  alien  of  one  year** 
residence,  ho  is  to  pay  to  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  $!I0;  and  If  a  British  subject,  (ir>UO;  and  »il 
other  applicants,  ^liOO.  The  original  and  true  iuvfut- 
or  U  not  to  bo  deprived  of  the  right  to  a  pateul  fur  hi* 
invention,  by  reason  of  his  having  prcvioualy  ttijkt'ii 
out  letters  patent  therefor  in  afurcl(;n  cuunlry,  uud  tiiv 
same  having  been  published  at  any  time  within  M-s 
inontlia  next  preceding  the  tiling  of  bis  vpeiilicotiou 
and  drawing.  The  executors  and  administrator*  uf 
persons  dying  before  a  patent  is  taken  out,  may  »^>^)l)' 
and  take  It  out  In  trust  for  the  heiraordeviiwea,  ou  lUi" 
compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  statute.  I'atviiUiWv 
aaaignaldc,  and  may  be  granted  in  whule  or  iu  part  by 
writing,  to  bo  recorded  in  the  I'atcnt  Office.  If  inv»)W 
by  reason  of  defective  Btiecitlcations,  or  by  cjainiiug  Um 
much,  the  patent  may  be  surrendered,  and  u  uew  pot- 
ent taken  out  for  the  unexpired  perioiJ,  provided  tb* 
error  did  not  oriac  from  any  fraudulent  intention.  If 
the  patentee  bo  an  alien,  he  forfeits  his  cxclu^iv('rig(tlt, 
if  he  fails  for  eighteen  montli.s  from  the  date  of  the  |j«L- 
ent  to  continue  c.i  sulo  to  the  public  on  runsttuiti'U' 
terms  tlio  invention  or  discovery  covered  by  tlie  jMutr 
cnt.  The  patentee  does  not  lose  his  patent  if  it  mtin- 
factorily  appears  to  the  court,  that  at  the  lime  of  UU 
application  li'  believed  himself  to  be  the  firat  iuv*»Mif 
or  discoverer  of  the  thing  patented,  though  the  UiytfH' 
tion  or  discovery,  or  any  part  tlicreof,  had  been  befw*' 
known  or  used  in  a  foreign  country ;  provided  it  4m»« 
not  appear  that  the  sumo,  or  any  fubataiitial  pwt 
tliereof,  liad  before  been  patented  or  deacribed  iu  mtj/ 
printed  publication. 

Thoae  arc  the  principal  existing  statute  provi.sioM« 
on  the  subject,  ond  though  the  oit  of  (longress  of  l*»-j«> 
has  made  considerable  alterations  in  tlie  pre-<'xiHiNg 
luws  respecting  the  organization  of  the  I'atent  i>^t; 
and  the  limitations  on  the  granting  of  patents,  yH  (Iac 
esiientlal  and  established  doctrines  roncerning  pitlue)fU 
heretofore  declared  in  the  decisions  of  the  courla  m- 
main  unafTccted.  The  act  of  ITUB  declared  tliat  am- 
ply changing  the  form  or  the  proportions  of  any  wal- 
chine  or  composition  of  matter  in  any  degree  v/m  )mH 
a  discovery.  And  also,  that  the  person  who  had  4i»- 
covorcd  an  improvement  in  tlic  principle  of  any  ww.- 
chine,  or  in  the  process  if  any  composition  of  inoti*^, 
might  obtain  a  patent  for  such  iniprovenuiil,  but  Ihi^it 
ho  could  not  thereby  make,  use,  or  vend  tlic  orjgi/MW 
discnvcrv,  nor  could  the  tlrst  inventor  use  tlie  iuiprovf^ 
ment.  These  declaratory  provisions  arc  oudu^d  W 
the  law  of  1830,  and  {  presume  the  construcliou  w*w 
considered  to  bo  necessarily  the  same  without  iimyrur 
vision.     In  an  ago  distinguished  for  an  active  an4  »fr 


d*w<  »)/<#«  i4  Smf»mifin*nl  In  iho  arts  of  agrlcultura 
«ud  mtHHtitfimf*,  <»kI  In  lh<>  marhlnery  of  every  kind 
•|/p|«<4  Ui  lU'tt  friw,  ihf  dorlrlnc  of  patent  rights  has 
iHtHtttt.4  mittii  /flwfuwMn,  and  becomii  u  muIiJim  t  of 
4>'«(^  ititftnH  tiMh  tift*  and  in  Kurope. — Kknt'h  Cum- 
tuttitmtn,  tM  H.  p.  1Jt#;  (m.fi.Ar'H  /lii/ml  /.imn  I'.  S, 

Wattatt,  Iff  PMtaatO,  •  sea-port  in  the  nortliwest 
f-urmf  i4  hIm  M(Wi»,  rt*«r  iho  entrance  of  the  I  lulf  of 
Ia|;#Mw,  (««.  »»■■  M'  2,V'  N.,  long.  21"  40'  20"  K, 
\'u^MUi\nH  i)my<m\y  mimaled  from  "(HK)  to  HOiio, 
'IIm'  jwrt  (>*«  «  iwS*  Ui  llm  northward  of  the  town  ;  but 
Ibv  pnn  (ftmOHit  "  '«  nn»«fe,  and  exposed  to  heavy 
mm,  frnttiftAinh  In  winter.  Vessel*,  therefore,  go  a 
MUU  (mtU*t  »\,  th*  n»ff,  »her«  Ihf re  l»  a  mole  or  quay, 
unA  «(i(lt*f«  th*^  mn  ii*  cVwe  to  the  wharf.  I'atraa  has 
It  m'/fi >i»t*m*i'>n  ttmh  than  any  other  port  of  (ireece. 
'tim  Iffimipitt  ^*p(ttU  are  rnrranis,  oil,  valonia,  wine, 
r«w  tiik,  »#<»  nifUm,  wool,  skins,  wax,  etc.  (If  these, 
ritrrttm*  mf  tft  ht  thn  most  Impnrlanl.  The  fridt  is 
hrti>tfi  **w(  fttft  frfiwi  «»nd  and  gravel,  llian  that  of  the 
Itmiitl*  f'luiMf*.  'th*y  are  shipped  In  casks  of  various 
H/A>«i  l^ifl  Dfw  fl»>  weight  irt  the  cnak  Is  included  in  that 
ufiU*'  ffnU,  H  l»  «i»M  Irt  lie,  for  the  most  part,  heovler 
«m4  HfttHK^f  tUnH  n*c»»«ary.  Morea  currants  are  pre- 
(mM  itt  mttti  Kmti(t1m,  fxrept  England ;  but  llmr 
th*i  t'UffuM*  t4  'AnhfK  nro  hold  in  equal,  or  perhaps 
l(rittU*f,  I'MitttnUfm.  The  export  of  currants  from  I'a- 
W#*  mMf  *«'i>trt<!*  from  Trt.nOO  to  80,(100  cwls.  a  yfur; 
i/Ui  tim  f/fitAt>fn  lit  (M  erop  varies  extremely  in  dilTer- 
n»i  ftt*fm».-  tMlftly  th«  rultnre  of  currants  In  the 
Mttftt  U>t*  i*m  very  greatly  extended.  Owing  lo  the 
WMr**w  l4  ttttit  <(niwi(lly,  their  price  has  been  much 
ii*4it*M.-  hut  ihfit  rnlllvalion  would  notwUhstund- 
)»K  )«f*(r#i«*(y  WofllaM*  were  it  not  for  the  exlrnor- 
dimf)/  rt*)t«  i/y  which  il  is  attended.  It  is  seldom.  In- 
4>'*4j  tUM  tttx  Utiitti  crop  can  lo  housed  witliout  seri- 
mt»  4mtmi^i  mxt  ♦cry  frequently  it  is  all  but  entirely 
lw«4-  'tit)*  *>*«  til*  case  with  Iho  crop  of  18&2,  the  lojs 
«/  ^'iUUii  WCKsJftfwcl  ttinch  distress.  The  crops  of  oil, 
tUf  #*«(l  Ittutt  miifU  of  export  from  Ptttras,  are,  if 
itttt*H4*,  Hilt  ttKtt»  flmloating  than  those  of  currants. 
th"  impiiiih  Hi  I'alMs,  M  at  the  other  (ireek  ports, 
*'AiiM<f<i  piitif^ipMtiy  of  sngar,  eoffeo,  and  other  colonial 
f>i'»ttti*i*  j  fiitliti  i»nd  printed  cotton  stnfls,  woolen  good.s, 
»»i(*4  Mtf  ittiHi  tin  plates,  hardware,  coal,  cordage, 
iMiWIi',.  4miI»,-  tif.-  (mpoTted  articles  arc  brought  prin- 
t'itmny  t'fm  ih^  fonlun  Islands,  Malta,  Venice,  I.cj;- 
imtt,  MlHf*HUft  «nd  Trieste ;  but,  from  the  want  uf 
»t)Ht^iitif-'  lUiltiU.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  form  any  ac- 
fWMtK  *<liw*l*  of  (heir  amount  either  as  respects  I'n- 
tn*  int  #«f  »th^  (itfek  port. 

I'limimt'tf, — TJi*  fJrecks  have  particularly  dislin- 
iiHU\tt-i\  (fMWii<*l»cs  by  the  spirit  and  suoccss  with 
MtVit  t\wy  ^tmf  engaged  in  naval  and  mercantile  cn- 
(I**!**?**.-  Tfcieif  commeree,  next  to  their  freedom,  was 
titK  ilWl4  *f^tK!  tit  (he  prosperity  of  Athena,  Conntli, 
IHt4  i4tl*f  (ifeflt  cKies  of  aniiquity.  And  in  this  re- 
*(*•**  ttt«  ttKnUfn  fJreeks  have  been  no  unsuccessful 
imiltKttt*  lit  th*it  iflnstrions  progenitors.  The  great 
m'tifi*'i  i4i>*i/iftt  from  fJreece  consist  of  currants,  s.ilk, 
^1,  #«vl,  iiii^n  otI,  valoniu,  wine,  sponge,  wax,  to- 
tm**-H,.  c^, ;  thf  pyjncipal  imports  being  manufactured 
nMtm  mt4  ^iittifH  goods,  corn,  with  a  great  variety  of 
nuiiiirMttMt*'  Mtlii-Un,  principally  from  England,  but 
p»Ht^'  #Isi»  fiiim  f'rance  and  (iermany.  The  mercnn- 
tHu  mvy  i4  f  >r»i>c«  *as  estimated  in  IHfiO  at  1000  ves- 
«»J»,  i4ih4<  llf!S£tfgDt»  harden  of  1. 10, 000  Ions,  employ- 
ee; Hlnutt  ^I^IMl  t*»rM-n.  The  (ireeks  have,  in  fact, 
)ttt*itn.4  til  tilf  (liKlinclion  of  being  the  curriers,  factors, 
*«4  tnt4tt*  lit  th«  i^vitnl. 

'fUf  mhmtitsiK  rcsnlling  to  Oreeco  from  her  being 
tin'  'H'ltt,  lit  *'*(*'n!>ivfl  (rnde  is  not  .«o  great  as  might 
fc#»*  titm  *«(lcip*(ed.  The  import  and  export  trade 
ufttm  etimttf  h  subjected  to  many  troublesome  regu- 
^tp»t*<  tttt'fK  »fe  no  roads,  which,  however,  are  less 
»,«M|U4  tHf*'  ihtm  in  thont  other  countries.  Manufac- 
tltrm  «»  »  Uff^  ttnle  can  not  be  said  to  exist,  the  bulk 


PAT 


1503 


I 'AW 


y  kind 
lit*  hnii 

Jl'Ct  o( 
'h  Ciiin- 
M  /'..v. 
rtliwi'nt 
tlulfof 
20"  K. 
to  HOIW. 
wn ;  l)>il 

10  licBvy 
ore,  (JO  11 
J  (ir  quay, 
•ntr««  t>a» 
>f  (Ircccc. 
nln,  vi\M, 

Of  ihPW, 
ho  fruit  U 
Oint  of  tlio 

of  various 

ilcil  in  'ho' 
irt,  licBviM 
nt»  nro  pre- 
;  l)Ut  tlior 

or  porliaiis 
Its  from  I'B- 
ivlB.  »>■'""■■. 
■ly  In  dlfr'T- 
ranU  In  H'o 
UwlngloHic 
8  been  nmiU 
lolwUlisto'"'- 
r  the  cxlrnor- 
isifUloin.in- 

wltlioul  Sl'Vi- 

11  but  eiillrcly 
'  185-2,  tho  lof3 
ic  crofs  of  oil, 

•iitras,  aro,  if 
;o  (if  currants. 

(ireek  port'i 
oilier  colonial 

woolen  yooiU, 

toul,  covdauu, 

brought  V'in- 
Vcnico,  I-eS" 
tho  want  of 

„  form  any  "i^" 

18  rcsiiccts  I'n- 

cularly  ilistin- 
l  success  wUn 
mercantile  en- 
lrfrcciloni,wa3 
Lhcns,  Corintli, 
\,ul  in  lliis  f'- 
,o  unsuccessful 

rs.    'i'i>«  e""' 
.  cm-rants,  iilU, 
ongc,  wax,  to- 
,  manufactured 
Tcat  variety  of 
England,  but 
The  nicrcau- 
[(50  at  -4000  vcs- 
lo  tons,  employ- 
Is  liavc,  in  fact, 
■arriers,  factors, 

I  from  lier  ^cing 
Icrcat  as  migli' 
l,d  export  trade 
lublesomo  rcgu- 
kwcver,  arc  less 
Cjcs.  Manufac- 
|o  exist,  the  bulk 


of  Ihe  population,  but  llltin  removed  from  barbarliim, 
u»lni{  only  lliuoo  maile  at  liouiu;   ugriiulturu  U  iiUo 
In  lliu  most  backward  coiidltloii,  and  U  aluiosl  wlmlly 
ciirrlud  on  uniler  the  tiKtiyrr  system.     .Sllll,  liowiver, 
«»mo  luiprovonientH  aro  taking  place,  especially  li\  the 
inlanils;  anil  it  is  |iroliabla  that  lliu  progreiiH  lnwanl  a 
better  state  of  things  will  bit  gradually  aeculeratid.     It 
Is  dooply  to  liu  regretted  that  (.'aiidia,  or  L'retu,  was 
not  either  added  to  the  new  kingdom  of  (ireece,  or 
made  indepeudenl.     Wo  can  nut  hel|i  considering  it  as 
dlsgraecful  to  the  Christian  nations  of  Kurope,  that 
tills  famous  island,  where  Kuropean  civlli/.ation  lirsl 
struck  its  roots,  should  bu  conslgneil  to  tlio  liarlmrians 
by  whom  It  U  now  laiil  waste.     It  is  as  well  entitliil 
to  the  favorablu  ciinsideratiim  of  Kngland,  t'raiice,  and  . 
Kiissia,  as  any  part  of  Cuntinenlal  (ireece;  and  we 
hope  that  measures  may  yet  bu  devised  for  rescuing  It 
from  the  atrocious  deapotUm  by  which  It  has  been  so 
long  weighed  down. — See  (liim:i  K.     l''or  ('oinincrce, 
etc.,  of  Moilcrn  (i recce,  sec  l.iiinij  Ai/e,  11.  5/i7  ;  Nii.K'tV 
Uri/uler,    XXV.    'Mi    (IJ.VSiki,    \Vl-.iivri;il':<    S/mrh); 
IIcst'h  .l/«ceA(i»<j' .Vii.'/uTmc,  vil.  10;i;  I)k  Hiiw'h /ic- 
cicir,  xlii.  IIIJ;  Demitcralic  Uorieio,  vlil.  '201  ((iKimiiK 

SUM.NICIl). 

FattOrna  arc  specimens  orsamples of  cominoilltles, 
transmitted  by  manufacturers  lo  tlieir  correspondents, 
or  carried  from  town  to  town  by  travelers,  in  search  of 
orders. 

Fa-wnbroken  am'.  Pawubroking.  A  pawn- 
broker is  u  species  of  banker,  who  advances  money,  at 
a  certain  fate  of  interest,  upon  security  of  goods  depos- 
ited in  his  hands ;  having  power  to  sell  the  goods,  if 
tho  principal  sum  and  the  interest  thereon  lie  not  paid 
within  a  specllled  time.  Tim  origin  of  borrowing 
money  hy  means  of  pledges  deposited  with  lenders  U 
referred,  as  a  regular  trade,  to  I'crousa,  in  Italy,  aiiout 
v.ii.  145H;  and  soon  afterward  in  Kngland.  Tho  busi- 
ness of  pawnbrokers  was  regulated  3il  Uco.  II.,  175U. 
Licenses  were  issued  24  Ueo,  III.,  ITNil.  In  London 
lliero  are  .1;)4  pawnbrokers ;  and  in  Kngland,  exclu- 
sively of  London,  11-27. 

Aitvnnlityet  nnJ  Viacuh-niildgeii of  I'nienbivUny. — The 
pi':ictico  of  implcdging  or  pawning  goods,  in  order  to 
raise  loans,  is  one  that  must  necessarily  always  exist  in 
civili/.ed  societies,  and  is  in  many  cases  pniduetivo  of 
ndvuntagfl  to  tho  |)ariies,  but  it  is  a  practice  that  is 
extremely  liable  to  abuse.  Uy  far  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  tho  band  fide  borrowers  of  money  on  pawn  con- 
sist of  tho  lowest  and  most  indigent  classes;  and  were 
the  lenders  not  subjected  to  any  species  of  regulation, 
advantage  might  bu  taken  (as,  indeed,  it  is  frequently 
taken,  in  despite  of  every  precaution)  of  their  necessi- 
ties, to  subject  them  to  the  most  grievous  extortion. 
Itiit,  besides  those  whoso  wants  compel  them  to  resort 
to  pawnbrokers,  there  is  another  class,  who  have  re- 
course to  them  in  order  to  get  rid  of  tlio  property  they 
have  unlawfully  acquired.  Not  only,  therefore,  aro 
pawnbrokers  instrumental  in  relieving  tho  pn's..iing  and 
urgent  necessities  of  the  poor,  but  they  may  also,  even 
without  intending  it,  become  the  most  ellicient  allies 
of  thieves  and  swindlers,  by  atlbrding  tlieni  ready  and 
convenient  outlets  for  the  disposal  of  their  ill-gotten 
guins.  Tho  policy  of  giving  legislative  protection  to 
a  business  so  liable  to  abuse  has  been  doubted  by  many. 
Hut  though  it  were  suppressed  by  law,  it  would  utways 
really  exist.  An  individual  possessed  of  property 
which  ho  may  neither  be  able  nor  willing  to  dispose 
of,  may  bo  reduced  to  a  state  of  extreme  ditliculty ;  and 
in  such  case,  what  can  bo  more  convenient  or  advan- 
tageous for  him  than  to  get  a  loan  upon  a  deposit  of 
such  property,  under  condition  that  if  he  repay  the 
loan  and  the  interest  upon  it  within  a  certain  period, 
tho  property  will  bo  returned?  It  is  said,  indeed,  that 
tho  facilities  of  raising  money  in  this  way  foster  habits 
of  imprudence ;  that  tho  fir.si  resort  for  aid  to  ii  pawn- 
broker almost  always  leadj  to  a  second ;  and  that  it  is 
inipossiblo  so  to  regulate  the  business  as  to  prevent 


the  Ignorant  and  the  iiecesHltoiisfri<iri  being  pliimlered. 
Ihat  lliln  -l.iteiiicnl,  lliough  e\a^'niraled.  Is  lo  a  cer- 
tain e\lrni  trill-,  no  one  ran  deny,  On  the  other  bund, 
liijwevi'i,  the  I  "ipiii  liy  of  ulitaining  supplies  on  depiititi 
iif  goodn.  ii\  iilbirding  llie  means  of  meeting  prcBsIng 
oxigeiicli^,  ill  Ml  far  lends  to  prevent  crlmo,  n-id  lo  pro- 
mote th,.  stM'iirlty  of  properly  ;  and  It  would  senn  as 
If  the  ilesire  to  redeem  properly  in  pawn  would  lie  one 
of  the  most  powerful  motives  to  industry  and  ecoiuiiny. 
At  the  muiie  time,  too,  it  must  be  borne  In  mind  that 
it  Is  not  poHsllile,  do  what  you  will,  to  preMiit  those 
who  are  poor  and  uiilnslructid  from  bnrrnwiin;;  md 
that  they  iiii|.<l  lii  all  eases  obtain  loans  at  a  great 
sacrllicc,  mill  be  liable  tu  be  imposed  upon,  lint  the 
fair  priMiiiiption  Is,  ih.il  ilicrc  is  lens  chance  of  any 
improper  udvanlage  being  taken  of  them  by  a  licensed 
pawnbroker  lliiiii  by  a  private  and  irrespoimible  indi- 
vidual. AIIIioiihIi,  however,  the  busluess  liad  all  the 
iueonveniences,  wllliout  any  portion  wlmtever  of  the 
good  which  really  belongs  lo  it,  it  would  be  to  nu  pur- 
pose to  allempt  its  suppression.  It  is  visionary  to  im- 
agiiiu  that  those  w  ho  have  property  will  submit  to  bu 
reduced  to  the  extremity  of  w  ant,  w  ilhoiit  endeavoring 
to  raise  money  upon  it.  Any  attempt  to  put  down 
pawnbroklng  would  merely  drive  respectable  persons 
fi-oin  the  trade,  and  tlirow  It  entirely  Into  the  hands  of 
those  who  have  neither  |iroporty  nor  character  to  lose. 
And  hence  the  object  of  a  wise  Lcjjislalure  ought  not 
to  be  to  abolish  wliat  must  always  exist,  but  to  en- 
deavor, so  far  at  least  as  is  [lossihle,  to  free  it  from 
abuse,  by  enacting  such  regulations  as  may  apjieur  to 
be  best  calculated  to  prevent  the  ignorant  and  the  un- 
wary from  becoming  the  prey  of  sw  iiidlers,  and  to  fa- 
cilitale  the  discovery  of  stolen  properly. 

Oblit/atiom  uniU'i'  iHw'h  I\iiciihivlrrA  thmdd  L- phreit. 
— I'or  this  pnrjiose  it  seems  indispensable  that  the  in- 
terest  charged  by  pawnbrokers  should  be  limited ;  that 
they  should  be  obliged  to  give  a  receipt  for  the  articles 
pledged,  and  to  retain  thcin  fur  a  reasonable  time  be- 
fore selling  them;  that  the  sale,  when  it  docs  take 
|ilaco,  should  be  by  public  auction,  or  in  such  a  way  as 
may  give  the  articles  the  best  chance  for  being  sold  at 
a  fair  price;  and  that  the  excess  of  price,  if  there  be 
any,  after  deducting  the  amount  advanced,  and  tho  in- 
terest and  expenses  of  sale,  should  be  paid  over  to  the 
original  owner  of  the  goods.  To  prevent  jiaw  ubrokers 
from  becoming  the  receivers  of  stolen  goods,  lliey  should 
be  liable  to  penalties  for  making  advances  to  any  Indi- 
vidual unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  account  of  the  mode 
ill  which  he  became  possessed  of  the  property  ho  is  de- 
sirous to  pawn ;  the  olliccrs  of  police  should  at  all  times 
have  free  access  lo  their  premises;  and  Iliey  should  be 
obliged  carefully  to  describe  and  advertise  tho  projierty 
they  olfcr  for  sale. 

Lam  ((,«  III  raiculjriiliriv.-'lt  may  appear  singular 
that  pawnbrokers  sliould  hardly  luivo  been  named  in 
anv  legislative  enaetinent  till  after  tho  middle  of  last 
oentury.  It  was  enacted  by  the  III)  (lea.  II.  Dmt  a  diipH- 
ciile  or  receipt  sliould  bo  given  for  goods  pawned,  and 
that  such  as  wore  pawneil  for  any  sum  less  than  £10 
might  be  recovered  any  time  williin  lim  years  on  pay- 
ment of  the  principal  and  interest ;  but  tlie  rate  of  in- 
terest was  not  fixed. 

0/  the  pkdyc  of  Morlyaije  and  C/iallcls.—'l'iwro  is  a 
inat'i  rial  ilistiuction  to  bo  noticed  between  a  pledge  and 
a  mortgage.  A  [iledge,  or  pawn,  is  a  deposit  of  goods 
redeemable  on  certain  lerins,  and  either  with  or  with- 
out a  lixed  period  of  redemption.  Delivery  accompa- 
nies a  pledge,  and  is  essential  to  its  validity.  Tlie  gen- 
eral properly  docs  not  pass,  as  in  the  case  of  a  mortgage, 
and  the  pawnee  has  only  a  special  property.  If  no 
time  of  redemption  be  fixed  by  the  contract,  the  pawn- 
er may  redeem  at  any  time ;  and  though  a  day  of  pay- 
ment be  fixed,  he  may  redeem  aflcr  the  day.  lie  has 
his  whole  lifetime  to  redeem,  provided  the  pawnee  does 
not  call  'pon  him  to  redeem,  as  he  has  a  right  to  do  at 
any  time,  in  his  discretion,  if  no  time  for  redemption 


1»AW 


moA 


PKA 


hn  flxt'il ;  anil  ir  no  *u>  li  iiill  Iw  nitclr,  tho  roprriioiita- 
livi'n  (ifllii'  iiiiHiiir  iiiiiy  ri'ili'irii  ufhT  hin  ilnilli.  A» 
I'urly  IK  till'  lliiii'  iif  (•liiiivilli',  llii'iii  Juat  nml  |iliiiii 
|itliirl|ili'ii  iil'tliii  Uw  of  iili'il^i'a  uiiro  enni'iilliilly  ri'inK- 
iii/i'il,  aiiil  It  wii  ilri'lnri'il,  lliiit  If  tliii  |iIi'iIkii  witu  nut 
rviU'iinii'il  liy  tlio  tltiin  ii|i|>iilnl>'il,  ihi'  iriMlUnr  iiil^lit 
Imvn  n'ruiimo  In  tlin  litw,  iiiiil  ('iiiii|>i'l  tlii'  |iiiwn>'r  tn  ro- 
ili'i'iii  liy  a  )(l\i'n  ilay,  or  Im'  I'urnvrr  run'rioiiMl  sikI 
liiirri'il  of  liln  rl)(lit.  Ami  If  no  tiiim  of  rnilt'iii|iliiiii  wuh 
IWi'il,  till'  I  riMlllor  iiiIkIiI  iiiII  upon  tli«  ili'Mnr  nt  nny 
tlini',  liy  Ii'KhI  |iriH'i'Kn,  to  rrili'imi  or  Ioko  IiIh  iiIiiIk''' 
Till'  iliallni'tliiii  lii'tHri'ii  n  |iiiuii  uiiil  inorlKiit(<>  ofrhwt- 
ti'U  In  L'i|ually  will  nrttli'il  in  tlin  Kn^ltnli  uilil  Aiiii'rI- 
ran  Inw ;  ami  a  niorlt(aKi'  of  );i>oil>i  ililli'rn  froiii  a  ploilKo 
ami  pawn  hi  thin,  that  Ihn  roriiiir  In  a  roiivcyaniK  of 
till)  tlllu  upon  ronililion,  ami  It  lu'ioinrn  an  ulmulutii 
InliTiat  at  law,  If  not  ri'ili'vinml  hy  n  ({ivin  tinii',  ami 
It  nmy  Iw  vallil  In  irrlaln  caai'S  wlllimit  actual  ilollvcry. 
At'iorilliiK  to  thu  civil  law,  a  pIcil^K  coiilil  not  \m  nolil 
without  Jmlicial  Haiiclluii,  iinK'nn  llicru  wait  u  upcclal 
aKrccniPiit  to  tliii  iiU'cit ;  ami  tlllu  l»,  iloiilitlcnii,  tliti  law 
at  tliU  ilay  In  nio)it  part«  of  Kuropc  'llio  Kronch  Ciril 
t'liilr  lull  odoptcil  thu  law  of  Coinlaiillnu,  hy  which 
even  ail  a^'ri'cmont  at  the  tiinn  of  tliO'orlKlual  conlract 
of  loan,  that  If  thu  ilohtor  diil  not  pay  at  the  ilay,  the 
plcil)(n  shonlil  ho  almoliitcly  forfdlcil,  ami  ln'ionin  tho 
properly  of  tho  crcilllor,  w  an  dcclaroil  to  lie  void.  Whiln 
on  iIiIh  sulijcct  of  pli'il);o9,  it  may  ho  proper  fiirllipr  to 
olm.rvc,  that  tho  pawnee,  hy  hill  in  clianccry,  may  luir 
the  ili'ilor'n  ri^ht  »f  redcmpllon  and  havu  ijiu  ehatleU 
Kolil.  ThU  hafi  hcen  donu  frei|iiently  in  the  eiiNO  of 
stock  liondu,  plate,  or  other  personol  property  pledged 
for  I  lie  payment  of  (lelit.  Uut  without  any  hill  to  re- 
deem, the  creditor,  on  a  pledge  or  inort)fa({0  of  chattel», 
may  sell  at  auction,  on  Klving  reaaonahlo  opportunity 
to  llio  dehtor  to  redeem,  and  apprising  hlin  of  tho  time 
ami  place  of  sale ;  and  this  is  the  inoro  convonieiit  and 
usual  practice.  While  tho  dehtor's  right  in  tho  pledge 
remains  unextinguished,  his  Interest  is  lialile  to  ho  sold 
on  execution ;  and  the  purchaser,  like  any  other  pur- 
chaser or  assignee  of  the  interest  of  the  pawner,  suc- 
ceeds to  all  his  rights,  and  hecomrs  entitled  to  rodcem, 
— .Vcc  Kknt'k  C"inm''ittftries,  vol.  Iv. 

/Iiilt/,  /■'ntiiii;  fit: — 'I'he  practice  of  advoncing  money 
to  tho  poor,  either  with  or  without  interest,  seems  to 
have  heen  occasionally  folio  wid  in  antii|nily. — lli:i  k- 
.M.iNN,  vol.  iii.  Hut  tho  tirnt  piililic  estahlishmeiilH  of 
this  sort  were  founded  in  I  Inly,  niiiler  the  name  of 
Munti  ili  J'ifli't,  in  the  I4th  ami  ITnh  centuries.  As  It 
Was  soon  found  to  lin  iinpussilile  to  procure  thi  means 
of  supportiiii;  such  estal'llshinent'*  from  vohm  ary  con- 
triliution*.  ^i  hull  for  allowing  interest  to  Ik  charged 
upon  the  loams  made  to  the  poor  was  issued  hy  Irfo  X. 
In  I'lL'l.  I'liiese  estahlishnients,  though  ilift'ering  in 
many  renpects.  have  uiiisersally  for  their  ohjcct  to  pro- 
tect the  i>"edy  frmn  tlif  risk  of  lieing  plundered  hy  the 
lrrespon«i!ile  Iniiividuals  to  whom  their  necessities 
might  ohlige  llicui  to  resort,  hy  accommodating  them 
with  loans  on  -oniporativi  I  reasonahlo  terms.  And 
though  their  practice  has  nut,  in  all  instances,  corre- 
sjiondcd  with  the  professions  they  have  made,  tlicro 
s«-eins  no  reason  to  ilouht  that  they  have  hccn,  speaking 
generally,  of  essential  servicu  to  i  lie  poor.  From  Italy 
these  eslahlishmcnls  have  grailimlly  spread  over  the 
Continent.  The  MotttJel'irlr,  in  I'aris,  wasestahlished 
liy  a  royal  ordinance  in  1777 ;  and  after  lieing  destroyed 
hy  the  Kcvolution,  was  again  opened  In  17'.i7.  In  IHOI 
It  ohtaincd  a  monopoly  of  the  liusincas  of  pawnhroking 
ill  the  capital.  Loans  are  made  liy  this  cstahlishnient 
U|Mm  deposits  of  such  goods  as  can  he  preserved,  to  the 
amonut  of  two-thirds  of  the  estimated  value  of  all  goods 
other  than  gold  andsilvcr,  andtofour-tifthaofthe  value 
of  tlie  latter.  No  loan  is  for  less  than  .<  francs.  The  ad- 
vances are  made  for  a  year,  hut  tho  borrower  nioy  re- 
new the  engagement.  Interest  is  flxed  at  tho  rate  of 
one  per  cent,  per  mouih. 

Tho  Afcmt  de  Picte  bu  generally  in  deposit  from 


I'lOO.iimi  In  i;r>o,iHiO  nrthles,  worth  from  twelve  mlltlon 
III  llilrtion  mlllliin  I'ranes.  The  «xpen>«  of  muiiugn- 
meiit  amounts  to  from  lil)  to  liA  nnlimin  fur  rai  h  aril- 
lie;  so  that  •  loan  of  11  fravii  a  never  il'fiiiya  ilin  ix- 
punars  It  oecaaliiiia,  ami  the  pinllla  ui'i'  it  holly  ileriveil 
froiii  thoan  that  iLXceed  r>  fruma.  At  an  average  Iha 
prullls  amount  to  ahoiit  '.'hii.ihmi  francs,  of  which  only 
alioiit  iri.'i,l)l)<)  are  derived  from  loans  upon  ilepnait, 
alioiit  \2ii,^W)  helng  thu  produce  of  other  funds  at  thu 
dlspoaul  of  thu  company.  Ill  aoiiio  reaprctai  particu- 
larly the  louneaa  of  Interest  upon  small  loaiif,  and  iho 
greater  vigilance  exercised  with  respect  In  the  reci  p. 
lion  of  alnlun  goods,  the  ilAiii^  i/n  /'/,/,'  has  an  uil\aiit- 
nguover  the  pawnhroklng  ealaiiliahmentaiii  Ihia  eniiii- 
tr).  It  may  Im  doulited,  however,  whether  it  la,  on 
the  whole,  so  well  titled  to  attain  Its  ohjicta.  The  lim- 
it^lhin  of  the  loans  to  !l  franca  would  he  felt  to  he  a 
serious  grinvance  here,  and  It  can  hardly  he  uihgrnlsu 
in  l-'rance ;  nor  Is  It  to  he  supposed  that  the  aervanla 
of  a  great  pulille  estahllshment  will  he  ao  ready  to  as- 
sist poor  peraons,  ha\ing  none  hut  Inferior  articles  to 
olTer  in  security,  as  private  Individuals  anxious  to  get 
liusineaa.     And  such,  in  point  of  fact,  is  found  to  he 

ll ase,  not  in  I'aris  only,  hut  In  all  those  parts  of  tho 

Continent  where  the  husiness  of  pawnhroklng  la  coii- 
llned  to  a  few  estahllshnients.     And  hence,  though  thu 
<|uention  ho  not  free  from  dllllculty,  it  w  iiuld  f  eeiii  that, 
were  thu  inoilillcations  already  su^:    cstcd  adopted,  our 
system  wouhl  ho  the  host  of  any.      I  or  further  inform- 
ation with  respect  tn  this  curious  and  intureating  suli- 
I  Joel,  thu  reader  is  referred  to  the  '/'nii'/il  ilr  la  Hiit\fiii- 
imitee  liihlii/ue  of  Degerandn,  iii.   l-.'iri;   liesides  giv- 
'  lag  a  succinct  historical  notice  of  .i/oiili  ilf  I'iile,  the 
I  learned  author  has  discunsed  most  part  of  the  knotty 
I  questions  ronnccled  with  the  proper  organization  of 
these  estnhllahmeAls,  and  with  their  InHuenco  on  socie- 
ty, with  c(|ual  sagacity  and  ahility.  —  See  Hankrii' 
'  Mai;<izini;  New  York,  August,  IMMl,  p.  170;  August, 
im,  p.  V2i  (.Sir  !■'.  IIkaii),  Standard  l.lh.  Cy.  Lon- 
don, IHltf. 

Peaoh-tree  (.1  mijudulm  fiemini).     It  Is  not  certain 
In  w  hat  part  of  tlio  glohe  thu  peach-tree  was  originally 
priiduced ;  for  although  we  have  early  areounts  of  its 
I  lieing  lirought  to  Kurope  from  I'ersla,  it  docs  not  I'ullon 
rruin  thence  that  it  was  one  of  the  natural  productions 
uf  that  country.     I'liny  relates  that  it  had  heen  stated 
to  have  possessed  venomous  qualities,  and  that  its  fruit 
was  sent  into  Kg>  pt  hy  the  kings  of  I'ersla,  hy  way  of 
]  revenge,  tn  poison  the  natives;  hut  he  treats  this  story 
as  a  mere  fahlu,  and  considers  it  tha  most  harmless  fruit 
I  in  tho  world  ;  that  it  had  the  most  Juice,  and  the  least 
I  smell  of  any  friiil.  and  yet  caused  thirst  In  those  who 
;  ate  of  it.     lie  expressly  stales  that  it  was  imported  hy 
the  Itomans  from  i'ersia;  hut  whether  it  was  indige- 
nous to  that  country,  or  sent  thither  from  a  region  still 
nearer  to  the  equator,  wo  have  no  information,     lie 
adds  that  it  was  not  long  since  peaches  were  known  in 
Koine,  nml  that  thero  was  great  difliculty  In  rearing 
them.      lie  also  informs  us  that  this  tree  was  hroughl 
from  h'gypt  to  the  Isle  of  Uliodcs,  where  it  could  never 
he  made  to  iroduco  fruit;  and  from  thence  to  Italy, 
lie  says,  inureover,  that  it  was  not  a  common  fruit 
either  in  (ireece  or  Natolia.     No  mention,  however,  is 
made  of  it  hy  Cato.      I'ownall,  in  his  Rmnan  I'niv- 
inces,  makes  it  a  I'hoca'an  importation  to  Marseilles ; 
and  eviduntly  it  was  cultivated  in  France  at  an  early 
period,  as  Columella,  in  his  account  of  this  fruit,  says : 
*'  Tliosu  of  aniall  slr.o  to  ripen  make  great  haato ; 
Htieh  ns  prent  fJaiil  hnstowa,  olisers'es  due  timo 
And  seasun,  nut  tuu  early,  nor  too  late." 
Tho  peach  is  said  to  have  heen  tlrst  cultivated  in 
Dritain  ahout  tlie  middle  of  tho  Kith  century.     Gerard 
dcscrilics  several  varieties  of  it  as  growing  in  his  gar- 
den, in  1&97.    Tus.ser  mentions  it  in  his  list  of  fl'uits  in 
1577 ;  and  in  all  probahility  it  was  introduced  when 
the  Komans  had  possession  c.  that  country. 
Tho  peach  was  introduced  into  North  America  hy 


PKA 


1S06 


TKA 


iiillllim 
iuniit(<i- 
li  iirtl- 

lll'l    IX- 

il.Th.'il 
u^i*  llin 
1  h  imly 
il>'l»i«ll, 
in  at  Ihu 

imrtUil- 

null  tho 
in  rci'ip- 

,  ullMlllt- 

lila  coiiii- 

11  U,  on 

Till'  lim- 
it til  l>»  ft 
ulli«i»l»" 
1  lorvuiil" 
iidy  to  ii»- 
urticliii  to 
oim  to  K''l 
iiiiil  to  lin 
mrtnuf  tl'" 
liiK  I*  1011- 
i1u)11k1>  tli« 

fpviii  tlint, 
il(.|ili'i\,  "111' 
lii'r  Inforiu- 
■o»tliiR  "»''- 

la  Jli'uf'ii- 
.fsUli'"  «!>•- 
/«  I'itle,  till! 

tlie  knotty 
inl/utlon  of 
iRO  on  soclo- 
Wo  Hunkeri' 
70;  AutJii»'i 
lb.  Cy.  l.on- 

1»  not  certain 

Ins  orlK'ii'il'y 
■tuiinta  of  its 
icn  not  follow 
(ir«iluciioii« 
fl  l)C('n  stttti'd 
tliat  its  fruit 
ia^  l,y  way  of 
[nts  tills  story 
liirnili's'sfru" 
[anil  tlio  least 
ltd  thosi!  wlio 
,  iniiiortcil  I'V 
[l  was  inillni'- 
ft  region  still 
Iniation.     He 
loro  known  in 
Ity  in  rcurint; 
was  brouglil 
it  could  never 
jnco  to  Italy, 
tominon  fmit 
[i,  liowevor,  is 
l«i)m(i»  /''■»'- 
lo  Marseilles ; 
\e  at  an  early 
[is  fruit,  says : 
,t  haatc ; 
luo  tluio 

I  cultivated  in 
lury.  Gerard 
fm  in  liis  gar- 
list  of  fruits  in 
loduced  when 

Iry. 

Ii  America  by 


th«  (Irtt  Kill  ipran  p>i'itliir«,  prulinlily  Inward  th«  cIum 
•f  Ihu  null  ur  •■arly  In  lh«  ITlli  niilury,  HJnri-  It  U 
I'liUlvaliiil  III  oMriiilve  iilanlulliina,  nlili  li  ufii  ii  ^niw 
wllli  •mil  liixiirlani'u  as  to  naenililf  furi'Kla  uf  ntliir 
tnix.     Ill  New  .li'riHiy,  IVniiiiylMnU,  Diliimiri',  .Miirt- 
laiiil,  Virginia,  and  ■•'Vnriil  otlmr  Hialos,  iiiiiili  uiiiii- 
Hull  In  piilil  tu  lis  oiiltiiri',  and  tin'  I'riilt  ii  of  nil  kmi  I- 
Ivnt  i|imllty.      It  is  no  uiKoniiiiun  rirrniiiKlniirii  fur  ii 
(diilitiT  lo  iiiissena a |i«iki'li  onliiird  <'oii(uliilii|{  oiii'  iliim. 
suiid  or  iiiurii  of  staiiiliiril  trriii.     It  is  iiiily  In  llni  Mid- 
iIIm  Niali's  of  tl|n  l>ninn  wliiTii  iIiIh  fruit  urrlvi'n  iit  llio 
Kri'iiti'Dt  pirfiM'tlon.      In  fiivontlili'  liwimiiis,  it  iiiutiiri'S 
in  Ihu  npi'ii  air  as  far  norlli  ns  Muliii',  .Niw  llaiiipslilri', 
VlthidiiI,  and  llin  I'ulls  of  Nltl^urll;  but  lis  piilji  Ii  nut 
so dnlirluus ns  whin »rrimii  «iiiiu  di'Krws  I'uriiii'r  nuutli ; 
It  Is  also  trniiiod  iiKaiiist  walls  at  Moiitruiil  uinl  rormi. 
tu,  in  I'anada,  wlinri',  In  aonii!  seasons,  fruit  of  n  lliii' 
ipinllly  Is  olitnliiiid.     In  tliu  I'arolliias,  (li'orKia,  and 
I'liirida,  lliii  trui'4  inako  inmli  folluxn  and  wood  ;  slill, 
if  well  I'liliivaled  and  properly  priiinul,  Ihu  fruit  uriius 
to  a  hti'Ki'  sl/.e,  and  Is  Jnliy  and  uidl  llavnnd.     I)n  llic 
Mlsiltnippl,  purllcnlarly  in  Lniilnlaiia,  wliii  h  lies  In  thu 
same  liilltiido  as  that  part  of  Asia  wlinra  Oils  spi'iins  Ih 
indi^i'iiouH,  it  ^roHs  spontiineuunly,  liiil  1.4  iTKiirdi'd  m 
of  forid^n  orl|{ln,  huvln^  lienn  liitrodnccd  from  Spain 
licforo  that  rivof  was  oxploriid  liy  iho  French.      In  tlie 
viriiiity  of  lloslon,  Salem,  New  York,  I'liiladulplila, 
and  other  populous  cities  uf  tho  United  Hliites,  tho 
pcai  h  is  ri'iind  a;<uinsl  walls  iind  In   hnt-lioiisus  liy 
nuiiierous  opulent  citizens,  and  fruit  of  a  lar^e  ni/.o  und 
line  ipiulity  i.t  produceil.     In  sumo  ulher  parts  uf  the 
Ainerk'iin  lontliiunt  It  also  reailily  ^rows,  and  in  ureut 
aliuiidanie.      Sir  Francis  Head,  in   his  Jloii/K  -Vi/lm, 
speaks  ill  raptures  of  the  heauly  and  Inxuriaiieo  of  llil.i 
fruit,  which  was  scattered  over  the  corn-llelds  In  tho 
nuiKlihnrhooil  uf  Men>!o/.a,  on  tho  eifst  side  of  tho  An- 
des ;  and  thu  same  tiaveh^r  noticed  dried  pca>'lies  used 
us  an  article  of  fooil  on  thu  more  cdcvatcd  parts  of 
those  mountains,  to  which  they  must  have  iKon  car- 
ried from  111*  pi  liiis  !««,.  ",     On  thu  liaiikLi  of  Itio  do 
la  I'laitt,  fr'         l.jiitcvideo  to  lliiuiius  Ayres,  wo  have 
seen  peael       ,.  s  growing  spontaneously  in  the  grout- 
eat  perfi'i, I.  II,  and  111  sncli  aliuiidunco  as  tu fiiriii ii con- 
sldeni        )"  rtinn  of  thu  fuel  uf  the  provinces  in  wliicli 
they  ^.'iiw        riic  fruit  thoro  is  of  a  tiiia  ipiality,  large 
ipiii.iitics   of  which  are  annually  dried  fur  domestic 
u^>     and  l»ie  chief  jmrt  of  tho  riunainder  is  consuincd 
lit  vattUi,  or  is  Hulferoil  to  decay  upon  ilio  ground. 

Vh*  wood  of  tho  peach-tree  Is  hard,  compact,  of  a 
roseate  hue,  and  is  susceptildo  of  n  line  polish;  liut 
nniiig  to  lis  inferior  si/.o  und  comparativo  searcily,  ii 
is  hut  llttln  used  in  the  arts,  or  for  fuel,  except  in  coun- 
tries where  other  kinds  of  wood  uro  rare.  \Vlien  "h- 
taincd,  however,  of  suitable  dimensions,  it  muy  he  <?in- 
ploycd  fur  similar  purposes  as  that  of  llie  nliiMiid.  A 
color  may  also  bo  extracted  from  it  calli'd  rosf-pint. 
Its  leaves  yield,  liy  distillation,  n  V(datile  uil  nf  a  yel- 
low color,  containing  hydnicyaiiic  acid.  Its  bark.  Idus- 
soms,  and  kernels  of  tho  fruit,  nlxu  |)o.«sess  llif  name 
poisonous  property.  From  the  i|uanlily  of  giiui  and 
sugar  contained  in  tho  delicious  pulp,  tho  peach  is  iiii- 
Iritioiis,  and  is  employed  as  a  dessert,  both  fresh  and 
preserved.  From  tho  malic  acid  contained  in  its  juice, 
it  is  slightly  refrigerant,  and  if  eaten  in  moderate  quan- 
tities it  is  generally  considered  as  wliulesome;  but  if 
taken  too  freely  it  is  liable  to  disorder  tho  bowels. 
When  slowed  with  sugar,  it  may  ho  given  as  a  mild 
rclaxativo  to  convalescents.  'I'lic  kornols  may  lie  used 
for  tho  same  purpose  as  thoso  of  tho  hitler  almond. 
Tho  leaves  aro  somctinics  employed  liy  the  cook,  the 
lliiuorlst,  and  tho  confectioner,  for  llavoring,  and  they 
have  also  been  aubstitutod  for  I'hincso  tea;  but,  as 
fatal  consequences  have  aonietimes  followed  these  uses, 
they  should  he  looked  upon  with  precaution.  Tho 
preservation  of  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  apricots,  and 
other  kinds  of  fruit  in  sirup  occupies  a  prominent  rank 
in  the  industry  and  couimcrco  of  Franco  and  of  Ma- 
6C 


J'lrra,  anil  dniitillesa  cmhl  be  pn.lllaMy  carried  un  In 

lluue  parts  uf  Ihu  I'liiind  Slaten  when,  III fruits  ur« 

I'ulllvaK'd  III  abiindaiieii.  To  ihuan  wliii  are  dealruua 
uf  entering  Intii  the  luialiu'ia  on  an  exieiiaivo  aiale,  Wii 
Huiihl  reiuiiimeiid  the  .Viiiiernu  Miutml  ilit  l.imima- 
ilui;  ,lii  lllititir,  ilu  I 'liiiifliilir,  tl  dii  l'imfii,ui\  luir 
.MM.  I'ardelli,  LluiiiieMlemnndut,  et.lidla'ile  Funle- 
mile,  puiiilalied  at  I'uria  In  1h:IN;  ur,  wlial  uiiiild  li<> 
"llll  belter,  thu  eiiiployiiuiit  uf  an  ilitelllMeiit  i;  itjititr 
»liu  la  praelleally  ueipialnteit  with  all  ila  niaiilpulo- 
llulla — lIlliiWM'.'a  i'lVr*  nf  .\mrriiil. 

Peak,  a  nmiie  given  lo  the  upper  eurner  of  llioao 
aalls  nlileli  urn  exlembd  by  a  gall',  ur  by  ayard  which 
eruaaea  ihe  niuat  ulillqii.'ly,  ua  the  nilijien-vard  uf  • 
"hip,  the  malu-yurduf  abylaudir,  lie.  Thiiuppfr  ex- 
ireinlly  of  liieaii  yards  and  gull's  la  also  denuminuleil 
Ww  funk. 

P«ar-tra«  l  l';irin  CummunU).  The  euimiiun  peur- 
Iree  la  iiidlgeiiuiia  tu  Kiiriipe,  Weatcrn  A1.I11,  llie  lllma- 
biyus,  ami  lu  China;  but  nut  tu  Afri>u  imr  Aiiurlia. 
It  ia  I'umid  wild  In  iiiuat  uf  the  couiiliia  of  llrilulii,  as 
far  liiirth  na  l'url'ur«lilre  ;  un  the  luntiiieiit  uf  I'.urupe, 
fnuii  Sweden  lu  Ihe  .Mediterranean;  und  in  Aaia,  aa 
far  laat  ns  I  hlmiaiul  ■lupaii.  It  ia  ulwuya  I'uiind  un  a 
dry  sull,  und  mure  freqiii  iilly  un  plains  tliiin  un  liilla 
ur  muuiilaiiis;  and  nuliluiy,  or  in  small  groups,  rniher 
than  in  wuuds  und  furesta.  Ihu  varlellea  eulllvuU'd 
I'ur  llieir  fruit  succeed  bulli  in  the  leiiiperale  and 
traiialllun  /ones  uf  thu  inu  hemiapherea,  iind  It  has 
iieen  reinaiked  thul  this  tree,  aa  well  us  the  apple  and 
the  cherry,  will  grow  in  the  open  air  wherever  thu 
uak  will  tlirive. 

Thu  wood  uf  Iho  runiniun  penr-lrce  is  heavy,  klrung, 
compact,  of  n  line  griiiii.  niid  slightly  tilled  with  red. 
Ill  coininan  villi  that  uf  all  thu  Uuaaceie,  it  is  llublo  to 
have  its  iiuliirul  eidor  changed  by  sleeping  in  wulor, 
wlileh,  therefuru,  ought  lu  be  avoided  wlieii  iiiiendert 
fur  particular  imrp"  In  thu  arts.  When  green,  It 
weighs  marly  eigln  |iunnils  to  u  cubic  fuut,  and  from 
torty-nlno  lo  llfn-Uiree  pounda  when  dry.  AceurdlnK 
tu  l)u  llaniel,  it  is,  next  tu  the  true  servlee  (I'yrut 
iitrliiia),  tlie  best  «  uuci  that  can  be  einpluM'd  in  wuud- 
engraving,  fur  wliieli  |>iirpuae,  huwevcr,  it  is  I'ur  In- 
ft  riur  lo  IhMt  ..!'  ihe  box.  Vet  it  is  alluwi'l  tu  bo  very 
hard  and  h>'Uiugencuiia,  easy  lu  eul,  und,  ^^  Iji'ii  perfect- 
ly dry,  is  nut  liuble  either  lu  cruek  ur  warp.  Fur  Iho 
coaraer  kinds  of  engraving,  such  as  lurgo  plans  ur  dia- 
j  grams,  Siiuw-bills.  eic.,  it  serves  a  Tory  guod  jiurpuso. 
I  When  it  can  be  ublained,  in  iUirupe,  it  is  much  used 
by  turners  umI  patteni-inakers;  also  furjuiiier.a'  tuols; 
and,  us  it  < .  n  iiudily  lie  .sluincd,  it  is  sometiines  made 
into  variiiiii  urn.  Ie.«.  dyed  black,  in  imilalhin  of  ebony. 
i  As  fuel,  till  wood  of  I  his  tree  is  excellent,  producing 
n  vi\  id  and  durulilo  llame,  accompanied  by  an  inlcnse 

i>  According  to  Wilheriiig,  the  leaves  afl'ord  a 
.  .lUiW  dye,  and  may  be  employed  to  Impurt  u  greeiii.^h 
-liado  to  bliiu  clnlhs.  Hut  thu  must  impurtant  uses  uf 
I  11  pear-tree  nre  thoso  which  arise  from  its  fruit. 
^  hen  ripe,  it  is  einpluyed  at  the  tablu  us  a  ilesscrl, 
■.  ilier  raw,  slewed,  ur  preserved  in  sirup,  and  occa- 
.sionally  it  is  used  in  tarts.  In  most  of  the  cuunlries 
where  it  grows  this  fruit  is  very  generally  dried  in 
ovens,  or  in  Iho  sun,  in  which  statu,  when  stewed,  it  is 
e.xcellcnl,  either  as  a  subslitute  for  puddings  and  plea, 
or  as  forming  part  uf  the  dessert. 

Another  ]iurpose  to  which  Ihe  pear  is  applied  is  for 
making  perry.  It  is  extensively  cullivated  for  thia 
ubjeet  in  various  parts  of  llrltain,  France,  und  (ler- 
innnv,  where  Ihe  trees  are  sum'  times  planted  in  rows 
eighteen  or  twenty  yards  upiiii,  in  order  to  admit  a 
free  access  of  light  and  air.  I'erry  is  made  In  tho  same 
inuniicr  as  cider.  The  pears  should  be  gathered  before 
they  begin  to  full,  and  should  bo  ground  as  soon  after 
as  possible.  Should  the  perry  not  bo  sufficiently  clear, 
when  racked  oil',  it  may  be  (incd  in  tho  usual  manner 
of  clarifying  elder,  by  isinglasa,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  half  an  ounce  tu  a  barrel.    The  kinds  of  pears 


PEA 


1606 


PEA 


mod  for  making  this  liquor  in  Hcrefordahire  arc  such 
at  have  an  austere  juice,  as  the  "  Squash,"  the  "  Old- 
fleld,"  the  "  Uarland,"  the  "  Huff-cap,"  the  "  Sack,"  the 
"  Red,"  and  the  "  Longland"  varieties.  Pears  were 
considered  hy  the  Koinans  as  an  antidote  to  the  effect 
of  eating  poisonous  mushrooms ;  and  up  to  the  present 
time  perry  is  said  to  be  the  best  remedy  that  can  be 
employed  for  the  same  purpose.  In  Britain  and  Franco 
an  agreeable  wine  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  crab- 
apples  and  pears,  which  in  the  latter  country  is  called 
piquette.  Pears,  in  general,  produce  llatulency,  and 
consequently  are  unfit  for  weak  stomachs ;  but  when 
they  are  quite  ripe,  and  contain  a  sweet  juice,  they 
seldom  prove  noxious,  unless  eaten  to  excess.  Pears 
that  are  to  be  kept  for  winter  use  should  bang  as  long 
on  the  trees  as  the  state  of  the  weather  will  admit. 
They  should  then  be  kept  in  heaps,  in  an  open,  dry 
situation,  for  about  ten  days,  then  wiped  with  a  dry 
woolen  cloth,  and,  lastly,  packed  up  close  from  the  air 
and  moisture.  But  to  keep  the  fruit  in  its  greatest 
perfection,  small  earthen  jars  may  be  selected  about 
the  sir,e  of  the  pear,  which  should  be  packed  separate- 
ly, in  clean  oat  chaff  or  whcaten  bran,  then  tied  down 
with  oiled  paper  or  skin,  and  cemented  tight  with  wax 
or  pitch.  These  jars  should  then  be  packed  in  a  cask, 
chest,  or  Homo  other  secure  place,  with  their  bottoms 
upward,  where  they  should  remain  until  required  for 
use. — Bkowne's  Tvei  of  A  merica. 

Fearl-aah.    See  Potash. 

Pearls  (l>u.  I'aarlen;  Fr.  Perlet;  Ger.  Perlen;  It. 
Perle;  Lai.  JIargwitte ;  Huaa,  Shemplsc/mg,  PerlU ;  Sp. 
I'erlas;  Arab.  Looloo;  Cyng.  Mootoo;  Hind.  Moolie), 
are  well-known  globular  concretions  found  in  several 
species  of  shell-tish,  but  particularly  the  mother-of-pearl 
oyster  (ConcAo  margaritijera,  Linn.).  Pearls  should  be 
chosen  round,  of  a  bright,  translucent,  silvery  white- 
ness, free  from  stains  and  roughness.  Having  these 
qualities,  the  largest  arc  of  course  tho  most  valuable. 
The  larger  ones  have  frequently  the  shape  of  a  pear ; 
and  when  these  are  otherwise  perfect,  they  are  in  great 
demand  for  ear-rings.  Ceylon  pearls  are  most  esteem- 
ed in  Kngland.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  em- 
barrassed both  ancient  and  modern  naturalists  to  ex- 
])lain,  and  has  given  occasion  to  a  number  of  vain  and 
absurd  hypotheses.  SI.  licaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that 
pearls  are  formed  like  other  stones  in  animals.  An  an- 
cient pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at  i£80,000  sterling. 
One  which  was  brought,  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.,  of  the 
size  of  a  pigeon's  cgg,4ras  valued  at  14,400  ducats,  equal 
to  £13,'J9t).  A  pearl  spoken  of  by  Boetius,  named  the 
Incomparable,  weighed  thirty  corats,  equal  to  five  pen- 
nyweights, and  was  about  the  size  of  a  nmscadine  pear. 
The  pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier  as  being  in  posses- 
sion of  the  P^niperor  of  Persia  was  purchased  of  an  Arab 
in  1G38,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal  to  £110,400. — 
IIayd.n. 

Value  of  Pearlt.—Veaila  were  in  tho  highest  possi- 
ble estimation  in  ancient  Home,  and  bora  an  enormous 
price.  J'rincipiiim  culinenqiie  omnium  rerumprelii,  mar- 
garita;  lenent.—l'i.iSY,  Hist.  \al.  Their  price  in  mod- 
ern tiniBs  has  very  much  declined ;  partly,  no  doubt, 
from  changes  of  manners  and  fashions,  but  more  prob- 
ably from  the  admirable  imitations  of  pearls  that  may 
lie  obtained  at  x  very  low  price.  According  to  Mr. 
Milburn,  n  haiu.  uie  necklace  of  Ceylon  pearls,  small- 
er than  a  large  pea,  costs  from  ill70  to  £300;  l)ut  one 
of  pearls  about  the  size  of  peppercorns  may  be  had  for 
X16.  The  pearls  in  the  former  sell  at  a  guinea  each, 
and  those  in  the  latter  at  about  U.  6J.  When  the 
pearls  dwindle  to  tho  size  of  small  shot,  they  are  de- 
nominated seed  pearls,  and  arc  of  little  value.  They 
are  mostly  sent  to  China.  One  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble pearls  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  account  was 
bought  by  Tavernier  at  C'atifa,  in  Arabia,  a  lishery  fa- 
mous in  tho  days  of  Pliny,  fur  tho  enormous  sum  of 
£110,000!  It  is  pear-shaped,  regular,  and  without 
blemish.     The  diameter  is  -63  inch  at  the  largest  part, 


and  the  length  from  two  to  three  inches.  Much  dif- 
ference of  opinion  has  existed  among  naturalists  with 
respect  to  the  production  of  pearls  in  the  oyster;  but 
it  seems  now  to  Ihs  generally  believed  that  it  is  the  re- 
sult of  disease,  and  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as 
bezoar  (tee  Bkzoak),  pearls,  like  it,  consisting  of  suc- 
cessive coats  spread  with  perfect  regularity  round  a 
foreigi)  nucleus.  In  fact,  the  Chinese  throw  into  a  spe- 
cies of  shcll-flsh  {tnytilus  cygneut,  or  swan  muscle),  when 
it  opens,  five  or  six  very  minute  mother-of-pearl  beads 
strung  on  a  thread ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  they 
are  found  covered  with  a  pearly  crust,  which  perfectly 
resembles  the  real  pearl.— Mii.nuRK'a  Oritnlal  Com- 
merce i  Ainslie'.s  Materia  Iiidlca. 

Pearl  Pisherits. — The  pearl  oyster  is  fished  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  |>articularly  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ceylon;  at  Tuticorcen,  in  the  province  of  Tinnevelloy, 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel ;  at  the  Bahrein  Islands, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Persia;  at  the  Sooloo  Islands;  off  the 
coast  of  Algiers ;  off  St.  Margarita,  or  Pearl  Islands, 
in  tho  West  Indies,  and  other  places  on  the  coast  of 
Colombia ;  and  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  in  the  South 
Sea.  Pearls  have  sometimes  been  found  on  the  Scotch 
coast,  and  in  various  other  places.  The  pearl  fishery 
of  Tuticoreen  is  monopolized  by  the  Eatt  India  Com- 
pany, and  that  of  Ceylon  by  government.  But  these 
monopolies  are  of  no  value ;  as  in  neither  case  does  the 
sum  for  which  the  fishery  is  let  equal  tho  expenses  in- 
curred in  guarding,  surveying,  and  managing  the 
banks.  It  is,  therefore,  sufficiently  obvious  that  this 
system  ought  to  be  abolished,  and  every  one  allowed 
to  fish  on  paying  a  moderate  license  duty.  The  fear 
of  exhausting  the  banks  is  quite  ludicrous.  The  fish- 
ery would  be  abandoned  as  unprofitable  long  before  the 
breed  of  oysters  had  been  injuriously  diminished ;  and 
in  a  few  years  it  would  bo  as  productive  as  ever.  Be- 
sides giving  fresh  life  to  the  fishery,  the  abolition  of  the 
monopoly  would  put  an  end  to  some  very  oppressive 
regulations  enacted  by  the  Dutch  more  than  a  century 
ago. 

Persia/i  OiJf. — The  most  extensive  pearl  fisheries 
are  those  on  the  several  banks  not  far  distant  from  the 
island  of  Bahrein,  on  the  Avest  side  of  the  Persian 
(iulf,  in  lat.  26°  60'  N.,  long.  61°  10'  E.;  but  pearl 
oysters  are  found  along  the  whole  of  the  Arabian 
coast,  and  round  almost  all  the  islands  of  the  Gulf. 
Such  as  are  fished  in  the  sea  near  the  islands  of  Kar- 
rak  and  Corgo  contain  pearls  said  to  be  of  a  superior 
color  and  description.  They  are  formed  of  eight  lay- 
ers or  folds,  while  others  have  only  five,  but  the  water 
is  too  deep  to  raako  fishing  for  them  either  very  profit- 
able or  easy.  Besides,  the  entire  monopoly  of  the 
fishery  is  in  tho  hands  of  the  Sheik  of  Bushire,  who 
seems  to  consider  these  islands  as  his  immediate  prop- 
erty, "  Tho  fishing  season  is  divided  into  two  portions 
— the  one  culled  tho  short  and  cold,  the  other  the  lung 
and  hot.  In  the  cooler  weather  of  the  month  of  June, 
diving  is  practiced  along  the  coast  in  shallow  water; 
but  it  is  not  until  the  intensely  hot  months  of  July, 
August,  and  September,  that  the  Bahrein  banks  are 
much  frequented.  The  water  on  them  is  about  seven 
fathoms  deep,  and  the  divers  are  much  inconvenienced 
when  it  is  old;  indeed,  they  con  do  little  when  it  is 
not  as  warm  as  the  air,  and  it  frequently  becomes  even 
more  so  in  the  hottest  months  of  the  summer.  When 
they  dive,  they  compress  the  nostrils  tightly  with  a 
small  piece  of  horn,  which  keeps  the  water  out,  and 
stuff  their  cars  with  beeswax  for  the  same  purpose. 
They  attach  a  net  to  their  waists,  to  contain  the  oys- 
ters ;  and  aid  thoir  descent  by  means  of  a  stone,  w  hich 
they  bold  by  a  rope  attached  to  a  boat,  and  shake  it 
when  they  wish  to  be  dra.vn  up.  From  what  I  could 
learn,  two  minutes  may  be  considered  as  rather  above 
the  average  time  of  their  remaining  under  water.  Al- 
though severe  labor,  and  very  exhausting  at  the  time, 
diving  is  not  considered  particularly  injurious  to  the 
constitution;  even  old  men  practice  it.    A  person 


PEA 


1507 


PEA 


uch  tlif- 
its  with 
ler;  but 
9  the  re- 
jmcr  M 
g  of  sue- 
round  a 
to  a  spe- 
le),wheu 
arl  beads 
/ear  they 
perfectly 
nt(U  Cum- 
in various 
t  coast  of 
nnevelley, 
n  Islands, 
Is;  off  the 
tI  Islands, 
le  coast  of 

the  South 
,  the  Scotch 
carl  fishery 
India  Corn- 
But  these 
ase  docs  the 
Expenses  in- 
waging  the 
ous  that  this 

one  allowed 
y.     The  fear 
8.     The  lish- 
ing  before  the 
linished;  and 
as  ever.     Bc- 
holition  of  the 
•ry  oppressive 
ihan  a  century 


usually  dives  from  twelve  to  fifteen  times  a  day  in 
favorablo  weather;  but  when  otherwise,  three  or  four 
times  only.  The  work  is  performed  on  an  empty 
stomach.  When  the  diver  becomes  fatigued,  he  goes 
to  sleep,  and  does  not  eat  until  he  has  slept  some  time. 
At  Bahrein  alone  the  annual  amount  produced  b}-  the 
pearl  fishery  may  be  reckoned  at  from  £200,000  to 
£240,000.  If  to  this  the  purchases  made  by  the  Bah-  i 
rein  merchants  or  agents  at  Aboottabeo  Sbarga,  Ras-ul  | 
Khymack,  etc.,  be  added,  which  may  amount  to  half 
as  much  more,  there  will  be  a  total  of  about  £300,000 
or  £360,000;  but  this  is  calculated  to  include  the  whole 
pearl  trade  of  the  Gulf;  for  it  is  believed  that  all  the 
principal  merchants  of  India,  Arabia,  and  Persia  who 
deal  in  pearls  make  their  purchases,  through  agents, 
at  Bahrein,  I  have  not  admitted  in  the  above  esti- 
mate much  more  than  one-sixth  of  tho  amount  some 
native  merchants  have  stated  it  to  be,  as  a  good  deal 
seemed  to  be  matter  of  guess  or  opinion,  and  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  get  at  facts.  My  own  estimate  is  in  some 
measure  checked  by  the  estimated  profits  of  the  small 
boats.  But  even  the  sum  which  I  have  estimated  is 
an  enormous  annual  value  for  an  article  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  as  well  as  here,  and  which  is  never 
used  in  its  best  and  most  valuable  state  except  as  an 
ornament.  Large  quantities  of  the  seed  pearls  are 
used  throughout  Asia  in  the  composition  of  m^ooiis, 
or  electuaries,  to  form  which  all  kinds  of  preciuns 
stones  are  occasionally  mixed,  after  being  pounded, 
excepting,  indeed,  diamonds ;  these  being  considered, 
from  their  hardness,  as  utterly  indigestible.  The  ma- 
joon  in  which  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  pearls,  is 
much  sought  for  and  valued,  on  account  of  its  supposed 
stimulating  and  restorative  qnalitics.  The  Bahrein 
pearl  fisliery  boats  are  reckoned  to  amount  to  about 
1500,  and  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  merchants,  some 
of  whom  possess  considerable  capital.  They  bear  hard 
on  the  producers  or  fishers,  and  even  those  who  make 
the  greatest  exertions  in  diving,  hardly  have  food  to 
eat.  The  merchant  advances  some  money  to  the  fish- 
ermen at  cent,  per  cent.,  and  a  portion  of  dates,  rice, 
and  other  necessary  articles,  all  at  the  supplier's  own 
price ;  he  also  lets  a  boat  to  them,  for  which  he  gets 
one  share  of  the  gross  profits  of  all  that  is  fished ;  and, 
finally,  ho  purchases  the  pearls  nearly  at  his  own 
price,  for  the  unhappy  fisherii:  n  are  generally  in  his 
debt,  and  therefore  at  his  mercy." — yfamucript  Notes 
(ommunicat<:d  by  Major  \). VI  ihioti,  late  political  Residtnt 
at  hushire. 

Tho  fishery  at  Algiers  was  farmed  by  an  Knglish 
association  in  1S2G,  but  we  are  ignorant  of  their  suc- 
cess. The  pearl  fisheries  on  tlie  coast  of  Colombia 
were  at  one  time  of  very  great  valne.  In  1587  up- 
ward of  697  lbs.  of  pearls  are  said  to  have  been  im- 
ported into  Seville.  Philip  II.  had  one  from  St.  Mar- 
garita which  weighed  250  carats,  and  was  valued  at 
150,000  dollars.  But  for  many  years  past  the  Colom- 
bian pearl  fisheries  have  been  of  comparatively  little 
importance.  During  the  mania  for  joint-stock  com- 
panies, in  1825,  two  were  formed ;  one,  on  a  large 
scale,  for  prosecuting  the  pearl  fishery  on  tho  coast  of 
Colombia ;  and  another,  on  a  smaller  scale,  for  prose- 
cuting it  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  and  the  Pacific.  Both 
were  abandoiiod  in  1826,  The  best  fishery  ground  is 
said  to  be  in  from  six  to  eight  fathoms  water.  The 
divers  continue  under  water  from  a  minute  to  a  minute 
and  a  half,  or  at  most  two  minutes.  They  have  a 
sack  or  bag  fastened  to  the  neck,  in  -.vhicli  they  bring 
up  tho  oysters.  Tho  exertion  is  extremely  violent; 
and  tho  divers  are  unhealthy  and  short-lived. — For 
•■urther  information,  see  Hukt's  Merchants'  Magazine, 
xviii.  565. 

Pe.aH  shells,  commonly  called  Mother-nf-pearl  shells, 
are  imported  from  various  parts  of  tho  Kast,  and  con- 
fist  principally  of  the  shells  of  the  pearl  oyster  from 
tho  Gulf  of  Persia  and  other  places,  particularly  the 
Sooloo  Islands,  situate  between  Borneo  and  tho  Philip- 


pines the  shores  of  which  afford  tho  largest  and  finest 
shells  hitherto  discovered.  On  the  inside  the  shell  it 
beautifully  polished,  and  of  the  whiteness  and  water 
of  pearl  itself:  it  hos  the  same  lustre  on  tho  outside, 
after  the  external  laminm  have  been  removed,  ifoth- 
er-of-pearl  shells  are  extensively  used  In  tho  arts, 
particularly  in  inlaid  work,  and  in  tho  manufacture 
of  handles  for  knives,  buttons,  toys,  snuft'-lwxcs,  etc. 
The  Chinese  manufacture  them  Into  beads,  (lih,  count- 
ers, spoons,  etc. ;  giving  them  a  finish  to  which  Kuro- 
pean  artists  have  not  been  aide  to  attain.  Shells  for 
tho  European  market  should  bo  chosen  of  tho  largest 
size,  of  a  beautiful  pearly  lustre,  thick  and  even,  and 
free  from  stains.  Ueject  such  aa  are  small,  cracked  or 
broken,  or  have  lumps  on  them.  When  stowed  loose 
as  dunnage,  they  are  sometimes  allowed  to  pass  free 
of  freight.— Mii.Hi'nN's  Orie  \tal  Commerce.  Tlio  Im- 
ports during  the  three  years  ending  with  1HI2  amount- 
ed, at  an  average,  to  about  950,000  11)9.  a  year. 

A  rlijicial  Pearls. — These  are  small  globules  or  pear- 
shaped  spheroids  of  thin  glass,  perforated  with  two 
opposite  holes,  through  which  they  are  strung,  and 
mounted  into  necklaces,  etc.,  like  real  pearl  ornaments. 
i  They  must  not  only  be  white  and  lirilliant,  but  exhibit 
the  iridoscentreflectionsof  mother-of-pearl.  Tho  liquor 
employed  to  imitate  tho  pearly  lustre  is  called  the 
essence  of  the  A'(m(  (essence  d'  Orient),  which  is  prepared 
I  by  throwing  into  water  of  ammonia  tho  brilliant 
scales,  or  rather  tho  lamella,  separated  by  •.Vttoinng  and 
friction,  of  the  scales  of  a  small  river  fish,  the  blay, 
called  in  French  ablette.     These  scales  digested  in  am- 
monia, having  acquired  a  degree  of  softness  and  flexi- 
bility which  allow  of  their  application  to  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  glass  glol)ulc9,  they  are  introduced  by 
suction  of  tlic  liquor  containing  them  in  suspension. 
The  ammonia  is  volatilized  in  the  act  of  drying  tho 
globules.     It  is  said  that  some  manufacturers  employ 
ammonia  merely  to  prevent  the  alteration  of  tho  scales ; 
I  that  when  they  wish  to  mako  use  of  them,  they  sus- 
1  pend  them  in  a  well-clariHed  solution  of  isinglass,  then 
I  pour  a  drop  of  the  mixture  into  each  bead,  and  s|)read 
it  round  the  inner  surface.     It  is  doubtful  whether,  by 
this  method,  tho  same  lustre  and  play  of  colors  can  be 
obtained  as  by  the  former.     It  sconis,  moreover,  to  be 
j  of  importance  for  the  success  of  the  iinilation,  that  the 
i  globules  be  formed  of  a  Muish,  opalescent,  very  thin 
!  glass,  containing  but  little  potash  and  oxyd  of  lead. 
j  In  every  man'ifactory  of  artificial  pearls  there  must  Iw 
I  some  workmen  possessed  of  great  experience  and  dox- 
:  tcrity.     The  French  are  su|)posed  to  excel  In  this  in- 
genious branch  of  industry.   Fatso  pearls  were  invented 
j  in  the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medlcis,  by  a  person  of  the 
i  name  of  Jaquin.     They  are  made  of  small  globules  of 
;  glass,  blown  by  the  ordinary  lamp.     Tlio  pearly  lustre 
i  is  communicated  by  introducing  by  means  of  a  Uow- 
I  pipe  a  small  quantity  of  nacreous  substances  obtained 
!  from  the  surface  of  tlio  scale  of  a  small  fish  very  coni- 
i  nion  in  the  Seine  and  tho  Khine,  and  also  in  tho  Thames, 
'  Tills  substance  preserved  with  sal  ammoniac  in  a  liquid 
i  state  is  coinmonly  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Oriental 
essence."    After  having  covered  the  inside  of  the  pearl 
with  this  liquid,  a  coating  of  wax  is  added,  which  is 
colored  to  the  required  shade.     The  manufacture  of 
pearls  is  principally  carried  on  in  the  department  of 
I  the  Seine  in  France.     Tlicro  aro  also  manufactories  in 
i  Gorniaiiy  and  Italy,  but  to  a  small  extent.     In  Ger- 
I  many,  or  rather  Saxony,  a  cheap  but  inferior  quality 
is  manufactured.     The  globe  of  glass  forming  tho  pearl 
j  in  inferior  ones  being  very  thin,  and  coated  witli  wax, 
I  they  break  on  the  slightest  pressure.     They  arc  known 
j  liy  the  name  of  German  fish  jiearls.     Italy  also  inonu- 
fiicturcs  pearls  by  a  method  borrowed  from  the  Chinese ; 
they  are  known  under  the  name  of  Roman  pearls,  and 
a  very  good  imitation  of  natural  ones  i  they  have  on 
j  their  outside  a  coating  of  the  nacreous  liquid.    The 
Chinese  pearls  aro  made  of  a  kind  of  gum,  and  aro 
i  covered  likewise  with  tho  same  liquid.     In  tlio  year 


PEA 


1508 


PEA 


1H94  n  Froiioli  nrtlaan  dincovered  nn  opaline  glass  of  a 
nncrooiia  or  pearly  lolor,  very  Iicovy  and  fusible,  wliicli 
gave  to  the  lMta<U  the  lUlfcrent  weights  and  varied  forms 
fuiitiil  ninon^  real  pearls :  gum  instead  of  -wax  is  now 
llHod  In  111!  them,  by  which  they  attain  a  high  degree 
of  transparency,  and  the  glassy  appearanco  has  been 
lately  olivlaled  by  the  use  of  the  vapor  of  hydro-fluoric 
ncld.  Tills  acts  in  such  a  manner  as  to  deaden  the  sur- 
face, and  rumuvo  its  otherwise  glaring  look. — Uue's 
JMiiiowir!/. 

Paaa  ((.lor.  AcA«!»;  Fr.  PoU;  It.  Piaelli,  Bm;  Sp. 
/'emilif,  (lu'uimtes ;  Ituss.  Uorovh).  The  pea  is  one  of 
th«  most  esteemed  of  the  leguminous  or  pulse  plants. 
There  are  many  vuriclivs ;  but  the  common  garden  pea 
(I'lMim  Mti'iim),  and  the  conmion  gray  or  Held  pea 
Q'ifiim  amiup),  ore  the  most  generally  cultivated; 
bolng  reared  in  large  quantities  in  all  parts  of  the 
oountry.  lint  since  the  introduction  of  the  drill  hus- 
hnnilry,  the  culturo  of  the  pea  as  a  lield-crop  has  been 
to  a  uonsidcrablo  extent  superseded  by  the  bean.  Some- 
times, however.  It  is  drilled  along  with  the  latter ;  for, 
lieliix  A  climbing  plant,  it  attaches  itself  to  the  bean, 
so  ns  to  admit  the  ground  being  hoed,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  free  admission  of  air  about  its  roots  promotes 
Its  growth.  It  is  not  possible  to  frame  any  estimate 
of  the  consumption  of  peas.  The  field  pea  is  now  hard- 
ly over  manufactured  into  meal  for  the  purpose  of  be- 
ing made  into  bread,  as  was  formerly  the  case  in  many 
parts  of  the  country ;  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that 
thu  garden  pea  Is  now  more  extensively  used  than  ever. 
— I.iiwiion'h  Jiiicyclopedia  of  AgricuL'nre ;  Bkown  on 
liitml  Affairt. 

Various  kinds  of  pulse,  from  the  facility  with  which 
tlicy  arc  produced  in  a'most  every  country  of  the  globe, 
and  tile  highly  nutritive  properties  which  they  usnally 
possess,  Imvo  been  a  favorite  food  for  man  and  animals 
among  all  nations,  and  in  every  ago  of  the  world. 
Tims  we  llnd  that  the  Athenians  employed  sodden 
beans  in  their  feasts  dedicated  to  Apollo,  and  that  the 
Itonians  presented  them  as  an  oblation  in  their  solemn 
sa(!rillco  called  Fubaria.  Pliny  informs  us  that  they 
oft'nrod  liean-meal  cakes  to  certain  gods  and  goddesses 
III  these  ancient  rites  and  ceremonies;  and  Lempriere 
states  that  bacon  was  added  to  beans  in  the  otTerings 
to  ( 'ama,  not  so  much  to  gratify  the  ]>alate  of  that  god- 
dess us  to  represent  the  simplicity  of  their  ancestors. 
The  hoan  cumo  originally  from  the  Kast,  and  was  culti- 
vated In  Kgypt  and  Barbary  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
which  wo  liavo  any  records.  It  was  brought  into 
8paln  and  Portugal  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, whence  some  of  the  best  varieties  were  introduced 
Into  other  parts  of  Kurope,  and  finally  into  the  United 
Ntalcs,  The  lirst  beans  introduced  from  Europe  into 
(he  Itrltlsh  North  American  colonics  were  by  Captain 
(iiisnnid,  In  lliO'2,  who  planted  them  on  tho  Elizabeth 
Island*,  near  (ho  coast  of  Massachusetts,  where  they 
flourished  well,  Tiioy  were  also  cultivated  in  New- 
foundland as  oarly  as  WH;  in  New  Netherlands  in 
nil  I  i  and  In  Virginia  prior  to  1048.  French,  Indian, 
or  kidney  beans  wero  extensively  cultivated  by  the 
Indians  of  New  York  and  New  England  long  before 
their  settlement  by  the  whiles ;  and  both  beans  and 
peas  (ralavances),  of  various  hues,  wero  cultivated  by 
tho  natives  of  Virginia  prior  to  tho  first  landing  of 
Captain  John  .Smith.  Among  these  were  embraced 
the  celebrated  cow-pea  (_I'ha»eolus),  or  Indian  pea,  ct 
pmsent  so  extensively  cultivated  at  the  South  for  feed- 
ing stock,  as  well  as  for  the  purposes  of  making  into  fod- 
iler,  and  for  plowing  under,  like  clover,  as  a  fallow  crop. 

Thn  varli'tica  of  benna  nt  present  cultivated  in  the 
Ifnlted  Niates,  as  field  and  garden  crops,  are  too  nu- 
iiinroun  to  admit  of  repetition  in  this  report.  For  field 
culturo,  the  common  small  white,  the  rcd-cyed  China, 
llio  turtlu-suup,  the  Slohawk,  and  the  refugee  are  pre- 
furred ;  for  garden  culture,  tho  Mohawk,  the  early 
•lx<WMks,  the  oarly  Valentine,  tho  yellow  six- 
wmkt,  tht  black  Valentine,  the  ru}.  1  whits  kidney, 


the  Carolina,  or  Sewee,  the  cranberry,  tho  London  lior- 
ticultural,  and  the  Dutch  case-knife.  The  yield  usu- 
ally varies  from  thirty  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  weigh- 
ing sixty-three  pounds  to  the  bushel.  The  common 
pea  is  supposed  to  have  been  indigenous  to  the  South 
of  Europe,  and  was  cultivated  both  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Its  intiuJuction  into  the  British  North 
American  colonics  probably  dates  back  to  the  early 
periods  of  their  settlement  by  Europeans,  as  it  is  enu- 
merated in  several  instances  among  the  cultivated 
products  of  this  country  by  our  early  historians.  I'he 
cultivation  of  the  pea  as  a  field  crop  is  principally 
confined  to  tho  Middle,  Eastern,  and  NVestern  States, 
the  varieties  of  which  are  distinguished  as  the  early 
and  the  late  ripening.  The  early  varieties  are  gener- 
ally small  and  dark-colored,  among  which  the  gray 
and  grass  are  the  most  common.  The  yield  varies 
from  twenty-five  to  forty  bushels  per  acre,  weighing 
sixty-four  pounds  to  the  bushel.  The  marrow-fats  are 
among  tho  richest  of  the  field  peas,  which  are  much 
preferred  for  good  lands.  The  small  yellow  are  thought 
to  be  best  for  poorer  soils.  A  very  prolific  "  bush  pea" 
is  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  bearing  pods  six 
or  seven  inches  in  length,  which  hang  in  clusters,  and 
are  filled  with  fine  white  peas,  much  esteemed  for  the 
table,  either  green  or  dry.  The  amount  of  peas  ex- 
ported from  Savannah  in  1755  was  400  bushels;  in 
1770,  CUl  bushels;  from  Charleston,  in  17&4,  9162 
bushels ;  from  North  Carolina,  in  17fiS,  10,000  bushels ; 
annually  from  Virginia,  boforo  the  Revolution,  fiOOO 
bushels;  annually  from  tho  United  States,  twenty 
years  preceding  1817,  90,000  bushels.  The  amount  of 
beans  annually  exported  during  the  last-named  period, 
from  30,000  to  40,000  bushels.— /"n^cn^  Office  Htpvrt. 

Peat,  a  well-known  inflannnable  substance,  em- 
ployed in  many  parts  of  the  world  as  fuel.  There  arc 
two  species  of  peat.  The  first  is  a  yellowish  brown  or 
black  peat,  found  in  moorish  grounds  in  Scotland,  Hol- 
land, and  Germany.  When  fresh,  it  is  of  a  viscid  con- 
sistence, but  hardens  by  exposure  to  tho  air.  V,  con- 
sists, according  to  Kirwan,  of  clay  mixed  with  calca- 
reous earth  and  pyrites ;  sometimes,  also,  it  contains 
common  salt.  VVliile  soft,  it  is  fonued  into  oblong 
pieces  for  fuel,  after  tho  pyrttaceous  and  stony  matters 
arc  separated  from  it.  By  distillation,  it  yields  water, 
acid,  oil,  and  volatile  alkali,  tlie  ashes  containing  a 
small  proportion  of  fixed  alkali,  and  being  either  white 
or  red,  according  to  the  proportion  of  pyrites  contained 
in  tho  substance.  The  oil  which  is  obtained  from  peat 
has  a  very  pungent  taste,  and  an  cmpyreumatic  smell, 
less  fetid  than  that  of  animal  substances,  but  more  so 
than  that  of  mineral  bitumens.  1 1  congeals  in  the  cold 
into  a  pitchy  mass,  which  liquefies  in  a  small  heat ;  it 
readily  catches  fire  from  a  candle,  but  burns  less  vehe- 
mently than  other  oils,  and  immediately  goes  out  upon 
removing  the  external  flame;  and  In  rectified  spirit 
of  wine  it  dissolves  almost  totally  into  a  dark,  brown- 
ish red  liquor.  The  second  species  is  found  near  New- 
bury, in  Berkshire.  In  the  Philosophical  Transaclions 
for  till  year  1757,  we  havo  an  account  of  this  species, 
tho  substance  of  which  is  as  follows  :  Teat  is  a  compo- 
sition of  the  branches,  twigs,  leaves,  and  roots  of  trees, 
with  gras;«,  i>traw,  plants,  and  weeds,  which  having  lain 
long  in  water,  is  formed  into  a  mass  soft  enough  to  bo 
cut  through  with  a  sharp  spade.  Tho  color  is  a  black- 
ish bron  n,  and  it  is  used  in  many  places  for  fuel.  Thero 
is  a  stratum  of  this  peat  on  each  side  of  tho  Kcnnet, 
near  Newbury,  in  Berks,  which  is  from  about  a  quar- 
ter to  half  a  mile  in  width,  and  many  miles  in  length. 
The  depth  below  tho  surface  of  tho  ground  is  from  one 
foot  to  eight.  Great  numbers  of  entire  trees  aro  found 
lying  irregularly  in  the  true  peat.  These  are  chiefly 
oaks,  alders,  willows,  and  firs,  and  appear  to  have  been 
torn  up  by  the  xoots;  many  horses'  heads,  and  bones 
of  several  kinds  of  deer,  the  horns  of  tho  antelope,  the 
heads  and  tusks  of  Iwars,  and  the  heads  of  beuvera,  or* 
oUo  found  imbedded  in  it. 


■^T 


,7^.  ;y,... 


PEG 


1509 


PEN 


don  hor- 
ielil  U9U- 
D,  wcigh- 
cominon 
lio  South 
recks  and 
ill  North 
the  early 
it  is  enu- 
cultivotcd 
ins.    The 
irincipftlly 
jrn  States, 
the  early 
are  gcncr- 
i  the  gray 
icld  varies 
!,  weighing 
row-fats  are 
11  are  much 
are  thought 
"  busli  pea" 
ng  pods  six 
jlusters,  and 
iined  for  the 
of  peas  ex- 
bushels;  in 
,  1764,  91C2 
,000  bushels ; 
olution,  BOOO 
lates,  twenty 
he  amount  of 
lamed  period, 
ffice  Rtport. 
.ibstance,  cm- 
;1.     There  are 
wish  brown  or 
Scotland,  Ilol- 
ft  viscid  con- 
,  air.     I*,  con- 
id  with  calca- 
50,  it  contains 
^l  into  oblong 
stony  matters 
yields  water, 
containing  a 
ig  either  white 
■ites  contained 
incd  from  peat 
•umatic  smell, 
[s,  but  more  so 
ittls  in  the  cold 
imall  heat ;  it 
irns  less  vehe- 
gocs  out  upon 
rectified  spirit 
dark,  brown- 
jnd  near  Kew- 
tl  Transaiiions 
)f  this  species, 
.at  is  a  compo- 
,  roots  of  trees, 
|ch  having  lain 
t  enough  to  bo 
^lor  is  a  black- 
brfuel.   There 
[f  the  Kcnnet, 
about  a  quar- 
iles  in  length, 
pd  is  from  one 
[roes  are  found 
'90  are  chlelly 
[r  to  have  been 
ids,  and  bones 
antelope,  the 
if  beavers,  ar« 


Peek,  a  dry  measure  for  grain,  pulse,  etc.  The 
standard,  or  imperial  peek,  contains  two  gallons,  or 
654'f)5  cubic  inches.  Four  pecks  make  a  bushel,  and 
four  bushels  a  coomb. — See  Weights  and  Measi'hes. 

Feoulatlon,  the  term,  in  the  Roman  law,  for  the 
embezzlement  of  public  money  belonging  either  to  the 
government  or  to  communities.  Under ;)ccMfa/ion,  also, 
was  comprised  the  adulteration  of  gold,  silver,  or  any 
metal  belonging  to  government.  Connected  with  it, 
by  a  law  of  the  dictator,  Caesar,  were  the  crimen  de  re- 
giJiiis  (if  a  person  had  received  public  money  for  a  par- 
ticular purpose,  and  did  not  apply  it  for  the  same),  and 
the  aacriteg'mm  (the  theft  or  misappropriation  of  money 
or  other  things  sacred  to  a  god).    In  most  government 


Pemuylvanla,  one  of  tho  central  United  States, 
lies  between  3'J°  43'  and  42°  N.  lat.,  ana  between  74" 
and  80"  40'  W.  long.  It  is  307  miles  long  and  IGtl 
broad,  containing  47,000  square  miles.  Population  in 
1790  was  434,373;  in  1800,  C02,54.5;  in  1810,  810,0111 ; 
in  1820,  1,049,313;  in  1830,  1,347,672;  in  1840, 
1,721,033;  and  in  1860,  2,311,786.  The  Alleghany 
Mountains  cross  tho  State  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
and  there  are  many  smaller  ranges  on  each  side  of  tho 
principal  ridge  and  parallel  to  it.  Tho  southeastern 
and  northwestern  parts  of  the  State  aro  either  level  or 
moderately  hilly.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and 
much  of  it  is  of  a  superior  quality ;  tho'  best  land  on 
the  southeast  is  on  both  sides  of  the  Siisinichnnna.    He- 


tho  embezzlement  of  public  money  by  public  ofliccrs  is  tween  the  head-waters  of  tho  Alleghany  ami  Lake  Eri 
severely  punished.  Peculation  and  treason  were,  by  1  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  Tho  anthracite  coul  region  iv 
tho  French  charter  of  1814,  the  only  crimes  for  which  I  immense.  Tho  Mauch  Chunk,  Schuylkill,  and  Lykeu's 
a  minister  was  impeachable. — E.  A.  S'aWey  coal-field  extends  from  the  Lehigh  lUveracross 

Pellitory,  tho  root  of  n  perennial  plant  (.InMemij    the  head-waters  of  the  Schuylkill,  and  is  «5  miles  in 
pyi-ethrum),  a  native  of  the  Levant,  Barbary,  and  tho   length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  five  miles.    'I'li 
south  of  Europe.    The  root  is  long,  tapering,  about  the 


thickness  of  tho  finger,  with  a  brownish  cuticle.     It  is 
imported  packed  in  bales,  sometimes  mixed  with  other 
roots,  from  which,  however,  it  is  easily  distinguished. 
„.  It  is  inodorous.     When  chewed,  it  seem's  at  first  to  bo 

ji  insipid,  but  after  a  few  seconds  it  excites  a  glowing 

j$'  heat,  and  a  pricking  sensation  on  the  tongue  and  lips, 

■§  which  remains  for  10  or  12  minutes.    The  pieces  break 

with  a  short,  resinous  fracture ;  the  transverse  section 
presenting  a  thick,  brown  bark,  studded  with  black, 
shining  points,  and  a  pale  yellow  radiated  inside.  It 
is  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant. — Thomson's  Dis- 
pensatory. 

Peltry  >s  the  namo  given  to  the  skins  of  different 
kinds  of  wild  animals  found  in  high  northern  latitudes, 
jiarticularly  in  North  America,  such  as  the  beavor,  sa- 
ble, wolf,  bear,  etc.  When  the  skind  of  such  animals 
have  received  no  preparation  they  are  termed  peltry  f 
but  when  the  inner  side  has  been  tanned  by  an  alumin- 
ous process  they  are  denominated_/*Kr». 

Pencils  (Ger.  I'insel;  Du.  Pmseekn ;  Fr.  Pinceaitx; 
It.  Pcnnelli;  Sp.  Pinceles).  The  word  pencil  is  used 
in  two  senses.  It  signifies  either  a  small  hair  brush 
employed  by  painters  in  oil  and  water  colors — they  aro 
of  various  kinds,  ond  made  of  various  materials,  SDnie 
being  formed  of  tho  bristles  of  the  boar  and  others  uf 
canid'a  hair,  tho  down  of  swans,  etc. — or  a  slender  cyl- 
inder, of  black-lead  or  plumbago,  either  naked  or  in- 
closed in  a  wooden  case,  for  drawing  black  lines  upon 
paper.  Tho  last  sort,  which  is  the  one  to  be  consider- 
ed hero,  corresponds  nearly  to  the  French  term  crayon, 
though  this  includes  also  pencils  made  of  difforcutly- 
colorcd  earthy  compositions.  Tho  best  Idack-lead  pen- 
cils of  this  country  aro  formed  of  slender  parallelopi- 
peds,  cut  out  by  a  saw  from  sound  pieces  of  plumbago, 
which  hove  been  previously  calcined  in  close  vessels  at 
a  bright  red  heat.  These  parallelepipeds  arc  generally 
inclosed  in  cases  made  of  cedar  wood,  though  of  late 
years  they  aro  also  used  alone,  in  peculiar  pcucil-cascs, 
under  tho  namo  of  over-pointed  pencils,  provided  with 
an  -ron  wire  and  screw,  to  protrude  a  minute  portion 
of  the  plumbago  beyond  tho  tubular  metallic  case,  in 
proportion  as  it  is  wanted. 

Pendant,  or  Pennant,  a  sort  of  long  and  narrow 
banner  displayed  from  tho  mast-head  of  a  ship-of-war, 
and  usually  terminating  in  two  ends  or  points,  called 
the  swallow's  (ail.  It  denotes  that  the  vessel  is  in  act- 
ual service.  Broad  petidcuit  is  a  kind  of  flag  termin- 
ating in  onn  or  two  points,  usod  to  distinguish  the  chief 
of  a  squadron.  Pendant  is  also  a  short  piece  of  rope, 
iixoil  on  each  side,  under  the  shrouds,  upon  the  heads 
of  the  main  and  foremasts. 

Penknives  (Germ.  Federmesser;  Fr.  Cani/s;  It. 
Temperini;  Sp.  Corta  pliimas),  small  knives,  too  well 
known  to  need  any  particular  description,  used  in  mak- 
ing and  mondiug  pens.  The  best  penknives  arc  man- 
ufactured in  London  and  Sheffield. 


Lackawanna  coal-lield  extends  from  Carbondale,  on  the; 
Lackawannock,  to  10  miles  below  Wilkcsbarre,  on  the 
Susquehanna.  Tho  Shamokin  field  has  been  less  ex- 
plored. Iron  ore  exists  in  nearly  every  county,  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburgh  vast  quantities  are  manu- 
factured. Beds  of  copper  ami  lea<l  exist,  and  quarries 
of  marble  and  bnilding-stono  abound.  There  aro  in 
the  soutli  part  valuable  mineral  springs.  There  were 
in  tho  State,  in  1850,  8,028,019  acres  of  improved  a  id 
C,29 1,728  acres  of  unimproved  land  in  farms ;  cash  i  al- 
ue  of  farms,  §407,870,099 ;  and  the  value  of  implements 
and  machinery,  $14,722,541.  Lire  .SVor/-.  —  Horses, 
350,398 ;  asses  and  mules,  2259 ;  milch  cows,  580,224 ; 
working  oxen,  61,527 ;  otiier  cattle,  602,195 ;  sheep. 
1,822,357;  swine,  1,040,360;  total  value  of  live  stock, 
$41,500,053. 

Jiarly  History  of  Pennsylvania. — The  territory  of  this 
State  was,  before  tlie  year  1C81,  for  the  greater  part 
comprised  under  the  namo  Xorthern  Virr/inia,  and  after 
ICIG  under  the  name  of  .\tw  F.nglaml.  Wlicn  Penn. 
in  the  year  1681,  obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  grant  of 
a  great  tract  of  land,  between  40'  and  42"  N.  lat,,  lie 
himself  wished  to  give  to  it  the  namo  of  Neio  Wales . 
but  the  king,  against  Pcim's  wish,  called  it,  in  honor 
of  Penn,  Pennsylvania.  Tho  name  is  to  be  found  for 
tho  first  time  in  tlie  King's  cliarter  of  tlie  4th  of  March, 
of  the  year  1681.  In  tho  year  1682  Penn,  desirous  of 
approacliing  his  province  to  the  sea-coast,  bought  from 
the  Duke  of  York  the  whole  tract  of  land  and  settle- 
ments along  the  west  side  of  Delaware  Bay,  the  so- 
called  three  lower  counties.  This  tract  of  land  remain- 
ed, however,  in  connection  with  Pennsylvania  only  un- 
til the  year  1776,  when  the  inhabitants  of  these  lands 
declared  themselves  independent  and  founded  the  State 
of  Delaware.  By  this  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  was 
again  excluded  from  tlie  sea-coasts,  and  as  a  nearly  en- 
tirely inland  State  the  history  of  its  limits  is  not  of  a 
great  interest  for  our  hydrographical  researches.— J . 
G.  Kohl. 

The  Delaware  River  washes  the  entire  eastern  bor- 
der of  the  State,  and  is  navigable  for  ships  to  Philadel- 
phia. The  I^liigh,  after  a  course  of  75  miles,  enters  it 
at  Easton,  The  Schuylkill,  1.30  miles  long,  unites  with 
it  six  miles  below  Philadelphia,  Tlie  Susquehanna  is 
a  large  river,  which  rises  in  New  York,  flows  south 
through  this  State,  and  enters  the  Chesapeake  Bay  in 
Maryland,  It  is  much  olistructed  by  falls  and  rapids. 
Tho  Juniata  rises  among  tho  Alleghany  Mountains, 
and,  after  a  course  of  180  miles,  enters  the  Susquehan- 
na 11  miles  above  Harrisburg,  The  Alleghany  River, 
400  miles  long,  from  the  north,  and  the  Slonongahela, 
300  miles  long,  unite  at  Pittsburgh,  and  form  the  Ohio, 
The  Youghiogheny  is  a  small  river  which  flows  into  tho 
Monongahela. 

Ayriailtural  Products.— Vfbeiit,  15,367,691  bushels; 
rve,  4,805,160  bushels;  Indian  corn,  19,836,214  bush- 
els ;  oats,  21,538,150  bushels ;  barley,  165,584  bushels ; 


PEN 


1610 


PEN 


buckwheat,  2,198,602  bushel* ;  peas  unu  leans,  C5,281 
liusliols;  potatoes,  5,<J80,T32  bushels;  s'/cet  potatoes, 
52,172  bushels.  Value  uf  products  of  the  orchard, 
$723,389;  prothiuu of niark-rst gardens, |ri88,714.  Pounds 
of  butter  made,  :I9,878,41H ;  of  cheese,  i,aOb,0Bi ;  ma- 
ple sugar,  2,32i>,5i>5;  molasses,  60,1. i  gallons;  bees- 
wax and  honry,  839,609  pounds ;  wool,  pounds  pro- 
ducea,  4,481,670 ;  ilax,  &:I0,3(J7 ;  silk  cocoons,  286 ;  hops, 
22,088 ;  tobacco,  912,651 ;  hay,  tons  of,  1,842,970 ;  hemp, 
44  tons;  clover  uccds,  125,1130  buslicls;  other  grass 
seeds,  53,913  bushels ;  flax  seed,  41,728  bubhel)-;  and 
were  made,  25,590  gallons  of  wine.  Value  of  home- 
made manufactures,  $749,132 ;  value  of  slaughtered  an- 
imals, 18,219,848 Censm  Report,  1850, 

Manvfacluret. — There  were  in  the  State  in  1860, 136 
cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of  #4,671,015, 
employing  4'J83  males  i>nd  4374  females,  producing 
69,632,000  yards  of  sheeting,  etc;  5,308,561  pounds 
of  yarn,  va'ued  at  $5,812,126;  254  woolen  factories, 
witli  a  capital  invested  of  $1,776,268,  employing  1747 
males  and  75o  femules,  manufacturing  articles  valued 
St  (2,703,400;  178  establishments  making  pig  iron, 
with  a  capital  invested  of  $8,357,625,  employing  9264 
persons,  producing  822,752  tons  pig  iron,  etc.,  valued 
at  $6,170,625;  320  establishments,  with  a  capital  of 
13,422,924,  employing  4783  persons,  and  making  57,810 
tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  |t5,354,381 ;  131  estab- 
lishments, with  a  capital  of  $7,620,066,  employing  677) 
persons,  manufacturiui'^  182,506  tons  of  wrought  iron, 
valued  at  $8,902,907 ;  2380  tlouring  and  grist  mills, 
2936  saw  mills,  1640  taunerics ;  103  printing-offices, 
328  newspapers,  25  daily,  three  tri-weckly,  one  semi- 
weekly,  275  weekly,  eight  icmi-iuonthly,  12  monthly, 
and  two  quarterly  publicauons.  Capital  invested  iu 
manufactures,  $91,463,210;  value  of  manufactured  ar- 
ticles, (  164,941,698. 

CttnL... — The  State  of  Pennsylvania  as  early  as  the 

I'UBEIOM  COMMEBOIi  Of  TUB  RTATJE  OT  PknnBTLVAMIA  rROH  OCTODKR  1,  1820,  to  .]ui.T  1,  18S0,  BHOWINQ  ALSO  TUE  Die- 

TBICT  TOMNAQB  IN  1821,  1831,  1811,  AND  1851. 


year  1791  initiated  a  system  of  inland  water  commu- 
nication. William  Penn,  it  is  said,  first  conceived  the 
idea.  In  1792  two  companies  were  formed,  to  build 
the  Schuylkill  and  Susquehanna,  and  Pelawaro  and 
Schuylkill  canals.  They  constructed  fifteen  niiica  and 
abandoned  the  work.  In  1821  the  enterprise  was  re- 
nev/ed,  and  completed  in  1827,  when  other  works  were 
started,  and  nccrly  all  the  present  canals  authorized 
and  their  routes  surveyed.  The  Slate  has  now  348 
miles  of  canals,  which  cost  $24,168,000,  according  to  an 
e:tiiiiate  considered  to  be  under  rather  than  above  the 
mark.  Private  companies  have  built  485  miles  cf  ca- 
nal, costing  121,066,000.  The  Slate  has  therefore 
1333  miles  of  canal,  casting  upward  of  $16,000,000.  Be- 
sides these  it  has  2164  miles  of  railroad,  which  cost  some 
$68,000,000.  The  totals  of  these  important  improve- 
ments added  together,  make  3497  miles,  and  their  coat 
fcots  up  $104,000,000.  Their  value  to  the  S.ate  is  not 
represented  l;y  their  cost,  for  without  them  Pennsyl- 
vania would  be  a  wilderness.  They  unite  her  to  the 
Great  AVest,  to  the  southern  part  of  our  Slate,  and  to 
the  great  metropolis;  and  enable  her  to  send  h -r  coal 
and  iron  to  distant  marts,  enriching  her  beyond  es- 
timate. 

The  following  is  presented  as  a  comparison  of  the 
anthracite  coal  trade  of  IVnnsylvania  for  two  years : 


Kuding  Kailroad 

SchuylkUl  Navigation  Co. 

Pine  Grovo 

Little  HchuylklU 

I.ehigh 

I.Bckawanna 

Wyoming 

Sbamokin 

I.yken's  Valley 

Horanton  

Total 


Torn. 
2  213,202 
1,106,268 

iie.«e6 

437,550 
1,2H,9«6 
1,062,595 
553,00U 
122,500 
112,000 


6,020,283 


Yon  radlnK 

KiporU. 

Importi. 

Tonnag*  rlMKd. 

Dlatriet  Toonag*.          i 

DomMtie. 

Poralgn. 

ToUI. 

Total. 

Amsrirao. 

Foreign. 

Reglilerfld. 

Enrolled  and 

Licensed.      1 

25.0St 

Sept  80, 1821 

$2,832,387 

$4,659,380 

$7,891,767 

$S,18S.922 

69,436 

8,611 

59,295 

1822 

3,576,147 

8,472,656 

9,047,8i>2 

11,874,170 

70,846 

5,745 

.... 

1823 

8,139,800 

6,477,883 

9,617,192 

13,006,770 

75,630 

e.ao.T 

1824 

8,I82,69'1 

6,182.19!) 

9,864  893 

11,808,531 

76.681 

8.6:16 

1826 

8,!)S«,133 

7,833,848 

11,269,981 

16,041,797 

82  438 

2,386 

• .  > . 

1826 

8,108,TU 

6,178,011 

8.331,722 

13,581,779 

69,414 

4,446 

.... 

• . .  • 

182T 

8,891,296 

4,184,637 

7,575,883 

ll,212,9Sr 

68,753 

4,097 

.... 

1828 

3,116,001 

2,!1.^').479 

6.061, 4S0 

12,884,J~" 

61,819 

5,880 

.... 

1829 

2,61T,!a2 

1,4T'.^7S3 

4,089.936 

10,100,152 

52,841 

4.628 

1880 

Total... 

■   4,924,462 

I,)i67,a41 

4,291,793 

8,702,122 

63,022 

4  870 

$.!1,873,782 

$45,158,616 

$77,032,308 

$1.'7,088,580 

090,367 

46,616 

8«pLS0,1831 

$3,6;4.302 

$1,919,411  '           13,713 

$12,I24,0S3 

66,149 

7,8!'6 

51,203 

29,226 

1832 

2,0C8,991 

1,617,075 

16,066 

10,678,368 

46,726 

14,131 

.... 

1833 

2,671,300 

1,407,661 

4,078,951 

10,461,280 

49,109 

22.S78 

•   .  •  a 

.  •  •  • 

,1834 

2,031,803 

1,957,943 

8,089,746 

10,479,268 

46,411 

16,236 

...  a 

1836 

2,416.099 

1,323,170 

3,7G9,275 

12,8S9,937 

67,(l8S 

10,986 

183S 

2,627,681 

1,343,904 

3,971,685 

15,068,233 

49,670 

14,349 

.... 

188T 

2,566,712 

1,275,887 

8.841,609 

11,680,111 

48.188 

18,284 

1888 

2,481,643 

998  608 

8.477,151 

9,360,371 

76.342 

8,36!) 

183!» 

4,148.211 

1,151,204 

6,  •289,416 

16,f'60,7l6 

64,818 

13,381 

1840 

Total... 

5,736,45« 

1,(i83,fl,S9 

6.820,148 

8,464,882 

72,288 

11,340 

$80,282,068 

$13,968,648 

,+44,247,616 

$118,747,208 

671,!!86 

156,989 

Sept  80, 1841 

$4,404,863 

$747,688 

$6,162,601 

$10,846.68 

74,201 

9,822 

62,267 

<?T,a4(i 

1842 

3,2»B..SI4 

476,913 

3,770,727 

7,385.,S5S 

65,203 

13,712 

.   .   a  a 

9mo».,    1843' 

2,071.946 

283,008 

2,3.54,948 

2,760,030 

41,573 

6,899 

a  a   .  a 

June  30, 1844 

8,266,027 

270,22!) 

3  538256 

7,217,'.-07 

70,060 

8,627 

1848 

8,12!i,678 

444.686 

3.674,383 

8,16!),227 

33,271 

12,987 

I3«l 

4.157,918 

693,087 

4.761.006 

7,989.396 

77,272 

7,027 

...    a 

184T 

8,203,311 

281,080 

8.544,391 

9,687,616 

107,980 

35,213 

.... 

a  .  .  > 

1848 

6.428,309 

3!'4  0>4 

6,732,333 

12,147,684 

7T,S70 

20,218 

.»  .. 

1849 

4850.872 

4'I2,64!) 

6,343,421 

10,616,61)0 

33,822 

27,008 

...  a 

1   .   .   . 

1860 

Total, . . 

4,049,464 

482, 14-.' 

4,801.606 

12,066,184 

81,276 

30.342 

.... 

$42,916,201 

$4,346,3.'>0 

it47,260,581 

$83,305,830 

752,578 

170,962 

.... 

.... 

JllMtO,186l 

$6,101,069 

$254,067 

$5,356,036 

$14.16^.701 

102,128 

3'^,081 

01>,4'^6 

214,943 

1852  

6,622,449 

306,122 

6,S2S  571 

14.785,017 

90,981 

48,i'81 

.... 

MM 

6,256,229 

272, 76  f 

6  6:7,906 

18,834,410 

101,029 

60,656 

•  • .  • 

.... 

1864 

9,846.810 

2b7,606 
289,213 

10,104,416 

2I,869,,'I06 

120,640 

63  667 

.... 

.... 

1866 

6,986,V.'5 

6,274,338 

16,309.935 

U4,2<.a 

35,720 

.... 

1866 

7,043,4riH 

189,164 

7,282,572 

16,690,048 

112,087 

81,246 

1 

Nine  moDtba  to  June  SO,  and  fiscal  jmx  begins  July  1, 1848, 


..^Siii':tL%3:~aM'^i:iSi$iLikiM^:A:i^'u^ 


PEN 


ISll 


PEN 


f.T,04« 


214,948 


Philadelphia,  near  the  confluence  of  the  rlvoin  Dvla^ 
ware  ond  Schuylkill,  in  lat.  39"  67'  N.,  loiin,  76°  10' 
W.,  and  near  the  head  of  the  Delaware  Hay,  Voanolii 
of  the  largest  burden  ascend  the  river  .ta  far  a*  Nuw- 
castle,  but  those  drawing  above  18  or  20  fcot  of  w.i)i' 
can  not  reach  Philadelphia,  on  account  of  a  bur  u  lit- 
tle bulow  the  city.  The  entrance  to  llio  niuxiiillimiil 
bay  formed  by  the  embouchure  of  the  Duluwiiru  hud 
Cape  May  ou  the  north,  and  Cape  Ilenlopeu  oji  Um 
south  side.  The  commerce  of  Pliiladelphia  lutH  not 
kept  pace  with  her  growth  in  other  rcspofta,  oupocially 
in  manufactures.  The  tonnage  in  186U  was  l'J7,'.'l!H 
tons. — See  Piiii.ADKi.riiiA. 

Krif,  port  of  entry,  is  beautifully  situated  on  Pre«((uo 
Isle  Bay,  on  Lake  Krie,  covers  one  mile  squiirn,  and 
has  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  lake,  the  tliunnid  or 
entrance  to  which  has  lately  been  much  inipruvcd ;  the 
Wuter  is  from  11  to  20  feet  deep,  and  llie  largest  steam- 
boats enter  without  difficulty.  There  is  a  lighl-liouHii 
on  the  west  side  of  the  entrance  of  Prcsipiu  Ulu  lluy, 
lat.  42°  8'  U"  X. ;  shows  a  lixcd  light,  elevated  Oil  fuH 
above  the  surface  of  the  lake,  and  visible  for  a  distaiii:ci 
of  14}  miles.  The  beacon  <s  on  the  cast  side  of  the 
bay  ;  visible  8}  miles. — For  further  information  of  the 
commerce  and  resources  of  I'cnnsylvanlu,  tee  Hanh'rt' 
ilagazine,  New  York,  ISJl-lSOO;  Sorlh  Americim  lie. 
view,  xlii.  241  (C.  Ci'.iiiino);  lli' st'h  Mei-chimlii'  Mai/, 
azine,  x,  308,  xii.  237;  1)K  Bow's  Jieview,  xll,  4711, 
See  also  articles  Delaware  Kiveb— Coai, — Canai.x 
and  K.iii.'.toADs. 

Penny,  formerly  a  silver,  but  now  a  copper  coin. 
This  was  the  first  silver  coin  struck  in  Kugland  by  our 
Saxon  ancestors,  being  the  2  tOth  part  of  their  pound ;  so 
that  its  weight  was  about  22^  grains  Troy.  Camden 
derives  the  word  from  the  Latin,  pecunia,  money.  Tim 
ancient  English  penny,  penig,  or  pening,  was  the  first 
silver  coin  struck  in  England,  nay,  the  only  one  vuv- 
rent  ar<<ong  our  Saxon  ancestors,  as  is  agreed  by  Cam- 
den, Spelman,  liickes,  and  others.  Th&  penny  was 
equal  in  weight  to  our  threepence ;  five  of  them  made 
one  shilling  or  scilling  Saxon,  and  ^,0  a  mark  or  man. 
cuse,  equal  to  7t.  Gd.  Till  the  time  of  King  Edwurd 
the  First,  the  penny  was  struck  with  a  cross,  so  duoply 
indented  into  it  that  it  might  be  easily  broken,  and 
parted,  on  occasion,  into  two  parts,  which  were  tlienco 
called  half-yenniea,  or  into^u-,  which  were  calledyoi/r- 
ihings,  or fuHhinga.  But  that  prince  coinci'i  it  wlllinut 
indenture,  instead  of  which  ho  first  struck  round  half- 
pence and  farthings.  He  also  i'educcu  tlin  welglii  uf  a 
penny  to  a  standard,  ordering  that  it  sluiuld  Holh'h  :I2 
grains  of  wheat,  taken  out  of  the  middle  uf  the  car. 
This  penny  was  called  the  penny  alerliny;  and,  as  20 
of  these  pence  were  to  weigh  an  ounce,  the  penny  thus 
became  a  weight  as  well  a;  a  coin.  The  penny  ster- 
ling was  long  disused  as  a  coin,  and  was  scarcely  known, 
except  a?  a  money  of  account,  containing  the  tnelftli 
part  of  a  shilling ;  but  latterly  it  hp.s  been  introduced 
into  the  British  current  coil. — See  PosT-ori-in:. 

To  ascertain  the,  ns  ^  .  unknown,  quality  of  the 
metal  in  the  old  British  penny,  the  chief  a»!<ayors  In 
Philadelphia  were  addressed,  to  procure  infornintlon 
from  books  of  reference  or  actual  assay.  Tlin  answer 
decided :  "  The  ancients  intended  fine  silver  and  jmro 
gold  in  their  coins,  refined  them  as  well  as  they  cuuld, 
and  issued  them  for  fine  metal.  But  the  old  sliver 
pennies  of  Britain  uro  now  so  'ew  and  expensive — one 
in  the  mint  collection  cost  seven  dollars — wo  can  not 
afford  to  assay  them."  As  this  point  was  essentinl  for 
accurate  calculation,  Mr.  DuBois  added,  in  a  postnorlpt, 
"  Since  writing  the  above  I  have  assayed  a  t^llver  pen- 
ny of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  gives  a  fineness  of 
'950  thousandths,  and  contains  gold  equal  to  '001)^ 
thousandths,''  This  trial  shews  an  alloy  of  some  base 
metal  exceeding  '040  thousandths  ('010))  contained  in 
the  silver  penny,  diminishing  its  standard  in  that  de- 
gree from  one  of  perfect  purity,  "  The  Mint  remedy" 
of  the  Uniteu  SUvns,  regarded  to  be  a  nocossary  allow- 


anco  for  niiuat  deviations  In  the  quality  of  silver  pieces, 
can  not  exceed  'GOD  thouaandtha,  Instead  of  '040,  on 
each  aidn  the  standard.  It  Is  not  now  proposed  at 
nilnti  to  Mwn  the  coins  uf  the  highest  quality,  but  the 
rule  or  standard  of  purity,  ordered  by  law,  must  be 
ox«i!t,  tmth  in  fine  metal  and  alloy.  By  recent  proof 
with  wheol  corn  measure,  the  weight  of  the  old  penny 
man  '"«vo  v.irind  from  fivu  grains  In  the  red  to  eight 
grains  in  the  wlilto  wheal.  The  modern  "  allowance" 
for  variation  In  ciuantity  Is  one-fourth  or  one-hX:  ". 
grain.  In  a  coin  approaching  the  value  of  t!ie  ,r..iglo- 
Norman  peimy.  The  silver  pennv  of  old  lime— the 
<-.rly  money  except  rings  known  to'  the  native  Britons 
—was  at  oiien  a  coin,  a  weight,  and  n  measure.  Ita 
chttraeter  of  purity  chocked  and  ruled  the  values  of  all 
moneys,  weights,  and  nieasuros  represented  by  or  ds- 
duited  from  It,  Such  values  do  not  depend  solely  on 
weight  nor  solely  .ipon  fineness,  but  on  their  combined 
powers,  iIki  iirodiiet  of  bolh.  Tlit  keystone  of  the  so- 
called  "syslem"  of  I2l)(!  was  coneeivcd  to  bo  "M« 
weii/ht  of  Ihn  silver  jienny  sterling,"  Hut  defecliit 
'lUntilji  (!ausud  iIiIh  "  keystone"  lo crumble.  The super- 
struclure  <'rer(ed  upon  such  foiuHlatlon  failed,  becaupo 
nnilalliirglcal  IrroKulorlly  >vas  nut  checked  by  metri  •»: 

cxaclneKS,     The  measures  were  faulty  throughout 

"  welghrd  In  the  balances,  they  were  both  founJI  want- 
ing," The  buses  for  cnleulntion  in  this  ancient  scale 
lieing  Inuceiirute,  no  truth  could  be  elicited  by  any  in- 
creuHd  of  numbers— or  quontities  in  progression.  Some 
of  the  sliver  pennli's  of  the  early  Brituns  were  nearly 
divided  by  tin)  impression  uf  a  cross,  tlirough  the  mid- 
dle on  tlio  reverse,  so  lliey  could  bo  broken  into  half- 
pennies, und  nguln  Into  quarters,  called  "  fourthinss," 
or  farthings.  This  praill™  of  simple  division  hod 
<'untlniied  until  sllve:  iuilf-pennies  und  farthings  were 
speelully  niliiod  by  King  .lolm,  in  WKi—jlrsI  in  Ire- 
land, where  his  principal  Mint  was.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  llenry  ttio  Third,  of  Kngland,  "u 
penny"  uf  fine  g(dd  was  ordered  of  the  value  of  twenty 
pennies  uf  silver.  The  word  "  penny"  hud  Us  deriva- 
tion from  thu  French  "denier,"  the  "denarius"  of  the 
Latins.  The  French  title,  shortened  into  "denny"by 
the  Nornuins,  wiis  easily  changed  on  the  English  tongue 
to  "penny"— at  lliiit  lime  a  common  term  for  money 
In  geiHiriil,  .if  «lmtever  metal  it  might  be.  Golden 
donlers,  coined  sparingly  in  France,  bearing  the  figure 
of  a  lamb,  were  called  (leniers  d'ogncou,  or  montons 
d'or.  During  I  lie  rcl(;na  of  the  curly  Norman  kings, 
their  rents,  though  rnserveil  In  money,  were  unswer- 
u(|  in  Cttlllu,  corn,  und  other  provisions,  because  money 
was  then  si'ureo  among  the  people.  Coins  of  gold, 
named  "  nobles  d'or,"  were  first  issued  from  the  British 
Mint  by  Kilwurd  the  Third,  in  i:i44  ;  but  with  so  much 
difilciilty  timt  It  wus  thought  necessary  to  order  by 
law,  "iMi  one  should  bn  Mii/rd  to  receive  thom."  It 
wus  deel(le{|  to  prove  the  standard  of  the  silver  penny 
of  our  remote  aneeniry,  by  Ihe  approval  of  English  and 
oilier  coiitempomrles,  in  wheat  corn  grains  from  "the 
Old  North  Sl.ile  of  Caridlnu,"  .Six  dillerent  growths 
of  the  crop  of  IMTiil,  intended  for  seed  and  consumption, 
seleiled  III  OeliiliiT  from  l«o  proininent  varieties,  the 
red  und  llio  while,  eliooslng  gruins  of  average  quality, 
but  perfeet  fullness,  were  antagonized  by  a  penny- 
weight Tloy  of  llin  purest  silver,  specially  prepared 
froiii  sidnlion,  fur  assays  of  gold.  No  two  samples  of 
thirty-two  wlnrut  I'orn  grnlns  were  found  of  the  same 
welglil,  f  )f  I'urly  red— Mny  w heat — from  thirty-eight 
to  forty  and  forly-llireo  corns  were  reciuircd  to  balance 
the  sliver  jiieee,  while  of  while  wheat  from  twenty-eight 
to  tlilrly-llvii  nnil  tlilrly-six  grains  cfiected  the  same 
purpose,  showing  U  disproportion  C(|ual  to  fifteen  wheat 
grains  In  thu  six  |iarcels;  that  is,  from  twenty-eight 
to  forty-three  corns — a  deviation  in  the  value  of  a  sil- 
ver penny  equivalent  to  nearly  one  holf  the  standard 
weight.  '  An  act  of  Ilonry  the  Third,  in  12fi6,  explains 
Ihn  primitive  Initials  of  these  ancient  British,  Gallic, 
and  Uerman  ttandurda,  to  all  which  one  common  derU 


PEN 


1612 


PEP 


vition  is  imputed.  "  By  consent  of  the  wholo  realm, 
tlio  measure  of  the  king  was  made,  that  ia  to  say,  an 
English  penny  of  silver,  called  a  sterling,  rnund,  and 
without  any  clipping,  s'.iall  weigh  thii-ty-two  wheat 
corns,  talien  from  tho  middle  of  I  ho  cai'.  And  twenty 
pence  of  silver  do  make  one  ounce.  And  twelve  ounces 
of  silver  do  make  one  pound.  And  eight  pounds  of 
silver  do  make  a  gallon  of  wine.  And  eight  gallons 
of  wine  do  make  a  London  Ijushcl,  which  is  tho  eighth 
part  of  a  quarter."  This  gen'iral  arrangement  for 
money  weights  and  measures  was  that  of  the  Eastern 
nations,  by  which  Europe  had  lieen  overrun.  The 
term  "oasterlln"  of  tho  Norman  French  was  trans- 
muted on  the  English  tongue,  first  to  "  easterling,"  and 
llnally  to  "  sterling."— Acjoor*  of  l>r.  J.  II.  Gibbon, 
United  Stotes  Mint,  North  Carolina.     Stt  Pound. 

Penny-Post.  First  set  up  in  London  and  its  sub- 
urbs by  a  Mr.  Murray,  upholsterer,  A.i>.  ItiSl.  Mr. 
Murray  afterward  assigned  h's  interest  in  the  under- 
taking to  Mr.  Uoekwra,  a  merchant,  ll!8:i ;  but  on  a  trial 
at  the  King's  Kench  bar  in  the  n-ign  of  Charles  1 1.,  was 
n(\)udged  to  belong  to  the  Dukoof  York  as  a  branch  of 
the  general  post,  and  was  thereupon  annexed  to  the 
revenue  of  tho  crown. — Dki.aink,  KWO.  This  institu- 
tion was  consiilurubly  improved  in  and  round  Loiuloii, 
Jnly,  ITM,  cl  seq.,  and  was  made  a  twopenny-post.  A 
penny-post  was  lirst  sot  up  in  Dublin  in  1771. — <Sef 
Posr-oM'K.i;. 

Fennyvreight,  a  Troy  weight,  containing  twenty- 
four  grains,  each  grain  weighing  a  grain  of  wheat, 
gathered  out  of  tho  middle  of  the  ear  and  well  dried. 
The  name  took  its  rise  from  the  circumstaneo  that  this 
was  anciently  the  weight  of  one  of  our  silver  pennies. 

Pens  (Fr.  Plumes  k  ecrire ;  (.tor.  Srhnibfedem ;  It. 
Penne  da  •Scntcre ;  liuss.  Peru  Slicoli),  well-known  in- 
struments for  writing,  usually  formed  of  the  .juills  of 
tho  goose,  swan,  or  some  other  bird.  Metallic  pens 
liavo  been  occasionally  oriployed  for  a  lengthened 
period  ;  but  it  is  only  within  these  few  jcars  that  they 
have  been  extensively  introduced.  Tliey  are  now, 
howeior,  manufactured  in  vast  quantities,  and  of  an 
immense  variety  of  forms.  Hut  though  llicy  have 
superseded  to  a  very  considerable  extent  the  use  of 
(|uills,  and  have  some  peculiar  advantages,  it  does  not 
appear  possil)le  to  give  them  the  elasticity  of  the  quill, 
nor  to  lit  them  so  well  for  quick  and  easy  writing  on 
common  descriptions  of  paper.  Quills  are  said  to  have 
been  first  used  for  i)eii»  in  A.i>.  553 ;  but  some  say  not 
before  (i.'io.  tjuills  are  for  tlie  must  part  plucked  with 
great  cruelty  from  living  geese ;  lun'  ill  persons,  from 
convenience,  economy,  and  feeling,  ought  to  prefer 
metallic  pens,  which  came  into  use  in  WiO. — I'liii.i.ips. 

For  tho  manufacture  of  steel  jtens  tlic  best  metal, 
made  from  Danncmora  or  hoop  (i.)  iron,  is  selected  and 
laminated  into  slips  about  threo  feet  lung  and  four 
inches  broad,  of  a  thickness  corresponding  to  tho  de- 
sired stifl'ness  and  flexibility  of  the  pens.  These  slips 
arc  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  stamping-press,  some- 
what similar  to  that  fur  making  buttons.  The  point 
destined  for  tlio  nib  is  next  introduced  into  an  a|ipro- 
priato  gauged  hole  of  a  little  mochine,  and  jiressed  into 
tho  ticmi-cylindrical  shape;  where  it  is  also  pierced 
with  the  jniddlo  slit,  and  the  lateral  ones,  provided  the 
latter  are  to  bo  given.  Tho  pens  are  now  cleaned,  by 
being  tossed  about  among  each  other,  in  a  tin  cylinder, 
al)out  three  feet  long,  and  nine  inches  in  diameter; 
whicli  is  suspended  at  each  end  upon  joints  to  two 
cranks,  formed  one  on  each  of  two  sliafts.  Tho  cylin- 
der, by  tho  rotation  of  a  fly-wheel,  acting  upon  the 
crank-shnfts,  is  niodo  to  descrilie  such  revolutions  as 
agilute  tho  pens  in  all  directions,  and  polish  them  by 
mutual  attrition.  In  the  course  of  four  hours  several 
lliousand  pens  may  be  flnished  upon  this  machine. 
When  steel  pens  hove  been  punche<l  out  of  the  softened 
sheet  of  steel  by  tho  appropriate  tool,  foshioned  in  the 
desired  form,  and  hardened  by  ignition  in  an  oven  and 
sudden  quenching  in  cold  water,  tliey  aro  best  tempered 


by  being  heated  to  the  requisite  spring  elasticity  In  an 
oil  bath.  Tho  heat  of  this  bath  is  usually  Judged  of 
by  tho  appearance  to  the  eye ;  but  tlii^  point  should  be 
correctly  determined  by  a  thermometer,  according  to 
tho  scale ;  and  then  the  pens  would  accjuiro  a  definite 
degree  of  floxil-ility  or  stiirness,  adapted  to  tho  wants 
and  wishes  of  the  consumers.  They  are  at  present 
tempered  too  often  at  random. 

Imposts  of  Mktai.mo  I'enb  into  the  Unitkp  States  fob 

THE  I'lSOAL  Yeau  enuinu  June  SO,  I8BI). 

Whenr*  imported.  Vnlue. 

llroniea $472 

Wigland 11!I,68T 

Franco ii.'i'iiO 

New  Uranada 7(i 

Total  value $1111165 

Pepper  (Fr.  Poivr<;  Ger.  P/effer;  Dn.  Ptperi  It. 
Pepe ;  8p.  Pimierta ;  Russ.  Perez;  Lat.  Piper),  the  berry 
or  fruit  of  diflbrcnt  species  of  plants,  having  an  aro- 
matic, extremely  hot,  pungent  taste,  used  in  seasoning, 
etc.  The  following  sarts  of  jioppcr  ore  met  witli  in 
commerce :  lllack  Pepper  (Fr.  Poirre ;  Ger.  Sckwarzm 
pfrffer;  It.  Pepe  negro;  Sp.  Pimienta ;  Sans.  Afercha; 
Hind.  Clol-mirch:  Malay,  J.ada;  Jav.  Martha),  tho 
fruit  of  a  creeping  plant  (Piper  niffrvm),  one  of  the 
pepper  genus,  of  which  there  are  upward  of  80  species. 
It  is  cultivated  extensively  in  India,  Slam,  the  Eastera 
islands,  etc.  It  requires  tho  support  of  other  troes,  to 
which  it  readily  adheres.  It  climbs  to  the  height  of 
20  feet,  but  is  said  to  bear  best  when  restrained  to  the 
height  of  12  feet.  It  begins  to  produce  at  about  the 
third  year,  and  is  in  perfection  at  the  seventh ;  con- 
tinues in  this  state  for  three  or  four  years ;  and  declines 
fur  about  as  many  more,  until  it  ceases  to  be  worth 
keeping.  The  fruit  grows  abundantly  from  all  the 
branches,  in  long  small  clusters  of  from  20  to  50  grains ; 
when  ripe,  it  is  of  n  bright  red  color.  After  being 
gathercii,  it  is  spread  on  mats  in  the  sun,  when  it  loses 
its  red  color,  and  becomes  block  ond  shriveled  as  we 
see  it.  The  grains  are  separated  from  the  stalks  by 
band  rubbing.  That  whicli  has  been  gathered  at  the 
proper  period  shrivels  the  least;  but  if  plucked  too 
soon,  it  will  become  broken  and  dusty  in  its  removal 
from  place  to  place.  The  vine  produces  two  crops  in 
the  year;  but  the  sea.-ons  are  subject  to  groat  irregu- 
larities. Pepper  should  be  chosen  of  a  pungent  aro- 
matic odor,  fin  extremely  hot  ond  acrid  taste,  in  large 
grains,  firm,  sound,  and  with  few  wrinkles — for  of  these 
it  always  has  some.  Reject  that  which  is  shriveled, 
or  small  groined,  or  which  on  lieiiig  rubbed  will  break 
to  pieces.  In  point  of  quality,  the  peppc>  of  Malabar 
:s  usually  reckoned  the  best ;  but  there  is  no  material 
dift'erence  between  it  ond  that  of  Sumatra,  and  the 
othe.  islands.  In  the  market  of  Bengal,  where  they 
meet  on  equal  terms,  the  produce  of  Malabar  is  gener- 
ally about  two  per  cent,  higher  than  tho  other.  In 
Europe  there  is  generally  a  dift'erence  of  ^d.  per  lb.  in 
favor  of  Malabar ;  but  in  China  they  ore  held  in  equal 
estimation.  Block  pepper  sold  ground  is  said  to  be 
often  adulterated  with  burned  crust  of  bread. 

]V?iite  Pepper  is  mode  by  iilonching  the  finest  grains 
of  tho  common  black  pepper  bj-  steeping  them  for  a 
while  in  water,  and  then  gently  rubbing  them,  so  as  to 
remove  the  dork  outer  coot.  It  is  milder  than  tho 
other,  and  is  much  prized  by  tho  Chinese ;  but  very 
little  is  imported  into  England. 

Cayenne  Pepper  is  the  produce  of  several  varieties  of 
the  Capiicum,  nn  annual  plant,  a  native  of  both  the 
Indies.  The  best  is  lirought  from  tho  AVest  Indies 
ready  prepared,  and  is  made  from  the  Capsicum  baccn- 
tum  (bird  pepper).  It  has  an  aromatic,  extremely  pun- 
gent, acrimonious  taste,  setting  the  mouth,  as  it  were, 
on  fire,  and  the  impression  remaining  long  on  the  pal- 
ate. It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  muriate  of  .soda; 
and  sometimes  with  a  very  deleterious  substance,  the 
red  oxyd  of  lead  ;  but  this  fraud  may  be  detected  by 
its  weight,  and  by  chemical  tests. 

LongPepjier. — This  species  is  the  produce  of  a  percn- 


.  '   'VSf^&Src-cr-Tsrfr  ^ar     ^  - 


PEP 


1513 


PEP 


,'  in  an 
gcd  of 
3UU  lio 
ling  to 
ilefinite 
1  wants 
present 

TKa  »0B 

Aa». 

$472 
;i,6ST 
i.'rlO 

16 

.»156 

tper;  It. 
tlic  berry 
;  an  aro- 
oftsoning, 
t  witli  in 
S'(7i«;n''«" 
„  MereUa; 
\rihn).  the 
Dno  of  llie 
80  species, 
he  Eastern 
,1-t  tr-jcs,  to 
liciglit  of 
lined  to  tlie 
t  about  the 
ventli;  con- 
imd  declines 
to  be  worth 
Vom  all  the 
to  5(1  grains; 
After  lieing 
wlicn  it  loses 
jiveled  as  we 
lie  stallis  by 
hored  at  tlie 
plucked  too 
1  its  removal 
t\¥0  crops  in 
great  irregu- 
|)ungent  aro- 
istP,  in  largo 
_fiir  of  tlicse 
is  shriveled, 
id  will  break 
ofMalaliar 
no  material 
itra,  and  the 
[,  whcro  they 
.bar  is  gener- 
ic other.     In 
^  J.  per  lb.  in 
field  in  equal 
is  said  to  be 
lad. 

finest  grains 

Ig  tliem  for  a 

[hem,  so  as  to 

ler  than  the 

|se ;  but  very 

.1  varieties  of 
J  of  both  the 
Iwest  Indies 
lijtciini  liucca- 
Itrcmely  !>»"- 
li,  as  it  were, 
Ig  on  tho  pal- 
Kiateofsoda; 
Tbstance,  the 
T  detected  by 

to  of  a  peren- 


nial (Piper  lont/um),  a  native  of  Malabar  and  Bengnl.  pilncipally  to  Europe  direct,  in  free  traders.  Tlie  west 
The  fruit  is  hottest  in  its  immature  state,  and  is  tliere-  coast  of  tlie  Malayan  peninsula  produces  no  pepper, 
fore  gathered  while  green,  and  dried  in  tlio  sun.  It  ij  I  with  tho  cxceptioiiuf  alwiit  KtOO  piculs  atCurded  by  the 
imported  in  entire  spikes,  which  are  about  one  and  a  .  territory  of  Malacca.  On  tho  east  coast  of  the  p'eiiin- 
half  inch  long.  It  lias  a  weak  aron)i'*"c  odor,  'in  in- 1  sula,  tho  production  of  pepper  is  very  cnii.siderable. 
tcnsoly  ilcry,  pungent  taste,  and  a  dark  gray  color.  |  The  ports  of  I'atanl  and  Calantan— cliietiy  tho  latter 
The  re  ti  of  long  pepper  is  a  favorite  niediciuo  among  |  — yl.ld  about  1«,000  piculs  annually,  anii  'I'ringanu 
tho  Hindoos.  Tho  quantities  of  the  last  three  species  i  aba  KWO.  A  portion  of  this  is  brought  to  .Singapore 
of  pepper  imported  are  quite  inconsiderable, — Mil- 1  and  Penang;  hut  we  believe  tho  greater  proportion 
niiKs''  Crienlat  Commerce  I  Ais»i.ik'h  J/a(tm /«(/ica;  j  goes  direct  to  China  In  junks,  of  which  three  largo 
TiioJisDs's  Difpemaiory  etc,  j  ones  l'rc(|ucnt  Tringanu  annually,  and  one  Calantan. 

Trade  in  Pipper. — I'epper  Is  extensively  used,  all  The  Americans,  too,  occasionally  visit  these  ports.  In 
over  Europe  and  the  East,  as  a  condiment.  It  was  ;  the  year  1H21,  tlirce  vessels  of  consideral)le  burden  oh- 
originally  imported  into  England  by  way  of  the  I.e-  j  tained  cargoes.  Tlie  east  coast  of  tho  (iulf  of  .Siam, 
vant;  niid  for  many  years  after  tho  establishment  of  ,  from  the  lat.  of  10^'  to  that  of  V>\°  N.,  all'ords  an  e.-c- 
tlio  East  India  Company  it  formed  tho  most  important  I  tensive  produce  of  pepper.  This  coast  is  scarcely 
article  of  their  imports.  In  nothing  has  tho  benelicial  1  known,  even  by  name,  to  the  traders  of  Europe.  Tlio 
elTcct  of  opening  the  Indian  trade  been  so  unequivo-  principal  ports  here  are  Cliantibun,  Tungyai,  Pong 
caliy  displayed  as  in  tho  instance  of  pepper.     The  pri- 


vate traders  have  resorted  to  new  markets,  and  dis- 
covered new  sources  of  supply,  which  had  hitherto  been 
wholly  unexplored ;  so  that  tliero  has  been  not  only  a 
very  great  increase  in  tho  (piantity  of  pepper  brought 
to  market,  but  also  u  very  great  fall  in  its  price,  which 
iioes  not  now  exceed  a  third  part  of  what  it  amounted 
to  in  1814 ! 

Suppfi/  of  Pepper,— The  following  instructive  details 
with  respect  to  the  supply  of  pepper  ore  taken  from  the 


soin,  and  Kunipop — tho  first  two  being  under  the 
dominion  of  Slam,  and  the  latter  under  that  of  Kain- 
boja.  The  whole  produce  is  estiiiintcd  at  not  less  than 
1)0,000  piciilr ;  10,000  of  which  are  brought  at  once  to 
tho  capital  of  Siam  as  tribute  to  the  Iting,  and  tho 
whole  finds  its  way  to  C'liina  in  junks.  It  remains 
only  to  estimate  tho  jiroduco  of  tho  island  of  Itorneo, 
The  whole  produce  of  Borneo  is  estimated  at  about 
'20,000  piculs;  of  which  a  largo  share  is  carried  to 
China  direct  in  junks,  some  by  Portuguese  vessels ;  and 


ainjapore  Chronicle,  to  which  they  were  contributed  by  about  7001)  piculs  are  now  annually  brought  by  tho 
John  Crawfurd,  Esq.,  thin  whom  there  can  bo  no  more  native  craft  of  the  country  ilsolf  to  Singapore  in  tho 
competent  authority  as  to  such  subjects.     Of  all  the    course  of  that  free  trade  which  is  happily  nourishing 


products  of  tlio  Eastern  islands,  and  of  tho  countries 
immediately  in  their  neighborhood,  in  demand  among 
strangers,  black  pepper  is  tho  most  important,  both  in 
value  and  quantity.  Tho  pepper  countries  extend 
from  about  the,  long,  of  96°  to  that  of  116^  E.,  I)eyond 
whicli  no  pepper  is  to  be  found ;  and  they  reach  from 
5°  S.  lat.  to  about  12°  N.,  where  it  again  ceases. 
Within  thcso  limits  wo  havo  Sumatra,  Horneo,  the 
Slalayan  peninsula,  and  certain  countries  lying  on  the 


at  this  settlement.  The  data  which  havo  been  stated 
will  enable  us  to  estimate  the  whole  production  of  tho 
Malayan  Arcliipelogo,  including  that  of  the  peninsula 
^f  Malacca,  and  tliat  of  tho  east  coast  of  the  (Iulf  of 
Siam,  at  30«,000  piculs ;  and  as  there  is  no  other  part 
of  tho  world  that  affords  pepper,  excepting  tlie  western 
coast  of  tlic  peninsula  of  India,  and  this  affords  but 
30,000  piculs,  or  less  than  one-tenth  part  of  what  tlio 
places  wu  havo  enumerated  produce,  we  have,  accord- 


cast  coast  of  tho  Gulf  of  Siuin.  The  whole  produce  of  I  ingly,  at  one  view  tlie  whole  production  of  the  eurlli, 
the  island  of  Sumatra  is  estimated  not  to  fall  short  of  i  being  SlJiHiOOO  piculs,  or  l."p,Oi;fi,<iljli  Uis.  avoirdupois. 
I(i8,000  piculs  of  133i  lbs.  each ;  the  southwest  coast !  The  average  price  of  pepper  has  been  lately  about  nine 
being  said  to  produce  150,000,  and  the  northeast  coast  Spanish  dollars  a  picul ;  so  that  tho  whole  value  drawn 
18,000  piculs.  The  pepper  ports  on  the  northeast  coast '  into  India  from  Europe,  China,  and  tlio  N(!W  ^N'urld, 
of  Sumatra  are  Lankat  and  Delii,  with  Sardang.  The  !  on  account  of  this  single  commodity,  is  3,012,000  dol- 
iirst  two  produce  15,000  piculs,  and  tho  latter  3000  an-  |  lars.  The  quantity  given  in  tliis  statement  may  ap- 
nually.  Tho  cultivation  is  carried  on  by  tho  Batta  j  pear  enormous ;  but  if  met  nut  to  the  w  hole  jiopula- 
nation  In  the  interior.  Tho  ports  on  the  southwest  j  tion  of  the  globe,  or  to], OOi.,OOU,000  of  people,  it  would 
coast,  and  tho  amount  of  their  produce,  as  given  in  a  |  be  found  that  the  average  annual  consumption  of  an 
recent  estimate,  are  as  follows :  viz.,  port  and  district  I  Individual  would  amount  to  no  moce  than  323  grain; 


of  Trumali,  40,000;  district  of  Pulo  Dua,  4000;  ditto 
of  Cluat,  ,SO,000 ;  coast  from  Tampat  Tuan  to  Susu, 
.33,000;   port  of  Susu,   1000;   Kualla  Datta,   20,000; 
Analabu,   2000;  districts  to  tho  north  of  Aualabu, 
'20,000 ;  making  in  all,  150,000  piculs.     Here  it  is  of 
importance  to  remark  that  tlic  culture  and  production 
are  extremely  fluctuating.     During  the  last  pepper 
season,  there  obtained  cargoes  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra,  27  American  ships,  si.v  country  traders,  four 
large  French  ships,  liesides  tho  ships  belonging  to  the 
East  India  Company,  which  generally  take  away  500 
tons.     Nearly  the  whole  of  this  trade  is  in  the  hands 
of  Europeans  or  Americans ;  tho  pepper  finds  its  way 
to  Europe,  to  America,  and  in  a.  small  proportion  to 
China.     Tho  nortlieast  coast  of  Sumatra,  from  Pedicr 
down  to  the  Carimons,  is  estimated,  as  already  men-  j 
tioncd,  to  produce  18,000  piculs.     Prince  of  Wales ; 
Island  is  tho  principal  depot  for  thii,  from  whence  tlif 
greatest  part  is  exported  to  India  and  China.     Tlic 
produce  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island  itself  is  about  15,000 
piculs.     Of  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  Straits  of  ] 
Malacca  and  Singapore,  Bingtang,  on  which  Khio  is  j 
situated,  and  a(\jacent  islands,  produce  10,000  piculs;  | 
and  Lingga  about  2000.     A  large  proportion  of  this  is  j 
brought  to  Singapore,  which  exported  last  year  about 
21,000  piculs ;  some  part  to  liungal  and  China,  but  1 


Mr.  Crawfurd  has  more  recently  supplied  a  revised 
estimate  of  the  annual  production  of  pepper  as  follows ! 

Poundn. 

Sumatra  ("est  const) 2(p,(IUU,ik)0 

•■       (onKti-onsl) 8,000,001) 

Islnnila  in  tliu  Straits  of  Mafacca ''''i'f*''U'.'P 

Mnlny  pculnsuia :l,V:i!l,.".:i^l 

Horuco li,«ui'i,Oiii 

.siani 8.0(KI,(iO.I 

Malabar 4.mVM<,> 

Total .Mi.OiHi.iiOo 

Imi'Outs  or  PErPKii  into  tup.  I'.mted  St.vths  ion  Tim 

VK.\R  EMIINC,    ,HfSE   30T11,  I  STXi, 


Whence  imported. 


h 


IVjU'pr,  tilncV, 


PoundF.    I    Vftliii 


Uamlinrg 

llnllanci I 

Dutch  Wcft  Indies 

Dutch  Kasi  Indies 

I'.n^land 

flritish  West  Indies 

llritiBh  Toss,  in  Africa, . 

British  East  Indies 

Kranco  on  the  Atlantic  . 
Spain  on  tho  Atlantic. 
Spain  on  tho  Mcditcr'u, 

(Hiba 

I'orts  in  Africa 

Mexico 

Chiua,. 


2,'29-2,'J71 
9,224 


3,0':S,Ufll 
60 


2T,154 


Total I'l.TaT.HOU  |$3lil. 


.'is!i)(i4 

103,W>7 

err. 


lOO.Ulft 
Hi 


Pi'l'lHT.  rt-d. 


919 

i'tVsm 

4,'.'.'i0 

2,i.:);i7 

,'i,4(l(! 

' '  fthi 

K3,144 

790 

iii.Vo.'S 


118,741 


1133 
20R 

no 

771 
41C 

' '  81 

1359 

74 

'l'o's7 


iimi'i 


TER 


1514 


PER 


Perota,  or  Rod,  a  ton*;  iiicnauro,  1 6^  fuel  In  longth, — 
See  Wkiciiith  and  AIkami'iiks. 

'  .rfume  (Kr.  imr/um),  a  tvrm  used  td  denote  the 
\.  ..lilo  I'Ifluvia  from  any  body  affeotinK  the  orKan  of 
■melliii);,  or  the  substance  cmitthig  those  elHuvU. 
Perfumes  were  in  Roneral  use  among  the  aneiunts  (ace 
the  Qmtrterly  J/et-iew,  vol.  xxiii.) ;  and  in  France,  (ior- 
many,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  even,  though  not  to 
so  considerable  an  extent,  in  Kngland,  they  are  regard- 
ed almost  as  necessaries.  In  general  they  are  made 
of  musk,  ambergris,  civet,  rose,  and  cedar  woods,  or- 
ange flowers,  jessamines,  jonquils,  tuberoses,  and  otiier 
odoriferous  flowers.  Aromatic  drugs,  such  as  storux, 
frankincense,  benzoin,  cloves,  etc.,  ei\ter  into  the  com- 
position of  a  perfume ;  and  many  perfumes  are  com- 
posed of  aromatic  herbs  or  leaves,  as  lavender,  mar- 
joram, sage,  thyme,  etc. 

Feifumery.  Many  of  the  v..  res  coming  under 
this  name  were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  Scrip- 
tures abound  with  instances  of  the  use  of  incenses  and 
perfumes.  No  such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was  known  in 
Scotland  in  1763. — Creech.  A  stamp  tax  was  laid  on 
various  articles  of  perfumery  in  England,  and  the  vend- 
er was  obliged  to  take  out  a  license,  in  1786.  At  tlie 
comer  of  Ueaufort  Buildings,  in  the  Strand,  resided 
Lilly  the  perfumer,  mentioned  In  the  iSpertaror. — I.Eioii, 

Some  of  the  most  exquisite  of  perfumes  arc  obtained 
from  the  most  offensive  substances.  In  olden  times 
the  most  delicate  perfumes  were  distilled  from  flowers, 
whose  names  they  bore ;  but  chemistry  has  shown  how 
to  obtain  them  from  other  sources.  To  give  one  ex- 
ample, a  peculiarly  fetid  oil,  called  fusel-oil,  is  formed 
during  the  making  of  brandy  and  whisky.  Now  this 
loathsome  oil,  ly  a  particular  mode  of  treatment,  is 
made  to  yield  the  .'-"grant  oil  of  pears;  by  another 
process,  oil  of  upplea;  and  by  others,  o.V  if  grapes  and 
oil  of  c'lijnac.  'Hie  oil  of  pine-apples  is  produced  f^om 
sugar  and  putrid  cheese.  The  oil  of  bitter  almonds  is  a 
resultant  from  aquafortis  and  the  oflensivc  oils  from 
gas  tar.  The  dainty  eaii  de  millejleurs  is  made  I'rom 
the  drainage  of  cow-houses.  And  in  all  these  cases, 
there  is  not  the  same  kind  uf  fraud  which  is  |)racticed 
in  ordinary  adulterations ;  for  though  the  perfumes  arc 
not  actually,  in  the  present  state  of  things,  produced 
from  the  flowers  and  fruits  which  give  tliom  their 
names,  yet  they  are  really  idenlical^  or  nearly  so,  in 
chemical  composition  with  the  original  perfumes;  na- 
ture mixes  the  ingredients  in  one  case,  man  in  the 
other,  but  the  ingredients  are  tlie  same.  The  passion 
for  perfumes  is  increasing.  Uritish  India  and  Europe 
consume  about  150,0UO  gallons  of  handkerchief  odors 
yearly  ;  and  the  English  revenue  from  eaii  de  Cologne 
is  about  8U00  pounds  sterling  a  year.  The  total  reve- 
nue from  imported  pcrfum-'s  in  England  is  estimated 
at  a1>out  .£40,000  sterling  per  i.nnn.n.  The  largest 
revenues  of  the  estates  on  tlie  borders  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean arc  those  which  proceed  from  the  sale  of  the 
orange  blossoms  and  Parma  violets.  The  house  uf 
Faguer,  83  Kue  de  liichclieu,  and  many  of  the  other 
perfumers  of  Paris,  pay  a  yearly  sum,  varying  from 
10  to  30,000  froncs,  to  the  proprietors,  for  their  whole 
crop  of  orango  lilossoms  or  violets,  fihefleurs  de  citri- 
onniar  oft'aijuer  is  one  of  the  favorite  and  most  delight- 
ful odors  used  for  scenting  the  pocket  handkerchief. 

Feriodictd  Publioationa.  These,  as  the  name 
implies,  are  publications  which  appear  at  flxed  periods 
or  stated  intervals,  and  conse(|uently  include  news- 
papers, monthly  and  other  magazines,  quarterly  re- 
views, and  journals,  and  all  sucit  bonks  as  appear  at 
monthly  or  other  intcrvols.  Hut  the  term  "  periodical 
publications"  is  usually  understood  in  a  moro  confined 
sense,  or  as  comprising  only  magazines  and  such  polit- 
ical, literary,  and  scicntilic  jounials  as  appear  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  without  including  newspapers  or  works 
published  in  parts.  Even  when  thus  restrioteil,  this 
Is  a  very  extensive  and  important  department  uf  litera- 
ture.    No  doubt  a  vast  deal  of  trash  gets  into  print  l>y 


the  agency  of  magazines  that  ndght  not  otherwito  SM 
the  light ;  but  moat  part  of  these  pulilications  contain 
at  the  same  time  some  superinr  articles ;  and  a  few  ars 
ably  conducted  ami  embrace  a  wide  range  of  topics, 
SInco  the  establishment  of  the  Edinburgh  Heview  in 
1802,  the  quarterly  journals,  especially  those  that  em- 
brace politics  and  literature,  have  risen  to  great  emi- 
nence, and  have  hid  a  powerftil  influence  over  the  piili- 
lic  mind.  At  present,  however,  and  for  some  lime 
past,  the  influence  of  this  class  of  Journals  has  been  de- 
clining. An  ably  conducted  daily  paper  is,  at  this 
moment,  by  far  the  nic.H  powerful  engine  the  press  can 
bring  into  the  fleld. — .svp  NKwsrAPKiis.  For  further 
information  refer  to  American  Almanac,  1835,  p,  97,  260, 
188(!,  p.  !)2 ;  A'ocM  American  Herieir,  xxxlx.  277  (J.  (i. 
Pai.kkkv);  ^Southern  lAtermij  Messenger,  ii.  808;  West- 
minster  Ueriew,  I,  206,  ii.  •leS;  Kdinburgh  Keriew, 
x.xxviii.  l)li»;  ^tni;n'ra»  Quarterly  Observer,  iii.  186. 

Femambuoo  Provllioe.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  provinces  In  lirazil.  It  abounds  with  many 
good  harbors,  and  possesses  an  exceedingly  fertile  soil. 
Its  chief  staples  are  sugar,  cotton,  and  hides.  Of  these 
its  average  annual  exports  from  1840  to  1846  were  as 
follows:  Sugar,  84,177  tons;  cotton,  32,279  bags  (160 
lbs.  each);  hides,  72,500.  The  city  of  Pernambuco 
maintains  the  third  rank  in  the  empire.  There  are  In 
this  province  about  six  humlred  "  cugenhos,"  or  sugar 
estates,  each  covering  about  one  square  league.  On 
each  ciigenho  are  produced  annually  about  fifty  cases 
of  white,  and  five  of  brown,  or  muscovado  sugar — or 
furty  tons  of  the  former,  and  four  and  a  half  tons  of 
the  latter — equal  to  about  24,000  tons  of  white,  and 
2550  tons  of  brown,  for  the  whole  province.  The  prov- 
ince is  estimated  to  be  capable  of  yielding  896,800  tons 
of  white,  and  40,800  tons  of  muscovado  sugar.  Im- 
ports from  the  United  States  consist  chiefly  of  cotton 
domestics.  Fabrics  of  this  kind,  thirty  yards  In  length, 
and  twenty-seven  to  twcnty-eig!it  Inches  in  width,  are 
in  demand,  and  bring  niucli  better  prices  than  similar 
goods  from  England.  Of  late  years  the  manufacturers 
of  Lancashire  have  imitated  these  cloths,  and  have 
succeeded  in  sharing  the  advantages  which  the  Amer- 
ican article  had  secured,  in  printed  cottons  Manches- 
ter and  (ilasgow  almost  monopolize  the  markets  of 
Pernambuco.  The  quality  as  well  as  the  cheapness  of 
their  goods  have  secured  this  privilege.  The  import- 
ation of  butter,  hitherto  almost  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  French,  might  bo  advantageously  shared 
by  the  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

In  1!U0  the  French  Imported 41G0|  firkins. 

"  1R41  "  "        5549 

"  ]84'2  "  •'        BHIO 

"  1843  "  "         70S1         " 

"  1844  "  "        8962        " 

In  1840  were  Imported  from  Crest  Britain  448T       " 
"  1841  "  "  388!) 

"  1848  "  "  8240        " 

"  1848  "  "  40i2        " 

"  1S44  "  "  3010 

The  productiun  of  cotton  has  diminished,  owing 
mainly  to  the  expense  attending  its  transportation  to 
market ;  but  the  production  of  sugar  has  increased. 
From  1828  to  1831,  the  average  annual  export  was 
l,G07,.')89  arrobas,  and  in  the  years  1841  to  1844  it  was 
augmented  to  2,083,212  arrobas;  being  an  annual  in- 
crease of  475,823  arrobas,  or  0797^  tons.  The  num- 
ber of  hides  exported  during  the  two  periods  of  four 
years  aliovc-named  increased  in  a  still  greater  ratio 
than  sugar.  From  1828  to  1831  the  annual  average 
export  was  60,272  hides ;  and  during  tlie  latter  four 
years,  from  1841  to  1844,  the  same  average  augmented 
to  122,573  hides  per  annum ;  showing  an  annual  in- 
crease of  62,301  hides.  It  has  already  been  observed 
that  if  the  export  duty  levied  upon  the  produce  of 
Brazil  transmitted  to  foreign  ports  were  modified  or 
repealed,  a  vast  augmentation  in  agricultural  produc- 
tions would  unquestionably  follow.  While  an  export 
duty  of  ten  per  cent,  on  the  weekly  average  price  of 


And< 


1828. 

1829.. 

1830... 

1S3I... 

ISq-J.. 

1833.. 

1834... 

IKTO... 

1830... 

1837 . . . 
ISiiS... 
1839... 
1840. . . 
1841.. 
1842... 
1843... 
1844... 
i  I8-«S..., 


Valce ( 


Value  of 
In  1845: 
francs ;  I 


■'■'Y  -^''T*"  ■•  "^,  7f>'" 


PER 


1AI5 


VM 


sugar  contlnuea,  am)  a  similar  duty  on  cotton,  coffeo, 
tobacco,  rum,  hidca,  and,  with  one  or  two  unlmporMnt 
exceptions,  on  all  other  articles  produced  In  the  coun- 
try, the  producing  interests  must  remain  cripc'.v.,  and 
exportation)  either  continue  to  l)e  stationary  or  de- 
crease, Tlie  cotton  and  sugar-growing  districts  sult'tr 
most  under  these  heavy  taxes  upon  their  industry  and 
capital.  The  planters  are  obliged  to  carry  cotton  and 
sugar  to  Pernambuco  by  hnrse  conveyance,  a  distance 
of  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  leagues,  during  the  dry 
season,  when  food  and  water  are  dilficult  to  bo  al)tain- 
ed.  These  charges  ara  snch,  In  addition  to  those  im- 
posed by  law,  that  when  the  planter  reaches  market 
his  cotton  hardly  yields  him  sot  four  cents  per  lb, 
And  so  with  his  sugar,  and  all  other  heavy  produce. 

The  navigation  and  trade  of  Pernambuco  in  \Hii)' 
stood  as  follows:  Inward  from  all  nations— Vessels, 
242;  tonnage,  49,790  ^  value  of  cargoes,  14,186,075. 
Of  which  from  tho  United  States :  Vesselc,  «5 ;  ton- 
nage, 6U7  ;  value  of  cargoes,  |602,076.  .  ward  Id 
all  nations  — Vessels,  226;  tonnage,  48,6  i9;  value  of 
cargoes.  H4,5B7,870.  Of  which  to  the  \jnitcd  Slates ; 
Vessels,  19;  tonnage,  3216;  value  of  cargoes,  |2H3,4tiO. 
Uuring  the  year  1846  two  United  States  vessels  went 
south  with  cargoes ;  two  were  sold,  and  four  remained 
in  port.  This  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  account  for  the 
difference  between  tlio  values  of  Imports  and  exports 
to  and  from  the  United  States,  as  above  shown. 

The  vessels  from  the  Unile(l  States  imported  as  fal- 
lows : 

Cottons 1018  pockagea 

Silks 8 

AVoulens  i>nd  Bilks 1        " 

Flour 24,918  barrels. 

Do 043  halt-barrcla 

And  on  return  voyage  home,  exported — 

8uir«r 9,104  barrels. 

Do 20,4 1 0  bags. 

Total  quantity  of  sugar  produced  and  entered  in  the 
market  of  Pernambuco  in  tho  years  1814  and  1815  : 

In  1844 AiTobas,  2,140,088  =  Pounils,  63,6^4,027 

In  1846 "        2,466,324=       "        78,906,871 

Of  which  were  sent,  in  1845,  to  the  United  Stales, 
184,417  arrobas  26  l^s,  =  (ut  32  lbs.  to  arroba)  5,901,:il4 
lbs. 

//i'</?«. — Total  number  exported  to  all  countries  :  In 
1844, 12 1,074  ;  in  1845, 163,935.    Of  which  to  tho  Unit- 
ed States,  10,888. 
Total  Exk)kt»  or  C:otton,  Svoab,  anp  IIiiiF.a  fbom  Peb- 

NAMIIUCO  KIIOM  18'2S  TO  1346,  UDKI  I^(•|,l■BlV^;. 


VMiwim  »i»WrtW«li  VI  .«(,t  iiifjrtniM  tn  184*.  imwrAait 


|__V£1K 

U(«.., 
ISIT... 


WilH  (' 

in.m.m 
ii,iU,im 


M  FKANia 

f,lM,Mifi  I  l.<iMi,n(Ni  I   M.nno  | 

i'riMn  the  [irmmUttH  Uliitt  It  will  !■«  seen  that  the 
in.  iH  at  Vmmmhmii  *n<i  luutv  tirlsk  In  Ifll7  than 
during  tliu  \ifumUnis  );>'»*'  "Of'af  •«  lli*  leading  artl- 
r\a  ill  Ihi*  imrkff,  HlHi  ii  c*|(i(Hci,  lo  kiigland,  Trieste, 
UuiioD,  l'urliiiii«l,  (liH  iinnh  iif  k,in  tre,  and  to  the  i;nlt- 
cd  .Staliis.  TliM  niftti  K*i«if(ii  (,f  eut,tt  from  llraiil  art 
thus  di»lrlNM  (\mmtihiM  ^Un  poils  of  the  empire. 
Tho  e«put'ta  fof  IHIIilHK  inUftt  «sa  b«8.  i  for  calculation ! 


Veim.                 1 

Codon 

Sugar 

Hidei. 

1929           

Bau 

70,785 
(^,820 
61,161 
68,167 
31,620 
63,664 
42,790 
62,142 
62,832 
43,847 
60,648 
30,173 
35,849 
20,990 
21,367 
35,900 
41,385 
20,502 

Arrobai. 
1,460,023 
1.40.1,  .332 
1,705614 
1,799,98;-. 
1,.')1)<,300 
1,301,012 
854.033 
l,;i.31,8-8 
1,82S,392 
1,480,420 
1,760,380 
1,878.676 
2,191,093 
2,261,099 
1.900.930 
2,017,5-22 
2,140,688 
2,566,824 

Number. 
52,444 
40,573 
65,480 
70,534 
06,650 
84,743 
80,850 
91,492 
90,701 
93,771 
105.851 
111,053 
132,993 
136.494 
126,2!'0 
104,423 
124.074 
103,935 

1329 

1830 

IS31      

1832 

1833     

1834     

Iftjl5 

1830     

1S37    

18;13   

lSSi9 

1840   

1841    

1842 

1843 

1344     

1816 

BahU. 

I'vriianilwm..,,. .,,,,,, 

Klu  lllt,l»llu)rU..M  ;.'.'.-.'; 

Tuliil  kljii  ^l()  j(«(l«()il, 


li(i«  " 

4>i,m.iiiiii 


f*minH* 

T8Tiw3,4flrr 


7IT<Mi.(i«r 
K..xi'iiHT o¥  uvuAn mm  t'fiHtiAmniti  nrnt  ism m  hm. 


8I,2M,000 

9.S'.l-i,8JO 

TSfliJiifiT.iiio" 


^tfuitii4  U* 


Number  of  vessels  to  and  from  the  United  States  in 
Pernambuco  in  1846:  Vessels,  117,  of  30,801  tons. 

Valce  or  lurOHTB  raou  and  Exports  to  all  Cocntbies. 

IS45  1846. 

Imports Francs,  24,567,000        17,930,090 

Exports "       20,327,000       19,851,000 

Value  of  Imports  and  exports  from  the  United  States 
In  1845:  Imports,  1,928,000  francs;  exports,  041,000 
ftancs ;  total,  2,509,000  francs. 


Oi-eat  nrltaiii  , , 
l-'rauco  -N»nl<i» 

lUVfU..;.,        ...   , 

HarwillM  ,    ■ , 
Nort'ioni  lvurB(»»  . ,  • 

(iuiioa  ...,...,.., 

Trli-slo ,.....,;,,... 

(ill)raltar<t;o-»i)i)ifk»iH 
l'ill-tU|(sl  Ullll  ffuutviliii'itlH 
iJiUcd  isluU*. , 
Ijil'lala..,,!! 
Valiwraliig  ,,,, 
AiiKd-alia. ..,,,,, 
llrazlliaii  port*  r, 
Total...,,. 


r"!!** 


■ !  1 1 1 1  n  t 
I II t  III 1 1 
II 1 1  III :  1 


1,120 

iMI) 

H.m 
mi 

ii;»f4 


l«M  •ll_ 
im 
15,09  I 

■  'wi  • 

ft.  79: 
2.041 
4.W4 
n,»7tf 
4  7(1 
4.fN:) 
10,437 
»,liH 
1,343 

ii.hW 


fmiT '  6i  'ir 


The  siiysr  liru'llMC'}  ill  \\v>  (itot-jtit-e  (if  I'crnttmbtico 
amouiita  l(j  al«)|(t  »II,WHI  |((H<i  n  ifnt,  ><t  wlik-h  60,000 
arc  expiirlcd  U>  fufniiiii  M»((Hlfi(?i,  MrtiO  coastwise,  and 
15,000  ai-o  mmmi  f'tf  ll«me  mMm^aUm.  There  are 
ubuut  1000  eugeolm  (*f  ellutif  Mlales,  2r.7  of  which 
havu  been  cstuWI'illPlI  HillllH (h«  laH  Ifn  years.  They 
average  in  ei^teilt  ttlwHt  iwe  mmte  (niic!<,  and  their 
crops  vary  from  iOH  turn  m  »  iw«xliiiiim  lo  .SO  as  a 
minimum ;  or  »t  »ll  »V«f«jj«  "C  «''""'  'f'  'ens  each. 
Very  few  cugoiiho^  (itttijow  (//O  slates,  ntid  the  small- 
est not  muie  tli^ii  }l)  of  (ijj  Ihs  ftVeMKn  number  of 
slaves  eniploytil  pii  m'h  Klj^fUhl)  Is  alitiiit  50,  so  that 
,')0,000  may  be  sM  to  Iw  Ufff  CIHf/loted  1(1  sugar  culti- 
vation.    They  Ufa  hlV\\jf  Ifcdlwl  flOil  Um\  worked. 

I'eriiomhuco  }ini  imitjf  lif  (l((<  ptivjieges  of  a  sov- 
ereign state;  it  Ims  il^  fltm  (ifpsldwt,  provincial  and 
niunieipal  diaiitliBrs,  ki,im  «  piiHUHI  tit  Its  own  taxes, 
ftiid  maiiitttins  a  inilltJA  wlilill  mt  dot  he  removed 
from  the  provinco,  It  i^itiU  (mtf  WHators  and  fifteen 
repre.-enutives  (o  tiio  iMI(i»ri((l  ^((VptHHiehl  — elected, 
the  former  fur  iifB,  ah4  lllf  kUff  (iif  hitt  years,  by  al- 
most universal  hot  iHiliffift  sHlttSgS;  f he  Imperial 
revenue  levied  willijli  tl(»'  fifgviiwe  Hi  I«i9-'.'j0  amount- 
ed to  £542,423 ;  ill  JiJnrt-'nl  U)  £m,m  j  and  as  these 
sums  are  derived  ijtl^lly  ftlXIt  itiipofia  Htlit  e.xports,  and 
no  additional  liotius  (iftv»i  li^^lt  iHHwsed,  ilie  increase  is 
a  proof  of  its  lomMiBwiftl  ((Wsffeflfi-..  the  details  of 
the  latter  year's  B«lll»r»l  rS¥PlltW  *fiV«  M  follows : 

Duties  upon  lniport«,,,,,,,(i..i I <<ni. J 1. -;.-..■<-  £428,105 
Unties  upon  expoita  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,n.-ij;.-.ii(      01,706 

Port  charges •,,,,,/,.■,.■.•,;.•.•.■  i .- 1  ;.■.■  i  j  j :;. .        7,983 

Post-office,  crowii  laiMis,  ^0  .-,, , .- .•.-,/ .-  .;.-(.■; .-  .• . . .  i      84,787 

F.itraortlinariea ,..••.-,:  m  / 1  .•.•.•.-.-/.■,.-. . 1,06* 

Deposits  for  charities,  r»i«it«t(e«  «li«(»(«(«(l  estates       3,578 

Reiuittance  of  funda  (fl  Hia  (wp^rill  ^mmff  . . .  i . .     160,854 

Total ,.,,,,,,,,,,,   ., ,, .... .... ..,.,;,....  £690,626 

In  1811  tho  receipt  rf  im(»^fist  W*f9  ftotn  the  prov- 
ince of  I'ernamhuw  »||iwtilW4  Ul  Wily  ilZffljffr.-J  11«.  2(J. ; 
so  that  in  the  conrse  sf  t#fl  y*i»f§  \l  U»a  tiearly  trebled. 
Provincial  taxes  »re  lavM  »\iim  Hlg»f,  (-ofl^e,  tobacco, 
cattle,  horses,  spirit*)  pftssfjorls,  li(''>lts<'9  for  potteries, 
saw-mills,  cigar  shops,  »»#♦  f  jijijiij  cU'.-  j  iiptrh  houses,  leg- 
acies, inheritancfis,  iil»v*!S,  tlw  lolil  lA  Witlges,  etc.,  etc. 
ToUl  amount  in  185«)^'6I,  £m,WI  k,  1  he  tntmiclpal 


I'EH 


1514 


rEK 


(kxi<»  irn  ilerlvtil  tmm  lliu  utanipinK  of  wrii^lil*  •uJ 
nionauri'S,  liiTiini'.i  lo  piililio  Ii<iiih<"<,  uihI  |ilurin  uf  i  ii 
tprtainmoiit,  I'ti'.  Tlicv  aiiiuiiiitvil  in  Ix.VJ  7i|  tn 
l'i.1,6<'in  rcala,  or  XI. '.^mi  lt<.  :<</.,  ti!iklii|{  ili«  tu4«l 
Uxution  nf  (liii  |in>vln<'u  ax  lolliiwa  : 

Impi-rlal  laiet Mining* 

ProTlnrlal I}U  Wl 

Municipal ,.,       tt.Hi* 

T()UI «Sl ;,«.« 

Of  theaii  aiinia  iicnrly  twD-lhlrdn  arc  nxiwinUil  l>y 
the  imporiiil  (fovprnmcnl ;  niid  In  thin  la  vWivHy  to  l<« 
atlriliiitcd  tlio  many  attcinptH  wliiili  huvn  l.ivii  iiiad« 
by  I'ornambiiro  lo  I'rci^  hcravlf  from  tlm  iiii|><'i'ial  !•««- 
ncceion;  andlf  lliu  wcixlit  ufa  coiiiitrv't  laMiliuii  iiin) 
bo  jiiilgeil  of  l)y  ill  rclaliiin  l<>  ihu  luiiijliir  of  ii»  iiihaii- 
itantK.  the  pruvliirp  nf  I'vrn.iinliucu  i»  an  licavliy  laxfl 
aa  moat  European  atutcs.  Tlio  population  n(  tlx'  prov 
Inco  of  I'onianiliuco  amounlcMl,  ncrorilliig  lo  Hii'  lutt 
census,  to  IKMi.lCKi;  of  llieao  li;),IU..'  uru  wliilf,  itM 
4ti<l,«:i  1  loloriMl  i  viz.,  lOTH  Inili  in»,  iH:'  tW.>  iiiulullut'*, 
anil  137,1171  lilavka  .  ri()fi,702  wit.;  frt'f,  ami  imx-il  »w 
•liivcs  ;  l)l."),7l!)  nialon,  ami  •.".a,l.i7  fiiimU'H.  liul  tl»i' 
population  niuat  liavo  liitTeaBod  conaiderably  of  Ittti; 
years. 

Pernambuoo,  a  clly  an<l  aea-jiort  i-f  I)ray.il,  iuff- 
rior  only  to  liio  Janeiro  and  Ilaliia  in  coiunien  iai  im 
portancu ,  capital  of  lliu  provinro  of  ita  own  name,  t»i 
tlio  Atlantic,  at  llin  mouth  of  the  Capubarilx',  ilO  iiiiltD 
northeast  from  lialiia,  lalitudu  of  liL;hl-liou>e,  V  3 
2.1  S.;  longitude,  31°  52  W.  I'opulalioM  eslimaiti'J 
in  1852  at  KlO.OfH).  It  coiisisia  of  tlio  separate  towiw 
of  Ulinila.  liuelfu,  Doa-Vista,  and  >St.  Antonio;  the  t'lM 
of  which  is  on  the  main  land,  and  Itio  others  lie  kouiIi 
fi"om  it  on  a  succession  of  low  sandy  linnks,  sei)afai.e4 
by  salt-water  creeks  and  dillerent  anus  of  the  river, 
but  eonnected  with  each  other  by  two  bri<lges.  U<i ife, 
or  rernambuco  proper,  the  most  iinutlieriy,  aljout  tour 
miles  southwest  from  Olinda,  is  defended  by  liie  prin- 
cipal forts,  anil  comprises  tho  dock-yard  and  tlic  large 
merchants'  warehouses.  In  St.  Antonio  are  the  gov. 
crnor's  palace,  formerly  tho  Jesuits' convent ;  the  treas- 
ury, town-hall,  prison,  barracks,  with  fonvcnt.",  i  liiireh- 
C9,  and  several  good  S(|uarcs.  A  long  enibunknuul 
connects  this  town  with  tho  main  land.  Boa-Vi.-ta  i.- 
cxtensivc,  but  irregularly  laid  out;  it  has  one  hand 
ioiiio  street,  and  comprises  tho  residences  of  many  of 
the  richer  inhabitants  of  the  clly,  with  gurdins,  ^ari- 
ous  churches  and  convents,  etc.  Olinda,  thoiin''  '*»«- 
tifully  situated,  Is  In  a  state  of  decay,  having  Uvn  Al- 
iened by  many  of  its  population  for  Hecife  and  (hie 
other  parts  of  tho  city.  The  harbor  of  J'ernanibuco  i» 
defended  from  tho  swell  of  tlio  ocean  by  an  exli-neive 
reef  (rcn/f),  which,  according  to  Koster,  <>ontinue9  aloHij 
the  whole  coast  fhnn  Maranlmm,  at  a  variable  di$l»U(X' 
from  tho  shore,  ond  has  numberless  breaks,  through 
which  ships  approach  tho  land.  This  reef,  whidi  h 
said  to  be  of  coral,  "  is  scarcely  sixteen  feet  broad  <M 
top ;  it  slopes  off  mora  rapidly  than  tho  Plymouth 
breakwater,  to  a  great  depth  on  the  outside,  and  i»  |)ef  • 
pendicular  within  to  many  fathoms."  — (Jimiian,  in 
Modem  TraitUr,  .\xx.,  '228,  This  natural  bn'akwatej' 
forms  the  harbor;  for  though  at  high-water  the  wave* 
beat  over  it,  they  strike  the  quays  and  buildings  of  tlte 
town  with  diminished  fbro'.  Along  the  sandy  oack  i;f 
land  between  Olindii  and  Koa-Vista,  however,  wbkb  i» 
not  covered  by  the  reef,  tho  surf  is  very  violent ;  birt 
tho  harbor  itself  is  quite  safe  for  vessels  that  are  welt- 
found  and  well-nioorcd.  It  consists  of  two  parts — tin' 
Poco,  capable  of  receiving  vessels  of  400  tons  and  up- 
ward, entered  across  a  bar  on  which  there  are  from 
seventeen  to  thirty  feet  of  water,  and  the  Hosqueirax. 
much  bettor  protected  than  the  former,  but  on  tlie  l>«r 
vt  which  there  arc  but  seven  feet  of  water  at  ebb-tide. 
Vessels  trading  with  Pemambuco  should  not,  however. 
draw  more  than  from  fen  to  twelve  feet  of  water.— 
BIiVnt's  Amerimn  Cnatl  IHlot,  519.  The  harbor  is  de- 
fended by  several  strong  military  works,  the  priaejp,4 


latino ^^^^l titmf  IntUi^  tto  llnrncn  nn  I  |io  tlrum.  Tha 
II^L Immmk, ''»  •  >**f  «l  Ih*  rntramc  iotli<'  biiilKir,  hat 
a  r»*».^*(WK  (IkW.  — /»»»  I'd'iviNi  r  <iii  I'kii.namiih  u{ 

^'H^iuft  ♦■»•«*•«  af.-'  till*  allowiil  10  engage  In  Iha 
nmttitHi  (t)i4ti,  Imi  ihfy  ran  load  hern  for  a'.i>  foreign 
fit/H  \nt*U  tttftn  IhK  Inifil  Htatea  ran  iliaclmrgo 
ftiWt  >4 HtHf  Hint",  liKh  if  desired,  they  inn  prnteeil  on 
wlillii  ||««  ffmititKt*t  III  tiahitt,  l!io  dii  Jaiii'iro,  etc. 

'Htufn  Hfx  mi  innnnnten  nihrra  here,  nil  liiialneaa  of 
iU#l  I'»l4  t»init  'fMM  rither  In  the  liniteil  .Slater  or  En- 
tgtimtt  MftlU  tufiiU  in  hand,  •  rommia^luii  of  2^  per 
<'A'M(.  t»  fitn^tlfit  VeKrN  ntf  grncrnily  ■  hnrtcred  I  olli 
»«>«,  ttrnfttiK  #Hh  Hftiir,  (he  chnrlin'r  atipiilallng  fur 
a  nittrtl  H»ftnf4  nitLitt.  Ve««il»  lotning  out  on  ibeir 
imu  Hn-iHttH  Im*<>  fieeft  chnrlered  hack  this  niiiHun  as 
)tntf  #«  f»  mtitit  M  li«g  of  ICiO  Itm.  I  dually,  however, 
I^A'  (fttinH  imtgn  Inun  80  certs  to  (ll  per  liag.  Thero 
U  MM  (*•(«*•«  liittf  Ift  exihiingn  beliveeii  this  port  and 
timt'MftH  *f*»e»,  i**eepl  the  few  whaliTi'  iliafl.s  that 
a*'«  ^>ttt>ittti^  Mt  itiitn  (wo  lo  twelve  (K'niiit.  di.«ount. 
'\'itH^it\wi4 i^  Milreia  is  jjoverni'il  liy  tho  alateof  ex- 
i'Uittttu' 141  ^>t!lan'l.  'Ihe  principal  airticles  imported 
Ifimt  hIm  i  mini  Sfst^s  ««•  Hour  ntid  ten.  Tlie  former 
|>«^« « liut^ i49>  itiWtfX*  (>t\  /lO)  per  barrel,  and  tlie  lat- 
%i.f  tmfVlHtHt^U  (MH'fiii*!  |*r  lb. ;  hainji  pay  tiOrcis  (^3 
lieDtD)  fnif  (*<  j  tnl<iH^<tt  fiitf*  IHO  reis  (!•  cents)  per  lb. 
y^uiiMf  im4  ttUifiUHK  Ihf  only  nrtidei  of  export  worth 
mmtUmmit.  fttlgHf  pny*  «n  export  iluty  of  eight  per 
A-fitt  '(<**  ^«Wflf»  drily  on  Mil<!<  is  tin  per  cent,  on  a 
MtitmtUiti  ft.**'!  #eek(y  by  a  coiniiiittei'  appointed  for 
Ittx  (MtH4if.  'f  he  'inly  articles  on  which  tlii.'*  govcrn- 
umtt  U'^i"!  H  Hifffimt'rn'  tax  are,  all  spirituous  ami 
Dtitii  ti/fin/f*.-  i-iltl>t\  tobacco,  soap,  ami  aiiutl".  Wines 
•■'I'l  ^i4^Hf/tt  (rt»y  f)  itttl^  a  rnnadn  (1^  gallons");  ."lU 
.  t-ttt*.  iti  M^tilttm  (If  (hU,  'n  levied  on  enc h  pipe  for  w  hat 
liM  tkf-t*f  imitn  '  eharilable  purposes. '  Ciguis  pay 
./iu*ii(*fii'ftH(lll,  (obscco.  I  cent  per  lb. ;  Hoap,  U  cents 
iiHtUt  'ttii*  '«.«  »flec(a  the  I'niled  Slates  only  in  to- 
!a»h»w#Wii1  o««ff.— f  Ww/nr  Ht  turns /nr  the  Cnited  Slalei, 

Wsny,  h  fnt,yi'itini  Jif|nor  made  from  pears,  in  Iho 
ntDti-  M/tMii*t  MK  cMer  from  apples.  Tlie  pears  ln-st 
fititA'j  (/4  j/tmitititiK  (his  li<|'U>r  are  excciiliiiyly  har«h 
itMt'tft .  tmf  k  U  itself  pleafftnt  and  wholesome.— .See 

90fU,  f*  iff  Mir  of  South  America,  between  hit.  :i ' 
r,  m4  tV  i*'  f*..  Atid  long,  f.8"  and  81"  20  W.  Area, 
ffit>/IHti  stfUittn  tH}if!>.  Pern  is  bounded  north  by  F.i  iia- 
>)f>f,  ti#H  t/j^  titw.ii,  sonthcast  and  south  by  Ilolivia, 
^)4  »**(l  t'j'  Ihf  IVtfic  f >(ean.  Its  const  reaches  from 
lb«  tttfUHU'tif  thti  Uk>  Tiimbez  to  tlint  of  the  I.oa,  I'-'IO 
n/Hn.  mtiid^i  lAtltll.  All  the  moiiiilninsof  Peru  form 
^mn  iwf'J)*'  Uti'lll  i-lmin  (cordillcra')  of  the  Andes.  From 
t'i>rm,  JM  IMMm,-  it  Is  separated  into  two  clianif— that 
'/f  Attl'tiMMI'i  which  rms  frfrm  th"  en^t  lietwccn  the  prov- 
U»v*f4(''Ktlthit^l»  artrt  Azangaro,  in  the  department  of 
l'iH))f,Mm1  thtlt  whiefi  rnns  to  the  we.st  I'lrougli  Tama, 
Mmi(*>'|^W#,  K*i4  AtHf«ipn.  Ilcth  reunite  afterward  near 
Hhfttity  i4  (ttKHf  Itttd  again  separate,  tlw  one  running 
O)  Itm  ftttsi  (4'  ffc*  (ptwinces  of  lliianin  and  I'arnia,  and 
(itf  i4it*f  (fi  thf  *e«(  of  those  of  (a.-itrovireyim,  lluan- 
♦  ayHk*,  mfi  tltrntfrhm,  rcnniting  thcinselvcs  again 
in  l'*<«>M  t'ti/tn  Paiico  three  chains  detach  theni.selves 
— ttttt  Hi(M*tihi  >*»*een  (he  Rio  fluallaga  and  the  Pa- 
ki>itt%f  fh*  /'•ftttill  one  between  the  (iunllaga  and  Iho 
I'p^M-fMnHtfintt.-  Xtlii  (he  western  one  between  llie  lat- 
Uf  itt*4  Utf  nm*i  of  Tmjtllo  and  Paita.  These  several 
liMt^  W#«M*  in  (he  province  of  l.oja,  in  Ecuador. 
't^lti  4if»'>ii<m  (4  thfut  chains  of  mountains  deterniinea 
<t^  gftiitt  ^Mti^-y*  (4  (he  inferior  of  Pern.  The  lakes 
ttMfH  m4»tiU-  in  Pern  are  (hose  of  Titicoco,  between  tho 
tU-^mfi*tl*^(*'4VMK>iitx\  f/«  Paz,  the  latter  in  Bolivia  ; 
i)(  (l'f#/wi  Ui  (h*  wiuth  of  (he  city  of  Cu/co;  of  I'lcyes 
nf  JmiH  i  t(n4  f4  f,«nricoeha,  in  tho  department  of 
JuniH,.  (/#*<*  filifKfH  has  A  periphery  of  ninety  leagues, 
*fl4  >h#«  (4  imitt  of  (en  leagnes.    The  other  two  are 


PEtt 


1517 


PKR 


tntaller.     In  that  of  Laiiriioiht  llin  ttio  Marinnn  liaii 
Ita  lilrtli ;  in  that  of  .liiiilii,  the  llin  .liii^ii,  whlih  ninii 
intuthe  llniyali ;  ami  In  thiit  ofl'ltliacn,  the  hisuKua- 
(Ii!rrf(.unKlli')i,  imllrl),  whh  h  uniptlo*  intu  thci  l.ukn  uf 
I'aritt,  In  tlu'  Ui-pulilic  of  llullvla.     Thu  rlvcrn  of  IVrn 
lluw,  auin«  to  thu  I'uclllc  tjrciin,  othvrM  Into  tho  Anin- 
zon,  an<i  others  lnti>  I.iiku  'litlrani.    Th»«u  llint  comply 
Into  thii  I'ai'IMo  am  Ihr  Tunilx'/,  C'hira,  Sei-hura,  At:- 
qiiltiipmiuo,  Nafla.Vlru,  Mantu,  I'lituvllra,  lluuiiru.CliK- 
lun,  Uliiiri'',  Mala,  CaOcti>,  I'oaro,  Oconu,  I'umunn,  (Juki- 
I'U,  Tanilvi,  uxA  Ixm  ;  and  thunn  HuwIuk  '"  thii  Anm/.on 
art:  thu  I  unKaraguit  ur  Maranoii,  which  takna  thu  nunii' 
of  Aiimi'.oii  at  U.4  conllniinro  wlih  tha  Icayull,  tho  tin. 
allaKH,  thu  ri'uyiill  (I'ormcd  ly   tho  rivers  I'licliltea, 
Apurlnino,  nnil  lloni),  iinil  the  Uiu  Yavnri.     Thu  min- 
eral roaoiirci's  of  I'orn,  llko  those  of  Mfxiio,  aro  ini'X- 
haustililc.    Tho  very  name  of  thu  country  is  osauiialiMl 
In  llin  niinil  with  iJeus  of  Kuhl  and  silver      Ik.iidcs  thu 
procious  niotals,  howuvur,  tho  rountry  proiuics  coppur, 
tin,  iron,  •oal,  aaltpctru,  utu.,  in  almndancc — the  latter, 
under  the  name  of  nltruto  of  sudii,  has  liucomo  nn  iiii- 
porlant  export.     The  ai;rlcuUural  staples  of  tho  coun- 
try nro  snuar,  rico,  In   lU'co,  etc.,  which  grow  in  tlie 
warmer  situations ;  the  -inu,  wheat,  etc,  in  tlin  mild- 
Ot'.     l'(ilnti>«s  aro  cultiviilitd  in  all  parls      Mniito  is  cnl- 
tlvalod,  and  is  thn  eonnnon  did  ■>(  the  people.    Medic- 
inal plants,  druKs,  and  dyu-stuD's  form  n  larK«  |>art  of 
thu  exports,  and  soniu  of  tho  liiud  woods  alionnd  in  tho 
forests.     The  Cincliuna,  ur  rvruvian  hark,  Is  iiMlif;en- 
ous  to  llio  country  ;  it  grows  at  tho  elevation  of  10,000 
or  12,0011  feet,  and  aliouiids  most  in  thu  northern  prov- 
inces.   AmoUK  tho  wild  animals  of  I'eni  are  Ihn  puma, 
tho  nlurnnca  (a  specius  of  ti);cr),  th(>  acumuri  (a  hlack 
bear),  and  ureal  varieties  of  deer,  wild  iicars,  armadil- 
los, etc^     Thu  llama,  alpai  n,  Kuanuco,  vicufla,  etc.,  are 
tho  most  valuable  anlin.ila.     Kour  variulies  of  condor 
arc  indij{cnous,     Uf  acclimated  animals  tlio  slioep  has 
aiicceedcd  best,  and  goats,  hogs,  etc.,  thrive  well.     In 
tho  mountains  cattle  and  hursks  lind  a  con^^cnial  cll- 
iiiote,  but  on  the  coast  speedily  pine  ond  ili.    away. 
Thu  wool  of  I'eru  is  among  the  beat  in  thu  markets. 
The  p(ditieal  divisions  of  I'eru  consist      eleven  depart- 
inonts,  and  two  provinces  colled  "  I'  .toroles,"    Tho  dc- 
partmenia  aro  aubdlvlded  into  sixiy-ono  provinces,  tlie 
provinces  into  districts,  and  thoc.  into  parishes.     The 
government,  civil  and  oconomicul,  of  each  department 
ia  in  charge  of  a  Pre'ect,  dependent  directly  on  tlio 
President  of  the  Uopublic  ;  that  of  tho  provin     »  is  in 
charge  of  .Sub-prefects,  dependent  on  the  I'ret'd   -i;  that 
of  thu  districts  is  in  charge  of  Governors,  and  that  of 
parishes  is  in  charge  of  Sul>-govcrnors.     Tlio  depart- 
ments anil  tho  population  iu  IH.VJ  were  as  follows : 
ntpartmenU.  PopuUtlon. 

AinBi.onas 4!t,074  . 

Ancach 219,14."!. 

Arcqulpa 119,111(1 

Ayncucao 13'2.9'il  . 

(■U7.ro 849,718  . 

IIiir.iicBvollea 70,117  . 

Juiilu 2-."i,940 


CaiiiUU. 
. .  ('liuL'ImiJoyaa. 
. .  lliinniz, 
. .  Arejiuipn. 
. .  Jlimnmitbn. 

.  .    CllSOO. 

. .  Hllanrnvellca. 
. .  CciTo  tie  I'uaco. 
. .  ■I'niJlUo. 
. .  Lima. 
. .  Tiicns. 
. .  I'uno. 


I.ilKMtiiil 'J0il,.'63  . 

l.lnm iBi.Sol  . 

Moqiicgua fil  4:V2  , 

I'uno 'jMiiill  . 

rrovbicia  l.ittorul  de Calluu         8,  IBl 

I'rovincia  I.lltornl  ile  Piuru.       Til.naj 

Total  population 2,l(Hi,4U2 

The  most  eastern  parts  of  the  departments  of  Ama- 
7.onas,  Junin,  Ayacuclio,  and  Ctizco  have  not  been  well 
explored,  and  arc  inhabited  by  diverse  tribes  of  savage 
Indians,  for  whoso  civilitiation  dillcrcnt  nussions  have 
been  established,  and  to  whom  belongs  entirely  all  tlic 
territory  to  tlie  cast  of  tho  L'coyali,  and  where  tlie  Pre- 
fects of  the  departments  above-named  do  not  exercise 
their  authority. 

Peru  is  an  integral  republic.  Tho  Constitution, 
which  was  finally  settled  in  1839,  recognizes  legisla- 
tive, judicial,  and  executive  powers  entirely  separate 
and  independent  of  each  other.  Tho  legislative  power 
ia  vested  in  a  Senate  and  Assembly,  chosen  by  the  peo- 


ple through  eWloral  rnlK^ca ;  thu  deputies  are  appnr* 
lioiieil  Iu  thu  ratio  of  one  to  uvorv  'jn.iHiO  inhabiianla. 
Tliejuilirlary  Isappcdntrd  by  thn  ('resident,  and  Juilges 
are  not  rcniovuldu  except  forcunae.  Tliu  Cunslltulinn 
provides  for  auli-Judiciaries,  having  aoparaln  ipiallrira' 
tlona,  fur  ileparlmcnla,  districts,  towns,  and  pariKhea. 
The  executive  power  is  delegated  |o  a  I'n-sldent,  whoa* 
torni  ia  alx  years.  Thero  la  no  Vice-president,  but  th« 
I'rcaldent  of  tho  lixicutivu  Council  anppliea  the  placa 
of  President  in  case  uf  tlio  removal.  Inability,  or  death 
of  that  otlicer.  The  Cuuncil  conaiats  o,  thn  Ministers 
and  luenibura  of  the  Senate.  Tho  eslalhlshod  religion 
is  tho  Konian  ('alliidic.  The  Church  la  presided  over 
by  an  Archbishop  iind  several  aull'ragans.  It  la  im- 
mensely rich.  Tho  Inipiisilion  has  been  entirely  alioU 
ished  liiroiighuut  tho  licpubllc. 

I'uru  was  cuni|uered  in  I'lil-J  by  the  Spaniards,  under 
Pizarro  and  Almagro,  and  remained  a  colony  of  .Spain 
for  lu'iirly  threu  hundred  years.  Tlie  independcnco  uf 
till!  country  was  procbiimnd  at  l.iuia,  'iHth  Julj,  IHJl. 
Siniu  that  period  tho  following  parlies  have  cxenised 
suprcniu  power  I  Oenoral  San  Martin,  to  21st  Septoin- 
bur,  iMJi;  tlienco  a".lunta  (iubernatlva,"  conipinod 
of  (leneral  l.ainar  and  .ScAora  .Saia/.ur-y-Uaipiyano  and 
Aivarudo  ;  thcnco  (icnural  Don  tloso  du  la  Kiva  Ague- 
ro,  as  President,  tOtluly,  IH'.'II:  tlieuce  .losu  Uornardo 
Tagle;  thence  Cieneral  Simon  llollviir,  to  July,  1HII5; 
thence  a  "Council of  (iovernnieut,"  to  the  end  of  IM'Jfl; 
Ihcncu  (iuncral  Uulivar,  as  I'residont;  thcnco  (ieneral 
l.auiar,  as  Conatltutionul  President,  to  Juno,  IKH); 
ihi'iicc  Ciuneral  Uamarra,  to  IH.K\\  thence  General  Or- 
begosip ;  thence  (icnernl  Salaberry,  as  "Supreme 
Chief,"  to  iHlllit  thencu  (icnural  Saiila  Cruz,  to  20lh 
.lanuary,  18^10:  thence  (tcneral  (iainarra,  to  Novem- 
ber, 1H11 ;  thence  Sefior  Menendez,  to  August,  \H\i; 
Ihoiice  Vidal,  i'igucroia,  and  Yivanco,  aucceSHively,  to 
1844  ;  thence  .Menendez  (restored  t,  to  1st  April,  1H15; 
thence  (Jeneral  Kuiiion  Castilla,  to  1st  April,  1851 ;  and 
thence  General  llulinoKchenique.  the  present  President. 
Thu  liillowiiig  Is  a  statement  of  the  public  debt  of 
Peru,  as  given  by  SiTior  li.  Kscobar  do  llcdoya,  attache 
to  the  Legation  uf  Peru  at  I'aris,  211th  October,  18.JJ ; 

Loans  on   tho   fuiirs-ni«l-u-half  In 

Koijlauil  $13,000,000     Ji;2,000,000 

l/iaiH  on  the  tlircu  |ier  cents,  in  Kii- 

KUnil 8,rjlfl,(10n       1,700,000 

Interior  iletit 23,'.'no,onO 

Debt  to  (hill 2.000,1100 

Debt  to  tlie  liepubllcs  uf  Olil  I  u- 

luoibia _     1100,010 

Total *.'■»  1  :"iO.0«« 

Tlio  deposits  of  Chincha  alone  arc  worth  three  hundred 
niillions  of  dollars  ^piastres).  TheChinclia  and  Lobos 
Islands,  olVtlio  coasts  of  Peru,  aro  of  iniiii-  nso  value  to 
the  country,  on  nicount  of  their  guano  ilcpiolts.  Tills 
sulistance  is  the  most  ]ioleiit  of  fertilizers,  and  until 
lately  the  islands  above-named  were  tlio  only  sources 
whence  it  was  derived.  According  to  a  report  made 
by  Sefior  Villa  in  1812,  the  deposits  in  tlieso  islands 
were  estimated  to  be  411,(1,12,280  tons.  Assuming  llio 
consumption  to  be  llOOOOO  tons  a  \rar,  valued  it  ijiiO  a 
ton,  it  would  produce  ^(1,000,000  annually,  ami  reiiulre 
1(10  years  for  its  total  consumption.  This  resource  has 
bccii  an  clllcicnt  aid  to  the  national  treasury,  and  has 
luude  Peru  the  moat  apparently  prosperous  of  all  llio 
South  American  lepuliiics.  Tho  exports  in  1852 
ninounted  to  220,.')00  tons— :!2,000  of  which  went  to  the 
Initcd  Stales,  and  the  remainder  to  Franco  and  En- 
gland.— ■<'<'«  article  Gi  ANO. 

According  to  a  treaty  between  Peru  and  the  United 
States  signed  July,  1857,  it  ia  agreed  that  tliu  permis- 
sion to  the  whale  ships  of  the  I'nited  Slates  by  the 
treaty  of  1851,  to  barter  or  sell  their  supplies  and  goods 
to  the  valuo  of  two  hundred  dollars,  ad  valorem,  with- 
out being  obliged  to  pay  port  or  tonnage  dues  or  other 
imposts,  should  not  be  understood  to  comprehend  every 
kind  of  merchandise  without  limitation,  but  those  only 
that  whale  ships  are  usually  provided  with  for  their  long 


PKU 


1.518 


PER 


va.viKM.  Th*l  in  ihe  ««l<l  nxPinptlon  frnm  iliillnn  of 
•vary  kluii  am  iniluilvil  lh»  folliiwIiiK  arlli'lM  In  aililU 
tlun  lo  til*  pnicliK'ii  of  ihtir  llahrry,  vli.,  whltn  iiiililrich- 
*il  (lometlica,  wlillu  lili'ai'ha<l  ilunifitlci,  widn  rolloii 
clotha,  liluc  tlrilli, Iwllliiil rottnna,  nhirlliiK  filri|>n, tiik- 
InK.  cotton,  prima,  ■liirlliiK>,  >alliir»'  iIkIIiIiik  uI  all 
kinda,  map,  aluih,  lioota,  aliora,  anil  liroKMiia,  axai, 
liatcliata,  lilai'iilt  of  avrry  kiiiil,  flour,  laril,  luiltnr,  rum, 
\mtt,  pork.  •|wriiiaci<(l  anil  coinpoalllon  I'amlloa,  can- 
vaa,  rap«,  tobacco. 

The  prin'ipal  (lorta  at  l'«ru  an  I'alla,  .Han  .U>ti, 
iluancliaro,  Lallan,  lalav,  Ariia,  anil  li|iiii|ii«.  Thrav 
an  porta  of  entry  for  furciKn  coininrrc*.  Tlipro  iirf 
other  porta  o|M>n  to  tliii  loaatinK  trailc,  ami  for  tlio  ox- 
portalion  o(  Ihu  pnxliicA  of  Ihit  country.  Tlieae  aru 
Vio,  (^linla,  I'iai'ii,  lliiaclio,  Caania,  i'araaniayo,  anil 
Tuinlwt,  anil  tha  amall  harhura  o(  Sriiiura,  Naniano, 
Hanta,  Nupe,  lluarnira,  ICi'lionli|Ui>,  Cliancay,  An  on, 
(Jvrro,  Azul,  Clilnca,  (!ancato,  Naaca,  (^illca,  Cucotea, 
Morro  lie  8ania,  and  Piaa'pi*. 

Tha  coninii'ri  lal  ralatlona  of  the  I'nlted  Htatea  with 
I'oru  aro  rrKulalx'l  l>y  the  trt-aly  already  cited,  lioar- 
iuK  data  ,luly  'Hi,  IH&I,  and  liy  ainli  decreoi  and  orilara 
•a  ara  iaauod  from  limn  to  time  liy  the  Suprcmu  (iov- 
ornmimt  of  thai  repulilic.  The  trraty  Kuaritiiteca  en- 
tim  lilwrty  of  coninierco  and  navlt;ation,  and  perfect 
reciprocity  Iwtwoen  Ihe  tlaga  of  Ilia  two  countrica  in  tliu 
jHirla  of  tha  other. 

The  trade  Iwtwecn  the  two  nations  (Ceruviaii  ({uano 
excepted)  ia  nol,  however,  very  cxii  imive,  aa  ap|.  ira 
(Vom  tbo  official  relurna  of  the  I'nlted  .Statca  Treasury 
Uopurtment.  lieforo  entering  into  the  detaila  of  Ihe 
commerce  between  the  I'nlted  Hintesaiid  I'cru,  tlio  fol- 
lowing summary  uf  tlie  ((cnernl  forel({ii  trade  of  that  re- 
pulilic ia  given,  with  a  view  lo  ahuw  the  relative  rank 
iuld  by  the  I'nlted  Staloa  and  other  nutiona  in  that 
trade.  The  flgurea  are  derived  from  the  official  rctunia 
of  the  Peruvian  government  fur  the  ycara  IH&I  from  all 
natlona,  and  In  IHril  and  lHri»  from  the  rnile<l  iHlatca. 
— Ste  Commercial  IteliilioM  of  i'uitni  Nlutci. 

iMPOHTa  INTO  I'XBU  IK  1851-1S63. 


HaoAnmaTioa  m  roaainN  I'nitiiiari  or   riio   rni 
tuaaa  ViAaa. 


laM, 
IHNI. 


L" 


-UTttT.ia" 

«.  3 1  A. 241 

»,I>I7,NIIN 

Toul riit,*6i,6flr 


lia,iM5.n5 

111.173.210 
It.MlS.OUU 


t40,l4)l,M2 


AiUclM. 

"laij.   ' 

tail. 

ia63. 

Toxttleaof  allk 

TeXlleaiif  linen 

Toxtllcaofcutton 

Textlleaofwoul 

Hold  and  allrer  ware. . 
KrulU 

»78«,nTB 
234,743 

2,754  343 

2,4I'3,H4<I 
360,373 
30,670 
B.3.M5 
146  H9ri 
105.063 
nO.hO.I 

2,403,562 

!|l».447,4<l.'i 

ti.ir:5 

I3,0KII 

■262.607 
11,004 
82.422 
614 
58,900 
n,6im 

84,200 

2,/20 

IW,9ll2 

*filK,042^ 

$iS2 

6.0C5 

20S,190 

T30 

270 

61 

116,600 

10,495 

49,901 

1.015 

182,300 

618 

$586,024 

Pruvlalons 

Timber 

Wlneaandllquora..,. 

Hnndrlca 

Kcady-niaile  clothing. . 
Total,  8  yeara . . . 

ItKBCHt   OK  ImPORTB  I'BOll 

klX  N'ATIONa  UT  I'OBTa. 

roru. 

IMI. 

W> 

Callao   

»(<.3I7,920 
891, 09S 
1,370.492 
330,228 
•i;30.439 
2».s,078 

*0,n76,474 
8tiO,l70 
1,-IM,.15S 
2;ir).746 
lH0.73-t 
163,919 
20,494 

Arlca 

Uliy      

Man  .Toad 

Palta 

Lorcto 

Total 

I||9,44T,465 

$fl,0ST,>i»8 

llalan>'e  of  fbreign  trade  in  favor  of  I'eru,  during 
Iheaxthreeyeara,  9I2,'.{IK),1IA<I;  making  an  annual  aver- 
age In  favor  of  rem  of  $4,0!MI,UMi>.  T'he  nunilier  of 
veaaela  employed  In  tha  ateam  navigation  of  I'ern  iai 
alx  ateainahipa  belonging  to  the  liriliah  mail  Una, 
which  ply  aeml-nionthly  between  Valparalao  and  Pan- 
ama. The  aggregate  tonnage  of  thean  alx  ateamera 
la  SMMt  lona.  There  ia  alao  a  auventh  aleainar  o'  MM) 
tnna  on  the  aaine  line,  One  IVrnvian  ateamer,  ntTM 
tona  burden,  coaala  regularly  between  Callao  and  Val- 
paralao. Thelwo  Inllerareacrew-propeliera;  the  other 
alx  have  padille-wheeia,  Tho  merchant  marine  of  I'cru 
111  \M'i  conaiated  of  iiino  ahlpa,  with  an  aggregate  of 
ni'.l4  tona;  ten  barka,  meaauring  In  all  4150  lona;  and 
eight  bflga,  of  ItMl  tuna;  making  a  total  of  twenty- 
aiiven  veaaela,  with  an  aggregate  of  UOill  tona.  Thetnlal 
iiiunber  of  Pcruv  un  veaaela  employed  In  Ihe  coaaling 
trade  during  the  aanie  year  waa  HI,  with  an  aggre- 
gate of  I4,7ll.'i  lona.  The  number  of  aeamen  engaged 
in  thia  aervice^a  about  'lll«i|,  of  which '.<IM  are  natives, 
and  285  citlzena  of  Ihe  United  .Stalea — I'J&O  being  em- 
ployed In  the  foreign  trade,  and  'ilhO  in  thi.  coasting 
I  trade,  T'ho  lablea  on  next  pngn,  tranacribed  from 
French  official  autlioiltina  (Ihe  dollars  having  been  re- 
\  duced  to  francs  by  iniiltlplying  by  5),  exhibit  In  detail 
:  the  general  Import  and  expiirl  trade  of  I'uru  in  IH&il. 
I  Callao  is  the  chief  port  in  Peru  for  foreign  com- 
j  nierce.  Tho  aggregate  tonnage  of  Penivinn  veaaela, 
belonging  to  and  employed  in  foreign  trade  at  Oallao, 
in  1852,  was  (i7  veaaela,  meaauring  an  aggiegule  uf 
lJ,l)ill  tona;  in  the  coaaling  trade  the  number  of  vea- 
aela was  181,  with  n  lunnnge  of  17,705  (ona;  making 
a  total  of  248  veaaeia,  and  ll2,7ll(i  tona,  lle»idca  tho 
above,  there  wore  employed,  during  the  aamo  year,  at 
the  port  of  Pisco,  alx  veaaela  of  1200  tons  aggregate; 
and  at  the  port  of  lliincho(bolli  porta  being  in  tho  con- 
aular  district  of  Callao),  eight  veaaela,  with  an  aggre- 
gate of  400  tona;  making  a  total  in  both  porta  of  1G(MI 
tons.  Tho  total  number  of  Peruvian  veaaela  which  en- 
tered at  Callao  (in  foreign  trade)  in  1852  was  l.'iO, 
with  a  tonnage  of  19,478  tons;  and  the  number  cleared, 
157  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  10,320  tona.  Tho  num- 
ber and  tonnage  of  United  States  vessels  which  entered 
Callao  during  tho  same  year  was:  vcascla,  fl'J;  tonnage, 
27,.'l(i0  tons;  and  the  numlicr  and  tonnage  of  those 
cleared  was:  vessels,  56;  tonnage,  23,(!ri0  tona.  The 
following  comparative  tabic  shows  the  rank  which  the 
I'nlted  8latca  held,  relatively  with  other  foreign  na- 
tions, in  tho  navigation  of  this  port  in  1852,  including 
Ilrltish  mail  steamships : 


ExroBTS  rxoM  I^Kiiir  to  thk  I'nited  Statis. 


ArtlrfM. 

lati. 

ISiJ. 

lau. 

.$7,440 

41,36« 

231 

'6,972 

190 

1,722,195 

20,736 

4,104 

'8,oi4a 

91, too 

$6,800 

80 

1,031 

18,666 
76 

l,oiviao 

17,724 
67,579 
16,000 

.is.'lKK) 
28,604 

ii,'s40 
2,C81 

6lH) 

6.043 

4,Ti3,'flOO 
09,02U 

"8,644 

8is,'io4 

1  0S8 

!)14,8','8,3,S0 

('aiir&rlllft 

llljcs 

Ilata 

Knilta 

Oiiuno 

Wool 

(;old      

Sliver 

Saltpetre 

ITovialon* 

Total,  3  yeara. . 

$1,836,440 

$1,263,748 

NatloiialU;. 


Inited  Stalea. 

Kngllah 

French  

Hpanlah 

Italian 

(lennan 

tnilUan 

Others 


210 
42 
9 
17 
35 
40 
20 


Torn. 


27,30(1 
I  OS,  (100 

10,000 
3,500 
fl.6'10 

13,S0O 
4,400 
4,000 


Vnub. 

50 
260 
39 
II 
20 
3(1 
40 
20 


CUanil^ 
Tom. 
23,000" 


151.000 
10,200 
4,000 
R,100 
12,400 
4,400 
000 


The  following  statement  exhibits  tlio  number  and 
tonnage  of  I'liitcd  .States  vessels  which  entered  nt  Cal- 
lao during  the  years  bpcciflcd  : 


Ytan. 

Vmoli. 

Tom. 

I,s52 

6J 
23^. 
246 

27,3(10 
150.321 
1(18.5:18 

la'is 

1S54 

Tho  general  features  of  commcrciol  transactions  at 
Callao,  and  at  the  ports  of  Peru  generally,  arc  set  forth 
in  a  communication  of  lato  dato  from  the  consul  of  tbo 


f'  -  f 


PER 


1A19 


PER 


Ntrnx  tKn  Valdb,  im  >'■>■('■,  nr  aimSAl.  Mnrii«in>iii  mmBTin  into  and  ■iniiTin  rinii  I'lin  in  IUI. 


Ti>nt. 

1  iM.nuo 

10,201) 

4,000 

8,100 
Vi,400 

4, -100 

eno 

luiiii'cr  ft'"! 
Tcrctl  »t  <^'''" 


1  16'.>.34l 
ll(H,Kl8_ 

liaactions  at 

Tiro  set  forth 

biisul  of  tho 


'~'i;»«iilff4N  mm 

iKiilral  .VrmrlM 

Au»lrall« 

llolUU 

HritiU 

Hiinnoa  Ayrai . . 

China 

rhlll 

llifttinitrk 

H|»lri 

K(|(lii<t<)i*. ...... 

I'liltml  MUM., 

Franrfl 

lUmbiirf 

llulUnil  

Italy  

&t«xtr 

Nnw  (Irana'la  . . 

ParaRiiay 

I'ruiaU 

Kurllaurlanil . . . . 
Total  franra, . 


iMriiata  or  liidimn 
•Ilk        I       Ua« 


I'tfunlrlM  tu 

(farinuiv 

Knuland 

Waat  Ifidlai,.. 

IkillvU 

Ilraiil 

CMII 

Chliw 

IMnmark 

Hpaln 

KqiiKilor 

United  fltatoa  , 

Krann 

Hamburg 

Ilnlland 

Italy 

Maiirltlua 

.Moxloo 

New  (.ranaila 

Hwndon 

Total  franca 


Itnitoil  States  at  that  port,  as  follows :  "  Tho  most  val- 
iialilo  of  the  articles  iinpurtcd  Into  tills  consiilulu  arc 
assorletl  iiinrelmmllscs  from  Kngland,  Kranw,  Italy,  tli« 
United  Statoi,  (Milll,  Spain,  ami  Uquador;  vi/.,  Cot- 
ton, linens,  silks,  wines,  hardware,  etc.  From  the 
United  .States,  domestic  cottons,  furniture,  Inmln'r,  j; 
visons,  etc.  Tho  export  trade  of  I'eru  consists  c!;'.  i_; 
of  guano,  which  Is  sent  to  Kngland,  tho  l^niteil  .Siaus 
Franco,  and  .Spain,  and  in  smaller  i(uantities  to  Italy, 
India,  and  tho  West  Indies.  Tlic  export  was  forced 
durlni;  tho  rovulution,  and  a  diminution  lins  tal(cn  place 
under  tho  present  government,  owing  to  ovo-  -upplles 
in  Kuropo  and  tho  United  States,  ami  a  \vL\\  un  the 
part  of  I'crii  to  raise  tho  price  of  tliis  articl<  abroad  tu 
its  consumers.  It  is  valued  on  lion-i|  tUc  ships  at  the 
islands  where  l.vlen  at  ti>  ))cr  ton  -that  Is,  at  the  cost 
attondini;  its  sliipnieut.  The  ttveruu;u  rate  of  freljihts 
to  tho  United  States  during  the  year  past  (lH,"i,'))  hiis 
been  $22  per  ton  of  22 10  lbs.  This  niuih  of  the  prod- 
uct of  guano  goes  into  tho  haiiils  of  our  ship-owners, 
who  carry  nearly  all  of  it  to  tho  I  'nlied  .States,  ami  part 
of  it  to  other  places,  from  Callau  and  the  C'hincha  Isl- 
ands. No  prohibltionsexist,  in  fiiit,  upon  imports;  but 
arms  and  munitions  of  war  are  dinicult  of  introiluction 
during  revolutions.  Powder  is  strictly  pruliibited. 
The  general  trade  regulations  aro  liberal.  Goods  lie  in 
hond  at  tlio  option  of  tho  mercliant ;  paying  only,  aft- 
er tho  first  month,  storage  and  labor,  until  entered  for 
consumption,  or  else  exported  abroad,  and  then  no 
charges  further.  There  are  at  present  no  dilVercntial 
or  discriminating  duties  on  any  foreign  vessels  or  itoods. 
A  quarantine  exists  in  tho  caso  of  coolies  from  China, 
■who  usually  arrive  sick ;  and  this  district,  during  tlie 
last  thrco  years,  has  become  subject  to  fatal  epidemic 
feyei ',  etc.     United  States  capital  is  employed  in  the 


lee  trade,  and  in  repairing  ships ;  In  the  humbler  trades, 
and  ill  commonc,  and  upon  the  piibllo  works.  Tho 
Kngllsb  ul  present  enjoy  the  largest  share  of  the  Im- 
port and  export  traile;  but  the  activity  iiiid  intelli- 
gence of  all  coiiimi'reiiil  imlluiis  aro  ociiipii'd  in  seeking 
I.  iliare,  ami  the  tendency  Is  gradually  toward  a  more 
liml  parllcipntiou. 

Crude  wools  are  largely  exported;  but  the  high  duly 
on  lliem  in  the  United  States  throws  nearly  all  thnt 
trade  into  Kiiropc,  mostly  to  KnglaiKl,  wliere  wool  Is 
free  niidcr  the  tiirilV.  Of  late  tiny  have  been  paying 
gooil  pruDts.  This  remark  np|ilics  also  to  tho  barks 
of  I'eru,  ond  to  copper.  The  bar  silver  exported  all 
goes  to  lOiigiaiiil,  because  there  is  no  direct  steam  coin- 
muiiication  willi  tlie  I'nlted  States.  Some  supplies 
of  wheat.  Hour,  and  other  agricultural  products  begin 
to  lie  impurted  into  this  consular  district  from  Califor- 
nia, such  as  barley,  potatoes,  etc. ;  and  about  2t>W 
Ibisks  of  quicksilver,  valued  at  nearly  $100,000,  have 
been  imported  during  Ibis  last  quarter.  Wlinio  ships, 
wliile  cruising,  cull  at  times  for  refreshments,  and  to 
change  their  crews.  The  agricultural  industry  of  the 
country  has  been  obstructed  by  the  liberation  of  tho 
slaves  in  IHoo,  to  replace  whom  Chinese  coolies  aro 
being  imported.  .Such  laborers  are  also  now  being 
employed  by  the  government  at  the  I'hincha  guano 
islaniis,  near  I'isco.  The  army  of  I'eru  employs  about 
7000  C'liolo  half-breed  Indian  soldiers,  tho  tendency  of 
which  politv  Is  to  hinder  population.  There  is  a  per- 
ceptible increase  in  tho  numlier  of  Americans  in  this 
consulate — seamen,  artisans,  and  tradesmen,  who  come 
to  reside.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  largely  exported — at 
least  a  million  and  a  half  of  quintals  annnally,  valued 
at  $2  per  100  llis. ;  a  considerable  part  of  which  goes 
to  tho  United  States.    Dry  and  salted  hides,  ami  straw 


PER 


1520 


PER 


hats,  arc  exported  in  small  quantities.  Tlio  circulating 
currcijcy  of  Peru,  representing  silver,  and  now  tlie  only 
money  in  common  use,  is  lielow  the  nominal  standard 
about  three-eighths,  or  37}  per  cent.  The  rate  of  ex- 
change fluctuates  from  five  to  fifteen  per  cent,  on  the 
dollar.  Tlie  dollar  of  Peru,  in  invoices  of  export  to 
the  United  States,  is  now  usually  valued  at  from  80  to 
85  cents  of  United  States  currency,  The  Peruvian 
dollar,  of  pure  silver,  not  in  circulation,  U  wftrtli  aliout 
87|  cents  of  United  States  currency.  Gold  coins  of 
Peru  are  not  now  seen  in  common  use.  Patriot  doub- 
loons pass  current  at  $17,  and  of  lato  are  worth  3  per 
cent,  premium,  and  but  few  to  be  obtained." 

J'aila. — The  chief  staples  of  export  from  the  port  of 
Paita  arc  straw  (Panama)  hats  and  Peruvian  bark. 
The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  cotton  manufactures, 
of  iron,  and  assorted  sundries.  The  ofliciul  navigation 
returns  for  this  port,  for  a  period  later  than  1S52,  are 
not  at  hand.  There  entered  from  uU  foreign  nations 
in  that  year  185  vcs.sels,  with  an  aggrcgote  of  G1,(J21 
tons ;  of  which  theio  were  from  the  United  States  42 
vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  10,2ul>  tons.  The 
direct  trade  between  the  United  Stales  and  this  port  is 
limited,  owing  to  the  facilities  aftbrded  in  tho  coasting 
trade  between  this  point  and  Callao. 

Arim. — Tho  staple  exports  from  the  port  of  Arica 
arc  tin,  copper  ore,  Peruvian  bark,  and  alpaca  wool. 
AVith  the  exception  of  the  latter,  all  these  exi)orts  are 
of  Bolivian  produce.  Indeed,  tlie  port  of  Arica  is  mere- 
ly a  transit  port  for  Bolivian  produce  and  trade.  Ow- 
ing, however,  to  some  misunderstanding  between  the 
governments  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  resulted  in 
tho  imposition  by  tho  former,  in  1853,  of  10  per  cent, 
duty  on  the  produce  of  tlio  latter  passing  tlirough  this 
port,  this  transit  trade  is  now  conducted  through  the 
port  of  Cobija  (Port  La  Mar),  the  only  port  open  for 
foreign  commerce  in  Bolivia.  Tlic  imports  from  the 
United  States  arc  cotton  domestics,  blue  drills,  chairs, 
and  shoes,  on  which  last-named  article  a  duly  of  40 
per  cent,  is  levied. 

Iquiqiie, — This  port  possesses  a  harbor  safe  and  com- 
modious, and  is  well  protcctod  by  the  island  of  Iiiui<iue 
from  the  heavy  swells  which,  in  the  winter  season,  set 
in  from  the  southwest.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
months  during  the  late  revolution  in  Peru,  up  to  tlio 
month  of  July,  1865,  when  it  was  declared  a  jmrrin 
mnijor,  Iquiiiue  ranked  as  a  puerto  menor,  with  some 
extra  privileges.  Tho  province  of  Iquiquc  is  the  great 
centre  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  trade,  and  to  this  article 
ulnno  it  owes  its  present)  usition.  Out  of  a  population 
of  about  15,000  four-Tiflhs  are  more  or  less  interestel  in 
this  trade.  At  the  works,  the  nitrate  of  soda  varies  in 
value  froin  81 J^  cents  to  #1  OfiJ  per  quintal.  The  rate 
of  carriage  to  llie  coast  varies  from  CHj  cents  to  'J.'l| 
cents  per  quintal.  The  average  rate  paid  foi'  the  ar- 
ticle placed  on  the  beach  is  ij^l  75  per  quintal ;  and  this 
price  gives  tho  makers  a  proflt  of  Of  cents  per  quintal. 
Nitrate  of  soJa  is  always  sold  deliverable  alongside 
the  ship's  launch,  outside  the  surf.  The  merchant  lins 
to  bug  and  embark  it,  which  costs  him  about  21  j  cents 
per  i|uinlal.  Soiling  it,  therefore,  at  $1  87},  would 
yield  him  a  profit  of  15|  cents  per  quintal. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric and  nitric  acids,  and  as  a  fertilizer.  Between 
1820  and  1830,  attempts  were  maiie  to  export  it  to  the 
United  States  and  Kngland,  but  the  cargoes  were  nn- 
salable.  .Soon  afterward,  however,  its  value  bonanie 
known,  and  at  this  time  the  quantity  annually  ex- 
ported reaches  nearly  1,500,000  quintals,  valued  at 
about  $1  25  to  $2  pe'r  100  lbs.  The  following  state- 
ment will  show  the  total  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda  ex- 
ported since  1830,  when  the  trodo  began ; 

1831)  to  1 R34,  Inclusive Quintals.     881,385 

lSfl5tol830,         "         "  761,849 

1840  to  1844,        "         "         1,602,806 

1840tol849,        "         •'         2,0flO,5f6 

ISOOtolSM,        "         "         8,260,473 

Total "         8,086,103 


QCAMTITIKS  OV  NlTBATI  OF  I-OIIA,  IN  QVIMTALB,  XXPOBtED 
FROM  1860  TO  1864,  BOTU  INCLl'SIVII,  ANU  THE  COVMTBUS 
TO  WHICH  EXIK)BTBD. 


Oountrlai.        |      mO. 

III5I.      1      I8t'}. 

i86J.- 

ise4. 

.VuHtruUa 

BclRliim 

(Jallfornia 

IJhill 

4,^1(16 
87,927 
83,630 
804,459 
40,i:4i 
10,004 

26,'l30 
3,'m2 

6.'447 

3,180 

164,1131 

44,671 

271,137 

20,912 

7,399 

33,V86 
9,709 
3,178 

59,807 

8,346 

60,,'Kil 

44.IJ27 

860.703 

7,s79 

4.700 
38.436 
2.2!.7 
6,010 
29,047 
163.276 

12,000 

150,4i3 
198,268 
406,3111 

1 6,200 
16,138 

58,'66'2 

i,4il'6 
23,066 

7,000 

e,°242 
14,086 
06  44C 
89.600 
4:11.616 
146,11 

48,K6 

i.'iVs 

11,418 

France 

(fcrmany 

(iri'.tllrltaln. 

Ilollund 

Italy 

Spain 

.Sweden 

United  Btates. 
West  Indies  . . 
I'oru  (Nortli)  . 
For  orders  . . . 

Total.... 

610,879 

6.19,907 

866.632 

T 10. 879 

Before  Iqiiiquo  was  constituted  a  puerto  mayor, 
foreign  vessels  from  any  foreign  port  could  call  and 
anchor,  provided  their  cargoes  ..onsisted  of  nothing  but 
the  follow  ing  articles :  Peas,  beans,  lentils,  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  barley,  nuts,  raisins,  almonds,  cocoa-nuts,  flonr, 
bran,  biscuit,  macaroni,  frangallo,  chococa,  dried  pota- 
toes, fat,  butter,  tallow,  lard,  jerked  beef,  cheese,  live 
and  dead  stock,  salted  meats,  and  all  kinds  of  vegeta- 
bles nnd  roots,  candleg  and  sonp,  lire-wood,  timber  for 
building,  coals,  bricks,  iron,  steel,  nails,  tools  for  mines, 
empty  sacks,  twine,  machines  for  making  nitrate  or 
distilling  water.  It  is  now  open  to  general  commerce, 
and  will  necessarily  become  a  port  of  much  import- 
ance. Being  the  most  windward  of  the  Peruvian  ports, 
vessels  proceeding  from  the  south,  having  other  goods 
on  board  than  those  above  specified,  were  obliged  to  go 
to  Arica,  the  first  puerto  mayor,  and,  after  dispatch- 
ing at  the  custom-house  there,  beat  back  again  to  Iqui- 
quc, at  a  cost  of  from  five  to  fifteen  days'  sailing.  The 
consequence  of  this  restriction  was,  that  but  few  ves- 
sels entered  this  port  with  cargoes  direct  from  foreign 
countries.  Another  advantage  to  be  derived  from  mak- 
ing Iquiquc  i  puerto  mayor  is,  that  it  will  open  a  transit 
trade  into  Bolivia,  and  thus  render  this  port  an  onlrc- 
put  for  an  extensive  trade  with  tliat  republic.  Tlic 
distance  to  Potosi  is  much  lesf — less,  it  is  stated  by 
three  or  four  days' jorirney,  than  by  the  woy  of  Cobya. 
The  mules  would  only  have  to  travel  fifteen  leagues 
without  water,  and  the  pass  in  the  Cordillera  is  equal- 
ly as  favorable  as  by  the  latter  route. 

Tumbcz, — No  vessels  except  whale  ships  are  ollowcd 
to  enter  at  this  port.  The  privileges  to  which  Amer- 
ican whalers  are  entitled  by  the  twelfth  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Pent  with  the  United  States,  have  already 
been  stated.  The  market  of  Tunibez  is  supplied  chiefly, 
by  American  whale  ships,  which  usually  import  small 
({unntities  of  American  manufactured  goods,  flour,  etc. 
Dtlicr  foreign  whale  ships  must  conform  to  the  general 
regulations  of  commerce,  which  allow  them  to  anchor, 
provided  they  have  on  board  only  the  products  of  the 
fishery,  jirovisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  the  use 
of  the  vessel  and  crew,  and  to  sell  oil  and  candles  to 
any  amount,  in  crchange  for  provisions,  free  of  iniiiort 
duty.  The  following  summary  exhibits  the  number 
and  tonnage  of  American  whaling  vessels  which  ar- 
rived at  the  port  of  Tumbcz,  from  August,  1852,  to 
June  30th,  1855: 


V««ni. 

Numlwr  of  VhhIi. 

Ton.. 

1H5>i 

28 
67 
64 
82 

7.717 
17.379 
19,042 

9,740 

1863 

19^4 

Wdli  (first  all  montlm). 

— Vn'tted  Slalea  Cnmmercial  Ilelationt. 

No  deposits  of  guano  which  will  at  all  compare 
with  those  of  Pern  seem  a:  yet  to  have  been  discov- 
ered, although  most  cxtons' te  explorations  have  been 
prosecuted ;  nor  has  science  yet  succeeded,  though  in- 
ventive  skill  has  beon  tasked  to  the  utmost,  in  mann* 
facturing  a  substitute  which  would  supersede  the  use  or 
lower  the  price  of  the  Peruvian  fertilizer.— <$<«  G  u  amo. 


•:fVr-:,t'ji:.^^ 


'■vt.":rf^'--jf/rr 


y; 


PEB 


1521 


PER 


17,379 
19,042 
0.740 


lU  compare 
leen  discov- 
liavo  been 
tbougli  in- 
I,  in  manu- 
.j  the  use  or 
-iSmCjuako. 


\tU9  •DdlDg 


Sept.  80, 18%. 
18i6. 
18!I. 

isas. 

ISW. 
183U. 


CoMSino*  OF  rni  Umitib  Statos  with  Pbbu  nou  OoTOnn  1,  1824,  lo  Jolt  1, 18B«. 

'    *"** UullioD  .ad  «|>.clt. 

'f"'*''        I        Toul.  Eiport.""!        ImiKirt. 


Totftl.. 


$:i{>:i,85t 

278,7^4 

202,044 

159,S.S» 

01,549 

S2,4U0 


Sept  80, 1331 

is;w 

18SS. . . . 
1834.,.. 
193.'5. . . . 
18,10. . . . 
1S37. . . . 
1838. . . . 
1839.... 
1810. . . . 
Total... 


Sept.  80, 1841 ... 

1842. . . . 
9ni0B.,  1843*... 
Juoe  80, 1S44. . . . 

1846.... 

1846. . . . 

1847.... 

1S4S.... 

184>.... 

IbSO. . . . 
ToUl. . . 

June  30, 1851 

1852 

1853 

1S64 

IS.W 

ia'>e 


$1,124,863 

$8,600 
7,126 

42,767 


00,757 
163,803 


$322,078 


$14,058 
88,424 

192,'!)73 

124,flH 

9.i,105 

_26'i,!'33_ 

$717,207 

$240,700 
833.794 
6.57,310 
051,707 
766,8.'3 

1,151,232 


Foraign. 

$!74,1.44~ 

281,176 

7ii,o7r 

1011,566 

110,015 

S,>,40S 


$986,774 

$7,616 
10,834 

16,'u»6 

'  918 
11,601 
S»,I>3I 


$734,7. 8 
60^,890 
273,021 
S59,044 
211,157 
71,808 


$S6,686 


$2,754 

8i,'65":i 

16,7.n 

18.041 

_lflJ8_)_ 

$8.-1,874 

$22,338 
22.044 
40,261 
83,.|48 

114.228 
84,091 


$2,000,627 

$ie,lT6 

17,1)00 

P3,'863 

'  sii's 

111,358 
208,30,» 


$408  674 


$10,807 
S3,4'.'4 

227,537 
14I.:U9 

in,23« 

27t).728 


$8  .6,081 

$272,008 
;iK>,842 
0  J.577 
6-*,  155 
870.510 

l,24l,2'i3 


$840  883 

71:5,  li:4 

1,035,402 

04:1.  I9J 

l,l)l'4  458 

_    072^884_ 

$"),0a8,08F 


$917,788 
72  1,018 
654,030 
618.412 

1,118,278 
155  831 
000,418 
683,437 
242,818 
4  iS,4!'8 


$5000 


$6000 


$0,4lJO,2.iO 

$524,376 
204,708 
13;>,5(i3 
184,424 
830.112 
262  509 
390,223 
317,759 
440,953 

170.763 

$2,069,580 

$04  733 
004  S'.i2 
173.441 
1,005.406 
697,018 
217,7.59 


$323,167 
408.022 
6J6,7S8 
6.'  i,8,0 
002  1179 

6.11,521 

$3,220,6!7' 


$331,711 

106.122 

1S2.M72 

208,201 

600,877 

38,20;l 

440.11)9 

104.876 

87,010 

140  621 

$2,49"i7nr 

$120,161 
141180 
84,441 
21,880 
18,221 
«,««) 
82,520 
67,991 
17,408 

11,260 

$838,711 


Tmuft  tlMKd. 


Aiuarlew. 
Y,019' 
8,171 
2,4M 
2,314 
749 
732 


12,839 

628 
72 
78 

686 


1,221 

1,074 

1,010 

607 


$344 

3000 
bnoo 

7000 


.t075 
10,670 


6,liU4 


440 

404 

735 

291 

1,208 

2,732 

6,011 

10.382 


21,7,50 

18,020 
5,179 
03  240 
1,  1  SiB 
8.5.151 
5l,Ii0l 


6:I2 
i4l9 
,201 
,340 


11,011 

18,610 
11.381 
37.410 
811,686 
25,877 
20,107 


*  Nino  montba  to  June  80,  and  the  fiscal  year  from  this  time  bcglni  July  1, 


Ic 


A  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce,  and  navif^ation 
exists  between  the  United  States  and  the  Kepublic  of 
Peru,  the  tarms  of  which  treaty  are  adlicred  to  in  good 
faith  at  the  porta  of  Peru ;  and  although  questions  some- 
times arise  in  police  cases  regarding  seamen  belonging 
to  American  vessels,  the  authorities  assist  readily  in  ar- 
ranging such  questions  as  they  occur.  The  present  ex- 
isting regulations  are  fixed  and  definite  as  regards  com- 
merce. Changes  in  parts  of  these  regulations  are  made 
by  decrees  issued  by  the  President  and  Congress,  when 
that  body  is  in  session,  and  by  the  President  and  Coun- 
cil of  State  during  the  recess  of  Congress,  as  required 
by  the  public  exigencies.  At  present  (August,  1856) 
the  government  is  undergoing  the  process  of  a  revision 
of  Its  fundamental  laws,  now  being  made  by  a  convcn 
tion  of  deputies  elected  from  all  sections  of  Iho  country, 
and  holding  its  sessions  in  the  hall  of  Congress  at  t'uu 
city  of  Lima.  There  are  no  privileges  permitted  to  the 
commerce  of  other  nations  which  arc  denied  or  not  al- 
lowed to  the  United  Stales.  There  are  no  restrictions 
imposed  on  the  commerce  of  other  nations  and  not  on 
tbat  of  the  United  States.  But  a  line  ot  eight  lino 
British  steamers,  carrying  the  mails  and  running  be- 
tween the  ports  of  Panama  and  Tulcahuano,  under  the 
provisions  of  a  postal  convention  existing  iictwcen  Great 
Britain  and  Peru,  are  exempted  from  all  tonnage  du- 
ties and  port  charges  whatsoever  in  the  ports  of  Peru, 
in  consideration  for  the  transmission  of  the  mails  of  Pern 
to  and  from  the  various  ports  of  Peru  at  which  they 
touch  in  making  passages  to  and  from  Talcahuano  and 
Panama.  The  whaling  vessels  of  the  United  States, 
also,  are  allowed  certain  privileges  in  the  port  of  Tum- 
bez  and  all  the  open  ports  of  Pern,  in  virlne  of  the 
treaty  now  existing.  Some  question  has  been  mi^de  by 
Peru  as  to  whetlier  this  privilege  should  allow  whale 
ships  to  avail  themselves  of  Its  provisions  In  one  port 
only,  while  on  a  cruise,  or  at  each  or  any  port  or  ports, 
and  every  time  they  visit  such  port  or  other  port  or 
ports  of  Peru.  The  amount  of  the  port  charges  made 
npon  the  vessels  of  the  United  Slates  in  the  ports  of 
Peru  is  as  follows,  nanielv ;  Tonnage  dutv,  26  cents  per 
"61) 


ton;  anchorage  fee,  $8  on  vessels  to  Oalluo  only;  anch- 
orage  fee  on  vessels  to  Callao  and  the  (,'hinclia  Isl> 
and)  is  $4  more,  making  $12;  inspector's  fee,  $4  26; 
custom-house  fee,  $4  25.  The  various  stamped  papers 
cost  from  $5  to  $12,  according  to  the  operations  made 
by  the  vessel.  There  are  no  light-house  dues  nor  any 
light-ljouses,  and  no  hospital  money  is  exacted.  T)ia 
tonnage  duty  is  only  payable  in  one  |)url,  and  only 
once  in  six  months.  There  arc  no  gillols  nor  any  pilot 
system  In  Peru— the  noturo  of  the  ports  rendering  pi- 
lots unnecessary-.  National  vessels  that  measure  leu 
than  200  tons  do  not  pay  any  tonnage  duty,  but  pay 
the  other  port  charges.  National  vessels  over  200  toni 
r<ii;ister  pay  25  cents  per  ton,  being  tlio  same  duty  that 
'ho  vessels  of  all  nations  are  made  subject  to.  Tho 
line  of  eight  British  mall  steamers  is  exempted  from 
all  port  charges  wlintsdwar,  under  the  conditions  of 
the  postal  convention  now  existing  between  (treat 
Britain  and  Peru.  Tlie  transhipment  of  goo<ls  is  per- 
mitted in  the  vessels  of  the  United  States,  either  to  an- 
other port  in  Peru  or  to  a  foreign  port.  This  privilege 
is  allowed  also  to  the  vessels  of  all  nalioni,  Uy  tlw 
Reglamento  de  Commercio  for  1862,  the  latest  yet  pub- 
lished, it  is  allowed  to  vessels  of  all  nations  to  take 
coastwise,  from  one  open  port  (mayor)  to  another,  any 
foreign  goods  in  bond ;  that  Is,  which  have  not  paid 
duty ;  for  example,  from  Arica  or  isly  to  Callao,  It 
Is  also  allowed  to  take  tho  productions  of  Peru,  and 
any  foreign  merchandise  free  uf  duty,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, from  any  port  to  another  port  or  ports  in  Porn. 
All  vessels  may  go  loaded  with  free  goods,  and  the  pro- 
ductions of  Pern,  not  only  from  one  open  port  to  an- 
other, but  from  an  open  port  to  a  minor  port  (mcnor), 
or  from  a  minor  port  to  an  open  port  (niayoi ).  or  In 
any  manner.  Vessels  of  all  nations  are  poriiittod  to 
go  to  the  port  Iquiqun.  lo  load  with  nitrate  of  smlu  and 
other  articles,  and  nHo  to  proceed  ft'oni  Callao  to  the 
Chincba  Islands  to  load  with  guano. 

The  moneys,  weights,  and  measures,  known  and  tn 
common  use  In  Peru,  nre  those  of  Spain,  having  re- 
mained the  tame  as  when  Peru  was  a  colony  of  Spain. 


PER 


1522 


PHI 


Fmrnvlan  Bark.  The  tt*e»  yielding  Peravian 
barli,  which  grow  at  an  elevation  of  7000  to  8000  feet 
on  tha  Amlea,  have  for  a  I.  ^g  seriei  of  years  been  felled 
for  the  salco  of  their  barli,  and  no  pains  were  taken  to 
replace  them. — See  ante,  p.  152. 

Pewter  (Oer.  Zinn,  Zinnt/eiiKninn ;  Fr.  Etnin ;  It. 
Btaffnn;  Hp.  Ettano,  Peltre;  Kuss.  Olowo),  a  factitious 
tnetul  used  in  malting  plates,  dishes,  and  other  domes- 
tic Utonsils.  It  is  a  compound,  the  basis  of  which  is 
tin.  The  best  sort  consists  of  tin  alloyed  with  about 
one-tirentieth  or  less  of  copper,  or  other  metallic  bod- 
ies, OS  the  experience  of  the  worlcmen  has  shown  to  be 
moat  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  its  hardness  and 
color,  such  as  lead,  zinc,  bismuth,  and  antimony.  There 
•r«  throe  sorts  of  pewter,  distinguished  by  the  names 
of  ptitle,  trifle,  and  lye  pewter.  The  first  was  formerly 
mucli  used  fur  plates  and  dishes ;  of  the  second  are  made 
the  pints,  quarts,  and  other  measures  for  beer ;  and  of 
the  lye  pewter,  wine  measures  and  large  measures.  A 
flne  pewter  is  made,  according  to  Ailcen,  by  fusing  to- 
gether 100  parts  of  tin,  8  of  antimony,  1  of  bismuth,  and 
4  of  c(ipper.  The  use  of  these  additions  to  tin  is  to 
harden  it  and  preserve  its  color.  A  good  pewter,  when 
otesri  and  polished,  has  a  silvery  lustre,  and  does  not 
readily  tarnish.  Common  pewter,  of  which  measures 
and  liewter  pots  are  made,  is  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin. 

Philadelphia,  the  metropolis  of  Pennsylvania,  is 
the  second  city  in  the  United  States  of  America  in  pop- 
ulation, and  the  first  in  manufacturej,  though  number- 
ing but  as  third  or  fourth  in  external  commerce.  It 
It  situated  on  the  Delaware  and  SchuyllciU  rivers,  Ave 
miles  from  their  Junction,  96  miles  from  the  ocean  by 
the  course  of  the  Delaware  river  and  bay,  in  lat.  39° 
68  89"  N.,  and  long.  75°  10'  51"  W. ;  130  miles  from 
Washington,  and  87  from  New  York.  Fopniation  in 
IHOO,  70,287 ;  in  1810, 96,287 ;  in  1820, 119,325;  in  1830, 
187,825;  In  1840,  268,037;  in  1850,  40S,672;  u  ■!  >.; 
1854,  at  a  rate  of  increase  calculated  upon  that  for  tin. ! 
ten  years  previous  to  1850,  496,500;  which  rate  ais.V 
gives  603,927  as  the  papulation  in  1858.  In  10  years, 
1848  to  1868,  the  number  of  inhabitants  entered  as  tax- 
able Increased  from  64,380  to  103,979,  a  rate  exceed- 
ing Ave  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  principal  harbor 
li  on  the  Delaware  side,  at  the  east,  where  the  river 
front  fur  five  miles  has  a  depth  of  water  at  the  wharf 
line  of  from  20  to  57  feet.  The  foreign  commerce  is 
exclusively  on  the  Delaware,  but  the  Schuylkill,  which 
possflt  through  the  western  part  of  the  city,  is  much 
used  by  small  steamers  and  by  coasting  vessels.  Phil- 
adelphia has  aa  extensive  foreign,  and  a  still  greater 
domestic  trade ;  by.  means  of  railroads  and  canals  it 
pntseMes  facilities  for  communication  with  a  great  ex- 
"nt  of  country.  The  city  is  built  upon  a  plain,  ris- 
iriK  gradually  from  the  Delaware  on  the  east,  and  the 
Hchuyikill  on  the  west,  to  the  height  of  about  66  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  rivers  at  high  water.  The 
portion  most  densely  built  has  an  area  of  about  12 
square  miles,  extending  along  the  Delaware  River  Ave 
miles,  and  beiRg  two  miles  wide  at  the  narrowest  point 
lietween  the  two  rivers.  A  square  mile  west  of  the 
Schuylkill  is  now  densely  built  up.  The  city  is  laid 
out  with  entire  regularity,  the  streets,  with  few  excep- 
tions, crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  Market  or 
llik'h  Street,  extending  through  the  city  from  east  to 
West,  and  Hroad  Street,  north  and  sonih,  are  fe-v  wide 
and  spacious  thoroughfares;  and  all  the  ilrcvta  an 
wide,  airy,  and  well  kept.  Public  baildif  ;^  air  in 
fair  proportion  as  to  numlwrs,  and  many  nf  t!i3r.»  r  ■■} 
very  line  specimens  of  architecture.  Tl>  jrrivvtn  »i;liy. 
lags  are  remarkable  for  their  simple  elt^-  •\e>>  ir.d  v^}- 
form  neatness.  Swedish  emigrants  firs'  -nii"^;'.  up«i: 
thii  site  of  the  city  ss  early  as  KiliO,  and  '•'•\  .i.  n  <  P- i-< 
purchased  a  small  claim  from  tliein,  but  most  of  the 
site  and  adjacent  lands  from  the  Indiana,  in  1682,  and 
then  laid  out  as  the  city  the  area  between  the  two  riv- 
•rt,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  width  north  and  south. 
Id  1864  tke  iubnrbs  regularly  laid  out  beyond  the  orig- 


inal limits  largely  exceeded  the  city  proper  in  popula- 
tion, and  by  legislative  act  the  entire  area  of  the  county 
became  about  120  miles.  It  is  divided  into  24  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected  for  two  years,  a 
select  council  of  24  members  for  the  same  period,  and 
a  common  council  of  72  members,  elected  annually. 

Miinufacluret. — This  branch  uf  the  business  of  Phil- 
adelphia is  ver}-  important,  a  large  share  of  the  popu- 
lation being  so  employed,  and  the  value  of  the  goods 
produced  being  very  great.  The  vicinity  abounds  with 
water  power,  which  is  largely  used,  but  the  cheap  rate 
at  which  coal  is  obtained  renders  the  use  of  steam  al- 
most universal.  These  advantages,  with  the  extraor- 
dinary facilities  for  transportation  by  water  and  by 
railroads  on  every  aide,  oHTer  peculiar  inducements  to 
manufacturers  to  locate  establishments  here.  Iron 
manufactures  in  every  form,  and  particularly  machin- 
ery, with  gold  and  silver  ware  and  watches,  woolen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  silk  and  fancy  goods,  chemicals  and 
drugs,  sugar  reHning,  books  and  paper,  boots,  shoes, 
and  clothing  goods,  glue,  soaps  and  oils,  etc.,  are  the 
principal  departments  of  manufacturing  industry. 
The  following  statement  is  from  tlie  census  of  1850 : 

MANUrAOTCBIS  OF  PBILADSI.PniA    mTBIMO   TUI  YXAB 

■MDiNo  June  3u,  18S0. 


Diittlcl». 

Cipiul 
iiKitud. 

Hftndi«mp)oy«d. 

Addu*! 
PiwIiicU 

H«lM 

Ptmaifli. 

0U69 

1181 
861 

1890 
167 
283 

2377 

Philadelphia  Olty.. 
Northern  LiberUes . 

Spring  Garden 

Kensington 

SouthWArk 

$13,207,696 
3,»22.2&1 
2,918.445 
8,756,711 
2,1TI,0«6 
630,304 
T,J37,880 

17,020 
4,463 
4,326 
6,7-.'8 
2,1)60 
1,970 
6,706 

$^(1,0(19.206 
7,(178,(128 
6,87«,T81 

10,083,904 
8,734,730 
1,299,201 

10,237,805 

Moyamensing 

Toivnihlpii,  etc 

Total 

$88,737,<J1I 

K>,100 

$64,114,112 

The  completeness  of  this  statement  was  not  acknowl- 
edged at  the  time  of  its  publication,  and  the  Board  of 
Trade  at  once  instituted  inquiries  for  its  correction, 
which  resulted  in  the  publication  of  the  following  well- 
authenticated  aggregates  of  the  various  classes  of  man- 
ufacture for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1857 : 

Iron  and  maniifarturcs  of  Iron  and  steel $12,852,150 

Textile  fabrics  of  wool,  cotton,  and  silk 21,(114,113 

ClieiuicAls  and  dyes,  paints  and  inks 6,S5.V>00 

Morocco  and  other  leather 2,766,250 

Boot!!  and  ahoes 4,141,000 

Taper  and  manufactures  of  paper 2,41)3,000 

Books  of  all  kinds,  maps,  etc 2,448,noO 

Ale  and  beer 2,300,000 

Soaps,  candles,  and  oils 4,18'<,830 

Oold,  silver,  and  plated  manufactures 4,i!14,(i00 

Tobacco  manufactures 3,266,600 

Spices,  starch,  fruits,  confectionery 1,876,000 

Hsta,  caps,  straw  goods,  umbrellas,  etc 8,820,000 

Ginsa,  earthen-ware,  and  bricks 8,069,000 

t.'lothing  and  men's  fiimlahing  (one  half) 6,4I8,7.'>0 

Load,  type,  stereotype 83.'>,000 

Mannfaeturos  of  bra»,  copper,  and  tin 2,430,009 

Saddlery  and  trunks 1,988,000 

Millinery  and  Udlcs'  fiimlahing 690,000 

Surgical  Instruments,  teeth,  etc 860,000 

Musical  Instruments,  mirroiD,  gilding 1,2.3.%000 

Marble  and  building  stones 1,160,000 

Wrought  mahogsny  and  lumber 96  >,000 

Cordage,  ■nclc8,oll-clothK,  belting 380,760 

Lamps  and  gaa  fixtures 2,286,000 

Printing,  engraving,  and  litfiography 1,753^000 

Agricultural  Implements  and  fertilisers 1,003,000 

Medicines  and  perfumery 2,150,000 

Furniture,  and  ail  wooden  and  coopers*  wares..       5,391^003 

('nrriagea,  wagons,  drays 1,715,000 

Alcohol,  Tinegsr,  and  burning  fluids 1,ri22,l49 

VbAseli  snd  rigging 1,895,000 

Miscellaneous  and  small  Items 3.604,000 

Total $llil,»»3,4b8 

Of  articles  classed  as  partial  manufactures,  the  fol- 
lowing are  determined : 

Provisions $4,000,000 

Flour 8,200,000 

Bread 6,800,000 

C'IsthIng  (one  halO 6,41.1,260 

Sugar  and  molaines 6,600,000 

Whisky  and  cordials 8,354,600 

Newspapers 1,370,000 

Total $29,437,750 

Aggregate  of  both  elasaas $'4>,37l,23a 


PHI 


1523 


PHI 


$14,852,150 

B,855,(KK) 
2,T6fl,250 

4,141,n00 
4,498,0«) 
S,448,iifl0 
2,300,000 

4,18S93'> 
4,:n4,<l«0 
8,250,500 
1,875,000 
3,320,000 
3,059,000 
6,4I8,7r.O 
83r>,000 
2,430,003 
1,988,000 
690,000 
8&(t,0«0 

i,23r>,ooo 
1,100,000 

95 1,000 

380,750 

2,285,000 

1,753^000 

1  ons,ooo 

2,150,000 
6,391,009 
1,715,000 
l,r>22,14» 
1,895,000 
3,604,000 

$iii)i553;«5 
|roi,  the  fol- 

$4,000,000 
3,200,000 
6,600,000 
5,413,250 
6^500,000 
8,354,500 
1,370,000 

129,437,750 
$-*>,37I,SM 


Caal  Trade.— the  coal  trade  of  Philadelphia  began 
in  1820  from  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  in  1822  from  the 
Schuylkill.  For  twenty  years  nearly  all  raised  in  the 
State  came  to  Philadelphia,  but  now  one  half  the  Le- 
high coal  goes  to  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  and  only 
that  from  the  Schuylkill  comes  wholly  to  Philadelphia. 

In  1856,  42,000  tons  of  coal  from  liroud  Top  are  in- 
cluded ;  and  in  1857,  78,812  tons  UroadTup,  and  68,094 
tons  of  gas  coal  from  near  Pittsburgh.  The  value  of 
the  coal  trade  is  $15,000,000  annually. 

Coal  Tbadb  or  PniLADSLPniA. 


1868. 
18S4. 
1S55. 
1860. 
1357. 


Schuylkill 

RfglOD. 


Tom. 

2,470,943 
2,895,208 
8,318,,'i35 
S,268,35ti 
2,986,680 


L«hl|ili 

KsKiuR 
(onenalf}. 

TODI. 

627,164 
003,593 
642,057 
675,085 
669,375 


ToUI. 

Tom. 
2,098,097 
3,498,8  ll 
3,960,612 
3,976,341 
3,791,901 


The  commerce  of  Philadelphia  is  rapidly  on  the  in- 
crease, so  far  as  actual  exchange  with  foreign  nations 
is  concerned.  The  actual  external  commerce  of  the 
port  is  stationary,  having  made  no  advance  since  1853, 
when  its  value  was  $14,500,000,  employing  a  tonnage 
of  252,451  tons.  From  1854  to  1857  there  was  a  line 
of  tirst-class  steamships  and  four  lines  of  sailing-ves- 
K  ^j  plying  between  this  port  and  Liverpool ;  and  there 
are  now  (1858)  two  steamship  lines,  of  six  ships  in  all, 
to  Charleston  and  Savannah ;  one  line  of  three  ships 
to  Norfolk  and  Richmond ;  one  of  two  ships  to  BoRton ; 
and  one  of  two  ships  to  New  York.  These  vessels  are 
substantial  and  well  built,  and  most  of  them  construct 
ed  in  the  city.  Several  first-class  steamships  of  war 
have  been  built  at  the  Philadelphia  navy  yard,  and 
others  are  in  progress  of  construction.  The  total 
number  of  steamships,  ships,  barks,  brigs,  schooners, 
barges,  etc.,  entering  the  port  during  tlie  year  1856 
was  27,044,  and  32,746  in  1857. 

The  following  railroads  centre  hi^re :  The  Camden 
and  Amboy;  Philadelphia  and  Trenton,  connecting 
with  the  New  Jersey;  the  Camden  and  Atlantic; 
Philadelphia  and  Germantown;  Philadelphia,  Read- 
ing, and  Pottsville;  the  Great  Central  Railroad  of 
Pennsylvania,  with  its  jxtensive  connections;  Phil- 
adelphia and  Westchester;  Philadelphia,  Wilming- 
ton, and  Baltimore;  and  the  North  Pennsylvania. 
The  Schuylkill  Navigation  Canal,  108  miles  long,  ex- 
tends to  Port  Carbon ;  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Canal,  14  miles  long,  extending  from  the  Delaware  Riv 
cr,  at  Delaware  City,  to  Black  Creek,  Maryland  ;  the 
Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal  in  New  Jersey,  with  the 
Lehigh  Navigation  Canal,  constitute  great  arteries 
through  which  the  transportation  business  to  and  from 
the  city  is  conducted.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
transported  from  Philadelphia  92,458  tons  of  goods  in 
1857,  and  returned  255,436  tons.  The  railroads  and 
canals  through  New  Jersey  transport  immense  quanti- 
ties of  goods  between  Pliiladelphia  and  New  Y'ork. 
The  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal  transported  1,187,985 
tons  of  coal  from  Philadelphia  eastward  in  1857, 
1,849,688  cubic  feet  timber,  9,160,791  feet  lumber, 
1,141,321  bushels  grain,  262,961  bnrrlcs  flour,  38,44'.) 
Ions  iron,  and  165,683  tons  other  merchandise.  The 
Camden  and  Aml)oy  Railroad  transported,  in  1857, 
61,339  tons  of  dry  goods,  $44,4,")8,191  gold  and  silver, 
exclusive  of  bulky  goods  and  express  packages. 

Harbor,  f.ight-houten,  Pilotage,  etc.  —  Vessels  of  the 
largest  burden  <inter  the  harlKir  at  full  tide,  many  em- 
ployed in  commerce  drawing  23  feet  water ;  and  full- 
rigged  war  vessels  of  the  like  draft  have  been  built 
here,  and  taken  out  -vith  nil  their  armament.  A  bar, 
six  miles  below  the  city,  has  but  18}  feet  in  the  chan- 
nel at  low  water,  however;  and  another,  near  Fort  Del- 
aware, has  now  but  18}  feet.  The  entrance  to  the 
magnificent  bay,  formed  l>y  the  embouchure  of  the  Del- 
aware, has  Cape  May  on  its  north,  and  Cape  Henlopen 
on  its  south  side,     the  former,  in  lat.  88°  57'  N.,  long. 


76°  47'  46"  W.,  is  a  sandy  headland,  rising  alK)ut  13 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has  recently  been 
surmounted  by  a  light-house  60  feet  in  height.  The 
lifjlit  revolves  once  a  minute,  an  eclipse  of  60  seconds 
being  succeeded  by  a  brilliant  Hash  of  10  seconds.  It 
is  seen  in  clear  weather  from  20  to  25  miles  off.  Cape 
Henlopen,  marking  tlie  southern  lioundary  of  the  bav, 
is  in  lat.  38°  47'  N.,  long.  75°  4'  45"  W.  A  little  south 
from  it  is  a  hill,  elevated  about  60  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea;  and  on  it  is  erected  a  light-house  72  feet  in 
height,  furnished  with  a  powerful/ied  light,  visilde  In 
clcnr  weather  ten  leagues  off.  To  the  north  of  this 
principal  light,  and  close  to  the  extremity  of  tlie  Capo, 
a  second  light-house  has  been  constructed,  30  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  which  is  also  furnished  with  apvd 
light,  which  may  be  seen  about  six  leagues  off.  The 
channel  for  large  ships  is  between  Cape  Henlopen  and 
the  banks  called  the  Overfalls,  The  navigation  is, 
however,  a  little  diiiicult,  and  it  is  compulsory  on  ships 
to  take  pilots.  The  latter  frequently  board  them  at 
sea ;  but,  if  not,  as  soon  as  a  ship  comes  between  the 
Capes  she  must  hoist  the  signal  for  a  pilot,  and  heavo 
to  as  soon  as  one  offers  to  come  on  board, 

I'nil.ADII.PIlIA    TO    THE    OlEAN.— DISTANCES,   IH    StATBTI: 

Milks,  iteom   I  iiiLAnKi.riiiA  (Market  stheet  Wiiakpj 

TO  TUK  i:ArEB.  UY  THE  CHCAL  STKAIIIIOAT  CIIANNEL,  AH 
LAID  DOWN  ON  TUK  CHABT  OF  TUB  DELAWAEB  IIT  Till: 
L'NITRD  ESTATES  (JOABT   .'SUBVEY. 

Prom  PhiladelphiA  (Market  Streat  Wharrj  to  Milea. 

Fort  Mimiii  landing  (biasd  off  in  channel) 8  3-3 

Chester  landing  "  "  16  5-8 

Marcus  Hook  landing      "  "  20  1-4 

(juarryvillo  "  "  24  3-4 

Dupont'i  "  "  26P,-8 

Wilmington,  by  the  ChilBtlana,  to  bridge 81  3-4 

New  Castle  wharf  (broad  off  In  channel) 34 

DelawareClty  "  "  39  5-8 

Keedy  Island  "  "  44  1-4 

Port  Penn  landing 44  7-8 

Liston'sTrce  (broad  olfin  chaohel) 51  3-1(1 

LiBton'a  Point       "  "  5158 

Duck  Creek  light "  "  r,s  :!.8 

Itombay  Hook  Point  (broad  off  in  channel) i-i  9-10 

Buoy  of  the  Middle Tl  9-10 

Udge  Linht  boat 70  1-4 

Buoy  of  the  Loner  (qr.) 8,S  6-S 

Brandywlne  light-houso 89  9-16 

Buoy  of  the  Brown 93  l-I(i 

Breakwater in3."-a 

Cape  Henlopen 1"2  6-S 

Cape  May  laniling,  by  the  Pea  Patch !'fl 

lieceipt)  of  Cattle  in  Vhilade'phia. — Tl'e  following  tab- 
ular statement  presents  the  number  of  cattle  received 
here  during  each  of  the  last  twelve  years,  wiiii  the  ex- 
ception of  the  large  number  brought  in  by  butchers, 
of  which  no  account  can  bo  obtained : 


Vaan. 

Bcaret. 

Cowe. 

Swine. 

Sheep.         Total. 

1845 

61,2I'8 

18,806 

Ii0,455 

511,948    ^(afim 

1840 

47,.'iOII 

14,480 

18,t;70 

66,810      130,400 

1847 

6fl,'J70 

16,700 

22,-15fl 

67,8iH      147,2'20 

181S 

67,211 

14,108 

47,090 

T6,82li     206,820 

184i) 

08,120 

14,320 

46,700 

77,110     200,2.10 

ISSO 

68,750 

1,%I20 

46,900 

82,600     218,270 

18.'51 

69,100 

16,400 

46,700 

83,000     215,200 

1862 

71,2011 

14,420 

49,200 

81,900     216,020 

m-is 

71,90') 

16,100 

6;),300 

72,300 

212,000 

\9M 

7.1,400 

15,360 

78,000 

01,000 

227,750 

186.5 

65,200 

11,630 

e,5,3fifl 

132,60(1 

204,.^30 

1850 

61,978 

12,!iOO 

10.3,360 

2411,700 

418,928 

1  I8.'i7 

6-.',40ll 

14,700 

116,700 

342,000 

514,800 

EipoH  of  Breadatufs.—The  following  statement 
shows  the  quontity  of  breadstuffs  exported  to  foreign 
parts  for  the  calendar  years  1855, 1866,  and  1857 ! 


ISS5. 

lase. 

18BT. 

. .  Buri'els- 

218,197 
P5,108 

343,.H36 

9i,';49 

IU8,86T 
48,674 

ik 

li 

1.1,430 

16,.H07 

8,254 

Wheat 

..  Bushels. 

220,071 

66'>,338 

191,400 

Com 

ih 

ca^sn? 

1,067,283 

625,656 

Average  price  of  flour  in  Philadelphia  for  1865, 
$9  23i ;  for  1856,  $6  7U ;  for  1857,  $6  18.  The  ag- 
gregate value  of  flour  and  grain  exported  from  Phila- 
dolphiii  in  the  fiscal  year  1855-'6S  was  $4,802,936,  and 
in  1866-'57,  $3,936,m 


^„^v^,-H,.. 


PHI 


1524 


PHI 


The  following  table  ahows  tlio  incasnrcment  of  grain,  I  last  aixteon  years.   This  statement,  of  coune,  dooa  not 
leeils,  r.nU,  and  coal,  in  Philadolpliia,  annuaUy,  for  iho  |  incluile  all  the  receipts  of  grain,  seeds,  etc.,al  this  port. 


Y.W.. 

Wha.l. 

Corn. 

Ry.. 

Bmlcjr. 

OaU. 

OmiIi. 

B.ftna. 

Bil.  Co.1. 

Ball. 

1841 

467.2431 

781,2781 

61,.'l71( 

44,8:i6 

167,B08t 

10,  .on 

8040) 

llS.lfS 

826,183 

1842 

462,770 

4/2,»51 

86  334 

86,U78i 

104,1108 

86,1081 

1016) 

9,068 

151,260 

1843 

481,384) 

618,0ru 

l.8,0:3J 

20.012 

372,713) 

27,778) 

1581)) 

131,909 

174.184) 

1S44 

626,607t 

640.469 

06,22Vt 

68,600 

876,518) 

42,!*9 

1402) 

!.7,(00 

217,816) 

1845 

792.502J 

708  4861 

86,857) 

46,630t 

867,677t 

81.484 

303,  <) 

261,838 

146.461 

1846 

983.023 

66,5.178 

80,820 

40,330 

8tO,942 

15,864 

ISW 

848.201 

231,463 

1847 

047,5.8 

1,093,264 

78,1,72 

88.210 

869,171 

7,628 

676 

•-■08,760 

240,.)38 

1813 

72a,(i!'4t 

1,302,3181 

46,900) 

02,8Mt 

327,7331 

9.770) 

4,W 

457,827 

209.474 

184) 

045,466 

1,S83.<!0J 

04,416 

27,042 

424,316 

7,690 

1270 

^.'35,002 

4';1.1,57 

1860 

1,103,216 

1,U!3  6J6 

(-8,006 

70,2i8 

4'll,390 

5,261 

;8I13 

100.896 

178.71iJ 

1851 

1,05 1,088 

1,3T8,491 

89,219 

41.459 

359,006 

8,705 

253 

fSS.lOU 

242,917 

18)2 

077,5441 

799, 109  J 

f>:i,03J 

37,11!) 

427,B.''3 

23,774 

01,767 

16S,0il6 

1863 

9r.0.S«9t 

967.5141 

49,9tlfl 

81,250 

4')6,529 

11511 

17,870 

1854 

731,888 

1,182,178 

41,406) 

a9,7a5 

',>72,II46 

18,040 

601) 

6  814 

isr* 

1,040,096 

1,4.33.4'>8 

147,889 

ai,018 

686,024 

410 

6,504 

ISJtf 

1,061,691 

180l,ii92 

23,.189 

HM2 

466,540 

620 

.... 

.... 

iMronTATioN  UP  Ilinia  at  l>oii.AniLniiA, 


\nn. 

FoMign. 

CoutWiM. 

ToUI. 

1881 

i;;2,492 

No  ritum. 

132.402 

183'f 

173.761 

61,069 

2-24  821 

1833 

63.486 

84  51)3 

148,078 

1834 

93,691 

61,879 

145,.'h6 

1937 

127,057 

20,166 

147.'i3,) 

1938 

95,863 

29,372 

125,225 

1889 

124.208 

23,906 

148,113 

1840 

127.526 

13,050 

140.576 

1841 

143  440 

14.1  S4 

157.624 

1812 

123.674 

19.570 

143,244 

18  3 

84. 699 

9,370 

93,079 

1844 

i27.632 

19,0  2 

146,71:4 

1845 

90.726 

S,.'55 

00,280 

1M6 

51.S15 

17.742 

69,557 

1847 

76.139 

75.818 

151,9,57 

1849 

62.414 

72,300 

124,714 

1849 

1O2.09S 

8,8,2*1 

100,028 

liSSO 

103.8S2 

47.791 

151,678 

1861 

134,226 

8ft.7J7 

160,052 

186i 

130.154 

37,  IM 

167,308 

18.59 

110,977 

24  431 

144,411 

1851 

174  5  7 

10,451 

18,5,048 

1855 

150,102 

12,300 

168,402 

1856 

109.7.V) 

9.899 

119.164 

FOKXION  lliniS  IMFORTED  INTO  I'lIILAnELrUIA  IM  1$66. 


Nuinbsr. 

Balei. 

Hiienos  Ayrea  and  I..Aguayra 

Brazil 

79  VJ9 

13  216 

4,772 

6,,540 

"60 

889 

Africa 

Total 

103,366 
0,800 

Total  cottstwliw 

Tho  following  is  the 
dclphia  to  foreign  ports 


aggregate  exports  fion?  I'bila- 
in  185<;: 


Coantriaa. 


Kiredish  Went  Indlen . . 
1  )anllh  West  Indira  .. . 
llrttiah  Kast  Indies .... 

Belgium 

Bremen 

Knglaiid 

Canada 

Other  Br.  N.  A.  Colonies 

Cuba 

BritUh  Wcibjndica . . . 

British  Guiana . 

Africa 

French  West  Indies  . . . 

Korlo  Rico 

Ilaytl 

Central  liopublic  and  | 

New  Granada | 

Veneauela 

Ilrazils 

B.  Ayrea  Sc  Montevideo 
.Sandwkh  Islands  , . 

France  

Colombian  porta . . . 

Mexlro 

Madeira 

Holland 

Hamburg 

Gibraltar 


Domeaue. 

""p  17377 

oe.nii 

1-.7S 

26,097 

!i4.4l5 

8.85  ),':I2 

8,972 

849,813 

7i  3.087 

74.<  022 

134  f;89 

28,494 

1,260 

18  695 

79,4,90 

14,000 

617,947 
460,031 
115.101 
102,056 
181,279 


6,300 
41,5  8 
10.568 
13,757 


Total «7,711,'.85     ,'fi|88.B02    $7,899,977 


Furatgv. 

416 
2.032 


IH.DliO 
21,7S6 

3,9,;i 
21,911 

6,39i;» 

'm> 

'162 
1,490 


62,914 
2,31}4 
6,029 
4,817 

19,178 
7,947 


ToUI. 


$84,783 

67,327 

8,010 

26,C'..7 

34,416 

8,877.278 

■.5,768 

358,154 

814  008 

741.021 

13;.5>9 

28,784 

1,200 

18  847 

80,020 

14,000 

617,974 

612,045 

107.425 

108.084 

186.096 

10,1T8 

7,' 47 

6,860 

41,618 

10,568 

13,757 


The  following  is  a  romparative  statement  of  some 
of  the  principal  arlicles  of  produce  exported  from  the 
port  of  Philadelphia  ti^  foreign  porta  for  the  years 
1856-'56  i 


1            IMS. 

l8tB. 

220.1  79 

842,035 

684.002 

1,057,283 

02,608 

16,807 

239.863 

26,426 

4  531 

7.6-.'5 

11,141 

41:0  608 

089.702 

14.517 

61.3115 

10,422 

1,034,686 

13,387 

891,463 

709,146 

1,266,086 

4,688,716, 

1,373 

Wheat,  budhelB 

2(:fl  16:) 

085807 

08.073 

13,460 

45,702 

21,866 

2,ia2 

6  615 

7.872 

844,682 

889,504 

2.''.,083 

m.,129 

1,800,71)3 

19,086 

70.5.700 

5«4  514 

1,080,001 

4,210,016 

651 

('om  meal,  btvrrcla 

Shlp-bread,  barrels 

Hoef,  tlorces  and  barrels. . . 
Pork, 

Naval  stores,  bcireU 

Oil,  gallons 

Peas  end  heme,  bushels 

Lard,  pounds 

Tallow,  peui  ds 

SDaD.           "      

Bark  hhds. 

Cwih  Dutitt. — The  following  is  an  official  stateinent 
of  tho  aniouiit  of  cash  duties  received  at  the  custom- 
house at  this  ]>ort  during  the  past  three  years : 


Monlha. 

1954, 

18M. 

I86«. 

•lantiary 

Fcbruury  

March 

$639,;i92 
625,1.93 

.H'6,:;38 

379  471 
328  422 
301,764 
4S5.1C3 
601,153 
826.077 
26;.ls7 
216,615 
100.944 
$4>i)8,'6r5"~ 

$.a7,437 
280,8.-  6 
340.916 
2':8.!83 
2i5.r,88 
249.446 
811,649 
441,422 
275,033 
216,0  8 
311.692 
235.202 

$214,348 
64.904 
673.002 
385,236 
43,1,023 
876,120 
472.  S79 
533,490 
S45,613 
285,088 
243,162 
271,043 

April 

May 

Julv 

August 

September 

(Jetobcr 

November 

December 

Total 

$3,358,517 

$1,301,123 

Tho  following  is  an  ofHcial  statement  of  tho  viilue 
of  exports  from  the  district  of  I'hiladelphia  from  17191 
to  ISln.     For  ftubsequcnt  trodo  see  antv,  p.  1510. 


Yean. 

Foreign. 

UomeaOr. 

Total. 
$3  436,093 

1791 

$3,436  OTS 

1792 

3.S20  r.02 

3,82ii,flfl2 

1798 

.... 

0,1  58,880 

0,058.830 

17  4 

.... 

6.648,092 

0.643.111.2 

17!'5 

11,618,260 

11.618.260 

171'0 

i;.613,860 

]-.r:13,S(16 

1797 

11,446,291 

11,446  291 

1798 

.... 

8.C16.403 

8,915,4113 

1799 

.... 

12,481,967 

12,431.107 

IPOO 

11.949,679 

11,1-49,679 

ISIIl 

17.4.38,103 

17  438,193 

1S02 

12.677,470 

12,677,475 

I'illS 

!f3,.504.496 

7  5'JB  710 

11,fl3l),2i)6 

IS  4 

6  8B1,4« 

11,0.30,167 

17,8S1,6.1I 

1M)5 

0,397.1)12 

13.702.2,52 

23  1W,'.64 

18)6 

13,  SO?,  389 

11,674,702 

81,854091 

ls:7 

12,inO.I2S 

10,864,7!4 

29,919  872 

1808 

2,940,8(13 

4  013,830 

0,160,133 

1800 

4,910.883 

0,040,241 

13,300.124 

1810 

6.241,701 

10.0  3,8'  8 

17,V3l[)162 

IGU 

8,866,670 

6.691,447 

l).56«,117 

1812 

1,313.203 

4,00  ),467 

6,973,760 

1813 

1814 

1316 

827,494 

8,249,023 

8,571,117 

1,024368 

3,560  651 

4698,919 

18!6 

Total .... 

2,700,017 

4,488  320 
$28:,220  818 

7.1»0,246 
$817,081,474 

iii«a,i,67,e'ii 

PHI 


1535 


PHI 


l603,ei9 
lm248_ 


Aooomrt  inowiNo  tiii  Nuhbkb  or  Vuim,  niiniiiMiii- 

ATINO     BtTWKKN     ARIIVAU     rORKIOM    ANII     rOAaTWIU, 
WUIVII   BNTKBEU  TilK    I'OBT  or    I'lllLAnr-LI'llIA    rilllM  TIIK 

lit  or  .Iamuabv,  I8i5,  to  t.ie  Ibt  or  .lANUABy,  1h4ii. 


Fofign. 


CoMtwU*. 


1826. 
1820. 
1827. 
1828. 
1820. 
1S30. 
18;il . 
1832 . 
1833. 
18.34. 
1836. 
1880. 
1837. 
18S8. 


484 
482 
460 
460 
874 
41B 
SUA 
428 
474 
480 
42» 
421 
409 
404 
621 


1,1U6 
1,1»6 
1,820 
1,24T 
2,210 
&,287 
8,202 
2,849 
2,673 
2,080 
8,673 
8,704 
7,770 
10,800 
11.188 


I 


JTuUl, 

MftT' 
I,8Tt 

1,T8» 
I.flliT 
2,684 
8,7»2 
8,068 
8,271 
3,047 
8,110 
4.IHI2 
4.H6 
8.186 
ll,:i'i4 
ll,7tHI 


ABRIVAL  or  VEBiRI.B  AT  IllK  POBT  OF  rilII.AI>ri,PIIIA  IllJU. 
WO  TUB  YEAKS  1848,  184'.»,  AMU  1860. 


Hhips 

Bsrlu 

Brigg 

Bcboonen. . 

Sloops 

Btumeni... 

Barges 

Boats 

Total. 


1B48. 


101 

S62 

oca 

6,(107 
8,02» 
404 
8,205 
l),80il 


24,483 


lUI. 


116 

826 

888 

0,481) 

4,480 

061 

8,080 

8,628 


IHMI. 


HIU 
842 
884 
T,681 
6,200 
1,048 
8,860 
8,4li0 


('OMPABATITB  RTATKKBST  or  TIIR  XcHum  OF  Vesskls, 
rollKlliN  ANI>  rilANTH  ISE  » lllrll  HAVE  AKKIYED  AT 
rilU.AIIKI.I'IIIA  IIUKINII  riVI  YeaUS, 

■nilill  III  IN.VJ 26,105 

Totiil  ill  INM !l(i,lvO 

'I'otiil  III  1864 2«,001 

Tutsi  In  1866 80,223 

Totsllii  IHM 27,C44 

Tlin  fullowlnK  am  aliatracts  of  the  vessels  entered 
•ml  vioitrod  at  the  port  of  I'liiladclphia,  from  and  to 
furolgii  jiorli,  during  the  year  eniling  June  30th,  1«66 ; 
fruni  which  It  apiMMirK  that  the  total  number  of  vessels 
uiilurud  Miidor  the  Ainuricun  flag  during  the  year  was 
462,  and  thu  tunnagu  l!m,'J6a  tons,  being  an  increaso 
of  S'J  voisuls  and  » Iil2  tons  over  the  year  1855.  Tho 
tola!  nimibur  of  vessels  entered  under  foreign  flags  was 
125,  and  tho  lonnngo  37,61)11  tons,  an  increase  of  10  vev 
««!«  and  n,41l7  tuns  over  1(*55 ;  making  a  total  increase 
oyer  the  prooodlng  year  of  42  vessels  and  25,923  tons. 
Tlio  total  number  of  vessels  cleared  under  the  Ameri- 
can iing  was  804,  and  thu  tonnagu  110,581  tons,  a  de- 
crcBsa  of  22  vessels  and  («4'J  tonnage  under  1835 ;  and 
thu  total  number  of  vessels  cleared  under  foreign  flags 
was  127,  and  tho  tonnage  81^,409  tons,  an  increase  of 
nlno  vessels  and  18,1162  tons,  making  a  total  decrease 
from  that  of  tho  tirecedingycar  of  la  vessels,  and  an  in- 
iTcaiu  of  61U  tons.     See  Pkmmsylvania. 


I 

NTBBBD. 

CtlABRD.                                                                          1 

CouutrlM. 

Fl«g,  A 

No.  of 
V«»l>. 

nirieiin. 

/"".'■ 

orolgn. 

CoDBlrlM. 

FUs,  AmflTlcan. 

KUr,  for...8n.     | 

n«j». 

No.  of 
Vuult. 

Too. 

ONfl. 

No.  of 

V.Mel.. 

Ton. 
nofco. 

No.  of 
VmuIi. 

Ton- 

UllgO. 

Swedish  West  Indies. . . . 
Danish  West  Indies 

2 
2 

"i 

68 
2 
1 

5,5 

87 

1 

1 

a 
1 

8 

1 

1 

188 

11 

1 

1 

1 

6 

10 

10 

1 

1. 

81 

82 

1 

11 

8 

2H7 
404 

'867 

00,847 

620 

706 

10.1118 

8,772 

170 

412 

870 

1,86^ 

2,000 

8iI6 

177 

80.070 

2,6-8 

107 

118 

674 

1,082 

6.124 

2,943 

213 

233 

0,1 6S 

8,064 

5!4 

13,230 

8:6 

"i 

B 
1 
10 

"b 

25 
28 

'b 
'i 

6 
0 
1 

'i 

's 

2 

i 

1 

'  'iiii 

2,882 

134 

21,067 

i',m 

2,470 

■  764 

'  'm 

1,1168 
Os8 

138 

■  819 

i,'887 
18.1 

"  'i;io 

218 

HwikMhIi  Wsst  Ifidio 

Danish  West  Indies 

6 
2 

"i 

'i 
40 

5 
1 
2 

in 

B-> 
0 
2 
1 
8 
2 
1 
1 

82 
3 
1 
7 
1 
1 

26 

26 

a 

1,409 

'iw 

"467 

42,n::6 
alio 

2,081 
HIS 

1,4JI6 

0,110 
11,730 

2,114 
370 
731 

j,n43 
687 

24;; 
Mr 

19,702 

6  3 

197 

1,2JS 

3  5 

l:i9 
0,727 
6,228 

4*8 
1,803 

• 

'a 

1 

8 
1 
1 
1 

17 
1 
9 

i 

63 
19 

i 

'i 

6 

'i 
'3 

'  6  '8 

261 

1,5-20 

218 

04 

20a 

20,1.5 

S83 

3,148 

'  335 
7,170 
1,810 

lis 

"  4S'0 

i,'l7'8 

■  175 
'  034 

Holland 

Ilolliiiid 

Iiuk.h  West  Indies 

IIiiIkIikii 

British  N.  A.  Possessions. 

British  West  Indies 

British  Honduras 

British  Oiiiana 

British  I'oss.  in  AfHca  . . 

British  F^t  Indies 

Trance  on  the  Atlantic  . . 
France  on  the  Mediter'n. 
Spain  on  the  Modlter'n. . 
(;uba 

KCKtIanil 

Irplaiiil, * 

(iilirallur 

Othur  British  N.  A.  Pons. 

Ili'itlsh  West  Indies 

Ilritlsh  (luiniiii 

Ilritisii  l'o>s.  Ill  Africa . . 
Ilritlsh  Kaslliidlrs.i... 
fraiicii  nn  tliTi  Atlnnlic . , 
Vtnnfis  on  tlio  .Mcd'n.... 

French  West  I:  lies 

IMillippliie  Islni,  

)'uhn 

Porto  Itico 

Caoe  de  Verds 

Sardinia 

Sicily 

iinyti ; . . . . 

Ml"  !■  ■  .                . 

Mexico 

II..  ;  

I'Cli.r    i  i((t|illlllle 

New  Granada 

Brazil 

Chill 

Peru 

Vfltieruiila 

llntKll 

I'niiriiuy 

Bumiuit  Aynts 

Tolid 

Ecuador. 

Total 

463 

Ifl0,to7 

1'.8 

87, 0:  d 

8'i4 

1111,631 

127 

33,4t)!l 

Philippine  Islands  .  ■  c-^  and  imiiortant  group 
in  the  Asiatic  Archipelar;i',  t'orining  its  northern  (l!vi. 
siun,  and  next  to  Cuba  the  most  valiialilo  colonial 
session  of  Spain,  chiefly  between  lat.  6°  32'  and  19'  .1"' 
N.,  and  long.  117°  and  127°  E.,  having  north  and  eost 
f.lie  Paciflc  Ocean,  west  tho  China  Sea,  and  south  the 
seas  of  Sooloo  and  Celebes.  There  aro  at  least  I2U0  inU 
ands,  great  and  small.  Principal  islands,  Luzon,  Min- 
dano,  and  Palawan,  with  Mindoro,  Panay,  Klarindic|iin, 
Negros,  Zebu,  Dohol,  Ley  to,  Samar,  Mosbate,  and  many 
of  less  size.  Total  area  estimated  at  120,000  squnrn 
miles.  Tho  Spanish  dominion  is  stated  to  extend  over 
only  52,148  S(|.  miles.  Population,  iu  1850,  3,815,878, 
consisting  of  Europeans,  native  whites,  tho  Papuan  no- 
gro  race,  and  independent  tribes,  M..lay  Indians,  hiilf 
castes,  and  Chinese.  The  islands  aro  of  volcanic  fur- 
mation,  and  contain  a  chain  of  activn  volcanoes.  Earl  h> 
quakes  also  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  gnnip 
is  within  the  range  of  the  mon.soons,  and  violent  liiir- 
ricone*  are  common.     From  May  to  Septembor  Ibo 


wc«ti!rn  coonts  nro  deluged  with  rain,  while  tho  October 
moiiHniin  brings  ruin  tu  the  eastern  coasts,  at  other  sca- 
~iin»  dry,  Thu  high  temp'  .;  and  abundance  of 
I  inoisturn  iiroiliicu  a  liixurlai  ■  -  ation;  so  that  Oi^y 
I  are  capiiblu  of  ylcliling  all  ki.iL  of  colonial,  and  ]>mI>- 
alily  ICurupcaii  jirodiicc.  Uice,  millet,  innizc,  siig.ir, 
indigo,  hcinp,  tobacco,  coTec,  end  cotton,  ^u  •  rai-seii; 
and  sagn,  cucua-iiuls,  bananas,  oinanion,  nuinor- 

niis  Ihm  fruits,  and  timber  fur  shlp-buiUlin  -  ,^  .iniung 
the  prodiiels,  Ilulliilocs  and  most  of  the  domestic  ani- 
nmU  cuniiiKin  In  Kiimpe  are  rirared.  There  are  no  pre- 
daceiius  i|iinilriipeils ;  llin  cayman  is  found  in  the  rivers. 
Pearls,  jiearl-oysler  shell,  tho  sea-slug,  edible  birds' 
nusis,  and  sapan-woud,  are  important  articles  of  ex- 
port hciu'o  (()  China,  Domestic  weaving  is  pretty  gen- 
erally carried  on  by  the  females,  and  straw  hats,  cigar 
casern,  and  carthnn-wares,  are  made ;  but  the  chief  man- 
ufuctiiru  Is  that  of  "  ( ioverninnnt  Manilla"  cigars,  which 
occiiplns  20(10  hands  at  a  royal  factory  in  Manilla.  The 
wrotcliud  lu;  .ilal  pulley  of  Old  Spain  cxclu,'.ed  all  for- 


PHI 


1526 


PHI 


cign  ihips  and  Chinur  jettlcra  from  thcao  islandii,  and 
the  trade  with  th«  SpariUh  dominion  In  America  waa 
also  confined  io  iliat  conducted  annually  by  a  single 
ship.  But  swi'h  riistrictiong  have  vanished  since  the 
revolution,  ai.'l  the  colony  ic  now  malting  commensu- 
rate progress  'U  ward  prosperity.  In  18-12,  H9  sl.'.ps, 
agrr  .'gate  bur'itjn  46,B6i>  torn,  entered,  and  162  do., 
I>u  '!  II  60,226,  cleared,  at  the  difTcn  nt  ports.  T?i  ports 
amounted  in  val i '<)  to  Je900,080,  one-thit d  from  Ei  .;  and, 
and  more  than  another  third  f  m  China,  the  '  nited 
.States,  and  Brit'^h  India.  Exports  amounted  in  value 
to ^£974,160,  chiefl- sent  to  Engl.>ii<t.  N^.ain,  the  UM'.id 
States,  China,  and  Aii.-.iralia.  MiinilLi  (which  sec)  n 
the  principc.l  seat  of  thu  trade,  ami  'At'  ■  ilie  seat  of  the 
government,  it  b;  itig  ',\,k  reaidenco  of  the  captain  gen- 
eral. In  each  of  thu  larger  islands  i»  a  licuten'  »*  gov- 
ernor; and  each  of  (he  30  provinces,  governed  '  .•  an 
alcalde,  is  divided  into  p  :ebIos,  or  coii  runes.  The 
Horn-'  I  Catholic  religion  iius  been  extensively  d'r'used 
amon)/  t!ie  Malay  population.  Public  revenue  la  d<",'ivci' 
chicli.v  from  duties  on  e;iports  and  imports,  the  vibac 
C(<  mo.i.jpoly,  and  a  capitation  tax,  which  in  18iii'  was 
i  lid  hv  J, 805,14?  ;idu!ta,  of  whom  901,924  belonged  to 
il'  •  lap'l  l.uw  I..  Amied  forcu  amounts  to  about  7000 
i'M.4.,  oiie.ieml:  >'ii,triards,  and  the  rest  Malays.  These 
is'and^  wi;ro  discoveicd  by  Mugalhaeno  in  1521,  and 
s.  ittd  by  iliu  Spaniards  in  the  reign  of  I'lillip  II.,  after 
■    lor.i  they  •vcro  named, 

Vho  n.i'iiiicreial  interci^urse  generally  is  >inder  the 
liv.vs  and  regulations  of  ths  mother  country,  but,  in  fact, 
is  in  some  degree  dependent  upon  tlie  local  authority, 
the  power  being  with  the  governor  to  order  the  depart- 
ure from  the  colon}  of  any  person  who  may  become  ob- 
lioxiuUo  to  himself  or  Ids  government.  The  regulations 
lire  lixcd  for  an  indclinite  time ;  amendnienis  are  con- 
Mantly  proposed,  and,  for  several  years  past,  a  total 
revision  of  the  taritf  of  duties  on  foreign  produce  hati 
be  'n,  from  time  to  time,  discussed.  Any  such  chaiigcs, 
though  they  may  lie  proposed  and  discussed  in  Manilla, 
can  only  bo  niidn  law  by  the  homo  government.  In 
fact,  the  reins  iir.;  held  very  tightly  in  Madrid,  and  the 
governor  general  ia  constantly  made  to  feel  his  depend- 
ence upon  vhe  niini.stcr  in  power.  Citizens  of  the  L'nlt- 
cil  .States  enjoy  the  iirivilcg^s  of  all  other  foreigners. 
There  is  no  i.istinciion  made  in  the  privileges  or  i^- 
Rtrictions  iiermitlod  or  imposed  on  the  coniincrco  of 
foreign  natiuiui.  The  ^lort  c'larges  consist  of  tonnage 
dues,  rivcr-cleanlDg  d.ies,  and  light  dues.  The  tjn- 
>iagc  dues  are  25  cents  per  !on  register,  if  the  vessel 
di.'charges  or  takes  in  cargo ;  and  one-half,  or  12i  cents 
per  ton,  if  she  departs  W'thout  having  brol<e  built 
or  receiMjd  cargo.  .  A  vess.l  may  land  sjiecic  without 
being  subjected  to  the  full  dues.  The  river  dues,  for 
tlic  Buppirt  of  a  muu-lioat,  are:  on  a  vcs.sel  discharg- 
in;;  a!id  loading  any  cargo,  (JJ  cents  per  ton ;  entering 
in  ballast  and  .'tailing  with  cargo,  or  vun  reisa,  3)  cunts 
per  ton :  entering  with  cargo  and  sailing  w  ith  same, 
3 1  cents  per  ton;  entering  and  sailing  in  ballast,  no- 
thing. The  light  dues  aic,  on  all  foreign  vessels,  OJ 
cents  per  ton  register.  Spanish  vessels  pay  one  half 
these  rates.  The  transhiixnent  of  goods  is  strictly  pro- 
hihitod.  In  Older  to  elicit  a  transhipment,  the  goo<ls 
must  be  cnterrd  in  deposit,  actually  brought  on  she 
to  the  custom-houie,  and  then  shipped  under  fresh  d." 
uments  from  deposit.  There  is  but  one  port,  this 
^'rnilla,  open  to  foreign  shipping,  and  foreignora  'o. 
'  '  .  ided  fmm  all  internal  and  coasting  tr:. . 
"  '  !  moneys,  weights,  ar.d  nieasurta  in  cou  y  .i 
''inilla  are  authorized  i>y  tho  laws  of  '■  ■■■'■u,  i>,' 
can  not  be  said  to  correspond  with  those  ot  ;ii  ooi>i'r 
country,  inasmuch  as  in  Spain  tho  wei.-'iit  a:  ..  as- 
ures  are  not  the  same  throughout  the  kir.gi!  r^. 
moneys  current  hero  are  specie  only.  Of  i,  '  i,  U  ■ 
douliloon  of  Spain,  Mexico,  and  the  renublii'S  of  Soiit' 
America,  of  full  weight,  is  current  at  iJlO.  The  sipn!'- 
cr  coins — halves,  quarters,  and  eighths- -at  their 
portionate  value.     Of  silver,  the  dollar    t  Spain,  >i    . 


ieo,  and  thn  other  Peiith  Amorluan  repobllcs,  of  full 
weight,  i«  lurient  at  i'l  T'nlted  States  currency.  The 
relative  iimr.llur  coins  pii  d  ut  the'r  rMative  value.  Cop- 
pcj  ;7)in  is  of  three  si;e«;  1  cui.'io,  2  cuartos,  and  4 
cuiiftiis;  !<■  '  iiiitiis  arc  equal  lo  «  dollar.  Accounts 
an  JtjpL  bi  -.unish  iiii'-chant<  in  i  I'lars,  reals,  and 
cuartos :  20 .  uurtos  cifual  1  real ;  •<  ■  's  equal  1  dollar. 
Forci.^Mers  gini  r-;';,  kci-r  deir  i;oi .  ii.  ~  in  dollars  and 
cei.  .  Tlio  m'i.u  of  tliii.,  colim  ..  lul  the  same  in 
the  United  Slates  as  .lere;  b  .'.  .at  being  li:ted  by  tho 
Unite;:'  -itates  laws,  there  is  a  fluctuation  which  can 
not  Iki  r  duced  to  regular  limits. 

The  weights  in  commor.  use  are  piculs,  quintals,  ar- 
roba',  and  pounds.  The  pound  is  almut  IJ  per  cent, 
heavier  thnn  that  of  tho  United  S'liis,  25  pounds 
equal  1  artoija,  or,  at  the  ;'n.  d  Stat  .  standard,  about 
2C ;,  pounds;  4arr;.l>as  =  i  -(.lintal-lOIJ  lbs.;  5i  ar- 
icbus-- 1  picul-.=MO  Ills.  'l>.n  measures  are  long  meas- 
ure— inches,  li'M,  yirda,  fathoms,  miles,  and  le.ignes, 
12  inches  maku  1  (  9  feet  loake  one  yard  ;  2  yards 

mako  1  f.'oiiom;  Hi  faihoms  and  6  inches  make  1 
n)ilo;  3  .iii.i  •»  make  one  ieague,  Tho  yard  (or  vara)  in 
iiuuhert  is  about  33  inches  of  the  United  States,  Grain 
is  usually  sold  in  the  country  by  the  cavan,  4  apa- 
lanes  equal  1  ohupo ;  8  chupos  equal  1  ganto ;  25 
gantos  equal  1  cavan.  These  differ,  however,  in  tho 
different  provinces.  In  Manilla,  a  cavan  of  rice  weighs 
127  lbs, ;  of  coffee,  about  52  llis. ;  of  wheat,  about  150 
lbs,  A  tiniga  of  oil  contains  16  gantog ;  of  wine,  17 
riantos, 

Tho  rate  of  insurance  to  the  United  States  from  Ma- 
nilla is  charged  3  to  3^  per  cent, ;  but  little  is  done, 
liowcver,  there  being  but  one  local  insurance  oiBce  with 
a  (rifling  capital,  the  policies  issued  by  which  contain 
SI)  many  exceptions  as  to  make  them  of  very  little  value. 
T.'ic  shipmi  nts  of  produce  to  the  United  States  are  cov- 
ered by  insurance  made  in  the  United  States  or  in  En- 
gliiml.  Freights  vary  constantly,  being  governed  by 
tho  supply  of  tonnage  and  quantity  of  produce  wailing 
shipment.  At  present,  $20  per  ton  of  40  cubic  feet  of 
hen.j.  and  other  measurement  goods,  and  $12  or  $13 
per  ton  of  2240  pounds  of  sugar,  are  current.  These  are 
considered  full  rates.  Commission  is  charged  2}  per 
cent,  on  all  purchases  for  the  United  States,  When  a 
broker  is  employed  ho  is  paid  a  brokerage  twmmission 
of  CJ  cents  per  picul  on  hemp,  6 J  per  picul  on  sugar, 
3^  cents  per  picul  on  rice,  and  on  other  articles  as  may 
bo  ngreetl  upon.  All  articles  of  produce  are  bought  for 
cash,  and  paid  for  on  delivery.  Oftentimes  payment 
is  made  in  part  before  delivery,  and  in  the  hemp  •iidr' 
tno  advances  made  are  very  large.  Tho  r::te  ot  ex- 
clmnge  between  this  and  the  United  States  is  not  quoted, 
there  being  no  transactions  in  the  regular  course  of 
trade.  All  exchange  trnns  .ions  per  American  account 
(and  tho  greater  portion  of  the  exports  to  the  United 
States  is  paid  fur  in  bills)  are  made  through  England, 
bills  being  drawn  here  on  London  bankers,  by  viituu 
of  credits  granted  by  the  bankers  themselves  in  Lon- 
don, or  by  their  agents  in  the  United  States.  Tho 
average  rate  of  exchange  during  the  past  year  has  liccn, 
f  ,■  b  lis  on  London,  drawn  at  six  months'  sigh'.,  o.(. 
I  ,i{.  'ler  dDliar.     The  par  of  exchange  is  about  4s.  2d., 

.,  Mimoasin  the  United  States;  thecimncy  in  silv 
a  about  equivalent  that  of  one  country  with  i' 

Tho  dollar  current  here,  being  of  tho  Mrv  ,;/>n 
.-•outh  American  currency,  is  worth  one  hu.nlrod 

unts  in  tho  United  States. 
Duties  on  exports  arc,  on  hemp,  2  per  cent. ;  on  tor- 

oiso  shell,  mother-nf-pearl  shell,  ai"'  ratans,  1  per 
cent,  (these  three  articles  last  na:i"  are,  in  fact,  not 
productions  of  this  island,  but  brought  from  the  Scoloo 
Islands,  and  pay  1  per  cent,  import  duty) ;  all  other  ar- 
■ '  ^s,  8  per  cent.  On  all  imports  dinet  from  the  Unit- 
.  tales,  14  per  cent.  'I'here  arc  no  internal  taxes  of 
i  >  kind  on  produce.  The  rates  of  wages  in  agri  ul- 
i  pursuits  arc  N'ry  low,  generally  paid  in  produce 
(lioing  for  the  subsiitenco  of  the  laborer,  and  difiicult 


PHI 


1527 


PHI 


to'ba  reduced  to  ■  money  itandird.  Artlsani  obtain 
60  centa  per  day,  and  if  expert  worlimeu  ai  high  as  $1, 
or  even  fl  60  per  day.  Laborer!  in  and  about  .Manilla, 
26  centa  to  371  ceati  per  day.  On  board  shipa  in  the 
bay  they  are  paid  62^  centa  per  day.  At  theae  rates 
laljor  is  much  dearer  than  in  the  Atlantic  cities  of  the 
United  States— the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  work 
done  by  a  Manilla  workman  comparing  very  unfavora- 
bly with  that  of  a  man  in  New  York.— See  Manilla, 
Spain.  For  further  informatiou  refer  to  Quarterly,  Jit- 
view,  vii.  235,  xvii.  630,  xxxv.  823. 

The  chief  exports  from  Manilla  (the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  chief  port  of  the  islands)  are  hemp,  su- 
gar, sapan-wood,  cigars,  cordage,  indigo,  coffee,  rice, 
hides,  mother-of-pearl  shell,  aliiiaciga,  grass-cloth,  and 
tortoise-shell.  The  principal  imports  are  cotton  fab- 
rics, silks,  woolens,  haberdashery,  drugs,  clacks,  jew- 
elry, etc. 

The  leading  exports  to  the  United  States  in  1841  were : 

Sugar francs  1,080,000  =  $206,200 

Coffee "         149,0011=     28,310 

Hemp "      1,444,000=271,360 

Indigo "         884,000=     72,960 

Hides "         108,000=     20,620 


iHToaTa  An  Exroars  or  xna  PnaipriNi  Islahdi  m 

1844. 


China 

Kngland 

BiDgaporo 

United  Htatn 

Spain 

Jars  and  Molucca 
Auitralla 

Eaatlndlaa 

France 

SouloD  Iiilea 

Belgium 

HanaeTowni 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

South  America . 

Total  franca 

Dola.  at  19  c.  perfr. 


Import!,      t      Kipefla 


Kranrt 

8.944  000 

4  234.000 

4.376,000 

l,l2(i,000 

1,018,000 

1,119,000 

849,000 

146,000 

290,000 

84(1,0(10 

109,009 

8>,000 

2ti7,aoo 

S3,uu0 

22,3118^006" 
4,249,1(20 


Friuct. 

6,S!<3,a00 

2,760,000 

476,000 

8,335,000 

2,970,000 

620,000 

926,1)00 

98J,0^ 

461,000 

281,000 

804,000 

880,000 


10,383,000 
8,673  270 


Total. 


rraoM. 

14.is27,0,)0 

6.9'.  8.000 

4,861,000 

4.4b7,000 

3,983,000 

1,739,000 

1.274.000 

1,136,000 

751,000 

021  0:iO 

413.000 

3li2  000 

267,  (MW 

'.3,000 


41,71(1,10(1 
7,9.3,190 


/m|)oit».  —  National  commerce,  $125,011;  foreign 
commerce,  $3,176,325 ;  imports  for  deposit,  $718,B31. 

A'3|)(»'<i.— National  commerce,  |3,834,06S» ;  foreign 
commerce,  $338,204;  exports  from  dcpoait,  $436,638. 
Total  imports,  $4,019,967 ;  total  exports,  $4,608,911. 

The  Manilla  picul  is  estimated  at  133^  lbs. 


QUAiniTixs  or  Huip  and  Scoab  ixpobtzd  rcoH  Makilla  to  the  Uhitid  States  a»d  Ecsopx,  BxsrEoiivELT,  raoM 

1844  TO  1863. 


HEMP.                                                                                                                                  1 

1844. 

1S«5. 

IBM. 

IMT.      1       1848. 

I84«. 

18(0. 

18SI 

isn. 
220,614 
i7,743 

18(3. 

2(r4  684 

10,934 

■221,518 

To  the  United  SUtes. 
To  Europe 

89,132 
6,934 

K6,28S 
T,202 

02,696 
16,600 

100,285 
16.739 

128,040 
20,513 

113,404 
39,948 

102,194 
21,216 

143,133 

80.8ii6 

PlculBC138i  Ills- each]     95,060 

102,490 

lui),196 

1 17.024 

143.583 

163,852 

123,410 

173,<J38 

248,267 

BUOAB. 

'I'u  the  United  States. 
To  Europe 

90,11.6 
127,420 
217,8;6 

72,100 
1(13,000 

85,060 
176,208 

»1,4J5 

111,447 

77,3.Ki 
6,S,402 

89,122 

18t,8:i9 

"273^061 

78.48U 
211,774 
290,254 

110,412 
127,7.6 
244,137 

U3.14U 
123,7i.2 
'/6ij,982 

194  115 
198,922 

393,117" 

Plcula[lS3tlba.each} 

175.100 

211,288 

2(J2,8S2 

145,73R 

lent. ;  on  tor- 
Intans,  1  per 
I,  In  fact,  not 
\x\  the  Scolco 
\a\\  other  ar- 
«m  the  X'liit- 
inal  taxes  of 
is  in  agr;  ul- 
U  in  produce 
1  and  difficult 


The  average  price  of  hemp  at  Manilla  is  from  $7  to 
$7  06i  per  picul,  though  in  1854-'55  it  ascended  as 
high  as  $10,  owing  to  the  Eastern  war.  Tho  average 
price  of  sugar  is  $3  37i. 

The  preceding  table  shows  that  the  quantity  of  hemp 
exported  from  Manilla  to  the  United  States  in  1853 
amounted  to  204,684  picul8= 27,277,866  pounds;  and 
the  quantity  of  sugar  to  194,195  piculs=2&,892,667 
pounds. 

Imparled  Goodi. — We  copy  from  nn  ofKcial  Report 
of  the  British  consul  at  Hollo  (Island  of  Panay,  one  of 
the  Philippines),  1858,  the  following  remarks  on  the 
character  of  foreign  goods  wanted  for  domestic  con- 
sumption : 

"  The  Chinese  dealers  at  Holo,  and  a  foir  small  traders  at 
Ilotio,  hwe  commenced  opening  permanent  shops,  and  It  is 
jirobable  that  tue  number  of  these  will  gradually  extend 
throughout  the  province ;  though,  as  the  fairs  are  also  the 
central  point  of  attraction  for  all  the  products  within  a  cer- 
tain radius  of  each  '  pueblo,'  and  thus  bring  together  a  largo 
concourse  of  people,  the  weekly  transfer  of  piece  and  other 
goods  fh>m  Ode  place  to  another  must  Btill  continue  to  a  great 
extent  There  are  about  thirty  Chinese  permanently  estab- 
llalic]  I '  Molo  (mostly  connected  with  others  at  Manilla, 
either  -<  nents  or  partnerf),  and  two  or  three  at  Jaro.  A 
ciTtaln  .  lunbcr  are  also  employed  In  voyaging  to  and  fro 
?'in  Manilla  with  goods,  afier  realizing  which  they  return 
for  a  tni'^  (.srcel,  either  taking  the  returns  In  money  or  prod- 
uce. (?. '  0  '  the  Chinese  dealers  at  Molo,  who  Is  well  sup- 
plied from  M*nilla,  sells  goods  to  thi; ,  lount  of  from  $30,000 
to  $40,000  per  annum.  Owing  however,  to  too  much  com- 
petition among  themselves  ai.i'  the  other  dealers,  I  do  not, 
Judging  from  the  prices  at  which  they  usually  sell,  thtnjc 
that  their  proills  are,  'n  general,  at  all  large. 

"The  principal  arilcloa  of  foreign  manufacture  Imported 
Into  the  province  of  I  enay  are : 

"Handkcrchiefa— printed,  of  bright,  attractife  colors  and 
300d  designs.  Urge  consumption,  at  ral.-s  varying  from  50 
cents  to  $1  60  per  Anim ;  wovo,  plain  and  fancy  checks  are 
In  demand  at  $2  to  $3  per  dojsen  for  fair  to  fine  quaiiliea; 
fancy  checks,  dark  grounds,  with  i.ii.xcd  ailk,  at  $10  to  $12 
t>er  dozen ;  allk  are  aalable  to  so.ne  extent  at  $3i  to  $6  per 
plec^  according  to  quality.  Wove  and  printed  trowserings 
are  salable  to  a  considerable  extt^t,  bu'  'generally  at  rathur 


cheap  prices,  ranging  from  6i  cents  to  12i  centa  per  yard. 
Ginghams,  chiefly  small  narrow  checks,  blue  and  rcil,  are 
largely  used  for  shirts,  at  from  $41  to  $61  per  piece  of  24 
yards.  Fancy  cambayas,  of  mixed  cotton  and  ailk  with  gold 
threads,  are  also  In  large  demand  at  from  $100  to  $l.'iO  per 
cori;e  of  20  pieces.  Plain  grandrills  arc  of  ready  sale  at  $5 
to  $5t  per  40  yards.  White  shirtings  are  not  in  very  extens- 
ive demand,  their  use  being  interfered  with  by  tho  native 
fabrics.  A  fair  quantity  Is,  however,  disposed  of  at  19  reals 
to  23  reals  per  piece  of  40  yards,  361  inches  wide.  Gray 
shirtinf^s  and  gray  long  cloths  and  domestics  are  In  no  de- 
mand as  imported  from  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States; 
but  the  same  goods,  purchased  and  dyed  at  Manilla  by  Chi- 
nese dealers,  are  largely  used  by  the  laboring  population. 
Gray  twills,  29  Inch,  both  American  and  English  (former 
preferred),  are  largely  consumed  for  sails  of  boats,  shirts, 
etc.,  at  $2  3-9  per  40  yards  for  English,  and  $3t  tu  ^81  per  40 
yards  for  American.  Lawns,  12  yards  42  inches,  are  usually 
salable  at  10  reals  for  course  to  $2  per  piece  for  finer  quali- 
ties. White  Jaconets,  40  Inches  20  yards,  are  in  moderate 
inqniry  nt  9  reals  to  $2  per  piece  for  low  to  fair  asiortmenta, 
and  $21  to  $3  for  fine.  Striped  muslins,  10  yards,  imitating 
'ainamay,'  liave  been  imported  to  some  extent,  and  sold  at 
6i  reals  to  5^  reals  per  piece — rates  which  will  scarcely  en- 
courage future  sendings.  Cotton  thread— the  Oner  numbers, 
240  to  300,  are  largely  salable  at  $2-4  to  $2'5  and  $2'Ci  per 
pound.  Cotton  sarongs  are  also  In  considerable  demand,  but 
have  to  bo  sold  cheaply  to  compete  with  the  native-made 
goods  of  similar  description:  price  about  $5(  per  corge  of 
inferior,  and  $11  for  good  quality.  Cotton  .v.ist  or  yarn— T. 
It,  Nos.  40  to  60,  Is  sold  in  conriderable  quai  '.i:y ;  price  usu- 
ally $90  to  $95  for  German,  and  $76  to  $85  for  British  dys 
per  picul.  Woolens  ;■"',  not  In  much  demand.  A  limited 
amount  of  Coburgs,  Orleans,  and  I-astings  are  disposed  of  at 
from  1  real  to  4  reals  per  yard,  according  to  quality.  There 
is  also  a  demand  for  hardware,  glass-ware,  and  earthen-ware, 
and  other  minor  articles.  The  demand  for  piece  gooda  Is 
most  active  in  March,  before  the  occurrence  of  the  Holy 
Week,  and  in  November." 

Porf-cAarjiM.- Vessels  arriving  in  ballast,  and  not 
breaking  bulk,  pay  12i  cents  pcrton  (register  tonnage). 
If  cargo  is  landed  or  stripped,  25  cents  per  ton.  Mud- 
macbine,  6J-  cents  per  ton ;  light-house  dues,  6^  cents 
pci  tnii.  Spanish  vessels  pay  only  one  half  of  tl» 
above  rutes.— t^nt'.i  States  Commarcial  RelatioM. 


.. 


^im^-^:--:^ 


PHO 


1528 


PIL 


COMiiBBna  or  Tin  I'mitxd  Statu 

wiTB  Maiiilla  ako  Pniiirpmi  latAnni,  rioii  Octouib  1, 1820,  to  Jclt  1, 1884 

Y»n  (DillDf 

lipwt*. 

liSpoTtt. 

Wlwnof  lb«n  wm  la 
Bullioa  and  HpMit. 

Toaaa^a  tUartd. 

UoniMlle. 

ronliD. 

Tnl.1. 

ToUl 

Kipork 

Inpolt. 

Aniarte.n. 

roralja. 

Uvpt.  au,  IHiil 

$i.8ej 

$2U9,l;6t 

$211,323 

$114,861 

$190,000 

.... 

632 

.... 

IHiH 

11,7(19 

11,799 

•  • ,  • 

870 

1H23 

6.440 

41,276 

46,724 

188,288 

.... 

870 

...» 

m* 

H.»r>g 

210,66'i 

S19,6iO 

183,478 

186,000 

$8,(il)0 

804 

1828 

S3,l(i» 

186,864 

806,728 

829,871 

128,600 

80,600 

8,067 

110 

18'28 

14,133 

M,207 

78,840 

848.376 

80,000 

18,216 

724 

.  .   •  ■ 

18!T 

. ,   . 

180,813 

.... 

26,686 

. . , . 

•  «  •  a 

181M 

19,014 

141.888 

161,762 

60,881 

101,000 

i . . 

809 

IHW 

lo.soy 

««,430 

77,288 

200,2110 

20,081 

.... 

894 

1880 

Total. . . 

89,189 

64,839 

98,6(18 

884,887 

.... 

16,248 

4f)8 

.... 

$l',t'i,913 

$1180,168 

$1,108,081 

$1,809,661 

$899,682 

$88,648 

t,828 

no 

8»pt80,1881 

$18,994 

$16, 8.10 

$,H2,824 

$848,998 

$3,000 

$1,220 

249 

18;)'.i 

20,W)6 

118,414 

184,320 

888,280 

68,000 

114 

1,286 

•  •  I  a 

isaa 

1,0«1 

8,376 

9.397 

604,498 

■  a  •• 

.... 

914 

•  •  t  a 

1334 

8.668 

12,267 

16910 

283,6h6 

a  •   •  • 

.... 

222 

. . .  • 

1838 

BS.94T 

60,162 

83,099 

418,818 

48.000 

.... 

1,972 

. .  •  • 

1886 

T,861 

62,672 

60,033 

8(i3,3.'lO 

15,000 

466 

1,908 

1837 

1,846,4:18 

•  •  •  t 

,  ,  ,  , 

ISM 

PS,'/ 14 

140.81 '8 

24i,6i7 

386,8.8 

148,460 

•  •  •  • 

1,780 

•  a  .  > 

1830 

fr8,6.'i3 

88.268 

106,8i'8 

876,477 

36,200 

1,086 

1,674 

184U 

ToUl... 

9U,6S1) 

80,927 

121,816 

480,261 

£0,000 

8ii9 

a. .a 

$8;u,it4Y 

$472,186 

!ii842,43S 

$6,746,244 

$838,660 

$2,826 

10,894 

.... 

Sept.  80,1841 

JT.'5.4M 

$1S7,3!)6 

$262,786 

$738,906 

$165,844 

•  .  •  . 

3,71-4 

1842 

iiilft.TSi 

100.444 

336,176 

772,372 

94,836 

a  .  aa 

4.797 

.... 

BmoB..    1848" 

67,743 

84,488 

112,178 

4<  19,290 

48.0116 

14(11 

.... 

June  80, 1844 

«l,7fl'J 

181, 2V|. 

86.  Sir 

222,997 

724,811 

129,886 

.... 

0.233 

1846 

HO,!..? 

164, 678 

633,0fi9 

81,2(10 

...  a 

8,230 

1841) 

100,01 -t 

9,288 

110,289 

866.866 

9,00i< 

8,03(1 

184T 

32,4*) 

44,760 

77,240 

494,(66 

44,760 

8,189 

1848 

86.949 

18,613 

80.492 

1,107,027 

10,382 

8.620 

8.318 

.... 

1849 

187.8J8 

8,669 

140.687 

1,127,114 

8,182 

8  820 

18B0 

Total... 

16,817 

1,460 

18,207 

1,880,8(,6 

4,423 

8,168 
38,083 

2892 

$J(6,ij26 

$£86,4t;6 

$1,401,490 

$8,',:94,367 

$632,621 

$18,liB 

2892 

June  80, 18.M 

$126  644 

$7,000 

$132,844 

$1,264,688 

$2,200 

192 

18,134 

4806 

i»!>2 

211,791 

0.927 

21i1,718 

1,822.646 

•  •  •  a 

828 

11,(131) 

6368 

18K1 

64.876 

1,000 

66,378 

2,46,">,li83 

.... 

20,698 

2003 

ISM 

27.S.',2 

40,661 

74  602 

2,966,282 

42,r,22 

le.ii's 

843 

1S6& 

tit.'.'(i.T 

83.7118 

177.911 

2,867,441 

11:3,420 

109,486 

12,430 

600 

18f>6 

201.608 

64,680 

296,867 

1,926,870 

127,398 

21,!  86 

8i!S 

*  Nino  uiontlia  to  June  30,  and  flical  year  begins  July  1, 1843. 


PhoBphoniB,  a  substance  of  a  light  amber  color, 
and  semi-traiiyimrent;  but,  wlicn  carefully  prepared, 
nearly  colorless  and  transparent.  When  kept  some 
time,  it  becomes  opaque  exl(.'rnall,v,  and  has  then  a 
great  resemblance  to  white  wax.  It  may  bo  cut  with 
a  knife,  or  twisted  to  pieces  with  the  lingers.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  water;  its  specific  gravity  is  r77.  When 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  emits  a  white  smoke,  and 
Is  luminous  in  the  dark.  When  heated  to  148°  it  takes 
fire,  and  burns  with  a  very  bright  flame.  When  plios- 
phorus  is  inflamed  in  oxygen,  the  light  and  heat  are 
Incoijiparably  more  Intense — the  former  darzling  the 
eye,  and  the  latter  cracking  the  gloss  vessel. — TiiOM- 
SON'a  Chimhlry. 

Piano  -  forte.  Invented  by  J.  C  Schroedcr,  of 
Dresden,  in  1717.  He  presented  a  model  of  his  inven- 
tion to  the  court  of  Saxony ;  and  suine  time  aftei',  U. 
Silverman,  a  musical-instrument  maker,  began  to  man- 
ufacture piano-fortes  with  eonsideralile  success  The 
invention  has  alio  been  ascribed  to  an  instrument- 
maker  of  Florence  The  S({uare  jiL.Ho-forto  was  first 
made  by  Frciderica,  an  organ-buihjer  of  Saxony,  about 
1758.  I'iano-fortes  were  made  in  I,.on(ion  b;  ti.  Zum- 
pie,  a  German,  I7C0,  and  have  been  since  greatly  im- 
proved by  others  here.  'I'hey  are  now  extensively 
manufactured  in  Hoston,  New  Vork,  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, Albany,  ItufTalo,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  .St. 
Louis,  and  other  cities  of  the  Tnited  S'ate.s. — For  "Or- 
igin of  the  Piano-forte"  sec  WetlmintUr  lieciew,  7ixj.\i. 
806. 

PI;  ires,  or  DoUan.  Spanish  and  American  sil- 
ver c^.ns  in  very  extensive  circulation.  They  are 
used  in  Spain,  Italy,  Turkey,  South  America,  the  F.ast 
Indies,  etc.,  varying  in  value  in  every  country. — See 
Coins. 

Plokle$  are  various  kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits 
preserved  in  vinegar  The  substances  are  first  well 
cleaned  with  water,  then  stepped  for  some  time  in  brine, 


and  afterward  transferred  to  bi.  tiles,  which  are  filled  up 
with  good  vinegar.  Certain  fruits,  like  walnuts,  re- 
quire to  be  pickled  with  scalding-hot  vinegar ;  others, 
as  red-cabbage,  with  cold  vinegar;  but  onions,  to  pre- 
serve their  whiteness,  with  distilled  vinegar.  Wood 
vinegar  is  never  used  by  the  principal  pickle-nianufac- 
turerf,  l)it  the  best  malt  or  white-wine  vinegar,  No. 
22  or  'A.  Kitchener  says  that,  by  parboiling  the 
pickles  in  brine,  they  will  be  ready  in  half  the  time  of 
what  they  require  when  done  cold.  Cabbage,  howev- 
er, cauliflowers,  and  such  articles,  would  thereby  be- 
come flabby,  and  lose  that  crispness  which  many  peo- 
ple relish.  AVhen  removed  from  the  brine,  they  should 
be  cooled,  drained,  and  even  dried,  before  being  put 
into  the  vinegar.  To  assist  the  preservation  of  pick- 
les, a  portion  of  salt  is  also  added,  and  likewise,  to  give 
flavor,  various  spices,  such  as  long  pepper,  black  pep- 
per, white  pepper,  allspice,  ginger,  cloves,  mace,  gar- 
lie,  mustar(i,  horseradish,  shallots,  capsicum,  AVhen 
the  spices  are  bruised  they  are  most  efficacious,  but 
they  are  apt  to  render  the  pickle  turbid  and  discolored. 
The  flavoring  ingredients  of  Indian  pickle  are  Curry 
powder  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  mustard  and 
garlic  Green  peaches  are  said  to  make  the  best  imi- 
tation of  the  Indian  mango. 

Pilcharda,  fishes  closely  resembling  the  common 
herring,  but  smaller,  and  at  the  same  time  thicker  and 
rounder.  They  are  rarely  found  on  the  British  shore, 
'  (^pt  on  the  coasts  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  particu- 
larly the  Airmcr,  where  they  are  token  in  great  num- 
Ijers  I J  middle  of  .luly  to  the  o"''  of  November, 

or  ev'^i  111'.     !  rlille  of  Decembei  saying  of  the 

Cornis'i  li'  hriuie  i,  that  the  pilchbcd  is  i  e  least  flsh  in 
size,  must  ir.  number,  and  greatest  for  gain,  taken  fhim 
the  sea. 

Pilchard  liihfrg — This  is  carried  on  along  the  Ilrit- 
ish  coasts  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  from  the  Bolt  Head 
in  the  latter,  round  by  the  Land's  End  to  Padstow  and 


I 


PIL 


1520 


Mfi 


8598 
':&S8 

4A06 

0i!68 

2(lfl3 

843 

6(M 


J  common 
ticker  and 
|sli  shore!", 
,  particu- 
jreat  num- 
[ovember, 
g of  the 
^  t  fish  in 
kken  from 

\  the  Brit- 
kolt  Head 
batow  Bod 


Bontlncy  in  the  formoi-,      Ita  principal  actis  are  Rt.  | 
Irea,  Mounl'a  lUy,  anil  Movaxiaaey.     'I'tio  Hili  uaually 
make  their  appearance  in  vaat  alioala  in  tlio  early  part 
of  July,  and  iliaappear  alwut  tlie  niiilditt  or  (ictotjur; 
but  tliey  aometimea  reappear  in  lar)(e  i|uantltiea  in  No- ; 
vember  and  December.   They  are  taken  cither  by  Miitet  [ 
or  by  drift-neta,  but  principally,  perhapa,  by  (he  fur- 
mer.     A  lelne  la  a  net,  varying;  from  2m  to'  UOi)  futli- 1 
oma  In  length,  and  from  10  to  Mi  feet  in  dt.'ptli,  hav- ' 
Ing  cork  buoys  on  one  edge  and  lead  woiglita  on  the 
other.     Three  l>onta  ar«  attached  to  each  aciiie,  viz.,  a  ' 
boat  {Mine-boat)  of  al)Out  15  tona  burden,  for  carrying  | 
the  aelne;  another  (/j^Wer)  of  about  the  aame  size,  to 
aaaist  in  mooring  it;  and  a  amaller  boat  {lurker)  fur  ! 
general  purpoaea.     The  number  of  handa  employed  in  \ 
thcae  three  boats  Tarios  (him  about  IS  to  Itt,  but  may 
be  taken  at  an  average  at  about  10.     When  tlieahoata  ; 
of  flah  come  ao  near  the  ahore  that  the  water  ia  about  '• 
the  depth  oi'  the  acine,  it  ia  employed  to  encircle  them ; 
the  tiahermon  being  directed  to  the  proper  place  fur  ; 
caating  or  ahooting  the  nota  by  persona  (huen)  atation- 
ed  for  that  purpoae  on  the  clifl^  and  in  the  boats.    The 
practice  ia  to  row  the  boat  with  the  seine  on  boaii 
gently  round  the  shoal;  and  the  seine  being,  at  the 
same  time,  thrown  gradually  into  the  water,  asaumea, 
by  meana  of  ita  buoys  and  weighta,  a  vertical  position,  its 
loaded  edge  being  at  tlie  bottom,  and  tlie  other  Hoating 
on  the  aurface.     Its  two  ends  are  then  fastened  togeth- 
er, and,  being  brought  into  a  convenient  situation,  it 
is  moored  by  small  anchors  or  grapnels ;  sometimes, 
however,  one  or  two  amaller  seines  are  employed  to  as- 
sist in  securing  the  fiah.     At  low  water  the  inclosed 
fiah  are  taken  out  by  a  tuck-net,  and  carried  to  tlie 
shore.    A  single  seine  has  been  known  to  inclose  at 
once  as  many  as  4200  hogsheads  (1200  tons)  of  .ish ! 
But  this  was  the  greatest  quantity  ever  taken,  and  it  ia 
but  acldom  that  as  many  as  1200  hor  <      .ds  are  caught 
at  a  time.     The  "take,"  in  fact,  dL,A'iids  on  so  many 
accidental  circumstances,  that  while  one  seine  may 
catch  and  cure  in  a  season  f^om  1000  to  2000  hogs- 
heads, others  in  the  neighborhood  may  not  get  a  sin- 
gle flsh.      In  some  places  the  tides  ar :  to  strong  as  to 
break  the  seines  and  set  the  tish  at  liberty.     Wlien  tiie 
quantity  inclosed  is  large,  it  requires  several  days  to 
take  them  out,  ns  they  must  not  'lo  romoved  in  greater 
numbers  than  those  who  salt  the  n  can  conveniently 
manage.     Drift-nets  are  usuali>  about  half  a  mile  in 
length,  by  about4i^  fathoms  in  depth ;  they  are  ?\nit  in 
the  open  sea,  and  entangle  the  fish  in  their  meshes  in 
the  same  way  as  (he  horring-ncts.     The  fish  thus  taken 
are  said  to  be  superior  to  those  taken  by  (he  seine, 
though  it  be  doubtful,  from  their  being  strangled  in 
the  nets,  whether  they  are  so  good  for  curing.    As  soon 
as  the  flsh  are  brought  on  shore,  they  are  carried  to 
cellars  or  warehouses,  where  they  are  piled  in  large 
heaps,  having  a  sullieient  quantity  of  salt  interspersed 
between  the  layers.     Having  remained  in  this  stale 
for  about  35  days,  they  are,  after  being  carefully  washed 
and  cleaned,  p.icked  in  hogsheads,  each  containing,  at 
an  average,  alrout  2600  fish ;  they  are  then  sul)jectcd 
to  a  pressure  sufficient  to  extract  the  oil,  of  which  each 
hogshead  yields,  provided  the  fish  be  caught  in  sum- 
mer, about  three  f  illons ;  but  those  that  arc  taken  late 
in  the  season  do  not  yield  above  half  this  quantity. 
This  oil  usually  sells  for  from  12  to  15  per  cent,  un- 
der the  price  of  bf.'     '  -eal  oil.     The  broken  and  re- 
fuse fish  and  salt  are  .'i<ld  to  the  farmers,  and  arc  u"")* 
as  manure  with  nxcellcn>  effect.   The  skimmings  whi  :.i 
float  on  the  water  in  av  iiich  the  pilchards  ore  washed 
r.re  called  dregi,  and  are  "hiefly  sold  as  grease  for  nn- 
ahinery.     The  (resh  fish  in  a  ho^nhead  of  pilohai  ih 
weigh  about  6  cwt.,  and  tl>/-  salt  about  'H  cwt. ;    nit 
the  weight  of  the  hogsh'">d  when  cured  and  pressed  is 
reduced  to  al)Out  4^  cwt. '  including  thi-  weight  of  the 
cask,  from  20  to  24  lbs.     l-uur-Hfths  of  fhn  per  ons  em- 
ployed on  shore  in  tli.    in. ting,  curin^,  p^.  kv  ;;,  otc,  of 
the  fiah  are  women-  -I'Jr.  I'ABiaV  "i.'d.  '(■  HovM'tJiay. 


Pilot*  »(id  PdetHfC,    t()«  Mame  of  pilot  or  sleert- 
nian  is  a|i|ili»i|  f\t\m  lf«H|iiirlli'lilnr(rmi'i'r,  serving  on 
buard  a  ahii.  iImMMij  thw  m»»K  uf  a  tot  ni;i.,  and  having 
eharge  of  rliu  Mm  miii  III*  i<((li(>  thii'li-  j  (rr  (i>  a  person 
taken  on  biwd  «(  miy  |,Mi>li(  iiUt  (dace,  for  the  purpose 
of  eimdueHinj  n  «|,j|,  iUmiHh  «  ritf r,  road,  or  chnnnel, 
ur  from  or  inUt  n  fM>f(,     Mitllers  and  mates  of  mer- 
•  hant  yuswl,,  ^i„f  |,»y|„^  ^(,,^„,)  ^„  e„,„inaiion  t«. 
fore  legally  mmHMmi  miHiiitmn,,  and  possessing  a 
certlheali,  u,  (lm(  «(fr^i,  »N((t  (dint  their  own  veaseli 
within  the  iir«»<.f)l,wj  Ijwitit  fwf  tthl«h  they  have  pa.sod, 
without  (wing  liitM*  (,)  utijf  fmmUf,     In  all  other  oases, 
when  «  imM(«r  U  b}-  Imw  nHtjm  lo  a  penallv  for  not 
taking  a  fiM,  I)*  U  Iwwild  Ui  ih  so  when  hi  has  the 
oppurlmidy  j  itMd  nU4'f  (lit)  f,i|«t  Is  taken  on  lK,ard,  the 
master  has  mo  hmii»f  miy  mmn»i\  of  the  ship,  nor  it 
he  respunaibia  (iii  Hm  W«««««tt(e*,|  of  her  while  aha 
suntinuea  in  (Iw  dUtrii.t  fitf  whMt  the  pilot  is  author- 
ized  to  »(it,     Wli«)t  tmytilKi  Ihat  district,  the  maater 
again  reauniiis  (Itn  niivfrnrnxm  tit  the  vessel,  the  pilot 
being  the*)  no  lw)g«f  |ii»|((t<,  althoHgh  for  his  own  con- 
venlenea  ha  m»>'  nljll  fmm  (rt(  board.     In  audi  caae 
ho  is  only  to  bu  mmoMffi'li  nn  n  (lusscnger,  and  la  not 
entitled  to  any  rfmHltfrninit  fttt  whatever  service  ha 
may  ehooax  Ui  iwffum  im  (im  i»f»i<e,  l>«yon<l  that  for 
which  lij  w«s  orttiUmUy  Ml«((««li  but  shoidd  he  re- 
main on  board  »t  Hm*  wjiwiii  of  th«  master,  he  ia  en- 
titled,  besides  Mt  |iit«((»«f,  («  N  further  remuneration 
per  day  or  per  momU,  m^<riHng  l«  Iho  rides  of  the  re- 
spcotive  porM,  (fum  <•(#  ihv  when  he  has  passed  the 
limits  of  his  Umm  ,« tUf  diy  ttf  his  reliirn  to  the  port 
from  whtch  Its  w^  |H|t(<N  m  |,i/«r(|,     (f  „  master  of  n 
vessel  in  any  4HriH  mMll  which  fillota  are  appointed 
to  act  (usually  *  MfMHittMlcil  "  j'ilnts'  Water")  should, 
except  undar  fl'    '    i'imiMHIU<t»  Mute  stated,  refuse 
tlia  service  irf  »  .,   <«  (ilfum^  (</  eomo  on  hoard,  he 
inimedialely   rmm>  •dwspl'  (jdlde  to  his  owners, 
freighters,  or  (llaMrefi*  („,  ,,     .|».  Xge  that  may  occur 
to  the  veaaej  iif  ititrgH,  «f)s>,','  ■  i  ,(i  Oie  want  of  such 
6er>:cu.     Wlwi  Urn  kw  I.  ws  .m  comiiel  a  master  to 
tikf  a  pilot  on  I«»m1,  mni  1w  imuHhelm,  of  his  own 
discretion,  choose*  U)  tUl  W,  tllP  (ijlot  is  considered  to 
1)0  the  servant  ol'  His  mmfa,  *hoi  ttnder  »«ch  cir-  '(m- 
stanccs  would  Iw  FBi>(«/rtii(l/le  («  nKHtlgftB  fitr  tlie  man- 
agement of  th«  shjji  ftufUllS  ((t«  (ittre  he  continued  in 
charge.     If  (lis  nmlff  M  »  ftf  P^H  port  attempt  to  ob- 
tain a  pilot  and  f.ij,  mni  lIlfH,  IH  the  exercise  of  his 
beot  discretion,  mim¥iif  U)  mtM  the  port  and  fail,  the 
insurer  is  not  disr||»fgn(|,     (f  |h«  tessel  approach  a 
port  in  the  night,  (is  nittol  tiinU"  sig««l.«  for  a  rilnf,  and 
wait  a  reammtiU  iilHS  fiif  wisj  HtlA  If  he  attempt  to 
enter  the  port  wUllOHt  (me,  eiiifpl  jrt  ease  of  extreme 
necessity,  the  iimm»  »fe  AimUamd,     filotage  con- 
stitutes  a  lien  U|M.(  tUn  »,?f '«1,  a"(f  (ftdt  be  prosecuted 
in  admiralty     /(.i.  i, .     ii^c  muti  be  employed  by 
some  person  r(fc:li;*i.  ■,  ■;  fi^mmkii  of  the  vessel.    A 
pilot  can  not  retu  er  (iif  (rt)*diNtf  itito  Mn  etiemy's  port. 
(Ireiit  JJrilaiii,—lliil\^t  tmH  imfief  parties,  with  the 
exception  of  those  mniin  ft»f  tc^isfis  Itt  the  coal  trade  in 
England,  the ch»rgt* f<if  pHtHH^i  i^  f*«id  by  the  charter- 
ers.    Many  ports  e«j«y  mpume  miA  dlsdnrt  jurisdic- 
tions for  tiie  appalDlitisMt  »b4  ffsywuttteht  of  pilots,  and 
the  regulations  of  tits  ffttw  «f  f/il<*(/(g«,     Thesejurisdio- 
tions  are  exereised  by  tsitmmmia  «tt(1  other  hodios,  the 
privileges  of  which  ftftvs  Imm  gfttttted  either  by  ancl>;nt 
charters  or  by  parliitmeiltttfy/    AmatiK  ll.n  nmny  cor- 
porations so  estallishsd,  tli''  IH«9t  itttfjorfatit  are  tho?- 
of  the  Trinity  Hoi(se  uf  Ihpidmi  Rtrttlid,  whose  juris- 
diction  is  the  mnH  ftiHemmi  SHd  of  the  Trinity 
Houses  of  Hull  and  itfUfmii^i     tU«  bodies  are  au- 
thorized within  their  di»fW»»  W  ((«f«tt«itie  the  qualifi- 
cations of  pilots,  Hmm  timn,  ttttths  regitlations  for 
their  government,  (i*  m»i  »lWf  ftiMllge  rales,  and  ar- 
range the  limiM  of  (Its  )iil(d»S)*  disttiefSi  Snltject,  how- 
ever, to  the  special  jiri'vjsj/toii  ).yrti(j(irt#d  In  the  Mer- 
chants' Shipping A«tof' t»^l;   'Ih^ftigttlafkrtisof whitli 
are  given  in  sintiiisry,  »s  folWws  ( 


1  -K  ■ . 


PIL 


lli»0 


I'lL 


It  la  queationihln  whnthtr  th«  Trinity  lltxiM  m»f 

ravuki'  *  piliil'ii  liconav  wUliaut  lieurla,(  liiui ;  l/wi  K, 
•ftar  hcarlii).'  him.  It  revoku  hla  llenid-,  Ita  <li'«UiwN  U 
binii<  I".  '  '  (/'liratiun  ofllie  Ucri'litiilt'  tUii^^ittf 

Aof. '  I  1  ">    )',<'         'I;,  10  the  liiltcil  KliiKiluMi. 

'•HV^rt  (^  l':i  ■  H-  Authorilii't.—Kvvry  piUit»K«  •»>• 
L'.only  "hull  rru  n  all  pottxTH  itiid  Juriodiitiuu  wttiti) 
U  now  |iuaa(aMa,  au  fur,  uiiil  only  ao  far,  aa  tb*/  »rn 
cunaialcnt  with  thcproviaioiiof  tlieKcnvral  act.  Htf^y 
pilotuK'^  authority  liaa  the  power  tu  i!xeiii|it  >lii|>a  frum 
beliiK  t'ompelleil  to  employ  pllula ;  a  loo  to  U(»u*«  piM«  i 
to  iiiako  n-KuUlloiia  aa  to  pUol-buata ;  in  iuak«  rt^tt' 
latiuna  for  tlm  ((ovemmeiit  of  pUola ;  to  altvr  rat«a  ut 
pilotage ;  to  limit  pllotaK«  dlalrleta— all  U-iuK  vUkh 
their  (liatrlct. 

I'owtrnf  Appfol  to  Jlo  cu  J  .  ■•,Ut.—ii  'mi  (ff  f 
dumber  of  i|ualllii>(l  plluta  bvioiiKinirtoany  port,  otHu 
local  marine  board,  or  any  nnnilier  of  ow.n  ra  vt  »iit|^, 
maatera  or  insurer",  conaider  tluiimfivi'a  iini;;ri<v«'l  hj/ 
any  ri'Kulaliuna  enforced  by  the  pilolauu  uuibority,  (Iw/ 
may  appeal  to  tho  liourd  of  Trade ;  and  IIm  iMUtntuwtui 
deciaion  aliall  be  deemed  conclualve. 

^paitt.—iio  one  can  be  a  pilot  or  ufllcer  of  a  lavrt-Uimt 
ihip  without  having  obtained  a  liceuac.  In  <'«w  uf 
deceaae,  abaence,  or  lllneia  of  the  captain,  tijw  fnittt 
takoH  hla  place,  and  lucura  all  hla  r('i|>onail>ilily.  'Mm' 
pilot  can  not  chanfje  tho  courae,  unlcaa  the  •aptaJN 
agrees  to  it.  In  caao  of  dilferenco  uf  opinion,  lli<  |4M  j 
ahall  oxplain  liia  reaaons  tu  the  otbi'r  utticera  ;  im<t  it' 
the  captain  pcrsiata  in  hla  orders,  the  pilot  aball  tuutr 
hia  prot<:8t  in  the  navigation  liook. 

J{uMia.—1'bc  pilot  sliould  look  after  tbc  vei>av),  IIm' 
embarkation  and  dnbarkati  >n  of  inerchandi»t',  luM'p  « 
ro^iatry  of  uU  that  paaaes  o'l  board  undof  tbeuLiwrvar 
tiona,  Ilo  owes  obedience  only  to  the  captaiu,  a^tti 
should  never  (|ult  the  veaaci  when  llic  captain  in  itiM^H 
unleaa  forced  to  do  so. 

Portugal. — Tho  pilot  who  from  ignorance,  ncgliiffiw*, 
or  ilesign,  luacg,  or  exposes  a  veaaci  tu  damage,  ia  Iwm"^ 
to  repair  her,  and  la  liable  to  bo  revoked  aud  i>ur»w4 
by  criminal  proceas. 

Uniltd  .Slales. — An  act  of  Congress  authorises  #H 
States  to  make  their  own  pilotage  law  a,  and  <(Uv«iliuM« 
umler  these  laws  are  cognizable  in  the  Ktal«  iviirt*. 
No  one  can  act  as  pilot,  and  cla!.:i  the  rj>ui|.'e0a«<iuM 
oUowed  by  la>v  lor  th>  service,  unleas  duly  mnittiittA't, 
And  he  should  always  have  with  him  hia  u>ujuiit«MW, 
which  usually  (lesignatea  the  l.tigeat  veuu^l  be  way  yi^ 
Vt,  or  that  w'lich  drawa  ll'  most  water.  If  •  l>iU4 
oiiors  himaeir  to  a  ship  that  lui»  no  pilot,  ami  ia  MitAf^ 
ing  or  leaving  a  harbor,  and  has  not  reat'lu^d  fjirtM» 
geographical  limita,  the  abip  niuat  pay  bini  piiul«Mv 
feca,  whether  his  services  are  accepted  or  not.  A*  tw,4 
as  the  pilot  stands  on  deck  he  has  a»>im»i>4  >4'  tif 
ship,  hut  it  remains  the  r  -.^ter'a  duly  and  i>:  *er,  W 
case  of  obvious  and  certain  diaubillty,  or  .t«iig«f04ui  jg.- 
norunce  or  error,  to  dlaoliey  the  pilot,  nnd  dintwrnbn 
Iiim  of  his  authority.  If  a  ship  ii(,;l>'>'t  to  take  i^i>Uni 
when  it  should  and  cnn  do  »c  the  u'vncrs  wjl)  Imi  #*i- 
•werablo  in  damages  '  ahippcrs  and  olljers  (uf  #»y 
d  by  at:  h  neglei't  or  refwwj. 
any  image  resulting  fr>t»t 
ilefaii  and  have  btwu  hfiti 
The  >  ner  U  ojao  U«M«  iVW 
general  principles  for  the  default  of  the  pilot,  vUf  i* 
bis  servant. 

I'he  laws  passed  by  the  United  States  cioiieitff4uiS 
pilots  are  ''omprehended  in  tin  following:  Augwft  7, 
1789 — "That  all  pilots  in  the  ba\ «,  inlela,  riv«ia,  kiw-- 
bors,  and  ports  of  the  United  States  shall  <'uii<inMv  Ut 
he  regulated  in  conformity  with  the  exi>iing  Ittwn  »f 
the  States  respectively  wherein  such  pilots  luay  hi,  nf 
with  such  laws  aa  the  States  may  reapeclively  fc*r*' 
after  enact  for  the  purpose,  until  f u  r*  lier  pruviaMW  t^nM 
be  made  by  Congress."  March  2,  IH37— '■  'i  bat  >(  tkiM 
\e  lawful  for  the  master  or  commander  ut  auy  VMWtfl 
coming  Into  or  going  out  of  any  port  »itu«t«4  nyoH 


vrntMn  mUtit  ntn  Itf  l><iim<l«ry  lielween  two  Statas,  to 
"m^Uf  mtf  piU)t  duly  li<enaed  or  authorized  by  the 
!•#«  >4  t'MUn  M  IIm  Htalea  bounded  un  the  anid  wa- 
tif»,  tM  0U4  flsM  ♦enwla  to  or  from  aai'i  port ;  any  law, 
mmWi"*  m**t>l»  '»  Ih*  contrary  notwithalaniiing." 

MtUmy  IIMit  at*  i«ppninled  by  the  (iovernor  and 
t  'iMttfU  iy(i«n  ih*  r»>-nmm<'n<lAtinn  of  a  tnujurity  (jf  the 
4^i^t't/«tt*t^t  Mtftt  mnMftii  In  the  port  fur  which  th(<y  oro 
af^wlU'l  HitiKf*  'ro  roiuirecl  tu  III'  amount  uf(MKI() 
tvf  lUf  t»HhM  itwhrntitr  (A  the  (lulit-<<,  niid  the  pilots 
Htn  Uni^  tti*  rlvmAgrs  from  nnglrct  or  unakillfulneis. 
Am^  WMfAf  ^i>y  (riM  hia  own  veaaci. 

A>«  llimiifhirf . —  The  appointment  of  pilots  Is  tho 
•iMN«  iiM  m  milittt.  I'llftta  most  lake  charge  of  veaieU 
4r>ti>ih0»>*Kt  Hitt«  fcet.exrept  roasting  veaacla.  llonds 
^  J!t>tt0l  ittti  rcfnlred  for  a  faithful  performance  of 
4tHt**.-  Mmt**iK  muf  pilot  their  veaaela  when  outward 
liWr«M<lj  «#/*  (>«y  tin  pilotage.  Hut  veaails  inward  bound 
Ittntt  im<>  ittlt  fiMititf  if  they  rcfuac  u  pilot,  uiileaa  tho 
»»■»*.(  t*  miltt'w  (he  lighl-honae  bcfc.  i  \  pihil  utlcra.  In 
»hh1t  ^ittiw  ttn  piMitge  i^  due  uiileaa  a  pilot  is  cninlny- 
)i4.-  'tUn  (>*/^nti«1  and  Council  ri'guliile  the  feel  for 
f^t'AMgt.f  Ktuf  Jtpsfi^nd  or  remove  pilots  fir  misconduct. 

MutHtithUiitllii. —  thti  governor  appoints  pilots,  ex- 
fttfi  Uit  tim  pttti^  M  itnston,  where  two  cominiaaionera, 
)tti4  ^A'#  W»«(fri^<(,  where  five  comndaaioncrs,  have  the 
Itf^Milttl  furwft.  The  pilots  give  boida  fur  4l-J000 
i</t  »(m  fititMnt  performance  of  their  ilutii  .  All  vca- 
»U,  **fi'fi  ft«hirte-vesacl«  and  coaaling  vest  Is  uf  less 
tkim  t*it  ttMtnttKl  Inns,  and  vessels  trading  within  the 
*«i(M*  tintif^t  »tf  fionnd  m  employ  pilola  or  pny  full  pU 
UHtmHi  W*i|m*  Mi  pilots  oflTer  before  vessels  have  arrived 
»Hit»t  ttm  Mhvtinn  limits:  viz.,  within  the  <hups  uf 
li*,u|*#rt<W»Af.<ti»le»tt,Marblehead,  or  Gloucester;  with- 
W  ttttffiMtt  ♦  Mymonlh  harlor,  or  \\  iihin  the  bar  of 
nmf  imtft  ..  .fbot,  or  within  i  -  cnli.ui'  uf  Huston 
Umimf,  ftoittg  tt  llrte  dran  n  from  Harding  '  :ucka  to  the 
(Hit*f  <i*#»e»,  «»i<I  thence  to  Nnhant  II  In  such 

nt*^  (ttn  mtmt^t  may  refuse  pilot. 

,*>«»•  t'r^i. —  Irr  this  .llato,  Sandy  Hook  pilots  are 
»t>tit4ttU4  iwurt  regnlated  liy  the  Pilot  Comini  J'ioncrs, 
^li/t)  ftfn  finfitKii  Itf  the  Underwriters  and  (  h  i  Iwr  of  • 
t'tfttftrnff*,  Ufli  Oat*  pilots  are  appointed  liy  'ho 
(iM^fmift  im4  iml^H  to  the  regulations  vf  iho  Port 
W)tf4*tt*. 

tfc#  !>*»(•»  tif  pilotage  In  and  out  of  New  "Kurk  aro  as 
MIa>#*s  >'ivr  *esitets  drawing 


Hfnf  nf  Iff*. . .  (ivwsril,  $'i  t4    . 

Ii-Mt*t<*t,,,,  •■          im    . 

(i****  *•»«......  "          8fi9    . 

■it  ()/t4  Kf  mtifif  /  '•       4811. 


Onlwnrd,  )t  81  per fint, 
"  8  181       " 


loss  which  may  be 
Pilots  are  answer  > 
their  own  negli^o., 
(trictl^  to  this  liability. 


A/>0  Jft/f/f.—^tnAy  Hook  pilots  for  the  ports  of 
,/iitfflky  4'itf.-  Sewark,  nnd  Perth  Amboy  aro  appointed 
t/y  (>AWMl>ss4oners.  'I  h.-  regulations  do  nut  diller  ma- 
•f-rUtit/  tfam  (hose  enacted  in  regard  to  the  New  York 

f  nn»film,  ill. — f'ildts  for  Philadelphia  oro  appoint- 
<'4  Uf  #  ISowrd  of  Wardens.  There  arc  three  classes 
tA'  pitnit .  Itm  first  for  vessels  of  any  description  ;  the 
»'*tm'l  frif  ♦ewmh  drawing  less  than  twelve  feet;  tho 
tkif4  feif  ♦essel*  drawing  less  than  nine  feet.  Unli- 
f^umtitt  piiMit  *re  snbject  to  fine  and  iniprifonniont. 
I  Ss*  4ttf!tty  »tn}  l>elaware  pilots  have  power  to  act 
mttttml  «  s^eial  license.  The  first  (lualilitd  pilot 
li^  A^fi*  i<t  eMrtled  to  take  charge  of  the  vessel.  A 
t^*m(i  If  iMrd  grade  pilot  may  act  unless  a  superior 
^\t4  ntftif*  Mot»  (he  vessel  passes  licedy  Island. 
('(mHittg  *«<««els  pay  no  half  pilotage. 

/y*^^ii^A._Vesfels  of  75  tuns  and  upward,  unless 
>^m»i  )tt  MKw»tf,  must  take  a  pilot  or  pay  half  pi- 

jWtii'W'liwrf.— lllots  for  the  Chesapeake  Bay  are  ap- 
p^ttUtA  iff  »  lllot  Board.  Pilots  aro  divided  into  the 
inm«  (><*we»  m  in  Pennsylvania.  Pilots  must  take 
(im  tmift^  tensel  (o  shore,  or  in  the  most  distresa. 
It'ff^tfH  *««««l»  most  lake  a  pilot,  if  one  offers,  or  pay 


PIM 


laai 


riN 


1  SI  per  fii"t. 
!  l-.'i      " 
1 7t.        " 
J  181       " 


Jaro  oppoint- 
Ilirce  classes 
Iription;  tlic 
Ivc  feet ;  tho 
Ifect.     L'nli- 
Ipiifomiieiit. 
lower  to  act 
Llifiecl  pilot 
lo  vessel.     A 
lis  a  fiipcrior 
Jjeily  Island. 

^aril,  unless 
I  pay  half  pi- 

luay  are  ap- 
lidod  into  the 
Ig  must  take 
Tost  distresi. 
Iffora,  or  pay 


Virginia. — ninli  art  appnintad  l>y  a  Ruanl.  I'ilott  i 
•redlvlduit  into  lhreiM'UiM<ii,aii  In  I'l'initylvniiU  W;. ' 
isit  otiiar  than  euantum  niu>l  lake  a  jilut  ur  pay  full  i 
pilotage.  '  I 

Sorts  Cnrotina. — I'llots  ara  appnlnled  l>y  cotnnils- 
aloiiiir)  fur  eauh  port.  Vuaiols  pay  fiill  pilutaitu  wlicii 
rtfiixInK  a  pilot. 

tiiiuih  Ciini/inii.— I'ilota  aro  appoliiti'il  hy  commii- 
lienors.  I'iluts  who  lirliiK  vessels  Into  port  are  enti- 
tled lo  earry  them  out.  Vessels  pay  full  pllulaK*  to 
tho  llrsl  pilot  olferlng,  whether  hit  •ervleoa  ur«  aceopt- 
ed  or  not. 

Aldltnma. — I'ilols  aro  licensed  by  the  hurl  jr-master 
and  port  wardens.  Vessels  pay  half  pllotuKo,  If  pilot 
Is  not  accepted. 

J/jiimiiiKi.—'l'he  harlior- master  and  port  warden  of 
New  ( )rluttns  appoint  pilots.  There  aro  no  river  pilots. 
Vessels  pay  half  pilotane  to  the  pilnt  if  his  services  are 
not  accepted.  If  tlio  Dallzc,  or  ri'»<iilar  pilots,  curry 
the  vessel  to  New  Urieans,  the  compeiiaatlon  is  u  mat- 
ter of  aKrccineiit. 

AVonWii.— I'lloti  are  ap|)ointoil  hy  I'ilot  Commis. 
■loners.  Vessels  pay  half  pilotage,  refusinj;  a  pilot,  if 
outward  bound,  and  full  pilotage  when  Inwiird  hound. 
— See  Kl'.N  r'«  Comm'nliiriei,  vol.  ill. ;  I'ahhons's  .Ifrr- 
canliU  l.niK ;  Memmlih  imd  Marilime  duidt;  Hi.ijnt'J 
Shipmaiter^n  A  usistnnt. 

Pimento,  AlUploe,  or  Jamaica  Pepper  (Fr. 

Poirre  iV  Jinnaniue  i  der.  Xilkeiip/rji'rr ;  It.  I'iinmti), 
the  fruit  of  the  Mi/rlun pimentd,  a  beautiful  tree  whlili 
Krows  in  great  plenty  on  the  hills  on  the  north  side  nf 
Jamaica.  The  berries  are  spherical,  and,  when  ripe, 
of  a  black  or  dark  purple  color.  Hut,  as  tlie  pulp  is  in 
this  state  moist  and  glutinous,  the  berries  are  plucked 
when  green ;  and  being  e.\posed  In  the  sun  to  dry,  they 
lose  their  green  color,  and  tiecome  of  a  reddish  brown. 
Tliey  are  packed  in  bags  and  hogsheails  for  tho  Kuro- 
pean  market.  The  more  fragrant  and  smaller  they 
arc,  the  better  aro  they  accounted.  They  have  an  ar- 
omatic, agreeable  odor,  resembling  that  of  a  mi.\ture 
of  cinnamon,  clovea,  and  nutmegs,  with  the  warm,  |iun- 
gent  taste  of  tho  clove.  I'iniento  is  used  in  medicine, 
but  It.s  principal  use  is  in  the  seasoning  of  soups  and 
other  dishes,  "The  roturns,"8ays  Sir.  Ilryan  Edwards, 
"  from  a  pimento  walk  In  a  favorable  season  are  pro- 
digious. A  single  tree  has  been  known  to  yielil  1 JO 
pounds  of  the  raw  fruit,  or  IW)  pounds  of  tho  dried 
spice,  there  being  connnunly  a  loss  in  weight  of  one- 
third  In  curing ;  but  this,  like  many  other  of  the  minor 
productions,  is  exceedingly  uncertain,  ami  perhaps  u 
very  jilenteous  crop  occurs  but  once  in  live  years.  The 
price  in  the  market,  as  may  bo  supposed,  fiuctuatos  ac- 
cordingly ;  but  its  average  for  some  years  past  may  lie 
set  down  at  14  cents  per  pound." — \'ol.  11.  p.  372,  ed. 
IMIO. 


lueoara  or  Pimesto  into  this  I'NixEn  States  tor  tub 
Vkak  onLNUiluNB  3'iyi,  Isrxl 

Whtnc*  Imported. 

I'uundi. 

Valua. 

!il.6«0 

IS, 714 

4,716.309 

37.'5 
16,741 
03,311 

979 

$8,240 

l.'.'-.'5 

837,017 

38 

l.ni7 

3,7S7 

04 

Uritlsh  N.  A.  PoHsessiom. 
ItrlfUli  West  Indies.... 
Spain  on  tho  .Mediter'n  . 

Venezuela 

Totals 

4,90fl,0i8 

$;W2,()2'2 

Pin,  in  Commerce,  a  little  necessary  instrument, 
made  of  brass  wire,  chiefly  used  by  women  in  adjust- 
ing their  dress.  When  the  wire  is  received  in  the  man- 
ufactory, it  is  wound  off  from  one  wheel  to  another, 
and  passed  through  a  circle  of  a  smaller  diameter  in  a 
piece  of  iron.  Being  thus  reduced  to  its  proper  size, 
it  is  straightened  by  drawing  it  between  iron  pins  fix- 
ed in  a  board  in  a  zigzag  manner.  It  is  afterward  cut 
into  lengths  of  about  four  yards,  and  then  into  smaller 
pieces,  every  length  being  suHicient  for  six  pins.  Kach 
end  of  these  is  ground  to  a  point  by  boys,  each  of 
whom  sits  with  two  small  grindstones  before  him. 


turned  hy  «  wheel,  inking  up  a  handfiil,  he  appliai 
the  wires  tii  tho  coarsest  of  the  two  slijuo,  moving 
them  rounil,  that  the  points  may  not  livcome  flat.  Ma 
then  gives  th«m  a  smuollier  anci  a  Kbarper  point  on  tlia 
ilhor  stono.  A  lad  of  twelve  vi'ars  of  ago  con  point 
lil,niKI  in  an  hour.  When  the  wire  Is  pointed  a  pin  la 
taken  off  from  each  enil,  till  It  is  cut  Into  six  piecaa. 
I  ho  heail  Is  made  sidid  by  tho  pnisiiit  process ,  but  by 
the  old  nielhuil  it  is  a  separate  piece,  ami  is  made  oa 
follows:  One  piece  of  wire  Is  with  rapidity  drawn 
round  another,  and  the  Interior  (uie  Ixilng  drawn  out, 
leaves  a  li<dlo«  lube  between  llie  circumvolutions,  It 
Is  then  cut  iiy  shears,  every  two  turns  of  the  wire  form- 
ing  one  head,  i hese  are  solten.d  by  throwing  Ihein 
Into  iron  pans,  and  plm  ing  them  in  a  furnace  till  they 
are  rod  hot.  As  soon  as  ibey  are  cold  they  are  .distrib- 
uted to  cliildreii,  who  »it  with  anvils  and  lianiniers  Iw- 
foro  them.  These  they  work  with  their  feel,  by  means 
of  a  lathe.  They  take  up  one  of  the  longilin,  and 
thrust  the  Idiint  enil  Into  a  quantity  of  heucli  which 
lie  iHifore  tbemj  then  catching  one  at  the  ex  nmitv, 
•hey  apply  11  immediately  to  tha  anvil  and  I  moV, 
and  by  a  motion  or  two  of  the  fool  the  point  inul  head 
are  llxed  togelber,  in  much  le.is  llm<'  than  can  bo  do- 
^eribed,  and  with  a  dexterity  that  can  only  U'  acquired 
by  practice.  Tho  pins  are  thrown  into  a  cupper,  con- 
taining a  solution  of  tin  and  wine  Icis.  Here  they  re- 
main for  some  time,  and  when  taken  out  their  lirass 
color  has  become  ciniiiged  to  a  dull  white.  In  order 
lo  give  them  a  polish,  they  are  now  put  into  a  tub  con- 
laining  u  quantity  of  bran,  which  is  set  In  motion  by 
turning  a  shoft  that  runs  tbrougb  its  centre;  and  thus, 
by  means  of  friction,  the  pins  becoiue  entirely  bright. 
j  They  aro  now  separated  from  the  bruii,  wliii  h  is  per. 
formed  by  a  mwle  exactly  similar  lo  llie  winnowing 
of  corn;  the  bran  flying  oil',  and  leaving  the  pin  behind 
it  tit  fur  sale.— K.  A. 

The  manufacture  of  pins  was  eommonced  In  tha 
United  States  between  1812  and  182(».  Among  the 
first  established  were  those  at  llellovue  and  lireenwlch, 
New  York.  Mr.  Lcnmel  William  Wright,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, obtained  patents  in  tho  United  .Stales  and  in 
Kngland,  and  commenced  the  manufacture  at  Lam- 
beth, London.  John  J.  Howe  obtained  patents  In 
1H;12-1h;i1,  in  tho  Uniteil  States  and  in  Kngland,  and 
estiiblished  the  Howe  .Manufacturing  Company  In  New 
York,  which  was  afterward  removed  to  Uirmingham, 
Connecticut.  Mr.  Samuel  .Slucum  obtained  another 
imlent,  ami  in  18118  established  a  manufactory  of  pins 
at  I'oiighkeep.sio,  New  York.  The  "  American  I'in 
Company"  has  been  established  for  some  years  at  \Va- 
Icrbury,  Connecticut,  and  is  tho  leailing  manufactory 
of  the  y,h:\  ill  tho  United  Stoles.  Tho  improvements 
produced  in  ^l>t  United  States  have  been  for  several 
year'  udopJcl  vi  ICnglaml  and  other  parts  of  Kurope. 
—  Se.i  A ■" ■  >i<''.tn  Journal  if  Science,  xxxviii.  21)9; 
IliNj',s  J!i:\;iianls'  Mni/a.inc,  xxv.  041;  Economy  of 
Miinufacturi),  tnj  lt.\iinA(;K. 

VAI.OE  of  f.MeoRTS  op    I'lNB  INTO  TUB  InITKO   S^TATBB  FOB 
TUB  ^  EAR  E.NUl.NU  JONK  ai'IU,  IS.M. 

wh.«™™p.,i«t.  ^3"Jj,.'',"i:. 

I  Inmbiirg $i'll4 

llrinieii .127 

Il.'lfliim 2.440 

Knulsnil 0;i,24S 

Scntliiml   35 

Franco  on  the  Atluntlc 3.H9B 

Total  value $4(l,'J6S 

Pinchbeck  (fior.  Tombac.k;  Pn.  Tombak;Yr.  Tarn- 
hac,  .S'lmiVorj  ll.  Tmnbarro;  Sp.  Tombac,  Tumhaipi),  a 
name  given  to  one  of  the  many  imitations  of  gold. 
Hy  melting  zinc  in  various  proportions  w  ith  copper  or 
brass,  some  alloys  result,  .no  colors  of  which  approach 
more  or  less  to  that  of  gold.  This  composition  is  fre- 
<iuently  emi)loyeit  as  .i  sifhstilute  for  gold,  in  tho  form- 
ation of  watcli -cases,  and  various  other  articles  of  a 
like  description.  Pinchbeck  is  sometimes  called  Toa*. 
\  bac,  and  soin'>tinios  Similar,  and  /"efif-or. 


iii: 
i5  I" 


"^      f  i  W^ 


PIN 


1SS2 


P(N 


nn«,  or  Fir,  •  aptrlu  of  forent  trn,  naxt,  If  not 
lupariur,  (o  lli«  oak,  In  (inlht  of  utiltly  and  viiluf. 
Thitru  ar*  aliov*  twoiiiy  (iumIui  of  |i|ii«,  i'li»y  do  not 
baar  Hat  leavaa,  l)ut  a  ipcdaa  of  ipinaa,  which,  how- 
•var,  ara  real  loavea.  Thay  ara  nioitly,  tliouKh  not  all, 
avarifrcana  \  liiit  th«  appaaranca  of  the  traa,  aa  wril  an 
tha  i|ualily  of  tha  timber,  varii<a  with  the  apaelca,  and 
alio  with  tha  altuallon  In  which  It  irrowa.  (lenerally 
apaaklnir,  tha  tlnihor  la  hardoat  and  Iwit  In  axpoaad 
cold  alliiatlona,  and  whare  lla  K'owth  la  alow. 

Sivlrh  pint  (Fmiu  ti/lvttlru)  In  ■  natlvii  of  tha  Scotch 
mountain*,  and  of  niuat  northern  part*  of  Kuropa;  he- 
lag  common  In  Huaila,  Denmark,  HH)>d<'n,  Norway, 
■nd  i.apland.  It  la  atral|{hl,  aliruplly  hranchfid,  rl>- 
ln((  In  favoraldx  ultuatlona  to  tha  lie iKht  nf  nighty  or 
ninaty /rxi,  anil  lH>lni;  from  thrae  to  four  fuat  In  dlam- 
•tar.  It  ta  at  perfection  when  aovvnty  or  eiithty  yrara 
old.  'i'hn  color  of  tha  wood  illlTura  cunaldorahlv ;  It  la 
Kf  nerally  of  a  raildiah  yellow,  or  nf  a  honi^y  yellow,  of 
varloiia  ili')(reea  of  brlghtncaa,  It  haa  no  UrK«r  trana- 
varHO  acpla,  and  It  haa  >  itronK  realnoua  odor  and  taato. 
In  the  iM'iit  thnlM'r  the  annual  rln^t  aro  thin,  not  ex- 
caedinK  -jlgth  of  an  Inch  In  thicknoaa ;  the  dark  paria 
of  the  rlnK"  "'  a  bright  reddiah  color ;  the  wood  hard 
and  drv  to  llin  feel,  neither  leaving  A  woolly  anrfacu 
after  llic  aaw,  nor  lining  Ita  teeth  with  realn.  The  beat 
Norway  ia  the  Aneat  of  thia  kind,  and  the  heat  Uiga 
and  Mrniid  are  not  much  Inferior.  The  Inferior  aorta 
have  tbii'k  annual  rin^a  ;  in  aomo  the  dark  parte  of  the 
tinff  are  of  a  honey  yellow,  the  wood  heavy,  and  lllled 
with  a  aoft  realnoua  matter,  fecia  clammy,  and  chokea 
(he  aaw.  Tlml>crof  thia  kind  la  not  duralile,  nor  fit 
for  IwarinK  atraina.  In  aomo  inferior  apcciea  (ho  wood 
la  apon^y,  containa  b'as  realnoua  matter,  ami  prracnta 
•  woolly  aurfaco  after  the  aaw.  Hwediah  timber  ia  oft- 
en of  (Ilia  kind.  .Scotch  fir  ia  the  moat  durable  of  the 
pine  apeciea.  It  waa  (ho  opinion  of  the  cclebrulod  ^Ir. 
lirindlt'V,  "  that  red  Klga  deal,  or  pine  wood,  would 
enduru  aa  lon^  aa  oak  In  all  altuatlona."  lla  lightneaa 
and  alitrneaa  render  It  auporior  to  any  other  material 
for  licunia,  Kinlera,  Joiata,  rafters,  etc.  It  ia  much  used 
in  JoinerV  work,  as  it  Is  more  eually  wrought,  atands 
be((er.  Is  much  cheaper,  and  is  nrnrly,  if  not  i|uile,  as 
durable  as  oak,  Scolch  fir  ia  exporfed  frnni  Norway 
and  Swe<len,  under  the  name  of  reil-wvod.  Norway  ex- 
ports no  trees  above  eighteen  inches  diameter,  conse- 
quently there  is  much  sa|>-wood  ;  but  the  heart-wood 
ia  both  stronger  and  more  durable  thnti  that  of  larger 
trees  from  other  situations.  Uiifix  exports  a  consider- 
able quantity  under  tho  name  of  maats  and  apnra : 
pieces  from  eighteen  (o  twenly-llvo  inches  diameter  are 
called  mimli,  and  are  iiaually  seventy  or  cighiy  f>'ct  in 
length ;  those  of  leas  than  I'Ighteen  inchea  diameter  are 
called  fgnrs.  Yellow  deuU  and  planks  are  imported  IVom 
various  parta  of  Norway,  Sweden,  rrnaaia,  Knasin,  cle. 
Tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  arc  obtained  from  (he  Scotch 
fir. — .SVe  thrtp  lilies,  ^\■hen  the  tree  has  attained  to  a 
proper  a;;o  It  ia  not  injured  by  tho  extraction  of  these 
producta. 

flpnice  Pinr, — Of  this  thorn  are  three  apeciea — the 
Norway  8|>rnce,  or  I'iiiui  nliiri;  white  apruie,  or  I'inus 
ttllia;  and  black  apruce,  or  /'inni  niffni.  These  are  no- 
ble trees,  rising  In  straight  aliins  from  150  to  '.'(Ml  foct 
In  height.  They  yield  the  timber  known  by  tho  name 
of  irliilfjir,  or  ileal,  from  its  always  lieing  Imported  in 
deals  or  planks.  Deals  imported  from  Christiana  ore 
In  tho  higlieat  estimalion.  —  See  Ciihi.stiana.  The 
treea  are  usually  cut  into  throe  lengtha,  generally  of 
about  twelve  feet  each,  and  are  afterward  cut  into 
deals  by  saw-mills,  each  length  yielding  three  deals, 
Tho  Norway  apruce  thrives  very  well  In  Ilritain,  and 
produces  tlmlicr  littlo  Inferior  to  the  foreign ;  it  ia 
somewhat  softer,  and  the  knots  are  extremely  hard. 
The  white  spruce,  or  I'inin  alba,  Is  brought  from  Brit- 
ish North  America.  The  wood  ia  not  so  rcainous  as 
the  Norway  spruce ;  it  is  tougher,  lighter,  and  more  li- 
able to  twist  ia  drying.    The  block  spruce,  or  Piniu 


nigra,  la  also  an  American  traa  ;  but  it  la  not  much  lm> 
piirtuil  Into  Kngland.  Tho  blaik  and  whitn  apruce  de- 
rive their  nanira  from  (he  rnlnr  of  (he  bark,  the  wood 
of  both  being  of  llin  aanin  i iilnr.  The  luliir  of  apruce 
tir,  or  while  deal,  ia  yrilowish  or  brownish  white ;  iho 
hard  par(  of  the  annual  ring  a  darker  ahado  of  (he  annin 
color.  It  oflen  boa  a  allky  luatre,  espirlnlly  In  the 
American  ami  llrltlah  grown  kinda.  Kach  annual  ring 
cunalata  of  Ihu  parta;  the  one  hard,  (he  o(hi'r  softer. 
The  kno(a  ure  generally  very  hard.  The  clear  and 
alraight-graiiieil  kltnla  are  often  tough,  but  not  very 
dillii'ult  (o  »iirk,  imkI  aland  exiremely  well  Hhon  prop- 
erly aeaaoneil.  W  bite  deal,  aa  imparted,  ahrlnka  about 
^i^th  part  In  Ih'<  utning  i|ulte  dry. 

U'ri/mniilli  /'in.',  or  While  Vme  {Pinui  tlrMtt),  Is  a 
native  of  North  America.  It  la  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  useful  nf  Ihu  American  Ircea,  and  makoa  excilleut 
maata;  but  It  la  not  durable,  nor  (It  for  large  linilera, 
being  very  aubjcct  to  dry-ml.      It  haa  a  peculiar  odor. 

The  commercial  value  of  pine  ia  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  wood,  and  It  forma  a  largo  proportion  nf 
the  lumber  trade.  The  Northeastern  .Slates  ore  sup- 
plied prii'dpally  by  Maine.  The  Middle  Stales  nblain 
their  snpjillea  fioni  Michigan,  New  York,  and  Wcalern 
Pennsylvania;  (he  Norlhwesterii  Stalea  from  Wealcrn 
I'ennsylvaniu,  Virginia,  and  Wlsconain. — Hec  I.u.MnKB 
Tn,\i>R. 

I.nrrh  (_l'inut  tarir).  There  are  three  apcciea  of  (hia 
valuable  (rec— one  European,  anil  two  American.  The 
varle(y  from  llie  Italian  Alps  Is  the  must esleiined, and 
haa  lately  been  extensively  introduced  into  planlntluns 
in  (ireat  Ilritain.  It  ia  a  straight  and  lofiy  tree,  of 
rapid  growth.  A  tree  seventy-nine  yeura  of  age  was 
cut  down  at  lllair  Athol  In  1817,  which  contained  'i!>'2 
cubic  feet  of  limber;  and  one  of  eighty  years  of  age,  at 
Dunkeld,  measured  IKHI  cubic  feet.  'Ihe  mean  fl/.e  of 
the  trunk  of  the  larch  may  he  taken  at  'I'l  feet  in  length, 
and  ill!  inches  dlnmeler.  The  wood  of  the  Kiiropean 
larch  Is  generally  of  a  honey  yellow  color,  the  hard 
part  nf  the  annual  rings  of  a  redder  caat  |  sometimes  It 
Is  brownish  white.  In  common  with  the  other  spceiea 
of  pine,  each  annual  ring  consists  of  a  hard  and  a  soft 
purl.  It  generally  has  a  silky  lustre;  Its  color  ia 
lirowncr  (hnn  that  of  (he  .Scu(ch  pine,  and  i(  Is  much 
(oughor.  It  ia  morn  dilllcult  to  work  than  lilga  or 
Mcmel  (imiier,  but  the  anrfaie  Is  better  when  once  It  is 
obtained.  It  bears  driving  bolts  and  nails  better  than 
any  other  apeiioa  of  resinuua  wood.  When  perfecdy 
dry  it  alanils  well,  but  it  warps  much  In  seasoning.  It 
Is  in  all  siluations  extremely  durable.  It  is  useful  for 
every  purpose  of  Imlliling,  whether  ex(eninl  or  Inlern- 
al ;  It  mako^ excellent  ship  (iniber,  mas(a,  boa(s,  pusts, 
rails,  and  furnUure.  It  is  pccullorly  adapled  for  (lour- 
ing boards.  In  siluations  where  there  is  much  wear,  and 
for  stair-cases;  in  tho  latter,  its  lino  color,  -.vlien  rubbed 
with  oil,  is  much  prufer.iblu  to  that  of  the  black  oaken 
stuir-cases  to  bo  scefl  In  soniu  old  nuinslons.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  doors,  shutters,  and  the  like;  and,  from  (ho 
beaudful  color  of  i(s  wood  whnn  varnislied,  pulnling  ia 
not  nccesaary.— (Wo  have  abs(raclod  these  parlicuiars 
from  Mr.  TuKDiini.o's  excellent  work.  The  J'riiiciplet 
of  Cnrpenh-ij,  p.  2l);i-217.) 

Fliie-apple,  or  Ananas,  though  a  tropical  fruit, 

i8nowex(enaivelycul(iva(e(l  in  hot-houses  and  ganlens, 
and  is  well  know  n  to  every  one.  WJien  of  a  good  sort 
and  licaUhy,  it  ia  (lie  most  luscious,  and  perhaps  (ho 
best  fruit  llint  is  produceil;  and,  when  carefully  ciiltU 
vated,  is  superior,  in  point  of  quality,  to  that  produced 
in  the  Wcjt  Indies. 

Pink,  a  vessel  masted  and  rigged  like  other  slilp.s, 
only  that  this  is  built  with  a  round  stern,  the  bi'iids 
and  ribs  compassing  so  that  her  ribs  bulge  out  very 
much.  This  renders  tho  pinks  difllcult  to  bo  boarded, 
and  also  enables  them  to  carry  great  burdens,  for  which 
purpose  they  are  often  used. 

Pinnace,  a  small  vessel  used  at  sea,  with  a  square 
stem,  having  sails  and  oars,  and  carrying  three  masts. 


TIN 


1539 


PIR 


Liil  friil'i 
1  ^'a^ll'll!', 
lnoiiil  sort 
lrlmi>9  tlio 
Tuy  luUi- 
jjiroiluctil 

licr  olilp", 

]<mt  very 
I  biiarilcd, 
I  for  which 

II  square 
tco  uiuts> 


«hl«A/  implny*!!  In  oluaiii  liiti<lliK«nc«,  ami  |o  Un<l 
nxn,  etc.  Oiiu  of  tlm  IjiiaU  uf  «  inin-iif.wiir,  iiiiicl  In 
carry  tha  nlllrart  to  and  fruiii  Iha  iliurt',  U  altu  vallnl 
tln>i>iiini»<''. 

Pint,  a  iiifMiira  iiMd  clilafl)  In  tha  mtaaurInK  of 
llc|iilila.  Tliu  word  !•  Ui^h  Hiilih,  and  kIkmIMiiii  a  III- 
tia  inraauris  nf  win*,  'lliu  KiikIIxIi  pint  ii^vd  in  |,u  of 
two  torls :  tlm  una  fur  wiim,  lliii  ollntr  fur  hiicir  unit  alo. 
Twu  plntii  niaka  a  i|uart ;  two  ijuurla  a  potlln ;  t»u  put- 
til'*  u  K«ll'»>i  <*('•'  'l'l<*  plo'i  ioiparlal  ll>|uli|  inuaaura, 
Cuntalnn  ;iril.V,l  culilu  Inchna.  i 

Pipe,  a  wliiu  nieamirc,  niiually  rontalnlnK  105  (vury 
nearly;  Imperial,  or  Vii)  wlno  Dallam.  Two  pipvi,  or 
310  ImpiTJul  |{«lluni,  maks  a  tun.  Hut,  in  practice, 
tlm  ai/.u  of  thu  pipu  viirlci  aciurdlnR  to  Iho  dumrlpllon 
of  wliiu  it  contains.  Thnn  a  pIpu  of  port  cuntaiiin  I:IM 
winn  Kulloni ;  of  iliorry,  130  ;  of  I.UIiun  and  lluciillaa, 
110;  of  Madidra,  110;  and  of  Vldunlu,  l'20.  Iho  |>||„>  of 
purl,  it  In  to  he  uhaorvod,  i»  •eldoin  accurnlcly  tlM  )(u|. 
iunn,  an<l  It  li  uiual  to  chargn  wlial  tha  vouel  actually 
conlnlna.  | 

Plpe-olay,  a  ipccica  of  day  nlioundluK  In  Devon- 
■lilrv,  iiiid  ulliur  parts  of  l''.nt;lA>><l,  eiiiployuil  In  the 
miinufucturo  of  varioua  aorta  of  earthen-ware,  and  In  I 
llcnrlilii);.  ' 

Pipes,  Amber  (In  Turkey).  Pruaila  la  ulmo^it  I 
tlin  only  country  hy  which  unilier  is  furnlAhml  fur  or- 
namental purpose*.  M.  Von  Uuy.un  anther  mcndmnt, 
of  Diintzli;,  ia  said  to  hnvo  U'en  twcnty-livo  years  col- 
Iodine  thu  splendid  specimens  which  ho  now  possesses. 
The  most  extenslvo  use  of  thin  elc){uiil  nniteriul  is  for 
thn  niannfactum  of  thn  nioulh-piecoa  of  inecrscliuuni 
pipes  and  hookahs.  Up  to  thn  present  day  anihur 
mnuth-plcces  continue  in  ((rent  re(|uest  in  tliu  Kiisl, 
where  they  fetch  very  high  prices ;  and  almost  all  tho 
Prussian  amber  is  sold  to  thu  Turks  for  niunufaeturln);. 
There  worn  in  the  Turkish  department  of  llio  ICxhlbi- 
tlon  four  amlMir  mouth- plici'S  for  pipes,  which  woro  col- 
lectively worth  £1000.  It  may  servo  In  soinu  nu'asuro 
to  explain  the  peculiar  favor  which  anther  is  licld  in 
liy  the  Turks,  that  there  is  a  current  helief  that  anther 
is  incapable  of  transmitting;  infeclimt ;  it  is  deemed  a 
mark  of  politeness  to  haitd  an  aniltcr  pipe  to  a  stranger. 
Mterirhawna. — The  cloy  of  wliicli  these  are  made  is 
procitrcd  chielly  in  Asia  Minor,  hut  nisu  lit  8pflin, 
(ireere,  and  Moravia.  Tho  manufacture  of  pipes  from 
thu  clay  is  carried  on  with  especial  caru  at  \'ienna  and 
Peslli.  Tho  meerschaum  is  soaked  in  n  li(|iielicd  com- 
position of  wax,  oil,  and  fat,  Ihu  ulMirptiuit  uf  which 
occasions  the  colors  assumed  hy  tlio  pipe  after  smok- 
ing. Occasionally  tho  howls  arc  urtillciully  stained 
by  dipping  them  in  a  solution  uf  copperas  ami  other 
substances  Iteforo  tho  applicatiun  of  tlio  wax  composi- 
tion. The  carving  of  the  howN  is  often  ditlicuU  work, 
owing  to  tho  occurrence  of  a  kittd  uf  clay  mixed  up  with 
and  Itardcr  than  the  tttcerscltuutti.  T'lte  large  quantity 
of  parings  left  in  roughing  out  the  bowls  would  cnluii 
considorablo  loss,  mtlesa  some  process  had  l)ccn  devised 
for  using  them.  Tliis  has  been  doite  ;  thn  parliii^s  arc 
employed  in  makiitg  the  kiitd  of  meerschaum  bonis 
called  nuumJiiMls.  The  parings  are  ground  to  a  liitu 
powder,  boiled  in  water,  and  moulded  into  blocks,  with 
or  without  the  addition  of  clay.  TIte  Itlocks  ore  allow- 
ed  to  dry,  and  then  a  pipe-bowl  Is  fasliioited  from  each. 
These  bowls  are  distinguished  from  tho  real  meer- 
schaum chiefly  by  being  rather  liciixier.  Mccrscltaum 
bowls  havo  boon  produced  so  largo  ami  so  elaljurately 
carved  as  to  Ite  valued  at  five  hundred  dollars  each. 

Piracy  consists  in  cotiimitting  titose  octs  of  rubbery 
and  violence  upon  tho  seas  that,  if  contntittod  upon  land, 
would  antount  to  a  felony.  Pirates  hold  no  cumnilssion 
or  delegated  authority  from  any  sovereign  or  state,  cm- 
powering  them  to  attack  otiicrs.  They  can,  therefore, 
be  only  regarded  in  the  light  of  robbers  or  assassins. 
They  arc,  as  Cicero  has  truly  stated,  the  coiiimon  ene- 
mies of  all  {communta  hoales  omnium') ;  and  the  law  of  na- 
tions gives  to  everyone  the  right  to  pursue  and  exterin- 


Inala  Iham  without  any  priivh>u<  dorlaralion  of  wari 
but  It  ia  not  ailowad  to  kill  them  wllhuul  trial,  «ao«pt 
In  ballla.     TIiuh  wIio  •urrrndur,  or  ara  tak«n  prlaon- 
ers,  ntust  lia  brought  iMtfur*  the  pn>p*rniagistrali't,aiid 
ilaait  with  according  lu  law.     lly  tha  anciiint  cuminua 
law  uf  KuKJanil,  piracy,  If  eontmlttod  liy  c  tulijtil,  waa 
huld  to  In  a  apuclai  uf  traaaon,  Indng  ciiiitrary  to  hia 
natural  allegiancii  j  and,  by  an  ulirn,  tu  Ihi  filuny  only  | 
but  sliire  ih    statute  uf  treasons  (;:<  ImIw.  III.  c.  V)  It 
is  hold  to  In  only  fidony  lit  a  subjoct.     Formerly  thia 
ulfensa  waa  only  cugniiablu  by  tha  admiralty  coctrla, 
whlcli  prmuBil  by  tha  rulea  uf  the  civil  law ;  but  it  li*. 
ing  iiicuiislilHnt  with  lh«  liberties  o.  tha  Italian  that 
any  man's  life  thouiil  Imi  taken  away  unless  by  the  Judg. 
ittent  uf  hIa  pears,  the  ilatuta  W  Hon.  VIII.  c.  1,'.,  sa- 
tabllahiid  a  now  Juriidictlun  for  this  purpow,  witich  pro- 
ceods  aeiurdlng  to  tlio  coursu  of  common  law.     It  wu 
formeriy  a  questiuit  wliotlter  the  Algerlnes,  and  ulhar 
African  states,  shuuld  be  runsiderod  pirates ;  but,  liow- 
Bvor  uxceptiuitalde  tlteir  conduct  nilglit  have  lioen  on 
many  nceasions,  and  however  hostile  their  policy  might 
lie  to  the  iitterests  uf  huttianity,  still,  a*  Ihey  li'ad  bean 
sutijected  to  what  may  bo  called  regular  govcrtimenta, 
I  and  hud  been  admitted  to  enter  into  treath  a  with  other 
t  powera,  they  could  not  lie  treated  aa  pirates.     Pirates 
1  having  no  right  to  ntuko  conquests,  or  to  seine  upon 
what  belongs  to  others,  capture  by  them  docs  nut  di- 
vest tho  owner  of  his  property.    At  an  early  period  of 
I  Knglish  history  a  law  was  made  fur  the  restituliun  of 
]  property  taken  by  pirates,  if  found  within  tho  reolm, 
whether  helungiitg  tu  strangers  or  ICngllshmen ;  but 
any  furelgner  suing  upon  this  sfatuto  must  prove  that 
ul  tho  time  of  the  capture  hia  own  sovereign  and  the 
sovereign  of  tho  euptor  w  ere  In  mutual'  aiully ;  for  it  Is 
held  that  piracy  can  not  iio  cutuntittrd  by  lite  subjocta 
I  uf  states  at  war  with  each  uthor.     Piracy  waa  almost 
,  universally  practiced  in  the  lleruic  Ages.    Instead  of 
I  being  estcenteil  infumuua,  it  was  supposed  to  lie  honnr- 
I  able. — l.utroiiniummaru ylin-M habtbiitur-  -j    cnsiAlt, 
lib.  xliil.     Meneluus,  in  the  '   'yssey,  (b       int  h<^|. 
I  tuto  to  infurm  bis  guests,  who  admired  In.^  in  i.  "    '..  ' 
I  they  were  the  fruit  of  his  piratical  ej  ped  llou-,  i  lib. 
I  iv.  vcr.  90);  and  such,  indeed,  was  t!t .  m     ■  ,u  wlin'b 
j  most  of  the  (jlreek  princes  amassed  grent  w     llh.—  '  Ut- 
oi:kt,  Orii/in  n/J.aifi.    The  pre,,  'e  ii  i-  '-f  1  i 
al  spirit  in  these  early  nges  ni.i      i       .;  .<.  I  • 
ed  by  the  inlinito  number  uf  en'   '^   ti,  Ui..  ul ' 
I  into  wliiclt  tho  country  was  di     lad.   i^  •!     In 
I  animosity  cnnstantly  subsisting  among 
I  wiiv  ferocious  and  predatory  liabiis  weru  ui. 
ilill'uscd  and  kept  alive ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  . 
that  tltoso  wlto  wcro  at  all  times  liable  to  he  alls  :ked 
by  busts  nf  enemies  should  very  accurately  ex.ttnine 
the  grounds  upon  which  tlioy  attacked  otlicrs.     ..Ac- 
cording, however,  as  a  inure  improved  system  of  gov- 
ernment grew  up,  (ireece,  and  a  fow  states,  as  Athens, 
Corinth,  etc.,  had  attained  to  distinction  by  their  na- 
val power,  piracy  was  mads  a  capital  oflense;  but 
though  reprc».sed,  it  was  never  entirely  put  down.    Cl- 
llcia  was  at  all  times  the  great  strong-hold  of  the  pirates 
of  antiquity :  an<l  in  consequence  of  the  decline  of  the 
ntarltimo  forces  of  Athens,  Uliodes,  etc.,  which  had  kept 
them  ill  check,  they  increased  so  much  in  numbers  and 
audacity  as  to  insult  tho  majesty  of  Koine  herself;  so 
titat  it  became  necessary  to  send  Pompey  against  them, 
with  a  largo  fleet  and  army,  and  more  extensive  pow- 
ers than  had  been  over  previously  conferred  on  any 
Kotnan  general. 

During  the  anarchy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  when  every 
baron  considered  himself  a  sort  of  independent  prince, 
entitled  to  make  war  on  others,  piracy  was  universally 
practiced.  The  famous  Hanseatic  I..eague  was  formed 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  tite  ships  of  the 
confederated  cities  from  the  attacks  of  the  pirates  by 
which  the  Ualtic  was  then  infested.  The  nuisance  was 
not  linally  abated  in  Europe  till  the  feudal  system  had 
been  subverted,  and  the  aKendency  of  the  Uw  every 


pui'iio 

■  ■,,b„... 

I.    «(llt  •! 
i..il    Ul 

It  ihis 
II  pp     aU 


II;  1^    *■ 


PIR 


1534 


PIS 


where  aecured.  In  more  modem  times,  some  of  thu 
■mailer  West  India  islands  have  been  the  great  resort 
of  pirates :  latterly,  however,  they  have  been  driven 
trom  most  of  their  haunts  in  that  quarter.  They  arc 
(till  not  unfrequently  met  with  in  the  Indian  seas  east 
of  Sumatra. — M'Culi.och's  Com.  Diet. 

Piracy  is  robbery,  or  a  forcible  depredation  on  the 
high  seas,  without  lawful  authority,  and  done  animo 
furandi,  and  in  tlie  spirit  and  intention  of  universui 
hostility.  It  is  the  same  offense  at  sea  with  robbery 
on  land ;  and  all  the  writers  on  the  law  of  nations,  and 
on  the  maritime  law  of  Europe,  agree  in  this  delinition 
of  piracy.  Pirates  have  been  regarded  by  all  civilized 
nations  as  the  enemies  of  th^  human  race,  and  the  most 
atrocious  violators  of  the  universal  law  of  society.  They 
are  every  where  pursued  and  punished  with  death  ;  and 
the  severity  with  which  tlie  law  has  animadverted  upon 
this  crime  arises  from  it!,  enormity  and  tangcr,  the  cru- 
elty tliat  accompanies  it,  tlie  necessity  of  checking  it, 
the  difticulty  of  detection,  and  thu  facility  with  which 
robberies  may  be  committed  upon  pacific  traders  in  the 
solitudes  of  the  ocean.  Every  nation  has  a  right  to 
attack  and  exterminate  them  without  any  declaration 
of  war ;  for  though  pirates  may  form  a  loose  and  tem- 
porary association  among  themselves,  and  re-establish 
in  some  degree  those  laws  of  justice  which  they  have 
violated  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  yet  they  are  not 
considered  as  a  national  body,  or  entitled  to  the  laws  of 
war,  OS  one  of  the  community  of  nations.  They  acquire 
no  rights  by  conquest,  and  the  law  of  nations,  and  the 
municipal  law  of  every  country,  authorize  the  true 
owner  to  reclaim  his  property  taken  by  pirates,  where- 
ever  it  can  be  found,  and  they  <lo  not  recognize  any 
title  to  be  derived  from  an  act  of  piracy.  The  princi- 
ple that  a  pirutia  el  latronibus  capta  daminium  non  mu- 
tant, i^  the  received  opinion  of  ancient  civilians  and 
modern  writers  on  general  jurisprudence,  and  the  same 
doctrine  was  maintained  in  the  English  courts  of  com- 
mon law  prior  to  the  great  modern  improvements  made 
in  the  science,  of  the  law  of  nations. 

liy  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Congress 
is  authorized  to  define  and  punisih  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the 
law  of  nations.  In  nursuance  of  the  authority  it  was 
declared,  by  the  act  of  Congress  of  April  30,  1790,  c. 
9,  sec.  a,  that  murderer  robliery  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  or  in  any  river,  harlior,  or  bay,  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  any  particular  state,  or  any  other  offense, 
which,  ifcommiited  within  the  l)ody  of  a  county,  would, 
by  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  bi!  punishable  with 
death,  should  lie  adjudged  to  be  piracy  or  felony,  and 
punishable  with  death.  It  was  further  declared,  that 
if  any  captcin  or  mariner  should  piratically  or  feloni- 
ously run  away  with  any  vessel,  or  any  goods  or  n.cr- 
chandise  to  the  value  of  fifty  dollars,  or  should  yield 
up  any  sucli  vessel  voluntarily  to  pirates ;  or  if  any 
seaman  sliuuld  forcibly  eniieavor  to  hinder  his  com- 
mander from  defending  the  ship  or  guods  committed  to 
his  trust,  or  sliould  make  a  revolt  in  the  ship,  every 
fi'ch  offender  should  be  adjudged  a  pirate  and  felon, 
and  be  punishaldo  with  death  And  liy  the  act  of 
March  3,  1819,  c.  76,  ^ec.  6,  Congress  <lecJarert,  that  if 
any  sucli  person  on  the  high  seas  should  commit  the 
crime  nffnracy  at  dtfiiud  by  the  law  ofnaliinu,  he  should, 
on  conviction,  suffer  death.  This  act  was  hut  temporary 
in  its  limitation,  and  has  expired ;  but  it  was  again 
declared,  and  essentially  to  the  same  cITcc',  by  the  act 
of  Congress,  loth  of  May,  1S20,  c.  113,  sec.  3,  that  if 
any  person  upon  the  high  oas,  or  in  any  open  road- 
stead or  liay  or  river,  where  the  sea  ehiis  and  flows, 
commits  the  crime  of  rol)l)ery,  in  or  upon  ony  vessel, 
or  the  lading  thereof,  or  the  crew,  he  shall  be  aiyiidgert 
L  pirate.  So  if  any  person,  engaged  in  any  piratical 
enterprise,  or  lielonging  to  the  crew  of  any  piratical 
vessel,  should  land  and  commit  robbery  on  shore,  such 
an  offender  shall  also  be  a(\iudged  a  pirate.  The  stat- 
ute in  this  respect  seems  to  be  only  declaratory  of  the 


law  of  nations ;  and  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  case  of 
Lind  V.  Rodney,  such  plunder  and  robbery  ashore  by 
the  crew,  and  with  the  aid  of  vessels,  is  a  marine  case, 
and  of  admiralty  jurisdiction.  The  statute  further  de- 
clared, that  the  above  provision  was  not  to  be  con- 
strued to  deprive  any  particular  State  of  its  jurisdiction 
over  such  offenses  when  committed  within  the  body  of 
a  county,  or  to  authorize  the  courts  of  the  United  States 
to  try  any  such  offenders,  after  conviction  or  acquit- 
tance, for  the  same  offense  in  a  State  court. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  right  of  Congress  to 
pass  laws  punishing  pirates,  though  they  may  be  for- 
eigners, and  may  have  committed  no  particular  offense 
against  the  United  States,  It  is  of  no  importance,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  jurisdiction,  on  whom  or  whin  a 
piratical  act  has  been  committed.  A  pirate,  who  is 
one  liy  the  law  of  nations,  may  be  tried  and  punished 
in  any  country  where  he  may  be  found,  for  he  is  re- 
puted to  be  out  of  the  protection  of  all  laws  and  privi- 
leges. The  statute  of  any  government  may  declare  an 
offense  conimittcd  on  board  its  own  vessels  to  be  pira- 
cy, and  such  offense  will  be  punishable  exclusively  by 
the  nation  which  pass  is  the  statute.  liut  piracy,  un- 
der the  law  of  nationr,  is  an  offence  against  all  nations, 
and  puniblmlili;  by  all, — Kkst's  Commentaries,  vol  i. 

Liability  rf  Insurers. — There  con  be  no  piracy  or 
robbery  without  violence;  but  this  is  not  necessary  to 
constitute  the  crim^;  of  theft.  Piracy  and  robbery  are 
most  usually  committed  by  strangers  to  the  ship ;  they 
may,  however,  be  committed  by  the  crew ;  and  the  in- 
surers arc  answerable  for  such  a  loss,  unless  it  arise 
from  the  fault  of  the  owner.  If  theft  be  coniniitted 
by  the  crew,  we  sliould  still  hold  the  insurers  liable. 
This  may  be  doubtful;  but  insurers  regard  it  as  at 
least  possible,  and  provide  against  it  by  the  jjliraso, 
"assailing  thieves,"  This  excludes  theft  without  vi- 
olence, and  perhaps  all  theft  by  those  lawfully  on 
board  the  vessel,  as  a  part  of  the  ship's  company.  If, 
after  shipwreck,  the  property  is  stolen,  the  insurers  are 
liable,  and  would  probalily  be  so  if  there  were  no  in- 
surance against  theft,  if  this  was  a  direct  effect  of  the 
wrecking, — Paksons's  Mercantile  Law.  The  subjects 
of  pirates  and  piracy  have  been  discussed  in  the  follow- 
ing works  •  Nii.Es's  Register,  xviii,  27.'i,  xxxii,  302,  xx, 
69,  xxvii.391,  xxv.  167,  xxvii,  138,  xxiii,  211 ;  Hint's 
Aferchanis' Magazine,  xiii.  450,  62fi,  xiv.  39 ;  Kilinbiirgh 
i^efi'eic,  Ixviii  33,  xxvi,  449 ;  Littei.l's  i)/i«ewm,  xxv, 
337,  xxvi.  2fi6, 

Fistachia,  or  Pistachio  Nuts  (Oer.  I'istaschen ; , 
Tlu.  J'islayi'S;  Fr   I'Litaches;  ]t.  Pislacchi,  Fustunhi; 
Sp.  A Ijhcigos ;  Ual.  I'islmw),  the  fruit  of  tlie /Vs/ocAio 
vna,  a  kind  of  turpentine-tree.     It  grow    naturally  in 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  Syria ;  also  in  Sicily,  vhence  the 
nuts  are  annually  brought  to  us.     They  are  olilong  and 
pointed,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  filbert,  including 
a  kernel  of  a  pale  greenish  color,  covered  witli  a  yel- 
lowish ci-  reddish  skin.     They  have  a  pleasant,  sweet- 
ish, unctuous  taste,  resembling  that  of  sweet  ainionds; 
their  principal  difference  from  which  consists  in  their 
hoving  a  greater  degree  of  sweetness,  accoinpoiiicd  w  i(h 
a  light  grateful  flavor,  and  in  being  more  iiily.     Pis- 
j  tachjas  imported  from  the  East  are  superior  to  those 
j  raised  in  Europe. — Lkwib's  dialer  a  Med. 
I      Pistols.     Tliesc  are  the  smallest  sort  of  fire-arms, 
carried  somctiiiics  on  the  saddle-bow,  sometimes  in  a 
!  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket,  etc. — 
i  Paiiuon,     The  pistol  was  first  used  by  tlio  cavalry  of 
England,  in  1444, 
j      The  manufacture  of  guns  and  pistols  in  the  United 
States  has  become  an  active  cue,     Colt's  Kevolvers 
I  have  acquired  a  ropnlation  throughout  Europe  und 
;  South  America,  os  well  as  the  Unileil  Stntis,     Ilia 
i  principal  factory  is  located  near  Hartford,  ( 'onnccticnt, 
j  "It  is  so  well  ordered,  so  complete,  so  striking  in  itu 
results,  that  all  engaged  in  manufacture  may  learn 
I  something  from  it ;  it  is  in  itself  one  large  machine, 
I  well  oiled  too,  which  takr,3  i  i  at  one  end  a  shapeless 


■•/--■■ 


■,TV 


PIS 


1533 


PIT 


staschen ; . 
tustucchi; 
\rislachia 
liirnUy  in 
Iciice  tlio 
Ilong  anil 
IniUuling 
Itli  a  y<'i- 
\t,  swcct- 
iionds ; 
11  tliiir 
iiictlwilh 
I'is- 
to  those 

krc-arini', 
Imes  in  a 
let,  etc.— 
Tivalry  of 

.  rnltod 
kevolvers 

VoIlC    lilld 

'      m» 

Inccticnt. 
Ing  in  ilu 
lay  K'nrn 
liiiarliine, 
Uapelei" 


lump  of  iron,  and  a  piece  of  wood,  and  puts  out  at  the 
other  a  1>eautiful1y  tinished  arm  which  you  may  load 
and  fire  six  balls  from  separntely  in  threo-<iuartcrt  of  a 
minute,  after  a  certain  amount  of  practice.  In  each 
piatol  there  are  fifty-three  distinct  pieces,  including 
fourteen  screws,  and  for  the  forniation  of  these  forty 
or  forty-lire  separate  machines  co-operate,  hanunering, 
milling,  cutting,  drilling;,  punching,  rifling,  and  shav- 
ing; oil  put  into  motion  by  a  gallon  of  water  '  in  a  vio- 
lent perspiration ;'  in  other  words,  a  twenty-horse  power 
steam-en(,'ine.  Some  of  the  machines  are  especially 
beautiful :  look  at  that  for  rifling  the  barrels,  for  ex- 
ample, with  the  brush  to  keep  the  cutter:,  clean ;  and 
the  one  near  it  for  drilling  the  six  chambers  around 
the  central  boring  in  the  solid  cylinder,  where  accuracy 
is  so  indispensable.  That  regular  irregularity,  the  ec- 
centric, plays  an  important  part  in  this,  as  it  doi.'^  in 
the  hainniering-machino  below — the  machine  patentod 
by  Kidcr.  In  one  week  they  turned  out  &25  perfect 
pistols  here,  and  there  are  the  means  fur  making  800 
or  900  a  week,  if  it  were  necessary  to  do  so." — lj»idon 
Builder. 

Pistols  were  first  usbd  by  the  Germans.  BcUay 
mentions  them  in  the  year  1544.  In  the  time  of  Fran- 
cis I.  an(9uidcr  Henry  II.  the  German  horsemen,  des 
reitert,  were  called  pistoliers.  The  derivation  of  this 
term  is  uncertain.  Frisih  conjectures  that  it  may 
have  arisen  from  pistillo  or  stiopo,  because  pistols  used 
to  have  large  knobs  on  the  handles.  Daniel  and  others 
think  that  the  name  comes  from  Pistoja,  in  Tuscany, 
where  they  were  first  manufactured.  Ho  says  he  saw 
an  old  pistol  that,  with  the.  exception  of  the  ramrod, 
was  all  iron.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury many  ingenious  persons  directed  their  attention 
to  the  improvement  of  liri'-arius,  with  a  view  to  sim- 
plify their  construction,  to  render  them  more  effective, 
and  to  combine  safety  with  celerity  in  firing.  One  of 
the  most  marked  advancements  was  effected  l)y  Mr. 
Henry  Nock,  ami  patented  by  him  in  England  in  1787. 
Previous  to  this  the  breeching  or  plug  of  a  gira  was  a 
solid  lump  of  iron,  screwed  into  one  end  of  the  barrel, 
the  touch-bole  lieing  drilled  through  the  side  of  the 
barrel  above  it.  Another  most  marked  improvement 
was  the  introduction  and  adaptation  of  'ulminating 
powder,  for  igniting  the  chu.fjc  in  the  chamber  of  the 
breech;  and  for  which  the  Key.  Mr.  Forsytli  obtainc, 
a  patent  in  Great  Uritain,  in  1807.  The  perfection 
of  a  proper  fulminating  powder  was  loufj  a  matter  of 
great  difficulty.  Other  clinugcs  were  sugfjested,  but 
not  of  a  practical  kind.  One  made  by  Mr.  1'".  H.  Col- 
lier, of  Iloston,  Massachusetts,  in  1818 ;  and  another 
by  Mr.  Wheeler,  of  Boston,  i.i  1819. 

The  first  valuable  iinprivenipnts  made  by  Colonel 
Samuel  Colt,  of  Councclicut,  in  iho  construction  of  the 
pistol,  were  made  public  in  the  yoar  IS.'lo.  The  original 
conception  of  (^olonol  Colt  in  regard  to  fire-arms  was 
the  combination  of  a  number  of  long  barrels  to  rotate 
upon  a  spindle,  by  ihe  act  of  cocking  the  lock,  in  the 
same  manner  that  they  have  since  been  made  by  others 
who  claim  to  have  originated  tho  plan  ;  Init  as  objec- 
tions arose  from  the  weight  and  bulk  of  tlio  iirm,  in  his 
study  to  obviate  them,  the  idea  of  a  single  barrel  and 
a  chambered  breech  suggested  itself  to  him.  Al- 
though without  the  pi>cuniary  means  of  then  practi- 
cally testing  bis  convictions,  he  made  a  small  wooden 
model  of  his  conception,  whieli  lie  possesses  at  tho 
present  day.  He  then  assiduously  pursued  his  calling 
as  1  scientilic  lecturer,  and  from  its  rewanls  proc.ired 
the  aid  to  manufacture  specimen  arms,  which  in  their 
practical  results  exccedeil  even  his  most  sanguine  ex- 
pectations; and  in  1835  he  received  his  first  patent 
from  the  Government  of  the  Unittd  Stafi':. 

Colonel  Colt's  first  manufactory  of  fire-arms  was 
located  at  I'aterson,  New  Jersey,  in  the  year  IS.ICi, 
with  a  capital  of  (liOd.OftO.  This  continued  in  opera- 
tion until  tho  year  1842,  when  it  wai  rplini|uished  as 
uaprolltable.     The  Florida  war  of  1887-'ii8  created  a 


1 

8 

9 

4 

4 

i 

< 

1 

19 

1 

10 

1 

8 

demand  for,  and  gave  practical  drmonstration  of  tb« 
great  value  of,  tho  repealing  flre-arnii  patented  by 
him.  They  were  also  used  with  great  oHcct  In  the 
Texan  revolution  and  war ;  and  afterward  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  (184C-'47),  when  a  contract  was  nude  by 
him  with  the  government  for  the  supply  of  one  thou- 
sand  of  the  improved  arms.  A  temporary  manufactory 
was  established  for  this  purpose  at  Whitney  vill?,  Con- 
necticut. This  was  succeeded  by  the  present  extonsivB 
factory  at  or  near  Hartford,  on  tho  Connecticut  Klver, 
which  was  finished  and  in  successful  operation  in  the 
year  18.55,  with  a  capital  of  |1,250,0U0.  Those  build, 
ings  present  a  front  of  61)0  feet.  The  repeating  princl- 
pie  has  also  been  successfully  applied  by  Colonel  Colt 
to  rilles  and  carbines,  several  varieties  of  which  oro 
constantly  in  tho  course  of  completion  in  tho  armory. 
Litely  the  demand  lor  the  sporting  rille  Ims  increased 
wonderfully,  which  increase  will,  no  doubt,  bo  much 
augmented  as  their  superiority  is  nmre  generally  prac- 
tically demonstrated  by  our  hardy  liuckwoodsinen ; 
and  the  day  is  not  distant  when  regiments  of  riflemen 
will  bo  equipped  with  Colt's  revolvers. 

Within  the  last  year  still  another  stylo  of  pistol  haa 
been  introduced.  It  is  called  "  Colt's  new  Model,"  and 
by  some  it  is  preferred  to  either  of  the  others.  Un- 
doubtedly this  is  a  matter  of  fancy  with  the  party  using 
the  arm,  as  in  some  cases  individuals  yet  prefer  Colt's 
lirst  to  any  arm  that  was  ever  manufactured.  Tho 
arms  are  of  several  sizes,  and  weigh  as  follows ; 

„,  ...  PouniJi,        OunrM, 

Tlie  military  rifle,  bsrrcl  SO  Inches,  fit-  J 

ted  witli  improved  bayonet j 

SportlnK  rifle,  barrel  from  18  to  oO  j 

Inches,  average { 

Tho  army  or  lioUter  iiisttil 

The  navy  Dr  belt  pUtol 

Tho  pocket  pistol,  barrel  8  inches 

'I'lio  pocket  pistol,  barrel  ."i  liiehes 

Tlio  pock(!t  pistol,  barrel  4  Inches 

These  are  kinds  that  oro  constantly  ill  tlio  course  of 
construction ;  of  course  many  other  varieties  are  made 
by  special  order. 

Of  the  improved  pistol,  over  138,000  had  been  manu- 
factured here  up  to  January,  1857.  Ni'arly  eight  hun- 
dred men  are  ordinarily  employed  in  tliis  worli  alone. 
Tills  result  is  the  fruit  of  a  market  for  orms,  not  con. 
lined  to  the  United  Stales,  Init  extending  over  both 
tho  Americas ;  more  or  less  to  the  Indies,  Kast  and 
West ;  to  Eijypt — I'ven  to  dialant  Australia;  to  remote 
Asiatic  trilics  assembled  at  tho  gn^at  fairs  of  Novgo- 
rod ;  and  over  Europe  generally,  but  es|ieeially  to  En- 
gland, here  tlie  arms  of  Colonel  Colt,  lirst  Introduced 
ill  splendid  style  tiirougli  the  M'orld's  Fair,  wcto  warm- 
ly  welcomed,  and  led  to  tlio  speedy  eslalilisliMiout  in 
London  of  an  extensive  armory  for  their  iiianiifacturc, 
and  to  their  rapid  adoption  into  tlio  Drilish  army  and 
naval  service. — I  nileil  iSlates  Mnyazim;  March,  1H07. 

.S'«'  FlUK-AU.MS. 

Pitcairn's  Island.  A  small  solitary  Island  in 
the  raci'ic  Ocean,  seen  by  Cook  in  177.'1,  and  noted  for 
being  colonized  liv  ten  mutineers  from  tlio  sliip  Jloun't/, 
Captain  Dligli,  in  17X0,  from  wliiih  lime  till  1811 
tliey  (ov  rather  their  descendants)  I'l'inained  here  un- 
known. Soil  fertile,  but  porous,  ami  rather  defective 
iu  water;  well  wooded,  and  cliinule  hcaltlifiil;  thcr- 
nionipter  ranging  from  ti'.l''  to  W"  Falir.  Prevailing 
winds  southwest  and  east-southeast,  but  it  is  beyond 
tlie  limits  of  the  re;^uiar  trade-winds.  It  is  Nurroundcd 
by  rocky  shores,  and  has  only  one  accessible  landing- 
placo  at  Hounty  liay.  The  cocou-nul,  plantain,  ba- 
nana, and  bread-fruit  trees  fiourisli,  liiliiseiis,  or  cloth 
liee,  banvan-tree,  orange,  and  others;  and  the  potato, 
swcetpotato,  yams,  water-melons,  pumpkin,  tare,  sugar- 
cane, ginger,  turmeric,  tobacci,  tea-plant,  and  maize, 
arc  cultivated.  The  island  contained  ni  indii;ciicui 
quadrupeds,  but  goats,  hogs,  and  poultry  iiuvo  been 
iniponed.  In  171)0  this  island  was  re  orted  to  b"  tbii 
mutineers  of  the  Jiountij,  consisting  of  nine  llrlllsh 
sailors,  six  native  Tahitlan  men,  and  twelvo  wonion. 


PI 

m 


PIT 


1536 


PLA 


In  consequence  of  various  discords  and  massacres,  at 
the  end  uf  ten  years  tliore  remained  only  one  Englisli- 
man,  Adams,  the  Taliitian  females,  and  nineteen  chil- 
dren, their  ofl'spring.  Under  the  superintendence  of 
this  man  tlic  children  ware  educated  and  trained  up  to 
habits  of  industry  and  morality.  In  1825  Captain 
Boechey  found  a  most  interesting  and  intelligent  colony 
of  sixty-six  persons.  In  1831,  by  the  somewhat  im- 
prudent sand  Ion  of  the  British  government,  the  colony, 
nunil)erlng  eightr-soven  persons,  was  transferred  to 
Tahiti.  After  remaining  five  months  there,  and  losing 
twelve  of  their  number  by  death,  the  colony,  at  their 
own  solicitation,  were  again  reinstated  in  their  native 
island.  In  1840  the  population  amounted  to  75  males 
and  7'i  females,  in  all  14'J;  of  these,  three  were  En- 
glishmen, one  a  native  Taliitian  woman,  the  only  re- 
maining female  of  the  original  migration,  and  the  re- 
mainder were  natives  of  the  island.  They  live  chiefly 
on  yoins,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables,  which  they 
raise  by  their  own  labor.  From  the  remains  of  burial- 
grounds,  the  island  would  appear  to  have  been  occii- 
\Aei\  by  inhabitants  nt  a  period  antecedent  to  the  visit 
of  the  mutineers  of  tlio  llmintj.  It  was  seen  by  Cur- 
tcret  in  17G7,  and  named  by  lilm  after  oncof  hi?  ofliccrs. 

Pitch  (Ocr.  Pech;  Fr.  I'oir,  JJrai;  It.  Ptce;  Sp. 
I'e: ,  liuxd.  iSmolaffustaia),  tlie  residuum  which  remains 
on  inspissating  tar,  or  Iwiling  it  down  to  dryness.  It 
la  extensively  used  in  ship-building,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses.— See.  Navai,  Storks. 

Pittabuirgli,  city,  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Allo- 
ghuny  county,  Pennsylvania,  is  situated  at  the  conflux 
(I'lhe  Alloghaiiy  and  Monongahela  rivors,  where  they 
form  the  Ohio,  which  is  here  p  quarter  of  a  mile  wide. 
1 1  is  In  40"  3-.''  X.  lat.,  and  80°  2'  W.  long.,  357  m.  via 
I'cnnsvlvania  Railroad  from  Philadelphia,  2i7  west- 
northwest  of  Ilurrisburg,  226  from  Washington,  I).  C, 
and  2011  aliove  New  Orleans  by  the  coarse  of  the  river. 
Population  in  1810,  4768;  in  1820,  7248;  in  1830, 
12,6(!8;  in  1840,  21,115;  in  1850,  4(;,(i01;  in  1854,  the 
city  anil  inmicdiatc  vicinity  estimated  at  110,000.  It 
wag  originally  laid  out  on  the  northeast  bank  of  the 
Monongahela,  after  the  model  of  Philadelphia,  with 
Utreets  running  parallel  with  the  rivers,  and  others 
crossing  them  at  right  angles.  The  streets  on  the 
Alleghany  are  laid  out  on  a  similar  plan,  and  hence  a 
(hurt  distance  from  the  Alleghany  the  old  and  new 
streets  meet  in  oblique  directions.  I'ho  Alleghany 
Kiver  is  spanned  by  three  bridges,  which,  with  several 
stcom  ferries,  connect  the  city  with  the  suburbs.  The 
Pennsylvania  r^onal  crosses  the  ri\er  by  an  aqueduct, 
•nd  there  is  a  suspension-bridge  over  the  Monongahela. 

As  0  nianufttrturingcit',  Pittsburgh  is  second  in  the 
Stale  only  to  Philadelphia.  In  1850  it  had  thirteen 
rolling-mills,  witli  a  capital  of  $5,00f;,000,  employing 
2500  hands,  consuming  60,000  tons  of  |;ig  metal,  and 
producing  annually  bar  iron  anu  nails  to  ihc  value  of 
$  1,000,000;  thirty  large  founderies,  with  an  aggregate 
cnpital  of  12,000,000,  and  2.'j00  hands,  using  20,000  tons 
of  pig  iron,  anil  yielding  articles  valued  at  ^2,000, 000 
annually ;  two  establiahnients  for  manufacturing  locks, 
latches,  colTce-mills,  scales,  and  other  iron  casting,  em- 
ploying 500  hands,  and  a  capital  of  $250,000,  using 
1200  tone  metal,  and  producing  annually  to  the  value 
of  $3,000,000;  live  largo  cotton  factories  —  capital 
♦  1,500,000,  hands  1500,  cotton  consumed  1.5,000  bales, 
and  products  valued  at  upward  of  #1,500,000  annually ; 
eight  (lint-glassmanufactories— capital $300, 000,  hands 
COO.  and  producing  various  articles  of  glass,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  which  150  tons  lead  and  200  tons  of  pearlash 
ore  used,  to  the  value  of  $400,000  annually;  seven 
phi.il  furnaces  and  eleven  window-glass  factories — capi- 
tal iji2.'pO,000,  bands  600,  ond  onnual  products  $(100,000 ; 
one  soda-ash  factory,  employing  75  hands,  and  pro- 
ducing annually  1500  tons;  one  coppor-smclting  house, 
jroducing  600  tons  refined  copper  annually,  valued  at 
$380  per  ton  ;  oiic  rolling-mill,  producing  annually  liOO 
tons  sheothing  and  brazier's  copper;  live  white-lead 


factories — capital  $lfiO,000,  hands  60,  and  prodacinf; 
150,000  kega  annually,  worth  $200,000.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  manufactories  of  the  smaller  sizes  of  iron, 
several  extensive  manufactorina  of  axes,  hatcheta, 
spring-steel,  steel  springs,  axles,  anvils,  vices,  mills, 
cross-cut  and  other  saws,  gun  barrels,  shovels,  spadei, 
forks,  hoes,  cut  tacks,  brads,  etc.  The  products  of  the 
manufactures  in  the  aggregate  are  valued  at  between 
$50,000,000  and  $00,000,000  annually.  There  are  con- 
sumed about  12,000,000  bushels  of  coal  annually,  worth 
$600,000,  and  an  equal  quantity  is  exported  from  the 
city,  giving  employment  constantly  to  4000  handa. 

Plains.  In  Geography,  the  general  term  for  all 
those  parts  of  the  dry  land  which  can  not  properly  be 
called  mountainous,  and  which  compose  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  Plains  have  differ- 
ent physical  appearances  according  to  their  geograph- 
ical position,  and  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  each 
have  procured  for  them  different  names ;  thns  we  have 
the  steppes  of  Asia,  the  deserts  of  Africa,  the  pampas 
of  South  America,  and  the  prairies  or  savannas  of 
North  America.     See  these  different  lerma. 

Plane,  a  forest  tree,  of  which  there  are  two  species ; 
the  Oriental  plane  (Platanut  Orienlalis),  and  the  Occi- 
dental plane  (^Platanua  Occidentalu).  The  Oriental 
plane  is  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and  other  Eastern 
countries,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  of  trees. 
It  grows  to  about  6C  feet  in  height,  and  has  been  known 
to  exceed  eight  fee .  in  diameter.  Its  wood  is  much 
like  beech,  but  mor  figured,  and  is  used  for  furniture 
and  such  like  artiel.  ',  The  Occidental  plane  is  a  na- 
tive of  North  America,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
American  trees,  being  sometimes  more  than  12  feet  in 
diameter.  I'he  wood  of  the  Occidental  plane  is  harder 
than  that  of  the  Oriental.  It  is  very  durable  in  water. 
The  tree  known  by  the  name  of  plane  in  England  is 
the  sycamore,  or  great  maple  (^Acer pseudo-plalanui). 
It  is  a  large  tree,  grows  quickly,  and  stands  the  sea- 
spray  better  than  most  trees.  The  timber  is  very  close 
and  compact,  easily  wrought,  and  not  liable  either  to 
splinter  or  warp.  It  is  generally  of  a  brownish  white 
or  yellowish  white  color,  and  sometimes  it  is  very  beau- 
tifully curled  and  mottled.  In  this  state  it  takeb  u  lino 
polish,  and  bears  varnishing  well.  It  is  chiefly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  saddle-trees,  wooden  dishes,  and 
a  variety  of  articles  of  furniture  and  machinery.  When 
kept  dry,  and  protected  from  worms,  it  is  pretty  dura- 
ble ;  l)ut  it  is  quite  as  liable  as  beech  to  be  attacked  by 
them. — TuKixiOLi),  p.  196. 

Plane  Sailing,  in  Karigntion,  is  the  art  of  de- 
termining the  ship's  place,  on  the  supposition  that  she 
is  moving  on  u  plane,  or  that  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
is  plane  instead  of  lieing  spherical.  On  account  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  terrestrial  radius,  this  supposition  may 
be  adopted  for  short  distances  without  leading  to  great 
errors;  and  it  atfords  great  facilities  in  calculation,  for 
the  place  of  the  siiip  is  found  by  the  solution  of  a  right- 
angled  plane  triangle.  The  part  of  the  meridian  be- 
tween the  ship  and  the  parallel  of  latitude  of  the  place 
vhence  she  departed  forms  the  perpendicular  of  the 
triangle ;  tlie  distance  on  the  parallel  between  the  place 
of  departure  and  the  foot  of  tlie  perpendicular  is  the 
base  of  the  triangle  (technically  called  the  departure) ; 
and  the  distance  soiled  is  the  hypolhcnuse.  The  angle 
at  the  ship  is  called  the  course,  and  the  other  acute 
angle  the  compicment  of  the  course.  Now,  of  these 
four  things,  the  perpendicular,  the  departure,  the  dis- 
tance sailed,  and  the  course,  any  two  i>eiiig  given,  the 
triangle  can  bo  laid  down  on  the  chart,  and  all  the 
otiier  parts  of  it  found. — See  Navk;ai1on. 

Flanka  (Ger.  and  jJu.  Plnnkeii;  Da.  Planker;  Sw. 
Plnnkor;  Kr.  Planches,  /lurdar/es;  Kiiss.  Tiilst lile  olosku), 
thick  strong  boards,  cut  from  vaiious  kinds  of  wood, 
especially  oak  and  pine.  Planks  are  usually  of  the 
thickness  of  from  1  inch  to  4.  They  are  exported  in 
large  quantities  from  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly from  the  ports  of  Christiana,  Uantzic,  Arcb- 


PLA 


1587 


PLA 


•ngel,  Petersburg,  Narva,  Revel,  Riga,  and  Memel,  as  j  southeast,  and  where  it  joins  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  ia 
well  as  from  several  parts  of  North  Amorica.— 6'ee  1 170  miles  across  (between  Maldonado  ami  (  ape  St. 


Lumber  Tkade. 

Plantain,  or  Banana,  the  pulpy  fruit  of  the  Muia 
paradUiaca,  an  licrhaceous  plant, extensively  cultivated 
in  most  inter-tropical  countries,  hut  especially  in  Mex- 
ico. It  is  not,  like  most  other  fruits,  used  merely 
as  an  occasional  luxury,  but  is  rather  an  established 
article  of  subsistence.  Being  long  and  extensively 
cultivated,  it  has  diverged  into  numerous  varieties,  the 
fruit  of  which  differs  materially  in  size,  flavor,  and 
color.  That  of  some  is  not  above  two  or  three  inches 
long,  while  that  of  others  is  not  much  short  of  a  foot ; 
some  sorts  are  sweet,  and  of  a  flavor  not  unlike  nor  in- 
ferior to  that  of  a  good  mellow  pear ;  but  the  larger 
kind  are,  for  the  most  part,  coarse  and  farinaceous. 
The  latter  are  either  used  fresh  or  dried  in  the  sun,  in 
which  latter  state  they  are  occasionally  ground  into 


Antonio);  its  centre  being  about  lat.  3.")'  liO'  .S.,  long. 
60"  \V.  Its  muddy  waters  can  be  traced  in  the  ocean 
200  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  total  length  of  the 
I'lata  and  the  Paraguay  has  been  estimated  at  nearly 
".iuOO  miles ;  and  from  the  ocean  to  tlio  island  of  Apipo 
in  the  Parana,  at  least  1'.'50  miles,  thcrr;  is  a  continuous 
and  safe  navigation  fur  vcsacls  of  300  tons.  The  Agua- 
pehy,  an  affluent  of  the  Paraguay  near  lat.  15°  40'  S., 
long.  59°  20'  W .,  is  separated  only  by  a  portaye  of  three 
miles  from  the  Alegrc,  a  tributary  of  the  (iuapore,  and 
were  a  canal  to  be  made  to  connect  the  two  .streams,  a 
complete  system  of  internal  navigation  throughout 
nearly  all   South  America  would  exist. — See  Paka- 

GU.VV. 

Plate,  the  denomination  nsually  given  In  gold  and 
silver  wrouglit  into  artiolus  ol'bousehold  furniture.     It 


meal  and  made  into  bread.  In  Mexico  the  sweeter  i  appears  from  PunTKit's  I'mgrcss  nfthe  .Va^c-n,  iii.  25, 
sorts  are  frequently  pressed  and  dried,  as  figs  are  in  [  that  the  annual  corisumplion  of  silver  plati-  has  in- 
Europe;  and,  while  they  are  not  very  inferior  to  the  |  creased  from  about  800,000  oz.  at  the  commencement  of 


last-mentioned  fruit,  they  are  Inlinitely  cheaper.  "  I 
doubt,"  says  M.  Humboldt,  ''  whether  there  be  any 
other  plant  that  produces  so  great  a  quantity  of  nutri- 
tive substance  in  so  small  a  space.  <Mght  or  nine 
months  after  the  sucker  is  plor.ted,  it  begin;;  to  develop 
its  cluster.  The  fruit  may  be  gathered  in  the  tentli 
and  eleventh  month.  When  the  stalk  is  cut,  there  is 
always  found,  among  the  numerous  shoots  that  have 
taken  root,  a  sprout  (jnmpollo),  which,  being  2-3<ls  the 
height  of  its  parent  plant,  bears  fruit  three  mnnlhs 
later.  Thus  a  plantation  of  bananas  perpetuates  itself, 
without  requiring  any  care  on  the  part  of  man,  further 
than  to  cut  the  stalks  when  the  fruU  has  ripened,  and 
to  stir  the  earth  gently  once  or  twice  a  year  alKiut  the 
roots.  A  piece  of  grouml  of  100  scpiare  metre'i  of  sur- 
face will  contain  from  3U  tu  10  plants.  During  the 
course  of  a  year  this  same  piece  of  ground,  reckoning 
the  weight  of  the  cluster  at  from  15  to  20kilog.  only,  , 


the  century,  to  about  1,050,000  oz.  at  present.  Most 
persons  may,  perhaps,  be  inclined  to  think  that  this  is 
not  so  great  an  increase  as  might  have  been  antici- 
!".,ite(;  fro!r  the  increase  of  wealth  and  population.  But 
it  shouVi  1)1,  borne  in  mind  that  this  account  refers  only 
to  articles  of  standard  silver  and  gold,  and  that  the 
great  :onsumption  of  the  precious  metals  consists  in 
plated  and  gilt  articles,  which  are  now  made  of  a  very 
superior  quality.  Owing  also  to  the  fact  of  old  plate 
being  hold  in  the  greatest  estimation,  but  little  of  it  is 
melted  down  to  be  remanufactured,  so  that  the  princi- 
pal consumption  is  by  new  families. — A'ec  Gold  and 
Phecious  Mktals. 

Flatina,  a  metal  which,  in  respect  of  scarcity,  beau- 
ty, ductility,  and  indestructibility,  is  hardly  inferior  to 
gold,  was  unknown  in  Europe  till  about  the  middle  of 
last  century,  when  it  began  to  be  imported  in  small 
quantities  from  South  America.     It  has  since-  been  dis- 


will  yield  2000  kilog.,  or  more  than  40OU  lbs.,  of  nutri-   covered  in  Estremadura  in  Spain,  and  more  recently 


live  substance.  What  a  difference  beiween  this  prod- 
uct and  that  of  the  cereal  grasses  in  most  parts  of  Eu- 
rope !  The  same  extent  of  land  planted  with  wlieat 
would  not  produce  above  3U  lbs.,  and  not  more  thnn 
90  lbs.  ot  potatoes.  Hence  the  product  of  the  banana 
is  to  that  of  wheat  as  133  to  1,  and  to  that  of  potatoes 
as  44  to  1." — Eesai  sur  la  Nouvelte  h'.ipttt/,:i .  The  ba- 
nana forms  a  principal  part  of  ll.e  food  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Mexico ;  and  the  apathy  and  indolence  of  the 
natives  in  the  tierras  calientes,  or  hot  regi  ms,  has  lieen 
ascribed,  and  probably  with  good  reason,  to  the  faci  .ty 
with  which  it  supplies  them  with  subsistence.  It  is  by 
no  means  in  such  extensive  I'se  in  trojtii  ul  Asia,  and 
comes  nowhere  in  it  into  com;jetition  with  corn  as  an 
article  of  food. 

Plaster,  or  Plalster,  in  building,  a  composition 
of  lime,  sometimes  with  sand,  or  other  substance,  to 
parget  or  cover  the  nudities  of  building. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  a  preparation  of  several  spc  ics  of 
gypsum  dug  near  Jtontmartre,  a  village  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Paris,  and  hence  the  name.  The  best  sort 
is  hard,  white,  sliining,  and  nmrl)ly,  being  known  by 
the  name  o{ plaster-tlone,  or pargit  of  Montmartre.  It 
will  neither  give  lire  with  steel,  no-  ferment  with  aqua- 
fortis ;  but  it  calcines  very  freely  and  readily  into  a 
fine  plaster,  the  use  of  which  in  building  and  casting 
statues  is  wel'  known. 

Plata  (Rio  De  La),  or  the  Plate  River, 


of  tlie  groat  rivers,  or  ratlier  a  gr.  at  estuary  of  South    Russian  government 


in  the  Ural  Mountains  in  Asiatic  Russia,  where  it  is 
now  raised'  in  very  considerable  quantities.  Platina 
is  of  a  white  color,  like  silver,  but  not  so  bright,  and 
has  no  taste  or  smell.  Its  hardness  is  intermediate 
between  copper  ant!  iron.  Its  sjiccilic  gravity  is  about 
21'!),  that  of  gold  being  l'J'3;  so  that  it  is  the  heaviest 
body  with  which  we  ate  acquainkd.  It  is  exceedingly 
ductile  and  malleable :  It  may  be  hammered  out  into 
very  thin  plates,  and  drawn  into  wires  not  exceeding 
l-l'.)40th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  these  properties  it 
is  probably  inforior  to  gold,  but  'c  seems  to  surpass  all 
the  other  metals.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  a  wire  of 
platina  0-078  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of  supporting 
a  weight  of  274-31  lbs.  avoirdupois  without  breaking. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  infusible  of  all  metals ;  but  pieces 
of  it  may  be  welded  together  without  difficulty  when 
heated  to  whiteness.  It  is  not  in  the  smallest  degree 
altered  by  the  .nction  of  air  or  water.— Tiiomson'.s 
Chemisby.  The  late  Dr.  AVollaston  discovered  a  meth- 
od effusing  platina,  and,  consequently,  of  rendering  it 
easily  available  in  tlie  arts.  The  Russians  have  with- 
in  these  few  years  issued  platina  coins  of  the  value  of 
3,  6,  and  20  silver  roubles.  Platina  first  began  to  bo 
an  object  of  attention  in  Russia  in  1824,  when  1  pood 
33  lbs.  were  collected.  In  183G  th3  produce  amounted 
to  138  poods  42  lbs.  In  1831  a  piece  of  native  platina 
%vas  discovered  at  Demidolf's  gold  mines,  weighing 
29  lbs.  25  7.o\l.— Official  Slatemenls  published  by  tha 


America,  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  formed  by  (he 
junction  of  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers,  in  lat.  34  ' 
S.,  long.  58°  30'  W.,  its  basin  lying  south  of  those  of 
the  Amazon,  Tocantins,  and  Son  Francisco,  and  its 
numerous  trilmtaries  draining  r.iost  part  of  the  Plata, 
Paraguay,  and  Uruguay  territories,  with  considerable 
portions  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil.  The  estuary  resulting 
from  their  union  is  200  miles  in  length  northwest  to 
5£ 


Plating.  The  art  of  covering  copper  and  other 
j  metals  with  silver  or  gold :  it  is  elTected  in  various 
I  ways.  Sometimes  the  silver  is  attached  to  and  rolled 
out  w  i  th  the  copper  by  pressure ;  sometimes  the  one  metal 
is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  upon  the  other ;  and 
of  late  manufacturers  have  availed  themselves  of  eleo- 
tro-chemical  decomposition  for  the  purpose. 
Flatl&tun  (so  called  firom  the  Spanish  word  platt. 


PLA 


1588 


POI 


lilotr,  on  account  of  iu  color),  a  metal  of  a  white 
color,  excecdiiiRly  ductile,  inalleal)li<,  and  difBcuIt  of 
fusion.  !t  is  llio  Iicavlest  i>ulistaiicc  liKow",  its  epe- 
cillc  gravity  Ijeing  Jlfi.  It  undergoes  no  climigcfroni 
air  or  moisture,  and  is  not  attaclied  l)y  any  of  tlic 
pure  acids;  it  is  dissolved  by  chlorine  and  nitro-niuri- 
aticacid,  and  is  oxydi/.ed  at  liigh  tenipcrnlures  by  pu'e 
potassa  and  lithia.  It  is  only  found  in  Soutli  America 
and  in  the  I'ralian  Mountains;  it  i:  usually  in  small 
grains  of  a  metallic  lustre,  assoeliili'it  or  combined  with 
palladium,  rhodium,  iridium,  and  osmium ;  and  with 
copper,  iron,  lead,  titanium,  chromium,  gold,  and  silver ; 
it  is  also  usually  mixed  with  alluvial  sand.  The  par- 
ticles are  seldom  so  large  as  a  small  pea,  but  sometimes 
lumps  have  been  found  of  the  size  of  a  hazebnut  to 
that  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  In  182C,  it  was  first  di;.overed 
in  a  rein  as'-ociated  with  gold  by  Buusslngnult,  i.i  the 
province  of  Antioquia,  in  South  America.  When  a 
perfectly  clean  surface  of  platinum  i:  pr  seiileil  to  a 
mixture  oflijdrogen  and  oxygen  gas,  it  has  the  extraor- 
dinary property  of  causing  them  to  coniliine  so  as  to 
form  water,  and  often  with  such  rapidity  as  to  render 
the  metal  red  hot:  ipongy  plnliiiiim,  as  it  is  usually 
called,  obtained  by  heating  the  ammuniu-muriate  of 
platinum,  is  most  eifective  in  producing  this  extr-  i- 
dinary  result;  and  a  jet  of  hydrogen  (lireclc'.'.  upon 
it  may  be  inflamed  by  the  metal  thus  ignited,  a  prop- 
erty which  has  been  applied  to  the  construction  of  con- 
venient instruments  for  procuring  u  light.  The  equiva- 
lent uf  platinum  is  about  98.  It  is  precipitated  from  its 
nitro-muriatic  solution  by  sal  uninioniac,  which  throws 
it  down  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  powder,  composed  of 
bii  hloride  of  platinum  and  sal  ammoniac. 

Platting,  slips  of  bast,  rane,  straw,  etc.,  woven  or 
plaited  for  making  into  hats,  etc. 

Plumbago.     See  Ulaok-lead. 

Pliunn,  the  fruit  of  the  Vrunus  ilomnlica,  aro  too 
well  known  to  rfi|uire  any  description.  They  were 
introduced  into  England  in  the  I.lth  century,  and  are 
cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  There  aro  said 
to  be  nearly  .100  varieties  of  plums. 

I'lum-lree  (/Vhiii/i  ilnmeslica).  The  Prunua  ilumes- 
tica  appears  to  be  more  widely  diffused  in  its  original 
locality  than  the  apricot.  It  is  iielievcd  to  be  indig- 
enous to  the  south  of  Itussiu,  (,'aucasus,  the  Hima- 
layas, and  to  many  ])arts  of  F.urope.  In  Knglaiul,  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  liiitcd  States,  it  is  sometimes 
found  in  hedges,  but  never  truly  wild.  This  species 
and  many  of  its  varieties  arc  cultivated  for  ornament, 
or  their  fruit,  in  all  the  tf  niprrato  countries  of  the 
habitable  globe.  Faulkner,  in  his  Kensington,  makes 
the  plum  a  native  of  Asia,  and  an  introduction  into 
Europe  of  the  Crueaderj.  (lough,  in  his  Hiitiik  J\- 
pugraji/ii/,  says  that  Lord  C'ronnvell  j.ilioduced  the 
Pcrdrigon  plum  into  Eiiglond  in  tne  tin  c  of  Henry 
Vtl.  The  introduction  of  this  tree  into  i.''C  I'nited 
States  dates  back  to  the  earliest  periods  of  their  t'ltle- 
mcnts.  Several  valualile  and  interesting  varieties 
have  originated  in  this  country,  among  which  the 
liolmar  or  Washington  plum  stands  conspicuous.  The 
parent  tree  is  said  to  have  been  purchased  in  a  market 
■  in  New  Yi  ri.,  aliout  the  end  of  the  last  century.  It 
,  remained  barren  for  several  years,  till,  during  a  violent 
storm  of  thunder,  the  entire  trunk  was  severed  lo  the 
earth  by  lightning,  and  destroyed.  The  part  remal.i- 
ing  in  the  ground  afterward  tlirew  up  several  vigorous 
shoota,  which  were  allowed  to  remain  and  linally  pro- 
duce fruit.  Trees  of  this  variety  were  first  sent  to  En- 
gland in  1K1!>,  to  Mr  Robert  llarclay,  of  Bury  Ilillj; 
and  several  "lher»  "vrc  oent  to  the  London  Horticul- 
tural Socii  ly  ill  l."*.'l,  ii\  Dr.  Ilosack,  of  New  York. 
Tfcc  wood  of  the  I'runiis  tlommlica  U  hard,  close,  coin- 
f»>t,  beautifully  \'ined,  and  susceptible  of  n  fine 
poiifh.  AVhoii  dry,  a  weighs  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds 
to  a  rul>ic  foot,  avcurding  to  the  nge  and  growth  of  the 
tree.  Its  texture  is  silkv,  and  when  washed  with 
lim«-w«ter  it«  color  w  kvi^hteued,  and  may  be  ]ire- 


served  by  the  application  of  varnish  or  wax.  Unfor- 
tunately for  this  tree,  its  wood  is  sometimes  rotten  at 
the  Iiiart.  In  France  and  Germany  it  is  much  sought 
after  liy  turners,  cabinet-makers,  and  the  manufactur- 
ers of  musical  instrumen's.  Theleovesare  eomelimes 
given  t»i  cattle  for  fornge.  The  use  of  the  fruit  in  do- 
mestic economy  for  dessert,  and  fur  making  tarts  and 
piiddin^  ,  is  well  known.  In  France  plums  aro  prin- 
cipally u.«cd  dr}'  or  preserved,  and  enter  extensively 
into  commet  -c.  The  kinds  usually  employed  for  pre- 
serving are  the  Hrignole,  the  prune  d'Ast,  ''>e  I'erdri- 
gon  blaiie,  the  prune  d'Agen,  and  the  l?te.  Cathi-ine. 
In  warm  countries  plums  or  prunes  ire  dried  on 
hurdles  by  solar  heat;  but  in  colil  climates  artilicial 
heat  is  employed;  the  fruit  being  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  an  oven  and  lo  that  of  the  sun  on  alternate  days. 
Table  prunes  are  prepared  from  the  larger  kinds  of 
plums,  as  the  green-gage,  and  Ste.  Catherine;  those 
employed  in  medicine  from  the  Ste.   '  Thi 

former  have  a  very  sweet  and  n.-rc-  ,  and 

the  latter  are  somewhat  austere.     F',  ilums, 

taken  In  moderate  quanlities,  are  rcga;  led  as  niiiritivc 
and  wholesome  ;  but  in  large  quar  es  they  readily 
disorder  the  bowels;  and  when  imn  they  still 

more  easily  excite  ill  effects.  The  mi  ...cinal  prunes 
are  employed  as  an  agreeable,  mild  laxative  for  chil- 
dren, and  are  given  during  convalescence  from  febrile 
and  iiiflammntory  disorders  in  adults. — Hit<iwxE'.s 
Trcea  of  A  merira. 

Plush  C^'r.  Panne,  Peluche;  Germ.  WolUnnmel, 
Vtiiteh)  is  a  textile  fabric,  having  a  sort  of  velvet  n  ip 
or  shag  upon  one  side.  It  is  composed  regularly  of  a 
woof  of  a  single  woolen  thread,  and  a  two-fold  warp, 
the  one  wool  of  Jwo  threads  twisted,  the  other  goal's 
or  camel's  hair.  Theie  arc  abo  several  sorts  of  plush 
made  entirely  of  worsted.  It  is  manufactured,  like 
velvet,  ill  a  loom  with  three  treadles;  two  of  wbicli 
scparaij  ond  depress  the  woolen  warp,  and  the  tbiid 
raises  the  hair-warp,  whereupon  the  weaver,  throwiiij.' 
the  shutllc,  passes  the  woof  between  the  woolen  riiil 
hair  warp ;  afterward,  laying  a  brass  broach  or  netdle 
under  that  of  the  hair,  he  cuts  it  with  a  knife  (sie 
F"ut.TiAs)  destined  for  that  use,  running  its  fine,  slen- 
der point  along  in  the  hollow  of  the  guide-broach,  Iu 
the  end  of  a  piece  extended  upon  a  table.  Thus  the 
surface  of  the  plush  receives  its  velvety  appearante. 
This  stuff  is  also  made  of  cotton  and  silk. 

Plymouth,  a  sea-port  of  England,  on  the  cast  side 
of  a  peninsula  betwe?n  the  rivers  Plym  and  Taniar,  at 
the  head  of  I'lyniouth  .Sound  ;  latitude  of  Mount  Wl.se, 
W  'i-r  N.,  long.  4°  10'  2"  W.  The  port  of  riymoutli 
is  distinguished  for  its  capacity  and  security;  it  is 
capable  of  containing  2b JO  sail,  mid  is  oi  .;  of  the  Ik  st 
harbors  in  the  world.  It  consists  of  three  divisions  t 
.Suttonport,  adjoining  the  town;  t'ntwiter,  formed  liy 
an  estuary  uf  the  I'lym  ;  and  the  Bay  of  Ilanioa?.c.  At 
the  mouth  of  these  harbors  the  great  bay  of  I'lynKJUIh 
Sound  forms  an  excellent  roadstead,  which  is  now  com- 
pletely secure  by  the  erection  of  the  breakwater  acru.*.s 
Ihe  entrance.  This  is  an  isolated  mole  at  the  enlriiiii c 
of  the  Sound  filOO  feet  long,  and  opposing  a  barrier  lo 
the  heavy  swell  of  the  Atlantic.  The  Sound  is  three 
miles  long  and  four  miles  wide,  and  forms  the  harbor 
of  Davenport  and  Plymouth. 

Point  net  is  a  style  o.  lace  formerly  much  in  voi;up, 
but  now  superseded  by  the  bobbin-net  manufacture.— 
.SVc  I.Aci;. 

Point*  of  the  Compass.  In  (leography  and 
Xaviyalion,  the  points  of  di-ision  of  the  circle  repre- 
senting the  horizon,  or  of  the  compass  card  over  w  Inch 
the  magnetic  needle  is  suspended.  A  diameter  of  llie 
eiiole  being  drawn  totepresert  the  meridian,  or  nurtli 
and  south  directions,  and  another  at  right  angles  lo  it 
lo  represent  the  directions  east  and  west,  the  circle  is 
thus  divided  into  four  quarters,  each  of  which  is  sub- 
divided into  eight  equal  parts,  so  that  the  whole  circle 
is  divided  into  thirty-two  equal  parts :  and  the  poinls 


/  / 


roL 


1580 


POL 


Ihc  east  siile 
ll  Tnniar,  nt 
llouiit  Wise, 
If  rij  irioiitli 
lurity ;  H  '* 
[>  of  "the  111  St 
Ic  divisi""'' 
1,  fornieil  \>y 
|nnioa/.e.  At 
Tf  I'lyiiiiiiitli 
lis  now  cum 
Iwater  acruss 
Ithecnlram'i' 
J  a  barrier  to 
lund  is  tlircc 
llie  liarlior 

Jichin  vopuP, 
Innfacturi'.— 

i)ijrapliy  »'"' 
[circle  rirf- 
J  over  wliicli 
linetcr  of  Oi" 
Ian,  or  uortU 
1  anp'.cs  lo  it 
I  tlie  '•irdc  '9 
Ihich  is  swi'- 
lwliolccin.lo 
la  tlio  poiiils 


of  division  aro  termed  the  point!  of  the  comiisia,  Kach  I  w<<KUn  eolonlata  who  toolc  refuge  on  that  inho8pital>lc 
has  a  particular  name,  i.idicatini;  its  plaeu  with  rtifor.  upot ;  but  It  was  not  till  more  than  a  century  after  this 
encolothcfourprincipalorcorJiiio/jwmfj/nainely,  ihu    that  Kric  Uaniln.  dlscovcreU  the  southern  part  of  Old 


north,  south,  east,  and  west  points.— •!(<;«  C'omi'Ahh, 

Folai'  Sea,  North.     Wo  are  now  alilo  to  draw 
with  nearly  geographical  accuracy  the  boundaries  of 
tho  North  Tolar  Sea.     A  very  largo  portion  of  lliu 
northern  shores  of  Ii^uropo,  Asia,  anU  America,  wliicli 
circumscribe  it,  have  been  visited,  aud  the  position  of 
moat  of  their  bays,  headlands,  and  rivers,  geographic, 
ally  ascertained.     By  casting  our  oyo  over  tho  North 
Polar  chart,  it  will  be  seen  that  tlie  I'olar  Hea  of  that 
hemispheio  is  an  immense  circular  basin,  which  i'oin> 
niunicates  with  the  two  great  oceans  of  tlio  world— tho 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacilic  —  by  two  channels,  the  one 
separating  /Vmcrica  from  Europe,  and  tho  uthoi-  Amer- 
ica from  Asia.     It  will  bo  seen  that  few  points  jf  tho 
coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  which  occupy  a  full  htlf  of 
the  circumscribing  circle,  extend  much  beyond  tlio  70th 
parallel  of  latitude;  and  all  these  points  liavo  liecn 
passed  by  water,  though  at  dinercnl  points  and  by  dif- 
ferent persons,  with  the  single  exception  of  tho  t'upo 
Covcro  Vastochnoi,  which  on  .he  charts  is  made  to 
extend  to  the  latitude  7Ji°.     Tho  northern  coost  of 
America,  with  Old  Groonlunil,  and  the  two  diannuls 
above  mentioned,  complete  tli'j  circle,  America  cxtcnil- 
ing  about  80'  of  longitude,  or  just  two  ninths  of  the 
ivholo  circle;  and  of  this  portion  the  whole  ooast  has 
now  been  ascerlainod,  with  tin.'  esception  of  thot  part 
which  lies  between  (Jape  Turiiagaiu  of  Franklin,  und 
the  land  nt  the  bottom  of  Prince  liegcnt's  Inlet,  wliltll 
the  gentlemen  cf  the  Iluilson's  Uay  Company  are  now 
(1838)  exploring.     This  being  ai.compli  lied,  wu  sliull 
have  the  whole  lino  of  the  nortliern  coust  of  Ameriiu 
completed.      We  may,  therefore,  slate  that  dm  aver- 
age of  the  degree  of  lalihide  of  Ihls  co^nt  is  about  Ilin 
sami'  lis,  or  rather 'iKcr  than,  that  of  Kiirope  nud  Asia, 
and  tho  extent  of  tho  North  Polar  Stu  miiy  be  (■on»iil- 
ered  .is  about  210!)  geographical  miles  In  dlamcinr,  or 
7200  in  circumference,     'the  interior  or  central  parts 
of  this  sea  arc  very  little  known.     Several  IsIlmmIs  are 
scattered  over  its  southern  exironillles,  tlie  largeit  of 
which  is  Ulil  dreenland,  wliose  northern  limit  lias  nut 
yet  been  parsed;    the  others  are,  Spllzliergen,  Novii 
Zembia,  the  islands  of  I.iaknov,  or,  as  simio  have  been 
jileascd  to  call  them.  New  Siberia  ;  the  North  <Jeorglaii 
Islands  of  Parry,  and  (hose  which  foi-m  tlio  western 


(irii'iiland,  and  there  aro  grounds  for  beliiving  that  in 
the  year  UH)I  somo  of  these  colonists  discovered  New- 
fuuiiillond  und  tho  coast  of  Labrador. 

Of  tho  Huuth  Polar  .Sea  little  or  nothing  may  be  said 
tu  bo  known.  (Japlain  Cook,  in  the  years  1773  and 
I  (7I|  crossed  the  antarctic  circle  in  Jii-e  places  only;  in 
longlluilii  iWi"  east,  where  he  advanced  to  latitude 
117  i",  and  met  with  Holds  and  detached  pieces  of  ice  ; 
In  longitudes  101'  and  110°  west,  between  which  he 
procttodod  to  latitude  71°  10'  south,  the  farthest ;  rog- 
resi  mado  by  him  toward  the  South  Pole,  where  hn 
was  stopped,  or  ut  least  deemed  it  prudent  to  return, 
on  account  of  Iho  Holds  and  mountains  of  ice  which 
wore  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  sea ;  and  in  lon- 
gitudes lliti  and  118"  west,  between  which  he  descend- 
ed lo  latitude  (1H°,  and  saw  many  Hoating  ice  islands. 
'1  hora  are,  therefore,  still  remaining  about  340  degrees 
of  longitude  ill  which  tho  antarctic  circle  lias  not  been 
croKned,  and  full  half  the  cireuniference  of  the  globe 
wlilcli  has  nut  been  visited  lower  to  the  southward  than 
tlio  parullol  of  00°  south  latitude. 

Mr.  Weddell,  a  master  in  the  navy,  proceeded  some 
tliroo  degrees  farther  south  than  Cook ;  and  since  that, 
two  ships  of  Mr,  Enderby  discovered  a  long  tract  of 
land,  tho  extent  of  which  they  did  not  determine. 

'I'lioro  was  little  doubt  of  tho  existence  of  high  land 
III  tho  Mouth  Pular  Sea,  though  Cook  discovered  none 
boyuiid  tho  Siiuthcrn  'I  hule,  or  Sandwich  Land,  on  the 
parallel  of  00".  Without  high,  precipitous  land,  thotse 
large  Icebergs  which  he  met  with  lloating  among  the 
Holds  of  ico  could  not  have  I  ecn  formed  ;  the  hummncks 
of  lee,  uccusloiieil  by  the  agitation  of  the  sea,  and  the 
meeting  of  Uwjirldt  or  Jluwt  in  opposite  directions,  sel- 
dom rliio  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  above 
tho  surface.  'I'lic  Itussians,  Indeed,  on  a  recent  voyage 
of  discovery,  are  said  lo  have  fallen  in  with  many  isl- 
ands about  the  "blh  parallel  of  latitude.  They  also 
elrcuiiiiiavlgated  the  Sandwich  Land,  which  was  left 
undetermined  by  Cook,  and  conjectureil  that  it  might 
111!  tt  p.rt  of  the  greot  .Southern  Continent,  which  occu- 
pic'  DO  Kiiieh  altenllon  of  the  geographers  and  philos- 
iiphcrs  of  the  last  century.  This  idea  was  renewed  by 
till',  recent  discovery  of  a  very  considerable  extent  of 
laud  III  llio  Boutliwurd  of  Cape  Horn,  in  lotitude  G3°, 


lauds  of  llaffin's  Hay,  to  which  may  be  u  uleil  tlio  Iloo- 1  and  seen  extending  from  longitude  55°  to  65°  west, 


tliia  I'elix  of  Koss,  wiiicli  there  is  no  doubt  is  an  Isl- 
and. Uesidcs  these,  there  are  a  number  of  small  i.llu- 
vial  islands,  formed  at  Iho  mouths  of  the  several  rivers 
of  tho  two  continents;  but  whether  any,  or  what  num- 
ber of  isla.uls  may  exist  nearer  to  the  Pole,  wo  iiiiihI 
of  course  remain  ignorant  till  tho  Polar  Sea  has  been 
further  explored. 

For  the  Utile  which  is  known  of  this  sea,  wo  aro  In- 
debted to  that  spirit  of  discovery  whi^li  showed  ilself 
immediately  after  a  passage  to  the  Kast  liuites  had 
been  elfected  round  the  Cape  of  liuod  Hope;  not  so 
nuich,  it  Is  Inic,  for  the  sake  of  gecgruplilcul  discovery 
as  that  of  shortening  the  passage  by  sea  to  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  world.  It  was  obvious  that  if  a  shin  could 
proceed  from  tho  Atlantic  to  the  Pucltie  on  a  great  eli- 
de of  the  sphere,  or  nearly  so,  the  distance,  com|i.ared 
with  tho  circuitous  passage  round  Noullicrii  Africa  <>i 
Southern  America,  would  be  prodi(!ioiisly  shortened, 
The  voyage  of  Columbus  had  that  object;  but  it  was 
soon  discovered  that,  from  the  Sirailt  of  Magilliuiiin 
to  tlie  G'-iIf  of  St.  Lawrence  there  was  itn  iiiiiiilcriiipl- 
ed  continuity  of  land.      Of  the  northern  regions  the 


As  the  ■.'astern  cclreuilty  had  not  been  seen,  and  the 
Minding  of  the  coast  was  to  northeast,  it  was  conjec- 
ture.! that  ll  might  unite  with  the  Southern  Thuli  of 
look,  and  form  the  loiig-sought-for  Southern  Conti- 
nent. It  Is  said,  however,  that  the  Kussians  hove  also 
clieumiiavigateil  llii«  land,  und  that  it  i",  composed  of 
a  great  duster  of  Islands. 

Till'  land  III  question  has  been  called  South  Shetland, 
but  it  li  II"  new  discovery.  In  the  account  of  the  voy- 
age of  III''  II  rr  M}»  of  IMIerd'im,  under  the  command 
of  ilai'oli  Malm  and  Simon  do  Cordcs,  to  the  South 
Scon,  ill  the  year  Killli,  it  is  staled  that,  on  approoching 
the  Hirolt  of  Magclliaeiis.  the  yacht  commanded  by 
|)|rk  Ulierrit/,  was  separated  from  all  the  other  ships, 
and  was  curried  bv  tempesU.ous  weather  to  the  south 
of  the  Strait,  lo  01  south  latitude,  where  they  discov- 
ered ll  lil»lli  loiiiitry,  with  mountains,  which  were  cov- 
ered with  snow,  like  the  land  of  Norway.  This  land 
of  (ilierrit/.  wan  marked  on  some  of  the  old  charts,  but 
discoiillniied  on  thouMre  modern  onc.«.  from  the  uneer- 
luliily  of  Us  position  with  regard  lo  longitude.  There 
mil  be  no  doubt  of  Its  Identity  with  the  modem  South 


iufonr.ation  obtained  has  been  scanty  and  dUcoui'ttgllig  |  .Slielluiid.  /I  uniwend  lo  the  ile.<cri|ition  of  the  mount- 
for  such  an  enterprise.  One  of  the  Scaiidlnavlaii  pi-  uliis  of  Norway,  ™vcred  with  snow,  and  is  wholly  bar- 
rates  had,  indeed,  been  driven  bv  stress  of  weather,  as  \  rin,  having  neither  tree  nor  shrub  of  any  kind.     It  is 

early  as  the  middle  of  the  Oth  centurv,  upon  an  Island  j  u 'cessury  (o  say  that  It  is  uninhabited,  there  bein;; 

to  the  northwest,  to  which,  from  its  upiiearunee,  he  ;  no  such  people  In  tho  southern  hemisphere  as  the  .s- 
gavo  the  name  of  Snowland,  which  was  afurwanl  i  nuluiaux  ;  and  ll  may  be  remarked,  that  no  humati  bo- 
changed  to  that  of  Icelond,  by  tho  leader  ■)!  tho  Nor-  '  liigs  nro  found  in  Ihu  Southern  Ocean  below  the  &otL 


m 


POL 


1540 


POM 


parallel  of  latitude,  and  none  beyond  the  SOtli,  except  i 
on  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  p'uego.  On  tlio  shores, 
t!io  seals  and  sca-Iioraes,  wliicli  had  remained  from  the  ' 
Creation  unili«tiirbed,  were  so  numerous,  that  on  the 
first  notice  of  the  rediscovery,  a  whole  fleet  of  vessels 
from  Kngland  and  North  America  crowded  thither  on 
speculation;  hut  tho  loss  of  several  from  tempestuous 
weather,  and  a  dangerous  navigation,  and  tho  destruc- 
tion and  alarm  of  the  objects  of  their  cupidity,  will 
probably  cause  it,  for  some  time  at  least,  to  remain  as 
niuch  a  lanil  of  desolation  as  it  had  liecn  before. 

For  an  account  of  Polar  Sea  expeditions,  see  Arctic 
OcKAN.  Refer  to  pAimy's  Vrymjea;  Fhanki.in's  »- 
peditiont,  etc. ;  Amirkaii  Journal  nf  Science,  xvi,  121; 
Wetlminster  Rerieu\  xxxi.  '273 ;  A  rneriam  Quarterly  He- 
view,  iv.  215 ;  Blackwood's  .)fagazme,  ii.  363,  iv,  157 ; 
Kclerlic  Mriffdzine,  xii.  43,  xx.  (iO,  xix,  411 ;  Kdinlurijh 
Kerirv,  xlviii.  423,  Ixi.  223,  Ixiii.  161 ;  Qmrterlij  Re- 
ririi',  xxviii.  372,  xxxvii.  623,  xxxviil.  335,  Ivi.  151, 
Ixvi.  218;  North  IMtish  Reriew,  xvi.  23(!,  xxiv.  193, 
275,  453,  xxxi.  291,  xxxvi.  46,  241;  Living  Age,  xxv. 
18,  xxvi.  672,  XX.  289;  FnASEit'.s  Magazine,  xxxviii. 
(i03  ;  Dn  Bow's  Rericio,  xiii.  1. 

Policy  of  Insuranoe,  or  Asauranoe,  of  ships, 
ia  a  contract  or  convention  liy  whicli  a  person  talies 
upon  himself  the  risits  of  a  sea-voyage,  obliging  him- 
self to  make  good,  in  part  or  in  whole,  tlie  losses  and 
damages  that  may  befall  tho  vessel,  its  equipage,  tack- 
le, victualing,  lading,  etc.,  either  from  tempests,  ship- 
wrecks, pirates,  fire,  war,  reprisals,  in  consideration  of 
a  certain  sum,  more  or  less  according  to  the  risk ;  which 
sum  is  paid  down  to  tho  assurer  by  the  assuree  upon 
his  signing  the  policy. — See  IssrRANCK. 

Polynesia  ("  many  islands")  inclndes  the  multi- 
tude of  islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
comprehends  a  lx;lt  chiefly  within  30°  on  each  side  of 
tho  equator,  and  from  longitude  135°  K.  to  l.'!5°  W. 
Including  New  Zealand,  the  boundary  extends  soulli 
of  the  equator  to  lat.  47"  S.  The  islands  arc  distrib- 
uted into  numerouii  groups,  and  these  groups,  of  an 
elongated  form,  have  a  general  direction  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  are  com])Osed  of  one  or  more 
larger  islands,  and  numerous  smaller  ones.  The  prin- 
cipal groups  to  the  north  of  the  equator  are  tho  Pc- 
Icw,  Ladronc,  or  Marianc,  Caroli-'C,  Kadack,  Marshall, 
Gilbert,  and  Sandwich  Islands,  louth  of  the  equator 
are  New  Ireland,  Now  Heurides,  jw  Uritain,  Fcejeo, 
Friendly,  Navigator's,  Solomon's,  .Society,  Mendana  or 
Marquesas,  I,ow  Archipelago,  Cook's,  Austral,  and otli- 
cr  minor  groups,'be8idc8  numerous  detached  islands,  as 
Faster  and  Pitcairn  islands.  With  the  exception  of 
Hawaii,  the  largest  island  of  Polynesia,  tho  most  con- 
siderable of  the  others  range  from  20  to  CO  and  100 
miles  in  circ'umforence,  while  many  do  not  exceed  a 
mile  or  two  in  length.  These  islands  are  all,  more  or 
less,  of  coral  formation ;  tho  Low  Archipelago,  Society 
Islands,  Marshall,  and  Carolines,  presenting  the  regular 
atoll  foun,  with  circular  reefs  and  lagoons.  The  Friend- 
ly, New  Hebrides,  Solonmn'a,  and  Sandwich  Islands, 
pr<;sent  friiiged  reefs,  and  have  active  volcanoes ;  sum- 
mits of  niomitains  varying  from  2000  to  13,000  feet.  In 
the  lower  coial  islands  tho  elevations  do  not  exceed 
50t)  'oet.  lu  the  atoll  coral  islands,  Darwin  has  sup- 
posed that  a  depression  of  surface  is  tailing  place,  and 
tliat  t^  volcanic  islands  are  cither  stationary  or  ris- 
ing. Jroit)  the  great  predominance  of  ocean,  the  tem- 
perature of  Polynesia  is  comparatively  moderate,  tlie 
climate  delightful  unit  salubrious.  Mean  annual  tem- 
periure  of  Sandwich  Islands  77":  temperature  of  So- 
ciety Islands,  70'  to  80°,  am!  rarely  90",  Fahrenheit. 
Tlie  southeast  tropical  winds  generally  prevail,  but 
northwest  and  southwest  winds  arc  not  uncommon. 
Hurricanes  art  rare,  and  earthquakes  slight  and  not  of 
frequent  occurri.nce.  Tho  refreshing  coolness  of  the 
trade-winds,  and  a  regular  but  not  excessive  suppl;  ■>{ 
moisture,  are  favorable  to  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  Soil 
in  the  valleys  and  la  tho  river  courses  a  rich  volcanic 


mould ;  on  tho  mountains  loss  fertile.  Both  vogetablc 
and  animal  productions  are  limited  as  to  number  of 
species.  In  the  islands  of  the  middle  and  eastern  di- 
visions not  more  than  600  species  of  plants  arc  found. 
This  number  increa-es  toward  tho  west  and  northwest. 
Tho  bread-fruit,  puniliur  to  this  region,  the  cocoa,  ba- 
nana, plantain,  banyan,  sugar-cane,  yam,  and  cotton- 
plant,  paper-mulberry,  and  a  species  of  chestnut,  aro 
indigenous.  Other  trees  and  plants  of  tropical  climates 
have  been  introduce<i  and  flourish ;  and  arrow-root, 
sweet  potatoes,  the  common  potato,  and  maize,  are  now 
reared  abundantly.  There  are  several  timber  trees, 
especially  sandal-wood,  a  few  spices,  and  ornamental 
flowers,  which,  however,  have  little  odor  or  decided 
color.  Tho  islands  were  all  remarkably  deficient  in 
animals,  thus  indicating  their  isolated  and  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  Turtles  resort  in  great  numbers 
to  many  localities,  and  fish  are  plentiful  on  the  coasts. 
Several  species  of  whales,  the  cachalot  or  spetm  w  hale. 
Cape  whale,  humpback,  and  blnckftsh,  are  peculiar  to 
tho  foits  of  the  Pacific,  and  their  capture  has  been  tho 
chief  iiu'.ucement  for  sliips  visiting  these  regions.  O.xen 
have  been  introduced  from  New  South  AVales,  and  thrive 
well;  and  horses  from  South  America.  Tho  natives 
of  Polynesia  are  in  general  a  well-formed,  tall,  active, 
and  intelligent  people.  There  arc  two  distinct  races, 
one  apparently  of  Malay  origin,  liy  far  the  most  nu- 
merous and  intellectual,  and  spread  over  all  Central 
and  Eastern  Polynesia,  and  speaking  one  common  laii- 
guagc,  though  varying  in  dialects.  The  other  a  negro 
or  Papuan  race,  with  negro  features  and  color,  and 
crisped  niop-liko  hair,  growing  in  separate  tufts,  spcnl;- 
ing  »  distinct  language,  and  exhibiting  an  intellect  of 
an  inferior  grade,  probably  the  first  settlers  of  the  isl- 
ands, and  now  confined  to  the  western  part  of  Polynesia, 
and  inhaliiting  partly  or  -wholly  New  (iuinca.  New 
Uritain,  New  Ireland,  the  Solomon  Islands,  New  Cal- 
edonia, New  Hebrides,  and  part  of  the  I.adrone  Isl- 
ands. Some  of  tho  western  islands,  as  the  Ladronts, 
were  discovered  by  Magelhaens  in  1 521 ,  the  Marquesas 
by  Mendana  in  1505 ;  but  it  was  not  till  1707  that  AA'al- 
lis,  and  subsequently  Cook,  explored  and  described  tho 
leading  islands  of  this  region.  Soon  after  this,  nii- 
sionarics  began  to  settle  in  the  islands,  and  after  many 
discouragements  at  last  have  succeeded  in  promotiii;; 
Christianity  and  civilization  in  some  of  the  princi- 
pal islands;  though  cannibalism  and  savage  ferocity 
still  prevail  In  the  majority.  The  ))opulation  of  these 
islands  varies  continually  from  wars,  migiations,  and 
occasional  pestilence.  Ta'.iiti  and  some  others,  whui 
first  discovered,  were  conjectured  to  be  greatly  more 
populous  than  at  present,  but  no  proper  data  exist  fi  r 
afl"ording  even  an  approximation  to  the  real  niimbc  r> 
Probably  the  population  of  tho  whole  of  Polynr-i;i 
does  not  exceed  one  million  or  one  million  and  a  half. 
— Haki'bii'.s  (Jazelleer. 

Pomegranate  ((ier.  Cranatiipfd ;  Fr.  i:renade.<; 
It.  ijranati,  Melagrani ;  .Sp.  Cranadati),  the  fruit  of  the 
l)omegranate-trcc  (^I'unica  granatum).  This  tree,  whiili 
grows  to  tho  height  of  15  or  20  feet,  appears  to  1h'  a 
native  of  Persia,  whence  it  has  been  conveyed,  on  tlic 
one  side,  to  Southern  Europe,  and  on  the  other  (o  the 
tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and  eventually  to  the  New  World. 
Tho  fruit  is  a  pulpy,  many-seeded  berry,  the  size  of  an 
orange,  covered  with  a  thick,  brown,  coriaceous  riiiil. 
'I  he  pulp  has  a  reddish  color,  and  a  pleasant  sub-acid 
taste.  Tho  value  of  the  fruit  depends  on  the  sniall- 
ncss  of  tho  seed  and  tho  largeness  of  tho  pulp.  Tlic 
finest,  called  by  tho  Persians  ladnnn,  or  seedless,  is 
imported  into  India  from  Cabul  and  Candahar,  where 
the  poniegrauato  grows  in  perfection.  The  tree  Ihrivos 
all  the  way  to  the  e(iuator ;  but  within  the  tropics  tlic 
fruit  is  hardly  fit  for  use.  The  pomegranates  brouglit 
to  market  from  tho  south  of  Europe  and  the  West  In- 
dies aro  very  inferior  to  those  of  Persia. 

Tho  Pitnica  granalum  is  a  tree,  in  magnitude  and 
ligneous  character,  bearing  oonsiderahlc  resemblance 


PON 


1641 


POP 


tabic 

er  of 

:ndi- 

ound. 

iwcst. 

la,  ba- 

lotton- 

ul,  uro 

iniatcs 

vv-root, 

ire  now 

r  trees, 

imcntttl 

(IccUlcd 

cient  in 

iiiinibcrs 
c  coasts. 
^1  whale, 
;culiar  to 
been  tho 
LB.    Oxen 
mil  tlirivo 
lU  natives 
,U,  active, 
,nct  races, 
most  lui- 
lU  Central 
mnion  lan- 
icr  a  ni-gro 
color,  unil 
ufls,  fipcal;- 
intcllect  <il' 
9  of  the  i*l- 
fPolyncsin, 
uinea,  Kiw 
l9,  >'cw  Oal- 
l.aiJronc  Isl- 
jic  Ladroncs, 
„  Marquesas 
lOTtbatAVal- 
.,. scribed  tlw 
[ci-  this,  mi- 
after  many 
,  promoting 
the  v'ii«'- 
•ogc  ferocily 
Ition  »f  the?i; 
.aliiins,  ami 
itlicrs,  wbtn 
„rcatly  more 
lata  exist  fir 
•al  nunil»r> 
,f  l'olynr>!;i 
ami  a  huh'- 

|r.  Crenadef; 
,  fruit  of  llie 
Is  tree,  whiili 
lears  to  !»'  a 
leyed,  on  tlw 
1  otlier  to  tlic 
iKcwAVorU. 
llie  siio  of  an 
laceous  rinil. 
[ant  suli-uci'l 
,.1  tlic  EUiall- 
kpulp.     'I''"- 
i  scedloss,  i^ 
llahar,  vli'f'^' 
Ictrcetlirivos 
lie  tropics  tlie 
latcs  broupl't 
^lie  West  In- 

Lgnitude  anJ 
1  resemblance 


to  tho  common  hawthorn.  In  a  wild  state  it  forms  a 
thorny  bush;  but  when  cultivated  in  gardens  and  in 
plantations,  under  favorable  circunistan'-cs,  it  often  at- 
tains a  height  of  16  or  20  feet. 

Tho  I'ltnica  granatum  is  indigenous  to  Harl>ary,  I'er- 
fiia,  Japan,  and  various  parts  of  Asia;  and  has  long 
been  naturalized  in  tho  south  of  Europe,  tho  'West  In- 
dies, Mexico,  and  in  South  Aracrh'a.     In  tho  Hima- 
layas, Mr.  Roylo  informs  us  that  the  pomegranntn 
grows  wild,  and  also  tliat  it  is  planted  near  villages. 
It  forms  (luitc  n  wood  in  Slazanderan,  whence  tho  drieil 
seeds  are  exported  for  medical  use.    Tho  famous  seed- 
losa  pomegranates  are  grown  in  tho  rich  gardens  lying 
under  the  snowy  hilU  near  tho  Kivor  Caubul.     Thev 
are  also  dcsorihed  as  delicious  about  lladgiabad,  and 
throughont  I'orsia.     "  Though  grown  in  most  parts  of 
India,"  says  iMr.  Koyle,  "largo  quantities,  of  superior 
(luality,  are  yearly  brought  down  by  the  northern  iner- 
chants  from  Caubul,  C'ashnieru,  and  lioodurwar."    The 
pomegranate-tree,  which  partakes  of  tlio  antiquity  of 
tho  vine,  tho  fig,  and  tho  olive — and  which,  in  point  of 
utility,  is  numbered  with  tho  grain-bearing  plants,  and 
with  honey,  all  constituting  tho  principal  food  of  the 
Kastern  notions,  in  tho  early  stages  of  civilization- 
must  possess  no  small  degree  of  historical  interest.     It 
is  mentioned  by  Thcophrastus  under  the  name  of  I'oa; 
the  Phoenicians  called  it  aidi;  the  (ireeks  cijtinos;  and 
tho  Roninj\s,  according  to  IMiny,  milm jmnica. 

l1io  general  dilTusion  of  tho  pomegranate  through- 
out tho  climates  suited  to  its  growtli,  implies  that  it 
possesses  highly  valuablo  properties.  In  hot  coun- 
tries its  utility  is  incontestable ;  for  its  juice  is  most 
grateful  to  tho  palate,  and  assuages  thirst  in  a  degree 
quite  peculiar  to  it,  from  its  pleasant  acid — an  acid  so 
soft  that  it  may,  in  truth,  be  said  to  bo  "full  of  melt- 
ing sweetness,"  as  Jlooro  expresses  himself.  The  pulp, 
however,  which  incloses  the  seeds,  is  sometimes  acid, 
sonu-'times  sweet;  and  in  some  cases  vinous,  astrin- 
gent, and  always  refreshing.  A  sirup  is  made  from 
the  pulp  by  tho  druggists,  as  well  as  from  the  dried 
llower.s,  which  is  employed  as  m\  astringent  and  deter- 
gent. The  rind  of  the  fruit,  on  account  of  its  astrin- 
gent properties,  is  sometimes  employed  in  materia  med- 
tcfi,  as  well  as  in  the  veterinary  art.  It  has  also  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  galls,  in  tho  manufacture  of 
black  ink,  and  is  said  to  be  still  employed  in  some 
parts  of  Germany  in  dyeing  leather  red,  in  imitation 
of  morocco.  In  tho  Himalayas,  Mr.  Itoylo  informs  us, 
the  rind  of  the  fruit,  called  itaspcd,  "  being  very  astrin- 
gent, is  used  in  medicine,  as  well  as  in  dyeing.  The 
employment  by  the  natives  of  India  of  tho  bark  of 
the  root  for  the  expulsion  of  the  tape-worm,  being  now 
well  known,  since  tho  subject  was  communicated  by 
Drs.  Hamilton  and  I'loming,  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  tho  oblivion  into  which  even  a  valuable  medicine 
may  fall,  as  this  property  was  well  known  to  Hioscori- 
des."  Lord  llacon  reconunends  the  juice  of  pomegran- 
ates as  good  for  liver  complaints ;  and  Dr.  Woodv'iUe 
.■iays  it  is  preferable  to  that  of  oranges  in  cases  of  fever. 
Trom  tho  flowers,  with  the  addition  of  alum,  there  moy 
lie  obtained  a  tine  red  ink.  The  flowers,  ..Iso,  were  fnr- 
merly  used  to  dyo  cloth  a  light  red. — lliioWNlt's  Trees 
of  A inerlca, 
Pouce.    -See  ToKTO  Rico. 

Pondicheny.  The  name  of  Pondicherry  is  made 
to  include  all  the  French  posses.sions  in  Indi.n,  because 
it  is  the  most  considerable  of  ihcm.  It  is  situateil  on 
tho  Coromandel  coast  of  Illndostan,  in  latitude  U^  57' 
\.  Its  population  in  ISHti  was  .^2,1'.'T,  of  whom  I'llfi'i 
were  Kuropcans.  The  French  jiossessions  in  India 
rompriso  also  Chandarnagore,  Karikal,  in  the  Climat- 
ic; Mah6,  in  Malibar;  Vanaon,  in  Orissa;  with  the 
territory  attached  to  each.  These  have  a  total  popu- 
lation of  lOG.OOO,  of  whom  1000  aro  whites.  Tho  prml- 
ncts  are  rice,  grain,  cocoa-initB,  betel,  indigo,  tobacco, 
and  cotton.  Tho  annual  value  of  the  imports  is  about 
$373,000,  and  of  tho  exports  about  $1,200,000,     Tlie 


trade,  nearly  all  being  at  Pondicherry,  is  with  the  Cor- 
omanilel  coast,  Islo  of  Ilourbon,  tho  Mauritius,  und 
Senegal.  Pondicherry  would  have  been  a  eommeriial 
point  of  great  magnitude  but  for  tho  changes  of  owner- 
ship, occasioned  by  tho  frequent  wars  of  Franco  and 
I'ngland.  The  law  of  tho  17th  May,  1826,  provides 
that  the  distinction  between  tho  Krcneh  and  foreign 
factories  In  India  shall  be  suppressed  in  the  tariff,  ami 
that  merchandise  from  any  of  these  settlements  shall 
pay  no  other  duties  than  arc  imposed  on  th«  same  ar- 
ticles brought  from  tho  Krench  sottleinonts. 

Poplar  (Oer.  I'appil,  I'appclliiitiin ;  Du.  I'apelitr , 
Fr.  I'eiijilir;  It.  Pioppa;  Sp.  .l/fini(.;  I.at.  /'o/)i(fcs) 
Of  the  poplar  (J'opulus  of  botanistK)  lliirc  are  about  l.'> 
species  described.  In  most  favorable  i.\tuations  the 
white  poplar  grows  with  great  rapidity,  Boinctinies 
sending  forth  shoots  Ifl  feet  long  in  a  single  season. 
Tho  wood  is  soft,  and  not  very  durable  uidess  kept 
dry  ;  but  it  is  light,  not  apt  either  to  swell  or  shriidi, 
and  easily  wrought.  The  I.ombardy  poplar  gro«s 
rapidly,  and  shoots  in  a  complete  .-liiie  to  a  great 
height;  its  timber  does  not  differ  ina'."rially  from  that 
of  tho  white  poplar.  It  is  very  light,  and  is  therefore 
well  adapted  for  the  manufacfine  of  packing-cases. 
Xono  of  the  species  is  lit  for  large  tiinliers, — TitKii- 
(iiii.li's  Priiiriph;i  nf  Carpentry ;  Veijilabh  Suhatancu, 
f.ibr(ir>f  of  f^nlerlainwf/  Kiioirlcdtje. 

Population.  It  would  be  quite  inconsistent  with 
the  objects  and  limils  of  this  work  to  attempt  giving 
in  this  place  any  explanation  of  tho  laws  which  regu- 
late the  progress  of  population.  However,  as  it  is  fre- 
(pienlly  of  importance  In  commercial  questions,  and  in 
others  affecting  commorrlnl  interests,  to  be  able  to  com- 
pare tho  consumption  uf  an  article  with  the  population, 
we  believe  we  shall  gratify  our  readers  l>y  laying  be- 
fore them  tho  following  Taldc,  showing  tho  compara- 
tive population  of  tho  principal  commercial  countries 
of  the  world : 


CountrlM. 

Povnlatlon. 

Austrian  Empire,  lS4ii.. 
Uritlsh  EiuDlre. 

-Viii'tvift 

llmipary 

IxiiTilinnlv  ntid  Venice. . 

Kiiplftml  mid  Wrtles. . , , 

a.1.0(13.WW 

^.Hi■<^.■K•i 

4,S03,5i;W 

iT.«o,'.,8';i 

!i,H7»,'iHt 

iHtands  In  llrftl^l)  seas.. 

Ireland 

t'olonios. .  r>,-*"-i4,4rT 

North  Auiericii 

West  inditJS     

I4.V,il(! 
0,515, 71.4 

D,1S1,2T0 
(IO(»,S.S.! 

»11,40 

4H!l,0Oll 

l,r),M,,1.MI 

411,10:! 

:!5,4iH».4S0 
Colonies,  1S41,  '^^'.>,49fl 

A.'ia 

Africa  and  Algeria 

West  Indies 

Prussia   1S40 

,  vii:. : 
1(17,790 
a7-2,4C,'.> 
25.-.,lWl> 

N.  and  S.  Amer'.ca 

■iO,iW 

io,iiai,is7 

Protestants 

Itiisslan  Kmpire,  IS-ID... 
t:nUca  Htatcs,  lS5t 

!),S,1''>,.'>S8 
6,rt4),'>!''J 

.tcvf  8 

flll,00S,3t.') 

f-airopenn  Itussia 

.Siberia 

TronB-Cuncoslun 

214,807 

M.n!;i,sino 

2,0.^7,0011 

'2,O.H,I«IO 

01,0(10 

Poland 

Finland 

2:1,(!74,7(I0 
White 

4,8.')7,TnO 

i,4i'.>,Bir. 

10,666,802 

418,57:J 

Slave  colored 

4,r)19,5-'t> 

•Jatliollca 

I  roteatants 

3,'.'10.931 

.1,(160.694 

l,181.2ie 

S9.2SS 

4,!»xono 

ri,18(MMK) 

now  0  to  r.OOi'.uoO 

•2,!!'.C,41iT 

Denmark  v«'Iier 

Denmark  1845 

1,40T,T4T 

835,.7I» 

Colonies 

118.491 

ii 


rountrlM 

KK>1" 

(irepce  

lUiiiburK 

liolland,  1849 

Moxlco,  I83T 

I'apal  Ht>tcs,IS43 

I'ortugal,  1841 

• 
Sudlnla,  1838 

Hpain,  18u3 

Sweden  &  Norwtjr,  1840. 

Turkey 

Two  SIcllIoi,  1S45 

l,hlua 

rnLoNlRH, 

llrltJHli  roasrsstonR, 

iDdIca 

Canada,  1848 

Capo  of  Ciofxl  Hope  .... 

Auntralin.  1848 

New  Hoiith  Wales 

Wealcm,  1848 

Van  Dienicn's  Land,  18fi0 

S.iiilh,  1841 

.lanialcn,  18S0 

»:eylon,  184.1 

.Mauritius,  184(1 

French  russcssions. 

llaytl 

HpaniKh  Possessions. 

i;uba,  1H.W 

Dutch  Possussioni'. 
■  lava 


rOU  1542 

Pt'puiaUon. 

i.'iiiit.noo 

188,064 

;i,v4i,ii»u 

Colonic! 2l,78«,TOO 

T.ftRT.DOO 

t),»08, 1  IB 

8,4I'2,500 

rossctslons 1,722,140 

Aziiivs 880,MO 

In  Africa TII«,I1I0 

IiiAsia 88l,7liO 

China  and  (tceanlrn.   ..       S2il,310 

4,afi0,8(l8 

Continent 4,lS6,78fi 

Islo  of  Hardlnia 524,033 

12,380,841 
Colonies 8,717,4na 

4,615,1107 

Sweden 8,3lfl.B.;0 

Norway 1,828,471 

86,3«),U0O 

Enropo 16,600,000 

Alia 10,060,000 

Egypt,  TrliHjIi,  Tunis. .     3,8iHI,0.)0 

8,4'iD,SI0 

Naples 6,382,700 

Sicily 2,040,010 

807,000,000 
L'ncertuin. 

161,310,120 

nrltlsh  Stat™ 98,785,862 

Notivc  Htntos 62,05!), OBI 

Kurcign  SUtcs 171,317 

1,41)1,020 

l-:«stoni 70S,8;)4 

Western 728,292 

103,110 

212,000 

4,022 

80.000 

46,907 

400,000 

1,442,002 

101,080 

700,000 

1,400,000 

9,600,000 


rOR 


For  (llaquisitions  on  the  law  of  population,  see  writ- 
ings of  Mai.tiii'3,  Godwin,  A.  U.  Kvkiiett,  (Jhay, 
.Sadlku,  Tiioiinton,  Pou-  ieday.  The  siilgect.  of 
population  is  discussed  in  the  following  periodicals : 
Weilmimler  Ilcvieui,  lii.  153,  xlvii.  100,  Ivii.  4fi8 ;  Quar- 
terly Jiei:  xlv.  97,'  xxvi.  14«,  xvii.  3GS),  liii.  30;  linnk- 
ert'  Mag.,  New  Yorit,  iii.  457,  628(J.  H.  Ai.ii.XANDKii); 
!forth  /Im.yjei'.lxvii.  370(Howen),  xxxiii.l  (A.  U.  Ev- 
EnisTT),  xvii.  agX  (K.  EvK'tKrr),  xxiv.  218  (.Si-ahks), 
XV.  289;  IIisntV  MerchaiUs'  Magazine,  vii.  241,  337, 
529,  viii.  240,  330  (Ti<  kkii);  Edinburgh  Renew,  xvi. 
464,  XXXV.  302,  li.  297,  lii.  501,  Ixxxv.  85;  Monthly 
Reriein,  ciii.  HO ;  Blackwood's  Jfagaxine,  xxviii.  109, 
.\xix.  392,  xxi.  377:  liritUh  Quarterly  Review,  iv.  115; 
.Imerican  Almanac,  18,(7,  1818;  Hemorralie  Review, 
xxl.  397  (A.  n.  EvEitETT),  xvii.  297,  37!'  138  (Tuck- 
eh),  xxii,  11. 

Porcelain,  or  China  Ware,  a  very  fine  species 
of  eartlicn-wari'.  TI)o  lirst  specimens  of  tliis  fabric 
were  brouglit  to  Europe  from  C'lina  and  .Japan.  Tin: 
best  Chinese  porcelain  is  of  a  very  line  toxlurc,  white, 
semi-transparent,  and  sometimes  beautifully  colored 
and  gilt ;  is  infusible,  and  not  subject  to  break  by  the 
sudden  application  of  heat  or  cold.  The  Chinese  term 
for  the  article  is  Ite-ki.  I!ut  the  Portuguese,  by  whom 
it  was  first  brought  in  considerable  quantities  into  Eu- 
rope, bestowed  on  it  the  nan)e  of  porcelain,  from  ]ior- 
cella,  a  cup.  Common  earlhcn-warc,  someliincs  of  a 
very  good  quality,  is  manufactured  in  Canton,  Fokiin, 
and  several  other  provinces  of  China.  Hut  it  is  a  cu- 
rious fact  that  the  beautiful  porcelain  imported  into 
Europe  is  made  only  in  the  town  of  Kiiigtcsing,  in  the 
province  of  Kyangsl.     Its  manufacture  is  fully  ilo- 


tcril)ed  by  Duhalde,  in  his  account  of  China,  under  the 
head  "Porcelain  and  China-ware."  The  porcelain  of 
Japan  is  decidedly  inferior  to  that  of  China;  very  lit- 
tle is  imported,  and  it  is  valued  only  as  a  curiosity. 
After  porcelain  began  to  be  Imported,  its  l)eanty  soon 
brought  it  into  great  request,  notwithstanding  its  high 
price,  as  an  ornament  for  the  houses  and  tables  of  the 
rich  and  the  great.  The  emulation  of  Eurofiean  artists 
was  In  conscqut/ncu  excited.  Very  liltio  information 
was,  however,  obtained  aa  to  the  mode  of  ninnufac  ur- 
ing  porcelain  till  the  early  part  of  last  century,  when 
the  process  was  developed  in  a  letter  from  a  French 
Jesuit  in  China,  who  had  found  means  to  make  him- 
self pretty  well  acquainted  with  the  subject.  The 
knowledge  that  thus  transpired,  and  the  investigations 
of  Reaumur  and  other  chemi.its,  prepared  the  way  for 
the  establishment  of  the  manufacture  in  Europe.  It 
was  first  commenced  a*  Dresden,  which  has  been  fa- 
mous ever  since  for  the  beauty  of  its  productions ;  but 
the  linest  and  most  magnificent  spe 'iniens  of  European 
china  have  been  produced  at  Sevres,  in  France,  in  the 
factory  cp;ricd  on  at  the  expense  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment. 

liritish  Porcelain  Manvfaeture, — This,  though  unaldo 
to  boa.st  of  f'Uch  line  sppiimens  of  costly  workmanship 
as  have  been  produced  at  Sevres  and  Dresden,  is  of 
much  greater  national  importance.  Instead  of  exclu- 
sively applying  thcm.sclvcs  to  the  manufacture  of  ivrti- 
clea  fitted  only  for  the  consumption  of  the  rich,  the 
artists  of  England  have  exerted  themselves  in  prefer- 
ence to  produce  China-wnre  suitable  for  the  middle 
classes ;  and  have  succeeded  in  producing  articles  at 
once  excellent  in  quality,  elegant  in  form,  and  cheap. 
\Vc  arc  principally  indebted  for  the  improvements 
made  in  this  important  manufacture  to  the  genius  and 
enterprise  of  the  late  Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood.  This  ex- 
traordinary man  owed  none  of  his  success  to  fortuitous 
cirounistances.  Devoting  his  mind  to  patient  investi- 
gation, and  sparing  neither  pains  nor  expei '<c  in  ac- 
complishing his  aims,  he  gathered  round  him  artists 
of  talent  from  different  conntries,  and  drew  upon  the 
stores  of  science  for  aid  in  pursuing  the  objects  of  his 
praiseworthy  ambition.  The  early  and  signal  pros- 
perity that  attended  his  efforts  served  only  as  an  in- 
centive to  urge  him  forward  to  new  exertions,  and  as 
means  for  calling  forth  and  encouraging  talent  in  others, 
in  a  manner  calculated  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his 
country.  Previously  to  his  time,  the  potteries  of  .Staf- 
fordshire produced  only  inferior  fabrics,  flimsy  as  to 
their  materials,  and  void  of  taste  in  their  forms  and 
ornaments ;  ti'e  best  among  them  being  only  wretched 
imitations  of  the  grotesque  and  unmeaning  scenes  ami 
figures  portrayed  on  the  porcelain  of  Chii.a.  Hut  sudi 
have  been  the  effects  resulting  from  the  exertions  anil 
example  of  this  one  individual,  that  the  wares  of  that 
district  aio  now  not  only  brought  into  general  use  in 
England,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  foreign  good?,  which 
had  been  largely  imported,  but  English  pottery  has 
since  been  sou{:ht  for  and  celebrated  throughout  tlie 
civilized  world,  and  adopted  even  in  places  where  the 
art  was  previously  practiced.  An  intelligent  foreignir, 
M.  Faujas  de  St.  Fond,  writing  on  this  subject,  says; 
"  Its  excellent  workmanship,  its  solidity,  the  advant- 
age which  it  possesses  of  sustaining  the  action  of  lire. 
its  fine  glaze  impenetrable  to  acids,  the  benuty  and 
convenience  of  its  form,  and  the  cheapness  of  its  price, 
ha'  e  given  rise  to  a  commerce  so  active  and  so  univers- 
al, that,  in  traveling  from  Paris  to  Petersburg,  from 
Amsterdam  to  th-;  farthest  part  of  Sweden,  and  from 
Dunkirk  to  the  extremity  of  the  south  of  France,  one 
is  served  at  every  inn  upon  English  ware.  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy  are  supplied  with  it:  and  vessels 
are  lo,»ded  with  it  for  Imtli  the  Indies  and  the  conti 
nent  of  America." — See  the  quotation  in  the  Accovn' 
ii/rhe  Porcelain  Manufacture,  p.  Ifi,  in  LAitDSEii's  Cy- 
elitpo'dia.  For  the  statistical  details  with  respect  to  the 
manufacture,  sec  the  article  £aht»g.n>wabe.     The 


1840. 
1841., 
1812.. 
1848.. 
1844.. 
1846.. 
1840. . 

1848.. 

184'J.. 

lS5i 

l^''l.." 

I.SW 

I'M...' 

I8,'>4 

1868. 

1S'(! 


UostonTTTT 
New  York',"., 
"iiltiniore 
oilier  ports .'.' 

Total... 


POR 


mn 


1*011 


Brltlth  p  recUli.  inaniiracturo  fa  prlndpolly  rarrleil  un 
•I  i'.  (.'^ttcriitn  ill  Slafrurilghiro  anil  at  WurtesUr, 
Dtrby,  <>  Utbrwik  Dalf,  niul  other  iilacca. 

A/ucr*.  t'i//M.— It  waa  long  a  prcvalunl  opiiiiun 
ammiK  muilurii  critici  that  tlie  tOAi  uiur-himi,  »u  fa- 
mous ill  Uoinan  liiatory,  wore  fonnuil  of  porcilaiu, ! 
roinpuy  was  tlie  lirst  who  brought  them  to  Ituinu  from  j 
tliu  kaat,  about  •'!  years  before  tlio  (Jliristiaii  era. 
Tliny  were  used  as  UrinkiiiK-cups,  apd  fetcliuti  ciiur- 
iiiiiii»  prices ;  Nero  haviiiK  given,  accu.  'Iny  tu  Ihu  cuiii- 
muii  motliod  of  Interpreting,  £^  i)UO  fur  a  singlu  tup  I 
Tim  extravagance  of  the  impchnsor  ••  v,  in  liiia  iii- 
Btuni'c,  bo  supposed  to  huvt  i«.  ina.  u  lio  priiej  so 
that  the  degree  of  estimation  in  which  l4ii.'su  cups  were 
held  muy  be  nunc  accurately  inferred  from  tliu  fact 
tliat,  of  nil  the  rich  spoils  of  Aloxandrir  Augustus  was 
cuiitent  to  select  one  for  his  phare.— SiaiTo.Niiis,  lib.  ii. 
c.  71.  Pliny  (lib.  x>  <  vii.  I  ''i  says  tliuy  wore  inadu 
in  I'ersia,  parlicularl.v  in  Karaniania.  Uut  those  ulio 
cuiilcnd  thny  were  Chiiia-warc,  c'luHy  found  on  the 
following  lino  of  I'ropurtius: 

HiirrhtaqMe  in  PvrthU  pocula  ooota  ponin.^I.tb.  iv. 

In  despite,  however,  of  this  apjiarcntly  decisive  au- 
thoilly,  I.e  lllaiid  and  I.nrciier  have.  In  two  very 
learned  dissertnlioiis  (Mniiiiirrtde  /MliitU.  torn,  xliil.), 
which  Or.  Kolicrt.son  bus  declared  are  (|ul'o  satisfac- 
tory, endeavored  to  prov"  tliat  the  i'n.ia  niur'hinu  were 
formed  of  transparent  stone,  dug  out  of  the  earth  in 
some  KaAtern  provinces,  and  that  they  were  liniluted  in 
vessels  of  colored  glass. — Koukht.son's  DisquUil'nm  on 
Inii'm,  note  39.  Dr.  Vincent  (Cammerr-  iin-i  .Vacigalion 
of  Ike  Anrienla,  vol.  ii,  p.  723)  inc'''  »  to  the  opposite 
opinion;  bi.t  the  weight  of  autlioritv  is  evidently  on 
the  other  side.  At  all  events,  it  is  pluin  that  if  the 
miinhine  cups  were  really  porcelain,  it  had  been  ex- 
ceedingly scarce  at  Rome,  as  their  price  would  other- 
wise have  been  comparatively  moderate.  Hut  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  ancients  were  wholly  unac- 
quainted with  this  article ;  which,  ini'i--^  1,  was  !)ut  I't- 
tle  kiia\.ii  in  Europe  till  aftur  the  -  ' ^-'^ly  or  the 
route  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  U'  .  For  some 
further  ''.utails  on  this  quostlon,  see  Kr  i  ■'ii,  Aniiq. 
Itnm.  Ill),  iv.  c.  ;t. — Sec  American  Jo:'t'ii'ii  uj  .SciVncc, 
xwi.  23:\\  American  .ifottl/ili/ Jievieu;       117. 

Koiti:IGN  lMrORTATI()NB  AND  ICxPORTATIONB,   DoMESTIO  K\ 

POUTS  ;>if  TiiK  Manufactdiiks  of  China,   t'oiicKLAiN, 
Kaktuen  and  Stonk  Wakk,  of  tiif.  I'nited  Htatks. 


1 4*  ■!  mmmiiH  wit  </i/*imwii»  »nn  v*tta  or  roaa, 
lUioM,  4>iii  ^,^n|,  n^tmitu,,,  ,n<m  -tiin  l  nit»»  :<t*ti» 

TO  <l»lf*f    llHtni<>,   PHIIIt   lorn  H,  H,',S,   noTII  \UAM  IN. 

>  lu^iva 


'••«. 

fill, 

\mi 

» 

19:11 

IW 

m't 

•'VKi 

i»:iu 

u/H 

l»M 

i»W 

it 

I1M 

i!>:i7 

Ix^ts 

inai) 

III 

mtu 

I<i4l 

4.J*» 

IHi 

a.uin 

l«*l 

U.WI 

Ie4l 

Ul.'iail 

|!>^> 

I4,l«l 

laM 

(:(.«)( 

l'>4'| 

f-irni 

i.H!i 

r?,7*l 

ISM 

III  ;(9fi 

l»f,0 

««:)| 

lltfti 

■J,-l» 

\-it>i 

l,*ti 

Ma 

n,ii» 

IHfl't 

MtMi 

\Htit> 

'tn.m 

>llNM«lli<Nlli"« 

i..,i-   ^ 

V.I..'  — 

'1%, 

frntH. 

w.sas 

l^oHII 

1,888 

«« 

W.81S 

i,m 

ono 

10,MT 

4,m 

494 

»,■.(»» 

B4f> 

it.#i 

i.aua 
40 

lim 

241 

im 

lis 

.^ifA 

iM,»on 

Sn.iiTit 

ihii.iU 

M«(l,7!)» 

«II7,028 

hm  im 

1  I'm  4*1 

8lin.'J9» 

WM'i* 

s.cin.si* 

MB.TOS 

<  i>iVin 

!•  r,f1.m!, 

4M,n<l« 

umjtin 

<,ill,in(l 

uvm 

Hwt  (w) 

n.Wi.ni 

8,-(7l.riOT 

fi'iii.m 

87.7«».-ll 

ft,4s:i.2ri9 

M.IW/l*, 

m.wii.Kor. 

n,4S-.',|U4 

ill  WW 

m.ooi.Mi 

4,:h1,1i3« 

ti:P4J,m 

«,d'2:i.T^H 

l,W7.iir>i 

«MW.M 

l,ini.,«i« 

v,nii.i<^(i 

9,28(1,094 

IK  1  «,.}.if 

S!nitlfi.l4l 

6,lll»,!)04 

m,'ipi.  tm 

lit  i;.<9,W9 

B,9iri,l20 

Ymti. 


1840... 
1841... 
1812... 
18^3... 
1S44... 
1346... 
1840. . . 
1847... 
1843... 
1849... 
1S,Vf.  ,  . 
tsM... 
IS-ii.,  , 
l-!>-i. . . 
1854. . . 
1865,  .  . 
IStt).  ,  . 


AveraRO. 


Porefgu 
li  1portftt[on■■ 


$'i,070.t!:ll 

1,B8«,460 

1,B57,'.)81 

6S8  0a8 

1 .639,482 

2,4au,sl.^ 

2,,^25,349 
2,242,241 
2,332,096 
2.281.331 
2,801,393 
3,340,022 
8,441,095 
8,178,182 
4.137,091 
3,717,070 
3^347^S.S4 
'$2,B287T72" 


Konrgn 
KxporU. 

$63,754"" 
61,  70 
37  10 
26,.  ;-! 
27,289 
22,71" 
03,41,0 
32,090 
30,148 
3',>,'.148 
42,'JliI 
41,1119 

2;i,Sii4 

15.133 
t>6,«'.'5 
73,092 
40,091 

"$40,723" 


Domeatlc 
KiporU, 
410,1169""" 
0,781 
T,OH 
2,907 
4.S84 
7,3i'3 
0,621 
4,7RS 
8,512 

io,(i;i2 

1,'>,«44 
23,n9fl 
18,310 
63,086 
33,807 
32, 119 
60,698 

"$r8T4?6~ 


In  consequenci'  of  a  <■ -angc  in  the  liscal  year  in  1843, 
liiit  nine  months  are  represented  in  that  year. 

Folk,  the  Hosh  of  the  hog.  .Salte<l  and  pic'iled 
pork  forms  n  crnsiderabl  >  article  of  export  to  the  West 
Indies  and  oilier  places. 

The  exports  of  pork  from  ti  i>  i--  -<  for  the  year 

ending  June  30,  1857,  were  fro  .'  lowing  ports  : 


Bftn  U,          j 

22,V82         1 

New  York    

04  406        1 

12,213        I 

other  iiorts 

44,389        1 

Total 

143,SB0        1 

•  W7«  lUifft^it  kCff.  hUi  i>iputlfa  In  1866. 
KimwTft  •>¥  »'«#»  mum  f  M«  (it'tMi  s»4tM  ro«  Ttn  Via« 

»i»((|i»l  ill'^ti  SHI,  («ftt, 

Wijithdr  ^l^p^fttg4 

Sweitii  »im|  ii'iiFltft)'  .. .. 
tj»c<ll>l>  VVitt  iiiiiitu 

i(unuhwti,i(H(i)(i»,, ;.;.;. 

Iluinburg  ....,,..  .■/.....,,/,, 

llrt;lo>.-ll ti'-ii 

IMUwi ,..'.  ,.,■'. ,. 

Ilulfh  W'sttMilW.,, ■,,-,; 
JliiU-h  (iutuii*..,,., ..,. 
I)ulx;h  l-Jtst  |))4|((»,,,,,.. 
Il,:lglum.. , ,. ..,...,,,,.,,, 
KnuUnd  ,.,,,,,,„,,,,, 

Bnotlaiu) I-  ■,■!,: 

(ilhraltar  ,,,,■,,,,,:,,, 
M»lu. .,,.,.,. ..,,,,,,, 

( .'atiaila , . 

Other  Hrllfah  ^,  A,  i'm, 
llritlsh  W«'  '"Hi.-«  .... 
Iiriilsh  MoiMMFM'.,.' 
llrllish  (iiti»))»,,,,,,,,, 
llritlsh  |'.)..s.  ii)  Mfif*  .  .■ 
utiitr  polls  III  4f>i*-#  ,,,. 
llrllish  AiistriiM^  .■-,:,, 

New  /.(juUlfd , , , , 

llriddh  Kast  Iwltifi,,... . .) 
France  on  the  A'iwnti^. 
Franco  on  the  Mt^iliittf'H  .. 
French  N.  \.  I'lit^teiiinii 
Frcndi  Weot  |ii4ji.«  . . 

Frencli  (iiijan^ 

.Spain  im  the  ^tlaiiffi.'  ,,, 
Spain  on  the  U»iHut'h.-, 
t^anary  lalaiuis.. ,,, ...,,,, 
I'hillppliiu  Islaii4<i .. .' 

1  'ilha ...,.,..,.,. 

Porto  hico  ....,,.,.,;., .. 

Portugal ,•.•.,.•.■; 

<;u1m:uo  Villi  lei<f|ifi«    ,, 

Sarilinia .■■.•.-.•,■  :.■ 

Austrian  l'o».  in  Udi  : , 
Turkey  in  FiiroW  ■•■.■,/ 

Iluyil ,,....,,,,,. 

8.111  lloiniiigo  ,.f.. ....,.., 

Mexico ........J. 

< -enlral  l(epul)|i«, , ,. ., ,. , , 
New  liraiiaiia  .ttanrtt 

Veiiexuela ;...,...; 

Ilra/.il ■,....,'.■.;, 

<hm ,,,,„,-,, 

I'eni ,■,•,,.•.•.•<,, 

•^undwich  liilaiuis  ' ..  .•  • ;  /  .• 

China ,,,,,..,.., 

Whahi  Fisheries. . , 

Total ,,,....  .; 

-Hee  I'loivisiinjs, 

I'ork  TrmU  </  llm  (♦'«;,='fh«  (jMaMli  Vrict  Cur. 
!  rent  contains  Mwm  uf  ilw  ^iiA  trade  fr'.tn  all  the 
_£^%  ^' !  principal  iioiut*  m  {\w  West  fof  tlw  6«»s«ns  of  1865-'5C, 


'thft-H. 

ii«mi< 

:  ■■  i  .■ 

0(1 

,.  ;  ;  , 

nil 

; ; ; ; 

%m 

;  .■ ;  / 

8-3 

'"A 

176 

4.i 

ttn 

,139 

1,7C7 

•m 

I  ■  ■  ■ 

1,491 

mii 

97,sai 

tin 

721 

1 ;  ii 

8:6 

1 1 :  i 

SO-.' 

MJ.dl.S 

. 

sii.s.'iri 

M 

i9fi:.i) 

/  / ; . 

i.m 

1  s :  i   . 

11,723 

Will 

fl:i7 

!(!* 

1,972 

,')'!7 

II* 

tit: 

29,12!i 

1 : !  t 

m,m> 

/  '  ■; 

4:3 

•  •  ;; 

Wih 

mi 

■ ;/; 

4! 

:  • ! : 

10 

I  •  •  s 

(Ml 

76 

4.821 

■  !  I  t 

ll,7l.'. 

14 

a» 

: : ;  / 

t.iiii 
54 

9.2<M 
lt<SS7 

; ;  .■ : 

t  ■  •  ■ 

8» 

i 

ill! 



«,(r!<4 

1 1  .■  .■ 

876 

;  ■  ■; 

Hi 

9.773 

ti  ti 

93n 

4m 

3,1H 

*i«i" 

1  M( 

miii' 

V«lo. 

"$1(76 

2,8.14 

40,742 

ri-iO 

2,S18 

T46 

4.861 

Ba,R40 

413 

24.88« 

041,896 

11,654 

8,073 

7,144 

897,110 

62 1,390 

)l.'.,209 

7l,f.fiS 

1S6,42» 

9,707 

10,487 

61,147 

6,100 

2,481 

ri94,IS8 

079,820 

7,716 

9,027 

12,74.'. 

621 

146 

640 

1,176 

77,7i6 

06,890 

919 

367 

61,663 

322 

01,068 

Ml,'038 

736 

GO 

3,977 

34,878 

0,401 

1,.1fi8 

4-4,440 

4.680 

7,824 

46,838 

20,683 

$SiK:9,940 


i^H 


ros 


Mil  lM0-'i7.     I'lio  rullowin^  i<  •  ttftyUuUthm  ttf/ iUlt :  fXi-*    ■  #M>tl,  itt  oncfi  •  month,  aocortllng  to  tbuir 
SU«M  of  the  iitiinlH'r  nf  Iiok*  parked  :  |  a#.i  '*,  U>  Ut*  W^tflMy . 

t^  fUf,  tiftng  th^  ci»iiitiil  (if  lli«  cniplri",  cuntrallici 

Ifc*'  Uin/t  l.««(k  i4  Knytlrn  fnri'lKii  ruiiuiiuric.      It  is 

(W»  »fci«  >»«  (h«n  A  thiril  of  llio  vinst'lii  I'linuKfil  In 

*Uit  tttfi^t)  ttvrtnru>trn  drpiirl  from  ll«  |i(irtn  with  full 

'¥fl(A<M}  Utl  IM*  M  nwinx  to  th"  fiiit  that  it  In  iiiialilo 

<«  '*tff^f  «»(ft^h>n«  fxport",  mill  ilio  lii"n  of  lluyll  por- 

HiH  tfftAtttt  «fiwlii,  nflrr  iiiil(Miillrii{  nt  tlio  flmt  purl,  to 

j^»>*«4  ("  t<tttft!<  (o  miikn  up  their  e.nrgoi'.H.     The  gen- 

»■**•  ***♦)<*>*</«  from  I«M)  to  Ix.iO  comprliii'i!,  iirrlvals 

«m4  'lU^^MHrc*,    ItlH   veK<i  1^,  wllli  nn  nKgreKato  uf 

■'O/Mi'  ^.rn,  tif  nn  nnrniiil  iivornKo  of  -W  vcsucla  of 

Port,  a  hurlior,  river,  or  haven,  formej  Wtbuv  */y  i  K**'^  <<■*».      fliv  ft/iK*  wlii<h  enter  into  the  foreign 

nature  or  art  to  receive  ami  nheiler  fhippinjf  (hhu  tif  i  If***  Ht  Ihtt  f<fttt  nte,  the  Cnlted  States,  '"riiuh,  Kn- 

storins  and  Hiiven of  the  open  »ett.     Ariiliiinliti/tUltfit'idittt,  l'0ti)'^t,   ItflKtan,    llanihiirKlan,  and    llrenien. 

tliono  whiili  nro  either  formed  liy  llinnvinjf  a  tlriMK    lSi4<*ittt*(tHr'il>it  the  tifnt  pfTort«  made  liy  (irciil  llrit- 

nninnd  or  ninipart  airo«n  tliu  liarljorH  niuullj  Ui  nvm*-   itin  »tt4  ttntK-it  in  IHI7  and  IH  I'h  to  iimolloritu  the  com- 


HUM. 

I««»'M 

♦■/.»!( 

-             -  -  -  1 

0)il( 

4)|H..18I 
♦><V,t.UI 

l>V,Vi)4 

I7.',:i;i!i 

U/.40U 

an.iKH) 

\,»\H.4»M 

uii.oa*  " 

Illinois 

Mluourl    

Wlicunitti  .  • 

ToUlilenil»ury,l8r.7. 

isliunl  or  rock,  or  erertinf,'  two  lun/i  t'urrii«,  wUtf^M 
Htretch  from  the  land  on  ench  xlilu  like  «riu»  vt  thf 
horns  of  a  rrcsient,  and  nearly  inelow  lln'liaveM.  'i'U" 
forniiT  of  thena  uro  called  mile-lnailii,  aii<l  liiu  UMa*' 
pim. 

I'nrt  Is  also  a  namo  given  on  boine  o<o»sioii»  tM  rtM' 
larhonrd  or  left  »idu  of  llio  i.liip,  at.  in  the  fo)l<>»  jfij;  )^- 
.MunccM.  Thu!i  It  Ia  said,  " 'J'lie  nljlp  lieelst  tu  lititii" 
that  i»,  xtoopn  or  inclines  to  llie  larlioard  M».  "'t'ttf) 
the  yard  to  port,"  the  order  to  niiiku  tlie  l»jl>«ii;'i|  «ii.^' 
trnmlly  of  n  yard  higher  than  tlio  oilier.  "I'wl  titx 
h(  Im,"  the  oriler  to  put  the  helm  over  tlie  iarlwvi'l  h-U 
the  vuHAei,  In  all  theao  Renws  tliia  phiitw  <ip|MWe 
intended  to  prevent  any  niistakeii  happeiiiut;  fr<n»  (hx 
Imllarity  of  sounds  in  tiic^  xonU  atarhoanl  tini  Oh-Ijm/iiI, 
.arlienlrrly  when  they  relate  to  Ihu  Inlni,  viiixfuntuitr 
:t:i|irehension  might  bo  attended  with  tvry  4mi^m» 
■:  mseiincnces. 


«*■*»»*< «*Kl»((rrcnllnr«l  condition  of  llayti.  Il»  L'lneral 
*t/tti»t*iH't  lintlnie  (he  (Ive  years  iiHling  with  1>  ill,  de- 
fiitM't  *«  ^l^»t  (hirfy-threu  per  cent,  when  lonipared 
»UU  ^hM  ytfi^dmff  live  years.  Its  Kuropean  com- 
*tl*»*it,ttti*tf  I'slificially,  is  yearly  declining,  while  its 
((.•■•WrtJ  Umki  with  the  United  States  has  largely  lii- 
HHt'*4.-  'th*  MimUt  of  American  \  vsscls  entered  and 
fUtmc4  liming  »h«  last  six  months  of  1H51  was  ll".', 
*Uk  Mtt  i»*o»»g«  of  2«0  tons  each.  Total  value  of  car- 
g/n^*  iMWwM,  i^t^^,!i'M>,  consisting  chielly  of  provisions, 
ittitit/H'/  Im4  'Uy  gfKKls.  Cargoes  homeward  consisted 
>4  (AjfWMr)^,  coffro,  and  hemp,  tlio  value  of  whidi  n 
t^>U*4  in  (hf  official  returns.  Assuming  tlie  navl^a- 
timt  >*«*f«H  Ihfl  Inili  'I  Stales  and  this  jiort  to  liavo 
tttkut  itit  in-(ivi'.  Ih(\  first  six  months  of  iMol  as  tlie  last, 
ttm  Hf^ttf^*  l<if  (h«  wholo  year  would  stand  thus :  Total 
m»xiiH  <4  American  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at 
i'»tt.iUt--t't't1K<f  in  IC'it,  ill.     OIHcial  returns  give  as 


J'urii,  the  embrasures  or  openings  in  Ibe  tidv  vf  #  '  ((*»■  tftfltt  ttt  (ft.Vl,  210;  IH.M,  I8'J;  w  hicli  shows  an  iii- 
,.hip  of  war,  wherein  llio  artillery  is  ranged  iu  iMUf)  '  fy**wi  M  fHfh  sticccssivo  yeeii.—Cummercial  Jletaliuiii 
upon  the  docks  above  and  bidow.  \nflh'  I  nil'd  fHiilfn. 

Port-au-Prince,  tho  capital  of  Ilayli,  or  St.  Uft-A  9mt  Attn  Cayes,  a  sen-port  of  llayti,  is  one  of 
iningo,  in  lat.  IH"  !13'  -l-'"  N.,  loiij;.  72  27  M"  W  •  M*»  (w^*  important  of  the  empire.  In  1850  there  eii- 
I'opnlation  variously  eslininli.'d,  proliaMy  fioui  iX/l*¥)  p-ifA  lHt<i  tt  nte<\  872  vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate 
to  2(1,000.  It  is  situated  on  tlie  west  wnti  »(  thfit/f  l/t,.;rit  l<m*.  The  city  is  generally  repiiird  one  of 
island,  at  tho  bottom  uf  a  large  and  deep  gulf.  H  K))Jt  i  |t^  MfM  fif«v<;r)>ssivc  in  tho  island,  and  is  tiie  capital 
founded  in  174i>;  since  which,  with  few  )utcry»J*)  JH  jwfjh*  w.T(r(K>rn  peninsula  of  Iloyti;  the  best  irrigated 
has  been  the  capital  of  I'nudi  ,st.  Dumingo,  «•  H  UlttH/t  m»t  tfttih  province  In  the  empire.  Here,  as  in 
now  of  tho  entire  isionil.  It  is  partially  foititicijj  HiM'Uitf  «4ittf  p(ftt!t,  (hn  ('nited  States  holds  the  lirst  eoin- 
liurbor  being  protected  by  a  battery  on  a  bUJ»)l  iiil»(Ml '  WMtfii*)  tiink.  Tho  chief  imports  from  tlio  I'nlled 
at  n  little  distance  from  Hie  shore.  The  country  rvwwJ  I  J>(t*(li>»  Mt"  pTovision.s,  of  which  the  consumptkn  is 
Is  low  and  marshy  ;  and  the  heat  in  the  summer  M,i'*'Jii»}  ttf'ttif.-  t*\it)ng  the  past  two  or  three  years  American 
lieing  excessive,  tlie  cliniato  is  tlicu  exixcdiugj)'  Wi-  it^ffimM^  ttxvf  also  imported  domestic  cottons  and 
healthy.  The  buildings  are  principully  <4  ^tMfi,  mtti  \  WMHttfm-tnti-'i  tit  cotton,  generally  in  such  (luniititics, 
seldom  exceed  two  stories  in  heiglit.  The  cMliaMCA'  U/ 1!  Wwt#Mfr<TfCl'i  srK*«8s,as  to  have  already  diBlicartened  all 
tho  harlxir  is  between  While  Island  and  tlw  wMtfMW  j|  (•vtMflft  MiWffftU'ton.  The  French  authority  (CVmmcfcs 
shore.  The  depth  of  water  varies  from  alxwit  J*  (fmit  |  /V «//(•*/■')  fityn,  in  reference  to  this  singular  success  of 
at  ebb  to  about  21  feet  at  full  tide.  It  is  eu«t</w#r^^  |  AMUimn  Merchants  in  Ibis  as  in  tho  other  markets 
but  not  compulsory,  to  em|doy  a  jiilot  in  iiiteriujf  f^  |  i/f  tfttyfi  ■  "  This  sfiecies  of  nierc-hundiso  (American 
harbor.  They  arc  always  on  the  lo(.k-<.iul.  fe(,iij»Lw^ywi>}«  fni  fcigh  repute  for  its  excellent  quality.  It 
moor  head  am!  .stern,  at  from  100  to  .>W  yaJ'Jsi  fr'/^jm*  «*Ji»>*jfi*  t'l"  (hat  mnnnfactund  in  Kngland,  and  is 
shore;  loading'  and  unloading  by  means  of  Iwad^j  *^!wrfM  .*ti»lw»f*  figure."  frniice  supplies  a  small  ijnan- 
there  are  neither  docks  nor  quays  to  assist  tluac  t/i/nit.-  j  (Uf  i4  #>A«:«,  (nU,  mid  fabrics  of  Alarseilles  and  I'aris. 
lions.  Till)  harlior  is  perfi'ctly  safe,  excij)t  tittmn U'ttittiUifft  pSyinn  between  St.  Thoinnd,  Curavoa,  and 
hurricanes,  which  may  be  expected  from  A.Mg«*(t  itiliimilklti  iHiptttt  small  packages  of  Kuropean  wares, 
November.  Tho  commerce  of  I'ort-au-J'riuoe  U  fwAmiA  Si'iWW  Jitovisions,  for  which  they  generally  find  a 
ried  on  by  various  classes  of  persons.  Tl*e  im\>n'i»\rt'iuif  wittii*t,  Tho  quantity  of  coflfeo  annually  cx- 
froni  Kuropc  and  America  are  i)rincipally  am^g'tM  Ui I  piifWii  iiitut  Anx  Cayes  is  estimated  at  between  four 
Kuropean  and  North  American  comniission  liouJ*'*..  (■«■- j  iK#/f  fry«  wjfiion  pounds.  During  good  seasons  this 
sides  a  few  Ilaytien  establishmeiils.  T)ie  <»^,ijil#|  )i  V^^/  rti>^  («  six  million  pounds.  In  this  total,  how- 
one  of  the  ports  to  which  foreign  niercbuutji  »ir« /cwjinsr^  ,  i«iiis  jncliided  considerable  quantilies  imported 
fined  by  the  law  of  patents;  but  they  ore  risirici»4  .y|«  ^#ji!«^  from  (ho  neighboring  ports.  Tho  district 
heavy  penalties  to  a  wholesale  business  witlj  M#iV!lJi'**,iji^<v^t  ttt  Anx  Cnyc*  supplies  but  little  coflec,  the 
and  to  a  minimum  amount  of  goods.  Of  covrw  |I(m y  |  \ftil^iplii  «r(icIo  of  culture  being  the  sugar-cane,  the 
can  not  deal  with  tho  consumers,  but  with  ttie  w^twV*  Jif'^^i^s of  wfcich,  first  converted  into  sirup,  tlien  nianu- 
rctailers,  who  are  chielly  women,  styled  "uiyt^■^)l^^)tU^*f  .  fHef  tttf^4  }(((/>  rum,  tafia,  etc.,  supplies  the  greater  part 
tiiese  employ  hucksters,  also  women,  who  trav«rii#|t*iiif  |ivf  JlU  MlsfrKfwith  spirituous  liquors.  Campcchc-wood 
country,  attend  tho  markets,  and  give  an  uir/mtd  iw^  |  (((^^Wowilf),  (he  produce  of  which  is  considerable,  Bup- 
tboir  traniactions  to  their  employers     ilierey«^«ynNir|  pti*^  tut  «xf>oft  trade  of  20,000,000  lbs. 


POR 


lftt5 


POR 


ImporU  into  Aiue  I'ni/rt,  iKWt. — Kroni  Ih"  t'liltoil 
StaU'H,  t'il><>,l(!*);  liroat  llrUuiii,  |.>lii,IHii;  l>'raiia<, 
4i;iU,l:l2;  lIu'iHu  Tiiwiis,  $'iU,u;4;  utiior  counlrlua, 
^WM\  total.  fMll.'iIil. 

Forte,  the  Sublime.  The  uiDi  ial  tltlo  of  tho 
KovurniiM'iit  ul'  tliu  Ultniiiaii  I'niplro:  miid  (o  lie  ilorivcd 


from  a  u''''"'^''"'  l'»'''<'^"  ot  llrouuik,  ilm  ciri|{lnnl  mu' 
trupolUor  ltiut«iii|iir     culloJ  Udl)  llii     ivoor,  tlxtub- 

liiiis  K"'!'- 

Porter,  a  li<|Hor  brewed  from  '  of  whioli 

hat  buoii  moro  highly  dried  tlinii  Ui„  I"      It 

It  lio|ipucl  ill  tho  iamo  way  as  ulo ;  ai.  vilor  in 

IliinllyBlvimloltulthorliy  liuriii'iliiiii  >    r  „.  ually 

Koos  iimlor  tlio  name  of  mloriuij,  .itimucly, 

liy  roaHtcil  or  iianliiid  limit.      IV   ,v;i  -t  ''rowed 

In  1722.     Tho  iiwill  lupior  |jruvli.i»ly  -isifd 

of  three  kiiidii—uli',  liecr,  and  "tw.ipoii  ,iiii\. 

turu  of  either  of  tln^iie  khidii  wui  a  (n  ■  In  verago 

nnder  tho  name  of  "liiilf-und-liiilf ;"  <>i  ti  iiiixtiiru  wan  I 
drunk  eulled  "  throe  threads,"  conslming  of  equal  por- 
tlona  of  oacli  of  tho  abovo  kinds  of  ll'iuor,  for  u  druuKlit 
of  which  tho  publican  hud  to  go  to  three  dill'erent  ca:ik8. 
About  1722,  Ilttrwooil,  a  London  brewer,  cmnmenred 
brewint;  a  malt  lUjuiir  which  wait  iiitoiulod  to  unite 
tho  flavors  of  ale  and  beer,  or  ulu,  beer,  and  "  two- 
penny ;"  and,  having  micoocdod,  he  called  his  llqunr 
"entire,"  or  "entire  butt,"  a  name  intended  to  inti- 
mate that  it  was  drawn  from  one  cuak  or  butt  only, 
A  mixture  of  olo  or  porter,  drawn  from  dift'ercnt  casks, 
is  very  commonly  drunk  in  London  at  tho  prewnt  time, 
Ilarwood's  liquor  obtained  the  name  of  jwrter  from  its 
consuinptloii  by  porters  and  laborers.  From  1722  to 
1701,  the  retail  price  of  porter  in  London  was  a/,  per 
pot,  when  it  was  raised  to  3i(<.,  at  which  It  continued 
till  17!»0.     It  has  never  been  higlier  than  Gd. 

Poi  .^r's  Anchor.  This  anchor  is  an  ICnglisli  pat- 
ent, and  is  extoUi>ively  used  at  .Southampton,  and  oili- 
er Ktiglish  norts.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  giving  to 
tho  arms  iind  lliikcs  a  freedom  of  motion  round  a  pivot 
or  fulcrum  iit  tho  end  of  tho  shunk,  thus  departing  at 
onco  from  tho  rigidity  usually  observed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  anchors.  The  arms  and  Hukca  are  forged  wholly 
independent  of  the  shank,  and  have  a  hole  drilled  truiis- 
vcrscly  through  tho  ccntro  for  tho  reception  oC  tho  iron 
bolt  which  connects  them  with  tho  shank.  Tho  cD'oet 
of  this  construction  of  a  swivel  anchor  is,  that  when 
one  Huke  enters  tho  ground  tho  other  necessarily  falls 
down  upon  tho  shank,  thereby  avoiding  tho  danger  in- 
cident to  tho  uiiward  projection  of  a  sharp  point.  The 
objects  designed  to  bo  attained  by  this  new  construc- 
tion are  said  to  be  mainly  the  two  following :  the  avoid- 
ance of  tho  con3e(iuenco  of  what  is  called  "fouling,"  by 
the  cable  passing  over  tho  exposed  fluke  of  the  anchor 
when  tho  vessel  is  swinging  in  a  aide  way;  ond  the 
avoidance  of  injury  to  tho  vessel  itself  in  tho  event  of 
fidling  on  her  anchor. 

Porters  and  Porterage.  I'ortcrs  are  persons  cm- 
jiloyed  <i  carry  messages  or  parcels,  etc. — AVo  C'.vu- 
11 1  Kits. 

Portland,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital,  Cumber- 
land county,  Maine,  is  situated  on  n  peninsulu  at  the 
•western  extremity  of  C'asco  Hay,  CO  niilos  soul li-soutli- 
wcst  of  Augusta.  It  is  105  miles  from  iioston,  r/u  the 
Kosteru  liailroad,  and  111  t't'o  Itostoii  and  Maine,  and 
2'J4  from  Montreal,  via  tho  Atlantic  and  St.  Lawrence 
Uailroad,  and  the  Kennebec  and  Portland,  and  the  An- 
droscoggin and  Kennebec,  connecting  it  with  Augusta 
and  with  Waterville.  Lat.  (Mount  Joy),  Ul"  3i»'  62" 
N,,  and  long.  70°  13'  31"  W.  from  Greenwich,  and  7° 
4a'  14"  E.  from  Washington,  ropulationiu  lij0n,3(!77; 
in  1810, 7169;  in  1820,  ll,6Sl;  in  1«30,12,(!01;  inl840, 
l.'),318 ;  in  18,-)0,  20,81.5 1  and  in  1«5 1,  ari.OOO.  The  pen- 
insula projects  eastwardly  into  tht  bay  obout  three 
miles,  and  has  an  nvcrnga  width  of  throe-fourths  of  a 
niilo,  forming  throughout  its  entire  lonf,'lh  nn  eleva- 
ted ridgo,  which,  inland,  rises  into  considcnildo  hills, 
presenting  a  very  beautiful  appearance.     There  were 


in   IH.MI  soven  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
♦i.lKHVXI ;   III!  Insurance  ollico ;  an  extcntivii  ealaU 
lishnmnt  making  locomotives  and  railroad  cars,  mu- 
ploying  Mil  peraons;  three  iron  foun<lerieii,  three  liraai 
fuuiideries, kI x  inacliine iliops, t liree edgo-toid  fiiit«irl«t, 
a  chttin-calile  factory,  nn  exteniivo  sperm-nil  I'ai  tory, 
two  |)l4uu  factories,  two  piano-furtn  faetoii,.»,  two  Ian- 
norle:.,  six  luinber-yard.s,  live  shlp-buibling  estalillsh- 
nioiil»,  21)5  stores  of  various  kinds,  and  many  manu- 
faitures  of  small  »areii   ten  priniing-olllcesl  Issuing 
two  dally,  two  iri-weckly,  nine  weekly,  and  one  semi 
montlily  publication.     Capital  employed  in  nianuf' 
tures  in  WM,  tT(il,8,',0;  valu.'  of  manufactured  ai  , 
clea,  i{<2,l,j;l,2'.ill. 

The  liurbiir  is  capaciuus  and  safe,  niid  aniiing  the 
beat  In  the  I'iiIIimI  States.  It  is  protect.'d  by  islands 
from  tliu  violence  of  alornis,  is  seldom  nliatnutcd  by 
ico,  has  a  good  entrance,  and  Is  defended  by  forts 
I'rcble  ond  Heaniiiul,  the  former  gnrrisoiiod  by  Knited 
.States  artillery.  At  the  oostern  extremity  of  the  city 
is  a  tower,  70  feet  high,  erected  for  the  purpose  of  oli. 
serving  vessels  ut  sea,  nnd  furnished  with  signals. 
Tliu  harbor  is  eoniiected  by  the  Cumberland  and  Ox- 
ford Canal,  20 i  miles  long,  with  Sebn^.i  I'ond,  and 
thence  with  l.uiig  I'uiid,  etc.  The  Airunlic  and  St. 
l.awrcnco  Ihiilroad,  or,  as  it  is  now  called  in  t'onada, 
the  (jiand  Trunk  liailroad,  was  commenced  in  IHI4, 
and  Is  ii"W  complete  to  Montreal.  Through  this  ave- 
nue puss  a  large  propu.'tion  of  tho  products  of  the 
Nurlli  and  We^t  for  shipnii'ut  to  Kurope  mid  else- 
where. The  foreign  coinmerco  of  the  city  is  chlelly 
with  till-  West  Indies  nnd  Lmopo.  Its  (  hief  exports 
are  lumber.  Ice,  llsb,  provisions,  etc.  lie  coasting 
trado  is  principally  with  Uoston,  and  during  tho  sum- 
mer a  steamboat  plies  daily  to  that  city.  Tonniigu  In 
1H5,'),  10l,3.')0  tons.  Portland  was  formerly  n  port  of 
l''alnioutli,  and  13U  lioiises,  constituting  two-thirds  of 
tho  village,  weio  burned  by  the  Drlti.sh  in  Octolicr, 
1775,  U  was  iiitiirporated  under  its  present  name  in 
I7HI1,  and  received  a  city  charter  in  1832.  It  wus  for- 
merly the  capital  of  tile  Slate  of  Maine. 

Port  Louia,  or  Nortbwest  Port,  tho  caidtul  of 
tho  Mauritius,  at  the  bottom  of  a  triangular  buy,  tlto 
cntranco  to  Avhicli  is  rather  diflicult,  in  lat.  20' !)'  M" 
S.,  long.  57"  28'  H "  E.  Kvcry  vessel  approaching  tlio 
harbor  must  hoist  liur  (lag  and  tiro  two  guns ;  if  in  tho 
night,  a  light  must  be  fhown,  when  a  pilot  comes  on 
board  and  steers  tlio  ship  to  tho  cntrunco  of  the  poi-t. 
It  is  a  very  coiiveniont  port  for  careening  and  rejiair- 
iiig,  but  provisions  of  all  sorts  aru  dear.  In  tho  hur- 
ricano  months  the  anchorage  in  Port  Louis  is  not  good, 
and  it  can  then  only  accoinmodato  a  very  few  vessels. 
The  houses  are  low,  and  principally  built  of  wood.  Tho 
town  and  liarhor  are  [irotty  strongly  fortllied.  Almost 
all  the  foreign  tride  of  tlio  island  is  carried  on  hero. 

Porto  Rico  (•'•''<'»  Juan  de),  the  capital  of  the  val- 
uable .Spanish  inland  of  tho  sam'i  name,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  i^lMiiil,  on  a  peninsula  joined  to  tho  main 
land  liy  a  narrow  isthmus,  lat.  18"  29'  10"  N.,  long. 
IK!'  7'  2"  W.  The  fortifications  nro  very  strong.  The 
town,  which  stands  on  n  pretty  steep  declivity,  is  well 
built,  clean,  nnd  contains  nearly  30,000  inhabitants. 

Uarbor.—'Yhe  harbor  of  Porto  Kico  has  a  striking 
resemblance  to  that  of  Havana,  to  which  it  is  but  lit- 
tle inferior.  Tho  entrance  to  it,  about  300  futlioms  in 
width,  has  the  Moro  Castle  on  its  cast  side,  and  is  de- 
fended on  the  west  side  by  forts  erected  on  two  small 
islands.  Within,  tho  harbor  expands  into  a  capacious 
basin,  tho  depth  of  water  varj-ing  from  live  to  six  and 
seven  fathoms.  On  tl  .  side  opposite  to  the  town  there 
uro  extensive  sand  banks ;  hut  the  cntranco  to  the  port, 
as  well  as  tho  port  itself,  is  unobstructed  by  any  bar  or 
shallow. 

Porto  Rico,  Fslaml  of,  lies  in  tho  same  latitude  aa 
Jamaica.  Tliough  the  smallest  of  the  greater  Antilles, 
it  is  of  verj'  considcrablo  size.  Its  form  is  that  of  a 
parallelogram,  being  about  110  miles  in  length  from 


^ 

^^. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MTO) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


125 


Li  128 

US  "^    "^ 

ut  Iii2   12.2 
£f  1^    12.0 


i4 1'-' 


f,   ^ 


fliotograpiiic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRUT 

WnSTIR.N.Y.  I4SM 

(716)  S72-4S03 


!    ,- 


„.*  f -■ 


POR 


1646 


POR 


tut  to  wwt,  with  •  mean  breadth  of  about  88,  contain- 
ing an  area  of  8760  square  miles.  Surface  pleasantly 
diversified  with  hills  and  valleys ;  soil  generally  fer- 
tile.  It  has,  however,  snRbred  inuc{)  from  hurricanes ; 
those  of  1742  and  1826  having  been  particularly  de- 
strnetive.  Since  the  breaking  up  of  the  old  Spanish 
colonial  system,  the  progress  of  Porto  Rico  has  hardly 
been  less  rapid  than  that  of  Cuba.  Her  population, 
which  in  1778  was  estimated  at  80,650,  amounted,  ac- 
cording to  a  census  taken  in  1836,  to  357,086,  of  whom 
188,86!)  were  whites,  and  ( r.ly  41,818  slaves.  It  is  ob- 
vious from  this  statement  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  free  inhabitants  are  colored ;  but  the  law  knows 
no  distinction  between  the  white  and  the  colored  rotu- 
rier ;  and  this  circumstance,  as  well  as  the  whites  be- 
ing in  the  habit  of  freely  intermixing  with  people  of 
color,  has  prevented  the  growth  of  those  prejudices  and 
deep-rooted  antipathies  that  prevail  between  the  white 
and  tiie  black  and  colored  popniation  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  English  and  French  islands.  The 
population  is  now  (1853)  probably  above  600,000. 

Porto  Rico  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  at 
which  period  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  population  of 
800,000  souls.  In  1609  it  was  invaded  by  the  Span- 
iards from  St.  Domingo,  and  in  a  few  years  the  na- 
tives were  exterminated.  The  island  was  explored 
and  conquered  by  Ponce  du  Leon,  the  discoverer  of 
Florida,  while  prosecuting  his  voyage  in  search  of  the 
fountain  of  perpetual  youth.  Although,  during  the 
past  fifteen  years,  agriculture  has  made  great  progress 
on  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  there  yet  remain.-,  owing 
chie6y  to  the  want  of  labor  and  good  roads,  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  it  uncultivated.  Immense  plains, 
which,  if  planted  with  the  sugar-cane,  would  reward 
labor  most  bountifully,  are  yet  lying  untouched  by  the 
hand  of  civilization  or  culture,  liecause  canals  are  want- 
ing, through  which  the  wg  ter  by  which  they  are  now 
inundated  could  be  drawn  off.  The  island  abounds  in 
excellent  timber,  but  as  yet  it  has  yielded  no  profit  to 
the  inhabitants.  There  are  also  different  kinds  of  the 
more  valuable  woods  for  cabinet-makers,  such  as  the 
aci^oa,  poiysander,  etc. ;  but  they  still  repose  undis- 
turbed amidst  the  ravines  of  the  mountains.  A  rem- 
edy for  these  evils  might  be  found  in  immigration; 
but  it  has  ever  been  the  policy  of  the  government  to 
discourage  the  introduction  and  settlement  of  foreign- 
ers. The  laws  to  that  end  have  been  particularly  se- 
vere in  regard  to  all  foreigners,  especially  to  those  not 
professing  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Every  for- 
eigner arriving  in  Porto  Rico  is  compelled,  before  land- 
ing, to  give  some  responsible  resident  as  surety  for  his 
good  behavior.  After  six  months  he  must  either  dom- 
iciliate or  leave  the  island.  Should  he  select  the  for- 
mer alternative,  he  must  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  the  only  religion  tolerated.  An  intelligent  trav- 
eler, who  lived  for  some  time  on  the  island,  gives  the 
following  information  relative  to  the  laws  under  which 
foreigners  could  iwcome  denizens : 

"  Previous  to  the  year  1828  strangers  were  required 
to  produce  the  most  undoubted  evidence  of  (Msing  Ro- 
man Catholics,  in  order  to  become  domiciled ;  and  hav- 
ing satisfied  the  auttioritics  on  this  point,  they  were  fur- 
ther obliged,  after  five  }-ears'  residence,  to  become  nat- 
uralized. Before  a  stranger  would  be  permitted  to 
land,  he  must  give  security  for  good  political  and  mor- 
al conduct ;  and  supposing  that  he  could  gratify  the 
requirements  of  the  law  in  all  these  particulars,  such 
were  the  jualousy  and  iiliberality  of  the  government, 
that  few  could  i>e  induced  to  remain  in  a  country  where 
no  prospect  of  success  appeared.  In  18'28,  however,  the 
leniency  and  more  liberal  policy  of  Don  Miguel  La 
Tone,  tha  Captain-general,  by  relaxing  the  rigor  of 
former  requirements,  contributed  greatly  in  removing 
the  impedimenta  to  the  settlement  of  foreigners  on  the 
island.  La  Tone  strictly  carried  out  the  spirit  of  the 
Seal  CeduU  ot  1815,  having  for  its  object  the  cncour- 
Hement  of  agriculture  and  commerce  in  the  Spanish 


colonies.  Thus  the  domcilio  was  procured  by  paying 
a  trifling  sum  of  money,  and  by  the  applicant  comply- 
ing with  certain  formalities.  A  considerable  immi- 
gration was  the  immediate  effect  of  these  measures  of 
La  Tone.  Lured  by  the  superior  fertility  of  the  soil, 
and  the  liberal  policy  of  his  administration,  planters 
from  the  neighboring  islands  cf  St.  Croix  and  St. 
Thomas  sold  their  estates,  and  brought  their  capital 
and  slaves  into  Porto  Ricu.  Their  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  planters  from  the  windward  British 
and  French  islands.  Thus  seconded  by  foreign  enter- 
prise and  foreign  capital,  the  island  Tias  continued  to 
prosper  in  a  most  extraordinary  degree  since  1828. 
But  notwithstanding  this  rapid  improvement,  and  the 
continued  augmentation  of  its  staple  exports,  this  im- 
provement would  have  been  greater,  and  the  exports 
considerably  larger,  but  for  the  oppreiiive  dutirj  upon 
all  articlei  of  necumty  cotuumption,  and  the  frequent 
heavy  exaction*  made  by  the  government  toward  the  tup- 
port  of  the  war  in  Spain.  These  causes,  by  diminish- 
ing the  profits  of  the  planters,  have  prevented  them 
from  extending  their  estates.  Hence  the  progress 
which  has  been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is 
due  rather  to  the  continued  influx  of  new  settlers  with 
their  important  capital,  than  to  the  prosperity  or  in- 
creased industry  of  the  old." 

The  slave  population  is  almost  the  only  producing 
power  on  the  island :  but  this  is  so  totally  inadequate 
to  the  wants  of  the  planters,  that  they  are  frequently 
obliged  to  procure  additional  help  from  Cuba.  This, 
however,  greatly  augments  their  expenses,  since  a  ro- 
bust and  good-working  slave,  who  in  Porto  Rico  may 
l>e  valued  at  $360,  can  not  be  purchased  in  Cuba  for 
less  than  $600.  Sugar  and  cofl^  are  the  staple  pro- 
ductions; while  tobacco,  hides,  woods,  cotton,  fruit, 
and  rum  form  also  a  part,  though  to  no  considerable 
extent,  of  the  exports.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  entirely 
by  free  labor.  The  five  principal  commercial  ports  of 
Porto  Rico  are  San  Juan  (the  capital  of  the  island), 
Arecibo,  Mayagbez,  Ponce,  and  Guayama. 

San  Juan,  or  SI.  John. — Altlioiigh  possessing  a  mag- 
nificent port,  considered  one  of  the  best  on  the  island, 
San  Juan  is  not  the  first  commercial  place,  as  tht  prod- 
ucts exported  thence  are  of  a  very  inferior  quality. 
Of  the  sugar  shipped  from  this  port,  as  well  as  from 
the  other  ports  of  the  island,  the  United  States  re- 
ceive more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole.  But  a  small 
quantity  goes  to  England,  and  also,  though  rarely,  to 
France.  From -the  United  States  are  imported  cod- 
fish and  other  salt  fish ;  salt  meat,  boards,  lumber, 
hoops,  staves,  and  butter;  from  England,  boilers  for 
the  manufacture  of  sugar,  machinery,  small  quantities 
of  iron,  and  heavy  supplies  of  earthen-ware.  Spanisli 
vessels  take  in  cargoes  at  St.  Thomas,  and  discharge 
at  San  Juan,  thereby  avoiding  the  duty  applicable  to 
all  vessels  from  all  other  ac\jacent  foreign  ports,  in  the 
ports  of  Porto  Rico.  Generally  speaking,  the  whole 
island  of  St.  Thomas  is  but  a  great  entrepot  of  Euro- 
pean and  American  manufactures  destined  for  the  mark- 
ets of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico— a  fact  shown  by  the  large 
amoi '  :t  of  importations  from  St.  Thomas  into  both  these 
islands.  The  exports  from  San  Juan  in  1853  consisted 
of  11,869,804  pounds  of  sugar;  5808  hogsheads  of  mo- 
lasses ;  876  hogsheads  of  rum ;  and  910,966  pounds  of 
coffee.  It  is  to  be  regretted  tliat  the  port  of  San  Juan, 
one  of  the  t)est  and  safest  of  tlw  island,  should  l>e  kept 
in  so  deplorable  a  condition.  Six  or  seven  years  ago, 
a  vessel  drawing  16  to  18  feet  water  could  take  in  a  full 
cargo  at  the  wharf;  at  present,  a  ship  of  the  same  ton- 
nage can  receive  only  three-fourths  of  her  cargo,  and  is 
compelled  to  leave  the  wharf  in  order  to  get  into  water 
deep  enough  to  take  in  the  balance. 

Arecibo,  or  Areibo. — During  the  last  eight  years  the 
commercial  condition  of  this  port  has  been  highly  pros- 
perous. The  imports  and  exports  have  greatly  in- 
creased ;  splendid  mansions  have  been  erected,  and 
several  commercial  houses  established.    The  harbor. 


FOK 


1547 


FOR 


mIM  |#  AMlwr  iff  •  vary  wy«  tMfitt,  «nd  rnqnent- 
ly,  diiriM  UM  mviimt  «f  iWfib  Wlndt,  an  forced 
to  rttira  froffl  n«  ib«f«  tfld  ettt  e«i  to  mi.  they 
ionwtim«f  rM»iv«  wffeM  nam  §tAi,  wtthont  catting 
anchor, 

••Tb«  »%triwrMMry  imrtitm  tliat  tiaa  taken  place 
latolx  in  tiM  prf««i  el  »u§»f,  MrffM*  totMceo,  hidei,  and 
cotton,  wilt  nit»  ItM  VitltM  «f  ilNt  ««Mft«  thia  year 
(U&7)  rr»ffl  lb«  •VWMM  eT  ii6,800,0O0  to  the  Urge 
iun>  of  111,009,099,  wH«b  will  Wii«i1ally  add  to  the 
powar  of  ¥9H9  8iw  to  tm«m»  a  ««ltt«b>e  eoitomer  to 
tlm  mmtttM»rt»g  «9«atfi«§,  1^  tariff  at  present  in 
tortm  olfftnt  §mi  initmnimi  tet  tti«  tMiporution  of 
good*  Urmt  frsm  tiM  el««««  «l  iMt  prodnotlon,  and 
{(  tl)i«  bfi  MSSffl^iltMl  in  ii^niiii  tuttoma,  tliere  is 
•  4iimnli»i  r«dii«ti«n  «/ d«t/«f  16  p«t  cent,  upon  tlie 
tariff,  W}niv«l«n(  l«  3&  p«r  mil,  upm  ih«  Invoice  value 
in  favor  of  Aift«t  impertati«H  in  titis  totm )  and  if  tiie 
good*  IM  iffipm^  Hfld«f  ft  fyf^gn  flag,  the  differential 
raduetioff  »fll0URt«  i»§mt  emi,  thus  thedaty  upon 
any  artida  in  (tM  toriff,  l««ifig  tilMn  at  the  average 
rata  p»y»t)l«  npm  «li  §ds4»,  wlii«tl  ia  about  29  per 
cent,  sJmhrm  if  tiM  impeftfttiw  ia  made  in  a  Span- 
ish ship,  tb8  llM«W)t  p/ftbl«  WOttld  be  14  per  cent., 

and  if  nn48r  s  fsrsigu  i»g,  39  t#«f  ««<tt. ;  but  to  obtain 
this  radnrtim  «f  i»tk§,  in  tiM  «t«tit  of  accident  forcing 
ths  vassal  t»  ptit  int^  «A  ifHetmeiitU)  port,  the  master 
must  Rrovi49  himMif  witit  ft  ««ftilifiatfl  from  the  resi- 
dent gpanisit  gm§»i  (iiftt  tiM  miff  into  snoh  port  was 
caused  l>y  str»M  sf  wsfttber  of  want  of  irater,  and  was 
not  occ»«ion«4  i)y  uty  tf»6iitg  tfatisacttoo.  The  diffi- 
culty of  finding  Hfiniib  imm»^  at  the  times  and 
places  of  id  r#f)Hif8RMttt,  tst^eihsr  with  the  Increase  of 
cost,  ofm  fMtttrftiiM  liM  toMfiia  to  b«  otherwise  de- 
rived from  IM  »s#i 

•'  The  4iffiir»n(i«t  4iiti6«  bfty«  b««ti  established  with 
a  view  to  ik»  rsisue  sf  titii  itlatid  from  the  sort  of 
cominarcial  VftMsiogs  in  wl(t«i)  it  has  been  held  for  so 
many  y«»r«  by  (h«  Miftfl4  ef  IHi  Tittwiaa.  But  this  is 
diAcult,  »nd  wilt  miy  b«  ^(i«l  without  the  concur- 


rence of  fresh  elements,  at  nearly  all  the  tradera  In 
Porto  Rico  are  debtora  to  those  in  St.  Thomas,  and  it 
is  not,  therefore,  easy  for  many  to  do  precisely  what 
tuey  might  otherwise  desire  In  this  respect. 

"  But  even  if  it  were  to  be  assumed  that  the  whole  of 
the  manufactures  imported  here  were  of  British  origin, 
it  is  still  a  most  burdensome  obstruction  in  the  way  of 
our  commerce ;  the  charges  and  commissions  in  tiie 
transit  are  considerable,  and  can  not  be  estimated  at 
lesa  than  11  per  cent,  although  the  duties  payable  at 
St  Thomas  are  only  U  per  cent,,  and  the  cost  of  Brit- 
ish productions  is  thus  unnecessarily  raised  to  the 
consumer  in  Porto  Rico  to  the  extent  of  the  former 
amount. 

"It  follows,  therefore,  from  what  I  have  observed, 
that  the  prosperity  of  the  island,  consequent  upon  the 
great  increase  In  the  prices  of  its  produce  which  has 
obtained  lately,  and  which  is  iiliely  to  be  maintained 
for  some  time  to  come,  will  of  course  increase  British 
trade  to  some  extent ;  but  no  material  and  important 
increase  can  take  place  until  the  laws  relating  to  the 
admission  of  foreigners  shall  be  so  modified  as  to  ad- 
mit of  the  establishment  of  foreign  mercantile  firms  or 
branch  houses  in  Porto  Rico.  Beyond  the  importa  of 
which  we  have  an  exact  knowledge,  there  is  intro- 
duced annually,  byway  of  contraband,  fostered  by  the 
high  tariff  in  force,  an  amount  of  goods  that  is  vari- 
ously estimated,  but  which  I  believe  may  be  fairly  set 
down  as  being  equal  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  gross  annu- 
al returns. 

"The  regulations  as  to  the  payment  of  custom-house 
duties  are  the  following:  All  sums  under  (200  are  to 
be  paid  at  once ;  from  that  amount  to  (2000  within  two 
months;  from  (4000  to  (6000  within  four  months; 
and  from  (8000  to  $12,000  within  terms  varying  from 
six  months  to  nine  months.  The  average  rate  of  ex- 
change may  be  stated  at  (600  currency  per  £100.  The 
returns  for  1856  show  an  Increase  in  every  article  of 
produce,  with  the  exception  of  coffee,  in  which  there 
is  a  reduction  of  1,571,468  lbs.,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  statement: 


»«M».- 

Snsar. 

CoITm. 

HolMHI. 

Tobacco. 

HIdn. 

Colloo. 

i^tS/if  lilt tmititti mil tt II tin 44  4 

PoofKb. 

11T,660,4T« 

82,047,698 

Pounitl. 
9,034,816 

11,606,283 

Olllou. 
4,408,786 
2,483,092 

Pound*. 
2,989,896 
1,706,893 

Pouoda. 
466,478 
816,217 

Pouoda. 
173,140 
20,610 

"tim  nfm»g»  fifim»  ef  (Imn  articles  were  m  fol- 
lows t  Hi4«»  fr§m  i§  t«  39 ««Hi«  pet  pound,  averaging 
U  aant#,  er  M'.Ber  pmai  f  »«g»f  from  (4  25 1 .  $6  75, 
avaiwgini;  $6  So,  §r  33>., Mf  100  pounds;  coffcb  from 
12  to  13  mat*,  »V8f«^N9  »|  6«tl(9j  or  Bid,,  per  pound ; 
molassaa  from  Utsii  e«^»,  «r  from  9d.  to  lli/.  per 


gallon ;  tobacco  IVom  (6  to  (7,  averaging  (6  50,  or 
£1  6i.,  per  100  pounds;  cotton  from  (12  to  (14,  aver- 
aging (13,  or  £2  12>.,  per  100  pounds.  The  porta  from 
which  the  produce  of  1866  was  exported  are  the  fol- 
lowing, and  the  quantities  shipped  at  each  port  are 
expressed : 


Bimilmi,»rf9fi»'Sk»iiiiiiiiiiiiii 

A<^M)Miilla  lltlll  111111411114414411414 
4rS*,W  11  I  lllllllltl  I  I  lllllll  4  tl,  144 
Afnyfi  r  r  II:  III!  I  I  III  :  III  14  1144  444414 
IfMPItMO,  9Wl  llllll  Itll  I  mill  I  44  4  44 
H^^H^i  llllltllll  1IIIIIHIIIII4  .  J.' 
lF^n$9tt  lilt  llllllll  t  I  nil  11144  /*/**< 
f  fffWff  tllttlllllltllllt 14  4  4  44444 


t'oitea. 
PoQSda. 

116,400 
M,740 


178,141 


Sas»r. 


Pouoda. 
12,869,644 
8,431,400 
10,819,961 
21,644,222 
11,284,137 
21,746,600 
86,874,712 
117,660,476  ' 


Coflka. 


Pounda. 

1,186,327 

2,231,100 

604,264 

887,311 

89,793 

8,936,200 

1,631,816 


9,934,816 


HIdaa. 


Pouoda. 

876,606 

(1,300 

41,176 

9,822 

29,676 


466,478 


NoIa< 


Uollooa. 

261,86.4 
88,680 

276,612 
1,117,246 

471,224 

677,260 
l,8i  2,766 
4,408,936 


Pouoda. 

468|900 
847,462 
121,120 


1,662,418 


2,989,896 


"  TbaiM  »r«  tb«  frifl«ip«l  p<»(«,  but  there  are  several 
others  of  miflSf  impef  «««#«  to  which  vessels  occasion- 
ally prOM84  fer  tb«  SWrpeM  of  completing  their  car- 
goes,  im4  tilty  »li,  mth  ♦!(«  «*cepHon  of  Arecibo,  pos- 
sess |gOo4  hu^§,  where  vessels  can  at  all  times  load 
with  tba  etHkH  f««iti(/'<  Afeelbo,  however,  has  no- 
thing but  m  »pm  fS«4l{««d,  enposed  to  the  north 
Wtnatf  •n4  »  ynt  f»fsiy  ptrnw  without  one  or  more 

vassals  h«in>  wrwl(«4  mtii 

"  Pwto  site,  6t  §»n  iatn,  the  capital,  has  a  spa- 
eiOHt  I»ff4'i««l(«4  htfimfj  wlMf«  large  vessels  may  lie 
in  MiSit^  in  flv«,  lli*,  ftflrf  l«t«fl  fathoms  of  watei .  It 
it  fHrnish(>4  with  8il««ii«t(t  wharves,  at  which  vessels 
ruy  4ii<b»rf«  »«4  r«««i¥«  tittif  cargoes,  and  has  a 


large  bonding  store,  in  which  certain  goods  are  re- 
ceived at  a  very  moderate  cost 

*■  Coffee  and  the  cane  are  cultivated  thronghout  the 
island,  but  the  other  articles  of  produce  are  grown  only 
in  certain  districts,  cotton  being  chiefly  confined  to  Are- 
cibo and  Aquadilla,  where  also  a  considerable  quanti- 
ty of  tobacco  is  produced.  This  plant  is  also  cultivated 
in  the  interior,  and  subsequently  exported  through  the 
parts  of  Ponce  and  Arrayo  de  Gnayama. 

"  The  quantity  of  sugar  exported  in  1866  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  was  more  than  three  times  that  tent  to  Great 
Britain,  and  this  year  will  show  a  still  larger  differ- 
ence."—Ertrarf/rom  the  Report  of  the  Britith  Connd 
at  Porto  Rico,  on  tJit  Trade  of  the  Year  1856. 


POB 


1548 


POB 


T>LVU  or  TUB  nuKOiFAL  Abtiolh  iupobted  into  roBTO  Kico,  1848-1853 [Hud*  up  from  the  "  Balantu  Oenaralei."] 


AiWtiw. 

OUveoll. 

Llquldi 

lictU 

Bplou 

Frulti,  eta 

Bice 

Cereals,  etc. 

Lord  and  butter. . . . 


Oheeae 

Flih 

Other  edlUes 

OottoiM 

Wooloii* '. 

Uneni 

8illu 

Tobacco  

Sklna  and  peltrioi 

Wood 

Metal 

Olaas 

Iron  nalla 

Ironware 

UacblncB,  and  parts  thereof,!, 
for  sugar  manufactories. . .',[ 

Agricultural  implements 

Soap 

Medieines 

Furniture 

Perfumery 

Candles 

Gold  and  stiver 

ToUl 


isu. 

486^019  60 

1I'8,63S  94 

71,712  40 

5,!I67  4J 

08,  ISO  6U 

88,680  26 

8'.:  8,968  01 

84,149  19 

87,814  76 

BCb,g08  00 

110,986  68 

621,810  87 

58,0.14  03 

S(IS,440  66 

68,l'40  4t 

190,929  18 

78,409  63 

<83,a60  00 

86,126  60 

12,024  97 

86,50536 

ie,06J  48 

9,85613 

22,1X4  06 
187,481  80 
88,20982 
61,838  03 
12,438  IB 
46,65i  16 
284,11600 


$.ni,ii89  so 

187,250  70 

00,876  80 

6.4&U  60 

87,8.18  98 

40,598  81 

680,416  98 

80,738  08 

26,196  73 

864  483  41 

112,706  09 

765,287  88 

49,8:il  84 

4i6,09U  (IS 

61,678  08 

143,120  1)4 

58,080  87 

311,106  42 

38,(183  H 

15! 03  04 

68,3TB  68 

23,788  6i 

88,839  28 

22,781  85 
134  980  (10 
88  667  40 
44,178  47 
18,800  01 
16,806  63 
612,15600 


$4.463,761  68    $1,<.8I,6S8  89 


$89,197  16 

828,188  07 

83,278  73 

14,657  46 

29,!  51  19 

43.987  37 

688,860  88 

88,158  84 

UO.en  70 

486,990  91 

116,620  52 

651,105  84 

47,244  04 

810,180  IT 

68,18608 

186,680  84 

86,049  14 

316,301  80 

84,619  34 

20,82916 

68,170  61 

35,4118  07 

24,(83  44 

23  682  3(1 
112,488  76 
81,95518 
44,14608 
15,088  08 
68,678  40 
740,062  60 


$5,222,029  98 


? 79,869  70 
86,481  OO 
02,60711 
'     14,81)5  88 
60,672  74 
46,809  78 
1,0<K),8I9  92 
T4.6T1  T4 
46,888  60 
381,808  61 
]«4,(l87  40 
6i6.5S514 
60,6:)4  SO 
863.682  28 
864588 
323,066  45 
131,44!)  15 
B87,(  88  66 
85,446  71 
l4,Ti7  11 
61,373  86 
48,445  67 

81,789  16 

4').128  6T 

166.884  00 

20,874  79 

45,-66  27 

17,8C5  00 

66,887  33 

768,4T6  25 

)0,07«,87o"oa 


490,938  63 

M0,B681T 

VI,T84ie 

•16,688  18 

60,021  66 

145,498  58 

1,193,128  88 

01,668  76 

67.014  58 

408,882  21 

166,081  04 

690,201  5i 

48,744 18 

267,459  28 

03,890  46 

188,440  81 

134,141  98 

254,947  98 

71,7881)6 

82,(157  28 

48,894  06 

66,17960 

81,166  48 

89,706  05 

816,940  36 

80,617  66 

84,488  08 

86,16760 

68,946  99 

898,281  no 

K6,898,895  65 


IIIM. 
(188,707  00 
848,9f3  68 
67,818  67 

10.667  34 
48,840  Ut 
88,i65  75 

692,701  40 

69.67.S  80 

8S,8:i7  5() 

S4!l,0i:8  02 

13,%,732  06 

677.841  81 

75,777  62 

852,494  on 

70,490  07 

124,1174  56 

106.4(HI  28 

816,867  15 

8.1,074'89 

26,878  T4 

80,741  36 

86,383  21 

15,207  52 

88,018  91 
97,818  10 
86,102  01 

84.668  64 
26,088  00 
48,017  88 

786,630  76 


$64)86,910  36 


'  Tlie  "  Balanza"  girea  this  sum  as  $I0T,26T  34,  which  is  an  error. 


Previously  to  1815,  Porto  Rico,  being  excluded  from 
all  direct  intercourse  witli  other  countries,  excepting 
Old  Spain,  was  '  itiier  stationary  or  but  slowly  pro- 
gressive, the  entire  value  of  the  exports  in  that  year 
having  amounted  to  only  66,274  dollars !  But  at  that 
epoch  a  royal  decree  appeared,  which  exempted  the 
trade  between  Spain  and  the  Spanish  colonies  and  Por- 
to Rico  from  all  duties  for  fifteen  years ;  and  she  was 
then  also  permitted  to  carry  ou  a  free  trade,  under  rea- 


sonable duties,  with  other  countries.  In  consequence 
principally  of  these  wise  and  liberal  measures,  but 
partly  also  of  a  considerable  immigration  of  rich 
Spanish  colonists  from  South  America,  Porto  Rico  has 
latterly  made  rapid  progress.  Great  improvements 
have  been  effected  in  the  police  and  internal  adminis- 
tr.^tion,  and  roads  have  been  constructed  in  all  parts  of 
the  island,  The  exports  of  domestic  produce  from  the 
U.  8.  for  the  fiscal  year  1856-'57  were  $1,783,429. 


OiNXSAL  COMPABATIVa  STATKHUT  OF  TBX  AuOtTNT  AND  CnABACTXB  OF  TUX  COMMERCE  OP  TOETO  ItlCO  FBOM  1818  TO 

1853.— [From  •^       ''ilanzaa  Ueneraloa"] 


YSSM. 

iwroaTATioN  INTO  poato  nu 

VXPORTATIOll    PBOM  FORTO  HICO.                                    [ 

NaUonal 
Piwiueti. 

Foreign  Prodiels. 

For  tho  DA- 
llonfil  Tmd«. 

For  the  foraiffn  Trsd*. 

Tolsl  Eijiortt. 

lallmuiUli 

laSpsnlih 
Viueb. 

Infonlgii 
VaMb. 

TvUl  Impoiti. 

lo  SptiDfih 

Id  Spanlih 
Veinb. 

In  forefgi) 
Vwel£ 

1848 

1849 

1880 

1881 

1853 

1853 

$1,148,079 
1,011,000 
1,886,961 
1.649,717 
8,030,947 
1,411,004 

$1,Til3,3T0 
8,819,032 
1,8T!I,488 
9,810,063 
3.1%,784 
8,H4,375 

$I,5i'S,31)l 
1,651,660 
1,085,670 
8,821,089 
8,144,663 
1,7!M),630 

$4,469,761 
4,1:81,533 
5,822,020 
6,078, 8T0 
6,2il8,3('5 
5,336,910 

$0C0,820 
464,128 
288,916 
502,451 
409,613 
440,400 

$:>33.810 
2ST,823 
271,800 
280840 
34!l,718 
835,0f0 

$4,696,500 
4,700,419 
6,!]21.643 
4,918,688 
3,8£8,002 
4,523,881 

^B.SPB.IBO 
5.4Ci2  871 
5,877.819 
6,761.974 
4,652,839 
6,299,327 

AuDUNT  OF  Duties  keoeived,  the  Ncxder  of  Vessels  entebed  and  oleabed,  and  the  bespictive  Tonhaqb  of  tub 
SAME  at  1'obto  Hioo.— [From  the  '-  Balanzas  Ueneniles."] 


Ytan. 


1848... 
1849... 
1860... 
1861. . . 
1852. . . 
1863... 


PutlM  Mceivad. 


I  Iwporta. 


$8I»,aT4 
932,608 
1.011,473 
1,041696 
l,8'«,a9B 
1,080,246 


On  Eiporta.      I 


ToUI. 


916(,804 

160,098 

177,629 

84,803 

81,077 

31,641 


$1,034,239 
1,082,307 
1,189,001 
1,069,413 
1,859,178 
1,051,887 


VaaaeU  eotarad. 


Number. 


1050 
1096 
1206 
1324 
1452 
1833 


Toonaga. 


118.910 
184,851 
182,040 
160.536 
175.S36 
161,603 


Vcicela  daarad. 


Kunbar. 


I1V9 
1126 
1179 
1209 
1SB2 
1825 


Tonnage. 


123,250 
129,573 
131,767 
161,042 
108,766 
164,867 


sels.  The  ports  mostly  visited  by  American  vessels 
were:  MayagOez, 97 vessels ;  Ponce, C9  vessels ;  Guoy- 
ama,  50  vessels;  and  Porto  Rico  .(San  Juan),  46  ves- 
sels. ,  ■      ,  ■'  '■,' ' , 

QUANTITIBS  OF  TDB  FBINCIPAL   rBODCOTS  OF  TOETO  RlOO,  1843-1888,      !  •         "    * 


The  tonnage  of  American  vessels  arriving  in  1853  at 
Porto  Rico  amounted  to  G7,180,  or  nearly  one  half  of 
the  total  tonimgo  of  the  island,  double  that  of  all  the 
Spanbh,  and  nearly  triple  that  of  all  the  English  ves- 


YaaiB. 

Aguardlenla. . 

Cotton. 

Colea. 

Sugar. 

Hidee. 

Tobacco. 

MolaiMa. 

Black  Callla. 

1848 

Ilogihaada. 

9Bti 

Poqnda. 
189.457 

Poaildl. 

9.618,074 

Pftunda. 
101,2r8,T64 

Poundt. 
745,880 

Pounda. 
2,467,'U8 

tiallona. 
B,86T,4T4 

Head. 
4372 

184» 

124U 

304,a'>8 

8.6I^311 

100,742,5171 

519.070J 

2,4.<)0,540i 

4,828,13Bi 

8700 

1860 

bin 

841,6741 

11,783,084 

112,129,432 

614.7r.2 

2,978,808 

4,905,313 

4376 

1861 

84Tt 

866,581 

18,111,071 

118,416.804 

632,706 

6,478,084 

4,827.588 

60!S3 

1853 

list 

218,-93 

11,870,768 

98  631,806 

608,820 

5.565,739 

3,857,900 

6280 

18tB 

643t 

880,566 

11,680,604 

110,606,669 

61)7,261 

3,T08,45T 

4.896,223 

6019 

The  foreign  Antilles^  and  among  them  especially  St. 
Tbomaa  and  St.  Croix,  have  the  largest  amount  ik  the 
Import*  into  Porto  Rico.     Indeed,  the  former,  aa  al- 


readv  observed,  may  be  considered  merely  as  en  en- 
trepot for  European  and  American  manufactures,  serv- 
ing the  Spanish  merchants,  from  its  proximity  to  the 


■  f   ; 


POR 


1549 


POR 


BInck  CbHI«. 

Heiul. 

43Tl! 

87nO 
4B70 
(053 
6220 
6019 


:  Spanish  West  Indies,  as  a  market  for  all  the  merchan- 
dise. It  will  Ih^  seen  that  the  United  States  occupy 
the  first  ranl<  us  regards  the  amount  of  exports,  taking 
mora  than  one  liolf  of  the  total  exportations.  They 
receive  two-thirds  of  all  the  sugar,  and  three-fourths 
of  all  the  molasses  exported ;  these  being  the  principul 
articles  entering  into  the  export  trade  of  Porto  Rico. 
The  exportation  to  the  United  States  amounted  In  1868 
to  $2,840,000,  chiefly  for  sugar  and  molasses.  Spain 
holds  the  second  rank  in  importations  into,  and  only 
the  fourth  as  respects  exportations  from,  Porto  Rico ; 
since  the  foreign  Antilles  import  more  into  the  island, 
and  the  United  States,  England,  and  the  Uanseatic 
cities  take  more  from  it,  than  does  Spain,  despite  all 
difTercntial  duties  iu  her  favor,  both  as  respects  ship- 
ping and  trade. 

Tonnage  i>u(tM.— Ships  entering  the  ports  of  the  isl- 
and of  Porto  Rico  will  pay,  if  foreign,  $1  the  ton  ;  if 
national,  87  i  cents  the  ton,  as  per  register.  Natioiml 
vessels  bringing  full  cargoes  of  coals  will  pay  no  ton. 


nage  duties,  although  the  number  of  tons  be  less  than 
indicated  by  their  register ;  foreign  vesseli  will,  how> 
ever,  pay  50  cents  per  ton,  in  complUnco  with  the  royal 
decree  of  December  28^  1848.  But  whenever  a  thip, 
either  national  or  foreign,  brings  other  cargo  besides 
coals,  no  matter  whether  the  coals  be  equal  to,  or  more 
than,  the  amount  of  her  tonnage,  she  will  pay  th«  ton* 
nage  duty  in  accordance  with  said  decree.  Vessels 
loaded  with  coals  only  are  exempted  from  local  duties, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  fee  ((28)  to  lb«  uap> 
tain  of  the  port  for  entering  and  clearing.  National 
or  foreign  vessels  entering  the  ports  will  pay,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  duties  speciilod,  12^  cents  per  ton,  as  per 
register,  for  the  purpose  of  deepening  the  harbor. 
Vessels  arriving  in  the  harbor  of  San  Juan,  under 
whatever  circumstances,  or  for  whatever  purpose,  will 
pay  12(  cents  per  ton  for  dredging  and  keeping  the 
port  navigable.  National  vessels  to  or  from  the  Island 
of  St.  Thomas  will  pay,  at  whatever  port,  the  tonnago 
I  duties  applicable  to  the  flag. 


COHFABATITE  STATUIEMT  Or  tni  COMIinOB  DKTWIEN  TUG  I'hITISD  gTATES  A14D  PORTO  ItlOO,  AMD  OmiB  SPANISB  W(ST 

Indus  (Kxripr  Cuba),  kxuiuitiso  tue  Vai.dk  at  Kxports  to  and  Impobts  fboii  bach  Codntbt,  and  tub  Tomnaor 
or  Amxbioak  and  roBXioN  VxssxLS  ABBivma  raou  and  DxrABTiNo  to  baou  Coumtby,  dueimo  thb  Ybabs  uebiu- 

MATED. 


VMII. 

COyHKBGI. 

HATlOATlOlf.                                                                    1 

VaIm  of  Ki 

porta  from  VnlKd  Statn. 

Vmluo  o(  Import! 
Into  tha 

AmarlcBQ  Tonnaga, 

PoraifQ  Tonnaflo.              1 

Domeitle 

Vonlftt 

ToUI. 

t,nlarad  Uie 

Cleared  from  tha 

Emarad  tha 

Frodae*. 

Pfodaea. 

(Juled  Statai. 

Vollcd  Stataa. 

UBited  Sutea. 

Unllad  SUtaa. 

Unltadauiaa 

1845 

$688,143 

$io,77ii 

$708,024 

$2,026,268 

61,150 

28,575 

629 

682 

1846 

676,441 

26,906 

701,846 

2,277,110 

51,284 

80,066 

437 

1878 

1847 

826,079 

83,G86 

859,064 

2,141,029 

88,003 

26,767 

1,746 

18T9 

1843 

801,722 

37,012 

888,784 

9,106,296 

45,488 

36,241 

618 

1160 

1810 

623,202 

83,284 

660,626 

1,964,861 

47,534 

26,870 

2,102 

8808 

1860 

816,062 

93,691 

009,663 

2,067,866 

41,768 

80,744 

8,074 

8108 

1S61 

061,410 

67,200 

1,018.619 

9,480,329 

48,336 

30,320 

7,874 

6018 

16S2 

1,016,663 

80,542 

1,066,106 

8,001,228 

68,385 

86,010 

12,061 

6614 

1868 

810,411 

64,143 

864,654 

2,8(IO,9a« 

47,838 

80,816 

16,844 

9429 

1854 

000,886 

60,997 

1,061,883 

2,860,368 

62,228 

81,014 

8,710 

8698 

1866 

1,144,681 

88,987 

1,188,613 

2,476,9118 

43,240 

84,190 

7,830 

6592 

American  vessels  entering  ports  in  the  islands  of 
puba  and  Porto  Rico  in  ballast  are  not  subjected  to 
the  payment  of  any  tonnage  duty  whatever ;  and  Amer- 
ican vessels  entering  the  ports  in  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  with  cargoes  of  any  descriptitin  of  mer- 
chandise whatsoever,  are  exempted  from  any  charge  of 
tonnage  duty,  if  such  vessels  export  or  convey  there- 
from cargoes  of  molasses  taken  in  at  said  ports.  Ex- 
emption, therefore,  (Vom  the  liability  to  tonnage  duty 
of  Spanish  vessels  coming  from  ports  In  the  Islands  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  is  extended  to  such  vessels  arriv- 
ing in  ports  of  the  United  States,  either  in  ballast  or 
laden  with  molasses  taken  in  at  any  of  the  said  ports, 
together  with  such  quantity  of  fresh  fruit,  the  produc- 
tion of  said  islands,  as  may  be  deemed  by  the  collector 
and  naval  officer,  under  the  provisions  of  the  forty-fifth 
section  of  the  act  of  2d  March,  1799,  to  bo  admissible 
as  surplus  stores:  provided  the  said  vessels  depart 
from  the  United  States  in  ballast,  or  with  their  car- 
goes of  molasses,  or  cargoes  of  the  staple  productions 
of  the  United  States. — Sec  Commercial  Relationt  with 
the  United  Statet;  Manual  far  United  States  Consuls; 
Turnbull's  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico;  Hunt's  Merchants' 
Magazine,  x.  327. 

Fortamouth,  a  sea-port  of  England,  In  the  English 
Channel,  on  tlie  western  side  of  the  island  of  Portsea, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  bay  called  Portsmouth  Harbor, 
lat.  50°  47'  N.,  long.  1°  6'  W.  Portsmouth  Harbor 
excels  every  other  in  Great  Britain  in  depth,  capacious- 
ness, and  security.  At  its  entrance  the  harbor  is  very 
narrow,  but  soon  expands  Into  a  great  width.  Every 
where  the  anchorage  is  good,  the  depth  sufficient  for 
ships  of  any  size,  and  in  extent  almost  sufficient  to 
contain  the  whole  English  navy.  The  roadstead  of 
Spithead,  between  Portsmouth  and  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
can  contain  1000  sail  with  security.  Ship-building  and 
other  manufactures  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent The  cod  and  other  fisheries  are  actively  prose- 
cutod,  and  Portsmonth  has  considerable  foreign  and 


coasting  trade.    The  tonnage  of  the  port  in  1853  was 
26,645  tons. 

Portugal  (£usiVania),acountry  of  south  western  KU' 
rope,  forming  the  western  portion  of  the  Iberian  pen- 
insula, and  situated  between  lat.  36°  57'  and  42°  8'  N,, 
and  long.  6°  15'  and  9°  82'  W.,  bounded  cast  and  north 
by  Spain,  south  and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Cap- 
ital, Lisbon.  Length,  north  to  south,  868  miles  j 
breadth,  80  to  140  miles ;  and  there  are  few  passable 
roads.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax,  and  hemp  are  culti- 
vated in  the  elevated  tracts ;  rice  in  the  lowlands  |  ol- 
ives, oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  figs,  and  almonds  in  the 
central  and  southern  provinces ;  and  at  tho  southern 
extremity,  the  American  aloe,  the  date,  and  other  trop- 
ical plants.  Tho  cullivation  of  tho  vino  is  the  most 
important  branch  of  industry,  and  the  produce  of  tho 
vineyards  watered  by  the  upper  Douro,  termed  port,  is 
tho  staple  export.  There  are  txtensivo  forests  of  oak 
in  the  north,  chestnut  in  the  centre,  and  the  sea-pine, 
kennes,  and  cork  in  the  south.  The  olive  oil  Is  of  in- 
ferior quality.  Mules  and  asses  are  the  chief  beasts  of 
burden ;  oxen  are  used  for  draught  in  tho  provinces, 
Cattle  and  sheep  are -reared  in  considerablo  numbers, 
but  tho  wool  is  not  of  fine  quality.  Goats  and  hogs 
arc  numerous,  and  fish  abound  in  the  rivers  and  on  the 
coasts.  Iron,  marble,  and  salt  are  the  chief  mineral 
products ;  the  mines  of  tin,  lead,  and  antimony  are  not 
worked.  There  are  numerous  salt  marshes  on  tho 
coast,  and  200  mineral  springs  are  enumerated.  The 
manufactures  are  very  limited,  chiefly  arms  and  poroo. 
lain  at  Lisbon,  woolens  at  Portalegre  and  Fundao,  Got> 
ton-spinning  at  Thomar,  jewelry  and  trinkets  at  Ll» 
bon  and  Oporto,  glass  at  Harinha-Granne,  paper  at 
Alcmquer,  silk3  at  Braganza  and  at  Campo-Qrando, 
near  Lisbon.  Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  Is  the 
principal  port,  and  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
River  Tagus,  the  observatory  of  the  fort  being  in  lat. 
"^^  42'  24"  N.,  long.  9°  6'  60 "  W.  Population,  about 
240,000.    The  hailMr,  or  rather  road,  of  Uibon  Is  en« 


FOR 


1550 


FOR 


of  ih«  flneit  In  the  world,  and  the  quays  are  at  onco 
GODvenUnt  and  beautiful.  Fort  St.  Julian  marks  the 
northern  entrance  of  the  Tagus.  It  is  built  on  a  steep, 
projecting  roclt.  There  is  a  light-house  in  the  centre, 
120  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  At  the  mouth  of 
the  Tagus  are  two  large  banlis,  called  the  North  and 
South  Cachops.  There  are  two  channels  for  entering 
the  river  —  the  north  or  little,  and  the  south  or  great 
channel.  On  the  middle  of  the  South  Cachop,  about 
H  mile  from  Fort  St.  Julian,  is  the  Bugio  fort  and  light- 
house, the  latter  being  C6  feet  in  height.  The  least 
depth  of  water  in  the  north  channel,  on  the  bar,  is  four 
fathoms,  and  in  the  south  six.  The  only  danger  in 
entering  the  port  arises  from  the  strength  of  the  tide, 
the  ebb  running  down  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  an 
hour ;  and  after  heavy  rains  the  difficulty  of  entering 
Is  considerably  augmented.  The  trade  of  the  country 
is  mostly  conducted  by  the  English  and  other  foreign- 
ers. The  population  and  extent  of  Portugal  are  shown 
by  the  following  statistics,  taken  in  l(l&4 : 

Population 3,600,000 

Extent  In  square  miles 84,600 

CommuDes 200 

The  great  fountain  of  wealth  In  Portugal  is  In  its 
vineyards ;  and  yet,  under  the  system  of  political  econ- 
omy practiced  by  the  government  of  that  kingdom, 
wine  can  not  be  either  grown,  made,  or  exported,  ex- 
cept under  heavy  restrictions  and  imposts.  Until  with- 
in the  past  few  years,  there  was  not  sufficient  com 
grown  in  the  few  agricultural  districts  for  the  ncocssi- 
tius  of  the  country ;  still,  corn  Is  classed  among  its  sta- 
ples, and  Its  importation  from  foreign  countries  pro- 
hibited, unless  when,  from  any  cause,  the  home  sup- 
plies are  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  for  consump- 
tion. The  following  official  return  exhibits  the  entire 
a^icultural  resources  of  Portugal  for  the  year  1861, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  corn,  the  supply  of  which  is 
constantly  fluctuating,  may  he  regarded  as  a  fair  index 
of  the  average  yearly  agricultural  wealth  of  this  king- 
dom : 


Ailicln. 


Com 

Beans  (pulse) 

Rice 

Salt 

Walnuts,  filberts,  almonds,! 

and  chestnuts ( 

Figs 

Carob  beans 

Oran|!cs  and  lemons 

Cattle 

Wine  (Madura  e  verde) .... 

Alto-Douro  port 

Olivooll 

Wool 

Silk 

Honey 

B«esiraz 


qnuiUllM. 


Holos . 


ArolMS. 


Thousand  . 

Heads 

Pipes 


Aiobas. 
Founds. 
Arobas. 


Amount 


l,llt»,737 

1T8812 

1S,2B2 

400,160 

87,040 

838,700 

248,100 

300,000 

6,782.712 

787,809 

100,000 

43,082 

887,6S!> 

816,140 

69,137 

26,610 


The  moio  is  equivalent  to  22'89  bushels.  The  aroba 
equals  82  lbs. 

In  1881  Pjitngal  imported  668,740  alqnleres  (each 
equal  to  82  lbs.)  of  grain ;  between  1846  and  1861  she 
exported,  as  appears  from  her  official  statistics,  about 
1,800,000  alquieres  from  Caminha,  and  about  4,000,000 
alquieres  from  Vianna;  making  a  total  of  nearly 
6,000,000  alquieres,  or  1,000,000  alquieres  per  annum ; 
or  an  exportation  of  about  twice  as  much  as  she  for- 
merly imported.  With  this  brief  reference  to  the  nat- 
ural capabilities  and  agricultural  resources  of  Portu- 
gal, the  laws  and  regulations  under  which  that  king- 
dom conducts  its  foreign  commerce,  the  character  and 
extent  of  that  commerce,  and  the  description  of  mer- 
chandise which  constitutes  the  leading  articles  of  ex- 
change, especially  between  Portugal  and  the  United 
States,  will  next  be  considered.  For  a  long  period  the 
commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  with  Portu- 
gal were  regulated  by  such  acts  of  legislation  as  the 
Portuguese  government  thought  proper  to  adopt,  with 
no  other  check  than  the  countervailing  legislation  of 
tlie  United  Statea.    Under  this  system  the  direct  trade 


between  the  two  countries  in  national  vessels,  laden 
with  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  either,  was  al- 
lowed on  terms  of  full  reciprocity ;  °  but  the  indirect 
trade  was  fettered  by  discrlniinatlons  and  restrictions, 
and  by  the  countervailing  duties  to  which  they  gave 
rise,  until  the  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation  en- 
tered into  between  the  two  countries  in  1840  placed 
their  trade  on  a  basis  of  entire  reciprocity.  This  treaty 
stipulates  that  vessels  of  either  country  arriving  in  the 
ports  of  the  other  shall  be  put  on  the  footing  of  nation- 
al vessels ;  that  no  other  or  higher  duties  shall  be  lev- 
ied on  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  either  country-, 
when  imported  into  the  other,  than  on  simil:.r  produce, 
etc.,  of  other  foreign  countries ;  that  the  same  duties 
shall  be  levied  on  such  importations,  whether  in  Amer- 
ican or  Portuguese  vessels ;  that  all  favors  granted  by 
either  party  to  other  nations  shall  become  common  to 
both ;  and  that  American  vessels  shall  pay  no  higher 
duties  of  export  in  the  ports  of  Portugal  than  national 
vessels.  This  treaty  is  declared  to  be  In  force  for  six 
years,  and  further,  until  the  end  of  one  year  after  ei- 
ther party  shall  have  given  notice  to  the  other  to  term- 
inate tlie  same :  no  such  notice  having  been  given  by 
either  party,  commercial  relations  between  the  two 
countries  are  still  governed  by  its  provisions. 

Under  the  stipulation  equalizing  American  and  Port- 
uguese vessels  with  respect  to  direct  importations,  the 
American  flag  ei^joycd,  during  a  brief  period  after  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty,  special  advantages  over  the 
vessels  of  other  foreign  nations.  This  was  the  result 
of  a  law  passed  by  the  Cortes  in  1887  (before  the  treaty 
was  adopted),  by  which  a  deduction  of  fifteen  per  cent, 
on  all  duties  was  allowed  on  merchandise  imported  in 
national  bottoms.  This  measure,  although  it  had  given 
a  great  impulse  to  the  national  shipping  of  Portugal, 
and  largely  augmented  Importations  In  American  bot- 
toms, was  found  to  exercise  a  disastrous  effect  on  the 
public  treasury,  diminishing  the  revenue  from  that 
source  about  $800,000  annually.  It  was  consequently 
abolished ;  and  after  the  16tb  January,  1842,  all  far- 
eign  vessels  were  equalized,  in  this  respect,  with  the 
national  flajg.  Notwithstanding  Portugal  possesses 
natural  advantages  and  resources  which  might  enable 
her  to  rank  among  the  most  important  trading  coun- 
tries In  Europe,  her  commerce  with  foreign  nations, 
and  particularly  willi  the  United  States,  has  dwindled 
down  to  the  mere  shadow  of  what  it  was  in  former 
times;  nor  can  much  hope  be  Indulged  of  a  speedy 
commercial  regeneration  of  this  kingdom  so  long  os 
her  present  restrictive  and  prohibitory  regulations  ex- 
ist, and  her  unsurpassed  natural  resources  remain  un- 
der their  present  partial  and  imperfect  system  of  de- 
velopment. The  dismemberment  of  Brazil  from  tlio 
kingdom  of  Portugal  (1820;  would  seem  to  mark  the 
period  of  the  greatest  decline  in  her  commerce  with  the 
United  States.  This  can  be  best  illustrated  by  giving 
the  official  returns  for  two  equal  periods  preceding  and 
following  this  event,  and  contrasting  the  results. 

ESPOETS  FBOH  Tni  UNITED  BtATIS  TO  POKTUOAL  AND  DE- 
PEMDKM0IE8,  1810^1832. 


Venn. 

Amount. 

Ytun. 

Amount, 

1810 

$7,679,210 

1822 

$427,000" 

1811 

11,466,160 

1823 

246.648 

1812 

g,39»,6.'0 

1824 

61 8,^36 

1818 

10,6879,28 

1825 

408.  I6U 

1814 

691.669 

1826 

313,,'»3 

1815 

2.281,101 

1827 

367  370 

1816 

2,270,389 

1828 

291,614 

1817 

1,884.8/3 

1829 

322,911 

1818 

2,8^8,177 

18G0 

279,7(19 

1819 

2,263,680 

1881 

294,383 

1820 

Total... 

1,326,751 

1832 

Total . . . 

296,218 

$68,698,298 

$3,766,492 

Showing  a  falling  off  in  the  total  amounts,  during 
the  eleven  years  compared,  of  $48,941,806,  or,  in  tho 
average  annual  amounts,  of  $4,449,255.  It  is  proper, 
however,  to  remark,  that  the  trade  with  Brazil  absorbed 
more  than  a  moiety  of  the  total  amount  of  the  exports 
from  1810  to  1820.    The  general  trade  of  Portugal  with 


Th 
igatlc 


POR 


1551 


I'OB 


Amount. 
$4«T,0«> 
246.648 
618,886 
408. 16U 
313.568 
35T3T0 
!el,614 
32'2,un 
2T»J(19 
294,383 
236,218_ 
'$8;'t6MM 


all  foreign  countries  has  alao  declined  during  the  pait 
half  century,  in  a  ratio  of  nearly  one-third  in  exports 
and  one  half  in  imports.  This  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  comparison  of  imports  and  e.xports,  for  a  se- 
ries of  yean  within  the  above-named  perijxi : 


VMn. 
181)1 

IniMfU. 
iJ4.ltl,T«0 

«ai,aio,TiiiJ " 

♦HK.Sftrsnr 

1816. 

S3.8ST,48U 

'J0,2'^ll,il)tA 

4;,NI0,N|,i 

1S80 

ie,ie4,M)a 

i:i,ii8.^,iiij<) 

iti.mjm 

1844 

11,282,680 

8,226,666 

20,MM,lpn 

1S48 

13,607,210 

tO,0Tl»,4aU 

M,l'M,«4U 

Natioation  UxTVBiis  or  I'oiTuoAL  roa  me  Yiab  1861. 


Portugal 

England 

gpain 

Sweden  

United  States 

France 

Netherlands. . . 

Austria 

Total . . . . 


ARtfali. 


644T 
1146 

»n 

SID 
136 

ts 
to 

286 


8938 


T<iBn>g» 


Crtw. 


U16,T(8 

150,637 

11,3116 

40,828 

87,617 

11,741 

0,810 

67,246 

0«8,383 


46,340 

11,266 

6,287 

2,107 

2,6'.iV 

701 

621 

0,801 


7i,e«i 


I'lMrutM. 

toiMtt. 

■■««»:- 

6777 

8111,1*84 

viM" 

i^a 

11)6,074 

uuma 

062 

10,006 

h.wi 

217 

42,444 

V,UM 

156 

81,026 

«,(>it'i 

06 

IMi^t 

1M 

8.S 

'*,70.l 

«I0 

810 

(10,126 

B.IOI 

8787 

«M6,40» 

COHMIHOX  IN  1853  AMD  1868 

Ytan. 

Import.. 

EiporU- 

1862 

Pruci. 
88,200,670 
86,846,660 

Pnaci 
18,179,875 
21.902,8.12 

18B8 

The  wines  which,  at  the  exporution  of  1853,  wer« 
valued  at  6,180,680  firancs,  were  not  put  in  the  account 
of  the  crop  of  1862.  The  imports  of  wine  from  Madeira 
into  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Juno 
80,  1856,  were  23,649  gallons;  and  from  Portugal, 
62,683  gallons. 

It  thus  appears  that  in  1848  the  exports  ttom  Portu- 
gal to  all  nations  were  only  about  one-third,  and  the 
Imports  from  all  nations  about  one  half  of  the  amount 
of  exports  and  imports  in  1801,  or  half  a  century  ago. 
The  general  movements  of  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  Portugal  havo  varied  so  little  during  the 
past  twenty  years  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  sta- 
tionary, at  least  so  long  as  tho  existing  commercial 
regulations  remain  unchanged  in  both  countries.  Dur- 
ing the  past  year,  however,  tlie  government  of  Portu- 
gal has  manifested  some  disposition  to  review  and  mod- 
ify its  entire  system  of  commercial  policy ;  and  the  good 
efltects  that  have  already  succeeded  the  initiatory  meas- 
ures to  this  end,  already  adopted,  will,  it  is  believed, 
encourago  it  to  remove  altogether  the  onerous  restric- 
tions which  havo  so  long  fettered  its  trade  with  foreign 
nations.  In  1858  the  export  duty  on  wine  was  materi- 
ally reduced,  and  equalized  to  all  nations  (a  discrimin- 
ation having  been  made,  before  that  period,  between 
exports  to  Europe  and  America) ;  and  the  effect  of  this 
first  step  toward  a  more  liberal  policy  is  evidenced  in 
the  increased  exportation  of  that  great  staple  in  1853 
over  tlio  preceding  year,  to  an  amount  exceeding  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole.  This  will  bo  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing table.  The  pipe  is  estimated  at  the  United 
States  custom-house  at  about  113^  gallons : 

Exports  or  Wink,  BBANnr,  etc..  fiioh  thi!  Pout  of 

OrOBTO  IN  TUB  YBABS  1852  AA'D  1853. 


CoutiUo. 


Great  Britain.. 
United  States . . 

Bratil 

Australia 

Hamburg 

Canada 

Ruaala 

Bremen 

Newfoundland . 

Prussia 

France 

Holland 

Spain 

Sweden 


Tatal. 


lati. 


Plpa. 

19,219 

4,462 

2,883 

2,001 

917 

002 

873 

260 

166 

110 

16 

21 

i 

288 


81,499 


OotlDtfiM. 


Great  Britain 

Australia 

United  States 

Canada 

Hamburg 

Brazil 

Kussia 

Denmark 

Portuguese  poss'ns , 

ilrcmen 

Sweden 

Newfoundland  . . . , 

Prussia 

Franco  

Holland 

Spain 

Total 


18(3. 


Plpn. 

46,834 

2,581 

1,058 

1,002 

923 

743 

661 

455 

8.'S7 

232 

216 

163 

114 

16 

0 

1 


5r,,8lS 


Exports  In  1863 66,813  pipca. 

"         1862 81,499     " 

Excess  In  1863  over  1862 24,314     '• 

The  Bul^olned  statements  of  the  commerce  and  nav- 
igation of  Oporto  during  the  Portuguese  financial  year 


1854-'o5,  and  tho  movements  In  wines  and  brandy  llio 
same  pcrio<l,  are  made  up  from  returns  of  the  Diilloit 
States  consul  at  that  port. 

Alleralioiu  lately  made  in  the  Portugiuu  Tnrlff  (IHM), 
—Broadcloths  have  bf.cn  reduced  12  per  cunt,  Hnw 
silk  now  pays  only  two-flfths  of  the  furnisr  duty,  On 
satins,  gros-do-Nnples,  elc,  a  reduction  of  nearly  ft-1  |,iir 
cent,  has  been  made.  Flax  has  been  raiaud  lo  4'j  I'unls 
per  quintal  of  128  pounds,  being  an  advance  of  'iWI  |i«r 
cent.  In  linens,  and  goods  of  cotlon  and  linen,  as  woll 
as  woolens,  no  great  alteration  has  been  nisdn,  In 
gray  cloths  and  wliite  shirtings  llieru  has  liooit  a  rtt> 
duction  of  about  12  per  cent.  Alu  pays  aliout  one- 
third  of  the  old  duties.  Wine,  which  lieretofarti  palil 
an  imirart  duty  of  alraut  $(i66  |>er  pipe,  lias  lienn  rx* 
duced  to  about  one-fifth  of  that  amount,  The  «Kport 
duty  on  port  has  liccn  reduced  and  equalized  la  all  thn 
world.  Pianos,  which  formerly  paid  from  i| IM  lo  |iill2 
each,  according  to  size,  now  pay  $24  cucli,  reKArdkss 
of  size.  Formerly,  no  tea  could  be  iuiporlod  oxrcpl  In 
national  vessels;  the  duty  being,  from  I'ortuuuosii  tar- 
ritories,  about  Is.  'Jd.  Englisli  (42  cents),  and  from  oth- 
er parts  4<.  8el.  per  pound,  equal  lo  $1  02,  Now  l«» 
may  be  imported  indirectly,  in  national  or  farel(;n  liot- 
lonis;  Portuguese  vessels  sliil  enjoying  the  usual  dis- 
criminations over  foreign  vessels  engaged  in  the  Indi- 
rect trade.  It  is  believed  that  Portugal  has  no  liiinty 
with  any  nation  equalizing  foreign  vessels  lo  ntttluiilil 
vessels  in  the  indirect  trade.  If  so,  all  foreign  lluK* 
are  equally  subject,  with  those  of  llio  United  Nliilns, 
to  an  additional  duty  of  20  per  cent,  when  Importing 
goods  not  the  pro<lucc  of  the  country  lo  which  they  Ini- 
long.  The  chief  difficulty  which  foreign  nieri'lmnls 
have  to  encounter,  in  selecting  a  cargo  for  the  Purtii- 
gi^eso  market,  arises  from  tho  complicated  and  alinnst 
unintelligible  terms  in  which  tho  larllfof  that  country 
estimates  the  value  of  merchandise.  Cottons,  llnons, 
and  in  many  instances,  even  fluids,  are  esllinated  \ty 
the  pound ;  and,  owing  to  the  great  variety  of  •iwcifln 
articles  under  any  particular  genus,  and  the  great  dif- 
ference in  their  respective  prices,  it  were  next  to  Im- 
possible to  say,  oven  approximately,  what  duty  U  as- 
signed to  all  or  any  of  the  descriptions  of  merehandlao 
which  usually  make  up  a  mixed  cargo.  Cotton,  for 
instance,  is  thus  classed  in  tlic  tarilfof  1862 1  raw,  per 
101  pounds,  2^  cents  (which  is  plain  enough)  |  wmu- 
faclured,  from  6  cents  to  TO  cents  per  pound  (wliluli 
is  not).  Should  an  American  merchant  desire  to  ship 
to  Lisbon  or  Oporto  a  cargo  of  such  American  product) 
as  would  be  most  likely  to  And  a  ready  market  in  ex- 
change for  the  wines  or  fruits  of  Portugal,  ho  would 
naturally  turn  to  the  Portuguese  taritf,  to  ascertain  OlH 
import  duty  on  such  descriptions  of  merchandise  as  ho 
could  most  profitably  send.  The  article  of  cotton  man- 
ufactures, it  has  been  shown,  would  probably  BlCord 
some  exercise  to  his  skill;  but  let  him  select  a  cargo 
of  tobacco.  The  Portuguese  tariff  informs  him  that  it 
is  admitted  only  when  sold  to  government  contractor!  | 
but  he  is  left  in  the  dark  with  respect  to  tita  proelM 
duty  to  which  it  is  sulject.    If  ho  has  a  corresponiunt 


Km 


lfi52 


FOR 


»t  oporto  or  LUhon,  lin  will  inrorm  him  th»t  the  duty 
on  tobacco  is  >rl>ltr«ry,  mid  dupendi  on  the  tormi  of 
tho  particular  bargain  ho  may  moke  with  the  govern- 
ment contractora,  after  hli  cargo  iball  have  reached 
port. 

Thl>  complex  claulflcation  of  the  Portugucso  lurifT 
induced  aomo  Orltlih  merchant*,  •  few  yean  alnoe,  to 


moke  the  attempt  t»  redticn  to  a  fliitd  vtliM  (h«  aelntl 
dutiai  levied  on  •oino  of  the  luNdlHif  linrort*  Into  I'orl. 
uKal  fH>m  forelKn  ouuntrlea,  llalnw  f«  the  mauli  of 
their  calculation*,  a*  reapenla  anme  arllclan  «/  rotton 
maiiufacturi.  Tl.e  diillea.  In  furliiKllitad  montiy,  are 
Kiven  in  rtai,  the  milrfu  Muu  equal  |«  lOtiO  rtiu,  or 
tl  Vi. 


AiUalM. 


Cotton  t»lil,  etc.,  under  40,  per  pound 

Cotton  bleaened  or  dyed,  under  40,  per  pound . 


Wick  of  nndl■■^  under  40  per  pound 

White  cottona  with  glnced  flnlah,  15  threada,  cle.,  per  pound. 


Cotton*  woven  with  dyed  threadn,  up  to  10,  per  pound  ,  _     

Cotton  dreaaea,  ahawla,  or  handkerchlcfa,  to  10  threada,  perpound , , . . 

Wlilto  cAmbrlca,  *M  threada  or  upward,  per  pound 

Colored  cambric  dyed  in  tho  piece,  per  pound 

t'olorod  cambric  In  ahnwls,  handkerchlcfa,  dreaaea,  or  other  ahapea,  per  pound, 


niii'iM  i«  foft, 

»jf»mkm„. 

Rata 

.  F"''««- 

M 

M 

M 

4T 

m 

TO 

ih 

m 

M 

4011 

M 

m 

W 

yiM 

M 

4«<» 

M 

The  duties  on  the  diflbrent  descriptions  of  cotton 
'  goods  vary  from  IC  (on  colored  velveteens)  to  96  (on 
striped  nankeens,  plain)  per  cent.  Notwithstanding 
the  enormous  duties  on  cottons  which  the  above  table 
indicates,  tho  manufactures  of  Portugal,  of  this  doscri))- 
tion  of  merchandise,  are  confined  to  some  coarso  and 
very  inferior  description  of  woolens,  and  a  few  common 
cottons  and  linens.  Still,  while  that  scale  of  duties 
continues,  cotton  tissues  can  never  become  n  profltable 
medium  of  exchange  between  the  two  countries.  There 
is  no  reason,  however,  why  tho  United  States  could 


not  comnete  with  liraxil  in  aiijijilylNK  lh«  tnarknia  of 
Portugal  with  sugar,  rice,  mm,  llmlwf,  hhiI  wthnr  artl> 
do*  which  liave  lioeii  hnrutofiirn  cliUlly  Imparled  from 
that  country.  Tha  rice  of  l.'ariillim  la  far  (nipflflor  to 
llrnzilian,  and  yut  I'ortuual  cimaiitiM*  annuHlly  of  llie 
latter  upward  of  -lOiOOOiMH)  |W)iitld«,  llraxlt  luppllet 
the  Portuguese  ni«rk«l  aiiMually  with  lUKar  to  tho 
amount  of  from  oim  and  «  half  Ui  two  mllliotia  of  did- 
lars.  Both  thosa  artl«la»  «ati  tt«w  Imi  nuported  froiu 
the  Unilud  Htute*  to  I'urtUK«l  Qn  th«  Mm«  Urnis  as 
from  Urazil. 


CoMMzaoa  or  tux  United  Btatis  with  PoaTcoAi.  noM  Oorona*  1,  WO,  m  ili;i,v  1,  lllM> 


Yvan  ■ntllDg 


Bept  80,18^1 

1822 

,182,1 

1824 

182!S 

3820 

1821 

182S 

1829 

18S0 

Total. 


Sept.  30, 1831. 
1832. 


1834 

1885 

1836 

188T 

1888 

1S39 

1840 

ToUl. 


Sept.  SO,  1841 

1843 

Omos..  1843" 

June  80, 1844 

184S 

1840 

184T 

1848 

1840 

1860 

ToUl.. 


June  30, 1851. 
186S. 
1858. 
lf«4. 
1865. 
1856. 


Kiporto. 


UmMUe. 


$UT,T26 

i02,ii!;e 

48,0TT 
TT.SM 

110,015 
00,046 

116,103 
7T,010 
42,068 
43.408 


$864,563 

$39,149 
28,262 
78,818 
42,542 

162,703 
38,386 

124,S3T 
67,970 
5S,711 
97,841 


$733,«63 

$114,448 
72,723 
59,096 
99,658 
124,860 
06,310 
56,893 
112,260 
169,721 
172,978 


$1,078,333 

$167,342 
234,064 
£23,661 
127,150 
270,716 
844,098 


Foreign. 

$06 

18,5US 

3(10 

6.163 

2,8J4 

633 

220 

1,164 

628 

1,803 

$31,266 

$2,363 

300 

5,330 

16,598 

107,002 

13,247 

17,0T2 

8,0!)8 

6,093 

5,724 

$182,400 

$7,321 
1,1188 
1,538 
3,565 
6,419 
8,463 
1,385 
2,MI 
6,273 
5,230 


$48,613 

$4,996 
4,129 
S6,K->3 
23,718 
24,867 
34,101 


$147,7ii2 
121,490 
4%377 
82,428 
112,839 
100,488 
110,328 
78,174 
42,716 
46,211 


$8b5,8i>8 

$41,606 
28,662 
78,648 
69,126 

270,306 
61,582 

141,409 
70,063 
65,804 

103,066 


$116,063 

$121,764 

74,111 

60,634 

103,118 

129,769 

104,769 

58,228 

115,244 

176,994 

178,214 


$1,121,845 

$172,338 
2,18,193 
260,208 
160,865 
296,588 
378,199 


Iniporti, 


ToUl,  _ 

$366,il6 
422,664 
181,01)4 
342,304 
221,073 
349,989 
268,091 
112,669 
237.361 

1*)5.821_ 

$2,666,663 

$124,446 
128,816 
170,189 
316,809 
517,074 
275,378 
187,mS 
206,864 
687,778 
322,884 


$2,752,176 

$386,668 
142.58T 
46,713 
109.706 
296,008 
87S,26:) 
283,330 
«14,78i 
822,221) 
3,19,763 


$2,t>10,8ji> 

$367,648 
266,864 
411,156 
243,533 
186,067 
287,166 


Wli«rau/il(#r«  wa*  Ih 
haUiim  lM|4a(*«»i#,  _ 


lii|>.irt, 


$14,000 

"m 


14,000 


138,190 


$4,100 

18,'3M 
8,e»l 

it'.m 

6,000 


WW 


«j,600 


inm' 


$3,000 
300 

"bm 


lii4«,irTr' 

MM 
Ifl.WIT 

m,m 

1A,I«» 
»t,tM 

9,m 

10,1  DA 

«l,lft4 

♦8*(»,4ll»  ' 

l»«.T4« 
1,6011 
4.U(M 
tl,(M8 
«T,a«!) 
(Kto 
tn,44ll 
M.MT 
IT.nt 

riA-MT 
A,64« 

mi 

)),a«l 
T,«l« 

8,'»t'« 

8,044 

610 


'dm 


~mr 

»,4«) 
1,470 
11441 

tim 

«,4M 
4tim 

8,4n» 
t,m 

3,«4i1 


Twilia. 


'mm' 

1,1  IT 

im 

«,M8 
A.O'il 
1,4»4 

»,m 
>,in3 
H,n<ii 

tl.aAt 


4,1101 
«,»ot> 
3,nM 

A,T4fl 

n.KMi 
4,«in 

4,m 
9,m 

3,470 
rt,flii7 
6,4T« 

fi.fljo 
0,383 


1,081 
151 
128 

'iii 


000 
1,026 

MM 

659 

1,3110 

10,407 

1,(141 

9,086 

697 

w.mr 


738 

787 

548 

173 

900 

1,874 

1,888 

0,418 

0,038 

7,581 


34,919 

6.176 
6,833 
8,000 
n,094 
9,W)8 
6,743 


*  Nine  months  to  Juno  SO,  and  the  flacal  year  from  thia  tint*  b«||lH»  July  1, 


The  tonnage  employed  in  the  above  trade  was : 


ists. 

1*14. 

19U. 

Too.. 
8,790 
14,669 

Tom. 
4,020 
10,106 

Tom. 
12,082 
16,373 

Foreign 

Total 

28,459 

14,126 

28,456 

The  exporta  firom  the  United  States  to  Portugal  con- 
riitof  whitb  oU,  whalebone,  ipermcandlei,  atavea  and 


headings,  beef,  pork,  rieo,  tohaeeo,  Unwed  oil,  soap, 
nnils,  manufacture*  «t  Iron,  and  aundrlei.  The  im- 
port*, as  taken  from  tho  Unlt«4  Hiate*  Treasury  re- 
turns, are  wool,  wine*,  vln«|(ar,  dried  fruit,  salt,  corlcs 
and  cork-trae  hark,  marble,  ilieet  and  har  lead,  copper, 
and  sundrici. 

The  export*  from  the  United  Utatei  <o  Portugal  for 
the  flical  year  18IM-'07  ln«lud«d  $M,m  tfrattmanufac- 
tared  cotton,  md  1131,809  «rtobM«o. 


Thee 

ando; 

some  I 

these  I 

from  I 

tic  cot 

States, 

followii 

tween  i 

six  moi 

Numbe 

With  ar 

Ofcarg( 
From 

United 
of  1855 
ican  vei 
longing 
Their  ci 
tow,  ru 
«f  inwa 


FOR 


1558 


P08 


lo  I'wfl- 
uriiU  of 
f  rot  Ion 
in<y,  M" 
not,  or 


Mf  I'lni 
41 

ib 
m 

M 

g« 

M 
M 

ii«rk(it*  of 
nUiflf  iirtU 
4iri8<t  from 
miiiflrlor  to 
wily  of  llio 
lit  lupplle^ 
il4«r  to  the 
loiii  of  (Itll- 
|,orl«<t  ffoiii 
M  tarnia  »» 


10      I'.wi   1 

41 

ini 

41 

ins 

)« 

i<  ■< 

mn 

'i'lT 

M 

1  •  >  i 

4il 

184 

08 

9;Tbr 

\11 

'flflO 

m 

1,0!fl 

M<* 

HM 

lyjt 

m 

4114 

l.aw) 

m 

10,4<rT 

ni 

l.Ml 

W)l 

9,tl«2 

xftl 

tfilt 

pr 

Ts.M" 

1W 

.noT 

Ma 

,74» 

«» 

ftmi 

iwo 

,Rin 

i.rt4 

MT 

1,8S8 

i,Mt 

S'iiS 

,«IIT 

5,0»8 

Itnfl 

1,M1 

f^ra^ 

'-    il4,>l» 

1,470 

Mlfl 

I.StiT 

«,fl3B 

8,egn 

iitM 

B,0i)4 

t.ATO 

o,rins 

im 

6,143 

ttl««(t  oil,  MAP, 

ilrl«a.     the  Im- 

M«  TfsMUry  re- 

ftoll,  a»lt,  corks 

bkf  U»<li  copper, 

llo 

For  UmI  fof 

Wttmmmtvi- 

Tht  toniMge  of  tht  couting-veaaala  tmployatt  in  the 
eoaating-trtda  of  Bruil  varlaa  lh>m  40  to  420  tuna 
oach.  Foreign  veaaela  aro  not  kllowed  to  pkrti>:ipate 
In  the  Goaating-trade.  We  annex  a  Table  ahowInK  the 
number  anil  tonnage  of  veaaela  employed  in  the  coaat' 
lng>trade  of  Portugal  In  1862. 

P'giti.  I   Namb«r  of  VMMb.  |        Tiii 


Oporto 

VUna 

Flgueln 

Aniro 

Cimlnha 

Villa  de  Conde . 
Eipoaande  


loa 

15 

s 

4 


n>ft. 


85.513 

8, 'ill 

15.050 

1,»I0 

1,413 

1(11 

190 


,  Foreign  veaaela  ar«  allowed  to  enter  Into  the  foreign 
trade,  and  pay  the  aamo  tonnage  duea  as  those  bearing 
the  flag  of  Portugal,  to  wit:  VesaeU  of  the  United 
States  under  the  treaty  of  2Cth  of  August,  1840;  also 
the  veaaela  of  the  following  countries  under  dill'erent 
treatiea  and  conventiona,  Dutch,  Danish,  Itritish,  Pru8> 
aian,  Swediah  and  Norwegian,  Kuasian,  Uraziiian, 
Belgian,  Ilanae  Towna,  French,  Papal  States,  and 
Hanoverian,  The  indirect  trade  la,  however,  except- 
ed. Goods  not  the  product  of  the  country  from  which 
the  veMel  saila  are  liable  to  an  extra  duty  of  20  per 
cent,  when  brought  to  Portugal  in  foreign  abipa. 

»OKT  DUES,  «T0.  lUu.       CmU. 

Balling  In  ball*i|t,  or  not  hilly  ludoii,  per  ton . . .  V6U  =  'J8 
Laden  with  aalt,  olive  oil,  or  wiuo,  produce  of 

Portugal 50=   BS-B 

Laden  with  other  produce  of  l^ortugal 15 1  =:  10  4  6 

In  all  caaea  when  re-exporting  foreign  goods. . .  250  =  'iS 
Kntering  in  ballHst,  and  sailing  In  uallut  (ex- 
cept in  eases  of  distress) 9R0  =  i9 

With  full  cargo  of  grain,  produce  of  Portugal. .  260= ttS 

With  wine,  sslt,  or  olive  oil 2i>0  =  28 

With  other  Portuguese  produce 100=  II 1-6 

Contribution  to  remove  the  bar  in  the  port  of 
Oporto , 100  =  111-5 

An  additional  tax  of  15  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of 
tonnage  and  bar-dues  Is  also  exacted  in  Oporto.  Un- 
der treaty,  American  vessels  are  equalized  with  na- 
tional vessels  as  to  these  duties.  Contrlbutiona  for  tlie 
exchange  building,  Ave  rcas  =  ono  half  cent,  nearly. 
Steamers  pay  two-flftha  leas  tonnage  dues  than  sailing 
vessels.  The  contribution  for  the  bar  la  the  same  fur 
both.  Every  captain  of  a  morch.\nt-vc8sel  is  bound  to 
have  two  manifests  of  the  same  t  flor,  signed  liy  hi:  i- 
aelf,  and  certified  by  the  Portuguese  consul  or  vie 
consul  at-the  port  of  departure.  Goods  omitted  in  hit 
manifest,  or  of  a  different  description,  have  to  pay  a 
aum  equal  to  the  value  of  the  goods.  Goods  admissi- 
ble being  omitted,  a  Ane  equal  to  double  the  amount 
of  the  duties,  and  custom-house  charges  and  imposts. 
— United  Stales  C'ommercinl  lielalioiu. 

Porluffueie  Setllementt,  —  Tiie  Portuguese  have  nu- 
merous settlements  in  AVestern  Africa,  situated  on  the 
Kiyer  Caches,  the  St.  Domingo,  and  the  ISio  Grande. 
The  chief  settlement  in  Guinea  is  on  tho  island  of  Lo- 
ando ;  and  in  Benguela,  that  of  St.  Philip.  There  is 
some  trade  carried  on  between  tho  United  States  and 
these  settlements,  especially  at  Loando.  The  exports 
from  the  United  States  to  this  point  consist  of  domes- 
tic cottons,  flour,  and  specie;  imports  to  the  United 
States,  guin-Gopal,  palm-oil,  ivory,  bides,  etc.  The 
following  summary,  exhibiting  the  general  trade  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Loando,  during  the  first 
six  months  of  1854,  is  derived  fToni  a  consular  return : 
Number  of  American  vessels  arrived  and  cleared,  10, 
With  an  aggregate  of  2218  tons.  Value  of  cargoes  in- 
ward, (G5,000;  discharged  at  Loando,  $43,000.  Value 
Of  cargoes  outward,  $22,000. 

From  a  return  of  later  date,  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  Loando,  for  the  last  throe  months 
of  1855  appears  to  have  been  carried  on  by  five  Amer- 
ican vessels,  of  somo  200  tons  each — three  of  them  be- 
longing to  Salem,  Massachusetts,  and  two  to  New  York. 
Their  cargoes  inward,  landed,  consisted  of  dry  goods, 
flour,  rum,  etc.,  to  the  value  of  |24,200;  the  total  value 
Of  inward  cargoes  being  $61,600;  and  their  cargoes 
•  6F 


outward,  of  palm-oil,  gum-copal,  I  very,  copper  ore,  etc., 
to  the  value  of  907,  I0«>.  F,ach  of  these  vessels  touched 
at  Ambrli,  Indeed,  vessels  trading  to  lA>ando  usual- 
ly touch  at  Ambrli  and  AmbrUatte,  where  they  have 
agents,  to  whoaa  conaignment  they  land  part  of  tbair 
cargoes,  and  take  In  auch  produce  aa  may  ba  In  wait- 
ing. They  then  touch  at  Loando,  and  leave  part  of 
their  remaining  cargoea;  then  they  make  for  Uengue- 
la,  where  they  uaualiy  remain  front  40  to  fiO  days,  to 
close  their  sales,  and  take  on  loanl  gunwropal  and 
ivory.  On  their  homeward  voyage  they  again  touch 
at  Ambrli  and  Loando,  at  which  places  they  complete 
their  cargoes  of  gums,  palm-oil,  Ivory,  hides,  and  coffee. 

At  Ambriz  there  are  now  two  American,  two  En- 
gllah,  one  French,  and  a  numlier  of  Portuguoae  facto- 
riea.  Heretofore  the  only  duty  paid  at  tbia  port  waa 
a  amall  tribute  to  the  native  king,  for  the  privilege  of 
trading.  Recent  movenienta  Indicate  a  design  on  the 
part  of  the  Portuguese  government  to  establish  a  reg- 
ular custom-house,  and  charge  import  and  export  du- 
ties. The  claim  of  Portugal  is  predicated  on  Its  alleged 
title  to  some  copper  mines  in  the  interior,  which  can' 
be  reached  only  through  th  Is  port.  The  little  kingdom 
of  Ambriz  is  too  weak  to  resist  the  pretenaiona  of  the 
Portuguese ;  and  however  novel  this  claim  may  appear 
to  more  civilized  nations  than  the  little  negro  kingdom 
of  Ambriz,  there  Is  ofhriul  Information  to  the  effect 
that,  instead  of  free  trade,  United  Slates  commerce 
will  probably  hereafter  encounter  at  this  point  the 
burdensome  restrictions  of  Portuguese  commercial  leg- 
islation. 

The  once  flourishing  and  vast  colonics  of  the  Portu- 
guese were,  before  the  year  1850,  reduced  to  the  follow- 
ing territories : 


laLAmiB. 

Madeira  and  Porto  Hanto 

Kastorn  Azores 

Praalailn 
bists. 
108,484 
91,830 

Central 

Oe.RKT 

Western 

08.991 

AraioA, 
Capo  Verd  Islands 

848,619 
88.138 

(^ast  of  OulncB,  IliKsao,  ctt-  

St.  Thomas,  Princes,  etc 

4.'>70 
12,158 

Angola,  Itcnguela,  anil  dcpondonclcs 

Hozambii^ue  and  depeudoudea 

59!),  121 
300.000 

ASIA. 

Doa,  Saluto,  Bardcz,  etc.  (new  conquests) . 
Town  of  Damao 

»M,888 

883. 78S 
83.159 

Town  ofDiu 

10,185 

OOEAMIA  AMD  CniNA. 

40i,119 
29,S8T 

918.300 

941,88: 

For  commerce,  etc.,  of  Portugal,  refer  to  B.iLni'8 
Etiay  on  rorlugal;  Bnoi'oiiTON's  IMem  on  Porlugai; 
IIodok's  I'orliigiiete  Expeditioru ;  Miss  Pari>ok's  Let- 
ters; Hunt's  Mcrcbantu'  Afagazine,  Ix.  306  (Whar- 
ton); Quarterly  Review,  xli.  184  (Sobtiiey);  Amen- 
can  Annual  Heijister,  vili.  218  (J.  Q.  AoASis).  On  the 
wine  country  of  Portugal,  <es  Fraheii's  Magazine, 
xxxvi.  802. 

Postage — FoBt-Office.  Postage  is  the  duty  or 
charge  imposed  on  letters  or  parcels  conveyed  by  post; 
tl\e  post-ofHco  being  tho  establishment  by  which  such 
letters  or  parcels  are  conveyed.  We  propose,  in  the 
present  article,  to  divide  and  treat  the  subject  under 
the  following  heads : 

L  Sketch  of  early  Postal  AfTaira.  II.  The  first  Na- 
tional Post-ofHco.  III.  The  British  Post-oflice.  IV. 
Introduction  of  cheap  Postage.  V.  Postal  Stalls  ■'», 
and  Rates  of  Postage  in  otlier  Countries,  VI,  Histo- 
ry of  tlio  United  States  Post-office,  VII.  The  present 
Condition  and  future  Prospects  of  the  United  States 
Post-office. 

The  post-office,  as  it  exists  to-day,  is  essentially  a- 
modern  institution.  Some  writers  have  traced  the 
origin  of  the  Fast  to  a  verj-  early  period  Jn  the  polltif- 


POS 


um 


POS 


ImI  KI1I017  of  the  world.  They  And  (h*  origin  of  tht 
word  puat  in  thu  Latin  poiiliu,  u  applkd  to  tlio  potui 
courier!  who  w«r«  plicvd  or  potted  it  certain  intcnrati 
or  italioni  on  Iho  route  over  which  Ivtieri  or  nicMigti 
were  conveyed,  ilcrodotui,  Xenophon,  and  other  an- 
cient hlitoriini,  •prak  of  postal  courier!  that  were  em- 
ployed by  kiuKi,  rulvra,  and  conimandori  of  arinlei. 
In  Tenia,  In  the  liino  of  Cyrua,  ilatloni  were  kept  at 
regular  intervale  alonK  the  principal  liiKhwiyi  of  the 
country,  and  meiiagei  were  forwarded  for  the  govern- 
ment by  courien,  who  acted  ai  pott-ridera.  In  the 
Roman  empire,  in  the  time  of  Juliui  Cniar,  and  during 
the  reign  of  Augualui,  a  aimilar  method  of  communi- 
cation wai  kept  up  between  the  central  i;overnment 
and  the  principal  military  utatlunt.  Marcu  I'olo  telle 
ni,  and  his  narrative  la  confirnivd  by  other  traveler!, 
that  Kul>lal  Khan,  the  Emperor  of  Tarlary,  had  regu- 
lar pont  eitabliabmrnti  throughout  hie  viit  empire. 
This  was  In  the  18th  century.  In  his  narrative  we 
find  the  following,  which  Is  particularly  interesting,  as 
giving  an  account  of  a  regular  post  among  a  compara- 
tively barbaroui  people,  that  wai  quite  equal  to  thu 
postal  establishments  of  many  mo<iern  Christian  na- 
tions :  "  l''rom  the  city  <if  Kanbalu  there  are  many 
roads  leading  to  Iho  ditfercnt  provinces,  and  upon  each 
of  these,  that  Is  to  !ay,  upon  every  great  high  road,  at 
the  distance  of  26  or  nO  miles,  accordingly  as  the  towns 
happen  to  be  situated,  then  aro  stations,  with  homes 
of  accommodation  for  travelers,  called  yamb  or  poit- 
houscs."  [These  are  maniionea.equonimi  in  Iho  Chi- 
nese language  Ichan,  and  in  the  I'emlan  mai'AtfaA.] 
"Theso  are  large  and  handsome  buildings,  having 
well-furnlshod  apartments,  hung  with  silk,  and  provide 
ed  with  everj-  thing  suital)lo  to  persons  of  rank.  Even 
king!  may  be  lodged  at  theso  stations  In  a  becoming 
manner,  as  every  article  required  may  be  olitalned  from 
the  towns  and  strong  places  In  the  vicinity ;  and  for 
some  of  them  the  court  makes  regular  provision.  At 
each  station  400  good  horses  are  kept  in  constant  read- 
iness, in  order  that  all  messengers  going  and  coming 
upon  tho  tmsineas  of  the  (irand  Khan,  and  all  embas- 
sadors may  have  relays,  and,  leaving  their  jaded  horses, 
be  supplied  with  fresh  ones.  Even  in  mountainous 
districts,  remote  from  tho  great  roads,  where  there  are 
no  villages,  and  the  towns  are  far  distant  from  each 
other,  bis  majesty  has  equally  caused  buildings  of  the 
same  kind  to  be  erected,  furnished  with  every  thing 
necessary,  and  provided  with  the  usual  establishment 
of  horses.  He  sends  people  to  dwell  upon  the  spot,  in 
order  to  cultivate  tho  land,  and  attend  to  the  service 
of  the  post ;  by  which  means  large  villages  aro  formed. 
In  consequence  of  these  regulations,  embassadois  to 
the  c  urt  and  royal  messengers  go  and  return  through 
ever;  province  and  kingdom  of  the  empire  with  the 
greatest  convenience  and  facility." 

This  Is  a  picture  of  a  very  complete  postal  establish- 
ment. The  Incas  of  Peru,  in  the  16tb  century,  had  a 
similar  system  of  postal  couriers  to  keep  up  communi- 
cation Iwtween  different  parts  of  the  country.  There 
WO!  a  system  of  postal  communication  in  Fronce  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  used  principal- 
ly for  the  conveyance  of  government  dispatches.  Lou- 
Is  XI.  also  employed  postal  couriers.  "A  permanent 
establishment  of  messengers  for  the  conveyance  of  let- 
ier!  was  attached  to  the  University  of  Paris  ft'om  the 
faegimiingof  the  18th  century,  and  Indeed  was  not  abol- 
Uhed  uatil  the  year  1719,  long  after  a  general  post  had 
been  settled  in  France.  Other  universities  were  simi- 
larly providad.  Sometimes  powerful  or  opulent  indi- 
viduals established  posts  for  mercantile  purposes,  and 
the  convenience  of  a  particular  district." — Encydnpadw 
Brilannica.  The  date  of  the  tirst  regular  post  estab- 
lishment in  modern  time  was  not  far  from  the  year 
1497,  There  is  a  general  coincidence  in  point  of  time 
of  a  number  of  leading  discoveries,  conquests,  inven- 
tions, and  Improvement!.  Printing  was  Invented  in 
1441.    Constantinople  wai  taken  by  tho  Ottomana, 


the  Oreeki  ttHven  from  the  East,  and  the  Tariilih  em- 
pire founded  In  14ft8.  Po!tal  couriers  were  tmployid 
in  Oreat  Britain  as  early  as  1404.  Printing  was  Intro- 
duced into  England  In  1474.  The  kingdom  of  Spain 
wa!  e!tabllsheil  by  the  union  of  Aragon  and  Castile, 
in  1479.  Tlie  Cape  of  Uood  Hope  wai  diicovered  In 
1486,  and  America  in  149*^.  The  p<wt-oAlce  was  estab- 
lished In  Germany  about  the  year  1497,  Africa  wii 
circumnavigated  In  1I!>H,  The  Kcformatlon  com- 
menced in  1&17.  A  lyxtem  of  punctuation  by  marki 
and  pauMi  wis  intrndu'  <'d  In  1620,'  Hungary  was 
united  to  Austria  in  1521.  Bligcllin  completed  the 
lint  clrcuninivigation  of  the  gliilje  In  1622.  The  ai- 
tronomical  system  of  Copernicus  was  proclaimed  In 
16II2.  In  I ndia,  u  early  as  1 570,  a  system  of  foot-poitt 
WIS  established  by  Akbar,  the  head  of  the  Mogul  em- 
pire. Indian  runners,  noted  for  their  speed,  were  em- 
ployed, and  one  mesienger,  without  relief,  we  are  told, 
would  often  travel  from  80  to  90  mllei  In  a  day. 

II.  The  frit  National  J'oit-offlte.—tha  flrit  regulu 
poit-oflice  wai  established  l>y  Maximilian,  emperor  of 
(jennany,  near  the  close  of  the  16th  century — about 
the  year  1497.  At  the  brad  of  this  post  establishment 
the  emperor  placed  Francis,  prince  of 'I'hurn  and  Taxli, 
the  first  postmaster-general  mentioned  In  history.  Thii 
eitablisbmeni,  originally  started  like  all  other  govern- 
ment posts  as  a  general  errand-boy  and  meisage-bearer 
of  government,  soon  became  a  powerful  monopoly,  and 
claimed  the  sole  right  of  transmitting  the  correspond- 
ence of  the  people.  From  the  time  of  Its  foundation  to 
the  present  day  tho  German  post  establishment  bat 
been  held  as  a  hereditary  fief  or  property  by  the 
princes  of  the  house  of  Thum  and  Taxis.  It  has  been 
a  suiiject  of  frequent  discussion  whether  postal  busineis 
should  be  entirely  carried  on  by  government.  There 
are  arguments  on  botK.sides,  and  many  against  It  can 
be  found  in  the  history  of  this  German  postal  union. 
The  Catholic  religion  being  the  religion  of  the  itate, 
Protestants  made  frequent  and  just  complaint!  againit 
the  suppression  and  violation  of  correspondence  in  the 
cause  of  political  tyranny  and  religious  intolerance. 
We  ar«  informed  that  this  was  one  uf  the  direct  causei 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Lamorai,  prince  of  Thum 
and  Taxis,  a  military  leader  (Catholic)  as  well  as  post- 
master-general, by  the  assistance  of  his  allies  defeated 
and  dispersed  the  Protestant  Union  under  Frederick, 
the  Elector  Palatine.  This  was  followed  by  the  "  Mas- 
sacre of  Prague,"  the  "  horrible  persecution  of  all  mal- 
contents," the  "  banishment  of  thirty  thousand  Protest- 
ant families,  and  the  total  suppression  of  the  Protestant 
religion."  In  this  work  the  post-office  was  used  as  ■ 
machine  for  annoyance,  espionage,  persecution  and  war- 
like conquest.  The  very  same  postal  concern  is  this 
day  a  stumbling-block  and  a  serious  impediment  in  the 
way  of  cheap  postage  between  nations  on  the  west — 
France,  Great  Uritain  and  the  United  States — and  peo- 
ple living  in  the  eastern  part  of  Europe.  But  the 
house  of  Thum  and  Taxis  own  the  post,  pocket  large 
profits,  are  deaf  to  all  considerations  of  public  good, 
and  Insist  on  the  very  highest  paying  (transit)  rates 
of  postage. 

III.  The  Brituh  Pcit-office The  Fost-ofilce  of  Great 

Britain,  at  once  the  most  efficient,  economical,  and  prof- 
itable of  modern  times,  has  a  most  interesting  hittory. 
Wo  find  mention  of  postal  couriers  employed  by  gov- 
ernment as  early  an  the  reign  of  King  John.  He  sum- 
moned his  barons  to  form  the  Parliament  by  issuing 
"letters  patent."  During  this  reign  state  accounts 
exhibit  frequent  items  of  charge  for  the  carriage  of 
letters.  In  the  time  of  Edward  II,,  there  were  fixed 
potts  or  stations  where  horses  were  kept  for  post-riders. 
In  1481,  Edward  IV.,  during  his  wars  with  Scotland, 
established,  as  stated  by  Gale,  certain  posts,  twenty 
miles  apart,  where  the  riders  relieved  one  another,  and 
in  this  way  conveyed  letters  one  hundred  miles  a  day. 
Long  before  there  was  any  account  of  a  national  post- 
office,  we  meet  with  the  superscription  of  letters, 


P08 


1S6S 


I'OS 


iili*ni> 
iploytd 
■  Intro- 
r  8p*tn 
CmHI*, 
rand  In 

IHMlkb* 

ricft  «•• 
gn  can\* 
>y  roarki 
[•ry  WM 
leled  the 

Tho  »•- 
aimed  In 
fool-poiU 
loKui  'ni* 

were  em- 
e  an  told, 

•y-     , 

It  Tegula» 

imperor  of 

iry — about 

abUahment 

andTaxli, 

tory.  This 

her  govern- 

gage-bearer 

nopuly,  and 

correspond- 

jundation  to 

iibment  ba* 

Brty  by  the 
It  haa  b«en 

■tal  busineia 

lent.    There 

gainst  it  can 

postal  union, 
of  the  state, 

laints  against 

ndcnce  In  the 

1  intolerance, 
direct  causes 

ince  ofThurn 

I  well  as  post- 

ilUes  defeated 

Jer  Frederick, 
by  tho  "  Mas- 

ion  of  all  roal- 
usand  Protest- 
thePrutesUnt 
was  used  as  » 

i:utlon  and  ■war- 
concern  Is  this 
icdlmcntlnthe 
on  the  west— 
ales— and  peo- 
rope.  But  the 
St,  pocket  large 
of  public  good, 
(transit)  rates 

it-ofSce  of  Great 
)inlcal,andprof- 
■restlng  hUtory. 
^iployed  by  gov- 
Jobn.  Eesum- 
nent  by  Issuing 
I  state  accounW 

the  carriage  of 
there  T»ero  fixed 
for  post-riders. 
,,  with  Scotland, 
lin  posU,  twenty 

one  another,  and 
Jied  miles  a  day. 
t  a  national  post- 

ptlon  of  letters. 


"  hut«,  post*  liasU."  In  IMl,  during  tba  reiKU  of 
Kllsabetli,  CanuUn  states  that  'i'honias  Hand<il|ih  was 
chl«r  postmaster  uT  KnKland,  but  nothing  is  msntlontd 
U  to  bis  functions  at  a  transmitter  uf  letters. 

Among  the  early  records  u(  puslal  affairs  in  Qreat 
llrltsin  are  various  accounla  of  tlie  violation  of  letters, 
parllcuUrly  in  tlia  rcIgn  of  llunry  VIII.  The  KnglUh 
embassador  at  the  Court  of  James  V.,  King  of  Scot- 
land (Sir  Kolph  Sadler),,  gives  numerous  instances  of 
the  violation  of  letters  by  Cardinal  Buatun.  Une  mes- 
senger, asoldlerfrom  U*rwlck-on-Tweed,  was  employed 
lo  roller*  the  courier  from  the  south  on  his  way  to  Kdin- 
turgh,  with  dispatches  for  the  embassador.  He  was 
called  "  the  post."  While  on  the  way,  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Ueaton's  emissaries,  and  tliey  sciaod  the  let- 
ters that  were  nildrossed  to  l^lr  Uulpli  Sadler,  and  ra- 
fuud  to  give  them  up.  They  were  tinally  dolivered, 
after  they  had  been  kept  soma  days,  and  opened; 
"which,"  as  Sir  Kalph  says,  "being  in  cipher,  they 
bad  kept  tho  longer  to  prove  their  cunning  in  the  de- 
ciphering of  tlioni,  whiqh  (as  I  credibly  am  informed) 
tliuy  could  do."  A  letter  from  the  Karl  of  Angus,  "Sir 
George  Douglas  bath  to  convoy  by  post,  and  will,  as 
be  hath  written  to  me,  ride  himself  therewith  to  ller- 
wlck,  because  h*  dare  trust  no  other  man  to  carry  it." 
Hu  adds,  "  it  is  much  ado  to  convey  luttcrs  safely  in 
this  country."  One  messenger  of  King  Henry  was 
taken  by  the  cardinal's  party,  who  "  threatened  to  hang 
blm  with  all  his  letters  about  his  neck."  But  on  two 
notable  occasions  the  wily  cardinal — tho  Pope's  Ugatm 
a  latere  in  Scotland — had  the  tables  tunied  upon  him. 
One  of  his  own  couriers  was  shipwrecked  and  cast 
ashore  near  liamborough  Castle,  was  captured,  and  by 
the  cardinal's  letters  found  on  hlin,  It  appeared  that 
he  ("  tlirough  the  authority  of  the  Ulahop  of  Home") 
(the  Pope)  intended  to  get  all  power,  spiritual  and 
temporal,  from  the  King  of  Scotland,  while  professing 
to  be  bis  friend.  King  Henry  reported  this  to  King 
James  through  his  embassador.  When  he  heard  it, 
the  incensed  monarch  said,  "  whatsoever  he  be  in  Scot- 
land that  we  may  know,  doth  not  his  duty  both  in  the 
execution  of  God's  laws  above  all,  and  also  in  the  min- 
istration of  indilferent  justice  to  our  lieges;  by  God," 
quoth  ho,  "  if  we  may  know  him,  we  shall  not  lett  to 
punish  him,  be  he  spiritual  or  temporal." 

The  last  notable  act  of  this  kind  was  when  Cardinal 
Beaton  sent  Norman  Leslie,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Rothes, 
and  others,  to  Edinburgh,  from  his  strong-hold  at  St. 
Andrews.  Suspecting  foul  play,  they  "  lingered  the 
packet,"  md  found  they  were  the  bearers  of  their  own 
deai'v-i.  .'.grants.  They  returned  by  night,  and  at  a  very 
early  hour  in  the  morning,  while  the  draw-bridge  of  the 
castle  was  lowered,  rushed  in  Siid  stabbed  the  cardinal 
in  his  own  loom.  The  Journals  and  correspondence 
of  this  period  contain  various  other  instances  of  the 
violation  of  correspondence.  The  earliest  mention  of 
S  postmaster,  who  had  the  charge  of  correspondence, 
and  whose  duties-  and  privileges  were  deiined,  was  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England.  He  was  charged 
with  "  the  sole  taking  up,  sending  and  conveying  of 
all  packets  and  letters  into  foreign  parts."  The  office 
was  filled  by  Mathew  le  Questor,  and  by  Mathew  le 
Quester,  his  son.  In  1636  King  Charles  issued  a  proc- 
lamation "for  settling  of  the  Utter-office  of  England 
and  Scotland."  "  This,"  saysnn  English  writer,  "  may 
])roperly  be  regarded  as  tho  origin  of  tho  British  Post- 
office."  By  royal  command,  Thomas  Witherings,  Esq., 
was  Postmastor-general.  Posts  were  established  from 
London  to  the  Continent,  and  to  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
In  1644  the  Parliament  made  Edmund  Prideaux  Post- 
master-general, and  be  established  a  weekly  mail. 
Cromwell  made  important  improvements.  He  bad 
an  act  passed  "  to  settle  the  postage  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland."  By  this  it  was  enacted  that "  there 
shall  be  one  General  Post-office,  and  one  officer  styled 
the  Postmaster-general  of  England,  and  the  comptrol- 
l*r  of  the  Post4>ffice."    This  officer  wo*  to  have  the 


"  horsing"  of  all  parsons  "  riding  In  post."  The  ratM 
of  postag*  were  llxcd,  and  ail  other  purion*  forliiddsn 
to  "sat  up  or  Impluy  any  foot-posts,  hortc-iwats,  or 
pacquet-boats."  Tli*  puatags  of  a  letter  eighty  mitss 
from  London  was  two  punoe  sterling;  aliovr  that  dis- 
tance, in  Kngland,  three  pence ;  lo  HcoLlanil,  four  (lencs ; 
and  to  Ireland,  six  pence.  Double  lultcrs  were  double 
those  rates.  The  post-rldurs  were  re<|ulred  to  ride  seven 
miles  an  hour  in  suuinior  and  live  in  winter.  Crom- 
well farmed  tho  posl-ollico  out  turJt\n,(m  a  year;  and 
on  the  restoration  of  Cliarles  II.,  in  ItitlO,  the  offic*  was 
rented  for  jC'2I,600  a  year.  In  160a  the  entire  proAts 
were  settled  on  tho  king's  brother,  the  Duke  of  York 
(afterward  King  James  II.),  and  his  heirs  male.  In 
l«86,  by  an  order  In  council,  a  post-office  was  estab- 
lished on  this  continent "  for  the  better  eorraspondonoe 
between  the  colonies  of  America." 

During  the  reign  of  James  II., William  Dockwra  set 
up  a  local  system  of  letU'r  and  parcel  distribution  In 
London.  Ha  was  alloweil  to  continue  it  for  several 
years,  until  it  proved  prolltable,  and  then  his  local  let- 
ter system  was  seised  under  pretense  that  it  encroached 
upon  tho  royal  prerogative.  In  the  more  modern  his- 
tory of  the  post-office  ther*  are  parallel  cases.  In  1688 
an  act  was  passed  for  the  eslabiiahmont  of  a  Qeneral 
Post-office  in  Scotland.  In  IG»H  King  William  made 
a  grant  of  the  whole  revenues  of  this  ottlco  to  Sir  Robert 
Sinclair,  with  a  sulisidy  liesidos  of  .£1100  a  year.  Even 
at  this  rate  Sir  Robert  found  it  a  losing  business,  and 
threw  It  up.  In  1710  (U  Anno,  ch.  10)  an  act  was 
passed  that  may  be  considered  the  charter  of  the  Brit- 
ish Post-office.  This  act  established  a  General  Post- 
office  throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  North 
American  colonies,  and  the  West  Indies.  It  was  nil 
put  under  the  control  of  one  officer,  styled  her  tli^es- 
ty's  Postmaster-general.  The  act  provided  for  one 
chief  letter-office  in  Edinburgh,  one  in  Dublin,  one  in 
New  York,  and  others  in  the  West  Indies,  For  a  con- 
siderable period  after  the  act  of  1710,  there  were  no 
relays  of  post-horses,  one  man  or  boy,  and  a  horse,  ao- 
complishing  an  entire  journey  like  tho  one  from  Aber- 
deen to  Edinburgh,  traveling  by  day  anil  stopping  at 
night.  Up  to  17(>;i  there  wn  only  a  tri-weekly  mall 
from  London  to  Edinburgh.  That  year  the  trips  were 
increased  to  five  times  a  week.  The  time  required  for 
the  mail-coach  to  go  between  the  two  citieti  was  from 
eighty-two  to  eighty-five  hours.  Until  1788,  there  was 
no  direct  mall  from  London  to  Glasgow.  It  is  in- 
structive to  note  the  progress  in  the  income  of  the 
British  post-office  for  a  period  of  two  hundred  years. 
The  net  and  gross  income  of  the  Britiiih  post-ofHce  at 
ditttarent  periods  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table, 
tho  last  column  giving  the  gross  income  in  United 
States  currency,  reckoning  live  dollars  to  the  pound 
sterling : 


Yasn. 

Nrt  Rtrenm. 

GroM  RtcalpU. 

QroM  RMalpb. 

1663 

£10.000 

21,600 

66,000 

07.222 

90.228 

117,368 

83.493 

186,062 

136,403 

881,179 

720.0S1 

1.138.889 

1,388.493 

l,G04.n20 

600  789 

761,1182 

808.6U8 

1,066,086 

l,207.T-.'6 

1 11, 4  .'6 

210.663 

280,146 

806.016 

4I8.8<12 

671.808 

1,08.3,980 

1.86.\746 

2,191.582 

2,266,481 

1,8KI,46S 

1,887,676 

2,264,684 

2,716,420 

2.867,984 

$4K!^20O 
667,180 
1,P63.S15 
1,160.780 
1,626,076 
2,094,310 
2,889..')1B 
6,419.760 
9,278.780 
10,967,810 
11,827,408 
6,797,380 
9,487.880 
11,823,420 
18.682,100 
14.839,770 

1663 

1686 

ItiUO 

ITU 

1764 

1760 

1770 

1780 

1700 

180O 

1810 

18J0 

1830 

1840 

1818 

1850 

1856        

1866 

The  first  year  of  penny  postage  was  in  1840. 

To  give  the  diflbrent  rates  of  postage  that  have  been 
levied  at  various  periods  since  the  act  of  Queen  Anno 
would  require  a  long  tabular  statement.  In  1710  tho 
charge  for  •  single  letter  from  London  to  Edinburgh, 


wm 


lAAO 


ro8 


•ml  from  (.ondan  U  Oulilln,  wm  »iiip(tM»,  In  Kn< 
giMul  III*  r*l»«  war*  Ihra*,  ur  fiiwr  (Miir*,  tttmiUng  I* 
fllttani'* ;  in  Hi'ulUml,  Iwii,  ihrMi,  ur  Tiitir  |i«niw,  anil  In 
Ir*Unil  twu  ur  fuur  |>*n«a,  'lh«  rain*  M«r«  alivrkil, 
anil  K*n*rallx  lin^maMil  In  amiiuiit  ami  alua  In  niiiiili«r, 
In  aai'li  uf  ili*  ilirim  klii|(iluMi*~anil  mIiImiuI  iinlfnrnill; 
ln*llh*rlw«— III  I7im,  liNl,  lUll,  IMM,  |MlA,anil  IKIi, 
and  In  IrvlaiMl  In  lalU  ami  INI  I,  Kniin  Iwn  or  iht— 
Ml**  In  i;iu,  lb*x  want  im  ln«r«a*liiK  In  nMnilw  ii.illl 
Ikay  raaclwii  iba  sllnua  ul  alxHrillly  anil  Inrnnvan- 
l«Dc*  In  iwulv*  dliraranl  raUa  In  Knalanil  anil  »<■«<• 
laoil,  In  IHVi,  anit  IhlrUan  rala*  In  fralanil,  In  IMM. 
In  HcatluiiU,  in  INIll,  an  ail'lllliinal  hall'>|i«niit'  wa*  I**- 
lad  on  all  laturi  ihal  wor*  »iinvayai|  In  Niall'i'<iarbm> 
Thaa*  abaurti,  «iiii|ili>'a(iirt,  irniililvHiina,  aii4  iniiltlfari- 
eua  rata*  of  (hmUk*  rxMialiK'il  <in  Ilia  alatnta  Imiiia  un- 
til tliay  wi>r«  liluwii  rruin  anUUNi'*  lijf  Ilia  railiii^llun 
of  all  rataa  to  oiia  iiiilfuriii  iliarii*  wf  •  tianny,  (lirouKh 
tba  *Hrtluua  ut  Mr.  liuwlaml  Mill,  in  IMU, 

'I'ha  nait  ((raat  lilt|iriiVHni«lli  III  III*  mall  aarvlc*  nf 
Orcat  lirluln  waa  ilia  IniriMlurlinn  iif  mall  rowliaa,  In 
17H4.  't'hia  wa*  iirini^iiiall)'  a<!i'<Mii|illali*ii  iiy  lli«  ««• 
•rtloni  of  Mr.  Juliii  I'vluinr,  l.llin  nimt  naw  lin|iriiv*- 
Di*nU,  It  wia  Ilia  |iriijaiit  uf  an  iMil«l<iKr,  Mr.  I'alniar  not 
balnc  an  nllicur  uf  Ilia  (luai-u.T.ri',  Iml  Ilia  nianaiiar  uf 
■  provlnvlal  ihnatra,  '1  lial  imlrNurillnarx  fatallly  uaiial 
in  tunli  oaaaa  luuli  (luaaaaaiun  ul  iiaarly  all  prmiilnanl 
ofliclala;  aiwlili*  I'uatinaalar'iiaiiaral,  mamliar* uf  I'ar- 
llaniant,  and  ulliarillunliarlaa,  ilnnuHlMuil  Ih*  avliain*  aa 
prapoalaroiia,  umiiKiilllad,  ami  inilirat'llialila.  Tli*  |iru- 
jacior  wa*  iiruiiuuiiiuil  a  vlalunary  aaalut, anil  aa  uiira- 
llabi*  aa  a  inailMuii.  It  a|i|iaar<Ml  In  Mr.  I'alniar  Ihal 
wb*n  paawiiKar  ruailia*  iravi'lml  ri-uuMjf  uvKr  Iha 
prlnui|ial  ruuil*  at  a  inui'b  nmra  ta|ilil  rala  llian  tba 
bura*-pu*ta  uaually  >llil,  thu  mall*  i^nulil,  with  ail- 
vantaii*,  Im  traii>|iorlii>l  Uy  lliiini.  At  Ihladay  wa  ran 
acanaly  ata  Uiigilila  kiuiimiI*  (ut  a  vlul«nt  ii|i|iiMlllnn 
to  a  plan  to  adopt  iIm  awifual  ami  iituat  rallal'ln  ron- 
y*yan««  for  thu  iiialla,  aauiipt  In  that  »nt(lat  Ji'alnuay, 
which  iiuvar  (war*  »  rival  iiaar  llw  llirana,  or  that  re- 
•cnt*  th*  aiiunipiion  uf  an  uiiinlilar  In  |iraaMnilnf(  lu 
know  any  thliiif  Iwllvr  Ilian  iImi  wrvant  ik  riiiillna  who 
la  paid  to  rarry  uii  a  uont'orii  llial  Im  fofU  iiu  liilnraal 
in  InipruvliiK,  Thu  iiiaiU  wara  Iranafarrail  lo  alaK*- 
coachaa,  all  thu  oppi>ii«iiU  ut  llin  plan  wara  put  lo 
ihania,  and  Mr.  John  I'aliitar  rKrclyKil  from  Iba  'I'rva*- 
iiry  iho  aiiin  uf  XMt.iNM,  and  an  annuity  »f  l»m  • 
year  for  llfu,  for  thu  Iwiiallla  hn  hmi  i'<mf*rr*d  un  the 
nailun  In  auKmaiiiinu  ibu  iiailunal  inoom*,  and  In- 
craaainK  lb*  fat'ililii'a  for  viirraapiitiib'ttr*. 

IV. /n/r((i/u.//(«i</^V,»«;»/'M//i/ji',-.Mr,M«irlandlllll, 
an  KnglUb  cuuiiiry  uaiillaiiian,  In  m»  way  rotinei'icd 
with  thu  ((ovarniMi'nt  or  lh«  I'lial'Ofni'a,  aat  lo  wnrk,  in 
1806,  lo  devlau  a  j/luii  lu  aDVi'l  mim  parnianani  Ini- 
provenienla  in  ibu  ri'Kiilalioii  ami  iimn«K'<'«<'><t  of  lh« 
poalal  calalillibnii'nt,  llii  fiiiiiid,  liy  rH'rrrlnK  lo  Ihe 
olHclal  rei-ord«of  Ibu  Vp»tMi<Him  Ib'iiarlntani,  thai  while 
the  populalliin,  th«  liiialnvM  uf  liin  roiinlry,  and  all 
branche*  nf  the  naliuiial  liivoma  (Iba  |N*a|  encepleil) 
had  greatly  incraaaad  durInK  llw  iirwadlnK  twenty 
yeara,  th«  reviiiiiA  ai/d  l«>ln«M  uf  lfi«  (xiat-ofllt'e  had, 
with  *ome  flintiiaiiona,  ai'liially  ilKcraaMid,  He  com- 
pared the  poaul  liK'oiiia  to  tb«  raviiiie  derlvwl  from 
itaee-cuaeliii«,  a  lirMiieb  of  liiiainaaa  that  affiirdad  a  k(«"I 
Index  lo  the  priiapartty  "f  III*  I'uMHtrv,  The  fulloHliiK 
table  ezhiliii*  at  oim  vImw  a  ooiMparlMm  of  Iba  rvvenui^ 
fhim  «ia|{«-<.'oaL'haa,  wiib  Ibu  nat  |M«i>lat  income )  and  a 
column  ahnwinK  what  Itia  n«t  ravanuA  nf  the  poat- 
oOice  would  bav*  Iwan  in  lN;t6  had  the  receipt*  kepi 
pace  with  tba  revaniie  fioni  vuai'haa  i 


nalleTinf  that  th*  taiilllmal*  daniand  tot  Ih*  rnn« 
rayanta  uf  Utlar*  and  diatrlbulion  of  cnrratpondance 
had  ln«r*aa«<l  a*  fati  a*  that  fur  lb*  cunvayanc*  of  (lar- 
•«inaand  parcala,  It  waaavldanttbal,  Inallliol,  ihara  waa 
a  Ina*  In  poit-olHi.'*  ravaiiua,  amniinlInK  lo  £'i,onu,nin>. 
Thai*  faria  and  ulhar*  war*  tint  lulinilltad  privatrly 

10  III*  Kovrrnmanl,  and  hi  IHIIT  lu  Iha  public,  in  a 
pamphb'l,  aniilli'd  "I'ual-ulHce  Kafiirm,  It*  Imporlanca 
and  I'rarlicalillily."  It  wa*  nirtlvad  with  Kraal  faviir, 
and  In  a  abort  time  paaaad  lhrou|(h  Ihra*  *ilillona.  Tha 
aullmr  came  lo  iha  fulluwlnx  roncliialona  i  ila  dcninn- 
•Irilril  clearly  that  Iha  actual  cuat  of  cnnvayinK  a  let- 
ter by  rnarh  in  Iba  mall  from  l^ndon  In  KdlnbiirKlv— 
4(N)  mll«i — waa  only  niia-lblrty-alxth  part  of  a  penny. 

11  iiiiial  lie  evident  that  Ihe  actual  dlltVrence  of  ex-  ' 
lieiin*  liatwoen  tranaportiiiK  a  leltar  one  mile  ami  ilc- 
llvarInK  It,  and  carrying  one  four  hundred  mile*  lo  be 
dellvarad,  did  not  Juatify  a  dllA-rent  rate  of  chirKe, 
He  came  lo  Iba  concluaion  that  the  larffe  coat  of  iljii- 
Irlbullnn  letter*  waa  lb*  reault  of  complex  arran^e- 
menla  in  the  poat-oiDce,  arialiiK  from  many  ratcn  of 
(HiataKe.  That  thaae  complex  arrnnKemcnl*  wniiM  be 
avoided  If  poataK«  were  charKed,  without  rcKaril  to  dit- 
lancc,  at  a  iiNironM  rate.  That  all  lettert  ahoiilil  be 
charRcd  by  welKht,  thoaa  reckoneil  aa  linKln  bllera 
that  did  not  exceed  half  an  ounce  each.  That  tlin  uni- 
form churK«  fur  letter*,  Including  their  delivery,  alinuld 
lie  une  penny.  That  thia  rate  of  iharKe  would  allurd 
the  Krcateit  faclllllce  to  the  public,  put  a  atop  lo  cor- 
rea|Mindi'nce  tlirouKb  private  cliannala,  and  evvntunlly 
prnvn  Ihe  moat  protllable  lo  the  Kuvernment.  That 
with  the  aiinpllcity  and  economy  of  arrangement  at- 
lendliiK  the  uniform  charKe  of  a  iieiiiiy,  there  would  be 
but  little  more  expcnaa  attending  a  four-fold  inrreaaa 
of  correapondence  than  there  waa  willi  the  then  niimer- 
oua  rateauf  poatage.  That  Ihe  efTcct  ofa  unlfurm  penny 
rale  would  be  to  increare  correipondence  "  In  all  proln 
ability  at  leaat  Ave-and-a-quarter  fuld."  [In  IHfM  the 
numlier  of  letter*  In  the  kingdom  (4;8,aDa,H08)  had  in- 
creaied  more  than  aix-fold  beyond  the  number  in  1839 
(then  'r),U07,&'2),  thu  la^t  yearof  the  old  rate*. )  1  hat 
the  neceaaary  coat  of  primary  diatrlbulion,  Inatend  of  lie- 
Ing  81  bundredlha  ofa  penny,  aa  It  wai  under  the  nu- 
meroua  rale*  of  poalagr,  would  only  be  32  hundredth! 
of  a  penny,  the  diflTerence,  62  hundredth*  of  a  r*""/! 
iirlnlng  from  the  expenaivcnciia  uf  the  arrangomenia, 
the  exceaaive  chargea,  and  the  conaequenl  reatricllon  of 
correapondence.  That  the  accondary  diatribution  of  let- 
ter* (the  delivery)  ought  lo  be  untaxed,  aoaa  not  In  any 
degree  to  Interfere  with  the  aimpllcity  of  arraiigemenli 
attending  a  uniform  and  low  rate. 

A  verllicatlon  of  Mr.  IliU'a  prediction*,  almost 
amounting  to  prophecy,  hua  been  eatabliabed  by  the 
working  of  the  ayatem.  In  hia  pamphlet,  published  in 
lHit7,  be  predicted  that  Iho  Increaae  of  correapondence, 
anil  the  attendant  economy  of  management  that  would 
reault  from  a  uniform  rate  of  a  penny, "  would  alTord  a 
probable  nut  ;'cvenue" — that  la,  in  a  reasonable  time — 
"of  .£1,278,000."  In  18&6  the  net  revenue  was  exact- 
ly <  1,208,726.  One  statement  will  show  the  great 
eranomr  of  management  under  a  uniform  rate  of  post- 
age. Taking  the  coat  of  carrying  on  the  British  postal 
eatablishinent  (transportation  excepted)  In  1837,  livfore 
there  wiis  uniform  postage,  and  in  1854  (with  tliu  uni- 
form charge  ofa  penny),  and  looking  also  at  the  num- 
ber of  letters  at  each  period,  we  can  see  what  thu  hand- 
ling, sorting,  dislribution,  and  delivery  amounts  to  per 
hundred  or  per  thousand  letters.  The  following  is  the 
official  record : 


„                 1     KipcnM  of 

Numbargr          EiMnMofciicb 
L<llars.                 IMKI  Lallen. 

I9:i« 1  $;.b  a,ll.« 

ISM 1     8.288.195 

82.4Tll,M(l' 

44H,«49,II01 

$311 

Tills  number  Included  bulh  franlced  and  paid  letters. 
Onillling  n-ee  letter*,  the  number  was  TC,l)07,bT3. 

Hy  the  elTorls  of  Mr.  Wallace,  M.  P.  for  Greenock, 
Lord  Asbburton,  and  others,  a  parliamentary  commit- 


P08 


1AA7 


P08 


$30 
T 
paid  icttort. 

hr  Greenock, 
I«ry  commit- 


IM  wu  ■ppolnUd  I  antl  iriiir  numnraut  •ltUiiK>,  ■nil 
th«  nxaniinalliiii  of  nearly  a  liumlrail  wUimau-i  fruiii 
all  rlaMcn  anil  riinli>  uf  Miclaly,  limy  inailn  llinlr  rapurl 
In  Iwu  furniliUliU  lilua-lio<ik>,  utvlnn  Ilia  cnllru  tniitl- 
mviiy,  anil  a  K'xal  niau  ul  ufflclal  ulatlalUal  Infurina* 
tliin.  It  i>  a  fai't  wurtli  nivn'.lunliiK  In  lliU  pUiu  thai 
all  graat  pnatal  lin|iruvginenla,  Ixitli  In  (Iraat  llrilain 
anil  tlio  Unltail  Htataa,  warn  cummanceii,  carrlail  un, 
anil  proMi'Uteil  lu  a  aucraMftil  tiinnlnallon,  by  cltUona 
•ntlriily  uni'onmicUil  wUb  Ilia  poaul  ■atalilUlwnant. 
8ii  far  fruin  ilvrlvliiK  alil  rniin  tliote  wliu  woulil  In'  lup- 
puaail  to  poMOM  lliii  alilllty  ami  illnpoaltiiin  tu  alT'iil  it 
— vii.,  thuM  ill  till)  poat-ofllca — thiiy  liava  unlfnrnily 
oppoiail  uti  ri't'urini.  It  waa  aliiKularly  trua  in  tli'u 
prnacnt  lni|ulry.  "  It  waa  fuund,  liy  Ilia  coniniiaaiim, 
lu  ba  a  mattiir  of  the  Krcatvat  illffioully  to  nxtrai  t  rniin 
thu  poat-ufflio  any  Inrurinatiun  nocaaaary  fur  thu  i-lu- 
clilatlon  of  I  ha  Inipiiry."  "  Not  only  ha*  tha  puat-uf- 
lieu  boan  ultirly  barroii  of  Inipruvt'iueiit  llavir,  but  ita 
wvlght  la  thrown  Into  (h*  oppoalto  aualu."  "  Whcn- 
tver  Iho  pimt-iitncu  att<<ni|it«d  to  n\ve  facli  ami  catl- 
nmtiia  lu  ciiinliat  Mr.  Hill" — tu  qiiutu  rrmn  an  oinlnont 
writpr — ''  It  wan  founil  that  Mr.  Illll  waa  alwaya  right, 
anil  Illll  pnat-iitlirn  alwaya  wrong."  X  (Jhancnllur  uf 
tha  IC\chi'i|Ui.'r  iluairilwil  tha  "guntlpiiien  of  thu  piiat- 
olHce"  aa  "unwilling  huraci."  I'utiliona  to  tlie  num- 
ber of  U'2U,  from  2U'2  ililliirent  plue«a,  anil  bearing  over 
08,000  namea,  w«ra  aent  to  I'arliainunt,  aaking  fur  tha 
adoption  of  Mr.  IliU'a  plan.  In  IWI!)  franking  waa 
aliojiahod,  ami  an  act  paaaed  uuthurlting  the  lurila  of 
the  Treaiury  to  adupt  a  unil'urin  rate  of  one  penny  on 
all  aingia  lettera,  without  regard  tn  dialance.  The  pen- 
ny postage  wont  into  operation  un  the  &th  day  of  Jan- 
uary, IHIO. 

Thu  olliclal  report*  of  the  Poat-oiTlce,  showing  the 
revenue  and  oxpcnilituro,  and  thu  amount  of  currc- 
spondonce,  comprise  the  best  eulogy  of  thu  prini'iplu  of 
the  uniform  penny  rate.  It  is  no  disparagement  to 
Mr.  Kowland  Hill  to  say  that,  whiiu  hu  wus  once  In 
favor  of  prep  tyniunt  of  postage  being  compiilaory,  ho 
has  long  since  receded  from  that  liica,  rmpaymimt  is 
not,  and  never  has  been,  coinpuisury  In  (ircat  llritain, 
■11  letters  being  fiirwarilcd  to  the  periuim  aildressed, 
whether  prepaid  or  not,  with  the  exceptiuti  uf  letlerit 
weighing  over  four  ounces;  and  these,  if  not  pri'jiHiil, 
are  at  once  opened  and  returned  to  the  writer.  Letters 
not  iirepald  are  charged  double ;  and  suih  letlcrA,  II' re- 
ftisHil  (ir  not  delivered,  are  returned  to  the  writer  from 
the  Iteturned-lettor  olHce,  and  the  double  postage  then 
duo  may  be  collected  by  compulsory  process,  lly  this 
means  the  distribution  of  circulars  and  advertising 
sheets  through  the  mails,  without  prepayment,  is  ef- 
fectually prevented.  In  (jireat  llritain  it  is  customary 
to  refuse  all  unpaid  matter  unless  a  name  or  the  hand- 
writing on  the  outside  shows  who  the  sender  Is;  and 
so  near  universal  is  prepayment  of  ail  postage,  that 
more  than  98^  per  cent,  of  all  letters  havi<  their  postage 
paid  before  mailing. 

In  Great  Uritain  there  is  no  Dead-letter  olHce,  and 
there  ore  no  "dead"  letters.  There  is  a  "  Keturncd- 
letter  office,"  and  all  letters,  and  even  papers  and 
printed  packages,  that  have  not,  for  any  reason,  been 
delivered  are  at  once  opened  or  examined,  and,  where 
possible,  returned  to  the  senders.  When  the  name  Is 
printed  or  written  on  the  outside  of  the  letter,  or  im- 
pressed in  the  seal,  or  where  a  coat  of  arms  or  device 
reveals  the  writer,  the  letter  or  package  Is  returned  un- 
opened. As  there  Is  a  letter  delivery  by  carriers  daily, 
or  several  times  a  day,  at  almost  every  post-oflico  and 
post  village,  refused,  misdirected,  or  other  "stray"  let- 
ters are  at  onco  known,  and,  by  the  above  regulations, 
almost  all  letters  that  in  other  countries  (and  partic- 
ularly In  the  United  States)  would  bo  pronounced 
"  dead,"  and  condemned  to  a  hopeless  imprisonment 
for  months,  and  then,  perhaps,  to  be  burned,  are  here 
sent  back  to  the  writers  and  rightful  owners,  and  usu- 
olljr  in  less  than  a  week  from  the  day  they  are  mailed. 


'I  ha  praclloa  now  I*  lo  dlapatih  avary  latter  on  llis  dajr 
It  M  nialvad  at  tha  KiHuriieil-lutlur  ulllni.  Tha  last 
annual  rvpurt  (.iHfh)  aa\ a :  ••  lly  racent  arranxi'iiiants, 
ratiirnpillatlara  am  aant  bark  tu  tha  wrilera  iiiikIi  niur* 
'inli'kly  than  futinarly ;  ovary  «uoh  lettar  (I'xii'plfruni 
■bruad)  Ix'ing  iiuw  upeneil  |  wlmri'  nataiaarj  |,  reillracl. 
ad  anil  rapiialad  on  lli»  day  uf  Ita  arrival  at  the  Ka- 
turnod-letlor  olllce.  Tho  nunilwr  uf  lullera  reluma4 
lu  ih*  writar*  laat  yrar  (IHM),  uwing  tu  failure  In  Ih* 
allampta  tu  deliver  tham,  waa  nearly  the  aanio  aa  in 
the  pruviun*  year— vl«.,  abuiit  ^■IllO,!*!!!,  .ir  abui.t  1  In 
'JiHl  uf  tliu  whiila  nuinlwr  uf  iattars  posted.  Owing  to 
the  aanis  cause,  almut  .'>riO,lHIO  nawapapora,  aUii,  wora 
unileliverad,  being  aUiiit  I  in  I'iUnf  the  wliiile  nuinlMr." 

In  the  raau  of  lettera  that  can  nut  Imi  dellviri  d,  evaa 
though  by  the  fault  of  the  writer*,  the  llrllliih  puat-of. 
Ileo  la  supposed  tu  be  Just  aa  much  the  aervant  ef  tha 
people  aa  In  the  ease  of  lettera  when  originally  iiiailad 
and  correctly  addn'aii  d,  and  every  such  letter  ii  luoked 
upon  a*  a  piece  of  property,  to  be  aent  to  llie  person 
adilreaaed,  when  (loaaililo,  ond  when  not,  returned  to 
thu  uwner.  \ll  letters  and  packages  that  are  prepaiil, 
when  returned,  are  iblivered  tu  the  st^ndirs  wiibuut 
any  charge ;  and  when  not  prepaid,  duulilo  postage  Is 
exacted.  With  siiili  system,  simplicity,  and  foeillty 
U  the  returni'  .  f  letters  carried  on,  that  each  dork  r». 
turns  two  huii>..uil  per  day. 

The  principle  anil  operation  of  tha  Ilritlsh  I'enny- 
postage  system  la  this :  A  minimum  rale  uf  postage  la 
Bought  for  that  ahall  not  be  an  exorbitant  charge  fur 
tho  smallest  packages  the  shortest  dislnnces,  and  this 
postage  is  paid  by  a  stamp.  Now  the  object  is  to  maka 
this  stamp  cover  as  larKo  a  number  and  variety  of  pack- 
ages—written  and  printeil— as  possible.  Kuih  letter 
is  called  a  "single"  letter  that  does  nut  exceed  half  an 
ounce  in  weight,  and  each  package  of  printed  matter — 
nonspapors,  circulars,  Imnd-bllls,  pamphlets,  or  books 
— ilfliie  up  open  at  tho  ends  or  sides,  is  ronslilereil "  sin- 
gle" up  to  four  ounces.  Here  is  tho  value,  conven- 
ience, simplicity,  and  utility  of  ukikokm  postage,  both 
to  the  public  nt  large,  and  lo  tliuso  who  hanillo,  sort, 
rate,  and  attend  to  the  letters  and  mails.  l>ru|>-let- 
tcrs,  or  more  properly  local  letterr — for  they  are  not 
permitted  lo  "drop"  and  become  "dead"— anil  all  lo> 
lal  mail  matter,  is  charged  at  the  same  rate  as  thosa 
tliiit  are  transported  live  hundred  miles,  Iho  cun*e> 
queiii  I*  readily  seen.  The  penny  stamp  covers  aU 
most  all — more  than  nincteen-twcntieths— the  packages 
that  are  mailed,  A  letter  not  weighing  over  half  an 
ounce,  local  or  otherwise,  a  newspaper,  pamphlet,  or 
other  printed  package,  nut  weighing  over  n  qnurtcrof 
a  pound,  have  the  postage  prepaid  by  llie  all-powerful, 
all-convcnicnt,  universal,  uniform  penny  stamp.  Then 
in  larger  (inckagcs  thu  rates  are  not  cut  up  so  fine  as 
to  bo  inconvenient  to  eitlicr  tho  citizen  or  tho  postmaso 
ter.  Letters  from  half  an  ounce  to  un  ounce  are  two 
postai^'cs,  and  after  the  llrst  ounce  each  ounce  ur  frao- 
tion  of  an  ounce  in  excess  is  reckoned  as  two  postages. 
In  printed  matter,  after  tho  first  half  pound,  the  reck- 
oning is  made  by  half  pounds;  each  half  pound,  or 
fraction  of  a  half  pound,  being  charged  two  postagea 
— two  pence.  All  tho  items  in  this  simplicity  and  uni- 
formity of  arrangement  save  a  vast  amount  of  time  and 
trouble  to  the  people,  and  the  clerks  and  postmasters,  In 
a  nation  that  writes  and  sends  by  mall  annually  neaN 
ly  six  hundred  million  letters  and  printed  packages, 
particularly  as  each  letter  and  printed  package  has  to 
go  through  from  four  to  eight  dIRbront  processes  or  op- 
erations  in  tho  hands  of  the  citizen,  and  from  liftcon  to 
twenty  after  it  gets  Into  the  post-office.  Would  any 
other  system  but  one  that  combines  so  much  wisdom, 
economy,  convenience,  simplicity,  uniformity,  and  util- 
ity, bring  nearly  six  hundred  million  letters  and  pack- 
ages through  the  post-offlce  in  a  single  year?  A 
record  of  tho  business,  and  the  revenues  and  corre- 
spondence of  the  poBt-oflice  of  the  kingdom  for  a  few 
years,  will  do  something  toward  answering  the  question. 


POS 


1558 


pds 


8TATIBTICS  OF  THE  BRITISH  POST-OFFICE.— t;?«(f«i(;«rf  to  Unit^'d  Statu  Curremy.-] 

RiTCMi;>i  EzraHus,  KtrMDm  or  Littibs,  and  Ncuubs  and  Ahockt  or  Monit  Obdxu  in  riis  Uhitid  Kihodoii, 
DUEiHo  A  iHiia  or  YiABS,  ooiiManoiNo  wi'.'u  1816,  and  indihs  with  1866. 


1816. 
1830. 
1885. 
1886. 
I83T. 


1340. 
1841. 
1848. 
1843. 
1841. 
1846. 
1846. 
184T. 
1848. 
194i. 
1860. 
1801. 

:8oa. 

1803. 
1864. 
13r<0. 
ISOtt. 


<ri,61»,lT5 
11,84B,(J8S 
11,216,469 
11,768,013 
11,'!1I8,6»0 
11,TS1,8I)0 
11,963,818 
6,T9T,IIS2 
T,49T,098 
T,S90,T29 
8,104,888 
8,&26,S.<)9 
0,437,883 
9,819,2»T 
10,11061,064 
10,718,400 
10,8J6,749 
11,823,421 
12,110,841 
12,171,634 
12,872,039 
18,609,813 
13.662,100 
14,839,770 


$3,623.  ive 
3,286,800 
3,492,866 
8,608.609 
8,436,608 
3,483,841 
8,784,1197 
4,298,385 
4,690,846 
4,887,022 
4,903,262 
4,920,663 
6,627,971 
6,«U8,726 
6,082,600 
7,016,263 
6,622,814 
7,803,928 
6,680,818 
6,719,r>36 
7,003,320 
7,632,781 
8,266.830 
8,801,146 


$8,096,'.:  80 
8.066.21.8 
7,;S3,6(» 
8,144,818 
8,262123 
8,897,049 
8,168,881 
2,608,047 
3,806,148 
3,008,307 
3,201,086 
8,609,786 
3,809,913 
4,120,661 
4,928,484 
8.702,147 
4,208,935 
4,019,4r'8 
0,590,023 
6462,0(8 
0,8t>S,640 
0,976,683 
0.886,38<l 
6,088.620 


70,907,073 
168,708,(144 
196,600,191 
806,434,401 
820,400,306 
242,091,684 
271,410,783 
809,&8«,761 
828,14(),!48 
388.830.1S4 
887,899,1(19 
847,0«(),O71 
860.f47.187 
879,601,409 
410,817,489 
44.S.  649,801 
406.316,176 
"478.898,808 


188,021 
587,707 
1,603,845 
2,111,980 
2,601.683 
2,806803 
3,170,120 
8615.079 
4031,180 
4.203.661 
4,248  891 
4,439,713 
4.161.020 
4,947.8.0 
6,816,890 
5,406,244 
6,807,412 
6,178,163 


$1,66,\62S 
4  804,878 
16,637,638 
31,685  889 
26  664,2I<4 
28,470,977 
82,(l6i!,8ii6 
86, 86.5,'.  84 
89,615,886 
40.786.476 
40,763,219 
4>,4T2.4r3 
41,402,104 
47.191 .889 
41),630,976 
62,312,(159 
66.046.890 
09,027,810 


The  mone^  columni  gire  the  tmounts  in  United 
States  currency,  calculating  five  dollars  to  the  ponnd 
sterling.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  gross  and  net  reve- 
nue of  the  post-office  for  twenty  rears,  from  1816  to 
1835,  actually  declined.  Then  there  were  twelve  or 
fourteen  rates  of  postage  for  letters,  averaging  about 
six  and  a  half  pence  sterling  (18  cents)  a  letter.  With 
a  reduction  to  the  uniform  rate  of  a  penny — ^less  than 
one-sixth  of  the  former  rates — the  postal  revenne  more 
than  recovered  in  eleven  years,  while  the  number  of  let- 
ters sent  by  mail  annually  increased  from  76,907,572 
in  1839,  to' 478,893,803  in  18d6.  The  remittances  of 
moni'v,  in  money  orders,  increased  fh>m  a  million  and 
a  half  in  1889,  to  flfty-nine  millions  in  1866.  To  make 
a  direct  comparison  between  the  use  of  the  post-office 
in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States,  it  may  be 
stated  that,  after  a  careful  estimate,  the  nnmber  of  let- 
ters sent  through  the  post-ofBco  in  this  country'  since 
1789,  to  1856,  inclusive — a  period  of  sixty-seven  years 
—has  been  l,fi52,l(M,C48,  while  in  Great  Britain,  in  the 
years  1858, 1854, 1855,  and  185G,  the  number  of  letters 
was  1,789,076,769;  or  more  in  that  country  in  four 
years,  with  low  and  uniform  postage,  than  in  this 
country  since  the  formation  of  the  government,  now 
nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century !  Daring  ten  years 
— from  1847  to  1856,  inclusive — the  population  of  I^on- 
don  alone  sent  by  post  920,527,0J!9  letters,  or  more 
than  in  the  entire  United  States  during  the  same  peri- 


od ;  the  latter  numbering  888,527,549 1  But  in  Great 
Britain  there  was  one  uniform  rate  for  letters,  and  one 
uniform  scale  by  weight  for  printed  matter,  while  in 
this  country  there  are  three  rates  of^postage  on  letters, 
and  on  printed  matter,  from  a  small  newspaper  to  a 
large  book,  the  number  of  rates  is  almost  one  thon- 
sand!  Under  the  post-office  system  of  Great  Britain 
there  is  a  free-letter  delivery,  a  safe  way  of  remitting 
money  by  money  orders,  that  is  used  to  the  extent  of 
about  sixty  millions  a  year,  and  one  low  rate  of  post- 
age that  brings  an  annual  income  of  over  fourteen  mil' 
lions  of  dollars.  In  the  United  States  the  postage  is 
higher;  there  is  no  nniformity,  no  letter  delivery,  and 
no  money  order  system,  and  our  population  scarcely 
pay  seven  millions  in  postage.  The  people  of  Great 
Britain  can  scarcely  one  half  of  them  read  or  write, 
and  yet  they  write  and  send  by  mail  almost  600,000,000 
letters  in  a  year. 

The  population  of  the  United  States,  numbering  just 
about  the  same  as  Great  Britain,  and  nearly  all  able  to 
read  and  write,  only  write  and  send  by  mail  131,000,000 
letters  in  a  year.  Arc  further  facts  and  illustrations 
necessary  to  show  the  superiority  of  the  British  postal 
system,  or  the  relative  merits  of  the  "  uniform  postage" 
and  the  "complex  postage"  systems? 

The  correspondence  between  Great  Britain  and  sev- 
eral of  her  colonies,  and  foreign  countries,  for  the  year 
1866,  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table : 


Estimated  nniBrai  or  Lettebb,  Newspapcbs,  and  Dooes  between  Gbbat  Dbitain  and  oebtath  Colonies  and 

rOBKIQM   tOUNTBIES. 


N«w*t>ap«n 
RDd  booki 
Outwnrd. 

1,843,466 
808,740 
123,408 
19,608 
008,058 
114,084 

979,008 

718.296 
086.968 
149,092 
81.636 
lfl6,l>80 
48,l(i4 
92,808 

76  4')2 

4,776 

1,063,681 

672,413 


Africa,  West  coast  of 

Auitrmlla 

Delgium 

Brazils 

Bremen 

Canada 

Ceylon 

Last  Indies;    viz.,  llonilsy,  Calcutta,  Madras, 

Aden,  Penang,  and  Singapore 

Franco 

German  Postal  Union 

Ilarobnrg 

Holland 

Hong  .Kong 

Mauritius 

Uediterrancan,  including  Malta,  Alexandria,  and 

Ionian  Island 

Spain  and  Portugal:  vie.,  Lisbon,  Oporto,  and 

GlbralUr 

Sweden 

United  States 

West  Indies  and  I'ociflc 


Lelt«rt 
Outward. 


2s,8'iO 
913.783 
8  5.811 

66.263 

67,166 
368. '.'84 

28,722 

610,482 

3,181.916 

911.957 

880,445 

?33  632 

72.BJ2 

20,730 

334,786 

171,846 

26.015 

1,788.746 

322,710 


Lcttara 
Inward. 


28,836 

• 

260,664 
80,076 
49.638 

306,915 
37,542 

647,800 

2,021,610 
63.5.145 
267,049 
179,827 
78,2'i8 
16,6n0 

175,066 

161,088 

17.863 

1,5)7,064 

281.700 


Inward 

and 

Outward. 


6I,I>36 

• 

67(i.3'76 
140.3i!8 
1(167(14 
766,109 
66,264 

1,258,582 

4,206  536 

1,647.102 

643.094 

41.1.459 

150.760 

37,260 

409,843 

335,934 

43,268 

8,280,709 

604.416 


Ffcwfn»|m« 

and  Hooka 

Inwan). 


4,632 

« 

186'460 
60,084 

• 

434!4I6 
28,l'i8 

320,687 

614.304 

184..H80 
127.868 
44,8118 
Bl.'."i8 
26,200 

9,420 

4.860 

3.261 
872.6i;4 
123,496 


inward 

and 
Outward. 


37,016 

SSS,200 
163,492 

• 

1,388,444 
186,800 

1,199,700 
1,832.600 
771,348 
277,460 
1V6,444 
166,158 
69,414 
103,232 

80,262 

8,040 

1,930.248 

694,909 


■  No  returns. 


POS 


1559 


POS 


and  ser- 
the  year 


InWRrd 

•nd 
Ootwnrd. 

"«7,6t0' 

183,402 

• 

1,388,444 
180,200 

1,193,766 
1,832,600 
771,348 
277,460 
l'.6,444 
166,158 
69,414 

109,292 

80,202 

8,040 
11,830.248 
694,909 


Th«  toUl  wnount  of  correapondenca  in  Mch  of  the  I  in  London  for  Mvonteen  yean,  is  exiiibited  in  the  fok 
tbiee  kingdoma,  ai  well  as  the  local  and  other  letters  |  lowing  table : 

Nmiras,  A»  muBLT  as  oaw  bi  AsciBTAimsn.  or  ciiaukidu  Lcttebs  diuthid  is  Ghat  Dbitain 

IHHPDIATILT  niOIDtNS  THE  H1IST  OINKRAL  BinonTIOH  Or  l>OSTAUE.  ON  THS  6lll  Or  UXOIIIBIa    1839 

OOHniTI  YlAB  SUBSKIDCNT  TIIRRXTO.— L^VunM  OT  Fttt  UtUrt  vuirktit  ■  ] 


IK  Tim  YlAB 

AHD  IN  lAoa 


YMn. 


188!). 
1839. 
1840. 
1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 
1846. 
1846. 
18tT. 
1848. 
1849. 
1860. 
1881. 
1859. 
1868. 
1864. 
1866. 
1866. 


By 

Coantrj 

OfflCM. 


88,071,808 
1«8,8»6,677 
111,116,439 
117.704,474 
129.016,028 
147.2i7,431 
162.024,024 
176  028,407 
180.716,102 
187.882,829 
192.508,628 
199, 740,304 
212,0!18,7.'!8 
28■2,B(^,I77 
264,922,907 
203,037,827 
276,463,824 


Loodon  DMn«l 
«iclualr«  of 
Local  Lottoffl. 


93,669,836 
97,966,729 
29,886,289 
80,908.748 
88,676986 
86,097,711 
89,998,081 
43,767,640 
•16,091,163 
45,846,683 
4i,866,170 
47,819,499 
61,171,428 
54,402,0^3 
67,186,169 
69,647,643 
64,961,821 


LofftlitlM 

In  Loadoa 
Dlilncl. 


20.87i.382 
28, 108,72  > 
23.899.942 
24  881.410 
26  980.4011 
80,82S,486 
83,261,0611 
84  63:1.817 
83,072,747 
88,960,8!  8 
!!8.887,8H 
40,58.5,962 
40.403,207 
42,816814 
40,131,661 
46.844.163 
47,894,7(18 


FOHAL 


.■.^nsTios  or  Tw»ntt- 

BHIIOYID,  AMD  TUK  1' 


rivs  LiAniHa  Citibb  anb  Towns  or  Gbkat  Bbitain,  oitino  tiir  ndhuir  or  rEsaoNS 

ObTAL  Hr.VBNDB,  LOOAL  ExPENBEB,  AND  MONEY  BEMITTED  IN  MoNEY  UBUEES. 


CItin. 


London 

LiTerpool 

Msnciietter 

Olugor 

Edinburgh 

Dublin 

Hirminghsm.... 

Brintol 

Leeds  

Newcastle 

Hull 

SheflkeU 

Bsth 

Bradford 

Belfast 

Exeter 

Norwich 

Southampton  ... 
Nottingham  .... 

Aberdeen 

Portsmouth 

Plymouth 

Wolrerhampton 

Derby 

Leicester 


PjpnUtloD. 


2,302,336 

376,966 

816,913 

329,097 

100,802 

268,861 

282,841 

137,828 

278,618 

87,784 

84.690 

136,310 

64,240 

149,643 

100,800 

40,683 

68,196 

86,806 

67,407 

7l,97S 

72,096 

62,221 

119,743 

40,609 

60,684 


Clorki,  Sufr. 

poalmuter*. 

Rjceivgri,  ot«. 


1397 

149 

160 

123 

82 

124 

90 

119 

93 

61 

67 

49 

8j 

87 

89 

60 

81 

64 

62 

53 

18 

29 

23 

44 

27 


L«u«r- 
earrien. 


1385 
82 
123 
184 
74 
109 
34 
63 
42 
25 
46 
22 
47 
25 
20 
80 
41 
24 
23 
20 
16 
19 
14 
20 
23 


Local 
BipaiiMt. 


£216.053 

14.029 

12.766 

10,096 

11,043 

19,930 

7,864 

0,168 

6,128 

2.983 

8,900 

2,043 

8,366 

1,866 

1,809 

2,807 

2,883 

2,014 

2,206 

1,707 

1,037 

1,707 

1,8.10 

2.171 

1,649 


Poital  Revenue. 


^1T,S38 
92,842 
78,121 
67,73S 
41,923 
4S,419 
86,096 
28,510 
19.625 
18,484 
16,875 
14.509 
13,705 
11.824 
10,352 
ie,118 
11,223 
12,228 
10.628 
10.918 
10,858 
10,197 
8.0S0 
S,2fl2 
7,227 


£834,927 
100,379 
86  301 
63,441 
66,270 
65.103 
88  849 
23,907 
21,48} 
19,647 
16,960 
14,782 
14,884 
13,130 
12.122 
11,918 
11,870 
11.6S5 
11,503 
11.130 
10,8M 
10,2il 
8,7S0 
8.653 
7,853 


Money  Orden. 


iMued. 


£2,202,229 

86S.IV16 

8:f6  029 

158,810 

128,271 

260.043 

192,448 

132477 

110,486 

97.230 

97,192 

83,004 

78,-:64 

46,03> 

41,506 

05  899 

50,822 

76,901 

80,727 

82.503 

90.656 

64,115 

60,213 

40,448 

47,089 


Paid. 


£3,336.079 

301.874 

KS6,809 

19.M99 

206..">83 

210,563 

805  374 

208  283 

140,229 

83,302 

11S,395 

93,487 

72,1 97 

41,223 

44,376 

77,8!'5 

61,787 

70.714 

66  701 

42.426 

70.048 

07,649 

83,487 

43,194 

46,783 


The  rate  of  letter-postage  between  Great  Britain  and 
tach  of  her  colonies— over  forty  in  number — is  six- 
pence sterling,  except  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Na- 
tal, Labuan,  Gambia,  Island  of  Ascension,  Falidand 
Islands,  and  Vancouver's  Island.  A  bool(-post,  for  the 
transmission  of  every  species  of  printed  matter,  has 
also  been  established  with  the  most  of  the  colonics.  The 
above  table  exhiliits  at  one  view  the  population,  an- 
nual postal  revenue,  local  post  expenses — for  rent  of 
post-offices,  salaries,  etc.,  not  transportation— amount 
of  money  remitted  by  money  orders  in  a  year,  together 
with  (second  column  of  figures)  the  number  of  clerics, 
postmasters,  sub-postmasters,  and  letter-receivers,  and 
(third  column)  the  number  of  town  and  rural  letter-car- 
riers in  (and  around)  twenty-five  of  the  leading  cities 
and  towns  of  Great  Britain.  The  population  is  from 
the  census  of  1851,  the  local  expenses  and  number  of 
persons  employed,  for  the  year  18S4,  the  money  orders 
for  1866,  luid  the  postal  revenue  for  both  1856  and 
1866. 

The  British  money  order  system  is  one  of  the  most 
important  adjuncts  to  the  PostK)fBce,  This  was  first 
started  as  a  private  enterprise  by  certain  officers  of 
the  post-office,  in  the  year  1792.  The  commission 
charged  was  eight-pence  to  the  pound  sterling,  making 
the  whole  business  complicated  and  expensive.  The 
conaequenco  was,  it  afforded  little  profit  to  the  project- 
ors, and  but  very  trifling  accommodation  to  the  puli- 
Uc    The  tlu«e  officers  engaged  in  it  received  less  than 


two  hundred  pounds  sterling  each,  in  annual  profits, 
the  entire  commissions  amounting  in  a  year  to  less 
than  four  thousand  pounds.  August  13th,  1888,  the 
money-order  ofHce  was  attached  to  the  post-office,  and 
the  officers  compensated  for  their  rights.  At  first  the 
commissions  were  put  at  six-pence  sterling  for  all  or- 
ders less  than  two  pounds,  and  one  and  six-pence  for 
orders  between  two  and  live  pounds.  These  commit- 
sions  were  reduced  on  the  20th  of  November,  1840,  to 
six-pence  and  three-pence  respectively.  No  order  is 
granted  for  more  than  five  pounds.  The  number  of 
persons  employed  in  the  money-order  office  at  first  was 
three.  This  was  in  1838.  In  1841  there  were  thirty- 
seven,  and  now  in  the  money-order  office  in  London 
alone  there  ore  nearly  two  hundred.  W'o  have  seen  in 
a  table  on  a  previous  page  [1558]  the  vast  increase 
in  the  money-order  business  in  the  liingdom.  In  1839 
the  number  of  orders  was  less  than  two  hundred 
thousand,  and  the  amount  of  money  emitted  about 
$1,570,000.  In  1856  the  number  of  orders  had  in- 
creased to  over  six  millions  in  number,  and  the  amount 
in  a  year  to  about  sixty  million  dollars.  The  money 
order  is  a  draft  from  one  postmaster  on  another,  and  it 
paid  at  sight,  in  specie,  to  the  person  in  whose  favor  it 
is  drawn.  It  is  as  safe  is  a  duplicate  bank  check  be- 
fore it  is  endorsed,  and  if  proper  care  is  used  in  remit- 
ting it ;  if  it  gets  lost  or  stolen,  it  will  be  impossible 
for  any  but  the  rightful  owner  to  obtain  the  inonejr 
on  it,  even  by  committing  forgery,  at  a  casual  finder 


,-^,.v 


POS 


1560 


POS 


will  not  know  the  name  of  the  penon  in  whoa*  fivor  it 
i(  drawn.  It  it  Mfe  to  say  that  not  one  money  order 
in  five  hundred  tliouaand  geta  appropriated  by  the 
wrong  peraou.  All  poat-otticea  are  not  money-order 
•fficea. 

There  are  in  the  United  Kingdom  10,866  poat-oiHcca. 
Of  theae  846  are  head  poat-officea,  and  10,021  aub-poat- 
officea.  The  number  of  poat-officea  where  money  or- 
dera  are  bought  and  aold  ia  2096.  The  net  proflt  on 
money  ordera  during  aeveral  veara  waa  aa  followa :  In 
1849,  £322;  in  1851,  £7487;  in  1854,  £16,167;  and  in 
1856,  £22,674.  The  commiaaiona  averaged  leaa  than 
one  per  cent. 

One  vast  auperiority  of  the  British  Poat-oifice  con-, 
aiata  in  the  facilittea  for  rapid  delivery  and  local  diatri- 
bution  in  citiea  and  towna.  Tlie  postage  on  each  local 
letter  being  one  penny,  the  aame  aa  for  leltera  the  lon- 
geat  diatance,  there  ia  a  very  large  profit  on  the  local 
diatribution  of  lettcra,  admitting  that  the  carriora  deliv- 
er every  thing  "  free"  that  comea  from  other  placea. 
The  clear  protita  on  the  local  diatribution  of  letters  in 
London  alone,  after  deducting  tlie  entire  expenae  of 
letter-carriera,  receivera,  and  mail-men,  ia  over  $900,000 
a  year.  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  term  "  free-let- 
ter delivery"  ia  a  misnomer.  By  the  figures  in  a  ta- 
ble on  a  previoua  page  it  will  be  aeen  that  the  num- 
ber of  local  letters  in  London  annually  ia  over  forty- 
seven  millions.  The  machiner}'  for  the  local  distribu- 
tion of  letters  in  London  consists  of  about  1400  letter- 
carriers,  one  or  two  score  of  mail-men,  with  horae  and 
cart,  and  alraut  600  sub-postmaatera  and  letter-receiv- 
era.  In  all  the  densely  populated  parta  of  London 
there  are  hourly  deliveries  through  the  day,  and  more 
than  four-fiftlis  of  the  first  morning  delivery  ia  accom- 
plished lictween  the  hours  of  seven  and  a  quarter  past 
nine.  Store  than  one  half  is  done  before  nine  o'clock. 
In  addition  to  the  "receiving-houses,"  where  stamps 
can  be  purchased  and  letters  can  be  posted  at  all  hours 
of  night  and  day,  there  are  now  in  use  a  large  number 
of  "  letter-pillars"  of  cast  iron.  These  convenient  re- 
ceptacles of  letters  have  given  great  satisfaction,  and 
are. rapidly  coming  into  use  in  cities,  towns,  and  coun- 
try districts.  There  is  but  one  assignable  cause  for  the 
extensive  use,  large  income,  and  great  profit,  of  the 
British  Post-office.  The  charges  arc  simple,  uniform, 
and  low ;  the  accommodations  numerous,  and  the  de- 
liveries rapid  and  punctual.    The  estimated  number 


'  of  book  packages  that  passed  through  the  British  Post- 
office  in  1856  was  8,000,000,  the  newspapers  71,000,000, 
and  the  letters  478,893,808,  being  a  total  number  of 
662,89.8,808  packages.  This  is  probably  one  half  of 
the  entire  number  sent  by  mail  in  the  civilized  world. 
The  personnel  of  the  Poat-office  of  the  United  King- 
dom ia  aa  followa : 

Postmaster-general,  Duke  of  Argyle I 

Secretary  of  the  PoBt^oHlce,  Kowlsnd  HUl,  Eaq 1 

AMistant  secretaries S 

gecretsrteii  for  Scotland  and  Ireland 2 

Surveyors 15 

Heads  of  Uepartmenta,  eto It 

Mall  guards 2M 

Clerks 1,W8 

Letter-carriers  and  messenger* 10,42T 

Postmasten  and  receivers 10,806 

Total iil,180 

The  expenaea  of  the  Britiah  Poat-office  for  1856  were 
OS  followa : 
Salaries,  wages,  etc £9M,0?4 


Hereditary  pensions . 

Iluildlngs 

Mail  conveyance  by  ralliray. . . . 
Conveyance  by  coaches,  eta  . . . 

Conv^ance  by  water 

Manufacture  of  postage  stamps . 
Miscellaneous 


29,810 
88.880 
ST6,S63 
1S2,887 
14,809 
20,164 
108,322 


Total £l,m),'im 

It  ia  an  invariable  rule  in  (he  British  Post-office  that 
all  peraona  appointed  ahall  be  of  a  suitable  age,  and 
shall  submit  to  a  rigid  examination,  to  sec  if  they  pos- 
sess the  necessary  qualifications.  Letter-carriers  and 
sorters  must  be  between  the  ages  of  17  and  27  at  the 
date  of  their  original  appointment,  and  shall  undergo 
an  examination  by  a  physician  to  see  if  they  possess 
the  requisite  health  and  strength.  Wages  and  salaries 
are  not  exorbitant,  but  none  are  discharged  except  for 
some  fault  or  dereliction  of  duty ;  and  after  a  certain 
number  of  years  of  faithful  service,  they  are  permitted 
to  retire  on  a  pension,  amounting  to  from  one  third  to 
two  thirds  of  tlietr  salary,  according  to  the  length  of 
time  they  have  served. 

We  will  close  our  account  of  the  post-offices  of  Great 
Britain  by  giving  the  revenue  and  expenditure,  the 
rates  of  postage,  and  (ho  various  improvements  intro- 
duced into  the  post-offices  of  the  principal  British  col- 
onies since  the  introduction  of  the  penny  postage  into 
England  in  1840,  The  revenue  and  expenses  in  each 
case  arc  for  1864,  except  for  Canada,  which  is  for  1865. 


Colon  fM 


Barbadocs 

Canada  

Ceylon 

Gold  coast 

ludts 

Jamaica 

Mauritius 

New  Itrunswick 

Newfoundland 

New  South  Wales 

New  Zealand 

Nora  Scotia    

Prince  Kdward's  Island. 

South  Australia 

Tasmania 

Trinidad 

Victoria 

Western  Australia 


Total. 


Natal*  and  Dat«  of  ImproremenU. 


Inland  poet  (1852),  uniform  postage  and  Btampn. 

Itcduocd  postage  (IS.*)!)  and  postage  stamps 

Reduced  postage  (1840) 

Post  established  in  18B3 

Uniform  postage  and  postage  stamps  (1S54-*55) . 

CliarKO  by  weight  instead  uf  pieces  (1S48) 

l>iHtrlct  post-otilces  and  postage  stamps 

Itcduced  postage  and  poBtago  stamps  (1851) 

Inland  posts  (IS5:'),  and  uniform  postngn  (1853), 
Reduced  postage  and  postage  stamps  (1851-'&4) . 

ruiform  jwstago  and  postage  stamps 

Reduced  jioiitagi!  and  postage  stamps  (1861-56) . 

Uniform  postage  (1851) 

I'nlform  postage  ( 1854) 

Reduced  poKtHgo  and  postage  stamps  (1851-&3) . 

Uniform  postagii  and  postage  stamps  (ISM) 

Reduced  rates  and  postage  stamps  (1850) 

Itcduced  postage  and  postage  stamps  (1862~'04) . 


Rftt«  or  Rnte*  of 
Latter  ro«t»g«. 


C>nU. 

2 
ItoB 

2;  8,  0,  0,  and  12 
12,  18,  and  24 

U 
8, 12, 16, 21),  and  £4 

4 

6 

5 
2  and  4 

4 
11  and  B 

4 

4 
2  and  4 

2 
4  and  8 
2  and  4     . 


Ravtnno. 


$11,225 
887,6.'6 

iw.ss:) 

1,375,835 

65,040 

2,!116 

40,550 

1,81(1 

120,nS5 

11,046 

27,330 

4.715 

87.385 

40,!I<.IO 

7,006 

334,746 

7,180 


$.1.6117.446 


Eiponiiei. 


$9,750 

610,485 

4-2,975 

i.bibImo 

69,410 

4,900 

61,li5 

8,620 

261,(;65 

11.160 

19,696 

10,4KS 

47,790 

81,466 

9,226 

729,330 

10.2(16 


$8,489,216 


Nearly  or  quite  all  of  the  improvements  introduced 
into  the  colonial  post-offices  appear  to  bo  the  direct  re- 
snlt  of  the  success  of  the  penny  postage  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. It  will  be  seen  that  many  of  them  cling  to  the 
old  absurdity  of  a  number  of  rates,  all  entailing  great 
inconvenience  on  every  person  that  mails  a  letter,  and 
greatly  multiplying  the  operations  and  increasing  tbo 
lal)or  and  expense  in  the  post-offices. 

V.  Poilal  Statutict,  and  Rattt  of  Pottage  in  other 
Oaunlriei. — There  are  certain  peculiarities  and  features 
o(  interest  iu  many  of  the  Continental  post-otiices  uf  Eu- 


rope that  deserve  notice,  leaving  the  prominent  statir- 
tics  to  bo  given  in  tabular  form.  In  the  German  Post- 
al Union,  in  Prussia,  Switzerland,  Spain,  and  some 
other  countries,  the  post-office  undertakes  the  carriage 
of  passengers  and  small  parcels  as  well  as  letters  and 
mail  matter.  In  this  species  of  traffic  the  government 
does  not  hold  an  absolute  monopoly,  but,  like  stage 
proprietors  that  get  the  mail  contract,  they  are  ena- 
bled to  hold  an  undue  competition  with  all  outsiders, 
resulting  from  their  advantages  as  mail  carriers.  In 
nearly  all  the  Continental  cities  the  government  post 


Austria . 
IMsK  .  . 

Ilavaris 
«rsme»,, 

'?»«»*«*, 

Pr»»«« . , , 
Fmkfnr 
«/-♦{  Ufit 

Hanovflf . . 
JMIwfj,.; 
I<!als(>4 .  ■ , 
Mbsck... 
N»pi«». . ; 

OldsnbMW- 
Peru  ...  ,7 
PoriMmJ,, 

Kustl*. , . : 
swiioia,, 

8*toi}V.,, 

f»f<i»fl,:,, 

S»it*«rt»fl,J 

J*[?rt»mhi»ri 


f6§ 


1561 


POS 


1 
1 
a 

2 
16 
W 

1,618 
10,42T 
10,806 
1(3,180 


$0,750 

M0,485 

«,975 

1,61^220 
59.410 
4,900 
61,1V5 
3,620 
261,605  i 
11.150 
19,iai5 
10,45.'» 
4T,T90 
81,456 
9,225 
729,330 
10,2C6 
|!$8,489,210 


Incnt  Bt«tir- 
^rman  PoBt- 
and  8omo 
Ihe  carriaRO 
1  letters  and 
government 
I,  liko  stage 
ley  are  ena- 
*1  outsiders, 
Irricrs.    In 
t'nment  poal 


rnnko*  (b«  4«liv«f/  of !«((«»  «  put  of  the  postal  busU 

't'lw  nimrAUkt  in  mttlt  of  (tie  postal  systems  of  the 
Contf  IHiM»»l  »(»(<<«  Vtmnm  e«tieraliy  of  a  varied  scaie  of 
ulmrg*'*!  Htlfl  ilt«  w1((|t()Mtt  of  so  low  ft  standard  of  weight 
M  U)  m»ks  A  Hf**i  <'«'>l  *>f  (IMless  labor  in  the  rating 
pf  )at|«ra,  lw<>i)4«»  tttt(tiHf$  Other  states  that  enter  into 
uottttl  rmiiitlt'i  with  (hem  (o  serious  inconvenience. 
V|m<  hHlr^MHtW  li«'8k  fuf  lettefs  Is  in  use  in  the  United 
Ntutus,  I'ltfU,  ^t(iw  ltf«H«dfi,  Eqiiador,  Hraisil,  Great 
H>it»il),  tiiim,  UlliUnd,  l»enm&rk,  Iceland,  Prussia, 
AMstriu,  H*1#H,  H»V*fi«,  ^rtinhfort- on -the -Maine, 
H»lltl»«rg,  MstlMVCf,  l/Obeck,  Haxony,  WOrtemberg, 
ail4  »f»l««l(  Hfdisd  «01ohI«s<     The  quarter-ounce  scale 
i*  u4it4.|H)ly  ili  Vt»HW,  Switzerland,  Sardinia,  and  Tus- 
"Uny  i  wllil*!  A  wsijjht  equivalent  to  one-third  or  three- 
•ilifltl*4  o(  »ll  mmi'U  in  ami  in  Portugal,  Uelgium,  and 
))rMM*wi«ik:    i(u«^JM,  (ihlllf  and  Hremen,  adopt  the 
OHnoo  ^Itlfi  fitr  Mnf|lt<  letter!),  Sweden  a  weight  that  is 
sgujygl^Mt  Ui  »ilimt  five--ei^hth8  of  an  ouiko,  and  the 
^\nts4mn  td  Hnuifn  sdll  OSes  the  old  plan  ot'  charging 
by  itiH  Dh«»f,     tim  tlttlf-oimce  scale  being  in  such  ex- 
tSHtlv)'  M<w,  i*  f ( loo  tNUfih  (0  ««peet  that  the  time  may 
soon  mm»  wIwh  mII  |Ii«  pdwclpal  commercial  nations 
will  Hd«|it  lllhl.  #l{|tll(lAt'(1,  without  waiting  for  a  uniform 
«yat«m  «f  wsighls*  «H(1  Hl«««ares  t    Prance  is  the  prin- 
4p»t  nMitm  HMW  in  (h«  way  of  such  an  arrangement. 
By  insiii(|l)(;  mt  «  qllSKifr^UHee  scale  for  foreign  let- 
ters, tl)»(  g»vmmwiii  )fU(9  (he  public  and  the  postal 
authority  of  "f  lisr  nft(l(yH!)  (O  great  Inconvenience,  and 
thsrs  )4  mM»ii  pined  hy  it^     Such  a  rate  can  be 
h^bM  m  will  prove  cemtiHerative,  and  by  having  a 
soofa  r^4H«!|lilf*  i^l  gfe»M  (jonvenience  and  simplicity, 
inuml)  Mmt  i»  dAVWl,     To  Siee  this  In  the  most  striking 
ligl»t,  iHt  m  look  Mt  tits  fofmel'  rates  in  use  a  few  years 
ago  In  H))»in,     l>OWe.<ilJd  letters  were  considered  sin- 
gle np  to  sijt.-<i)<l!t#«^n(ll<t  of  Htt  ounce,  and  the  postage 
cliargs4  W/W  «ll«  fC»l  (S  cents),  with  the  addition  of 
01)8  p«|it  f»F#«»'ll«itfl((hof  art  ounce  beyond  the  weight 
caiisi(i«F*i4  m  ^in^le;     Thetl  all  letters  sent  to  the 


Spanish  islands  were  considered  single  up  to  ^re-slx- 
teenths  of  an  ounce,  and  charged  thirty-five  ccnt.<i,  with 
the  addition  of  ten  cents  for  every  sixteentli  of  an 
ounce  beyond !     Is  not  this  excessive  tincncss  as  ali- 
surd — except  in  degree— as  it  would  be  to  wcigli  and 
reckon  by  the  single  grain  ?     Tills  old  absurdity  and 
inconvenience  in  weighing  and  rating  letters  in  Spain 
has  been  swept  away  l)y  the  adoption  of  the  regular 
half-ounce  scale.     In  Great  Britain,  up  to  two  ounces, 
there  are  but  three  rates  of  postage  for  letters,  wliile  in 
the  United  States  there  are  nine  rates.     When  will  Iho 
convenience  and  economy  of  simplicity  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  matters  having  such  a  vast  detail  as  postal 
operations  be  clearly  understood  by  the  nations  ?     Let 
us  look  at  one  fact.    There  are  passing  througli  the 
British  I'ost-office  In  a  year,  in  round  numliers,  five 
hundred  million  (500,000,000)  letters,  and  each  one  of 
these,  in  the  various  processes  of  sorting,  rating,  stamp- 
ing, mailing,  and  delivery,  goes  through  not  far  from 
twenty  (not  less)  distinct  processes,  besides  what  is 
done  in  bulk,  like  weighing  and  transportation.    This 
is  by  the  employes  of  the  Post-oRice,  independent  of 
all  the  care  and  labor  of  the  public  in  considering  tho 
various  charges,  rates,  weights,  and  adjustment  of  dif- 
ferences.    Here,  then,  are  ten  thousand  million — let  us 
see  how  it  will  look  in  figures,  10,000,000,000— ditfcrcnt 
and  distinct  handlings  and  processes  of  separate  letters, 
each  of  them  consuming  and  requiring  more  or  less 
time,  toil,  talent,  and  care;  and  every  useless  or  need- 
ed operation,  turn,  or  thought,  bestowed  on  a  letter  in 
its  passage  through  tho  mail  in  Great  Britain  entails 
at  once  an  additional  five  hundred  million  (500,000,000) 
processes  or  operations  on  the  postal  laborers  annual- 
ly !    Will  those  who  make  laws  for  the  post-office  think 
of  these  things  ?    Will  it,  need  it,  any  longer  be  a  mat- 
ter of  wonder  that  the  annual  correspondence  of  Great 
Britain  has  increased  from  75  niiliion  letters  to  about 
300  millions;  that  it  is  all  done  for  a  penny  a  letter, 
and  that  about  one  half  of  tho  revenue  from  this  source 
is  clear  profit  ? 


I'osTAFi  Bfi¥»«f|ifl  *Sfl  fi*C«i»«««  o#  WrmnitNT  Nations  at  tiiffekest  PEmons,  TOOETnEB  wirn  the  XranEB  oe  Hates 
Of  tUiWr/mn  ii<*  mimhH  I.M-tfeHs.  with  those  Hates  at  the  phksknt  'Iiue  (as  near  as  it  can  bk  stated  from  am 
^^^^fl|^Hnl|  iHfiWflMklt  KlsWiaTSi,  am,  sums  ueino  wives  in  Lsiteu  States  Lceeksov;  tub  Kates  of  I'ostaob 
in  (J»!iT».  Afill  TOK  KliVfcOt;*  j»s(>  kXi'EnSES  in  Dollaks. 


r-uuiiiiiwJi. 
AWStrift  •;  mil  It  t  it  II  I  til  I  I  t 

|f#4**U  ■!!lllllllllllllltlltt 

B»V»fl»  ■jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii 
liSlgf  Mnl .' ;  f  1  /  I  >  I  >  I  >  1 1  <  I  >  1 1 .'  < 
Bf#^il  ;  t  tilt illlll lilt  till  II 

Hremfln.-  r  •  i  >  >  .•  <  >  .• .  n  i .  u  <  <  <  i 
Brmwirlf*,, ,,.■<„/.. i/iiM 

^»\\\  !  f  !  ir  ti  Illlll  1 1 II  It  111  I 

X^mmfvMtittitiititiiiiiin 

V'H'H'iOfmittiitttiiittiii 

)'r»ncs  ■iiiti,,i,titiiiiii;i 
Fr*flkfrrt  •  tiinittt  itittiiti 
Uv»%%\it\Ui\n,,ttiitiiiiiiii 

M<m\)WIS:tli:i,lllllllllitl 
MSOOyflF.-  r  1 1!  1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1  It  I ;  t 

lloll»n4  ititiitttittitiiitii 

IcaV^intlliltltitttiiti,: 
l»\m%, ■■:,, I, ,, I, lit, tit, , 
N»plM...,,..,,.lll.:.(i/.ll 

New  0r»f)iw|»„,,,,,,, ,,,,,, 
i)14*nli«ni, ,,,,,,,, ,1... .1/1 
I  eru  •  f  t  It  I.'  Ill  It;  1 1  ti  III  It  I 

l'limm\::,t:,iitittllltlltl 
nHim»,;lllitititittitll,ii 

Hussw,  t  It  1 1  III  I  It  I  tilt  III  1 1 

8»f|l0i#, III] : III  I itt llttll  i 

8*ronfri,tiitiiiiiiiiiititi 
DpAin  • •  t It  I  It  I  It 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 

0W^4^  I  r  1 1  f !  ■  1 1 1 !  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Swiip#fw#4,  j^  lilt  till  till  1 1 
Twc»flK,  I ! !  I  ti  1 1  III  I  Illlll  t 
I!n|t«4  St»t*i,, ,,,.... ,...,.■ 
Wttrtawhafg ..  ■ ..  .■ , , ; , , ,  i . . . . .: 


FOfUlde^ 

allots 

«    toll 

S}to6 

8(0  4 

81 

tjtoft 

Ulo8 

6 

•i 

ii  In  80 

!ll«4 

I  loTt 

9 

3(lo7i 

8 

2fo« 

(■■fcfi 

SfMoTl 

«to4 

R  io  19 

«M«S 

A  to  43 

n 

i\  to  71 

4 

I(n4t 

OtnIO 

Itu8 

2> 

ItnIO 

ll'>4 


Number 
of  Katn. 


Data. 


1841 
1341 
1842 
1S4S 
1842 

is4s 

1841 
1847 

isio 

18&1 
1810 
1849 


ISO 
1861 


1S4S 
1842 
1861) 
1849 

1844 
1S3:) 

isno 
\'m 

1S40 


Poj(al 

Revenue. 


}8,ir),1.400 

4f>s  5ro 

884,170 
OiiS.OO.'i 
50,980 

83,745 

897,790 

10,050,"l35 

7,7ft7.3'32 

3:l.730 

178.810 

5i).',"35 


83,330 
03,030 


6.615,130 

3.3^7.746 

G;5,58rt 

5SS,T80 
1.271.000 

260,0110 
1,(135,730 

1.'.2,!175 
4,r>43,,'i.'J 


Pmlal 
ExpgMBa. 


$3,08ii.845 
340,570 

803,060 

82,41)5 

04,315 

271, 019 

7,095,'465 

4,293,3'« 

lft,B;i5 

02,350 

199,635 


64,()50 


4,479,220 

1,8119,940 

3.V).l'.m 

3'.18,185 

703,000 

226,500 

886,180 

7'.i,5  5 

4,718,236 


Data. 


1852 
1.S.V2 
18,'.3 
18.53 
1851 
l,^53 
1852 
1S5i 
lS5i 
18.')2 
1852 

1856 
1852 
1853 
1853 

is62 

issi 
1R52 
1853 
18K) 
18.'s! 
18.52 
ia')3 
18.52 
18,53 
18.53 
18,52 
18:>2 
1R56 
1853 


Poatal 

Revenue. 


$4,M14,035 
481,815 
3>!8,24<) 
700,3.'h5 
114.il85 
5,(K)0 
10,5,960 
70,4'  6 

ausis 

12,475 
9,321,900 

14,339,'7'70 

41.046 

157.901 

576,1185 

i2,'ds5 

loi,'625 
61,S(I5 
88,000 

184,51  K) 
0,427,980 
3,S65,4'lO 

642,530 

067,8.85 
1,631, 8.V) 

831,440 
1,803,925 

2'2.'>,.'v«6 
7,6iil.R22 

384.81)0 


PueUl 

Eiipen*ea. 


$4,199,300 
374,645 

832.'340 

151,510 

2  5)0 

74.700 

48,,5^5 

3.52,025 

11,140 

6,623,9-.!5 

8,8fli.l-15 

15,310 

60,200 

811,305 

13,106 


60.000 

38.000 

13S.375 

6,605  5'.5 

2,419.810 

393,',I35 

4')3,V70 

1,0-11.'.50 

3  ■3.'.'40 

962.420 

14',i.415 

10,407,868 

371.485 


Nearly  nil  nf  (h»  RHfopiidtt  (cotidnental)  nations 
make  it  »  p»Ft  of  (hclf  ((Oii(«l  lynslness  to  (ransport  pas- 
MDgsr*  »04  psfwln  M  W*ll  ««  mails.     In  consequence 

of  tbi*  %nm^»nwni,  mh  i«fiur«(«  comparison  of  the 


financial  results  of  tho  different  postal  systems  can  not 
1)0  given.  Tlio  total  annual  revenue  of  tho  post-oflioea 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  at  tho  latest  dates  given 
above,  amounted  to  $32,409,405— probably  one  third 


\t    'I 


P08 


156S 


P(3S 


of  thli  being  for  good)  «nd  puMngaiw— «nd  the  toUl 
•nnual  oxpunsea  to  $24,a<i2,460.  The  post-offlcei  of 
South  America  had  an  annual  revenue  of  $l)*i8,890, 
with  expenses  to  tlio  amount  of  |'24U,'2.S5.  If  we  as. 
lume  that  one  grots  third  of  the  postal  revenue  and 
expenses  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  are  on  account  of 
passenger  and  parcel  traffic,  we  shall  be  able  to  malte 
the  following  summary  statement  of  the  postal  affain 
of  different  nations  and  different  parts  of  the  world ; 
the  figures  standing  exclusively  for  the  legitimate  post- 
al traffic — letters,  papers,  and  printed  documents : 


NiUou.                       1        RnaoiM.       |       ElpmM.       | 

Groat  llritaio 

$14,88'.t,T70 
8,497,420 
7,620,821 

$8,301,146 

3,146,280 

10.407  868 

British  Colonies 

United  States 

Total 

Continental  Europe 

South  America 

$24,468,012 

$21,606,270 

386,800 

$21,666,243 

$16,241,683 

248,286 

Total 

$21,048,160 

$16,4i:0.S68 

Orsnd  total 

$44,401,1X2 

$88,846,111 

If  we  add  to  the  above  the  one  third  of  the  postal 
revenue  of  European  countries  that  was  deducted  for 
parcel  and  passenger  traffic,  we  shall  have  the  sum  of 
f6T,201,307  as  the  total  annual  revenue  of  all  the  post- 
offices  in  the  world  (that  we  have  given  above),  and 
t'iC,466,9'28  as  the  total  annual  expenses.  Of  the  le- 
gitimate postal  traffic — letters  and  printed  matter — 
more  than  one  half  of  the  revenue  is  in  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  the  British  colonies. 

A  fair  estimate  of  the  amount  of  letter  correspond- 
ence may  be  arrived  at  by  the  following  calculation : 
The  rates  of  postage  in  Great  Britain  iwing  much  low- 


er than  in  most  other  countries,  we  may  asstima  that 
one  dollar  of  revenue  in  that  country  represents  as 
many  letters  as  two  dollars  throughout  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  annual  postal  revenue  of  Great  Britain  is 
$14,889,770;  of  the  British  Colonies,  $2,497,420;  and  of 
the  rest  of  the  world,  t2U,663,982.  From  this  we  con- 
clude that  the  correspondence  by  mail  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  British  colonies  amoiuts  to  rather  more  than 
the  correspondence  in  all  the  other  nations  referred 
to.  The  correspondence  through  British  post-offices 
amounts  to  about  600,000,000  letters  annually,  and— 
including  tliis  number — in  all  the  nations  under  con- 
sideration, not  far  from  1,000,000,000.  In  this  calcu- 
lation, of  course,  we  do  not  include  China,  'i'urkey,  and 
other  countries,  of  which  no  statistics  are  given.  Of 
the  fifty-one  nations  and  colonies  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding and  a  former  table  (page  ISVO),  thirty-six  adopt 
the  half-ounce  scale  for  letters.  Ten  of  the  nations 
and  nine  British  colonies  have  uniform  postage,  while 
in  one  only  (Iceland)  the  postage  is  free,  the  entire  ex- 
pense being  defVayed  from  the  national  treasury. 

The  following  table  has  been  compiled  to  show  the 
actual  and  comparative  amount  of  money  paid  in  post- 
ages in  each  of  seven  diflferent  countries,  during  the 
same  year  (1863),  along  with  the  population,  and  col- 
umns, also,  showing  the  cost  of  cnch  thousand  letters, 
together  with  the  number  of  letters  in  a  year,  the  num- 
ber for  each  thousand  persons,  and  the  money  paid  an- 
nually (on  the  average)  by  each  thousand  persons.  The 
last  line  gives  the  same  statistics  for  Great  Britain  for 
1889,  the  year  before  the  penny  postage  was  established. 
Except  this  last,  the  statistics  are  all  for  the  year  1863: 


Couliiw. 

PopalaUoa. 

Portal 
Raven  ua. 

roUal 
BipalUM.' 

Nuinbar  of 
LotKn. 

Com  «r  i(xn 

Laltin. 

RcvMig*  per 
1000  Penom. 

Lattan  pw 
1000  Panosa. 

Hwitzerland 

2392,740 
8,056,601 
4,426.202 
13.936,218 
8.^  783,170 
23.101,876 
27,833.601 
26,088,010 

$447,572 

28S.162 

7,'i5,6»8 

1,281,761 

9,321,0(0 

6,1140,724 

12,872,080 

11,963,318 

$341,028 
166,784 
827,118 
1,006,308 
6,628,025 
7,082,767 
7,008,399 
8,t84,997 

10.77S.6i5 

13,349.868 

11.521,965 

80,776,086 

18),OtPO,00() 

102.189,148 

410,817,489 

82,470.606 

$28 
22 
66 
42 
62 
98 
81 

146 

$187 
04 
171 
04 
260 
266 
462 
443 

8.230 
4.867 
2,608 
2,209 
4,102 
4.404 
14,760 
8,066 

Holland 

Spain 

France 

United  States 

Great  Itrltain  „ 

Great  llfltain,  1889 

In  those  countries  where  the  post-office  engages  in 
passenger  and  parcel  traffic,  the  revenue  has,  in  the 
above  table,  been  given  only  for  the  letters  and  mail 
matter. 

VI.  nUtory  nf  the  United  Statet  Poal-office.— Having 
taken  a  rapid  survey  of  the  postal  affairs  of  other  coun- 
tries and  othci  times,  we  will  glance  at  the  progress 
and  condition  of  the  post^iffice  in  the  United  States. 
Probably  the  earliest  inention  of  a  legal  post  in  the 
British  colonies  of  North  America  is  found  in  the  Gen- 
eral Court  records  of  Massachusetts  in  1039.  We  find 
it  there  recorded  as  follows :  "  It  is  ordered  that  notice 
be  given,  that  Kichard  Fairbanks,  his  house  in  Boston, 
b  the  place  appointed  for  all  letters  which  are  brought 
from  Iwyond  the  seas,  or  are  to  1)0  sent  thither,  are  to  be 
left  with  him ;  and  ho  is  to  take  care  that  they  are  to 
be  delivered  or  «ent  according  to  the  directions;  and 
he  is  allowed  for  every  letter  Id.,  and  must  answer  all 
miscarriages  through  his  own  neglect  in  this  kind,  pro- 
vided that  no  man  be  compelled  to  having  his  own  let- 
ters except  he  please."  In  1C67,  in  consequence  of  the 
nncertainty  and  loss  attending  correspondence,  a  peti- 
tion was  signed  by  some  twenty  persons,  "  To  t/ie 
Honorable  tltnertU  Court,  now  eitting  in  Boston."  That 
petition  set  forth  that  "several  of  us  being  sensible  of 
the  loss  of  letters,  whereby  merchants,  especially  with 
their  friends  and  employers  in  foreign  parts,  are  great- 
ly damnified ;  many  times  the  letters  are  imputed  and 
thrown  upon  the  exchange,  so  that  tiioso  who  will 
may  take  them  up ;  no  person,  without  some  satisfac- 
tion, being  willing  to  trouble  their  houses  therewith," 
etc.,  etc.  They  then  request  that  the  honorable  court 
"  will  depute  some  mete  person  to  take  in  and  convey 
letters  according  to  directions."  After  due  doiil)era- 
tion,  they  did  "  make  choice  of  Mr.  John  liayward,  the 


scrivener,  to  be  the  man."  There  are  no  records  to 
show  how  long  John  liayward  kept  his  office,  or  what 
amount  of  business  he  did.  In  1667,  the  colony  of  Vir- 
ginia passed  a  law  requiring  each  plantation  to  provide 
a  messenger  to  convey  the  government  dispatches  as 
they  arrived,  each  planter  in  succession  sending  a  mes- 
senger to  tlio  next,  and  so  on  to  the  final  destination. 
The  penalty  for  neglecting  this  duty  was  a  hogshead 
of  tobacco.  In  1072  Governor  Lovelace,  of  New  York, 
established  "  a  post  to  goe  monthly"  from  New  Yorlt 
city  to  Boston  and  hack.  This  purported  to  be  in  ol)i- 
dience  to  his  Majesty's  commands,  "  wlio  ei\]oynes  all 
his  sul>jects  in  their  distinct  coionys  to  enter  into  a 
strict  allyance  and  correspondency  with  each  other,  as 
likewise  for  the  advancement  of  negotiation,  trade,  and 
civill  commerce,  and  for  the  speedy  intelligence  and 
dispatch  of  afTayres."  It  gave  notice  that  a  messenger 
would  start  on  the  first  of  January,  1073,  and  that 
"  If  any,  therefore,  have  any  small  letters  or  portable 
goods  to  bo  conveyed  to  Hartford,  Connecticott,  Bos- 
ton, or  an}'  other  parts  on  the  road,  they  shall  be  care- 
fully delivered  according  to  the  directions,  by  a  swornc 
messenger  and  post,  who  is  purposely  employed  in  that 
afTayro.  In  the  interim,  those  that  bee  disposed  to 
send  letters,  left  them  bring  them  to  the  Secretary'^ 
office,  wlierc,  in  a  lockt  box,  they  shall  be  preserved 
till  the  messenger  calls  for  them.  All  persons  paying 
the  post  before  the  bagg  be  sealed  up."  Tlie  mails  nt 
this  period  did  not  appear  to  have  a  very  rapid  transit. 
The  post-riders  set  out  from  New  York  and  Boston 
simultaneously,  on  Monday  morning,  and  on  the  Sat- 
urday evening  following,  they  met  at  the  half-war 
house,  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  where  they  exchanged 
mails,  and  each  wended  his  way  back,  arriving  on 
Saturday  of  the  following  week.    At  the  present  time. 


"Il.l.f  llt,>IIIJIII{ 


i'OS 


1«6S 


P08 


B  tb*t 
nt>  u 

of  the 
Uain  is 
and  of 
ftQ  con- 
Britain 
re  tban 
refcrri'cl 
it-offices 
y,  and — 
der  cou- 
lis  calca- 
fkey,  and 
ifen.    Of 
n  the  pre- 
fix adopt 
le  nations 
age,  while 
entire  ex- 
snry. 

0  show  the 
aid  in  post- 
during  the 
jn,  and  col- 
land  letters, 
ir,  the  num- 
ney  paid  an- 
ersons.  The 
X  Britain  for 
s  established, 
le  year  1863 : 


instead  of  two  weeks  being  required,  and  a  semi- 
monthly mall  only,  the  mails  are  transported  between 
Boston  and  New  Yorli  three  times  a  day,  each  way,  in 
fh)m  eight  to  eleven  houn ;  two  weeks  being  ample 
time  to  convey  the  roailsTrom  New  York  to  Copen- 
hagen, Denms'lt,  to  Marseilles,  Berlin,  Vienna,  or 
Trieste.  It  is  .ibrewdly  suspected  that  the  fatherly 
care  exhibited  by  King  Charles  for  a  mail  service,  and 
»  "strict  allyance  and  correspondency"  between  the 
American  colonies,  was  with  an  eye  to  the  profits, 
which  all  went  to  a  member  of  the  royal  family. 

In  1683  William  Penn  established  a  post-ollico  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  appointed  Henry  Waddy  postmas- 
ter. The  mails  were  sent  to  the  principal  towns  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  to  the  neigliboring  colonies,  once  a 
week,  the  times  of  departure  being  regularly  published 
"  on  the  meeting-house  door  and  other  public  places." 
Postal  affairs  in  the  colonies  received  marked  attention 
in  England,  in  1685,  on  the  accession  of  King  James, 
who  owned  the  Post,  and  put  the  profits  in  his  own 
privy  purse,  and  an  order  in  council  was  made  "for 
the  better  correspondence  between  the  Colonies  of 
America."  In  1686  an  order  was  made  in  New  York 
that  all  letters  coming  from  beyond  sea  should  be  de- 
livered at  the  custom-house.  The  postage  was  "  four- 
pence  half-penny  for  a  single  letter,  and  nine-pence  for 
every  packett  or  double  letter,"  "  one  half  of  the  money 
to  be  given  to  the  poor,"  under  the  direction  of  the 
Captain-general  and  the  Council,  and  the  other  half 
to  the  ofHcers  of  the  custom-house. 

In  1691-'92  Thomas  Ncal,  by  letters  patent,  was  ap- 
pointed Postmaster-general,  with  authority  to  erect 
post-offices  in  the  American  colonics.  It  appears,  how- 
ever,  that  he  did  not  act  himself,  but  appointed  Col 
onel  Andrew  Hamilton,  of  New  Jersey,  Postmaster- 
general  for  all  the  colonies.  In  1692,  by  the  rccom 
mendation  of  Colonel  Hamilton,  the  Common  Council 
established  a  post-office  in  New  Y'ork  city.  It  was  lo- 
cated in  Broadway,  opposite  the  end  of  Beaver  Street. 
The  rates  of  postage  were,  for  eighty  miles  or  under, 
four-pence  half-penny;  from  Now  York  to  Philadelphia, 
nine-pence ;  and  to  Virginia,  twelve-pence.  The  ex- 
pense, however,  was  found  greatly  to  exceed  the  in- 
come. For  ten  years  there  was  no  regular  Post  further 
east  than  Boston,  or  further  west  than  Philadelphia. 
Lord  Cornbury  wrote  home,  in  1704,  saying  "  there  is 
no  other  Post  upon  all  this  continent.  If  I  have  any 
letter  to  send  to  Virginia  or  to  Maryland,  I  must  cither 
send  an  express,  who  is  often  retarded  for  want  of 
boats  to  cross  those  great  rivers  they  must  go  over,  or 
else  for  want  of  horses ;  or  else  I  must  send  them  by 
some  passengers  who  are  going  tliither.  The  least  I 
have  known  any  express  to  take  hence  to  Virginia  has 
been  three  weeks."  At  this  period  the  mail  was  car- 
ried twice  a  month  in  stage-coaches,  between  Boston 
and  New  York  and  Philadelphia;  and  from  New  Y'ork 
to  Albany  by  a  foot-post,  once  a  month.  In  1732  a 
General  Post-office  was  established  in  Virginia,  and  a 
post-office  in  each  county.  In  1736  there  was  a  week- 
ly mail  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York  and  Boston. 
In  1737  Colonel  Spottswood,  formerly  Governor  of 
Virginia,  appears  to  have  been  Postmaster-general, 
and  he  appointed  Benjamin  Franklin  postmaster  at 
Philadelphia.  The  following  is  an  advertisement  from 
Franklin's  newspaper  at  this  period : 

"  Octobtr  27,  1737. — Xotict  is  herebi/  ffiven,  that  the 
Foit-office  of  PhUadelphia  is  now  Jcept  at  B.  Franklin's, 
in  Market  Street,  and  that  Henry  Pratt  is  appointed  riding 
postmnster /or  all  stages  between  Phihdelphia  and  \ew- 
port,  in  yirginia,  who  sets  out  about  the  beginning  of  each 
month,  and  returns  in  twentg-four  dags,  bg  uhom gentle- 
men, merchants,  and  others,  mag  have  their  letters  care- 
fiiUg  conveged,  and  business  faithfuUg  transacted,  he  hav- 
ing given  good  security  for  the  same  to  the  Honorable  Col- 
onel Spottstoood,  Postmaster-general  of  all  his  Majesty's 
dominions  in  An%erica." 
Colonel  Spottswood  died  in  1763,  and  the  home 


goyemment  appointed  Franklin  •«  bU  intetMor,  and 
he  held  the  office  for  twenty-one  yMrs,  till  1774,  wim 
the  difficulties  occurring  between  the  colonies  and  lh( 
mother  country,  Franklin  was  unceremoniously  turntd 
out  of  office.  He  sympatliized  too  strongly  with  tht 
people  of  the  colonies  in  tlieir  wrongs,  hardtliips,  Mid 
oppressions  to  be  a  fit  instrument  of  the  crown,  lU 
is  not  the  lost  or  the  only  instance  of  a  postniMttl 
losing  his  office  for  political  opinions.  During  Friuk* 
lin's  administration  of  the  Colonial  Posts,  nuilieroM 
improvements  were  made.  At  one  tlm«  liu  took  Itb 
own  conveyance,  nnd,  in  company  with  bis  iJHUghter, 
made  a  journey  of  several  hundred  miles,  vlsillitg  all 
the  principal  post-offices  in  Pennsylvania,  New  jors«y, 
New  York,  and  Now  England.  With  that  altiintluii  to 
details  which  always  marks  the  man  of  large  LuslnsM 
capacity,  he  fct  about  making  numerous  refurnu  In  th* 
administration  of  the  Post.  Ho  liad  as  aanuciut*  or 
assistant,  Mr.  William  Hunter.  By  the  terms  of  their 
appointment  they  were  to  have  six  hundred  pounds  • 
year,  procided  they  could  get  it!  Franklin,  in  glvInK 
an  account  of  the  Post-office  during  his  adininlatrtitlan 
of  its  affairs,  after  he  had  been  turned  out  of  the  oIHm 
by  George  the  Third,  makes  the  fullowing  pithy  suin« 
mary: 

"  The  American  Post-office  had  hitherto  (t, «,,  befor* 
1753)  never  paid  any  thing  to  that  of  Britain,  W« 
were  to  have  six  hundred  pounds  a  year  between  Ml, 
if  we  could  make  tliat  sum  out  of  tliu  prolits  of  tilt 
office.  To  do  this,  a  variety  of  ini|irovoments  wort 
necessary;  some  of  these  were  inevitably,  in  the  h(« 
ginning,  expensive;  so  that  in  the  first  funr  years  tllO 
office  became  above  nine  hundred  pounds  In  debt  to 
us.  But  it  soon  after  began  to  repay  us ;  and  bufore  I 
was  displaced  by  a  freak  of  tlio  minister's,  we  had 
brought  it  to  yield  three  times  as  much  clear  revaniio 
to  the  crown  as  the  Post-office  in  Ireland.  8inc«  that 
imprudent  transaction,  they  have  received  from  It—i 
not  one  farthing !" 

The  practice  of  sending  newspapers  In  exchange, 
free,  dates  from  Franklin's  administration  of  the  Colo* 
nial  Post-office.  He  was  editor  and  publisher  of  a 
newspaper,  and  ho  received  his  exchanges  free,  and 
accorded  the  same  privilege  to  other  journals,  The 
philosopher  undoubtedly  soon  recovered  his  equanimitr 
after  that  "freak  of  the  minister's,"  for  though  he  suf> 
fercd  official  decapitation,  he  was  soon  after  rolnstatfld 
in  office  by  a  more  competent  authority,  being  unanU 
mously  appointed  Postmaster-general  of  the  United 
Colonies  by  the  Continental  Congress.  In  177U  ha 
vacated  the  office,  on  being  appointed  embassador  to 
France.  On  the  7th  of  November  of  tbot  year,  lilchard 
Bache  was  appointed  to  the  office.  He  hold  the  plac* 
for  a  little  over  five  years,  and  on  the  28tli  of  January, 
1762,  Ebenezer  Hazard  was  appointed  Postmaster-gen- 
eral, and  remained  in  office  until  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution,  in  1789,  when  Samuel  Osgood  was  ap* 
pointed.  The  different  incumbents  of  the  office  of 
Postmaster-general  since  the  Revolutionary  war  broke 
out  were  as  follows : 

Benjamin  Franklin,  in  1776;  Richard  Bache,  J77fl| 
Ebenezer  Hazard,  1782;  Samuel  Osgood,  17«'J ;  TImo. 
thy  Pickering,  1791;  Joseph  Habersham,  1795;  Gld» 
con  Granger,  1802;  Return  J.  Meigs,  1814;  John 
M'Lcan,  1823;  William  T.  Barry,  1829;  Amos  Ken> 
dall,  1835;  John  M.  Nilcs,  1840;  Francis  Granger, 
March,  1841;  Charles  A.  Wicklitft,  September,  1841 1 
Gave  Johnson,  1845 ;  Jacob  CoUamer,  1819 ;  Nathan 
K.  Hall,  1850;  Samuel  D.  Hubbard,  1852;  Jamet 
Campbell,  1853;  and  Aaron  V.  Brown,  in  1857. 

The  rates  of  postage  from  1776  to  1816  were  ttom  7 
to  33  cents,  according  to  distance.  In  1810  the  ratal 
were  fixed  by  act  of  Congress  at  6t,  10,  12i,  18|,  and 
25  cents  for  each  single  letter,  according  to  dietanoe. 
These  rates  remained  till  the  act  of  1845,  which  estab« 
lished  the  half-ounce  scole  for  single  letters,  and  Qiud 
the  rates  at  five  and  ten  cents. 


P08 


1564 


POS 


Th«  act  of  M«Kh  8, 1851,  eatabllih«d  the  following 
ntei:  one  cent  for  drop  lettera,  three  cents  for  all 
(Ingle  lettera  (half  ounce),  for  every  distance  not  over 
three  thousand  miles,  when  prepaid,  and  Ave  cents  If 
not  prepaid;  and  double  these  rates  when  over  three 
thousand  miles.  The  law  of  1855  flxed  the  rates  at 
one  cent  for  drop  lettera,  three  cents  for  letters  all  dis- 
tances under  three  thousand  miles,  and  ten  cents  when 
over  that  distance,  and  all  to  be  prepaid,  or  retained 
and  sent  to  the  dead-letter  office.  This  law  went  into 
operation,  as  far  as  it  was  found  practicable,  on  the  first 
of  April,  1865.  After  the  lirst  of  January,  1856,  all 
letters  were  required  to  be  prepaid  by  stamps.  In 
March,  1850,  a  law  was  passed  making  prepayment 
compulsory  on  all  transient  printed  matter;  and  this 
law  went  into  effect  on  the  lat  of  April,  1866.  The  in- 
conveniences and  inconsistencies  of  tha  law  making 
prepayment  compulsory  are  numerous.  At  an  expense 
of  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  nearly  all 
letters  might  bo  returned  to  the  writers  in  a  brief  period 


of  time  after  they  fiill  or  miscarry.  The  usage  of  our 
government  is  In  strung  contrast  to  that  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, where  all  dead  or  returned  letten  are  sent  to  their 
writers  at  once.  4 

It  is  instructive  to  observe  the  progress  of  our  postal 
correspondence  beyond  the  increase  of  population  and 
the  augmentation  of  almost  all  other  national  and  do- 
mestic tran  .actions.  During  each  period  of  ten  years, 
from  1700  t )  1850,  the  average  increase  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  country  has  been  34  per  cent.,  the  exports 
i'i  per  cent.,  the  expenses  of  government  96  per  cent., 
Fost-otfico  revenue  120  per  cent.,  and  correspondence 
by  mail  140  per  cent.  Thus,  while  the  papulation  of 
the  country  has  increased  in  sixty  years  scvcn-fuld, 
letter  correspondence  has  increased  four  hundred  and 
forty  fold,  or  sixty-three  times  as  fast  as  the  popula- 
tion. In  1790,  the  letters  sent  by  mail  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  were  estimated  at  266,645;  and  in  1866, 
131,460,409.  The  following  table  gives,  for  a  period 
of  sixty-seven  years,  the  leading  items : 


STATISTIOt  or  TUB  UNITID 

States  rosT-orrici. 

VMn. 

rmt- 

oOtM. 

MllM  of 
Port-nxuli 

ElMDM  of 

Total 

Bip«B«M. 

K*VIDU*. 

Numtm  of 
LotUn. 

PopaUUoB. 

L«tt«n  for 
each  P«rton. 

1790 

78 

1,878 

!l'22,(i81 

$82,140 

»87,936 

2(15615 

8,180,000 

0067 

1191 

89 

1,906 

28,2113 

80,097 

46,204 

3-'4,0B8 

im 

19B 

6.612 

82,731 

r4,B31 

6T,444 

47-2,103 

•  *  •  > 

1708 

S09 

6,642 

44,734 

72.040 

104,747 

703.339 

1794 

460 

11,984 

63,006 

89,078 

128.947 

902,029 

179.5 

463 

13.207 

76,369 

117,893 

160,020 

1,124,840 

•  •  <  • 

. .  •  • 

1790 

468 

13,207 

81,489 

181,672 

1!8,li07 

1,806,409 

•  1   •  • 

1797 

684 

10,180 

89,382 

160,114 

218,91'8 

1,407,(186 

•   t  *  • 

*  •  •  • 

1798 

6S9 

16,180 

107,014 

170,084 

!!32,977 

1,630,839 

•  •  •  • 

1T09 

077 

16,180 

109,476 

188,038 

204,840 

1,853,022 

180O 

903 

20.817 

128,044 

213,094 

280;804 

l,!lf*,6S:-8 

5,80d«CO0 

0  370 

1801 

1,028 

22,300 

152,460 

258,151 

820,443 

2,343,101 

•  •  •  • 

.  •  •  . 

180i 

1,114 

26.818 

174,071 

281,010 

827,048 

2,289,316 

<  •  •  • 

.  .  •  » 

isos 

1.288 

26,816 

206,110 

833,304 

881,823 

2,462,701 

•  •  t  • 

.  •  •  1 

1804 

1,406 

2»,r.66 

205,668 

887.602 

889,480 

2,720,160 

•  •  •  • 

»  .  .  • 

1806 

1.658 

8I,0'6 

239,636 

877,307 

421,373 

2,949,051 

•  •  •  • 

180e 

1,710 

33.431 

200,033 

417,234 

440,100 

8,13-2,742 

•  •  •  • 

1807 

1.843 

83,766 

292,761 

483,885 

478,763 

8,361,841 

.... 

1308 

J,i!44 

84,038 

808,490 

40-2,828 

460,564 

8.223,048 

*.  • . 

<  •  .  • 

1809 

2.U12 

81,036 

832,917 

493,012 

606,634 

8,840,488 

.... 

1810 

2,8nO 

86,406 

827,006 

4!;8,rfl9 

661,68 1 

8,801.788 

7,240,(100 

0  633 

isn 

s,*ja 

86,406 

819,106 

40»,099 

887,247 

4,110,729 

1813 

SiilO 

39,878 

840,026 

640,168 

649,208 

4,644,456 

1H18 

S,740 

89.6(0 

438,569 

681,012 

703,186 

4,922,086 

•  • . . 

...  * 

1814 

2,870 

41,736 

475,003 

727,120 

730,870 

6,113,590 

1816 

3.000 

4;i,f66 

487,779 

748,121 

1,043,OC6 

7,801,488 

•  • .  • 

1816 

8,260 

48.076 

521,070 

804,032 

961.782 

6,782,474 

•  >  • « 

1817 

8.469 

61.000 

6S9,180 

910,816 

1,002,978 

8,023,784 

•  •  • . 

1818 

3,«18 

69.473 

004,011 

1,035,832 

1,130,288 

0,041,880 

* . .  * 

1810 

4,000 

67,680 

717,831 

1,117,801 

1,204,737 

0,637,806 

182C 

4.600 

72,493 

782,4J6 

1,100,020 

l,111.9i7 

8,806.416 

9,(138,000 

0-9:3 

1821 

4,660 

78,808 

8I6.C3I 

1,182,928 

1,086,668 

8,463, 2l!4 

•  •  •  • 

1822 

4,7D» 

82,703 

783.018 

1,107.573 

1,117,4110 

8,989,920 

*  .  •  . 

1823 

6,043 

84,860 

707,404 

l,10;i,880 

1,114848 

.8.014,760 

*  •  •  • 

18-24 

6.182 

.84.860 

7flS,939 

1,169,199 

1,I6!1.813 

9,384,490 

•  •  •  . 

1826 

8,077 

94.082 

785,640 

1,206,684 

1,253,051 

10,016,488 

•  •  •  . 

1820 

6,160 

94,063 

8S6,l(l0 

1.309,310 

1,388,417 

11,110,336 

•  .  •  • 

1827 

7,003 

105.836 

943,348 

1,373,239 

1,473,551 

11,7S8,408 

•  •  .  . 

1828 

7,651 

114,836 

1,086,312 

1,633,333 

1,698,134 

12,786,072 

1820 

8,060 

114,780 

1,1.53,016 

1,782,133 

1,707,41,S 

13,069,844 

.  •  ■ 

1830 

8,480 

116,176 

l,274,(P(i9 

1,933,708 

1,860,888 

13.804,664 

12,660,000 

10:3 

1831 

8,686 

110,000 

1,282,226 

1,936,133 

1,997,813 

17,080,808 

.... 

1832 

0.206 

104,467 

1,483,507 

2,266,172 

2,269.570 

20,327,130 

•  .  •  • 

.... 

1S83 

10,127 

119,916 

1,894.688 

2,930,416 

2,01fl.K)8 

28.848,842 

.... 

ISSl 

10,693 

113,600 

1,922,431 

2,806,691 

2.823.707 

25,443,3(18 

■  .  •  • 

1S3,"> 

10,770 

112,774 

1,719,007 

2,767,860 

2,993,657 

20,942,018 

.  •  .* 

■  .  • . 

183« 

11,031 

118,204 

1,038,082 

2,755,624 

8,398,455 

80,580,008 

*  .  .  . 

1837 

11,767 

141,243 

2,081,786 

8,803,433 

4,10li,6i6 

80,906,448 

1838 

12,610 

184.818 

8,131,308 

4,031,637 

4,235078 

83,116,703 

1S39 

13,780 

133,990 

8,301,923 

4,6&l,718 

4,477.014 

40.398,520 

•  •  .  . 

1840 

13.4(!8 

16.5,7.19 

8,213,043 

4.718,336 

4,M3.632 

40,891,6:-8 

17,009,000 

2355 

1841 

18,778 

186,026 

8,0,84,814 

4.499,6-28 

4,407.726 

89,669,8»1 

•  .  •  * 

1842 

13,733 

149,732 

4.192,190 

B.074.T63 

6,029,507 

46,266,863 

1843 

1!),8I4 

142,298 

2,982,612 

4,374.754 

4.290,236 

88,600.026 

.  .  .  t 

1844 

14,103 

144,687 

2,983,047 

4,2116.513 

4,2i)7,283 

88,138,593 

.... 

1848 

14,133 

143,940 

2,808,630 

4.320,732 

4,439,812 

89.958,978 

•  ■  .  . 

1846 

14,601 

149,670 

2,697,466 

4,084,3:12 

4,089,000 

41,879.781 

.... 

1847 

16,146 

163,818 

2,470,456 

8,971,278 

4,018,447 

47,585,787 

.... 

1848 

16.160 

103.208 

2,448,700 

4,326,880 

4,101,078 

62,304,819 

•  •  •  • 

.... 

1.849 

16,747 

107,703 

2,490,0.8 

4,479.049 

4  706,176 

00,189,803 

18S0 

18,417 

178,0-2 

8,096,974 

B.2I  2,953 

6,662,971 

60,426,482 

28,192,000 

29.4 

1881 

19,796 

196,290 

4.010,688 

0,034.506 

6,727.867 

83,282,736 

1882 

20,901 

214,284 

4,138,907 

7.108,469 

6,823.982 

96,700,6-24 

.... 

1883 

22,820 

217,743 

4,7-29,028 

7,983,767 

B,l'40,734 

102,130,148 

.... 

1884 

23,648 

219,988 

4,92.5,738 

8,677,4 '4 

0,083,537 

119,034,418 

.  ,  ,, 

1888 

84410 

227,008 

6.076388 

0,r08.342 

7,8S8,177 

130,733,426 

1800 

Tot.l.... 

28,665 

239,042 

6,706,039 

10,407.868 

7  630,  S22 

131,4,50,409 

28.000,000 

4-11116 

.... 

....       1  $90,396,889 

$166,406.5-24 

$148  887,640 

1.662.104  648 

.... 

ros 


186A 


POS 


0310 


0B3S 


oo;3 


io;3 


2355 


2-9.4 


4-ri!i5 


The  total  numb«r  of  mail  route*  on  tbe  80th  of  June, 
18S6,  wu  7972,  end  the  number  of  contractors  6872. 
The  length  of  routei  and  annual  amount  of  transporta- 
tion stand  a*  follows : 


KtadofSanrtM. 

UaiUiof 

KaaUl. 

Auiul 
TruapotuUoii. 

Co.»- 
p«  Mlta. 

HUM. 
14.U61 
2U.8'J3 
B0,4B3 
1B3,»1B 

HUM. 
4,240,170 
ll,800,2«t 

i»,n4,rai 

26.143,410 

VU.M. 

2M  3 

10  0 

TO 

69 

Railroad  .  •  •  •  • 

Cosoh • 

Inferior  grad 

Total  miles... 

•J3J,04'i 

Tl,8'J7,8:»T 

The  revenue  and  expenditures  of  the  Post-offlce,  and 
the  items  of  which  they  wore  composed,  for  the  years 
1856  and  1856,  were  as  follows: 

ExPRiDinrMS  or  mc  Umnn  Stars  FosT-onrioi. 


Traniportatlon  of  the  malls  .... 
Compensation  to  postmasters, . . 

Fay  of  poat-office  clerks 

I'ay  of  letter-carriers 

Depredations  and  special  agents 
Ship,  steamboat,  and  way  letters 

Advertising 

Blanks 

Mail  bags 

Mall  locks,  keys,  and  stamps 

Wrapping-paper 

Postage  stamps 

Stamped  envelopes 

Office  furniture 

Offldal  letters 

Repnynieiit  for  dead  letters. . 
Poaiagu  stamps  redeemed  . . . 

Patent  padlock 

Miscellaneous  payments 

Balance  paid  Oreat  Britain  . . 

Balance  paid  Bremen 

Balance  due  Oreat  Britain. .. 

Balance  due  Bremen 

BaddebU 


Total  expenses. 


(0,070,33.') 

2,185, 385 

702,017 

143,813 

64.454 

18,766 

75,457 

91,1S8 

6i,(«0 

16.178 

46,467 

11,UU4 

40,035 

6,250 

66 

7 

19 

6,000 

163.011 

802,860 

13,465 

70,523 

6,130 


l»M. 

$il.7U5,640 

2,1I«.8.>1 

753.081 

102.915 

03.602 

17,618 

64.603 

48,5J8 

48.910 

11,087 

8l.n>7 

26,706 

64,C8i) 

6,'il)0 


200,080 


$10,O»,998 


28.849 
8.63S 
2.53J 


triet,  are  the  following  i  In  tbt  tint  pUet,  Nvaral  po|>i 
uiar  fallacies  have  been  sngandared  and  liept  up  by 
official  post-offlce  reports.    AKaln,  the  offlclal  Ii«ai|l  of 
this  Important  department,  for  the  latt  llfleen  y«ar«, 
have  almost  invariably  thrown  tlieir  ofllilal  and  par. 
sonal  iuduence  against  all  the  great  iMipraveiiienti  utg- 
ently  demanded  by  the  people  |  and  In  cirryltiff  out 
this  opposition,  several  of  these  officers  have  uahlbllfd 
an  unwarrantable  interference  with  the  |e|(lalallnn  of 
the  country.     All  of  the  principal  improvsnieiils  Itav* 
been  accomplished,  not  through  their  aid,  but  In  IIm 
face  of  their  opposition.     The  annual  reports  of  th* 
Postmaster-general,  since  1862,  have  declared  and  al« 
tempted  to  prove  that  the  legitimate  revenue  uf  th« 
Post-offlce  has  been  less  than  its  legltlnmle  eiiponili* 
tures,  while  the  contrary  has  been  the  faol,  as  must  In* 
evident  when  we  have  a  complete  view  of  tlia  pr«m> 
ises.    The  true  state  of  the  case  is— and  this  is  tliH  im- 
portant matter  that  has  been  overlouksd~th«  t'osl*of* 
lice  has  performed  a  large  amount  of  laliur,  and  iionM> 
quently  been  put  to  great  expense,  without  any  utsH 
record  or  any  adequate  return. 

The  payment  for  and  on  account  of  letters  and  doeu- 
ments  transported  and  delivered  l)y  the  Pott-ollliM  for 
the  government— the  sum  of  (70U,U(M)— is  entirely  iii< 
adequate  to  the  servico  performed.  To  show  tiM 
amount  of  "  franked"  matter  sent  f:am  Wasliiniflon 
alone,  the  following  items  were  given  In  an  ollldlal 
statement  from  the  postmaster  of  iVathliigton  IJity  lo 
tlie  Post-office  Committee  of  the  House  of  Kepresoillil* 
lives,  as  the  amount  of  that  description  of  mall  matter 
fur  one  month — January,  1854, 

Fbxf.  Mail  Matteb  raou  WAsuiaoTOM  roa  om  Monh, 


.1il0.407,8iJ3 


Keyemdb  or  TUB  United  States  Pobtoffice. 


Letter  postage 

Stamps  sold 

Postage  on  printed  matter. . . 

Letter  carriers 

Dead  letters 

Registered  letters 

Fines  

Emoluments  returned 

Extra  compensation  overcharged 

Balance  due  by  Prussia 

Miscellaneous  receipts 

Appropriation  for  gov'nt  postage 
Total  reveime 


I8U. 


$3,234,551) 

8,611,313 

633,9'i8 

143,313 

4,970 

'"ii 

77,903 
23,331) 
69.004 
7,783 
700.000 


«7,4il,8:,0 


$1,751,707 

4,'.'!I6.44G 

03J,74iJ 

162,910 

8.033 

81,460 

70 

74S00 

14,716 

6,'513 

700,000 


$7.6.0,sa2 


VII.  The  present  Condition  andfutu'e  Prospects  of  the 
United  States  Post-office. — From  tlio  official  figures  given 
previously,  we  see  that  while  the  correspondence  by  mail 
and  the  postal  revenue  actually  decreased  during  twen- 
ty years  of  high  postage  in  Great  Uritain — ending  with 
1835 — the  revenue  ond  correspondence  both,  from  tlie 
date  of  low  and  uniform  postage,  in  1840,  has  greatly 
increased — the  latter  six  hundred  per  cent.  The  vast 
economy  in  the  management  of  tlic  Post-office  in  tliat 
country  is  seen  in  the  faot  that  while  the  correspond- 
ence increased  from  75  millions  of  letters  in  1840,  to 
478  millions  in  185G — at  least  six-fold — tlie  expense  was 
but  little  more  than  doubled.  Had  it  been  deemed 
necessary,  but  few  figures  would  have  been  required  to 
sliow  clearly — what  was  demonstrated  by  Mr.  Kowland 
Hill— that  the  sliglit  diminution  in  tho  net  revenue  of 
the  Post-office  in  Great  Uritain,  consequent  to  tlic  great 
reduction  of  postage  in  1840,  was  far  more  than  made 
up  to  the  national  treasur}',  during  each  and  every  year 
thereafter,  in  other  branches  of  national  income,  and 
all  from  the  direct  and  solo  cause  of  tho  nclivily  and 
prosperity  of  all  business  interests,  engendered  by  a 
reduction  in  the  rates  of  postage.  Wo  believe,  and  are 
confident  that  it  is  susceptible  of  a  clear  demonstration, 
that  tho  principal  reasons  why  our  Post-office  has  not 
kept  pace  with  the  advancing  spirit  of  tlic  age,  and 
been  made  as  efficient  as  the  post  in  several  other  coun- 


I^ettem  from  members  of  Congress  . , , . 
Documents  "  **  ,,,, 

Letters  from  Departments 

Newspapers  (numlwring  l,110,oiO) . , , , 

Total  for  one  month  (prepaid  rates) , 
For  twelve  months  "         '*     , . 

PostngG  for  twelve  months.  If  nnt  prftpald 


W.lglll, 

»,4lfl 

T.Uflft 
Jll.Oo!) 

8in/K)l 
P,78i),'.'4'J 


IU.6<14 

iTii,wi 
«,i«'i 

lUflfl 


The  newspapers  were  not  counted,  but  weighed  (  and 
as  the  newspapers  of  the  country  aversge  alioiit  ons 
and  a  half  ounces  each,  these  have  been  cnnkldered  M 
averaging  ten  papers  to  a  pound,  The  pailinaster  «ll« 
pressed  it  as  liis  opinion  that  the  free  nmlfer  during 
that  month,  of  which  he  gave  tlie  resulla,  was  less  than 
tlie  average  quantity.  The  amount  given  would  lliaka 
about  6000  tons  of  "  free"  matter  in  a  year,  from  tits 
post-office  of  the  city  of  Wasliinglon  alone  |  or  on  av§r' 
age  for  each  week-day  of  fifteen  tons.  Looking  at  Ihlf 
$1,602,087  due  by  government  at  prepR|(|  rates,  for. 
the  postage  on  free  matter,  outward  only,  from  tlia  city 
of  Wasiiington  alone,  in  a  year,  it  would  Ii4  •  very 
moderate  estimate  that  should  put  the  postage  of  |||6 
government,  at  the  rate  the  citizen  pays,  at  |l'.!,A00,OU0 
annually.  If  we  look  at  the  revenue  and  •nfmnaes  of 
tlie  Post-office  for  ten  years,  and  see  what  up|iropriA> 
lions  were  made  for  the  free  matter  traniporled  for  gov. 
eminent,  we  sliall  see  whether  tho  Post-olHce  aelustly 
supported  itself  or  not. 


That  tho  Post-office  did  not  support  itself  from  tha 
postage  paid  by  citizens  during  the  last  tan  yeftfl,  kA 


V«tn. 

Po<itftI 

Ittrenafl 

from 

PMUgH. 

Ajipronrij. 
wera  mS'U. 

ll..i..l,«l 

•ll«<ll>t  lisvs 

diittii  itiftil^, 

ii  ii.ii.iiirr 

1*4T.... 

$3.9n.'j;r) 

$.J,70.J,1IU9 

$3U1I,.<43 

ISIS.... 

4.320.850 

4  101,07.S 

<i,f<  O.INIII 

1.94.1. . . . 

4.4ru,W0 

46I.M76 

200,010 

t  liOD.UOH 

1S;0. . .  . 

5,212.15; 

6,i,52,971 

201,01.0 

•immo 

1?51.... 

6.0.'4.6(iJ 

fl.:  51.979 

B76,fi8  1 

S,t)i)fl,001 

is-,j.... 

7,10S.4rO 

6.032.637 

1,741,445 

2,500  O'lft 

1S.-.3. . . . 

7.'.  82,757 

5.210,724 

70),0;)a 

D.B'^O.nOI 

IS.I.... 

8,5.7.424 

5,r,83  50T 

700,000 

«,B0O,Oi|« 

isr.s. . . . 

10,044  9  (i 

6,71l,S30 

700,000 

«,f«iO.OOI) 

1S60.... 
Totnl.. 

10.41)7.833 
SOS.'lM'lfiT 

6,92li,8.'3 

700,(100 

((.BOOiOfO 

i'A  014.65-2 

$6.UJ0,732 

(pfiiiil),?)9'i 

'1 11 


POS 


1A66 


POS 


•lie  npport  tha  burden  of  all  the  "A«nkad"  mattar 
thrown  on  it  by  goveniment,  ia  avidont  from  tha  abova 
flguraa.  Tha  "official"  atatament  ia,  that  tha  antira 
poatal  ravanuo  for  ten  yeara  waa  #6U,041,484,  and  tha 
axpendituraa  (68,lS6,li)7;  thertfan  there  waa  a  "de- 
fldency,"  ahowinn  that  the  I'oit-offlce  did  not  aapport 
Itaelf  by  |8,404,7ti8.  But  tho  reality  ia  thia.  At  tha 
ratea  of  poitage  now  levied,  the  coat  of  tranaporlinK 
•nd  delivering  the  lettera  and  documenta  for  the  citi- 
■ana  and  the  government,  for  ten  yoara,  waa  aa  fallowa : 

Peata|;s  due  and  paid  by  dttuna  for  ton  yeara. .  (fit.OU.Wi 
PoaUge  dut  (but  not  all  paldj  by  gOTamment. . .    te.iMiu.iiiK) 


Total ij?isml«53 

ExpoDiea  of  tba  I'ont-offloa  for  tan  yeari flS.IBO.lW 

Poat^fBce  aamlDfa  excatdad  the  expanws  by. . .  l|>lu,8iti,46B 

It  ia  clearly  evident  (hat  any  attempt  to  ahow  whoth- 
ar  our  I'oat-ofBce  aupporta  itaelf  under  the  preaont  Uwa, 
regulation*,  ratea  of  poatage  and  management,  muat 
begin  by  ahowing  what  are  ita  legitimate  expenaea  and 
what  ita  legitimate  Income.  Tho  theory  and  practice 
of  our  law-makers  ia  in  strong  contrast  to  the  action  of 
the  members  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1839  and 
1840,  at  the  time  of  the  agitation  and  adoption  of  the 
penny  postage.  They  at  once  abolished  and  renounced 
the  franiiing  privilege,  on  the  principle  that  oflicora  of 
the  government  could  as  well  afford  to  pay  their  own 
poatage  aa  private  citizens ;  that  they  were  in  that  case 
put  to  far  leas  trouble  to  frank  and  aend  documenta  for 
others,  and  that  all  postage  necessary  for  carrying  on 
the  business  of  the  government  should  l>e  charged  to 
tha  Treasury,  like  all  other  national  or  government  ex- 
penses. In  reality,  wo  do  not  know  the  amount  of  ex- 
penses and  burdens  tliat  fall  on  the  Post-oflice,  and  yet 
the  head  of  that  Department  has  taken  upon  himself  to 
lay  that  ita  income  is  not  aufflcicnt  for  its  legitimate 
aupport.  If  a  merchant  or  man  of  business  wero  to 
know  the  precise  amount  of  income  that  be  actually 
received,  while  he  was  ignorant  of  a  large  portion  of 
hia  expenditures,  would  he,  or  could  he,  conduct  and 
manage  hia  affairs  with  prudence,  judgment,  and  econ- 
omy? It  <a  a  parallel  coaa  with  our  Post-office,  bur- 
dened as  it  is  annually  with  five  thousand  tona  of 
franked  matter. 

Tlie  history  of  our  Poat-offico  for  the  last  sixteen 
jrears  discloses  the  fallowing  facts :  Letter  postage  has 
been  rtduced  from  a  scale  of  tive  rat^^,  running  from 
six  to  twenty-live  cents,  and  averaging,  perhapa,  thir- 
teen or  fourteen  centa  a  letter;  first  (in  1846)  to  five 
•nd  ten,  and  next  (in  1851)  to  three,  five,  and  six  cents, 
•nd  lastly  (in  1855)  to  three  and  ten  cents ;  and  yet 
there  has  been  no  sensible  diminution  of  the  postal  re- 
ceipts, taking  one  year  with  another.  Taking  the 
yearly  increase  of  the  postal  revenue  for  •  number  of 
years  before  tho  first  reduction  aa  a  criterion,  tho  re- 
ceipta  of  the  Post-offlce  in  1855  and  185G  were  aa  large, 
if  not  larger  than  they  would  have  been  under  the  ol(l 
ntea.  And  yet  the  postage  on  each  separate  letter 
•veragea  lesa  than  one  third  the  charge  prevloua  to 
1845.  By  the  side  of  that  fact  it  may  be  atated  here 
that  in  the  postal  history  of  all  nations  there  is  no  in- 
•tance  on  record  where  a  reduction  of  postage,  however 
great,  has  been  followed  by  any  permanent  reduction 
of  the  postal  revenue.  In  public  as  in  private  aft'airs, 
the  inhabitants  nf  a  country  extend  their  patronage 
Just  in  proportion  to  tha  business  and  economical  fa- 
cilities alTorded  them. 

After  the  successful  introduction  of  penny  postage 
into  Great  Britain  in  1840,  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  commenced  holding  public  meetings  and  peti- 
tioning Congress  for  a  reduction  of  rates,  and  other  post- 
al improvements.  The  pressure  and  agitation  were  kept 
tip  from  1841  to  1845,  and  during  that  period  tho  Post- 
master-general— tho  Hon.  Charles  A.  WicklilTe— used 
every  exertion,  and  brought  every  influence,  ofBchil 
•nd  peraonal,  to  defeat  the  measure.  With  all  this 
nncailed-for  interference  with  the  wishes  of  the  people 
•nd  tha  lagiaUtion  of  the  country  by  an  executive  of- 


ficer, tha  lilll  r«4u«in(  p»*i«|a  le  tiM  <w»  nt«i  «f  4vi 
and  ten  eenta  was  paaaad,  atiil  want  Into  operation  la 
1845.  The  Inouaibant  wf  thU  offlea  f^am  1*68  to  \W1 
— Jamaa  Campball'— tiiailn  avitry  poaalbla  effbrt  not 
only  to  dsfuU  tlui  wistiaa  of  tha  priiple  In  having  the 
rates  of  postage  raduuad  and  itmda  uniform,  but  to  raise 
the  then  aKlsllng  prapaUl  rata  ut  letter  postage  froia 
three  to  flva  >:«nls,  and  tu  iIouMh  all  (ha  rales  on  printed 
matter.  Thaae  niaaxirita  warti  llilru<liieed  In  •  bill,  at 
tlie  solicitation  of  tha  I'liwdiiaslar-gcneral,  bv  tha  chair- 
man of  the  llouia  Cuiiiiiilltiiti.  aiiil  at  once  defeated,  r»- 
celving  only  tha  sinaU  nilnorily  of  thlrly-alx  votes. 

Tha  aftbrta  made  by  the  l'<Niitn«ater<M«neral  to  raise 
the  rates  wura  suwaMful  ill  ln«f««aiNff  (ha  postage  from 
six  to  ten  cauts  oil  ili  latter*  (bat  are  tranBpor(ed  over 
3000  miles, 

It  may  be  iin<iliarilibl«  to  hint  (hat  our  itatesmen 
have  heretufura  paid  m  little  alletitlon  to  the  postal 
suljsot  as  to  be  uiia('i|U«litt«d  with  Ita  details,  though 
it  ia  unquustloiiably  irtie  llmt  ihls  branch  of  govern- 
ment has  nut  rauvivvd  tlitt  attttltlbm  that  ita  Impurtanoe 
deiuanda,  In  nxmiiiIiiIiik  IIih  poslal  suliject  we  can  not 
arrive  at  correct  ri'millit  by  any  syslctn  vf  generaliza- 
tion, or  by  wholasain  t'uni|iarl«viiK.  It  la  a  question  of 
detail,  of  ciilculatliin,  tttiil  uf  r««t,  In  which  certain  car- 
dinal prlnclplaa  van  not  Iw  iKiitirail  or  lost  alght  of.  It 
is  true  llmt  tha  punpla  «f  (Ireat  llrllain  write  many 
more  letters  iliau  iIih  |i«o|iI«  of  the  fulled  Htatea)  and 
It  ia  equally  true  lli»t  tlila  la  the  «atti«qiienoe  of  racelr- 
ing  a  fur  greater  Ainrmtlt  ttf  ptwtll  ai'commodatlon  for 
the  money  they  pay,  It  Is  otnlnently  true  that  the 
large  and  iiroHtabla  atnotitit  of  w/rrespondence  passing 
through  the  llrllloli  IVnlwfftli'n  U  tbn  direct  result  of 
low  and  uiiiforin  |i(i>lagii,  «i/nililiied  with  the  great  fa- 
cilities fur  culluPtliiK,  tlliilribullliK,  and  delivering  let- 
tera and  other  iimil  iMHltfr  In  I'liiee  and  large  towns. 
While  we  have  pnpuloua  ellies  wllh  varied  Interests 
that  require  an  Imiiietisa  local  correspondence,  our 
postal  alfalra  tra  e«iidu«l«il  in  (lie  same  manner  that 
they  were  In  tli«  flrst  ytiara  of  the  Kepubllc,  Except 
by  the  laliors  of  privala  |iMrlit>»,  who  are  allowed  to  de- 
liver letters  from  tliit  piMt-iillltw,  and  levy  a  tax  for  the 
service,  or  to  set  up  jirlvnlo  post'offlces  of  their  own, 
for  the  collecllun  ami  dlntriliiitlun  of  mail  matter,  we 
have  hardly  an  ini|iruv»ntt>lit  ut  faelllly  for  dis(ributlng 
letters  in  cillca  to-ilav  (Imt  did  tiot  exist  seventy  years 
ago.  People  who  wrlta  ltilt«rs  tnty  carry  or  aend  them 
to  tha  post-offlce,  and  tlioM  to  whom  they  are  addressed 
have  the  prlvtlufja  of  «alliitK  for  the  same  and  taking 
them  out,  Kxi!8|it  tliroilrfli  (tilt  by  the  labors  of  tba 
private  postman  ami  rarriitni,  w«,  as  a  people,  seem  to 
be  aware  that  the  grealxat  want  and  (he  most  profita- 
ble field  for  postal  fHfllltlti)i  l«  In  and  about  our  large 
cities  and  towns,  In  (ha  vtiiitttry  the  distance  between 
pnst-ofllcea  niav  Ita  iM<\tmwA  by  miles,  but  in  large 
cities  tha  legltlinata  want*  of  (lie  people  are  not  met 
except  by  having  dcllvvrlDa  many  times  •  day,  and 
placea  for  obtaining  atanipii  •ml  mailing  letters  at  every 
one  or  two  hundred  vanli),  The  relative  postal  wants 
of  tho  residents  of  dilff  rxnt  eity  and  country  districts, 
and  tha  extsnt  In  wlilxlt  llivse  WAiKa  are  ine(,  In  (hiii 
country  and  in  Qreat  llrllain,  may  be  teen  by  the  fig- 
ures representing  tb«  avtiraitit  ttutnber  of  letters  wiittia 
by  each  person  III  A  yi'Ar,  in  ili«  various  localities.  1  be 
figure*  relating  (n  Ilin  Hliniial  correspondence  In  tbis 
country  ara  in  wliola  number*  and  decimals, 

L'o*Ra*i)ONnaNfla  in  tmh  t'umtt  aiata*. 

tMm 

PimiWt  b«Mlfll«i  ft  Pann, 

Country  distrlels at  (be  ^iilh,,. I'O 

Country  diitriels at  (ha  Niirlh,.,,,, 8$ 

Country  dlatrioM  IbrMigltiMil  (he  tfnian, IS 

All  of  tbu  8outli«rn  H(«(««, , , , , , , , ,    1-9 

AllofthaNartharnWaleii ......,,. 61 

TlirouKhaiilltiaUnllAdfHalea,..,. H 

City  ef  New  Ortaan*.,.. ..,,,.  ••.... IR-T 

City  of  cinslnnatl,,,,,, iXt 

CltyofNawYerk ,„,,„,,, too 

City  sf  Boston,... ,...11  fill  <■<•  1 1)11  <>> 40  S 


POS 


im 


1»0S 


tiiim 
Mr  Pnnooi 
■i>ii>ll;. 
...  !■« 
,  ..  8» 
....  »-9 
....  «« 
....  •! 
....  ♦* 
....  19-T 
....  sn 
....  »0^l 
....  408 


Th«M  ^gvmt  arc  not  luppoied  to  ht  sxaet,  bnt  they 
tre  k  very  near  approximation  to  the  precin  nnmlier, 
arrived  at  by  a  cloae  calculation,  haaed  on  the  relative 
population  and  postal  income.  The  followliiK  (tate- 
ment  exbibita  the  annual  correspondence  pur  penon — 
in  whole  numbers  — in  dlflbreol  localities  in  Ureat 
UriUini 

CoaanroHDiMoa  im  OasAT  Bbitaik. 

DUTansI  l.oc>lllln.  fi  Hanoa, 

una  Ally, 

Country  diatricta  or  tlis  Kingdom h 

Throughout  the  Kingdom IT 

Kngland  alone 28 

Average  In  cities 45 

In  lA>udon 49 

In  Mancheater 51 

Those  results  are  very  difTerent  from  what  we  see 
in  this  country.  They  all  go  to  establish  one  clear, 
indisputable  fact.  They  prove  beyond  question  that 
the  people  of  cities  write  from  Ave  to  twenty  times  as 


many  lotton  as  the  residents  of  country  dlstrlcls.  And 
as  we  know  that  a  very  larRe  portion  of  thn  inhal>itanti 
of  cities  and  towns  are  minora,  paupprs,  vagrants,  and 
iKnurant  persona,  it  is  clear  that  tlio  adult  male  busi- 
ness popuialiun  have  occasion  to  write  from  a  hundred 
to  a  thousand  letters  each  per  annum.  Wo  enow,  from 
the  habits  and  wants  of  tlio  population  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, tliat  the  adult  persons  who  are  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  pursuits  do  not  usually  carry 
on  one-fortieth  part  as  much  correspoiulence  as  the 
mercantile  classes  in  cities.  Bearing  those  facts  la 
mind,  and  remembering  that  there  arc  from  six  to 
twelve  deliveries  a  day  in  all  parts  of  London,  with 
over  Ave  hundred  receiving  houses  and  lettiT-pillara 
where  letters  can  be  mailed— averaging  one  for  every 
second  block  or  s(|uare  throughout  the  city— liearing 
these  facts  in  mind,  wo  need  not  bo  Burprlned  at  tho 
widely  dillcrcnt  results  in  that  country  and  this,  aa 


conveyed  in  tha  following  authentic  ligures 
Akmoai.  NoMuna  o»  Lamas  im  nirraaaNT  I.ocAUTiaa. 


1847.. 
1848., 
18i».. 
I860.. 
IS.Sl., 
1852.. 
1863., 
1864., 
18S5. 
1850. 


Total. 


L4M1I011  L««al 
l.«llaii. 

84,630,817 
88,078,747 
8;),1i60,8t)8 
38,887,844 
40,686,1162 
40,4()(),207 
42,816,814 
40,181,661) 
4'i,  844,968 
47,894,708 


404.S86,6l» 


London'MaU 
■■tlun. 


43,767,610 
46,991,168 
46,846,688 
44,866,170 
47,819,4'.I9 
61,171,428 
64,402,023 
67,180,16;) 
69,(147,649 
04,116 1. !l2i 


t>16,6;ts,620 


ToUil  i.imd<ai 
UUan. 


TN,388,lir>7 
79,603,900 
T9.8IW,0S1 
83,744,014 
88,40.'>,46t 
91,674,0.10 
«7,218,r.itT 
108.;!77.7.'8 
116.492,612 
112.856,029 


920,627,1189 


Total  In  Ui* 
Uniuj  aiilM. 

47,I«:m67" 
62,!I04,819 
00,169,8(12 
09,426,462 
83,262,736 
95,790,624 
102,1,39,148 
119,6.-4,418 
1*1,723,426 
J81,4W),409_ 
8s8,627,5l9 


TjUI  In 
Unat  Urilaln. 

~~Ui2;i.i(i;24ir 
8'.8,SI0,184 
837,399,199 
847,069,071 
3(111,647,187 
379,.'KII,t99 
4in,>!17,48» 
443,049,301 
466,216,170 
478,393,8118 


3.IS04,07(I,162 


We  see  by  the  alrave  that  the  people  of  London  alone 
(less  than  two  and  a  half  millions)  have  written  and 
sent  through  the  post  mor'}  letters  in  the  last  ten  years 
than  all  the  people  in  the  United  States,  while  the  pop- 
ulation of  Great  Britain — almut  the  same  as  in  tho 
United  States — have  written  almost  five  times  as  many 
as  tho  people  of  this  country.  Wo  must  seek  for  a  so- 
lution of  this  in  the  far  greater  postal  facilities  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  particularly  iu  cities,  than  in  this 
country.  See  the  gigantic  results  of  a  good  local  post 
in  London.  There  are  almost  one  half  as  many  letters 
written  and  mailed  in  London,  for  distribution  in  the 
city  (local  letters,  see  first  column  in  tho  preceding  ta- 
ble), as  are  written  in  a  year  by  all  the  people  in  Amer- 
ica !  Could  we  get  at  the  results  of  our  local  distribu- 
tion of  letters,  we  should  And  that  tho  number  of  let- 
ters written  in  our  cities,  and  distributed  by  the  gov- 
ernment post  in  the  place  whero  written — "drop  let- 
ters," as  wo  very  appropriately  call  them — we  should 
And  that  they  were  only  about  one-fortieth  or  one-Af- 
tieth  part  as  many  as  in  the  cities  of  Great  Britain. 
In  other  words,  the  active  business  population  of  our 
cities  write  about  as  many  letters  to  go  through  tho 
mails  to  a  distance,  as  the  same  population  do  of  that 
class  of  letters  in  cities  in  England ;  but  of  local  let- 
ters, for  distribution  in  the  city  where  they  are  writ- 
ten, only  about  one-fortieth  part  as  many. 

It  is  as  easily  shown  that  the  local  correspondenco 
of  cities  is  mucli  more  protitable  to  the  Post-office  than 
correspondence  that  is  conveyed  hundreds  of  miles,  as 
it  is  to  demonstrate  that  the  correspondence  of  cities  is 


ing  our  means  adapted  to  our  wants.  Tho  mnlls  ara 
sent  over  the  routes  between  New  York  ond  Boston 
three  times  a  day,  twice  a  doy  from  Now  York  to  Wash- 
ington,  once  a  day  from  Charleston  to  New  Orleans, 
once  a  week  iMJtwccn  some  small  country  villages,  once 
a  fortnight  fro-n  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  and  onca 
a  raontli  from  Missouri  to  Great  Salt  Lake  Cily,  By 
tho  very  same  rule,  and  for  the  some  roason.s,  there 
should  be  a  local  distribution  of  letters  in  large  cities 
like  New  York,  Boston,  and  Pliiiadelplila,  from  sl.x  to 
twelve  times  a  day.  Tho  very  term  "  frcc-Ictter  de- 
livery," as  applied  to  the  local  distribution  of  letters  in 
English  citie.s,  is  a  misnomer.  It  does  not  exist,  nor 
is  it  asked  for  in  this  countiy.  The  local  distribu- 
tion of  letters  in  tho  cities  aud  towns  of  Great  Britain 
amounts  to  just  this:  One  uniform  rate  of  postage  is 
fixed  on  sll  single  letters — local  and  otiierwise — with- 
out regard  to  distance,  and  this  postage — one  penny 
sterling— pays  for  transporting  the  letter  to  tlie  end  of 
the  route ;  and  this,  in  cities  and  towns,  means  to  the 
door  of  tho  person  addressed.  It  unquestionably  costs 
a  shade  less  to  circulate  and  deliver  letters  in  n  city — 
those  that  are  mailed  there  for  delivery — than  it  does 
to  transport  them  hundreds  of  miles,  and  then  deliver 
them.  The  actual  result  is  this :  the  large  nunilier  of  lo- 
cal letters  in  cities,  at  the  postage  of  one  penny  for  each, 
pays  all  the  expense  of  collection  and  delivery — wages 
of  receivers,  mail-men  and  letter  carriers — while  thesa 
persons  collect  and  deliver  all  letters  that  are  to  go 
and  that  come  from  out  of  town,  without  any  extra 
charge,  and  then  the  profit  on  these  local  letters  alone 


of  more  importance  and  of  greater  amount  than  the  — admitting  that  the  letters  from  a  distance  are  de- 
correspondence  oPrural  districts.  Tho  whole  secret  of  1  llvcred  "free" — is  very  large.  The  following  table, 
accommodating  the  people  with  a  good  city  post,  and  I  made  up  from  the  olHcial  report  of  the  year  1854,  needa 
making  it  protitable  at  the  same  time,  consists  in  hav-  I  no  explanation : 

LOOAL  COBBKSPONDKHaS  IM  OIRTAIN  CiTtES  IN  OBEAT  BbITAIN,  WITH  THK  ExntSBB  OT  COLLXCTION  AND  DBLIVBBT. 


CllUi. 

Niimbar  of 

Letlan  id  Ui« 

MaUi. 

Local  Cm ala- 

Konor 
Drop  I.ettan. 

QroH  Rarenn* 
from  Lofftl 
ClrcuUlion. 

.   Ww»of 
Lattar  camara 
anil  Reraivart 

Nat  PralU 

on  Local 

Circulalloa. 

67,180.159 
9,146,802 
10,088,5.'>fl 

o,693,s:m  . 

4.208.1194 
4.384.410 

46,191,669 
7,390.042 
8.149,660 
6,329,m 
8,401,670 
8,643.610 

91,386,747 
221,701 
244,487 
1.W,874 
102,050 
106,814 

$701,610 
27,036 
88.226 
C8,940 
20,060 
15,865 

$824,a37 

194.666 

206,262 

120,934 

81,990 

90,460 

Liverpool 

Dublin 

Edinburgh 

Bristol  

Toul 

91,005,861 

74,006,791 

$2,220,m 

$901,825 

$1,518,848  ] 

P08 


1568 


P08 


The  total  iiumbor  ot  letter  n  cslvori  idcI  lottor  car- 
rier! Ill  the  I'liitiMl  Khigiluni,  in  IM.Vt,  with  tlia  g\v»t 
■niuuiit  ul  their  iaUrion,  wae  as  fullowi  i 


Nyub'ar. 

4,«M(r 

4,11(5 
4U'i« 

"la.Tyio 

1      tiUrlM. 
(VII«.T4'i 

lltll.l'ii) 
"iTSiJ.IITT" 

I,«ll«r  ncelvam  In  the  Khiicdom  . . . 

letter  r«rrl«re  lii  rlttnii  ami  tnwiia, . 

Lvtter  carrier!  In  rural  i!Utrlut!  .... 

Total 

I'Ouking  at  the  roaultf  in  the  two  tallica  Kiven  aliovo, 
W«  (Ind  that  tlio  money  rci'i'lvcil  fur  |ioslii|{0  un  tlm 
local  lottcm,  In  lix  citlca  only,  aniuutitod  to  a  largnr 
•uni  than  tbo  vntira  cuat  of  liittor  carriem  and  letter 
receiver!  throughout  the  united  Kingduni  of  Ureat  Urit- 
■in  and  Ireluml!  And  wo  may  niontiun,  In  thi^  con- 
nection, that  the  rural  letter  cnrriera  penetrate  all  lh« 
country  diitricta  uf  lircut  Urilain,  thu  carriora  in  their 
walli!  Kuing  from  three  to  aix  miles  from  every  village 
poat-uHlcc,  at  least  once  •  day. 

The  gigantic  result!  shown  In  the  English  Post-ofllcc 
are  dun  to  thrco  or  four  stmiilo  |irlnci|i1cs.  Tlirre  is 
one  uniform  rate  of  postage  on  rll  single  Inttors — those 
weighing  not  to  Cvceed  half  nn  ounce — and  this  same 
rule  also  pays  tlio  postage  on  all  parcels  of  printed 
uiHller — ilone  up  in  packages  open  at  the  ends — so  that 
with  one  kind  of  stamp  the  citizen  prepays  more  than 
iiinelecn-twentleths  of  all  the  packages  ho  puts  in  the 
post-oftlce.  There  is  In  every  city  and  village  a  letter 
delivery  liy  carriers,  from  two  to  twelve  times  a  doy, 
with  convenient  places  at  every  one  or  two  hundred 
yards  for  posting  letters  and  |iarcels.  I'hcre  is  a  sys- 
tem of  remitting  money  by  mail,  through  money  orders 
or  drafts,  for  suittll  sums,  hetweon  all  the  principal  posl- 
ollices ;  and  the  money-order  liusincss,  like  tho  uniform 
postage,  is  liased  on  so  simple  and  cconouiical  a  system, 
and  in  carried  on  with  such  satisfactory  results,  that 
there  Is  comhincd  tho  greatest  convenience  and  small- 
est cost  to  the  citizen,  and  tho  largest  economy  of  man- 
agement to  tho  I'ost-oflico  otHcials. 

It  la  useless  to  say  that  the  business  of  collecting  and 
distributing  letters  in  a  city  In  Kuropo  is  any  dill'erent 
process,  and  involves  any  dillerent  principles,  from  that 
of  distributing  letters  here ;  for  it  Is  not  true.  And 
certainly,  so  far  as  correspondence  is  concerned,  our 
social  and  commercial  wants  are  like  those  of  tlie  resi- 
dents of  London,  Manchester,  I'aris,  and  Berlin.  C'oulil 
we  get  at  the  amount  of  letter  distribution  done  by  pri- 
vate parties  in  our  large  cities,  it  would  be  founil  that 
there  is  a  far  greater  correspondence  carried  on  outside 
of,  than  through  tho  post.  And  yet  there  is  no  regu- 
larity, uniformity,  safety,  or  system,  and  with  all  the 
multifarious  appliances,  we  are  wretchedly  served,  as 
every  one  knows.  Iliiludelpliia  has  reported  through 
the  government  Post-oflico  a  less  correspondence — or 
St  least  a  smaller  postal  revenue — in  proportion  to  popu- 
lation, than  uny  other  largo  city  in  America.  There  a 
private  Individual  carries  on  a  very  prolitable  and  ex- 
tensive system  of  city  letter  distribution.  The  fact  is, 
and  it  can  not  be  disguised,  that  our  I'ost-office,  being 
an  exclusive  government  function,  for  long  distances, 
should  not  allow  private  parties  to  carry  it  on  for 
short  distances  in  cities.  We  cither  want  an  cflieient 
uniform  government  I'ust-offlce  over  the  entire  coun- 
try, or  It  should  bo  abolished  altogether,  or  thrown 
opc-n  to  private  porties.  We  make  the  Post-office  per- 
form nearly  three  million  dollars'  worth  of  lalior  for  the 
government,  and  appropriate  for  the  same  out  of  the 
Treasury  less  than  a  quarter  of  that  sum,  and  then  the 
government  allows  private  parties  to  step  in  and  set 
up  a  post  In  the  very  localities  where  a  good  postal  es- 
tablishment is  most  neeiled,  and  where  it  can  be  made 
the  most  profitable.  With  any  thing  like  a  critical 
examination  of  our  postal  eslabUshment,  and  to  a  per- 
son of  any  sagacity.  It  is  clearly  evident  that  in  the 
localities  where  a  post  Is  most  needed — large  cities — 
and  where  it  would  pay  the  liest,  there  our  post  is  moat 
notoriously  inefficient.  The  postal  establishment  labors 
under  the  following  prominent  disadvantages: 


t'irit.  It  porfbrma  a  large  amount  f  service  for  the 
govarnment  without  aileijuate  cumpiusatlon.  Hecimd. 
There  is  not  a,  uniform  rate  of  postage,  and  the  labor 
and  expenieof  condncting  tho  postal  buiineis  Is  there- 
by greatly  Increased,  Thiiti.  The  correapondence  of 
the  country  has  never  been  stimulated  and  Increased 
liy  low  and  uniform  postage  and  the  liest  postal  facili- 
ties. Fourth.  Our  local  correspondence  in  cities — 
the  most  prutltablo  business  uf  the  postal  establish- 
ment, when  on  a  correct  basis — labura  under  every  dis- 
advantage, being  the  cause,  and  Justly,  of  constant  com- 
plaint on  tlio  part  of  the  citizens.  Fifth,  In  all  the 
large  cities.  In  consei|uence  of  the  Irregularity,  uncer- 
tainty, and  Inconveniences  of  the  National  Post-office, 
private  posts  carry  off  a  large  share  of  the  business. 

If  the  above  premises  are  correct,  the  remedies  are 
neither  hard  to  find  or  difficult  to  carry  out.  Find  the 
amount  of  matter  that  is  sent  "free"  by  government 
departments,  officers  and  members  of  Congress,  and 
have  a  sum  paid  or  appropriated  from  some  quarter 
sufficient  to  meet  it.  Then  make  one  rate  of  postage, 
so  low  that  It  will  not  bo  exorbitant  for  single  letters 
and  the  smallest  |iuckages  for  the  shnrlost  distances, 
and  let  this  rate  pay  as  many  descriptions  and  sizes 
of  written  and  printed  packets  as  possible,  Abolish 
all  private  posts  in  cities,  and  make  a  government 
post  that  Is  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  citizens.  It 
may  bo  safely  promised  that  a  convenient,  reliable, 
economical,  punctual,  and  rapid  distribution  of  letters 
in  our  cities  will  meet  with  all  that  encouragement  and 
that  extensive  use  that  attends  a  good  post  In  Kuropc- 
nn  cities,  8end  all  letters  and  printed  packages — per- 
haps up  to  a  certain  amount,  say  four  or  eight  post- 
ages in  one  parcel,  as  is  done  inUreat  Hrltain — wheth- 
er they  aru  ]irepalil  or  not,  and  if  not  prepaid,  charge 
double  postage.  Make  a  money-order  system  for  re- 
mitting money  in  sums  not  exceeding  twenty  or  twen- 
ty-live dollars ;  at  first  lietween  all  tho  larger  offices, 
extending  it  as  it  becomes  known  and  understood.  Ke- 
turn  all  "  dead"  and  refused  letters  to  the  writers,  ami 
enforce  the  payment  of  such  postages  as  have  not  been 
prepaid. 

Tlio  questicn  of  tho  most  profitable  rata  or  rates  of 
postago  may  be  discussed  and  examined  for  years,  and 
we  are  forced  to  one  conclusion ;  and  that  Is,  that  there 
is  no  convenient,  economical,  or  just  system  without 
UNipoBMiTT.  Tho  truth  is,  several  of  our  rates  of 
postage  are  too  low,  not  allowing  n  fair  compensation, 
and  others  are  too  high.  Our  rate  of  one  cent  for  drop 
letters  or  local  letters,  one  cent  for  printed  circulars, 
and  one  cent  for  transient  newspapers,  are  all  too  low. 
They  are  not  compensating ;  and  if  raised  to  two  cents, 
the  charge  would  not  be  considered  high,  provided  all 
letters  of  half  an  ounce  weight,  and  printed  packages 
up  to  four  ounces,  could  be  sent  any  and  every  dis- 
tance for  the  same  sum.  We  want  a  two-cent  rate  of 
postage,  with  a  two-cent  postage  stamp,  and  a  totnl 
abolition  of  all  of  the  one-cent  rates  and  stumps,  and 
the  three-cent  rates  and  stamps.  It  should  be  the 
minimum  ;  that  is,  no  letter  or  transient  package  shoulil 
bo  mailed  or  sent  the  shortest  distance  for  less  than  this 
sum.  We  would  pay  with  this  two-cent  stamp  our 
city  or  drop  letters — and  that  should  Include  delivery 
hy  a  carrier,  as  carriers  should  work  for  salaries,  and 
deliver  everything  in  cities  without  extra  charge — our 
letters  for  all  distances  In  the  United  States,  all  circu- 
lars, and  all  packages  of  printed  matter,  up  to  four 
ounces  in  weight,  that  are  done  up  open  at  the  ends. 
Is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  would  be  u 
sufficient  increase  in  letters  for  city  circulation,  and  to 
go  to  a  distance,  along  with  the  increase  of  price  of 
postage  on  drop  letters,  on  printed  circulars,  and  on 
transient  newspapers,  to  make  up  for  the  loss  on  the 
three-cent  letters,  and  the  few  letters  that  now  pay  ten 
cents?  And  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  one  of  the 
greatest  arguments  for  a  uniform  rate  of  postage  is  the 
simplicity,  economy,  and  cheapness  that  it  effects  in 


P08 


1509 


POS 


for  tho 
Hfcimil- 
le  Ulior 
i  thur*- 
Diica  of 

>\  fadll- 

cltle*— 
■talillnh- 
very  iU»- 
nnt  com- 
II  all  tlie 
y,  uiiccr- 
unt-ufflcu, 
mines*, 
lodicii  arc 

Kind  tho 
ivcrnniciit 
jrcsii,  nml 
le  quarter 
)f  ponlttRC, 
iglo  letters 

lUstancei, 
I  anil  nUcs 
.  Abolldh 
;overnmcnt 
itlzeni.  It 
it,  reliable, 
in  of  letters 
foment  »nil 
',  In  Kurope- 
kages— per- 

eiglit  posl- 
aln— whctli- 
paid,  charge 
diem  for  re- 
inty  or  twcn- 
arger  offlcon, 
■ruloml.  Kp- 
rilcri,  mill 

Bvo  not  lici'ii 

or  rates  of 
'or  years,  anil 
is,  that  lliero 
Item  without 
onr  rates  of 
ompcnsallon, 
cent  for  drop 
ted  circulars, 
re  all  too  low. 
to  two  cents. 
,  provided  all    ■ 
jted  package' 
nd  every  dis- 
•cent  rate  of 
and  a  totid 
stamps,  and 
hoiild  he  the 
ackagc  should 
less  than  this 
int  stamp  our 
•ludo  delivery 
r  salaries,  and 
•a  charge— our 
^tcs,  all  circu- 
|cr,  up  to  four 
.  at  the  ends, 
ire  would  he  a 
alation,  and  to 
186  of  price  of 
[culars,  and  on 
]io  loss  on  the 
it  now  pay  ten 
lat  one  of  the 
postage  is  the 
it  It  ell'ects  in 


carrying  on  the  posl/il  huainasi.  Twice  the  numlMir 
of  workers,  with  a  change  tu  a  unirurm  rale,  will  tuf- 
llcu  for  an  increaao  of  letters  slx-fuld.  \Va  have  giv- 
en the  I'xai't  ulticlal  tlf{urcs,  ihowlng  thut  tho  muru 
handling,  lurtiiig,  disttihutlon,  and  dellviTy  of  hulers 
(all  expenses  except  transportation)  In  Oruat  llritain 


ainouiitcil  to  thirty  dollars  for  each  thousand  leltera, 
when  thero  wuro  several  rates ;  and  hut  seven  dollars 
—Ins  than  one-fourth  what  it  cost  formerly— with  • 
uniform  postage.  rNiKiiiiMrry  of  poalage  is  thu  lint 
rci|ulaite  of  the  llritiah,  ui  it  is  of  every  other  postal 
system  where  it  has  licen  tried. 


Postal  Htatistks  or  tub  luirrtiiaMT  hTATSs. 


MMsaehiisetts . 
runnertlciit 
New  York 
CuUrornl* 
Kliodo  Island 

Iowa 

Now  ll>nii»liire 

Michigan 

Verinuiit 

Wlsciiniln 

llllnula 

Maine 

IVnnsylvanln 

Ohio 

Now  .Jnraoy 

Tnitlans 

Haclllo  Terrlliirloi 

(lllier  TcrrUorica  . 


Total,  .North 

District  of  C'olumbin 

Maryland 

I/julalaiia 

llelawaro 

Florida 

Missouri 

Uoorgls 

Virginia 

Toxaa 

.VUbania 

Houtli  Carolina 

Kc  itucky 

Mlsalsslppi 

Arkansas 

Tennosseo 

North  Carolina 

Total,  Mouth 

Orand  total  . 


ny  distributing  $2,600,000— tho  supposed  cost  of 
transporting  the  "  franked"  matter  for  government,  in- 
stead of  $700,000,  tho  sum  now  paid — among  tho  dllfer- 
ont  .States,  in  the  proportions  of  their  present  postal 
revenue,  tho  rovonuo  of  each  8tate  would  tlien  bo  as 
seen  in  the  last  column  but  two.  In  tho  column  of 
postal  expenses  tho  comploto  amount  of  expenses  is 
not  quito  all  stated,  but  all  is  given  that  is  set  down 
under  the  head  uf  each  State,  in  tho  ofllcial  Keport  of 
tho  Department.  If  tho  entire  sum  wens  given,  it 
would  not  alter  this  comparatlvo  statement,  or  much 
afl'ect  the  general  result.  We  see  by  this — the  last 
column  but  one — that  only  50  per  cent,  of  tho  postal 
revenue  of  Massachusetts  is  used  in  expenses  for  that 
State,  62  per  cent,  in  New  York,  and  so  on  with  the 
old,  tho  thickly-settled,  and  tho  commercial  States, 
while  in  Texas  $2C8  is  expended  for  every  $100  re- 
ceived, and  in  Arkansas  $010  to  $100  of  revenue.  The 
sums  here  given  as  tho  expenses  of  each  State  aro  not 
supposed  to  bo  tho  exact  amounts  required  for  all  the 
postal  expenses  within  tho  State — as  sometimes  a  mail 
route  runs  through  several  States,  and  tho  expenses  of 
mail  transportation  over  it  all  falls  on  or  is  sot  down  to 
the  State  whore  tho  route  commences.  But  as  these 
routes  generally  commence  at  tlie  East  or  Xorth,  and 
run  West  or  Southwest,  tho  largest  show  of  expenses  is 
made  in  the  States  farthest  cast.  We  do  not  claim  as  a 
literal  fact  that  tlio  entire  expense  of  each  letter  mailed 
in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  (see  lost  column  of  table) 
amounts, on  the  average,  toono  cent  five  mills,  and  those 
in  Arkansas  to  just  eighteen  cents  tbreo  mills ;  but  it  is  a 
fact  that  when  the  amount  of  correspondence,  tho  post- 
al revenue,  and  the  postal  expenses  of  each  and  every 
State  are  all  fairly  considered,  the  proportion  of  money 
6G 


received  in  postage  in  each  State  is,  to  each  letter 
mailed  in  that  State,  as  hero  given.  Wo  know  that 
letters  starting  in  New  York  sometimes  go  to  Arkansas, 
Texas,  Florida,  or  Now  Jlexico,  and  wo  do  not  claim 
that  the  exact  proportion  of  money  duo  on  each  letter 
mailed  in  each  .State  can  be  clearly  a(\|usted,  and  should 
be  charged  to  each  clti;t"ii  residing  in  thu  .State,  'lut 
— and  here  lies  one  great  argument  for  a  rNiKouM  and 
a  LOW  rate  of  postage— wo  do  know,  by  tho  preceding 
authentic  figures,  that  ilie  oxpcnso  of  transporting  and 
distributing  letters  dilTcrs  very  widely  in  each  State ; 
and  the  general  rule  is,  that  the  newer,  tho  more  sparse- 
ly settled,  and  tho  less  commercial  tho  State,  the  larger 
the  proportion  of  expenses  to  receipts.  To  illustrato 
this  In  a  very  striking  light,  let  us  compare  the  postal 
expenses  and  receipts,  and  tho  amount  of  correspond- 
ence in  tho  two  States  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts, 
with  tho  amount  in  all  of  tho  Southern  States  and  tho 
region  west  of  tho  Mississippi  IJiver.  They  stand  as 
follows : 


LlKallUei. 

NoDiIwrof 
I.elt«ri. 

PotUl 
R*v«nu«. 

Fatal      1 
Eip<nMl.  1 

Now  York  and  Massa- » 

40,024,014 
;)7,«S9,41- 

$2,T59,OOOJ$1,428,806] 

Southern  States  ami  west 
of  Mlsaisilppl  River... 

2,73».2TT 

4,S18,7S0 

While  tho  amount  of  correspondence,  and  the  postal 
revenue  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  exceed  all 
south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio,  and  west  of  tho  Missis- 
sippi, the  expenses  aro  less  than  one-third.  _  Again, 
let  us  divide  the  Union  into  three  sections,  calling  them 
tho  Northeast,  the  Middle,  and  tho  Southwestern  sec- 
tions, and  see  the  comparative  amount  of  revenue,  ex- 
penses, letters,  cost  per  10,000  letters,  and  per  single 


POM 


1»70 


roH 


btUr.  Til*  NortlMMt  •avllxn  ninipflM>«  Kaw  KnRlund, 
N«w  York,  N«w  J*rM),  mhI  l'»iin>«'l<'«iila  i  lli«  MMill* 
taclluii,  fruiii  ItaUwar"  ix  lli«  Mii(lh«rn  iMMimUrx  nt 
Virginia  aiiil  'r>MM»a»,  an<l  wxl  tn  Iha  MlMlitlp|il, 


liK'luilInK  alto  MUwiurl  ami  rallfi>rnla;  tha  Routh- 
waul  nactlon  Incliulai  tha  lialniiii*,  iIik  Uiilf  Nialat,  iha 
T'TrUorlua,  Iuhi,  Arkaiiiai,  anil  I'exaa.  'Ihia  It  Iha 
rf  :ufJ  I 


r             aulw<><llial'>w» 

1     fwatal  N««tfiM 

4T.MI.llf 

\tM4.i<n 

(in.lMM.HHt 
(M,H«0,VN» 

r)l.4Ml.4l« 

>Mal  ilir«w<~  If't  ft  ia,aaa  i.iii.n. 

«.     M 

I  N 

II  a 

•    T 

Nurthoaal  •wIliM ,,,,, 

MMilU  wlloli 

HuuUiaaal  NMtlu*,,,i>t<>>>i> 

rintlara .„.. 

iMllaa ,,,,,,, 

(.rami  total 

t,4U  m 

ntt.in* 

■      M«,*4 

fi  AH'j.cai 

S.tllx.MT 

'a.tii.'iiii 

fl.»»,4M 

1UI 
IM4 

tMM 

un 

'    t    4 

4    1 

[;  ».i.TI.lW      1 

"«« 

1    *     " 

Krnrii  llirw  faiia  wa  wa  anil  ttniiw  Ihal  Ihn  a^ppnuii 
(if  traniiiiiirlinu  ami  ilUlrlliiilliiii  l"ll«r>  la  nut  In  prii- 
porllon  to  Ilia  ilUlaMi'N  llini'  am  larrlfil,  Wn  •<>n  that 
all  of  tlia  Ivllitra  rlri  ulali'il  frmn  Mallia,  mi  Iha  caal,  to 
Taniiiaaiia  ami  Miaaiiurl,  IhriiiiKtMint  onr  northiiaalxni 
anil  iniililla  aviilKna,  liiviiKa  an  avoraKn  aapfnar — 
tranapiirtalliin  anil  arary  tiling  Initnilril— of  l«o  ifnli 
four  iiillla  «  liilliir,  It  I'lnla  innra  In  ai'iiil  ami  laka 
earu  uf  u  Ullnr  lliat  gnva  Miy  iir  a  hiimlrnil  iiilka  In 
Floriila,  Arkanaaa,  or  'l«iiaa,  Ihnn  It  iliHia  In  lakx  on« 
friim  I'urllaiMl,  Malna,  in  Mxinphla,  frnin  lloaliin  to  Nt. 
i,uiila,  iir  fruni  NuM'  iufU  In  Sf¥i  llrli-ana. 

Now  iiur  Nnnllioril  liralhri'n  will  iln  na  Ihn  rrcillt  to 
inlluvtt  Ihatwii  prntinaa  iinlhing  ai'illnnnl,  nnthInK nar- 
row, ami  nnlhlng  partial.  K.vary  alniili'  fnri,  IlKnn' 
ami  I'iri'uiniUni'H  giwa  In  proVH,  Ix^onil  all  ravlt,  that 
rorretponiluni'ii  la  rarri'il  im  In  a  far  Kri'alur  <-<tli'nt  In 
tlia  Ihli'kly'Mllliiil  wN'lal  ami  inininanlal  illatrli'la  of 
thn  North  ami  Kaal,  than  at  Iha  Mmilh  ami  Wnat.  'I'hn 
pcupin  in  lli«a<i  illalrii'la  Hrlla  tin'  Inrgral  ahara  of  Ihn 
iulli'ra,  iinil  pay  liy  far  lh«  largval  aliarr  of  tha  poalnKi', 
whijo  wllh  llii'Mi  poalal  K^piinara  ara  loniparallvi'ly 
IIkIiI.  Wara  tharii  ttto  nallima  planml  In  tha  ri'lallvn 
putlllona  of  N»w  York  anil  N««r  Knglnml  on  Iha  nun 
lianil.  Kill  MiaaUalppI,  (.niilaUna,  anil  thn  NIalaaof  thn 
HeulN  I  III  Houthtrvat  im  tl'iintbrr,  Ihaiinn  roulil  havn 

•  ••'lf>aupportlng  mall  ayatmn,  at  •  uiilforin  rate  of 
poataip*  nut  tu  aiiavil  nn«-'|)l«rl<-r  what  wouhl  ho  rn- 
i|ulr('il  I.  ihu  ulliar.  In  Ihn  Niatn  of  Now  York  nlnnn 
are  wrlllvn  annually  'iU.'Mi.ViH  hllnra,  whiln  In  oil 
of  Iho  NIalva  aiinlh  of  lint  I'ltliiinar  ami  Ohio  Klvira, 
Miiaourl,  Arkanaaa,  anil  Tnana  Inrlmlml,  thn  niinilior 
U  but  Ul,7im,llll.'j.  'I'lia  Klly  of  Ni<w  York  alone  ron- 
trihuu-a  oilu.tiintli  of  tltn  |HMlnl  ri<vni<nn  of  thn  nation, 
and  writca  onu'tiinlli  of  thn  Initnra,  lining  a  larger  pro- 
porllun  than  la  i'uiilr|liut«i|  hy  nvary  Mlatu  lliat  hordora 
on  thu  (iulf  uf  Miiali'o, 

Tlieau  am  facta,  ami  limy  arn  tint  hnhl  up  ni  a  re- 
proach, hut  Ut  lllualratn  thn  llnanrlat  ronillllon  of  our 
poital  ayaU-in,  ami  to  allow  that  •  gooil,  an  aitlrn,  nnd 
an  ot'oiioinli'al  poalal  ualahllahinxnt  In  of  vnat  linport- 
anro  In  larga  tottiia,  illli'a,  ami  Ihi' kly-acttlt'il  and 
comniprrial  dialrii'la,  'Hin  {wopli'  :  .hof.'  lucsllllca 
when'  inuiiy  litiora  Mm  Hrilinn,  Wo  •>.  urr'  >poii'i  nice 
li  t  i  lifi'-l/lood  of  Ihn  coininnfi'lal  B'iil  ,■  .'m'  ■  ••^, 
fcol  that  llii'y  litfii  «  right  to  gali  .i.  >  •' . .  u  <■  n 
thull  hu  adapli'd  In  llm  Mania  <,  ■'■■•■  ,,  «h.<i:  Us 
•upport  prini'ipally  falla,  H'f,  »n  n  pMopIn  maiding  in 
citina  and  thii'ltly-aollli'il  Malaa,  aak  for  nut  ono  slii- 
i;In  privihigu  or  iinu  iliaign  for  anrtlcn  that  la  not  to  bo 
ai'corik'd  to  Ilia  loiiiily  antlli'r  of  Nnw  Mnxiro  or  the 
planner  of  Tuiiaa,  niiiinr  Ihn  aaiiM  rlreiimalnnrca,  hut 
wo  do  uak  for  a  uniform  fuln  of  Idlnr  jmatagn  of  Junt 
two  rnnla  for  all  dlalamcai  and  Ihn  fails  givnn  in  this 
artli-lc— and  llii'v  idiullangn  aftanilnatlon  for  ihdrKfii- 
cral  eorrni'tlii'»»™-tli«'i»«  faiia  iloarly  provn,  beyond  n 
douhl,  that  Ihia  rain  will  Iw  Mmplo  to  dnfrny  tho  ex- 
pcntea  of  all,  aarnpl,  pnrllNpa,  In  Mimo  fomat  frontlirs 
or  tliinly-atittlul  rngiona;  niid  Ihnro  nny  extra  cx- 
ponae— If  tlmra  la  any.  aliwilil  fall  on  tho  entire  trena- 
ury  of  thu  nation,  iiialnad  of  Iming  lovled  aa  a  parlinl, 

•  apacial,  and  an  unjnat  tttn  <m  Ihn  Induslrioua  active 
claaaea,  wliu  muku  oKtt'naivn  na«  of  Ihn  poal-offlce. 

Wb  want  and  n«nd  a  I'otivnnlniit  niinilmr  of  recriving- 
b9ui9i  gud  l«(t«r'|iilliir«  in  Mir  «l(lei,  afi«r  ttio  plan  of 


thn  dlitrlhullon  ayiitam  In  Kngtai'  I.  flew  "rtctlv- 
liig-huuaea"  ilu  not  ri'i|uirn  to  I  .li-i  l-alHeta,  or 
o(ll((»  for  thu  ilullvery  of  '•''  i  '  i:  ou  for  tha  ra- 
oepilon  of  lutluraand  th<-«uia  0  h'  i  i.  I'l'lartlicH 
ciri'unitlancea,  n  very  '  mnll  Mi'iry  u  m!  aiiiall  cum- 
inlaaion  on  Iho  aal'i  of  hiiiinpt,  la  iiifftt'lani  to  conipcn- 
•al«  the  rernlver. 

The  righir  >>!  iho  cl(i».cn  u.     '    t  atUndcd  to  in  thii 
ronnnv  In  tl  nageinent  i. '  "deal  letlert."     In 

thia  ciiae  r  <     i  ily  tu  look  at  ihn  aatlafai'tory  and 

Ju  t  iiiai.Ki  .  .  ,<|imI  III  (Ireni  llrlluiii.  Theru  Ihoro 
l»  .10  "  Dead-litler  tifflie."  Imt  iHi'ru  la  a  "  Keturncd- 
Icller  OlIK'e."  I  llera  ale  ni'  riporlcd  "deoil"exi'ept 
they  aro  onnnyiiioua,  or  when,  fnini  other  clrcuni- 
atancua,  Iho  owner  can  nut  be  found.  There,  with  the 
great  bulk  uf  llui  loltera,  a  i'a|iid  and  accure  method 
of  returning  "nilaearried"  Intlori  to  the  writora  ia 
ndiipled,  by  nicana  of  which  every  letter  It  returned  on 
Iho  very  Joy  ii  orrivea  at  Ihn  llulurnod-lettor  Utncc. 
It  la  donu  u  •  expedlliuualy,  Ihnt  a  clerk  returna  '.'UO 
per  day,  and  t'.'IH)  In  a  week.  At  thIa  rate  all  of  uur 
"dead  iettera"  could  be  relumed,  nt  a  coal  to  tiiu  nn- 
tion  of  k'sa  thun  one  hundred  tboukund  dotlara.  Willi 
a  ayatein  of  letter  delivery  in  cities  and  towna,  the  re- 
fuacd  or  miscarried  Icttcra  could  usually  bo  sent  to  tho 
Department  and  returned  tu  thu  writers,  in  from  one  to 
three  weeks  of  the  dnto  of  mailing.  In  Kngland,  let- 
ters that  niincarry  uaunlly  get  back  to  tho  writer) 
within  A  week  of  tho  diile  of  mailing.  Oftentimes 
these  dend  or  niinearried  letteri  would  be  of  grcut  nd- 
vaulngu  to  the  writer,  particularly  In  inrormiug  hini 
that  Ilia  letter  had  not  reached  Ita  destination.  I.)u  llio 
face  of  it  would  bo  written  usually,  as  is  practiced  in 
Kngland,  tho  caiiao  of  ila  non-<lelivcry. 

Any  person  who  will  give  It  an  examination  will 
sea  that  wo  have  at  thia  time  a  most  troublesome,  per- 
plexing, and  absurd  system  uf  rates;  and  it  must,  we 
think,  he  quite  as  clear  that,  in  a  linaiicial  and  econom- 
ical point  of  vlow,  our  proposed  scale  of  rates  Is  iialls- 
factory,  simple,  economicnl,  nnd  adapted  to  our  wunl». 
—.See  JIaulcerM'  MngnziM,  New  Y'urk,  vol.  vil.,  Nnvein 
bcrand  December,  IHfi".  On  tho  I'liiled  States  I'd 
age  System,  refer  to  AVk'  Knt/lnnJer,  vi.  S'M  (I.K.lvi  1 1  . 

I.  81(2  (Bacon V,  IIu.it'.i  M ■rchnnl*'  Magazinf,  ix.  I  >'■. 

II.  6^2Vl  ^  I  .Smith),  N.  250(\V.  U.  Ma(1„\vi,  . 
27  (J.  M  iTON"),  il.  'i:>:\  (H.  H.UES);  Nii.Ks's  /,■//- 
iittr,  xxxvi.  xxxvii,  and  years  l^iflO,  I8)M,  1H35;  limi- 
oeralic  Ileriew,  vi.  177;  Dk  Bow's  lUrirw,  ill.,  v.,  xli ; 
Foreign  I'ostal  System,  refer  to  FnAXKit,  xviil.  'ifiO; 
New  Hnijtand,  vi.  153;  Wetlmimtfr  Review,  \x.  Ill, 
xxix.  2'25,  xxxiii.  -Ifll;  Qunrlrrly  Reriito,  lx\xvii.  !17, 
Ixiv.  282;  Foreign  Unnrttrhj,  xiii.  8'J7;  Uriti$h  and 
fiirtigii  Jleriew,  viii.  451  j  I.iring  Age,  11.  -107 ;  A.V//n- 
buri/h  Review,  Ixx.  80. 

Post  Entry.  AVIicn  goods  are  weighed  or  ni>  a- 
urcd,  nnd  the  merchant  hna  got  on  account  thereof  it 
the  custom-house,  and  lluda  bin  entry,  nlr  ly  nm.lc, 
too  small,  he  must  make  n/ioit  or  ndditioii.ii'  inli-i/  Tit 
tho  surplusage,  in  tho  same  manner  as  the  lir>t  wii^ 
done.  As  a  merchant  is  always  in  time,  prior  tn  iliu 
clearing  of  tho  vessel,  to  make  hia  post,  he  should  lake 
cnro  not  to  over-enter,  to  avoid  as  well  tho  advance,  as 
the  trouble  of  getting  back  tho  overplus.  However, 
If  this  he  the  case,  and  an  over-entry  has  been  iiiadi', 
nnd  moro  paid  or  bonded  for  customs  than  the  goods 


POT 


1871 


POT 


liiotlon  will 
'some,  pf  f- 
must,  «■!' 

inil  ccoiioui- 

Bti'n  Is  fntls- 
our  wants- 
■il.,  Novc'iii 

States  I'o' 
(l.KAvn  >  •■ 
ifif,  Ix.  I   '■■ 
ACl.AVl, 

ii.F.a's  /.'' j- 
1H35;  liem- 
m.,v.,Nii: 
xviU.  iMi ; 
XX.  Ill, 
lx\»vii.  !17, 
/(;i/i»fc  anil 
•107;  Win- 

hcd  01  ,  ■  ' 
nt  thercoi  l 
■ty  iiui  li", 
',ntr;i(''' 
the  l!r>t  wii- 
(irior  to  the 
shouUl  take 
I  advance,  na 
However, 
J  been  niaili', 
an  tho  goods 


r<  ,illv  lindiit  •moiiiM  -  >i>>  Und-wilUr  *nit  •iirvoyor 
Muai  MHillfv  ••»'  «»in«,  uf^iri  n.Hli  inuile,  «nd  •iilimrlhed 
by  lh«  |«ir»"ii  xi  'n'rr.i.|it«ria,  tli»t  ntUliar  Im,  mt  «n^ 

otktr  |Mr»iin,  kna«UdK«,  l>*d  «iiy  i,(  ilm  Mid 

uriwto  over-«lll»r«d  uii  lindrd  <he  i>»ii|  .hip,  „,  ,„y 
where  liiiiili'd  the  •iiniu  wiiUuut  '  t)  ntunt  of  eu»(oin ; 
whii'h  iiiilh  must  Ihi  ntli'ded  by  th*  cold.ui.'jr  or  coh- 
trnllar,  ur  Ih,  dopullea,  who  then  cam|iutu  the  liiOi't 
tnJ  Mt  down  on  Iha  htck  of  (h«  certiilcsta,  tint  in 
wnrdi  at  lanKlh,  and  than  in  IlKur**,  lli>>  itivorll  cjina 
to  III)  paid. 

Totuh  (.U*.  rmatkr  I  Vr.  l'"inAi)i .  ^  r  /'»«ni,-*«, 
It. /WfiM'i,  I'ul. /'iifn.«  (  Ituii. /V(i<i  A|.  ir  vPKeiahlo. 
he  hurnrd,  tha  uhat  lixiviated,  and  iIik  »olutlon  tiollr,| 
tu  drynoM  in  Iron  veut'U,  tha  nm>»  left  hidiind  la  ih* 
pofii'h  of  commerce — the  lni|iuri'  larhonalo  of  p«Mn 
orrhnniUls.  It  la  Intenialy  alkaline,  •ollil,  mid  .tAut- 
«d  drown  liy  Ibo  admixture  of  a  aniull  portion  ,,i'  vrgv. 
taldu  hillanimalila  matter,  whleli  ^vnerully  Inoomos 
m<d>t.  When  potaah  la  calcined  in  n  niverhiratory 
furnaee,  the  eolorinx  matter  la  ilralroyiil,  It  ntminies  a 
spunky  texture,  and  a  uhltlitli  pmrly  listre;  wlienr,' 
It  ii  denominated  /irnrliiih.  Thu  latter  i;:„iierally  o»n. 
talna  from  tlO  to  M.'lorHI  percent,  of  pnr«  carhon  ^'of 
poluaa.  Theaihoaof tlioau vegelalileaonly  wlii'li  row 
at  a  distance  from  tlio  sea  aro  employed  in  llm  ii^  inii- 
faetnro  nf  potash.  Ilurliaieotia  planlayield  tln'  !m  i 
portion,  and  shrulis  morn  than  trees.  It  la  iirinii:  il- 
ly niannfiietured  In  America,  Uutsia,  ami  I'olunii,  he 
vaat  forests  of  which  furnish  an  Inoxhauatlblu  s<a|i|  . 
of  a,ilies. 

In  some  portions  of  the  I'niled  .States  and  I'anadii 
where  timlier  Is  an  incumliranco  n|ioii  the  soil.  It  l> 
felted,  piled  up  in  pyramids,  and  linrncd,  solely  with  i\ 
view  tu  the  manufacture  of  potaahes.  Tho  ashes  aro 
put  into  wooden  cistcrna,  having  a  plug  at  tho  liottom 
uf  ono  of  tho  sides  under  a  false  bottom  ;  a  moderate 
quantity  of  water  Is  then  poured  on  the  muss,  and  some 
i|uicklima  ia  atirrud  In,  After  atandin*;  for  a  few 
hours,  so  aa  to  take  up  tho  aoluhle  nuitter,  tho  clear 
lifpior  la  drawn  o(T,  evaporated  to  dryness  In  iron  pots, 
anil  llnally  fused  at  a  rod  heat  Into  compact  nmHses, 
which  arc  gray  on  tho  outside  anil  pink-colored  within, 
I'carlash  la  prepared  liy  calcininj;  potashes  upon  a 
roverlieratory  hearth,  till  the  wholo  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, and  tho  ^renter  part  of  tho  aulphur,  he  lUssipali'd  : 
then  lixiviatinK  the  mass  In  a  cistern  having  a  fulso 
hottom  covered  with  straw,  cvaporalinf;  tho  clear  lyo 
to  dryness  in  flat  iron  pans,  and  stirring;  it  toward  the 
end  into  white  lumpy  granulations.  All  kinds  of  vege- 
tables do  not  yield  the  same  proportion  of  pola»sn. 
Tho  more  succulent  tho  plant,  tho  more  docs  it  alTord ; 
for  it  ia  only  in  tho  Juices  that  the  vegetable  salts  re- 
side, which  aro  converted  by  incineration  into  alkaline 
matter.  Ilorbacooua  wocda  aro  more  productive  of 
potash  than  tlio  graminlferous  species,  or  shrubs,  and 
these  than  trees ;  and  for  a  like  reason  twigs  and  leaves 
uro  moro  productive  than  timber.  Itut  plants  in  all 
cases  arc  richest  in  alkaline  salts  when  they  have  ar- 
rived at  maturity.  Tho  soil  in  which  they  grow  also 
influences  tho  quantity  of  salino  matter. 

Tho  following  table  exhibits  the  average  product  in 
liotassa  of  several  plants,  according  to  the  researches 
of  Vauquelln,  Pcrtuia,  Kirwan,  and  Do  .Saussure : 

InlOOOpnrti.  PuUma. 

riry  beech  Imrk (1  no 

Kern 0  ill 

Tiiirgo  rusli 1^2 

Static  of  mnize U  M 

Dean  stalks 20  00 

llastani  chnni'inille  (A  n- 
thania  eolula,  Llnii.)  19«0 

SuntlowerBtnllcs 2000 

Comnion  nettle 2ff0ii 

Vetch  plant 27 -BO 

Thistles  In  full  growth  36'3T 
Dry  straw  of  wheal  be- 
fore caring  47  00 

WorniwootI 73*00 

Fumitory 79UO 


Hulka  «4  tMMMk  patMltwf,  rlieatnnt),  rhailntil 
husks.  brg«%  felMl^  Au'»<>.  tansy  lorrel,  vine  Iravx, 
liFKl  ',ave»,  ofMli,  MKl  many  other  pianls,  alxmnd  In 
P"la»hi  salts.  In  BufVHiidy,  it""  well-known  •.mlitt 
i)i-aetlin  iir>,  mail*  by  IncineraiinK  the  Ims  of  winr 
praoaed  iiW»  nilias,  imd  dried  in  ili«  aun  -  the  nahea  run- 
tain  fully  I  •\  par  ct>n(  of  \m\Mt» 

i:»pn«T«  or   I'liT   «»ii  Ili*«i.  Aairca  mm    TBI  I  nitih 
.<f  «T|ia  rua  nu  Ya*«  tnpi    ■  '»-»«  jo,  iiM, 

.     Viii>     . 

1  — ifmrl 


I  Pnrttaiiil 

NllMD 

Iluaiwii    . , 

,  New  Vnrk 


^ 


In  1000  parti.  PolMia. 

IMiii,  orfir 0^l,^ 

I'liplar. 0-75 

Trefoil 07S 

Jleechwood 1  '45 

Oak 1,W 

lloxivooil 2'20 

Willow 285 

Hill  and  niaplo 31)0 

Wbiiat  Ktravr 8'90 

Barb  of  ,i«k  twiga 420 

ThlsUea B-00 

flax  itema n  00 

Small  rushes SOS 

Vine  Blioota f^'R'l 

Bsrlo/itraur 15-80 


VotatMB  (Otr.  Ksii^lk,  Dta.  Amr*,m, 

I'yiv-m,!  ,1,.  t,rrf ;  It.  mi(|«i,  Mwiif    '--i  •  s,,. 
iB«ncAri7fn;   Itiisa.  JiAkki  MMfcutte,  fuots    *f  tk« 

.*,c>'(i«iiiii  /Hi. CMUMm,  of  itimunierablo         ■•lias,  and  t«a 
well  known  to  require  niiv  I,  Mflpliui 

llistdriciil  .Vii/iVr.  -  Til  ,,iiiion  '    h  or  In'ah 

\<iitiitit  (Sol'inuin  luhrnu'         -•.  ejii,.|,  .||||^      ,„| 

Ibrounhout  timst  of  the       iiijMTate  co..,.i(„«  of       » 

Iv  ill/.ed  glulw,  rontribulliiK,  as  it  d<M%  to  Vhr  ■wcr^ 

»  nil  to 
M  aa 

1  ia  an 

<■  V«l. 

inia, 

fii  ro- 

ihat 

ic- 
it 
■«• 
«ts 
Hi 
w 


i'»  of  a  largn  portion  of  tho  hiimah  ilVi. 
the  lUourlslinicnt  and  fallinlng  nf  sto<-k, 
of  bull  little  lens  luipiirlun,  e  in  our  nali,i 
than  maiie,  wh^at,  or  rlie.     It  has  lifon 
indigenous  state  in  Chili,  on  ||i#  niouiitnli> 
paraiao  and  Mcndozn ;  also  nrair  Moni 
'Jnllo,  as  well  as  In  Sonla  1  o  de  Bugol,,    . 
coiilly  in  Mexico,  on  tlm  flunks  of  the  (tn/ii 
I  ho  history  of  this  pliint,  in  connvctlun    ' 
f  the  sweet  potnt,,,  is  involved  In  obscurity,  u 
lints  of  tlieir  introductiuti  into  Kurope  aro  mo 
nilicting,  anil  often  they   •ppcar  to  bo  com 
\>  III  line  another     Tho  comnion  kind  was  nuu, 
il    nuluccd  into  Spain  in  tli,    early  port  of  t)ir 
ci    lory,  from  tho  neighliorh,  -,»!  of  Quito,  wliei 
w,  il  iti  in  all  iSpanlsh  counlrli-w  the  tubers  ore  ki 
as  /   ipa.'.     Tho  first  jinblislii'd  account  of  it  we  lliii  n  i 
ree,     I  is  in  /.(I  (Voni'in  del  J'irii,  by  I'edro  do  (  n"« 
prih     1  i:t  .Seville  in  IS.'ill,  in  wliich  it  Is  dcscrilmrl 
and     Iiistrated  by  an  engraving.     Krom  Spain  it  rep. 
pear~  to  have  found  its  way  into  Italy,  where  it  assuinail 
the  panic  name  aa  the  truffle.     It  was  received  liy 
CTusiii '    ut  Vienna,  in  I'i'JH,  in  whose  time  it  spread 
raplill;.    n  tho  south  of  Kiiriipe,  and  even  Info  Cierniany. 
To  I'jif.   iiiil  it  is  said  to  have  found  its  way  by  a  dif- 
ferent r    lie,  having  been  brought  from  Vlrginio  by 
Italcigh     lulonists  in  l5Hli,  which  would  seem  improb- 
able, as    '  was  unknown  in  North  America  at  that 
I'liic,  eill    r  wild  or  cultivated;  and,  liesidea,  (iough, 
in  his  cili     'U  of  Camd'tt't  Jiiildrtnii,  saya  it  was  first 
planted  l>     Sir  Walter  Italelgh  on  his  estate  at  Youg- 
iiall,  near      rk,  and  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Ireland 
before  its      liie  was  known  In  England,     (ierard,  in 
his  llcrbul,    aiblishcd  in  l,'i97,  gives  a  l'«ure  of  this 
plant,  under  the  name  of  llalata  Vinjiniu'd,  to  distin- 
guish it  froir  the  sweet  potatp,  Ilaln/a  tihilia,  and  roc- 
omiiiends  th     root  to  bo  eaten  as  a  "  delicate  dish," 
but  not  as  a  ■    inmon  food,     "  Tho  sweet  potato,"  says 
Sir  ,Joseph  Iln';k»,  "  was  used  in  England  as  a  delicacy 
long  before  tl     introduction  of  our  potatoes;  it  was 
imported  in  cui  ^idcrablc  quantities  from  Spain  and  the 
Canaries,  and  w  m  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  re- 
storing decayed  •  igor."     It  is  related  that  the  common 
potato  was  accl<.  ntally  introduced  into  England  from 
Ireland  at  a  peii,  d  somewhat  earlier  than  that  noticed 
by  (ierard,  in  con  ieqiiencc  of  the  wrecking  of  a  vessel 
on  the  coast  of  Lancashire,  which  had  a  quantity  on 
boaril.     In  16i;;i,  the  Koyal  Society  of  England  took 
measures  for  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  this  vege> 
table,  with  tho  view  of  preventing  famine.     Nutwith- 
standing  its  utility  as  a  food  became  better  known, 
no  high  character  was  attached  to  it;  and  the  writers 
on  gardening  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 


POT 


1572 


POT 


a  hundred  years  or  more  after  its  introduction,  treated 
of  it  ratlier  indifferently.  "Tliey  are  much  used  in 
Ireland  and  America  as  bread," says  one  author,  "and 
may  be  propagated  with  advantage  to  poor  people." 
The  famous  nurserymen,  London  and  Wise,  did  not 
consider  it  worthy  of  notice  in  their  Complete  (laniener, 
published  in  171U,  But  its  use  gradually  spread,  as 
its  excellences  became  better  understood.  It  was  near 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  before  it  was  general- 
ly known  either  in  Britain  or  North  America,  since 
which  it  has  been  most  eNtensivcly  cultivated.  The 
period  of  the  introduction  of  the  common  potato  into 
the  British  North  American  colonics  is  not  precisely 
known. 

The  culture  of  this  plant  extends  through  the  whole 
of  Europe,  a  large  portion  of  Asia,  Australia,  the  south- 
ern and  northern  parts  of  Africa,  and  the  adjacent  isl- 
ands. On  the  American  continent,  with  the  exception 
of  some  sections  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  culture  of  this 
root  extends  from  Ijibrador  on  the  east,  and  Nootka 
Sound  on  the  west,  to  Cape  Horn.  It  resists  more  ef- 
fectually than  the  cereals  tlie  frosts  of  the  North.  In 
this  country  it  is  principally  confined  to  the  Northern, 
Middle,  and  Western  States,  where,  from  the  coolness 
of  the  climate,  it  acquires  a  farinaceous  consistence 
highly  conducive  to  the  support  of  animal  life.  It  has 
never  been  extensively  cultivated  in  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  nor  Louisiana  —  perhaps  from  the  greater 
facility  of  raising  the  sweet  potato,  its  more  tropical 
rival.  Its  perfection,  however,  depends  as  much  upon 
the  soil  as  on  the  climate  in  which  it  grows ;  for  in  the 
red  loam  on  the  banks  of  Bayou  Boeuf,  in  Louisiana, 
where  the  land  is  new,  it  is  stated  that  tuliera  are  pro- 
duced as  large,  savory,  and  as  free  fVom  water  as  any 
raised  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  those  grown  at  Bermuda,  Madeira,  the  Cana- 
ries, and  numerous  other  ocean  isles.  The  chief  vari- 
eties cultivated  in  the  Northern  States  are  the  Carter, 
the  kidneys,  the  pink-eyes,  the  Mercer,  the  orange,  the 
Sault  St.  Marie,  the  Merino,  ancf  the  Western  red ;  in 
the  Middle  and  Western  States,  the  Mercer,  the  long 
red  or  Merino,  the  orange,  and  the  Western  red.  The 
yield  varies  from  &0  to  .JUO  bushels  and  upward  per 
acre,  but  generally  it  is  below  200  bushels.  Within 
the  last  ten  years  an  alarming  disease,  or  "i-ot,"  has 
attacked  the  tubers  of  this  plant  about  the  time  they 
are  fully  grown.  It  has  not  only  ap|>carcd  in  nearly 
every  part  of  our  own  country,  but  has  spread  dismay 
at  times  throughout  Ureat  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 
has  been  felt  mure  or  less  seriously  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  To  the  greater  uncertainty  attending  its 
cultivation  of  late  years,  from  this  cause,  must  be  at- 
tributed the  deficiency  of  the  crop  «f  184!)  as  compared 
with  that.of  1839.  Tliis  is  one  of  the  four  agricultural 
products  which,  by  tlic  present  census,  appears  smaller 
than  it  was  ten  years  ttincn. 

Sioeet  Potato. — ^Tlie  sweet  potato  (Hatala  edulii)  is  a 
native  of  the  Kast  Indies,  and  of  intertropical  America, 
and  was  the"  potato"  of  the  old  Kngllsh  writers  in  the 
early  part  of  the  14th  century.  It  was  doubtless  in- 
troduced into  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Virginia,  soon  aft- 
er their  settlement  by  tlic  Kuropcans,  Iwing  mentioned 
as  one  of  lliu  cultivated  products  of  those  colonies  as 
early  as  the  year  1048.  It  grows  in  excessive  al>und- 
ance  throughout  the  Southern  States,  and  as  far  north 
as  New  Jersey  and  the  southoru  part  of  Michigan. 
The  varieties  cultivated  are  the  purple,  the  red,  the 
yellow,  and  the  white,  the  foimcrof  which  is  confined 
to  the  South.  The  amount  of  sweet  potatoes  exported 
fVom  South  Carolina  in  1747'''48  was  700  bushels ;  that 
of  the  common  potato  exported  from  the  United  States 
In  1820-'21,  il0,889  bushels  ;  in  1830-'3i,  112,875  bush- 
els; in  1840-'41,  isr>,m&  bushola;  in  1850-'61,  106,342 
ijj;«hele.  According  to  the  census  returns  of  1840,  the 
auantitv  c '  DOtatocs  of  all  sorts  nised  in  the  I'liion 
was  108 298,000  bushels;  of  1860,  104,055,089  bushels, 
of  which  88,269,190  hnshcls  were  Bwoet. 


COHPABATIVB    PBOnUOTION   0»    I'OTATOES    IN   Tm   UlltTn) 

States  in  tub  Yeabs  11440  and  1360, 


BUtM  nod  TsrrltoriM. 


Alabain)! 

ArlcHnsas 

Csllforni* 

Columbia,  District  of. . . 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

(ieorgia 

IlllllOll) 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massacliiisotts 

Mlehlidtan 

Mlsfllasinpi 

MIsFoitrl  

New  Hampshire 

New  .jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Ithode  Island 

South  CnroUna 

TennesBCo 

Texas 

Visnuont 

Virginia . . . 

WlBconsIn 

Minnesota  Territory.. . 
New  Mexico  Territory. 

Oregon  Territory 

Utah  Territory 

Total 


Iriih  and  SwMt  PuUtMS 


lUO 


BuihelH. 
l,708,8tia 
3»8,e08 

12,036 
8,414,2.18 

200,71  a 

264,017 
1.201,800 
2,02a,620 
1,826,704 

284.003 
],0B8,ast) 

^84841 
10,302,580 
1,080,438 
6,886,661! 
2,100,206 
1,080,100 

783.708 
«,2fl0,60« 
2,072,000 
B0,123,014 
2,600,230 
6,805,021 
9,636  603 

Oll.OTS 
2,698,318 
1,004,870 

8,86!»,T61 

2,044,660 

410,608 


iiuo. 


t08,I6s,ioo 


BunIisIi. 

5,721,2116 

18l,lsi 

10,21.2 

81,7sn 

2,6811,8  ,f| 

805,(1  SJi 

7C6,I1,'4 

7,213,81)7 

2,672,2:  4 

4,28'>,04S 

282,1103 

2.400,000 

1,524,(S,'. 

8,43G,I'40 

073,032. 

8,5S6,3S4 

2,801,074 

6,008,277 

1,274,611 

4,304,010 

.1,716,261 

16,403,007 

6,710,027 

6,24.5,700 

6,032,004 

061,020 

4.478,!i03 

8,R4,'),6flO 

1,420,808 

4,061,014 

8,180,607 

l,402,0,'>fl 

21,816 

3 

01.320 

44.023 

1u,M40  044 


EXPOBTB  or   roTATOES  FBOM  TUB  UNITED  STATES.  IfOB  XW. 

Year  ending  .Iune  80,  1S60,  .     , 


WliitherexpQrted. 


KusBlun  TotiKesiiionu  in  N.  America . . 

Swedish  West  Indies 

Datiioh  West  Indies 

firemen 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  fiulana 

Kngland 

<.*anada 

Other  UrltUli  North  American  Fosa. . 

Uritlsli  West  Indira 

British  Ilonduraa 

llrltlsh  (*uiana 

French  Wcat  Indies 

Cuba 

Toito  Iiico 

Madeira 

Turkey  bi  Asia 

Porta  In  Africa 

Ilaytl 

Hnn  Domingo 

Mexico  . . . '. 

Central  lEepublic 

New  Granada 

Venezuela 

Chili 

Pom 

Sandwich  Inlands , 

«hin« 

Wliaio  rishcries 


Total. 


Barreli.  I 


411 

6 

1,164 

1 

400 

66 

7 

6,164 

230 

17,240 

182 

8,072 

030 

43,262 

6,1  S3 

100 

100 

20 

184 

126 

710 

10  J 

620 

0S2 

130 

200 

9ri6 

001 

689 


82,612 


,V»ltf-.)| 
$208, 
10 
2,7i7'l 

2 

1,08s  ■ 

1.17 

10 

6,0iii> 

1)2* 

82,1110 

44.'. 

6,036 

1,7>5 

82,ii(;o 

9,11.'. 
2.M1 
200 

434 
240 

1,677 
37S 

1..117  ; 

1,.T.2 
112 
601) 

1,237  ! 

l.liril 
c,;rt 


$l,'i3.(l0l 


lupoBTS  OP  Potatoes  into  the  United  States  kou  tui: 
Year  endino  June  80,  IS&O. 


WhvDca  iuiporlHd. 


!Swedl8li  West  Indies  . . . 

Hamburg 

llremen 

Holland 

):ngiand 

Scotland 

Ireland 

IlritUh  West  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic  . 

Cuba 

31exlco 

'J*cru 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 

Whale  Fisheries 

Total 


BuilitU. 


is 

Cfl3 

400 

160 

2,91,7 

4('>8 

in.tilS 

60,684 

922 

116 

20 

0,187 

20,840 

42 

1.676 

120,0^ 


Vtlua. 


i'J 

lUl 
iliO 

74 

1,R,%2 

8(0 

4,2011 

44,033 

710 

no 

2T 

6,418 

12,78S 

22 

6116 


$71,216 


«•  " 


':ff 


POT 


1573 


PRE 


2,7i;T  I 

l.ossM 

137  ; 

1«  1 

B.Oiio 

82,'.ilfl 
44.'> 

B,(i;iri 

l,^^s 

82,iu;n 

9,nti 

2«i 

4:14 

•24'.1 
l,ti7T  ' 

SIS 
1,347  1 
l,:j!'J  ■ 

142 
601) 

i,2:i'  1 

l.iiM 

E8   yOit   Till'. 


Vftlue. 
S'.l 
11)11  1 
iliO 

74 

\fttl  1 

3C0 

4,2ft!'  ' 

44,(133  I 

71(1 

110 

27 

15,418  1 

12,78S  I 

22 

(in5_| 
r»;i,2i5"l 


Potomao  River,  in  Marj'Unrt  mid  VirKinin,  rises 
ill  two  liraiiclics,  the  north  and  the  soulli,  in  and  iicnr 
tlie  Allngliany  tlountains,  and  forms,  through  nourly 
its  whole  course,  the  boundary  lietwccn  VirRinia  and 
Maryland.  k  is  about  800  niilos  long,  niid  oiitcri 
Chesapoako  Bay  between  Point  Lookout  and  Smith's 
Point  by  a  mouth  ten  miles  wide.  At  Alexandria  it  is 
n  inilo  and  a  (juartor  wide,  2110  miles  from  the  ocean. 
It  is  navigable  for  ships  of  tlio  line  to  the  navy-yanl 
in  Washington,  300  miles  from  the  sea,  and  three  miles 
below  the  head  of  tide-water.  Above  this  it  is  oIj- 
structed  \ty  numerous  falls  and  rapids.  —  A'ce  JI.viiv- 

7..VSI),  C'lIKSAI'E.VKE. 

Pound  (I.at.  poudus,  weight),  a  measure  of  weiglit. 
In  Kiigland  two  diflercnt  pounds  arc  u.sod — the  pound 
avoirdupois,  and  tlie  pound  Troy.  The  pound  avoir- 
dupois weighs  7000  grains  Troy,  and  the  pound  Troy 
57tiO  grains.  The  former  is  divided  into  IG  ounces, 
and  tlio  latter  into  12.  The  pound  sterling  was  in  .Sax- 
on times,  about  A.i>.  (171,  a  pound  Troy  of  silver,  and  a 
shilling  was  its  twentieth  part ;  consequently  the  lat- 
ter was  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present. — 
Pk.vciiam.  The  value  of  the  Roman  powio  is  not  pre- 
cisely known,  though  sonic  suppose  it  was  ei|iiivak'nt 
to  an  Attic  miiia,  or  £3  4.i.  7it.  (.)ur  avoirdupoi.s  weiglit 
(ai-oir  ilii  poiits)  came  from  the  Freiicli,  and  contains 
sixteen  ounces ;  it  is  in  proportion  to  our  Troy  weight 
as  seventeen  to  fourteen. — CiiAMiiKiis;  see  also  Haid-- 
era  Mttfjazine,  December,  1K.'')7,  l,")!!— 157.  An  old  jiound 
weight  of  geographical  significance,  named  Kaslerling, 
divided  into  twelve  ounces,  was  in  use  among  tlie  An- 
glo-Saxons some  centuries  before  the  Norman  Concpiest. 
The  same  weight,  called  tlio  Tower,  and  tlie  Jloneyers' 
pound,  was  styled  by  early  French  writers  the  lioman 
and  the  Rochello  pound ;  also  known  among  tlio  Ger- 
mans as  the  Cologne  pound.  A  simple  system  of  ex- 
change, by  which  a  pound  of  silver  money,  in  tale,  was 
made  to  e(iual  a  pound  in  gross  weight,  had  been  ar- 
ranged by  Charles  the  Great,  in  France,  toward  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century.  In  Uritaiii,  under  the  First 
William,  of  Normandy,  an  ordinance  declared,  "  The 
weights  and  measures  throughout  the  kingdom  sliall 
remain  as  our  worthy  predecessors  have  cstablislicd." 
Queen  Elizabeth  ordered  the  ounce  of  silver,  in  Kii- 
gland, to  be  cut  into  p'xty  pennies;  so  that  the  penny, 
formerly  the  twentieth  of  an  ounce,  thenceforth  became 
the  sixtieth  part !  From  the  terniination  of  Qucoii 
Elizabeth's  reign  the  coinage  of  Englisli  silver  has  gen- 
erally retained  a  purity  of  -Oio  thousandths,  called  the 
"  Sterling  Standard."  Another  pound  weight,  also  di- 
vided into  twelve  ounces,  had  been  brought  from  Ciii- 
ro,  in  Egypt,  to  Troyes  of  Cliampagne,  in  France,  dur- 
ing the  Crusades.  Carried  into  ICiigland  liy  foreign 
goldsmiths,  Lombard  merchants,  possilily  from  Venice, 
about  the  year  llUfi,  it  gradually  superseded  the  old 
Easterling  weights,  and  found  .iceess  into  the  Ilritish 
Mint,  iiy  decision  of  llcnry  VIII.  In  1543  this  king 
began  to  debase  the  tineness  of  the  silver  coins,  and 
also  reduced  their  standard  weight.  The  British  stat- 
ute of  12(if>  established  two  common  measures  for  mon- 
ey, weights,  dry  and  wet  (luantities,  with  presumeil 
consent  of  tlio  people  and  approval  by  the  king,  which 
seem  to  render  "  wheat  and  silver  money  the  two 
weights  of  the  balance,  the  natural  tests  and  sinndaids 
of  each  other."  Unfortunately  for  such  decision,  nei- 
ther wheat  corn  f-ains  nor  silver  are  liy  nature  exact 
weights  suited  for  u  standard,  "  a  rule  by  which  other 
things  may  bo  correctly  compared,  adjusted,  and  val- 
ued." The  accredited  proportions  of  these  old  meas- 
ures being  accessible,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  tost 
their  quantities.  Edward  IV.,  in  14fil,  struck  a  goM 
coin  of  tho  value  of  ten  shillings,  named  an  "  angel," 
because  such  an  imago  was  represented  upon  the  face 
of  it,  with  tho  likeness  of  a  ship  on  the  reverse.  Hen- 
ry IV.  (1483  to  1509)  introduced  "the  sovereign,"  or 
"  rose  noble,"  of  gold  "  The  guinea,"  designed  to  be 
of  tho  value  of  twenty  shillings,  but  rciiiiiring  subsc- 


ciutnt  correction,  was  not  ordained  till  tho  reign  of 
Charles  II.  in  England.  In  1821  a  committee  of  the 
Koyal  Society,  to  whom  the  matter  had  been  referred, 
proposed,  and  It  was  so  decided,  by  act  of  George  IV.. 
ill  1824,  1st.  That  tho  parliamentary  standard  yard, 
made  by  Bird,  in  17(iO,  bo  henceforth  tho  legal  stand- 
ard of  (ho  British  empire  ;  2d.  That  the  parliamentary 
standard  Troy  pound  weight,  made  in  H.W,  continue 
unaltered;  8d.  That  seven  thousand  grains  be  de- 
clared to  constitute  tho  pound-wcigt.t  avoirdupois, 
now  called  the  British  imperial  pound.  By  act  of 
Congress  of  tho  United  States,  in  1828,  "the  lirass 
Troy  pound  weight,  procured  by  tho  Sliiiister  of  the 
United  States  at  London,  in  the  year  1827,  for  tho  use 
of  the  Mint,  shall  bo  Ihc  ttinulurd  of  the  Mint  of  the 
United  States,  conformably  to  which  the  coinage  there-  • 
of  shall  be  regulated."  Vet  wo  po.s8ess  three  several 
flmrliiiff  weights  fur  euinnije  accounts,  (a-h  one  derind 
from  a  distinct  uiiitiin/  measure  taken  f -cm  us  jnanij  dlf- 
fi  rent  nations.  1st.  We  have  a  Troy  standard  for  iiain- 
lilies,  from  Britain  ;  2d.  A  metrical  standard  for  i/kh/i- 
lies,  from  Franco;  3d.  An  avoirdupois  standard  for 
proporlimis,  from  Spain.  Tho  solo  remnant  retained 
from  the  original  scale  of  the  mother  country  being 
tlie  Troy  ounce,  now  divided  and  inultiplied  decimally. 
—  ]{i]mi  of  l)r.  .1.  II.  (iiiimiN  of  tho  United  States 
Mint,  Nortli  Carolina.     >See  Pi;nxv. 

Pratique.  Tlie  writing  or  license  of  tliis  name  was 
originally  addressed  liy  the  Soutliern  nations  to  the 
ports  of  Italy  to  which  vessels  were  bound,  and  sigiii- 
lied  that  the  ship  so  licensed  came  from  a  place  or 
country  in  a  healthy  state,  and  no  way  infected  with 
the  plague  or  other  contagious  disease.  Tlio  pratique 
is  now  called  a  bill  of  health,  and  is  still  of  the  same 
intent  and  import. — A.siiK. 

Precious  Metals,  a  designation  frequently  ap- 
plied to  gold  and  silver.  AVe  liavo  given,  under  the 
articles  Goi.n  and  Sti.vKi!,  a  short  account  of  each 
metal ;  and  wo  now  propose  laying  before  the  reader 
some  details  with  respect  to  their  supply  and  consump- 
tion. To  enter  fully  into  this  interesting  and  difHiuU 
subject  would  require  a  long  essay,  or  rather  a  large 
volume.  Jlr.  Jacob  published  in  18,')1  an  "  Historical 
Inquiry  into  the  Production  and  Consumption  of  tin 
Precious  Metals,"  in  which  ho  takes  up  the  subject  at 
the  earliest  period,  and  continues  it  to  the  above  epoch. 
And  though  far  from  being  so  learned,  complete,  or  sat- 
isfactory as  might  have  been  expected,  this  work  con- 
tains a  good  deal  of  valuable  information,  and  deserves 
tlie  attention  of  tho.se  who  take  an  interest  in  such  in- 
quiries. But  within  the  last  live  or  six  years  the  sub- 
ji'ct  hos  acquired  an  interest  and  importance  with 
which  it  was  not  previously  invested. 

I'iiijtplg  of  the  Precious  Mdals.  ■ —  Since  the  discov- 
ery of  Ainerica,  the  far  greater  ]>art  of  the  supplies  of 
gold  and  silver  have  been  derived  from  that  continent 
Previously  to  the  publication  of  Iluniboldt's  great 
work,  "  Kssai  Politique  sur  la  Xouvelle  J'spagne,"  sever- 
al estimates,  some  of  them  framed  by  individuals  of 
great  intelligence,  were  in  circulation,  of  the  quantities 
of  gold  and  silver  imported  from  America.  Tliey,  how- 
ever, diflered  widely  from  each  other,  and  were  all 
framed  from  comparatively  limited  sources  of  informa- 
tion. Humboldt  brought  these  estimates  together  as 
follows : 


Aulhore. 


I'stariz 

Snlorznno 

Moncflda  

NavnrGto 

Kiiyiml 

nolicrtson 

Neckcr 

(rerbonx 

The  Aiillior  of  the  liecherches) 
sur  le  Commerce,  Ainster-  - 
<l«ni.  17711 ) 


KpUftlR. 

Ti!r2Tl724" 
14'.>2-1I>2S 
14'.I2-15'.5 
I&I'.'-IOII 
14il2  n-iO 
I4W2-I776 
liti3-17;7 
1724-1800 

1492-177B 


Dolllin^ 

li'SaB.ooii.oflo' 

1,B0<),00O.0«0 
2,0011,01)0,001) 
l,.M0,O0O,Oi)O 

.'■,i.')4,ono,fl0o 

K,SOO,000,OflO 

»il4,000,000 

1,(100,000,000 

n,078,000,000 


■  Kssai  sur  la  Xouvelle  Etpagne,  tome  ill. 
But  these  have  been  wholly  super«eded  by  the  more 


PRE 


1574 


PRE 


extensive  anil  laborious  investigations  of  Humboldt. 
This  illustrious  traveler,  besides  being  acquainted  witti 
all  that  had  lieen  written  on  the  subject,  and  having 
ready  access  to  uilicial  sources  of  information  unknown 
to  the  writers  already  alluded  to,  was  well  versed  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  mining,  and  critically  ex- 
amined several  uf  the  most  celebrated  mines.  Ho  was, 
therefore,  incomparably  better  qualilicd  for  forming 
correct  conclusions  as  to  the  past  and  present  produc- 
tiveness of  the  mines  than  any  of  those  who  had  hither- 
to speculated  on  the  subject.  His  statements  have,  in- 
deed, been  accused  of  exagj^erution ;  and  wo  incline  to 
think  that  there  are  grounds  for  believing  that  this 
charge  is,  in  some  measure,  well  foun<lcd,  particularly 
as  respects  the  accounts  of  the  profits  made  by  mining, 
■  and  of  the  extent  to  which  the  supplies  uf  the  precious 
metals  may  be  increased.  But  this  criticism  applies, 
if  at  ull,  in  a  very  inferior  degree  to  the  accounts  Uum- 
tioldt  has  given  of  the  total  produce  of  the  mines,  and 


I  the  exports  to  Europe.  And  making  every  allowance 
for  the  imperfection  inseparable  from  such  investiga- 
tions, it  is  still  true  that  the  statements  in  question, 
and  the  inquiries  on  which  they  are  founded,  arc  among 
the  most  valuable  contributions  that  Imve  been  made 
to  statistical  science.    According  to  Humboldt,  the  an- 

:  uual  average  supplies  of  the  precious  metals  derived 

j  from  America  have  been  as  follows  : 

I  Dollkn  u  Year 

,  At  an  Av«rag«. 

I         From  U92  to  1500 MO.OiliP 

I  "     I,')00tolMB 8,«00,li00 

I  "      IWtMolOOO 11,01)0,000 

"     1000  to  1700 10,000,000 

'     iTootoiTtiO 2?,r)0o,ooo 

I  •'     l".Wtol80S 30,800,000 

!  —Emiai  »ur  la  Xoucellc  Supajnc,  lil. 

i      The  following  is  Humboldt's  estimate  of  the  annual 
!  produce  of  the  mines  of  America  at  the  commencement 
of  the  19th  century  : 


Polilleal  DIvlilon. 


Vice- royalty  of  New  Spain. . . . 

Vice-royalty  of  I'eru 

C'nptjiln-generolnlilp  of  i;liill . . 
Vlce-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayrcs  . 
Vice-royalty  of  New  Uranada . 
Brazil 


Total. 


Kilogi. 


i,m3 

78i 
2,801 

B06 
4.T14 
0,573 


17,291 


MarVs  at 
Caalile. 


2,3aS,2^() 

oii,o:io 

2!>,7O0 
481,830 


3,46ll,84«) 


Kilogri 


t)37,512 

140,478 

0,8i7 

110,704 


7'.6,.')81 


Value  of  the 

Gold  and  Silver 

in  Dollars. 


■-'3.0011,0110 
C.V'4n,000 
2,000,000 
4,8W),0(l0 
2,100,000 
4,3011,000 


43,000,000 


IJumboidt  further  estimated  the  annual  produce  of 
the  European  mines  of  Hungary,  Saxony,  etc.,  and 
those  uf  Northern  Asia,  at  the  same  <icriod,  at  about 
X1,000,000  more.  The  quantity  of  gold  produced  in 
America  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  was  to  tlio 
quantity  of  silver  as  1  to  46 ;  in  Europe  the  proportions 
were  as  1  to  10.  The  value  of  equal  quantities  of  gold 
and  silver  were  then  in  the  proportion  of  13  or  15^  to 
1.  From  1800  to  1810  the  yield  of  the  American  niiiics 
continued  to  increase ;  and  their  produce,  and  that  of 
the  European  and  Itussian  mines,  was  then  probably 
rather  above  than  below  $55,000,000.  But  in  the  last- 
mentioned  year  the  contest  began  which  terminated  in 
tho  dissolution  of  the  connection  between  Spain  and 
her  American  colonics.  The  convulsions  and  inse- 
curity arising  out  of  this  struggle — the  proscri|>tion  of 
the  old  Spanish  families,  to  whom  the  mines  principal- 
ly belonged,  who  repaired,  with  tho  wrecks  of  tlieir 
fortunes,  some  to  Cuba,  some  to  Spain,  and  j^omc  to 
Bordeaux  and  tho  south  of  France — caused  the  aban- 
donment of  several  of  the  mines,  and  an  extraordinary 
falling  olT  in  the  amount  of  their  produce.  There  are 
no  means  of  estimating  the  precise  extent  of  thii  de- 
cline ;  but  accoriling  to  Jacob,  who  collected  and  com- 
pared all  the  existing  information  on  the  subject,  the 
total  average  produce  of  the  American  mines,  iiicluaivo 
of  Brazil,  during  tho  twenty  years  ending  with  1829, 
may  bo  estimated  at  $20,0<k),000  a  year ;  being  less 
than  half  their  produce  at  tho  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury!— Jacoii  on  Precious  iletalt.  It  has,  however, 
been  supposed  that  Jacob  rather  exaggerated  the  fall- 
ing off.  And,  at  all  events,  the  supplies  of  bullion  olv 
tained  from  }Iu.\ico  and  South  America  began,  soon 
after  the  publication  of  his  work  (18.'il)j  to  increase ; 
and,  notwithstanding  tlic  anarchy  to  which  they  have 
continued  to  be  a  prey,  that  increase  has  been  main- 
tained down  to  the  year  185,3.  It  appears  from  the 
returns  sent  homy  by  tlie  British  consuls  that  the  coin- 
age of  gold  and  silver  in  the  Mexican  mints  amounted 
in  18 17  to  $l(i,923,948,  and  in  1848  to  |(19,50C,754.  But 
it  is  well  known  that  consideral)le  quantities  of  these 
metals  are  raised  and  exported  from  Mexico  without 
being  brought  to  the  mints  to  be  coined.  And  taking 
this  item  into  account,  we  shall  not,  perhaps,  be  very 
wide  of  the  mark  if  we  estimate  the  entire  produce  of 
the  Mexican  mines  in  1847  and  1848  at  about  19  and 
21i  millions  of  dollars,  of  which  from  17  to  20j  milliuiifl 
wore  in  silver.     In  1842,  Mr.  B.  II.  Wilson,  con.sul  in 


Peru,  estimated  the  produce  of  the  Peruvian  mines  at 

about  $5,210,000  a  year.  —  Pnrliamentari/  Paper,  No. 

47(>,    Session  1843.      And  it  has  since  increased   to 

$6,500,000  or  $7,000,000.    Tho  produce  of  the  Bolivian 

mines  is  usually  estimated  at  about  half  tho  produce 

of  those  of  I'eru.     In  1850  tho  produce  of  the  Chilian 

mines,  according  to  the  official  returns,  amounted  to 

§7,020,071. — Annuaitv  ile  FKconomie  I'olitique,  1853. 

Birkinyrc's  estimate  of  the  production  of  the  precious 

;  metals  in  184G  and  1850,  the  most  elaborate  and  val- 

{  uable  of  any  hitherto  published,  appeared  in  the  Lon- 

;  don  Times  of  the  19th  May,  1851.     M'o  subjoin  sonic 

I  of  its  principal  portions. 

I      "  The  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  produced  at  the 
I  under-mentioned  epochs  were: 

I       "  In  1801  the  quantity  of  pure  gold  produced  in 
I  America  was  46,.')31  lbs. ;  in  ICuropc  and  Northern  A.«i!i 
;  (exclusive  of  China  niid  Japan),  4,916  lbs.  j  total  prod- 
uce, 51,217  lbs.  =  55,910  lbs.  British  standard  gold-- 
X2,C12,200. 

"  In  1816  the  quantity  of  pure  gold  produced  in 
America  was  25,503  lbs. ;  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia 
(exclusive  of  China  and  Japan),  89,171  lbs. ;  total  prod- 
uce, 114,671  lbs.  =  125,108  lbs.  British  standard  gold  = 
X5,816,721. 

"In  1850  the  quantity  of  pure  gold  produced  in 
America  was  261,7.')1  lbs. ;  in  Europe,  Africa,  mid  A.'i.i 
(exclusive  of  China  and  Japan),  101,219  Ib.s. ;  tolal 
produce,  365,950  lbs.  =399,217  lbs.  British  standard 
gold=i;i8,651,322. 

"Tho  above  quantities  are  probably  less  than  the 
actual  production.  The  duties  on  gold  in  Russia  on 
the  produce  of  tho  private  mines  are  heavy,  varylni; 
from  12  to  21  per  cent. ;  in  Austria  they  amount  to  lU 
per  cent.,  in  Brazil  to  5  per  cent.,  and  are  understood 
to  lead  to  a  great  <leal  of  smuggling.  In  otlv  r  coun- 
tries, such  as  the  United  States,  where  there  are  no  du- 
ties, the  gold  and  silver  stated  in  the  table  arc  only  tin- 
quantities  brought  to  the  mints  to  be  coined,  there  l)c- 
ing  no  means  of  determining  the  quantity  used  in  jew- 
elry and  other  arts  and  manufactures." 

The  exhaustion  of  the  precious  metals  in  nianufuc- 
tures  and  the  arts  throughout  Europe  and  the  I'nitcd 
States  probably  exceeds  the  ordinary  estimates.  It  is 
known  that  in  England  alone  the  weekly  consumption 
of  flne  gold  is  equivalent  to  600  ounces — used  largely  in 
gilding  metals  by  tho  electrotype  and  t'le  water-gild- 
ing processes. 


T'T?TfTfM^?Ppy!|^;^,fy,T&^«l»t*^ 


PRE 


1575 


PltE 


KiW^aK**!**]  fABm,  miowiNu  Tim  anmcal  Peoduok  (ArPBOxiuATe  CALrotAxioN)  IN  Valuk  ar  iisb  Ooli>  axu  Sii,- 

VliH  ''UH  il41  *>>t'  '^^'  '"'*  '■■'"'■'  UEINO  TWO  YKASS  UEFORK  TUE  UIBIOVEKY  or  tub  BICII  1>KIH)8IT8  or  liOLD  IN  C'AL- 
irtHIMlAi  fim  LA*1tK  TWO  YBABS  ArtXH  THE  DI8OOVEHT. 


Uluced  ii> 
1  ami  Asia 
lotal  1"<"1- 
IrdgoUl- 

jjiluccil  ill 
,  ami  Afio 

lbs, ;  total 
1  stamlai'l 

tlian  llif 
bussia  on 
i,  varying 
luiit  ti)  lU 
Inderstooil 
■ivr  coiiii- 
ire  110  <lii- 
Ic  only  till' 
1  tliore  lio- 

Icd  ill  jow- 

Inianufii'-- 
lic  I'nit'iil 
Ics.  It  is 
lsuin|ilioii 
Jargcly  in 
Ittlcr-giW- 


VOtttntit  i.                                              : " 

IMI. 

1 

18U). 

>iold. 

Silver. 

TqI.I.         1 

(•old. 

8ilvtl. 

ToMI. 

Tilifofm*...*.... 

iinHuh  Mttt*iH  ■          

£237,330 
249,763 
'282,407 
96,'24l 
00,337 
146,f>v5 
'269,871 

£1,801 
8,467,0-20 

42,tl-2« 

1,000,58.1 

4iiO,l»l 

•2!l7,02!) 

2,003 

£289,230 

3,7u0,773 

•295,330 

1,090,8*24 

520,  W8 

44'2,014 

201,874 

£0;603,179 

£3,RS2,25<! 
32,310 

i;;-3,37!i 

198,'200 

00.^4' 14 

26,-285 

'229,9117 

109,iS.l 

204,9.50 

S07.4S4 

100.617 

72  014 

04,040 

84,0J6 

83,975 

£12,000,000 
115,430 
832,9(11 
'252,407 
90,'24l 
60,8,57 
146,685 
2S.I,0i:8 
£i3„T4l,0S9" 

£4,175,800 

'"367 

2's'8',7cS 
17.811 
2,49S 

203,900 
C0,5,^,5) 
100,000 
72,'240 
03,719 
80,585 
60,976 

£02,088 

11,444 

B,G83,303 

42,IC29 

1,000,683 

400.101 

■297,029 

'2,227 

£f2,00'i,08S 
126,874 
6,766,234 
295,3o0 
1,090,824 
.520,64.8 
442,014 
'291,295 

muw  timMUia  ■          ' 

iiiAiviu  ...,,,,  1 1^  1   i       

l(HH!il..-.....wiJi 

Twtnl  of  Nofth  »nd  South  America. . 

t((l*l|((;.;/J..<...  - 

«IHHI'»J' .■.;...;. 

^im\\  mammt < 

ti»IHmf:,::,i,,^,^ 

A(Wrt«  :.•.•.:.'.. 

Wc(lm««i,.-,,:.w.. 

fti«ii(  ...■.■, ,.<ij.-i;.<.... 

(:i(iic(J  tiiiigdotn;. 

AftWK.  .•,.;.:    

MWICH  ;.■.•..  (;.:,. 

h^^:  I  1 1 : 1 1  ltnttlit,> 

£1,301,600 

£3,414,427 

857 

!82,750 
17,841 
2,4!  8 

'2'03','Jl'O 
306,(100 
100,(KKI 
72,'240 
03,719 
80,.'S5 
riO,il75 

£5,'201,019 

£107,831 

32,'340 

138,022 

198,200 

282,0!M 

7.444 

227,499 

109,!lS!) 

1,05,! 

l,f>84 

617 

374 

ii30 

83,400 

33,000 

£7,^259,S24 

£171,817 

35,007 
138,022 
198,200 
•28(1,!)71 
7,444 
440,210 
100,000 

l,or«i 

1,584 

617 

374 

330 

63,400 

S3,000 

£'20,001,818 

£4,347,477 

35,007 

138,379 

198,'200 

576,079 

25,285 

442,70S 

100,000 

204,956 

307,48.1 

100,517 

72,014 

04,049 

84,045 

S3,!p76 

^iimwtm.- .■..*.-..■*,;. 

Vitni»»w  mm\m>f 

trtHtl  "f  ^mttpHi  Africa,  and  Asia, . . 

I'mWI  of  haftfl  «(i(l  Smilh  America. . 

(tWndMal 

£4,.'i45.l!i-' 

i,3in,:.oo 

£l,^25t,300 
5.JiI,fll9 

£5,709,498 
0.6o3,179 

£,5,312,r)3:! 

13,341,989 

£18,0.54,622 

£1,628,692 
7,'2.59,S'24 

£0,S40,!ii5 
20,601.813 

£.5,840,752 

1  £0,515,!)25 

£12.302,077 

£8,788,410 

£27,442,788 

Account  or  the  Imtoutb  and  KxroRTB  ov  Trf.abube  into 
AN!)  FROM  India  diriso  each  of  the  17  Vkaks  endimu 
WITH  1850-'51. 


"  f'f^^tOMVg  bt  1'lliOa  and  Japan,  which  produce  liirtfc  <inantities  of  gold  and  Biivcr,  the  amount  of  whicii  is  quite  un- 
klWWH  III  i>/lll'«t<'!«ll9i 

flimm  slimll  tioftiott  of  the  quantities  exported  to 
Vi^fM  *m  UfBlmldy  detained  in  tliat  country  or  for- 
WsVlJcd  it)  All.'ttCrtlia.  Hut  by  far  tlie  greater  i)art, 
pcfllrtllS  HMl  less  Itmii  niiieteen-twenticths  of  the  wliole, 
Wrtt  (frsdiieil  fofj  atul  went  to,  India.  Hut  althougli 
lllrtift  (Jill  llt*l,  fof  several  years  prior  to  1850,  derive 
«liy  «'«ll9i(1ef«l*l8  supply  of  bullion  from  Kurope,  slic 
flfiw  (lllfillfjS  (IlKt  period  latge  supplies  from  Cliina. 
'I  lijii  wrt<>  M  CMIISfXldeilco  of  the  vast  increase  in  the  iin- 
(■"Krtlioili  uf  opitim  into  the  latter.  With  tlie  c.xcep- 
tiHIl  «*f  (*<*  ami  silk,  China  lias  few  native  products, 
ntllff  llmtl  Itie  f/teolous  metals,  fit  for  foreign  markets. 
hw\  (llP  cipufls  of  the  former  being  not  much  more 
timil  iiHrtttifllt  (0  |iay  for  tlio  products  sent  to  lier  from 
KnfH(W  «ml  Allietll'rt,  a  very  considerable  part  of  the 
M\\im  Slid  ((plum  imported  from  India  is  paid  for  in 
liHlli'illi  llie  i((Of'P«se(l  exports  of  whicli  arc  said  to  have 
l»M"fly  lil-atlgllt  8eflous(liflicuIties.  Itnppears,  forc.\- 
»MI(iiw,  tlwl  «l  Htl  average  of  tlm  iseventeeH  years  cud- 
ill({  ttiltl  l«W-'5l,  the  aUHUsl  value  of  tlie  merchandise 
B.iilOtfd'd  f'wm  lll(1l«  to  China  amounted  to  Xl.SG  1,400 

»  i^M,  Hllll  (llrtt  of  the  merchandise  imported  to  only                                                            ,„,.,, 
*ll(!l,iit'l,  )f«*illg  a  lialance  of  no  less  tliau  .<;3,'.)-21,190  |  of  i;3G,4-.>7,90J,  being  at  the  rate  of  X2,14'>^818  a  year 
».  -       -        ~ -      -     --.-.-  r- 

m\ 

t»l .  .   ,  - 

tllB  fllllirtll  lllslimi-liousp,  sliows  tlie  balance  between    tlie  bullion  c.Nported  was  sent, 
Mif  \m\wHM\im  and  exportation  of  treasure  into  and 
ffHIII  lliiliil,  fi/f  17  years,  IRSI-'il.     Since  IS.M  this cur- 
fMllMlflittldaiillsilvpfffoniKtirope  has  largely  increased, 
sHMlliM^  (he  liuafils  of  tfeasurc  in  China  and  India. 


Vennt.        ; 

1-34- 

■A     1 

1835- 

:;o 

1»30- 

37 

1837- 

38 

1838 

39 

1.839- 

'40 

1840- 

•41 

1841- 

'42 

181'2- 

•43 

1843- 

•44 

1844-'45     1 

1>45 

■40 

1840- 

•47 

1847- 

•48 

1848- 

•49 

1849- 

•50 

1S50- 

'51 

lnii».rts. 

£1,8  3,r'J3 
2,140,4;5 
'2,030,li;7 
2.010,101 
3,010,92,1 
1,<J4.5.204 
1,V86.'253 
1,841,336 
!!,443,'2!I2 
4,794,078 
3, 752, 472 
2.495,1 50 
2.!l;)9.ii22 
l,!i73,391 
4.204.5113 
3..''.90,.S07 
3,811,80J 


Kn>uns. 
"£[94,741 
108,109 
263,934 
3lO,C50 
347,9i;0 
470,6'23 
3,;0,480 
615,070 
'21,5,7'" 
740,  ( 

I.IOO.K  J 
816,028 
713,870 

1,4;0,038 

'2,r:39,743 
971, '.'44 
641,289 


Total  excess  of  imports 

Average  annual  excess  of  Imports 2.142,818 

Now  it  appears  from  this  table  that  tlic  imports  of 
bullion  into  India  during  the  seventeen  years  ending 
with  18.')0-'ol,  exceeded  the  exports  by  the  gross  sum 


S04ii,<iii)  leariiig  a  naiance  oi  no  less  luuu  .«.o,;Fii,<ju  i  u>  ^„^,-i..,^iw,  ..^...s -  •■ — '.      '  ', .  , 

\  imf  \»  hf  paid  111  hiillion,  and  in  drafts  on  London  The  following  tables  show  the  countries  from  winch 
\W\  ylllCf  places  irtilebted  to  China.  The  following  !  the  bullion  imported  into  India  during  the  four  years 
»lil»,  »lli(ll  U  (Iptlliced  from  the  account  compiled  by  j  ending  with  1850-'J1  was  derived,  and  those  to  which 


The  accumulations  of  gold  from  California  and  Aus- 
tralia have  created  a  strong  desire  for  Imlia  and  Cliiiia 
goods,  for  which  specie  must  be  paid  in  lieu  of  domestic 
goods  or  produce  from  England  or  tho  Inited  Slates. 


Tbeasube  iJirOBTED  into  India  Fno.«  1847-48  to  lS63-'5!. 


"Wiitfe  from. 


I?HiM  KiHg(liiiir77,,,ii,,<. 

•ilOBftf*,- .■.,•,.■,.•.■.■.•;.■  .-.I.. 

Af»l(iiMf  and  Vi'tmn  t\n\u. 
i  turn  lit  iivv^  Dope 

(fujlim  .■.•.■.•/.(.•.iw,- 

•  Illlia....      ,i:.;iii.m.i.. 
V<ffVim>  :,,,,, SI,, mill,.. 

\imn\nm,,,,,i,,,,,,,,i,. 


Cfgit ,. 

I'wmiltf,  MHUHpim,  Ittii  Malacca. 

**IIIHC»«C*  ,.-,i.... 

Sue*  :::::, ,:^^^,^.. 

HimHUH:,:,,, ,,,,,,,, ,iil 

nnaii  I , ,  1 1 1 ,t  1 1 ti  i  i 


IW-'JU.   _ 

£58,04'! 

12.059 

34,850 

33,5,'25S 

C7,4'24 

1,030,.'!43 

2,099 

8'4',32l 

42,034 

21>4,0O4 

141 

4,980 


£1,973.391 


lS48-'49. 

1849-'S<I. 

ISSO-'Sl. 

A30,-:i4 

£•20,090 

£S03,0J0 

14,490 

16,435 

13,S64 

18,1 '25 

0,949 

9,730 

380,310 

465,189 

472,092 

200 

1,119 

•2,814 

06,807 

109,145 

S7I.30S 

3,109,002 

2,320,917 
"807 

1,81,5,284 
18,378 

102,.'>31 

80,091 

138,8'24 

64,402 

84,902 

76,S0« 

330,919 

239,094 

149,210 

6'2a 

62 

24,096 

3-2, 18« 

210,853 

1,200 

65 

£3,811,809 

£4.204,513 

1  £3,390,807 

m 


PRE 


1676 


PRE 


Treabob  xxrocTiD  raou  Ijtdia  fbom  184T-'48 

TO  1880-61. 

Wbera  (a. 

l847-'48. 

l»4(l-'«. 

IM>-'tO. 

lUO-'si. 

XTOO,060 

T,892 

B.400 

8T,IB2 

ss'o'.oos 

32,498 
1t'2',«2s 

■"si 

■  80,131 
33,205 

■  'ao 

i;i,4U!j,M04 

15,405 

2,235 

08,2T0 

V,(Vi7 

fl81,TTT 

528 

04 

112',(ll>4 
400 
300 

05.i(:4 

15,398 

Ts'.'as 

i:il8,4SS 
10,221 

00,400 

"m 

301,828 

00,001 

0,0(10 

.1(1 

219,683 

80,238 

■      28,081 

133 

24.20(i 

Xl(l,108 

9,511 

TOO 

40.000 

2,180 

TOO 

252,288 

21,000 

26,244 

"ioo 

142.404 
20,242 

4,092 

AfriCH 

America 

Batavla  and  Java 

i;liina          

)IalU  and  Gibraltar 

Pciinng,  Hhignpore,  nnd  .Malncca            .            

f^onmcatice .          

Suo« 

Total 

XI.420,08S 

J.'i,.  3.1,743 

i;'..T1.244 

i»4 1,289 

It  appears  from  Ihtso  taliks  that  Cliiiia  furnished 
two-thirds  or  more  of  all  the  liullion  imported  into  In- 
dia diiriiit;  the  four  years  ciidiii;;  with  lt*5(V-'.jl ;  and 
that  till  the  lant-mentionod  year  the  imports  from  Ku- 
ropo  were  (niito  inconsiderable,  and  greatly  exceeded 
by  the  exports  to  it.  China,  indeed,  has  been  long 
known  to  be  lioth  an  importer  and  an  exporter  of  bull- 
ion. But  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  ycar.'<,  or  since 
the  importations  of  opium  became  so  immense,  that 
her  exports  of  bullion  have  become  so  very  large  as  to 
make  them  productive  of  much  inconvenience.  The 
Imports  of  bullion  into  India  from  tlie  I'nitcd  States 
have,  till  recently,  been  too  inconsiderable  to  deserve 
notice.  A  direct  intercourse  has  now  been  commenced 
between  .San  I'mncisco  and  the  eastern  hemisphere ; 
but  hitherto  all  shipments  of  bullion  to  India  and  Chi- 
na on  American  account  have  been  made  through  Lon- 
don. During  the  year  ending  the  30th  June,  1852,  the 
Americans  sent  gold  and  silver  to  the  amount  of 
f;l2,127,379  to  England.  Hut  though  the  value  of 
their  imports  from  India  and  China  during  that  year 
amounted  to  $14,818,fl91,  while  that  of  their  exports 
thither  amounted  to  only  )i^,'iCu,(j7i>,  they  diil  not  send 
to  either  a  single  dollar  or  a  single  dollar's  worth  of 
gold  or  silver  direct  from  America. — /irjm't  on  Com- 
merce ami  Xaiifffition  of  the  L'niled  States  fur  1852,  p. 
.'Hi,  el  neq. 

Hut  under  such  circumstances  there  will  be  a  corre- 
sponding increase  of  demand  in  India  for  the  bullion 
of  Australia  and  America.  Indeed,  the  probability 
seems  to  be,  from  the  late  extraordinary  importation 
of  bullion  from  Kurope,  that  the  supply  from  China 
and  elsewhere,  notwithstanding  its  magnitude,  had  not 
sufficed  fully  to  meet  the  wants  of  India.  And  inde- 
pendent of  this  circumstance,  it  is  plain  that  a  slight 
fall  !|i  the  value  of  bullion  in  other  countries  would 
render  it  a  still  more  advantageous  article  of  cxjiort 
to  India.  And  taking  the  vast  extent  and  population 
of  the  peninsula  into  account,  and  the  habit,  univers- 
ally prevalent  in  it,  of  hoarding  the  precious  metals, 
it  is  impossilde  to  say,  supposing  the  treasure-current 
to  continue  to  set  in  an  easterly  direction,  how  great  a 
quantity  of  bullion  might  bo  thrown  upon  the  markets 
of  India  and  tlio  adjacent  countries  before  any  very 
sensible  reduction  of  its  value  was  manifested.  It  is 
difficult  satisfactorily  to  account  for  the  extraordinary 
exportation  of  bullion  to  India  in  1850-'o2.  Most 
probably  it  lias  been  owing  partly  to  circumstances 
connected  with  the  demand  for  it  in  India,  and  partly 
to  thoso  peculiar  to  its  supply  in  Knglar.d  and  tlie 
United  Slates.  A  certain  portion  (atwut  $1.%000,000) 
of  the  annual  imports  from  India  and  China  consists 
of  remittances  on  account  of  the  Host  Indio  Company's 
home  charges.  But  independently  of  this  item,  tlic 
imports  of  Indian  and  Chinese  goo(ls  into  England  and 
the  United  .States  have  latterly  been  so  very  great, 
that  they  have  left  a  balance  to  be  den-aye(l  by  the 
export  of  specie.  Most  probably,  also,  the  occupation 
of  the  Punjab  has  occasioned  a  demand  for  additional 
•uppUea  of  currency  for  that  province,  while  consider- 


able (piantitics  would  bo  wanted  for  tho  liurmcse  ex- 
pedition. The  refusal  to  receive  gold  in  payment  of 
revenue,  though  its  influence  has  been  exaggerated, 
has  no  doubt  contributed  to  bring  about  the  same  re- 
sult, or  to  increase  the  demand  for  silver  in  India. 
And  it  further  appears  that  the  balances  of  treasure 
belonging  to  tho  Indian  government  in  its  different 
treasuries  throughout  Intlia  have  lately  increased  to 
an  inconvenient  extent,  or  to  about  16  millions  ster- 
ling, when  from  8  to  10  millions  would  suffice  for  ev- 
ery pur|)oso  of  regularity  and  security.  But  measures 
are  now  (185.1)  in  progress  connected  with  the  liquida- 
tion of  a  portion  of  the  Indian  debt  which  will  set  free 
a  considerable  portion  of  this  surplus  treosure;  and 
will  thus  have  the  double  effect  of  diminishing  or  stop- 
ping tho  demand  for  silver  in  India,  and  of  enabling 
the  coimtry  to  avail  itself  of  the  services  of  the  capital 
which  has  been  abstracted  from  the  great  work  of  pro- 
duction.—^Seo  an  able  article  in  tho  JCcovomist,  3d  De- 
cember, 1853.  It  would  (ilso  seem  that  while  circum- 
stances were  occurring  in  India  which  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  drain  for  bullion  to  that  quarter  and  its 
continuance,  there  was  simultaneously  an  excess  of 
silver  in  America  and  Europe,  occasioned  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  gold  for  that  metal  in  tho  currencies  of  tho 
United  .Slates  and  of  France.  And  such  being  the 
case,  the  renewed  ex|)ortation  of  bullion  to  the  East 
appears  to  bo  sufficiently  accounted  for,  and  to  hove 
been  almost  a  matter  of  course. 

In  addition  to  tho  increased  product  in  the  Amer- 
ican mines,  there  has  been  within  the  lust  twenty  years 
an  extraordinary  increase  in  the  produce  of  the  Hus.-o- 
Asiatic  nnnes  and  washings,  or  rather  of  the  latter.  In 
1830,  for  example,  the  pro-' .ice  of  the  Siberian  gold 
washings  was  estimated  at  only  6}  poods ;  whereas  it 
had  increased  in  1810  to  above  210  poods,  and  in  1817 
to  no  fewer  than  13G.'t  poods.  In  addition  to  the  wash- 
ings the  Ural  mines  yield  from  310  to  320  poods  gold. 
The  produce  from  both  sources  amounted  In  1817,  ac- 
cording to  the  official  returns,  to  1741  poods.  But  it 
has  not  been  so  great  since,  being  in 

1S4S ITiO  pooilt 

1849 1B8T      " 

1850 14.85      " 

1S5I 1432      " 

The  official  authorities  ascribe  this  falling  off  to  the 
exhaustion  of  the  deposits,  and  the  unskillfiilness  of 
thoso  engaged  in  the  business.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  falling  olTbe  not  more  apparent  than  real, 
and  whether  it  be  not  occasioned  by  the  enormous  taxes 
which  have  been  imposed  of  late  vears  on  the  gold  ob- 
tained fi'om  tho  washings.  The  principal  tax  varies 
according  to  the  produce,  being  6  per  cent,  on  wash- 
ings that  yield  from  1  to  2  poods  per  annum,  increas- 
ing by  various  steps  till  it  amounts  to  32  per  cent,  on 
thoso  which  yield  50  poods.  And  there  are  other  du- 
ties which,  though  less  in  amount,  are  of  the  same  op- 
pressive character. 

These  exorbitant  duties  have,  no  doubt,  (ended  to 
lessen  the  produce  of  tho  washings.     It  is,  however, 


tion  ( 


PRE 


1677 


PRE 


Amcr- 
|ty  years 
liusso- 
Itlcr.  Ill 
Ittii  gold 
licrcus  it 
in  inn 
lie  wnsh- 
I1I9  goUl. 
1817,  ac- 
But  it 


■is. 


I  to  the 
liiess  of 
loubtful 
Ian  real, 
La  taxes 
|roUl  ob- 

.  varies 

I   Wttpll- 

Increas- 

Icnt.  on 

her  du- 

linic  op- 

Lled  to 
Lwever, 


all  but  certain  that  their  principal  effect  has  been  to  1 
defeat  themselves  by  tempting;  the  parties  concerned  to 
adopt  every  means  by  which  they  might  be  evaded ;  and 
the  notorious  corruption  of  the  Russian  revenue  officers 
renders  this  comparatively  easy.  Perhaps,  under  the 
circumstances,  wo  may  not  be  far  wrong  in  supposing 
that  from  a  third  part  to  a  half  of  tho  produce  of  the 
washings  Is  exempted  from  the  duty.  Hut  talking  it  at 
a  third,  and  supposing  the  taxeil  produce  of  tho  wash- 
ings to  have  amounted  in  1851  to  1117  poods,  the  real 
produce  would  be  1489  poods ;  to  whicli  if  we  add  315 
])ood8  for  the  pro<luce  of  the  mines  of  tlio  Oiiral,  the 
aggregate  total  would  amount  to  1804  poods.  And  this, 
e(|ual  to  72,160  lbs.  Troy,  malies  over  $18,905,000. 

There  has  also  been  of  late  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  yield  of  the  Spanish  mines,  whicli  is  at  present 
supposed  to  amount  to  from  §2,250,000  to  $-.>,.')00,000  a 
year.  Including  the  silver  raised  in  Russia  and  else- 
where, and  that  obtained  from  the  rolining  of  lead, 
the  produce  of  which  in  the  United  Kingdom  exceeds 
$1,000,000  a  year  (see  Lkad),  tlie  totol  annual  produc 
tion  of  thn  precious  metals  in  Europe  may  bo  roughly 
estimated  at  about  $7,500,000.  On  tho  whole,  there- 
fore,  It  would  seem  (excluding  the  produce  of  tlie  Cal- 
iforiiian  and  Australian  gold  lields)  that  the  aggregate 
production  of  the  precious  metals  in  Europe,  Amer- 
icH,  and  Asiatic  Russia,  may  bo  supposed  to  have 
amounted  in  1850-'ol  (and  it  is  proljably  about  the 
same  at  present,  185H)  to  $70,425,000,  being  aliout 
$15,000,000  greoter  than  their  production  in  1810,  when 
the  American  mines  had  attained  their  maximum  de- 
gree of  productiveness.  Notwithstanding  tlie  large  ad- 
dition made  to  the  supply  of  gold  by  the  (Siberian  wash- 
ings, it  appears  to  have  been  nearly  balanced  by  tho 
excess  of  silver  produced  in  America  and  elsewhere. 
And  the  old  proportion  of  about  16  to  1  between  tho 
values  of  gold  and  silver  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
sensibly  affected  previously  to  the  discovery  of  tho  au- 
riferous deposits  in  California  and  Australia. 

Supplies  of  Gold  from  California  and  Australia. — But 
the  discovery  of  these  deposits  threate-^  to  bring  about 
a  most  material  change  in  the  real,  and  perhaps  also 
ill  the  comparative  values  of  the  precious  niet.ils ;  and 
is,  indeed,  among  tho  most  remarkable  events  of  which 
economical  historj-  has  preserved  any  account.  Tlio 
gold  is  found  in  the  debris  of  tho  quartz  rocks  in  which 
it  had  been  imbedded,  sometimes  in  grains  and  f1al<es, 
and  sometimes  in  lumps  (nuggets),  of  varying,  but  oc- 
casionally of  considerable  magnitude.  In  some  locali- 
ties >c  is  comparatively  abundant;  and  tho  yield,  botli 
in  i.;alifornia  and  Australia,  is  quite  unprecedented,  and 
siicli  as  would  not  previously  have  been  conceived  pos- 
sible. Tho  Californian  deposits  were  discovered  late 
in  May  or  early  in  June,  1848 ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  remoteness  of  the  country,  and  the  fact  of  its  being 
almost  destitute  of  inhabitants,  aliove  5000  persons  were 
attracted  to  the  spot  by  the  end  of  the  season,  who  arc 
supposed  to  have  realized  above  £5,000,000.  The  news 
of  the  discovery  and  of  the  unexampled  richness  of  the 
gold  fields  having  spread  on  all  sides  with  electrical 
rapidity,  occasioned  an  extraordinary  influx  of  immi- 
grants from  most  parts  of  the  world  into  California. 
The  supplies  of  gold  attained  to  an  unexampled  mag- 
nitude ;  cities  rose  in  tho  wilderness  as  if  by  enchant- 
iiient;  the  great  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  whicli  had 
hitherto  been  entirely  deserted,  was  crowded  with  ships 
and  steamers  from  the  most  distant  countries;  and 
California  is  now  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  with 
a  population  of  from  250,000  to  300,000,— 6'«e  articles 
Goi,i>,  CALiPoimiA,  and  Pricks,  for  the  production  of 
gold  up  to  the  present  time. 

In  addition  to  tho  regular  shipments,  very  large 
amounts,  of  which  no  account  is  taken,  arc  conveyed 
away  from  California  by  parties  returning  to  Jlexico, 
to  the  Eastern  States,  Europe,  and  Cliina,  Of  these 
various  estimates  have  been  made ;  but  the  prevalent 
opinion  in  tho  best-informed  quarters  seem  to  bo  that, 


when  they  are  included,  and  allowance  la  nhn  nmilfl  tot 
the  quantity  retained  at  homo,  tlie  total  yield  nf  koIiI  In 
California  In  1852  may  be  moderately  recltoneil  «(  from 
ti40,000,000  to  $50,000,000. 

But  vast  as  it  certainly  is,  this  produellon  In  tnemi\- 
ed  by  that  of  Australia.  The  deposits  hi  lliii  Uttitr 
were  not  discovered  till  IHftl.  And  tlmy  are  an  vury 
rich,  and  the  influx  of  immigrants  lias  bnun  suUKlraor- 
dinary,  that  the  gold  flelds  of  Victoria  only  nrii  kkII- 
mated  to  have  produced  in  1852  no  fewer  tliiin  4,217,(tft7 
oz.,  which,  taken  at  the  rate  of  $18  an  oz,,  dlven  nu'riiiill 
amount  of  $7B,457,820-(Statemout  by  Mr,  Kllli|,l,,of 
Melbourne);  to  which,  adding  $15,flfKI,000  f,ir  lliii  tmll. 
mated  produce  of  the  Sydney  or  New  South  Wulen  Kolil 
fields,  the  total  produce  of  tho  continent  will  Aliiuuilt  to 
$91,457,820,  On  the  whole,  therefore,  tho  priment  nil* 
nual  supply  of  gold  and  silver  niav  bo  estimated  H( 
about  £47,000,000  or  $209,905,000 ;  \U., 

Ameiica  (oioept  CallfornliO g^n  ROO  (Kifl 

Kurope  . , , VMii.mt 

Kusso-Anlatic  provinces lH,liiih  ihiii 

California 4-,^i^„\ 

Australia tlh.lKili.ljiK) 

Total l(|-,llHI,Uiif),(Hirt 

Consumption  of  the  Precious  Metnls,--}n  order  In  form 
a  reasonable  conjecture  in  regard  to  tho  probalijn  In. 
flucnco  of  this  vast  supply  of  tlie  precious  liloliiU,  |t  || 
necessary  to  inquire  into  their  uses  and  probable  eon- 
sumption.  And  this  inquiry,  we  regret  to  say,  |a  nijil 
more  diflicult,  and  more  likely  to  bo  liifoelucl  wllli 
errors,  than  the  inquiry  in  regard  to  their  pruducllon, 
The  precious  metals  arc  used  as  coin  or  ciirrnney  to 
facilitate  exchanges;  as  wealth  which  may  bn  eon. 
veniently  kept  or  hoarded  ;  and  they  are  used  In  ||ig 
arts,  as  plate,  in  gilding,  etc,  Tho  quantities  employ, 
ed  in  these  functions  are  very  lorge  Indeed,  Tliiiy 
varv',  however,  in  different  countries  and  perlodit  with 
tho  circumstances  peculiar  to  each ;  such,  for  examplii, 
a.s  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  paper  iiioiioy,  ainl 
tho  degree  in  which  the  use  of  coins  is  lessoned  by  tlia 
variou'  devices  resorted  to  for  ceoiinml/.ing  ciiri'eiii'y  | 
tho  fashion,  as  to  plate  and  furniture;  thn  funllng  of 
security  at  the  time;  and  a  number  of  other  elreuiti. 
stances,  all  liable  to  great  and  soniotlines  luddeii 
changes.  The  gold  and  silver  enipluyci;  in  (Jreat  l(r||. 
nin  as  currency,  and  in  tho  customary  rcsurves  In  tjin 
hands  of  tho  bankers,  is  supposed  to  am  nut  to  at  loiKt 
>!200,000,00!),  In  Franco  the  precious  metals  employ, 
cd  in  the  same  way  probably  amount  to  duiibln  Ijist 
sum,  or  to  8400,000,000,  The  amount  in  thn  UiilKul 
•States  emidoycd  for  the  same  purposes  may  lie  dtittnil 
at  *275,flno,(ioO,  And  we  believe  tliat  wo  may  e«lliimto 
tho  entire  sum  employed  as  currency  In  Europe,  Amer- 
ica (Xorth  and  South),  Australia,  thn  Capn  uf  (load 
Hope,  and  Algeria,  at  about  81,900,000,000,  It  would 
bo  inconsistent  with  tlio  objects  of  this  artielo,  and  wIlli 
the  limits  within  which  it  must  bo  conllnod,  to  oii({a({ii 
In  a  discussion  of  the  numerous,  and  ^en  conlllelln);, 
statements  and  details  on  which  this  ostlinatu  has  beuii 
founded.  Some  information  with  respect  to  It  may  ho 
found  in  Chevalier's  valuable  treatise  JJn  la  AfnnnnU 
(p,  ,126,  etc.),  Paris,  1850;  in  Stirling's  tjold  rUsrimritt, 
p.  182 ;  in  the  learned  and  excellent  tract  of  Tegoburiikl, 
Kssai  Je  la  Divouverte  des  Giles  Aurifeni  en  t'lillforiiln 
et  en  Aiistralie,  etc.,  p,  65;  and  in  a  host  of  other  pull- 
licatlons.  Tlie  precious  metals  in  circulation  in  lUi»«lil 
in  the  early  part  of  1851  were  estimated  In  tho  J'l'tim- 
burg  Gazette  (October  12, 1852)  at  326,000,000  roubles, 
equal,  at  80  cents  per  rouble,  to  $2(!0,000,0(X),  Tim 
greater  part  (190,000,000  roubles)  of  this  currency  con. 
sisted  of  gold.  Now,  supposing  this  sum  to  bo  oni- 
ploycd,  as  above  stated,  as  currency,  wo  liavo  first  to 
Inquire  into  its  probable  wear  and  tear  ond  lods,  uml 
then  into  the  probable  rate  of  its  increase.  And  tak- 
ing into  account  tho  extraordinary  extension  of  imvl- 
gation,  and  the  proportional  risk  of  losslVom  slilpwrocle 
and  other  casualties,  we  are  disposed  to  think  tllttt  th4 


PRE 


1678 


PRE 


annual  wear  and  tear  and  loss  of  coin  may  bo  estimated  i 
at  about  H  per  cant.  o(  the  entire  nmss  of  tlie  cur- 
rency, which,  tal<ing  the  latter  at  $1,900,000,000,  would 
amount  to  $28,500,000  a  year.  It  is  ditticult  to  form 
any  probable  estimate  of  the  rato  at  whicli  tlio  bullion 
used  as  currency  may  bo  likely  to  increase,  supposing 
its  value  not  to  fall  olT,  Ilut  considerinj;  tho  extreme- 
ly rapid  increase  of  refinement  and  population  in  niosit 
parts  of  tho  civilized  world,  and  especially  in  America 
and  Australia,  wo  scarcely  think  that  wo  shall  bo  ex- 
agi;crating  if  wo  estimate  this  increase  at  3  per  cent. ; 
which  on  $1,900,000,000  would  amouiii  to  15167,000,000 
a  year.  It  is  impossible,  however,  supposing  this  esti- 
mate not  to  Ik)  very  wide  of  tho  mark  at  present,  to 
conjecture  how  long  the  currency  will  go  on  increasing 
in  this  ratio.  It  may,  indeed,  be  safely  taken  for 
granted  that  tho  sphere  of  civilization  and  commerce 
is  destined  rapidly  to  expand.  Uut  their  expansion 
will,  no  doubt,  be  accompanied  with  various  contriv- 
ances for  economizing  the  use  of  metallic  money,  so 
that  the  quantity  of  it  in  circulation  can  hardly  be 
supposed  to  increase  for  any  very  lengthened  period 
at  the  rate  stated  above.  If  it  did,  it  would  absorb 
an  immense  supply  of  gold.  In  barbarous  countries, 
and  in  those  entering  on  tho  career  of  civilization, 
the  coins  afloat  may  increase  at  the  rate  of  3  or  5  per 
cent.,  or  more.  But  in  countries  which  iiro  more  ad- 
vanced its  increase  will  be  less,  pcrhajis,  than  even  1 
per  cent. 

It  is  equally  difficult  to  acquire  any  satisfactory  in- 
formation in  regard  to  tho  <iuantity  of  bullion  con- 
sumed in  the  arts.  Jacob  estimated  its  amount  in 
I'^uropo  and  America,  in  1830,  at  about  $'29,,^00,000  a 
year.  This  estimate  was  in  various  respects  wide  of 
the  mark,  and  it  was,  on  the  wliule,  considerably 
under  tho  true  amount.  And  supposing  tho  consump- 
tion of  the  precious  metals  in  the  arts  to  have  amount- 
ed to  32^  or  35  million  dollars  in  1830,  it  must  now  be 
much  greater.  There  has  every  where,  but  more  es- 
pecially in  England,  America,  Uermany,  and  liussia, 
been  an  extraordinary  increase  of  poi)ulation  and 
wealth  during  the  last  twenty-seven  years.  And  the 
taste  for  plate,  splendid  furniture,  and  luxurious  hc- 
commodations  of  all  sorts,  has  certainly  increased  in 
at  least  an  equal  degree.  It  is  well  known  that  specu- 
lators and  those  who  rapidly  attain  to  affluence  arc  the 
principal  buyers  of  plate  and  other  costly  articles.  And 
taking  these  and  other  circumstances  into  account,  we 
arc  disposed  to  conclude  that  the  expenditure  of  bullion 
in  the  arts  in  Kurope,  America,  and  Australia  can  not 
at  present  (1863)  be  under,  if  it  do  not  exceed,  70  mill- 
ion dollars  a  year,  liut  of  this  a  portion,  estimated 
at  alwut  one-tifth  or  20  per  cent.,  is  sujiposed  to  be  ob- 
tained from  tho  fusion  of  old  plate,  the  burning  of  lace, 
picture  frames,  etc.  And  hence,  if  we  deduct  from  tho 
70  million  dollars  used  in  the  arts  20  per  cent,  for  the 
old  bullion,  wc  have  $.'iC,000,000  for  the  total  quantity 
of  the  supplies ftpm  the  mines  annually  disposed  of  in 
this  way ;  a  considerable  portion  of  wliich,  including 
that  used  in  the  gilding  of  rooms,  books,  harness,  but- 
tons, etc.,  can  never  be  again  recovered  or  applied  to 
any  useful  purpose.  This  quantity,  however  great  it 
may  appear  to  be,  will  be  increased  with  tho  increase 
of  population,  and  the  spread  of  rcrmement  and  the 
arts ;  and  it  will  also  be  certoinly  increased  by  any 
tiling  like  a  considerable  fall  in  the  value  of  bullion. 
Ilenco  it  would  appear,  putting  these  items  together, 
that  the  regular  annual  consumption  of  bullion  as  cur- 
rency and  In  tho  arts  amounts  to  about  $141,600,000; 
viz., 

Wear  and  tear,  and  loss  of  coin $'2R,fi00.000 

Increase  of  currency fiT.CKW.OOO 

Used  in  the  arts ISii.onO.OOO 

Total $141,500,000 

It  may  l>e  said,  perhaps,  that  these  estimates  must 
be  exaggerated,  inasmuch  as  the  sum  which,  it  appears 
from  them,  is  annually  coiuumed  exceeds  the  entire 


produce  of  tho  mines  previously  to  tho  suppliei  from 
California  and  Australia.  Uut  while  wc  admit  the 
fact  to  bo  as  stated,  we  deny  the  inference  which  is  at- 
tempted to  bo  drawn  from  it.  The  truth  is,  that  while 
tho  discovery  of  the  Californlan  and  Australian  deposits 
has  added  in  so  great  a  degree  to  the  supply  of  bullion, 
it  has  also  added  very  largely  to  its  consumption.  It 
has  given  an  nnparallchid  stimulus  to  emigrotlon  and 
commerce.  The  rise  of  wages  and  prices  consequent 
on  those  extraordinary  mutations,  and  on  tho  increased 
exports  of  produce  which  they  have  occasioned,  is  mak- 
ing itself  felt  in  tho  United  States  as  well  aa  in  Europe ; 
and  here,  consequently,  as  well  as  there,  a  greater  sup- 
lily  of  bullion  will  bo  rc(|uired  to  serve  as  currency. 
And  while  this  inllucnce  is  operating  on  the  one  hand, 
on  the  other  the  swarms  of /lart-enui  who  are  returning 
from  the  gold  lields,  with  pockets  stuffed  with  the  prod- 
uce of  all  sorts  of  successful  adventures,  are  every 
where  contributing  to  increase  tho  demand  for  all  sorts 
of  things,  but  especially  for  plate,  jewelry,  and  other 
ostentatious  finery. 

JC,Tporlat!on  of  Hold  and  Siher  to  the  Ea$t. — Besides 
the  countries  already  mentioned,  there  is  a  vast  portion 
of  tho  earth's  surface,  including  Turkey  in  Asia,  Persia, 
Ilindostan,  China,  and  other  Eastern  territories,  into 
which  bullion  has  been  largely  imported  from  the  re- 
motest era.  Humboldt  estimated  that,  of  tho  entire 
produce  of  tho  American  mines  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  amounting,  as  already  seen,  to  $43,600,000, 
no  less'  than  $26,500,000  were  sent  to  Asia,  $17,600,000 
by  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  $4,000,000  by  the  Levant, 
and  $4,000,000  through  the  Russian  frontier.  Probably, 
however,  this  estimate  was  a  good  deal  beyond  the 
mark.  "  Humboldt,  cela  n'est  plus  douteux,  cstiniait 
trop  haut  la  valeur  de  I'or  et  do  I'argent,  qui  s'dcoulai- 
ent  nu  connncncement  de  ce  siccle  d'Europe  en  Asie,  et 
jiortaicnt  trop  has  la  depcrdilion  qu'ils  6prouvaient, 
dans  la  memo  tcni|is,  par  le  frottemeiit  et  leur  conver- 
sion en  objets  d'orfevrerio  et  do  byoutcrie." — JJupiii/- 
nodi'  de  la  Afonnaie,  etc.,  i.  p.  35.  There  is  no  longer, 
wo  belio\e,  any  doubt  in  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
latter  part  of  this  statement ;  and  it  is  pretty  generally 
sup)iosed  that  the  llrst  part  is  also  well  founded,  lint 
some  years  ago  this  immense  drain  began  to  diminlKJi, 
and  in  1832  and  1833  it  actually  set  in  an  opposite  di- 
rection. Since  then  it  has  fluctuated,  sometimes  in- 
clining to  tho  one  side,  and  sometin'.Co  to  the  other. 
With  tho  exception,  however,  of  tho  bullion  received 
by  England  in  payment  of  the  $21,000,000  due  by  China, 
under  the  treaty  of  1842,  there  was  not  for  some  years 
ony  very  decided  movement  of  bullion  from  Europe  to 
the  East,  or  from  the  East  to  Europe,  though,  on  tlio 
whole,  the  imports  into  tho  latter  appear  to  have  ex- 
ceeded tho  exports;  at  least,  this  was  certainly  tlio 
case  during  the  five  years  from  ]844-'45  to  ]848-'411, 
both  inclusive.  Uut  very  recently,  or  within  the  last 
four  years  (1850-'63)  the  drain  for  bullion  for  the  East 
has  set  in  with  renewed  force  ;  so  much  so,  that  in  1852 
no  fewer  than  12,1)55,393  oz.  silver  were  shipped  from 
tho  United  Kingdom  for  India  and  Egypt. 

This  continued  process  of  export  of  gold  and  silver  is 
attributed  by  some  writers  to  tho  excessive  use  of  paper 
money,  whereliy  tho  latter  supersedes  in  commercial 
channels  the  use  of  the  former.  "  There  can  be  no 
doulit  that  the  ultimate  eflTcct  of  a  purely  specie  cur- 
rency (or  a  paper  currency  based  entirely  on  specie) 
would  1)0  in  tlic  highest  degree  beneficial  to  all  depart- 
ments of  industry  and  enterprise.  It  is  a  currency  that 
can  not  fluctuate.  It  may  expand  with  the  increased 
quantity  of  the  precious  metals,  but  there  is  hardly  a 
possibility  of  its  contracting ;  and  its  expansion  must 
tako  place  by  the  operation  of  causes  which  operate 
equally  throughout  the  civilized  world." — North  Amer- 
ican Review,  January,  1858. 

Tho  following  table  shows  the  export  of  coin  and 
bullion  from  Great  Britain  to  tho  East  during  each  of 
tho  10  years  ending  with  1862.  .    . 


79<i»  . . 
1T.IIV. 
IT!I2»  .. 
Ii03'.. 
1794' 
ITJ.'.* 
17n«« . . 
Ii9T« 
1798* 
1799»... 
1S0D» . 
WSOf'.. 
I802'.. 
l'il>3' , . . 
IS04» . , 
13ns»  . . . 

isna*.. 

ISllI'.. 

isiit...! 
isist.. 
'■^lot . . . .' 

ISiOf.. 

isaot... 

1S.15}  . .  . 
18361  .... 

isarii . . . 

I33SJ  . 

i''39T. . . ; 

IS-Wl  ... 
1.S41"  . . 
1S42.... 
1**43 ... 
'SMtt...; 
lS46tt  . . 

S4Stt  . . 
IS49H  . 

issott... 

,'%!».. . 

I  js«3tt;:: 

ISSStf 


PRE 


1S79 


PHE 


Am  Aooodki  o»  tbb  QOAMTiti«B  or  Cioi.n  ant>  Sii.tkh,  BiaPKOTivn.T,  ixpoRTin  to  ImirA,  t!||lN«,  anii  I^uvm  ».nu 

GEKAT  llHITAIN,  DUHINO  KAOll  0»  TUK  TF.K  YkaES  KNDINU  WITH  18B.',  I>iniNUUI»llltlU  IIKTWIIIIII  lllliliKII  AKII V.i««ll  « 
^;OIN,  AND  11«TWKKN  fOId   ANH   IlUi.LlON.  •■■..»>i  /i"!!  ruBllUK 


Countries 

Y»ii 

Urilliili 
Hold  Coin. 

KonJiin     , 
OoMColn-l 

Tot«l 
o(  Uolil. 

ilrlmh 
BllvirColn. 

Vomm     1 
JIMvtrrciln,  1 

Ulinrea. 

l22,41iU 

Mlnr 
Hulliuii, 

«fNll*#f, 

4V4,4M 

1843 
1H44 

OnnfM, 

7.S77 
6,1144 

OUUCM. 

Uiineci. 
7,H77 
6,l!44 

UiincM. 
18,180 

llilll,7tU 

ISIh 

lis 

116 

lilt 

III, 

1»)<0 

2  61N 

2,518 

II 1 1 

To  tlio  IlrlttBli  PouesBlona  in  j 

1847 

ii,»U 

2,014 

llftO 

1 1 1 1 

1S43 
18-19 

l.'iliS 

(ini 

... 

1,208 

(jni 

1,287 

12,H,'pO 

,11, 

14,1117 

1880 

9,fl'28 

9,028 

920 

nivM 

1114  o'mi 

fi'ii>i,T4n 

' 

r.,IKS 

I!I7,020 

I^II.Nllll 

2i<<l,liill 

1862 
1S48 

1R44 

KI.UCiO 

• .  I 

l(l,3fi« 

77,000 

nun  hilt 

0(11,2  7 

2011  h2i4 

l)7tl,tuil 

ItOHIi,?'!? 
I'llli'i'r7 

yi);t,>i','it 

1S4« 
184« 
ISfiO 

i,'»'i'7 

*  *  ' 

1,917 

'"(io 

W7,i:u 

20,400 
02,0110 

',',','. 

I«7,III4 
2ll,IIM 
112,01)0 

18f)'2 
'      1S43 

It-. 

... 

84 

'  wio 

lIH.hOO 

N.hlMI 

47,111111 
NOO 

• 

•ifiiio 

2,»00 

.... 

16,1100 

Ul  IMIO 

1814 

41) 

40 

40,01H) 

000 

40,IIIHI 
ll,2(MI 

134S 

2M) 

•  •  1 

26  J 

4,200 

T,1HH( 

18411 

n.isit 

S,lSi) 

1847 

KS48 

I'i.Mll 
2,4'iO 

2lK) 

12,746 
2,420 

2,t)00 

9,000 

,11, 

llihou 

1819 

•.121 

.  • . 

921 

14,000 

40,000 

h4,(HHI 

18.^0 

l.V-M!) 

, , , 

1D,910 

100,280 

141.177 

t4A,4i«'« 

ItVlitllfi 

1861 

7l),4.'i7 

70,437 

;     1211,420 

2,ni9,0SK 

tl.WM.'jNII 

n,2M.III>7 

^      ISfiJ 

02.1141 

if)2 

02,41'!) 

1     140,7s.'! 

S,h6i(,0lll 

',l,fiMI,240 

ll,6?l.llllll 

GOLD,  SILVEK,  AND  IJANK-NOTKS  IN  TIIK  V.  S. 
Statement  of  the  Amount  ok  <;om»  ani»  Pilvkh  buppobkp 

TO  HE  IN   ClRllUI-ATION,  OK  TIIK  AMOUNT  HUn'OMlil)  TO  UK 

IN  THE  Hankh,  ok  the  whole  Amount  bupposko  to  hi  in 

TUB  t.'OCNTRY,  ANP  OF  THE  AMOUNT  OK  HaNK-NOTFB  IN 
ClIlGULATION  IN  lUPFERENT  YeARH,  AC<]0BI>INU  TU  THK 
AUTIIOUITIEH  (QUOTED  IN  THK  FoOT-NOTKB. 




Rpacifl  la 
Circulation. 

Sped. 

Tol.l  of 

Bnnk-nolM 

Yean. 

In  Old 
B.nki. 

S[>«cieintlie 
Country. 

In 
Clrculntifln. 

MUlioiM. 

HIUIou. 

MUliona. 

Mlllloni.      1 

179()' 

9 

n 

17.ll» 

10 

9        1 

17M* 

.... 

18 

lU     1 

Ii93'' 

• .  <  > 

20 

^' 

1794* 

•  •  •  ■ 

2U 

no 

UJ.')" 

.  •  >  • 

19 

11 

17(16' 

• .  •  • 

101 

101 

1797'  

•  ••• 

16 

10 

U9S' 

<•  >• 

14 

9 

1799' 

•  •  >• 

17 

10 

ISOO' 

.... 

17f 

101 

WOl" 

17 

11 

1S02»  

. .  •> 

101 

10 

1S03' 

• . .  • 

16 

u 

1S04'  

• . . . 

171 

14 

131)5' 

*. .  ■ 

18 

15 

1800' 

18t 

17 

181)7" 

20 

IS 

ISllt 

154 

2S  to  30 

ISlSt 

17 

45  to  47 

ISlOt 

^^ 

19   ■ 

261 

03  Io  70 

ISSOt 

19  8 

44-8 

lS30t 

io 

22  1 

32-1 

01 

lS34t  

•  •  •  . 

94 

1836! 

103 

18361  

2r> 

4) 

on 

140 

1S3TI  

36 

.38 

73 

149 

W3SI 

m 

35 

871 

116 

lS391t 

43 

45 

S7 

135 

18401  

60 

S3 

83 

107 

1841"  .... 

85  to  45 

35 

70  to  80 

107 

1843 

2S-4 

83-7 

1843 

33  J 

685 

lS44tt.... 

60 

60 

100 

75 

1.846tt  .... 

62 

44 

90 

90        ! 

lS40tt  .... 

55 

42 

97 

105t       I 

1847«.... 

85 

35 

120 

lor.i- 

lS4Stt  .... 

00 

40 

112 

12S1 

lS49tt  .... 

77 

43 

120 

114-7 

ISRDtt  .... 

109 

45 

154 

131 

I85ltt  .... 

138 

43 

l!iO 

155 

18.V2tt  .... 

204 

.  .  >  . 

lS!53tt  .... 

.  •  t  • 

230 

.  .'• 

ISHtt  .... 

191 

59 

2M 

204  0 

IS-Wtt  .... 

M 

1>T 

of  coin  and 
Lring  each  of 


AuTitoRiTiKB.— •  Dlopoet.  t  GALLATIN,  t  ConqrcMion- 
at  llfjxirls.  i  TVeasury  lieiHirt.  I  WooDuusr.  H  IIazakk, 
Comnifreial  Registfr.  "  fiomiB,  Jouriuil  of  hankiiiiJ. 
ft  llVNT,  Merehanta'  Magazine.    U  F.stimatvs. 

Tho  amounts  of  specie  in  tlie  banks  and  of  bank- 
notes in  circulation  from  1835  to  1853,  inclusive,  have 


liccn  tnlvcn  from  tlio  annual  truamiry  l'ii|iiit'|ii  ull  llio 
condition  of  thu  bunks.  Tlio  uinuuiit  of  himm'Ih  itti|i- 
posed  to  1)0  ill  circulutlon  in  (llft'urout  yniirn  I*  llci'ofil. 
ing  to  tho  authorities  <iiioteil.  'i'llu  o^tlliiHli'it  (Ifii  from 
Doc.  it-1  (p.  281)),  appeudod  to  tlio  llifpoft  im  (''liiniii'i'ii 
of  December  4,  1851,  except  that  fur  iHiVi,  Hhlnji  liwi 
been  completed  from  dutu  muru  litluly  rio'idviul, 

A.MOLNT  OF  t'oiSAUK  OK  (ioi.ll  AND  HlliV)-;!*  Iiy  'IIIH  iNlfHIl 

Ktatbs  Mix'T, 
I'rom  iliiniiary  1, 1704  Aiinnml, 

to  Ducemlcr  31,  IhOO l(ill7,O90, 1 1'J  IH) 

18III ll.oxlliilTO  110 

18.32 il,ll17,4lihO) 

1833 11,71(7,551 

1834 T.ltOO.it'J  III) 

1836 5,0*1711111 

1836 7. 741, wm  00 

1837 11,214,111500 

1888 4,l;ll,slhl)i| 

1839 11,47  (,!l!lrtlH) 

1840 jl,401l,|INIMIO 

1841 ,        V,'^i;,|i7'i50 

1842 4i  1 1 11,9^0  50 

To  June  80,  1843 1!(,0?5,»ii7  Wl 

1814 7iitilil,7io  mi 

1645 MilMt47hil 

1.S40 »,WI2.7fi7hO 

1817 (W,MI5, 1115  0(1 

1848 5,»l5,hltil(KI 

,1849 1l,l2',t,7ll50 

1850. ilil.i47iiilH  M 

1S51 Oll.lisi.'ill)  M 

1852 h7,1)fiiMI7M 

1H53 «4,WI|, 47794 

1854 ()U,7l3.>tflft47 

18f)5 41,000,110^11)1 

1856 ,,,      52,479,110  40 

Total pViTSiirfBlinU 

We  give  annexed  a  statement  showing  tho  liiovt)" 
ment  of  specie  from  tho  United  Stotoa  bllira  tlio  ycitf 
1820;  also  the  amount  that  goes  to  Kiiiflandi  It  filinilld 
bo  noticed  that  wo  do  not  send  our  specla  (o  Kiijjluiiil  (e 
pay  debts  to  that  country,  for  tho  bttlaucfl  of  trftilo  Iw- 
tween  the  two  countries  from  1820  to  l«5fl  wan  #ft,(MHI,0(jr) 
in  favor  of  tho  United  Stales.  Wo  send  tliroiigli  Ki). 
gland  specie  to  pay  our  excessive  Imporlatioiii  of  for- 
eign inannfacturcd  goods  from  tho  Continent,  HMil  lo 
pay  for  teas  and  other  foreign  produetloiit,  'I'lii)  agKte- 
gate  loss  of  specie  to  this  country  in  tha  dstiAdni  nines 
1820  has  been  as  follows : 

Oalii. 

From  the  year  1820  to  1830 

"     •>      "     1830  "  1840 $60,620,403 

"     "      "     1840  "  1S50 

"     "      "     1850  "  1856 


Deduct  gain  from  1830  to  1840. 
Aggregate  loss 


fiflM. 

I|i'i,l»)t,l«4t 

SliWn.iitfi 
9IH,l8jJ)4f) 

piffCi* 

tlO,tHW.4«B 


PRE 


15R0 


rnt! 


BTATEMINT  miOWINO  TUr  KxIHIBTK  rKOM  AND  iMPnilTa  INTO 

or  HrcdiR  rniiM   tii«  I  nitkd  .■'Tatku  iiiinTiNiaiinliiNii 

TIIK  Dxl'DKTt  TO  ANU  lurnUTH  FIMt.M    I'iNtll.AMtl    KKtlM  (   1- 

TOUKa  1,  l»iOT<i.lui.v  1,  K'l;. 


.. 

TulKl  Kt 

Tnlll    (III      , 

Y««r  ffnding 

Itorli  friiiii 
Ihl  U.  8. 

tii.ria  liilo    , 
Iha  (1  H. 

Sept.  80,  1S21.. 

i,i)M,niHi 

04.^^•2!l 

10,478,053 

8,004.890 

1S«.. 

IM.'.'IS 

iiii,n.'o 

10,810.180 

3,009.810 

ISI'3.. 

»i'ir>.)iii'i 

•i8>,S'2-.' 

0,87'2,»87 

5,0(17,800' 

1S.'4. . 

ai.'.ii.' 

141I,IM 

7,OI4,fift2 

8  379,H35| 

ISiB.. 

,w:i,'jii(i 

8J,S>(H 

8,1I,V2.034 

0.15'l,7(i5' 

I8in.. 

09S.OT7 

l'2'.-,^21ll 

4,704  511:1 

0,880,9(10 

IS.'T.. 

■.tOll.KIl 

II4.III 

8,014,880 

8,151, 130l 

1S2S. . 

2,8M,'iiil) 

'20,li7ii 

8,^248,47(1 

7.48.1,7411 

IHiO.. 

flT3,83:) 

3'.l,s^J0 

4,«24.4'20 

7,403.UP2 

1S30.. 
ToUl ' 

Wi.'iW 

1 44,^231 

•2,178,773 
71,0fa",4'J4 

8,Ki5,|i04 
0.1,114,045 

S,'J47,34'2 

1,041,0711 

Sept.  30,  1S31.. 

l,(ll.'.,«43 

ino,s:)o 

l).014,031 

7,306.1145 

l,ll'.i,iWI 

83,i;s;i 

ft,(l.'Kl.Wl) 

5,9o7,ri04i 

isaa. . 

•241 

3i,ii((:i 

'2.011,701 

7,(17O,.'l08i 

1^114. . 

•270 

R.Aiin,ni3 

•2,07«,7r>s 

17,91 1,03J| 

l>3!>.. 

SVM 

1,30.1,438 

0  477,775 

13,131,447 

l.s;i8. . 

■i.MM 

S,«'2'2,!r2ll|  4,324,«ail| 

13,400.881 

is:)7.. 

l,S!l:l,(l70 

I10,'29,l 

5  ll70,'24.i 

1(1.510,414 

ISSN.. 

10,18:. 

!),(IO'.l,:i4C 

3.5(18,440 

17,747,11(1 

IS  I'.l. . 

n.iiia.4!io 

l,4iO,(W.' 

8,770,743 

5  5'.i5.17fl 

ivin.. 

Total 

4,.'.k;i.7Si) 
r.M(io,r.'27 

8(13,3(10 

8,417,014 

S,8a^2,8l3, 

•21,Oil7,»S0 

t>0,8'Jt),8ua 

107,4«9,^2'.o' 

1 

S«pt  8),  1841.. 

3.018,137 

B30,B30 

10.034.332 

4  08S.(;33 

lS.f.'.. 

l,7o'2,74< 

•20,%  m'.l 

4,813,.'i3ll 

4  (187.(110 

9mo.i..    isi:i». 

400 

14,30.'..714 

l,5iO,7l>l 

"22.390.fif.ll 

.luiiu^,  1H4I.. 

s.'>,;(it) 

1,131,»K 

ri,4.'>4.^214 

5  8:i0.4'29 

1S4.'>.. 

,1,07.1,137 

|S(),S28 

S,UiH),4ll5 

4,07(l.'.'4i 

184'!.. 

073.110 

482.711 

3,'.i05.^20s 

3,771,732 

.  1S47.. 

ROfv, 

1»,31'>,II3( 

1,(i07.0-24 

24.P2I.':81I 

IK4S.. 

D.nisflaa 

l,UI0,<.i(>'2 

15.841.010 

«.30(l,2-24 

lsl».. 

7(H,"'7 

•2.071,7112    r..4(i4,(«H 

(l,(i51,'-'40 

l.S.')(). . 
Total 

•>,!.3t,lS.'i 

B27,^2i:fl    7..'1."2,1.04 
41,;il0,fi0f  (i5,010,!V2f 

4,0-28,7'..2 

■J'.',o;8,-J08 

8«,'.iU0,lfi.i' 

j 

liinoBO,  l.'Wl.. 

17,0!l;P.081 

1,01)S,nfl7  •20,472.7.5.' 

B.4.53,5'.W 

1H.V.'. . 

;i4,30'i,^2S4 

1,487,484  42,C.7.l,l;i.'. 

5,BOf>,(U4, 

lS.')il.. 

i8,fl:ii,ao( 

'2>4,7!Pll  •27.480,875 

4,^2»1,38.', 

1854.. 

•27,ic.'«,'21i;' 

85,150  41, •281,504 

fl,75S,5S7: 

18.W. . 

47.nr>8  (115 

107,404  B0,'247,343 

3,059,81'.' 

ISWI.. 

it4.iin,oo'2 

421,1171  4,\74r>,J.SB 

4,^2O7,03.' 

]8f)7.. 

.'>(I,.S'.I0,2«5 

4,(l0n,fl.M(l».13(l,il'2'J 

^2,401,799 

*  Nina  moTitlm  tu  Jdiio  30,  and  tlio  H^^chI  yejir  fntni  tliia 
tUio  boglns  July  1. 

Ilurijing  of  Cold  and  Silver. — It  is  singular  timt,  in 
estimating  tlio  consumption  of  gold  and  silver,  .laiol. 
ilid  not  make  any  allusion  to  t'lo  praclioo  wliicli  iiii.s 
uniformly  prevailed  in  all  ooimtries  liarassrd  I.;'  intcs. 
tino  commotions,  or  exposed  to  foreign  invasion,  of 
burying  treasure  iii  tlio  earth.  Of  tlie  hoards  so  di> 
posited,  a  very  consideral.le  portion  has  heen  altogeth- 
er lost;  and  there  can  he  no  doulit  th.it  this  hus  liicii 
oue  of  the  principal  means  hy  which  the  stocic  of  the 
precious  metals  lias  been  kept  down  to  its  present  level. 
Kvery  one  is  aware  that  during  tho  Middle  Ages  tiviiH- 
«re-lroee,  or  money  dug  from  tho  ground  hy  chance 
tinders,  belonged  to  tho  f'rown,  anil  formed  no  incou- 
sidcralde  part  of  the  royal  revenue  of  Kngland  and  nlh- 
er  countries.  Tho  practice  has  always  jjrevalled  ill 
Turkey,  Persia,  India,  China,  and  generally  in  all  jiarts 
of  the  Kast.  The  extortion  practiced  on  tho  inliahlt- 
ants,  and  the  want  of  all  security,  make  tlieni  look 
upon  the  money  they  have  hidden  as  their  only  wealth, 
the  only  thing  wliirh  they  can  really  call  their  own. 
"In  India,"  says  Mr.  Luke  Scrafton,  "the  Hindoos 
bury  their  money  under  ground,  often  with  such  se- 
crecy  as  not  to  trust  their  own  children  with  tho  kiiowl. 
edge  of  it ;  and  it  is  amazing  what  they  will  suffer 
rather  than  betray  it.  When  their  tyrants  have  tried 
all  manner  of  corporal  punishments  on  them,  they 
threaten  to  defdc  them ;  but  even  that  often  fails;  for, 
resentment  [.revailing  over  tho  love  of  life,  they  f.j- 
ipiently  rip  up  their  bowels,  or  poison  themselves,  and 
carry  tho  secret  to  their  graves.  And  tho  sums  lost  in 
this  manner  in  some  measure  account  why  the  silver 
of  India  does  not  appear  to  increase,  though  there  are 
snch  quantities  continually  coming  into  it,  and  none 
going  out." — y«  Ihe  llocemment  of  JJindoalan,  p.  Irt, 


I'lc.  I  lino  Nlm  iWumnn,  Vnyutl*  df  Afni/ot,  Amsterdam, 
1710,  I,  p,  -m. 

The  iimiimfstlvii  •nciiflly  now  urijnyed  by  the  Iltn- 
dniM  niiiiil  lullurly  Imvn  ItitMinmi  (his  prartlce.     ]lut  a 
habit  wi  pruvulxllt  nimI  mi  dcrply  moled  Is  not  easily 
eriidicalml ;  miil  IhiMluh  ihn  llleKnl  nxaclions  of  their 
rulers  b«  eiirbeil  nr  |iiit  mi  trnd  to,  (hern  Is  In  many 
parts  of  Itiilla  n  arxnl  i\f»\  of  fobbery  and  insecurity. 
At  all  I'vuiils,  llin  iiriti'llcn  (if  btirylnft  treasure  Is  still 
wry  geiiaritl  In  it  |  dihI  ill  this  innment  It  prevails  to 
a  great  extoiit  Ihriiliuhniit  nil  tlin  vast  countries  which 
stretch  from  llin  Ailrlnllc  lo  llio  Chinese  Sea.     Wo 
have  biiun  Mdsurixl  by  |iMr«on«  well  iiunlllled  in  form 
an  npliiiiin  tllill  lllii  Nllnililiis  kI^'<'<i  I"  H")  burying  of 
Ireamira  by  llin  liili'ulliiii  I'liinitMillnns  now  prevalent  in 
( 'liliia  iniist  ImvK  nlr><Aily  necnsloiied  Ihe  disappearance 
of  full  '20  or  '2f»  iiilllliiiis  sli'tlliigl     And  tho  previous 
staleinonls  iniillnii  In  sntnc  liiensiitn  this  estimate.    Hut 
wn  iiiii«t  nut  iiiiiiuliiii  that  Ihe  burying  of  treasure  is 
conllneil  lo  lliM  Kiist,     Wlifrever  property  is  insecure, 
it  Is  Inviiriitlily  ri'oirl^'d  In.     Wnkcllcld'iclls  us  that 
It  used  to  liM  I'liiimi'iii  III  Iri'lnnd  (Anmiiil  of  Irilaiid, 
I,  riliil);  Hiid  Hi<  iirii  InCiirtoed  thai  It  ('(.nllnucs  to  this 
day  III  be  |irttlly  (irovnli'iit  In  that  country.    It  has  al- 
ways bi'ifit  Hi'led  iitl  III  II  iKilislderable  extent  In  Itossia, 
(iurniaiiy,  lliily,  hiiiI  {''rnnci'i  nnd  In  Iho  latter,  during 
Ihe  revdliilloMiiry  itliMri'liy,  lintncnse  sums  were  buried, 
of  which  It  U  abiiiirtdiilty  cer lain  n  large  proportion  will 
never  be  r«»ii»i'lliiH'il,     Tim  wars  nnd  convulsions  by 
whicli  F.lirnpfl  HNK  i1(>«iitali<il  fur  mure  Ihon  '20  years 
nmdu  Ihfl  |ir«i'llt'i<  bn  cnrrlril  lo  n  great  height  in  all 
parts  of  lliu  Ciiiilltiniit,  HNd  wllhdr«w  in  Oils  way  from 
cii'i'iilallon  A  very  I'lUlsldernbln  part  of  the  Increased 
prnduci)  of  ihn  imIhcs,    (inmi  ii,  Kfunimie  I'uUliqut,  i. 
'.''21,  I'ltrls,  Wt'X     And  ht^n  sums  are  still,  no  doubt, 
dInpoMid  of  III  iliH  mttiin  mny, 

thntml  Uimnrht,'  Tlienn  slatements,  how  imperfect 
soever,  are  iiH()li'l(i|il  (II  bImiw  that  tlio  Held  over  which 
lliu  pri'cliMis  iih'IuIn  MfK  spread  Is  so  immense,  and  tho 
demand  fur  lli«lM  *oi  (jri'ttt  and  various,  nnd  fo  likely  to 
Incroabo,  that  it  U  nut  cil^y  lo  Imnglno  that  (heir  vnluo 
can  bn  spimlily  rodlH'i'il,  nl  least  In  any  sensible  degree. 
Nuverlliebi«»,|f  wu  bn  wnrraiiled  In  estimating  as  above 
(be  present  biipply  At  (l'Mi,(iO<l,000  A  year,  ond  their 
ciinsumplioii  (llii'ltidlliw  nil  nllowanco  for  the  increas- 
ing Block  of  colli)  Ml  i|(MI,MIO,(i(iO  a  yenr.  It  woidd  be 
iillii  to  biipposK  Itmt  (his  fjicess  of  I^VAfiWfiW  beyond 
tho  eKistiiig  ilHniniid  ulioiild  bn  speedily  balanced,  or 
that  It  bhoiild  nut  111  llin  end  nccnslon  a  serious  decline 
in  their  viiliie,  Jtiil  iniich,  or  rather  every  thing,  will 
depend  on  llin  ('(ilillliliniirn  of  the  supply  ;  nnd  here  we 
havo  iiolliiiig  III  HI)  iipiiti  but  Ihn  merest  conjccluiv. 
Tho  piiibablilty,  liiil't'il,  winild  seem  to  bo  that  tljo 
supply  biilli  friitli  Cnllfol'tllN  nnd  Australia  will  incrcasu 
for  sonin  iiiiiBldnriibln  I  hue  lo  cmne.  Vast,  however,  as 
Is  tho  amn  n\uv  wlilill  llin  gold  deposits  are  .scattered 
in  Ihesii  I'liuiiliinb,  ulljl  llinrif  can  be  lllllo  or  no  doubt 
that  they  will  (fmdiiiilly  bn  nxlintisted.  The  iiopula- 
tioii  Altiai'ti'd  III  dm  "dlK({lligB"  is  already  so  great, 
whiift  (ill  AualrNlIn,  nl  nil  events)  it  is  increasing  su 
inpblly,  nnd  ii«  S'l  lllnriiii((hly  imbued  wilh  the  ii»i'i 
inrrii  fiiiiiit,  Itinl  il  bids  fnlf  III  no  very  long  time  to 
rillo  all  tliii  rli'linst  bmls,  And  su)iposing  that  they 
am  Bllliur  wholly,  ur  In  n  considerable  degree,  exliaust- 
ed,  it  nmy  ho  duiililfiil  whellirr  tho  gold  obtained  by  a 
morn  labiirloiin  HBAfi'li,  tie  by  crushing <iuart2  rocks,  will 
yield  niuru  tlinii  A  rnnsminble  prolit  on  llie  capital  ciii- 
ployitd,  If  so  iiiHi'h, 

In  all  sp^i'lllAlImm  In  tegnrd  In  Iho  probable  futuro 
supply  of  gold  It  liliiiiild  Im  cnrcfully  borne  in  mind 
that  any  cuiisiilnrAbIn  fnll  In  lis  -/nluo  would  unavoid- 
ably cliBi'k  lis  imidiinlloii,  nnd,  consequently,  tend  to 
lessen  or  pri'vxill  IIn  flirtlier  fnll,  It  is  plain,  for  ex- 
ample, llmt  A  ilnvliiitt  ut  10  per  cent.  In  the  value  of 
gold  would,  mit-rit  mi'ihuii,  occasion  the  abandonment 
of  all  llioiiH  niiiins,  nlf(Kltigs,  wnahiiigs,  etc.,  which  only 
ylnld  A  not  priiitt  of  tliftt  nniitunt.    W«  are  awaro  that, 


PRE 


1681 


PBE 


irdam, 

0  lUn- 
llut  a 
easily 

)f  Uitlr 

1  many 
pcurlly. 

Is  still 

!VOll»  to 
;»  wllllh 

a.     Wo 

(0  furin 
rylnt;  of 
vnli'nt  In 
pcaranco 

previous 
lalc.  Uiit 
reaKiifo  Is 

Insciurc, 
\s  w  that 
i/'/i'c/aii'l, 
,',cs  to  ll>i« 

It,  lias  nl- 

in  Uiissiii 
tcr,  tlurlni? 
■ere  lurled, 
Hortloiiwlll 
mlslnns  by 
HI  '10  years 
iilnht  in  all 
Is  way  from 
ic  Incrcaseil 

Puliliq«'>  '• 
11,  no  doubt, 


tollable  futuro 
lorne  in  mn\i 
loubl  unavoitl- 
icntly,  tend  to 
Iplain,  for  cx- 
1  tlio  value  of 
Inbnndonment 
]c,,  which  only 
Iro  awaru  that, 


owing  to  lh«  pro<luctian  of  gold,  as  at  present  carrleil 
on,  liaving  mora  of  a  gambling  character  than  purtuiiis 
to  most  braDchoR  of  industry,  the  principle  now  stated 
would  not  operate  so  s|>oedily  as  might  perhaps  be  an- 
ticipated.    Uut  of  its  ultimate  operation  tliero  can  be 
no  question.     And  It  may,  therefore,  be  luiil  down  that 
any  reduction  in  thii  value  of  gobi  which  h  not  accofii- 
panicd  by  a  corresponding  iniprovenient  In  the  methods 
of  its  production  inevitably  tends  to  correct  Itself,  or  to 
cheek  or  hinder  its  further  reduction.     It  U  idle,  there- 
fore, where  so  much  is  uncertain,  and  indeeil  altogether 
unknown,  to  attempt  to  draw  any  concluaioim  entitled 
to  much  attention  with  respect  to  the  probable  future 
supply  of  the  precious  mctaLs.     But  supposing  it  to  ^o 
on  for  a  few  years  as  at  present,  or  not  materially  to  de- 
cline, and  that  their  value  is  in  consc(|uencu  gradually 
reduced,  there  is  no  good  ground  for  uppreheiiding  that 
this  reduction  will  have  any  injurious  results.     If  it 
take  place,  it  will1>o  slow,  and  will  not  suiKlenly  ulVect 
the  incomes  or  the  position  of  individuals.     And  we 
have  elsewhere  endeavored  to  show  that  the  changes 
whicli,  under  tliese  conditions,  may  bo  ultimately  ef- 
fected by  a  dcclino  in  the  value  of  bvilliou,  will,  in  a 
national  point  of  view,  bo  eminently  desirable  and  ben- 
eficial.— Treatise  on  'JWiUion,  2d  cd.,  p.  ilT5-:t87;  sec 
also  an  able  article  in  the  American  Jtcriew  for  Octo- 
ber, IHO^.      We  have  seen  nothing  to  induce  us  to 
change  or  modify  in  any  degree  this  opinion.     >Somc 
stress  has  been  laid  on  the  circumstance  of  the  sums 
payaldo  under  life  insurances  falling  in  value  witli  a 
decrease  in  the  value  of  money.     Uut  the  great  major- 
ity of  people  are,  and  all  may  be,  insured  in  mutual 
insurance  offices,  and  moy  provide  l)y  proper  invest- 
ments against  loss.     No  full  within  the  compass  of 
probability  is  likely  seriously  to  aifcct  the  existing 
race  of  annuitants.     And  those  who  arc  now  buying 
annuities  know  what  thoy  may  expect,  and  their  heirs 
will  have  them  only  to  blame  if  they  do  not  guard 
against  probable  contingencies. 

Substitution  of  Hold  for  SUver. — ^Tho  production  of 
gold  has  very  largely  increased  sftice  1848,  as  com- 
pared witli  that  of  silver ;  and  if  tills  state  of  things  go 
on,  the  value  of  silver,  measured  in  gold,  can  hardly 
fail  gradually  to  rise.  Ilut  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that 
it  will  go  on.  Tho  supplies  of  silver  arc  increasing  in 
most  parts  of  the  world,  p.irticularly  in  Mexico  and 
Europe.  And  the  Increased  supplies  of  quicksilver  ob- 
tained from  California  and  other  jiluccs  will  powerfully 
contribute  still  further  to  augment  the  supplies  of  silver. 
It  is  also  to  bo  observed  tliat  a  comparatively  incon- 
siderable rise  In  the  value  of  sliver  as  cc.iipnred  with 
gold  is  sufficient,  unless  prevented  by  legislative  cu- 
actuients,  to  make  tho  latter  bo  used  in  preference  to 
the  former  in  the  currency  of  those  countries  in  whicli 
both  metals  are  legal  tender.  Hitherto  both  gold  and 
silver  coins  have  been  legal  tender  in  tlie  United 
States,  Franco,  and  some  otlier  countries.  Hut  when 
such  is  tho  case  the  value  of  the  coins  in  respect  to  each 
other  hos  to  be  fixed  by  authority,  that  is,  it  has  to  be 
enacted  that  debts  nmy  be  discharged  by  payuients 
cither  of  gold  or  silver  money  ot  the  rate  of  so  many 
dollr.Ts  to  the  caglo,  francs  to  the  Napoleon  d'or,  shil- 
ling.: to  the  sovereign,  and  so  on,  as  laid  down  in  the 
Mint  valuations  of  the  dilt'ercnt  countries.  And  wc 
have  already  explained  (art.  Coins)  that,  however  cor- 
rect at  the  periods  when  they  are  made,  these  valua- 
tions speedily  become  incorrect;  and  that  whenever 
such  is  the  case,  it  is  for  every  body's  advantage  to 
make  all  payments  in  tho  metal  which  happens  to  be 
overvalued  as  compared  with  the  otlicr.  And  licnce 
(as  seen  in  the  article  referred  to)  the  use  of  gold  as 
money  in  preference  to  silver  in  England,  and  of  silver 
in  preference  to  gold  in  France  and  the  United  States. 
In  accordance  with  these  statements,  it  would  seem 
that  tho  change  which  has  taken  place  in  the  relative 
Taluet  of  gold  an*«ilver,  though  not  very  appreciable, 
is  quite  enough  to  make  the  former  bo  employed  in- 


stead of  the  latter  in  all  countries  where  they  ar« 
equally  legal  tender.     In  18 111,  for  example,  the'  gold 
cuined  in  France  amounted  to  only  Ii7,l(l!l,5(i0  francs, 
wliereas  In  IH.M  it  amounted  to  285,'ia7,a»0  francs! 
In  the  Tnited  Slates  the  coiuago  of  gold  hasincreascil  in 
a  somewhat  similar  ratio,  liaving  risen  from  f  !t,lM)7,7«l 
in  181!)  to  >(!-2,(il.l,l'.l2  in  1H61,  and  to  |,5i,81(i,187  in 
18.V.>,     There  in,  therefore,  every  probability  that  in 
no  long  time  gold  coin  will  bo  used  in  these  two  coun- 
tries in  all  considerable  payments  which  are  not  ef- 
fected by  means  of  notes  or  chocks.     This  substitution 
of  gold  for  silver,  while  It  materially  enlarges  the  Held 
fur  the  ciiiploymeiit  of  the  former,  proportionally  nar- 
rows that  for  tho  employment  of  tlie  latter.      And 
hence  a  very  eoiisidoralilu  penimuent  increase  may  bo 
made  to  the  comparallvo  supply  of  golil  without  lis 
value,  measured  in  silver,  being  materially  nllecled. 
Ill  the  end,  no  duiibt,  the  values  of  both  metals  will  bo 
proportioned,  independently  of  variations  of  demand, 
to  the  respective  costs  of  their  production.     Ilut  licforo 
tills  e(|ualization  can  take  place,  ihey  must  lie  dis- 
trllmtcd  among  tho  various  countries  of  the  world  ae- 
cording  to  the  circumstances  peculiar  to  each,  includ- 
ing therein  the  novel  conditions  of  their  supply. 

In  Holland  and  India  that  substitution  of  gold  for 
silver  coin,  which  is  taking  place  in  the  United  States 
and  France,  has  been  hindered  Ijy  the  intervention  of 
government,  which  has  declared  that  silver  only  shall 
bo  legal  tender.  In  Holland  this  was  cll'ected  by  laws 
passed  ill  1847  and  18I'J,  and  in  India  by  enactments 
in  18;)5  and  1852.  Tho  value  of  tho  gold  coin  that  was 
coiisci|uently  liberated  in  Holland  has  been  estimated 
at  about  172,00U,()00  tlorlns,  a  considerable  portion  of 
which  has  been  absorbed  in  the  new  gold  currency  of 
France.  Wc  may  add  that  the  additional  quantity  of 
silver  required  through  the  cessation  of  gold  as  cur- 
rency for  the  supply  of  tho  Dutch  mints,  slightly  af- 
fected tho  jirice  of  the  former,  whidi  afterward  fell  to 
nearly  its  old  level. 

In  India,  where  wages  have  always  been  very  low, 
the  great  bulk  of  the  coin  in  circulation  has  consisted 
of  silver;  and  in  1835  it  was  made  the  only  legal  ten- 
der. Ilut  though  not  legal  tender,  gold  coins  con- 
tinued to  circulate  in  India;  and  a  pmclaniatlon  issued 
in  1841  directed  them  to  bo  received  at  the  public  treas- 
ui'los.  I.itllu  attention  was  paid  to  this  measure  at  the 
lliiie ;  but  after  the  discovery  of  the  gold  deposits  in 
Australia,  it  became  obvious,  if  gold  coins  continued 
to  lie  received  by  the  public  departments,  that  eveiit- 
unlly  none  else  would  be  paid  into  them ;  and  that  sil- 
ver would  cease  to  bo  employed  except  in  petty  p-iv- 
iiieiits.  This  contingency  a|ipears  to  have  alarmed  the 
government;  and  notice  was  accordingly  given  on  the 
22d  of  December,  1852,  that  from  and  after  tho  1st  of 
ilanimry  next  (18511)  gold  coins  would  not  be  received 
on  account  of  taxes  or  other  payments  due  to  the  puli- 
lic.  Silver  has,  conse(|uently,  again  become  in  fact,  la 
well  as  in  law,  the  sole  legal  tender  of  India.  A  good 
deal  of  controversy  lias  taken  place  in  regard  to  this 
measure.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  by  continuing  to 
net  on  tho  proclamation  of  1841,  government  would 
have  iiracllcttlly  set  aside  the  law  of  18l!5,  wiiich  made 
silver  the  only  legal  tender;  and  would  thus  liavo 
made  itself  responsible  for  all  the  losses  that  might 
in  consequence  have  resulted  to  individuals,  while  it 
would  also  have  become  liable  to  the  risk  of  having 
its  own  revenues  reduced  by  tho  anticipated  fall  in  the 
value  of  gold.  No  doubt,  therefore,  the  repeal  of  the 
proclainatlo'i  referred  to  was  consistent  with  good  faith, 
and  in  some  degree  a'so  with  sound  policy.  At  the 
same  time,  wo  regret  thot  the  situation  of  affairs  in  In- 
dia should  have  been  such  as  to  require  that  an  at- 
tempt should  be  made  to  exclude  gold  from  tho  circu- 
lation. Most  likely  it  would  otherwise  have  absorbed 
considerable  supplies  of  that  metal ;  and  we  inclini!  to 
think,  for  tho  reasons  previously  stated,  that  it  will  do 
so,  notwithstanding  its  exclusion  from  the  public  treas- 


JIj 


PRE 


1S82 


PRI 


iiry.  In  othrr  rctpccU  tlio  cliiiigo  wouM  hnvo  hron  of 
Itlllo  practical  iniportaiico.  'Micro  arv  cxtrpincly  fuw 
pcriona  in  India,  m  romparcil  witli  llidfiii  In  Kn^lnnd 
omi  most  Kiiriipcan  coiiiitrica,  wliu  would  Imvu  mif- 
fcrrd  liy  a  fall  in  lliu  value  of  money ;  and  ({ovcriinicnt 
coulil  liavo  rcaillly  iiidcmiiillcd  liKolf  for  any  lomi  It 
nilKlitthcrcliy  liavc  incurred.  Afiirllicriiul>tlitutlonof 
Rold  fur  allvcr  will  also  ho  prolialdy  brouRlit  aljuut  by 
uaiuK  gold  coina  ofleiia  value  than  forinorly.  In  niunt 
countrica,  for  example,  koIiI  nilKlit  iio  advantagcoiialy 
coined  into  ono-'.ollor  piecca.  It  wonld  bo  inconven- 
ient, perhapa,  to  have  gold  coins  worth  loan  lluin  thia; 
but  of  this  value  their  cmplnyincnt  wouM  Im  bunelUliil 
as  well  by  cconomizini;  llio  use  of  silver  aa  by  their 
bcin^  mora  convenient  aiul  eaaily  carried  about. 

The  Icsgenod  demand  for  silver  in  Kuropc  and  the 
Vnilod  .States,  and  tlio  greater  demand  for  it  in  India, 
arising  out  of  the  circumstances  now  nnd  previously 
adverted  to,  hava  contributed  to  that  immcnso  cxpi.  '- 
tation  of  silver  to  th .  Kast  to  which  wu  linve  idrendy 
called  the  reo<lcr'a  attention.  Hut  there  are  no  aa  li 
factory  reasons  for  thinlting,  unlcas  aomo  fresh  chanjies 
t.iko  place  in  llio  circumstances  under  which  gold  .".ini 
silver  are  produced,  that  tids  cxpnrtationof  silver  will 
be  of  long  continuance.  It  is  dilllcult,  indeed,  to  F  ly 
liow  great  a  (|nantily  of  silver  might  bo  imported  intc 
India  without  sensibly  aflccling  its  value  thero ;  l)ut 
the  increase  of  its  vnluo  in  Kurope,  arising  from  the 
diminution  of  its  supply,  will  eventually  hinder  its 
being  sent  elsewhere. 

The  apprehensions  that  were  formerly  so  very  preva- 
lent, even  among  tho^c  who  sboidd  have  known  liel- 
tcr,  in  regard  to  un  immediate  and  lienvy  fall  In  thi; 
value  of  gold  have  now  in  {n.i.t  measiiro  subsided. 
It  appears  to  bo  now  pretty  n  icrally  adnutted  that 
if  a  fall  should  take  place,  It  %  ill  ui.h  manifest  ilsell' 
by  slow  degrees;  an<i  this  conclusion  ,vouId  appear  to 
be  pretty  well  founded. 

The  supplies  of  gcdd  from  Australia  have  fallen  oft" 
very  greatly  since  Wy2.  In  proof  of  this  we  subjoin  a 
slalcmciit  liy  Mr.  Khiill,  of  Melbourne,  showing  the 

CoupAEATivK  riionnci!  OF  TUB  floLn  Fields  or  Viotoui* 

I.S  INfiU,  18.')ll,  AMU  IS.-.4. 


1S.V2 
l-M 


:i,i.v.i,a;2 

'.',V!74  I.VJ 
l.'-!ll,4II'( 


Vslat. 
H.I70.7nH 


Kow  supposing  that  the  supplies  from  the  gold  liclds 
of  New  .South  Wnles'and  other  parts  raised  the  total 
produce  of  Australian  gold  in  IH.'Jl  to  jfl."><),(IOO,(HM),  slill 
that  would  l>o  little  more  than  half  the  csliinuted  proil- 
uco  (i?'.)r),00O,0O0)  of  IXM;  n  decline  which  wonld  go 
far  to  check  any  downward  tendency,  if  such  tlicrc  were, 
in  tho  value  of  gubl.  It  is  alTirnied,  indeed,  in  coin- 
niimications  from  Victoria,  that  the  produce  of  (be  gold 
ticlds  in  the  current  year  (IH.'i.'i)  will  exceed  their  prod- 
uce in  iKit.  This,  howi^ver,  is  doiilitriil ;  but  suppos- 
ing it  to  bo  the  cafe,  and  Iha^  their  produce  shonid 
amount  to  $.")0,000,000,  .ilill  that  would  bo  nearly 
J2.i,000,000  below  its  amount  in  IX.V.'.  And  though  it 
bo  ipiito  impossible  to  say  whelher  the  yielrl  of  tho 
current  your  (18.5.'))  is  destined  to  increase  or  fall  otVin 
time  to  como,  our  anticipations  arc  ratlier  in  favor  of 
a  decline.  Tho  great  excitenjent  of  the  gold  fields  has 
already  pretty  well  subsided,  both  in  Australia  and 
California.  They  are  found  to  bo  a  lottery  with  many 
great  prizes,  bu'.  in  which  notwithstanding  the  Idniiks 
very  largely  predominate.  Tho  probability,  indeed, 
seems  to  bo  that  the  deposits  of  stream  gobl  will  in  no 
lengthened  period  be  comparatively  exhausted;  and 
that  gold  in  future  wilt  have  to  be  principally  obtained 
by  tho  crushing  of  quartz  rocks,  an  employment  whicli 
Is  rarely  found  to  be  productive  of  more  than  ordinary 
profita.  Tho  supply  of  silver  from  Mexico  is  now 
(1R5ri)  supposed  to  amount  tc  from  $28,000,000  to 
^80,000,000  a  year.     On  tho  other  hand,  however,  the 


supply  of  tho  precioui  metals  from  Iluiila  has  At- 
creaaed. 

On  the  whole.  It  may  lie  coneluded  that  at  present  no 
decline  need  lie  expected  in  the  value  of  the  precious 
metals.  On  tho  contrary,  an  Increase  of  their  value 
would  seem  to  lie  more  proliable.  Most  likely,  liowev- 
ef,  it  will  continue  almut  stationary  till  ii  begins  to  lio 
iuHucnced  by  some  new  combination  of  ciremnatancei, 
—  .Vie  atiicle  I'hukm.  Ucfor  also  to  Camfoiixia, 
(iol.ii,  liANKK,  (Jiiinaiik;  olso /tofiAi fa' JAii/huhc,  vols, 
ill.  (tho  last  essay  on  the  sulijcet  by  IIaiion  Hi  .miiih.iit), 
Iv.  v.  vi.  vii.  viii.  Ix.  X.  xl.  xii.,  New  York,  lBIH-i8f)7. 

Premium,    .svf  Inhuuaxi  k. 

Preaa,  the  Printing.  This  great  cnRlno  was  of 
rude  coiisiriiclion  from  the  perioil  of  tho  disruvery  uf 
the  art  of  printing,  up  to  the  dose  of  the  IHth  century, 
when  ninny  improvements  were  made.  >Villiam  Cax- 
ton,  a  mercer  of  London,  had  a  press  set  up  at  West- 
minster,  1171.— .SToWK'ntVironiV/f.  The  Karl  of  Stan- 
hope's presses  were  in  general  use  in  180(i.  'I'he  prliit- 
Ing-machiiio  was  invented  by  Koenig  in  IKll,  and 
Applegnth's  followed.  The  Columbian  press  of  Cly- 
mer  .vas  produced  in  181 1 ;  and  the  Albion  press,  an 
improvement  on  this  last,  came  into  use  a  few  years 
after,  rrinling  by  means  of  sicnm-macnincry  was 
first  executed  in  Kngland  at  the  Timet  oilicc,  London, 
on  Alondoy,  Novcmlier  "in,  IHM.  Cowper's  and  Apple- 
gatb's  rollers  for  distributing  tho  ink  upon  the  types 
were  brought  into  use  in  IH|7.  Vast  improvemenl.i 
have  been  made  in  tlie  I'nllcd  States  within  a  few 
years,  both  in  hand  and  steam  presses.  The  mo.«t 
celebrated  nianuraclurers  proliably  are  U.  lloo  &  Co., 
of  New  York.  Their  Inrgest  presses  for  iicwspapers 
are  capable  of  throwing  off  over  20,000  sheets  per  hour, 
which  is  so  much  in  advance  of  any  presses  in  Kuropn 
that  they  have  supplied  orders  from  Paris.  Tlie  presses 
of  Selli  Adams  &  Co.,  of  Itoston,  aro  perhaps  tho  lu>t 
in  tlie  world  for  book  printing.     Ste  article  Hooks. 

Presa-gailg;,  thu  mime  given  in  Kngland  to  a  di- 
tiichnient  of  seamen,  who  (under  tho  command  ol'  ii 
lieutenant)  are  empowered,  in  time  of  war,  to  lake  niiy 
sea-faring  men,  and  oblige  them  to  servo  on  board  tln' 
king's  ships. 

Presa  of  Sail,  signifies  os  much  sail  as  tho  then 
state  of  tbo  winil,  etc.,  will  permit  a  ship  to  carry. 

Prioea.  I)y  the  price  of  a  commodity  is  meant  its 
value  estimated  in  money,  or  simply  tho  quantity  of 
money  fcr  which  it  will  exchange,  Tho  price  of  a  com- 
modity rises  when  it  fetches  more,  and  fulls  when  it 
fetches  less  money. 

1.  yVi're  i<f  fretlij-proiUtced  f'ltnmodillrii. — 'I'he  cn- 
ehangeublc  value  of  comin.idities — that  is,  llieir  pow.  r 
of  exchanging  for  or  Iniyiiig  other  coniuKulities— de- 
pends,  at  any  given  period,  partly  on  the  conipaiative 
I'acilily  of  their  production,  nnd  jiartly  on  tho  lelalldii 
of  llii^  supply  and  demand.  If  any  two  or  nioio  loiii- 
uiodities  respectively  required  the  same  outlay  of  ciip- 
ilal  and  labor  to  bring  them  to  market,  and  if  the  sup- 
ply of  each  were  adjusted  exactly  according  to  the  ef- 
fectual ilemaiid  —  that  is,  were  they  all  in  siillicicnt 
abundance,  and  no  more,  to  supply  the  wants  oi  'boke 
able  and  willing  to  pay  the  outlay  upon  them,  and  llio 
orilinary  rate  of  profit  at  the  time — they  would  cacli 
fetch  the  same  price,  or  exchange  for  tho  siinio  (piantily 
of  any  other  commodity.  Hut  if  any  single  comuiodily 
should  happen  to  re>|uirc  less  or  more  cnpilal  and  lalor 
for  lis  pruiluction,  whilo  the  quantity  ie(|iiircd  to  pro- 
duce tho  others  continued  stallonaiy,  ilsvi.'iie,  as  com- 
jiared  with  Ihom,  would,  in  the  first  case,  fall;  and  in 
the  second,  rise ;  and,  supposing  tho  cost  of  its  produc- 
tion not  to  vary,  its  value  might  bo  incroased  by  a  fall- 
ing oil'  in  the  supply,  or  by  an  increase  of  demand,  and 
conversely.  Hut  it  is  of  importance  to  bear  in  mind 
that  all  variations  of  price  arising  from  any  dispropor- 
tion in  tho  supply  and  demand  of  such  commodities  an 
may  \tc  freely  producid  in  imlefmil0t[uanlilita  are  tern- 
portiry  only ;  while  those  that  are  occasioned  by  changes 


1583 


PHI 


In  tho  roit  of  their  production  nre  puminmf,  nt  leant 
u  muuli  io  ■•  tlio  cauiu  in  which  thry  ori^lnitto.     A 
Koiivritl  niournInK  occationi  a  traii«i«iit  riu'  In  tho  |irl<  it 
or  hUck  cloth  ;  butiup|iosint(  that  tho  runhlon  ofwi'itr. 
ill);  liUck  w«ro  to  continue,  it«  prico  would  m>t  prrmii- 
nsiilly  vary;  for  lho«o  who  provlously  maniifiirtumd 
blue  and  brown  clothi,  etc.,  would  hoiicolurth  iimuu- 
fucturn  only  black  cloth;  and  tho  kupply  IhImk  in  this 
way  increased  to  thn  lamo  extent  as  the  dninand,  the 
price  would  soltlo  nl  it!  old  lovul.     llonce  tho  linport- 
Kuco  of  diatinguisliing  between  a  variation  nt  pri>'i> 
uri|;inatin)(  in  a  chanKO  of  fashion  or  uthor  uccidcnliil 
circumstance — such,  for  example,  as  a  doilciciit  harvPKt 
—and  a  variation  occasioned  by  soniii  cliuiii^o  in  tlii^ 
cost  of  production.     In  tho  fonnor  case,  prices  will,  at 
no  distant  period,  revert  to  their  ohi  level ;  iu  thn  lat- 
ter the  variation  will  bo  lasting.     When  Iheprice  of  n 
freely  produced  commodity  rises  or  falls,  such  varhitioii 
may  evidently  Iks  occasioned  either  by  sunicthin^  nl'- 
recting  its  value,  or  by  something  alfecting  tliu  viibiu 
uf  money.     Hut  when  tho  generality  of  coumioditicn 
rUe  or  (Ull,  tho  fair  presumption  is  that  thn  change  is 
luit  in  them,  but  iu  tho  money  with  which  tlioy  nre 
compared.    This  conclusion  docs  not,  liMwi^vcr,  apply  iu 
all  cases ;  and  wo  lieliove  that  most  part  of  tliat  fnll  in 
tho  price  of  commoditlos,  which  has  taken  |)lace  since 
the  peace,  and  which  has  been  so  generally  nscril)ed  to 
a  rise  in  tho  value  of  money,  occasioned  by  n  decline  in 
tho  productiveness  of  tho  mines,  has  been  cauwil  by 
tho  increased  productiveness  of  industry,  arising  from 
the  abolition  of  oppressive  restraints  on  commerce,  tlic 
opening  of  now  anil  more  abundant  sources  of  snppiN-, 
and  tho  discovery  of  now  means  and  improved  methods 
of  production. 

2.  I'rice  of  monopolizeii  CommaVlien,  —  Kxclusivo, 
however,  of  the  commodities  now  alluded  to,  there  is  a 
considerable  class  whose  producers  or  holders  enjoy 
cither  uu  abiolule  or  a  jmrtiul  monopoly  of  the  supply. 
When  duch  is  tho  cose,  prices  dep'Uid  entirely  or  prin- 
cipally on  tho  i)roportioit  between  the  su|iply  anil  de- 
mand, and  aro  not,  liablo  to  bo  inlluenccd,  or  only  In  a 
secondary  degree,  by  changes  in  the  cost  of  produclicn. 
.Vntiquo  statues  and  gems;  the  pictures  of  tho  great 
musters;  wines  of  a  peculiar  flavor,  produced  iu  sniiili 
<|iiantitlos,  in  particular  situations;  and  a  few  otiior 
iirtlcles,  exist  under  .vhut  may  bo  called  absolute  mo- 
nopolies; their  supply  can  not  bo  increased ;  and  tlunr 
;nice  must,  therefore,  depend  entirely  on  tlio  competi- 
tion of  those  who  ni  -.y  wish  to  buy  them,  without  be- 
ing in  tlio  slightest  degioo  iuducnccd  by  tho  cost  of 
tlieir  production.  Monopolies  are  sometimes  establish- 
ed by  law;  as  wlun  tho  power  to  supply  tho  market 
with  a  particular  01  >lclc  is  made  over  to  one  Individual 
or  society  of  indivii'.uals,  without  any  limitalion  of  the 
price  at  which  it  miy  be  sold :  which,  of  course,  enables 
lliose  possessed  c'.  'he  monopoly  to  exact  tho  highest 
price  for  it  that  tho  competition  of  tlie  Ijuycrs  will  af- 
ford, though  such  prico  may  exceed  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion in  any  conceivable  degree.  Monopolies  of  this 
sort  used  to  bo  common  in  Kngland,  particularly  in  the 
reign  of  Klizabcth  ;  I  ut  they  were  linally  nlwlished  l)y 
the  famous  act  of  t^i  '21  Jac.  I.  c.  3 — an  act  which,  by 
establishing  tho  fi  cdom  of  competit'on  in  all  liusl- 
nesses  carried  on  ut  home,  has  been  productive  cf  tlie 
greatest  advantage. — <SVe  Moxoroi.v.  The  corn  laws 
establish  a  partial  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  Great 
Britain  with  corn  in  favor  of  the  agriculturists;  luii, 
as  competition  is  cavriod  to  as  great  an  extent  in  ngri- 
culturo  as  in  any  other  business,  this  monopoly  dues 
not  cnablo  them  to  obtain  a  higher  price  for  tlicir 
produce  than  is  sufllcicnt  to  pay  tho  expenses  of  its 
production,  though,  owing  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
under  whijh  England  is  placed,  this  price  is  higher 
than  tho  price  in  tho  surrounding  countries.  Hence  it 
results  that  tho  monopoly  is  injurious  to  the  public, 
without  being  of  any  advantage  to  those  engaged  iu 
tl«!  business  of  agriculture.     Neither,  indeed,  can  it 


be  Irnly  snjil  In  be  ndt  antageona  to  the  landlords.     Th« 
rights  rinivcj  0(1  by  patents  snmellnies  establiiili  a  valu- 
able monopoly ;  fur  they  enable  thn  inventors  of  im- 
provcil  mothiHlH  of  production  to  maintain,  during  the 
ri'Utlnnonco  of  tlio  patent,  the  prico  of  the  arllclo  at  a 
level  which  may  be  Miiicli  higher  than  is  reipilreil  to 
atlurd  Ihcm  tho  ordinary  rote  of  priillt.     This  advant- 
age, however,  by  stimulating  Invention,  and  exciting 
to  new  discoveries,  of  which  it  is  llio  natural  and  ap- 
propriate reward,  instead  of  being  injurious,  is  Ihmicv 
liclal  to  the  public.     There  arc  also  partial  monopo- 
lies, depending  upon  situation,  conneelion,  fashion,  etc. 
These  anil  other  Irapprcclablo  circumstances  some- 
times  oi'caslon  a  illfl'erenco  of  ;;i)  per  cent,  or  moro  in 
the  price  of  tho  same  article  In  shops  not  very  distant 
from  each  other,     ticnerally  speaking,  tho  supply  of 
mouopollzcdrominoditles  Is  less  liable  to  vary  than  the 
supply  of  these  which  aro  freely  produced; 'and  their 
prices  are  coimnimly  more  steady,    lint  there  are  vari- 
ous exceptions  to  this  rule,  amrof  these  tho  corn  mo- 
nopoly Is  one.     The  great  variations  In  the  luirvests  of 
partlcularcountrles.andthelr  average  ennalitythrougti- 
iint  the  world,  exposes  a  nation  which  shutsfo.eign  corn 
out  of  Its  ports  to  destructive  vicissitudes  of  prico,  from 
which  it  would  enjoy  aconiparaliveexemptlon  were  the 
ports  open.   .Siimetlnicstheexpinilionofanionnpoly— a 
patent,  for  examphi— has  occasioned  a  sudden  nnd  ex- 
trnordlnnry  Increase  of  supply,  nnd  conseipient  fall  of 
prico ;  cntoiling,  of  course,  a  serious  loss  on  tho  holders 
of  largo  stocks  of  goods  produced  under  Ibo  monopoly. 
!t.  .\ew  Sources  i,/  Siii)])!;/. —  I'ho  clVects  on  prices 
produced  by  tho  opening  of  new  markets,  or  new  sources 
of  supply,  are  familiar  to  every  one.     Tho  full  that 
has  taken  place  in  the  prico  of  pepper,  and  of  most 
sorts  of  comniodilies  brought  from  I'.nroiie  from  the 
Kast,  since  tho  opening  of  the  trade  In  1»1 1,  is  a  con- 
spicuous proof  of  what  Is  now  staled. 

■1.  Iiijliiiiici;  of  Jl'iir  o»  I'men. — The  elTect  of  war 
in  obstructing  the  ordinary  diannols  of  commercial  in- 
tercourse, and  occasioning  extreme  lluctnations  in  the 
supply  and  prico  of  comniodilies,  is  well  known.  In 
tills  respect,  however,  tho  latter  part  of  the  I'rench  war 
is,  perhapt,  entillcd  to  a  prc-cnilneuce.  Kngland  then 
dealt  w  itii  an  enemy  who  Imd  extended  his  away  over 
most  part  of  tlio  Contlncnl ;  and  who  endeavored,  by 
every  means  iu  his  power,  Io  shut  us  out  of  the  Coiiti- 
uenlal  markets.  Sir.  Tooke  has  given,  in  his  claborale 
nnd  valualile  work  on  llii/h  ami  Imio  Prim,  a  vuiicly 
of  details  which  .strikingly  illustrate  the  ellect  that  the 
regnlutions  tlicn  adoptoil  by  tlio  bfUigorent  powers  had 
on  prices.  "  Among  the  ineans,"3nys  Mr.  Tooke,  "  dc- 
vi.seil  by  the  ingennily  and  enterprise  of  adventurers 
to  elude  or  overcome  tho  obstacles  presented  by  the 
decrees  of  the  enemy,  one  in  parlicnlur,  which  was  re- 
sorlcd  to  on  an  extensive  sc.ile,  deserves  mention,  as 
illuslrnliug  in  a  striking  mnnuti  the  degree  in  which 
those  obstaclc.i  were  cnlcidated  to  :.icrca80  the  cost  to 
I  he  consumer.  .Several  vessels  laden  with  sugar,  collie, 
lobacco.  cotton  tn  isl,  and  other  valuable  oonimodilies, 
were  il  <patclicd  from  Kngland,  at  very  higli  rates  of 
freight  and  in.^urance,  to  Salonica,  where  the  goods 
w  ere  landed,  and  tlienoo  conveyed  on  mules  and  horses 
ibrougli  .Servia  and  Hungary  to  Vienna,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  distriimtcd  over  (icrniany,  and  possibly 
into  France.  Thus  h  might  happen  that  the  inhabit- 
ants of  that  part  of  tho  I'ontincnt  most  contiguous  to 
tills  country  could  not  receive  their  supplies  from  us 
without  an  expense  of  conveyance  eipiivalcnt  to  what 
it  would  be  If  they  were  removed  to  the  distance  of  a 
seo-voyagc  twice  round  tlio  globe,  but  not  subject  to 
llscal  and  political  regulations."  And  in  consciiu-  nco 
of  these,  and  other  causes  of  tho  same  sort,  Sir.  Tooke 
mentions  that  the  prico  of  sugar  in  Trance,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Continent,  during  tho  latter  years  of  tho 
war,  was  as  high  as  as.  and  i!s.  a  pound ;  that  coffee 
rose  to  7s.,  indigo  to  18s.,  and  so  on.  But  tho  sums 
charged  for  freiglit  and  insurance  were  tho  most  e& 


ii'' 


"f^li. 

I'Ulll 


I'iil 


\6U 


I'RI 


tr*nrilln*rjr,  Mr,  Xu<)k«  (Ud-a  lh*l  hn  liiia  known  In- 
(Unrnii  III  wlilili  Ilia  lli'KnH'irrKltfh'iiiiiil  ullirr  iliiirt(>'a 
uu  airiiuiil  ii(  »  vdmhI  i/f  •ImmiI  I""  liin<  I'ltrtli'ti,  iiiiik- 
ln(  •  vii)itKii  from  titliila  in  Ixmilon  anil  Imik,  Imvi' 
•iiiiMiiiUiil  In  lliu  uliiiinl  liiirt/illlilK  mini  of  X'Kl.lHNl!  A 
tlil|i,iif  hIiIiIi  tlinHliiiln  iiial  anil  iiuHil  illil  mil  niMiiiiiit 
(u  XUim),  ■•riiKil  -'liirlMtf  lli«  Ull«r  iKrlml  of  llm  wiir  * 
liriMi  fr«i||lit  ii( t*ii,niit  im  a  vo^aKu  ttnm  llonli'aiix  to 
I>iiii|iiii  «ii>l  li«<  k  !  riw  lrf\u)il  lit  InillMo  from  UmhIihi 
tolliurijiiliiiiiii|i|iHi>  Hol  al  iiri'Miili'iirwil  If/.  8|Hiiiiiil ; 
wliuroa*  It  aniuiiMlml,  al  llin|«rliHl  ri'forn'il  lu,  loaliuut 
U.  lUL—Zlit/li  mill  hiui  I'ltim,  Vil  til.  |i.  'iVi. 

b,  I  Hjliii  III  II  If/'  I'll/It  lit  I'rtmt. —It  la  iiiiiiiM'Kxarvto 
illlalu  un  a  li>|i|i'  mi  ranilllar  l<i  Kerry  ono.  Winn  » 
lax  U  laM  nil  a  •'iiniiiinilliy,  ||<  (irlm  nciiiiiiarll.v  li^ca 
lu  a  •'urriojHiinlliiK  |/ro|iirrll<in  i  fur  oihrrniax  llm  iiro- 
Uiii'iira  wuiiM  not  nl/tain  llm  nnlinary  rain  of  iirolll,  ami 
woiilil,  uf  riiNr>«,  Mllliilraw  from  llm  iMialiiraa,  'llii' 
riw  ill  llm  iirl'K  of  a«v>tral  of  lliKarllilva  In  llm  nnnrx- 
cil  lalilu  l»  |irliii'l|iallx  l<>  Im  aaurllwit  in  llm  Inironao  of 
lantlioii,  'llii>a«  •iNluiiii'iila  hIM  (iroliglily  aiillicn  lo 
KIvu  uiir  ri'ailora  a  ki  iii'ral  IiIi'M  of  llm  |>rin<'l|ili'a  wliiili 
■ti'lurnilnii  Ilia  valiio  of  loinmoillllia.  To  u"  'k'l'piT 
iiilu  llm  •uljai'l  Moiilil  ln»i'lvK  IK  In  illnnmAlima  that 
Ix'luiiK  III  |iuliili«|  Hiohiiinr.  iiii'l  Rri'  niiionif  lliu  inoat 
iiilriruln  ill  lliut  Milriii «.  'i  III)  liillnrnrii  of  apfrulalion 
on  |irl<'<'a  iiiuat  Hiil,  liuwovi'r,  Im  (iNanil  uvvr  In  a  work 
of  llila  Mirl, 

(I,  hijlutnn  iif  Hpriiilnlinn  iin  /'rlrm.  —  H  yrry  Tim\y 
lia|i|ivna  tlial  >'rilmr  llm  ni  liial  i>n|>|>ly  of  any  niiixli'a 
of  iiro'liiiii  III  uklonaitu  ili'maml,  or  llm  Inlcnaity  of 
llmt  ilrniail'l,  lail  \m  naailjy  innaaiirKil.  Kvory  Iraiin- 
ai'lluii  in  ttlili  li  an  linllyliliial  Iniya  |irii<lim«  in  onli-r  to 
Kill  it  UKuiii,  la,  In  f«<'l,  a  a|m)'iiUllon,  'I  lin  liiiynr  an- 
(lri|mli!a  lliiit  llm  iliimiinil  for  llin  nrllila  lin  lian  piir- 
t'liaMjil  H  ill  Ihi  aui'li,  at  Mfinii  fiiliirn  ihtIimI,  olllmr  ninn> 
or  ll'^a  iliklanl,  lliat  Im  will  U  nliln  to  ilia|ioan  of  it  with 
a  iirulil ',  anil  llm  miirow  iif  llm  aiiri  nlallon  ((('potnlii,  It 
ia  uviclviil,  on  llm  nklll  hIiIi  wIiIiIi  Im  liaK  ciillmntoil 
tlio  I'IrL'unialaiKw*  llial  niiiatilnlcrniinn  llm  fnliiri'  |>ri('i' 
uf  III*  i-oiiiiiHiilily,  ll  followa,  llmri'fiiri',  lliat  in  nil 
hlijlily  I  onini«r>'i»l  I'onnlrli",  *lmri'  innrrhiiiiln  an'  |ioii- 
laaM'il  of  laru»  ■  ii|iilHla,  anil  wlmra  limy  nri>  Ipft  lu  lie 
Kiiiili'il  in  llm  MMi  of  llii'iii  liy  llmir  ohii  ilii«  rntinn  nnil 
furinlKlili  llm  |illii'a  of  i'i/niiiioillll(>a  will  freiiiinitly  lie 
wry  mni'li  iiilluoiiiKnl,  not  iimrply  hy  llm  actnnl  ocriir- 
ri-nrii  of  I  iiaiitfia  In  llm  Ni'iiiatonii'il  ri'Inlloii  ofllii'  aiip- 
|ily anil <li'niiin<l, Iml  l/y  llm anlli'l|iallon ol aiirh ilmnKU*. 
Jt  U  tliu  lintinitMof  llm  niiinlinnt  lo  ni'i|iialnt  liinmelf 
Willi  uvury  >iri'iini«lNnin  afli'illiiK  llm  imrlUiilnr  ilc- 
••'ri|itiou  of  i'oniiiiiii)llli<»  In  wlilili  Im  ilcnla.  lie  cii- 
ditavuratooMain,  liy  nmatia  of  an  nKtiMinlri'iurriiKiinnil- 
ciici-,  tlm  varliual  ami  linnt  Miitlmiillr  liiforinalion  with 
re»|)<Tt  lo  I'Vury  iIiIiik  Unit  iiiay  ndi'ct  llii'lr  (iii|i|ily  or 
ili'iiiuiiil,  or  llm  I'oat  of  tliilr  |iriiilnilion ;  ami  if  liu 
l«ariii'il  that  llm  •u|>|ily  of  mm  nrlliln  liiiil  railed,  or  Hint, 
0Hiiit(  lu  I  liunuK*  of  lualilon,  or  to  tlin  a|i<'iiliiK  of  new 
iilianiiula  of  I'uininiiri'o,  llm  ili'inanit  for  It  liad  ln'in  in- 
cruaaiMl,  liu  Honlil  nioal  llki  ly  he  dlapoMKl  lo  Iiitihiik  n 
buyor,  ill  «nli''i|mllim  of  (irolHliiK  liy  llm  rim  of  price, 
wliieli,  uiiilur  llm  rlri'lltiialaiiiea  of  lli'n  enae,  could  linril- 
ly  fuil  of  lakiuK  plaie)  or,  If  Im  weru  a  Imlder  of  the 
arlli'lii,  Im  u.iiilil  ri'fiian  lo  tinrt  with  II,  unlena  fur  a 
bli{lmr  priiii  llian  )m  Hoiild  pri'vloiialy  liavo  ncrepied. 
Jf  thu  (iiUrl|l((iiHi'.i  rKi'i'lfi'd  liy  Ihn  rnvritinnt  liiid  licen 
ufauiiilrary  ilcurll'lion-'lf,  forexainplp, Im  had  learn- 
mlllmtllioitrliili  waatiow  iirodmed  wltliKreaterfiirili- 
ly,  or  tliiit  llii>rii  tfaa  «  fnllliiK  off  In  llm  demand  for  it, 
cumwd  liy  it  i  imiiije  of  faalilon,  or  l>y  llm  shiittin|r  up 
of  aoiiie  uf  IliM  iiiarkRia  IiikIiIiIi  It  had  prnvloiiKly  been 
adniiiluil -  -Im  hoiiM  Iin«ii afUwl  dllTerenlly :  in  ihis  cate 
lie  wuiilil  iiavii  «nlii'l|iMli-d  »  fall  of  prices,  and  would 
•illiur  liavu  iImIIiiuiI  (lurihaiiliiK  Ihn  article,  except  at 
a  rtdui*i|  rata,  or  lmv«  nmloavored  to  gel  rid  of  it,  »np- 
potliig  liiiii  lii  Im  a  liolilor,  hy  ofTerlnK  It  at  a  lower  price. 
In  coniu|iMiM'<i  of  tlwan  o|mrallonii,  the  prices  of  com- 
mudUlm,  In  4lltiir«iit  plant*  and  perluda,  aro  brought 


I'omparallvely  near  lo  pi|uallly.  All  abrupt  Innal- 
liiiiia.frimi  luarclly  lo  aliuiiilnnie,  and  fmui  ahimdniKe 
III  tt'iirclty,  am  avoldtHl ;  nn  tixi e>a  in  mm  cnae  la  muili' 
III  liitlaiire  a  dellelency  lu  aiiolhrr,  ami  the  auppiv  la 
illatriliiited  with  u  di'Kreu  uf  atendlneaa  mid  rrKiiinrilv 
that  could  hardly  Imvu  liivn  dceomd  nllaiiialile. 

It  U  olivloua,  from  what  hna  now  been  atated,  Hull 
Ihiiae  who  Indlacrliiiinatuly  londiinu  nil  nirta  of  apec- 
nlalive  enKaHvnienta  have  imvrr  rellrclod  on  llm  lir 
cuniataucra  Inciiloiit  to  the  pioM'i  ullnn  of  every  uiider- 
lakiuK.  lu  Iriilh  ami  reullty  they  are  nil  apeculnliuiia. 
'ilieir  undertnkera  niimt  hick  furwnrd  to  perliuia  more 
or  Ivaa  dialani ;  anil  their  aucip<a  depemla  entirely  on 
the  aaK>clty  with  Hhich  they  have  eaiiinaled  the  proli- 
aliilily  of  certain  eveuta  occurring,  aud  the  inlluenre 
nhich  they  have  aarrilird  lo  them.  Kpeculaliuu  la, 
therefore,  really  only  another  name  fur  fureal)(ht ;  und 
IhoUKh  fortnnea  have  anmrlliuea  lieen  made  by  a  lucky 
lilt,  the  chnrnctcr  of  a  aucceaaful  apeculalor  la.  In  Ihc 
vnat  minority  of  inataiicea,  due  lo  him  only  who  hna 
akillfully  devlaed  the  meauH  of  elVi'ding  llm  end  he  had 
in  view,  und  who  hiia  oulatrippuil  Ilia  competilori  In 
the  Judgment  with  which  be  hna  looked  into  futurity, 
and  appreciated  tlin  operation  uf  cniiaen  proiluoinu  dia- 
lant  ell'ecta,  Kven  in  the  wcureat  liuainraaea,  audi  an 
nKricultnre  and  manufncturea,  there  la,  and  luiiat  lie, 
H  Kreut  deal  of  apeculntion.  An  uulookcd-1'or  chniiKc 
of  aeaaon  frequently  diaappolnia  the  apparently  ronton- 
niile  expectatioiia  of  Ihoan  who  underlaku  the  forniiT: 
wliili)  the  cf{ually  cnpricioiia  vni'lnliona  of  fHahion  liiivi 
to  bo  encounlered  by  Ihoaii  eiixiiKed  in  Ihu  latter;  iiml 
each  la,  iH'aidira,  liable  lo  be  affecti'd  liy  le)(talative  en- 
actmonta,  by  new  dimoverlea  In  the  nrta,  and  by  iiii 
endleaa  variety  of  ciri  umituucea  which  it  la  nlviiyn 
very  ditlictill,  nnd  aomelimea  ijulte  Impoaaible,  to  Ion  - 
see.  On  the  whole.  Indeed,  the  ^aina  of  the  underluk- 
cra  arn  ao  inyuated  that  Ihoae  who  carry  Ihcm  on  oli- 
Iniu,  at  nn  nveniKe,  Ihu  common  and  ordinar}'  rnle  nl' 
prollt.  Hut  the  Inequality  in  the  Knina  of  Individual- 
is  moat  commonly  very  KrenI;  and  wliilu  the  aupcrim 
lad,  iudualry,  or  );ood  rurtune  uf  aomo  enable  lliem  to 
reali/.o  largo  furtnnea,  llm  want  of  diaccmmenl,  the  less 
vigilant  attention,  or  the  bad  fortune  of  othera,  fn  - 
qucntly  rediicea  them  from  the  situation  of  capitalisl.s 
lu  that  of  li;iiorcra. 

The  groat  cotton  spccniallon  of  182o  look  its  rise 
partly  and  chielly  from  a  aupposed  deliciency  in  tin 
supply  of  cottun,  pnrtly  from  an  idea  that  there  waa  a 
grealiy  inercaacd  demand  for  raw  cotton  in  thia  cuiiii- 
try  and  Ihu  ronlinent,  and  partly  from  a  belief  tlial 
the  stocks  on  hand  were  unuaiially  low.  Now  it  ia  ol  - 
vioiis  that  the  sncceas  of  Ihoae  who  embarked  in  lliis 
spcculatiuu  depended  entirely  on  two  cireunistuiiccs : 
\h,,Jirst,  thnt  they  were  right  in  the  fundamciitai  »u|i- 
positiuu  un  whicli  the  wliolu  apeculution  rested,  thai 
the  supply  uf  cotton  was  no  longer  commensurate  willi 
the  demand;  and,iii'c»Ni/,  that  their  conipctiliun  did  iii>l 
raise  the  price  so  high  us  lu  diminish  the  consumption 
by  the  manufacturers  in  too  great  a  degree  to  enalib 
lliem  to  take  otftbo  quantity  to  be  actually  brought  In 
niurkct.  If  the  merchants  had  been  well  founded  In 
their  siippa»itiuna,  and  if  their  compctitiun  bad  n»t 
raised  thu  price  of  cotton  loo  bigh,  thu  spcculatlnii 
wuuld  certainly  have  been  successful.  Hut,  instcail 
uf  being  well  founded,  the  bypotliesis  on  whicli  the 
whole  thing  rested  was  perfectly  vislonarj'.  There 
was  no  dclicicncy  in  the  supply  of  cotton,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  a  great  superabundance ;  nnd  though  then' 
had  been  such  n  dclicioncj',  the  excess  lo  which  llie 
price  was  carried  must  have  checked  coiisumplion  so 
much  as  to  occasion  a  serious  decline.  The  falling  olV 
in  the  imports  of  cotton  from  America  in  1821  seems 
to  have  been  tlio  source  of  the  delusion.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  this  falling  oif  was  not  accidental,  but  that 
it  woa  a  consequence  of  the  price  of  cotton  having  been 
for  a  series  of  years  so  low  as  lo  bo  inadequate  lo  de- 
fray tlio  expenses  of  its  cultivation.   Tlic  result  showed 


I'ut 


IJM 


I'ltl 


lull"- 

IIIB'I' 

j.lv    l^ 

Urilx 
I,  Unit 

r  »|n  >  • 

ho  1  Ir 
iiuilir- 
intliin.'. 

H  llllltl' 
r».\y  "11 
le  (iro)'- 
itUii'liii' 
llUill  1'. 
Ill;  mill 

*  Ui<  k) 
»,  In  till 
who  lii»» 
III  lie  linil 
plltori  111 

fiiliirllv, 
uclnn  ill«- 
n,  iueh  »» 

niunt  lie, 
fur  I'liniiK'' 
lly  res'o'i- 
lio  (oriuiT '. 
iihloii  liiiv" 

imiiT!  iiii'i 

lulntlvn  en- 
anil  liy  i>» 
I  \»  nlvnyx 
ililc,  t(i  ftin- 
le  unilortak- 
ihcm  on  ol'- 

imr)'  "•'"'  ""^ 
f  IniUvliliii'l- 
I  the  diilicvliii 

[irnt,  till'  li'^- 

ollii'",  fri  - 

)f  c«lilti>ll>'» 


th«l  Ibli  e«l«uUllon  w«*  niml  rrrtmonui.  And  b«-  |  aril  rllfftoilon  of  «nim.l  Imlrurtlon,  M«m  to  hn  llm  nu\f 
iliUi,  In  enlorlnu  on  lli«  •|i««uUtlo»,  no  tUaiitluii  wa<  iii««n<  l.v  »lil<h  lli<u«  nilu'itlniUlluiK,  ilmt  «r«  ufuii 
paiil  to  l",u>|it  (ikI  ll»l)- louhlrli'i.  from  wliUli  onlv  '  proiliull'voof  nr.'»t  nuilomtl  »«  »«ll  •«  |.rl»»lo  l.i.«,  f«n 
•lioul  l,|iH>,ii(K)ll.ii.  or.otlnn  wr.Mil,i«|ii,ain  IWU,  Imu  ;  Im  i'llli..r  nlivlntail  or  iiiltlKiiltil.  Ihu  tiTwu  lOhM- 
from  whlrli  no  U'M  tliitn  i:i,HO(l,lKiO  llm.  wur*  ubuliiiiit  1  i|iii.ik  i,i  piik  ti  liH|inivlil«nt  ■|iiiciiUtli>iiii  Im-Iok  alwayt 
In  Ifii!  Thl«  iiMloiiKiil-liir  importatlun  wa»  of  UmK  fur  nion'  liijiirlou*  to  tliu  |>artli'»  <ih;»k«'I  In  ihi'in  than 
almonti-noUHhtooviTlunitliiM'nint.liiatlonuflliinini-j  i„  any  .,i|i„r  tUM.tlm  i^rrKonioiion  1«  that  lli.iy  will 

a     .  .1       1_.l     ...III.    >l...     !...._ _   ■     t  .      .■  • '  •     .  ' 


ulatnr*;  anil,  i-imi|>I<oI  wIiIi  tlio  Imnainl  liii|iiirlailon 
from  Anmrlia  ami  oltii«r  I'ouiitriiti,  actually  uii ailunml 
a  haavy  ulot  of  tlm  iiiarki't, 

Th«  rink  to  wliii  li  Miori'hanla  ara  axpoMil  when  thay 
althnr  •ell  off  any  rnninioillty  at  a  ri'ilmuil  priou  In  an- 
ticipation of  a  fall,  or  Imy  at  iin  mlvamoil  priio  in  un- 
tli-lpation  of  a  fnliirt-  rim',  U  a  i-oii>«i|oi'n<'o  prlmipally 
of  the  eHtrnniu  illlHiiilly  ■  f  nninrtaliiliiK  thu  triio  utat 


illnilolnli,  liiilh  In  fri'<|ii«ii<'y  ami  forrr,  ai'i'i>rillii|{  at  Ih* 
trim  priiii'Ipli'a  of  I'lininii'rco  tomn  to  Im  iH'llir  iimlrr- 
»liiml.  lint,  wliulonT  liiriioviiiii-mo  may  m  i««limally 
How  from  tlnin,  It  U  aliimilnnlly  plain  timl,  limtcail  of 
In'iiiK  li'on'iii'il,  it  Hiiiilil  lio  vi'ry  Mimli  incrKnuml,  wrr« 
nny  rvitralnla  iiiipuiiMl  on  thu  fri'riluni  of  a<l>'i'iitun'. 
Wlii'n  thu  alti'iilliin  of  niiiiiy  ImlivliiiiaU  U  <liri><'t<il  to 
tlio  >uiiiii  lliiu  of  »|idiil«ilnii  -wliiii  Ihfy  prmwulB  U 


o(  tho  fait  with  r««|ii'rt  to  thu  Kroiimi*  iin  wlilrh  an  |  ni  a  liiii(im«ii,  niiil  an,  ropuimllilii  in  tin  ir  own  prlvata 
aliumlant  or  a  iliMlcicnt  nopply,  or  an  lin'ri'suluK  or  ill'- '  '  ' 

crimilnK  ilnniami,  may  li«  I'xpi'rliol.  IIiiIi'h  can  Inn, 
lie  of  no  iiirvlco;  rvtiry  thln«  ili'pi'inU  ujion  tho  lalint, 
tai't,  anil  knowlnil)(«  of  tlm  party.  Tin'  i|iii'atlons  to  liu 
•olveil  ara  all  practical  oncn,  varyInK  in  cvory  cuno  from 
each  other  1  the  nklll  of  the  merchant  lichiK  uviiici"!  hy 
the  moilo  In  which  hn  comlnctt  hii  Inolmmi  umicr  noch 
clrcumnlunco*,  or  hy  hlit  snKacity  In  ili«i'oviirln({  om. 
Int(  evontH,  ami  appmcialiii);  thi.ir  character  ami  tho 
extent  of  tiicir  Inllucncu.  I'riiirlty,  hot,  uliovo  all,  ac- 
curacy of  lntelllK<'ni'e,  Ih  In  anch  cane*  of  tho  ulniu.it 
cunaeiincnco.  Without  wnll-niilhciiMcatcii  ihtia  to  K' 
upon,  every  «tcp  tukon  may  only  Icuil  to  error.  Tho 
Inntance*,  Imlouil,  In  which  Kpcculallon.*,  apparenlly 
contrlvcil  with  thn  Kroatcnt  Jiiilumrnt,  have  omlcil  In 
liankrnplcy  ami  rntn, from  a  ilcllclcncy  In  thli coiiiitial 
roi|uiiiitc,  are  no  very  numeroui,  that  every  uiin  must  lio 
aci|ualnteil  with  them.  Ilunco  tho  Importance  of  mt- 
Inctinu  acute  and  cantlonn  correapomlunts ;  ami  home, 
alto,  tho  necettity  of  ninturuly  wii^hinK  lliclr  report.*. 


fiirtnneii  for  any  orrort  they  may  coninilt  thi  y  anpilra 
a  kniiwl«ilK«  of  the  varioim  clrciini>luiM'<  liiilui'McinK 
price*,  anil  Kive  hy  their  comliinatlont  a  nlcaiiliieM  to 
tliiin  which  It  It  eaay  to  mo  cmilii  not  lie  altiiltieil  hy 
any  oilier  menu*.  It  U  inalerial,  Inn,  tn  l„.nr  in  iiilnil, 
nt  wan  proviiiiiKly  ttalcii,  that  many,  pirliiipi  it  nilxht 
he  Kaiil  imiV,  of  thnao  wlin  pro<»  >»  eu:,'eriy  inlu  tlie 
market  wlieii  nny  new  i  liannel  of  eomnierro  in  nponeil, 
or  when  any  coimiileralile  riM,  uf  price  it  anlicipatnil, 
are  not  niorchantt,  luit  itrrmint  niitaKi'it  In  oilier  liiinl. 
neiKoa,  or  living',  perliap'*,  on  llxeil  liicuiin'*,  wlio  ipoc. 
niato  in  tiio  Impo  of  auiiilenly  increii-ln^  tlicir  fortune, 
Thit  tcmlency  to  KamMlii){  telilmn  falK  to  hreuk  out 
upon  "luh  occaniont;  hut  fortunately  thono  are  only  of 
cuiiij' iratively  raru  uccurromo;  ami  In  the  oniinary 
coui>e  of  alliiirt,  inercunlllo  iipeculull'Mii  are  h^ft  to  Ik 
comlocteil  liy  tlioio  wiio  aro  familiar  »lili  liuiinont,  and 
who,  In  oNcrliiiK  thciiiiii'lvi.'t  to  oi|u*IUn  the  variation! 
uf  prlcu  rnuAoil  hy  varialiunt  of  cilinato  ami  orKoaitoni, 
anil  to  illttrlliute  the  supply  uf  pruiluco  pruportinnally 


and  of  vndcavorinK,  l>y  tlio  aid  of  inrorniHtion  Kleaneil  i  to  tho  ellectivo  ilomaml,  ami  with  to  minli  proviilmc* 
from  every  authentic  oicexallilo  lourcc,  to  ascertain  ;  that  it  may  not  at  any  time  ho  u holly  exhaunteil,  per. 
how  far  they  may  bo  ilepomled  upuii.  When  a  few  ;  form  riiiicliont  that  arc  in  thu  hi^'liettile^n'O  important 
loudlii);  merchants  purcbuitu  in  anticipation  of  an  ad-  <  and  licnelicial.  Thoy  arc,  it  in  true,  aciuatud  only  hy 
Vance,  or  toll  in  anticipalior.  of  a  fall,  the  tpeiiilatioi'  <  a  ilotlro  to  advance  their  u»ii  inleresl.H;  hut  tho  rotulti 
it  often  piithed  beyond  nil  roatonuldo  liniilt  hy  llio  op-  i  of  their  oporationt  are  not  less  advantaKcout  than  thota 
eriiliunt  of  tbueo  who  are  iuHuenced  by  iinilutlon  only,  '  of  tho  u;;riciiitiiriiit  w  liu  i^ivot  greater  fortilily  to  tba 
niid  who  havn  never,  perhapt,  rctlocteil  fur  a  moment !  toil,  or  of  tlio  mechanist  wiio  invcnln  now  and  mora 


on  the  grounds  on  which  a  variation  of  price  is  antici 
paled.  In  speculation,  as  in  most  other  thiii^t,  ono 
individual  derives  conlUlenca  from  another.  Such  an 
one  purdiaHes  or  sells,  not  hocauso  bo  hat  any  really 
accurate  inrorinuliun  at  to  the  state  of  tlio  ilemund  and 
supply,  but  bcoanto  some  one  else  bat  douo  no  before 
bim.  The  original  impulto  is  thus  rapidly  extended ; 
and  oven  those  who  are  sutitlicd  that  a  tpeculalion,  in 
anticipation  of  a  ri»o  of  prices,  it  uimafc,  and  that  tliero 
will  be  a  teaoil,  not  nnfieiiuontly  udventuro,  in  tho  ex- 
pectation that  thoy  will  be  able  to  withdraw  before  the 
r.'coll  hat  liogun. 

It  moy,  we  believe,  speaking  penerally,  bo  k;d  down 
at  a  sound  practical  rule  to  avoid  liaving  any  thing  to 
do  with  a  speculation  in  which  iiiaiiy  have  already  en- 
gaged.  Tho  competition  of  tlie  speculators  teldum  fails 
speedily  to  render  an  adventure  that  might  have  boon 
originally  safe  extremely  hazardous.  If  a  commodity 
happen  to  lie  at  an  unusually  reduced  price  in  any  par- 
ticular market,  it  will  rise  tho  moment  that  dill'orent 
buyers  appear  in  the  tield ;  and  supposing,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  that  it  is  fetching  an  unusually  high  price,  it 
will  fall,  perhaps,  far  beluw  tho  cost  of  production,  as 
toon  as  supplies  begin  to  be  poured  in  by  dillcrent 
merchants.  Whatever,  therefore,  may  bo  tho  success 
of  tiiose  who  originate  a  speculation,  those  who  enter 
into  it  at  an  advanced  period  are  almost  sure  to  lose. 
To  have  been  preceded  by  others  ought  not,  in  such 
matters,  to  inspire  confidence ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
ought,  unless  there  bo  something  special  in  tho  case, 
to  induce  every  considerate  person  to  decline  intcrfor- 


powerful  niachlnes, 

Thuso  deniruiit  uf  delaileil  iiiriirniation  at  to  tho  pricei 
of  commodities  in  (Ireiii  llrilaiii,  in  remoter  ages,  may 
ciinsiiH  tlio  elnbori^tu  tables  in  the  ;ld  volume  of , Sin  K. 
M.  Kukn's  work  on  tiie  Vnnr;  and  tli«  In  volume  of 
.M.M  I'liiiiiMiN's  AnnnU  of  ('nmnwr  '•.  An.rrii.NOT'l 
TMes  of  Ancient  Coins,  ll'i/i/A'i,  Mm  irra,  I'Accii,  tie., 
are  well  known;  but  the  statements  are  not  nucb  to 
bo  depended  upon.  The  Trttift  tie  Mitroloni:  of  M, 
r.viiTiiN,  lio,  I'arit,  1,\.),  it  tho  best  wor  on  this 
curious  and  dlllicult  sulijoct.  Sie  nl.'O  vob  ines  v.  vl. 
TiMiKK  o«  /Villi,  London,  1857;  Hint's  Mirrlianti' 
.l/»(/ij;iH(',  ill.  ,Sii.'J(Ilii.iiiii;rii);  (^imrfir/y Ai'n>u',xxix. 
•.'II;  .Imin'i'dtt  .Umiimic,  IHUli,  101;  Jlnnktn'  Maga- 
zine, New  Vuik,  IM'iT,  IH-'JI. 

"Conslileriilplr  iineasincM  IwuinB  to  prevail  hi  Tarit  at  tht 
onornious  rise  tluit  has  taken  (iliiro  within  tho  last  two  year* 
In  till)  inirea  of  fooj  auJ  Imlijlot;.  It  Is  not  only  thai  this 
slate  of  thliiRt  drives  away  the  cmwils  who  a  few  yours  ago 
u.-ril  to  resort  to  i'arU  to  crononiize,  ami  who  tpetit  tin- 
luensc  sums  in  that  capital,  but,  what  it  of  far  more  import- 
ance 111  a  social  ami  political  point  of  view.  It  crontoa  tufTer- 
ln(»,  ami,  coiisci)uently,  discontent  among  the  working  clauea.. 
In  all  t!ic  capitals  of  Kiiro|io,  thoro  has  been  of  late  a  similar 
leiidoiu  y  to  an  Increase  In  iirlcos,  partly  caused,  no  doubt,  by 
the  unrertalnty  cn'ated  by  thn  lato  war,  and  by  tho  with- 
drawal of  larnenumbert  of  able-bodied  men  from  tho  ordinary 
pursuits  of  agrloilturo  and  Indiisti^,  to  swell  tho  ranks  of  th* 
standing  armies  kept  up  by  tho  four  great  military  monarch- 
ies of  I-'rance,  Russia,  Austria,  and  I'riitala.  Perhaps,  alao, 
the  speculative  haWto  of  the  present  generation  have  had 
some  share  In  producing  this  rtsult" 

Tho  aliovo  is  from  a  late  Ix>ndon  paper.    The  same 


ing  with  it.    The  maintenance  of  the  freedom  of  inter- !  remark  is  pertinent  to  new  circumstances  in  tho  United 
cour  le  between  ditfcrent  countries,  ond  tho  more  gen- 1  States.     The  advanced  prices  charged  for  all  commodl-. 
5H 


PRI 


158^ 


PRI 


tiM  'Where  labor  Is  involved  in  their  production,  and 
where  new  machinery  and  new  appliances  can  not'  M 
xised,  are  unerring  results  of  an  increased  volume  of 
the  precious  metals.  Aotording  to  estimates  made  by 
stntlsticul  writers  who  have  examined  the  subject  crit- 
ically, the  increase  of  the  precious  metals  during  the 
six  years,  1H51-Iy5<i,  is  fully  one-third  of  that  existing 
in  the  worlil  at  the  end  of  the  year  1850. 

Tlic  product  of  gold  in  California  is  thus  stated  in 
round  nunil)crs: 


Vi.»r.. 

K«i.<n1 

M«tlnil  AdJUlon. 

ToUI. 

1848-4'.) . . . 

$S,ll(iO,(KM) 

!fl8l  10,000 

ts.stjti.ooo 

1S.W 

Kj.omi.odo 

'.',.'>fl0.000 

27,500,000 

1851 

41.'.BO,000 

4,126,000 

46,37^000 

isaa 

68,600,000 

6,860,000 

04,350,000 

1853 

(i.',ri(K),o«o 

C,'.','A0OO 

0S,76O,(KM 

1864 

Trt,600,000 

7,060,000 

77,880,000 

1866 

67,000,000 

6,700,000 

78,700.000 

ISStt 

Total... 

TO,000,UuO 

7,000,000 

77,000,000 

$4O'^.81O,0OU 

$40,281,000 

$448,091,000 

Product 

3f  gold  in  Ci 

ilifornia  and  A 

ustralia  com- 

bined : 

Yf«Tl. 

1848- '49  .. 

.     Eipurt. 
$8,'0«0,0()0 

M>r(in>l  Aildltlun. 
$8110,600  '" 

ToUI. 

$8,808,000 

ISfiO 

{t,\ooo,en() 

2,,'>00.(100 

27,6(H),000 

1861 

46,T<K),000 

4.670.000 

60,386,000 

lavi 

101. 176,000 

]0,T  17,610 

117,8.t2,600 

1S63 

112,7i6,(K)0 

11,27^,600 

lJ3,(t»7,600 

1864 

116,640,000 

11, 661,000 

127.204,000 

18.56 

124,6(-6,«0« 

12,460,600 

1:17.02 1,600 

1860 

133,716,000 

13,371.600 

147,08tl,.'>00 

TotHl  . . 

!(i«72.(;40.iJflO 

$aT,2l4.(MMI 

$73»,»04,00O 

At  llie  same  time,  the  rate  of  interest  lias  increased 
from  nn  average  one  of  3  ond  SJ  to  6  and  7  per  cent. ; 
and  tlic  active  demand  for  capital  throughout  Europe, 
in  supportof  heavy  undertakings  abroad  and  at  home, 
will  probably  maintain  the  current  rates  for  some 
years  to  conic.  Wo  see  no  present  indications  of  a 
plethora  of  capital. 

AVo  thinlt  it  will  appear  that  a  greater  rise,  pro  rata, 
has  taken  place  in  prices  within  this  short  period.  In 
our  own  country,  the  prices  of  market  produce,  labor, 
and  materials  requiring  labor  for  their  production,  have 
all  increased  from  thirty  to  fifty,  and  in  some  instances 
to  one  hundred  per  cent.  In  articles  of  food  in  the 
London  markets,  the  changes  in  prices  between  1851- 
1857  are  sliown  in  the  following  sunmiary,  which  we 
take  from  "Tookk's  HUtory  nf  I'rirea,  during  the 
j-ears  1848-1850,"  just  puldishec!  in  I..ondon: 


Article!. 


Coffee 

Sugar 

Rum,  .Tatiiiics . , 

Tobacco 

Butter 

Beef  (8  lbs.)  . . . . 
Reef,  prime  . . . . 

Mutton 

Mutton,  prime.. 

l>ork 

Silk,  raw,  lbs.  . . 

Flax,  tons 

Wool  ('J4(Jll)a.>  . 

Logwun,! 

Seal  oil 

Olive  oil 

Palm  oil 

Tallow 

I.i!ather,  lbs.  , . . 
Baltpetiv,  rwt, , . 
Ashes,  I'uarl.... 

Copper 

Iron, tuni  

Iron,  .Swodlib  . . 

Lead,  tons 

Hteel,  8weHii)i . . 
Tin, tons 


J»nu«ry,  1861. 


53    a6Sil. 
20.  a  28* 
20   a  32(1. 
41  a  \M. 
18  a  80a 
28    rtSO 
82   a  86 
84   a  42 
44   a  46 
30   a  42 
n   ol7«. 
88   a  46 

X14  o  — 
70  a80«. 

jCBT  a  — 
48  a  — 
2»  a  — 
861  o- 
12  alAil. 
27»  a  29J», 
80f  a  81 

i:S4  o- 
51  a  0 
lUo  — 
UM- 
16  a  — 
84   o  — 


jAnuATy,  1854. 

~53    a  60«. 

21   a  6.V 

42  n40rf, 
21a   8i(. 

104   n  — 

43  n4« 
48  n60 
48  olM 
60  a  62 
4i  n44 
121  a  161 
86  n62 
161  a  16 

110  a  — 
43  a  — 
63  n- 
4:)  rt  — 
60  o  — 
16  ,(2.t 
27   a  31 


29 


a-r 


12a  o  — 

lija  — 

121  o  _ 

231  n  — 

171a  — 

126  a  — 


Fab  1857 


68  a  67 

30  a  40 

44  a  46 

Ball 

112  a  — 
40  a  46 
48  a  60 
48  a  62 
54  (I  68 
4t  a  62 
16  a  25 
62  0  — 
87  a  — 

llOa  — 
6O0  — 

61  0 - 
47  a  — 

62  a  — 
24  a  81 
87a46 
46a  — 

ia')a  — 
Sa- 
ls a— 
«ao  — 
2O0  — 

148  a  — 


These  facts  are  important,  as  demonstrating  the 
progressive  advance  of  prices  according  to  the  increased 
bulk  of  precious  matals.  The  same  result  occurred  in 
the  centiir}'  following  the  discovery  of  gold  in  America 
(1600-lt!00),. although  the  increased  prodnclion  was  far 
1ms  than  it  Is  now.  Rents,  wages,  family  supplies, 
labor  generally — all  advanced  fully  one  hundred  per 


cent. ;  and  the  probability  is  that  an  equal  (or  greatei) 
ratio  of  in:reBse  will  take  place  between  1850  and  1860. 
It  is  true  that  the  present  accumulation  of  precious 
metals  is  dittused  among  a  much  larger  population  and 
over  a  more  extended  region  of  country  than  iii  the 
16th  or  17th  centuries;  but  similar  causes  will  produce 
similar  results,  and  labor  will  secure  for  itself  a  remu- 
neration commensurate  with  the  increased  expenses  of 
living. 

Fluctuations  in  Privet. — Mr.  Tookc,  an  English  writer 
of  some  celebrity,  has  lately  added  two  volumes  on  the 
prices  of  1848-185B.  From  these  volumes  (published 
in  London  in  185")  we  extract  the  following  summaiy 
view  of  the  changes  in  prices  since  the  discoveries  of 
gold  in  California : 

Summuiy  if  Conclusions  with  Jfejerence  to  the  Prices 
0/ Cvmmodities  and  Utiite  o/J\ade,  1848-'66, — Without 
attempting  to  include  in  a  summary  of  conclusions  all 
the  inferences  which  arise  from  the  survey  of  the  past 
few  years,  we  present  the  following  statements  as  set- 
ting forth  those  results  which  are  best  established  and 
most  important,  viz. :  That  as  regards  the  great  ar- 
ticles of  import,  such  as  colonial  and  tropical  produce 
and  commodities  largely  employed  in  this  country  as 
raw  materials  of  manufacture,  the  course  of  prices 
during  the  nine  years,  1848-'5C,  may  be  described  in 
general  terms,  as  follows,  viz. :  During  1848  and  1849 
there  was  a  general,  and,  in  several  important  in- 
stances, a  strong  tendency  to  lower  prices;  that  in 
1850,  partly  in  consequence  of  larger  consumption  and 
partly  in  consequence  of  actual  or  apprehended  failures 
of  supply,  prices  sensil)ly,  and,  in  some  cases,  mate- 
rially advanced ;  that  in  1851  there  was  again  an  ex- 
tensive and  severe  decline,  attributal)le  almost  wholly 
to  excess  of  supply ;  that  in  1852  there  was  a  manifest 
tendency  toward  recovery ;  that  in  the  first  nine  months 
of  1853  the  upward  tendency  of  the  previous  year 
readied  its  highest  point,  establishing  and  maintaining 
for  nine  montlis  a  range  of  prices  considerably  higher 
than  had  prevailed  fur  a  long  period ;  that  from  the 
autumn  cf  1853  to  tlie  close  ot  1854,  there  was  a  sensi- 
ble reaction  from  the  previous  high  rates,  except  as  re- 
gards some  of  the  articles  imnicdialcly  afl'ccted  by  oper- 
ations, or  tho  commissariat  consumption  of  the  war; 
and  that  in  1855  and  1856  the  markets  were  quiet  and 
firm,  exhibiting  only  such  fluctuations  as  arose  out  of 
ordinary  changes  in  supply  and  demand.  In  a  future 
part  wo  shall  inquire  how  far  the  fluctuations  of  prices 
now  referred  to  wero  connected  with  the  influx  of  the 
new  gold. 

That  the  first  eflccis  of  the  California  discoveries  of 
1848  were  felt  in  England  in  1850  and  1851,  and  mani- 
fested themselves  in  the  increased  demand  for  Brilieh 
and  foreign  articles  suitable  for  tlie  export  trade  to  the 
United  States;  that  tho  same  effects  were  still  more 
sensibly  felt  in  the  course  of  1852;  that  in  1853  tho 
consumption  of  British  goods  in  California  and  the 
United  States  generally  had  become  so  large  and  rapid 
as  to  counteract  almost  entirely,  as  regards  England, 
ony  piejudicial  eflTect  upon  the  balance  of  trade  of  the 
vast  imports  nf  grain,  rendered  necessary  liy  the  seri- 
ous failure  in  theseislandsof  the  harvest  of  1853;  that 
the  same  large  American  demand  for  Ilritish  exports 
continued  through  1854  and  1865,  and  had  prevail- 
ed through  18,56,  interrupted  but  casually  by  the  ex- 
tensive failures  and  discredit  which  prevailed  in  tho 
United  States  and  California  during  portions  of  the 
years  1854  and  1866;  and  that,  as  the  general  result 
of  the  trade  lietwcen  England  and  the  United  States 
since  1850,  the  absorption  of  Hritish  exports  either  in 
California  itself  or  in  those  regions  of  the  North 
Amei-ican  continent  to  which  the  supplies  of  California 
gold  are  chiefly  sent  in  the  first  instince,  has  increased 
so  rapidly  as  to  render  necessary  a  icistant  and  large 
transmission  of  the  precious  metals  froi.^  America  to 
England. 

That  the  effects  of  tho  Australian  discoveries  of  the 


pm 


1587 


vm 


anmmor  of  1861  were  felt  in  thia  country  in  a  strildng 
n'.anner  early  in  tlic  following  year  (1852),  inanifeating 
thenisclvvs  in  a  sudden  and  large  expansion  of  the 
stream  of  emigration  from  these  islands,  and  in  a  sud- 
den and  large  expansion  in  the  shipment  of  nearly  all 
descriptions  of  commodities ;  that  the  demand  for  ships 
hence  arising  could  not,  in  the  then  condition  of  the 
mercantile  marine,  be  readily  supplied ;  ann  the  con- 
sequence was  an  enormous  increase  of  the  rates  of 
freight,  and  a  demand  for  new  ships  so  urgent,  that 
considerably  higher  wages  were  at  once  conceded  in  all 
the  ship-building  trades;  that  the  same  urgent  de- 
mands for  Australia  continued  in  the  early  part  of 
1853,  were  considerably  moderated  in  1854,  still  more 
reduced  in  1865,  but  in  1856  were  again  marked  by 
consideralde  activity.     That  the  movement  for  higher 
wages  succ jssfiilly  commenced  in  the  autumn  of  1852 ; 
in  the  ship-building  trades  became  almost  universal  in 
the  tirst  half  of  1858;  and  previous  to  September,  in 
that  year,  had  led  to  a  very  general  addition  of  from 
12  to  20  per  cent,  to  the  wages  current  in  1851 ;  but 
that  the  elTect  of  thu  bad  harvest  of  185!),  the  war  of 
1851-55,  and  the  glut  of  the  Australian  markets,  was 
to  produce  u  considerable  reaction  from  this  advance, 
especially  in  the  factory  districts.     That  the  lirst  iuiil 
immediate  ctfect  of  the  high  prices  of  colonial  and  other 
imported  articles  in  1852  and  185.'),  and  of  tlio  high 
prices  and  largo  demand  for  manufactured  goods  in  the 
same  years,  was  to  occasion  vigorous  efforts  and  a  large 
expenditure  of  capital,  with  a  view  to  opening  up  new 
tields  of  supply,  and  creating  extended  means  of  pro- 
duction ;  and  that  it  is  principally  to  the  operation  of 
these  causes  that  the  steady  and  frequently  declining 
course  of  prices  since  1853  is  to  be  attributed. 

That  as  far  as  trustworthy  evidence  can  be  obtained, 
there  are  no  facts  in  the  experience  of  the  last  nine  years 
which  justify  the  conclusion  that  in  England  the  fluctu- 
ation of  prices,  the  course  of  trade,  or  the  increased  de- 
mand for  goods  arising  out  of  the  large  exports  to 
America  and  Australia,  ware  immediately  preceded  by 
or  connected  with  changes  in  the  amount  of  the  aggro- 
gate  outstanding  circulation  of  bank-notes.  In  other 
words,  all  the  evidence  available  to  us  points  distinctly 
and  uniformly  to  the  conclusion  tliat  the  fluctuations 
of  the  bank-note  circulation  were  determined  and  regu- 
lated by  the  consequences  flawing  from  previous  appli- 
cations of  capital  and  credit  in  particular  modes.  That 
further,  in  a  great  number  of  speciflc  instances,  it  can 
be  shown  conclusively  that  fluctuations  of  price  of  the 
most  important  kind,  and  in  the  largest  markets  of 
England,  took  place  either  without  tho  occurrence  of 
any  change  whatever  in  the  bank-note  circulation  or 
contemporaneously  with  the  occuircnce  of  a  change  the 
precise  opposite  of  that  which  on  a  priori  grounds,  or 
on  tho  grounds  on  which  the  currency  theory  is  built, 
would  have  been  expected  to  precede  or  accompany  tho 
particular  alteration  in  the  markets. 

That  neither  is  there  any  such  coincidence  between 
variations  in  the  rate  of  interest  and  variations  in  the 
markets  for  produce,  as  to  justify  tlio  inference  of  a 
direct  connection  between  them  in  the  relation  of  cause 
and  eflect.  That  the  first  effect  of  tho  gold  discoveries 
on  the  financial  condition  of  England  was  the  remark- 
able and  prolonged  depression  in  the  rates  of  interest 
and  discount,  whicji  prevailed  during  tho  twelvemonth 
preceding  the  spring  of  1853;  that  this  elfcct  on  the 
rate  of  interest  was  the  immediate  consecjucnco  of  an 
excessive  accumulation,  principally  in  the  Hank  of  En- 
gland, of  the  early  remittances  from  California  and 
Australia;  and  that  the  'nlluence  produced  by  these 
accumulations  on  opinion  and  credit  was  greatly  ex- 
tended and  aggravated  by  the  maintenance  at  the  Dank 
of  England  of  a  rato  of  discount  so  low  as  2  per  cent., 
from  April,  1852,  to  January,  1853.  That  the  rise  of 
tbd  rate  of  discount  which  commenced  in  January, 
1853,  and  has  been  maintained  during  the  subsequent 
three  years,  is  to  bo  traced  in  its  origin  and  continu- 


ance to  extended  demand  for  ropital  for  the  purpose  of 
new,  distant,  and  costly  enterprises,  directed  cither  to 
the  construction  of  public  works,  to  the  extension  of 
old  and  introduction  of  new  processes,  or  to  the  ex- 
ploration of  new  fields  for  the  supply  of  commodities ; 
and  that,  so  far  as  wo  can  judge  from  recent  experi- 
ence, the  absorption  of  capital  for  these  and  other  ob- 
jects  becomes  more  rapid  and  extensive  with  every  suc- 
ceeding year. 

That  the  interruption  to  tho  trade  of  England  occa- 
sioned by  the  Russian  war  of  1851-'55  was  compara- 
tively slight,  and  for  four  reasons,  viz.:  1.  Because  the 
theatre  of  war  was  in  a  remote  part  of  the  east  of  Eu- 
rope; 2.  Because  the  enemy  had  practically  no  navy 
that  could  molest  our  commerce ;  3.  Because  the  raw 
materials  previously  obtained  from  Uussio  still  con- 
tinued to  arrive  through  neutral  ports  or  were  readily 
replaced  by  imports  from  India  and  elsewhere;  and 
1,  lastly,  because  the  invention  of  the  telegraph,  th« 
txistence  of  steam,  and  the  enormous  resources  of  our 
me.'cantila  marine  and  postal  services,  enable  us  to 
accomplish  in  a  faw  weeks'  operations  what,  at  tho 
commencement  of  tho  centurj-,  would  have  occupied  a 
long  series  of  months.  That  further,  in  addition  to 
and  far  more  powerful  than  any  of  tho  five  causes  just 
enumerated,  was  tho  eftcct  of  the  continued  influx  of 
gold  during  1854  and  1856— but  especially  during  tho 
latter  portion  of  1855,  in  averting  from  England  and 
from  France  the  extreme  financial  pressure  and  peril 
which,  in  the  absence  of  that  influx,  must  inevitably 
have  been  produced  by  the  necessity  of  providing  largo 
and  constant  remittances  of  gold  to  tho  seat  of  war; 
and  must  inevitably  have  placed  entirely  out  of  ques- 
tion tho  maintenance  of  the  restrictions  of  tho  Bank 
Chart  Act  of  1844,  and  perhaps  have  even  imperiled 
the  maintenance  of  the  act  of  1819. 

That  during  the  years  1848  and  1849,  and  part  of 
1850,  tho  losses  and  discredit  which  fell  with  crushing 
force  on  a  largo  portion  of  the  middle  classes  involved 
in  the  railway  expenditure,  did,  beyond  question,  pro- 
duce  some  important  cflcct  in  limiting  the  consumption 
of  commodities.  That,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  a 
direct  consequence  of  the  railway  expenditure  of  tho 
years  1848,  1841),  and  1850,  that  the  working  classes 
were  provided  with  fair  employment  during  a  period 
of  interrupted  trade,  and  it  was  also  a  direct  conse- 
quence of  the  cheapnesss  of  food,  and  tho  low  rango  of 
general  prices  which  prevailed  to  tho  year  1852,  that 
the  working  classes  were  able  to  command,  by  means 
of  their  wages,  a  larger  amount  of  sustenance  and  com- 
fort than  had  been  within  their  reach  probatdy  at  any 
former  jiciod  of  tho  century.— Tooke's  lliatory  of 
I'rices,  1887. 

Price-current,  a  list  or  enumeration  of  the  vari- 
ous articles  of  merchandise,  witti  their  prices,  tho  du- 
ties (If  any)  payaMe  thereon  when  imported  or  ex- 
ported, with  the  drawbacks  occasionally  allowed  upon 
their  exportation,  >te.  Lists  of  this  description  arc 
published  periodically,  generally  onco  or  twice  a  week, 
In  most  great  commercial  cities  and  towns. — For  ex- 
amples, see  the  articles  Genoa,  Havbb,  Thik-stk,  etc. 
in  this  work. 

Pride  of  China.  The  ^felia  azedarach,  or  Prido 
of  China,  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  a  native 
of  Persia,  where  it  was  known  as  long  ago  as  the  year 
980,  by  Avicenna,  an  Arabian  physician,  who  noticed 
the  venomous  principle  which  resides  in  its  fruit;  but 
some  botanists  arc  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  also  indig- 
enous to  Florida  and  the  United  States,  or  at  least  has 
become  so  from  habit:  for  it  is  found  there  growing 
wild  in  tho  forests,  and  attains  its  fullest  magnitude. 
It  is  propagated  for  ornament  or  use  in  all  the  warm 
countries  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  also  cultivated 
in  conservatories  In  the  temper.ite  and  colder  parts  of 
Europe  snd  America,  and  even  there  it  often  flowers, 
and  ripens  its  fruit. 

Propertiea  and  C/«e»,— Tho  wiod  of  the  azedarach  is 


PRI 


1588 


PRI 


of  s  reddish  color,  ana  is  organized  in  the  distribution 
of  its  Abres  similar  to  thoee  of  tlie  asli,  1 1  is  sufficient- 
ly strong  and  durable  to  be  employed  in  civil  arclii- 
tecture,  and  is  adapted  to  various  uses  in  the  mechanic 
arts.  It  has  already  been  employed  for  pulleys,  which 
in  Europe  are  usually  made  of  elm,  and  in  America  of 
aih.  It  is  said  to  make  good  fuel.  The  flcxliy  part 
of  the  fruit,  like  that  of  the  olive,  yielil;.  a  fixed  oil, 
which  is  l)ittcr,  and  is  considered  as  antlielmiiitic,  and 
a  narcotic  stimulant.  The  leaves  are  universally  used 
in  Indiii  fur  poultices,  iind  botli  the  flowers  and  seeds 
are  stimulant.  The  berries,  though  said  by  the  Ara- 
bian physician,  Avicenna,  to  be  poisonous,  and  the 
pulp  of  which  was  mixed  with  grease,  fur  the  purpose 
of  killing  rats  and  dogs,  are  often  eaten  by  children  in 
the  South  without  injurious  effects.  According  to  Mr. 
Royle,  however,  the  fruit  is  considered  as  poisonous 
Kben  used  in  large  doses.  The  liark  of  the  root,  w  hen 
green,  has  a  bitter,  nauseous  taste,  yielding  its  virtues 
to  boiling  water,  and  may  bo  employed  as  a  cathartic 
or  emetic,  and  is  considered  as  un  efficient  vermifuge, 
and  also  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  interniitlents. 
In  Persia,  an  ointment  is  made,  for  the  cure  of  some 
cutaneous  eruptions,  by  mulling  the  leaves  with  lard. 
It  is  also  said  that  a  kind  of  toddy  is  obtained  by  fer- 
menting the  sap  of  young  and  vigorous  trees.  The 
nuts  are  often  bored  by  monks,  and  strung  into  beads. 
Hence  the  names  of  Bead-tree,  and  Palemottn  di  iSan 
Donunico. — Uhownk's  J'reet  of  America. 

Primage  and  Average.  I'rimage  is  a  charge  in 
addition  tu  the  freight.  It  was  originally  intended  as 
a  gratuity  to  the  caplain  for  Ids  particular  care  of  the 
goods,  and  is  sometimes  called  hat-money ;  but  it  now 
belongs  to  the  owners  or  freighters  by  charter-party 
of  the  vessel,  unless  by  special  agreement  the  whole  or 
portion  of  it  is  assigned  to  the  captain.  It  is  collected 
with  the  freight.  The  rate  or  manner  of  making  this 
charge  depends  chiefly  upon  the  custom  of  the  depart- 
ment of  trade  in  which  the  ship  is  engaged.  Very 
commonly  it  is  a  rate,  as  5,  10,  or  even  15  per  cent., 
upon  the  amount  of  the  freight.  In  some  trades  it  is 
a  rate  per  hogshead,  etc.,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  not 
allowed,  the  word  primage  being  canceled  or  omitted, 
and  the  words  in  full  being  added  to  the  stipulated  rate 
of  the  freight,  as  has  been  noticed  in  speaking  of  the 
forms  of  bills  of  lading.  The  average  referred  to  in 
the  bill  of  lading  is  the  liability  to  general  contribu- 
tion for  making  good  any  damage  which  has  been  oc- 
casioneil  by  any  step  necessary  for  general  preserva- 
tion. This  forms  what, is  called  a  "general  average," 
and  the  notice  of  it  is  introduced  into  the  bill  of  lading 
tu  avoid  any  doubt  as  to  lialiility  on  the  part  of  'he 
consignee  or  claimant  of  the  goods. — Hee  Insukakce — 
Shii'S,  and  Smiitino. 

Prince  Edward  Island.  I.at.  N.  4C°  and  47" 
10';  long.  W.  G2°  and  do";  area,  2134  square  miles; 
length  about  13j  miles ;  and  breadth  from  4  to  'M  miles. 

The  island  of  Prince  Edward,  formerly  called  St. 
John's,  is  situated  in  a  recess,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  is  separated  from  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  by  the  Strait  of  Nor- 
thumlierland,  which  nt  its  narrowest  part  is  only  nine 
miles  wide.  Cupitiil,  (.'harlotte-Town.  The  colony 
is  divided  into  tlirci'  connlies:  viz.,  Queen's,  15,4'2&; 
Prince,  l.^,142;  King's,  32,111;  and  its  total  popula- 
tion in  1848  was  (>2,('>78. 

The  population  at  several  periods  was  as  follows : 

1802 20071 

182S M.600 

187 9!),!!n6 

1883 81i,l70 

1841 47.133 

1848 •2,1)78 

The  quantity  of  arable  land  under  cultivation  was 
315,38U  acres ;  nnd  the  wholequantity  of  land  occupied 
was  as  follows;  Held  in  fee-fiimple  by  occupants,  280,040 
acres;  under  lease,  a')0,2<J3  at^res;  by  Trritten  demise. 


31,312  acres;  by  verbal  agreement,  88,786  acres;  and 
l>y  squatters,  66,434  acres.  'I'hu  crops  represented  in 
the  censuaof  the  same  ycarcoiisl.itcd  of:  wheal,  2l<.l,787 
bushels ;  barley,  76,521  busliels ;  oats,  746,388  bushels ; 
potatoes,  731,575  bushels;  turnips,  163,933  bushels; 
clover-seed,  14,i)U0  pounds;  and  hay,  16, 128  tons.  The 
live-stock  on  the  island  was  as  follows :  Horses,  12,845; 
neat  cattle,  49,810;  sheep,  92,876;  and  hogs,  19,683. 
The  industrial  establishments  were  embraced  under  the 
following  branches :  13  breweries  and  distilleries,  116 
grist-mills,  27  carding-mills,  139  saw-mills,  and  246 
threshing-machines.  The  commerce  of  the  island  in 
1851  is  exhibited  in  the  following  abstract: 

Exports,  inclildiiif;  89  vcRsels,  IIS 721  tons,  M  $16 
per  tnn;  l,4.i7,02li  feet,  iiiid  CSiO  pieces,  Ixisrda 
and  deals;  sliiliKles,  220,772  M;  outs.  e«6  695 
bueliels;  cattle,  3U3  lieud ;  diied  flsh,  7687 
quintals;  pickled  fish,  3024  barrels;  oysters, 
•1877  biistielB;  and  a  variety  of  other  productn, 
as  timber,  scantling,  knees,  etc.,  valued  in  all 
at $(!07,S8» 

Imports,  Includingshlp-eliandlery^  which 
Is  exported  again  in  the  building  and 
rlggiiiK  of  ships,  and  not  estimated  in 
the  value  of  the  shippinf; $5SS,78S 

Less— say  for  ship-chauilery 02,884       475,S71 

Total  commerce $i,i  8d,'<60 

The  shipping  employed  in  this  commerce  was  us  foU 
lows : 


(irent  llrilain 

^British  colonics  . 
I'nited  Stutcs. ... 
Other  countries. . 

Total  in  ISni . 

Total  in  \^bO. 


I  Vtwli.  ]     Toiv 
4.140 
18  1142 
2,7-.'4 
87 


18 
47(1 
43 

2 


633       24.!ir3 
N>7        2.'..017 


ClcarancM. 
Tom. 


VmmI., 
45" 
488 
86 
2 


«2t 
633 


111  1151 

S6374 

5  427 

71 


41  823 
411  322 


The  number  of  seamen  inward,  in  1860,  was  2082, 
and  in  1861,  2370;  outward,  in  1850,  2301;  and  in 
1851,  8631. 

'I'he  following  compares  the  value  of  the  imports  and 
exports  for  three  years : 


1841. 

ISSO.         1           IHtl. 

$030,476        i4V.  871 
825,'.wn          6  7  3S'.I 

Imports 

Exports 

$576,040 
ifl2,7r.% 

Total 

$8[:8.8I5  1  $  M,404  j  $l.i>.'-3  2liii  | 

The  exports  of  1851  include  the  value  of  vessels  koM 
to  Great  Britain  and  Newfoundland,  amounting  to 
$261,5.36,  which  is  not  included  in  either  1849  or  1850. 
In  1849  there  were  built  in  the  colony  88  vessels,  15,902 
tons ;  and  in  1850,  93  vessels,  14,391  tons,  valued  at $16 
per  ton.  The  total  vnlueof  articles,  the  growth,  produce, 
or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,  imported  in  1831, 
was  {177,866,  the  whole  of  which,  except  to  the  value 
of  $3200,  were  carried  in  British  bottoms.  In  1850 
the  value  of  the  same  description  of  articles  imported 
was  only  $42,113.  The  wide  difference  between  the 
two  years  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  1851  the  duties 
on  imports  were  greatly  reduced  from  the  rates  of  the 
preceding  year.  With  the  high  rates  of  duties  of  1850, 
only  $0420  was  received  on  articles  of  American  pro- 
duction ;  while  in  1851,  with  diminished  rates,  the  du- 
ties were  increased  to  $14,020.  The  articles  exported 
to  the  United  States  in  1851  wore  as  follows  ;  Barley, 
17,929  bushels;  boards  and  planks,  12,000  feet:  iron, 
00  ?wl.;  cattle,  9  head;  firewood,  20  cords;  dry  Hsh, 
650  quintals ;  pickled  fish,  1780  barrels ;  hard  wood,  74 
tons;  horses,  3;  haekinatock  knees,  2215;  oal.s,  222.109 
bushels;  potatoes,  45,942  liushols;  turnips,  b090  bush- 
els; and  wool,  1700  pounds.  The  value  of  the  fore- 
going, with  the  value  of  sundry  other  articles  not 
enumerated,  amounted  together  to  $119,236.  The 
value  of  siinila'  articles  exported  in  1850  was  only 
$,55,886.  On  the  31st  December,  IS.'iO,  the  number  of 
vessels  owned  and  registered  in  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land was  310,  of  the  burden  of  27,932  tons.  On  the 
31st  December,  1861,  the  vessels  owned  and  registered 
nuniliered  823,  of  the  burden  of  81,410  tons.     Prince 


FRI 


1589 


PBi: 


i^t'VW  \ 

[•Is  sold 
ii(inK  to 
jorl»?SO. 
U,  15,002 
e.(\  at  $16 
proiluce, 
I  ill  1851, 
■he  value 
In  1H50 
iiii\iorted 
ween  ttie 
lie  (Uitics 
OS  of  the 
loflSaO, 
icnii  pro- 
.,  till'  ilii- 
"ex)i<>i'e'l 
liarlcy, 
bet:  iro"i 
dry  Hell, 
wood,  74 
s,  22-2.100 
B'JO  liiisll- 
llhe  fore- 
Lies  not 
M.       1116 
fwos  only 
lumber  of 
]ward  I»- 
On  the 
Bgislerod 
Prince 


iMwAfd  UUtui  liu  Tslur.ble  fisheries  in  the  Galf  of 
It(,  iMmteme,  and  In  the  Strait. 

Vriima  Mwtni  Island  is  chiefly  an  agricultural  col- 
eHf  1  Ahi|)-liUlldlng,  however,  is  carried  on  to  a  consid- 
tfiiik  exteill  t  and  new  ships  have  already  become  a 
pFMtlillt<H(  tttlicU  uf  export.  In  the  years  1649, 1850, 
Ulti  iHrd,  (here  were  built  in  the  island,  for  sale  in 
UffM  ItHlaIn,  Newfoundland,  or  wherever  else  they 
miM''l  flint  A  profltable  market,  270  vessels,  with  an 
lUUfPHMS  of  4&,il4a  tons ;  giving  an  annual  average 
^  yu  vessels,  and  li'>,ai&  tons. 


TJiSWIS  to  I'tiKed  SitRlcs  . . 
lilt  (»rt(tfW(n  Cnltcd  stales 


$.12,410 
8'ir)80 


$.V),38r> 
4I.GU3 


19«1._ 

$U0,38r> 


'rONNAOB  IN    1860. 


I'ifti«'l''i<d  fftilli  Dulled  States  . 
(ili-dttiil  fur  (liiled  filHtes.... 

J-iHicm!  i((  l«il 

H(f(t(-Cl1  IH  iBftl.i 


34 
49 
43 
81) 


2518 
4038 
2724 
R42T 


'the  tlilterelieo  between  the  imports  from  the  llnitcd 
§fttft>!i  ill  Utill  and  1851  ($fl<i,255)  is  accounted  fur  by 
(ll«  fedlli'lluii  of  the  duties  on  imports  by  colonial  act, 
tim  IiJmIi  tlllfles  up  to  I8,'il  atlucting,  to  a  largo  extent, 
tim  tmie  with  the  United  States.  This  reduction  of 
(lie  fflfiltuf  IVlnce  Kdward  Island  not  only  augment- 
mi  lll»  e.iiflOI'ls  from  the  I'nited  States,  but  produced 
ft  l'Offe^\>yiiA\llg  Increase  in  the  imports  from  that  isl- 
illldi  '1  llllS/  in  1850,  the  value  of  exports  from  I'rince 
I'iitWKClJ  Islatid  to  the  United  States  was  $55,385;  in 
}«6I  il  ttlduUHted  10  ♦llit,28C.  The  trade  between  the 
('tliltfll  kittles  and  (his  Island  being  now  comparatively 
hw,  8  slill  ^te»let  Increase  than  that  exhibited  above 
n:»lr  tie  MHIlltally  expected. 

'i  Iw  (-(^tenn?)  expenditures,  and  public  debt  of  the 
e{)\llHi/i  ill  185),  were  as  follows: 

//-««//«,— Uilsloins  and  imports,  £17,7C9  18s.  7Jrf. ; 
f)ll(^!>  tkUi\  forfeitures,  £110  5.1.  l(i. ;  interest  on  bonds, 
mn  'i»=  tli'Li  posl-olllce,  £999  '2a.  ty.;  land  asscss- 
ttlCIII'),4;'i!ll)5  I4.7(/. ;  registers, .£159  ti.«.  2^1/. ;  licenses, 
iihil  iOi;  i  seiiiures,  £U  i)s.  Sd. ;  and  fees  from  Sec- 
muf^a  men,  di'.m  ius.  8J.  Total,  f  22,538  14».  Ulrf., 
Mll^  m  Average  per  head  of  7s.  2id.,  or  of  tlio  net 
(iUilulMS  aluHe,  the  average  per  head  was  5^.  Sid. 

AV//»//(//V«(M;— Legislature,  £1912  4.«.  IJc/. ;  cduca- 

timt,  Jl-iWil   Ik   10(/. ;    agricultural  societies,  £150; 

Mli-iwllatleuils,  £752  as.  Sjsd.;  post.oflice,  £1539  10.>. 

M:i  M\ltfie»,  i><)14ri  lis.  lid.;  compensation  to  gov- 

SratlJSIIt  ortiiiets,  £774  IBs. ;  public  postages,  £55  19a. 

fW.i    (jftmil   pfosecutions,  £793  14s.  4J(i. ;   board  of 

llNHlffl,  Mi'it  iis.  lid.;  <i.<ih  bounties,  £370  18.<.  M.; 

pruvIlK  inl  Iwildln^v  £510  lita.  Hd. ;  inquest  and  sliadiac 

|W('I>«9>  atrllO  I  lit.  lid. ;  printing  and  stationery,  £794 

4.«i  'i^il: !  fl)lpte*ienslon  of  deserters,  £378  l\i.  id. ;  in- 

l«r^nt  till  Ihlliitilles  and  debentures,  £lf;2ti  4s  ;  draw- 

llWks,  Miii  Ills.  \\d. !  sundry  foes,  etc.,  £173  12s.  ll'i. ; 

limU,  tiriil|j(!<>,  and  wharves,  £5978  3s.  2(/. ;  jails,  £U10 

Mif..  H(f/,  j  sitlilll  disbursements,  £8(i  7s.  2i(i. ;  markets, 

•fi.iO  U,  t*il:  i  lifidt-hoiisc,  £170 17.<.  lljii. ;  public  works, 

^71*7  (i*:  till: )  and  buoys  and  beacons,  £05  Oj.  Hd.    Total, 

£ii,lVii  10.«i  llji/.,  showing  a  surplus  of  expenditures 

MllUlllltitlfj  ill  .llUi'li  Wit.  2d.     The  public  debt  uiuount- 

»(l,  ill  lllf  jrfilt  aliove  slated,  to  £17,938.— Anurkws's 

(tqimi  m  (''■luiitt  ami  hdc  Trade  (Sen.  Doe.  112), 

l*fti?='B(((  Mac.Hs's Uiilish  Cdloniea  {London  edition); 

thitit'l  d/ II  C'limmiltee  (Canadian)  on  the  Income,  A'x- 

lltwIillH-i',  ililtl  thbl  (/  llriliah  North  America  (lltli 

Hw,  (»/i:t);   /':  S.  Vomm.  Jlel.,  etc. 

7fiiil«i  OOtide.  The  art  of  calico-printing  is  of 
miliiiiit^lMiile  aiill(jtiity,  and  there  exist  specimens  of 
ViHypltHII  liuiUill  dyeii  by  figured  blocks  many  hundred 
ycAH  M,  A  sllllllat  process  has  been  resorted  to  even 
Ml  (lis  Hl»lll)»iltl  Islands,  where  they  use  a  large  haf 

»»  ft  SlllisliilltM  fuf  the  block .Vee  I'lrt,  Cotton.    The 

«#B»llallt  (/filesljjilfl secured  in  Kngland  by  2  Vic, ,1839. 
FfiutiOgi    dee  I'UKsa,  DouKs,  and  NivW8rAi-i:its. 


Print*,  impressions  on  paper,  or  some  other  sub- 
stance, of  engravings  on  copper,  steel,  wood,  stone, 
etc.,  representing  some  particular  subject  or  composi- 
tion. Prints,  lilie  paintings,  embrace  every  variety 
of  subject ;  and  differ  very  widely  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  arc  engraved.  Their  prices  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  style  of  the  engraving,  the  fineness  of  it* 
execution,  the  goodness  of  the  impression,  its  rarity, 
etc.  The  art  seems  to  have  taken  its  rise  in  the  15th 
century. 

Prisage,  or  Butlerage,  was  a  right  of  taking  two 
tuns  of  wine  from  every  ship  importing  into  Kngland 
twenty  tuns  or  more ;  which  was  changed  by  Edward  I. 
into  a  duty  of  2*.  for  every  tun  imported  by  merchant 
strangers,  and  called  butlerage,  because  paid  to  the 
king's  butler.     The  term  is  now  fallen  into  disuse. — 

Ul.ACKSTONK. 

Privateering      In  order  to  encourage  privateer- 
ing, it  is  usual  to  allow  the  owners  of  private  armed 
vessels  to  appropriate  to  themselves  the  property,  or  a 
large  portion  of  the  property,  they  may  capture,  and  to 
aftbrd  them  and  the  crew  other  facilities  and  rewards 
for  honorable  and  successful  efforts.     This  depends 
upon  the  municipal  regulations  of  each  particular  pow- 
er ;  and  as  a  necessary  precaution  against  abuse,  the 
owners  of  privateers  are  required,  by  the  ordinances  of 
the  commercial  slates,  to  give  adequate  security  that 
they  will  conduct  the  cruise  according  to  the  laws  and 
usages  of  war  and  the  instructions  of  the  government, 
and  that  they  will  regard  the  rights  of  neutrals,  and 
bring  their  prizes  in  for  adjudication,    These  checks 
arc  essential  to  the  character  and  safety  of  maritime 
nations.    Privateering,  under  all  the  restrictions  which 
have  lieen  adopted,  is  very  liable  to  abuse.     The  ob- 
ject is  not  fame  or  chivalric  warfare,  but  plunder  and 
profit.     The  discipline  of  the  crews  is  not  apt  to  be  of 
the  highest  order,  and  privateers  are  often  guilty  of 
enormous  excesses,  and  l)ecome  the  scourge  of  neutral 
commerce.     They  are  sometimes  manned  and  officered 
by  foreigners,  having  no  permanent  connection  with 
the  country  or  interest  in  its  cause.     This  was  a  com- 
plaint made  by  the  United  States  in  1819,  in  relation 
to  irregularities  and  acts  of  atrocity  committed  by  pri- 
vate armed  vessels  sailing  under  the  flag  of  Buenos 
Ayres.    Under  the  best  regulations,  the  business  tends 
strongly  to  blunt  the  sense  of  private  right,  and  to 
nourish  a  lawless  and  lierce  spirit  of  rapacity.    Eflbrts 
have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  abolish  the  prac- 
tice.    In  the  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  between 
Russia  and  the  United  States  in  1785,  it  was  stipulated 
that  in  cose  of  war  neither  party  should  grant  commis- 
sions to  any  private  onned  vessels  to  attack  the  com- 
merce of  the  other.     But  the  spirit  and  policy  of  mari- 
time  warfare  will  not  permit  such  generous  provisions 
to  prevail.    That  provision  was  not  renewed  with  tho 
renewal  of  tho  treaty.    A  similar  attempt  to  put  an 
end  to  the  practice  was  made  in  the  agreement  between 
Sweden  and  Holland  in  1675,  but  the  agreement  was 
not  performed.    The  French  Legislature,  soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  w  ith  Austria  in  1792,  passed  a 
decree  for  tho  total  suppression  of  privateering,  but  that 
was  a  transitory  act,  and  it  was  soon  swept  away  in  tho 
tempest  of  the  revolution.   The  efforts  to  stop  the  prac- 
tice have  been  very  feeble  and  fruitless,  notwithstand- 
ing that  enlightened  and  enlarged  considerations  of 
national  policy  have  shown  it  to  be  for  the  general 
benefit  of  mankind  to  surrender  the  licentious  practice, 
and  to  obstruct  as  little  as  possible  tho  freedom  and 
security  of  commercial  intercourse  among  the  nations. 
— Kknt's  Commentaries.     The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Xorlh  Americun  Keview,  x.  186 (.1.  G ali.ison) ;  Niles'9 
liegisler,  xiv.  129,  xvi.  Sup.  29 ;  De  Bow's  Review,  i. 
510.     .See  aho  SlAniTiME  I.AW,  ante,  1321,  et  aeq. 

Utierg  of  ifai-que  and  Reprisal  "  are  grantable  by 
the  law  of  nations,  whenever  the  subjects  of  one  state 
are  oppressed  and  injured  by  those  of  another,  and  jui- 
1  tice  is  denied  by  that  state  to  which  the  oppreiior  b*. 


It 


PBI 


1590 


FRT 


longs."— Cihtty's  Comm.  Law,  vol.  iii.  page  604. 
Before  granting  letters  of  marque,  government  is  di- 
rected by  the  6  Hen.  V.  c.  7,  to  require  that  satisfac- 
tion be  made  to  the  party  aggrieved ;  and  in  the  event 
of  such  satisfaction  not  being  made  within  a  reasona- 
ble period,  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  may  be  is- 
sued, authorizing  the  aggrieved  party  to  attack  and 
seize  the  property  of  the  aggressor  nation,  without  haz- 
ard of  being  condemned  as  a  robber  or  pirate.  Such 
letters  are  now  only  issued  to  the  owners  or  captains 
of  privateers  during  war,  or  when  war  has  been  de- 
termined upon.  They  may  bo  revoked  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  sovereign ;  and  when  hostilities  terminate,  they 
cease  to  have  any  effect.  Letters  of  marque  and  re- 
prisal were  first  issued  in  England  by  Edward  I.,  for 
the  seizure  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  for  reprisal  and 
retaliation  upon  the  enemy  on  the  sea. — Ky.mer's  /fe- 
dera.  They  were  first  granted  in  1295.  —  Uakek's 
Chnm.  They  are  usually  granted  in  time  of  war  to 
private  armed  ships,  and  do  great  michief  to  the  com- 
merce of  belligerent  nations. — Puwkl, 

Ftlvateera,  ships  of  war  fitted  out  by  private  Indi- 
viduals, to  annoy  and  plunder  the  public  enemy.  But 
before  commencing  their  operations,  it  is  indispensable 
that  they  obtain  letleri  of  marque  and  rtprital  from  the 
government  whose  sutjects  they  arc,  authorizing  them 
to  commit  hostilities,  and  that  they  conform  strictly  to 
the  rules  laid  down  for  tho  regulation  of  their  conduct. 
All  private  individuals  attacking  others  at  sea,  unless 
empowered  by  letters  of  rnarque,  are  to  be  considered 
pirates,  and  may  be  treated  as  such  either  by  those 
they  attack  or  by  their  own  government. 

Policy  of  lyivaleering. — The  policy  of  this  system  is 
very  qucatiouable.  It  seems  to  be  a  remnant  of  that 
species  of  private  war  exercised  by  all  individuals  in 
early  ages,  but  which  gradually  disappears  as  society 
advances.  In  wars  carried  on  by  land,  the  property 
of  tho  peaceable  inhabitants  who  take  no  part  in  the 
operations  of  the  armies  is  uniformly  protected ;  and  it 
is  dilHcult  to  discover  any  solid  grounds  why  the  same 
rule  should  not  be  ftjllawcd  at  sea.  Privateers  rarely 
attack  ships  of  war.  Their  object  is  merely  to  plunder 
and  destroy  merchantmen.  They  causa  an  infinite 
deal  of  mischief  to  individuals,  and  aggravate  all  the 
miseries  of  war,  without  having  the  slightest  influence 
on  the  result  of  tim  contest.  Experience  has  also 
shown  that  it  is  not  possible,  whatever  precautions 
may  be  adopted,  to  prevent  the  greatest  abuses  from 
being  perpetrated  by  privateers.  The  wish  to  amass 
plunder  is  the  only  principle  by  which  they  are  actu- 
ated ;  and  such  being  the  case,  it  would  be  idle  to  sup- 
pose that  they  should  bo  \ery  scrupulous  about  alj- 
staining  from  excesses.  A  system  of  this  sort,  if  it  bo 
ever  useful,  can  be  so  only  to  nations  who  hnvo  little 
trade,  and  who  may  expect  to  enrich  themselves  dur- 
ing war  by  fitting  out  privateers  to  plunder  tho  mer- 
chant ships  of  their  enemies.  In  all  other  cases  it 
seems  to  be  productive  only  of  m'schief ;  though  it  is, 
of  course,  moFt  injurious  to  those  states  that  have  the 
greatest  mercantile  navy.  Instead,  therefore,  of  en- 
couraging tho  practice  of  privatecning,  we  think  that  a 
doe  regard  to  the  rights  and  interests  of  humanity 
vould  suggest  to  the  great  powers  the  expediency  of 
abolishing  it  altogether.  A  few  ellbrts  have,  indeed, 
been  already  made  toward  this  desirable  object.  Thus 
it  was  stipulated  in  the  treaty  between  Sweden  and 
the  United  Provinces,  in  1()7.5,  that  neither  party 
should,  in  any  future  war,  grant  letters  of  marque 
against  the  other.  In  1707  Russia  abstained  from 
licensing  privateers;  and  in  the  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Prussia,  in  1786,  a  stipulation  was 
inserted  as  to  privateers,  similar  to  thai  in  the  treaty 
between  Sweden  and  the  United  Provinces  in  1C76. 
But  nothing  short  of  a  convention  and  agreement  to 
that  cD'cct  among  the  great  powers  will  be  able  to  eflecl 
this  desirable  object. — SIaktkns,  JCatai  amcfmunt  Ui 
Armattun,  1794,     iSee  Makitihk  Law,  p.  1322  etc. 


Prise.  Any  thing  captured  by  a  belligerent  using 
the  right  of  war :  in  common  language,  only  ships  thus 
captured,  with  the  property  taken  in  I  hem,  are  so  called. 
Prizes  taken  in  war  are  condemned  by  the  proper  judi- 
cature in  the  courts  of  the  captors ;  such  condemnation 
is  held  to  divest  the  title  of  the  proprietor  and  confer 
a  now  ownership.  In  order  to  give  jurisdiction  to  a 
court  of  prize,  it  is  deemed  necessary,  by  the  law  of 
nations,  that  the  property  captured  should  be  in  pos- 
session of  the  captors  in  their  own  ports,  those  of  an 
ally,  or  of  a  neutral ;  but  no  belligerent  power  has  a 
right  to  capture  in  the  ports  of  a  neutral  country,  or 
within  a  marine  league  of  her  shores ;  nor  does  a  cap- 
ture made  there  render  the  adjudication  valid.  Sub- 
ject to  capture  is  hostile  property,  i.  e.,  the  property 
of  persons  domiciled  in  a  hostile  country,  and  neutral 
property  contraband  of  war. — Set  Conthahasd. 

/Vi'ze  J/oMcy. — The  money  arising  from  cnpturesmade 
upon  the  enemy  is  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  and  is 
equally  distributed  by  order  of  government,  thus :  Cap- 
tain to  have  three-eighths,  unless  under  the  direction 
of  a  flag  officer,  who  in  that  case  is  to  have  one  of  the 
said  three-eighths ;  captains  of  marines  and  land  for- 
ces, sea  lieutenants,  etc.,  one-eighth;  lieutenants  of 
marines,  gunners,  admirals' secretaries,  etc.,  one-eighth; 
midshipmen,  captain's  clerk,  etc.,  one-eighth ;  ordinary 
and  alJle  seamen,  marines,  etc.,  two-eighths.  —  Set 
Privateers  and  Lettkus  of  Maroue. 

Prizes. — The  right  to  all  captures  vests  primarily  in 
the  sovereign,  and  no  individual  can  have  any  interest 
in  a  prize,  whether  mode  by  a  public  or  private  armed 
vessel,  but  what  he  receives  under  the  grant  of  the 
state.  This  is  a  general  principle  of  public  jurispru- 
dence, bello  piiria  cedunt  reipiiblicai,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  proceeds  of  prizes  depends  upon  the  regula- 
tions of  each  state ;  and  unless  tho  local  laws  have  oth- 
erwise provided,  the  prizes  vest  in  the  sovereign.  But 
tlie  general  jiracticc,  under  the  laws  and  ordinances  of 
the  belligerent  governments,  is  to  distribute  the  pro- 
ceeds of  captured  property,  when  duly  passed  upon 
and  condemned  as  prize  (and  whether  captured  l)y 
I)ublic  or  private  commissioned  vessels),  among  the  cap- 
tors, as  a  reword  for  bravery,  and  a  stmiulus  to  exer- 
tion, AVhcn  a  prize  is  taken  at  sea,  it  must  be  Irought 
with  due  care  into  some  convenient  port,  for  adjudica- 
tion by  a  competent  court ;  though,  strictly  speaking, 
as  between  the  belligerent  parties,  the  title  passes,  and 
is  vested  when  the  capture  is  complete,  and  that  was 
formerly  held  to  bo  complete  and  perfect  when  the  bat- 
tle was  over,  and  the  tpes rtcvperandi  was  gone.  Gro- 
tius  and  nmny  other  writers,  and  some  marine  ordi- 
nances, as  those  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  of  Congress  dur- 
ing the  American  war,  made  twenty-four  hours'  quiet 
possession  by  the  enemy  the  test  of  title  by  capture, 
liynkershoei'k  says  that  such  a  rule  is  repugnant  to 
the  laws  and  customs  of  Holland  ;  and  he  insists  that 
a  firm  possession  at  any  time  vests  the  property  in 
the  captor,  and  that  ships  and  goods  brought  infra 
pnrnidia  do  most  clearly  change  the  properly,  llut 
liy  the  modern  usage  of  nations,  neither  the  twcniy- 
four  hours'  possession,  nor  the  bringing  the  prize  infra 
pratidia,  is  suflicient  to  change  the  property  in  the  case 
of  a  maritime  capture.  A  judicial  inquiry  must  pass 
upon  the  case,  and  the  present  enlightened  practice  of 
commercial  nations  has  sulijectcd  all  xiich  captures  to 
the  scrutiny  of  judicial  tribunals,  as  the  only  sure  way 
to  furnish  due  proof  that  the  seizure  was  lawful.  The 
property  is  not  changed  in  favor  of  neutral  vendee  or 
rccaptor,  e(.  as  to  bar  the  original  owner,  imtil  a  regu- 
lar sentence  of  condemnation  has  been  pronounced  by 
some  court  of  competent  jurisdiction  belonging  to  tho 
sovereign  of  the  captor;  and  tho  purchaser  must  be 
aide  to  show  documentary  evidence  of  that  fact  to  sup- 
port his  title.  Until  the  capture  Iiecouies  invested 
with  the  character  of  prize  bv  a  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion, tho  right  of  pro|>crty  is  in  aln  yance,  or  in  a  state 
of  legal  sequestration.     It  can  not  bo  alienated  or  dis- 


.  .msi.: 


PKO 


1591 


PRO 


narily  in 
,■  interest 
tc  armed 
nt  of  the 
juiispru- 
distribu- 
lic  rc(;ula- 
have  oth- 
ign.    But 
inanccs  of 
B  the  pio- 
Bscd  upon 
pturcd  liy 
igthecap- 
,9  10  exer- 

IC  iTOUght 

ailjmVicn- 
spuaking, 
msscs,  and 
I  that  was 
en  the  bat- 
one.    Gro- 
irine  ordi- 
igTcfs  dur- 
ours'  quiet 
ly  capture, 
pugnant  to 
insists  that 
ropijrty  in 
ught  ixfra 
■rty.     Ill" 
le  twei'.'y- 
1  prize  infra 
in  tlie  case 
niust  pass 
practice  of 
captures  to 
Iv  sure  way 
.;ful.     The 
|\  vendee  or 
ilil  a  rcgu- 
lounced  by 
ging  to  the 
ler  must  be 
jfact  to  sup- 
is  invested 
condemna- 
jr  in  a  state 
atcd  or  dis- 


posed of,  but  the  possewion  of  it  by  the  government  of  i  solute  and  unconditional.  Mr.  .luitloe  n«ylny  mON 
the  captor  is  a  trust  for  tha  benelit  of  those  wlio  may  i  succinctly  states,  that  a  pronilfsory  nota  )/»  writim 
be  ultimately  entitled.     1  his  salutary  rule,  and  one  so  !  promise  for  the  pavmint  of  money  at  all  evuiils 


necessary  to  check  irregular  conduct  and  individual 
outrage,  has  been  loug  established  in  the  Knglish  ad- 
miralty, and  it  is  now  every  where  recoguized  as  the 
law  and  practice  of  nations. 

The  condemnation  must  be  pronounced  by  a  prize 
court  of  the  government  of  the  captor,  sitting  either  in 
the  country  of  the  captor  or  of  his  ally.  The  prize 
court  of  an  ally  can  not  condemn.  Prize  or  no  prize, 
is  a  question  belonging  exclusively  to  the  courts  of  the 
country  of  the  captor.  The  reason  of  this  rule  is  said 
to  be,  that  the  sovereign  of  the  captors  has  a  riglit  to 
inspect  their  behavior,  for  he  is  answerable  to  other 
states  for  the  acts  of  the  captor.  The  prize  court  of 
the  captor  may  sit  in  the  territory  of  the  ally,  but  it  is 
not  lawful  for  such  a  court  to  act  in  a  neutral  territory. 
Neutral  ports  are  not  intended  to  be  auxiliary  to  the 
operations  of  tlio  power  of  war ;  and  the  law  of  nations 
has  clearly  ordained  that  a  prize  court  of  a  belligerent 
captor  can  not  exercise  jurisdiction  in  a  neutral  coun- 
try. This  prohibition  rests  not  merely  on  the  unfit- 
ness and  danger  of  making  neutral  ports  the  theatre 
of  hostile  proceedings,  but  it  stands  on  the  ground  of 
the  usage  of  nations.  It  was  for  some  time  supposed 
that  a  prize  court,  though  sitting  in  the  country  of  its 
uwn  sovereign,  or  of  his  ally,  bad  no  jurisdiction  over 
prizes  lying  in  a  neutral  port,  because  the  court  wanted 
that  possession  which  was  deemed  essential  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  jurisdiction  in  a  proceeding  in  rem.  I'he 
principle  was  admitted  to  be  correct  by  Sir  William 
Scott,  in  the  case  of  the  Henrick  and  Mn'm,  and  he 
acted  upon  it  in  a  prior  case.  Uut  he  cuii>idered  that 
the  English  admiralty  had  gone  too  far  in  supporting 
condemnations  in  England,  of  prizes  abroad  in  a  neu- 
tral port,  to  pernut  him  to  recall  the  vicious  practice 
of  the  court  to  the  acknowledged  principle ;  and  the 
English  rule  is  now  definitively  settled,  agreeably  to  the 
old  usage  and  the  practice  of  other  nations.  The  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  has  followed  the  En- 
glish rule,  and  it  has  held  valil  ilio  condemnations,  by 
a  belligerent  court,  of  prizes  car  t  into  a  neutral  port, 
and  remaining  there.  This  was  emed  the  most  con- 
venient practice  for  neutrals,  as  '  1  as  for  the  parties 
at  war;  and  though  the  prize  \t.i  in  fact,  within  a 
neutral  jurisdiction,  it  was  still  to  h>  i'  <  incd  under  the 
control,  or  tub  poleatate,  of  the  captor. — Kknt's  Com- 
mentariet,  vol.  i. 

Proa,  a  narrow  canoe  about  thirty  feet  long  by  three 
feet  wide,  used  in  the  Ladrone' Islands.  The  Ico  side 
is  flat,  being  the  mere  longitudinal  section  of  the  com- 
mon form,  and  the  head  and  stern  exactly  alike.  A 
slight  frame-work  projects  several  fuct  to  windwanl,  j  payee.     In  a  bill  of  exchange,  tlio  acceptor  i>  (hit  prU 


,         Mr, 

Chancellor  Kent  f.  :;ows  the  doHnition  of  Mr  itimliiw 
Ilayley ;  and  perhaps  each  is  open  to  the  uIiJihiiIiiii  (hut, 
while  it  seeks  brevity,  it  is  inconiplela,  an  It  diinii  not 
slate  that  the  promise  is  made  by  one  purNori  lu  \my 
the  money  to  another  person  apaeilied,  AllhoiiKll  • 
promissory  note  is,  in  contomiilaiion  of  law,  diitltlxd  to 
all  the  privileges  belonging  to  such  an  hmlruini'nt  liy 
the  Commercial  Law,  as  well  as  liy  thii  Cnmniuii  l,aw, 
without  being  negotiable,  yet  it  Is  the  lull»r  i|millly 
which  gives  it  its  principal  imimrtance  iind  viilun  In 
modern  times,  nnd  makes  it  a  clrcuhllii|{  iriHllr,  mi  »». 
tcnsively  useful  and  so  generally  r««iirtiid  tu  In  tlig 
commerce  of  the  world,  I'raniisaary  notnii  nr»  miw 
generally  miido  ncgotinlile,  by  Imlng  alalnd  tlixrtihl  to 
bo  payable  to  A  or  order,  or  to  the  order  of  A,  or  to 
A  or  bearer,  or  to  the  jjearer  gonorally,  I'liflinp^  (Im 
siient  but  steady  progress  in  England,  from  lliii  Mnipld 
use  of  the  non-negotiable  notes,  Imfora  tllii  ri'lun  of 
Queen  Anne,  to  the  present  almost  unlv«r«iil  ni'ifolla- 
bilityof  such  instruments  in  our  day,  can  not  li»  licltor 
expressed  than  by  referring  to  tho  'langnagii  of  llliti'k. 
stone,  where  ho  adverts  to  the  fact  that  proiiilnwiry 
iiotes  are  payable  "to  a  person  therein  niiiiiiwl,"  and 
then  cautiously  odds,  or  "Bometimcs  to  hU  otti)  ordnr, 
or  oftcner  to  the  bearer."  Tho  reverse  lahKiiiiKfi  iillKht 
befarmorejustly  usedinthepresuiit  day;  anil  It  iiilulit 
be  correctly  stated  that  promissory  notes  iirii  now  k<i||. 
crally  negotiable  by  being  payable  to  nrdnr,  iir  to  tliB 
bearer;  and  that  they  are  rarely  lindlncl  to  lie  jiiiyabls 
only  to  a  particular  person  named  tliorojn,  «'«'  nmy 
add  in  this  connection,  that  the  person  wlin  ninlti'M  Ihs 
note  is  called  the  maker,  and  tho  person  lo  wlioiii  It  It 
payable  is  called  the  payee  ;  and  when  It  Is  netfiillslik 
by  indorsement,  and  is  indorsed  by  the  payee,  hit  It 
called  tho  indorser,  and  the  person  lo  whom  llin  Inlsr- 
est  is  transferred  by  the  iiidursenient  is  callxit  tlin  lit- 
dorsee.  Every  indorsee  is  of  course  diiemoij  (he  hold- 
er, and  so  is  every  person  who,  by  a  triuufur  of  n  nots 
payable  to  tho  bearer,  becomes  cntillod  llinri'tii,  Thfl 
Scottish  law  seems  precisely  colneiiloiit  with  the  Kn> 
glish  law  as  to  promissory  notes,  except  to  fur  ns  rA- 
spects  the  remedial  process  thereon  ;  tliero  boliijj  iioms 
peculiar  privileges  annexed  thereto  In  Kcolland, 

It  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  the  djstjni!* 
tion  between  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notea  In 
their  general  structure  and  chnrncter,  In  u  bill  of  ox- 
change  there  are  ordinarily  three  original  parlies,  thA 
drawer,  tho  payee,  and  the  drawee,  who,  after  iiecept- 
nnce,  becomes  the  acceptor.  In  a  pronilssorv  lioto 
there  arc  but  two  original  parlies,  tho  maker  and  tht 


bearing  a  small  block  of  wood  like  a  canoe ;  this  fioat 
supports  tho  vessel  from  oversetting  to  that  side,  as 
she  would  otlicrwise  do,  and  the  frame-work  atfords 
support  for  a  weiglit  acting  against  the  pressure  of  the 
sail.  The  vessel  is  steered  by  tlic  paddle  at  either  end, 
and  moves  with  great  velocity  citlier  backward  or  for- 
ward, being  adapted  to  a  side  wind  in  running  between 
two  places.  The  sail  is  mat,  with  a  boom,  upon  one 
mast.  Proa  is  also  the  name  for  large  boats  used  by 
the  Malays,  propell(>d  both  by  oars  and  sails. 

Froduoe,  Froduotion.  mee  ariicUt  Wheat, 
Fi,oDn,  etc. 

PromiBBOry  Notes,  A  promissory  note  may  be 
defined  to  be  a  written  engagement  by  one  person  to  pay 
another  person,  therein  named,  absolutely  and  uncon- 
ditionally, a  certain  sum  of  money  at  a  time  specified 
therein,  Tho  definition  given  by  Mr.  Justice  Black- 
stone  is,  that  promissory  notes,  or  notes  of  hand,  arc  a 
plain  and  direct  engagement  in  writing  to  pay  a  sum 
specified  at  a  time  limited  therein,  to  a  person  therein 
named,  or  sometimes  to  his  order,  or  often  to  the  bear- 
er at  large.     Perhaps  this  definition  may  be  thought 


mary  debtor  in  the  contemplation  of  law  to  tho  pnyeA) 
and  the  drawer  is  but  collaterally  liable.  In  a  prum> 
issory  note,  tlie  mal.cr  is,  in  contemplation  of  law.  III* 
prininry  debtor.  If  a  note  be  negotiable,  and  U  In- 
dorsed liy  tho  payee,  then  there  occurs  a  sirlkllitf  r«- 
scmblanco  in  the  relations  of  the  parties  u|iiih  licilh  In- 
struments, although  they  are  not  in  all  respiu'ta  Iden- 
tical. The  indorser  of  a  note  stands  in  tho  saine  rnlo- 
tion  to  the  8ulisc(|uenb  parties  as  tho  drawer  of  n  bill, 
and  tho  maker  of  the  note  is  under  the  same  llabllitltt 
as  the  acceptor  of  a  bill. 

The  origin  of  promissory  notes  is  quite  as  obsenr* 
as  that  of  bills  of  exchange.  There  Is  no  doubt  tllkt 
promissory  notes  in  writing  (ihiroffrnphii)  were  wnlt 
known  and  in  use  among  the  Romans.  Of  ihls  w« 
have  an  instance  in  tlie  Digest :  ab  A  uln  A  uijerUi  (InilU 
»S'eii«  mutitam  qiiandam  quantitatem  aeerfit  hnci  eldrOm 
grapho:  ilk  scripsit,  me  acetpkge,  tl  acci'iii  iili  illn  ffiM- 
lum  et  numerato*  decern ;  quns  ei  reildmn  kulendii  illU 
proximis  cum  suis  umris  jil'icilia  iulemni  i  (iuiern,  nn  «* 
eo  imtrumenlo  usurm  peli  pnisint,  et  i/iimi  Mmletlimu 
spondil,  si  non  appareat  de  quihua  iiiurii  conmnlid/ufitt 


■"i: 


bulty  in  not  stating  that  tho  eugagemcu  t  is  to  bo  ol)-  i  »"'(,  pcti  cat  now  poise.    But  this  instrument  never  taeini 


PRO 


1592 


PRO 


to  havo  b«en  known  *a  a  ncRotlabla  instrument  among 
the  Komana,  or  *n  a  general  medium  used  in  purchases 
and  <alea,  with  that  superadded  quality ;  but  its  nego- 
.tiability  seems  to  be  exclusively  the  invention  of  mod- 
am  times.  Probably  the  origin  of  negotiable  promis- 
sory notes  is  somewhat  later  than  that  of  bills  of  ex- 
change, and  grew  out  of  the  same  general  causes  us  the 
latter,  viz.,  to  facilitate  the  operations  of  commerce, 
and  to  extend  the  negotiability  of  debts.  Mr,  Kyd's 
remarks  on  this  suljject  seem  at  once  well  founded  and 
satisfactory,  at  least  as  conjectures.  "As  commerce," 
says  lie,  "  advanced  in  its  progress,  the  multiplicity  of 
its  concerns  required,  in  many  instances,  a  leas  compli- 
cated mode  of  payment  than  by  bills  of  exchange,  A 
trader,  whose  situation  and  circumstances  rendered 
credit  frcm  thj  merchant  or  manufacturer,  who  sup- 
plied him  with  goods,  absolutely  necessary,  might  have 
so  limited  a  connection  with  the  commercial  world  at 
large  that  ho  could  not  easily  furnish  his  creditor  with 
a  bill  of  exchange  on  another  man.  But  his  own  re- 
sponsibility might  bo  such  that  his  aimplo  premise  of 
payment,  reduced  to  writing  for  the  purpose  of  evi- 
dence, might  be  accepted  with  equal  confidence  as  a 
bill  on  another  trader.  Hence,  it  may  reasonably  be 
coi\jectured,  promissory  notes  were  at  first  introduced." 
Undoubtedly  negotiable  promissory  notes  were  well 
known  upon  the  continent  of  Europe  long  before  their 
introduction  into  England.  They  were  prol)ably  first 
brought  into  use  in  England  about  the  middle  of  the 
X7th  century,  although  Lord  Holt  has  been  thought  to 
assign  to  them  a  somewhat  later  origin.  They  seem 
at  first  to  have  been  called  bills  of  debt,  or  bills  of 
credit,  indifferently.  Indeed,  as  Lord  Mnnsfield  has 
observed,  there  seems  much  confusion  in  the  "  Reports" 
in  the  times  of  King  William  and  Queen  Anne,  so  that 
it  is  difficult,  without  consulting  the  records,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  action  arose  upon  a  bill  or  note,  as 
the  words  "  bill"  and  "  note"  were  used  promiacnously. 
There  was  a  long  struggle  in  Westminster  Hall  as  to 
the  question  whether  promissory  notes  were  negotiable 
or  not  at  the  Common  Law,  for  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  they  were  by  the  Law  Merchant,  at  least  as  recog- 
nized upon  the  continent  of  Europe.  Lord  Holt  most 
strenuously,  and  with  a  pride  of  opinion  not  altogether 
reconcilable  with  his  sound  sense  and  generally  com- 
prehensive views,  maintained  the  negative.  The  con- 
troversy was  finally  ended  by  tlie  statute  of  3  and  4 
Anne,  ch.  9  (170d),  (made  perpetual  by  the  statute  of 
7  Aune,  eh.  25,  ace.  3,)  which,  after  reciting  that  prom- 
issory notes  had  been  held  not  negotiable,  proceeded  to 
enact,  "  That  all  notes  in  writing,  made  and  signed  by 
any  person  or  persona,  body  politic  or  corporate,  or  by 
the  servant  or  agent  of  any  corporation,  banker,  gold- 
smith, merchant,  or  trader,  who  is  usually  intrusted 
by  him,  her,  or  tliem,  to  ai|pi  such  promissory  notes  for 
him,  her,  or  them,  whereby  sucli  person  or  persons, 
body  politic  and  corporate,  his,  her,  or  their  servant  or 
agent  as  aforesaid,  doth  or  shall  promise  to  pay  to  any 
other  person  or  persons,  body  politic  and  corporate,  his, 
her,  or  tlieir  order,  or  unto  bearer,  any  sum  of  money 
mentioned  in  such  note,  shall  bo  taken  and  construed 
to  be,  by  virtue  thereof,  due  and  payable  to  any  such 
person  or  persons,  body  politic  and  corporate,  to  whom 
the  same  is  made  payable ;  and  also  every  such  note 
payable  to  any  person  or  persons,  body  politic  and  cor- 
porate, his,  her,  or  their  order,  shall  be  assignable  or 
indorsable  over,  in  the  same  manner  as  inland  bills  of 
exchange  are  or  may  be,  according  to  the  custom  of 
merchants ;  and  that  the  person  or  persons,  body  poli- 
tic and  corporate,  to  whom  such  sum  of  money  is  or 
shall  bo  by  such  note  ma<.'  <  payable,  ehall  and  may 
maintain  an  action  for  the  b.o.m,  in  such  manner  as  he, 
she,  or  they  might  do  upon  aii^  inland  bilUof  exchange, 
made  or  drawn  according  to  the  custom  of  merchants, 
against  the  person  or  persona,  body  politic  and  corpo- 
rate, who,  or  whose  servant  or  agent  as  aforesaid,  signed 
tiM  same ;  and  that  any  person  or  persons,  body  politic 


and  corporate,  to  whom  auch  note,  that  is  payable  to 
any  person  or  persona,  body  politic  and  corporate,  hia, 
her,  or  their  order,  ia  indorsed  or  assigned,  or  the  mon- 
ey therein  mentioned  ordered  to  be  paid  by  indorse- 
ment thereon,  shall  and  may  maintain  his,  her,  or  their 
action  for  auch  sum  of  money,  either  against  the  per- 
son or  persons,  body  politic  and  corporate,  who,  or 
whose  servant  or  agent  as  aforesaid,  signed  such  note, 
or  against  any  of  the  persons  that  indorsed  the  same, 
in  like  manner  as  in  cases  of  inland  bills  of  exchange." 
Ill  most  of  the  States  of  America  this  statute  Has  been 
either  expressly  adopted  by  statute,  or  recognized  as 
part  of  their  Common  Law.  A  few  only  have  deemed 
it  inapplicable  to  their  situation ;  and  in  some  States 
the  circulation  of  promisscry  notes  still  remains  clogged 
with  positive  restrictions  or  practical  difficulties,  which 
greatly  impede  their  use,  and  value,  and  circulation. 
Most,  if  not  all  commercial  nations,  have  annexed  cer- 
tain privileges,  benefita,  and  advantages  to  promissory 
notea,  as  they  have  to  billa  of  exchange,  in  order  to 
promote  public  confidence  in  them,  and  thua  to  inaure 
their  circulation  aa  a  medium  of  pecuniary  commercial 
tranaactiona.  In  England  and  America  they  partake 
in  a  very  high  degree  of  the  character  of  apecialtiea, 
and  are  deemed  to  import  prima  facie,  to  be  founded 
upon  •  valuable  consideration,  and  may  be  generally 
declared  on  without  specially  atating  what  the  partic- 
ular consideration  is;  in  which  circu:  :atance  they  dif- 
fer from  other  unsealed  contracts,  wliether  written  or 
unwritten.  Between  the  original  parties  the  consider- 
ation may  indeed,  as  a  matter  of  (!efcnse,  be  inquired 
into.  But  where  they  are  negotiable,  and  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  bona  Jide  holder  for  a  valuable  co.isidern- 
tion,  without  ony  notice  of  any  inherent  infirmity  or 
vice  in  their  original  concoction,  they  are  binding  i.pon 
the  antecedent  parties,  and  the  consideration  is  no '  in- 
quirable  into,  and  becomes  immaterial.  In  Scotland 
they  are  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  bills  of  ex- 
change, among  which,  besides  the  common  privileges 
in  England  and  America,  is  the  privilege  of  a  summary 
process  to  enforce  payment  upon  their  dishonor,  differ- 
ing from  the  ordinary  process.  The  like  summary 
process  is  given  by  the  French  law.  [And  a  similar 
statute  has  recently  been  enacted  in  England.]  Hei- 
neccius,  in  the  passages  already  referred  to,  states  that 
they  are  indorsable  like  billsof  exchange,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  the  law  of  prescription,  and,  in  case  of  dishono., 
are  open  to  the  same  process  and  mode  of  execution  as 
billa  of  exchange. — Story  on  Promitsoi-y  Nottt.  See 
Bills  ok  Exciianoe  and  Exciiamok. 

Promontory  (Latin  pro,  and  mem,  a  mountain'). 
In  Geography,  a  point  of  land,  whether  high  or  low  is 
indifferent,  projecting  into  the  sea. — See  Cape. 

ProtSOtlon,  in  Commercial  legislation,  means  the 
aid  given  (by  means  of  a  tariff  of  duties  on  foreign 
gooda)  to  those  articles  of  a  domestic  manufacture  or 
to  natural  products  which,  in  a  new  country,  require 
protection  in  order  to  compete  with  similar  articles 
produced  by  low  wages  and  cheap  capital  in  older 
countries.  England  has,  aubstantiaily,  been  built  np 
by  Protection.  The  United  States  adopted  a  similar 
policy  during  the  years  18V!0-184a,  which  was  modified 
by  the  tariff  of  IM'i.—See  Fkkg  Trade.  See  also 
Mer.  Afag.,  v.  16ii  (H.  GREKt.KY);  viii.  257;  vii.  843; 
N.  Am.  Rev.,  Ixxii.  896 (F.  Bowbn);  Ed.  ««».,  Ixxxiv. 
122  i  Weatmin.  Rev.,  xlv.  223 ;  Dk  Bow's  Rev.,  viii.  249. 

Providence,  city,  the  principal  port  of  entry,  and 
semi-capital  of  Rhode  Island;  situated  in  41='  49'  22" 
N.  lat.,  and  71°  24'  48"  W.  long,  from  Greenwich,  and 
1°  28'  24'  E.  long,  from  Washington.  It  is  30  miles 
north  of  Newport,  42  miles  aouth-southwest  from  Bos- 
ton, 70  milea  cast  of  Hartford,  178  miles  east  of  New 
York,  and  896  from  Washington.  Population  in  1820, 
11,767;  in  1830,16,882;  in  1840,28,171;  in  1850,41,513; 
in  1854,  60,000.  In  point  of  population  and  wealth 
I'rovidenco  is  the  second  city  in  New  England.  Its 
present  limits  contain  about  nine  square  miles.     The 


PRO 


1598 


VIIU 


eompkct  portion  of  the  illy  is  built  on  both  sides  of  I 
the  Providence  Kiver,  over  wbiih  are  constructed  two 
broad  and  substantial  wooden  bridges,  above  which 
the  river  expands  into  a  broad  and  beautiful  cove. 

There  were  in  Providence,  in  Morch,  1859, 88  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  914,690,550.  In  1865 
there  were  two  savings  banks^  with  aggregate  deposits 
of  (2,629,000;  six  mutual  and  six  stock  insurance 
companies,  with  marine  and  fire  risks  amounting  to 
♦66,000,000;  one  gas  company,  with  141,000  feet  of 
street  main  gas  pipes.  The  city  also  contained,  in  1857, 
73  steam-engines,  and  within  100  rods  of  the  city  line 
are  12  or  15  more  that  for  all  practical  purposes  belong 
here ;  56]ewelryestabUshment9,employingl400hand8, 
and  yielding  an  annual  product  of  12,771,600;  three 
bleaching  and  dyeing  works,  employing  350  hands,  and 
finishing  50,980,000  yards  of  goods ;  22  manufactories 
of  machinery,  steam-engines,  Ixiilers,  castings,  etc. ,  em- 
ploying  2062  hands,  9450  tons  of  coal,  11,095  tons  of 
pig-iron,  9801  tons  of  other  iron,  and  producing  annu- 
ally 33,800  stoves,  9,000,000  pounds  of  nails  and  spikes, 
80  steam-engines,  220  boilers,  3,584,000  pounds  of  nuts, 
etc.,  and  other  articles  to  the  total  value  of  $2,661,000 ; 
two  screw  factories,  that  yield  an  annual  product  of 
$1,086,000 ;  two  butt  factories,  that  produce  $235,000 ; 
and  a  great  variety  of  smaller  manufactories,  yielding 
together  an  annual  product  of  $17,400,000. 

Providence  has  great  commercial  facilities,  which 
have  been  well  improved.     The  harbor,  at  the  head  of 
Narraganset  Bay,  33  miles  from  the  ocean,  is  spacious, 
and  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  large  ships. 
Valcatiom  or  Pbopbiitt  im  Pbovidenoi. 


Vhk.  1          Rfnl. 

Persotift). 

ToUl. 

T«t, 

169,300 

380,1100 

1S4(1      ltU,6Tll,0IHI 
iaV>        n,S38,0fl0 
ISKi       3ll,ls8,000 

$10,910,800 
14,120,900 
20,108,200 

$2B,M)i),2IK) 
S1,9&9,600 

fi6,»l6,2(IO 

Provislona-  Under  this  term,  taken  in  its  most 
extensive  sense,  in  reference  to  man,  may  be  comprised 
all  those  articles  used  as  food  by  the  inhabitants  of  this 
and  other  countries ;  but  commercially  it  is  understood 
to  comprise  only  fresli  and  salted  butchers'  meat,  hams 
and  bacon,  butter  and  cheese,  eggs,  and  a  few  other 
articles. 

Valub  or  l.iVK  Stock,  aooob  jIno  to  Tmi  Census  op  1860, 
ur  Tna  L'iiitkd  i^tatks. 


Btfttw  Md  T«rritor(«i. 


AUbatna 

Arkausas 

Califomia 

Columbia,  UUtrict  of. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Maaaachuaetta 

Michigan 

HIsaiuIppI 

MInourl 

New  HampHhire .... 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

I'ennsylvania 

Khodo  iKland 

Bouth  Cnrollna 

Tenneatteo  

Texas 

Vermont 

VirBlnla 

Wlseonitn 

Minnesota  Territory . . 
New  Mexico  Territory. 

Oregon  Territory 

Vf&  Territory 


Swiaa. 


1,004.540 

886,  T2T 

a,7T« 

1,635 

70,472 

M,261 

209,463 

2,168.617 

1,915,907 

2,263,770 

323,247 

2,891,163 

597,801 

M,5CS 

852,011 

81.119 

206,817 

1,582,734 

1,702,625 

63,487 

260,370 

1,018.252 

1,812.813 

1.964,770 

1,040,866 

19,509 

1,085.603 

3,104,800 

692,022 

66. '296 

1,829,813 

159,276 

734 

7,814 

80,235 

914 


V«lue  of 
Live  Stock. 


V>lu>  of 

ADlmala 

■lauKlit^red. 


$21,691),  000 

6,047,{KIO 

3,361,000 

71,000 

7,4O7,IW0 

1,819,000 

2,880,001) 

2.%,  7:8, 000 

24, 209,  IKK) 

22,478.000 

3.689,000 

23,60I.(IO<) 

ll,ir>2,(lOO 

9,706,000 

7,9!17,0(HI 

9,617,000 

8,0115.000 

19,403,000 

19,887,000 

8,871,000 

10,679,000 

"8,570,000 

17,717,000 

44,121,000 

41,600,000 

1,5.12,000 

16,060,000 

29,978,000 

10,412,000 

12,643,000 

33,656,000 

4,897,000 

92,000 

1,4')4.000 

1,876,000 

516,000 


$4,,V«,00O 
1,103,000 

107,000 

0,000 

2,202,000 

373.000 

614,000 
6.339,000 
4.972,000 
6,607,000 

821,0(10 
6,462.000 
1,458,000 
1,(140,000 
l,9,'i4,000 
2.600,000 
1,328,000 
3,(130,000 
3,307,000 
1.622,000 
2.63S,000 
13,.'J73.O00 
5,767,000 
7.439,0(10 
8,210.000 

667,000 
3,502,(1(10 
6,401,000 
1.116,000 
1.861,010 
7,502,000 

920.000 

2,000 

82,000 

164,000 
67,000 


Prunes  and  Pninonoai, «  •|i«kIii«  of  itrlnil  jdiimi, 
of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  'I  hw  llnniit  iru  li:;> 
ported  from  Franco,  in  Ilia  south  of  whl'  h  llils  fruit  la 
very  abundant.  'I'ho  best  prunes  «r«  pavkcd  In  ham- 
pers or  baskets  made  of  white  uiilers,  wtiltsliliiu  from 
six  to  ten  poimds  each ;  the  second  i|imlUy  In  i|uarleri, 
and  the  tliinl  in  puncheons, 

Pniasla  (on«  </  ilta  XuU.  Vtr*in),   Th«  I'r iixslun  ler. 
ritory  is  not  much  mora  than  two.llflli«  of  lliti  sizti  of 
that  of  Austria,  and  thii  larger  portion  of  It  llrs  wlllilii 
the  limits  of  the  great  and  coinpiir»llv«ly  liarrnh  |ildln 
which  extends  from  the  Iloheiiilari  And  CitrcnllpUB 
Mountains  to  tlie  Baltlo  Sea,    Tlie  unialltir  hihI  mora 
fertile  part  of  the  Prutslaii  turrllory,  Bitllnd  tlw  (Iraint 
Duchy  of  the  Lower  Uhlne,  lies  In  tlw  |c,witr  part  of  iho 
basin  of  that  river,  and  U  lepariiled  from  llit(  tiialn 
body  of  tho  kingdom  by  the  Inlervuiilinn  of  lldnovnf, 
Saxony,  and  other  (icrnisn  stalijs,    Thorn  nrn,  boaldcs, 
several  smaller  districts  scattered  In  (lin  heart  of  Ocr- 
many;  and  with  a  territory  thus  BcalUrod  and  dis- 
jointed, tho  rank  of  Prussia  as  a  ({r«At  ttRt«  \\m  liecn 
sustained  chiefly  through  the  superiority  (.f  hor  Intorti- 
al  organization,  and  the  wary,  teiiiporl»ln>{,  and  even 
shuffling  policy  of  her  goveniinent,  furtifld  upon  Ihum, 
indeed,  by  tho  defenselessneas  of  «  klllgdutil  without 
natural  frontiers,  or  physical  cenlrAllly,  or  *  psopU 
united  by  language,  and  national  funlliiK,  Hiid  Intiircst. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  tlm  piiople  |  liiit 
in  the  Khenish  provinces  the  cotton,  and  In  Hlli<»la  Iho 
linen  manufactures,  are  carrkd  on  (o  a  urtiAt  and  In- 
creasing extent.   Prussia  necussarlly  nialiitaltis  A  large 
standing  army,  but  has  no  naval  nowi^r;  Iho  klotf, 
however,  has  recently  piirclia«o(l  Ilia  port  of  ilahilB 
from  the  Giard  Duke  of  UldenlmrK  foi;  tint  purpose 
of  a  naval  station,  and  has  beijun  tlia  foniiHtlon  of  • 
fleet.    Tho  kingdom  was  \X\\  recently  an  Rlmolute  mon- 
archy, but  has  now  received  A  Cgn»lUullon, 

Tho  firjt  treaty  of  amity  and  eon)ii)tiri(«  listween  tha 
United  States  and  Prussia  was  iiti({utiAt«d  In  17x1). 
This  was  renewed  in  17!IU,  and  ixplntd  In  INK).  In 
1828a  new  treaty  was  concjudeil  I  ri  Iho  two  gov- 

ernments, which  is  still  in  force,  ii'r  Ilia  former 

treaties  tho  vessels  of  the  two  high  >  ••  iaiUlt))(  parlies 
were  reciprocally  allowed  to  |Mi|iorl  llix  (iixids  which 
were  of  the  produce  or  maiiufuctdru  uf  tlii<lr  r>'»|)«i'llvo 
nations.  Tho  latter  treaty,  however,  i>tl|>iilMti'»  ontlro 
reciprocity  and  freedom  of  coniinurco,  'Clio  vmfwls  of 
each  nation  are  allowed  to  l)nport  Into  ths  oilier  tht 
productions  of  their  own  or  of  any  other  country.  Tlio 
direct  trade  between  tho  United  Sl«t"»  ailil  I'niMitt  Is, 
howevei,  very  inconslileralilo.  Thoro  U  icAfetily  «ny 
article  of  American  production  diini»ll(l<i(l  In  I'mssla, 
except  tobacco,  rice,  and  raw  cotton  (  nor  Is  llicrs  any 
bulky  artide  of  Prussian  produci  wRiUnd  ill  the  Amer- 
ican markets. 


ViSSBI.B  ENTEBEO    KW  Rl.iAAin. 


—St*  artidf  Bacon,  Pork,  Wheat,  Flouk,  etc. 


Entered  loaded 

Ofwhich  wore  {-!!-'; 

Kntcrcd  In  ballast 

Cleared  loaded 

Inatlonal 


Of  whit^h  were 


Cleared  in  ballast . 


"(foreign . 


NiiDibcr. 
17'.'4 

•m-i 
■Mi 

2U36 
ft^76 

37.18 
981 


4H.«),'I 
21 1,6m 

■m.\titt 

V74TMI 
6^ft,(W3 
•/n.lC'II 
ll()T,t-H) 


Vmiij.-f   'f.'fiKiiiir^ 
Bill*   I  (JILOdf 
«I4(61 


'i.Jiil 

mil 
i'lvi'i 

IHVT 
iiMfl 


mm 

JliiT,»ltb 


Ijironrs  Asn  Expobtb  to  and  vb.im  Tua  I'KITIili  ^TAfM 

ANO  I'BIBSIA,  raOM  1860  TO  185,'),  IHITH  lN(l(,|i)>IV(l. 


1850.. 
1861., 
186!. , 
1?.'>3.. 
1s,M., 
1856. 


V»lufl  uf  liiibortd 
into  l'oit«<l  liU(«* 

$27,469'" 

20.Mii 

21,283 

47,875 

47,773 
237,614 


I    ValiK  rif  KlIMIa 
I  (Mi(i_t:)i|(-ti  «0K#«. 

15,0  111 
llliHIA 

{J«,1IT 


31,'MA 


«  A- 


iiii 


The  following  statement  exhibits  the  v»lM  ef  a*^ 


PRU 


1504 


PRU 


port!,  tho  proiliico  and  manufacture  of  Pruauli,  to  tlio  I  to  INAB,  liotll  ItinlHulvA,  »\meity{nf(  (ho  plocei  at  which 
United  Slatea  during  a  period  of  live  yean,  from  iHbl  |  iiald  uxjiurtii  w«r«  lilll|)fi«(l  fur  the  ttnlted  Hlatea: 


1861*. 
IS-VJ  . . 
1853.. 
1864*. 
1S6S . . 


Ilimburi. 
$47,000 
V09  843 
87!1,030 
17B,n;!l 
204.714 

BrsnMD. 
$474,7111 
l,41l),706 
1, 600,078 
1,071,680 
I.UN'i.HIS 

Hallud, 

♦fft.BST  " 
47,74« 

14,014 
«7,UI4 

I.OIH.OM 
I.Nill  4UA 

l,0M,'^4V 

VnflfiHfH, 

1     UntLU 

tm.iH 

^•iKi.im 

44't,m< 

l,0ld,'<48 

miKtm 

1.014,1116 

IW)t.7l7 

l,'i(IMIJ4 

M(Mt04 

1,0411,403 

Tlll4l. 


1 


«l,9r>h,l8A 
n,4li0.734 
6,7ia,4Jl 
B,  1175, 200 
T,0it4,M2t 


*  ThcM  rcturna  are  for  the  port  of  Now  York  only,  »ul  for  •!«  iitolltll',  'I'lm  t  li<|iKr(im'lt(  In  Hot  In  irn<iii(<Hliiii  of  tlin  rnn 
uUitu  data  to  oxiilbtt  tliu  gensrat  trailo  for  theu  yuut.  'the  otlwr  ytiarit,  UuwevuH,  t'luw  tlio  gniirnil  riiiiiuI  rnlue  of  tlio 
tndirvct  trade. 


Witli  Great  Dritain  and  France,  Prussia  maintain! 
■n  active  and  annuaiiy  increasing  commor.'ial  inter- 
course.  'I'liis  trado  is  chictly  conducted  throuKl>  the 
port  of  Stettin.  In  1H&2  tlie  general  navigation  of 
this  port  wax  us  foiiows  -. 

VnsBKi.B  ENTBKEn  ml  roiii  OF  STrrTiM  IK  tSBJ. 

From  I'.iiRlaiid 880 

**     Fr«nce 20 

"     LnitedHtatca B 

**     Kuiuia 15 

"     Dcnmnik  30 

'*     Mcdlteri-aneim 2i) 

Total  niimbiT  of  vessrU  entered 370 

ViBBELS  OLKARKD  FUOH  TUI   I'OaT  01'   H'ETTIM   IH   1852. 

Tor  Kngland ISO 

"    ynme 80 

"    Uonmark 80 

"  -Ku«iila IfS 

"    Ilelgluni S 

**    Hwcden 4 

"    Norway 10 

"    Holland _a 

Total  number  cleared liOB 

From  tlio  United  States  tho  imports  into  this  port 
are;  rice,  nslics,  rosin  nnd  turpentine,  and  >vhnle-oiI; 
thouKh,  owing  to  its  Iii^'h  price  within  tho  past  few 
}'ears,  tlic  article  last  named  has  almost  ceased  to  lie 
imported  from  tlie  I'nited  States.  Sugar  liaa  also  dis- 
appcare<l  from  tliu  list  of  imports,  for  the  reason  tliat 
the  refineries  in  tho  liultic  ports  chiefly  use  beet-root 
sugar.  ' 

Tho  value  of  imports  from  the  Lnited  States  Into 
this  port  for  the  years  1851,  1852,  and  1853,  and  the 
duties  levied  thereon,  aro  thus  given  in  Prussian  olll- 
clal  reports : 

ISM $329,870— Amount  of  duty $26,l(i() 

Wrr2 134,310  "  111,270 

1*53 79,NS3  "  8,020 

The  port  of  Memel  is  also  the  centre  of  no  inconsid- 
cralilo  iiiiare  of  tlio.  direct  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  Pru.s.sia.  From  Ist  July  to  Slst  December, 
1851,  tlicro  entered  this  port  from  the  United  States, 
in  tlie  direct  trade,  five  vessels,  measuring  an  uggru- 
gate  tonnage  of  '25(15  tons,  and  floiiting  8171  bales  of 
cotton,  valued  ut  .'5illl,50O.  Outwa  d  cargoes  consisted 
of  he;tip,  rope,  canvas,  yarn,  mats,  bags,  and  leather. 

At  tho  port  of  KOnigslierg  there  arrived  from  tho 
United  States  from  1st  July,  1854,  to  1st  Januaiy, 
1855,  seven  American  vessels,  floating  cargoes  in  valuJ 
$85)8,000— namely,  9680  bales  of  cotton,  1700  gallons 
of  oil,  and  3(iuO  boxes  of  sugar.  Outward  ciirgoes  con- 
sisted of  hemp,  yam,  bristles,  fcatheis,  ravcn's-duck, 
cordage,  horse-hair,  soap,  and  tallow,  to  the  aggregate 
value  of  §730,000. 

The  general  foreign  trn.lo  of  this  port  is  considera- 
ble. Its  exports  consift  of  grain,  ivoolens,  silks,  soap, 
starch,  fealing-wax,  and  refined  sugar.  Its  imports, 
however,  largely  exceed  in  value  its  exports.  Tho 
former  in  1851  amounted  to  al)out  0,000,000  thalera, 
■while  the  latter  only  reached  a  little  over  4,000,000. 

The  harbor  of  Konigslnsrg  admits  amali  vessels  only ; 
large  Biii|,8  land  at  i'illau,  which  is  also  tho  port  of 
Elbing  and  Braunsberg. 

Dantzic  is  the  only  remaining  port  of  Prussia  In 
which  foreign  trado  is  conducted.  It  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  three  and  a  half  miles 


t  'lids  IlieludeF.  t'.'Ofi,  via  llutUtrdam. 
from  ila  initlnt  tt^.  W«<li'hM<linOnde,  -rA  la  aecessilde  to 
vassuU  drnwiliK  Irniti  «lMlit  to  nine  feet  water.  Larger 
vessnls  lla  In  thti  NniiffilirnHSaer.  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  or  til  Um  ro>iil>i,  which  iillord  good  anchorage  for 
vassolt  of  miy  liiirdmi,  lla  cMpiirts  consist  of  wheat, 
rye,  barliiy,  unta,  pfna,  llotfr,  llnteed,  rape-aeed,  biscuit, 
provUiuna,  «ahti*,  /.liic,  Imnea,  limlier,  atsvea,  hemp, 
flax,  liiiona,  w»ul,  nlis  Thn  Iwpnrla  compriae  woolen 
and  ailknii  ndiltV,  utitl  other  ninttiifactured  gooda;  colo- 
nial prudunla,  ilyita,  yiiiw,  nil,  afilcp,  fruit,  salt,  and  fura. 

At  Hlitttin,  piirt  dupa  iiroi  'I'onmrge  duty,  14  silver 
groseliun  iiiir  laat,  Itdnn,  and  otie  half  only  if  in  ballaat. 
This  would  Iw  ttlioiit  lO'l  centa  per  ton  If  laden,  and 
8'06  eonta  p«r  Iwn  If  In  h«llaat,  i'llotage  dues,2i  tha- 
lera per  VA  \nDlH,  Ittid  it)  ftllver  grnschon  for  every  10 
laata  upwHrd,  'llila  «<f|n«ls  tl  T^  per  60  tons,  and 
84 1  eonta  pwr  mury  io  Umn  iinward, 

J'oft  ttti/ukltimii.'^'i'im  futlowing  regulationi  apply 
to  all  rho  )'rua»lMii  ptirtai  On  n  ahip  arriving  in  the 
road  or  purt,  tint  inaatvr  must  submit  to  the  police 
regulatlnMa  of  tho  iiiirt,  which  are  made  known  to  him 
ur  the  olliettr  In  t'linmiatitl  |  the  master  la  then  required 
to  procuu'I  to  lliH  flMKlwn-lioiiso  and  deliver  a  complete 
manifest  of  thii  fUrtfii.  'I'hia  manifest  or  general  decla- 
ration Is  riii|ulr«d  10  ulnUi  tilearly  If  the  whole  cargo  is 
to  bo  vntarpil  M  tint  port,  and  the  part.  If  any,  which  is 
to  bu  earriud  fitrllmr  In  lh«  ship ,  that  part  to  he  atated 
under  «  apoelHl  ImaiI,  'I'ho  tnerchandlae,  as  per  bills 
of  latling,  is  tliioi  Ptttprfd  r«gtilarly.  Tho  statements 
for  entry  itru  Ui  \m  drawn  up,  apeiifylng  the  deacrip- 
tion,  weight,  nmaaiire,  ur  tpinnlily,  agreeably  to  a  zoll- 
larilf  fur  lliti  pMyni«nl  uf  duties.  Kxcepting  various 
artii'lea  lni|inrti<ii  In  an  unpacked  state,  the  following 
measure*  aro  U)  Im  «di'pted  i  For  beer  In  caska,  tuna  of 
100  I'ruaahtn  ((nana  I  fur  wines,  brandy,  and  vinegar. 
In  casks  (winiora)  uf  W)  I'ruaslan  ipiarts ;  for  herrings, 
b.-^rreN)  for  I'nriM'il  chalk,  tuns  of  4  Prussian  bushels; 
for  all  othsr  fim'Umi  nrtletea,  centners  of  110  pounds 
grosa  weight,  If  ihsr*  ho  several  packages  ot  similar 
artietxa,  ami  !>wdi  |iAi'ltHf$a  contains  an  equal  quantity,, 
they  may  bo  »nt«r«<rl  Uigelhet,  accur ling  to  their  nuiii- 
b«r  and  »\/,a,  «nd  with  a  fti^neral  alatemcnt  of  the  con- 
tonta,  Jf  iho  i-'uilt*l)t»  uf  the  pachngca  vary,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  apot'lfy  the  contenia  of  each.  The  luggage 
of  pa«a«ng><r«  ntiiat  he  tioled  aa  such  In  tho  manifest. 
If  It  consUt  of  naiml  traveling  luggage,  It  will  lie  suffi- 
cient te  ktHto  (ho  Mveral  boxes  or  parcela ;  liut  if  it  in- 
clude gnnda,  lltt<»«  ninat  h«  staled  according  to  number 
and  deacrlpllon.  The  persona)  property  of  tho  master, 
with  tho  uiti'iiption  u{  provlalotia,  must  lie  slated  like 
otiier  gooiU,  but  oniUlltifj  the  declaration  to  a  con- 
aignee)  and  It  liluat  tiau  bn  staled  In  the  declaration 
what  aro  tho  nrtMoi  t'hlch  aro  not  in  the  ship's  hold. 
A  form  U  preiHtnlof)  le  tho  master  to  fill  up  aa  his  re- 
port. It  niiiat  Im  Itllei;  up  exactly  according  to  this 
form,  and  written  clearly  In  IhoYiemian  language. 
This  deelarathtn  fa  hlndlng  on  the  master,  and  each 
error  that  nmy  Im  itlacuvered  on  the  unlading,  or  on 
axamlnittlun,  nuMw^a  him  to  a  penally  stated  in  the 
customa  Iawk,  If  tho  maalcr  haa  not  a  report  with 
him,  ha  may  hnvo  nti«  prepared  In  the  port  liy  a  cus- 
toms oAli'uri  In  which  c«m  he  dellvera  all  his  papers 
to  the  officer,  who  atainpa  and  numliera  them,  the  last 
numliur  IihIdk  niNrkxd  aa  auch,  Tlie  master,  at  tho 
aaiiitt  tlmo,  infurina  the  ultlcer  t^f  the  goods  or  luggage 


PRU 


1695 


PBU 


t    iiiKinR  to  htinsoU*  or  to  paaaorifjon,  tf  thcro  lie  no 
>cvOunt  of  tho  aamo ;  the  oDkur  iiiukua  out  a  list  tliure- 
of,  which  ia  al);iic(l  liy  tbo  nmatur,  und  returned,  in 
order  tu  bo  inaerted  in  tho  report.     If  the  report  haa  to 
bo  prepitred  on  ahorc,  it  niuat  liu  delivered  to  the  ciis- 
tonia  ollicera  within  24  hnura  after  the  arrival  of  tlie 
ship  in  till  road ;  If  not,  posaeaaion  will  be  taken  of  the 
ship  at  tho  inaalcr'a  oxpenae.     Customs  otHcera  niuy 
take  posseaalon  of  tho  ship  at  onco,  free  uf  expenae.     It 
ia  required  of  tho  master  to  proruro  tho  neceaaary  In- 
formation for  tho  report,  In  tho  arranged  manner,  on 
receipt  of  tht  cargo.     If  he'doca  ?\ot  ao  prepare  hhn- 
■elf,  the  customs  officers  uasumo  tho  whole  direction  of 
landing  the  cargo,  according  to  tho  regular  inatructiona 
in  aiich  cases.    Knapectliig  tho  ship's  provisions,  if  they 
conalst  of  articles  which  pay  a  conaumption  duty,  a 
separate  report  is  required  in  duplicate :  one  is  return- 
ed to  tho  ninstiir  after  revision,  In  order  that  he  niuy 
tako  on  board  an  eiiual  quantity  of  similar  provisions 
when  ho  sails.     If  ho  fuila  in  this,  or  if  the  aailing  is 
delayed  beyond  a  twclvoniontl',  tho  consumption  duty 
must  ho  paid  on  tho  provisions  remaining  on  hand. 
Tho  master  Is,  however,  at  liberty  to  deposit  the  pro- 
visions at  the  custom-house  until  he  sails,  subject  to 
the  consumption  duty  If  not  taken  away.      Articles 
;iot  properly  forming  a  part  of  tho  cargo  aro  so  con- 
sidered if  they  undoubtedly  appertain  to  tho  ship's  in- 
ventory, and  aro  articles  for  tho  ueo  of  tho  voyogc. 
Articles  which  are  not  considered  as  such,  ars  to  pay 
duty  if  they  be  subject  to  a  consumption  tax ;  or  they 
may  be  landed,  In  order  to  be  deposited  In  tho  custom- 
house.    If  a  vessel  remains  in  the  road,  and  does  not 
enter  tho  port,  and  only  discharges  tlio  cargo  Into  light- 
ers, the  consumption  of  provisions  in  the  road  is  iluty 
free.     A  report  of  the  provisions  is  aullicient,  and  no 
further  control  over  tho  same  is  observed,  except  in 


particular  cases  when  considered  noceasnry.      If  the 
master  ia  bound  fur  anotlicr  ileetination,  and  only  en- 
tera  the  harbor  through  diatrcss,  then  t  general  inspec- 
tion is  only  made.  In  order  thnt  no  part  of  the  cargo 
may  bo  disposed  uf.     A  report,  huwever,  is  to  be  mado 
of  the  cargo,     In  cases  of  shipwreck,  on  the  salvage  of 
tho  cargo,  the  kii^d  and  quantity  is  aacortained,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  regular  olKcers,  and  the  cargo 
shall  bo  placed  in  security  until  further  directions  are 
issued.    The  cargo  of  vessels  which  winter  in  Prussian 
ports  must  Im  declared  witliunt  unnecessary  delay.  In 
as  far  as  the  ship's  papers  and  the  knuwledgn  uf  the 
muster  alTurd  infurmatlun.    An  inspection  of  tho  outer 
parts  and  decks  of  tho  vessel,  and  tho  stores  or  articles 
thereon,  takes  place  at  once,  and  tlie  ports  or  liatcb- 
ways  of  tho  ship's  hold  are  then  locked.     Until  the 
declaration,  Inapectiun,  and  locking  up  of  tho  vessel 
take  place.  It  is  watched  at  tho  expense  of  tho  captain ; 
which  guarding,  in  particular  cases,  miiy  continue  as 
long  as  the  customs  offlcers  may  consider  necessary. 
Ldilps  which  only  anchor  In  the  roadii,  and  do  not  enter 
the  port,  aro  not  considered  within  tho  control  of  the 
customs  olHcers ;  they  must  not,  however,  hold  inter, 
course  with  tho  shore  or  the  port,  without  delivering  n 
report  and  their  pnpors.     If  the  ship  remain  in  the 
ruads  longer  than  H  hours  after  tlio  declaration  ia 
mado,  without  entering  or  proceeding  to  unload,  unless 
tho  one  or  tho  other  bo  prevented  by  stress  of  weather, 
then  an  oflicer  repairs  to  tho  ship,  examines  the  decks, 
etc.,  und  locks  up  the  hatches,  etc.,  of  tlie  hold.     To 
the  ollicera  who  are  on  aervice  on  board  tho  vessel, 
proper  maintenance  is  to  bo  allowed,  the  same  ns  Is  af- 
forded to  travelers  of  the  trading  class.    The  folluwing 
table  exhibits  tho  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States 
Willi  I'russia  for  37  years,  giving  tho  domestic  and  for- 
I  cign  exports,  the  imports,  and  tonnage. 


C'oHMiBoi  or  TUi  Unitid  States  with  Prcbsia  fbom  Ootobeb  1,  1820,  to  ,1ui.y  1, 1S5T. 


Yun  «DdlDg 

EiporU. 

iDiporta. 

whereof  there  wis  id 
nulllon  i,n*l  Specie. 

Tonoagi  cletrcd 

DoiDMUe. 

Foreign. 

Total 

Tolnl. 

Export. 

Ini|.ort. 

Aninrican. 

KorciffQ. 

Scpt30,18Jl 

18M 

.... 

.... 

$1,899 

,... 

.... 

.... 

1823 

$7,203 

$503 

$7,830 

.... 

•  •    •    • 

120 

.... 

18M 

MOB 

5,103 

• .  • . 

.... 

18i5 

4,«18 

12.060 

17,603 

21,260 

.... 

217 

18-20 

16,129 

3,421 

18.660 

107,015 

.    .    .    • 

.... 

313 

.... 

18.>7 

8,,M,'S 

. .  • « 

8,515 

89,7,')8 

•    .    .    . 

.... 

150 

.  .  .. 

1838 

in,430 

.... 

15,430 

130,1104 

.... 

117 

.... 

18'2» 

14,411 

.... 

14,411 

22,!!35 

•    .    •    • 

.... 

188 

.... 

183U 

Total... 

10.611 

.... 

10,501 

10,005 

.... 

.... 

232 

$37,u36 

$10,039 

$103,974 

$346,0:26 

.... 

1120 

217 

Scpt.30,lSSl 

$27,04.1 

$27,048 

$60,970 

.    •  *  • 

.... 

3S7 

...  * 

18M 

11,110 

11,110 

2T  927 

.... 

.... 

179 

1H33 

1-^,812 

12,812 

124„'>70 

.... 

1 

18!H 

lr>,30;) 

$3,510 

18  810 

14,045 

.... 

299 

183.'5 

63,00! 

2,0S2 

65,748 

88,543 

.... 

.... 

239 

.... 

1830 

00410 

0il,41o 
189,985 

81,301 

.... 

1,17T 

1M37 

100.658 

83,4i7 

497,8>9 

•    .    •  . 

.... 

4.025 

1838 

05,001 

1U,2S3 

81,944 

0,029 

.... 

.... 

240 

1.433 

lS.Si) 

2;),313 

43,610 

72,813 

70,412 

..    .• 

.... 

816 

^.^iM 

1S40 

ToUl... 

4:i,363 

4.3,115 

80.468 

69, 3  W 

.... 

600 

1,677 

$430,029 

$145,517 

$570,146 

$971,530 

.... 

.... 

2307 

19,346 

Sept.  80, 1841 

$149,211 

$20,705 

$176,970 

$30,119 

.... 

. .  •* 

BI7 

3.342 

1S42 

149,141 

7,647 

l,V),fl33 

18,l'./2 

.... 

2,  ,163 

9inos.,   1843» 

22.',(I3» 

i8,,'!;io 

>40,3C9 

.... 

2173 

1,996 

Juno  80, 1844 

iiM.flim 

23,903 

J18.5T4 

12,009 

.... 

104 

6.009 

184B 

602,007 

05,114 

6ii7.121 

3I,08> 

.... 

947 

9,631 

1840 

S:iO,2!l) 

89,045 

435.,S.55 

81.,')84 

.... 

1170 

7,275 

1847 

182,259 

19,907 

202,100 

7.li"8 

.... 

.... 

6.121 

1S4S 

146,074 

15,386 

100,469 

22,817 

.... 

3,750 

184) 

34,703 

9,610 

44,219 

17,087 

.... 

.... 

240 

606 

4,887 

IbOO 

Total, , . 

70,0» 

27,991 

98,636 

27,409 

$2,045,8.:B 

$254,168 

$>,309,U03 

$20.Mil7 

.... 

6247 

43,435 

June80,18Sl 

^80  409 

$5,444 

$^.'>.913 

$  0,,^42 

.... 

184 

1,6.".5 

18ft2 

93. 233 

1,53 

93.380 

21.263 

• ..  • 

18r.3 

1S64 

20,911 

1,806 

28,717 

47.875 
47,773 

.... 

.... 

293 
295 

18,^5 

20,400 

in,8^>0 

31,'.'0fl 

337.814 

.    .    .    • 

.... 

.... 

1,174 

18,^6 

70,307 

9,395 

711,702 

101,109 

.... 

203 

1,827 

185T 

80.788 

i4,aii 

45.099 

66.127 

949 

1,334 

— iSse  article  Zoi.l-Vekein  for  a  general  account  of  the  foreign  commerce. 

*  Nino  months  to  June  80,  and  the  fiscal  year  from  this  Ume  begins  July  1. 


PKU 


lfi90 


PRIJ 


Pnuwlan  Blue,  or  Pnualate  of  Iron  (Oor. 

BtrliHtrhlau ,  Vt.  Hlrudtl'ruue,  It.  .Iiwrra /V«Mi(i»ti, 
Mp.  AzulJe  J'ruitmi  li\i»*.  Ijitar  llfxlinikaja),  n  livaii- 
tlful  <lorp  liltio  powder,  arciilentslly  illnravurvil  at  I  or- 
lln  in  t'lO.  It  la  of  coiialduraljlu  inipurlnnco  in  tliu 
arts,  bciiii;  axtcniilvely  uu'd  by  pahitcra ;  It  ia  tnatni- 
factureil  in  tlita  country.  Many  Bttcmpla  have  licon 
madu  to  rondiT  I'rnaaian  blun  avallalilu  for  tlie  dycinK 
of  liroad-olotlia,  Imt  without  nmrli  aucccsa.  Tliii  dlffl- 
ciilty  ia  to  ditl'uao  tlio  color  ri|uully  over  thu  aurfiiic; 
for,  fnini  ila  extraordinary  vivarity  and  luatrc,  the 
ili);hti'at  incc|ualilii'a  atriico  andotl'end  tho  rye.  I'nia- 
iian  liltiu  roniata  tho  air  and  aun  extremely  well;  hut 
it  can  not  Imj  uted  in  llio  dyelni;  of  coltona,  or  any  aort 
of  atutl'that  ia  to  liu  waahed  with  anap,  aa  tho  alkali 
contained  in  the  anap  readily  di^aolvea  and  acparatea 
the  coloring  matter. — ll.\N(riniKT  on  dolom.  Ilino  ia 
a  favorite  color  with  tho  Chlncae,  and  in  lt*IO-'ll  thu 
imports  of  I'ruaaian  lilue  into  Canton  from  Kngland 
amounted  to  IM'Jll  |)icula,  or  VA:),200  Ilia,  lint  for  aomu 
yenra  past  tho  C'hincso  have  not  Imported  a  aluKle 
pound  weight.  The  rauKe  of  the  ceasation  of  the  trade 
dcaervea  to  be  mentiono<l,  A  common  CIdncae  aailor, 
vho  ranio  to  Kngland  In  an  Kaat  Indiaman,  having 
frequented  a  manufactory  where  the  drug  was  prepared, 
Icar'ied  tho  art  of  making  It;  and  on  his  return  to  China 
he  e^itabliaiied  a  similar  work  there,  with  audi  auccesa 
that  tho  whole  omplro  la  now  amply  aupplicd  with 
nativi  Pruaslan  blue !  Tho  Wost  liua  derived  many 
important  arta  from  the  East;  but  we  inclino  to  think 
that  thia  is  the  tlrat  well-authenticated  instance  of  any 
art  having  ever  been  carried  from  tho  Weat  to  tho  East 
by  a  native  of  the  latter.  But  in  all  that  respects  in- 
dustry, ingenuity,  and  invention,  tho  Chinese  are  in- 
comparably superior  to  every  other  people  to  the  east 
of  Ihu  Indus. 

PruBslan  or  0«nnan  Commercial  Union. 
Next  to  the  eflbrta  of  thu  I'rus.siau  guvernmci.t  to  dif- 
fuse tho  blessings  of  education,  their  ctl'urts  to  intro- 
duce a  frre  commercial  system  into  Germany  consti- 
tute their  Ijcst  claim  to  the  gratitude  and  esteem  of 
their  own  subjects,  and  of  tho  world.  Germany,  as 
every  one  knows,  ia  divided  into  a  vast  number  of  in- 
dependent, and  mostly  petty  states.  Until  a  very  re- 
cent period,  every  one  of  these  states  had  ita  own  cus- 
tom-houses, and  Us  own  tarift'and  revenue  laws ;  whieli 
frequently  dillered  very  widely  indeed  from  tlioso  of 
ItB  neighbors.  The  internal  trade  of  tlie  country  was, 
in  consequence,  subjected  to  all  those  vexatious  and 
ruinous  restrictions  that  arc  usually  laid  on  tho  inter- 
course  between  distant  and  independent  states.  Each 
petty  slate  cndeavorell  either  to  procure  a  revenue  for 
itself,  or  to  advance  its  own  industry,  by  taxing  or 
prohibiting  the  productions  of  those  by  which  it  was 
surrounded ;  and  customs  olBcers  and  lines  of  custom- 
houses were  spread  all  over  tho  country  <  Instead  of 
being  reciprocal  and  dependent,  every  thing  was  sepa- 
rate, independent,  and  hostile:  tho  commodities  ad- 
mitted into  Hesse  were  prohibited  in  Baden,  and  those 
prohibited  in  Wirtemberg  were  admitted  into  Ilavario, 
It  is  admitted  that  nothing  contributes  so  much  to 
tho  growth  of  industry  and  wealth  in  modern  times  as 
the  perfect  freedom  of  internal  industry,  and  that  inti- 
mate correspordcncc  among  tho  various  |)art8  of  the 
country  which  renders  each  tho  best  market  for  tho 
produce  of  tho  other.  IIow  dilfcrent  wotdd  havo  lieen 
our  proscntcondition  had  each  county  been  an  independ- 
ent slate,  jealous  of  those  around  it,  and  anxious  to 
exalt  itself  at  their  expense!  Hut,  until  witliiii  liiese 
few  years,  this  was  the  exact  condition  of  Germany ; 
and,  considering  the  extraordinary  obstacles  such  a 
itate  of  things  opposes  to  the  progress  of  manufactures, 
commerce,  and  civilization,  the  wonder  is,  not  that 
they  are  comparatively  backward  in  that  country,  but 
that  they  should  he  so  fur  advanced  as  they  really  are. 

But,  thanks  to  the  intelligence  and  perseverance  of 
Fiussia,  this  anti-social  system  has  been  well-nigh  aup- 


prcaaed :  and  the  moat  perfect  freedom  of  commcrco 
eatabllahed  among  the  great  bulk  of  the  (lermanlu  na- 
tions. The  dlnudvuntagea  of  the  old  ayttvni  hud  long 
been  seen  and  dcplured  by  well-informed  men ;  but  ao 
many  interests  hud  grown  up  under  ita  protection,  and 
io  many  deep-rooted  prejudiira  were  enlisted  in  its 
favor,  that  ita  overthrow  seemed  to  bo  hopulesa,  or,  at 
all  events,  exceedingly  distant.  Thu  addreaa  and  re»o- 
Intion  of  the  I'ruaaian  government,  iiowcver,  triumph- 
ed over  every  oliatacle.  Being  fully  imprcxed  with  a 
strong  senau  of  thu  many  (idviiiilages  that  would  result 
to  I'russia  and  Germany  from  thu  introduclliin  of  a 
free  system  of  internal  intercourse,  they  pursued  tho 
measures  necessary  to  bring  It  about  with  an  earnest- 
ncas  that  produceil  eouvictiim,  and  witli  a  determina- 
tion, iiiul»  i/ui  coutf,  to  carry  their  point. 

The  ilrst  treaties  in  furtherance  of  this  object  woro 
negotiated  liy  I'russia  with  the  principallticK  of.Schwarz- 
burg-iSondershauaen  and  Schwarzburg-Kudolstndl,  in 
IHIH  and  INI!),  on  the  principle  that  there  should  lie  a 
perfect  freedom  of  commerce  between  these  countries 
and  I'lussia;  thut  the  duties  on  importation,  exporta- 
tion, and  trannit,  in  Pruasia  and  tho  principalities, 
should  be  identical;  that  these  should  be  charged 
along  tho  frontier  of  the  dominions  of  the  contracting 
parties ;  and  that  each  sliou'I  jiarticipate  in  the  prod- 
uce of  such  duties,  in  proportion  to  its  population. 
All  tho  treaties  subsequently  entered  into  havo  iieen 
founded  on  this  fair  and  equitable  principle ;  the  only 
exceptions  to  tho  perfect  free '',om  of  trade  in  all  tho 
countries  comprised  within  the  league  or  tar!*)' alliance 
l>cing  confined,  flrst,  to  articles  constituting  '  tate  mo- 
nopolies, as  salt  and  cards,  in  I'russia ;  'Jd,  to  articles 
of  native  produce,  burdened  with  a  diflerent  rate  of 
duty  on  consumption  In  one  state  from  what  they  pay 
in  another;  and,  Bd,  to  articles  produced  under  patents 
conferring  on  tho  patentees  certain  privileges  in  I  lie 
dominions  of  the  states  granting  the  patents.  With 
these  exceptions,  which  are  not  very  important,  Iho 
most  perfect  freedom  of  commerce  exists  among  tlio 
allied  states.  Since  1818,  when  the  foundations  of  the 
alliance  were  laid,  it  has  progressively  extended,  till  it 
nowcoinprises  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  Gerninnio 
states,  exclusivo  of  Austria.  Ducal  Ilesse  joined  the 
alliance  in  1N28,  and  Electoral  Hesse  in  1831 ;  the  king- 
doms of  Buvaria,  Saxony,  and  Wirtemberg  jniiieil  It 
afterward,  as  havo  Baden,  Nassau,  and  almost  all  tho 
smaller  states  liy  which  it  had  not  been  previously 
joined,  with  the  exception  of  Slccklcnburg-Schwcrin 
and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Hut  these,  with  Hanover, 
will  bo  very  shortly  included  in  the  league.  In  18,'>'2 
tho  tariir  alliance  comprised — 

ill'".'.'  '"  "" 

Prutsls 618S  10  i'ti',i.iri3 

I.uiembiirK 4T  is'.iTx) 

llavaria  and  her  dctaehcd  territories 13»0  4  ti'^U  i'>.M) 

Sixonjr  (KiriKdoin  of) Sl'i  1.hII4.4:i1 

Wtrtcinberg  and  the  two  llolienznltcrns.  !)84  l.siriWS 

Ileaao  (KlectorBl) 211,1  7::il,.V4 

lluaao  (Uuchy)  and  Ilnmliurgh iri4  M'AtUT 

The  ThiirlOHtan  States MT  l,i'14.!i.'4 

lladcn  (Duchy  of) 2T0  l.iliiO  .VJ'.I 

llrunawick  (Uucby  of) 03  ■-'47.070 

Naasau 86  41ir>iK(l 

Frankfort _  2  71.678 

Totala 83UI  '.ili.SUO.Wlj 

Throughout  the  whole  extent  of  this  immense  coun- 
try, from  Ai.x-la-Chapelle,  on  the  confines  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, eastward  to  Tilsit,  on  the  confines  of  Unssia, 
and  from  Stettin  and  Dantzic,  southward  to  .Switzer- 
land and  Bohemia,  there  is  nothing  to  interrupt  tho 
IVuedom  of  commerce.  A  commodity,  whether  for  con- 
sumption or  transit,  that  has  once  passed  the  frontier 
of  tho  league,  may  be  subsequently  conveyed,  without 
let  or  hinderance,  throughout  its  whole  extent.  In- 
stead of  being  confined  within  the  narrow  precincts  of 
their  own  territories,  the  products  of  each  ceparato 
country  of  the  alliance  may  be  sent  to  every  one  else ; 


PltU 


1607 


rmr 


10  llmt  each  may  apply  lt«ulf,  In  pref.'rencB,  to  ihn«  i  l,,.|n({  that  in  which  wo  are  moit  Intortitcd   »a  hava 
depnrtniunts  In  whi.h  It  him  •nnii)  nutunil  ur  ii. .,i,ir.Ml    tiikni  unnio  pain^  to  airortain  lt»  real  liilliionc.-.     ThU 


ndcd,  till  it 


roltulnlloD 
111  1?49 

16  iii'.),iri3 

1S'.I,7H.) 

4  M(i  iiTiO 
l,Hlt4.4;ll 

l.si.'iM'S 

SU'i.'.'lT 
1.I.U.W4 

i.iKui.r/w 
4'^r)  i«ii 

7Hi7!t 
W,SWI,l!(i'j 

ncnso  roun- 

If  thi!  Ni'th- 

1  of  Russia, 

Ito  Swil7.fl'- 

Iterrupt  tho 

Ihcr  for  I'on- 

\\\c  frontier 

Ted,  vithout 

itcnt.     In- 

Irecincts  of 

Ih  ccparato 

r  one  elaa ; 


ailvantaK"  i  and  caih  lina  to  depond  for  Ita  nm  i (<»n,  not 
on  the  niliH'ralila  re>nnrca  of  ruitoinn  R'Kiilialoni,  Init 
on  itn  nkill  and  Industry,  Tho  cuinpoliiimi  Ihcnuv 
arUlnK  In  inont  nulntury ;  and,  shonld  tlw  ixiuii  of 
Kurupu  l>e  prvHcrvud,  wu  run  littlo  risk  In  nituii){  iliiit 
all  Diirta  iif  Indnntry  will  inuke  more  prattruM  amunK 
tho  states  c-oniprlsi'd  within  tho  tarllT  alllanco,  during; 
tho  nu\t  tt-n  years,  than  they  did  dnrinif  thu  Imlfci'n- 
tnry  pri'vlons  to  Its  Mng  orfjanUrd.  An  asscmldy  of 
rrprcscntallvrs  from  thu  allleil  atatoa  meets  annually, 
to  hear  cnnipluints,  a<Uu9t  (llllkultlus,  and  niukv  siicli 
niMV  enactments  as  may  seum  lu  hn  requlrid.  The 
I'rursian  tariff  has  licen  adopted,  with  cerluiii  nioilili- 
catlnns.  The  duties  am  received  Into  a  coniniMii  treas- 
ury, and  aro  apportioned  according  to  the  popululiun 
of  each  of  tho  allied  states.  In  addition  tu  its  uthir 
advantat(es,  the  now  system  has  reduced  the  cost  ol' 
collectiu);  the  duties  to  a  mere  trlllo,  compared  with  il.t 
former  amount ;  and  hus  enahled  humlreds  uf  cnstom- 
lionacs,  and  thousands  of  customs  officers,  to  ho  cin- 
plnyeil  In  tho  dllferunt  ilepartmcnta  of  industry.  The 
exUlini;  discrepancy  In  thu  weights  and  measures  uwd 
in  dlD'ercnt  parts  ef  (jormuny  occasions  considerulile 
inconventoncu;  and  wo  aro  glad  to  observe  that  the 
equalization  of  weights  and  measures,  and  their  reduc- 
tion to  a  common  standard  in  all  thu  allied  states,  is 
declaruil  to  ho  one  of  tho  ohjocts  of  tho  league  It  is 
ulsu  expresHly  provided  that  tho  tolls,  or  other  char|{es 
lit  li'Mi  thereof,  shall  in  all  cases,  whether  they  belou); 
to  tho  pulilio  or  to  private  individuals,  he  limited  tu 
the  sums  rtqitirrj  to  keep  the  naih  in  a  pvopn-  ilalit  ij' 
i'i;)iiV,'  and  that  tho  tolls  cxUtin);  In  l>ru:<sia  shall  lie 
considered  as  tho  highest  that  uro  to  bu  hvied,  and 
shall  not  in  any  case  be  exceeded. 

Wo  aro  able  to  lay  before  tho  reader  (ho  following 
extract  from  a  work  printed  by  order  of  the  House  of 
liepresrntatlves,  giving  an  account  of  the  ulijccts  tu 
be  attained  by  tho  I'rnssian  Commercial  l.eugnc : 
"Prussia,"  it  Is  thorn  said,  "has  evidently  taken  the 
lead  ill  this  wise  and  important  measure,  to  which  the 
smaller  states  havo  gradually  acceded.  Tliu  whole 
connnercial  policy  of  this  cnlighteno<l  power  has  been 
distinguished  for  Its  liberality,  being  founded  on  tho 
desire  of  placing  her  inturcuurso  witli  all  nations  on 
the  littsis  of  reciprocity.  'J'lio  commercial  league  of 
Germany  Is  intended  to  carry  out  this  principle,  and 
not  to  be  directed,  us  has  beiii  supposed,  against  any 
particular  nation  ;  as  it  Is  well  known  that  I'russia,  in 
iter  treaties  with  maritime  powers,  has  invariably 
adopted  tho  systeui  of  reciprocity,  to  whatever  extent 
those  with  whom  she  negotiates  aro  willing  to  curry  it. 
The  establishment  of  this  community  of  connnercial 
Interests  furnis  a  part  of  tho  fundamental  comp,ict  by 
which  tlio  new  (iermauic  Confederation  was  created, 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Uhine ; 
to  be  Kuliseqnently  adopted,  however,  at  the  option  of 
such  of  thu  co-states  as  should  cliooso  to  accede  to  it. 
Its  cDects  can  nut  fall  to  promote  conmiorce,  and  every 
other  branch  of  industry,  as  it  removes  all  those  vexa- 
tions and  endless  dilliculties  «  hich  previously  olistrucl- 
ed  tho  freedom  of  intercourse.  Navigable  rivers  ami 
highways  aro  now  opened  to  tho  imfettered  ust^  of  tlic 
(lerman  people ;  tho  custom  and  toll  houses,  with  their 
oflicersand  barriers,  have  li<ien  withdrawn  from  the  in- 
terior, and  tho  wholo  intercommunication  re.sendde.s 
that  of  the  subjects  of  any  one  of  the  states  within  its 
own  territories.  To  these  beneiits  may  be  added  the 
assured  prospect  of  improvement  in  tho  nuances  of  tlie 
great  and  smaller  sovereignties  composing  the  league. 
Tills  advantage  will  grow  out  of  the  simpiicity  or  uni- 
ty of  the  new  system,  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  collec- 
tion, and  from  the  increased  consumption  which  renova- 
ted industry  and  progressive  prosperity  so  invarialily 
cause." — Digest  nf  Customs  htws,  vol.  iii.  p.  :.'27. 
i'vuuiait  Uuti/  on  Cottons.— 'U\e  duty  on  c  iiton  goods 


luly  amounis  to  M  rix  dollars  pur  I'russlan  ipilntal  on 
all  cuttoii  goods,  without  resjiect  to  (|uaiity  or  price; 
and,  taking  the  (|uintal  at  1 1»  lbs.  avoirdupois,  and  Ih* 
rix  dollar  at  III.,  it  la  C(|ual  lu  fi   1(U    per  113  lbs. 
Now  wo  havo  learned  from  statements  obligingly  fur- 
nished to  us  by  n  large  whuhisale  house  In  the'  city, 
1st.  That  aipiinlal  tll;l  llis.j  of  <ixic»/<iAiiri»>/,  worth 
U.  per  yard,  cuiiiniiis  4'.t7  yards ;  It  i.'unseipicn'tly  rusts 
XH  ()«.,  and  the  I'm^lun  or  larllf  alliance  duty  of  X7 
lUt.  on  it  is,  then  fore,  i>(|uivalent  to  an  ml  mkirtm  duty 
of  iH)  per  cent.     'id.  Tliat  a  ipiintal  ut  siij^riiir  uliirtiiij/, 
worth  li.  ayard,  contains  J57i;:)  yanls  j  it  conse<|uent- 
ly  costs  tn  17j.  7./.,  making  thu  I'rus.ian  duly  on 
such  goods  a2J  per  cent.     ad.  That  a  ipiintal  of  ]i,intfd 
cnlioiu,  worth  It.  M.  a  yard,  contains  t;aa  \ ords ;  it 
consoijuently  costs  £  17  9*.,  making  tlie  I'riiiiian  dnty 
on  such  HOO<U  l&i  per  cent.     4lh.  That  a  ciuintal  of 
Jin.'  printeil  eotlom,  worth  'is.  M.  a  yard,  contains  l!7H 
jards;    it  conscc|iienlly  costs  £M'u».,  making  thu 
I'rnssian  duly  on  such  goods  HJ  per  cent.     It  is  plain, 
therefore,  that,  except  on  tho  coarsest  and  cheapest 
species  of  goods,  tho  I'mssiun  or  larllf  alliance  duty  It 
very  far  from  being  oppressive ;  and,  as  tho  value  of 
coarse  goods  is  principally  dependeii.  on  the  cost  of  the 
raw  cotton  and  the  wages  of  labor,  being  but  little  in- 
llucncod  by  iuporlnrlty  of  machinery,  it  is  not  very 
probable  that  wo  should  export  them"  largely  to  Prus- 
sia, oven  were  the  duty  materially  reduced.    No  doubt, 
however,  it  would  conduce  greatly  to  the  interests  of 
the  people  comprised  within  tho  league,  though  we  do 
not  know  that  it  wouhl  sensibly  affect  us,  were  the  duty 
assessed  on  an  ud  iWorcw  principle,  and  made  'Hi  or  SO 
per  cent,  on  all  goods ;  am:  wo  should  think  that  this 
might  bo  done  without  any  material  dlfliculty.    Tho 
subjoined  translation  of  tho  more  important  clauses  of 
the  customs  treaty  of  the  tM  of  March,  lnaa,  sets  tho 
principles  on  which  tho  alliance  is  founded  in  a  clear 
point  of  view. 

Cnatvm.1  Trtdty,  concluded  the  i'lA  March,  IHaa,  be- 
tween tho  Kings  of  Havana  and  Wirtemlierg,  on  tlio 
one  part;  and  the  Kingof  Prussia,  the  I'rince  KIcctorol 
Co-regent  of  Ilessc,  and  tho  tjirand  Uuke  of  Ilusse  on 
the  other  part. 

I.  'I'lio  existing  customs  unions  between  tho  itatea 
al.ovo  named  shall  henceforth  constitute  a  general 
Union,  united  by  a  common  system  of  customs  and 
commerce,  embracing  all  the  countries  which  arc  com- 
prised therein. 

II.  In  litis  general  reunion  are  also  comprised  tho 
states  which  have  already  adhered,  either  for  tho  w  hole 
of  their  territory,  or  for  a  part,  to  tho  system  of  cusloins 
and  commerce  of  one  or  otiiir  of  t  'lo  contracting  states, 
having  regard  to  their  special  relations,  founded  upon 
the  conventions  of  adhesion  concluded  with  tho  statca 
which  havo  intervened. 

III.  Hut  tlicru  will  remain  excluded  from  the  general 
reunion  the  parts  separated  from  the  countries  of  tho 
ccmtracting  states  which,  because  of  their  situation,  are 
not  yet  included  cither  in  the  reunion  of  the  bavarian 
or  Wirtcmberg  customs,  nor  in  those  of  Prussia  and 
Hesse.  Nevertheless,  tho  regulations  now  in  force  to 
facilitate  the  connneree  of  these  territories  with  tho 
principal  country  will  bo  maintained.  Other  favors  of 
this  kind  can  not  be  accorded  witliout  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  contracting  stales. 

IV.  In  tho  contracting  states  there  shall  be  estab- 
lished uniform  laws  for  tho  duties  of  import,  of  ex- 
port, and  of  transit,  except  such  niodilications  as,  with- 
out injury  to  the  common  object,  result  necessarily  from 
the  particular  legislation  of  each  contracting  state,  or 
from  local  interests.  Thus,  exceptions  and  modiHcft- 
tions  to  the  common  tariff  may  take  place,  as  to  rates 
of  duties  of  entry,  of  export,  and  of  transit  (according 
as  the  direct  ion  of  the  routes  of  commerce  may  require), 
established  upon  articles  recognized  as  of  minor  conse- 


mu 


1«9« 


PRU 


<|il«n<'*  III  »«(«ll»lv(i  i>AtHHi«frii  (  iirnvlilxi!  ttwuya,  Ihnt 
Ihi-xi  tiiiHllili  itll«ii«  Iw  |iri'f»rf<H|  Iry  M|,iiriil»  nlnlfii,  ami 
llml  llii'y  alull  llitt  \m  lll>«i|vilil«||Knii»  In  llix  Ki'MiTill 
liilvrMla  of  lh<i  AMtirUllim,  'IIih  ailminUlrAllcin  (if 
Ih*  iIiiiIm  i>f  liniHirl,  mumrt,  *ni|  Irmiail,  »<  well  no  Ihs 
urKitiiliiitilon  lit  i\m  •ullinrlll««  mMrh  urn  i'nKiiK<'<l 
llirfi'lri,  III  ill  IIm  aUlK*  lit  Ilin  Atwiclallon,  •hnll  tin 
••UlJIalioil  uiHiri  It  uniriirm  fixilInK,  ImrliiK  ri'^nnl, 
hiiwHvur,  III  lliM  imrdi iiUr  n-lmliina  i<iilii(iii)(  In  tlima 
riiuiilrlKa,  Tim  Uw»  miil  iifilliiiiiicn  wlilch,  mrnrillnK 
III  ihuM  |ir|iii  IiiIm,  i/ukIiI  III  li«  iinirorni  In  IhorinilriK't- 
liiK  ■INI"*,  mKi  ttlil'li  ifN  III  iiiiiillliiln  lliit  luw  iir  llifl 
UrllfuiMl  lliu  rfKillitlliill*  iif  III"  ninloiiia,  nlinll  Iki  ioii- 
•|il>'n'<l  «•  an  iiiicgriil  f,»rt  nf  liw  priiMnt  Itualy,  •nd 
•hull  Iw  iiiililUliml  «t  IIm  iisino  llmi', 

V.  'I  Iwrii  i'«n  niiltlK'r  Iw  Rllfriillunii,  nor  niMllinnii, 
nor  vii«'|.lluii»,  III  llm  nfl»  nlntKi  iufnllnnrd  (ArlU'K> 
IV.),  I'Ut  liy  lliK  Miiiiiilimiila  iiilKoiit  of  nil  Ihn  ronlrni'l. 
Iii^  |iiirll<'>,  mill  III  lliN  form  r<'>|iilri«l  for  IIm  niaklni; 
{ii>Hl'n il'iii) lit  lli«  li|t*«,  'IImi  priTi'ilInK  (ippllm  ciiuiil- 
l,v  lo  nil  ilm  orillnmtiKii  whlili  ttoiiM  PDlnMlnli,  for  iho 
■<liiiliil>(r«tl>/n  uf  IIm  ru»tftm»,  ill4|>oiiltloni  oritlrul>- 
ililfi-ri'iil, 

VI.  l/llwrly  iif  I'liiiimi'rrji,  unit  rominnnlly  of  Iho  m- 
c«l|iU  of  nitloiiia,  na  rKKilUlK'l  liy  Ilm  following  irllclii, 
will  loiiiiiiuiHM  aliiiulUiHiiiiial/  Willi  tlis  o|»ration  of 
lliu  prxai'iit  irumy, 

VII.  Mulllitf  Wim  IliU  oofH'ti,  all  <tiillra  of  Import, 
of  ««|>ori,  ami  of  lf»ii«lt  aliall  ii-aao  on  llii>  rommoii 
fniiilji'riif  llin  llavNrii.WlrlrnilH'rKniiil  l'riiaai>-lleaiiian 
i'U>loiMa  rviililoiia,  All  arlli'lca  of  free  romTiifrru  In  ono 
uf  llioui  Inrrllorlva  may  Iw  lin|i<ir|ci|  frraly  niid  willioiit 
dulv'  iiilo  all  III*  iillii'ra,  K»rf|it  only  a*  foMow*: 

A.  Arll<  U«iiiii)io|Nill/.«ift  liy  Ilm  atatra  (|itnylng-car(ls 
•nil  aali)  i-iiiifiiriii«lili<  In  Arlli-lna  IX,  anil  X. 

II.  liKllKi'iiiiiia  arlli'lfa,  now  aiilijcrt  In  tlio  Intrrlor 
of  lliai'iinlraitlliitfalalna  (4)  ill(T<'f»ifililntle«,orP!ir(>plc(l 
froiii  ull  iliily  til  linn  alatii,  ami  Imporiml  Into  anotlior, 
anil  wliii'li  ai'iofilliiK  U>  arllrln  11,  oiixhl  coniic(|Ucntly 
Ui  Im  aiilijui  t  III  M  iliily  iif  coinpi'naalliin. 

Finally,  I,',  Arllil"*  wMrli,  wlllioiil  prcjudloo  to  pat- 
ent riKliU  or  coiii'ii'linl  tirUlli'K''*  In  oim  of  Iho  contract- 
ing alalBa,  rail  Hot  Iw  tmllfllKil  or  Imported,  and  ouRht 
fiHixupuinlly  lM)i«««li'tiliM  diirliii,'  llio  nxlalcnceof  the 
pal  nu  ami  privlli'^na  from  liiiporlntlun  into  the  stato 
wb^  h  liaa  Kraiilcil  ilmtn. 

VIII.  Nulwlllialamllnit  (Im<  frcfilom  of  commerce, 
and  lliu  «MMipl|im  from  •liillca,  cafalillahed  liy  Artlclo 
VII.,  tlin  traiiapiift  of  an  li'Ira  of  commerce,  siilijcvt  liy 
Ihii  loMiiiioii  litrilf  III  'iiillca  of  Import  or  export  on  Iho 
friiiillrra  of  ilm  Aaai/i  uailnn,  can  not  lakii  placo  between 
Ow  ilali't  of  U«v»fi.»  ami  Wlrlemlierjj,  and  the  Rtiites 
of  I'ruaaia,  lit  KliifKiral  \him,  or  of  (Irand  Ducal 
lleaaa,  ami  rviliiriirally,  except  l/y  Iho  puMIc  roads, 
mililury  ruiitn^a,  ami  tili'ltfaldn  rivcra,  Kor  tlila  pur- 
piiau  ejiern  aliail  im  dalalitlahed  on  the  Interior  fron- 
tlirs  I'oiiinioii  hiiftnut  of  verlfleatlon,  to  which  the  con- 
ducturi  of  rmtrclianiliim  miiaf,  on  rxhiliiting  their  li- 
ieii»<a,  il«rUr«  wlial  arit  lll«  article*  whicli  they  are 
»iiiploy»d  111  Iraiiatmrt  from  onn  territory  to  another. 
Thia  ilia|Ki4iij»ii  will  not  Iw  appllcalilo  to  rriuil  com- 
merre  In  raw  «i«t«rlal»,  nor  to  ilm  p^tly  commerce  of 
the  frimiwra  i»f  tllK  falfa,  not  to  tho  effects  of  travelcm, 
|>r>ii'i-M  for  tfm  vmiirtnillliiii  of  merchandian  will  go  no 
fanli'-r  ilian  la  rmiiilriiil  for  aectirity  of  the  duties  of 
coniiwiiaalliifl,— A«  Arllcl«  VM. 

X  i  i  I  'I'lm  i'iiiiiriicllfif(  tiartlea  reciprocally  renew 
thiiir  witbiiaiiin  Ut  lb«  Itrlltcltil*  that  Iho  tolla,  or  other 
chart(ii»  ill  lt«M  tlturoof,  ahall  only  \in  aiifflclent  to  do- 
fray  llio  miK'nan  of  inalntenance  and  repairs  of  the 
roa^la,  wlii,tli«r  ill*  t«a  \m  tur  the  atate  or  for  private 
riKhla.  It  wa*  thtia  that  haa  lieen  approved  tlic  sup- 
pleinviit  to  ilia  (liity  of  iMatotna,  created  in  Ilavaria 
•lid  WIrtamU'ra,  Uf  ffpUcn  the  dnir  of  lolls,  paving, 
causaways,  hrtitgxn,  Mil  KPnerally'  of  all  anaio^'uus 
(•I8S,  '|1iii  uA\»,  tUf,,  now  ei«lallng  in  t'riiasia,  ac- 
cording to  ih*  KMntrri  Uriltot  tmn,  shall  he  consider- 


ed na  the  htghnl  rnln,  and  ahslt  not  ho  oxcrsitad  til 
any  of  llie  conlrartliiK  alalca.  In  aiinriliiiiiii  »ith 
till'  prliiiipic  Ihiia  iiniiiiiini'i'd,  tlie  indivliliial  duly  for 
I'litInK  lhi>  |{Mtea  of  illlea  aiiiiil  Im  aliollahiid  ;  na  alao 
Ihe  duly  iif  pnvInK  of  laiiauHnya,  wlicru  it  allli  vxialsi 
iind  nil  piivcd  rouda  will  hu  ciiiiaiiii'ri'd  an  luiKiiwaya  of 
a  di'x'riptioii  lialilii  only  lo  tlin  duty  un  lauaiiwnys  as- 
taliii'hi'd  liy  the  ((('"■'■''■I  Inrllf, 

XIV.  Tli»  I'ohlrai'linK  Kovernmenia  awreti  tu  unita 
llii'ir  etforta  tu  Introiluce  into  Ilio  ilatea  a  uniriirm  ays- 
lein  of  coina,  n vl|{hta,  and  nicnaurea ;  lo  cnniinrnro  im- 
nifdiuli'ly  Ihii  rcipiiaito  ncKi-'ialiiina  for  lliia  piirpoan; 
and,  auli«ui|uenlly,  lo  dlri'it  their  eDorU  lowiird  the 
adoption  of  uniform  cualoni-houae  wei|{hla.  The  con- 
trading  alalea,  in  tlie  iiiipoaalliliity  of  cahililiaidntf  this 
nniformily  Ireforelhia  Irealy  ((oeaiiitooperallon,  iiKree, 
for  fiU'llilalinK  the  forn unlink  of  mcrchunilisn  wliera 
it  liaa  not  already  Ik'iu  done,  lo  rcvine  lliclr  tnriU'aa  lo 
welKhls  nnil  inenaurea,  naauniiii^  fur  a  liaala  Ihn  tarilHi 
of  the  other  contrnctiiiK  atalea,  'i'liey  v,\\\  ciiuae  aiuh 
niodillcniinna  lo  lie  pulpliMlied,  for  Hie  novcriinient  of 
tho  pulilic  anil  of  lluir  ciiatom-house  lunnua.  The 
common  tnri(l'{Aitiile  IV.)aiiall  lie  diviilid  into  two 
principal diviaiona,  ai'ionliiiK  lo  the ayalem of  weiKlil'i 
ineasuroa,  and  moneya  uf  llavariu,  niid  that  uf  I'riisala. 
Tho  declaration  uf  tlio  HeiKhtxaiid  nicnaureaof  nrliilua 
sulijoct  lo  iluty  ahull.  In  I'ruaaia,  lie  arcurdin)(  to  I'ms- 
sian  welf^h  la  and  inenaureH;  in  Ilavaria  and  Wirtcni- 
licrK,  according  to  thoai,  of  Ilavaria;  and  in  tliu  two 
lleasea,  uccordliiK  lo  Ihu  wciKiila  and  nieaaures  there 
h'Knlly  calaliliKlivil.  In  expcditinttcualom-lioiiao  acta, 
tho  ipiantily  of  till  nliandlHe  must  iieexpreaaed  accord- 
inf{  to  thii  two  priiH'ipHi  Hiviaiuns  uf  the  common  laritf. 
I'ntit  lliu  conlriiiiin);  stales  agree  upon  a  syatcm  of 
common  money,  Iho  payment  of  duties  in  eacii  state 
shall  bo  niudo  in  tiie  aume  currency  as  in  use  for  pay- 
ment of  its  other  taxes.  Hut  from  tho  present  lime, 
tho  gold  and  silver  coina  of  all  the  contriictiiig  stiiti'S, 
with  tlio  exception  of  ainali  money  (»/iriWf  niwiiic),  alinll 
Ijo  received  into  all  llu)  bweiiui  of  receipt  of  llie  Aaso- 
elation ;  and  fur  thia  jiurpose  tables  of  value  shall  lu 
puliliahed, 

XV.  The  dntiea  of  iinvlKiitlon  upon  tho  rivers,  cnm- 
priaing  tliereiii  Hum'  nlilrli  apply  to  vessels,  ahull  al- 
ways lie  mutually  acquitted  according  lo  the  acts  of 
the  I'ongress  of  Vienna,  or  of  special  convent'ona,  up,  i 
all  the  rivers  to  which  theso  regulations  apply,  iiul, 
other  detcrminalioiis  bo  adopted  in  liils  renpect.  '. .'. 
contracting  atatesagrectoenterwilhout  delay  ini  lu- 
gotiations  for  that  which  particularly  regards  lli«>  nav- 
igation upon  tho  Ithino  and  tho  neighlioriug  i-treuma, 
in  onler  to  effect  an  arrangement  by  which  tlie  iinpurt, 
export,  and  transit  of  tho  productions  of  ail  (be  slates 
of  tho  Union  upon  said  streams  shall  be,  if  iiui  alisu- 
lutcly  free,  at  least  relieved  as  far  as  poasilde  from  du- 
ties of  navigation,  tinder  the  reserve  of  charges  of  re- 
connoisannce.  All  tho  advantages  granted  liy  one  atato 
of  tho  Union  to  its  aulijects,  in  the  exercise  of  tlie  imv- 
igation  upon  sold  streams,  shall  extend  eiiually  to  Iho 
navigation  of  the  other  associnlod  ntuti  a.  Upon  tlio 
otherstreanis  to  which  neither  tlie  acts  of  tho  Congress 
of  Vienna,  nor  any  other  treaties  ajiply,  the  duties  of 
navigation  shall  lie  anurdiug  totlie  spcrial  regulations 
of  the  governments  interested.  Nevcrllielcis,  tlie  sub- 
jects of  tho  contracting  stoics,  their  merchnniliso  and 
venscla,  shall  throughout  bo  treated  on  Ihuse  streams 
with  perfect  equolity. 

XVI.  Dating  from  the  day  on  wliich  the  general 
custom-house  regulations  of  tho  I'niou  shall  i.iuie  into 
operation,  tho  duties  of  public  stores  (lUipe.t),  and  of 
transhipments  (tinwchtagtierhte),  which  still  exiat  in 
the  tcri'itorics  belonging  lo  tlie  Association,  siiull  cease, 
and  no  ono  shall  lie  lialdc  to  forced  delay,  nor  to  tho 
discharging  and  storage  of  his  merchandise,  except  in 
cases  authorized  by  the  common  regulatious  of  the 
customs  or  navigatlun. 

XVII.  Ko  duties  shall  b«  claimed  for  canals,  locks, 


I'UU 


U09 


IMllJ 


tileit  In 
»  »llh 
liiiy  tut 

an  >Uo 

cxlutll 
*«v»of 
•  ayi  ••- 

tu  uiitta 
iirm  •y«- 
ifiun  ln>- 
|iur|ii)i«  i 
wiiri\  tin 

ililiiu  llili 
nil,  iiKH'"! 
ltd  wliora 
iirllVn"  to 
Ihii  Inrllft 
•iiiim^  mich 
niniciit  uf 
nut.  Tha 
i\  Into  two 
i)f  wiiKlit", 
of  TniMla. 
( of  nrlUloi 
nn  to  I'nu- 
u\  Wlrtcm- 
In  lli«  two 
.Kuri-'i  thora 

-llOHdO  UCtK, 

Kicil  nccortl- 
iiinion  tariff, 
a  lyslcm  «f 
11  I'ocli  »lnto 

use  for  p»y- 
iri'stiit  tliiip, 

illiiK  Htnti's, 

of  llie  Asso- 
iluo  uliaU  tu 

rlvcri",  com- 
[ii.U,  hIibU  iil- 

llii'  aets  of 
[.nt'iiiis,  u|""' 
ipiily,  iinl"  " 

■SlU'Ct.       W 

.■luy  111'    "<■• 
jrds  til*'  11"^'- 
IriiiK  ►tTfUiriK, 
|htlu-iiM|H'rl, 
nil  Oil'  i-tllK'S 
if  not  ntiso- 
lllile  frnin  il"- 
lhiiri;i'9  "f  r*^- 
l\  l.y  0111"  Ktnto 
SC  ilf  111"'  "1'^'- 
([imllv  to  llio 
I'liou  tlio 
I  the  Conurcss 
Itlio  (UilU'»  of 
ill  roKiitttlioiH 
Llcm,  llif  siib- 
fclinmlise  mul 
lliosu  Dlrcams 

the  ppncral 
InU  I'liiH'  into 

Ltill  ixi.it  in 
li,  shall  iiii»ei 
ly,  iiur  to  tlio 
[ise,  except  in 
\tioii9  of  the 

lc»n»l»,  loci". 


brlil((»«,  fnrrlix,  rmiiix,  wKlxliinit,  »n'l  •Ionian  j  (nil  Ihn  i 
••(■lill>hniiiiiliiili<«lln>'<l  lulftvllilnln  >'<iiiini<'n!iiiihiiliiiol 
tM  alluwml  ri'iil,  cxci'iit  whitii  mtiiitlly  u«'i|.     t'hiirK«ii 
euii  licit  )>«  Imri'iixi'il ;  ami  thv  aiilijfi  tn  of  Iho  othiT  run-  1 
traalliiK  stnli'it  ■hull  l»i  on  •  prrfcrt  i'i|iial|iy  with  tlm 
iulijnclii  of  tliK  <'iMiiilrlim  huvlii^  tlm""  <'«laliii«hmi'iili 
If  Ih*  oalitlilUliiiii'iilit  fur  wi'iKhliiK  ami  c  rnni  n  nm  only 
UIP'I  hy  tlin  mil  iiii-hoiiiiiis,  no  iliarKu  "hull  Im  iiiudc,  1 
If  Ihn  artlrlaa  liuvn  Iman  previoutly  WKiKhuil  itt  a  cni- 
toni-housa. 

XVIII.  Thii  ronlrartliiK  italei  unKaK"  to  contlnuo 
their  I'oiiiiniiii  I'triirlt  for  thn  I'lii'oiiruK'i'iiK'iit  of  iniliia- 1 
try  liy  thi'  aiinpiioii  uf  iinlforiii  ri>Kiiluiliiii",  so  that  tlii<  j 
•uhjncl"  of  cMi'li  ulutii  limy  unjoy,  «"  t'xtihslvi'ly  as  poa- ' 
•Itilr,  Ihn  privili't(U  of  Hi'i'litiiK  w<irk  and  oiriipullon  ill 
uvnry  otiii'r  "lad'.  Kriiiii  Ilia  niinliiK  liitii  o|>i'rullcm 
of  tho  prnM'iit  triMity,  thn  aulijci^taof  any  oiinuf  ihii  inii- 
Iraclin^  alitli'",  trading  oi  ai'iikiiiK  einploy  hi  thn  lorri- 
tory  of  any  olhur  of  Ihoao  atatcs,  shall  not  h«  aiilijrci 
to  any  inipoit  wliivh  doi's  not  i'i|uully  alllect  tin'  iiullv^ 
•imilarly  I'niployed.  Muniifai'luri'rauiid  nKinhunlHHho 
arc  only  niakinK  pnrcliaaea  fur  tliuir  tradi',  or  truvi'li'n 
who  havn  no  ^uodH  with  ihi-in,  hiit  simply  (lUttiTiis  for 
tho  purpOHi  of  hulii'ltinK  uuininisalans,  nliall  nol,  when 
tliuii  cinpluyi'il,  liiivii  any  ilnty  tu  pay  in  aiiotln-r  slule, 
If  autliorl/.iij  tu  eurry  mi  siicli  ruiiiimiTU  in  lliu  st.itu 
where  tliey  liavu  llieir  iloiiiicilo;  ur  if  umpluyed  in  the 
■ervlco  uf  iiullve  niuiiiifuitiirer"  or  iiieri'liunl.".  Wlini 
trading  in  tliu  market"  and  fairs,  or  when  they  are  sill- 
tng  tha  pruducu  uf  the  sull  and  I'liliries,  In  any  one  uf 
tb*  states  uf  tho  Assoelallun,  the  "iihjeel"  uf  the  other 
contracting  slates  sliuU  iiu  Iruuled  in  all  ruspeeta  u" 
•ul^Jecla  of  thii  same  slates. 

XIX,  Tho  toa-piirt"  of  Prussia  shall  be  open  for  eoin- 
mari'e  tu  nil  the  siiljeets  of  the  stale"  uf  thu  rniun,  on 
payment  of  the  same  iliities  us  am  pulil  l>y  I'runaiuii 
sulijecis,  and  the  consuls  uf  the  several  slate"  In  the 
sea-ports  ur  places  of  foreign  eummeree,  shall  lie  liuuiid. 
ill  cases  of  need,  tu  assist  with  their  advice  and  support 

tuljects  uf  the  other  contracting  stales. 
\X.  Tu  protect  a^juinst  cuntruliand  their  cummoii 
custom-houso  system,  and  to  insure  tho  ri  ^ulur  pay- 
ment of  the  duty  uf  cunsuinption  in  the  interior,  ihe 
contrui  tint;  slates  havn  conolnded  a  ri'iiprucal  curtcl, 
whiuli  shall  he  cnfurced  as  suun  as  puxsihle,  hut  at  the 
farthest  at  the  same  liiiiu  with  the  present  Iruaty. 

XXI.  The  coninuuily  of  receipts  uf  llio  contrttcthin 
states,  slipulateil  by  the  present  treaty,  shall  cuiiiprc- 
hend  thu  product  of  duties  uf  entry,  of  export,  niid  oi' 
transit,  in  thu  Prussian  slates,  Ihe  kin);doin"  of  Ilavn- 
rla  and  WIrteinherB,  the  Kleetorate,  and  Ihe  (irand 
Uuchy  of  I  (esse,  cuinprisinK  therein  those  countries 
which  liavu  down  to  tho  presi'iit  time  acceded  to  thn 
custum-houso  syslcin  of  iIk'  control  liiii;  slates.  The 
following  arocxiliiileil  (mm  lhoci"iH  inily of  rccelpls, 
and  ronialn  reserved  for  tho  pur;  iilar  licnellt  of  the 
respective  Kavcrnnii'iil":  1.  i'lie  imposts  collected  in 
the  interior  of  each  slalo  on  indigi'^us  products,  com- 
prising therein  tho  compensatory  ilutles  reserved  in 
Article  XI.  2.  The  toll  "ii  river'',  tu  which  are  appli- 
cable the  regulations  of  Ihi'  acts  of  the  ("onKressof  Vien- 
na, or  special  conventions — Article  XV.  II.  Diitiesof 
pavinff,  of  causeways,  of  liriilges,  of  ferries,  of  canal",  of 
locks  and  ports,  charges  of  weighing  and  storage,  as 
well  as  similar  receipts,  whatever  may  bo  their  name. 
4.  The  fines  and  conliseatloiis  which,  beyond  the  part 
allowed  to  inforiners,  romaiii  the  property  of  each  gov- 
ernment tliroiigliont  its  territory. 

XXII.  The  piuduee  of  the  duties  received  into  tlio 
common  treasury  shall  ho  divided  among  the  slates  of 
the  Assoi'iatiun,  in  prupurliun  to  the  population  which 
may  be  found  in  the  I  nion,  subject  to  deduction,  1st. 
Of  the  expenses  specilicd  in  Arliclo  XXX. ;  2il.  Of  Ihe 
restitution  of  erroneous  receipts;  3d.  Of  the  restora- 
tion of  duties  and  diminutiuns  made  in  conse(|ucncc 
of  special  common  conventions.  The  population  of 
every  state  which  has  entered  or  may  enter  into  the 


AMoclallon,  by  Irtaly  with  oneur  nihernf  Ihn  conlracf. 
iiig  stall ".  under  thn  I'ngageniiiii  iiind"  by  the  laiii  r, 
III  nmkii  un  unniialiunlrilinlion  fur  tlic  iiinlripatlon  uf 
Ihn  foriu'r  lu  thn  ruminun  revenue  of  llio  iiialuiiK,  ahall 
be  adili'd  to  the  popiilullon  ol  the  Mnli"  wlilrli  inak* 
Ihl"  runtrlbulion.  Tliore  <liul|  Im  niudi'  eviry  lhm« 
.Miari,  dating  from  a  piTlml  lo  be  licnufler  llxed,  an 
exact  enuniirulliin  uf  llie  piipulutlun  uf  the  asnurlaled 
■late";  till,  slate  a  aliall  reilprueiilly  ccunniiiiiliato  111* 
rraiilta  ihereuf. 

XXHI.  All  rMlltntlun"  of  dnili"  nut  authoriitecl  hy 
the  Ic'Klalaliun  uf  the  rusluiu"  ahull  remain  i  hargecl  to 
the  tniisiiry  uf  the  govrniiiient  wliii  li  '.hull  hiivc  grant- 
ed It.  Convention",  liereaflir  lo  lie  i  uiiilucli'cl,  will 
regulate  in  what  ca«e«  tinillar  rislllutloii  nmy  bu  acv 
rurdi'cl, 

XMV.  In  ccinfiirnilly  with  Ihn  ubjoit  uf  thi«  a"ao» 
elutlun  of  cintoni"  linding  lo  fuellliulc  n  freer  unci  mur« 

iiulnnil  nmenlul  liilerruurM',  the  fav.ir"  oc  lurcled 

for  the  paynic'tit  of  cii"tuni-liuii«cc   deities  nl  ccrluln 

phiees  In  whiili  I'iilrs  am  held,  e-cpec  liilly  Ihe  lirlvlli'noa 

of  abatement  (rnluil  jin p ■i/cyiVn  1,  euti  not  be  extencleil 

lo  lliosn  slates  of  thn  A»"oelallon  wlii're  tliiiy  do  nut 

exist;  on  thu  contrary,  lliey  slmll  lie  rc'ctri.leil  and 

aboUslind  as  fur  us  pui-sllile,  regard  being  liiul  to  tli« 

means  of  subsisteuc  u  of  the  phiei  »  lieruturure  fuvcircd, 

and  Id  tho  cominereiul  relations  wlili  li  they  have  nllh 

fcirelnnerh;  but  others  cull  on  no  iiec  ciunt  be  grunted 

« llliuiil  the  general  conaent  of  the  c  ccntiui  ting  purllea, 

X.WIII.  There  shall  every  year,  un  ilie  1st  day  of 

dune,  lio  un  U""einlily  of  pbiiipulc  ntliirle'i  uf  the  kuv> 

!  ernineiits  of  tin;  Ijiluii  einpouered  generally  tu  ilellb> 

I  urate  ;  and  iHi h  statu  may  send  Ihlllier  n  duly  aullior- 

I  i/ed  repreHenlative.     The  pleiilpoleiitiurles  » ill  cliousa 

I  from  among  theuHclves  a  president,  tthu,  however, 

I  "hull  liavo  no  pre-eniliieneo  over  the  other  memliera, 

[  The  lirst  assembly  Hhall  be  heldut  .Miiiiirli.    Atthocloso 

t'cacli  annual  asieiubly,  the  plaeeuf  next  meeting  will 

hfl  dctermliied,  having  rel'ereiieu  tu  (lie  iiatiiru  uf  those 

subjeets  which  will  then  loiiie  under  illicni'don, 

XXXIV.  The  usseinblyofplenipulenlhirleH  will  have 
under  its  eunsideralion  the  follu»iiig  "iibjccls:  A.  lu 
consider  thu  cuinpluiuts  u  liicli  may  have  arisen  in  any 
of  the  slates  uf  the  .\ssoeiatlun  PcinierMing  the  execu- 
tion uft  lie  geiiural  1 1.  illy,  uf  special  eiiiiveniicins,  of  the 
law,  and  uf  ciisloiii-liuiiso  regnlaticuis;  also  uf  the  lur- 
iff,  when  these  shall  not  have  been  uiIJiisIcmI  during  tho 
ycarliy  correspondeiico  between  lliu  dillereiit  ministers, 

I  II.  The  detlnllu  reparation  among  the  slates  of  Ihn 
I  Ij'nion  of  tjio  total  cuiiimon  receipts,  based  upon  the 

ohservalinns  made  hy  the  superiur  nuthnrilh'S,  and  ver- 
i  illcd  hy  the  central  bitrmii,  as  may  be  renderrd  neces- 

aary  by  the  common  interest.  ('.  To  deliberate  upon 
I  propositions  ond  suggestions  made  by  the  governmenls 
,  for  the  perfection  of  the  adniinistrutiuu.  I).  I>iscus- 
1  sions  ujion  alterations,  demaiided  by  any  of  the  con- 
I  trading  stales,  in  the  laws,  tariffs,  and  custom-house 
I  rrgulatioiis,  as  well  as  in  the  organixatiun  of  the  ail- 
I  ministration,  ond  in  general  upon  the  development  and 
I  perfection  of  the  general  system  of  customs  and  coni- 
I  inorco. 

XXXV.  If,  in  the  course  of  the  year,  when  the  plen- 
ipolentioriea  are  not  in  session,  exlraordinury  incidents 

I  should  occur,  w  hicli  rciiuire  |ironiiit  decisiun  on  the  port 
uf  the  slates  of  the  I'nion,  tho  contracting  parties  will 

,  consult  upon  tlieao  through  their  diiduniatic  agents,  or 
they  will  order  an  extra  sitting  uf  their  plenipoten- 
liarics. 

Kn'riif  Change)  in  the  (lerman  Ciislums  l^nion. — The 
discussicius  in  Ihe  assemblies  of  tlio  League  have,  espe- 
cially of  late  years,  been  a  good  deal  inlluenced  by  po- 
litical considerolioiis.  A  league,  denominated  tho 
Sleur-Verein,  had  been  formed  in  opposition  to,  or  in 
rivalry  with,  the  Prussian  League,  by  Hanover,  Old- 
enburg,  and  Brunswick.  It  was  evident,  however,  in- 
asmuch as  the  interests  of  these  and  the  other  German 
states  were  iilenlical,  that  it  would  bo  a  great  public  ad- 


■■| 


iii 


I'i 


Tf-K'HiP^ii  l*VVVT-»*ar^-'^r?:;-'  r.»^  a  tp^^-vi- jfrsr-jr^twijiipiyjT!  -57:  -«v-a>'  f ,'  ^f  ^'^^ 'WT^''-" 


PYR 


1600 


PYR 


vantage  were  tlicao  associations  mergod  into  ono.  Dut 
owing  to  |)o/ttical,  commercial,  and  tinancial  jealousies, 
this  dcsiralile  oliject  was  of  very  iliflicult  attainment, 
llapiilly,  liowever,  tlirso  dillicultics  have  been  sur- 
mounted ;  and  a  treaty  negotiated  between  Hanover 
and  Prussia,  on  the  7tli  of  September,  1851,  provided 
for  the  incorporation,  from  tlio  Ist  of  January,  1854,  of 
the  former  kingdom,  and  tlie  other  states  included  in  the 
Stenor-Verein,  with  the  Prussian  Union.  Some  mod- 
ifications havo  been  introduced  by  tho  treaty  into  the 
basis  of  the  League,  but  tlicy  are  of  littlo  importance, 
except  tlie  to  parties  immediately  interested.' 

Trenty  with  .\ustria, — More  recently  a  great  deol  of 
discussion  lias  talten  |dace  Ijetwecn  Prussia  and  the  sub- 
ordinate (Jcrman  states  on  tlie  one  band,  and  Austria  on 
the  other,  in  regard  to  the  formation  of  a  Customs  Asso- 
ciation which  should  include  the  latter ;  and  in  order  to 
pave  the  way  for  this  desirable  consummation,  Austria 
issued  a  new  tariff  on  the  2uth  of  November,  1851,  in 
which  she  made  many  important  modifications  in  the 
prohibitive  system  on  which  she  had  previously  acted, 
at  tlie  same  time  that  she  established  a  free  commercial 
intercourse  between  Hungary  (which  had  previously  a 
separate  customs  establishment)  and  the  other  states  of 
tha  empire.    And  though  this  wise  and  liberal  meas- 


ure baa  not  yet  led  to  tho  incorporation  of  Anstria  into 
tho  Customs  Union,  it  has  led  to  the  conclusion  of  an 
extremely  important  commercial  treaty  between  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia,  dated  tho  19th  of  February,  1853. 
Tlie  contracting  parties  engage  to  suppress,  with  a  few 
specified  exceptions,  all  prohibitions  against  importing 
the  products  of  the  one  into  the  territories  of  the  ether ; 
they  next  establish  a  romplete  freedom  of  trade  lietween 
tho  two  countries  in  all  articles  of  raw  produce ;  and 
they  further  stipulate  that  tho  duties  to  be  imposed  on 
manufactured  products  shall  be  jnoderate  and  reasona- 
ble. It  has  a  variety  of  other  clauses,  all  of  which 
have  a  liberal  character.  The  duration  of  the  treaty 
is  limited  to  12  years ;  but  we  have  little  doubt,  should 
peace  be  preserved,  that  the  advantages  of  which  it  will 
bo  productive  will  bo  so  many  and  so  great,  that  long 
before  tho  expiration  of  12  years  its  provisions  will  be 
still  further  liberalized,  and  that  it  will  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  a  lasting  intercourse,  of  which  we  can  neither 
foresee  the  extent  nor  the  beneficial  influence. 

In  consequence  of  these  and  other  changes  the  duties 
in  tho  tariff  of  the  Uorman  Customs  Union  have  under- 
gone many  modifications.  But  except  on  coarse  ond 
lieav}'  goods,  tliey  continue,  speaking  generally,  to  bo 
moderate.     We  subjoin 


An  ArrouNT  BiiowiNO  tue  Pkopobtiox  or  thk  Kevknitks  or  tiik  Gbrman  CirsTOHB  Vnion  raibei>  in  tiik  nirrxREMT 
States  in  lHr)i,  ani>  the  Iiibtbuiutiom  tiiebeoe,  acookiunu  tothkik  I'oi'in.ATioN,  raoM  the  okfioiai.  Hrtvbns, rrii- 
MSHEi>  AT  Berlin  in  ISbi, 


rru><aia 

Luxemburg 

Itavaris 

Haionjr 

Wlrteniberg 

Itnilcn 

lIuMC  ( 'asset 

lIcHHO  Darmstadt  . 
TliiirlnKian  i^tates. 

Itruilttwtctc 

NaNKau 

I-'ranltfbrtt 

Total 


Import 

IlllllM. 

Einort  and 
TrHnslt 

Import,  Etport, 

Amount  of 

Amount  puyiblo 

Poputation. 

Amount  of 
groM  Uecalpti. 

net  RereipU 
fur 

to  Mch  Slnla 
•crordinK  to  lU 

Dulieapay- 
iibl«  to  «at  l> 

nuliti  pn>'«t>l> 

Dlatnbution. 

Popul.ll.m, 

Th.itn. 

TliaUn  • 

Tlnil.ri. 

TlinJira. 

Thiilen. 

1«,0««,183 

16,fi7.','.l29 

M,a47,4;a 

11,211,383 

24',,  2(13 

11.405  ,180 

1S.I.7S3 

77,114 

t  10,445 

127,040 

2,241 

lio.sso 

4,,V2«,OBa 

1,210,639 

9<»4,'..91 

S.0I4,(UII 

63.4('i3 

3,098,009 

1,894.431 

2,119  847 

1,956.287 

1,274,161 

20,7.'i6 

1.813.897 

1,805  003 

ii43,r>27 

830,  37 

],214.3S7 

21.325 

1,28«>,712 

l,3«0,.'iil9 

C6J,02B 

3r)3,4S2 

91,MI5 

10.070 

(131, 186 

7:1  f. 684 

43.t,04« 

.'!4i,!.';6 

492,061 

8.041 

000,092 

SC,.',»1I 

412,S03 

40.'.B01 

080,883 

10.192 

690,076 

1,014,1  M 

391,793 

891,79a 

082,040 

10.831 

098,571 

247.OT0 

890,14;! 

220,6;3 

100,175 

3,534 

10;t,709 

426,  ()8<! 

74  8.9 

71,310 

280,309 

5,028 

291,31'>9 

881,492 

«30,nR4 

1tll,728,386 

22,646,087 
tI.eBa 

2(l,IKk-),240 

10,44  5t 

19,9!  4.795 

1»,»04,T96 

410,304 

20,406,  H» 

*  The  llialer,  09  crnls  Ainerlran  cuiToncy.     t  Frankfort  is  regulated  by  a  spcciAc  arrangement,  and  not  by  popHlation. 
}  A  special  payment  by  I'nisaia,  on  account  of  the  Union. 


Fumice-atoue  (Ger.  BlmtKin;  Fr.  Pierre  poutv  ; 
It.  Pi'tni  jmmice  ;  Sp.  Pieiira  poiniz  ;  Lot,  Pumex),  a 
light,  spongy,  vitreous  stone,  found  usually  in  tlie 
neigliborhoud  of  Volcanoes.  It  U  used  for  (lolishing 
metals  and  marble,  and  smoothing  the  surface  of  wood 
anil  pasteboard.  It  \i  said  to  form  a  good  glaze  for 
pottery.  The  lighter  pumice-stones  swim  on  water, 
their  specific  gravity  not  exceeding  -UM.  The  island 
of  I.ipttri,  in  tho  Mediterranean,  is  chiefly  formed  of 
puniice-stonc,  and  may  bo  said  to  be  the  magazine 
whence  all  I'iuropc  is  supplied  with  this  useful  article. 
Tbcro  are  several  species  of  pumice-stones,  but  those 
only  that  arc  light  and  spongy  arc  exported. 

Puncheon,  a  measure  of  capacity  for  liipiids,  con- 
taining ciglily-four  gallons,  or  one-third  of  a  tun. 

Ptltchook.  All  article  of  this  name  is  imported 
in  coii^idcrulde  <|uaiitities  from  the  northwest  coast  of 
Iniliu  into  Cliiiia,  ami  is  regularly  quoted  in  the  Can- 
ton price-currents.  It  is  the  root  of  n  plant  that  grows 
aliuiiiluutly  in  Sinde.  When  burned,  it  yields  a  tine 
smoke,  and  a  grateful  and  diffusive  smell.  Tho  Chi- 
nese lieat  ii  into  a  fine  powder,  which  they  bum  as  in- 
cense ill  the  temples  of  their  gods. — IlA.MtLTO.N'.s  A'eic 
A  ccomit  nf  the  F.ust  Indiet. 

PyroUgneous  Acid  (Or.  irvp;  I.at.  lignum, 
ufood).  This  term  is  generally  applied  to  tho  aciti 
liquor  which  passes  over  along  witli  tar  and  gaseous 
products  when  wood  is  subjected  to  destructive  distil- 


lation. This  acid  liquor  is  an  impure  vinegar,  from 
which  acetic  aci<l  is  obtained  as  follows :  The  pyrollg- 
neous  acid,  freed  from  tar,  is  saturated  with  chalk  vr 
powdered  slaked  lime,  lilterpil  and  evaporated,  l>y 
which  an  impure  acetato  of  linio  is  obtained  :  tliis  js 
gently  heated,  so  as  to  destroy  part  of  its  empyrcumat- 
ic  matter  witboiit  decomposing  the  acetic  acid  ;  it  is 
then  mixed  with  sulphate  of  soda,  which  yields,  by 
double  decomposition,  sul])hate  of  lime  and  acetate  of 
soda ;  tho  acetate  of  soda  is  filtered  off  the  sulphate  of 
lime,  evaporated,  heated,  and  redissolved  and  crystal- 
lized. In  this  wa,v  a  pure  crystallized  acetato  of  soda 
is,  by  proper  management,  obtained,  which  is  mixed 
ill  a  retort  or  still  with  a  proper  proportion  of  sulpliii- 
ric  acid,  and  a  gentle  heat  applied,  which  cau.scs  llio 
strong  acetic  acid  to  distill  over,  and  sulphate  of  suds 
remains  behind.  This  acetic  acid  is  in  a  hi^h  state  of 
concentration ;  it  is  lowered  by  the  addition  of  water, 
and  if  intended  fqr  tho  table  or  for  domestic  use,  as  a 
sulistitule  for  other  forms  of  vinegar,  it  is  u.^ually  col- 
ored with  n  little  burned  sugar.  The  clinrcoal  wliicli 
is  the  residue  of  this  distillation  of  wood  is  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality— that  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  is  thus  prepared.  This  manufacture  of 
vinegar  is  now  carried  on  upon  a  very  large  scale,  and 
the  greater  part  of  tho  vinegar  used  for  domestic  pur- 
jioses  and  in  the  arts,  in  many  of  which  it  h  largely 
consumed,  is  derived  from  this  lource. 


QUA 


1601 


QUA 


la  into 
t  of  an 
n  Au8- 
,  1853. 
h  a  few 
(lorling 
a  other ; 
Detween 
co;  itnd 
,>08cd  on 
rfasona- 
)f  wliich 
le  treaty 
t,  should 
ch  it  will 
Ihat  long 
IS  will  ho 
le  founiia- 
m  neither 

the  duties 
»vo  under- 
:oargp.  and 
ally,  to  bo 


tTUE!l3,  roil- 


a 


■ii.4W>r»>(i 

1.8i»,W'T 

1>31,1H6 
tiOO.OM 

i91,8S0 


Iviiicgav,  from 
The  pyrolit!- 


Aith  ihalk  or 
[oiioratcd.  hy 
aincd ;  this  ia 
icmpvieu"'"'' 
Ic  aiid :  it  i» 
ill,  yicliln,  hy 
Inil  acetate  of 
[ic  huliiliate  of 
\\  and  cryutal- 
tofliito  of  soda 
hich  is  mixed 
Ion  of  sullili"- 
Ich  causin  llio 
Vhale  "f  s"^l» 
L  hinl>  state  of 
[tion  of  water, 
Ulic  use,  a»  » 
L  usually  ii>l- 
linrcoal  wliiili 
I  is  <if  an  ex- 
UnHfiKlni"  of 
[anufuiturc  of 
Lvge  seale,  and 
I  ilon\e9tic  pur- 
'  it  Sr  largely 


Qaadrana,  in  Knglish  mmty,  the  fourth  part  of  a 
Iienny.  before  thi  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the  smallest  coin 
was  a  Herlmg,  or  penny  marked  with  a  cross,  by  the 
guidance  of  which  a  penny  might  be  cut  into  halves  for  a 
half-penny,  or  into  quarters,  or  four  parts,  for  farthings. 
But,  to  avoid  the  fraud  of  unequal  cutthigs,  that  king 
afterward  coined  half-pence  and  farthings  in  distinct 
round  pieces. 

QuRctcant,  in  Oeomeirt/,  the  arch  of  a  circle,  con- 
taining DO",  or  the  fourth  part  of  the  entire  periphery. 

Quudmnl  also  denotes  a  mathematical  instrument, 
of  great  use  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  for  taking 
the  altitudes  of  the  sun  and  stars,  as  also  for  taking  an- 
gles in  surveying.  This  instrument  is  variously  con- 
trived, and  furnished  wilh  dilTiiiiit  apparatus,  accord- 
ing to  the  various  uses  it  is  intended  for ;  but  they  all 
have  this  in  common,  that  tlicy  consist  of  a  quarter  of 
a  circle,  the  limb  of  which  is  divided  into  90  degrees. 
Some  have  n  plummet  suspended  from  the  centre,  and 
are  furnished  with  sights  to  look  through.  The  prin- 
cipal and  most  useful  quadrants  are  the  common  sur- 
veying quadrant,  astronomical  quadrant,  Adams's 
quadrant.  Cole's  quadrant,  Guntcr's  quadrant,  Ilad- 
ley's  quadrant,  horodictical  quadrant,  Sutton's  or  Col- 
lins's  quadrant,  and  the  sinicul  quadrant. 

Quarantine,  a  regulation  by  which  nil  communi- 
cation witli  individuals,  ships,  or  goods,  arriving  from 
places  infected  witli  tlie  plague,  or  other  contagious 
disease,  or  supposed  to  lie  iieculiiirly  liable  to  sucli  in- 
fection, is  interdicted  for  a  certain  dcfmitc  period.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  Italian  qmmmta,  forty,  it  being 
generally  supposed  that  if  nu  infectious  disease  break 
out  within  40  days,  or  six  weeks,  no  danger  need  be 
apprehended  from  tlio  free  admission  of  the  individu- 
als under  quarantine.  During  this  period,  too,  all  the 
goods,  clothes,  etc.,  that  might  bo  supposed  capable  of 
retaining  the  infection  are  sul)jcctcd  to  a  process  of  pu- 
rification. Tills  last  operation,  which  is  a  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  quarantine  system,  is  performed  ei- 
ther on  board  ship,  or  in  establishments  denominated 
taziirtltos, 

J'oliri/  of  Qiinmntine. — Tlio  regulations  as  to  quaran- 
tine are  entirely  precautionary ;  they  have  their  origin 
ill  the  belief  that  various  diseases,  but  eapeeially  tlie 
pliigue,  are  contagious ;  and  supposing  siieli  to  bo  the 
case,  tlie  propriety  of  subjecting  tlio.se  coining  from  an 
infected  or  suspected  place  to  a  lirolmtion  Is  olivlous. 
Indeed,  ->o  government  could,  until  the  belief  in  ques- 
tion lie  proved  to  bo  ill-founded,  abstain  from  enforcing 
)i.ecautionary  measures,  witliout  rendering  itself  liable 
to  the  charge  of  having  culpably  neglected  one  of  its 
most  imporlant  duties — that  of  providing,  liy  every 
ineana  in  Its  jiowcr,  for  tlie  safety  of  its  subjects.  Lat- 
terly, however,  it  has  been  contended  tliat  tlie  plague 
is  never  imported — that  it  is  always  indigenous;  orig- 
inating in  some  (leenliar  state  of  the  atmosplicre,  or  in 
something  peculiar  in  the  condition  of  tlic  |ieople  ;  and 
that,  consequently,  quarantine  regulations  merely  im- 
pose a  heavy  burden  on  commerce,  willumt  being  of 
any  real  utility.  Hut  though  there  does  not  seini  to 
bo  any  reason  for  doubting  that  infectious  disenses  linve 
originated  in  the  way  described,  tlie  fact  that  thoy  have, 
in  innumerable  instances,  been  carried  from  one  place 
to  another,  seems  to  be  established  beyond  all  question. 
Kvcn  if  the  evidence  ns  to  the  importation  of  infectious 
diseases  were  less  decisive  than  it  is,  or  the  opinions 
of  medical  men  more  divided,  it  would  not  warrant  the 
repeal  of  the  restraints  on  the  intercourse  with  siis|iect- 
cd  ports.  This  is  not  a  matter  in  which  innovations 
should  he  rashly  intro<luced;  wherever  there  is  doubt, 
it  is  proper  to  incline  to  the  side  of  security.  In  some 
cases,  perhaps,  quarantine  regulations  have  been  car- 
ried to  n  needless  extent;  but  they  have  more  fre- 
quently, wo  believe,  been  improperly  relaxed. 
31 


Tnttilulion  of  Quarantine.— The  notion  that  the  plague 
was  imported  from  the  East  into  Euro|io  seems  to  have 
prevailed  in  all  ages.  Hut  it  would  appear  that  the 
Venetians  were  the  first  who  endeavored  to  guard 
against  its  introduction  from  abroad,  by  obliging  ships 
and  individuals  from  suspected  places  to  perform  quar- 
antine. The  regulations  upon  tills  subject  wore,  it  is 
most  probable,  issued  for  the  first  time  in  1-Jgl.— Ueck- 
M.\ss,  IlUloi-y  iif  Invmliom.  They  have  511100  been 
gradually  adopted  in  every  other  country.  Their  in- 
troduction into  England  was  comparatively  late.  Vari- 
ous preventive  regulations  had  been  previously  enact- 
ed, but  quarantine  was  not  systematically  enforced  till 
after  the  alarm  occasioned  by  the  dreadful  pluguo  at 
Marseilles  in  1720.  The  regulations  then  adopted  were 
I  made  conformably  to  the  suggestions  of  the  celebrated 
Dr.  Mead,  in  his  famous  "  Discourse  concerning  I'csti- 
lectial  Contagion." 

J.a  nreltus  or  Peit-houses  are  establishments  con- 
structed to  facilitate  the  performance  of  quarantine, 
and  particularly  the  purification  of  goods.  Tliey  have 
usually  a  port  in  which  ships  from  a  aus|)ected  place 
may  anchor;  and,  wlicn  |>erfcct,  aro  provided  with 
lodgings  for  the  crews  and  passengers,  where  tlie  sick 
may  bo  separated  from  the  healtliy ;  and  with  ware- 
houses, where  the  goods  may  be  deposlied;  all  inter- 
course lietween  the  lazaretto  and  the  siirruundim;  coun- 
try being,  of  course,  interdicted,  except  by  ;«.'rmi8sion 
of  the  authorities.  Tlie  lazarettos  of  I  ;  gliorii,  (icnoa, 
and  Marseilles  are  the  most  coiii;'.>;ic  of  any  in  Duropc. 
The  facilities  they  n*'':,;,',  lo  navigation  are  very  great ; 
for,  as  sliips  from  suspected  places  may  discliargo  their 
cargoes  in  the  lazaretto,  they  are  not  detained  longer 
than  they  would  be  were  there  no  quarantine  regula- 
tions, 'the  goods  deposited  in  lliu  lazaretto,  being  in- 
spected by  the  proper  oflicers,  and  puriiieil,  are  then 
admitted  into  the  market. 

Sills  of  Jleallh.—'1'\K  period  of  quarantine  varies,  as 
respects  sliips  coming  from  the  same  jilace,  aecording 
to  the  nature  of  tlieir  bills  of  healtli.  These  are  docu- 
ments, or  certilicates,  signed  by  the  consul  or  other  coni- 
|>eteiit  authority  in  tiic  pinco  which  the  ship  lias  left, 
describing  Its  state  of  healtli  at  the  time  of  her  clearing 
out.  A  clean  bill  iin|>orts  that  at  the  time  of  her  sail- 
ing no  infectious  disorder  was  known  to  exist.  A  ins- 
pected, or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called,  a  lunched 
bill,  imports  that  rumors  were  alloit  of  an  Infectious 
disorder,  but  that  it  had  not  actually  appeared.  Afoul 
bill,  or  the  absence  if  clean  bills,  imports  that  the  ]ilaco 
was  infected  when  ilio  vessel  sailed.  The  duration  of 
the  quarantine  is  regulated  by  the  nature  of  these  in- 
struments. They  seem  to  have  been  first  issued  in  the 
Mediterranean  ports  in  llJtiri,  and  are  obviously  of  great 
importance. 

liy  an  act  of  Congress  passed  February  25,  1799,  re- 
specting quarantine  and  health  laws,  it  is  provided  that 
the  i|uarantines  and  otlier  restraints  required  by  tho 
licaltli  laws  of  any  State,  respecting  any  vessel  arriv- 
ing in  or  bound  to  any  |iort  nr  district,  shall  be  duly 
observed  liy  tho  oflicers  of  the  revenue  of  the  Vnited 
States,  and  by  the  masters  and  crews  of  the  revenue 
cutters,  and  by  tho  military  oflicers  stationed  upon  tho 
sea-coast ;  and  nil  suidi  ollicers  of  the  I'liited  States 
are  ri'qulred  faithfully  to  aid  in  the  execution  of  such 
laws.  The  secretary  is  authorized,  w  ben  a  conformity 
to  the  quarantine  and  health  laws  requires  it,  to  prolong 
the  terms  limited  for  tho  entry  of  vessels,  unil  the  re- 
port or  entry  of  their  cargoes,  and  to  vary  or  dispense 
wilh  ony  other  regulations  applicable  to  such  rcporta 
or  entries,  provided  that  no  State  is  thus  enabled  lo> 
collect  a  duty  of  toiinogo  or  imiiort  without  the  con- 
sent of  Congress,  and  (irovided  that  no  part  of  the  car- 
go be  taken  out  or  unladen  otherwise  than  as  by  law 
is  allowed.    When,  by  the  health  laws  of  any  State,^ 


QUA 


1602 


QUE 


any  vessel  arriving  within  a  collection  district  is  pro- 
hibited from  coming  to  tlie  port  of  entrj-  or  deliverj-  for 
such  district,  and  it  is  required  by  such  health  laws  that 
the  cargo  of  such  vessel  may  bo  unladen  at  some  oth- 
er place,  the  collector,  after  due  report  to  him  of  the 
whole  of  such  cargo,  niuy  grant  his  special  permit  for 
unlading,  under  the  care  of  the  surveyor,  or  one  or  more 
inspectors,  at  some  other  place  where  such  health  laws 
permit,  and  upon  the  conditions  which  shall  be  direct- 
ed liy  the  Secretary  of  tlio  Treasury,  or  which  such  col- 
lector nuiy  judge  expedient  for  the  security  of  tlie  pub- 
lic revenue;  provided  that'all  the  articles  so  unladen 
shall  lie  deposited  at  the  risk  of  the  parties  concerned 
in  Bucii  warehouses  or  inclosures  as  the  collector  shall 
designate,  there  to  remain  under  the  joint  custody  of 
such  collector  and  of  the  owner,  or  person  having 
charge  of  such  vessel,  until  the  same  be  entirely  dis- 
char;;ed,  and  until  the  goods  so  deposited  may  be  safely 
removed,  without  contravening  such  health  laws.  And 
when  such  removal  may  be  allowed,  the  collector  hav- 
ing charge  of  such  goods  moy  grant  permits  to  the  re- 
spective owners  or  consignees,  their  factors  or  ajicnts, 
to  receive  all  goods  which  shall  be  entered,  and  where- 
of the  duties  accruing  shall  he  secured  upon  tho  pay- 
ment by  them  of  a  reasonable  rate  of  storage,  which 
shall  be  fixed  by  tho  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Suitublo  warehouses,  with  wharves  and  inclosures, 
arc  provided,  where  goods  may  bo  unladen  and  depos- 
ited fur  any  vessel  subject  to  a  quarantine,  pursuant  to 
the  health  laws.  When,  by  tho  prevalence  of  any  con- 
tagious or  epidemical  disease  in  or  nc&r  the  port  of 
entry  for  any  collcclion  district,  it  shall  become  dan- 
gerous or  inconvenient  for  the  officers  of  tho  revenue  to 
discliarge  their  respective  ofliccs  at  such  port,  the  sec- 
retarj',  or,  in  his  absence,  the  controller,  niaj-  author- 
ize the  removal  of  the  collector,  and  the  other  officers 
employed  in  his  department,  to  any  other  more  con- 
venient place  within  or  near  to  such  collection  district, 
where  such  officers  may  exercise  tho  same  authority, 
and  are  liable  to  tho  same  duties,  according  to  existing 
circumstances,  as  in  such  lawful  port  (.r  district ;  and 
of  such  removal  public  .lotice  must  be  given. — Blust's 
SMimuuters'  A  uiitant, 

Tho  quarantine  laws  of  the  diflcront  States  aro  too 
voluminuus  to  give  in  detail,  and  therefore  there  is  hero 
annexed  only  a  synopsis  of  the  quarantine  laws  in  force 
in  New  York  city. 

It  Is  tho  duty  of  the  pilots  to  hail  all  vessels  enter- 
ing into  the  port  of  New  York,  and  find  whether  tlicj- 
aro  subject  to  quarantine ;  and  if  they  arc,  to  bring 
them  to  anchor  in  the  quarantine  grounds;  also,  to 
prevent  any  violation  of  tho  quarantine  regulations 
while  they  have  charge  of  a  vecscl,  such  as  commuid- 
cation  between  a  vessel  subject  to  quarantine  and  tho 
shore,  etc.,  and  to  report  ail  infringements  of  regula- 
tions to  the  health  officer. 

Vessels  arriving  at  tho  port  of  New  York  are  subject 
to  quarantine  as  follows:  1st.  All  vessels  direct  from, 
or  touching  at  any  place  where  yellow  fever,  bilious 
malignant,  or  other  pestilential  or  infectious  fever  ex- 
isted ut  tho  time  of  their  departure,  or  on  board  of 
which,  during  tho  voyage,  any  case  of  such  fever  has 
occurred,  orriving  lietween  the  SIst  doy  of  May  and  the 
1st  day  of  October,  shall  remain  at  quarantino  for  at 
Jeast  30  days  after  arrival,  and  ut  least  20  days  after 
cargo  li,is  been  discharged,  and  shall  perform  such  fur- 
ther .quurantine  as  tho  health  officer  shall  prescribe, 
2(1.  All  vessels  arriving  between  tho  Ist  day  of  April 
and  tlio  Jat  day  of  November,  exclusive  of  tho  above- 
spcciflcd;  nil  vessels  from  a  fonign  port,  on  board  of 
which,  during  tho  voyage,  or  while  at  the  port  of  depart- 
ure, any  perwu  has  been  sick,  or  from  any  place  in  the 
ordinary  passage  from  which  they  pass  south  of  Cape 
Henloprn,  arriving  between  tho  31st  day  of  May  and 
the  IGtIi  day  of  October ;  and  all  vessels  ft-om  any  place 
(Including  islands)  In  Asia,  Africa,  or  the  Mediterra- 
nean, otttom  any  of  the  West  Indian,  Uabama,  Iter- 


muda,  or  Western  Islands,  or  from  any  place  in  Amer- 
ica, in  the  ordinary  passn"  'rom  which  they  pass  south 
of  Georgia,  arriving  be(>'  ctn  the  Ist  day  of  April  and 
the  1st  day  of  November,  ai  <:  subject  to  quarantine  and 
other  regnlatioi^s,  as  the  health  officer  may  prescribe. 
The  health  officer  must  board  every  vessel  subjr>ct  to 
quarantine  or  visitation  immediately  on  her  arrival, 
and  make  his  examination. 

The  powers  of  the  Board  of  Health  are  ample  to  pro- 
tect the  port.  The  regulations  are  similar  to  those  gen- 
erally adopted,  and  include  a  fine  of  $2000,  and  impris- 
onment of  twelve  months,  to  any  master  or  crew  of  a 
vessel  that  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  quarantine,  and 
also  a  fine  of  $600  and  imprisonment  for  any  violation 
of  quarantine. 

Quarter,  the  fourth  part  of  any  thing.  As  a  tern) 
of  weight  it  denotes  the  fourth  of  a  hundred  weight, 
or  28  pounds ;  as  a  dr}-  measure  it  signifies  the  fourth  of 
a  chaldron. 

Quarter,  that  part  of  a  ship's  side  which  lies  toward 
the  stern,  or  is  comprehendeil  between  the  aftmost  end 
of  the  main  chains  and  the  sides  of  the  stern,  where  it 
is  terminated  by  the  quarter  pieces. 

Quarter  of  a  Point,  in  Navigation,  is  the  fourth 
part  of  the  distance  between  two  cardinal  points,  which 
is  2°  -18'. 

Quarter  Days.  The  days  usually  regarded  in  En- 
gland and  most  Continental  countrit.'s(but  not  in  Scot- 
land) as  beginning  the  four  quar'  ■•  /  f  tli»  vear.  They 
are,  1.  I.ady  Day  (25th  of  MaivM;  m.  ^. -nmer  Day 
(Juno  24tli);  3.  Michaelmas  Da>  v  -  >ei  29th)  j 

and,  4.  (Xhristmas  Day  (Decembi 

Quarter  Deck.  The  portly.;  \,i  ine  uppermost 
deck  of  a  ship  between  the  main  and  mizen  musts. 
Tills  is  the  "  parade"  in  men-of-war. 

Quarter  Master,  in  the  Xm-y,  an  inferior  officer 
appointed  to  assist  the  mates  in  their  several  duties. 

Quarters  imply  the  several  stations  where  the  offi- 
cers and  crew  uf  a  ship  of  war  aro  posted  in  time  of 
action. 

Quassia  (Ger.  QuniiunKolz ;  Fr.  Bvit  de  qaasiie ; 
Sp.  I.eno  de  qiiattia),  a  beautiful  tall  tree  ^Qtmisia 
amara"),  growing  in  North  and  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  wood  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and 
inodorous.  Taste  intensely  bitter.  It  afl'ords  to  wa- 
ter an  intensely  bitter  decoction,  which  is  occasionally 
used  in  medicine,  and  wasformerly  sulistituted  liy  some 
brewers  for  hops,  but  is  now  prohiliitcd  under  severe 
penalties.  It  afibrds  a  safe  and  efficacious  fly-water 
or  poison  for  flics.  It  is  believed  that  it  would  suc- 
ceed well  in  our  Southern  States,  and  form  a  valuable 
addition  to  our  forests. 

Quebec,  tho  capital  of  Canada,  and  of  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  in  North  America,  on  the  northwest 
bank  of  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  about  840  miles  from 
its  mouth,  in  lat.  40"  48'  4!» "  N.,  long.  71°  10'  4.''> '  W. 
I'opulation  in  1850,  40,233.  Quebec  is  situated  on  a 
ridge,  or  promontory,  formed  by  the  St.  Lawrence  on 
tho  south  and  wei-t,  and  the  Kivcr  St.  Charles  on  the 
east.  The  extremity  of  this  headland,  called  Cu|ja 
Diamond,  is  about  i'45  feet  above  the  level  of  the  wa- 
ter, and  on  it  the  citadel  is  built.  The  town  extends 
from  tho  citadel,  principally  in  a  northeast  direetion, 
down  to  tho  water ;  and  is,  from  tho  diff'ercnce  of  eleva- 
tion, divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  towns.  The 
fortilicatlous,  which  are  very  strong,  extend  across  the 
peninsula,  the  circuit  within  them  being  about  two 
and  three  quarter  miles.  From  their  situation  many 
of  tho  streets  are  uneven ;  they  aro  also,  for  the  must 
part,  narrow  ;  but  they  are  either  well  paved  or  Mac- 
adamized. The  greater  numlier  of  the  houses  arc  built 
of  stone,  with  shingle  roofs.  Some  of  the  public  build- 
ings are  elegant,  and  well  adapted  for  their  pur|)oses. 
The  harbor,  or  basin,  lies  between  the  town  and  the 
island  of  Orleans.  It  is  safe  and  commodious :  the 
water  Is  about  28  fathoms  deep,  with  a  tide  rising  from 
17  to  18  feet  i  and  at  springs  from  28  to  25  ditto.     Que- 


QUE 


1603 


QUE 


te"  W«»  tmnHvi  Ijy  the  French  in  1608.     In  1629  it  BaKie  timber,  the  Imports  into  Great  Uritain  from 

W«#  l«li««  by  the  KngllMi ;  l.ut  was  restored  in  1632.  Canada  and  other  parts  of  British  America  of  red-pine 

It  yL*"  «^»'»,*»''6"  ^y  ">•  Knglish  under  General  and  of  pine  and  spruce  plunlts,  especially  the  latter' 

WhI/V,  mUu  fell  In  the  engagement,  in  1759 ;  and  was  have  of  late  verv  largely  Increased.     Exccptinc  tinil 

jiHrtlly  mM  to  Kngland  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  In  1763.  I,er,  furs  and  aslies  are  the  most  inuwrtant  articles  sent 

'Ml»  Mfdd  \me»M  of  population  In,  and  of  emigration  from  Canada.     A  considerable  part  of  the  corn  and 

Ui,\  p\M  Oattada  has  occasioned  a  proportional  increase  flour  exported  fr  .m  Quebec  is  the  growth  of  the  United 

Of  mm<MtK9  l«tween  Quelwc  and  Montreal,  and  the  States.     The  prii  cipal  articles  of  import  into  Canada 

«j»tt«1tart  |.t>f  ts  rni  I-akes  Ontario,  Krie,  etc.     Tlie  first  consist  of  corn,  cottons,  woolens,  sillt,  and  other  maim- 

mmtmAt  thai  piled  on  the  St.  Lawrence  was  launclied  fuctnred  goods ;  glass  ware,  spirits  and  wines  iron  and 

IH  1«13<  but  there  are  now  a  great  many  steamers,  hardware,  sugar  and  tea,  etc.     The  total  value  of  tlic 

l(«J(«eftN«(f»  of  large  burden,  employed  In  the  convey-  imports  into  Canada  (of  which  however   bv  far  the 

JflgS  of  goods  and  passengers  between  Quebec  and  largest  portion  goes  to  Montreal)  In  1848  Amounted  to 

MOHtfS«l  i  atlrt  In  the  trade  between  Quolwc  and  Hali-  412,107,164  currency  (24».  id.  currency =20j  sterlinc) 
JfJJfj  ttl  Vim  Scotia.     And  by  means  of  the  Uideau  and  ■  Declared  value  of  British  produce  and  manufactures 

yfmum  tiftttals,  »n  uninterrupted  line  of  steam  com-  exported  to  Canada  in  1851,  £2,461,531      It  is  mate- 

mtmit'ftlioH  k  fnrtned  lietween  the  Atlantic  and  Am-  rial,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  little  more  than 

huM'liHff^,  otie  of  the  remote  settlements  of  Upper  half  the  imports  are  paid  for  by  the  exports-  they  are 


in  fact,  principally  paid  for  by  the  Treasury  at  home, 
and  arc  to  be  regarded  as  the  means  sent  out  by  En- 
gland  to  pay  the  troops  and  meet  the  otlier  heavy  ex- 
penoes  she  has  to  incur  in  the  preservation  of  this  un- 
profitable  colony, 

ACOOUNT  OF  THR  NoMUia  0»  VESSELS  AMI  TIIKIB  ToNKAGF. 
WmoU    ARRIVED    AT  THE    I'ORT    (IK    yiEllEC,  INCLnm.vl, 

THOSE  iiouNn  roB  .Montreal,  anh  raou  Sea,  from  lS4(i 

TO  186j  INCLnSIVX. 


(!»ll.<trt(l,  » ^ii»^itic.e  of  more  than  1600  miles ;  which  is 
now  e<((«ttd«(1  thfoQgh  Lake  Huron  to  the  western  cx- 
tmnhf  of  tjttke  Superior,  al)ont  700  miles  beyond  Am- 
hilfnHitif^i  gW\tig  to  Quebec  a  command  of  Internal 
fldvifiatbm  Ittferlof  only  to  that  of  New  Orleans.  The 
fi«Vi)f«tJ«U  «t  (Jueliec  closes  at  the  end  of  November  or 
iieaimiim  of  December,  and  opens  in  April.  Below 
t^HI't/W  iTiS  f  ifef  is  seldom  frozen  over ;  but  the  masses 
§f  rt('/iliHg  ic(>,  kept  in  constant  agitation  by  the  flux 
dUd  f*rtH*of  t(te  tide,  render  navigation  Impracticable, 
TbS  W«l«f9  Of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  very  pure ;  and  in 
poitlt  tif  lUplU  and  magnitude  it  Is  one  of  the  noblest 
fivW.i*  itt  fhs  world, — Boociiettk's  lirilish  Dominions 
in  Amt'lfa,     Queliec  Is  a  free  warehousing  port. 

'fhs  <f«d«  of  tiueliec  Is  very  extensive.  It  cn- 
gte^mn,  'With  Montreal,  almost  the  entire  trade  of  the 
ftfOViHCS  *lth  the  mother  country,  the  West  Indie.«, 
§t<>'<  liftllH  numbers  of  emigrants  leave  England  for 
t)«HWl»j  l<Ut  the  larger  nunilicr  subsequently  re-emi- 

gf»<«  le  the  United  States.  It  has  a  regular  inter-  Among  the  arrivals  in  1856  were  the  following  for- 
«i9t:f»e,  bt  tneitns  of  steamers,  with  Montreal  and  oth- !  cjgn  vessels :  38  Norwegian,  aggregate  tonnage,  l",-30 
gf  pUfH  higher  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  with  Hall-;  tons;  15  United  States,  8596  tons;  8  German,  3015 


Vein. 

V«»elii. 

•Jmt 

ISlfi 

184T 

1448 
1173 
1044 
1004 
147!) 
IIR^ 
1155 
1188 
1316 
C77 
907 

573,104 
474  MS 
420,908 
431,053 
434.291 
596,984 
45410* 
532,517 
530,323 
840,449 
471.444 

1843 

1S19 

IS.'* 

1651 

1852 

1863 

1854 

1855 

1856 

hn  Sflrt  mat  ports  on  the  Atlantic.  Still,  however, 
il  tHII<)t  not  be  forgotten  that  in  so  far  as  the  United 
Kin^^om  M  «Oncerne<),  the  trade  with  Canada  and 
Qh^I*?^  is,  in  some  degree,  forced  and  factitious,  and 
Im  ntii  imn  a  source  of  profit,  but  the  reverse  In 
ft)f liter  tSdts  It  was,  in  fact,  mainly  a  consequence  of 
if)»  (IMcVifninudrtB  duties  bid  in  British  ports  on  tim- 
h(>f  (fim  ll(«  north  of  ftnropc ;  and  but  for  this  prepos- 
i^ftrttS  «ff(tHf<ement,  the  tr.ide  l)etween  Great  Britain 
»ml  ytl8t*«  Would  have  bori  extremely  unimportant. 
How,  hemei/ef,  «otne  brandies  of  the  trade  appear  to 
httt't>  ««<^Hif(<d  a  solid  fooling;  and  notwithstanding 
itw  fedu«iton  of  the  discriminating  duties  in  favor  of 


tons ;  6  Prussian,  2056  tons.     The  total  from  all  coun- 
tries was  74  vessels,  34,824  tons. 

VALoa  OF  the  Exroars  anb  Imports  of  Qeedeo  ash 

MONTBEAL. 


Y«An. 

Exports. 

Imports.                   j 

guebet. 

Montreal. 

Uosbec. 

Montrul. 
:i:2,06S,135 

1841 

i:i,727,72P 

i7l«l,07l) 

£217,916 

1842 

9ni,4S9 

7:8.729 

210.009 

2,021,100 

1843 

i.;ir,7,65i 

,168.1119 

402.227 

l,f89,571 

1844 

l,48li,N48 

764,i81 

656  803 

2,475,084 

1845 

S0D0,86I 

720,Ti.7 

712.398 

2,fl20,2,'.2 

1841! 

1,801460 

068.333 

75:),9S2 

2,3li3,9lJN 

184T 

1,S3I,8K) 

848  982 

790,917 

2,063  440 

184S 

1,8,57,826 

3:)1,841 

625  S45 

1,481,418 

itrnttM  Attn  roinoN  Vessus 

XNTEBSD    (FBOV    SEA) 

AT  THE 

I'OBT  OF  QOEDEO  IH  THE  YEAR  1856. 

WhlWI  UMli. 

WITH  CtaOOBS. 

IN   BA 

.LAST. 

Brla.1i. 

Foreign. 

Brltlih. 

Foreijrn. 

Vmls. 

Tons.       Crews. 

Vessels. 

Tom. 

Crews 

Veneli. 

Tons.     I  Crews. 

Ves«!ls. 

Toim. 

Crews. 

limM  kbiKtluw 

280 

102,(160     6275 

10 

4,'i78 

142 

248 

lal'.SO'i 

4119 

9 

4,111 

95 

^((♦*  f»(-ll(l«    ;.,.i 

60 

7,203 

S4.') 

9 

3,6  4 

112 

,    , 

Nfw  tlitiimwitit 

M 

1,108 

90 

7 

290 

24 

,    , 

tipHifldlHlHllHll 

80 

2,7«T 

163 

87 

0 

18 

3,309 

1113 

t'miHt  hioiittii  Island. 

2 

479 

19 

. . .  • 

(ill/t«(i«t  ,., 

1 

318 
94 

13 

n 

... 

44 

1 

17,875 
607 

668 

17 

2 

763 

24 

fltiM»((WMi  (tidies.. 

I'tldcd  HIdle* 

4 

8,652 

S4 

634 

18 

12 

8,186 

220 

16 

13,946 

308 

Vtmm  1 , , : , ,  V , .  i , . . , 

6 

8,224 

62 

, . . 

15 

6,671 

196 

1 

1,240 

26 

Himi»,,,, 111,1.1. .,4 

. 

. . . 

1 

481 

13 

llt-l«iH(H,.,,<;.- 

8 

2,063 

61 

1,418 

49 

.... 

..* 

S 

i;7(iT 

50 

, , 

4 

i,433 

48 

* . . 

6 

2,170 

T3 

m 

10 

62 

19,769 

627 

1 

Tlio 

IT 

IWlMKKt  ,,,,,.11-... 

4 

1,14.' 

42 

233 

u 

.... 

.... 

2 

652 

22 

M«l(», ••,,,.., 

9 

717 

SO 

12 

6,016 

172 

. , . , 

1 

496 

18 

t 

815 

11 

.... 

80 

20,214 

68S 

3 

1,181 

87 

fmnnf,,,,,,,...... 

«4Mi(li»,,,,,,. 

1 
1 

6S7 
4M 

22 
16 

.... 

•■•■ 

::; 

t'Ht1((lf ,,,,,,, , 

6 

2,786 

90 

■S>mf».  Ill :,...,.,,. 

... 

4 

2,129 

00 

3 

1,034 

38 

1 

609 

18 

306 

13 

1 

T02 

18 

is 

0,541 

219 

441 

189,486  1  6843 

81 

12,108 

421 

401 

229,425 

7202 

67 

31,036 

817 

QUI 


1604 


QUI 


QuioIu>lTer,  or  Meronry,  one  of  the  meUla,  i  nd 
■0  funible  that  it  can  not  be  reduced  to  u  solid  state  nut 
at  a  degree  of  cold  equal  to  forty  below  zero  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermomc^''.  Its  use  in  refining  silver  was  dis- 
covered A.i>,  IM  There  are  mines  of  it  in  various 
parts,  the  chief  cf  which  are  at  Almadur  or  Almeida, 
in  Spa'n,  and  at  Udria,  in  Carniola,  in  Germany,  dis- 
covered b}'  accident  in  141)7.  A  mine  ivas  discovered 
at  Ceylon  ir  1797.  Quicksilver  was  congealed  in 
winter  at  St.  I'etersburg  in  1769.  It  was  congealed  in 
£nglund  by  a  nhemicnl  process,  without  snow  or  ice, 
by  Mr.  Walker,  in  1787. — -See  Mercu  u\  .  For  i.  jtices 
of  quicksilver  mines,  see  American  Journal  of  Science, 
xxviil.  219  j  Hunt's  Mcrchantt'  Jlfai^azine,  xviii.  108. 

The  exports  of  quicksilver  from  California,  the  pro- 
duction of  the  California  mines,  for  three  years,  were 
as  follows,  allowing  the  flasks  to  hold  76  pounds  at  a 
value  of  60  cents  c  pound  : 


Vasn. 

FlMkJ. 

ValtM. 

1S!>3 

18800 
20,f68 
28,9  IT 
M,1T9 

»T05,00I) 
T8U,lri 

I,084,38T 
8U1,724 

1S51 

isQr> 

ISM 

The  exports  of  quicksilver  of  domestic  production 
from  the  ITnitcd  States,  for  the  year  1856,  amounted  to 
$831,724,  and  was  solely  from  the  port  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. 'The  exports  of  foreign  quicksilver  amounted  to 
tl6,011  of  which  $15,689  was  from  New  York.  The 
imports  of  quicksilver  for  the  same  time  amounted  to 
|i8(i25,  of  wliich  $2619  was  into  New  Orlcm.-,  and  the 
pro<luction  of  the  mines  of  Slexico. 

Quicksilver  is  found  in  the  largest  quantities  in 
Spain  and  California.  Almuden,  in  Spain,  has  long 
been  famed  for  its  mines  of  this  metal,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Bowles,  are  the  richest  in  their  produce.  In 
China  quicksilver  is  i-hiefly  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  1  c.rniilion  and  other  articles  of  commerce. 

The  quantity  of  quicksilver  produced  from  the  New 
Almadon  mines,  Santa  Clara  county,  California,  is 
about  100  bottles  per  month,  or  nearly  1,000,000  pounds 
per  annum.  The  other  quicksilver  mines  worthy  of 
note  are,  one  at  Huancavclica,  in  I'eru ;  in  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  and  the  district  of  Deux  Fonts,  in  Ger- 
many. There  is  a  mine  of  cinnabar  near  Alicante,  and 
another  not  far  from  San  Felipe,  in  Spain.  Mercury 
has  also  I>cen  found  in  China  and  .Japan ;  and  though 
the  amount  of  the  produce  is.  unknown,  it  is  believed 
to  lie  considerable. 

According  to  Dumas,  the  following  mines  yield  an- 
nually as  follows :  Almaden,  in  Spain,  from  2,700,000  to 
8,450,'000  pounds  avoirdupois)  Idria,648,000t>  1,080,0<K) 
pounds;  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  75,6i»i)  to  97,200 
pounds;  Deux  lonts,  43,200  to-MiOOO  pounds;  Palatine, 
19,440 to  21,000 pounds;  Iluancaveli.^a, 324,000 poands. 
Tlie  total  annual  pro(l<  t.  including  California,  can  not 
bo  less  than  from  6,.'r         n  to  7,000,000  pounds. 

Quills  (Fr.  IHumn.i  ■  rire ;  Ger.  Poien,  Feder  kiel ; 
It.  Ptnne  de  sn-ivere  ;  Kuss.  Stiroli;  Sp.  Cnnonet  para 
tteribir),  the  hard  and  strong  feather  of  the  wings  of 
geese,  ostriches,  swans,  turkeys,  crows,  etc.,  used  in 
writing.  They  are  classified  according  to  the  order  in 
which  they  are  lixed  in  the  wing,  the  second  and  third 
quills  being  the  liest.  Crow  quills  are  chiefly  used  for 
drawing.  The  goodness  of  quills  is  judged  partly  by 
the  size  of  the  barrels,  but  more  by  the  weight ;  hence 
the  denomination  of  quills  of  14, 15,  etc.,  loths  permtW«, 
each  mille  consisting  of  1200  <)uills.  The  quills  of  the 
porcupine  are  much  employed  by  the  Indians  in  North 
America  as  personal  ornaments;  the  quills  are  dyed, 
and  the  colors  ap|)ear  to  l)e  durable ;  they  are  applied 

both  to  articlea  of  drew  and  household  furniture. 


Qli<nae-tree.  The  common  quince  (Cydonia  vul- 
garia)  is  a  low  tree,  seldom  exceeding  flfteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  height,  with  a  crooked  stem,  and  tortuous,  rum- 
bling branches.  The  bark  is  smooth  and  brown,  ap- 
proaching to  black.  The  leaves  are  roundts  i  or  ovate ; 
dusky  green  above,  and  whitish  underneath.  The  flow- 
ers, which  put  forth  in  England  liy  the  middle  of  April, 
and  in  the  middle  and  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States  in  May  and  June,  are  large,  with  the  petals  pale 
red  or  white,  and  the  sepals  of  the  same  length  as  the 
petals.  The  flowers  are  succeeded  by  large  fruit  of  a 
globular,  oblong,  or  pear-shaped  foroi,  of  a  rich  yellow 
or  orange  color,  when  ripe,  of  an  austere  taste,  and 
emitting  a  peculiar  and  rather  pleasant  smell. 

(Jeiiffrnjihi/  and  Hutnry. — The  quince  is  supposed  to 
have  been  originally  a  native  of  Sidon,  a  city  of  ancient 
Crete,  now  the  island  of  Candia;  but  it  is  much  more 
probable  that  it  was  only  flrst  brought  into  notice  in 
that  city.  It  is  considered  at  present  as  indigenous 
to  the  south  of  France,  particularly  on  the  borders  of 
the  Garonne,  and  to  Germany,  on  the  banks  of  the  Dan- 
ube. 13y  some  the  tree  is  thought  to  be  indigenous 
to  Britain;  and  Phillips  states,  in  his  Pomarium  Bri- 
taimkrm,  that  quinces  grow  in  such  abundance  in  some 
parts  of  the  Wealds  of  Sussc?;,  as  to  enalde  private 
families  to  make  quince  wine  in  quantities  of  from  one 
hundred  to  two  hundred  gallons  in  a  season. 

The  quince  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  bo^h  nations  hold  it  in  high  estimation.  Olumel- 
lasays,  "Quinces  not  only  yield  pleasure,  but  health." 
He  speaks  of  three  kinds — the  "  Struthian,"  the  "  Must 
Quince,"  and  the  "  Oiange  Quince."  Pliny  mentions 
many  kinds,  some  growing  wild  in  Ital^',  and  others  in 
cultivation,  so  large  that  they  weighed  the  boughs  on 
which  they  grew  down  to  the  ground.  He  also  says 
that  some  were  of  a  green,  end  others  of  a  golden  color, 
the  latter  of  which  were  called  chrytomela.  i  lie  only 
kind  that  was  eaten  raw  he  states  to  have  been  raised 
by  grafting  the  large  quince  upon  the  stock  of  a  small 
variety,  called  atruthla.  "All  kinds  of  this  fruit," 
continues  he,  "are  grown  in  boxes,  and  placed  within 
the  waiting-chambers  of  our  great  personages,  in  which 
men  wait  to  salute  these  personages  as  they  come  forth 
every  morning."  It  appears  from  the  same  author  that 
quinces  were  used  to  decorate  the  images  of  the  gods, 
which  were  placed  in  sleeping-chambers,  round  the 
beds ;  whence  it  follows  that  the  liomans  did  not  think 
that  there  was  any  thing  either  injurious  or  unpleasant 
in  their  smell.  He  givxa  directions  for  preserving  the 
fruit,  by  excluding  the  air  from  them,  or  boiling  them 
in  honey;  or  by  plunging  them  in  boiling  honey,  a 
practice  in  use  with  this  and  other  fruits  in  Genoa  at 
the  present  da}-.  He  also  writes  much  on  the  medici- 
nal qualities  of  this  fruit.  "Quinciw,"  says  he,  "when 
;aten  raw,  if  quite  ripe,  are  f;ood  for  those  who  spit 
blood,  or  are  troubled  with  hemorrhage."  Tl"  juice 
of  raw  quinces  he  states  to  be  a  sovereign  remedy  for 
the  swollen  spleen,  the  dropsy,  and  difliculty  of  taking 
breath,  particularly  to  those  who  cun  not  conveniently 
breathe  except  when  in  an  upright  position.  The  flow- 
ers of  the  quince,  either  fresli  or  dried,  he  tells  us,  are 
good  for  inflamed  eyes.  The  root  of  the  tree  was  used, 
not  only  as  a  medicine,  but  as  a  charm  against  scrofula. 

The  wood  of  the  quince,  when  found  of  sufficient  di- 
mensions, is  applied  to  the  |)u>-po8cs  of  turnery ;  but 
from  its  small  size  this  tree  is  almost  entirely  cultiva- 
ted for  its  fruit,  or  as  stocks  on  which  to  graft  the  mount- 
ain ash  an<l  the  pear.  In  France,  however,  this  tree  is 
sometimes  grown  for  hedges.  The  fruit  is  seldom  eat- 
en by  itself,  but  is  generally  preserved  In  sirup,  or  is 
made  into  marmalade,  or  is  mixed  with  apples  in  tarts. 
— Bbownk's  Treei  of  America. 


RAG 


1605 


UAI 


R. 


Raga  (Ou.  lompen,  VoMmi  Fr.  Chiffei,  Ckiffoiu, 
Drapeattx,  DriUcs;  Oer.  Lumptn;  It,  Siraici,  Straize; 
Kuss.  Trepje;  Sp.  7'ropo»,  liaraims),  shreUa  or  fragments 
of  worn  linen,  woolen,  or  cotton  cloth.  Thougji  com- 
monly held  in  little  estimation,  rags  are  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  arts,  being  used  for  variou;,  purjioses, 
l)ut  especially  in  the  manufart  re  of  paper,  most  of 
which  is  entirely  prepared  from  them.  As  the  mode 
in  which  rags  are  collected  must  be  well  known  to 
nvery  one,  the  following  statements  apply  only  to  the 
trado  in  foreign  ra!;s. 

Woiilen  Iiagii.—\\'oo\en  and  linen  rags  are  imported 
in  considerable  quantities  from  the  continent  of  Europe, 
particularly  from  Italy  and  Sicily.  Woolen  rags  are 
chicily  used  for  manure  in  Englan^,  especially  in  the 
culture  of  hops ;  but  rags  of  loose  texture,  and  not  too 
much  worn  or  decayed,  aro  unraveled  and  mixed  up 
with  fresh  wool  in  the  making  of  yam — a  practice  more 
favorable  to  the  cheapness  than  to  the  strength  and 
durability  of  ttio  fabrics  into  which  this  old  wool  is  in- 
troduced. 

Linen  Ragu  arc  principally  imported  from  Rostock, 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  Leghorn,  Great  liritain,  Ancona, 
Messina,  Palermo,  and  Trieste.  Their  export  from 
Holland,  Belgium,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  is 
strictly  prohibited.  The  imported  rngs  are  coarser  and 
inferior  in  appearance  to  the  English ;  but,  being  al- 
most exclusivel)'  linun,  they  are  stronger,  and  bear  a 
price  disproportioned  to  the  apparent  ditferunco  in 
quality :  this  disproportion  has  been  materially  aug- 
mented since  the  introduction  of  tlie  process  of  boiling 
the  rags  in  ley,  and  afterward  bleaching  them  with 
chlorine,  has  rendered  foreign  rags  lit  for  making  fine 
paper,  and  indeed,  in  some  respects,  preferable  fur  that 
purpose,  by  theii'  affording  greater  strength  of  texture 
combined  with  equal  whiteness  of  color.  There  is  con 
aiderable  variety  in  the  appearance  of  rags  from  .lifer- 
ent ports;  but  in  genci'al  those  from  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope arc  darker  and  stronger  than  thciie  from  the  Medi- 
terranean ports.  The  latter  are  chiefly  the  remains  of 
outer  garments,  ond  have  become  whitened  by  exposure 
to  the  sun  and  air;  but  since  the  improvements  in 
bleaching,  this  does  not  enhance  their  value. 
iMroKT  OF  Raob  into  the  I'nitkd  Statbs  foe  the  Vf.ab 

SNniNU  .lUME  ilU,  18&7. 


Wh«n««  imported. 


i  tiwtMlen  and  Norway 

I  Swcil'.Bli  West  Indies 

I  Danl'li  West  ludlcs 

Hamburg 

'  Dremen  '. 

I  Hutch  West  Indies 

I  Kiigland 

'  CIcotiand 

i  Malta 

I  Kritish  North  American  I'oss.  . 
i  Ilrltlsli  West  Indies 

RritiBh  Giilnna 

'  Franco  on  the  Atlantic 

1  Canary  Islands 

t^iiba 

I'ortugnl . . 

Sardinia 

;  '^  <8cany 

I  .  tpal  Htatcs 

;  Two  SIcllleii 

Austria 

'  Austrian  Possessions  In  Italy.. 

Turkey  in  Kurope 

Turkey  In  Asia 

Ksypt 

liaytl 

New  Granada 

Brazil 

I'ruguay,  or  Ulsplatlno  Rcpub, 
I  U'-ienosAyres,  or  Argentine  Itep. 

Chill 

China 

Total,  IfWiC-BT 

"       1S66-M 

Increase  


Pounds. 

~   1(0,800" 

<l9il 

!5,!)81 

1,011,763 

i!08,8fl5 

176 

e,065345 

8.'W,984 

230,876 

1.0'iO 

4J!I,050 

1.<.I40 

(10,423 

«,B76 

721, -.35 

6,700 

1,B78.!77 

19,!I07,20T 

4'2:',li,')U 

6,  IK.  HO 

2,T'.'0.li8l 

260,V66 

44.075 

2,307,7S1 

3,821,06,'5 

25.130 

6lJH 

6Si 

60,071 

»I.8I3 

48.387 

^600 

44,ri8.',08(r 
88  727,011 


.'>,tl&.'>,IHi3 


Vulua. 


$J26 

10 

&■)• 

30.8  7 

6  471 

4 

147,560 

9,302 

6,139 

2-J 

10,849 

B2 

2,991 

178 

18,73a 

211 

01.309 

6.W  859 

15,030 

2r.','.!';-. 

i7,70ii 

11,008 

506 

53,428 

17,070 

377 

20 

10 

1,256 

1,715 

747 

4^ 

$1,418.  Iv5 
1.23J,168 
I(2u8"057 


Railroad,  or  Tramroad,  n  ipAcjea  n,'  r»nd  hnvlnf 
tracks  or  ways  formed  of  iron,  stonu,  iir  nlhnr  milra 
material,  on  which  the  wheels  of  the  carrlituo*  tutanltlK 
along  it  run.  The  object  in  construfilnu  siic/i  roitdi 
•s,  by  diminishing  the  friction,  to  maka  a  \u*»  aiiiniitit 
of  power  adequate  cither  to  inipal  «  oarrlrtKH  with  • 
greater  velocity,  or  to  uri,3  forward  «  ({ruattir  limd. 
'Iho  essential  requisites  of  a  railroad  «rii  two  iir  |i|nr9 
smooth  parallel  surfaces  for  the  wheels  lu  rim  upon, 
and  formed  and  placed  in  such  relation  *•  to  (jlvn  tli« 
maximum  strength  and  safety  with  tha  iiiiiilnuiin  frlo- 
tlon.  The  friction  on  a  porfi  'I;-  level  rallruiid,  |trri|). 
eriy  constructed,  is  esiimirjd  u)  amount  tg  rriiiii  <in«> 
tenth  to  one-seventh  only  of  the  frlcilon  cm  an  orilliiary 
level  road ;  so  that,  supposing  the  tarns  furcit  to  \m  »\f 
piled  in  both  cases.  It  would  move  a  wcIkIiI  friitii  10  to 
7  times  as  great  on  the  former  as  on  tlia  Utl4<r,  lliil 
if  there  be  a  very  moderate  ascent,  auc'li  as  nn«  foot  In 
fifty,  which  in  an  ordinary  road  would  Imrilly  he  ptir- 
eelved,  a  great  increase  of  power  «yi  tha  fhilrnail  U  n- 

quired  to  overcome  tlie  runislanco  that  U  thus »• 

sioned.  The  reason  is,  tlint  the  ordinary  loitil  tin  a 
Uvtl  railroad  is  about  seven  limei  if  ijmil  n»  till  n  com- 
mon  turnpike  road ;  so  that  when  thu  fnri'o  u(  Krtivltv 
is  brought  into  operation  by  an  ascondliltf  piano,  It's 
opposing  power,  he'ing  propur,:  tt J  to  the  Imil,  ht  WVPII 
times  as  great  as  on  a  common  roail,  HiMiee  tlio  vhhC 
importance  of  having  railroads  either  level  or  a*  near- 
ly so  as  possible.  It  is  also  of  groat  linportanw  tlint 
railroads  should  u«  strai.i;ht  or  ut  liiusl  fitia  from  any 
abrupt  cun-cs.  Carriages  being  kept  on  tint  rund  Ity 
Jlnnges  on  the  wheels,  it  is  obvious  that,  wlinro  lilt 
curves  are  quick,  the  friction  on  the  sides  uf  llin  rallii, 
and  consequent  retardation,  mnat  be  very  (jriiat. 

The  great  success,  rapid  oxteiuion,  aiul  |ire«f  ni  tidrxii- 
sity  of  railroads,  are  in  cousei|ueii('u  uf  the  appriielilllon 
of  the  fnliie  of  time  and  taciny  nflahor,  wlilnli  Bro  tilt 
characteristics  of  Iho  present  age,  UUlailcn  U  lliiW 
measured  by  the  time  consumed  in  its  p»(iiiit({fl  |  und 
the  saving  of  cost  in  the  carrin;;o  uf  goods  is  lliii  aitliri'- 
gate  of  tlie  saving  in  time  and  the  saving  In  liilinr. 
We  can  not  in  the  scope  of  this  article  givii  morn  than 
a  summary  of  the  history  of  railruadi,  and  llin  *ilNtlii« 
tics  necessary  to  show  the  protont  coudilioil  and  protf* 
ress  of  railroads. 

The  aim  and  advantage  of  railroads  may  ho  dlotpd 

concisely  to  bo,  to  obtain  with  the  miiihmini  tinpiMidi- 

ture  of  power  tlie  maximum  result  '  f  "nuad,  drnil|{lit, 

and  safety  in  the  carriage  of  passengers  and  frulKJlt. 

To  show  how  this  can  be  dons  would  ba  to  llluHtrata 

the  whole  science  of  railroad  engineering,  and  ditiw  not 

come  within  the  compass  of  this  work.     It  will  liii  iiiif« 

ficient  to  sliow  the  Improvement  over  the  Hue  licfiira 

railroads,  and  the  progress  since  the  invoiltiuii  uf  rail* 

roads,  we  have  made  up  to  this  time,     lit,   As  tu 

speed.   In  1804  a  locomotive  was  constructed  In  Wales, 

that  performed  the  unprecedented  feat  of  drawing  (on 

tons  on  a  trnmroail  at  the  rate  of  llvo  miles  an  lioiir, 

Wood  on  railroads,  in  18'J5,  saysi  "Nothing  can  ilo  iiinrs 

harm  to  the  adoption  of  railroads  tliun  the  pronnilKa- 

tion  of  such  nonsense  as  that  wo  bliull  seu  liiiiininllvA 

engines  traveling  at  the  rate  of  12,  lit,  IN,  and  I2U  inllot 

per  hour."  Ritchie  on  railways,  in  184(1,  says  1  "  All  ox* 

press  train  on  the  Great  Western  Uallway,  drawing  fill 

tons,  has  traveled  for  three  hours  at  tlie  rate  nt  il;|  nill8i 

per  hour."    And  we  know  that  the  speed  of  JIW  inlltin 

per  hour  has  been  obtained  levoral  times  In  tlio  pant 

few  years.     In  1778  a  contract  wns  made  to  anlalilUh 

I  a  coach  for  passengers  between  Edinburgh  and  lilaM 

1  gow,  a  distance  of  44  miles.     Tlio  coach  was  drawn  ^ 

1  six  horses,  and  the  journey  betwenn  tha  two  pUe«»,  to 

;  and  fro,  was  completed  in  six  days.     Kvon  so  recantly 

'  as  the  year  1750,  the  stage-coach  from  Kdinburyih  to 

I  Glasgow  took  36  hours  to  make  the  journey.    Ik  tb« 


RAI 


1606 


BAI 


year  1849  Iho  »amo  journey  was  made,  fcj-  a  route 
three  miles  longer,  in  one  hour  and  a  half.  In  tlie 
year  1701)  tlitre  was  but  one  atage-coach  between  Edin- 
burgh and  London.  This  atarted  once  a  month  from 
each  of  tliese  cities.  It  tool(  a  fortnight  to  perform  the 
journey.  At  the  aainc  "poch  the  journey  between 
London  and  Yurli  required  fo-ir  days.  In  183u  there 
were  seven  convhei  started  daily  between  London  and 
Kdinhurgli,  wliiili  |ierfonned  tlic  Journey  in  48  hours. 
In  1840  the  same  journey  was  performed  by  railway  in 
twelve  houra. 

2d.  Tlio  great  increase  of  draught,  or  decrease  of 
frietion,  needs  but  brief  illustration.  It  is  stated  as  a 
result  of  experiments  on  the  Slassachusetta  railroads, 
ibat  the  cost  uf  merchandise  transportation  isS'OtiScents 
per  tun  per  mile,  with  an  average  speed  of  ten  miles  an 
liour.  The  average  cost  of  transportation  of  heavy 
merchandise  on  the  improved  Macadamized  roads  of 
England  is  27  cents  per  mile,  witli  an  average  speed 
of  tliree  miles  per  hour.  Wu  see,  therefore,  that  thC' 
cost  of  transportation  on  railroads  has  been  reduced  to 
U  i  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  transportation  on  improved 
lurnpilies,  while  tlic  speed  has  IJeen  increased  233  per 
cent,  at  the  came  timo.  8d.  As  to  the  increase  of  safe- 
ty. On  the  French  railroads,  212  miles  in  length,  of 
1,889,718  passengers,  who  traveled  816,945  miles  in  the 
first  half  of  18-13,  not  one  was  either  killed  or  wounded, 
and  only  three  servants  injured.  Comparing  this  with 
the  traveling  by  horse  coaclies  in  the  same  region,  wc 
find  that  in  seven  years,  from  1834  to  1840,  74  persons 
were  itilled,  and  2073  were  wounded.  According  to 
Dr.  Lardner,  the  chances  of  a  passenger  meeting  with 
,t  fatal  accident  in  traveling  one  mile  on  a  railroad  are 
05,:<C3,735tol.  Andagain,  tlie  chances  of  iiis  meeting 
witli  bodily  iijury  in  the  same  distance  are  8,512, 48U 
to  1 ;  and  also  that  360,036,923  passengers  nmst  travel 
one  milu  in  order  to  cause  the  death  of  one  railroad  em- 
ploye. On  comparing  the  safely  of  railroad  travel- 
ing on  the  roads  of  New  York  with  those  of  Great  Urit- 
ain,  it  h  found  that  for  the  last  four  years  there  were  a 
trre&ter  number  of  passengers  killed  and  a  less  number 
injured  upon  the  itwda  of  New  York,  in  proportion  to 
llio  number  carried,  tlian  upon  those  of  Great  llrilain. 
in  Xew  York  one  piissenger  was  killed  out  of  every 
1 ,262,165  who  traveled,  one  either  ii\jured  or  killed  out 
of  every  341,125.  One  passenger  was  killed  for  every 
47,10-1,426  niilee  traveled,  and  ono  was  either  iiyured 
or  killed  for  every  12,747,142  miles  fravticd.  Ex- 
cluding all  the  accidents  grawing  out  of  the  imprudence 
(md  fault  of  the  passengers  themselves,  it  appears  tliat 
one  was  killed  out  of  every  6,310,828  who  traveled,  and 
one  was  either  injured  or  killed  out  of  every  664,300. 
Excluding  t'  3  accidmitf  caused  by  their  own  careless- 
ness or  im  j  idencc,  there  was  '  '.it  one  passenger  killed 
for  every  235,822,132  miles  traveled,  and  but  ono  either 
injured  or  killed  for  every  24,823,  (2  miles  troveled. 
A  vast  number  more  lives  would  have  been  lost  if  the 
caine  numlier  of  passengers  had  been  conveyed  the 
same  number  of  miles  in  one-horse  wagons  or  in  the 
old-fashioned  four-horse  coaches. 

"'I'bera  be  three  things  which  make  a  nation  great 
nnd  prosperous— a  fertile  soil,  busy  work-shops,  and 
easy  conveyance  of  men  and  things  from  one  place  to 
another." — IIacon.  And  we  can  form  some  estimate 
from  the  foregoing,  of  what  share  railroads  have  had  in 
giving  us  ono  of  these  three  elements  of  prosperity. 

//utitry. — Wooden  railways  were  employed  as  a  sub- 
Btitute  for  common  roads,  in  the  colonies  of  England 
early  in  the  17th  century.—KiTiiiiK  on  Railwayi,  p.  19. 
The  earliest  record  of  their  existence  is  in  the  life  of 
the  Lord-keeper  North,  wherein  it  appears  that  about 
the  year  1670  they  were  used  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
for  transporting  coal  from  the  mines  to  the  river,  and 
enabled  one  lio-sc  to  draw  from  four  to  five  chaldrons. 
Subsequently  these  plates  were  covered  with  iron  ;  but 
the  introduction  of  rails  wholly  of  iron  seems  not  to 
have  taken  phtco  till  1768. — IIousBi.owBu'a  Rtport  to 


llouat  qfCommoiu  lit  1811.  A  prt^ection  or  flange  on 
the  outer  aide  of  the  rails  kept  the  wheela  of  the  cnr- 
riages  upon  them.  They  were  called  "Tramroada;" 
and  the  objections  to  them  wcro  the  great  amount  of 
friction  against  the  siiiu  tlangc  uu.l  the  wood  arrface  of 
the  plate. 

In  1789  was  constructed  the  first  public  railway  in 
England,  at  Loughborough,  by  Kir.  William  Jesaop ; 
and  he  introduced  cast  iron  edge-rails,  and  wheels  with 
Iho  flanges  cast  upon  them  in.^teiid  of  on  the  rail.  - 
Tramroada  ^ero,  however,  in  uio  up  to  1808.  The 
first  railroad  built  in  tlie  United  States  was  in  1827, 
from  Quincy  to  a  point  on  Massachusetts  liny,  thieo 
miles  in  length,  for  the  purpose  of  convuving  granite  to 
Boston  from  the  quarries  of  Quincy.  The  rail?  used 
were  of  wood.  The  first  passenger  railroad  was  the 
first  l.S  miles  of  the  lialtimore  cud  Ohio  in  i83U,  from 
Baltimoro  to  Elkridge. 

Rails. — "  In  1803  malleau>e  iron  raiis  were  first  tried, 
but  not  approved  of.  In  1H08  tiiey  were  introduced 
int-^  some  coal  works  of  Cumberland,  and  used  with 
complete  success." — Gili.kshif.  on  Railwnt/i. 

Since  then  they  have  been  formed  of  a  great  variety 
of  shapes.  The  principal  are,  1st.  The  flat  rail  used  on 
branch  coal-roads  and  on  roads  where  horse-power  is 
used,  and  where  economy  is  considered  essential.  2d, 
The  rail  called  the  "fish-bellied,"  from  the  rounded 
profile  of  its  under  side.  The  form  of  this  rail  is  in- 
dicated by  theory  as  almost  perfect  foi  strength ;  but 
on  account  of  the  unsteadiness,  from  requiring  a  high 
support,  it  is  now  generally  abandonM.  3d,  The  A 
rail,  or  inverted  U.  This  rail  is  admirably  adapted 
for  strength  and  security,  but  is  more  complex  for 
rolling  than  the  rail  commonly  in  use,  namely,  the  V 
rail  inverted,  A ;  and  has  only  been  used  to  a  moder- 
ate extent,  and  principally  in  England.  4th.  The  in- 
verted B  rail,  so  called,  but  more  like  an  I  in  form. 
This  form  was  found  by  Professor  Itarlow  to  possess  the 
maximum  strength  from  a  given  quantity  of  material. 
This  rail  is  used  in  England,  but  has  been  found  to  bo 
deficient  in  stability.  The  T  (inverted)  rail  is  tho 
one  generally  used  in  this  country;  and  for  the  fa- 
cility in  rolling,  strength,  and  stability,  is  decidedly 
tho  best  form.  The  weight  commonly  used  is  about  (iO 
pounds  to  the  yard ;  but  a  heavier  rail  is  more  econom- 
ical in  the  end ;  and  tho  weight  of  rails  has  been  in- 
creasing from  35  pounds,  the  weight  first  used,  to  that 
of  sixty  pounds  to  the  yard. 

Rails  were  first  laid  on  stone  sleepers  or  blocks,  as 
giving  the  most  solid  support ;  but  this  plan  has  gradu- 
al!}' been  abandoned,  as  the  want  of  elasticity  was  ihe 
cause  of  a  rapid  destruction  to  the  roiling  stock.  Lon- 
gitudinal sleepe>^  of  wood  were  also  tried ;  but  after 
much  practical  ex))ericnce,  the  present  form  of  trans- 
verse wooden  sleepers,  laid  on  broken  stone  or  gravel 
bed,  was  adopted  as  the  best  foundation,  and  is  now  in 
common  use. 

IjKomolivei. — After  a  full  trial  of  horse-power  and 
stationary  steam-engines,  the  plan  of  an  engine,  and 
which  the  present  locomotive  is  in  many  respects  only 
an  improvement  of,  was  invented.  There  bus  Ikcu 
some  controversy  as  to  who  should  have  the  credit  of 
the  invention.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  1759  Dr. 
Kobinson,  then  a  student  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, suggested  to  Watt  the  application  of  the  steam- 
engine  to  wheel-carriages;  and  in  1782,  Murdocli,  to 
whom  Trevithick  was  a  pupil,  made  a  model  of  a 
ateam-carrittgo.  In  1784  Watt  ilcscribed  such  an  appli- 
cation in  his  patent. 

In  1801  Oliver  Evans,  of  Philadelphia,  moved  a 
steam  dredging-machino  a  iniln  and  a  half  on  wheels 
turned  by  its  own  engine.     In  1802  Itichard  Trevi- 
thick, in  conjunction  with  Andrew  Vivian,  both  Corn- 
wall engineers,  built  and  took  out  Wwjlift  patent  for  a 
!  Iacomoti%'e;  and  in  1804  liichard  Trevithick  built  a 
I  second  locomotive,  which  on  a  road  in  South  Wales 
,  drew  ten  tons  at  the  rate  of  Ave  miles  an  hour.  -  It 


BAI 


1607 


UAI 


Mocks,  83 

\a»  grailu- 
r  -was  the 

ck.  Lon- 
but  after 
1  of  trntis- 
or  gravel 
1  is  now  in 

>owcr  and 
iginc,  and 
pccts  only 

has  lifi'" 
B  credit  of 

,  17B9  l)r. 

■  of  Glas- 
Ihe  stcam- 
lurdocli,  to 
Tiodel  of  a 
■i  an  appU- 

I  moved  a 
Ion  wheels 
Ird  Trevi- 
f)oth  Corn- 
jatent  for  » 
f  k  built  a 
[ith  Wales 
Ihour.  -It 


WM  many  years,  however,  before  any  improvement 
took  place,  owing  chiefly  to  the  tmaginary  difliculty  uf 
getting  the  locomotive  wheels  to  "  Ijite,"  or  keep  I'runi 
■lipping  on  the  rails.  Great  ingenuity  was  brought 
to  task  to  remedy  this  Imaginary  uvil;  and  in  Itlli  a 
rail  with  racks  or  sockets  was  laid,  and  an  engine  with 
teeth  to  lit  ill  the  rack  was  built.  In  1813  an  engine 
Mrllh  hind  legs  was  Invented  to  prevent  the  slipping. 
All  these  coiitriva'"!es  were,  however,  shown  to  bo  use- 
less by  the  discovery  in  1814,  by  actual  experiment, 
that  no  friction  was  nc:!ded.  And  in  this  same  year 
the  lirst  really  successful  locomotive  v  as  invented  by 
George  Stephenson,  which  ran  six  miles  an  hour,  and 
drew  SO  tons.  Little  progress  was  made  from  this 
time  until  1829,  when  Uobert  Stephenson  conMtructed 
the  "Kocket"  engine,  which  on  trial  ran  with  an 
average  speed  of  15  miles  an  hour,  and  with  a  maxi- 
mum speed  of  29^  miles  an  hour.  Since  that  time 
locomotives  have  been  built  to  run  over  one  hundred 
miles  an  hour,  and  to  draw  a  train  uf  cars  up  an  in- 
clined plane  of  500  feet  to  the  mile.  The  performances 
of  a  modern  locomotive,  in  fact,  are  among  the  moat 
wonderful  of  all  mechanisms. 

Railroad  Management. — Although  one  of  the  most 
powerful  elements  in  our  prosperity,  and  in  fact  now  a 
necessity,  it  can  not  be  denied  that  railroads  generally 
have  been  failures  considered  as  protitable  investments 
to  the  stockholders.  The  business  of  our  railroads  is 
ample  to  make  them  good  investment;  and  therefore 
there  can  be  but  one  cause  for  so  general  a  failure ; 
namely,  unremuneralire  tariffs.  Occasional  instances 
of  bad  management  have  taken  place,  but  it  is  obvious 
that  this  can  nat  be  the  cause  of  so  general  a  failure. 
Tli'i  gold  discoveries  of  California  and  Australia  have 
advanced  the  priees  of  labor,  fuel,  etc.,  from  iiO  to  50 
per  cent.,  and,  consequently,  the  expenditures  of  rail- 
roads in  a  similar  ratio.  During  this  lime  there  has 
been  no  corresponding  increase  in  the  tariffs  of  our 
railroads.  This,  in  connection  w  th  the  fact  that  the 
depreciation  of  the  rails,  rolling  stock,  etc.,  have  not 
been  sufUciently  allowed  for,  explain  tho  cause;  and 
make  a  remedy  obvious.  To  show  the  auviiority  for 
this  statement,  we  give  the  expenditures,  etc.,  on  rail- 
roads at  different  periods  since  their  first  practical 
adoption.  These  show  that  there  was  a  gradual  de- 
crease to  1815,  and  since  that  time  an  increase  in  ex- 
penditures. 

The  annual  cost  of  maintaining  in  operation  a  well- 
managed  road  is  almost  l\  cents  fur  each  ton  per  mile 
carried  over  it,  and  41  cents  for  each  mile  run  by  nil 
the  engines,  besides  $uOD  for  each  mile  of  road.  If  it 
be  likewise  a  passenger  road,  there  is  to  be  added  three- 
fourths  of  a  cent  per  mile  for  each  passenger  carried. — 
Cii  ABI.K?  Ei.LET,  Jun.,  Civil  Engineer,  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, 1842. 

The  complete  average  expense  per  train  per  mile  of 
running  on  the  principal  roads  was  estimated 

In  the  Vnlted  Stales,  In  1839,'  at 100  cents. 

In  England.  1810t W    " 

t'ltca  anil  Scheiiecudy  Uailroad,  I83!>  to  1841 . . . .  IIR    " 

Wealera  Kalliima  (Mauacbusctts),  1840  to  1844  . .  Tl     '■ 

Average  of  Maasuchiuelts  rail-oads,  I84B 66 


(JpuBATioiis  or  Tiia  lUii.iiiMiiii  i)f  HiiMiMNtMrrR  n 

1-411  lit  llfth, 


T'»l«l  Klll«IIMr*^»l  HrHllill 


*  Chevalier  DIG  EBSTHU. 


1846. 
1S4T.. 
184S.. 
1849., 
1861). 
1861.. 
1S6.'.. 
1853. 
1854.. 
1868. 

t  Profeuor  ViQNOLXS. 


73 
76 
76 
76 

74 
7« 

77 
8'2 
i'8 
105 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  statement  that  the  expenses 
have  been  steadily  increasing  since  1815.  To  exhiliit 
this  more  plainly,  we  give  a  table  showing  the  gross 
receipts  and  expenses,  and  also  the  net  receipts  of  the 
Uassachnsetts  railroads  for  ten  years. 


From  this  It  will  bo  scnii  Hmt  ilm  ^ruM  f>'n'l|its  (or 
tarifl')  increased  only  •()»(  i,ur  will,  In  tin  yi-iir.,  wlill* 
the  net  receipts  ducreawd  '^;l  p.ir  ciiii,  j  nii<l  the  ex. 
pcnses  increased  14  per  cun(,  Till*  I'liiiiparlnuii  holdl 
equally  true  with  iimiiy  of  uiir  nillrudd", 

The  following  facts  reuiirdlnu  i)|«lit  i,f  ihn  prlnclptl 
m'.lroods  of  Maaaauhusults  urn  iluvulu|iud  liy  rupurts  to 
the  Legislature ; 

1.  The  cost  of  passenger  tr«n»p«rimlHii  Is  I'ODJcenU 
per  passenger  per  mile.  %  Tim  fiim  of  inKnliandlM 
transportation  is  U'0u5  cents  per  tun  pur  iiiiln,  H,  In 
passenger  transporfatiuii  i)  ll'IW  per  (•oiu,  of  ilm  recelpit 
therefrom  are  absorbed  in  expviiMs,  4,  In  murnlian* 
diso  traiisportatiun  i|HU'62  pur  i!i<ii(,  uf  ll,u  rociilplt 
therefrom  are  absorbed  in  expuniuui,  ft,  'I'liti  ex|itinNi 
of  railroads  are  almost  iiivitrittlily  iliiliiniililiiil  by  th« 
weiglit  carried  over  tho  rails,  Fur  Iii«I(|im'ii--iIim  VmU 
em  road,  upon  which  passitiiger  triilllo  prmluiitliiates,  Is 
operated  at  an  expense  of  |:tl)70  pur  tulle  (if  tli8  lungtb 
of  the  road ;  while  '.ha  l.,owii|||  upnii  wlilfli  iiierchan* 
disc  traffic  predominates,  U  operilltiil  fit  fill  «xpuiise  uf 
$12,478.  6.  Tho  cost  of  roiwwitU  of  Iron  llpufl  rail* 
roads  is  an  Infallibia  index  uf  (ho  nil«KliUilil«  of  ex> 
pcnses.  For  the  precuiliiig  reasutis,  tlw  I'lml  of  that 
item  on  the  Eastern  rood  Is  but  k'M)  p«r  itille  uf  tba 
length  of  tho  road,  while  unuii  tjie  Westnril  It  is  ijliaVO. 
7.  Of  tho  expenses  of  railroiids,  thirty  pitf  I'eiil.  m 
absorbed  in  maintenance  of  way,  or  ruidl  IkiiI  \  twenty 
per  cent,  in  fuel  and  oil  |  twenty  pur  ciiiit,  In  rvpnlr  .tf 
engines,  tenders,  and  cars;  ten  pur  I'uiit.  Iff  *|ii'olal 
freight  expenses ;  and  the  reiliHliiijiir  III  pll!U>t<ii|(('r,  ln< 
cidental,  and  miscollaiieoiis  uxpeniuis,  N,  'Diu  tvej){ht 
of  the  engines,  tenders,  and  cars  upon  piititi'tiKor  irnint 
is  nine-fold  greater  than  the  wulfilit  uf  tim  panKeiignrsi 
9.  Tho  weight  of  the  engines,  liiii>|«rs,  ami  ean  upon 
freight  trains,  is  scarcely  one  fuhl  ((reatiir  tliitfl  tht 
weight  of  the  merclmmliso.  10,  Fur  I'litinptiiiiiii,  rail' 
roads  can  not  compete  with  caimla,  in  Iraii'pMrlallon 
of  heT'y  descriptions  of  merchandlsui  thscuKlufearry* 
ing  '  tiohandlse  upon  the  Erie  Canal  raiiKxs  ffuin  two 
to  sixteen  mills  per  ton  per  inllo|  whiln  upiin  nlntcsn 
of  the  principal  railways  of  New  Yurk  and  Massnchu< 
setts  tho  cost  of  carrying  niereliainllna  raii(((t«  from 
thirteen  to  sixty-five  mills  per  Ion  per  iiilla. 

It  being  granted  that  the  present  tarllfs  ar«  tiis  low, 
fho  rcmaly,  or  how  to  make  railroads  inom  prulllable,  \» 
tho  chief  point.  We  extract  from  A  papitr  written  by 
Charles  Kllet,  Jun.  civil  eiigiiieur,  wlik'it  tiluiiidate*  * 
good  sy.stcm. 

Ist.Evcry  road  should  form  lU  own  tarllT  of  tulll, 
based  upon  its  own  trade. 

2d.  In  arraiu/ing  the  tariff,  Itt  thfjlrit  llfn  Im  to  itir»l^ 
tain  the  true  cast  uf  trmuporlation  utum  IM  p'lrllcultif 
road  for  which  the  tariff  it  intended,  Tlie  iu>(u«l  cunt  of 
transportation  is  clearly  the  iiiiiiimuin  limit  uf  adinlisU 
ble  reductions  in  favor  of  those  olijeetl  of  lrat)s|iort«' 
tion  which  are  deemed,  from  motivas  of  \m\W.y,  most 
worthy  of  special  encouragement,  Tlier«  limy  liK,  and 
ought  to  be,  material  dUcriininalhms  in  «vi<ry  Urllf  | 
but  no  article  ought  to  lie  conveyed  ',ur  U**  iiiati  th« 
actual  cost  of  its  trunspurtafion,  fairly  iimiln  out  from 
the  proper  experience  of  the  line,  iiavillK  il«t«rinio«d 
the  true  cost  of  transpurfutiun,  and  il4opl«d  Ihttt  M  • 
minimum  charge,  below  which  tlia  tult  OH  no  kfttfiU 


RAI 


1009 


UAI 


•hiU  be  Miffpred  to  fall,  the  compiny  will  lie  Mcurad 
r.|;ainat  cne  frequent  sourco  of  imiiiunw  extriviifaiicu 
— thnt  of  ctrrying  fpelght/w  nothing,  or  leu  than  tuilh- 
im/.  With  this  inforniution  in  haiiil,  it  is  praclicabia 
to  construct  o  tariff  if  ejpentn,  which  shoulii  In  every 
vasn  prereilo  the  adoption  of  a  tariff  of  charges. 

8d.  The  nal  tlep  in  the proceai  thoulii  be.  lo  uicerlain 
the  highett  charge  which  each  article  uill bear. 

4th,  The  true  charge  for  each  article  and  each  fHullioti, 
it  muit  be  apparent,  will  be  found  timuichere  bitueen  the 
actual  cu$l  of  tran>portntion  unit  the  prohibitory  chargn. 
The  next  step  in  the  construction  of  a  loll-shetit  should 
then  he  to  form  a  third  tarilt',  by  ndding  together,  for 
each  article  and  each  position,  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion and  the  prohibitory  charge,  and  taking  half  thei, 
cum  as  a  near  approximation  to  that  charge  which  will 
yield  the  greatest  net  revenue.  Yet  there  is  no  fact 
better  susceptible  of  the  strictest  mathematical  demon- 
stration than  this,  that  the  chnrge$  which  trill  yield  the 
marimum  net  revenue  on  raitroattt  doing  a  miscellaniout 
buiinett  ».;  ■(  be  from  one  to  tiro  C(nl$  per  ton  per  mile 
greater  than  that  lehich  irill  produce  the  maximum  groii 
reitnue.  If,  then,  a  company  aims  to  obtain  the  greatest 
posslhlo  gross  revenue,  it  can  only  succeed  by  a  groat 
sacrifice  of  dividends.  In  fact,  the  gross  revenue  may 
be  enormous,  and  yet  be  insufHcicnt  to  pay  their  ex- 
penses. 

Railway  I^giilalion. — Xothwithstanding  the  vost  ad- 
vantages which  the  opening  of  so  many  new  and  Im- 
proved lines  of  communication  have  conferred  on  tlie 
country,  we  can  r.ot  help  thinlting  that  these  advant- 
ages might  have  been  much  greater,  and  that,  in  the 
instance  of  railway  legislation,  the  public  interest!  have 
been  overlooked  to  a  degree  that  is  not  very  excusalile. 
It  is,  we  admit,  no  easy  matter  to  decide  how  far  the 
interference  of  government  should  be  carried  in  matters 
of  this  sort.  But,  at  all  events,  this  much  is  obvious, 
that  when  government  is  called  upon  to  pass  an  act 
authorizing  private  parties  to  execute  a  railway  or 
other  public  work,  it  is  bound  to  provide,  in  as  far  as 
practicable,  that  the  public  interests  shall  not  bo  preju- 
<liced  liy  such  act,  and  thai.  It  should  bo  framed  so  that 
it  should  not,  cither  when  passed,  or  at  any  future 
period,  stand  in  the  way  of  the  public  i'dvantagR.  Wo 
believe,  however,  that  a  little  consideration  will  servo 
to  satisfy  most  persons  that  tills  linporiant  principle 
has,  in  the  case  of  railways,  and  indeed  of  most  de- 
scriptions of  public  works,  been,  in  this  country,  all 
but  wholly  neglected. 

Within  a  few  years  past  tho  rollway  interest  has  be- 
come one  of  the  most  important  in  this  country,  not 
only  on  account  of  tho  large  pecuniary  investinenis 
which  have  been  made  therein,  but  also  on  account  of 
the  effcot  which  its  development  has  had  in  increasing 
tho  value  and  changing;  the  relations  of  property,  trade, 
and  commerce,  and  in  modifying  the  social  conditioiib 
of  our  people.  Tlicso  varied  interests,  and  the  new 
circumsti  ncc«  whicli  have  been  called  into  existence 
by  the  vast  and  rapid  expansion  of  the  railway  system, 
have  required  additional  legal  enactments  from  time 
to  time,  but  the  same  supervision  and  restraints  of  law 
which  are  considered  necessary*  to  guard  an<l  protect 
other  public  interests  have  not  been  imposed  upon  this 
one  to  an  extent  commensurate  with  its  increasing  im- 
portance. The  railroad  corporations,  in  whicli  tliere 
is  a  larger  investment  than  in  tho  lianks,  over  which 
tho  law  exercises  supervision,  are  permitted  to  control 
an  immense  amount  of  capital,  and  interests  of  the 
greatest  magnitude,  with  no  other  check  than  is  afford- 
ed liy  an  annual  statement  of  their  aiTairs,  notoriously 
incorrect,  and  in  many  cases  made  so  systematically, 
for  the  purpose  of  concealing  from  the  stockholders  and 
tha  public  violations  of  law  and  want  of  fidelity  to 
their  trusts. 

One  of  the  best  guarantees  for  the  faithful  perform- 
ance of  duty  that  can  be  given  to  the  public  and  the 
itockholden  by  railroad  managers  is  to  render,  at  fre- 


quent InfarvaU,  full  atiil  w-rurato  slalementi  of  the  re- 
sults uf  Ihu  iipuralliins  iif  llie  works,  and  the  manner  In 
which  thHM  iiflli'«r«  hava  discharged  their  trusts.  It  in 
not  dinicult  tit  dKiiiiinstraIn  that  the  publlcallon  of  such 
ample  •lal<iMi«fils  doft  iinl.  In  tho  lung  run,  injure  the 
Intereals  of  »ny  tfiiriiiitMUm,  and  that  It  Is  the  most 
certain  M'l'Mrlly  against  tnalversatlun  In  Iht  admlnii- 
tralluii  of  its  Niniirs, 

Dndtir  tlin  (Iniixral  Kallroad  Act  uf  IH60  each  of  the 
railroad  I'lirpiiraliuiis  In  the  Hfale  of  New  York  is  re. 
quirad  In  Miakx  hm  annual  report  fo  the  Slate  Kngineer 
and  Hurvayur  In  tli*t  form  (irescrlbed,  showing  its  finan- 
cial cnndlllim  hi«1  rnst,  lis  length,  and  other  charac- 
turistica )  tha  liiisiltusa  dune  during  llie  year  and  the 
expensa  Ihorvuf,  »  stalcment  of  the  receipts  s-vu  pay- 
ments, and  a  lint  nl  accidents  wliJch  have  u'..urred  in- 
volving Injury  In  llfii  or  limb)  and  this  ifUccr  is  re- 
quired lo  arrangn  the  llifurniallun  thus  f  irnished,  and 
submit  ll,  lognlliiir  wllh  lh«  reports,  lu  the  Ix^gislature, 
—llejmi  ii^lhf  AV«i  Viii'k  Nlate  Engineer,  1855. 

Aiiilrinn  llnllfiHiilt, ~'tU«  government  of  Austria 
has  at  li'iiglli  ciiHi'i'iM  (o  n  public  com|iany  all  the 
railway*  that  Iimv»  liraf  cnmplrted,  and  those  which 
ara  to  liu  cnnalriii'lml,  In  the  lyonibardo- Venetian  terri- 
tories, and  itm  Coiiltal  Italian  Itallwn''.  The  lines  al- 
reaily  i.'aiii|il«l<id  by  (ha  state  are  as  follows : 

Kllomctrtfl. 

Vanloa  tii  CorMiilla 'iM 

Milan  t<i  ( ^iiiiiii  ..,.•.<.<...>•>< 45 

Milan  to  Trnvlallii , S3 

VariiiiH  In  Manilla  .,..  I ,,. 08 

Mmlrit  lo  I  '*Mn>a, , , , , , 04 

Cuavanllu  tu  ItKritaiiiii. ,.,,,.. 28 

Ti.tal 4BT 

Tha  railways  lo  Im  ponstructed  are  as  follows : 

Kilomttnt. 

IbirKanMl'i  Miitiaa ....,,,... ST 

IlKi'iiaiiMi  tn  lifrcii..!.... SO 

Mllmi  lu  lliiiral'ira 33 

Milan  l<i  I'tatwiiKa  and  t'avia B8 

Milan  lu  I li'Mu  t  almiile 00 

Itallriiail  ruiiiiil  Milan,..., 8 

Manilla  In  Hurgururlfi, , , 20 

(Jaaaraa  I"  funlirnsina  , . , , _89 

Tulal  ,,,,, 866 

Tlia  Icnglli  of  railways  rompletcd  is  equal  to  873  En- 
glish li)ll"a,  and  tlin  length  of  those  to  be  constructed 
la  eqimt  lo  aIhiiiI  i'I»  Kngllsh  miles.  The  Central  Ital- 
ian Itallway  I'litieeaiiuti  la  fur  2N0  kilometres,  so  that 
tho  iMilirH  I'uiii'fDtlnii,  when  cumplcfe,  will  comprise 
about  lIMil  Kngllnh  miles  of  ra'lway.  The  state  grants 
to  the  cniMpaiiy  tlin  free  use  uf  the  line  fror.i  Ncbresina 
toTriualx,  wllh  Ihf  Joint  use  of  the  terminus  at  Trieste. 
Tlie  cuiiipaiiy  In  lo  pay  to  the  slate  for  the  finished  rail- 
ways IHt,lHJll,()(HI  fraiies,  or  X5!,l(H),000i  this  sum  is  to 
lie  paid  ill  «iIk  InsllllltiimitK  within  a  period  of  six  years, 
or  at  Ilia  rain  »t  about  £  l(*(i,(HMl  per  annum.  Should 
tliu  net  |irullla  at  llm  end  of  this  term  exceed  7  per 
i-enl.,  lliH  I'linipHhy  will  have  to  pii;  an  additional  sum 
to  thn  Alialrlan  (soveriilnelit  uf  lfi,fi(M',000  francs,  or 
X'!llO,l)IH),  Tlin  AlKlrlan  goveriini(nt  guoruiiiees  u  per 
cent,  0,1  the  wiMile  i'M|tllnl  required,  wliich  is  estimated 
at  about  'm,llW,iHm  franes,  or  ill 0,000, IKJO.  For  the 
I'enlral  llalian  Itailruad,  (ho  company  has  a  guarantee 
of  il,MM),lKiO  franea  (ler  annum,  or  more  than  6^  per 
cent, on  Ihu laiilfttl, 

Of  llm  railways  In  nperaflnn.  In  progress,  and  on- 
teni|ila(«d  ill  Kaalurn  F.nrufie,  n  brief  nuiiie  will  suffice. 
Kusula,  earrli'it  along  by  the  tide  of  public  opinion 
in  Kurupti,  fiiuiiil  litirMiifeunipollcd,  by  a  duo  regard  to 
the  iiiluruala  nf  li«r  people,  lo  consecrate  n  part  of  licr 
nxerliuna  aild  hnr  ('A|illal  to  the  cunstrucllun  of  the 
new  lin«a  uf  I'otiiinunleatlun.  An  nltempt  was  first 
made  lo  attrnit  private  capKatUli  to  these  projects, 
and  "peclal  advanlagea  were  offered  to  companies  who 
might  liH  di<i|iiiw<d  III  illiderfakc  the  construction  of  the 
lines  of  railway  luntnlnplnlnd  In  Kussla.  Thecmperor, 
liusidiMi  gitarailteelnij  lu  llm  sharejiulders  a  minimum 

firoHt  uf  i  |i»r  ('Kill,,  prupused  (o  give  them  gratuilous- 
y  all  lliu  lands  uf  (Im  state  (hrough  which  the  roil- 


VMn 

ls80 
ISBl 
1S64 

I8a4 


UAt 


1C09 


Bil 


KlIonuliM. 
..  -204 
..     46 
..    81 
..    06 

..    «4 

..    IS 

..  48f 

Kilomitm. 

...  at 

...     80 
...     82 

...  sa 

...    OB 

...    « 

...    !0 

...    89 


Is,  and  on- 
Iwill  Bumcc. 
Tlic  opinion 
lo  regard  tu 
l]]art  of  !icr 
Ition  of  tlie 
l)t  was  first 
Iso  projects, 
■panics  vrlio 
Iction  of  the 
Tlio  emperor, 
b  minimum 
fgratultous- 
Ib  the  rail- 


ways should  pass,  and  to  place  at  Ihcir  disposal,  also, 
Kratuitously,  thu  timber  and  raw  materials  necessary 
for  the  way  and  works  which  nilKht  Ije  found  upon  the 
spot.  It  was  further  proponciil  to  permit  the  importa- 
tion of  rails  and  the  rolling  stock  free  of  duty.  Uiis- 
sian  proprietors  also  spontune  lusly  came  forward,  and 
not  only  agreed  to  grant  »<•  h  portion  of  their  land  as 
the  railways  iniKht  puss  ..nrough  gratuitously,  but  fur- 
ther to  dispo.isess  themselves  temporarily  of  tlielr  serfs, 
and  surrender  them  to  the  use  of  the  companies  on  tlie 
sole  condition  that  they  should  l>o  properly  supported 
while  employed. 

liy  a  special  ukaso,  dated  February  18,  1842,  it  was 
decreed  that  the  railway  which  was  to  unite  the  two 
capitals  of  St.  I'ctorsliurg  and  Moscow  should  bo  con- 
structed exclusively  at  the  expense  of  thu  state,  in 
order  to  retain  in  'lie  hands  of  tho  government,  and  in 
the  general  interest  of  tho  people,  a  lino  of  coinmuuica- 
tioii  so  important  to  tho  industry  and  the  internal  coni- 
merco  of  tho  empire.  Tho  loca  proprietors  eijually 
agreed  to  surrender  to  government  gratuitously  tho 
lands  necessary  for  the  works  of  ll's  line. 

Thu  system  of  mil  's  contemplated  in  Russia  is 
composed  of  live  pr.ic,  jil  trunk  lines,  ono  of  whicli, 
connecting  Warsa<'  with  Cracow,  is  completed  and  in 
operation:  the  length  of  this  line  is  KM  miles.  The 
second  will  connect  Warsaw  witl  .•it.  I'otersburg ;  che 
extent  of  this  would  be,  when  executed,  (IH.I  miles.  The 
third  will  connect  St.  Petersburg  with  Moscow ;  this 
lino  is  in  active  progress :  its  length  will  be  about  tOO 
miles.  Besides  these,  authorization  was  given  to  a 
company,  by  a  ukaso  dated  July,  184;i,  to  construct  a 
railway  for  tho  transport  of  goods  between  tlio  Wolga 
and  tho  Don,  the  length  of  which  would  bo  1U5  miles. 
In  the  actual  execution  of  this  magnificent  system  of 
railway  communication,  no  considerable  progress  has 
l)een  yet  made,  w  ith  the  exception  of  the  line  already 
nientionod  between  Warsaw  and  tJracow. 

A  short  lino  of  railway  connecting  St.  I'etcrsburg 
with  Tsarkoi-soila,  having  an  analogy  to  tlio  (ireen- 
wich  and  Itichmond  linos,  which  diverge  from  London, 
and  tlio  Versailles  and  St.  Germain  linos  from  I'arin, 
was  completed  and  opened  for  tratHc  in  April,  1K3.S. 
The  traffic  on  this  lino  has  hitherto  amounted  to  about 
seven  hundred  passengers  per  day. 


The  railway  connecting  the  Don  and  tho  Wolga  wai 
opened  for  tralllo  in  lH4«i  liut  this  lino  is  exclusively 
for  niercliandine,  and  is  worked  liy  horses. 

In  southern  ItuNsia  a  lino  of  railway  is  projected  lie- 
twocn  Kief  and  Odessa,  tho  surveys  ofwhich  have  been 
made  liy  ILlglan  engineers ;  but  no  progress  in  Its  con- 
struction  has  yet  Iwen  ellecteil.  A  railway  Ims  Ih'pii 
projected  also  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Croiistailt, 
and  another  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Kullisliport, 
in  Ksthonia,  to  be  constructed  and  worked  I'V  a  com- 
pany wit,<  a  guarantee  of  4  per  cent,  by  tho'  govern- 
ment. 

In  Italy  i  few  short  lines  of  railway  onlv  imvo  been 
executed,  coi, Meeting  the  chief  states  with  "neighboring 
places.    Tli"j  are  as  follows : 

Naples  to  I'onlcl,  opened  October,  l^M f. 

I'oitlcl  lo  Caitlenmrc,  with  briiiicli  in  N.iceru. . .  '211 

Naples  tot.'ttp  m 2Bt 

Milan  to  'rrcvn5llo *.!!!'.'.'.'.  IS 

Milan  to  .Mnnzi  '..'.'!!.*.'."!.'.*  13 

Velllco  to  Vlcut,  rjk '.'.*.'.*.'.*.*.*.'.'.  41) 

Leghorn  to  I'lsa !!....!!  It) 

Klim-nro  lo  hliiip  ill,  I'oiito  Dera,  l'l«a,  nnd  Wemiii  . . 

risa  to  l.iiceaanl  San  Salvador 

Florence  turret; loj 

In  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  railways  exi^t  as  yet 
only  in  prospect.  It  is  iiitendeu  to  carry  two  lines 
from  Turin,  one  dir  wted  on  (ieiioa  l)y  Alexandria,  and 
the  other  on  Milai  by  Vorcclli  and  Novara.  The 
political  distraction  i,  however,  of  the  last  two  year* 
have  suspended  thes  >  projects. 

UitUrondi  in  Spain.-  -From  returns  lotely  made  in 
Spain  to  the  government  concerning  the  railways 
conceded  and  at  work  in  that  country  in  18o(i,  it  np- 
pears  that  tho  whole  of  the  lines  open  to  the  public, 
including  that  from  Madrid  to  Saragossa,  conceded  to 
tho  Spanish  Credit  Mobilier,  give  a  length  of  1955  liilo- 
metres  {X'li'i  miles).  In  the  concession  granted  to  that 
company,  of  the  two  sections  of  the  railroad  from  Madrid 
to  Vailadolid,  and  from  llurgos  to  tlie  frontier  of  Franco, 
tho  first  section  will  leave  Madrid,  puss  by  Avila,  Are- 
volo  and  Medina  del  Canipo,  and  will  stop  at  Vailado- 
lid, where  it  will  join  tho  section  already  traced  out 
from  N'ullailolid  to  llurgos. 

ItdUroails  in  J'nis.<ia. — Tho  subjoined  is  an  account 
of  the  progress  of  railroads  in  Prussia  since  184!). 


Vein 

LeDfth  in 
MUn. 

OulUy  tn 
mUlloD  iJollan. 

Over  w 

hul«  l.«nirlh. 

Httai^la. 

Avernne  Profit 
[tor  I'cnI. 

PiiutfiKtm. 

lew  lb..  MercimiLliie. 

Pawwiigen 

Merrlianiline. 

IBIU 

18il 

lilt 

,      129,410 

1,(IS7,(I21 

*3,70H,'.'27 

$:i.W,'>.4;7 

3-82 

1S60 

1S71 

100 

14(1,273 

1,.131,S!)» 

4,42U,172 

4,;iiis.22;) 

4  OK 

ISBl 

I'.iS'i 

112 

148,6Si) 

I.«n4,;i'>r) 

4  fl.'2,!l!IO 

4,9,'is,!  B9 

509 

IRS'2 

2180 

120 

14I.SI7 

2.171,c,l« 

4,100.7:14 

0,M1,3IIO 

t>-7& 

is.ts 

WiH 

i:i5 

144,397 

2.5:17,401 

B  4^8,1  Otl 

7,821.08,-) 

B-7U 

1804 

2.12(1 

141 

137.IS4 

2,18»,0S4 

r>.712,13.'S 

(•,077.2,'il 

fi-79 

18.56 

2304 

140 

143,734 

8.64B.1I60 

6.t),'>9.314 

12,2(15,523 

041 

Tho  numlier  of  passengers  has  remained  stationary 
since  1819,  while  tlie  receipts  for  passenger  trade  have 
increased  only  in  proportion  to  thu  length  of  road. 
The  amount  of  merchandise  transporteil  has,  on  the 
contrary,  increased  three-and-a-half  fold ;  ond  h  bile  in 
1819  the  receipts  on  merchandise  did  not  equal  tlie  re- 
ceipts from  passengers,  they  amounted  in  1855  to  more 
than  double  the  receipts  from  passenger  transport.  In 
1849,  384,788,685  hundred  pounds  were  transported 
over  every  milo  of  road ;  in  1855  were  trans|>orted 
l,742,0titi,452  hundred  pounds.  While  the  roads  have 
scarcely  increased  one-third  in  aggregate  length,  the 
transport  of  merchandise  has  increased  live-fold. 

Tho  lengths  above  attributed  to  Prussian  roads  ex- 
tend in  some  cases  beyond  the  Prussian  borders.  At 
till)  end  of  1851  there  were  2280  miles  of  railroad  in 
Prussia.  At  the  end  of  1855  there  were  231:)  miles. 
During  tho  year  185()  about  270  miles  of  road  were 
opened  in  Prussia,  so  that  at  present  in  the  whole 
Prussian  state  there  is  one  milo  of  railroad  to  every 
nine  and  two  thirds  square  miles.  This,  however, 
varies  in  diflTerent  provinces — amounting  iu  Khineiand 
and  Westphalia  to  &'5 ;  in  Silesia  to  7'2 ;  in  Branden- 


burg and  Saxony  to  '•!> ;  in  Pomerania,  Prussia,  and 
Poland,  to  22-5  square  miles  for  every  mile  of  railroad. 
There  are  already  commenced,  and  to  be  completed  in 
12  years,  2ii50  miles,  so  thot  in  12  years  Prussia  will 
contain  at  least  5230  miles  of  railroml,  or  one  mile  for 
every  4'3  square  miles.  There  will  tlien  bo  one  milo 
of  railroad  to  every  2'3  square  miles  in  Khineiand  and 
Westphalia,  to  every  4  scjuaro  miles  in  Silesia,  to 
every  4  square  miles  in  Brandenburg  and  Saxony,  and 
to  every  10  square  miles  in  Pomerania,  Posen,  and 
Prussia.  The  cost  of  building  these  new  roads  is  esti- 
mated at  aliout  *)  1)8  000,0(10,  or  $14,000,000  yearly. 

Uailroutls  in  fiance. — Wo  extract  the  following  re- 
port  on  the  condition  and  progress  of  railroads  in 
France  during  the  year  lH5(i,  submitted  to  the  Emperor 
by  Jl.  A.  Koiiher,  chief  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, C'oinniert'c,  and  Puldic  Works  ; 

"  A  resume  of  these  figures,  whi  eh  indicate  tho  great 
increase  of  public  confidence,  also  exhibits  the  fact  that 
the  construction  of  thu  net-work  of  .railroads  in  France 
has  cost,  to  this  period,  .^,080,000,000  francs,*  of  which 


4  II 


*  The  franc  equals  IS'6  cento. 


HAI 


1610 


RAI 


3,410,000,000  fell  U)ion  the  runipanlci,  and  061,000,01)0 
Wua  coiitrlliiiti'il  hy  (liu  nUUt.  Of  (hit  «)()(raKate 
■muuiit  tbiTO  appear*  fur  Ihu  vvarn  lMu5  ami  lUuU  tli« 
•noriiibui  iiuiii  iif  l)lli,UUO,(iU()  Iruiica. 

"The  n«l  rm-elpu,  which  In  lHt7  wnrn  railed  lu 
2',>,|><I0  franca  pur  kilomotru,*  audilunly  Ml  111  IHlt*  lo 
13,iiiH)  fruiioa;  but  sinf^o  IHA'i,  nutwlthitan<llii((  double 
tracka  woru  lnl>l,  tli«ir  marked  iucreaao  la  ihown  by  the 
foUuwiiii;  llgurca : 

In  I8nj 91.000  franca  per  klloniotro. 

"  IsM «i,«Oi>     •• 

"  ISM '^0,4'H)     "  " 

"Thcao  riluriia  experienced  in  If'/.')  an  exceptional 
auKnicnladuii,  owini;  to  the  Univcn-ui  K.xhibltlon  ur 
World'a  Fair.  1  licv  reached  IIO,;IO() fraiiia  ;  and  If  the 
aniiMiiit  dill  not  rcarh  tlint  tlKuro  the  preacnt  year 
(]"  «>i,  th"  inireaao  over  1K,^4  la  not  llio  leaa  pru)(rca»- 
ivo;  for  the  n>tiiriis  for  the  first  three  qiiartcra  ahow 
the  net  aniuunt  nf  2H,0UU  francs,  at  the  very  luweat,  per 
kllumelri.'. 

"Stati  m bnt k'mi ihtinii  Till f'oaTor  RAiLiOADa n«  Fbahoi 
riioH  18J1I  TO  ItlBJ. 


AeiuAlrijct—                       1 

Tollw 
■uu. 

To  llo 
CompanlM. 

ToUI. 
KrVnci] 

;i.;)ii,i,on<i 
n5,:r,>ii.4ti» 

7.l7.lNift,2U2 
4U7.I28  2;;A 
i.i)7.S77,Hlli 
4S.%11IM.486 
47s.8B6,7IO 

Il,l2«,06;i,978 
46,806,000 

11,080,4114,1)71 

Kmni  IMll  lol83!) ,, 

••      18,0  10  1841.. 

"     18»Jtol84T.. 

"     184S  to  Isfil  . . 

"     ISBitolSM.. 
tn  ISB 

Viu», 

n,'i'is'.'74n 

278,K;3,e77 
2i:8,4l7,l47 
ftl, 187,781 
MS.  200,000 
20,280,000 

rrNnci. 

ii,;i»  1,000 
172,OJ7.7B;i 
(>0',l,411,l^(>b 
lllS,7il.l)98 
(MA,n!HI,0i>4 

4:io.40«,48n 

4&4.MV,in 

In  18,'*0 

Total 

l.cHH  rori'lpta  ln> 

l-A&'WJ l" 

General  total 

705,87.1,1116 
4Mi«,fl00 

llOI.:lH,JI.'> 

il,41',l,IHI>,0b8 
2.4111, 18«,«f>< 

"  It  may  be  interoatlnt;  and  iiiAtructive  to  ahow  as 
well  tho  propurtioiis  In  which  the  cxpenaca  are  dis- 
tributed bctwciii  tho  principal  periods  into  which  tlie 
past  tliirtV'fnur  years  have  been  divided,  aa  the  share 
coiilribntul  by  the  atato  diirin);  tlio  sume  periods. 
Tho  }  cars  which  elapsed  between  18'23  and  IMiiO  wore, 
as  respects  railroada,  an  epoch  of  cxperimenta  anil 
trials,  to  which  tho  companies  devoted  an  annual  aver- 
ago  uf  '170,UU0  francs,  tlia  state  I'urnislilng  no  contri- 
bution, 

"  During  the  twelve  years  which  aucceeded  tho  rev- 
olution of  <luly,  tlio  indecision  in  regard  to  tho  aystciii 
upon  which  railroads  wero  to  lie  constructed,  and  tho 
small  share  of  con fldonce  which  tlieao  new  speculations 
inspireii,  paralyzed  the  progress  of  dovelopnicnt.  Thus 
tho  expenses  on  the  part  of  tho  conipanicu  did  not  ex- 
ceed an  annual  avcrago  of  over  1 1,3;i0,000  francs,  while 
the  amount  which  fell  upon  tho  state  on  a  similar 
average  was  but  "270,000  franco.  The  law  of  June  11, 
1H'I2,  gave  the  first  impetus  to  railroad  enterprises. 
From  181-2  to  1817  the  annual  average  expense  was 
85,000,000  francs  for  tho  companicis,  and  •1«,400,000  for 
the  state.  From  1848  to  tho  month  of  December,  18,')1, 
owing  to  tho  political  disturbances,  which  reached  even 
the  sources  of  credit,  tho  annual  average  expenses  of  tho 
company  sunk  to  80,000,000  francs,  while  the  amount 
wliicli  fell  upon  the  state  was  rai.sed  to  7,'>,000,000  each 
year.  Since  1852,  however,  when  Icgitimato  confi- 
deiico  was  again  restored,  and  new  institutions  bad  in- 
spired  in  France  security  and  hope  in  the  future,  anew 
order  of  tilings  commenced.  Tho  annual  expenses  of 
the  company  augmented  in  a  remarkable  degree,  hav- 
ing risen  to  the  average  of  210,000,000  francs.  The 
demands  upon  the  treasury  diminished  no  less  rapidly, 
having  been  reduced  by  receipts  and  reimbursements 
to  tho  annual  sum  of  17,000,000  francs. 

"  Finally,  under  the  healthy  influence  of  the  general 
prosperity  and  credit,  the  expenses  of  the  companies 
reached,  in  the  year  1856,  430,000,000  francs,  and  in 
1850,  458,000,000  francs ;  while  those  of  the  state  wero 


reduced  by  ralmhuraemanl*  to  not  more  than  110,000,000 
fur  Iwih  ynara.  The  ri'siiniA  of  lliese  llgurea,  which  are 
themselves  the  indlcea  of  Ilia  pulilic  conlidunce,  ahowa 
that  tho  net-work  of  railroada  In  France  haa  cnat,  up 
to  tho  prxMint  period,  1I,OM(),<)()0,0(H)  friiiica,  of  which 
the  state  paid  UUI,m)0,OUO  francs,  anil  the  roiiipanlea 
'2,4 11), 000,000.  To  tliia  aggregatu  aiiioiint  the  years 
1855  and  1850  alon*  contributed  the  enormous  amount 
uf  Uli),0O0,lMN)  francs. 

"  Tho  entire  length  of  this  net-work  of  railroads  at 
the  coniniencenient  of  1857  la  1I,°2.W  kiluinetrca;  or 
opened,  II.00O;  in  progrcaa  uf  completion,  1750. 

"  Length  to  be  completed  in  the  next  ten  years  i 

188T 0118  klloiuctrab 


ISSfl. 
18{>V. . 
1840. . 
1801.. 
186.'. . 
18«3. . 
1801.. 
1806., 
l8tM. . 


81s 
204 

ri48 

811 
Alio 
)US 

"0« 


Total  length  In  progreaa  of  completion . . .  4760  " 

The  following  are  the  last  returna  of  the  gross  re- 
ceipts of  the  principal  French  railways  from  November 
11  lo  November  17,  cimipared  with  the  corresponding 
week  laat  year : 


'      RallfMib. 

18AS. 

ISU. 

Northern     

Kr«nri. 
1.074,';7'i 

oin.iiio 

l,0M.ll7il 

7:i4,ii.'o 

R8fi,7iM) 
51U,U01 

76,2111 

Frinc* 
WJ,0.'7 
703,113 
1,187,042 
741.8110 
42  886 

WenUiril 

Orlcftna 

Htraiibiirg 

f 32, 170 
«7.\(in7 

I.yono  to  Modlterranetn 

flowthom 

220,462 

Progreti  of  Jiaitroad  BuilJiiig  in  Franet  and  Germa- 
ny.— In  Uermany  the  first  Yailroad  was  opened  In  the 
year  1828,  and  two  years  later  in  France.  Tho  follow- 
ing table  exhibits  the  number  of  geographical  miles  in 
operation  In  both  countries  since  18'28 : 


*  The  kilometer  equals  about  Ave  furlongs. 


Vun. 

VriMC9. 

Ocrniauy. 

Von. 

Frftiic«. 

Gcrnianv 

MilM. 

Mll>l. 

Mll». 

Milei. 

1828 

» 

1844 

lull 

1122 

1830 

11 

0 

1846 

100 

413 

I8J2 

10 

17 

18411 

lUU 

61!) 

1833 

BO 

17 

IS47 

210 

739 

18.16 

86 

18 

1S4S 

2311 

S8I 

1839 

86 

27 

1S41I 

806 

1)11) 

18:17 

31) 

DO 

lS.'iO 

8sB 

1)!I2 

1838 

80 

61 

If^l 

460 

1036 

18,1!) 

46 

78 

1S,'>3 

601 

1091) 

1810 

66 

108 

1SB3 

6;i2 

ii;6 

1841 

74 

lot 

1864 

012 

1223 

184.' 

74 

2111 

1866 

733 

1274 

1S43 

109 

'261 

No  two  countries  have  the  same  weights  and  meas- 
ures, though  the  same  name  to  designate  them  may  bo 
used  in  many  countries.  Take  the  iidle  measure,  for 
instance;  in  England  and  tho  United  States  a  iniio 
means  1700  yards ;  in  the  Netherlands  it  is  lOHil  yards ; 
while  in  Germany  it  ia  10,1*20  yards,  or  nearly  si.t  En- 
glish miles;  in  France  it  is  SO'26 yards;  tho  Scotch 
mile  is  2472  yards,  and  the  Swedish  mile  11,700  yards. 

Railway!  of  (ireai  Urilain. — On  the  illst  of  Decem- 
ber, 1860,  tho  8506  miles  of  railway  in  tho  United  King- 
dom had  actually  cost  in  money  30!)  millions  sterling, 
and  that  large  sum  had  been  obtained  as  follows :  viz., 

Mllllalll 
Blerlini. 

Ordinary  shares 174 

Pref'renco  aharea 67 

'231 

Loons  raised 78 

SUt) 

The  average  rate  of  interest  paid  on  the  preferenco 

share  capital  was  £b  13a.  per  cent,  per  annum  ;  on  tho 

loans  raised,  that  is  on  debenture  debt,  .£4  13>.  per 

cent,  per  annum ;  and  on  the  ordinary  share  capital, 


RAI 


1611 


UAI 


100,000 

ilch  >ra 
■liowi 
;ni(,  up 
which 
iipunlea 
•  yean 
amount 

rnt<U  *t 
irci;  or 

par* : 
lldiui'trei. 


a  fiTou  r«- 
Novemb«r 
rvsponUIng 


and  Germn- 

Ipcni'd  i"  •I'" 

"ho  fiiUow- 

Icnl  miles  in 


itK  and  nii'»9- 
them  may  1)0 
measure,  fur 
Uates  a  "I'l" 
alOimyartls; 
early  Ax  En- 
,  tlio  (Seoti'h 
n, TOO  yards. 
Bt  of  Deceni- 
L'nilcil  King- 
lions  Blerlinc, 
[foUows ;  vii., 
MlUiogi 

HlerllnK- 

..  n* 
...  _M 

iiSl 

...  ]± 

3Utt 

Ihe  preferenco 
Tinum ;  on  the 
1  £i  13».  per 
Ishare  cap>t«l| 


X3  ii,  Ci,l.  per  rant,  per  annum.  Thn  total  grofK  re- 
ceipt! iif  the  railway!  of  llib  l.'nitol  KinK<ium  In  iN.'it) 
wor*  t\viinty<thr«e  millions  sterling,  or  aumithlnK  Ap- 
proaeliini;  the  interest  of  thn  national  ilclit.  The  end 
li  now  rapidly  approacliiuK  of  Ihe  era  uf  railway  niak- 
Ing.  It  has  Iwen  ({olnK on  for  twenty  yearn  with  aniux- 
Init  viuor,  and  it  has  covered  (treat  llrltuhi  with  a  sys- 
tem of  pulilie  roads  which,  for  extent,  perfection,  utility, 
and  rapidity  of  execution,  leave  far  liehlml  the  arhleve- 
nients  of  any  other  nation  except  the  I'nited  Stales, 
or  any  other  a^e  In  the  same  space  of  time. 

The  followhiK  talila  shows  the  nunil>er  of  railway 
acts  passed  in  each  session  of  Parliament  since  lMl<i, 
together  wiili  tlio  length  uf  new  lines  and  amount  of 
capital  Bui'ioriiod  Ity  thoso  acts: 


YMfl. 

Niinibar  uf 

Rallwiy 

A0U. 

Lasilh  ot 
•ulh'oruxl. 

Antuunt  i.f  Mtm»y 
aiilhi>nii*il 
ltit;«  fNUvil 

*13'2.fllT,!kW 

UV.46ll.rJ-l 

IR.'iTl,'.',-!! 

H,IMI,ll:il 

4  Ht>Mi 

48311.831 
15,M7.6'>1 
U,'JII,60'j 
0,10i,088 

1M«   

2T0 
IIM) 
V> 

M 
34 
61 
Bl 
106 
Tl 
T.l 

Milta. 

4MS 

IBAO 

BTI 

16 

8 

13fi 

»4I 

U40 

48'i 

184T 

lfl4A      

1S40 

ISftO 

1S»1 

IMiJ 

18IX) 

<A          .   ... 

i-M 

Of  the  7.t  acts  passed  in  ISSfi,  0!)  had  reference  to 
the  construction  of  worlis ;  the  lenKth  of  new  lines  au- 
tliorizod  liy  those  5:1  acts  wiis  as  follows;  vl/,.,  I'.tB 
miles  in  Kngland  and  Wales,  7(i  miles  In  Scotland,  and 
01  miles  in  Ireland. 

The  lines  anthorlz-ed  in  England  and  Wales  wcro 
chleHy  extensions  or  liranches  connected  with  railways 
already  authorized.  The  most  Important  wcro  tlio 
followini; : 

The  extension  of  the  East  Kent  Railway,  from  Tnu- 


terlmrj-  to  Dover.  Ily  this  Una  direct  railway  com* 
uiunication  will  ha  allurdoil  lietween  Dover  and  tha 
naval  and  military  anrnaU  in  North  Kent,  as  alio  a 
shorter  Una  lietvtevn  Dover  and  the  nielropolis,  than  Is 
afforded  hy  the  .Southrastoru  Hallway.  The  Newtown 
and  Uswestry  Kailwuy  iluaerves  notice,  as  foriiiint(  * 
link  In  a  line  of  railway  coinmunUatlon  which  will 
prolialdy  eventually  connect  Ihe  iiianufiicturliiK  dis- 
tricts with  Mllfurd  Haven.  The  Carllale  and  .slllolh 
Hay  Railway  Is  an  exleiiaion  uf  tha  i'ort  t'arllala  ItaiU 
way  to  a  new  liarhur  on  the  SuImsv  Frith. 

AinouK  the  lines  authorised  in  Scotlanil  may  he  no- 
ti':od  the  (ilasKow,  Dumlia.ton,  and  llelensliurK  Hall- 
way, proposed  to  1, !  conslrucled  alouK  tha  north  hank 
of  the  Clyde  from  (lIuaKiiw  to  lli'leiiHburK,  and  tha 
Haul)',  Macdulf,  and  Turlll'  lUllway.  The  remalninK 
lines  were  merely  short  brunch  lines  in  connection  with 
existing  railways. 

In  Irelaiiil  were  authorized  an  extension  of  the  Dun- 
dulk  and  Knnl»killen  Hallway  to  Cuvan,  and  of  tha 
Ulster  Railway  to  Monaghan.  The  llelfuat  and  County 
Down  Hallway  Company  was  authorized  to  make  a 
line  to  connect  Downpatrick  with  llelfiist.  A  few  oth- 
er short  branch  lines  were  also  authorized. 

Ikrrlt'pm'nl  I'f  IluUieuj/  Commuiiitalion. — The  total 
length  of  line  authorized  by  rarllauient  down  tn  the 
end  of  lM.'i&  amounted  tn  U,:i'l<l  miles ;  but  of  this  14!)5 
miles  linvu  lieen  abanilonod  hy  subsctpient  acts  or  hy 
warrant  under  the  aulhority  of  the  commissioners  of 
railways,  and  consequently  there  remain  Ui.HSl  niilet 
for  which  the  parliamentary  powers  which  were  ol). 
talned  have  not  been  repealed.     Of  these  K.'HO  miles 
were  open  at  the  end  of  1HJ5;   i't'l  miles,  having  re- 
ceived the  authority  of  Tarllament,  remain  unopened, 
[      The  following  table  exhibits  for  ciich  year  since  IH 48 
I  the  proportions  uf  railways  authorized,  opened,  aud 
,  abandoned  under  the  authority  of  Parliament ; 


Tahlf.  smowino  tiiii  I.rnotii  or  Railway  AUTiioaizm  niitvinuB  to  tiix  imn  of  1843,  \^n  in  rAcn  snccnminn  Yf.a«,  ovknto 

ruU  TUAKKIU  DL'aINU  KACil  YXAB,  ANU  TUX  I'HOl'Olvrlo.N  RKUAI.NINO  TO  UK  <'(tMei.KrRU  AT  TIIS  X.NU  OF  185f> ;  ALSi),  SIIOWINO 
TilK  TOTAL  LBMUTII  OF  liAlLWAY  OPKMEI)  >1>R   ThaFFU    I.N  F.ACII   YSAa  SI.NCK  l^J. 


LiMaTH  or  Lim  oriHiD. 

k 

m 

l^i 

.SI'S  -'^  = 

1 

4. 

Yaara. 

P 

i 

f 

.Ml-. 

i 

Ma 

1 

1 

1 

t 

1 
& 

S 
1 

t 

i 
1 

u 

I 

illf 

a 

filiil 

Of  lines  suthorlrJ>d|  Mis. 

Mls.l.Mln. 

MlH.   .MtH. 

.MiK, 

.Mis. 

.Mis. 

Mln.  .Mis.  Mia.  .Ml.i. 

Mile!.. 

Miles. 

Ml  lea. 

Ml.. 

prev.  to  Dec.  184.i,'iu3«;  '"4 

131 

16 

li 

1 

..  ,2aiHi 

2,3110 

,, 

2,3'  0 

riS4»    .. 

180 

3llll 

Ui 

11S 

.1 

4 

. .      7112 

SW> 

. . 

8P6 

13 

1848    .. 

n 

«i4 

nT.'t 

601 

.■111 

'21.1 

«8 

106 

123 

.'.1 

20  2,100 

2,700 

no 

2.r44 

a44 

1841      . 

84 

4o:i 

8iil 

.".711 

Vi-1 

2as 

179 

l;l 

23  2<m 

4,.MS 

o^n 

8,849 

UM 

1S4T|   .. 

•-> 

M) 

a, 

'.'11 

71 

III 

18 

«l 

22 

27(1 

1,!I.M 

4:18 

010 

mil 

1848     .. 

T 

7 

10 

11 

,  . 

41 

i;7i 

7 

«l(4 

:r:3 

Of  lines  au- 

1819 

^  ^ 

i 

1 

^, 

8 

10 

16 

i:i 

thorised  In ' 

18SI) 
IS.M 

2 

4 

iV. 

2:i 

1 

IB 

Vl 

7 
T7 

8 
1B.% 

•• 

8 
13.'^ 

1 
88 

ISfii 

11 

11 

100 

21 

119 

'.'44 

2 

24'i 

13 

18,M 

;^,^ 

SS 

T.'.'l 

940 

1 

t.19 

810 

|85t 

2.1 

2.1 

4'!2 

<> 

4,S0 

4:i7 

1888 

,  , 

.. 

803 

.. 

S03 

303 

Totnl 

i»,)i: 

•Jil4 

•ii  o]  60i) 

8(13 

1182 

Sll'.l  1  6  8 

i6:i 

410  1  Bh()    ;i6s 

'.:2a  82»U 

14,346 

1,418 

12,881 

4871 

Kailwiiys  opened  to  piiiuienp;ef  tniltlc  lieloiiKiliB  to  private  Individual.',  but 

17      17 

Total 

'.'.i3  02117 

From  the  foregoing  table  wo  see  that  there  was  a 
general  Increase  In  the  nnniber  of  miles  opened  from  the 
year  1844  to  the  year  1H4S,  when  the  number  reached 
the  maximum.  From  the  year  1848  there  was  a  de- 
crease, which,  though  not  regular,  is  sutficlently  no  to 
show  that  Great  Britain  was  approximating  toward  a 
completcil  system.  The  average  nunibcrof  miles  opened 
In  the  twelve  years  from  1844  to  1855  inclusive,  was 
690,  which  is  much  leas  than  the  average  number  built 
in  the  United  States  during  the  same  period. 

This  length  of  line  is  distributed  throughout  the 
United  Kingdom  as  follows : 


CooDlrlM. 

h 
.11- 

¥ 

! 
k 

Mlln. 
00 
40 
90 

2'.6 

k 

•  "" 
C     - 

1 

Milw. 
02 10 

less 

087 
8280" 

.its 

Mllo. 

3.70 
48< 
Ki7 

487 1 

III 

Fnf^Und  and^VaIcf.. 

!t»M. 

0114 

1043 

897 

Mllei. 
9,486 
1,841 

1,8'.'4 
14.881 

Ireland 

Total 

81164 

'■": 


I 


■AI 


i6;i 


RAI 


Wllh  mpafl  to  nm  mlU*  nut  nf  ih*  4571  miUi 
for  whl'b  |iarlU<'Hifll«r)'  iNiwurri  hav«  Imkiii  nhulniil, 
■ini  nlilili  luvii  n>i<  v«l  li*"!!  nfttrntil,  tlia  piiwori  fur 
III*  i-iHii|iulwr)'  iiurrfiUMi  nf  lli*  Unil  and  III*  <'iiiii|il>>- 
ll<m  iif  III*  wofji*  hiv*  »«tilrf<l.  The  pro|i<irlli>n  In 
wlil'li  IliU  I*  ilUlrlliMldl  lliriiMgh  lh«  naveril  ^ciir*  li 
fhuwii  ill  iIh)  Mlawlng  Ul>l*i 

TaiiI.1  iiwtwlaii  THIi  I'KifvtRtliKf  np  lljiii.w«T  RiiT  nriK 
roK  ln^rriii,  «I;th»iii<»ii  nrfint*  to  tiir  «Ni>nr  Ix-iS 
4*11  I*  **)  M  ii('Miii4)iii«f  Imii.  4i<n  oiiiiiii  lur*  mot 
*«•>■  «uta(H>»«i>  *•  mmiiiHii  HOT  A«tii  4iii>  till  I  ui- 
ronrKin  4*  III  »Hii  It  tiir.  1 1**  «i.Kit>  rh  rn*  Tin  vnu- 
ri:i—i*t  I'lx  N4<r  i>r  l.«aii  tnii  rimtniii  oannTiiiN  iir 

Hll«kaU«>  >t*'l*«ll  (tItlKllTTII*  ll«II.WtlIlltlNII  I'OM- 

ri.n*i<.  t<u«*  VI TN*  k«ii  iir  I4M, 


VMM 

11  jiiifii^n 

'          ' 

jjii! 

Pl 

|H 

"nil-'" 

'    »««:"■ 

TTli.!.' 

l>r  llNM  •Mlh<lfll«4  pH- 

«Wwt«0**«iHlNir,.,  IM* 

1  •  • 

t . .  • 

1*44 

u 

IS 

•  •  * 

IMA 

AM 

MS 

01 

IXM 

I4/.0 

11114 

314 

IMI 

Mn 

Ml 

7K 

IM* 

d'/ll 

m 

«« 

OrillM««UtlK/flM4lN' 

1*10 

l<nn 

l» 

11 

.... 

laAl 

m 

B 

86 

mi 

»8 

44 

411 

l*Mt 

»l« 

Hill 

l*M 

*.; 

•  «  •* 

4M 

IM« 

m» 

Ka 

r»M 

TMi 

~  MM 

K'MT 

l'|MHi  Vl.'t  mill'*  mil  fif  llin  i'2H7  iiillrs  for  llm  ron- 
•lrui'il<m  iif  hIiI'Ii  |i«rlliiiiii<iiliiry  pownrii  txint,  tliu 
(wwiirii  for  III*  fimniuimifjf  tmrrltiiui  of  the  land  haw 
lw«ii  ulluwitil  t<i  HHiflr*  wlllioiit  liAvinft  Iwnn  cxcrciacd : 
•nil  IliU  iiii.'rii«««<«,  llH-rvforn,  tlin  numlicr  of  iiilli^ 
wlii'li  It  la  imt  |ir»li«lil«  will  ertr  be  niado  lu  WJl 
uilli'a. 

'Ilin  liiUl  •ni'mnt  iiftiumey  aiilhorlzcd  to  lio  raUcil 
liy  rallwuy  >'wm|i*iit«ii,  hy  uliarpi  ami  on  loan,  to  the 
mid  tit  IHM,  *miiilMt«<d  to  Xil7l,!i7l,!lflO,  of  Mhicli 
XmiMVixt  lin'l  lnwn  ralwd,  li.«vln«  i;77,;i*M,(;«j  to 
lid  raix'd.  'I  liorn  am  lio  tiii'aii*  of  a«rerlalninK  liow 
niui'li  ul  llil*  aMHi  It  at/|i<>rlloiii'il  lo  the  miles  of  rail- 
way fur  Hhl'li  imrlliimi'nlarx  (Hiwora  haro  px|iircd, 
but  It  may  Im  aMtitiml  a|i|ir<ixiiiiRlp|y  that  from 
iiiO,im,iliH)  tu  Xm,<llitl,im  of  Ihla  amount  would  liavo 


VMM, 


iMon  ap|di«d  to  thuM  porliona  nf  railway,  and  that  It 
will  not,  thfrnforr,  Im  now  r*iii«d. 

Of  thn  H'.JU7  iiiiira  open  for  truffli:  nn  tha  Hint  of  t)i>- 
rpinlM'r,  |NAA,  iha  proportion  I'uiialriK'tnd  on  tlii<  narrow 
HHuu",  broad  gang*,  inixud  gaugr,  and  Irlili  gaugv,  ti 
aa  follow)  t 


Narnw 

■n>a.l 
llano 

ll«T 

Mind 

llautf*. 

Mllu. 

•iOt 

lllak 

(la«|i. 

"MlU., 

TaUI. 

««IN 
ION 

tn 

In  Kngland  . . . 

Ill  Hriitlaml  ... 

Ill  Irrland 

Total 

DMA 

lilW'i 

a 

•)t4&' 

1  liir  1  villi 

liTu 

"liM 

And  liy  tli«  foiiowinK  lalilr  ia  ahown  Ilia  li'ngth  of 
ilnva  opun  for  tritlllc  nt  lh«  anino  dalai  t 


Number  »f 

( (inii.Niilca 

Narrow 

■mm 

MiKil 

lllah 

Ti.lal. 

h»lii( 

llaitga 

llauia 

(laiiaa 

liaiiao 

■iHRia  l.lMI. 

Mllti. 

-ITii.., 

Hi)- 

Mil. 

Mllu. 

In  Knglanil 

m 

|iii:4 

'illU 

Vf 

UV> 

III  Hrnllaiid 

90 

'.Bl 

VIM 

In  Iii'jaiid. 

il 

* 

~Vl 

r.To 
vKiii 

Total., 

lit 

liiM 

kW 

■  Tlilrty-iiliio  nilUi 
lino  (III  a  narrow  ||aii|{«. 


^t  tlita  luiigth  la  lulil  with  ii  Mcuiid 


From  tlio  aiiovo  detalla  it  appear*  that  tho  linRth  of 
now  linea  opened  fur  truffii'  iluriiiK  tli«  yi'ur  IHfi.^,  in- 
i'ludint{  17  niiU'a  uf  line  liclonKlnK  to  private  iiuiivid- 
unla,  ainuuntod  to  '.^4:1  iniiea;  uf  tbeiu,  'iHb  miles  were 
luiil  with  only  one  lino  uf  rails. 

Uf  tho  lines  opened  in  Mi!>,  tho  fuUowing  are  thoio 
whieh  appear  lo  hn  the  moat  iinpurtant,  viz, : 

The  Hereford,  Hoss.and  (iluucester  Hallway,  a  lironil- 
KUUK"  I'ne,  whieh  alTords  lu  Hereford  a  innri'  direct 
eciiiwiiuniialion  with  tliu  nielropolis  than  it  proviuunly 
pusaeased. 

The  Wlinliledon  and  Croydon  Uailway,  wliicli  nfTords 
a  euinmuiiieatiiin  to  the  huuiIi  uf  London,  lietni  en  the 
London  and  Noutliwuatern  and  thu  Southeaiilorn  Itiiil- 
ways,  and  providea  another  Unit  in  the  line  of  railway 
ooinniunication  whieh  eneirciea  tho  metrupoiis. 

The  lun(;th  of  new  line  imported  lo  lie  in  euiir-e  nf 
conalruction  on  the  30lh  of  ilune,  IHM,  wua  bWi  mill »; 
uf  these  about  17U  miles  were  upcncd  befuro  the  Illat 
uf  Deieinlier,  1855. 

With  tho  view  of  alTcrdin;;  some  measure  nf  the 
eompnrativa  progress  of  railway  onterpri.ie,  tlie  fnllnw- 
iiig  table  has  been  prepared,  showing  tho  niiiiil  er  of 
miles  of  railway  in  course  of  construetion  in  enili  yeur 
Kineo  IH'IH,  and  tho  number  of  persons  employed  lliire- 
oii,  together  with  the  amount  of  money  recelvei!,  and 
the  number  of  miles  of  railway  opened  during  llio 
year ! 


.liliiaHll,  |k40  , 

Juiii'  -iV,  IDM)  , 

Juiiu  M,  IM>I  , 

Jilllif  »i,  IV/i  , 

.lulia  iMI.  lota  , 

Juim  iiil,  |il'i4  , 

.liiiiii  W.  l»f<A  , 


Tim  iiMliilwr  (if  fi«fa<ina  •■mployed  on  tho  80lh  of 
June,  la.'i.'i,  iipim  llm  railways  In  course  nf  ronstruoiion 
amounliid  l«  JW.filO,  (witia  on  Iho  average  •1.1-8  per 
mil'i.  I',  will  Iw  »<>iiM  friini  Ihia  table  that  the  average 
nuniU'riif  pi'raiinaiinildiiyeil  jier  mile  has  graduntly  do- 
rreaaed  aiiuH  |H4!I/  Mils  may  li«  ai^eribed  l»  impruvc- 
manls  and  lli«  «*mployment  uf  stiiain-|iower  in  railway 
contiru'liim. 

'J'lia  li'iigllt  fit  lit)*  npm  tor  traffic  In  the  t'nitcd 
K>nK<t">ll  <tl  til*  Ifllh  of  ,fnne,  1KA.5,  was  8111!  miles, 
and  th*  iiMinlwr  »f  pfr*<ina  employed  thereon  amount- 
*d  lu  W7,!lM  \mfniii;  iir  1207  per  mile.  This,  as  ap- 
pear* friini  til*  flylliittinK  lalile,  la  a  larger  number  per 
niilit  llmii  baa  b«irit  «ttiploj'«d  In  any  year  since  1848. 


I. In 

■a  tn  ^tiuna  tit 

-nnilnirtion. 

Darttif 
lilt 
Y»r. 

Minify  rabatl 
hy  Hharft 

>lllM<,fI!nil««y  1 

Milaa. 

NuniLer  of 
l*sn<>nl 

Avaraaa  Numbar 
•'"I'l"!,"' 

!(('BS 

1SH,177 

«»« 

1,VI4 

luatie 

a.io 

1S4U 

j:'.!»,n74,7i9 

Mill 

mU 

M.SS4 

«S|S 

|H6'I 

l(l,fi2'.J,l  «7 

It  5 

TM 

ii.KH 

ISS'40 

W.M 

7,U7(l,IM 

'.'iV  1 

T88 

aft.oiift 

4»fi9 

18.'.'2 

I6,(i24.7><.1 

4-Hl 

«N1 

81,704 

fBBIl 

18:.3 

ii,irn,H-.-> 

IlWI 

889 

4b,4(ll 

61  U7 

IS61 

12.46:i.li:4 

mn 

«■.« 

»H,r:4« 

43  80 

18{.6 

11,614  41111 

'.4:1 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  miles  for  the  wlmle  |if 
rioil  of  eight  years,  is  118  jkt  cent. 


Ytaia. 

Llnaa  open  for  Trafll*. 

1 

Hllaa. 

Numh*!  of 

I'traiiiia 
eni{jloj'ed. 

Nunil'r 

«lllll|i>VMl 

|,«r  Mllo. 

Bfal 

Number. 

ion«. 

~NiMii'ii*r' 
|„.r  Milr. 

liiiiliiB  1H4S 

4'iVJ 

6'J.0«8 

Vi-i 

13'21 

■;ii 

"       IS49 

6U7 

66,9(18 

ina 

1'i,')0 

*,i,T 

"       18611 

«;»« 

«n,ilJ6 

9-6'l 

21 '30 

■,'1'! 

"       1861 

61198 

03,60(1 

1149 

2107 

•SI 

••     isr.'i 

7ii7« 

07,0111 

966 

2263 

■81 

"       lS6a 

7612 

80,409 

IOT 

2403 

■32 

"       ISM 

78.'S 

90  40^ 

11  B!) 

2410 

■30 

"       1866 

8I1« 

1.7,»6i 

H-II7 

271)8 

34 

1852.. 
1863.. 
1861.. 
1865,. 
18.0.. 


—Hepart  qf  Ihe  Board  v/  Tnult, 


MT 


ToUl. 


t:i4A 
M 

MO 


sure  I'f  tlic 

Illlllll  '■!■  I'f 

■aril  y>ur 
iviil  lliirc- 

ivri!,  mill 
ilurint;  llio 


(i  5 

■.'iV.l 

Jlflt) 

illH 
'.  4:; 

i«  wlmle  Jic- 


Rliitionf.            I 

NnirlKT 

lar. 

l" 

0 

yrr  Mil'. 

•:;l 

1) 

■:t'! 

■91 

it 

•ill 

!! 

■;i2 

0 

•30 

S 

84 

KAI 

Kksmir  Railwat  TiArria, 


1013 


KAI 


TuUl  PKalpM  ?ur) 
fiMHlii,  puiitti||*n, 
nikllA,  'i" f 

l^niltli  iif  rallvAjii) 
opiin  for  IrNtllr, 
mlli-a ) 

A>iiri||a  rsei'liit  nr) 
mtlu  op«ii  diirinii 
llia/nr ) 


<>il,IU,llBA'ri,IHA,M)<) 

a,nn 


Jt'l.MH 


I      IlKNM 

ill.iiTJ.litt, 


ii,T(li) 


X'i.TBil 


Bil 


Ml 


Kill  fnr  ih*  Uit  fniir  yc«ra,  ami  ih*  morn  riplilly  m 
tliii  lliii'ii  ii|wii  |i«vi<  exlpnili'il,  tlio  ^chmI*  Irutlli:  hat 
kIiiiI  uliiiitil,  mill  yrtt  \i)  vtAr  llA>  liift  Iho  imaariiucr 
lritm>'  Uliliiil. 

KNfll.ANt)  AND  WAI.KM. 
Ki.iiiT  \mM,  H»  'M     iiiuiiia  llai  aiiTa  m  Mii.«  nniM, 
raim  •«■  ii  t  i.«aa  nr  rAaaanutu,  a>ii>  *i«<>  tiii  Hi. 
I  (ipia  ran  Mii.a  riiu  iiixiiia. 


Thnr*  la  thua  aeen  to  Iw  nn  iiicmao,  not  only  In  tlir 
•mount  rprelvoil,  liiit  alao  hi  Ihn  Icniith  of  railway,  and 
thia  liaa  livsn  to  tin'h  an  oxtvnt  thut  tlin  rwoliila  |i<ir 
milo  aril  llkiiwlao  Knsator ;  anil  allliuuKli  thu  luti'r  » I'ck- 
ly  rutiirn*  fur  IHAll  illil  not  tliow  an  larKn  an  Inirvani! 
over  tlioao  of  IHIJ&  aa  tlii>»o  of  tlin  varlirr  |iiirtli>n  of  tlir 
year  uxhlliltoil,  thora  la  atlll  niaaon  lu  Imjio  ilmt  rail- 
way |irii|icrty  liaa  now  ovuroinno  nianv  of  thu  ililllinl- 
(li.ia  hy  whii'h  It  waa  licaot,  anil  Ih  It  will  hi'nnfurlh 
ylulil  a  ri'tnrn  more  eoinnivnaiiratu  .  Ith  the  uilviinliit;ea 
it  liaa  ronfurred  upon  ttiv  public  than  liaa  hitherto 
been  thu  eaau, 

Aniiinu  the  beneflta  (Icrlvuil  from  rallwayii  Loniloi 
may  reckon  th«  Increuaoil  Importation  mil  (liinlnlH> -v* 
prleo  of  fuel,  whli'li  have  been  tlio  tu,    ei|uenei'  iil' 
better  ibivelopment,  aa  nliown  by  thu  fiillowlin;  return 
of  railway  eual  trulllc : 

COAta   UBUVQUT  'li>   I.OKHON    IIT    ItAIU 
IHU.                                     HM.  luenaM. 

Ton*.                                 T«ni.  Tww. 

l,la7,s3B    l.'ilO.'iOO    lii8,W 

Dot  tho  value  of  railways  in  thia  rcapcet  will  he    <  ili  i 


MllM 
•V«B. 

NuntSir. 
4.IM> 
4l>i'S 
MIT 
Mil 
MHO 
Mli'l 
Oil  . 
11.1  .'J 


1H40 
IViO 
HM 

iNr.a 

iNIvi 
IHNi 

IvM 


4I4 

Him 

4M 

»;« 
4oa 

400 
4a) 
411 


"M. 

~i 

MS 
4^a 

Ml 
411 
4T4 
4144 
4I'J 
4T0 


atn. 

Om*. 

hTSIL 

i 

i 

i 

1 

11:11 

fiW 

llKIt 

r4ft 

m 

IIMI 

HIT 

•.■nil) 

DTK 

1:1110 

MM 

:ltM.H 

HAll 

I'i.O 

III..; 

UM 

ii;h 

I'ii'U 

iiir> 

mn 

41X 

lll'J4 

irxi 

•mm 

4JII 

ni:t> 

IIUKI 

'M•^ 

4IH 

[  1111)4 

IJM 

:ifi«i 

•  ri    ™.  Inhlra  iiirlii.la  aiiu  a  fiiurth-t'lua  ri'iuru,  uroni  In 
Ilin  yi.urii  IMU  ami  IMO,  ' 

Hut  thIa  U  not  all ;  for  when  wb  cnnia  tii  look  iloai>l" 
Into  tho  paaaeniter  trallle  Itaulf,  we  ilml  the  i.imn  cnii. 

tinuoua  anil  eonilrnieil   leniUiny  In  tho  em m  to 

auperM'ile  In  lin|Mirliiiiie  llie  ili  iir  kliiiU of  a<'rvlie,  'I'hii 
recelpla  I'  ■  11  llr«t-ilu  a  farrn  have  barely  iiniiulalneil 
tho  level  .'  whiili  tln-y  ntiKiil  eluht  yeura  0(,'o.  'I'liu 
receipt*  aeionil-elana  fares  have  «erlc.ii«ly  riilleii 

olfi  .I,. ,  from  XfilH  per  milu  In  Ik  lit  in  t'hn  iXtti 
miles  1  pi.,  to  XMTiI  per  nillo  In  1H,-)|),  with  fMi  nillea 
open.  Hut  with  tho  l'..ril.elna<  fares  a  preelsely  oppii. 
situ  clnss  of  ehnn«es  '  ..  lukeii  |ilaco.  Wilh  seureely 
u  sinKlu  exception  o(  cnnncquenco  ilurliiK  the  el^lit 


appreclateil  If  the  quantities  bruuKht  In  that  »   v  are  ,  ;  enrs,  the  receipt  per  inllo  from  thlri|-cla»a  fun.a  has 


vuntraateil  with  thoao  brought  by  other  means  m  con 
veyuneo,  for  (luring  tho  aamo  perioil  wo  find  thut  the 
caual  coal  tralllo  only  anioiintod  to 


lau.  ixH. 

Tom.  Tunf. 

24,661     S6,4()l 


lodrtu*. 

Tutu, 
.     1M 


And  that  the  whole  amount  of  gco-horno  coaU  brought 
Into  London  In  those  years  did  not  exceed 


Kono  on  lticrea»ln({,  until,  in  IHM,  the  receipt  of  XI  IH 
per  mile  is  iiuitu  83  per  cent,  above  receipt  of  .tMill  per 
nillii  In  mill.  The  percentnije  proportions  to  the  total 
pttssenRer  trallle  In  1H19  and  185(1  of  the  receipts  per 
mllo  of  the  three  elasaes  of  fares,  were  as  follow »,  vl«. ; 


isu 

Twin. 
8,0I»,8I)'4 


last.  InrrrnM, 

Toof.  Tditi. 

l),IIH)„')'2a     834,'lM 


Von. 

rinlClu*.     1  »  amilCln.  |    Thlr.l  (M«».  "1 

1»41» 

Percent. 

I'trCinl.            I>irir«il.  ~ 
41                   IT 

US             sa 

ISM 

While,  therefore.  In  IHI!)  the  common  kimln  of  pn«. 
From  which  It  appears  that  tho  railway  coal  tralTlc  '  senior  service  contributed  a  little  more  than  a  fourth 
now  bears  a  very  larpfu  proportion  to  the  iniporlallon  ]  part  of  tho  total  pns«eii);er  receipts,  that  proportion 
by  sea,  and  that  durinn  IH5(i  the  iiuriaic  by  rail  was  had  been  raised  loipille  a  third  jiart  in  IHjB  j  llio  tlrst- 
greater  than  In  lt)55,  although  there  was  not  then  the  '  cla.is  proportion  rcniaiiiliiK  (ho  same,  hut  tho  second- 
eompctilion,  for  purposes  of  war.  In  frelf,'hls  which  had  ,  class  proportion  falling  from  It  to  S'l  per  cent, 
previously  existed  ;  whilo  thu  caiiul  trallic  is  so  small .  Kut  there  Is  more  oviilenco  to  ho  adiluccd. 
as  scarcely  to  deserve  notice.  We  have  seen  in  tho  foregoing  table  the  gross  results 

The  result,  as  shown  by  t  •"■^lowing  table,  is  that  I  per  mile  of  railway  open.  I.ct  us  now  examine  some- 
passengers  and  goods  havu  ehur  jc:'  |i!ace.s  as  iho  chief  !  what  more  in  detail  tho  relation  betwuen  those  larger 
elemcits  in  the  gross  cnrnii  „v  The  early  railway  !  results  and  llio  rate  of  fares  and  average  payment  hy 
managers  expected — and  with  reason— that  with  the  !  each  person  conveyed,  and  these  further  details  will  bo 
railways,  as  with  the  coaches,  the  passengers  wouM  be  j  found  In  tho  following  lal  1",  but  extending  to  the  live 
the  main  resource,  and  so  t'ley  were  fur  a  few  years. ,  years  18i2-'8(i; 

Five  Yi  v*a,  lS6'i-'5t).— Details  or  tub  aveuaor  ItKcKiirrs  vou  Passknukr  Ttt.\Fvio. 


1B52. 

lAM. 
1805. 

■KA. 


Axttkft 

I'ftyiiifiit. 

""    rf.     " 

54 -OO 

61  •SO 

47  ••JS 
43  $8 

48  ."0 


Avi.fii|r« 
jHir  .MUa. 


J. 
511 

213 
210 
2  09 
2111 


BMMItl 

Areraga 
Pitynienl. 

d. 

22  3^3 
2ii^4) 
SO  S3 
»0I« 
2046 


fliui. 
AvarnR* 
|wr  Mild. 

dr 

M3 
141 
142 
148 
144 


Thlnl  t'lui. 

TaUl. 

Avarairt 

Avcrut 
|>iir  MlTa. 

AvnrftK*       Avsraat 
rijnienl.    I'lirMiT*. 

PkymHiil. 

d. 

d. 

d.                d. 

12  4S 

OST 

21.10         136 

12  4S 

O'SO 

2040         1  3'i 

12  ^S 

n•^^ 

ll»^n2 

r'j9 

v>m 

0K6 

19  20 

i-:8 

11  •06 

n^HS 

IS  14 

iti 

NoTB.— In  tho  nlmve  talile  the  cohiinna  of  "Aremgo  Payment  per  Paasenger"  represent  the  total  average  sums  pnld  In 
etch  year  hy  eiieli  uf  the  |iiissenf;crs  conveyed.  The  columua  of  "Average  l'°are  per  Mile  per  I'aaienger"  radnco  the  larger 
columns  to  a  mure  convenient  inlleagciiient. 


We  find  here  that  the  first-class  fares  have  foUen 
from  211(J.  per  mile  in  18  J2  to  2'07i/.  per  mile  in  1856, 
and  average  payments  of  each  passenger  conveyed 
from  64^96J.  In  1862  to  43-30i/.  In  185C ;  but  in  conncc 
tion  with  those  reduced  fares  and  smaller  individual 
payments,  wo  have  already  seen  that  the  earnings  per 
milo  open  have  somewhat  risen,  comparing  Ifiti  with 
1862. 


In  the  second  class  the  fares  have  risen  slightly — 
that  is,  from  l-Kd.  in  1852  to  1-41(/.  in  IN.W;  and  tho 
average  payments  have  slightly  fullin  from  22'32d.  to 
20'-t.5<<.,  hut  tho  average  earnings  per  mile  have  re- 
mained almost  unchanged. 

In  the  third  class  the  fares  have  fallen,  and  so  have 
the  individual  payments ;  but  the  earnings,  as  wo  have 
already  seen,  have  Incrcaseil  largely. 


I 


''ll 
I  ■rl 


RAI 


1614 


RAI 


We  may  venture,  then,  to  Infer  that,  to  far  ns  t!ie 
evidence  before  us  spiilics,  three  general  conclusions 
seem  to  be  justiKcd  at  this  stage  of  the  inquiry,  and 
these  conclusions  arc : 

1st.  That  the  revenue  of  railways  during  the  last 
eight  years — that  is,  during  the  period  s'nce  the  rail- 
way system  had  arrived  at  maturity  in  England  and 
Wales  -has  been  derived  year  by  y uar  in  a  larger  pro- 
portion from  common  as  distinguished  from  dearer 
kinds  of  sorvicc,  and  especially  in  the  rapid  relative 
growth  of  goods  traffic. 

2tl.  That  during  the  same  period  a  precisely  simi- 
lar result  has  taken  place  in  the  passenger  traffic  by 
increase  of  receipts  from  third-class  passcngci-s.  and 
tlie  decline  or  non-increase  of  receipts  from  lirst  and 
gecond  class  passengers. 

8d.  That  as  regards  nearly  all  classes  of  passengers, 
the  increase  of  passenger  traffic  per  mile  of  railwoy 
has  been  accompanied  by  a  reduction  in  the  rates  of 
fares,  and  also  by  a  reduction  in  the  average  payments 
of  each  person  conveyed ;  in  other  words,  o  larger  rev- 
enue has  been  obtained  by  means  of  Binaller  individual 
contributions. 

liuilrot'di  in  Canada. — The  giganiic  railway  enter- 
prises now  in  progress  in  Caiiada  arc  intended  to  em- 
brace a  railway  system  traversing  nearly  the  entire 
length  of  the  province  from  east  to  west,  with  branch 
feeders  running  into  the  main-trunk  lino,  ai.  '  "Arrying 
olf  traffic  to  the  leading  American  cities  and  Atlantic 
sea-board. 

Besides  the  government  aid  to  this  complete  raihvay 
system  through  Canada,  these  undertakings  are  under- 
Blond  to  receive  substantial  support  from  United  States 
interests,  the  great  Western  country,  as  well  as  the 
northeas*.ern  States  of  the  Union,  being  directly  in- 
terested in  the  success  of  these  Canadian  lines;  more 
expeditious  routes  between  the  agricultural  districts  of 
the  West  and  tlicir  centres  of  trade  being  opened  up 
by  them.  One  of  tlia  most  valuable  featu,.:s  of  these 
railways  to  Canada  will  oe  their  affording  the  province 
increased  facilities  of  trade  during  winter,  and  uninter- 
rupted communication  with  ocean  traffic  when  inland 
navigation  is  closed. 

The  most  important  line  of  this  comprehensive  rail- 
way system  is  the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  The  entire 
length  of  this  lino,  when  completed,  will  be  1112  niilec. 
Its  eastern  terminus  is  at  Trois  Pistoles,  in  I^wcr 
Cinada.  Thence  upward  it  proceeds  along  the  south 
sliore  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  passing  opposite  to  Quebec, 
and,  continuing  thus  westward,  reaches  Slontreal.  Ite- 
furc  reaching  Montreal,  the  line  cfl'ccts  a  junction  at 
Richmond,  in  the  eastern  townships,  with  a  lino  of 
railwa;'  to  Portland,  on  the  Atlantic,  in  the  Statu  of 
Maine.  The  part  of  tlie  line  between  Montreal  and 
Portland,  a  distance  of  202  miles,  is  now  open.  The 
communication  between  Portland  and  Quebec  was 
opened  in  1854. 

At  Montreal,  one  of  the  most  stupendous  stmcturcs 
of  modem  times  will  carry  the  railway  across  the  l>iver 
St.  Lawrence,  which  is  here  two  miles  in  width.  This 
gigantic  undertaking  is  now  in  course  of  construction, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson, 
whose  name  is  associated  with  tlie  well-known  Britan- 
nia tubular  bridge.  The  Victoria  tubular  bridge  of 
Canada  will,  however,  far  surpass  Mr.  Stephenson's 
earlier  work.  Tho  total  span  of  the  arches  will  be 
6168  feet,  besides  piers  on  either  side,  running  into  the 
river,  each  about  half  a  mile  long.  The  span  of  tho 
centre  arch  is  3t)0  feet.  Tho  number  of  arches  is  25, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  centre  one,  each  has  a 
span  of  2 12  feet.  Tho  tul)e,  which  is  of  iron,  is  25  feet 
high  and  18  feet  wide.  The  otiier  parts  of  the  work, 
including  the  half  mile  of  piers  on  either  side,  rve 
wholly  of  solid  masonry.  The  height  from  the  water 
level  of  the  river  to  the  floor  of  the  iron  tube  will  be 
60  feet.  In  onler  to  impart  some  Idea  of  the  strength 
of  this  stupendous  work,  it  may  be  mentioned  tlint 


each  buttress  is  calculated  to  resist  the  pressure  of 
0,000  tons  of  ice.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  Victoria 
tubular  bridge  is  stated  to  be  $7,000,000. 

From  Montreal  the  Grand  Trunk  line  follows  tha 
north  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  touching  tlie  towns 
of  Cornwall,  Prescott,  and  lirockville,  to  the  city  of 
Kingston,  on  Lake  Ontario.  This  distance  from 
Montreal  to  Kingston  is  about  180  miles,  about  120  of 
which,  from  Montreal  to  Prescott,  was  opened  in  Oc- 
tober, 1865. 

A  branch  line  of  55  miles,  connected  with  this  part 
of  the  main  trunk,  was  fully  completed  during  1854, 
from  Bylown  to  Prescott,  opposite  to  the  American 
port  of  Ogdcnsburg,  where  an  important  connection 
has  been  formed  with  United  States  lines  of  rail- 
way. Another  lino  of  about  80  miles  was'also  con- 
structed in  connection  with  this  section  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  from  Montreal  to  Kingston.  This  is  one  from 
llytown  to  Montreal,  following  the  course  of  the  Otta- 
wa, aiid  joining  the  Grand  Trunk  at  Vaudrcil,  close  to 
the  Ottawa,  and  to  the  junction  of  that  river  with  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

The  Grand  Trunk  line,  proceeding  westward  from 
Kingston,  skirts  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario,  passing 
the  Buy  of  Quinte,  throu^rh  the  towns  of  llclleville, 
Cobourg,  and  Port  Hope  to  Toronto,  the  capital  of 
Upper  Caiia<la.  The  length  of  this  section  of  tho  line, 
from  Kingston  to  Toronto,  is  about  200  miles;  tho 
length  of  tlic  line  from  Montreal  to  Toronto  being  380 
miles. 

A  branch  of  this  section  of  the  Grand  Trunk  from 
Kingston  to  Toronto,  extending  to  80  miles  from  Co- 
bourg to  the  town  of  Peterborough,  on  the  River  Otana- 
bee,  was  opened  during  the  year  1856.  Another  line 
is  also  in  construction  from  Belleville  to  Peterborough. 
Tlio  most  important  line  branching  from  this  main 
section  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  45  miles  of  which  are  al- 
ready open.  Is  that  from  Toronto  northward,  passing 
Lake  Simcoe,  and  thence  continuing  to  the  great  Geor- 
gian Bay,  on  Lake  Huron.  From  Toronto  the  Grand 
Trunk  railway  proceeds  directly  westward  through  t'le 
fertile  peninsula  of  Upper  Canada,  passing  the  towns 
of  Guelph  and  Stratford,  und  terminating  at  the  flour- 
ishing town  of  Siirnia,  at  the  head  of  the  River  St. 
Clair  and  soutlica.st('rn  extremity  of  Lake  Huron. 
The  entire  length  of  the  Grand  Trunk  line,  which  is 
now  being  pushed  toward  completion,  namely,  that 
from  St.  Thomas,  40  miles  below  Quebec,  to  Guelph,  in 
Upper  Canada,  was  completed  in  September,  1850. 
The  remaining  portions  of  the  system  will  not  be  so  act- 
ively proceeded  with.  The  direct  distance  from  Trois 
Pistoles  to  Sarnia  is  850  miles. 

At  Toronto  another  important  railway  system  com- 
mences, known  as  the  Great  Western.  This  roilway 
commences  from  a  joint  station  at  Toronto  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  and  skirts  tlio 
head  of  Lake  Ontario  to  Hamilton,  a  distance  of  45 
miles.  It  tlicnce  proceeds  westward  through  the  heart 
of  the  settled  parts  of  tlic  great  peninsula,  situated  be- 
tween the  lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  and  Huron,  passing 
through  Krantford,  London,  and  Chathum,  and  term- 
inates at  Windsor,  on  the  River  Detroit,  directly  op- 
posite to  the  American  city  of  Detroit,  in  tlie  State  of 
Michigan.  At  this  point  an  important  connection 
takes  place  with  United  States  railways. 

Tho  Great  Western  line,  licBldes  its  terminus  at 
Hamilton,  diverges  to  the  Falls  of  Niagara.  The 
(Jrcat  Western  railway  is  now  open  from  Windsor  to 
!Iamilton  and  Niagara  Falls,  a  distance  of  220  miles. 
Tli.it  portion  of  it  from  Hamilton  to  Toronto,  45  niilci 
in  li'ngth,  was  opened  in  the  year  1864. 

tVe  have  now  (returning  to  Lower  Canada)  to  men- 
tion the  St.  Lawrence  and  Champlain  railway,  which 
connects  tho  south  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  opposite 
to  Montreal,  with  the  head  of  Lake  Champlain,  at 
Rouse's  Point,  a  distance  of  45  miles.  At  Rouse's 
Point  this  railway  connects  with  the  system  of  railways 


RAI 


1615 


EAI 


istcm  com- 
iiU  railway 
in  connec- 
skirts  tho 
tancc  of  45 
;h  the  heart 
Bituated  be- 
on,  passing 
,  ami  term- 
Jircctly  op- 
he  State  of 
connection 

tcrniiiiui'  at 


knara. 


The 


IWimlsof  to 
If  2-iO  miles. 
Lo,  •IS  milci 

La)  to  men- 
Iway,  wl>if'» 
tee,  opposite 
UinpUin,  at 
"  At  House's 
,  of  railway" 


to  Albany,  Boston,  New  York,  and  other  parts  of  the 
United  States.  TIib  I'lattsbiirg  railway  eomniences  at 
Caughnawaga,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
oppuDite  to  Laehine,  and  runs  to  the  town  of  Platts- 
hurg,  on  Lake  Chaniplain,  a  distance  of  'i8  miles.  Tho 
Montreal  and  Laehine  railway,  a  short  lino  of  9  miles, 
connects  the  city  of  Montreal  with  the  upper  part  of 
the  island  at  tho  village  of  Laehine.  Tliis  railway,  as 
also  a  portion  ot  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Chaniplain  line, 
have  been  in  active  operation  for  several  years. 

The  average  cost  of  the  construction  of  railways  in 
Canada  will  be  about  $47,'i00  per  mile.  Tlie  average 
fares  are  from  two  to  thrc  cents  per  mile,  according  to 
distance  of  journey.  The  electric  telegraphs  in  Canada 
convey  messages  at  much  more  moderate  charges  than 
in  England. 

The  control  of  the  Post-office  of  Canada  was  trans- 
ferred from  imperial  to  colonial  authorities  in  1851. 
Kailboads  in  Canada. — 1867. 

Nana  o(  RuuL  'mu'i'' 

BufTaln     ul  liake  Iltirun  (Duflalo  to  Paris) S4  ' 

Cliaiuiiliiinand  St.  I^wrcnce  (Kouau's  Ft.  to  Montreal)    44 

Coboiirg  and  Peterborough 'JS 

Erie  and  Ontario  (Niagara  Falls  to  Chippewa) 16 

Grand  Trunk.     For  Portland  District,  eee  Maine. 

Montreal  District 143 

Quebec  District  (Kicliniond  to  Quebec) HO 

Ilrockvilic  and  Toronto  Diatricta S33 

Toronto  and  Sarnia  Distilct VI 

St.  Thomas  llranch 49 

Great  Western  (Niagara  "alls  to  Detroit) iSn 

Uuclph  Branch ...     17 

Toronto  llranch  (Hamilton  to  Toronto) SS 

Montreal  and  N'ew  York  (Montreal  to  Mooer'ii  tlimc.)  43 
PlattHbutf;  and  Montreal  ( Mooer's  .Tnnction  to  PlattB.)  20 
Ontario,  Himcoe,  and  Huron  (Toronto  to  Coliingwooil)    i).~> 

Ottawa  and  Prescott  (I'rcscott  to  Bytown) 54 

Other  roads 3i 

ToUii 1412 

United  States. — To  give  a  complete  history  of  tho 
railroad  system  of  the  United  States  would  exceed  our 
limits  of  space.  We  therefore  conline  ourselves  to  a 
brief  summary  of  the  history,  wiih  tho  statistics  neces- 
sary to  show  the  present  condition  of  the  railroads  in 
the  United  States. 

The  first  railroad  constructed  in  tho  United  States 
was  the  Quincy  road,  built  in  18°i7.  The  first  passenger 
railroad  was  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  which  was  opened 
with  horse  power  for  fifteen  miles  in  IS.'iO.  The  Mo- 
hawk and  Hudson  river  road  was  opened  for  public 
travel  with  horse  power  in  the  summer  of  1831.  Loco- 
motives were  first  used  in  this  country  :n  1831,  on  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson  railroad,  and  in  1832  upon  the 
Uaitiinwe  and  Ohio,  and  on  the  South  Carolina  rail- 
road. In  1828  there  were  but  three  miles  of  railroad 
in  the  United  States ;  now  there  are  twenty-live  thou- 
sand miles! 

The  superstructure  of  some  of  our  first  railroads  was 
made  by  placing  a  thin  fiat  bar  of  iron  on  longitudinal 
timbers,  which  rested  on  stone  blocks,  protected  from 
displacement  by  frost  by  filling  the  trenches  below 
them  with  small  broken  stone.  In  some  cases  the  iron 
bar  was  placed  on  continuous  stone  sills. 

The  first  change  made  in  the  rails  used  was  tho  sulv 
stitution  of  bars  of  greater  thickness;  then  succeeded 
the  I  rail,  of  nearly  tho  present  form,  weighing  fifty 
pounds  per  lineal  yard,  resting  on  longitudinal  sills; 
subsequently  the  weight  of  iron  rail  was  successively 
increased  to  sixty,  seventy,  and  seventj--five  pounds ; 
cross-ties  were  used,  which  were  placed  on  longitudinal 
sills,  and  finally  these  sills  were  removed  and  gravel 
ballasting  substituted.  The  first  cars  used  were  coach 
bodies  of  tho  ordinary  form,  placed  on  four-wheeled 
frames;  afterward  the  bodies  were  enlarged  and  the 
form  changed,  and  finally  the  bodies  were  adapted  to 
contain  sixty  passengers,  placed  on  two  separate  trucks 
attached  loosely  to  the  bodies,  so  as  to  permit  them 
separately  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  curves  and  in- 
equalities of  the  track.  The  motive  power  at  first  was 
horses,  and  on  steep  inclinations  stationary  '''am  pow- 


er. Tho  first  locomotive  engine  used  weighed  hut  sis 
tons,  and  these  have  been  successively  increased  to  ten, 
sixteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-six  tons,  while  on  some 
of  the  freighting  roads  engines  of  forty  tons  weight 
(ii.oluding  the  tenders)  have  been  introduced.  Tho 
foregoing  list  of  chunges  shows  how  im|>erfcct  a  machino 
the  railroad  was  when  many  of  them  in  this  country 
were  first  commenced,  and  how  many  radical  changes 
have  been  necessary  in  tho  construction  of  their  ways 
and  works.  The  present  state  of  perfection  in  tiio 
machine  renders  it  probable  that  new  substitutions  of 
Its  Important  and  expensive  parts  will  annually  become 
more  rare,  but  yet  it  may  be  safely  ossunied  t'liut  pome 
expenses  of  tills  character  will  continue  to  accrue  oud 
must  bo  provided  for  in  estimating  the  cost  of  our  rail- 
roads or  their  value  as  an  investment.— /<(;),«■<  (/  the 
Xew  York  State  Enijineer,  1855. 

In  the  conception  and  construction  of  our  system  of 
railroads  there  was  no  well-digested  plan  in  regard  to 
the  position  of  tho  principal  termini,  or  the  route  for 
tho  trunk  lines,  or  the  mutual  relation  of  the  main 
lines  to  eoch  other.  Tiie  result  is  that  the  system  is 
Imperfect  as  a  whole,  though  admirable  in  many  of  ils 
parts.  Wo  have  many  roads  built  only  in  rivaliy  lo 
others;  some  parallel, others  having  the  same  ternilnl. 
The  same  expenditure  properly  directed  would  have 
given  us  a  complete  system,  with  fewer  miles  construct- 
ed,  but  of  a  more  durable  character.  The  want  of  plan 
is  in  consequence  of  our  system  having  been  built  by 
States  not  separated  by  topographical  divisions,  and  by 
private  companies  having  a  view  more  to  imniediato 
profit  than  to  the  future  success  of  and  connection  with 
the  system.  One  of  the  greatest  resulting  evils  is  the 
constant  break  of  gauge,  which  makes  necessary  tho 
frequent  transhipment  of  both  passengers  and  freight; 
thereby  increasing  cost  and  delay.  The  gauges  in 
common  use  comprise  from  4  feet  8J  inches,  the  chanee 
width  of  the  first  "  tram  wagon,"  wliieh  the  first "  tram- 
roads"  were  made  iajit;  to  4  feet  10,  5  and  C  feet,  all 
empirical  gauges ;  and  each  having  respective  merits 
which  were  advocated  by  their  iiitroducirs.  Wliatev- 
er  may  have  been  these  claims,  it  is  unfortunate  that 
one  was  not  tmiversally  agreed  upon ;  and  llieie  is  no 
risk  in  asserting  that  even  at  this  late  date  tlie  saving 
In  time  to  passengers  and  in  injury  to  freight  durin  - 
five  years  would  be  more  than  un  equivalent  fur  tho 
cost  of  all  necessary  changes  in  the  rolling  stock,  and 
superstructure  consequent  on  the  adoption  of  a  common 
gauge.  Our  railroads  have  been  so  much  indebted  to 
fortuitous  circumstances  for  their  position  and  relation 
to  each  other,  that  the  principal  claim  to  a  system  that 
we  can  advance  is  based  on  topographbal  divisions. 
And  having  this  division  in  view,  we  will  proceed  to 
describe  brlcHy  our  railroads  as  a  system. 

The  objects  to  be  gained  by  our  first  railroads  were 
to  open  an  outlet  from  the  fertile  regions  of  the  West, 
and  to  get  access  to  the  interior  as  a  market  for  tho 
manufactures  of  the  sea-lioard.  The  principal  results 
are  the  four  great  trunk  lines,  which  are  tho  boust  of 
the  country,  and  which  have  done  more  to  develop  tho 
West  and  enrich  the  East  than  was  dreamed  by  tho 
"enthusiasts"  who  were  followers  of  De  Witt  Clinton. 
Two  of  the  four  trunk  lines,  the  New  York  and  Erie,  and 
the  New  York  Central  railroads,  directed  their  first  slow 
course  to  the  great  American  chain  of  lakes,  expect- 
ing to  be  content  to  end  there,  and  not  to  enter  into  a 
contest  with  an  inland  sea.  But  with  the  aid  of  the 
frosts  of  winter,  they  found  themselves  fit  rivals,  and 
have  extended  their  lines  with  such  vigor,  that  the 
liranches  of  these  trunk  lines  have  tapped  tho  Missis- 
sippi, and  are  hastening  on  to  the  Pacific.  Their  con- 
nection with  every  town  and  hamlet  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  is  the  best  foundation  for  n  continuation  of  tlio 
progressive  prosperity  of  New  York.  The  other  two 
lines,  the  Pennsylvania  Central  and  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  railroads,  had  no  further  aim  than  to  pass  the 
barrier  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  then  receive  their  proa* 


RAI 


1G16 


RAI 


perity  from  the  Ohio  Kiver.     But  a  river  that,  accord- 
ing to  John  Kundolph,  "  was  dry  half  the  year,  and 
.'ozen  the  other  half,"  was  not  a  dependence ;  and  now 
even  the  Slississippi  Kiver  is  not  a  satisfying  end,    Wc 
can  briolty  say  that  these  four  trunl(  lines,  with  their 
direct  connections,  constitute  the  Northern  half  of  tlic 
system.     The  other  single  roads,  not  connections,  north 
of  a  line  of  the  Ohio  valle^',  however  important  in  them- 
selves, are  only  local  roads.     South  of  the  line  of  the 
Ohio  valley,  the  Virginia  Central  and  the  Charleston 
and  Steniphis  railroads,  with  their  direct  connections, 
constitute  a  similar  portion  of  the  Southern  half  of  the 
railroad  system.     The  remaining  East  and  West  trunic 
line  to  bo  described  is  the  one  from  Xew  York  city,  in 
a  direct  line  west.      This  railroad,  now  nearly  com- 
pleted, is  almost  a  necessity  to  the  passenger  traffic, 
being  the  shortest  route  west  from  New  York  city. 
These  roads,  in  conveying  the  produce  of  the  interior  to 
the  sea-board,  and  in  opening  tjie  West  for  settlement, 
form  a  much  more  important  part  of  the  system  than 
the  roads  running  north  and  south,  and  having  as  tiieir 
principal  business  the  interchange  of  the  products  of 
the  North  and  South,     The  roads,  running  north  and 
south,  are  divided  by  the  Alleghany  Mountains,     The 
eastern  half  is  made  up  uf  a  trunk  road  and  its  branches, 
running  parallel  to  the  sea-coast  from  Bangor  to  Mobile, 
having  at  present  but  one  short  break  in  Alabama. 
The  freight  business  of  these  roads  is  necessarily  lim- 
ited, and  conlincd  principally  to  costly  freight,  as  the 
coasting  trade  is  the  natural  carrier  of  heavy  freight. 
The  passenger  business  is  the  principal  source  of  profit ; 
and  as  these  roads  run  through  the  most  populous  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  they  have  ample  employment.  The 
trunk  road  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  is  made  up 
of  the  Illinois  Central  and  other  roads  in  the  Mississippi 
volley,  converging  to  the  iinn  tti  of  theOhio  River,  added 
to  the  yet  unfinished  tr  nk  mad  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Ohio  to  Mobile  and  Ncm  Oiiians.    These  roads  until 
lately  have  not  been  necessary,  as  the  Mississippi  and 
branches  have  generally  afTorded  all  the  internal  com- 
munication necessary.     The  interchange  of  the  produc- 
tions of  the  South  and  West,  and  giving  rapid  communi- 
cation over  tlie  West,  make  these  roads  now  a  necessity. 
We  can  secthen,  that,  notwithstanding  the  want  of  unity 
of  action  from  the  first,  the  system  is  gradually  becom- 
ing more  perfect,  and  that  the  completion  of  the  trunk 
lines  running  west  to  the  Pacific  will  not  let  us  lose  the 
proud  boast  that  we  can  now  truly  make  of  having  the 
noblest  system  of  internal  improvement  in  the  world, 
Keto  York  Stair. — The  following  exhibit  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  railroads  in  New  York  State  is  in  part  n 
synopsis  of  the  report  n|ide  to  the  New  York  Legisla- 
ture in  1855  by  the  state  engineer,  and  contains  many 
important  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  future  inanage- 
nicnt  of  our  railroads,  coupled  with  much  valuable  in- 
formation as  to  the  condition  of  the  state  system. 

The  returns  of  the  railroad  corporations  of  New  York 
State  do  not  comply  with  the  law  in  stating  the  amount 
of  depreciation  of  the  works  and  rollitig  stock.  The 
returns  of  the  railroads  of  Massachusetts,  in  most  cases, 
(how  a  small  allowance  made  for  the  depreciation  of 
the  iron  rails,  engines,  and  cars.  It  is  contended  by 
many  skillful  managers  that  if  the  works  and  rolling 
storic  Uic  kept  in  thorough  re,iair,  they  are  in  as  good 
condition  at  the  en''  <i  ■  '"h  ycai  os  thoy  were  at  the 
end  of  the  precedi-'it;  >  i m,  ar  J  therefore  that  there  can 
be  no  dcprccial!'<ii.  ')  he  dilTii  ilty  lies  in  determining 
fbe/nct  whetl  ■'■  tl)  ■  rt'i  in.i  iiave  been  kept  up  in  this 
thorough  mail  r.  riic  cmi  use  for  repairs  of  iron 
rails,  after  allof  in;;  Ibr  tho  ^-:'luc  of  the  old  material, 
is  equal  to  the  i  ■  •^f  nn  r  i  ire  renewal  once  in  four- 
teen years ;  that  fvr  r,  „>ii.iicd  to  a  renewal  onco  in  eight 
years;  for  wooden, bridges  once  in  ten  years;  and  for 
wooden  stations  once  in  thirty  years.  This  deteriora- 
tion may  bo  represented  in  another  form,  by  stating  it 
as  equal  to  from  2  to  1  per  cent,  annually  on  the  whole 
cost  of  the  road. 


Bailroads  are  alio  subject  to  one  item  of  expense 
which  is  rarely  directly  stated:  viz.,  the  necessary 
substitution  of  improvements  in  the  way  and  works 
before  the  original  ones  have  been  worn  out  by  use. 
The  railroad,  considered  as  a  machine,  is  of  recent  in- 
vention. Its  power,  capacity,  and  endurance  have  not 
eveu  yet  been  fully  ascertained.  As  the  two  former 
are  developed,  the  substitution  of  improved  forms  for 
increasing  its  efficiency,  either  in  capacity,  speed,  or 
economy,  becomes  necessary-,  and  these  substitutions 
are  more  extensive  than  they  are  in  other  niachiuos  of 
older  date  or  use. 

The  returns  of  the  railroad  corporations  show  con- 
tinued large  additions  every  year  to  the  construction 
account  of  even  our  oldest  and  best  built  roads.    The  re- 
ported increase  of  cost  during  the  year  1855  was  chiefly 
in  consequence  of  an  extension  of  the  double  track,  a 
larger  equipment,  and  station  facilities  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  increased  freight  traffic.     The  increase 
of  the  cost  of  the  road  on  the  New  York  and  Erie 
was  20  per  cent,  during  the  years  1851,  1855,  and  on 
the  Central   it  was  greater  than  25  per  cent,  dur- 
ing the  same  period.     The  reported  earnings  and  net 
earnings  of  these  roads  have  increased  Ijy  a  much 
larger  percentage  than  the  cost  of  the  roads  as  above 
stated,  while  the  reported  expenses  of  operating  have 
increased  by  about  the  same  percentage  as  the  earn- 
ings.    The  freight  earnings  have  increased  more  than 
the  passenger  earnings;  but  the  average  receipts  per 
ton  per  mile  were  less  in  the  year  1855  than  the  preced- 
ing one,  especially  on  the  Central  road,  although  the 
rates  of  charges  have  been  increased  on  both  roads. 
The  average  receipts  per  ton  per  mile  for  the  year  1865, 
were  two  and  a  half  cents  on  the  Erie,  and  a  lit  tin 
more  than  three  cents  on  the  Central,  while  the  aver- 
age the  preceding  year  on  the  latter  was  nearly  three 
and  a  lialf  cents.     The  freight  tariff  has  been  nearly 
alike  on  each  of  these  roads  for  the  last  two  years ;  it 
is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  business  of  the  Erie  road 
embraces  a  larger  portion  than  that  of  the  Central  of 
those  articles  which  pay  the  least  rates,  and  that  flu: 
latter  road  has  been  performing  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  its  business  at  low  rates  this  year  than  former- 
ly.    On  comparing  the  reported  receipts,  expenses,  and 
business  of  our  three  principal  freighting  roads,  it  will 
bo  seen  that  the  passenger  business  on  the  Erie  is  re- 
ported as  giving  a  net  profit  of  47  per  cent.,  with  an 
average  charge  of  one  and  seven-tenths  cents  per  pas- 
senger per  mile ;  on  the  Central,  a  net  profit  of  44  per 
ctnt,,  and  a  charge  of  one  and  nine-tenths  cents,  ami 
on  tbc  Northern  Kailroad  a  net  profit  of  two  per  cent., 
with  an  average  charge  of  two  and  seven-eighths  ccni.'i 
per  passenger  per  mile ;  and  that  tiic  freight  liusiness 
on  the  first  is  reported  as  giving  a  net  profit  of  61  per 
cent.,  with  an  average  charge  of  two  and  six-tcnlh.'^ 
cents  per  ton  per  mile ;  on  the  second  a  net  profit  of  4X 
percent.,  witli  nn  average  charge  of  three  and  seviu- 
teiiths  cents;  and  on  the  third  a  net  profit  of  il4  per 
cent,,  with  nn  average  charge  of  two  and  one-fourth 
cents  per  ton  per  mile.     The  character  of  the  businesf. 
the  grades,  and  otiicr  circumstances  of  these  several 
roads,  do  not  furnish  any  sufficient  reason  for  these 
discrepancies.     The  actual  cost  of  transportation  upon 
railroads  will  probably  never  be  accurately  determ- 
ined from  their  reports,  until  they  have  liecn  run  a  few 
years  with  the  construction  account  closed,  and  nu 
money  borrowed.     Thecxpenses  oi'operatmg  fhe  road, 
as  stated  in  the  reports,  are  about  one  and  a  quarter 
cents  per  ton  per  mile  on  the  Erie,  and  one  and  si.\- 
tentbs  cents  on  the  Central-  but,  as  before  stated, 
these  reports  do  not  show  accurately  the  cost  of  this 
service.     Mora  reliable  testimony  on  tliis  sulijcet  h 
afforded  by  the  recent  action  of  the  railroail  conven- 
tions.    At  the  one  held  at  New  York,  embracing  Iho 
officers  of  the  four  great  lines  between  the  Atlantic  and 
the  West,  a  Joint  report  was  submitted  by  the  super- 
iutendenta  of  the  several  roads,  in  which  they  statu 


mun  fill,  Iff  I 
•i ''-hiiifM-^, 

f>miiU-f ,,/  „ 

..  ('*Wl||fJP«, 

»,'■'«/(,,,,,,, 


KAI 


1617 


KAI 


(httt  "«*pe»lencfi  lias  proved  that  the  totoeit  ratei  at 
wllltll  txAUiary  freight  can  be  carrieil  to  puy  interest 
mA  eik\teiisM  will  average  almut  two  cents  per  ton  per 
Il(i1«  tuf  l(ea»y  agricultural  products,  three  cents  for 
Jjfoi'eflpsj  itnA  four  ccntfl  for  dry  goods."  At  a  9ul)9e- 
(((WMt  ((idvctitioii  of  tlio  railroad  companies  of  Ohio 
mA  (t((ll«imj  similar  rates  were  adopted.  The  al)Ovo 
cltfjt^t^s  aptilled  to  the  busines.s  of  our  two  great  lines 
HMHlil  ym\  AM  average  of  a  little  less  than  three  cents 
((Mf  1(*H  per  tiille,  and  would  servo  to  show  that  some 
(if  lite  lillsjiic!!?  done  on  each  of  these  roads  does  not 
^^rfU  ((Sy  "interest  and  expenses."  Sufficient  inforni- 
«tiHM  Itiis  been  elicited  from  the  railroads  of  this  and 
M\U'f  Slates,  from  the  actions  of  the  conventions,  and 
((um  ulltPt  sources  of  information,  to  warrant  the  be- 
Ijff  Ihflt  H  considerable  portion  of  tiio  freighting  Imsi- 
kWi^  IK/*  done  by  our  railroads  yields  no  profit  at  the 
(tffsent  fHles,  when  duo  allowauca  is  made  for  the  in- 
Cfi'SsS  of  caplliil  whicli  it  requires  for  the  increased 
*Mf  «(i(l  depreciation  of  tlie  works,  and  for  the  oc- 
('(l(i«t((/(l  of  the  track  to  the  injury  of  the  other  busi- 

llfJiS: 

'lilt*  fefiorts  of  the  year  1855  show  an  increased  cx- 
||«MS('  ili  operating  the  roads,  over  that  of  tlio  preced- 
Mlt{  ftmfi  An  examination  of  tlie  reports  of  a  number 
(if  fliilfHItds  IH  Jfew  Kngland  and  elsewhere,  shows,  for 
(lie  Ii4si  live  years,  an  annual  increase  in  their  cost  of 
flKllI  'i  Ui  ti  per  cent,  per  ainium ;  an  increase  in  their 
wcijils  (i(  from  12  to  20  per  cent. ;  and  an  increase  in 
(llcif  Pspenses  of  from  20  to  10  per  cent,  per  annum. 

Ileitui'lidtls  from  the  reports  of  the  railroads  in  the 
Stitlil  lit  Sew  York,  1855,  have  been  made,  showing 
(tlf^  wilHpaMtivo  cost  of  construction,  of  maintenance, 
mill  (if  (Ijieratlng  each  of  the  roads  of  the  State,  and 
tlltVH  llddtl  ritraiiged  as  follows : 

fllf  («(k)  (SKglh  of  road  known  to  bo  in  opera- 
Mull  ill  *I6*  tnrk  In  1(555  wns 27231  miles. 

Ill  ndilifl'ili  (a  ithich  there  is  of  second  track  In 
/(Wfidiirtl, 803      " 

MhKIIII^  It  (otitl  length  of  track  In  operation Ge26(     " 

flld  »l(»j(«  length  of  completed  and  projected 

muds....; U3a     " 

'Kic  Mlpjial  stock,  as  by  charters,  of  84  roads 

lim  mitesii  Is $114,102,200  00 

'flic  IIIIMllit  lit  the  aboTC  suli-cribcd 84,072,597  00 

flic  mili'lltit  of  capital  stock  paid  in  on  03 

fiiiWls  (iiUi  llilles) 09,4;:i,4,')S  &2 

'flic  «l(l(rtllU  of  funded  debt  of  63  roads 63.230.997  42 

'flic  miiBIIHl  of  floating  debt       do 8,SM,S18  43 

'flm  «*jieh(1lti(tes  on  the  roads  which  arc  completed 
AF8  »9  follows  I 

l-'HItfldliili^ainl  rii»flonrjr.16roads,1623t miles   $20,742,690  21 

l'"l-'  lylldelKg  16  ronds,  l(i23J  miles 1,902,424  87 

Vw  ftlll/el^lfllPldl-e,  21  toads,  21001  ndlcs. . . .      •jr.,7ai,8Ta  07 
K«f  glltdlllK;  lifldeliig,  and  superstructure,  21 

f/iwli.  9l(l6i  miles 03,S22,911  21 

tiif  uMiim   hlllldlnes,   engine  liouscs  and 

li1W(»,  iW  ro«d«,  21271  miles 5,042,750  87 

l'((f  tmm  4»m»eeii  and  fences,  22  roads,  2127) 

lllilCK  ,.■..,; 9,127,350  92 

i'lif  l((«l(llollVPs.  17  roads,  2058}  miles r>, 748.722  S3 

riW  Cdfii  (Bf  Kll  kinds),  lil  roads,  21 101  miles.        0,720,243  12 
m  CII^Hcering  and  agenoles,  23  roads,  218St 

,ini|«*,.. ■.■;.... 3,3r5,962  5« 

tmt  ».>licllilitllte  for  construction  and  cqulp- 

iliciil,  yfll'lj  infles 115,1537,193  73 

I  lie  e*)(p|idmife  for  tlie  conatrnetlon  and 

wpijin/lcKt  of  i!S  foads  (1600  miles),  wliicli 

(We  III  ((Htg(-ess  and  partly  pom|ileted,  in- 

(■'limlntf  lliow  »bieh  leporlcd  In  iStiB,  but 

««( III  I  Wirt , , .  ;  ; 13,112,4P .  29 

flieillllldietBf  locnmollTcs  in  nse  Is 6«S 

(J«i  l>K»engpr  and  cmlf;rnnt  cars loos 

mi  freight  and  baggstie  cars 7S0S 

'flic  Wtle*  tim  liy  the  passenger  trains       """ '"°'      oi  ro'.'l. 

m  (tic  Veai  Itns 7.024,190  on  2407 

Mm  Kill  Uf  tMiltil  (rains  fortho  rear.      4.808,077  on  2411 

i'l#ll(lllc<  tun  Trt  trains 11,392,807  on  2437 

glll(((H)(f)rt*»engprsfarrledlntliecars    11309,449  on  2437 
t>mmipf  lit  miles  trareled  by  all  the 

(IIWsCHtjcM, , , , 479,026,821  on  2437 

RiWlllCf  (It  loH»  of  freight  carried  In  the 

^I'm, ,::::, ,,,,,. 2,»69,3«2  ou  2437 

"MlllWIf  »f  Hiilefc  at  total  moTement  of 

fm§iliimmmi4,i,,,, 801,T0T,1)6I  on  S376 

6K 


Expense  of  maintaining  the  roads  on  21  roads, 

2229  miles $2,504,041  90 

Vlr. ;  charReabln  to  pas-sengcr  business, 

1923  miles 1,141. 200  DC 

chargeable  to  freight  business,  I'.il.'i 
ndlcs 053,001  OS 

Kxponsc  of  repairs  of  nmrblncry  on  19  roads, 

2189  miles $1,!101,412  74 

Viz. :  char);ealile  to   passenger  business, 

2063  miles 8:'3,277  63 

chargeable  to  freight  business,  2(;43 

"dies 901,461  48 

Cost  of  operating  the  road  on  20  roads,  2101 

•"'''r^ $5,802,603  88 

N  iz. ;   clmrnciiblo  to  pasBcnger  business, 

10  Iliads,  2074  ndles 2,685,179  74 

chargeable  to  freight  business  on  16 

roadii,  2000  miles 2,!)15,2C5  48 

Receipts  from  passengers  on  19  roads,  21Sft 

"dies $-i.922,419  63 

liecuipts  from  freight  on  19  mails,  2189  miles      8,271,012  85 

Kccelptsfrom  otlicrsonrces,ls  romls,  2171  miles        !  3  ■,70.')  10 

Total  receipts  on  19  roads,  2189  miles $l!<,12ii7i97  4S 

Payments  for  transportation  expenses,  18  roads, 
2171  miles .$10,314,414  44 

Pttynients  fur  interest  on  debts  on  21  roads, 
2206  miles 3,940,360  23 

Payments  for  divjilends  on  0  roads,  13S8  ndles      2,237,410  00 
Toial  payments $10,4'.i*.',l)yo  73 

The  average  cost  of  construction  and  equipment  per 
mile  of  road  on  tliose  railroads  wliich  have  reported 
these  items  has  been  as  follows : 

Grading  and  masonry  on  19  roads,  1023}  miles  . .  $12,778  49 

Bridging                           19      "      1023t    "      ..  1,1711)8 

riuperstrncturo  21  "  21001  "  . .  12,099  00 
Grading,  bridging,  and  superstructure  on  21  roads, 

21001  "dies 30,4.^  49 

Station  biuhlings,  engine  houses,  and  shops  on  22 

roads,  21271  miles 2.370  27 

LAnd  damages  and  fences  on  22  roads,  21271  miles  4.21t0 17 

Locomotives                             17      "      2058J     •'  2,792  38 

Cars  of  all  kinds                    19     ■'      21101     "  3,18068 

Kngineerlng  and  agencies  2"  "  213S1  "  1,0M79 
The  total  average  expenditure  ^  r  construction  and 

equipment  on  25  roads,  134u;  ndles  long,  was  , .  49,359  05 

The  average  cost  per  mile  of  a  single  track  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Grading,  masonry,  t^vl  bi  iil£r'"'fl  on  19  roads,  23401- 

miles $9,670  37 

Supcrstniclnres  on    l  i„aiK,  2  '.'3  miles 9,409  48 

(trading,  bridges,  (aui  siiiiorstr.ictnro  on  21  roads, 

2S23i  miles 22,004  JS 

Station,  engine  hoU!:e^,  mil  shops  on  22  road?, 

28411mllcs 1,77280 

Land  and  fencing  on  22  rouds,  2844J  miles 3,208  41 

Knglnecring  and  agencies  on  23  roads,  29031  miles      lil45  94 
Tlie  total  average  expenditure  for  construction  and 
equipment  ou  26  roads,  with  3142{  miles  of 
truck,  was 30,709  45 

There  is  one  locomotivu  for  every  3}  miles  of  road  in 
use.  There  is  one  passenger  or  emigrant  car  for  every 
2i  miles.  There  is  one  freight  or  baggage  car  fore /ery 
32-1 00th  mile.  The  average  mileage  of  the  passengers 
for  each  mile  run  liy  the  train  is  o9.  The  distance 
traveled  by  each  passenger  is  3'Ji  miles ;  or,  if  we  ex- 
clude the  Harlem  road,  the  travil  on  which  is  princi- 
pally in  the  city  of  New  York,  51  miles.  The  speed 
of  tlio  express  (rains,  when  in  motion,  per  hour,  is  3(i 
miles.  Tlie  number  of  tons  of  freight  for  each  mile 
run  liy  the  (rains  is  71.  The  distance  each  ton  of 
freight  was  moved,  107  miles.  The  speed  of  the  freight 
trains  when  in  motion,  per  lionr,  is  K!  miles.  The 
weight  of  the  freight  trains,  exclusive  of  the  freight,  is 
175  tons. 

Tlio  proportions  of  the  tonnage  of  each  description 
of  freight  carried  on  nineteen  roads,  2228  miles,  areas 
follows : 

Of  the  product  of  the  forest.  14  per  ct.  of  the  whole  tonnage. 

"  "        animals..  151  "  || 

Vegetable  food 22  " 

Other  Bgrlculturol  products.    4  "  ^^ 

.ManilfacturOB 12  " 

Merchandlso 121  " 

UnciasBlfied  articles 20 


BAI 


1618 


RAI 


Atehacx  CoaT  or  tiir  Maivt^  naxci  or  Wat  pkb  Uili  or 

l:oAU,' 


Tolnl. 

0«Mof 

PMieD|r«n. 

Kitiiibt. 

1851  04^ 

140  00 

22  jB 

7  73 

64  87 

Kfpalra  of  road-bed 

$810  48 

277  64 

BT)  112 

l;i  01 

114  36 

$468  43 
8S2J 
27  48 
1172 
04  Bl 

Ropain  uf  bulldini!! 

"         foncoa  ond  gJilcB 
Taxes 

Total 

$1128  40 

$6 '6  04 

$4;'fl  Oi) 

Atkbaub  Cost  or  RErAiBS  or  MAOi:iNEBr  nil  Mils  or 


llOAD. 


Kcpulrs  of  cnginoB  . 

*'  curs 

Tools 

Oil  and  wasto 

Total 


Tolal. 


.t4-.'7  68 

8B:(68 

80  4'' 

06  66 


$»23  41 


charged  to  Ihft  DiulnvM  of 


I'lMongeni. 

)4'S2n 

IS  W 

37  V? 


$4»4  62 


t'ralghl. 


$IU1  Il7 

200  00 

10  4S 

28  88 


$4:18  (II 


Atkbaos  Cost  or  orcBATiNo  peb  Mii.b  or  I!oai>. 

neu  of 


litttce  expfensL's  aiid  DtattoMury 

Agvnts  and  clerks 

LnboFf  loading,  and  unloading 
Porters,     watchmen,      and) 

switchmen i 

Wo"d  and  water  station  at-^ 

tendance i 

Conductors,    baggage    and\ 

hriikomcn / 

Englncmen  and  fln-nicn 

Fuel,  cost  aiul  labor  of  pre-) 

piring / 

Oil  and  waste  for  cnginca .... 

"  '*  cars 

Loss  and  damage  to  goods) 

and  baggage ) 

Dnniages  for  injuries  to  pcreon 

'*       to  property  and  cattle 

Oeneml  superintendence . . 

Contingencies 

Total 


$60  28 
248  40 
213  49 

i0.'>  71 

416!) 

97172 

26::  Oil 

7.12  00 

80  27 
C6  02 

46  4'> 

SO  00 

12  80 

0,')  3 

408  l.'i 

$2048  00 


PlUMOK«iV. 

~  $26  93 
110  81 

100  40 

25  61 

146  30 
140  78 

396  23 

49  68 
83  06 

6  74 

80  P4 

671 

23  97 

242  18 


$1294  84 


Frelnlil. 

$25  US 
122  07 
187  45 

61  SS 

1  i2  34 
122  01 
S0212 

80  68 

81  4'. 

40  33 

18  06 

822 

30  04 

199  (II 


$1212  90 


AtBBAOI    COIT    Off    OriBATINO    riB    MlI.B    Bxm    ilT    Tni 

Tbaims. 


Ateuaub  Cost  or  Maintenamoe  of  V.  at  pkb  Miui  nm>  nv 

TUB  TilAIKa. 


Total. 

charired  to  the  nmlneH  t.t  | 

Pauengen. 

Pnilght. 
Cenli. 
181!8 
0-43 

1  16 
0-40 

2  81 

Repairs  of  road-be  t . . . . 
Iron  for           *'        .... 
Repairt;  of  buildin  pi  . . 

CloU. 

10-75 

4-S7 
116 
o-;i9 

2-31 

Canla. 

16 -SO 
3.'.0 

(1-90 
0  41 

Total 

22-03           '.fii-s" 

•.'6-70 

Atkbaoe  Cost  ov  REPAinn  or  M>rniNEBY  tkb  Mili  bitn 

liY   THE   'I'UAFNH. 


•r^t.i 

t'harited  to  Uie  ^ntlncie  of  | 

raM«ng*n. 

r.«itbt. 

Ceitla. 
9-92 
10-99 

0-76 
1-31 

Kcpairs  of  engines 

fenli, 

N-71 
7-10 

01(5 
1  18 

Centa. 
T-84 
4-89 
0-64 
0-97 

tuols 

Oil  and  woste 

Total 

■     22-.'5     ■ 

.VVKKAUI!  COBT  OF  MAINTBHANOK  OF  WaT  PBB  I'ASSBNOBB 
ANU  I'KB  Ton  I-'BBIQUT  OABBIBD  OMB  .MltB. 


ToUL 

Charso'l  to  the  Buiineafl  of  j 

PaMenKfln, 

Fr-lilil. 

Tepairs  of  road-bed 

Iron  for           ''        

Repairs  of  buildings .... 

fences 

Taxes 

Mllli. 

2-40 
082 
010 
0-06 
034 

Mill!. 

2  14 
O-.TO 
0-13 
OOB 
0-31 

Mllll. 

2-41 

071 

n-I5 
O-O.'i 
0-oT 

Total , 

8-37 

2-9S 

8-41 

•  .>lany  of  the  roads  do  not  give  complete  returns  of  the 
Tarious  items  of  cost  of  maintenance  of  nay.  repairs  r,f  ma- 
chinery, and  operating.  The  arerago  cost  of  each  IU.m  is 
made  up  from  those  roads  only  which  have  reported  that 
item,  which  will  account  for  the  apparent  dlscrcpanclea  be- 
twcc.i  t.,a  averages  of  the  total  cost  and  tho  ciua  of  averi.  i(es 
cf  tb<.  cost  of  eacb  item. 


Total. 


OiHco  expenses  and  stationery . . . 

Agents  and  clerks 

Labor,  loading  and  unloading  . . . 

Wood  aud  water  station  attend- 
ance   

l'orti>rs,  watchmen,  and  •witch- 
men  

Conductors,  baggage  and  brake- 
men 

Rnginomen  and  flreroen .... 

Fuel,  cost  and  labor  of  preparing . 

Oil  and  waste  for  engines 

"  "  cars 

Loss  and  damages  to  goods  and) 
baggage J 

Damages  for  injuries  to  persons. . 
**        to  property  and  cattle  . 

General  superintendence 

Contlngciideb 

Total 


t'elii*. 
I  (12 
4  8i 
3-72 

1-27 
8BT 

644 

6  45 

14  44 

184 

1-87 

0-92 

0-09 
0-26 
1-80 
8-17 


11-85 
8-82 
262 

1-80 
8  •04 


464 

J  8 -02 
1-65 
1-lfl 

0-18 

0-78 
0-13 
O-iO 
7-47 


I  Fr»l|ihl 


CetitH. 

I 'BO 
0-iO 
9-48 

1(0 
2  94 

6-32 

6BII 

1666 

1-stl 

ie6 

2  08 

0-88 
0-48 
1-48 
0-l!4 


68-48  I    43-06    |  68'-:a 


Atebaob  Cost  or  Repaibs  of  Maciiinert  peb  rABSEHoER 

AND  FEB  Ton  of  KbEIIII'T  nABEIF.I>  ONE  .Mn.E. 


^^^^      1  t'harRed  lo  the  HiuineH  of 
1     PariMngen.    |     FrviKht.     | 

Repairs  of  engines 

Mllll. 

1-27 
1-02 
0-09 
016 

mill. 
1-17 
0-78 
0-08 
0-14 

.Villi.      ' 
1-.13      1 
1-46 
0-10      1 
0-19      j 

'*         tools 

Total    . .   

2-51 

2'1'2        1       .t-i.7 

A-VBBA(IB    Cost    of    OPEBATINO    per    TASSENnER   AND    PEE 

Ton  of  Fbeiuiit  4jABiiiKi>  one  Mile. 


Office  expenses  and  stationery  . . . 

Agcnta  and  clerics 

l.alKjr,  loading  and  unloading  . . , 
Porters,  watchmen,  and  Bwitcli-) 

men f 

Wood  nnJ  water  station  attend-) 

ancQ f 

Conductors,  baggage  and  brake- ) 

men / 

Fnglnemon  and  firemen 

Vuel,  cost  and  labor  of  preparing. 

Oil  ;.nil  waste  of  engines 

"  "        cars  

Loss  and  damage  to  goods  and) 

baggogo / 

Damages  for  injuries  to  persons. . 
*'        to  property  and  cn*tle  . 

Ueneral  superintendence 

Contingencies 

Total 


Total. 


Mllll 
0  15 

eTi 

057 
0-40 

0-lS 

0-81 

0  78 
2-08 
0  25 
0-20 

0-13 

0  09 
0  04 
0-18 
0-56 


7-64 


charged  to  the 
BuslKCel  of 


Paswngen. 

"MIliiT" 
0-12 
0-56 
0  02 

J-4S 
0-25 

0-71 

0-Ofl 
l-!.2 
0-24 
0-17 

0-08 

Oil 
0  02 
0-18 
O'dl 


Freiffht. 
"MiiST 

017 
0,80 
1-29 

0-39 

014 

0-87 
0-S8 

2-l;i 

0-25 
0-12 

0-28 

0-f6 

OIT> 
0-20 
0  85 


ii'8-l 


8  04 


The  average  receipts  per  nalo  ot  voatl  were  : 

Fassengerb  .  .■ ..  $4,074  10 

Freight 8,"r«  72 

Utber  sources (27  2S 

$8,27sT; 

And  the  expenses $4,710  14 

From  tills  we  seo  that  the  expenses  Averc  SG  per 
cent,  of  the  gross  receipts,  wbich  Is  below  the  avcrnge 
throuchoiit  the  country-. 

The  expenses  of  operating  the  road  were  67  per  cunt. 
of  the  whole  receipts. 

The  average  receipts  per  mile  run  by  the  trains  were 
as  follows : 

From  passcngeis $1  32 

freight  202 

other  so^irces 1  07 

And  of  the  expe.-isci $0  97 

Tlio  average  n!C<!lpt8  per  paiscnger  per  mile  were  1  -95  cent?. 

Per  ton  of  freight 2  ■"•)     " 

Per  passenger  or  per  ton 2:18     " 

Expanses 1-33     " 

On  16  roads,  2262)  miles  long,  the  number  of 

passengers  carried,  as  reported,  was 12,256,714 

The  actual  number  of  travelers  waa  probably 

about 10,000,009 

'fba  uui'Aber  of  mile*  traveled  on  same  ri)a4«  was  477,011,422 


RAI 


1619 


KAI 


C'etitM. 

\-?»  I 
o^';9 

0^48  I 
l^(.fl  I 
2  94  ! 

031 

6-RB 

1B6B 

1'Stl 

2^08  I 

0-88  I 
0  48 
1^4S 
0-t!4  I 
«8-'.0 


Buiinew  of 
yroinht. 

MiiiiT" 
i^sa 

1^46 

0  10 

OlS 

TT.f 


017 
OSfl  1 
129 

0^!i9  I 

014 

0^87 


SA 

0-S8 

,i          2^13 

24          0'2B 

IT 

0T2 

(18 

0^28 

11 

OCR 

0> 

OI'O 

IS 

0  20 

lit 

0-6S 

Ktt4 


verc  56  per 
the  avernge 

57  Jicr ciiit. 

trains  were 

.  $1  32 

2  0-2 

.    1  «' 

. .  $0  97 

L>o  l-95ccnt». 
2»9     " 

2^!i8     " 
1'3S     " 

12,256,714 

10,OCO,009 
,  477,011,422 


Comparitonqflhe  Returns  n/teveral  Railroads From 

the  statistics  of  tlio  not  income  and  gunural  economy 
of  the  principal  railroads  in  New  York  and  Masaachu- 
Ectts,  wo  can  elucidate  many  facts  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  railroad  management.  Among  these  may 
be  noticed  the  following :  The  average  number  of  pas- 
sengers and  the  number  of  tons  of  freight  carried  each 
mile  run  is  the  same ;  that  U,  on  an  average  there  arc 
daily  carried  an  etiual  number  of  passengers  and  freight 
an  equal  distance  on  the  road.  The  largest  number  of 
passengers  carried  each  mile  run  is  by  tho  Hudson 
Itiver  Railroad,  which  lias  u%  a  rival  the  best  naviga- 
ble river  iu  tho  world.  The  largest  number  of  tons 
carried  per  milo  run  is  by  the  New  York  and  Erie  Rail- 
road, which  is  the  principal  through  freight  road  for 
tho  products  of  the  SVest ;  and  this  road  also  shows  the 
largest  net  income  per  mile.  The  ratio  between  tho 
total  receipts  per  mile  and  the  net  income  per  mile  is 
far  from  being  constant,  or  tlic  last  from  being  depend- 
ent on  the  flrst.     There  is,  however,  a  relation  between 


expenses  per  mile  run  ;  t  lureby  niuldiit;  It  ovldtmt  tliiil, 
cftrribua  iinrilim,  tho  intercuts  of  tliu  tluiikhlililar  ,'ir«  iiiU 
vanccd  more  by  reducing  the  exptiNiwii  per  liilln  run. 
than  by  increasing  tho  buHJiieiut  uf  lliu  road.  'I'lm  re. 
celpts  for  passenyors  or  freight  corrliid  piir  inllii  In  xlvtii 
by  adding  the  expenses  ami  llie  nut  ini'iiinu  cwrrlwl  pur 
mile.  It  is  shown  from  this  cumpuriiimi  tliMt  oil  an 
average  the  net  income  from  pamiunKil'i*  I'unitnl  iio' 
mile  is  50  per  cent,  of  the  rei-ulplji,  or  wjiml  l»  Ijut  iii<. 
penscs ;  while  the  net  income  from  freight  U  only  il4 
per  cent,  of  the  expenses.  From  this  we  mm  lliitl  llie 
tariflfof  freight  should  be  iiicreaseil  HI  per  ciml,,  lliiil 
it  shall  be  in  n  just  propurlion  to  tho  pimwng  ip  titrll)', 

The  tables  also  show  that  the  uul  jiiiuiiMi  frmil  pan- 
sengcrs  and  mails  pur  milo  run  is  goiiiirully  KruH'iT  mi 
the  JIassachiisotts  rallroails  tlmn  on  tliii  New  York 
railroads,  and,  that  tho  not  liioomit  from  frnluht  pur  Ion 
per  milo  is  greater  on  the  Now  York  pullnmcU,  Tho 
general  tariffs  are  not  matorially  dlfforuiit  In  ih,,  twii 
.States,  bat  tho  expenses  of  freight  are  fully  fiO  jmr  ,vm, 
greater  in  Massncliuseits  tliim  In  New  York.  Tint  mt 
income  per  mile  is  the  greatest  on  lliit  Nuw  York  uuil 


tho  not  income  per  mile  of  a  road  and  the  expenses  per 
mile ;  that  is,  tho  net  incomo  per  mile  of  a  railroad 
bears  a  very  nearly  constant  ratio  to  an  inverse  of  the  !  Erie  lEa'ilroad,  which  is"a  frelgiit  roiid 

STATIBTIOS  of  tub  InOOUE  AMD  KOOSOMY  OF  TUB  rEINOIPAI.   RaILROAUS  IS    XeW  A  OBK   ANK    M  ASSAdllt'Sirrr)! 


CotnpKDlM. 


New  York  Central 

New  York  and  Erie 

iliidson  Itlvcr 

Harlem 

Ogdensburg 

UiifTalo,  Corning,  ami  Now  York 

SVatertown  and  Rome 

Iluflalo  and  New  York  City 

Hoston  and  Worcester 

Western 

Boston  and  Providence 

Uoston  and  Lowell 

Old  (Jolony  and  Full  Hlver 

Fitchburg 

lloston  and  Maine 

Eastern 

Totals  and  averages 


I.enirtt 
inMIla 


682 

404 

144 

133 

119 

100 

97 

02 

09 

1&5 

28 
87 
08 
83 
93 


2379 


Rereipta  from 
Fnmeniren, 
MnlL,,  etc. 


$3,438,&14 
1,9;10,309 
l,2S:i,841 
005,084 
141,fS0 
07,llSl 
108,1S1 
137,917 
ri47,397 
83S,971 
3-.'9,ir>« 
1TB,24'I 
427.137 
yi3,7,'4 
6«0,!I35 
473,7r,3 


Rereijiti  from 
Freight. 


Tut  Hi 
Beceii'ta. 


$^2,47'.l,S2i 
8,100,500 
404,145 
837,311 
410,U4 
B-),170 
2'J2,790 
110.S53 
40.^,419 
9-24.073 
214,594 
21)7.252 
2-22.519 
300.  nS5 
2!I7.440 
105,.Mr> 


JM1,614,-J0II  JJ11II.314  419 


$fi,»18,ii35 
5.3,5:).'.  59 
1,753  9^0 
!'42,805 
6911,1-24 
1-23.157 
8r:0,977 
•2.'4.770 
952,7110 
1,703.144 
.'►i3,7.'iO 
442,492 
040.050 
704.039 
8.',S,381 
579,198 


$21.8-28,f49 


l'i)Weii).'L' 


77 
65 
12T 
29 
29 
21 
37 
25 
70 
87 
f),') 
57 
03 
01 
00 
62 


07 


fniiilil 
■arriiHl  fMii'li 
Mils  run. 


IW 
KO 

6. 

89 
74 
311 

sri 
i» 

M 
49 
47 
05 
87 
68 
IM 
Jli'i_ 
OT 


CompaBiei. 


New  York  Central 

Now  York  and  Erio 

Hudson  Ulver 

Harlem 

Ogdetisourg 

ItuHalo,  t'orning,  and  New  York 

Watcrtown  and  Rome 

Uuffalo  and  New  York  City 

Boston  and  Worcester 

Western 

lloston  and  Providcnoe 

Boston  and  Lowell 

I  >ld  Colony  and  Fall  Itiver 

l-°itclibnrg 

Bo8t"-i    ■  1  Maine 

Eas',---" 

Totals  and  averages 


Net  Inrflnia 
from  Freight 


179.042 

682,482 

127,987 

183, -V; 

144.  .•-•.. 

21,     , 

91,3fw 

10.400 

54.790 

141,967 

17,602 

79.917 


T.,t>l 
net  Income. 


i  :^:i.5.W,153 


$■2.8.30  ■.'^4 

2,722.  b,il 

5:13,235 

3'24.0«S 

170,860 

60,752 
171,219 

.52,030 
a'>S,307 
720,703 
210,285 
119,408 


$9.2U3.ri76 


Ti.tnl 

Nil 

Reeeiiita 

Income 

Nil.-. 

m".. 

$10,170 

$4:i03 

ll,fi:3 

6S07 

1  ■2.1  SO 

4119 

7,I1S0 

2141 

4,15:1 

I4;w 

1,-231 

507 

4.030 

1705 

2,S.'-jO 

40G 

13,8ii9 

51114 

11,39,1 

4(iu0 

9,879 

8823 

15,S03 

4200 

7,407 

10.333 

10.342 

0.2^-S 



Ratio  uf  net  In-  j   Ratio  of  net 
I  come  li>  Receipta        Income  to 
from  PoFSengeri,  Receipta 

Malla,  etc.  ifroln  Freight. 


F'r  rent. 
-4S 
-62 
-80 
-32 
-19 
44 
-48 
-20 
-65 
-OS 
-69 
-28 
-44 
-40 
-09 
-02 


I'er  Cent. 
•IN 
-60 
•iH 
•31 
•8.1 
•3li 
•41 
14 
•14 
•10 

•31) 


$9,17 


•49 


'34 


Wat  Itiftoiita 
frnlH  )*(,M,.ii, 
Se"*iMHIta,i«la. 

IjilTllilO.llW" 
I.IIIIO.It  IV     I 

29,014 

»U,lt46 

7lhHiH 
85,1(110 
noil  671 
61;i,74<l 
I9.l,7'2il 
ll',),f4<l 

IH  1,114 

Hh  ilTIl 
!l«5,i)!iil 

Nat  iNKoma 

from  l'tt*«'iij/ir«, 
M»ii>,«i«, 
|ief  Mila  >i|»,_ 


TT 
III) 
TT 

19 
94 

m 
III 
110 

Tl» 
M 
24 
AT 
6-2 
94 

J"L 
Ti) 


Compaoiea. 

\tt  Income 

from 

Frt-ijrht  per 

Mile  run. 

Krpenses  of 
Pniseni-en,, 
Mails,  etc., 
carried  one 
.Mile. 

Net  Incon  ■ 
from  Haaaeu 
gera,  Mella, 
etc.,  cjirned 
one  .Mile. 

jieiire, 
i  .-"reiglil 
I-cr  Ton 
carried 
one  Mile^ 
Cents. 
Itl02 
1  ■-.'00 

1  8.53 

2  1142 

1-,')01 

1-MlO 
1003 
2-412 
2  ■909 
2  410 
8-807 
2^278 
0.510 
8  979 
8-302 
4108 

Net  income 
from  Froigia 

per  Ton 
carried  one 

Mr.-. 

■  '.y.i 
-71^8 

1-im 

■735 

1-160 
1114 

■339 

-4,'>4 

-44) 

-33:» 
-972 

Net  Inc.. ma 
tf  nn  PHMan. 

,ir<,  Malta, 
etc.,  per 
Mil.  run. 

Net  IlieDmil "] 
fn^Ml        1 
Frai^hl  per 
•IHill  )llla 

TitI,           1 

(  (la. 

99 

115 

40 
62 
W 
83 
94 
20 
25 
22 
16 

es 

Cent!. 
1-001 

-9-3 

l-flS5 

1-901 

2811 

l-4<!7 

1-574 

l-6iii 

•923 

■924 

M21 

1471 

1.3-23 

-971 

•Oi'? 

MM. 

CenU. 
1-1107 

1070 

-000 

-851 

-070 

1-151 

1-4  .'3 

-6M 

M50 

2  00) 

1-0-23 

-4-29 

l-(i63 

■841 

135! 

1-839 

fenu. 
T? 
69 
TI 
•.5 
19 
24 

r.2 

13 
90 
T5 
23 
24 

or 

62 
01 
96 

-      It  If        . 

9!i       . 

I  IS 

Ilttdson  Kiver 

40       i 

61 

Ugdensbiirg 

64 

114 
«« 
88 

in 

fl!l 

Biillaio,  Coming,  and  New  York . 
Watertown  and  Rome 

Uitfralo  and  New  York  City 

Boston  and  Worrester 

Old  Colony  uid  Fall  Kiver 

Fitchburg 

, , 

Eastern 

., 

Total*  and  averages 

06 

l^OflS 

1.088 

1-830 

■990 

TO 

""   1 

KAI 


1620 


BAI 


OrEBATioHB  or  nil: 

It 

»    M  AUAOIIDIlTTa 

rsou 

1846 

TO  1860 

, 

Y»n. 

Numb«r  of 

RallwNjrt 

tn 

Nnmbar 

of  Mllga 

In 

( 

.•o,-,i'»romil~irn« 

Total 
Reeelpu 
per  Mile 

ToUI 
Eipeiiaee 
par  Mile 

Net  Income 
per  Mile 

Cm'.              „    ")• 

Br 
Fi->'i;l>» 

olI>.-r 

ToUI. 

opsmtlon.   \ 

operation. 

.•t«  1 J 

jj'«j. 

'V>  ail  >. 

run. 

run. 

niD, 

184t 

10 

621 

$27,081  ■127  i 

1   IT6  -DT 

7..1),54T 

i4(>,'.  1  i 

2,339,484 

»Cla. 
166 

♦  cie. 
73 

I'enta. 
83 

184T 

18 

715 

y2,70{..:ia:» 

i.,7m  ',080 

1,181,482 

■.i:.ii  ;,  :.  ■  1,177.148 

165 

7S 

81 

184S 

!l 

111': 

41,39:  (':i.\ 

2,ll2,v'. 

1  V  '.V 

•.'.,1,,.^  .  J,61.8,089 

161) 

76 

74 

1840 

«T 

(■■,,•, 

46,15    -'■'■■ 

2,;'.;i.'  :'. 

1,21     ,19 

•.::i.'  :'.  '     «,J06,7„2 

161 

76 

75 

19B0 

8! 

l(,c.: 

65.fB;.,4f.i 

a,fl('7,OII 

;,i>27.M«     «:il.;-- 

4,2l6,'iv:6 

1  62 

74 

73 

.1861 

8(1 

114:' 

■.2,696.8Sfi 

2,760,888 

1,424,209 

2«iMiil1 

4,898,870 

160 

70 

74 

186,i 

30 

115(1          63,070,(i;:' 

2,997,022 

1,689,600 

199,171 

4,786,788 

144 

77 

07 

1853 

M 

1104          61,914.601      3,l.S0,im7 

1,792.644 

241,ua8 

6,230,840 

162 

82 

70 

1854 

87 

IIM          rTTB6,49N      8,3H,46J 

1.902,1118 

264,447 

.'.,.^81,004 

167 

98 

69 

186B 

1            ■  ' 

UJ^.i 

1278          0.1,1.89,891     8,116,401 

2,041,884 

228.181 

!>,  886.416 

109 

105 

04 

]    re«ft. 

rrom 
Pnmhikoi*. 

From 

I'li'I^'hAOiliW 

nr.l  ■.■«>■•',. 
I|jl.l07,90u"' 

I'rom 

MtH., 
r    ii»,  ate. 

T«fl-            Ho."' 

d. 

^8" 

'-J.  ^"^ty       HUcellaneo..., 

ToUI. 

Net  Income. 

1 

'     1840 

jll1!l,2!7 

$8,642,171       Si'l.'l,' 

$331,f:62 

$l.0f.9,0('4     $1,090,570  i  $1,!>46,6' 6  1 

1847 

2,6ll>,-.i4 

2,-06,  !)4'l 

190,".  il 

4,904.682         .M:(,.'40 

438,088 

1,434,700 

2,872,432  | 

2,6!i2.(l79 

1848 

•i,S4B,72J 

S,;  J6,407 

22ll,v/6 

t),.H'!i,S,i5         4>4,0il» 

498,666 

1,754,419 

27*1,004 

2,006.411 

1841 

r.,083J(ll 

2,411, «); 

is.2,orii 

6  741,              670,  IM 

6:l0,949 

1,079,013 

2,890,818 

2,860,981 

1W)0 

8,404,1'4S 

S.H'8,701. 

«l'fl,837         0,419.:.;,  1        678,078  |      4,S.">,7fl2 

\fimMi 

3,112,796 

3,3110,788 

ie5i 

a,t>id,i'is 

2,.,n9,4«."> 

2E0,2J8         fi,699,57'„  ,      062,nG<,  i      6',»1,860 

2,0,83,411 

S,13':,!1(I6 

8,269,071 

issii 

3,641,7'JO 

2,t.l:i,40;i 

273,801 

',,8S5.617         761,701 

694,144 

2,28S,2!:6 

8.078.410 

8,212,107 

185S 

4.I7I,!II>4 

n,3iiii,30',i 

:U7,0J" 

7,977.6  7  '      912,85(1 

728,301 

2,074,6-8 

4,324  013 

3,0.^1,614 

ISM 

44!'B,888 

8.728,186 

a4a,4n 

8,006,'.'61   1  1,233,070 

1,018,041 

n,l,')l,117 

6,461,(:47 

3,24.5,204 

18-:5 

.1,0(10,87" 

3,904,076 

461,604     ;     9,077,629  |  l,307,10i 

880,366 

8,896.047 

6,0.50,000 

3,420,929 

Net 

Numb«r  of         NtjinlMr  of 
PuMiinra         I'liMeiiKcra 
etrrltj  in     1     h«ul«dono 

Number  of 
Tone  of 

Number  of  Tuna 

W.l.ht.  In  Tone, 
of  Fawengar 

r'W^ilht,  In  Tone, 
of  Freight  Tralni, 

Total  Nnmber  of 

Tons,  not  In. 

eluding  Panlrn- 

gera,  hauled  one 

Mile, 

MercbandiM 

ofMerchai.dlie 

not  including 

and  Uraval 

and  Gravel 

Including  Paaaen- 

Morcliandiie  and 

mCoiU 

tha  Cut. 

HUe. 

cnrried  in  the 

hauled  one  HUe. 

gera,  hauled  one 

Uravel,  hauled 

Can. 

Mile. 

one  Mile. 

■  1840 

$T  id 

4,7;.2,R18 

W.  1124, '208 

1,140,266 

89,2!15,U49 

01,4411,087 

71.030,100 

17;, 806,837     I 

5341 

7115 

6.il41.U4l 

'j:i.S70,lS7 

1,605,213 

60,8?8,7rS 

79,208,113 

108,34,5,834 

264,462.0411 

1848 

or>i 

0.748,427 

llK,il06,742 

1,894,182 

04,677,106 

107,236,614 

119,604,791 

291,418,670     ' 

1819 

6  32 

S,330,HM 

);ii-.,tr(IO,30« 

2,0K,72T 

60,734,812 

108,141,392 

124,046.927 

298,921,181     i 

1S60 

«43 

9,761,372 

li;  ,..■06,638 

2,188,838 

72,111,962 

99,922,192 

]30,826„S02 

302,769,966 

1851 

0  20 

9,Ml),«>8 

1..2,|ilfl,183 

2,200,346 

70,206,310 

98,700,749 

118,695,609 

287,067,668 

1852 

6«ft 

9,810.050 

liil, 01)4, 666 

2,&t!3,!87 

77.638,247 

101,748,163 

131,077,460 

310,401,860 

ISM 

«C4 

11,478,232 

185,,si-,r,,7'^7 

3,041,782 

!  5,986,882 

106,148,699 

148,804,441 

360,038,972 

1S.M 

6  08 

12.3;i2,7i>8 

1!I4,)6S,802 

3,767,631 

104,BS3,04S 

122,003,281 

17l,677,'.64 

8r8,32a,67^ 

1<I55 

niiS 

11 

,3119,860 

v^.iei^rn 

3,002,261 

103,076,163 

110,089,219 

lf5,260,746 

886,026,127 

Stat«mk!«i  snowiso  thb  NnHnsu  of  Milzs,  F.qcipment,  <'08t,  and  Revekce  of  tiie  rniNoirAi.  Railkoads  i-«  xnn 

I'NITED  I-TATES  FOB  1866. 


Ballroada. 


llo!  > 
1;../ 


llaltimoro     miil     Oliln,  ( 

Mnln  Stem  . 
Baltimore     and     Ohio, 

Wosliingtoii  Branch 
licllufuntaiiio  uiid  iDdiaiia 
Chlsago,nitrIlngton,  and) 

IJu.ncy f 

Chicago  anil  Kock  Inland. 
Uincliinatl,      lli-nllton," 

and  Dayton 

Cleveland,      (.'olumbun, 

and  Cincinnati 

(leveland  and  rittuburg. . 

Cleveland  and  Toledo 

t'ovington  and  Lexington. 
Delaware,  Laclcawanna, ) 

and  Western / 

Clalnna  and  C'liicugu 

(^reen   Bay,  Milwankie,) 

and  Chicago f 

Hartford  and  New  Haven, 
iliidaim  Itivcr  . 
Illinnia  Central 
Indianapolis  and  Belle-) 

fontainc 

Indianapolis  and  Cincin 

nail 

La  Crnsso  and  Miiwaukic 

Little  Miami 

Macon  and  Wcakem 

Marietta  and  Cinrlnnati. 
.Michigan  Central 
Michigan  Scuther.i     i. 

Northern  Indian^ 
Miiwaukic  and  Mil- ,  ,,.).. 
New  Albany  atld  S  -  i.  -. 
Naw  Jersey  Ccnt.al . 
New  York  Centra! .  , .  . 
New  York  and  Krio  . ,  , 
Now  York  and  Uarleit  . 
New  York  and  New  Haven 

Hanama 

Pennsylvania  Ccntr,tl  .... 
Fhiladi'l|ihia  an.'.  Iteading. 
Terre  Haute,  J.    on,  audi  j 

Ht.  Ijiuia  [not  olHclalj)  1 


^i 


'-°»"'-iL'h."d. 


aSO   380 


r,i8 

210 

228 
00 


30 

113 

210 

228 

CO 


141  I  141 


194 
221 

98 

l;.-6 
2i,6 

98 

111 

111 

269 

269 

40 

4') 

72 

144 
704 

72 
U4 
027 

B4 

110 


c  '5 
.m8 
75 

,9V 

i.rl 


'.V 


330 

338 

126 
2?8 

34 
.560 
197 

33 

12 

»7J 
■  -ft 


Equii.nient. 

toco, 
iiottvea. 

Ctia, 

204 

3333 

4 

118 

10 

219 

27 

372 

41 

722 

C4 

33.' 

S3 

446 

24 
20 

53'.' 
276 

SO 

2067 

62 

1061- 

B 

83 

't>7 
83 

oes 

1462 

10 

18." 

19 

842 

12 
88 
14 

va 

61 

2i7 
650 

186 
274 
162i 

74 

1011 

26 
81 

3.5,s 
324 

209 

203 

85 

23 

206!. 

293S 
617 
381 

118 
141 

175) 
67T8 

Capitol 
paid  In. 


Funded 
Debt. 


$10,118,90i 

1,669,000 
1,881,63: 
1,476,300 
4,029,000 
2,163,900 

4,647,020 

2,830,784 
3,323,711' 

1,802,80 

3,051,i522 
5,411,500 
1,000,000 
2,3.'iO,00J 
3,768,86.' 
2,571,060 

834,167 

1,803,075 

1,037,8.12 
2,981, :127 
1,3.5.8,755 
4.330,.56l) 
0,033,432 

4,082,000 

1.326,4.19 
2,611,824 
2.000,000 
24,1116,061 
10.0110,000 
4,217,100 
3,00(1  000 
4.632,1.00 
12,366626 
9,064,267 
3,260,000 


$12,764,940 

1,214  600 
1,240,01X1 
1,971,000 
1,011,000 

93,400 

9,760,318 
3,">70,278 
1,011,000 

2,400,000 

2,834,330 

600,000 

944.000 
8,842,000 
19,247,000 

862,000 

1,306,800 

l,.'^64.00O 
828,000 
129,000 

7,160,000 

6,4118,068 

8,646,300 
2,347  ,-,.M 
4,TT<  '.'i 
Il,0(i(/,ii0fl 
14,703,897 
24,801,000 
6,363,3* 
2,216,1100 
2,468,000 
6,370,041 
8,890,600 

4,600,000 


Floating 
Debt, 


Total. 


$194,043 

25,000 
29,829 
282,679 
114,086 
266,441 

124, 163 

293,679 
386,473 
469,039 


Kamtnge. 


,063,766 

488,288 
109,002 

408,363 
1,568,703 

174,269 

269,479 

82,131 
198,637 

7'8is',i80 

400,433 

67,889 
S00,7!'4 
6X748 

,lb4,!i69 
668,361 
73,010 

•liaJTOS 
,480,827 

50,000 


$23,067,836 

1,676,000 
3,126,904 
2,91.7,878 
6,114,086 
8,430,341 

4,7C9,S78 

6,924,770 
7,029,463 
3,883,748 

0,616,378 

8,714,068 

1,709,002 

3,294,000 
13,009,266 
24.370,76;'. 

l,dl,0,4U. 

2.''f^"    "  . 
.ioa 

+,i.:,'.',864 

I  4S2,76.'; 

11.180,660 

12,220,076 

13,136,338 

4,24i,S28 

7,637,840 
6,059,748 
;W,90fl,6'8 
!16,9f5,969 
1(1,128,760 
6,2f:8,fllfl 
7,000,000 
1J,874,6'.': 
19,626,(!'-; 

7,800,1 


Net 

Earnings, 


$4,856,C52 

444,220 

298,298 

722,631 

1,416,304 

603,  L 

1,200,296 

631,878 
970,471 
264,974 

1,269,106 

2,315,787 

239,920 

780,794 
1,812,088 

■■■w.ir' 

1  '/-'Hi 
413,654 

678,'l'20 
849,940 
196,089 

2,878,321 

2,686,630 

091,2..  . 
780,407 

1:18,490 
(,773,069 
0,;;49,060 
l,C40,3v^3 

884,806 
1.177,476 
,  M.,.133 
..■■  I,7!i4 

:•<  ..;«X• 


$2,001,172| 

i:f.6,i4i 

I4i;,8:3 

879,822 
709,3!  r. 
C..l,2!  .'. 

732,0,50. 

809,619 
618  881 
lS8,«i'4 
460,640 
1,262,042 
142,702' 

2rl.4(i,5' 
00.1.1M7 
027,95:; 

06.C7ll' 
221,1. .1, 

846.422; 

195,242; 

O-i.illil 

1,306,603 

084,8111 

417,444 

S89,4PS 

lNl,ot; 

3,6V6,2ll-.' 

3,00.5,610 

324,89;' 

.838,877 

est.877,476 

1,829,273 

2,444,433 


RAI 


1621 


BAI 


»  1  $l.('4R,R'  f* 


2,B<.i4,»7« 
2,001).  41t 
4,650.981 
3,3(10,7!W 
B,l!59,«"l 
a,'212,l«' 
8,flf>n.M4 
8,245,204 


00  I     8,45i«;929  1 


IT, 805,837 
254,462.040 
291,418,570 
298,921,181 
302,769,966 
287,C07,0«S 
810,40t,8&0 
850,088,072 
I  8r8,323,Bi^ 
Mi20,127 

Railboadb  1-*  inn 


(.iroM 


Net 

Ean)iii|l». 


3M>,tD2  $2,001,172 


^44,220 
298,293 

t22,BSl 
,416,81~4l 

6CS,: 

,290,2001 

RSI, 878 
070,471 
2(M,974l 

,269,108' 

,316,787 

239,020] 

780,7941 

,812,0881 
VVJ.U'' 


£fJ5,f44 

14C,8.'a 
379,822 
7iM),8(  fi 
io  1,21  :■ 

732,060; 

809,519; 
M8  8itll 
1S8,(K'4 

460,640 

1,262,042, 

142,71(2'^ 

2fl.40ri 
«0.").'.M7 
027.9K 


05  Old 


418,054       221,. 


078,120 
849,940 
190,069 

i,87S,321 

|!,60B,030| 

691, 

730,407 

",08,490' 
|(,n3,069i 
B  ?40,060l 
E  C4il,8*3, 
r  884,800 
11.17T,470' 

M  -,338 
.   l,7C4i 


340.422! 

195,242, 

OVil'.il 

l,30iM>Di'i 

081,81" 

417,444 
£89,45S| 
1^1,(10  i 

3,fl'.B.*'- 

3,005,6;0| 

a24.89-.'l 

8SS,877| 

e8t877,47«l 

'  l,b!J9,V78 

2,444,433 


liailroad  to  the  Pacij!c.—'l'\ie  proposod  railroml  to  tliu  1  tliaii  «o  now  ponspas,  (Imt  It  U  liollcr  In  ulvo  oiilv  llic 
Paclllc  involves  so  many  qucslionn  as  to  fcasiLillty  and  statistics  that  liavo  up  lo  IliU  tliim  lintm  (iliUlnod'  ((ml 
cost,  mpiiring  to  determine  much  more  accurate  data  I  abstain  from  arguiiieiils  In  fuygf  of  mty  rouln,      ' 

SHBVEVBU    KOOTEB  fob  a  UaILBOAD  FBOM  tub  MlBSlBSU'I'l    OR  ITS  TaUdlTABIM  TO  TUB   I'Alllyill  lllUAtt -.ICMnH    •>■■■ 

K»TOBTOfTUEi<F.<;RETAB»0(f  Wab.  '  mim   TIIK 


D«HrlplloD  of  Rout*. 


1.  lioulc  near  4Ttli  and  40th  paralli'ls,  IVoin  St.  Paul  to) 

Vancouver j 

a,  KxU^nslnn  thcnco  to  Scattlu 

2.  Near  the  4Ut  and  42d  parallols,  via  Houth  I'ais  from ) 

Council  UIuITk  to  llcnicia / 

3.  Near  the  88th  and  39th  parallels,  from  Wcntport  to) 

Hnn  l-'riinclBco,  by  the  Coo-che-to-pa  and  T(ih-ee-  - 

chay.pah  Posbcs ) 

6.  Same,  from  VVcstport  to  San  Francisco  by  the  Coo-) 
clic-to-pah  and  Mudclin  Passes j 

4.  Near  the  35th  parallel,  from  Fort  Smith  to  San  IVdro, 
e.  Near  the  lietli  parnilcl,  from  Fort  Smith  to  San  Fran-) 

Cisco ) 

6.  Near  the  82d  parallel,  from  Fulton  to  San  I'edm 

i.  Fulton  to  San  Francisco 


1 1. 

■tr*iiilit 

_l.ln«. 

Hlln.' 

1465 

45 

1410 

1741 

1740 
1360 


1400 
1020 


nialNric* 

by 

\>Tttinmad 

Hmi(«. 

MIlM. 

1804 

101 

2032 

2U80 

2290 

1892 

2174 

1018 
2030 


Bi >r 

Aa»lti  ftItU 
IJMCeia. 

l-'Mt.  " 

lis,  100 
1,(KKI 
CO, 120 

4'.(,9WI 

511.514 
4H,SI2 
WP,(17« 
!I2,7H.1 
4.',(HIH 


Kii(liiillM4 
(  ul, 


tllilO.TxI.lHHI 

1(I,(KI(MK>'I 

ll(Mm,(HHI 

Mil  KCUnt  lldil 
('■l«d  la  1(11- 

pr(waii!(ihiii, 

(t.i, 
in«,8l(i,OT. 
ioi.vio.act. 

6lt,((1(),(KI(l 
llll,l'^(M.<lll 


Tt((r>t(il|i 
I'Md'tf 

•(•rlla 
l.anil. 

"  Milx, 

~  mmr 

1171 

U'lO 

inl 

1  • '  1 

mi 

1400 

'    (12(1 

1400 

Old 

1(180    1 

11(1 

UTS 

nil 

ir/ifi 

4it 
7KI 

1210 
12*0 

.Mil0J„(Km 

Between  I  Between  |  Between  |  lietMcen 

1  snd  WOO  1  and  30O0  3  And  «m  4  eiiil  UKJO 

t'eut.  Feet.  Koct.  Keel. 


470 
101 

18) 
340 
275 
305 

48,5 
700 


6S0 

170 
270 
808 
847 

m 

410 


720 

iio 

105 
190 
200 

ion 

100 


130 

io(") 

848 
143 
186 

170 
206 


,ulG  el,-valed 

llclwH'n" 

5  uiiil  6(MI0 

fVet. 


97 

t>S('l 
40ll 
725 
100 

603 
514 


Between 

6  anil  1MW 

Feet. 


28 

2S8 
170 
284 
805 

01) 
00 


270 
<iO 
110 
235 


IletMeen 

7  and  SDOO 

Keet 


107 

15,'. 
IS-i 
95 


lietweun 

H  and  iim^ 

Feet, 


20 
SO 

m 


'  Tunnel  at  elevation  of  6210  feet. 


linnillliiirlelpl 
fliiille  .■! 

M«ttt«e(( 

I'f 

9  anil  |il,«UJ 

»i(ll«l  WiKMnK 

lilKlie<i( 

^M, 

K»|i(»tl»|.<, 

""-nffire.,- 

'  V,n- 

1 , 

■mi 

(l.Olf 

it( 

,  , 

IfWI 

H.nTii 

2(1 

IIIKfi 

1 0,(1112 1 

20 

II. (Kl 

l(ll(lll'J< 

,, 

2B|(I 

t,4ia 

,  , 

iili'lT 

, , 

2';iiii 

C.IIT 

" 

2HIH 

ft.tlT 

1  Toiiiittl  itt  uliivaituii  iitVbtn  fa«t, 


Railboadb 

IS  TUE  ISITET)  StaTKB  IS  JANIAKV,    llSIlS. 

Hi,iii1  III  luilllt 
in  mnU  ibiMhi, 

SUtfli. 

Niinilier 

of 

Con)|iHniea. 

LenglU  of  I.biet. 

(■..(of 

(^Hiii(Tiirtiiin  and 

Ki|iii|inien(. 

Mileaie 
(ilie(ied(H 
'l»»1, 

Total. 

i       0|ien. 

Maine 

14 
15 

8 
47 

2 
11 

.Mllei. 
5S0 
6.14 
6S5 

1,417 
03 

fl;.9 

.Ullee. 
541 
6r.9 
621 

1,280 

08 

047 

1(!I7.I1(:3,07I 
17.lilP7,7im 
20  5211,9.  H 
0:i.iW4  3lu 

24  :i48,Ullll 

HilM,     ^' 

474 
((.I 
IM 

i,';ii> 

|(i| 

(1(5 

iBI 

m 
a 

4T 

H 
ill 

Khodo  Island 

Connecticut ; 

Total  elx  New*  Encland.  Statco 

97 

42 
10 
OS 
3 
111 

»,1I04 

2,SP3 
021 

3,465 

91 

841 

3,017 

2,700 

529 

2.776 

91 

798 

$14(l,.Sl|b,l(l3 

$103,407.2(18 

24  S25,»T0 

l;A,l(kl,(l09 

1,019,310 

44157,831 

'ATi'tl 
!W 

8,(10,', 
111 
4SII 

New  York 

llelawore 

Maryland 

Total  five  Middle  Atlautic  States 

Virginia 

139 

19 
\t 
9 

14 
4 

7,904 

l,4i;5 
700 
974 

1,302 
521 

0,S!'3 

l,.n2i 

075 

748 

1,180 

128 

$309,370, 48N 

*:i7,705,fl49 
11,120,480 
17,001,014 
24.9;i2,l53 
3.500,0110 

0,411^  ' 

iiM.lt 
000 

Mi 

I.IHT 

'  '  liiM  ' 

m 

m 
im 

South  Carolina 

Florida 

Total  five  Southern  Atlantic  States 

Alabama 

51 

6 
8 
6 
1 
9 
9 

5,U2S 

1,100 
404 
996 

1,.S05 
140 

1,116 
000 

4,U5S 

6M 
177 
1135 
147 
38 
857 
31)0 

$94  H<j,lilft 

$1.5.2r)3,T7l 
b.515,0(KI 
11,032,302 
R,,;00,0(|0 
775,000 
19.350,390 
10,;9(,414 

4,111(1      " 

510 

4«!l 
2(iR 
H7 
lit 
OM 
illO 

%m 

i.«i02 
004 

■i.MH 
i'M4 
250 
itit 

m 

27 

11(1 

;w 

214 

MM 

«lfi 

nn 
III) 

I2T 

H'i 

IDT 

Vi 

IHT 

Mississippi 

Ijouisiana 

Texas 

Ark.'Liisas ^ 

Tennessee 

iCentucky 

Toti-I  Be\ ,.    Southwestern  Stutes 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Michigan    

■    44 

29 
16 

5 

18 
10 
7 
4 

0Ji,S3 

3,298 
1,451 
1,025 
2,010 
1,902 
1,170 
70S 

1,438 

2,798 
1,231 
999 
2,010 
718 
280 
.117 

$07,123,940 

$100,043,328 
28.801,270 
80,390.858 
80  440,291 
19,216.842 
9,087,629 
19.140.247 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Total  seven  ^■J-thwestcm  States 

California 

1 

12,220 
22 

8,936 
22 

$299,20r>,37l 
750,000 

O.ITT   ' 

T4T 

Grand  total 

421 

36.137 

26,906 

$918,140,00(1 

if>,m    ' 

'     IH*r"J 

Progress  of  Railroads  in  the  Vmted  ,S/i«i«.— The  fol  I  18,38  to  186G  iiicln-ive,  and  also  bIiuwb  ll(«  wltido  rtum- 
lowing  tabiO  cxjluit'i  the  aijfcrcgato  limnber  of  ini!.-  I  lior  of  miles  of  railroads  In  aaoli  HtfttO  fcf  tha  itiims  p*- 
of  railroads  in  the  Unitci'  States  fi^r  every  year  from  i  rioil : 


RAI 


1G22 


IIAI 


rRIHIItrHH  OK 

lUlLllDAIm  IN 

TUN 

t'NIfNM  Hv*r 

Mil 
(••I.I 

MUUl. 

yim.  |M«.  IMO 

IH4I. 

1141.  IIIM. 

^"44. 
III. 

^± 

III. 

Mur 

|>4«  1 1.M  ,  |.Mi 

»M: 

J«M. 
ni. 

l«M. 

msj.  |_2«>». 

III. 

ni.   1   111. 

III. 

118 

'too 

III  1  III    111.  1  III. 

>|ll|l)li    

12 

12 

12 

.2 

.H7;     64 

64 

114 

3 

64 

10 

64 
IN 

'7iN 

117I  lYl-i    224I     2*11 

801 

f>'« 

427 

I.IMI 

4111 
Mk; 

4811 

4'"       iii 

New  lliiiiipBlilrt'. 

1114 

Oil 
04* 

IH81:  414       46!', 
y4ll{  Wrt       «H 

loorii  11411   i.iMi 

646 
B16 

l.'^ii7 

646 

BIB 

1,286 

;;;:  :;;:i::': 

MHSHArhUM'tU.  . . 

12ll 

144    144 

21U 

486,  4iUi 

46B 

407 

tl» 

Hliiidr  Island  ... 

M 

Wl      NI 

Ml 

Ml'    Ml 

Ml 

f.ii 

Ml 

Ml 

M 

Ml 

Ml    nil      All 

Ml 

Ml 

7n 

t-t, 

t'oriiicrticin  .... 

80 

uO     110 

212 

1118    23H 

2ns 

2:8 

238 

r.m 

231 

1126 

481 

ri40     ri7ii 

6i7 

Mil 

rioii 

em 

Npw  York 

82.% 

3'^,  404 

400 

boo;  7-'-' 

722 

706 

873 

»u 

1102 

im 

\m» 

1464'  1,040 

?,H3 

'i,4(0 

2,61:8 

2,761 

Xfwr  .loriwy 

IIW 

124    UH 

IMI 

ISO     l^ii 

ISli 

186 

iNii 

IMi 

Wti 

lift 

•m 

267 

'iO( 

Vli(' 

8MI 

44s 

472 

PuiiniiylvHutt. . . 

502 

002   5il2 

Nlitt 

8!I8,  h'.l3 

MI3 

8.III 

803 

l>4<i 

181 

Oil 

Oil 

nun 

1,820 

1,1121; 

1,7IH1 

2,(p:i>' 

2.467 

IK-Ittwaiv 

Itt 

lOl     10 

16 

10      16 

10 

16 

14 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

111 

Ml 

K4 

120 

Mao'IiiiuI 

181 

m  isi 

•:02 

228'  2i:8 

■JM 

2I'H 

28ft 

824 

VM 

ll'/4i  il'it 

1124 

«ri6 

iU't. 

WXi 

87-J 

37H 

VirtfiiiU 

12b 

rjf>  12» 

147 

223 1  2i8 

2i!N 

■m 

V23 

27(1 

i>ii;i 

III8I 

HUN 

418 

r.**! 

624 

lllHl 

l,Vfi2 

1,480 

(•:i 

1.17 

87 
204 

87 1     n7 
2114    20* 

87 
2114 

87 

2114 

87 

2m 

87 
2114 

XI 

21 '4 

llll 

241 

240 

';6ii 

24!' 

l;8ti 

240 

M6I 

40(1 
6.'6 

483 
077 

612 

7(8! 

Hoiitli  CuroUria  . 

137 

137 

(ieorgta  

ft7 

1(H) 

18B 

•,:7I 

Ml>'  308 

41)2 

Md 

fiU 

6(81 

6110 

6<8I 

mi 

am 

S(I4 

WiT 

on 

1,002 

1.002 

Florida  

....| 

01 

III 
01 

M 
118 

118 

M 
IIH 

f4 
186 

28 
936 

■/8 

20 
817 

20 
4S4 

Alabama 

46 

46 

46 

46 

40      46 

4i: 

40 

40 

14 
40 

14      26 
4(1      411 

•2l. 

40 

42 
40 

4-' 
40 

66 

611 
46 

Ml 
66 

Ml 
66 

m 
m 

ori 

117 

111 
117 

VII 
101 

2nB 
222 

410 
'.04 

t.fXilHiatm 

4(1 

40 

40 

"l84 
18 

82 

"I'Wi 
03 

86 

36 
144 

r.7 

180 

.MliMoiirl 

.... 

..., 

,.,, 

,,,, 

,,,, 

,... 

Kentucky 

22 

sn 

28 

28 

'   ;8'"2li 

w 

28 

28 

28 

28 

',» 

VI 

r.ft 

IW 

U'S 

307 

Ohio 

36 
18S 

84'     84 
138'  174 
..,.! 

84 

20(1 

H4 
238 

84 

2118 
IMI 

l'«i 

•.i7li 

iiii 

274 

27(1 

i'i 

274 
irto 

«(.0 

86 

U2 

181 
H70 
2l»i 
148 

Min 
474 
fiU" 
'.'71 

i,f»r. 

474 

7fri 

2U(i 

2,MH 
•174 
OM 

1,2(8 

2,641 
474 

1.438 
2,18B 

2,800 

COl 

1.807 

2,.'i84 

Michigan 

Illinois 

.... 

.,.. 

22 

22!    22 

2-. 

2v 

;••:    22 

Wlwonnlii 

•  •  ■* 

.... 

■ .  *  • 

....L... 

•  »  •  1 

III' 

m 

Ml 

2(;0 

27(1 

680 

Jo\. 

.... 

..••'*•** 

.... 

•  It* 

.  f  1 , 

1  tn 

Hit 

ml 

III! 

Sf 

2;  3 

CttlffunilA  

.... 

.... 

.. .. 

38111 

^  1 
T5T7  4I74 

4311 

Wl 

•  III 

1 . . . 

III, 

Jill 

1. ,, 

1,1 . 

18.218 

.... 

23 

23 

Total 

1848 

11120 

2167 

4m70 

t.m 

Eiw  |J(fiRi)TrHi,Ti(iiir»,'n,(ifl  i 

I8,2(:B 

|21,128 

':4.470 

From  an  examination  of  the  aliovo  tabic  it  will  li»    tliu  yuM  Witt,  M\\g  nil  iticri-aiio  of  8407  miles  for  tlio 
found  that  tlio  coiiiitruction  of  railroaiU  liaii   iiiuiiu  1  yunr, 

greater  progress  in  1850  lliiin  in  any  previous  year.  Wii  ttilil  (11  lliw  luiit  two  cdliimn*  of  the  following  ta- 
Tlio  nuinlier  of  miles  in  operalioii  on  the  illat  of  He.  Iilii  liiu  |iii|iii|i«llim  nnil  itcallli  of  the  several  States,  us 
cembcr,  1850,  ia  •.'l,47«,  against  21,0(iU  at  the  close  of  [  ustlmiidul  Uy  (lio  t^-M»ty  of  the  Treasury. 


Miles  ok  Kailooad  in  Oprbatioh  on 

TII8  3I»T  \<tA^t.%,'fM.  IVlfl. 
"  iMrmw,     1  diyolniii.T  Inui.' 

HUtM. 

liu. 

IsM, 

WiKiih,  IW.         ; 

422 

(H6 

MS 

1,207 

78 

BOO 
2,068 

448 

2,oi;8 
84 

-vi 

1,2B3 
483 

on 

1,002 

26 

817 

266 

222 

3S 

360 

108 

8,641 

1,488 

474 

2,136 

•J70 

88 

144 

23 

0 

0 

44'i 
640 
616 

1,V86 

86 

601 

2,701 
472 

2,407 
r^d 
378 

1,480 
612 
TII6 

1.062 
26 
484 
410 
26» 
f.7 
tXM 
807 

8,800 

1,807 
6(U 

2,MI4 

UliO 

2.1a 

18'.l 

28 

0 

0 

fi 

7 

0 

illl 

•t\ 

!:60 

36 

6 

221 

120 

20 

181 

26 

167 

Ifift 

4-; 

hi 
till 

KKI 
VVI 
1,60 

imi 

mm 

UM 
16ft 
46 

628.  Mfi 
1124.761 
326. 206 
1,138,128 
l(;6.027 
401.202 

8,47(1,  or>« 

MO,  4(81 

2.f.4i.(  60 

07.206 

fli'lH.BiO 

).M2,6(ia 

02l.1f«2 

1Wi,M\ 

|I36,(KI6 

1 10.726 

Ki'MIMj 

«?l,649 

♦Kio.ai? 

MHI.OINI 

1.(H»'/.470 

1,016.687 

2.216.760 

1,1 40.8(16 

f-0!i.(i74 

1,24!«.«IT 

Ifri.KlO 

ll2fi.WI4 

Wll.216 

836,000 

iiri»,lt7 

mia.r^Od 

$181,12.8,186 

103,804,3'.'6 

01,166,0811 
607,036,006 

01,(100,hBO 

208,760,831 

l,864,164,02.-> 

170,760,600 

1,031.7"1,304 

80,406.024 
261,243.60(1         1 
63fl,!'f:4,807 
230,603.r.72 
803,434.240        I 
6U0,!I00,0(I0 

40,401,401 
270,213,037 
VB0,6'.'6,(HHI 
i:70,4'26,(iOO 
240,0011,00(1 
821,776,810 
411.fl(Kl.lO'<        I 
S60.877,,W1 
301,Sf.s,4(ll        1 
110,BI'3,,'i«()         1 
888.237.474 

87.ri(KI,0(ill         1 
lill.(KI0.(H8l 
223.04S.731 
166.0(HI.O<:0 

«4,240.7-.'6         j 

70.070,347        1 

Illiode  Island 

Marvland 

North  Carolina 

South  <'aroIlna 

Flurlda    

MiDSihRlDUl       

Ohio 

IIHnoA 

Wisconsin      

lows, 

Miaouri 

rstlfomla 

Arknnsas        

Territories  and  IMstrlct  of  ('olumbU. 
Total 

21,128 

44;««  ■■ 

-  -ym^' 

""^WitiWiBii 

$0,817,011,072 

KstliuMtcd  increaso  of  property  ■ 

DC«186<I 

"""""•' 



1,600,(100,0(10 

1H1,817  "11,072        , 

the 


8«nts  the  following 


The  above  table,  condensed,  ri' 
points: 

Miles  opened  In  fire  years  ending  18:;2. 

"  "  18,17. 

1842 

"  "  "  1S47. 

••  "  "  1862. 

"  "  "  1867. 

The  greatest  progress  has  been  made  liy  the  cl({ht 
We.ttem  States  ;  next  by  the  Sontheni  .Stales  ;  while 
the  Northeastern  States  have  made  but  Irittinx  addl- 
t'on'  'o  their  public  works. 


ISl 

1.281 
^,466 

I.4o0 
0,20B 
I3,8I» 


6  l'',iti>t«fn  mtUit ,,,,,. 

4MW'"-  

13  8<«ii'     '.  ,,,,., 

8Wii«l'<M      '     ,,,,,. 

Tolnl,   ,.,, 


TliB  fteerofif)'  «f  ihe  Tfn«»iiry  hni  prip  r.-ed  0  state- 
ment slmwlii){  i(i«  cost  of  rullroad-  „  "^  'nitcd  States 
ill  iHfift,  ttmn  which  «o  tnoko  t6)  foll.w  1  "  sunmary. 
Itelurn*  not  ll»vln((  lieeti  fceived  fro:  .  inber  of 
compitnlttii,  ttrtM  IlKUre*  «fe  mly  app'     iMiuiive. 


RAI  1023 


KAI 


441 
M« 
»19 

I, '^86 
^ft 
611 1 

i.'ol 

4T'i 

2.4(11 

fiO 

IHK 
1,480 
tU'i 
IIMl 
l.Oflll 
•ill  I 
4H4 
410 
V04 
M 
1«0| 
NWI 

sm 

2,Sflfl 

i;oi 

l.SOli 

!i,.'i84 

080 


fr  i'uVoW 


■..>> 


4(1.' 

iir,4 

IC'.l 


•nitctl  States 
li,"  sunmary. 
.,  .--inbcr  of 
•iiuiive. 


CaplUl  jmld  In $'nn,!<«l).(l4il 

KiinUi'il  ilcbt ^l3.ia7.U73 

KIcwtliig  di'bl _   40,ljjMM 

Expi'iiilwl  In  ISM jtTdAM.tff? 

Itoinlrcil  to  flnlnti  tho  ro*di Hlil.vja.'jiiT 

Tolnl  ollmaled  CMl »I,'HHMWI,1U 

MilcH  llnlilied 19.II3II 

Mlloi  uuHnliilied 1 0,0)1  J 

Ti'UI  luiigth U(I,UU5 

lter<:iiitii  for  tho  jett... t01,13'2,a83 

Aci'oriling  to  ttioso  (IkuWi  tli«  nvcrnj;o  cost  iiurmllo 
woulil  uiily  amount  to  930,000,  whereas  vx|iuriuiicc 
proves  that  J8.'),000  is  nearer  the  truth.  AnsumlnK 
thin  catlumte,  tho  total  cost  of  thn  .'111,000  niilcii,  when 
flnislieil,  woulil  amount  to  «)I,2C0,000,O0(t. 

The  average  cost  of  a  portion  of  our  ruUroail  system 
lias  been  as  follonrg : 


at  tho  end  of  185 1,  hail  been  mmlo  by  the  countries  of 
("cntrul  and  WcHterii  luirojic,  ami  liy  the  Uiiitoil  Slates, 
in  provldinj}  thcinsclve?  with  ruilway.i. 

/Mi/u'dyii.— Geneml  summary  of  the  compuratlvo  ex- 
tent of  roliwoy  open  at  tho  closo  of  1854,  In  Ulirerent 
couiUrle'. 


roitlii,. 

P.t  Mil..  1 

*  10  nil"' 

j}tSO,ll()O.II1)ll 
OO.IMXI.Iillll 
MI.OOO.UOII 

88     "      ■'  MassAOhusetts 

Vi    •'      "  tlio  Mouth  and  Went.. 

4l.4Si 
4,').i;f)a 

It  is  estimated  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  Ihc  mon- 
ey which  has  been  expended  upon  railroads  in  thi.i  coun- 
try bns  Iffion  furnished  l)y  our  own  citizens,  and  the 
rcnwiinder  (chietly  for  lionds)  has  been  obtained  from 
forei;;ii  investments. 

In  conclusion,  wo  ma}'  add,  that,  in  reviewing  tho 
progress  of  railroads  in  tho  United  States,  their  ef- 
fect upon  the  prosperity  of  tho  country,  and  their  fu 


CounltlM. 

Araft  In 
Unllllili 
H'liinr. 

Mile,  uf 

Riillwiir 

(iiitn  In 

S-S4. 

"MIlMiifKnTT 

tiUMl  (urlvll 

fitn  H.iunr. 
Mllngf 
Irrn. 
|!.-2 
8S 
2 '8 

l-'.iiKluiid  and  NVuloH ' 

1  Keolland j 

M,MIIP         ll,IIH) 

BO.'.MO       1,040 
81.HT0          000 

France 

Htl.UlU 

W>,IIOO 

•JOS.IIUO 

11.000 

8,010 

2,1)10 

t..4li0 

MO 

01 
14 

2  0 

4-H 

Ik'lgliim 

4St,0ilO 
T,«00 
47.000 
4(1.000 

S,840 

i.noo 

2,TiH) 
2,000 

IS 
lO-fl 

ft  9 

48 

New  York 

I'lminylvanla 

Ohio 

lOO.SlHI 

40.0110 

1,8.800 
f.5.4(lfl 

0,0110 

n.flofl 
i.r«io 

2.S00 

6-4 
T-T 
44 

no 

IlliuolB 

Twcnty.twn  other  Rtaten 

oftlio  Union 

TnlnlB 

1-.".I,'.'00 

i.noi.ooo 

T,800 
8.200 

DO 
00 

'J.1S'1,040 

»'>,!ISil 

Ifl 

It  oppcars  by  thcso  figures  that  tho  only  countrj- 
or  Stotc  possessing  a  greater  extent  of  railway  (com- 


turo  prospects,  are  much  beyond  the  wildest  dreams  i  pared  wiili  terrltoriiil  area)  than  I'.nglnnd  and 'Wales 
of  the  originators  of  the  system.     Tho  number  of  miles  |  was  the  State  of  Massachusetts ;  but  ;ho  area  of  5Ias- 


built  In  tho  tirst  ten  years  of  our  railroad  history,  h 
ginning  III  the  year  l(t28,  WT  1843,  of  which  New  Y'  k 
Slate  built  18  per  cent.  The  number  of  miles  uuilt  .. 
tho  second  ten  rrs,  or  from  1888  (o  184H,  was  .SK30, 
of  which  New  oik  built  16  per  cent.  From  18 IR  to 
18,'i(i  the  number  built  was  18,794,  of  which  Now  York 
built  U  per  cen'..  At  tho  present  ti.ne  ?Tew  York  has 
over  11  per  cent  of  the  total  length  of  railroads,  and 
ranks  next  to  IU'rais  in  numlwr  of  miles.     Our  rail 


road  history  has  had  two  eras — the  first  from  lHi8  to    Helglmn,  and  of  those  Western  Stales  of  the  Union 


1818,  when  there  was  in  the  numl>er  of  miles  built  an 
average  ir''i'en;9  of  208  miles  per  year ;  and  tho  second 
from  1848  to  'MuC,  having  an  overage  lucre a.io  of  2.'t50 
miles  per  ^ear.  In  many  of  the  States  the  dovclof 
ment  of  tho  railroad  system  ;  -  quite  e>iuBl  to  tho  wants 
ofihe  people;  but  in  ninny  others,  Kentucky  being  the 
moit  notable  instance,  it  is  much  less. 

The  cost  of  these  26,000  miles  of  railroad  built  at  the 
end  of  the  year  1857  i»  estimated  at  Ijin20,000,000,  or 
an  average  of  $35,000  r<}  $30,000  per  mile ;  and,  if  tho 
rails  hail  been  laid  with  American  iron,  produced  hy 
domestic  labor,  it  would  bavo  been  tho  most  produc- 
tive investment  tho  country  ever  made. 

The  Railroad  Syilem$  ofJCurope  and  the  Vnited  f^lmr  \ 
— Among  the  greatest  achievements  are  the  opening  up 
of  new  ticlds  of  supply,  and  tho  deepening  of  old  clian- 
nel.s  of  consumption.  Thoy  have  brought  Into  profila- 
ble  use  mines,  forests,  quarries,  arable  and  grazing  dis- 
tricts, flsheries,  harbors,  and  rivers,  previously  inacces- 
sible. 

Kut  still  greater  even  than  thcso  achievements  arc 

tho  advantages  arising  from  the  cheap  and  rapid  oon- 

ince  of  passengers  over  long  distances.     Kvery  cn- 

lri|^ri»o  is  now  carried  on  wit'i  perhaps  ten  times  as 


Sttchiisetts  is  only  an  eighth  ]>art  tlio  area  of  England 
and  Wales. 

In  France  and  Germany  the  progress  has  been  less 
i'  an  a  s  ■  enth  of  our  own.  Kveu  in  Belgium,  and 
Nc.  ".'  ",  id  renusylvauia,  the  progress  has  boon 
barely  r.  \'  \  ,  of  ours.  In  Siollai'd  tho  jirogress  has 
been  .  ici  n  ,  rniiid  as  in  Geriuany  j  and  if  fair  allow- 
ance be  uiade  for  tho  lake  and  mountain  suif hu  of 
Scotland,  the  progress  in  it  will  exceed  the  iirogress  of 


where  railways  are  made  with  a  cheapness  and  facility 
unknown  any  where  else. 

We  may  now  recapitulate  tho  conclusions  which 
seem  to  be  establislied  by  tho  factj  and  statements  be- 
fore us,  viz, : 

1.  That  of  the  three  hundred  millions  sterling  actu- 
ally expended  in  rallnay»  fo  tho  closo  of  1855,  in  tho 
Uniti  J  Kingdom,  fully  one  half,  or  one  hundred  and 
fiflv  millions  sterling,  were  expended  during  the  live 
yoa"rs,  1816,  '47,  '48,  '49,  and  '50,  and  that  of  the  8300 
uiilc  s  of  railway  open  and  at  work  at  the  closo  of 
.  ,  .'.il'v  one  half,  or  4150  miles,  were  compleled  and 
ori,..^iit  into  operation  for  the  first  time  during  the 
five  years  now  enumerated. 

2.  That  the  consequence  of  so  prodigious  an  outlay 
in  so  small  a  space  of  time  has  been  to  pluco  tho 
United  Kingdom,  but  especially  England,  so  far  in 
advance  of  other  countries  In  the  possession  of  an  ex- 
tensive railway  system,  that,  adopting  the  fair  test  of 
comparing  territorial  area  with  railway  mileage,  En- 
gland has  a  comparative  mileage  three  times  great- 
er than  Belgium,  New  York,  .ind  Pennsylvania,  and 
seven  times  greater  than  France  and  Germany. 

3.  T'lat  tho  introduction  on  tt-o  largest  scale  into 


uiii'di  dispatch,  and  with  ten  ii  iies  less  trouble  than!  this  country,  and  in  degrees  more  limited  into  other 
fo  y  years  ago ;  and  tho  facility  of  personal  superin-  countries,  of  n  change  so  cxten.^ive,  absolute,  and  fua 
temlence  Is  certainly  twenty  times  greater  than  It  was 


then.  It  is  nt,;  difficult,  therefoic.  to  comprehend  that 
to  accili>rate  even  by  a  few  '■  ara  the  complelioii  in  a 
country  of  an  extensive  system  of  railways.  Is  to  con- 
fer i,'|.  Ill  it  advanl.  lea  the  real  value  of  which  it  is 

imp  >a;bletoroprc.«ontin'ormsofmoneyi  andwoshnll  j  as  a  consequcuce  of  diminished,  roat  of  loorli 
P-  ;,  111  tho  consiJ  ■r..fi-'  i  connected  with  this  mode  of  I  reduced  expenses  in  conveyaucu  lo  market, 
v'cwiiig  the ''"t.".  1  corrrction  of  many  prevalei*  or-       4.  That  as  regards  tho  150  millions   'V. 
r>rs  relat'vi  lo  ihi!  .  .-s*  of  Engi:-h  railway.1.  '  pended  In  this  country  in  the  five  years,  i*. 

Let  us  nc*  ,1 1  ,.i,  •vt^  t:.o  com.  •  ative  progress  ivhi  .-h, ;  iperutiou  was  to  give  en  |>'.>.;-mint,  during 


damcntal  in  the  moans  of  transit,  has  already  led,  and 
in  a  sliort  time  will  lead  still  further,  to  important 
modiflcatlons  in  the  conditions  alTectlng  the  supply  of 
and  tho  demand  for  large  classes  of  commodUies— these 
modifications  tending  generally  to  r  dm  Ii  "is  of  price, 

■  or 


'  t  ex- 

■\  iU 
•Vjds, 


W^^i 


RAI 


1G24 


RAN 


flrif,  of  ilpsr  fooil  flflfi-'l^),  and  Mcond,  of  pxtremo 
commorrliil  dlffliulty  (IHIT-'IK-'IO),  to  a  liody  of  ar- 
thniin  mid  nthiTK,  viirvlii);  from  iipwanl  of  a  million  to 
lialf  a  niillluii  nf  poriiuna. 

6.  Tliiit  cm  llio  oIluT  Imiid,  the  ciills  liy  tlio  iirocem 
of  "till  li  Iho  l(iO  millions  hcto  ((rttdimily  riiimHl  fiDni 
the  iiiiiliilii  niid  ivcaltiiicr  claHscn,  hIki  wcrii  tliu  li<dcli  r» 
of  raiiwiiy  nliiiri'*,  oppratod  ll'iti  an  IniimiK  tax,  111:1  ^ly 
tlin  whole  aniuiiiit  of  whiih  wum  prnvlitod  liy  lli»  rcscirt 
to  severe  economy,  or  liy  aildilionul  exortion»  to  pro- 
diuH  auKmenlod  reKourt'es. 

t!.  That  Ihn  ri'tronihniimtH  and  Ini'n.'ascd  exertions 
of  the  lontrlbutom  of  iuIIh,  fallen  in  lint  axKre^^nte, 
more  tl'in  c"'"  '  rhalunced  the  coniinniitlon  of  Ihn 
i\ni  \-  of  ..ii.o  employ  '  III  railway  work!",  and 
aUo  I  no  '  \peiidltnrii  for  the  imrpnuc-  «(  those  works  on 
importol  inaleriaN :  and  liemu  that  even  during  the 
live  year'*,  IHlC-'.Vj,  (if  an  avirauii  umiual  1  \pendltiiri' 
of  thirty  niillioiiH  sterling',  the  lialaiue  of  Irudo  was,  an 
n  general  reHiiit,  cdiistantiv  In  our  favor. 

7.  That  during;  the  live  years  in  cincillon  the  nver- 
a^o  annual  return  yielded  iiy  tlie  (say)  '.'dO  nillllon.s 
ai'tnally  expended  in  railway  underlakinjfs  was  lens 
than  2  per  cent,  per  unnum;  that  heyond  tin!  failure 
of  annual  relnrn  the'o  was  a  ilepreeialiiiii  of  market 
prieo  eipial  to  aliout  61)  per  cent,  lielow  par  value ; 
and  that  while  the  ultimate  recovery  of  the  country, 
with  comparative  ease,  friiin  the  efl'ects  of  so  severe  a 
strain,  almndanlly  indicates  iu  resources ;  still  the  de- 
pression and  losses  experienced  hy  so  Ittr(;e  a  portion 
of  the  middle  class  duriiij;  IHIfl-'.'iO,  and  ovon  later, 
may  Iw:  considered  to  have  been,  to  some  extent,  a  cause 
of  th  dullness  of  trade  and  the  hiw  raii)jo  of  prices 
>vliicli  prevailed  during  tho  two  or  three  last  ^  'ars  of 
the  period. 

8.  That,  on  tho  other  hand,  the  cessation  aftei'  18,10 
of  an  annual  heavy  demanil  for  calls,  tho  rapid  in- 
crease of  dividends  on  the  capital  previously  exjicnded, 
the  still  more  rapid  advance  of  the  market  price  of  rail- 
w  ay  stock,  and,  more  powerful  still,  the  efl'ect  upon  pro- 
ductlcin  and  consnniplion  of  several  tiiousand  miles  of 
railway  communication,  may  lie  renurde<l  as  explain- 
ing in  some  important  doKiee  tho  comparative  pros- 
perity and  ease  which  have  prevailed  since  1851, 

9.  That  finally,  while  it  is  ipilto  true  timt  the  rail- 
way excitement  of  1811-45  was  In  many  respects  ir- 
rational uiid  disgraceful,  and  in  numerous  individual 
cases  the  source  of  crime  and  ruin,  still  It  enabled  this 
counli  III  )iass,  almo<t  at  ono  step,  and  by  a  single 
sharp  and  ell'eclual  elVoit  of  8elf-<lenial  on  tho  part  of 
the  middle  classes,  into  the  possession  of  tlic  most  com- 
plete system  of  railway.^  possessed  by  any  country; 
that  while  these  railways  have  cost  more  to  their  pro- 
jectors ihail  would  have  been  expended  by  less  pre- 
cipitate adventurers,  there  is  no  sutlicient  reason  to  be- 
lieve tliat  the  inordinate  cost  falls  as  a  perpctu,.!  bur- 
den upon  the  fmpienteri  of  the  lints;  in  other  words, 
that  the  -nst  of  the  lino  and  the  rates  of  toll  \,'bich  can 
a'  lie  attract  customers,  have  no  necessary  or  close  do- 
)     ;,lenco  on  each  other.     And  hence,  that,  eccentric 

cxcept'inal  as  may  have  been.  In  many  cases,  the 
•s  of  I  \  ate  enterprise,  as  displayed  In  the  foniiO' 
tion  of  rail  jys  in  this  country,  no  denial  can  \>e  given 
to  the  broad  and  beneflcial  result.  That  to  private 
enterprise  we  arc  indebted  for  being  a  generation  in 
advance  of  the  rest  of  Kiirope  as  regards  the  new  moans 
of  internal  transit, — To(>ki:'s  /[islm-i/  of  I'rices. 

We  give  .1  sumniary  showing  the  number  of  miles 
and  cost  of  the  railroads  of  the  world.  This  summa- 
ry is  of  later  date  than  the  separate  statements  given 
before,  and  of  course  shows  an  Increase.  There  is  a 
discrepancy  between  the  number  of  miles  In  operation 
in  Gemiany,  aciording  to  tho  antliority  of  Tooke,  and 
the  following.  This  Is  explained  by  tho  fact  that  many 
of  the  railroads  stotcd  by  Tooke  as  belonging  to  Ger- 
many should  be  placed  in  tho  column  of  French  and 
Uelgic  railroads, 


Ths  following  taUo  also  exiilblls  the  low  cost  of 
American  railroads  compared  t»  Ihoau  of  Kurope, 
I'oMPAaATi  vn  Ttiii.i  or  IIaii.ui 


rnllail  HtHlos  (IWiT)  ,, 
llreiit  llrlUlii  (IND3J  ,, 

Kr«llci'  (li-M'ii 

Itormnny  (I     ^> 

I'riiiislA  (|N,v»i 

llelKliini  |INM>| 

Ilritlah  I'riivlliri'S  , , , , 

lubn 

raiiftina 

Hiiuth  AiMvrIca 

Itiissin 

Hwoilell 

Itnir  

Hpaln 

Africa 

India 

Tots! 


'M.IIIKl 
K.'i.iT 

4»;it 

i<,'.'ia 
i,'i»ii 

1.1)05 

NJU 

HIW 

«T 

00 

Hit 

tn 

I  TO 

III) 

1(0 


Aim  IN  (irmoTioN. 

Ill 


n.iiui 

U'Jo.lHid'.iiiiir 

l,4'^T,UI(l,4'<ii 

lll(l,tis,ml^ 

'J2H.II(lO,IHMI 

14A,(iiii.iino 
Ds.wio.mio 

41,IVNI,IMMI 
1(l,IIHI.00ll 
T,l)UII,()UO 
4,[iUtl.l(>0 

41I,I)(HI,(M  ■! 

",.'«I),IVI»1 
17.000,(10  1 

i).l>IHI,ISKI 

:i.  1(10,1111(1 

1S,(KKI,IM)II 


jmr  Mil* 

"i)iri.'i,(i(iii 

1711,11(1(1 
Ift'i.lMIII 

7l,isiii 
lU.issi 

1111,1  (HI 

t>ii,mHi 
4f),0ll() 

ir>(),(iiHi 

7MiO(l 
IUO,IHIO 
IIHI^IDIO 
1  (VI,  0(1(1 

liHi.isie 
12l>,(()ll 
irio,ii(Ki 

$7iM)(i(r 


411,074  j«,V,)jbli,u'tlb,4lb 

Raialns  (l''r.  HuUiiu  ttii,  im  jnu/ri;  (ier.  Jliminrn; 
It.  I.'if  iiii'fc ;  I'orl.  /'(i««iiji;  Knss.  /wi/iii;  ,Sp.  I'natii), 
the  dried  fruit  of  the  vine.  They  an'  produced  fmm 
various  npeclcs  uf  vines;  deriving  ilnir  names  partly 
from  the  place  where  they  grow,  as  .Smyrnas,  Vulen- 
clas,  etc. ;  and  partly  frimi  the  species  (^f  grape  of 
which  llicy  are  made,  as  muscatels,  blooms,  sultanas, 
etc.  Their  quality  ippears,  liowever,  to  depend  more 
on  the  method  of  th.lr  cure  than  on  any  thing  else. 
The  finest  raisins  are  cured  in  two  inethoils;  eitlier  by 
cutting  tlie  stalk  of  the  bunches  half  through,  when  the 
grapes  are  nearly  ripe,  and  leaving  them  suspended  on 
the  vino  till  tho  watery  part  be  evaporated,  and  tho 
sun  dries  and  candies  them ;  or  by  gatliering  the  grapes 
when  liny  are  fully  ripe,  and  dipjiiiig  them  in  a  ley 
made  of  i!iu  aslii  s  1 .'  the  burned  tendrils ;  after  which 
tiny  are  exposed  1  the  sun  to  dry.  Iluse  lured  in 
the  first  way  are  '  .  .  eslceincd,  and  are  denomlnate(l 
raisins  of  tho  sun.  '  he  inferior  sorts  are  very  often 
dried  in  ovens.— Tiihsison's  Disp. 

Raisins  are  imporli  !  ii<  casks,  barrels,  boxes,  and 
jars.  The  lliiest  coiiu  ,  j.r  1  and  quui  i'  r  boxes  weigh- 
ing about  25 lbs.  Some  ol  ilic  infuriur  »•  ris  are  brought 
to  us  in  mats.  Malau  <  raisins  are  in  llie  highest  esti- 
mation Tho  inuscai  from  Mahi)^  fetch  fully  a 
third  more  than  any  oiiior  description    1  raisins. 

Tho  value  of  raisins  imported  into  tlie  I'nitcd  States 
for  the  fiscal  year  lH5(S-'u7  was  4l037,4U0,  viz: 


Wli.iif.  liii|K>rt«4. 

Piwndi. 

Vdu*. 

France  uii  the  Mecjiterrsiieaii 

Hpalu  on  tlie  Medltcrraneuii 

Turkey  in  Asia 

664,1(10 

14,4WI,8llO 

jM,H4a 
t;il,200 

I60,av6 

*2i.i,ft.'.l 

8T0,7Til 

M.O^.s 

0,71  S 

0,70<i 

Chtll 

AllolUcni 

Total  In  18fl«-'B7 

IB,Uil9,024 
14.30(1,407 
l,UV3,'il)7 

*W)7,40ii  , 
804,211) 
!>7il,241 

Total  in  ISrA-'W 

IncrcMO 

Rake,  to.     The  sea  term  for  incline,  and  applies  to 

tho  masts,  stem,  and  stern-post,  etc. ;  the  liowsprit,  in- 
stead of  raking,  is  said  to  ileere.  Slasts  generally  rake 
aft,  and  in  peculiar  rigs  only  forward.  Tho  rake  of 
tile  mast  has  an  Influence  on  tho  sailing  of  the  vessel, 
and  the  masts  of  some  schooners  rako  excessively. 
The  principal  effect  seems  to  be  to  diminish  tho  effect 
common  to  all  the  sails,  of  depressing  tlic  ship's  head. 
To  rake  a  $hip,  is  to  firo  Into  her  head  or  stern  in  the 
direction  of  her  length,  or  along  her  decks.  It  Is 
similar  to  what  engineers  term  enfilading. 

Rake  of  a  Ship,  is  all  that  part  of  her  hull  which 
hangs  over  both  ends  of  her  keel.  That  which  is  be- 
fore is  called  il\c  fiire-raki:  or  rake /iirwi.irii,  and  thot 
part  which  is  at  tho  setting  on  of  the  stcrn-poit  is 
called  the  rnke-njf  or  ajierward. 

RangOOU,  a  cominereial  port  and  town  of  the  Bur- 
mese dominions,  aliout  iti  miles  from  the  se»,  on  tho 
left  bank  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  liivcr  Irrawaddy, 
in  lat.  1(5"  12'  N.,  long.  96°  20'  E.  The  town  and 
suhurbs  extend  lengthwise  about  one  mile  along  tbo 


Itur 


HAN 


1685 


RAT 


fl.T'.S 
0,7011 

*liHT,4tiii  i 
804.2  m  1 
$7II,'241 


Id  ftpplies  to 

low8|irit,  in- 

Tiorally  rakn 

I'lio  riike  of 

'  till!  vessel, 

Ixei'sslvely. 

Ih  the  cftcct 

liliiii's  licail. 

Itirn  ill  'lio 

Ic'ke.     It  id 

[  liiill  wliich 
VliUh  i»  lio- 
anil  that 
lern-po(t  is 

lof  llio  Bur- 
Iscft,  oil  tlio 
prraw»J<lyi 
I  town  and 
I  along  tUo 


b«nk  o(  (lin  rlviT,  b»lii|/  «i,<Mif  three-fmirthii  of  n  mil.' 
In  iloptli;  l)iil  111''  hmini's  iir^  vtry  iin(-<iii«||y  m•l^tl('^Ml 
over  lliln  «n'«.  Tli"  fort,  or  rnihcr  «mii|cii  Biockndi', 
wlilrli  <onlttln»  till!  Iiiwn,  priipcirlv  no  ciilli'il,  U  n  P'^u- 
laric|uure  uliuiit  II  IWl  lllnh,  kh  i'liseddf  lunvy  Ixiiniii 
of  teak  iIiuImt,  It  nppi-arK,  In.m  ii  oimisus  Inkiii  a 
ihorl  tlmo  pruviiKnly  to  tlin  coninnMiccnii'iit  of  tlie  war 
in  IH'JI,  that  the  population  was  IM,(Mio,  wjilih  prnlia- 
lily  U  not  far  from  ll«  prewnt  amount,  iIioiikIi  It  Iuh 
licen  iitatoil  lonsideriilily  lilhiier.  'I'lio  loruli,'!!  trade  la 
prinelpally  r»nnluti;d  iiv  th«  treaty  lietwccn  ilri'ut 
llritain  and  thii  t'oort  of  Ava,  ll^'ili, 

Itanxoon  Ih  iIiu  <  liii'f,  and  Indeed  nininit  tho  only 
port  of  forvi;{n  trade  in  tlin  Knrineso  doinliilon^,  which 
uxtcnil  from  hetweon  tho  l.'>th  ami  llllli,  up  lollie  'illih 
and  '27lh  dut;ri-i'»  of  N.  lat.,  and  from  llj<^  !i;id  to  the 
ItMtli  dejjrcii  of  K.  loiiij.,  containiiiu  iiii  una  of  nl.oiit 
1M4,(MM)  Bcpiaru  niilon,  with  a  popululion  of  iilioiit 
■l,(JOit,000.  Its  ultiiallon  is  (ixtrenuly  ionvciii,.||t  fur 
commercial  pnrposi'n,  l)cinK  situated  so  lunr  tho  ki'U, 
and  eoinmandlnK  the  iiavluatiori  of  tlic  Irriiwaddy, 
which  o.\lnnd»  to  Avii,  Ihoiupllal,  ftdlntaiicc  of  noariy 
'ilK)  miles.  KanKoon  i-i  ii«'i'n»il)|i'  to  nhipn  of  even  I'.'UO 
toii.i  burden;  the  iiavl|{ation,  ailhout(h  xomewhat  in- 
tricutu,  boin);  lafo  and  practicable  with  the  asKUlaiire 
of  lliu  ordinary  native  piloli). 

The  town  has  many  advatitngca  for  Bhip-biiildinf,'. 
At  neaps  tho  tide  riaea  and  fulls  aliout  IH  foct ;  and  at 
spring!*  from  '1:>  to  .'10  feet.  The  prinolpul  leak  forcHts 
arc,  at  the  same  time,  at  a  comparatively  «hort  di<- 
laneo,  and  tliern  Ih  a  water  conveyanoo  for  the  tlnilier 
nearly  tho  whole  way.  8liip-building  has,  in  fiiit, 
been  carried  on  ut  Itangooii  alni'e  1T8U,  and  in  the  ;i»* 
years  before  tho  Uritiah  captureil  it  there  had  licen 
built  111  Bipiara-rlRgcd  vcaacU  of  Kuropean  construc- 
tion, the  total  liurden  of  which  amounted  to  above 
Xt,WW  tons.  .Several  of  these  were  of  from  HOO  to  KHK) 
tons.  Under  tho  direction  of  European  masters,  tho 
Hurmeso  wore  found  to  make  dexterous  and  laborious 
artisans ;  in  this  respect  greatly  sur|iassing  tho  natives 
of  llritish  Indian  provinces.  Tlierc  are  two  consider- 
abl(^  markets,  where  tho  ordinary  necessaries  of  life, 
according  to  Burmeso  usage,  are  cheap  and  abundant : 
these  are  rice,  excellent  tlsh,  and  poultry. 

Mimty. — Tho  Oiirineao  currency  consists,  for  small 
payments,  of  lead ;  for  larger  ones,  of  g(jld  and  silver, 
but  chlclly  of  tho  latter.  There  are  no  coins.  At 
every  payment  Itio  metal  must  be  weiglied,  and  very 
generally  assayed — a  rudo  and  very  inconvenient  statu 
of  things.  The  weights  used  in  the  weighing  of  money 
are  the  samo  as  those  used  on  ordinary  occasions;  the 
kyat  or  tical,  and  tho  paiktha  or  via,  U  v.  jy  far  tlie 
moat  frequent.  .Silver  may  l)e  considert  d  as  t'r.;  ■  '.and- 
ard.  Gold  is  generally  lield  to  be  nlmuv  \'  i  ines 
more  valuable  than  silver.  The  wcignintr  ii'ui  .usay- 
ing  of  tho  metals  used  as  currency  gi'  i.'s  i  uifloyment 
to  a  class  of  persons  as  lirokers,  nioney-changors,  and 
assaycra.  Every  new  assay  costs  tlio  owner,  if  tlic 
metal  be  silver,  'ii  per  cent. — li  per  cent,  being  the 
established  commission  of  the  assayers,  while  1  per 
cent,  is  lost,  or  supposed  to  Im  lost,  in  the  operation. 
If  it  tie  repeated  40  times,  it  follows  tliat  the  original 
amount  is  wholly  absorbed — a  fact  which  shows  the 
eiionnous  waste  of  metal  ariaing  out  of  this  rude  suU 
stitute  for  coin. 

All  grains,  pulses,  certain  fruits,  natron,  salt,  and 
lime,  are  bought  ond  sold  by  measure :  other  commod- 
ities by  weight. — For  an  account  of  tlio  weights  and 
measures,  see.  article  BritMAii. 

Commevce. — A  considerable  intercourse  is  carried  on 
lictween  the  Hurmeso  and  Chinese  dominions  by  an 
imniial  caravan,  of  which  tlie  merchants  are  all  Chinese. 
Tho  imports  from  China  consist  of  manul'acliirod  urti- 
des,  tho  chief  export  from  Burma  being  cotton  wool. 
The  trade  with  foreign  countries  seaward  is  carried  on 
with  tho  ports  of  Chittagong,  Dacca,  and  Calcutta,  in 
Bengal ;  Madras  and  Masulipatain,  on  the  Coromaudel 


roast;  the  NIcfibnr  (ihmd<,  In  ihn  Pay  of  BengAlj 
{'■nang,  in  the  Straits  of  Muhicca;  ami  oic«,|on«lly 
w.ih  the  l'i.r«lan  and  Anilnin  (liilf«.  The  largest 
trade  Is  with  Calciittn,  "ttlui;  lo  the  great  coniiimpllon 
of  teak  Ihnlier  In  the  latter,  lunl  the  facility  with  which 
she  supplies  the  deiiiaml  of  the  Iliinnese  for  Indian 
and  llrilUh  cotton  goocN.  The  articles  exported  to  for- 
eign eounlrics  from  Ibingnon  are  the  fcdiowliig:  leak 
wood,  It.rra.laponlen,  or  catechu,  ictick-lae.lieeswax.elo- 
phaiil»'  Iccih,  raw  coiion,  orpimeul,  commonly  called 
ill  India  burial,  gold,  diver,  rublps,  sapphires,  and 
hon-et,  or  ratlier  the  sniall,  hardy  pony  of  the  country, 
will,  h  is ,  luch  e»tc  eniid,  parllciilarlyat  Madras,      liy 

far  the  most  ini|virtnnt  (if  llic«c  coiui litles  Is  leak 

limlicr;  tlo'  ciuaiilily  of  this  wood  aiinmillv  expot^d 
Is  said  lo  lie  ec|iial  lo  TiMKI  fidl-«ized  Irecs,' which  for 
the  most  part  consist  of  what  |i„||a  slilp-buliders  call 
sliinhlii,  which  are  pinnk  ■  hewn  out  of  the.  log  with  llio 
acU"  at  an  hnnien>c)  wii  to.  The  tc  ak  forests  of  I'egii 
.•ro  by  fur  llie  most  nb  n.Innt  In  India.  The  teak  is 
nowhere  lo  be  fonn  i  In  low  alluvial  lands  to  which 
'  Ihe  tide  reaches,  but  a!  ■  iiuds  In  tlie  high  lands  beyond 
Us  Intluencc.  It  seems  lo  bo  very  generally  dlssem- 
inaled  throughout  the  Burmese  dominions.'  In  the 
territory  ceibil  to  the  Hilllsh  in  Marlahan,  there  are 
I  some  line  forests,  tho  timber  of  which  is  cut  clown  for 
exporlallon,  and  when)  it  is  believed  that  saw-mills 
have  very  recently  been  cstaldishcii  b\  Home  Kciropean 
seniors.  The  most  necessible  and  extensive  forests  of 
leak  in  the  Burmese  dominions  aro  In  tho  province  of 
Sarawadi,  about  IfiO  miles  to  the  norlli  of  Itangoon, 
with  which  tliero  Is  a  water  eommunlcalion.  Tho 
|irinclpal  Imports  Into  Burma  are  cotlon  piece  goods 
from  India  ancl  Brilain,  llritish  wocdcns.  Iron,  steel, 
cinlcksilvor,  copper,  cordage,  borax,  sulphur,  gunpow- 
der,8altpelre,lire.arms,  coarse porccluln,  Knglisliglasf- 
ware,  opium,  tobacco,  cocoa  and  arec:a  nuts,  sugar,  and 
spirits.  Of  (heso  by  far  the  most  important  is  cotlon 
piece  goods.  The  Burmese  have  few  cotlon  mannfac- 
tiires  of  their  own,  and  appear,  from  very  early  times, 
to  have  bciu  fiirnishrd  w  llli  the  principal  part  of  tlieir 
supply  from  the  Coromandcd  coast.  To  tlie.«c!  were 
afterward  added  Ihe  cheaper  fabrics  of  Bengal ;  and 
both  are  now,  in  a  great  measure,  superseded  by  Bril- 
ish  manufactures,  the  use  of  which  lias  .spread  very 
rapidly  since  the  opening  of  (ho  trade  in  1811. 

Rape,  a  liiennial  plant  of  the  turnip  kind  (Urnsnira 
iiapii^,  l.inn.),  Iiiit  Willi  a  woody  fusiform  root  scarcely 
lit  lo  be  eaten.  It  Is  indigenous,  liowers  in  May,  and 
ripens  its  seeds  In  July.  It  is  cultivated  in  iimny 
parts  of  KuKland,  partly  on  account  of  its  seed,  ■which 
is  crushed  fur  oil,  anil  partly  for  its  leaves  as  food  for 
sheep.  Tho  culUire  of  rape  for  seed  has  been  much 
oljjected  to  by  some,  on  account  of  its  supposed  great 
exhaustion  of  tho  land;  luit  Mr.  Loudon  says  that, 
where  the  soil  and  preparation  are  suitable,  the  after- 
culture properly  at  tended  to,  and  tho  straw  and  oft'al, 
instead  of  lieing  linrned,  ns  Is  the  common  pracllce, 
converted  to  the  j)iirposes  of  feeding  and  littering  cat- 
tle, it  may,  in  many  instances,  bo  tho  most  proper  and 
advantageous  crop  that  can  be  employed  by  the  farmer. 
The  produce,  when  tho  plant  succeeds  well,  and  thn 
season  is  favorable  for  securing  the  seed,  amounts  to 
from  10  to  5(1  bushels  an  acre.  The  seed  is  cruslied  in 
mills  constructed  for  that  perposc. — Loi-dcin's  Emyc. 
<f  Affricidlitn'.     See  On.  ancl  I.insf.ku. 

The  value  of  rape-seed  and  hemp-seed  oil  imported 
into  tho  T'niled  States  for  tlio  fiscal  jear  1850-7)7  was 
811,001,  viz.: 


Knglund... 
France  . . . . 
Others 

Totnl. 


I     Mmlieli. 
a,7(il< 
'.1,411 
!I7(1 


i7,'2m 


_V»hie. 

*5.278 

,'i,Ti;i 

eio 


$11,8(11 


Ratans,  or  Canes,  the  long  slender  shoots  of  a 
prickly  bush  (Calamus  rolang,  Linn.),  one  of  the  most 


HAT 


1026 


RED 


uwful  |iImU  of  (ba  MaUjr  ■MnliiiiiU  mil  the  KaiUni 
UluiiU.  'l'h»y  »IK  imfiufttil  tn  Hniun],U>  Kiiro|i«,  •n>l, 
•liutii  (ll,  Ui  rliltM,  wliirra  Ihry  art'  ronniinii'il  in  im- 
MwiiM  iiHUlilltlo'.  I'"r  I'Niio  wiirk  liny  uliuulil  lir 
riMwoii  ttmu,  111 »  lirlwlil  lial'-yflloH  mlnr,  well  t|l*<>i'<li 
■ml  111  «  •1)1*11  >l/«,  mil  lirllllK,  or  "iilijn  t  to  lirniik. 
'llioy  «r«  (lunluaxl  li/  llic  hiimlli ,  ndli  h  nuulit  to  ron- 
Ulli  I'***  r«l«li>,  ImvIiik  Ihilr  iihIh  U'tit  toKt'lliur,  ■ml 
tiwi  In  ilt«  imI<I'II«.  In  (lilini  iliiv  «r«  nulil  l<y  ilir 
|>Uul,  Mlilili  oiNUlii*  form  II  III  \l  iiiiiiillcn,  Sui'li  an 
■rn  liUtk  ut  il«>li  I'lliirMl,  iiiiii|i  iiliorl,  or  frmii  nlilrh 
lliK  l|l<*<ll'J(  'II''*  "I'  'III  llxlr  iK'InK  In'IiI,  thimhl  Im  ri'- 
ji'i  li  <l,  U  lii-n  uliiwiiil  ■*  iliiiiiiiiK''i  iIk'X  ■»'<>  )(■'>"'>'»")' 
■lluHi'il  Ui  |i«*»  fr*«  4/f  ffi'ltilil,-  Mii.iii  nx'it  iiriiiiiiil 
Cimiiiuiii ,  Ht,  "llm  mdiii,"  miyn  Mr.  I'rawfiiril,  "l» 
III''  ii|umliiii"ijua  |iriiiliirl  (if  hII  IIhi  fiirciilii  of  llm  Arilil- 

{"'Iukui  lull  iiklala  In  urvnl  (nirfii  llmi  In  liiiino  of  llie 
•Itfiiilmif  |t<ir)ii'ii,  Muiiialm,  mil  ut  lli«  Maliiyun  priiin- 
milii.  'I  III!  Itali'tt  ttii  lirwliiri'il  In  llm  nnintry  ol'  lliv 
Jliiliilti  uf  Hiiinalr*,  'I  lir  ttiNnUriillvr  nliii  In  Ini'llni'd 
til  'Ii'kI  In  IliU  Nflli'lH  iiriivi'iU  Inlii  tlin  furriit  wllliunt 
■iiy  uiliiT  liwlruNivnt  Ihmi  liln /mrnn// or  <'U'*v«r,  iinil 
I  iiu  »•  iniM'li  ■•  liK  U  «M«  III  I  iirry  nwir.  I  ho  inuile 
uf  lnrCiirinlNK  l'"'  'ifi^'rall'in  I*  llil<:  Ihi  make*  n  uolih 
111  III*  iri'n  «t  Hill  riKil  lit  wlilrti  till'  rAtiin  la  KrowiiiK, 
■imI  I'UllInK  III*  iNllir,  utrlliit  nirn  unmll  (lurtlon  of  tliu 
(lUltr  liitk,  «Hil  lliwrla  lli«  |.iirt  llint  \*  (ici  li'il  iiilo  (liu 
liiilili.  'Ill*  MlMli  liiitt  lirlnx  (lulli'il  lliriiiiKli  ■•  luiiK 
■•  It  iumiIhum  ut  «ii  «i)ImI  «!/',  la  \iy  tlilii  o|iurallun 
lii'^llx  ami  rvitillly  fni'il  from  U»  riwhrm'u.  \\\»m 
llw  HiH.il^ullor  !•«•  iililaliicil  hy  IliU  inrann  from  IHH) 
lu  41KI  mlaiiit'-lM'InH  ■<  many  aa  an  Inillviiliinl  can 
iiinvviilmilly  entry  in  llii  Ir  innlat  ■ml  nnilrli'd  slate — 
)i>^  liu  iliiwn,  Mint  lli'<  llwitn  ii|i  In  Inimlli'ii  uf  luO,  vaili 
luUii  Ih'Imu  iIuuIiIi  <I  Uifiirn  litlnK  lima  tiail  up.  AftiT 
dr.iiiiMi  III"/  »>»  fit  tut  tlio  markut  wllhoiit  furllivr 
|iri|'»rNlluM,  Vfiim  IhU  aniMint  of  llic  tniull  labor 
v:),|>viMli'i|  in  lirliitflnu  lluim  lo  marki't,  ilicy  can  liv 
Willi  at  a  wry  tlii'«|i  ral«,  Tim  CMnem' Jiinka  ulitain 
tliirni  In  lliiriM'u  •!  tltn  him  rain  of  A  ^tpanlllll  dollars  per 
|IM)  liiiii'llin,  orOiwiilafiiri'ni'li  MiO  riitnna.or  27  for  hi. 
'llm  iMiivi*  alwa/a  v«fii|  lliim  l>y  ta|p ;  Imt  the  Kuro- 
puaii  riiiili|«n<«  •ml  'Im  rlilnnao  acll  I  hem  hy  wvIkIU, 
luuniinK  1'^  (ili^ula.  AiftitiWnn  In  lli^ir  (|uantity,  and 
IJKi  ri  laltvi^  tlau  uf  atiiipl/  ami  ili'innnil,  lliu  Kiiropvan 
iiii'nlmiila  ilia|M/M  iif  llifiii  at  from  1^  lo'ii  dollarH  llio 
pjinl.  Ill  (  litiM  tilt  prli X  U  uaiiall}'  nlioul !!(  dullurx 
|«'r  plnil,  or  I'l  JKf  iJfil,  aUrrn  tlin  avi'ra){0  prlinu  cimt. 
In  Iti'liKul  limy  Nm  miIiI  l.y  lalp,  pa'h  luimllc  of  nliout 
liKi  lulana  lirliiKliiK  «liciMt  W\il."—  Imlmn  Arc/iiiitlui/o, 
vol.  iii.  p,  lAt, 

RatliltM,  iim«ll  Unim  wliloh  trnriTto  tlio  •hrnndH 
of  a  'lilp  liiifi/.4inl«lly,  at  ri-Knlar  diatanrua,  from  tlio 
dfik  iipMaril,  fiitmUiK  «  varlily  of  laililira  wlicrcliy  to 
I'liiiili  or  III  i|<  wi'iid  from  any  of  tlir  niaat-liruda. 

Ram*,  a  alilp  lit  m»r  int  ilonn  (o  ■  iiinallcr  si/e. 

Real,  lit  IIhi  Hpanlali  inum'tary  avatini,  la  of  two 
aorta  ;  v(/„,  •  rml  t/t'^rilr,  and  a  rnit  nllmi,  Tlici  for- 
mm  la  »  •liver  ««ln,  varyInK  In  valiix  from  10  to  1'.'^ 
eiiilu.—  Mm  (,'u|*a,  A  fi'«l  vi'Uoii  ia  n  inoncy  of  iic- 
I'ounl,  Morllt  •iMiitt  A  crnla.  formerly,  liy  authority 
of  I'liiiun  M,  llin  valiMi  fif  ■  roal  of  plain  was  put  at  lU 
ouiiia,  an'l  a  rual  fxllvn  of  Hpnln  •'.  0  ccnla. 

lUaUjO,  Til"  yiifl  nt  Itinlijo,  on  tim  rnrillc,  lat. 
Vi  ;ir  S.,  Umif,  Wl  i'  W,,  to  iirhlch  it  is  propoana  to 
liriliK  llii'  I  anal  friim  l,«k«  l/'on,  la  auid  tn  ho  ouo  of  the 
lieat  that  ia  any  miwrn  lo  li«  mi  t  wilh.  'i'hn  port  of  Ki'- 
bIlJu  riinilala  ttiMly  ut »  aall-watcr  crrik,  into  which 
■tvi-ral  aniall  «f*«lii« (if  water cmply  tlicniKlvcs.  The 
entraiM'it  l«  iirutortml  hy  an  lalanii  nliont  two  miles 
loiiK,  wlilrb  Umrrii  at  cadi  rml  a  channel  where  ahips 
ran  «iil<-r  IIia  harlior,  Imt  c itlcndlnf;  oppoaite  the  main 
land,  fiinniiiK  III"  |'"rt  l»  ""'  h  a  manner  as  to  protect 
it  eiillruly  fnitu  imy  wiml  that  could  jioaailily  blow,  and 
■lao  I'lilirvly  lirnakllltf  llm  awell  which  enters  the  outer 
hay  uf  l.'uui  li*KHa  ffi'iii  IIh'  iM-ean.  The  north  entrance 
i«  •Umt  •  nuntUif  vt  *  lilllo  wide,  and  that  at  the  south 


of  tlia  Uland  rather  narrowar,  Imlh  IwIiik  iintiraly  fk«i 
from  rocka  or  hjililin  ilanRura,  and  havInK  In  no  part 
Ivaa  than  llvn  fallionia  diplli  of  water.    At  oiia  of  then 
openlnwa  veaaula  can  nt  ail  liiiica  rnler  wiih  ■  Uadlnif 
wind,  from  whatevor  i|uurler  It  may  blow.    Thu  inaidv 
conalata  of  a  nolilii  baaiii  of  water,  miwliere  Icaa  than 
\  four  I'alhoiiia  deep,  wllli  n  liultom  of  mud,  where  two 
i  huiiilri'd  ahlpa  iif  ilie  iiiiu  mlitht  lie  at  all  linn  a  In  the 
iihiKt  pfirfuct  aecurlly.      ttiie  of  tliu  lirani  hra  of  llie 
crerk  cxieiida  Iniiind  lo  within   three  leaKura  of  the 
Lake  of  l,con  or  ManaKua.     TIik  intrnneillntv  luunlry 
ia  n  xeiitle  alope,  where  undoubtedly  aliould  rnler  one 
uf  the  ends  of  the  canal  lo  connect  the  I'ni  llic  anil  At- 
I  lanlic  occana,     Tlie  ditllenlliea  lo  Ihi  (luounlcreil  In 
croaaluK  the  chain  of  hllla  lielwoen  thu  l.nkr  of  NUar- 
atiua  and  San  .liian  del  .Sud  would  be  entirely  avoided 
by  brinuInK  the  cniial  throuKh  the  Lake  of  l.con  (con- 
t  nedeil  aa  it  ia  with  that  of  NIcarnKua  by  a  river  Ihut 
I  nii^lil  bo  rendered  navlunble  ut  a  nioderalii  cn«0  ililo 
I  the  above-named  brunch  of  the  Kealejo  harbor,  thua 
j  securhiK  the  Kreiit  iidvanlnKe  of  an  excellent  harbor  nt 
I  each  vnd  of  the  canal,  bealdea  man}'  othcri  which  are 
'  certainly  not  to  be  met  with  either  at  rnnaina,  Te. 
,  liuanlepec,  or  any  other  |>laie,     The  town  of  Kealejo 
ia  about  two  leuKiiea  diatant  from  the  part  uf  the  creek 
where  vcaacla  lie  ;  but  there  iaaulllcient  depth  forainull 
veiaela  lo  cuine  within  a  nillu  uf  the  town,  and  a  very 
liltla  labor  would  make  It  acceaaiblu  to  lar^e  ahipa; 
but  an  cnli(;htcned  government  would  probably  prefer 
moviiiK  the  (own  to  the  o|>|ioaite  side  of  the  reach, 
where  veasels  lie,  where  there  ia  a  aite  extremely  aiiit- 
ablu  tor  the  |iur|ia>e,  and  where  a  quay  ml)(ht  easily  be 
crt'Cted  capulile  uf  accommodatinK  any  number  of  ahipa. 
In  the  time  of  the  .Spaniah  Kovcrnmont  several  vcs- 
avla,  aoinn  of  UIHI  to  lUO  tons,  were  built  at  Itcaleju, 
where  the  wood  ia  very  su|iurlor  and  duralilc.     Thu 
|iort  of  San  Juan  del  ,Mud,  to  which  |ilnce  it  was  pro- 
Jiosed  to  lirin^  the  canal,  aecnis  inferior  to  Keah  Jo  In 
mult  reapects.     T  he  (lulf  uf  iVipn^ayo,  where  the  port 
ia  situated,  ia  very  dilMcult  to  cuter  for  a  iailinf{  vessel 
for  live  months  in  the  year. — mm  N  icauaiiua  and  Pan- 
ama. 

Ream,  a  quantity  of  pa|ior.  The  ream  of  writing- 
|inper  cunaials  uf  twenty  qulrea,  each  of  twenty-four 
ahcela;  naually  cunsistiiiK  of  eiKlitecn  (|ulrea  uf  twen- 
ty-four aheots  each,  ami  thu  twu  outside  (or  broken) 
qulius  of  ai.xtecn  to  twenty  sheets  each  ;  but  the  ream 
of  printing-pa|ier,  or,  aa  it  la  sometimca  called,  IIir 
priiilrr't  reimt,  extends  to  twenly-une  and  a  half  quires, 
ur  bill  aheeta.     Two  reams  of  paper  make  a  biimlle. 

Receipt  is  an  acknowlcd);inent  in  writing  of  hav- 
ing received  a  sum  of  money,  or  other  valuablu  cuiiaid- 
erutiou.  It  is  a  vuucher  cither  uf  an  obligation  or  debt 
discharged,  or  of  one  incurred. 

Reckoning,  in  Ninii/nliim,  the  estimated  place  of 
n  ship,  calculated  from  the  rate  as  determined  by  the 
luK,  and  the  cuiirae  as  determined  liy  C  ^  compass,  the 
place  from  which  the  vessel  started  lieiii);  known. 
JJi'iiil  reikoning  means  the  same  us  reckoning,  duo  al- 
lowance Iiein);  mode  for  drift,  lee-way,  curreiita,  etc. 

Red  River  ia  the  lirat  lurpt  river  which  enters  the 
Mississippi,  Ml  miles  above  its  month,  and  rises  at 
about  lat.  il4"  N.  in  the  JJniia  A'tlncuiln,  or  (ireat 
Staked  I'litin,  It  is  formed  by  several  head  branches, 
and  receives  several  tributaries,  the  larifeat  of  which 
are  Illue  Itivcr  and  Kalsc  Washita.  A  K>'euler  part  uf 
its  course  is  through  rich  jirairies  of  n  red  soil,  which 
colors  the  water  of  the  river,  and  hence  the  origin  of 
its  name.  Its  shores  arc  cuvereil  with  grass,  and 
abound  with  grape-vines,  which  prudiicu  an  excellent 
frtilt.  About  one  hundred  miles  aliovn  Natchitoches 
conimencea  what  is  denominated  the  Jdifl,  which  con- 
sists of  a  swampy  expansion  of  the  river  to  the  width 
of  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  and  has  a  length  of  sixty  or 
seventy  miles.  The  river  divides  into  a  (,-rcat  iiuinlicr 
uf  channels,  many  of  which  are  shallow,  and  these 
channels  have  been  obstructed  by  fallen  trees,  brought 


down  by  lb 
penae,  Ibia 
Nlatea  guv 
llouta  aonii 
■bove  It,  ill 
nelgliboriii^ 
until  It  Join 
been  a  aerlo 
he  iia\lgaM 
Ihi!  Inndi  01 
hlo  for  I  iilli 
llvluiv  the  ri 
whole  vuliiii 
loon  divid< 
number  of 
Its  lower  pni 
er  than  ubov 
Red  8ei 
Iwocii  AlVl.ii 
long.  32    :iil 
east,  upward 
'.tnOmib's.     / 
with  thu  Ind 
In  111  nurtlie 
and  Akabah 
Depth  varies 
with  isliinda 
to  have  deriv 
red  coral  and 
it  Is  niiiru  I 
"  Sea  of  I'Mui 
every  wln'ro  u 
monHiioii   liliM 
year,  and  di 
soon.     I'Vuni 
vail,  th  •  wate 
whlili  ijien  ... 
Meiliierranoui; 
sudden  change 
ports  aro  .Moc 
ho  on  the  An 
and  Ma.ssowuh 
coasts. 

ReeC  n  tern 
gale  of  wind  II 
•ail  below,  thai 
rower,  and  not 
Ing  or  taking  i 
mil;  so  also  wl 
that  is,  when  it 
they  cut  uir  the 
and  setting  the 
«tep  nguin,  thoj 
Regatta,  a 
to  signify  0  gr 
tested  fur  snpei 
the  term  has  b 
guages,  in  whlcl 
race. 

ReglBtxy,  ii 

tion  ur  eiirollnic 

to  entitle  lliein 

privileges  of  nat 

The  ITnltod  S 

eomniorcinl  nnti 

npon  Ainerican- 

The  object  of  the 

trade,  navigatioi 

usual  and  oxdu 

the  United  State 

tlon  of  those  iniii 

of  other  countriei 

to  prevent  tho  ci 

«»  well  as  to  adv 

try  of  vessels  at 

dums  of  tho  tram 

bring  tho  oxistinj 


KKD 


IMT 


ui:«  i 


down  l>y  lliHxU  from  ll»  »\\f*t  purt*.  \t  ■  (["»*  •«•  |  un<l«r  the  vl«w  of  iho  K«n«riil  uomrnniKiit.  Ily  (lirM 
|Hii«f,  till"  raft  Imn  \>vi'n  •<>  fur  ri'inovml  liy  tliu  I  iiIumI  i  ri'KiiUlloiiii  llm  tlllu  t'nii  im  ciprrii  llv  Ini.i'.l  li«i k  to  ill 
HUU't  Kcivcrnmoiit  Hint  •tvanilioiilK  pait  llirouKh  It.  i  orlKln.  Tin.  tit*  nf  Coiinrinii  uf  ai.l  i.f  l)i.irmli«r, 
lliiutu  ».iim)tliii.«  |ittM  tlm  riift  liy  luiivlii^  llm  rlvur  i  ITUi,  •n<l  luih  Kiil.ruiiry,  Kill,  conMlliiK'  the  liailn  of 


kliovi'  il,  ill  II  iliaiiiii'l  whirli  llima  nut  of  it  Into  riinn 
nillKlilxX'liiK  liiki',  mill  rnllowliiK  lliu  uiitlct  of  tliln  Ukii 
until  It  Jnlim  tho  rlviT  Ixilow  llm  rufl.  Tliln  ritfl  liim 
b«<jii  n  ii('rloiiiioliiitriii'llnn,iwllin  rl\i'r  wniilil  nllicrwlio 
b»  nitv  l)(al<l>i  fur  ali'itiiilioatit  four  IiiiihIumI  inMoi,  mil 
tho  Innilt  on  Im  lionli'rn  iiro  lilKhly  r«rlili>,  ami  ilunlr*. 


llm  r«)(uli>llon»  In  IliU  voinitry  fur  tlin  fnntlKii  anil 
inHKllntt  Irailii,  mil  for  llio  li<li<rliii  uf  Ilia  Cnllml 
8lal««;  anil  limy  lorronpunil  very  m-arly  to  ilio  provl- 
iloii«  of  lliu  Ilrltluli  mntuli*  In  till!  mlun  of  OriirKn  III. 
ilu'aoacta  ri^lulii  toull  aliliiai'iniiloytil  at  m'ii,  wlilih 
nmy  Ihi  illviili'il  Into  llviMlaatRii:  l.  Hlilpiuf  ilm  Inlt- 


lili!  fur  nilllvallim  for  ii  Kr''«t  (liMiinn"  iilmvu  llm  raft.  |  ml  Slaton  rniiiloyi'a  In  fi.nlKii  Iriuli',  wliluli  aru I'lilillml 
Htilow  till'  riifl,  ttii.l  four  nilli'n  iilmvu  Natrlilloilii'*,  tliii ;  lo  Iw  rnjuUml.  1.  Hliljia  of  llm  rnllml  Hlatna  nm. 
wliol.i  voliinm  of  llm  river  In  hkuIii  uiilliiil,  Imt  viiry  |iloy..il  In  lliu  on^iinx  Iriulo  ur  llnliorlu*,  wlilih  an-  on- 
toon  illvlilos  Into  iimny  clianmil",  aiul  lllln  an  Iniinnniio  lltlnl  lo  Im  mndhit  iwil  lifiiutil.  il.  .Sliljiit  Imilt  out 
numlii'r  of  linyons  ami  lakiia  timt  llo  |iiinillil  lo  It.  In  !  of  llm  I'liliml  .Staicii,  Imt  ownoil  liy  clll/una,  wlilili  nro 
It*  Inwi-r  iiorln  llm  main  clianiml  of  tliu  rlvur  U  nurrow.  i  milllltil  to  a  r.rt[/t<vi/.-  itj'oirn, iMp ;  Imt  If  wrfi  ki  >l  In 
er  tlmii  iiliovi'  tim  nifl.  |  llm  t'nltwl  Htolun  utnl  npiilrcl  lo  tim  «%liint  of  llireo. 

R«d  Ben,  or  Arabian  Oulf,  nn  Inlitml  aca  lie.  ipmrtori  uf  tlulr  valim,  tlu'y  may  l>a  rvKlotfrril.  4. 
twccii  Afrl'ii  unil  Ailn  (Arnlila),  Int.  l.'"  K)'  to  ili)'  N,,  Slilpa  Imilt  In  tliu  tnliml  StatM,  Imt  owimil  wholly  or 
lonif.  :i.'  ;iil  to  l:r  ;il»'  v..  l.iiiiKlli,nortlnvo»t  toKonlh.  partly  hy  forulKuura,  wlilili  are  onlllleil  to  Iw  r,i„i',l,il. 
cimt,  npwiiril  of  1 100  nilloa ;  bri'Uiltli  viiili's  lo  nearly  .',  Ships' hulll  out  of  tim  l.'iiiloil  Slulea,  ami  owimil  iiv 
ano  nillin.  At  its  Koiithcrn  oxtrunilly  il  loiiiintinlt'atuii  1  forclKnun,  whirh  nn^  eonnlilori'il  aliua  vcimIk  In  all  hi- 
with  llu!  Imlliin  Ooean  liy  tlio  iilrult  IliilMl-Mamli'li.  j  tunts  ami  purpoauK. — .Vie  Kkst'»  t'omm.,  vol.  lii. 
In  llH  iiorllmrn  purl  It  lilfnrriik's  Into  tliu  (iiilfnof  .Suca  |  Veaiula  actually  ruKiituruil,  anil  vutMili  iluly  <|uall- 
nnil  Akaliiih,  whirh  incloso  llm  piiiiiiHiila  of  .Sinai.  ;  Ik'il  for  ciirryinn  on  tlio  coaalliiR  trailu  «nil  llaliurlus,  or 
Depth  viiriea ;  averiiKu  uliniit  IM  fiithoiiis.  It  ulwunils  I  ono  of  them,  aru  alonu  (lenoiiiinatoil  anil  ilcmiieii  </(i;)i 
with  islaniU  ami  eorul  rcefn,  anil  U  mippoHuil  Uy  aonm  i  or  ixMeli  of  llio  Vnited  HMn,  enlitlcil  to  the  lienetlla 
to  linvo  ilurlvod  ita  nanm  from  tim  Utna  ipiuntiliu.'i  of  j  and  prlvlU'Kiii  appurtalnliiK  lo  aiich  veHsels;  ami  Ihiiy 
rcil  coriil  iiiul  pink-i-uloi-uil  fuel  wlikli  it  yielils;  while  ]  continuu  to  cijoy  tim  aunm  no  loii({cr  than  they  con- 
It  Ih  niiiro  probttlily  ilerlvcil  from  tho  anelent  Idiiimr,  |  tlnnu  lo  ho  wholly  owncil  ami  coninmnileii  by  n  cltiien 


"  Sea  of  I'.iloni,"  or  "  Itcil  Sea."  Tho  country  ulinost 
ovcry  wlieru  uroiinil  it  la  mountuinoua.  Tliu  Houtheoat 
moniooii  blows  cunHluntly  for  viKht  niimtlis  of  tho 
year,  ami  ilurint;  tho  rcinnlmler  thu  nortliwuat  moii> 
toon.  Froiii  Oetiiliur  lo  May,  when  noulh  winda  prc< 
vail,  111"  water  rises  In  tho  northern  part  of  tho  sea, 
whirh  then  ntluliis  an  clovation  niuili  hit;her  than  tho 
Meiliterrniman.  Tlio  navli;atiun  Is  dillleult,  owing  to 
suilik'ii  eliuiiKcaof  wind  and  hoavy  pile:!.  I'rinclpal 
ports  aro  Moehn,  Ilndeiilu,  Loliola,  .lldiiuh,  and  Yoin> 
bo  on  the  Arabian  sldo,  and  Suo/,,  Kossuir,  Snukin, 
and  Masauwuli  ou  tho  Kgyptiun,  Nubian,  and  Uanokil 

COttHlS. 

Ree(  n  term  in  novlgatlon.  AVhun  there  Is  a  heavy 
gale  of  wind  llm  seamen  commonly  roll  up  part  of  tho 
sail  below,  that  by  this  means  it  may  become  tho  nar- 
rower,  uiiil  not  draw  so  much  w  ind ;  and  this  contract' 
In(?  or  taking  up  tho  sail  tlicy  coll  a  veef,  or  nej'mg  a 
tail ;  HO  nlso  when  a  toji-miut  Ii  fpruiig,  ua  they  cull  It, 
that  in,  whon  It  is  cracked,  or  almost  broken  in  tlic  cup, 
tlicy  cut  (ilf  tho  lower  ploco  that  was  nearly  broken  oil", 
and  setting  tho  other  part,  now  much  sliortcr,  in  tho 
step  ngulii,  they  call  it  a  rtifed  top-mnat. 

Regatta,  a  word  used  originally  by  tho  Venetians 
to  eiifiiify  a  grand  fete  in  which  thu  gondoliers  con- 
tosteil  for  superiority  in  rowing  their  gondolas ;  but 
the  term  lias  been  adopted  Into  all  tho  modorn  lan- 
guages, in  which  It  slgniflos  a  brilliant  species  of  boat- 
race. 

Registry,  In  Commercial  navigation,  tho  registra- 
tion or  enrollment  of  ships  at  tho  custoin-houso,  so  as 
to  cntitlo  them  to  bo  classed  among,  and  to  ci\joy  tho 
privileges  of  national  ships. — See  SillP.s. 

The  United  States  have  Imitated  tlio  policy  of  other 
commercial  nations  in  conferring  iicculiar  privileges 
upon  American-built  ships,  and  owned  by  citizens. 
Tho  object  of  tho  Uegistry  Act  is  to  encourage  our  own 
trade,  navigation,  and  8hii>-building,  by  granting  un- 
usuol  iind  oxduslvo  privileges  of  trade  to  tho  Hag  of 
tho  United  States,  and  by  prohibiting  tho  communica- 
tion of  those  immunities  to  tho  shipping  and  mariners 
of  other  countries.  Tho  provisions  arc  woU  calculated 
to  prevent  tlio  commission  of  fraud  upon  individuals, 
w  well  as  to  advance  tho  national  policy.  Tho  regis- 
try of  vessels  at  tho  custom-house,  and  the  memoran- 
dums of  tho  transfers,  add  great  security  to  title,  and 
bring  tho  existing  stato  of  our  navigatiun  and  marine 


or  citizens  of  tlio  United  States.  Vessels  built  within 
llm  United  SlnU's,  and  veasels  captiirud  by  citizens  in 
war,  and  cimileniimil  aa  prizes,  or  seized  and  cundcuiiKil 
fur  a  breach  of  rcveiiiio  laws,  and  wholly  bciunging  to 
citizens,  may  lie  regintered.  No  citizen  who  usually 
resides  in  a  foreign  country  can,  during  such  reslilcnco, 
entitio  himself  to  have  registered  a  ship  owned  in  wliola 
or  in  part  by  him,  unless  liu  bo  a  consul,  or  an  agent 
or  partner  In  aonm  .  use  of  trade  or  partnership,  con- 
tiating  of  citizen^  d'y  carrying  on  trado  with  tho 

United  States.  .u  Am  r'.'^n  vessel,  transferred  by 
parol  while  at  '-ea  'u  t>i  .Nni'  lean  citizen,  and  rosolj 
to  hor  original  o  s  .r<  >'ii  if<  olurn  to  port,  does  not 
loso  her  privili'..; '•  :-  an /vi  >      in  vessel. 

If  one  if  M  0  ,.  rii'ir-  oM  a  .  .  registry  of  a  vessel 
byswcp''  ;  111!  h  ■  iiui  bi-'  i  uiii' i,  •  f  thoc.ty  of  New 
York,  a  hi  ii\  r^^,  i.ii.n  i!i  ct'  s  partner  is  dom- 
iciliate.    Lr..  ve  iti  ..  ;  'llu    )  forfeiture. 

No  ships  ca  u  /\^  lorcil  jt  if  registered,  can  be 
entitled  to  tho  bc.iL.  '  'f  owned,  in  wholo  or  In 
part,  by  a  naturalized  cii  .  ni,  residing  for  more  than 
ono  year  in  tlie  country  ;''oni  which  ho  originated,  or 
for  moro  than  two  years  in  any  foreign  country,  unless 
lie  is  a  consul  or  public  ..gont.  But  such  ships  may 
bo  registered  anew  on  u  buna  fdo  sale  to  any  citizen 
resident  within  tho  United  States. 

No  registered  ship,  which  has  Ijecn  seized  or  cap- 
tured and  condemned  by  a  foreign  power,  can  be  reg. 
islored  anew,  except  regained  by  tlie  original  owner  at 
the  time  of  cajiture  or  seizure,  or  by  his  executors  or 
admiuistrators ;  but  such  o  ahip  is  doomed  a  foreign 
reaael,  though  purchased  or  owned  by  any  other  citi. 
zen.  Ships  entitled  to  bo  recorded  and  entitled  lo  tho 
bcnellts  of  reccrdrd  shipa  in  tho  United  States  are  ships 
built  iu  tho  United  States,  and  belonging  wholly  or  in 
part  to  foreigners.  Vessels  entitled  to  bo  cnrollod  are 
vessels  of  twenty  tons  or  upward,  possessing  tho  same 
qualilications  and  requisites  as  are  made  necessary  for 
registering  ships,  i.  e.,  they  must  lie  built  within  the 
United  Stotos,  and  bo  owned  wholly  by  citizens.  If 
under  twenty  tons,  they  are  entitled  to  a  licenm.  No 
ships,  unless  enrolled  and  licensed,  are  deem"  '  .  titled 
to  tho  privileges  of  American  vessels  empl  jd  n  .  - 
coasting  trade  or  lisliories ;  and  if  any  not  eurfi!'.u.i  "r 
licensed  be  found  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  or  6-  ^ 
eries,  having  on  board  any  foreign  articles  or  dlati'.l '  < 
spirits  other  than  sea  stores,  Ihuy  aro  subject  to  forki-" 


BEG 


1628 


KEG 


Ure,  nnless  the  veasel  be  at  sea  at  the  expiration  of  thn 
tinio  for  whicli  tlic  license  was  (.'ranted ;  in  wliirh  case 
tlio  forfeiture  is  not  incurred,  provided  tlie  master  prove 
the  fact,  and  deliver  liis  liicnso  to  tlie  collector  of  the 
district  in  which  he  slioll  lirst  arrive,  within  forly-eight 
hours  after  his  arrival. 

In  tho  United  Stotes  no  vessels  are  required  to  lie 
registered.  But  to  entitle  them  to  tlio  privileges  of 
the  United  States  tliey  must  he  registered ;  otherwise 
they  arc  deemed  alien  ships.  As  is  before  staled,  ves- 
sels engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  or  fisheries  arc  linl)lc 
to  forfeiture  if  tliey  have  foreign  uoods  on  board,  unless 
they  ore  enrolled  or  licensed. — iJliint's  Sliipmaalera' 
Astiilant. 

It  is  further  provided  hy  the  act  of  Jlarch  2,  1707, 
that  wliencver  any  vessol  is  transferred  bt/  prnresn  nf 
kiir,  and  tho  register,  or  certillcato  of  enrollment  or  li- 
cence, is  retained  l)y  the  former  owner,  a  new  one  may 
be  olitained  upon  tlie  usual  terms,  without  tlie  return 
of  til.'  outstanding  paper.  Vessels  captured  and  con- 
demned by  n  foi^ign  ]iower,  or  by  sale  to  n  foreigner, 
whoreliy  tliere  be  comes  an  actual  divesturu  of  the  title 
of  llie  American  citizen,  arc  to  be  considered  ns  foreign 
vessels,  and  not  entitled  to  a  new  register,  even  though 
thoy  should  afterward  become  American  property,  un- 
less tho  former  owner  regoin  his  tiile,  by  purchase  or 
otherwise,  and  then  the  law  allows  of  the  restoration 
of  her  American  character  by  a  sort  of  juf  postliminii. 
Kvery  registered  or  unregistered  vessel  owned  by  a 
citizen  of  tho  United  Stales,  and  going  to  n  foreign  | 
country,  and  an  unregistered  vespel,  sailing  with  a  sea- 
letter,  is  entitled  to  a  passport,  to  be  furnished  by  the 
collector  of  the  district.  Hut  no  sen-letter,  certifying 
any  vessel  to  be  the  property  of  a  citizen  of  the  United 
Slates,  can  be  issued,  e.\c(!pt  to  ships  duly  registered, 
or  enrolled  and  licensed,  or  lo  vessels  wholly  ow  ncd  by 
cilizensof  tho  United  States,  and  furnished  with  or  en- 
titled to  sea-letters,  or  other  custom-house  documents. 

The  Knglish  registry  acts  of  2li  Geo.  III.  and  ill 
Geo.  III.  c.  68,  required  tho  certificate  of  registry  to  be 
truly  recited  at  length  in  every  bill  of  sale  of  a  llritish 
sliip  to  a  Dritish  subject;  otherwise  such  bill  of  salo 
was  declared  to  be  utterly  null  and  void,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes:  and  this  was  held  to  bo  necessary,  even 
though  tho  ship  was  at  sea  at  tho  time,  and  the  vendee 
took  the  grand  bill  of  sale  and  possession  of  the  ship 
immediately  on  her  arrival  in  port.  The  laws  of  tho 
United  States  do  not  go  to  that  rigorous  exteni ;  and 
the  only  consequence  of  a  transfer  without  a  writing 
containing  n  recital  at  length  of  the  certificate  of  regis- 
try is,  tliat  the  vessel. can  not  bo  registered  anew,  and 
she  loses  her  privilege  os  an  American  vessel,  and  be- 
comes subject  to  tho  disabilities  incident  to  vessels 
not  registered,  ci. rolled,  or  licensed  as  the  statute  prc; 
scribes.  Hut  where  an  American  registered  vessel  was 
in  part  sold,  by  parol,  while  at  sea,  to  an  American 
citizen,  and  again  resold,  by  parol,  to  her  original  own- 
er on  her  return  into  port  ami  before  entry,  that  trann- 
action  was  held  not  to  deprive  the  vessel  of  her  Amer- 
ican privileges,  or  subject  her  to  foreign  duties,  for  in 
thot  case  no  new  register  was  requisifo.  It  would 
havo  been,  except  in  date,  a  duplicate  of  tho  old  one, 
ami  perfectly  useless. 

If  a  ship  be  owned  by  American  citizens,  and  be  not 
docuincnfed  a.^^cording  to  the  provisions  cf  the  registry 
lets,  it  is  not  liable  to  any  forfeitures  or  disabilities 
which  are  not  specially  prescribed.  Tlic  wont  of  a 
register  is  not  a  ground  of  forfeiture,  but  the  cause  only 
of  loss  of  American  privileges.  Kvery  vessel,  wherev- 
er built,  and  owned  l>y  an  American  citizen,  is  entitled 
to  a  custom-house  document  for  protection,  termed  a 
passport,  under  tho  act  of  .Tunc  1,  I7S(>;  for  it  applies 
to  "t  ery  ship  or  vessel  of  the  United  States  going  to 
any  foreign  country."  As  our  registry  acts  do  not  de- 
clare void  tlio  sale  or  transfer,  and  every  contract  or 
agroemcnt  for  transfer  of  properly  in  any  ship,  without 
Au  iiistnimont  in  writing,  rccitinp  «t  lai-ge  tho  certifi- 


cate of  registry ;  and  as  they  have  not  proscribed  any 
precise  form  of  indorsement  on  the  certificate  of  regis- 
try, and  rendered  it  indispensable  in  every  salo,  as  was 
the  case  under  tho  llritish  stalutea  of  20  Geo.  III.  c. 
(10,  and  !!1  (ico.  III.  c.  (!8,  wo  arc  happily  relieved  from 
many  embarrassing  ipiestions  which  liavc  arisen  in  tho 
Knglish  courts  relative  to  flic  sale  and  mortgage  of 
ships. 

There  havo  been  great  dilliculty  and  some  alterna- 
tion of  opinion  in  the  Knglish  courts  in  the  endeavor 
to  reconcile  the  strict  and  positive  provisions  of  thu 
statute  with  the  principles  of  equity,  and  the  good  faith 
and  intention  of  the  coutracling  parties.  It  has  even 
been  a  question  of  niucli  discussion  whether  the  stat- 
utes of  20  and  .It  Geo.  III.  had  not  destroyed  llie  com- 
mon-law right  of  conveying  a  ."hip  by  way  of  mortgage, 
like  other  personal  property  j  and  whether  the  mort- 
gagee had  not  a  complete  title  beyond  the  power  of  re- 
demption after  the  transfer  of  the  legal  title  according 
to  the  prescrilied  form  of  the  indorsement  on  the  cer- 
tilicate  of  registry.  The  language,  in  many  of  tho 
cases,  was  in  favor  of  the  conclusion  that  there  could 
be  no  equitable  ownership  of  a  ship  distinct  from  tho 
legal  title,  and  that  upon  a  transfer  under  tho  forms  of 
the  registry  acts  the  ship  becomes  the  absolute  property 
of  the  intended  mortgagee,  and  that  the  terms  and  tho 
policy  of  the  registry  acts  were  incompatible  with  tho 
existence  of  any  equity  of  redemption.  But  theso 
opinions  or  ilicia  have  been  met  by  a  scries  of  adjwli- 
cations  which  assume  the  lows  to  bo  otherwise,  and 
that  tho  registry  acts  related  only  to  transactions  be- 
tween vendor  and  vendee,  and  to  cases  of  real  owner- 
ship; and  that  an  equitable  interest  in  a  ship  might 
exist  by  operation  of  law,  and  by  the  contract  of  the 
parties,  distinct  from  the  legal  estate;  and  that,  not- 
withstanding tho  positive  and  absolute  terms  of  the 
indorsement  upon  the  certificate  of  register,  a  mortgago 
of  a  ship  is  good  and  valid,  according  to  the  law  as  it 
existed  liefore  the  registry  acts,  proviiled  the  requisites 
of  the  statutes  be  complied  with.  The  opinion  of  Sir 
Tliomas  I'lumer,  in  Thompson  v.s.  Sviilli,  contained  a 
very  clear  and  masterly  vindication  of  the  validity  of 
the  mortgage  of  a  ship  consistently  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  tho  forms  of  the  registry  acts.  He  effectually 
put  to  flight  the  alarming  proposition  that,  since  the 
registry  acts,  there  could  be  no  valid  mortgage  of  a 
«hip ;  and  he  insisted  that  tho  defeasance  annexed  to 
tho  bill  of  salo  ought  to  be  fully  indorsed  as  purl  of  the 
instrument  on  tho  certificate  of  registry,  it  the  ship  be 
mortgaged  In  port ;  or,  if  mortgaged  while  at  sea,  a 
copy  of  the  whole  transmitted  to  the  custom-house; 
and  that  though  the  defeasonce  should  not  be  noticed 
in  any  of  the  forms  adhered  to  at  the  office  of  the  cus- 
toms, and  the  instru.nent  .should  be  registered  as  an 
absolute  bill  of  sale,  the  mortgager's  right  of  redemp- 
tion would  not  riufL^r  by  the  omission.  Hut  as  no  such 
questions  can  possibly  arise  under  the  registry  acts  of 
Congress,  theso  discussions  in  the  Knglish  courts  aro 
noliceil  only  as  a  curious  branch  of  tho  English  juris- 
prudence on  this  subject. 

1  The  registry  is  not  a  document  required  by  the  law 
of  nations  as  expressive  of  a  ship's  national  character. 
The  registry  acta  arc  to  be  considered  as  fo/'ins  of  local 
or  •.'iunicipal  institutions  for  purposes  of  public  jiolicy. 
Th!y  are  imperative  only  upon  the  volimlary  transfer 
of  parties,  and  do  not  apply  to  transfers  by  act  or  oper- 
ation i>riaw  They  aie  said  to  be  peculiar  to  Kngland 
and  lo  the  United  .Stairs,  whose  mniitiine  and  niiviga- 
I  tion  system  is  formed  upon  the  model  of  that  of  lireat 
j  Britain.  But  liy  various  French  ordinances,  between 
;  V'M  and  the  era  of  the  new  code,  it  was  requisite  that  a  1 
vessels,  in  order  to  be  entitled  to  tho  privileges  of  I'renc.i 
vessels,  should  bo  built  in  France,  under  soino  necessary 
exceptions,  and  should  be  owned  exclu.sivety  by  French- 
men, and  foreigners  were  prohibited  from  navigating 
under  the  Frcucli  flag ;  and  a  Frenchman  forfeited  his 
privileges  as  such  owner  by  n)arrying  a  foreign  wife, 


EEL 


1629 


KEY 


or  residing  abroad,  unless  In  connection  with  a  French, 
house.  The  register  is  not  of  itself  ovidcnco  of  prop- 
erty, unless  tt  be  confirmed  by  some  auxiliary  circum- 
stance to  show  that  it  was  made  by  tlie  authority  or 
assent  of  the  person  named  in  it,  and  who  is  sought  to 
be  charged  as  owner.  Without  proof  to  connect  the 
party  with  the  register  as  l)eing  his  direct  or  adopted 
act,  the  register  lias  been  held  not  to  be  even  prima 
facie  evidence  to  charge  a  person  ns  owner ;  and  even 
then  it  is  not  conclusive  evidence  of  ownership.  The 
cases  of  the  Afoliaick  Insurunce  Cumpnmj  vs.  KckJ'oni, 
decided  in  the  New  York  Court  of  Connuon  Pleas  in 
1828,  and  Ring  vs.  Franklin,  in  the  Superior  Court  of 
that  city  in  1821),  went  upon  the  same  ground  that  tlio 
register,  standing  in  the  name  of  a  person,  did  not  de- 
termine the  ownership  of  a  vessel,  thougli  it  might, 
perhaps,  be  presumptive  evidence  in  the  lirst  instance. 
An  equitable  title  in  one  person  might  legally  exist 
consistently  with  the  documentary  title  at  the  custom- 
house in  another. — Kkvt's  Comm.,  vol.  iii.  p.  1U6.  tSee 
articles  Tonn.vok,  Siihting,  etc. 

Relieving  Tackles.  Teniporary  taoldcs  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  tiller  in  bad  weather  to  assist  tlic 
helmsman,  and  in  cone  of  accident  liappening  to  the 
tiller  ropes.  They  are  also  strong  tackles  from  the 
wharf  to  which  the  ship  is  hove  down,  passed  under 
lier  bottom  and  attached  to  the  opposite  side,  to  assist 
in  righting  her  afterward,  as  well  as  to  prevent  her 
from  oversetting  entirely. 

Report.  In  Cominercta!  navigation,  a  paper  de- 
livered by  the  masters  of  all  sliips  arriving  frun\  parts 
beyond  seas  to  the  custom-house,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  the  cargo  on  Imard,  etc. 

RepouBse,  or  Chasing.  The  reponssi  work  of 
Frencli  silver-smiths,  which  is  equivalent  to  chasing,  is 
a  very  remarkable  mode  of  decorating  gold  and  sil\  er 
plate.  It  is  ctFocted  entirely  by  the  1  \nmier.  The 
workman  has  a  plain  Hat  sheet  of  silver  u  work  upon, 
and  before  him  is  a  carefully  executed  wax  model  of 
tlie  article  to  be  produced ;  the  silver  plate  rests  upon 
a  soft  bed  of  pitch  or  other  composition,  and  with  a 
small  hammer  the  workman  produces  indentations  over 
the  si'rl'aci  corresponding  with  the  device  to  lie  pro- 
duced. A  small  steel  punch  is  employed  occasionally ; 
and  if  any  of  the  indentations  arc  carried  too  far,  tlie 
jilate  is  reversed,  and  a  little  counter-hammering  ap- 
plieil.  Many  of  the  shields,  salvers,  dishes,  and  other 
articles  in  the  Groat  Kxhibition,  disjdayed  line  ex- 
amples of  this  kinu  of  work ;  and  there  was  an  eques- 
trian statue  of  Queen  Klizabeth  produced  alinust  en- 
tirely by  this  remarkable  proi.ss. 

Reprisals.  Where  the  people  of  one  nation  have 
unlawfully  seized  and  detained  property  belonging  to 
another  state,  the  sulijeets  of  tlic  latter  are  authorized, 
by  the  law  of  nuliuns,  to  iiKleiiiiiil'y  tlieniselves  liy 
seizing  tlie  property  of  the  subjects  of  the  stale  aggress- 
ing. This  is  termed  mailing  reprisals;  niid  coiiiiiiis- 
sioiis  to  this  cII'lcI  are  issued  from  tlie  Aduiiralty. — 
iJee  Pun  ATKiius. 

Resiu  (.(ir.  ^ifTir;/;  from /hu,  I jlon-).  A  proximate 
principle  coinmoii  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  iilli- 
niate  coniponents  of  which  are  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hy- 
drogen. There  are  many  varieties  of  ii'sin.  Their  gener- 
al characters  arc  fusibility  and  iiitluniiii.iliility ;  .solubil- 
ity in  alcohol,  insolubility  in  water.  Tliey  are  general- 
ly separable  into  two  distinct  portions  liy  the  acliun  of 
cold  and  of  hot  alcohol.  They  are  vilualde  as  ingredi- 
ents in  varnishes,  and  several  of  them  are  used  in  iiiecli- 
cine.  They  are  often  naturally  blended  with  niodilicn- 
lions  of  gum,  in  which  case  they  constitute  the  series  nl' 
gum  reaina.  The  specilic  gravity  of  the  resins  varies  be- 
tween ruand  14.     They  become  negatively  electric  by 


friction.     The  commonest  resin  in  use,  usunlly  called 
ivsin,  is  obtained  by  distilling  turpentine :  the  volatile 
oil  passes  over,  and  the  rcsiu  rcmaius  iu  the  still. — Hee 
Gu.Ms  and  Oii.s. 
RespoudeuUa,  in  Commercial  law,  signiflcs  the 


hypothecation  of  the  cargo  of  a  ship,  on  condition* 
similar  to  those  upon  which  the  ship  and  freight  may 
bo  pledged— the  latter  being  called  a  bottomry  bond, 
The  security  of  tho  cargo  may,  indeed,  bo  given  by  the 
master  of  the  vessel,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  ship  and 
freight,  should  tho  last  two  bo  deemed  snllicient  secu- 
rity by  the  lender  of  the  money ;  but,  notwithstanding 
tho  cargo  may  in  this  case  form  the  principal  part  of 
tho  security,  still  such  loan  will  bo  eommonly  said  to 
bo  bottomry,  but  is  more  strictly  on  bottomry  and  re- 
spondentia.    Tho  right  which  a  master  possesses  of 
thus  pledging  the  cargo  is  undoubted,  and  is  a  natural 
consequence  of  the  jiower  which  is  invested  in  him  of 
disposing  of  part  of  tlio  cargo  in  case  of  extreme  neces- 
sity, and  which  is  to  be  exercised  by  liiiii  fur  the  bene- 
fit, to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  of  ail  coucorned.     Tho 
master  of  the  ship  is  not,  however,  justified  in  selling 
tho  whole  of  the  cargo,  for  that  would  defeat  the  ob- 
ject of  the  voyage  wliieh  tlie  repairs  are  intended  to 
carry  into  effect ;  nor  is  he  permitted  to  hypothecate 
tho  cargo  without  tlio  ship,  or  without  the  ship  and 
freight.     A  bottomry  bond  may  include  a  respondentia 
bond,  or  they  may  he  given  separately .     (jcnerally  all 
laws  applicable  to  respondentia  are  eiiually  so  upon 
liottomry,  but  the  reverse  is  not  iu  all  countries  tho 
case.  Uy  custom,  the  holder  of  the  bottomry  and  respon- 
dentia bond  after  judgment  lirst  receives  the  freight 
and  sells  the  ship,  and,  if  these  do  not  satisfy  his  claim 
and  the  expenses  of  legal  proceedings,  then  to  have  re- 
course upon  the  cargo ;  but  this  course  is  not  always 
imperative ;  he  may  sell  the  cargo,  and  leave  the  ship 
and  freignt.     In  such  case  the  owners  of  the  vessel  are 
responsible  for  any  loss  which  the  owners  of  the  cargo 
may  sustain,  over  and  above  the  proportion  of  general 
average  charges  on  the  cargo  and  tlio  bottomry  pre- 
mium thereon. 

A  rcspondcniia  or  bottomry  bond  is  an  assignable 
instrument,  and  is  usually  transmitted  to  an  agent  In 
the  place  named  as  the  termination  of  the  voyage,  v  ith 
legal  authority  for  him  to  receive  the  money,  or  insti- 
tute legal  proceedings  for  enforcing  payment.  Tlio 
general  rule  is,  that  the  power  of  the  master  to  give 
bottomry  or  res)}ondeutia  bonds  exists  only  after  flic 
voyage  has  camiiienecd,  and  is  to  bo  exercised  iu  some 
port  where  the  owner  docs  not  reside.  Itut  it  is  not  in- 
dispensable to  the  validity  of  a  hypothecation  that 
the  ship  and  cargo  bo  in  nj'unign  port.  The  law  looks 
mure  to  the  dillieulty  of  coniniunieation  between  the 
master  and  owner.  And  a  hypothteatiou  may  I  e  made 
in  another  port  of  the  same  country,  if  coinniunicatio:i 
with  the  owner  is  siibjeit  to  great  dillieulty  and  delay. 
The  bottomry  or  rcspondculia  bond  is  to  be  paid  before 
any  prior  insurance,  and  it  supersedes  a  previous  mort- 
gage on  the  ship.  If  there  is  more  than  one  bottomrj' 
bond,  they  take  precediiice  in  an  inverse  order  to  their 
dales.  The  last  bond  given  is  entitled  to  priority  of 
payment  over  all  others. 

The  position  taken  by  Lord  Mansfield,  that  the  lender 
on  bottomry  or  respondentia  is  not  liable  to  contribu- 
tion in  case  of  general  average,  has  been  niuili  and  just- 
ly questioned.  It  is  contrary  to  the  maritime  law  of 
I'raiice,  and  of  other  jiarts  of  liurope,  and  in  Louisiana 
there  is  a  decision  against  it.  It  scc:ins  conclusive  that 
if  the  lemler  ou  bottomry  owes  lliu  iireservation  of  the 
security  of  his  money  to  any  sacrifice  of  ship  or  cargo, 
ho  should  contribute  to  a  general  average  or  jetsam. 
— .Sie  liiiiTd.Miiv  and  Uksi-osdkntiA,  and  Xl.viini.MK 
LiUNs.  .Vi'C  «/«)  KiiSi's  L'umni.  vol.  iii.  ;  P.vk.'^oSh's 
Miirilimc  law. 

Revenue  and  Expenditure.    Tliough  not  prop- 
erly licliiiiging  to  a  work  of  this  sort,  we  believe  wo 
hall  do  ail  acceptable  service  to  our  readers  by  laying 


before  them  the  following  comprehensive  Table  of  tho 
revenue  and  expenditure  of  tho  world,  which  we  have 
compiled  from  Lkonu  I.kvi's  Coiiimeirin/  Iaup,  For 
an  exhibit  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  United 
States  from  1780-1857,  Me  artich  Vmieu  SxAiEa. 


REV 


1680 


REV 


liKvmim  AHD  Exp«m>rnTBB  of  thb  mmcn-AL  CncNTBiES  in  the  ■World. 


Aiutrlan  Empire. 
Brttliii  Empire'.. 


France, 


Brusiln. 


Busslan  Eirplro . 


United  SUtea. 
Bcraria 


Belgium, 


Brazil.... 

Denmark . 
Egypt.... 

Oreeco    . . 

Hamburg 
UoUaud.. 


Mexico 

Papal  States 

Portugal  . . . 
Sardliua. . . . 

Spain 


Sweden  and  Norway  . . 

Turkey 

TwoSlcllie 

China 

Colonies. 
Uritish  l^iHsessiont. 

Indies* 

Canada 

Cape  of  (rood  Hope  ,,. 

A  iiKtralia. 

Now  South  Wales 

Weatern 

South 

Jamaicp 

Ceylon 

llauritin/t 

SfMniih  I'oatfMtoni. 

Culja 

Dutch  roaxnrimn, 
Java 


BAVflnuB  in  Pounili  Sterling. 

"1951.    "" 

20,817,268 


JulyC  18.'>1. 
63,045,202 

Customs 20,558,037 

Excise U.6fl2,110 

Stamps 0,4'.IO,UI4 

Direct  tax 9,070,105 

Mbcellaneou.i . .    1,759,300 
1851-'62. 
55,132,193 


1851. 
14,204.244 

Direct  tax 8,064,202 

Indirect  tax....    4,60»,«45 
.Miscellaneous.,    0,040,037 


Customs  EstabllHlimcnt, 
1849 4,945,191 


1356. 

$7»,91S,141 

1849-'61. 

2,9119,143 

IMrect  lax 837,304 

Indirect  tax....    ],'J28,772 

Miscellaneous..     1,008,013 

Budget,  1350. 

4,630,432 

Undtax 734,890 

Custonia 467,400 

Excise S20,0fl0 

JieglBter's  tax  . .        83.'5.n00 

Miscellaneous..     1.783,042 

1S4T 1,968,351) 


1850 2,729,841 

1933 2,i:-.:6,725 

Now  al)ont  4,000,000 
1850 734,290 

1849 518,432 

IludKet,  1860. 

f>,8!l»,W0 

Direct  Uxes  . . .     1,633,333 

ludln'ct  taxes. .       75»,000 

Excise 1,618. 790 

MiHccllaneoua. .     1,188,411 

1849 3,,100,000 

1943 1,475,000 

Both  ,Inno,  1849. 
2,314..Xi3 

1850 3,030,988 

1850. 

11,470,282 

Direct  taxes  . . .     3,337,800 

Indirect  taxes. .     1,805,(M)0 

Cnstoms 1,T.V.',I1I0 

Miscelluncoim..    4,570,482 
laTfl. 

Sweden 883,081 

Norway 588,401 

Estimate  .  3,000,000 

1836 4,.')11,222 

F>tilnate. 
68,034,173 

1848-'49. 

17.692,010 

18'.8 574,040 

1845 224,0116 

184,8. 
400,847 

1848 18.404 

1*48 119,023 

1847 247.1W2 

1848 411,766 

1847 861,293 

184a 

2,060.000 
Dutch  East  India,  1844. 
6,  SOI  ,804 


Elpegdltuw  In  PouinU  Slarlioy. 

1861. 

27,702,952 

Interest  on  debt. .     0,103,!  09 

War 10,ii80,2tiO 

Commerce 8,378.076 

Mlscelhincous 7,884, 108 

July  6,  1861. 

50,012,470 

Interest  on  debt . .  23.894,477 

Term,  ann 3,700,133 

Army  and  Nary..  13,061.674 

Jastico 1,(109,073 

Miscellaneous. . . .     8,2U2,21U 
18.'il-'62. 
57,678,674 


1861. 
14,521,944 

War 4,030,808 

Interest  on  debt . ,  1,434,135 

Trade 1,162,8,83 

Justice 1,353.2119 

Miscellaneous....  0,544,81!) 


1R80. 

$72,948,792 

1849-'51. 

8,152,096 

Inter-st  on  debt . .       013.833 

Am- 711.883 

Mia  jlianeouB 520,430 

Budget,  1860. 

4,070,200 

Intel  r  It  on  debt . .     1 ,430,485 

War I,071.n8» 

Public  works  ....        633,562 
Miscellaneous, . . .     1,534,479 


lS45-'4 


8,578,412 


18.%0 2,673,007 

1853 2,102,525 

1850 721,279 

1849 670,925 

Budget,  1.8,50. 
5,803,028 

Pnbllcdcbt 3,035.838 

War 879,8:13 

Marine 443.033 

Mlsctillaneous 1,444,824 

1849 l,(!6fl,000 

1S43 1.060,000 

Juno  00, 1849. 
2,602.300 

1950 4,410,000 

1860. 
11,409,075 

War 8,1.34,684 

Debt 1,001.869 

Clergy l.M7,346 

Miscellaneous. . . .    6,780,776 
1850. 

Sweden 092,900 

Norway 688,401 

185is'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."4,5i3il26 

194S-'49. 

20,017,339 

1848 605.403 

1846 218,910 

1*48. 
25>,638 

1849 17.886 

1848 80,811 

1S47 292,o;i7, 

1848 431,.325 

1847 289,194 

1844. 

1.093,5,'iO 
Dutch  East  India,  1844. 

6,201,808 


Public  Debt  in  Pound*  Sterling. 

1848^;'4E  ■ 

99,770,665 

Bearing  interest 83, 170,608 

Add  to  Jan.  31,  1850 . .  10,600,00 


1860. 
787,029,108 


1861. 

201,016,027 

Consolidated  debt  . .  .180,3«,9Ba 

Flouting  debt 20,629,091 

1851. 
27,392,832 

r.eneml  debt 28,010,443 

Provin.    debt,   pro-  ) 
vided  for  by  tlie  J     1,2(0,082 

State ) 

Treasurj- bills  with- >      oiofloM 
out  interest /     ".l''*.^'*'* 

1850 63,i;34,752 

Term,  debt,  Dutch  . .     6,010,589 

Do.  dimiestlc 10,921,568 

Perm,  stock,  foreign)    „.  .„.  ».„ 
and  domestic.."./   »«.C96.8<'3 
1865. 
$39,909,731 

1860. 
12,261,609 


May  1,  1860. 
26,057,840 


12,810.870 
1847. 

Internal  debt 0,023,826 

1843. 

Foreign  debt 0,187,060 

1850 12,000,000 

None. 

1850 2,484,840 

Bavarian  debt 127,444 

ltoUi-,.,.,.ld 2.358,750 

1849 2,460,260 

1850. 
102,663,484 
National  debt  a  2i  . . .  68.042,833 
"  "    a8    ...  10.071,406 

"  "   n  81  . . .  19,803.375 

Miscellaneous 4,040,871 

1849 20.000,000 

14,040,000 

1849. 
10,832,107 

1880 15,200,000 

1660. 
156,130,878 


7,000,000 
Estimate 20,000,000 

1848. 

43,085,203 

1848 4,281,974 


BHO 


1631 


RHO 


),00« 


bo.ooo 


k  1,974 


AtedA  liland,  ono  of  the  United  States  of  Amcr- 
U»,  aftd  tlie  smiillcst  State  in  the  Union,  being  about 
49  tuikta  long  anil  29  broad,  containing  1200  square 
l«H«!ij  of  *hlch  IflO  is  included  in  Nurrugnnaet  13av. 
Pwtuirtllofl  In  1790  was  58,825;  in  1800,  09,122;  in 
l»fO,  f 0,981 ;  In  1820,  88,059 ;  in  1830, 97,212 ;  in  1840, 
10«,S80)  8h<l  in  1850, 147,646. 

hifli/  J/lt(vry.—Tbo  country  round  the  Narragan- 
Hl  l<»y  And  to  tile  west  of  it  is  in  the  lirst  old  worl<s 
8fid  trtaps  generally  named  Narragansets,  or  the  Sarru- 
fflimell  C'dunlry.  The  colonists  at  Plymouth  dlscover- 
♦"il  Htiii  entered  this  country  already  in  tlie  first  years 
tit  ttw  existence  of  their  town.  Koger  Williams  was 
th«  (ifst  settler  in  this  territory.  He  and  sonic  other 
dJMetittits  and  refugees  from  Massachusetts  founded 
htlfe  the  towns  of  Providence,  Kowiwrt,  and  I'orts- 
mdlthi  They  united  all  in  one  government  in  tlio 
fenf  lfl48,  under  the  name  "  Incorporation  of  I'rori- 
lletlL'P  i'lilnimhni ;"  or,  as  they  ore  styled  in  King 
(/(latles  l^itst's  patent  of  that  year,  "  lucorporationa 
tit  t'roViilelice  VUmttitions  m  mir  Naragansetts  Bmj,  in 
S'hi'  lilifftimd."  In  the  year  1055  Cromwell  writes  to 
tills  (olohy  under  the  following  address  or  title:  "T"© 
gUf  ii'tll-betoveJ  inhabitants  o/  Uhode  Island,  together 
wllh  the  test  nf  the  Providence  riantationn ;"  and  tliis, 
1  ItclJere,  is  the  first  time  that  the  name  Rhode  Island 
is  «p(iliei1  to  a  greater  extent  of  the  territorj-  of  a  firuv- 
itk'tfj  As  the  name  of  an  island  '1  w  us,  however,  al- 
Mfldj'  fot  solie  time  in  existence. 

Ofijllii  Iff  the  Name. — Tliis  island,  the  1  irgcst  in  Nar- 
Mj|n(i?pt  Uay,  was  called  by  tho  Indiai  s  Aquiday,  or 
A((Uedliet,  or  Aqtietneck,  which  is  said  to  signily  Gar- 
d*«  Island.  In  tho  first  volume  of  tho  Coluiiied  llec- 
©Wfei  pi  120,  in  the  proceedings  of  the  General  Court  of 
Rlwtloli,  or  Heneral  Assembly,  March,  10-14,  is  tho  fol- 
Ut^Mff !  "  ll  is  ordered  by  this  Court,  that  tho  Yfland 
WrtHiHofily  called  Aquethneck,  s'uall  be  from  henceforth 
miM  the  Isle  of  lihodes,  or  Khodo  Island."  Soino 
S»(ic«t  Htithors  write  thu  name  "  Island  ef  Iil:uih.i," 
*Hd  it  hns  lieen  suggested  that  tho  name  was  dcrivsd 
y(  {be  old  tireciaii  island  of  this  name.  It  is  in  this 
f»i!>(*({  a  curious  fact  that  already  the  old  French  nav- 
i^ttluf  Vettflzano,  the  first  modem  explorer  who  touch- 
ed this  jjatt  of  the  American  coast,  pronounced  tho 
fltttlM  of  Hhodes  in  connectio)-.  with  this  bay.  lie  dis- 
tO¥eted  ill  these  waters  nn  island  (supposed  liy  some  to 
itt  (lie  island  now  known  as  Martha's  Vineyard),  which 
he  I  ttttlpntes,  in  respect  to  size  and  appe.iranco,  to  tho 
MtlllA  lit  lihodes,  in  tlie  Mediterranean.  This  wi>s  read 
itt  llai'iilyt,  and  i..  t'  •-ossible  that  John  Clarli.  and  his 
tftrntfAftifrtls  (tho  first  settlers  on  A(|uetneck)  took  oc- 
Sttfjolt  ffotn  this  circumetanco  to  name  thcif  island, 
'file  Mine  was  afferward  given  to  the  whole  country 
fimuA  Sattttganset  Ilnv,  ^  iich  also  was  soniitimcs 
««Hwl  Hilnde  Isliiud  ila'y.  In  the  year  100:1  the  col- 
Wll»{|>  lit  that  eouuf  ry  obtained  from  ('harlcs  I.  a  char- 
t«t'  #((l(ll  Ihcorporfltcd  their  commiinit  \  iiii  Icr  tho  name 
tif  llw  "  ('iituiig  n/Mnile  Island  and  i'roiidence  I'lan- 
llllleHUi"  The  Narraganset  country,  lying  south  of 
W(*fWtl'k.  Was  also  sometimes  c:\lled  The  Kind's  Prov- 
ilii"  'Jne  (itesent  legal  and  official  name  is  still  Rhode 
htilHii  tind  Priividencit  PlaiUations,  but  commonly  tho 
mim  k  mads  shorter,  Slala  '/Mode  Island.— i.  G. 
Moltf,, 

i'hgflcit!  fmtiiret,  rtc— This  Stito  on  the  north  and 
W«»t  N  hilly  and  broken,  but  becomes  gradually  level 
Ui¥iMi\  tho  «fla.  Tlie  islands  in  Narraganset  Ilay  are 
rtiiti(((iu|phe<l  by  their  pleasing  and  diversified  sconci-y 
«Hd  fpflile  soil.  The  climato  is  healthy,  particularly 
I'H  the  i^laMds,  where  the  sea-breezes  have  tho  cft'cct 
«/t  ottly  of  tnittgating  tho  heat  in  summer,  but  inodcr- 
"(titljj  the  ':ol(I  in  winter,  and  rendering  tho  climate 
tml}-  dell((litfu:.  The  rivers,  though  not  largo,  fur- 
fllsl*  tmny  fine  mill  seats,  which  are  extensively  used 
fitt  tHAnufactUring  purposes.  The  principal  are  Paw- 
♦IWM,  IVoVidence,  Pawtuxet,  Pawoatuck,  and  Wood 
Miv((M,     Narragansot  Bay  is  a  fine  body  of  water. 


and  nontaina  a  nnrtiher  of  beantlfVil  and  fertile  Islnnd.s. 
Among  them  is  Khode  Island,  which  gives  name  to 
the  State.  Iron  ore  and  anthracite  coul  are  found  to 
some  extent;  nmrlilc,  limestone,  freestone,  and  otiier 
building  stone.  Tliere  were  in  tliis  Stuto  in  1850, 
850,487  acres  of  land  improved,  and  197,451  of  unim- 
proved land  in  farms ;  cash  value  of  farms  $17,()7O,H02, 
and  tho  value  of  implements  and  machiuerv  $4',i7,201. 
Lice  67oci-.— Horses,  0108 ;  milch  cow.s,  28,098  ;  work- 
ing oxen,  8189 ;  otiier  cattle,  9375 ;  sheep,  44,290 ; 
swine,  19,5U9 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $1,532,037. 

liailrnnds  and  /Imks.—ln  1850  tlicre  were  85  miles 
of  railroad  in  Rhode  Island.  In  1859  there  were  38 
banks  in  Providence,  and  53  in  other  portions  of  the 
State. 


Ciphsl. 

'^iroiitation.    1       0<'i>..si(». 

I'rovldencu 

Other  iiUccs 

Total 

$14,69(1,000 
r,ll03,(infl 

*l,'.ltll,l|0il  i  jS-j,:ij.i,o,io 
1,401,(1(10   1         hj(l,(l(lll 

$^(l,2»3,0U0 

$3,:j«t,(io»  1  $;i,i+),(i(Hi 

Lo»M 

Specln. 

Uiiali  DepMlt.. 

I'rovideitcG 

Other  places 

Total 

*1S,3'^7,UOO 

7,173,0(10 

$26,500,000 

$375,I«HI 
195,(KlO 

$I-.!1,(J00 
39(1,000 

$:i7ii,(iiHi 

$l,in,IKKl 

Manufactures,  etc.  —  Thero  were  in  the  State  in 
1850,  158  cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  invested  of 
50,075,000,  employing  4959  males  and  501'!  females, 
producing  90,725,012  yards  of  sheetings,  etc.,  an(l 
1,902,980  jjounds  of  thread  and  yam,  valued  at 
40,447, li'O  ;  45  woolen  factories,  witli  a  capital  of 
$1,013,000,  miploying  987  males  and  771  females,  inan- 
ufactuiiiig  K,0]2,400  yards  of  cloth  and  10,1100  pounds 
of  yarn,  valued  at  i'2,:i81,825 ;  20  ostalili>binonts,  with 
a  capital  of  §428,800,  employing  800  persons,  and  mak- 
ing 8558  tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  6728,705 ;  1 
establishment,  with  a  capital  of  $208,000,  employing 
220  persons,  manufacturing  2050  tons  of  wrought  iron, 
vaUiod  at  §222,400 ;  29  flouring  and  grist  mills,  51  saw- 
mills, 8  tanneries,  20  printing-offices,  5  daily,  2  semi- 
weekly,  and  12  weekly  publications. 

TOSNAQB  or  liuoni!  Island,  .Tune  30, 1658,  with  DOMnsrio 

KXI'OUTS. 


I 


IVrmiuient.  Tem|(ornry. 


I      Tom. 

Providence i    7,'.i84 

llristul I  11,:W3 

Xiwnirt I    n."H:i 


Tons. 

i,;iss 

3,092 
1,377 


EiirotlRil  An<J 
Lit'ensed.    ' 


Tons. 
11,'H 

l,'-'t.'. 
4.f>'/i 


I^xpor(s. 

'  $II-',-Hl 
'99.T.7 


Priiieijicd  Ports. — Newport  is  situated  on  tlie  south- 
west slioro  of  Rhode  Island,  twenty-eiglit  miles  soutli 
from  Providence,  imdlivo  miles  from  tho  oceon.  Tho 
harbor  is  ono  of  tho  best  in  tho  I'nitod  States,  and  is 
well  defended.  Its  site  is  l)eautif(il,  and  of  late  years 
it  has  been  much  resorted  to  in  the  summer  season. 
Its  shippi..g  is  mainly  cmploj-ed  in  the  whale  fislw:rips 
and  coasting  trade :  its  manufactures  are  various,  iind 
of  considerablo  extent.  Tho  tonnage  of  Newjiort  in 
1850  was  11,0-10  tors,  and  in  1857, 12,308  tons. 

Providence,  a  city,  and  principal  port  of  entry  In 
Rhodo  Island,  situated  in  lat.  41°  49'  22"  N.,  long. 
71°  24'  28"  W.  Providence  has  great  cominerciul 
facilities,  whicli  have  been  well  improved.  The  har- 
bor is  at  the  head  of  Narraganset  Bay,  thirty-three 
miles  from  the  ocean,  is  spacious,  and  has  sufficient 
deptli  of  water  for  largo  ships.  The  tonnage  of  Prov- 
idence was  19,305  tons  in  1850,  and  22,343  tons  in 
1857. 

Bristol,  l)etween  Mount  Hope  Bay  and  Xatragan- 
set  Bay,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  great  facilities  for 
navigation.  Tho  tonnage  in  1850  was  2902  tons,  and 
in  1857, 15,152  tons. 

Tlio  public  revenue  of  Rliode  Islimd  for  'ie  fiscal  y«»r 
ending  AprU  30, 1857,  was  §200,400 ;  viz.,  direct  tax, 
§52,407  ;  tax  on  banks,  §83,00-1 ;  licenses  of  peddlers 
and  auctioneers,  §5221 ;  iusuranco  companies,  §4320 ; 
from  courts,  §10,118 ;  interest,  $30,100 ;  misccUanaous, 
§11,034. 


KHO 


1682 


RHU 


FoBiiGM  CoiUKicE  OP  TB»  Staib  ot  Riioa*  Isi  vNn  ?B0ij  OoTOBRK  1, 18!M,  to  July  1,  1861,  biiowino  aibo  the  DI8- 

lElCT  Tos.M.wlh    IS  1821,  1831,  1811,  AND  18B1. 


Y«n  endioi 

Kiporu. 

Imporu. 

ToDDaga  c 

(»n<I. 

Ul.lrlcl  Toiin«K».          1 

PomHtle. 

rmtlgr. 

ToUl. 

Toml. 

Amcrimn. 

KotBlun. 

Rrglitered. 

Kiirolleil  and 
Mceiiied. 

8ej.t,30,  1831 

!|i4Sl,80r) 

$ni5,4«3 

lt»>(IO,328 

$1,032,008 

21,814 

107 

28,456 

10,883 

1822. 

(l()l,2S8 

MI,  125 

8««,8flS 

1,894,144 

24,49«> 

1823 

ftJO.OU 

413,5I)() 

<.«3,114 

1,412,0.'.3 

28,9.0 

<   •   •  • 

t  ■  • . 

1824 

r>66,l>»'i 

81(J,:ii7 

872,8,10 

1,389,336 

24,080 

, , 

1828 

,llo,^s) 

15^.H7M  , 

«7m,467 

«07,1I00 

28,023 

1828 

1)08,370 

210, IT" 

781,540 

1,185,084 

23,046 

1827 

!)iio,n7 

208,01(1 

S04,l«7 

1,:41,928 

2l,86;i 

1S28 

!>41,«7.') 

180,4.1 

722,106 

1,128,226 

20,300 

.  .  .  • 

18i) 

337,4I>S 

h2,'.ll;' 

3;i0,381 

423,011 

15,621 

•  .  .  • 

1830 

Tot.l... 

20C,(W) 

71,08f) 

278,050 

4^9,766 

14,004 

$4,'.'27,<I43 

$2,3113,858 

!!'7,«20,8'J& 

$11,O.!4,S03 

212,700 

107 

Sept.  80,1S3I 

lji343,2,',n 

$10,215 

$;i07,4«6 

$802,161 

22,78T 

24,010 

0,644 

1833 

377,050 

l.'.0,90;l 

534,15) 

(),')7,'.'0.i 

20,072 

80 

. .  •  • 

1838 

830,*!'.) 

1.H013 

4'%'>.4S1 

1,042,286 

20,1.12 

i.s;i 

1834 

420,985 

80,741 

Ml,026 

427,024 

26,223 

401 

1835 

132,300 

113.137 

2Sfl,o03 

807,713 

20,!  73 

762 

1830 

212,2,lT 

10.123 

223.420 

5;)!>,1!.0 

24,1.24 

1,102 

1887 

411,800 

7ii.45'.- 

4SS.25S 

523.010 

22,.')94 

120 

183S 

2i.i,ooe 

2(,lii2 

2  1 1,267 

050,013 

27,728 

2!16 

1S3'.I 

175,;  ,)S 

ii,42C 

|8f>,234 

010,431 

22,85f) 

Oil) 

1810 

Total... 

203,00(1 

8,083 

200,09  1 

274,1)34 
$5,1107,640 

17,430 
28- 

.... 

$G.->1,0S4 

,$3,585,  Iii3 

\B64 

Spjil.  .10, 1S41 

$2(10,270 

$12,191 

$279,40r, 

$330,61)2 

737 

20,lGy 

J5,921 

1842 

833,437 

2D,261 

849,0;i« 

823,002 

i;.,. 

7311 

fliiuw.,   1S43' 

10S,'Ji)2 

555 

10.'),847 

156,753 

,646 

.liinoBO,  1S41 

257,003 

8,175 

200,777 

200,437 

,«1 

1,783 

194.') 

190,141 

SJJ 

lOl.n.Vi 

274,  mm 

5<iP 

I'.fl 

1840 

'.^20,010 

4,845 

224,:i(14 

210. 4'*  1 

,- 

785 

1847 

191.484 

086 

102.800 

B(i5,4s,i 

14,1-.) 

1,078 

1848 

215,81' , 

5,771 

221,631 

U>1.5.i() 

10,310 

(1,148 

1840 

172,0;jl 

MOl 

178,152 

2.17. 47!( 

16,60.9 

2,315 

18B0 

Totol... 

200,2!'il 

0,000 

210,205 

258,303 

16,776 

1,705 

.... 

•  f  •  • 

*2,Ut,n.)l 

$08,647 

$2,217,5.18 

$3,i2(),169 

104,8  5 

13,425 

.... 

.... 

,7imc  30,  isr>l 

$223,404 

$14,373 

i,.i37,777 

$810,030 

10,881 

3,747 

24,  m 

1S,8R3 

ISRJ 

174,' 15 

5,000 

170.175 

210,090 

14,010 

2,013 

1SS3 

803.4:4 

S.031 

310,436 

306,110 

16,301 

7,077 

lHr.4 

42«,040 

13,'..85 

480,>iSl 

487,072 

17,841 

7,;il0 

18i>6 

331,287 

4,736 

330,023 

630,337 

17,210 

fl.474 

iseo 

3.13,224 

14,100 

407,374 

345,903 

10,141 

0,122 

18fiT 

644,173 

8,173 

fi62,351 

B15,4'12 

21,000 

11,078 

.... 

.... 

Kinc  iiioulha  lu  Juno  30,  and  the  fiscal  year  from  tlild  timu  begiiiK  July  1. 

Rhodes,  ii  .«on-)iort  of  Asiatic  Ttirliey,  ciiiital  of  th«  '  redder  elinde.  — Thomson's  nhppnsatnr)! ;  Aimslik's 
island  of  Itliodcs,  nt  its  nortlienst  extr(.inity,  tliirtoen    .Mat.  Iiidica,  etc. 


miles  southea.st  tlic  nearest  promontory  of  Asia  Minor. 
I,at.  of  moUi  m°  '.'()'  0"  N.,  long.  28°  1!!'  E.      i'opo- 


Tlie  palmated  rlinlinrli  (lilieum  palmnliim)  is  a  peren- 
nial, native  of  liussia  and  soi.ic  )iar  ^  of  Asia,  wlicnce 


liitioTi  aljotit  15,000,  of  whom  8000  are  Tiirlis.  and  iidOO  the  dried  root  i.s  Imported  Into  this  ountrj-  for  medici- 
,h'\\f.  On  tlie  nortlieast  side  two  piers  project  to  in-  j  nal  purposes.  Large  quantities  of  the  roots  are  also 
dose  a  liarlior,  having  in  it<  centre  from  si.xteen  to    annually  crllected  for  cx|«)rtation  in  the  Chinese  prov- 


eijjlilern  feet  water,  and  on  its  north  siile  Is  another 
jiort  of  nearly  efjual  depth. 

Rhubarb  (Do.  Itlmlmrln  r  ,•  ]•>.  Uhiibarh',  Jinbarbe; 
It.  Ji'dhmbtnv,  Jiio-hnrbmi ;  iSp.  Jtiiibarbo ;  Boss.  Ue- 
Hfn;  Arab.  Jiatremlj  C'liiii.  Ta-liirdm/),  tlio  root  of  a 
plant,  a  nativr  of  Cliina  undTartuiy.  Three  varieties 
of  rhulMirl)  are  known  in  the  shops ;  viz.,  Uiissian,  Tor- 
key,  and  East  Indian  or  ('hincso  rhuharl).  The  first 
two  re^emlde  ea(  li  other  in  every  re.spcet.     They  lire, 


inces,  within  the  lofty  range  of  the  HImalnyos.  The 
best  is  that  which  eoines  by  the  way  of  Kussia,  lis 
greater  care  i^  taken  In  the  selection;  and,  on  its  ar- 
rival at  .Kiachtu,  within  the  Russian  frontiers,  the  roots 
are  all  cai^fiilly  e.xamincd,  and  the  damaged  pieces  de- 
!  litroyed.  'I'his  Is  the  tine  article  of  the  shops,  improp- 
erly  called  "  Turkey"  rhubarb.  That  of  the  best  (iiial- 
I  ity  occurs  In  small  pieces,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  of 
j  each,  made  in  tlm  fresh  root,  to  facilitate  the  operatiou 
in  fuct.  the  same  nrticlo,  being  both  derived  from  Tar-  •  of  drying.  '1  he  colcr  is  a  lively  yellow,  strr.  ',ed  witli 
lary.  The  portici  .'cstincd  for  the  i'etersburg  market  white  and  red.  Its  te.xturc  is  (1  nse,  and,  when  re- 
Iwing  selected  a;.a  sori"d  at  Kiachta,  ac()uiro8  the  name  j  duced  to  powder,  't  is  entirely  yellow.  The  Chinese 
of  liiissian  rhubarb;  wli'lo  the  |K)rtion  that  i.s  sent  from  rhubarb,  called  by  the  native.?  Ta  lironngnr  Jfnihauiii/, 
Tartary  to  Smyrna  and  other , 'aces  in  Turkey  Is  called  is  cidtivated  ehiefly  in  the  province  of  Chersee.  As 
Turkey  rhuliarb.  The  best  jiieces  only  are  sent  to  I'e-  imported,  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  F.o«  Indian" 
tersburg;  and  in  cording  to  tlio  contract  with  the  gov-  .  rhubarb,  and  conies  In  larger  masses,  more  conipiict 
enimcnt,  on  whose  ai  count  It  i.i  Iwiight,  all  that  H  re-  and  hard,  heavier,  less  friable,  and  n"t  so  fine  in  the 
jei-ted  must  be  burned  ;  and  that  which  is  ajiproved  grain  as  the  other,  end  having  less  of  an  aromatic 
undergoes  a  second  cleaning  liel'orebLing  finally  packed  flavor.  This  species  has  been  introduced  Into  Kn- 
iip  for  rctersliiirg.  The  bi  >t  pieces  of  Kiissiaii  and  gland,  where  it  has  been  extensively  cultivated;  and 
Turkey  rhtiliarl)  are  roundish,  and  perforated  with  a  there  is  little  doult,  therefore,  of  its  proving  perfectly 
large  liole,  of  a  reddish  or  yello\s  color  on  the  outside,  hardy  in  many  parts  of  our  own  country.  Large  quun- 
nnd  »  hen  cut  or  broken  exhibit  a  motthd  texture,  and  titles  are  annually  imporleil,  the  cost  of  which  might 
alternate  streaks  ofred  and  gray.  Its  odor  is  peculiar,  bo  saved  If  its  culture  were  successfully  prosecuted 
and  its  tiLste  nauseous,  bitter,  and astringen*,  Itshould  hero,  and  wc  might  thus  add  to  our  productive  re- 
not  be  piirous,  but  rather  compact  and  heavy.  Kast  j  sources.  In  the  middle  and  coole.-- parts  of  the  l.'nited 
ladian  or  Cliineso  rhubarb  is  in  ob'ong  flat  pieces,  sel-  ;  States,  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in  Marih,  in  n  gentle 
dom  perforated ;  has  a  stronger  odor,  and  is  nioro  nau-  hot-bed,  and,  when  the  roots  are  about  an  eighth  of  an 
seous  to  the  taste  than  the  other ;  it  is  heavier,  more  1  inch  in  dikmeter,  they  may  be  carefiUy  drawn  up,  pre- 
•  ompact,  breaks  smoother,  and  affords  a  powder  of  a  I  serving  the  tap-root,  and  planted  In  a  lino,  rich,  and 


RHU 


1G33 


HIC 


peren- 
whcncc 
nieiUoi- 
(ire  also 
ese  prov- 
Thc 
•-sia,  lis 
its  ar- 
the  roots 
lieces  ilf- 
improp- 
)CBt  <iua!- 
nUldle  of 
penitiiiu 
,0(1  witli 
lien  10- 
Chinese 
vhiiuiii/, 
•see.     As 
Indiiin" 
compiirt 
10  ill  tlio 
nroniatii' 
into  F.n- 
teJ ;  and 
porfectly 
■gc  qnun- 
L-h  miglit 
•osccuted 
ctiv2  rc- 
le  United 
B  gentle 
th  of  au 
up,  pre- 
icb,  end 


deep  soil,  hut  not  too  ipuch  so,  lost  tlio  roots  licconio    Forming,  at  It  dnni,  the  prliu'lpiil  part  lit  ilia  ftKid  of 

too  flbrouB.     Tha  largent  siiecimcns  of  this  drug  liuvo   tho  most  civilized  and  populiiii»  y.mfrn  liiitloiin,  It  U 

generally  been  allcwed  to  grow  six  or  8e\  jn  years ;    more  extensively  consumed  thiiii  ail)'  iitlit-r  hihicIiw  of 

the  roots  are  then  very  large,  Bometnues  «  eighing  from   grain.     It  is  light  ami  wliolesuiuB,  Imt  i«  milil  to  roll- 

thirty  to  fifty  pounds.    The  Chinese  talie  up  their  rhu-   tain  less  of  tlie  nutritive  priiKiiple  than  whoai,    wiicii 

barb  In  winter.     Pallas  says  that  the  Tartars  tal«e  up   rough,  or  in  its  natural  statu  in  tha  hunk,  It  l»  iiilled 

theirs  in  April  and  May;   but  Forster,  in  his  JlUtonj  paddy.     There  is  an  iniiiien»«  variety  III  tlin  iiiiuIUIck 

"/  Voyaga  in  the  JVortA,  with  more  reason,  affirms   of  rice.    Thatwhicli  is  prlmlpiilly  uxportwd  ffi'm  IIbii- 

that  thn  roots  are  dug  up  in  winti<r,  because  tiiey   gal  has  received  tho  name  of  mrm  il.n,     It  |h  of  a 

then  contain  tho  entire  juice  and  virtuo  of  the  plant,  as   coarse  reddish  cast,  liut  is  sweet  and  lar««  Kfaliittil  ntid 

tliose  talien  up  in  summer  are  of  a  liglit,  spongy  tex-    is  preferred  Ijy  the  natives  to  ovHry  titlinr  mirt.    'it  Is 

ture,  and  unfit  for  use.     In  Tartaiy,  after  being  thor-  j  not  kiln-dried,  but  is  parboiled  In  iiurtliarii  iKitit  of 

oughly  cleansed,  and  the  small  radicles  cut  off,  tho  |  caldrons,  partly  to  dustroy  tha  vBgiitiitlvB  prliii'liili'  w 

roots  are  cut  transversely  into  pieces  of  a  moderate   that  it  may  keep  better,  and  partly  In  fucllUalu  tlin 

size ;  those  are  then  placed  on  long  tables  or  boards,  ]  process  of  husking.     I'atnu  rlin  Is  iiinr<<  xcttttiliiod  In 

and  turned  three  or  four  times  a  day,  in  order  that  tho  ,  Kurope  than  any  other  sort  of  riro  iiiipiirti'd  friim  the 

yellow,  viscid  juice  may  incorporate  with  the  sulistanco    l';a.st.     It  is  sniall-gniineil,  ratliur  long  and  wiry  ami 

of  the  root.     If  this  juice  be  suffered  to  run  out,  tho  i  remarkably  white.     Hut  tho  rluu  -iiiwiil  nu  Hiti  |»w 

roots  become  light,  and  of  but  little  value  ;  and  if  they    marshy  grounds  of  .South  Carollim  U  IllKitieiillDiiMlily 

are  not  cut  within  five  or  six  days  after  they  are  dug   very  superior  to  any  brought  i.  iii  any  part  of  India, 

up,  they  become  soft,  and  rapidly  decay.     Four  or  fivo    It  may,  pcrhajis,  be  worth  inentloiiliig  that  rii «,  like 

days  after  tliey  are  cut,  holes  are  made  through  them,    wlieat,  oats,  and  barley,  is  not  liidigeiiiiuK  In  Aiiitirlcn, 

and  they  are  hung  up  to  .Iry,  exposed  to  the  air  and  '.  It  was  first  raised  in  South  Candllia  friilll  hi-biIh  briillglit 

wind,  but  sheltered  from  th^i  sun.     Thus  in  aliout  two    from  Madagascar,  near  thn  end  of  tllii  I7tll  Cflitlify, 

months  the  roots  arn  compUtely  cured.     The  loss  of    Its  culture  increased  so  rapidly  that  III  \1U  iiii  fdwpr 

weight  in  drying  is  very  considerable,  seven  parts  in    th.m  18,000  tierces,  or  barrels,  wiifn  BHporliid.'-'I'ft- 

weight  of  tho  green  root  yielding  only  one  part  of  that    kin's  Sialislks,  IS.IS.    Aicordliig  to  tiiu  rctiiriin  lliidiif 

which  is  t.<rfectly  dry.     The  Chinese  method  is  sonic-   tho  census  of  la-10,  the  total  annual  prodiii'o  of  rice  lii 

what  dilTt/ent.     They  peel  the  roots,  cut  tUem  into    the  United  States  was  estimated  at  HO,H|l,.|^i!  llm,, 

sliiiis,  and  dry  them  on  stone  slabs,  under  whicli  fires    whereas  under  the  cenmis  of  IM.'iO  It  wiii«  intliiiatdd 

are  khiilled;  but  as  this  process  is  not  sufficient  to  dry  '  at  215,31i,000  lbs.,  or  aliovo  'M,W)»  tons,  „('  wlilijh 

them  perfectly,  they  make  a  hole  through  each  of  tlio   159,9;)0,G13  lbs.  were  raised  in  Huiitli  ('arolliia  |  and  in 

pieces,  and  suspend  them  on  strings — some  say  ex-    1850,  213,540,000  llis. 

posfil  to  the  .sun,  while  others  assert  that  they  are  j      The  produce  of  lands  naturally  or  artificially  Irrlgn. 
hung  in  the  shade.  |  ted  is,  as  far  as  rice  is  concerned,  from  flvfl  to  ten  llliiBH 

Rhumb,  a  circle  on  the  earth's  surface,  making  a  |  greater  than  that  of  dry  laiid  having  no  iniMliiiiitd  of 
g;ivcn  angle  with  the  meridian  of  the  place,  marking  .  water;  and  hence  tho  vast  iinportmieo  of  li-flyiitloti  In 
tiio  ,lirection  of  uv  oljject  through  which  it  passes,  all  countries  where  this  gniin  Is  cultivated.  Hut  It  U 
Tlie  divisions  on  tlic  compass  card  are  called  rhumbs,  wortliy  of  remark  tliat,  owing  to  tho  not  titifr<ir(M('lit 
— See  MuRCAToit  s  (il  akt.  i  occurrence  of  severe  droughts,  tliero  Is  a  gfuiiter  varla. 

Rhumb  Lice.  In  Sural  affairs,  the  track  of  a  '  tion  in  the  crops  of  rice  than  in  tliosii  of  any  ntlifr 
ship  which  (Ills  all  the  meridians  at  the  same  angle;  species  of  grain.  Those  wlio,  ilka  the  lllmloiw,  ilcpunil 
called  also  the  Injiidriimir  iiirrc.  This  being  the  sim- '  almost  entirely  on  it  for  suhsisteiieo,  ai'B  coliiii<i|ii>'titly 
plest  curve,  is  Mm  route  universally  pursued;  but  a  '  placed  in  a  very  precarious  situutlun,  Tlii'i'it  mil  liit 
siiip  tailing  im  this  curve  never  looks  direct  for  her  j  no  doubt  tliat  lamines  aro  at  oiieo  mora  frei|in'iil  nild 
port  until  it  comes  in  siglit.  A  great  meridian  circle  severe  in  lliiidostau  than  in  any  otliur  couiitl"^ ,  IrBliiIld 
would  lie  tha  shortest  distance  between  any  two  points;  .  excepted. 

but  in  order  to  follow  such  a  cirele,  the  course  of  tho  :  Culliralion  in  the  United  Sliiira. — Itli'a  In  tlm  chief 
.ship  would  have  to  be  constantly  clmngiiig,  and  witli ;  food,  perliajis,  of  or.e-tliird  of  tho  Iiiiiimiii  rni'ii  |  \iii»- 
such  varl.itions  as  to  make  it  practically  impossible.  ,  sesses  tho  advantage  attending  wheat,  liMilzii,  nild 
Ribboiia,  or  Ribands  (Fr.  li.ibni.  dr  Soie;  Ger.  other  grains,  of  preserving  plenty  during  the  llMetim- 
Hand;  It.  Saslm  di  Sida ;  Sp.  C/h?«  (/««'>'((/«),  a  name  tions  of  trade;  andis  aho  sasecptildo  of  ei(!'lviitlmi(m 
given  to  silken  I  ilids  of  various  widths  ami  colors,  laud  too  low  and  moist  for  the  production  of  iiKwtotluif 
much  used  liy  female.'  for  head-dresses  and  other  pur-  useful  plants.  Altliougli  ciiltivaied  priiielpally  within 
poses.  They  aro  both  plain  and  figured,  ami  arc  the  trojiics,  it  flourishes  well  beyond,  prodticlim  evBii 
sometimes  distinguished  into  saic-^net,  satin,  etc.,  heavierandbettcrlilled{;ialii.  Like  many  otll'if  pliintu 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  made,  ir  common  u.se,  it  is  never  found  wild  (It  U  to  Im  iiii. 
They  are  also  freiiuently  ornamented  by  liaving  what  derstood  that  the  wild  rice,  or  water  oaf,  /ii.miii 
is  c.illed  a  pairl  edge  given  to  them.  Kibbons  are  ar/iialici,  which  grows  along  tliu  niudily  nliore*  of  our 
wn-.en  in  pieces,  each  36  yards  in  length.  The  finest  tide-watcrs,  is  a  distinct  plant  from  tliu  coiniiioli  ricp, 
arc  made  entirely  of  Italian  silk  ;  the  next  in  (luality,  and  should  nut  bo  i onfoundeil  with  II),  nor  In  It*  imllvfl 
of  a  mixture  of  Italian  and  Bengal  silk  ;  and  the  com-  country  known.  I.iniueus  con.sldera  It  as  a  native  of 
raoner  sorts,  altogether  of  licngal  silk.  I'lie  great  Kthiopia,  while  others  regard  it  of  Asiatic  iirlijln.  At 
seat  of  the  n.anufacturc  (if  ribbons  is  Covcrtry,  where  the  Industrial  Kxlii'.iltion  in  Lomlon  thiuu  warn  din- 
they  are  now  made  of  qualify  ctjual  to  the  finest  of  tho  played  many  curious  samples  and  varlulln*  of  rice, 
productions  of  the  I.y(Micso  weavers:  they  are  alM>  grown  without  irrigation,  at  elevation*  of  .'1(100  to 
made  at  Congloton,  Derby,  JIacclcsfield,  Leeh,  and  ilOUO  feet  on  the  Himalayas,  wliero  tlm  dampinnK  of 
other  places. — See.  Hun.     "  the  summer  months  i  oinpciisates  fur  tho  want  of  aril- 

Rice  CKr.  Jiiz ;  It.  Ulso ;  Arab,  ^ru?;  Hincl.  ficial  moisture.  At  the  exhibition  abovn  lilludi'd  to, 
Chairl),  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  cereal  grasses,  ,  Aiuorican  rice  received  not  only  honorabli.  moiitloll  fof 
tho  Oryza  sntini  of  botanists.  It  is  raised  in  iminenso  its  very  puperior  (juality,  but  llio  Caroilim  rlw,  Bxlllb- 
quantities  in  Indhi,  Cliina,  and  most  Eastern  countries ;  itcd  by  K.  .1.  llcriot,  was  iironouiiced  I  y  tho  Jury  "limK- 
in  tho  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  the  United  nilicent  in  .~ize,  cohir,  and  elearne.-s,"  and  to  It  Wftp> 
States  ;  and  in  some  of  tho  southern  countries  of  Eii-  awarded  a  prize  medal,  'llio  jiirj'  wern  fru«  to  ttdtliU 
roiie.  It,  in  fact,  occupies  the  same  place  in  most  that  the  American  rice,  though  originally  hroH«lit 
intertropical  regions  as  wheat  in  tho  warmer  parts  of  from  tho  Old  World,  is  now  much  tha  liiiixt  in  iitial' 
Europe,  and  oats  and  rve  in  those  more  to  the  north,  iiy.  Tho  comiuou  variety  Is  cultivated  tliroiighottt 
'6L 


RIC 


1684 


RIC 


the  tflrrid  zone,  wherever  there  Is  a  plentiful  supply  of 
water,  ond  will  mature,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
in  the  Kostern  Continent,  as  h^h  as  the  forty-fifth 
parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  as  far  south  as  tlio  thirty- 
eighth.  On  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Western  Conti- 
nent it  win  flourish  as  far  north  as  latitude  thirty- 
eight  degrees,  anil  to  a  corresponding  parallel  south. 
On  the  western  coast  of  America  It  will  grow  as  far 
north  as  forty  or  moro  degrees.  Its  culture  Is  princi- 
pally confined  to  India,  China,  ,lapan,  Ceylon,  Mada- 
gascar, Jjistcrn  Africa,  the  south  of  Kurope,  t!ie  son'li- 
ern  iwrtions  of  the  United  iStates,  the  Spanish  Main, 
Jlrazil,  ond  the  Valley  of  Parana  and  Uruguay. 

Kico  was  first  Introduced  into  Virginia  by  Sir  Will- 
lam  Berkeley  in  lfi-17,  who  received  half  a  bushel  of 
seed,  from  which  he  raised  sixteen  bushels  of  excellent 
rice,  most  or  all  of  which  was  sown  the  following  j-oar. 
It  is  also  stated  that  a  Dutch  brig  from  Sladagascor 
cunio  to  Charleston  in  IfiW,  and  left  about  n  peck  of 
paddy  (rice  in  the  husk)  '-.  ith  Governor  Thomas  Smith, 
who  distributed  it  among  liis  friends  for  cultivation. 
Another  account  ol'  its  introduction  into  Carolina  is, 
that  Ashby  wos  encouraged  to  send  a  bag  of  seed  rice 
to  that  province,  from  the  crops  of  M-bii^h  sixty  tons 
were  shipped  to  Kngland  in  1(198.     It  ?oon  after  be-  j 
came  the  chief  staple  of  the  colony.     It  <  culture  was  | 
introduceil  into  Louisiana  in  171S,  by  tho  "  Company  j 
of  tho  West." 


Statmifnt  iwniniTtKo  tiib  QrAsriTT  Axn  Vai.ch  of  Rimi 

RXIMBTKII  ANNUALLY  rROM  ISijl  TO  1H8B,  INl'LCBIVH. 


The  present  culture  of  rice  in  the  United  States  is 


m 


chiefly  confined  to  Soulli  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Mississi|)pi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  Tho  yield  | 
per  acre  varies  from  twenty  to  sixty  bushels,  weighing 
from  forty-five  to  forty-eight  pounils  when  cleaned. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  as  many  as  nini'ty 
bushels  to  an  acre  have  been  raiseil.  Another  variety 
is  cultivated  in  this  countrj-,  to  a  limited  extent,  called 
Cochin-China,  drj'  or  mountain  riie,  from  its  adapta- 
tion to  a  dry  soil  witliout  irrigation.  It  will  grow 
several  degrees  further  north  or  south  than  the  Caro- 
lina rice,  and  has  been  cidtivated  with  success  in  the 
northern  provinces  of  China,  lliing.iry,  Westphalia, 
Virginia,  and  JIaryland ;  but  the  yield  is  much  less 
than  that  of  the  preceding,  being  only  fifteen  to  twen- 
ty bushels  to  an  acre.  It  was  flrr.t  introduced  into 
("harleston  from  Canton,  by  ,'oliu  liradby  lilake,  in 
1772.  The  amount  of  rice  exported  from  S<iuth  Caro- 
lina in  1721  was  18,000  Imrrcls  ;  in  1731,  41,957  bar- 
rels; in  1710,  90.110  barrel'i ;  in  1717-'t«,  6,'),000  bar- 
rels ;  in  1751,  104,r>82  l)arrels;  in  17G0-'ei,  100,000 
barrels;  from  Savannah  in  1755,  ""'9  barrels,  besides 
237  bushels  of  paddy,  or  rough  lico;  in  ]7l!0,  3283 
barrels,  besides  208  bushels  of  jiadly  ;  in  1770,  22,120 
barrels,  besides  70G4  bushels  of  paddy ;  from  .'hiladel- 
phia  in  1771,  268, .S75  pounds.  The  amount  exported 
from  tho  United  States  in  1770  was  150,529  barrels ; 
in  1791,  90,980  tierces;  in  1800,  112,050  tierces;  in 
1810,  131, *ll  tierces;  in  1820-21,  88,221  tierces;  in 
1830- -31,  110,517  tierces;  in  1840-'41.  101,017  tierces; 
in  1845-'4C,  124,007  tierces;  in  184G-'47,  144,427  tier- 
ces; in  1850-"61,  105,590  tierces. 

I'ttonuimos  op  llioB  in  thk  I'mtko  States  i;«  nm  Ykve 
186(). 

state!.  RoukIi  nice,  Iba. 

Alnliama 2,.112,2,')2 

ArkansaH <i!1, 179 

HoriilB 1.07!>,IVJ0 

t;i'orgiii 8S,9Sil.0'.l  1 

Kentucky f),iW9 

i.mil»inna 4,42.'S,M9 

Mlsjluslppl •J.TIO.S.'irt 

;i«t>oiirt 700 

Novlht'Krplltia B,Hir.,h(lS 

South  Carolina l.M),'.':in,«  13 

Tonno«3(H- 2.')'*, '•54 

Tcxai! m.W3 

Virginia 17,154 

Total 21S,3i;i~69t 

It  will  bo  seen  from  this  table  that  Soutli  Carolina 
produced  in  1850  75  jier  cent,  of  the  total  production, 
and  Ucorgiu  18  per  cent. 


Kliical  Venn. 


Itiit 

lS'2a 

18'J,1 

1S44 

18'25 

1S20 

189T 

18M 

1S29 

1S30 

1831 

1833 

.833 

18;;4 

1835 

1830 

1837 

1S,38 

1«,3!) 

1540 

1841 

lH4'i 

1S43 

1844 

1S4.'5 

184(1 

1847 

1M8 

1840 

1«5« 

1!<B1 

l.V>2 

1953 

1W>4 

1S55 

l*,')rt 

1S8T 

Total 


Tl«rcef. 


Vuliia. 


i;i,7T4 
I  Sl.OilS 
I  T4,30n 
i  175,121 


as,l!21 
87,OS» 
101,8«0 
113,M9 
07,U1S 
111,003 
113,518 
175,019 
132,983 
180,097 

iio.niT 

120,827 
144,103 
121,880 
119,851 
212,988 
100,084 
71,048 
.  93,320 
101,000 
101,017 
114,017 
100,700 
134,715 
118,021 
124,007 
144,427 
100,403 
128,801 
127,009 
105,590 
1 19,733 
07,707 
105,121 
5-.J,B20 
58,008 
04,8,32 


$1,4',I4,307 
1,5()3,4S2 
1,820,985 
1,8S2.«82 
1,926,245 
1,917,445 
2,343,908 
2,020,690 
2,614,870 
1,980,S24 
2,010,207 
2,152,031 
2,744,418 
2,122,272 
2,210,331 
2,618,750 
2,309,279 
1,721.819 
2,400,198 
1,943,076 
2,010,107 
1,907,387 
1,(V25,720 
2,182,.Mi3 
2.100,4'iO 
2,504,901 
8,(10,''i,89fl 
2,331,824 
2,tifl»,B«2 
2,031,567 
2,170,927 
2,470,029 
1,657,658 
2,034,127 
1,717,953 
2.390,233 
2,290,400 


Avm.  c<j«l 
p»r  tiiirat. 

!til0'94 

17  84 
17  90 

10  03 
19  84 
17  26 

17  ri5 

14  97 

18  92 

15  20 
17  80 
17  89 

19  04 

17  41 

19  94 

11  97 
21  70 
24  23 

20  30 
19  10  ] 

19  73 
10  04  I 
15  23 
Hi  20 

18  21 

20  08 
24  97 

23  23 

19  94 

20  71 
20  5(i 
20  03 

24  48 
2ft  05 


4,I37,7.VJ  l.f  81.209  386 


K.M'OBTS  OP    l;nK  FIIIIM    Tilt:    ^N1TI^1>   StaTKS    KOtt  THH  ^  i:\l! 
RNIIIM}  ,!UNK  30,  1S57. 


Wtiitlier  Kiiion,.,!. 


I    Tiercel.   1   itnrrela.   |  Vuluit. 


Itii^siu  uu  till',  Kaltlc  aiiiU 

I     North  Seas f 

,  Prtissln 

1  Sweden  anti  Norway 

Iswcdirtli  West  Indlc:) 

Dcinnark 

'naniiili  Wt'at  Indies 

'Ilambiiri; 

I  r.reinen 

.Holland 

I  Dutch  Wont  Indies 

jDutrh  (iiiiaua 

IdlKium •... 

'  Kngland 

iScotlnnd 

jlreland 

Icunada  

•dthcr  llrlt.  N.  Am.  I'unai'H. 

llrllish  Wp,<t  Indlen 

Itritiflh  Hondnma . 

lil'lt  «h  Uuiana 

Hrltudi  I'osecan.  in  Africa.. 

t >thT  ports  in  Africa 

Ilritish  Aliatralia 

Franco  on  tlio  Atlantic 

1  ranee  on  the  Meditrrran.. 

Fr. ui'li  N.  Am.  poHBCHpions 

French  \\vi>l  Indies 

i-'rench  (iiiiana 

S]min  on  the  Atlantic 

't'anary  Iplands 

■Cuba 

jForto  liico 

1  Portugal 

Madeira 

Cape  do  ^■o^d  Islanrls 

'.Vzorcs    

Ilayli 

San  Domingo 

•  Mexico 

^tJcntral  lifpiiblic 

'  N>w  t  franadn 

\'cnc7.in'la 

Iini7.il 

irnigiiay,  nrCisplatinc  Hep. 

.Argentine  licpiihlic 

Ichill 

'i*eru 

{Sandwich  iHlatuIs 

|i'h'.nn 

Wlialo  Klshcriai 

ToUl 


393 

25 

244 

13 

flOO 

433 

1,473 

4,4.'i3 

1,481 

"  01 

4,771 

11,121 

1,081 

10 

654 

548 

1,434 

258 

60 

"i70 

70 

5,1,39 

33 

1 

2 

54 

80 

2 

23,831 

2,990 

30 

""l 

15 

185 


143 

798 
608 


1,119 
25 
61 

"ii 

04,332 


25 


12 

12,019 

221 

254 


834 

110 

6,000 

10,337 


101 
120 
103 

m 

404 
601 


10 
283 

3,424 

"sis 

42 

639 

46 

'   "61 

4,737 

145 

350 

49 

1,.5fll 

033 

2.101 

5,41(0 

7,409 

8,447 

296 

234 

79 

68^ 

74,6(J9 


$11„3,'i4 

730 

7,538 

5.')9 

50.507 

12,725 

49,32.') 

12fl,.38;) 

89,07:: 

9,205 

2.302 

166,is;i 

B28,(1'.!J 

80,'.'C!i 

37 1 

2.'),  V.I" 

10,51'.' 

37.077 

fi.SliO 

Mill 

1,!»1 

ll,0!li. 

9,710 

157,49s 

4M 

ir)4 

2,s:',o 

l,.'.-'rl'l 

12,'.  09 

041, '250 

81,  •-77 

0,7,19 

5'24 

17;i 

i.397 

00.4'l'2 

1,712 

4,'214 

K.r 

20.57'^ 

29,sii'2 

r,«,S(il 

Cli,4S4 

81,494 

135,6:4 

6,!IS4 

8,711 

991 

1,216 

$2,990,400 


RIC 


1085 


It  in 


IBl.   cull 

tr  livret.' 

•ToliT ; 
n  «4 
n  I'o 

10  fill 
IB  84  • 

n  M  i 

n  »  I 

14  DT 
18  IW 

15  20 

n  '.10 
n  89 

II)  04 

n  41 

IS)  1)4  I 

1     "  "■' 

44  23 
2(1  30 

19  10 
10  13 
10  04  1 

in  i'.\  \ 

10  20 

18  41  I 
20  OS 

24  m  I 
21!  2a  I 

19  94 

20  11 

20  r>o  I 
20  fl;i  ! 

24  48  I 
2ft  05  : 


1 


$11,SB4 

730 

7,5;i'< 

6f>'.i 

Bn,!)0' 

12.725 

49,!i2.'> 

120,!V8.') 

39,(i7;'. 

!),2f.ri 

2.:iivi 

INl,!'';' 

»28,0-i-J 

30,2C'.I 

371  ■ 

S.M'.II) 

10,ft« 

37.077 

8.800 

WK) 

1,MH 

11,0'.!!. 

9,71" 

l.';7,4'.i'' 

4N) 

i:.4 

2,8119 
V-» 
12,'-0'^ 

041  .'-'(I'' 
81  ,'.77 
fl,7.''9 
W4 
178 
i.397 
00,4'l'i 
1,742 
4,214 
Kn 
20.r.7s 

a9,8tii 

BO.SOI 
00,484 
81,494  i 
135,0M 
6,384  ! 
3,711  I 
991 

j,2ir>  I 
i:i;e9n,4oo3 


Of  those  exports,  186B-'37,  there  was  exportei  from   The  bar  at  tha  month  of  Hie  rlv«>r  lm«  UKimlty  ttum  IJ 

tho  following  ports,  '  td  13  feet  water  j  unil  vunwli  ilritwln|(  m>ire  thnti  this 

{J^J™.^;^ *m'So9  1  ''■«<l"e'>*'y  Imi'l  and  uiiluitil  jiiirt  (if  tlwlr  ciirKMii  by 

UnUiinoro  '//^'/^'^'.'.'..... .....'.'.'.'.'.     122!o63  means  of  li({hterii  at  DolileriiN,  it  mnilll  town  on  tli<  »iist. 

Churleston 888joa  side  of  tho  river,  ns«r  Itn  immtlt.     ilitirA  Is  n  falr-WR,v 

Biivaonah \^'\Vt  beacon  without  tlia  liar.  III  fi  fulliiMiis  wntcr  \  anil  wltli- 

""'"  '',''/';"■, sr^~  \ '"' "'« "^''""""l '» '""'^'1  wHii  i.litik  mill  whiu  bMor« ; 

Rloe  Paper.  This  substance  is  said  to  be  a  mem-  entering,  ami  the  wliitu  «ii  (Iih  larliimril,  VhmaU  IkhiiicI 
brano  of  the  Arlocarpus  iiicisn,  or  bread-fruit  tree.  It  for  Uiga  taku  pllou  at  lliililKritiii  *l"i  I'liMJ'  *•"■"'  '" 
is  brought  from  China  in  small  pieces,  dyed  of  various  '  their  anchorage,  No  ballatt  U  allMWWl  to  b«  illicliHiged, 
colors,  and  is  used  na  a  material  for  painting  upon,  and  \  except  at  I'oderiigiio,  lli>|{ulitt|iili<t  n»  Ui  clnttfliiK,  etc., 
for  the  manufacture  of  several  fancy  and  ornamental  similar  to  those  at  I'<;tHriiliiir((.^  ri/h/iVc  tiif  Ifi  J'/mreii, 
articles.     It  is  sometimes  erroneously  stated  to  be  pro-  \  2d  edit. ;  and  Heijulatiuut  jiulilitlud  Inj  ihe  Hiiiiiim  A  n- 


thoritiei. 

Trade— (H  inn  to  its  iidvuiitaxmHW  situation  near 
the  moutli  of  a  great  uavlijalilii  river,  the  trade  of 
Riga  is  verj-  ext(n»lv8 1  liciiiK,  of  tlin  (lnnslaii  towns 
on  the  Haltic,  in  thia  reii|iBct  wi'iiiid  imly  to  t'i'tofs- 
Imrg.  The  trade  U  illledy  cittrlurt  im  by  fncnljjn  mer- 
chants, partlculuily  by  the  I'.iiulliih,  Ttw  iirtrtilpal ex- 
jiorts  are  flax  and  lininp,  lliiseml  aiiil  hmnti  »(.«.it|  lliiilwr , 
com,  toliacco,  hides,  wool,  tftllow,  iitc,  |  tfin  Imports  arc 
salt,  sugar,  cotTeo,  and  groinrlnii  of  nil  mifla,  li«rflii((o, 
indigo,  dye-woods,  cotton  and  fiitdifi  lHl«t,  silks,  wIiipf, 
etc.  Tlio  mast  trado  Is  extsiulvo,  Tlie  bliri^liers  of 
Kiga  send  persons  who  am  Pallnil  nmsl  brukufs  Into  thi' 
provinces  to  mark  the  trees,  whli^ll  arn  Jilircllflsed  stand- 
ing.   They  grow  mostly  In  the  ilUtrlots  which  border 


pared  from  rice. — See  Pai'ER. 

Richmond,  city  and  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of 
Henrico  county,  and  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  is  situ- 
ated on  James  River,  at  tha  falls,  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water, and  is  in  37°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  77°  31'  W.  long, 
from  Greenwich,  and  0°  27'  W.  long,  from  Washing- 
tun.  It  is  23  miles  north  from  I'etersliurg,  and  117 
south  by  west  from  Washington.  Tho  population  in 
liMfl  was  5727 ;  in  1810,  9785  ;  in  1820,  12,007 ;  in 
1830, 16,060 ;  in  1840,  20,153 ;  in  '850,  27,,'.70 ;  and  in 
IwS  1, 30,000.  It  is  beautifully  located  on  the  west  side 
of  tho  river,  between  60  and  60  miles  above  City  Point, 
and  150  miles  above  the  mouth  of  tho  river. 

Four  linos  of  railroad  here  connect,  viz.,  Richmond, 
Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac ;  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg ;  the  Central  Railroad  of  Virginia ;  and  the  Dan- !  on  the  Dninjier,  are  sent  up  that  rivsr  to  ii  laiidlng- 
villc  Railroad  ;  and  here  terminates  the  .James  River  place,  transported  30  versU  to  tlia  Dllim,  when,  being 
and  Kanawha  Canal.  Vessels  drawing  ;0  feet  of  water  ;  formed  liiti)  riifti,  of  from  60  U>  'Ml  (lltirns,  they  iteisccnil 
come  to  Rockets,  about  a  mile  below  tlie  centre  of  tho  the  stream  to  Riga.  The  trsB  which  proilllces  the  larg- 
city;  and  those  drawing  15  feet,  to  V/arwick,  three  est  masts  is  tlio  Scotch  lip,  TImipm)  (iIbii'K  which  arc 
miles  below  tho  city.  Tho  falls  in  James  River  are  I  from  18  to  25  inches  in  dlainettif  »r«  I'lillert  mosts ) 
obviated  by  the  canal,  and  above  them  it  is  navigablo  i  under  thoso  dimensions,  spars,  or,  in  l''.ii)jintid,  Norway 
for  boats  220  miles.  Regular  lines  of  packets  connect  masts,  because  Norv/iiy  uKporN  liii  tri<f  <  tiuifo  than  18 
the  city  with  New  Yorli  and  other  places,  and  it  is  con-  i  inches  in  diameter,  (iroat  skill  l»  riii((ilrtid  In  dlstln» 
nected  by  steamboats  to  Norfolk.  The  principal  ar-  I  guishing  those  inacts  that  are  toiiiid  friittt  those  which 
tides  of  exportation  are  wheat,  flour,  and  tobacco.  The  are  In  tlie  least  internally  decayed.  Tlii'y  af«  Usually 
exports  amount  to  about  $3,000,000  annually.  Tho  ;  from  70  to  80  feet  in  length,  'Hie  bn't.  kind  of  flax 
tonnage  of  tho  port  in  1853  was  11,460  tons.  The  I  sliipfied  from  Riga  Is  grown  in  Whltw  lliisuln,  and  Is 
manufactures  of  Richmond  are  also  extensive.  1  called  Druana  rakltzer  i  Its  color  in  vtiry  white,  and 

Riding,  in  Xaml  affairs,  is  the  state  of  a  ship's  i  tho  threads  long,  flno,  and  Ioosb,  but  It  has  sometimes 
lieing  retained  in  a  particular  station  by  means  of  one  black  spots  ;  tlio  next  quality,  iioiiiliig  from  tlln  prov» 
or  more  cables  with  their  anchors,  which  for  this  pur-  ince  of  Trockic,  in  l.itlmania,  1»  ciilli'd  l.llluiiinlan  ra- 
pose  are  sunk  into  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  etc.,  i.i  order  :  kitzer,  and  is  very  little  liiferloKlo  l)f liana,  bllHls  nilof 
to  prevent  the  vessel  from  being  driven  at  the  mercy  '  is  a  little  brown ;  of  this  kind  the  bunt  soft  Is  Tlilesim* 
of  tho  wind  or  ciiirent.  A  rope  is  said  to  ride,  when  i  hauscn.  The  tiest  kind  of  I'liiirlaiiil  Hat  shipped  (torn 
one  of  the  turns  liy  which  it  is  wound  about  tlio  cap- 1  Riga  Is  Slarienburg  ;  that  grown  In  Mvoiihl  Is  lllfeflof . 
Stan  or  windlass  lies  over  another,  so  as  to  interrupt  |  There  are  two  kinds  of  Unseed  i  Hint  of  tile  last  crop, 
the  operation  of  wearing.  which  is  used  for  sowing  ;  and  that  of  former  yenfs, 

JitJinff  Athwart,  tho  position  of  a  ship  which  lies  for  crit-^hing.  To  prevent  ilei.eiiHoii,  tlm  year  of  Its 
across  tho  direction  of  wind  and  tide,  when  the  former  I  growtli  is  stamped  on  tho  barrel  bv  nwifii  Inspectors 
is  so  strong  as  to  prevent  her  from  falling  into  the  cur- 1  (braekeri).  1  Icinp  seed  is  miietly  uhlppsi;  for  t  lollaiid. 
rent  of  the  latter.  X'onc;/,~Vor  the  moneys  of  lllg»,  ti  r  I'lit,-  tinnoitii, 

Hidinff  between  tlie  Wind  and  the  Tide,  tho  situation  |  Weiiihis  an(\  Menaiiret.-'i'ha  loniliinri'lal  )oliiid  Is 
of  a  vessel  at  anchor  when  the  wind  and  tide  act  upon  i  divided  into  2  marks,  or  .12  lotlis  j  and  iil<o  Into  lialvos, 
her  in  direct  opposition,  in  such  a  mamner  as  to  destroy  !  quarters,  etc.  It  contains  fllfi'.(  Kngllnh  i{r»l(  s.  Ilcflce 
tlie  effort  of  each  other  upon  her  hull ;  so  tliat  she  is  in  \  100  ibs.of  K:gn^!)2'17lbs.  avolrdu|«i|ii  llHkllo)^ 
a  manner  balanced  between  their  reciprocal  force,  and  I  86-32  lbs.  of  Uamburg-   fl'Wl  lbs,  of  ,Allletiifilii;n     ' 


rides  without  the  least  strain  on  her  cables.  AVhcii 
ship  does  not  labor  heavily,  or  feel  a  great  strain  when 
anchored  in  an  open  road  or  bay,  she  is  said  to  ride  easy. 
( til  tho  contrary,  when  she  pitches  violently  into  tlie 
sea,  so  03  to  strain  her  cables,  masts,  or  hull,  it  is  called 
ridiu))  hard,  and  tho  vessel  is  termed  a  bad  roader. 
Riga,  a  city  of  ICuroiwan  Russia,  the  capital  of  IJ 


Th« 

lispound"20  lbs, ;  the  Bhlpiioiiiid  '!» Il»|/i)linds,  Tho 
loof  is  tho  measure  for  grain  I  18  Iftofs  I  last  of  wheat, 
barley,  or  linseed  ;  15  loofs  ;  1  U»t  of  ryti )  Mild  flO  Icofs 
=  1  last  of  oats,  molt,  and  beans,  Aci'ordiliKl"  K<'lly, 
tho  loof- 1 -9375  Winclle^^l•r  liushel  (  and,  innKcqiient' 
ly ,  the  last  of  wheat  U  ■Dih  quarters ,  NnlUprtbr ei'her 
docs  not  value  the  biof  quit"  mi  lll(Sli  '>"  Knily, 


•I'ho 


vonia,  on  the  !)una,  about  9  miles  from  the  sea,  Lit.  56=  ;  fiuler,  the  measure  for  llquldh,  U  iIIvIiIhI  Into  0  nhms, 
.■'6'  5"  N.,  long.  24°  0'  4"  E.  Population  in  1812, '  24  ankers,  120  quarts,  or  72*1  stoof-,  rlli'  •'"'•"1" 
excluding  garrison,  60,000.  A  light-houso  has  been  ;  English  wine  gallons.  The  foot  of  llljia  lO'JB  Etl- 
erected  on  Fort  Comet,  on  the  western  side  of  the  i  glish  inches.  The  ell  =2  feet  i  tlix  cbtftcr  "  f""'' 
mouth  of  the  river.  It  has  two  lights:  the  lirst,  ele- '  Like  nio.st  of  tlio  rlv!rs  falling  Into  Hi"  HiiUle,  tho 
vatod  about  104  feet  (English')  above  the  level  of  the  !  Duna  has  a  bar,  varying,  according  to  Hoasoiis,  from 
sea,  may  be  seen,  under  favorable  circumstances,  at  the  j  12  to  15  feet  of  water,  Large  vB*»eli.  tiroially  dis- 
distance  of  4  leagues  ;  and  the  second,  elevated  aliout '  charge  and  take  in  tlioir  cargoi-s  either  at  ilio  r.iaiW  or 
24i  foet,  may  be  seen  at  tho  dUtanco  of  2i  leagues.  ;  in  tha  Bolderaa  harbor,  naar  tiw  mouUl  of  tha  fivar, 


BIG 


1080 


HIO 


by  meant  of  Trell-covered  lighters.  The  linieud,  flax, 
hemp,  and  wool  of  this  port  have  always  Iwhii  heUt  in 
higher  repute  thnn  those  exported  from  any  otlmr  |Kirt 
ill  KuHHia,  The  grain  shipped  from  Kiga  is  the  iirud- 
uce  of  White  Kussiu,  the  Uicruine,  I'olund,  (Juuriiind, 
Livonia,  Ksthonia,  Smolensk,  Minalc,  Litbiuniu,  «t<!, 
The  niivlgution  of  Riga  may  ha  seen  from  tliu  follow- 
ing  rotunis  for  a  series  of  years  : 

N'essels  KNTEBEI). 

In  1800 m 

1810 400 

1819 1300 

1840 1M4 

1860 1304 

1863 lUIT 

Value  of  luipurbi  Into  tbc  port  of  Dlga  la  1810. .  10,llli:),iN)0 
Value  of  oxiuirtj  "  "  "    ..  H,tiA,im 

This  port,  lilco  Odessa,  derives  its  principal  wealth 
from  its  export  trade.  In  1860  the  total  value  of  ux- 
ports  reaclie<l  Cl,42(>,UOO  francs.  The  liu|iorts  during 
tlie  same  year  were  only  19,81)5,000  francs.  Tlia  fol- 
lowing table  exiiibits,  in  francs,  the  cominerclul  iiiutu- 
mcnts  of  Kiga,  and  the  share  assigned  to  each  country, 
in  ths^-eor  IMiO: 


CoanttiM. 

•  England 

France 

Holland 

Hunnc  Towns 

Holglum 

Sweden  ami  Norway 

L'nited  StatcD 

Portugal 

Honniark 

Spain 

OttiLT  oountried 

Total  franc*. . . , 


]     Import!. 


4,984,000 

a,Tr>7,ooo 

7.')fl.()00 

4,44i,00« 

24,000 

l,j  10,000 

'J,904,000 

l,37S,00O 

'21»,000 

19,1,000 

4(iS,0«0 


K I  port*. 


36,«.W,0f)0 
0,tllM,000 

«,1s7,i)(m 

l,!),Vi,flO() 
NCiUS.OOO 
l,v2.'i,000 

8<i4,'noo 

1,431,000 
IM»,OOI) 
6'iB,OflO 


Tola). 


4I),3'2:),I)<K) 
U,72il,iNIII 
l),'J4:i,iMKI 
0,1)97,01  H) 
l\,Vi-i,IIUt) 
3,044,000 
li,9il4,0(W 
•i,'2i)7,0()rt 
1,1)40,000 
7»i,iiUil 
1,00,1,000 

»o,Ti)l,000 


From  the  preceding  table  it  will  be  seen  that,  of  tlia 
whole  trade  of  Kigu,  Kngland  has  SO  per  cent. ;  i'Vunca 
upward  of  12  )ier  cent. ;  Ilollnnd,  «iid  th«  tlirca  ilunxe 
Town.',  each  8  per  cent.  The  principal  iiii|iorts  in 
1850  were— 

SiiKar FrantJ,  S.Sl.'S.OOO 

Salt "      8,49r,,00O 

Wincfl  andniilrlts "      «,i)^'),0'iO 

Tobacco "      i,7r.i,0i)i» 

Herring "      l,2fx),000 

Raw  and  ffpnn  cotton '*      l,*ftO,000 

Tlie  principal  exports  wore — 

Flax  (of  whlcl)  Kngland  toolt  two-lliirdji)..FranM,  29,430,000 

Hemp  (to  F,ngland  more  tlian  one  half)  . .        *'  7,8Tvl,MMI 

Tlmlicr  (chiefly  to  ]':ngland  and  Holland).        "  MOO.OOfl 

Gralnii           "             •'           "         "               "  M47,0i)O 

Flai-m!i<l,  for  peed  (one  lialf  to  England)  .        "  3,791,000 

AWOCNT  OK  THE  CfCANTITIES  OE  THE   PBINOIPAI.    Alt'ri«:l-»y* 

Exroaini)  rsou  ItioA  i.n  1851  am>  IS&i, 


Flax,  iRt  sort torn 

nitlo,  2.1  fort 

l>itto,  3d  H<irt 

Ditto,  ecHlilla 

Total  of  flikx 


I  Uync  hemp 

'  0'ut»1iot  ditto 

I^OMi  ditto 

Heuip  eodtlla. ... 
1'oW  of  hemp  ■ 


TaDow " 

Qulllii " 

liyo ,.. qr«. 

Barley " 

o»u " 

Si>wlng  Unseed. . .   bla. 

(  rnnbing  liwiieO. . . .  ; qrH. 

Hoiap seed... ..,....,< " 

Deals pieces 

Timber ' 

Masts * 

Wainscot  logs  and  vAtwood.     * 

Pipe  and  hogshead  staves. .     ^ 

!|     Total  value  In  H.  Ro. 

I    Total  value  ja  dollars 


To  slirumitriM. 


JMI 

l7,Rl4 
1,i'n 
1,499 

924 

27,  W9 

9,.118 
8,199 
3,89-i 

9B8 

■  17,9«f 


047 

33,!)»i7  i 

7,84fl 
»,4«>l 
4,0  III 

(iOftl 

1B,7!(T 

Tl 
ISi 

191,Di(l 
()H,0;t« 
l.ilW 
l'l4,u«i« 
97, ''7H 
4,433 
IXI4,l>4r> 

n.im 

111 

T,m 

1«M1? 

at  771  rla. 
»11,'KH1,7)W 


Tiitnl  •ffl«Nnt  ftf  exports  from  Kngland  tu  this  port 
III  IHM.  i,m,m)  franc,,  or  ♦027,000. 

TiititI  nitUMllit  of  exiHirts  fnnn  Kiga  to  Knulund. 
ti).ft7;»,0»4, 

TlM  nmri'liAtidlsn  imixirted  into  Kngland  froui  Uus- 
tlit  U  SMcli,  I  lilti(ly,»»  liussia  only  can  supply— at  least 
III  smli  iiumitlllMii  n*  lo  meet  the  extensive  demands  of 
till  matiiifiK  tiirnrs  of  ( (rent  liritaln.  It  consists  prin- 
iilpsliy  of  ttrtlcles  of  (irst  necessity  in  munui  oturos, 
sucli  as  li«iiii|i  Slid  lliix  seetl  for  oil  and  culture.  The 
iiiervliaiHllMi  mipplUd  U>  Hussia  (ot  the  port  of  Kign) 
from  uthtir  cimntrles  cmislsts  chiefly  of  sugar,  coflec, 
s»lt,  wIllM,  sjilfltilous  ll(|t  jrs,  tobacco,  and  cotton  tis- 
Sims,  lit  rureri'tKHi  to  the  hitter  article,  such  is  the  ex- 
traordinary iicllvlly  of  Husslan  manufacturing  indus- 
try, «)ip|i.irl#(l  lis  It  U  by  8  high  tiiriir  on  manufactured 
artii  l«>,  lltHt,  lind  not  the  wur  Intervened,  slin  would 
lirobably  lot  now  Itidepniident  of  other  nations  as  re- 
»|wi't«  ( iitliiti  yiirns, 

'I'lw  tidal  tonnage  which  entered  and  cleared  ot  the 
(iiirt  u(  Ultra  In  im),  ns  ulrcndy  shown,  was  307,8!)u  tons. 
Of  thia  ii/i«l,  l»in,Wi|  tons  were  under  the  F-rlish  flag, 
or  Hithln  .<  (tglifn  of  Ml  per  cent,  or  f'lo  WuciO;  while 
the  Uiiaalnn  Hug  covered  only  t)l.  .  tons,  or  15  per 
I'Biil,  on  IliK  wliole,  'ihe  value  i.  x-seed  for  cul- 
ture, nx|Hitt4«l  from  this  port  from  .  >10  to  1850,  was 
^7,mi,lll>l)  (  of  which  Kngland  received,  in  tlie  aggre- 
gata,  iin«'tlilrd,  'I  he  remaining  two-thirds  were  tent 
to  Itfllglinn,  I'russla,  llniiBo  Towns,  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, I'ritncii, Slid  the  I 'hited  .Slate.,  The  navigation 
Miuvt!in«nts  Ht  this  pcrrt  for  1868  were  as  follows : 


I'ltir  tit    IIKlA.   -.IfAVIOATIO.N 

N  1853. 

<I»ll^.l./flfl. 

.^n.  itt  V^MSlii  entered. 

No.orVanaleolesrrcl.j 

i;imll=li 

Hfo 

1170 

ltH4<l«ll .,,,, 

ifOfl 

BOG 

llxIgiaN  ,..,, .1 

10 

10 

ItaMovirUlt  1, ,, 

170 

170 

Hiildli ,, ., 

244 

244 

t'mtfh 

H> 

Ui 

Kistnliih,,.,, , 

lUi4l 

I 

1 

181 

ISl 

Hwcdhh,,,,,,. 

V91 

291 

I'ruxisn  w,,,,,,,,,, 

109 

109 

MiiklniilMifff ,,,,,,., 

ISO 

ISO 

uMi'iiliiirtf  .,.,,,,,,, 

67 

B7 

I'lirlogiK'Sfl,,,,, ,,.,, 

6 

0 

llsiHliiirKhin  ,,,,,,,, 

T 

T 

.♦iiii'rti'an  .,,,,.,,,,. 

9 

2 

Thii  (iftlcldl  pMtief,  from  which  the  preceding  table  i."i 
ttXtrilctml,  furnishes  also  Interesting  facts  relative  to 
tint  li«in|i  irmy  of  this  port,  The  following  extract  is 
traii»liit#<t  frotn  this  document : 

*'  ll«ni|i  Is  tisinilly  sold  by  the  producers  in  the  in- 
tiirlor  til  inBfchiints  who  visit  their  estates  for  the  pur- 
|sstti  Iff  it|i«culiitl/m,  They  make  their  contracts  gener- 
ally lidtwtiwn  April  and  October.  The  time  of  delivery 
>•  stltinlatcd  tnt,  «tid  from  6  to  10  per  cent,  on  the  jiiir- 
cliiioft-nioncy  Is  jiitld  down  in  ca.sh.  The  annual  nvcr- 
«((«  ((lIHIitlly  of  hemp  thus  brought  to  the  market  of 
IIIKii  Mniuunts  to  Hl.xint  seven  millions  of  francs.  At 
IligM  ttwra  uri)  slirveyors'  ofllces  establislied,  where  tlic 

I  lianip  lirnUKlit  for  sale  Is  subjected  to  the  strictest  cx- 
Hinllialttitl,  and  Is  ranked,  according  to  quolitj-,  Nos.  1, 
'i,  (It  ,1,     should  the  pToiliicers  be  dissatisfied  wiili  tlic 

I  HCtloti  Itf  tint  surveyors  at  Higa,  they  liave  the  right  of 

I  Httfrntl  t<i  Ht,  ('etersbnrg,"— <Vfc  nrticlcB  IIkmp  and 
llt'MiA  for  |i«rtcular  information. 

I  Kiffg;ing  ot  ■  (Uhlp,  n  general  name  given  ti.  .ill 
tliii  rii(i«s  Kinployed  to  snp]«)rt  the  masts,  and  to  extend 

'  or  r<«ln''«  tli«  sails,  or  nrronge  them  to  the  disposition 
of  tlwi  wiii'l,    The  former,  which  are  used  to  sustain  the 

'  niMln,  rtimrtin Usunlly  in  a  flxrd  position, and  arc ciilliil 
llmutini/  rif/f/inf) ,  such  arc  the  siiroi'do,  .sta}  s,  and  Iiack- 
«t»y»<  'I'iiB  latter,  whose  office  i.s  to  manage  the  fiiil!^. 
by  cmnninnicatlng  witli  various  Idoeks  or  pulleys,  i-ltii- 
Mt^it  indlfTereiit  ports  of  the  masts,  yards,  shroud.i,  etc., 
BW  wmipfelierMled  in  the  general  term  running  rigyiny ; 

I  siuib  Afo  tlie  lifaces,  sheet.^  halliards,  clew-lines,  and 
brnUe. 


L 


vas 


1637 


RIO 


port 
lanil, 
Uu«- 

l  IcUKt 

nils  of 
1  prin- 
jturcK, 
Tho 
'  Klgii) 
cuffcc, 
;on  t'lii- 
tho  ex- 
;  Indus- 
'uctured 
J  wouUl 
IS  as  re- 
id  ttt  Uie 
305  tons. 
;«i)h  flag, 
.0 ;  wlillo 
jr  15  per 
1  fi.r  cul- 
IHfiO,  was 
lie  ai^gie- 
werc  ft"' 
and  Ni)r- 

lows : 
"Ivfo         ' 

10 

no 

244 
K) 

1 

181 
291 

109 

ISO 

a 

T 

a 

ding  tulile  is 

relative  tn 

hg  extract  is 

(ts  in  tlie  iii- 
.  for  tlio  pur- 
Itracts  gciier- 
V  of  delivery 
.  on  the  [Hir- 
lunnual  aver- 
^0  market  if 
;  francs.  At 
^d,  •whore  the 
strictest  ex- 

lalit)',  >'<"'•■'' 

^fied  -Willi  tlie 

I  tho  right  "f 

llKMi-  and 

]>  given  to  all 
Iind  to  extend 
lie  disposition 
■to  sustain  ttn' 
Tiudaiecalli'l 
[v8,andbaili- 
[age  the  snil^ 
I  pulleys,  situ- 
Ishrouds,  etc., 

cw-liues,  a.M'i 


Ring,  an  ornament  of  gold  and  lUver,  of  a  circular 
llgure,  and  usually  worn  on  the  finger.  The  antiquity 
of  rings  is  known  from  Scripture  and  irofana  authors, 
.ludah  loft  hi  ring  or  signet  with  amar.  When 
Pharaoh  co'  'mltted  the  government  /  all  Egj-jit  to 
Joseph,  he  took  his  ring  from  his  linger  and  gave  It  to 
Joseph.  After  the  victory  which  the  Israelites  ob- 
tained over  the  Miilianltes,  they  offered  to  tho  Lord 
the  rings,  the  braocletn,  and  the  golden  necklaces,  and 
tho  golden  ear-rings,  that  they  had  taken  from  the 
enemy.  The  Israelitish  women  wore  rings,  not  only 
on  their  lingers,  but  also  in  their  nostrils  and  their  ears. 
St.  James  distln^'.Ishes  a  man  of  dignity  by  tho  ring 
of  gold  whi"h  he  wore  on  his  finger.  At  the  return  of 
tho  prc'ligi.'  son  * '-.  father  orders  him  to  be  dressed  in 
a  ruw  dult  "f  ( .  I  »,  and  to  have  a  ring  put  upon  his 
flnger,     The  ring  chiefly  was  used  to  seal  with.    The 


patents  and  orders  of  prlnco.i  wore  scaled  with  thcii 
rings  or  signets ;  aid  it  was  this  that  secured  to  them 
their  authority  and  respect.  The  episcopal  ring,  which 
makes  a  part  of  the  pontifical  apparatus,  and  is  esteem- 
ed a  pledge  of  the  spiritual  marritge  between  the  bishop 
and  his  Church,  was  used  at  a  remote  period.  The 
fourth  council  of  Toledo,  held  in  033,  appoints  that  a 
bishop  condemned  by  one  council,  and  found  after- 
ward innocent  by  a  second,  sliall  l>e  restored  by  giv- 
ing Mm  the  ring,  staff,  etc. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  Brazil,  on  the 
Atlantic,  In  lat.  22°  M'  16"  S.,  long.  48°  15'  50"  W 
Pcpulntlon,  200,000,  The  harbor  of  Klo  Is  one  of  the 
finest  In  the  world,  luth  as  respects  capaciousness  and 
security  for  all  sorts  of  vessels.  In  coming  froAi  the 
northeast  It  is  usual  to  make  Cape  Frio,  In  lat.  23°  1 ' 
18"  8.,  long.  42°  3'  19"  W.,  being  about  4  leagueo 


\^:^ 


V.  Fort  da  Ilha  Ja 


"T'llha  .10  lamuduba.    i..  Kort  .Ic  St  ,Ioao.     (Mlorro  do  Flamengo.     D.  Ponta  do  Calhabouco. 
'.1  -11.      F.  Illis  dos  liottos.     C:  Fort  d»  Boa  N  lagcm. 


RIO 


1CS8 


RIO 


the  harbor  hi ! 

n<  uf  a  sugar- 1 

'hlle  on  the 


noarly  rant  of  Rin,     Tho  entrance 
iiiurkril  liy  a  rRinarkiiblo  hill  In  tl  i 

loiif,  000  feet  hlijli,  cloBo  to  lt«  we«'.      .    .   . 

east,  ur  cipponlti!  Me  (if  tho  liu\ ,  at  tho  (llxtance  of 
iibout  1(  nillo,  ii4  tho  furt  uf  .Santu  ('ruz.  But  the  wunil- 
out  in  the  prpceilin*;  pa^e,  tiikcn  from  a  chart  (mblUh- 
eil  by  order  uf  the  llrHziliun  authorltiex,  Kivcn  n  much 
lietter  idea  of  tliJH  niililo  liurbor  tlinn  cuiild  bo  ulituined 
from  any  iloxcrlptioii. 

//ricftu;'.— Vt'»ii«li(  bound  for  Itio,  coming  from  tlie 
north,  Hliould,  after  rounding  Cupe  Krlo,  steer  due  west, 
keepinK  about  S  leagues  friMii  tlie  coant,  until  they  comr 
within  A  or  (i  miles  of  the  ll/ia  Jtaza,  ur  Flat  laland, 
lying  almost  due  noutli  from  the  nioutii  of  tho  harlior, 
at  tlio  distance  of  about  il  leagues.  A  light-house, 
tliu  lantern  uf  which  is  said  to  be  elevated  nearly  1)00 
feet  above  the  lovcl  of  tho  sea,  was  erected  on  this 
ivlanil  in  18'J!).  The  light  is  a  revolving  onr  rinishing 
it'*  revolution  in  !)  minutes,  and  exhibiting  aiternutoly 
a  white  und  a  red  light.  There  is  also  u  light-hou^o 
in  the  fort  of  Santa  Cruz,  tho  light  of  which  is  fl.xcil, 
and  elevated  about  TiO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
—Ciiiilitr  titr  lei  I'hann,  ltd  ed.  Having  got  within 
'>  ur  (>  ndles  of  tho  Illm  Itazu,  ships  may  enter  by  day 
or  l>y  night,  the  dotted  line  in  the  cut  marking  the 
fuir-way  into  the  harlKir,  There  are  no  pilots  to  bn 
met  with ,  and  as  there  are  nu  liiddcn  dangers  of  any 
kind,  their  services  are  not  wanted.  On  entering, 
vessels  must  pass  within  hail  of  Fort  .Snntii  Cruz,  to 
Ihj  ready  to  answer  any  (|Ucstions  that  maj'  bo  put  to 
them.  They  then  proceed  to  Kurt  Vilganhon,  below 
or  opposite  to  whicli  they  must  bring  to,  or  coma  to 
anchor,  allowing  nu  l)uats  to  come  along  side  but  those 
of  the  government  until  they  have  received  pratique, 
when  tlipy  will  bo  permitted  to  proceed  to  the  usual 
place  of  nncliorage  for  tiie  niorcliant  shipping.  The 
sea-breeze  generally  sets  in  al>out  11  a.m.,  and  lasts 
till  nliout  sunset.  It  is  strong  enough  to  enable  ships 
to  overcome  the  ebb.  High  water  ut  full,  und  change 
at  2  in  the  afternoon. 


Anc\oragr  Duel. — 1.  Krom  and  after  1ft  July,  1152, 
the  anchorage  duty  upon  vessels  triiiling  lietween  fur- 
•Ign  |)orts  and  the  ports  uf  Krazll  will  lie  reduced  to 
800  reis  the  ton  ;  and  the  same  duss  of  duty  now  lev- 
led  upon  coasting  vesieU  shall  be  aboli..iiied.  i.  That 
part  of  the  provisions  of  April  'iti,  iIkIv  'id,  and  Novem- 
tier  lA,  1H44,  which  has  not  lieen  all  'il  liv  this  decree 
will  continue  in  force, 

Mvney,  W'n'ghtt,  awl  AUaturet. — All  payments  are 
made  in  papei  ^oney,  which  has  I  cpii  ovcr-lssurd,  and 
is  excessively  depreciated,  llut  in  ordinary  cases  tho 
par  of  exchange  may  now  be  assunu'ii  ut  about  Dli/. 
sterling  per  patriotic  dollar,  of  IlJ'iO  reis  paper. 
\>'eiglits  and  long  measures  are  the  same  us  tliose  of 
I.inlion,  the  arroba  being  82^  lbs.  avoirdupois ;  but 
measures  of  capacity  are  different,  a  mcdidu  being  c(|ual 
to  '50&'l  imiieriul  ^  llun,  and  an  ulquiere  to  I'll  ditto. 

Trade. — Tho  trade  of  liio  is  extensive,  ond  lias  In- 
creosed  ra|iidly  of  iiitc  j  curs.  It  is  now  liy  fur  tho 
greuti'il  niurt  fur  tlie  export  of  cofTro.  The  shipments 
of  this  ini|ii<rtant  arliilo,  which  in  W,\i)  amounted  to 
!lil('i,TH&  bugs,  have  increased  witli  such  unexampled 
rapidity,  that  in  1H4H  they  amounted  to  ], 710,707  bags, 
that  is  (taking  tho  bag  at  IfiO  lbs.),  to  278,718,120 
lbs,,  or  122,1011  tons ;  being  about  equal  to  all  the  ex- 
ports of  coffee  from  all  the  other  ports  in  the  world. 
It  has  not,  however,  been  so  large  since.  Sugar  wos 
formerly  an  important  article  of  export  from  I{io,  but 
Utterly  it  has  rapidly  decreased,  and  only  amounted 
to  (i'J7«  cases  (18  cwt.  each;  in  1819.  It  is  probaldc, 
however,  that  hero,  as  in  Cuba  and  other  places,  the 
late  low  jirices  of  colfeo  may  huvo  produced  u  reaction 
in  favor  uf  sugur,  tho  exports  of  the  latter  having 
risen  In  1H50  to  18,047  cases.  Tho  other  great  articlcK 
of  export  from  Kio  arc  Iddes,  rice,  tobacco,  rum,  ta|ii- 
oca,  ipecacuanha,  manioc  or  maniliot,  flour,  and  utiici 
inferior  urtides.  The  export  of  cotton  has  entirely 
ceased;  and  that  of  gold,  diamonds,  etc.,  is  mostly 
clandestine.     Diamonds  are  principally  exported  from 


liahia.     We  subjoin  an 
Account  of  tup.  Kxihirts  op  Native  raot'CCK  Puo.v  Itio  he  Jankiro  iiciuno  e.\cii  op  the  six  Veaqb  enoinq  with  ]sr» 


v-4 

Coir™. 

KufTHr. 

HMea 

No. 

B«il< 

riwM. 

18« 

1,fl:K>,l.M4 

)H,4i(l 

287,'i3S 

IMS 

1,710,&71> 

6,7  111 

331,M3 

1S« 

l,4r,0,4Ifl 

n.stift 

SOl.UHl 

1S.M) 

l,3.'*,n.vs 

13,047 

21)0,033 

ISftl 

l,'*4<;,il3 

7,Si4 

147,21)6 

\«>i 

i,«nT,ia) 

12,M6 

12&,739 

Homf.     I        RowwtMjil. 


No 
iSO,78,1 
21111,1111 
:t79.707 
2tlH,KiO 
2M,U4U 
170,098 


I  Loia  NnJ  FUiikB. 
'  «,437 

ifi.;w4 

22,2r>7 
I        WMVi 

80,547 
I        26,301) 


I.Hlher.  I     Riit. 


SIclai. 

6,602 
10,2M 
10,746 
17,017 
12,774 

8,U66 


llan 
10,741 

9,712 
20,707 
24,242 

8,229 

8,449 


I'liin. 

3,633 
'  2,S0.1 
I  4,3S0 
I  3,216 

3,m)2 


Tobacco    ti]i«CRCuiin))ft. 
~1( 


'Ik 
24,403 
23,144 
26,427 
2»,440 
2S,ja5 
32,240 


S«nioiia. 
470 
333 
130 
127 
641 
S91 


Tnljlci 


UaiTi'l. 
1,914 
1,832 
9,rs)0 
10,063 
17,737 
10,940 


The  principal  article  of  im|iort  consists  of  cotton 
goods,  the  value  of  wliicli  nmounts  to  full  one-third  of 
the  total  value  of.the  imports.  Next  to  cottons  are 
woolen,  linen,  and  silk  manufactures ;  wines,  jewel- 
rj',  and  iron-mongery  j  flour,  meat,  fish,  butter,  and 
other  articles  of  provision ;  sjiirits,  salt,  earthen-ware, 
paper,  and  a  host  of  articles.  The  importation  of  ready- 
made  f^irniture  from  the  United  .States  is  also  extensive 

About  50  jier  cent,  of  the  entire  commerce  of  Brazil 
posses  through  the  port  of  Rio  do  .Janeiro.  Hither  is 
conveyed,  from  all  the  ports  on  tho  coast,  from  Bahia 
almost  to  the  fnmtiers  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  all 
the  produce  intended  for  exportation  or  home  consump- 
tion. Farina,  beans,  bacon,  dried  and  salt  meat,  hides, 
horns,  tallow,  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton — in  u 
word,  all  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  the  different 
provinces  aro  made  tributary,  either  Ijy  lond  or  water 
conveyance,  to  tho  wealth  and  commercial  greatness 
of  the  Brazilian  metropolis.  A  numerous  fleet  of  ves- 
sels is  employed  in  the  coa.-ting  trade,  in  supplying  tho 
different  ports  along  tho  coast  with  tlio  various  pro- 
ductions of  the  soil  and  industry  of  America  and  ICu- 
rope.  Tho  chief  foreign  exports  from  Rio  de  Janeiro 
are — coffee  (more  than  half  of  the  whole  going  to  the 
I'nited  Stotes),  sugar,  cotton,  hides,  tobacco,  otter 
skins,  etc. 

Tonnage  emploj-ed  in  the  trade  of  1841 :  Tot-il  ves- 
sels, 1706,  of  416,000  tons — of  which,  from  and  to  the 


United  States,  there  were  289  vessels,  of  77,000  tons. 
Tonnage,  etc.,  of  1841,  compared  with  thot  of  1840  : 

1S41 I'O.'S  vpfscls  :  416,000  tonnsgc. 

1S40 1040      "         399,200        '• 

Kxce«H  over  1840  .      65      "  16,800        " 

The  increase  of  tho  foreign  commerce  of  Rio  de  ,)a- 
neiro  is  lietter  illustrated  by  the  following  returns : 

CntlUEIIOIAL   MoVKMKKT  OP   KlO   DE  JANEIRO  IJI    1846. 


Counlrica. 


KnL'land  and  PoescHBloas. 

i;nited  Slates 

France 

lianae  Towns 

I'ortHgnl 

Spain 

Switzerland 

Ilclgtum 

|;rui;uB]r  and  La  PUta  . . . 

Sardinia 

Sweden  and  Norway 


InipnrU  uf 
Rio. 


82,900,000 
20,440,000 
20,720,(HX) 
6,020,000 
8.920,000 
4,710,000 
4,490,000 
2,070,000 
2,180,000 
2,0."iO,000 
1,740,000 


Eiporia 
fium  Hlo. 


24,230,000 

38,7rsi,noo 
9,siio,ism 

13,330,00(1 
6,0.")O,OOO 
1,630,000 

4,  .120,00(1 
1,680,000 
2,000,000 
2,710,000 


T.,t>l       I 
FrniK» 

77,1110,(KKll 
6!l,liln.l«lllj 

:(o,.vju.ii(ni| 
l.-<,:i.'rfi,iiiiii, 
16,S7(1,I«WI| 
(i,;!40,llllll 
4,4110,IK1I)| 
6,99(l,l1(l(li 
3.i()ll,(lllO( 
4,(160,ll(ll)| 
4,4fiO,ll(K)i 


Africa,  Austria,  Denmark,  Turkey,  Russia,  tlie  Two 
Sicilies,  Prussia,  Netherlan(3s,  Chill,  ond  other  coun- 
tries, participate  in  this  foreign  trade  to  an  extent 
ranging  in  value  from  6,000,000  froncs  to  4,000,000 
each,  making  the  total  trade  for 

1848 266,040,000  franc»=4T,7SB,040  dollar*. 

1846 230,800,000      "    ^44.044.800       " 

Increase  over  1845. .    19,840,000     "    =:  3,690,240      " 


nio 


1G39 


1,014 

1,SM 

»,rit!rt 
ifl.ora 

17,737 
10,940 


bf  Rio  J"  ''"• 
•  returns ; 


184«. 


looo  77,ii)o,(mol 

■oofl  W,1'.W.I«>"| 
■ooo  hio.wo.iiooi 
looij  i'*,:i«>,i'™'l 
1000  ir>,«"i>,oooi 
looo  «,;i40,oooi 

I  4,4'.'O,(K)0l 

loOU  (i,ll9(l,000| 
looo  3.7rt0,noo| 
looo  4,or)n,ow) 
|oo()|  jMW^ 

Iss'm,  the  Two 
I  other  coun- 

|to  an  extent 
to  4,000,000 

[735,040  iloUiirii. 
P44,S00       " 


All  fnr»l(in  nutlons  (il)arnil  *i|iially  In  tho  Inrgn  aug- 
iniMitiitloM  whiih  thi!  retomHof  IKllUxh.'  'toverthoiie 
of  IHIT).  Miiinii  of  th»  caiineii  Ihut  Lontrkliutiil  to  thlit 
Incri-unB 'hiivo  he«n  ulreiidy  adverted  lo.  The  true 
cou«o,  however,  to  which  ull  other*  (ire  Imt  nunlllury, 
la  the  admllted  <apatlty  of  Hruzll  to  niultlply  her  st'ii- 
|)lu  prodiutlcirii,  (larticulnrly  coiree,  to  tl)e  fuUent  ox- 
tent  of  tho  foreign  demand.  If  Hhe  will  only  uvull  her- 
self of  Iho  (limn  ':int  rt'Hourcos  with  wli'uh  nati-ro  huK 


no 

nn-AKTIJIH. 


<')Mnin«M  to  fiirolifii  I'nr)*. 


Wttli  nrnthirtit  of  i-oiiiiiry, 
U'lit)  r<)r,>l);n  itrmhiri*. . . . 

hir  I  i>ltf»riili> 

1(1  tittllnrtt  for  furi'iKii  t 
In  txilluKt  I'lir  ti'>ii)«>  |io 

T.ilul  In  I'^.'.l 

I'lilnl  Id  HI>) 


xditrlea, 


'ViHab. 


liiiB 

ITl 

« 

7(1 

HO 


llll» 
KiNit 


no  Ijountindiv 

Tho  quiK 
klloKramn) 
the  other  U.i 
'i'ho  exporte  01 

To  Knglnli  ' 

lltBw        ..  I. 
AiiMtrln     -  ■ . 
rrftnrr 
llelgtioii    ... 
Hwetlcn  nnd  N  ■  \ 

Dihtniirk 

ri.rliiKul 

I{o-ii«ta 

OtldT  (>0((Ittril>M  , 


■plied  hor. 

'ffea  exported  lnereaiiC(12fl,7(V|(H)0 
lbs.  nvolrdn|Mii.i).      Suniir,  >in  1 
l.,<d   :i,()l)(),IIOO  klloKHKonie^, 
■  .i  ,    m;;  tho  year  lH4(i  wore : 

kllogranoHen  3n,000,(Mft        , 

"  .'H.ono.iion 


t,4m 

18,410 

u,ou 

OTO.KTI 
wrr«  aa  fol 

f)(i!t:., 


|0,(K)0.0«0 
[>,(H)0.00<) 
4.(H)0.(K)n 

:1,000,0m 
2.M)(l,nOO 
2,400,000 

l,;j(M),(iii<) 

|,(HH),()IIO 
1,(100,1)01) 


108,0(10,1101) 


'I'olul  vnlKc.  .81,000,000  fraiini 

The  col  mo  of  exchanne,  which  varied  from  ;il;i  to 
374  reas  per  franc,  mind  in  IHKi  at  !i;i5  rcos  per  fninc, 
or  IHM!  centH— cc|iial  to  55  cent<  por  11)01)  rea».  T!)c 
lollowii)^  tal>le  ifiveH  thu  iiiinil>er  of  voshoIh,  and  tlioir 
tonnage,  en|{U){eil  in  the  trade  of  1810,  witli  the  coun- 
tries whence  they  came ; 


CVuiilTlva  wheiir*. 

No.ofVw.1. 

ToniHiKi..      1 

It       ■ 
800 
415 
107 
218 
140 

»7 
102 

Oft 

40 

30 

.'13 

W 

22 

21 

8U 

15,000      , 
1)5,000 

89,700 
4<\r>')()     1 
44.ri!)o 

28,S(lil 
23,800 
20.400 
19,08!)       1 

0,300       1 

8,000 

0,700 

t,,Hta 

5,55) 
4,200 
17,400       ' 

1  "lilted  SttttoH 

Kii^lniKl  ttiul  rttfHcsglona 

la  1  laliiHiul  <  riiijiifiy 

riirtnifiil 

Africa 

An-ttrlR 

Helgluin 

.■'nrdlnla  

(:l)lll 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Oilier  ciMOitriea 

Total  lu  1840 

1077 
1702 

44'),(I4')      i 
389,070 

Do.  In  1S4:> 

Tonnage  to  and  from  tho  United  .States  in  18IC : 
vessels  :!(!(),  of  95,000  tons.  Tonnage  In  1H4.'1 :  vessels 
.128,  of  7«,i)00  tons.  Increase  in  1840  over  181;),  ves- 
sels 38,  tonnage  18,700. 

SlTM.MAttV  OF  TDK  TBADE  OF   KlO  PR  .lANKIRO  IN   1848. 

Total  Imports 134..'iiiii.OOO  fmncs. 

Toliil  exports 134,(i8l),(Hli)       " 

TulKlimporls  and  exports 208,.'>.so,(i(jo      " 

Tonnage,  etc.  —  Entered,  21.'),900  tons  ;  cleared. 
101,200  tons  J  total,  405,100  tons,  of  which  froni  mid 
to  the 

r  nlted  States 89,000  U<m. 

Circat  Ilrltain 0,5,000    •• 

rortuRal 47,01)0    •' 

Iralino 18,-lil0     " 

Other  coantrles 186,700    " 


Tota  1 405,  too 


359 


Course  of  exchange  at  Rio  do  .Janeiro  in  1848 
reas  per  franc,  or  56  cents  (nearly)  per  miiren. 

The  navigation  of  tlio  port  of  Kio  de  Janeiro  in  1851 
is  oxliibited  in  the  following  table : 


Anp.ivAi.s. 

Alrivftlji  from  foralgn  Porli. 

Veu.l.. 

T..nj. 
23i,.'>«7 
10,158 
10.428 
40,715 
3,479 

947 
51 
it 

107 
17 

Other  ilestlnntlimfl 

On  way  to  (  allfornla 

in  ballast  for  foreign  countries 

lu  ballant  for  lioino  ports 

Total  in  1851 

12111 
1021) 

317.347 
204,010 

Total  lu  18.'):) 

The  leading  artlcl>««  Importfld  In  I'" 
lows !    ('oltoix,    12, .'Kill,  woolens,   ' 

silks,  1II8H,  and  liiixed  giKid»,  12U'  i ,  :u<lllah, 

54,1102  (|uintals  ;  coals,  12,1)07  '<  in.  :  ;  i '  I'u  port«r, 
23,701  harrrls;  Hour,  2H3,H!);i  .  i.  .  .  ui  il?.  iperm, 
00,  ciiiniMisition, 0052,  and  tal,  ,  2u,i  :  ■  is  ;  wines, 
I'ortUKul,  14,033,  Medlterranoa.i,  7IH4,  .iiiii  Ilordoaux, 
4121  pijies;  liulter,  2.'i,fi(ll  lirkius  ;  i  ordage5  480  luils, 
etc.  The  produi  e  of  tlie  eoiiiilry  ex|Hirted  in  tlia 
same  year  consi^(,■d  of:  t'oHec,  2,033,7 13  Imgs ;  hides, 
117,21)1);  sugar,  7824  case.,;  ruin,  38112  pipes;  riee, 
8229  bags;  horns,  25(1,1)4!) ;  tobacco,  28,7,V>  mils  (of 
Iril  Uis.  eiieh  I ;  riisewoiid,  3(i,.'il7  pieces;  half-tannod 
hides,  12,744  ;  tapioca,  17,737  barrels,  etc.  'lliu  arrlv- 
Ills  coastwise  III  IH.M  were  11)35  sail  vessels,  and  359 
sleaniers,  with  an  aggregate  of  221,047  tons;  and  the 
departures  were  I  "(13  sail  vessels,  and  ,'180  steamers, 
with  an  aggregiile  of  22.'>.002  ton^.  Tlio  total  imports 
and  ex|Hirts  of  the  empire  in  ]8,')1  exhibit  an  increase 
of  33  percent,  over  tlie  average  of  the  four  preceding 
years.  Coulil  Itra/.il  bo  iuiluced  to  aladLsh  tlio  heavy 
export  duties  wliieh  slio  levies  on  tier  staple  prodiie- 
tions,  the  Increase  woiilil  largely  exceed  this  ligure. 
Tlie  article  of  coll'ec  alone  would  in  a  short  period 
fully  make  up  for  iin  deliciency  in  lier  revenue  caused 
liy  the  abolition  of  tlieso  duties,  in  tlin  iiii  reaiwd  de- 
mand for  tiiat  artii  li  lor  foreign  markets.  Itesides, 
tlio  stiniiilns  which  would  in  eonsetpieiiee  iio  imparted 
to  that  liranch  of  agricultural  labor  would  present  an 
incidental  benelit  whicii  could  hardly  escape  the  observ- 
ation of  a  sagacious  legislator. 

Tho  subjoined  ligures  sliow  tlie  amount  of  ex|H)rt 
duties  levied  at  Hio  ilo.lanciro  from  18  Hi  to  1851.  |  Mil- 
rea-  55  to  5(i  cents  United  States  currency.] 

184flJ47 3,000.000  luilroai. 

1847.'48 4,lls,(«io       " 

1848.'49 3,834,Ol«l         " 

1849-'M 3,7mI,4.'i;|         " 

185l)-',M 4,7llO.«9t!         " 

8TATKHI-;NTS  ll.l.rsTUATIVK  OF  TUB  TllAUK  OF   I'lo  IN   1850, 
I,,,n(liii(f  \THr\cn  iinjiurlp.t.  QiinnlilfM. 

(dllon  iiinnufarliires '  l>k^•<.  20,124 

\V,»Ocn         <lo "  2,UBS 

Uuen           <lo "  1,170 

Silks "  T70 

Mixed "  1,141 

Coiltisli quintals  S-'LoriO 

CoiiU tons  U3,404 

AlennJ  liorter 1)1)1*.  15,901 

1l,,„r..' •■  208,578 

Candles,  aperni boxes  1,872 

"        romnosilion "  5,209 

'•        tiillnV "  2,222 

Wines,  I'ortuirnl pipPS  14,,525 

"      M.dlierninean "  0,701 

>'      llordeuux "  2,482 

Il„ll,.r firkins  2;l,980 

Cordat'e......' ■'''"^  '"t""" 

Kxiiord  of  Produoo  of  the  Counlry.  Qutnlltiw. 

folTee. )>ag.<  1,359,058 

lllilcs No. 

Supir cases 

Hum I'lpc" 

IJico bags 

Horns No- 

To)>arco rolls 

IpccRcuanha seroons 


liosewood pieces 

Other  woods deals 

Half-tanned  Ijldes No. 

Tapioca l'«- 

Tpa boxes 

•iBars.!'. " 

I  lair  (horse) tales 

Flour  (nianlliol) !«'-!* 

Soap lioies 

Candles,  tallow *' 


200.033 

13,047 

3,218 

24.243 

208,550 

28,44') 

12T 

28,33'2 

15,186 

17,017 

16,053 

34 

666 

S67 

10,67« 

3,536 

804 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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WnSTIR.N.Y.  14SeO 

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BIO 


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BIO 


Tahdlab  STATmxifi  nramrnHO  im  onAii,  ComnsBoiu.  Movunn  at  tri  Poit  or  Rio  vm  Junao  m  1881,  akd  teoi 
utLATiTE  8nABB  ToiBaor  AsnaiiXD  10  utna  KoBUOti  Naiiok. 


CoinlriM. 

VMMh  (nund. 

taport.. 

KxporU. 

Tfrtal. 

Uotted  State! 

VmmIi. 
614 
870 
161 
184 

in 

99 
91 
77 
74 
08 
69 
60 
610 

Tom. 

164,000 

124,000 

89,600 

89,000 

81,100 

16,160 

18,600 

10,749 

10,100 

19,400 

19,100 

16,400 

167,180 

87,080,009 
60,610,000 
10,800,000 

»v88»,oao 

1,010,000 
8,140,000 
l,fli),000 
1,900,000 
7,440,000 
8,980,000 
170,000 
6,910,000 
0,600,000 

rnnn. 

67,640,000 

11,690,000 
6,890,000 

10,640,000 
1,690,000 
8,610,000 
4,810,000 
6,690,000 

11,100,000 

100,000 

•    1,160,000 

7,180,000 

13,980,000 

franei.  , 

96,810,000 

88,800,000 

16,190,000 

89,870,000 

4,710,000 

6,760,000 

6,840,000 

8,490,000 

19,640,000 

4,180,000 

1,130,000 

18,090,0<K) 

88,680,000 

Great  Britain  And  PoMKMBtone 

Portugal 

Fjruioe ..• 

Argentine  Kepnblle 

Denmark 

Auitria 

Uaniw  Town* 

Spain 

PruHla 

Belgium 

Other  countries 

Total 

1848 

681,480 

106,6IM),000 

106.960,000 

881,460,000 

AOOOOMT  or  TUB   COFPRE    KXPORTF.n   rUOM    PlO   »E   jAmHRO 

IN  KAOH  Year  from  1811  to  1860,  uont  inclusive,  in 
Baqb  or  160  Lns. 


run. 

Bam. 

YMIf. 

Hup. 

Vmh. 

B.g.. 

1811 

106,888 

1881 

448,149 

1841 

1,018,918 

1881 

161,(148 

1S31 

4T8,9!K) 

1841 

1,179,781 

181S 

184,994 

1883 

668,196 

1848 

1,1G9,618 

1814 

114,000 

1834 

689,117 

1844 

1,160,481 

1816 

181,610 

1836 

617,166 

1M6 

1,108,068 

1880 

160,000 

1886 

704,8f6 

1846 

1,611,096 

1887 

860,'K)0 

1887 

610,784 

1647 

1,639,184 

1818 

869,147 

1888 

781,661 

1848 

1,710,679 

1819 

876,107 

1889 

871,788 

1849 

1,460,410 

1880 

891,786 

1840 

1,068,801 

1860 

1,869,068 

CoMPARATtvi  Statement  niowino  the  inwabp  Navioation 
or  Hid  de  Janeiho  im  tub  Years  1S61  anii  1852. 


Koiwl^  FlitK"- 

Vemli. 

V.MI.. 

I8J1. 

800 

117 

104 

90 

114 

78 

71 

80 

43 

80 

84 

11 

16 

10 

46 

18B9. 

266 
118 
90 
72 
71 
OS 
67 
14 
44 
80 
26 
17 
16 
11 
00 

^(irE^t  Itritahi       

Denmark     

Spain 

Auitria 

Pmuta 

RuMla                     . .  ... 

Other  countriea 

Total 

1110 

1099 

BrazIU&n  Flag.- 


-On  foreign  voyages. 
On  coaating  trado . . 


Total. 


.    449  TeeaeU. 
.  1613       " 
.  SOfll       " 


The  total  value  of  the  commeTcial  moTements  at  the 
port  of  Rio  de  Janerro  .a  1862  was  853,000,000  francs 
— equal  to  $67,070,000 ;  showing  a  large  increase  over 
the  trade  of  the  preceding  year.  Of  the  above  total 
there  was  for  imports  180,000,000  francs,  and  for  ex- 
ports 178,000,000  francs.  The  following  condensed 
summary  shows  the  trade  of  the  principal  commercial 
countries  with  Kio  during  this  year  :  Great  Britain 
and  possessions,  74,000,000  francs ;  imports  consisted 
chiefly  of  cottons,  woolens,  provisions,  liardware,  coal, 
etc.  France,  84,000,000  firancs ;  imports — liquors,  tis- 
sues, cutler}',  articles  of  fashion,  etc.  United  States, 
28,000,000  fiancs;  imports — provisions,  stores,  etc. 
Portugal,  UjBOOflW)  flnncs ;  imports  —  wines,  provi- 
sions, etc.  Hanse  Towns,  11,000,000  francs ;  imports 
— general  cargoes.  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo, 
5,000,000  francs ;  imports — provisions,  sliins,  etc.  The 
exports  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  this  year  were  in  value : 

Caffce,about 140,000,000  ftanci. 

Dtamonds  and  pearls iri,i)flO,(K)0      " 

Sugar 5,000,000      " 

TolMCOo  and  cigars 8,600,000      " 

Illdeii  and  iklns 2,660,000      " 

Cabinet  woods 1,800,000      " 

According  to  the  official  report  of  the  custom-house 
of  Bio  de  Janeiro,  there  was  exported  ftrom  that  port  to 
the  United  States,  up  to  30th  June  of  this  year  (1852), 
062,489  bags  of  coffee,  of  160  lbs.  each— making  in  all 
162,898,240  lbs.  The  total  quantity  of  colTee  exported 
the  same  year  is  stated  to  have  been  1^96,609  bags, 


or  808,467,440  lbs.    The  quantity  sent  to  the  United 
States  was  thus  distributed : 

New  Orleans 846,161  bags. 

New  York 160,179    " 

Baltimore 107,792    " 

Phitodelphta 81,116    " 

Charleston 18,781    " 

Boaton 11,768    " 

Mobile 11,861    " 

8avannah •:,869    " 

SanFnmciaco 4,011    "       i 

Total 961,480    " 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  jxporte  of  coffee,  in 

'bags,  tnm  Brazil  to  New  Orleans,  from  1843  to  1862, 

both  inclusive: 

1842 116,110 

1843 88,488 

1844 161,088. 

1846 167,669  ** 

1846 916,081    ' 

Ita 806,111 

1848 189,871      ' 

1849 , 199,119 

1860 119,018 

1861 174,690 

1862 340,162 

It  is  stated  that  the  first  importation  of  coffee  into 
New  Orleans  direct  from  Brazil  took  place  in  1836  ; 
and  that  ^rom  that  year  to  1840,  or  during  a  period  of 
six  years,  the  quantity  thus  directly  imported  from 
Brazil  did  not  exceed  44,000  bags  ;  while  in  the  year 
1840  alone  there  were  received  at  that  port  fh)m  Cuba 
91,000  bags.  CuIm,  however,  has  now  almost  entirely 
ceased  to  export  coflfee — has  ceased,  at  least,  to  any 
considerable  extent. 

Comparativr  Statshrmt  biiowimo  tbe  Qvamtitirs  of  Cop- 
fee  exported  rBoa  Bio  db  Janeiro  froh  1861  to  1865, 

IIOTU   INCLUSIVE. 


Von. 


1861 

1862 

1868 

1864 

1866 

Total 

Annual  average . 


I  B.g.. 
2,088,743 
1,896,609 
1,687,668 
1,987,632 
2,409,099 


Pounds. 


826,398,880 
808,467,440 
161,016,080 
818,011,110 
886,466,840 


9,964,746     I     1,694,869,360 
1,991,949    I        818,871,872 


These  returns  show  great  uniformity,  and  go  to  prove 
that  the  trade  of  Rio  Janeiro  in  the  great  staple  of  Bra- 
zil has  attained  for  the  time  its  maximum.  The  ex- 
ports to  New  Orleans  for  the  same  period,  however, 
show  a  pr>/gressive  increase. 

From  official  publicatiov,^  received  as  those  pages  go 
to  press,  it  appears  that  the  general  foreign  commerce 
of  Brazil  in  1864  was  unusually  prosperous.  The  ag- 
ricultural productions  of  the  empire,  the  chief  basis  of 
its  foreign  trade,  exceeded  those  of  the  preceding  year, 
the  returns  for  the  port  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  reaching  as 
high  OS  888,000,000  francs ;  showing  an  excess  over 
those  of  the  preceding  year  of  18,000i000  francs.  The 
total  numlMr  of  vessels  that  entered  the  port  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  in  1864  was  1064,  and  in  1866,  1286;  while  in 
1863  there  entered  only  1064  vessels ;  showing  an  in- 
crease for  1864  of  10,  and  for  1866  of  281  vessels  over 
1868,  The  following  statement  shows  how  the  navi- 
gation of  this  port  was  distributed  in  1863  and  1864 : 


RIO 


KngUud  ...<.' • 

Ponufkl 

Frwuw ,,.,,, 

IImmTowu 

Hpdn , ,,.. 

ilw(d«iMi4Norw«r  . 

MonMfldw, , , ,, 

VmimiAYm 

Hilglum 

Dannutrk ,, 

Htrdlnl* 


N0.<>rVMMh. 

lUl. 

» 

879 

384 

SAO 

198 

188 

04 

«a 

n 

C3 

48 

4t 

n 

44 

n 

87 

18 

48 

m 

sa 

61 

83 

18 

10 

For  mtnjr  yun  thi  United  StatM  occupied  the  first 
nnk  in  tb*  nwlgtUon  of  Rio  da  Janeiro.  It  will  be 
poreelvcd  ttvm  tb*  prMtdIng  table  that  England 
elalnw  tht  pneadmo*  In  UM,  a  fact  .which  is  attrib- 
utad  to  Um  AtlUng  off  In  tliat  year  In  the  importation 
of  flour  (Vom  tlia  Untt««^  Staten.  The  new  line  of 
•teaman,  aatabliilMd  In  1868  between  Liverpool  and 
Rio  do  Janeiro,  touolltng  at  the  lanie  places  a«  the 
Southampton  line— namely,  Lisbon,  Mudciro,  Tene- 
riffa,  8t.  Vineent,  I'amambuoo,  and  Uahia— notwith- 
standbig  tb«  fear*  a*  to  its  success,  continued,  in  1864, 
its  roontbiy  oarvica  with  activity  and  profit.  Besides 
tbeso  two  linai  of  itaamarg,  a  company,  composed  of 
BraiilUn  and  Portuguasa  merchants,  haa  established 
a  Una  lietwoan  Lisbon  and  Rio,  touching  at  the  same 
points  I  but  thU  Una  liod  In  18&4  but  one  steamer  in 
Mrvioa,  tha  voyage*  of  which,  howoTor,  proved  very 
ittooastfuL 

The  port  of  Rio  da  Janairo  Is  becoming  yearly  more 
important  a«  tba  centra  of  South  Atlantic  commerce. 
Tba  ttumbar  and  tonnoga  of  vessels  which  entered  in 
186S  wara  ougmantad  a  third  when  compared  with 
184&,  and  mora  than  a  bolf  over  the  number  and  ton- 
nage of  vaiaala  in'188&.  From  1850  to  1864  the  aver- 
aga  inonasa  durbig  tha  flva  years  was  nearly  a  fifth. 
The  following  itatemant  exhibit*  this  progressive 
movement  i 


-VmT 


1846 

Aversiie  IWO-'M 

two 


878 
im 


Ton». 


184,913 
168,94') 
314,23S 

380,873 


TbeM  flguras  exhibit  ths  results  of  foreign  naviga- 
tion only.    Tb*  coa*tlng  trade  Is  shown  as  foUows : 


y«ftn. 


1840 

AvsrsK*  IWU'M  , 
18SB 


1920 
3003 


8(H» 


Torn. 


116,117 
]0«,873 
380,228 
818,339 


The  employment  of  *t«amboats  In  the  navigation  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro  I*  yearly  extending.  In  1846  the  num- 
ber of  steamtwat*  engaged  in  the  trade  of  the  port  of 
Rio  was  280.  In  1806  the  number  reached  431.  Four- 
teen compani**,  owning  thirty-nino  steamboats,  with 
an  oggragate  t>f  U438  horse  power,  keep  up  the  com- 
mnnlMtlons  between  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  other  mar- 
itbna  town*  of  the  empire,  There  are  also  four  tow- 
boat*,  with  an  aggregate  of  187  horse  power.  The  fol- 
lowing tebular  statement  'xlithlts  the  value  of  leading 
importation*  Into  Rio  do  Janeiro  in  1864 1 

]•(,— MmniiAXtitsa. 

Mquom,  wines,  tea,  elo. iT,floo,noo  fVanc.^. 

I'rovlsloDs,  flour,  butter,  etc 24,ooo,ooo  " 

Urop-oll,  Hit,  tallow,  ioap,  etc 4,000,000  " 

llatten'  wares,  dry  geudi,  iMoa,  fanoy 

wsre,0Ui 9,000,090  '■ 

TiHumofoattan 81,000,000  " 

»  wool 7,000,000      " 

"       lloea 8,000,000  » 

■■•per,  IxMks,  etc 4,ooo,OflO  » 

HIrfns  and  leather,  aha«s,ete.,iisddlcnr,  etc  4,000,000  " 
Uroom  wares,  willow  wanw,  woodt,  rumU 

hirB,ete.., , s,noo,noo  " 

Pottery  wsrss,  porrwUIn,  etc 8,(wo,noo  " 

V'atehos,  Jnwslry,  lisrdwsre,  (ilo KVNKi.mio  " 

(^'oal,  metals,  nianuftMturtHi  sncl  wroiiiht, 

•lei. , 11,000.000  » 

HaltMti*,  nuwilur,  arms,  soa^tarea B,ooo.0O0  " 

Hundrtos  .T l»,ooo,ooo  " 


1641  HIO 

IJ.— Couxnisa  nioN  wmou  mpoann. 

AroioA 850,000 

Amcbioa  : 

L'nited  States 18,000,000 

Buenos  Ajrres 1,400.000 

Montevideo 1,600,0110 

„     *^'>111 700,000 

CXNTBAL  KuBOPB: 

Knglsnd  and  Poaaeuloiu 66,000,000 

Aiiatris 3,000,000 

Uelgtum 6,000,000 

I'mnce 83,000,000 

Swlticrlsnd 4,000,000 

SoirrinnH  Ecbofs! 

Kpsin ^000,000 

I'ortugal 14,1100,000 

Sardinia 8,000,000 

Sicily  and  Naples 400,000 

Turkey  and  Lovant 800,000 

NoaTuiBM  Eusope: 

Holland 1,800,000 

Hanae  Towna 18,000,000 

Donmark 8,000,000 

Sweden  and  Norway 8,000,000 

I'riuaia 1,700,000     " 

Flaherlca 100,000     "    * 

Otherplaces 4,000,000     »     ^ 

As  regards  the  export  trade  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  fai 
1864,  the  returns  at  hand  ore  not  eo  minute.  Of  cof- 
fee, however,  the  chief  article  of  export  from  the  Bra- 
zilian market,  there  were  exported  this  year  1,987,632 
bagsy  weighing  an  aggregate  of  318,021,120  lbs.,  of 
which  899,900  bags,  or  143,984,000  lbs.,  were  sent  to 
the  United  States.  The  quantity  exported  the  pi«- 
viousyearwas  1,637,063 bags, or 202,020,080 lbs.  The 
quantity  of  sugar  exported  was  less  than  that  of  1863 
— namely,  6905  hhds.  and  1739  barrels. 

The  following  retumi  exhibits  the  total  results  of 
1864: 


'if 

M 

I 

"i 


ItuportR. 

KxiMjrta. 

Tot«l. 

Valuo  In  18r4. . . . 

Value  In  1863. . . . 

Increoao  In  1854 

Krtiiic,. 
171,0.10,000 
l(14,n«fl,(H)0 

rranci. 
167,(10U,IX)0 
101,000,000 

Praucs. 
888,000,1100 
B35,00O,O,)O 

7,0OII,(KK) 

6,000,000 

13,000,000 

Tlie  total  flour  imports  at  Rio  for  1856  were  317,401 
barrels,  of  which  301,729  barrels  were  from  tho  I'nited 
States.  Of  this  amount  161,716  barrels  were  shipped 
coastwise  or  re-exported  after  reaching  Rio. 

Total  Import,  1857 31",4ft4 

Stoldc  In  all  hands  Jannary  1,  ISSC 80,000 

_  397,4M 

Hhlppcd  coaatwlao  and  re-exported,  1866 . .  161,7101 

Stock  In  all  hands  January  1, 1857 60,000 

211,716} 

ConsumpHm  ov  IfM I bble.  185,687J 

The  imri.)rt8  of  flour  ftom  all  sources  last  year  ex- 
ceed thosfc  of  tha  preceding  3-ear  16,536  barrels,  while 
the  import;!  from  the  United  States  show  an  increase 
for  the  same  period  of  74,423  barrels.  In  fact,  tho 
tables  for  ten  years  show  a  somewhat  irregular  but 
decisive  transfer  of  the  flour  trade  almost  entirely  to 
the  hands  of  the  United  States. 

The  total  exports  of  coiTeu  from  Bio  for  tho  year 
1856  show  as  follows : 

To  thn  United  States 1,109,131 '..aga.  : 

ToKuropo 8S9,SS6    " 

To  other  points 40,130    " 

Total 2,099,136    " 

KXI-ORTS  OP  1S56. 

To  the  Vnltcd  Statca 1,139,135  baga. 

ToKiirope 1,243,836    " 

Klaewhere 34,848    "      , 

Total 2,406,809    " 

F.xroBTS  OP  1864. 

To  tho  United  Statca 891,708  baRS.  . 

To  Europe ^''>H''^i    " 

Elsowhere 37.319    " 

Total 1,993,706    " 

The  total  exports  of  soger  for  1856  were :  Cases, 
2804  j  barrels,  26,581;  showing  a  decrease  from  the 
preceding  year  of  2381  cases  and  12,155  barrels.  The 
export  of  hides  for  1860  was  64,881  pieces,  showing  a 
largo  decline  from  the  two  preceding  years. 

Of  the  coffee  exports  to  tho  United  States  in  1856, 


BIO 


1642 


'kia 


BtUlffloN  nc«lr«d  1M,011  bags ;  New  York,  362,248 ;  who  an  employed  in  the  mechanic  trade*,  In  commeN 
Phlladalphta,  01,986 ;  Boaton,  6001 ;  and  New  Orleans,  j  clal  puranits,  ns  domestics,  etc.  Some  hundreds  are 
404,6O3,  I  sent  to  the  new  colonies,  where  they  conatitnte  almost 

Th«  foreign  commercial  arrivals  in  1856  number   the  only  aid  which  Brazilian  agriculture  receives  an- 


1060  VMMli,  of  386,886  tons,  of  which  thirty-two  were 
ftwn  Batttmore,  thirty  from  New  Yoric,  twenty-eight 
from  Utchmond,  fifteen  from  New  Orleans,  fourteen 
from  Boston,  eleven  from  Philadelphia,  two  from 
t'harltlton,  two  fh>m  the  Rio  Grande,  and  one  from 
Wilmington,  The  number  of  foreign  departures  in 
1M6  was  006  vessels,  of  426,908  tons,  of  which  640 
were  with  produce,  34  with  foreign  merchandise,  140 
with  their  uiward  cargoes,  and  18:!  in  ballast  proceed- 
ed lo  other  ports  of  the  empire.  The  coasting  trade 
outward  was  conducted,  exclusively  of  803  steamlibats, 
by  3370  vessels,  of  263,736  tons  burden.  The  coast- 
ing trade  Inward  was  conducted  by  2222  sailing  vei- 
wls  and  806  steamboats,  of  276,967  tons. 

The  revenue  collected  at  the  custom-house  of  Rio 
exhibits  an  Increase  corresponding  with  that  of  the  im- 
iwrt  trade  of  this  port.  This  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing comparative  statement  of  receipts : 

l«flfl S,5S3,000mUreu. 

1845 8,048,000       " 

IBM 18,077,000        " 

The  last  year  (1866)  does  not  exhibit  the  raaxlmnm. 
This  was  reached  in  1852,  the  amount  that  year  ex- 
ceeding 14,776,600  milreas,  or  over  $7,000,000. 

Immiffralion. — The  immigration  returns  of  Rio  fur- 
nish the  following  statistics : 


Tssr. 

ISTig  , 
1864. 


Aggregate 

AnniiRl  avenge. 


V,58S 
6,8T0 
0.A4S 
8,1)73 


84,773 


8,693 


D<parl8d. 


16«) 
1887 
1981 
1778 


7181 


1796 


nually  from  foreigners..  There  arrived  in  1861  and  in 
1862  a  large  number  of  German  settlers,  engaged  in 
Europe  by  the  agents  of  the  colonial  directors.  On 
their  arrival  these  colonists  became  dissatisfied,  and 
hence  German  immigration  lias  almost  entirely  ceased. 
In  1861,  there  arrived  of  this  class  of  immigrants  2968 
persons ;  in  1862, 1047  persons ;  in  1868, 849  persons ; 
and  in  1854,  only  296. 

General  Remarkt.— On  the  80th  of  April,  1864,  the 
first  railroad  in  Brazil  was  thrown  open  to  the  public, 
the  inauguration  taking  place  in  the  presence  of  their 
Imperial  Majesties,  and  an  immense  concourse  of  the 
leading  personages  of  the  empire.  The  general  navi- 
gntion  and  commerce  of  the  southern  provinces,  as  well 
OS  the  general  trade  between  them  and  the  United 
States,  are  decreasing ;  owing,  it  is  alleged,  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  difficulties  that  existed  on  the  River  Plata. 
The  more  liberal  tariff,  both  on  imports  and  exports,  at- 
tracts a  large  bulk  of  the  trade  of  these  provinces  to 
that  quarter.  A  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Brazil  is  regarded  as  the  only  means  of  promoting  the 
general  commerce  and  navigation  between  the  two 
countries.  There  exists  no  commercial  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Brazil  |  but  Brazilian  vessels, 
with  their  cargoes,  are  admitted  on  an  equal  footing 
with  vessels  of  the  United  States  as  respects  tonnage 
and  import  duties,  and  all  other  charges. 

The  ports  of  Brazil  open  to  direct  foreign  trade  are : 
Para,  Maranham,  Pamahiba,  Fortaleza  (Cearo),  Ara- 
caty(Ceare),  Rio  Grande  North,  Perahiba,  Pemnmbu- 
co,  Maceyo  (Alagoas),  Lanangeiras  (Sergipe),  Babia, 
Espirito  SantOj  Rio  do  Janeiro,  Santos,  Paranngua,  St. 
Catherine,  Rio  Grande,  Sfto  Borga  (R.  G.  South),  Porto 
The   Immigrants  are   ver^'  generally  Portuguese, ;  Alegre  (H.  G.  South). 

CotiMaaoa  or  tub  United  States  with  Coast  or  IIbazii,  akd  URPENnsNriKs,  rnoM  Ootouek  1, 1820,  to  Jvvt  1, 1857. 


Ymm  Mdlni 

Biportj. 

Impo^'- 

Whereof  lher«  wm  in  ' 
Bullion  and  Specie. 

Tonni^  cleared. 

Domeitlc. 

PorviKn. 

Total. 

Kxpotl. 

Import. 

American. 

Foraign. 

Netit  80, 1891 

$886,848 

$496,419 

$1,381,760 

+ 

$160,9M0 

$19,500 

99,964 

814 

18S8 

1,217,411 

246,618 

1,408,929 

1 

71,803 

98,801 

641 

ass 

m 

1,062,809 

279,181 

1,341,390 

l,2l*,.;  M 

8,616 

46.916 

29  616 

1,099,754 

602,160 

9,801,904 

2,074,110  . 

6!),219 

218,71)9 

88,346 

607 

»J8 

;mj 

1,641,296 

752,468 

2,398,764 

2,166,707 

(18,843 

197,188 

88,1188 

707 

1,697,844 

608,006 

9,200,840 

2,166,678 

113,030 

104,771 

84,872 

1,034 

MT 

1,486,433 

877,373 

1,663,806 

2,060,(171 

1,576 

932,982 

87,709 

381 

888 

•  1,506,779 

489,986 

1,988.716 

8,097,759 

135,183 

181,677 

40,114 

1,510,860 

419,667 

1,999,927 

2,636,407 

73,019 

76,830 

40,1178 

1880 

Total. . . 

1,600,990 

249,88^ 

1,848,288 

9,491,460 

1,470 

84,616 

44,460 

601 

$14,806,888 

$4,5Dl,93i> 

$18,708,772 

$10,879,051 

$678,100 

$1,934,80;) 

340,687 

4,01'3 

Sept.  80,1831 

$1,662,103 

$493,909 

$9,076,095 

$2,875,829 

$916,875 

$98,14') 

36,8^8 

903 

1831 

1,832,077 

829,717 

9,064.794 

8,800,846 

381,608 

20,671 

80,489 

356 

1888 

8,474,656 

797,546 

8,972,101 

6,083,613 

166,840 

11,468 

4'),786 

1,017 

1884 

1,536,097 

473,854 

2,069,361 

4,729,96;) 

60,084 

81,786 

S7,0:i2 

1,!t77 

1886 

1,810,791 

707,805 

2,608,666 

6,674,466 

843,081 

66,606 

89,209 

2,564 

188S 

1,739,741 

1,869,196 

8,094,936 

7,210,1!;0 

900,884 

6,040 

48,633 

8,009 

18BT 

1,301,217 

441,003 

1,748,209 

4,001,1:63 

88,631 

40,617 

.  19,670 

4,107 

IMS 

8,094,967 

66i,937 

2,057,194 

3,101,238 

208,706 

193,891 

30,623 

1,001 

188« 

8,138.997 

50J,488 

2,037,486 

6,202,1;  66 

184,427 

4,838 

31,431 

8,1.S3 

1840 

Total. . . 

8,146,863 

360,711 

9,506,574 

4,!)97,2:6 

102,174 

14,638 

84,189 

1,764 

$18,164,488 

$6,546,907 

$94,710,396 

$47,274,464 

$2,637,8.6 

$348,816 

860,770 

19,894 

K<it)t.8«,l«41 

$2,941,091 

$675,982 

.$3,517,278 

$6,302,663 

$266,808 

$91,362 

47,634 

3,101 

1848 

2,428,671 

375,981 

2,601,609 

.  6,i!48,814' 

81,7r4 

60,345 

88.778 

2,643 

9mm„   1848* 

1,668,684 

828,704 

1,792,288 

8,C47,fl58 

22,401) 

60,84;i 

82,066 

1,3  8 

June  80, 1844 

2,409,418 

408,834 

9,818,952 

6,883,800 

149,0^5 

28,008 

46,260 

1,816 

1846 

2,418,667 

494,383 

2,887,1)50 

6,084,8')0 

181,151 

7,477 

40,716 

2,077 

1846 

2,764,012 

889,383 

8,148,305 

7,441,803 

286,0)1 

9,68S 

48,026 

4,083 

184T 

2,866,938 

876,840 

9,043,778 

7,036,160 

141,241 

96,56 

81,281 

3,307 

1848 

8,092,786 

979,698 

8,872,434 

7,992,648 

163,072 

17,603 

87,206 

6,036 

:      184S 

9,838,380 

964,697 

8,102,977 

8,4'>4,868 

117,604 

9,861 

66,336 

6,0i!S 

•             IMO 

ToUI. . . 

9,723,708 

473,847 

8,197,114 

0,894,499 

279,030 

2,160 

58,118 
*84;4b6 

.'1,501 

$86,634,964 

$8,791,999 

$29,396,963 

$6»,f)16,il88 

$1,623,066 

$916  98.) 

84,714 

Jtm«80,1861 

$3,198,956 

$693,960 

$8,759,016 

$11,525,804 

$430,869 

$6,611 

68,629 

7,648 

1888 

2,789,179 

888,863 

3,091,049 

12,230,28.) 

117,466 

114,817 

61,484 

6,718 

1858 

8,734,100 

860,884 

8,904,4+4 

14,817,961 

399,093 

K.OOO 

61,736 

6,11:8 

1S04 

4,046,857 

199,884 

4,939,241 

14,110,387 

643,114 

94,400 

60,348 

2,829 

1856 

ia«) 

8.978,819 

888,064 

4,961,273 

16,218,926 

141,525 

1,401 

75,666 

2,674 

4,859,196 

886,779 

5,0:>4,004 

19,262,657 

938,613 

74,980 

9,890 

1857 

6,808,166 

877,041 

6,546,907 

21,460,783 

146,688 

84,712 

8,186 

*  Nine  months  to  June  80,  and  tlie  fiscal  year  from  this  thus  begins  July  1, 


BIO 


164S 


RIO 


B14 

649 

BOT 

TOT 

1,034 

881 

.• 

1 

601 

4,0:3 

!           208 

)        8sa 

5         1,01T 

!        1,(^7 

»        2,B»4 

i        8,0«2 

15        4,10T 

3         1,001 

1         3,1S3 

9         1,'I«4 

9        W,8'i4 

4        8,101 

S         !!,043 

6         1,3  5 

0         1,816 

6        2,0TT 

0 

4,083 

(I 

8,867 

K) 

0,030 

16 

C.OiS 

8 

a,r>0'i 

IB 

84,714 

ia 

T.648 

U 

6,718 

16 

B,ir:9 

(8 

8,829 

M 

2,674 

W 

2,800 

19 

8,186 

Anckoragt  Due*. — SOO  reu  (about  16|  centB)  per  ton 
of  Brazilian  measurement.  Vessels  arriving  and  de- 
parting in  ballast  pay  only  half  anchorage ;  and  tlioae 
calling  merely  for  supplies  are  exempt  ttom  anchorage 
duty.  Vessels  which  mal(e  more  than  two  voyages  to 
ports  of  Brazil  during  a  twelvemonth  are  exempt  from 
the  payment  of  anchorage  dues  on  all  voyages  over 
that  number  within  the  same  year ;  vessels,  tkerefure, 
pay  no  more  than  COO  reas  annually  (38|  cents),  be  the 
number  of  voyages  what  It  may.  For  passports  to 
leave,  ttom  4  to  8  milreas  {ttom  $2  22  to  $1 44) ;  for 
pilotage  inward  80  milreaa  ($16  67),  but  no  obligation 
to  take  pilots  inward;  for  pilotage  outward  70  milreas 
(jtg»  88),  and  for  canoe-hire,  6  milreas  ($3  38).  No  ves- 
sel is  allowed  to  leave  port  without  a  pilot,  nor  to  get 
under  weigh  after  sunset,  or  before  sunrise.  Hospital 
money,  4  milreas  on  the  vessel  (say  $2  22),  and  640 
reas  (or  about  36  cents)  for  each  of  the  crew.  The 
charge  for  stamps  varies,  being  not  less  than  $1.  A 
consular  return  from  Pemambuco,  under  date  of  Janu- 
ary, 18£5,  gives  each  specific  item  of  charges  upon 
an  American  bark  of  200  tons  burden  which  entered 
that  port  laden  with  flour,  and  leaving  with  a  cargo  of 
Bugar.  The  total,  inward  and  outward,  including  tho 
charges  for  lighterage,  labor,  craneage,  etc.,  which  arc 
not  on  government  account,  amounted  to  $571 45.  Of 
this  there  was  paid  on  government  account  $192  45 — 
the  remainder  belonging  to  the  other  class  of  charges. 

Tariff. — The  market  prices  In  Brazil  are  token  as 
the  basis  for  the  duties  imposed  by  the  present  tarift'. 
The  dispatch  by  Invoice  wiU  take  place  when  the  goods 
imported  have  no  flxed  duties  in  the  tarifl',  or  when 
they  are  subject  only  to  a  tax  for  warehousing  and 
clearing  out. 

For  the  dispatch  of  goods  subject  to  ad  valorem  du- 
ties the  merchant  or  consignee  is  obliged  to  show  a  dec- 
laration stating  the  prices  of  his  goods,  and  the  orig- 
inal invoice  july  certified.  In  want  of  the  original 
invoice  may  be  presented  two  certificates  by  two  bro- 
kers, or,  in' the  absence  of  brokers,  of  two  merchants 
of  the  place,  showing  the  current  prices  of  the  goods. 

The  value  of  the  goods  subject  to  ad  raiorem  duties 
will  be  that  of  the  Brazilian  market,  as  before  said ; 
deductions  made  of  the  respective  duties,  or  the  value 
of  the  original  invoice,  vttli  the  addition  of  10  per  cent. 
— United  Statea  Com.  Reiationi. 

Kemarkt  on  the  Trade  of  Brazil.— Thia  vast  empire 
comprehends  the  great  eastern  section  of  South  Amer- 
ica. Its  length  from  north  to  south  Is  computed  at 
•bout  2600  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  at  2640 
miles.  The  entire  area  comprises  about  2,978,400 
square  miles,  or  over  ten  times  the  area  of  Texas,  and 
about  seventy  tiiiies  that  of  Portugal.  The  climate  is 
generally  favorable  to  agricultural  pursuits,  the  soil 
being  fertile,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  empire,  particu- 
larly in  the  provinces,  abounding  with  valuable  min- 
eral resources.  The  staple  productions  of  Brazil  are 
such  a.''  must  necessarily  attract  an  extensive  foreign 
trade;  though  it  is  stated  that  anterior  to  1809  she 
had  no  direct  intercourse  with  other  nations — the  moth- 
er country,  under  the  policy  which  dictated  her  colo- 
nial system,  excludhig  trom  the  ports  of  her  extensive 
colony  all  foreign  flags.  The  dangers  which  menaced, 
and  the  domestic  troubles  which  agitated  Portugal  at 
this  period,  resulted  in  the  flight  of  the  ro}-al  family 
to  Brazil.  With  the  court  were  introduced  new  tastes, 
new  ideas,  and  a  more  literal  policy  In  regard  to  for- 
eign intercourse.  The  ports  of  Brazil  were  at  once 
opened  to  foreign  commerce,  and  since  that  period  the 
eulture  of  the  staple  productions  has  kept  pace  with 
the  Increased  demands  of  foreign  markets.  The  great 
staple  of  Brazil  is  cofiiie,  though  vegetables,  fruits, 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  maize,  and  tobacco  are  extensive- 
ly produced  In  the  southern  or  temperate  provinces; 
while  within  the  tropics  the  chief  productions  are 
ntndioca,  rice,  bananas,  plantains,  beans,  sweet  pota- 
to«s,  cuflTee,  sugar,  cotton,  and  cocoa—the  last  four  for 


exportation.  The  forests  supply  the  reiy  bast  tlmbM 
for  ahlp-bnilding,  and  almost  ever)-  variety  of  wood 
for  cabinet-work  and  dyebig  purposes ;  among  the  Ut- 
ter, Bnzil-wood,  rosewood,  and  Oampeacby-wood  an 
Important  articles  of  commerce.  Travelera  who  hara 
minutely  explored  the  interior  of  BraiU  describe  no 
less  than  219  varieties  of  timber,  and  many  of  them 
largely  enter  hito  the  commercial  resources  and  domes- 
tic wealth  of  that  empire.  Since  the  acknowledgment 
of  Its  Independence,  the  commercial  regulations  of  Br*, 
zil  have  been  marked  by  a  spirit  of  liberality  and  of 
freedom  from  unnecessary  and  exclusive  restrictions. 
The  duties  on  imports  and  exports  are  based  upon  the 
valuation  principle,  and  are  designed  solely  with  u  view 
to  supply  the  necessary  revenues  for  the  support  of 
the  government ;  and  tho  port,  pilot,  and  other  navi. 
gation  charges  seldom  exceed  the  actual  requirements 
of  a  just  and  liberal  intercourse  with  fonign  nations. 
Indeed,  the  commercial  policy  of  Brazil  seems  eminent- 
ly adapted  to  a  country  of  such  boundless  extent  and 
so  sparsely  populated,  as  labor  is  sure  to  find  a  remu- 
nerative reward,  in  whatever  mode  it  may  seek  to  de- 
velop the  exhaustless  resources  of  the  empire,  in  the 
tree  competition  to  which  it  invites  the  enterprise  and 
exchanges  of  foreign  nations.  Tho  entbe  population 
amounts  to  about  six  millions — being  two  persons  to 
the  square  mile ;  of  which  at  least  three-fifths  are 
I  blacks.  The  commercuil  treaties  negotiated  by  the 
government  of  Brazil  with  foreign  countries  are  gener- 
.  ally  based  upon  the  principle  of  reciprocity.  That 
,  with  the  United  States  was  concluded  December  12, 
1 1828,  and  established  between  the  two  countries  free- 
dom of  commerce  and  entire  reciprocity  of  trade  and 
navigation— certain  special  favors  being  reserved  to 
Portugal,  owing  to  the  former  relations  between  that 
country  and  Brazil.  This  treaty  contained  the  usual 
stipulation  requiring  twelve  months'  notice  to  be  given 
by  either  party  desiring  to  terminate  the  same ;  and 
such  notice  having  been  given  by  the  government  of 
Brazil,  and  the  twelve  months  having  expired,  the 
treaty  is  no  longer  of  force.  The  commercial  reUtions 
between  the  two  countries  were,  however,  placed  upon 
a  footing  of  similar  reciprocity  to  that  guaranteed  by 
the  treaty,  by  virtue  of  the  proclamation  of  tho  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  bearing  date  November  4, 
1847,  issued  conformably  to  the  provisions  of  an  act  of 
Congress  passed  on  the  24th  day  of  May,  1828. 

As  the  trade  between  the  tno  countries  is  placed 
much  on  the  same  footing  of  reciprocity  as  that  guaran- 
teed by  the  treat}',  it  is  deemed  not  irrelevant  to  pre- 
sent a  synopsis  of  the  provisions  of  that  treaty,  ao  tat 
as  they  relate  to  commerce. 

The  contracting  parties  are  placed  on  the  footbig  of 
the  most  favored  nation  in  respect  to  commerce  and 
navigation,  the  relations  between  Portugal  and  Brazil 
excepted.  Free  commerchil  Intercourse,  on  the  basts 
of  perfect  equality  and  reciprocity  between  the  citizens 
and  subjects  of  the  two  countries,  is  established,  tlia 
coasting  trade  being  reserved  by  each  government  to 
Its  own  flag.  The  vessels  of  both  countries  are  placed 
on  the  same  footing  In  the  ports  of  each,  as  to  the  Im- 
portation, exportation,  or  re-exportation  of  foreign 
goods,  fl'om  or  to  any  foreign  countrj- ;  the  United 
States  agreeing  to  consider  a  vessel  as  Brazilian  when 
the  proprietor  and  captain  are  subjects  of  Brazil  and 
the  papers  are  in  legal  form.  The  contracting  parties 
agree  that  no  higher  or  other  duties  shall  be  imposed 
on  the  importation  of  any  articles,  the  produce  or  manu- 
factures of  either  country,  into  the  ports  of  the  other, 
than  are  or  shall  be  payable  on  the  like  articles,  being 
the  produce  or  manufactures  of  any  other  foreign  conn- 
trj- ;  and  export  duties  shall  be  the  same  in  each  to  the 
ports  of  the  other  as  when  the  articles  are  exported  to 
any  other  foreign  country.  It  is  agreed  that  it  shall 
be  wholly  tree  for  all  merchants,  commanden  of  ships, 
and  other  citizen :  '  )r  subjects  of  both  countries,  to  man- 
age themselves  their  own  businets  la  all  the  poitt 


BIO 


1644  RIO 


•nd  places  rabjcct  to  the  juriidlction  of  each  other,  as 
wall  with  raspect  to  the  coBsignmant  and  sale  of  their 
goods  and  merchandise  bjr  wholesale  or  retail,  as  with 
respect  to  tlie  loading,  unloadhig,  and  sending  off  their 
ships  ;  ihty  being  in  all  these  cases  to  be  treated  as 
citizens  or  subjects  of  the  country  in  which  they  re- 
side, or,  at  least,  to  be  placed  on  a  footing  with  the 
subjects  or  oititeaa  of  the  most  favored  nation.  Ves- 
sels in  distress,  pursued  by  pirates  or  enemies,  etc., 
belonging  to  either  of  the  contracting  parties,  to  be 
received  and  protected  in  the  ports,  rivers,  bays,  etc., 
of  the  other. 

Foreign  Comnurce  of  Bnait, — From  officUl  docu> 
ments,  it  appears  tluit  of  the  whole  commerce  uf  Brazil, 
Kio  de  Janeiro  holds  66  per  cent. ;  Bahia  12  per  cent. ; 
Pemambuco  12  per  cent. ;  Aiagoas,  Santo  Paulo,  and 
Santo  Pedro  do  Sul,  8  per  cent. ;  Para,  Maranham, 
and  Santa  Catarhia,  each  4  per  cent.  The  species  of 
merchandise  which  constitutes  the  leading  imports 
Into  Brazil  are  cottons;  of  which  liio  de  Janeiro, 
Bahia,  and  Pemambuco  usually  receive  in  value 
about  ^7,000,000;  woolens  about  $1 0,000,000;  siilcB, 
18,000,000.  After  tiiese  rank  next  in  commercial 
importance  provisions,  flour  (the  great  bulk  of  which 
comes  from  the  United  States) ;  wines  and  other  liq- 
uors ;  metals,  crude  and  manufactured ;  watches.  Jew- 
elry, arms,  ammunition,  etc.  etc.  The  principid  ex- 
ports are  coffee  (which  is  shipped  Arom  Kio)  and  sugar, 
(principally  from  Bahia  and  Pemambuco).  Full  a 
moiety  of  the  former  goes  to  the  United  States,  and 
the  latter  chiefly  to  England,  Trieste,  and  the  Ilanse 
Towns.  The  precious  metals  next  follow  in  the  rank 
''of  exports ;  theivdiamonds,  skins  (otter),  hides,  cotton, 
and  tobacco.  The  two  last,  as  well  as  sugar,  though 
not  to  so  great  an  extent,  are  either  stationary  or  de- 
clining, 08  respects  the  quantities  annually  exported. 

The  following  comparative  statements  give  the  flg- 
nres  for  two  years,  1851  and  1662 : 


1           1851. 

18». 

$82,800,000 
81,9a0,00O 

$84,200,000 
S9,080,000 

Kxports 

ToUI 

««4,220,000 

(66,880,000 

The  proportion  which  the  United  States  had  in  the 
tmde  of  these  two  years,  appear  as  follows :  Exports, 
1861, 36  per  cent. ;  1852, 87  per  cent.  Imports,  1851, 
12  per  cent. ;  1852,  9  per  cent. 


AiiAtTua  or  iMrusTs  (*v  Covwniis). 


England  ..... 

France 

Untied  BtatM. 
HaBM  Tons. 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bwltzerland  , . 


00,000,000 
20,000,000 
17,000,000 
8,000,000 
fi,000,000 
6,000,000 
4,000,000 


74,000,000 

83,000,000 

94,600,000 

12,000,000 

6,000,000 

6,000,000 

5,000,000 


AiiAi,i[sis  or  Kxi-oars  (iiy  Mebouamvisk). 


Cotbe . . 
Sugar . , 
Hides.. 
Woods  , 


IU|. 


FrMCf. 
182,000,000 
8,000,000 
8,000,000 
8,000,000 


isti. 


149,000,000 
5,000,000 
1,000,000 
1,000,000 


Ahalybis  or  Exponrs  (bt  ComiTans). 


Untied  States . 

England 

llnuHo  Toims. 

Franco '. . 

Ilelgtum 

AuBtrta 


Itll. 


I 


Prtnci. 
68,000,000 
26,000,000 
12,000,000 
11,000,000 
7,000,000 
8,000,000 


Kranet. 
71,000,000 
28,000,000 
8,000,000 
12,00(1,000 
8,000,000 
7,000,000 


The  French  official  report,  from  which  the  preceding 
summar}'  is  derived,  states  that  there  were  received 
from  the  United  States  280,000  barrels  of  flour,  and 
from  Europe  80,000  barrels ;  of  which  15,000  barrels 
were  shipped  from  Marseilles,  and  the  remainder  tiom 
Trieste  and  Antwerp.  Butter,  salt,  dried  beef  ttom 
the  Plata,  gin,  dried  and  preserved  fruits,  fish-oil,  lin- 
seed oil,  &<:.,  maintained  the  figures  of  the  preceding 
year ;  bilt  in  the  articles  of  beer,  soap,  wax  and  other 
candles,  tea,  and  codfish,  there  was  a  diminution.  The 
following  statement  shows  the  relative  share  assigned 
to  each  country  in  the  general  importation  of  1852 : 


Imporlj.  EipoHi.     . 

GrestBrttatn 88,100  12,000    ' 

France 18,100  12,000  ii 

United  SUtes 18,100  88,000.,, 

Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  and 

SwItierUnd 19,100  26,000 

Portugal,  KpalB,  and  JMf. 12,100  18,000 

The  following  tabular  statement  will  be  interesting 
as  exhibiting  the  custom-house  revenues  of  Brazil  for 
the  periods  designated,  and  the  sources  whence  de- 
rived. The  present  value  of  the  rea  in  United  States 
currency  is,  1000  Teas  or  1  miliea— 56  cents. 


PiMil  v»n. 


inniort.. 


Kiport. 


PPTIM  or , 

Navigation.    Jplenial  upd  EitraonUimry. 


ToUI. 


lS49-'60 

1850l.'51 

lS5t-'52...„ 

Increiue  In  1962  over  1851 

At  the  port  of  Hlo.laneiro  In  1861-'52 


R«u. 
17,88O,02!)|iOOO    3,780,45311000 


20,471,26211000 

24,79.S,046IIOOO 

4,821,78411000 

14,OM,906IIOOO 


4,706,09611000 
4,627,77211000 

2,665i643ll000 


Kaai. 

845,68011000 
615,68111000 
640,114411000 
31,863li000 
282,84311000 


Real. 

2,125,81711000 
2,287,12511000 
2,806,81011000 
I28,oi6ll000 
1,733,84711000 


Reas. 

24,081,87911000 
27,080,00411000 
82,283,67211000 

4,802,ra8iiooo 

18,666,74411000 


Coffee. — Coffee  is  the  leading  staple  of  Brazil.  For- 
merly, and  for  many  years,  San  Domingo  was  the 
source,  from  which  Europe  derived  its  supplies  of  this 
article — the  quantity  exported  from  that  island  at  one 
time  having  reached  as  high  ui  77,000,000  lbs. ;  and 
had  not  the  revolution  broken  out  in  1792,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  there  would  have  been  exported  that  year 
about  84,000,000  lbs.  That  event,  combined  with  other 
obvious  causes,  produced  a  total  cessation  in  the  sup- 
plies from  this  source.  Being  driven  from  St.  Domin- 
go, the  cnltuie  of  coffee  at  once  became  a  leading 
branch  of  industry  in  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Surinam,  and 
Java,  and  was  at  a  sabseqnent  period  iutroduced 
with  much  success  into  Brazil.  After  th^  flight  of 
John  VI.  from  Portugal  to  Brazil,  in  1808-'9,  the  port 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  opened  to  foreign  trade,  and 
con'ee  soon  became  one  of  the  leading  staples  of  export 
At  that  petiod  the  annual  crop  did  not  exceed  80,000 
bags,  or  4,800,000  lbs.  In  1820  it  reached  as  high 
as  1  J0,000  bags,  or  16,000,000  lbs.  In  1817  and  1621 
the  supply  was  so  small,  that  in  the  market  of  London 
it  rose  as  high  as  87)  cents  per  lb.  This  of  course 
sttmplated  its  cultivation  in  Bracll.    The  ruin  of  San 


Domingo  transferred,  also,  the  culture  of  indigo  to 
British  India,  and  its cidtire  was  at  the  same  period ' 
al>andoned  in  Brazil.  Previously  to  the  revolution  in 
Haytl  there  was  exported  from  that  island  76,836,219 
lbs. ;  in  1818  the  exports  fell  to  aliout  26,000,000  lbs. ; 
and  now  they  do  not  exceed  thirty-five  to  forty  mill- 
ions. In  1884,  the  year  in  wiiioh  the  emancipation 
act  went  hito  effect,  Jamaica  exported  to  England 
18,268,888  lbs.  of  coffee ;  five  years  later,  the  quantity 
had  fallen  to  9,423,197  lbs.  The  decline  in  the  culti- 
vation of  coffee  in  this  island,  and  the  unrestricted 
supply  of  African  slave  labor  in  Brazil,  combined  to 
give  a  powerful  impulse  to  its  culture  in  that  empire. 
Hence,  in  1830,  the  prop  reached  as  high  as  400,000 
bags,  or  64,000,000  lbs.  The  coffee-growing  districts 
In  Bracll  are  divided  into  Serra  Abaxo  (below  the 
mountains)  and  Serra  Acima  (above  the  mountains). 
The  cost  of  transporting  the  coffee  from  the  plantation 
to  market  is  abqut  2  cents  per  ib, ;  and  the  actual  cost 
of  production  is  stated  to  be  about  4j^  cents  per  lb. 
The  quantity  produced  in  the  empire,  year  by  year,  is 
not  officially  ascertained ;  but  it  has  been  approxima^ 
ted  with  sufficient  exactness  for  practical  purposes. 


BIO 


1645 


RIO 


1809  Ug».    From  1809  to  1849  the'raport.  of  oo*.   firiull,  with  III*  totni  annual  value.  ,.f  Mwh  nanict. 

■^  S  iT'ZC Ih^' '  T?? fMln^  rewhed  a.  of  eoftta.  ,Hir  II,.,  for  .a.li  year,  for  a  p!»1od  of  .laveD 
high  «  186  869,888  Iba.  Th.  foUowtog  comparallv.  year. -from  WU  to  iHfM;  both  Inclu^va,  .howhig  a 
Ubukr  itatemant  .howi  th.  quantltlea  of  coflTa*  Ira-   greater  rata  of  ln«rt«H  In  lioflba  over  flour . 

Vloiirfroin  I', 
to  llraall, 


Yean. 


1844. 
]84fi. 
1840. 
1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 


Coffee  to  V.  8. 
froDiBnalL 


Foiudi. 

05,291,484 

78,658,616 

97,686,697 

94,916,629 

110,927,284 

122,581,188 

90,819,511 

107,578,257 

183,156,606 

158,838,464 

116,704,778 


Valuei. 


DoUan. 

6,802,001 

4,401,260 

6,064,513 

6,678,(100 

«,9«9,008 

6,776,727 

7,422,008 

8,881,105 

10,064,740 

11,844,414 

10,820,002 


888,111 
900,845 
106,400 
254,800 
804,810 
814,808 
202,404 
800,075 
345,035 
4»8,848 
015,1110 


Valiiif), 
rmllaS; 
1.408,418 
l,nN8,fll8 
1,075,7/10 
1,502,070 
1,052,212 
l,HH6,20a 
I,II40,UU0 
2,021,081 
1,080,286 
9,484,187 
2,417,085 


Value  ofOuliiw 


«rlh 


t'cnia, 


Value  of 
Flour  per  bbl. 
Doll.  Ct«. 


Sugar.— A.  gUnce  at  the  preceding  tablei  will  ahow   In  H»aaH  In  re«|i«ot  to  th«  alare-trade  la  aeen  In  the 
that  coffee  Is  the  great  staple  expon  of  BrezU  to  the   ftUowIng  tabla,  eumiilUd  from  an  American  authority  • 


United  states,  the  produce  of  which  la  most  steadily 
and  rapidty  advancing.  The  supply  will  doubtless 
•Iways  b«  equal  to  the  demand,  owing.  In  a  great 
measure,  to  the  facility  and  comparatively  small  ex- 
pens*  attending  Its  production ;  while  the  culture  of 
angar  and  cotton  depends  on  contingencies,  both  tem- 
porary and  permanent,  which  mnst  materially  afflict 
the  quantities  annually  produced.  These  contingen- 
cies may  be  briefly  stated.  The  culture  of  sugar  de- 
pends as  mach  on  the  science  of  the  manufacturer  as 
«n  the  capital  and  labor  of  the  planter.  Beforo  It  can 
nach  the  market  of  Rio,  ot  of  any  of  the  other  ports  of 
the  empire,  it  requires  a  vast  expenditure  of  labor,  the 
most  assiduous  attention,  and  an  outlay  of  capital  that 
absorbs  fully  one  half.  If  not  more,  of  the  gross  yield. 
Besides,  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  the  sever- 
ity with  which  the  present  laws  of  Brazil  punish  those 
detected  In  that  traffic,  mnst  produce  decided  eSbots 
upon  the  production  of  those  staples  in  the  culture  of 
which  slave  labor  Is  Indfaspensable. 

A  French  work  on  statistics,  recently  published, 
(hmlshes  the  following  data  relative  to  the  present 
number  of  slaves  in  Brazil :  From  a  publication  made 
1h  1848  by  Mr.  Satumino  de  Souza  e  Oltveira,  chief 
Officier  of  the  customs  in  Braxil,  the  number  of  slaves 
has  been  computed  at  three  mUUons,  who  are  thus 
divided  aa  to  employment : 

Slaves  in  Bbazil. 

Employed  on  the  estates S,SOO,OflO 

Domeatlca 100,000 

Without  tny  special  employment tOO.OOO 

Hired  out,  and  othors 800,000 

Total 3,000,000 


18M,, 

wa.. 

1«4I),, 


Nlavk*  iMl^mwii  i)itn  lltiAiii.  raoM  Afrku. 


1T,4II(I 
Hi,0,  It 
<«,N4'I 
1li,«)n 
60,014 


IS4T 50,172 

1M1 «O,00O 

ia4') 64,000 

iNttO 83,000 

1901 3,287 


Tba  ll||ur«i  fur  ItSl  avidenoe  the  vigilance  of  the 
governnMRt  In  the  dtttctlon  of  those  engaged  In  this 
trafflo.  It  may  Ui  remarked,  that  of  the  8287  given 
fur  IHAl,  1000  war*  Noaptund  by  the  BraaUlan  cruis- 
tn,  and  daolarad  fret. 

Jlow  long,  unilitr  tliena  circumstances,  sugar  and 
cotton  sltaU  «(mtltiu«  to  Im  classed  among  the  staples 
of  Uraall,  It  Hanioly  left  to  conjecture. 
QvAMTrriM  Am  Vamiks  nr  KvoAa  tttraanm  wto  tii« 

UnITSII  ftTATKM  r«0M  BaAlIb 

IVssfi. 

1844.,,., 

%m. 
tm... 

I8fi4., 

l'ultm),—A»  retfards  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  It  Is 
wall  known  that  savtral  Insuperable  drawbacks  to  its 
axtanakm  txist  In  Urasll.  Among  these  may  be 
named  the  ravages  flf  Insects,  the  peouiiorlties  of  the 
cllmAta,  and  the  expense  and  diflloultles  attendant 
upn  Ita  tranii|i(irtatbn  from  the  Interior  to  the  coast. 
Many  y»M»  affo.  It  was  ascertained  in  Brazil  that  the 
eotton-plant  will  not  flourish  near  to  the  sea,  and  the 
plantations  Imve,  in  eonsequenoe,  receded  further  In- 
land, Af  well  to  avoid  this  difficulty  aa  to  seek  new 


The  operation  of  the  present  rigid  measures  In  force   and  fretlier  lands. 

Tabdi-ar  Stathmiirt  biiowimo  Tini  QuAimnEs  or  Cotton  »»ivmTim  rsoM  Hb*»hIi  to  flawT  BnfTAtK  rnoji  tiib  Ykar 
1840  to  1865,  AMD  also  to  France,  Spain,  Pobtduai.,  anii  itifl,iil|iM,  rtm  Klidl  I'liHTlONs  or  tllA*  Psaion  as  oak  hi 
SDPPLifen  raoH  offioiai.  Data— ulamks  iiniioATiMu  Tlia  AltsSNiia  uf  NAM)  IMTA. 


V»n. 

QnnlNHMn, 

fripiw. 

l,8MifH)0 
OBO,BIT 
«81,*I90 
887,109 
408,«M    ' 

I,lw, 
I9M04 

9,in,hn 

9;8fll,9T9 

1  (  1  1 

fntairsl. 

Btlshun. 

1840 

]4,77lCin 
1«,«T1,848 
16,9IK,WM 
18,016,18,1 
21,084,744 
80,167,033 
14,74<l,«ai 
lt),IIB6,tl88 
10,071,878 
80,738,188 
80,800,089 
1U,88!),104 
86,600,144 
84,100,1188 
10,703,000 
84,677,»»« 
»8»,«Sl,01t 
«1,08'),48S 

Lb.. 

9,«Tii;7«« 

i;T«;44tt 

Lh. 

.    ).'*,••,, 

14,000 
Kone. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
19,991 

1841 

1849 

1843 

1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1860 

1861 

1863 

1868 

18S4 

1866 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Annual  avenge 

BIV 


Th*  csporUtioiii  of  cotton  from  Bnill  in  1848- '44 
•nd  1868-'M  an  iitkted  hy  BraiUUn  offldal  ■utborl> 
tUt  M  followi  t 

In  1SBB-'54 9R,490,B20  poundi, 

InlStt-'M lM,ll6a,ltU       " 

I nercHa  la  ten  ynn 1,864,100      " 

Tn  18&l-'fi2  the  exportation  amounted  to  81,988,0fi0 
Ibi.,  or  which  quantlt}-  Great  BriUIn  received  26,88]  ,201 
Ibe.,  Spain  2,291,678  Iba.,  Portugal  1,896,280  Ibi.,  and 
France  889,048  lb(.  Of  the  total  exportationi  in  18fi3 
-'68,  Great  Britain  received,  aa  appears  from  the  aama 
anthoritlea,  22,676,122  lbs.,  Spain  2,861,279  Iba.,  Port- 
ugal 2,678,766  lbs.,  and  France  648,611  lbs.  The  ex- 
porta  to  Great  Britain  ftom  Brazil  btigan  in  1781 ;  and 
from  that  period  to  the  present  timo  the  large  bulli — 
at  leaat  f&ur-ilftha— of  Brazilian  grown  cotton  gatt  to 
that  kingdom.— Cotnm.  Xtl.  U.  S. 

The  commerce  of  Brazil  has  sustained  great  injury 
ttom  the  wretched  state  of  the  currency  and  of  the 
finances ;  the  value  of  the  fo/mer,  which  conslsta  al- 
most wholly  of  paper,  being  excaaslvely  depreciated 
and  liable  to  extreme  fluctuations,  and  the  revenue  be- 
ing inadequate  to  meet  the  expenditure.  Latterly, 
however,  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  to  increase 
the  revenue ;  and  it  Is  hoped  that  in  the  event  of  the 
finances  l>elng  placed  on  a  better  footing,  measures 
may  also  be  taken  to  improve  the  currency.  We  sub- 
join an  account  of  the  debt,  etc.,  of  the  empire  In  1861 : 

Foreign  debt jCO,  187,000 

Local  Ainded  debt,  62,870,000,000  relf ,  at  excbango 

i9d. 7,540,000 

Treuurr  bllla  afloat,  about  i),000,nOO,000  relf,  at 

exchange  3M. 240,000 

Estimated  amoant  of  notes  tn  drculallon  (paper 

monejr)  throughout  the  empire,  66,000,000,000 

rela «,700,noo 


i:<iu,ao7,(ii)ii 

or,  in  round  nnmbers,  the  delits  and  liabilities  of  Bra- 
zil may  be  stated  at  £20,600,000  sterling.  The  fur- 
oign  capital  in  the  empire  is  computed  to  be  about 
£10,000,000  sterling. 

"  The  quantity  of  precious  stones  ship{ied  la  now 
very  considerable.  In  most  cases  they  are  sent  to  a 
losing  market;  being,  in  fact,  more  valuable  in  Brazil 
than  in  London  or  Paris.  Aquamarines  (tee  Beryi.) 
of  a  very  large  size  have  been  found.  In  January, 
1811,  one  was  found  in  the  liilierao  das  Americhnas, 
near  the  diamond  district,  which  weighed  ir>  lbs. ;  and 
in  the  same  place,  in  the  October  following,  one  was 
discovered  weighing  4  lbs.  Topazes  of  flne  quality, 
but  seldom  large,  ametbysta  and  chiysolitcs,  are  also 
articles  of  exportation ;  and  at  times  some  flne  sped- 
mena  of  these  gems  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  Jewelers' 
shops.  Correctlv  speaking,  there  are  no  trading  com- 
panies in  Rio  de  .  inelro ;  there  is  a  society  for  effect- 
ing maritime  assurances,  but  no  other.  The  Bank  of 
Brazil  has  had  \tTy  extensive  concessions  made  in  its 
favor,  and  ought  to  be  in  a  flourishing  state.  It  has 
power  of  issuing  notes ;  and  all  disputed  moneys  and 
property  of  the  deceased  and  absent  (mortet  t  auzenlet) 
must  be  placed  in  ito  hands,  and  2  per  cent,  per  annum 
charged  for  the  care  and  trouble.  This,  in  addition 
to  the  Interest  which  might  be  obtained  for  the  deposit, 
would  alone,  in  an  active  mercantile  countr}-,  form  no 
inconsiderable  revenue.  Specie  is  prohibited  from  be- 
ing carried  coastwise  ;  merchants  who  wish  to  deposit 
cash  in  one  of  the  northern  ports,  where  the  largest 
purchases  are  made,  are  therefore  forced  to  take  band 
bills,  and  pay  a  premium  for  them,  varying  tiom  S 
to  6  per  cent.  Some  enormous  capitels  have  been 
amassed ;  but  generally  the  speculations  of  the  native 
merchants  are  conducted  on  a  ver}-  limited  scale.  The 
legal  rate  of  interest  is  6  per  cent. ;  but  money  can 
seldom  be  obtained  under  12."— Caldclkdoh's  rniiv 
eU  in  South  America,  vol.  1.  p.  68-69. 

River.  A  river  is  a  current  of  flbah  water  flowing 
in  a  bed  or  channel  ttom  its  source  to  the  sea.  The 
term  is  appropriated  to  a  considerable  collection  of 


water*  Unrmed  hy  th*  etmlittn  of  tw«  or  more  brookt, 
which  deliver  int«>  Ito  nhinnal  lh«  united  •trcams  of 
several  ri*uM$,  which  have  Mittecteil  the  suppliea  of 
wveral  rUh  lrtukllni||  diiwn  trim  numherleM  springe, 
and  Iba  torrent*  whloh  narrv  off  frotn  the  sloping 
ground*  the  lurplu*  »f  evarv  aliower, 

HIver*  form  una  nf  the  xlilef  features  of  the  surface 
of  thi*  glolie,  *arvlng  »*  yvMtn  of  all  that  I*  imine- 
diatelv  redundant  in  «Hir  rains  and  ■iitlngs,  ind  abo  as 
Iwundarla*  and  liarrlers,  and  evon  as  highwavs,  and  in 
many  countrl**  a*  plvntlful  »lof«>houB«s,  They  a:no 
fertlilae  our  m*II  by  layliiK  iiiMm  uiir  wnrm  lianks  tho 
riebast  mould,  brimghl  frotn  llie  high  tnountalna,  where 
It  would  have  remamed  uii«ti<ii»f»r  wnnt  of  genial  heat. 

Mix  Dollw  (»  i'orrM|itlun  of  (lerninn  reichtthaler, 
or  dollar  of  Ike  tm/iln),  A  silver  coin  of  different  v«l- 
ue*  In  dllfarent  i\mnU\»ii,^Hn  (^iiiM*.  By  authority 
of  Congress,  Ilia  value  «f  it  rU  dollar  of  Denmark  Is  put 
at  lOO  eents,  and  tho  rlx  itottar  of  Bremen  at  784  cents, 

Koftd,  In  Niwliiiillim,  a  liay  or  place  <if  anchorage, 
at  some  dUtancn  front  ilin  shore,  whither  veisels  oc- 
casionally raimir  to  rwalve  ItilelllKence,  orders,  or  nec- 
essary supplia*,  or  to  wiilt  fur  a  fair  wind.  The  excel- 
lence of  A  road  coiiolats  III  Us  liehig  protected  from  the 
reigning  winds  nnd  tlia  swell  of  the  sea,  in  having  a 
good  ancliorliig'ground.and  litiliig  at  a  competent  dis- 
tance front  the  alinMt,  Tbuse  wblob  are  not  aufflclently 
protected  ar*  termed  vupn  raudt, 

ItOltdi,  iNttbways  rurm«d  through  the  country  with 
more  or  l«s*  art  and  imrm,  tut  facilitating  the  transit  of 
individual*,  oarriags*,  iit<'.,  between  different  places. 
They  are  of  avxry  variety  nf  form— from  rude,  narrow, 
rugged,  and  uiifurmed  (latlis,  carried  pver  mountains, 
interruptwl  by  evury  ptitty  tlvulet,  and  almost  imprac- 
ticable to  any  but  fout>tiiitss«ttgers,  to  smooth,  broad, 
and  Ittvel  ways,  furiiuid  of  solid  materials,  winding 
round  or  out  tliruugli  moiiiitAltis,  and  carried  over 
awainp*  and  rivtir*  at  an  immense  expense,  ond  admit- 
ting of  tho  Nusy  |m«>iiig(t  of  itarrlage*  and  of  oil  soits  of 
gooda,  'Hio  laying  out  of  Improved  roads,  and  their 
construction,  form*  an  ImtiortNiit  part  of  what  is  de- 
nominatetl  tlw  m'kma  ut  t'lvil  engineering.  But  as  it 
would  be  quite  foreign  to  ottr  pttrpose  to  enter  Into  any 
details  as  to  the  formatloit  of  ronds,  we  shall  aatiafy 
ourselves  with  Ui'lng  liefore  tho  reader  the  following 
statement*  a*  tn  tiielr  Importance  in  a  iHimmerclal  point 
of  view, 

Imporlanen  and  UlUUy  nflmuroved  7?oorf».— Next  to 
the  introduction  of  moitey,  and  weights  and  measures, 
tlio  formation  of  good  ruads  and  bridges  gives  tlie  great- 
est facilltv  to  eommertw,  ntid  contributes  more  power- 
fully, jierhapa,  timn  any  thing  else  to  tlio  progress  of  im- 
provement. They  have  been  iletiimtltiated  national  reins 
iind  artarieii  |  and  the  latter  are  tiut  muru  indispensable 
to  the  axlsteni't)  of  individuals  than  In^prnved  communi- 
cations are  to  it  lieitlthy  *titte  of  the  public  economy.  It 
were  vain  to  Httemiit  to  jroliit  out  In  detail  tlie  va- 
rious advantage*  derived  frtnn  the  easy  means  of  com- 
niunloatloit.  There  Is  not «  single  district  that  is  not 
Indebted  to  other*  for  a  large  nart  of  Its  supplies,  even 
of  soma  of  tha  bulklent  mmimonltles,  Besides  the  coals, 
metals,  mineral*,  timber,  corn,  etc,  conveyed  from  one 
part  of  tha  empire  to  aiiotlier  by  sen,  Immense  quanti- 
ties are  conveyed  from  \i\nim  to  place  in  tho  interior  by 
road*  and  canNli*  i  and  every  Impruvement  effected  in 
the  nieuna  of  conveyMin'e  has  obviously  the  same  effect 
upon  tha  cost  of  oommwiltles  that  have  to  be  convej-ed, 
as  an  lm|irovement  In  the  methods  by  which  they  are 
raised  or  m*ntifa<'tttred.  Wherever  the  menus  of  in- 
ternal communl'^atioii  tire  dellclettt  In  a  country,  tlio 
inhabitant*  must  Uimvoldably  disperse  themselves  over 
the  *urf«<ia,  (Jjtle*  were  orlgltmlly  founded  liy  indi- 
vidual* congregating  more,  fierhapit,  for  the  sake  of 
mutUAl  defense  aiiit  (mitectlon  than  for  any  other 
cause,  But  in  voiintrie*  where  good  government  is 
eftablUbad,  and  |)rop«rty  Is  secure,  men  resort  to  cities 
only  from  a  Mm*e  of  tiM  Advantage*  they  afford.    The 


ROA 


1647 


ROB 


-Next  to 
nicosures, 
the  great- 
re  power- 
■easoflm- 
onal  veins 
tpensoVilo 
Bommuni- 
lomy.     It 
1  the  va- 
il of  corn- 
hat  Is  not 
illes,  even 
the  coals, 
from  one 
^_ie  quanti- 
nterior  by 
iffected  in 
jme  effect 
[conveyed, 
1  they  are 
nns  of  in- 
luntry,  tlio 
lelves  over 
la  by  Indi- 
h  salie  of 
piny  other 
]mment  is 
to  cities 
prd.    The 


Male  on  which  bostness  is  conilucti-d  in  them  prwontii  as  If  the  distance  wer»  ndvced  one  half)  and  there  Is 
facilltiu  that  can  not  l)e  elsewhere  afforded  for  maklnu  not  only  a  gn»t  savInK  of  time  to  travelers,  but  also  a 
•  fortune ;  and  the  extent  to  which  tlin  milidlvUlon  of  '  great  saving  of  cost,  trom  the  more  speedy  conveyance 
employments  Is  carried  opens  a  field  for  the  exercise  I  of  commodities.  This  latter  is  a  point  of  much  more 
of  all  sorts  of  talent ;  at  tha  same  time  that  it  Improves  Importance  than  Is  commonly  supposed.  It  is  not  pos, 
and  perfects  all  sorta  of  arts,  whether  subservient  to  j  sible  to  form  any  correct  estimate  of  the  value  of  the 
induitrioua  or  scientiflo  pursuits,  or  to  those  of  pleasure  products  that  are  constantly  in  the  act  of  being  carried 
and  diaaipation.  It  is  this  that  attracts  the  aspiring,  from  place  to  place.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  It  Is 
the  induatrioua,  the  gay,  and  the  profligate,  to  cities—  very  great ;  and  every  additional  facility  of  convey- 
that  fllla  them  with  the  licst  and  the  worst  part  of  the  '  ance,  l)y  l)rlnging  such  products  more  rapidly  to  tho'lr 
ipeclea.  The  competition  that  takes  place  in  a  great  destination,  and  enabling  them  to  be  smmer  applied  to 
town,  the  excitement  that  is  constantly  kept  up,  the  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  Intended,  renders  large 
collision  of  ao  many  minds  l)rought  Into  immediate  I  quantities  of  caplul  availatilo  for  industrious  purposes 
contact,  and  all  endeavoring  to  outstrip  each  other  in   '-^  '        •■   ■•       .....  _  ..     _ 


their  reipectivu  departments,  develops  all  the  resources 
of  the  human  mind,  and  renders  a  great  city  a  perpet- 
ually radiating  focus  of  intelligence  and  invention. 
There  are,  however,  considerable  clogs  upon  the  con- 
tinued increase  of  cities.  The  food  and  fuel  made  use 
of  by  the  inhabitants,  and  the  raw  products  on  which 
their  induitr}'  la  to  be  exerted,  must  all  come  from  tha 
country;  and  according  aa  the  size  of  a  city  increases, 
the  distances  ftom  which  its  supplies  have  to  be  brought 
become  so  mnch  the  greater,  that  ultimately  the  cost 
of  their  conveyance  may  Im  bo  great  as  to  balance  or 
exceed  the  peculiar  advantages  resulting  from  a  resi- 
dence in  town.  Hence  the  impoesiblllty  of  a  largo  or 
even  a  considerable  city  existing  any  where  without 
possessing  extensive  meana  of  communication  either 
with  the  aurrounding  countrj'  or  with  other  countries ; 
and  hence,  too,  the  explanation  of  the  apparently  sin- 
gular fact,  of  almost  all  large  cities  having  been  found- 
ed on  or  near  the  sea,  or  a  navigable  river. 

The  influence  that  the  growth  of  a  large  town  has 
upon  agriculture  is  great  and  striking.  "  In  the  neigh- 
iMrhood,"  says  Paley,  "  of  trading  towns,  and  in  those 
districts  which  carry  on  a  communication  with  the 
markets  of  trading  towns,  the  husbandmen  are  busy 
and  skillful,  the  peasantry  lalrarious ;  tlie  land  is  man- 
aged to  the  l>est  advantaige,  and  double  the  quantity 
of  com  or  herbage  (articles  which  are  ultimately  con- 
verted into  human  provision)  raised  from  it,  of  what 
the  same  soil  yields  in  remoter  and  more  neglected 
parts  of  the  countr}-.  Wherever  a  thriving  manulvc- 
tory  finds  means  to  establish  Itself,  a  now  vegetaticji 
springs  up  around  it.  I  believe  it  is  true  that  agri- 
culture never  arrives  at  any  considerable,  much  less 
at  its  highest,  degree  of  perfection,  when  it  is  not  con- 
nected with  trade ;  that  is,  when  the  demand  for  the 
produce  is  not  increased  by  the  consumption  of  trading 
cities."— ifora<  PkUoiophy,  book  vi.  c.  11.  But  tho 
fact  of  their  being  mainly  conductvb  to  the  growth  of 
cities  is  not  the  only  advantage  which  improved  roads 
confer  upon  agriculture.  Without  their  aid  it  would 
be  impossible  to  carr}-  to  distant  places  sufficient  sup- 
plies of  such  bulky  and  heavy  articles  as  lime,  marl. 


that  would  otherwise  be  locked  up.— >See  articlet  Kaii,- 
ROADS  and  Canals. 

Rolling.  In  JVnral  language,  tho  lateral  oscilla- 
tion of  a  vessel.  This  motion,  which  is  often  very 
great  when  the  vessel  is  running  before  the  sea,  en- 
dangers tho  masts,  strains  tho  sides,  and  loosens  the 
decks  at  tlio  water-ways ;  It  is  also  liable  to  c:)use  tho 
guqs  to  break  adrift.  When  tho  centra  of  gravity  is 
too  low,  the  oscillations  begin  and  end  violently.  Tho 
changes  In  the  stowage  necessary  tu  modlty  the  nature 
or  extent  of  the  roll  are  made  by  seamen  iVom  experi- 
mental knowledge. 

Rolling  Tackle.  A  tackle  or  pulley  hooked  to 
the  weather  quarter  of  a  yard,  and  to  a  lashing  or  strop 
round  tho  mnst  near  the  slings  or  pnrrel  of  the  yard. 
The  ol>ject  of  It  is  to  keep  the  yard  constantly  over  to 
leeward,  thereby  depriving  it  of  play  and  friction  when 
the  ship  rolls  to  windward. 

Rope  consists  of  hemp,  hair,  etc.,  spun  into  thick 
yam,  of  which  several  strings  oro  twisted  together  l)y 
means  of  a  wheel.  When  made  very  small,  it  Is  called 
a  cord ;  and  when  very  thick,  a  cable.  All  tho  differ- 
ent kinds  of  this  manufacture,  from  a  fishing-lintf  or 
whip-cord  to  tho  cable  of  a  flrst-rnta  ship  of  wor,  go 
by  the  general  mime  of  cordage. — .S'fe  Cabi.k. 

Rosea  (Oil,  Eaaenoe,  or  Attar  of),  an  oil  ol  - 
tained  by  distilling  tho  leaves  of  damask  roses.  It  is 
limpid,  of  a  light  orange  color,  and  has  an  extremely 
grateful  and  powerful  perfume.  This,  which  is  tho 
most  oxpensivo  article  of  Oriental  luxury,  used  to  lie 
principally  made  fit  Tunis  and  Gha7.i|)ore,  in  India. 
But  though  it  b'  •  cill  very  extensively  produced  at 
these  places,  ap  .  ^<'}  especially  at  tho  latter,  what 
may  be  called  th  .  <<:■  jign  demand  for  the  oil  Is  now 
almost  wholly  suppll  i  by  the  districts  of  I'^ki  Zara 
and  Hassanlik,  in  Bulgaria,  Thero  tho  culture  of  roses 
is  carried  on  upon  a  very  large  scale.  Inasmuch,  how- 
ever, as  it  is  said  to  require  about  800,000  roses  to  yield 
an  ounce  of  oil,  the  quantity  produced  does  not  exceed 
4500  lbs.  in  a  goo<l,  and  8000  lbs.  in  an  ordinal}'  year. 
The  genuine  article  fetches  an  enormous  price ;  and  is 
in  consequence  very  generally,  or  rather,  we  should 
say,  uniformly  adulterated.     When  the  adulteration 


sheila,  and  other  manures  necessary  to  give  luxuriance  i  is  effected  l>y  means  of  the  oil  of  geraniums  and  other 


to  the  cropa  of  rich  soils,  and  to  render  those  that  are 
poor  productive.  Not  only,  too,  would  inferior  roads 
lessen  the  market  for  farm  produce,  and  consequently 
the  quantity  raised,  but  a  larger  proportional  number 
of  horses  or  other  cattle  would  be  required  to  convey 
the  diminished  produce  to  market.  It  is  plain,  there- 
fore, that  good  roads  are  both  directl}'  and  indirectly 
a  prime  source  of  agricultural  improvement ;  directly, 
by  increasing  the  quantity  and  reducing  the  cost  of 
manure,  and  by  increasing  the  quantity  and  reducing 
the  cost  of  conveying  farm  produce  to  market ;  and  in- 
directly, by  providing  for  the  growth  and  indefinite  ex- 
tension of  cltlea  and  towns,  that  Is,  of  the  markets  for 
agricultural  produce.  Increased  speed  of  conveyance 
is  one  of  the  principal  advantages  that  have  resulted 
firom  the  formation  of  good  roads,  the  invention  of 
steam-packets,  etc.  Suppose  that  it  takes  two  days  to 
travel  by  an  uneven,  ill- made  road  between  any  two 
places,  and  that,  by  improving  the  rood,  the  journey 


fine  volatile  oils,  the  fraud  is  not  easily  detected  ex- 
cept by  connoitseurs,  unless  the  foreign  matter  be  in 
excess.  Sometimes  it  is  alleged  that  attar  of  roses  has 
been  sold  as  genuine  when  al)ove  80  per  cent,  of  other 
oils  was  mixed  up  with  it.  That  which  is  hawked 
al)Out  the  streets  of  Constantinople  and  Smyrna  Is  sel- 
dom any  thing  iMstter  than  olive  oil  scented  with  roses. 
Some  of  the  more  expert  dealers  in  the  article  will  tell 
within  2  per  cent,  the  foreign  oil  in  any  parcel  given 
them  to  examine.  The  valuo  of  the  exports  of  this 
curious  product  from  Turkey  has  been  estimated  at 
from  t400,000  to  #500,000  a  year.- Blascjui,  Vogagt 
t.iBulgarie;  Hvai'a  Merch.  Mag.  ^ 

Roae-vrood  (Ger.  Roseuhoh ;  Kr.  HoU  du  rote,  de 
Rhode;  It.  Legno  rodie;  Sp.  Imio  de  roia;  Port.  Pao 
de  rosado)  is  produced  in  Brazil ;  the  Canary  Islands ; 
in  Siam,  whence  it  is  pretty  largely  exported  by  the 
Chinese ;  and  in  other  places.  It  is  in  the  highest  es- 
teem as  a  fancy  wood.    The  width  of  the  log  Import- 


my  b«  acoompUghed  in  one  day ;  the  effect  is  thei  same  I  ed  Into  this  country  averagea  about  22  Inches,  ao  that 


BOS 


1648 


k  mtut  b«  tha  produM  of  a  Ufg«  tra*.  Roi*.wood 
hu  •  (lightly  bUtfiUh,  niMwbat  pungent,  balumlo 
tut«,  ind  (hignuit  imtU,  whtno*  it*  nuiii*.  It  ihuukl 
ba  choMn  ■ound,  heavy,  of  the  dcopcit  color.  In  the 
Uig—t  plMei  that  can  b«  procurcil,  and  of  the  moit 
Imgular,  kiwtty  grain.  The  •inall,  light^olorad,  and 
Urge  ihWered  plu>:««  iihould  be  rejected.  The  mora 
diitlnct  the  darker  parte  are  from  the  purple  red,  which 
forma  the  ground,  the  more  In  the  wood  eeteemed.  It 
la  naually  cut  into  veneara  of  nine  to  an  Inch.— Mil- 
BOHM'a  Oriml.  Comm.,  eto. 

Sosla.  This  iubitanoe  ia  obtained  from  different 
apeclea  of  fir  |  a*  the  JHnui  abitt,  iglvtitri;  larix,  hal- 
«aai«a.  It  ia  yrell  known  that  •  reilnoua  Juice  exudea 
ftam  the  Pinut  tylvtitrit,  or  canimon  Scotch  flr,  which 
hardens  Into  lean.  The  lama  exudation  apixari  in 
the  Pmut  Met,  or  ipruce  flr.  These  teara  constitute 
the  substance  called  thiu,  or  frankincense.  When  a 
portion  of  the  bark  is  stripped  off  these  trees,  a  liquid 
Juice  flows  out,  which  gradually  hardens.  The  Juico 
has  obtained  different  names,  according  to  the  plant 
from  which  it  comes.  The  linut  ij/lvettrit  yields  com- 
mon turpentine;  the  larir,  Venice  turiientlne  (tte 
TuarBNTiNK) ;  the  balmmea,  balsam  of  Canada.  All 
these  Julceii,  which  are  commonly  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  turpentine,  are  considered  as  composed  of  two 
ingredients;  namely,  oU  of  turpentine  and  ronln.  When 
the  turpentine  ia  distilled,  the  oil  cornea  over,  and  the 
rosin  remaina  behind.  When  the  distillation  is  contin- 
ued to  dryness,  the  residuum  is  known  by  the  name  of 
common  roain,  or  cotopkonium ;  but  when  water  Is  mix- 
ed with  It  wbUe  yet  fluid,  and  Incorporated  by  violent 
agitation,  the  mass  ia  called  ytlloa  rosin.  During  win- 
ter, the  wounds  made  in  the  fii^trees  l>ecome  incrusted 
with  a  white,  brittle  substance,  called  hamu  or  galipot, 
consisting  of  rosin  united  to  a  small  portion  of  oil.  The 
yellow  rosin,  made  by  melting  and  agitating  this  sub- 
stance in  water,  is  preferred  for  most  purposes,  because 
It  la  more  ductile,  owing,  probably,  to  ita  still  contain- 
ing some  oil.  The  uses  of  rosin  are  numerous  and  well 
known. — Thomson's  Chemiitty.    See  Naval  Stobbs. 

Roatook,  the  principal  city  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Mecklenburg  Sohwerin,  on  the  Wamow,  about  0 
miles  above  where  it  falls  into  the  Ilaltic,  lat.  64°  N., 
long.  12°  12'  £.  Population  In  1887,  18,067.  A  large 
fair  for  merchandise  la  annually  held  at  WhItsuntids ; 
and  there  are  wool  faira  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 
The  outport  of  Rostock  is  at  Wamemunde,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Wamow.  The  depth  of  water  at  the  latter 
varies  from  10}  to  12  feet ;  but  when  the  west  pier, 
now  in  the  coarse  of  Ijeing  constructed,  has  been  com- 
pleted. It  is  expected  that  the  depth  of  water  will  ixi 
from  12  to  14  feet.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  river 
(h>m  Wamemunde  np  to  Bostock  Is  usually  from  8  to 
0  feet ;  so  that  vessels  drawing  more  tlian  this  must  be 
lightened  to  get  up  to  the  latter.  Bostock  has  a  good 
hubor  and  commodionc  |uays. 

Importt, — ^The  princi,ial  articles  of  import  are  sugar, 
coffee,  and  other  colonial  products ;  cottons,  woolens, 
and  hardware,  with  coal,  earthen-ware,  salt,  iron, 
horsei,  etc.,  Cn>m  England;  hemp,  flax,  tallow,  oil, 
sall-clotb,  etc.,  fh>m  Russia ;  alum,  deals,  timber,  lime, 
tar,  etc.,  from  Sweden ;  herrings  and  flsh  oil  from  Nor- 
way ;  wine,  brandy,  molasses,  drugs,  etc.,  from  France ; 
with  rice,  rum,  groceries,  etc.,  from  Copenhagen  and 
Hamburg.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  by  sea  may 
be  estimated  at  about  ^£260,000. 

Export: — These  consist  chiefly  of  very  good  red 
wheat,  barley,  peas,  rape-seed,  and  a  few  oats ;  with 
wool,  rags  of  a  very  superior  quality,  oil-coke,  rape-oil, 
bones,  etc.  The  exports  of  wheat  amounted  in  1840 
to  07,606  quarters,  and  in  1841  to  124,267.  In  1840, 
the  exports  of  peas  fliom  Bostock  only  wer«  960S 
quarters ;  bnt  Anm  the  duchy  they  amonntad  to  48,013 
quarters;!  but  at  an  average  their  export  does  not  ex- 
ceed (Irsm  20,000  to  26,000  quatten.  The  export  of 
boBsa  aasuatad  during  the  tarns  year  to  1,660,000  lbs. 


At  an  average,  the  value  uf  tha  asports  may  ba  MtU 

mated  at  i;0OO,OOO. 

tikipping.—'V\M  port  of  Rostock  In  1(140  had  2S0 
ships,  of  the  burden  of  86,862  tons,  which  trade  with 
moat  Kuropean  nations,  the  United  Htates,  and  Krasll. 
In  1836  thera  entered  the  port  640  ships  (burden  not 
stated),  of  which  216  belonged  to  Mecklenburg,  162 
(moatly  small  craft)  to  Denmark,  HU  to  Hwadan,  27  tu 
Hanover,  18  to  PruasU,  12  .o  Russia,  It)  la  Holland,  10 
to  Lobeck,  2  to  Hamburg,  and  1  each  to  France  and 
England.  It  Is  only,  In  fact,  when  our  ports  are  open 
to  the  Importation  of  foreign  com  thut  British  ships 
are  met  with  in  conaldarable  numbers  in  the  ports  uf 
Mecklenburg. 

Port  C'hargt:—Th»—  are  tha  aame  on  native  and 
privileged  ships,  among  which  are  included  those  of 
England,  France,  America,  Prussia,  Norway,  etc.  Tha 
port  chargea  on  a  vessel  of  lUO  tons  burden  are  aa  fol- 
low, vis. 


Pri.llHM 

Not  prfvlUf^. 

Inwsrd  with  cargo 

Outward  illtto 

Inward  in  Iwllait 

KliUul. 
10 
18 
11 
19 
IT 

9 
44 

• 

8« 
89 

Rhba.   sJll. 

10  9 
81         « 

11  • 
81        10 
90       43 

Outwtrd  ditto 

Ditto  without  cither 

Dutiit. — These  are  extremely  moderate.  On  most 
Imported  articles  they  amount  to  only  8  per  cent,  ml 
valorem.  An  export  duty  of  about  bd.  per  quarter  la 
charged  on  com,  and  of  about  4«.  M.  per  hhd.  on  wine. 
Wool  is  not  suliiject  tu  any  duty  on  export.  Uoods 
imported  in  vessels  not  privileged  pay  6U  per  cent, 
additional  on  the  above  duties ;  tliat  is,  they  pay  4} 
instead  of  8  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Witmar,  the  second  sea-port  town  of  Mecklenburg, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  River  Stor  with  tha  sea,  in 
lat.  68°  49'  25"  N.,  long.  11°  86'  16"  E.  Population 
11,000.  The  harbor  of  Wismar  is  commodious  and 
safe,  being  nearly  land-locked  by  the  islanda  of  Poel 
and  Walflsch.  Close  to  the  town  there  Is  fkom  8  to  8) 
feet  water;  in  the  inner  roada  there  is  from  12  to  18 
feet ;  and  in  the  outer  from  16  to  20  feet  water.  The 
port  charges  on  a  native  or  privileged  vessel  of  100  tons 
amount  to  about  80  rix  dollars,  Tha  articles  of  import 
and  export  are  the  same  at  Wismar  as  at  Roatock ;  but 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  Labeck,  from  which  Wismar 
is  not  more  than  27  miles  distant,  her  foreign  trade  is 
comparatively  limited.  About  86  ships,  of  the  burden 
of  4800  tons,  belong  to  this  port.  There  cleared  flrom 
it  in  1886  227  ships,  of  which  11  were  English.  The 
duties  at  Wismar  are  somewhat  higher  than  at  Rostock, 
being  4}  per  cent,  ad  valorem  on  colonial  products,  and 
from  4(f.  to  M.  per  quarter  on  com  exported.  It  is  be- 
lieved, however,  that  they  will  shortly  ba  reduced  to 
the  Rostock  level. 

Trade  of  Ike  jUucAm.— Mecklenburg  la  atNntially 
an  agricultural,  wool-growing,  grazing,  and  breeding 
country.  In  some  places  it  is  sandy  and  tuurren ;  but 
it  is  for  the  most  part  very  fertile,  and  tha  crops  and 
pastures  are  both  luxuriant.  Having  few  manufac- 
tures, her  imports  necessarily  consUt  principally,  us 
already  stated,  of  manufactured  goods,  and  her  oxports 
of  raw  produce.  Owing,  however,  to  the  circnmstanca 
of  the  southwestern  port  of  the  province  being  Iwundod 
by  the  Elbe,  and  approaching  to  within  about  80  miles 
of  Hamburg,  almost  all  the  mannfactured  goods,  as 
well  as  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  colonial  products 
used  by  the  popuUtlon  (660,000),  are  imported  by  way 
of  Hamburg.  Hence,  In  Mecklenburg,  as  in  Prussia, 
the  direct  foreign  trade  carried  on  by  the  sea  frontier 
forms  bnt  a  very  small  part  of  the  entire  trade  of  the 
country.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  form  any  pre- 
cise estimate  of  what  the  latter  may  amount  to.  Prob- 
ably there  is  no  Eoropean  country  so  little  fettered 
by  customs  ragnlations  aa  Itacklenbarg.  The  duties 
on  ortitlaa  imported  by  aaa  amount  only,  as  already 
stated,  to  abont  8  per  oant.  ad  valorem  ,•  and  thoae  en- 
taring  by  the  land  ftvotier  ara  subject  manly  to  a  tri- 


ROT 


1640 


ROU 


HlSSO 
•  wklb 
llniU. 
(n  not 
rg,  IM 
I,  a7  to 
>nd, lU 
ice  »i>rt 
Mopcn 
h  ihip* 
portt  of 

ilva  «n(l 
thoM  of 
itc.  The 
n  «■  ful- 


On  mott 
ir  cent.  Oil 
quarter  U 
\.  on  wine. 
Ft.  Qooda 
)  per  cent. 
»ey  p»y  *i 

loUenburg, 

the  «e«,  In 
PopuUtlun 

todlout  end 

indi  of  Poel 

(h>m8to8| 

[om  12  to  lU 

»ftter.     The 

^loflOOtona 

lei  of  Import 
ortock  I  but 
ilchWIiBiar 

^tgn  trade  U 

[f  the  burden 
cleaied  from 
tglUh.  The 
1  at  Boatock, 
kroducta,  and 
,  Itlibe- 
reduced  to 

1^  eM«ntlally 
tnd  breedlnit 
] barren;  but 
he  cropa  and 
Lw  manufac- 
rlnclpally,  a» 
_d  bet  exports 
Icliemnitanco 
leing  bounded 
Ibout  80  miles 
good*,  as 
I  products 
,^  by  way 
I  In  PruMl«i 
d  sea  (tontler 
1  trade  of  tho 
form  any  pre 
Trot  to.  P«>b- 
hlttle  fettered 
J     The  duties 
ly,  as  already 
land  those  en- 
Tei»»yM»tfl" 


<lag  ahtrge,  on  aooounl  of  toll,  of  whloh  we  hare  not 
•MH  any  aoeoiint.  It  U  ImpoielUa,  indeed,  that  any 
oommenUI  iyttem  cao  be  bottomed  on  more  liberal 
prladplea  i  and  this  enllghlaned  policy,  and  bar  litua- 
tton  B«4kr  the  mouth  of  the  Klba,  and  on  the  western 
ftanller  of  the  PtussUh  league,  gtve  to  McckleiiburK 
tu  greater  Imnortanoe,  aa  •  commercial  state,  than  U 
indiwrted  by  the  amount  of  her  population  or  her  In- 
ternal oonsumptlon.   , 

llottardam,  on  the  north  liank  of  the  Maese,  In 
lat  fll*  58'  IB"  N.,  long.  4°  S9'  14"  E.  PopuUtlon 
In  ItSO,  U.OOO  f  Kottardam  la  the  second  commercUl 
oily  of  Holland.  It  is  mora  advantageously  situated 
than  Anuterdam,  being  nearer  the  sea ;  and  the  canals 


whleh  tnUraeet  It  are  so  deep  aa  to  admU  of  the  UrgiM 
vessels  coming  up  to  the  quays  and  warebouaas  of  iko 
marohante.  Its  eommeroa  during  the  last  llflaen  yanrs 
ha*  Incpsasad  more  rapldlr  than  that  of  any  town  In 
Holland.  The  exports  ami  ImporU  are  similar  to  thoaa 
of  Amsterdam,  the  white  Xealand  wheal  shipped 
here  U  of  a  pecnUariy  Hne  quality  i  and  It  is  the  best 
market  for  madder  and  geneva.  Oeneva  la  sold  by 
the  earn ;  but  it  used,  fbr  the  convenience  nf  smuggling 
to  Kngland,  to  be  divMeil  into  ankers  and  half  ankers, 
The  legitimate  imports  nf  geneva  fttm  Holland  In  IW] 
amounted  to  lU,He5  gallons.  Kottardam  has  a  i«g«hr 
and  firequent  Intercourse,  by  means  of  steamers,  with 
London,  Liverpool,  Hull,  Leith,  Havre,  Hamburg,  etc. 


Inmaii  ron  tub  Mvax 

OOtOHUL 


YB*aa  iwoiNii  with  1"M,  at  Rnrnain4ii,  or  Tiia  unnaa-aaKTiomni  AanaiLsa  or  raaaiaa  um 
OMUL  l'aoncca-(K»oi(  tii>  Montuit  Maskiit  Riviaw,  Januast  1,  IHM.) 


Ueflw,  Kaat  IndU ban 

Do.    WmtlndU '" 

Do,  do casks 

Tea qr.  ahests 


tleroM 

lien 

lOM  kilotr. 

kales 

hhda. 


1)0. 

tapper 

Rugar tons  of 

Uoltoa 

Tohaecu,  Marylaod 

Do.      Virginia 

Vo.      Kcnluckr " 

1)0.      Rlems " 

1)0.      Java paoksflsa 

llldas,  Kait  India pieces 

1)0.    West  India '• 

(HI,  Mouth  Hsa  Whale heeta. 

Indlao ehls,  A  bu. 

Ashss,  Uollad  Hlataa,  pots. ,    bemls 
Do.            do.          pearl*         " 
IVi.  snndries caika 


lap«<i. 

ter<M. 

Im^ll. 

Inpoitt. 

tair«0' 

ImroM 

i«r««.. 

att.lH,iM 
Dwtwhcr. 

sai,!ioA 

IM1. 
MI,AM 

IMS. 
Blll,8llO 

IMS. 
81»,5l)0 

141,100 

848.000 

iW.  ■ 
aM,ooe 

— Itoi.- 

181,000 

14,0.10 

8I,I«« 

41,100 

u^oao 

l'i,tN)0 

16,800 

8,100 

9,B!W 

l,8fl« 

OM 

1,000 

7*) 

9,800 

1,100 

K.ltS 

IT.fWB 

lO.WO 

11,700 

M,«BO 

10,800 

AI,«IO 

1,800 

111,1)11 

UT,l!(0 

1(W,KI0 

1118,400 

111,300 

18H,000 

816,1100 

45,700 

g.sso 

8,W8 

8,100 

1,600 

3,4'M 

1,700 

4,100 

IM) 

8,«'i0 

B,T18 

7,700 

4,880 

(1,800 

8,800 

8,INM 

7,800 

»0,7M 

t8,i>on 

84,000 

84,000 

87,000 

46,760 

18,750 

abl.  4,000 

8,910 

1,14 18 

7,84') 

8,875 

8,510 

7,410 

u.m 

8,710 

4,I»I4 

8,671 

5,068 

8,404 

6,167 

8,090 

11,148 

LMI 

6U 

1,103 

8>tl 

i.ora 

1,046 

514 

1,184 

in 

m 

100 

883 

814 

158 

78T 

870 

TS 

TO 

175 

880 

1  5 

101 

107 

*'*2! 

6,B0i> 

8.644 

B,88> 

1,816 

4,786 

4,180 

3S,3<U 

48,188 

7»,8;iO 

44,071 

68,660 

91,4'4 

TR,081 

H,TM 

T,9T« 

B,044 

600 

1,100 

101 

6,003 

t',848 

8,17B 

•S'!!?! 

11,700 

11,300 

11,700 

1,800 

15,400 

^7S4 

7,008 

8,848 

8,714 

8,571 

8,388 

8,011 

184 

8,513 

l.OSB 

0,180 

1,881 

1,W)8 

8,188 

tt«t 

110 

BD8 

Bia 

888 

891 

468 

108 

Oil 

Dl 

80' 

B31 

1,090 

810 

1,801 

711 

5,171 

1,0*7 

l>>MrAnATivi  Htatbibiit  or  BTooaa  or  Conn  Ann  Oraim  in  ma  vnnn-HaiiTiOMSD  roita  or  IIollamu,  in  1850,  1661, 

ADD  1861. 


•mOitMiktr, 

I 

i 

i 

J 

n 

400 
811 
79 

!1 

80 
91 

104 

a 

14 
44 

87 

"96" 

10 
8 

18 

is 

88 
"81 

a 

84 

4 

88 

13 
9 

16 

is 

1 

"so" 

11 

ii 

16 
87 

'a 
1 

8 

"i 

9 

U 

166 
86 
18 

To 

87 
8 
11 

.. 
87 

'87 

1^ 

n 

lOlil 
160 
761 

i 

vooo 

81 
88 

Ml 

'i» 

i 

'Amata>rdaro* 

7,750 19,000 

1600  8-25 

160    1.111 

30 

11 

61 

850 
4 

Ilnltordani , , 

6,801   5,5II0!  146   81 

14 
14 

80 
10 

869      liMl    11 

90  10,087  1617 

131      73U   16U 

06 

Unhladam 

.Uelftshavsn 

Tulal  lasts 

14,198  4A.9fia  4813  Kill 

800    B9H 

188 

39 
48 
11 

09 

If 

108 

11 
14 
11 

41 

170 
s;i 
16 

36^1 

8130 
1'6 
1414 

mi 

8S00 
980 
1577 

iim 

1610 
100 
1(15 

mull 

1T00 
108 
9,11 

i5B 

"8 
8 

iU    «l 

10,M5 

6^881 

880 

180 

180 

11,185 
7ll51 

895 

8,J38 

696 

769  93T 

808 

518 

88 

1481 
080 

"83 
61 

~il4 

"l 
16 

800 
8 

808 

100 

n 
'io 

91 

Rotterdam 

671 

11 

687 

14 

85 

p 

Hchladam 

.UeUUImven 

Total  lasts . 

18,813 

9,400 

8,141 

178 

060 

60 

10,836 

38,114 

1915  US 

r  Amsterdam 

18,800 
0,49) 
63) 
9.063 
1,114 

TOO   19 

I' 

Rotterdam 

149.1<>i<  1)89 
81  1181    86 

itohiadam 

Ull 
70 

..     .. 

.Uelftshavsn 

Total  lasts 

36,036 

1862 

168 

T?54 

~!8 

11 

87 

» 

874 

Wl 

3156 

~ 

..     '.II 

-iS««  HoixAND  and  Amsterdam. 


*  The  ilocks  In  Amiterdam  include  the  qusntltiiu  on  hand  at  Zaandara. 


ItonUCi  •  Rnsslan  coin.  (For  the  silver  rouble, 
MS  Coins,  division  Kuuian,-  the  value  of  the  paper 
nubIa  Is  variable.)  By  the  official  valuation  of  the 
paper  rouble,  In  the  payment  of  taxes,  a  few  years 
line*,  on*  allvar  rouble  was  equal  to  three  roubles  six> 
ly  copaoks  liapor.  By  authority  of  Congress,  the  value 
of  tha  Rnsslan  rouble,  formerly  was  flxml  at  75  cents. 

Rouge  (Fr.  Fard).  The  only  cosmetic  which  can 
Im  applied  without  Injury  to  brighten  a  lady's  com- 
|>Uslon  Is  that  prepared,  by  the  following'pmcebs, 
from  safflower  (Carihan»u  iincloriut).  The  floivers, 
after  being  washed  with  pure  water  till  it  comes  off 
colorlSN,  are  dried,  pulverised,  and  digested  with  a 
weak  solution  of  crystals  of  soda,  which  asnumes  there- 
by t  yellow  color.  Into  this  liquor  a  quantity  of  finely- 
carded  whit*  cotton  wool  is  plunged,  and  then  so  much 
IsnoB  ittio*  or  pur*  vinegar  Is  added  as  to  supersaturate 
SM 


the  soda.  The  coloring  matter  is  disengaged,  and  fklls 
down  in  an  impal|iable  powder  upon  tho  cotton  flla- 
ments.  The  cotton,  after  being  washed  in  cold  water, 
to  remove  some  yellow  coloring  particles,  is  to  be  treat- 
ed with  a  ftesh  solution  of  caiiionate  of  soda,  which 
takes  up  the  red  coloring  matter  in  a  state  of  purity. 
Before  precipitating  this  pigment  a  second  time  by  th* 
acid  of  lemons,  some  soft  powdered  talc  should  be  laid 
in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  for  the  purpose  of  abeorlv 
Ing  the  fine  rouge,  in  proportion  as  it  Is  separatad  tram 
the  carbonate  of  soda,  which  now  holds  It  dlssolvad. 
The  colored  mixture  must  be  finally  triturated  with  a 
few  drops  of  olive  oil,  in  order  to  make  it  smooth  and 
marrowy.  Upon  the  fineness  of  the  tele,  and  th*  pro- 
portion of  the  safilower  precipitate  which  It  contains, 
depend  the  beaut}-  and  value  of  the  cosmetic,  Tk* 
rouge  of  the  above  second  preclpltetion  is  rrcelva^ 


ROW 


16A0 


BUM 


I  a^n  bill  of  flBit-lir(ato<l  woaira  Hut,  e*Ua4 
mman»,  whlck  Udtu  rub  H|m»  their  oh««lu, 

fcow,  to  piD^I  •  ImmI  liy  win.  KowlnK  li  iMkMi> 
•d  tk*  miMt  fkvor>bU  •|i|>ll<!*tl»ii  of  human  (trtaalh  i 
Dm  whole  fore*  U,  how^vir,  not  tlftulv*  on  Um  a«r, 
H  tb«  |Htrt  lB»t<U  th*  Mtual  fuliTum,  which  b  In  lh« 
w*Ur,  neU  M  >  baukwaUr.  Horn*  nalluni  Uka  ihoft 
•Irukai,  which  Ikay  Hm  up  In  making  i  •  long  itraka 
•IWing,  t<i  My  tka  laaat,  lavaa  much  auitloa.  A*  Iha 
tbaory  of  rowing  Involvaa  Iha  raalaUaca  of  Huhla,  It  la 
naoaaaarlly  dafarliva. 

Royal,  la  Naral  ufair;  tha  mII  abora  Iha  top^aU 
Uat  ull.  Tha  Umi  ruya/  la  alao  appliail,  In  artillary, 
IQ  n  kind  of  tmall  mortar. 

Royal  Bxobanc*,  I«n<lon.  Tha  foundation  of 
Iha  oH|(<nal  adlHra  wai  laid  by  HIr  Thomai  Graahaat, 
Juna  7,  IIMM),  on  thn  alto  uf  tha  anclant  Tun  prUon. 
Quaan  Klliabath  vUilad  thU  Kxchanga  In  January, 
1671,  and  by  tha  lound  of  trumpata  har  harald  namad  It 
Iha  Hof/al  Kxchanga.— IIdmr.  ThU  grand  fkbrlo  wai 
totally  dcatroyad  by  tha  graal  Hra  in  lAOH,  praclialy  a 
aantury  aftar  Ita  aractlon.  i.'harlaa  II.  laid  tha  founda- 
tion of  tha  aaxt  adlAoa,  Octoliar  'U,  1M7,  whiuh  waa 
completed  by  Mr.  llawkeamoor,  a  pupil  of  Sir  <  'hrleto- 
phar  Wren,  In  about  three  yran ;  and  It  waa  repaired 
and  baautiHad  in  176U.  Thia  laat  alio  baoaaie  a  piay  to 
a  daatructlva  (Ire,  Januar}'  10, 1808,  and  waa  'lumad  tn 
Iha  ground,  with  a  number  of  public  utHcea  and  adjiiln- 
Ing  houaaa.  The  new  Koyal  Kxchanga,  vonimeuced 
in  1840,  under  the  dlrw^tlon'uf  Mr.  Tita,  waa  opened  by 
Iha  queen  in  atate,  arcumpanied  by  her  minialera  and 
a  grand  civic  priweuion,  October  28, 1844. 

Ruby,  a  preciuua  atone,  verj'  highly  eateemed ;  but 
ander  thia  name  a  variety  of  mineral!  have  not  unfke- 
quantly  been  lold,  which  differ  eaaentially  in  their  char- 
•titan.  The  Orietilal  rukg  la.  In  fact,  a  red  variety  nf 
Iha  lapphlre.  When  perfect,  ita  color  la  a  cochineal 
red,  preivntlng  a  richneaa  of  hue  the  mott  axquiilte 
and  unrivaled :  it  ii,  however,  in  general  mora  or  leu 
pale,  and  often  mixed  with  blue :  hence  it  occura  row 
fed,  peach-bloaaom  red,  and  lUao  blue,  paaatng  into  the 
amethyat.  It  la  harder  than  any  other  mineral,  ex. 
oapt  tha  diamond.  Eaaily  frangible.  Speciflc  gravity 
fhnn  8-916  to  4-283.  Infuaibla  before  tha  blowpl|Mi. 
Oriental  rul)iM  of  10  carats  are  extremely  rare  and 
raluable.  One  of  22  grslna  was  sold  for  iClGO.  Ru- 
bies in  lots,  Indian  cut,  or  small  siies,  and  of  different 
qualltiea,  ar«  at  all  tlmea  to  In  had,  and  sell  at  from 
lit.  to  6A(.  a  cant ;  but  a  perfect  atone  of  a  carat,  or 
6  grains,  may  be  deiamed  rare,  and  falls  little  short  of 
the  value  of  (he  diamond :  nay.  In  aoma  cases,  rubies 
of  2,  8,  or  4  carats,  if  very  fine,  are  much  scarcer,  and 
even  more  valuable  than  diamonds  of  equal  weight. 
The  finest  ruby  in  England,  nr  perhaps  in  Europe,  Is 
in  the  collection  of  the  late  Mr,  Hope,  tlie  author  of 
"  Anaatasius."  There  are  two  other  species  of  ruby, 
Iha  SpintUt  and  Bahii.  When  perfect,  the  tpinelle 
la  a  gam  of  great  value  and  scarcity.  Its  color  is  a 
fine  full  carmine  or  rose  red,  but  it  never  presents  that 
rich  mellow  tinge  that  attends  the  Oriental  ruby.  It 
la  also  inferior  to  the  Utter  in  hardness  and  speclAo 
gravity.  Stones  of  8  cants  and  upward  ara  ver}-  ran 
and  valuable. 

The  Balau  ruby  is  a  pale  variety  of  tha  spinella.  It 
Tariea  tn  color  from  light  red  to  yellowish  red.  Thoogh 
not  so  rate  aa  the  spinelle,  it  is  by  no  means  common. 
It  is  much  admired  for  ita  agrerabie  tinge  of  color; 
and,  when  pure  and  perfect,  fetches  a  veiy  high  price, 
though  considerably  less  than  the  other  varieties. 
Rabies  are  not  found  in  any  considerable  quantity  ex- 
cwpt  in  Ava. — Mawe  on  Diamond* ;  TiiuMson'b  Ciem- 
utry. 

Ruddar.  A  heavy  flat  piece  or  tnam  of  wood, 
hang  upon  the  stem-post  by  means  of  pintles  and 
gndgeoos,  for  the  purpose  of  steering  the  ship.  The 
mdder  Is  turned  round  the  stem-post  aa  an  axis,  by 
tha  tlllar,  which  enters  the  rudder-head.     In  vessels 


drawtag  Biaak  walar  Iha  mdder  la  oeep  and  aatrow  | ' 
in  flat-bottoaMd  vasaaia  M  la  shallow  and  bmad.  Wha« 
carried  to  a  coasidanhU  breadth,  aa  la  tha  <;hlnea«' 
vaeaala,  It  Is  pteread  with  bales,  which  pfasarvaa  an  ln> 
eraaaad  lararaga  with  a  dimlalsbad  direct  reslatanea 
froas  Iha  water.  When  the  rudder  la  broken  off  by 
Ike  ship  galling  aground,  ar  by  a  kaavy  saa,  a  lam- 
ponrr  one  is  nwda  by  a  lupnuMl  and  otbar  span  plaeed 
parallel,  and  loaded  at  Iha  Iwllom  with  ptga  and  bal- 
iaal,  and  conflaad  to  the  alam-poal  by  kawsara  laaditg 
oa  each  sMa  of  the  keel. 

Huddtr  l\mt.—K  covering  of  taned  eaavaa  looaely 
pal  round  Ike  ruilder-head  to  kaap  the  water  fhim  en- 
tering by  tka  aperture,  wkUa  It  admlla  of  tha  mddar 
being  tamed  freely  round. 

HtitUrr  Tsatland.— Mrang  pieces  nf  rope  ending  In 
chalna,  by  which  Iha  rudder,  If  unshippeid,  b  held  to 
the  ship's  quarter. 

Hmliltr  Hhocl.—A  place  of  wood  fitting  between  Iha 
head  of  Ilia  rudder  aiid  the  ruddef^ihole,  to  prevent  Iha 
play  of  the  rudil«r  in  case  nf  the  tiller  being  removed. 

Rum,  a  well-known  and  highly  esteemed  uplrltuuns 
liquor  Imported  from  Iha  West  Indies,  of  which  it  forma 
one  of  the  staple  produda.  It  Is  obtained  by  means 
of  farmenlalioa  and  distHlallon  from  molasses,'  the  nf- 
usa  of  the  cane  Juice,  and  portions  of  tha  cane,  after 
Iha  sugar  has  been  extracted.  The  iUror  and  tasta 
peculiar  to  ram  ara  derived  from  the  easanlial  oils  ear- 
rled  over  In  dislUlallon.  When  tha  dlatillallon  hat 
been  carelessly  iierlbrmad,  the  spirit  contains  so  large 
a  quantity  of  the  groasar  and  less  volatile  part  of  the 
oil  aa  to  be  unfit  fur  use  till  It  has  attained  a  couslder- 
able  age.  When  it  la  wall  nsllflad,  It  mellows  much 
sooner.  Rum  of  a  brownish  transparent  color,  smooth 
oily  taste,  strong  body  and  consistence,  good  age,  and 
well  kept,  is  the  lieit.  That  which  is  clear  and  limpid, 
and  has  a  hot  pungent  tasto,  la  either  too  new,  or  mixed 
with  other  spirits.  Jamaica  rum  is  the  first  In  point 
of  quality ;  the  Leeward  IsUnd  rum,  as  it  la  called, 
being  always  inferior  to  It,  both  In  flavor,  strength, 
and  value.  Tha  price  of  the  latter  Is  usually  20  per 
cent,  below  that  of  the  former.  II  la  oustomar}-,  in 
soma  of  the  West  IndUi  Islands,  to  put  sliced  pine- 
apples in  puncheons  of  rum :  thia  gives  the  spirit  tha 
flavor  of  the  fruit  |  and  hence  the  designation  pint- 
appU  mm.  Rum  is  also  produced  In  and  imported 
from  the  Mauritius  and  the  Kast  Indies ;  but  that  of 
the  latter  is  more  nearly  allied  to  arrack  than  to  genu- 
ine rum. 

We  know  nothing  about  the  origin  of  the  word  rum, 
or  the  time  at  which  the  manufactura  of  the  spirit  com- 
menced. At  present  the  manufactura  la  chieHy  csr- 
ried  on  in  the  islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain.  Dr. 
Ura  atates  that  in  Jaaiaica  the  wort  Is  made  by  adding 
together  120  gallaas  of  molasses,  1000  gallons  of  the 
spent  wash  of  a  former  disllllatlon,  720  gallons  of  the 
skimmings  of  the  soger  boilers,  and  100  gallons  of 
water ;  so  that  then  U  in  the  wort  nearly  12  per  cent, 
of  solid  saccharine  matter.  Other  proportions,  how- 
ever, ara  used,  bringing  the  proportion  of  saccharine 
matter  up  to  nearly  16  per  cant,  i  as,  for  instance,  100 
gallons  of  molasses,  800  gallons  of  skimmings,  200  gal- 
lons of  spent  wash,  and  400  gallons  of  water.  The 
proportlona  vary  In  abnust  every  estate,  so  that  no 
certain  rale  can  be  laid  down.  Tha  fermentation  is 
in  general  conducted  verj-  slowly  (apparantly  very  un- 
necessarily so),  occupying  from  nine  to  fourteen  days. 
Tha  saccharine  matter  Is,  thenfora,  very  imperfectly 
converted  into  alcohol,  and  tha  yield  of  spirit  is  usually 
so  low  aa  llfi  gallons  of  proof-spirit' for  ever}- 1200  gal- 
lona  of  waab.  On  soma  aatatas,  and  depending  on  the 
price  of  sugar  in  the  market,  the  greater  proportion  of 
til*  sugar  U  converted  Into  ram  i  and  tha  same  imper- 
fect farmanlation  being  followed,  the  average  yield  is 
said  to  ba  only  200  galtoas  of  ram  for  every  three  hogs- 
heads of  sugar,  wharaaa  the  proportion  ought  to  be 
ver}'  nearly  double.    It  la  from  the  skimminga»  which 


p.-J  t=;.  ,.  .■.  \iM'.'^Ai\r 


RtTP 


mi 


m^n 


tn  m  la  tnim*,  tluit  th«  pawdllu  ffamr  nf  mm  b  il*- 1 
rtTwt  I  fbr  II  U  •  curloiu  fitrt  thai  •iiniir  mil  nioluMM 
illtlllM  In  thU  counlry  yUld  ■  uplrlt  tiitlnl}  dKUltuU 
(if  kll  rum  flavor,  and  In  nothing  dUlln|{uUh*liU  from 
lh«  arttlnary  tplrtt  d*riv«it  from  grain.  Any  iUi|i(h  of 
I'lilor  may  Iw  gWan  to  th*  rum  by  the  addition  of  mo* 
lauM  or  carumal,  though  II  !•  commonly  liul  •rron*' 
oualy  Italad  that  tha  color  of  Iha  rum  li  dcrtvtd  from 
tha  oak  eukt.Stt  flriHiTa  and  Wini. 

Tha  manuAwtura  of  rum  antlrcly  uf  nugar  or  mo- 
laitai  la  not  earriad  on  In  Oraat  Britain.  1  h«  numlicr 
of  gallon!  of  rum  manufacturad  In  Oraat  Britain  dur- 
ing tha  yaar  anding  January  5,  WM,  of  a  mixtura  uf 
augaror  molaiiaa  With  HamtUadgmlo,  wai  aa  followi : 
Englaad (I<%ai0  (alloua. 

InUnd  4>0«6       „ 

Unal  nrllalB TjuST.iM       „ 


KxMaTa  or  Hra  raOM  Tmi  I'mnn 
aaiMHa  .lima  M, 


avATaa  roa  Tna  YiAa 
IWT. 


wuuwf  •ipotua. 


lianUh  WMt  ludlH 

Ilanibiirg 

Uri'incn 

Knglancl 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

llrliUh  Narih  Aau<r.  I^>waulaa■. 

Krlttnh  Wnt  India* 

nrHbh  llMduraa 

BfltUh  >>oMaMloaa  la  AMaa 

llrUlnh  Audralla 

Kranni  on  th«  Atlantic 

FrancK  on  IIm  Madltorrancan. . . , 
Fninch  North  Anwr.  I'oimrioaa, 

Kivni'li  WmI  India* 

(  anary  laland* 

Cuba 

Madrira 

Cayada  Yard  lilanda 

Hardlnia  , 

Two!i|clll«* I 

AttatMa 

Turkiiy  In  Kiiropa 

'lurki'v  In  .Viila 

I'uru  In  Africa 

Hay« 

N«w  Oranada 

L'rugiiay,  or<:laplatln*  Kcpnblla. 

Arguntlna  Itcpubllo 

^m 

Pern 

Uaudwioh  laland* 

Total '. 


~lfpj«< 


-an; 

wu 
is,nsT 
«,'m 

M,4<ft 
10;i,M4 
ll>a,liiB 

II.BM 
^nM 

l>,45i 

ins,4m 
iBT,8a« 
an,m 

8.081 

SIM 

800 
4.101 

n.iw 

B,«4T 

SA.44A 

818,M14 

888,761 

820.068 

l.OOT 

IV,tN8 

8T,4St 

6,IM 

S,5U 

1,3M 

M 

8,8T8,«08   TMIIVOII'* 


■ici=— 

i,e48 
mi 

(1,41? 

MM 

10,740 

5>,(M4 

1U«,700 

l',7(lB 

4.»04 

711. 14U 

0,itli 

74,  Ml 

M,7IW 

14,410 

8,  00 

8At 

104 

1,«8 

11,101 

tM4 

8,137 

17.707 

140.881 

1111,177 

8  1,07.1 

son 

8,nftfi 

11,04^ 

8,760 

1,171 

008 

en 


Rnpee,  a  alWer  coin  current  In  ths  East  Indies, 
eqaal  to  from  60  to  CO  cents.  Hy  authority  of  Con- 
gresa,  the  value  of  the  rupee  of  British  India  was  Axed 
at  441  Centa,  and  the  sicca  rupee  of  Bengal  and  the 
rupee  of  Bombay  at  fiO  cents. 

Russia.  This  extensive  empire  comprisea  tha 
whoU  northern  portion  of  the  eastpni  hemii>phore,  from 
the  firootiara  of  Poien  and  the  Gulf  of  Dotlinia  on  tha 
west,  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  BehrinK'H  Straits  on  the 
east.  It  includaa  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom of  Poland,  Finland,  Astralihan,  and  Kazan,  con- 
quered from  the  Tartars ;  the  Crimea,  Little  Tnrtary, 
Bessarabia,  and  a  portion  of  Moldavia,  taken  tnm 
Turkey. 

The  Ruaslan  empire  embracesnearlyone-half  of  tha 
surface  of  Europe.  It  chiefly  consiats  of  an  enormous 
plain,  being  little  dlversifled  by  rising  ground,  except 
toward  the  Urala  and  the  Caucasus  in  the  south  and 
east,  and  In  the  province  of  Finland  In  tlie  northwett. 
The  northern  part  of  the  country  la  a  cold  and  Iwrren 
region  of  heaths  and  marshes ;  the  central  pnivinces 
are  rich  and  fertile ;  the  southern,  mere  steppes,  or 
grassy,  sandy,  and  salt  plains,  which  afford,  however, 
in  their  hollows,  along  the  river-courses,  abundance  of 
oxt^ent  paaturoge  for  cattle  and  horses.  The  popu- 
lattoa  U  chiefly  agricultural  or  nomadic  j  and  the 
manufaoturea  thai  are  to  be  found  in  some  places  are 
more  indebted  to  the  fostering  care  of  the  government, 
and  tiia  high  Import  duties,  or  absolute  prohibition  of 


ft)ril(nwtiM,t'iian  to  native  enlarpriia,  Air  their  ar^ilt 
and  ouiiilnuanca.  RumI*  I*  an  iminnnaa  mllUary 
IMiwar,  *u  far  aa  that  dr|wnd*  on  the  nuinliar*  of  her 
armla* ,  Iml  tha  want  of  national  wealth  la  auch  a  draw- 
iHuk  un  military  *nl*rprlae  a*  aha  hoa  iwl  yet  been 
abU  to  overcome. 

Tha  origin  of  the  Ruaalana  a*  a  diallnct  branch  of 
lha  Hlaviiniana  la  a  m'Hil  point  among  an-haolmlsta. 
Hiay  Beam  to  have  liorne  at  one  time  the  name  of 
Ante*,  ciinslating  of  aevvral  triliaa  that  formed  a  sort 
of  cnnfadaration.  In  lha  0th  century,  Hurle  the  Va- 
rangian catabllahrd  hlniaplf  In  Novggrixl  the  Oreat  i 
and  hia  aucraaaora,  extunding  their  dominion  by  ««• 
queat,  talabllahed  tlipir  capital  at  KlelT,  where  the  dy- 
nuaty  reached  the  lenlth  of  It*  power  under  Vladimir 
the  Ureal,  who  Introduced  ('hrialiauity  among  hia  auln 
Jecta,  according  to  the  creed  and  ritual  of  the  Greek 
Church,  A.li.  Mfl.  His  empire  was  suliaequenlly  over- 
thrown by  tha  I'olea  and  MthuanUna,  and  the  greater 
)>art  of  it  remained  sniiject  to  Poland  till  the  acceaalon 
of  the  house  of  RomanufT.  The  eaatem  provinces  tie- 
yond  the  Dnieper  were  conquered  liy  Tartan,  and  re- 
mained under  their  dominion  till  the  10th  century, 
The  city  of  Moscow  waa  founded  by  Audrey  I.  in  A.O. 
IIM.  In  the  middle  of  iha  Iftth  p'ntury,  Ivan  Vas- 
aiiiwita,  Uuke  of  Moscovy,  rec  <  .d  hia  independ- 
ence, and  having  subdued  a  number  of  petty  chieftains, 
and  added  the  duchies  of  Tver  and  Novgorod  to  hit 
dominions,  assumed  the  title  of  Grand  Duke.  Ilia 
grandson,  of  the  aame  name,  subdued  the  Tartar  king- 
doms of  Kazan  and  Astrakhan,  and  assumed  the  tltb 
uf  Czar  or  (treat  King. 

During  the  last  three  centuries  the  successive  dnkea 
and  czars  of  Moscovy  and  emperors  of  all  the  Russia* 
have  followed  the  same  policy  of  extending  their  do- 
minions by  ever}-  posaible  means,  fair  or  font.  They 
have  now  declurrd  themselves  the  heads  and  proteclors 
of  all  the  Slavonic  races,  and  of  the  orthndnx  Greek 
Church,  and  seem  to  make  no  secret  of  their  dee|)-laid 
project  of  unacnipulous  aggrandlMment.  Their  vast 
dominion  now  extends  in  length  through  202°  of  lon- 
gitude, and  In  breadth  through  88°  of  latitude,  and  Is 
sop|Hif<e4  to  contain  about  (IS,flOO,000  of  Inhabitants, 
of  whom  five-alxths  ore  in  Europe. 

The  following  la  believed  to  be  a  correct  estimate 
of  the  extent  and  p<ipul>itiun  of  this  vast  empire: 
AaxA  ARii  Ton  {..(7ifl!«  or  ItcsaiA. 


NalunI  DWlilou. 


Umt  ttnula 

I.ltllo  Kiiiala 

New  KtiMia 

White  Kiiasia 

Wntrrn  pmvlnees 

llalllo  provincM 

Northern  provlacca 

t'nU  proTinn!* 

t.'oaaack  dtatricta 

PnUnd 

Flr!and 

Total  In  Europe 

Cancaalan  provlneea 

Wfnt  Hlberla 

Kant  !<lberl> 

American  poaaeaaiona. . . . 

Total  extra  European . 

Grand  total 


Ar*a  in  Kna  liah      ropalaUon  In 
SauaraMlUa.  *"'" 


818,701 
100,141 
00,080 
70,810 
47,070 
80,010 
680,118 
447,788 
118,778 
41,180 
188.809 


1,011,478 

88,078 

1,081,147 

1,1M,OOI> 

_  ?!<^ 
o,i«i,otS' 

7,188,853 


T5;4opTr 

11,77^80B 
8,10^011 
1,087,408 
1,870,0«T 
1,701,1107 
1,410,8M 

10,770,181 

1,100.788 

5,160,048 

_1,4«>,1»» 

08,011,141 

1,800,000 

C,.'S(IO,000 

187  000 

01,000 


0,048,000 
01,«0,t48 


The  rivers  of  Russia  are  usually  divided  into  Ave 
groups  or  systems,  corresponding  to  the  leaa  In  which 
they  have  tl'ieir  em4ourAt(re» ;  viz.,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the 
Boitic  Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  The  ftrst  division  comprises  the  Dwino, 
Mezen,  end  Petchora,  in  Europe  j  the  Obi,  Janlael,  and 
Lena,  with  numemus  other  small  rivers,  In  Asia:  the 
three  last  have  a  course  of  from  2000to  2600  miles.  The 
rivers  which  fall  into  the  Baltic,  though  poaseasing  much 
more  commercial  importance  to  Russia,  are  of  inferior 
magnitude.  The  principal  arc— the  Neva,  which  has 
St.  Petersburg  at  its  mouth,  the  DOna,  and  the  Nle- 
men.    The  rlvera  which  fall  Into  tha  Black  Sea  are  of 


■■  rf 


rr: 


BUS 


1662 


RUS 


•qMl  importance  with  thon  Jnst  named,  and  exceed 
them  in  Irngth  of  course  and  volume  of  water.  Tlie 
principal  Lmnng  thoae  are  the  Dnieater,  Dn!ep<ir,  Bu);, 
Don,  and  Kuban.  The  Volga,  in  the  baain  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  is  the  largest  and  moat  important  of  the  rivers 
of  Russia.  This  extensive  river  has  its  sources  in  the 
government  of  Twer,  about  140  miles  south  by  east 
ftom  St.  Petersbuijg.  Its  course  is  about  1000  leagues, 
while  that  of  the  Danube  is  only  about  460.  It  is  of 
vast  importance  to  the  internal  commeree  of  Russia, 

,  Its  affluenta,  which  are  connected  liy  several  canals 
with  the  Neva,  establish  a  communication  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Baltic,  White,  and  Blacic  seas. 
Two  other  rivers — the  Ural  and  the  Emlia— have  their 
embouchum  in  tke  Caspian  Sea. 

Staple: — The  products  of  Russia  vary  with  the  dif- 
ference of  soil  and  limato.  Cerealsof  every  liind  are 
raised  in  great  al>undance ;  but  rye,  being  the  common 
food  of  the  peasantry,  is  produced  in  much  greater 
quantities  than  any  other  sort  of  grain.  The  most  pro- 
ductive provinces  are  Orel,  Kasan,  M^nl  Novgorod, 
Penza,  Tambov,  and  Kursk.  The  total  annual  produc- 
tion of  grains  in  European  Russia  (including  Poland) 
may  be  estimated  in  ordinary'  years  at  1,496,000,000 
bushels,  at  a  vtlue  of  about  f  720,416,666.  Flax  and 
hemp  are  also  extensively  cultivatod,  and  constitute  a 
leading  export  of  Russia.    Tot>acco  is  cultivated  in 

„  the  southern  provinces,  and  of  lata  years  much  atten- 
tion has  Ijccn  given  to  the  cultivation  of  beet-root.  In 
1848,  the  quantity  of  sugar  manufactured  fh>m  this 
article  was  estimated  at  82,240,000  lbs.  Tallow  and 
wool  are  also  important  articles  in  the  export  trade  of 
Russia ;  of  the  latter,  the  exports  amount  annui^lly  to 
about  18,000,000  lbs.  The  climate  of  Russia  is  not, 
however,  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  fine  wool ; 
and  although  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  breed  of  sheep,  Russia  can  not  enter 
into  competition  with  Auatralia  in  supplying  foreign 
maricets  with  this  article.  The  quantity  of  wool  fur- 
nished by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  colony,  from  1840  to 
1862  inclusive,  was  48,860,748  lbs. ;  furnished  by  Aus- 
tralia in  same  period,  256,006,416  lbs. ;  by  Cape  col- 
ony, iu  1862, 7,772,605  lbs. ;  by  AustralU,  in  1862, 


82,600,000  Ibf. ;  number  of  sheep  in  Cape  colony, 
4,496,000 ;  number  of  goats  in  Cape  colony,  1,098,000 ; 
number  of  sheep  in  Rnssia  in  Europe,  86,666,698 ;  num- 
ber of  goats  in  Russia  in  £uro|)e,  1,188,178. 

Manufacturtt. — The  manufactures  of  Russia  are  not 
generally  in  a  very  advanced  condition.  In  some  de- 
partments of  manufacturing  industry,  however,  Russia 
excels  all  other  countries.  Every  attempt  to  imitate 
her  leather,  especially  such  as  is  used  for  book-binding 
purposes,  has  proved  a  failure  ;  and  Russia  still  con- 
tinues to  enjoy,  as  she  doubtless  ever  will,  an  undis- 
puted monopoly  in  supplying  foreign  markets  with  this 
valuable  production.  Her  glass  manufactures  are  also 
highly  esteemed.  Single  plates  have  been  manufac- 
tured at  the  St.  Petersburg  glass-works  which  have 
readily  sold  for  $8000,  Her  other  manufactures  are 
sail-cloth,  cordage  and  canvas,  tick,  felt,  mats,  pot- 
ashes, soap,  candies,  caviar,  isinglass,  spirits,  and  acme 
minor  articles  for  domestic  consumption.  The  cotton 
manufactures  of  Russia  have  made  rapid  progreas  dur- 
ing the  past  twenty  years ;  and,  instead  of  the  vast 
quantities  of  cotton  yams  formerly  imported,  she  now 
imports  largely  of  the  raw  material.  In  1882  the 
quantity  of  raw  cotton  imported  was  116,000  poods 
(4,176,000  lbs.);  in  1862  it  ascended  to  1,748,000 
poods  ((12,928,000  lbs.),  of  which  she  received  from  the 
United  States  10,476,168  lbs.  The  total  manufactures 
of  Russia  employ  6,064,700  persons,  of  which  number 
4,500,000  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  flax  and 
hemp.  The  total  annual  value  of  Ruaaian  manufac- 
tures is  estimated  at  about  486,000,000  silver  roubles 
($864,600,000).  Moscow  is  the  grand  centre  of  this 
liranch  of  industrial  pursuits,  and  is  inhabited  almost 
exclusively  by  manufacturers  and  artisans. 

The  following  table,  translated  from  Ruaaian  ofHcial 
returns,  will  exhibit  the  number  and  character  of  man- 
ufactories in  Russia,  the  number  of  workmen  employ- 
ed, and  the  quantity  and  value  of  their  productions,  in 
the  }'ear  1862.  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  table 
gives  only  the  principal  manufactures  which  enter  into 
the  export  trade  of  Ruaaia.  Thoae  conaumed  in  the 
countr)',  and  numerous  minor  manufactures,  are  omit- 
ted in  the  following  summary : 


RoBsiAM  MAxnTAOTcan,  no. 


DcoominaUan  of  MaaufacturM. 


Manubcturea  uf  woolens  (cloths) . 

Manufactum  of  woolens  (tiasnn). 

Manufactures    of  cotton    yarns, 

thread,  ulc. 


MaDufacturca  of  cottonades . 
UjretDg  (kctorles 


Factories  for  wesTlng 

Hanufacturea  of  allies  and  bro- 
cades  


Hanufacturea  of  cables . 
Hanufacturea  of  paper  . 


Manufacliirra  of  toboooo. . . 

roonderlcs  and  forges 

MADufactures  of  tiardware . 


Manufactures  of  copper 

Manufact  u  rca  of  chemicals 

Manufactures  of  so^p 

MaDufacturea  of  sugar 

Manufactures  of  glass  and  crystals 


Tallow  factories 

Candle  faotoriea 

Wax-candle  factories 

Tanneries 

Other  manufactures. 

ToUl 

Total  In  18S1 . . 


NumlMr  of 

Fartorias. 


414 
180 
B6 
440 
849 
lU 
t>3!t 

143 

17T 

846 

115 

88) 

14A 
103 
263 
804 
IS  I 

034 

4  8 

16 

3,031 

M48_ 

10,888 


10,1S« 


Qnantitioa  manufaaturad. 


18,440,336  nrchinc.it  and  ISO.OBT  picccH  of  woolen 

riotha  ;  13, 8M  poodnt  uf  woolen  yarn 

6«1,TS}  pieces  and  1,601,014  arcblnes  of  woolen  tis- 
sues :  8800  poods  of  yarn 

1,136,336  poods  of  cotton  thread,  88,160  pieces  and 

85,600  archlnca  of  tlaHucs 

8,TT0,0S0  pieces,  8,764,881  archlnea,  118,317  dosen 

tissues,  and  6330  poods  of  thread 

6,T86,»88  archlnca,  4,411,007  pieces,  33,46  dozen, 

166,936  poods 

876,196  pieces,  170,044  arcblnes,  1U86  dosen  tissues, 

1800  poods  of  thread 

6,303,667  archlncs,  1,370,101  pieces,  8691  dosen  of 

tluues,  888  poods  of  silk  thread 

767,844  poods 

1,888,866  reams,  60,431  poods,  716,134  iheetp,  40,000 

Bsekages  of  paateboard 

183,783  pooilj  of  tobacco,  306,006,866  pieces,  461,(66 

boxes  and  packap>a  of  rl^re  and  clf^nrottas 

6,56S,4i»8  pi>oil»  and  04,274  uiwes  of  cast  Iron,  S39,»37 

iKioda  of  iron,  tnd  88,731  poods  of  steel 

3,633,068  poods,  388,610  plecr.<,  and  6370  arcblnes 

of  Iron  wire : 

183,083  poods  and  1,261,198  pieces 


614,143  poods 

3,41  S,388  poods  of  sugar,  and  148,830  poods  of  alrun 
47,634,3:16  pieces  of  glaas  dislien,  plates,  etc.,  88,018 

eoTcra,  and  160,9w  plates  or  sheets  of  glass 

2, 141 ,868  poods 

1,174,863  poods 

384,6  '3  poods 

4,386,311  piece* 


466,016^ 
*  The  silver  rouble  la  equal  to  T6  esots.         t  The  archlne  Is  equivalent  to  88  Inches.        t  The  pood  Is  equal  to  86  lbs. 


ValuaofManu- 
faclurm  in  Sll- 

Tar  Roublea.* 


1!),139,833 

6,281,467 

16,647,838 

14,208,640 

16,426,834 

8,239  099 

5,673,363 
1,940,043 

8,928,076 

4,687,005 

8,fl:i6,0D9 

8,254,263 
1,800,016 
2,120,463 
1,23!1,133 
19,316,003 

8,887,868 
6,3"6,681 
4,498,484 
1,607,678 
9,134,741 
111,043,661 


161,161,708 


16.),380,B06 


Xumbar  of 
Workman. 


86,443 

13,806 

30,976 

81,451 

25,867 

13,450 

16,(183 
3,403 

14,!>43 

4,-;«i 

37,879 

1.1.M3 

4,266 

3,613 

164 

45,711 

11,680 
4511 
8,003 
1,304 
14,565 
51,774 


470.1111 


RUS 


1663 


RUS 


86,443  I 
13,808  I 
80,9Tfl  I 
81,481  ] 
46,881  I 
W,480  I 

15,(189 

3,408  I 

14,P4«  I 
4,-".61 
ST,8T0 


13.MJ 
4,!!ti5 
2,6W 
tA4  I 

45,111  I 

11,680  I 

4,8U 

2,003 

1,464 

51,114 

TSoioiS] 
kitoseita. 


The  Urge  mtnufactnring  eatablinhmtnU  in  located 
in  the  government  of  Moscow.  The  1244  factories  of 
this  government  give  employment  to  114,623  work- 
men, the  annual  value  of  whose  productions  nma"ntii 
to  188,146,606.  In  the  government  of  St.  Petersburg 
there  are  477  fiictories,  employing  24,631  workmen ; 
annual  value  of  productions,  $24,723,666.  Befora  the 
commencement  of  the  late  Kuropean  war,  the  foreign 
commerce  of  this  vast  empire  was  very  extensive. 
In  lHr)2  the  imports  reached  the  sum  of  114,773,829 
silver  roubles,  and  the  exports  amounted  to  100,8(i4,052 
stiver  roubles.  This  trade  gave  employment  to  17,162 
vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  1,669,200  lasts.* 
Previous  to  the  war,  the  exports  of  Russia  iVom  the 
porta  of  the  Black.  Sea  alone  amounted  to  80,000,000 
bushels  of  grain  annually.  There  is  no  ofBcial  or  re- 
lUble  information  at  hand  which  would  indicate  the 
diminution  which  Russian  trade  has  experienced  from 
the  blockading  measures  of  the  allle<l  powers.  It  is 
certain  that  not  half  the  usut  >  quimtlty  of  hemp,  flax, 
and  tallow  can  pass  from  tu.  '..'rritories  of  Russia, 
There  is  at  all  times  >  considerable  overland  trade 
across  Prussia,  but  the  heavy  expenses  attending  the 
transportation  of  merchandise  over  this  route  must  nec- 
essarily contine  its  consumption  to  the  wealthier  classes. 
The  value  of  coffee,  salt,  sugar,  etc.,  has  been  augment- 
ed to  the  most  exorbitant  figure ;  and  these  enhanced 
prices,  with  the  expenses  of  land  transportation  super- 
added, must,.in  the  event  of  prolonged  hostilities,  f  drive 
these  articles  out  of  general  use  altogether.  These  are, 
however,  but  the  unavoidable  eHiects  of  war;  and  as 
the  philanthropist  must  hope  that  peace  shall  soon  re- 
turn, find  the  channels  of  commerce  be  again  reopened, 
so  the  commercial  statistician  must  regard  these  inter- 
ruptions to  the  peaceful  trade  of  the  world  as  but  tem- 
porar}'  and  unfixed,  and  treat  only  of  the  permanent 
commercial  regulations,  and  relations  with  foreign  na- 
tions, of  such  countries  as  may  come  within  tlio  scope 
of  his  official  duties.  The  commercial  relations  of  the 
United  States  with  Russia  are  regulated  by  the  treaty 
of  October  6  [18],  1832.  Its  stipulations  provide  for 
entire  reciprocity  and  perfect  coramereial  equality  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  It  has  been  observed  in  good 
faith  by  both  government^  and  its  provisions  and  spirit 
faithfully  adhered  to.  The  principal  articles  of  export 
from  Russia  are  tallow,  grain,  hemp,  and  flax ;  timber ; 
potashes ;  leather ;  fox,  hare,  and  squirrel  skins ;  can- 
vas and  coarse  linen ;  cordage,  caviare,  wax,  isinglass, 
furs,  tar,  etc.  The  principal  imports  are  sugar,  cot- 
ton, cotton  stuffs  and  yams ;  machinery-  for  mills,  fac- 
tories, etc. ;  hardwares  and  iron ;  coff^ee,  indigo,  and 
other  dye-stuffs ;  woolens,  oils,  spices,  wine,  tea,  lead, 
tin,  coal,  and  salt ;  linens,  silks,  etc.  The  principal 
ports  for  foreign  commerce  are  St.  Petersburg  and 
Riga,  on  the  Baltic ;  Archangel,  on  the  White  Sea ; 
Ketch  and  Taganrog,  on  the  Sea  of  Azof;  and  Astra- 
khan and  Baku,  on  the  Caspian.  The  interior  commerce 
of  the  empire  has  its  principal  entrepot  at  Moscow ;  and 
Klachta  is  the  centre  of  the  trude  with  China.  This 
trade  with  China  Is  strictly  one  of  barter.  The  inter- 
change takes  place  at  the  town  named  above,  lying  on 
the  Salenga,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  great  lake 
Baikal.  The  Russian  merchandise  and  wares  are  here 
deposited  in  warehouses,  which  are  visited  by  the  Chi- 
nese merehants,  with  whom  the  Interchange  is  effected. 
None  (says  KIcCulloch,  In  a  work  published  in  1854) 
but  native  Russians  ore  allowed  to  engage  in  the  in- 
ternal trade  of  the  countrj' ;  and  hence  a  foreigner  who 
bnports  goods  into  Russia  must  sell  them  to  Russians 
only,  and  at  the  port  where  they  arrive.  The  mer- 
chants engagiid  in  the  foreign  trade  are  mostly  for- 
eigners, of  whom  the  English  are  the  principal.  Every 
Russian  carrj'ing  on  trade  must  be  a  burgher,  and  have 
his  name  registered  in  the  Burghers'  Book.     These 

*  The  last  Is  about  two  tons. 

t  Whilo  this  rc|iart  was  In  pms  the  reiuUof  the  conferences 
at  I^irls  was  ofHcialljr  proclaimed. 


burghers  are  divided  into  three  guilds.  Foreign  mer- 
chants or  guests  are  permitted  to  enroll  their  names  in 
the  city  register,  on  the  payment  of  from  $900  to  $950 
|ier  annum.  The  Jounml  of  the  Mannfaclunt  o/tht 
Junrire,  1846,  publisheil  in  Rujsla,  gives  the  following 
information  relative  to  these  guilds : 

Knmbcr  of  mcrclisnts  of  tho  lat  giilld 


8d 


"      of  foreign  merohtnti . 

Total 

Burghcn  poueaalng  llcsnaei,  lit  clui . 
"  "  "       2d     "    . 

"  "  "       Sd     "   . 

"  '•  »       4th    "  . 

Totri 

General  total  of  thono  engaged  In  trade 4i|tii5 

Declared  capital  of  those  engaged  in  commerce :    < 

Flnit  guild $11,815,000 

Second  g\iild 10,413,500 

Third  guild 86,611,800 

Declared  caplul  of  foreign  merchants  . .         39'2.500 

Total  capital  invcated  In  trade $81,04S,Siio 

In  tho  whole  of  European  Russia  about  7,000,000 
tchetwerts  of  grain  are  employed  In  the  distillation  of 
64,000,000  vedros  (208,000,000  imperial  gallons)  of 
brandy,  nearly  all  for  home  consumption. 

The  tariff  regulations  of  Russia  have  during  the  past 
few  years  undergone  several  modifications.  Under 
the  tariff  of  1841,  the  duties  on  most  kinds  of  manufac- 
tures were  equivalent  to  a  prohibition.  This  tariff  was 
entirely  remodeled  in  1850 ;  and  in  June,  ISM,  vari- 
ous other  alterations  and  changes  were  made,  ^^ducing 
still  lower  the  duties  prescribed  by  the  tariff  of  1860. 
These  alterations  and  reductions  are  given  down  to  the 
23d  June,  1854,  the  date  of  the  last  change  '.n  the  Rus- 
sian tarilf;  for  which  see  Tariffs  of  Northern  Europe, 
"  Russia,"  Part  II.  Prior  to  the  year  1850,  there  was 
a  separate  tariff  for  Poland ;  but  the  imperial  ukase, 
promulgating  the  tariff  of  1850,  observes,  in  reference 
to  this  kingdom:  "  In  our  constant  solicitude  for  the 
promotion  of  commerce  and  industry',  we  have  judged 
it  expedient,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  the  interior,  as 
well  OS  the  exterior,  relations  between  our  faithful  sub- 
jects of  tho  empire  of  Russia  and  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land, to  establish  a  uniform  tariff  of  customs  applicable 
to  the  empire  and  kingdom  alike,  and  to  suppress  the 
customs-line  which  has  heretofore  separated  them." 
The  only  other  separate  tariff  now  in  force  in  Russia 
is  that  which  applies  to  the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea. 
For  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  subsequent  tables, 
giving  the  commercial  movements  of  Russia  for  later 
periods,  the  following  table  is  annexed,  exhibiting  the 
total  commerce  of  the  empire  with  foreign  countries, 
by  land  and  sea,  from  1832  to  1842,  both  inclusive : 


1S34., 
1833. , 
1534. , 
1835., 
1836.. 
1831.. 
1S38.. 
1S31., 
1840. , 
1S41., 
1844.. 


Import!. 


EtportB. 


l>>Rnri. 
110,387,IK)0 
211,!1 84,01  K) 
240,044,IKK) 
445,51-3,000 
461,8111,000 
471,0«2,(H)0 
273,2'KI,0U0 
414,315,000 
300,160,000 
317,118,000 
338,000,000 


Krftnpi. 
2K5,0. '4,000 
40.^,  153,000 
243,4!I1,(K)0 
43 1.140,000 
304,003,000 
23(l,8!S5,0fll( 
3:i0,O18,000 
811.843,000 
344.301,000 
34.'>,.'>4.l,O0O 
331,IKIfl,O00 


Toul. 


Vtnan. 
446,1181,000 
411,131,000 
483.445,000 

4sn,ijAi,nflo 

565,894,000 
M7,!17,000 
on  l,21S,00« 
646,418,000 
645,013,000 
663,241,000 
661,0110,000 


If  to  the  total  for  1841  we  add  for  specie  imported, 
and  the  commerce  of  Poland  and  Finland,  neither  of 
which  is  included  in  the  above  table— aljout  100,000,000 
francs  in  all  — we  shall  have  for  that  year  a  general 
total  of  neariy  760,000,000  of  francs,  or  $141,360,000. 
A  comparison  of  the  Russian  official  reports  from 
1832-'33  (annual  average)  to  1842,  as  above  condensed, 
shows  that  the  general  commerce  of  Russia  has  in- 
creased ;  viz.,  Importa  46  per  cent.,  exports  22  per  cent. 

PrtlnM. 

Revenue  from  customs  and  other  sources  In  issi.  l'*,000,000 
11  it  »»  »*  1840,  100,440,000 

II  11  I.  II  1S41,  103,ti60,0«0 


t-:-^,  I-.-, 


RUS 


1654 


RUS 


..;,  Tha  amonnts  derived  firom  the  diffennt  branches  of 
cnitonu  in  1841  were, 

Dutiea  from  cuitoni-hoiue  ,...,,  100,173,000  franca. 

"         entrenAta 6.14,000      >» 

■>■■     ExdM  on  a»lt  Id  the  Orlmaa . . . ,         600,000     » 

■..,    Otbcrdatlat 6,184,000      " 

ToUl 10U,6&U,0«0      ". 


An  Mulyib  of  the  foregoing  flgnre*  will  ihov  that 
the  duties  amount  to  about  88)-  per  cent,  on  the  total 
value  of  imports.  The  following  table  exhibit*  the 
total  value  of  products  exported  from  Russia  in  Eunn 
pean  commerce  from  1841  to  1850,  and  the  share  as- 
signed to  each  country : 


Ytan. 

1841 

1842 

1848 

1844 

1845...... 

Annial  ValM. 

Sllnr  Roublaa. 
74,817,000 
72,263,000 
71,209,000 
80,616,000 
78,802;000 

Far  Laul. 

Yaan. 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1800 

Annunl  Valaa. 

SilvarRoubln. 
8S,8:i8,00(» 
84,112,000 
7S,:i88,000 
83,184,000 
83,381,000 

Pnportleii  to  aaeh 

Comtrf. 

pC.ic»t. 

....     *t 

To  France 

...      S 

To  France 

To  PriiBsia 

6 

To  Priiflula 

'     ■  6 

To  Turkey. 

To  Holland 

To  Italy 

...     6 
..      6 
..      5 

To  Turkey ; . 

To  Holland 

To  United  SUtea. . 
To  other  countriea. 

'.'.'.'.'  38 

To  other  countries. . , 

..    21 

The  following  table  exhibits  in  detail  the  principal 
foreign  merchandise  entering  into  the  import  trade  of 
Russia,  and  also  the  valu»  or  quantities  imported,  in 
the  years  1849, 1850,  and  1861 : 


naaaripUoa  1  Manhaodtn. 

ma. 

1»M). 

■8tl. 

Cofhe poods 

261,147 

185,186 

998,803 

Bawiusar " 

OHveoiT. " 

8,088,268 

1,079,231 

1,829,877 

656,809 

648,009 

676,180 

WInci  and  other  liquors. 

value  In......  foublaa 

7,816,6M 

8,090,986 

7,0)111,636 

Fruits " 

8,462,541 
1,554,919 

8,013,198 
1,200,738 

8,046,118 
1,812,356 

Cotton,  raw  ... .  pooda 

Cotton,  white  spun  " 

27»,108 

168,8118 

188,(166 

Dye4tufb ronblea 

8Uk pooda 

5,421,509 

^458,177 

6,806,944 

16,894 

15,518 

11,631 

Wool " 

56,344 

67,390 

67,443 

Of  cotton...  mublea 

4,443,349 

S,8*!),615 

4,486,831 

Ofallk " 

4,448.1157 

4,258,187 

4,466,211 

Offlax " 

579,041 

537,»1!6 

962,048 

Of  wool....      " 

8,2i>1.0SS 

l,!))»,7fl6 

1,738,894 

Machinery,  etc..      " 

2.567,27 ' 

8.674,8(15 

2,886,116 

The  augmentation  which  tlie  official  returns  of  Rus- 
sia exhibit  in  cottons,  dye-stuffs,  wool,  machinery,  and 
tools,  evinces  the  progressive  condition  of  Russian  man- 
ufactures. It  has  already  been  shown  that  in  1882  the 
quantity  of  raw  cotton  imported  into  Russia  was  only 
116,000  poods ;  in  1851  it  reached  1,812,866  poods ;  and 
in  1852  it  ascended  to  1,748,000  poods  of  86  lbs.  each. 
In  1845  the  importation  of  cotton  yams  (chiefly  from 
England)  reached  606,046  poods ;  in  1851  this  amount 
fell  to  138,065  poods,  making  a  difference  of  467,080 
poods,  or  16,847,280  lbs.  The  activity  and  progress 
of  the  cotton  manufactures  of  Russia  explain  this  great 
falling  off  in  the'  quantity  of  cotton  yams  imported,  as 
the  annual  diminution  of  the  latter  will  be  found  to  be 
proportionate  to  the  annoal  augmentation  In  the  quan- 
tity of  the  former.  An  analysis  of  the  returns  of  trade 
between  Russia  and  the  United  States  will  also  show  an 
increase  in  the  quantities  of  raw  cotton  imported  by  the 
former,  corresponding  with  the  diminished  importation 
of  cotton  yams ;  our  raw  cotton  supplying  to  a  great 
extent  the  different  factories  in  Russia.  The  follow- 
ing table,  compiled  from  the  United  States  official  au- 
thorities, exhibits  the  quantities  and  value  of  this  staple 
exported  to  Russia  direct  from  the  United  States : 


1                 Vaan. 

Cottott  aiportad  to  Riuala 
from  tfuilad  BUtaa. 

ValM. 

1844 

1850 

1861 

3,767,766  Iba. 

4,338,705    " 
10,098,448    " 
10,475,169    " 
21,286,508    " 

2,!)M.!'64    " 
448,817    " 

«241.454 
5«>J28 

1,91»7,164 
962,846 

8,254,845 
<<01,898 
48,647 

1853 

1853 

1854' 

1866 

*  The  war  waa  formally  declared  March  81, 1854. 
The  diminished  quantity  exported  to  Russia  in  1854 
shows  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  direct  trade  between 
the  two  countries.  This,  however,  can  be  more  fUlly 
shown  by  the  follovring  comparative  tablo,  exhibiting 
the  general  trade  between  the  two  countries  in  1858, 
1854,  and  1855: 
Total  Valck  or  Pomiistio  rsoncos  xxroHnD  noM  thi 

I'mnU  ^TATfll  TO  RrssiA. 

tnlS63 $8,818,175 

„,,        Inl854 886,521 

;;.'   inisw 4s,9«) 


Cotton  absort)ed  $48,647  of  this  last  sum.  Besides 
the  domestic  produce  exported  to  Russk  in  1866,  there 
was  also  exported  foreign  produce  to  the  arootint  of 
$20,414. 

In  1864,  exports  to  Russia  fVom  the  United  States 
consisted  principally  of  two  articles :  Rice,  $21,728  in 
value;  and  cotton,  $301,298. 

In  1868  we  sent — Spermaceti  oil,  $7160 ;  Inmber, 
$1485 ;  dye-stuffs,  $6648 ;  hams  and  bacon,  $441 ;  ship- 
bread,  $3268 ;  rice,  $5564 ;  cotton,  $2,254,846 ;  tobacco, 
leaf,  $14,109;  tobacco,  manufactured,  $1164;  sundries, 
$18,991 ;  total,  $2,818,176. 

We  here  give  the  export  trade  of  Russia  for  the 
yean  1850  and  1851.  The  table  includes  onb'  the 
principal  articles  exported,  which  are  usually  £nom- 
inated  Russian  staples : 

Extorts  or  raiNciPAL  Btapt.ks  noM  Rtssia  in  1860  amd 
1851 


('om 

Red  hides 

Haw  hides 

Flax 

Hemp 

Timber 

Copper 

Iron 

Potaah 

Tallow 

Hemp  and  Unaeed. 

Wool 

Ilrlstlca 


.silver  roubles. 


pooda. 
II 

roubles, 
pooda. 


tehetwerta.* 
poods. 


IBM. 


19,2(17,188 

1,062,829 

1,056,526 

4,8117,618 

2,723,983 

2,797,576 

114,976 

757,!  56 

477,898 

8,813,878 

1,065,178 

617,063 

88,358 


TJiT 


19,393,2« 

1,288,121 

888,698 

3,018,781) 

3,042,422 

3,619,263 

110,906 

7l'S,«54 

m,S!m 

8,91'8,43<f 
(163,784 
479,074 
74,075 


The  exporta  from  Poland  are  not  inclnded  In  the  above  la 
bic. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Russia,  though  interroptod  in 
its  usual  course  in  1854  by  the  war,  still  exhibits  con- 
siderable importance,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  sum- 
mat}'  of  official  retams : 

TOTAl  ExrORTS. 

To  Gnropo  from  Rnula  proper $38,066,623 

"  fromPoland 7,n84,6i'4 

ToAala 7,431,014 

To  FiuUnd 1,431,021 

Total $4'J,0O3,'itt2 

Export  or  Coin  (Oolv  and  Bilvkr)  in  16&4.t 

To  Europe  from  llnmla  proper $6,448,434 

"         from  I'aUnd 041,413 

ToAala 3,288.525 

ToUl $9,378,372 

Total  Imports. 
From  Europe  Into  Russia  proper $88,679,902 

"  IntoPoland 7,li)8,m6 

FromAsIa : 11,701,811 

From  Finland 248.611 

ToUl $52,768,9W 

Imports  op  Coin  (fJoi.n  and  Silvxr)  prom  aiiroad. 

From  Europe  Into  Russia $4,441,001 

"         iotoPoland ar'"'- 

From  Asia 


212,070 
72,8.'M 


Total $4,786,014 

Trade  with  /ViiAMif.— The  exports  of  merchandise  to 

•  Tchelwort— nearly  six  buohelii. 

t  A  supreme  ukase  of  Fohrnary  27,  1864,  prohibited  the 
exportation  of  gold  coin.  SIIvlt  coin  hau  been  exported  only 
by  shlp.maaters,  carriers,  and  paasesgcra,  la  the  quaatitUa 
ailowea  by  law, 


■) 


ruptod  in 
blblU  con- 
iring  sum- 


LimoAP. 

■■214,070 
1  T2,8ft8 

pieiou 

landlseta 

Ihffiltea  tho 
ported  only 


BUS 


1655 


RUS 


FInlMd  Mnounttd  to  $1,481,032;  the  imports  ftom 
Ihtno*  »mount«l  to  •248,601. 

Th*  trwla  bovond  tha  Cbucmm,  in  1854,  wu 
eonllBtd  to  HtrtM.  Ttia  total  importa  amounted  to 
$»,m,Wii\  aStMlti,  $878,807 1  toUl  trans-Caucoaian 

tnwU,  $i>,ott4,a&a. 

Thi  valm  of  Koedt  Impottad  at  tha  port  of  Astra- 
Mun  wa*  $784,741 1  of  whlolt  raw  cotton  amounted  to 
188,U8  atlvar  roublaa,  or  $108,688. 

Tha  tntiil  trailn  on  tha  ftmittera  of  Orenburg  and  Si- 
berik,  in  18M,  amountad  to )  Importa,  $8,890,571 ;  ex- 
port*, $3,41  &,S70|  total,  $6,806,841. 

Tnul*  <tfKiath(a.*—'ivUl  nwiunt  of  goods  taken  by 
tht  ChiMM,  $4,880,104;  baing  woolens,  $1,875,875; 
cottoni,  $1,145,630;  linen  goods,  $110,991;  jewelry 
(gold  and  slWar),  $74S,tM6;  fnrs,  $185,097;  dressed 
(kins,  and  rwl  Uathar,  $73,880 ;  miscellaneous, 
$384,830. 

Ii%f0%n  or  Wool.  noM  Kvsbia. 

Poodi. 
From  IMK)  U>  Wi,  svxrsgis  annual  exportation,  1'>,B13 
"    |ftl4t(>1«8,        "  "  "  85,173 

"    lM4t<il"t»l,       "  "  "  lll,M« 

"    1*114  to  tH8T,        "  "  "  3011,100 

"    ISiWIiilMl,        "  "  "  876,6% 

In  1141,  avitraga  anniwl  exportation 416,181 

In  J846,        "  "  "         793,888 

Int«4:i,        "  •'  "         6ill,638 

InWftO,        »  »  "         61T,«63 

M.  da  Tegobonkl  givat  tha  following  account  of  the 
•sports  of  nax  and  hamp  from  Russia  from  1822  down- 
ward; 


In  1848  the  entire  commerce  of  Rnssia  with  Asia  la 
thus  summed  up  in  official  returns : 

Exporta H,  144,800  gllver  rouble*. 

Importa 13,471,760  " 

ToUl $2'A8I6,!'80  " 

If  to  the  above  we  add  the  European  commerce  of 
Russia,  we  shall  have  for  that  year  nearly  710,000,000 
francs,  or  $132,060,000. 

The  general  navigation  of  Russia,  for  a  series  of 
years,  is  found  in  official  ntums,  aa  follows : 

VmmU  vtesrad. 


Tomot 


VmmU  cnttrvd. 


KMJ.  IKM  !   lUT    I  IMS. 


Itsltic  Sea 

While  Sea 

Black  and  Azof 

Sea» 

Cuplua  Sea  . . . 

Total 

Laden 

In  ballaat. . . . 


I  '87  3766 
673.  801 


9346 
181 


2443 
116 


6926 


3037 
2889 


7126 
2>30 
4196 


6,231  30.l2i29lt0 
—    330   689 


4,201 
110 


11,360 


8,1103 
8.31)3 


2S18  2222 

16l|  140 

0401  n04d 


3O106S12 
33illl  128 


37:K) 
807 

2412 

184 
7213 


7II2S 
18! 


6,241 

822 

4,281 

130 


11  4i4 


10,l"6S 
4^11 


3028 
82T 

2685 
ll» 


64S6 
711 


Entoixd  Aicn  C'LEAaXD. 


llltt.-18M 
1i»T-lH»l 
lasMRM 
IIST-IMI 
IMI-IMS 
l»4T-l«B0 


«f  (nur  V>>n, 
1,1100,041 
II.MIO.IITH 
a,4IIVKN 
II,I»»,»'IT 
n,<l«»,TM 
4,«1«,TA5 


lltmp  Bod  t'odllli 
(if  llatiip^ 


l*<wd».— Av«ra,(e 
of  fnuf  Yvnn, 
2,1188,078 
1,620,005 
8,066,420 
0,860,817 
1,«0S,41A 
9,8111,781 


TgUI  of  riai  a 
Hemp. 


PwiiIh.— Av«rage 
of  fnur  Venn, 

4,845,314 
6,060,073 
5,606,342 
0,386,324 
6,466,175 
7,430,636 


Tha  total  cuitom-hous*  wtcetpts  at  Kiachta  were 
$2jl46,778. 

Total  tonnaga  at  the  different  ports  In  1854 :  enter- 
ad,  326,774  lasts;  cleareil,  208,477. 

Tba  ainouiita  of  duties  in  1854  were  as  follows : 

Oh  Inporta  anil  nxttorla,  and  tannage  duties  $18,831,621 

Uutlaa  fur  Iwiioflt  or  various  cities 202,628 

Kxeia*  on  Crlmnan  salt 200,476 

For  brldKu  on  thn  Nova 106,823 

Wareboumi  and  atoraRe  duties 146,648 

For  the  UdMaa  LxMum 17,369 

Total $14,664,465 

In  tha  klngilom  of  Poland  the  custom-house  receipts 
amountad  to  $l)l):i,U78. 

Tba  AsUtlu  commarce  of  Russia  centres  at  three 
principal  point*.  Kiachta,  at  which  |)liica  the  opera' 
tions  with  ('hinit  are  conducted.  Is  tlio  most  important 
of  these,  dmalderahle  trade  Is  also  prosecuted  with 
the  Tartars  In  Central  Asia.  Astrakhan,  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  Is  the  «ittr«|iAt  fur  this  trade.  The  land  route  is 
ttom  Astrakhan,  through  a  liurron  and  desert  country, 
to  Khiva.  Htaam  viissels  are  now  established  between 
Novgorod,  Astrakhan,  the  Caucasian  provinces,  and 
Persia, 

In  18M  a  steam  navigation  company  was  organized 
at  Astrakhan  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  regular  steam 
communication  lietwaen  the  \wrt»  of  tlie  Ca8|)i9n  Sea. 
Up  to  18S3  there  were  hut  n  few  small  government 
steamers  einplnyad  on  the  waters  of  the  Caspian.  Tiie 
•tesmers  of  this  new  company  will  offer  abundant  fa- 
cilities far  coninieroiol  luuvemnnts.  Not  being  obliged 
to  winter  at  Aatrakhan,  they  can  Im  kept  afloat  the  en- 
tin  year,  ^ind  thus  maintain  regular  communications, 
not  only  with  the  trans-l  Caucasian  ports  of  Russia  and 
the  eastern  purts  of  the  Caspian,  but  also  with  the 
Perehm  coMt. 


'  TM«  trade  Is  exvlualviily  a  trade  of  barter  with  the  chl 


Veeacla  entered . 
Vesseli  cleared . 
Total 


Tonnage  entered. . . 

Tonnage  cleared , . . 

Total 


1«4S 


6,020 

5,942 

11,866 

867,702 
672,'.!  11 


1,140,613 


11M. 


7,128 
7,213 


14,338 

654,236 
_072,SM 
1,837,1110 


11,306 
11,4'.>4 


22,7.  0 

068,034 

09  l,2S4 


6,19T 


12,598 

001,640 
589,997 


1,967,313|1,250,53I 


The  preceding  flgures  demonstrate  the  increasing 
activity  of  Russian  maritime  commerce.  It  is  proper 
to  observe,  however,  that  the  years  of  1846  and  1847 
are  exceptional,  as  the  commerce  of  these  years  was 
simulated  by  circumstances  which  were,  happily,  of  » 
transient  character ;  and  they  can  not,  therefore,  form 
a  basis  for  legitimate  comparison.  The  movements  in 
grain  alone,  in  1847,  augmented  Russian  exports  up- 
ward of  640,000  tons,  equivalent  to  an  Increase  of  50 
percent 

COMMraCIAL  SmPFINO. 


Baltic  porta 

White  Sea  ports  . . 
Houthcm  |K)rta..,. 

Caspian  porta 

Total 

Of  which 

With  goods 

In  ballast 


The  tonnage  of,  ,  , 
the  wTiole^  1"^ 
amounted  to)  """ 


Sblpi  arrivfli 


18S0. 


3,423 
64T 

2,5 '0 
220 


0,780 

3,659 
3,121 


626,373 
l,2.')3,-40 


IMI.        I        Itbl). 


3,7ii0 
721 

2,595 
227 


7,323 

8,253 
4070 


3,U6 
Ml 

2,490 
235 


6,301 

6,433 
369 


57!>,396     576,077 
1,158,7U2  1,182,154 


3,781 
668 

2,599 
305 


7,342 

6,821 
521 


576.: 
1,15i,678 


The  greatest  number  of  ships  were  English  and  Rus^ 
sian,  vU. :  of  the  former  there  arrived  1875 ;  and  of  the 
latter,  1019.  Of  ships  arrived  under  other  flags  were, 
Turkish,  978;  Dutch,  58G;  Greek,  444;  Swedish,  866; 
Slecklenburg,  329 ;  Russian,  299 ;  Danish,  223 ;  Sar- 
dinian, 210 ;  Austrian,  191 ;  and  of  other  nations,  803. 

These  arrivals  and  departures  were  thus  distributed 
ml852: 


Potto  of 

ArrlTWl. 

Cleareil. 

3627 

827 

8929 

273 

3507 
S45 

a999 
206 

8507 

The  UUck  aud  Asof  Scu 

Total 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  national  character 
of  the  vessels  arrived : 


NaUonalil;. 

No.  of 

Viwli. 

NatloaaUtr. 

No.  of 

Veueb. 
383 
a'J) 
861 
291 
263 
18« 
433 

2020 
1125 
1072 
060 
613 
470 
453 

Anntrla 

ITiixnla 

Denmark 

Mecklenburg 

Sweden 

Sardinia 

(Jther  countrlea... 

■-W*J, 


RU8 


1656 


RUS 


KnoMt  AMD  iMTCsn  IM  1854,— (rotiM  in  Silver  Rmbla.) 


Kipevto.        1        Impom.        { 

Bf  the  Europwn  fraotier  of 

■ablM  d'Arx 

44,0TS,«T 

lt,4M,lBS 

e,IW6,018 

1,008,028 

6B,BST,6S1 

RubiM  d'An. 
M,«0e,B3S 
9,fil8,6B9 
16,«01,8«7 
831,861 
T0,868,g08 

Tha  kingdom  of  IH>Und  .... 

TiMfronUenofAih 

tlnhnd 

Natioation  ioi  1854. 


Poriiif 

Via 

■all. 

Alilnd. 

Dtpiited. 

t*i«Il,Ilic 

4TS 
<85 
1188 

181 

4to 

T4T 
140> 
111 

Th«  White  Bn 

ThaBlaek  Bm 

Tha  CupUn  8<* 

ToUI 

«523 

«8SU 

Sleam  Navigation. — ^Tbe  steam  navigation  of  Kuuia 
has  largely  tncreaacd  since  ISfiO.  In  that  year  there 
vtalted  the  port  of  Cronstadt  82  steamers,  viz. ;  From 
London,  8;  Hull,  18;  Dunkirk,?;  LObeck,  26;  Stet- 
tln,34;  Kiel,  2;  Havre,  2;  Total,  82.  Two  steamers 
maintain  a  regular  communication  between  Biga,  Hull, 
and  Stettin,  making  monthly,  sometimes  semi-month- 
ly, tripe.  The  frigate-built  steamers  the  Odtua,  the 
Crimea,  and  the  Meua  and  Xherton,  make  annually 
88  tripe  between  Odessa  and  Constantinople,  and  the 
steamer  Peter  the  Great  19  between  Odessa  and  G»- 
lati.  Begular  communication  is  also  kept  up  be- 
tween St.  Peteisbuig  and  the  ports  of  Finland  and 
of  the  Baltic ;  also  brtween  Odessa,  Kherson,  Nico- 
Ulef,  and  other  ports  in  the  south  of  Bussia.  These 
steamers  usually  make  104  voyages  yearly.  Two 
steamers  connect  the  ports  of  the  Sea  of  Azof;  and 
eoumunication  lietween  the  porta  of  Bussia  and  those 
of  Persia  is  legnlariy  maintained  by  national  steamers. 
Hm  prospectus  of  the  new  Bussian  Steam  Navigation 
and  TraiBc  Company,  the  statutes  of  which  received 
the  emperor's  sanction  on  the  8d  of  August,  is  publish- 
ed very  conspicuously  in  the  Journal  de  St.  Pettnburg. 
This  company,  wUch,  by  the  extent  of  ita  resources, 
•nd  by  ita  importance  to  "the  regeneration  of  the  in- 
ternal and  foreign  trade  of  Southern  Russia,"  is  re- 
oaidsd  as  one  likely  to  take  rank  above  all  other  exist- 
ing Russian  companies,  will  have  a  capital  of  six  mill- 
kms  of  roubles  to  begin  with,  divided  into  20,000  shares 
of  800  roubles  each.  At  a  future  period  this  capital 
■My  be  raiM  to  nine  millions,  by  the  creation  of  10,000 
BOW  shares,  if  agreed  to  by  a  general  meeting  of  share- 
holders. By  the  26th  statute  of  the  company,  none 
twt  Russian  snbjecta  are  capable  of  holding  shares,  the 
bws  of  the  empire  prohibiting  any  foreigners  ftx>m 
taking  part  in  the  coasting  trade  between  the  Sea 
of  Azof  and  the  Russian  Black  Sea  ports,  which  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  company's  undertaking.  Like 
the  Russian  American  Company,  it  is  to  lie  placed  un- 
der the  special  protection  of  the  imperial  government. 
The  objecto  of  ita  establishment  are  defined  as  being 
"  the  development  of  the  trade  of  Southern  Russia, 
snd  of  the  commercial  as  well  as  the  postal  communi- 
cations by  steamboats  between  that  part  of  the  empire 
■ad  foreign  countries." 

The  company  is  Iwund  to  keep  up  certain  lines  of 
communication.  Between  Odessa  and  Constantinople, 
Athos,  Smyrna,  Rhodes,  Beyront,  Jaffa,  and  Alexan- 
dria, ita  steamlraats  are  to  ply  three  times  a  month,  as 
well  as  between  Odessa,  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  the  Cir- 
cassian coast.  If  it  should  be  deemed  ad\i8able,  boata 
fh>m  Odessa  may  touch  at  the  porta  of  the  Crimea,  and 
abo  at  those  of  the  Anatolian  coast,  before  proceeding 
to  Constantinople,  or  a  line  may  be  established  from 
Odessa,  taking  in  Galatz  and  the  ports  of  the  Princi- 
palities, and  ending  at  Constantinople. 

The  company  are  bound,  moreover,  to  provide  for 
eighteen  voyages  in  the  year  from  Odessa  to  Trieste, 
calling  at  Constantinople,  SjTia,  the  Ionian  Isles,  and 
Ancona,  as  well  as  for  eighteen  voyages  in  the  year 
fh>m  Odessa  to  Marseilles,  stopping  at  Constantinople, 
Mm  Plrssus,  Messina,  Naples,  Leghorn,  and  Genoa. 


The  government  will  cede  to  the  company,  at  •  prico 
to  be  fixed  by  valuation,  all  the  steamboats  belonging 
to  the  department  which  has  conducted  hitherto  the 
postal  and  commercial  intercourse  between  the  diflhr^ 
ent  porta  of  New  Russia,  together  with  the  wharves, 
warehouses,  and  stores  belonging  to  that  department. 

The  company  Is  to  be  aided  by  the  government  with 
a  subvention,  calculated  at  so  much  per  mile,  allowed 
upon  the  voyage  actually  made  by  the  company's  ves- 
sels.  This  allowance  during  the  first  ten  yeara  will 
be  at  the  rate  of  (  roubles  22  kopecks  for  the  Levant 
voyages,  8  roubles  49|  kopecks  for  the  Marseilles,  and 
4  roubles  7i  kopecks  for  the  Trieste  voyages ;  the  al- 
lowance for  the  Black  Sea  trips  will  be  somewhat 
lower.  After  the  first  ten  years  the  subsidy  will  de- 
crease regularly  hi  each  year.  Above  this  mileage, 
an  annual  grant  of  64,000  roubles  is  secured  during 
twenty  years.  The  establishment  of  regular  steam 
packets  on  the  Black  Sea  has  contributed  to  make  As- 
trakhan a  place  of  considerable  importance  to  Russian 
commerce. 

ComnaoB  or  Rdssia  in  1665. 


COOOUiN. 


Sweden  

Norwaj 

Pruisls  

Danmsrk  and  Bound. 

Usnw  Towns < 

Netherluids 

Belgtum 

England 

Fmnoa 

Fortugal , 

Spain 

Sardinian  States 

Tuscany 

TwoBlclllei 

AuiMa 

Greece , 

Turkey 

North  America , 

Other  countries 

Finland 

Frontiers  of  Alia 


Total  silver  rnnliler,  ISSK 
ToUlfranef,185S...., 


Importo. 


Sllrar  RoublM. 

184,1116 

TS,S8I 

4a,SS0,424 

41,368 

S76,80S 

1S4,SM 

97,878 

986,099 

988,329 

S1),84T 

8S,163 

9,620 

'iym 

7,223,147 

19,718 

2,064,7119 

14^004 

7U3,1(I3 

271,944 

16,264,501 


72,6»t),83l 
232,709,624 


Biporti. 


SUnr  RoihlH. 

107,008 

100,407 

18,088,910 

119,011 

8S0,1IS« 

122,789 

699 

118,687 

44,963 

176 


8,896 

70 

«,8<7,692 

264,895 

851,243 

24,886 

1,498,'.i09 

1,648,267 

10,847,649 


U9,5I7,4I0 
168,06U,iG0 


CoMuaBoi  or  Tnc  Fobt  or  !!t.  FintsnoBa  in  I85S. 


Countriei. 


Oreat  Britain 

Prussia , 

Han  as  Towns 

United  SUte 

Holland , 

France 

Denmark 

Spain 

TwoStotlies 

Bsrdinia 

BelRlum 

Norway 

Fortugal 

Tuieany  and  Rome  . 

Sweden 

Austria 

Turkey  

Uther  countries 


Total  silrer  roubles,  1856 
"        "         "        l&W 


Importa.         I         Kiporta. 


SU*«r  RoublM. 

17,38f>,0.".0 

11,019,670 

6,982,6.14 

M17,70« 

4,94%8e6 

8,292,404 

929,463 

635,097 

634,rM 

]'.'6,4«9 

.141,420 

8I^866 

28 ',667 

200,211 

!!2t),64l 

58,715 

7,389 

816,201 


53,317,400 
88,0(8,190 


Hilvtr  KoubUa. 
30,032,949 
6,174,614 
2,4fll,!06 
1,788,630 
4,«^3,68S 
1,802,791 
2,40.>,149 

I    1,408,532 

874,430 

60,341 

7,^73 

2,9r6,334 

11,666 

8,260 

170,411 

63,072,942 
6I,876,'6I 


Commerce  by  the  lAnee  of  Orenburg  and  Siberia.— 
The  commercial  movementa  of  Russia  with  Central 
Asia  are  prosecuted  with  much  activity.  The  value 
of  merchandise  exchanged  with  the  Tartars  of  this  por- 
tion of  Asia  in  1850  reached  nearly  6,000,000  roubles, 
showing  an  increase  over  the  total  trade  of  1849  of 
600,000  roubles.  The  principal  imports  were  tea 
(19,070  poods),  which  passed  through  the  western  fron- 
tiers of  China,  amounting  in  value  to  512,482  roubles 
(equal  to  50  centa  per  pound  nearly).  In  1661  this 
trade  maintained  still  greater  activity.  The  value  of 
merchandise  imported  across  the  lines  of  Orenburg 
and  Siberia  reached  S)  millions  of  roubles ;  and  tlie 
exchanges,  consisting  of  cotton  and  woolen  cloths,  loafi 


RUS 


1857 


RUS 


107,(08 
100,407  1 
19,088,910 
119,(11 
880,16« 
124,789 

(9«    1 
118,«8T 
M,l)53 
175    I 

■»,896    I 
70 
(,8(7,(981 
4M,895 

24,886 
1,498,'^ 
i;645,a57 
10,B47,(«_ 

168,00«5700_ 


30,004,949 
6,174,544 

o,4ni,'.oo 

1,783,630  . 
44M,B86    ' 
1,802,791 
2,40.',U9 


1,408,53a 

874,430 
50,341 
7,t73 
J,9r6,334 
11,666 
8,250 
170,411 
■^,872,942 
_61;8TB3i6L 
Bud  Siberia.^ 
pwUh  Central 
1     The  value 
laraotthispor- 
lo.OOO  roubles, 
Ide  of  1849  of 
Torts  i»ere  tea 
£  vf  estern  fron- 
|l2,482  roubles 
■   In  1851  this 
The  value  of 
1  of  Orenburg 
Ibles ;  and  the 
■en  cloths,  loaf* 


tagn,  nw  and  tanned  hides,  .annonnted  to  2,746,822 
roublw.    This  exhibits  an  increase  over  18S0,  via. : 

Imports  tram  China  by  the  ftrantters  of  Oren- 
burg and  Siberia 219,494 

Exports  to  China  bj  the  Ihintlen  of  Orenburg 
and  Siberia 8,601,1101 

The  principal  imports  were  blacli  and  other  teat 
(766,880  pounds,  valued  at  (487,891,  or  nearly  68  cents 
per  pound),  raw  and  spun  cotton,  etc, 

Tbadi  akd  Navioatioh  or  Bussiam  Pons,  1861-'61. 
1861. -VeweU  arrived T,S36 

"  »      cleared 7,342 

»        Total  tonnage,  lasts 7M,800 

1881— Vessels  arrived 8,(65 

"  "      cleared 8,801 

"       Total  tonnage,  lasU T(s|MO 

BtATiifairr  showiho  thi  ASSBia&Ta  ExronxTions  noii  Tm  Aion  cvania  tdi  Yzas  xhddiq  ma  81srr  DacniBEi,  186T. 


iMTOHt  AT  tn  Paw  or  TASAnMo  Drains  ma  VatM 

18B<-'57. 

N.«.-A«..u.  .,?jr.»s.. 

Kii|ll(£^W«l|bM 
uidfiauum-llif. 

Tobacco 

Lba.     166,(00 
Cwta.     18,086 
Boxes.      ^^00 
Cwts.     (6,880 
"         1(,000 
"         2^780 
Oals.    N6,425 
Bottles    83,»16 

Cwts.       '866 
»          1,280 
"          1,180 

"          l',iM 

Lbk     472,7IH 

"        13,950 

Boxes    M,ta4 

Lbs.      8T,7T1 

»        28,81T 

"        »,48S 

Otis.    681,7(8 

Bottles    11,600 

Cwli.      1,111 

"         1,ST« 

"          5,411 

"          1,170 

"             421 

"             150 

Dried  ihilt 

Orseo  fhill 

Carobs 

NutaandwalDuto... 
on 

Wine  in  casks 

Wine  In  bottles 

Sirup 

Sweetmeats 

OllTCS 

Coffta 

Pepper  

Lime  Juice 

1          TMslvalne 

£468,800 

i»)A3,K3« 

Prodne*. 


Wheat 

BveM 

Llnieed 

Flour 

Biscuit  and  macaroni . . . 

Butter 

TiUow 

Wool 

Hides 

Caviar 

Tobacco  

Iron 

SaU-cloth 

Total  value  silver  R 


T>s»nrog. 


Ch.     1,070,623 
"  44,421 

»         188,976 
62,250 
18,490 
110,291 
101,5(3 
107,181 
89,433 
(8,09( 
18,761 
78,840 
113,000 


Pds. 


Arch. 


16,083,587 


Bcnilinilt. 


208,168 
(2,5W 

"so 

132,'435 
42,761 
93,711 

"to 


4,778,000 


KI»ri«pol. 


108,133 
22i421 


60 
4,(10 


1,302,000 


Vabk. 


18,893 
1,000 
T,(48 
7,000 

8,700 
1,880 
1(,301 
6,581 


1,000 


621,000 


Ch.    1,400,720 
"  45,421 

"        381,682 
"■  60,260 

13,520 
118,991 
835,888 
2((,338 
143,348 
(8,098 
18,801 
78,849 
11,000 


Pds. 


Ats. 


22,882,607 


Tot.l  K«|IUIi. 


S?- 


Cwts. 


Lbs. 

Cwtf. 
Lba. 
Tons 
Yds. 


994,611 

84,974 

Sl(,71l 

19,044 

4,845 

88,147 

120,918 

9,588,098 

6,180,448 

21,888 

778,838 

1,172 

W,888 


J8,668,488 


Rrubn  or  Bamsn  and  Foihoh  Smppnto  at  Tna  aisraanvi  Azorr  Pears  roa  ma  YaAas  1853, 1S66,  and  1857. 


roria. 

lUS. 

IIM. 

1861.                           1 

BrIUib. 

All  PUtl. 

BilUih. 

All  rup. 

Britlib. 

AllFlw         1 

Tsganrog... 
MarUpol... 
Berdianak . . 

Yelak 

Total.... 

No. 
145 

te 

68 

Tom. 
89,430 

4,918 
14,8(8 

No. 
748 
804 
651 

Tou. 
184,031 

79,82( 
129,438 

No. 

239 
19 
23 

Tool. 

7^870 
8,400 
7,048 

No. 

1118 

181 

262 

Tons. 

293,278 

68,348 

(5,751 

No. 
166 

6 
10 

8 

Tolu. 

46,444 

1,498 

2,618 

943 

No. 
867 

97 
232 

19 

Torn. 
132,968 
27,0(2 
68,706 
6,067 

119 

59,014 

■l606  ■ 

893,098 

281 

91,318 

1562 

417,377 

184 

51,403 

12U5 

319,(80 

Noo.— In  1854  and  1866  these  ports  were  closed  to  foreign  veaiels  In  conaequence  of  the  Crimean  War. 


Ifavigation  of  the  Voiga  in  1852. — The  importations 
•t  Bybinsk,  by  the  Volga,  in  1852,  reached  in  value 
76,i49,000  francs,  and  the  exportations  1U1,621,000 
francs.  The  excess  of  exports  over  imports  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  Rybinsic  exports  by  water 
only,  and  imports  by  land  as  well  as  liy  water.  The 
fetums  of  imports  by  land  are  inaccessible  to  the  stat- 
istician ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  they  would  equalize 
the  values  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  this  marl<et. 
Bybinsk  is  one  of  the  most  important  markets  in  the 
Interior  of  Russia.  In  the  import  trade  there  are  em- 
ployed 82  steamboats  l>elonging  to  the  Volga-Kama 
Steamboat  Company,  681  canal-boats ;  and  3141  barks, 
flat-lioatB,  etc.,  propelled  by  sails  and  oars. 

The  export  trade  of  Rybinsk  (i.e.,  the  re-exportation 
of  merchandise)  employs :  By  the  Volga,  8765  vessels 
of  aU  kinds;  Mologa,  1779;  Sheksna,  2221:  toUl, 
7766. 

SUam  Company  of  the  ro/jTo.— From  the  report  of  the 
general  meeting  of  this  company,  held  27th  February 
[11th  March],  1852,  the  information  is  gleaned  that 
the  company  was  organized  in  1843  with  a  capital  of 
1,800,000  roubles  («U75,000),  divided  into  6200  shares 
of  260  roubles  (|187  50)  each ;  that  it  now  owns  (in 
1862)  five  iron  steamers,  which  navigate  the  Volga ; 
namely,  the  Sampson  and  tiie  Hercules,  each  of  77 ;  the 
Kama,  of  60;  the  \'<dga,  of  42;  and  the  Oha,  of  17 
horse-power.  Besides  these,  the  company  owns  nine- 
teen barks  and  three  large  bateaux.  The  capital  in- 
vested in  property  (vessels,  etc.)  amounts  to  1,200,000 
roubles  ((900,000).  In  1852  the  company  received  for 
freighta  884,805  roubles  90  kopecks  (9251,104  42i),  be- 
tides 8216  roubles  60  kopecks  ((2411  70)  interest  on 
capital  invested,  which  brings  up  their  total  receipts 
to  888,021  roubles  60  kopecks  ($263,616  120- 


Extra  Dutiet.—Xn  addition  to  the  rates  given  in  the 
tariff,  special  duties  are  levied  for  the  benefit  of  cities, 
etc.,  as  follows : 

At  the  Port  of  Archangel— VoT  the  iMUefit  of  the 
town,  i  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  all  imports  and  ez> 
ports. 

At  Odeisa.—VoT  the  benefit  of  the  town :  On  wheat 
exported  liy  sea,  1  cent  per  6J  bushels.  For  the  ben- 
efit of  the  lyceum,  1  j  cent  per  5J  bushels,  on  all  kinds 
of  corn  exported. 

A  t  the  Portof  Taganrog.— Tot  the  t>enefit  of  the  city  i 
On  all  merchandise  passing  througii  the  scales,  im« 
ported,  I  cent  per  36  pounds;  exported,  A  cent  per 
36  pounds.  On  wines  imported,  ^  cent  per  2|  gaU 
Ions. 

At  the  Port  of  ifariopol.— For  the  benefit  of  the  city  t 
Imports,  I  cent  per  pood,  dry  measure ;  ft  <^^"'  P«' 
pood,  liquid  measure. 

St.  Petersburg,— For  the  bridge  on  the  Neva :  Oa 
all  imports,  2  per  cent,  on  amount  of  duties. 

3fotcow,—Vot  a  similar  purpose  to  the  foregoing ; 
On  ail  imports  via  St  Petersburg,  2  per  cent,  on 
amount  of  duties. 

The  custom-houset  of  St.  Petersburg,  Archangel, 
and  Riga  allow  foreign  goods,  imported  by  privileged 
merchants,  to  remain  in  bond  without  paying  duty,  or 
to  be  re-exported,  during  twelve  months;  if  imported 
by  others,  six  months. 

Progress  ofCollon  Afanufactm-et  in  Russia.— It  has 
already  been  remarked  that  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton  in  the  Russian  empire  is  progressing  with  ex- 
traordinary  activity.  The  number  of  spindles  In  Rus- 
sia exceeds  350,000,  producing  annually  upward  of 
10,800,000  pounds  of  cotton  yams.  The  manufactur* 
of  cotton  velvets  especially  is  becoming  highly  import- 


BUS 


1658 


BUS 


•lit  to  the  direct  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
Russia,  the  raw  material  l>ein);  atmust  exclusively  sup- 
plied, either  in  the  direct  or  indirect  trade,  by  the  for- 
mer country.  Formerly  cotton  velvets  were  supplied 
to  the  Chinese  exclusively  by  the  British.  The  Chi- 
nese  now  prefSer  the  Russian  manufacture ;  hence  it 
baa  become  a  leading  staple  of  barter  at  the  Kussio- 
ftontier  markets  of  China. 

No  foreign  nation  is  allowed  to  participate  in  the 
coasting  or  internal  trade  of  Russia — Ordinanee,  Stp- 
itmbtr  [),  184S.  The  treaties  between  Kusaia  and  other 
maritime  states  all  contain  the  same  terms  as  that  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  United  States  of  December  18, 
■1882;  viz.,  the  vessels  of  friendly  nations,  wlthcargoes 
in  ballast,  are  to  be  regarded  quite  as  the  domestic,  as 
to  export  or  import,  and  to  port  or  other  duties,  or 
taxes  of  any  kind  whatever;  but  the  coasting  trade  is 
Interdicted.  From  Finland,  flax,  and  hemp,  and  iron 
can  be  profitably  exported  to  the  United  States ;  and 
from  the  United  States  into  Finland  may  be  advan- 
tageously imported  cotton,  tobacco,  and  rice, 

CoMinaoa  or  nia  llmTan  StatH  wrrn  Rdssia  noM  OoTOBa  1, 1830,  -ro  July  1,  185T. 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  qnsntlttes  of  nw 
and  spun  cotton  imported  into  Russia  during  the  years 
designated : 

Ytui 

«•»  CoUaa. 

CotlanTwIala.               | 

Wlilto. 

C.lDM.1. 

1846 

1847 

11,868,000 
14,11»,000 
110,171,000 
«e,47U,000 
1»,670,000 

KtlognimniM. 
8,1M,0UU 
«,783,fl00 
«,8SR,0«0 
4,67i,nOA 
8,765,000 

HilorrtHin.; 
MiMO 

6r,eoo 

60,000 

1849 

1843 

1880 

Total 

Annual  average 

<ll,3»8,000 

88,628,0<H) 

881,000 

i8,a»,(ioo 

5,704,400 

6«,8fl0 

«  luO  kllogramniea=:aao  ponads. 
The  imports  of  raw  cotton  fl^m  the  United"- States 
to  Russia  for  designated  periods  have  already  been 
given,  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  diminution  of 
cotton  twists  is  In  u  ratio  corrrsponding  with  the  aug- 
mentation In  the  importation  of  raw  cotton.     Below 
is  annexed  a  table,  exhibiting  the  direct  trade  and 
navigation  between  the  United  States  and  RuMia  dur- 
ing the  years  designated.— Comm.  Kel,  U.  S. 

Yaai*  ciidlnf 


iepOoTTsiTr 

1822. 
1823. 
1824. 
1825. 


1827 

1828 

182.) 

18J0 

Total. 


Sept  80,1  SSI. 

1882. 

isas. 

1834. 
1836. 
1836. 
1837. 
1838. 
18.W. 
1840. 


Total.. 


fiopt80,184l 

1842 

0  iBos.,  1843*.... 
June  30, 1844 

1848 

1848 

1S47 

1843 

1849 

1800 

Total. 


June  30, 1861 . 
1882. 
1863. 
la*^. 
1858. 
1886. 
1867. 


Export*. 


D«tiiwtir, 

1ii2T;!)sr 

177.201 
81,036 
92,7(16 
66,liH 
11.041 
4.%610 

108,1122 
61,084 
S6,4«t 


$787,413 

$114,862 
121,114 
223,784 
1118,627 
231,807 
326,283 
144,080 
3S:),047 
4!!4,687 
284,886 


$2,868,787 

$148,118 
816,028 
S0:),867 
414,882 
630,846 
535,388 
626,832 
1,047,682 
937,887 
666,435 


t6,637,033~ 

$1,468,704 

1,061,748 

2,313,176 

338,821 

48,'.I40 

600,163 

4,474,842 


PotviKit. 


!|'8lK),'.l8e 

a')i,s2o 
617,0:19 

131,218 
832,210 
163,604 
830,734 
841,873 
884,842 
881,114 


$3,878,866 

$347,914 
481,808 
4S0,071 
162,()«7 
8r>3,84f< 
684,7'JO 
1,168,652 
68:),242 
604,689 
934,625 


$0,981,366 

$879,811 
520,667 
76,!)26 
140,632 
100,4:)2 
97,079 
124,118 
108,428 
1»7,'.:47 
198,808 


$2,834,206 

$148,087 
138,732 
143.478 
145,0  8 
20,414 
86,282 
286,039 


Totn). 

$628.8.14 

6a;i,08i 

648,734 
281,981 
287,401 
174,048 
882,24t 
460,408 
888,226 
416,.875 


$4,188,279 

$462,76< 

682,682 

703,805 

830,0:)4 

63.5,447 

011.018 

1,806,732 

1,048,289 

1,23:),246 

1,16^481 


$8,840,185 

$1,028,729 
836,8'.)3 
886,793 
866,414 
787,837 
682,467 
T.'*O,460 
1,156,010 
1,136,604 
884,'.41 


$8,071,238 

$1,611,691 

1,200,480 

2,4W,6'3 

480,616 

69,8M 

<86,405 

4,72.1,881 


Import!. 


Tolul. 


$1,86-.M  M 
3,807,8'2S 
2,258,777 
2,209,663 
2,087,110 
2,617,169 
2,086,077 
2,788,862 
2,218,1195 
1,621,899 


$28,027,679 

$1,608,828 
8,261,662 
2,772,860 
2,6.6,840 
2,8''^246 
2,778,664 
2,816,116 
1,8:18,808 
2,3rt3,894 
2,572,427 


$25,088,202 

$2,717,448 
1,360,106 

742,808 
1,«5:),419 
1,482,262 
1,670,084 

924,673 
1,819,084 

840,238 
1,611,672 


$18,827,689 

$1,883,782 
1,681,620 
1,278,801 
1,»4»,236 
280,t:86 
830,ri81 
1,819,420 


Whoreuf  Ihetv  wu  la 
Biilliuii  mill  Bp«cie. 


Tonaago  el«ar«d, . 


Kxuort. 


$13,663 
10,213 
28,700 


$82,466 

$90,428 
S2,<I83 
86,494 
1,646 
6.977 
12,000 
8,000 
7,070 
1,686 
9,281 


$299,680 

$4,978 

626 

1,120 


$6,724 


Innidr*.       I    Anwrtciin. 


jsno 

1,800 


$2,100 


$3,000 
2,192 


4,000 

1,000 

60 


$10,242 


$8,401 


74 


$8,476 


4,521 
4,825 
2,771 
8,201 
8,279 
1,8-6 
8,60;) 
2,7>6 
2,('43 
S,4'.)2 


81,212 

4,810 
'    8,147 

6,498 
4,979 
3,424 
6,198 
6,844 
7,253 
8,640 
6,019 


67,009 

7,405 
5,691 
4,163 
8,808 
9,109 
6,451 
4.135 
9,5S8 
10.349 
6,048 


67,247 

9,241 
10,006 
11,968 
8,891 
1,6S8 
9,720 
27,979 


tyiroHpi. 


117 
286 

234 


687 


800 

6:15 

1,199 

4,147 

198 

358 

.     477 


7,865 

SOS 
1,699 

271 
1,981 
l,t06 
1,648 
1,362 

893 
1,803 
3,990 


16,346 

8.239 
8,046 
6,2!)7 
1,4S5 

860 
5,436 


*  Kine  months  to  June  80,  and  the  flacal  year  from  this  time  begins  July  L 

i'rt'nci/NiIi'oH*.— Odessa,  a  sea-port  of  southern  Rus.  measure  he  considered  as  the  port  of  the  latter.  t^\- 
sia,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  lietwecn  most  all  vessels  bound  for  St.  Petersliurg  touch  here, 
the  rivers  Dniester  and  Bug,  in  lat.  46°  28'  64"  N.,  !  and  those  drawing  above  eight  feet  of  water  load  and 
long.  30°  43'  22"  E.     The  bay  or  roadstead  of  Odessa    unload  at  Cronstadt— the  goods  being  conveyed  to  the 


is  extensive,  the  water  is  deep,  and  the  anchorage  is 
good — the  bottom  being  fine  sand  and  gravel ;  it  is, 
however,  exposed  to  tJie  southeasterly  winds,  which 
render  it  less  safe  in  winter.  Tlie  port,  which  Is  arti- 
ficial, being  formed  of  two  moles,  one  of  which  projects 
:•  considerable  distance  into  the  sea,  and  has  deep  wa- 
ter, with  room  for  three  hundred  ships. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  Rnasis,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  River  Neva  with  the  eastern  extrem- 
ity of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  in  lat.  59°  66'  28"  N.,  long. 
.00°  18'  46"  E.     Cronstadt,  situated  on  a  small  island 


city  in  lighters.  The  water  to  Cronstadt  is-  ample, 
there  being  from  twenty-four  to  thirt^'-six  feet  of  water. 
Jtuuian  Potieth'ons  m  America. — The  territorj-  be- 
longing to  the  Russian  American  Company  compre- 
hends the  northwestern  portion  of  North  America,  ex- 
tending fh)m  Behring's  Straits  eastward  to  the  merid- 
ian of  Mt.  St.  Ellas,  along  both  the  Arctic  and  Pacific 
ooeans,  and  from  that  moantain  southward  along  the 
coast  chain  of  hills  till  It  touches  the  coast  in  64°  40' 
N.  lat.,  forming  an  area  of  894,000  square  miles.  The 
Alentlan  Islands,  though  comprised  In  the  Asiatic  gov- 


«bout  twenty  miles  west  of  St.  Petersburg,  may  in  soma   emment  of  Irkutsk,  may  be  considered  as  belon^g  to 


BUS 


1050 


RHU 


B60 
l6,«8_ 

|T.    Al- 

Ich  here, 
_«d  and 
Id  to  the 
1  ample, 
■f  water. 
Tory  be- 
Tpompre- 
Kcft,  ex- 
\  nierid- 
[  Pacific 
ing  the 
154°  40' 
The 
rtcgoT- 
Igtngto 


.tU«  region.  The  tettlementi  originated  with  an  **• 
aojcUtlon  of  merchanti,  formed  at  Irkutsk,  who  ohtaln. 
•d  from  the  Emperor  Paul  the  exclualva  privilege  uf 
trading  for  pelttiea  In  the  Aleutian  Iilandii  and  ad- 
jacent coasts.  This  privilege  was  extended  liy  the 
Emperor  Alexander  over  all  Kustlan  America,  and  the 
charter  was  renewed  by  Nicholas  In  1840.  The  oapl- 
tal  and  principal  factory  was  first  established  at  Ko- 
dlak,  but  the  increasing  scarcity  of  sea  otters  led  the 
,  then  governor  to  lay  the  foundation  of  New  Aroban- 
gel,  which  has  now  become  the  chief  depot.  The  Kus. 
elan  dominion  over  the  vast  solUndies  of  the  Interiur  la 
only  nominal :  the  interior,  Indeed,  Is  a  lerra  ineugnila, 
and  Inhabited  by  tribes  who  scarcely  know  the  name 
of  their  lords.  At  the  present  day  the  Russians  occu- 
py only  the  islands  off  this  coast.  New  Archangel, 
the  capital,  Is  situated  on  the  island  of  Sitka,  in  lat, 
fi7°  80'  N.,  and  long.  135°  13'  W.  It  Is  a  town  uf 
some  1000  Inhabitants,  and  contains  the  Boards  awl 
warehouses  of  the  company.  The  whole  country  is 
under  the  surveillance  of  a  governor,  who  derives  hU 
authority  from  the  company  at  Irkutsk.  The  total 
population  of  Russian  America  is  estimated  at  00,(101) 
or  70,000,  Including  aborigines.  The  commerce  of  this 
country  Is  chiefly  confined  to  the  exportation  of  furs 
to  Canton,  and  tlie  import  of  provisions  and  agriouUii- 
ral  supplies  fh>m  the  Puget's  Sound  Agricultural  Com- 
pany. It  Is  of  little  value,  being  less  than  (!il00,(Jiii) 
a  year,  and  is  constantly  declining,  consequent  on  the 
decline  of  the  seal  and  otter.  Bodega,  on  the  coast  of 
California,  was  formerly  a  Russian  settlement  Tho 
British  lease  the  continental  part  of  Russian  America 
for  hunting  purposes. 

Shipping  and  ship-building  are  considerably  Increas. 
ing  in  Finland.  The  causes  are  to  be  sought  in  the 
increasing  commerce  and  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
country,  in  the  high  prices  which  have  l)een  paid  in  the 
last  years  for  the  principal  exports — wood  artiulea— 
especially  in  Southern  Europe,  and  In  the  high  freights 
paid  by  foreigners  for  the  employment  of  Finnish  ves- 
sels. To  encourage  shipping  and  ship-building  In  Fin- 
land, the  Russian  government  has  allowed  that  all  ma- 
terials and  articles  which  are  used  in  ship-lmilding, 
and  are  to  be  had  cheaper  in  foreign  countries,  may 
be  imported  into  Finland  free  of  duty.  American  im- 
provements in  ehip-bullding  have,  in  part,  already 
been  Introduced,  and  wlU  probably  be  more  generally 
adopted. — Comm.  Bel.  V.  S. 

For  able  articles  on  the  commerce,  commercial  pol- 
icy, commercial  strength,  mines,  resources,  etc.,  of 
Russia,  see  Blackwood's  Magazine,  liil.  807 ;  Bankeri' 
Magazine,  11.  273;  Quarterly  Review,  Ixxvil.  188,  xlx. 
131,  Isvl.  218;  yourno/ (//Science,  lii.  153;  Edinburyh 
Rtvieui,  xl.  476  (Jbffrky),  xxiii.  340,  Ixxix. ;  Hunt's 
Merchant!'  Magazine,  v.  297  (P.  Wharton),  x.  207  ; 
iMing  Age,  xxlv.  529;  American  Whig  Review,  xll, 
616 ;  North  American  Review,  xxvIL  xxx. 

Russia  Company,  a  regulated  company  In  Great 
Britain  for  conducting  the  trade  with  Russia,  It  was 
first  incorporated  by  charter  of  Philip  and  Mar}',  sanc- 
tioned by  act  of  Parliament  in  1666.  The  statute  10 
and  11  William  III.,  ch.  6,  enacts,  that  ever}-  British 
subject  desiring  admission  Into  the  Russia  Company 
shall  be  admitted  on  paying  ^£5 ;  and  every  Individual 
admitted  Into  the  company  conducts  his  business  en- 
tirely OS  a  privaVe  adventurer,  or  as  he  would  do  were 
the  company  abolished. 

Russia  Leather  (Fr.CuirdsAKMie;  Oer.  Ju/fen  ; 
It.  Cuojo  di  Ruttiai  Pol.  Jachta;  Russ.  JufI,  Youfl; 
Sp.  Mutcovia),  the  tanned  hides  of  oxen  and  other  kine, 
denominated  by  the  Russians  youfU,  otjuffi — s  desig- 
nation said  to  be  derived  from  their  being  generally 
manufactured  In  pairs.  The  business  of  tanning  is  car- 
ried on  in  most  towns  of  the  empire,  but  principally  at 
Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg.  Russia  leather  is  soft,  has 
a  strongly  prominent  grain,  a  great  deal  of  lustre,  and 
•  powerful  and  pecullu  odor.     It  is  principally  either 


red  or  biMik  t  Iht  fbrmer  Is  the  best,  and  Is  largely 
used  In  tills  and  other  countries  in  twolc-bindlng ;  for 
wbkU  imrpiMM  it  Is  stiimrior  to  every  other  material. 
The  liUvk  Is,  however.  In  very  extensive  demand  In 
Russia,  large  iiuaniltles  being  made  op  into  boots  and 
•hues.  The  process  followed  by  the  Russians  in  the 
|>r*|i«r*tkin  of  this  valuable  commodity  has  been  f^ 
quently  desoribed  i  but  notwithstanding  this  circum- 
stance, ami  the  fact  lliat  foreigners  have  repeatedly  aa- 
gagsit  hi  the  liimlttess  In  Uutstu,  with  the  Intention  of 
niakliig  thtiiiisnives  musters  of  its  details,  und  under- 
taking It  at  h(Htiii,  the  effurts  made  to  Introduce  the 
niNnufuvture  Iut4>  other  countries  Imvo  hitherto  entirely 
failed.  One  of  the  liext  testx  uf  genuine  Russia  leather 
Is  its  thntwIiiK  out  a  strung  odor  of  burned  hide  upon 
boliig  lublitd  a  llttle.-Hu  A«l»,  Traiti  (Jhiiraldu  Com. 
tntrc;  tunia  I,  p.  'i^t>,  ed.  17Hl. 

W»  aiitract  from  Mr,  llorrisow's  work  on  the  Coei- 
mtret  i\fHl,  J'tltmlmri)  the  fcillowing  details  with  respect 
to  this  iirtlclii  I  Ituimla  leiitlier  furins  one  of  the  princi- 
pal ex|iort  I'dintiiiiilltles  uf  Ht.  I'etersliurg.  But  since 
the  |Hirts  uf  the  llhiek  Hen  have  l>eon  u|iencd,the  exports 
of  luutlier  frultl  this  |iurt  have  cuiislileralily  decreased; 
Italy,  thn  principal  cunsuin«r,  suiiplying  its  wants  from 
Odessa  m»\  'iagannig  inure  easily,  cheaply,  and  expe- 
ditiously than  iTuni  Ht.  I'etorslmrg,  The  chief  exporta- 
tion fniiii  tlin  latter  Is  tn  Prussia,  Qerniany,  and  En- 
gland. Fruiikfort-uii-the-Mulne  and  Leipsic  are  of  great 
lni|Hirtiilii'«  lis  res|iects  the  trade  In  Russia  leather,  on 
ncvviint  of  tlia  fairs  hold  In  them.  Juffs  are  never 
liuiight  on  eiiiitrHct,  but  always  on  the  spot  at  cash 
prices,  It  livvertlieltiss  uften  hupiwns  that  agents — In 
uriler  to  Mcurn  a  lut  uf  Jun>,  pay  a  certain  sum  in  ad- 
vance, and  st>ttl«  fur  the  nmuunt  at  the  first  market 
prices  I  nil  prices  being  llxcd  In  the  months  of  January, 
Veliruary,  Marvli,  mid  iKiiiietlnies  even  April.  Julfs  are 
tiisiirtnil  or  hiHuktd  when  received,  according  to  their 
iliirurent  imiilltles,  Into  Oare,  Rnivat,  Miilja,  and  Do. 
imttlim,  Tim  tlirea  tint  sorts  nre  again  divided  into 
heury  and  lii/ht  tim'e,  kriivy  and  light  Itusval,  etc.  Do- 
niHshna  Is  the  worst,  and  consequently  the  cheapest 
sort,  It  often  hapjietis  thiit  Juffs  are  bought  unas- 
sorted, and  then  the  prices  are  regulated  according  aa 
the  quantity  of  tliimnshiia  cuntalned  In  the  lot  is  great- 
er or  loss,  I'ersiins  well  ncqunlnted  with  the  nature  of 
Russia  leiithi^r  prefer  ptircliasing  It  in  this  state.  Juffi 
aro  sold  liy  the  |kwiI,  wIiIoIi  consists,  as  it  Is  commonly 
expressed,  of  4,  4|,  'I),  A,  6^,  and  6)  hides.  By  thU 
Is  understood,  that  su  man}'  hides  make  a  pood,  calcu- 
lated uiHin  the  whole  lut  i  and  It  Is  to  be  observed  that 
the  ligiitest  Jiill's  ani  esteemed  the  best  In  quality. 
Heavy  Juffs,  ur  those  uf  4  and  4^  hides,  are  shipped  for 
Italy  I  the  (lermuiis,  uii  the  cuntrary,  prefer  the  lighter 
sort.  JulTs  are  jmckeil  In  rolls,  each  containing  10 
hides ;  and  from  ID  tu  19  uf  these  rolls  are  packed  to- 
gether In  a  bundle,  whkh  Is  well  secured  by  thick 
matting.  There  are  red,  white,  and  black  Juffs ;  but 
the  red  are  must  In  (lemiinil.  Their  goodness  is  determ- 
ined by  their  being  uf  u  high  red  color,  of  equal  size, 
and  unmixed  with  small  hWr^  i  the*  must  also  be  free 
from  boles,  well  stretc!;::'.,  and  equally  thin.  In  a  well- 
finished  lot  no  thick  henil  ur  feet  parts  should  be  found. 
If  spots  resembling  flowers  are  seen  on  the  red  hides, 
it  Is  an  addltinmil  sign  of  their  good  quality,  and  they 
are  then  oallad  hlmmnl  jiifft.  The  inside  should  be 
clean,  soft,  and  white,  and,  when  taken  in  the  hand, 
should  feel  elastic,  'I'he  best  connoisseurs  of  Russia 
leather  can  iisiirly  (letermlne  the  quality  liy  tho  smell 
alone,  Ureal  attention  muit  lie  paid.  In  shipping  juflk, 
to  secure  them  fhiiii  lieing  wetted,  as  damp  air  alone  la 
sufllciBit  to  Injur*  ihein.  Hlxty  rolls  of  JufTs  make  a 
last  i  88  piKNls  net  weight,  when  shipped  for  Italy, 
make  a  last  i  and  44  pomls  a  tun.  The  exports  of 
Juffs  from  Russia  In  1H41  amounted  to  177,838  poods, 
and  160,Ofll  pieces,  worth  ttigethor  l,6a8,l»l  silver  roo- 
bles.  ' 

Ryo  (Ger.  %*««,  Soften;  Ou.  Rog,  Soggt;  Fr. 


KYE 


ICGO 


KYO 


Si^l  It.  BegeiU,  Segatat  Sp.  Ctnleno;  Rou,  Jloteh, 
M,  Jar;  Lat.  SecaU),  BcconUng  to  aom*,  li  s  natlv*  of 
Cnta ;  but  It  b  very  doubtfbl  If  It  can  now  lia  found  wild 
in  any  country.  It  baa  been  cultivated  ttom  time  im- 
memorial, and  la  ooniidered  aa  coming  nearer  In  ita 
propertlea  to  wheat  than  any  other  grain.  It  !•  mora 
common  than  wheat  In  many  parts  of  Europe,  being  a 
more  certain  crop,  and  requiring  leaa  culture  and  ma- 
nure. It  la  the  bread  com  of  Uermany  and  Kuasia. — 
Loudon's  Encye,  o/Affneulture. 

Kye  ia  auppoaed  by  aome  authoritiea  to  be  a  native 
of  the  Caapian  Caucaalan  desert ;  and  has  t>een  culti- 
vated in  the  north  of  Europe  and  Aala  from  time  im- 
memorial, where  it  conatitutea  an  important  article  of 
human  aubsistance,  Iwing  generally  mixed  with  barloy 
or  wheat.  Ita  introduction  into  western  Kurope  ia  of 
comparatively  recent  date,  aa  no  mention  ia  made  of  it 
in  the  Ortut  Sanilalu,  published  at  Augsburg  in  1486, 
which  treats  at  length  of  barle},  millet,  oats,  and 
wheat. 

The  production  of  rye  has  decreased  4,467,000  bush- 
els in  the  aggregate ;  but  in  New  York  It  ia  greater 
than  In  1840  by  about  40  per  cent.  Pennaylvania, 
which  is  the  largeat  producer,  haa  fallen  off  from 
6,618,878  to  4,805,160  bushels.  Perhaps  the  general 
diminution  in  the  quantity  of  this  grain  now  produced 
may  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  a  corresponding 
decline  in  the  demand  for  distilling  purposes,  to  which 
a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  applied. 
ExroBTS  or  Rtk  and  small  Giain  ntaH  Tiia  T'xiTin  Htatis 
n>a  Tua  Y«Aa  imdimo  Jvhh  SO,  18M. 

Rye,  0«lfl,  Md 
Wbllbar  nportad.  •UHrunallUnix, 

■aii  PuIm. 

'     Swedish  Weit  Indies $684 

Daniali  West  Indies 1,808 

Hamburg 464,8*1 

•   Bremen 449,418 

Other  German  porta  .   8,860 

Holland 437,006 

Dutch  West  Indies. , Hi 

Dutch  Ouiina 6T0 

Belgium  1,071,639 

£ngUnd 176,536 

-    -      -  14,600 

83,817 

14,6M 

46,826 

110 

8,037 

1,104 

«4,8!il 


Ireland  . 
Canada  . 
Other  Britlah  North  American  faeacaaioM. 

British  West  Indies. 

British  Honduras 

British  Omana 

British  Possessions  in  Africa 

British  Australia 

British  East  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

French  North  American  Possessions 

French  West  Indies 

French  Ouiana 

Cuba 

Porto  Klco 

Turkejr  In  Europe 

Turkey  in  Asia 

Hayll 

Ban  Domingo 

Mexico 

Central  liepubllo 

Mew  Granada  . 


18,636 

198 

86 

OS 

T,67l 

1,«?6 

1,010 

67 

640 

86 

1,806 

70 

860 

VeneiueU  1S,S14 

Braall 1,477 

ChUi «86 

Peru 13 

Sandwich  Islands 4,028 

China 461 

Whale  Ilsheries 686 

Total,  18S6-1856 »»,718,680 

Total,  1866-1867 , 680,108 

Bye  was  cultivated  in  the  North  American  colonies 
soon  after  their  settlement  by  the  English.  Gorges 
speaks  of  it  as  growing  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1622,  as  well 
as  of  barley  and  wheat.  Plantagenet  enumerates  it 
among  the  productions  of  North  Virginia  (New  En- 
gland)  in  1648,  and  alludes  to  the  mixing  of  it  with 


mala*  li.  tba  fomMtlmi  of  lirtMl.  It  was  also  oultlTi- 
tsd  In  Noutit  VlrginU  iiy  NIr  WlllUm  Berkeley  pnvlona 
tu  that  y»»r, 

(laographloally,  tjf*  «ntt  liarley  asanclate  with  one 
aniitlisr,  anit  grow  u|itm  suits  the  most  analogous,  and 
In  sltH«lia«s  alllM  •KtaNMul,  It  Is  cultivated  for  bread 
In  nortlMirn  Asln,  ittd  all  over  the  continent  of  Europe, 
partlaularly  In  KussU,  Norway,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
(lermany,  and  Holland  |  In  the  latter  of  which  It  la 
much  omployad  In  thn  maNiifaclure  of  gin.  It  Is  also 
grown  tu  MHfia  «a(«iit  In  Kngland,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
In  this  mmntry  it  Is  |)fin«lpally  restricted  to  the  Middle 
and  Eastern  Htstas,  but  its  culture  Is  giving  place  to 
mora  proAtulila  t^rnpo. 

TIm  thriM  laaditlg  v«ri«tl«i  cultivated  In  the  United 
Ntatss  ara  th«  NlirlllK,  Winter,  and  Southern,  the  latter 
dUfsring  from  tfia  others  only  from  dissimilarity  of  cli- 
mate, The  )'l«ld  varies  from  10  to  flO,  or  nuirc,  bushels 
per  acre,  wolghinK  from  48  to  Ml  III.  to  (he  bushel. 

This  grain  Itos  naver  t-ntered  largely  Into  our  foralgn 
commeri's,  as  tin*  home  consumption  for  a  long  period 
nearly  k«|it  imm  with  the  supply,  The  amount  ex- 
|K>rtad  (mn  Iha  I'nltwl  States  In  1801  was  892,276 
lm*hsls(  In  IM|g,  MV,70A  bushels  i  In  1818,  140,186 
bushels,  In  INHO  ';ll  there  were  exported  23,628  bar- 
rels of  rye  Hour  i  In  IMflo  'd1  ,  lo,100  barrela ;  In  1840- 
'41,  44,011)  barrels)  In  1846  '4A,  88,680  barCels;  In 
1840-'47,  4M,8lnl  Imrrals)  in  I860-'61,  44,162  barrels. 

During  the  yxnt  midlng  ilnne  1,  1860,  there  were 
eonsumad,  of  rva,  alwut  2,144,000  bushels  In  the  man- 
ufoi^tura  of  malt  and  splrittioua  liquors, 

Aooording  tu  tho  ««nsus  returns  of  1840,  the  prod- 
uct of  the  I'oontry  was  18,(14(1,687  buahela;  in  1660, 
14,188,087  bushels.  Of  this  amount  there  was  export- 
Ud  from  Now  Yurk  fi2,022,862, 


PaoiiGOTliw  ntt  lira  m  tun  1'i»fttiti  MtAtia  roa  tux  Ykass 

}14«  Ami  18M. 

SlaM  s/lii  'ftmUHliH, 

"  is«r 

lUO. 

8a>lt«li. 

BiaiUli. 

Alabama  , ,,, 

Al.OSS 

17,161 

ArlUMssa  ,,, 

•,910 

8,047 

I'oliimkis,  IM»lrt«l«f,, 

,  6,081 

6,B09 

1  'DnneotidMl^, ,  r ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, , 

787,484 

600,803 

1  talawartt ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

8«,84« 

8,066 

riorida,,,. 

808 

1,162 

Illinois,,,,,, ..,,.,,,.,,,. 

«o,«;b 

68,760 

88,197 

88,864 

Indiana ,,,,,,.,,,,,,,<,,,,,,,,, 

199,811 

78,71(2 

Iowa .>i..i,.>.>,<.,.,.,,. 

8,7119 

10,U16 

Keutmky. ,.  •,,,!>,,,,,,,,,,,, , 

1,811,378 

416,073 

Ijiulslooa,,..,,,,.,!.,,.,,,,,,, 

1,811 

475 

MaiOA , 

187,M1 

101,916 

718,677 

126,014 

Msusfliiiselts, ,,,,,, ,,,,,, 

086,014 

481,021 

MIHiigsii  .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,„,,„, 

84,986 

ll'6,8Tl 

Miuii>in|il, ,,,,,,,,,,, ,,, 

MlMoiirt ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

11,444 

9,605 

«8,flOR 

44,968 

Naw  lUiiip/ihiro, , .,,,,,,, 

80!),I4S 

183,117 

Nuw  .larafy,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 

1,666,810 

1,256,678 

New  V«rk  ,, ,,,,,„,,,,,,, 

},<'7n,818 

4,148,182 

North  CaroliiM 

118,»71 

22<.5II3 

Ohio  .,,,,, ,, ,,,„, 

814,106 

425,918 

I'ennaylvania,,,,, .,.,,, ,,,,,,, 

8,619,!i78 

4,806,100 

llhmia  laisod  ,, ,,,,,,,,,,, 

S4,62l 

26,409 

»>auibrarRlina,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

44,788 

43,7:'0 

804,810 

80,137 

Tesas,,, ,„,,,„,,,,,,, 

, . , . 

8,103 

Viirniunt, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

18'l,003 

176,233 

VIrgtnta ,,,.,,,,,,,, 

1,482,7(10 

4r>S,!13!> 

WiaciHiatn ,.,...,,,,,,,, 

1,(166 

8I,2,^3 

a  (MlnoMsola, ,..,,■,, ,,i.,,. 

•  •  •  • 

125 

E|    Orfgou,,,,,,,,.  ,,,,,„,, 

SI  U'tsh. , 

Total 

100 

,... 

210 

ri8,««,6<)7 

14,18S,8I3 

Itjrot*.  TIm  nanw  ((lv«n  to  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil  uf  lllnihMtan,  who  hold  their  land  by  a  lease  which 
is  considered  as  perpstual,  and  at  •  rate  iixed  by  an- 
ci«i»t  *Uf  v«yf  MM  VttUltlvIM, 


•  **•  xf*M^' 


SAU 


tMI 


SAI 


is. 


-    ffM»\» 


|4,1HS.8I8  I 

latoTs  of  the 
lleMO  which 
Ued  by  an- 


Bable  (Oer.  Zobeti  Fr.  Zibtllini ;  It.  ZibtUinoi  Rum. 
Sohol),  an  animal  of  tha  weasel  trllxi,  fuunil  in  the 
northern  parti  of  Aiiatlo  Uuula  and  Ameriua,  hunted 
for  the  uke  of  itt  fur.  Its  color  is  generally  of  a  deep 
gloiiv  brown,  and  sometimes  of  a  line  glossy  black, 
which  Is  moat  esteemed.  Sable  skins  have  sometimes, 
though  very  rarely,  been  found  yellow,  and  white.  The 
flner  sorts  of  the  fur  of  sables  are  very  scarce  and  dear. 
A  single  skin  of  the  darker  color,  though  not  aliovo  four 
Inches  broad,  has  lieen  valued  as  high  an  (60.  The 
sable  {Mutltla  zilielliHa,  Linn.)  is  principally  a  native 
of  the  northern  regions  of  Asia :  it  is  hunted  and  killed 
for  the  Russian  market,  either  by  a  single  ball,  a  blunt 
arrow,  or  traps,  by  exiles  or  soldiers  sent  for  that  pur> 
pose,  in  tlie  deserts  of  Siberia.  The  skin  is  in  the  high- 
est perfection  from  November  to  February.  A  nearly 
allied  animal,  called  the  "  flsher,"  inhabits  North  Ameri- 
ca, and  1*  similarly  sought  after  and  destroyed  for  its 
tut.— Set  Fun  Tradk. 

Saddles  (Fr.  Sellu;  Ger.  Sattel;  It.  Stile;  Ruas. 
Sidla}  Sp.  StlUi),  seats  adapted  to  horses'  bocks,  for 
the  convenience  of  the  rider. 

SftlBower,  or  Bastard  BaSron  (Ger.  Safflur; 

Du.  S<\ghtr,  Basterd  Saffron;  Fr.  Carlame,  Saffron 
batard;  It.  Zaffront;  Sp.  Alruor,  Aza/ran  boMlardo; 
Ruai.  Poterroi,  Prostoi  .icAq/'ran),  the  flower  of  an  an- 
nual plant  (Carlhamut  tinctorius,  Linn.)  growing  in 
India,  Egypt,  America,  and  some  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  Europe.  It  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  saflVon 
by  the  eye,  but  it  has  nothing  of  its  smell  or  taste. 
The  flowers,  which  are  sometimes  sold  under  the  name 
of  laffranon,  are  the  only  parts  employed  in  dyeing. 
They  yield  two  sorts  of  coloring  matter:  one  soluble 
in  water,  and  producing  a  yellow  of  but  little  beauty ; 
the  other  is  remout,  and  best  dissolved  by  the  tlxcd 
alkalies :  it  is  this  last  which  alone  renders  safflowcr 
so  valuable  in  dyeing ;  as  it  aflbrds  a  red  color  exceed- 
ing in  delicacy  and  beauty,  as  it  does  in  costliness,  any 
which  can  be  obtained  even  from  cochineal,  though 
much  inferior  to  the  Utter  in  durability.  The  color 
of  safiiower  will  not  bear  the  action  of  soap,  nor  even 
that  of  the  lun  and  air  for  a  long  time ;  and  being  very 
costly,  it  is  principally  employed  for  imitating  upon  silk 
the  fine  scarlet  {ponceau  of  the  French)  and  rose  colors 
dyed  with  cochineal  upon  woolen  cloth. 

The  fine  rose  color  of  saiHower,  extracted  by  crj-stal- 
liied  soda,  precipitated  by  citric  acid,  then  slowly  dried, 
and  ground  with  the  purest  talc,  produces  the  beauti- 
ful rouge  known  by  the  name  of  rouge  tigitale.  8af- 
flower  should  be  chosen  in  flakes  of  a  briglit  pink  color, 
and  of  a  smell  somewhat  resembling  tobacco.  That 
which  is  in  powder,  dark-colored,  or  oily,  ought  to  be 
n^ected. — HASSELqiiiST's  Voyagtt,  Engl.  ed.  p.  362; 
Bamcroft's  Permaneiu  Colon,  vol.  i.  p.  286-28!);  Mii.- 
hurn's  Orient,  Commerce. 

Baffron  (Ger.  Saffron ;  Du.  Safmn;  It.  Zafferano; 
Sp.  Saffron;  Fr.  Azof  ran;  Russ.  Sckafran),  a  sort  of 
cake  prepared  from  the  stigmas,  with  a  proportion  of 
the  style,  of  a  perennial  bulboua  plant  (Crocut  talivut, 
Linn.).  When  good,  safTron  has  a  sweetish,  penetra- 
ting, difTuaive  odor;  a  warm,  pungent,  bitterish  taste; 
and  a  rich,  deep  orange-red  color.  It  should  bo  chosen 
fresh,  in  close,  tough,  compact  cakes,  moderately  moist, 
and  possessing  in  an  obvious  degree  all  the  above-men- 
tioned qualities.  The  not  staining  the  fingers,  the 
making  them  oily,  and  its  being  of  a  whitish  yellow  or 
blackish  color,  indicate  that  it  is  bad,  or  too  old.  Saf- 
flron  is  used  in  medicine  and  in  the  arts ;  but  in  Kn- 
gland  the  consumption  seems  to  be  diminisliing.  It 
is  employed  to  color  butter  and  cheese,  and  also  by 
painters  and  dyers. — Thomson's  Dispensatory;  Lou- 
nos's  Encydoptdia  of  Agriculture. 

SagapMluni  (Arab.  SugbenuJ),  a  concrete  gum- 
resin,  the  produce  of  an  unknown  JE'ersian  plant.    It 


is  imported  ft«m  Alexandria,  Smynia,  eie.    Tt  hai  on 
odor  of  garlic,  and  a  hot,  acrid,  bitterish  taste.     It  is 
in  agglutinated  drops  or  maaaea,  of  an  olive  or  brown- 
ish yellow  color,  slightly  traiiaiucrnt,  and  breaking 
with  a  homy  fracture.     It  softi-ns  and  is  tenacious  be- 
tween the  Angers,  melts  at  a  low  heat,  and  bums  with  a 
crackling  noise  and  white  flame,  giving  out  abundance 
of  amoke,  and  leaving  behind  a  light  a|iongy  charcoal. 
It  is  used  only  in  medicine. — TilnMsoii'H  JHtpeiuntorg. 
BagO  (Malay  iSo^m  ;  Jav.  Sagu),  a  apecles  of  meal, 
the  produce  of  a  palm  {Mttroxylon  Sagxi)  indigenous 
to  and  abundant  in  such  of  the  Fjutern  islands  as  pro- 
duce spices,  whero  it  supplies  a  principul  part  of  the 
farinaceous  food  of  the  inhabitants.     Ir  la  produced  In 
China,  Japan, Molucca,  and  the  South  Sea  lalanda.  Tha 
tree,  when  at  maturity.  Is  about  80  feet  high,  and  from 
18  to  'a  inches  in  diameter.     Itefora  the  formation  of 
the  ftult,  the  utem  consists  of  an  external  wall  aliout 
two  inches  thick,  the  whole  interior  being  tilled  up  with 
a  sort  of  spongy  medullary  matter.     Wh<in  the  tree  at- 
tains to  maturity,  and  the  ft'uit  Is  formed,  the  stem  is 
quite  hollow.     Being  cut  down  at  a  proper  period,  the 
medullary  part  is  extracted  from  the  trunk,  and  re- 
duced to  a  powder  like  saw-dust.     The  filaments  are 
next  separated  by  washing.     The  meal  la  then  laid  to 
dry ;  and,  being  made  into  cakes  and  baked,  is  eaten 
by  the  ialandera.    For  exportation,  the  finest  aago  meal 
is  mixed  with  water,  and  the  paste  rubbed  into  small 
grains  of  the  size  and  form  of  coriander  aceda.     This  Is 
the  species  principally  brought  to  England,  for  which 
market  it  should  be  chosen  of  a  reddish  hue,  and  readily 
dissolving  in  hot  water  into  a  fine  jelly.    Within  these 
few  years,  however,  a  process  has  been  invented  by 
the  Chinese  for  refining  sago,  so  as  to  give  it  a  fine 
pearly  lustra;  and  the  sago  so  cured  is  in  the  highest 
estimation  in  all  the  markets.     U  is  a  light,  whole- 
some, nutritious  food.      It  is  tent  from  the  islands 
where  it  is  grown  to  Singapore,  whrra  It  is  granulated 
and  bleached  by  the  Chinese.    'I he  export  trade  to  Eu- 
rope and  India  is  now  principiilly  confined  to  that  set- 
tlement.— Ainhlie's  Mat.  Indices;  CRAwruiiD'a  Eatl. 
Archipelago ;  Bei.i.'m  Review rfli.e  Commerce  nf  Bengal. 
Bahara,  or  the  Great  Deitort  (Arab.  Zahra),  a 
vast  region  of  northern  Africa,  extending  between  let. 
16'  and  83°  N.,  and  long.  17°  W.,  and  23°  10'  E,   Hound- 
ed east  b}'  Egypt  and  Nubia,  south  by  Sencganibia  and 
Nigritia,  west  by  the  Atlantic,  and  north  l>y  barbery. 
It  consists  of  an  elevated  table-land,  covered  with  largo 
blocksofatone,  hard-baked  earth,  gravel,  andloose  sand ; 
and  in  many  places  it  is  incrusted  with  salt.    It  is  the 
greatest  desert  on  the  globe,  but  numerous  oaaes  and 
habitable  spota  are  scattered  over  its  surface,  the  largest 
of  which  are  Gadames  and  Tuat.     It  is  traversed  in 
many  directions  by  caravan  routes ;  travelers  on  which 
undergo  the  most  intense  sufferings  from  thirst,  and 
from  exposure  to  the  simoom,  or  hot,  dry  wind  from  the 
south  and  east,  which  usually  lasts  10  or  12  hours : 
(luring  its  continuance  the  air  is  impregnated  with  fino 
sand,  and  the  sun  is  borely  perceptible.     Rain  appears 
to  fall  in  torrents  at  intervals  of  5, 10,  or  20  years,  and 
many  places  of  the  desert  bent  evidence  of  its  action 
avcn  for  a  much  longer  period.     The  heat  is  excessive 
(luring  the  summer,  but  in  winter  tlie  evenings  are  cool, 
and  during  night  frequently  cold.     Palm-trees  grow 
on  the  borders  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  chief  products  of 
its  oases  are  dates  and  gums. 

Bail,  in  Narigation,  an  assemblage  of  several  breadths 
of  canvas  sewed  together  by  the  lists,  and  edged  round 
with  cord,  fastened  to  the  yards  of  a  ship  to  make  it 
drive  before  the  wind.  The  edges  of  the  cloths  or 
pieces  of  which  a  sail  is  composed  are  generally  sewed 
together  with  a  double  seam,  and  the  whole  is  akirted 
round  the  edges  with  a  cord,  called  the  bolt-rope.  Al- 
though the  form  of  sails  is  extremely  different,  they 


8AI 


leet 


8AI 


tn  all,  n«T*rth«l«M,  (rIanguUr  or  qntdriUltrkl  flRurci ; 
or,  in  other  worda,  their  turficri  are  vunltinail  either 
Iwtween  three  or  four  lidei.  The  fornirr  of  theie  are 
•omelimM  ipreid  by  k  yard,  M  lateen  uiU,  and  olher- 
wIm  hy  >  itay,  ai  itay-iaiU,  or  by  a  mail,  ai  rhoulder- 
of-miitlon  aaiU ;  In  ail  which  caMi  the  foramott  leech 
or  edge  la  attached  to  (he  laid  yard,  mad,  or  atay, 
throughout  iti  whole  length.  The  latter,  or  thOie 
whkh  are  four^ided,  are  either  extended  by  yardi,*u 
the  principal  yarda  of  a  iliip ;  or  by  yards  and  boom*, 
ai  the  ituddlng^alli,  driven,  rlng-taili,  and  all  those 
sails  which  are  set  occasionally ;  or  by  gaffii  and  booms, 
as  the  mainsails  of  sloops  and  brigantines. 

Sail  is  also  a  name  applied  to  any  vessel  seen  at  a 
distance  under  sail,  and  is  equivalent  to  ship. 

To  Ml  Hiil,  Is  to  nnfurl  and  expand  the  satis  opon 
their  respective  yards  and  stays,  in  order  to  begin  the 
action  of  sailing. 

To  male*  tail,  Is  to  spread  an  additional  qnantity  of 
sail,  so  as  to  increase  the  ship's  velocity. 

To  $horttn  tail,  Is  to  reduce  or  take  in  part  of  the 
sails,  with  an  intention  to  dimlniih  the  ship's  velocity. 

To  itrik*  taH,  Is  to  lower  it  suddenly.  This  is  psN 
tieularly  used  In  saluting  or  doing  homage  to  a  superior 
force,  or  to  one  whom  the  law  of  nations  acknowledge* 
as  stiperior  in  certain  regions. — See  Blunt's  Coail  Pi. 
hit  Bl.UHT'a  Ship-maMer'i  Auiitaitl,  New  York,  1867 ; 
DoWditch's  ffatigatkm. 

^<<t"f,  the  movement  by  which  ■  vessel  Is  wafted 
along  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  action  of  the 
wind  upon  her  sails.  When  a  ship  changes  her  state 
of  rest  to  that  of  motion,  as  in  advancing  out  of  a  har- 
bor, or  flrom  her  station  at  anchor,  she  acquires  mo- 
tion very  gradually,  as  a  body  which  arrives  not  at  a 
certain  velocity  till  after  an  inflnit*  repetition  of  the 
action  of  Its  weight.  The  first  impression  of  the  wind 
greatly  aflbcts  its  velocity,  because  the  resistance  of 
the  water  might  destroy  it :  since  the  velocity  being 
but  small  at  first,  the  resistance  of  water  which  de- 
pends upon  it  will  be  very  feeble.  Bnt  aa  the  ship  in- 
creases her  notion,  the  force  of  the  wind  on  tho  sslls 
will  be  diminished ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  resist- 
ance of  the  water  on  the  bow  will  aocumulata  in  pro- 
portion to  the  velocity  with  which  the  vessel  advances. 
Thus  the  repetition  of  the  degrees  of  force,  which  the 
action  of  the  sail  adds  to  the  motion  of  the  ship,  is  per- 
petually decreasing ;  while  the  new  degrees  added  to 
the  eflbrt  of  resistance  on  the  bow  are  always  augment- 
ing. The  velocity  is  then  accelerated  in  proportion  aa 
the  quantity  added  is  greater  than  that  which  is  sub- 
tracted; but  when  the  two  powers  become  equal,  whon 
the  impression  of  the  wind  on  the  sails  has  lost  ao 
much  of  its  force  as  only  to  act  in  proportion  to  the 
opposite  impulse  of  resistance  on  the  bow,  the  ship  will 
then  acquire  no  additional  velocity,  but  continue  to  sail 
with  ■  constant,  uniform  motion.  The  great  weight  of 
the  ship  may,  indeed,  prevent  her  fk'om  acquiring  the 
greatest  velocity;  but  when  she  has  attained  it,  she 
will  advance  by  her  own  intrinsic  motion,  without  gain- 
ing any  new  degree  of  velocity,  or  lesnenlng  what  she 
has  acquired.  She  moves  then  by  her  own  proper 
force  m  vacuo,  without  being  afterward  subject  either 
to  the  eRbrt  of  the  wind  on  the  sails,  or  to  the  resii  t- 
ance  of  the  water  on  the  bow.  If  at  any  time  the  im- 
pulsion of  the  water  on  the  bow  should  destroy  any 
part  of  the  velocity,  the  effort  of  the  wind  on  the  sails 
will  revive  it  so  that  the  motion  will  continue  the  same. 
It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  this  state  will  only 
subsist  when  these  two  powers  act  upon  each  other  in 
direct  opposition,  otherwise  they  will  mutually  destroy 
one  another.  The  whole  theory  of  working  ships  de- 
pends upon  this  counter  action,  and  the  perfect  equal- 
ity  which  should  au'osist  between  the  effort  of  tb«  wind 
and  the  impulsion  of  the  water. 

The  elliBct  of  sailing  is  produced  by  a  Judicious  ar- 
rangement of  the  sails  in  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Aocordlnlily,  tb*  viiriau  mode*  of  sailing  are  derived 


fW)m  the  difflirent  degrees  and  situations  of  th*  wind 
with  regard  to  the  course  of  the  vessel, 

SaUiitg  also  implies  a  particular  mode  of  navigation, 
which  Is  Atrmsd  on  the  principles  and  regulated  bv  the 
laws  of  trigonomstry.  Hence  we  say,  Plain  8aillng, 
Msreator's,  Mlddle-latitud*,  Parallal,  and  Orsat-elrcT* 
Sailing. 

■alnt  Ohrtatoplm',  or  Saint  Kitt'a,  en*  of  ih« 
British  West  India  Islands,  leeward  group ;  lat.  (Port 
Smith)  XT'  17'  7"  N.,  long.  flO'  42'  2"  W.  Length, 
northwest  to  aouthenst,  20  miles;  breadth,  S  miles. 
Area,  08  square  miles.  Population  in  .Isnuaty,  18Sft, 
mains,  gA2fi;  females,  11,216;  total,  20,7-11. 

Slapli  /Vodurftans.— Sugar,  rum,  molasses,  arrow- 
root,  fruitii,  and  vegetables.  The  l)i>lted  States  export 
to  this  island  flour,  grain,  lumber  (principally  pltob> 
pine),  and  provlalons  of  all  kinds. 

RaviNca  AND  ExriNomai,  ISM-'M. 

VcMit.                                       Uttnm.  ■■M«mM«, 

IHM ill4,(H5  iflO.UM 

19.10 1^1T^  Iv.Tgl 

1880 ia,tt4  it\ou 

VlSSIU  linSID  AND  OLBABCD  IN  18M. 


Coyntrtof 


UliUeU  KliigUuiu  . 
British  Colonies., 

Unltml  States 

Forsign  8tat«i. . , . 

TaUI,18U.,.. 
Total,  19l».... 
ToUI,1864.... 


V.iMl«.  I      Twn. 


HI 
910 

ta 

W8 
l»T 
408 

S81 


<l,i«t 

e,iT5 

4,201 

B,4M 

ll,Sil 

1B,A96 

II,T41 


VhmU.    ■   Tii 


to 

ill) 
IS 

nu 


414 
SB'I 


l),«SI 
0,714 
BMt 

N41« 


1N,7»8 


VALua  or  iMrotn  add  Exroata  o»  ftr.  OnsisTOPaiB. 
J5J» £Wy«m  4:iiIs,ow 

JSS '•'""T  144,049 

1800 109,OOS  m,BB8 

Anvtri.rs  ixroniD  iii  inn  Yia»  1600, 


Floor,  poiinilH SWt.JNt 

Heal,  pounds 800,000 

Rnm  snd  otlier  spirits,  gallons 120,W'i 

Molassei,  gsllons 14,1,BR0 

Bait,  barrels 9g,nsT 

Sugar,  tons 4,041 

Mlsoellaneous 


<«,IITO 
1,010 

]!,N1» 

8,04% 

1,T0» 

10'>,001 

7,830 

Saint  Croia^  the  southernmost  and  largest  of  th* 
Virgin  Islands,  and  the  most  important  of  the  'Janish 
posaeaaiona.  Area,  100  aquare  mile*.  Population  (1846), 
26,600. 

The  commercial  intercourse  between  this  island  and 
the  United  States  depend*  partly  en  the  mother  coun- 
try, and  partly  on  local  legislation  fixed  fer  the  time. 
There  are  no  privileges  allowed  other  oountriea  which 
are  not  allowed  the  United  Stntea.  Qoods  may  bo  re- 
shipped  in  American  vessels.  The  money  currently 
passing  here  is  dollars  and  cents.  Danish  weight  Is 
about  10  per  cent,  heavier  than  English.  The  trad*  to 
this  island  is  now  leaa  than  one-third  of  what  it  was 
before  the  emancipation.  Oftentimes  there  is  not  an 
American  vessel  in  port  for  months  together.  The 
supplies  come  generally  through  St.  Thomas,  which  is 
a  free  port,  and  yet  under  the  same  government. — For 
Geology  of  St.  Croix,  itt  Siluman's  Jotim.  xxxv.  64. 
AaaaioAN  Pbodvob  inroarxD  dibiot  nnro  tbb  Isuuid  or 

bT.  C'BOIZ. 


AlUoW 

rui. 

Itll. 

llit. 

Corn  nuftl  .........  DUDoh'nik 

To 

8,140 
830 

4,000 
748 

Com  meal barrels. 

anperflnn  flour " 

8,504 

8,540 

••>K 

Braad •' 

940 
00 

910 

T4 

lOO 
80 

Beef. " 

Pork " 

41C 

BOO 

810 

Herrings " 

s»\itA casks. 

090 

410 

900 

980 

918 

810 

Ryeflour barrsls. 

1V4 

108 

910 

Redoakstaves 

931,000 

240,000 

200,000 

White  oak  staves 

140,000 

1911,000 

110,000 

White  pine  lumber  llMt 
Pitch  pin*  lumber .    " 

i.ooT.noo 

1,700.000 1,720,000 

810.000 

ISIS^O'O'    M6,000 

ahlnglae 

9,818,000 

1,080,000  l.tSfOOO 

Horses number. 

14 

99             90 

Mules " 

100 
TO 

188           UO 
(8            78 

KecsofDalls '• 

Wood  hoops •' 

910,000 

980,000    9*0,000 

Ml 

lyp 


Ma 


SAI 


1003 


RAI 


FMBVonofTiii  IiLAKD  aiirotTni  Toraa  rNinn  Btatu, 


4,0601 
14S 

8,ll» 

IM 

SO 

SIO 

sm 

810 

no 

IW.OOO 

Ltm.ooo 

>«B,000 

^.mooo 

r         JO 
IfiO 

» 

1180,000 


AMUImi' 


,  ItogiEaMil. 
barnla. 
piinrhmnt. 


lUt. 

ini, 

DIM 

luBT 

7WI 

16 

DID 

ItSBI 

■•int  BaUlM,  an  iilaml  in  tha  aoutli  Atlantic 
OcM*,  iMlunKlMH  to  Urost  Britain,  aliuut  HuU  nilla* 
toullMHt  fruni  Aavaniion,  and  nearly  IHIO  nillea  from 
tha  ooMt  of  I<aw«r  Utilnaa.  L^it.  uroliiarvatory,  16"  !>b' 
8.,  lonu.  t)'  W  K.  Aroa,  80,1100  acro».  Pupulatlon  In 
IMO,  ?U0O,  uf  whom  nearly  onu-half  wore  wliliei.  It  U 
of  vokanlo  url||ln,  and  contlati  of  rugged  niountaint, 
Intaraparaad  with  numaruui  ravlnea,  In  ona  of  which, 
on  lla  northwaat  ahora,  la  Jamea  Town,  tha  rviidencu 
of  th«  principal  autbortliea.  Ita  centre  ia  a  talilo'lanil, 
with  an  alavation  of  15U0  feel,  but  from  which  acveral 
mountaina  rliio  to  a  greater  elevation,  DItna'a  I'aali 
balnif  liTOU  feet.  Climate  mild.  Muan  trniperatura 
of  year,  Ol"!!}  winter,  &8°-4;  aummer.  UD'H.  TheUI- 
•nd  la  watored  liy  numeroua  brooka,  and  alwut  a  fifth 
part  of  Ita  aurfaco  la  fertile,  yicldinK  the  product*  both 
of  Kuropean  and  tropical  countriea.  Uoata  are  plenti- 
ful In  the  uplanda ;  but  aupplioa  of  provisions  are  moat- 
\y  procured  from  abroad,  the  liland  lying  in  the  home- 
ward track  of  ahlpa  nturning  flroni  India.  8t,  Ilolenit 
la  chiefly  noted  aa  the  place  of  exile  of  Napoleon  Uona- 
parto,  whoao  raaldence,  Longwood,  waaon  tha  elevated 
plateau  of  the  Interior,  llo  lived  there  from  IHia  till 
hli  daceaae.  May  6th,  1H21. 

Tha  United  Htatea  have  a  conaul  resident  at  this 
Uland,  which  la  freiiucntly  visited  by  our  nhipa  to  ami 
fh>m  Asia,  India,  l^apo  of  Good  Hope,  etc.  By  act 
of  8  and  4  William  IV.  the  Island  of  8t.  Helena,  and 
all  furta,  factoriea,  and  public  edillces,  wore  vested  in 
His  M^oaty,  and  tha  Uland  aball  bo  governed  by  or- 
dara  In  council. 

The  average  aggregate  valuea  of  imports  at  this  island 
from  the  United  Utatea  are :  For  the  year  IM  jl,  $d4'29 ; 
for  the  year  IM&l,  $HU77 ;  for  the  year  1853,  $8U,8U'J ; 
for  the  aix  month*  ending  SUth  June,  18&I,  tli,'iH. 
Value  of  oil  and  whalobono  transhipped  by  American 
voatala  to  Iho  United  State*,  f  l(i,&'ij.  There  are  no 
prlvlUgea  pormitted  to  the  commerce  of  other  nations 
which  are  denied  to  the  United  Statea;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  are  privileges  granted  lolelj/  to  vessels 
of  tha  United  Htatea,  auch  aa  the  reduction  of  custom 
charges  on  the  transhipment  of  oil,  whalebone,  and 
•mpty  oil  cuks,  as  per  proclamatlun  of  September, 
1853,  and  the  remlasion  of  port  cliari;G8  to  whaling  vcs- 
mIb  calling  hero  within  three  months  after  their  first 
arrival,  aa  pur  notice  of  July,  1864,  which  accommo- 
dationa  have  had  their  effect  in  the  increase  of  the 
American  lleet  at  thia  port.  The  port  charges  are 
Ifvlad  allko  on  all  foreign  vessels  as  on  Uritish.  There 
are  no  charges  on  national  vessels,  either  British  or 
foreign,  and  all  are  alike  furnished  with  water  free  of 
charge.  There  Is  no  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  the 
rale*  of  exchange  depcn<l  on  the  parties  agreeing ;  gen- 
•rally,  however,  they  are  private  bills,  and  are  taken 
at  par;  the  commissariat,  however,  charges  li  per 
cent.  There  aro  no  duties  except  on  wiu'js,  spirits, 
and  lieer ;  only  a  wharfage  tax  on  .11  goods  landed 
from  Great  llrltaln  or  any  foreign  country.  There  are 
no  price-current  ahcets  lasued,  the  market  being  ini- 
atablo;  and  the  aupplies  from  abroad  (almost  entirely 
from  England)  being  Irregular,  every  thing,  as  a  gen- 
eral thing,  bears  a  high  value.  The  American  whaling 
fleet,  after  once  entering  this  port  and  paying  the  cus- 
tom (Ilea,  may  return  to  the  island  at  any  time  within 
thrw  months, /or  trover iirany  olheriupplifs whntioerer, 
vHthoui  bting  luhjtct  to  the  paytMnt  a  leeond  time  of  the 
tonnago  or  other  cnstom  fees ;  and  that  every  facility 
will  Iw  given  for  the  accommodation  of  the  fleet. 

■alnt  Johns,  a  lea-port,  and  capital  of  the  Island 
and  Brltlih  colony  of  Newfoundland,  North  America, 
near  tba  axtrainlty  of  the  most  eastern  of  the  numeroua 


peninsniaa  which  prnjact  ft'om  the  eastern  portion  of 
tha  laland;  lal.  47"  »8'  <1"  N.  i  long.  Ali'  4H'  \V.  I'op. 
ulatlon  In  InM,  tu,0(lO|  In  iNVi,  ll.niKl  (ranldcnO,  ItOOO 
llahomien.  The  trade  of  Mt.  Johns  cimiiIhIs  rhielly  In 
supplying  the  lliharmen,  most  of  wlmm  ara  Itoman 
Catholics,  with  clothing,  provlaions,  and  IlKliIng  and 
hunting  gear.  The  harbor  of  Ht.  Johns  Is  excallant, 
although  narrow  at  the  entrance |  the  ilninnel,  from 
Hnt  to  point,  bring  only  MO  falhoina  wide.  Th« 
tide  risva  5  feat,  ne*|>-tldea  n^  feet,  but  very  Irregnlarly, 
U'lng  much  Influanced  by  tha  wind*.  (JchhU  may  M 
transhipped  In  llidtad  Ntatea  vraaels  to  any  place  out 
of  this  Colony  without  rostriniion  of  any  sort.  1'ha 
welglila  and  measure*  are  the  same  aa  In  Kngland, 
The  moneys  are  In  a  great  degree  the  same,  namely  | 
sovereigns,  with  .Spanish  and  Mexican  dnibira,  which, 
however,  ara  now  faat  disappearing.  'I'lin  eurrreni 
value  of  the  sovereign  la  24  shillings,  eipial  to  #4  HO, 
and  of  the  dollar  5  shillings,  or  100  rents, 

Tiio  average  wholesale  prieea  of  Ihn  ex|Hirla  to  tho 
ITnited  States  since  July  I,  IRM,  have  been  as  fidlowsi 
.Seal  oil,  tiO  rents  per  giilinn  |  rod  oil,  M  cent*  per  gal- 
lon ;  codfish,  fi  50  per  i|ulntal ;  herrlnus,  (I'.'  4il  per 
barrel.  Salmon,  not  quo'.ed  above,  varli-s  friiin  tl'i  to 
tv!0  generally  for  the  tierce  of  1110  pounds,  The** 
articles  are  rarely  aold  at  retail  In  this  market,  Tha 
average  rate  of  exchange  waa  4  to  5  per  cent,  discount 
from  thia  colony  to  the  I'niteil  Ntates.  The  true  par 
of  exchange  Is  2  per  cent.  Tlin  duties  are  on  lm|Kirla 
from  all  countries  alike,  as  follows ;  llreail,  II  cents  per 
iiag  of  ll'i  lbs.;  flour,  .15  rents  per  barrel;  pork,  H 
cents  per  liarrol ;  beef,  48  cents  per  barrel ;  butter,  4i 
cents  per  ewt, ;  manufactured  tobaitco,  4  rent*  per  lb,  | 
tea,  0  cents  per  lb.  On  all  nnennmrratrd  gimdii  A  per 
cent.  n>i  valnremi  and  In  this  port  an  additional  dutjr 
is  levied  of  10  per  cent,  on  Ihi  ihilin  above. 

Saint  Lawrenoe  river,  Unltuil  Htatcs  ami  Can- 
ada,  forms  the  outlet  of  the  great  lakes  Hiiperior, 
Huron,  Michigan,  Krie,  and  Ontario,  and,  after  a 
course  of  more  than  2001)  miles,  Hows  into  the  (iiilf  of 
81.  Lawrence.  Itforms  the  linnndary,  with  the  niiddla 
of  the  lakes  through  whicli  it  paasc»,  lietween  lli«  Unit* 
ed  States  and  I'anadn,  until  it  arrives  at  tlie  4Ath  de- 
gree of  north  lat.  It  has  different  names  in  dltlerant 
parts  of  its  course.  l''rom  Its  mouth  to  l.nke  Ontario 
it  is  called  tho  8t.  Lawrence;  lietween  l.nkes  Ontario 
and  Krie,  Niagara  Kiver;  lietween  Lnkea  Krie  and  Ht, 
Clair,  Detroit  Kiver;  between  Lakes  Nt,  Clair  and 
Huron,  8t,  Clair  Kiver;  and  between  Lakes  Huron  and' 
Superior,  St.  Mary's  Kiver.  It  is  navigable  fur  ahlpa' 
of  the  lino  400  miles,  to  Qneliec ;  and  for  ship*  of  (KlO 
tons  to  Montreal.  The  distance  from  Montreal  to  Laka 
Ontario  is  nearly  200  miles,  Knini  Quebec  |u  Mont- 
real it  has  an  average  br<<adtli  of  two  mile*.  At  Itt 
mouth,  the  Gulf,  from  Cupn  Rosier  to  Bllnguu  aettla- 
ment.  In  Labrador,  is  105  miles  In  length.  Tho  eleva- 
tion from  tide-water  to  Lake  Ontario  (excoeiliiig  two 
hundred  feet)  is  overcome  by  seven  canals  of  vnrloul 
lengths,  from  12  miles  to  one  mile  (but  in  the  aggre- 
gate only  forty-one  miles  of  canal),  having  l(H-k*  two 
hundred  feet  in  length  between  the  gates,  and  forty-flvo 
feet  in  width,  with  an  excavated  trunk  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  forty  wide  on  the  waler-surw 
face,  and  a  depth  of  ten  feet  water.  Krom  Lake  On- 
tiirio  to  Lake  Erie  an  elevation  of  three  huinlred  and 
thirty  feet  is  surmounted  liy  a  canal  twenty-eight  milaa 
in  length,  with  about  thirty  cut  stone  locks  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  long,  by  twenty-six  and  a  half  feet 
wide,  designed  for  propellers  and  sail  craft.  These 
locks  will  pass  a  craft  of  aliont  five  hundred  tons  inir- 
den,  while  those  on  the  St.  Lawrence  have  a  capacity 
double  this  amount.  The  total  cost  of  this  navigation 
may  be  aet  down  at  $12,000,000.  The  Kt.  Lawrence 
Canal  waa  designed  for  paddle-steamers,  which  are  re- 
quired aa  tugs,  or  to  ascend  against  the  current;  but 


from  the  magnitude  of  the  rapids,  and  their  regular  In- 
I  clinatlon,  the  aid  of  the  locks  Is  not  re<iuired  In  d*- 


8AI 


1604 


SAI 


>wnilllii(  lh«  rlvir.  At  toni*  of  the  r*plil(  thar*  trt 
o'>iU<'l«<  |jr«vinllii|{  lh«  lUuimt  of  dnply-UiIrr  rraft, 
but  tlMK<>>  rrnniant  »n  aliout  In  gin  III*  nislii  chtnntl 
In  all  th«  ri|iliU  •  dtpili  o(  Itii  faal  walar,  «hin  Ihx 
whulu  (IwcumiliiK  Iratl*  lijr  ■twin  will  knap  Ilia  rivnr, 
lakvinR  tha  canali  to  Iha  Mcandlng craft. — itlra Canada 

anil  MoNTNKAL. 

Tha  raUtitre  poailiun  nf  llin  ITnlUil  Htataa  anil  (Iraat 
llrltain  In  rimpact  to  Iha  navlKatlon  of  ih«  Rreal  iinrlh- 
•rn  laka*  anil  tha  Klvar  Hi.  l^wranca,  appaara  lo  Im 
•Imllar  to  that  of  tha  Unitail  Htataa  and  Hpaiii,  pravi- 
oual/  lo  Iha  eoaaatlon  of  LouiaUna  and  Florida,  In  ra- 
•piicl  to  Ibv  llUaltsippI;  Iha  Unllvd  Htataa  bolnit  In 
(loaMaalon  uf  Ilia  loulham  ahoraa  of  tha  lakaa,  and  Iha 
Hlvar  Hi.  Lawranva  lo  lbs  paint  wh«r«  tha  northarn 
lioundary  Una  ilrlkea  Iha  river;  and  (iraat  llrltain  of 
Iha  nurthurn  ihuraa  of  tho  lakaa,  and  Iha  rivar  In  Ita 
whnia  axlani  lo  tha  »aa,  a«  wall  aa  of  tha  aoulham  lianka 
of  llio  river,  from  tha  lalltuda  of  46"  to  ita  mouth.  Tha 
claim  of  tho  poupla  of  tho  United  Htataa  of  •  right  to 
navlijala  tho  Nt.  I.  iwronca  to  and  from  Iha  lea  waa,  In 
lN'i6,  tho  au  ij  t  of  dlicuaalon  belweun  tha  Ainorlcan 
•nd  Hrilith  »'>''  'riiinenti. 

Tha  narlgc  i  n  of  tha  o  sntlnuoua  walara  of  the  Unit- 
ad  Htatea  and  Canuda  ir  provlilod  for  In  the  (ollowInK 
artli'lea  of  Iha  traaty  of  Juna  a,  IMM :  Tha  third  arllclo, 
vrhoaa  operation  tnaj  Ik  alTafltad  at  Iha  will  of  the 
American  govornriient,  hv  •  uapenaion  of  thla  privi- 
loK«,  aa  atlpi'.'iated  for  li.  tho  fourth  articia,  on  Iha  part 
of  (iroat  Urilain,  provldai  for  a  raclprocal  trade,  fnto 
of  duty,  batwoen  the  Unltad  Statet  and  tha  Ilritith 
cnloniea,  In  tha  artlclea  of  thair  raapectlva  growth  and 
proiluco,  aieiiuiiioratcd  In  theachadul'i  thereto  annvxad. 

"It  U  aKraod  that  Ihe  ritizeni  and  inhabitanta  of 
(ho  United  Htatea  ahall  havs  the  ri^ht  to  navigate  tha 
Kivur  Ht,  I.awreiico  and  the  caiiiil«  In  Canada,  uaed  aa 
the  nieana  uf  conimunicMlor  '">  een  the  great  lak>a 
and  tha  Atlantic  Ocean,  wlih  iliuir  vesaela,  boata,  and 
orafta,  aa  fully  and  froly  .t^  the  Biil|)ecla  of  Ilor  Bri- 
tannic M^Jcaty,  tulf)e<i  >inly  to  ihe  tanio  tolU  and 
other  aaseaanienta  aa  now  are  or  .nay  hereafter  ho  ex- 
acted of  Her  Mi^eaty'a  tald  tulfjecta;  it  being  under- 
■tuod,  however,  that  the  Brltiah  government  retaina  tho 
right  of  Buapending  thla  privilege,  on  giving  duo  no- 
tice thereof  to  tho  government  of  tho  United  Statea. 

"  It  la  further  agreed,  that  If  at  any  lliiio  the  liiltlah 
government  ahould  exerclae  the  aaid  reaerved  right,  the 
government  of  the  United  Statea  ahall  have  the  right 
of  auapendlng,  if  It  think  flt,  the  operation  of  Article  S, 
of  the  prcaent  treaty,  In  ao  far  a*  Ihe  province  of  Canada 
ia  aHected  thereby,  for  ao  long  aa  tho  >u«penaton  of  tho 
free  navigation  of  the  Itiver  St.  Lawrence  or  the  canal* 
may  continue. 

"Ilia  further  agreed,  that  Dritlah  aiil^octs  ahall  have 
tho  right  freely  to  navigate  Lalie  Michigan  with  their 
veaaela,  boata,  and  crafia,  ao  !  >  ;  aa  the  privilege  of 
navigating  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  aecurcd  to  the 
Americana  liy  the  abovo  clauae  of  Ihe  preaent  arllclo 
ihall  continue;  and  tho  government  of  tha  United 
Statea  further  engagea  to  urge  upon  the  State  govern- 
ment* to  aecuro  to  the  aubjecta  of  Her  nrltaniiic  Mi^- 
eaty  the  uae  of  the  aeveral  State  canala  on  term*  of 
equality  with  tho  inhabitant*  of  the  United  Statea."— 
Wkeaton'h  Jiitemational  Law,  For  curreapondence 
on  navigation  uf  Ht.  Lawrence,  aco  American  Annual 
Ktgutir.  11.  i;i7;  NU'En's  Regitttr,  xxxlil.  4n. 

Buuit  XiOuU.  -xly,  Miaaouri,  capital  of  St.  Lout* 
'.<..  r>t\ ,  ia  aituateil  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mi«al*sippl, 
lii  ;it'.  88°  87'  2! "  >:.,  and  long.  90°  15'  16"  W.  hom 
Oteenwlrh,  and  ia  ona  of  the  largest  and  moat  flouriih- 
\<\g  citiea  in  the  threat  valley  of  Ihe  Miaaisaippi.  It  Is 
1200  milca  alrave  Now  Orleana,  and  1360  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  tho  river.  About  180  milea  south  of  the 
city  the  Ohio  comes  in  to  the  Great  Father  of  Water*, 
from  it*  eaatom  sources  In  the  Alleghanies,  after  a 
course  of  1000  miles,  while  a  short  distance  above  ita 
mouth  th^^CamlierUnd  and  the  Tennessee  pour  their 


dream*  Into  l4i  Balla  NIvlera,  To  tha  norlhwani,  17 
niiiva,  the  Miaaouri  poura  nui  Ita  turl.lil  >.ir*am  into  Iha 
MiaalaalppI,  and  the  watr  a  tlow  down  tu  tlia  vary  fhinl 
uf  Iha  city,  liafor*  the  clair  wptera  «r  the  MiaalaalppI 
yield  Ihaniaelvaa  lo  Iha  ambracaa  uf  Iha  great  rlvara  of 
the  Weal,  coming  down  f^om  tha  sn'iwa  of  tha  Korky 
Mountaliia  ItOOO  miles  away.  At  a  dialanr*  of  lin  mlira 
lo  the  northward,  tha  llllnoia — now  I'unnertrd  with  Ih* 
lakaa  by  Ih*  llllnula  and  Michigan  Canal— romaa  In 
from  Iha  northaaat,  and  la  navigated  by  8l.  I.oula  Imat* 
aa  far  aa  the  Juiu'lion  of  th*  canal  and  river  at  La  Halls, 
200  nillaa  from  Hi.  Luula.  Nt.  !.oula  la  Ih*  centre  of  ■ 
great  rallmad  ayslsni,  radiating  to  all  parte  of  the 
Union.  The  ayatam,  aa  at  present  planned,  may 
atated  aa  follows :  The  I'arlllo  Knad  wlih  Ita  br>-  Mn 
Thia  rnail  runa  fhmi  HI.  Loula  lo  Iha  Merrliiiai  '  or; 
tha  main  lino  then  croases  the  divide  lietweei.  Ilia  ><  >rri- 
mac  and  the  Miaaouri  to  Jeinirson  City  'he  ''a,  '  >'  i. ' 
the  Hiatal  thence  leaving  the  river,  l<  >i\ii<  directly  to 
Ih*  mouth  of  the  Kanaaa  RIvt  ,  to  he  '  '  'rd  to  the 
I'acKIc,  through  Ihe  great  chain  nf  "  i.  Hy  Mount- 
ains.  Thla  ruad  ia  UU'60  .nilea  in  It  ili,  und  la  I1n> 
lahed  to  Jeffbraon  City.  The  Ohio  and  Mlaalaal|ipt 
Kallrnad,  from  Cincinnati  lo  Ht.  Louis,  was  uprnrd  in 
IM.'>7,  liail  milea  In  lenrrih. 

The  steaiiilioa(  Ion  i  ige  of  thla  city  will  appear  ftT>m 
the  following  table.  For  the  year  ending  Jiin*  HO, 
IH68,  Ih*  following  I'lliaa  atood  entered  on  the  took*  of 
the  ciiatom-houae,  as  fullow* : 


""      "   (III™. 

HI.  l/mis 

IM. 
II4.DIB 
m.DM 

8,17t» 
14,8W 

r-i«f.  — 1 

u.ia7 

IIMT 
ll.WuT 

iWl'"' 
45,  .141 
lU.llil 

1414 
I4,IM 

1  llnolnnati 

Naahvllla 

Uiilavllla 

thu*  *howing  an  Increase  at  the  rate  of  1 1 ,000  tons  per 
year.  For  the  year  ending  December  HI,  IMS,  Ihe 
sugar  laniled  at  Ht.  I.oula  was  60,774  hhds.,  13,093 
bbls.,  4(1,267  boxes  and  bags ;  molasses,  64,0H8  bbls. 
and  hhds.  For  this  article  St.  Louis  Is  the  great  cen- 
tral supply  mart,  liy  Ihe  government  returns,  all  tho 
sugar  shipped  from  New  Orleans  for  1862  was  &0,71'8 
hhds.,  and  6&.<H  bbls.,  while  St.  I^uls  imported  60,774 
hhds.,  and  13,993  bbla.  The  whole  imporU  of  colTea 
into  the  United  Stales  In  1868  were  199,089,828  lbs., 
and  of  this  St.  Louis  imported  10,714,720,  or  about  ane< 
twelfth.  To  show  the  liuaineaa  of  the  years  18&2-18&7, 
we  give  tho  receipts  of  certain  articles : 


ArtlrlM. 

IStl. 

ISU. 
10,103 

\ni. 
Xili7 

Tobacco . . 

....hhda. 

I4,III»S 

"       ,. 

....  boiea 

la.BSfl 

in,iMK 

IS.Ill 

Hemp.... 

....  Iiarrela. 

411,  WJ 

I'B.IUIfl 

7S,»(10 

I^ad 

Darrela. 

40D,ai4 

443,1118 

KASi'O 

Kiour  .... 

i3i.a.i» 

liflO.WS 

mih,a«i 

Wheat  .    . 

....  biiahelo. 

l,(»l,8fWa,()7T,49T 

9,8A0.IM;(I 

Com 

. .  .    icks 

I144,TVII 

4M,1(I1 

i,v4a,0('n 

OaU 

•  1 

Bi8,MI 

404,1  ai 

W.S.Odi 

Darter  oul 

.ii.ilt 

4T,«ft' 

«.!.*>« 

lU.IHl. 

Per*      .  . 

■    I- 1  »ea. 

H,W             .54 

Itu,(i00 

Lor 

II 

4t,6l.  ,      ,>b.H% 

5«,000 

*• 

.  kill      ito. 

n.sm 

I^SSO 

1B.O(»0 

Wl.i.»j  .. 

....  Umla. 

4«,44« 

BI,80T 

1!B,000 

Hide 

IT,I4H 

101,44(1 

186,000 

naming., 
■lain  ro|)e. 

....  niecea, 
....  rolls. 

8,(»0 
41,111 

2,8M 
(»,4ST 

_44!flflO 

Hour  manufactured  at  St.  Louis  in  1861, 408,099  bids.; 
1852,  883,184  bbls. ;  1863,  467,076  bbls. ;  to  this  muat 
h«  added  receipts  by  wagons  from  country  mills,  80,220 
barrels,  making  the  sum  total  of  the  flour  manufactured 
and  brought  to  St.  Louis,  737,499  barrels.  The  flour 
manufactured  in  St.  Louis  in  the  year  1856  was  678,000 
barrels ;  and  in  1857, 662,000.  Thcto  are  sixteen  flour- 
mills  within  the  limits  of  the  city.  Tho  number  of 
steamboat  arrivals  in  1867  was  3^116,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  064,700  Ions.  Foreign  goods  Imported  in 
St.  Louis  for  tho  year  ending  Decemlier  81 : 
I  I       TstiT       I         isti        I         isiir 

'  Goods,  etc....  $8TB.67t  S»  |$l,oa»,478  00  ,«l,4S«,98l  40' 
nuties 280,318  68  I      100, 168  SB         467,6(6  44 


—Stt  Musissipri  RiviB, 


fljf 


ie«5 


MAI 


,,  BM>,a6l 
ll.BOO.OIIfl 
Vt,«43,OI!0 

uo,ooo 

Ni.MH) 
16,000 
186,000 
180,000 

Jm',o«3 

ioOOblila.; 
Jthls  mult 
Ills,  80,220 
lufactuied 
■The  flour 
\»  678,000 
leen  flour- 
lumber  of 
^grcg»te 
Iportcd  in 


i«;»8r*o  I 

l7,«4«  4*1 


■•Int  VataiMbarg  ili*  niixlxni  aiiHlHlli  of  the 
KuhUii  iiii|>lrii,  •liiiai  »  the  eni\ltmnF!icl' till  )tjr*r 
Nava  widi  tilt!  vMUrii  >' s  iitilynrtheUulf  nrMntaad 
111  U(.  6U  '  M  ill  N.,  liHiK.  'M  \>>{  v..  INipuUlloni 
4HO,tlO0.  riiU  lliilirUlilHK  ain|i<>riuiii  >u  fouiiilnil  \,y 
Tuliir  lliu  Oriml,  wliiiM  nainn  It  iH'nn, .  I7i);|.  Imh* 
(ante  jriar.  Ilia  lint  iiKTi'liaiit  iihl|i  ilim  •■wr  ii|i|.iiitr«<1 
on  tha  Nuvii  arrlvoil  fruin  llulUml;  nml  tlm  ciar,  tu 
mark  liU  m'liM  of  tlia  valuii  of  iiii  h  vlnltiiri,  trvatcil  itit 
i'a|ilain  ami  craw  with  (lia  Kr"*'"'  hii>|iltnlUv,  and 
loailttil  tliviii  with  |ir«Miilj>.  In  KM,  111  ahlpa  arrlvml 
at  St.  IVlumliurK ;  In  17!IU  tliu  iiumiImt  hail  Imraiauil 
to  IMD \  ami  DO  rapiit  haa  Imwii  tha  proKrvaa of  luniniurri- 
anil  civilltiitlun  In  Ituaaia  tliicv  that  |ii'rl»<l,  that  at 
praiant  from  120U  to  WM  ahipa  annually  ontur  ami 
elaar  out  from  Ht.  IVtaraliurK  I  It  li  niiii'h  to  Im  ra- 
grattoil  tliat,  altlioui;h  fuvorablo  to  coniMirri'ii,  tlm  alt- 
uatkiin  of  St,  I'etvraburK  la  In  olhor  roaparla  far  from 
good.  'I'lie  Kround  on  which  It  atanda  la  vary  low  and 
iwampy ;  it  haa  on  dilVarunt  ocvaalona  aualulnml  gntl 
li\Jury  from  inundadona;  and  tlm  uiiinlry  roiiml  la, 
gunerally  a|i«aklnK,  a  miiraai  and  forual,  ao  that  ainioat 
ovary  thIiiK  raqulred  for  tha  aubaUtancu  of  thu  Inhali- 
itunta  nuiat  Iw  brought  from  a  dlatnni'n.  No  ana  Inaa 
bold  and  daring  than  I'utor  thu  (Ireat  would  havo 
thought  of  ai'loetiiig  luch  a  altuatlun  for  (hii  niotropolia 
of  hia  i^mjilra;  and  nona  poaautaad  of  loaa  power  and 
roaoluliun  ciiulil  liitvo  •uci.'aoilod  In  overi-omiiig  tlio  all 
but  Inaupcralilu  obaluvloa  which  tha  naturu  of  tlm  roiin- 
trjr  oppoaivl  to  tho  coinplation  of  hia  gigantiu  aclioiina. 

Cronatailt,  altuatod  on  a  anmil  iaiand  about  21)  mlloa 
treat  of  St.  I'litoraliiirg,  may,  In  lomo  nieaauro,  bo  ron- 
Bldarad  a(  tho  port  of  (ho  latter.  Almoat  all  vvaaida 
liound  for  8t.  I'litenburg  touch  thora ;  and  thoac  draw- 
ing above  8  fuet  water  load  aud  uuload  at  Oronatadt; 
tha  gooda  being  conveyed  fironi  and  to  tlio  city  in 
lighter*,  the  vhargea  of  which  vary  according  to  (ho 
doinand  at  the  time.  The  nierchanta'  harlwr  ut  Cron- 
stadt  la  lltted  to  contain  about  (HH)  ahipa ;  but  it  ia  om- 
poaed  to  tho  weatorly  winda,  Cronstudt  la  atrongly 
fortilled,  and  ia  tho  principal  atation  of  tho  Kuaaiun 
Hoot.  Vuaavli  bound  for  St.  I'eteraburg  muat  pasa  by 
the  narrow  channel  to  tho  louth  of  the  lalanil,  voiii- 
nianded  by  tlie  fortiflcatlona  of  Crouatadt  on  tho  one 
aide,  and  of  (Jronalot  on  tho  other. 

Munty. — Account!  aro  kept  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
throughout  Kuaala,  in  roubloi  of  100  copccka, 

Tho  only  gold  coin  at  proaent  struck  la  tho  }  im- 
perial, or  U-roublo  piece,  =1(«.  atcriing  very  nearly. 
Tiio  silver  rouble,  worth  8*.  2}J.  sterling  very  nearly, 
was  df'.'larod,  by  a  ukase  isf  uod  in  IBII'J,  to  be  worth  3^ 
paper   roubles. 

Iliac  another  ukase,  issued  on  tho  14th  June,  184.1, 
dirocta  that  the  old  bank-note  roubles  in  circulation, 
amiHtiiting  to  tho  sum  of  695,770,310,  liciiig  oiiual,  at 
tilt!  exchange  of  3^,  to  170,221,803  silver  roubles,  should 
be  called  in,  end  replaced  by  an  ianuo  of  17Q,221,000 
hilUls  dit  crcJit,  to  bo  oxchangcablu  at  the  pleaaure  of 
till'  holder  for  silver  roubles.  This  is  n  moat  important 
i^gulatlou,  and  if  it  bo  fully  carried  out,  tho  di.^tinctlon 
Uetwovn  silver  and  paper  roubles  will  disappear;  at 
till'  iaiiie  time  that  additional  security  will  bo  given  to 
all  aorts  «f  industrious  undertakings,  and  to  the  credit 
of  the  t;,ivorninent. 

IKtij/AM  nnul  Afeaturts. — Tho  Russian  weights  are 
the  uthh  fur  tfoU,  silvur,  and  merchandise :  viz., 

3 Buunlcka  —  I  Ixith.         I      4il  roiinda=  1  r»<>'l. 

3i  Lollis       =  1  round.       |      10  fooda    =  1  Ikirkovllt 

The  Itussian  pound  contains,  aivording  to  Koily, 
631)i'&  Kiigliah  grains.  Ilunoc  HW  lbs.  liussian  — 
90'26  lbs.  avoirdupois  =  40-93  Uh^.  Tho  pood  =  30 
lbs.  1  oz.  11  drs.,  but  am(>ii)(  Miervhants  it  is  rcclioned 
=  86  lbs.  According  to  Nclkenbro.-hcr,  100  lbs.  Itiis- 
sian  =  90-19  lbs.  a\ oirduf>ois  =  409  kilog.  =  828  lbs. 
of  Amsterdam  =  84-444  of  Hamburg. 

The  principal  measure  for  corn  is  the  chetwert,  di- 
vided into  2  oimina,  i  paiocks,  8  chetwericks,  or  64  ger- 
6S 


nlU.    Tlw  thatwurt  -=  IJ-77  lm|>i»rlal 
too  chalwarta  •=  /il  J  IniiMrlal  qiMtrtwik 


■i  lm)<ka. 
1 1  W«4rH 


In  ,ii|iili|  mei 
11  TihMkjr;^,       „ 
1  KraaMa  m  I  W«4rH. 
¥>  WMna   ai  I  «<i«»kaTT. 
The  Wailr*  s  tt  Knf  luh 
wUaaaaMana 


III  BaU 


:  1  Widtn. 


0  AiiVi'i     . .  J  liiiiaR 
«l>ihoft  I  Mpfc 

In  limg  ni>-aaure. 
I«  WarilK'k  ■■■  !   \n\mm. 
»  Anhmii    .    1  -laaliiilf 

Iff  Raahan      _.  I  VaraL 


I  Mahen  ,-  Kngllih  fi  i  I  ariihsan  s^  21  Kngllsh 
iii.be.  I'^l  Uuaalan  ftiflt  :=Uli  Kngllah  fell.  Tha 
vir>ii,  or  Uuaaian  nillv,  -  h  furbxigs  H  polra.  Th» 
Kiijjilah  liK'li  anil  liiMi  are  luwd  Ihmughout  U.\i«»l*, 
clililly,  hoHi'ver,  in  ih.  m»«>4rlng  uf  tiinlmr.-  Hkiw. 
i,*'a  Ciimbiit,  an  Kmuiai  N'Ki.aic.<<iiM»u  IIKU,  MmihI 
i'niimrl. 

Tile  fidlowlng  rvgulaliona  for  the  importation  uf  r  ' 
eign  giiiMla  ar'  airletly  iiin.no.l.     All  gci.»la  lm|Kir|, 
muat  bo  n< lompnnied  Ik  III.  I'.illiiwlng  iliKumimtai 

1.  The  ■Velnraliuii  ot  the  ■  u|'iiiiii,  ai'iirdliig  to  tin- 
form  orden^'l  by  tli    viintuni-livmie. 

2.  An  atteatutiiii  rruni  lUw  Uuaaian  <-iinaul,  shiI, 
where  there  la  no  eii  •iil.  fium  llio  cuatuni-huuau  ofljio 
place,  of  the  i|uaiilll,<  '<\d  ipiuUUy  of  tlie  goiHla,  and  a 
ilm-Uralioii  lliat  tliev  ,  not  Ihr  produce,  nninufaclure, 
or  property  uf  an  cue     v'h  country. 

3.  Illlla  of  Indiiiit  4i|  I  giM  ila,  In  which  the  weight, 
meaauru,  or  ipiiintItT  of .  i -li  package  miiMt  l«'  ipecllled. 
In  caao  the  bills  uf  lailli  ure  not  exiielly  after  this 
regulation,  the  pxida  pii  Imililo  duty  aa  a  line.  In 
coao  more  ia  found  than  i<|  iili-d  in  the  bill  '  i  lading, 
Ihe  aurplua  la  conllacnteil  T  Ina  la  found,  ihe  duty 
muat  bo  paid  on  the  i|uniitli  'pciilled.  Of  wine,  It  la 
not  suWciunt  to  spocll'y  tho  o  iimlier  of  pipea  or  hoga- 
headaonly,  but  nlao  their  com  nla  in  gallona,  eti-,  Of 
lemona,  the  niimlior  In  each  >iox  must  be  apccillod. 
Of  manufactiircil  gooila,  the  mea^«um  of  each  piece  muat 
be  sperllled,  and  the  niimlier  [ilecea  in  eaih  bale. 
It  is  indirtl-rcnt  nhi-llier  tho  ki  «»  or  the  net  weight 
bespecillcd.  If  the  packages  In-  Muf  Ihe  same  weight, 
measure,  or  conteiUa,  a  gcnornl  ■cclllcation  will  do; 
as,  for  example,  liM)  cnaka  ninui  of  17  liapound  each. 
Of  dye-woods  tho  wei(,'lit  of  (In-  whole  need  only  bo 
mentioned.  Of  gooda  iir»mull  bii;  .14  pepper,  c(c..  It 
isaufllclent  tu  statu  tho  weiglit  of  ev  live  or  ten  bales, 
but  with  spccilication  of  (lie  iiumbei  There  niua(  not 
beanyeraaurcsor  blots  in  (lie  liiilul  I  >  ling.  All  goods 
not  arcompanied  by  theae  'lucmmn  ■,  or  nticre  the 
documents  are  not  according  :u  the  ni  ve  regulations, 
will  be  aunt  back,  lliiis  of  lading  in  ir  bo  made  out 
either  (o  aonie  house  or  (o  ord'T. 

The  fullowing  charges  havo  been  fix-  ■  by  (ho  iner- 
chan(s  of  S(.  I'c(er8burg: 

Par  CI. 

f 'omnilaaton  on  aalca  ajiil  purehaaca i 

Kitra  cliarKca  un  all  Kootla 1 

t'omailaaloii  mid  oxlm  cliari;ca  for  guoda  dellV'*:red  up  ... .  % 

llrokeraKO  on  aalea  and  purehaaca | 

Ditto  on  bllla „ ..  i 

niKo  on  frelglil,  |ier  tun.  Oi)  cnpecka. 

Slampa ( 

l)hni),'cs  nil  duly,  paid  Inivui-il • 

Ditto,  paid  outward 4 

Cummlaaiun  fur  colierllni;  (Velijlit,  or  average  luwa-rd 8 

I'oniinlsalon  for  iirocurlnK  freight  outward t 

For  rloaraiicea,  40  roublea. 

Duoa  to  bo  paid  to  tlio  c:iiurcli,  10  roubles  eaoh  toimL 

Clearing  of  ahipa  of  or  under 

l!&  Isala  each 40  roubles  eat  j  vesoal 

SSto   noisstaoach 00      "  " 

ROto   76       "        80      "  " 

T.MoliX)       "        1IH>      "  " 

100  to  151)       "        160      "  " 

leOorabovo 200      "  " 

Tarf  on  Omth  exporleJ,  as  jUeil  by  the  Cuiiom-koutt. 
Bri  nadt.  Par  CI. 

In  bai-rela  or  cheats 10 

In  BACka ft 

In  mats,  or  aacka  made  of  msta & 

Kicept  M  uacovy  leather,  of  which  ia  deducted B 

JToM  Gt^t.  Par  Ck 

Preaaed  caviare U 

Soap V'"  Jr 

Heat  and  salt  flah ^••-  *0 


SAI 


1666 


SAI 


JMm  Omb.  Par  CI. 

T»lIow 10 

Honey 17 

Treacle 10 

All  other  molit  goodi IT 

Tare  on  Oooda  imported. 

Vrp  Gooda,  P«r  Ct. 

In  barrels  ur  chests 10 

In  vcsMcU  of  gloss  or  carthcn-ware 20 

In  sacks 2 


In  double  sacks 4 

In  mats 8 

In  easks  and  mats  together 5 

In  baskets & 

Moitt  Goods  imported. — Tho  following  are  sonio  of 
the  tares  spcciflcd  in  tho  tarlfT: 

OllTe  oil  in  casks IT  per  cent 

"      of  Italy,  In  flasks  ami  straw 20       " 

"      of  France,  In  flasks  and  carthoii-warc.  40       ** 

Salt  fish  In  barrels 86       " 

And  generally  on  all  moist  goods  In  barrels. ...  IT        " 

In  glass  and  earthen-wan: 20       " 

iliittllantnt  Oocdt, 

Cotton  IwlKt  in  bales 0  per  cent 

In  chests  and  barrels 16        " 

Cochineal  must  be  weighed  in  tho  sacks  after 
being  taken  from  the  casks;  for  every  sack  of 

from  4  to  T  poods 3  lbs. 

sncksoffromStoSlpoods 1  " 

Indigo  in  serous;  every  scron  of  from  6k  to  T 

|)oods 84  " 

"    In  half  terons,  2(  to  4  poods 20  >' 

"    of  Guatemala 20  per  cent 

"    In  boxes 20        " 

Bills  drawn  in  Russia,  and  payable  after  date,  are 
allowed  10  Aaya'  grace ;  but  if  pnyulilu  at  sight,  3  days 
only.  Sundays  and  holidays  are  included  in  both  cases. 
Tlie  Julian  calendar,  or  old  stylo,  is  still  retained 
throughout  Russia.  This  is  12  days  later  than  the 
new  style ;  and  in  Icap-yuars,  13  days,  after  tho  niontli 
of  February, 

Port  Charget. — Tho  regular  charges  which  ships  have 
to  pay  at  the  ports  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Cronstadt 
comprise  the  following  fixed  dues  and  expenses ;  viz., 
lastage,  passes,  clearing  at  Cronstadt,  address  money, 
St.  Petersburg  and  Cronstadt  churcli  money,  Cronstadt 
expedition  and  allowance  to  the  Russia  Company's 
agent,  for  all  which  a  charge  is  made  in  the  ship's  ac- 
count in  one  sum,  proportionally  to  the  ship's  register 
tonnage,  according  tu  the  following  scale:  viz., 


Tom  ItcgisUr.       fiilv.  Roub. 

For            61 4S    u 

•>    62  to  81 N)    0 

»     8ata101 61  14 

"  10Jtol21 66  28 

"  IMtol^l T4    0 

"  142tol«l T!)  14 

"  10«tol8l 84  V8 

"   182to20l 1)2    0 

"  20ito221 IIT  14 

"  222to041 102  20 

"  S:4ito2fll 110  28 

"  262to2Sl IIB  14 

"  28itoBOI 12U  14 

"  302  to  821 J2S  «a 


Tom  Rflfflator.  SilT .  Roob, 

Foril22to:>ll 136    0 

»  342to861 141  14 

"  3ll2ta881 149  14 

"  882ta401 IM    0 

"  402to421 102    0 

"  422  to  441 16T  14 

"  442to4ai 176  14 

'>  402ta481 180    0 

"  4S2tot)01 IBS    0 

•■  602to6il 193  14 

"  r)22lo64I 200  86 

"  612to601 206    0 

"  f.02toB81 214    0 

"  882  to  000 218  80 


Trade,  etc. — St.  Petcrsl)urg  lias  the  most  extensive 
foreign  trade  of  any  city  in  the  north  of  Europe.  This 
arises  from  its  Ijcing  the  only  great  maritime  outlet  on 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  from  its  vast  and  various 
communications  with  the  interior  of  the  country.  Few 
countries  have  such  an  extent  of  internal  navigation  as 
Russia.  Tho  iron  and  furs  of  Siberia,  and  the  teas  of 
China,  ar<'  received  at  St,  Petersburg  by  rivers  and 
canals  ri'a  the  Caspian ;  but  owing  to  the  great  dis- 
tance of  those  countries,  and  tln'  short  period  of  the 
year  during  which  tho  rivers  and  canals  are  navigable, 
they  take  three  years  in  their  transit.  Immense  quan- 
tities of  goods  are  also  conveyed  during  winter  upon 
the  ice,  in  sledges,  to  the  dift(>rent  ports,  and  to  the 
nearest  pristant,  or  places  in  the  interior  wheiti  br.rks 
pre  built  for  river  or  canal  navigation.  They  are  put 
on  board  in  anticipation  of  tho  period  of  sailing,  that 
the  barks  may  l>e  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  high 
water,  l>y  floating  down  with  the  current  as  soon  as  the 
mow  and  ice  begin  to  melt.  The  cargoes  carried  up 
the  riret  into  the  interior  during  summer  are  princi- 


pally conveyed  to  their  ultimate  destinations  by  tho 
sledge  roads  during  winter.  The  conveyance  by  the 
latter  is  generally  the  most  expeditious ;  and  it,  as  well 
as  the  intcrnul  conveyance  l>y  water,  is  performed  at  a 
very  moderate  expense.  The  barks  that  come  from 
the  interior  are  mostly  of  a  very  rude  construction, 
flat-bottomed,  and  seldom  drawing  more  than  20  or  80 
inches  water.  When  they  arrive  at  their  destination, 
they  are  sold  or  broken  up  for  fire-wood.  Those  that 
leave  the  ports  for  the  interior  are  of  a  superior  descrip- 
tion, and  are  comparatively  few  in  number ;  the  com- 
modities imported  being  at  an  average,  of  much  greater 
value  relatively  to  their  bulk  and  weight  than  those 
that  nre  exported. 

IViiicipal  Artiilei  of  Export. — The  principal  articles 
of  export  are  tallow,  hemp,  and  flax ;  grain,  particu- 
larly wheat;  linseed,  timber,  copper;  hides,  poliishcs, 
bristles,  hemp-seed  oil,  furs,  leather;  fox,  hare,  and 
squirrel  skins ;  canvas  and  coarse  linen,  cordage,  cav- 
iare, wax,  isinglass,  quills,  tar,  etc.  Tallow,  both  for 
candles  and  soap,  is  more  largely  exported  from  this 
than  from  any  other  port  in  the  Baltic  or  elsewhere, 
and  is  an  article  of  great  commercial  importance. — See 
Tallow.  Hemp  is  of  good  quality ,  tbougli  inferior 
to  that  of  Riga :  it  is  assorted,  according  to  its  quality, 
into  c/mn,  or  ^rsts;  oii/sAot,  or  seconds ;  an  A  half -clean, 
or  thirds.  The  first  sort  should  be  quite  clean,  niid 
free  from  spills;  the  second  is  less  so;  and  the  third, 
or  half-clean,  contains  a  still  greater  portion  of  spills, 
and  is,  besides,  of  mixed  qualities  and  colors.  Hu9i<!an 
flux  is  much  esteemed  for  the  length  of  its  fibre ;  it  is 
naturally  brownish,  but  becomes  very  white  after  the 
first  bleaching.  Three  qualities  are  distinguished ;  viz., 
12  head,  t>  head,  and  C  head.  Iron  uf  good  quality, 
and  preferable  to  that  from  the  other  Russian  ports,  is 
of  two  kinds,  old  and  new  sables,  the  former  being  tho 
best.  It  used  to  be  exported  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties ;  but  tho  shipments  arc  now  much  reduced. 

Commej'ce. — The  totol  value  of  tho  exports  of  St. 
Petersburg  in  1862  amounted  to  nearly  i(;)0,000,000. 
A  considerable  augmentation  was  experienced  in  cer- 
tain descriptions  of  merchandise.  The  quantities  of 
wool  and  copper  more  than  tripled,  and  of  wheat  and 
flax-seed  oil  more  than  doubled  the  quantities  exported 
during  the  year  1850.  Potashes  increased  60  per  cent. ; 
on  the  other  hand,  oats  decreased  §,  peltries  ^,  iron  {, 
follow  25,  per  cent. ;  flax-seed,  hemp,  and  woven  goods 
more  than  10  per  cent.  Sugar,  tobacco,  salt,  wincF, 
silk;  and  cotton  yarns  also  fell  much  below  the  upual 
importations.  An  augmentation,  however,  was  noted 
in  the  importation  of  fruits,  rice,  raw  cotton,  and  Cham- 
pagne wine. 

Notwithstanding  a  heavy  expenditure  was  npplieil 
by  the  Russian  government  to  the  improvement  of  St. 
Petersburg  as  the  commercial  emporium  of  Russia, 
still,  owing  to  the  numerous  difliculties  encountered, 
and  tho  severity  of  the  climate  allowing  but  six  months 
in  tho  year  for  tho  continuance  of  these  works,  the  re- 
sult by  no  means  realized  the  expectations  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  consequence  was,  that  the  low  waters 
in  tho  rivers,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of  water  in 
the  canals,  kept  back  the  produce  usually  forwarded 
from  the  interior.  It  was  not  until  toward  the  end  of 
July  that  the  trade  of  St.  Petersburg  exhibited  any 
briskness.  During  the  month  of  May,  several  Itriti.'^li 
vessels  arrived  and  cleared  in  ballast ;  but  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  July. and  August  freight  ollfered  in  great 
abundance,  although  the  arrivals  were  numcrou.s.  I'rom 
this  period  the  trade  continued  unusually  bri>k,  u'llil 
early  in  November,  when  the  navigation  closed. 

Sulijoined  is  a  statement  of  tho  principal  exports 
from  St.  Petersburg  in  1862 : 

Tallow.  To  Kngland 1 ,861,082  poods. 

Other  countries 1T2.8;4     " 

Total 2,o;l7,8(K)     " 

Average  price : 
81  roubles  Tl  kopecks  per  berkowitx = T^  cent*  per  lb.,  nearly. 


SAI 


1667 


FtAXiMD.  T«EnBla„d....  ,^ 

OtiH.r  «„..„,„;: : : : : : :  J|^  tcnet^renc    Woou  to  Engl.„a 

Average  pru„,  83V  c;;;t:pe;b„,jfiP,       " 
Flax  To  Knglnim  .  ''  "«"'y- 

Otlior  counlVlui"; ,' ''IM^  Pood.. 

,j,  6T,7fi2      11 

Average  price  for  beVl!  fll  ■,.■.-.!.■-■     ^'"•'^'i 


SAI 


Unfted  state,      TS'mo'"'"'''- 


17,8;i(i     1. 
8.108     •> 
iiw,,s.'i7     .. 
I'ur  iiood=:$()  75_ 
cuts  per 


Total 


Sweden,  eia::      IS? 


Mqu.ut,_ToWg,;-nd:::;:;'CMl 


10.435 

6.'m  "' 

8,074  x. 

'•il3,938  " 

118,04!)  '< 

118,274  " 

22,^2t  " 

7,081  II 

74«  " 

mJTl  " 

o^  cent,  per  pound,  nearly. 
4*    " 


Sweden,  etc. , 
K^nce... 
United  States! 

u       o.  ToUl 

8d  quallty^To  England .' .' .' .' ." .' 
Oormany. ...'.' 
.  Sweden,  etc 

United  States. 
France . . . 

.  Total 

Average  priceg,  lat  quality,  6 
2d       •' 
Sd       ' 

Cioing-canvas  for  sails: 

To  United  States.  4oi4„,„ 

Oerniany....  RTflnP'^"^* 

Kngland.  ?'I,?»      ' 

France..  ''^'^      " 

"       Flemish  wooIonV- '~ioM     » 

Franco '""1  ' 

,,        „            ToUI....             ■    = — 1  ' 

Baven's-duck:        '^'^'  " 

To  Germany »  bti  ., 

United  states.  l^J,  .'I 

oantlnia t  jao 

.   ^"7 .-im  .: 

Sall-cloth     (best  oTi^Tfl?^'!,'"''™''  •• 

Flemish  wooK  ^  '''"^*'  '„*  «",'.'"'^»  P«'  Pl<K.e=$l2  00 

Kaven-^duck  ..  »,  ^^  ;;    =*«76 

BU8TLM.  To  England  '  =     *  «^i 

United  Stktis". : ; : ; *'^'**^  poods. 

France..  ''•^■i     " 

Sweden...'; ^■■'!'">     " 

Other  countries, 

Total 

Average  prices: 


France  

Germany 

Italy...'.,;;;;; 

p,.  Ti.tal    .      - 

re£,^Slf5r::^';;^':^P^  export,  i,„,..  3, 

imbcr,  grains,  Kussian   either         ,'"'  """'  ''"mr, 
">g  staples  of  this  great  ~lZ"''  "'"-  "">  '«"1- 

JVoi,,^a(,o„„y,^,''^.'^;"'nm«rciaIeniporiu„,. 
P^'hibits  the  «avi.a;L:''J':,^"^.:-T'.o  following  table 
eva(,.e.  of  St.  Peters. 


bur,r       ,  ;,-  '"'^•'e'"ion  of  the  x;^'.-   <^°"?«in«  table 
burg  and  Cronstailt)  in  18  " 


Veueli. 


Natioaajjiy, 

Eiigiisir 

Riiaaian 

I'rtissian  . 

I'ulch '■ 

United  Statei 

owedish .... 

"anish.... 

French....'"  ,      ,.„ 

Sardinian..  'J? 

N'orwcgian...  ;;;;;;••     *j 
Hanoverian;;;;;;;:;;    ,!^ 

Mechlcnburff  '      ''^ 

Oldenburg.,, 

"romcn '  , 

Hamburg        "' 

I'ortugueso';;;;;;;'"     ^^ 

sels  included  in  the  lablowi'„t„r"'-a"-^ "''"'«  "s- 
and  do  not,  of  course  entoHn?  m*"*  "  ^t.  Petersburg, 
were:  ""'''*'"«' mto  the  calcuUtion.    These 


Tonnaife.     I     *'«'  tenlnirfl 

8ao,44a 

02,r.7() 

44,306 
88,016 
27,2S4 
10,862 

lo.zao 

13,1113 
11,012 

9,2S0 

7,080 

7,1162 
«,244 
6.700 
1,008 
1,636 

I       lllfl'flo 


I.ubeck 

Norwegian,;; ., 

I'mssian . .       f 

Knssian,       ; 

Swedish    i 


r97!a^„^°''''^''-P"Pood  =  . 
J$2l&  °"-  .i"'  "»""*•'  ""ond 


«  $35  25  per  80  pound,, 


Bremen ,' 

Wanish....   ' 

French  ...     

Hanoverian';;; l 

uuich ;;;;;;;"  24 

Aggregate  tonnage. .  '  Total  vessels . 

ans.     For  «■;  acco'unt  of    J  fZT  ^"r'"-'^-  '"''■"'■ 
»ia  and  the  general  sa,  '     ™rT""  "-"'.v  "f  Kus- 


....  70 
12,034 


=f^  per  Sfllonndror  oCn?'"""^  "''"  '"  '■  ""  P°o3    ,    S«^*  Thomas    oi;?''"'!^'/-  «'-^'A. 

Sonchaya,  20  ?.  perpoodi^S  m*^;:  ""»"''•  ^J'S".  group,  three  miles  wor„f  J  ",'',  ''"""  ''''""1, 

nts  per  pound ;  2d  qnalUylo    lo"  C.  "T^''  "^  «M  "'  "■•"'  ^--^f^mitv,  is"  oq^n    I        '.'  o'"'"-     f^otit'-'Ie 
pounds.  nr«n8 ._        '      •'  ^"'-  Per  rood  =  *T  Rn  _,_    .in  . .,       •!  ^°    -"  «.,  lone.  (i4°  r,\'  \\r 


■Pcrrnod  =  $7  60pcr    I'l 


cents 

S«pounds,'or»,g„nla  per  pound. 
UomkTaimandIIa.b: 

To  Germany. 

United  States; 

rranco..., 

England .;;;; 

Sweden,  etc 
Total ■  - 

8  "••  60  kop.  per  p„^  -I^ZT  P^'S:  '-■ 
tooLABat  ToEngirnd    *!!  ""'''*""'••  ^  ^^  «""■  Per  lb. 

Germany    ^MH  poods. 

Franco.     '•I"u     " 

Total.::::::::"" -J  " 

Average prir-'"  '    ''     " 


2,SC7  poods. 
2,678  " 
1,7,';0  11 
1,413  " 
1.013  " 
0,7-Jfl      " 


;;;' square  miles.  ' Popr^tQ^^  ^^  "^    ^roa, 
fhe  principal  products  are  suga   an  l™??'    *""'  """■■• 
.ri'o  commercial  in(ereonrr„fTi      .  ""• 


action  of 


'•'.0  present  com    ercial  reen t-™'"'""'"  government, 
'otinlte  period,  b  imn/  !"    .'  °"'  f'"""'  «-'<  for  a 


'»t  quality,  140 
impound,  nearly; 
^Mpcraopoundi, 


£Sf;!-."-^rK;t=X--^.nd. .,., 


'-.v  ">«  Mi„i.„,v  and  Kingof  I  ralk"'' n"'  "'• '"r'<"' 
"■or,  no  change  contemplate  I  un.n-'f.''''  '""'■ 
am)  ..„„..i_.:_  ,,      I  "'I"!,     11}  (ho  exist  iig  nws 

all  „a  ion,,    f     ,,„,i„^  „,^    fi_^a«s 

I  '"orcinl  interoo„r..o  wU  "l,'- -     """^  '"  "'"■■■  ™'"- 


aiid  regulation: 
|ooimlry,  areplacedontilu 


Ills  island. 


'xoept  as  to  the 


:*i^2«0pe7p'm;;,7°™"*'"'' 

__  ,  riablelciigil 

R«von's.r^'™'..'i™.".™''"yCO 
Ude. 
t  The 


„,.„! .        ,       '''''0  P''^<*s  of 


F-omthto'lenVlrl^'^'^f'- »"■>»• '• 

or  the 


tonnage  duties  on  ve.«scl3  entering  „,;,!    i    ': 

port,  which  arc  ■  on  all  r,,,„.  *'  '  '''""■"'»  <"  "'i 
ton ;  on  all  others  .".cluln™"  -■'"""''''■  '"  ""'^  ^'^ 
"i'tinrtion  is  probZ  „  "do  i;''"''™"'  "  ""'"'  ^''< 
'Inetiou  of  provision,  ratTr, I  T^"'^''  ""=  "'"o- 
««ieIos,  and  liq  u,r7C  , ,  f  o,"  r"  ''"'  «<""'''  ^""-^^ 
shipnient  in  :^sso^:72V^:/t:T:  JH^?' 


1 

any  other  nations. '  The  moneys,"  wdgh;;; 


•"r„STj;iL'a^rl^T=!i: 


SAL 


1668 


SAL 


and  measnrcs  known  and  in  common  nie  in  this  island 
are  the  sanio  as  tlioso  cstalilighed  by  the  iuprcme  law 
of  the  mother  country,  yet  the  gold  and  ailvcr  coins 
of  the  United  States  and  the  doubloons  of  Mexico  are 
also  in  common  use;  the  latter  is  worth  $16.  The 
notes  of  the  "  Banic  of  St.  Thomas"  (a  private  institu- 
tion not  incorporated)  and  tiic  notes  of  the  Colonial 
Bank,  issued  in  $5,  $10,  $60,  and  $100,  redeemable  in 
gold  and  silver,  according  to  the  standard  value  of  the 
currency  of  the  United  States,  form  also  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  colonial  circulation. 

The  naN  i;.;ation  between  the  United  States  and  St. 
Thomas,  as  shown  by  Consular  Returns,  was :  entered 
in  1851,  875  vessels,  71,410  tons;  clearcd,'3CC  vessels, 
69,847  tons;  total,  741  vessels,  141,267  tons.  Entered 
in  1852,  368  vessels,  09,490  tons;  cleared,  361  vessels, 
68,451  tons;  total,  829  vessels,  137,941  tons. 

FOBUGN  lUrOBTATIOMS  AT  St.  Thomab,  FBOH  j\rBIL  1,  1853, 

TO  .Mabvii  si,  1864. 

Denmark $12,849 

The  Duchies 40.(»2 

Altona  and  Hamburg 051,507 

Bremen 7,833 

Great  Britain 2,821,114 

Holland 80,282 

France 421,720 

Spain 44,866 

lUljr 60,406 

South  American  Slates 76,891 

United  States  of  America 670,733 

British  possessions  In  North  America  ....  9,454 

British  West  India  colonies 81,884 

Danish  colonlps 48,884 

Spanish  coloniea 106,477 

French  colonies 12,260 

Dutch  colonics 82,089 

Rvediab  colony 2,310 

Hayll 84181 

Total 4,654,781 

St.  Thomas  is  the  central  station  for  packets  in  gen- 
eral, and  for  the  steam  communication  between  South, 
ampton  and  the  West  Indies. 

Sal  Anunonlao.  The  manufacture  of  this  salt 
may  bo  traced  to  the  remotest  era.  Its  name  is  de- 
rived from  Ammonia,  or  tho  temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion, 
in  Egypt,  near  to  which  tho  salt  was  originally  made. 
Sal  ammoniac  exists  ready  formed  in  several  animal 
products.  The  dung  and  urine  of  camels  contain  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  have  rendered  its  extraction  from 
them  a  profitable  Egyptian  art  in  former  times,  in  order 
to  supply  Europe  with  tho  article.  In  tliat  part  of 
Africa,  fuel_  being  very  scarce,  recourse  is  had  to  the 
dung  of  these  animals,  wliicli  is  dried  for  that  purpose 
by  (ilasterlng  it  upon  tho  walls. 

Salep,  a  species  of  powder  prepared  from  tho  dried 
roots  of  a  plant  of  tho  orchis  kind  (Orchit  maacula, 
Linn).  That  which  is  imported  from  India  is  iii  white 
oval  pieces,  liard,  clear,  and  pellucid,  without  smell,  and 
tasting  iili(^  inigacanth.  As  an  article  of  diet,  it  is 
said  to  lie  li^ht,  bland,  and  nutritious. — Ainslie's 
.Vat.  fnilioi;  Mii.BuitN'd  Oriental  Commerce. 

Salmon  (tier.  Uu-hi',  Halm;  Fr.  Satunan;  It.  Ser- 
moiie,  fialamone  ;  Sp.  SulmcH ;  Ituss.  Lemga),  This  ex- 
cellent fish  is  too  well  known  to  require  any  descrip- 
tion. It  is  found  only  in  nortliern  seas,  being  unknown 
in  the  Mcditerronean  and  other  warm  regions.  In  this 
country  it  is  an  article  of  much  value  and  importance. 
It  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  abundant  in  Japan  and 
KanUschatka. 

Ureal  ISrilain. — Such  salmon  as  are  taken  in  estuaries 
or  rivers  are,  of  course,  tiio  property  of  those  to  wlioni 
tho  estuaries  or  rivers  belong,  tlio  llshcries  in  them  fre- 
quently letting  for  very  largo  sums ;  but  of  loto  very 
considerable  ({uantitics  of  salmon  have  been  taken  in 
bays  and  in  the  open  sea,  where  the  lishing  is  free  to 
any  one  who  ciiooses  to  engage  in  it.  Tho  London 
market,  where  tho  consumption  is  immense,  has  been 
since  1790  principally  supplied  from  tlie  Scotch  rivers. 
The  Tweed  lishery  is  tlie  first,  in  point  of  magnitude, 
of  any  in  the  kingdom ;  tho  toko  is  sometimes  quite 
MtonUUog,  several  hundreds  having  been  frequently 


taken  by  a  single  sweep  of  the  net  I  Salmon  are  dis- 
patched in  steamers  or  fast-sailing  vessels  from  the 
Spey,  the  Tay,  tho  Tweed,  and  other  Scotch  rivers,  for 
London,  packed  in  ice,  by  which  means  they  are  pre- 
served quite  fresh.  When  the  season  is  at  its  height, 
and  the  catch  greater  than  can  be  taken  off  fresh,  it  is 
salted,  pickled,  or  dried,  for  winter  consumption  at 
home,  and  for  foreign  markets.  Formerly,  such  part 
of  the  Scotch  salmon  as  was  not  consumed  at  home  was 
pickled  and  kitted  after  being  boiled,  and  was  in  this 
state  sent  up  to  London  under  the  name  of  Newcustio 
salmon ;  but  the  present  method  of  disposing  of  the  liali 
has  so  raised  its  value,  as  to  have  nearly  deprived  all  but 
tho  richer  inhabitants  in  tho  environs  of  tlie  fishery  of 
the  use  of  salmon.  There  are  considerable  fisheries  in 
somo  of  the  Irish  and  English  rivers,  but  inferior  to 
those  of  Scotland.  The  Scotch  salmon  fisheries  seem  to 
have  attained  their  maximum  value  toward  the  end  of 
tiie  last  war,  wh-in  the  fisheries  in  the  Tweed  were  let 
for  from  £13,000  to  £18,000  a  year!  and  those  of  the 
Tay,  Dee,  Spey,  etc.,  were  proportionally  valuable. 
But  the  value  of  the  Scotch  salmon  fisheries  has,  speak- 
ing generally,  declined  greatly  of  late  years ;  in  conse- 
quence, partly  and  principally,  of  a  diminished  supply 
of  fish  in  the  rivers,  but  in  sime  degree,  also,  from  the 
greater  facility  of  the  communication  between  London 
and  Liverpool,  and  the  consequent  importation  of  Irish 
salmon  into  the  London  markets. — Cencrat  lieport  of 
/Scotland,  vol.  iii.  p.  327. 

This  fishery  in  Canada,  at  the  present  time,  is  very 
small.  In  1786,  however,  the  export  was  considerable. 
In  parts  of  the  country  where,  in  former  years,  tho 
catch  was  largo,  a  few  barrels  of  pickled  salmon  only 
'verc  shipped  in  1848.  In  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
there  were  once  extensive  establishments  for  the  prose- 
cution of  this  business ;  but  some  have  been  broken  up, 
and  others  have  become  unprofitable.  Streams  that 
half  a  century  ago  afforded  suflicicnt  for  domestic  con- 
sumption, and  thousands  of  barrels  for  export,  now 
yield  only  hundreds  of  barrels,  and  the  quantity  is  rap- 
idly diminishing. 

Nova  Scotia. — The  loyalists,  who  went  to  this  colony 
at  the  peace  of  1783,  depended  very  much  upon  tliis 
fishery,  and  carried  it  on  to  advantage.  The  quantity 
of  salmon  exported  for  some  years  was  sufficient  to 
purchase  many  articles  of  comfort,  and  to  save  them  at 
times  from  the  miseries  of  pressing  want.  The  salmon 
has  entirely  disappeared  in  some  parts  of  the  colony, 
and  has  ceased  to  be  plentiful  in  all  of  its  rivers  and 
streams.  The  export  of  salmon  caught  in  the  colony 
is  not  large.  Tho  whole  produce  of  the  fishery  in  1851 
appears  to  have  been  but  1609  barrels. 

Newfoundland. — Tho  fishery  is  still  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, as  reference  to  the  accompanying  statistics  will 
show.  The-  export  in  1843  was  oven  larger  than  in 
1814. 

iMbrador. — Captain  Henry  Atkinr,  of  Boston,  who 
made  a  voyage  to  Davis's  Straits  in  the  ship  Whale  In 
1729,  and  who  visited  the  coast  a  second  time  in  ViiX, 
found  salmon  very  abundant.  In  Salmon  Kiver  both 
he  and  his  men  caught  many  while  wading,  and  with 
their  hands.  They  took  all  they  had  salt  to  cure, 
and  one  that  measured  four  feet  ten  inches  in  lengtli. 
Atkins's  account,  after  his  return,  seems  to  have  in- 
duced no  attention  to  tho  fishery  on  tho  part  of  lii.s 
townsmen.  In  1831  the  exports  amounted  to  'M'M 
tierces  of  the  pickled  fish,  of  the  value  of  $35,660. 

New  Brunswick. — Tho  loyalists  and  other  early  set- 
tlers found  the  salmon  in  almost  every  river  and  stream 
in  tho  colony.  At  present  it  is  never  seen  in  some,  is 
becoming  scarce  in  most,  and  is  of  importance  as  nn 
article  of  export  in  the  St.  Johns  alone. 

The  catch  at  Salmon  Falls,  in  the  St.  Croix,  thirty 
years  ago,  was  two  hundred  in  a  day,  on  the  average, 
for  three  months  in  a  year.  A  person  standing  on  a 
"jam  of  logs"  caught  there  at  one  time  one  hundred 
and  eighteen  with  a  dip-net;  and  a  boy  fifteen  yean 


1840  , 

it*)( , 

IM'i  , 
l«4»  , 

istn . 
iw  ,, 

l«4«,. 
"*4»  ., 
I860',, 


VMr, 

I8S1  , 


Vnn, 

"*47., 


SAL 


1669  SAL 


om  the 

^er«,  for 
are  pre- 

lioight, 
!8h,  it  is 
ption  at 
ucli  paft 
ome  was 
IS  in  tliis 
;ewcu8tle 
>f  tlio  lisli 
ed  all  but 
fishery  of 
shcries  in 
nferior  to 
es  seem  to 
the  end  of 
d  were  let 
lose  of  I  ho 

valuable, 
has,  speak- 
.  in  conso- 
hed  supply 
10,  from  the 
ecn  London 
lion  of  Irish 
U  Reporl  of 

ime,  is  very 
lonsiderable. 
ir  years,  tho 
salmon  only 
5t.  Lawrcnco 
for  the  prose- 
>n  broken  up, 
Streams  that 
domestic  con- 
export,  now 
lantity  is  rap- 

|to  this  colony 

Ich  upon  this 

JTho  quantity 
sufficient  to 
save  them  at 
The  salmon 
,f  the  colony, 
its  rivers  and 
I  in  the  colony 
bhery  in  1801 

Irthy  of  atten- 
Islalisticp  will 
lirgcr  than  in 

j  Boston,  wlio 
Ihip  irAfiif  in 
Itime  in  175'*, 
In  Kiver  both 
Eng,  and  with 
Isalt  to  cure, 
lies  in  length. 
J  to  have  in- 
|o  part  of  Ills 
linted  to  iiaO 
1  $35,660. 
Ihcr  early  sct- 
ler  and  stream 
\n  in  some,  is 
Lrtanco  as  an 

Icroix,  thirty 
1  tho  average, 
Itanding  on  a 
1  one  hundred 
]  fifteen  years 


old  tnok  about  flvo  hundred  In  a  aoason.  But  such  has 
huon  thu  dui'llne,  that  It  is  said  only  two  hundred  were 
takRli  during  llio  ontiro  year  of  185U  by  nil  who  engaged 
In  thu  litmlnosi)  on  tho  river.  It  is  stated  that  tho  dams 
ariiolod  auroiiM  tho  rivor  hnvo  produced  this  change  in 
tliu  llnliory,  niid  facts  appear  to  sustain  tho  position. 
Tliri  few  saiinun  that  now  appear  in  tho  Oromocto,  the 
Nitaliwaak,  the  Mnduxnakcag,  and  tho  Mispcch,  as 
well  nit  in  Kmurson's  and  Uardner's  creeks,  in  Great 
Nalmcin  Klver  and  Oooso  Creek,  is  attributed  to  the 
•ntna  iintiso,  In  two  or  three  of  tho  streams  of  minor 
iil/,(i,  wiiore  no  obstructions  exist,  and  wliore  tho  water 
1)  not  muddy,  the  pursuit  is  still  attended  with  some 
success  and  profit. 

Ill  soino  other  places,  tho  fishery,  but  for  tho  wanton 
ami  lawlitis  doitructlou  of  tho  tish,  without  reference 
to  its  coiidltlotl  or  tho  season  of  the  year,  might  bo  car^ 
ried  on  advnntaKcnusly. 

To  the  paA|da  of  tlio  city  of  St.  Johns  the  annual  catch 
of  salmon  Is  a  source  of  gain.    Tho  fisheries  of  tlio  har> 
l)or,  by  It  provision  in  tho  city  charter,  belong  to  the 
cltl>.ens,  or  "froomon."    Tho  fishing  grounds  or  sta- 
tions nro  lottfld  out,  and  sold  at  auction  every  year  for 
tho  lintiolU  of  those  who  aro  entitled  to  them  under  the 
charter.    The  practical  fishermen  are  tho  purchasers. 
TliQ  lot*  are  of  uno(|uat  value,  and  some  merely  nom- 
inal,  'hie  numlior  of  salmon  taken  at  St.  .Tohns  in  1850 
WIS  flstiniatnd  at  82,000,  which  sold,  whether  large  or 
small,  at  the  contract  prico  of  ono  dollar  each — except 
a  smalt  part  for  city  consumption — to  bo  packed  in  ice  I 
and  sent  to  Boston.     Drift-nets  and  weirs  aro  used  in  I 
tho  llsliiiry,  though  tho  former  ore  prohibited  by  law.  1 
KlMli"l'ini<ll  diiprncnlo  tho  uso  of  torch  and  spear;  but 
both  nri)  miinutltiius  soon  In  tho  hands  of  lumberers  and 
gunth<iii(iii  Kporlnrs.     Tho  salmon  is  found  on  the  8t. 
.IdIiiik,  two  Inindrod  tnlles  from  the  sea,  and  on  several 
of  its  tribiilarlos  noaror  to  tho  ocean.    On  the  Ncrepis, 
oiiM  of  114  liraiiclies,  on  which  no  mill-dams  have  been 
oriietod,  there  Is  n  fishery  of  note— from  1500  to  2000 
boing  taken  annually. 

It  will  he  seen  that  the  e-  portatlon  ol  cured  salmon 
from  Now  Brunswick  cchmmI  entirely  in  1848— tho 
whnli)  eatoh,  not  required  for  consumption,  having 
been  paokod  In  Ice,  and  shipped  fresh. 

STATIHTIdH  Of  TlIK  HAI.MON  FISIIERy. 
KxrovTS  raoM  Canada. 


Exponts  ntoM  Ne,v  Untnjswicit. 


V»n. 

Pirklail.             1 

Hmolud. 

Kmb. 

U»r,«ll.    t      KlU.       1 

Nuinbor. 

Numbai. 

ISIU 

362 

wu 

296 
+30 
1776 
1199 
«»J 
063 
160 
8S 
30 
1813 
930 
1400 
1S04 
1S25 
2819 
216r> 
2470 
2021 
1311 
2426 
2176 

2i7l 
2692 
1726 
2721 
2638 
i&OT 
294T 
2161 
1965 
6378 
40.50 
1120 
8261 

6aoo 

2276 
26.')3 
1232 

855 
6419 
1201 
1539 

170 

2,61)5 
2,631 

5.7'.'6 
8,3.-s;) 

4,812 
4,8.17 
»,T08 

4  :m 

'.1.470 
6.IM14 
6,07J 

ld,'201 
l,or,9 
4,SW 

1,S..8 

',00 

4  0 

80 

20 

2,2*) 

.... 

1822 

1827 

182S 

ISi'J 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1633 

1S34 

1836 

1836 

1,S37 

1833 

1SS9 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1840  

1847 

184S 

6,460    '      

1850 

1  ,')2,0(10* 

•  A  proportion  of  tho 
for  some  years,  but  tlio 


unniud  catch  hiis  bcup  exported  fresh 
quantity  can  only  ho  conjoctnred. 


T-MPOETH  ANT>   KXPORTS,  XOVA  PCOTIA. 


1786. , 
1815., 
1840, . 
1S47, . 

1S4S.. 
1840, , 
1850. 


liiiimrla. 

K»por1«. 

llarreli. 

Tturcw. 

nanvli.  t  TJercM, 

•3h;>0 

42r>i 

80ii3 

4746 

Oils 

37  Hi 

208 

6;i80 

533 

3219 

82 

2011 
60;,5 

"". 

0113* 

340     1 

VMn, 

I'irhled.                     |  Smoked. 

'rUnn. 

Unrreli.         Kib.      I  Number. 

im 

17H4 

IT'**! 

iwa 

IHIW 

ii(l5 

848 

'■49 

808 

TO 

ilia 

111 
120 

47 

304 
•221 
263 

1840 

mn 

KSVOBTN 

moM    Nr,\VIfntNIll,ANT>. 

YMn. 

rii'kle.l. 

Tierces. 

Value. 

Mi 

{HWi 

IH1I9 , 

1840 

2(1;  10 
4403 
'^923 
3396 
3042 
4715 
4fl6S 
876! 
SMS 
4970 
3822 
6911 
1116:1 

$4'i,o:ifl 

CO.fyM 
6S,460 
C4,0;i5 
61.610 
6<  3;>o 

01,1180 
6ll,72n 
03,970 
4S,910 

IHII 

Wi 

IMil 

1844 

1846 ■. 

IMT 

im 

IN40 

1880» 

•  1' 

I'.Xl'OS 
Vmf, 

1881  

(y'API 

Vi«r», 

1x47 

IIIII  Ml.  Jublifl  uloliu. 

T«  mOK    I.AUBAnOR. 

r-   -PitkW 

Tlo.fen.          \ 

2430  ,,,  $ 

liiiatoti,  rooDtioi. 

^atue. 
16,650 

DitrrvU. 
.   835 

.  295 

iHW 

*  From  Halifax  alone. 
— Sabises'  American  Fisheries. 

Salonioa,  a  large  city  and  sea-port  of  European 
Turkey,  at  the  northeast  extremity  of  tho  gulf  of  tho 
same  iianip,  hit.  40°  iW  47"  N.,  lon.c  '22"  57'  13"  E, 
Population  estimated  at  GO,000  to  75,000. 

'i'his  city,  originally  called  Therma,  and  afterward 
Thessalonica,  is  celebrated  both  in  sacred  and  profane 
historj'.  It  was  visited  by  St.  Paul,  who  lias  nddres.sed 
two  of  his  epistles  to  tho  Tlicssaloiiians.  In  tlie  day^t 
of  its  prosperity  it  had  an  amphitlieatre,  an  extensive 
liippodromo,  numerous  temples  and  triumpiial  arches, 
tlie  ruins  of  whicli  suniciently  attest  its  ancient  splen- 
dor.—C'laukk's  Travels,  vii.  441-178,  8vo  ed. 

Being  tlie  principal  einiiorium  of  JIacedonia,  Salon- 
ica  lias  always  had  a  considerable  trade ;  and  to  this 
circumstance  may  be  ascribed  its  continued  and  com- 
paratively prosperous  existence,  notwithstanding  the 
many  vicissitudes  it  has  undergone. 

Tlicro  is  no  port  at  Salonica,  but  there  is  excellent 

anchorage  in  tlie  roads  opposite  to  the  town.     Tlie  ac- 

I  o'ss  to  them  is  by  no  means  difhcult,  and  pilots  aro 

1  seldom  employed.   Vessels  anchor  very  near  the  walls 

of  the  town,  though  it  is  prudent  not  to  come  too  close 

in,  owing  to  the  iiunibor  of  small  craft  at  anchor.   The 

•  depth  of  water  a  cable's  length  from  the  shore  varies 

from  i^  to  4,  and  at  two  cables'  length  from  7  to  8 

fathoms,  whence  to  Cape  Carabourum  it  varies  from 

I  12  to  17  fathoms.   There  is  very  little  rise.    Owing  to 

i  the  rivers  which  empty  themselves  into  the  Uulf,  the 

I  currents  setting  out  aro  at  times  strong,  and  in  light 

I  winds  SHirieient  to  impede  the  w.iy  of  tho  vessel.    Next 

to  Constantinople,  Salonica  is  the  most  important  port 

of  Turkev  in  Europe.     In  1850  its  maritime  commerce 

reached  upward  of  $,3,500,000  ;  viz,,  about  $2,000,000 

for  imports,  ond  $1,500,000  for  exports. 

The  foreign  trade  of  this  port  is  chiefly  engrossed  by 
the  British  and  I'rcnch  Hags.  The  imports  consist 
chiefly  of  cheap  cottons  ond  w  oolcn  cloths,  and  various 
other  manufactures.  Its  exports  are  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  timber,  wool,  sponge,  raw  silk,  wine,  sesamum 
seed,  tobacco,  and  staves.  Colonial  produce  and  man- 
ufactured goods  aro  supplied  to  this  port— tho  former 


SAL 


1670 


SAL 


from  second  and  third  hands — by  England  and  Austria. 
There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  United  States  from 
partictpatiug  in  the  trade  in  this  species  of  merchan- 
dise. Neither  Austria  nor  England  couid  compete  with 
this  country  in  supplying  the  vaat  quantities  of  colonial 
produce,  and  the  cheap  white  and  printed  cottons,  which 
arc  required  for  consumption  in  tliis  marltot.  In  addi- 
tion to  liio  supplies  needed  for  tlie  daily  wants  of  60,000 
to  75,000  inhahitants,  >Salonica  furnishes  largo  quan- 
tities of  colonial  and  manufactured  goods  for  tlio  yearly 
fairs  of  I'ariepi,  Lucca,  and  Seres,  wliero  the  sales  oro 
always  made  for  cash,  Tlio  high  price  of  Frcncli  cotton 
and  woolen  cloths  will  always  preclude  the  nicrchanls 
of  France  from  successful  competition  in  this  branch 
of  trnilo ;  and  the  heavy  expenses  attending  tlio  circui- 
tous trade  through  Marseilles,  Smyrna,  Constantinople, 
Trieste,  and  Venice,  would  necessarily  favor  direct  ex- 
portation from  the  United  States.  Tiic  prices  at  Sa- 
luuica  arc  always  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  higher  than  at 
('on8tantino|iio  or  Smyrna, 

Tlic  gross  returns  of  trade  at  the  port  of  Salonica  for 
tlio  year  ending  December  31,  1851,  show  a  considcra- 
Irlu  increase  in  the  import  trade,  viz. : 

VnUio  of  Imports  in  1864 $3,770,285 

"        inl863 2,8S7,7C6 

Incroaso $01'i,470 

lint  the  returns  exhibit  a  still  more  considerable  in 
crcaso  in  the  valuo  of  the  outward  trade,  viz. : 

Vnluc  of  exports  in  1854 $B,403,ftS0 

liilSBS 8.47(t,0IM 

Increase $'^,uiO,9.iu 

This  l.irge  increase,  both  in  tlic  inward  and  outward 
trade  with  the  port  of  Salonica,  niuy  lie  regarded  as  an 
evidence  of  tiie  improving  state  of  the  country. 

The  navigation  returns  for  tho  sumo  periods  exhibit 
the  following  re.«ult8 : 


VeATi. 

Inward. 

Outward. 

1«Bri 

Tom. 
11.1,4'JS 
79,846 

TollH. 

111,707 

18.')4 

81,192 

Decreaso 

S3.«,'>3 

30,B7B 

$5fl7,37B 

B:i.y50 


Orltlali  manufact's  and  produce  Imported  direct. . , 

"  "  "  "        indirect. 

Total  imports  of  British  manufac's  and  product*)  $1,U8,7"2.» 
Total  exports  to  Great  Britaiu 27.800 


Balance,  In  1854,  in  favor  of  British  manufac's.  $l,090,U-.i5 

A  British  outhority,  referring  to  this  trade,  says; 
"  A  di-mond  for  British  cotton  manufactures  of  all  de- 
scriptions daily  increases,  and  every  j-ear  there  is  some 
now  outlet  of  sufficient  importance  for  tho  establish- 
ment of  agencies  in  tho  interior  by  tho  importers  at 
Salonica  ;  hence  the  prospect  of  an  increase  of  the  im- 
port trade  in  proportion  to  the  increasing  valuo  of  the 
export  trade.  The  Austrian  and  Saxon  manufacturers 
have  again  turned  their  attention  to  tiiis  part  of  Turkey, 
and  ore  sending  lorger  parcels  of  low  cotton  goods." 

The  oljove  extract  is  worthy  tlio  attention  of  those 
engaged  in  trade  with  Turlcish  ports. 

Krporl). — Owing  mainly  to  tho  Hellenic  invasion, 
considerable  delay  was  occasioned  in  getting  in  tiic 
crops  in  1851,  and,  consequently,  the  supply  of  grain 
at  Salonica  was  not  equal  to  tho  demand.  Little  was 
dono  in  wools  and  cottons,  tho  prices  having  averaged 
too  high  a  rate  for  European  markets.  Tiio  trade  in 
illk  was!  considerable ;  but,  owing  to  tho  rise  in  tlie 
price  for  labor  and  firewood,  several  of  tho  silk  factors 
preferred  sending  the  silk-poda  to  France  and  to  the 
Italian  ports,  to  drawing  tho  raw  silk  ot  Salonica. — 
V.  8.  Cum.  Motions. 

Salt  (Ger.  Sah;  Du.  Zoul;  Fr.  Sel;  It.  Sale;  Sp. 
Sal;  Russ.  Sol;  Lat.  Sal;  Arab.  Jfelh;  Chin.  Yen; 
Ilind.  Nimmuck;  Per.  Nun),  tho  chlorid  of  toiiium  of 
modern  chemists,  has  been  known  and  in  common  use 
««  a  BCasoncr  and  preserver  of  food  from  tiio  earliest 
ages.  Immense  masses  of  it  are  found  in  this  and 
manjr  other  countriea,  which  require  only  to  bo  dug 


out  and  reduced  to  powder.  In  that  state  it  is  called 
rock-salt.  The  water  of  the  ocean  also  contains  a  great 
deal  of  salt ;  to  which,  indeed,  it  owes  its  taste,  and  the 
power  which  it  possesses  of  resisting  freezing  till  cooled 
down  to  28°'5.  When  tliis  water  is  sufficiently  evap- 
orated, the  salt  precipitates  in  crystals.  This  is  tho 
common  process  by  whicli  it  is  obtained  in  many  coun- 
tries. There  are  various  processes  by  which  it  may 
be  obtained  quito  pure.  Common  salt  usually  crystal- 
lizes in  cubes.  Its  taste  is  universally  known,  and  is 
what  is  strictly  denominated  suit.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  2-125.  It  is  soluble  in  8-82  times  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  and  in  2-7G  times  its  wcigiit  of  boiling  water. — 
Tiio.m.son's  Chemistry. 

Besides  its  vast  utility  in  seasoning  food,  and  pre- 
serving meat  both  for  domestic  consumption  and  dur- 
ing the  longest  voyages,  and  in  furnishing  muriatic 
acid  and  soda,  salt  forms  a  glaze  for  coarse  pottcr\ ,  by 
being  tlirown  into  tlie  oven  where  it  is  baked;  it  im- 
proves tho  wliiteness  and  clearness  of  glass ;  it  gives 
Imrdncss  to  «oap ;  in  melting  metals  it  preserves  tlicir 
surface  from  calcination,  by  defending  them  from  tlie 
air,  and  is  employed  with  advantage  in  some  assays ; 
it  is  used  as  a  mordant,  and  for  improving  certain  col- 
ors; and  enters  more  or  less  into  many  other  processes 
of  the  arts.  Many  contradictory  statements  have  been 
made  as  to  tho  use  of  salt  as  a  manure.  Probably  it 
may  bo  advantageous  in  some  situations,  and  not  in 
others. 

Salt  Mines,  Springs,  etc. — The  principal  salt-mines 
are  at  AVielitska  in  Poland,  Catalonia  in  Spain,  Alte- 
monto  in  Calabria,  Loowur  in  Hungary,  in  many  places 
in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  Cheshire  in  England.  The 
mines  at  Wielitska  are  upon  a  very  large  scale;  but 
tho  statements  that  have  frequently  been  published, 
of  their  containing  villages  inhabited  by  colonics  of 
miners  who  never  saw  tlio  light,  are  altogether  with- 
out foundation.  Tlicso  mines  havo  been  wrought  for 
more  than  COO  years. — Co.xe's  Travels  in  the  North  of 
Europe,  vol.  i,  149,  8vo  ed. 

The  salt-mines  in  the  neighborhood  of  Northw  icli,  in 
Cheshire,  England,  are  very  extensive.  They  have 
been  wrought  since  IC'O ;  and  tho  quantity  of  salt  ob- 
tained from  them  is  greater,  ].'robably,  than  is  obtained 
from  any  other  salt-mines  in  the  world.  In  its  solid 
form,  when  dug  from  tho  mine,  Cheshire  salt  is  not 
sufficiently  pure  for  use.  To  purify  it,  it  is  dissolved 
in  sea-water,  from  which  it  is  afterward  separated  liy 
evaporation  and  crystallization.  The  greater  part  of 
this  salt  is  exported.  Salt  springs  are  met  witli  in 
several  countries.  Those  in  Che&hire  and  Worcester- 
shire furnisli  a  largo  proportion  of  the  salt  made  use  uf 
in  Great  Britain.  The  brine,  being  pumped  up  from 
very  deep  wells,  is  evaporated  in  wrought-iron  pans 
from  20  to  80  feet  square  and  10  or  12  inches  deep, 
placed  over  a  furnace.  Most  of  the  salt  used  in  Scot- 
land, previous  to  tlic  repeal  of  tlie  duty,  was  obtained 
by  tho  evaporation  of  sea-water  neorly  in  the  waj'  now 
mentioned ;  but  most  part  of  the  Scotch  salt-works  have 
since  been  relinquislicd. 

In  warm  countries,  salt  is  obtained  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  sea-water  by  the  heat  of  tho  sun ;  and  the  crys- 
tals of  salt  made  in  tliis  way  arc  more  perfect  and 
purer,  from  tlie  greater  slowness  of  the  process.  French 
salt  is  manufactured  in  this  mode,  and  it  has  always 
been  in  considerable  demand. 

Duties  on  Suit. — In  ancient  Rome,  salt  was  subjected 
to  a  duty  (lectigal  saliiiarum;  see  Bi;kman,  Disscrtutio 
de  Vectigalibua  I'op.  Kom.  c.  6);  and  it  has  been  heavi- 
ly taxed  in  most  modem  states.  The  gabelle,  or  code 
of  salt  laws,  formerly  established  in  France,  w  as  most 
oppressive.  From  4000  to  6000  persons  are  calculate<l 
to  havo  been  sent  annually  to  prison  and  tlie  galleys  for 
otTehses  connected  with  these  laws,  the  severity  of  w  liieli 
had  no  inconsiderable  share  in  bringing  about  tlie  Revo- 
lution.— YoLNo's  7'nirt>/j  m  France,  vol.  i.  p.  598.  lii 
England  duties  upon  salt  were  imposed  in  the  reign  of 


^  .  ■■■  ,i^fi{^hT.'  r  '~  ^ 


SAL 


1671 


SAL 


is  called 
)  a  great 
and  tli8 
11  cooled 
ly  evap- 
U  is  the 
iny  coun- 
li  it  may 
yr  crystal- 
(11,  and  is 
,c  gravity 
lit  of  cold 
;  water. — 

1,  and  prc- 
11  and  dur- 
j  niuriiilic 
pottery,  by 
led;  it  im- 
is ;  it  gives 
icrvca  tlicir 
m  from  the 
imo  assays; 

certain  col- 
ler  processes 
ts  have  been 

Probably  it 
and  not  in 

al  salt-mines 
Spain,  AUc- 
i  many  places 
ngland.  Tlie 
je  scale;  but 
len  published, 
)y  colonics  of 
together  with- 
n  wrought  for 
[n  the  North  uf 

■Kortliwich,  in 
,      They  have 
[tity  of  salt  ob- 
lan  is  obtained 
In  its  solid 
[Iro  salt  is  not 
it  is  dissolved 
separated  by 
reatcr  part  of 
„  met  with  in 
ind  Worcester- 
lit  made  use  of 
imped  up  from 
jught-iron  pans 
n  inches  deep, 
It  used  in  Scot- 
was  obtained 
in  the  way  now 
lalt-workshavu 

ly  the  evapora- 

and  the  crys- 

■re  perfect  ami 

\oces8.    l'"rencli 

,  it  has  always 

It  was  subjected 
Ian,  Uissertulio 
[las  been  heavi- 
\nbetle,  or  code 
Knee,  was  most 
y  are  calculated 
i  the  galleys  for 
IvcrilvofwhuU 
Ibouttbe  Revo- 
I.  i.  p.  098.     1" 
[in  the  reign  of 


William  HI.    In  1798  they  amounted  to  5f.  a  bushel ;  \  rious  uses)  is  about  sixty  pounds  to  each  Inhabitant, 


but  were  subsequently  increased  to  15j.  a  bushel,  or 
about  tkirli/  times  the  cost  of  the  salt!  So  exorbitant 
a  duty  was  productive  of  the  worst  etfects ;  and  occa- 
sioned, by  its  magnitude,  and  the  regulations  for  allow- 
ing salt  duty  free  to  the  fisheries  a  vast  deal  of  smug- 
gling. Tlio  opinion  of  the  public  and  of  the  House  of 
Commons  having  been  strongly  pronounced  against 
the  tax,  it  was  finally  repealed  in  1823. 

The  duty  on  salt  imported  into  the  United  States  is 
15  per  cent,  by  the  act  of  March  3, 1857. 

[/^niVei/Wnien.— The  following  comprehensive  account 
of  the  manufacture  and  consumption  of  salt  in  this 
country  was  written  in  answer  to  a  request  for  the  sta- 
tistical information  it  contains,  for  the  use  of  a  commit- 
tee of  the  liritish  Parliament.  Its  author  is  a  promi- 
nent salt  merchant  of  New  York,  and  thoroughly  con- 
versant with  the  subject : 

New  York,  April  23, 186T. 
Dkak  Sill, — 1  have  received  your  letter  of  the  20th 
instant,  in  whigh  you  solicit  information  respecting  the 
manufacture  of  salt,  the  quantity  made  in  the  United 
Strifes  At  eacli  of  the  works,  the  rate  of  freight  to  the 
principal  ports,  the  toll  paid  on  domestic  and  also  on 
foreign  sa'.i.  on  cur  State  canals,  etc, 

Tlic  interest  I  feel  in  the  salt  trade  of  this  country 
prompts  me  to  take  some  pains  to  give  you  the  required 
hifunuution.  Yet  the  short  time  I  have  had  since  the 
receipt  of  your  letter  precludes  mo  from  answering  your 
several  inquiries  with  perfect  satisfaction  to  myself  in 
regard  to  their  accuracy. 

1  will,  however,  venture  to  give  you  the  following 
atatlslics,  which,  from  the  best  information  I  have  been 
able  to  obtain,  I  believe  tJ  be  mainly  correct: 

Estimated  Quantity  ok  Salt  manufaotcued  in  the 
United  States  i'er  Annum. 

Biuhelfl, 

In  the  State  of  Massachusetts  (mostly  in  vata  built 

ulDiii;  tlio  xea-shore) 46,000 

In  the  .State  of  New  York  (Onondaga  Count)-), 

alioiit 8,000,000 

In  the  Statu  of  Pennsylvania  (Alleghany  and  Kis- 

Iclralnctas  Klvcrs) 900,000 

In  ttie  State  of  Virginia  (Kanawha  and  Kings 

Works) 8,IS00,000 

In  tlie  State  of  Kentucky  (Goose  Creek) 260,000 

In  the  State  of  Ohio  (Muskingum,  Hocking  Itivcr)  500,000 
In  the  State  of  Ohio  (l^omeroy  and  West  Colum- 
bia)   1,000,000 

In  tlio  State  of  Illinois 60,000 

In  tho  State  of  Michigan 10,000 

In  llie  State  of  Texas 20,000 

In  the  State  of  Florida 100,000 


The  consumption  in  France  is  estimated  at  21  i  pounds  | 
in  Great  Britain  at  25  pounds  for  each  Inhabitant.  Thn 
cost  of  manufacturing  salt  by  boiling  in  Onondaga,  a« 
per  estimate,  during  five  consecutive  years,  average* 
about  $1  per  barrel  of  280  pounds.  The  freight  ehargeil 
on  our  canals  on  domestic  salt,  in  barrels  of  280  poundi 
each,  from  Onondaga  to  liuiTalo,  108  miles,  la  about  15 
cents  per  barrel  over  tho  toll  paid  to  the  State,  which 
is  one  mill  on  1000  pounds  per  mile  In  the  canals.  To 
Oswego,  35  miles,  tho  freight  is  about  fix  conta  par  .. 
barrel  over  the  toll. 

The  freight  on  foreign  and  domestic  salt  from  Alba» 
ny  to  BulTalo,  304  miles,  is  al)out  $3  per  ton  (of  2000 
pounds)  over  tho  toll.  Freight  from  Albany  to  Oswa. 
go,  about  209  miles,  is  $2  per  ton  over  toll.  The  freight 
from  New  York  city  to  Oswego  and  Butlalo  lia  Alba, 
ny  Is  i)reci»cly  the  same  as  though  shipped  at  Albany, 
although  1 18  miles  farther. 

The  toll  on  foreign  salt  on  our  Stole  canals  is  five 
mills  on  1000  pounds  per  mile.    The  freight  on  a  bar- 
rel of  salt  from  Oswego  to  the  principal  ports  on  Lake 
Erie  (average  distance  about  Itifl  miles)  Is  12  cents  per 
barrel.     Tho  freight  to  the  principal  ports  on  Lako 
Slichlgan,  distance  about  1000  miles,  is  25  cents  per 
barrel.     The  freight  from  ports  on  Lake  Erie  (say 
Cleveland  and  Toledo)  to  the  Ohio  Kiver  and  Cincin- 
nati is  50  cents  per  barrel.     The  freight  from  Clucago 
to  the  Mississippi  Kivcr  and  St.  Louis  is  50  cents  per 
barrel.    The  minimum  price  of  salt  at  the  Onondaga 
works  in  1819,  '50,  and  '51  was  from  70  to  90  cents 
per  barrel ;  in  1852,  $1  per  barrel  |  in  1853,  $1 12 ;  in 
1854, 81  25 ;  in  1855,  $1  oO ;  and  in  1850,  $1  40  per  bar- 
rel.   The  solar  salt  costs  about  the  same  price  to  man- 
ufacturers as  boiled  salt.     Tho  solar  salt  weighs  about 
70  pounds  to  the  bushel  (measure).     The  boilod  salt 
weighs  about  5(5  pounds  to  the  bushel,  varying,  how- 
ever, according  to  the  position  of  the  kettles,  to  a  weight 
considerably  above  and  also  considerably  below  this 
standard.    The  duty  paid  to  the  State  of  New  York  on 
salt  manufactured  at  Onondaga  is  always  reckoned  on 
56  pounds  (the  statute  bushel),  and  covers  the  expense 
incurr    i  by  the  State  for  punq     g  up  the  water  and 
delivering  It  to  the  premises  of  tho  manufacturers. 

A  salt  block  at  Onondaga,  of  the  largest  size,  is 
made  of  brick  about  12  to  15  feet  wide,  four  to  five  feet 
high,  and  forming  two  parallel  arches,  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  block.  Over  and  within  the  top 
of  these  arches  are  placed  common  cast-iron  kettles, 
holding  about  50  to  70  gallons  of  brine,  placed  close  to- 
gether in  two  row  s  the  w  hole  length  of  the  arches.  A 
fire  built  In  the  mouth  of  the  arches  passes  under  each 
kettle  Into  a  chimney,  built  generally  50  to  160  feet 
high,  averaging  from  50  to  70  kettles  In  each  block. 
A  single  block  with  one  row  of  kettles  is  about  half  of 
this  width.  The  quantity  of  salt  made  In  one  of  these 
double  blocks  In  the  year  (say  eight  months)  averages 
20,000  to  25,000  bushels  of  50  pounds.  The  cost  of  a 
bushel  of  suit  produced  at  Kanawha  is  about  17i  cents, 
Tho  p;  ice  of  freight  on  a  sack  of  Liverpool  salt  from 
New  Oilcans  to  Louisville  averages  about  35  cents 
per  sack.  A  good  portion  of  the  coarse,  hard  salt  im- 
ported into  tlio  United  States  from  the  most  southerly 
islands  of  the  West  India  group  is  kiln-dried,  cleansed, 
ground  very  fine,  and  put  In  small  packages  for  culU 
nary  or  dairy  use.  The  amount  of  coarse  and  fine  salt 
regard  to  tho  manufacture  of  salt,  tho  saline  deposits  imported  Into  the  United  States  from  foreign  countries 
within  our  State,  and  such  other  general  information  j  for  the  year  ending  .lune  30, 1856,  was  15,405,864  bush- 
pertaining  to  this  necessary  article  of  animal  subsist-   els.    The  amount  of  domestic  salt  exported  during Jha 


Total 12,816,000 

There  are  salt  lakes  in  tho  United  States  territories 
— one  in  tho  southwesterly  part  of  Texas  and  one  or 
more  in  Utah — where  'n!,.  of  good  quality  is  found  In 
great  abundance.  Nearly  all  of  tho  salt  manufactured 
In  tho  United  States  is  made  by  boiling,  excep'vif;  what 
is  made  In  Massachusetts,  Florida,  and  the  Solar  Works 
at  Onondaga.  The  amount  of  salt  manufactured  at  the 
Solar  Works  of  Onondaga  in  1856  was  703,391  bushels. 
The  amount  of  salt  manufactured  in  kettles  In  Onon- 
daga in  1856  was  6,258,419  bushels.  When  tho  works 
(at  Onondaga)  are  generally  running,  they  require 
3,000,000  gallons  of  brine  daily,  and  the  supply  is  not 
less  than  2,000,000  gallons  per  day  for  si.\  months. 
The  annual  report  of  V.  W.  Smith,  Esq.,  the  State  Su- 
perintendent of  the  Onondaga  salt  springs,  which  I 
lierewith  hand  you,  furnishes  valuable  information  in 


ence,  as  to  render  it  one  of  tho  most  accurate  and  in- 
teresting public  documents  published  in  our  country. 

The  wells  in  tho  Virginia  salt  springs  are  about  900 
feet  deep.  Tho  wells  at  Pomcroy  and  West  Columbia 
are  from  1000  to  1200  feet  deep.    The  estimated  quan 


year  ending  .lune  30,  1856,  was  698,458  bushels.  The 
amount  of  foreign  salt  exported  duiing  tho  year  ending 
Juno  30, 1856,  was  126,427  bushels. 

Yours,  truly,  Samcei.  IIotai.ino. 

Patents  were  issued  by  tho  United  States  Patent  Offlca 


tity  of  foreign  salt  consumed  in  the  United  States  and  in  1850—1.  For  improvement  In  apjaratus  for  evaixiro- 
territories  Is  about  13,500,000  bushels  per  annum.  The  .  ting  salt.  2.  Improvement  in  apparatus  for  solar  salt 
amount  of  salt  consumed  in  the  United  States  (for  va- ;  evaporation.    3.  Improvement  in  salt  evaporators. 


SAL 


1672 


SAL 


Statiitici  or  tiia  Bali  MAmnrAoniiM  in  imi  Ukitid  SrAns  roa  ma  Ykab  khdino  Jchk  1 

1660. 

SUUl. 

Kambtr. 

Capital. 

Raw 
MaUiul. 

Hn(fa<mploy«l. 

Avtrage  vMrly  Wageg 
paid. 

Ananal 
Product  in 
Biiahali. 

Valua. 

HaU. 

Ptmalfl. 

Mala.       1  Pamala. 

Coiinoctlcut, , . . 

Florida 

llltnoU 

Kentucky 

Maino 

1 
1 
1 

13 

3 

9 

193 

82 

47 
3 

40 

$4,000 

19,000 

2,600 

131,460 

3,100 

40,400 

819,950 

188,760 

168.860 

3,-475 

1,209,900 

$4,000 

2^660 

17,060 

7,226 

60,000 

681,966 

86,688 

67,189 

1,750 

234,623 

1 

6 

3 

153 

4 

28 

878 

167 

210 

18 

1230 

67 

$800 

1,440 

T20 

16.806 

1,080 

8,083 

209,876 

42,086 

66,020 

2,280 

817,186 

$144 
283 

■432 

iinia 
"72 

7704 

40,000 

2n',6oo 
240,600 

4,600,000 

660,360 

919,100 

8,000 

8,479,890 

$6,000 

6,000 

0.000 

67.826 

9,700 

98,860 

008,ai8 

ir,2.293 

306,796 

^900 

700,466 

Manuchiiwtta. . 

New  York 

Ohio 

Pcnniiylvania  . . 

Virginia 

Total 

840 

$2,640,886 

$1,061,426 

2009 

87 

$744,482    1  $9702 

9,708,840 

$2,222,746 

ExiK)nTa  OF  DoMKS'Tia  Salt  fboii  the  VxiTEn  Statu. 


To 

Yuar  «niiin|(  June  30,                                                                        | 

18S3 

18M. 

lUi.                        1 

Boihali. 

Valao. 

Riuholi.        [        Valua. 

Btubela. 

Valua 

BI)8.28B 

7.572 

516.8 17 

$115,666 

4,063 

$119,729 

530,5011 

17,628 

648,186 

$162,871 

0,155 

$I5'.I,026 

629,008 

7,070 
636,073 

$IS2.6I« 

3,503 

$156,079 

(».ier  plucea 

Total 

luroBTS  OF  Salt  into  tub  L'mitkd  Statkb  in  tub  ybabb  1853,  1864,  1866. 


Prom 

Year  ending  Juno  80,                                                                  | 

IBM. 

1BS4. 

18S6.                          1 

Buahala 

Value. 

Buabala. 

Valno. 

Baahala. 

Value. 

England 

Ilritish  West  IiidlcB 

0,018,204 
1,734.804 
1.718,913 
10,(;00,imi 

$778,712 

170,796 

10.1,924 

$l,0,'>9,432 

7,080,979 
1,803,106 
1,214,231 
10,168,370 

$1,000,193 
207,846 
103,398 

$1,310,936 

8,834,219 
1,187,776 
3,864,240 

12,926,234 

$1,206,208 
274,130 
239,320 

$1,718,980 

Other  plaees 

Total 

KxpoKTB  OP  Salt  or  DouKfiTio  rnoncrTioN  rBOx  thk 
U»iTEt>  Stated  for  tiir  Year  knpinu  Jcnb  30,  ltj57. 


VVhlUiereaporlad. 

Bnaliela. 

Value. 

913 
1,301 

600,6D4 

9,154 

410 

12,000 

80,060 

126 

6,000 

5,ori6 

$01 

062 

171,006 

2,249 

215 

4,960 

4 

8,891 

60 

1,608 

1,3.'3 

Danish  West  ladies 

l.'annda .<? 

Other  Britlah  N.  American  I'osa.  . 
DrltlBh  West  Indiea 

Ilritish  AuBtralla 

French  Guiana 

Ouha 

New  Oraiiada 

Chill 

Sandwich  iBlanda 

Total 

676,181 

$190,699 

Impobtb  of  Salt  into  tiib  Ukttbd  Statbs  fob  tub  Yeab 
bndimu  jumk  30,  18.''>7. 


Whence  Imported 


DanUh  West  Indies 

Bremen 

Dutch  West  Ivdies 

Kngland 

Ireland 

Malta 

Canada 

Other  Drilliih  N.  Amer.  Posb.  . . 

British  Went  Indies.... 

British  Honduras 

British  Guiana 

Franco  on  the  Atlantic 

France  on  the  Mediterranean,. 

French  Weat  Indies 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Mediterraucan. , . 

Forto  Iiieo 

Portugal 

Cape  do  Verd  Islands 

Azores 

Sardinia 

Two  Sicliioii 

Ports  In  Africa 

Mexico 

Venozueli\ 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 

Total 


2,024 

70 

174,802 

12,8110,868 

74,965 

14,602 

19l,'iU8 

(1,004 

1,033,001 

1,040 

0,422 

14,180 

131,014 

40,126 

1,001,714 

G64,997 

1,363 

93,143 

18,925 

6,700 

183,659 

778,003 

23.800 

70.770 

6,637 

10.386 

26,207 

17.16S.70T 


$654 

16 

31,790 

1,504,854 

7,748 

1,680 

80,909 

1,800 

153,909 

271 

1,022 

2,758 

10,053 

2,008 

70,MI 

28,905 

241 

14,017 

i,4;6 

918 

17,(176 

65,18S 

1,008 

15.819 

1,279 

4,732 

1,671 


$2,082,683 


Tlio  whole  amount  of  salt  inspected  on  the  Ononda- 
ga salt  springs  during  the  year  1856  was  6,968,810 
bushels.  This  is  about  120,000  bushels  short  of  the  in- 
spection of  1865,  but  exceeds,  however,  that  of  any  pre- 
vious year,  being  160,000  more  bushels  than  were  re- 
turned in  1854.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  events,  con- 
sidering the  increase  of  population  in  the  Western  mark- 
eta  for  Onondaga  salt,  and  the  additional  facilities  of 


transportation  constantly  brought  into  use,  the  inspec- 
tion for  1866,  according  to  the  official  Reports,  ought 
to  have  reached  6,600,000  bushels.  The  two  principal 
causes  producing  the  deficiency  may  be  found  in  a  more 
stringent  state  of  the  money  market  during  the  whole 
season,  and  in  the  enhancement  of  tho  price  of  salt  at 
the  works — $1  40  per  barrel  in  1866  against  $1  30  in 

1855.  Tho  amount  of  salt  actually  manufactured  in 

1856,  and  cither  sold  and  shipped  or  remaining  in  orig- 
inal hands,  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  any  former  year.  The  inspection  indicates  very 
accurately  the  amount  of  sales,  as  no  more  is  inspected 
during  tho  manufacturing  season  than  what  is  required 
to  fill  orders,  Tho  arrivals  of  Onondaga  salt  at  Oswe- 
go in  1856  were  3,483,987  bushels,  against  3,0.'59,593  in 
185.') — an  increase  of  444,394  bushels.  The  arrivals 
at  Bufl'alo  in  1856  were  1,081,767  bushels,  against 
1,947,938  in  1856—0  decrease  of  866,171  bushels.  Tho 
arrivals  at  all  tho  lake  ports  in  1866,  compared  with 
those  in  18,55,  show  a  decrease  of  241,778  bushels. 

Saltpetre,  or  mtrate  of  Potash  (Ger.  Salipe- 
ler ;  Fr.  Nitre,  Salpfire  ,■  It.  A'lVro,  Sahitro  ;  Sp.  Nilro, 
Salitrt;  Russ.  Seniira;  Lat.  Nitrum;  Arab.  Ubkir; 
Hind,  Shorah),  a  salt  well  known  in  commerce,  and  of 
gre'it  importance.  It  muy  be  regarded  both  as  a  nat- 
ural and  an  artificial  production ;  being  found  on  tho 
surface  of  the  soil  in  man}-  parts  of  India,  Egypt,  Italy, 
etc. ;  but  in  these  and  other  places  all  that  is  known  in 
commerce  is  obtained  by  an  artificial  process,  or  by 
lixiviating  earth  that  has  been  formed  into  nitre  beda. 
The  saltpetre  consumed  in  England  is  brought  from 
Bengal  in  an  impure  state,  but  crj'stallized,  In  bugi^, 
each  containing  164  lbs.  Saltpetre  forms  the  princi- 
pal ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and 
is  used  in  various  arts.  It  ia  also  of  great  utility  in 
the  commerce  of  India,  from  its  furnishing  a  largo 
amount  of  dead  weight  for  the  shipping  engaged  in  it. 
Saltpetre  possesses  considerable  antiseptic  power.  That 
which  ia  of  the  best  quality  and  well  refined  is  in  long, 
transparent  crj-stnls ;  its  taste  is  sharp,  bitterish,  and 
cooling;  it  flames  much  when  thrown  upon  burning 
coals ;  it  is  very  brittle ;  specific  gravity,  1"933.  It  ia 
not  altered  by  exposure  to  tho  air. 

Ueckmann  contends,  in  a  long  and  elaborate  dissert- 
ation (I/itt.  of  Invent.),  that  the  ancients  were  unac- 
quainted with  saltpetre,  and  that  thoir  nitrum  was 
really  on  alkaline  salt.    But  as  saltpetre  i*  produced 


Valu>. 

~$5,000 

6,000 

0.000 

ST.82B 

ll.TOO 

08,860 

D08,!tt6 

182,203 

200,796 

6,900 

TfJ0,466 


Valoe^ 

$1,206,2(18 
274,136 
230,326 


»,«7in 


l>831,68S 
J06,flS3j 

(Ms  i, Bin 


I  New  York  «l|„w„,l  ,.,.;'"■     '  '".^'"'^itt  CoartTf 

I  fi'.l"'^  ''''^""  '••' «  r'S't"  '"r  ^"'"o  "''^ 
n"«<l  (III  milvMKti,     'li.„  u,,":  ""?  "'0  <lecree,  and  de 

I  «'«  '•-;.;rr«..,:,.  Im!  |,,'^^C'":nd"T  "''  "'«  l^""- 
I  /'»'*  <>(  llin  net  v/ilii.     «     '.""  """wc(   one  sixth 

m,m     "'"^''  Vfomty  of  1)^1,1?  .,'''  '"  '•"■'"peet  to  rccan- 
,_jy/,9     P««r«  «.«t  tliVmu  ,,;•''''''..'''  »'"'"'.  """1  it  aT 


^u-  C ;;    ""^K"' "»  well  1 

property  saved  has  hST"'   •"l""«"l«l''"l  wm,.,  «    ^^i,'*':?"''''"''^  '^""S"'  ""J 
'thers  not  more  tmnTtofM'^'r "'''"""''  ''^'  *'"'      m,y^^^^^^  "'"eh 

'-^  are  ail  those  Who  hl'i..     .!(!"'"  V..""'  1'^' Ay  H2"' ^^' ?.'' '''«  *."-" 


K.NT  H  Cumimnta. 


. — ™J'  "ere  rescu 


SAN 


1074 


SAN 


color,  and  the  newer  the  root,  the  higher  ii  the  per- 
fume. Reject  luch  plecei  ■•  are  of  a  pale  color,  aiiull, 
decayed,  or  have  white  wood  about  tbein ;  and  take 
especial  care  that  it  be  not  mixed  with  wood  reiem- 
bling  landal,  but  without  Its  perfume.— MiL,uvnii'» 
Oriml.  Commtret, 

aandal-wood  U  exteniively  employed  by  the  Hin- 
doos as  a  perfume  in  their  funeral  ceremonies.  But 
the  Chiueie  are  its  principal  consumers.  I'bey  manu- 
facture it  into  fans  and  tmaii  articles  of  furnlturo,  and 
use  it,  when  ground  into  powder,  as  a  cosmetic.  Dur- 
ing the  year  ending  the  illst  of  December,  1848,  there 
were  imported  by  British  vessels  into  Canton  20,7U'i 
piculs  of  sandal-wood,  valued  at  t207,400 1  and  tlie  Im- 
ports in  some  years  are  more  than  twice  this  amount. 
The  average  importation  Into  Calcutta  Is  about  200 
tons  a  year.  It  grows  principally  in  Malabar,  In  the 
mountainous  country  at  a  little  distance  from  the  low 
sea-coast;  in  Timor;  and  In  the  Fcjce  Islands,  in  the 
Sou  1  Sea.  Calcutta  is  princlpully  suppli'id  from  Mal- 
abai  while  China  derives  the  larger  |)ortion  of  her  sup. 
plies  from  Timor  and  the  other  islands.  It  is  seldom 
brought  to  Europe,  except  by  individuals  for  their  own 
use,  or  as  presents  for  their  friends.— Bbll's  Jixtemat 
Comm.  qfJieiigalt  Cbawfurd's  Indian  Archipelago, 


•  ipedlss  (if  slliiperi  worn  liy  the  ancient 
Jaws,  Ureelts,  ainl  l<</tn*ns,  'I  hey  consisted  of  a  sole 
with  a  liiilh)W  (isrt  at  one  extreme,  to  embrace  the 
ankle  Slid  Inava  lliii  upper  part  of  the  foot  bare.  Orig. 
liially  sanUaU  were  made  of  leather ;  but  they  after- 
ward beeama  arlleles  of  K'eat  luxurv,  being  made  of 
gold,  silver,  •<«.,  and  niost  lieautlfully  ornamented. 

Swidaraob,  •  litsinou*  .lubstance,  commonly  met 
with  In  l>HM«  wranules  »  little  larger  than  a  pea,  of  a 
whitish  y«lh)w  m\uf,  brittle,  liiflanimable,  of  a  resinous 
sniull,  and  world,  armnnlle  liste.  It  exudes,  it  Is  snid, 
III  warm  ulliualnii,  from  urwks  and  Incisions  In  the  com- 
mon |unl|wr  hush.  It  is  us«<1  as  a  varnish,  dissolved 
in  siiirlts  i»f  wltl*.— AlNXMM'a  Mnt.  Indica. 

■Ml DonUngO.  Tlieold  Mpanlsh part oftho Island 
of  Han  Muiiiiiigv,  or  IIm  t'omlnican  Kepulillc,  embraces 
tlie  terrluirv  as  settled  by  the  treaty  of  limits  between 
Hpaiii  and  Vtmim  In  1777.  According  to  those  limits, 
its  area  would  ci/tnprlM  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
island,  or  uvar  IH,(H)ii  i(|uare  miles.  The  chief  staples 
of  the  repulillii  m»  malinMany,  llgnum-vltn,  dye-woods, 
tobacco,  \mmy,  and  hides.  The  Imports  from  the 
United  Htttt««  I'Oiislst  of  assorted  cargoes,  flour,  etc. ; 
but  most  usually  «ur  vessels  enter  the  ports  uf  the  re- 
publle  In  ballast. 

Stmxhint  or  TUB  NoHDin  or  Vkssels  wmon  KNTiain  and  oLaAaai)  ny  i'nwtn  tn  v««  ttottlHtoAn  RtrvDMo,  tuxis 
ToifKAoi,  AMD  Tna  VALua  or  iMPoars  and  Expobts  or  Tiia  Hafi/Hkiii  iivaiNt*  tiia  Vs/imk  I849-'(S0,  inolusivl 


Ymti. 

«■«><■«»«>•.                                     1 

Port  <i(  Sun  Ilomliilt.i 

Porto  PUU.     "    " 

Flirt  uf  Ms  f>»wr««« 

Porto  PI>|>,                1 

V«Mla. 

Toiink^fl 

Import^ 

ViiMla. 

TouDag*. 

lm|tori« 

Vmob. 
Illi 

Kl|r»tll. 

101 

tonnags. 
6,276 

Kxporta. 

184» 

180 

ia,4ii8 

i;as,nT 

""118 

■   7,664 

a:26,2)B 

a;7U,B47 

1860 

141 

16,878 

88,130 

126 

7,180 

6«,:>.:8 

148 

IA,4I7 

ln4,«97 

1J0 

«,84'1 

III4.A74 

ISfit 

128 

14,172 

116,660 

151 

10,171 

121,388 

ll» 

vi,m 

IS,«I(I 

142 

8,S64 

107,804 

1863 

162 

19,8T8 

192,637 

162 

10,680 

100,831 

I4i| 

|N,4lilt 

I4|(IM 

168 

11,416 

lS8,0il6 

1S63 

166 

18,683 

120,864 

181 

7,9  IT 

e»,880 

1411 

|ll,«Afl 

119,710 

121 

8,844 

1:8,696 

18IM 

1A3 

81,448 

88,900 

140 

8,014 

20,900 

IM 

I8>)ft 

IMiOfliJ 

187 

7,614 

i04,ins 

1885 

ISl 

1^3lT 

106,874 

160 

11,.4T1 

rw,«Tl 

104 

lil,)Hi« 

lll,74it 

185 

11, m6 

1(10,800 

186« 

108 

11,900 

93,916 

137 

9,3.10 

I32,'.>T4 

W 

iiii^ 

M^lB 

120 

1>,018 

168,11'3 

"  There  ure  few  among  the  Islands  that  compose  the 
West  Indian  Archipelago  which  can  vie  In  fertility 
with  the  island  of  San  Domingo.  The  country  Is 
mountainous.  Interspersed  with  rich,  fertile  plains,  wa- 
tered by  numerous  rivers,  the  larger  of  whicli  wight 
be  rendered  navigable  for  flat-bottomod  boats  to  near- 
ly tlio  very  heart  of  the  uland.  In  order  to  transport 
to  the  sea-coast  the  numerous  valuable  products  which 
the  fertile  soil  yields  spontaneously,  more  especially 
valuable  timber  of  various  kinds,  dye-woods,  divldivl, 
vegetable  wax,  turpentine,  otc.  Agriculture,  how- 
ever, which  ought  to  form  its' greatest  prosperity,  is 
principally  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  republic, 
in  a  very  inditferent  state,  and  is  prosecuted  with  no 
degree  of  vigor ;  the  generality  of  the  rural  iuhabltauts 
living  from  day  to  day  upon  the  scanty  produce  of  their 
provision  grounds.  Some  allowance  must  certainly 
be  made  for  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  things.  In  coiu 
sequence  of  frequent  internal  disturbances  and  the  war 
with  the  neighboring  empire  of  Haytl.  The  agricul- 
turist can  not  count  with  certainty  upon  gathering 
what  he  sows ;  a  threatened  invasion  of  the  Ilaytlans, 
a  revolution  In  the  city  of  San  Domingo,  tears  bim 
from  his  pursuits,  and  should  be  return,  he  Ands  his 
provision  grounds  dried  up  or  destroyed.  Tlie  Domin- 
ican Itcpubllc  Is  very  sparely  populated ;  it  requires, 
therefore,  an  extensive  immigration  to  people  the  Inte- 
rior, and  to  develop  the  rich  resources  of  a  fertile  soil. 
These  circumstances  just  mentioned  prevent  likewise 
the  employment  of  foreign  capital  within  the  republic. 

"Sau  Domingo  is  rich  in  copper  and  in  other  ores. 
There  are  districts  abounding  in  rich  copper  ore  which 
would  yiidd  a  handsome  profit  to  mining  speculations. 
The  Legislature  has  endeavored  to  facilitate  such  en- 
terprises by  granting  privileges  to  such  undertakings ; 
but  though  In  some  Instances  the  copper  ore  is  met  with 
on  the  surface,  and  requires  merely  to  be  transported 
to  the  sea-coast,  no  capital  has  as  yet  been  found  to 
commence  the  enterprise.    San  Domingo  is  still  so  lit- 


tl«  known  that  ilia  want  of  proper  Information  of  its 
climate,  timnitimn,  and  limlltutloni  Is  the  greatest  ob- 
stacla  to  induca  tutisS\itwt»  to  employ  their  capital  for 
the  develnpntatit  (if  its  riches. 

"  It  Is  lu  (!(ml«mplNtlon  to  establish  here  a  branch  of 
tlie  '  CutmiaKiihi  (1«a  Textiles,'  which,  under  the  tirm 
of  Aviut  L  (,'»,,  1ia«  Its  l«at  In  I'arls.  Their  purpose  is 
to  aKtra«t  by  itia(diln«s  of  a  peculiar  construction,  for 
whicli  timy  \mimt»  a  pAlenl,  the  fibres  or  lilaments  of 
the  iilantain,  iidtigiilti,  »nnye  or  yucca,  etc.,  for  con- 
vertlun  into  all  kiiiils  of  piiper. 

*'As  IIm  plantain  and  bananas  thrive  most  luxuri- 
ously hare,  III  iiny  tiotlillig  of  the  numerous  fibrous  and 
taxtila  plants  wlileh  the  toll  produces  spontaneously, 
tbls  eiitablUlitnant,  should  It  be  effected,  may  prov; 
higlily  a4v«litNg«0UM  io  tfa«  republic.  The  republic  is 
divided  (ft  llv«  tirovliicea—namely :  Compostela  dc 
AKuat  ^«n  UotnltiKO  d«  Guzman,  containing  the  cap- 
ital and  scat  of  K"v«rnment;  Santa  Cruz  del  Seybo; 
Coiicepalmi  da  la  Vc^a  i  Hantlago  do  los  Caballeros. 

'•  A(.'(>ordlii((  Id  tli«  liiw  of  the  maritime  commerce 
now  In  furea,  tlia  following  ports  are  declared  open  for 
Import  and  ajtpiirt  In  nnllonal  and  foreign  vessels :  Sun 
Domingo,  '\'Ml»\tmio  de  Ar.un,  Puerto  Plata,  Samun:i, 
and  Itumatia.  'I  tm  port  of  Monte  Christ!  is  open  only 
fur  exiMrtatlonii. 

"  Tiia  \ml  «tiAf^«8  upon  vessels  at  their  entry  from 
abroad  ara  I  i.  For  AVory  t(m  that  the  vessel  measures 
a(!curdlng  to  ita  roKlstrr  one  dollar  Spanish,  If  the  ves- 
sel bclonK*  ttt  a  itatlMl  In  treaty  with  the  Dominican 
Itepubllit;  if  (tlltefwlse,  one  (foliar  and  a  half.  2. 
Mglit-li.tMi*  duly,  0  ««nt»  silver  per  tun."—lieporl  by 
8lr  It.  II,  Hi'HimmiHdH,  tiritiih  Conmlat  San  Domin- 
git,  ujntn  ihA  'I'rmk  trf  thai  fort,  and  of  the  Dominican 
lltmUio  (ngMt'ritI,  in  the  Year  1860. 

file  followltltf  \»  a  summary  of  the  trade  between 
the  Unitad  Nlat«<t  and  the  port  of  ?an  Domingo  dur- 
ing tlia  la*t  lilii  months  of  18M,  viz. : 

Mumbtr  of  veM«ls  entered  and  cleared  28,  with  an 


SAN 


1676 


SAN 


iltnt 
■ol« 
I  the 
irlg. 
kftor> 
de  of 
od. 
,•  met 
,  of  a 
ilnous 
I  antd, 
gcom- 
Bolved 

I  inland 
ibrttces 
lOtwecn 
limits, 
e  wliole 
:  ataples 
Hwooda, 
■om  tlie 
jr,  etc. ; 
{ tlio  re- 


lii4,M* 
1(11,884  ' 
18B,0il»  ' 
118,(»R  ' 
104,19s 
109,800  1 

ition  of  itB 
rcatest  ob- 
capital  for 

I  branch  of 
jr  tho  tirm 
r  purpose  is 
ruction,  for 
ilainents  of 
for  con- 
lost  luxuri- 
[fibrous  and 
ntancously, 
Imay  prov? 
1  republic  is 
jipostela  do 
Ing  tho  cap- 
1  del  Seybo ; 
liballeros. 

commerce 
ted  open  for 
lesiels:  Snn 
Ita,  Saniiin:!, 
Jg  open  only 

i  entry  from 
|el  measures 
Ifthe  vcs- 
f  Dominican 
I  a  half.  2. 
r^Report  by 
\san  Domin- 
!  Dominican 

Lde  between 
tmtngo  dur- 


hs,  with  an 


aggregate  of  2520  tons ;  of  these,  four  entered  in  bal- 
last, and  ton  with  assorted  cargoes.  The  hunmwurd 
cargoes  consisted  of  mahogany,  lignum-vitic,  hides,  and 
honey,  and  amounted  In  value  to  $2ii,270.  During  the 
aamo  period  there  entered  six  vessels  under  llrltisli  lul- 
or»,  measuring  In  all  618  tons ;  one  I'riMuli  vessel  of 
189  tons;  one  Danish  of  126  tons,  and  ono  Dominican 
of  68  tons ;  total  numlwr  of  foreign  vessels  (exclusive 
of  American)  nine,  with  an  aggregate  tennago  of  850 
tons.  During  tho  llrst  six  months  of  IH.W  there  en- 
tered and  cleared  -10  vessels  from  tho  United  States 
(under  tho  American  flag),  measuring  in  tho  aggregate 
8376  tons ;  of  these,  18  entered  in  ballast,  and  7  with 
assorted  cargoes,  including  one  laden  In  part  with 
flour.  Value  of  cargoes.  Inward,  427,050 ;  value  of 
cargoes,  homewanl,  $'14,(iUl.  Homeward  cargoes  con- 
sisted of  mahogany,  llgnum-vltaj,  satin-wood,  fustic, 
hides,  and  honey. 

The  commerce  6f  San  Domingo  with  the  United 
States  for  tho  year  1867  was  us  follows ; 

Exports  to  Han  DomlnRo $44,349  1 

Imports  n-om  San  UoiiiluKo 1i>9,1T4 

Tounsgc  cleared  from  United  Htatea— AmiTlciui  lO-i*) 
"  "  "  Foreign  .     OlS 

Total isSs 

The  latest  revision  of  tho  Dominican  tariflf  bears 
date  18th  ,Iune,  1853.  Tho  valuation  of  several  ar- 
ticles, including  domestic  cottons,  boys'  shoes,  etc.,  lius 
been  reduced ;  while  In  a  few  others,  Including  wom- 
en's shoes,  there  Is  an  increase — on  tlio  latter  article 
from  $7  to  $8  per  dozen,  which  will  raise  the  duty  from 
$1  75  to  $2  per  dozen.  The  flnancial  and  political  dif- 
flcuities  now  experienced  in  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic can  hardly  fail  to  be  felt  in  tho  general  movcmenta 
of  its  foreign  commerce. 

Tho  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  IIaytf  for  tho 
comparative  statement  of  the  commerce  of  tlio  United 
States  with  the  island  of  San  Domingo — eniliracing  the 
empire  of  Ilayti  and  the  Dominican  Rciiublic — exhib- 
iting the  value  of  exports  to  and  imports  from  each 
country,  and  the  tonnage  of  American  and  foreign  ves- 
sels arriving  from  and  departing  to  each  country,  dur- 
ing the  years  designated. 

A  Dominican  vessel  arriving  in  the  United  States 
from  a  port  in  the  Dominican  Rcpulilic  Is  liable  to  a 
tonnage  duty  of  #1  per  ton,  that  being  the  duty  im- 
posed on  tho  tonnage  of  vessels  of  tho  United  States 
arriving  in  said  republic ;  but  tho  cargo  is  not  liable  to 
a  discriminating  duty  of  10  per  cent.,  no  such  duty  be- 
ing levied  by  the  Dominican  Republic  on  tho  cargoes 
of  United  States  vessels  arriving  in  the  ports  of  that 
republic.  —  See  IIayti.  For  Political  Relations  of 
England  with  San  Domingo,  see  Fkasek's  ^fag.  xlii. 
133 ;  same  article.  Living  Age,  xxvii.  126 ;  Edinburgh 
Review,  xvil.  372. 

Sand'wloh  Islands.  A  group  of  eleven  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They  were  discovered  by  Cap- 
tain Cook  In  1778.  Many  voyagers  report  that  the 
natural  capacity  of  tho  natives  seenis  In  no  respect  be- 
low tlie  common  standanl  of  manltiiid.  It  was  in  one 
of  these  islands  tliat  this  illustrious  circumnavigator 
fell  a  victim  to  the  sudden  resentntent  of  tho  natives, 
Feb.  14, 1779.  Tamehaineha,  chief  of  Hawaii,  becomes 
king  of  the  group,  1800.  Rihoriho,  his  son,  succeeds 
him,  1819.  Idolatry  abolislied,  1819.  Eilioriho  and 
his  queen  died  In  Kngland,  1821.  Kanikeaouli,  20 
years  of  age,  king,  1824.  Mission  established  by  the 
American  Board,  1820.  In  1832  there  were  900  schools 
and  50,000  pupils  in  the  Islands.  Treaty  with  the 
French,  made  with  admiral  Dupetit-Tliouars,  1837. 
Another,  enforcing  the  introduction  of  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries, etc. ,  1839.  Tamehameha  III.  becomes iiing. 
Dr.  G.  P.  Judd,  an  American,  prime  minister.  In  1831 
there  were  14  ships,  2C;iO  tons,  belonging  to  tho  isl- 
ands— which  are  Important  to  the  United  States  as  a 
whaling  station. 

This  remoto  but  interesting  group  is  situated  in  the 


miilst  of  the  Paclflc  Ocean,  in  al)out  lat.  21°  N.,  and  long. 
157°  W.  It  comprises  eight  inhabited  and  four  unin' 
habited  inlands,  Owliyliee,  whore  Captain  Cook  wai 
killed,  lieing  the  most  considerable.  Thoy  are  of  vol- 
canic formation,  and  mountainous,  some  of  the  |>eaks 
rising  in  Owhyhce  to  between  13,000  and  14,000  feet 
in  helglit!  Tho  population  In  1847  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  above  112,000,  of  which  nearly  40,000  Ihj- 
longcd  to  Owhylieo.  Rut  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the 
native  population  has  bei^n  rapidly  decreasing  for  S(jme 
years  past,  and  does  not  now  probably  exceed  a  third 
part  of  its  amount  at  tho  cpmli  of  their  discovery.  Tho 
bdanders  are  honorably  distinguished  among  the  Poly, 
ncsiun  nations  by  the  advances  they  have  made  in  civil- 
ization; and  particuiariy  by  their  progress  In  manu- 
factures, navigation,  and  connnerco.  Christianity  was 
Introduced  by  tho  American  missionaries  in  1820,  and 
is  now  the  religion  of  tho  state ;  schools  have  been 
established,  churches  have  Iwen  built,  and  tho  forms  of 
religion  are  pretty  well  observed.  Kurupoan  usages 
1  have  become  fashionable ;  and  tho  costume  of  tho  bet- 
ter classes,  women  as  well  as  men,  closely  resembles 
that  of  tho  Americans. 

The  following  table  exhibits  tho  populotion  of  the 
principal  islands,  according  to  the  census  of  December, 
1853: 


Ulanili. 

Niillvn. 

Porei^an 

Totnl 

24,415-3 

17,004 

3,0(IT 

r.99 

19,128 

0,990 

790 

lliiwall 

MbhI 

24,19S 

lT,42it 

3,r*5 

599 

lT,Slfi 

0,728 

790 

71,108 

2B0 
24-1 
42 

iaii 

201 

Moluknl 

Onliii 

Kiiiini 

Total 

212Q 

78,223 

The  staple  exports  of  tlio  islands  aro :  Sugar,  molas- 
ses, sirup,  coffee,  goat-skins,  sweet  potatoes,  wool, 
hides,  salt,  tallow,  beef,  pulu,*  and  arrow-root.  Agri- 
culture has  made  but  little  progress,  ami  will  never, 
probalily,  occupy  tho  natives  to  any  great  extent. 
There  are  many  excellent  tracts  suitable  for  tho  pro- 
duction of  coflce,  wheat,  vines,  etc. ;  but  the  means  of 
subsistence  aro  so  easily  procured,  tliat  the  inhabitants 
have  but  few  inducements,  oven  did  tliey  not  hick  tho 
industry  and  enterj>rlso,  to  become  extensive  agricul- 
turists. 

There  are  large  tracts  of  good  grazing  land  scattered 
throughout  tlio  islanil,  and  tho  growth  of  cattle  is  a 
leailliig,  perliaps  tho  most  profitable,  branch  of  agri- 
cultural industri-.  There  are  also  numerous  sheep 
ranges,  on  w  hich  are  tended  about  12,000  sheep ;  but 
the  business  Is  not  encouraging. 

Tho  eminently  advantageous  position  of  tho  Sand- 
wich Islands,  lying  on  tlie  great  route  between  Amer- 
ica and  China,  invited  at  an  early  period  tho  cnter- 
lirlso  and  capital  of  several  European  and  American 
settlers,  and  led  to  tho  establishment  of  a  somewhat 
active  trade.  They  constitute  a  common  centre  be- 
tween tho  three  principal  whaling  grounds  of  tho 
Northern  I'acilic — one  on  the  equator,  tho  other  near 
Japan,  and  the  third  toward  tho  liehrlng  Sea, 

Tlio  principal  port  is  Honolulu,  on  tho  south  side  of 
tho  lslan<I  of  Woalioo,  In  lat.  21°  18'  3"  N.,  long. 
l.")7°  55'  W.  Population  about  8500,  of  whom  about 
1200  are  Englishmen,  Americans,  and  other  foreigners. 
The  harbor,  to  which  the  place  owes  all  its  importance, 
has  a  narrow-  entrance,  but  it  Is  easy  of  access  at  all 
times  of  the  tide  to  vessels  not  drawing  more  than  18 
feet  water.  Tho  bar  at  its  mouth  being  narrow,  and 
composed  of  soft  coral,  it  might  easily  bo  made  access- 
ible even  for  line-of-battlo  ships. 

Commercial  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Sandwich  Islands  had  existed  for  many  years  be- 
fore the  treaty  of  1849.  As  far  back  as  1832,  when  the 
native  population  of  the  islands  amounted  to  130,315 
(nearly  double  Its  present  number),  it  appears  that  the 
~~'  A  natiro  production  used  for  bods  and  pillows. 


SAN 


1676 


SAN 


United  States  Imported  thence  pmilucn  to  the  ralue 
ottOiQ.  In  18B8  It  amniinteil  to  #1004-,  in  1HB7  to 
•0801 1  in  1840  to  «1H,201I;  and  in  1841  U>  lt!47,<IHO. 
The  tonnage  employed  wnii,  In  1885,  (W'i  tona ;  in  1888, 
UlRtona;  In  1887,  1574  tonii ;  In  1841,  1048  tonn;  In 
1842,  1809  tonn ;  In  1848,  1818  tuns  j  and  in  1844,  8217 
tona — ill  American. 

It  la  only  within  n  few  yoara,  however,  that  the 
trade  of  the  Sandwich  lalunds  with  tlie  United  States 
haa  aaaumed  any  conaideralde  Iniimrtancc.  The  great 
wealth  and  rapidly  InrreaainK  trudo  of  California,  to- 
gether with  tho  facilltlea  whicli  thia  group,  fh>m  ita  geo- 
graphical p<ialtion,  haa  always,  ua  nirea 'y  intimated, 
iwen  enaliled  to  afford  to  whaling  ahipa,  both  aa  a  re- 
cruiting atatlon  and  na  regards  the  general  aupplici' 
which  auch  vessels  rc<|uire  during  their  long  crulaea 
in  distant  latitudes,  ha\-o  recently  given  to  these  isl- 
anda  n  commorciul  importance  which,  under  other  clr- 
cumstuncea,  might  not  have  t)cpn  reached  for  a  centurj' 
to  come.  The  staples  of  tho  island  have  now  u  market 
in  ('alifomia,  cloao  at  hand,  and  tlio  communications 
with  the  Atlantic  coaat  have  liccome  regular  ind  fre- 
quent. 

Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  tho  amall-|iox,  which  flmt 
made  ita  appearance  in  tho  month  of  May,  1858,  and 
spread  with  siicli  fatal  niulignlty  tliroughout  the  group 
OS  to  carry  off  nearly  8000  victima,  tlie  trade  of  that 
year  waa  languid ;  the  markets  were  overstocked,  and 
prices  were,  consequently,  low  and  unremunoratlve. 

Tho  retail  trudo,  especially,  alinred  in  this  general 
stagnation.  The  whaling  fleet  of  ]85il  was  ahout  equal 
to  that  of  1852,  tliough,  generally,  tho  results  of  tlio 
latter  year  were  not  equal  to  those  of  tho  former.  Tho 
average  catch  of  the  Ochotak  fleet  was  over  ICOO  bar- 
rels, while  in  tho  .\ri;tic  scaa  the  yield  did  not  average 
more  than  680  l)arrela.  I'reights  also  ruled  low,  am' 
tho  demanda  for  tho  productions  of  tho  islands  fur  tl<e 
markets  of  California  wore  small,  owing  chiefly  to  tho 
fact  that  tho  almost  nominal  difference  in  prices  1>o- 
tween  tho  two  places  precluded  all  hope  oi  realizing 
any  protits  after  the  payment  of  duties. 

The  following  summary'  of  the  recent  commerce  of 
tho  Sandwich  Islands  hua  been  compiled  from  the  latest 
and  moat  authentic  sources : 

Tho  total  amount  of  inqiorts  for  IS.IS  exceeded  those 
of  1852  by  «l522,<;82  ftl.  From  the  United  States  thoy 
amounted  to  f  964,01!)  93,  being  more  than  three-fourths 
of  tho  whole  amount  imported.  The  imports  for  four 
years,  from  1860  to  1853,  both  inclusive,  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

ISM $l,n8n,nw  TO 

IWil 1,S'.'3,«21  m 

ISM 7nfl,sos  fa 

IS53 1,2^1,061  13 

Giving  an  average  for  tho  four  years  of  i?l,225,175  02. 
The  amount  of  imports  for  1853  exceeded  the  aver- 
age of  the  past  four  years  by  §50,770  10. 

COMI'.VUISON  I'Olt  I'Ont  YKAIiJi. 

FOBKIGN    K.\I>011TB. 

1950 $48,529  73 

]»51 831,402  M 

1353 tt31,14:i  M 

■.        1853 101,397  00 

PoMHiTia  Exports 

1 RBO !|«!)n,522  03 

1851 800,828  94 

:852 257,251  09 

1853 275,374  17 

The  revenue  derived  from  imports  waa  as  follows : 

In  1S.W $121,510  78 

In  13.'>1 J\n,m-i  19 

lu  1882 113,001  93 

lalSBB 166,040  17 


The  following  summary  exhibit!  the  general  com* 
merce  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  during  the  year  18M, 
as  condensed  from  the  rejjort  of  the  collector  general 
of  cuatoniB : 

Total  vuliio  of  Imports 11,390,780  24 

"        "  exports  585, 1 J2  07 

KxrcM  of  linpiins  over  exports 811,000  67 

Of  the  Imports,  there  were  from 

The  l.'niteil  Htntn,  Atlnnlli'  kIiIo )tlli|l,506  TO 

I'ttclflculclo 84>i,«l5  (5 


Of  rinany 

(Irout  llrltala 

AuslmlU 

t'hina 

Hoa 

Vuc  'rouvcr'i  Island  . 

Tahiti 

Callau 


Imported  froo  of  duty 

(ioodsenttircd  la  Imnd  ..  .!|i2l9,T4A  03 

(toods  withdrawn  from  bond  fur  con- 
■umptlun 

Imports  at  Lahslnr   $42,877  TO 

"         llllu    0,268  40 

"         Klinafimo 912  10 

"         KtaUl  ■I'-.Ufc..         087  84 


26,088  60 


60,130  88 

Total tl,aoo;780  84 

Vna.ysis  op  Exi-OBTS. 

Vnliio  of  fori'lgn  ro'  <I«  exported $311,008  OT 

"      ilon)i»tlr  prodncls,  $181,064  TO 
Vnluo  furnlilicd  a>  auppUci,  168,9Te  00 

_2T4j020J0 

Total $686,128  flt 

Statkmknt  buowino  T!m  raiNoiPAi.  Kxpoars  in  1854  oou. 

I'ARKII   WITU  TUUHK  np   1863. 


The  arrivals  wore  as  fo'lows : 

In  18.50. . .  Merchant  vcsacli',  409 
InlMl...        "  "         440 

In  1882...        "  "         235 

In  1808...        "  *•        194 


■\^•haIe  ahlpa,  837 
"  "  1S5 
"  '•  619 
"         "     635 


Ki)iorU 

.HiiKnr pounds 

Kirui) gnllous 

Moluxsca " 

Suit barrels 

olTce iH)unds 

Hides pieces 

(iont  rtlns  ....     " 

'I  allow pounds 

Arrow-root....     " 


I      l»M 

034,965 

18,244 

68,448 

n,l>09 

60,600 

1,741 

6,000 

10,468 


t<TATKMK>T    OP    TUT.    QuANTITIP.a    OF    Oil.    AND    IlONE   TUAN- 
SIIII'l'KO   IN    1864. 


TowtiiiU'iHinlry 

I'ultcd  atatcs . 


Hremen  . . 

lluvru.... 

ToUI. 


"prlng.. 
1-all . . . . 


!  Spflrni  on. 

"uVUom 
49,801 
00,449 
40,074 


1&«,4$4 


Wh«l«  oil   I 
Oslloni.  ~ 

257,880 

1,208.305 

104,700 

10,244 

25,173 


1,066,931 


liona 
rminila. 

38,705 

7ri2,830 

<184.241 

20.288 

4«,H10 


1,508,448 


The  total  number  of  vessels  of  war  at  Honolulu  dur- 
ing 18.')4  was  25,  carrj-ing  an  aggregate  of  075  guns  j 
of  which  number  G  were  American,  9  British,  and  7 
French. 

Of  merchant  vessels  at  tho  Hawaiian  Islands  during 
the  year  1854,  the  total  number  was  148,  measuring  in 
the  aggregate  47,288  tons ;  of  which  there  were, 

American,  103    measuring 83,448  tons, 

Ilrltlnh,        17—        "         4,788     " 

Tho  total  number  of  whaling  vessels  at  tho  porta  of 
tho  Hawaiian  Islundj  during  1864  was  5()6 ;  of  >vhicli 
there  were  American  634,  Bremen  8,  and  French  22, 

The  returns  from  the  port  of  Hllo  for  the  year  1864 
exhibit  the  following  commercial  movement : 

Total  vsluo  of  Imports $11,491  63 

Vulne  of  exports,  domestic  produce. . . .  $3,323  31 
Furnlslied  as  supplies  to  82  whalers  at 

an  overcharge  of  $2  25  each 18,450  00 

22,278  31 

The  transhipments  from  the  port  of  Ililo  during  tlio 
year  were  as  follows : 

Ppermoll 80,800  gallons. 

Whaieoil 114,203       " 

Whalebone 92,074  pounds. 

AVhaltng  vessels  ot  the  port  of  Hilo  in  1854 : 

American,  SO  vessels— measuring 29,898  tona. 

Krcnch,       8      "  "         1,014    " 

ToUl..  89      "  "         80,0ia    " 


1848  , 

1840. 

1847.: 

1848, , 

1849, 

1880., 

1861,, 

i?6n.'. 

IS»4. . 

I  1868., 

1800. 

18ST. . , 


SAN 

In  the  om.:|«|„,„„n„7jr^"'  *'•'«''  Iim  Ih..,,  ,,uI,||,|,J^ 
<>«iu>  HUgar,  cn-ee,  ii.„U,,"'  V'^''"'",'"l'«''''«My  Tr.,,,, 


Aiiniml  itv«niK« 


Hi"  Siindw/ci  Manilii  f,.-  »i,  ""^  exports  t,i  I  .hi-  i     — •  """  "niiulMtf  I,u,.l    i "  """Tfni 

•lv..|y  i..  the  h/mU  of  Al^,""''"'?'''''"'no»toxr    .      ""J""' «»pcrl„r  natural  «  vantal"''""'".''"  ''''""' 

"i^i=JS'B''^'^S'^^M:^?^^^^         *.. 

r"- "  '•- '" "  -"  """r '  »,i;:a  Erf"  "---^^  r  r  - '"•*^^^ 

VmHi  I  V.Iii- ..t'l.T: — : : i  ■ — ^— ^__ ^ 


I  jrnr.r,l  f,.,„,  |,„-| 


20,4116 

708,088      1^847 
J?8.084,    144,M9 


47(1 
1,11(10 
I.iili.l 
I,.1fl0 

■*,nvi4 

),2U() 


2.1  i 


4,116 
8,'.'l/5 
1,1147 
11,1)14 
t,4.tl 


The  proportion  whlph  »i,„  IT  •.  , — ^-    •^"' X  J"-'^-'  [_  10,'ubi  ''"'H        i,hi7 


total  „„ 
lowing! 

'".«•, '240:704    "'Irl'f-I    *!.''■':-',-•.■. 


■■.;:sr;ii^;;rE":;'';"v''-'"''->».i. 


""""Of  merchant  n„,  whXV',?/"™   *""•    K"'"  "  ™"<Par U^o'lfr'f ''''' "'  "•'"""  "'''!'«■   W« 
"Murlnjf  the  year  harS;,t^:,y;f'"^  "'  '"''''"  ""'"'«»'''" 


$«(!!), 

On  ths 
lliB  tnulo 
wmlltlon  i.iian  thone  of  «„,-  i,rfivin„7""'°  """  '"""'"y  |  estimates , 

J'e«r.  ""  ""-"'"Be  of  alout  «IOO,000  for  the     Jji^i^^iiTS^;!;;^ 

•M»M.2,  ...  export,  JlWA'^Z^^  ^«    ^-^'^--^''--^^^^^^•1^ 


HAN 


un 


sXn 


tn  thn  l4l;inil«  hM  Ihwh  )(rnntor  (liirinK  th«  p««t  thnn  In 
firrniiT  yoitra.     It  It  siip|H>iiril  Ihut  th«  iiiinMint  nf  «iii(*r 

^iniiliKi'il  tlin  pntt  y«nr  It  iit  Ixiixt  MK)  tniit,  iilmiit  cinn 
inlf  (if  wli'i'h  hull  Iwrn  nximrlc'l  (If  CdlTi-ii  llio  |iriiil- 
ucn  hin  lM'i"n  ni)t  Im"  thnn  HOO.IHHI  llm.  Only  ii  nniiill 
piirtlcin  npiwarii  iiliovit  nit  hnvInK  luivn  riX|Hirti>it.  Hut 
of  IhiIIi  Kii^iir  nnil  rniToo  lh«  wlmllii^  ttiTt  will  y^tirly 
r*<iulru  Inrgsr  mipplloii,  an  tliny  laavn  luinin  wllli  mnnllrr 


•tndiii,  nwInK  tn  lh«  high  ratm  lhiii«  trtlctM  rnmnund 
In  tlui  fttiiton. 

'I'tin  irri'lptn  at  th*  riiitomi  fur  tfl5fl  nhow  n  fulling 
nif  iif  itliout  ^nn,n(M)  friiin  thiiiDi  <if  tHn5,  which  In  uc- 
roimtnil  fiir  in  part  liy  thn  (Imraaan  In  tha  Impiirtatlon 
of  K<'U<I>  (<t'''U0,0()O)  mikI  ipirlti  (IIIUM)  galU.),  itnil  thrta 
ititmi  >h(iw  almut  thn  Mma  fiillInK  »IT  »«  tha  nuniliar  uf 
wliiiling  nnil  nigrchitnt  vaaiieU  vinltlng  thu  ginup. 


CoMrMATITI  Vliw  or  Tin  ('nuMnii'ii  nr  Tim  ri«ni>wii'M  Im.ANiiii  rim  TrN  \  a^ni,  ranu  Tim  VKAk  1H4T  Tu  7U*  YilAI 

ItlM,  IIKII.II   Tlin    I'llTAI.I  r»H   Ktrll    YlAII. 


Ytait- 

T.UI 

TStf..., 

$flo,iivl 

I*H. ... 

Olilt.ltlH 

11W. . . . 

TW.TltO 

IHBI.... 

l,onn,nM 

IH.'il..., 

I,S'J!I,N1I 

1S.VJ.... 

TBi.'iM 

1'<rtl  ... 

l,*'ll,»Tfl 

IMM. . .  . 

1,N»0,«S7 

isaft.... 

I,:h3,iihi 

^DH. . . . 

USI,4'J'i 

ToMl 


TlomHti.* 
HIHirlml 

jiSTMil  iS'iiTirH 


WNI.MII 

7sa,(iw 

A)  I, '/HI 

nns.'.ioB 
^'^^l*i 

AT'i.Oiil 


liW.HIft 
'iTll.T*) 
Mil.M'J 
SlKI.H'iH 
'iM.'WI 

'iM|,N>;l 

yT4,iiW 
tlU.741 


07ii,h!14,  4(W,'i7s 


r..f.iini 

T.iinir.i. 

Pfixliir* 

(lllll   hlXMB 

•  ip.>rlMil 

Ki.«l|iU 

»5K;«ih 

'♦•tH.HIli 

aii.rifil 

Wl.WW 

ins.iiia 

HII.'JHI 

lltA.Nill 

I'JI.MMl 

IIH|,4<l'i 

luii.mm 

IHI.IIJ 

tlll.lKII 

|0i.:iii7 

inA.A4ll 

BII.IKti 

IM.I'iA 

'/l>7,».'i(> 

IM,4ll 

'Jii4.r.ia 

1'.'3,I7I 

Oil  Ml 

1  ll.ma 

llnl«    ..f 

il»l> 

"I-"" 

Wlia 

tii4,»i)'i 

m, 

1711,  «MI 

i.i*j, 

17M1IIII 

:i,7s7, 

1B«,4MI 

l.lWIt, 

lIPtl.llllH 

I.4UII, 

m,'in 

l,i>4l 

tr*tiah(l<|i«.1. 


fiiuii.U  III 
Uuita. 


11111,(104 

3,1R.I,»B1 

l,47lt,H7H 

H'i7.UM 

l,>i74,UVJ 


Nn   of 

NaUiillnl 
Vaaaala. 

* 

(I 
11 

14 
t 

a 
T 
m 

u 
0 


Marfhanl 

Va<aala. 


TiiMiafa. 


Ill),llll4 
H7,U1V 

ni,ii«n 

47,»HH 
hi, III  14 
44,418 


WkaUra. 


Oilluna  uf 
l)|ilrili 


-jsr 

ilM 
!I74 
IMT 

MO 
Mtt* 
MB' 
B»B" 
4<W' 
IIHlS' 


11,1171 

11,448 
B,71I 
N,8M 
U,BIH) 

M.ino 

|1,1JII 

IS.llH 
14,77l> 


•  Tlii-aa  lluiiri'a  ijlvo  tlm  niinibi'r  of  illlfiT  nl  rntiv  of  wlmhra  at  lliii  v»rliiii«  uoria  -aiuiiii  "f  llm  voaula  ontcring  at  lliroe, 
fuiir,  uuil  uvuu  Avii  iiuru  iliiring  thn  year,      rim  actual  iiuiiilwr  uf  tlllTtriiiit  wimli'ra  during  IhBO  itlll  nut  fXciiuU  tl4U. 


Purls  nf  Knln/.—T\ia  following  oro  the  only  port* 
of  entry  In  tho  .Sanilwlch  Uliiniln,  viz. :  for  veaaeia  of 
uU  ilearrlptiona,  ilnnolulii  (Ouhii),  I.nhatna  (Miuil), 
Illlo,  Koaliikeakun,  nnil  Knwnlhao  (Hawaii),  anil  Wnl- 
niRn  (Knunl) ;  nnil  fur  whalers,  unil  veaaola  of  war  only, 
]Iannlp|  (Kniiai). 

Port  ('hnrgft  on  Mrrehant  V'»rl.i. — At  Ilimohihi. — 
Tonnngo  iliiaa,  llfteen  cpnta  per  ton  register ;  pllotngo, 
one  dollar  per  foot  each  way ;  or  hnlf-pllotugn  If  no 
pilot  is  empio3-p(] ;  health  certillcnte,  one  ilollar ;  liiioya, 
two  ilollan;  hurlior-niaater,  throe  ilolhira  ;  rlearnnro, 
one  dollar ;  pilot  for  niiihorlng  n  vrasel  oiitaido  whli'h 
does  not  enter  tho  hurliur,  ten  ilullnrs. 

At  iMhaina, — Tonnage  dues  tho  aume  na  at  Hono- 
lulu ;  iKiardlng  olllcorH,  live  dollura ;  lights,  one  dol- 
lar i  canal,  If  used,  two  dollars ;  clearnnce,  one  dollar. 

Al  Ililo. — Tonnage  duca,  pilotago,  health  cortltlcate, 
and  clearance,  the  annie  ns  at  Honolulu. 

At  Keataktnhia. — Tonnage  duos  tho  same  as  at 
Honolulu;  boarding  ofHuer,  five  dolbrs;  clearance, 
one  dollar. 

At  Kniiaihne  (Hnwair),  nnd  Walmcii  (Kauai"),  tho 
Bunie  as  at  Kealnkeakiia.  Any  veaicl,  having  |iaid  the 
tonnage  due.i  at  one  port,  complied  with  nil  tlm  |)ort 
regnlntlona,  and  otitalncd  a  clearance  from  the  collect- 
or, may  go  to  "either  or  nil  of  the  other  ports  of  entry, 
without  |>aying  any  additional  tonnage  dues  during 
the  same  voyage. 

Pririlfge$  to  \Vhnhfihif>ii. — Wlinlo  ships  ore  iillowcil 
to  land  goods  to  the  value  of  $'J00  freo  nf  duty,  and 
$1000  worth  additional,  suliject  to  a  duty  if  5  per 
cent,  wl  rtilorem,  without  lieing  lialile  to  pay  any  ton- 
nage dues;  Imt  if  thoy  land  more  than  $1200  worth 
(Including  tho  $200  worth  free  of  duty),  they  aro  mib- 
ject  to  tho  name  charges  nnd  liuliilitiva  u:i  merchant 
vessels.— /?«•  Wii.vi.K  Ki.siikuikh. 

Penaltiei,  Ileilrictions,  cli: — Any  master  of  a  whalo 
ship  wlio  shall  fail  to  produce  his  permit  when  called 
for  is  lialile  to  a  line  of  not  less  than  $10,  or  more  than 
S'.'iO,  to  1)0  imposed  hy  tho  collector.  Any  vessel  hav- 
ing cargo  on  board  intended  fur  a  foreii^n  port,  or  spirits 
in  cargo  or  stores,  and  touching  nt  n  place  not  it  port 
of  oiiirj',  without  n  permit  from  a  collector,  is  liable 
to  pay  doiildi  tonnage  dues.  Oil,  whalebone,  or  any 
other  artitlu  of  merchandise,  landed  or  trunship|icil 
without  a  permit,  i.>  liable  to  seizure  or  conflscation. 
Seamen  are  not  allowed  to  be  discharged  at  any  of  tho 
ports  of  these  islands,  except  Honolulu  and  Lahaina, 
It  is  not  lawful  to  dlschargu  seamen  at  any  of  the  porta 
of  tho  islands  without  the  written  consent  of  tho  gov- 
ernor. Honolulu  and  Labaina  are  the  only  ports  at 
which  native  seamen  are  allowed  to  bo  shipped,  and 
at  these  pUcea  only  with  tho  consent  of  tho  governor. 


—Sie  United  Slain  Cum.  Retittiont ;  STitlTAnT'*  Jour- 
nal; IIunt'h  .l/ri-cAanfj'  .lAif nti'nr,  xvii.  83,  xvili,  310, 
xxlv.  185;  A'ur(A  Atmriian  Rtvitw,  II.  608,  xxvl.  69 
(KvAnxa),  Iv.  193  (U.  11.  Da.na);  Chrittiun  JCsamintr, 
.xix.2U;  I)K  llow'H  llfvimi;  xlll.  467. 

Saiidy  Hook,  Kliddletuwn  township,  Monmouth 
county,  New  Jersey,  la  n  sandy  lieuch  extending  north 
from  Old  Shrowabury  Inlet  and  the  aiiuth  |Hiint  uf  tht 
Highlands  of  Nuvesink,  five  miles,  nnd  Is  from  half  • 
mile  to  a  iiillo  wide.  It  incloses  Handy  Hook  Hay. 
Tho  lights  aro  on  the  north  part.  Tho  Sandy  Hook 
lights  consist  of  the  main  light,  and  two  liciicons  placed 
in  iHiaition,  for  ranges  of  channela.  The  main  light  is 
in  lat.  40°  27'  42"  N.,  long.  78°  69'  48"  W.  from 
(jreenwich,  Kngland. 

Ui]ht-thip.—\  light-ship,  painted  red.  of  alKint  860 
tons  liunlen,  and  showing  two  lights,  Is  anchored  olT 
Sandy  Hook.  Tiio  forward  light  la  80  feet  nbovo  tha 
deck,  nnd  the  after  one  40  feet.  Sho  Is  nlso  provided 
with  a  bell  of  800  pounds  weight,  which  will  bo  rung 
in  thick  weather.  She  is  placeil  In  1.1  fathoms  water, 
Sandy  Hook  light-house  bears  fh)m  the  light-ship  west 
by  north,  distant  (i|  miles ;  Illghlund  light-house,  west- 
southwest,  distant  7  miles. 

IlighlaniU  of  .Vaiifsi'nit.— Navcsink  hills,  on  which 
two  light-houses  are  built,  extend  northwest  and  south- 
cast,  about  southwest  from  Sandy  Hook,  on  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  to  Raritan  Hay.  The  correct  altitudes 
of  tho  following  jilaces,  which  present  themselves  to 
mariners  as  thoy  upprouch  them,  are :  Mount  Mitchell, 
tlio  liiglieHt  point  of  Navesink,  Monmouth  county.  New 
.Jersey,  282  feet;  Tompkins'  Hill,  on  Staten  Island, 
1107  feet ;  Hcnipstoad  Hill,  (jueon's  county.  Long  Isl- 
and, 319  feet. 

llighliind  lAghls.—On  the  Highlands  of  Navesink 
there  aro  two  light-houses  liearing  north  23°  W.,  and 
south  23°  K.,  from  each  other  distant  100  yards.  The 
southorn  light  Is  a  revolving  one,  on  the  I'rosnel  plan ; 
it  is  248  feet  above  tho  level  of  the  sea.  The  north- 
ern light  is  a  llxod  light,  246  feet  7  inches  above  tho 
sea. 

Ledge  South  Snndy  Hook.— On  this  reef  there  are 
liut  9  feet  of  water.  The  nurtliern  light  on  the  High- 
lands, a  little  o|ien  to  thn  eastward  of  the  southcm  one, 
leads  right  on  tho  reef.  This  ledge  is  south  half  east 
from  Sandy  Hook  light,  7  miles  distant,  and  about 
1^  mill!  from  tho  shore,  and  on  which  tho  ship  William 
Thompion  struck. 

Oil  Spot. — Kast-southeast  If  mile  from  Sand}-  Hook 
light  is  tho  Oil  S|)ot,  having  only  10  feet  of  water  in 
one  spot  nt  low  water.  It  is  of  n  triangular  shape, 
and  about  half  a  mile  on  each  aide  in  extent.  The 
along-shore  channel  Is  inside  of  It. 


SAN 


lrt79 


SAN 


inwnil 

fitlllntf 
la  ac- 
rt»llnn 
il  thcM 
iilii>r  uf 

Ill  Y»*» 

P|.triU 

11,44a 

1    M»T 

H,«M 
14,  l» 

iMin 

IT, NIT 

[  U."9 
Iff  III  tlirM) 
M. 

hi'*  Jour- 
xvlli.  ai«, 
I,  xxvl.  69 
y','xoniin«»'i 

Monmouth 
iitllnij  north 
|Hilnt  of  th» 
from  half  • 
Hook  Mtt.v- 
Jandy  Hook 
iiconn  vlnccil 
miiin  llBht  1« 
8"  W.  from 

bf  alK)iit  850 
[inchorc(\  off 
lot  nl«)V«  tlio 

ilmi  |iruvl<lc(l 

will  bi«  rung 

hom»  water. 

[lit-nliili  we»t 

-huuae,  >*e«t- 

.„,  on  which 
Lt  unil  nouth- 
1,  on  the  At- 
ei-t  nltttiulos 
|\em»elveii  to 
int  Mitchell, 
[county,  New 
liiten  lnUntl, 
\y,  Loiitf  l»l- 

lof  Nttveslnk 
1^3°  W.,  and 
vardB.    The 
p'ronnBl  (iliin  •, 
The  north- 
La  ahove  the 

Lcf  there  are 
In  the  High- 
louthem  one, 
luth  half  east 
and  nliout 
Lhip  »'i/'inn» 

I  Sandy  Hook 

of  water  in 

Icular  shape, 

Ixtcnt.    Th8 


Fattt  //.».*.-  U  '"II"  •;'»«.  »  llt'l«  northerly,  from  hn,\  mii.h  fh.m  dr..,  I.r  which,  In.lMd,  Il  hnn  n>n««|. 
Biiiidy  lliHik  ll«hl,  thft.'  !•  ii  miiuII  .Iio,.1  •■h.I,  with  ..l!v  l.wn  lulil  >»«.t«.  Th»M,  hnw«v«r,  h*\»  Loin 
onl>  I'i  f«rt  W|il«  »|).m  it  at  low  waUr.     It  U  the  m- '  .i""'!.!*  r-imlwl ,  «ii,l  in  n  f..w  »,.,k«  no  tru. «  urn 

niiilni  of  thu  ol.l  l-,ii««  lloiik.  „,„„  „f  ,|,„  „„„,  ,|,.,„„,,i,,  ,.„„||«Kriitlon..     A hi- 

N.I,.  \,irk  //.irW.  riirr.1  nrn  fmir  (lmnii..|.  „v,.r  iiii{,hi>w«vi.r,  „.  li<iii»i-»  nf  l,rlik  or  «l.mn  ,.i-.i  .i.i,.lliii. 
K,iw  York  l.«r.     Ili«  t  r.t  li  tl...t  .iloiitf  uii.l  pamll-l    iml  fm  (li„.u  „f  »<m>.|  ,„i,|  f„r  lont*,  fir**  will  Uram* 

1...  the  ,I«rii«y  »hor»,  ln»lil»  of  tlii<  Oiiif>r  .Ml.Ml...     1 1,„    i,,,,  iv,.,|,„.„t  u,,,)  | l...truillvi«. 

Mcon.l  U  the  Smitli  nuinti.O,  U.l«>.r„  tl,„  III,,,  k  Cm  ri,„  ,H,,,ul„tl,„.  „t  S..„  VnnvUn,  [,  th«  nio.l  mntloy 
Buoy,  No.  1,  and  lli«  lle.H  an  llu.,j ,  N.,  .'.  ■|1,„  tl.lrd  that  .uii  U  \nmg\n,;\ ;  f„r,  IhoiiKh  AmfHcan.  nrr.loiii- 
U  th«  Main  Mhllf.hanncl,  l*tw,..,ii  tli,'  Itml  (an  Hii..y,  lnat«,  a  liirK"  admixlurr  U  to  I*  ,,wn  of  advMiliir*r« 
No.  i,  .iimI  the  lllark  Nun  Huoy,  Nn.  I.  Ih.  ruurlli  i>  fn.m  all  purta  (,f  IhK  world  (i.uiildlnk(  i"  v.t\  iir.iv. 
Geiinoy'H  Chanmd,  l«twe«n  the  llla<  k  Nuu  llm.y,  N...  H|,nt ,  an.l  Ik,  prhap., .  arrlr.l  ..i,  to  a  Krnitrr'rxtHnl 
l.and  the  Red  Nun  Ituoy,  No.'i.  'Ihlii  ihiiniid  ruiM  h.ri", .luring  lh«  riiiiiv  «pa«oii,ihun  In  any  oilier  iilac* 
wr«t  l.y  north,  and  In  ua«d  l>y  our  larjje.t  vUm  >hi|n  of  rlthrr  uf  II1.1  N„w  or'tho  <  lid  \V.,rl,l.  Hut  IliU  It  Ihs 
w«r — Hi.I!!«t'h  CmhI  I'iIoI.  natural  rpnult  nf  tlm  <  l^'umxt»lll','ll  undnr  whlrh  III* 

llurhiK  the  yiiar  IHflT  the  w»»t  Iwacon  at  Sandy  |H>|iulHtli>n  hax  h««n  l.n.UKlit  tnK,.|hcr:  ami  Ihi'  |m>. 
lliKik,  the  foundation  of  which  ha<l  Im-cu  un<li<rnilii»<|  .ion  will  no  doiil<t  almti.  »>  the  ilrciiiii.tancf»  In  wlil<  h 
|py  till!  «»a,  wa«  removed  to  a  mMiini  pii'.itioii  liv  mil.  r  It  orlxlnated  chiiimn  i.r  !..»«  Iheir  lnlliii.nc<>.  |.\i„h- 
of  the  l,li|ht-hou«e  Hoard,  a  m-w  "crcn  on.,  ti^d,  an.l  law  hua  l*cn  lif  rn  n-diiccd  to  a  iiv,.t<iin,  and  nitriml  to 
tho  main  ilnht-houae  tltlixl  with  a  mnv  liiiitcrii  miuI  .1  ,1  greater  extent  than  anv  where  eUe  ;  aml.ih'M.lte  ilia 
third  order  lena.  (iedney'H  Channel  Into  Sew  York  ,  urm  iilmara  to  whlili  it  unavcililnlily  leadn,  It  In  tli* 
Hay  having  two  feet  morn  water  than  the  old  channel*,  general  opinion  that  it  c.iuld  not  have  l-'en  (IIjiwi.mi1 
wa<  unknown  nntll  a  few  yearn  since.  I'lie  knowleiUn  with.  A  ien«n  of  ita  neee»»ltv  haa  led,  not  only  l.,  |u 
of  thia  channel  la  owlnn  to  the  o|K-rutlon»  of  thot'oa»t  heinK  adopted,  Imt  to  Ita  helnii  uenerally  ap|iniv«l. 
Survey.  Had  thu  trim  depth  of  thia  channel  Iw-en  ^  Nowhere  In  the  world  la  there  no  (pvat  a  ill«pnrity 
known  In  I77M,  tho  French  Hcet  under  Count  l)'i;»tiilii.{  hetween  the  aexea  aa  in  ,San  l''raiicl»<n.  there  lieln^i  at 
would  have  paaaed  into  the  liay  and  taken  the  aaaeiii-  '  leant  from  thn^e  In  live  men  for  one  woman.  Hut  tliil 
lileil  llrlllah  naval  force.— (.'««m/  .Viiecrj  A'./wrt,  1M,-||  ;  (ll«|«rlty  U  urndiially  IcaaeniiiK,  ami  with  It  noiiie  of 
UijhlAuuiii!  Hrpm-1, 1H47.  tlio  wornt  fcaturea  In  the  present  comlltlcm  of  the  (Mipii. 

San  FrancUoo,  a  city  and  aea-jiort  of  the  I'nlled  latlon.  Tho  |H>piilatlon  of  the  .Ity  ilKIera  widely  al 
.Statea,  in  California,  on  the  aouth  promontory,  cllvld-  dirtcrenl  (a-rliaU,  hein(j  crowded  In  tho  wet,  ami  coin- 
Ing  the  great  hay  of  .San  Kranclaoo  from  the  I'acllh',  paratively  dcaerted  In  the  ilry  -i-xmn.  'I'IioiikIi  hy  far 
inaido  the  hay,  and  a  ahort  way  to  tho  aouth  of  Ita  en-  tlic  larKeat  and  mont  iiniKirtiinl  town  In  the  Nl.it«,'u  || 
trance.  Tho  latter,  now  called  the  (iidden  (late,  little  not  ita  capital.  That  dintinction  haa  hoen  conferred 
more  than  a  mile  in  width,  haa  on  Ita  aouth  aide  an  on  San  Josi  In  comnMiuenco  of  Ita  mure  central  aitiui- 
old  Spanlah  fort,  or  praiilio,  In  hit.  .'IT"  IH'  :i(»"  N.,  ;  tlon. 

long.  Vi-i°  27'  2:1"  W.  Having  paaaed  the  fort,  the  1  Tho  Hay  of  Snn  Kranclaro,thonKh,aa  already  atated. 
courao  to  tho  town  Is  nearly  eaat  from  three  to  four  It  haa  a  narrow  entrance,  expanda  within  into  one  of 
milea,  and  then  aouth  and  weat  nlioiit  aa  niurh  more.  |  tho  nohleat  liaatiia  that  la  any  where  to  ho  met  with, 
The  city  la  aituated  at  the  liottom  of  a  hay,  aklrled  liy  having  n  coaat  line  of  aliout  275  milea.  Tho  town  liim 
extenalvo  data,  some  of  which  are  now  licing  formed  nlreajly  hecome  the  aeat  of  a  very  extensive  tniile.  and 
Into  docka.  Ita  growth  haa  hoen  qulto  extraordinary.  \  will  mo»t  likely  ho  tho  grand  eniporliiiii  of  the  viiat 
In  the  early  part  of  IHIUIt  coiiaiatedonly  of  a  fowrudj  territory  hehmging  to  the  I'liited  .Statea  on  the  I'a- 
Ciihlna;  whereas  it  haa  now  nn  exchange,  n  theatre,  a  cillc.  The  trade  with  China,  Auatralla,  tho  Kiiatern 
cuntom-houae,  aiindry  churchea  and  other  piihllc  liullil- '  Archipelago,  and  the.  Tolyncilan  lalanda,  la  even  now 
inga,  with  great  numlicra  of  private  houaea,  many  of  very  oxtcnalve,  and  aeveral  ahlpa  have  lieen  lltted  out 
wliich  are  of  wood,  hut  many  alao  nfwMif  (aiin-dried)  for  tho  whalo-tlshery.  At  present,  however,  the  prln- 
andhumedhricka,  with  n  vast  numlier  of  attached  tenia  ;  elpal  trade  of  the  city  ia  with  I'anama  on  the  one  hand, 
and  iKHiths.  And  while  such  la  the  inotamorphosla  on  and  Oregon  on  the  other;  hrliigliig  Immigrants  and 
shore,  her  watcra,  which  were  formerly  quite  deserted,  '  all  aorta  of  man  11  fact  11  red  goods  from  the  former,  and 
are  crowded  with  ahlpa  and  atenmera  from  all  parts  of  [  cum  and  other  raw  produce  from  the  latter.  Hut  alio 
tlie  world !  San  Kranclsco  la  Inilelited,  aa  every  ono  haa  also  an  extensive  trade  w  ith  Chill,  tho  eastern  por- 
knowa,  for  this  all  hut  mlruculoiia  transformation  to  lion  of  the  United  .States,  «nd  with  Kuropo  hy  f.'apo 
tho  discovery  of  gold  deposits  in  tho  hcds  of  the  trlliii-  Horn.  The  liiiportutlon  of  many  forts  of  pn'diicts  liai 
tarlcs  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  .Sacramento  rivera,  whicli  1  licen  completely  overdone,  anil  some  varieties  of  niiimi- 
fall  into  her  bay,  and  in  thu  quartz  of  tlio  contiguous  i  factured  goods  might,  in  IH.'i;)  and  IS.'il,  he  bought  in 
niuuntiiinfi.  Such,  however,  arc  the  advantagoa  of  her  San  Kranciaco  as  cheap  as  In  Liverpool  or  Havre, 
tltuatlon,  and  tho  fertility  of  tho  adjacent  country,  that  Tliir.,  however,  is  a  species  of  inlacalcidation  incident 
tho  exhaustion  of  tho  gold  deposits,  though  It  might  to  the  opening  of  all  new  marketa,  and  will  speedily 
check  for  a  while,  would  not  permanently  affect  the  correct  Itself,  (iidd  Imlllon,  with  small  hut  Increasing 
growth  of  the  city,  or  tlio  extent  of  her  trade.  To  oli-  quautiliea  of  quicksilver,  and  hides,  have  hitherto  liecn 
vlate  the  shallownoas  of  the  water  close  to  tho  town,  '  the  all  hut  exclusive  articles  of  export, 
a  wharf  2a00  feet  in  length  ha.a  already  been  projecteil  I  Tho  subjoined  tabular  form  gives  at  a  coiniirehen- 
Into  the  hay,  and  to  it  all  sorta  of  vessels  are  safely  ■  she  glance  the  amounts  of  the  nsseasmenta,  together 
moored.  The  construction  of  cxtenslvo  docka  has  alao  '  with  the  rates  of  taxation  of  tlie  city  and  county  uf 
been  commenced  ;  and  every  effort  is  'iciiig  made  to  1  San  Kranclsco,  for  eight  llscal  years,  since  tlio  first  o^ 
provide  tho  accommodation  necessary  for  the  rapidly  |  ganization  of  the  local  goveniment,  viz.: 
Increasing  trade  of  the  town. 

San  Kranclsco  stands  on  a  sandy  level  j  and  during  ! 
tlio  wet  season,  when  it  is  most  crowded,  the  streets 
were  at  first  mere  puddles,  into  which  carriages  sunk 
to  tho  axles ;  while  in  the  dry  season  the  annoyance  | 
from  dust  was  all  but  intolerable.     Uut  these  incon- 
veniences have  been  to  a  great  extent  obviated  by  j 
flooring  the  streets,  or  covering  them  with  stout  planks, 
a  process  which  has  been  carried  to  a  great  extent,  and  ! 
has  bad  the  most  complete  saccess     The  city  has  suf- 1 


Fl'rsI 

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Btatkmknt  nr  tiik  Nl-miikr  or  I'AssENaRiiii  nr  Hka  arriv- 

INll   AT   ANII  IIKTARTINO  FROU  THE  I'ORT  Or  8aM  KbAI<CIB«0 
nCRINM  THE  YKAR  WlO, 

Arrivai.d,  Yeah  ISSO. 


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8S3 
11 
19 
11 
22 

en 

2 
18 
T2 

"si 

ea 

1 

14 

1042 
121 

3 

17,833 

4.148 

SO 

6,838 

24 

131 

19r> 

» 

04 

4S,) 

13 

225 

231 

4T 

79 

Sftfl  <fllRD 

L'nited )it>tcii  porta  dlriHt 
China 

Orcat  Britain 

Hamburg 

Pern 

Chill 

Sandwich  Inlandn.   

Other  raclflc  lalanda 

Australia 

Mexico 

HiisHlon  I'o«».,  N.  W.  Coant 
Other  p«rt« 

Total  

2(M>40 

1)244 

2081 

28,206 

DErARTCREH,  Vear  1860. 


for 

M«n. 

Wunien 

Chiltlteii 

Total. 

I'anania 

11,2m 

4,849 

10 

212 

17 

8,214 

121) 

412 

470 

2!I2 

3;i 

709 
208 
4 
84 
S 
0 
7 

75 

121 

60 

B 

•16:i 
193 

12,408 

0,310 

14 

241 

20 

8,223 

130 

4S7 

ono 

862 
44 

r'ftn  tluan 

rullccl  SlatiM  porta  direct 

^nndwlrh  THlauda 

other  I'aclflc  lalanda 

china 

I'eri.   

Au«lralla 

Mexico 

Chill 

Other  porta 

Total 

2u,omi 

1348 

046 

22,903  1 

RioAriTiii.ATios,  Year  1S66. 

1    Mfii, 

Wuiiion 

children 

Tolal. 

Total  iirrivniH 20,940 

5244 
134S 

21W1 

648 

■>S,2«,'> 
22,'.10S 

Total  ill pBrtiirea. 20,90;i 

Exco««  of  arrlvalB 81 

3896 

I4:i6 

5,302 

Showing  a  not  gain  of  population  from  arrivals  by 
sea,  iluring  the  year  1656,  uf  5,'!G2  souls.  This  is  a 
very  unfavornUo  oxliiliit,  nnd  we  regret  to  make  it 
public.  During  1  lin  last  six  months  of  the  year  tlio  de- 
partures were  U'.>7  houIs  in  exccus  of  tlio  arrivals.  It 
is,  however,  the  class  of  population  that  wo  are  losing 
which  is  tlio  worst  feature.  During  the  lust  hiilf  of 
185C,  the  departures  of  male  adults  for  the  Atlantic 
States  were  2,'i3<l  in  excess  of  the  arrivals. 

The  population  has  received  a  strong  reinforcement 
during  the  post  year  by  inunigration  over  the  plains. 
]Carly  in  the  season  exaggerated  estimates  were  made 
of  the  extent  of  this  immigration,  as  well  as  of  tlm 
quantity  of  stock  that  would  Iw  driven  over ;  but  we  do 
not  overestimate  the  number  when  wo  say  that  fully 
8000  persons  were  added  to  the  permanent  population 
of  the  State  by  the  overland  route  during  the  imst  year, 
and  that  they  brought  with  thuin  25,000  to  80,000  head 
of  homed  cattle.  This  is  tlie  character  of  |)opulution 
that  the  State  needs,  and  if  Congress  would  uuthori/.o 
the  construction  of  a  wagon  rond  over  tlie  plains,  wo 
should  see  60,000  people  annually  leaving  tlie  Valley 
of  tlie  Mississippi  to  make  their  hoires  on  the  I'acilic 
slope  of  the  liocky  Slountuins.  As  matters  arc  now, 
with  virtually  but  ono  lino  of  communication  with  the 
Atlantic  coast,  we  need  indulge  in  no  brilliant  hopes  of 
the  advancement  of  Oalifoniia  in  population  of  the  right 
stump. — Am  f'miwuco  I'rice  Ciirrenl. 

Since  the  preceding  was  written.  Congress  passed  nn 
net  inider  date  February  17,  18.')7,  entitled  "  An  Act 
for  the  construction  of  a  wagon  road  from  Fort  Kear- 
ney, via  the  South  I'uss  of  the  liocky  Mountains  and 
Cirout  Suit  I,oke  Valley,  to  tlio  eastern  portion  of  the 
•State  of  (.'alifomia  ;"  '2.  For  a  road  from  Kl  I'aso,  on 
the  Kio  Grande,  to  Fort  Vuma,  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Gila ; 
3.  For  a  road  from  F'ort  Deflance,  in  New  Mexico,  to 
the  Colorado. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  excess  of  arrivals 
over  departures,  and  also  those  which  have  gained  dur- 
ing the  year  1860,  together  wfth  the  uinouuts  of  our 
gidaondlosa: 


Arrivals  at  Panama. 
Panama 

LOM. 

Gain. 
4760 

1162 

China 

2116 

Haudwlch  Inlanda 

240 

Other  Paclflc  lalanda  .... 

7 

288 
869 

Chill 

131 

Ilanibtirg 

1''5 

202 

Inllcd  States  porta  direct 
Peru 

25 

127 

Great  llrltaln 

24 

Other  ports 

82 

Total 

2216 

7577 

llalanco  In  favor  of  California  .... 

F.Xl'OBT  OF  QUIOKetLVEO. 

To  Slexlco 

530 

Plaifci 
.  851R 

.    11S1 

.  i.wn 

To  Peril 

.  1567 

Of  the  exports  in  1866, 1-1,641  flasks  were  destined 
to  Mexico ;  1526  flasks  to  Peru ;  3009  flasks  to  China ; 
2-114  flasks  to  New  York  ;  and  250  flasks  to  Australia, 
The  total  value  exported,  according  to  tho  custom- 
house books,  was  $883,185. 

OrKRATIONS    OK  TIIR  UnITEP   STATES  DbANCH  MIST  AT   8AN 
I'UANCISCO  IIUBINO  THE  YkaR   1S66. 


Gold,  ounces 
Silver, 


nepMJts. 
1,646,006  60 


69,878  OS 
CoitiHBre 

Gold  coin $25,146,400  00 

Gold  bard 8,047,001  80 

Gold  bare,  rcflncd 122,136  66 

Silver  coin 184,000  00 

Silver  bars 25,343  80 

Total  colnoKO $28,524,831  26 

Exporta  o/Trensi/rc.— Statement  of  the  amount  and 
destination  of  treiisuro  exported  from  San  Francisco 
during  the  year  1850. 

To  New  York $39,705,294 

To  Kngland 8,000,289 

To  China 1,308,852 

To  Panama 253,268 

To  Sandwich  Islands 211,460 

To  Manilla 1113,266 

To  New  Orleans 130,000 

To  Pern 0.1,750 

To  AuHtralla 50,518 

To  Calcutta 47.050 

To  (hill 11,398 

To  I'OBta  Hica 9,000 

To  Socicly  lalumlii 6,300 

Total  shipmenta  of  treaauro  la  18,V). , .  $60,097,434 

"  "  "  1S55. ..     45,132,031 

Increase  In  18S6 Wil4,'803 

Ooi.n  IhioDucT  OF  California,  1866,  — Actoal  giiirMENTB 
FROM  San  1'UA^C16^». 
To  New  Y'ork  and  New  Orleans,  for  Atlantic 

Statea $39,806,264 

To  Kngland  dlrert 8,066,289     ' 

ToChlmi $1,308,852 

Lesa  Mexican  coin  hicludcd  . .      1,000,000 

308,863 

Other  foreign  porta 824,ii2;t 

Total  mnnlfnated $4'i,(!94,434 

Atlantic  paaaen^era  eatlmatcd 3,!'8J,&26 

( 'olued  at  Ilruneh  .Mlut $26,146,400 

Of  which  lucliiilcd  In  ahlpmenta    17,(M10,0(I0 

. .      8,146,400 

Total  eatlmatcd  production  of  gold $01,830,860 

Comparativf.  Produot  for  tiirei!  Years. 


1»5.1. 


ias«. 


To  New  York *40,2S.i,049  ;t!!8,73n,604  $3.i,8:i5,2fl4 

Kngland  and  foreign  ,.  6,139,452  5,909,520  11,799,170 
Atlantic  iiaaaeugera  ...  4,rt28,'.l04  8,S73,oftfl  3,!'8:>,520 
Coined  at  Urancli  Mint  _  4,0S4,207    17,6.iS,800|  25,140.490 

Total $6l),i42,272  li;00,111,440  :f7S,830,3«l) 

Leaa  Hrlt.  coin  ahlpped      2,5  io,iMiii      8,l)(in,il00!   17,il0ii,0iKl 

Eatlmatcd  prmliictlon [$fi7,742,272,j^5S,1li,44flji01,830,i 

Of  the  annual  product  of  tho  gold  mines  and  placers 
of  the  State,  it  is  diflicult,  also,  to  speak  with  any  iwsi- 
tlve  degree  of  accuracy.  In  the  lire  of  May,  1851,  al- 
most the  entire  records  of  the  custom-house  were  de- 
stroyed, together  with  a  vast  qua^itity  of  the  books  and 
papers  of  mercantile  houses,  so  that  we  can  only  itate 


SAN 


1G81 


SAN 


I  SllirMBSTS 


l9,8:'6,2fl4 
l8,flO«,2S9 


18,140,400 
|l,8;i0,860 

ItB. 

fcYr«ir<,204l 
(i.79'.',n" 

J   3,'.'8,>,620 
l25,140,4M 

117,000,  OIHl 
|BTr830,300j 

Ind  pincers 
^  any  lios'- 
1,1861,81- 
t  were  do- 
Ibooks  and 
■only  »t»*8 


the  recorded  amounts  exported  liy  the  mail  steamers 
and  other  vesseU  since  that  cpocli,  which  were  as  fol- 
lows, according  to  olflcial  iluta  : 

KSTIMATEI)    PBOni-CE  Of  TlIK   MlNF.S  OF  Cai  IFOHNIA   HINCE 
TIIKIK   l>lSCOVWlV. 

Prcvioinly  lo  1S5I,  aaflumi'd  from  stalli!- 

llM  of  the  L'uitod  SUtoB  Miot $88,015,000 

1S51 4,V.N',i,noo 

1862 4.'>,770,IK10 

1853 54,1M15,IK)0 

1854 5l,42;l,.i00 

18,55 46,is;i.iim) 

I860 50,0.17,1100 

1867 5iM)43,iK10 

Add  probable  ninount  in  baiidn  of  paMcn- 

Bern,  fl  years,  f  10,000,000  per  annum.  C0.00o,ono 

Total •  ■  .*40S,(iiio,liOO 

(n  the  fr>regoing  estiinnte  no  account  is  talien  of  the 
amount  of  uncoined  j,'old  in  the  hands  of  miners,  or  ly- 
ing on  genenil  deposit  with  the  various  express  agents 
and  bankers  ^  It  is  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  made 
inquiries  on  the  suliject,  that  the  amount  thus  retained 
in  tlie  country  is  fully  up  to  throe  millions  of  dollars. 
Nor  is  the  amount  shipped  by  sailing  vessels  included, 
an  emission  caused  by  our  inaliility  to  ascertain  the 
proportion  which  dust  bears  to  coin  in  such  shipments. 
The  shipments  of  treasure  to  China,  Manilla,  Calcutta, 
Valparaiso,  and  Honolulu,  the  present  year,  amount  to 
aboi!t  $853,000 

'  It  would  be  a  diDlcult  task  to  ascertain  the  total 
value  of  foreign  goods  im|X)rtod  and  consumed  in  this 
region,  as  a  great  part  are  previously  imported  at  the 
eastward,  and  do  not  require  to  be  specifically  entered 
in  ourcustom-house.  In  stating,  therefore,  the  amount 
nf  our  direct  unportation  of  foreign  goods,  for  the  year 
ending  the  1st  of  October  last,  at  $7,490,000,  wo  merely 
do  so  en  passant,  without  reference  to  the  actual  con- 
sumption. If  wo  were  to  form  an  opinion  of  our  im- 
ports from  the  amount  of  our  annual  exports,  both  of 
pro«luce  and  gold,  we  should  say  that  the  former  would 
amount  to  at  least  $30,000,000,  which  forms  nearly  the 
whole  basis  of  our  trade. 

The  following  is  a  comparative  statement  of  the  ex- 
ports from  San  Francisco  for  the  years  18&5  auf*  1H6G  : 

l«S.<.  IflSO. 

Treaiiurc $4,5, 182.031  $60,0.17,434 

Koi'eit^ii  morcbandise,  produce,  and 

quickailvpr 4,l<'.i,Cll  4,270,515 

Total $41,372,242  $54,'.!«7,1'49 

In  estimating,  as  we  have  done,  the  imports  at  only 
$30,000,000.  or  two-thirds  the  amount  of  our  exporta- 
tions,  we  presume  the  remaining  $18,000,000  to  have 
been  absorbed  by  the  rents  and  other  revenues  of  ab- 
sentees ;  by  the  interest  on  foreign  capital ;  and  \)y  tho 
remittances  of  miners  and  others  to  their  absent  fam- 
ilies, as  well  as  those  of  others  whoso  entire  earnings 
are  sent  out  of  the  country.  These  are  mere  specula- 
tive views  and  opinions,  but,  in  tho  absence  of  ixisitive 
data,  they  may  not  bo  deemed  unworthy  of  Applica- 
tion— San  Francisco  I'ricf  Current. 

V'ALirK  OF  KSPORTS  OTIIKU  THAN  TcKASCUK  TROM  SaN  FrAN- 
CISCO  DURINO  TUB  YSAR  KNVIKU    DECKUIIKII  31.   1'<.56. 

Australia $l.i;.1,:!07 

Now  York l,n3.5!IO 

Mexico 781,05!) 

Peru 337,(l:i2 

Sandwich  Islands 241,303 

China 23'i,'.>41 

HuHsian  I'osscssions 127.;i  10 

Chill 110.787 

Sociity  Islands  111,819 

New  (tmnndu. . . , 41,120 

Port*  In  the  I'aclllc 36,453 

Vancouver's  Island 23,370 

Coiitn  Itlca 12,000 

Kastlndlcs .   .  2,7,50 

NlcaniRim 2,430 

Total  exportation  in  1850 $4,270,514 

"               "              1,S55 4,X77,5ia 

Excess  In  favor  of  1S,5B $417,005 

The  exports  of  lumber  in  1856  were  8,900,000  feet. 
60 


KxroRTS  or  Doxestio  PRimrrF  for  Tire  Ykab  EMnins  D«- 
I'Guiini  31,  18S0, 

Fl.OlR. 


VVliill.oT  eii|)ort«(l 

Ilnrroh.. 

rna,'!. 

lir.  Sack! 

4r  Swill. 

2117,484 

4,000 

7,202 

1,1180 

6,.S2fl 

162 

40 

80 

2,570 

880 

Australia 

33118 
51 

12u5 

2lii 

32,10 

iiiiio 

1000 

118,5 

5) 

100 

China 

Callao 

Honolulu 

101 

Mexico   

Uu,iHlan  INtsscssions  .... 
.■<nn  guentlu 

26 
TO 
101 

l)92ir 

Tahiti 

Vancouver's  Island 

Total 

7021 

200,114 

)^  heat bag,    4,433 

Iterlcy ..      4,758 

<*''l« "     13,332 

•irltts bbls.    6,il30 

Potatoes bags       182 

linSINFJiS  nONF.  AT  Tlln  I'CSTOM-IIOCSF.  OK  'Jan    ImNrlSOO 
iiUBiNO  TUB  Vfab  KNUINO  .SKI'TKMUFH  30,  1S50. 

L 


V«l„„ 

DuUia 

Merchandise  in  Iwiid  on  lat  (let.,  1S,50 
Ueceived  hi  warelionse  Imported  from 

foreign  ports 

Do,  tninsported  In  Iwnd  frmn  the  iM)rls 
of  New  Vork.  Iliwton,  rhlludelplila, 
and  .New  Orleans 

$828,0,:4 
1,400,996 

423,730 

$340,042 
610,051 

173,002 
$4,b2ii;fl95 

$5)2,183 
114,319 

8,090 

315,102 
$l,0'W,flll.5 

$1,149,597 

692,183 

$1,741,781 

Withdrawn  from  warehouse  for  con- 

+2,05.',.825 

$l,4i)4,lS0 
42.\512 

38,0.51 

784,400 

[lo.  for  exportation  tr  foreign  porta  . . 
no.  for  transportation  to  the  ports  of 

New  York  and  Itoston 

Hemalning  In  warehonso  on  the  301h 

of  September,  1850 

Imported  from  foreign  ports,  duties 
paid     .... 

$2,053,826 

$3,804,243 

1,404,190 

2,221,050 

Wltlhlrawn  from  warehouse  for  con- 
sumption  

"  TretO'  nierclmudlso  Imported  from 

Total  value  of  foreign  merehaudlsc 

thrown  upon  the  market   

Total  duties  eollected 

$7,4I0,08S 

We  copy  from  the  San  Franrisro  Price  Current  the 
following  statistics  for  the  j-ear  185C,  to  which  we  add 
the  aggregates  for  the  year  1857 : 

!5TATF,.MRNT  OF  THE  XrMllER  OF  VebSEI.B,  WITH  THEIR  TON. 
NAOr,  AUIilVINO  AT  AMI  DEPARTISr,  FROM  TUB  I'OBT  OF  SAK 
rBA.NCISCO  DL'RINU  TUB  VkAB  1S56. 


Arrivnli  from 


Atlantic  ilomestic  ports , . . . 

Paeifto  domestic  ports 

Panama 

China 

Nicaragua 

Croat  llrllain   

Sandwich  Islands  

Kranen  . , 

Mexico 

llatavia , 

Islands  111  the  raciOc 

nlo  de  .laneiro 

Itiissinn  Possessions,  Northwest  Coast 

Manilla 

Whaling  voyage, . .  

Hamburg 

Chill 

Peru 

Australia 

Ilrilish  North  America 

.fapan 

Vancouver's  Island 

Caleulta 

Co.sta  Uiea 

Total ....' 


liECAPITtl.ATION  FOR  THE  ^EABS  ISSfl  1857. 

Veflfl^ll.  T«»f. 

American  vessels  arrived  from  domi'stU-  ports. .  1102  287,510 

"              ••           foreign  ports...     108  10»,91» 

11             "               "           whaling  voyages      13  8,879 

Foreign  vessels  arrived  from  foreign  porta J13  30,fl»S 

Total,  1856 14W  4^53 

Total  1807 ••  1M8  427,BM 


I: 

1 


SAN 


1682 


SAN 


P«I>artur«i  (01 

Ko.  of 

VtMll. 

Tom. 

raclAc  domestic  porta 

860 

711 

5!) 

26 

37 

14 

19 

43 

29 

4B 

9 

7 

IS 

21 

3 

15 

S 

3 

1 

3 

1 

137.456 

72,784 

60,673 

60,627 

26,837 

13,053 

17,630 

16,666 

12,553 

8,873 

4,797 

6,003 

3,855 

8, 5' 12 

1,21)4 

1,971 

4IB8 

341 

266 

1,469 

900 

China 

I'eni 

Calcutta 

Manilla 

Bandwirh  Islandfl 

Auttralia 

Mexico 

KutriilaH  PoflKCssionr,  Northwest  (Joast 

Whallnif  \oyaKCK 

Chill 

Batavln 

lalaadrt  In  tbo  Tacl^c 

Vamonver' s  Island 

CoBla  Klca 

>lauritiu.i 

'  Krancn  

1         Total 

1283 

«8.S67 

Tom 
143,  l"!! 
255,771 

277 
42,783 


ReoAPITlLATIOS  roil  THE  Ve\b  1866. 

American  tcsscIs  departed  for  domestic  ports. .  860 

"             ■'               "          foreign  ports .. .  283 

"            "               "          whaling  voyages  l'< 

Foreign  vessels  departed  for  d.^mestle  ports. . .  1 

"           "              "          foreign  ports  ... .  116 

Total VM    445,367 

Thv  tonnage  arriving  during  the  three  jears  below 
■tated  was  as  follnw^ : 

Veswit.  Too*. 

Arrived  In  1S63 1028  B.'>S,7,W 

••  1854 620  4116,114 

"  I85.'i S24  412,086 

The  tonnage  entering  from  eastern  domestic  porta 
in  185u  was  260,040  tons ;  in  1854  it  was  l,'>3,.<tl3  tons ; 
and  in  1855,  144,134  tons.  The  arrivals  of  the  past 
year  ffom  New  York  are  in  the  proportion  of  two  tons 
to  one  from  Boston,  the  actual  figures  being  89,951 
tons  from  New  Yorli  against  45,G01  tons  from  Boston. 

The  tonnage  from  all  quarters  arriving  in  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1856  comprised  1455  vessels  of  440,015  tons 
against  1520  vessels  of  517,919  tons  in  1855.  The  de- 
crease has  been  in  domestic  coast  and  foreign  trade, 
the  tonnage  entered  from  domestic  Atlantic  ports  being 
somewhat  larger  than  in  1855.  The  following  figures 
illustrate  this : 


ArrlTod. 

From  Jon>eftlic 
Atianlir  I*orl«. 

From  .I.inieBtk 

l'<.rt.. 

18M...   

1856  . 

T.,im 
147.870 
141.370 

ron<. 
1S>,«.W 

iasi4ft 

T.m.. 
177,092 
14',01T 

Increase  m  1866. . 
Dccreasi'  In  1856  . 

1,800 

61,480 

!7!,-iT6 

The  tonnage  entered  from  domestic  Atlantic  ports 
in  1853  was  260,045  tons;  iit  1854,  153,313  tons,  in 
1865,  147,870  tons ;  and  in  185fi,  149,370  tons.  Thus 
it  appears  tliat  the  imports  from  that  quarter  have 
hartlly  decreased  sinco  18.>i.  Tlio  great  falling  off  in 
trade  is  more  apparent  than  real,  as  in  the  tonnage  en- 
tering In  1855  were  included  the  ocean  steamers  arriv- 
ing from  Benlcia,  and  in  the  tubie  of  1856  they  are 
excluded.  I 'ndoiilite<lly,  however,  the  coasting  trade 
has  fallen  off  20,000  to  30.000  tons,  compored  with  1855, 
which  is  owing  to  thu  decreased  shipments  of  lumber 
from  the  North. 

The  imports  this  pa.«t  year  from  Great  Britain  ex- 
hibit a  falling  off  of  near  liO  per  cent,  compared  with 
those  of  185-t.  The  tunnagu  cntereii  for  four  years 
past  was  us  f>dluws: 

1863 R.%.:in4  l.ms.  i  lf»S 26  608  tons. 

1954 22,111     "      '  im 11,72;1     " 

From  the  continent  of  Kurope  there  entered  in  1855, 
18,242  tons  against  10.134  tons  in  IHrtG. 

With  China  the  trade  shows  a  considerable  increase 
— the  tonna^  entered  in  1856  being  27,1 10  tons  against 
17,296  tons  in  1855.  The  clearances  to  that  country 
have  little  connection  with  trade,  and  therefore  there 
Ii  uo  need  of  making  comiKirisons  with  previous  years. 


The  exports  have  been  upon  n  larger  scale  to  Aus- 
tralia in  the  year  1856  than  to  any  other  couiitrj'.  Tho 
tonnage  movement  for  three  years  was  as  follows : 


18S4 


ISU  I'tS. 

6,461      .1.175 
15,712     12,,Vi8 

With  the  Sandwich  Islands  tho  trado  for  the  years 
1854-56  was  as  follows : 


Entered.   tons    6,SM 

Departed "    1(),292 


Kntered tons 

Uipartc'I '• 


)S51. 

8,427 
8,065 


1S5S  VM 

10,361      6,68B 
10,il48     15,r)56 


Tho  increase  noticeable  in  the  tonnage  departing  for 
tho  islands  in  \SbG  was  coused  by  n  larger  number  of 
clippers  than  usual  gohig  thither  to  freight  oil  home. 

With  the  other  Pacific  I.slands  trade  since  1864  has 
ranged  as  follows : 

ltS4.  MiS,  JKt. 

Kntcred tons     2561       8261       2623 

Departed "      2287       2716       1071 

The  tonnage  movement  for  tho  three  following  years 
with  Mexico  was  as  follows : 


Entered tons 

Deptivted '* 


ISSI 

3'.i77 
8005 


ms        I'sa. 

3,4.'59       r.-Ml 

15,S70       (-873 


KxroRTS  riioM  San  Frakcisco  kop.  tue  Ykau  1S57. 


Ta 

Trrniiire 

Mtrohnndiiv  slid 
I'roJure. 

New  York 

Iii35,287,778 

9.347,748 

2,993,264 

244,000 

410,V29 

278,<!0O 

34.996 

41,500 

86,803 

32,000 

80,000 

83,479 

106,300 

$2,158,000 
318,896 

'if',i43 

Uifitib 
3115.200 
314,604 

167,698 
6,4'i9 
105,1.')2 
13!',7flO 
51,570 
30,141 
7,0Sll 

China 

New  Orleans 

Manilla 

Chili 

Oilier  ports 

Hiisdlan  rosaoBslons,  America 
Peru 

Society  Islands 

f'an  8*lvaUor 

$48,976,097 

D4,329,758 
48,976.697 

Treasnre       

Omndlotal 

K53,306,456 

UlICAriTULATION  OF  THE  VaLI'ES  OK  FsEIOIlTS  TO  8aI.  1  UAS* 

CISCO  roH  THE  Year  1867. 

Freights  on  cargoes  from  New  York $1,309,244 

"               •'            "     lloston 46(1, 71'8 

"              "           "    I'hiladelphia 2-2,:!90 

"              "           "    foreign  ports 1,041,289 

Total  freights  fop  the  year $2,843,61  i 

«TATi:.ME!<T    OF   THE    ToNyAr.E    ENTERINO  THE    ToRT  OK    .IaN 
I"|1A><IS<!0  lilMUSd  THE  FOfRTII  (JUARTES  OF  185T,  AN1>  THE 

Total*  foii  the  Year  1.S&7. 


AtrivsI*froin 


Atlantic  domestic  jforts 

raciHc  domestic  ports 

Panama 

i^aa  Juan  del  Hur,  Nicaragua 

(ireat  Kritain 

France 

Ilamburg 

Bremen 


.Mexico 

Snndwlch  Islands 

Sorlety  Islands 

W  haling  voyages 

Kio  de  .laneiro 

Itussian  Possessions  In  Amcr. 

Itussia  In  Asia 

Manilla 

China 

Itntavia 

Vancouver's  Island 

Slam 

Singapore 

Australia 

Malaga 

Costa  lilca 

Chili 

Calcutta 

I/imbock,  Dutch  Kast  Indies. 
Total 


No.  of 

Tonn. 

VsimU. 

Vemlii. 

1847. 

iSit. 

13 

21.798 

1)0 

10.i,63fi 

312 

4S,04S 

1238 

182,C3I): 

6 

8,785 

34 

40,2l.o' 

.... 

2 

1,610 

i 

ei7 

24 

16,!.92 

4 

2,096 

18 

8,.t.'i.') 

1 

709 

9 

8,428 

*  >  .  • 

2 

911 

2 

2!i.'< 

12 

1,804 

43 

6,0m! 

4 

11 

3,1 0  '! 

1,069 

13 

l.ci.'i 

1 

146 

8 

i,w;4! 

1 

860 

4 

i,3i:i 

S 

C80 

8 

s,7'.';i 

1 

160 

3 

2sr. 

3 

1.068 

8 

3,.T.i(i 

6 

3,503 

81 

23.. T.M 

1 

973 

4 

l,'2!''.t 

8 

402 

6 

Hl'.l 

1 

328 

4 

1,MI 

1 

.jS'J 

3 

1,138 

13 

4,7'i'.i 

,  , 

3 

H\tt 

8 

CTl 

5 

l,5s;i 

1 

469 

3 

1,011(1 

1 

4'.« 

879 

98,863 

1683 

427,NW 

Atnfirloi 


]'W. 


IRM. 
1071 


7,143 
7'44,0b6 

3sin.2oo 

314,C04 

167i(il)3 

8,4'il) 

105,152 

]3?,7no 

M,570 
8(),14l 

7,0Sll 

it4,32!),758 
4S,»70.n97 


$1,3IW,244 
4flft,7l'8 

1,041,28(1 


110 

10:1,52,', 

123S 

182,f3fi 

24 

40,2(0 

2 

1,M« 

24 

18,!,92 

18 

8,.13r> 

9 

SAW 

2 

'.n't 

2 

2iir. 

42 

fl.OM 

11 

3,'.di 

12 

1,01; 

8 

l,w;4 

4 

i,3i:i 

8 

c,7'.':i 

2 

2S,'. 

8 

3,.T.'li 

31 

23.3i4 

4 

l,21'll 

G 

lU'.l 

4 

1,MI 

1 

■1^., 

i;i 

4,7-2'.i 

2 

USh 

8 

Oil 

fi 

1,5*.' 

3 

I,0'.i(l 

1 

4^ 

"SAN  ,.„ 

'«*'*MTl,U««,  ,„,  „„  Y^^^  j^^  •*  SAN 

Amru»„  v™,,!*  „„lv.d  f,„„  rtom^tk  p„r„    VS^-  To„..    |  _. '''"'"''^^  .Vorem.nt  of  ,H.  p,^     .  ^ 

"     "      .:    Lr.f''«"«    12I 'si'-^^  L."T'™'»'™"^ 

I'ewgM  v™,.l,  clc««d  for  f„,cte2  «*,"">'Bi'«       »       i'-l  °  '""'"  "»  '""ow-. :  "'»'  ""■  ^'^O"  J8S«--S7 

l"'"", *    ^^ JW  44.'flM  18«,  .. 


"""', .if5     •MOOS 


18«)., 

1S.W. 

1S57 . . 


'''•iini';,';!;;; 

f.'iiiii ; 

te'."''''^''''''''i».'.'.''.'.' 

*icl|.  V  l,|«„|, ,    •    

Jlnnllld 

'■■«»(  Inillm 

•tiwirniu,,,     " 

(HutiivU,,,,     

Kn  H(.lv«,l,„ 

1 1  «hiiniit«|K!e 


Vf'a 

14.'« 
15S3 


Tntt. 

5I7,UI9 
♦44,015 
«7,5(!« 


8,2!iB 
0,(102 

10,304 
123 

10,423 

»,B75 

I  1,076 

030 

813 

,  i.'i4i 

I  3,959 

632 


«!"""«  the  X  ""  r  c4  S  T"'"-  ^««"«<=  port, 
eomparea  with  that  of  ISSC  '„"  T  '"''"'"«  «ff  S 
wrt,  .n  .„...,.    .         J«.>0-tlmt  from  domestic  coast 


—rr---^---'    -""■i'"";u  with  that  of  T«.-w    .1        »°  'uiimg  off  when 

S     ^''^"    S  "i"'''"«»«-''f''l«p'er;  ''"'''  '•"">' foreign' 
1    I'a'^:]    ^!::l-^'"  ^°"o«-'"g  «ro  the  i^u;:"'-  '-"P^red  with 


IS.'ifl... 

1857... ..';;■;•••• 

Dpcrease  lu  Iw 
^Jncrease  in  1S57  ' 

'"rger  than  !n  1857 ,  the  amV  i"/"''  »  '''"'f  "me^ 
«veraged  about  150  000  t„n,      I'  "^ T'^'  '^''  ""d  '56 

12.681  tons  «S  10  ^S'^P"  f'^ro  entered  fn-lSw' 
,T.„..    f  the  import  tS's'h  "w^  ^'h  "'"' "'     ''■""  ^^'^^ 


-"'"" H?   .i5d«   '""""ge  arriving  and  dpnnw-,' "' '"•''™ted  by  the 

s«   337^122 1  "t  San  Franoiaef,  has  fefonow ':"  ""'  """'  >-- 


Entered ^":, 

Departed  ...V.V.  10";.^ 


1«55. 

0,400 
15,712 


ISJd. 

S,3T5 
13,558 


IS5I 

4,7>9 
10,1S3 


The  groat  dl,prehnncvlii.fwl"".V'""    ^  ^^^'^^ 
'"K  trvm  ml  ,hi>rCZ  7'"^"*,"  'he  tonnage  arriv 

r«rturM  of  that  "1"?  '^/.l""  ''"'',"'  "<«  year  the  dt 

of  thora  l,«„^  roi  "'!'!''  "'"{"■"■house,  „„  ac  otn     °^  ^e  olearan^s  h' n™  7'^^  """  ™""" 

'••  v«lMn,     ■jl.iS:'^?,:.^  'r""^  "^-Oing  S   'ho  Eastern  .State  J'anS  t'rXTf'"  "•"«-  o„  t, 

»r'; th.-  iru*  |„,|«x  of  ,h„  dome,.I.      ''"""'^''y  stated,    '"'"="  »»  follows:    •^'         ^"^  ""=  '""  f<»'r  years  hav, 

M«t«<l  With  ,|?fl  lo„  of  thn  ;.  "^f-     '""''"'tscon-    Properbetweenthetl"       !''.'"'  """'^''te  the  trade 

".-..(..Mtlrit"..!:',',"''''"''?""^     S::::::::::":"JSl;« ,...™, 

<-''»i  he  anfldrtainod  oiifv  «„!.,  ^  *  ^^  "'^""r  go  d  mine^  imports  from  thr  v  .  "'®  P"*'  J'ear  mditntes  that  th« 
;'r«  qH«llrt«,l  h^  i  LXro',?'*''^;:  '''rsons  wh"  wei.  abc^^S  p  eem'I"  f,f '  T""  '""^'"8"  ™"n  Wes 
>Mo««.rr««t„pf„r„,X?ho,u;rr'"^  '"e^o  the   making.  „,  „  gene  alth't^.'^"" '" '«^«' '""' "'though 

>  ork.  w|,|,.(,  ha,,,  doiibled  In  vJl     ^  i'"''"''''  '"  Now  ports  of  ti^„sure  in  ]8W  ^'  "'""'■     ^ho  ex- 

cT»«set«A«,t,aI|„XStI^^ir''*''"''"™'-'''-  ''■''  P-^^^'h-ng    -  «\*f'^X™'"P7<'  ^ith  those  of 
'^heoxjwt.  of,  „,,L^?r' '■"("""•«  off  is  J80^  ^  '"^  "'"<^''  ^»"  have  an.  ,.„»^ 

''■»  M««|«,  , ,      '"■**"'  •'  ^"  ""  were  as  follows 

i>a;;?''*----'';:'::::;:;;:;;:::''^''''^iiif 
i^w"" .;;;;;;;:;;; ••   3;;^ 

To(»| "       i.oiin 

""«^-...;:;;'^^"ai/2S;;;.....n.^27,^ 


the  preceding  yea  s  'f  whlh'""''^''  *'"' "'O'"  "f 
stands  thus-  "'"'^''  '*"  have  any  record 

1M5.     There  "a  llr™  >       ''o'npared  with  thoso  of 
ports  of  lasty  ar  wh,?h  ifrlrrif''^"  ^"'^  ">«  ^x- 


SAN 


1G84 


SAN 


Vfe  rofcr  to  the  ahipmcnts  of  treasuro  to  China  and 
Manilla.  In  1857  the  exports  to  those  points  were 
i|'),Z72,164,  almost  wholly  made  up  of  doubloons  and 
dollars  received  from  Mexico.  San  Francisco  import- 
ed In  1857  i|:l,l(!X,711  in  specif,  nearly  all  of  whicli 
came  from  Mexico,  and  went  from  here  to  China  and 
the  Bast  Indies.  More  );old  every  year  goes  to  Kn- 
glmid  direct,  and  less  to  New  York ;  the  figures  for  five 
years  past  show  the  change  in  this  respect : 

Gfport«d  to  New  York. 

1863 $tT.01S,44S 

1861 4<I,'JS9,<MU 


1R55 88,730,601 

1860 8',t,T0.'S.2!)4 

186T,.. a5,l!8r,7T3 


Giportad  to  England. 

1PB8 lM,U7ft,002 

1884 8,781,080 

1S.">5 6,18i,160 

1SS0 8,608,289 

1S&7 0,847,748 


The  Light-house  Board  Report  (or  1867  states  that 
"the  steam  tender  autliori^ud  l)y  Congress  in  1856, 
and  liuUt  at  the  Philadelphia  navy  yard,  will  reach 
San  Francisco  probaldy  early  in  the  year  1858.  The 
presence  of  this  vessel  will  serve  the  economical  pur- 
pose of  transporting  supplies,  materials,  and  workmen 
for  buildftag  and  repairing  the  light-houses,  and  also, 
In  case  of  incursions  of  the  Indians  from  the  liritish 
dominions  in  the  Straits  of  Fiica  and  vicinity,  to  pro- 
tect the  keepers  and  citizens  in  that  quarter  against 
their  attacks.  Representations  have  been  made  that 
a  light  is  necessary  between  the  bays  of  Monterey  and 
San  Francisco,  and  one  on  Mare  Island,  in  San  Fran- 
vlsco  Day.  The  latter  is  recommended  mainly  in  con- 
•Ideratlon  of  the  difflculties  at  night  in  approaching  the 
navy  yard  and  Uenicia." 

Port  Chargei. — Pilotage  outside  Farrdones,  $10 ;  in- 
side Farralones,  $8  per  foot;  tonnage  dues,  4  cents  per 
ton ;  dockage,  3  to  6  cents  per  ton  per  day ;  stevedore's 
charges,  75  cents  per  ton;  Shipping  men,  $5  each;  bal- 
last, rough  stone,  $2  25  per  ton;  cobble  stone,  $2  75; 
sand,  $150.  Water,  1}  cents  per  gallon.  Day  labor, 
(5.     Port-warden,  $80  to  $75. 

Exchange. — On  Atlantic  States,  sight,  8  per  cent. ; 
England,  light,  — d.  at  ild.  per  dollar ;  France,  sight, 
4  80  frs. 

Money} — Scarce  at  2  to  4  per  cent,  on  good  security. 
Doubloons  very  scarce,  and  wanted — 7  jier  cent,  pre- 
mium.    Mexican  dullur.i,  do.  do.  7  per  cent,  premium. 

Rale  of  lnttre$t  on  Moneij. — liy  an  act  passed  March 
13,  1850,  the  rate  of  interest  on  nione^'  was  fixed  at  10 
phr  cent,  where  there  was  no  special  contract;  but 
"  parties  niiiy  agree  in  writing  for  the  payment  of  any 
rate  of  interest  whatever  on  money  duo,  ur  to  become 
due  on  any  contract.  Any  judgment  rendered  on  such 
contract  shall  conform  thereto,  and  shall  bear  the  in- 
terest agreed  upon." 

Ban  FrancUoo  (Bay  of),  California.  One  of 
the  best  harbors  of  tlie  I'aciric  Ocean.  The  entrance  is 
very  remarhul-'.c,  bold,  and  rocky ;  a  mile  wide  and  4 
miles  in  length,  with  deep  water  and  no  obstructions. 
It  then  expands  into  an  extensive  bay,  in  which  lie 
selreral  islands;  that  of  San  Angclo  is  tlio  largest  and 
highest,  and  covered  with  vegetation  to  its  very  top. 
The  next  in  size  are  Yerba  Ducna  and  Alcantras.  The 
Day  of  San  Francisco  is  3ti  miles  in  length  by  an  aver- 
age of  6  in  width.  A  largo  portion  of  its  soutliern, 
eastern,  and  northern  shores  is  bordered  by  extensive 
and  wide  mud-flats,  preventing  the  landing,  at  low 
water,  of  even  a  boat ;  so  much  so,  that  the  eastern 
shore  may  be  said  to  be  inaccessible  for  a  distance  of 
80  miles ;  and  this  impediment  prevents  it  from  ever 
becoming  useful,  except  by  the  construction  of  extens- 
ive artiticial  works.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by 
the  Straits  of  San  Pablo,  which  divide  it  from  tlio  bay 
of  that  name.  The  Bay  of  San  Pablo  is  nearly  circu- 
lar, about  10  miles  in  diameter,  the  largest  segment  of 
which  is  a  mud-flat,  with  but  a  few  feet  of  water  over 
It.  On  the  east  side  lies  the  channel,  with  a  sufliciciit 
ilepth  of  water.for  largo  vessels,  leading  to  the  Straits 
of  Karquihes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sacramento  ISivcr. 
On  the  western  side  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  from 
the  Straita'  of  San  Pablo,  for  a  distanM  of  Id  miles, 


the  country  is  broken  and  mountainous,  and  the  shores 
rocky  and  indented  by  small  bays.  These  ol)struction8 
reduce  this  extensive  bay  very  much  in  size,  and  It 
becomes  still  more  so  when  the  safety  and  convenience 
of  vessels  ia  taken  into  consideration ;  indeed,  with  the 
dee[5  water,  cross-tides,  and  exposed  situations,  there 
are  but  two  safe  anchorages,  viz.,  San  Francisco  and 
Sausalito.  The  Bay  of  San  Francisco  has  been  cele- 
brated, from  the  time  of  its  first  discovery,  as  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  Justly  entitled  to  that 
character,  even  under  the  seaman's  view  of  a  mere 
harbor. 

Ban  Balvador.  This  ia  the  smallest  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  states,  embracing  but  7500  square  miles, 
and  is  separated  from  Nicaragua  by  the  Bay  of  Con- 
chagua.  The  soil  is  in  many  places  exceedingly  fer- 
tile, but  the  country  is  generally  billy  and  mountain- 
ous. 

'*  Xotwilhstanding  the  unsettled  state  oi  affairs  in 
Central  America,  and  the  active  part  taken  by  San  Sal- 
vador in  the  war  now  going  on  inNicaragua,  the  imports 
and  exports  during  the  year  185U  exceed  those  of  the 
two  previous  years.  Tlie  increase  in  the  imports  may 
be  attributed  in  part  to  the  lowness  of  the  duties  in 
comparison  with  those  of  Guatemala,  a  circumstance 
which  has  induced  the  merchants  of  the  latter  to  dis- 
embark at  Ac^jutla  and  La  l^nion  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  their  cargoes.  A  quantity  of  these  goods,  it  is 
well  known,  are  being  constantly  smuggled  over  the 
frontiers.  The  great  difference  in  the  value  of  the  ex- 
ports is  owing  to  the  increasing  attention  now  being 
paid  to  agriculture.  In  consequence  of  the  clicapncss 
of  land  and  of  labor,  and  the  inducements  held  out  by 
the  government  for  the  advantageous  investment  of 
capital,  several  foreigners,  principolly  Frenchmen,  have 
purchased  lands  and  commenced  the  culture  of  coffee. 
A  considerable  amount  of  money  is  by  this  means  being 
gradually  brought  into  circulation,  and  the  country  be- 
coming more  prosperous,  Tlie  cultivation  of  coflve  is 
attracting  general  attention,  from  the  fact  of  the  few 
samples  of  this  article  remitted  to  Europe  in  order  to 
determine  its  quality  having  realized  the  highest  prices 
both  in  England  and  in  France. 

"  This  taken  into  consideration,  together  with  the  fast- 
increasing  consumption  of  cofTee  in  France,  Germany, 
England,  nnd  the  United  States,  and  even  in  Central 
and  South  America  (tlio  natives  gradually  preferring 
it  to  chocolate),  and  tlie  safety  of  the  crop,  together  witli 
the  cheapness  of  land,  and  small  cost  in  producing  it, 
gives  every  assurance  to  the  producers  of  success  in 
their  operations,  and,  at  the  same  time,  holds  out  en- 
couraging prospects  for  the  prosperity  of  trade  in  gen- 
eral. I  have  also  proposed  to  several  EngUsh  mer- 
chants the  establishment  Of  a  coffee-planting  compan^v, 
which,  I  am  certain,  would  return  a  safer  and  better 
interest  on  the  capital  invested  than  any  otlier  specu- 
lation. Th"!  coffee-tree  is  not  lioble  to  injury  from  in- 
sects or  changes  in  tlio  weather.  It  is  easily  cultivated, 
bears  fruit  for  twenty-five  years  and  upward,  and  tlio 
produce  is  always  salable.  The  cofTee  market  is 
never  in  a  depressed  state ;  and  from  the  fact  that 
there  are  few  climates  suitable  for  its  culture,  the 
probability  of  its  increasing  rather  than  decreasing  in 
value  is  a  matter  beyond  a  doubt.  The  government  of 
San  Salvador  have  by  a  decree  exempted  all  the  neces- 
sary laborers  on  a  coffee  estate  from  military  conscrip- 
tion, and  fi'om  all  municipal  interference.  They  have 
also  ofForcd  me  every  facility  in  procuring  lands,"— 
Report  by  Mr.  FooTE,  liritish  Consul  at  San  Saltador, 
on  the  Trade,  etc.,  of  that  Republic,  during  the  Year  185(!. 

Indian  corn,  cotton,  coffee,  nnd  various  kinds  of  vcg- 
etal)le  produce,  are  cultivated  to  some  extent.  Tlie 
most  important  article  of  cultivation,  and  indeed  tlie 
cliicf  staple  of  San  SaUador,  is  indigo,  which  grows  iu 
great  perfection  and  abundance.  Near  the  coast,  tlio 
laiida  of  Ac^jutla  and  Liliertad  produce  the  article 
known  in  commerce  as  the  Balsam  of  Peru,  of  whicli 


SAP 


1G85 


HAR 


ores 

ions 

>d  it 

icnce 

lithe 

tiiero 

)  and 

ccle- 
ne  of 
J  tliat 

mere 

0  Cen- 
miles, 
)f  Con- 
;ly  fet- 
untam- 

Tairs  in 
San  Sal- 
importa 
io  of  the 
jrts  may 
lutics  in 
itnstanco 
er  to  dis- 
■aUo  por- 
Bods,  it  i» 

1  over  the 
of  the  ex- 
i,ow  being 

cl>capncs9 
eld  out  by 
;8tment  of 
l\men,l>ttve 
B  of  coffee, 
neans  being 
country  bo- 

of  coffee  is 
,  of  tlio  few 

in  order  to 

gbcst  prices 


ai>out  20,0(10  IIjs.  is  the  annual  yield.  The  inhabitants 
display  much  ingenuity  In  the  mnnufactura  of  an  arti- 
cle of  female  dress,  called  by  the  natives  rebosas,  which 
is  nmch  used  in  Central  Ameriia  and  llcxico.  San 
Salvador  has  a  coast  line  along  the  Vacltlc  of  about  150 
miles,  with  tliu  ports  of  Acujutla  and  I.ilcrtad,  and 
within  the  Bay  of  Concliagua  tha  e.xccUent  harbor  of 
La  Union.  Commercial  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  San  Salvador  are  regulated  by  treaty  of 
January  2,  1850.  This  treaty  is  bused  upon  tlie  prin- 
ciple of  tho  most  favored  nation,  and  .stipulates  for  rec- 
iprocity of  commerce  and  equality  of  flag,  without  any 
discrimination  as  respects  the  origin  of  cargoes. 

Sapan-wood  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  the 
same  tree  tliat  yields  the  Brazil-wood  (Cmulpinia  Sa- 
pnn,  Linn.).  It  is  a  middle-sized  forest  tree,  indigen- 
ous to  Siani,  Pegu,  tho  Philippine  Islands,  etc.  It  has 
been  employed  for  dyeing  in  tho  greater  part  of  Asia 
for  many  centuries.  It  found  its  way  into  Europe 
some  time  before  tlio  discovery  of  America ;  and  the 
imports  are  now  very  considerable.  Its  coloring  mut- 
ter ditfers  but  little  from  that  of  Brazil-wood,  but  the 
best  snpan-wood  does  not  yield  more  than  half  the 
quantity  that  may  bo  obtained  from  an  equal  weight 
of  Brazil-wood,  and  the  color  is  not  iiuite  so  bright. — 
BAScnoi'T  0)1  C<j/«v,  vol.  ii.  p.  329. 

Sapphire  (Ocr.  Sappliir;  Du.  fSuffieratccn ;  Fr. 
Saplnr;  It.  Xnjjiioi  Sp.  Snjiro,  Sajir;  Kuss.  .lacltanl; 
Lat.  Sapphiriis),  a  precious  stone  in  very  high  esti- 
mation. Colors  blue  and  red  ;  also  gray,  white,  green, 
and  yellow.  It  occurs  In  blunt-edged  pieces,  in  round- 
ish pebbles,  and  crystallized.  Varies  from  transparent 
to  translucent.  Refra-ts  double.  After  diamond,  it 
is  the  hardest  substance  in  nature.  Tho  blue  variety, 
or  sapphire,  is  harder  than  tho  ruby,  or  red  variety. 
Brittle,  spccilic  gravity  4  to  ■i'2.  It  is  found  in  Bohe- 
mia, Saxony,  France,  etc. ;  but  the  red  sapphire,  or 
Oriental  ruby,  is  not  found  in  any  uousidcrablc  (juan- 
tities  any  where  except  in  Ava.  Next  to  diamond,  sap- 
phire is  tho  most  valuable  of  the  gems.  Tho  white 
and  pale  bluo  varieties,  by  exposure  to  heat,  become 
snow-white,  and,  when  cut,  exhibit  so  high  a  degree 
of  lustre  that  tliey  are  used  in  place  of  diamonds.  The 
most  highly  prized  varieties  are  the  crimson  and  car- 
mine red ;  these  are  tlie  Oriental  ritbi/  of  the  jeweler ; 
tho  next  is  sctyphire;  and  last,  the  yellow  or  Oriental 
topaz.  The  aslerias,  or  star-stone,  is  a  very  beautiful 
variety,  in  which  the  color  is  generally  of  a  reddish 
violet,  and  tlie  form  a  rhomboid,  with  truncated  apices, 
which  exhibit  an  opalescent  lustre. 

SarCOCOUa,  a  sub-viscid,  sweetish,  and  somewhat 
nauseous  gum  resin.  It  is  brouglit  from  Arabia  and 
Persia  In  small  grains  of  a  pale  yellow  color :  the  wliitest, 
as  being  tho  freshest,  is  preferred.  It  is  but  seldom 
iuipoited. — Milucun'h  Or'unt.  Com.  ' 

Sardines,  or  Sardinias  (.tier.  SunhUen ;  Fr.  Sar- 
dines; It.  Sanlinc;  Sp.  ji>anlimis\  a  species  of  (isit  of 
the  herring  trilic,  but  smaller.  Tliey  arc  taken  in  con- 
siderable quantities  on  our  coasts,  and  are  exceedingly 


Each  cvci.ing,  upon  the  return  of  the  fishing  enmclta 
llu>y  can  be  bought  for  a  few  cents  per  dozen :  Ihey  uru 
an  important  part  of  tho  food  of  the  poorer  claasei, 
These  lish  are  better,  and  have  a  flavor,  when  put  up  In 
oil,  which  they  otherwise  have  not.  They  are  found  In 
great  plenty  from  the  coast  of  Bretagno  to  the  nioulh 
of  tho  Garonne.  La  liochelle  Is  the  principal  depi5t 
for  the  fishery.  Tho  quantity  exported  to  the  UnUocJ 
States  in  1852  was  6!),840  kilogrammes ;  in  1868  the 
quantity  was  7fi,737  kilogrammes ;  in  1854  the  quiin< 
tity  was  estimated  at  100,000  kilogranunes,  and  of  this 
more  than  one  half,  strange  to  say,  was  for  Callfornlil, 
-^letter  to  the  Dep.  of  State. 

Sardinia.  The  whole  area  of  this  kingdom.  In- 
cluding Piedmont,  Savoy,  and  Genoa,  and  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  is  estimated  at  28,229  square  miles,  con, 
laming  a  population,  in  1852,  of  over  5,000,000,  vi*. : 
the  continental  states  18,994  square  miles,  population 
4,500,000;  and  the  island  ofSardinia92a5  square  miles 
poi)ulation  500,000.  ' 

The  chief  staples  of  this  kingdom  are  raw  silk,  rica 
maize,  wheat,  chestnuts,  wines,  olives  and  olive-oil', 
figs,  oranges,  and  citrons.  In  the  island  of  Sordini* 
the  productions  are  maize,  wheat,  hemp,  silk,  heatm, 
and  other  pulse  vegetables.  There  are  several  ex- 
tensive vineyards,  tliough  the  wines  are  not  In  much 
repute  in  foreign  markets.  Piedmont  is  considered 
the  most  productive  part  of  the  continental  kingdom, 
and  usually  exports  its  surplus  produce  for  the  eon- 
sumption  of  Genoa,  Niio,  and  the  regions  along  the 
coast.  Silk  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  productions.* 
The  olive  and  vine  are  extensively  cultivated;  wheat 
and  Indian  i  orn  are  also  grown;  the  latter  of  which, 
mixed  with  roasted  chestnuts,  constitutes  tho  chief 
food  of  the  rural  inhabitants.  The  nduerals  of  the 
country  arc  valuable,  consisting  of  iron,  copper,  lead, 
manganese,  and  cobalt ;  but,  owing  to  bad  roads  and 
the  lack  of  cajiital,  they  are  not  worked.  The  salt 
springs  and  mines  of  alaboster,  marble,  and  slate,  re- 
ceive the  protection  of  the  government,  and  their  prod- 
ucts constitute  some  of  the  chief  exports  of  Sardinia. 
Tlio  exportation  of  marble  alone  to  the  United  Slates 
an  lilts  annually  in  value  to  about  $15,000.  The 
ma  factiires  consist  of  silks,  velvets,  and  other  silk 
stui  ilockings,  common  linens  and  woolens,  and  the 
prodi  of  tho  tanneries;  hut,  with  the  exception  of 
silks,  I'  of  these  mannfaeturcs  are  exported.  Tho 
chief  pori  arc  Genoa,  Spezzia,  and  Nice,  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  Cagliari,  on  the  island  of  Sardinio.  Genoa 
is  a  free  port,  in  which  goods  may  be  warehoused  or 
re-exported  free  of  duty.  It  is  the  chief  outlet  of  the 
Jleditcrranean  for  the  manufactures  of  Switzerland, 
I.ondlardy,  and  Piedmont. 

In  1815  the  republic  of  Genoa  was  ceded  to  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  with  the  express  stipulation  that  "the  free 
port  of  Genoa  shall  be  re-cstablithed,  with  the  regula- 
tions which  existed  under  the  ancient  govei.inient. 
Every  facility  shall  be  given  by  the  king  to  the  transit 
through  his  stotcs  of  merchandise  from  that  free  port. 


plentiful  on  tho  coasts  of  Algarvc  in  Portugal,  .\nda-    under  such  restrictions  as  his  majesty  shall  judge  ex- 


lusin  and  Granada  in  Spain,  and  along  the  shores  of 
Italy.  The  small  sardines  caught  on  the  coast  of  Prov- 
ence, in  France,  are  esteemed  tho  be.:t.  From  1000  to 
1200  fishing  smacks  are  engaged  in  catching  these  fish 
on  the  coast  of  Brittany,  from  Juno  to  tlio  middle  of 
Octolier.  The  French  frc<iuently  cure  them  in  ^d 
brine ;  and,  when  thus  prepared,  designate  them  n»- 
I'hoist---'.^^  or  anchovied  sardine.i.  These  arc  packed  in 
vessels  previously  employed  for  holding  w  ine,  and  ex- 
ported to  tho  Levant.  Vhen  perfectly  fresli,  sardines 
are  accounted  excellent  fish ;  but  if  kept  for  any  time, 
they  entirely  lose  their  flavor,  and  Ijecoiue  iiuite  insipid. 
Consumption  of  Sardmcs  in  the  I'lilltJ  Slates. — The 
importation  of  sardines  into  tlio  I'niled  Slates  is  in- 
creasing every  ye.".r.  The  fisheries  commence  about 
tho  middle  of  Slay,  and  last  until  about  the  middle  of 
October.      Tho  quantities  consumed  are   enormous. 


]iedient  for  preventing  the  said  merchandise  being  il- 
licitly sold  or  consumed  in  the  interior.  It  shall  ha 
subject  only  to  the  usual  moderate  duty."  The  com- 
mercial rehrtions  of  tho  United  Slates  with  Sardinia 
are  reguh.ted  by  treaty.  Prior  to  the  ratification  of 
this  treaty  (Xovembec  2fi,  1838),  the  commerce  of  the 
United  Slates  with  this  kingdom  was  conducted  ex- 
clusively under  foreign  flags.  Indeed,  until  witliin  a 
recent  period,  the  commercial  system  of  tlic  Sardinian 
government  was  directly  opposed  to  the  principle  of 
free  intercourse.  The  treaty  with  the  United  States 
guarantees  entire  reciprocity  and  perfect  equality  with 
the  Sardinian  flag  in  the  direct  and  indirect  trade. 
Tho  following  are  the  stipulations  of  this  treaty  wbtcb 
iclutc  to  commerce : 

*  I'icdinont  anil  Lopibardy  produce  mote  raw  silk  than  all 
the  rest  of  the  world  togctUcr. 


SAB 


1686 


SAB 


Peifect  reciprocity  of  commerce  and  navigation  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  inhaliltants  of  the  one  enjoy- 
ing in  the  other  all  the  privileges  of  sul)Jects  or  eiti- 
xens,  Veaseh  in  their  respective  ports  to  enjoy  the 
some  privileges,  and  to  pay  no  higher  duties  or  charges 
than  national  vessels.  All  commodities  and  merchan- 
dise, the  produce  of  the  soil  or  industry'  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  any  other  country,  which  may  be  legally 
imported  into  Sardinian  ports  in  Sardinian  vessels, 
may  also  be  imported  by  American  vessels,  and  pay  no 
higher  duties.  Sardinian  vessels  to  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States.  The 
same  principle  extended  'o  all  exports  fh>m  either 
country.  The  vesseb  of  each  country  may  enter  the 
ports  of  the  other  with  cargoes  from  any  foreign  coun- 
try whatever.  Any  duty  or  restriction  imposed  on 
the  vessels  or  merchandise  of  the  c  w  country  in  the 
other  to  be  extended  to  the  vessels  or  merchandise  of 
all  nations.  Coasting  trade  reserved  to  national  ves- 
sels. Special  favors  to  any  other  nation  to  be  enjoyed 
by  the  contracting  parties  respectively.  Vessels  of 
either  countrj-  forced  into  the  ports  of  the  other  by 
stress  of  weather  to  bo  exempted  from  port  charges. 

.  Article  9  stipulates  free  transit  from  the  port  of 
Genoa  across  I'iedmont,  except  for  salt,  gunpowder, 
and  manufactured  tobacco, 

Cagliari,  the  capital  of  Sardinia,  on  the  northeast 
shore  of  a  spacious  bay  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island, 
lat  89°  12'  13"  N,,  long,  9°  7'  44"  E,  Population 
in  1850  estimated  at  30,000.  The  city  stands  on  a  ris- 
ing ground,  and  bos  an  imposing  effect  from  the  sea. 
The  public  btiildings  and  churches  are  numerous,  and 
some  of  them  splendid ;  but  the  streets  ate  for  the 
most  part  narrow,  steep,  and  filthy.  The  Gulf  of 
Cagliari  extends  from  Pula  on  the  west,  to  Cape  Car- 
bonara  on  the  east,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-four 
miles  across,  and  about  twelve  in  depth,  with  good  an- 
chorage every  where  after  getting  into  soundings.  A 
mole  projects  from  the  Pratique  office,  and  ships  usu- 
ally lie  alraut  one  mile  southwest  by  south  from  it,  in 
six  or  eight  fathoms  water,  on  an  excellent  bottom  of 
mud.  There  is  a  very  convenient  pier  harbor  at  the 
south  angle  of  the  tower  wall,  capable  of  containing 
fourteen  or  sixteen  vessels  of  a  tolerable  size,  besides 
small  craft.  Altogether  Cagliari  is  one  of  the  best 
and  safest  ports  in  the  Mediterranean,  Vessels  be- 
longing to  Sardinia  are  admitted  by  treaty  into  the 
ports  of  the  United  States  on  the  same  terms  us  Amer- 
ican vessels,  with  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  their 
own  or  any  other  country,  and  American  vessels  are 
admitted  into  Sardinian  ports  on  the  same  terms  as 
Sardinian  vessels,— <Set!  Cagliaki. 


CuHUKBOE  or  Saudinia,  1855. 
CountrtM I     Import*. 


Fi'unoo 

Koll-Vereln 

Oreat  Uritaiii 

Spain 

Austria 

Parma,  Modnna,Tui>-) 
cany, and  Monaco,/ 

Siritzei'land 

Unltud  States 

fliiBBla 

HanRe  Towns 

Not  specified 

Total 


CT,»10,371 
874,049 
44,742,171 
14,^47,000 
47,462,«01 

20,740,313 

t7,147,S0> 

10,894,150 

l,t02,8S7 

696,.')l!i 

03,291,070 


Total. 


Ki)joru. 

I^'HIICI. 

82,3.">l,(i49 

6'.".>,Sfl2 

7,6r)(i,024 

T.'>7,-B0 

41,530,  lOG 

18,520,875   46,207,1 


Vrmna. 

151,201,420 

1,4IVI,511 

5'.','29/,19B 

15,104,850 


a'),823,IIO 

2,53;l,8,VJ 

453,030 

20n,fl7J 

•■58,270,273 


72,970,972 

13,434,016 

1,650,523 

7»5,!«'0 

101,570,943 


»lMii5,49»l-i'.i8,fi:ir.,:i/iif!4!),»41,K2n, 


G<HBaAL  LOUHEBOE  Or  S.\BDIMA,   ISril    TO   l.SS], 


I- 


Yran 


1861-54,  avcra^ . 

1864 

1866 

1860 


LIm. 
4«5,317,5fl;) 
4'i9,171,303 
643,041,8!>0 
709,390,888 


Uffirlal. 


I.iren. 

r>6>,.is-,u4 

5  7,8l",52i 

577,n;:,6i  i 

C8i),C8i,S0a 


Genoa  Is  the  only  port  in  Sardinia  much  froi,uented 
by  United  States  vessels. 

The  shipping  frequenting  the  port  of  Cagliari,  on 
tlie  island  of  Sardinia,  has  considerably  increased  dur- 


ing the  post  ten  years.  This  Is  owing  to  the  shelter 
and  refuge  it  affords  in  stormy  weather,  and  to  the  fa- 
cilities it  offers  for  obtaining  all  necessary  supplies. 

This  may  be  seen  from  the  following  statement, 
showing  the  number  aod  tonnage  of  vessels  of  all  na- 
tions that  have  visited  this  port  since  1845: 


1840, 
1S47. 
1848. 
1841), 
1860, 
1861, 
1862, 
1863. 
1864. 


No.  of  VfWiilii.  (   Tonimic. 


47a 

22.693 

484 

48,545 

401 

64,893 

001 

71,989 

497 

6(,862 

640 

60,949 

607 

01,489 

08} 

88,786 

808 

00.489 

The  chief  articles  of  American  produce  consumed  in 
Sardinia  are  cotton  and  tobacco  The  former  is  free, 
and  on  the  latter  the  duty  is  ''  merved,"  it  being  a 
government  monopoly.  Whalebone,  refined  sugar, 
rum,  paints,  and  other  minor  articles,  are  also  export- 
ed from  the  United  States  to  Sardinia,  but  to  no  con- 
siderable amount. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  quantity  and  value 
of  cotton  and  tobacco  exported  from  the  United  States 
to  Sardinia  from  1850  to  185&,  both  years  inclusive: 


Vear«. 


1850. . , , 
1851.,., 
1362..,, 
1853..,. 

1851.... 
1866.,., 


Cotton.       I      V»lmn. 


Pound*. 
1,500,720 
3,180,100 
5,509,828 
1,83(1,025 
1,646,873 
14,777,706 


$162,910 
261,838 
416,^82 
150,422 
147,403 

l,288,a.3T 


Tobaero  |    ValuM 


Hhdi. 

107 

8 

3414 

l'i2 

56 

3311 


$9,3:13 
813 

341,170 
21,!ino 
10,500 

383,246 


Imports  Into  the  United  States  from  Sardinia  cimsist 
chiefly  of  flax,  olive-oil,  rags,  silk,  piecti  goods,  red 
wines,  wool  (unmanufactured),  marble,  and  manufac- 
tures of  wool.  Marble  Is  the  most  valuable  article  ri;- 
ceived,  amounting  annually  to  upward  of  {^0,000 

Almost  all  the  trade  of  Sardinia  is  carried  on  by 
strangers ;  and  even  tho  fish  ou  its  coast  ind  in  its 
harbors  are  caught  by  Sicilians,  Neapolitans,  Tuscans, 
and  Genoese  Grain  is  the  principal  article  of  export 
In  good  years,  the  exports  from  the  whole  island  may 
amount  to  400,000  starelli,  or  about  500,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  200,000  starelli  of  barley,  6000  stafelli  of  maize, 
100,000  starelli  of  beans,  200,000  starelli  of  peas,  and 
1000  starelli  uf  lentils.  The  culture  of  vines  is  gradu- 
ally becoming  of  more  importance  i  and  about  3500 
Catalan  pipes  are  exported,  principall}'  from  Alghero 
and  Ogliastro,  Cheese  is  an  important  object  in  the 
rural  economy  of  Sardinia,  and  considerable  quantities 
are  exported.  Salt  is  a  royal  monopoly,  and  affords  a 
conslderablo  revenue.  Until  recently,  Sweden  drew 
almodt  all  her  supplies  of  this  important  necessary  from 
Sardinia,  and  it  continues  to  be  exported  in  considor- 
ublo'quantjties.  Flax,  linseed,  hides,  oil,  saffron,  rags, 
alquifoux,  etc,  are  among  the  articles  of  export.  The 
tunny  and  coral  fisheries  employ  a  good  many  hands ; 
but,  as  already  observed,  they  are  almost  wholly  man- 
aged by  foreigners, 
AconcwT  OP  mK  Qcamtities  or  mt  ramoiPAL  Abtici.ks 

ETPOllTFI)    raOM    THE    ISLAHn    OF    SABDINIA    TO    FOREIGN 

t'ouMTBiEa  IN  184},  1860,  and  1861, 


Artielea. 


Ilarllla owta. 

Uoncs " 

llullocks No. 

Calves " 

Cheese ewta, 

Corkrwood ** 

C'nwt,  steers,  and  bnlli .  No. 

I'lre-wood cwts. 

Kmlt,  fnah " 

Goats,  sheep,  and  lambs .  No. 

Orain cwts, 

I,ead  ore " 

UllFe-oU Imp,  galls, 

Skins  .   cwts. 

Timber,  oak Val.  lire 

Timny  flih cwts. 

Wine Imp,  galls. 


Q^ianllllia. 


IMS.     I      18W). 


8,030 

2,763 

70 

29,880 

3,168 

074 

8,788 

733 

332 

1,723 

8,701 

6,800 

17,004 

10,220 

2,839 

47,701 


427 

•2 

9,253 

5,865 

1,430 

211 

113 

10 

36,000 

24,080 

0,782 

3,»i;) 

450 

3'.'4 

1.6(18 

577 

868 

7!" 

5:14 

237 

607 

2,4"4 

4,2110 

18,4-7 

41 

41,097 

1,530 

088 

07,712 

2,647 

2,831 

289,40S 

19,743 

Franca  , . 
J-ngland... 
Swlticrland 
Austria. 
Ituula. . . 
I'nitcd  S'.ttto 


June  80, 1861 
1862.' 
1853. 
1854.  _ 
1855. 
1858. . 


SAB 


1087 


BAR 


lelter 
hof*- 
ina. 
ment, 
tU  na- 


umcd  in 
r  ih  free, 
being  a 
\  AUgar, 
)  export- 
)  no  con- 

inrt  value 
:etl  States 
liulve: 

r~v«i^ . 

$9,9^9  , 
»IS  1 
S41,«0 

10,6110 
38!l,245 

inia  consist 

goods,  red 
d  manufac- 
0  article  to- 
t30,000 
fried  on  >>y 
■xni  in  it* 

18.  Tuscans, 

fleof  cxpor* 
island  may 
J  bushels  of 
alH  of  mttizo. 
[of  peas,  and 
les  is  gradu- 
about  3500 
om  Alghero 
jbject  in  the 
Ue  quantities 
ind  affords  a 
Jwcden  drew 
fcessar)'  from 
I  in  considcr- 
saffron,  rags, 
export.   The 
nany  hands; 
wholly  man- 

JlPAT.  Abtici.t.h 

Ik    TO    rOBEKiX 


b,253 
1,430 

S,«06 

6,782 

■^  Vid 

|,(i«8 

658 

6'.'4 

B6T 

♦■» 

|l,OOT 

OfiS 

J,MT 

n,40S 


1«6I 

•i  I 

5865 
811 

l'.l 
24.0Sfl  I 
8,"W  j 

»n 

•i,4'4 
10,4/!  ' 

i',6311 

2,83' 
l»,T4:i 


Almost  every  article  of  dress,  whether  fur  tlia  ({entry 
or  the  i>ea8antr}-,  is  imported.  Soup,  stutloiiery,  Klitaa 
eartben-wiire,  and  furniture,  as  well  m  nutjar,  isuitea 
drugs,  etc.,  are  also  supplied  by  furolgnorh  j  iiiul  nut' 
withstanding  the  Sards  possess  many  rich  mliiot,  uuv- 
eral  of  which  were  successfully  wrought  in  mitli|ulty, 
they  import  all  their  iron  ond  steel.  The  only  luuiiU' 
factures  carried  on  in  tlie  island  are  those  of  guii|>jw- 
der,  salt,  tobacco,  and  woolen  caps.  Itut  aalt,  u(  whlith 
the  export  may  be  estimated  at  14,000  or  Ui.OUO  toim 
a  year,  is  excluded  from  the  precedini;  talile,  on  whiiih, 
indeed,  but  little  reliance  can  Iki  pluned, 

These  statemontn  sufflflcntly  show  that  the  roni. 
merce  of  Sardinia  is  very  far  from  being  what  might 
naturally  be  expected  from  her  extent,  fertility,  udiuU 
table  situation,  and  the  excellencn  of  her  many  liurl.'urH, 
The  following  summary  presents  a  general  view  uf 
the  foreign  commerce  of  Sardinia ; 

1880 Imports 111,870,000  fraTira, 

Exports OH,sflO,(iili]      •■ 

Total  foreign  trade  la  1900 liuli,7aii7liw      " 

1S51 Iniportii 12ft,70O,(KKI  frano*, 

Kxiwrla Til,  i;i;i,i»ii)      " 

Total  foreign  trailo  la  ISCl a^isii^iiuu      " 

Navlgutlon  In  1850.  .Vessels,  2420_Tomiu|jif,  27T,71T 

"         1S51..     "      ii5  8       "       iMVim 

"  186-2..       "        8250  "         !l(ls,4lHt 

Of  these  there  were  under  the  American  flag  i 

In  18Sfl Vessolr.,  27— TOnnago fl.lTil 

II11851 "       10         "       7,hTI 

lulS5a "       38  "       Iii,(rt4 

The  trade  of  the  kingdom  in  1853  amounted  in  vuU 
ue  to  333,942,000  francs  ($63,448,980)  Imimrts  j  uiid 
220,630,000  francs  (>H1, 919,700)  exports.  In  I8fi2  thi< 
direct  trade  between  the  United  States  and  Hurdlnlit 
amounted  to  7,726,302  francs  ($1,477,818  78),  In 
185:;  it  reached  as  high  as  13,891,501  francs  (2,U39,3UU), 
showing  an  increase  of  nearly  100  per  cent. 

The  entire  trade,  compared  with  that  of  18i'i2,  shows 
an  increase  of  21,500,000  francs  on  imports,  and  of 
6,500,000  franca  on  exports.  The  imports  cumprlsii 
in  values  (In  round  numbers)  as  follows  ;  Cotton, 
34,000,000  francs;  colonial  or  trans-Atlantic  produce, 
25,000,000;  com,  22,000,000;  silks,  20,000,001) ;  wim\. 
ens,  18,000,000,  etc.  The  exports  comprise:  Silks, 
43,000,000  francs ;  wine  and  oil,  10,000,000  francs  - 
rice,  8,000,000;  cattle,  4,000,000,  etc. 

The  countries  with  which  Piedmont  carries  on  the 
Inrgest  trade  are  as  follows : 

IM  ?OHT8,  I  K,\IHHITS. 

Franci.  franci. 

Franco 48,000,000    Franco 40,oiHi,il00 

England 89,000,(100    EnKliind ll,f,;«i,0ipi) 

Switicrland 14,500,000  I  Switzerland 13,iliKI,0(K) 

Austria 10,000,000  j  Aiialria 10,OO(i,iilKI 

Itussla 17,0tH),000  ,  J{u«;.ia lil;) 

United  S'.ate«. . . .   13,000,000  |  Inlted  Stalls  ....        531,1100 

The  Customs'  revenue  amounted  in  the  year  185!)  to 
$3,464,472. 


Hiirilltiinn  oOlc'lnl  rptums  show  an  Importation  of 
raw  ciittuM,  dlr»(!t  fnuii  tlio  ITniled  SUtes,  for  1853  of 
alamt  ^■J,mi,m\  In  value  ;  ond  it  is  supposed  that 
wlilln  of  the  reinnlnder  some  undoubtedly  came  from 
Algtirlit,  Iho  greater  part  came  Indirectly  from  the 
l-nllfld  Htal«»,  through  England,  Holland,  etc.  If, 
liowflvnr,  tlicait  Sardinian  returns  are  compared  with 
Ihoao  pnipiiriMl  l,y  (he  llnltoil  States  Treasury  Depart- 
mmit.  It  will  npiienr  that  the  direct  imiwrtation  of  cot- 
ton rriim  tlin  Unlleit  States  must  bo,  as  it  unquestlon. 
alily  Is,  liirgdly  ovor-estlmated ;  while  the  Indinict  ira- 
isirlathm  from  Kngllah,  Dutch,  and  other  Kuropeau 
port*  \»  much  lielow  the  actual  quantities  given.  Thus 
tli«  viiliin  of  cotton  exiKirtod  from  the  United  States  to 
Kardliilft  In  infill,  ns  per  United  States  Kciwrt  on  Com- 
iriiircii  iind  Navlgutlon,  was  only  ♦156,422 ;  and  in  1852, 
*4l(l,IIH2 1  milking  for  Imth  yeirs  the  sum  of  $573,401, 
or  It  llltlii  miirii  tlinn  onc-fmirtli  of  the  volue  (jiven  in 
lliH  Snrilllilaii  returns  for  1853  alone.  The  following 
iMimimry  |ifn»niil«  as  accurate  a  statomont  of  the  cot- 
ton triuli)  of  Niirdlnlit  as  can  bo  derived  from  a  cora- 
pwrliMili  (if  Ihu  olilcliil  rei«rt«  of  the  Kuropean  countries 
wliBiicfl  cotton  Is  re-oMported,  and  of  the  United  States, 
Willi  th«  oltlcliil  returns  of  the  Sardinian  government. 
Tim  countries  given  aro  not  tho  onlv,  but  the  principal 
oounlriss,  wlmnco  Sardinia  Imjmrts" cotton: 
I'MI'Niis  ftpCiiTtns  IMi'fiiiTfni  ISTO  8.\mii!ii,v  FonniKPoiR 

>  K*ll«   KNIIINO    IIM  mo.*   Tin;  (JOONTBIKS   l>K»IGKATm>. 


V.»l. 
tHhl,,, 
I^VJ,,, 

INfli,,, 

AviT«l(e| 


HfM  llrllitlii, 
U,1M,!l'ill 
!I,V,'IN,V08 
1I,NIW,<M4 
!l,H'JI,iH8 

(CilBpsiT 


Vrniirf,^     fl'iitlpil  aiatM, 

Nndalii.~r'i,18n,llKr 
Il,4i7,il89  6,SI)'(,823 
l,4'(l,ll!!.1  1,(129,0ar> 
1.1117,841  I  1,045,.172 
"2,744,830' 


Total^_ 

4,879,420 
11,3114,420 
0,079,218 
0,.^>74,S41 
7,434,150 


2,IIH(jtriU 

'I'lm  rnllroud  facilities  afforded  at  tho  port  of  Genoa 
for  lllii  trilHsinUslon  of  men^hnndise  to  the  interior  of 
Italy,  Swll«tirlaiul,etc,,  have  already  produced  a  mark- 
vA  oH'tict  (III  the  coltim  trade  of  that  port.  It  has  been 
sliowii  that  thn  total  (|nantlty  of  co'.ton  exported  from 
the  Unlldd  States  to  Sordlnia  was,  in  1851,  2,136,000 
lli«.  I  III  Wii,  f»,fi()8,82»  lbs.)  In  1853,  1,629,026  lbs.; 
Ill  lHfi.l,  1  ,(Mfi,il"2  llis,  In  18f,5  the  exportation  reach- 
I'd  1 1,777,7(1*1  Ilia,,  of  which  tho  port  of  (Jeiioa  received 
)(l,0!lft,(i(«)  Ilia,  I  nild  an  nlllcial  document  received 
from  (imioii  gives  (lie  nunntlty  received  nt  this  port 
from  tliti  I'lilled  Sditca,  In  Ainerlcon  vessels  alone,  the 
(Irat  sIk  mimllis  «('  )8J(I,  at  12,161,000  lbs.— C.  D. 

Mini f II,  Wiiyhln,  milt  Mmmrra .Accounts  are  kept 

lit  llro,  rmill,  iinil  ajlill,  ft  soldi  r^l  real  =4irf.;  4 
rdull  lllhi  1*.  (W.)  loroall- lsciido=:8».9(/.  The 
impai'  money  colialals  of  notes  for  5, 10,  and  20  scudi. 
I''iiriii  priiiliii'O  and  llio  coarser  inetjls  are  weighed  by 
\\\atitti  ilijhrn  i  12  Sardinian  oi. --'1  Ih.  =-14 oz.  5 dr. 
avnmllljsils I  2(1  Ilia,  1  rulibo;  4  riibbl=l  cantaro=: 
(III  llis,  N  dr.  KVolrilii|Hila,  The  starcllo  or  com  meas- 
iirii  In  «i|iilvalent  lo  1  liiishel  1^  peck  Knglish.  The 
palm    10;^  Kiigllah  Inulies, 


COUMRBOK  OF  THE   iNITEIl  StATKS  WITH  84111l|»i!\   rHII>t  (Ic  Tolifn    I,    IM'I,  To  .Ici.T   I,  1850. 


V«nn  ending 

Etiwru. 

l>uiiieatlo. 

Fi'n.|«ii. 

T..l«l. 

Mept.  30, 1841 

$47,000 

♦47,11011 

1842 

4!),20S 

40,201 

9  nios.,    1S43* 

103,0.11 

108,091 

Juno  30, 1S44 

92,522 

93,523 

1845 

18»,827 

»32,970 

lr5,797 

ISW 

2Sil,283 

1170 

'm,if*' 

1847 

C30,232 

10,S7o 

047,102 

1S4S 

17r).58,1 

18,3S,I 

1!13,973 

1S49 

4(lll,!)r>0 

21,414 

482,304 

1880 

Total... 

170,704 

80,1. HO 

25tf,9iHI 

♦2,171,400 

♦170,755 

♦2,348,215 

June  80, 1851 

♦310,839 

♦19,401 

♦330,289 

1S59 

70i,20;t 

49,2S(1 

811,415 

185S 

19.5,380 

27,020 

233,3011 

18(M 

188,805 

2,020 

190,325 

1856 

1,S3S,13G 

143,84* 

1,982,080 

18.V1 

2.143,977 

(10,'.i(ll 

2,204,038 

liiijuirlj. 

Wh>m/rili<',e»niln 
KhIII'is  ,1(1)1  Spi'riA. 

Tonnnjfe 

leareil. 

'IVliil, 

__fc*jWl, 

Ihijiorl. 

Atneririin. 

Kureign. 

,,,, 

,,,. 

"" 

I'.iiis 

'776 

,  >  > , 

,  ■  I , 

,  ■ ,  t 

1,951 

260 

, ' ' , 

4,396 

1,681 

♦r',85i 

(i1,12U0 

4,332 
9,806 

1,411 
1,191 

'i'<7 

.,,. 

.... 

10.236 
9,162 

3,.113 
1,983 

«,I>IH 

•  •  •  1 

43,«T0 

12,3:17 

4,843 

■illfi 
♦»«,t'(9''^ 

=-'"' 

.... 

7,791 

6,300 

•43,4^0 

01,281 

21,663 

♦3,'(ii3 
74,(111 1 

, , , , 

«,741 

8,479 

1 1  •  t 

1 . .. 

13,443 

6,662 

171,5*11 

I'll 

11,921 

7,018 

85,1170 

■  It* 

1 1  •  • 

10,088 

2.246 

!117,m 

Kit 

13.000 

10,754 

4,5JT 

317,179 

f  •   <  • 

.... 

17,968 

3,501 

■f  I 

I 


Mac  months  to  iJuuo  30,  and  tho  fl.uat  y«sr  fruiit  this  tiiiiii  Ijogln)  Jn\f  1, 


SAB 


1088 


«AX 


Sardonyx,  a  precious  atone,  •  variety  of  cliiil' 
ccilony.  'I'he  ancienta  iielecteil  thin  ■iiliHtunca  to  en- 
gravoupon,  no  (li>ul>t,  fn>m  ita  po««oitilii({  two  |i«cullar 
nnd  nocesfiary  ciunlitieii:  viz.,  Iianlnims  und  t«naclt}', 
by  wliich  it  in  rnpabls  of  receiving  tlio  llneat  toiuili  or 
atnilio  of  tlie  tool  witliout  cliipping,  and  allowing  tlia 
art  of  tho  engraver  to  tlio  liiglicat  ]ierfecttoii. — Mawk 
on  Jiinmomlt. 

Sarsaparilla  (Ger.  tlannparillf ;  Fr,  Stiltepareillt  / 
It.  Nalnapariylia ;  Sp.  Zarzufwrilld),  tho  root  of  tlia 
Smilitx  Nariaparllln,  a  plant  growing  In  Houtli  Amer- 
ica nnd  tlio  West  Indies.  It  la  ini|iorted  in  biilea.  It 
is  known  in  the  London  market  liy  the  nuniea  of  IM' 
bon,  lIonduraH,  nnd  Vera  Cruz,  but  it  ia  also  brought 
from  Jamaica.  The  l.iabon  root,  which  ia  tlie  proiliM-'s 
of  Brr.zi'.,  haa  a  reddish  or  dark  brown  cuticle,  U  In- 
tcrnally  fnrinaceoua,  nnd  more  free  from  (il)ro  than  tlw 
other  kinds:  the  Ilonduraa  has  a  dirty  l,rown,  and 
sometimes  whitish,  cuticle;  it  ia  more  tllirous,  and  U»» 
more  ligneous  matter  than  the  LiHlxm  nnd  Vera  Cruz, 
It  ia  in  long,  slender  twigs,  covered  witli  a  wrlnkleil 
brown  cuticle,  nnd  has  a  small,  woody  heart.  Tlie  Ja- 
maica differs  fivm  the  others,  in  having  a  deep  reil 
cuticle  of  a  close  texture,  and  the  red  color  partiallj' 
diffused  through  the  ligneous  part.  The  root  ia  ino- 
dorous, nnd  haa  a  mucilaginous,  yery  slightly  bitter 
taste  :  tho  bark  is  the  only  useful  part  of  tho  plant  | 
the  ligneous  part  being  tasteless,  inert,  woody  fibre.— 
TiioMS  )n's  VUpensalonj. 

BaBBafras  (Ger.  and  Fr.  Sauafraii  It.  Satiafrni- 
to ;  Sp.  <Vn«.t(i/V(M),  a  species  of  laurel  {Ijiuiiit  /imm- 
/ran,  Linn.),  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  North 
America,  Cochin-China,  and  several  of  the  Indian 
islands.  Sassafras  wood,  root,  and  bark  have  a  fra- 
grant odor,  and  a  sweetish  aromatic  taste.  The  wmihI 
is  of  a  brownish  white  color;  nnd  the  bark  ferrugin- 
ous within,  spongy,  and  divisible  into  layers.  Their 
sensilde  qualities  and  virtues  depend  on  an  essential 
oil,  which  may  bo  obtained  separate  by  distilling  the 
chips  or  the  l)nrk  with  water.  It  is  ve.y  fragrant, 
hot,  nnd  penetrating  to  the  taste,  of  a  pale  yellow  color, 
and  heavier  than  water.  It  is  used  only  in  the  mate- 
ria mcdica. — Tiiomson'h  Dinpensatorj/. 

Satin  (Kng,,  Fr.,  and  Germ.)  is  the  name  of  a  silk 
stuff  first  imported  from  China,  which  is  distinguished 
by  its  very  smooth,  polished,  and  glossy  surface.  It 
Is  woven  upon  a  loom  with  at  least  five-leaved  h'slda 
orheddles,  and  as  many  corresponding  treddlea.  These 
are  so  mounted  as  to  rise  and  fall  four  at  a  time,  rais- 
ing and  depressing  alternately  four  yarns  of  the  wirp, 
across  the  whole  of  which  tlie  weft  ia  thrown  by  tlis 
shuttle,  so  na  to  produce  a  uniform  smooth  texture,  in- 
stead of  the  checkered  work  resulting  from  interme- 
diate decussations,  as  in  common  webs.  8atina  ara 
woven  with  the  glossy  or  right  side  undermost,  be. 
cause  the  four-fifths  of  the  warp,  which  are  always  left 
there  iluring  the  action  of  the  henlds,  serve  tosup|v>rt 
the  shuttle  in  its  race.  Were  they  woven  in  the  re- 
verae  way,  the  scanty  fifth  part  of  the  warp  threads 
could  either  not  support,  or  would  Ije  too  much  worn 
by  the  shuttle. 

Saunders  (Red)  (Arab.  Sundal-ahmer ;  Hind, 
Jtuchit-chunduni),  the  wood  of  a  lofty  tree  {I'tirucai-jtiit 
tantalinm)  indigenous  to  various  parts  of  India,  Cey« 
Ion,  Timor,  etc.  The  wood  is  l)rought  to  ICuro'  i)  in 
billets,  which  are  veri-  heav}',  and  sink  in  water,  It 
is  extremely  hard,  of  a  fine  grain,  and  a  liright  garn^  t 
red  color,  which  brightens  on  exposure  to  tlie  air.  It 
is  employed  to  dye  lasting  reddish  lirown  colo;-;  un 
wool.  It  yields  ita  coloring  matter  to  ether  and  alco- 
hol, but  not  to  water. — Thomson's  Dinptnaalury ;  }' am. 
CBorr  on  Colon,  vol.  ii.  p.  2.Sfi. 

Savannah,  city,  port  of  cntr}',  and  capital  of  Chut. 
ham  county,  Georgia,  is  situated  on  tlie  right  bank  of 
the  Savannah  River,  17  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  Is 
In  32°  4'  56"  N.  lat.,  and  81"  b'  18"  W.  long,  from 
Greenwich,  and  4°  10'  W,  from  Washington.     It  ia 


UM  mil**  ii«i(»liw#»(  fftmi  Charleston,  125  miles  south- 
eaat  from  Allgllnla.  \tM  tulles  easl-soiitlipast  from  Mil- 
Udgavllla,  IWl  *till*s  south  ly  west  from  Washing- 
ton, Til*  IHillullttlmi  In  INIO  was  Alnri ;  In  182U,  7628; 
in  WIKI,  777«|  lit  IMO,  11,214;  In  1850,  16,112;  in 
1*64,  1(I,(«K>,  Tltls  (lly  was  founded  in  178il  by  Gen- 
aral  Jaintta  l>KlKlliiir|M  nni*  otiiers.  It  was  taken  by 
tha  liritUli  III  I77M,  but  Ihey  abandoned  It  In  1782. 
Oil  tl)«  Klili  iif  Jatiiiary,  182(1,  4(i»  buildings  wore 
burnad.  «a'('a«l«(ll(iig  n  loss  of  property  amounting  to 
l|'4,0(NI,UIHI|  but  It  ban  been  rebuilt  witli  nddltlonal 
IwHMty,  '( lldfd  (ifK  In  Snvan-iah  eight  Ijanka,  aggre- 
gate t'«|iiti«l  t4,IMHl,IKHI|  four  printlng-ofliccB,  issuing 
tiir««  dally  mid  <iii«  WKekly  newspaper.  Capital  em- 
ploytid  ill  llimillfni^tlirps,  IMIl,  IlilO.AriO ;  value  of  man- 
ufacturfd  Hrtiidus,  l|2MI,3ri(l,  Havannnh  Is  the  port  for 
an  «iit<i|i«Hfi  rfgiiitl,  rich  In  agricultural  and  mineral 
witaltll,  mid  liy  tlin  Immense  extent  of  railroad  con- 
verging ill  iltl*  point  (aliolit  1200  miles)  -ivill  undoubt- 
edly Ijh  llm  (»/«  of  the  Xoiitliprn  Atlantic  foast,  Tho 
I'olton  olilpiifd  from  Mavnnnnh  for  the  years  18S(3-'57 
aiiwiuiil«4  t<i  WnfiUn  Imlps...  .sVf>  Gkokoia. 

'Ili'i  rfccitt  fonstrilctlon  of  railroads  from  Savannah 
wisatwardly  Ims  lili  llnimrtant  beuriiig,  present  and 
iiroapm  tlvc,  ilfioit  (lie  commerce  of  Savannah.  Those 
ill  o|i«ritlliiii  III  18^/7  UK  an  follows: 

ihiiififi.,  Ilsll-rimit £38  milci. 

'Viilfsl,  fafntiDsti  Id  Mnwm 101      " 

*ii.ll\l<tii  'iem  and  MIlprnBCn ITS      " 

M(M',)ii  and  WMlcrii  (In  Ailnota) 101     " 

Wi'«lrlll,  l<>i;|rallAlii>t(« 188      » 

AllsuM  anil  )jitjrsi)K8  ,,,.,., , 87     ■' 

T«t»l,, m     '' 

Tti«M  riinds  (•ofiMwt  either  directly  or  Indirectly  with 
MMI  iiiilaa  i4  nittr<Md  In  Tenne  ,see. 

SUM'M«lnillf  cn  Tone  of  the  Zoll-Vcrein).  The 
g«n«rat  traiUi  lMiiwe«n  this  duchy  nnd  the  llniled  States 
U  iiii'r«N»iflK.  Iter  tnanufnrtures  are  dcervcdly  in 
lilgli  rapul4',  atid  aro  chiefly  destined  for  the  American 
lMurk«t,  Tllfy  consist  vt  leather,  woolen  nnd  cotton 
Ktulfa,  niitnli^al  Instruments,  toys  of  every  description, 
cliiim,  glaiw,  Slim,  stono,  nnd  willow  wares,  slnte  pen- 
cils, marldcii,  nails,  drugs,  udors,  wooden  wnres,  etc. 

Tlilit  dui'tiy  I*  rich  In  mineral  productions,  nnd  min- 
ing in  liMHUtvt  with  considerable  activity.  Iron,  cop- 
iwr,  vm\,  Nlum,  ttttlol,  marble,  and  salt  arc  extensive- 
ly |irii4l«'*'d,  aiHl  «ntM'  largely  Into  the  exports  of  tho 
dut'liy,  KNIHfrls  f«f  the  Cnlted  States  are  transported 
«ltli«r  t'l  llr«l(t»n,  llNmbiirg,  Antwerp,  Uotterdam,  or 
liAvr«, 

'Hip  fidlowlng  stntement  exhibits  tho  value  of  ex- 
\Kifi»,  ttiH  \itiiihim  nnd  niniiufactnre  of  Saxe-Meinin- 
gan,  t"  tliK  I  'tlltml  Ntates,  during  n  period  of  five  years, 
from  J8ft)  t<i  Will,  iKrth  inclusive,  specifying  tiie  coun- 
triaa  t\mi»n\t  witkli  said  exports  were  shipped  for  tho 
United  M»t««' 


VMM. 

Vl. 

Tot«l. 

k\Mii\mtU- 

llMm*n. 

Franfe. 

fw) ;, 

iria 
'.iiii 

««0,4I)0 



K.2ll,4,'iil 

1«W , 

8».fifl5 

$2822 

43,2!in 

1*3 

40.!)ra 

200 

40,540 

l"** 

•ta 

1(1,  iWS 

10,015 

l*m   ,,,,,,: 

,,,, 

o.m 

0,171 

'»'l|«  ««|i»rta  from  »!ie  United  States  to  this  duchy 
eotintst  of  l^diNiTO,  rice,  btendsitufrs,  cotton,  and  manu- 
fafitura*  iit  InillH'riililicr,  etc.  The  soil,  owing  to  the 
viwt  l>iraitt«i  and  liiointtnlns  which  cover  so  nuch  of  its 
surfai'K,  U  tii't  favornbtn  to  agricultural  pursues ;  hence 
!jrB»<i»tll)fs  form  it  large  item  of  imports  fron  foreign 
iMunirtm, 

MiXOny  dim  v(  the  Xidl-Vercin).  This  ki:?gaom 
lili*  III  tlin  cniitrn  of  (lerninny,  and  though  the  soil  ia 
genttrally  fertile  in  grain,  and  is  cultivated  with  the 
l{r«ilt«*t  i'ar«(  (tt«  i|iiantity  raised,  even  in  the  best  bar- 
vents,  in  nut  im^re  than  aoiilcient  for  tho  consumption 
of  tlia  inlmliitttnts,  Wheat,  rj-e,  oats,  barley,  and  pota- 
Um*  tits  tim  lienetni  crops. 

R»*«ny  i»  fl«)i  in  mines  of  Iron,  lead,  copper,  cobalt, 


v«tod,„n,l  excellct  wL  in  ^.^d  I'lr;'""'*"'^'  ""I" 
J-urd,  of  tho  Elbe.  Tl.e  f«ru»,;,,  /'•'"'  "">  viue- 
of  the  surface,  furni.h  Hne  tnr^i'nV ""«-''''''«'' 
cIo«n  the  EJbo  t„  Uan,l,„r«.  T  ^  I,  '''''  ''  """"'<• 
of  Saxony  are  those  of  cotton  Utu^-  ";»n"f«tiirt.s 
the  lute«t  improvement,  have  '„^1,:  :"'""■«  "f>"-ich 
other  chief  branchen  of  man  Z,  I  '"'''"'•*  ''''"> 
linen  «„.,  woolen  weaving  "t^W^.^L  """"''J'  "'" 
line  porcelain  of  Meisaeu,  ki  own  iw       '"""«•  "'"'  '!■« 


""'•  "cio„ti«:''f„ :  ,j-;-j;«;;ri^';M.,rv ';„:is 

"Tried  to  the  very  I     ^   ►   "'""'■'»•  «»wer»,  etc    «r. 

J'^™nnnnnlc.;"^,.'t,l:r:i;f•;r"'^^''•''■•  ^oi^ 
'♦>;;p„ft|,„  ^  i,  condn^f  ,  "'  '^'■'-■"''«".  ""'I  tie 
'II'"  following  .Uemf:i',',T.;'"'' •''""■  "'«  '--C 
'■r^'l'!"  ■■"■l-'^e  n.^^;^!^^!  !«'  ' h  value  of  ex- 


risSi  — . iiSnr;:?-] — =- vi,.  "  "'ttd  htutcs ; 


HniiSr 


Krnric 

143.4(4 
1I4,T4,'. 


ii',i.')i 

l»,"4l! 

ti,:iw 
a.">,3ii3 


K"'(flHll(J. 

1M1,'.'14 

1Ii>,s!ir) 

10S,Wi 


Total 

!i.ill3,SS4 

i!,IW'.',tV)l 


-'^--n..u„.;,.,;„:,,„„™ 


,tV)l 

.m  J 


it.A\^!^!!^^f8fFk-amnTT'''''  ''■'■■ '■^'^""""'""•efderln^,      .  ■•  ■""  Bcnend  ,r„,|,. 

i^fOTtA.VU. 


made  into  the  ■roots"th«vTl"„i  i  "  "^"„  ""  '"eisiou  i.] 
i-eing  kept,  grow"  hard,  ind't,"":""^'  ^"'"^'^^'  ^"-h 
"I'ops.  It  is  imported  frn  ^  i  .«"""">ony  of  tlie 
^rums,  wei6hi„g''?,?„^'  7T  o lafn  "'  "''.'"  ""  "'»«< 
Smyrna  i„  cakf,  like  wax  of u  f- """  '  "'"J  <•'»>» 
former  is  light  and  friabTfl  ^J  •  ''  '"  '''"''"•^-  Tlie 
that  from  Smyruu  in  ^Z?      '  "  •'""'iJered  the  be,t 

rrmo,  „„d  iXTi^pSr  rr"''"'""'-'- 

lioavy  odor,  not  unlike  that  ..r  1.  ""  "  •'""''i" 
terish,  sligllt,^.  «er"d  taste  Th"'"  ;"«<'.»<'.  ""'l  «  bit- 
-l-i"!'  gray,  changing  to  dirt  v  w^.l/"'"'",  '\  '''''"'"■«•'  «' 
the  surface  is  rubbed  witri^wi'«'''"''""'''"e«he„ 
gravity  is  1.236.  It  is  "erv  I^.n  '^T"  ''^  "Peeific 
ind  when  of  a  dark  colo?  '  ^^  ^^  "'•"iterated, 
o"gl.t  to  be  rejected  It  is'u  er'',"""  '''""'"^■-  '' 
Ti^MsoN's  Mpe,2onj        "'  ''"'^' '"  '"e'licine.- 

witht?r;s;;,i^rSntr^?/  ™""  --> 

Pended  from  gnffs  reach,^^  f'      T^  ^""''"''^  "«  «"»- 
Btern.  and  Btr^ch^r^ut  bflor?.'.''.?"''^'  '-""'  "'« 


Vfl«™. 

I'tni.. 


.C.%-W:l,OIH) 

i>ir,r, il,''To,3iio 

}^i 4,lw>„',i,o 

'^'^ a,!ii«,{x)o 


t.ihh 
.£3S,i,200 

4!)i,aoo 

Mt),6t)0 


Venn.  i  ..„ , 


IS.M. 

1853.:; 

ISW. . . 

ISKi. . . 


If'3ii2,ini) 

'.i2,!V,l  1,(100 
23,33(J,2no 

!io,yi6,6ao 


Venn!. 

1S51 

]S.'>3. 
1«3..."' 

I'i'H. . . . ; 

IS.';.-!. . 


EwoLANn. 

Mver|iool. 
A37,!llH.(iOO 
n'i,4n!l,B'W) 
4T,l.')2,liK) 
4ii,71!l,l(iu 
*1,333,.H0 

lUEL.t.Ni... 

2  '  S  '^•''"^ 

l*.',uffl>  or,  (1,1/1 

M2,fiiio       fa;;;;' 


A'-t  il.lMW 

4:iT.niio 
r>r>4,«iK) 

462,SU0 

Hull. 

.£10.12(!,40l) 

i>.is;i4,20i) 

ll>,78^,700 

10,0(13,101) 

liN«7u,«uo 

nnblln. 

i'Bfi.nno 
"■■1. 100 

'■i'.'.,-i{IO 
4I,4!)() 

2<,,'.'iri 


,    „     ,  ■",.•■>'  s<,,vio 

in  hcotlnnd  tliero  were  in  is-u  ',-<•.      . 


,.   .  D'['0,r„.         I 
(  iiitti.l  KiinfJoiii.l 

3l,7.'M,2«l 
33,.302,2«0 
33,73(),(),S() 
34,2(11,721 


mst  soas  to  tun.  therem  aVun"""'  ""'^''  '""■^P^  "- 
after  ends  are  swung  from  one"l°  f  m"^'''  "'"="  "■« 
other.  *'      "'  °°®  *'"e  of  the  vessel  to  the 

N.,  and  long.  10  45'  ""go  ,?J  '"'•  ^^  '^  to  58°  41  ' 
islands,  to  lat.  60°  50'  V    „", ,    "'  ""'''  '"'^'"iling  its 

washed  by  the  North  Sea  m,d  it      '' .      "■  "''"r'^  '""   ''""'^  "'«  nu    b  r   "f  m  f;  .    v  ^"""^""«  ""''-^  "'' 

varying  i„  breadth  f^t.  ^5  lo  inn '' /'"  f'"''  ""^ 
Area,  31,324  square  mTs  or  20  04-'^",'  ""''  "''*'  "''''='^' 
to  a  person,  92  persons  to  a  Z,,         .'f^^  """'' «"»  acre 

1801,l,59D,Wrh UsV/^cloir  '%o->"'"'""'''^ 
^or  Manufacturing  Districts'  ^t'  "'18^^1,2,888,742. 
Blackwood's   vL-^^r  1    ^-o  V  °^  '^™""'"''  ^^'^ 

?^S^rr^:!;"^«:-'-^'"«  Scotch 


s^€^s^?=.5^=^^ 


ports,  compared  wi^I"tt,T1„''^r""'  ""''"'  'eading  Scotch    o.xtenaed  account  of  tl,„  t.  1    ;  T ""  *"•■  an 

S?&7^^*^«^-?S'^'--'^S3    Stateswith^ 
-^roa.herfao.rl.,2,„7h,2.r--— '-a.|j.o.vm^^^^^^^^^^ 


RCU 


1600 


SEA 


CommmcB  or  tiii  L'kitid  Btatm  with  Hiiini.ANn,  nnu  OnnRn  1, 18. 

0,  Til  ,lll,Y 

r«  WM  In 

1,  186T. 

Tirtinaffa  i 

Ymk  aiidliii 

■ipon. 

t.,»M.              Wh.rtcril,. 

Uanil 

Kur.l|ii. 

Ilollinllr 

KuT«i|iri. 

Tula). 

Tultil.         1       Ki|i,iil.       1     liii|i,irl. 

Aiii.rlcaii. 

8.'pt.  BO,  1*91 

l|il,4"ft.44H 

!|<13,llt.3 

.tl,41l),131       $l,990,0:it 

.... 

4,015 

0,J90 

1M4 

i,iii(>,n<tn 

10,»s7 

l,09rt,M9          1,8.11,31(1           .,. 

$9,100 

T,90T 

6,070 

1MB 

l,lM,4Ut> 

10,104 

1,108,609  !       1,088,188 

8,()INI 

4,517 

N,220 

VU 

1,111(1,911) 

14,o:i'i 

l,910,Nf,l  1        l,fl08,t)2() 

11,175 

5,880 

lS2ft 

i,(W:i,M() 

7,iir.7 

1,707,183          1,89.1,404  i 

1,700 

7,968 

9,139 

1S9« 

hl'i.^l^J 

9,01)9 

r.7ri,84(i 

l,0,;fl,779  1 

9,860 

9,7li9 

IMI 

l,uuil,lii:i 

1,830,109 

1,083,101   i 

BOO 

T.i;ia 

T,691 

1898 

llftU.tMld 

7,997 

007,4.87 

1,183.081   1 

•  •  •  • 

9,499 

8,002 

1S9» 

8:i|>,31ft 

10,403 

014,808 

1,094.91(1  1 

•  •  •  « 

9,000 

7,010 

1S31( 

ToUl,.. 

i,4ii.vn 

I|I12,3II4,4I« 

3,4H8 
!(«U,998 

1,408,(109 

1,382,841   1 

.... 

0,013 

7,70T 

*19,39B,896 

$19,N06,(i36 

.... 

$T,IJOi) 

48,304 

■  fl9,(KIH 

fl«pt.B0,1S81 

i|ii,iHr..i49 

lfK,M7 

$1,100,709 

$1,077,830 

0,319 

0,109 

1S89 

l,l9ft,n«8 

911,8(14 

1,140,709 

l,rK80,H19 

• . . . 

8,1  89 

11,410 

1M3 

l,iHH,4(in 

91,iftS 

l,907,r,97 

1,09.'.,929 

$5lH) 

9,623 

ll.NIII) 

I'iM 

«,!m,7sfl 

98,780 

9,37.l,ft74 

1,402,030 

8,000 

0,055 

18,481 

113ft 

9,S3II,II7U 

io,Hr>(i 

9,840,02.) 

1,030,048 

10,800 

0,8  n 

0,380 

1S3(I 

9,34'l,nBII 

744 

9,3.M),994 

2,37l>.8  10 

3,800 

4,530 

10,508 

lt3T 

8,411,911 

i9,W)n 

8,4.'>3.si)7 

1,188,410 

4,)HH) 

12,041 

7,li94 

1S38 

],(wn,aii8 

10,77(1 

1,005,07'.) 

l>l'4,(;06 

I),41T 

0,387 

w.m 

1,1)95,8,19 

1,VM 

1,097,0.88 

150.183 

.  •  • , 

f,81t 

5,403 

1840 

Tolal... 

9,II92,U8U 

98,804 

9,0&0,040 

526,217 

8,000 

10,790 

10,483 

«1V,100,NU6 

1|<14U,N04 

$10,837,OOJ 

$13,2&.M23 

$3l,6tM) 

00,000 

01,189 

Sept.  80, 1S41 

$l,n2rt,SM 

$1.'>,3|8 

$1,0.V>,S24 

$S50,RS7 



$1,819 

T,414 

8,717 

1S« 

],ft99,7:l6 

80,979 

1,008,014 

fl5fi,050 

fl,8!'0 

10,045 

9mo«.,    1S48* 

9,303,354 

U.OftT 

9,878,011 

12.8,840 

19  704 

18,848 

Jimc3n,  IS-M 

l,03fl,ni)l 

lfl,8S'i 

1,1  63,478 

697,980 

T,900 

T,84) 

18,418 

1S45 

9,011,874 

M,9.ia 

9,000,810 

708,187 

«  •  •  • 

14,789 

90,810 

1S4» 

l,l)49,.330 

4n,41(l 

1,087,740 

1.2,10,080 

.... 

l),B4T 

18,788 

184T 

3,«4n,l(ll) 

109,013 

3,807,478 

1,837,014 

o:).fi<6 

96,816 

15,03" 

1848 

9,4fiti,4JI) 

8.8,418 

9,40,1,844 

1,000,0 '4 

7,910 

14,16 

17,0.0 

1849 

8,h4'.),0iU) 

tW,479 

8,008,439 

1,06»,.120 

91,089 

24,"-l0 

1S60 

Total... 

8,091,741) 
$24,fl01),fl7a" 

183,(170 
$070,070 

B,90.,4IO 
$96,840,040 

9,740,070 
$19,30.),UII8 

15,76) 

17,270 

$86,84T 

lB4,0liT 

100,508 

.liinoBO,l<«l 

$,1,811,003 

$201,0,17 

$4,079,^40 

$9,0i  10,710 

... 

18,508 

92,0h7 

isna 

9,441,148 

93O,0:i.'5 

9,(171,78,1 

9,8.'i.5,ii47 

10,8,',0 

22,2-^8 

ISM 

4,4■iO,Ki^ 

lB4,78tt 

4,041  ,ri(U 

4,387,0!0 

27,784 

82,012 

1SB4 

B,0«7,0il3 

100,33(1 

3,287,(!ns 

6,820,40) 

.... 

92,018 

93,008 

1865 

')„10(I,7M 

114,480 

9,491,940 

8,'.  64,594 

* .  • . 

18,074 

18,108 

ISM 

8,8S0,87« 

9«,1(«1 

B,9O0,M9 

4,l31,,'i:;0 

20,936 

94,076 

1S5T 

4,071,837 

39,181 

4,704,018 

7,910,111 

88,082 

4.1,499 

*  Nino  muntlia  to  Juno  80,  and  the  flacul  }'i'ur  from  tliU  ttmo  bcgUm  July  1. 


Soud,  tho  name  given  by  seamen  to  loose,  vaporj' 
cloiids  driven  swiftly  uloni?  by  the  winds.  To  mml, 
»\lfn\l\ea  to  run  directly  before  the  wind  in  a  gale.  An 
tlio  object  is  to  keep  liefuro  tlie  sea,  tlie  furcsuil  or  fure 
to))Huil  U  set:  tlie  latter  or  tlie  ninin  topHuil  is  often 
necessary,  as  the  foresail  is  often  becalmed  from  tlie 
lieigbt  of  the  waves. 

Soudo.     See  Coins. 

8ou]l,  an  oar,  so  short  that  one  can  work  a  pair. 
It  most  generally  implies  an  oar  placed  over  the  stem 
of  u  boat,  and  worked  from  side  to  side ;  the  blade, 
which  is  turned  diagonally,  being  always  hi  tlie  water. 
In  China,  where  the  method  is  well  understootl,  largo 
boats  are  impelled  by  a  single  scull  with  considerable 
velocity. 

Sculptures,  figures  cut  in  stone,  metal,  or  other 
solid  substance,  representing  or  describing  some  real 
or  imaginary  object.  The  art  of  the  sculptor,  or  statu- 
ary, was  carried  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excellence  in 
niu'iont  Greece.  Fortunately,  several  of  the  works  of 
the  (irecian  sculptors  have  been  preserved,  and  serve 
lit  once  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  genius  of  modern 
artists.  Models  are  casts  or  representations  of  sculp- 
tures. 

Scuppers  are  pipes  of  lead  inserted  in  openings 
bnrcd  from  the  deck  through  the  sides  of  a  ship,  to 
carry  the  water  oflf  ft-om  tlie  deck  to  the  sea.  To  iivoid 
the  inconvenience  of  having  the  scuppers  liroken  by 
the  working  of  the  ship,  each  is  formed  of  two  pipes, 
one  of  which  is  passed  upward  to  the  deck  through 
the  opening  in  the  ship's  side,  and  having  its  lower  end 
nailed  on  the  outside  planking;  the  other,  which  is  of 
smaller  diameter,  after  being  woolded  on  the  outside 
with  flannel  dipped  in  tallow,  is  passed  downward  into 
the  lower  pipe,  through  the  opening  in  the  deck,  and 
its  upper  end  secured  on  the  plaiik  of  the  deck.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water  by  these  ocup- 


I  pers  when  the  ship  is  inclined,  valves  of  metal  are 
I  j)laced  over  the  external  outer  ends,  which  clusu  wltli 
the  pressure  of  the  external  water.  In  niorchuut  ves- 
sels, Icatlicr  pipes,  called  scupper-hoses,  are  soniollnics 
j  nailed  round  the  opening  for  the  same  purpose.  iSunio- 
times  scuppers  aro  only  leaden  pipes  passed  through 
the  ship's  side,  and  turned  and  fastened  at  each  end. 

Scuttles,  in  a  ship,  holes  in  the  decks,  either  fur  air 
or  as  passages  to  the  store-rooms ;  also  openings  In  u 
ship's  side  for  the  iidniissiun  of  air.  If,  in  order  to  sink 
u  ship,  a  hole  be  cut  in  her  bottom,  she  is  said,  in  A'uu(''- 
('»/  language,  to  be  scuttled. 

Sea.  The  jurisdiction  over  the  seas  has  long  been 
n  question  of  difficulty  and  of  doubtful  right.  (Jro- 
tius  published  bis  Jfure  I.iberMm  against  the  I'urtii- 
giiese  claim  to  an  exclusive  trade  to  the  Indies  tliruugli 
the  South  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans,  and  he  proves 
the  sea  is  not  capable  of  private  duniinion.  He  vindi- 
cates the  free  navigation  of  the  seas,  and  the  right  uf 
commerce,  and  exposes  the  absurdity  of  tlio  I'ortugucsc 
claim.  Seidell's  Mare  Ctauaum  was  written  in  answer 
to  the  doctrine  of  Grotius,  and  ho  undertook  to  prove, 
by  the  laws,  usages,  and  opinions  of  all  nations,  ancient 
and  modem,  that  the  sea  was  capable  of  private  ilu- 
minion.  He  asserted  that  the  Knglish  had  long  claliiicd 
and  enjoyed  a  suprenmny  over  the  surroiiiKling  and 
narrow  seas.  liynkersholck  concedes  to  iSeldcn  much 
of  his  argument,  and  admits  that  private  (lomlniun  may 
be  exercised  over  adjoining  seas  j  but  denies  tlio  right 
of  the  English  on  the  ground  of  a  want  of  uninterrupted 
possession. 

The  claim  of  dominion  to  close  or  narrow  seas  Is 
still  auliject  to  discussion.  As  far  as  a  nation  can  con- 
veniently occupy,  and  that  occupancy  is  acquired  by 
prior  possession  or  treaty,  the  jurisdiction  is  exclusive. 
Navigable  rivers  which  flow  through  a  territor}-,  and 
the  gea-coast  adjoining  it,  and  the  uavigablo  water* 


ilong  1)6011 
lilt.  Gro. 
Iho  Portii- 
!» through 

llie    lIl'DVGIt 

|IIe  vinill- 
rlylit  of 
lortiiBiHuu 
liii  uiinwiir 
I  to  i)r(ivi'| 
lis,  iiiieli'iit 
Irivulu  (lu- 
liK  ctiitiiiol 
lidiiiK  uiiil 
Idun  iiiui'li 
llnlon  "iiiy 
1  the  rlylil 
kternilileJ 

Iw  MM  i* 
li  cuii  cull- 
Iqiiircd  by 
IxcUialv". 
Iltorj',  mill 
llo  waters 


SEA 


1001 


SKA 


lnolud«a  In  l.ii.v»,  and  Iwtwfeu  licurtlumU  ami  ormK  of  ,omU of  LalirMilor  nnil  Niiwrouti<lliinr|.  Ht»U  iro  |irin> 
tlin  Mtt,  l.«l.)li«tci  tlin  |>««pl«  of  thu  u.lJiiliiliiK  territory,  ilpully  liunl<><l  for  tlialr  oil  hikI  >klii>.  WIii-m  t!ik«n 
«•  Ixlnic  niim.«i.i.ry  to  the  Bufuty  of  th,<  iiutloii,  nod  to    In  tli..  i.i,rli.«  ..f  Iho  year,  whmi  Ihn-  «r«  fiillMt,  a  full. 

lli«  uiidlKtiirlicI  u«9  of  tlui  iiclKhorliiK  ,l,„r..,.     The  ^  ^rown  .....1  « III  ,  l„l,l  fr„m  N  i,>  fj  kuIIo f  oil,  and  a 

0|Mn  nu  l«  iiot  ciipnldo  of  h.-lnrf  i»w«,.M..d  ux  priviita    hiiiuII  unc  lioii. iluftKall.iMN,     11 II,  wheiiiiiitrai'li'd 

|.rol.«rty.  Tho  fre«  ii««  of  tho  oumin  f,,r  navlKalion  j  hefore  put  r-i,utlnii  huH.ciiiiii.iH.d.Ulwamifully  tram, 
and  ll«hlnnl»roiiinioii  to  all  mankind,  and  tliB  puldlc  I  parent,  fm  fn.ni  xniell,  and  not  unplunnanl  In  lU 
JurUta  Konorally  and  explicitly  deny  tho  main  ocean  taiitc.  Tli,  Kin,  wl,,.|,  taniiml,  U  i<xtKn«iv«lv  i-nihloy. 
CUII  ever  ho  approprhitod.  Thu  HUhjocH  (,f  nil  imtioiis  ,  ed  In  tho  making  „(  >.|im.* ,  und,  whoii  dr>»«d  with  til* 
meet  thoro,  In  time  of  peace,  on  a  {mMntf  of  cntlro    hulr  uii,  Bcrvpn  for  tlio  covering  of  Ininkii   etc  —For 

•nuallty  and  IndeiMindenco.     No  nntion  Iuih  an.,  rliflit    an  accoont  of  tho  iiniMirtx  of I  .kin»,  ,.r  .»■<»  /,  j'liiia, 

or  Jnrlwllctlon  at  iiea,  except  It  ho  ov.ir  thu  iiernoin  „f  |  To  tho  Iwqiilnianx  tho  miuI  i>  of  ax  much  liiiportancn 
Ita  own  auhjecti,  in  \l»  own  private  and  piildlc  vcshoIh;  |  a»  l.rcad  to  a  I'.iiropwiM.     Ita  lloxli  fornm  thclr  iiio«t, 

and  «o  fur  territorial  Jurindietion  may  ho  conniilorcd  or ;  ukuuI  food  ;  the  fat  ix  partly  dre i  for  iMilliiit,  nod 

pruorvod  an  |iorllon»  of  it*  territory,  and  porwinn  on  1  partly  connunod  in  tliiiif  lump*  i  the  liver,  wh«n  iricd 
Iward  are  protected  and  governed  l>y  the  law  of  tho  ;  is  otcciniMl,  ivcii  aiiiiuiK  i.uliorii,  iik  un  agrcculilu  dUli! 
country  to  which  the  vea»cl»  iMilong.  Tlioy  may  ho  ,  'Iho  »kin,  v^hii  h  thn  KhuuIimuux  dr<>«»  hy  proco<iMi«  po. 
punUhad  for  oll'ennen  against  tho  municipal  laws  of  |  collar  to  thcnisclvcH,  la  nuiilo  water.priHif.  With  the 
the  Ntalo,  committed  on  lM)ard  of  Its  pulillc  unci  pri-  hair  olV,  It  is  used  as  covorliigii,  instoad  of  planks,  fo 
vute  vonaeU  at  Nca,  and  on  hoard  of  its  puhllc  vessels  in    their  hoals,  ami  ii^  outer  gurment*  for  tlii'iiisclvcs 

foreign  ports.    'I'hinjurlsdictionlsconlincdto thoKhip; '    ■'•■   ■     

and  nu  ship  has  a  right  to  prohiliit  the  approach  of  an- 
other at  sea,  or  to  draw  round  her  a  lino  of  territorial 


Jurisdiction,  within  which  nu  other  Is  at  liherty  to  in- 
trude, ICvery  vessel  has  n  right,  in  time  of  peace,  to 
consult  Its  own  safety  and  convenience,  and  to  pursue 
Its  own  course  and  IiuhIiicss  without  hcing  distiirlieil, 
when  It  does  not  violate  tho  rlght.s  of  others.  As  to 
narrow  seas  and  waters  approaching  tlio  land,  tliero 
liuvo  been  ninny  and  sharp  controversies  among  ICuro. 


shielded  with  which,  ihey  can  liivnrt  tliiuusclvea  und 
canoes  In  tho  water,  without  gutting  their  hislics  wet, 
It  k-'wos  also  for  coverings  for  tlivir  tents,  and  for  va- 
rious other  pur|)osc  1.  'I  he  Jackets  und  Irow.crs  innilo 
of  seal  skin  hy  tho  Ksciuiiiuiux  urn  In  great  rei|in'st 
among  the  whule-lisluirs  for  preserving  them  from  oil 
und  wet.— S(  (piuimiiv'h  Airlir  Jti-i/luna,  vol.  i,  p.  Oil). 
iSoalH  in  lino  wcuthcr.  prefer  the  leu  to  the  water,  and 
vatt  herds  of  thuni  are  frec|uently  found  Iv  lug  on  the 
held  icoj  the  places  wi.ere  they  are  met  with  heing 


|ioun  nations  concerning  the  claim  of  exclusive  doinin- ,  thenco  called  "  soul  meadows,"  'llio  soul  hunters  un- 
ion. The  questions  arising  on  thU  claim  «ro  not  very  j  deavor  to  surprise  them  while  sleeping,  and  to  Intercept 
clearly  dellned  and  settled,  and  extravagant  pretensions  !  tlieir  retreat  to  the  water.  They  attack  them  with  nius- 
uro  occasionally  put  forward.  •  ♦  *  rutl'eiidori' admits  j  kets  and  bludgeons,  hut  principally  tlio  latter,  thuy  ho- 
that  ill  a  narrow  sea  the  dominion  of  it  may  belong  to  1  Ing  easily  dispatched  by  a  Idow  on  the  noso.  The  seul- 
tho  sovereigns  ofthe  adjoining  shores.  Vattel,  also,  lays  lishery  has  long  heen  prosecuted  to  a  considerable  ex- 
down  the  position  that  the  various  uses  towhicli  tho  sea  tent  in  the  Northern  seas  hy  nliips  from  the  Kll  >:  and 
contiguous  to  the  coast  may  be  applied,  render  It  Justly  the  Weser.  Uut  very  few  ships  liuvu  been  sunt  out  for 
till)  subject  of  property.  *  *  *  t!liitty,  in  liis  work  on  nealimj  only  from  Kiiglund,  though  occjisioiially  some 
Commercial  Law,  has  entered  into  an  elaborate  vindica-  of  the  wliulc-shlps  have  taken  large  i|Uuiitltius  of  s<iuls, 
tlon  of  tho  llrltisli  title  tu  the  four  seas  surrounding  the  I  Latterly,  however,  tho  seal-llshery  lias  Ih'cm  prosui'ii- 
Drltlsli  Islands,  and  known  by  tho  nuino  of  llritisli  Seas,  ted  on  a  large  scale,  and  with  uxtraordiiiary  suicess, 
und,  consequently,  to  tho  exclusive  right  of  llsliing 


and  of  controlling  tho  navigation  of  foreigners  thore- 

lii,  *  *  *  Uit  thn  other  hand.  Sir  William  Scott  did 

uol  trout  the  claim  of  territory  to  contiguous  portions 

of  the  sen  with  much  Indulgence,     llo  said  the  general 

Inclination  of  the  law  was  against  it ;  for  in  tho  sea,  out  j  lislon  of  tho  tields  of  ice.     \\a  horrow  the  i'ollowlng 

of  the  reach  of  cannon  shot,  universal  law  was  pre- 1  details  frxim  Mr.  Uliss's  tract  on  tho  TinJr,  Nluliiliet, 

ailinnd.  In  like  manner  as  a  common  use  in  rivers  flow- 1  etc.,  ofCunadn  ami  Xnrlk  Amerimn  J'nitiiiiunt : 


hy  vessels  of  from  (iO  to  120  tons  each,  having  crows  of 
from  lU  to  ;IU  men,  litted  out  from  thu  ports  of  Now- 
foundland,  Nova  .Scotia,  etc,  Thu  business  Is  attend- 
ed with  a  good  deal  of  risk,  and  Insluiiccs  frei|ueiilly 
occur  of  the  vessels  being  criislicd  fo  pieces  by  tho  col- 


!ng  through  conterminous  states  was  presumed;  and 
yut  in  Iwtli  cases  there  might  exist  a  peculiar  proper- 
ty excluding  the  universal  or  common  use. — Kknt'i* 
Vwn.  vol,  1. 

The  U  nlted  States  have  recognized  tho  general  limit- 
ation of  a  marine  league,  or  a  cannon-shot  distance ;  but 
considering  tho  contour  of  our  coast,  the  law  of  nations 
would  Justify,  and  It  would  not  bo  unreasonable  for  us 
to  claim,  the  control  of  tho  waters  from  Cajie  Ann  to 


"  There  Is  another  departiiiont  of  thu  colonial  llshtry 
which  has  originated  within  no  distant  period,  and  Is 
now  of  great  extent  and  iiniiortuncu,  Thu  largo  Holds 
of  ice  which,  in  thn  months  of  March  anil  April,  drift 
southward  from  tho  Polar  sous,  aro  accompanied  by 
many  licnis  of  seals;  theso  are  found  sloepiiig  in  what 
are  called  the  seal  meadows  of  tho  Ice,  und  are  there 
attacked  and  slaughtered  in  vast  numbers,  I''or  this 
pur|H>se  tho  lislicrs  of  Nowfoundland,  from  which  Island 


Va\\m  Cod,  ond  from  Nantucket  to  Montauk  Point,  and  '.  these  voyages  aro  principally  iiiado,  without  waiting 
from  that  point  to  tho  Capes  of  the  Dclowaie,  and  from  \  till  the  return  of  spring  shall  have  opened  their  Iior- 
tlio  South  Cajio  of  Florida  to  some  point  on  our  coast  i  bors,  saw  channels  through  tho  Ice  for  their  vessels, 


west  of  tho  mouth  ofthe  Mississippi, 

Belli  (Lat,  Sigtllum),  a  stone,  piece  of  metal,  or  oth- 
er soUd  auUstunce,  generally  round  or  elliptical,  on 
which  Is  engraved  the  arms,  crest,  name,  device,  etc., 
of  some  state,  prince,  public  body,  or  private  individ- 
ual. It  la  employed  as  a  stomp  to  make  an  impression 
un  noaling-wax,  thereby  authenticating  public  acts, 
deeds,  etc.,  or  to  close  letters  or  |>uckets.  Seals  were 
very  early  Invented,  and  much  learning  has  been  em- 
ployed In  tracing  their  histor}-,  and  explaining  the  lig- 
urcs  ii|inn  them.  See  particularly  the  work  of  Hop- 
KINCK,  JJe  SigiUomm  I'rUco  el  Novo  Jure,  4to,  1042. 

Seal-flahery.     The  seal,  an  amphibious  animal, 


and  sot  sail  in  quest  of  those  drifting  Holds,  through 
the  openings  of  which  they  work  A  passage,  uttenilod 
with  great  difficulties  and  (kngers,  till  they  encounter 
their  prey  on  the  seal  meadows.  This  bohl  and  huK- 
ardous  enterpri.so  seems  well  compensated  by  Its  suc- 
COKS.  The  number  of  seals  thus  taken  Is  almost  In- 
credible, and  is  greatly  on  the  increase"  (p.  70) — AiV- 
ing  Age,  x.Kvii.  186.  See  atiiclea  I'lHllKlilKS,  OllJt, 
NEWKOIINDI..VND,  and  Lahiudor;  tee  alio  M'Orku- 
ok's  HritUh  America,  2d  edit.,  and  SAHlNK'aylnifr/con 
Fisheries.  There  is  a  good  account  of  the  seal  In 
Laino's  Voyage  to  Spitdiergen. 
Sealing-wax  (Ger.  Hiegellack;    Vt.  Cire  d'Kf 


of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  i.s  lound  In  vast;;Mjme,  Cire ii cachtler ;  It.  Cern  Imccii,  CerutUftpa^i 
ttumben  ill  tho  seas  rouiw'  Spitzbcrgen,  and  on  the  I  Sp.  Lacre ;  Kuss.  SuryuDch),  the  was  u»ed  for  nuMin 


HKA 


16M 


SKA 


1i>tt«ni,  IxKiil  Inatriiinctiti),  rti-.  It  U  it  rnni|in>ttli>n  nf 
giini-liic,  iiirlri'cl  nnil  liiri>r|Hiriiircl  with  rF»lii,  iiml  iiftur- 
wnnl  ciiliiml  with  •nmii  |il^im'Mt,  iio  vcriiillliiii,  vnr- 
<IUi<r,  Ivory  liUck,  «ti'. 

'rii«  llliiiliNM  rrcim  tliiiu  lnini«iiiiirliil  liiivn  (hmihimimI 
tli«  rvalii  liir,  hikI  wvrii  liin)(  iii'i'iintnini'il  tn  iiiin  It  for 
■riillntt  in*iiiiiii'rl|iti  Ivrorn  It  wiii  known  in  Kiiro|><i. 
It  wii«  llrxt  lm|H)rti'il  fmni  (Iik  i''.ii«t  Into  Vcnlii',  unci 
thiMi  Into  Hpnln  j  in  whiili  I'onnlrv  n-iilinK-wiix  lipcnni* 
tlin  oliJiM't  of  11  <'nn»liliirnliln  ronnnrnc,  un<l«r  lliu  nitint 
iif  S|mnli<h  w«x. 

If  iilioll-liir  Im(  niniponndpil  Into  Mnllnicwnx  linmB- 
(llnti'ly  lifter  it  Iiiih  lin'n  M'liiinilnl  liy  fusion  from  Ihn 
|iiili'»t  i|iii)llli<>Hof  Klii'k  or  xppil  liii ,  It  thrn  fornix  n  lirt- 
tf>r  mill  Ipkii  lirillln  iirliilK  lliiin  wlirn  tli«  hIipIMiii  it 
filKi'il  II  nci'onil  liirto,  lliMiri'  nimllnK-wiix  rifflilly  |in<- 
jinrcil  III  th«  KiiKt  ImlliM,  ilcKi-rvi'n  ii  iirofDrpnce  iiviir 
whiit  iiin  liii  iniiilK  in  otiior  I'luintrlon,  whori<  tlu>  liir  U 
not  IniHifi'iioiH.  Hlii'll-liii'  run  lii"  ri'ntoriMl  in  sonio  ile- 
grp ",  lioniiviT,  til  II  pliiKtii'  iinil  tfiiiii'lonit  ntotn  liy  nirll- 
InK  It  Willi  n  vi'ry  Hiniill  (Hirtlon  of  tiiriwntliia,  'I'lin 
pnlpnl  hIicII-Iih'  in  to  lio  Ki'li-i'ti'il  for  lirl^flit-iolnrpil  nciil- 
iufr-wiix,  tlio  ilnrk  kiml  hi'inn  iiworvi'il  for  dlmk. 

Seamen,  lli«  linlivliUinlii  cn^iigHil  In  niivlKntlnft 
dhlim,  liiir^nH,  eti',,  ii|M>n  llin  lil^ii  hciim,  TliiMn  I'ln- 
ploycil  fortliiii  iiiirponii  ii|Hin  rlvwn,  liiken,  or  uuuuIh  iiru 
(Icnoiiilniitoil  wiifi'mii-ii. 

(>/  Ihe  Itiylilf  unit  Ihilien  nf  Srimrn.  -Tho  iipnmen 
viiiployed  in  tlin  ineri'liiint  nrrvli'e  iiro  iiiuile  niiliji'i't  to 
ii|M>diil  rpgnliitlonn  preHorilml  liy  iiiIh  of  CoiihO'kh. 
Hlilppin);  iirtirlcH  iiro  iimtnu'tK  in  writing;  or  in  print, 
(l(><'liirlii<  tho  voyiii;><  nml  the  ti>rni  of  tlnio  for  wlilrh 
tho  iicii  urn  iro  nlilpjitMl,  nml  whrn  tlioy  iini  to  ronilor 
thcniKo . vnM  on  lioiinl ;  nml  the  iirlli'lei  lire  to  lie  nlgni'il 
by  cviTV  Ni'iiinnn  or  niiiriiipr  on  all  voyut^cn  friiiii  thu 
llnltril  StiitcH  to  n  forpi);n  port ;  nml,  in  curtain  ciiiirH, 
tn  n  port  In  iinothrr  .Stnlo  other  tliiin  nn  ndjolnin);  iiiio. 
If  thi<ro  lie  nn  HUrh  contrnit,  tlie  niiinter  in  Imnnil  to 
\ii\y  ever)'  HPiimnn  who  |i«rforinH  thu  viiynun  the  liiHh- 
eBt  wiiRim  ({Iven  ut  the  port  for  n  nlnillnr  vovngo  within 
the  next  three  preeedln^  niontlm,  lieHliIeK  furfeltln|{  for 
every  •Piiniim  n  jiennlty  of  twenty  dolliim. 

The  Kennien  nro  niiiilo  milijerl  to  forfeituren  If  they 
do  not  render  theiii»elve(i  on  lionril  to  the  i-ontriict,  or 
if  they  denert  the  fier\'ice ;  and  they  nro  liulile  to  hiiiii. 
mary  Imprisonment  for  doertinn,  and  to  lie  det.ilned 
until  tlie  Hhlp  l)j  rendy  to  mII.  If  the  innle  iind  n 
miijorlty  of  the  crew,  after  II""  voynge  Is  iK'giin,  liiit 
hel'ore  tho  vessel  hiis  left  tln'  land,  ileem  the  veoiel 
unsafe,  or  not  duly  provided,  and  shall  reiiuiro  an  ex- 
amination of  tho  ship,  the  nia>tor  must  proceed  to,  or 
stop  nt,  the  nearest  or  mimt  eunvenient  port,  wliere  nn 
Inquirj'  f»  to  lie  made,  avA  tho  niusiter  and  crew  must 
conform  to  tli.'  Judgment  of  tho  experienced  "riersonii 
delected  by  th»  district  judge,  or  a  justice  of  tl>v|)oace. 
]f  the  complnimt  shall  appear  to  have  lieen  without 
fuundntion,  the  expenses  and  rensonalde  damages  to 
have  lieen  ascertained  by  the  judge  or  justioo  arc  to 
he  deducted  from  lli"  wnges  of  the  seamen.  But  If  the 
vessel  lie  found  or  made  seaworthy,  and  tho  seamen 
shall  refuse  to  proceed  on  the  voynge,  they  are  »\\\y 
jected  to  Imprisonment  until  they  pay  doiililo  tho  ad- 
vance made  to  them  on  the  shipping  contract.  Fish- 
rrinen  engage<l  in  the  lislieries  are  liable  to  like  penal- 
ties for  desertkm  ;  and  the  fishing  contract  must  be  in 
-writing  signed  by  the  shipper  and  the  fishermen,  and 
countersigned  by  the  owner. 

The  articles  do  not  determine  exclusively  who  are 
1  he  owner",  and  the  seamen  may  prove  by  other  doc- 
uments the  real  and  resiwnsihle  owners.  Tho  object 
of  the  articles  Is  to  place  tho  crew  of  n  Ashing  vessel 
upon  a  footing  with  seamen  in  the  merchant  service, 
and  to  make  th^m  liable  to  tho  sainn  restrictions,  and 
entitled  to  the  same  remedies.  Provision  is  made  for 
the  prompt  recoverj'  of  seamen's  wages,  of  which  one- 
third  is  due  nt  every  port  at  which  the  vfsel  shall  un- 
load and  deliver  her  cargo  before  the  voyage  be  ended ; 


and  at  the  end  nf  the  voyage  the  seamen  may  proceed 
In  Ihe  District  Cniirt  by  adinlrnlty  procoas  agiilnat  the 
ship,  If  the  wages  be  not  paid  within  ten  days  after 
thoy  are  discharged.  The  seamen  having  like  causa 
of  ciiinpbiint,  may  all  join  Im  one  siiil,  and  Ihey  may 

pnu j  ag  linat  the  vessel  »  ilhin  lbi<  ten  ili,V'<,  If  sha 

lie  about  111  proceed  to  sea;  Iml  this  remedy  in  vrm 
does  not  deprive  the  seamen  of  their  remvily  at  eoni- 
iiioii  law  for  Ihe  recovery  of  their  wages. 

Kvery  ship  iHdongliig  to  a  citlaen  if  Ihe  I'nlted 
Ntates,  of  the  bnrileii  of  l.'iO  tons  or  upward,  and  nav 
Igiited  by  six  or  more  persons,  nnd  bound  fnun  any 
IMirt  In  the  I'Dlted  NIates  to  any  port  In  the  West  In- 
dies, shall  be  provided  with  a  nieijieiiie-chrst,  properly 
supplied  with  frenli  nnd  sound  medicines  ;  nnd,  If  bound 
on  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  (Iccnn,  with  reipiislte 
stores  of  water,  and  salted  meat,  and  wholesome  shl|>- 
hread,  well  seeured  under  deck.  A  fund  shall  la>  raised 
out  uf  the  mariners'  wages  earned  on  bonnl  of  any  ves- 
sel of  the  Tnlted  States,  and  be  paid  by  Ihe  niMKler  to 
the  collector  of  the  jsirt,  on  entry  from  a  foreign  port, 
at  the  rate  of  twenty  cents  |H'r  month  for  every  sea- 
man. The  like  as'cssinent  Is  to  lie  iiiadu  and  paid  on 
the  new  enrollment  and  license  for  carrying  nn  the 
coasting  trade,  and  also  by  persons  navigating  boats 
and  rulis  on  the  Mississippi.  The  moneys  so  raised 
are  to  lie  ex|>eiided  for  the  temporary  relief  of  sick  and 
disabled  sennien  in  hospitals  and  otiier  proper  institu- 
tions established  for  such  pur|Hise :  and  the  surplus 
iiioneys,wliensul1li'lently  aix'uinulali  I,  shall  be  applied 
to  the  erection  of  marine  hospitals  r<.r  thu  nccommodn- 
tion  of  sick  nnd  disabled  seamen.  The  hospitals,  as 
I'lir  as  It  can  be  done  with  convenience,  are  to  receive 
sick  foreign  seainin  on  ii  charge  of  scventy-llvo  cents 
IM'rday,  to  lie  paid  by  the  master  of  the  foreign  vessel. 

And  to  relieve  American  seamen  who  may  be  found 
destltiito  in  foreign  places,  it  i»  the  duty  of  the  Amer- 
ican consuls  and  commercial  agents  to  provide  for 
those  who  may  be  found  destitute  within  their  consular 
districts,  nnd  for  their  passages  to  some  port  In  the  I'nlt- 
ed Htates,  In  a  reasonable  manner,  at  the  expense  of 
tho  rnited  .'■'•tiites;  nnd  American  vessels  aru  bound  to 
take  such  seamen  on  board  at  the  request  of  the  con- 
sul, but  not  exceeding  two  men  to  every  hnndieil  tons 
burilen  of  tho  ship,  and  transport  thcni  to  the  I'liiled 
Stutcs  on  such  terms,  not  exceeding  I>'1()  for  eat  h  per° 
sou.  as  may  lie  agreed  on.  .So,  If  an  American  vessel 
be  lold  in  a  foreign  port,  nnd  her  compiiiiy  dl.><linrgcd, 
or  a  seaman  be  discharged  with  his  consent.,  the  master 
must  pay  to  the  consul  or  commercial  ngciit  three 
months'  pay  over  and  above  the  wages  then  duo  for 
every  such  seaman,  two-thlnis  of  which  i,s  to  l,e  jiaid 
over  to  every  seainnii  so  discharged,  up(m  his  engage- 
ment on  board  of  any  vessel  to  return  to  the  I'nltod 
.States,  nnd  the  remaining  thinl  to  be  retained  for  tho 
purpose  of  creuling  a  fund  for  the  maintenniice  nnd 
return  nf  ilestitiito  American  seamen  in  such  foreign 
1)0  rts. 

Tho  master  is  personally  responsible  in  damages  for 
any  Injnrj'  or  loss  to  tho  ship  or  cargo  by  reason  of  his 
negligence  or  misconduct.  He  has  authority  to  im- 
prison, and  also  inflict  reasonable  corporeal  punish- 
ment, upon  a  seaman  for  disobedience  to  rensonablo 
commands,  or  for  disorderly,  riotous,  or  insolent  con- 
duct. If  tho  correction  bo  excessive  or  unjiistiflnble, 
the  seaman  is  sure  to  receive  compensation  for  dam- 
ages on  his  return  to  port  in  nn  action  nt  common  law. 
And  it  must  be  an  extreme  case  that  will  justify  a  mas- 
ter to  confine  a' seaman  in  a  common  jail  in  n  foreign 
port.  He  can  not  do  It  ns  «  iiiinishmciit,  but  only  by 
wny  of  precaution  under  existing  circumstances.  The 
master  may  also  confine  a  passenger  who  refuses  to 
submit  to  the  necessary  discipline  of  the  ship.  Tho 
master  has  also  the  right  to  discharge  a  seaman  for 
just  causes,  and  put  him  ashore  ii)  a  foreign  country  j 
but  tH^  causes  must  lie  not  slight,  but  aggravated ;  such 
aa  habitual  disobedience,  mutinous  conduct,  theft,  or 


BEA 


1U03 


HV.X 


haliUunl  ilrunkmnKna ;  ami  tin  la  riopontlliln  In  lUm- 
«||l»  ir  lli<  illarlijir^ii  llllll  wlllKilIt  Jiint  i  miI'.f.  TIiIh 
puwrr  iif  illmliiirK"  I'lituiiiU  to  tlio  iimix  uml  milHinll- 
IMtii  iillii'i'rn  A*  wi'll  UH  till)  ni'iunmi.  Hut  It  wiiulil 
rmiulm  It  I'liiiu  iif  llii|{raiit  tllmilii'iliKiiii',  iir  Krimn  iii'kH- 


riiU  a|i|ill«t  to  (MM  i>r  !<»••  nf  tn'\u\it  ly  »  |Mrll  iit  tha 
■vj,  Mi'miKii'ii  WHKK»  III  truilliiK  vnyiiKu*  kru  iliia  /in) 
I'li/ii  iliiirrn.  If  tliii  MUIIMII  iJliiii  nil  til*  VKynKii,  It  WM 
ilri'liliiil  III  tliii  Clri'iilt  iir  l)|p<trlit  t'.mrt  i>r  tlin  I  iilli'tl 
Stall'*  III  IViiimylvaiilii  tliiit  lliii  r«|iri(iKiiiti>tlviiii  Hvni 


gi'iuui,  iir  |)ul|Nil>l<>  wuiit  (if  aklll,  In  iiiilliorUn  it  i  ii|>tiilii  uiitltli'il  to  lull  hukuk  tii  tlw  I'lnl  ul  tlitt  \«yag«  \  uml  nil 
to  ilUlilmu  Ik  iiiut«,  Willi  Ik  i:i<h(>riilly  iIiiiki'ii  wIiIi  tliu  ^  tliiiiillinr  Imiul,  In  tli«  llUtrlit  (nurt  nf  Nniilli  Curnlliw 
cniiiK'nt  I'f  III*  nHiinrH,  uml  hIiIi  it  vivw  tn  llm  liuttvr  uiiil  Mu>niii'liiiiuitt>,  It  wii«  ili'i  lilml  tlMt  full  wnKin  li/ 
WirKt)  n(  tlir  xliip  mill  tliu  KDUurlty  nl'tlii'ir  iirniiiirty.      ,  iiiariiia  Uw  liit'iiiit  mily  full  v  uttmi  ii|i  tu  tliu  lUutli  nf 

Tim  iiiuntur  iiiiiiit  ri'iiilvu  liuik  it  kimiiiiiiii  wlmiii  lii<  tlir  iiiiirliii'r.  A*  tlin  |iuyiiii'iit  nf  w»k«ii  iIi<|hiiiiU,  In 
ban  (lli«'liurt(i'il,  If  lin  ri'imrtn  ami  nlViTu  tn  rutiirii  tn  liU  Kiiinriil,  U|hiii  tliu  fiiriiiiiK  nf  fri'lulit,  If  u  ulilp  ilullmrn 
duty  mill  iiiuku  nutlnfui  tloii  j  uml  If  llin  niuj<tiir  rrl'uKui,  liur  uiitwuril  i  urxn,  ami  |Hiri*lii'i  mi  lior  ruturii  vnj  u^*, 
or  tliii  Hi>niiiuii  liuH  lii'iiii  iimluly  ilU  liarKiil,  liuiiiuy  fnl-  uml  lint  nutwurill'n'l)(lit  In-  luiriii'il,  llio  KHuiiU'ii't  hukik 
low  tliii  i>lil|i,  umlrvinvLir  lil»  wilful  fnr  tlm  vnyu^n,  uml  nii  tlm  iiulMunl  \n\uKii  urn  ri>iiM'i|ii«iitly  iliiu, 
liU  ux|H>m(iM  fur  III*  mlurii,  Tim  iiiunli'r  nuliji'itn  liiiii- !  II)  tlm  i  u>tiiiii  nf  iiiKnliuiiti,  Kvuimin't  uuKvit  am 
self  tn  liiiu  anil  liii|irlMiiiiiiitiit  If,  wUluuit  Ju.^liilulilo  |  ilim  at  nvitry  ilillviiriiiK  |>urt,  uml  tlulr  wu^kh  uru  not 
vaiinii,  Im  iimlii'inuxly  fnrra  nil  nlllrur  iir  iiiurlniir  on  uiriiliul,  wllliniit  timir  K|i«i'ial  UKri'i'imiiit,  liy  uiiy  ntlji- 
■hnrii  wlilliinlirnuil,  nr  leuv«»  lilnilMililml  in  any  l'nr('l,(ii  ulatlun  livtwien  tliiinHiioniuml  timi  liurti'nira,  imikliiK 
jKirt  nr  plui'ii,  or  rufUHCH  tn  lirliiK  liniim  tlinw  nlimii  lii'  tlm  vnyuKi'ii  nut  anil  liniiiu  niiii  cnllru  vnyuKu,  uml  tlm 
took  nut,  anil  itru  in  it  cniiilitinii  uml  mIIIiiik  tn  return.  IrclKlit  tn  lU'iuiiil  nii  tlm  iii'ininiillnliini'iit  nf  ttiu  vntlni 
Tli«  i!X|Hnite  uf  ruriiiK  ■'  "'^'^  neuiiiun  in  tliu  timr»i<  nf  viya^u  out  ami  In.  i Im  nwiigrn iiiuy  wuIm' nr  nu41fy 
tlio  vuyuK«  Ih  u  >'liart|a  n|iiHi  tliu  iilil|i  in  lliu  iiiitui-u  nf  tliilr  tlaini  tn  fn'i)(lit  us  llicy  |iliiai)i,  Imt  tlmir  aula 
udilitinnul  wii);(ta  iluriii)(  nickni'mi.  ran  'int  il>'|irlvii  tlm  ununii'ii,  witliuiil  tluir  rnnni'Ut,  nf 

Tlm  lilt  nf  ('uii)(rv»a  ri'i|uirvK  tliut  In  acaiiii'n'H  hIiI|i-  tlio  ri)(litii  li»liini{iii^  tn  timiii  by  tlii<  Ki'imnil  |,rim Ijili'ii 
pliiK  iirtii'lva  tliu  voyuKO  uiiil  lliuti'riilnf  tiliii' fnr  whirli  nf  tlm  iiiariiiu  law.  Tlii'y  urn  iiiititliil  tn  uuKi'a  iint 
thuHcuiimiiniuy  liuvu  ii|ii|i|K.'il  liuK|iiioillnil.  Tlm  r<'t{ulii-  luily  wlmii  tliu  nwimr  cirn*  fruiglit,  liut  ulmn,  nnliiiii 
tinti  ri>liiti'ii  to  voyu)(>'4^'>'i"»  u  |iort  In  tliu  I'nitiil  Stiiti'i',  fnr  Ilia  own  lut,  liu  may  earn  it.  i'liu  wuKisa  am  <lua 
mill  it  ilnva  lint  u|i|>ly  In  ii  vnyii|{u  ('niiiini'ni'ili|{  frinii  u  l>y  an  arri\iil  at  it  |airt  nf  ili'atiiiiitinn,  wlmii  nn  car^n  ia 
fnrplKil  piirt  to  tlm  I'liitcil  Stulea.  Tlm  vnyu|{u  uilliin  nn  Imanl,  nr  wlmii  lliu  nn  iicr  ilnu.'ii'a  tu  liriii^llii' lurKo 
tlioatteiitinnof  tlm  atiitntn  iiiouiiHuim  liiiviii){ai|i'liiiitn  lurk  ai;uin,  ami  wlmn  tlm  pnrt  of  iluatiiiulinit  Im  lint, 
cuminrni'iMiiuut  ami  tniil.  Tlio  Urmiinii  a  ijim  anil  llm  ,  in  fuit,  thn  (uirt  uf  ili'llvcry .  Kvon  if  tlm  hIiIji  jivriili- 
Urmiiitm  ml  iimm  inu»t  lio  Htatcil  iircilaily  ;  uml  in  n  I'l  mi  tlm  mitnaril  \u\  a|{i',  yrt,  if  part  uf  tlm  nutu  uril 
caao  of  ifciU'Ml  udvontnro  tlm  ti'rni  nf  hi'r\ im  must  Im  ;  fivi^'lil  liaa  lu'in  puiil,  llm  .-•I'uimiii  urn cntiiliil In  wii^iia 
Bpwilk'il.  A  voyano  frmii  New  York  tn  tlm  ('uriiinu  ^  in  pruiKirtinn  to  tlm  aiimuiit  nf  tlm  friit;iil  ailvuiiiuil, 
unil  t'Uuulmro  nmaiia,  in  nliippinK  artiilc^,  a  vnyuKu  |  fur  llicro  la  an  iiiM'paralila  tniiimitinn  lx:twccn  freight 
from  N'nw  York  to  C'uracoa,  anil  tliu  wnril  livirhire  la  anil  Ha^ci.  In  iiiau  nf  lapturi',  tlm  auiiiimn  takan 
rcjeL'tcil  na  IipIiik  void  fnr  unrertiiinly,  .Si'iuimn  in  the  prianimra  liy  tliu  iiiptnr  and  lU'taini'd  uru  cnlitluil  to 
morcliunt  acrvlcfl  arc  naiially  liircd  at  u  certain  anni,  llii'ir  wa^ea  fnr  llm  wimin  vuy.i^o,  If  llm  aanio  bu  iilt- 
eitlmr  by  tlie  mnntli  or  for  tho  voynKo.  In  tlio  llaliiiiK  erward  perfurincil,  willi  a  itablu  dedutlnii  for  tlm  i  «- 
trudu  tlio  at'union  uaually  survo  iindnr  an  cnnam'nii'nt  iwiiaea  uf  aalva(,'i).  I  ii  mm  ia  tho  ruau  uf  a  veaaal 
to  rereivo  ii  ]>ortinn  v(  the  prullta  uf  tlm  lulvi'ntnrc  I'iipturcd  and  afliTwuri  laiiwnicd,  and  I'liulilud  tn  ar- 
Tlio  sliaro  or  |iriiiii  ,,1  the  myage  ar«  a  tinbalituto  fur  rive  ut  lior  pnrt  nf  d.-tinatinii.  In  tlm  cuao  uf  A\\\f 
regular  wag'  d  the  a,t  of  Cuiigrcaa  {WiXi  .hum,  1  «  reik,  if  any  prupnrtinii  uf  freight  bo  paid  fnr  thu  eurgo 

IHlil)  extent'  ,iie  adinlraUy  Jiiriadietlnii  tu  tlm  ciigiii- '  aaved,  wages  of  aeainoii  aru  to  lie  paid  in  tho  >aiue 
zancn  "f  ««it'  for  aliurea  in  whaling  vnyagea  in  tlm    pmpnrlinii. 

»am«  furiiii  .nd  manner  us  in  ordinu»y  eiitoa  of  wages  in  .Marinera  mo  Ixiund  to  cnntrilpufe  out  of  their  wnget 
the  iii'i'i  haul  wrvico.  Kvcry  aoamaii  engaged  tn  aervo  fur  euiliez/leint'iita  nf  llm  i  irgn,  or  iiijnrlea  pimliioitd 
on  Ituoird  a  nlhip  ia  bound,  from  tho  niituru  iiiid  teriiia  of  |  by  tho  iiii~iiindui  t  nf  any  nf  llm  erew.  Hut  tlm  eir. 
the  ,  .■'trait,  to  do  his  duly  in  thu  aervieo  to  tho  ntumtit '  iiiniatami  -i  must  be  amli  iia  tn  lix  tlm  wrong  ujion 
of  1.1-  ibdity ;  and,  therefore,  n  iirniiiiso  made  by  tlio  smim  nf  llio  ercw  ;  and  then,  if  llm  individuiil  bo  un- 
PHvtftcr  w  hen  tho  ship  is  in  illatrcaa,  to  pay  extra  wagea  kmnvn,  thnao  uf  tlif  i  riw  upon  wliuiil  the  preauinptiun 
(.a  an  inducement  to  oxtruordinary  exertion,  is  illegal  uf  guilt  roata  M.iml  as  anreties  fnr  each  other,  and  they 
and  void.  It  would  lie  tlio  namo'lf  aoiiio  of  tho  crew  iini>t  contrilmto  riitibly  tn  tlm  luaa.  Where  the  cm- 
liad  deaertod,  or  woro  sick,  or  dead,  nr  peculiar  cIVnrta  i  r,!/,lement  Inn  arisen  frum  tlm  fault,  fraud,  coniiiv- 
liecamo  re(|uisito ;  fur  tho  general  engagement  uf  the  ance,  or  iie^digeiico  of  any  uf  tho  crow,  tliey  are  bound 
seamen  is  to  do  all  they  can  for  tlm  gund  uf  the  kervico  :  to  cnnli'll>ute  to  the  re|Kiratiun  of  tho  Inaa,  in  projwrtiun 
under  all  I  ho  oniergoncica  of  the  voyago.  to  1  iuii-  wages.     Wliero  no  reasonable  preaumptlnn  is 

A  seaman  la  entitled  tu  lii.s  whole  wagea  for  the  voy- 
ago, e\  en  though  lie  be  iinnbltt  to  render  his  aervieo  by 
sliknesa  or  bodily  injury  liaii|K'iiing  in  the  course  nf  llie 


Hlmwu  against  their  iiinuceiico,  tlio  loss  must  bo  borno 
exclusively  by  the  owner  or  muster. 

lu  case  of  s'hipwieck,  and  tliero  lie  ndica  or  materiaU 


voviige,  and  while  lio  was  in  the  iierfurmaiuo  uf  liia  \  of  t^^'  ship  saved,  tho  seamen  by  wimao  exertiuna  imrt 
dntv.  Uo  will  ciiually  bo  onlitled  to  Ida  wages  In  llm  of  a  vessel  had  been  saved  are  allowed  the  payment  of 
end" of  his  voyago  when  wrongfully  discharged  by  the  '  their  wages,  as  far  as  the  fragments  uf  tlm  materials 
master  In  tho  coiirso  of  it.  Tho  mariiio  law  irislin- '  would  furiu  a  fund,  although  there  was  no  freight 
guishes  between  tlm  caaes  in  which  seamen's  aervieea  ,  earned  by  tho  owners,  liut  in  such  cases  wlicro  the 
are  not  rendered  in  conaeiinenco  of  a  peril  of  tlm  sea,  I  voyago  is  broken  up  by  vi»  mnjar,  and  no  freight  earn- 
nnj  in  which  thev  are  imt  rendered  by  reason  of  aomo  ed,  no  wages  in  vomine  are  due ;  and  tho  eiinitahlo 
illegal  act,  or  misconduct,  or  fraud,  of  tho  master  or  claim  which  seamen  may  havo  upon  tlm  remains  of 
owner  interrupting  and  destroving  tlm  vovago.  In  tlm  wreck  is  rather  a  claim  tu  salvage  than  a  »'"« 'O 
the  latter  cases  tho  seamen  are  entitled  to"  their  wa-  wages.  Wages  in  sucli  cases  would  be  contrary  to  the 
ges.  If  a  seaman  bo  wmngfuUv  discharged  on  the  ;  principlo  of  marine  law-that  frel.;lit  is  tlie  in""'^' "' 
voyago,  tiie  vovnge  is  then  ended  witii  respect  to  wages,  and  tho  safety  of  the  ship  tlm  mother  of  freight, 
him,  and  he  is  entitled  to  sue  for  his  full  wages  fnr  tho  |  If,  however,  tho  seamen  abandon  tho  wreck  of  a  ship, 
voyage.  as  being  a  hopeless  case,  and  without  the  intention  of 

Freight  is  the  mother  of  wages,  and  if  no  freight  bo  returning  to  possess  and  save  it,  they  loso  their  lien 
earned  no  wages  arc  due;  hut  the  freight  must  not  he  or  privilege  for  any  equitable  compensation,  whether 
lost  by  tho  fraud  or  wrongful  net  of  the  muster.     The   as  wages  or  salvage— their  claim  u  extmguiitiett  i  aua 


f  i 


SEA 


1694 


SEA 


though  other  persons  moy  possess  the  property  which 
had  been  derelict,  It  belongs  to  the  original  owner, 
bunlened  for  their  claim  for  salvage. 

By  the  act  of  Congress,  onerthinl  of  seamen's  wages 
Is  due  at  the  port  where  the  ship  unlades  and  delivers 
her  cargo,  unless  there  be  an  express  stipulation  to  the 
contrary ;  and  when  the  voyage  is  ended,  and  the  cargo 
or  ballast  is  fully  discharged,  the  wages  are  due,  and 
If  not  paid  within  ten  days  thereafter,  admiralty  pro- 
cess may  be  instituted.  But  tliero  in  no  fixed  period 
of  time  within  which  mariners  must  proceed  to  enforce 
lien  for  wages.  It  does  not,  like  other  liens,  depend 
upon  possession.  The  seamen  need  not  libel  the  ves- 
sel at  the  intermediate  port  at  which  they  are  dis- 
charged. They  may  disregard  bottomr}-  bonds,  and 
pursue  their  liens  for  wages  afterward,  even  against  a 
subsequent  bonajide  purchaser.  It  follows  the  ship  and 
its  proceeds,  into  whoso  hands  soever  they  may  come 
by  title  or  purchase.  Their  demand  for  wages  talces  pre- 
cedence of  bottomry  bonds,  and  is  preferred  to  all  other 
demands.  Their  claim  is  a  sacred  lien,  and  as  long 
as  a  single  plank  of  the  ship  remains  the  sailor  is  en- 
titled, as  against  all  other  persons,  to  the  proceeds  as 
a  security  for  his  wages.  The  seamens'  lien  exists  to 
the  extent  of  the  whole  compensation  due  them.  There 
is  no  difference  between  the  case  of  a  vessel  seized 
abroad,  and  restored  in  specie  or  in  value ;  the  lien  re- 
attaches to  the  thing,  and  to  whatever  is  substituted 
for  it.  Desertion  from  the  ship  without  just  cause,  or 
the  justifiable  discharge  of  a  seaman  by  the  master  for 
bad  conduct,  will  work  n  forfeiture  of  the  wages  pre- 
viously earned.  Des,,rtion  is  accompanied  with  a  for- 
feiture of  all  the  wogcs  that  are  due ;  and  whatever 
unjustifial)le  conduct  will  warrant  the  act  of  the  mas- 
ter in  discharging  a  seaman  during  the  voyage,  will 
equally  deprive  the  seaman  of  his  wages.  But  the 
forfeiture  is  saved  if  the  seaman  repents,  makes  com- 


pensation or  olTer  of  amends,  and  is  restored  to  Us 
duty. 

The  master  has  power  to  remit  a  forfeiture,  and  the 
penalty  of  forfeiture  is  not  applied  to  slight  faults,  ei- 
ther of  neglect  or  disobedience.  There  must  either  be 
an  habitual  neglect,  or  disobedience,  or  drunkenness,  or 
else  a  single  act  of  gross  dishonesty,  or  some  other  act 
of  a  heinous  and  aggravated  nature,  to  justify  the  dis- 
charging a  seaman  in  a  foreign  port,  or  the  forfeiture 
of  wages ;  nor  will  the  admiralty  courts,  except  in  case 
of  great  atrocity,  visit  the  offenses  of  seamen  with  the 
accumulated  load  of  forfeiture  of  wages  and  compen- 
sation in  damages.  They  stop  at  the  forfeiture  of 
wages  antecedently  earned ;  and  in  the  application  of 
forfeiture  the  advance  wages  are  made  a  charge  on  the 
forfeited  wages,  but  the  hospital  money  is  apportioned 
ratably  on  the  wages  for  the  whole  voyage.  If  the 
seaman  quits  the  ship  involuntarily,  or  is  driven  ashore 
by  reason  of  cruel  usage,  and  for  personal  safety,  the 
wages  are  not  forfeited.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  seamen  to  abide  by  the  vessel  as  long  as 
reasonable  hope  remains ;  and  if  they  desert  the  ship 
under  circumstances  of  danger  or  distress  from  perils 
of  the  sea,  when  their  presence  and  exertions  might 
have  prevented  damage,  of  restored  the  ship  to  safet}', 
they  forfeit  .their  wages,  and  ore  answerable  in  dam- 
ages. And  even  when  a  seaman  might  well  have  been 
discharged  in  the  course  of  the  voyage  for  gross  mis- 
behavior, if  the  master  refuses  to  discharge  him,  and 
leaves  him  in  imprisonment  abroad,  he  will  in  that  case 
be  entitled  to  his  wages  until  his  return  to  the  United 
States,  after  deducting  from  the  claim  his  time  of  im- 
prisonment.— Leone  Levi's  Cnm.  Law  of  the  World, 
vol.  ii.  p.  226.  See  Mercantile  Guide,  London,  8vo ; 
Am.  Whig  Rev.,  ii.  230.  Hospitals  for  Seamen, 
see  New  Kngland  Jieview,  ill.  481 ;  Hunt's  Merchant!' 
Mag.,  xi.  344,  xi.  230  (J.  H.  Lanman). 


Statement  or  Rbueiptb  and 

Classification  of  ExrEnniTDBEs  or  the  Mari.n-r  Hosi-ital 

FOE  THE  FISOAL   YEAB  ENDINO  JliNE  30,  1857. 

Fund  of  the  United  State8 

SUCH. 

S^anifn 
Kdrolt- 

S^anifln 
dll- 

rliaruiHl. 

Doord  And 
Niinlng. 

.Mcdlonl 
Servicrt 

Medi- 
cine. 

Tr«vBl. 
lug  Ei. 

penicii. 

Otiier 
CliBrgen. 

Funeral 
Kipendl- 

liirei. 

DOBllll. 

Total  Ei. 
pendllurel. 

Iloepital 

Money 
collerled. 

41(1 

ii;i 

14 
tXA 
125 
123 
1281 
27 
3J2 

284 
83 
226 
816 
178 
217 
1!I4 
11 
2S5 
1279 
114 
627 
2.V) 
201 
641 
N>9 
197 

'26 
144 

1247 
9722 

491 

112 
111 

UtA 

12S 

14.% 

1,806 

81 

384 

261 

30 

227 

893 

213 

214 

146 

12 

2;5 

1,264 

165 

«s 

IT, 
260 
678 
675 
20O 

'23 
111 

1,212 

!f.S«73 

783 

135 

19,094 

1,979 

1,845 

83,!55 

704 

14,476 

4^881 
6S2 
4,146 
6,767 
8,361 
2.735 
li,bM> 
6,130 
6,SS2 

84,767 
4,986 
«,S87 
6,Sfl4 

13,256 
2,75) 

11,625 
2,323 

12,186 
1,029 

88,690 
7 

$2,957 

248 

62 

3,634 

837 

843 

996 

267 

1,197 

"o 

2',Ofl7 
2,032 
137 
1,011 
1,!I04 
2,222 
2,369 
8,6*1 
67 

9r8 

866 
1.217 
1.741 

1,382 

871 

2'764 
4,i66 

$479 

13 

8 

1,025 

436 

13 

634 

60 

404 

301 
676 

626 

741 

63 

914 

2,330 

19 

448 

4)9 

1,886 

4 

841 

124 

l",648 

2,971 

$4 

"is 

'84 

"s 

$574 

"■5 
26 

$391 
10 
2 

2,S34 
34 
22 

863 
10 

279 

"44 

6 

65 

199 

41 

44 

636 

231 

1,317 

407 

60 

970 

'429 

82 

8,511 

74 

2,462 

1,021 

10 

'463 

$.3 

'04 
24 
72 

844 
16 

226 

iiio 

13 
83 
64 
114 
114 
65 

'96 
192 
80 
100 
262 
121 
48 
84 
26 

241 
18 

674 

8 

1 

25 
3 

11 

68 
3 

30 

26 
2 
9 
8 
19 
19 
9 

it 

49 
6 
51 
46 
20 
8 
16 
4 

"s 

48 

$12,78« 

1,060 

208 

20,816 

8,310 

2,297 

36,798 

1,038 

17,169 

4.'632 
701 

6,610 

9,264 

8,663 

4.616 
13,701 

7,662 
11,673 
41,247 

5,143 
12,406 

8,483 
16.416 

4,036 
22,444 

8,430 

2,'463 

17,202 

1,068 

46'866 
7 

$6,907 

197 

176 

■    21,627 

1,4'.)2 

8,836 

60,138 

4,749 

9,972 

1,183 

7,173 

400 

0,699 

2,300 

2,226 

826 

2,750 

324 

1,984 

16,111 

1,060 

4,482 

8,9'o'7 

2,157 

3,106 

924 

102 

304 

1,086 

732 

163 

8,834 

2iW 

Now  UHnipdlilri! .... 
Vermont 

Muaoi^hutetta 

illiode  Inland 

Connecticut 

New  York 

.New  .Icncy 

I'enniijrlvanU 

Delaware  (no  return) 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia 
VlrKlnla 

North  Carolina 

Houth  Carolina 

Georgia 

.MlMlMilppt 

I'lorlila 

Tixaa 

MUaourl 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Illinois 

>Vlifcon»ln 

Iowa  (ao  rctun. 
Indiana 

<  Iri'Kon  Territory . . . 
California 

Waiblngton  Tcrrlto. 
ToUI 

10,006 

$263,635 

$89,612 

$16,496 

$11)6  1  $611 

$31,640 

$3104 

3113 

$343,944 

$167,360 

/ff/if/o/'/JertiVtrfe^i'anifn.— By  the  fourth  section  of  |  at  the  expense  of  tho  United  States,  subject  to  such 
the  act  of  Congress,  2Hth  February,  ISO.'),  it  is  made  !  instruction  as  the  Secretary  of  State  shall  give ;  and 
the  duty  of  consular  ofHcers  to  provide  for  the  mari-  |  the  section  also  provides  for  the  manner  in  which  such 
ners  of  the  United  States  who  mny  l)e  found  destitute  mariners  or«  to  be  transported  to  the  United  States. 
within  their  districts  sufficient  sut>slstence  and  passage  j  If  any  seaman  happens  at  a  United  States  consulate, 
to  the  United  States,  in  the  most  reasonable  manner,  1  not  from  discharge  from  a  vessel,  but  from  shipwreck 


SfiA^ 


1695 


SEA 


19T 
1T6 
21,62T 
l,4'.i3 
3,338  1 
60,138  I 
4,749 
»,fl7a 
1,183  1 

T,na 

400 
0,0'j9  I 
2,300  1 
2,225  I 

828 
%-iM  1 
324  I 

1,984 
15,111 

1,0«0 

4,482  1 


or  otherwise,  the  same  must  be  stated  accordingly,  vith  ! 
the  time  he  arrived  at  the  consulate,  so  that  the  return  ' 
Krill  show  how  and  -when  each  relieved  seaman  hap- 
pened there.  And  if  no  extra  wages  are  received,  the  i 
reasons  why  such  wages  have  not  been  received  should  : 
appear  from  the  return,  or  other  accompanying  papers,  i 
When  American  seamen  are  discharged  in  any  port 
trom  sickness  or  any  other  cause,  the  three  months' 
extra  wages  should  invariably  bf  exacted  as  required 
by  the  acts  of  February  28,  1803,  and  of  August  18, 
1856.  The  three  months'  extra  wages  are  to  l>e  credit- 
ed  in  consular  accounts,  and  the  two-thirds  thereof 
arc  not  to  be  paid  to  seamen  imtil  they  shall  have  en- 
gaged on  Iroard  some  vessel  to  return  to  the  United 
States ;  and  then  only  when  n<^  disbursements  shall 
have  been  made  on  their  account.  Expenses  incurred 
for  them  are  first  to  be  paid,  and  the  balance  only,  if 
any,  to  bo  returned  them.  On  payment  of  the  two 
months'  extra  wages  to  seamen,  consular  ofhcers  will 
take  and  forward  receipts  with  their  accounts.  When- 
ever a  ship  or  vessel  belonging  to  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  is  sold  in  a  foreign  country,  and  her 
company  discharged,  or  when  a  seanivn  or  mariner, 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  is  with  his  own  consent 
discharged  in  a  foreign  countr}',  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
master  or  commander  to  produce  to  the  consular  officer 
the  certified  list  of  his  ship's  company,  and  pay  to  such 
consular  officer  for  every  seaman  or  mariner  so  dis- 
charged, being  designated  on  such  list  as  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  three  months'  pay,  over  ond  above 
the  wages  which  may  then  be  due  to  such  mariner  or 
seaman ;  two-thirds  thereof  to  be  paid  I)}-  such  consular 
officer  to  each  seaman  or  mariner  so  discharged,  upon 
his  engagement  on  board  of  any  vessel  to  return  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  other  remaining  third  to  be  re- 
tained for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  fund  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  passages  of  seamen  or  mariners,  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  who  may  bo  desirous  of  return- 
ing to  the  United  States,  and  for  the  maintenance  of 
destitute  American  seamen. 

Whenever  ony  seaman  or  mariner  of  any  vessel  of 
the  United  States  deserts  such  vessel,  the  master  or 
commander  of  the  vessel  is  required  to  note  the  fact 
and  date  of  the  desertion  on  the  list  of  the  crew,  and 
to  have  the  same  officially  authenticated  at  the  port  or 
place  of  the  consulate  or  comnKicial  agency  first  visit- 
ed by  the  vessel  after  such  desertion.  If  tlie  desertion 
shall  have  occurred  in  a  foreign  country,  or  if,  in  such 
case,  the  vessel  shall  not  visit  any  place  where  there 
is  any  consulate  or  commercial  agency  before  her  re- 
turn to  the  United  States,  or  if  the  desertion  shall  have 
occurred  in  the  United  States,  the  fact  and  time  of  de- 
sertion shall  be  officially  authenticated  before  a  notary 
public  immediately-  at  the  first  port  or  place  where  such 
vessel  arrives  after  the  desertion.  All  wages  that 
may  be  due  to  such  seaman  or  mariner,  and  whatever 
interest  he  may  have  in  the  cargo  of  such  vessel,  shall 
be  forfeited  to  and  become  the  jiroperty  of  the  United 
States,  and  paid  over  for  their  use  to  the  collector  of 
the  port  where  the  crew  of  such  vessel  are  accounted 
for  as  soon  as  the  same  can  be  ascertaincil,  first  de- 
ducting therefrom  any  expense  which  may  necessa- 
rily have  been  incurred  on  account  of  such  vessel  in 
consequence  of  such  desertion.  In  settling  tlie  ac- 
count of  such  wages  or  interest,  no  allowance  or  deduc- 
tion shall  be  made,  except  for  moneys  actually  paid, 
or  goods  at  a  fair  price  supplied,  or  expenses  incurred 
to  or  for  such  seaman  or  mariner,  any  receipt  or  vouch- 
er from  or  arrangement  with  such  seaman  or  mariner 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanduig. 

Upon  the  application  of  any  seaman  or  mariner  for 
a  discharge,  if  it  shall  appear  to  the  consular  officer 
that  he  is  entitled  to  his  discharge  under  any  act  of 
Congress,  or  according  to  the  general  principles  or 
usages  of  maritime  law  as  recognized  in  the  United 
States,  be  is  required  to  discharge  such  seumun  or 
mariner,  and  require  fh>m  the  master  or  commander  of 


the  ship  or  vessel  from  which  such  discharge  fchall  be 
made  the  payment  of  three  months'  extra  wages,  as 
provided  by  the  act  approved  February  28, 1803  •,  and 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  master  or  commander  to 
pay  the  same,  and  no  such  payment,  or  any  part  ther«- 
of,  shall  be  remitted  in  any  case,  except  such  as  are 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  and  in  cases  of 
wrecked  or  stranded  ships  or  vessels,  or  ships  or  ves- 
sels condemned  as  unfit  for  service,  when  no  payment 
of  extra  wages  shall  be  required.  The  extra  wages 
required  to  he  paid  by  the  foregoing  clause  of  this  sec- 
tion are  applicable  to  the  same  purposes  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  directed  by  the  act  approved  Feb- 
ruarj'  28, 1803,  in  regard  to  the  extra  wages  required 
to  be  paid  by  that  act. 

^  If  the  first  officer,  or  any  officer  and  a  majority  of 
tlie  crew,  of  any  vessel  make  ci  mplaint  in  writing  that 
she  is  in  an  unsuitalde  condition  to  go  to  sea,  because 
I  she  is  leaky,  or  insufiiciently  supplied  with  sails,  rig- 
!  ging,  anchors,  or  any  other  equipment,  or  that  the  crew 
!  is  insufficient  to  man  her,  or  that  her  provisions,  stores, 
i  and  supplies  are  not,  or  have  not  been  during  the  voy- 
!  age,  sufficient  and  wholesome,  thereupon,  in  any  of 
I  these  or  like  cases,  the  consular  officer  of  the  port  is 
!  required  to  appoint  two  disinterested  competent  prac- 
:  tical  men,  acquainted  with  maritime  affairs,  to  ex- 
amine into  the  causes  of  complaint,  who  must,  in  their 
report,  state  what  defects  and  deficiencies,  if  any,  tli";- 
find  to  be  well  founded,  as  well  as  wh,.t,  !n  tiieir  judg- 
1  ment,  ought  to  be  done  to  put  the  vessel  in  order  tot 
i  the  continuance  of  her  voyage. 

Hy  the  4th  section  of  the  act  of  February  28,  1803, 
all  masters  and  commanders  of  vessels  belonging  to 
1  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  bound  to  some  port 
of  the  same,  arc  required  and  enjoined  to  take  on  board 
i  their  ships  or  vessels,  at  the  request  of  the  consular 
officers,  such  American  seamen  as  may  be  fouiul  in 
I  their  districts  respectively,  and  to  transport  them  to 
j  the  port  in  the  United  States  to  which  such  ships  or 
j  vessels  may  be  bound,  on  such  terms,  not  e.\-ocding 
ten  dollars  for  each  person,  as  may  bo  agreed  upon  be- 
tween the  said  masters  and  consular  officers.     And  the 
!  said  seamen  shall,  if  able,  be  bound  to  do  duty  on  board 
I  such  ships  or  vessels  according  to  their  scvcrol  abili- 
ties.    To  enaldo  the  master  of  the  vcfsel  to  obtain 
I  the  payment  specilied,  the  consular  officer  will  give 
him  a  cerlilicatc,  stating  Iho  names  of  the  seamen 
I  placed  on  boa.d,  and  the  amount  to  be  paid  for  their 
I  passaso;  on  which,  upon  the  arrival  of  tlic  vessel  iiva 
port  of  the  United  .States,  an  indorsement  must  bo 
made  l)y  the  collector  of  the  customs  at  such  port, 
I  stating  tliat  such  seamen  have  arrived  in  said  vessel  in 
'  his  district.     Wlicn  the  cerlificato  so  indorsed  is  re- 
',  ceivcd  at  the  Treasury  Department,  the  amount  will 
I  1)0  paid  to  its  holder.    No  master  or  captain  of  any 
j  ship  or  vessel  is  obliged  to  take  a  greater  number  than 
!  two  men  to  every  on"  hundred  tons  burden  of  the  said 
i  ship  or  vessel  on  any  one  voyage. 

Ifflpis  nj'  Scamni. — Tlio  general  rule  in  regard  to 

the  w.iges  of  seamen  is,  tliat  such  wages  on  board  of 

mercliant  ships  are  payable  out  of  the  earning*  for 

freight ;  and  if  no  froiglit  is  earne<l,  by  reason  of  the 

perils  of  tlie  sea  or  capture  l)y  the  enemy,  and  not  by 

the  fault  or  neglect  of  llie  master  or  owner,  no  wages 

arc  due.     The  nmxim  tliat  "  freight  is  the  mother  of 

wages"  is  a  formula  which,  though  it  has  obtained 

general  currency,  is  to  bo  carefully  scrulinizcd  in  its 

I  application.     A  distinction  is  to  be  made  between 

'  tliose  accidents  by  which  the  voyage  is  interrupted  and 

j  the  freight  lost,  without  the  fault  of  the  owner  or  iiias- 

'  ter,  and  otlier  causes  arising  from  the  acts  of  the  owner 

[  or  master.     If  the  voyage  or  freight  be  lost  by  the 

negligence,  fraud,  or  misconduct  of  the  owner  or  mas- 

I  ter,  or  voluntarily  abandoned  by  them ;  it  tlio  owner 

■  has  contracted  for  freight  upon  terms  or  contingencies 

!  differing  from  the  general  rules  of  the  maritime  law ; 

or,  if  ho  has  chartered  his  ship  to  take  a  freight  at  a 


SEA 


1696 


SEA 


foreign  port,  and  none  is  to  bo  earned  on  tlio  outward 
voyage — in  all  these  cases  the  mariner  is  entitled  to 
wages,  notwithstanding  no  freight  lias  accrued.  Where 
freiglit  is,  or  might  be,  earned,  wages  arc  duo  for  tlie 
full  period  of  emploj-ment  in  the  ship's  service,  whether 
the  freight  is  actually  received  by  the  owner  or  not. 
No  private  contract  between  the  owner  and  the  shipper, 
with  regard  to  freight,  can  affect  the  right  to  wages. 

If  tlie  vessel  and  cargo  are  lost  on  the  outward  voy- 
age, before  any  freight  is  earned,  and  no  part  of  either 
is  saved  by  the  crew,  the  wages  of  the  seamen  are  also 
lost,  and  the  original  contract  therefor  is  anndlled,  but 
the  advance  wages  aro  not  in  such  case  to  be  returned. 
If  tlie  vessel  is  lost  on  the  homeward  voyage,  and 
frciglit  has  been,  or  might  have  been,  by  the  general 
principles  of  law,  earned  to  an  outward  port,  the  wages 
for  the  outward  voyage  to  that  port  arc  deemed  to  have 
been  earned.  No  abatement  is  to  be  made  from  the 
wages  in  case  of  the  freight  being  partially  lost  or 
diminislied  by  maritime  accidents  or  perils.  If  friight 
is  eanieJ,  whether  it  bo  large  or  small,  the  whole 
wages,  which  are  deemed  to  have  been  earned,  are  to 
be  paid  without  deduction.  AVhen  the  vessel  is  lost 
between  intermediate  ports,  tlio  wages  are  to  be  calcu- 
lated up  to  the  lost  port  of  the  delivery  or  receipt  of 
cargo,  and  for  half  the  time  that  the  ship  lies  there. 
Where  a  voyage  is  divided  by  various  ports  of  deliv- 
ery, a  claim  for  proportional  wages  attaches  at  each  of 
sucli  ports  of  delivery  upon  safe  arrival;  and  all  at- 
tempts to  evade  or  invade  tliat  title,  \>y  renunciations 
obtained  from  the  mariners  without  any  consideration, 
by  collateral  bonds,  or  by  contracts  inserted  in  the 
body  of  tho  shipping  articles,  not  usual,  not  fully  ex- 
plained to  these  illiterate  and  inexperienced  persons, 
are  ineflectual  and  void. 

J'roteclion  and  Care  n/Seqmen. — It  is  provided  by  the 
IGtIi  section  of  the  act  of  July  20, 1840,  that  tho  crew 
of  any  vessel  shall  have  tho  fullest  liberty  to  lay  their 
,  complaints  before  the  consular  officer  in  any  foreign 
port,  and  shall  in  no  respect  bo  restrained  or  hindered 
therein  by  tho  master  or  any  ofKccr,  unless  some  si<f- 
Hcicnt  and  valid  objection  exist  against  their  landing; 
in  which  case,  if  any  mariner  desire  to  sco  tho  consu- 
lar otHcer,  it  shall  bo  the  duty  of  the  niuslrr  to  acquaint 
liim  with  it  forthwith,  stating  the  reason  why  tlie 
mariner  is  not  permitted  to  land,  and  that  ho  is  de- 
sired to  come  on  boani ;  whereupon  it  shall  bo  tho  duty 
of  such  officer  to  repair  on  board  and  inquire  into  the 
causes  of  the  complaint,  and  proceed  therein  as  tho  act 
directs. 

Desertion. — In  countries  with  which  the  United  States 
have  stipulations  by  treaty  or  convention  to  authorize 
it,  or  wiiero  it  is  permitted  by  the  local  authorities, 
consular  officers  may  apprehend  deserters  as  fugitives 
from  justice,  and  imprison  them  unl  il  required  by  their 
commander, — Consular  Jieyulaliom,  United  States,  ISufi. 

For  further  information  upon  tho  rights  and  duties  of 
seamen,  see  articles  AKKUEifiiiT.MK.NT,  Ch<viiteii-J'AR- 
Tv,  CoMMKRcu,  Insurance,  Siiii'I'Ino,  etc.  See  also 
Kknt's  Com.  vol,  iii.  p,  231 ;  Pahsons's  AfercantUe  Imw, 
p.  Hiio ;  Du.NLAr's  Digest  o/t/ie  Ixtwa  of  tli6  U.  S. 

Sea^irortliy,  a  term  applied  to  a  ship,  indicating 
that  she  is  in  every  respect  lit  for  her  voyage.  It  is 
provided  in  all  charter-parties  that  tho  vcKsel  charter- 
ed shall  be  {'tight,  stanch,  and  strong,  well  appareled, 
furnished  with  an  adequate  number  of  men  and  mar- 
iners, tackle,  provisions,  etc."  If  tho  ship  be  insuffi- 
cient in  any  of  these  particulars,  the  owners,  though 
ignorant  of  tho  circumstance,  will  be  liable  for  what- 
ever damage  may,  in  consequence,  be  done  to  tlio  goods 
of  tho  merchant;  and  if  an  insurance  have  been  effect- 
ed upon  her,  it  will  bo  void.  But  whether  tho  condi- 
tion of  scan  orthiness  be  expressed  in  the  charter-par- 
ty or  not,  it  is  always  Implied.  "  In  every  contract," 
said  Lord  EUeuborough,  "  between  a  person  holding 
himself  forth  as  the  owner  of  a  lighter  or  vcisol  ready 
to  cany  goods  for  hire,  and  the  i"'rson  pntUng  goods 


on  board,  or  employing  his  vessel  or  lighter  for  that 
purpose,  it  is  a  term  of  the  contract  on  the  part  of  the 
lighterman  or  carrier  implied  by  law,  that  his  vessel  is 
tight,  and  lit  for  the  purpose  for  which  he  offers  and 
holds  it  forth  to  the  public ;  it  is  the  immediate  foun- 
dation and  substratum  of  the  contract  that  it  is  lo. 
The  law  presume.i  a  pi-omise  lo  that  effect  on  the  pitrt  of 
the  carrier,  withviil  any  actual  proof;  and  every  reason 
of  sound  policy  and  Ipblic  convenience  requires  that  it 
should  be  so," 

A  ship  is  not  seaworthy  unless  she  be  provided  with 
all  the  documents  or  papers  necessary  for  the  mani- 
festation of  the  ^hip  and  cargo.  Neither  is  she  sea- 
worthy, if,  during  war,  she  bo  not  supplied  with  the 
sails  required  to  facilitate  her  escape  from  an  enemy. 
"  It  is  nut  sufficient  to  defeat  the  liability  of  the  owner 
that  he  did  not  know  that  tho  ship  was  not  seaworthy, 
for  lie  ought  to  have  known  that  she  was  so  at  the  time 
he  chartered  Jicr.  The  sufficiency  of  tlie  ship  is  the 
foundation  of  the  contract  between  the  parties,  and  a 
ship  not  capable  of  conveying  the  goods  in  a  proper 
stato  is  a  failure  of  tlie  condition  precedent  to  the  whole 
contract.  The  seaworthiness  of  the  ship  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  fraud  or  good  intention,  but  it  is  a  positive  stip- 
ulation that  the  ship  shall  be  sp;  and  therefore,  al- 
though the  owner  may  himself  have  been  deceived  by 
tho  ship-builder,  repairer,  etc.,  if  the  vessel  be,  in  fact, 
unscaworthy,  have  nn  insufficient  bottom  or  unsound 
tlinbcrs,  it  is  a  breach  of  a  preliminary  condition,  and 
is  fatal,  as  such,  to  the  contract." — Holt's  Law  ofHliij)- 
ping.  It  is  only  necessary,  to  guarantee  the  owners 
from  loss,  that  the  ship  should  bo  sc'uworlhy  at  the 
timo  of  her  departure.  She  may  cease  to  be  so  in  a 
few  hours,  ond  yet  they  may  not  be  liable.  The  ques- 
tion to  be  decided  in  sucli  cases  always  is,  whether  the 
chip's  disaliility  arose  from  any  defect  existing  in  her 
before  her  departure,  or  from  a  cause  which  occasioned 
it  afterward.  But  if  a  ship,  within  n  day  or  two  of  her 
departure,  become  leaky  or  founder  at  sea,  or  be  obliged 
to  put  back,  without  any  visible  or  adequate  cause  to 
produce  such  nn  cOcct — such  as  the  starting  of  a  plank 
or  other  accident,  to  which  the  best  ships  are  liul>le, 
and  which  no  human  prudence  can  prevent — the  fair 
presumption  is  that  she  was  not  seaworthy  when  she 
sailed ;  and  it  will  be  incumbent  on  tlie  owners  to  show 
that  she  was  seaworthy  at  that  time.  They  are  liable 
for  damage  occasioned  by  every  injury  arising  from 
any  original  defect  in  the  ship,  or  from  bad  stowage ; 
but  they  are  nut  llalile  for  any  injury  arising  from  tho 
act  of  (Jod,  the  king's  enemies,  or  the  perils  of  the  sea. 

It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  how  perfect  soever 
a  ship  may  bo,  yet  if,  from  the  nature  of  her  construc- 
tion, or  any  other  cause,  she  bo  incapable  of  perform- 
ing the  proposed  voyage,  with  the  proposed  cargo  on 
board,  she  is  not  seaworthy.  She  must  be  in  all  re- 
spects Jit  for  the  trade  in  ichich  she  is  meant  to  be  em- 
ployed. And  it  is  a  wholesome  rule  that  the  owners 
should  be  held  to  a  pretty  strict  proof  of  this.  It  has 
been  nlrcidy  observed  that  ony  defect  in  point  of  sea- 
worthiness invalidates  an-insiirance  upon  a  ship.  Thcro 
is  not  only  an  express  but  an  implied  warranty  in  ev- 
ery policy  that  tho  ship  shall  bo  "  tight,  stanch,  and 
strong,  etc. ;"  and  tho  reason  of  this  is  plain.  'I'lio  in- 
surer undertakes  to  indemnify  the  insured  against  tho 
cjetraordinary  and  unforeseen  jvrilt  of  the  tea;  and  it 
would  bo  absurd  to  suppose  that  any  iimn  would  In- 
sure against  those  perils,  but  in  confidence  that  tho 
ship  is  in  a  condition  to  encounter  the  ordinary  perils 
to  which  every  ship  must  bo  exposed  in  the  usual 
course  of  tho  proposed  voyage, 

"In  many  ports  certain  equipments  would  now  be 
considered  essential  which  at  an  earlier  perio<l  wero 
not  customarj'  on  "le  same  voyages.  Seaworthiness 
is  to  be  measured  by  the  standard  in  the  ports  of  tho 
country  to  which  tho  vessel  belongs,  rather  than  that 
in  the  port  or  country  whero  the  insurance  was  made, 
•  *  *  A  vesNl  may  be  seaworthy  while  lying  in  port 


r  yr^*!^^ 


SEE 

.?'f'     f '"'o  .•  'OS.,  «  :Vb'  ;  t?;!^ J  ''■e  defect  .^  ott  '  t  "-"''  '-P  '»  heldl„ri  '""L'^-'-eh  i^. 


■  y  mi,  ■ *  ■■  "-omw.,  vol     in„  ™     .  "'"""f  to  those  ii.f.,™ .    —o  "■>'",  mu 

ci-!; •  !'.4- ^S^^Luii: :^:ef-''^.  I  wire  or  ,h. '     '""'    '"" 


This  makes  a  .tronif  warn  V.„.m  '"'"'"eked  Iocm. 
-  'en,  unless  in.me.^aw7d"sc over^S  '"!?';  8'^*'  ^^. 
"hole  seam  will  ravel  oun?i,  T  -^  """^  '"tened,  the 
garments  or  other  «okr''^!>"'«'"(f-  For  .eni„* 
machine  is  far  inferior  to  th„'8  '  "'""«  ""'».  tW» 
■ng  much  more  simnle  of  . 7 ."''"«  "^°  ""•««<!»  Z 
-Torded  for  about^oSe^'ua   e"  t^'r'  "r^"'  ''^ 


"■V'"  '»/*'-«.«^^  X;/''''  ^'""'»-.  vol.  iii. ,  and     he  s'hutt  e  :  T^'?  '""«'  '^e™  for  imnZ"""'"  ^O' 
•«•,  In  Cbm;;^.^^"!  „„:„.  ...  I  iZn  ""i.le:"'' '5?'"-»'i'ch  machines  ?he„n"p  ^ 

setts.  n„tJ...,*'^*-?Kol). 


'  *»'*ii^»  n  Aftrcnnlile  lam  ' '  '"'•"'•!  andl  fheshnttu  !, 'TT'?  '"""' were  for  imnr„V"""  '"' 

'"  "" •'"-  "  '  -'  Patent,,  era^tcf  to^^^'r/nrdirr  ''  '«^- 

s  ..eeossao-  for  purchasers  to  hi  '  !  !"'  P"™"*. 


hflii<l...i..V.    .'!'!"•■  !!«''la  to  break  n,.  {  .."^l      '?e  machines  made  bv  Jfcs.r,   iri,    .      „  _ 

"have  been  essentially  imororH  11'^'^  ^'f- 


SHA 


1698 


SHA 


tlon.  The  aextint  Is  uaed  In  the  in«nn«r  c. ..  quadrant, 
•nd  contains  sixtjr  degrees,  or  the  sixth  |iart  of  a  cir- 
cle. It  is  for  taking  the  aititode  of  the  planets,  etc. 
Invented  by  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augs- 
burg, in  1650. — ViNrE'8  Atironomi/.  ^he  Arabian  as- 
tronomers under  the  califs  are  said  to  have  had  a  sex- 
tant vf  (Ifty-nine  feet  nine  iiiches  ndi'.tk,  about  a.d. 
(05.— Ahiie. 

SbagTeen(Ger.  Schagrin;  It.  Chagrin;  Russ.  Seha- 
grim  tlckaynn),  a  liind  of  grained  leather,  used  for  vari- 
ous purposes  in  the  arts.  It  is  extensively  mannfac- 
tiircd  at  Astrakhan,  in  Russia.— i9m  TooKC^g  Jiuttia, 
Vol.  ill.  p.  40». 

Shallop,  or  Sloop,  is  a  light  vessel,  with  only  a 
•mall  mainmast  or  foremast,  and  lug-sails  to  haul  up 
and  let  down  on  occasion.  Shallops  are  commonly 
good  sailers,  and  are  therefore  often  used  as  tenders 
upon  men-of-war. 

Shammy,  or  ChamoU  Leather  (Ger.  BSmiachh- 
der;  Fr.  C/iamoi» ;  It.  Camotcio;  Russ.  Smtchanui, 
Koihi),  a  kind  of  leather  dressed  In  oil,  or  tanned,  and 
much  esteemed  for  its  softness,  pliancy,  and  capability 
of  l)caring  soap  without  hurt.  The  real  shammy  is 
prepared  of  the  skin  of  the  chamois  goat.  But  leather 
prepared  from  the  skins  of  the  common  goat,  kid,  and 
sheep  is  frequently  substituted  in  its  stead. 

Shanghai,  a  city  and  river  port  of  China,  province 
of  Klang-Bii,  on  the  Woosung  River,  40  miles  by  water 
from  the  sea,  and  169  miles  east-soutbeast  from  Nan- 
kin ;  lat.  31°  12'  N.,  long.  120°  63'  E.  Pr pulation  esti- 
mated at  from  115,000  to  135,000.  It  stands  in  a  level 
and  well-cultivated  plain,  pro-Iucing  good  crops  C/f  cot- 
ton, rice,  and  wheat.  Immediately  outside  the  wall 
by  r'h:ch  it  is  inclosed  are  several  populous  suburbs. 
Streets  narrow  and  filth} .  Foundling  hospitals,  tea- 
gardens  '  id  vast  ice-houses,  are  the  objects  most 
worthy  or  notice  in  the  city.  It  has  a  Mint,  with 
mnnufacturcs  of  silk,  vegetable  oils,  and  oil-cake  (of 
vlilch  viist  quantities  are  annually  sent  into  tlie  in- 
terior'), iron  ware,  glass,  paper,  ivory  ware,  etc.  This 
is  tliu  most  northerly  of  the  Ave  Chinese  ports  opened 
to  foreigners  by  the  treaty  of  1842,  and,  excepting 
Canton,  it  \i,  also  the  most  important.  The  river, 
irh'ch  may  be  navigated  by  ships  of  450  or  600  tons 
for  a  con!!i(Ierable  distance  above  the  town,  crosses  the 
Grand  Canal,  so  that  Shanghai  is  an  entrepot  for  all 
tlie  vast  and  fertile  country  traversed  by  the  canal,  and 
by  the  great  rivers,  including  the  \  ang-tse-Kiang  and 
the  l!oang-IIo,  with  which  it  is  connncted.  Hence 
the  present  importance  of  the  emporium,  and  hence, 
also,  tlio  indefinite  e::ten3ion  to  which  its  foreign  trade 
will  probably  attain.  Its  inland  and  coastin;^  hIcs 
are  both  very  extensive.  It  is  said  to  be  u.  .Ily 
visitei  liy  from  6000  to  6000  canal  and  river  L)oats, 
some  from  very  great  distances,  and  by  1600  or  IGOO 
coasting  Junks.  The  province  of  Kiang-su,  in  whicii 
Shanghai  is  situated,  produces  great  quantities  of  silk ; 
and  iK-sides  supplying  most  part  of  the  nortliem  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  the  shipments  of  silk  to  the  for- 
eigner are  greater  from  this  than  from  any  other  port. 
It  is  alfo  well  situated,  for  the  export  of  both  green 
and  black  teas.  Among  tlio  other  exports  are  gold 
and  silver,  w  ith  oil  and  oil-cake,  camphor,  drugs,  por- 
celain, cotton,  cassia,  alum,  gypsum,  coal,  etc.  Of 
the  Imports  opium  is  by  far  the  greatest;  and  at  least 
20,000  chests  of  Bombay  (Malwa)  and  Patna  opium 
are  now  annually  disposed  of  in  this  market ;  which, 
Supposing  the  chest  to  bo  worth  ^500,  will  represent 
an  a!.;gregate  sum  of$10,000,000,  or  £2,200,000  sterling, 
for  whicli  payment  is  almost  invariably  made  in  the 
precious  n'.vtals !  Sugar  Is  extensively  imported  from 
Formosa,  Canton,  the  Philippines,  etc. ;  cotton  stuffs, 
woolens.  Iron,  etc.,  from  England ;  with  sandal-wood, 
blrdrnests,  hiche  de  mer,  and  other  products  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  etc.  The  inhabitants  of  Shang- 
hai are  much  more  hospitable  ami  better  disposed  to- 
ward foreigners  than  those  of  Canton ;  and  strangers 


may  travel  for  miles  into  the  interior  all  ntfni  th« 
city  with  perfect  security.  Within  the  last  four  or  flv« 
years,  some  very  fine  brick  houses  have  been  built  by 
foreign  nierchants  in  the  suburbs. — Pari.  Kepurtt,  etc, 

Commtrct  with  the  United  Statei. — The  commercial 
relations  of  the  United  States  with  China  are  regulated 
by  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  July  8,  1844.  A 
treaty,  snnllar  in  all  its  leading  provisions,  was  nego- 
tiated with  Great  Britain  In  1842,  and  a  tariflT  of  duties 
on  imporia  and  exports,  and  duties  on  tonnage,  are 
made  a  part  of  both  these  treaties.  Formerly,  foreign 
intercourse,  as  already  remarked,  was  confined  to  Can- 
ton, and  hither  were  brought  trum  the  distant  parts  of 
th«  empire  teas,  silks,  and  other  leading  staples  of 
China.  Trade  was  invariably  conducted  through  the 
intervention  of  hong  nierchants,  who  were  licensed 
agents  of  the  government,  and  answerable  to  '*  for  all 
duties  of  import,  export,  and  other  charges  accruing 
on  the  vessel,  the  affairs  of  which  they  managed.  This 
system  was  adopted  as  a  precautionary  measure  for 
securing  the  duties  and  other  dnes  levied  on  foreign 
vessels ;  but  the  treaties  referred  to  containing  ample 
stipulations  respecting  this  subject,  the  agency  ol  the 
hong  merchants  has  been  abolished,  and  their  duties 
transferred  to  the  consuls  of  the  nations  to  which  the 
vessels  respectively  belong.  The  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  China  guarantees  the  same  com- 
mercial advantages  and  privileges  to  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  that  are  or  shall  be  conceded  to  the 
citizens  of  any  other  foreign  power.  Fees  and  charges 
of  every  kind  not  comprehended  in  the  treaty  arc  abol- 
ished. Trade  is  permitted  to  the  Ave  ports  of  Kwang- 
chow,  Amoy,  Foo-chow,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai,  and 
from  either  of  the  said  ports  to  any  other  of  iheni ;  but 
it  is  prohibited  to  any  other  ports  in  the  empire,  or 
along  the  coasts  thereof,  under  a  penalty  of  confiscation 
of  vessel  and  cargo.  Trade  is  subject  to  no  restrictions 
as  to  origin  or  nature  of  cargo,  or  port  of  departure, 
with  the  exception  of  the  article  opium,  which  is  de- 
clared contraband.  Captains,  on  entering,  are  required 
to  deposit  their  papers  with  the  consul  of  their  nation, 
who  will  notify  the  proper  local  authority  of  the  name 
and  tonnage  of  the  vessel,  names  of  the  crew,  and  na- 
ture of  cargo.  Tonnage  duty  is  fixed  at  6  maces  (equal 
t'>  74  cents)  per  ton,  if  the  vessel  is  over  160  tons  bur- 
den; 160  tons  or  under,  1  mace  (equal  to  14'8  cents) 
per  ton.  Before  cargo  can  be  landed,  a  permit  must  be 
obtained  from  the  local  authority,  under  a  penalty  of 
(600  and  forfeiture  of  gooO.s  so  landed. 

Standards  of  weights  and  measures  are  to  be  supplied 
by  th3  Chinese  government  to  the  consuls  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations,  to  secure  uniformit)-,  and  prevent  con- 
fusion in  measures  and  weights  of  merchandise.  The 
former  limitation  of  foreign  trade  to  hong  merchants, 
appointed  l)y  the  government,  is  abolished ;  and  citi- 
zens of  the  United  Slates  are  permitted  to  trade  with 
any  and  all  subjects  of  China,  without  distinction.  The 
privilege  is  conceded  of  re-exporting  into  any  other 
port  any  merchandise  imported  into  any  one  of  the 
6ve  ports,  without  being  subject  to  any  additional 
duty,  provided  the  full  duty  was  paid  when  first  im- 
ported, and  the  goods  remain  with  their  original  marks 
unchanged;  but  this  privilege  must  be  specially  ap- 
plied for  through  the  American  consul.  The  other 
provisions  of  the  treaty  apply  mostly  to  the  privileges, 
and  duties,  and  police  regulations,  applicable  to  the 
consuls,  merchants,  and  citizens  (>f  the  United  States 
at  the  five  ports.  Shipping  dues,  formerly  charged  on 
the  measurement  of  the  ship's  length  and  breadth,  at 
so  much  per  chang,  and  all  the  old  charges  of  measure- 
ment, entrance,  and  port  clearance  fees,  daily  and 
monthly  fees,  etc.,  are  also  abolished  by  this  treaty ; 
and  the  tonnage  duty  on  the  registered  tonnage  of  the 
vesiel,  specified  in  the  preceding  synopsis,  i.'^  substi- 
tuted in  lieu  thereof.  Commercial  relations  between 
the  United  States  and  China  date  from  a  period  as 
early  as  1784.     In  the  month  of  February  of  that  year. 


Vein. 


18.M . 
IKSl. 


-i*;--'?!  ■  7v^-^v-/ 


-«^^, 


SHA 


1609 


SHA 


It  appears  that  the  Kmprtm  of  China,  a  thip  of  860 
tons,  sailed  from  New  York  fur  Canton,  and  returned 
the  following  year  with  a  rich  and  valualile  cargo.  The 
luccess,  as  well  as  the  novelty  nf  this  adventura,  at- 
tracted no  little  attention  throughout  the  country.  The 
ensuing  year  another  voyage  was  niaile,  In  a  small 
vessel  of  only  »4  tons  burden,  with  equal  taocess. 
Merchants  were  soon  induced  to  engage  in  an  enter- 
prise which  promised  the  most  Hattering  results ;  and 
as  early  as  1789,  flvs  years  after  the  American  flag 
had  first  entered  the  Chinese  seas,  fifteen  American 
ships  arrived  at  Canton.  Such  was  the  origin  of  an 
extensive  and  profltable  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Celestial  empire. 

The  geographical  position,  excellent  shipping  facili- 
ties, and  proximity  to  the  fertile  valley  of  Yang-tse- 
Kiang,  would  seem  to  point  to  Shanghai  as  a  port  pos- 
sessing pre-eminent  advantages,  which,  when  fully  de- 
veloped, must  make  it  a  flourishing  and  primary  station. 
The  following  extract  in  relation  to  the  trade  of  Shang- 
hai is  from  an  offleial  communication  addressed  to  the 
Department  of  State,  dated  Shanghai,  A'agust  7, 1855 ; 
"  It  will  be  observed  that  thu  export  trade  for  the  f\nl 
six  months  of  1866  has  more  than  doubled  any  previous 
one ;  and,  inasmuch  as  the  business  season  is  just  open- 
ing, it  may  safely  be  inferred  that  the  value  of  exports 
for  this  year  will  be  about  double  that  cf  any  previous 
one.  The  disorganizeil  state  of  the  rest  of  the  empire, 
the  equal  and  regular  levy  duties  at  this  port,  and  its 
superior  geographical  position,  are  the  main  causes  of 
the  concentration  of  trade  at  this  point.  The  imports 
have  been  small,  because  it  has  required  time  time  to 
dispose  of  the  enormous  quantities  which  had  collected 
at  this  port  during  the  period  the  city  was  in  possession 
of  the  rebels.  That  important  branch  of  our  trade 
will  now,  I  believe,  revive ;  and  if  our  government 
will  but  vigorously  and  prudently  nourish  the  facilities 
now  <!njoycd  at  this  port,  a  commerce  may  be  devel- 
oped rivaling  Calcutta  in  importance,  and  superior  to 
any  other  port  in  the  East.  The  gi-eat  valley  of  the 
Yang-tse-Kiang  is  the  commercial  field,  and  this  port 
is  the  entrepot.  The  greatest  privileges  conceivable 
might  be  obtained  at  all  the  other  ports,  and  yet  one 
half  of  such  facilities  at  this  port  would  be  productive 
of  more  advantage  than  could  "y  any  possibility  be 
derived  from  all  the  other  ports  combined.  Foo-chow 
will  in  time  be  a  port  of  some  importance  for  the  pur- 
chase of  a  few  black  teas,  but  no  more.  Amoy  and 
Ningpo  never  have  furnished  any  thing  worthy  of  no- 
tice ;  and  Canton  was  only  a  port  of  trade,  because  the 
Chinese  had  been  in  the  habit  of  going  there  to  trade 
with  foreigneis  when  there  were  no  other  ports  open. 
But  the  diflicuUy  creuted  by  the  rebellion  has  diverted 
the  great  mass  of  the  trade  from  its  ancient  and  out- 
of-the-way  channel,  and  concenirated  it  here.  And 
now  that  the  Chinese  find  Shanghai  t.~  lie  nearer  to 
their  tea  and  silk  districts  tiif^  Canton,  and  that  they 
can  often  get  better  prices,  wa  always  as  good  as  at 
Canton,  they  will  abandon  their  old  and  long  route  to 
a  port  of  sale,  and  will  contirue  to  concentrate  at 
Shanghai.  This  they  have  done  last  year,  as  well  as 
the  present;  and  already  they  have  made  contracts  on 
next  year's  produce,  deliverable  at  this  port." 

In  another  and  later  communication,  it  is  slated 
that  property  in  houses  and  lands,  to  the  value  of 
a  million  of  dollars,  is  owned  by  American  citizens  in 
Shanghai. 

Navigation  and  Trade. — The  number  and  tonnage  of 
American  vessels,  inward  and  outward,  at  the  port  of 
Shanghai,  for  the  years  desiijnated,  were  us  follows ; 


hat  durirg  the  first  six  months  of  186li  wis  M,  with 
an  aggregate  tannage  of  27,480. 

The  cargoes  inward  consisted  of  stone  coal,  sr'^fi 
Jrills,  general  merchandise,  and  assorted  cargoes,  iatt> 
able  for  the  Chinese  markets,  valued  at  $'.'6t(,IM7.  Tha 
cargoes  outward  were  chiefly  silk  and  lea,  valued  at 
$4,480,1113.  Of  the  vessels  inward,  there  were  from 
the  Atlantic  ports  direct,  2,  with  an  aggregala  of 
1235  tons;  and  from  the  I'nciHc  ports  lit,  with  ui| 
aggregate  of  13,839  tons.  The  follow  ing  is  a  summary 
of  the  navigation  .ind  trade  of  the  port  of  Sliaiighiti 
Milu  the  United  States  during  the  last  six  months  of 
1855: 

Number  of  American  vessels  entered,  67 ;  meaaut' 
Ing  27,262  tons.  Number  of  American  vessels  entered 
from  Atlantic  ports,  4 ;  measuring  1689  tons.  Num. 
her  of  American  vessels  entered  from  I'acltic  ports,  10 ; 
mcAsuring  10,632  tons.  Number  of  American  vossals 
entered  from  foreign  ports,  36;  measuring  13,000  tons, 
The  returns  do  not  give  the  ports  of  departure  of  seven 
of  the  American  vessels  entered.  The  number  of 
American  vessels  cleared  from  the  port  of  Shanghai 
during  the  same  period  was  57;  aggregate  tonnage, 
30,542  ions.  Of  these,  13  vessels,  all  freighted  with 
tea  and  silk,  proceeded  direct  to  New  York,  and  the 
remainder  to  foreign  ports. 

During  the  same  period,  the  duties  paid  by  the  Amer. 
lean  flag  to  the  authorities  at  Shant,'hai  were : 

•  Tiieli.  Mace.  C.  C. 

Imports 111,284    0    B    6  =  In  I'.  B.  currency   $M,4M 

Exports 450,048    7    7    1  "  "  flT4.1M 

Touugedues.  13,539    S    0    0  ■■  >'  '/ii.diiij 

Total  duties  of  import,  export,  and  tonnage. . . .  $1^.744 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  total  tonnagii 
of  vessels  at  the  port  of  Shanghai  during  the  last  sIk 
months  of  1855 : 


British 42,365  tons. 

United  Statea  27,263    " 

l>>uish 1,3(15    " 

Hamburg 1.328    " 

Dutch 8,8,!7    " 

Bremen fi&l    ■■ 


Swedish 833  tons, 

Spanish 1,11)3    •• 

I'ortugueie...    1,120    •' 

Siamese 1,345    - 

I'eruvisn ....       784    •' 
Total 82,40'i     " 


The  following  is  a  summary  statement  showing  the 
quantity  of  teas  exported  from  Shanghai  to  the  United 
States  during  the  last  si.x  months  of  1855 : 

niacktea 559,442  pounds. 

Green  tea 14.61 1. B'vt      " 

Total i4,80o,7UU      " 

All  exported  in  16  American  vessels. 

The  following  is  a  summary  statement  showing  the 
quantities  of  teas  exported  from  Simnghai  to  all  coun- 
tries during  the  last  six  months  of  I85,'> : 

To  Great  Brltaiii,  in  31  vessels, .  21,613,927  pounds. 

To  United  States  "  1«      "      . .  14,S0il,79G      " 

ToAustralta  "7      "      ..  l,C3»,(i74      " 

To  Hamburg        "1      "      ..       823.B3tt      " 

Grand  total 8s,277,«..U      " 

Summary  Statement  siiowino  thp  Quantities  op  Haw 

Sn.K.  I'lI.K  I'lECE  CnnllS,  ETC.,  KXroRTEl)  FllOM  SnAMillAI 
TO  TUB  I  NITEO  ^TATE«  (NBW  YoRK)  SUBING  TUB  LAST 
BIX  MOMTUS  OF  1865. 


Y.an. 

* 

InwMd. 

Outward.              | 

VMM  la. 

ToBoaje. 
9.826 

VaMla. 

TonnaKa. 

184b 

24 

u 

9,8T7 

1851) 

87 

18,808 

34 

14.464 

1*51 

M 

»7,«84 

BS 

26,697 

18,54 

M 

88,760 

70 

40.592 

ArtlelM. 


lUwHilk 

.Silk,  piece  goods  . 

Niinkcena 

Straw  braid 

Uh'ibub 

Fans 


CMM. 

PIniU. 

Calllr> 

720 

6.6 

9'J 

li86 

40 

26 

029 

879 

57 

10 

... 

QUANTTTIBS   Of    BaW   SILK    KXTOBTKB  FBOM  TUB   I'OBT  OP 
SUAKOHAI  DUHINO  TUB  LAST  BIX  .MONTIIH  DP  186,5. 


The  numlHir  of  Amorican  vessels  entered  at  Shang- 


To  London 

Liverpool. . . 

Hong  Kong. 

Total ... 


I  80.207 


*  Tael  =  10  mace  =  100  candareens  =  1000  cash  =  $1  48 
United  States  currency. 


'■    ^"I 


iN  la 


SHA 


1700 


SHA 


The  total  tnde  of  Sbaii);liai  during  the  period  desig- 
nated ill  the  foregoing  statementt  was  thus  distributed. 


Untiili 

American . . , 

Uretueu 

Uaniih 

Dutch 

Itimburg . . . 
Peruvian  . . , 
Portugrese  , 
Blameae  . . . . 

Spanish 

Swedish  . . . . 
Total . . 


Import*. 
Ml 

61 
!t 
6 
8 

II 
3 
5 
4 
6 
0 


•i!4.'> 


"liporto. 

laa 

65 

1 

I 
11 
u 

3 
6 
S 
6 
9 


243 


Total  value  of  the  trade  of  Shangliai  during  tlie  last 
six  mouths  of  1855 :  Imports,  H,bi2,%l'J :  exports, 
$501,786.  Total  trade,  $a,Ul.'),805.  During  ihe  last 
six  months  of  1865  great  improvements  were  made  in 
the  navigation  of  tlio  Itiver  Woosung,  on  which  the 
port  of  Shanghai  ia  situated,  and,  I'rom  having  been 
one  of  the  most  dungcrous  of  acceas  in  the  I'acilic,  it 
has  been  made  one  of  the  safest  and  easiest.  The  ex- 
pense of  tho  worit  ($20,000)  was  defrayed  by  the  Chi- 
nese authorities.  A  system  of  pilot  regulations,  agreed 
upon  by  the  consuls  of  llio  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  France,  waa  ralllied  by  the  superintendent  of  cus- 
toms, and  is  as  follows: 

Pilot  Hegulalioni. — The  following  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  the  government  of  pilotii,  native  and  foreign, 
at  the  port  of  Shangliai  are  hereliy  issued  and  made 
binding  by  his  excellency  Chaou,  superintendent  of 
customs,  in  comnuinication  with  the  consuls  of  the 
three  treaty  powers ; 

1st.  A  board  shall  l>e  appointed  by  the  tiireo  consuls, 
sanctioned  by  Ids  excellency  Chuou,  ronsialiiig  of  not 
less  than  three,  nor  morn  than  <ivc  shipmastc's,  with 
whom  a  naval  ullicer  sliall  bo  a^jiociated,  if  required, 
before  whom  all  persons  wishing  to  become  pilots  shall 
appear  for  examination. 

2d.  A  eertilicate  of  competency  from  a  niojority  of 
said  lioard  lieing  deposited  at  iiis  consulate,  tibull  en- 
title tho  person  therein  named  lu  a  liteiise  ns  a  pilot. 
In  all  cases  where  the  nationality  of  the  applicant  is 
other  than  one  of  those  natiuns  in  treaty  with  China, 
his  eertilicate  from  tho  board  of  examiners  must  be  de- 
posited with  Ihe  senior  consul,  w  bo  w  ill  obtain  for  him 
the  necessary  license. 

',M.  Every  ])ilot-boat  is  to  hoist  a  red  and  white  flag 
horizontal,  on  which  lliu  numlKT  of  his  boat  shall  ap- 
pear in  black. 

4th.  The  rates  of  pilotage  shall  b.  ly  tho  water  the 
ship  draws,  viz.;  from  (iutzlul)',  $5  per  foot;  from 
l>eacon-shi|>,  $1  per  foot;  from  any  point  outside  Woo- 
sung,  but  inside  beacon-shin,  &8  50  per  foot;  from 
Woosung  to  Shanghai,  $3  |icr  loot.  The  same  rates 
of  pilotai;e  are  allowed  fur  vessels  outward  liound. 

6th.  Kvery  pilot,  on  iHtarding  a  ship,  shall  produce, 
for  the  inspection  of  the  master,  his  license  as  a  pilot. 

6:h.  .'Ml  persons  acting  os  pilots  without  a  license, 
as  liereinl)eforo  prescribed,  shall  have  no  claim  for 
services  rendered,  and  shall  lie  denit  with  by  their 
own  consuls,  aceonniig  to  law,  fur  viidating  these  regu- 
lations; anil  all  such  cases  notcuniliig  within  Ihe  juris- 
diction iif  the  three  treaty  consuls  are  to  bo  referred  to 
tho  local  Chinese  authorities. 

7ih.  I'ilots  shall  be  responsible  for  the  faithful  and 
complete  discharge  of  their  duty  ;  and  any  misconduct, 
either  from  Ignoraiiee,  iiieapaeity,  willful  neglect,  or 
otbernl-e,  being  known,  shall  email  a  forfeiture  of  the 
offeniler's  license,  in  adililiun  to  any  other  liability  he 
may  have  incurn'd  by  the  laws  of  his  own  country. 

8:li.  The  foregoing  regulations  to  take  eli'eet  on  and 
ofter  Ihe  lOlh  day  of  Deceniber,  IR.').'>. 

O'minit  !trgu'<Uion.i. — The  general  regulations  under 
which  foreign  trade  is  (tindiicteil  at  tho  live  ports  of 
Canton,  Anioy,  l'°oo-chow-fiH),  Nliigpo,  au<l  Shanghai, 
are  such  as  are  usually  pi-escrilied  in  all  well-regulated 


ports,  and  are  auljeet  to  siich  modiflcatlons,  under  tha 
treaties,  a*  Ihe  consuls  of  the  three  nations,  viz. :  Kn- 
glaiid,  Franca,  and  the  United  States,  may  from  time 
to  time  flx  and  determine.  These  regulations  provida 
amply  for  all  the  wants  of  foreign  commerce,  and  guard 
against  extortion,  unnecessary  delay,  or  capricious  em- 
barraaoments,  either  on  the  part  of  Chinesu  oHicials,  or 
the  captains  or  other  officers  of  vessels  trading  at  any 
of  tho  live  ports.  To  give  proper  sanction  to,  and  en- 
force the  due  observance  of  these  regulations,  the  con- 
suls of  the  three  nations,  in  Chinese  ports,  are  invested 
with  Judicial  as  well  as  with  the  ordinary-  consular 
powers,  by  virtue  of  which  they  are  enabled  t-y  exact 
strict  conformity  to  such  pruvi.ions  and  regulations  as 
they  may  deem  necessary  in  the  maintenance  '>f  f  '^d 
order  and  the  faithful  fulfillment  of  treaty  obligations. 
Prior  to  1843,  as  before  noted,  It  was  the  custom,  when 
foreign  vessels  enured  Ihe  ^.ort  of  Canton,  that  a  Chi- 
nese hong  merchant  stood  security  for  her,  and  that  all 
duties  and  charges  were  paid  through  such  security 
merchant.  liut  the  several  treaties  having  provided 
for  tho  abollflon  of  this  secukily  system,  the  consul* 
of  the  difl'erent  treaty  nations  are  now  substituted  ai 
security  for  tho  vessels  of  their  respective  nations  en- 
tering any  of  the  live  ports.  Hence  one  of  the  reasons 
why  tho  powers  of  consuls  in  China  should  be  ample, 
and  these  officers  invested  with  full  powers  to  control 
the  shipping  of  their  respective  nations. 

During  the  recent  troubles  in  China,  foreign  com- 
merce at  the  port  of  Shanghai  was  considerably  inter- 
rupted, and  the  custom-house  at  this  port  was  abandon- 
ed by  the  Chinese  officials,  who  organii^edin  lien  there- 
of two  other  custom-houses  in  Ihe  interior.  An  ar- 
rangement was  subse(|ueiitly  entered  into  between  the 
consuls  of  the  three  treaty  powers  and  the  Chinese 
authorities,  by  virtue  of  which  these  custom-houses 
were  suppressed,  and  foreign  commerce  was  again  con- 
ducted under  the  usual  regulations. 

It  may  be  here  observed  that  the  five  ports  pertain 
to  dllferent  provincial  jurisdictions,  having  diH'erent 
local  administrations,  and  not  unfrequcntly  different 
commercial  regulations.  It  is  by  no  means  rare  to  see, 
notwithstanding  the  treaties  apply  to  all  In  common, 
privileges  enjoyed  at  one  which  are  strictly  interdicted 
at  another — perhaps  at  the  other  four.  Thus,  in  1856, 
it  is  staled  that  rice  was  exported  to  the  amount  of 
30,000  piculs  (each  188i  lbs.)  to  a  vessel,  free,  too,  of 
all  export  or  other  duty,  save  a  doucevr  of  200  or  EOO 
dollars  to  some  subordinate;  while  the  exportation  of 
this  article  is  not  only  forbidden  nt  Shan^'ai,  but  the 
'eath-penaity  is  inflicted  on  such  of  the  Cliineso  as  are 
detected  in  violating  the  prohibition.  The  same  ob- 
sert  'ion  applies  to  the  emigration  of  coolies,  whieh  Is 
tolerated  at  Anioy,  but  strictly  forbidden  at  the  other 
ports.  So  the  importation  of  opium,  as  already  stated, 
though  illegal,  is  openly  tolerated  by  Chinese  officials. 

The  state  of  the  currency  at  this  port  has  for  some 
time  attracted  attention. 

A  letter  from  the  Cnitcd  States  consul  at  Shanghai, 
under  date  of  June  26,  1855,  states  as  follows: 

"Tl^e  mte  of  cxrhnngc  berc  bns  pxroedrd  that  of  Canton 
fi*oin  '.5  til  8>  per  cent.,  slthoiigti  the  distance  between  the 
two  14  hutSOO  miles,  and  of  easy  nnd  certain  coniniunlctit>oii. 
Under  ordinary  Anaiicial  rules,  the  dlfTcrenoe  of  cxcliimge 
between  the  two  pIp.ccH  U  regulated  by  the  cost  of  tninspurta- 
lliin,  the  liisuraiire,  and  a  sllglit  per  cent,  for  brokerage. 
While  ik  per  cent,  would  bo  ii  liberal  allowance  on  thiui 
iteniH  lietwcen  this  port  and  Caiiliin,  and  Hong  Kong,  yet 
excbsnge  has  varied  from  I'S  to  30  per  cent,  against  this  port, 

"China  bus  no  currency  I  ut  copper  casli— one  of  shlrh  Is 
eqnal  to  tho  sixteen-hundredth  part  of  a  del  ar.  All  large 
Ituimaollons,  therefore,  are  made  In  pure  silver,  ilcnominntcd 
by  the  (Jlilnesc  B}'cee,  which  Is  nipaaiircit  In  taels,  or  a  weight 
ei|iiltaieiit,  when  at  par,  to  i\  C8  |ier  tael.  W  hen  Ihe  foreign 
trade  became Impoitant  In  Cl.lna,  fnii  l;ni  dollars  were  Intro- 
duced t  and,  on  account  of  their  superior  qualities  as  a  clrcn- 
liitlug  medium  over  the  ponderous  sycee.  became  quite  popu- 
iar,  and  were  nnlverralty  adopted.  The  Cai-olua  dollar  was 
the  flrst  adopted ;  anerward  the  llolivlan,  I'ernvian,  Chilian, 
and  Mexican  ;  but  the  Csrolna  having  liren  first  introduced, 
the  Chinese  formed  a  prejudice  in  its  favor  to  the  extant 


wSHA 


1701 


8HA 


Ishangliait 


of  a  dlKount  of  10  pe.-  rant,  on  nil  otlion.  Wlian  tbU  niirt 
WM  flnit  opened,  tlin  ohliiono  received  th«  Moiloan  *t  »  |ir«' 
mlum  over  tlie  Caroliii,  and  the  rupee  at  a  ureiiilurii  oviir 
both ;  but  the  niitive  broken  from  Canliir  liwiillxd  into  tlm 
traders  here  the  ume  projudi »  whirh  eiUled  wham  lliny 
oanie  from,  and  the  (jarolua  gMulually  roue  In  -  .lua,  am'  Iha 
othir  (lollara  Bank,  until  the  dllTure  icu  ha'  Iwoonio  Vft  nr  UU 
per  sent,  which  la  eriulvii''nt  Kimorl  to  un  enllrii  r\ii|u»li)li 
from  circ  ii,;tlon.  This  reault  waa  cliieHv  brought  alxiut  liy 
the  native  brokers.  In  coix|unctlon  with  a  lew  roralgn  iioninior' 
elal  houses  at  this  yon,  who  have  obtained  the  esi'luslvit  p«i|. 
tiol  of  all  the  Carolus  dolliirii  that  are  made.  The  Hiiauliili 
govenin  n'  have  loiig  sinoo  discontinued  their  Uaun,  hut  tliiiy 
are  mailo  ,it  Canton,  In  India,  and  Id  Mexico,  ibouHh  not  as 
pure  ax  the  orlKinal  dollar. 

'■Thun  this  pn'Judlce  In  favor  of  the  Darolui  has  hueii  fimier- 
ed  hy  a  few  coninierclal  houaea,  until  (ho  evil  conaei|uent  uidiIi 
a  llnillod  currency,  k,id  one  which  U  boeoniInK  luaa  ami  lew 
every  year.  Is  almost  beyond  a  remedy.  The  louifer  It  Is 
permitted  to  exist,  the  more  vexatious  will  its  rHiiiiiiiy  lu< 
come.  The  Carolua  dollar  la  carried  Into  the  Interior  to  iiiiy 
for  teas  and  allk»,  and  never  returns;  thus  each  year  ri'mlxn 
the  amount  of  circulating  medium  lesa  and  less.  The  I  aro- 
lus  dollar  Is  tlie  standard,  and,  therefore,  as  It  deeraaaas  In 
quantity,  exchange  rises.  The  same  houses  wliluli  have  the 
control  of  the  Garohis  dollar  also  dlai'oiint  all  hilia  of  es. 
change,  and  thus  hold  the  entire  contnicnial  nmeliinury  of 
this  port  at  tliclr  control.  They  discount  hills  uf  esi  liani{«  at 
whatever  rates  thoy  please  to  flx  at  Canton  and  ail  llie  utlM<r 
porta  In  China.  The  foreign  dollan  at  present  eireiilat'*,  ai'- 
cordhi};  to  treaty,  with  reference  to  their  purity  In  silver  as 
compared  with  sycee ;  but  here  a  distinction  l**  kept  up  hi 
fa. /or  of  the  Carolus  far  above  its  relative  value  In  pure  sit' 
rer,  and  against  all  other  dollars  far  helow  theirs,  I'lins  ex- 
change at  this  port  rules  from  2fi  to  80  per  cent,  above  any 
other  port  hi  China. 

"Tlie  United  .Slates  are  great  consumers  of  green  lea,  and 
this  port  supplies  It.  The  consumer  pays  tills  extrsordiuiiiy 
exchange  on  the  price  of  teu,  and  thus  the  agent  iiere,  and 
the  Importer  at  home,  can  feel  no  Interest  in  ameliorating  the 
condition  of  the  exchanges,  as  It  la  not  their  loss;  bill,  on  ijie 
contrary,  aft  they  now  have  control  of  all  tlie  clri'iilsiiiig  me- 
dium. It  la  to  their  advantage  and  interest  to  let  It  rnmalii  so, 

**  1  have  thus  hrlcHy  endeavored  to  show,  flr>t,  tliat  the  enor- 
mous dllTeri'iico  of  exchange  at  this  port  over  any  ottier  In 
China  Is  produced  by  a  roinbliiation  of  native  and  foi'ulgu 
merchants;  and,  aecond,  that  as  the  L'nlted  Htatea  take  iiear- 
ly  all  tlie  green  teas  exported  from  the  empire,  wlileli  are  all 
purchased  at  this  port,  and  a4  the  consumer  must  In  llie  end 
pay  all  charges  on  the  imported  article,  therefore  the  (uin- 
Bumers  of  the  United  States  are  the  sulTerers  to  the  full  ex. 
tent  of  this  exorbitant  exchange.  ICntertalnIng  the  eonvle- 
tlon  that  it  Is  tlie  duty  of  an  officer  to  guard  and  |irnteel  the 
Interests  of  those  whom  he  has  the  honor  to  represent,  e'pe- 
cUlly  ',vhen  thoae  interests  nro  guaranteed  by  the  laws  and 
treaties  of  the  land,  and  not  to  permit  the  advantages  of  a  se. 
lect  few  to  be  developed  at  the  expense  of  tiie  many,  I  will 
now  proceed  to  lay  before  the  honorable  Secretary  of  MtaUi  Ihe 
conrne  1  have  pursued  In  giving  full  ctTect  to  the  treaty  of  tlie 
United  States  with  China  In  the  matter  of  the  nirreney.  To 
remedy  the  great  evil  which  exists  at  this  port  in  ri'lstiioi  In 
the  currency,  there  ap|ieared  to  be  but  two  ways:  I'li'sl,  a 
combination  among  the  merchants  tiiat  they  would  pay  and 
receive  all  dollars  alike,  so  far  as  their  Intrinsic  value  anoiild 
be  the  lame.  Second,  the  enactment  of  regulations  by  the 
Chinese  authorities,  which  would  place  all  dollars  on  an 
equality,  by  their  agreeing  to  roceive  them  alike  for  all  gov. 
ernment  duda.  The  first  was  impossible  in  a  coinminiily 
where  alt  are  merchants  possessed  of  as  trany  dilTerent  liilurr 
ests,  and  therefore  to  the  aecotid  I  gave  my  attention.  The 
manner  In  which  I  presented  this  subject,  and  carried  It 
through  to  an  actual  assay  of  tlie  various  dollars,  may  be 
fully  examined  by  reference  to  the  entire  corivspnudeiice, 
which  I  have  the  honor  herewith  to  Inclose,  The  assay  a' 
made  hero  dlfTera  but  slightly  from  that  made  at  Cantor ; 
and  as  there  is  an  allowance  of  ii  per  cent,  for  dlfTerencu  ol 
scales,  it  is  more  than  made  up. 

■*  The  whole  examination  of  the  subject  proved  most  satis, 
factory  to  his  excellency  the  Imperial  collector  of  oiistonis, 
and  his  excellency  has' asked  for  twenty  days  to  refer  llie 
matter  to  his  superiors,  prior  to  carrying  it  Into  practical 
operation.  I  have  therel'ore  given  notice  to  his  eioelleniy 
that  on  and  after  the  12th  of  July  next  American  meri'liaiiU 
shall  be  allowed  to  discharge  all  their  treaty  obligallon*  at 
this  port  In  foreign  money,  at  the  rates  as  ascertslned  by 
aetual  assay  on  the  4th  Instant.  Ureal  results  will  inevlts- 
biy  follow  tlie  adoption  of  this  measure.  Kxcliange  will  de- 
cline '26  or  80  iier  cent — that,  too,  Jitst  eX  the  opening  of  tho 
business  season — and  will  assimilate  with  tliat  at  (Jantoii, 
plus  the  cost  of  transportation,  etc.,  ttc.  The  circiilstiiit!  me- 
dium will  be  In  the  greatest  abundance.  The  Importer  In  Ihe 
Uol^d  States  will,  through  his  agent  hero,  resllie  more 
money  on  his  bills  of  exchange,  consequenliy  he  call  pur- 
chase more  teas  and  silks ;  and.  Anally,  as  tlie  consumers  par- 
ticipate alike  In  the  advantages  and  disadvantages,  they  will 
be  enabled  to  purchase  teas  and  silks  subject  to  the  same  re- 
duction in  price  which  tbe  Importer  has  enjoyed." 

Currency.— The  only  legal  coin  of  Chins  Is  the  ('op. 
per  c'sab,  worth  tlio  lifteeatb  part  of  a  cent ;  tbougU  li> 


•llpiiUtloni  of  the  treaty  of  1844  the  lyece  U  received 
III  psytiicnt  i/f  (liilles.  The  sycee  fluctuatea  in  price 
with  llio  vahio  of  silver.  Tlin  slice  li  worth  alwut 
sf  vdity  (lulhirs,  In  WiS  the  American  merchants  re. 
sliliiiu  At  Nhnnuhnl  aililrcssed  a  memorial  to  the  United 
Ntatea  coininisplnner  In  China,  setting  forth  the  great 
InRonvinlentfl  lo  which  mercantilu  Intertsts  in  China 
ward  .„mei)teil  by  the  absence  of  an  adequate  circulo- 
tlnK  inailliini  brtwoon  the  two  e.\lremea  above  named, 
and  ItivokInK  Iho  rommlsstoncr'a  aid  in  establishing  • 
national  Mint  In  that  empire.  To  the  success  of  such 
a  ineainrn  thti  snniilnn  and  co-opcrallon  of  tbe  Chinese 
((overiiniont  are  linllspniisablo.  Tbo  treaty  of  1814  pro- 
vides that,  sIimIiI  cxpcrlenco  show  that  anv  modillca- 
lliini  liertaftar  beconio  requisite  in  those  p'arla  which 
relate  to  cuinnierco  mid  navlKallon,  the  two  govern- 
in«nlll  will,  at  the  expiration  of  twelve  years  from  the 
dais  tllHI'Pof,  trent  amicably  concerning  tbe  same,  by 
till,  m»an«  nf  siillnblu  persons  appointed  to  conduct 
auHl  nvKollallon.  The  lime  designated  will  soon  ar- 
rlVBj  and  slldilld  stub  mndlflcalloiia  .;r  the  treaty  con- 
lemplaltis  beiinne  a  nil  Joct  of  ncgotlnlion,  the  question 
"fa  liNlliinal  Mini,  nnd  of  the  currency  gcnerallv,  will, 
doulilluaa,  deitmiid  llio  attention  of  the  United' States 
CiMiiinUalonxr,  Al  Hlninglml  an  attempt  has  been  made 
by  th«  fiirvlgn  comshU  Io  cause  an  official  subslltulton 
of  till)  Moxlcnii  fur  Ibe  Carolus  dollar  as  tbe  money  of 

«(l(!«Hllt,— f.'oHl, ////.  f.'.S, 

From  nfllc'lal  Inldcs  It  l»  shown,  lat.  That,  until  the 
yuar  Wit>,  Canlon  was  the  principal  port  for  tea,  but 
In  that  year  HIianKhnl  exported  60  per  cent.;  and  of 
»ilk,  llirnc-foiirlhs  of  the  whole  export  was  from  Shang- 
hai, 'M,  That  Ihe  trade  '<(  Shanghai  continued  to  In- 
cr(tn«»ov«r  thai  of  Canton,  and  even  Foo-chow,  which 
'l.rlves  all  lis  trndn  from  this  emporium,  until  the  year 
IHfift,  whan  MlmnKJinl  exjiorlod  in  ten  about  30  per  cent, 
mora  than  In  'h  ('anion  ami  Kon-cbuw,  and  in  silk  al- 
most tli«  entire  amount  win  furnished  at  Shanghai. 
9d,  That  thn  xrnnd  Incrcnsa  of  the  foreign  trade  for 
twelve  yoari  Is  an  nvcrago  per  annum  of  about  3  per 
cant,  4th,  That  tliu  inrrcaai-  of  silk  for  exportation 
has  lieon,  on  I  In-  i;raiid  aijKrrnnln,  at  the  rate  of  8J  per 
caul,  per  anniiiti  for  the  past  cloven  years. 

It  Hppimi'*  liUii,  Isl.  That  the  trade  of  the  United 
.Hiatus  III  (^lilna  bus  Increased  in  the  last  ten  years  1} 
per  cent,  per  aniiiiin,  'id.  That  since  the  year  1848 
III"  porn  of  f 'niilon  and  Shanghai  have  changed  com- 
nierclal  poslllons,  ihe  taller  b  i'  .ng  exported  more  tea 
the  last  year  lo  the  Culled  Stales  than  the  whole  trade 
nmoiiiili'il  lo  when  Canton  was  the  only  port  opened. 
!lil,  That  Kod'i'how  Is  now  a  port  of  more  commerce 
with  llie  I'nlti'd  Sidles  than  Canton,  and  ranks  next 
to  the  must  lni|iortanl,  Shanghai,  4lh.  That  the  trade 
ill  iillk  to  Ihit  I  idled  Stales  has  developed  immensely ; 
and  as  Ihb  port  Is  the  great  emporium  for  that  com- 
niodlly,  It  will  probably  furnish  more  trade  than  all 
the  others  ttoinblncd.  Dili.  That  for  the  past  year  tbe 
port  nf  Nliatifihal  hits  furnished  more  Iban  three-fourths 
of  Ihu  Anicrli'mi  iradc  In  tea,  and  all  the  silk. 

Up  lo  till'  year  IN'il),  exchange  was  steady  at  from 
ir>  tu  21  pf  r  cent,,  but  the  change  which  followed,  and 
(he  v«rlable|i«»«  which  Is  marked,  arose  from  the  fact 
that  the  I'lly  of  Shanglial  being  taken  by  the  rebels  on 
thn  7tli  Supttiinlior,  IHAll,  many  large  losses  were  in- 
currail  by  tim  wealthy  Chinese,  wliich,  creating  em- 
liarrasinieiil,  i<ngendercd  n  lack  of  conridenco  and  trust, 
HI  that  inoilliy  bccainu  scarce  and  exchange  began  to 
rise,  About  this  lime  foreigners  began  to  impose  tbe 
leilofoii  Ihe  nilllvo  Chinese  that  the  Carolus  dollar  was 
lha  most  viiliiabit',  and  at  the  same  lime  secured  the 
nmnopoly  of  all  olitnlnablo  over  the  world,  and  have 
since  imm  bavliiit  the  Mexictn  restsmped  with  the 
Carolus  dl«s.  This  tatter  coin  does  not  pass  well,  as 
it  is  too  new  to  the  Chinese;  but  the  old  and  genuine 
Carolus  dullari  aro  almost  exhausted,  and.  Indeed,  ars 
haeomlng  li«s  iind  Iras  every  year,  whllt  Just  in  pro- 
poi'tiuii  lo  tllti  siippiv  or  demand  exchange  rises  or  falls. 


ji 


8HA 


1702 


8UA 


BXTCBTf  OT  TtA.  TO  Alt  NATION*  FIOH  ChIMA,  riOH  J  Vim 
80,  1880,  TO  JUHI  80,  IgU,  MOT  IMCLVMHU  TUII  L'VITIIU 
8TATU. 


.Item 

8li>nKb*l 

Canton  

miuighal 

Canton 

Shanghai 

(.'aitton 

Foo-chow 

Shanghai 

Canton 

Foo^^fabtr 

Shanghai  . 


Y««i». 
TSBO-M 
186l>-'6l 
l|i61-5i 
1N5I  '5J 
18R2-'5S 
18  \i~'n 
186.VM 
ISOI-'M 
18W-'M 

18.H-'U 
ItiSt-'ba 


EXPOBTR  OT  TkA    and  SII.K   TO  Till  I'nITID  RTATMI  CIIUN 

China,  with  tiii;  I'BoroaTioN  raoH  (■UAaauAi,  won  a 

{"SUOD  or  TKN    VlARa. 


Y««rMi4lDV 
JumW. 


184fi., 
1840. 
184T., 
1S48. 
1840. 
ISBO. 
1961. 
18S-.'. 
IKfiS. 
ISM. 


TiHmI  Amount 
of  TtK  from 

CklM. 

Ponndi. 

so.Toa.NiS 

18,602,SS8 
1S.I7I,«2K 
1I>.8!:S,«40 
18,073,800 
Sl.TS7,8(ll) 
ZS.TdO.S'K) 
84  8U,OU0 
40,974,0011 
it7.8a7.AOO 


T»  oitiorlad 
from '''  MiKhttt 


1,T4I),7«7 
8,US«,881 
6,823,7118 
11.004.fi40 
18,000.000 
!8,l)00,8«0 
1«.7U«,400 


Mill  MfoiM 

froMi 
_Uu(bal. 

*alM. 


M 
4IB 
«B0 
»08 
BB* 
1074 


Statmknt  or  iMPOETa  into  China 

nOM    TH«    I'lllTIID 

Stath  in  tu»  V«a»  1862. 

1                lUnkiDdiM. 

Caoioa 

saufbii 
It4i,ll6 

ToUI. 
614,^841 

Atimrlran  drill pteoea. 

4U'2,<4fl 

American  sheeting     " 

4i,09& 

88.016 

130,1111 

American  Jcana...     " 

4i),llil 

64,260 

104  MC 

Cochineal parcels. 

SS.flSO 

•iH.vm 

Silver dollari. 

1''2.800 

12II.80II 

Soolter vtu  ^1  x  k 

■00,424 

840 

•90,424 

1H4i» 

Uad "        i 

•l,l-.6,42l 

17,843 

•1,126.421 
tll,84il 

^     1 

Olnaer; " 

200,272 

•  •  •  ■ 

tM.'iVi 

Flour barreli. 

3,06 

*  •  •  • 

»,'5 

Dcef " 

20(1 

m 

I'ork " 

cm) 

114 

.... 

»oo 
m 

Clock! plecea. 

itoarda feet. 

•  •  •  • 

18,621 

18  64 

Tobacco poundu 

5,942 

•  •  •  t 

B.II42 

1600 
13,80(1 

.... 

tS.IiOn 

('lieeM pounds. 

1,000 
203 

l.oou 

21 » 

GUHwaro boxea. 

Sperm  eandloa pound*. 

1,000 

.... 

I.OOIJ 

•  roundi. 


t  I'IculB. 


t  Cuius, 


Statkhkht  or  ExrosTa  raoM  China  to  tdi  L'hitid  Statu 

IN  TUE  Veas  186-'. 


MorchaiidlM. 


Green  teas pound*. 

Black  teas " 

Silk  pleco  goods . . .  pieces. 

Crap«  nhawla ** 

Oraudotli " 

Nankeens boxes. 

Pearl  buttons '* 

Camphor " 

Vermiiloii " 

Oil,  ca-Bia " 

Oil.anise " 

Sweetmeats ** 

China  vara " 

Firr.-cnok«rs '■ 

Cassia parcels. 

Hatting rolls. 

Fans  and  screons.  .boxes. 

Spill  ratans bundles. 

RkW  silk parcels. 

Rhubarb boxes. 

Lacquered  ware  ...     " 
"Hn pareebi. 


Culoo. 
B,ir3;472 

Shsiitbal. 
To.  8119,400 

TolAl. 
2T.»22;8T2' 

Uliai,;t:i4 

3,033,110(1 

l-i.Ml.li-H 

SI  708 

40,868 

ufi.mn 

806  HM 

iiifitoS 

4.1!' 

•  •  •  I 

4,121 

lOil 

•  •  •  • 

too 

no 

Si 

1,044 

•  •  ■  • 

1,«44 

131 

•  •  •  • 

llil 

402 

«>/ 

9,  ICO 

200 

9S0I 

2,0C0 

2.0' 1(1 

lOU.KiR 

19,i«9 

!«0.r62 

9.401 

2,190 

11.60^ 

60,046 

•  •  ■  ■ 

•9,(I4<I 

9,r48 

9.049 

4,867 

s  •  •  • 

4.867 

749 

486 

1,1*6 

817 

817 

93T 

Ml 

842 

842 

87 

81 

The  commerce  of  China  is  conducted  on  the  basfji  of 
import*,  opium,  and  credits  on  London,  The  iinporlii 
■re  a  trifle;  opium  is  about  30 per  cent.,  and  the  differ' 
cnce  i«  made  up  by  a  direct  drain  on  Kurope  in  pur« 
■ilver  and  some  dollars ;  the  forniei'  is  cast  into  s^'i^eu, 
or  pure  silver  ingots,  and  rarely,  if  e\er,  leaves  the 
empire,  as  it  «*  strictly  forbidden  by  the  \iiws.^iiee 
CiuiiA,  .iQAifTon. 


ttUUUaf  Tiaa  form  ■  regular  arllcle  of  trade  to 
I'bllia,  «M(1  «r*  rullm'ldil  for  Ihli  purpose  in  every 
cumilry  fnmi  the  taaliirn  shore  of  Africa  to  New 
(iulit««.  In  Ike  ('anion  frlce-inrrtnta  ihey  are  aa 
roKlllarlx  aWfHfil  «•  l««  or  opium ;  and  the  price  of 
UU)  yuar*  »«•  l/«t'ti,  arcordInK  to  ((ualtly,  from  (10  to 


(IN  iwr  \iku\,  mtUM  to  from  60.^,  to  dOn.  per  cwt. 
MMWlC^Oar  HcHaleni  ¥t.  (.'hali,  C'halti;  It 
ittill  I  Hu.  Hehnriilu),  arllclea  of  fine  wool,  silk,  or  wool 


N  iwr  I 

MMWlC^Oar  HcHaleni  ¥t.  (.'hali,  c'haltf;  It.  liHit. 

It.  Hehnriilu),  arllclea  of  fine  wool,  silk,  or  wool 
I,  m«Muf«(itur«il  afler  the  Aishion  of  a  large 


li«udk«rifbl«<,  Mseit  In  fcmalo  dress.  Tha  finest  shawls 
»ft>  i)Mpurt«>l  fri/m  ImMn,  nhero  they  are  highly  es- 
tmttmH,  111(1  f.mi  from  |2(Vi  to  liUiOO. 

C'luhimni  Hliuii<t»r~'ih»  shawl  manufacture  Is  be- 
Ijuvixl  Ut  havMotlrflnalrd  In  (he  valley  ofCashmcre,  the 
«M<  ivill  Ciiiiplr*,  ill  the  north weKt  of  India,  between  lat. 
H'  anil  ii//  M,,  and  limg.  78"  ami  70'  E.  Though  not  so 
(|oMri»lll)(i{  «N  )t  MICA  was,  the  manufacture  Is  still  pros, 
oeutod  In  thin  |«m*lnc«  )o  a  very  considerable  extent. 
The  ahst*U  am  ilm  verv  best  that  are  mado,  pospcsaing 
un<M|U«h'.i  rtnenoa*,  delli^acy,  and  warmth,  They  are 
furnivd  of  IIm  Inner  hair  of  a  variety  of  the  common  goat 
((^iifii'it  liheuii),t«»tn\on  the  cold,  dry  table-land  of  Thi- 
ImiI,  «I«vnI«iI  from  14,<iO(i  In  Ifi.OOO  feet  above  the  level 
of  Ihli  m»,  Thd  Kual  thrives  sufDrlrntly  well  In  many 
olhi'r  i!liilMlri««)  but  In  Ilm  sultry  plains  of  Ilindostan 
it  hiia  haritl^  invre  hair  than  a  greyhound ;  and  though 
in  hlijlicr  lalltnd**  Ihe  hair  Is  more  abundant,  it  Is  fur 
(ha  iHiMt  |i«rt  i>ha((gy  and  coarse.  It  is  only  in  the 
int^lli>«l/  cmM  and  dry  climate  of  Thibet  that  It  yields 
tha  |MM.'nliarty  aoft  wmdiy  hair  that  constitutes  the 
nuixrltl  ut  llt«  Indian  shawl.  We  do  not,  therefore, 
oiipfii/ui  thai  |h«  efforls  lo  naturalize  the  shawl-goat  in 
1^'raii'u  Hill  tnril  out  well.  On  the  contrary,  we  believe 
(hii  ( b«iii'i'«  of  KtU'««ss  would  be  about  equal  were  an 
»lf«iMp(  iimd«  lo  breed  beavers  in  a  hot  country,  with- 
out Hwlur,  or  CMtileU  In  a  moist  country,  free  from  heat 
Slid  ilriiliKhl.  The  inner  or  fine  wool  is  covered  over 
and  prmwlcd  by  a  iiitaniliy  of  long  sliaggy  hair,  which 
is,  uf  mufov,  (,'«refully  seiiarated  from  it  before  it  i« 
K;»iiMf(t«lurfd.  The  genuine  shawl-wool  has  been  im- 
iiurl(94  tnio  Klirotie,  and  the  finest  Edinburgh  and 
I'aiiiU'y  ,<hawls  have  liecn  produced  from  it.  But  it 
must  \m  adniilted  that  shawls  have  now  here  been  made 
that  t!»n  >!mw,  aa  respects  finality,  into  successful  com- 
jwlillmi  HJlh  thi«s«  of  Cashmere.  The  manufacture  has 
ii^itu  |ii>(«bll<ih«d  at  llelhl  and  Lahore  for  some  years; 
but,  nolwltliiilandInK  It  la  carried  on  by  native' Cash- 
ni«r)*n)>,  and  though  Ihe  material  employed  be  quite 
\\m  nailiK,  IIm  fabrics  are  said  to  want  the  flneness  of 
thowi  iH«il«  ill  ('ashmere,  and  to  have  a  degenerated, 
I'oarsti  ami(»aran(«,  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  this 
supHi'jorlly,  It  has  been  ascrilicd  to  tome  peculiar 
((iialily  </f  thf  water  In  the  valley  of  Cashmere ;  but  it 
i«  miwi  (irobalily  owing  to  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
whbdi,  lliDtigh  «a<  h  may  appear  of  little  importance, 
collwtlvuly  kIvs  a  character  to  the  manufacluxc. 

Tha  fifllowinff  details  *>■  to  the  manufacture  of  Cash- 
miirn  iihawlit  h«v«  Iwett  extracted  from  an  Knglifili  pa- 
|i«r  piilili<h«d  at  Delhi  t  "  Ttie  great  mart  for  the  wool 
of  wbiifb  shawln  are  made  Is  at  Kilghet,  which  is  oaid 
to  b«  a  ilvficnilency  of  Ladak,  and  situated  2U  days' 
Juiirii«y  Umn  lb«  norlhern  boundaries  of  Cashmere. 
Th«rN  »tit  twfi  kimi*  of  It  i  that  which  can  be  readily 
Ayuii  U  tfhilc  i  the  olher  sort  is  of  an  ashy  color,  which 
IwillK  Hilh  difncnlly  changed,  or,  at  least,  improved 
by  art,  I*  generally  woven  of  Us  natural  hue.  About 
'I  tb(i,  of  eilber  art!  obtained  from  a  single  goat  once  a 
yiM,  Mitt  thfi  down  has  been  carefully  separated 
from  lh#  hatn,  it  U  repeatedly  washed  lyith  rice  starch. 
This  |iliM'e<e  )»  rechoneil  important ;  and  it  is  to  the 
quality  ut  (be  water  of  their  valley  that  the  Cash- 
m«rl«mi  attrlbulo  the  peculiar  and  inimitable  flneness 
ut  (hu  fabric*  produced  (here.  At  Kilghet  the  best 
raw  woid  j»  »«l'(  for  al^itit  one  rupee  a  pound.  By  the 
prfuaralion  and  wa^^hing  referred  to,  it  loses  one  half, 
•lul  llw  nuiatndsr  being  spun,  three  rupees'  weight  of 


»hawi,fa,hr„t^  „\°;--f">  imitation  of  these 
<>"ffma  .  Ju,t  ^  laces  ,^ve?.n" ,"'"  ''l'P'"«"tl7 
■"oro  than  «vo  tin.e,  LsZaZT^^  ''^'"ff  »  pri<i 
'"oven  by  machinery,  so  a  r^!L  ""?  """»  ^""0". 
have  come  from  Ind  i,  "i^^";'^.?"',,'"""'''  *"''»•"  '» 
f^'overest  imitation.  lCa(,it„  -''"'"''  """"  "«' 
l:erso„,  familiar  with  both  ^  „;;r7'  "^ '»  "-t  all. 
■on  a„ert  that  the  formerf:  "!'!""•'  '"«  "•»'«- 


i>pg  *'. ..".?'  •■"■  'pi'-'-s:  ••:■.:.':::::::;:•■■  i 

Wages  to  wea'vVrV.'iii.'' ...'.'.'.'.     ] 

Total .,.'.'..'.' 26, 

On  -ale  and  lmporUt^„'^''r'^  f**  "'"'''• ^' 

On  the  thread  '^^"''"  '^  ^""''raero , 

While  the  fabrlc'iV'n  thW  i' ."  "      a 

l«s  to  chowdrie.  b?ok^-i    "' 12K 

"    .iD^^-'"""-^'':::::::::::::;:;:  '| ^Jtio„'^sm";;;--';;:^h.he„,e,e— ^^ 

„         TotalfromAmri    ;;;:•„:■■: ™  n'    an<i  that  thi,  softnesl'^r       '"f"  •''«"  "'»  lattc^ 

Totalcost... 2?'oL^""«'C»«''™ere,wh,chi,a„S;'^^^^^^^ 

''•Ifculcha  nrnS  a„,l^  T"'*  °^  '■""""on  anTi  r Th    •'  ""''"">«  "PPer  hair.  "  °' "■"  ~'»'n'»' 

iiie  (fovcrument  of  L«hn~  .    «  wh..    ,        '""'>  ^aa  as  follows: 


at  ^^8  oOO  t  iirrukabad  rupees.  --' -•''. 

ilie  (fovcrument  of  Lahnr.  „       ■     ^ 

rupee,,  15(i4G;  Patlalah  bin^it  ""  ^"""k^bad 
P^,  in  i  ;  Bhownuggur  20  o'-^^Tr'-  *^  "'•  •'""J- 
princes,  1809  0;  IloSv  in  „  '"''"'''''* ''^''■"'ive 
2850  0."  •  ""'"""y.  XO  per  cent,  (ad  valorem) 

It    is    n<\(    ...    .... 


WliBiics  Imporlai). 
Ilaiisu  Towns.. 

fc"Blaiid 

Scotland....'" 

France .'."' 

China .".'_'_" 

Other  places! !i 
Total. 


Vilo,. 
$218,387 
T32,449 
332,0*8 
838,9;3 
8(i,8!l4 
03,160 


"  is  not  as  yet  eenemllir  t—         .  ""lerplacea.        8«2'i4 

goat,  from  whose  wo!,"  t"o  fal„  "V"?'  "">  ^^et  Total __63^ 

»i  piles,  etc.    Zinc  and  different 


>F 


SHE 


1704 


SHI 


ooni|K»itlani  bavi  Im«ii  propoacd  h  lulwtUuIci  for 
•op|>i!r ;  tnil  HIr  II.  Uivy  inKi^nlouily  au|{K«>tr<l  the 
applivatioii  of  |il(ic«j)  uf  /.inc  or  Irun  upon  tlltliirent  part* 
of  tli»  unppar  iiirfac)*,  wlilch  Uy  tho  action  of  ilia  ata- 
watur  raiiilir  tho  latter  maiai  cloctro-negaliva,  aiul 
eapalilii,  tlierafuro,  of  roililiiiK  tliti  oxidizlriK  ami  corru- 
aive  UKOiit'lca  of  tlio  iubtlancua  liuKI  In  iidlutlon.  'I'Ihi 
ploova  of  iron  or  of  xinn  so  applied  liavn  Ih  en  properly 
cMed  pnitrrlon  i  but  Ity  occunlunlni;  the  preclpitatiun 
of  earthy  niattera  upon  the  copper,  whilu  thoy  ell'eclu- 
ally  prtilevt  il,  they  render  ita  lurfaca  favorable  to  the 
•dhoslon  of  Mtooda,  baniaclca,  etc.,  and  ■ometlmoa  to 
iucli  an  extent  as  to  interforo  with  the  pasfa^a  of  the 
iblp  through  the  water:  upon  such  grouudu,  ISir  llum- 
phri'y'a  valuable  auKKestiun  has  been  iieKlcctui!.  When 
vesiiels  are  laid  up  In  ducl<  the  protoctorH  are  In  luc- 
Gtsiful  use.  8hvotlilnt(roriiiorly  was  composed  of  thin 
fir  bouriU.  Hy  n  recent  application  of  «|ectrolyping, 
plates  of  sheet-iron  are  covered  with  a  surface  of  copper 
which  oD'ectually  protects  the  iron  from  oxidation. 
Iron  liolts  are  alao  aindlarly  elvctrotypcd. 

8h«ep  ((.ier.  Sch^^fe|  Vr.  Hnbit,  tthn  h  laine, 
Moutimt;  It.  J'f core;  Hft.  Pecora,  Ovejat ;  Kuss. ^tti; 
I^t.  Oiet).  0(  the  dumestia  aniniala  belonglnff  to 
Ureal  Uritaln,  sheep,  with  the oxcepllon  of  liories,  und 
perhaps  cattle,  are  by  far  the  most  important.  Thoy 
can  bo  reared  in  situations  and  upon  soils  where  other 
animals  would  not  live.  They  afl'ord  a  lari;e  aupply 
of  food,  and  one  of  the  principal  materials  of  clothing. 
Wool  has  long  been  a  staple  commodity  of  this  coun- 
try, and  ita  manufacture  employs  an  Inmiense  number 
of  people.  "Tha  dressed  skin,"  says  Mr.  Pennant, 
"  forma  dilferent  parts  of  our  apparel,  and  Is  used  for 
covers  of  books.  The  entrails,  properly  prepared  and 
twisted,  serve  for  strinfrs  for  various  musical  instru- 
menls.  Tlio  bones,  calcined  (like  other  bones,  in  gen- 
eral), form  materials  for  tests  for  tho  rellnor.  The 
milk  is  thicker  tlian  that  of  cows,  and  conse<|uently 
yields  a  greater  quantity  of  butter  and  cheese ;  and  in 
tome  places  la  so  rich,  that  it  will  not  produce  the 
cheese  without  a  mixture  of  water  to  moke  it  part  from 
the  whey.  The  dung  is  a  remarkably  rich  manure 
Insomuch  that  the  fuldfiig  of  sheep  is  become  too  useful 
•  brunch  of  husbandry  for  the  farmer  to  neglect.  To 
conclude:  whether  we  consider  the  advantages  that 
result  from  tliis  animal  to  individuals  in  particular,  or 
to  these  kingdoms  in  general,  we  may,  with  Columella, 
consider  thi.i,-in  one  sense,  as  tho  first  of  tho  domestic 
quadrupeds." — Pkmnaht'h  JJrilinh  Xoology. 

There  was  between  1840  and  1850  an  increase  of 
2,809,108  in  the  number  of  sheep  in  tha  United  States. 
It  will  bo  useful  to  observe  with  some  closeness  tho 
progreaa  of  sheep-breeding  in  difl'erent  ports  of  the 
country.  We  perceive  that  in  New  England  there  has 
occurred  s  remarkable  decreosc  in  their  numt>er.  There 
were  in  tliat  division  of  the  Union  iit  1840,  8,811,807  ; 
in  1860  the  numlKir  liad  declined  to  2,1()4,4&2 ;  being  a 
decrease  of  1,G46,866,  or  45  per  cent.  In  tho  five  At< 
Untie  Kliddie  States,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  and  Maryland,  there  woa  a  decreitsc 
from  7,402,861  to  5,r>4l,RUl|cqiial  to  1,761,460,  or  about 
!!2i  percent.  In  Pennsylvania  there  was  a  gain,  how- 
ever, during  this  period,  of  165,000  sheep.  We  see 
that  while  there  haa  been  a  positive  diminution  of 
8,408,000  in  the  States  above  named,  there  has  been  an 
augmentation  of  5,717,008  in  those  south  of  Mar}-land 
and  west  of  New  York.  Ohio  haa  gained  most  largely, 
having  been  returned  as  pasturing  in  1840,  2,028,401; 
and  in  1860,  8,942,929;  an  increase  of  1,914,528,  or 
nearly  100  per  cent.  In  each  of  tho  States  south  and 
west  of  tho  lines  above  indicated,  there  haa  been  a  very 
large  proportional  increase  in  this  kind  of  stock,  and 
there  is  reasonable  ground  for  the  opinion  that  the  hilly 
lands  of  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Tennes- 
see, and  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  am!  Texas,  will 
prove  highly  favorable  for  the  rearing  of  sheep  for 
their  wool  and  pelta. 


New  Mexleo  haa  Ihe  extraordinary  number  of  877,371 
thi'cp— mori!  than  six  to  each  inhabitant;  proving  Iha 
soil  and  cilniala  of  that  territory  to  be  well  adapted  to 
this  description  of  Klerk,  and  giving  promise  of  a  large 
addition  from  thai  quarter  to  the  supply  of  wool.  Tho 
Importance  of  fostering  this  groat  branch  of  national 
production  Is  shown  l)y  the  fact,  as  assumed  by  an  In- 
telligent writer  on  tho  sul\Jecl,  that  our  population 
annually  consumes  an  amount  of  wool  equal  to  seven 
pounds  for  each  person.  If  this  estimate  be  even  an 
approximation  to  correctness,  we  are  yet  very  far 
short  of  producing  a  quantity  adequate  to  the  wants  of 
the  country  ;  and  It  Is  equally  clear  that  wo  pnisesi  an 
amount  of  unemployed  land  adapted  to  grazing,  snfll- 
dent  to  support  (locks  numerous  enough  to  clotlie  the 
people  of  the  world.  The  kinds  of  sheep  must  suught 
for  are  the  pure-blooded  Merino*,  the  Saxons,  the  Cols- 
wobb:,  tho  Lclcestershlrcs,  the  Oxfordshlres,  and  the 
South  Downs.  The  .Ifrn'nos  (Including  the  Uumbouil- 
lels),  the  Cotswolds,  the  I^lcestershlres,  the  Oxford- 
shlres, and  (he  Saxons,  are  tho  most  hlglily  prized  fur 
their  wool.  The  South  Downs  are  particularly  mu 
teemed  for  the  excellence  of  their  Hesh,  and  their  wool 
it  valuable  for  many  purposes  on  account  of  the  fnclllly 
with  which  it  can  I'lo  wrought.— {/.  3.  Patent  OJgiet  Re- 
port,    tiee  SllAW'iJi  and  Wool,. 

Sheer.  The  curve  which  the  line  of  ports  or  of 
the  deck  presents  to  the  eye  when  viewing  the  side  nf 
the  ship.  When  these  lines  are  slralght,  or  the  ex- 
tremities do  not  rise,  as  Is  most  usual,  the  ship  is  talil 
to  have  a  straight  theer. 

Sheer  llulk.—K  hulk  permanently  fitted  with  shaora 
for  masling  and  dismasting  ships. 

AIAr<r(i.— Two  niasta  or  spars  lashed  together  at  or 
near  tho  head,  and  raised  to  a  vertical  position,  fur  tho 
purpose  of  lifting  the  masts  into  or  out  of  vesiiels. 

Sheet.  Tho  rope  attached  to  the  afternioKt  or  lee- 
wardmost  clew  or  corner  of  a  sail,  to  extend  it  lo  tho 
wind.  In  the  square  sails  aliove  the  courses,  the  roput 
attached  to  both  clows  are  called  threli:  in  all  other 
cases  the  weatliermost  one  Is  called  n  liuk. 

Sheet  Anchor,  The  third  of  the  four  largo  ancli- 
ora  generiilly  carried  l>y  a  ship. 

Sherry.  A  Spanish  wine  made  from  the  grapei  of 
Xerea,  in  Andalusia.  Genuine  sherry  Is  n  ricli,  dry 
wine,  containing  from  20  to  23  per  cent,  of  aboliul  i 
there  are  many  varieties,  and  it  is  extensively  imitated 
and  adulterated. — See  Wink. 

Shilling.  An  Knglish  silver  coin,  equal  lo  twolvo- 
ponce,  or  the  twentieth  part  of  a  pound.  Krelierut  de> 
rives  the  Saxon  Killing,  whence  our  shilling,  from  a  cor- 
ruption of  tiliijua !  proving  the  derivation  liy  several 
texts  of  law,  and,  among  others,  by  tho  twenty-sixth 
law,  I)e  annuit  lej/atis.  Skinner  deduces  It  from  the 
Saxon  icild,  "  shield,"  by  reason  of  the  escutcheon  of 
arma  which  it  haa  upon  it.  liishop  Hooper  derives  It 
from  the  Aral>ic  tcheele,  signifying  a  weight ;  liiit  others, 
with  greater  prol>aldllty,  deduce  it  from  the  l.ntin  <i- 
cilirua,  which  signlHed  in  that  language  a  ((uurter  of 
an  ounce,  or  the  forty-eighth  part  of  a  Roman  pound. 
In  confirmation  of  this  etymology,  it  is  allegccl  ihiit 
tho  shilling  kept  its  original  signillcatlon,  and  bore  the 
same  proportion  to  the  Saxon  pound  as  sIclUcus  did  lo 
tho  Roman  and  tho  Greek,  being  exactly  the  forty- 
eighth  part  of  a  Saxon  pound. 

However,  the  Saxon  law  reckons  the  pound  In  the 
round  numlier  at  fifty  shillings,  but  they  really  coined 
out  of  it  only  forty-eight.  The  value  of  Ihu  shilling 
was  five-pence,  but  it  was  reduced  to  four-ponce  above 
a  century  before  the  Conquest ;  for  several  of  tlie  Sax- 
on laws,  made  in  Athelslan's  reign,  oblige  us  to  take 
this  estimate.  Thus  it  continued  to  the  Norman  limoi, 
as  one  of  the  Conqueror's  laws  sufNciontly  oicertnins ; 
and  it  seems  to  have  been  tho  common  roln  by  which 
tlie  Knglish  payments  were  adjusted.  After  the  Con- 
quest, the  French  tolidut  of  twelve-pence,  which  waa  in 
use  among  the'  Norm(in<<,  waa  called  by  tho  Engliib 


8III 


1705 


RHI 


III  In  til* 

ly  colnoil 

ihininn 

ce  aliovo 

tlio  Hi>]c- 

to  tsko 

>n  tlmoi, 

■ort»lnn  i 

iiy  wMoIi 

li  HM In 
EnglUU 


RamcofihlUinKi  •ndthi-  Hitxati  uhllllnK  of  four-p«nc« 
took  •  NoriiMii  imiiie,  amt  m  an  eMm\  lliu  j/nnl,  or  gn»l 
culii,l>ui.'«uiullwHlliuUrKt'st  KiikUkIi  colli  thvn  known 
In  KngUiiil.     It  wu  tliu  upliiloii  of  Ijliliopii  Klu«twoo<l 
■nil  Oilman,  •nd  of  III*  aiitU|iiiirlu(  in  K^nsral,  thiil, 
tboiiKli  ll»>  mothod  of  riickuiiliiK  by  |iouiiil>,  marki,  *nil 
•h)lUnK"i  •••  wi'll  M  by  piinco  nnil  furtliinK",  lio'l  Ixitin  in 
conntant  uio  vvcii  fruin  tlxi  8axon  times,  Iuiik  Wfuru 
lliu  Noriniin  Cuni|U»t,  theru  «m  m-viT  iiii;!!  a  coin  In 
Kniflnnd  <»  oltliar  a  pound  or  •  mark,  nor  any  ihllllnK, 
till  till)  yi'ur  I'Mi  or  160.%  whun  ■  fuw  lilvcr  iihilllii|;i 
or  twi'lvi'-poiivon  wuru  I'oinud,  which  hiiva  limi;  aliice 
(won  inUly  cunlliiKil  to  tho  caliliicta  of  culluclom.    Mr. 
Clarku  combat*  tlili  opinion,  allo^inK  that  loiiio  coini 
montlonoil  by  Mr.  Folki^s,  uudur  Kdward  tho  KIril,  worn 
probably  Saxon  •hllllngii  new  minted,  and  that  Arch- 
lliihup  AfMrk  expreuly  layii  that  the  Saxons  had  three 
n«ni«*  for  thoir  money — mancuiKii,  iililUlii^'i.  and  pnn- 
ntoa.     lie  aUo  urge*  the  dllHirent  valiiu  ul  tho  Hax- 1 
on  •hllliiiK  at  dlllbront  tiinoa,  and  its  uniform  propor- 
tlon  to  tho  pound,  as  an  arKunmiit  that  their  bIiIIIIiik 
wai  n  coin ;  and  tho  tantlniony  of  the  Saxon  Ooapnlii, 
In  which  the  word  we  Im '  v  traiiBlatedpi'ri'ei  nj'iihrr  U 
rondorud  ihUtiiig$,  which,  be  aaya,  thoy  would  hardly 
have  ilumi  If  there  hud  bean  no  such  coin  11  a  shilling 
then  In  iisi',     Accordingly,  the  Hu  xons  expressed  their 
ihlllliiK  In  Latin  by  $iclu»  and  nrgenttun,     lie  further 
•lids,  that  tho  Haxon  shilling  wn.'t  never  oxprcssod  by 
$oMui  till  after  the  Norman  settlements  In  Kngland; 
•nd  howsoever  It  altered  during  tho  long  period  that 
elapsed  fnnn  tho  Conquest  to  the  time  of  Henry  the 
Seventh,  It  was  tho  most  constant  dcnuniinution  of 
money  in  all  payments,  though  It  whs  then  only  a  spi> 
cles  of  account,  or  the  twentieth  part  of  tho  pound 
Iterlliig;  and  when  it  wa>i  again  revived  as  a  coin, 
it  luseiiod  gradually  us  the  piiuiul  sterling  lessened, 
fl'om  Iho  'JHtb  of  Ldword  tho  Third  to  the  -ISd  of  Kliz- 
•liotli, 

In  tint  year  1500  there  was  a  peculiar  sort  of  -liilling 
•truck  In  Ireland,  of  tho  value  of  ninc-pencu  Knirllsh, 
which  passed  In  I  ro'.iind  for  twelve-pence.  T!ie  iiiu..lu  -^n 
the  roverso  was, /'(uu( /Aunt  (xi/uture/iin  n,  Kighty- 
twi>  tit  these  shillings,  according  to  '  laiyiics,  went  to 
the  pound.  They  weighed,  therefore,  twenty  grains  one 
fourth  uach,  which  Is  somewhat  Imiivier  in  proportion 
than  tlio  Knglish  shiUingof  that  time,  sixty-two  of  which 
went  to  the  pound,  each  weighing  ninety-two  grains 
•ovon-aighths ;  and  the  Irish  shilling  being  valued  at 
the  Tower  at  nine-pence  Knglish,  that  is,  one  ..itirth 
part  los'<  Ihin  the  Knglish  shilling,  it  should  therefore 
prupnriionally  weigh  ono  fourth  part  less,  and  its  full 
weight  be  somewhat  mom  than  sixtj'-twu  grains.  ISut 
ionio  iif  tlioin  found  at  this  time,  though  much  worn, 
weighed  sixty-nine  grains.  In  1S!>8  live  diH'erent 
pieces  of  money  of  this  kind  were  struck  in  England 
for  the  service  nf  ilio  kingdom  of  Ircliind.  These  were 
■hlllliiKs  to  be  current  in  Ireland  at  twelve-ponce  each, 
half-slilllings  to  be  current  at  six-|icnco,  and  quarter- 
ihllllnga  at  throe-pence,  rennies  and  lialf-|)eiinics 
were  also  struck  of  tho  same  kind,  and  sent  over  for  the 
paytnont  of  tho  army  in  Ireland.  Tlie  money  thus 
coined  was  of  •  very  base  niixturo  of  copper  and  silver ; 
and  two  years  after  there  were  more  pieces  of  the  same 
kinds  ttruek  for  tho  same  service,  which  were  still 
worse ;  tho  former  being  three  ounces  of  silver  to  nine 
ounces  of  copper,  and  tho  latter  only  two  ounces  eight- 
een pennyweights  to  nine  ounces  two  pennyweights  of 
the  alloy. 

The  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Germans  have  likewise 
their  shilling,  called  ichtlin,  sehilUng,  and  tcalin;  but 
thcio,  not  being  of  the  same  weight  or  fineness  with  the 
Knglisli  shilling,  are  not  current  at  the  same  value. 
Tho  English  shiUlug  U  worth  about  twenty -three 
Fnnch  sols ;  those  of  Holland  and  Germany  about 
eleven  sols  and  a  half;  those  of  Flanders  about  nine. 
The  Dutch  shlUlngi  are  also  called  lols  de  grot,  because 
•qutl  to  twelve  gru>.    The  Danes  have  copper  shil- 


lings worth  about  one  fourth  -it  a  flirlhing  sifrllnK  — 

v..   It.      St»  CiilNlt. 

Bblp-mon«7  was  llrst  levied  .t.ii.  ilN)7,  and  lauMil 
great  conimutluiis.  ThU  inipast  being  lilKgally  Invltd 
by  Charles  the  First  In  ltl:tt,  led  to  tho  Kevolutlon. 
lie  assessed  London  In  seven  shlpn,  of  4iHN)  iniia  and 
l&AO  man ;  Yorkshire  in  two  ships  of  IMNI  lotia,  or 
i;ri,0<lO;  Urtatol  In  oiiii  ship  nf  IIH)  liinsi  LHiiiavhlr* 
in  one  ship  of  41)0  tona.  The  trial  of  the  patriot  Hamii- 
den  for  refuilng  to  |iay  the  lax,  which  he  at  llrat  soli  iy 
iipl'iHied,  took  place  In  liliM,  Hhl|i-nMin  >y  was  In. 
eluded  In  a  railreas  of  grluvancea.  In  IHII.  Hampden 
received  a  wound  in  n  aklrmlah  with  rriticu  llujiert, 
and  died  June  14,  Itllll. 

BhlM,  Nautical  ni>in  apply  the  term  ahip  to  dl«> 
tingulah  a  vessel  having  three  meats,  each  coMalaling 
of  a  lower  meat,  a  tupmaat,  and  toji-Kallitnt  mast,  with 
their  appropriate  rigging.  Ir  famlllnr  language,  It  U 
Ubually  einpKiyed  to  dlatlngulab  any  large  veaael,  how. 
ever  rigged ;  but  It  In  alao  frequently  uaeil  as  a  general 
designation  for  all  vessels  navigated  with  sails ;  and  it 
is  in  this  sense  that  wc  now  employ  It. 

i/rrcluint  Hhipii.— It  la  hardly  |iosalliln  to  divide  mer- 
chant  ships  Into  classes,  at  least  with  any  degree  uf 
precision.  Their  sine,  shape,  the  mode  of  their  rigging, 
etc.,  depend  not  merely  on  tho  particular  trade  for 
which  tliey  are  destined,  but  on  tlio  varying  tastes 
and  fancies  of  their  owners.     In  tlio  (irticln  Cii  Airr».ii 

I'ARTY,  FI.KIOIIT,  .MASTKn,  0»  MKHH,   HkAMK.S,  MI'.A- 

w'ditiiir,  etc.,  the  law  with  respect  to  ships  and  ship- 
owiif  rs,  in  their  capacity  of  carriers  or  public  >ervnnlB, 
and  the  reciprocal  duties  and  obligations  of  the  mui- 
tors  and  crew«,  It  p'otly  fully  cxpouiiilcd, 

Shiihbuikling.—^ltha  art  Is  nttriliuted  to  the  Kgyp. 
tiana,  as  the  tirst  inventors,  the  llrst  ship  (pmbaldy  • 
galley)  lieing  brought  from  Fgypt  to  Greece,  by  lla- 
naus,  1486  u.c— Ili.Ain.  The  llrat  double-deeked  ship 
was  built  by  tho  Tyrlans,  "Mii  n.i.— I.kniii.I'.t.  Tlin 
first  double-deck  vessel  built  in  Kii|{land  wiis  of  IIIIKI 
tons  burden,  by  order  uf  Henry  VI I, ,  IfilW;  It  was 
called  the  Ortal  Ifony,  ami  co«l  ifl  I,(KM».-..,Sti(»v.  He. 
'",>.  this  time,  2l-(;iin  ships  were  the  largest  in  the 
British  navy,  and  these  hud  no  port-holes,  Ihu  gum 
being  on  the  upjier  decks  only.  I'orl-holes  and  other 
Improvements  were  invented  by  l>e»cliargc«,  a  French 
liullilorat  llrcst,  in  tho  rolgn  of  l.ouia  X II.,  about  l.'idO. 
Ship-building  was  lirsl  treated  m  a  Ncieiice  by  llosin, 
Ui9ii.  A  7)-gun  ship  was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van 
Uicmcn's  Land,  to  lie  sheathed  with  In  'ia-rublior,  IMIW. 
— Ha»  us.  For  articles  on  slilp-bulldi  nK,  see  (luiirtrrlji 
lievino,  vol.  iii.  'iH,  xi.  '227,  xll,  441 ;  .Iwd.  Mail.,  I.  V(I3, 
vi.  4.Wj  Hunt's  ifirchmli'  Man.,  *'•  "1  "^i"-  '"''■ 

State  of  Slilpping  Jnlereit.—'l'Ua  compiuliils  which 
were  so  frequent  soiiio  years  since  In  regard  t .  the  ship- 
ping interest  have  now  wholly  ceased.  Mimt  priibably 
they  never  had  any  very  good  foundation ;  lii;t  whether 
that  were  so  or  not,  tills  Interest  has  been  for  lonio  tlinn 
past  in  a  peculiarly  prosperous  condition.  This  has 
lieeen  occasioned  partly  and  priiici|/ally  by  the  gold 
discoveries  in  Culllcirnia  and  Aunlruliii,  or  rathi  r  hy 
the  unprecedented  siimuius  which  they  have  giv  n  to 
emigration  and  commerce.  It  Is  not,  therefore,  to  bo 
supposed  that  the  existing  stale  of  things,  a*  respect* 
tho  shipping  interest,  can  bo  permanent ;  for  while,  on 
the  one  hand,  tlie  advantages  resulting  from  emigra- 
tion will  gradually  diminish,  on  the  other  the  au|>ply 
of  sliips  will  be  augmented  in  proportion  to  the  greater 
demand  for  their  services.  However,  it  Is  all  but  cer- 
tain that  tho  commerco  of  tho  wnild  is  ilostliierl  !■>  lii- 
creaso  for  a  long  time  to  como ;  and  our  morcaiitlle 
navy  will,  no  doubt,  continue  to  realize  a  full  and  fair 
share  of  the  advantages  resulting  front  this  extonilon 
of  trade. 

Some  very  important  changes  have  lieen  made  of 
late  years,  and  are  yet  in  progress,  in  tho  construction 
of  ships.  Thov  are  now  built  of  a  much  larger  slx« 
than  formerly,"  of  finer  models,  and  with  a  power  of 


Hill 


1706 


fRT 


tailing  of  whirli  mi  Juit  Ma*  cnuM  privloiuly  hav* 
twrn  furmril.  Nlii|>«  nf  '^INIO  tiiiii  hiirilen  an  now  rfrk- 
•ntU  unly  of  lltllr  mar«  Ikaii  a  nitUlum  ilia  |  ami 
thoit  of  VIKM)  and  'iim  (»na  anil  upward  ara  avary  day 
b«roniinK  mora  ami  mora  conimun.  It  l»  |irolialil<>,  In- 
diiail,  that  ill  llila,  lu  In  moat  olliar  thlnK',  wa  ahall  run 
fniiii  »n«  axlrania  jnlo  another {  and  that  from  liaInK 
too auiall,  our  ihlpa  for  didnnl  voyaK<'a  will  Uti'onMi  Um 
lar^a  aii'I  unwialdy.  Thi*,  liowavor,  la  a  |iolnt  which 
ti|>«ri«iice  only  rail  (i^tlu,  and  to  that  It  may  aafaly 
Iw  taft.  Iron  abipa  ar«  alao,  at  pravioualy  alalad,  b«- 
glnnlnK  t<>  l>'i  rattnaively  cunatructod ;  and  ablpa  ar< 
now  fn'i|i»)iilly  Htlad  out  with  ai:rewa  and  atoani>«n- 
Kini'a,  to  be  u>cd  only  na  a  au'  aidlary  powar  lu  calma, 
and  aKaiiiat  contrary  wlnda. 

Mutt  suria  of  abort  paa«at(n  Irtflle  arc  now  carriad  on 
by  alt'aniuraj  and  it  la  pruhaklu  that  in  Ihii  and  ihay 
will  aiiKroaa  tha  K'«at«r  part  of  the  coaaling  tra'le  of 
moit  couiilrlaa,  and  of  tho  trads  Utwaaii  forulf(n  coun- 
trioa  a>Uaa«Mt  to  i-ach  otiier.  Uut  the  Iniprovad  claaa 
or>allinKalii|<*havelltlU  to  foar  (Voni  the coinp«tition 
of  Hlnamcra  in  ail  the  more  diatant  branch**  of  trade.— 
Fur  Roni  ral  atatiatica  in  regard  to  the  numliar  nf  ahipa 
and  ninoiint  uf  taniia«{<),  wc  ailicUi  Htkam  Navioa- 

TKIN  ami  'roNMAOK 

Shlppluc,  Laws  of— Hnder  thn  K'ncral  heada 

of  Ari-IIKKtllTMKKT,  ClIAHTKK.rAnTr.llll.lJI  «K  I.AIV 
INM,    (AKIIIKIIH,    Col.l.lHlilN,    CoMMKKi'K,    MASTKBa, 

MakitimkI.aws,  KK<iiHriiT,HKAMK!<,atc.(«aa  Ini>ex), 
pnriicular  information  haa  limn  u\\Kn  concorninr  ihu 
iawBofabipplng.  Wa  will,  therefore,  in  thia  article  only 
Kive  n  aynopaia  of  Ih*  general  law*  regulating  ahi|i*  and 
ahippiiiK- 

Tillf  to  I  >(<«/«.— Tha  tlllo  of  a  ihlp,  unUaa  acquired 
by  capture,  paarca  by  writing,  A  bill  of  eale  la  tho 
proper  rvvord  of  title  to  a  ahip,  and  <>na  which  tho 
iiiarilimo  court*  of  nil  nation*  will  look  for  and,  in  Ihoir 
onlinnry  practice,  require.  In  Scotland,  a  written  con- 
veyance of  property  in  ablpa  baa,  by  cuatnni,  become 
neccnaary ;  and  in  Knglanil  a  slatuto  require*  It  with 
regard  to  Uritiah  aubjcct*.  In  thi*  country,  poasea«lon 
of  ft  ahip  and  act*  of  ownorahip  are  prcaumptlve  evi- 
done«  without  the  aid  of  documentary  proof,  and  will 
bold  good  until  doatroyeil  by  contrary  proof,  and  a  (ale 
wllhdcUvery  of  aahip,  without  a  billofaale  or  written 
Inatrument  of  any  kind,  will  be  good  at  law.  Uut  tbu 
prcaiimptivo  title  from  poaieaaion  can  eaaily  lie  deatroy- 
oil ;  and  Ibo-goiioral  rule  la  that  no  peraoii  ran  convey 
who  baa  no  title,  and  tho  fact  of  poaaoaaion  doe*  not 
give  tills.  The  maater  of  a  ahip  ha*  no  authority  to 
acll,  unlcaa  in  a  cnne  of  nccoaaity.  It  Is  generally, 
though  not  iinlvuraally,  considered  that  a  sale  by  or- 
der uf  an  admiralty  court  in  a  foreign  port,  liy  a  poti- 
tion  of  tho  inaator  on  tho  ground  of  unseawortbincsa, 
la  valid.  The  rapture  by  a  public  enemy  diveat*  tho 
tlllo  from  tho  original  owner  after  a  r.-giilar  condemna- 
tion by  a  prize  court.  Upon  tho  solo  of  a  ahip  in  port, 
delivery  of  poascaaion  la  requiaito  to  perfect  the  title. 
If  tbu  veaaol  la  at  aua  at  the  time  of  aalu,  poaaeaaion 
muat  take  place  upon  arrival  at  port. 

iMbililt)  (i/lhmrr. — Tho  owner  la  pcraonally  liable  as 
owner  for  neceoaarios  funiisbed  and  repalra  maile  to  a 
ship  by  order  of  the  master.  It  has  been  a  disputed 
question  whother  tho  mortgagee  of  a  ship  i*  liable  be- 
fore taking  poaaessiun.  Tho  weight  of  the  Amorlcan 
decialona  decides  that  he  is  nut  liable  for  repairs  pro- 
cured on  the  order  of  tho  master.  If  not  upon  tho  credit 
of  tho  mortgagee,  and  if  tho  same  was  not  in  receipt 
of  the  freight.  When  the  vessel  is  at  sea,  the  liability 
of  tho  mortgagee  for  wages,  etc.,  resolves  itself  into 
tho  question  of  his  possesaion,  Tho  liability  of  the 
charterer  or  freighter  under  similar  cirrumataocea  also 
depends  upon  tho  question  of  temporary  ownership  by 
their  use  of  the  vesael. 

CiMfom-Aouae  l)ocum»nl>. — Tho  United  Slate*  have 
followed  the  policy  of  other  commercial  nations  in  giv- 
ing pecuiiar  privileges  upon  American-built  vessels 


owned  bjr  our  awn  rtlliana.  Thia  I*  nbtilnH  hjr  t 
ragiatry  of  vaaaela  (*fa  miirlt  liKiiiaTnir),  and  whirh 
pravlalun  la  Inlanded  to  eiirourage  our  own  trade, 
navigation,  and  ablp-bullding,  'Ihu  reglatry  of  all 
raaaala  at  tha  ciialom-hauaa,  anil  llie  riworda  AT  the 
transfar*  alao,  add  great  aaeurily  to  thn  tlllea.  No 
vrsaul  la  lu  lie  deained  aa  iMliingIng  to  the  I'nitad 
Hiaira,  and  anlitlvd  to  the  privilegia  of  one,  unlea* 
ragialoreil  and  wholly  owned  and  commanded  by  a 
citlsan  of  the  (Iiiit«d  Htataa. 

I'arl  lhrner$. —  The  aaveral  part  owner*  of  a  ahip 
are  tenaiila  in  iwmnion,  and  not  partners.  Karh  bat 
hi*  undivided  intere*!,  and  when  iiiii'  i«  appointed 
to  manage  the  concern*  of  Ih*  ahip  lie  la  called  the 
ahip'a  bualiund.  If  there  lie  no  duHnite  agreement 
aniung  the  ownara  aa  lo  Ih*  employment  of  the  ship, 
the  majority  in  value  may  employ  the  ship,  while  the 
admiralty  court  accurea  the  Intereat*  of  thu  minority 
from  iijury,  This  praiilr*  la  dliiatod  by  the  conimun- 
aenaa  view  that  "ablpa  warn  made  to  plow  the  ocean, 
and  not  to  rot  by  thn  wall,"  The  court  t*l<e*  a  seni- 
r>iy  from  the  ini\)ority  lu  a  sum  equal  to  the  ahurea  uf 
itio  minority,  either  lo  bring  back  the  ahip  er  pay  the 
iitlnorlty  the  vnl  la  of  their  aharea,  and  In  thia  ease  Ihe 
ahip  aalla  wholly  at  the  prallt  or  riak  of  Ihn  minority. 
The  diatinction  lietween  (utrtownera  and  pirtm-ra  may 
lie  alaUd  thus  i  I'art  ownertbip  i*  but  a  tenancy  in 
common,  anil  aa  tuch  a  part  owner  can  only  aell  hi* 
undivided  right,  and  can  give  title  only  tn  such  ;  but 
a  partner  has  Implied  antliorily  over  the  Joint  property. 
A  veasci  may  be  held  in  piirlner'hip,  but  is  not  unlesi 
by  agreomcnt. — Hat  Kkn  r's  Cfimm.,  vol.  lil. 

Citi-nnift  of  (laadii.— When  the  ship  if  hired  and  the 
cargo  ladon  un  board,  tlie  duliea  of  tin  owner,  and  of 
hiaiigeiil,  thu  maater,  arise  in  respect  to  the  cominenre- 
meni,  priigmaa,  and  termination  of  the  voyage.  M'hen 
the  voyage  la  ready,  the  inaaler  Is  Iwund  to  sail  as 
soon  aa  the  wind  and  the  liilo  perinil,  but  ho  ought  nut 
to  set  out  In  wry  tenipeatuou*  weather.  If,  by  tbu 
rhartor-party,  tho  vi»sel  is  lo  aail  by  a  given  day,  the 
niaater  iniiit  do  il,  unleaa  prevented  by  nucesaily ;  and 
if  thorn  bo  an  iinder»tnnillng  lo  sail  with  convoy,  ho  la 
bound  to  go  to  the  place  of  renduzvoua,  and  place  him- 
self under  Ibe  pniirrtion  and  control  of  the  convoy,  and 
ronllnuo,  aa  faraa  poaaible,  under  that  protection  during 
bla  cuurae.  lie  la  bound,  likowiae,  lo  obtain  Ihe  neces- 
sary sailing  inalructlona  for  Ibe  convoy ;  but  these  rovc- 
nsnls  to  sail  vlth  tha  llrat  fair  wind  and  vnth  convoy, 
aro  not  conditions  (ireccdant  to  thu  recovery  of  ft'ci^ht, 
and  a  broach  of  thorn  only  goes  to  tho  qneallon  of 
damage*.  Tho  master  I*  bound,  llkewiac,  to  proceed 
to  tho  port  of  doll  very  without  delay,  and  wilbout  ony 
unnecessary  deviation  from  the  direct  and  usual  course. 
If  be  covenants  to  go  to  a  luailiiig  port  by  a  given  liino, 
he  must  do  il  orahide  the  forfciluro ;  and  If  ho  be  forced 
by  perils  out  of  bis  regular  course,  ho  must  regain  It 
with  aslltllodoliiy  oapossiblo.  Nothing  but  some  Just 
and  necessary  cause,  a*  to  avoid  a  alorm,  or  pirates, 
or  enomlea,  or  to  procure  requi»lte  supplies  or  repairs, 
or  to  reliovc  a  ship  in  distress,  will  Justify  a  deviation 
from  tho  regular  courae  of  lliu  voyage.  If  he  deviates 
unnecessarily  from  the  usual  course,  and  the  cargo  bo 
injured  by  tempests  during  the  deviation,  it  Is  a  sufd- 
rient  proximate  cause  of  tho  loss  lo  entitle  the  freighter 
lo  recover;  though  if  it  could  lie  shown  that  tho  same 
loss  not  only  might  but  must  have  happened  if  there 
had  not  been  any  deviation,  tho  conclusion  might  bo 
olherwi.ic.  Nor  has  tho  caploin  any  authority  to  suli- 
Btitute  another  voyage  in  the  place  of  the  one  agreed 
between  the  owner  and  freighter  of  the  ship.  8uch 
a  powor  Is  altogothor  lieyond  Ihe  scope  of  his  au- 
thority as  master.  In  case  of  necessity,  as  where  tho 
ship  is  wrecked,  or  othenvisn  disabled  in  the  course 
of  the  voyage,  and  can  not  be  repaired,  under  Ihe 
circumstances,  without  too  great  delay  and  expense, 
the  master  may  procure  another  com|)etent  vessel  to 
carry  on  the  cargo  and  save  bis  freight.   If  other  mean* 


SHI 


1707 


SHI 


to  forw«r<l  lh«  fttgn  r«ii  1»<  jirw  iirnl,  Ihn  miutcr  iniiKt  I  xIIIimI.u  Ihny  cm  iilw«\>  U'  ii|,oii  ■  lillli>riiiUrp*Uc|«r 
urwuru  lliimi  nr  Idm  lil»  fr«l((lil ;  tml  If  lin  ollrrii  Ici  ilu  in  rlmmiTy  to  Im  IUi'cI  i,\  llm  mualur.  Il*v|iit(  iiiaiU 
it,  iiicl  iIk-  fnilKhlnr  will  iiiit  ronuiil,  Im  wltl  lliuii  hu  i  u  >'iintlt(iimpnl,  tlio  luiinlKn**  or  iillur  lita  not  «ii  un< 
■ntllleil  I'l  III"  full  frelnht.  Th«  intaliT  mutt  »rt  In  I  llmllii<l  powi'r  to  v»ry  It  it  |i|i'aaiiri-.  Ho  intky  du  It 
port  of  111..  i»~liy  for  the  Imat  liittiri««t  of  nil  ooiuTnuiJ, ;  only  for  thu  piirpow  of  protwiliiK  hlmwtf  agaliiit  tli« 
•ml  111!  Ii»a  111.   powrr  mi.l  illacrnlloii  *il(.||imt(i  lo  llm  ,  liiaolvoniy  of  the  liuvvr  or  cotialKiii.*. 


triial,  ami  ruiiniaila  fur  tlia  anfii  ili.|lvury  of  tlin  carK" 
•t  thii  port  of  iliiallnation.      If  llicrn  In'  •imtliitr  veaarl 
In  tlia  tania  or  In  a  coiitlKUOua  port  wlilili  can  Ix  had, 
th*  duty  t«  cloar  and  Impurallvu  upon  tho  niaatur  to 
Mm  It  i'  hut  atlll  thu  niualcr  la  to  cxcrclaa  a  aoiind  dla- 
crcllon  ,tda|itcd  to  tho  cuae.     lie  may  tranamit  tho 
carKo,  If  hii  hna  Iho  inrana,  or  liit  It  remain.     ll»  may 
bind  It  for  repairs  tu  thu  ahlp.      llu  may  aoll  part,  or 
hypotli(<rata  tho  whole.     If  h«  hirua  aiiothur  vvaaol  fur 
tho  completion  of  tln!  voyage,  ho  inny  charK>i  Iho  carifo 
with  Iho  iiicreaaud  freight  arlahiK  from  the  hiru  of  tho 
new  ahlp.    The  niaater  may  rofuae  to  hire  another  vea- 
■ol,  and  Inaiat  on  repalrliiK  hia  own  ;  and  whether  tho 
frolKhter  bo  bound  to  w»lt  for  thn  time  to  n^pair,  or 
beconiea  nntitlml  to  hor  gooda  without  any  charge  uf 
fr«l|{hl,  will  depend  upon  circumatiiueea,     What  may 
b«  a  reaaonnldu  timo  for  th«  morchnnt  to  wait  fur  Iho 
repair*  can  nut  ho  doflued,  and  muat  bo  Kuvenn.l  by 
tho  facia  applicable  lu  the  pbico  ami  tho  time,  imd  to 
tho  iiaturo  and  condition  of  the  cargo.     A  cargo  of  a 
porlalmblo  naturu  umy  bo  au  deteriorated  as  not  to 
endure  tho  delay  fur  repairs,  or  to  bo  tuo  uiuil  and 
worthleaa  tu  bu  carried  on.     The  captain  ii  nut  Imund 
to  go  to  n  illatanco  to  procuro  another  veaaci,  and  en- 
counter Heriuua  Impedimenta  In  tho  way  of  putting  the 
cargo  on  board  anuthor  voiaet.     lIU  duly  ia  only  Im- 
perative when  anotlior  vetaol  can  Ih!  hud  iu  Iho  name 
or  a  contlguoui  port,  or  at  one  within  a  reaaunnl>lu  dia- 
tance,  and  theru  bu  no  groat  dltllculties  In  the  way  of 
a  lafe  roaiiipmont  of  the  cargo.     In  tho  course  uf  the 
voyage,  the  niaater  la  bound  to  take  all  posalblo  euro 
over  tho  cargo ;  ami  ho  la  reapouaiblo  for  every  Irjury 
which  mi(;ht  havo  boon  pruvciited  by  human  foresight 
and  prudoiico,  and  compolent  naval  skill.   lie  la  charge- 
able with  thu  inott  exact  diligence.     If  tho  ahip  l>e 
captured  during  tho  voyage,  the  inaster  la  bound  to 
render  Ills  oxurtions  to  rescue  tho  property  frum  con- 
demnation, liy  Interposal;  his  neutral  claima,  and  ex 
hihiling  all  the  dacuiii4ls  i>> 
tlon  uf  tho  cargo. 

(l/lhr  Velicery  nflht  Cno  It  al  Ih'-  Port  of  Dttlimtif 
—On  the  arrival  of  the  ship  at  tho  place  of  destination, 
tho  cargo  is  to  bo  delivered  to  tho  consignee,  or  to  ".. 
order  of  the  shipper,  ou  tho  production  of  the  bill  oi 
lading  and  payment  of  the  freight.  'Iho  cargo  Is  liound 
to  tho  ship  as  well  as  tho  ahip  to  tho  cargo;  but  the 
master  can  nut  detain  tho  goods  uii  board  the  ship  un- 
til the  freight  be  paid,  for  tiiu  merchant  ought  ;>.  have 
an  opportunity  to  ox&niino  the  condition  of  'hem  pre- 
vious to  payment.  Uollvery  at  tho  wharf (wliero  there 
are  no  special  directions  to  the  comrary)  discharges 
tho  master,  Hul  there  must  bo  adelivcry  at  tho  wharf 
to  some  porsun  authnrl/.cd  to  receive  the  goods,  or  due 
previous  notice  munt  havo  been  given  to  tho  consignee 
of  the  time  and  place  of  delivery ;  and  the  master  can 
not  discharge  hlniaelf  by  leaving  them  naked  and  ex- 
posed at  thu  wharf.  His  responsibility  will  cnntinuo 
until  there  Is  actual  delivery,  or  some  act  which  is 
oquivaleut,  or  a  substitute  fur  It,  unless  the  owner  of  tlic 
goods  or  his  agent  had  previously  aaaumcd  the  charge 
of  the  goods ;  or  at  least  until  the  cuusignee  han  had 
notice  of  the  place  and  time  of  delivery,  and  the  goods 
have  boon  duly  separated  and  dcsigued  for  his  use. 
Whon  there  arc  conflicting  claims  between  consigner 
and  consignee,  or  consigner  and  tho  assignee  of  the  j 
consignee,  if  the  consignee  has  failed,  he  ought  to  de- 
liver to  tho  claimant  on  behalf  of  the  consignee;  and 
if  the  conslgnco  has  assigned  tho  bill  of  lading,  and 
the  rights  of  tho  consignee  tio  still  Interposed  and  con- 
tested, It  is  safest  fur  the  master  to  deposit  the  goo<l8 
with  some  bailee,  until  tho  rights  of  tho  claimanU  arc 


I  his  power  fur  tlio  protcc- 


lleilhiiuikililji  11/ Ihr  Skip-ovnrr.—'Vhfi  casfa  that  will 
exi:u«.  tho  ownsra  ami  niatlera  for  the  non-delivvrv  uf 
thu  cargo  inuat  be  uveiils  falling  within  the  nieai'iln|( 
of  una  of  tho  exprvationt,  act  uf  (JihI  and  public  on* 
mloa;  or  they  mutt  arlae  frum  aumo  event  uxiiruaaly 
nrovlilod  for  in  the  charter-p  riy.  Walei-carrlera  ar* 
llal)lu  aa  cunimon  carriera  iu  all  Ihu  alricincat  and  •«• 
tent  of  the  common-law  rule,  unhaa  the  luta  liappena  by 
n  .  tna  of  one  of  tho  oxcppted  ,,erlla,  A  luaa  by  light, 
r  g  14  within  tho  oxcrntiuu  of  tho  act  uf  (iod  ;  but  a 
luat  by  lire  |iroccedlng  rum  any  ulhcr  cauae  la  cliargea. 
bio  upon  tho  ship-on  ii.r.  The  moment  Iho  goo'lt  are 
transferred  frum  th.:  'dp  or  lighter  to  Ihu  warehouse, 
this  extrauriiiiiary  rcpuiialliiliiy  viida. 

If  rock  or  a  a.  '.bur  bo  gin.  ly  known  and  the 
ahlp  bu  not  forced  upon  it  by  n  .  \rao  Hiiiiiaor  tem- 
puata,  Iho  loss  la  tu  b«  imputed  I  .  fault  of  llm  mas- 
trr,  lint  if  the  abiji  bu  fur  .1  n  m  such  almliuw  by 
nbida  or  teinpcala,  or  if  the  11  utf  ociasiiiii'il  by  a 
recent  and  xuddeu  colleclion  uf  annil  in  a  pbi      v.  hero 

ships  could  bcfi..         !    vlth  safety,  the  lu^H  l»    m. 

tributcd  lu  n  pe  1  of  i!.  t  tea.  A  tlutule  jo  .Mu»>ucliu> 
aetit,  passed  In  Mif,  ai.n  re-enacted  iu  IHIi.i,  limits  tho 
reapunniiiillty  ut  uwncra  for  the  acts  uf  tho  mualcr  and 
miirinera  tu  tlio  value  uf  the  ship  and  freight,  but  olh. 
eru  iao  tho  owner  la  bound  fur  thu  wliulo  amount  uf  tho 
iii]urv  done  by  the  master  or  crow, 

lliiliii  iifllie  .S'A/;)/'«i'».— Thu  duties  of  tho  charterer 
are  to  iiae  thu  ship  In  n  lawful  maiiucr,  iind  fur  the  pur- 
poso  fur  which  It  wua  let.  If  thu  freighter  pula  on 
board  prohilillcd  "contriiliund  goods,  by  incana  viieru- 
of  thu  ship  is  Bubji'clrd  to  duteutiou  anil  foiMturu,  ho 
must  aiinwer  to  the  Bhi|>-uwner  for  tho  cuuaei|uciicea  uf 
tho  act.  And  if  the  mcrcliaiit  declines  tu  lade  tho 
ship  according  to  cuiitrucl,  or  lu  fiiruiah  a  rolurii  cargo, 
at  he  had  engaged  to  do,  ho  must  render  iu  duniugcs 
duo  compeusntiou  fur  the  Ions. 

Piti/mnU  of  A  rciy/t.— Freight,  In  Us  original  and 
more  common  acci.ptiitiun,  means  the  hire  uliich  la 
earned  for  tho  Iranspurtatiun  uf  goods,  but  in  lis  mure 
extensive  .sense  it  i.s  a|)|ilicd  lu  all  rewards  fur  cum- 
;  ,.  ution  paid  for  the  ute  uf  ships,  if  tho  Idriiig  In 
.  .lio  whole  ship,  or  fur  un  entile  part  of  her  for  tho 
vjyago,  tho  merciiant  uiust  pay  thu  t'rcight  though  hu 
djts  nut  fully  lade  the  ship.  Kut  If  hu  agrees  to  pay 
in  proportion  to  liio  anmnut  of  Iho  goods  put  on  buard, 
and  docs  not  agree  to  provide  a  »  hole  cnrgu,  the  owner 
can  demand  pnyinent  fur  tlio  cargo  actually  Bhipped, 
If  the  merchant  agrees  to  furnish  a  return  cargu,  and 
ho  furnishes  nuno,  and  lets  tliu  ship  return  in  ballast, 
he  must  miiko  compensntiun  to  tho  amount  of  the 
freight.— Lkonb  Lkvi's  Cum.  Liwofthe  Wurld. 

AnalijiUofthe  (ieneml  Jjiw  of  illnppiiig.—'l\\o  sale 
of  ships  in  Ureat  Drituin  must  bo  I'lado  by  a  bill  of 
sale  containing  a  recital  of  tho  cerlilicalo  of  registry, 
lu  Fronce,  Spain,  and  Sardinia,  it  must  bo  msdo  by 
public  (Iced,  In  Holland  the  deed  is  transferred  into 
a  public  register.  All  I3ritisii  subjects  aru  aulliorUod 
to  possess  shares  in  ships  in  Great  llritain.  In  .Spain 
foreigners  not  naturalized  can  not  acquire  tho  owner- 
ship  of  ships.  In  Russia  this  right  is  limited  to  mer- 
chants of  tho  first  and  second  guild,  I'ttrt  owners  are 
tenants  in  common  with  each  other  of  their  respective 
shares  in  (ireat  llritain.  Each  ship's  husband  may 
sell  liis  share,  but  he  should  give  preference  to  his  part 
oivnors  at  equal  price,  proviiled  they  pay  the  prlca 
within  three  days:  Spain,  Prussia,  Kiissia,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden,  The  responsibility  of  ship-owners  for 
the  acts  of  the  captain  is  unlimltud  In  Prussia  and  Spain, 
provided  it  be  proved  that  such  expenses  turned  to  tha 
advantage  of  the  vessels.     In  Great  Britain  the  own» 


SHI 


1708 


SHI 


en  are  mpontlble  wberu  tho  expenditure  is  for  neces- 
•ariet.  In  Portugal  obligations  are  not  binding  be- 
yond the  value  of  tlie  ship  and  froiglit.  In  France 
ovrnara  may  relieve  themoelves  from  such  obligations 
by  the  abandonment  of  ship  and  freight.  In  Russia 
the  ship's  husband  is  responsible  only  to  the  value  of 
the  ship.  In  the  Two  Sicilies,  Sardinia,  Holland, 
Urcece,  and  Ilayti,  the  same  restriction  is  admitted. 
In  the  United  States  tlie  seamen  are  not  paid  if  the 
ship  and  freight  have  Iccn  losl ;  but  thvir  wages  are 
preferred  to  bottomry  bond  on  the  ship  and  freiglit 
preserved.— 5ce  Ow.nkbs  of  Siiirs.  In  France  the 
same  law  prevails. 

Sugjtitunt  to  Masters  of  Ships ;  approved  by  the  Afer- 
chants  and  Underwriters  of  New  Vork.—l.  Incaseof  dis- 
asters to  vessels  and  damage  to  their  cargoes,  occasion- 
ing their  putting  into  ports  of  iieoessity,  so  much  diffi- 
culty has  from  time  to  ^imo  occurred  in  relation  to 
their  averages  and  insurance,  that  tho  following  sug- 
gestions have  been  drawn  up  for  the  guidance  of  sbip- 
masters  and  supercargoes,  and  have  mot  the  approba- 
tion of  the  merchants  and  underwriters  of  tho  principal 
cities,  hy  itonforming  to  these  suggestions,  and  by 
resorting  to  the  agents  for  vessels,  a  list  of  whom  is 
published,  many,'if  not  most  difficulties,  will  bn  obvi- 
ated. 

2.  In  ever}-  case  of  disaster,  the  vessel  must  be  re- 
paired, if  practicable,  without  a  gross  expenditure  ex- 
ceeding tlirco  fourths  of  value  of  tlie  vessel,  as  valued 
in  her  insurance,  or  estimated  at  the  place  of  beginning 
her  voyage  from  the  United  States. 

5.  If  full  repairs  can  not  l>e  made  at  all,  or  without 
extraordinary  expense,  temporary  repairs  must  be  put 
on  Mie  vessel,  in  order  to  complete  thu  voyage ;  at  its 
end  tliese  repairs  will  be  allowed  in  full,  and  the  full 
repairs  may  be  made  after  gettiiig  into  a  suitable  port 
for  repairing,  at  the  expense  of  underwriters,  as  in 
otlier  cases.  In  places  where  there  are  not  opportuni- 
ties of  purchasing,  or  conveniences  for  putting  on  cop- 
per, without  great  e,xpcnse,  as  at  Key  West,  Havana, 
and  most  of  the  Southern  ports  of  the  United  States,  it 
is  recommended  to  omit  this  expense  until  arrival  at 
some  of  the  considerable  ports  of  Europe  or  the  United 
States,  where  the  same  can  be  done  more  cheaply  and 
better. 

4.  If  spars  are  sprung,  or  sails  or  rigging  Injured, 
and  can  not  Iw  readily  replaced,  or  without  great  ex- 
pense, every  ecpcdient  with  which  a  practiced  seaman 
is  ready  ought  to  be  resorted  to,  in  order  to  make  the 
Injured  articles  serve  until  '.rrival  at  some  such  con- 
sidei.^bio  port,  where  the  repairs  ran  be  done  com- 
pletely. The  repairs  may  then  be  made  with  ad- 
vantage to  all  parties,  without  delay  of  the  voyage,  or 
an  extravagant  extent  of  expenditure,  which  is  al- 
ways more  or  less  to  the  discredit  of  the  ship-master. 

6.  In  no  casr  ought  the  cargo  to  be  unladen  without 
the  clearest  necessity.  It  is  not  only  very  expensive, 
but  always  creates  a  great  delay,  and  is  apt  to  end  in 
serious  injury  to  the  cargo.  The  intelligent  ship-mas- 
ter .rill  generally  form  a  good  opinion  on  this  subject, 
and  should  consult  such  skillful  persons  as  he  may  Hnd, 
and  who  can  gain  nothing  by  his  unloading.  When 
unloading  is  concluded  to  be  necessary,  the  shlp-master 
ihould  be  careful  to  stipulate  against  a  charge  of  com- 
mission on  the  cargo  for  merely  di.icharging,  storing, 
•nd  reloading,  as  nosubstantial'responslbility  is  there- 
by incurred,  and  In  most  cases  a  charge  of  commi.ssion 
for  such  transactions  is  considered  unreasonable.  When 
allowed,  it  should  never  exceed  one  and  a  quarter  per 
cent.  Should  an  unreasonable  sum  be  re(|uircd,  or  a 
high  commission  be  demanded,  the  master  can  obviate 
the  difficulty  by  hiring  sture-room  and  retaining  tho 
entire  control  of  the  cargo  himself.  A  proper  charge 
for  storage,  and  a  regular  commission  fur  the  general 
bnt'.i^ss  of  the  ship  under  repair,  will  afford,  in  most 
instances,  a  fair  and  adequate  remuneration.  It  Is  al- 
ways proper  to  have  suitable  men  employed  to  watch 


and  take  care  of  the  cargo,  whose  compensation  will 
fall  into  on  average,  general  or  partial,  and  without 
any  deduction ;  and  so  also  any  reasonable  compensa- 
tion to  the  merchant  fur  his  actual  trouble,  responsi- 
bility, and  services,  will  be  justly  chargeable  and 
freely  allowed.  Tho  difference  between  such  charges 
and  a  commission  on  the  whole  cargo  will  bo  obvious 
to  every  snip-master. 

C.  It  is  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  nothing 
but  absolute  necessity,  or  a  cost  to  repair  of  over  thfee 
fourtlis  ner  value,  can  warrant  a  sale  of  the  vessel; 
and  not  only  will  a  sale  othcrniso  made  relieve  tho  in- 
surers, but  the  purchasers'  title  can  bo  impeached, 
whenever  the  vessel  can  bo  found  in  the  United  States. 

Many  very  disastrous  results  to  merchants,  insurers, 
and  owners,  have  arisen  from  sales  of  ships  not  war- 
ranted by  absolute  necessity,  and  prompted  by  selfish 
or  careless  advice. 

7.  It  too  frequently  occurs  that  wlien  vessels  are 
stranded  on  our  const  tho  master  abandons  the  prop- 
erty to  tlie  wreck  commissioner,  under  tho  impression 
that  he  is  bound  so  to  do ;  in  this  he  is  mistaken.  In 
all  cases  tho  master  should  keep  the  control  of  the 
property,  employing  tho  wreck  commissioner,  when 
necesstry,  for  advice  and  information,  and  as  one 
through  whom  ho  can  procure  ail  needful  assistance ; 
and  it  is  hii  duty  to  furnish  it  when  required  by  a 
ship-master  in  distress.  The  master's  duty  would  ba 
to  communici>to  with  tho  owners  or  underwriters,  by 
sending  a  spcclui  messenger  to  tho  nearest  post-office, 
or,  should  the  vessel  l)0  stranded  near  New  Vork,  to 
send  him  with  his  communications  directly  to  this  city. 
At  some  of  the  smaller  places  on  our  const  tho  mails 
are  sent  off  only  once  a  week,  and  instances  l.ove  oc- 
curred of  letters  l)eing  detained  from  unworthy  mo- 
tives, postmasters  being  sometimes  interested  directly 
themselves,  or  to  servo  a  friend  by  the  delay  of  intelli- 
gence. The  master  should  in  all  cases  ajcertaiii  that 
there  will  bo  no  delay  in  tho  transmission  of  his  ad- 
vices; and  if  necessary  to  insure  dispatch,  he  should 
send  them  by  a  messenger  to  tho  principal  post-office 
on  the  nearest  of  tho  largo  mail  routes;  ond  in  case  of 
necessity  or  urgency,  resort  sliould  bo  made  to  tho 
telegraph,  when  practioablcA 

8.  In  case  the  vessel  shoulinja  subject  to  salvage,  it 
is  proper  always  to  have  the  vessel  and  cargo  appraised 
at  their  value  as  brought  in ;  and  then  the  alternative 
adopted  cither  to  bond  the  cargo  and  vessel,  or  to  sell, 
as  may  bo  deemed  necessarj'.  Tho  vessel,  cargo,  and 
freight  may  also  be  pledged  by  bottomry  to  relieve 
the  vessel  and  cargo  from  her  salvage  charges ;  and 
this  is  generally  expedient.  But  if  this  can  not  bo 
done,  and  the  vessel  and  cargo  are  not  perishing  so 
rapidly  as  to  allow  of  no  communication  with  the  homo 
of  the  vessel,  a  postponement  of  tho  sale  ought  always 
to  bo  applied  for  until  advice  or  relief  can  bo  had  from 
tlie  owners  or  insurers. 

9.  In  any  case  of  di°.aster  to  the  vessel,  if  tho  cargo 
is  saved,  fo  that  it  can  be  sent  on  by  any  otlier  vessel, 
a  vessel  hired  or  procured  for  that  purpose,  tlie  extra 
freiglit  will  be  reimbursed  by  the  insurers.  In  case 
of  being  unable  otherwise  to  obtain  money  for  complet- 
ing tho  voyage,  in  cases  where  repairs  are  prcipcr,  a 
sale  of  part  of  the  cargo  may  bo  resorted  to ;  but  this 
should  not  be  done  except  in  tho  most  urgent  cases, 
and  where  the  cargo  will  bring  reasonablo  prices; 
for  what  is  sold  must  bo  accounted  for  at  tlie  price  it 
would  have  brought  on  its  arrival  at  its  port  of  desti- 
nation,  which  frequently  will  bo  with  a  heavy  profit, 
and  be  ruinous  to  the  voyage.  This  matter  of  selling 
must  bo  carefully  examined  when  proposed,  and  tho 
latest  prices  at  tho  place  of  destination  of  tho  cargo  to 
be  offered  for  sale  should  be  first  ascertained  beforo 
such  a  decision  is  taken,  and  the  selection  of  such 
cargo  as  is  likely  to  occasion  the  least  loss. 

10.  In  foreign,  and  oven  in  some  domestic  ports, 
official  persons,  as  port  wardens,  surveyors,  and  the 


SHI 


1709 


SHI 


porta, 
and  t>i9 


like,  assnme  to  order  this  or  that  to  be  done,  the  ves- 
sel to  be  hove  down,  cargo  discharged,  certain  repairs 
made,  or  the  like.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  master  is  and  ouglit  to  be  the  master  of  his 
own  vessel.  He  ought  to  exercise  and  rely  on  liis  own 
Judgment,  for  which  he  is  responsible,  and  on  which 
bis  character  and  reputation  rest.  Ue  may,  if  ho  is 
doubtful,  talco  any  intelligent  advice  he  may  think  fit, 
and  when  measures  are  determined  on  by  him  he  may 
hove  his  own  judgment  confirmed  by  official  persons 
or  others ;  but  nothing  will  dispense  with  his  exercis- 
ing first  his  own  honest  and  faithful  judgment,  getting 
any  advice  from  others  which  he  can,  and  being  \<.la 
to  show,  when  required,  the  grounds  of  his  judgment. 
Such  officers  as  arc  named  above  must  not  bo  referred 
to  as  having  authority  sufficient  to  justify,  1>y  their 
orders  or  certificates,  what  they  may  recommend.  As 
men  having  experience,  they  may  give  goo<l  advice, 
but  the  master  must  never  lose  sight  of  liis  jwn  duty 
to  see  that  what  he  follows  is  the  best  course.  In  these 
and  all  other  cases  of  advice,  certi'  ates,  and  the  like, 
the  master  must  see  carefully  tliat  those  who  advise 
him  arc  persons  without  a  private  interest  to  be  served 
in  what  they  recommend. 

11.  In  case  the  voyage  should  inevitably  bo  broken 
up  by  disasters  and  misfortunes,  tlie  master  must  care- 
fully procure  the  proper  protests  and  accounts  of  what 
is  saved,  and  of  all  his  expenditures  on  account.  He 
should  cause  any  balance  of  money,  whether  he  r.up- 
poses  the  vessel  and  cargo  to  have  been  abandoned  or 
not,  to  be  remitted  in  tlio  surest  way  to  his  owners,  or 
the  consignors  or  consignees  of  vessel  or  cargo.  Such 
remittance  will  not  at  all  affect  the  insurance,  and  will 
reimburse  to  the  owners  of  tlio  property  some  part  of 
their  loss  the  soonest. 

12.  Should  it  l)e  necessary  to  jettison  a  part  of  the 
cargo,  care  sliould  be  taken  to  throw  overboard  the 
least  valuable  and  most  weighty  parts  of  it,  if  time 
and  other  circumstances  will  jiermit  you  to  make  the 
selection. 

13  In  every  disaster  the  master  should  be  careful 
to  communicate  it,  with  all  details,  lioth  of  the  mode 
of  the  disaster  and  of  the  extent  of  damage  or  injury, 
or  of  its  being  relieved  from  its  peril,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  to  the  owners,  consignees,  or  insurers,  as  they  be 
most  near  or  easy  to  be  sent  to.  Duplicates  should  be 
sent,  in  case  opportunities  allow.  Neitlicr  tlie  owner 
can  act,  nor  tlie  insurer,  without  them,  and  deloy  from 
the  want  of  communicating  of  intelligence  is  often 
ruinous. 

14.  It  is  .IS  important  that  masters  of  vessels  should 
take  proper  moans  for  the  prevention  of  disasters  as 
that  they  should  follow  the  right  course  after  such 
disaster  has  occurred.  The  danger  from  fire  has  be- 
come of  late  years  so  greot  as  to  render  necessary  the 
utmost  precaution  against  this  dcstruclive  element,  not 
only  in  the  storage  of  cargoes,  but  liy  keeping  a  full 
ond  competent  watch  on  board  vessels  lying  at  anchor 
or  at  the  wharf.  If  possible,  the  sails  should  bo  un- 
bent in  all  cases  when  tne  vessel  might  receive  dam- 
age while  lying  at  her  dock  from  fire  occurring  in 
adjacent  buildings.  In  case  of  stress  of  weather  at 
sea,  by  which  tho  vessel  becomes  so  disaliled  ns  to 
render  her  unseaworthy,  tho  master  should  deliberate 
well  before  determining  upon  an  abanrinninent  of  his 
trust ;  but  in  case  such  course  becomes  imperative,  the 
practice  of  scuttling  or  setting  fire  to  the  vessel  before 
leaving  is  not.  recommended ;  as  a  ship  sinking  so 
rapidly  as  to  compel  her  desertion,  will  disappear  soon 
enough  without  the  use  of  such  an  expedient.  The 
argument  used  in  favor  of  l)urning,  that  unless  this  be 
done,  disaster  may  lie  caused  to  otiier  vessels,  is  not 
well  founded,  ns  should  it  happen  (as  it  frequently 
does)  that  the  ship  should  not  sink,  she  can  lie  more 
easily  distinguished  with  lier  hull  above  the  wafer 
than  if  burned  to  the  water's  edge. 

15.  Merchants  in  the  various  considerable  ports  have 


been  recommended  by  underwriters  of  this  port,  to 
whose  advice  It  will  be  most  useful  to  masters  to  resorL 
They  are  not  only  of  well-known  respectability,  but 
their  being  in  the  high  estimation  of  merchants  and 
commercial  men  at  home,  viU  greatly  aid  in  the 
smoothing  of  all  difficulties  in  tho  settlement  of  claims 
arising  out  of  disaster.  Their  advice  and  tecommend> 
atlon  will  lie  the  safest  protection  of  the  upright  and 
lionorablo  ship-masters  in  every  difficult  course,  and  ■ 
resort  to  them  will  of  itself  be  "the  most  evident  proof 
of  the  fairness  of  the  shipmaster's  intentions,  as  well  as 
of  the  wisdom  of  his  measures. 

16.  It  ought  to  be  known  to  ship-masters  that  the 
mode  of  insurance  now  adopted  in  some  of  the  principal 
ports  of  the  United  States,  and  at  present  rapidly  in- 
creasing, makes  tho  merchants  mutually  insurers  for 
each  other.  They  thus  are  all  Interested  in  seeing 
that  every  proper  measure  for  the  protection  and  sav- 
ing of  the  property  at  sea  from  damage  or  loss  Is 
adopted.  They  are  now  all  interested  as  insurers  in 
the  promotion  of  justice  and  moderation  in  the  settle- 
ment of  claims  for  loss,  and  the  ship-master  who  faith- 
fully discharges  his  duty  will  rapidly  advance  his 
character  and  reputation ;  while  he  who  fails  In  it  will 
find  the  universal  interests  of  commercial  men,  as  well 
as  their  sense  of  justice,  active  in  exposing  him. 

The  reciprocal  Duliet  of  Consular  Officers  and  Matten 
of  American  ]'essels. — Hy  an  act  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  approved  February  28,  1803,  it  is  in 
substance  directed  that  every  master  of  an  American 
vessel  shall,  on  his  arrival  at  a  foreign  port,  deposit 
his  register,  sea-letter,  and  Mediterranean  passport, 
with  the  consular  ofilcor  of  the  United  States,  if  there 
bo  one  at  the  port,  under  a  penalty  of  $500,  which  the 
consular  officer  may  recover  in  his  own  name  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States.  Whenever  a  clearance  from 
the  proper  officer  of  the  port  shall  be  produced  to  the 
consular  officer,  ho  shall  deliver  up  all  the  ship's  pa- 
pers, provided  tlie  master  shall  have  complied  with  the 
provisions  of  the  above-mentioned  act,  and  those  of  the 
28th  section  of  the  act  of  August  18, 1856.  Where  ves- 
sels merely  touch  nt  a  foreign  port  to  try  the  market, 
or  are  accidentally  driven  into  such  port,  and  make  no 
formal  entry,  it  docs  not  constitute  an  "arrival"  with- 
in the  meaning  of  the  act,  and  tiie  ship's  papers  can 
not  bo  required  by  llie  consul. 

As  some  doubt  lias  arisen  in  regard  to  what  consti- 
tutes an  "arrival,"  attention  is  particularly  called  to 
the  following  extract  from  an  opinion  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States :  "  Our  view,  then,  Is,  that 
the  term  arrival,  as  used  in  this  act,  must  bo  construed 
according  to  the  suliject-matter,  the  object  of  the  pro* 
vision,  and  the  expressions  in  other  sections  of  this  act, 
and  ill  other  like  acts ;  and  that  acconling  to  all  these, 
a  vessel  putting  into  a  foreign  port  to  get  information, 
and  getting  it  without  going  at  all  to  the  upper  harbor 
or  wharves,  and  not  entering,  or  repairing,  or  breaking 
bulk,  or  discharging  seamen,  or  being  bound  home- 
ward, so  as  to  take  seamen,  or  needing  the  aid  of  tlie 
consul  in  any  respect,  but  leaving  the  port  in  a  few 
hours :  not  doing  any  of  these,  nor  being  required  to, 
and  duly  entering  and  delivering  her  cargo  at  a  neigh- 
boring port,  where  it  had  been  sold,  and  there  depos- 
iting her  papers  with  the  vice-consul,  can  not  be  said 
to  have  arrived  at  the  first  port,  so  ns  to  come  wiihin 
llie  spirit  of  the  penal  provision  ns  to  depositing  her 
papers  with  tlie  consul.  So  far  as  regards  precedents 
on  this  matter,  the  nclual  decision  of  one  court  and  tho 
opinions  of  two  Attorneys  General  are  in  favor  of  our 
conclusion." 

Hy  the  first  section  of  the  net  of  1803,  it  is  made  the 
duty  of  the  consular  officer,  immediately  on  the  ar- 
rival of  an  American  vessel,  should  the  master  neglect 
to  deliver  his  slii;)'3  papers,  as  he  is  directed  by  law,  to 
inform  him  of  the  necessity  of  so  doing,  by  showing 
him  the  law  that  requires  it,  and  apprising  him  of  the 
penalty  he  will  incur  by  refusal  or  neglect. 


SHI 


1710 


SHO 


SHIP- 
MAinn  ■xnnDiD  pbotmt  or  ' 


-,  18—. 


-,  HABTla, 


0>n$uUU*  of  'lie  i'nUtd  StaUt  of  America, 
Port  of . 


By  thi(  public  Imtrnment  of  deeliintlon  tnd  proteit, 
b*  it  knowD  and  made  manlfut  onto  all  to  whom  tlieaa 
prewntt  thall  come  or  majr  concern,  that  on  tho  — 

dajr  of  ,  one  Ihouiand  eight  hundred  and , 

before  me, — — ,  coniiul  of  the  United  States  of 

America  for ,  and  the  dependencies  thereof,  per- 

ionaUjr  came  and  appeared ,  master  of  tho 

•hip  or  TCMel  called  the ,  of  ,  of  the  burden 

of  — —  tern,  or  thereabout,  li<en  Ijtlng  In  tills  port  of 


-,  laden  with  - 


-  cargo,  who  duly  noted  and  en- 


tered with  me  the  said  consul  his  protest,  for  the  uses 
and  purpOM*  hereafter  mentioned ;  and  now,  on  this  day, 
to  wit,  the  day  of  the  date  hereof,  before  me,  the  said 

consul,  again  comes  the  said ,  and  requires 

me  lo  extend  this  protest ;  and  together  with  tho  said 

also  come  A  H,  mate,  O  If,  carpenter,  K 

L  and  M  O,  seamen,  of  and  belonging  to  tho  said  ship, 
all  of  whom  being  by  me  duly  sworn  on  the  Holy  Evan- 
gelists of  Almighty  God,  did  seTeratly  voluntarily,  time- 
ly, and  solemnly  declare,  depose,  and  slate  as  follows, 

that  Is  to  say :  That  these  appearors,  on  the day 

of ^  In  their  capacities  aforesaid,  sailed  in  and  with 

the  said ftom  the  port  of ,  laden  with , 

and  bound  to  the  port  of ;  that  the  said  ship  was 

then  tight,  stanch,  and  strong;  had  her  cargo  well  and 
sufficiently  stowed  and  secured ;  bad  her  hatches  well 
calked  and  aocured ;  was  well  and  sufficiently  manned, 
victualed,  and  fhmlshed  with  all  things  needHil  and  nec- 
essary for  a  vessel  In  the  merchant  service,  and  particu- 
larly for  the  voyage  she  was  about  to  undertake ;  that 
[Here  insert  narrative  of  the  facts  of  the  voyage  as  they 

occurred,  with  full  and  minute  particulars,  with  dates, 

latitude,  longitude,  etc] 

And  these  said  appearers,  upon  their  oaths  aforesaid, 
do  further  declare  an4  say:  That  during  the  said  vo  ■  ••'-. 
they,  together  with  the  others  of  the  said  ship's  compi ,:  , 

used  their  utmost  endeavors  to  preserve  tho  said ' 

and  cargo  from  all  manner  of  loss,  damage,  or  injurv. 
Wherefore  the  said ,  master,  hath  protest- 
ed, aa  by  these  presents  I,  the  said  consul,  at  hie  special 
Instance  and  request,  do  publicly  and  solemnly  protest, 
against  all  and  every  person  and  persons  whom  it  doth 
or  may  concern,  and  against  the  winds,  and  waves,  and 
billows  of  the  seas,  and  against  all  and  every  accident, 
matter,  and  thing,  had  and  met  with  as  aforesaid,  wheie- 
by,  and  by  reaaon  whoreuf,  the  said  -"— —  or  cargo -al- 
ready has,  or  hereafter  shall  appear  to  have  suffered  or 
sustained  'damage  or  injury.  And  do  declare  that  all 
losses,  damages,  costs,  charges,  and  expenses  that  havo 

happened  to  the  said or  cargo,  or  to  either,  arc, 

and  ought  to  be  borne  by  those  to  whom  the  same  by 
right  may  appertain  by  way  of  average  or  otherwise,  tho 
same  having  occurred  as  before  mentioned,  and  not  by 
or  through  the  Insufficiency  of  the  said  — — ,  her  tackle 
or  apparel,  or  default  or  neglect  of  this  appealer,  his  of- 
6cers,  or  any  of  his  marinera. 

Thus  done  and  protested  In  the  port  of ,  this 

day  of ,  In  tho  year  of  our  Lord  one  Ihou- 
iand eight  hundred  and  ■■ 

In  testimony  whereof  these  appearers  have  hereunto 

subscribed  their  names,  and  I,  tho  said 

consul,  have  granted  to  the  said  mas- 

/     aiAI.  or    >    ter  this  public  Instrument,  under  my 

\tui  ooxBCi.  /  hand  and  the  seal  of  this  consulate, 

to  serve  and  avail  bim  and  all  others 

whom  it  doth  or  may  concern,  as  need 

iltuter.     and  occasion  may  require. 

A  n,  JTote. ,  U.  S.  f'.'ruml. 

U  H,  CVirpeilMr. 

K  L,  Seaman. 

U  O,     do. 


Shipwraoka.    See  Wnm^KN. 

Shoal,  in  th«  Sea  language,  denotes  n  ,  )«;^.  viherc 
the  water  is  shallow;  and  likewise  a  gnki  'iim>^.-ii,^  c. 
tisbes,  such  as  a  $hoal  (rfherringi. 

ShOMI  (Du.  Schoentn;  Kr.  Soulien;  G«r.  Sekuhe; 
It.  Soarpe;  Russ.  BaichmaJti;  Up.  Zapntot),  articles 
of  clothing  that  ar«  universaUy  worn,  and  require  no 


description.  The  shoe  mannfactuTa  is  of  great  vain* 
and  importance. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Trade. — The  annual  ralue  of  boott 
and  shoes  manufactured  In  Massachusetts  is  estimated 
at  (37 ,000,000,  exceeding  any  other  branch  of  manu* 
facture.  The  demand  for  boots  and  shoes  for  yean 
past  has  been  fully  equal  to  the  production,  and  tha 
trade  generally  of  llonton  has  been  quite  up  to  expect- 
ation. The  hi|{h  prices  of  leather  and  all  kinds  of 
stock  have  induced  manufacturers  to  work  very  cau- 
tiously, and  they  have  turned  out  no  more  goods  than 
were  actually  wanted.  The  trade  opened  in  January 
last  with  a  good  demand  and  a  firm  market,  and  tbii 
purchases  generally  were  at  an  advance  of  about  6  per 
cent.  Early  in  February  the  trade  was  materially 
checked  by  the  ice  embargo  South  and  West,  which 
completel}'  closed  river  and  harbor  navigation,  and 
prevented  the  forwarding  of  goods.  The  opening  of 
navigation  in  March  led  to  an  active  demand,  and 
throughout  March  and  April  the  business  was  quite 
active,  buyers  from  the  South  and  West  completely 
clearing  the  market  of  all  desirable  goods,  the  Spring 
trade  closing  qiUte  satisfuctorily. 

The  high  cost  of  stock  tlie  past  year  has  also  been 
quite  a  check  on  the  production,  keeping  it  within  the 
limits  of  the  demand ;  and  the  same  policy  is  likely  to 
control  the  operations  of  manufacturers  tho  coming 
year.  For  some  months  past  tho  quantity  of  goods 
turned  out  has  been  comparatively  small,  and  the  sup- 
ply on  the  market  for  Spring  sales  will  not  be  likely 
to  exceed  the  actual  wants  of  the  trade.  The  quantity 
of  boots  and  shoes  cleared  at  the  custom-house  has  been 
as  follows : 


Yesn.  QmnlllT. 

184T 7a,424 

184S 79,113 

1340 101,371 

1S60 147,789 

1851 183,tH2 


Yean.  QuantUv. 

1852 195,1'iO 

1SS3 220,138 

13,54 19d,4U 

1SB.5 204,601 

19M 22*,8M 


A  large  portion  of  the  supplies  for  the  West  are  for- 
warded by  railroad,  and  are  of  course  not  included  in 
the  above  statement. 

In  one  county  alone  of  Massachusetts  (Essex)  the 
annual  product  of  boots  and  shoes  in  1855,  according 
to  the  census,  was  over  $12,000,000.  As  this  is  the 
leading  trade  of  the  State,  we  enumerate  the  product 
of  each  county : 

Bamstable $1»,.'U)0 

Ilerkiiliire 110,800 

Bristol 498,000 

Dukes 8,000 

Essex 12,192,800 

Franklin 62,S0O 

Hampden 124,100    . 

Middlesex «,&02,100 

Kantucket 10,300 

Norfolk 4,987,000 

Hampshiro 60,400 

Plymouth 4,868,700 

Buffolk 19.1,900 

Worcester 7,867,300 

Total  value  of  boots  and  shoes $»7,4  0,000 

I.eathcr,  tanned  and  curried 10,934,400 

I'atent  enameled  leather 1,271,900 

In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Hoston  there  are  manu- 
factures to  the  extent  of  at  least  #150,000,000  annuully, 
and  of  this  the  value  added  to  the  raw  material  by  labor 
can  not  be  less  than  $75,000,000.  In  addition,  the  for- 
eign fry  goods,  groceries,  drugs,  hardware,  and  a  mul- 
tiplicity of  other  articles  sold  there,  swell  the  trade  of 
Boston  to  nearly  or  quite  a  hundred  millions  more. 
Of  manufactures,  the  first  in  importance  are  domestic 
cottons ;  and  of  about  fifty  millions  manufactured  an- 
nually, they  send  to  foreign  countries  less  than  two 
million*,  or  4  per  cent.  One  half  of  these  go  to  the 
west  coast  of  South  America,  the  east  coast  of  South 
America,  and  the  Central  American  States,  while  the 
West  Indies  receive  less  than  $220,000  wortli  of  cotton 
manufactures  from  Boston  in  a  year.  The  trade  ot 
Boston  with  Cuba  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 


8H0 


1711 


SIA 


[  are  manu- 
J)  annuall}') 
|»l  by  Ubor 
■on,  the  for- 
land  a  mul- 
lie  trade  of 
liona  more. 
J  domestic 
lictund  an- 
I  than  two 
g  go  to  the 
It  of  South 
I,  while  the 
Ih  of  cotton 
Te  trade  ot 
Tiding  June 


80,  IIM,  llood  u  followe:  Value  of  importa,  18,688,226 ; 

•xporta,  41,044,869. 

Kxpoam  o»  l)o«f »tio  lloora  ahu  Snots  fhoh ■rnp.  United 

MAT«lt  »0B  Tim  Y«*B  INniNO  JltNB  80,  1867. 

Whtihgf  «i|toft»d. I     PalfB  "P^  Vaiur 


A<l»lli)  lliiwila. 

UiiMktn  I'aHMm.  In  North  America  . 

Dtnlali  Wmt  Indlaa 

Ilaiiihiirtf 

Diileli  Wiial  liidlea 

Uiihih  (tiilana 

Kii||land 

(,'aiia<)i4  !.<.• 

Oilier  llrltlati  North  American  Poia. 

Ilrlllnh  W«at  Indica 

Ilrlilah  1lu:idiir«a » 

Itrltlnli  (lillana 

Itrltluli  I'lNHWKaliina  In  Africa 

I  itlirr  tinrta  In  Africa 

Ilrlllili  AiiKtralla 

Kmiieli  Nurth  American  roaaeHloni 

tliilia 

I'lirlo  lllea.... 

t:»M  du  V«rd  lalanda 

llarU 

Dan  IMrolngo 

Maiira , 

Oenlral  Kepiiblle 

Nittr  (Iranada 

Vaneaucia 

Ilmtll 

Vt«gu»y,  iir  Claplatlno  liepublio  . 

Arn'iitini)  Uepubllc 

<;liL 

I'eru 

Handwleh  lalatida 

Ollittr  lalanda  In  the  Pacific 

China 

Wliali'-llilieriea 

Total,  IdW 

Tulal,  1H60 


I1V6 

♦90 

6,238 

4,000 

S80 

86 

4.K0O 

22«,0-."i 

111,838 

8,643 

0,'22!3 

400 

1,750 

7,680 

66,00'> 

24 

8,180 

1,71,1 

1M 

7,077 

6.'iS 

l,6i« 

1,840 

7.123 

B,074 

400 

14,S0O 

10,618 

6,217 

40,811 

1.808 

400 

1.(170 


6«l..'i»l 
643.149 


))(iW«(* I  121.648 


$2,160 
1,060 
6,!BI 
8,200 
1,272 

no 

T,S80 

S.%5,U44 

118,180 

11,800 

18,420 

27) 

1,020 

5,40'.l 

140,465 

64 

1077.'. 

1,707 

HI2 

10,686 

!6u 

2,763 

1,706 

10,628 

8.974 

1,180 

B(MI 

14,972 

15,64.'. 

6,4.13 

4i,m.n 

1,422 

020 

2,145 


$813,!ltl5 
"ll24tUtj7 


iMfOHTV  oy  lloora  akd  FnoKa  into  trk  Uhitxd  States 

fOH  TIIR  Y«AS  ENIIINU  JUNE  30,  1S57. 


WhAW*  lmtwrt«<l. 


Boolj  and  HIii>«a 
of  l,«iilli«r. 


Diioti  atid  8ho«a 
other  ttiRii  I.eAlher. 


llHmllllt|( 

llri'llMill 

Ilulland 

tlulKlutn.,, 

KiiKland 

Sritland 

t.'aiiwta , 

Dtliir  llritlali  N.  A.  Vom. 

Itrltlnli  Wi'tt  Indlea 

llritlKli  I'-aat  Indira 

i'rani'a  on  th«  Atlantic  , . 
^rani'ii  en  the  Medlter'n . 

1,'ulia 

Kardlnia 

New  liranada , 

ilraall 

Kiindwli^h  Inland* 

China 


Palm. 

i,;i(i« 

17,76, 

42 

2f. 

26,810 

4 

8,2:9 

606 

14.' 

2B,'654 

10(1 

lil 


Tiital, 


3,mi7 
' '  'liu 


18.2115 


Value. 


Pain. 


14,112 

125 

74 

62,002 

12 

2,0,18 

8.')7 

333 

89,573 
1  9 


5,878 
'"35 


1:7.1 5i 


3  5411 

12,251! 

114 

1,172 

4,110 

' '  11 

48 

""s 

19,020 


31 
8,'l'5'3 
29,'315 


77,7^7 


Value. 


$1,129 

6,4.11 

90 

411 

2,102 

' '  27 

143 

'"20 
6,228 


SholC  There  la  n  alngiilnr  substance  manufactured 
In  liiilla  from  the  collnlnr,  (lith-llko  stems  of  the  hejy- 
iiirum  lafftnarium.  It  closely  resembles  in  appearance 
till)  Cliliieae  rlcopflpcr,  and  is  considered  to  be  well 
•d«|it<)<l  to  vnrldiia  purposes  in  the  arts.  The  shola  is 
wroiiuht  In  India  Into  llfe-biiovs,  lioxes,  bottle-eases, 
hata,  Aiwt  numitrnua  other  articles.  From  its  loosely- 
cellulitr  atructure,  it  Is  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat, 
and  llila,  (OKethcr  with  its  lightness,  admirably  fits  it 
for  IIki  inaniifnrturo  of  hats.  It  is  also  advantageously 
fltuid  fur  purpoMT*  of  ornament,  as  it  may  readily  Iw 
made  is  prcatnit  all  the  appearance  of  ivory. 

Shore,  •  place  whirh  Is  washed  by  the  sea  or  by 
aoiiie  lurxe  river,  C'oiint  Marsii^li  divides  the  sea- 
•liurn  Into  three  portions:  the  lirst  of  which  is  that 
tract  uf  land  which  the  tea  Just  reaches  in  storms  and 
hiiih  lldea,  but  which  it  ni^vcr  covers;  the  second  part 
of  thii  ahor*  la  that  which  Is  covered  in  high  tiilcs  and 
•Inrma,  but  la  i\ry  at  other  times;  and  the  third  is  the 
di'scvnt  from  this,  and  Is  always  covered  with  water. 
The  drat  part  la  only  n  conlinimtioii  of  the  continent, 
and  Kull'era  no  ■Iteration  from  the  neighborhood  ot  the 


sea,  except  that  it  la  rendered  tit  for  the  growth  of  some 
plants,  and  wholly  unlit  for  that  of  others,  by  the 
saline  steams  and  impregnations;  and  it  is  scarcely  to 
he  conceived  by  any  but  those  who  have  observed  it 
how  far  on  land  the  eflects  of  the  aea  can  reach,  so  as  to 
make  the  earth  proper  for  plants  which  will  not  grow 
without  this  influence ;  there  being  several  plants 
frequently  found  upon  high  hilla  and  dry  places  at 
three,  four,  and  more  miles  from  the  sea,  which  yet 
would  not  grow  unless  in  the  neighborhood  of  It,  nor 
will  thoy  ever  he  found  elsewhere. 

The  second  port  or  portion  of  the  shore  is  much 
more  aflected  by  the  sea  than  the  former,  being  fre. 
quently  washed  and  beaten  by  It.  Its  productions  are 
rendered  suit  by  the  water,  and  it  is  covered  with  sand 
or  with  the  fragments  of  shells  in  the  form  of  sand,  and 
in  some  places  with  a  tartarout  matter  deposited  from 
the  water.  The  color  of  this  whole  extent  of  ground 
is  usually  dusky  and  dull,  especially  where  there  aro 
recks  and  stones  covered  with  a  slimy  matter. 

The  third  part  of  the  shore  is  more  affected  by  the 
sea  than  either  of  the  others ;  and  it  is  covered  with  a 
uniform  crust  of  the  true  nature  of  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  except  that  plants  and  animals  have  their  resi- 
dence in  it,  and  tlie  decayed  parts  of  these  alter  It  A 
\hl\n.—See  Giii.F  Stream  and  Ockan. 

Shumac,  or  Sumaoh  (Ger.  Schmact,  Sumach  ; 
Fr.  Sumac,  Roure,  Ruux ;  It.  Snmmaco ;  Sp.  Zumaque ; 
Kuss.  Sumak).  Common  shumac  (Rhus  corlariii)  is  a 
shrub  that  grows  naturally  in  8yria,  Palestine,  Spain, 
and  Portugal.  That  which  is  cultivated  in  Italy,  nnd 
is  improperly  called  gmmr/  fustic,  is  the  Rhm  eulhius. 
It  is  cultivated  with  great  caie :  Its  shoots  are  cut  down 
every  year  quite  to  the  root ;  ond,  after  lieing  dried, 
they  are  chipped  or  reduced  to  powder  by  a  n.ill,  and 
thus  prepared  for  the  purposes  of  dyeing  and  tanning. 
The  shumac  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  if  Mont* 
pellier  is  called  ridoul  or  rourfo.  Shumac  may  be  con- 
sidered of  good  quality  when  its  odor  is  strong,  color 
of  a  lively  green,  is  well  ground,  and  free  from  stalks, 
Italian  shumac  is  used  in  dyeing  a  full  high  yellow, 
approaching  to  the  orange,  upon  wool  or  cloth ;  but 
the  color  is  fugitive.  Common  shumac  is  useful  for 
drab  and  dove  colors  in  cnlico-printing,  and  i ;  ttl>o  c v 
pable  of  dyeing  black. — IlANtiioiT  oh  Colors, 

Siam.  This  cxtcnfive  kingdom,  in  the  .sojilhuast- 
em  part  of  Asia,  occupies  the  central  part  uf  Fartb.T 
India,  and  has  on  its  west  the  Ilriiish  Tessariii  jh--  v. 
inces  nnd  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  on  the  north  and  north- 
west, Uurnioh  and  the  free  Laos  country;  on  the  east, 
Anani ;  and  on  the  south,  a  coast  lino  of  1470  ml'ca 
along  the  Gulf  of  .Siam.  Its  area  has  been  differently 
estimated :  sotiio  authors  extending  it  to  2!M,7"20  sqimro 
miles,  of  which  there  are  assigned  to  Siam  proper 
141,175  square  miles;  20,420  to  Cambodia;  108,f>)5  to 
the  tributary  Ijios  ;  and  24,480  to  the  Malay  provinces. 
Crawford,  however,  who  seems  to  have  enjoyed  the 
most  favorable  opportunities  of  correctly  estimating 
the  extent  of  Siam,  lixos  its  area  at  190,000  square 
miles. 

The  same  outhorlty  estimates  the  population  at 
2,790,.5OO,  in  1822;  but  the  American  i.-onimissioner, 
who  nosotiuted  the  commercial  treaty  witli  Siam  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States  in  1832,  gives  an  estimate 
for  that  period  as  follows : 


.Siamese 1,600,000 

Ijios I,200,')fl0 

Malays 320.000 

Cliinese f>00,0:iO 

Total 3,U2U,0J« 

All  authors  concur  in  representing  Siam  as  one  of 
the  most  fertile  and  delightful  countries  In  the  East, 
nnd  capable,  when  its  immense  resources  are  more  fully 
developed,  of  sustaining  an  extensive  and  valuable 
foreign  trade.  No  other  country  eastward  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  abounds  more  plentifully  in  all  the  pro- 
ductions  suited  for  foreign  commerce  j  and  it  is  found 


SIA 


1712 


SIA 


to  be  no  less  diBtlnguUhed  for  the  great  variety  of  its 
Hilnoral  than  it  ia  aclcnowledged  to  be  for  its  vegetablo 
pro(lu.:t!(>ns.  The  largeat-sized  vessels  are  built  an- 
nually in  Siam.  Some  of  the  Chines  Junks,  the  con- 
struction of  Ahich  forms  an  important  feature  in  the 
trade  with  China,  mnasure  1000  tons  burder..  The 
timbers  are  of  a  hard  wood,  called  by  the  natives 
marbaa,  and  the  plank  are  of  the  finest  teak  in  the 
'  world. 

"  On  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  from  lat. 
13°  80',  the  head  of  the  Qulf,  to  lat.  10°  89',  where 
the  Cambodian  territory  terminates,  are  numerous 
towns  of  various  size  and  consideration,  but  only  two 
which  possess  tlie  advantage  of  a  safe  pott  accesi>ible 
to  vessels  of  largo  burden,  viz.,  Chantabuh  and  Kam- 
pot.  The  others,  Bangpasoe,  Koyong,  Tung  Yai,  and 
Kampongaom,  though  carrying  oi<.  a  considerable  na- 
tive trade  with  tlie  capital  in  small  boats,  are  either 
too  insignificant  or  unapproachable  to  be  of  any  com- 
mercial importance  to  foreigners. 

"  The  quantity  of  produce  grown  this  year  exhibits 
a  ter.'ible  decline  from  that  of  previous  years.  In  pep- 
per alone,  the  cliief  product  of  Chantabun,  the  amount 
brought  to  market  ia  just  half  thnt  of  last  year.  Oth- 
er conimodilie!.  have  decreased  similarly. 

"  Chantabun  is  placed  on  the  charts  in  about  lat. 
12°  86',  and  long.  102° ;  but  as  those  now  published 
are  not  by  any  niean^  accurate,  thia  can  only  be  an 
approximation  of  its  position,  near  enough,  nevorthe- 
leHS,  with  the  exercise  of  ordinar}'  caution,  fur  the  pur- 
poses of  navigation.  On  approaching  from  the  west- 
ward, the  eml>o«chure  of  the  river  on  wliich  the  town 
is  situated  is  difficult  to  discover,  being  shut  out  from 
view  by  an  intervening  hill  standing  on  tlie  western 
bunk :  but  to  vessels  coming  from  the  southward  no 
auch  impediment  is  presented.  The  features  of  the 
acenery  in  the  viclnitj'  of  the  town  afford,  from  their 
peculiarity,  ample  indicationa  of  its  wherealmut ;  and 
by  sliip-niasters  possessing  some  slight  information 
concerning  the  port,  no  serious  dlfHoulties  would  be 
found.  A  white  clilf  on  the  southern  side  of  the  hill 
above  mentioned  i3  an  excellent  landmark.  The  riv- 
or  runs,  fur  the  first  two  or  tlirce  mile.«,  about  north 
and  south. 

"To  the  southward  of  the  VTl-Iti  OlifT,  on  the  west- 
ern shore  of  the  river's  mouth,  excellent  anchorage 
can  lie  found  in  any  depth.  There  is  a  bar  across  thu 
mouth,  which  is  about  one  mile  and  a  half  broad,  and 
bat  a  small  wooded  island  in  tlie  middle.  Close  to 
this  island,  on  the  west,  is  the  entrance  to  the  river, 
through  a  very  narrow  channel.  Inside,  vessels  can 
anchor  in  from  three  to  four  fathoms.  After  entering 
tlie  river  tiiere  are  two  forts ;  one  on  the  west,  and  thn 
other  on  the  east  bunk.  The  latter  is  the  larger  of 
thti  two,  and  is  pierced  for  between  tliirty  and  forty 
guns  of  large  size.  Vessels  of  moderate  drau.!;ht  can 
ascend  the  river  about  six  or  seven  miles,  after  which 
the  water  shoals  suddenly,  and  h^ts  but  three  to  four 
feet  depth  at  low  tide.  'I'he  tides  are  ns  variable  and 
unnotalilu  as  those  of  Mcnam,  at  Bangkok.  In  going 
up  to  the  town,  which  is,  on  account  of  the  mcandcr- 
liigs  of  the  river,  more  thitn  sixteen  miles  frmn  the  sea, 
though  in  a  atraight  linu  scarce  a  third  of  that  distance, 
the  banks  are  covered  with  dense  jungle,  the  trees  of 
wliieli  ore  only  of  use  for  lire-wood,  afld  it  is  only  near 
the  town  that  cultivatior  manifests  itself. 

"  Chuntaliun  is  suppli<>d  from  Bangkok  with  all  ncc- 
cssary  foreign  goods.  Tlio  chief  imports  aru  gray  and 
white  shirtings  and  long  cloths,  colored  shirtings,  red 
cloths,  sarongs,  and  opium.  As  at  Bangkok,  nothing 
can  be  done  in  tlie  way  f  barter,  uU  produce  having 
to  bo  p.iid  for  in  hard  cash.  The  only  coin  current  is 
tlie  tiial  (worth  CO  cents  o :  a  dollar,  or  J*.  W.  sterling) ; 
dollars  would  not  be  taken  at  any  rate.  There  is, 
however,  a  local  currency,  the  privilo^ie  of  coining  and 
circulating  whicli  is  purc'ia  <!d  fruin  the  govcriiinent  I 
by  a  Chinese  inerciiunt.     It  consists  of  fiat  circular  I 


lumps  of  coarse  glass  stamped  with  some  Chinese  char- 
acters, and  bearing  the  fictitious  value  of  salungs  and 
fuangs.  These  are  used  like  paper  money.  Icing  con- 
vertible into  silver  on  presentation  at  the  shop  of  tho 
issuer.  The  exports  from  Chantabnn  are  pepper,  su- 
gar, aquila-wood,  timber  for  ship-building,  cardamoms, 
bastard  cardamoms,  stick-lltcs,  bides,  horns,  i^sh,  tobac- 
co, gamboge,  Ivor}*,  rhinoceros  horns,  wood,  oil,  and 
coffee. 

"  iSubjoined  Is  a  list  of  the  prices  of  moiit  uf  theis 
commodities  thia  season,  vIl.  : 

Tlcill. 

Pepper,  black 01  to  10  per  plcuL 

Sugar,  red 4  " 

Aquila-wood •     2  to  4  percatt^'. 

Cardamoms 60  to  lOU  pei  plcul. 

Dastard  cantamoma l'.:t  " 

IlidoH,  buffalo 1  salting  to  U  per  hide. 

Kliliiocoros  hides 12  Kcals  per  catty. 

Ivory 100  to  SiK)  per  picul. 

Stick-lac 12ito24        " 

Ilornp,  buffMo B  " 

atmboge SStoilO         " 

"Pepper  ranks  first  among  the  products  both  in 
value  and  quantity.  The  usual  annual  amount  grown 
is  88,000  piculs,  viz. : 

Pimlt. 

At  Ohantabnn 2A,009 

"  Tung  y 111 8,<)00 

"  Koyong 6,000 

"  The  cultivation  h  entirely  carried  on  by  Chinese 
immigrants.  The  plantations  are  situated,  forfacility 
of  irrigation,  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  which  sur- 
round tlie  town.  The  plant  {Pi/itr  nigruni)  requires 
great  care  and  attention  in  its  culture,  being  subject  to 
the  devouring  ravages  of  an  insect.  As  n  preventive 
against  this,  the  plant  is  washed  constantly  Avith  a 
strong  decoction  of  tobacco.  Ths  vine  commences  to 
bear  when  three  years  old,  nnd  continues  to  do  so  till 
twenty.     The  fruit  ia.ready  foe  tlio  market  In  Ma. oh. 

"Brown  sugar  of  excellent  quality  is  grown  at 
Chantabun.     'i'hc  annual  quantity  produced  wns,  in 

rieals. 

18615 .')II09 

law S«OU 

i8o;.  TixM 

"  The  greot  demand  for  and  high  prices  of  this  com- 
modity this  year  is  likely  to  give  an  increased  impe- 
tus to  its  cultivation.  The  :oil  of  Chantabun  is  well 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  colTee.  Aware  of  this,  the 
King  of  Siam,  some  years  since,  ordered  that  it  should 
be  extciisi  vely  cultivated.  From  ignorance  of  how  to 
tend  the  plant,  however,  Ihc  plantations  huvc  gradu- 
ally been  given  up,  '..lu  tlie  quantity  prodmed  annu- 
ally now  barely  '■uttices  for  the  consumption  by  foreign- 
ers at  Bangkok.  The  annual  supply  of  lic.-iii  and 
hides  is  very  considerable ;  the  plain  of  Chantabun 
affords  excellent  pasturage  for  cattle,  and  the  quantity 
of  stock  kept  is  large. 

" One  of  the  moat  important  produ'ts  of  the  prov- 
ince is  the  valuable  tinibc.  ;  first  in  raiii(  is  that  called 
mai-tikien  by  the  Siamese,  and  tho  botanical  name  of 
wliich  is  Metrotideroa  vera;  this  can  be  jirocured  in 
any  quantity,  and  at  an  extremely  cheap  rate.  It  Is 
found  on  the  mountains,  and  is  easily  accessible.  AVhen 
the  Siamese  first  commnnceu  to  become  largo  ship-own- 
ers some  years  Imck,  nearly  all  their  vessels  were  built 
at  Chantabun,  the  proximity  to  tho  timber  forests,  and 
tha  facilities  fur  tl!e  cutting  and  carriage  of  the  wood 
presented  there,  rendering  the  place  peculiarly  eligilile. 
Mai-tikien  wns  nearly  tiio  only  Mmber  employed,  nnd 
it  is  only  of  late  year?,  since  tho  supply  of  teak  from 
the  Nortlifjrn  provinces  has  become  larger,  that  it  lias 
been  Isps  u>ed.  Now,  however,  largo  qiiontities  of 
this  wood  are  cut  and  exported  to  Bangkok,  where  it 
ia  very  genen.lly  used  by  foreign  and  Siamese  ►hip- 
buildirs,  chieHy  for  keel-picees  and  bottoms  of  ships, 
as,  when  ki  pt  submerged  in  water,  it  is  superior  to 
teak.  Another  valuable  wood  is  the  red  wood  (inai- 
deng  of  tlio  S.u,nese)  sometimes  erroneously  culled 


8IA 


1713 


6IA 


toae-wood.  It  ti  an  extremely  liard  and  heavy  wood, 
of  a  deep  red  color,  lusceptible  of  a  tine  polish,  and 
well  adapted  for  furniture.  An  extremely  heavy  tlm- 
ber  is  found  also  in  the  forest,  called  by  the  Siamese 
mai-taklou.  It  is  considered  by  them  as  incorruptl' 
ble,  and  as  such  bears  a  sacred  character,  being  much 
used  in  the  construction  of  their  temples.  This  cor- 
responds to  the  Ifunelta  Orkntalii  of  Lowreiro  (^yiora 
Cochin  Chinentii). 

"  Perhaps  the  most  useful  tree  is  that  known  in  the 
Straits  as  the  pune.  It  is  exceedingly  plentiful,  and 
is  admirably  adapted  for  masts  and  spars ;  as  such  it 
is  much  employed  in  the  above  localities.  The  Siam- 
ese  and  Cambodians,  however,  use  tlie  tree  for  a  dill'cr 
ent  purpose ;  that  is,  for  the  production  of  oil,  which 
is  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  wood  oil.  It 
Is  used  for  calldng  and  varnishing  vessel.'^,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  torches  so  generally  used  by  the 
Siamese.  The  method  of  extracting  this  oil  is  to  mnlio 
a  deep  incision  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  a  few  feet  from 
the  base ;  in  this  a  fire  is  kindled  and  allowed  to  burn 
for  some  tim«,  after  which  it  is  cleared  out.  The  oil 
then  commences  to  drop  into  the  incision,  which  serves 
as  a  receptacle. 

"  As  the  minerals  of  Chantabnn  form  not  inconsid- 
erable items  in  her  commerce,  tlicy  deserve  some  no- 
tice. Precious  stones  are  found  in  great  abundance, 
)>nd  miglit  be  a  most  profitable  employment  to  hun- 
dreds. Rubies,  sapphires,  garnets,  Oriental  topazes, 
and  emeralds,  are  the  cliief  stones.  Tlicy  are  uU  of 
good  water.  The  sapphires  and  garnets  are  sold  in  the 
marlfct  at  Chantabnn  by  the  Chinese  at  from  five  to 
ten  ticals  per  catty  (19.3.  Gd.  to  il  5».  per  1  i  lb.).  These 
minerals  were  formerly  largely  exported  to  liangkoU, 
from  whence  they  were  .sent  principally  to  Java ;  but 
of  late  years  the  demand  for  tlicm  has  fallen  off,  and 
the  collection  has  declined  in  a  corresponding  ratio. 
Largo  beds  of  coal  have  been  discovered,  but  as  there 
is  no  demand  for  this  mineral  it  will  probably  be  some 
time  before  an  attempt  is  made  to  work  them.  The 
produce  of  the  provinces  adjoining  Chantabun  is  con- 
veyed thither  in  carts,  and  on  elephants,  buffaloes,  and 
oxen.  Tlie  means  of  communication  with  the  interior 
by  tlio  existing  roads  ore  far  from  easy,  and  during 
the  rainy  season  impracticable.  At  that  season,  Iiow- 
ever,  the  dry  water-courses  of  the  summer  are  swollen 
into  navigable  streams,  and  aflbrd  facilities  for  trans- 
port generally  availed  of  liy  the  mountain  tiilies,  who 
come  down  from  the  wilds  to  barter  at  cardamoms, 
gums,  tiger-skins,  and  bontJ,  for  salt  and  coarse  cot- 
tons. 

"  Small  iu.ika  of  from  80  to  150  tons  burden  are  em- 
ployed for  ilio  csport  of  produce.  The  only  port  to 
which  it  is  carried  is  Bangkok.  The  rate  of  freight 
between  the  two  places  is  about  fifteen  cents  per  picul. 
Chanlaliun  does  not  oi'iicar  to  have  been  visited  often 
by  foreign  ships.  In  18.'>1  the  British  brig  I'lmtaloon 
called  in  tliere  to  buy  a  cr.:  .  '.  nt  the  master  was  not 
allowed  to  open  commerciui  negotiations,  lieing  told  b  .• 
the  authorities  that  Bangkok  was  the  only  port  ope 
Since  the  new  treaty,  wliich  came  into  operation  .» 
April,  1856,  one  English  vessel,  the  lorcha  Speed,  vis- 
ited the  place,  and  could  easily  have  procured  a  cargo 
bad  she  waited ;  this  she  was  unable  to  do  in  conse- 
quence of  her  being  under  nn  engagement  to  proceed 
elsewhere." — Report  %Mr.  Forrkst,  Assistant  and  /n- 
ttrprtlev  at  the  British  Cumulate  at  Ilanffkok,  on  the 
Trade  and  Products  of  the  Ports  nnd  adjacent  Countries 
on  the  East  Coast  of  the  OulfofSiiim,  If^'oT. 

Sugar  is  looked  upon  as  the  principal  return  for 
British  imports.  Siamese  sugar  is  niuoli  esteemed  for 
its  wliitoness  and  fine  strong  grain ;  „iid  as  tlie  greater 
portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Minam,  the  area  of  which 
has  been  ostimated'at  22,000  square  miles,  is  stated  to 
be  well  adapted  to  the  gro>Vlh  of  the  cane,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  annual  sugar  crop  would  admit  of  very 
material  increase. 

5Q 


Are.— The  demand  for  this  article,  both  (ir  boiM 
and  Oriental  consumption,  is  conittantly  uji  (be  In. 
crease;  and  there  is  every  prospect  that  Mum  will.  In 
the  course  of  time,  rival  the  British  province  of  Atrif 
can  (in  the  Bengal  presidency)  in  supplying  this  itrti' 
cle  for  the  markets  of  China,  Australia,  and  Eurup*, 

Sait. — ^This  article  is  obtained  of  excellent  quNlity 
from  the  extensive  mud-flats  which  line  :liu  hsod  pf 
the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate  that  th*  iitMt 
of  production  does  not  exceed  from  one  to  two  ttcull 
(61  cents  to  $1  22)  per  koyan  of  26  piculs,  or  S400  |hl, 
English.  Salt  is,  however,  a  special  oliject  of  |«)i(« 
tion  in  Siam ;  and  the  duty  of  $3  60  per  koyan  ruitM 
the  above-mentioned  price  to  seven  oreight  ticsU  (|4  87 
to  |4  68)  per  koyan,  equal  to  about  (2  88  to  (3  UO  par 
ton. 

Sapan-wood. — The  annual  exportation  of  this  dya- 
wood  reaches  from  80,000  to  100,000  piculs  (from  6000 
to  6000  tons). 

/'epper.— The  production  of  this  article  had  rencha4 
at  one  time  more  than  0,000,0(X)  lbs,  per  annum,  whan 
an  oppressive  tax,  imposed  by  the  present  adniinlstrg* 
tion  of  Siam,  of  one  catty  of  pepper  on  every  vino,  or 
about  8  per  cent,  on  the  produce,  in  addition  to  an  •»• 
port  duty  of  one  ticai  (61  cents)  per  picul,  aniouiiling 
to  the  same  percentage,  caused  such  a  clicck  to  the 
cultivation  that  last  year  only  20,000  picula  wera 
brought  to  market. 

Cotton. — Above  the  line  of  the  inundated  tracts  land 
fit  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  abounds.  Tlie  crop  has 
reached  as  high  us  140,000  piculs  (8.S^0  tons)  in  a  }  ear, 
Silk. — This  product  has  been  larj,''  ly  grown  in  tbii 
rich  district  of  Kocat,  and  the  crop  bus  reached  1600 
piculs  per  annum — valued  at  $150,000. 

Hemp. — This  article  holds  out  much  interest  (0 
foreign  traders.  Its  growth  in  Siam  is  only  juet  bO' 
coming  known,  and  it  is  particularly  recommended  on 
account  of  its  great  strength,  nnd  its  glossy  and  silky 
texture,  which  would  allow  of  its  being  woven  up  into 
silk  fabrics. 

The  following  list  will  be  found  to  contain  all  tha 
manufactures  which  are  most  suited  to  Siamese  cofl' 
sumption:  White  and  gray  long  cloths j  wliilu  and 
gray  madapollans;  white  and  gray  cambrics;  whiU 
and  gray  jaconets ;  book  lappets;  \clvets,  plain  and 
figured;  checked  fancy  muslins;  Amcriciin  drills;  cut- 
ton  umbrellas;  'igured  long  cictbs;  dyed  camlrics; 
dyed  long  cloths;  prints,  chintzes,  furnitures,  and 
neutral''  •  Siam  cliowls,  or  dresses ;  Turkey  red  cloth  ( 
gray  "Mun  twist;  Turkey  red  tuist;  imperial  red  and 
blue  . .  ' :■:  ;  long  ells;  ladies'  clotli ;  Spanish  stripes; 
merinos  of  assorted  colors;  canvas;  iiun,  steel,  lead, 
spelter,  earthen-w..rc,  assorted  ;  glassware  and  lumps, 
assorted;  muskets,  ^unlocks;  lirimstone,  beeswax l 
cowries,  flint-stone,  mu.-^kct-llints,  etc. 
■  Sicily,  or  Two  Sicilies.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  comprises  the  ancient  realm  of  Naples  and 
the  island  of  Sicily.  Naples  proper  embraces  an  area 
of  31,350  square  miles,  and  by  tlie  census  of  1854  con- 
tains a  population  of  6,843,855  '  •■.;'  i.-.nts.  '1  he  chief 
iiToducts  ore  corn,  wine,  olive  ' :'.  tton,  flax,  heiif . 
liqiiorice-paste,  silk,  and  wool. 

The  annual  crop  of  wheat  is  Iictwccn  60  and  80  mill- 
ion bushels,  and  the  yearly  consMinption  is  h  I,  iit  40 
million  bushels.  The  annual  prjduce  of  I  .  ■  corn 
is  alioiit  40  million  bushels.  The  yearly  pror  ■  '.;... i  of 
wine  is  about  400,000  pipes,  the  greater  part  of  which 
is  consumed  nt  home.  About  13,000  pipes  are  made 
into  brandy  near  Naples,  and  from  250  to  30O  tons  of 
orgol  and  cream  of  tartar  are  prepared  for  foreign 
markets.  About  70,000  tons  of  clive-oii  are  expresseil 
yearly,  half  of  which  is  exported.  The  quantity  of 
cotton  raised  annually  in  the  continental  part  of  tha 
kingdom  amounts  to  about  two  million  pounds.  Tht 
annual  produce  of  raw  silk  is  about  1,000,000  llis. 

There  ore  tw.-i  species  of  wheat  raised  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicili  JS— the  soft,  of  which  the  bestiality 


W,P7i<"- 


SIC 


1714 


SIC 


:-m 


tt  bread  ta  msde ;  and  the  hard  wheat,  chiefly  employ- 
ed in  the  preparatinn  :if  inacnroni.  The  principal  ex- 
port* of  Nap1v»  proper  are,  olive-oil,  sillc,  hemp,  wool, 
wine,  grain,  fVi^troni,  and  coral ;  imports,  colonial  and 
manufacture  il  goode,  iron,  and  cutler}'. 

Prior  to  th  ratiflcatlon  of  the  treaty  between  the 
United  State*  iind  th?  itingdom  of  the  Two  Sictliea,  of 
V^c  ^mber  1, 1K.16,  the  commerce  between  the  tv'O  coun- 
tiiu.f  was  chioity  indirect.  Having  no  con.  v  arcial 
treaty,  the  United  States  flag  Sad  to  contend  tjjainat 
high  duties,  an  exemption  of  10  per  ct^nV.  in  favor  <C  Brit- 
ish and  French  vessels  employd  iii  tli«  direct  .  'it, 
and  the  extromo  ti^i.)  of  quarantiiip  rrt-'ilations.  The 
indirect  trade  was  iMtr'ed  on  thr»iiL{ri  i.-v;hom  andtlie 
French  M«diterT.iTiri;iii  ]M)rta,  and  ««!.  necessarily  fet- 
tered with  the  iiu:iinilirunces  and  hurilens  incident  to 
aeircuitou!)  route.  Nca^mlitan  merchaniUsfc  v.u.  ahui 
on  board  American  siiip:;  In  these  ports  ^vhile  -.'ioniiu 
goodii|P3tinert  for  the  in  .rkets  of  the  Sii.iliu8  w«rB  sold 
to  III-  Krc;ich  und  Tuscan  mrrchants,  on  whose  uccoun^ 
the}'  \^ ere  shipped  to  their  destination,  or  soli't  Vireii 
to  N'ii(/'>litan  trader-.,  by  whom  they  were  Inti/tluccil 
ntuU:-:  tlie  10  per  cent,  discrimination.  The  retaliatory 
«''](>>  vt  impo'l  end  tonnage  levied  on  the  Sicilian 
t  .<  .0  ifiti  l'ii:te'l  Klates  virtually  excluded  their  vcs- 
•1.^1.  *>'ni  oui  ports,  and  the  consequence  was  that  the 
'nulp  betv.<)''n  the  two  countries  became  exceedingly 
i'mitcd.  'adeed,  in  i%tums  of  the  foreign  trade  ami 
uavi).:atiuT!  of  the  Two  Sicilies  for  a  period  of  three 
year.s  (;'i^ll'.t,  1840,  and  lrt41),  but  a  single  American 
Tss8ci  appears  to  ha>e  entered  or  cleared  at  the  portH 
of  ihat  kingdom. 

'I'he  ttoaty  of  1846,  which  went  Into  effect  July  24, 
18'(<S,  provides  that  tlicre  shall  exist  between  the  two 
countries  reciprocal  liberty  of  commerce  and  uaviga- 
tion ;  that  no  higher  duties  shall  be  imposed  on  im- 
portations into  either  countr}'  of  articles  ftom  the 
of.licr  than  from  i.ny  other  countr}' ;  that  favort  grant- 
«"1  liy  either  party  to  other  nations  shall  l)e  common  to 
the  iitliur;  that  there  shall  be  equalization  of  duties, 
etc.,  on  im|>ons  and  exports,  on  vessels  of  either  coun- 
tr}', as  also  01' tonnage,  harbor,  and  light-house  duties; 
that  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  shall  not  apply  to 
the  coasting  trade  i  and  that  no  preference  sliall  be 
given  by  eiiher  p.Tty  to  inqmrtations  on  account  of 
the  national  character  of  vessels  in  which  imported. 
The  treaty  to  fa-r  in  force  ten  years,  with  the  usual 
tweire  months'  notice  tor  its  tennination. 

liy  a  cenvention  ratilled  July  14,  1865,  two  prin- 
ciples were  recognized  iMtween  the  two  countries  as 
permanent  and  immutable,  to  wit :  Ist,  That  the  ef- 
fects or  goods  belonging  i.o  citizens  or  subjects  of  a 
po  wer  or  state  at  war  are  f reo  from  capture  and  confis- 
cation when  found  on  ixmrd  of  neutral  vessels,  except 
articles  coatruband  of  war;  and,  2d.  Thut  the  prop^ 
«fty  of  neutrals  on  board  an  cnem}  's  vessel  is  not  sub- 
ject to  confiscation,  unless  cftntral>and  of  war. 

In  1852  the  commercu  of  the  continental  part  of  the 
kingdom  «t  the  Two  Sicilies  is  thus  given  :  Imports, 
«12,372,S63;  exports,  $10,943,831 ;  total,  $2d,31(>,194. 

The  trade  reprcsentnd  by  the  preceding  figures  passe<l 
ejLclusively  through  th<  custom-hoimes,  and  does  nof 
iximprise  the  movomentLi  at  the  general  entrep<^t  of 
Brindisi,  nor  the  transliipme.it  in  the  roads.     Ti. 
prticipul  foreign  powers  which  participated  in  the  cor 
mereial  movements  of  1863  were   England,  Fram   , 
^. :    tria,  Sardinia,  the  Papal  States,  and  Tr '  -arv ;  i..  ' 
t.  ■.  ■  'n  the  order  of  importance  were  Hollairl  !>■    i''  • 
:':.  ■  •  .1,  Spaivi,  (ireece,  tlie  Ionian  Islands,  V,  "L-i!.  i. 
1.1   L  cited  .StoDes.     The  value  of  merchani'- ■  iir.p,.!- 
«d  into  the  continental  part  of  the  kingdo'u,  it    '  ~-  ua 

*bove,  amounted  to  #r2,H72,.'W'i?.     This  is  the    « rf 

naritinie  commerce  with  foreign  nations  only,  ii  • 
coasting  trade  between  the  different  polls  of  il  a  king 
dom  would  largely  augment  this  tota'i,  but  no  return:' 
of  this  trade  are  accessilile.  Of  the  imports,  >U;;i;r, 
cofTee,  and  trans- Atlantic  produce  are  chiefly  supp' '   ' 


by  England,    llaneillea  also  furnishes  small  quantities 

of  si.^,:i  .  ;ul  .i.i^i!"  I'l.jMi  French  colonies ;  but, owing 
to  tli.-ir  nuw'rior  nimlify  and  high  price,  they  aru  not 
m'  h  ill  itpiiianu.  'fm  f.uga'  -  .inm  Holland,  being 
i;>iviif  prif;<;,  And  a  ri^idier  r.rxct.  Besides  these 
SI  ai  ■<)"  A  "i;;i.)iy,  several  Ne«ii'i!!',iri  vessels  have  for 
so(i»i!  Jtai'  pi' St  kepi  up  a  di.-;ci  i.tercourse  between 
thii  jjon  of  Niij'lea  ind  Brazil.  '/'■.'  scorns  no  reason 
w!:'  tlif!  L'l.iii- .  jtai..  uoui'  •■■•>.  '  m,>ete  nth  En- 
gl.-Kiil,  Hollamf,  Vrt  loe,  un'<  <ri.  i  '.onoa.  In  supply- 
ing tbcie  trans-Atluntic  neru:..Hfiiie<i  'o  the  kingdom  of 
the  ''  V  Sicilies ;  nor  why  the  cnitying  trade  in  thesa 
article!,  from  the  countries  of  production,  or  from  the 
ijonded  warehouses  if  the  United  States, could  not  be 
made  as  prolitulde  to  American  an  to  British,  Dutch, 
French,  oi  iwen  to  Gcnoes"  vub^cil'.  Genoa  is  a  free 
P'  rt,  and  the  dues  ..iv  |>ii(.'ti>^e, anchorage,  and  quaran- 
tine are  light. — See  .HABriisii. 

The  subjoined  stutemeiit.  exhibits  the  quantities  and 
■vu'ucs  of  C'.jjuT  .T  '  i(Feo  r«Kncctivel}',  exported  from 
thd  Unit'."'  States  '.  i  lO  kiiigrlom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
dui'lng  a  1 '  iod  of  live  years,  from  1851  to  1856,  lioth 
i'lcluiiivc,  n.udo  up  from  the  annual  reports  of  the  Sec- 
retory of  the  Treasur}'  on  Commerce  and  Kavigation ; 
followed  by  a  statement  exhibiting  the  quantities  and 
values  of  the  same  articles  exported  to  all  countries ; 
and  a  third  exhibiting  the  quantities  and  values  of  cot- 
ton and  tobacco  exported  to  the  Two  Sicilies  during 
the  same  period : 


!  !  1N6I . 
1852. 
1863. 
IH64. 
1S86. 


8u|[«r. 

Cofftn.                 1 

Potindi. 

Valusa. 

PdUiidi. 

VnltiM. 

802,990 

$4542 

34,272 
00,328 
91,827 

l,880,fi64 

$3,345 
4,',V> 
7,007 

CiyrroN  Awn  Touacoo  kspobtrd  fbom  tiiz  Tnitkb  Statis 
TO  THE  Two  »!ioii.iKs,  ruoM  ISOl  TO  ISbS. 


Yun. 

Cutton. 

'I'ulmrru,                  1 

Poimaf. 

Vilun, 

PuutlJ.. 

Viiluti. 

ISBl 

1«2 

18K;t    . .    . 

1,06  >,WB 

327,119 

1,23S,4..2 

2,llit4,'ilO 

$!'fl,'2in 

81,031 

109,724 

$237,574 

92,1100 

20S,000 

22,000 

1,282,000 

93,000 

$10,302 
10,019 
2,180 

133,682 
24,124 

1854 

1S65 

A^fegatc. 
Avorago  . . 

1,0  7,IS)0 

$180,807 

878,235 

79,191 

8:111,400 

3T,3fll 

Tlio  following  are  the  chief  staples  which  the  Two 
Sicilies  draw  fmm  the  United  States :  Tol)acco,  cotton, 
rum,  flour,  naval  stores,  etc.  Of  these  there  were  ex- 
ported in  1864  and  1H55  in  value  as  follows : 

IVifrititJoD  of  MeirhanitiM.  ISM.               n&3, 

'NVhelulwne *1,(S)0 

KUkvca  anil  hcBilinKt 11,822  $10,713 

MsHtti,  Hpera,  aud  uaval  Htur  's. .  4,805  14,44J  ' 

Hour 28,7111 

totlon 81,031  109,724 

Tobacco 183,6S2  24.124 

Liiiu  (from  inoIASBi'H) 27,-50  25,579 

In  exchange  for  these  staples  and  for  miscellaneong 

car^roes,  our  ships  return  home  laden  with  wines,  drugs, 

fruits,  feathers,  anchovies,  oil,  sulphur,  silks,  corks, 

and  rngs ;  of  which  latter  article  were  imported  in  18  j^ , 

'  '    cct  from  the  Sicilies,  8,140,718  lbs.,  of  the  value  of 

I  :<>',•'  M.     Under  the  treatyof  1845  Sicilian  and  United 

'   '?:  vessels  are  equalized  in  the  po>      of  the  t- 

:  '.ilcs,  when  laden  with  the  produce  and  manut'i.. 

if  the  country  to  which  the  vosscla  belong,     y'.e 

'  •jCi  trade  is,  therefore,  freed  from  the  restrictions  und 

-icumbrances  with  vhich  it  was  clb(;ged  prior  to  tiiat 

.leriod,  und  Uie  commerce  between  the  two  countrier. 

I  lias  in  consequence  largely  increapi  '      The  exports 

I  from  the  United  St:itcs  of  its  stapler-  .'  une  amount  now 

!  nnnually  to  iietween  <l260,000  and  ^800,000,  more  than 

I  I'-ni  half  of  which  i«  shipped  under  the  United  States 

.'  By  a  royal  decree  liearing  date  18th  Decemlier, 

'       ,  the  privileges  whilili  apply  to  thb  direct  trade 

!  '  '     the  Two  Sicilies  have  been  equally  extended  to 

'  (>  >  liidirect  trade  in  I'avor  of  those  nation!  which  have 


SIC 


1715 


STC 


ttttei 
wing 
u  not 
lieing 
theso 
vo  for 
iween 
roaion 
111  En- 
upply- 
loiP  of 
n these 
«m  tho 
not  be 
Dutch, 
3  a  free 
quanin- 

ities  «nd 
ted  txota 

Sicilieu, 
S55,  lioth 

the  S«c- 
f  igtttion ; 
titles  and 
ountries ; 
les  of  cot- 
es during 


*3.34B  I 
7,001  1 


«10,80a 
10,«19 
8,  ISO  1 
183,588  , 

TT.SOlJ 

ch  the  Two 
Lcco,  cotton, 
Iro  were  *x- 


$1",'I1S 
14,441  ■ 

■'•ID.TM 
24.184 
S5,5T9 

BsceUaneous 
lines,  drugs, 
lilltB,  corks, 
ItedinlfiJ^ 
Ihe  value  of 
1  and  UnUed 
1  of  tho  t> 
Id  manu!A„ 
llong.     H.o 
Irictiuns  and 
Trior  to  tliat 
lo  countrier- 
I'he  exports 
Vmount  now 
p,  more  than 
Inited  States 
Ji  December, 
■direct  trade 
lextouded  to 
Iwhichhftve 


*T!"*"!!?!r.n'r..!!!''.!!.!!!lf..^u?''T  ""I**  I'*").""'    ''^  Mvorpoot.     TIio  fucimie,  which  these  steiDien 

'  "  "  'wwlsh  for  (ixe(rtitlng  orders  suitahle  for  the  Neapolitan 
mnrkpl  prenpnt  the  moft  serious  obstacle  to  a  direct 
Iritds  with  tlin  fiillcd  States.  The  privilege  of  the 
Indirect  tnidi',  however,  lately  cimcedeil  to  the  Amer- 
Icmi  flag,  miiy  tend  to  increase  tho  cummerclal  inter- 
eiMir«B  hef  ween  the  two  countries.  * 

Tho  lm|Kirts  from  (Ireat  Britain  In  1865  amounted  in 
ilHimllty  to  M,mt  tons,  which  at  4d».  (♦»  60)  per  ton 
gnvn  lo  tirlllsh  »hl[pers  on  freight  alone  tho  sum  of 


when  they  shall  havo  granted  like  fuvori  to  tlii  lUg 
of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

Under  the  operation  of  the  treaty  alreaily  rcfcrrwl 
to,  and  of  the  liberal  privileges  conceded  by  this  da- 
cree,  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  tha  Two 
Sicilies  is  increasing.  The  total  value  of  axport*  from 
the  Sicilies  to  the  United  States  In  IMIA  was  4iA;i(l,IKI0, 
In  1854  they  reached  nearly  <!l,(X)0,0(lO,  and  In  IN55 
they  ascended  to  11  ,T18,U4U,  In  1N45  tliu  IJnItud  States 
ex|)orted  to  the  Sicilies  Its  own  staples  to  tho  uniouiit 


of  $70,626,  against  $240,161  in  1H6I,  and  <i-jU7,7UO  in 
1855.  The  total  trade  in  1865  was  <|-2,:I70,425,  agaltlst 
«1,219,861  in  1864,  and  #904,726  in  1845. 

Tha  port  charges  in  the  Two  Sicilies  aro  llj  cents 


♦»(I6,(M(I,  IxiKldcs  10  per  cent,  primage.    The  viilue 


rtf  theso   lm|iorts   was   estimated   at  XS.OOO.OOO,  or 

The  «x|Kirts  from  Naples  to  fireat  Britain  were  c»tl- 
-     ,  ,         ,  „  •••"t*''l  It  If'.MiO  tons,  and  Ihe  value  at  about  #7,600,000. 

per  ton  on  eipialized  vessels,  and  112  lents  per  ton  on  tiesides  Ihe  disadvantage  already  referred  to  under 
those  nou-cquullzed.  Besides  tho  tonnage  duly  tliera  vchlcli  Aincrlciin  vessels  would  have  to  compete  with 
are  aundrj-  minor  charges,  including  custoni-hoiisH  l  Kiigllsh  In  tho  trade  of  Njiplcs,  the  quarantine  regula- 
vlsit,  entrrnco  and  clearance  charges,  etc,  Hniuuntlng  lions  itre  such  as  lo  render  any  enterprise  in  that  trade 
In  the  aggregate  to  #3  75  per  vessel  on  entrance  i  and  '  on  ihn  iinrt  of  Anicrlcnn  shippers  uncertain  and  hazard- 
on  clearanc?.  Including  compensation  to  brokers.  |iA  1(1,  ]  o'ls,  Tlicw  regulations,  as  already  observed,  aro  rc- 
The  quarantine  regulr.tions  rc(iulre  a  payment  of  f.l  I  vl«nd(tnnH«lly,  and  provide  that,  under  the  most  favc.r- 
for  obtaining  the  requisite  pratique.  Shcjulil  the  ve»»el  nblii  clrciinislaiices,  a  certillcatc  from  tho  Sicilian  con- 
be  subject  to  quarantine,  tho  charges  aro  hiigcdy  aug- 1  sul  lit  the  pott  of  departure  is  indispensable  to  be  od- 
mented.     In  order  to  obtain  freo  entrance,  It  Is  neces.  j  inltted  to  free  pratlqno. 

aary  to  exhibit  u  ciean  bill  of  health,  bignoii  l.y  tlio !  A  few  facts  relative  to  currency  and  exchange  nt 
Neapolitan  consul  at  the  port  of  cicu-unce.  It  would  Me'slim,  rominunlcBtcd  to  the  State  Department  under 
seem,  however,  that  vessels  laden  with  cotton  or  other  diitii  of  ( Ictohor  2(1, 1855,  by  the  United  States  con-sul 
"susceptible"  merchandise  have  always  to  undorgii   at  that  purl,  are  sni.jolned: 

quariintino,*  which  Is  exceedingly  strict  1' during  tha  "  It  Is  ciistoniiiry  to  draw,  for  all  transactions  with 
voyage  sickness  chanced  to  prevail  on  board.  tha  United  States,  on  I'nrls  or  London,  and  occuslon- 

The  following  is  a  condensed  summary  of  the  latest   ally  on  Marseilles,  Hamburg,  or  Genoa.    American 
quarantine  regulations  in  force  at  tho  dlirerent  |Mirt»   coin,  gold  and  silver,  Is,  and  has  lieen  for  some  time, 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.     Theso  regulations  are  reviiiud  iin-   at  n  dincoiint  of  from  1(1  to  15  per  cent, 
nually,  but  the  general  principles  on  which  they  «r«  ]      "  Tlid  only  kind  of  Spanish  dollar  current  here  Is  the 
based  remain  unaltered :  pillar  dollar,  and  Is  at  an  advance  of  about  4  per  cent. 

"  Vessels  proceeding  from  New  Orleans,  or  any  (lort  "  Kxclmnges  are  vcrj-  unfavorable,  and  far  \;elow 
of  Louisiana,  shall  be  excluded  whenever  they  conin  tim  rates  of  former  years.  Londr.n,  10il8  grains  per 
unprovided  with  a  certificate  signed  by  tho  royal  con.  |  M  |  I'arls  and  Marseilles,  41 1  grains  per  franc ;  Lyons, 
Bul  at  the  port  of  departure,  attesting  that  the  yellow  j  41  jj,  und  (Jenoa  42  grains  per  franc;  Leghorn,  ,');ij 
fever  did  not  exist  in  that  State,  either  at  the  period  grains  per  lire  j  Amsterdam,  88J  grains  per  florin ; 
of  sailing  or  twenty  days  prior  to  the  same.  |  Hmnburg,  "8  grains  per  mark-lianco. 

"  The  places  tujiposed  to  bo  infected  by  yellow  fever  j      "  The  Nii'llliin  imnrr  Is  two  didlars  and  a  half,  or  JO 
are  the  Argentine  and  Paraguuian  republics,  Uriiin-   llrfis,  or  (iliO  grains  Sicilian  currency. 
»ra,  Peru,  Costa  Firma,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  MUsisslppI, 
Great  and  I.ittlo  Antilles,  and  Savannah, 
■     "The  places  tuspecled  of  yellow  fever  aro  Sant* 
Uartha  in  Columbia,  Chili,  Guayana  (except  DeniS'  ^ 
rare'),  Ohio  and  Missouri,  Vera  Cruz,  and  jmrts  of  the  i 
United  States,  except  as  above.'' 


Imuil  iif  •Sicil// This  Ifliind  has  an  area  of  10,556 

smmre  miles,  and  a  po|iulatl(in  of  2,^08,392  Inhabitants. 
Since  lis  iiiinexatlot',  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  In  1736, 

,  it  has  ex|H<rl«ni'('d  much  of  the  evils  of  absenteeism. 

j  Tha  rdveniie,  except  that  portion  of  it  which  Is  paid  to 
Ilia  Neu|Hilltan  eiiqiloyes  who  reside  on  the  hlund,  is 


^ 


The  certificate  of  the  Sicilian  consul  is  Indlsnensftblo  ilrnllli'd  olf  to  he  sjieiit  In  enriching  the  metropolitan 
to  be  admitted  to  pratique ;  but  even  with  aucii  protec  cmirt.  In  this  respect  Sicily  In  some  degree  resembles 
tlon  the  quaranlino  regulations  are  oppreB.ilva  and  un- 1  lr«lillMl.  Tho  resources  which  might  lie  beneliciaily 
certain,  especially  ifaiiy  sickness  has  occurred  on  board  '  expiided  In  making  roads  and  other  improvements, 
during  the  voyage.  |  ltiiils|i(Misalilo  to  the  proiier  development  of  the  indus- 

PUotage. — Vessels  arriving  at  Naples  aro  wldoni  i  try  of  Ihn  Island  and  the  growth  of  its  commerce,  are 
nnder  the  nscessity  of  taking  pilots,  and  hence  there  |  «i|UAnili<reil  In  other  countries  by  an  absentee  nobility.* 
<i  no  fixed  regulation  resiiectiug  them.  Should  it  ^  Wheat  and  Imtley  are  exfiorted  in  small  quantities, 
pilot,  ho"  jver,  be  required,  ono  can  at  all  times  Im  Other  I'hlef  crops  aro  bcuns,  pulse,  mai^e,  rice,  olive- 
found  ai>-,i  <%  tho  lishermcu  on  the  coast,  with  whom  oil,  ornilge*,  lemons,  almonds,  and  other  fruit ;  pota- 
the  r,ipt>io  must  make  the  best  bargain  ho  can,  ,  toec,  tobacco,  (liix,  lump,  sumach,  llqucice,  and  man- 

■  V'  principal  ports  are  Naples,  situated  on  a  bay  of  |  na.  Iiillieliot'lheaft  part  of  the  island  silk  is  produced, 
the  same  Miie,  having  a  commodious  harbor,  and  good  and  It  Is  woven  at  Catania;  and  in  the  weutern  part 
anchoraga  fo.  .my  sized  vessels  to  '■'id  and  discharge  i  ,'|f),0(K)  p|ii*»  of  w'  le  iire  annually  made,  of  which  about 
cargocij;  and  in  Sicily  proper,  'alermo  and  Messina,  j  20,000  itrtl  eX|H)rted  from  Marsaln.  Sulphur  is  also  a 
Tlie  foreign  trade  of  Naples  (  almost  exclnsively  In  '  !|iiiill«g  stniilii  of  Ihe  Island  of  Sicily.  It  is  found  in 
possession  of  English  merchants.  The  returns  for  IS.W  '  tertiary  formiillons,  and  Its  production  is  annually  In- 
assign  tw.vtliirds  of  ll.is  trade  to  tho  Engli  :i  flag,  and  '  creasing,  From  18!1H  to  1812  a  monopoly  in  the  ex- 
the  other  third  to  the  >icapolitan  and  other  Hags,  Some  |){irt  jf  silllihiir  was  granted  by  the  Neapolitan  govem- 
twcntv  or  thirtv  vessels  from  the  north  of  I'.irope  ar- '  nienno  «  I'Vench  mercantile  (ir-n ;  but  so  vigorous  was 
rive  annually  with  stcck-flsh,  crushed  soi^Br,  etc,,  from  the  roslstimce  of  the  British  government,  that  in  1812 
Holland.    England  employs  annually  in  tho  trade  with   tha  mono|S)ly  Was  suppressed.     Since  that  period  the 

Naples  about  ono  hundred  and  thirty  vessels  of  small    -™™^^-     ."  r,~  ,  :,~  : ^^ZZ^ZZZ 

iA,l  fn^n  on.  tn  two  hiinilraH  tons  each  bealdci  a  line  '  <" H"'  •hole  rrvctiiic  nil>wl  In  t^lclly  (slwut  $10,0(10,000), 
size,  from  one  to  two  hundred  tons  ejt'?.  ■»""""  ""^  ,„|„h«  wamMil  I.  sent  -llrwl  to  N»,il, ».  nevr  to  raom.  •  •  • 
of  steamers,  which  regulariy  touch  at  this  port,  to  ana  |  j^,, ,  ,;i,„ify  ««hl|,Us  latnl  «o  hlulilr  issid,  .ht  .  ne  in  which  ao 

•  See  COTsuiar"  Ketunu,  " Naplei,  Nft  30.  Ugccmlwr  30,    UUIn  (food  Ir  <>t«a(leH  '•,  tliu  Binersl  communlty.-MAC 
IS5S."     I'artlll.  ,  Ultiaoit. 


^■uA 


RIC 


1716 


SIC 


trtda  in  thl«  article  hns  been  annually  inriva*lnK, 
Theie  sulphur  mines  have  been  oxplored  ami  worki«i 
for  mora  than  three  hundred  years,  Imt  it  was  luit  until 
chemical  science  hod  pointed  out  tlie  various  uus  U> 
which  sulphur  can  lie  applied  that  its  •X|wr(atliiii  h<Mt 
risen  to  any  great  iniportunco.  There  are  now  ulfiut 
16Qanines  worked  in  un  area  of  27110  miles,  tliouifh  (Im 
most  productive  mines  nre  contined  to  Favurk,  Muilt> 
matirio,  OulllzzI,  and  Uiesi. 

Mr.  MacKregor  gives  some  interestin,;  statisll'^s  of 
the  sulphur  trade  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  from  wbii-h  ' 
It  appears  that  in  18<I8  the  amount  on  liuud  was  W,m)$  , 
quintals ;  on  the  Ist  August,  IK-IO,  it  had  rinen  to  <iiM,IJ<W  j 
quintals;  in  1M41  it  reached  8:)0,iiUU  quintals  (  and  in  I 
1842  It  stood  au  high  as  1,1W),0<K)  quintals.  | 

There  entered  the  ports  of  the  island  of  Kii-ily  in  ' 
1843,  14.<U  vessels  of  211,000  tons ;  of  which  from  (Im 
United  States  there  were  II  of  'ihW  tons ;  and  durliiK  ' 
the  same  year  there  cleared  from  Hicilian  ports  14'.^  ' 
vessels  of  25U,0OO  tons;  of  which  from  the  L'nit«4  | 
States  there  were  80  vessels,  measuring  22,600  tons. 

The  value  of  imports  and  exports  during  tlio  sains 
year  was : 

Iniporls  from  alt  foreign  countries tiMi,4tn 

Exports  tu  "  "       6.W4,4'» 

1'i>tiil  trado $11,1  lU.SisI 

ImporUi  fr.)iii  the  I  nlted  i-'.stcs lf'/Ti,*W 

lixiiorls  to  "  ••      851  ,<) «) 

ToUl  trade  with  the  Vnltod  States. .       (VJUTiiOii 


lnl<*  tlw  Uiftit  of  (h«  I  >' nlted  Htates  on  the  same  terms 


Viimi»h  IwlonoifiK  to  the  Two  Sicilies  an  admitted 
unrit  wTth 

as  Ani»t}i'Hti  vit«aels  ifiily  when  laden  with  the  home 
pr<MiM««  Of  iuim*  niannfactures, 

HimitmW  »»ti  5l/itf»4Tin<i  op  Tim  HiniLirs  with  roar-ioM 
«'<M/.«niiM  ixiaiNo  Till  YsAa  11I&4. 


t:m^. 

rrsnffl. 

CJaniwI.         1 

Vh»I>. 

Tun*. 

/CSsirB,  ,,,,,,„.,< 

'li,m,m 

488,S«0 

Sb'J 

6'J,lll).i 

Hi^imtU,,,.,,,,,4.. 

.  , .  , 

1 

I0;i 

M»tUm» ,„, 

a 

207 

1  HinmH  MatA), .,,,,,, 

Hfi« 

«flO,l«T 

B77 

23,4'J2 

,  tiviUn  ,.,,,,,,,,,,,.. 

fl.im.HM 

0 

808 

1  HIM  WatM, ,.„.,. 

l,»H3.'il(l 

M7,4TT 

17 

B,1ft3 

l/nrnti,,, ,,,.. 

W,tnn,4r<r, 

14.7M,iilT 

895 

1011,75,1 

timiH  MMn 

iM44,A<>4 

l'i,W7,5S4 

'JISI 

40,4.10 

tirumi ,,,,,,, ,. 

l.flB  ,:kh 

7!l,fl»» 

12 

i,2:ki 

IM(»«d 

4,iu,im 

960,171 

14 

2,75.7 

,  t<lHU»  lalsit/la 

01 

il,21ll 

1  k*>ut«nsM4  V>r«ay,. 

Mi.nwi 

0 

1,525 

'  IUt-t»  ,  ,,,, 

M,'/!«.4(n 

276,73S 

Vi 

!l,2>4 

Tmw*!**     ,,,,,,,,,., 

Jl.ft«:i.«c»7 

11,8  lii.l'M 

05 

5,IIIN) 

TorW,-, 

i.im,mi 

1 30,7118 

20 

6,!>7T 

Mr-ltKto 

«,4(I«,8TI 

S,il06,8S'i 

254 

80,051 

i'runSn, ,:,,,,,,,,,,. 

•i 

778 

■VmU 

10 

1,080 

All  w<N«r*  ,,,. ,. 

'f»»»«t,,,,  

IM.IKri 

(W.lilU 

.,. 

«i,irt.p,4ttiaO,7n,ia> 

2514 

S^,flSl| 

Utiri^n 


18M. 


<V«U«*fl«  ,,,-,,,,, Ii»,8fl8 

'fwiift'iltm,,.,,..., i.'Oi 

T«M(( , , , , 12,8.14 


Vnula. 

202,318 

47,488 

240,760 


Vasra  •Ddiag 


KoiKioN  CouMEoun  or  tub  TaiTiv  liTAJm  W<fW  Himtl,  rmm  flnittitn  1, 1830,  to  Jci.t  1,  1857, 


^ept.  so,  1831.. 
1832.. 
1833.. 
1834  . 
1835.. 
1890.. 
18H7 . . 
1888.. 
1831.. 
1840.. 


Total. 


Sept.  30, 1841 

*  1842 

9  moa.,    1843' 

.IUDc80,18M 

184B 

1840  

1847 

184S 

l»4i 

1860, 

Total, , 


.rune3n,  ISBl. 
1862. 
1868. 
18IH. 
1956 
1866. 
1867. 


boniMlie. 

8,088 

0.128 

4,000 

17,373 

140, 1S8 

18,020 

26,532 

1,2,402 

8fl,2l7 


ICiporU. 
f.inlSil, 


Vo,8S4 
4>,7I4 
5,817 
2l,iil3 
84,007 
33,1.23 


»71J,027       »20tf,7.'W 


*474,47il  I 
237,881 
32,658 
76,024 
711,026 
310,441 
r.0,8  lO 
17,764 
24,.16') 

60,677 

tl,3dil,10S 

(41,743 
55,()4'l 
13  i,:i37 
240,161 
207,7  0 
303,570 
1,0M,!I51 


$11,5  >2 

lll,'),707 

5 1, ''7 1 

2TS,0  2 

334,007 

2!)s.3  I 

7,218 

!i.076 

4,8.'>4 

18,024 

l,2"6,l''l 

(8,103 
10,8  0 
24,i>18 

i:),'iiK» 

4li.fl-J) 
76.1  6 
68,!.<  - 


>2.S«) 

4,W)0 
28,2M 

»4,4'»I 
41.IHIi 

'm^m  > 
_a37,if» 

♦wS.TsB 


(4«), 

433, 

84, 

864 

«ir, 

84 

««, 

2», 

m 


mi 

,4» 
,318 

■m 
m 

m 

IS 

8(1 

;(4/ 


Ifift.ffft 
two,<«» 

«SI,4T» 

sr8,TT» 

I.IM,  SO 


<ll'8>ll 
ltf>,?M 

41  (,(#/» 

un,  ft) 
m,m 

■  VM 
/*«,«•» 


¥ity«n 


**l,«r*',/»h«f«  wSilB 
nnlHcn  firirl  Sperla. 


Import. 


(008 
20,000 

__'_  'r.oo_ 

(21,708 
(14,300 

orii 

4,700 


4,520 

_w,'(ia5 

(40,811" 


(20,000 

'4,870 


Tannage  claarad. 


878 


■  .204 
1457 
1230 
1,012 
2,233 
l.WO 


8,  WO 
1,1>1S 

1.2:2 

6'.5 
1,04% 

415 

707 
1,423 

024 
1,853 
8,320 


13,533 

2,848 
0,«O9 

si  802 
4,500 
1,042 
6,334 


KuraiKi. 


4,32 
870 
311 
1,228 
8,148 
2,106 
1,824 
2,208 
3,170 


14,898 

8,5«n 

3,010 

fiso 

3,280 

8,028 

4,318 

040 

399 

2.82 

1,033 


21,407 

1,918 
3,427 

8,713 
3.444 
1,021 
3,119 


.Mui'  iiiontlM  l.i  .Juu''  30,  uud  tb"  tinmi  jfmf  friim  (111*  Kmn  liCKlns  July  1, 
-Palermo,  nn<i  ully   PunormMs,  u    jflKnwitlirfatiliroe'qnnrtorswest. 


A  heav}-  sea  some- 


Principal  Pnil.- 

Inrgo  city  and  sea-port,  the  ciipltiil  of  tlic  rioMo  i.ilun'l  tim* »  fulls  illt<i  the  liny,  liut  no  danger  need  be  uppre- 

of  Sicily,  on  the  north  cou?<t  of  wlii<  li  it  is  <itu.:liu),  th<i  lteit4t>4  liy  slfl|n  (rrnperly  found  in  anchors  and  chain 

light-house  being  in  lat.  'M'^  8'  !•/'  N.,  long,  ,  :y'  'il'  i'n\iU>i),     \it  ffninx  into  the  bay  it  is  necessary  to  kecii 
5«"  E.     Population,  170,fK)0.     The  li.iy  of  Pal .'riivi  is  '  tSvut  u(  flM»  (K'ta  lit  (lie  tunny  fishcrj-,  for  the.se  are  so 

alwut  five  niilps  in  depth,  the  city  lining  f  iru/>ti>4  im  HrmtK  uiid  Wall  m«<;red  as  to  bo  capable  of  arresting 

its  southwest  shore.     A  line  mole,  fully  one  nnarti'V  it  aliifi  inuU<r  aait, 
of  a  mile  in  length,  having  a  light-hou.-o  and  liuUnry        i/n/ir//,  -Hiive  IKI**  the  coins  of  Sicily  linvo  been 


at  its  extremity,  projecting  in  a  soutliorly  dlreiiUin 
from  t';.'  arscnul  into  nine  or  ten  futlioiiis  of  witUif, 
form-  ;  a  c:)nvenicnt  port,  ciipiilile  of  contaliilig  g  ' 
great  number  of  \'esBels,  This  immenxe  woriv  rz/^t 
aliout  .i.1, 000.000  stCi'ling  in  its  coiisfruction  i  but  tli« 
light-house,  though  a  splendid  structure,  is  saiit  to  M  '. 


''  ><  nmw  lU)  (Ihis«  of  Nnples,  their  names  only  diffcr- 
inif,  Y '  "  dW'iit-its.  h-'i(l.  sterling,  is  subdivided  into 
Uitt  ■■  ^  inA  10  p4rcioli ;    but  nrrounts  are  still 

f'tU"  •.  •  .n  (iticie,  tarie,  ■    .  _.      .i:  20  grani  = 

int«  ■■ '     loncia;  the  oiuia  -  ,>  liicats  ;  and  1 

/'»fl*w> "«  '  .'ijiJfK  2=  1  taro  of  Sicily.     The  Spanish  dol- 
'  «(  12  tnrl  8  grani. 


very  ill  liglited.     Thero  is  un  inner  port,  wbicli  i»  r«' '  \»t  i*  lU 

■ervcd  for  the  use  of  tlie  arsenal.  .Ships  thut  dii  »M(t !  Wtinhln.-UKf  HIrllian  pounds  of  12  onnces=70  lbs. 
mean  to  go  within  tlie  mole  may  anchor  about  l)»lf  »  «v«frdHj»o)>  ftVll  lbs.  Troy  =  31'70  k!log.=64'23  lbs. 
mile  from  it,  in  from  J(i  to  2.)  fitlioms,  mole  light  l^eaf'   "f  Awafcflam-  06'6(»  lbs.  of  Hamburg. 


SI£ 


1717 


SIE 


432 

«ia 

311 
1,M» 
8,US 
2,108 
l,S-24 
2,299 

s,m 
i.t,s»s 

B,fi«« 

s.om 

OsO 

3,2S« 

3,«28 

4,31S 

649 

399 

23-3 

i,08a_ 

ei,40T 

i,(>i« 

3,42T 

3,Ti3 
3.444 
1,821 
3,119 


r  8CU  8ome- 
1  be  apjirc- 
land  clittin 
Iry  to  kecii 
Icse  are  so 
f  arresting 

Imvo  I)cen 

■  diffcr- 

vidod  into 

I  are  still 

)  grani  = 

Lts;  ondl 

|)aniah  dol- 

9=7011)8. 

tc4-23lb>. 


I! 


atenra  Iiaona,  an  linglUh  •ottUmant,  near  tho 
iDoufli  of  tho  rivor  of  the  lams  name,  on  tna  west 
coast  of  Africa,  lat.  8^  'M'  N.,  lonj,'.  13°  5'  W.  This 
colony  was  founded  partly  as  •  conimerciul  establish- 
ment, but  more  from  motives  of  humanity.  It  was 
intended  to  consist  prinuipally  of  ttvn  blacks,  who,  be- 
ing instructed  in  the  Chri.'itian  religion,  and  in  tho'arU 
of  Eurupo,  should  become,  as  it  were,  a  focus  whence 
civilization  mi;;ht  bo  ditfused  among  tho  surrounding 
tribes.  About  1200  frea  negroes,  who,  having  joined 
the  royal  standard  In  tho  American  war,  were  obliged, 
&t  the  termination  of  that  contest,  to  take  refuge  in 
Nov*  Scotia,  wore  conveyed  lliither  in  V'Ji.  To  these 
were  afterward  odded  tho  Maroons  from  Jamaica ;  and 
iinca  the  legal  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  the  negroes 
taken  In  the  captured  vessels,  and  liberated  by  the 
mixed  commission  courts,  have  been  carried  to  ihr 
colony.  Tho  total  population  of  the  colony  in  18J0 
•mounted  to  about  66.&0I),  all  black  or  colored,  with 
the  exception  of  about  100  whites. 

Succaii  of  the  t^fforU  to  cicUhe  the  maclt.— Great 
efforts  havo  been  mado  to  introduco  order  and  indus- 
trious habits  among  these  persons.  We  are  sorrv 
however,  to  bo  obliged  to  add  that  these  odbrts,  though 
prosecuted  at  an  enormous  expense  of  blood  and  treas- 
ure, have  been  signally  unsuccessful.  There  is,  no 
doubt,  some  discrepancy  in  the  accounts  of  tho  prog- 
ress mado  by  the  blacks.  It  is,  however,  sudiclently 
clear  that  it  has  been  very  inconsiderable,  and  we  do 
not  think  that  any  other  result  could  bo  rationally  an- 
ticipated. Their  laziness  has  been  loudly  complained 
of,  but  without  reason.  Men  are  not  industrious  with- 
out a  motive;  and  most  of  those  motives  that  stimu- 
late all  classes  in  colder  climates  to  engage  in  lalmri- 
ous  employmmts  are  unknown  to  the  indolent  inl.  ib- 
itants  of  this  burning  region,  where  clohing  is  of  little 
importance,  where  sufficient  sujipUe;  <  mod  mny  be 
obtained  with  comparatively  little  exertion,  and  where 
more  than  half  the  necessaries  and  conveniences  of  Eu- 
ropeans would  be  positive  incumbrances.  And  had  it 
been  otherwise,  what  progress  could  a  colony  bo  ex- 
pected to  maks  into  which  there  havo  been  annunlly 
imported  crowds  of  liberated  negroes,  most  of  whom 
are  barbarians  in  tho  lowest  stage  of  civilization  ? 

Influence  of  the  Colony  upon  Mo  iHicit  Slave-trade. — 
As  a  means  of  checlMng  the  prrvuicnce  of  tho  illicit 
slave-trade,  the  estaldishment  of  a  colony  at  Sii  t.! 
Leone  has  been  worse  than  uteless.  Tho  trade  is  prin- 
cipally carried  on  with  the  countries  round  tho  fiit.:hi 
of  Biufra  and  the  Bight  of  Benin,  many  hundred  miles 
distant  from  Sierra  Leone ;  and  tho  mortali'  in  the 
captured  ships  during  their  voyage  to  the  latter  is  oft- 
en very  great.  The  truth  is  that  this  traffic  will  never 
be  eflectually  put  down  otherwise  than  l>y  the  great 
powers  declaring  it  to  be  piracy,  and  treating  those  en- 
gaged in  it,  wherever  and  by  whomsoever  they  may  be 
found,  as  sea  robbers  or  pirates.  Such  a  declaration 
would  be  quite  conformable  to  tho  spirit  of  the  decla- 
ration put  for'h  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1824. — 
See  SLAVE-THArtB,  Hut  the  jealousies  with  respect 
to  the  right  of  visitation  and  search  are  so  very  great, 
that  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  the  maritime 
powers  will  ever  be  "irought  to  concur  in  any  declara- 
tion of  the  kind  now  alluded  to ;  unless,  however,  some- 
thing of  this  sort  be  do'if ,  we  apprehend  there  are  but 
slender  grounds  fur  '  ..,.|' jsing  that  the  trade  will  be 
speedily  suppressed. 


proportion  to  tha  750  tons  of  palm  oil  proennd  from 
the  same  lociditlos,  it  follows  that  the  60,000  tons  of 
oil  should  give  10,000,000  bushels  of  kernels,  equal  lo 
228,000  tons,  worth,  at  tho  high  price  obtained  for 
them  in  France  in  1846,  89,520.000  francs  j  and  we 
ought  to  arrive  at  nearly  the  same  results  In  England. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  th«  average  yield  of  oil 
from  these  kernels  is  80  par  cent. ;  the  228,000  tons 
should,  consequently,  giva  67,000  tons  of  oil,  worth,  at 
the  present  price  of  cocoa-nut  oil,  which  It  closely  re- 
sembles in  all  its  qualities,  £8,860,000.  If  wa  add  to 
this  tha  value  of  the  cake,  112,000  tons  at  the  verv  low 
value  of  £\  per  ton,  we  should  obtain  £448,000,  mak- 
ing  the  whole  gross  value  £3,790,000.  The  whole 
quantity  of  tallow  exported  from  Russia  in  1856  is 
estimated  at  2,574,121  poods,  or  46,966  tons,  which,  at 
the  present  price  of  £65  per  ton,  would  give  £2,628, 1 80. 
It  follows,  then,  that  the  kernels  now  thrown  away  In 
the  manufacture  of  the  60,000  tons  of  palm  oil  exported 
from  Africa  are  worth  £1,216,870,  mora  than  all  tho 
tallow  exported  from  Russia  in  1860. 

"  In  estimating  the  value  of  this  trode  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, there  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration  a  fact  of  the 
utmost  Importance,  ond  which  will  render  it  more  val- 
Uttbln  whenever  It  is  established  than  any  other  she  is 
now  engaged  in  j  it  is  that  our  trade  with  Africa  Is  en- 
tirely a  barter  trade,  that  while  we  pay  Russia  almost 
entirely  in  hard  cash  for  her  tallow,  the  whole  valuo 
of  these  kernels  will  be  paid  for  in  British  manufactures 
and  colonial  produce,  -..hile  the  transport  of  223,000 
tons  of  J  'oduce  from  Africa  to  England  will  give  addi- 
tional  employment  to  that  extent  to  her  scumcn  und 
shipping.  This  question  assumes  still  greater  import- 
ance when  taken  fr  .m  another  point  of  view,  that  is, 
when  W6  consider  ' «  effect  this  new  industrj-  must 
liave  in  the  course  oi  i  few  years  on  tho  habits  and 
well-being  of  the  African.  I  Ix " '  tv  that  the  degraded 
position  be  now  occupies  in  '  lie  »i  '  of  humanity  pro- 
ceeds rather  from  the  want  ■  i'  -il'  ycupation  In'early 
life  than  from  any  other  cause  in  •ue  in  himself. 

"The  manufacture  of  palm  oil,  ami  the  collection  of 
such  other  products  as  they  can  find  a  ready  market 
for  with  tho  European  trader,  limited  as  it  Is  by  thc.'r 
limited  knowledge  of  our  requirements,  can  occupy  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  population,  while  the  growth  of 
their  own  food  in  a  coimtrv  wit!i  a  tropical  sun  and  six 
months  of  tropical  rain  atTords  employment  only  to  a 
few  women  in  each  village,  und  occupies  but  a  few 
weeks  in  tho  year.  The  rest  of  the  population  grow  up 
in  that  unvaried  idleness  wiiicb,  I  believe,  is  tli';  '.na 
great  cause  of  their  poverty,  at  their  crhnes,  and  of 
those  frightful  diseases  thut  prostrate  the  physical  and 
mental  energies  of  n  large  proportion  of  them  j  when- 
ever this  population  i;-  '„  ■  ■  ,-,ug^t  to  occupy  itself 
with  the  kernel  nf  ,1 1'  ■  ,  .iv  ,  ihis  state  of  things 
will  immediately  ri.ai  „-e.  Every  memlier  of  every 
family  above  the  ag  of  three  years  will  not  only  have 
employment,  but  remunerative  employment,  during 
each  hour  of  every  day  in  the  year,  thus  the  habit 
of  lal)or  will  bo  created,  and  will  bring  with  it  other 
habits  and  new  wants,  and  simultaneously  with  these 
wants  the  means  of  ministering  to  them." — Report  <>f 
British  Consul  Hkddle  at  Sierra  iMme,  May,  1867. 

Colonial  Expenses. — The  pecuniary  expenses  occa- 
sioned to  Great  Britain  by  this  colony,  and  the  unsuc- 
cessful efforts  to  suppress  the  foreign  slave-trade,  have 
I)cen  altogether  enormous.     Mr.  Keith  Douglas  is  re- 


Palm  Oil. — "The  qn'.raty  of  palm  oil  imported  into  I  ported  to  have  stated  in  the  IIi  use  of  Commons,  in 
>'.;g!and  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa  in  1856  was  July,  1831,  that  "down  to  the  year  1824  the  civil  ex- 
e^Umated  at  45,000  tons,  tu  which  v  c  have  to  add  the   penscs  of  Sierra  Leone  amounted  to  £2,268,000;  and 


vrrv  considerable  quantity  export.'d  to  the  United 
Stitei,  Franco,  and  Hambii-g,  and  other  contineri  I 
ports,  and  which  can  no  tie  estimated  at  less  than 
5000  tons,  thus  making  ti  whole  quanii'y  exported 
fi-om  the  west  coast  of  ■  iVica  50,000  t.n".  dmit- 
ting,  then,  that  160,00  Im.ihels  of  kernils  otiaincd  in 
the  neighborhood  cf  ij  srrs  Leotie  < .'    tl '.  'uir  velative 


Imt  tho  same  expenses  had  amounted,  from  1821  to 
1830,  to  £1,082,000.  The  naval  expenses,  from  1807 
to  1824,  had  been  £1,630,000.  The  payments  to  Spain 
and  Portugal,  to  induce  them  to  relinquish  the  stave- 
trade,  amounted  to  £1,230,000.  The  expenses  on  ac- 
count of  captbred  slaves  were  £633,092.  The  expenses 
incurred  on  acr  -int  of  the  mixed  commission  court* 


iK- 


8IL 


vn» 


SIL 


wen  iC10fl,000,  AUoKDthfr  thli  ealablliihm*nt  hnri 
caul  Qrast  lirilaln  ni'trly  i;H,0(IO,0t)OI"  Tho  |irMllK>>l- 
ity  of  lhl«  •xpciiclituni  u  uniiialcheU,  oxcapt  liy  lla 
UM-li'ii':!.  '        I'  '<  'liiubirul  whether  it  hu  |irev«nte(l 

•  .  <'i         '  »i  1  belDK  UriKKcil  inio  lUvery,  or 
oliArrui    li  >illt<t  real  a(lvant«K<  <>■>  Africa.     It, 

hvWvivar,  <  lao'^Mi  tha  kliiKs  of  Spain  and  rortugal  to 
turn  llioir  mercenary  humanity  to  kooiI  account.— For 
further  UetaiU  with  retpect  to  Sit'rra  I.«onu  unil  tho 
trad*  of  Weitern  Africa,  we  the  Htport  «f  llu  Hrlrcl 
Commillte  ijf  the  Hove  if/  Comimmt  on  lit  tt'rit  (Jtnut 
itf' Africa,  H<iM.  \Wi,  and  the  furl.  J'aptr  for  Ulil. 

Tlio  traite  hctween  the  United  8tatea  and  tho  wholu 
of  Africa  is  moat  in*l((nl>loant  in  comparleon  with  that 
botweun  Kn){lanil  ami  almpl;   '  m  coaat;  and 

it  is  a  fact  eapeclalK  :  n.i  .1.  .  <.i  atieiil'on,  «  rcf- 
•rence  to  Liberia,  tliui  for  eunie  time  paat,  while  the 
iniportationi  from  England  are  IncroualnK,  from  the 
L'nlted  Hlatei  they  are  dlmi.ilalilnf{,  particularly  col- 
tun  Kooda.  It  la  eatlmated  that  there  are  not  le^a  than 
one  hundred  aliipa  regularly  trading  between  tho  llrit- 
iah  porta  and  the  coaat  of  Africa,  while  a  regular  lino 
of  ateanirra  pliea  l>etwcen  England  and  Liberia  and 
other  aettlemanta  on  the  coaat.  In  addition,  It  la  now 
propoaed  to  aend  a  aleaniur  up  tho  Niger  Klver  each 
(naaon  for  the  encouragement  of  amigranta  and  tho 

J)rotcction  of  tradcra ;  to  secure  a  tree  port  at  Fernando 
I'o,  by  a  commercial  treaty  with  Spain,  or  in  nonio 
other  convenient  locality,  as  an  entrepot  fur  ]lrili>h 
merchant  ships;  to  maintain  the  African  aqusdmn  in 
its  former  state  of  efficiency,  and  to  ninko  Sierra  Lounn 

•  free  port.  Tho  following  tables  show  tho  relative 
importance  of  Urltlah  and  \mericun  trade  with  Africa : 
Tna  Tbaix  or  rnii  rmmi  Status  with  Afiiic\  crRixii 

TUK  HIIIB  VlAKS  CHIIIMU  .IDNK  !)0,  \K>1, 


|X4»  . 
1§6'I. 
1861  . 

ifm. 

1M». 
1864. 
18». 

laM  . 

1881  . 


Biporta. 

$Tii8;«rr 

],8JO,0« 

1,0I«,R!13 
l,8iV4.9T* 
l.aTB.lKlft 
1,T1I.%.4I9 
2,484,74)1 


ImporU. 

~j».'>j4sr 

IW4,7'« 
l.HUI'i) 
],(Br,OBT 

i,'.'ii2,»8a 
t,.'"8«,a6() 
l.iia?  »  7 

l.lA'i.SST 
I.Sit.SIU 


Tola). 


tl.'^M.tti^l 

•i.ti  u.sao 
•^.:in!i.7ii9 

2,HI3,R1!) 
8.l:i|.B.')2 
i(,71».4.TJ 
VMil.'lU 
4.n0ll.4ll 


The  amount  of  tonnage  cleared  from  tho  United 

States  was  a  .  falloK    : 


Ytar  Millof  Juo«  so. 


ISM. 

IS'.7 


Tonnaf*  iilaarad. 


AnwftgMl. 
18,077  ■ 
2«,ia;0 


KunlKn. 
[.75 
74J 


The  following  returns  to  Parliament  (ns  pulilMiuit 
by  tho  London  S/ilp/nni/  and  Mtircnnlile.  (Imcllr)  chnw 
the  increaao  of  exfH>rts  liy  (ireat  llrilain  to  the  oo.st 
coaat  uf  Africa,  and  of  importa  from  tho  aamc  coast : 

liiUKtrti.  I        ~'iolHl. 

i'i  OS.liM  Xl,84.V:iS7 

794.810  l,449ll,M 

7'iril!i4  1,840.740 

U<.K\VA  1, (560,775 

911.' ,134  l,Sfl4.44) 


Yean. 

Ril'orU- 

18B0 

xi;if.4't> 

tsi 

I1M  M.I 

18M 

B,%i,7'iB 

la-M 

1<»4 

901, 402 

!  f.  Ml  t 

This  is  indcpc;'  '  uf  tlie  llritiah  colonics  of  .Si- 
erra Leone,  the  1  >f  wIj'  'i  amounted  in  18&4  to 
(l,4'21,8(i5,  and  <  iriliN  osscaslons  on  the  Gold 
Coast  and  the  liiver  (.lanibiu,  iiounting  to  $1,547,285 
more ;  and  of  thn.'<  at  tlie  (Jupe  of  Good  IIopo  and  in 
South  Africa,  swelling  tlie  amount  $8,3A3,0U0  more; 
making  in  all  an  aggregate  of  over  (23,0OO,0UO  in  1854 
for  the  western  coast  of  Africa  entire.  —  See  I)t.ack- 
■woou's  Magazine,  xxiil.  63,  xli.  6U3;  Monthly  Jie- 
riew,  cxxiii.  188;  Hunt's  Mmhantt'  Mai/azine,  xv. 
572:  Eilinburj/h  lirmew,  iii.  ilfiS. 

Silk  (Lat,  Stricum,  from  Sert$,  the  nuppoxed  an- 
cient name  of  the  Chinese),  a  line  glossy  thread  or  fila- 
ment spun  by  various  species  of  caterpillars  or  larvie 
of  the  phalana  genus.  Of  these  the  Phalana  atlat 
produces  the  greatest  quantity  ;  but  the  J'halma  bom- 
hyx  i*  that  commonly  employed  for  this  {lurpose  in 


Ruropo.  Tha  sltk-worm,  In  Its  eatarplttsr  ataia,  whteh 
may  li«  cnnaidercd  aa  the  tint  stag*  uf  ita  •xialanp*, 
after  acquiring  ita  full  growth  (alM)Ut  three  Inchaa  In 
length),  proeee<la  to  inolosa  Itaelf  In  an  oval-ahapwt 
ball  or  cocoon,  which  la  formed  by  an  exoeadlngly 
alender  and  long  llbiment  uf  line  yelluw  ailk.  emitted 
from  the  atoma<'h  of  the  inaeet  preparatory  to  Ita  ua- 
suming  the  ahupe  uf  the  rhryaulla  or  nnitb.  In  this 
latter  atuge,  after  emanci|uitln)r  itaelf  from  ita  allltan 
priaon,  it  aeeka  ita  mute,  which  Ima  undergone  »  aim- 
liar  tranafumiation ;  and  in  two  or  three  diija  after- 
ward, tha  female  having  <lepoaited  her  egg*  (fniin  IMH) 
to  500  in  number),  both  InaeetH  tarmlnstii  thtir  axlat- 
ence.  According  to  Kcaumur,  tlie  jihulirnii  la  not  tha 
only  Inaect  thut  ull'urda  tliii  iimterlul.— several  a|ieelea 
of  tha  aranca,  or  apider,  Incluau  their  egga  in  very  Una 
ailk. 

Haul  silk  is  produced  by  the  npenitlon  of  winding 
off  at  tbo  same  time  several  uf  the  bulla  or  rocuons 
(which  are  Inimeraed  In  hot  water  i>  loften  the  nuturul 
gum  on  the  fliument)  on  a  conimim  reel,  thsreliy  furni- 
Ing  one  smooth  even  thread.  When  the  akein  ia  dry, 
it  is  taken  from  the  reel  and  made  up  Into  hunka ;  but 
liefuro  it  ia  tit  fur  weaving,  and  in  order  to  enabla  It 
to  undergo  the  proceaa  of  dyeing  without  furring  up  or 
ae|iarnting  the  llbres,  it  is  converted  Into  one  of  thrta 
forma,  vis.,  tingle;  tram,  or  vn/antint, 

ttinglet  (a  collectivo  noun)  is  formed  of  nni  of  the 
reeled  threads  being  twisted,  in  order  to  glv.  itatrength 
and  llrmneas. 

Tratn  is  formed  of  two  or  more  tlin'sda  twisted  to- 
gether. In  this  atttto  it  is  commonly  used  In  weaving, 
as  the  >Aoa<  or  iir/t, 

Throicn  tilk  la  formed  of  two,  three,  or  more  singles, 
accordlni;  '  tho  substance  re(|ulred,  lieing  twiatad  to- 
gether 111  .  conlrnrg  dlrecti<  11  to  tln.i  in  which  the 
singles  of  which  it  la  eii!n|Hinril  are  twi:,.  1.  Thia  pru- 
ceas  is  tenned  orgunizing,  and  the  ail'.  twUtrd  '<r> 
!)amine.  The  art  of  throwing  was  orig  <ly  conllned 
to  Italy,  where  it  wua  kept  u  aecret  lor  a  i<'ng  |i«rlod. 
Stow  suya  it  was  known  in  England  alnii'  i!ia  5th  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  "  when  it  waa  gained  fii  lie  <inin- 
gcrs ;"  and  in  thut  yeur  C15fJ2)  the  ailk  throw  >.t«ia  <  '  tha 
metropolis  were  united  into  a  fellowahlp.  They  warn 
lncnr|ioruted  In  the  yeur  ;'>20,  but  the  »'  luntlnued 
to  be  very  Imperfect  in  thut  country  until  1710. 

l>atet  oj'the  Jniroduitivn  n/SM; — Wrought  ailk  waa 
brought  from  I'eraia  to  Greece  825  n.r.  Known  at 
Home  in  Tiberlus's  time,  when  a  law  paaied  In  the 
Senate  prohibiting  the  uao  of  pinte  of  maaay  gold,  and 
also  forbidding  men  to  debase  tliemaelves  by  wearing 
ailk,  lit  only  for  women.  Ileliugiilialus  Itrat  worn  a 
garment  of  silk  A.i>.  220.  Silk  wns  at  lirat  of  tha 
same  value  with  gold,  weight  for  weight,  and'  waa 
thought  to  grow  in  tho  same  uiannvr  iia  cotton  on 
trees.  Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Kurojia 
in  the  6tb  mtury.  Charlemiigne  sent  Ufl'a,  king  of 
Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests  A.  11.  780,  Tha 
manuf.'.':ture  was  encouraged  by  Itoger,  king  of  Sicily, 
at  Palermo,  IIHO,  when  the  Siclllinia  nut  only  bred  tho 
silk-wonns,  but  spun  and  weavcd  tha  ailk.  The  manu- 
facture spread  Into  Italy  and  Spain,  and  aluo  into  the 
south  of  France,  a  little  before  the  reign  uf  Fruncis  L, 
about  1310;  and  Henry  IV.  propagated  mullierry-trces 
and  silk-worms  throughout  tho  kingdom,  lfi8U,  In 
England  silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's 
ladies  at  a  ball  at  Kenilworth  Cattle,  1280,  Silk  was 
worn  by  the  English  clergy  in  1634,  Slunufuctiired 
in  England  in  1604,  and  broad  silk  wove  froni  raw  altk 
in  1620,  Firat  attempt  to  introduce  tho  silk  culture 
into  the  American  colonies  by  Jumes  I,,  year  1022, 
Brought  to  perfeetiun  by  the  F'rench  refugees  in  Loo- 
don  at  Spitultielda,  1688,  A  silk-throwing  mill  was 
made  in  ICnglond,  and  fixed  up  at  lierby,  by  Sir 
Thomas  Lomlw,  merchant  of  London,  modeled  front 
the  original  mill  then  in  the  King  of  Sardlula'a  do* 
miniona,  about  1714 — IIavum. 


SIL 


171 J  SIL 


liii'ho  In 

■\-lll«|H"l 

I,  «mltt«<l 
tu  it«  »»- 
,     In  tliU 
ttn  (Ukin 
una  »  •'•"• 
Iu)«  lift"'- 
,  (frmii  IMH) 
h>t[  •xl"»- 
I  la  n(>«  lh« 
ml  nwl*' 
In  very  «"• 

of  wlnrtlng 
or  rueiioni 
,  til*  nuluriil 
(•roll)'  f"rm> 
•ki-lii  li>  i\'y< 
,  Imiikii  I  I'llt 
to  enali>«  1' 
furrlnn  up  "r 
I  on*  of  tlirti 

of  nfi«  of  ill* 
Iv.  lt«tr«nijth 

„Iii  twUtcd  to- 
ed  In  wettvlnu, 

r  more  ilnRUit 

Inn  twl«t*»*  t<v 

III  whkt>  tl>" 

t.  fl.    Till"  1""'- 

,  twlnteil  "f- 

lly  conl\n<Ml 

,  K  i.nn  (lerloil. 

Inic  tli«  Mh  of 

f,.,      I  ,c  .tnin- 

hro»i>tt!n>'  '111" 

111).    'I'liry  WW 

(intlnufiJ 

itll  IV1«. 
■rou(<lit»Uk  wn« 

I.e.     Kmi»"  »* 
(  iiamicil  111  tlia 
inui»y  KuW,  ind 
ive»  l>y  wenrlnR 
[uii  llmt  worn  » 
at  rtrnt  of  t\i« 
cl^lit,  and'  WM 
ir  iiH  cotton  <in 
InJItt  to  Kuroiie 
„t  «)ftii,  klnii  "f 
A.I.,  7K0.    'llw 
r,kinK0tSW\y, 
,t  only  liroil  th« 
Ilk.    'Ilia  im>nii' 
■III  aim  Into  the 
rn  of  FruiicU  >.i 
I  muU>crry-troe» 
(lom,  16HU.     In 
jonie  nolilcinen'a 
^•m.    Silk  w«» 
Manufac'tiiroil 
ro  from  raw  »\\^ 
iho  illk  cuUur* 
ft  1.,  year  lOW. 
Vofuiteen  In  Loq- 
owlnn  mlU  w" 
Derliy,  l)y  Sir 
,,  modeled  from 
f  Sardlnlu'n  do» 


llitlorical  HkH(h.—Tb»  art  of  raarlng  •llk-war«H«,  nt 
■oravcltnK  the  thread*  ipun  liy  them,  uiiil  iimntifar- 
turlnn  the  Utter  into  artlclet  of  drfan  mid  oriiameiit, 
iaama  to  liav*  lieen  tlmt  jiructUed  liy  tl)«  chinenn. 
Virgil  la  the  earliest  of  the  Koman  writen  who  han 
bten  iiipiKiud  to  allude  to  the  (iriKliictlon  of  iillk  In  „ 

China,  and  the  terma  ha  employii  ahow  how  little  waa    tbeuiielvea  in  Toura.     'I'hu  iiiaiiufai'iure  wua  not  h*- 


aoon  aftar  dlatlnnuuhed  for  llieir  auooaa*  In  raialng 
allk-worma,  and  for  the  extent  and  beauty  of  their 
maiiiifMcturea  of  ailk.-  (•innoN,  vi>l.  n,  p,  I1U|  Itio- 
■inpkit  UmvtritlU,»i\.  KoiiKii  II.  The  allk  manu- 
ruclure  waa  Intnxluced  into  Kram*  in  NW),  l^mli  XI. 
haviiiK  invited  workmen  from  Italy,  who  eatalillahed 


then  known  at  Home  of  the  real  natura  of  the  article 

"  V«Ui'ra>|ua  ut  fullla  depcctaut  Ivniila  Haraa."— (^m.  Illi. 
IL  lln.  111. 

Dul  It  may  b«  doubted  whether  Virgil  do  not  in  thit 
line  refer  lo  cotton  rather  than  allk.  I'lliiy,  however, 
hue  diatinctly  deacrllied  the  forniutioii  ol'  ■tWV.  hy  the 
bombur.—lliil.  A'u<.     It  la  uncertain  when  It  flrat  Iw- 


);iin  at  l.yonf  till  alMiut  ItiW,  when  Kranvla  I,,  having 
Kot  poaaeaalon  of  Milan,  pravalird  on  aoina  artiaana  of 
the  latter  city  to  eatabllab  tliaiiiaelvea,  under  lila  |>ro> 
taction,  in  the  former.  Nrarly  at  the  aam*  period  lh« 
rearing  of  Hllk-wurma  lie^an  to  Iw  aiiiccaafully  proa*- 
cuted  in  I'mvcnca  and  ollirr  prii'liicua  of  the  aouth  of 
I  Krance.  lUnry  IV.  rewarded  audi  of  the  early  iiiunu- 
gan  to  lie  Introduced  at  Home;  liut  it  waa  moat  |ir<<l>-  fuctiirera  aa  had  aiip|inrti-il  and  |iiiraued  tlia  trade  for 
»bly  in  the  age  of  Tonipey  and  Juliua  llmaar— the  lat-  twelve  ycara  with  |iati'iil«  of  nolilllty. 
tar  of  wiioin  diaplayed  a  profualcm  of  siika  In  annio  '>f  (Ina  <  ircuniatunca  dlntiiiKuiahea  allk  from  the  other 
the  magiilllrviit  theatrical  apectmloa  with  which  Ik*  three  great  aourcea  of  textile  faiirica \  vl/.„  the  'Ilk  It 
•ought  to  conciliate  and  amuae  tlio  pooplo.  Owing  already  n  contlnuoua  lllaiiieiit  licfiira  it  reaili'*  th« 
prllicl|>alty,  no  doubt,  to  th«  great  distance  of  China  I  liaiida  orUii!  manufacturer ;  wlicreiia  cotton,  H""I.  and 
from  Koine,  and  to  the  difficiiltiea  in  the  way  of  the  in- 1  llux  are  all  aiiort  In  the  Hiiro  \  anil  thoae  lllir'  Sav* 
tercourae  with  that  country,  which  waa  carried  on  liy  <o  lie  comliiiied  eml  to  end  liy  a|iinniiig.  'I'lin  little 
Und  ill  caravana  whoae  route  lay  tlirough  tho  reniiin  nillc-wonii,  intent  ii|Kin  iniiking  a  warm  haliitatinn  for 
•mpire,  and  lutrtly ,  porliapa,  to  the  lii|;h  price  of  allk  in  himaelf,  wrapa  or  liuilda  around  him  a  ciicoon  or  ainall 
China,  Itt  coat,  when  It  arrived  ut  Kome,  waa  \try  i>gg.iiliii|icd  hollow  envelope,  faliricated  of  one  very 
grtat)  to  much  to  that  a  given  weiglit  of  allk  wua  '  ~ 


tcioetimes  told  for  an  eijual  weight  of  golil ;  at  tirat  it 
V  H  only  uaed  by  a  few  ladiea  eminent  fur  their  rank 
»nd  opulence.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Tl- 
berhta,  a  law  waa  paeaed,  ne  feilit  ttrica  viroi  fminret 
—that  no  man  aliould  diagruce  lilniaelf  by  wearing  ii 
■liken  garment.— TAciTua,  A nnal.  Uut  the  pMlligate 
Itellogalialus  deapiied  this  Uw,  and  waa  the  flrat  of 
the  Koiniin  em|i«ror8  who  wore  u  dress  com|)oaed  wholly 


long  and  exi|uiaitciy-llne  liiament  of  ailk.  Thla  Ilia- 
mont  tiio  silk  growera~wln'tlior  III  Itiily,  Turkey, 
China,  or  India  (theae  being  tlio  chief  allk-producinc 
countrlcHi  -unwind  by  varioua  liigenloua  ineana;  and 
many  lUamenta  are  then  comblneil  Into  one  to  form  • 
thread  aufllcientiy  atrongto  form  into  hanka  or  akr^lnt. 
.Such  ailk  i»  called  raw  ailk,  ami  In  thla  atutu  moat  of 
our  aupply  U  obtained.  It  thence  foUowa  that  tha 
twitting  and  apiiiiiing  macliiiiery  differa  rnim  that  em- 


of  allk  (holutericum).     The  example  once  aet,  the  ciis-    ployed  for  ^ha  other  throe  kliidt  of  libra  mentioned 


torn  of  wearing  tUk  soon  became  general  among  the 
wealthy  citixena  of  Rome,  and  throughout  the  prov- 
Incea,  According  at  the  demand  for  the  article  in- 
creaaed,  etforta  were  made  to  import  larger  quantitlea ; 
and  the  price  teema  to  have  progrcaaively  declined 
tnm  tho  reign  of  Aurelian.  That  this  must  have  been 
the  cuae  la  obvioui  from  the  ttatement  of  Ammianut 
Marcullinua,  that  ailk  waa  in  hit  time  (anno  1170)  very 
generally  worn,  oven  by  tho  lowe.it  clasaes.  Stricum 
ad  tunm  imttkao  fwbilium,  nunc  ttiam  infimorum  line 
uMii  ilurrtlione proficimi. — Lib.  xvili. 

China  continued  to  draw  considerable  sums  from  the 
Komau  empire  in  return  for  silk,  now  become  indis- 
ptntalile  tu  the  Western  World,  till  tho  fith  centun.-. 
About  the  year  660,  two  Tertian  monka,  who  had  long 


above.  The  allk  la  tranaferriid  from  haiikt  to  retlt, 
round  which  it  if  wound.  It  ia  twlated,  and  wound, 
and  doubled,  and  wound  again,  and  traiiaferrod  from 
one  niuchlne  to  anotiier,  until  there  ia  aufllcleiit  tliick- 
neta  to  form  a  tliread  for  weaving  or  for  aewing,  and 
autflclent  twiat  to  give  it  alrcngtli. 

A  document  of  particular  liitcrcat  liua  iieen  piibllah- 
ed,  allowing  the  arrivals  of  raw  ailk  In  (ireiit  llriluin  In 
ouch  of  the  liftccn  ycara  from  INI'J  to  IHfiil  iorluaiva 
The  entire  figures  are  too  extended  for  insertion,  but 
the  following  abstract  miilHidles  the  principiil  polnta  of 
interest.  The  most  roiiuirkable  fiintiire  la  that,  whlU 
China  sent  to  (ireiit  Ilritain  only  IWI.V.M  Iba.  in  IM?, 
the  supply  furnished  liy  her  aiiioiiiited  tu  •l,Wtl,(0(l  Ilia, 
in  18frl,  and  in  1850  was  ll,72ll,lWa  Iba.,  notwithatund- 


retldod  In  China  and  made  themselvea  acquainted  with  1  ing  the  shipment  of  a  large  |K.rtloii  of  her  crop  direct  to 
the  mode  of  rearing  the  siik-worm,  encouraged  by  the  1  Krance  in.  onsenuenco  of  the  failure  In  that  country. 
glfU  and  promises  of  Juatiniiin,  succeeded  in  carrying   The  m  a  m"'»  imiwrtant  iiii|Kirtt  ar«  those  of  Kgypt 
the  eggs  of  the  insect  to  Constantinople.     Under  their 
direction  tliey  were  hatched  and  fed;  they  lived  and 


labored  in  u  foreign  climate ;  a  sufDcient  number  of 
buttertllet  was  saved  to  proiiagato  the  race,  and  mul- 
btrry-trees  were  planted  to  aft'ord  nourishment  to  the 
rising  guuurutlont.  A  new  and  important  branch  of 
Industry  was  thus  ettablUhed  in  Europe.  Ex|)cricnce 
ond  reflection  gradually  corrected  tho  errors  of  a  new  at- 
tempt i  and  the  tiogdoito  embassadors  acknowledged  in 
the  succeeding  reign  that  the  Koniana  were  not  inferior 
to  the  natives  of  China  in  the  education  of  the  insects 
and  the  manufacture  of  silk.— U  iouon,  Decline  and  Fall. 
Greece,  particularly  the  Peloponnesus,  was  early  dis- 
tlngulslifld  by  the  rearing  of  silk-worms,  and  by  tho 
iklll  andtucceti  with  which  the  inhabitants  of  Thebes, 
Corinth,  and  Argot  carried  on  the  manufacture.  Tntil 
the  I'ith  century,  Greece  continued  to  be  the  only  Ku- 
ropcan  country  in  which  these  arts  were  practiced ; 
but  the  forces  of  Koger,  king  of  Sicily,  having  in  1147 
lacked  Corinth,  Athens,  and  Thebes,  carried  off  large 
noinberi  of  the  inhabitants  to  Palermo,  who  introduced 
tba  culture  of  the  worm  and  the  manufacture  of  silk 
into  Slulty.  From  this  Island  the  arts  spread  into 
Italy  j  and  Venice,  Milan,  Florenca,  Lucca,  etc.,  were 


Fifteen  ye;  ;t  lack— namely,  in  im'J— tho  quantity 
theiuK  wa«  •  ll.  and  inlHSttit  waa2,M'i,»MMbs.  The 
East  Inili  1.  «ii;iply  haa  gradually  declined,  the  crop* 
in  Betif.u!  (>■(  tho  peat  few  yeura  having  been  imaatla- 
factorv.  From  Franco,  In  IWi,  (ireat  Itritoin  obtained 
1,100,498  lbs.,  and  in  IHoO  only  l.'i7,ftf)l)  lbs.  «o  ftr 
from  having  any  to  apure,  the  French  iiianufactureri 
were  compelled  to  draw  ii|M>n  tlio  atocka  in  other  coun- 
tries.  The  imports  (nm  Italy  have  been  almilarly  af- 
fected. Those  from  Turkey  have  alao  diminlahed,  but 
this  is  to  be  uttributcd  to  tho  French  demand.  A  mong 
the  countries  that  Great  Ilritain  haa  drawn  iiinm  are 
the  United  States,  but  the  small  (iiiantltiot  obtain.id 
must  have  lieen  of  Chinese  growth.  The  auppllet 
from  Holland  and  Belgium,  It  It  alao  aatumed,  miiat 
have  come  originally  either  fnmi  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago or  France.  It  appears  that  the  largeat  Im- 
portation ever  k.iown  was  in  1854,  when  the  t^ital  waa 
7  536  407  lbs.  Last  year,  however,  it  was  almott  ■• 
great,  and,  as  prices  have  advanced  In  the  two  yeart 
more  than  50  per  cent.,  the  money  value  waa  proper, 
tionately  lieyond  all  former  precedent. 

The  following  it  an  ofllcial  tummarj-  of  the  BritltS 
Importations  of  raw  tllki  for  the  yeart  W5a-185« : 


8IL 


1720 


fill. 


e*  Raw  HiMii  nifa  m  tTmnn  Rii>ui>nii  ma  ttni  Ta**,  IDM,  IMM,  IMH,  IMW,  IWA 


I'ruwl* 

lldlMi  ToWM • 

llolUmI 

HvlKtiiin 

Fmiflti «•, 

(••rilliiU 

Tuiranv 

I'aptl  Irrrtlnrln,,, 
Ni>l>lii4  ind  Nkllf  ,. 

AiutrUu  lUljr 

Mklo 

(iri-wti 

Turki-y  I'Mprr 

HjrrU  iiul  ■■•laitlM. 

l-Kyiil 

rirlllih  VMi  IndlH. 

•  Iiltui 

I'lllfl  HUlv* 

Ullk-r  tmru 

Tul»l 


IMt 

ii.wa 

t,4l« 

IT'J.UUS 

'Mtt 
n.niM 

M,4I1 
TI8 

ATft 

nTo.1113 

14.M4 

9\\,4K>i 

1,IIIUt,4IM 

f,41H,ll4.1 

ti4A 

ix.ma 


IK'i.'iDT 

fj.l'il 

tl7M*> 

MH 

IWT 
1I),W4 

Vltl 
OV.M'i 

n,7i)T 

A'JI.IAI 

"..UNI 

liSil:!,:!!!" 
I,«|pt.(i47 

J.INO 

•  U 

r4M,7t4 ' 


tm.TM 
IS.TIIT 

I,5:hiJ4« 

4,B7fl,TOH 

1T,*IT 

«,7IMI 

7,^il^,40l' 


An  Ar<HirNT  iinowiNd  Tim  QCANTiTin  and  ni(<i.Aiiiiii  Vai.- 

Vn    (tr     ItHITfml    UANt'KArTI'llKIl    Hit.K     linnliN     rxlfXimi 
ninM  TIIR   I  NITItl>  KiNIIIMIM  IN  Tllll  VlAIIII  IHM,   INAI,  ANII 

IttKl,  UMpau-TiViiLY,  ANii  ■ywiirviNa  Tim  l  uhntiiiu  m 

Wlllllll   Tun   lAHN    MIBl  HUNT,    ANU  Till   VALUU  ur  TllOmi 
MNT  Til   CAI'll. 


'  *^^^  •■|Mitl»l 


Huui*  r 

llaiiiii'AlIc  Tuwiu 

MiillancI 

llrlKtiim 

ihAiinol  IhUdiU 

PrAiu'it 

Purtiifpil,  AinriNi,  and  Ma 

driM 

Xpnln  (nd  Ckusrlr* 

lilliniliar 

Italy 

Tiirkpy 

llrtlUh  Co'ii'lh  AMek'. '.'.'.'.. 

Ilrltlnli  l''.HHt  IniHi'ii 

Iliiliiih  AiiMtnilln 

llritUh  N.  AiiiiT.  (  olonln 
llrilUh  Writ  Indira. 
Fort'lKll  Wml:  Indlrg 

I  nlli'il  Statia 

Mriln) 

C'cntral  Amrrlca , , , , 
Nuv  iiranada,  Vunoiuula, 

ftc 

Rraill 

CriiKiiajr 

lliM'iiiM  AyrM 

(hill 

IVrn 

All  utliur  ruuntrka 
Tolal 


VM.tW 
4K.M8 

1D,HI|7 

T,no7 

1T8,4W» 
1,1«8 

0,ll»l 

4B,7«« 
U.SOl 

li.iru 
n,u4B 

11,7117 

M,m 

lltt.Wl 

«B,r>n8 

17.'i4» 

446,438 

B,|i|8 

887 

8,408 


mi 

"m4'« 
1119,73 
6l,44n 

88.(11  a 

160,1111 
«,M& 

9,040 
8.741 

47,flao 

7,lf* 

1I.77J 

A.IOH 

m.O'il 

fls.73(l 

1311.101 

'ili.iUl 

sn.noi 

4<W,M'< 
|i,VM 
«,(PH4 
8,070 


IW6,778 


l»M. 

17n,Mfl 
11 4,880 
41,147 
I4,0AA 
2fi7,Un 
11,048 

li,8fil 
t>,Wi 

40,804 
8,7«« 
6,400 

18,7'il 

s,mifl 

117,118 
8'i,071 
l!i,07l 
M,54n 

4at,nofl 

»,il4'i 
1.893 
4,674 

84,700 
1MIS 
99,6116 
18,7S9 
10,10.1 
li.AOf) 

The  iiilk  exported  fnim  Canton  conaiata  of  two  load- 
ing varietiea,  known  in  coininerce  liy  the  namea  of 
Canton  and  Nniikin,  The  firat,  which  la  rained  prin- 
cipally in  the  pn>vuiee  of  Canton,  ia  divided  into  live 
aorta.  Tlie  Nankin  ailk,  produced  in  the  province  of 
Kltiugnan,  ia  divided  into  two  aorta,  known  in  com- 
merco  liy  the  namea  of  Tsatlee  and  Ta}-aaam.  It  la 
ver}-  auperiiir  to  the  other,  and  usuall}'  fetches  more 
than  doulile  Ha  price.  Kuat  India  native  allk  cornea 
wholly  from  Ilengal.  Ahiiut  the  year  1760,  the  (laat 
India  Company  introduced  t|)e  Italian  mo<le  of  reeling 
*Uk,  which  woa  productive  of  a  ver}'  great  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  the  article ;  but  we  are  not 
awnre  thnt  any  aubnequent  improvement  haa  been  ef- 
fectvd.  The  silk  (;ooda  brought  from  India  are  not 
only  inferior,  in  point  of  quality,  to  thoae  of  Kurope,  but 
olao  to  tboae  of  China.  Turkey  ailk  wlioUy  conaiated, 
some  years  back,  of  what  ia  termed  long  reel  and  abort 
icel  brutia,  a  rather  coarae  deacription,  suited  to  few 
buyera,  and  chiefly  uaed  in  the  ribbon  trade  of  Coven- 
try ;  but  of  late  it  has  been  imported  of  a  ver}-  far  au- 
perior  texture  and  quality,  coming  eucceaafully  into 
competition  with  Italian  and  China  ailk.  The  qualities 
now  known  sa  brutiaa  may  be  classed  aa  foUowa ;  viz., 
long  reel  brutia,  abort  reel  brutia,  hmg  reel  Meatup 
(being  a  liner  thread  than  common  brutia),  short  reel 


Meatup,  Seli  (a  flner  aort,  generally  in  looae  akcins), 
Deuiirdaak  (a  auperior  kind).  At  Hruaaa,  the  aeat  of 
the  silk  trade  in  Asia  Minor,  it  is  now  sold  by  the  oka 
of  4U<)  drams,  and  nut  by  the  teffee  of  (ilU  drams,  as 
formerly :  the  telfe*  la,  however,  atUl  ussd  at  Cun- 
stantinopte.  The  plains  of  Hruaaa  and  tlie  adjacent 
villages  produce  dilfcrent  <)Ualitirs,  varjing  ronalder- 
ably  In  sUe,  color,  and  quality.  The  villuge  of  Denilr- 
daak  producea  the  tinert,  owing  to  the  care  taken  by 
the  natives  in  aelrcting  the  licet  cocoons,  and  attend- 
ing carefully  to  the  evenneas  of  the  thread  throughout 
the  procoaa  of  reeling ;  conaequantly  this  desiTlption 
commands  a  high  price,  and  Is  approved  by  our  throw- 
sters. 

The  water  of  this  place  Is  considered  favorable  to 
the  brightness  anil  gluaaineas  of  the  ailk,  by  which  it 
may  Iw  distingulsbeil  from  that  of  llrussa.  The  allk 
at  Uruaaa  la'taken  by  the  country  people  In  ainall  par- 
cels to  the  liecheatar  or  cuatoms,  where  it  paya  duty. 
The  proprietor,  with  a  broker,  then  takes  it  to  the  silk 
baiar,  where  it  la  handed  round  to  the  different  stands 
and  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  resembling  in  this  re- 
s|iect  the  mode  of  aelling  the  ores  in  Cornwall  to  the 
different  ameltora. 

T'hua  a  person  buying  aeveral  okea  at  •  time,  assorts 
aa  well  as  ho  cun  the  difTerent  qualities  for  packing. 
It  ia  generally  liought  by  aiieculatnra  fur  the  Conatanti- 
nople  market,  and  is  forwarded  to  (Ihemiek  on  camels 
for  ahipment  per  striimers  to  Constantinople,  where  it 
finds  its  way  to  the  Misam,  or  some  broker's  rooms, 
where  it  ia  sold  to  the  different  merchants.  Tlie  Hnest 
longs  are  mostly  liought  for  the  French  and  Kusslan 
markets,  generally  the  latter.  The  long  r4els  are  go- 
ing out  of  use  in  this  country,  as  the  more  modem  ma- 
chinery ia  not  adapted  to  its  use. 

The  prices  of  silk  at  Urussa  in  September,  1843, 
were; 


tsrtft  10  9940  per  oke  of  400  drams. 
91(1  to    9I» 


103 
18» 


176 


lat  quality  Demlrdaak 
2d 

M  Sp1«\ I'.N)  to 

9d  l'rli\ ISO  fn 

l.oDR  Mealnpa 106  tu 

long  llruMAH IM  to 

Hhoi  t  IlriHuaa 170  to 

ClISTS  ANK  ClIAROn  ON   8ILK    IIOUOIIT  AT   IlRnSaA  AMD 

aiiimn  at  <'ONSTANTiNon.R  rna  London. 
One  rOKS  4il  Irfrrm— To  okea  80  drama,  at  $210  RO. . 

lackinf  clisrgui  and  oommlaalon 

(  arrlago  from  ISruiisa  to  Conatantlno- 

I>1'- 

I.o(>8  on  gold  aent  to  llriinaa 

llllli',  tadlnft,  and  prtty  rxpflnaes  .... 
luward  dutv,  Tu  okra  6u  drams,  at 

$19,  and  7,0/11  tlirrron 

Kxporl  duty,  TO  okcs  (0  drama,  at  $8, 

and  l,<\fn  Iheruon 

Carriage  of  monry,  1  per  cent , 

Conalautluoplo  coiumliialon,  8,0/0 ...'. 


9^6  l-T  per) 
oke,  or  oo.  - 
131  pur  ct.  > 


$1S,16T 
4t8 


1,116 


8B1 


Kx.  118.  iMU-48  at  41,  lD41ba.=16«.  M. 
Ulsoount  and  charges  la  London    ii.  M. 


•l»,«4l 


ISj.  M. 


STL 


ITtI 


HIL 


Lber,  1842, 


1 400  Anat. 


\lMk  AHD 

488 


!,tlB 


Ml 

led. 


By  f»r  lh«  RratUr  part  of  th*  nw  *iid  thrown  illk 
that  mmm  fmm  Fritnix  U  not  Ihn  Kmwlh  of  thot  vniiii- 
try,  hut  of  Italy  i  Ulntl  |>rlni'l|i«Uy  convnyiiil  liy  thn 
canal  of  l^nKUmhw  ami  (lin  (iiirimii*  to  HonUaiix, 
whanea  It  l«  •hl|i|i«cl  fur  I'liKliiml,  So  niiich  U  thla  tho 
rata,  that  It  apiwam  frnm  llm  olllilul  m rouiita  |iiililliihi>il 
liy  Iha  CreiK'h  ||ov«mui«iit,  tliut  wlikhi  tha  at(Kr«Kiit« 
<|Uantlty  of  tha  Krciuh  ami  furrlKn  ruw  ami  thrown 
•IlkcxiMirtxilfniinl'ranealn  IXIl  HinoiintviUo  1,074,111 
klloKranm,  tha  Mirtlon  which  wnn  of  Krvnch  orl^iln 
■niountitd  to  only  l'i,'i04  kllo|{ruiiiit!— ^li/mmiVrudun 
Jtt  thiwinr;  1H4I,  p.  'HI. 

We  have  Ijeforu  ut  an  Intori'ntlnn  report  on  the  pro- 
(luctlon  of  allk,  •ulimittail  to  the  Acuduiny  of  Hrlnnr 


InK  of  •llk-wnrma,  an<l  Iha  eatalillihmanl  of  illk  work*, 
lwi4tiiwlnK  Iheir  laUin  rather  In  priKlui-lny  thla  rl<h 
coniniotlliy  than  to  the  uniwlh  of  loliai'n>~an  artkla 
to  whk'li  hl>  majenty  hu<l  rmiirli'il  anil  pulilUhail  hU 
vlc'lrnt  aviiralon.  'i'he  ronipany  thii*  Imlteil,  •lioweil 
mui h  iral  In  thrlr  rmleavom  to  a4romplliih  tha  kInK'a 
winhea,  A  connldrralile  nunilierof  multiarry-)i'«««  waa 
pliinteil;  liut  little  ullk  wiia  pnHlurail,  uwini(  to  illlh- 
niltlai  involved  liy  their  illiMdutkin  aoon  after.  In 
niHiiit  the  year  11161  the  rearinx  of  •llk-worm»  iit(Aln  ha- 
ranie  a  aiiliject  of  interent  In  Virninlu,  and  preoilinna 
were  olTvred  for  Iti  encouraKemeiU ;  hut  It  doca  not 
ap|ie»r  tliiit  the  liUKhiann  wait  evm  (inim^uted  to  any 
extent.     The  ullk  culture  wh<  Introducrd  Into  IjiuU 


hy  M.  Duniua,  to  whom  was  relVrn'd  a  pajior  on  the  aljinu  In  ITIHI.ythe  "('oni|iuny  of  thn  \V«^t."  In  tha 
■ulijvct  drawn  up  liy  M.  Andru  Jean,  onu  of  the  niont  Infant  iieltlmnont  of  (icurKiu,  In  I7:M,  a  plme of  Kmuml 
experienced  allk  ifniwera,  and  fur  nonvii  time  enKUKcd  lielonKinK  to  K<>vemini-nt  wan  allotti'd  a>  a  iiiiriory 
with  llie  moat  conimendalile  ]ieraevenmco  unci  kIkuuI  '  pluntittlon  for  whitii  niullierrj-trepa,  niiil  the  utlentlun 
iucvena  in  the  Improvement  of  the  dilferent  varit-tlca !  of  aonie  nf  the  acttlera  wiia  aoun  «iit(at(ed  in  rearing 
of  nilk-worina.  Thn  ulMorvutioua  of  tlia  learned  author  ailk-wonna.  In  IT'^i'i  a  ipiiintlty  of  raw  tllk  wai  ralaail 
of  the  ro|iort  are  lmae<l  mainly  u|H)n  tlie  tni|Mirtant  fiict  I  In  tliat  colony,  which  wan  manufactured  Into  a  pieca 
that  thu  production  of  cocoona  In  France  haa  diiniii- 1  of  alulV,  and  preaented  tn  the  ipieen 
laheil  from  -JO,!)!)*),!)!)*)  of  kllogruma  (alMiut  M.MMI.niji) 
lliB.)  In  1HA8  to  :,aiH),l)()0  (alwut  lt!,7r>0,(N)())  in  IMM. 
To  cumprohenil  In  Ita  pro|ier  light  tlie  full  cfTcct  of 


•inillar  dimlnutiona,  in  view  of  a  continued  and  con' 
•tantly  Increuaing  cunaumptlon,  w«  inuat  ln(|uire  wliat 
are  Ihu  llmila  to  which  the  produclion  of  ailk  extendi*? 
The  aKKreKato  prcHluctlon  of  ailk  in  thn  world  may  lie 
eatlmati-il  at  n  vtiliin  of  ut  leaat  1,UIK),()(MI,(N)I)  frunca,  or 
nearly  «2()<),0U0,(H)U.  Uf  thia  auni  a  little  over  one- 
third  is  amigned  to  Euro|>e,  and  the  balance  to  Aila, 

Annual  raoniurioN  or  Milk  in  tub  ^^  oain. 

Kmiiri. 

France ins,tl(«i,0(ic 

lullan  Ktatea VHl,fi<Mi,<MH) 

Other  cuunlrlca,  cliluHy  Hpalu 24,»un,iiiH) 

ToUlfor  huropo 414,0)111,1100 

China 425,1100,000 

ludU l'2o,(iOii,u(ai 

Japan Rii,(Klii,OiiO 

I'omla Sn.OiiO.OiK) 

C'oimtriM  of  Aahi m.SOo.ooO 

Total  of  Aala Tua,b0o,0oO 

AfHca 1,100,000 


Ocoanlca. 
America  . 


6'NI,II00 

6(MI,niMI 


Ararrgato  tutal,  franci 1,1  IU,iklO,0UU 

If  those  (litres  are  accurate,  must  wo  not  conclude 
fWim  them  tintt  the  aKKrn);ata  quantity  of  ailk  avail- 
able in  commercial  nioveinonts  la  exceedingly  limited. 
Mid  that  a  (general  uneusiiieaii  in  tho  silk  markets  mii.st 
result  from  any  failure  in  the  cocooneries  of  Italy, 
where  one-fourth  of  all  the  ailk  in  tho  world  is  pro- 
duced, or  In  those  even  of  France,  which  yield  alioiit 
one-tenth  of  the  whole  prwluction  ?  The  fulling  o<f  in 
the  production  of  cocoons  in  Franco,  wliich  wo  have  al- 
ready indicated,  would  reproaent  a  diminution  in  value 
of  from  100,OUO,()00  uf  francs  to  '2&,(MM),000  had  the  price 
of  cocoons  remained  the  same  at  both  periods— namely, 
1853  and  1H66,  Uut  tho  movements  of  commerce  have 
been  so  powerless  in  replacing  the  deficit  of  19,000,000 
of  kilograms  (nearly  42,750,000  pounds),  that  the  price 
has  advanced  from  4  francs  50  centimes  (84  cents)  to 
8  francs  ($1  19)  per  kilogram  (2-20  Ilia.),  so  that  the 
loss  falls  equally  upon  the  producer  and  the  consumer. 
—For  the  exports  of  silk  from  China,  see  articles  China, 
Canton,  and  Siianchiai. 

Silk  Manufacture  ia  the  United  Statei.—lhe  intro- 
duction of  silk  culture  into  the  North  American  colo- 
nics dates  back  to  the  first  settlement  of  Virginia. 
James  I.,  who  was  anxious  to  promote  this  branch  of 
indostr}',  several  times  urged  the  "  London  Company" 
to  encourage  the  growth  of  muUiern'-trces,  and  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  them  on  the  subject  in  1G22,  convey- 
ing strict  injunctions  that  they  should  use  every  exer- 
tion for  this  purpose,  and  stimulated  the  colonists  to 
apply  thomselves  diligently  and  promptly  to  the  breed- 


lii  IT  ill  an  act  of  I'arllament  was  paiacd  for  encour- 
aging the  growth  of  illk  In  tivorgia  and  Candliia,  ex- 
einptlng  tiie  pro<liicer  from  tlie  payment  uf  dutica  on 
ini|Kirtation  Into  l,un<i<in.  A  iMiunty  was  alao  oll'ered 
for  the  production  uf  ailk,  and  a  nuin  nainril  ( )rtoh<ugl, 
from  Italy,  was  employed  to  inatriict  tlie  colouiat'i  in 
tho  Italian  mode  of  management.  A  few  years  liefnre 
tho  Itevolution  conaidcrable  ((Uantltloa  of  raw  niutcrlul 
begun  to  lie  rulacil,  wlilcli  wua  aald  to  lie  !><|Uul,  in  lonia 
caacH,  to  the  heat  I'ioiiniont  ailk,  and  wuriicd  with  lent 
wusto  than  the  Chinese  article. 

In  Carolina  the  culture  was  undertaken  liy  the  small 
farniera.  In  17U(!  tho  llnuaeof  AsKunilily  of  tlila  (irov- 
ince  voted  the  sum  of  illUUO  toward  the  cataliiiahment 
of  a  silk  llluture  at  Charioaton,  under  thu  direction  <if 
Mr.  Gllliert. 

in  Connecticut,  attention  was  first  illr<  tod  to  ill* 
roarlngof  aiik-wornia  inl7(;0,  llr.Asp'!-  ill.  '.'«T»ni. 
field,  t'nini  motivvK  <if  putriiitiam,  u.^cil  hi  ■  i  .  '  >N 
tions  to  iiitrodu'.'o  tliia  im|Hirtunt  lirn'ch  i  i  i,  il  i .  1 1. 
omy.  lie  succeeded  in  forming  oxii  n  i  .  'uu  •  'i  >■  f 
the  mulberry  at  New  ilavrii,  Um;'  1-,1'Mi,  l'riiii<\l 
vunia,  and  other  piucca.  llnli  .ii.  iin'  ■  I'.i,!'  riv 
seeds  wus  sent  to  cHch  parlsl  ,  iIm  i"l"-  ,  "it''  imIi 
directions  as  his  knowledge  "i  'r  -in.  •  .n.il.lci 
him  to  impart.     In  I'M  tho  .    gii.:  ■  n    o(  '  Miiniii 

cut  paused  an  act  grunting  a  liounty  I    "••i« 

and  raw  silk.     It  may  hero  bo  abated  to  tn..  if 


Connecticut  that  she  ia  tiie  only  State  In  t'le  iiinn 
which  Ima  continued  the  bnsineas  without  aUKp  naion, 
and  probnbiy  has  produced  more  silk,  from  the  time  of 
lier  coninienccment  up  to  tho  year  1830,  thai,  all  tha 
other  States. 

In  tho  year  17G9,  on  tho  recommendation  of  Tlr, 
Franklin,  tiiroiigh  the  American  riiiloaophicul  Society, 
a  filature  of  raw  silk  was  eatubliidi'^d  in  I'hiludelphia, 
by  private  suliacription,  and  placed  uniier  the  direction 
of  an  intelligent  und  »k  Uful  Frenchman,  who,  it  is  suid, 
imMluced  samples  of  roiled  ailk  not  inferior  in  quality 
to  tho  best  from  France  and  Italy.  In  1771  the  man- 
agers purchased  2300  lbs,  of  cocoons— nil  the  jirodiict 
of  rennsylvnnia.  New  Jersey,  and  llelawaro.  The 
enterprise  was  interrupted  by  the  lievolutlon.  A  sim- 
ilar undertaking  was  again  attempted  in  I'hIUideiphIa 
in  IRilO,  under  tho  supervision  of  M.  J.  P'llomerguo, 
and  cocoons  were  brought  in  abundance  to  tho  estab- 
lishment from  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  so  con- 
tinued for  some  time  afterward ;  but  for  want  of  capU 
tal  the  enterprise  failed. 

In  about  the  year  1831  the  project  of  rearing  silk- 
worms  and  establishing  filatures  of  silk  was  renewed 
in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  «nd  the  subject  w«« 
deeme<l  to  be  of  so  much  importance,  thot  It  not  only 
attracted  tho  attention  of  Congress,  but  afUrward  ra- 
ceived  encouragement  from  the  Legislatures  of  severrt 


SIL 


1722 


«ltatM,  hy  bonntiet  offered  for  all  the  raw  silk  produced 
within  their  limits  for  certain  periods  of  time.  The 
business  soon  began  to  lie  prosecuted  with  extreme  ar- 
dor, and  continued  for  several  j-ours,  resulting  in  the 
establishment  of  several  nurseries  of  mulberry-trees, 
and  ending  in  the  downfall  ut  the  fumo-ts  "Morus 
Hulticttulis  speculation,"  in  1845. 

The  amount  of  raw  silli  exported  from  Georgia  'n 
1760  was  118  lbs. ;  in  17&5,  188  lbs. ;  in  1760,  668  lbs. ; 
in  176(1,  more  than  20,000  llig ;  in  1770,  290  lbs.  From 
Bouth  Carolina,  in  1772,  466  lbs.  In  the  year  1765, 
there  were  raised  on  Silic  Mope  Plantation,  in  South 
Carolina,  680  lbs.  of  rucoons ;  in  Manstield,  Cunuecti- 
cut,  in  1703,  265  lbs.  if  raw  silic ;  in  Wil,  2430  lbs. ; 
in  1831,  10,000  lbs. ;  in  Connecticut,  in  1844,  176,210 
lbs. ;  in  the  United  States,  the  same  year,  396,790  lbs. 

A  remarkalile  circumstance  is  said  to  have  occurred 
in  the  silk  factory  of  M.  Garibaldi,  at  Cremona.  It  is 
stated  that  in  this  factory  a  quantity  of  silk-worms. 
Instead  of  forming  tlio  cocoon  as  usual,  actually'  wove 
a  kind  of  silk  ribbon,  of  the  breadth  of  an  inch  and  the 
length  of  twelve  feet.— Year-Book  nf  facts,  1857. 

According  to  the  census  returns  of  1840,  the  amount 
of  silk  cocoons  raised  in  the  United  States  was  61,552 
lbs. ;  of  1850,  10,848  lbs.  From  the  above  it  is  obvious 
that  the  production  of  cocoons  h.is  decreased,  since 
1840,  40,789  lbs. ;  and  since  1844,  382,027  lbs. 


SIL 

PBomronoH  or  Raw  Silk  in  tbi  Unitsd  Ptatm. 

HiJk  Oocoena,  l.br. 

Slitei  ftnd  TarrltoriM.                        IMO.  1850, 

Alsbama 1,5»8  16T 

Arksnuu 16  88 

Columbia,  Dlatrlct  of 6S1 

Connecticut 1T,68S  828 

UrJawaro 1,468 

Florida 124  6 

Georgia 2,!IM  81S 

Illlnola 1,160  41 

Inillana 8TS  88T 

iowR 246 

Kcniurky 787  1,281 

I.ouliilaua 317  2^ 

Maine 211  262 

Maryland 2,290  89 

MasHachuuettB 1,741  7 

Michigan 2(W  108 

Mlsslxiilppl 91  2 

Missouri 70  186 

Neur  llanipshlro 410  191 

Now  .Icriicy l.fltifl  23 

NwYork 1,736  1,774 

North  '  r.rollna 3,014  229 

Ohio 4,317  1,559 

I'cnnsylvanla 7,262  285 

Khodo  Island 468 

Soulli  Carolina 2,080  123 

Timneescc 1,217  1,923 

'I'cxiis 22 

Vermont 4,286  2«S 

Virginia B.191  617 

TolallbB 62,647  10,843 


Importations,  Kxportations,  Axn  iioua  CoNscMmov  op  ronnnN  Hiik  ;  fobkion  Tmtortations,  ExroRTATioNs,  and 

IIOMI!  «'0!<«C1IITII1N  OK  MANUFAirtURF.S  OF  SILK,  AMD  TOTAL  IIOMK  (  DNSI'MITION  OF  IMIWRTATIONS  OF  flLK  ANP  .MAN- 
liPALTl'RBS  OF  !^UB   IH   TIIF.   I'MTKI)   STATSS   FOB  THE  LAST  HKVItN'TEF.N    VeARB,  WITH  THE   YEARLY  AVKRAUE  THEREOF. 


1840. 
1311. 
184i  . 

is4:i . 
194». 
J81S  . 
1846. 
1847. 
1848  . 
1840  . 
1860. 
1861  . 
1862. 
IS-W. 
1854. 
1856. 
1866. 


^'iiirly  avfiragn. 


roniflnufni'liirtilSllk. 


Funign 

Imporlnlirrti)! 

~*2STC'3.'>' 

26 1, 12 

3:),-  Oi 

!>:\,m> 

172.!)5:i 
208,461 
210.647 
26 1,ns6 
:i,61,973 
384,6,')8 
401,')86 
46B.4')!) 
87S,747 
722,9.'!  1 
1,099,389 
7.')1.617 
991,284 


K'ireiftn 
K>|,nrl«tl,in«.  I 


52  iii.2:w 

2i7,113 
420 

3,363 

7,102 

4,36'2 
23,999 

8,386 
19,s.-,8 
M,615 

7,408 
43,866 

7,143 
282 

7,9(16 
71,122 

4.2r)6 


Monia 

iiHiinifition. 


133,996 
26,989 
.82,682 
49,997 
10.6,aM 
204,1192 
192,643 
241,701 
836,116 
829,020 
393,977 
412,643 
871,60.1 
722,649 
,091,423 
680,496 
986,079 


Mnnufaclurel  of  Silk. 


Foretjrii 
lm{ior1atiom. 

$9~6iri,622' 

16,300,796 

9,444,341 

2,662,087 

8.810,711 

9,731,796 

l((.fl07,649 

11,73.3,871 

14.643,  S33 

]3,791,23« 

17,(1,39,624 

28,777,246 

21,661,7,62 

30,434,8.86 

84,616,831 

24,366,666 

80,226,632 


EtlHtrtHliiinR 
iVU6,632' 
3.'>il,264 
26'..169 
206.777 
280,838 
846,272 
196,763 
334,173 
840,8-.3 
888,872 
863,637 
6fl(»,168 
604,866 
007,294 
«43,1.'4 
902,136 
676.613 


"»-W97666  :'     lt40.72S  I    it868,'.l27  |»17.()92;974  |    J468.644'   .n6,624,330  |  $16,9!'3,267 


TuIaI  hom«  Coniumjilion  of 

liii|ioriRljunfi  of  Silk  nnil  (h« 

.Majiufnrlurrs  of  Silk  in  tli« 

riiil^t)  PlRtpii. 


$8,619,  86 
14,971,620 
9,211,704 
2,606,307 
8,246,724 
9,089,616 
10,664,.644 
11,641,819 
14,.'-87,S96 
13,731.080 
17,680,964 
28,68',720 
21,418,601 
80,^^0,241 
84,94,6,100 
24,144,916 
80,636,'.9a 


The  following  is  the  comparative  total  receipts  of 
fureign  silk  giKiils  at  nil  tlin  ports  of  the  I'nited  States 
during  til"!  years  18.'.4, 1805, 1856 : 


Haw  vllk 

KUk  pllTi'  gntMls 

Ilotth-ry    and     artlrlcv 

made  on  frames 

Hewing  silk 

Milks,  taniliourud  or  ein- 

hroideri'd 

fillk  hats  and  bonnets. . 

8llk  diss 

Iloltliig  cloths 

8ilk  and  worsted  pi  .ris 

^llks  uiisi<eclfle<l 

TofRl  Imp.  silk"... 


*l,(;8.6,23i|      *742,261 
2.6,2.-6,6l9    20,06.t,967 


1,001.290 

332,,30l 

1,18:1,299 

ll>6,139 

14,c78 

48,S6^l 

1,694,038 

6,728.406 


t;)7,400.206 


46l,01i. 
189,020 
800,(K)0 

110.686 

9,866 

66,VS4 

1,13.3,839 

3,4^0,716 

ii27.Oi2.012 


I'M. 

"|9il,234 

28,200,061 

611,298 

260,138 

1,600,000 

lfl2,S27 

16,491 

70,146 

1.336,247 

8.974,974 

*:i4.0.')3.oT3 


Uy  the  British  tariff,  knubs  or  husks  of  silk  and 


waste  silk,  raw  nnd  thrown  silk,  dyed,  i-ingle  or  tram 
silk,  dyed  or(.'nnzine  or  crape  silk,  may  lie  imported 
duty  free ;  manufactures  of  silk  guno.ally  15  per  cent. 
ad  valorem. 

The  follnwinf;  table  exhibits  the  population,  con>' 
sumption  of  imported  silk,  nnd  the  allotment  per  capita 
thereof;  consumption  of  imported  manufactures  of 
silk,  nnd  the  per  capita  thereof,  and  the  total  home  con- 
sumption of  importations  of  silk  nnd  manufactures  of 
silk  in  tlio  United  States,  with  the  allotment  per  capita 
thereof  for  the  years  :8<10,  1850,  and  1865  ;  also,  the 
production  of  silk  in  the  United  States,  and  the  allot- 
ment per  capita  thcrLof,  and  tlie  total  consumption  of 
foreign  and  domestic  sil!,  and  fo-eign  manufuctiires  of 
silk  in  the  I'nited  .States,  and  the  allotment  per  capita 
theruof,  for  tlio  years  1840  and  1860 : 


UnlUd  SUlM. 


I'opiilallon 

Coiisumpll'in  of  linimrtei  .nw  silk 

Allotmenl  piT  capllH  llicrcof 

( 'onsiiniptlon  nf  Impnrtrd  manii^«rtun>s  of  silk 

Allolnii'nt  |M'r  eaplla  (hiTedf 

Home,  consumption  of  Inipurted  raw  and  roauufactun^d  silk. 

Allotment  per  capita  lherei>f 

rrodnetlnn  nfsllk  In  the  I'nited  States 

Allotment  per  capita  Af  reof 

Total  consumption  of  silk 

Allotment  per  capita  thereof 


I 


17,069, 4.'>3 

*33,996  00 

21) 

8,686,'i90  00 

60  80 

8,619,986  00 

60  60 
61,663  00 

86 
8,081,631  00 

61  86 


isto. 

23,lTIsT3 

$;l'.i3,977  dO 

1  6.1 

17,286,987  no 

74  46 

17,680,064  00 

76  16 

in,«43  00 

06 

17,601,807  00 

76  2i' 


ISSS. 


27,18.6,617 

$680,496  00 

2  60 

23,464,421  00 

86  R1 

24,114,'.' 16  00 

88  81 

(•) 


♦  The  census  of  ISSI  docs  not  furnish  the  mannfacturra  of  allk  In  t'.ie  I  nlled  States. 


SIL 


1728 


SIL 


Vim 

1,421  no 

'   88  nl 

via  00 

8S  81 


IMTORTS  or  SiiKraTOTOi  I'ufnm  Siatkb  roe  Tin  Via.  mntxa  Jpnk  80, 18W. 


Wh«ne«  ImporUd. 


Dtnbh  West  Indtet 

Hamburg 

llrenien , 

Holland 

llclKium 

Kugtand 

Scotland 

('ana^la 

Ilrltiiili  Weat  Indica  ..... 

Dritiih  I'aat  Indies 

Trance  on  the  Atlantic. .. 
Franrc  on  tho  Mediterranean 
Spain  on  the  Atlantic. . . . 
Spain  on  the  Mediterranean. 

I'hillpiiino  Inland) 

(.'ulia 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Two  Sicilies  

Austria 

Turkey  in  Asia 

I'-gypt 

New  Granada 

llraill 

Ecuador 

China 

Totiil 


PItM  Qcndi. 


$20 

108,330 

1,132,220 

liT 

IM.ITO 

T,8ilB,4:i» 

10,(141 

729 

8,783 

13,0J2,30:! 

4 

1,734 

1,104 

40 

1,478 

8.11 

100 


114,713 

IS 


llo«l«ry  and 

urticlei  madft 
un  KraniM. 

$23^024 
04,880 

3i!i79 

603,130 

8,640 

"    M 

2341619 


Sailing  Silk. 


1,007 


t22,i)87,;i0'.l 


$839,29;i 


HaU  and 
Dontiflla. 


ManufarturM 
oot  apaclflad. 


$106 

8,403 

10 

iGoio'io 

194 


81,601 

"74 

"609 

' '  11 
136 

"49a 
8,'i41 


$643 

"m 

10,694 

319 

12 


127,030 
1,260 


1,777 


$M,174 

874,801 

72 

37,414 

2,477,070 

21,837 

1,015 

Ko'io 

1,434,107 


124 
340 

"5*4 

"18 

164 

0 

31,043 

""1 
3,070 


$211,723  I  $161.l;i2   :$4,442,522 


$702 
846 


26,964 


73 
'208 


Raw. 


$106 
2,062 


614,437 


1,213 


436,927 
If3i,6l2  I  $'.M,734 


Boltinc 
Clolha' 


$8,088 
16,710 


$57,602 


FoBEiON  KxroBTS  or  Silk  rnosi  tiik  Uniteb  Stati» 


Whilliar  tipoilad. 


Danish  West  Indies 

Hamburg 

Uremen 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Kngland 

I'antida 

llrltirili  N.  Amer.  I'ossossions 

Hritish  1 1  onduras 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

CuImi 

I'orlo  Hico 

<  )ape  de  Vord  Islands 

A  Kort'B 

Sardinia 

I'orls  In  Africa 

Ilayti 

Mexico 

Central  Kcpubllc 

New  (iranada 

Venezuela 

I'riignay,  or  (ispiatino  Hep, 

Chill 

Pern 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 


Total. 


Piera  Goods. 


1,625 

i,iv) 
220 
210 

.1,130 

2,i2;i 
1,000 

1,S1S 
605 

"844 

100 

050 

2,200 

27,173 

2,130 

13,381 

204 

28^476 

3,067 

^43.1_ 

$91, 1,1,1 


Hosiery  and  { 
Brilf  Irs  made  SowingSilk, 
on  t'rainei.   I 


$414 


130T 


$15 


6001 

'  6;i 


$1761 


,1111186 


POB  TUB   VbaB  ENniNQ  .iLTfE  30,  1867. 
Floaa.  Bair. 


Hats  and     Mnnufnrtures 
Bonnets.      not  B|iecifled, 


$732 


$3,4-80 
80,914 
2,757 

338 


0,624 


983 
1,4<I0 

125 
2,423 
2,256 


lf,'>7,204 


$205 


$1000 


BIOS 


Silk  and 

Worsted 

I'tere  4Jooda. 


$1169 


$2116     ,    $4103 


$1160 


— See  Xnrfh  Amer.  Iter..  ::xvil.  41)8  (Wam.enstf.inI  ; 
Amer.  ilaart.,  X.  iW,") ;  Hes'm.  Her,,  xvi.  i'2h,  xvii.  241, 
xviii.  1,228;  Dk  Uow's  ftc;  ,v.  :)21,4]li  Juliub.Jier., 
xliii   7G;  lll.ArKWOOD's  Ma;/.,  xvUi.  TJIG,  xxv.  68,5. 

SiUs-COtton.  A  beautiful  silky  Idiiil  of  cotton  is 
obtnined  from  the  Jiombiix  and  other  trees ;  it  is  short 
and  remarkulily  elastic,  snd  would  bo  very  largely  used 
were  it  not  fragile  and  tender.  'I'he  Hindoos  spin  it 
into  a  loose,  coarse,  warm  liind  of  doth.  In  lCuro|)c 
It  has  not  yet  lieon  inucli  employed ;  but  In  America  a 
method  lias  been  discovered  of  applying  it  as  a  cover- 
ing for  so-called  sili(  huts,  for  wliicii  it  is  said  to  be  ad- 
mirably adapted.  As  there  is  an  almost  boundless 
Bupply  of  tho  trees  yielding  these  delicate  lilires,  there 
may  here  be  a  great  ni,\uufacturo  in  the  fi  'iire.  i 

Silver  (,Ger.  .S'lVicr;  l)u./!ilrfr;  IhK.Solv,  Swed.  ' 
Silfrer;  Fr.  Argent;  It.  .Xrgenli);  Sp.  VlaU  ;  Port. 
Praia;  Russ.  Serebro;  I'ol.  .SVtAro;  I.at.  Arymlum;  (ir. 
"O  'VT  >■  Arab.  Fazzeh),  a  metal  of  i\  line  white  odor 
without  eitber  ta.sto  or  smell ;  tjeing  in  point  of  brill- 
iancy inferior  to  none  of  the  metallic  l"iilies,  if  we  ex- 
cept polished  steel.  It  is  softer  than  copper,  Imt  harder 
than  gold.  When  melted  its  specific  gravity  is  lO- 17 1 ; 
when  hammered,  Kl'jl.  In  mulleabllity  it  is  inferior 
to  none  of  the  metals,  if  wo  except  golil.  It  may  he 
beaten  out  into  loaves  only  )f^,I^|^,^^  of  an  inch  thick. 
Its  ducUlity  is  eiiuiill)-  rem.irkable :  it  nmy  be  drawn  I 


out  into  wire  much  finer  titan  a  human  hair ;  so  fine, 
indeed,  that  a  single  grain  of  silver  may  be  extended 
about  400  feet  in  length.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  a 
wire  of  silver  0-078  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  weight  of  187']3  lbs.  avoirdupois  without 
breaking.  Silver  is  easily  allojed  with  copper  by  fu- 
sion. The  compound  is  hanlcr  and  more  sonorous  than 
"ilvcr,  and  retains  its  white  color  even  when  the  pro- 
Iiiirtiiin  of  copper  exceeds  one  half.  The  hardness  i-i 
at  II  iimxiiuum  when  the  copper  amounts  to  one-tifth  of 
the  sliver.  1  he  standard  or  sterling  silver  of  liritain, 
of  which  coin  is  made,  is  a  compound  of  12^  parts  sil- 
ver and  1  copper.  Its  spcciflc  gravity  is  10'2.  Tho 
specllic  gravity  of  I'aris  standard  silver,  componed  of 
1117  parts  silver  and  7  copper,  is  1017.').  The  French 
silver  coin  during  tho  olil  govennnent  was  not  nearly 
BO  line,  being  composed  of  2fil  parts  silver  and  27  cop- 
per, or  !lf  parts  silver  to  1  jiart  copper.  Tho  Austrian 
silver  coin  cipiitidns  -l^  of  copper.  The  silver  coin  of 
tho  ancients  was  nearly  pure,  and  apiwars  not  to  have 
iieen  mixeil  with  alloy. — Thomson'*  ChemiKtry. 

The  most  pniductive  silver  mines  are  in  Ancrica, 
particirlnrly  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  There  nr«  also  sil- 
ver mines  In  Hungary,  Saxony,  Spain,  and  other  parts 
of  I'.iirope,  and  in  Asiatic  Russia. — .See  I'uKCiotis 
Mktai.s. 

Itcsiues  being  used  as  a  coin,  or  money,  silver  Is  ex- 


r.  ■  onxs-^y^y  ■  ■^■TTT^  rf' '  i 


"»'?-rir^'-'Wi'?,7 


,,^- 


SIL 


vm 


STL 


tensively  employsd  In  the  arts.  The  value  of  the  sil- 
▼er  plate  annually  manufactured  is  very  considerable. 
Large  quantities  are  also  used  in  plating.  Silver  ex- 
bta  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  found  mixed  with 
other  ores  in  various  mines  in  Great  Britain.  Tlie  sil- 
ver mines  of  South  America  are  far  the  richest.  A 
mine  was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in  1660, 
which  wus  so  ricli  that  the  silver  of  it  was  often  cut 
with  a  chisel.  In  1749  one  mass  of  silver,  weighing 
870  11)8.,  was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a  mine  in  Norway 
a  piece  of  silver  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Koyal  Mu- 
seum at  Copenhagen,  weighing  660  lbs.,  and  worth 
jE1680.  In  England  silver  plate  and  vessels  were  first 
used  by  Wilfrid,  a  Northumberland  bishop,  a  lofty  and 

ambitious  man,  a.m.  70a Tyuei.l's  1/isl.  o/J-Mgland. 

Silver  knives,  spoons,  and  cups  were  great  luxuries  in 
1300. 

Silver  Coin.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  tho  Lyd- 
ians,  some  say ;  others,  by  Phidon  of  Argos,  869  b.c. 
At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  Pictor,  269  b.c. 
Used  in  Britain  26  u.c.  The  Saxons  coined  silver 
penriles,  which  were  22^  grains  weight.  In  i:!()2  the 
penny  was  yet  tlio  largest  silver  coin  in  England. — A'ee 
SiiiLLiNus,  etc.,  and  Coin. 

Tho  scarcity  of  silver  in  Western  Europe,  including 
Great  Britain,  and  in  this  countrj',  has  given  rise  to 
tho  question,  "  Where  does  the  silver  go  ?"  In  connec- 
tion witli  this  question,  we  make  tlie  following  extract 
from  a  paper  read  by  Prof.  It.  II.  Walsh,  of  tlio  Dub- 
lin University : 

At  tlic  tirao  when  Pliny  termed  it  tho  sink  of  the 
precious  metals,  silver  wus  a  favorite  article  of  export 
to  tho  Kiist.  It  has  continued  so  since,  l)Ut  the  trade 
of  Into  has  assumed  an  oxtraordinar}'  magnitude.  In 
tlie  five  years  prior  to  1866  over  $110,000,000  worth  of 
silver  have  been  ex|H)rted  to  tho  ICast  through  En- 
gland alone,  and  front  otlicr  countries  a  similar  move- 
ment hus  l>een  in  operation.  The  export  in  1825  was 
$32,000,000,  and  this  year  (1806)  it  is  procseding  at 
the  rate  of  over  $45,000,000  per  annum,  judging  from 
the  returns  that  have  been  pi'blished  for  the  first  four 
months.  Unlike  the  old  movement,  the  present  can 
not  bo  permanent.  The  former  was  %ldom  moro  than 
might  lie  accounted  for  as  the  distribution  of  silver  to 
Borne  of  its  chief  consumers — the  nations  of  the  East — 
according  as  hew  sup|)lies  were  raised  elsewhere.  It 
was,  in  fact,  the  ordinary-  movement  from  the  producer 
to  the  consumer.  IIumiHildt  estimated  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  silver  in  Mexico  at  1,184,000  lbs.,  or  aliout 
$25,000,000. 

But  now  silver  goes  faster  to  the  ICa^t  than  it  is  pro- 
duced throughout  the  world.  Hence  tlio  process  can 
not  be  permanent,  but  must  come  to  an  end  as  soon  as 
the  redistribution  of  the  old  stock  has  been  offecteil ;  for 
theannuul  product  ion  of  silver  isonlyal>outit:40,000,000; 
and  since  the  e.xport  to  the  I-^st  thruigh  Kngb.id  alone 
is  at  tho  rate  of  over  $45,000,000,  it  follows  thut  it  can 
not  be  the  new  supplies  of  silver  which  meet  that  de- 
mand and  all  others  for  the  same  metal,  but  that  there 
must  be  some  auxiliary  fund  to  be  drawn  upon.  Sucli 
a  fund  '9  funiisiied  by  a  cessation  ia  the  demand  fur 
silver  in  several  countries  which  before  employed  it 
most  largely,  but  now  use  gold  instead.  Silver,  which 
used  to  be  coined  in  France  and  the  United  States  at 
an  average  rate  of  $20,000,000  per  annum,  is  now  little 
employed,  while  much  of  the  old  coin  of  that  metal  is 
melted  down  and  ex|)orted.  In  France,  it  is  said  that 
in  one  year  (1853)  so  much  as  $60,000,000  were  dis- 
posed of  in  this  manner,  and  that  the  o|>cration  has 
been  since  proceeding  ut  u  still  greater  rate.  In  Mex- 
ico tliere  are  eiglit  or  nine  mints,  one  of  v.hlch  is  na- 
tional, having  one  general  law  of  coinage,  but  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  and  subject  to  no  general  con- 
trol. There  are  some  characteristic  diflfcrences  in  re- 
spect to  grades  of  fineness  and  accurac}*,  but  they  seem 
not  sufiicient  to  call  for  a  diMtinction,  as  the  only  ex- 
ternal means  of  identifying  is  in  tlie  mint  mark. 


Snvm  OF  noHisno  PaonconoM,  iHOLTmixo  Savia  PABTm 

mO¥   (JAI.IrOBNlA   (iOLO,  DSrOSITKD  AT  TUS  MlNT  Of  THI 

I'NiTKD  States,  its  IIraxuiies,  ano  the  Assay  (Irrioi, 
Nkw  York,  from  .Iancaky,  1841,  to  Jdnr  30,  1967  (tuat 
rou  1857  BsiHO  SIX  .Months  only,  to  Jvme  BO). 


Yon. 

1S41 

Vlluii. 

J4,3li0 

Ymw. 

18iW 

Viliia. 
.      $200,863 

1842 

0,4.')3 

1361 

880,471 

1843 

8,040 

80,S47 

4,T0» 

I8f)2 

404,404 

1844 

\wa 

417,279 

1S48 

1854 

1865 

828,109 
833,05:) 

1S4« 

8,000 

6,407 

0,191 

89,112 

1S47 

ISM 

821,»38 

1848 

1857 

127,250 

184J 

Total. . . . 

..  $2,700,728 

f^TATEMENT  OP  AMOIT^T  OF   SILVER  COIMED  AT  TUB  BIlKT  Or 

THE   I'NiTEit   States,  ani>  the  Hranoii   Mints  at  Sam 

I'BANCISOO    AMlt    NEW    ORLEANS,    ITNOER   Til  J  AOT  OK  rEI»- 
BDABY  21,  1853   (SIX   MONTUS  ONLY,  1857). 


Venn. 


1S53... 
1S.M. . . 
18»,.. 
l'*50. .  . 
1357... 
Total. 


Mint  oflht 
t'nitej  Slatft, 
PhiUtdelpliia. 


$7,517,101 
6.873,270 
1,410,170 
8,214,24'l 
1,427.000 


$1S,961),841 


Dr«ncli  MiD' 

Snii  I^raii* 

rwco. 


$104,075 
177,000 
611,000 


$3111,076 


Utinch  Mint, 
New  OrUanj. 


$1,187,000 
3,240,000 
1,018,000 
1,744,000 


$8,046,000 


Total. 


1^8,654,  m 

8,010,270 
3,511,246 
6,135,240 
1.477,000 


$27.ar;8,910 


<SiVi-er  ^flnes  of  Mexico. — It  is  not  generally  known 
in  this  countr}'  that  the  silver  mines  of  Mexico,  which 
yielded  to  the  Spaniards,  between  the  conquest  by 
Cortex  and  their  ex  lulsion  by  the  Mexicans  in  l"*"!, 
$2,028,000,000,  as  si  iwn  by  the  records  of  the  Mints, 
have  since  that  peril  \  steadily  and  rapidly  increased 
their  product,  until  .'rom  an  annual  yield  of  about 
$20,000,000  it  has  risen,  according  to  some  authorities, 
to  upward  of  $40,000,000  in  1856.  We  have  no  official 
data  upon  which  to  affirm  or  deny  this.  This  vast 
product  is  from  the  working  of  a  very  small  number 
of  mines,  while  that  portion  of  Mexico  north  of  lati- 
tude 24°,  ond  on  our  own  frontier,  which,  according  to 
Baron  Humboldt  and  others,  contains  the  richest  veins 
— often  beginning  near  the  surface,  and  above  water- 
level,  ond  sometimes  yielding  vast  quantities  of  purs 
native  silver — have  lain  for  many  years  entirely  un- 
worked  and  neglected.  This  has  been  in  consequcncn 
of  the  inability  of  the  few  Mexicans  scattered  over  those 
regions  to  cope  with  the  wild  Apache  and  C'amanche 
Indians,  who  have  held  free  scope  there  until  within  a 
few  years  past.  They  are  now  kept  out  from  tlie  states 
near  tho  lower  part  of  the  Rio  Grande  by  the  filling  up 
of  tho  country,  and  by  the  vicinity  of  our  newly-estub- 
lished  military'  posts.  Up  to  this  time  the  only  foreign- 
ers who  have  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunities 
of  amassing  fortunes  from  these  mines  are  the  English, 
and  a  few  Gernu..'is;  and  they  have  confined  themselves 
])rinci|)ally  to  tho  poorer  veins  of  the  thickly-settled 
Central  and  Southern  parts  of  Mexico.  But  they  are 
now  meeting  with  the  rewards  of  their  enterprise. 

Recently,  several  companies  have  been  formed  in 
the  United  States  for  working  mines  in  Northern  Mex- 
ico ond  Arizona.  One  of  thest  is  composed,  in  pu't, 
of  officers  of  our  army,  who  have  seen  and  exiimineil 
the  localities,  and  some  of  whom  have  resigned  their 
commissions  for  the  purpose  of  dev(,ting  their  time  to 
the  opening  of  these  mines.  Those  in  Arixonn  are  so 
far  distant,  and  in  a  coiintr}'  so  uncultivated  and  so 
beset  by  Ind'ans,  that  it  may  bo  the  work  of  time  and 
of  much  expense  to  overcome  these  obstacles.  But 
that  American  enterprise  will  finally  overcome  them 
none  can  doubt.  On  the  Lower  Rio  Grande,  however, 
in  tho  state  of  Nuevo  Leon,  within  forty-five  miles  of 
steamlMiat  navigation,  and  but  forty-five  miles  fMm  the 
Texa.<  line,  and  but  four  days'  sail  from  New  Orlear  , 
are  some  of  the  richest  mines  in  the  Hepulilic  of  Mex- 
ico. One  of  these  is  l)eiiig  reopened  liv  a  very  strong 
New  York  comiMiny,  culled  the  VHllirlllio,  and  with 
good  pro8|)ect.<  of  large  returns. — Letter  from  S'fv) 
Afe.'iro,  »S'ip  iirtiriet  Mitxiro,  I'bkcioi'S  Mktai.s, 
and  CoiNH  tor  more  oxten  led  information  in  regard  to 
the  production  of  silver. 


K, 

In  I 


SIN 


In.  1 

The  product  of  silver  at  ,ii(r..    . 
•"t  century  I,  estlmatcdls  foCf ''''<''''  <"">«  pre 

iXT;;; •'-""'vno 

^'"^ iboinoo 


1725 


SIN 


J,2SI),nOD 
4,100,000 


1S56. 
*3f.S'1l,000 

**.»oi),ooo 

6,000,000 


tioneers,  etc.    There  are  a?^^  ''"'P-''«epers:auc. 

■n^rehants;  „„<!  tlXktf"rr*r^''''''«  Chinese 
,  7;,t  valuable  part  of   hekSrif,"^'"'^.''' '''"'  ">« 


l""!  was  •23,lfiB"oT,  of  whirr.'" '''"''^"•■ntr^' in  (''■''  ""'shboring  D^td,  E ';'''  "'^'"'"'•ves  amon« 
*«'•  yrom  the  e„r  1690  t„  i!?^**^"""  *««  in  «ir  •"'""•  ^l.e  bfatmen  ale  chf^fl  '  ""•''  ''""'"^  «""'«- 
th«  K"l.l  and  silver  Un!Lt-Mev"''  production  „f  ~1  coast ;  and  theXL:L'''','"'?,  "'''''' ^"''- 
•1,«M,*X)0,000,  and  from  1«nn  ,  f!'"  "  «s"mated  at  ."'''^^e".  in  cutting  timl,"i  ^  ?™P'"-''  "'"niaelvea  as 
««  i'-e  I-rod'uction  of  ur^nf!"  !.".^«^«  ?'  «10O,O0O.0oS    ^f'"'"'  ^'i'"  the  ruVe  "I:;,.!f .'„".  f 'PPbing  the  set- 


•1,«M,*X)0,000,  and  from  1«nn  ,    f!'"  "  estimated  at   ."'''^^en,  in  cutting  timl,"i  ^    ?™P'"-''  "'"niaelvea  as 

«t'.eprod\,ction„f     e,i.e"min!fr*'««'«'«>«oS  S^^^ 

Singapore,  an  islan  I  «„,!    ,  ^•''i''"*-  3  1,     "'■  «'">'J  -laily  market,  n,  ""'fe'thorhood. 

tho  eastern  extremity  „;th"stf>   \'''"''='"«"'  »'  an     "''"""'^''  ^''"'  vegS'  V^,"  "'  "•'  ''"""'  """ 

^^"'"H  In  lat.  lo^r  ^°?,  '^''"f'  "f  Malacca,  the  fu"'!^"''",'  '""'«~tl'e  latter   1,1  "h!'  ^'™'"'  *■'«''-  ?«''«. 


K.     The  inland  Is  of,..,  ..±.3^^'"' 


•Jtlmated  nreaTz^""'  "  "'•7'"' ™n,„g  „„ 

British  settlement  emb  I'  o™  dr  '^  .  ""'  "■«  ^^' "l" 
120  miles ,  in  which  areTncTuder^""^'/''"^''  "^  "''"ve 
•ml  the  seas  „nd  straits  luht  jn  i;-!"'  ""  "''"'« '»'^'«> 
">«  pr  ndp,  island.  TlTe  iX,  ,  ^''■'  "^  ">«  eoa,t  „f 
main  land  by  „  strait  of  .he  s,,?"""'"' f"-"'"  "'" 
l>r«a(Uh  throughout  and  scnrTi  "^""''>  "f  'mall 

«  ...lie  wide  inSts  Irrot^nlrt'  '"k  l**'  "  'l""'" 
-M  of  Kuropean  navZl^:":'  :  -^.;'•■  '"e  early 


o.,,!      "-•■""  ""u  vegetables  fr,,:.  .     ■■""",  una 

and  green  turtle-the  latter  1,«!^'  ^"'"''  ^'"''  P^'^' 
•hat  can  be  procured.  There  1  '''''  """""'  ^""^ 
'•"ties  nor  anchorage,  harbor  ,',-W  1*  "''^'"^  "'  ™P"rt 


•Ktlmated  area  of  275  Hnn„r"^-,^'  containing  an    if  '  *""  "  "g'ster  is  lent  of  iii  - '  "'  ""i 

British  settlement  embra  o,  n  "''''•     ^■"  ">«  "'' "l"     '"P""^^  ■""«'  '«'  "..de  to  the  „  "  f"""  ""''  ''»i»rt«- 
120  mll«. ,  i„  ..u,\  ""^'?'=cs  a  eircumferpnr.„  „<•  „.     ^    niasters  of  vessels  -.n;)  •       ■   """""."  attendant  bv  the 

;>e.ther  duties  o,'  !,„,„'  „',^'"«^-  Ih-ngl.  there'are 
"equenti,,^,-  tlie  port  ti„  „  J  «^P»rta.  nor  on  the  ships 
cd  in  :':.f)  'Ao  J."'  V'"  rcv-enue  of  Si,,„nn„ "T 


od  in  .',,^^,3  .J-^       r      ""?M '"«''P°™  """>""'- 
^'lf,»'"^i<aO;,«n.o:S    -r^^-^iture, 


•  "■■■"  "..IB  in  Its  narrowest  ...rf      , V  ,  '  "  '  "arter  of        .^ 

-ofLM  of  European  naviga In   w'     ^l'^^'"'  '"■  "^^  ""rlv    ,    ':';■;'-;--  '^««»/„r  ye,,„..„  .;  -■'. 

I.etw«en  India  and  China      r  V  Tf  ""'  "'«™"gl.fare    i\  ^**"'^— "'e  commercial  10*.^^"  *"''"'^"'' 

»"Kljw«y  between  the  ea";erf  '"'*-"■""'' ^''■"»^"'  '''r'"'  "^'^  consula  jis"    tT,"'"'  "^  "'«  ^'nited 

|n»rlt  me  Asia  now  passes  abn.h'"''^f  P»«'""-^  "f    S'"   "^'^  °'  "'«  Par  ia n  c™  «  f."/ ^™"'.P«Ir  i-.v 
IMttnd,  on  which  the  J*„  :'""^  .^liosouth  side  of  th„  I  i'""'-^'  i-y  special  IcL-islnf ""  "'  "f  ^i!!'"  ^^'itain,  and 


i^'i./.</^V„,e»  6W„X  A  ,  ::''^>-  ■'»¥2»  rupees.  ' 
1,  18oo.-The  commercial  Ley  "  *'Wo..,  J„„. 
'^^r'-V'-^'^eonsul^^i^l^tr^    t!'«^»'te'' 


«n«rii  n-;  Asirnow  na"*''"?  ■""'  ^^^'^  "  port  "If  S""""'  ''  ^  o  C  p  'I'i.'"^'™' '«  governed  pa, 
W«nd,  on  whirrheT"„t';"-^.^''""' '•'■««  tl  '  T''  '/  ^P-i'''  S  r "o  "l^T  ^"'" 
Clialnof  desert  islnml.   1     .^  """•  ''ctween  it  and  ,.  :  P""-^''  "'rougl,  the  mver  /^^  ^"'^  'ndia 

«ml  most  convent^t^"^°"'?"'i'es  distant;  tl^es^  ,?  ?''"^  P'^'^cnt'por  'reg,  at  l!  ""''  '"""^•'"  "'  C"' 
?;.<!  that  .hipsifrs;,'r::!','r:'"^'  -  -ar  to  t^f^  |  !^!il-g  fo_r  an^ndci';  dlf  riT  "S^^^<' '»  ''e  fi-j; 


«"«.-r^:« iZds'Tit';:;:?"- ^'^-" ''  -"a  ?^">^ '«.  ^e ™r rt '"^'  '^-^'^^-^ 

««'!  .nost  convenient  channel  r  '"'""""!  the  safest  /'"  '"'^■^cnt  p„rt  regulations  are  ""'  "'  ^'"'""ta. 
«."1  tl.«t  ship,  in  passint  "f ,  '"""^'  ^^  ""»'  to  the  si  ^^  f"'  ""  i"dolini  e  nerio,  T"'"^ '"  ''^  "'"^d, 
the  roads.  The  town  U^J, ,''''''''■'-"'«  come  close  to  ''"I'  """  "■«  P" .ilcKc  m rm  ?  ,  .^'"S-'P^re  is  a  free 
rl-e  and  KrowLirj,  ''""•"  '""«'''«'•  for  its  ran  d  "'  "'"  '^''rictions  imposed  n^v  '"  ^'""'"■crce,  as  well 
«™lt.  Tlds  h«?reXed  r  '"  "'  P"^'™"  «"  th  s  '  ""'  f^'"ctio„  of  flagf ra,l  nat '  n'"  ?.f  "^'"''^'  ^•i"'- 
«mrep,",t  f„r  the  tZuZt  "".'  '""'''-''  "  convenient  I .""."""""  P"""'  charges  than  l^e  I  ?  ".'.""'•  ^''cre  are 
J|.'l>«  on  the  one  T  ^d '';j"  h  :  '^■'  'T"  ^^'-"  -'  ^^'m""''  "'"^■''  -«  ""cVc'e J  ''p™  f-"-  "'  Straits 
«1«"  /'or  tliat  between  M,'"*  ""  "'c  other  i,,,.    "'"cl'ant  vr>ssels.     National  t.,     '^S'"''""'* '»"  on 

rlver.'orr^tier:,  t"-  ^P.^^^.^'c      Jtis  situated  on  I  'l"  ''."^-  ""-r  port  i„'  ^^  K    ri„r';'""''""'^«-'"' 

tl.r<;e  Muarters  of  „  mi  e  fr™,   k'''  ''"  ''^'  "«•""•"  «l'ou  r/'";"'  «/  '"  «n.v  foreign      ,t  L  fll  "'"'"'"-^  '^  P"'^' 

•■"^l*,  or  open  harbor  1^?.      ?."""■     ^'"'P^  li-  in  the  ''•';'"  ''^  "'«  '""it'^d  h^atcs   bo/f -f,  •*  P""n«cd  to 

miles  from  town  a?";."              '■'"""''=  '  '  ^'•""'  1  to  2  P"*'''^"-'^  ».• ''•■^trictio,;/      V  "  ""'■""'  ""3-  special 

'l'l.«  "^«l>.tflnc?;,f  a  n  '"f  '"  """■'■  •'■■^'"^'ht  of  water  "'^'r'""''  '^"»«n  -.d'o,„  ,":"""■-?:  "•'''«'"^'  ""'1 

'^hlfh  are  .Iwavs  in  r^        "'  "^  conv.u.i^nt  lighje  ,  "'^'"'"  "'"-^c  "f  ^ho     other      'r  "'  ^'"S^'Poro,  are 

y«o<r.     The  creek  i?  ec^  "  ';  """'""n,  throughout   '  e  I  Vl^'P""-^'-     ^^ferchant.  keep  tl^e  r  ^n        1"  ''"''  ^"'"» 

K"'Kl,  are  taken  „  M^^.  '5'  'i'"'  "*^''""'.  ""''  the   .'  l""";  '"^•'"-'  i-'o  one  .  ^  dr  '  IZT  u  fP^"'''' 

«t  the  door-  of  the  pr  nd.il?"  >''''""^''''"    q"avs,    1.!-""  '"  ""  ''«''«ral  currencv     J.^  called  cents, 

JherKmate/f  t-       P     ""d'ou^cs,  ^  r* "'"  cent  are  also  coine.l  ,li        '    "actional  parts 

I'nhronheirtV;  ,;i:r-;.f  ""^^^^ 

"<'li.«  only  ab  „(  /^n  „  •,     /""*>'^'  f"m,  no  ,    ^  b     called  ap,r,  or  /»V<..     T|,e  „,,„lffi-     '■        """  ''""'« 

"'course,  very     t?e  V    ":  '^'•""  ""=  ^'l""t"r,  there  is"   ,""'"  ""'"■^  "f  the  Br  t  TlS'^,  '';.''''''''=«^'  "".i  all 

«';'ther  sIimnTer  n  '   :•,;";;■  '"  'T  ''-'^<>"-     'i'hcre  is    ''<";P -CH.nts  only  i„  ,i  „  „J  "'„'r,  «-™'''cnt, 

Ml.'«  IW  Short,  and  no/ 1'   ''^'''^■™  "'c  PcnVKlical  L/'^"''^''--^  picc,.,akc]  ceit    K 

f  howers  of  r«"  ?,      "    f,      'i'  **'"  ">^'rl'cd_m„deratc  I  ^'  """""  ""''^«  ^  co.npanVs  rm.ce ta  1    l'/'''"  ^  """'■'  '• 

«>»  •••ttlemen   of  M    '^  '"'"  ^■'^'' '''»»  each  veir  !  "'P''"  "'■''"'  ^  '"c;    00  lacs  Si  '^ '  ^"-'"»'' 

^io^ml     I'revi,  u        „    ,  f     "■■  P,'"""^" '"  »■'"""  it ,  '"''  -"'.^  "^'' ','  J-^t  i,„w  fluctiiafi,,,  .  t  .^  "'"  ,'';  •''"•" 
"''■"!«  M«|fl,-,   ,,,:■' '"  ""'  '-''inese  settlers,  and  i       '"  ""''  ."'"k"  1  <n..v.    (,,„.  ,„„,  .,  ,  „    , 

'^''««.orwhiab:t*,;:i;^^^,!r'"""--'S  ..:i:vSr?r;™"""""""-^"''=^='^ 


SIN 


1726 


SLA 


The  Malay  CHtty  weighs  ♦24  Spanish,  and  the  Chi- 
nese catty  weighH  $22}  Spanish ;  hence  15  cctties  Ma- 
lMy=lfi  catties  Cliinese.  By  the  Malay,  or  greater 
picul,  merchants  purchase  pepper,  tin,  otc,  from  the 
native  vessels,  but  sell  by  the  Chinese  or  Uazar  picul 
of  183J  lbs.  avoirdupois.  Rico  is  sold  by  the  koyun  of 
40  pis. ;  salt  l>y  the  same  measure,  but  weighs  about 
62  piculs ;  gold  and  silver  thread  by  i  particular  catty 
of  jafi  wclglit ;  gold  dust  by  the  bunli  il,  which  weighs 
#2=832  grs.  Troy  j  Java  tobacco  is  f  Id  by  the  corge 
of  40  baskets;  India  piece  goods  l)j'  the  corgo  of  20 
pieces ;  wheat  and  grain  b}'  tlie  bag,  containing  2  Ben- 
gal niiiunds  (the  maund  is  (SIJ  catties). 

Freight. — The  rates  at  which  ships  are  freighted  or 
chattered  depend  on  tlio  demand  for  tonnage  ard  the 
supply;  on  the  kind  of  cargo  to  he  transported,  an-*  on 
tho  sailing  ([ualities  of  the  vessels.  These  vary  so 
greatly  that  it  is  inipossildo  to  give  them  even  approx- 
imately. At  the  present  time,  for  misccIlaneo.is  .Straits' 
produce,  shippers  are  paying  $18  @  $20  per  ton  of  BO 
feet  to  Now  York  or  Boston. 

Commissions.— \\'\\\\e  the  trading  bhips  of  all  other 
nations  pay  the  uniform  commissions  of  10  per  cent, 
(as  established  by  the  Singapore  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce), which  include  expenses  of  every  sort  for  pur- 
chasing or  selling,  a  special  exception  Is  made  for  what 
is  culled  the  "  American  trade,"  meaning  tliat  :  f  the 
United  States.  Tho  established  charges  on  this  are : 
Commissions  on  sales  of  goods  or  purchase  of  produce, 
free  of  risk,  either  in  sales  or  on  advances  on  produce, 
2J  per  cent.  (Both  of  these  arc  guaranteed  for  an  extra 
?i  per  cent.,  or  ,5  per  cent,  in  all.)  On  negotiating  bills 
of  exchange,  1  per  cent.  Other  business  on  the  usual 
terms.  Interest  on  all  moneys  advanced  is  ut  tho  rate 
of  12  per  cent,  per  annum,  but  on  disbursements  on 
account  of  ships  while  in  port,  5  per  cent.  Added  to 
these  ex]j«uses  aro  boat  and  cooly  hire  and  wareho'is- 
ing,  the  tiiarges  for  which  differ  widely,  being  govc.-n- 
ed  by  cir  umstances. 

The  imports  from  tho  United  States,  in  comparison 
with  the  exports  thither,  are  of  trifling  amount.  I 
therefore  state  the  modes  and  terms  of  purchase,  as  well 
lis  those  of  sale.  Sales  of  imports  are  effected  in  the 
iisual  mannei  by  private  arrangement  with  the  buyer, 
and  sometimes  also  by  jjublic  auction.  The  terms  aro, 
cash  down. 

I'unlmse  nyCurijo. — This  is  done  by  private  contract 
(never  at  pulilic  sales)  liy  tho  house  to  which  the  mas- 
ter of  the  vessel  is  consigned  ;  the  said  house  buying 
the  goods  from  citlier  the  native  or  from  the  Chinese 
dealers,  who  are  what  is  commercially  styled  the  "  first 
hands." 

Sinhara.  Th«  sinhara,  or  water-nut  (Trapa  ?),  is 
11  native  of  the  (,'ashmere,  bnt  grovis  al'.m'iintly  in 
tho  lakes  near  tho  capital,  especially  in  the  ^\'iirler 
lake,  .ind  yields  an  average  return  of  10,000,000  lii».  if 
nuts  a  year.  They  are  scooped  up  from  the  bottom  of 
the  lake  in  small  nets,  and  afford  employment  to  tho 
fishermen  for  several  mi.  iths.  These  nuts  constitute 
almost  the  only  food  of  at  least  30,000  persons  for  five 
months  in  the  year.  When  extracted  ficmi  the  shell, 
they  are  eaten  raw,  (Killed  roasted,  fried,  or  dressed  in 
various  ways,  after  being  reduced  to  flour. 

Sinope,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  on  tlie  south  coast 
of  the  Black  Sea,  lat.  42"^  2'  .'«)"  N..  long.  X,°  t'  45" 
I  I'opulatioii  uncertain,  proliahly  from  8000  to  10,000. 
Miiio|)e  is  situated  on  a  low  narrow  isthmus,  connect- 
ing the  high  rocky  promontoiy  of  Ada  with  the  main 
land.  Its  jK'rt.  which  Is  the  best  on  this  coast,  on  the 
south  side  of  tbn  town,  ix  protected  from  tlic  north  and 
northpant  gales  by  the  isthmus  and  promontory  al- 
ruitA-  mentioned,  Ships  anchor  within  a  third  of  a 
nnl«  '/f  the  town,  in  (*•  m  13  to  17  fathoms ;  or  nearer 
tu  it,  IB  from  .'i  tu  ;  fitlloin:).  1  here  is  a  roadstead  on 
the  north  side  of  the  isthmus,  but  il  is  open  and  ex- 
posed. Sinope  is  one  ■•'  tho  principal  stations  of  the 
Turkich  fleet ;  and  there  »(«■  docks  and  arsenals  for  its 


accommodation  and  ontfit.  Its  exports  are  incongldeiv 
able,  the  principal  being  timber,  salt,  cordr.ge,  flsh  oil, 
etc.  In  ancient  times  Sinope  was  a  city  of  great 
wealth,  magnitude,  and  importance.  It  was  the  birth* 
place  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic ,  and  Mithridates  made  It 
the  capital  of  liis  dominions.  After  its  conquest  by 
tlie  Kom  ns  under  LucuUus,  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
colony,  and  continued  for  a  lengthen'^d  period  to  enjoy 
il  good  deal  of  consideration.  Should  civilization  and 
tho  arts  once  more  revive  in  the  ancient  Pon*iis,  and 
tlie  other  countries  to  the  south  of  tho  I'?ack  Sea,  'he 
excellence  of  its  port  could  not  fail  to  resto.-e  to  Sinope 
some  portion  of  its  former  grandei.r.  Even  now  a  con- 
siderable intercourse  is  beginning  to  fake  place  with 
the  coiinirif's  east  and  south  of  Sinope.  Diorbeker  on 
the  Tigris,  in  hit.  37°  ui'  N.,  long.  39°  53'  15"  K.,  is 
onu  of  the  principal  seats  of  Eastern  commerce ;  and 
caravan  J  set  out  regularly  from  it  fc  \ler"  rns, 

and  Constantinople:  but  any  one  wiio  n,  lap 

of  Asia  Minor,  and  of  the  contiguous  cm..  see 

at  once  that  1'rebizond  and  the  neiglibo'ing  poii:  on 
the  southeast  coast  of  the  Black  Sfea  the  niittiral 
channels  through  which  Armenia,  Koo.  *' ■  "I'd  the 
c  .iliwestern  parts  of  Persia  ma}'  best  .  atain  an 
intercourse  with  Europe.  Fjr  further  partiiuhiri  as 
to  Sinope,  see  Toiih.nkkhkt,  Voijage  ilu  I.eianI,  and 
Niibik'.s  iiiiiliiig  l)irteUonafi>r  the  Uliwk  tien. 

SkiuB.  The  term  is  applied  in  coniiiierciul  Inn- 
guugo  to  the  •  "iins  of  those  animals — as  deer,  goats, 
kids,  Iambs,  etc. — which,  when  prepared,  are  used  in 
tho  ligliter  works  of  book-binding,  the  manufacture  of 
gloves,  parchment,  etc. ;  wliile  the  term  hides  is  applied 
to  tho  skins  of  the  ox,  horse,  etc.,  which,  when  tanned, 
aro  used  in  the  manufacture  of  slices,  harness,  and  other 
heavy  and  strong  articles.  I.amli  and  kid  skins  are 
principally  used  in  the  glove  manufacture;  120  skins 
being  siipiioscd  to  produce,  at  an  average,  16  dozen  poirs 
of  glove". — Stc  IIiiiKS  and  I.eatiikk. 

Slate  (Roof)  (tier.  »•/»>/(■,•,•  Kr.  Anloise;  It.  A«- 
tni/tm,  I.nsirii;  Sp.  Pizarni),  a  fossil  or  compact  stone 
(iiryillaceima  s'hlstiin)  tliat  may  be  readily  split  into 
even,  smootli,  tliin  laminip.  There  are  sever.il  varie- 
ties of  this  valuable  mineral,  the  prevailing  colors  be- 
ing gray,  blue,  and  lir.iwn.  But  the  tints  are  very 
various ;  and  slates  are  often  marked  witli  streaks  of 
a  different  color  from  the  ground.  Slate  is  principally 
used  in  the  covering  of  houses,  fo.  which  purpose  it  is 
infinitely  sujierior  to  thatch  or  tiles,  and  is  far  less  ex- 
pensive tliun  lead,  (iood  roofing  slate  should  not  ab- 
sorb water ;  and  it  shcmld  be  so  compact  us  not  to  lie 
decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  When 
properly  selected,  roof  slat  -^s  aro  of  al,  ,  jst  lerpetual 
duration ;  but  those  which  are  spongy  and  inibilie  moist- 
ure speedily  get  covered  with  moss,  and  require,  at  no 
very  distant  period,  to  be  renewed. 

Slaves  and  Slave-trade.  A  slave,  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense  of  the  term,  is  an  individual  at  the  absolutb 
disposal  of  another,  who  has  a  riglit  to  employ  and 
treat  him  as  h  •  pleases.  But  the  state  of  slavery  la 
susceptible  of  inoumerablo  modifications ;  and  it  lias 
been  usual,  in  most  countries  where  it  has  been  long 
established,  to  limit  in  various  ways  tho  power  of  the 
master  o\  er  the  slave.  The  slaie-lrade  is,  of  course,  the 
business  of  those  who  deal  in  sl:>vc3,  A  great  deal  of 
learning  has  been  employed  in  tracing  the  history  of 
slavery,  though  the  subject  is  still  far  from  e.\hausted. 
It  seems  most  probalde  that  it  originally  grew  out  of  a 
state  of  war.  *In  rude,  uncivilized  commuuitics,  where 
the  paf  sion  of  revenge  acquires  a  strength  unknown  in 
more  advanced  states  of  society,  captives  taken  in  war 
aro  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  victor.--,  wlio  may  either 
put  them  to  tlie  sword  or  reduce  them  to  a  state  of 
servitude.  In  anticpiity  tlie  ideas  of  war  and  slavery 
were  inseparable,  rroliably  in  very  remote  ages  pris- 
oners were  most  commonly  put  to  death  ;  but  the  selfish 
gradually  predominated  over  the  more  passionate  feel- 
ings, and  for  many  ages  it  was  usual  tc  reduce  them 


'V--  -■»"■-?■■;" 


SLA 


m? 


SLA 


to  the  conditlnh  of  ilavoa  j  Iwing  either  gold  by  thoir 
captors  to  others,  or  employed  by  them  as  they  might 
think  fit.  The  practice  of  reducing  men  to  a  state  of 
slavery,  having  once  liegun,  was  extendnd  in  various 
ways.  Tlio  progeny  of  slaves  or  of  women  in  a  state 
of  slavery  wore  slaves ;  men  born  free  might  sell  them- 
selves as  slaves ;  and  parents  hud  autliority,  in  Judwa 
and  Komc,  to  dispose  of  their  children  for  the  same  pur- 
pose.— ^[iciiAGi.is  on  the  Laws  of  Mosrs,  il.  163,  Engl, 
ed.  It  was  tlio  law  of  Rome,  and  of  must  other  ancient 
states,  that  the  persons  of  debtors  wlio  hud  contracted 
obligations  which  they  ciuld  not  discharge  should  be- 
come the  property  of  their  creditors.  "  Servi,"  says 
Justinian,  "  aiitem  ant  nasamlur  autjiunt:  naacuntur 
ex  ancillh  nostris,  Jiunt  aut  jure  genliun,  itl  est  ex  eap- 
tivitiile ;  avijure  chili,  cum  liber  homo  imijnr  viyinti  un- 
nos  ad  jirctlum  participandumscae  renundari  passi's  est,' 
—Instil.,  lili.  i.  tit.  8. 

T/ie  Aj'rivan  slare-trade  was  commenced  by  the  Firt- 
uguese  in  1442.  It  was,  however,  but  of  trifling  ex- 
tent till  tlio  commencement  of  the  Kith  century.  In 
'"  1.-..  (picncc,  however,  of  the  rapid  destruction  of  the 
ii.Jians  eniiiloyed  in  tlio  mines  of  St.  Domingo  or  Ilay- 
ti,  Chorles  V.  iiulhorized,  in  1517,  the  introduction  into 
the  l.'lindof  Afriian  shin'M  from  the  establishments  of 
the  I'lirtiigucsc  on  the  coast  of  Guinin.  The  concur- 
rence of  the  emperor  ivns  olitaincd  by  the  intercession 
of  the  celebrated  I.as  Casas,  bishop  of  Cliiapa,  who  la- 
bored to  protect  the  Indians  by  enslaving  the  Africans ; 
though,  us  the  latter  were  certuinly  more  vigorous  and 
CBpalilii  I'f  bearing  fatigue  than  the  former,  the  mous- 
u.e  WU3  nut  in  leality  .lio  contradiLtory  as  It  would  at 
first  ."iglit  appear  to  bu. — l!iiiif;iiTs(iN's  ll!.,l.  Amerirn. 
The  importation  of  negroes  into  the  W<  ■  t  Iiiilii-s  and 
America,  having  once  begun,  gradually  increased,  un- 
til the  traflie  became  iil  great  ixtint  and  iinportanre. 
Sir  .liilin  llawkin.  was  the  first  Knglisliiiiaii  wlio  en- 
gaged in  it ;  and  such  was  the  ardor  witli  w  hl(  li  our 
countrymen  followed  his  c.\aiii(4(',  that  they  expurlcd 
from  Africa  more  tlian  ilOO.'lOO  slaves  between  tlie  years 
1C80  and  17(10;  and  between  1700  and  178(1,  (;ro,0()0 
Africans  were  im|)ortcd  into  .lamaica  only  ;  to  wliii  h 
adding  the  iniiiorts  into  the  other  Islands  and  (ho  i  <in- 
tineiital  c<ilunie.s,  and  those  who  died  (jn  their  passage, 
the  numlier  carried  from  Africa  will  iipjirar  immense. — 
ll.iVAN  I'.invAUDS,  Itisl.  W'ist  liiiliis.  The  jiiporta- 
tions  by  other  nations,  particularly  tlie  French  and 
Portuguese,  were  also  very  great.  Wo  may,  however, 
shortly  observe  that  there  can  be  iiu  duubt  that  slavery 
has  always  existed  in  .Africa  ;  and  it  is  suflidently  v.ell 
known  that  previously  In  the  c(uunienccnieiil  of  the 
trafiic  such  of  the  captives  taken  in  war  us  cuuld  nut 
be  advantageously  employed  as  slaves  were  must  com- 
monly put  to  death — cannibalism,  tlic  cxpcKUre  of  in- 
fants, and  human  sacrifices  bebig  then  also  very  fre- 
quent. The  slave-trade,  by  opening  a  ready  and  priifit- 
ablo  market  for  slaves,  assisted  in  putting  an  end  tu 


these  enormities,  though  it  be,  at  the  sima  tini*,  (fut 
that  the  desire  of  profiting  by  their  sale  baa  l«m|i(«><t 
tlie  petty  princes  to  make  war  on  each  other  for  tha 
chance  of  making  captives,  and  has  given  a  bliniMlHa 
to  man-stealing  and  other  atrocities.— f/tuj^,  Jlirt,,  art, 
Akkica.  But  those  who  inquire  dispasi-ionatel}'  into 
the  subject  will  probably  come  to  the  cancjUBinii  ttlHt, 
instead  of  being  injured,  the  slaves  have  gained  by  li(i> 
Ing  carried  from  the  Old  to  the  New  World.  KtieakiMK 
generally,  the  negroes  are  in  the  lowest  statu  of  abase. 
ment,  possessing  merely  the  rudiments  of  the  most  In- 
dispensable arts,  a  prey  to  the  vilest  ruparetitluii  «n4 
tyranny,  without  any  tincture  of  learning,  and  wltU 
little  or  no  regard  for  the  future.  The  clrcumttsncua 
under  which  they  are  placed  in  their  native  land  imy, 
perhaps,  account  for  the  low  state  in  which  wa  (ilMl 
them ;  liut,  however  explained,  the  genuine  negroes  of 
Africa  are  admitted,  even  by  these  least  inclined  todu. 
predate  them,  to  lie  for  the  most  part  "  either  ferodoM* 
savages,  or  stupid,  sensual,  and  indolent."— )'hui(> 
Aui),  J/islory  of  Man,  ii.  .S38,  3d  ed. 

Aholllion  o/Slavery. — The  year  1H38 was memoraliU 

for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  Dritich  coU 

onies.      In  enacting  this  celebrated  statute,  I'urlia' 

ment  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  apparently  contlict. 

ing  claims  of  humanity  and  justice,  by  providing  for 

the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  without  prejudice  to  tha 

just  rights  and  claims  of  their  proprietors,     Tlijs  was 

eft'ected  by  assigning  to  the  latter  the  sum  of  lumlf/ 

miliinna  sterling,  which  was  distributed  among  them 

on  their  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the  act.  Tills 

is,  perhaps,  the  greatest  pecuniary  sacrilice  ever  vo|un> 

j  tarily  made  by  any  nation  in  vindication  of  the  right 

of  property.     Hut  it  was  not  too  great  for  the  object  In 

]  view  J  for  had  that  riglit  been  violated  in  this  inttaiice, 

[  a  precedent  would  have  been  set  for  its  violation  In 

■  others,  and  the  consequences  would  have  been  most 

I  disastrous.      The   measure,  in  fact,  reflects  quite  us 

j  much  credit  on  the  wisdom  and  honesty  as  on  the  genr 

eroi  ity  of  the  liritish  natiim.     This  celebrated  statute 

enacted  that  slavery  should  cease  in  all  Ilritish  colunisl 

pusaessions  on  the  1st  of  .August.  18;!4  ;  when  the  slaves 

were  to  hccomo  apprenticed  laborers,  their  final  and 

coni^,iete  emancipation  taking  place  partly  on  the  I;t 

of  August,  IK'W,  and  partly  on  the  1st  of  August,  IWO, 

But  a  clamor  having  been  raised  against  the  duration 

of  the  apprenticeship.  Its  period  was  shortened,  and  tlia 

blacks  became  universally  free  in  18.18. 

Dislribiition  nf  Slnre  Vomptnsaliim. — The  cunimls' 
sioners  for  the  ap|)ortionment  of  the  i.'20,0(l(),000  grunt- 
ed by  I'urliauient  as  compensation  to  slave  owners,  i  n- 
der  tlie  act  3  and  4  Will.  I\'.,cap.  73,  issued  the  following 
table,  showing  the  average  value  of  a  slave  in  each  ('ol- 
oiiy ;  the  number  of  slaves  in  each ;  the  total  viilue  of 
the  slaves,  supposing  the  annual  value  of  eath  were 
reallzedi  and  the  proportion  of  the  £20,000,000  receive4 
by  each  colony. 


Colony. 


AvemKO  Vtlii«  itf    Niin>o«r  of  Slaves  ! 

(iSlnvt  froiiilSS'J  l.y  tlio  luit        1 

10 1^.10.  KeKi'l^'l'""-      ' 


Rctativo  Valiia 
of  the  Slovei. 


llerniurla 

llnliuiiiuri 

.lamaica    

Honduras  . . . . 
Vlrj^tii  Islands 
Anti^iui 


i     I  il 

27    4  111 

29  1^  III 

44  iri  81 

120    4  7) 

i.l  IC  II 

32  li  10| 


Monisc.nit i">  1^  1"! 

■■"    3  111 

a  mt 


Nevis 

l*t.  ("ni'lstuplicr's 

Dominies 

ilirb.docs 

(Irenadn 

St.  Viiicent*8 

Tobago 

St  l.iicU 

Trinidad 

Ilrttish  (iuiana 

C'ftpe  of  Uood  Hope  . 

Mauritius 

ToUl 


311 
M 
43 
47     1 

nn   f) 

4.^  12 

liA  H 
lifi    4 

114  11 

T3  U  11 

6D  14    3 


4,203 
9.7015 
311,li:)a 
1,(120 
M92 
20,.^37 

8,723 
20,660 
14.3S4 
82,S07 
'.'3,K!6 
22,9^17 
11,621 
l,'i,343 
2!J,3ri9 
84,9  in 
88,4'« 
68,1)13 


X 

114,,->27 

2.  0,571! 

13,9.')l,13'.i 

230,S44 

llli>,143 

i!fl4,l!)S 

2,'14,4«tf 

341,»*9;l 

T50,R4l> 

624,711. 

3,8  7,271) 

l,3!l.'i.0''l 

1.341, 401 

629.1141 

759,891) 

2,.1.'>2,0.V> 

!i.72ft,r47 

2,S«4,224 

4,783, 1S3 


I        780,903        I     46,281,73i< 


ProportiiMi  of  lilt 
XSI>,'JM,(IOtl  tu  wl,it-ti 
eaf  IiCuluiiy  ibpiiI  Ul-.I 


f)0,.'sS4 

128,340 

6,li)l,'.'27 

10I,!'M 

72,940 
4'iA,8(!8 
in3,f)f)8 
151,007 

27ri,il2.t 

1,721, ii4« 

018.444 

ti92,50S 

234.1  04 

■SMi,IU1 

1,039,119 

4,2  7,117 

1.«7,4II1 

2, 1 12,031  _ 

20,000,000 


SLA 


1728 


SLA 


Dr.  Livingstone,  who  U  ucknowledged  a«  being  con- 
Tenant  upon  subjects  affecting  the  slave-trade,  says  : 
"  I  have  thus  ventured  to  state  my  conviction  in  favor 
of  our  present  system,  formed  as  it  was  from  personal 
observation,  and  in  ttio  tooth  of  a  strong  bios  to  the 
contrar}',  that  you  may,  according  to  your  custom,  and 
if  you  should  deem  it  advisable,  give  this  to  your  read- 
ers by  way  of  helping  them  to  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion. It  is  not  to  be  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the 
present  system  of  coercion  will  result  in  a  riidical  cure 
of  the  evil.  The  cullimtum  by  the,  Africaiu  mi  their  ovm 
mil  of  the  raw  materiiUn  of  our  nmnufncturet,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  Christian  civilization  alone  will  effect  a  perma- 
nent luppremmi  of  the  tlare-lraile.  Uut  all  hope  of  this 
must  be  given  up  if  the  coast  tribes  are  to  be  hounded 
on  by  the  Europeans  to  hunt  down  the  defenseler  4  in- 
land inhabitants,  on  the  absurd  pretense  of  prmiotinrj 
'free  emigration,'  It  is  no  uioro  true  that  Africans 
tul(e  delight  in  hunting,  buying,  and  selling  each  other 
thin  that  the  English  glorj'  in  hanging  themselves  in 
November.  I  linow  that  this  is  the  case  throughout 
the  interior,  and  I  was  sorr}-  at  the  cause  of  a  diflcrent 
state  of  things  on  the  borders  of  civUiaation.  But  wo 
are  ignorant  of  the  sources  whence  statements  such  as 
tliat  referred  to  arise,  From  meeting  it  in  vitrious 
quarters,  and  moro  ecipecially  in  the  mouths  of  «luve- 
hoUlers,  or  would-be  slave  employers,  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  both  it  and  that  alMut  the  inefficiency  of 
Hor  Majesty's  cruisers  have  had  their  origin  in  those 
wh.)  are,  directly  or  indirectly,  abettors  of  elavery,  and 
that  thoy  are  promulgated  by  many  who,  like  myself, 
had  not  the  means  of  testing  their  truth." 

fussing  over  tlie  interval  from  the  period  when  the 
slave-trade  was  declared  to  be  piracj-  to  the  year  1840, 
we  llnd  that  the  numlier  introduced  into  Brazil  from 
tl';  t  ye;\r  to  1851,  inclusive,  was  848,«09,  or  a  little 
mo.-e  than  30,000  a  year.  During  the  same  period  the 
number  imported  into  Cuba  amounted  to  an  average 
of  about  tiOOO  a  year.  The  following  tallies  show  the 
importations  into  Bnur.il  and  Cuba  from  1851  to  1854: 

Slavfli. 

IraportiHl  iuto  Urazll  ia  tho  ycjar  ISM 47,«10 

"  "  "  1SW 60,000 

"  "  1863 8,  TOO 

Total 100,700 

Imported  iuto  Cuba  in  IfWl 

»  "        "  iSft'J 

"     .  "         "  1883 

"  "         "1864 


6,000 
T,!i24 
12,600 
10,230 

8s,<ir>4 

100,700 


Total 130,361 

For  the  four  years  from  1851  to  1854,  inclusive,  this 
gives  an  average  importation  into  Imth  countries  of 
something  over  S4,000  a  year.  As  perhaps  niit  more 
than  three-fourths  of  the  whole  number  was  reported 
to  the  mixed  commission,  the  yearly  average  for  this 
period  may  Ijo  set  down  at  45,0*>0.  From  the  year  1854 
there  were  very  few,  if  any,  slaves  imported  into  Ura- 
cil, in  :Disequcnce  of  tlio  laws  passed  liy  the  govern- 
ment of  that  country  against  the  traffic.  The  slave- 
trade  is  now  maii-.lv,  if  not  wholly,  carried  on  witli 
Cubi,  which  imports  a'.mixt  20,000  "slaves  cvi>rv  ^•en^ ; 
which,  added  to  the  total  of  the  trade  .villi  li..tl'i  Brazil 
and  t;ub,i  since  tho  year  1850,  gives  the  nvera;,'o  num- 
lier imported  every  year,  up  t  the  present  time,  at 
about  ;)0,00 1.  If  the  profit  realized  on  the  piircliase 
of  one  slave  aiiumnts,  as  we  have  shown  in  the  follow- 
ini;  tablet,  to  $i«!5,  ih"  ti»  il  profits  of  one  jear's  traile 
will  therefore  be  aliont  $11,000,000. 

As  a  curious  exiiililt,  we  give  tlie  statistics  showing 
the  estimated  part  whii.li  this  country  lakes  in  this  ne- 
farious traUir.  It  is  estimated  that  in  the  jnirt  «{  New 
York  alone  almi  t  twelve  vessels  are  fitted  out  every 
year  for  the  slave-trade,  and  tliat  n(mton  ami  Baltimore 
furnish  enrli  ulHitit  the  same  number,  making  a  Heet  of 
thirt3'-si;.  vp.ssels  all  engaged  in  u  ('(immcrce  at  iihicli 
the  best  feeliiigu  ot  our  nature  revolt.     If  to  these  be 


120,000 
100,000 

86,000 


fun.floo 


added  the  tUven  fitted  out  In  other  Eutem  port*  be- 
sides Boston,  we  will  have  a  total  of  about  forty,  which 
is  rather  under  than  over  the  actual  number.  Each 
slaver  registers  fWim  150  to  250  tons,  and  coets,  when 
ready  for  sea,  with  provisions,  slave  equipments,  and 
every  thing  necesurj'  for  a  successful  trip,  about  $8000. 
Here,  to  start  with,  wo  have  a  capital  of  $820,000,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  contributed  by  Northern  men. 
The  expenses  of  fitting  out,  and  of  the  trip  to  and  iVxim 
the  coast  of  Africa,  may  oe  estimated  as  follows : 

I'ost  of  forty  jiavors  ready  fornca $320,000 

Fxpensns  at  the  port  for  hrokorago  and  commis- 
elon,  $3000  on  eacli  vtwael 

Cnptalurt'  and  H<'ainen*>t  wsges  for  the  voyage  .... 

Amount  paid  fur  Ufgnw's  on  tho  poant  of  Africa,  at 
$16  a  lipad,  nllowing  OflO  to  each  vcmicl 

I'urt  chargPH  and  secret  money  paid  at  the  i>laRe  of 
landing  in  Cuba  or  othiT  (IcKtitialinu,  $42  for 
earh  negro,  allowing  a  diminution  of  100  In  cuch 

vendul  by  death  on  the  iiasaago 

Total $l,47fl,0f)0 

From  this  estimate  It  will  bo  seen  that  the  amount 
of  capital  required  to  fit  out  a  Heet  of  slavers  is  aliout 
$l,500,Cl.X),  upon  which  the  profits  are  so  immense  ai 
almost  to  surpass  belief.  In  a  single  voyage  of  this 
fleet  24,000  human  beings  are  carried  off  from  difibrent 
points  on  the  slave  coast ;  and  of  these  4000,  or  one 
sixth  of  the  whole  numlier,  become  victims  to  the  hor- 
rors of  the  middle  passage,  leaving  20,000  fit  for  market. 
For  each  of  those  the  trader  obtains  an  average  of  $500, 
making  a  total  for  the  whole  20,000  of  $10,000,000. 
Now,  if  we  estimate  the  number  of  trips  made  by  each 
vessel  in  a  year  at  two,  we  will  have  this  increased  to 
$20,000,000.  Each  vessel,  it  is  true,  can  make  tiiroe, 
and  sometimes  four  trips,  but  us  some  of  them  are  de- 
stroyed after  the  first  voyage,  we  have  placed  tho  num- 
ber at  the  lowest  estimate.  Tlio  expenses  and  profits 
of  tho  slave-trade  for  a  single  year  compare  as  follows : 

Total  eipe nws  of  two  voyages $.t.OO(l,000 

Total  ructlpta  of  ditto 'iO.M  i.OOIl 

IToflta '. $17,000,000 

The  laws  of  Congress  on  the  siilijeit  of  the  slave- 
trade  were  passed  March  22, 1704 ;  May  10, 1800 ;  Feli- 
ruarv  28, 1808;  Slarch  2, 1807  ;  April  20,  1818 ;  March 
3,1819;  May  15,  1820;  March  3, 1843;  September  20, 
1850.  ('onventions  on  tho  subject  of  the  slave-trade 
were  held  July  12, 1822 ;  Novcinlier  1;(,  1826,  with  Bra- 
zil  i  March  2,  1827 ;  August  i»,  1842.  By  the  net  of 
Slardi  22,  1794,  tho  slave-trade  was  nroliibited.  The 
act  of  May  10.  1800,  npiilicd  to  foreigners  residing  in 
the  United  States,  and  forbii'  citizens  from  liciiig  en- 
gaged in  forei({n  ships  in  tlie  slave-trade.  By  the  act 
of  March  2,  1807,  vessels  with  slaves  on  iMiard  were  to 
lie  forfeited,  the  naval  forces  to  be  employed  to  enforce 
tho  act.  By  the  act  of  April  20. 1818,  tl\e  importation 
of  negroes,  or  persons  of  color,  "  to  lie  held  to  service 
or  labor,"  was  prohibited.  By  tlic  act  of  March  ,1, 1819, 
tho  naval  ships  would  send  to  the  I'niteil  States,  for 
confiscation,  any  ships  detected  in  the  slave-tnide ;  a 
liounty  was  offered  of  §25  for  each  negro  captured  and 
delivered  to  tho  I'nited  .Stu'es  Marshal.  Ity  the  act 
of  May  15,  1820,  tho  slave-tnide  was  declared  to  lie 
|)irary,  and  any  citizen  detecteil  in  the  trade  should 
sutler  death.  By  the  act  of  .September  20,  1860,  the 
sbive-trnde  in  the  District  of  Coliinibia  was  prohibited ; 
{  no  slave  to  bo  brought  into  tlie  District  for  sale  as  mer- 
I  chandisi" ;  and  nil  slave  depi'iti  to  be  broken  up. 

For  discussions  on  slavery  anil  sluve-tnide,  see  for. 

I  Quart.,  xxxiv.  lai ;  South.  Qmtrt.,  xix.  101,  yxi.  209  ; 

]  I.iriiiij  .{rje,  xiv.  2.^.'),  xvi.  ,'>0;P ;    h'llinh.  AVr.,  viii.  .18."i, 

j  xli.  195,  xii.  355,  v.  209  (l!RotoiiAM>,  x.  199,  xxxviii. 

1(18,  xxxix.  IIH;  W'luthi.  Ucr.,  xxxiv.  IJ.'i;  Ji/iidiioml. 

•  Iv.  731 ;  ,lmcr.  .Almannr.  1841  ;  North  .Im.r.  Ilir.,  xli. 

17(1,  Ixxiii.  347 (rEAlioTiYl;  Di-:  Bow's /^r.,  x.C.'iH.xi. 

2,'!-lc4,  viii.  122,  ix. ;  Smith.  I.il.  .)/(,«.,  ix.  731!,  vii.  774. 

C»«//c  Timit.-   This  trade  has  sprung  up  since  vigor- 

I  mis  efforts  have  been  made  to  suppress  the  slave-trade 

I  proper.     Although  theoretically  the  coolie  trade  prom- 


SLA 


1720 


SMU 


bed  benefits  to  both  pUiiteM  aitd  coolie,  y«t  |ir»('tU 
cnlly  It  l9  only  anotlior  fonn  iif  llio  i.liivu.trujfl, 

Tho  truth  uttered  tiy  u  lutu  iiiiialrar  uf  the  fall- 
fvrtia  Chronicle  in  the  fulluwing  punnjr'itih  lit  liiit  ton 
trui' : 

"  We  hoar  of  these  wrotuhwl  lioIiiKa  .Ij  liii{  nii  thitlr 
paAaa^i  from  Ounton  tu  (Julluo  u(  hiiiiKur,  lliint,  iiiiil 
fuul  dUiaae  engendered  liy  close  (oiillii'tmuiit,  wlthmit 
ulr  or  nitritnent,  in  the  hoUli  of  uhipM;  wn  Uuiif  of 
these  un.'ortunutcs  murdering  uiui  uiiuthor  In  thn  UKuny 
of  tliclr  luflcrlng ;  und  yet,  althou|{h  tliii  tiling  U  iiliilli 
and  |)"l,)able  before  our  very  «ye;i,  th<i  tlvllUiMl,  lllfl 
Chriftiiin  world  shrugs  itn  ttluiulderx,  excliiltnii  >  lior. 
Tiblo,'  anil  leaves  tho  hel|)le»n  ereuturc*  to  tlmlr  fttt'i," 

In  extenuation  of  tho  guilt  Incurrucl,  It  U  ullii){iMt 
that  the  parties  concerned  have  a  coiitrwl  wltli  lliii 
coolies ;  but  in  elTect  the  dnludcd  victim  U  a  ulava,  mid 
not  tho  faintest  dawn  of  hope  lUuknlnex  liU  dark  Imk 
rizon.  Numerous  important  und  iucontrovt>rtllil«  faiin 
havo  been  brought  to  tho  attcntinu  of  our  ({oviinilniiiit 
by  means  of  tho  "  message  from  the  l'ru»lc|i>nt  of  tliii 
United  States  communicating  inforinatiun  in  n%a(i\ 
to  tho  slave  and  coolie  trade,"  presented  tu  tlin  llouon 
of  Ueprcsentativcs  ono  year  ago, 

Mr.  I'arker,  United  States  Minister  to  Chlriii,  wmtn 
to  Mr.  Marcy  on  tlie  12th  of  Feliruary,  IH.'ill,  that  tlm 
following  shipments  of  coolies  hud  Ixiiin  made  during 
tho  year  1855  from  Swatow,  an  illegal  port  «viiu  for 
legal  trade : 


(Vi'illua, 
l:i|H 

W) 

llllil 


Amorlcnn •>  dflH 

llriiwh 3  !),8'il 

1  hilhui 1  f«« 

IVniviiin jl  \,m 

'i'..tiii VI      I'iTtTa 

Mr.  Parker  also  stated,  from  ollti'lul  infurnnttliin, 
that  tho  number  of  snab  s  iiiiiinrted  as  tiiolli's  from  (;«|. 
cutta  and  Madras,  from  iNl.')  tu  In5.',  Into  llritUli 
Ciuiana  and  Trinidad,  was  1701);  and  he  »ilgg«>ttid 
"the  necessity  of  »|iecilie  iiistrwtiiins  ennnniling  friiin 
the  Xavy  Uepattment  to  our  nien-uf-war  on  the  (.'hliiii 
station,  authorizing  them  tu  resort  In  illogai  port',  und 
to  i>.>:amine  such  vessels  as  do,  and  uKiertiiln  that  tlicy 
do  not  offend  against  law,  und  tu  make  them  uicunnt- 
able  if  they  do."  January,  1H.'<I),  Mr.  I'.  1),  Mngf.ird, 
at  Hong  Kong,  notilicd  Mr.  i'arker  that  lio  was  ugi-nt 
for  ono  of  the  most  respectable  (Inns  in  the  l.'idK'd 
States,  who  had  made  a  contract  with  the  Hruzlllaii 
govormncnt  for  sending  to  liio  do  Janeiro  siinui  'iWW 
Chinese,  and  tliat  part  of  thcni  had  lieeu  shlp|iei|,  lint 
tho  iirm  referred  to  wore  ready  tu  aliido  liy  llio  duuinluii 
of  the  governments  of  the  I'nited  tftatc-t  or  China  im 
regards  tho  legality  of  tho  trade.  Sulweiiuently,  Mr. 
Parker  addressed  a  iiubliu  notilicution  calling  on  illl- 
zena  of  tho  United  States  to  desist  frum  this  Iriegular 
and  immoral  tJ'afBc. 

Tho  evidence  constantly  accumulating  to  bIiow  tim 
horrible  character  of  this  trade  calls  still  mure  luui|!y 
for  its  speedy  suppression.  The  l.iiinhm  Tunis  rccmi'ly 
published  u  deeply  interesting  cciminunicatiun  '/n  tllU 
subject,  from  which  we  extract  the  following: 

"  The  testimony  of  Sir  John  liuwring  'o  tin-  lament- 
able condition  of  tho  Chinese  emigrant  can  iml  but  I'l- 
call  to  most  of  our  readers'  minds  tlie  disclosuii'S  inudo 
a  few  weeks  ago  at  the  Thames  Pulico  Court  In  [.on. 
don  with  respect  to  the  condition  of  the  conllea  iiii 


sjiliitnnc*,  hut  ho  never  heard  of  any  thing  like  this.' 
Till)  eotiiinel  said, '  It  la  most  horrible.  Chinamen  are 
brought  from  China  to  work  on  plantations,  and  this 
l»  tlio  femill.  The  lingllsh  flag  is  disgraced  by  such 
14  tradlf,'  'I'lie  captain  confessed,  '  It  is  a  dreadful 
tra(11c,ttnd  ipilte  ilme  it  was  put  an  end  to.'  Yet  tlds 
wu»  but  an  accidental  disclosure  of  a  system  which 
»««  only  cMHHully  brought  to  light  in  this  instance  by 
tllB  liinglstrutu's  lii«i«.ction  of  the  log-book  ui  a  suit  of 
Hngem, 

"  I  have  myself,  when  iu  Havana,  heard  accounts 
and  wltiionsid  scenes  connected  with  this  traiHc  which 
are  nerfeclly  appalling.  In  some  inttances  the  pro- 
l«irtl»li  of  (lead  to  living  at  the  conclusion  of  tho  voy- 
agx  has  been  as  high  as  two  hundred  of  the  ono  for 
every  tlireo  hundred  of  the  other.  In  March,  J853, 
lllii  tIrllUli  rhlp  liertniJe  arri\ed  at  Havana  with  a 
cargo  of  IIW  Clilnainen,  and  in  a  note  appended  tu  tho 
rBiurii  w«  read,  '  of  the  Vtrlrmh't  152  died.' 

"  Hlich  are  the  horrcrs  of  this  sec<ind  slave-trade 
during  tho  passage.  When  he  arrives  at  liis  destina- 
lloH,  III  the  majority  of  iu-tances,  thi.  coolie  finds  that 
III*  tiilsery  Ims  liut  commenced.  I  have  seen  examples 
of  ( (iiisldefate  treatiiiint,  and  consequently  of  conipara- 
llvfl  (loliiforl  I  but  these  are  unhappily  rare.  On  ar- 
tlvllig  at  Havana,  after  passing  the  (juaiuntine,  the 
coolie,  If  he  survive,  is  transferred  to  t!ie  liighcst  bid- 
der, who  places  hlni  upon  his  plantation  side  by  side 
with  lll»  flavcd.  Ills  term  of  service  is  eiglit  years; 
hl»  Ittlior  as  hard  as  bis  master  thinks  he  can  sustain. 
Kb  receives  a  small  payment  monthly,  whiili  makes 
Ills  ciindllloM  by  a  few  dollars  preferalia  to  that  of  the 
»lav«,  Ho  Is  esposcd  to  tlic  same  toil,  watched  by 
the  saiiiD  overseer,  with  whip  in  hand  and  sword  at  his 
side,  a«  the  slave. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  his  position  Is  worse  than  that 
'f  !iU  olavB  c<anpani(m,  iiuomuch  as  his  master's  in- 
tori^t  In  lihi)  Irrminates  after  eight  years.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  Ictni  of  service  ap|iioaches  its  expiration, 
tllii  lilotlvd  for  retaining  the  coolie  in  life  decreases. 
Tli't  slave'n  life  is  usually  worked  out,  as  the  Cuban 
planters  have  themselves  confessed  to  me,  in  ten  years 
of  lull  Work,  The  Clihuso  coolie,  as  every  one  who 
has  lived  iru  the  Cuban  jplantations  knows,  reaches  his 
end  on  an  average  after  a  very  mucii  shorter  term  of 
labor.  >^g(ilii,  the  Chiiianumdocs  not  hear  the  tropical 
hciit  with  llie  ease  with  which  tlie  negro  endures  it." 

Sloop,  It  vessel  of  nun  mast,  the  mainsail  of  which 
I*  Hltaclied  Ui  a  gaff  aliove,  to  a  lioom  below,  and  to 
the  mast  o/i  Its  'oremost  edge ;  different  from  a  cutler 
by  having  a  fixed  bowsprit  and  a  jili-stay.  It  is  also  a 
general  iiaiiie  for  ships  of  war  lielow  the  size  of  frigates. 
fintnok,  a  vessel  with  ono  mast,  commonly  rigged 
n*  n  sloop,  and  used  in  the  coasting  trade,  or  us  a  tender 
III  tlia  royal  navy.  Tho  vessels  of  tlrs  name  that  have 
long  piled  lielween  Leitli  and  London  are  well  known, 
ail"!  Iiiive  always  been  noted  for  their  security. 

Bmalta,  or' Smalt  (.C'T.ficten/j;  l)\x.  tSmalt ;  I't. 
Sinillt i  It,  /imittliinziiD-i'o,  I'miihino;  Sp.  Ksmallc,  Ar.iil 
ii4Uri  lllis',  hiiiir),  an  oxyd  of  cobalt,  melted  with 
siliceous  earth  and  potash.  It  is  a  sort  of  glass,  of  a 
bi'rtiitlfid  deep  blue  color ;  und  being  ^^round  ver/  tine, 
U  known  by  tho  name  of  powder  blue.  The  cohir  of 
siimlll!  Is  not  rtlfeeted  by  fire ,  and  it  is  consequently 
ill  great  demand  In  tho  painting  of  earthen-ware.     It 


hoard  tho  ship  Ihdc  «/ Porlliiwl,  on  her  voyage  from  In  «i«i  eiiiplcyed  In  the  coloring  of  paper,  and  for  other 
Ilong  Kong  to  Havana.  It  will  lie  remembered  that  I  'li.  ■hi«cs  In  llic  arts,  Beckmann  has  proved  lliat  the 
on  the  occasion  referred  to  tho  master  of  tho  vessel  j  nroiiss  used  In  the  preparation  of  smaltzwas  invented 
made  the  confession  that  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  aboul  tllfl  end  of  the  l.lth  or  the  beginning  of  the  ItJth 
cf  tho  emigrants,  all  of  wliom  had  been  taken  on  board,  |  ciilitiiry  i  and  (hal  the  blue  glass  of  the  ancients  owes 
he  said,  in  good  health,  had  died  between  Hong  Kong  I  Its  eohir,  not  to  llin  presence  of  coljalt  or  smaltz,butto 
and  Havana.  He  had  '  had  as  many  as  two  hundred  |  that  of  Iron,— //'W.  nf /nrnilmm,  vol.  ii.,  art.  Cobalt. 
invalids  at  ono  time,'  and  '  many  more  liad  died  after  .  SmU|(i'll»g,  the  offense  of  importing  prohibited 
they  had  landed  in  Cuba.'  His  log-book  contained  ]  articles,  cr  of  defrauding  tho  revenue  by  the  introduc- 
daiiy,  and  more  than  daily,  entries  of  death.  The  i  tloll  of  nrtlcles  Into  consumpticm,  without  paying  the 
magistrate  said  '  ho  had  heard  of  the  horrors  of  tlui  dutlsit  ctmrijBablo  tip(m  them.  It  may  be  committed 
middle  passage  when  tho  odious  sUvo-ttsde  wan  in  I  Imllffefeillfy  ollhcf  Ufiun  the  excise  or  customs  revenue. 


SMU 


1730 


AMY 


Thii  erime,  which  oceupleii  xo  promiiiaiit  a  (iltca  fuih« 
criminal  legUUtlon  of  nil  modern  iiUtet,  U  wtvMy  ||*m 
reiiult  of  vicious  commercial  and  Hnaucial  Uii(i»\iUUm, 
It  la  the  fruit  either  of  pmliibltiona  ot  iiii|i«rt»(li>ti,  i/f 
of  oppressively  hi((h  duties.  It  dues  nut  uriKlnat*  in 
any  depravity  inherent  in  man,  liut  in  tlia  fntty  »itil 
ignorance  of  legislators.  A  pruliitjltiun  «Kaii)»t  il»' 
porting  n  commodity  does  not  take  away  tli«  ta»t«  Uir 
it ;  and  the  imposition  of  ii  high  duty  oh  any  arlM;hi 
occasions  a  u?  irsal  desire  lu  escupe  or  vvnU  its  \my- 
ment.  Hen.  o  tlio  rise  and  0(  cupatiou  uf  tbs  nnui/uiUr, 
The  risk  of  lieing  detected  in  the  claiiJastliMi  Uitruiim'^ 
tion  of  commodities  under  uny  i'}'st«ni  uf  rtsi'al  rajfuU' 
tlons  may  always  be  valued  1 1  a  certain  aveniK«  r»l«  | 
and  wherever  the  duties  exceed  this  rata,  aiiiugKliMK 
immediately  takes  place.  New  there  are  pUtuI/  hut 
two  ways  of  checking  this  prai  tice— either  tlui  tMtniilit- 
tion  to  smuggle  must  be  dlni,nlshed  by  luwuriitif  lh« 
duties,  or  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  smugKliuK  nm<t 
be  Increased.  The  first  Is  obviously  tlie  uu/ra  natural 
and  efficient  method  of  effecting  the  object  hi  vUiw  )  but 
the  second  hus  been  most  generally  nuu>rt«4  U>,  ovwt 
In  cases  where  the  duties  were  quite  eKcesi  iva,  lluV' 
rmments  have  unlfurml}-  almost  cunsulteit  ttw  |i*rii<>n» 
employed  in  the  toUection  of  the  revenue  with  mt^H 
to  the  best  mode  of  rendering  taxes  effe<  tuat ;  tlwuj^h 
it  i^  clear  that  the  Interests,  prejudices,  aiul  |MU'ulUr 
habits  of  such  persons  utterly  disijualify  tli«M)  (mth 
forming  a  sound  opinion  on  such  a  suliject,  'i  Iwy  utttt 
not  recommend  a  reduction  of  dutiiM  as  a  nit^ans  uf  rtt' 
pressing  smuggling  and  incrpu^!ing  rt'venu«,  wit.'u/Ht 
acknowledging  their  own  incapacity  tu  detail  an/1  tftt^ 
feat  illic't:  practices;  and  the  result  has  Iwen  Ihat,  in' 
stead  of  i  <crlljing  the  pruvalence  of  sniugglinif  tu  ll* 
true  cau8<  4,  the  officers  uf  custuuis  and  ex<  iut  have 
almost  ui  vcrsally  ascriljcd  it  to  some  ilefe(.'t  in  tho 
law.s,  or  In  the  mode  of  aduiinUtoiing  theui,  and  haf  * 
proi>osed  repressing  it  by  new  regulations,  and  by  in 
creasing  the  number  and  severity  of  the  |)eualt|cs  Hf 
fecting  the  smuggler.  As  might  have  lieeu  exiMiicd, 
these  attempts  have,  in  the  great  niujurity  uf  I'umm, 
proved  signally  unsuccessful.  And  it  lua  l>e«ii  invari' 
ably  found  that  no  vigilance  on  the  part  uf  tlui  iDvmnw 
officers,  and  no  severlt)-  of  punishment,  can  pr«v«nt 
the  smuggling  of  such  commodities  us  are  <>itli«r  pr<«' 
hibitod  qr  loaded  with  oppressive  duties.  Tba  nmUK' 
gler  is  generally  a  popular  character;  an/1  wbat«y«r 
the  law  ma}-  declare  on  the  subject,  it  is  ludiiruwai  Ui 
expect  that  the  Imlk  of  society  should  ever  Iw  hrimgtil 
to  think  that  those  who  furnish  theui  with  nhmtf) 
brandy,  geneva,  tobacco,  etc.,  are  guilty  of  nuy  vnry 
heinous  off'ense. 

"  To  pretend,"  says  Dr.  Smith,  "  to  have  any  wrupht 
about  buying  smuggled  (;oods,  though  a  manifi'iNi  mt-r 
couragement  to  the  violation  of  tlie  revenua  laws,  an/1 
to  the  perjur}'  which  almost  alwa)'s  attends  it,  wuwbt 
in  most  countries  be  regarded  us  one  uf  tiutna  pitilmitU: 
pieces  of  hypocrisy  which,  intteud  of  gainini;  crfs/llt 
with  any  Iwdy,  seem  only  to  oximse  the  [lerMii  wli// 
alTects  to  practice  them  to  tlie  suspicion  of  tming  a 
greater  knave  than  most  uf  his  neighlwrs.  liy  thi« 
indulgence  of  the  public,  the  s.nuggler  is  ofteii  inmmf' 
aged  to  continue  a  trade  which  he  is  tlius  t«M|(ht  Ui 
consider  as,  in  some  measure,  innocent ;  and  wh<it  tlw 
severity  of  the  revenue  laws  in  ready  tu  fall  u|>un  him, 
he  is  freriuently  disposed  to  defend  with  viuLeiu*  hImI 
he  has  Ijeen  accustomed  to  regard  as  bis  just  |iru|)erty  ; 
and  from  being  at  first  rather  imprudent  than  criiiiin/il, 
he  at  last  too  often  becomes  one  of  the  nmst  •U'lunii, 
ineu  violators  of  the  laws  of  society." — Wmllh  uf  Sit- 
tiuns,  p.  406.  To  create  by  means  of  high  liutMs  nx. 
overwhelming  temptation  to  indulge  in  crime,  and  tb^^i 
to  punish  men  for  Indulging  in  it,  is  a  |iro<'««ilin|{  "«n. 
pletely  subversive  of  everj'  principle  uf  justinai,  U 
revolts  the  nutnrul  feelings  of  the  people,  and  trnmimit 
them  to  feel  an  Interest,  in  the  worst  cliaruiiU'rs^-ft/r 
Bucb  smugglers  generally  are — to  cspuuse  th«ir  >iU4e« 


«n4  avMiKd  Iheir  wrongs.  A  punishment  which  Ii 
iMit  frfr/portlonml  h>  the  oflTenso,  and  which  docs  not 
i'»ny  Ihi  •ani'tkm  of  public  opinion  along  with  It,  cun 
rutvwf  l«  pfwIlMrllre  of  any  good  eflect.  The  true  way 
Ui  \ml  il/rwn  smuggling  is  to  render  It  unprofitable — to 
<(im)nt«h  th«  temptntlon  to  engage  In  it ;  and  this  is 
ni4  Ui  Iki  ilone  by  surrounding  the  coast:*  with  cordons 
lit  triKUm,  \iy  Iha  multiplication  of  oaths  ami  penalties, 
»»mJ  making  iKe  country  the  theatre  of  ferocious  and 
ii\niii\y  '(mlests  In  the  field,  and  of  perjury  and  chicun- 
nry  \n  ih«  rtmrts  of  law  ;  but  by  repealing  prohibitions, 
«N/I  im\ur\n\t  duties,  so  that  their  collection  may  be 
rnfiitimi  with  n  mwlerate  degree  of  vigilance ;  and 
that  t>w  ffrrfeltitre  of  tlie  article  may  bo  a  sulllcient 
iintmHy  upon  the  smuggler.  It  is  in  this,  and  in  this 
finiy,  (hat  wn  must  seek  fur  an  effectual  check  to  Illicit 
tr»«)(  king.  Whenever  the  proHts  of  the  fair  trader 
imimm  ti«arly  ejpn.l  to  those  of  the  smuggler,  the  lut- 
ter  U  ff/rced  to  aliandon  his  hazardous  profession.  Hut 
to  UmK  »»  |(tohltiltlons  or  oppreH«lvcly  high  duties  are 
(i*<(*  up,  "• ,  which  is,  In  fact,  the  same  thing,  bo  long 
hh  hlyh  ii'itmiiri  are  held  out  to  encourage  the  advcn- 
iHrm,n,  the  needy,  and  the  proHlgute,  to  enter  on  this 
if*ti>*t,  w«  may  Ixi  assured  that  orniles  of  customs  of- 
8'ors,  braked  liy  the  utmost  severity  of  the  revenue 
iMt^m,  will  he  Insrifflctent  to  hinder  them. 

'tUn  (iMlfilty  for  smuggling  in  this  country  Is  fixed 
\iy  lh«  mi  tit  (Jongress,  August  .10,  1H42,  as  follows: 
'\  (ml  If  any  (*rs<in  shall  knowingly  and  willfully,  with 
\Mtmt  Ui  defrand  the  revenue  of  the  I'nited  States, 
MiiUiiffU  m  clandestinely  introduce  into  the  United 
Wj«(«»  anr  gwnls,  wares,  or  merchandise,  subject  to 
*1((ty  by  law,  and  which  should  have  been  invuiiud, 
ytrnviui  |>»ylng  tr  accounting  for  tlio  duty,  or  shall 
«(/»li».  f(((t,  Of  p'iss,  or  attempt  to  pass  through  the  cus- 
<<rt(Mh»Ms«,  any  false,  forged,  or  fraudulent  invoice, 
tmnry  sf«h  person,  his,  her,  or  their  aiders  and  abet- 
'ittn,  'hall  be  deemed  tiiilty  of  a.  misdemeanor,  and,  on 
I  'HVHl/rti,  shall  bo  fi  led  in  any  sum  no:  exceeding 
()*»»  l)f/«isflnd  dollars,  or  imprisonment  for  any  term 
m/t  *«c»t«<llng  two  yoarf,  or  both,  ut  the  discretion  of 
i)(«  rnnn, 

Smyrna,*  large  city  ond  sea-iiort  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
*m  \hn  western  side  of  Asia  Minor,  lat.  83°  26'  3G" 
H,,  \ii»^,  21°  6'  ^y  K.  Pojiulation  probably  about 
J'/»»,WW,(»f  whom  W),000  may  bo  Turks,  40,000  Greeks, 
Htul  thi  fwtnalnder  Armenians,  Franks,  Jews,  etc. 
NnyrtlH  f»  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  gulf,  the 
tuitfnmm  Ui  which  lies  between  the  island  of  Mytileno 
im  th«  ttoflh,  and  Capo  Cnrabourun,  In  lat.  S8°  41' 
»»"  »,,  lot.^.  2fi°  21'  K.,  on  tho  south.  The  passugo 
f*tw««rt  ihitum'g  Castle  on  the  south  ond  the  opposite 
MH/Hwnk  Is  narrow;  but  there  is  from  nine  to  ten 
fMittimn  water,  with  a  blue  clay  bottom.  Merchant 
»hfl«  amhor  abreast  of  the  city  in  from  seven  to  eight 
(MfDUti* ,  (rtit  the  warer  is  so  deep  that  they  may  coma 
viiiim  i<i  the  qnays,  Tho  iiihat,  or  sea-lireo/o,  blows 
(riim  morning  till  evening,  and  is  always  waited  for 
tiy  Khljw  going  op  to  tho  city.  There  is  excellent 
iHU^tumgK  In  most  parts  of  the  gulf,  merely  avoiding 
thfl  stfOdls  on  the  north  side.  Smyrna  is  a  place  of 
Hffiit  «titl((nify.  The  excellence  of  Its  port,  ami  its 
mtniif»l'U'  situation,  have  iiuido  it  be  scvjrnl  times  rc- 
!«/!(»,  uttet  being  de..-tro)ed  by  earthquakes.  On  np 
fifiimMnK  H  from  the  sea,  it  liu.s  the  appearance  of  uu 
mntiUHhfiiln :  tho  cistle  is  at  t!ie  back  of  the  town, 
whi/h  ft  commands,  on  the  top  of  tho  hill ;  but  it  is  in 
»  5««t/<  of  de<8) ,  and  could  opiw.^  no  resistance  to  un 
immUtig  force.  The  interior  of  the  city  does  not  cor- 
rutpmii  Ui  Its  external  appearance ;  the  streets  being 
for  tb*  mint  part  narrow,  dirty,  and  ill  paved.  Owinj; 
t«lb«  want  of  cleanliness,  and  of  oil  sorts  of  precwtiims 
im  llv  part  of  the  Turks,  Smyrna  is  frequently  visilil 
liy  lh«  plague.  In  1814,  from  50,000  to  00,000  of  tlio 
inhalrilants  are  soid  to  have  been  cut  off  by  this  dreacl- 
fti)  «'o((rge.  The  trade  of  this  city  is  more  extensive 
th»(»  that  of  any  other  in  the  Turkish  empire.     Tho 


n.ahr      'icy  arrive  nndaei, 
»re  Matt-    (lenti(    ' 
parture  of  mont 
port.     Bargains 


'""O".     The  principal  ;rti,;^^'";'«''"»i«l<'mble  for- 

grain,  ftir,,  iron,  butter,  etc    ,W) !"''"''  ™""'"  "' 
roff ;  and  „f  cotton  .tuV,  „nTilu''-^  "'"'  '^"f""" 


^^  1731 

from  Pemla  nn,  pi,!.-,..  ,^„       ^  SMY 

>-  "rive  ,„d  j,„  7>  ,;,«  0?  Arme.  |  8„,,,„2  o^o  fr.„„      ,., 

v«-.  Excluding  Greek,  the  ™,rt'.*  '"""■^"  ««'"»- 
lo;fr«m  680  to  600  foreign  .hi,*^  m';","''""^-  ^''"e<l 
v«lue  of  the  Import,  oX„Ilh  nnis^'P' "'"''''"« «''<' 

'mportH  are  Kngl|,h  and  CierL^         ■  """"f  "*'<■>"  of 
"nd  colonial  pr^uct"  """"  *""'•»«.  »'""eh  .ilk,, 

-.  "t  cor,'.f„;:rpt"Z"r :::  fti  ""'•  ■" '""  ^"^ 

ftrence  on  ,o,„e  of  the  wel2,     t'L    "j"?  """"  '"'- 
in  Smyrna  i»  the  oke,  which  /»  -ft!    , Pi?"'''''"'  ""kI" 

ho  oke  uaed  in  retiil  |,  of  Z  /"''"^"^"'"'^'g''". 

i1a  „f  a<,n     ^.       ""  '»  or  400  drnms,  „nd  In  whole 


Rood,  coffee,  sugar,  cochin™  ",•,  ""'' ^""''n 
tm  and  tin  plate,,  rum,  brn';"',''^  "?"«<'«.  ''«", 
J>;lno,  etc.,  from  Great  IW.ta,  l  ''T' B'"""- 
United  State,,  etc.  The  extort.  '  '  ""'r,  the 
of  madder,  whi.  h  1,  the  mCt  v«  '''."1"'''  Principally 
fndt,,  valonia,  opium,  siirtoolh'"  "'"f "-  '"''='' 
•tone,  sponp,,  drug,,  vellow  S,'"\T'*"':'^'  ""''i- 
<«rpet,,  gall,,  wax,  A  ^Z^  "'"' ""^"  "'■■  Turkey 
etc.  -  For  further  Vc.ail,    ••         ."'<!'"•«««''■         ' 

lOIJllNEroUT, 


Wool, 


Trarel)  lu  Turle;/,  vol.  1.  '  '•  •  Mai^^uill's 

Ql'A.MITU,  A.-.D   VaiPF,  OP  TI,R  AllT.r ,  « 


"lie  of  880.     Th 


»■«'' of  100  dram, t\:''" ''*'"«  "'Ok 
twesn  ii,»  ...._      '       oruer  to  draw  n  rll«n_. 


nown  a. 


ween  the  two,  V.  wiij  call  th.^*."  "'•""^ticn  be. 
<  mm,,  "real  height  "ami  ,h  i'"'  "'"  "'"'  «f  ^ 
fW"".  "  nominal  Cight"  The^""'""?  "'''  <"  ^M 
At"«!!?.'r."it J»  .«"«'  Of  lOo't.m?-.."^.!,"""-.'!' 


.qtla. 
.kilo. 
.qtl«. 


Almond, 
Itoriey  . , 
Hoeswax 

lionvn 

llox.« onii ,,,[ ," 

iirokon  Bin,,.  ;;;■;; ;••■•••  „ 

I  lliiUock  aud  lamb  ikla,     /•»'<!» 
<'«rpot3  ,,  tS'l"' 

Cotton ."  I  ■  I ; '™,'," 

','     »Pim  ..!!..] u 

Dried  fr„it»  (dates,  c'tc.V.Wntu 

l)r„g,..       •^""" kno! 

u  eases 

Kmerys't'onVa' '.'.'.'. ".'.'• 

■.HOTiee  of  rosea. 
llllhpoata'  wool 

'■IllMH..  .. 

llaroeklus.' r*?" 

oalea 

"orn, (qila. 

LcechM.,  *P"'" 

1-i'iuorico...  ;.■;;; ™™ 

liquors '...',,, II 

.     "       rum..,,       ,,,,, 

Madder  root        ,',"• 

•Maijo  and  millet' .',■.■ ^,. 


•case, 
.  bales 


1,247 

la.cw 
7;i:i 

03, 'S4 
21'i 
n:;i 
c  ■•'is/ 

lit'T 

n,7H 

817 

"n,(i,j. 

",4?5/ 
Oil 

02,7.10 
4i,070 

na 
1,'. 


ru«ii,.. 
875,  SSO 
]2'i,!)4Q 
S24,GaO 
208, 7.V) 

l,B»rt,(!(IO 
18,450 

8,417,000 

l,!'on,Bno 

»,»2fl,460 
838,030 

H!i(ll,800 

,  1S3,7BD 
».K8,000 
'A470,1SO 
1,''SI>,000 

l,fl88,PO0 

1,200,000 

84,610 

l!,(i03,,'iOfl 


oKo,'a;f  """"' 


dram,,  "real  wclghti" 
'nominal  weight,"  are  "  i 


•">",  ^a<>kes==100rotol  -1  fcinVT   T'S"'.     "6  =  1 
At  Constantinoole  4nn~^         '"'  "''  ''«•"'"• 

1  oke,  44  oke.:rX';rif:Tki;ar  r'"*-'-^ 
Jhus,  100  kintal,  ,f  ,      ■        '"'  "■■  i<"ntar. 
^m  render  b»,L    »  ,'f  'r;-V''«"Kht  at  Oon,ta„iln„.,,. 


render  here  ]ovI"ki;;t,T'fr  "■'  f-''""'«ntinopIe 
eurato  steelvard.,  In  bith  n  „     '  '['""B^<"i  h'  two  ac- 

"""y  very  in,;;?,,'^,     tZ"'tL"' Z'^'^' '"^  f^^"- 
from  1  to  U  peJ  cent      r  """',""'  difference  varies 

'ai;,of  Coni'ntL  ptrcntr":  ^;v''''"r'' '««  ki"- 

™»h,  and  payment  is  made  on  Z  f  ".""S''^  '"'^  '«' 
lowmgtheday  of  sale  Tj  !•  *  "''*'  Saturday  fol. 
«l>»t  one  half  of  themono  "'"T'"""=^"".l«'wever 
rhalf  th/.;,'r:."™7."  P-id  the  (irst.  and  ,ti 


other  half  the  succ^di'n^'^^turr  ?'/r"''  "'"'  '*■« 
pose  a  special  agrenmenf  i.  ^.'  '""  ^"^  'h'»  Pur- 

-.cluding  tho';:X  "  K™^"'--''0'  beUe 
«-l<lom  extended  to  a  tl.  r,l  So!  "T"  "^  Payment  1, 
duty  is  always  p„  ",  by  ,e  «e  , "  "^'i  ,  ^he  Internal 
the  prices  of  commotiltL  tJ!"'  ""'  i\i"elu<led  in 
tax  to  I 


ecxporterhas  no  other 


HftBtic. . . ,, 
^'||t.galls,! 
Nuts  , 


bbl». 
tiuekH 

fHcQginous'iiMds  .■,■■.:; Hi','!- 

Olive  oil  """• 

Ophim'  ,, I""- 

'■-'ppy«cod, :;:::;::; :;;;;™;;;» 

I'rovlsluus,.  'I',",''- 

Rnps ,  '.I"'- 

ii«<n.«aporaria::::;:;;:;;i;:^j^ 

.««lep (     a 

."rammony      '*''''"■ 

Wlk  and  eoeoon, ZT' 

*.ap,to.taerl™     :;,,;, -t"" 

Striies,,,,    .'* 

Stnrax,,       1»"'™ 

Torre  d'Am'b'rii';;: :  ■':;.•  :.q,''/,'- 

Tobaeco (cases 

Valonia  *''''.'*• 

qtl.s. 

\'arioua  articles .  J  ease.s 

Wlieat.,  ' ''!!''• 

wb.testuni-:;;:;::;:;:---^;''- 

wines .1,', 

U-ool....   ''!" 

Total,  ^' 


i7',!m  '       "^  on  bo.nr<l 
69,21)0  i    »"'I  shippi 
3O,2S8,()fl0  ,    other  ch, 

27,000 
4l(!,4fi0 
2S9,4,')0 
248,010 
ill,4.')0 
13,380,000 
241,380 


294,000 

184,000 
177,000 

299,000 

008,000 

■=  is.'i.ino 

10,083,000 
180,300 
2.">,S8|| 
4S,.'iOO 


tax  to  p„,.  f,,„„  -    ,1,  rT   ''"'"''  "» 

seed,  hemp  see.l,  and  terra  mnV "     ""'^-"■ood,  caiary 
f,„ '    .      '         terra  umbra,  are  generally  sold 


is  almosi 
I  goods  to  the  States       Th»  "(•""•"r  '""''"  *'"tes  for 

gums,  nut-gall,,  vellow  ZtrllT'^   ,  ^"\  "B*'  "i-"!"', 
I  payable  in  pounds  Jterll^ r^Ht""''  "'"'"'''  ''  ""«le 

from  3  to  5  per  ten       Thf^f '    '. !."'  e^'-^rally  varies 


nople  wool,  which  are  tl,„  i .",""""'"'  «"<! 
the  Inited'sta;:'     T    ','  "."l^?!  "'"j' 


onstanti- 

exported  to 

ria, 

.      mg  countn-, 

13,086  bales,  washed 


202,0)2 

i,22.'>) ; 

96/ 


-  /f  mm  ^2'  fo  f  ;lr  Votir  """' 

, .  «nd  unwashed  wool  hive  l,!?"        '    *  ^"''''''  "asi^-  - 
364,700    j  itates  during  the  lio  1  mf  '•  '""^^"^  '"  ""'  ^"^^ed 
17,041,130      -.^presentingln  aruTt'of^Sm^'  '"i'T  ^T"'' 
WC,S„„      modities  toolf  place  durinrthemonth^    ►- •■''''''" 
,800      P"™  i^  'fft  blank  in  tldf    tatcment      L     l^''  '^" 
comniod  t  cs  where  the  „r!„„  .'"'"""nt.     On  all  such 
of  "retail  nrie„  "MTP™"  ''  '^"  open  in  the  column 


'exports  from  .Smyrna,     f — 

1801  at  1'8,47£.,000  francs,  and  that  .;  the  e  '     cs  .; 


270, 
4fS,S00 
42:1,700 
10,su,040 
J|>i4;6()0j 

'MW^Moi 
'  t  *o  ',0  Ku- 
'  wpt. 


ipean  houses  Of  ^;rc^^rZt^-t,.W 

•       1, 

common  sponges,  called  "creCches"" 

nt,  varied  froL. 

lino  sponges  from 


""C^f '"  T™.'  "'■ '"  ^''"  '"«'»  i"  ""«  market 

&„;"/'"'  P"'"  »^"'"  "rticlo  varies 
'.^  ;  that  of  common  „v>„„o.  „.i.. ,  ... 


abl 


'  after  thev  had  been  nrenarpH  f   '  i,  «hemuches," 

*1S  to  $27periooibs   2^r.''''i''l'''"''^»'*^'l''om 

n05  to  $eC0  per  IW  lbs     Th'  f  "^  "'"'  ^^''"Ses  fro™ 
*  vv  pir  iw  lbs.    The  former  are  shipped 


8NU 


178*; 


800 


balM,  and  nra  ihn  kind  moat  (xporUd  to  the  United  ' 
St«t«a,  and  the  liitlvr  tn  cniwia.  They  aro  genitriilly 
bout;l>t  In  tlio  lump  from  un  board  tho  lintit»  wliicli 
bring  them  from  the  nelgliluring  IsUndi  l>y  thu  ex- 
purtem,  who  wunh  thuni,  throw  nlfthe  auiul,  unci  other- 
wine  prepurn  them  fur  ililpment ;  coniiec|U<'ntly  their 
price  per  wult(ht  ilependa  on  the  <|uuntity  o!  uitid, 
itona*,  etc.,  they  luuy  contain,  and  van  only  l<e  nacor- 
tainoil  ikfter  this  operation  has  Ixien  ^ma  tlimiinh. 
The  purchase  of  this  article  rcc|uiras  cousideralile  M\\, 
and  oftantlmes  thu  most  experienced  ilculers  are  much 
deceived,  so  much  so  that  a  difTerenco  in  price  of  20  to 
35  per  cent.,  more  or  less.  Is  re^anled  as  u  mattor  of  no 
groat  moment.  Uesidcs  the  cunnno<lities  noted  in  this 
statement,  3(177  bales  of  rugs  and  70  ton.4  of  emery 
atones  have  also  been  e.xported  to  tho  United  States; 
but  both  of  these  articles  iiro  a  monopoly,  and  aru  only 
exported  by  two  houses  of  Smyrna.  Tho  trade  be- 
tween Smyrna  and  tho  United  States  is  generally  car- 
ried on  with  lloaton  and  New  York,  but  princi|)ally 
with  tho  former  place. —  I'niUd  Stntca  C'oiuut  at  Siiiyi'- 
na,  Noveml>cr  I,  IMA't.  For  further  information,  aee 
Com.  Krlat,  United  Slates ;  Lwing  Age,  x.  301,  xxvlil. 
1U7;  Hunt's  Merchantt'  Magazine,  xxv.  452  (K.  W. 
Hulland), 

Snuff  Clicrm.  .SVAn«y)/l(4nrA-;  Kr.  Tnhac  en pouilie ; 
It.  Tabacco  da  naso  ;  Sp.  Tabaco  de  polvo ;  Uu»s,  vViwo- 
WDi  tiibak),  a  powder  in  very  Kcncral  use  as  nn  crrhiiio. 
Tobacco  is  tho  usual  basis  of  snulf;  but  small  quanti- 
ties of  other  articles  arc  frequently  added  to  it,  to  vary 
its  pungency,  flavor,  scent,  etc.  Though  subatantialiy 
the  same,  the  kinds  and  names  of  snuif  arc  inlinito,  and 
are  perpetually  changing  There  arc,  however,  three 
principal  sorts  tho  llrst,  granidatcd ;  tho  second,  nn 
impalpable  powder;  and  tho  third,  tho  bran  or  coarse 
part  remaining  after  sifting  the  second  sort.  Unless 
taken  in  excess,  no  bad  consequences  result  from  Us 
use. — See  ToHACCO. 

SnuSbozes  are  made  of  every  variety  o(  pattern, 
and  of  an  endless  variety  of  mnterial8.  Wo  only  men- 
tion them  hero  for  tho  purpose  of  giving  tho  following 
details,  not  claewhero  to  lie  met  with,  with  re.spcct  to 
tho  manufacture  of  Laurencekirk  or  Ayrshire  boxes. 
These  are  made  of  wood,  admirably  jointed,  painted, 
and  varnished.  These  beautiful  boxes  w  ere  lirsl  maim- 
factured  at  tho  village  of  I^urencekirk,  in  Kincardine 
shire,  abeut  CO  years  since,  Tho  origiiutl  inventor  was 
a  cripple  hardly  possessed  of  tlic  power  of  locomotion 
Instead  of  curtains,  his  bed  (rallicra  curious  work-shop) 


i:..  :  v..  It  ncourt  In  Tllny  and  (ialen;  and  tli*  formar 
declares  it  to  lie  an  Invention  of  the  (Sauls,  though  bn 
profiirB  the  (lorman  to  thu  Oallic  soup.  In  rnnnilu  pe- 
riods I'lolhoa  were  cleansed  by  living  rublMiil  or  stamped 
upon  In  water.  Nausicaa  and  liur  attendants,  ilomer 
tells  us,  washed  theirs  by  treading  u|K)n  thuni  with  thuir 
foot  in  pits  of  water. — Odytteij,  bool*  vl,  Thn  manu- 
facture of  soap  began  in  Linidon  in  Ul3'l,  lieroro  whieli 
time  It  was  supplied  by  UristuI  at  one  penny  per  pound. 
— IIaydn.  The  soap  met  with  In  cunnnvrce  is  gunur- 
ally  divided  Into  two  sorts,  hnrd  and  iqfli  (ho  former 
is  made  of  soda  and  tullow  or  oil,  and  thu  latter  of  pot- 
ash and  similar  oily  nmltcrs.  Soap  made  of  tallow 
and  soda  has  a  whitish  color,  and  is,  tl'  "iforo,  siunu- 
times  dunoi.iinatcd  white  soap ;  but  It  Is  usi.ul  for  soap- 
makers,  ill  order  to  lower  the  prico  of  the  iirtieln,  lo 
mix  a  considerable  portion  of  ronin  wl>li  the  tallow; 
this  mixture  forms  tho  common  y(  llnio  loap  of  this  coun- 
try. Soap  mado  of  tallow,  etc.,  and  potash  does  not 
assume  a  solid  form ;  its  consistuiieu  is  never  greater 
than  that  of  hog's  luril.  The  properties  of  soft  soup  us 
a  detergent  do  not  diO'er  materially  from  tliosu  of  linnl 
soap,  but  it  Is  not  nearly  an  cnnvcuient  tn  uie,  Tho 
alkali  employed  by  the  ancient  Oauls  ami  (lurmniis  in 
tho  formation  of  soap  was  potash;  licncu  wu  si'ii  whjr 
it  was  dcscrilwd  by  tho  llonmns  as  an  unguent,  Thn 
oil  employed  for  making  soft  soaji  in  this  ccMinlry  Is 
whale  oil.  A  llttlu  tallow  is  also  added,  which,  liy  a 
peculiar  management,  is  dispersed  through  thu  soap  In 
lino  wliiti:  spots.  The  soap  iniido  in  counlriei  which 
produce  olive  oil,  as  tho  south  of  Krancn,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  is  preferable  to  the  soap  of  this  country,  which 
is  usually  niaimfncturod  from  grease,  tulluw,  etc, — 
Tiiomson'm  Chemiitry. 

Tho  use  of  soap  us  a  detergent  U  well  known;  It 
may,  in  fact,  bo  considered  as  u  necessary  of  life,  Itl 
consumption  in  most  civill/.od  countries  is  immenso, 
Pliny  informs  us  that  soap  was  llrst  Invented  by  lh« 
GniiU ;  that  it  was  composed  of  tullow  and  usiius ;  and 
lluit  the  German  soap  was  reckoned  thu  Itust. — Mli. 
xviii. 

Society  Islands.  These  Islands,  lying  in  lh« 
I'ttcillc  Ocean,  between  lat.  l(i'  and  In  .S,,  and  long, 
118^  and  150'  W.,  arc  under  tho  proteil  )rnlo  of  the 
French  government.  Tlio  principal  islands  of  the  ginup 
arc  Tahiti,  Kimeo,  Ilualieiue,  liulaten,  llona-hoim,  Tu- 
haa,  and  Sleura.  I'apieto,  (be  capital  of  Tahiti,  is  much 
resorted  to  by  American  and  other  wbali'rs.  I  I>u  ox- 
ports  consist  of  oranges,  pearl-shell,  arrow-root,  cocoo- 


wos  surrounded  with  benches  and  rcccptnclca  for  loolii,    nut  oil,  and  other  native  proilucts  of  minor  cuuiuierclal 


In  the  contrivance  and  use  of  which  he  discovered  tlic 
utmost  tngcnuity.  Instead  of  taking  out  a  patent,  tho 
inventor  confided  his  secret  to  a  joiner  in  the  same  vil- 
lage, who  in  a  few  years  amassed  considerable  proper- 
ty ;  while  tho  other  died,  as  ho  had  lived,  in  tlic  great- 
est poverty.  The  great  dilliculty  of  <he  manufacture 
lies  ip  the  formation  of  the  hinge,  wliich,  in  a  genuine 
box,  Is  so  dclirately  made  as  hardly  to  bo  visible.  Pe- 
culiar, or,  OS  :'iey  are  called,  secret  tools,  are  required 
in  its  formation ;  and  though  greatly  improved  by  time 
and  experience,  tho  mystery  attaclicd  to  their  prepa- 
ration is  still  so  studiously  kept  up  that  tho  workmen 
employed  in  one  shop  aro  debarred  having  any  com- 
munication with  those  employed  in  another. 

Snuff-taklng.  This  practice  luuk  its  rise  in  En- 
gland from  tho  captures  made  of  vast  quantities  of 
snuff  by  Sir  George  Kookc's  expedition  to  Vigo  in  170J. 
'The  prize  of  the  forces  having  been  sent  homo  and 
sold,  the  vice  soon  obtained  from  which  thu  rovcn  ic 
now  draws,  with  tobacco,  considerably  nioro  than 
i;4,000,000  per  annum.  In  the  year  ending  January 
5,  1851,  there  wero  imported  35,000,000  lbs.  of  tobacco 
and  snuff,  of  which  30,400,000  lbs.  wero  entered  for 
)i.ome  consumption. — See  Tohaico. 

Soap  (Gcr.  Seife;  Fr.  Savun;  It.  Sapone;  Sp.  Ja- 
boni  Kuss.  if  ah;  Lat.  Sapo).  This  irticle  was  imper- 
fect]/ known  to  the  ancients.    The      st  expreas  men- 


importance.  The  intercourse  between  tho  I'nlleil  Slates 
and  these  islands  has  increaseil  with  our  rapidly-in- 
creasing relations  with  Valparaiso,  C':illuo,  I'anuma, 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  Australia,  and  China.  In  1153 
tlicre  entered  tho  port  of  Tahiti  3ii  vessels  under  tho 
United  States  flag,  measuring  in  all  MtiH  tojii.  L'ndcr 
all  other  flags  there  entered  Ml  vessels,  with  an  aggre- 
gate of  13,817  tons.  There  arc  no  import  ilutlcs  charged 
at  tho  Society  Islands,  except  upon  spirituous  lic|uurs 
and  wines,  and  on  lire-arms  anil  munitions  of  war.  On 
the  last-named  articles  these  duties  amount  to  n  pro- 
hibition. These  islands  aro  under  a  dilTercnt  system 
of  commercial  legislation  from  that  which  obtains  in 
the  other  French  colonial  settlements.  No  <lisllnclloiis 
are  recognized  as  to  any  foreign  counti  ies,  or  as  to  any 
foreign  or  domestic  ports,  with  respect  lo  entering  or 
clearing  foreign  vessels,  with  cargoes  or  in  boUast,  As 
regards  alcoholic  and  other  beverages,  American  ves- 
scls  aro  placed  on  tho  samo  fooling  as  J''rench  vossels 
as  to  duty,  while  those  of  other  imlioni  pay  doulJu  im- 
port duties.  This  distinction  is  regulated  by  arrSin 
No.  C5,  of  May  8, 1853.  The  ports  open  to  foreign  ves- 
sols  aro  Papteto  and  Taunoa,  at  Tahiti ;  and  Papeloai, 
at  Meura.  No  foreign  vessel  is  permitted  without  a 
special  permission,  or  in  urgent  necessity,  to  anchor  In 
any  other  ports  of  the  islands  subject  to  tho  French 
protectorate,   Otfoudors  fire  liable  to  a  flue  of  from  lUf) 


SOD 


1783 


80U 


to  m  fr«nr..     The  rctlng  ttnilo  of  (hn  (.Undo  b«. ;  nex,  nn  a  .uppUinKiit  I..  tliU  ,,ii«llon,  Ihfl  Irnly  l.r. 
ImiKlMK  to  Hnnco  l«  rccrved  ..xrln»iv..lv  to  vcurl,    twwn  lh.>  I'liltcl  8inl..i«nil  n..iiin«rk,yt»rldfi7      Wo 

riirrvliiK  tlio  hrciidi  Drprutrctoriilu  llun.    The  pt'imlty      '        '  

for  vlciliillnn  thin  resttl.ll.m  i«,  for  tli^-  lirit  oirmiiie,  a 
fine  (if  from  UttX)  to  '.'IKH)  frniiis,  ami,  i 


ii«o  of  repotU 
tlon,  ilnulile  thnt  mm        Kv(>r_v  cnfi  Must,  within 

Iwonty-four  hours  nfli  r  hl.i  nrrlviil  to  the  <l|. 

rector  of  cn«tnm«  hU  nmnifest,  v  t  state- 

ment of  thn  nniiniinltion  anil  arm-,  ui  and 

nUu  uf  the  lii|uori«,  whkh,  bclnx  sulijo  ni        du. 

tloa, inn  not  Im3  landed  Hllliuulthi<  nu'  jhoI  the 

dlri!Cliir  of  cnsloms.     Thoi"«  wl'i  <  rt-mdn- 

lluii  are  linlilo  to  a  llnu  of  fr<ri'i  Mi      nv 
InK  n  faliio  declaration  re»pe(  unn     ^)hi 
thono  th»  !inlo  of  wtiioh  In  restrlciii,  U 
flnu  of  from  UIOO  to  fiOOO  francs. 
Wh 


iiUo  kIvp  a  lahlii  •hoMln^  the  pro  ruin  divlilun  of  ihu 

Imli'mnlly  which  mich  nallon  aureon  lo  pa)-  Duninark. 

On  ilio  tth  Janiniry,  IHr.d,  »  niitctInK  of  thn  Mlnl» 

torn  of  Aintrln,  D.lnluni,  Krance,   liollaml,  I'r»«.la, 

Spain,  and  Swudi n,  uiiil  u  CoinniliKloncr  from  ItiiMia, 

met  at  f'opcidwiucn  lo  conildcr  the  dUpuled  iiuuallon 

On  the  ITih  of  I'ciiruary  another  imellnK  "f  •"«  C'otr, 

ndialon  took  pluic,  when  lln'  miniii  alali'ii  worn  ri'pra- 

ncntfd,  « llh  iIk'  nddliiiin  i.l  „  .ItlcKato  from  (lldcnIiurK. 

At  thin  mi'i'lloK  11  nii'moraniliiiii  wan  prcMntcd,  In  which 

Uk-    Ocnniark  ullind  to  accept  a«  a  compinniillon  for  the 

or   aliolltlon  of  till'  •iiund  duci,  a  >inn  of  ll..,iiOO,(i(KJ  rlx 

lollarn  (alMiiii  4;iI,8mh,hmh),  whhh  li  al.onl'  (Iflecn  i 


y  a    iioiiarH  (ai.oiii  4,;i,nmh,hmh),  whh  h  li  ahont  (Iflecn  and 

,    ,  ,        ,       .  „ ,  ,        .     r  ''*"  >'''^"''  I"'"'""'-'  "f  '^.ilH.f'Tlt  rlx  d(dlar«,  thu  av. 

en  voMoU  hiivu  on  hoard  prohibited  goodi,  ipir-  j  cra«o  not  rcvonuu  from  thu  dnc.  diirln«  the.  ninu  y«ir» 
ItD,  arnn,  or  nniniunitlon,  Intended  only  for  their  own  '  of  peace-— iHli  to  1H47,  and  1X51  to  |H,',;i  Kjk  h  male 
conaiunpllon  or  the  defense  of  tho  aldp,  captains  must  interested  In  tliu  comnmrco  of  the  llallle  lohe  reniionn- 
present  to  thn  director  of  customs  a  clet,illed  declaration  ildo  for  the  sum  only  which  I*  mAhwA  i»  it,  hut  thu 
of  snch  klnils  of  stores  within  tweiio-rour  hours  after  oiler  lo  he  iiindioK  on  Hvnninrk,  on  lla  iic . .pinnce  |,y 
Iheir  orrlval.  Tho  salo  of  niunltiooH  of  war,  powder,  ;  all  the  slnliH  whovu  repre»enlatlve»  have  '  ikeii  iiart  In 
Mltpetro,  pr.Joctiles,  muskets,  arms  of  any  kind,  U  the  ne(;otlallon.  'Ihis  propo.al  has  l.euo  iiecepled  is 
prohlhltod,  except  nnder  special  perndssion  from  the    will  |,o  seen  hy  thu  following  tnatv  !.•  Iwtuii  the  l.'nIU 


commissioner  of  tho  empire ;  nnd  should  any  ^"oiU  of 
this  kind  lie  nttninptcd  to  lie  frandidenlly  Ininhd,  they 
will  he  conlisi'nted,  in  addition  to  tho  lino  Imposed  hy 
tlie  polieo  regulations.  All  spirits  or  liquors  which 
may  he  attempted  to  ho  frandulently  landed  arc  Hullo 
lo  I'onllscation,  as  well  as  tho  boat  eonvcyiui;  them  ; 
and  tho  enplain,  who  is  held  rcsponsilile  for  all  goods 
which  nmy  lio  on  board,  nnder  whiilevcr  conditions,  is 
lialile  lo  aline  of  from  Mm  lo  lO.noo  francs.  Ail  goods 
admitted  lo  entry  in  tho  French  eslaldlshmentsof  Occ- 
Aiilii  may  lie  sold  on  l)oard,  provided  they  bo  not  sold 
by  rcdall.  To  elTcet  sales  of  this  kind,  however,  a  li- 
cense of  the  (Irst  class  must  bo  previously  obtained, 
payuldo  in  advance,  nnd  for  a  period  of  three  months. 
Sales  uf  cargoes  may  nl>o  be  eflected  on  shore,  by  open- 
ing n  store  for  that  purpose,  for  wliich  A  similar  license 
utust  be  obtained,  and  for  the  same  period.  Wines  nnd 
llipiors,  however,  must  bo  sold  exclusively  on  shore, 
either  through  tho  medium  of  n  consignee,  or  by  the 
cajitnin  or  his  agent,  having  first  procured  the  neces- 
sary license,  Cuptainsof  vessels,  whenever  the  length 
of  their  slay  permits,  must  give  notice  of  their  depart- 
ure at  the  post-ofllco  forty-eight  hours  Ijeforelmnd ;  and 
when  It  Is  desired  that  .-i  vessel  should  remain  in  port 
lens  than  forty-eight  hours,  notice  to  that  clfcct  nmst 
be  given  on  the  day  of  arrival.  If  any  of  the  fines 
specified  in  the  foregoing  regulations  should  not  bo  paid 
wllhln  five  days,  at  tho  fartliest,  from  the  date  of  con- 
donniatlon,  or  satisfactory  security  not  be  tendered,  a 
part  or  tho  whole  of  tho  cargo  will  be  pold,  or  tho  ves- 
sel itself  bo  retained,  to  liiiuidalo  the  debt. — Coin.  Jli- 
ht.  r.  ,V, 
Soda,    Ata  Ai.KAi.i. 

Solder,  Sodder,  or  Soder,  n  metallic  or  mineral 
composition  used  in  soldering  or  joining  together  other 
metals.  Solders  arc  made  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin, 
liiamnth,  and  lead.  In  the  composition  there  must  be 
some  of  the  metal  that  is  to  be  soldered  mixed  with 
some  higher  and  finer  metals.  (Joldsmilhs  usually 
make  four  kinds  of  solder,  viz. :  solder  of  eight,  where 
to  seven  parts  of  silver  there  is  one  of  briss  or  copper ; 
solder  of  six,  where  only  a  sixth  part  Is  copper;  solder 
of  four,  and  solder  of  tlirce.  It  is  the  mixture  of  cop- 
per In  tho  solder  that  makes  raised  plate  come  always 
cheaper  than  tint. 

SotUld  Dues.  Under  the  head  of  DESSiAr.K  the 
reader  will  lind  u  full  history  of  this  intorrsling  com- 
mercial question,  and  also  statistics  illustrating  the 
proportional  Interest  which  every  nation  had  in  the 
abolishment  of  tho  sound  dues.  Since  the  article  Di:s. 
MA11K  was  In  type  tho  final  treaties  (including  that  of 
tho  United  States  here  given)  necessary  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  this  (juostion  bavo  been  signed.    We  here  an- 


ed  Hlotes  ami  Denmark  (see  next  pagej. 

In  the  aimexed  taide,  showing  Ihe/mi  nild  amounts 

to  be  piild  by  each  nation  for  lIu'  alxdlnh nt  of  ihu 

sound  dues,  it  will  bu  seen  that  (irent  lliituin,  llusilu, 
and  I'russia  pay  over  (JH  per  cent,  uf  liiu  total ;  mil  that 
tho  first  and  second  pay  M  per  cent,  of  the  loiiii  Tlio 
share  apportioned  lo  Ihu  I'nlted  Slates  is  onl)  'i  per 
cent.,  while  the  trade  of  this  country  would  appear  to 
be  ali'jut  (1  per  >int.  of  the  whole, 

TAiii.r,  siinwiM;  Tur.  rno  hat*  IHvtsiniinirTnil  IxnKMRITT 

TO  IIKNMAItK  FOH  TUK  AlloMllUHIkT  Uf  TUK  KOURII  llUI* 
TO  UK  I'AIU  IIV  KACII  .VaTIUN. 


i''»intriut, 

Dunmarlc 

Snellen 

Itussiii 

I'nissta 

Mecklenburg 

Lftbeck 

The  Ilidtlc  in  geiierul. 

Nornsy 

llamliurg 

Ilriiiieu 

(Hdentiiirg 

Ilnnover 

(ii-eat  ilrltalM 

Netlicrlands 

Delgiuui 

France 

Spain 

Portlignt 

SHrdinta 

Timeany 

Two  Sicilies 

Aimtrfa 

(ia'uce 

Turkey 

fulteil  States 

Mexico 

St,  Domingo  , 

Venezuela 

New  (iranaitu 

Uruguay 

Ul'lata 

Brazil 

Peru 

nuenou  Ayres 

Chill 

China 

Other  cnuntriea 

ToUl 


Jill  llolinn, 

l,lM,lilH 

1,rs»i.im;i 

li.7i.(i.mi!i 

4,4411,077 

UIII.IUM 

lii'Alit  U 

Vlll.lilltl 

m.iir, 
loT.niJ 
'JfK,!.-;! 
VH  vn 

I'.'II.M'.T 

in.ivil.NWi 

1,4ISI.INIU 

:iiil.4.'>'i 

],!illl,eo;i 

i.o'.'ii.iiin 

VH.li'.H 

VA.IIil 

i('.M),«lll 

»ll,4ii4 

1,4111 

'.Ki.Vid 

TIT.HW 

«,MT 

in.ittti 

«,xlll 
It.SilV 

I, HOT 

n,M:i 

6oij,'jtir. 

4:111 

ID 

IIM 

B,W 


:in.iHHi.iiiio 


l»#r  rtol. 

~'ii»r" 

4  no 

I'iOn 
liiT 

out 

0(1(1 

ini 
njil 
O'W 
(l'(N 

ii-;ir. 

•inMII 
4  in 
(IM 

:i'4H 

'/■HI 

on 
on; 
nnn 

0(16 

ii'im 

U'dO 

O'lb 
It  (13 
(1-02 
0(14 
(Kr/ 
O'dl 
0(S) 

001 
l'4t/ 
U'(XI 
0(10 

0-no 
001 
i-tu 

1(10  (Kl 


As  to  the  basis  of  the  cnnlribullon,  it  would  have 
been  just  to  luivc  taken  the  quantity  of  goods  carried, 
or  duties  pnid,  by  the  ships  of  each  nation  through  the 
Sound  and  the  Belt  as  determining  tho  proportions  re- 
spectively  to  be  paid  to  the  capltallKatlon  of  the  duel. 
Hut  this  proportion  has  not  In  every  easn  been  car- 
ried out,  as  may  be  seen  by  comporln({  the  foregoing 
table  with  the  following,  which  exhibits  the  dutlci  p»l(l 
by  every  nation. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


% 


{<    4^ 


1.0 


1.1 


mtlA    125 
:^   U£    12.0 


IU& 


1^1'-^  U4 

< 

6"     

^ 

HiotDgraphic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREBT 

WIBSTER.N.Y.  14SB0 

(716)S72-4S03 


'^ 


,<f\^ 


^ 


1^ 
1\ 


.  'i'  >Afe 


sqv 


1784 


SOU 


-— TrassaHpr 
f^T"' • 

oTvuivn .  •  •  • 

DtaftMriii 

OiMtBrittOn..... 

Fnnoa... 

OrNoe 

Htiaboiv 

Hanornrv... 

TlutlaUiMrUiiiU.. 
Italy  (K^l«i)  . . . . 

Lfibeck 

MKklmlMiig 

Marwsr 

OldaoDurg  

Port«««l 

Pni«ri* ,.... 


Spain..... 

SwedeQ 

Analrl*.. 

ll«ll.nilTUHIO. 

BuenoaA^rei >. 

Peru 

ToaDMi)' 

Total 


■»ii»dfi<n»cfiir 


Intend  Into  Biltir 


IMI-' 


fsurtsfL 

8IS0 

n 

MO 
11,U9 
MJ« 

1,680 

6 

MB 

6,B88 

M,BS8 

Mt 

1,1M 

8,9110 

1«,8M 

1,439 

46 

St,988 

8,4«T 

^4 

19,051 

6 


tn 

vktb 


mm 


onm 

O'OSO 
0182 
T'T90 

94'S9« 
1-TIO 
0-9M 
0-4Bt 
8'T36 

lO'OaS 
O'SM 

o-rrs 

B-789 
18628 
10»T 
0'0S9 
15-848 
6-926 
0-OlT 
8-486 
0004 


0<M4 
0-004 


IWFflOir 


Bfln. 
IHl-lt 


r«rC*nt 
wk«l« 


970 

60 

!80 

19,888 

86,766 

9,624 

6 

461 

4,926 

14,469 

396 

1,090 

7,984 

17,966 

1,5T1 

66 

91,486 

7,688 

98 

12,137 

6 

6 

6 
7 


141,181 


0-6S9 
0-047 
0-188 
8-768 

96-880 
1-771 
0004 
0-319 
S«8 

10-944 
0-981 
0-723 
6-169 

19-718 
1118 
0-089 

16198 
6-871 
0«1S 
8697 
0-001 

0<XM 
0-004 
O-OOS 


100  oou 


A  /VacIamaHtin.— Whtnai «  oonvsatton  between  tbe  Unit- 
ed Statea  of  Ameriea  and  hii  HijMtjr  the  King  of  Denmark, 
fi>r  the  dtaoontlniunce  of  the  Sonnd  dnee,  «h  concluded  and 
•Igned  bj  their  raepectlTe  plenipotenttatlei  at  Waahington, 
OB  the  Uth  daf  of  April,  1867,  which  conrention  ia  aa  fol- 
lawi: 

Th«  United  Statea  of  Amarieaand  hta  K^eaty  .he  King 
of  Denmarl^  being  deoiroua  to  terminate  amicably  the  dlf- 
Arencel  wUch  have  arioan  between  them  In  regard  to  the 
tolla  levied  by  Denmark  on  American  Tcaaeia  and  their  cor- 
■ee4  paoaing  through  the  Sound  and  Bella,  and  commonly 
•alM  the  Sound  dnee,  baT*  reeoired  to  conclude  a  conven- 
tion for  that  purpooe,  and  have  named  aa  their  plenipotan- 
tlaiiea,  that  ia  to  aay,  the  Preeident  of  the  United  States, 
Lewta  Caaa,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  and  hie 
U»inly  the  King  of  Denmark,  Torben  Bille,  Eaquire,  Knight 
of  the  Oannebrog,  rjid  decorated  with  the  Croea  of  Honor  of 
tho  aane  ordar,  his  said  imeaty'a  Chargi  d'Aflktrea  near  the 
govanunent  of  tbe  United  Statea,  who,  altar  having  commu- 
nicated to  each  other  their  full  powera  in  due  form,  have 
agned  to  and  elgntd  tbe  following  articles: 

Artieh  I.  His  Mi^)eety  the  King  of  Denmark  deckrea  en- 
tire CreedoD<  of  tbe  navigation  of  the  Sound  and  tbe  Belta  in 
fhvor  of  American  veaaela  and  their  cargoea  from  and  forever 
After  tiie  day  when  this  convention  shall  go  Into  elTect  aa 
herrinaftor  provided.  And  It  U  heieby  agned  that  Ameri- 
can reaaela  and  their  cargoea,  alter  that  day,  aball  not  be 
subject  to  any  charges  whatever  in  passing  the  Sound  or  the 
Bells,  or  to  any  detention  in  tbe  said  waters;  and  both  gov- 
•mmeota  wlU  concur,  if  occaolon  should  require  it,  in  iak- 
log  maaamea  to  prevent  abuse  of  tbe  lice  flag  of  tbe  United 
Stataa  by  the  shipping  of  other  nationa  which  aball  not  have 
■ecorad  tha  aama  fteedom  and  cxamptton  tmm  chaises  en- 
Joyed  by  that  of  tbe  United  States. 

ArtkU  II.  Hie  Oanlah  Mijeaty  further  engages  that  the 
paosagea  of  the  Bound  and  Belta  aball  continue  te  he  lighted 
and  buoyed  aa  heretofore,  without  any  chaige  upon  American 
vesiela  or  their  cargoes  on  passing  the  Sound  and  the  Belta, 
and  that  tlie  preaent  establishments  of  Danish  pllota  in  these 
water*  aball  continue  to  be  maintained  by  Denmark.  Hla 
Daalsh  Hi^ty  agrees  to  make  auch  odditiona  and  improve- 
menta  In  regard  to  tbe  llghta,  buoys,  and  pilot  establishmenta 
in  Iheie  watan  as  cireumstancea  and  tbe  iDcreasIng  tmda  of 
the  Baltic  may  require.  He  further  engages  that  no  chaijge 
ahall  be  made,  in  consequence  of  such  additiona  and  tmprove- 
meota,  on  Amarican  ahipa  and  their  cargoes  paaaing  tluough 
the  Sound  and  lb*  Bcltsi 

It  is  underatood,  however,  to  be  optional  for  the  maaters 
of  American  veaaela  either  to  employ  In  the  aaid  waters  Dan- 
iah  pllota,  at  reaoonable  rates  fixed  by  the  Danlab  govern- 
ment, or  to  navigate  their  veaaela  without  such  asaiitance. 

AftMt  III,  In  consideration  of  the  foregoing  agreeaiente 
and  atlpnlatlon  on  the  part  of  Denmaric,  whereby  the  free 
and  unlacumberad  navigation  of  American  vessels  through 
Ik*  Sonnd  and  tha  Balta  la  foravar  socnnd,  tho  United  Statea 
•■rse  to  pay  to  tha  government  of  Denmark,  once  for  all,  the 
aun  of  «aT*a  hnodrad  and  aaventaaa  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twan^nln*  rix  dollar*,  *r  Ita  equivalent,  Uiive  hundred 
and  Binety-three  thousand  and  eleven  dollar*  in  United  States 


currency,  at  London,  on  tbe  day  when  tha  said  conTaattoa 
shall  go  hito  fbll  allMt,  aa  herein  afterward  provided. 

ilrNel*  ir.  It  i*  ftarther  agreed  that  any  other  or  further 
prlvtlagia,  rights,  or  advantage*  which  may  have  been  or  may 
be  granted  by  Damnaik  to  the  •emmarca  and  navigation  of 
any  other  natloa  at  tha  Sound  and  Belta,  or  on  her  coaeta  and 
in  her  harbor*,  with  raftranea  to  th«  tranait  by  tand  throngh 
Danish  tanitory  of  marchaadlsa  belonging  to  the  eltlMns  or 
subleataof  auch  nation,  shall  also  h«  fully  extended  to,  and 
eqjoyed  by,  the  cltliena  of  the  Untied  States,  and  by  their 
vessel*  and  property  In  that  quarter. 

ArtUUV.  The  general  M«v*ntlon  of  IHendshlpiComnere*, 
and  navlgaUoD,  cMieladed  between  tha  United  State*  and  bin 
U^lesty  the  Xing  of  Oeanark,  on  the  98tb  of  April,  1898, 
and  which  waa  abrogated  on  tha  Uth  of  April,  1866,  and  tha 
ptpvlsiona  contained  In  each  and  all  of  its  arUdca,  tlie  6th 
article  alone  excepted,  aball,  after  the  ratification  of  tbli  prea- 
ent convention,  again  become  binding  upon  the  United  Statea 
and  Denmark ;  it  being,  however,  understood  that  a  year'a 
notice  ehatl  anIBce  fbr  tbe  abragatloD  of  the  sdputationi  of  the 
said  convention  hereby  renewed. 

^rMcb  VI.  The  prseent  convention  shall  take  elipct  aa  aoon 
a*  the  Uw*  to  carry  it  into  operatton  shall  be  paoaed  by  the 
govemmenta  of  the  contracting  partlea,  and  the  oum  stipu- 
lated to  be  paid  by  the  United  States  shall  be  received  by  or 
tendered  to  Denmark :  and  for  tbe  IblflUment  of  these  purposes 
a  period  notexceedlng  twelve  months  from  the  algnlng  of  this 
convention  ahall  be  pilowed. 

But  l(  In  the  Interval,  an  earlier  day  shall  be  fixed  upon 
and  carried  into  aflbct  for  a  tnt  navigation  through  the  Sound 
and  Belta  bi  tivor  of  any  other  power  or  powers,  tbe  same 
shall  almnltaneouoly  be  extended  to  the  veaaela  of  the  United 
Statea  and  their  cargoea,  in  anticipation  of  the  payment  of  the 
Bum  atipulatcd  In  ArtieU  III, ;  it  being  underatood,  however, 
that  in  that  event  the  government  of  the  United  States  shall 
also  pay  to  that  of  Denmark  4  per  cent  Intoreat  on  the 
•aid  oum  firom  tho  day  the  oald  Immunity  diall  have  gone 
lute  operation  nntil  tbe  principal  ahall  have  been  paid  aa 
afoiaaald. 

ArtM»  Til.  The  pnaent  conventlou  ahall  he  duly  ratified, 
and  the  exchange  of  ratifications  ahall  take  place  In  Waah- 
ington within  ten  months  from  the  date  hereoi;  or  sooner  if 
pnctieablc 

In  tilth  whereof  the  respective  plenlpotontlariea  have  sign- 
ed the  piewnt  convention,  in  duplicate,  and  have  tbeitunto 
affixed  their  aeale. 

Done  at  Waahington  thia  lltb  day  of  April,  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thouoand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-seven,  and  of 
the  tudependeiu»  of  the  United  Statea  the  elghty-flnt. 

Lewis  Cabs.        [bial.] 

TOBUXM  BlUa.      tSBAl.] 

And  whereaa  tha  laid  convention  baa  been  duly  ratified  on 
both  parts,  and  the  respective  ratifications  of  the  same  were 
exchanged  In  the  city  of  Waahington  on  the  12th  Inatant  by 
Lewia  Case,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  Statea,  and  W. 
de  Kaaolofl;  hla  Danlah  M<\)eaty'a  Chargu  d'Atbirea  and  Con- 
sul-general In  the  UQlted  States,  on  tho  part  of  their  respect- 
ive govemmenta: 

I^ow,  tfaerefoitef  be  It  known  that  I,  James  Buchanan,  Prea- 
idcnt  of  tha  United  Statea  of  America,  have  caused  tbe  aaid 
convention  to  be  made  pnitiie,  to  the  end  that  tbe  same  and 
every  eUuse  and  aitlcte  thereof  may  be  observed  and  fulfilled 
with  good  faith  by  the  United  States  and  the  citizens  thereof. 

In  wituesa  whereof  I  have  hereunto  act  my  baud  acd 
caused  the  seal  of  tbe  United  States  to  bo  affixed. 

Done  In  tbe  city  of  Waahington,  this  13th  day  o/ January, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hun- 

Cnai-]    dred  and  flftyalght,  and  of  the  independence  of 
the  United  Statea  tha  eightyuaecond. 

Jamis  Bdouamak, 
By  till-  Frealdent: 

htymCiMt^SteretaniofSUae. 

Sounding,  the  oporation  of  trying  the  depth  of 
the  sea,  and  tha  nature  of  the  bottom,  by  means  of  a 
plummet  sunk  from  a  ship  to  tho  bottom.  Thei-u  are 
two  plummets  used  for  this  purpose,  one  of  which  is 
calied  the  handJtad,  weighing  about  eight  cr  nine 
pounds ;  and  the  other  the  deep^ea  lead^  which  weighs 
IVom  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounda;  and  both  are  shaped 
iike  the  ft-ustum  of  •  cone  or  pyramid.  Tbe  fanner  is 
uicd  in  shallow  water*,  and  en  approaching  tbe  land 
after  a  lea-voyage.  Accordingly,  the  lines  used  for 
this  purpose  are  called  the  thep-iea  Uad  lint,  and  tho 
kand4€ad  line.  The  hand-lead  line,  which  is  usually 
twenty  fatlioms  in  length,  is  marked  at  every  two  or 
three  fathoms ;  so  that  the  depth  of  the  water  may  be 


sou 


1735 


SOU 


mrtnUoa 

d. 

)r  further 

en  or  may 

IgsUon  of 

DouMaad 

dUurongk 

elttMUor 

led  to.  *»A 

i  by  »>«l' 

COBUnBTOAt 
itM  Ud  ht( 

ifril,  18»e, 
M,  Mid  the 
tea,  the  fith 
of  tbli  pro*- 
nlted  8Ute« 
bat  a  year'i 
ttiona  of  tbe 

iflpctaaaoon 
«iHd  by  tha 
e  (um  atipa- 
ecelTcd  by  or 

henpurpow 
Ignlngofthta 

be  fixed  upon 
igh  the  Sonnd 
rera,  tbe  aame 
i  of  the  United 
laymeiitof  tha 
tood,  however, 
ed  SUtea  ahaU 
itcieat  on  tbe 
tail  have  gone 
I  been  paid  aa 

»  duly  ratified, 
place  In  Waah- 
««;  or  Booner  If 

jurleihaveaign- 
bare  thereunto 

.,  In  tbe  year  of 
ly-aev«n,  and  of 
Ihty-flrtt 

I.  t8»A''.] 

^L«.    lasAT.] 
|duly  ratified  on 
r  the  aame  were 
[l9thlnatantby 

gtatea,  and  W. 

lalrea  and  Con. 

,f  their  rcipecl- 

pnchanan,  Prea- 

learned  the  aald 

\t  the  aame  and 

ed  and  fulfilled 

dtUena  thereof. 

jay  hand  atd 

xed. 

kayo*  January, 
land  eight  hun- 
Indepandenca  of 
Kd. 
la  BvcUAMAS- 


J  the  depth  of 
Ly  means  o'  a 
li.    There  are 
Ke  of  which  is 
light  or  nine 
fwhich  weighs 
l)th  arc  shaped 
[The  former  is 
Wng  the  land 
biaes  used  for 
I  line,  and  tlio 
Bcb  is  usually 
I  every  two  «' 
IwttUr  may  ho 


ascsrtatned  either  in  the  day  or  nigiit.  At  the  depth 
of  two  or  three  fathoma  there  are  niarlis  of  blacli  leath- 
er ;  at  five  fatlioms  there  is  a  white  rag ;  at  seven,  a 
red  rag ;  at  ten,  blacJc  leather ;  at  thirteen,  black  leath- 
er ;  at  fifteen,  a  white  rag ;  and  at  seventeen,  a  red  rag. 

Sounding  with  tbe  hand-lead,  which  by  seamen  is 
called  keiHmg  the  lead,  is  generally  performed  by  a  man 
who  stands  in  the  main  chains  to  windward.  Having 
the  line  quite  ready  to  run  out  without  interruption, 
ho  holds  it  nearly  at  the  distance  of  a  fathom  from  the 
plummet ;  and  having  swung  the  latter  backward  and 
forward  three  or  four  times,  in  order  to  acquire  the 
greater  velocity,  he  swings  it  round  his  head,  and 
thence  so  far  forward  as  is  necessary ;  so  that  by  the 
lead's  sinking  while  the  ship  advances  the  line  may 
he  almost  perpendicular  when  it  reaches  the  bottom. 
The  person  sounding  then  proclaims  the  depth  of  the 
water,  in  a  kind  of  song  resembling  the  cries  of  hawk- 
ers in  a  city.  Thus,  if  the  mark  of  live  fathoms  is  close 
to  the  surface  of  the  water,  he  calls,  "  By  the  mark 
five ;"  and  as  there  is  no  mark  at  four,  six,  eight,  etc., 
he  estimates  those  numlwrs,  and  calls,  "  By  the  dip 
four,"  etc. ;  if  he  Judges  it  to  bo  a  quarter  or  a  half 
more  than  any  particular  number,  he  calls,  "  And  a 
quarter  five,"  "  and  a  half  four,"  etc.  If  he  conceives 
the  depth  to  be  three  quarters  more  than  a  particular 
number,  he  calls  it  a  quarter  less  than  the  next :  thus, 
at  four  fathoms  and  three  fourths  he  calls,  "A  quarter 
less  five." 

The  deep-sea  lead  is  marked  with  two  knots  at  twen- 
ty fathoms,  three  at  thirty,  and  four  at  forty,  and  so 
on  to  the  end.  It  is  also  marked  with  a  single  knot  in 
the  middle  of  each  interval. 

Until  the  commencement  of  the  plan  of  deep.4ea 
soundings,  as  now  conducted  in  the  navy  of  the  United 
States,  the  Iwttom  of  tbe  sea  was  almost  entirely  un- 
known to  us. 

It  has  been  proven  that  the  system  of  deep-sea 
soundings  formerly  in  use  was  not  accurate.  This 
was  simply  letting  down  a  lead,  until  by  a  shock  the 
line  became  slack :  but  it  was  found  that  the  line  would 
rnn  on  without  end,  being  dragged  out  by  under-cur- 
rents,  and  that  'ooy  'nd  a  certain  depth  no  shock  was 
felt. 

The  plan  of  deep-sea  soundings  now  in  practice  in 
our  navy  was  suggested  by  Lieutenant  Maury,  and  haf 
been  successful  principally  from  the  adoption  of  a  lead 
invented  by  Lieutenant  J.  M.  Brooke,  U.S.N. 

This  method  is  to  take  a  cannon-ball,  bored  through 
the  middle,  and  a  wire  inserted ;  and  so  arranged  that 
when  it  touches  Ijottom  the  ball  slips  off,  and  the  wire 
with  the  line  is  drawn  up.  'i'he  wire  has  a  cap  at  the 
end,  with  some  adhesive  matter  to  attach  particles  of 
the  bottom.  Tlie  line  is  prepared  for  the  purpose,  so 
as  to  bear  the  weight,  and  yet  of  small  resistance  in 
sinking.  Experiment  has  proven  that  while  the  plum- 
met is  sinking  the  line  runs  out  at  an  increasing  rate 
per  minute;  and  by  observing  when  the  rate  becomes 
constant,  we  get  the  depth,  as  a  current  would  draw 
at  a  constant  speed. 

Mr  Msury  gives  this  law  of  descent : 

!m.  2U.  as  an  average  time  of  descent  from  400to  EOO  fatha. 
8m.26».  "  "  "  1000  "1100     " 

4m.  208.  "  "  "  1800  "1900     " 

Lieutenant  Walsh,  of  the  United  States  schooner 
Fancy,  reported  a  cast  with  the  deep-sea  lead  of  thirty- 
four  thonsand  feet  without  a  bottom.  His  sounding- 
line  was  an  iron  wire  more  than  eleven  miles  in  length. 
Lieutenant  Berryman,  of  the  United  States  brig  Dot- 
pMn,  reported  another  unsuccessful  attempt  to  fath- 
om mid-ocean  with  a  lino  thirty-nine  thousand  feet  in 
length.  Captain  Dedham,  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty's 
ship  Herald,  reported  bottom  at  the  depth  of  forty-six 
thousand  feet ;  and  Lieutenant  J.  P.  Parker,  of  the 
United  States  frigate  Congreu,  afterward,  in  attempt- 
ing to  sound  near  the  same  place,  lot  go  his  plummet, 
and  saw  a  line  fifty  thousand  feet  long  run  after  it  as 


though  tbe  bottom  bad  not  been  reached.  Tha  last 
three  attempts  were  made  according  to  the  plan  men- 
tioned above.  For  further  interesting  items  we  rvfer 
to  Maobv's  Phfiical  Geograpkg  ^  Me  Sea.— See  Ax- 
LAMTic  Ocean. 

Soundmgtfor  the  Atlantic  Telegraph.— The  reaolt  of 
these  soundings  has  been  to  establish  tbe  hypothesis  of 
Lieutenant  Maury,  of  a  submarine  plateau  from  the 
Newfoundland  Banks  nearly  to  the  coast  of  Ireland. 
We  extract  portions  of  the  report  ot  Lieutenant  0.  H. 
Berryman,  U.S.N.,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  experimental  soundings  made  by 
him  in  the  United  States  steamer  A  rctic,  to  corroborate 
the  existence  of  this  plateau. 

"VaiTiD  R»TU  SraiHla  AacTie,  JVm  rtr»,  Otitltr  14,  IIN 

"  leaving  New  York  on  the  night  of  July  18, 1  steered  di- 
reotly  for  8t.  Johm,  where  I  arrived  on  the  29th.  Taking  In 
coal  by  the  Slat,  I  tailed  for  Ireland,  and  commenced  aound- 
Ing  as  near  on  tlie  Great  Circle  aa  poiaible,  paasing  the  north 
end  of  the  'Grand  Banki'  in  latitude  48°  34'  N.,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  fathoms  water,  although  the  beat  chaita 
I  have  on  board  record  one  hundred  and  fifty-four.  Thla 
oillerenea  I  attribute  to  the  mode  of  taking  aoundlnga  at 
the  time  that  aurrey  was  made.  At  intervals  of  thirty,  for- 
ty, sixty,  and  one  hundred  miles,  we  sounded,  all  attended 
with  complete  auccesa,  but  frequently  involving  many  houra, 
both  night  and  day,  of  great  auspense  and  hard  work,  losing 
sometimea  two  or  three  thouaand  fltthoma  of  line,  sounding 
apparatua  and  all. 

"  The  great  plateau  became  so  apparent  In  thenlddleof  the 
ocean,  and  our  fuel  being  contlderably  reduced,  I  determined 
to  Increase  the  Intervals  between  the  posltioni,  to  enable  me 
to  reach  the  coast  of  Ireland  with  enough  aoundlnga  to  com- 
plete a  line  entirely  acroaa.  Thla  waa  aceompllahed  on  the 
22d  of  Auguit,  and  I  arrived  in  the  harbor  of  Queenalown 
with  only  a  few  buahela  of  coal  on  board. 

"  Temperaturea  were  taken  hourly  at  the  surface,  and  at 
twenty  fathoma  every  fbnr  hours.  Attempta  were  made  to 
obtain  them  at  the  bottom  and  at  different  deptha,  but  the 
rctfulta  were  ao  worthless,  owing  to  some  derangement  of  the 
thermometers,  that  I  abandoned  taking  them,  aa  they  inter- 
fered very  much  with  the  more  Important  object  of  sounding 
and  obtaining  bottom.  On  one  occaaion  two  were  sent  to  the 
bottom  in  very  deep  water,  and  one  indicated  a  temperature 
of  twenty-one  degreea,  the  other  twenty-four  degrees.  On 
examining  and  comparing  the  rest  of  the  ttaermometera,  I 
found  them  all  differing  from  each  other  so  much,  and  some 
of  the  banda  being  broken,  I  waa  sure  that  they  could  not  be 
used  with  any  proptr  results. 

"Currents  were  experienced  to  the  eaatward,  from  nine  to 
Ifleen  miiea  in  each  twenty-four  hours,  between  the  Orand 
Daoks  and  those  of  Ireland.  No  good  opportunltlea  for  ob- 
serving under-currenta  occurred,  there  being  always  either 
too  ninch  wind  or  a  high  sea.  None  appeared  to  affect  our 
soundings  very  mncli— so  little.  Indeed,  that  frequently  the 
slack  line  would  be  colled  or  kinked  upon  the  bottom,  ahow- 
Ing  plainly  that  !t  reached  the  bottom  without  the  asslatance 
of  the  lead— determining  In  my  own  mind  that,  however 
others  may  think,  the  cable  or  wire  of  the  lightest  ktaid  wlU 
hero  reach  tbe  bottom  most  certainly. 

"Only  one  of  the  sounding  apparatus  which  waa  used  n- 
malns,  and  Is  sent  to  the  department  for  Inspection,  it  being 
somewhat  different,  we  believe,  ftom  any  heretofore  used- 
being  an  association  of  Brooke's  and  Massey's,  with  a  weight 
or  lead  of  my  own  adoption. 

"  The  Ibie  used  In  aoundhig  waa  that  obtained  from  Boatoo,  ' 
which  proved  indifferent,  and  was  all  expended  before  reach- 
ing Ireland,  and  we  had  to  resort  to  two  parte  of  amallier  line 
furnished  at  the  navy-yard.  Having  eighty  thouaand  fath- 
oms of  the  smaller  size  line  on  leels,  we  had  it  made  up  into 
one  of  about  four  thouaand,  and  we  found  it  decidedly  the 
best  that  we  have  yet  used,  it  being  very  strong  and  small. 

"  On  both  sides  the  Interest  taken  in  thla  great  enterprise  is 
very  great,  and  It  la  with  every  satisfaction  that  I  can  atate 
that  the  navy  of  the  United  SUtea  is  particniariy  recognised 
as  having  promptly  and  afflclently  executed  tbe  preliminary 
and  important  survey  for  so  stupendous  a  work  as  laying  a 
telegraphic  cable  of  three  thousand  milea  long  across  aa 
ocean  upward  of  two  thousand  fathoma  deep,  and  nearly  sev- 
enteen hundred  milea  wide."— O.  H.  Bxbbtiiah,  C.  S.  N. 

For  a  fhU  statement  of  the  resnlta  of  these  sounding* 
in  determining  the  proposed  line  of  the  cable  of  the  At- 
lantic submarine  telegraph,  i.nd  for  the  statistics  con- 
cerning this  line,  see  article  Telkobafh.  zZ'T:.:^ 


sou 


1786 


SOU 


AMtnxat  or  nicp  Bin  SovKDniai  Ain>  TrnmATsmn, 

WITH  TOUR  LATITVDBS  and  LOMOITUnXS,  MAIW  ON  BOASD 
TBB  LnITID  STAT»  STEAHIB  ■'AbOTIO,"  LlEDTtHAMT 
COHMANDINO    O.    II.    IIXKBYMAN,    INITKII    STATES    NAW, 

BXTWBBN  Newfoundland  and  Ibeland,  Aoodet,  1866. 


1 

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Note — The  aoundiiiga  in  thU  table  are  placed  In  the  ■<• 
in  which  they  appear  un  the  profile,  without  regard  to  ^ 

South  Amexloa.  The  sonthem  portion  o' 
American  continent  extends  trom  Point  Gallenas,  m 
Ut.  12°  80',  to  Capo  Horn,  !n  lat.  66°  80'.  Tlie  extent 
of  coast  that  it  offers  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  At- 
lantic is  estimated  at  11,000  miles ;  and  the  coast  wash- 
ed by  the  Pacific,  it  is  stated  by  the  latest  geographical 
authority,  has  an  approximate  continuity  of  6800  miles. 
At  the  southern  extremity  thcr-^  is  a  group  of  mount- 
ainous islands,  separated  from  thu  main  land  by  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  and  forming'  the  Archipelago  of 
Terra  del  Fuogo,  or  "  Land  of  Fire ;"  so  called  from  the 
number  of  flres  which  its  discoverer,  Magellan,  saw 
along  its  coast  at  night,  supposed  to  have  been  volcanic. 
This  arehipelago,  with  its  barren  islands  and  rocks, 
must,  however,  be  considered  as  the  termination  of  the 
continent.  Immediately  north  lies  the  vast  and  almost 
uninhabited  country  of  Patagonia ;  while  on  the  east, 
at  a  distance  of  from  800  to  400  miles  in  the  South  At- 
lantic, lie  the  Falkland  group  of  islands. 

The  vast  region  known  geographically  as  Patagonia 
extends  from  the  River  Negro,  lat.  89°,  to  the  Straits 
of  Magellan,  lat.  63°  S.,  a  distance  of  about  970  miles 


iff  length,  with  a  breadth  var^-ingfirom  200  to  420  miles. 
It  comprises  two  distinct  physical  regions,  differing  in 
sui-face  and  climate — the  one  lying  on  the  west  sidit  of 
the  Andes,  the  other  on  the  east,  and  called,  respect- 
ively, Eastern  and  Western  Patagonia.  The  former  it 
claimed  by  the  Argentine  Bepubllo  to  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  and  the  latter  by  Chili,  down  to  Cape  Horn. 
Both  sections  ara  as  yet,  however,  inhabited  by  abo- 
riginal races,  with  the  exception  of  a  Chilian  settlement 
at  Port  Famine,  and  on  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  This 
division  of  Patagonia  is  comprised  in  the  Chilian  prov- 
ince of  Chiloe,  which  is  composed  of  the  archipelago 
of  that  name ;  that  of  Chonos,  of  the  most  southern 
islands,  and  that  part  of  the  continent  which  extends 
trom  Bio  Negro,  and  as  far  south  as  Cape  Horn.  On 
the  eastern  division  there  are  several  ports,  among 
which  are,  Gallegos,  in  61°  88' ;  Santa  Cruz,  in  60°  7' ; 
San  Julian,  in  49°  12' ;  Desire,  In  47°  5' ;  Nuevo  Golfo, 
in  48° ;  and  San  Antonio,  in  41°  south.  The  few  tribes 
of  aboriginal  Indians  that  inhabit  this  inhospitable  re- 
gion subsist  upon  the  products  of  their  fishery.  The 
principal  object  of  Chili  in  colonizing  Port  Famine,  on 
the  Straits,  was  to  keep  in  check  these  nomadic  tribes, 
though  the  colony  has  also  been  used  for  penal  pur- 
poses.   Cape  Horn  Is  uninhabited. 

The  South  American  continent  has  on  its  Pacific 
coast  no  large  rivers.  On  the  Atlantic,  however,  are 
the  Amazon,  the  Orinoco,  and  the  Plata,  and  a  number 
of  others,  which,  though  not  so  large  as  those  named, 
are  equal  in  size,  if  not  superior,  to  even  the  largest 
rivers  in  Europe.  The  Amazon  is  tho  largest  river  on 
the  globe.  Its  principal  tributaries  vary  in  length 
from  1000  to  1800  miles,  while  the  central  stream  is 
4000  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  2200  miles  from  tlio 
sea.  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili  are  the  great  mineral 
sites  of  South  America,  and  produce  chiefly  silver,  but 
also  some  gold  and  other  metals,  especially  copper, 
which  is  very  abundant  in  Chili.  The  most  distln- 
'Mifhing  feature  in  the  vegetation  of  South  America 
^  the  prodigious  forests,  which  cover  about  two-thirds 
i  tho  whole  surface.  Fruits  of  almost  every  variety 
abound,  and  indigo,  coflTee,  sugar-cane,  maize,  and  tho 
coeoa-trco  are  tfmong  tho  chief  products.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  tho  tea-tree  has  been  attempted  in  Brazil,  though 
it  is  believed  without  success ;  but  yerba  matte,  from 
which  is  prepared  the  customary  beverage  of  one  half 
of  the  peninsula,  grows  in  the  greatest  abundance  in 
Paraguay,  Spain  and  Portugal  were  severally  the 
original  colonists  of  South  America — the  former  found- 
ing the  states  of  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  Bolivia,  ■ 
Peru,  Chili,  tho  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay,  ond 
Paraguay ;  and  the  latter  the  vast  empire  of  Brazil. 

The  South  American  states  all  achieved  their  Inde- 
pendence between  the  years  1810  and  1825,  These 
states,  together  with  the  colonies  and  other  regions 
comprised  in  South  America,  with  their  respective 
areas,  population,  capitals,  etc.,  are  exhibited  in  tho 
following  table,  derived  from  the  latest  geographical 
authority ;  though,  as  regards  the  strict  accuracy  of 
the  figures  given,  the  same  remark  applies  that  Is  made 
with  reference  to  similar  tables  respecting  Mexico  and 
the  Central  American  states : 


SUM,  •!(. 

AKAIB 

Bquura  MilM. 

PDpaUlion. 

PopnIXIoD  !• 
Square  Vila. 

CapllaU. 

PopalaUon. 

621,943 

426,713 

287,638 

98.000 

69,765 

87,660 

8,973,400 

498,726 

473,298 

849,068 

786,000 

72,106 

73,638 

210,000 

6,297 

3,34.3,054 

1,149,836 

605,000 

127,696 

61,030 

82,010 

6,066,000 

2,116,493 

1,447,000 

1,133.868 

764,000 

800,000 

130,000 

800 

669 

4-89 
8-69 
8-33 
183 
1-03 
0-88 
8-04 
4^ 
8  06 
463 
0-07 
4-16 
1-68 

O-flO 

46,()0« 

63,800 

66,000 

26,50.) 

18.000 

6,000 

266,000 

100,000 

26,01)0 

78,000 

100,000 

12,000 

18,000 

"soo 

Quito 

Onlana,  BrItMh 

"       Dutch 

"       Fnneb 

BraaU 

Pbi-u          ...             

Lima 

'Bolivia 

Chill 

Santiago 

Buenoa  Ayres 

Asuncion ■ 

Patagonia,  east  of  Andes 

PortSUnley 

lUkUol  Islands 

Total 

6,768,940 

18,814,890 

8-41 



sou 


1787 


SOU 


Icuracy  of 
at  is  made 
lexico  and 

|popDlftt)on. 

63,800 
66,000 
26,l>0.1 
18.030 
6,000 
l!66,000 
1100,000 
26,0110 
1  78,000 
|lOO,000 
I  ]ii,000 

10,000 


In  the  population  given  in  the  third  colomn,  no 
account  la  taken  of  the  uncivilized  Indian  races, 
which  probably  number  between  1,000,000  and 
1,200,000  louls.  Thcee  are  found  chiefly  in  the  great 
plaini  of  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  Parana.  The 
relative  rank  of  the  South  American  atateg,  aa  rc> 
garda  thrir  commercial  intercourse  with  the  United 


States,  may  be  infltrred  ft'om  tife  subjoined  oompar- 
ative  atatement,  exhibiting  the  valuea  of  exports  to 
each  country  from  the  United  States,  and  of  import* 
from  'uch  country  into  the  United  States,  during  a 
period  of  four  yearn,  from  1852  to  1866,  Inclusive; 
made  up  from  United  States  Treaaury  reporta  for  said 
years: 


■Mrtk  AnaritM  SUIh. 


Urastl 

Chin 

VeoecueU 

Argentine  Kapublte. 

Peru 

UrHguay  

Ecuador v 


UiporU. 


8,108,260 

1,200,8SS 

761,726 

es6,ir>6 

612,«e7 


Import!. 


$14,110,387 
3,»82,107 
8,072.648 
2,144,071 
l,0n6.400 
467,170 
67,684 


Kiportt. 


$4,'261,27.H 

8.426,267 

1,228,440 

069,427 

870.646 

422,172 

66,002 


Import*. 


$l6,218,Ur6 

»,M8,»i)6 

8,616,36!) 

2,646,087 

607,018 

242,709 

12,8-8 


KKporta. 


$&,U04.9U8 
2,887,743 
1,712,774 
1,260,863 
1,241,283 
651,820 


import*. 


$19,262,6,'>7 

2,467,819 

4.202,699 

2,822,161 

217,760 


Biporl*. 


$6,646.2(17 
8,007,188 
1,487,678 
1,818,807 
607,932 
1,006,172 


Import*. 


—Com.  RelcU.  U.  S.  For  a  complete  exhibit  of  tho' 
commerce  of  each  country,  see  articles  under  tlio  proper 
hends.'— See  North  Amtr.  Rev.,  xii.  432  (E.  Evkbett), 
xix.  158  (J.  Sparks);  Wetlm.  Ree.,  vl.  202;  £di»i. 
Rev.,  xliil.  299 ;  Dk  Bow's  Rev.,  vi.  8 ;  Foreign  Quart. 
Rev.,  xvili.  456;  Christ.  Rev.,  xvi.  821;  Quart.  Rev., 
xxxli.  125;  Southern  Quart. Rev.,Tdi.Sm;  Dm. Rev., 
i.  and  ii.— iSee  article  America. 

Boutliampton,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  sea-port  town,  and  county  of  England,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  county  Hants,  occupying  a  penln> 
sula  between  the  mouths  of  the  Test  and  Itcliin  rivers, 
at  the  head  of  Southampton  water,  12  miles  south-south- 
west from  Winchester,  on  the  southwestern  railroad,  72 
milea  aouthwest  from  London.  Latitude  of  Saint  Mi. 
chael's  spire,  60°  61'  N.,  long.  1°  24'  2"  W.  Population 
in  1861 ,  36,306.  The  new  docks  on  the  east  of  the  town, 
OT^ened  in  1842,  have  an  area  of  208  acres,  and  liavo  ad- 
niUted  steamers  of  more  than  700  tons  burden.  The 
West  India,  Mediterranean,  and  other  mails,  have  their 
station  hero,  and  the  town  communicates  by  steamers 
with  all  the  ports  of  South  England,  the  Channel  isl- 
ands, Ireland,  and  by  railroad  with  London,  and  all  the 
centre  of  England.  The  port  extends  fi'om  near  Ports- 
mouth to  Ghristchnrch.  Hero  are  some  manufactures 
of  silks  and  ci  rpets,  but  ship-building  and  general  com- 
merce are  the  chief  sources  of  wealth,  Southampton 
ia  now  the  point  of  departure  of  the  steamers  for  Alex- 
andria (see  ante,  p.  20),  and  a  stopping-place  for  the 
steamers  iietwcen  Bremen  and  New  York. 

South  Carolina,  one  of  the  Southern  United 
States,  is  situated  between  32"  2'  and  35°  10'  N.  lat., 
and  between  78°  24'  and  83°  30'  W.  long.  It  is  200 
miles  long  and  126  broad,  containing  28,000  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1790  ^\■a»  240,000 ;  in  1800, 
845,591;  in  1810,  415,115;  in  1820,  502,741 ;  in  1830, 
581,458;  in  1840,  694,898;  ond  in  1850,  068,607. 

Xarli/  7/too/y.— When  the  Spaniards,  under  Vasquez 
Ayllon  (1520  and  1626),  arrived  on  the  coasts  of  what 
%ve  now  call  Carolina,  and  more  especially  South  Car- 
olina, they  heard  here  of  a  great  Indian  king  and  conn 
try,  both  called  Chicora  or  Chicoria,  and  they  applied 
that  Indian  name  for  some  time  to  this  countrj-,  with- 
out, however,  giving  to  it  very  distinct  limits.  The 
country  was  also  sometimes  called  after  its  discoverer, 
Tierra  del  Licenciado  Ayllon,  or,  shorter,  Tierra  de 
Ayllon,  often  also  corrupted  to  Terra  de  Aullon.  _Un 
der  this  name  the  Spaniards  comprehended  sometimes 
a  very  great  port  of  North  America,  sometimes  not 
more  than  this  province. 

French  Claims. — It  is  curious  enough  that  the  French 
also,  when  they  (1563)  arrived  at  the  locality  of  Ayl- 
lon's  activity,  heard  again  of  an  Indian  king  and  coun- 
try of  that  name.  In  their  ears  it  sounded,  however, 
like  Chicola  or  Chiouole.  After  the  French  navigation 
to  these  regions  we  hear  the  country  sometimes  desig- 
nated by  the  French  themselves  with  the  name  La 
Floridt  Franfoise,  and  other  nations  also  called  it 
French  Florida.  The  Spaniards,  of  course,  always  con- 
sideretl  it  as  a  part  of  their  Spanish  Floriila.  The 
French  bnllt  on  their  Kiviero  May  (St.  Mateo  or  St. 


John's  River)  a  fort,  which  they  called  Fort  Caroline 
or  Carolina.  Some  map-makers  and  geographers  ap- 
plied this  name,  as  an  appellation  of  a  country  or  ter- 
ritory, to  the  whole  region.  So  we  see,  for  instance, 
on  a  map  of  North  America  by  Cornelius  a  Judaia 
(1693),  the  whole  French  Florida  called  Carolina,  in 
honor  of  Charles  IX.,  king  of  France.  It  is  curious 
that  the  same  namo  was  afterward  given  to  the  same 
locality  in  honor  of  an  English  king. 

English  SettUments. — The  English,  since  their  settle- 
ments at  Koanoke,  comprehended  the  whole  territory 
of  Carolina  under  their  widely-extended  name  of  Vir- 
ginia, after  1683.  This  grant  had,  however,  very 
slight  consequences.  The  country  was  not  settled,  not 
taken  possession  of,  not  even  surveyed  or  explored. 
In  the  year  1G63  Charles  II.  made  another  grant  of  all 
the  lands  between  the  3Gth  and  87th  degrees  of  north 
latitude  to  Edward,  earl  of  Clarendon,  and  some  other 
lords  and  gentlemen,  and  this  tract  was  again  called, 
in  his  honor,  Carolina ;  so  that  we  may  say  we  httvo 
three  kings  as  godfathers  to  this  province — Chorles 
IX.  of  France,  Charles  I.  and  Charles  II.  of  England. 
By  a  second  more  ample  charter  of  the  24th  of  March, 
1667,  Charles  II.  extended  the  boundaries  of  Carolina 
from  north  latitude  29°  to  36°  80',  and  from  cast  to  west 
"until  tlio  Pacific  Ocean."  The  country  was  divided 
into  two  great  counties — a  northern  one,  called  the 
county  of  Albemarle,  and  a  southern  one,  called  Clar- 
endon county. 

In  this  same  year  (1667)  William  Sayle,  the  appointed 
Governor  of  Carolina,  explored  and  surveyed  the  wliolo 
coast  of  the  province,  entering  all  the  rivers  and  mak- 
ing astronomical  observations.  He  no  doubt,  also,  pro- 
cured a  map  of  the  country  to  bo  made,  but  unhappily 
this  map  is  not  preserved  for  us  Probably  the  results 
of  this  first  good  survey  of  the  coasts  of  Carolina  wero 
not  then  made  known  to  the  world  at  largo ;  for  wo 
find  still,  on  the  edition  of  Champlain's  maps  of  the 
year  1677,  along  the  coasts  of  Carolina,  this  inscrip- 
tion .  "  Terre  non  encore  Mn»  decouverte  continenle  a  la 
Florida"  (a  land  not  yet  well  discovered  is  connected 
with  Florida). 

In  the  3'car  1729  the  whole  great  province  wns  di- 
vidcd  into  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  as  tlie  divid- 
ing point  on  tho  coast  was  fixed  a  small  inlet  to  tho 
west  of  Cope  Fear,  called  Little  River  Inlet.  In  tho 
year  1733  the  province  of  Georgia  was  detached  as  a 
separate  government  of  tho  old  Territory  of  Carolina, 
and  the  southern  boundaries  of  this  latter  were  fixed 
at  the  mouth  of  tho  Savannah  River,  and  within  these 
boundaries  the  name  of  Carolina  has  been  prescribed 
ever  since.  According  to  what  we  stated,  we  may  in 
a  certain  degree  consider  the  names  of  Wingandacoa, 
Weapumeoc,  Ould  Virginia,  Albemarle  county,  as  old 
particular  designations  for  North  Carolina;  and  the 
name  of  OhicorS,  Terra  de  Ayllon,  Florida  Fran^oise, 
Clarendon  county,  as  particular  appellations  applied  to 
South  Carolina.— J.  G.  Kohl.  See  North  Cabolwa. 

Physical  Features,  etc The  sea-coast  is  bordered  with 

a  series  of  islands,  between  which  and  the  shore  there 
is  a  very  convenient  navigation.    The  main  land  U 


son 


1788 


SOU 


MtnnUy  divldad  inlk  th*  lower  Mid  apptr  country. 
Tho  tow  ooontry  exlcad*  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
mile*  from  the  leo-ooMt,  and*  is  covered  with  eiiten*- 
tve  foreitt  of  pine,  called  pine  barrcni,  IntenperMd 
with  marthea  and  awamps  of  a  rich  ioil.  The  banks 
of  the  large  rivera  and  the  creeks  of  this  region  are 
bordered  with  a  l)elt  of  excellent  land,  producing  cot- 
ton and  Indian  com  in  abundance.  The  marahcs  and 
swamps  in  this  district  maiu  flna  rice  plantations.  The 
staple  productions  of  the  State  are  cotton  and  rice, 
gnat  quantities  of  which  are  exported.  Rice  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  where  the  land  can  be  irrigated 
by  the  tide  or  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers. .  The  sea- 
island  cotton  produced  on  the  islands  along  the  shores 
is  of  a  superior  quality)  and  is  in  great  demand.  Gold, 
iron,  granite,  and  marble,  are  the  principal  minerals. 

Then  were  in  this  SUte  In  18fiO,  4,073,661  acres  of 
land  improved,  and  12,146,049  acres  of  unimproved 
land  in  Ikrms.  Cash  vaiue  of  farms,  ^2,431,684 ;  and 
the  value  of  bnplementsond  machinery  was  $4,136,364. 
The  number  of  live  stock  was— horses,  07,171 ;  asses 
and  mules,  87,488 ;  milch  cows,  198,244 ;  working  oxen, 
20,607 ;  other  cattle,  668,936 ;  sheep,  286,661 ;  swine, 
1,066,603)  aggregate  value,  $16,060,016. 

Agricultural  Produett,  efc— Wheat,  1,066,277  bush- 
ela ;  lye,  43,790;  Indian  com,  16,>7i,464 ;  buckwheat, 
MS;  oats,  2,822,166;  barley,  4688;  pens,  1,026,900; 
poUtoes,  186,494;  sweet  potatoes,  4,837,469;  rice, 
169,^30,618  pounds;  value  of  products  of  the  orchard, 
(86,108;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $47,286;  pounds 
of  butter  made,  2,981,850;  of  cheese,  4970;  sugar,  671 
hogaheads;  napU-sugar,  200  pounds ;  molalses,  16,904 
gallons;  beeswax  and  honey,  216,281  pounds;  wool, 


pounds  produeed,  487,288 ;  cotton,  800,001 1  flax,  888; 
silk  cocoons,  128;  hops,  26  pounds;  tobacco,  74,386 1 
hay,  tons  of,  20,936 ;  clover  seeds,  876  bushels  |  other 
grass  seeds,  80 ;  flax-seed,  66  bushels ;  wine,  6880  gal- 
lons. Value  of  home-made  nianuhctnres,  $900,636 ; 
and  of  sUughtered  animals,  $1,802,087. 

The  Great  Podeo  Hi  var,  460  uillus  long,  rises  in  North 
Carolina,  and  runs  through  the  eastern  part  of  the  Htato. 
It  is  navigable  fur  sioopti  I UO  miles,  The  Bantee,  formed 
by  the  Junction  of  the  Wuteree  and  tho  Congaree,  rises 
in  North  Carolina,  and  hw  a  sloop  navigation  for  about 
130  miles.  The  Saluda  is  a  branch  of  the  Oongaree. 
The  Edisto  is  navigable  for  large  lioats  100  nilles.  The 
Savannah  washes  tho  whole  southwest  border  of  tho 
State,  and  is  a  noble  stream.  There  are  several  small* 
cr  rivers,  among  which  are  Cooper,  Ashley,  and  Com- 
bahce. 

Manu/acturti,  etc.— There  were  In  (he  State  In  1860, 
13  cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  Invested  of  $778,000, 
employing  871  males  and  673  females,  producing  goods 
valued  at  $742,220 ;  0  establlilimentu  with  »  capital  of 
$186,700,  employing  166  persons,  and  making  1280 
tons  of  castings,  etc.,  valued  at  $87,688;  2M7  flouring 
and  grist  mills,  448  saw-rollls,  107  tanneries,  41  print- 
ing-offices, 46  newspapers— 7  daily,  4  tri-weekly,  2 
semi-weekly,  24  weekly,  1  bi-monthly,  6  monthly, 
and  1  quarterly  publication.  Gapllal  Investeil  in  man- 
ufactures, $6,660,606 ;  value  of  manufactured  articles, 
$6,200,864. 

In  June,  1856,  there  were  0  railroads,  with  846  mllei 
of  road  flnlahed  and  in  operation,  and  874  miles  In  course 
of  construction.  Then  were  10  banks  and  3  branches, 
with  a  cash  capital  of  |I10,073,680. 


ar  xaa  8tati 

or  Bourn  Cabclina  rioii  Ootobsb  1 

,  1820.  to 

Jolt  1, 1867,  suowino  also  tui 

DlSTBlOT  TOHNAOK  IN  1821,  1831,  1811,  A»D  1861. 

Y«An  «IMliDf 

«;.porU. 

InpoiU. 

Toaims*  rUtnd. 

IllatrkI  TMiiMiif .         1 

VmmMe. 

rora^. 

Tcttl. 

ToUI. 

Amwlriw. 

rowipi, 

Ktghttn*. 

KnrolUtI  tnd 
Llftiiutl, 

8ept80,18» 

$6,867,616 

$382.m 

$7,'i«o,eii 

$3,007,113 

45,342 

10.6.5 

ifl,W- 

lY.iui 

18M 

7,186,366 

128,984 

7,260,320 

2,288,886 

48,6.>4 

16,987 

I  I  I  • 

.... 

1888 

«,«T1,»98 

320,816 

6,898,814 

8,419,101 

54,687 

24,000 

till 

.... 

1824 

7,883,Ti8 

200,869 

8,034,062 

2,106,185 

01,002 

18,878 

t  •  »  • 

III. 

'            18S6 

10,876,476 

180,287 

11,086,743 

1,892,297 

67,620 

17,081 

•  •  •  • 

...  * 

•U           18M 

T,468,9M 

85,070 

7,664,036 

1,534,483 

08,820 

18,818 

•  t  •  • 

•  •  •  t 

,.            18JT 

8,180,496 

133,066 

8,S22,6«1 

1,434,106 

68,864 

24,001 

t  I  *  f 

.III 

1828 

6,808,870 

42,142 

6,580.712 

1,242,048 

47,565 

26,630 

•  •  •  • 

.  • .  t 

182» 

8,134,676 

40,910 

8,176,686 

1,139,018 

60,3!r7 

24,473 

•  •  I  • 

•  >  I . 

18B0 

Total... 

T,B80,8«t 

46,210 

7,027,081 

1,054,619 

62,464 

20,405 

.... 

1... 

$77,268,806 

$1,411,799 

$78,680,386 

$18,173,160 

666, 146  ~ 

i68,1fl8 

.... 

.... 

8ept80.18Sl 

$6,688,<06 

$46,696 

$6,676,201 

$1,233,103 

48,426 

99.015 

0.808 

0,040 

1832., 

7,685,833 

66.S98 

7,752,731 

1,213,725 

47,8113 

41,8:;fl 

•  •  • . 

.  1  < . 

<;*           1888.; 

8,887,812 

96.813 

8,484,825 

1,617,705 

4'J,()!W 

87,479 

"  ■  • 

.... 

1884 

11,110,6<8 

88,213 

11,207,778 

1,787.207 

60,1147 

40,4116 

. « .  • 

.... 

1886 

11,224,898 

118,718 

11,388,016 

1,891,8115 

48,708 

83,476 

.  •  •  ■ 

.  t .  * 

1886 

13,482,767 

201,619 

13,664,876 

2,801.301 

61,658 

85,0«6 

*  • .  • 

18ST 

11,188,992 

8t,l<9 

11,220,161 

2,510,800 

40,600 

8I).88« 

• . « • 

1881 

11.017.391 

24,679 

11,042.070 

3,8I8,7»1 

87,248 

t7,8&« 

•  ■ .  • 

.  •  • . 

188» 

10,8l8,8tt 

66,6M 

10,386,426 

8,066,0n 

61,828 

80,627 

*•  •  1 

• . . . 

1B40 

Total... 

9,081,016 

65,758 

10,080,769 

^,068,870 

82,090 

86,4115 

.... 

.... 

$!00,884,791 

$842,062 

$101,676,883 

$20,484,624 

6J«,789 

Mo,ot6- 

.... 

.... 

Sept.  80, 1841 

$8,011,803 

$31,802 

$8,048,284 

$1,567,431 

63,469 

98.716 

19,t»h3 

11,441 

1848 

7,608,899 

17,324 

7,826,723 

1,369,465 

01,132 

84,018 

.... 

..  .  s 

Omoe.,  184S< 

June  80, 1844 

7,7M,162 
7,429,886 

6,657 

7,760,809 

1,294,709 

71,400 

43,101 

t  •  .  s 

. .  <• 

8,697 

7,433,282 

1,131,615 

49,801 

48,926 

• .  •  * 

.... 

1846 

8,884,n0 

6,878 

8,800,648 

1,143,158 

86,768 

88.012 

.... 

.... 

1846 

6,829,616 

18,948 

e,»18,477 

908,536 

60,614 

87,578 

.... 

. .  1 . 

184T 

10,428,146 

8,871 

10,431,617 

1,6S0,669 

K;,420 

40,702 

e>*« 

*l  .* 

1848 

8,081,917 

*  ■  •  > 

8,081,917 

1,485,209 

53.864 

42,568 

.(  e* 

.  I  .  s 

1849 

9,609,876 

1,301 

9,701,176 

1,475,696 

88,788 

68,101 

•  «  .  • 

II.. 

1880 

Total... 

11,446,892 

908 

11,447,800 

1,038,786 

72,222 

6i,8.10 

.... 

.... 

»86,OT4,6«8 

$89,970 

$80,164,633 

$13,661,251 

653,827 

410,017 

.... 

.... 

June  80, 1851 

$16,816,678 

•  •     e 

$1^816,678 

$8,061,812 

81,386 

69,178 

.... 

n.OTT 

1851 

11,670,021 

•  •  t  > 

11,670,021 

2,176,014 

80,027 

88,284 

.... 

.... 

18S8 

16,400,408 

16,400,408 

1,808,517 

76,368 

86,200 

..II 

. .  t  • 

1864 

11,(82,808 

$12,708 

11.996,016 

l,7n,8S6 

86,008 

80,028 

.*•• 

.... 

18S6 

12,«M,8(1 

1,380 

18,700,280 

1,588,{>48 

110,633 

34,414 

.... 

. . .  • 

1886 

17,888,298 

2,281 

17,860,849 

1,005,234 

114,963 

41,255 

•    («S 

. . « * 

18<T 

16,111,434 

12,969 

16,140,408 

8,019,786 

106,002 

47,910 

.... 

...1 

Nine  months  to  June  SO,  and  the  Ssoal  year  from  this  time  begin.  July  1, 


iVmeipol  fbPM.— Charleston,  lat.  82°  47'  N.,  long. 
79°  48'  W,,  sitnaUd  on  a  point  of  land  between  the 
Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers,  has  a  spacious  harl>or.    At 


the  entrance  to  the  harbor  there  Is  a  sand  bar,  of  al)out 
eight  miles  in  length,  having  several  uhannels.  Three 
of  the  cbanuels  o^n  only  be  used  by  ships  of  largo  ton- 


sou 


-f' 


1789 


SPA 


11,441 


ll,«TT 


|efkl)OUt 

Three 

krgo  ton* 


nag« ;  on*,  tlio  ships'  channel,  hu  a  depth  of  water  of 
twelve  feet  at  ebb-tide,  and  from  seventeen  to  twenty 
at  flood-tide.  Ships  always  talce  a  pilot,  on  account 
of  shifting  sands,  and  are  moored  along  side  wharves 
In  safety  inside  the  harbor.  It  is  the  chluf  commercial 
afnporlum  of  tho  State,  and  the  largest  shipping  port 
on  the  Atlantic  below  Baltimore.  The  chief  exports 
are  cotton  and  rice.  It  is  connected  with  the  interior 
by  tho  South  Carolina  and  the  Northeastern  railroads. 
The  tonnage  of  Charleston,  in  181)6,  was  &9,128  tons. 

Beaufort,  on  the  west  side  of  Port  Boyal  Biver,  an 
inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  and  sixteen  miles  from  the  sea, 
has  a  good  harbor,  but  on  account  of  a  bar  at  its  moutii 
only  small  vessels  can  enter  it.  It  has  little  or  no  com- 
merco.  The  tonnage  in  185G  was  only  110  tons.— For 
ftirtlier  particulars  as  to  South  Carolina,  sen  Southern 
Quart.  Jitv.,  xviii.  06,  xx.  273,  298,  iv.  247  (Simms)  ; 
De  Bow'h  Xev.,  viii.  24,  xi.  123 ;  Nortk  Atiwrican  Jiev., 
xiiU  143. 

South  Sea  Bubble.  This  destructive  specula- 
tion was  commenced  'u.  1710,  and  the  company  incor- 
porated by  statute  in  1716.  The  bubble,  which  ruin- 
ed thousands  of  families,  exploded  in  1720,  and  the  di- 
tectors'  estates,  to  the  value  of  £2,014,000  sterling, 
were  seized  in  1721.  Mr.  Knight,  tho  cashier,  ab- 
sconded with  ;£100,000;  but  he  compounded  the  fraud 
for  jC  10,000,  and  returned  to  England  in  1748.  Al- 
most all  the  wealthy  persons  in  the  kingdom  had  be- 
come stock-jobbers  and  speculators  in  this  unfortunate 
scheme.  The  artifloes  of  the  directors  had  raised  the 
shares,  originally  of  £100,  to  the  enormous  price  of 
£1000. — See  Charlks  Mackay's  Uiatory  of  Modem 
Maniat ;  Banken'  Magaiine,  X.  Y. 

South  Sea  Dutiee.  The  British  act  of  the  9 
Ann.  c.  21,  establishing  the  South  Soa  Company,  coa 
veyed  to  them  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  along  the  east  coast  of  America, 
from  the  Orinoco  to  Cape  Horn. 

Sovereign  (the  Coin).  The  name  of  an  ancient 
OS  well  as  a  modern  English  gold  coin.  In  Henry  I.'s 
reign,  a  coin  of  tbia  denomination  was  issued,  <^  the 
value  of  twenty-two  shillings,  and  one  twenty-fourth 
part  of  the  weight  of  a  pound  of  gold.  In  84  Henry 
VIII.,  sovereigns  were  coined  of  the  value  of  twenty 
shillings,  which  afterward  (4  and  6  Edward  VI.)  passed 
for  twonty-four  and  thirty  shillings.  By  56  George 
III.,  sovereigns  of  the  new  gold  coinage  were  directed 
to  pass  for  twenty  shillings,  and  they  were  issued  from 
the  Mint  the  same  year  (1816),  and  have  since  main- 
tained the  same  value. 

SovereigntyoftheSeaa.  The  claim  of  England 
is  of  very  ancient  date.  Arthur  was  the  first  who  as- 
sumed tho  sovereignty  of  the  seas  for  Britain,  and  Alfred 
afterward  supported  this  right.  The  sovereignty  of 
England  over  the  British  seas  was  maintained  by  Sel- 
den,  and  measures  were  taken  by  government  in  con- 
sequence, 8  Charles  I.,  in  1638.  The  Dutch,  after  the 
death  of  Charles  I.,  made  some  attempts  to  obtain  it, 
but  were  roughly  treated  by  Blake  and  other  admirals. 
Russia  and  other  powers  of  tho  North  armed,  to  avoid 
search,  In  1780;  again  in  1800.— IIaydn. 

Soy,  a  spocies  of  sauce  prepared  in  China  and  Jap- 
an from  a  small  bean,  the  produce  of  tho  Dolichot  toja. 
It  is  eaten  with  fish  and  other  articles.  It  should  be 
chosen  of  a  good  flavor,  not  too  salt  nor  too  sweet,  of 
a  good  thick  consistence,  a  brown  color,  and  clear; 
when  shaken  in  a  glass,  it  should  leave  a  coat  on  the 
surface,  of  a  bright  yellowish  brown  color;  U  it  do 
not,  it  is  of  an  inferior  kind,  and  should  be  rejected. 
Japan  soy  is  deemed  superior  to  the  Chinese.  It  is 
worth,  in  bond,  from  six  to  seven  shillings  sterling  a 
gallon.  It  is  believed  to  be  extensively  counterfeited. 
— ^Milbdrn's  Orient.  Con. 

Spain,  or  FT""'  (_lberia,  Hispania),  a  country 
of  southwestern  Europe,  occupying  the  greater  part  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula,  and  often  termed  colloquially 
"the  Peninsula,"  extending  between  lat.  86°  1'  and 


48°  45'  N.,  and  long.  8°  20'  £.,  and  0°  31'  W.,  boundad 
north  by  the  Bay  of  BiKay  and  by  the  Pyrenees,  wbich 
separate  it  from  France,  east  by  the  Mediterraneu, 
south  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Strait  of  GibraU 
tar,  and  west  by  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Spain  is  rich  in  minerals,  Mpedally  mercury,  iron, 
copper,  and  lead.  The  celebrated  gold  and  silver  mines 
of  tho  time  of  the  Uonians  have  long  been  abandoned, 
but  mercury  is  extracted  in  great  abundance  from  the 
mines  of  Almaden.  Lead  forms  an  Important  branch 
of  mining  industry.  Coal  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Astn- 
rias ;  copper,  tin,  ainc,  antimony,  arsenic,  and  cobalt, 
are  common,  and  lock-salt  is  abundact  in  the  hills  of 
Cardona.  The  principal  rivers  of  Spain  are,  from  north 
to  south,  the  Ter,  Lloliregat,  Ebro,  Ouadalaviar,  Jucar, 
and  Segura,  flawing  cast  to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Minho,  Douro,  Tagns.  Ouadiana,  and  Guadalquivir, 
flowing  mostly  tlirough  Portugal  west  and  south  to  the 
Atlantic.  Few  of  these  are  navigable,  and  those  only 
for  small  boats  near  their  mouths. 

Sptmith  CototiUs.—'Ihii  principal  are  Cuba,  Puerto 
Rico,  and  some  smaller  islands  in  America;  the  Phil- 
ippine and  Marrianno  Islands  in  the  Pacific,  the  Ca- 
nary Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  Fernando  Po  and  tlie  Isl- 
and of  Annabon  in  tho  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  Ceuta,  Go- 
mera,  and  Melilla  in  Barbery.— For  a  full  account  of 
the  Colonies,  see  articles  under  thesa  heads. 

The  PttMic  Debt  of  Spain Hie  following  is  an  ofii- 

cial  return  of  the  state  of  tho  publio  debt  of  Spain  on 
theSOthof  June,  18!)5: 

Three  per  cent  stock,  psyaUo  to  bearer,  and 

Inscriptions  transferable  and  non-tnnifera-  ll««li 

ble(lDtenul) !,0Sl,0n,M4 

Ditto  siren  as  icnarantecs  for  loans  and  con- 
tract   643,012,000 

Ditto  deferred l,5in,li89,4M 

Three  per  cents  (foreign) T18,S»4,<I10 

Ditto  deterred 816,978,400 

Consolidated  bonds  and  other  internal  stock, 

bearing  4  per  cent  Interest 86,S39,49J 

Fire  per  eent  stock  and  inscriptions,  transfer- 
able and  non-transferahle 184,178,111 

Redeemable  debt  lit  class 881,201,486 

Certificates  of  current  debt  at  9  per  cent  la 

riper  (Certiflcaclones  de  diuda  corrlente  al 

porlOOApapel) 495,893,488 

Non-consolidated  bonds «0,847,6!S 

Uminas  Provlaionaics 66,667,888 

Bonds  payable  to  bearer  of  redeemable  debt 

id  class. 866.400,00« 

Provisional  documents  for  interest  on  the  deu- 

dacorrienteiiSporlOOipapel 129,662,fl!» 

Bonds  of  all  kinds  of  the  debt  without  interest 

(dfadaslninterts) ^I'5??'?U 

Inscriptions  of  active  debt  6  per  cent 14,MO,000 

Inscriptions  of  Enflish  claims,  6  per  cent ...  3992 

Ditto  In  favor  of  French  treasury ^'S'lS'lS 

-  -  14,000,000 

88,604,000 

79,662,000 

1,786,183 

8,n4,000 

S,301,800 


Ditto  United  States. 

Foreign  passive  debt 

Inscriptions  of  old  foreign  6  per  cent  debt . . . 

Ditto  foreign  3  per  cents  of  1831 

Actions  of  national  loan  of  1821 

Certiflcatea  of  premium  on  the  Uffltte  loan. ,  „,„v,^ 

Deferred  debt  of  1S31,  witboat  interest 142,810,000 

Bonds  payable  to  bearer  of  foreign  redeemable      .„  ^. ,  „^ 

debt  2d  class 970,064,000 

Capitals  recognised  to  the  owners  of  lay  tithes  118.2JS'JJS 
Oertiflcates  of  ditto,  and  interest  on  the  same  89,677,288 
Pronrietorsofquitrentsoftheorderof  Bt  John 

of  Jerusalem • •  •  •  ■  •  Sl,400 

Interests  of  the  Inscription  In  favor  of  the       _ 

French  treasury 188,760,874  • 

*rencnire«~iry...... ^  88,746,157 


18,648,623 

407,040,748 

48,978,124 


Gapltailcable  interest  at  8  per  cent . 
Interests  of  4  snd  5  per  cent  debt  home  and 

foreign •••;• 

Interest  in  paper  of  the  6  per  eent  cnrrent  debt 
Bonds  issued  for  personal  services  (1st  class). 
State  paper  Issued  for  railway  undertakings 

(acetone  de  ferro  carriles)  ........•••  ■  •  •  •  •       l»2-20O.<»O 

Loans  (by  decrees  and  laws)  of  183S,  1841 ,  1860, 

1851  andl868 192,880,000 

Treasury  biUs,  preferable,  with  interest IJ'SJ'SSi 

Ditto,  non-preferable *^'SS'Sn 

Ditto,  preferable,  without  interest 1«,8TO 

IMtto,  non-preferable,  without  interest '<""'■'"* 

Total  Reals,  1866 18,880,466,110 

The  same  report  states  that  tho  total  amount  o£  »»« 
deemable  debt,  Induding  Ist  and  2d  class,  pd»ch*l«4 


1740 


SPA 


lino*  Iha  Uw  of  1851  to  the  end  of  June,  IHSS,  wm 
9M,98^371  reili,  and  coat  the  atate  n7,101,13t  reali. 

The  climato  of  Spain  varica  oxcoedingly  with  eleva- 
tion and  position ;  it  is  warm  on  the  coaata ;  tlio  tablo- 
Unda  are  exposed  tu  great  heat  In  summer,  and  ex- 
trama  oold  in  winter.  The  soil  Is  generaily  fertile,  ex- 
etpt  In  the  elevated  and  arid  districts  of  the  central 
provinoes;  the  chief  cropa  are  wheat,  malzn,  barley, 
rioa,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  amount  of  corn  is  often  in- 
■ancient  for  home  consumption.  The  wines  of  Spain 
•re  much  esteemed ;  the  principal  growths  are  those  of 
Xares  (sherry).  Rota,  Malaga,  Alicante,  Malvnsla,  and 
Val  de  Penas ;  the  other  products  are  aodik  (from  ma- 
rine plants),  honey,  wax,  and  silk,  the  latter  very 
abundant  In  the  southeastern  provinces.  In  the  rauth- 
am  provinces  the  sugar-cane  and  cotton  have  been  ac- 
climatized, and  tbar«  the  orange  and  citron  grow  in 
great  abundance.  The  liest  building  timber  grows  in 
the  northern  coast ;  the  cork-tree,  the  kerines  oak,  and 
the  shumac-tree,  yield  valnable  products.  The  horses 
of  Andalusia  are  celebrated;  the  mubs  and  asses  are 
remarkable  for  beauty  and  size.  Cattle  are  of  good 
breeds.  The  race  of  sheep  called  the  merino  yiolds  a 
great  quantity  of  excellent  wool ;  their  exportation 
has  always  been  prohibited,  their  pasturage  is  regu- 
lated by  ancient  laws,  and  their  number  is  reckoned  at 
five  or  six  millions. 

Commerce. — There  is  not  at  this  time,  nor  has  there 
aver  been,  a  commercial  treaty  between  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  and  that  of  Spain,  liut  two 
treaties  of  any  kind  have  been  negotiated  between  the 
two  governments — one  purporting  to  be  "  A  treaty  of 
(k'iendship,  limits,  and  navigation,"  signed  October  27, 
1795;  the  other,  "A  treaty  of  amity,  settlement,  and 
limits,"  February  22,  1821. 

In  regard  to  navigation,  the  first-mentioned  treaty 
provided  cbiofly  for  a  state  of  war,  and  prescribed  the 
immunities  and  privileges  to  which  the  vessels  of  each 
should  be  entitled,  in  such  a  contingency,  in  the  ports, 
harbors,  bays,  etc.,  of  the  other. 

By  article  1st,  the  contracting  parties  agree  that 
there  shall  be  a  firm  and  inviolable  peace  and  sincere 
Ariendship  between  his  Catholic  Majesty,  his  success- 
ors and  sulijects,  and  the  United  States  and  their  citi- 
zens, without  exception  of  persons  or  places. — Art.  7. 
The  citiaens  and  sutjects,  vessels  and  effects,  of  each 
of  the  parties,  not  to  be  liable  to  embargo  or  detention 
for  any  military  expedition,  or  other  public  or  private 
purpose,  by  either  party. — Art.  13.  In  the  event  of  a 
war  between  the  contracting  parties,  the  merchants  re- 
siding in  the  dominions  of  cither  to  be  allowed  one  year 

flrom  the  declaration  of  war  to  remove  their  eflTects 

Art.  18.  Ships  of  war  of  either  party,  when  exercis- 
ing right  of  search,  to  remain  out  of  cannon-shot,  and 
to  board  with  two  or  three  men  only ;  and  having  seen 
pass|>ort,  not  to  molest  in  any  manner,  nor  forco  to  quit 
her  intended  course,  the  vessel  so  visited. — Art.  19. 
Consuls  to  be  reciprocally  established,  and  to  bo  enti- 
tied  to  the  privileges  and  powcm  enjoyed  by  those  of 
tho  most  favored  nations. — Art.  22  (1st  section).  The 
two  contracting  parties  to  give  in  future  to  their  mu- 
tual commerce  oil  the  extension  and  favor  which  the 
.^Advantages  of  both  countries  may  require. 

The  treaty  of  1819,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  navigation, 
confirms  all  the  foregoing  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of 
1795;  and  as  no  limit  was  assigned  to  the  duration  of 
that  treaty,  those  stipulations  are  still  in  force,  and, 
with  subsequent  acts  of  legislation,  regulate  the  inter- 
course, navigation,  and  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  its  citizens,  and  the  King  of  Spain,  his  suc- 
oessors  and  subjects,  between  whom  it  is  agreed  "  there 
■ball  be  a  firm  and  inviolable  peace  and  sincere  friend- 
ship, without  exception  of  persons  or  places."  The  oom- 
neroe  between  tho  United  States  and  Spain,  though  at 
all  times  employing  but  a  limited  capital,  commenced  at 
a  period  long  anterior  to  the  American  Revolution.  The 
.Britiil^Ainerican  colonists  wera  permitted,  by  act  of 


Parliament,  to  carry  on  a  direct  trade  in  all  article*, 
except  tobacco  and  naval  stores,  with  countries  south 
of  Cape  Kinisterre.  This  trade  consisted  principally 
In  exporting  from  tho  colonies  lumber,  laths,  and  other 
producs  (tobacco  and  naval  stores  excepted),  and  in 
bringing  home  ratum  cargoes  of  wine,  salt,  fruits,  and 
other  productions  of  the  Spanish  peninsula. 

After  the  peace  of  1783,  a  mora  unrestricted  trade  waa 
opened  between  the  two  countries ;  but,  owing  lo  tba 
prohibition  on  tobacco  (a  policy  adopted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  encouraging  the  growth  of  that  article  in  the 
Spanish  colonial  possessions),  and  the  high  protective 
duties  on  most  of  the  other  leading  staples  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  the  trade  could  not  have  realized  any  hope 
of  profitable  Investment,  or  given  much  encouragement 
to  commerolal  enterprlsis.  The  wines,  fruits,  olive  oil, 
salt,  brandies,  barilla,  silks,  and  wools  of  Spain,  would 
constitute  a  profitable  and  an  easy  exchange  for  the 
productions  of  the  United  States,  particularly  bread- 
stuffs,  tobacco,  and  cotton,  if  that  country  could  be  in- 
duced to  relax  a  system  of  restrictive  policy  whicli  has 
never  realized  the  benefits  it  wns  designed  to  secure, 
and  has  virtually  rendered  Spain,  to  a  great  extent, 
commercially  Isolated  from  the  other  nations  of  tho 
earth.  Her  legislation  in  regard  to  commerelal  In- 
tercourse with  foreign  countries  would  seem  to  be  based 
upon  the  principle  of  possessing  and  scouring  within 
herself  all  the  advantages  of  an  extensive  commeree, 
and  all  the  means  of  luxury,  wealth,  and  power — a 
principle  which,  however  gratifying  to  national  vanity 
it  may  be  in  theory,  needs  no  other  proof  of  its  utter 
impracticability,  if  not  of  its  Inevitably  pernicious  con- 
sequences, tliaii  a  reference  to  what  is  known  of  the 
history  of  Japan  or  China,  or  even  to  the  commerelal 
condition  of  Spain  herself  during  the  last  half  century. 
She  has  ever  maintained  and  exereised  the  right  to  be 
the  solo  arbiter  of  her  commercial  regulations,  and,  aa 
such,  permits  no  foreign  interference  with  her  policy  of 
excluding  from  her  ports  the  produce  of  the  industry 
and  soil  of  other  nations.  Two  features  stand  prom- 
inently forward  in  this  exclusive  and  restrictive  sys- 
tem :  the  first,  the  exclusion  of  commodities  from  any 
country,  except  her  colonial  empire,  especially  before 
Its  dismemberment  and  consequent  dimlnntion ;  and, 
secondly,  by  compelling  the  latter  to  consume  no  man- 
ufactured articles  except  those  of  Spain,  with  tho  view 
that  all  the  precious  metals  should  l^o  sent  to  the  moth- 
er country,  where  they  would  remain  if  no  foreign  mer- 
chandise was  admitted.  Notwithstanding  these  pre- 
cautions, the  precious  metals  were  drained  off  to  for- 
eign countries,  in  exchange  for  the  enormous  contra-, 
band  importations  smuggled  into  Spain,  by  way  of  the 
Basque  provinces,  through  Portugal ;  by  way  of  the 
Mediterranean ;  and  alao  even,  as  they  wero,  and  are 
to  the  present  day,  by  way  of  Gibraltar.  Besides,  an 
extensive  contraband  trade  with  tlie  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  Cuba  and  South  America  was  carried  on  by 
the  British-American  colonies,  thus  draining  off  a  large 
portion  of  the  precious  metals,  which  it  was  tho  policy 
of  the  mother  country  to  monopolize,  at  a  cost  so  fatal 
to  her  commercial  prosperity.  This  contraband  trade 
was,  however,  arrested,  and  after  a  short  time  totally 
suppressed,  by  the  vigilance  of  the  guarda-coitai  sta- 
tioned by  Spain  along  the  coasts,  and  by  the  indiscrim- 
inate seizure  of  all  British  colonial  vessels  found  near 
the  shores  of  the  Spanish  colonies. 

The  trade  with  Spain  of  late  years  exhibits  in  a  most 
strikingtnanner  the  pernicious  eflbct  of  a  system  of  com- 
merelal intercourse  which,  however  well  it  may  have 
fulfilled  its  ends  when  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  the 
South  American  republics,  and  the  Spanish  Polynesian 
islands  all  poured  their  united  treasures  into  the  lap 
of  Spain,  and  thus  rendered  her  to  a  certain  extent  in- 
dependent of  other  nations,  has  long  since  proved  to  be 
the  moat  serious,  if  not  the  only,  obstacle  to  her  regain- 
ing the  proud  and  prominent  position  she  once  held  in 
the  family  of  nations.    The  difference  in  the  amount 


RPA 


1741 


SPA 


of  asporti  IxtWMn  (ha  pariodi  of  1834  tnd  1854  U  at- 
tributable to  tha  partUl  rcUxMion  of  tho  reitrlctive 
•yitem  within  th«  past  fuw  years,  particularly  the  mod- 
lAMlioiii  which  tho  tariir  hiu  uiulorgons  •ince  1840; 
but  tho  RTOat  disproportion  botwoen  imiwrts  and  ax- 
porU,  resulting  in  so  large  a  baliinca  against  Spain, 
ihowa  that  tho  prohibitions  and  restrictions  are  oa  yet 
but  partially  abated. 

Of  the  article  of  tobacco,  about  C,0OO,00O  lbs.  la  smug, 
glad  annually  from  GibralUr  into  Spain,  and  about 
4,000,000  Iba.  la  exported  from  the  sanio  dep6t  to  Oran, 
Algiers,  Malta,  and  other  places.  Spain,  in  tho  face 
of  thia  contraband,  still  mainuins  her  royal  tobacco 
mono|ioly.  Exclusive  of  tho  tobacco  smuggled  Into 
Spain  from  Uibraltar.  it  is  smuggled  along  the  whole 
north  and  west  coaaU  of  Spain.  Tlio  extension  of  the 
Spanish  cuatoms  to  the  aeo-coasts  and  porta  of  Biscay 
in  1844  haa  not  diminished,  but,  it  is  asserted,  has 
greatly  increased,  tho  contraband  trade.— MxconEG- 
OH,  pkrta  13  and  14,  p.  96. 

Notwithstanding  the  apparently  satisfactory  ruaults, 
the  commerce  of  the  United  Slnlos  with  Spain,  in  Amer- 
ican bottoms,  is  perceptibly  declining.  Varloua  causes 
conspire  to  tliia  result,  among  which  may  bo  regarded 
aa  tho  most  prominent  tho  enormous  diRcrcntial  duties 
imposed  on  imports  under  all  foreign  flngs,  and  tho  dis- 
criminating  duties  of  port  and  navigation,  amounting 
to  100  per  cent,  on  American  vessels  in  favor  of  nation- 
al, and  what  is  styled  "privileged  vessels;"  or,  in  oth- 
er words,  the  vessels  of  nearly  all  other  foreign  nations. 
Besides,  American  vessels  aro  frequently  exposed  to 
local  restrictions  (doubtless  unauthorized  by  tho  gov- 
ernment) in  the  difl'erent  ports,  to  which  they  must 
either  quietly  submit,  or  incur  all  the  expense,  delay, 
and  trouble  of  protesting  against  tho  action  of  oflScials 
whose  power  In  such  cases  Is  as  unlimited  as  Ita  excr- 
ciae  is  arbitrary  and  oppressive.  Vessels  of  the  follow- 
ing nations  are  ascertained  to  be  of  this  class :  England, 
France,  Holland,  Portugal,  Russia,  Prussia,  Sardinia, 
Belgium,  Hamburg,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Tuscany, 
Bremen,  Papal  States,  Denmark,  Br,<2ll,  Ecuador,  Lb- 
beck,  Hanover,  Mecklenburg,  Oldenbjrg,  and  Sicily. 

This  has  been  a  subject  of  frequent  complaint  on  the 
part  of  American  captains,  but  thus  far  without  obtain- 
ing relief.  The  United  States  consul  at  Malaga,  un- 
der date  of  April  3,  1854,  adverting  to  this  subject, 
says :  "  Although  subject  to  tlio  Central  Board  at  Mad- 
rid, [quarantine  regulations]  are  almost  entirely  un- 
der the  control  of  tho  local  board  of  this  city,  •  •  * 
ordering  vessels  off  to  lazarettos,  *  *  ♦  in  tho 
face  of  clean  bills  of  health  ccrtiHed  by  Spanish  con- 
suls, upon  mere  reports,  without  any  olBcial  informa- 
tion to  warrant  such  extraordinary  measures." 

The  following  table  will  show,  approximately,  to 
what  extent  the  direct  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain  has  fallen  off  within  the  past  few  years. 
Most  of  this  trade  ia  carried  on  through  the  port  of 
Malaga. 

TOMMAOI  OF  AMXaiOAM   VmsILB  KKTHtim  AT  THE  POBT  OF 

Malaua  in  Tua  roux>wi!<u  Yeabs. 


Yesii.  Tou. 

184« 15,!jT0 

184T 13,288 

1848 ]6,e9J 

IStff 1B,G62 


Yean.  Tou 

I860 18,600 

18.51 11,918 

1858 12,610 

IS58 11.3T6 


The  falling  off  in  tonnage  which  the  above  table  ex- 
bibita  is,  however,  perfectly  reconcilable  with  the  com- 
parative tables  for  1854  and  1882,  when  we  take  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  ex- 
porta  to  the  United  States  is  carried  by  privileged  ves- 
tals; and  even  national  vessels,  notwithstanding  the 
discriminating  duty  of  10  per  cent,  to  which  they  are 
snl^ct  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  participate 
largely  in  this  carrying  trade,  for  tho  purpose  of  return- 
ing with  cargoes  of  cotton  for  Malaga  and  Barcelona, 
or  with  codfish  from  Newfoundland. 

The  great  articles  of  export  i>om  Spain  consist  (ex> 
elasiveoftilki>unuiiactims)ofnwproduot(.  Oftbeae 


wine,  oUvt  oil,  wool,  flruiu  of  varioua  kluda,  lend,  qiii«||. 
silvar,  brandy,  cork -wood,  salt,  raw  silk,  wbaal,  •!«. 
are  the  moat  important,  and  an  almoat  all  toaoaptlbk 
ofanindeflniteincreaae. 

The  great  articlea  of  import  are  colonial  producia, 
obtained  principally  from  Cuba,  Porto  KIco,  etc.  i  cot- 
tona  and  cotton  wool ;  linena,  and  hemp  and  flaa  i 
woolena;  aalted  flsh;  hanlware,  glass,  and  earthaa. 
ware ;  timber,  rice,  bldea,  butter  and  cheeae,  ate.  Sub- 
joined ia 

An  AooooitT  or  ma  VAims  o»  nii  wncpirAi  Aaneiaa  or 
Mativk  faoDuoi  EXFoario  raoM  hPAiN  in  1840,  aiiowiNo 

ALBO  TUt  FEOPOatlONAl  VAUla  Or  NAOII  A  ITIOtl 


ArticlM  In  ih«  OnUr  it  Ihtit 
impwuntt 


rine. 


Wine,  alierry  . 
"      common  , 
"      Malaga ., 

ToUli 
Olira-oll  , 

Flour 

Quioksllrer 

Lead 

Ilttlslns 

Wool 

Coin 

Cork-wood  

Brandy 

Cochineal , 

Silver  In  ban 

Salt 

Num 

Soap 

Silk , 

Mquorlce 

Almonds  

Orangcfl ': 

811k  goods 

Saffron 

Hides 

Iron 

Woolen  gooda 

Wheat 

Shoes  

Paibu 

Maize 

Cattle 

Oarbamoii,  or  chick-pea . 

Osriin  stuff 

■i''''it<>  paper 


Secig   mattings,  etc, 

Lome  \M 

Sausages 

Hempen  yam 

on  or  almonds 

Kidney  beans 

Sugar 

Salted  codfish 

Grapes 

All  other  articlea 

Total 


VilMJa 
Rnia  Valloa 


T.'.ailO,«90 

>2,TAn,Te8 

4.162, 1*1 


lu<l,'iM,l7» 

46.Tli;,MT 

1<II,8IW,(62 

116,2311.840 

8S,Mt,6I4 

S«,74ft,848 

14,389,281 

ia,3u2,0O2 

I8,18l,4» 

12,922,000 

11,287,903 

10,004,603 

9,941, 3i7 

B,  724,628 

6,e;i0,463 

4,1W.4$6 

8,477,236 

8,441,264 

8,i'>ll6,3!IO 

2,7Mi,l<72 

2,7|-,B3S 

2K77,4I6 

8,226,(1(16 

2,139,619 

1,006.844 

1,122,679 

1.810,929 

1,666,216 

1,001,798 

1,600,24!) 

1,603,122 

1,479,278 

1.440,014 

1,&'i8,U4'.» 

1,340,2K) 

1,209.765 

1,177,724 

1,160.446 

l,0:m,648 

1,(;87,086 

1,044.879 

016,718 

912,763 

80,7£6,9»0 


ufToUlValM. 


995 
7'8B 
T-7t 
6«4 
<SB 
8-06 
S'84 
9-81 
»'76 
2-46 
213 
«lt 
1-18 
M7 
088 
0-T4 
0-T4 
0-78 
0B8 
OBT 
OM 
047 
0^46 
041 
041 
0-40 
036 
084 
034 
032 
0-88 
0-30 
0-29 
0-tS 
026 
0-86 
OU 
0-24 
0^3 
0-22 
020 
019 
666 


469,ul0.(i|7 


100-00 


The  importance  of  the  trade  that  Spain  formerly 
carried  on  with  her  viist  possessions  in  the  New  AVorld 
was  at  all  times  much  exaggerated ;  and  she,  in  truth, 
was  littlo  bettor  than  an  agent  in  the  business,  the 
greater  part  of  the  goods  sent  on  Spanish  bottoms  to 
the  colonies  being,  in  reality,  the  property  of  foreign 
merchants.  Spain,  notwithstanding  tho  emancipation 
of  Mexico  and  South  America,  has  still  some  ver;-  val- 
uable colonies ;  and,  if  nothing  else  can,  the  astonirh- 
ing  progress  made  by  Cuba  and  Porto  Kico  since  the 
abolition  of  the  prohibitive  system,  should  satisfy  her 
of  its  ruinous  tendency. 

iVeio  Organization  of  Port*. — By  royal  decree  of  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1854,  a  new  organization  is  made  of  the  cua- 
toms ser\'ice  by  land  and  sea,  the  principal  features  of 
which  it  may  be  interesting  to  the  mercantile  interesta 
of  the  United  States  to  have  noted.  As  regards  the 
sea,  it  divides  tho  service  into  four  classes.  The  flnt 
class  comprises  importation,  exportation,  re-exporta- 
tion, coasting-trade,  and  all  other  commercial  opera- 
tions in  the  ports  of  Alicante,  Almeria,  Barcelona,  BU- 
boa,  Cadiz,  Carthagena,  Palma  do  M^orca,  San  Se- 
bastian, Santander,  Seville,  Tarragcoa,  and  Vigo.  In 
tba  aetwnd  class,  comprising  tbe  porta  of  Carril,  FiJo* 


SPA 


1742 


SPA 


niM,  Md  Mrwleo,  lh«  Inipnrtalloii  nt  cotton  tliiiusii  I* 
not  to  tw  permitted.  In  the  porti  of  lbs  third  cUm, 
comprithig  thoM  of  MrtntMn  provlncw,  only  eortkin 
•paclfled  article!,  principally  raw  mattrlali,  are  to  be 
Imported  and  exported ;  and  In  thoea  of  the  (burth  olait, 
eomprlsing  lixteen  provlncM  and  the  Baleario  lilei, 
only  eoMtlng-lrndo  oparationi  and  exporta  aro  to  ba 
allowed.  As  regarda  the  land,  It  Is  divided  Into  thrte 
claiiei,  and  the  ragulatlona  are  framed  aolely  with  a 
view  to  prevent  amuggllng.  They  do  not,  however, 
poeeoH  luffloient  intereet  for  Ineertlon  here  at  length. 

The  principal  porta  are,  Alloant,  a  aea-port  In  Valen- 
cia, lat.  88°  HO'  ■11"  N.,  long.  80'  W.  Tl<e  harbor  la 
open  and  apacloiia,  between  Cape  de  la  Huerta  on  the 
northeast,  and  lala  Plana  on  the  aouth,  dtatant  from 
each  other  about  ten  milea.  Shipa  of  conalderable  bur- 
don  moor  n^)m  one-fourth  to  one  mile  fh>m  ahore.  In 
fh)m  80  to  40  feet  of  water ;  thoy  are  exposed  to  all 
winda  from  the  east-northoast  to  south  by  west ;  but 
the  holding-ground  la  good,  and  there  Is  no  Inatance 
of  a  ablp  having  been  driven  from  bar  mooring*  in  the 
paat  twenty  years. 

Barcelona,  the  principal  town  of  Spain  on  the  Med- 
iterranean, In  lat.  41°  22'  N.,  anl  long.  2°  10'  E.  The 
harbor  la  naturally  bad,  and  is  formed  by  a  mola  or 
Jetty.  The  depth  of  water  within  the  mole  la  ttom  18 
to  20  feet ;  but  there  la  a  bar  between  the  mole  and 
Mai\Jni,  and  which  has  frequently  not  more  than  ton 
foet.  Vessels  inside  the  mole  aro  safe,  largeveaaela 
have  to  anchor  outalde,  and  are  much  Incommoded  by 
the  winda. 

Bilbao,  sometlmea  Incorrectly  written  Belboa,  a  sea- 
port in  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

Cadlc,  the  principal  commercial  city  and  sea-port  of 
Spain,  on  its  southwestern  coast,  on  the  rocky  and  el- 
evated extremity  of  a  narrow,  low  peninsula,  or  tongue 
of  land,  projecting  fh>m  the  lata  de  Leon  N.N.W. 
about  4^  nautical  miles.  It  is  surrounded  on  all  sides 
except  the  south — where  it  Joins  the  land — by  the  sea, 
and  is  very  atrougly  fortlHed.  Population  In  1837, 
68,626.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  at  a  distance  a  very 
striking  appearance.  The  tower  or  light-house  of  St. 
Sebastian  stands  on  the  western  aide  of  the  citv,'  being 
in  lat.  86°  81'  7"  N.,  long.  6°  18'  62"  W.  It  \»  a  moat 
conapionous  object  to  vesaels  approaching  from  the  At- 
lantic The  light,  which  is  172  feet  high,  la  of  great 
brilliancy,  revolves  once  a  minute,  and  In  fair  weather 
may  be  seen  more  than  six  leagues  olf. 

Ban  "f  Cadiz. — The  entrance  to  this  noble  basin  lies 
between  the  city  and  the  town  and  promontory  of  Rota, 
bearing  northwest  by  north,  diatant  about  1}  ieaguea. 
The  bay  is  of  very  great  extent,  aflbrding  in  moat 
placea  goo4  anchorage.  The  port  is  on  the  eastern 
aide  of  the  r''.y,  where  a  large  mole  has  been  con- 
stmeted. 

By  a  royal  order  of  January  8, 1862,  it  was  decreed 
that  all  fbreign  veaaela  belonging  to  countries  whero 
Spanish  vesaels  are  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  na- 
tional, with  respect  to  port  dues  and  charges,  should 
enjoy  a  like  privilege  in  the  ports  of  Spain  and  a^h- 
oent  islands ;  but,  practically,  this  decree  was  not  per- 
'  mitted  to  apply  to  vessels  of  the  United  States,  and 
they  continued  sulject  to  double  the  amount  of  such 
dues  and  charge*  paid  by  other  foreign  and  the  nation- 
al vessels.  The  reason  for  the  non-fulfillment  of  this 
provision,  as  respects  this  country,  was  the  refusal  of 
the  government  of  the  United  States  to  receive  vessels 
in  its  port*  on  equal  terms  from  Cnba  and  Porto  Rico ; 
and  the  government  of  Spain  reftised  to  accede  to  such 
condition,  a*  It  desired  to  secure  this  benefit  for  its  ma- 
rine, from  whareaoaver  her  vessels  might  proceed.  On 
the  16th  of  June,  1864,  however,  the  American  minis- 
ter at  Madrid  was  offidally  informed  by  the  Spanish 
Minister  of  State  that  her  Majesty  the  Queen  had  been 
pleased  to  command  that  American  vessels  "  be  consid- 
ered in  the  peninrala  and  adjacent  islands  like  nation- 
al one*,  a*  regard*  the  duties  of  port  and  navigation,  in 


reriproclty  far  what  I*  practloed  with  lh«  Spanish  ▼••• 
sels  proceeding  from  the  same  place*  In  the  United 
States,  and  with  rsferance  to  the  same  duties."  Tb« 
offlolal  notification  addad,  that '  corresponding  order* 
had  been  given,  "under  date  of  the  14th  lost.,  to  the 
general  direction  of  custom-house*  and  tarillk,"  to  caN 
ry  Into  eflbct  the  dispositions  of  this  order. 

The  elltect  of  the  above-recited  royal  order  will  ba  (o 
place  American  shipping  on  an  equality,  aa  reapaota 
(he  dutiea  of  port  and  navlKation,  with  national  and 
privileged  veaaela,  and  thua  reciprocate  the  term*  on 
which  Spaniah  veaaela  have  been  Mlmltlad  Into  the  port^i 
of  the  United  Statea  aince  1862.  Should  thia  be  fbl- 
lowed  up  by  a  liberal  modlAcation,  or  an  entire  aboli- 
tion, of  the  enormoua  discriminating  duties  levied  on 
foreign  Imports  in  tiie  ports  of  Spain,  the  commercial 
Intercourse  between  the  two  countries  would  soon  be- 
come a  source  of  Industrial  development  and  national 
proaperity,  equally  beneficial  and  profitable  to  each. 
The  quarantine  regulationa  of  Spain  have  always  baan 
complicated  and  vexation*.  They  were  almpllAed, 
however,  by  a  aanltary  tariff,  promulgated  Daoambar, 
1866,  a  translation  of  which  is  suljoined : 

TABirV  OF  BANITARY  1I0TIK8  BXACTBD  IN  THS 
roBTS  KSU  LAZAHBTTOS  OF  SPAIN, 

EnlnuKt  ZMtea.—Oouting  vessel*  of  more  than 
twenty  tons  burden  will  pay  one  quarter  of  a  real  par 
ton  fur  the  round  voyage. 

Vessels  proceeding  from  the  ports  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  other  ports  of  Europe,  including  the  coast  of 
Africa  to  the  parallel  of  the  Canary  Islands,  will  pay 
one  half  of  a  real  per  ton  for  the  round  voyage. 

Vessels  from  other  placea  will  pay  one  real  par  ton 
each  voyage. 

QuaroHtint  />ii(ief.— Vessels  of  every  class  will  pay 
one  quarter  of  h  real  per  ton  each  day  they  ara  sulject 
to  quarantine,  whether  in  actual  laxarettos  or  undergo- 
ing obeervation. 

Loiantlo  Dut%e$.—1ha  fee  for  each  person  in  the  lai- 
aretto  will  ba  four  reals  per  diem. 

Merchandise  subject  to  purification  will  pay  a*  fol- 
low*: 

The  clothing  and  baggtiie  of  each  of  the  crew S  real*. 

The  clotlilDg  and  bSKgage  of  each  puaenger 10    " 

Hides  of  cows,  per  100 6    " 

Finesklna 8    " 

Ooat,  thaep,  lambskins,  and  the  skin*  of  other 

•null  animals,  per  100 i    " 

Feathers,  goaU'-natr,  soft  balr,  wool,  cotton,  bemp, 

and  flax,  per  quintal 1    ■' 

\jage  live  antnala,  lueh  as  horses  and  mules,  each    8    " 
Small  animals,  each 4    " 

Cerliflcatet  a/ Utallh  ahall  be  made  out,  and  legally 
attested,  firee  of  charge. 

Ae^{a<ioii<.— Vessels  in  quarantine  deftly  all  tba 
expenses  attending  the  discharge  of  merchandise,  its 
transfer  to  the  sheds  and  work-houses,  and  its  purifica- 
tion. They,  in  like  manner,  pay,  as  an  additional 
duty,  the  expenses  attending  the  application  of  hygiene 
measures,  which  must  be  employed  before  the  depart- 
ure or  arrival  of  the  embarkations,  as  the  regulations 
dispose,  or  as  the  condition  of  the  vessel  may  require. 
During  all  the  incidents  of  quarantine,  every  possible 
facility  is  to  be  aflbrded  to  vessels,  no  expense  being 
permitted  without  the  knowledge  or  consent  of  the  cap- 
tain, agent,  or  consignee.  All  persons  who  perform 
quarantine  in  the  lazaretto*  defray  all  the  necessary  ex- 
penses, inasmuch  as  the  four  reals  per  diem  which  i*  ex- 
acted from  each  is  only  the  fee  for  residence. 

Where  Spanish  vessels  are  about  to  depart  ttom  A 
port  of  the  United  States  with  any  goods,  wares,  or 
merchandise,  for  any  destination  other  than  some  port 
or  place  in  the  islands  of  Cuba  or  Porto  Rico,  the  bond 
and  security  required  by  the  8d  section  of  the  act  of 
80th  June,  1834,  are  exacted  in  all  such  cases,  beforo 
allowing  clearance  or  departure  of  the  vessels. 

A  Spanish  vessel  leaving  a  port  of  Spain  for  a  port 
in  Cuba,  but,  not  finding  there  a  aatlilkotory  market, 


npA 


t 


1748 


SPA 


5  roll 
10    " 

e  " 

6  " 

a 

«4 

1 

II 

kd  \egtJ\f 

ix  kll  the 

VndlM,  its 
J  parlflc«- 
tddllional 
tfhygieno 
he  depart- 
^guUtions 

f  require. 

/  pouiblo 

jnae  being 

|f  the  cap- 

I  perforin 

jeiiaryex- 

Llch  ii  ex- 

Irt  {torn  A 
Iwarea,  or 
^mepoTt 
J  the  bond 
Iho  act  of 
les,  before 

for  a  port 
r  market, 


pnaMdlng,  ttlltiiitil  liftaklnit  I'mIIi  of  talitnir  In  any 
Koui »  al  nalil  LInihI,  In  a  port  In  Iho  irnit«l  Nut», 
mwM  nut  iMi  (iilry  It*  ,u\^^,U',i  to  nny  other  or  hlahc^ 
dHllM  tif  liiiliiatfM  ..r  ImpoMx  iIirh  ,\,»  would  Im  if  ,||. 
rant  rrimi  a  purl  t,l  Mimln  to  the  (Jnlud  Staica:  ih* 
yuynuu,  unilar  llie  vlniiiiiintanmi,  iNtnu  rtnrded  u 
MflilnuiiMi,  " 


CtiMMiaKii  nr  HfttR  m  tni  V»Aa  IWi 


pviinftni- 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 

MriiHi*n  Mi  lUmlNint 

aanlinli ,. 

Dmmaniiiiiiii 

TwnNMII*! ., 

Nnwiin  Nlatw........ 

r  raaia  tiiftiMiiniituft 
N«il|«rUn4(  ■  I <, 

l4iitittiiiiiiit(«ii 


iiiiiiiiiiiiit 

litlMIIIII**! 


KivUmi.. 
I'wriHHal 

i'ruMlii  t . .  t 

HitMla  ...I 

Nwiwtfl  iiitiiiKitifiiiiit 

'rMiinifly,..M • 

TiirliKy 

Urtal  ttrllain ,,,, 

TmUI 

llillliHilnnit,,, ',,,,,, 

Klillllan  l'iHNH)M(nn«  ■  ■  •  I  •  ■ . 

Kmiiilliar , . , . , .,,,. 

ThIiiI ,,, 

AlgMr*, ,..,..,.. 

l'<iiXI>t 

Miiriiwi)  milt  tiiiiU 

I'WlHHUIIlHt  HSIWMMkltl* .... 

Tiilnl ,.,,., 

lMMI|i< 

(iiilw  itnil  I'Dfiii  lllm ...... 

iliaall 

m\\ 

K«lll|l|Hf  ..,,,,...,,..,,.,, 

i;nlt«i«  NIkKiii, ,.,,., 

(Iimtoiiialit .,,,........,., 

Munliui, ,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, 
Ni)w(irMi«4ai., ,...,..,,, 
I'um ,,,,.....,...,.,..... 

lllailRllaU,.. 

\[m»»r..., 

VaimiiHtila, ...... ..,.,.,,. 

|l|tn|l||l(;'u|flfl|ti|l,,,,,,,,,, 

Vraniili  CJul«nli<i , . , . , 

KiiWlUliCulonioii,.,...,.,, 
Tttlal 

((fM'll  l"«l,  Kl<llll . , . 


Im^orla. 

N»h 

MMn.MT 

«,»io,ra« 
4,«i4,iiiia 

4,T1lt.B1T 

HVS.BM 

49,VW 

ll.*lll,«tA 

IIB.MV.ilTO 

II.WII.IiBI 

IM.lWfO'M 

»,Wt,«(» 

in9,6(K) 

l,l«ll,Tn« 

Uomaso 

9,»lin,AM 

IMjIiijVWW 

SS.'i'id.llW 

«.no« 

MJ.tSfl 
l.fttl.UM 

Kiw.Win 
ii»,nno 

o.im.nt 

mmn 

I9.i4i,niii) 

9,1)11,000 

01111,070 

90,040 

M.AIM.BIO 

jo.Min,iiot 

91,118,007 


19.098.090 

lM,f.;l(i,W 


k»la. 

874,010 

S.S4l),Tlft 

14,1)01,400 

9ll,4M,»'2b 

10,»80,8IM 

1,40fl,4fi8 

877,1 0'i 

208.491.957 

4.000,1(89 

.100,990,009 

81.l>l>ft,«<i9 

7.408,974 

9.0M,10I 

4,970,887 

19,879,ii05 

1,000,091 

14,810,880 


089,000,000 

T,S.11,804 
1,101,904 


8lll.4rti,944 


V,T02,«98 

T,071,9O8 

90.160 

670.848 

76,840 

8,648,006 

161.018,480 
O.OM.Oau 

7,786.8;« 

ai.ooo 
67,ai2,9.';i 

1.1,080 
T,l94,6tl9 

n,flV3",iT4 

8?.08!l,-lfl4 

o,8in,oos 

1,486,007 

411,007 

16,000 

B,l!68,810 


9119.468.084 


1103,6119,783 


The  nurlna  •er>lce  of  Spain  in  IH6ft  condiled  of  four 
veneln  of  the  line,  nine  frlgalen,  eight  corveltei,  fifteen 
brlg«  of  the  flr»t,  and  four  of  the  wcond  cUm  ;  dve 
ichooner»,  aix  iloops,  forty  itenmera,  and  three  hund- 
red and  nineteen  anialler  craft,  mounting  in  all  12A0 
ordinary,  and  IWO  awlvei  gum. 

The  Imports  Into  and  exports  from  Spain  for  tha 
year  1800  are  shown  as  follows: 

Import,  of  1860 MM7  U.t 

Import.  on865 7M.160.9B9 

InomaMin  1660 116,091.441 

Export.  In  1860 1,148,010.  lilO 

lutpotts  In  1866 1,940,784,609 

Dccressa  In  1866 900,174,408 

From  this  exhibit  wo  see  that  In  the  aggregate  there 
was  a  decided  decrease  In  the  trade  of  Spain  in  the 
year  1H5C  over  that  of  1866. 

Statement  showing  the  American  merchant  vessels 
which  arrived  at  Cadiz  in  five  years,  1849  to  186a  in- 
clusive : 

Y»n. 

1840 

181)0 

IWil 

18V.' 

1S.M 


Total . 


Vimb. 

Mm. 

T«u. 

60 

801 

94.1110 

47 

BOT 

10.400 

46 

014 

1S,B8;I 

46 

078 

91,1IT 

80 

l)-» 

ll.eOT 

93'i 

0094 

09,140 

American  and  other  foreign  vessels  can  only  trade 
iMtwocn  Spain  and  other  countries;  they  can  not  par- 
ticipate in  any  Spanish  coasting,  domestic,  or  internal 
trade. 

The  navigation  and  trade  between  ilie  United  Slates 
and  Spain  docs  not  increase.  The  tariff  of  Spain  ex- 
cludes most  of  the  staple  articles  of  the  L'nited  Slates, 
such  OS  grain,  breadstulTs,  rice,  tobacco,  etc.,  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  import  from  the  United  States  being 
undressed  oak  staves  for  wine-casks.  In  order  to  pro- 
mote navigation  and  trade  between  the  two  countrieii, 
it  la  necessary  tliat  high  dutici,  prohibitions,  and  re- 
strictive measures  on  both  sides  should  cease. 


tnMP*k*)'IVK  HtATttMPHf  rtf  tllH  t'oiiiii<?tioii  or  init  1'kiti!1)  Rtatib  with  Spain,  inci.udino  tmi  Canakizr  aiii>  PiiTt,. 

Ifl'IMH   lOI.ANIIHI    aSIIIHItlttO  tllH  VAI.fH  or  KXPORTB  TO  ANII  iMrORTH  VROSi  KACII  CorNTBV,  ANII  Till  ToNNAUK  or 

ANKKIUAN  ANII  fOaifltlN  Vl;FiKl!t.s  AHRIviKO  raosi  anu  iikpabti.no  to  kacii  Country,  ddbino  the  Vxabs  dsbkinatkd. 


Visn. 

-- 

COMMftRCK. 

HAVIftATION.                                                          1 

V«l«»  ul  Kipotli. 

V.lu.  of 
ImpotU. 

American  Tunnivt. 

KurvlKB  Tunuiitfe.            | 

lliminMr 
huinrf. 

lf4M,l*r 

IVt.ljii 

ToUI. 

k'nteml  Uia 

C'l»nd  tt»in 

Kntend  Iba 

CUrti.1  fTum 

MNHlUeff. 

l.'iilird  SUtel. 

VnlMd  SIttM. 

llnlleU  8l>tM. 

UnIM  8UI«. 

1845,  „'„,;■,■,;,,, 

«ii4,ll70 

r>10,704 

$1.76,1.877 

0I.4%H 

14,184 

10,774 

9,116 

ISM 

MI.Will 

01,140 

000,740 

].9.W,74') 

27.081 

10.949 

6.42-J 

o,ir8 

1H4T 

9,0fm,1(rt 

0(1.1)08 

9,102,064 

1,847.179 

.17.133 

2ft  8"6 

14.079 

17.800 

m»,,., 

9,nsi),l4l 

91.047 

9,407,788 

9,499,609 

43.07T 

2.\2T0 

10,849 

99,68T 

It^O., ........... 

\,m,-m 

OO.flilll 

1,0(14,801 

9.486.910 

8S.7ro 

27,584 

11,891 

80642 

IK**....,,.....,. 

ll,«IKI.II09 

1 01.1198 

4.001,900 

0,604,484 

4?,797 

27,885 

00,004 

48.848 

1h61 ,, 

«,(,»,  19^ 

161.180 

6.700.314 

0.444.070 

3.M'83 

40.IB1 

28.439 

61.400 

lli.'>».,,..., 

H,4(fl.nio 

1BJ.4IT 

3.WI7.I!)7 

8.360.009 

Ol.UCS 

2S,ti74 

22,402 

63,689 

1S6S,,..,,.,...., 

4,«49,T4» 

bl.s48 

4.004.638 

4.040.090 

47,000 

40.019 

24,279 

47,(97 

INW.,.,.,,,,.,.. 

4,(!(KI.I»I 

7'.4"4 

4.798.076 

6.122.468 

4.5.104 

88.024 

10,060 

4t.2Sl 

)m ,,.,.. 

4.TIKI.9M 

'141,019 

6.140.804 

B.  SCO.  108 

01.090 

66.709 

00,087 

49,808 

A  Pl|j»l»l*aif  ur  mm  Amoiftif  or  NatIo)«ai.  Tonhaoi,  aito  or  the  number  or  ErriciENT  Peamen  maAoiD  m  the  Com- 
MHtliJM  ANti  Sayau  Xebtice  or  Xpaim,  AS  opriciAiiY  btated,  roR  tub  Year  18B3. 


ItMrUlii, 

THjr»r,7;,v," 

Psrrol,,,,,, 
(isrtliitHKna , 
lli)v*na,,,,< 
Hanlll* 

Tolsl,, 


Mii.lm, 

l'i)<,K,»l<; 

Afllw 
SMMtn. 

Nunibar  .,f 

V«Wi*lfl  over 

4m  Ton.. 

Number  of 
Veaaels  from 
WO  lo  400  Tone. 

Number  of 
VeMeli  from 
60  lu  900  Tone. 

Number  of 
Veweli  from 
W  to  80  Tone. 

Veeeeb  of 
ForelBn 
bulllT. 

Hlaiiniera. 

Vaiaala 
bulldlat. 

T.1T4 

mn 
m 

^ii.flfir" 

99.110 

«n,8(il 

9,061 
It.ttil 

4 
11 

IB 
T 

9 

26 
T4 
118 
SO 
16 

02 

849 

8S0 

99 

84 

813 
442 

iiro 

296 
1244 

89 
18 
28 

889 
10 

12 
6 
0 

20 

18 

62 
70 
23 

;!i,*4i 

rnM_ 

46 

26B 

067 

848T 

484      1        40 

m 

KoTK-^In  this  riiiiMiB^  Iho  noatneii,  tonnsge,  etc.,  of  the  province  of  Porto  Klco  ai«  omitted;  and  there  are  some  omla> 
•ton*  alH  in  tlio  pruviiHMi  ef  ViMOOttados,  Fhlllpplnes,  etc 


SPA 


1744 


8PA 


noHMnni  Of  ti 

88  l.'lllT8l>  Hn 

ATM  WITH 

8r*IH  ON   Til 

1  Atiamtio,  r 

iB^lM. 

tnUI. 

■nM  n<iTc>n»  1,  1810, 

TO  Jolt  1, 

1WT. 

Ymh  MHllai 

tLtfMit. 

WliAnW  llicn  wwia 

*alHN  HHt  Iff 

Twft 

ltM4. 

ihnlMtt*. 

raMlfll. 

♦  iSO.BflO  ■ 

'tdtal. 

■•pM« 

Iiiif<n« 
$9I,10<> 

4iMrl>M 
■*,1.4 

-t^fisj 

»^.h.t»ii...::: 

"TS'M.TOT" 

■■■■**l4,lliKi  ■ 

*964,oK~ 

'      \»n 

iid.'iio 

87,749 

IM0I9 

099,03A 

$8,0*0 

8,000 

8,070 

m 

IIU 

1UM,IHMI 

i:a,u«« 

1118.089 

e<M,487 

0,008 

4.898 

\»H 

140, 488 

888, 4M 

008.870 

',00,0«'l 

01,004 

8.0H4 

, . . , 

1M» 

18,MB 

89,791 

108.987 

944,884 

■  •  t  • 

8(N) 

9.840 

18M 

Tl,8ia 

99,9<7 

08,040 

839,718 

•    •    4    • 

l.:ioo 

8,4^0 

480 

18«T 

14,781 

47.178 

191,088 

104,380 

1,800 

9,M» 

IMS 

40.1148 

100,008 

94<),it;i9 

910,084 

no.frio 

840 

9,088 

7rHi 

1»» 

^4^7(>a 

180,189 

880.480 

897,400 

00,000 

U,40ll 

11,710 

1,000 

ISW 

ToUl ... 

Ba8.IM 
|l,oe7,88< 

<I,U97 

800,983 

481,907 

90  470 

0,881 

h6,(,o:r 

9,011 

« 1,948, 181 

$8,8lN),80S 

$0,070,780 

"  iM.oiiA' 

$iJi;,098 

a(pl.M,188l 

|88S,B84 

(88,49A 

$i«0,011 

$088,079 

$4.0110 

$10,400 

4,008 

1,048 

I88il 

»0«,M4 

44,891 

1147,91)0 

877,48a 

9,000 

O,!!-*!! 

8(138 

9,011 

iwa 

9ni.«ltt 

94.071 

99*.  100 

837,704 

1,891 

84  4.8 

0,798 

l,B3T 

1M4 

908,744 

90,083 

997,777 

840.860 

•,806 

9,401 

d,lB« 

{:5?t 

law 

4S0,«84 

87,980 

018,914 

408,040 

70,419 

9,3lN 

0,14T 

18M 

004,0'iO 

40.980 

801.900 

7118,708 

98,914 

3.4'0 

0,071 

4,091 

188T 

Kno.OOll 

48,700 

978,840 

4(10,487 

10,000 

10,4W 

9,794 

0,818 

1888 

I87,4(in 

19,470 

140.810 

1.14,9(10 

19,980 

78,708 

6,801 

1,081 

1888 

aid,i44 

89,014 

848.  IM 

908,1118 

3,0J0 

•  t  .  . 

10,199 

1,817 

1840 

ToUl... 

ia7,8:iB 

B,8U9 

140,074 

9iO,8IO 

1,870 
$"l01,78r^ 

.IJiT 

11,100 

9418 

VlWfiit 

«li88,9U 

$8,l88,'r.i.l 

$4,088,070 

$101,080 

79,099 

98,070 

8fl>tnO,lS4l 

$.'08,1118 

$17,819 

$991,140 

$100,797 

$19,010 

$8,900 

7.067 

1,474 

1848 

888,949 

1,900 

881,499 

70,780 

1,H41 

11.008 

9,8  8 

»in(M.,    IS4S' 

JunaSb,1844 

00,100 

940 

0!l,840 

40,0-^0 

7,100 

9,998 

ao-i 

B«:i,flSl 

18,808 

0  3,180 

909,197 

17,743 

0,14S 

10,487 

180 

1848 

97I,S88 

080 

971,781 

117,108 

l,H78 

8.M8 

879 

1848 

040,449 

•  •  • 

810,449 

147,888 

,  • . . 

4  001 

8,708 

1,871 

1847 

770,748 

10,110 

7«),8«a 

974,708 

«,000 

oo,o;i9 

0,080 

1,174 

1848 

097, 7»T 

•   •   •   • 

007,707 

977,1(10 

.... 

00, 49  J 

19,090 

9, '900 

18« 

180,071 

81,479 

900,000 

813,400 

58,107 

24,413 

17,243 

9,'.'34 

1800 

TuUI... 

00\(I00 

9M,n08 

884,917 

880,181 

97,818 

$lbj,84B 

13,708 

10.083 

4ia,o  10,990 

$119,779 

$4,090,008 

$9,081,8J3 

$06,088 

08,884 

'iim  ' 

JuM30,186t 

$008,713 

$1,070 
SS,908 

$00},78S 

$101,707 

.... 

14,(88 

19,424 

1859  

40S,8I4 

098,099 

841,008 

$90,700 

10,188 

8,408 

1803 

881,484 

10,001 

847,010 

flSG,«48 

18,091 

iii.roo 

10,788 

*,'J90 

18« 

1,800,848 

1,8110,348 

038,004 

,  ,  ,  , 

14,(181 

8,840 

8,li;4 

1865 

1,189,108 

101,117 

1,1140,970 

018,140 

•  <  •  • 

9. ',904 

8,070 

18M 

1,417,040 

10,808 

1,428,900 

081,090 

•  •  *  • 

t  •  •  ■ 

18,':9B 

7,8JT 

18IVT 

J,»89,flW 

18,889 

2,070,070 

899.0HJ 

,.,, 

l.SOO 

28.811 

10,078 

CoMHKiici  or  Till  I'ntTiD  Htatm  with  Spain  ok  tm  MKniTiiiiiANr.AM,  tiom  OoTonRR  1,  1890,  to  Jolt  1,  1807, 


YMit  «a4bit 


8«pt.80, 1891 

1922 

1918 

1814 

1890 

1928 

1927 

1898 

1820 

1830 

Total. 

S«pL80,lS31 

1881 

1883 

18S4 

1980 

1886 

1887 

1SS8 

1880 

1840 

Total. 

BepL80,184t 

1812 

Omoi.,  184a«.... 
June  80, 1844 

1810 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1818 

1800 

ToUl. 

June  SO,  1801 

1801 

1803 

18M 

18SB 

18M 

18BT 


Rl[iortl. 


I)i>iiwit(e. 


$'24,990 

6i!6,200 

20,878 

0,840 

16,814 

60,004 

82,808 

08.844 

186,009 

_  140,050 

$i;i40,024" 

$70,121 
188,804 
l.'iO.lOO 
187,470 
08,040 
278,028 
894,187 
330,004 
900,794 
210,084 


$'2,044,484 

$173,833 
221,893 

1K7O6 

M,700 
89,436 
1,1'<8,840 
1,741,474 
1,010,42!> 
8,206,889 


$8,860,031 

$1,407,831 
2,718,004 
8,028,000 
8,919,808 
8,870,680 
0,049,880 
T,716.90T 


KortlKM. 


»oio 

1,004 
10,447 

6,°888 
20,040 

7,112 
61,I0U 
46,700 


$109,109 

$7,108 

1,064 

040 

41,703 

80,940 
2,050 
10,000 


$107,471 

$9,907 
10,078 

23,840 
28,808 
47,718 
41,003 
0,870 
19,8i7 
96,800 


$201,061 

$187,471 
114,237 
84,90T 
81,040 
903,701 
B7,683 
11,9U 


TcM. 

$.0,140 
020,004 

40,823 
9,840 

90,140 
101,010 

80,4(16 
118,087 
231,609 
140,{>06 


$1,991,790 

$89,319 
187,918 
1.10,6!IO 
187,478 
137,747 
979,028 
854,483 
839,499 
22S,7'24 
218,010 


$9,101,006 

$193,630 
238,476 

80,106 

84,009 
130,103 
1,229,403 
1,748,849 
1,039,200 
8,303,217 


$8,646,091 

$4,094,908 
1,832,741 
0,007,908 
8,248,403 
8,679,881 
6,006,068 
T,71T.118 


iDiporb, 

""'Tul.i.'^ 


$988,81:9 
0113,0,10 
47.3,030 
808,607 
882,900 
032,309 
480,300 
411,470 
474,1'20 
04a,'271 


$1,188,834 

$700,022 

740,701 

800,714 

1,112,080 

8'20,700 

1,000,781 

l,Ml,flNO 

808,830 

1.007,079 

l,4fl!l,hOI) 

»il,0OS,l4O 

$1,119,960 

1,060,640 

410,060 

891,287 

001,099 

904,416 

1,016,001 

910,346 

1,000,687 

1.702,914 


$9,444,707 

$1,710,776 
1,443,976 
1,408,879 
1,079,074 
1,986,871 
1,600,441 
1,060,084 


Bulllua 


thvr*  WMln 
■n4  Hytcn. 


Kiiwrl. 


$20,000 

2i,800 

1,866 

19,800 


$08,1)66 
$9,084 


93.340 
28  809 
47,719 
20,000 
6,878 
19,827 
80.792 


$240,694 

$107,043 
87,060 
84,297 
81,040 
6,1H 
29,400 


lin|Mirt 

1e;ooi'' 

9,706 

9,040 

47,100 

"i,'40O 
19,200 
1,'200 
lO.SItO 
13.4.')6 


$114,088 

$8,130 

4.'W 

1,004 

8,(Hifl 

81,683 

"i,Voo 

11,010 
2,800 
8.634 


$70,811 
$16,184 

w.Vn 

80,493 
111,602 

16,406 
126,612 

S4.089 
119,298 
407,189 


$012,009 

$8.4S0 
1,000 


26,883 
19,600 
24,600 


*  Nino  months  to  Jung  80,  and  the  flical  year  tna  HfiM  time  begini  July  1, 


Tonoiig*  «I«Artd. 


AnwrUfta, 


9,480 
874 
706 
1,068 
1,469 
1.911 
8,0C6 
4,018 
3,017 


10,884 

1,906 
8.280 
4,946 
4  096 
0.874 
0.010 
1,916 

0687 
4,006 

~4U,8»9 

4,848 
0,810 
470 
860 
S,009 
0,809 
7,981 
9,190 
0.803 
9,867 


03,140 

9,070 
6,174 
7,600 
19,140 
18,878 
19,186 
21,006 


J'unitH. 


177 


118 


746 

684. 

1,8118 
9,000 
9,996 
S,'204 
8,891 
4,838 
4,780 
1,01:8 


96,796 


90 


1,00(1 

397 

18.396 

27,313 

99,073 
84,997 


107,489 

44,014 
87,681 
88,180 
87,224 
88,777 
60,007 
67,687 


a 


flPA 


1743 


SA 


11.414 
t,4n« 
6,'iW 
a,IC4 
a,bTO 
7,«»T 
10,«5 


l'unt«ll. 


'ioi 
'sis  I 

ttM 

i,8im 
j.ofto 

S,MW 

4,838 
4,TIW 
1,01^8 

"io  I 


1,0M 
BUT 
1«,8««  ' 
S7.SI3 

SH,i>7a 

84,!W7_ 

44,014  1 

87,6S1 

88.1  BO  I 

87,124  1 

88,777 

80,067 

«7,B8T 


Of  tt«  fkMtW  ••  tb«  oomiiMNid  mU^  of  Hp^n 
Ik*  fcllowlnii  parllflttlan,  rurnUh«t  by  th*  (Jiili*4 
■MtN  MNMtit  •!  Caaii,  wUl  to  (a«Bd  latmillng  i 

IM  tf  >»»'r,«J*;  »«■■»»•«,  WM  i«u.4.  Mtnubkiiit . 

•AmM  MfMMIlM  w  ■rflfMflM,  or  ■  board  of  eoMMlUUon  In 
NtoMM  %»  (iiilMi'houM  larUk,  i  rnulMiou,  uiil  all  ■•Itw* 
rtlaUM  M  IMMM  WHi  oilorM,  with  •  itonilT*  powtn,  ud 
4tMr«Uli)|  iMr  Mlrlk«ll*M  Tho  ol^oti  of  tkta  koMd  to 
inlmt  M  to  W  «Mtia  h4  pnpoM  to  ito  nlntolM  of  Iho 
to  §<«■«■  tli  NiWnao  wkUk  Diojr  n»7  oomoIto  oa(hl  Io  bo 
■MMit  In  Ito  •HMttM-boow  tarllh,  oiKt  to  oerupjp  ItomMlvoo 
wMb  m4  dlMM  111  Ito  »w«oo4Um  wkl<:h  aujr  b.<  found  »IUi 
rtflMt  to  Ito  a«4tntaiHllii(  of  Ifca  Mmo,  thoir  oppllnilon 
mi  Mo4lllMllM  I  M  ctoo  wllh  raqioci  to  tb«  rMlwaoUoiu  of 
fcftit*  fm—i  m'  *hM«  wUeb  oufhl  Io  bo  modo  on  Iho 
yart  m'  ifttn,  «llk  rMfool  to  Ibo  otiroonanu  wd  UoaUot  of 
MVtaMloN  MP  MMBorw,  Md  ui)r  uUur  alalr  whotoTtr  nlo- 
Mv«  to  Ito  aMNMtlU  ItfUloUon.  ThU  JunUt  do  arati- 
Nl«t  I*  to  to  •  MTfarUlM  UdopondMt  In  oil  polnto  of  any 
•ttof  o4««  tf  Ito  ilatoi  ud  a*  auoh  U  clolhod  wllh  tho 
NHM  bwlifii  |Wl«ll«|M,  and  pra-onlnonMt  which  bolong  to 
Ito  Mtol  dIrMMv*  oonlroi  of  Um  mlnlalrr  of  Uh  haolanda, 
«f  •  yMHkMnl  atonrtor.  Tto  JnnU  to  ompoworod.  In  iho 
ptWhrmMM*  of  IM  ilKltoi,  to  eemmunloalo  dirocUjr  with,  and 
ri*ha  n«M|  MfMMl  oouanii  In  foreign  ooantrtoa,  lofomor^ 
■■4pM«ar«afi  W  proTlnoM,  •dmlnlitralonof  oualon-hoaiH, 
JNaliM  of  aaiMMfM,  oooaMitoal  aoclottoo,  ate,  and  anjr  othor 
anltofillaai  oflMd,  na4  ootpomttono  whalavor,  all  data  Ihajr 
■•If  lelMtlrt  BMltoary  Ibr  tbo  oxaeulloD  of  Iho  builneM 
fMN*llto4  to  lh«M.  CoplH  of  Ihia  docroo  and  ordor  aro 
totawllll,  4otoUln|  al  longlk  Iha  porHua  tompoaing  tho  Juti- 
I*,  1114  Ito  nw4d  fil  wblok  Itor  aro  to  procood.  Thla  board 
!•  IMW  or|MlM4,  titd  la  aapaetad  to  maka  a  nport  pending 
Mm  MMl  MMtM  of  Ikt  Vortaa,  U  la  pmumad  Uial  Iho;  will 
NMMiMnd  Ito  fc«orlli|  of  noTlgaUon  under  tho  Spanltk 
Im  I  Ito  wliaitilM  of  ooMala  klnda  of  cotton  manulhMnroa, 
•M  •Ihor  klltalM  MV  pnhlUtod  t  togothcr  wllh  an  aug- 
MHtallitll  of  !*•  Million)  «f  Mlara  In  tho  euitom-honao  rcr- 
MW  on  ImpoH*  I  llio  Iha  toalntananoo  of  tho  prcoent  monop- 
•HM  «f  lakaiM,  Ml ',  ilaapad  papar,  and  the  duUaa  payable 


MiM»iil,  Wfighl*,  and  IfaomrM.— Tto  w«if(hla  and 
mM*urM  ira  th*  aiUbllahad  onei  of  Castile;  the  nmA<i 
of  lolldt  Mug  oomldtroil  of  3S  pounda,  of  16  onnces  to 
Um  pound  I  and  of  lloulda,  81  cuariahi,  except  In  the 
•rllolo  of  oilvo^ll,  which  wilt  to  deemed  ■  Mild.  The 
pkkU  Witt  tM  of  100  Munda,  and  the  ton  of  20  quin- 
laif.  Tho  ytrd  will  to  of  86  inchea.  The  money  la 
tbi  rtal  4*  ttlbm,  which  It  divided  into  100  parta,  called 
NnitniM, 

if ONCM.— Tho  real  relton  la  valued  at  tho  ctntom' 
kMM  of  Iho  Unllod  Slaiei  at  6  conU;  20  real  veltons 
■•I  I  tho  roal  of  plato  la  double  tho  real  vollon=10 


cenU;  t  haH<lellar-l|ldellarof  aaolMllfO«IOiMli 

of  now  plala  -T  iu|  of  oTil  plau=-m  reala  vallonai|7« 
i|uarlon-  ,1(111  maravedii  of  old  plaM>aW  roalo  *•!. 
lou^llUS). 

GM  CuMflff.— Tto  laat  daU  Itot  wa  haTO  MOmk 
of  the  lonR-contlnuod  doubloon  lorioo  of  Pkninialar 
c«lna(o  waa  1824  Tto  half  doubloon  of  that  year 
wel|{hod  O'taa  ounce,  MA  Ano  i  valua,  #7  78,  TTio  new 
Rotd  coin  la  a  plooo  of  100  roalt,  wd|hlog  0-MR  unneo. 
(JW«ne,»4U«-8.  -"      " 

aUttr  C'oM«w,_Tho  prindpal  coin  (not  IM  larfoot) 
•oema  to  to  tho  place  of  4  roaU,  or  plaUioen,  wlilch 
liefore  1887  waa  of  Ito  weight  0180  ounce;  flnenoaa, 
810  j  valDo,  20-7  cento.  The  lUndardi  have  toon  lately 
changed,  and  tto  now  plauroon  walgto  0*146  onnoo, 
llnaneaa, 889 ;  value, 208  cenU.  Ttore  Io alao a  largo 
place  of  20  reala  (dollar),  worth  101-6  ceutl  j  and  placet 
uf  10, 4, 2,  and  1  nal  In  proportion.— I;h<|mIMi(m  Mk4 
Rrporl,  18&7. 

\Vtighi:—aM  <md  Atfwr  Wtlgkt.-QoU  and  allver 
aro  weighed  by  the  Castlllan  mark  of  60  caatallanoo, 
400  lonilnaa,  or  4Hno  gralna. 

^jMOocariM'  V  V.— Tho  apothacariot'  weight  U 
the  Caatlllan,  but  iu»  ounce  la  divided  Into  8  drachmae, 
34  eaorupuloa.  48  oboloa,  144  caractoret,  or  676  gralna. 
CommnM  Wiighl.—Ont  oommerclal  pound  la  equal 
to  3  marka  (CaatlllanX  or  16  ouncea.  One  oommerclal 
ounce=8  drachmaa=:16  adannea=676  gralna.  One 
quintal  of  4  arrobaa,  or  lOO  poundi,s  101-44  pounda 
avolrdupola,  or  46  kllogranu.  One  arTotoBl6  pounda 
7  ouncea. 

Mtaturu.—Dty  Jfeonre.— Com,  mII,  and  other  dry 
arllclea  aro  meaaured  by  the  rahU.  One  cahU  =  ll 
fknogu ;  one  (knega= 12  celemlnea.  Tto  calemino  hat 
vartoua  aubdlvlalona,  aa  i,  i,  ^,  etc.  The  fanega  meaa> 
ui«a  48221  gpanlah,  or  848D  Engllih  cubic  Inchea,  and 
la  equivalent  to  1-65  English  Imperial  bushela.  Flv« 
fanegu  are  nearly  equal  lo  one  quarter  Kngllah. 

IKhm  ifeowre, — One  arroba  of  wine  meaaurea  4S4S 
English  imperial  gallont.  One  arroto  of  oil,  8)  En> 
glish  gallons.  One  botta  -  80  arrobaa  of  wine,  or  88^ 
of  oil.  The  botta  contains  1271  English  gallona,  and 
the  pipi!  114}  Engllnh  gallons. 

Lonff  M  iMiirr.— One  Spanish  ft)ol=t2  pnlgadas,  or 
144  linos,  and  Is  equivalent  to  11-128  English  incher, 
or  0-2826  of  a  French  melra.  One  palmo,  of  9  pulga> 
das,  or  12  dedos,  =8}  English  inches.  One  vara,  or  4 
palmos, =33-884  English  inches,  or  0-847  of  a  metre, 
Onebraza=2varas,cr6fc«t.  Onepasso^Sfeet.  Ono 
estadal=4  varas,  or  13  feet.  One  cuorda=8i  varaa, 
or  26)  feet 


VoMWM  Comuiaoi  or  na  I'liiTait  BrAna  wim  RFAnan  AuuaioAif  CoioMia'  (iMotimiiie  Maxico),  no>  Ooioaa 

1, 1880,  TO  Hamiiau  80, 18-i4. 


VMiSMHUag 

kipicti. 

Importi. 

WkuMfllMfOHlo 
BMllton  Rnd  SpMM. 

bomMtU. 

r>nl|B. 

tMaL 

foUJ. 

ttiforl. 

Impnt. 

r«.i(>. 

*^l8i;:::;:; 

IMII 

IIM 

Total... 

i,«7ti.«ra 

«.8j7  m\ 

1.8!8,«l< 
S,8W.347 
e.040.B4a 

|1,UB7,786 
8.4-21,(Kl8 
4,601,878 
7.808.4S7 

ii,li4,n7 

S,6i>.«88 

4,8411,1108 
«.786.7«l) 

164,893 
67,098 

$l»,4«l 

Ml.lIT 

t.969.4l« 

8.674.800 

14,M* 

11,747 
88,111 

61,661 

864 

iu4 

0«,8uO,»iw 

|lU,«M,lt>8 

«I0.»'.M,148 

»16.-.«a,377_ 

*1I»,M1 

te,4IB,7«5 

lSy,718    1    IMO     1 

CeHMtaoa  or  ma  Vnitbd  StAna  wm  Tizas,*  raou  Ootobib  1. 1S36,  to  Swt  t,  1846. 


VcaMsadlK 


I8M, 

|6M.. 

1140, 

]M1 


n. 


f  010%.  ]l4lt, 
Juanb,IMJ.. 


Toiat.. 


BifOlli. 


"lTiit;air' 

1,088.818 
1,87»,045 
087,071 
B16.S86 
176,178 
1116,140 
166,447 
110,786 
160  MO 


|i,T00,l«) 


rwif. 

1110,816 
119,061 
808,017 
281,199 
191.041 
m.DM 
87,718 
81,101 
163,066 
ttS,8«8 


T«tol. 

1.147.880 
1,487,(181 
1,!18,271 
8n8,196 
406,9M 
141,968 
177,648 
868,799 
478,608 


(1,934,119  I  6T,6H18« 


106,718 
818.116 
808,847 
896,020 
460.891 
446,399 
678,661 
766,814 
188.068 


Biport. 

■^I^too 


$8,889,816 


Wbtnof  Uian  oh  to 
BulUtio  md  Syf  If. 


TMOOffe  clMTtd. 


$1,616 


Iropott. 


ii.ysv 

18.116 

$17,469 

48,608 

66,061 

41,177 

66.  €88 

61,888 

16.610 

St,816 

17,174 

16,186 

10,114 

10,066 

46,427 

18,fB0 

10,699 

«8,10t 

$U8,08S    I    171,861 


ixm 


•  Tto  oofflMiva  of  Teiaa  from  1846,  when  It  became  one  of  the  United  Btalaa,  may  to  fbund  oadai  tto  toad  of  Tozaat- 
and  Ih*  •«mm*rm  ef  Meilco,  since  Its  independence,  under  the  head  of  Mexico, 
t  Slaa  moiHha  to  June  00,  and  the  8soal  year  fh)m  thla  time  boglna  July  t 


SPE 


1745  ■ 


SPI 


COHMBioi  or  TBa  UiavBD  Btaiu  wtm  SrAnu  Wiri  Innna  [Cvu  Bxcnimi],  noa  OoroBn  1, 1830,  to  JviT  li 

18&T.. 


Y««n  •ndlog 

■•iwrti.                              1 

tapod.. 

Bullioa  mi  SpacM. 

TonnH*  ciMmt 

Dmbmiic. 

FoMiUn. 

TMI. 

Tot*l. 

■iput. 

Impork 

Amarlfu. 

runlya. 

a«pt«o,iwt 

»I75,8IT 

(it8,604 

$808,831 

$098,616 

.... 

$lA7.'i7 

11,134 

.... 

18W 

160,435 

7,606 

158,041 

983,607 

•  . ,  • 

86,889 

10,650 

.... 

18« 

860,088 

a5,4»5 

881,688 

814,078 

• . ,  * 

98,788 

8.409 

1,128 

iSH 

800,8u'6 

888,718 

6M,614 

856,898 

■  *•* 

8,896 

6,068 

180 

18J» 

)!1«,108 

8:2, 156 

8:a,268 

798,887 

■  **• 

6.069 

6.989 

7B 

ISM 

810,858 

U,6«5 
10,3U 

283.596 

nO,770 

*  •  >• 

7,841 

6,878 

•  •  •  • 

188T 

S18,1M 

888,610 

»09,819 

$1,000 

18,760 

7,194 

608 

,      «::::::: 

8»,m 

16,877 

887,888 

1,190,180 

1,950 

8,448 

7,848 

823 

109,180 

88,000 

840,080 

838,839 

81,506 

8,6.'4 

11,051 

916 

isao 

ToUl... 

946,888 

87,5'^S 

878,159 

1,807,148 

11. (M> 

7,718 

8,7r4 

439 

$8,811,804 

'$4'jt,7l0 

$8,68»,0U 

$D,099,174 

$57,106 

$197,137 

82,UU1 

8,014 

8q>tS0,ini 

$Ml,80t 

•63,845 

$816,046 

$1,580,168 

$35,688 

$16,173 

8,879 

1,051 

im 

88'2,b68 

^,668 

S96,1K 

1,8<9,184 

43,389 

9,127 

9,343 

717 

1888 

S93,9«8 

37,398 

481,390 

1,879.884 

T,080 

8,991 

13,86i 

219 

1884 

431,80.^ 

60,788 

491,597 

9.8M.418 

11,G50 

11,160 

15,709 

741 

ISSS 

686,088 

91,e«8 

877,857 

9,884,174 

70,950 

16,266 

91,140 

179 

1888 

694,650 

86.899 

«0,468 

8,100,048 

47,088 

8,600 

82,079 

493 

188T 

6IT.I78 

68,188 

689,916 

9,481,081 

42,823 

53,725 

17,071 

1.155 

1888 

«»2,56S 

80,484 

728.063 

8,038.162 

80,4"8 

80,788 

19,588 

2,4:)6 

IP'S 

TJV,049 

87,848 

Sl1«,39T 

8,749,619 

115,207 

13,144 

22,547 

1,180 

1840 

TeUl... 

7T0,4:0 

89,808 

799,628 

1,898.739 

81,879 

46,695 

23,659 

959 

«s,86u,6ea 

$M9,«16 

$6,990,  lb9 

$;>8,980,8U3 

$184,004 

$•84,655 

179,187 

8,U9< 

1841 

«T31,846 

$88,087 

$749,933 

$9,680,010 

$98,988 

$17,799 

80,199 

730 

1842 

S1U,8I3 

19,718 

830,631 

9,517,001 

19,767 

63,457 

19,566 

1,184 

tnoi.,  1848' 

449,084 

11,821 

468,866 

1,07«,V.S 

1,879 

47,943 

18  381 

349 

JuiiaS0,1844 

<8«,«ej 

6,177 

649,139 

9,436,208 

4,084 

87,021 

28,143 

883 

1816 

&>8,14t 

80,776 

708,924 

9,090,263 

11,808 

53,458 

2S.575 

039 

1848 

<T6,441 

26,906 

701,848 

1,277,110 

16,06( 

62,679 

80,068 

1,873 

1841 

825,0T» 

8S,C86 

86V,064 

2,141,(120 

21,394 

14,167 

26,t87 

1,879 

1848 

801,788 

87.018 

883,734 

1,106,296 

91,566 

19,919 

85,C41 

1.160 

1848 

6'23.i98 

83,234 

B66,6!!8 

1,964  861 

88.IN6 

27,004 

25,870 

8  8-8 

,   186J 

Tatel... 

816,008 

f'SOl 

C0J,658 

1,067,800 

88,758 

2.600 

80744 

8,108 

$i,i*U3»» 

$306,806 

$7,060,904 

$91,162,608 

$934,016 

$346,099 

«>8,451 

14917 

J«ne80,18Bt 

<961,410 

$67,100 

$1,018,610 

$9,480,899 

$ift,liO) 

$346 

1.6,880 

6  013 

1858....... 

1,0154>88 

8),S43 

1,055,105 

3  0UI,828 

61.81 8 

16,877 

35,01(1 

5,544 

1863 

310,4U 

S4.I48 

884  654 

2,800,936 

47,917 

18,016 

30,815 

9,429 

1864 

890,886 

80  907 

1,061,838 

2,850,358 

1S3,7M 

19,179 

81,014 

8,5.8 

1858 

1,144,681 

88.987 

1,183,618 

2,475,9:8 

10,0  « 

28,625 

84,1.0 

6,5.1 

1808 

1,089,600 

48,)2<5 

l,14i,7.'4 

8,870.903 

23.859 

14,700 

33,'.  64 

),!ino 

186T 

1,788.420 

lb8,046 

1,186,474 

6,748,(10.1 

483,4!  5 

658 

S7.(;83 

8,560 

'  MIno  months  to  June  80,  «n<l  tb«  flicml  year  IWim  tbU  time  begins  July  1. 


Speole  (Fr.  ttpice),  coin  and  bullion  used  u  a  ciiv 
culating  medium  in  distinction  from  paper  money .-.- 
iSee  arlieitt  Basks,  Coins,  Precious  Metals,  Gold, 
and  SiLVBii. 

BpaotaolM.  An  optical  instrument,  consisting  of 
two  Tenses  set  in  a  frame,  for  assisting  or  correcting  the 
defects  of  imperfect  vision.  Tlie  lenses  are  convex  or 
concave,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  defect  to  b« 
remedied.  In  old  age  the  pupil  of  the  eye  becomes 
flat,  and  the  rays  of  light  are  consequently  not  re- 
fracted sufficiently  in  passing  through  it  to  meet  on  the 
retina  and  produce  distinct  vision.  This  defect  is  rem- 
edied by  a  convex  lens,  which  produces  a  slight  con- 
vergency  of  the  rays  Ijefore  they  enter  the  eye.  Short- 
sighted people,  on  the  contrary,  require  concave  lenses ; 
because,  in  their  case,  the  indistinctness  of  vision  pro- 
iceeds  from  too  great  a  curvature  of  the  pupil,  which 
■causes  the  rays  to  meet  in  a  point  before  they  reach 
the  retina — a  defect  which  is  remedied  by  giving  the 
raj's  a  slight  divergency  l>efore  they  enter  the  eye. 
Spectacles  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  They  are 
jcencrally  supposed  to  have  been  invented  in  the  13th 
(Century,  by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monli  of  Florence, 
In  luly,  about  A.r>.  1286.— 6'en.  Ilitt.  They  were  in- 
vented by  Roger  Bacon,  accordiug  tc  Dr.  Plott,  about 
1280.  Some  afSrm  that  the  real  inventor  was  Salvino ; 
and  Mr.  Manni  gives  proofs  in  favor  of  Salvino  in  his 
TrealUe  on  SpectacUs. — IIavi>n. 

fipelter,  a  name  ircquently  given  to  Zisc ;  which 
•ee. 

8pennac«ti(Ger.  WaBnUh;  Vr.  Blanc  de  Bakine, 
Sperme  ile  Balfine ;  It.  Spermaeeti ;  Sp.  Kipeitna  de  Jial- 
Una;  Kuss.  JSptrmaze(),  a  product  obtained  from  the 
brain  of  the  phi/trter  macmcephalus,  a  species  of  whalo 
inhabiting  tin  Southern  Ocean.  The  brain  being  dtig 
out  twm  the  cavitjr  of  the  bead,  th«  oil  is  sejiarated  &<om 


it  by  dripping.  The  residue  is  crude  spermaceti,  of 
which  an  ordinary-sized  whale  will  yield  twelve  barrels. 
It  then  concretes  into  a  white,  crystallized,  brittle,  semi- 
transparent,  unctuous  substance,  nearly  inodorous  and 
insipid.  On  being  c(it  into  small  pieces  it  assumes  a 
flaky  aspect.  It  is  very  heavy,  its  specific  gravity  be- 
ing 9-433.  1 1  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles,  in 
medicine,  etc. 

Spioem  (Ger.  Spezfregmi  Du.  Speeen/tn;  Fr.  £p- 
icerifi,  Kpictt ;  It.  Spezj,  Spezierie ;  Sp.  Etpeciai,  Ktpe- 
ceritu;  Port.  JCspeciaria;  Russ.  Praaiie  korinja).  Under 
this  denomination  are  included  all  those  vegetable  pro- 
ductions which  are  fragrant  to  the  smell  and  pungent 
to  the  palate ;  such  as  cloves,  ginger,  nutmegs,  allspice, 
etc. 

The  ortlinar}'  spices  which  are  used  in  housekeeping, 
and  are  sold  by  the  grocer  are  ptpptr  (white,  black, 
and  cayenne),  miatard,  gingtr,  nutmeg),  mact,  pimento 
or  albpice,  clovet,  cmnamon,  and  coMi'a.  All  of  these 
spices  are  more  or  less  pungent  to  the  taste  and  stim- 
ulating to  the  Btoniacli,  and  are  used  as  additions  to 
food,  not  OS  food  itself.  For  these  qualities  they  de- 
pend upon  an  essential  oil  in  most  cases,  varying  in 
each  particular  case.  Pepper,  however,  has  a  nitro- 
genized  principle,  similar  in  composition  to  theiii  and 
caffuin,  and  called  ppenn. 

Pepper  is  the  produce  of  two  allied  plants  (known  as 
Piper  rJarum  and  Icmguwi),  and  the  part  used  is  the 
berry,  dried  in  the  sun.  Btaek  and  whit*  pepper  are 
both  obtained  from  the  berry  of  IHper  nigrum,-  the 
former  being  the  entire  berry,  ground,  while  the  latter 
condsts  of  the  berry  deprived  of  its  outer  covering,  or 
husk,  before  it  is  reduced  to  powder.  Long  pepper  is 
not  ground,  and  is  not  much  used  in  the  present  day. 
Pepper-corns,  being  these  berries,  are  imported  from 
Peoang,  Malabar,  and  Sumatra,    Tho  best  are  thoi« 


SPI 


—.-»»«  wii/i  turmeric      )i  ""*i 

of  the  difficul,„,    f "'"  "quired.     W  t     .  "  "'''  <>f    hu»k,.„", '."*«<'- '""'alo  flour  cav.„.l  ''"""•'•d  wit/, 


"  "rong  one.     |„  ,, '  """"''ution  of  ,  weak  «r,l~.T     *'*«  '"'  «  Pcach   i„,    I   ""  P^'xluw.  a  fr  .1     .        "P' 
^'•"l  eolorlua   '„,''*    '?-H  ^"'"ilioD  or  ^,?"'  P^P"   «rp.  and    l...  Si""""-  "why  part  of  .h/  .■"*  """""'h 


SFI 


1748 


SM 


M. 


horka,  gnvlng  In  b  wild  lUta;  and  they  May  b«  dt«> 
tlnKuiihed  from  the  true  nutmeg  by  being  longer  and 
piler  than  it.  Mace  is  aim  true  or  wild,  aecoMtng  at 
it  is  obtained  from  either  kind  of  nulmeg>-tree.  As 
imported  into  this  country,  the  true  maoe  is  of  a  golden 
•r  oranga  yellow,  transparent  and  homy.  Falsa  or 
wild  maea  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  defloiant  in  Bavor 
and  snwIL  The  nutmeg,  as  well  at  the  mace,  contains 
a  flxed,  and  also  a  volatUe  oil,  at  well  aa  starch  and 
woody  matter. 

i(iLft«ra(>im.-<-It  might  readily  be  suppoted,  as  these 
spicta  art  not  powdered,  but  ai«  sold  at  imported,  that 
no  adulteration  could  possibly  be  practiced;  and  it 
appears^  in  reality,  that  veiy  little  it  attempted.-  The 
only  fraud  it  found  to  contlst  in  the  abttraction  of  the 
volatile  oil  by  dittillatien,  which  deprives  the  nutmeg 
and  maoe  of  their  chief  flavor  and  utility  as  spiots.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  nutmeg  from  insects,  it  is  often 
•oaked  in  lime  water,  or  covered  with  powdered  lime ; 
bat  tliis  does  not  seem  to  be  a  Oraud,  but  rather  a  pre- 
servative. It  therefore  need  not  be  guarded  against, 
bat  the  presence  of  the  full  complement  of  oil  should, 
if  possible,  be  insured.  This  can  only  be  done  in  prac- 
tice by  attending  to  the  flavor  and  smell,  and  compar> 
ing  then  with  the  reeegniaed  genuine  article.  The 
shape  Li  a  good  guide  to  the  true  nutmeg,  and  pur- 
cbaiwrs  should  always  select  those  of  a  round  form, 
avoiding  those  which  are  like  dates  in  appearance,  or 
even  at  all  elongated  beyond  a  very  alight  departure 
from  the  true  circle. 

Pimemla,  or  AU$fkt,  also  called  Jamaica  pepper,  is 
the  berry  of  a  tree  bearing  the  first  name,  and  ^wing 
in  the  West  Indies,  from  which  it  is  imported  in  bsgs. 
Tliere  are  two  qaalities  of  it,  but  only  one  ia  extens- 
ively used  in  this  country. 

Pimento,  like  most  other  spices,  owes  its  qualities 
as  a  condiment  to  its  essential  oil,  which  ia  contained 
in  conaiderable  quantities  in  the  berries  mixed  with 
gummy  and  resinoua  matter,  astringent  extract  and 
bity  oil.  This  essential  oil  is  readily  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation. The  adulteration  of  this  spice  is  so  trifling 
aa  scarcely  to  require  alluding  to;  and  as  the  price  of 
pimento  at  present  in  tlie  London  market  is  firom  i\d. 
to  4|<f.  per  lb.,  with  a  duty  of  6f.  per  cwt.,  the  retailers 
make  a  fair  profit  in  telling  it  at  id.  and  need  not  have 
Ncourse  to  adulteration. — .See  I^mento. 

Ctotti  are  the  flower-buds  of  the  Caryopkilbis  aromat- 
wtw,  which  is  grown  in  the  Molucca  Islsnds,  Sumatra, 
the  Mauritius,  Bourbon,  Cayenne,  Martinique,  and  St. 
Vinoent.  They  present  a  pecnliar  oUong  appearance, 
too  well  known  to  need  minuta  description,  with  a 
pungent  and  aromatic  taste,  which  it  highly  agreeable 
to  most  people.  Like  tlie  other  apices,  clovee  contain 
an  atseatial  oil,  besitles  resin,  tannin,  and  woody  fibre. 
TIm  oil  ia  extracted  in  cansiderable  quantities,  and 


told  asparately  for  various  purpot«s.  The  wholes 
sale  priee  is  from  4i<f.  to  1*.  M.  per  lb. ;  and  the  duty 
being  id.  per'lb.,  together  with  the  retailer's  profit, 
bring  them  up  to  the  retail  price  of  li.  for  Bourbon  and 
Cayenne,  It.  4d,  for  tnperlor  Bonrbon,  and  it.  for  Fe- 
nang  elovet. 

CSmtamon  and  Cattia  arv  the  huk  of  two  spedet  of 
CVmKimoninn;  that  producing  the  former  bearing  the 
specific  name  Zeglanieam.  The  cinnamon-tree  is  cul- 
tivated chiefly  in  Ceylon,  but  sparingly  in  Bombay, 
Malabar,  and  Java.  The  bark,  as  told,  is  peeled  (h>m 
the  three-year  old  branchea,  and  dried  in  the  sun ;  and 
its  quality  varies  considerably,  but  itt  external  chaf 
acters  are  generally  pretty  nearly  the  same.  Cassia, 
or  the  bark  of  the  Chmamonum  cattia,  is  bronght  tmm 
China,  Malabar,  Bombay,  and  the  Mauritius;  it  re- 
sembles the  true  cinnamon  in  flavor,  though  lets  deli- 
cate and  not  so  sweet,  and  attended  with  a  certain  de- 
gree of  bitterness.  It  is  constantly  substituted  for  cia- 
namon,  and  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  endeavor  to 
distinguish  the  one  fh>m  the  other  by  our  ordinary 
senses,  if  possible. 

The  bark  of  cinnamon  Is  not  much  thicker  than 
drawing-paper,  and  breaks  with  an  uneven  margin, 
showing  a  coarse  arrangement  of  its  fibres.  It  alto 
contitts  of  several  concentric  layers  of  bark,  one  with- 
in the  other.  These  are  called  ^illi,  and  are  of  a  pale 
brown,  with  a  sweet  aromatic  taste,  unaccompanied  by 
any  bitterness  or  astringency. 

Cassia  bark  is  considerably  thicker  and  coarser,  and 
has  a  short  fracture  and  smooth  edge.  It  has  general- 
ly only  one,  or  at  most  two  quills,  within  the  external 
one ;  and  the  taste  is  a  coarse  imitation  of  cinnamon, 
with  a  strong  tendency  to  leave  an  astringent  bitter  on' 
the  tongue.  By  these  characters  the  bark  of  the  one, 
when  whole,  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other ;  but 
when  powdered,  the  aid  of  the  microscope  is  required 
to  detect  the  imposition,  which  is  extensively  prac- 
ticed; and,  failing  this,  the  character  of  the  vendor  it 
the  only  safeguard.     Cassia  buds  are  also  imported. 

The  cinnamon  of  commerce  is  chiefly  produced  in  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  from  the  iMurui  cinnamomi  of  botan- 
ists, the  Kooroomloo-gaha  of  the  Singhalese,  a  plant 
which  appears  to  have  flourished  in  that  island  from 
the  earliest  period.  '  We  learn  from  Scriptural  history 
that  this  spice  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews  in  their 
religious  ceremonies;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
their  supplies  were  derived  fh>m  the  Arabian  merchanta 
who  traded  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  East. 

Mixed  tpiet,  as  implied  by  the  name,  is  a  compound 
of  the  various  ordinary  spices,  as  ginger,  pimento,  cas- 
sia, etc.  It  is  largely  adulterated,  and  can  not,  there- 
fore, be  recommended,  nor  is  its  use  at  all  required,  in- 
asmuch as  the  cook  may  in  all  cases  use  her  own  judg- 
ment to  greater  advantage. 


iHroBTt  or  8pioia  iirio  rna 

L'XITSD 

BTATBa 

roB  TUB  FISCAL  YxAB  BMDma  ,1vtim  30, 

1857. 

Mm. 

Natmsi. 

Clmui 
Pounat. 

mm. 

Clovn. 

P.pi>.r, 
Pound. 

Bl«ek.  ' 
Villi.. 

t>M»ta. 

VsIm. 

Piu4i. 

ValM. 

"».1W 

P«>.di 

V.lM 

Hamburg 

.... 

15T 

$<u 

, 

.... 

HiilUnd 

5  J77 

$3,6(B 

132,53 

73,940 

0,8311 

$2,691 

6,610 

$2,6ft; 

Dntch  West  Indien 

2,176 

$146 

Dutrh  Qalana 

10,868 

6>f 

Dutch  Kost  iDdtes 

lOSJt 

Mil 

49168 

£2,478 

4,6-.'7 

in,787 
8,200 

1,24.1 

ecfl 

0  fjl 

1,180,080 

70,164 

Balginm 

6  371 

.... 

England  

6  BIT 

°2,96e 

108,7  h 
8,.|Mt 

6J,715 
1,4«; 

31,167 

51.193 
4>,648 

4  277 

Sentlsnd 

.... 

4,073 

L'snsda 

.... 

4« 

861 

^ 

, 

British  We<t  Indies 

.... 

.... 

100 

93 

4,108 

198 

4,786 

14' 

B  IHxh  Powsalons  In  Afrtc* 

.... 

1,800 

66 

BriUsh  Anatnlls 

40(1 

m 

Hritith  Kvn  Indies 

«T,T89 

1^785 

181.878 

83  OU 

S3,660 

4621 

em 

644 

3,660,132 

199,370 

Prance  on  the  Atlsntle 

10,761 

6,8«4 

French  (julana 

•  •  •  • 

.... 

.... 

10,808 

47$ 

..   . 

OllHI 

•  •  .. 

4,000 

896 

Porto  Klse 

•  •  >■ 

«H 

80 

^ 

Usilelts 

•  ••« 

.... 

.... 

60 

0 

AfriM 

.... 

1  <  •  < 

.  •  •  • 

1,126,837 

60.91S 

.... 

HavU 

.... 

*  *  •  • 

8,17(1 

1«9 

Buenoa  Ajrres,  or  Argentine  Kepub. 

•  .  .  . 

.... 

S^l 

068 

.... 

t  •■  • 

IJUm 

TotiU 

.... 

8.14 

f(« 

.... 

8.000 

601 

"4.l.4t. 

*M,16t 

4M.440 

|»I>4.«S7 

8^,.84' 

(18  vM 

1,168,:  81 

«ti6,3BS 

1,948  to 

$«...-.8I 

SPI 


Dutch  West  IndlM." 
ten?"'-"'- 

rmnoe  on  the  AtlVntlo" 

I^uw. , ,,  , 

jportoBjco".';:: 

fAMoa 


IS 


2,400 


kSI  4t1?I 


!i,628r 

iiD.sroi 
"so. 


W,T4J 


48 


41  1200 


<8 

'ii 


H« 


W«JM 

chij/r ■ 

Total. 


5,330  I 
T,"lT8  I 

T.'aVi 

19,074 
1,800 


1361 


8,114 


121 


481 


Sii.O'.u, 
88,112 

«,'ooo     'e,'ml 


><<I84l  SI, 


10.Ks/ 


JS,»4«| 

IW.319I 
•.Tool 


18T| 


fe—-— -—tSiST^^SST- !2»-'"^ j   ^""^""a  with  her  maW,  »  "'f P'nn'ng  alniut  jjoo  »  ^ 


iNutmegi'. 

jClnnamon  . , ,'  * 

JCloves * 

5'«kpeppir;! 
IKed  pepper... 
(Pimento... 
(Carta....  ■■■  I 
jO«n»r,  gronilil 
In  root. 
Total.. 


eo'ment  made  by  w"o"  ."c'™'  'P'"""'!  """i 

usual  y  wore  no  garment,  h.?.      t"   •*"ff««M  Ceiar 
,!•'»  wife,  si,ter,  or  da'Xr     iT"''  f  '""  "-^X 

much  admired  bvp'..     ^^''"'PM''  nostrils  it  i"!^    ?'"»  ^r  water  was  an  .Jr   Sl"'  machino for .nln 
«o.te,teem7d74«r':ir""'  ">at  some "o  \he    "r™^-"'"'  •«>'  he''aVo\t,t!l  "','"''  P^-olpI?'"/ 
rian  and  spikenard      ST?  '"■"  ^'"P'"""  »' vale!   ^^r  '"  ''"^P'""'  'he  'h™^  Jn^d  for^K'?'  '""  '">•» 
[r:,''^"-^  ""'"''""ed  iJl'-S^^^  Of  spikenard   J;^^^^^^^^^ 
the  king  sitteth  st  i,;.  .1 .       '•'^  Volume.     "lvh!i„  machinery  by  horse..  1,,..  •    '.  •*"'>«t  heworked 

forth  .hfsme?Uhe"ot™ 'ttC^  spikenard  seSli^^^^^^^ 

Inff  .n  alabaster  bo.x  of  ointm    ^T  "  ''"'"an  l.av-    l^Xl  '."""""M  the  mX  whkS?™    "l"     ^"  '"». 

U«ious.»   It  i3  neverthele'    "I     **'  »P"'«""''  very    Kv  «""P«"'»"'<""  of  Sis  art     P  "   ""'""  "»" 

I  I 1 1  f    I      Corn.      I      „...^rZ        I  -, I  Hmd.  |_Q«««|SS-~ 


2.SO0 
80,000 
12,B00| 


26.000 


I  Sooth  Carolina 
I  Oeorgia  . . , 
I  Alabama..^ 
I  I«ui>ian*.. 
I  Tennessee  . 
I  Kentucky 
/MlsMuri:.. 
(Ohio  .... 
I  Indiana  .'.' 
/Illinois... 
(Michigan...' 

I  Iowa 

I  Wisconsin .".' 
I  New  Moilco. 

J  Utah 

I  Wa.  of  Coluttb!, 


2O,O00J 


Maine I  ^5^ 

Rhode  Island..       17000 

Connecticut...       igS     1       .... 

£:l'fl!  S*«"ln«l     21,930 
8,47fi 
7,160 
600 
8.600 
86.1261 
168.S:i|i| 
I    298900 
1,262,974 
884.  Wj, 
803,400 
189,426 
19.600 
98,700 
T,300 
8,000 
12,000 


26,6bo| 


|36.Y3n( 


lO.ono 
3.  Olio 

eti.o.'so 

124,440 
.S30,960 
ll^LVI 
98.000 
88,0801 

9i^a2nl 


260.7001 
C4.6S0 
18.1  IK) 
20,I60l 

268,400 

l»I,3S0 

30.1,2011 

8.BS8,140 

1,4I7,!I00 

T03,S(KI 

2I2,ii00l 

SLLtol 

29.90i)| 

2,0U0/ 


62,680      4so| 


*,«<iol  i.'eool 


S.480    ... 
80,520 

24,000  .  "  , 
281.750  lD,&'oo 
*8-7«0  1,000 
4S,70fl   -  -  ' 

T,200 
200 

'ia,9ool 


26 


tt^ml 


10 


2,'!00| 


I     •m.     I        

|ploy«J.|  Ale,  ttc. 

■•rreln.  , 
800| 

25.800^ 
8,9(;ol 

«44.'70o| 
84,7,'iO 

18'>.68l| 
26.38ll| 
6,600l 


8,00of 

19,«flfl| 

44  aw 

96,!  4-', 
II.OO.'S 
«T,925 
10,320 


120,t 


220,C 


B,(Mo| 


2,J 


'...    I      J01M 
81,820      I2T,( 


1750 


81*1 


KSTCMi  or  DmnMio  SKmm  rMM  nn  Umnn  8TATn 

roB  Tin  YiAii  nniiHa 

Jrmi  80, 185 

r. 

WkllkirtipMM. 

s^iriu  frnn  Ur«l>          | 

Splrlu  fnm  o<Ji«  HsMrtata.   [ 

UalliM. 

¥•!■•. 

OslloH. 

V«lu. 

Onlliu. 

V>la« 

Riiarimoa  Um  Bluk  Sea , 

■4,7i» 

4,018 

l*,73t 

S,88T 

480 

14,818 

70 

61.041 

8,400 

4^809 

18,000 

967.084 

56.701 

■4.886 

9,184 

800 

6,999 

100,814 

91,048 

6.040 

830.664 

848,008 

1,848 

'6,858 
18.948 
40,816 

"iio 

9,940 
1,810 

"iio 

410 
9,171 
8,414 
8,488 

84.880 
8,540 
0,160 

00,119 

68,917 

9,989 

6,824 

483 

8,1)00 

-      630 

20.666 

te^isi 

9,840 

7,840 

4,099 

910 

8,806 

106 

88,668 

1,875 

98,479 

8,900 

194,487 

40,904 

8,236 

4,724 

147 

9,830 

87,134 

14,991 

9,191 

691,013 

990,800 

704 

'9.850 

7,780 

85,428 

"i07 
1,781 
1,087 

"ioo 

170 
1,042 
4.814 
9,000 

18.34!) 
4.770 
4,514 

48,801! 

88,170 

4,400 

8,164 

177 

8,007 

537 

11.188 

'9,066 

900 

13,087 

'6,'970 

4!>,4'96 
109,924 

148.'l'n8 

17.359 

6,859 

146.'m4 

828,648 

9,458 

in8,4i53 

107,888 

60,107 

8,081 

■■'sbo 

800 

■4,2'oi 

97,186 

40.761 

6647 

S&.443 

823.824 

883,782 

1,487 

'6,'!i83 

87,''U1 
4.184 
8,644 
i,281 

""so 

•'•To 

9,417 

■8^188 

90,7io 
6.1,024 

104',764 
9,708 
4,604 

7'9',iio 

892,378 
4,819 

74^80 

88,'82 

84,416 

3,056 

"863 
154 

'1,096 

18,169 

26,394 

8,'.>87 

17,787 

146,832 

110,177 

868 

'9,688 

l'l',6i8 

8,780 

1,271 

868 

'"60 

84 

"406 

8.'2'S0 

70,663 

608 

188 

■  '437 

9,'2'db 
807 

iw'i's 

4,918 

i,'Mb 
"I'io 

1,906 

8,'l89 

17,901 

44 

9,'(»7 

13,1)60 

18,688 

"sob 

9,2«8 

"i\t 
s'oto 

51,504 
B91 
1S8 

■■9Hi 

i,e4b 

600 

1S,'848 
9,813 

■  '010 

"u'l 

845 

6,'644 

10,268 

34 

"963 

ia,'66'9 
13,730 

"877 
9,009 

AriiUo  Rnnl* , . . . 

DaaUh  WmI  IndlM 

Hwbnrg 

BronaaT 

Duleh  W«t  Indlu 

Dutch  Oulan* 

Englud 

Scotland 

Uibnllar 

Mtlto 

■  ■n»d* 

Uthw  BriUib  Nortli  American  Foueialoni. . . 
Brtliih  Waitlndlei 

UriUih  Hondurat 

Ilritlih  Oulana 

Britlili  PoHwwloiMln  AMea 

Other  porta  In  Africa 

Ilritioh  Auitralta 

Britiah  East  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

Cuba 

Porto  lUco 

Portugal 

Madeira 

Cape  ds  Verdlslandi 

Saixllnla 

TvoSlellles 

Austria 

Turkey  In  Asia 

HaTtI 

Mexico 

Central  Kepublio 

New  Irninada 

V'eneauela , 

Biaail 

OUIll 

Pern 

h>uadar 

Sandwich  Islands 

Other  Islands  in  the  Pacific 

China 

ToUl •. 

2.1tt7,0i4 

it>  1.248.231 

2,a7s,fl()3 

$1,216,635 

16.(,226 

$180,011 

Ihportb  or  Spirits  into  thk  fNiTRn  . 

>ATxa  roB 

TH«  Y«A» 

RHniiio  ,1n!««  SO,  1867. 

WkMM  Unpcitad. 

BrAndy. 

l'>i>ni 
Odloni 

Uraln. 

Krom  othar  HlMrialA 

CordUh            1 

a«ll<a». 

Valm. 

V.lu.. 

Uallom 

Valui. 

O.llona 

V.Ju. 

Sweden  and  Norway    

"100 

1,684 

671 

9,788 

'i'obs 

18,080 
17,093 

'6,'o40 

46 

797 

""16 

1,456,100 

1,826 

'6,907 

■ "  '2'87 

.... 
■  e  *e 

■■'88 

■"sbo 

9,876 

440 

9,838 

'3,011 
82.123 
83,481 

'l»,161 

46 

1,169 

'"26 

9,482.112 

2,8.13 

'7,261 

"B28 

'■■■5 

■'808 

23,019 

484 

l,606,9i)l 

' '  813 

8.8  8 

0.1.84S 

109,866 

1.109 

1.818 

269 

l,7t9 

64,'4'70 
""0 

"sir 
'1,418 

800 

$11,604 

838 
818,888 

'   "(IS 

1.0!:5 

78,830 

184,189 

1,821 

665 

160 

668 

i<i,'l'40 
■'■'7 

■   "919 

!!!> 

'1.009 
839 

282^  303 

"""14 
8,200 
4,464 
8,084 

""2i7 

6.808 

7U9 

"   "8 

9.4S7 

117,808 

148 

1,188 

"iio 

""'6 

l'J.808 

8,285 

■■'98 

"iio 
""is 

71 

$1881718 

"98 
1,740 
8,469 
1,445 

"ii3 

6,641 
816 

"  "s 

1,935 

0J,b38 

41 

8,0 

"867 

"   "9 
6,507 
4,080 

■"so 

■"74 

■",30 
SS 

10 

113 

8,01:4 

1,074 

8,071 

99 

i,"i7i 

1,191 

"     "7 
'"58 

42,'l'6'l 

6,60e 

270 

6,887 

"836 

"945 

18 

404 

80 

798 

"41 
■"'69 

"""so 

»15 

114 

3,618 

1,039 

3,827 

06 

'l',i72 
1,866 

■"is 
'"ia 

M,m 

10,674 

569 

8,447 

"i84 

"8i9 

19 

548 

34 
781 

"'69 
'   "47 
■■"24 

Danish  West  Indies 

Hamhurg 

Ilnnen 

Holland  

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  Oulana 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Belgium 

Kngland. . ,«. 

Scotland... 7. 

Ireland 

Canada 

Other  British  N.  American  Pom 
British  West  Indies 

British  Honduras 

British  Oulana 

British  East  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

France  on  the  Mediterranean , , 
Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

.'tpain  on  the  Mediterranean . . . 
Canary  Islands 

cuh«7..T... ;...;; ;..:::::: 

Porto  Rico  . . .  • 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Papal  SUtas 

Two  Wellies 

Anatna 

Ilaytl 

Mexico 

New  Oranada 

Venesiiela 

Rraail 

Bandwieh  Islands 

China 

Total 

1.613,828 

$2,827,262 

1,088  037 

$1,186,160 

443.495 

$218,007 

07,3T4 

$99,390 

SPI 


2751 


iiMirnoTnToTA.  V  1751  *  __,^ 

I   »_  r..— -I  1 1  -^ftM  Witt  oar  »n.umpUon.  '  P"*****"  would 


■■•It  »IU 

"•"MIU4 

flnia, 


TMaL 


W"d  with  the  Solent  and  South!*"'""""""'-  C' 
«o  Mcure  ffvm  all  wind.  .  ""■""P'on  W«ter.  Im. 
W  been  tVrmei  by  ^f,' "f«P'  ,"■•  •outhe«L  „  i 

Port."  "  V""''P»'  "'d^vo'uV'f'l* '•  ^"^"•"'^^ 
PorMmonth  and  fivdo  are  on T.      ""*  ^''"•'>  Mry 

SpUolng,  .moig  .eZen  t„  .^'~l"«  "'^•- 
«*«  together,  or  to  unitM^e'enH^  I"  """  '"^  •"<>•  of  a 
«|0«o5_by  interweaT"ng  the  ,t?.  "/^"^P* '«  -y P.rt 

Telocity,  and  frequenllv  do  n,„i  V^"''  •«>"'">  great 
"s  'u^"  ""■  """^^""''  "**  -mong^" 

S-Ue?  up^"^,^; --nj;  m^^^^^         web,  .„, 
«ke  eflbct  of  the  splinfeV.  '"^*  ""'«.  ^  le,wn 

Sp.  Ayonja),  a  »ft,  liZTerv  15^^'  ^'-  '^-P'c; 
Wo  Wbatance,  readily  imWhZ,'^"'"''  "«'  <»mp«Ml 
««vlng  it  out  again  ^  iT  ll  r^  IT"*'"'  •n"  "  Wdilv 
particularly  in  A,ilJL'  '"""''  •'^''ering  to  wcki^ 
"d-of  thArchfptlS^™"  Sea,  a^^^^ 

^«  vegetable  p«,dn^ion.  but  i.  nT^'^'-PP"-"  to 
the  zooDhvtMi.  .„j  _^  .    •  ?"'  »  now  claiu»l  .»..__ 


materia  medica-lLKwirt  S^  "?^»  «medie.  l7?S 

^2  m  AtTy'tili:  :^te'-  -  ""0  Schwinge, 
N.,  ong.  9°  28'  84"  R  ,,V"»''"ft  Jat.  68°  86'  8p 
would  b.  quit,  unworihy  of  "  ?'y  ""'•  '««»o !  a„d 
•ort,  except  for  the  circL,u„«  !J"  '  *"*  "^  "* 
charged  by  the  Hanov^.^  **  *''•'  •  'oil  or  dutv 
veyed  up  the  Elbe T  h      u  *°''*""»M»  on  eood.Vnn 

Brb ''-"''^ --S^arr  ^-'»^^^^^ 

BrunthauKn,  contiguous  to  tM*!    "  "">  «w"o  rf 
bound  for  Hamburg  had  L^-  "'     ^"  ^eswU 

»rrie,  to  .ncho^in  ;Mrin7L*°i*"J  ''o"  of  ^e 

fe"t»,  bills  of  ladin^r  cock...    .P^  "  '"«'«ding  man!- 
dn'y, which wa.in«„t?^!^  Vx'  °"  "«'«.  «hat"e 

hI^k" '"°**'> '»  proceed  md  th.!.^*"«  '^'""''  "■• 
Hamburg.-^,,  ElbbV^, 'i,"^„"'\^?'y  w«sp«  d  at 

•truction  of  this  sort  Sould  wT:""""  "■«  •»  ob- 

Jong  a  period.    The  Zkstettt  ^m  ""*«'*'«  ^r  m 


np.  when  perfectly  f^,^'   '*"'''; '"""Ponge  is  fished  U^^ 

'••y  light  that  UrgeTie^"!,"'"''  «""  "V.  "  fa  w  Pstel^T^^l*''^'''*'  ^8^- 

d..!.....  .-...    .«•  P'eces  of  .t  are  »„„.^  „,..  ..    I  , »«IJ»d_01««.     When  certain  metallic  oxri 

with  DroMr  fl„ .""  "'y* 


—  xoHiiaortheirfenra     **     TJ — •» '" '"o  mar- 


rt/.  »•*""'  "  witn  sand.    This  i 
ritowt''hT'^«'''''''«»'''«ving 

*««»>P  Acta.      Stamps  are  imprea. 


STA 


1752 


StE' 


•ibiU  nAda  Mpon  papar  or  parchmmt  bjr  th«  govarn- 
■•nt  or  it*  offloan  Iter  tha  purpoie  of  revaaoa.  Thajr 
always  daaota  the  priea  of  tha  partionUr  atanp,  Or,  in 
other  words,  the  tax  levied  upon  a  partlenlar  instru* 
■Mnt  stamped,  and  sometimes  thejr  dsnote  tha  nature 
of  the  instroment  itself.  If  tha  inatrumant  is  written 
npon  paper,  the  stamp  is  Impressed  in  relief  upon  tlia 

r per  itself;  buttoaparohmsntiDstramentthaslamp 
attadied  by  paste  and  a  small  pieoe  of  lead,  which 
itself  forms  part  of  tha  impression.  These  stampa  are 
sasUy  forged,  and  at  rarioas  time*  fbrgariea  of  them 
npon  a  large  seals  hava  iMen  disooTersd.  The  Stamp 
Act  was  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  Anarioaa  Bev- 
Olution,  In  England  all  commercial  paper  mast  be 
aumped  to  give  it  validity.  Tha  Suta  of  Maiyland 
passed  a  Stamp  Act  in  1846  as  a  sourca  of  rvranue. 
By  this  act  bills  of  exchange,  promissory  notaa,  bonds, 
mortgages,  and  lottery  tickets,  were  to  be  stamped. 
The  ordinary  annual  revenue  of  the  State  was  from 
#70,000  to  $80,00a  The  act  was  repealed  In  1856. 
By  the  present  British  Stamp  Act,  the  stamps  on  bill* 
df  exchange,  and  notes,  drafts,  etc.,  range  from  1  penny 
to  £2  6t. ;  on  foreign  bills,  from  1  penny  to  16f. )  on 
wills,  ftom  lOi.  to  4270  or  more. 

Staple,  "anciently  written  estepfe,  cometh,"  says 
Lork  Coke, "  of  the  French  word  etd^s,  which  signiAiM 
a  mart  or  market."  It  appears  to  have  been  nsed  to  In- 
dicate thoae  mart*  both  in  Oreat  Britain  and  at  Bmge*, 
Antwerp,  Calaii,  etc.,  on  the  continent,  where  the  prin- 
cipal product*  of  a  country  were  sold.  Probably,  in 
the  first  instance,  these  were  held  at  such  place*  a*  pos- 
sessed  some  convenience  of  situation  for  the  purpose. 
Afterward  they  appear  to  have  been  oonfinned,  or  oth- 
ers appointed  for  tb»  purpose  by  tha  authorities  of  the 
country.  All  merchandhM  sold  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
portation was  compelled  either  to  be  sold  at  the  "  st»> 
pie,"  or  afterward  brought  there  before  exportation. 
This  was  done  with  the  double  view  of  accommodating 
the  foreign  merchants  and  also  enabling  the  duties  on 
exportation  to  lie  more  conveniently  and  certainly  col- 
lected. Afterward  tha  word  staple  was  applied  to 
the  merchandise  iuelf  which  was  *old  at  the  staple. — 
Bonn's  Cfchptdia.  t 

Btarob  (Oer.  Awntbm;  Fr.  Amidonf  It.  Amodi, 
Amito ;  Sp.  AmitUm,  Almidon ;  Bus*.  /CraeAmoJ),  a  r.  V 
Btance  obtained  from  vegetabhs.  It  has  a  fine  white 
color,  and  is  usually  concreted  in  longlah  masses;  it 
ha*  scarcely  any  smell,  and  very  little  taste.  When 
kept  dry,  it  continues  for  a  long  time  uninjured,  thongh 
exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  insolutde  in  cold  water ;  but 
oom  bines  with  boiling  water— forming  with  it  a  kind 
of  Jelly.  It  exists  chiefly  in  the  white  and  brittle 
parts  of  vegetables,  particularly  in  tuberoae  roots,  and 
the  seeds  of  the  graniineoua  plants.  It  may  be  ex- 
tracted by  pounding  these  parts,  and  agitating  them  in 
eold  water,  when  the  partnckyma  or  fibrous  parts  will 
first  subside;  and  these  being  removed,  a  fine  white 
powder,  diltUsed  through  the  water,  will  gradually  sub- 
aide,  which  is  the  starch.  Or  the  pounded  or  grated 
anbstance,  as  the  root*  of  potatoes,  aeom*,  or  horse 
chestnuts,  for  instance,  may  be  put  into  a  hair  bieve, 
and  tha  starch  washed  through  with  cold  water,  leav- 
Ipg  the  grosser  matter*  behind.  Farinaceou*  seeds 
Qiay  be  ground  and  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  Oily 
**ed*  require  to  have  the  oil  expressed  from  them  Iw- 
fcre  the  iStrina  is  extracted. — ^Thoiisom's  CAem. 

iMroaTS  or  SvAaon  laro  thb  I'lfiTD  Stjitm  roa  tub  Yiab 
XNniHO  JoHB  80, 18M. 


Poaib 

V>lw. 

4Tr 

44,8T5 

146&'V 

B1.4M 

1,891 

S.PSt 

1,B)0 

600 

WU 

1009 

S4M 

184 

883 

4T 

m 

Holland 

Rnnl"»d 

aootlsnd 

Cuba 

Mexico 

Prance  and  Oanada 

Total 

ilS,8JS 

•<#» 

Star,  •  strdiig  rop*  ftrom  thM  mui  bud,  Uafflhg 
forward  to  support  it  (tarn  felling  aft.  ItiakaathaiMm* 
of  the  mast,  as  the  fore-stay,  main-topmast  stay,  alo. 
To  iftqr,  meana  to  tack.  To  ba  in  ttan;  is  to  ha  in  tha 
act  of  tacking.  To  mill  ttaj/t,  dgnlHai  to  fell  In  aft^ 
tempting  to  tack. 

Steam  MawlfaUen.  The  statiitlos  in  regard  to 
tha  steam  navigation  of  tha  maritime  nations  of  Ihk 
world  wiU  be  found  under  the  beads  of  tho**  oooatrlei, 
Thia  arUola,  therefore,  will  ba  llmltad,  aiMl  ba  «ompri(Mt 
under  tha  following  heads  I  I.  Invention  of  the  Staaiq- 
engine.  II.  Introdaotion  and  Statlttlo*  of  Oeaaa 
Steam  Xavigation. 

I.  /ne«n<ion  oftht  Sttam-mgin».—'l\M  *t*am.«ngln* 
is  the  most  important  power  that  the  ingenuity  of  man 
has  yet  devised.  The  first  Idea  of  It  was  suggested  b)r 
the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  his  Century  of  Inventions, 
as  **  a  way  to  drive  up  water  by  flre,"  It  does  not,  how> 
ever,  appear  that  this  inventor  ever  derived  any  lienallt 
or  could  interest  the  public  in  favor  of  his  discovery. 
The  following  list  Includes  the  chronology  of  the  moit 
important  Invention*  and  improvamtnt*  of  the  steam- 
engine. 

Pspln's  dlgsstsr  invtnted IWi 

Captain  Bafer;'*  engine  eonstniotigd  for  rslslna  wstsr  .  10M 
Papln's  engine  exhibited  to  the  Brillih  RojrsI  Hoclsty. .  ItM 

Atssesplierle  engiae  by  Ssverjr  and  Nevoemsn 1TI8 

f best  Ijisa  of  itean  oavixatloa  ssl  iiirth  In  a  patent  ob. 

UlnedbyUull T. 1T8« 

Watt's  invention  of  oondensstlon  iteam ITSB 

W*tl?s  first  pateat ITOU 

Watt's  engin*  buHt  on  a  largs  soale,  and  his  |islsnt  re- 
newed by  Parliament 1T7S 

Thomas  Pains  proposed  the  spulleatlon  of  ilosm  In  tho 

United  BUtes IHS 

Gngliw  mads  to  glvs  a  rotary 1TT8 

Watt's  expansion  engln* ITM 

Double  acting  engines  propoMd  by  Dr,  Flock ITTO 

Wstt'a  double  engine  oonnnicted  snd  p*l«nt<id  ITfll 

Marquess  Joufflroy  eoustmcled  an  engln*  on  the  Banns,  1T81 
Fitch's  experiments  In  itsam  navlustlon  on  tho  Uslit. 

ware n88-'M 

Oliver  Grsni's  experiment* ITUV-'M 

Ramiey  experiments  In  Virginia 1T8T 

W.  Symington  nude  a  passage  on  ths  Cljd*  (Isnal, ...  118) 
Chancellor  Livingston  oullt  a  steauier  ou  the  Hudson. ,  UST 

First  experiment  on  ths  Thsmes 1801 

Tnveltnek'a  high  pressure  locomotive  engine  (sm  Kaii,. 

BOADS)  first  used 1808 

Oliver  Evans's  experlmenUi  la  lo«oniotlvo  engluos  In 

PennsylTsnta 1804 

Manufsotoriea  warmed  by  stesm  1808 

Fulton  started  a  steamboat  en  ths  Hudson  HIvsr,  built 
by  himself,  named  Th*  Cltrmont ,'  euglno  by  Uoulton 
and  Wstt;  passage  to  Albany  In  thlrty.slx  hours. 
FtXST  KlOOBD  or  rBAOTIOAI.  Ht*am  Naviuation  in 

■raa  WoaLo 180T 

The  ateamboata  next  in  order  in  ths  world  wsre, 

TA<  Car  ((^.Vijituns,  New  York 1808 

Tlu  Paragon  "         1811 

n*  iNcAwumd  "  1811 

Steam  povrer  flrst  laed  on  rallmads  by  Hlunklnsop 1811 

Stesm  vessels  commenood  plying  en  tlui  Olyds  (Ftasv 

IH  F.naorx)  1818 

Five  steam  vessels  In  fleollsnd  1818 

Steam  used  In  printing  Uindon  TVmss 1814 

First  iteam  veiulon  the  'I'lukmiw,  brought  fruui  (ilssgow  1818 

First  steamer  butU  in  KiiRlaml 1815 

Steamer  SaeannnA,  of  850  tons,  made  tho  flmt  oncan 
voyage  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  in  twsnty-lwo 

days.. 1818 

First  steamer  in  IreUnd 1810 

Captain  Johnson  obtained  £10,000  for  niiikhiK  the  flrst 
■team  voyags  to  India  In  the  i(n<«r]ir<a<,  whioh  sailed 

from  Falmouth  August  16  1836 

Loconiotire  atesm-carrUgos  on  rallwsys  at  Liverpool, 

October 18M 

liocomottvea  first  nsed  In  ths  United  Blatoa  <in  tha  Mo- 
hawk and  liudaon  Hallroad 1881 

On  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  183'i 

The  Oreat  Wtgltm  arrived  from  Hrlatnl  st  New  York, 
and  the  Sirivi  from  Cork,  Irelsnd,  being  their  flrat 

voysges 1888 

Flrat  sleanior  on  tlio  Cunard  Line  arrived  at  lloaton, 

fourteen  days  eight  hours,  July  18 1840 

—See  HAvnii'a  Didionary  if  PaUt;  SM  Fultiik. 

II.  fntroduction  and  Slaliiliei  o/Ocfan  .S'rtrtsi  Xariga- 
fun.— The  flrat  steamer  that  ever  croaaod  tho  Atlantic 
was  the  Savannah,  Captain  Moaet  Rogers— a  vetacl  that 
was  built  In  New  York,  In  1818,  by  Fltcliot  &  Crocket. 
The  engine  waa  built  by  Stephen  Vail  and  UanttI  Dod, 


I  nc!  iftr^- 


STE 


•fNewJtntr    Iti...  ^^*'  - 

toni  burden  and  90  h^'  P^JdJ^whwI  sImomp  „/  Q«n  ^*» 

The  mere  fact  of  tiilZ^JT  ""■  '«'•"'  bHtew    1°"*  """'  ""^  for  pLZ2""'  •"''  ^n^quenU^ 
been  overlookedru.S^f"!:,?'*''*'"'*  to  hive"   whh"",!'"''*"^""  «Pi<l^^a«  ,'h  ""'  '"'«'«     Thv 


Th.  m  ""••"Mm  yean  to  crow  th.  ~^  . '"  *•« 
The  mere  fact  of  thJj  .ucces.fui  v„„  '^•"  ''J'  •''•ni. 
been  overlooked;   tbe^f  Ih,?'*'  "^w*  to  have 

J^-thatateam  v...,.  ^'^AZ'l'Z^ 

t^T^  °'  ""»  <=»»tC*^'^i"'*V''<.  first  actual 
Wqjectod,  and  the  (iret  veM^th?<?r  "**»«"  was 
fe'^  York  on  the  23d  of  April  Isl^'^JH'  •"»^<'«1  in 
Papers  of  that  d«.«  ..  "  .f£"''.  '?'»•    The  New  York 


,«!''' .b  trZ.:rpte^„:5^^- 

The  motion  of  8cre,v^,?eai  "i'^*^'"'^"'''*'  '^m 
t  >o«.  with  paddle-wheTu"!?  ^  ?""•  ""?"«••»  "C 
fWea  to  balance  and  "trim '.h™  **'!!« """"n",;  tS 
ThToSf"""''"  ""^'""^  »■•*«.  iSrch! 

P»ddi:whL7?.eir.^'l»r  ""r^"»«^  •■"«  Collin. 
or''/^>?'^'^"'9tofc  ^■i^'x"  -nd  New' 

^--CstnTSr'^^^f^^^ 


•""•^  lorK  on  the  23d  of  April   ism    ^1*'  •"'^ed  in  or  /Am»7  "™"  '«>'"  9  ti 

Papers  of  that  dale  aav  "Mvl'i  !\   ^^^  New  York  hL^      "*"-•  ^'""h  »orew  it..™  ^ ;"""""  »«*«m. 

the  Battery  to  have  a  rflmn'  '','^1"''  P«™<>n»  crowded  ^'l*"-""  »ent  under TeL^'""?'''''"  6«00  ton. 

which  had^^r^J^d  the  A&°f  ""  «"» ««m  vl^  ?h?!?" '"  ""^"t  9  d.y"  '  r'h"  e^"*;  "•'"«  '•  SoutS! 

Md  arrived  safely  n  pt^'!?' tI^?  ">«  Bri«.b  C  Ne/^^^L^*'"''''.  -^^ A^.^ZlT"' ^"^^'- 


-so.  Th; Xst^rnW^rrV''''  ««»-'  - 
'"''f'7°y«««i«  than  the  New  Ynrl?'^''""^  line  had 
0^  the  delay  occasioned  by^p-^r^'J  S -~^^^^^^^^ 


of  New  York.    Th'e'elrlUi  "  "T  '"•■"«"  "•"  ou7 

in  the  trade.  The  linTe1S:*!?'K'"""'  "^  ^^^  'ong 
S«nuel  Cunard,  and  t^  thS  dil^  ''^  "">  ^nt^Trisinf 
Jtartedin  Wo/and  wis  the  fl7^"'"« '''»  "-"no. waf 
Jul  lino  of  tranUtlanU^sLl^''  Permanently  .uccesl 
first  Cunard  steamer  fUie^Z  *"?'  "'  »«""'•  The 
July  18,  mo.  ^^'  -fi'^onwa)  arrived  at  Boston 

«<•.  Wd,  with  all  o?&^?:'"'«'"'e/>aoitf„  J:      St~ '*'""*'^^^^^^^^^^^  Jl  »»     .  ' 


C'nnanI,  NV»Yo',k ' " "  ^•'''"e;»heel,'i'r OS*' 
J-unanJ,  Boston       " "  ..  »    03 


<^Bn«nJ,  Boston 
Hremen.... 
Oldlhvn..." 
««»re(Vaadcrbiio;, 


1^ 
II 
13 
IS 
14 
.13 
IT 
15 


16 
93 

or 

00 

IS 
00 
00 
12 
13 


-■  wrecKed,  but  no  lives  were  «.»    ' '""""i"""  were   Mediterrai 

X'l"!'"  ^°«'-'»  'oNew  Yorr/nlfco'";  '^"-  "^ "'-™ 
ow.OOO  persons  have  crosse.I  »l>«  a?/.' '"'"^*'' '*'<"«  Coiupanv 
reckoning  both  nassenX  .„H  o  ^"*'"'"  ''J'  »'««•"-  ' 

both  ways-and  of  t^fn^K^T'- ""'"''«  voyages      dumber..  »«'"'. 

-.ter  ea.«r;inhe";e.::s7rpe;Lr-an]f  -r^^^^^^^^ 

______P^M<1  the  I  on  almost  exclusively  by  lamsbip. !  ''"•  ""^  ""*<"« 


Paddlt-wliMl. 
10 
i:2,T16 


ToUI. 

40 

62,78T 


f-Y-. ^ '^-  |n»n>b., 

Uverpool  and  Isle  SfMlS' ^R^^ 

£.„?•"?  •"■*  Ireland  „       ? 

Scotland  and  Shetland < 

L        Totol J. 

■*»  ■ "-- — I   isr 


,'  Hone 
I  Power. 


TOO 
1,284 
800 
073 
12.8S0 
0,413 
800 
0,308 
640 
TOT 
2,806 
60 
SiSO 
S.nOO 
8,290 
'43,284 


2,408 
880 

2.7S2 
40,063 
18,406 

1,181 
29,454 
],T6S 
],&53  j 
6,719 

260 

6.961 

8,000 

13,410  I 

1401391 


Number] 
'    of  Men.    ' 


Strri.-e 
commencuL 
1888 
WW 
1840 
1852 
1863 
1860 
IS.M 
1861 
1864 
184^ 

lata 

1S66 
1852 
18S6 
185T 


There  are  wme  line.  nothere^iini7iZr-hrr~^ '~ L_ 

"""ced,  which  swell  the  sum  to  $6,333,985. 


How  often 

y«»eek 

2  a  day 
1  »  Week 

3  a  month 
*  a  month 
1 1>  week 

I  a  month 
3  a  month 

1  a  day 
8  a  week 

2  a  month 
laday 

1  a  month 
)  t  month 
1  a  month 


94,250 

125,000 
6,000 

102,600 
1,121,600 

866  TOO 

78,600 
1,860,000 

n,ooo 

20.000 

126,000 

6,600 

106.2B0 

206,000 

__»2IMOO 

gg.ll4,T00« 

5s  ,i^iMhS' 


/ 


9TE 


mi 


'  1.  Tb«  mall  rouMi  from  Omt  Britain  to  Auitralla 
an  ihown  a«  follows : 

Til*  route  fWmi  Oraat  Britain  to  her  Auitralian  eol- 
odIm,  via  tlio  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  include!  tli*  follow- 
tog  diitanees  and  lengths  of  passage  i 

Hll«. 
fl,TOO 


T 


i      Bouthamplon  to  the  Cap* 

Cape  to  Adelslda 0,100 

>       AdcUldo  to  R]r<ln*r  1|<>M  5 

':      BrlMT  to  New  Zealand l.lilO  _• 

,  ToUl 1S,0M  m 

4 

'    I,  The  Suez  and  Singapore  route  is  made  up  as 

follows  I  1     .  ' ' 

'    *  MUm, 

Boulhsmpton  to  Olbfaltar ,.,.,.,...  1,100 

t.      Olbrsltw  to  AleundrU ,.  1,800 

Alexandria  to  Ceylon S,TBO 

Cejrioii  to  Slngapom  1,TOO 

*'      Singipora  to  Hrdner 4,800 

Bjrdnejr  to  Now  Zealand 1,800 

I                   Total ii^ 

B.  The  distances  bv  way  of  Panama  are: 

HilM. 

Sonthampton  toSkThonu S.OJO 

BL  Thonuato  Panama 1,100 

Panama  to  TahlU 4,400 

Tahiti  to  New  Zealand 2,280 

Vtw  Zealand  to  Sydney 1,200 

Total 1-2,000 

The  eomparatlve  distances  show  a  decided  advant- 
age by  the  I'anama  route,  and  prove  that  the  course 
of  trade  from  Great  Britain  to  her  colonies  must  event- 
lully  tend  that  way. 

The  ocean  mail  steamers  of  Great  Britain  run 
2,682,281  miles  per  year,  at  a  total  cost  to  the  Admi- 
ralty of  Xl,062,797,  or  •6,883,986.  The  ocean  mail 
steamers  of  the  United  States  run  736,732  rtiiles  per 
year,  at  a  total  charge  on  the  Post-ofHco  Department 
of  tl,829,733.  The  British  steamers  run  three  and  a 
half  times  as  many  miles  as  ours  do,  and  receive  for  it 
a  sum  more  than  four  times  as  large.  The  average 
price  paid  to  their  principal  companies,  as  the  West 
India  Koyal  Mail,  the  Cunard,  the  Australian,  and  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental,  including  its  Blediterranean 
coasting  service,  is  9*.  7d.,  or  $2  39  per  mile ;  while 
the  average  price  paid  by  us,  or  for  the  Collins,  Havre, 
Bremen,  Aspinwall,  and  Panama,  San  Francisco  and 


Oregon,  is  tl  80}  per  mile.  The  highest  sum  paid 
per  mile  by  the  British  government  is  Iti.  HH.,  or 
tH  88^,  to  the  Cunard  Company,  f  2  76  to  the  Austra- 
lian, and  #2  46  to  the  West  India ;  and  the  lowest,  6<. 
lid.,  or  91  68(  to  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental,  much 
of  whose  service  is  coasting.  This  Is  saying  nothing 
of  the  PaclAo  and  the  African  coasting  lines.  The 
highest  sum  which  we  pay  is  to  the  Collins  line,  $3  10^ 
per  mile ;  and  the  lowest  to  the  Havre,  $1  OOi  per  mile ; 
while  the  sums  paid  to  all  of  the  other  companies  range 
but  little  above  the  last  figures.  The  lowest  rate  per 
mile  paid  to  any  of  the  lines  under  the  contract  was  to 
the  Pacific  Mail,  fl  70.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  low  rates  per  mile  of  the  Havre  and  Bremen  result 
from  those  lines  taking  tho  postages  since  their  con- 
tracts expired — a  sum  by  no  means  adjusted  to  the 
service  done.  They  had  ships  that  they  could  not  let 
lie  idle.  Under  their  regular  contracts  the  pay  per 
mile  of  the  Bremen  line  was  f  2  08,  and  of  the  Havre 
•1  76^.  While  the  British  government  pays  to  four 
of  her  principal  transmarine  services  an  average  of 
(2  89  per  mile,  we  pay  to  five  of  ours  an  average  of 
tl  80}  only,  or  but  about  two-thirds  as  much  as  she 
does.  While  our  total  annual  expenditure  for  foreign 
mails  is  •1,820,788,  a  sum  by  •20,267  less  than  that 
paid  to  the  single  service  of  the  West  India  Royal  Mail 
Company,  that  of  Great  Britain  is  •5,833,986.  And 
while  our  total  income  fh>m  transmarine  postages  is 
•1,036,740,  a  sum  but  little  short  of  that  paid  in  sub- 
sidy, taking  the  present  Bremen  and  Havre  scrxiccs 
at  the  estimates  of  last  year  for  sea  and  inland  post- 
ages combined,  the  income  from  tho  whole  transmarine 
service  of  Great  Britain,  including  ocean  and  inland 
postage,  was,  when  the  last  report  was  made  in  1868, 
£591,673,  or  $2,967,866;  but  little  above  half  tho  sum 
paid  In  subsidy,  and  including  the  French,  Belgian, 
and  Dutch  routes,  where  the  postal  yield  was  much 
greater  than  from  the  ocean  lines.  Tho  estimates 
which  we  present  below  have  been  made  with  great  care 
from  distances  and  subsidies  furnished  us  by  the  reli- 
able First  Assistant  Postmaster-general,  Hon.  Hora- 
tio King,  from  the  last  report  of  the  late  Postmaster- 
general,  and  flroni  tho  report  of  the  British  Postmas- 
ter-general, Lord  Canning,  before  noticed.  Every  item 
is  consequently  authentic. 


AiixxioAif  Maii.  BTXAMcaa 


Collins 

Bremen.... 

lUvre 

Aspinwall . . 

Pacific 

Havana . . . . 

Vera  Cruz  . 

Total. 


Tripi.  I  Dliunfw.        BuUldy. 


20 
13 
13 
24 
24 
24 
24 


8,100 
8,T0O 
8,270 
8,200 

4,sno 
660 
000 


l|:S85.UliO 
128.081 
88,484 
290,000 

848, seo 

6n,000 
29,002 


$1,329,733 


OnmPqrtAg*. 


$4I6,8«T 
lli8,98T 
8S,4!<4 
189,010 
188,<!8<l 
6,183 
5^060 


$1,1.86,740 


ToUl  HUM. 


1.4  000 
90,000 
f»,020 
163.600 
201,000 
82.112 
43.200 


72B,<82 


F«y  T»'  ""«■ 


(8  1U( 
1£4 
1  00( 
1  88t 
1  70 

1  m 

(ii 


$1  8ut  avcrana. 


Total  average  per  mile,  $1  S0{.    Average  of  Ave  piineipal  lines,  |1  80|. 
Bbitisii  Mail  Sthaiikbs. 


LIum. 


Cunwd 

Koyal  Mall 

PcnInMilar  and  Oriental. . . 

Australian 

Bermuda  and  St  Thomas  . 
Panama  and  Valparaiso. . . 
Weal,  Coast  Africa 


Channel  Islands 

Holyhead  and  Kingston . 

Liverpool  and  Isle  of  Mai 

Shetland  and  Orkneys . . 

ToUl 


Trlpi. 


6» 
24 
24 
12 
24 
24 
12 


1B6 
T30 
113 


8,100 
11,402 

• 

14,000 
2,043 
2,718 
6,245 


182 
64 

TO 

SAO 


Sutwidy. 


Xli3,84U 

270,1)00 

244,000 

185,0(:0 

14,700 

26,000 

28,260 


XI, 002, 797 


iinmPiMt§: 


£148,067  lOl. 
1I!0,906 

178,180  11 

83,281  12 

6,"7l'6 
8,196    a 
French,  Belgian, 
and  Dutch  pont- 
age, 

(74,480  8 
{a8,l6S  9 
1 10,082  IS 


i;6ei,678    7a 


804,000 
647,206 
796,087 
830,(100 
18,000 
130,4.14 
14'.',880 


41.184 
08,440 
14,6110 
20,800 


Piiy  pT  Mil*. 


2,R:i2.2RI 


lid,      41U. 

9a  10<(. 
««.     lid. 
11a 

tin. 

8a  lOd. 
Sa    M. 


VK.     VI.       $2  H9 


Total  average  per  mile,  $9  10).    Average  of  four  principal  lines,  $2  80. 
*  The  Penlnanlar  and  Oriental  Company  run  twice  per  month  between  Southampton  and  Alexandria,  and  between  Sues 
and  CaleutU  and  Hong  Kong:  twiee  per  month  between  Marseilles  and  Malta;  between  Singapore  and  Sydney  every  two 
months;  and  three  limes  per  month  between  Southampton  and  Olbraltar,  touching  at  Vigo,  Oporto,  Lisbon,  and  Cadia. 


It  would  hardly  be  expected  that  the  lines  of  this 
country  should  run  at  cheaper  rates  than  those  of  Great 
Britain,  at  the  prime  cost  of  ships  and  their  repairs, 


fuel,  wages,  insurance,  etc.,  are  much  cheaper  there, 
and  as  they  have  more  paying  ftvights,  in  their  Manu- 
factured goods.    It  only  explains  to  us,  what  .has  al- 


aini 


8TE 


17M 


STE 


Jo  75 
$0  W    , 


««twe«n  Buc« 
liey  every  two 

aper  theWi 

|thelr««n»- 

»h«t  has  »l- 


miyi  M«med  •  myatery,  that  whtio  the  ngnlar  com- 
paniei  in  KnpUnd  wore  makInK  money,  nearly  all  of 
thota  in  the  IJnitcd  Statca  not  only  had  not  made  mon- 
ey, but  were  embarraued  more  or  Iota,  and  were  lell- 
ing  their  atoclc  at  CO  to  80  centa  on  the  dollar. 

The  hiatory  of  commercial  natlona  admoniahet  ua 
that  no  trading  people  can  long  maintain  their  aacend- 
ency  without  ualng  all  or  the  moat  approved  meana  of 
the  ago  for  proaecuting  trade.  Portugal  wai  at  one 
time  the  moat  powerful  commercial  nation  of  the  globo ; 
and  at  another  Holland  waa  tho  miatreaa  of  the  aeaa. 
But  while  the  latter  la  now  only  a  fourth-rate  com- 
mercial power,  tho  former  haa  t\ink  intoobacurity,  and 
ia  nearly  forgotten  of  men.    At  that  time  Kngland  and      .     .    .„.. 

France  had  but  a  limited  foreign  trade,  and  acarcely  "'^''*  "•li°""  \'^'^  ""  "•""  *'"  "^  '*'  *""** 
any  «,mmerci,l  reputation  France  could  mora  eaailj;  "':r'ro*;r!:j:?'^^Zr:Fo»r=  Olun,^  t«T  ..„., 
maintain  her  oxialence  without  a  foreign  trade  than  '     — 

could  Kngland ;  and  yet  her  matured  manufacturea  and 
her  producta  of  the  aoil  became  ao  valuable  that  ahe 
sought  a  foreign  market.  England,  on  the  contrary, 
had  not  territory  enough  to  remain  »t  home  and  yet 
be  a  great  power,  She  matured  an  immonae  manufac- 
turing aystem,  and  needed  a  market,  as  well  aa  the 
raw  material,  and  food  for  her  operativoa.  She  began 
to  stretch  her  arma  to  the  outer  world,  and  had  made 
very  conaldorable  atrldes  in  foreign  commerce  aide  by 
side  with  France  and  the  German  Statca,  and  in  the 
faoe  of  tho  ateady  young  oppoaitlon  of  the  American 
SUtoa. 

It  ia  intereating  to  trace  thia  rapid  progreaa  of  ateam 
since  its  firat  application  to  purpoaea  of  mail  tranaport 
in  1838.  An  intelligent  writer  says,  "  The  riae  and 
progreaa  of  the  ocean  steam  mail  .service  of  Great  Brit- 
ain la  second  in  Intereat  to  no  chapter  in  the  maritime 
hiatory  of  the  world;"  and  whilo  we  acknowledge  a 
grateful  pride  in  the  triumphs  of  our  tranaatlonlic 
brethren,  we  muat  bluah  with  shame  at  our  dereliction 
in  thia  great,  and  civiii^.ing,  and  enriching  aervice  of 
modern  timea.  The  ateam  marine  of  the  United  Statca, 
poatal,  mercantile,  and  naval,  ia  to-day  ao  inaignilicant 
in  extent  that  we  do  not  feel  entirely  certain  that  it  ia 
•  aufficient  nucleua  for  tho  growth  of  a  reapeetablo  mar- 
itime power.  The  few  ahipa  that  we  poaaesa  are  among 
the  fleetest  and  the  moat  comfortable  that  traverao  the 
ocean,  and  have  excited  the  admiration  of  the  world 
wherever  they  have  been  seen.  But  their  numtier  is 
BO  small,  their  service  ao  limited,  their  fleld  of  opera- 
tion so  contracted,  that  our  large  commerce  and  travel 
are  dependent,  in  moat  parta  of  the  world,  on  British 
steam  mail  lines  for  correspondence  and  tranaport,  or 
on  the  slow,  irregular,  and  uncertain  communications 
of  sailing  vcaaela.  Tho  queation  here  naturally  aug- 
geats  itaelf :  Have  we  progressed  in  ocean  steam  navi- 
gation in  a  ratio  commensurate  with  the  improvements 
of  the  age,  or  of  our  own  improvement  in  every  thing 
elac  ?  And  has  the  government  of  the  countr}'  afforded 
to  the  people  tho  facilities  of  enterprise  and  commercial 
competition  which  are  clearly  necessary  to  enable  them 
to  enter  the  conteat  on  equal  terma  with  other  commer- 
cial countries  ? 

Lilt  of  American  Ocean  Sleameri.—7he  mail  service 
has  eight  linns,  and  21  steamers  in  commission,  of 
48,027  registered  tonnage.  Much  of  this  tonnage  be- 
longs to  supply-ships,  as  for  instance  those  of  the  Pacific 
Mail  Steamship  Company. 

Colh'ns  Line Throe  steamers  »T2T  tona:  Adriatie,  4144 

tona;  Atlantic,  iS49tons;  IMtie.,  2733  tons. 

Havre  tin*.— Two  steamers,  46«  tons:  Arago,  M40  tons; 
FuUmu  9B08  tona. 

Yanderbilt  Bremen  Z,tiur.  — Three  steamers,  C8-28  tons: 
North  Star,  1801  tons;  Ariel,  1206  tona;  Vanderbilt,  3860 
ton& 

Uniied  Stalea  Mail  Steamahip  Company.— Six  ateamere, 
8541  tons;  /HinoiX 2123  tona;  JJmpi're  Ci(:/,  1761tonB;  Phil- 
adelphia, 1238  tona  ;  Granada,  1068  tons;  Motes  Taylor,  1200 
Ions;  Star  of  the  West,  chartered,  1172  tins. 
.  PaMM  Mail  Steamship  CVnnjwny.— Thirteen  ateamers, 
16,421  tona:  OoUkn  Gate,  200T  tona;  Ooldm  Age,  2280  tona; 


J.  L.  atephnu,  118*  tona;  Smora,  Itlt  tana;  M  £«Mf«, 
1621  tona;  iYmmM,  108T  loni;  Cliil(fani<il,  1086  tenat  Ore- 
gon, lOM  tons;  CoIumMa,  777  tona;  HifuUie,  860  tonal 
Northerner,  1010  tona ;  t'remonl,  676  tons  i  nbago,  1 W  tona 

CharteMon,  Savannah,  Xry  )•'<•(,  and  Itaaona One  ateam- 

er;  the  Itabil,  1116  tona 

New  Orlean*  and  Mttieo.—Oa»  ateamar  i  the  TaniuaaM, 
1140  tona. 

The  C'oaatlng  Service  has  eight  llnea,  and  28  steam- 
ers, of  24,071  tona  reglatered  tonnage. 

New  York,  Uavana,  and  New  Orleans Two:  The  llUwk 

ITarrior,  1666  tona;  Cahaitba,  1043  tons=81ll«  tona. 

Sew  York,  Havana,  and  Mobil* Onai  The  Quaker  Cllg, 

1428  tona 

New  York  and  SaeannaA.— Four :  Aldbema,  IMl  tonai 


.VasArtIb,  1220  tona;  James  AJger,  1161  tona;  jrariiin,  Ml 
tona=4080  tona 

Sew  Yorkand  Virginia.— Tnoi  iIoaiu>la,10Tllona;  Jomet- 
(oim,  1300  tonii=:237t  tona. 

Philadelphia  and  Savannah—Two  t  Keyttons  Stats  and 
Stale  of  (Jeorgia,  each  about  1800  toni=i2600  tona 

Boston  and  Baltimore.— Two :  Josiph  Whitnsy,  800  tone  i 
Unknown,  80O  tonai=1600  tona 

Sexe  Orison*  and  Texas.— Th»  Charles  Morton,  Texas,  Mea- 
ieo,  and  Atlantic,  averaging  600  tona  each=r2400  tona 

Sew  Orleans  and  Key  West — Tho  General  Kusk,  600  tona, 
and  the  CalAoun,  400  toni=1000  tona. 

There  are  also  aovenil  propellera  running:  between  New 
York  and  Charleaton,  New  York  and  Portland,  and  between 
rhlladelphla  and  the  South.  They  an  all,  however,  amall, 
and  Irregular  In  Ihclr  trade. 

Steamers  lying  up,  18.  Registered  tonnage,  24,845 
tons. 

Otuen of  the  Paeifie S801  tona 

Washington 1640    "        •    ! 

Prometheus 180T    '•  ' 

St.Louie 1621    " 

JBro(A«r  Jonathan 1>6>    " 

Orffflon 1004    " 

Southerner 000    "  j 

Uerman 1784    " 

NorihemLighl 174T    " 

UneleSam 14'3    " 

California 1088    " 

Northerner I0l«    " 

Ericsson 1M2    " 

Star  (tf  the  West II72    " 

JMnielWehUer lOUi    " 

Orizaba 1460    "  , 

Panama 1087    "  ' 

^'rmiont 676    '* 

— Kaimit's  Ocean  Poti 

Tho  number  of  Iraiibatlantic  steamers,  the  lines  ran- 
ning  to  different  ports,  and  the  tonnage,  are  as  follows ! 
Stsausuip  Links  nciiNiiia  to  New  Yobk. 

No.  ef    Toa- 
TumU.  U| 


LltMt. 


»y2T 

10,860 
6,611 
1,600 

11,800 
4600 
T,200 
7,600 
1.800 

12.690 
4,000 
2.400 

81,18t 


Collins  Line,  Liverpool  (paddle-wheel),  American    8 
Ounard  Line,  Liverpool  "  Brltlah..    4 

Scotch  Line,  Glasgow  (Bcrew),  "      . .    8 

Irish  Line,  Cork  "  "      ..    2 

Cunard  Line,  Havre         "  "      . .    6 

French  Line,  Havre         "  French . .    8 

Old  Havre  Line,  Havre  (paddle-wheel),  American 
Vanderbilt  Line,  Havre  "  " 

Independent  Line;  Havre  "  ■  " 

l)elgl»n  Line,  Antwerp  (screw)  Belgian  . 

Bremen  Line,  Bremen  (paddle-wheel),  American 
Hamburg  Line,  Hamburg  (screw),         German  . 

Total,  running  to  New  York,  12  Unci 86 

LivEBrooi.  ANn  BoaTox  STiAuaaa. 
Cunard  Line,  Liverpool  (paddle-wheel),  British  . .    4     8,100 

LiVEBFOOL  AND  I'mLADELPniA  BTEAilEBa 

rhlladelphla  Line,  Liverpool  (screw),  Brltlah 8      6,866 

LiVKBPOOL  ASB  POBTLAMn  STEAMEBS. 

Portland  Line,  Liverpool  (Bcrew),  IJritiah _1     8.000 

Total,  besl.Ies  New  Y'ork,  8  llnea 9    iJ,^B» 

Grand  total,  15  lines 48    1)11,146 

Here  we  have  an  aggregate  of  15  steamship  lines, 
comprising  45  steamers  of  99,145  tons  burden.  Of 
these  lines  seven  ore  British,  five  American,  one  Ger. 
mon,  one  French,  and  one  Belgian.  Eight  lines  (83 
steamers)  are  screw  propellers ;  and  seven  (23  steam- 
ers) are  paddle-wheel.— Pusy  Mix.Es'8  Octm  Stiam 
Navigation, 


STE 


1756 


STE 


Winttrnwrt  mamnrma  rm  Nniiati*  o*  AHnituii  ahd  rimaa  BniAM  um  fAium  Vmnu  noAan  ■■•  '>  *4M 
■nwraa  taa  ViiTin  Statu  amp  Kbaihs.  anr  tioi  tihai  alio  tmi  Nvmmb  or  MO  Ituua-rown  aiii>  H'wasDi 
ToNNAai,  Cmmri,  amd  thi  AmaMAT*  inthiiii  anu  in.iAain  at  Tiia  I'ort*  or  Bonoa,  Naw  YaaK,  and  Naw 
UaLaAaa,  avawa  taa  ruoAi,  VaAB  aaDiMu  JuNa  80,  Ittbl. 


NMiMtitir' 

Mti. 

— .— 

•■■■■*iii' 

V<<mI> 

Lllini  V«mI, 

NMbw 

TiiMt* 

'HmbV 

rfl'ltw 

!■«■. 

ro«»«i4 

upwir<J. 

VmmIi. 

TMH«. 

NunlMr 
o«rnw. 

Mm. 

Uoaton 

•i4 

+840M 

i4Ti 

iti 

8 
Tt 
liM 

1.800 

mm 

M.tn 

•■■■»&- 
UIT 
8409 

«                   , 

NtwYork   

u          

MawOrKuw 

Fnoeb 

Total 

ii 
w 

8 

84,(l«8 

-uii- 

8lt 

u 

JB 

8 

1 

in 

8 

14i,t<ii 

14T 
B,M> 
t.lTO 

10 

S8S 

8t 

DoMon 

New  York 

N««Orl«ani 

ToUl 

f— 

8.1X0 

TW" 

'  » 

— »■■ 

<t,wi4 

8i*" 

Amarioin  »cch 

i- 

«B,ll81 

-1«- 

i 

■U* 

UXMt 

'  Biit  thrta  rtutU  were  (Dnftd  In  making  the  fourteen  tripii  The  Fulton,  eU  Toyagei;  the  Arofo,  elx ;  «nil  the  Van- 
ibrMK.  hre. 

t  or  the  ebore  amount  but  TOOT  tone  wen  aetaally  amplojradi  but  bjr  repealed  tilpa  (aee  abOTe  note),  the  tonnage  nu 
laereaeed  to  the  flaura  giTcn  In  the  table. 

t  Bui  four  reaM-le  engaRed,  OM  haring  made  two  trlpa.  ,  ,   ,    |  All  far  above  SCO  hona-powar. 

I  Of  thla  amount  the  aeUial  tonnage  waa  4140,  for  reaaona  glren  In  nota  t.      ^  '  ' 


BTATaaanT  aoowiNO  Tiia  SraAM  Tayr'u^a  or  rna  earaatL 
DiaraioTa  or  Tint  L'mitcd  SiAXia  on  Tiia  SOrii  or  Jvv; 
186T. 


AUri^i.     ■— 

TKiSuSr 

Knroll.a. 

Paaaamaquoddy, 

..Maine. 

',<«<* 

l.»<3 

Portland 

It 

.  .  .• 

l.OTO 

Portemouth 

..N.  Ilampehtre. 

.  •  >  e 

4lT 

Burllnaton...*!. 

t .  Vflnnoiit. 

ilso'i 

4,401 
T.OW 
T.BSa 
1,891 

Ifaet^n 

.  MuauhnaaUa. 

Fall  River " 

New  Bedfonl.... 

II 

Nantucket 

II 

•  a  *  • 

060 

Prtrldanea 

..  Rhode  laland. 

.... 

»,0T0 

II 

.... 

856 

»,8;iT 

MlddMowa 

, .  Conneotleui 

NewHavea 

41 

a.  .« 

8,n(iT 

Champlala 

..Naw  York. 

e  .  >• 

ni!T 

Oewege 

,,                 *» 

.... 

8,T1» 

Oeneaaa 

,,                 '• 

ae  *> 

128 

Oiwegatohia 

,,                 •• 

.... 

7,881 

BuflkleCrMk... 

,  ,                 ** 

.   .   iO 

41.009 

Sag  HariMr 

,  ^                 •* 

124 

New  York 

«t,OBt 

111.826 
8.TM 
8,T46 

Dunkirk " 

Perth  Amboy.... 

. .  New  J«rN7. 

Barllngtog 

, ,         '^ 

■  .  .* 

8.189 

Camdea 

II 

.... 

4.403 

Newark 

II 

.... 

1.T78 
M.S6T 

Philadelphia 

Preiauelale.... 
PItUburgh 

.  a  POQDlljrlTUlU. 

8,621 

»» 

.... 

41,724 

Wilmington  .... 

. .  DeUware, 

...  a 

1,057 

NewUaatla 

,,        *» 

.... 

202 

Baltimore 

, .  Marvland. 

.... 

17,084 

Aanapolle 

.... 

ISO 

Qeorgvtown 

.  a  Dlit  Columb. 

.... 

8,071 

Alexandria 

. .  Vlr^nla. 

.... 

828 

Norfolk 

.  .  •  • 

S,':08 

Paterabniv 

nehmnnd 

II 

.  •  .  • 

103 

^^       »i 

1,970 

Wheeling 

II 

.... 

10,814 

Waahlngton 

..N.  Carolina. 

t  •  .  . 

269 

II 

.... 

127 
800 

Plymouth 

II 

Charleaton 

. .  6.  GarolinA. 

8,218 

6,618 

Savannah ,.',..., 

. .  OeoFKla. 

.... 

6,.'i84 

Paniwsola 

. .  FlorldJu 

876 

StMaik'a 

406 

Uoblle ." 

"m 

21.008 
51,508 

NewOrleana.... 

..  LouUUo*. 

Teche 

1,225 
6,126 
6,776 

Naabvllle 

MemphU 

«i 

Loulavllle 

..  Ketituck}r. 

• .  • . 

2r>,648 

Paducah 

,,         ** 

,,,, 

1,084 

8t.Loula 

..MliMurl. 

.... 

44,846 

Chicago 

. .  nilnoti. 

7,861 

Alton 

II 

.... 

155 

4,06.1 

108 

Galena 

•4 

Baodueky 

..Ohio. 

Cuyahoga  

.1 

.... 

15,877 

Cincinnati 

ti 

.... 

83,016 

Miami  (Toledo)  . 
NewAlbaay  •••■ 

ti 

116 

. .  Indiana. 

.... 

4,!:66 

MllwauUa 

. .  Wlaconaln. 

. .  •■ 

1,906 

Detroit 

..  Michigan. 

■ .  . . 

80,656 

MIshlllmneklnae 

I.ISO 

OalvMton 

. .  Texaa. 

8,880 

SAluTla 

97 

San  Kranclico... 
Total  'onnage. 

.,  California. 
.IHn^  1S.W 

1?.8:8 

ii.o.v) 

8ii.ST3 

U1S.0IO 

STATaiiBMT  anovma  Tin  Nvinaa  or  RTaAV  Vxaaata  nrn.T 
IN  Tiia aavanAL HTATaa  ANDTaaaiToaiEaor  the  I'nitxu 
BTAxaa  raoa  1828  to  1867,  laoLcaiTa.— (ViAa  aNoiMO 
Jvaa  SO.) 


Y<.n. 

1828 

•t«aiB«iv. 
16 

run. 

1841 

aiumm. 
T8 

1834 

16 

1841 

IBT 

1815 

85 

1848 

1841 

1846 

TO 

1818 

48 

168 

Its 

181T 

88 

18^8 

SB 

43 

87 

84 

1846 

US 

1819 

1880 

1881 

184T 

1848 

1849 

IM 

1TB 

SM 

1888 

100 

66 

I860 

ISO 

1888 

1861 

118 

1884 

68 

1853 

too 

188S 

188S 

1837 

80 

194 

106 

1853 

1864 

1S86 

«n 

MI 

gfiS 

1888 

00 

«6 

84 

1866 

231 

IRS'I 

188T 

MS 

1840 

From  tbii  exhibit  It  U  apparent  that,  in  point  ofnnni- 
bare,  there  haa  l>eeii  no  increaM  In  the  ateam-vesMla 
built  lines  the  year  18S1.  K,  however,  we  take  Into 
consideration  tiia  increaeed  (!ae  of  the  Teasels  built,  or 
the  af^gregate  tonnage,  there  has  been  a  healthy  in- 
crease corresponding  to  the  growth  of  the  country. 

STATaMxifT  anowroo  the  NvMnKnor  Rtcah  VitseLS  ntrii,T 
IH  aAoii  UiaraioT  or  toe  L'nited  Statis  nnaiNo  thb 
YaAa  aMDiNO  Jtwa  30,  1867. 
Dlatriili.  atwiMn. 


Bath 

..Mc 

1 

Beaton 

.Maia. 

9 

Providence  . . . 

..RI. 

3 

Mlddletown. . . 

..Conn. 

7 

New  lx>ndon.. 

t« 

1 

New  Haven... 

It 

1 

Oswego  

..N.  Y. 

1 

BuflUo  Craek. 

II 

2.-1 

New  York.... 

11 

11 

Camden 

..N.J. 

1 

Philadelphia.. 

..Penn. 

14 

Pittsburgh.... 

It 

68 

Wilmington.. 

.  .Dela. 

10 

Balllmora  .... 

..Md. 

3 

Wheeling 

..Va. 

14 

DUtrUlt.  BU 

Savannah Os. 

Mobile Ala. 

New  Orleans.... La. 

Teche " 

Nashville Tenn. 

Memphis " 

Louisville Ky. 

St  Louis Mo. 

Cuyahoga Ohio 

Sandusky " 

Clndnnall " 

Toledo " 

Detroit Mich. 

San  Francisco. .  .Cal. 


1 
1 
4 
1 
1 
8 

IS 

10 
4 
1 

83 
1 

10 
8 


ToUl 263 

From  the  sixth  annual  report  of  the  board  of  super, 
vising  inspectors  of  steamers,  made  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  wo  gleau  the  following  interesting  sta- 
tistics: 

During  the  Ave  yaars  from  1848  to  1862,  inclusive, 
prior  to  the  estabilriiment  of  the  Board  of  Supervisors, 
there  were  60  steamboat  explosions,  causing  a  loss  or 
1155  lives,  and  475  persons  wounded.  By  other  disas. 
ters  during  the  same  period,  416  lives  were  lost,  mak- 
ing a  total  loss  of  1671  lives  in  the  live  years.  During 
the  four  years  fVom  1854  to  1857,  inclusive,  subsetjuent 
to  the  passage  of  the  steamlioat  law,  there  have  been 
seven  explosions,  and  132  lives  lost.  By  other  disas- 
tcr.i,  collisions,  fire,  sinldng,  etc.,  there  have  been  lost 
during  the  same  time  214  lives,  making  a  total  lost  toi 
the  five  year*  of  846. 


BTK 


1757 


STK 


ilu«iMn< 
...  18 
...  18T 
...  TO 
....  1«8 
....  IM 
....  M» 
....  1»8 
....  ITS 
....  S08 
....  IW 

na 

j» 

9fn 

ist 

158 

m 


SUtnun. 
I.         1 
1 
4 
1 
1 
8 
98 
10 
4 
1 
83 
I 
Ich.    10 


\U. 


Ohio 


Pal. 


_8 
.203 


I  of  super- 
I  Secretary 
liiitingsta- 

llni'lusivc, 
IpervlsorSj 
1  a  loss  of 
Iher  disaa- 
■o>t,  m«k- 
I>urlng 
Lbse<|nent 
Tiave  been 
Jber  disas- 
I  been  lost 
lal  Ion  for 


ny  *n  MBmlnallon  nf  ihsM  lUtemmto  wi  And  that 
Ar  iM  y*art  prior  (n  (h«  |iiiiitK«  of  the  lUambcat  act 
wa  havt  «««i)UnU  nf  the  I<ih  nf  Ib7l  Ut«s,  and  for  th* 
Av*  yaars  •Iniw  lald  panaRe  the  total  lots  of  Ufa  on 
tha  WMturn  rivari  It  IMIl,  Itavlna  •  dllhreaoi  of  1236 

UVM. 

Tlw  total  numlMir  of  steamar*  Intpeetad  ilurlng  tha 
y»M  In  III*  IImIIhiI  Ni*Iki«  wan  Uii,  with  an  aggrcftau 
|0IHI8||«  of  4)M,n70  tons.  The  nunibat  of  pilots  la  2684, 
and  nitinlNir  of  iWKlnMmi  IfiM,  The  total  nunibar  of 
paiNii||«r«  larrlail  Uy  MunneA  itpamsra  was 8,810,867. 
trtttM*)!*  sMnwian  tmh  TnNiiitns  iMnom  ih  nnnu 

N*«IU*'rlll»    IN   TH*    I  NITVH   MATBO   fBOH   m  VlAB 
IM*  TUTMK  ya**  l*M,  IHIItOSITI, 


irtlllllflitt 
t  r  I  I  I  M  I  1 1  I  I  t 

I  I  *  II  I  (IK  •  II 

II  I  1^1  I  III  I  II 

'    illliiiilllll 


II  II  I  I  I 
I  I  I  I  III 


IMA,, 

h:; 

MM,, -  . 

IIM nam 

laia i4».MM 

IIDT tM,1«4 

IMW ,  t»MI8 

IIIW,. ,,,,,,., .11  WI.MM 
IRM MI,8W 


«I,IW« 
W.iMt 
M.<M 

4n,l«1 
M,4m 

M,4TI 
i4.4W> 
«ft,ll|S 

ini.Mi 

liMin 


lar Tiira; 

iMi m.Mi 

IM* ISA.fMT 

1144 91B.ITS 

latA IM.OIS 

1*4* S4T,seS 

IMT 40t,Mt 

1M4 49T,8»1 

IMt 4«i,Sg4 

two,,.. B.'B,>4« 

IWt l»8,eOT 

IM 640,240 

t*n8 ,....  614,007 

IMt4 «Te,M7 

IMM,,, TTO.iW 

1>4M «TB,orr 

IBHT 706,784 


To  ihow  Iha  wlvanlaiia  whloh  it«im  commnnlcatlon 
0VS*  to  a  irowlng  ir*d«,  It  may  be  aiatad  that  "tmm 
1840  to  llBO  (III  iolal  Importi  of  Oraat  Britain  fVom 
ItraKll  ma4o  no  lttflr««M,  In  HUM  they  had  advanced 
IfiO  \m  (i«nl,  on  ia4H  |  and  In  1H66  they  had  advanced 
ovar  lN4*<-^r  thx  aviraao  of  the  tan  years  noticed— 
Rbout  IHH)  par  iwnt,  'fhls,  however,  It  must  be  recol- 
laoted,  waa  In  eultVn,  tot  re<«)ipartatlan ;  a  trade  which 
wa*  lout  U>  onr  ncrnltants  and  to  our  shipping.  Her 
total  expurti  U>  llraxll  from  1840  to  I860  were  station 
wy  at  alwut  (wo  and  a  half  nillllon  pounds  sterling 
■nnuallyi  In  IMI— Um  flrit  year  after  steam  by  the 
Boval  Mall  Company  -^  they  advanced  40  per  cent. ; 
and  In  1*A4  tlivy  liaiiailvant'ed  102  per  cent,  on  18S0. 
Thus  tittr  aNpurt*  liare  dunlilrd  in  live  years,  from  a 
alatlonary  twliit  iMfor*  the  establishment  of  steam  mall 
fBAlllllun  I  whtirttait  ours  have  Imen  thirteen  years  In 
maklotf  (lit  laino  llicr«a»«i  The  total  trade  between 
Oraxll  and  (lri<at  llritalii  lias  Incrcancd  In  an  unprece- 
dented ratio,  'I'liii  cnmblneH  tiritliih  imports  and  ex- 
ports up  (0  IHM  »vvnmei\  XnfiUi.Hm  Bniumlly;  but 
in  mtl  (h»M  Imil  rt'Hi'lifd  Ji:n,iiil,\t>!i,  Thus  Ihe  Bril. 
Uh  Irndl  iHfromtd  'ith  pn'  cml.  in  fire  yean  ajter  tho 
firtt  Hm  iffllmmrN  wilt  tllublUhed  to  BnuiW— Brazil 
Mii  the  ImMmi, 

The  many  ItiKlaneoi  of  our  dereliction  In  the  estab- 
Uibment  of  llnani  mail  faillltles,  and  the  failure  to 
lilalilUb  lommollvo  aeeommodatlons  for  our  mcr- 
ebanls  and  olltxr  Imiilnfiis  classes,  call  loudly  for  a 
change  in  our  alfttlm,  and  Ihe  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional staani  pulkiv  In  the  place  of  the  accidental  and 
trriBiilar  aupport  nllhsrto  ^Iven  to  foreign  steam  en- 
tarprlso, 

Tbo  fonriniloni  wlilfih  Sf  r.  Ilalney  arrived  at  In  his 
lata  work  on  ()('«*n  Hliiam  Navlgnllon  are  set  forth  In 
•  elear  Rummary,  width  we  olve  as  follows : 

1.  Tbat  *l«ani  wails  upon  the  ocean  control  the 
eommeriie  and  diptoiiiney  of  the  world ;  that  they  are 
essential  (o  our  lutiiintirdliil  and  producing  countrj- ; 
tbat  wa  bavo  not  mtaldlshed  Ihn  ocean  mail  facilities 
oominensurato  wlib  our  nmlohal  atillity  and  the  de- 
mands nf  pur  Pommitri'6 1  and  that  we  to-day  are  large- 
ly dependant  on,  and  tflluilary  to  our  greatest  com. 
merclal  rival,  (Iriiat  llrltaln,  for  the  postal  facilities 
wbioh  should  ha  purely  national,  American,  and  under 
ear  own  •xdIhvIvh  eiintrul, 

2.  Tbat  faat  ooc an  malls  are  encfwdingly  desirable 
(or  our  oemmeros,  our  defenses,  our  diplomacy,  the 


managaiiMDt  of  our  squadrons,  our  national  tlandlny, 
and  that  they  are  demanded  by  our  people  at  larg*. 

8.  That  fast  steamers  alone  can  fUmish  rapid  traaa- 
port  to  the  mails ;  that  thesa  steaman  can  not  rely  on 
frelghta;  that  saillag  vetaala  will  aver  carry  tiapl* 
fralgbta  at  a  much  lower  figure,  and  tulHciantly  quick- 
ly ;  that  while  steam  is  eminently  suecesaAil  In  tha 
coasting  trade,  It  can  not  poulbly  b«  so  In  the  trana- 
atlantlc  freighting  business;  and  that  tha  rapid  tran- 
sit of  the  malls,  and  the  slower  and  moi«  delibaratt 
transport  of  freight,  is  the  law  of  nature. 

4.  That  high,  adequate  mail  speed  la  eatremaly  cmI- 
ly,  In  the  prime  construction  of  vetsele,  their  repair*, 
and  their  mora  numerous  employes ;  that  the  qnantlly 
of  fuel  consumed  is  enormous,  and  ruinous  to  unaided 
private  enterprise ;  and  that  this  Is  clearly  proven  both 
by  theory  and  Indisputable  facta,  as  well  as  by  tha  con- 
current testimony  of  the  ablest  writers  on  ocean  steam 
navigation. 

5.  That  ocean  mail  steamer*  can  not  live  on  thtir 
own  receipts;  that  neither  the  latest  nor  the  anticipated 
Improvements  In  steam  shipping  promise  any  change 
In  this  fact ;  that  self-support  Is  not  liliely  to  be  at- 
tained by  Increasing  the  site  of  steamen ;  that  the 
propelling  power  in  fast  steamers  occupies  all  of  the 
available  space  not  devoted  to  passengers  and  expresi 

I  freight;  and  that  steamer*  must  be  fast  to  do  success 
ful  mall  and  profitable  passenger  service. 

6.  That  sailing  vessels  can  not  suecesofUlly  tran^ 
port  the  mails;  that  the  propeller  can  not  transport 
them  as  rapidly  or  more  cheaply  than  side-wheel  ves- 
sels ;  that  with  any  considerable  economy  of  fuel  anil 
other  running  expenses.  It  is  but  little  faster  than  tha 
sailing  vessel;  that  to  patronize  these  slow  veasela 
with  the  mails,  tiie  government  would  unjustly  dis- 
criminate ogoliut  soiling  vessels  In  the  transport  of 
freights;  that  we  can  not  In  any  sense  depend  on  th* 
vessels  of  the  navy  for  the  transport  of  the  mails ;  that 
Individual  enterprise  can  not  support  fast  steamers) 
and  that  not  even  American  private  enterprise  can 
under  any  conditions  furnish  a  sufficiently  rapid  steam 
mail  and  passenger  marine :  then  It  must  be  conceded, 

I.  That  it  is  the  liuty  of  the  government  to  its  peo> 
pie  to  establish  and  maintain  an  extensive,  well-organ- 
ized, and  rapid  steam  mail  marine,  for  the  benefit  of 
production,  commerce,  diplomacy,  defenses,  the  publto 
character,  and  the  general  Interests  of  all  classes ;  that 
our  people  appreciate  the  importance  of  commerce,  and 
are  willing  to  pay  for  liberal  postal  facilities;  that  our 
trade  has  greatly  suffered  for  the  want  of  ocean  malls; 
that  we  have  been  forced  to  neglect  many  profitable 
branches  of  Industry,  and  many  large  fields  of  effort  j 
and  that  there  is  positively  no  means  of  gaining  and 
maintaining  commercial  ascendency  except  through  an 
ocean  steam  mail  system. 

II.  That  tho  government  con  discharge  the  clear  and 
unquestionableduty  of  establishing  foreign  mail  facili- 
ties only  by  paying  liberal  prices  for  the  transport  of 
the  mails  for  a  long  term  of  years,  by  creating  and 
sustaining  an  ocean  postal  system,  by  legislating  upon 
it  systematically,  and  by  abandoning  our  slavish  de- 
pendence upon  Great  Britain. 

III.  That  tho  British  ocean  mall  system  attain* 
greater  perfection  and  extent  every  year ;  that  Instead 
of  becoming  self-supporting.  It  costs  the  treasury  more 
and  more  every  year;  that  English  statesmen  regard  It* 
benefits  as  fer  outweighing  the  losses  to  the  Treasury; 
that  so  far  fTom  abandoning,  they  are  regularly  and 
svstematically  increasing  It ;  that  it  was  never  regard- 
ed by  tho  whole  British  public  with  more  favor  than 
at  the  present  time ;  that  it  is  evidently  one  of  the 
most  enduring  institutions  of  the  countrj-;  that  It 
necessitates  a  similar  American  system ;  that  witbont 
it  our  people  are  denied  the  right  and  privilege  of  com- 
petition ;  and  that  we  are  thus  far  by  no  means  ade- 
quately prepared  for  that  competition,  or  for  our  own 
development. 


ms 


nas 


STB 


OoiA*  liftku  Lmn  or  m  Woiin. 


UVMri,  DMMIt-whMl ,' 


North  Akianllo  gUMiuhlp  Co 

KuropMH  tad  Amorlcau  Mumihly  Uo, 


liawlon»a4  Omils 

liTtrpool  Mil  CuitdlMi 

Unruool,  ■•hlMolphU,  u4  Ni»  York . 

---    nw  Mi4  No*  York 

lu  TruMtlMlle 


OlMCOII 


lUmbiirR  »nd  AmorlOkn, . 
Ilombart  and  llmslllan*. 
Umo*  uid  Brulllu , 


Rajptl  Moll  Co I 


PMlfle  Mwm  Narlgsllon  t'o> . 
PmliuiiUr  Mid  OritnUI  Co, . , 


EuropMn  md  Auitr«ll*n  Ko^tl  Mall  Co, , 

Aiiilrallon  Koyil  Mull  Cn 

Hottordnni  ond  Medllemnmn 

North  of  KuroH  Mtoaio  N*vlf*llon  Co, , . 
M«Ivor-i 


\ 


BIbbjr'i 

foWloT'l 

Dixon's 

IJvirpnol  ind  AuotrtllMi 

liondon  ud  AttitrkllM ...  ... 

AfriiiM 

Union  Honw  Co 

Luio-llnillalm 

AttilrlMi  LloTdt 

MoMMWrloo  iniptrlalM 

Wm«  H»rtU|Mw)  8tMin  N»l|»tlon  Cj.  . . 

Oanubo  Sloam  N*rlK*tloa  Co. , . . 

HunbuiK  nnd  Spsnlih 

laat  Indin  Componf 

BiMDiib  and  Cubon 

CompnnhU  Urulloir* 

Uolllni  Componjr 

lUvro  Rtum  NtTliaUen  Co 

Uomrlliu  Vtndrrlill t  

Unltad  Btalaa  MOi     <.amahlp  Ca 

Padflc  Mall  Pai  .  f.lpCo 

Naw  York  lui '  .'  dw  Uriaan* 

Nav  York  •  ,  i  Alabama 

Charlail'ii'  Knd  Harutii 

BavaniM  i  .itaamahlp  Co, 

Naw  York  and  Charlaston  Htaamahip  Co, , 

Naw  York  and  Vlnlnla 

rhIUdalptaU  and  SaTannah 

Boaton  and  Uallimora 

Taxaa  Stoaoithlp  Co 

flotttharo  gtaunthip  Co 

Maxloan  gtaamahip  Co. 


"     a«tii««  I  aiii»< 

Unrpuul,  Naw  York,  koaton,  »ii4  llalDu  

Hi  Johna  and  Portland. , 

Hraman,  Aniwarp,  Kanlhanipti'.i,  aud  Naw  York.... 

Braman,  Antwarp,  HoHtbamplun,  to  llraall 

London  and  Monlraal 

Ufarpool  and  Uiiabae .....i 

Unrpoul  and  Naw  York 

Ulaatowand  Naw  York 

Aniwarp  and  Naw  York • 

Aniwarp  and  Hrull 

Ilanibtirg  and  Naw  York 

Hanburi  and  Hlo  de  Jaiiain 

Uenoa  aud  Hlo  da  Janairo 

Bouthamplon,  Waal  Indlaa,  llsntral  Amarlaa,  and  loulh 

Amaiica 

Hoiitbampton,  FsmaiabHen,  Hlo,  llahia,  and  l.a  Plata 

Panama  to  Valparalao  and  Intormadlala 

Portugal,  Hpain,  .Valla,  Altiandria,  llaal  Indlaa,  C  ' 

and  Auatralla 

Houlhampton,  Alaxandrta,  Burn,  and  Hfimj 

Traiuporl  and  olhar 

Rollardain,  Uigbum,  and  TrlaiUi ..,,,,, 

Albican 

I.lvorpool  and  Madltarranaan —   .... 

Mrarpool  and  Ilarra 

Uvarpool  and  Madllarransaa , .  ■ , ■ . 


Urarpool  and  Auatralla 

liondon  and  Auatralla , 

London,  Urnrpool,  au.l  Africa 

Boulbamplon  and  Cape  uf  Uood  llopa 

Uabon  and  llraall , 

Vary  larga  MadlKmnran  aarvleo 

Uidltamnaan,  lllaok  Hoa,  LsvanI , 

>Ur'l?r.ool,  llambuig, and  81. Patara'urg . .   

Vlonn.L,  Oalala,  and  Conitantlnoplis .   , 

Hamburg,  Bouthampton,  and  all  BpanUh  port*. . . 

Buaa  andlndtn,  and  lh<  Oonibay  Mall  llnaa 

Cadia,  Havana,  and  MhIco 

Rio  da  Janairo  lo  tha  Amaion  and  La  Plata 

Naw  York  and  LWarpool 

Naw  York,  Bouthampton,  and  lUvro 

Naw  York,  Bouthampton,  and  Uremon 

New  York,  Havana,  Aaplnwall,  and  New  Orlaana. . 

Panama,  Callfomla,  and  Oregon 

Naw  York,  llaTana,  and  Naw  Orleaiia 

Naw  York,  Havana,  and  Mobile , 

Charlaalon,  Kajr  Weal,  and  Havana 

New  York  and  Savannah 

Naw  York  and  Charlaalon 

Naw  York,  Norfolk,  and  Klchmond , 

Philadelphia  and  Bavannah 

Boalon  and  Battlniora 

Naw  Urieant  and  Oalveaton 

New  Urieana  and  Ka^  Weat , 

New  Orleana.  Taropleo.  and  Vera  Cnia 


I 

4 
10 

11 
II 
II 

« 

4 
B 
3 

4 

H 
0 
« 
9 

U 
5 
T 
8 
1 
B 
« 

18 
9 
1 
1 
4 
4 
1 
1 
9 
4 
> 
1 


4,il«» 
4,  MM 
10,  DM 
»,iiM 
I.ITil 
MM 
d.TOO 
•,9M 
H.MW 
t.BOO 

T.nno 

4(MM 

H.UO. 


4I,4I« 

IMWO 

T,<M<I 
i.lHM 

»,ou« 

«,0(« 

ll.TUO 

I.MM 

S,((IO 

T,UW 

T.buO 

5,000 

1,B00 

8,11110 

L'BknowB 

"t 


1,000 
1I,4TI 
0,(100 
6.MM 
K.TjT 
4,Mi 
tfia 
8,M4 
10,491 
ll,lll« 
l.UOl) 
1,115 
4,70S 

4,<m 
a.STi 

9,600 
1,000 
9,410 
1,000 
160 


*  Building  another  iteanier  of  9S 10  tone  for  the  llraall  Una. 

t  Thaat  vaaaala  average  about  960  homa-powar  each.    Their  tonnage  la  taiga,  probaUjr  1900  tona  each. 


There  kiM  Mveral  other  Unei  of  ocean  itaamera  In 
Europe;  but  it  tt  almost  impossible  to  ascertain  any 
thing  definite  about  them.  The  list  above  embraces 
■II  of  the  most  important  companies  of  the  world.  The 
llnea  are  continually  changing,  while  the  vessel <  ire 
passing  into  new  hands  almost  every  week.— .iS..  i'.,t'- 
cUt  ToN.tAOB  SI  '  the  Umtko  Statm. 

Bt««l  (Fr.  A.ieri  Get.  SMli  It.  Aceia'  t  l.tl. 
Chalgbti  Kius.  Slal;  Sp.  Aceroi  Swed.  Stit  i^  :tr . 
combined  with  a  small  portion  of  carbon,  and  iioj  b"t:i 
for  that  reason  called  carbureted  iron.  The  propor- 
tion of  carbon  has  not  been  ascertained  with  much 
precision.  It  is  supposed  to  amount  at  an  average  to 
■jlg  part.  Steel  is  so  hard  as  to  be  unmalleabie  while 
cold;  or  at  least  it  acquires  that  property  by  being 
immenod,  while  ignited,  in  a  cold  liquid ;  for  this  im- 
mersion, though  it  hat  no  effect  upon  iron,  adds  great- 
ly to  fM  hardness  of  tteel.  It  is  brittle,  resists  the 
file,  cut!  glass,  affbrdt  sparks  with  ilint,  and  retains 
the  marnetio  virtue  for  any  length  of  time.  It  loses 
thii  hardo(.\>s  by  being  ignited,  and  cooled  very  slowly. 
It  ii.  malleable  when  red  hot,  but  scarcely  so  when 
raised  to  a  white  heat.  It  may  Iw  hainioered  out  into 
much  thioner  platea  than  iron.  It  is  more  sonorous ; 
ud  its  speciflo  gravity  when  hammered  is  greater  than 
that  of  iron— varying  fkom  7-78  to  7-8-1.  Steel  is  usual- 
ly divided  into  three  sorts,  according  to  tl>«  method  in 


which  it  is  prepared;  as  natural  ttetl,  tied  o/eementd' 
lion,  and  cait  ittel.  Tlie  latter  is  the  moat  vaiualilo  uf 
all,  as  its  texture  is  the  most  compact,  and  it  ailiiiiK 
of  the  finest  polish.  It  is  used  for  raxors,  surgeons'  in- 
ainiments,  and  similar  purposes.  Steel  is  chiefly  em- 
('k.ye(^  11  the  oianufacture  of  swords,  Initves,  and  cut> 
t.n  'i''<lrumenl8r<f  all  •ori:.  used  in  tiin  ails;  forwhlcb 
''arly  adapt  its  hardness,  and  tlio  flno- 

ij><        (he  edge  whicli  may  be  given  to  it.  —  Su 

lllON. 

Steelyard  and  Steelyard  Company.  A  most 
ancient  instrument,  the  same  that  is  traniilated  baU 
ance  in  the  I'entateuch.  The  Utalem  Romana,  or  Ro- 
man steelyard,  is  mentioned  in  &16  n.c.  The  Steel- 
yard Company  was  a  company  of  London  merchantt 
who  had  the  steelyard  assittned  to  thum  by  Henry  III. 
A.u.  1282.  They  were  all  Flemings  and  Germans,  and 
the  only  exporters,  fur  many  years  after,  of  the  staple 
commodities  of  England.— IIayd.v. 

Steer,  to  keep  the  ship  on  a  given  direction.  Tbla 
is  done  by  moving  the  rudder  by  tlie  tiller,  which  last 
is  moved  from  that  side  to  which  the  ship's  head  ia 
required  to  i>e  moved. 

Steerage,  an  apartment  befure  the  great  cabin, 
fh>m  which  it  is  separated  by  a  partition  or  bulli-head. 
In  merchant  ships  it  is  generally  the  habitation  of  tho 
inferior  officer*  and  crew ;  but  iu  ships  of  war  it  servoB 


17«0 


STO 


Inn  oMb. 

\iiftl  qfenntntit' 
Inoit  vatuabla  ut 
It,  ond  It  •<l»ill» 
\n,  nurgeon*'  In- 
L.\  ia  chiefly  »m- 
■l.nlves,  mA  cut. 
ba.U!  forwhlctt 
■h,  and  tho  •>»«" 
leli  to  lt.-*« 

Ipany-  A  mott 
1  lraniil»ted  b»J- 
I  Romana,  or  Ho- 
[i.c.  The  SUbW 
Indon  mercliwiU 
V  by  Henry  III. 
td  Uerinani,  and 
|ior,  of  Ilia  •<•?>• 

Idiroclion.  Tbla 
Timor,  which  la»t 
U  ihip't  bead  U 

Lhe  great  cabin, 

Ton  or  bulk-head. 

littliilBtlon  of  the 

lofwarltaervei 


and  had  In  1IHA  «  |iu|i>.litiinn  nf  t3,(kM.  AtMlbl  la 
th»  •«»'  of  tn  i>xli"jilv*  rtml  ic<w»iii([  eummiTro  |  uki 
!■  Iiiiw,  ;ui|«gil,  iha  |>rin<  i|i«l  port  of  ImpnrlallMI  )• 
I'ruuiit.  Hli>'  owHihi*  illmlni^tliwi  niainlv  la  b«r  eltn- 
••'ion.  Tho  odur,  whirl.  ilow»  IMuui|h  llu'  moIm  vI 
tiio  I'ruMian  iluniinlona,  tn  n«vlKal>l«  a<  fa  ••  ((atilxf, 
near  'III  till  1)10  'oulharn  bouit'litry  uf  I'riici  ■■  >*>^»- 
•la;  and  ia  unili'il.  hy  niaaniofranalt,  «lih  lli'  *, 


•nt^ru  •  hilt  ,.f  >in'».ehamh»f  to  lb*  «t.«1  or  i  ipiain'a 
Midn.— mxrny)  la  ,\tu  un-il  to  axpnaa  the  afnjrt  of 
Mm  kaliii  ittfntit-mi^  liii| !  a  aumdrat  4aKr««  of 
■Mtlon  riiiii  imkaltd  to  a  alilp  fur  iwt  It  brrxiinc  aua. 
Mpllld*  u(  II  H  pffkiU  of  tha  halm  In  goTiiriil'  :.  I^r 

•MrM, 

■IMS,  a  elrriilar  |>li.i'   «r  timber  Into  which  ibn 
twaililaa'if  aahlpaniinlii     at  tlin  for*  and ;  I hg  li»wrr 

Md  of  It  la  Karfed  In  Iha  k^al,  and  Ilia  howiprit  r«ita  |  the  Klhe,  tha  Hprra.'atc.  StetlJH  la,  rniaa«iiu. ■  ,> 
HMH  lli  Mfjrt  end  I  Ihe  tiida  of  tha  walla  and  planka  |irlnclpal  vuipurliiiii  of  annie  vary  axltualv«  iiiU  H' 
•f  Iba  aldaa  and  iMillom  are  lat  Into  a  Rroova  ur  <.'haiini>l 
ml  In  Iha  middle  af  lla  aurfara  from  top  tu  bottom. 
The  nulalda  nf  Iha  alam  la  uaually  markod  with  a  ai^ala 
»f  fbet  anawarlnR  lo  a  p«rpand>'juUr  from  tha  keal. 
The  uaa  iif  Ihia  ai-ale  la  to  aacarlain  tha  drauKlit  of 
water,— /'roin  tltm  lo  Mtm,  fVom  one  end  of  tlia  ahip 
ta  Iha  other. 

ftt«pp«  (fH>m  tha  Ruaalan  §irp,  a  daaart ;  also  a 
4ry  plain).  Tha  iteppei  of  Kuaala,  which  are  not  iin- 
Ilka  Ilia  liiniki  of  (lulenna  In  Franco,  and  the  hcaltia 
af  liorlharn  (lannany,  ara  In  part  auaccptlbia  of  cuhl 


rv  axitu 
•hlnx  niuniri'  •)  ti«il  l«  not  only  Ike  port  of  Krauk 
rurt-on-thr'-( ''  ir,  llrKiUti,  cto.,  but  alau  of  li«rlln.     A 
railway  fn<tii  ilia  lattrr  lo  Htallln  haa  lirvn  tn»Mil«ted. 
Ilanre  at  thti  proiwr  ifaaflna  lla  wh<tr\>'n  an'  m,<  »ila4 
wllh  IlK^tvra  that  ktInK  diiwn  the  produce  uf  ilui     'tyr- 
ant fiMiifirlra  travrracd  by  tha  rlvar,  and  lirliiu  ;  .  i 
culiiiiial  piroiluctt,  and  nthar  artlcira  uf  fur«i»:n  gtv 
and  niaiurfaclurc.     Vcawla  of  conililcrmMB  Kurrtoii, 
IhoM  ilrnwlnt(  iilitiut  arvcn  or  eight  fi'  <     -ali-r,  lui. 
and  unload,  by  incana  of  ll||htara,  at  llii'      ^uth  of  \\\ 
rivar,  at  Mwliinniunda,  tha  oul|iort  of  ^     'lln,  on  thn 


vatloM)  and  they  alfonl  paatura((a  for  tha  numeroui    nut  rnast  ,4  tlia  i>l«  of  I  wdunt.  In  Ut   li'i'  U'  N., 
horde  of  Ilia  nnmadio  tribaa.     In  thaextenaive  atepiMial  long,  1(     16    !,''>'    K.     KunnrrW  there  wire  not  ih""* 


•f  Aalrakban,  lialwean  tha  Volga  and  tha  Ural,  the 
Calmuci  and  tha  Nogay  Tartara  rove  wllh  their  cattle. 
Tbay  produce  aaveral  eorte  of  flowen,  berba,  and  are 
fNaiianled  by  wild  aoati  and  birda. 

MMUafli  an  old  pound  weight  of  gtographical 
illinlrtlianw,  namad  KoalerllnR,  divided  Into  twelve 
•uneaa,  waa  In  iieo  anionK  tli«  Anglu-Haxona  lonia  can- 
turiea  liefore  IIm  Norinvn  <  'uni|ut'at.    iha  aamo  welxhl, 
•allad  Iha  Tower  anil  the  Moiicyera'  pound,  waa  at,vU<d 
liy  early  Kreitoh  wrllara  the  lloman  and  the  Koobclle 
(Milind )  alwi  known  among  thu  Oormaiia  aa  tliu  Cologne 
pomidi      A  ilmpla  ayatatn  of  txchangt,  by  which  a 
|iuund  of  (llvar  money.  In  talc,  waa  niado  to  equal  a 
ptiuuil  In  Rrua*  weight,  had  been  arranged  by  Charica 
tha  Ureal,  In  Franca,  toward  tlia  end  of  the  8lh  cen- 
tllfyi     In  Mrllaln,  under  the  flrat  William  of  Norman- 
dy, an  orilllianiKi  declared  "  the  wolghla  and  nieaaurea 
InroMHhuut  th*  kingdom  ahall  remain  aa  our  worthy 
■nHtoiiaaaur*  hava  eatabllalMd,"    An  act  of  Henry  the 
Third,  In  liHMI,  axplalna  Ihe  primitive  Inltiala  of  these 
•nelaill  ItrlUah,  Oalllo,  and  Uemian  atandarda,  to  all 
wbluh  ona  common  derivation  la  Imputed.    "  By  con- 
Kint  of  Ihe  wliola  realm  tho  meaiure  of  Ihe  king  waa 
mwie,  that  li  lo  My,  an  Kngllah  penny  of  illver,  called 
•  elerlliiK,  round  and  witliout  any  clipping,  ahall  weigh 
Ihlrly'lwu  wliaal  corna,  taken  from  the  middle  of  the 
tar<     And  iwenly  pence  of  ailver  do  make  one  ounce ; 
■ltd  twelvn  iiuncoi  of  ailver  do  make  one  pound;  and 
(l||hl  (Mund*  of  ailver  do  make  a  gallon  of  wino;  and 
•i||lll  KtilnNl  of  wine  do  make  a  I.ondon  buahel,  which 
It  Ike  alghth  part  of  a  quarter."    Thli  general  ar- 
railKeniant  for  money  wetghia  and  meaaures  waa  that 
«f  Ilia  Kaalern  nalloni,  by  which  Kuropa  had  been 
overriini    The  term  "  Kaalerling"  of  tho  Norman  French 
waa  Iranamutad  on  the  Kngllih  tongue,  tlrat  to  "  Eaater- 
linu,"and  Anally  to"  HIcrllng."  Another  pound  weight, 
(laii  divided  Intn  twelve  ounces,  had  been  broughtfrom 
Cairo,  III  KgypI,  lo  Troyca  of  Champagne,  In  France, 
dlirlnit  thn  Cruaadea,     Carried  into  England  by  for- 
eign Koldaltlllha,  Uimbard  nierchanta,  possibly  from 
Venice,  alioNt  the  year  14»0,  it  gradually  superseded 
Iha  old  KaalerllnR  weights,  and  found  access  Into  tho 
llrllUh  Mint  by  decision  of  Henry  tho  Eighth.    Queen 
KllaalMlli  ordered  the  ounce  of  silver  In  England  to  be 
<ul  Into  alxly  pannlea,  so  that  the  penny,  forming  the 
twailllelh  (rf  aw  ounce,  thenceforth  became  the  sixtieth 
part,     From  the  termination  of  Queen  Elizalwth's 
reign,  the  colnaun  of  Knglish  silver  haa  generally  re- 
lalni-il  n  piiHip  of  IWft  lliouaandtha,  called  tho  "Ster- 
ling .landard,"-  *•>  riiiTm.  and  Pknny.    See  also 
Hanhfrt'  M»ti»"tt,  N.  Y.,  l«5e,  '67. 

Mattllk.  a  tlly  of  Prussia,  on  I  ho  left  bank  of  the 
Oder,  alHiut  Mfl  milea  from  lla  mouth,  in  XtA.bi"  28'  20" 
».,  long,  M"  »»'  K.     It  la  well  built,  strongly  fortllled, 


than  s(l^    ri  feet  waiter  over  tho  bar  ailjaceiit  to  Swlnu- 
munda  ;    'Ut  tha  bavbor  of  the  latter  haa  ncanlly  b««n 
so  much       proved,  by  the  conalrticllon  of  pirra  and 
breakwat    <,drmlglng,etc.,thnt  Itianow  Ihc  liaaton  Iha 
I'ruaslau     ut,  and  ailmlta  veaacla  drawing  frona  18  to 
IV  feel  «a|,      A  Ilght-honaa  haa  lieen  erected  tl  tiM  s«> 
tromityoflli    i-estem  pier.    Stettin  la  a  free  (lort;  that 
Is,  a  \*in  Into  ml  from  which  all  soria  of gou<la  may  be 
Imported  anil     -exported  fTeo  of  duty,    Oimda  brought 
throuith  tho  H,     i<d  and  lm|iorteit  »t  Hietlin,  and  enter- 
ed for  homo  ii     iiiniptlon  In  the  I'ruaalan  atalaa,  ware 
formerly  chargi'^    n  iih  !(  per  cent,  leaa  duty  than  If  they 
had  lieen  Import'   I  through  any  other  chaniirl.     Thli 
waa  intended  tu  i   iiiiliiirao  tbo  merchant  for  tl  "  Sound 
duties,  and  to  ci    ourago  Importation  by  tbi«  direct 
route  in  preferem-i:  to  that  carried  on  Ihriuigli  Ham- 
burg and  Kmbdeii     lnit  now  that  tho  Souml  dues  ara 
alioliahod  there  no    mxer  exiala  Ihe  neceaaity  for  Ihe 
liounly.    There  is     '  Sfltin  a  great  wool  fair  in  tha 
month  of  June  each      ar. 

Tho  Intercourse  v  ii  Ihe  United  Slates  is  solely  da- 
pendent  on  tlio  regulations  of  the  Zull-Vcrein,  There 
are  no  privileges  in  fn  '  r  of  any  nation  which  are  de- 
nied to  the  United  Stni  ^  nor  any  restrictions  imposed 
upon  the  commerce  of  on  other  nations.  The  moneys, 
weights,  and  measures,  to,,  etc.  In  the  ports  of  thli 
consular  district  are  th'  >aine  as  eslalillslied  by  the 
law  of  the  mother  count!  .  Commission,  2  per  cent. 
Freight— no  rate*  can  be  imed  for  want  of  businesa. 
Insurance  dona  in  Englsii,  >r  tho  Uniteil  Stales.  Dillt 
at  three  months.  There  a  '  no  direct  exchangee  wllh 
the  United  States. 

Steward,  in  tfaral  affai "»,  li  an  officer  In  a  ship 
of  war,  appointed  by  the  pur-  «r  to  distribute  the  diltbN 
ent  species  of  provisions  to  tbt!  officers  and  crew.  The 
same  officer  Is  employed  for  neamships  and  all  classes 
of  vessels  for  similar  purposes 

Stookholm,  the  capital  <  iiy  of  Sweden,  situated 
at  the  Junction  of  the  Lake  Ma>  lar  with  an  Inlet  of  tha 
Baltic,  in  Int.  6i» '  20'  81"  N.,  |r  iij.  17'  54'  E. ;  a  well- 
built,  handsome  city.  Populmiion  In  18B1,  98,070. 
Tho  entrance  to  tho  harbor  is  Ini  ncate  and  dangerous, 
and  should  not  lie  attempted  wit  hout  a  pilot ;  but  tha 
harbo-  'tself  Is  capacious  and  exci  llent,  the  largest  ves- 
sels lying  in  safety  close  to  the  qua  \s.  Stockholm  pos- 
sesses from  a  third  to  a  half  of  i"no  foreign  trade  of 
Sweden;  but  this  Is  confined  within  comparatively 
narrow  limits.  The  government  has  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  endeavor  to  promote  Industry  by  excluding 
foreign  products;  latterly,  however,  this  system  haa 
been  considerably  relaxed,  with  great  advantage  to  the 
trade  of  the  country,  and  the  well-being  of  the  people. 
Iron,  timber,  and  deals  form  tho  great  articles  of  ex- 
port.    Swedish  Iron  Is  of  very  superior  quality,  and  ia 


STO 


1760 


STO 


nUiar  •ztooilTd/ nmi  to  Onat  Britain;  tht  Importa 
of  it  amonntlng  in  ordinary  jreai*  to  about  ir>,000  torn 
MMliuivaof  6(Mton(of  sta*!.  In  addition  to  the  above 
kadlng  artlolaa,  S^ookliolm  axports  pitcli,  tar,  copper, 
eto.  TIm  tlnbar  ia  inferior  to  that  (Vom  tlie  loutliern 
porta  of  tiM  Baltic  Tlie  Importa  principally  connitt 
of  colonial  produeta,  ootton,  dye-ttuffb,  lalt,  British 
manufactured  gooda,  hidea,  flib,  wine,  brandy,  wool, 
fruit,  etc  In  aaasoaa  of  icarcity  com  la  imported,  but 
it  Ik  generally  an  article  of  export 

i^i&>(a$«.— Veaaela  bound  for  Stockholm  take  s  pilot 
at  the  email  ialand  of  OJa,  Lands-hort  light-house  is 
erected  on  the  southern  extremity  of  this  i»land,  in 
lat.  68°  44'  (0"  N.,  long.  17°  52'  16"  B.  It  is  painted 
white,  and  is  Aimished  with  a  flxed  light,  elevated  168 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  may  be  seen  nnder 
favorable  circumstances  five  ieaguea  off.  The  signal 
ibr  a  pilot  is  a  flag  at  the  fore  top-mast  head,  or  firing 
a  gun. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  oommeroial  move> 
ments  at  the  port  of  Stockholm  during  the  year  1851, 
compared  with  the  two  preceding  years : 


Vmh. 

V<Mh 
MUraJ 

Towuf*. 

etolnd. 

Tooaact. 

Touf 
VmhU. 

'r.ui 

TMUWf* 

1849 
186J 
1851 

711 

861 

T0,TiS 
11,89a 
H21S 

m 

788 
<06 

7I.4T8 
96,288 

14W 

1494 
17S« 

149,816 
14S,ST0 
18>,4M 

"  In  referring  to  the  year  1866,  I  have  to  remark 
that  the  foreign  trade  of  Sweden  during  that  year  con- 
tinued to  exhibit  increasing  prosperity,  althoogh  the 
in'*rease  over  the  year  immediately  preceding  was  not 
so  great  as  that  shown  in  1864.  The  whole  amount  of 
export  and  import  trade  in  Sweden  twenty  years  ago 
was  not  more  than  34,147,000  banco,  about  .£3,8'16, 683. 
In  1846  it  had  risen  to  46,660,000  banco;  and  in  1866 
exceeded  120,000,000  banco,  about  X10,000,000^-being 
double  what  it  was  in  1862, 

"  During  the  year  1866  the  exports  value  has  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  imports  by  7,837,000  banco,  about 
^£611,416 ;  including  unwrought  Bilver  to  the  value  of 
4,703,000  l)unco,  about  ^891,916,  and  exceeds  the  ex. 
ports  of  1864  by  11,088  000  banco,  about  i;924,000, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  increased  exportation  of  grain. 
The  value  of  grain  exported  in  1864  was  about  8,000,000 
banco,  about  X666,666 ;  while  in  \8&6  the  grain  export- 
ed from  the  kingdom  amounted  to  nearly  18,000,000 
banco,  about  41,600,000.  There  haa  also  been  a  con- 
aiderable  increase  In  the  exportation  of  tan,  of  which 
183,870  barrels  were  exported  in  1866.  The  quantity 
•xported  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  during  three 
years  is  at  follows:  1868, 12,886  barrels;  1864,  86,048 
barrels ;  1855,  43,899  barrels.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
diminution  has  taken  place  in  the  exportation  of  pitch, 
bones,  bar  iron,  coffee,  and  steel.  The  chief  articles 
of  import  upon  which  any  considerable  increase  is  to 
be  obs(^rved  are  arrack,  brandy,  rum,  coffee,  4Hed  and 
•alt  fish,  cotton  yarn,  dry  hides,  oil,  tools,  coals,  sugar, 
and  wool.  The  duty  on  the  tine  sorts  of  wool,  which 
was  lowered  in  the  beginning  of  1866  from  6>.  to  it. 
per  pound,  and  in  the  month  of  October  of  Ihe  same 
year  entirely  taken  off  Ihe  coarser  sorts,  occasioned  an 
increase  in  the  quantity  imported,  during  the  short 
time  that  remained  heton  the  close  of  the  navigation, 
to  the  following  amount:  1864, 2,664,127  pounds;  1866, 
4,109,494  pounds. 

"  In  1864,  2,409,648  pounds  of  white  cotton  yarns 
wero  imported  from  Great  Britain;  and  in  1866, 
4,636,283  pounds.  This  increase  is  also  owing  to  the 
lowering  of  the  duty  from  4*.  to  8<.  per  pound.  A 
greater  importation  of  raw  sugar  from  Great  Britain 
has  also  taken  place  since  the  lowering  of  duties  in 
1868.  Hie  importation  of  machinery  and  coals  from 
England  continues  to  inci-case.  A  great  deal  of  the 
import  trade  in  manufactured  goods  from  Great  Brit- 
ain comes  through  Hamburg  and  Lbbec,  and  is  in- 
cluded in  tbe  returns  of  trade  with  tliese  towns.  A 
Tariaty  of  causes  appaar  to  have  contributed  to  the  im- 


provanent  in  tin  trade  and  ganeral  prosperity  of  Swis> 
den  within  the  last  ibar  years.  The  advance  made  in 
agricalture  now  enables  Swedan  in  soma  degree  to 
become  a  grain-exporting  country."— iByitisA  Caniul'f 
Alport,  July  4, 1867. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  during  the  year  1861  tha 
ganeral  commarca  of  Sweden  exhibited  an  advaneitg 
tendency.  This  was  owing.  In  a  grsat  measure,  to  tha 
liberal  policy  which  characterized  the  commercial  leg- 
islation of  England,  dating  from  January  1,  186A--a 
policy  the  wisdom  of  which  could  not  lie  more  appo- 
sitely illustrated  than  by  the  fact  that  while  the  total 
trade  of  Sweden  with  all  foreign  nations  during  this 
year  reached  as  high  aa  66,000,000  rix  dalers,*  tbe 
trade  with  England  alone  covered  14,648,000  rix  dalers, 
or  more  than  one-fonrth  of  the  whole. 

In  1862  official  returns  show  a  slight  falling  off  in 
tha  general  trade  of  Stockholm.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  annexed  table,  from  Swedish  official  sources,  that 
tha  entire  trade,  imports  and  exports  united,  represents 
in  value  ^0,669,037,  or  about  $487,970  less  than  tha 
total  trade  of  1861.  This  diminution  aflbcted  imporU, 
especially  grains,  flsh,  and'  brandies,  to  the  extent  of 
1,623,494  francs,  while  eoOke  and  sugar  increased  in 
value  888,816  francs;  and  in  tha  export  trade  it  was 
felt  in  the  falling  off  the  preceding  year  of  1,044,770 
francs,  chiefly  on  iron,  steel,  and  copper,  while  the  ex- 
portation of  timber  and  pitch  increased  over  that  of 
1861.  In  1862  a  new  article  of  commerce  entered  into 
the  export  trade  of  Sweden.  The  metal  nickel  fignrei 
for  tha  first  time  in  the  returns  for  this  year  to  the 
amount  of  101,620  francs,  or  $18,882  72,  chiefly  sent 
to  the  Hanse  Towns.  The  navigation  of  the  port  of 
Stockholm  during  1862  presented  a  total  tonnage  of 
167,686  tons :  via.,  entered,  81,874  tons ;  cleare<I,  86,812 
tons.    This  is  a  falling  off  ttom  1861  of  21,768  tons. 

ErporU. — It  is  unnecessary  to  present  a  detailed 
statement  of  exports,  inasmuch  as  iron,  steely  and  cop- 
per constitute  the  articles  of  chief  value  exported  from 
the  port  of  Stockholm.  Other  exports  consist  principal- 
ly of  timber  (boards),  pitch,  and  tar.  These  amounted 
in  value.  In  1862,  to  1107,688,  to  which  is  to  be  added 
for  miscellaneous,  not  enumerated,  $230,048.  The  to> 
tal  value  of  iron,  steel,  and  copper  exported  in  1862 
was:  iron  and  steel,  $1,747,646;  copper,  $827,213. 
Value  of  iron  and  steel  exported  from  Stockholm  to 
tha  United  States  in  1832,  $8102.  Great  Britain,  tha 
Hanse  Towns,  and  Denmark  occupy  the  first  rank  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  given  as  exporters  from 
Stockholm.  Prussia,  Finland,  Portugal,  France,  and 
the  United  States  come  next. 

Statxmxnt  ixiiiBiTiNa  Tuc  oiMEKiU.  roBiioN  TsAnx  or 
Stockiioui,  buowino  tat  QoAnTinKS  ani*  Valdss  or 

lUPOBTS  AND  KXfOtTS,  BISPtOTIVSLY.  DCBIBO  TUI  VXAB 

1863. 

IMPORTS. 
DtMHptlM  «f  M«reh«BdlM.  V»la«  in  Tn»tu 

Uoffee «,0i)l,OliO 

Sugsr 2,410,000 

Ceruli 1,760,000 

Fish 1,040,000 

tVints  and  splriU 8SS,0OO 

TaUow  1,18.),000 

Tluues l,8."S3,0fl0 

Raw  Bilk 882,000 

EXPORTS. 

Iran  and  steel 10,408,000 

Vopper 1,8411,000 

Wood  and  lumber 244,000 

Pitch  and  tar 814,000 

During  the  year  1863  there  was  a  great  scarcity  of 
vessels  to  carry  oft'  the  freight  to  foreign  markets.  The 
number  that  entered  the  port  of  Stockholm  was  689, 
with  an  aggregate  of  70,226  tons ;  and  the  number 
cleared  was  927,  with  an  aggregate  of  81,916  tons.  Tha 
total  number  entered  and  cleared  was  1M6  vessels ;  ag- 
gregate tonnage,  168,142  tons.  The  number  of  vessels 
was  greater,  but  the  tonnage  was  less  by  9600  tons  than 
in  1862. 


*  The  rix  daler  Is  cqulralent  to  &9i  cents. 


STO 


1761 


StO 


TaAi)«  or 

|a  TU«  VXAB 

lo«  !•  rnwt- 
X  OJl.OUO 
I  410,000 

I'leo.ooo 

1,040,000 
T  888,000 

h,18.>,000 

6,988,000 
862,000 

J),408,000 
h  ,840,000 

544,000 

814,000 

scarcity  of 

irketa.   The 

lin  vM  B89, 

[the  number 

;  tons.    Tb« 

reueis;  »g- 

>f  of  veeieli 

ton»th»n 


InU. 


J/«n«|r.— Acflounts  «re  kept  here,  In  Gottenbur);,  and 
generally  throuckout  Sweden,  In  paper  money,  conslxi- 
iag  of  rix  dolUn  banco,  one  rix  dollar  being  equal  to  48 
ikillinga,  and  one  akiUlng  to  12  rundatycks.  The  ex- 
change with  London  is  at  about  12  rix  dollars  banco  per 
£,  80  that  the  rix  dollar  is  worth  about  1<.  8d.  sterling. 
Rix  dollars  banco  may  be  exchanged  for  specie  rix  dol- 
lars at  the  rate  of  2}  the  former  for  one  of  the  latter. 
But  there  are  Tcry  few  coins,  except  of  copper,  in  cir- 
culation, the  currency  consisting  almost  wholly  of  notes, 
varying  from  &  skillings  to  500  rix  dollars  banco. 

iVeiyhts  and  Mtatura.—the  vlctuali  or  commercial 
weights  are  punds,  lippunds,  and  skippunds;  20  punds 
being  equal  to  1  lispund,  and  20  llspunds=l  skippund, 
100  lbs.  Swedish  commercial  weight  =93}  lbs.  avoir- 
dupois=42^  kilograms=87}  lbs.  of  Hamburg. 

The  iron  weights  are  three-fifths  of  the  victnali,  or 
commercial  weights;  20  marks =1  mark  pund;  20  mark 
punds=l  mark  skippund;  and  7^  skippunds^l  ton 
English.  Hence  100  punds  Swedish  iron  weight=:76 
lbs.  avoirdupois,  and  lOO  lbs.  avoirdupois =133^  lbs. 
Swedish  iron  weight. 

In  corn  measure,  4  quarts=:l  spann;  2  spann=l 
tun,  or  barrel;  1  tun=4i  Winchester  bushels;  a  last 
of  rye  from  Kiga=18  tuns;  a  last  of  rye  from  Liebau 
=19^  tuns;  a  last  of  rye  from  Stettin=22^  tuns;  a 
last  of  rye  from  Stralsund— 24  tuns.  The  tun  of  82 
kappor  contains  4^  Winchester  bushels. 

In  liquid  measure,  2  slup  =  l  kanna;  15  kannor^l 
anker;  2  ankors  =  l  eimcr;  2  eimers=l  ahm ;  U  ohm 
=1  oxhoft;  2  oxhoft=l  pipe.    The  pipe=124i  Un- 


it would  appear  (Voni  this  circumstantial  •feonnt , 
that  the  art  of  knitting  stockings,  or  at  least  that  th* 
first  specimens  of  knit  stockings,  had  been  introduoed 
into  Kngland  from  Spain  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century ;  and  such  seems  to  have  been  the  general 
opinion,  till  an  allusion  to  the  practice  of  knitting,  in 
the  pretended  poems  of  Rowley,  forged  by  Cbatterton, 
made  the  sul^ect  be  more  carefully  investigated.  The 
result  of  this  investigation  showed  clearly  that  the 
practice  of  knitting  was  well  known  in  England,  and 
had  been  referred  to  in  acts  of  Parliament  a  good  many 
years  previously  to  the  period  mentioned  by  Howell. 
Uut  it  had  then,  most  probaldy,  been  applied  only  to 
the  manufacture  of  woolen  stockings ;  and  the  general 
use  of  cloth  hose  shows  that  even  these  had  not  been 
numerous.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  whether  the 
art  is  native  to  England  or  has  been  imported, — Stt 
BBnKMA!(^'H  Incentioiu,  article  Stockimos. 

It  is  singular  that  the  stocking-frame,  which,  even 
in  its  rudest  form,  is  a  very  complex  and  ingenious 
machine,  that  could  not  have  been  discovered  accident- 
ally, but  must  have  been  the  result  uf  deep  combina- 
tion and  profound  sagacity,  should  have  been  discov- 
ered so  early  as  1589— before,  in  fact,  the  business  of 
knitting  was  generally  introduced.  The  inventor  of 
this  admirable  machine  was  Mr.  William  Lee,  of  Wood- 
borough,  in  Nottinghamshire,  lie  attempted  to  set  up 
an  establishment  at  CaWcrton,  near  Nottingham,  for 
the  manufacture  of  stockings,  but  met  with  no  success. 
I  In  this  situation  ho  applied  to  the  queen  for  assistance ; 
I  but,  Instead  of  meeting  with  that  remuneration  to 
glish  wine  gallons ;  and,  consequently,  the  ahm  =ii-fy  I  which  his  genius  and  inventions  so  well  entitled  him, 


English  wine  gallons,  and  100  kannor=69^  English 
gallons. 

The  Swedish  font=ll'684  English  inches;  the  ell, 
oralna,=2  feet;  the  fathom— 3  ells;  the  rod=8  ells. 
In  estimating  by  lasts,  1  last  of  pitch,  ashes,  etc.,  = 
12  barrels;  1  last  of  tar,  oil,  etc,  =  13  barrels;  1  last 
of  hemp,  flax,  tallow,  etc.,  =  G  sklppunds ;  1  ton  of  Liv- 
erpool common  salt=7  tons  Swedish. 

J'ort  Charges  at  SloelMm.—'lhe  total  port  charges 
for  n  vessel  of  500  tons  (250  lasts)  amount  to  about 
$277,  including  all  expenses,  in  and  out.  For  an  un- 
privileged vessel  this  amount  is  nearly  doubled. 

PoH  Charge*  at  Gothenburg.— lonnaffi,  pilotage,  and 
all  other  dues  and  port  charges  on  a  vessel  of  800  tons, 
amount  at  this  port  to  about  #107.—  Com.  Relat.  U.  S. 
StOOkingB,  as  every  one  knows,  are  coverings  for 
the  legs.    They  are  formed  of  only  one  thread  entwined, 
so  as  to  form  a  species  of  tissue,  extremely  elastic,  and 
readily  adapting  itself  to  the  iiguro  of  the  part  it  is 
employed  to  cover.    This  tissue  can  not  be  called  cloth, 
for  it  has  neither  warp  nor  woof,  but  it  approaches 
closely  to  it ;  and  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied 
it  is  very  superior.     Silk  stockings  were  first  worn  by 
Henry  II.  of  France,  in  1517.     In  1560  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  presented  with  a  pair  of  blnck  silk  stockings 
by  her  silk-woman,  Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore 
cloth  ones  any  more.— Howm.L.     Ho  adds,  "  Henry 
VIII.  wora  ordinurj-  cloth  hose,  except  there  came 
from  Spain  by  great,  chance  a  pair  of  silk  stockings ; 
for  Spain  very  early  abounded  with  silk."    Edward 
VI.  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stockings 
by  his  merchant.  Sir  Thomas  Grcsham ;  and  the  pres- 
ent was  then  much  taken  notice  of.— IIowei.l.   Others 
relate  that  William  Rider,  a  London  apprentice,  see- 
ing at  the  house  of  an  Itolian  merchant  a  pair  of  knit 
worsted  strckings  from  Mantua,  ingeniously  made  a 
pair  like  them,  which  he  presented  to  the  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke, the  first  of  the  kind  made  in  England,  in  15C4. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  Romans  and  other  ancient 
nations  had  no  particular  clothing  for  the  legs.    Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  however,  Ik  si  or  Itgg'utt,  made 
of  cloth,  began  to  bo  used ;  and  at  a  later  period  the 
art  of  knitting  stockings  was  discovered.     Unluckily, 
nothing  certain  is  known  as  to  the  individual  by  whom, 
tho  place  where,  or  when  this  invention  was  made. 
5T 


he  was  discouraged  and  discountenanced !  It  need  not, 
therefore,  excite  surprise  that  Lee  accepted  the  invita- 
tion of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who,  having  heard  of  the 
invention,  promised  him  a  magnificent  reward  if  ha 
would  carry  it  to  France.  Henry  kept  his  word,  and 
Lee  introduced  the  stocking-frame  at  Kouen  with  dis- 
tinguished success ;  but  after  the  assassination  of  tho 
king,  the  concern  got  into  difliculties,  and  Lee  died  in 
poverty  at  Paris.  A  knowledge  of  the  machine  was 
brought  back  from  France  to  England  by  some  of  tb« 
workmen  who  had  emicrnted  with  Lee,  and  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Noliinghamshire,  which  still  con- 
tinues to  be  the  principal  scat  of  the  manufacture. — Set 
Obckuaic.n's  Invenlioni,  vol.  iv. ;  and  LiUert  on  th* 
Utility  and  iWicy  t/Machines,  London,  1780. 
Imposts  or  IIostibt  and  Artiolxs  mam  oh  Fbamsr  imtd 

TUX  L'NITIIII  STATtS  FOB  TUB  YeAB  INDINO  JDNB  30,  I8&T. 


Wlitiic*  tmporitd. 

Cotlllll 
Hoiltry. 

silk 

lluaicry. 

WOOIMI 

Hoalary. 

Hamburg 

i>804.091 

1,CS7,8S4 

Lll-i.-'SS 

6.  ,3.9 

8T,05S 

«4,88« 
t»8,130 
i!34,019 

18,640 

$3T.7A6 

19it,lC9 

1,8T2.TM 

M,411 

Other  jiliiccs 

Total  yesr  1851. 

$3,'ilO,28I 

$989,'2(I9 

$l,740,8i0 

—See  arliclet  Cotton,  Silk,  and  Wool. 

Stock-jobber.     It  was  about  the  year  1688  that 
the  word  stock-joblwr  was  first  heard  in  london.     In- 
tho  sliort  space  of  four  years  a  crowd  of  companies^ 
every  one  of  which  held  out  to  subscribers  the  hope  of 
immense  gains,  sprang  into  existence;  the  Insurance 
Companv,  the  Paper  Company,  the  Lute-string  Com. 
pany,  tho  Pearl-fishery  Company,  the   Glass-bottle 
Company,  tho  Alum  Company,  the  Blythe  Coal  Com- 
pany, the  Sword-blade  Company.    There  was  a  Tap- 
estry Company,  which  would  soon  furnish  pretty  hang- 
ings for  all  the  parlors  of  the  middle  class,  and  for  all 
tho  bed-chambers  of  the  higher.    There  was  a  Copper 
Companv,  which  proposed  to  explore  the  mines  of  En- 
gland, and  held  out  a  hope  that  they  would  prove  noh 
less  valuable  than  those  of  Potosl.    There  was  a  Div- 
ing Company,  which  undertook  to  bring  up  preciou* 
eftects  from  shipwrecked  vessels,  and  which  announeed 
that  it  had  laid  in  a  stock  of  wonderful  machines  re- 
sembling complete  suits  of  armor.     In  front  of  the  hel- 
met  was  a  huge  glass  eye  like  that  of  a  cyclop;  Mi4 


STO 


1762 


m0' 


Nt  of'ika  crest  went  •  pipe  through  which  the  air  was 
t«  be  admitted. 

The  proeeM  wai  exhibited  on  the  Thamei,  Fine 
gentlemen  and  fine  ladies  were  invited  to  the  show, 
were  hospitably  regaled,  and  were  delighted  by  seeing 
the  divers  in  their  panoply  dcsi.'end  into  the  river  and 
return  laden  with  old  iron  and  ships'  taeltle.  Then 
was  a  Greenland  Fishing  Company,  which  could  not 
fail  to  drive  the  Dutch  whalers  and  herring  busses  out 
of  thts  Korthern  Ocean.  There  was  a  Tanning  Com- 
pany, which  promised  to  furnish  leather  superior  to 
the  best  that  was  brought  from  Turkey  or  Russia. 
There  was  a  society  which  undertook  the  office  of  giv- 
ing gentlemen  a  liberal  education  on  low  terms,  and 
which  auumed  the  sounding  name  of  (he  Royal  Acad- 
emies Company.  In  a  pompous  advertisement  it  was 
announced  that  the  Directors  of  the  Royal  Academies 
Company  had  engaged  the  best  masters  in  every  branch 
«f  knowledge,  and  were  about  to  issue  twenty  thoDsand 
tickets  at  twenty  shillings  each. 

There  was  to  be  a  lottery ;  two  thousand  prizes  were 
to  be  drawn;  and  the  fortunate  holders  of  the  prize 
were  to  be  taught,  at  the  charge  of  the  Company, 
Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French,  Spanish,  conic  sections, 
trigonometry,  heraldry.Japanning,  fortiKcation,  book- 
keeping, and  the  art  of  playing  on  the  theorobo.  Some 
of  these  companies  took  large  mansions,  and  printed 
their  advertist^ments  in  gilded  letters.  Others,  less 
ostentatious,  weri  content  with  ink,  and  met  at  coffee- 
houses in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Royal  Exchange. 
Jonathan's  and  Garraway's  were  in  a  constant  ferment 
with  brokers,  buyers,  sellers,  meetings  of  directors, 
meetings  of  proprietors.  Time-bargains  soon  came  into 
fasliion.  Extensive  combinations  were  formed,  and 
monstrous  fables  were  circulated,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  or  depressing  the  price  of  shtfres. — Macadlay. 

Stooks.  The  public  funding  system  originated  in 
Venice  in  the  12th  century,  and  was  introduced  into 
Florence  in  the  year  1840.  The  English  funding  sys- 
tem may  be  said  to  have  had  its  rise  in  1672-'94,  In 
the  United  States  the  term  tlockt  includes  United  States 
funded  loans  and  State  loans,  and  the  stocks  or  shares 
in  various  corporations,  such  as  railroad  companies, 
banks,  funded  debts  of  cities,  etc 

In  England  the  term  ttoclci  is  applied  mainly  to  gov- 
•mment  funded  debt — such  as  consols,  Bank  of  En- 
gland stock,  etc. ;  and  the  term  $hani  is  used  when  ap- 
plied to  the  capital  or  joint  stock  of  railroad,  banking, 
and  mining  companies. — Ute  article  Funds. 

The  difficulties  in  which  individuals  are  involved  by 
their  real  wants,  but  oflener  by  their  unruly  passions, 
ar3  tlie  source  of  their  debts.  The  debts  of  [European] 
nations  liav*  not  a  different  origin.  When  the  ordi- 
nary resources  of  a  country  were  insufficient  to  carry 
into  effect  the  private  views  or  impolitic  tears  of  the 
despots  who  ruled,  or  the  ministers  who  directed  it, 
they  simply  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  borrowing; 
but  when  the  sums  loaned  were  inadequate  to  the  in- 
creased expenditure,  tliey  liad  recourse  to  all  sorts  of 
schemet,  decepliont,  and  contrivaneri,  the  better  to  delude 
the  lenders,  and  allure  their  avarice.  Such  is  tlie  ori- 
gin of  the  liritish  funding  system.  Among  states,  debt 
may  be  considered  a  national  disease;  and,  like  other 
diseases  in  our  day,  has  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  and, 
we  may  add,  of  many  of  tlie  new  nations  of  America. 

One  set  of  Uritish  writers  maintain  that  "  debt  and 
wealtli  are  synonymous;"  tliat  "increase  of  debt  is  a 
true  increase  of  riches ;"  that  no  happiness  can  exist 
without  a  national  debt.  The  domestic  [i.e.,  the  na- 
tional] debt,  says  one  of  the  highest  authorities  (Coi,- 
Quiiui  N ),  dispenses  protection  and  happintu,  by  form- 
ing iiiiitual  advantages  between  the  rich  and  the  poor. 
It  has  produced  the  rapid  increase  of  publio  and  pri- 
rate  buildings,  and  of  the  trade,  commerce,  and  naviga- 
tion of  the  country.  Another,  more  audacious  than  the 
rest,  declares  that  "  a  part  of  the  industry,  a  part  of 
t^e  wagef,  and  a  part  of  the  land,  btkmg  to  the  stock- 


holders; and  that  by  thirty  millions  of  czpenditnra 
being  in  the  hands  of  the  stockholders  or  diuipalort, 
consumption  is  highly  stimulated."  The  extinction  ' 
of  the  national  debt  of  Great  Britain,  in  the  opinion  of  . 
these  economical  writers,  wpnid,  of  course,  bring  mis- 
fortune and  evil.  "  It  would,"  says  Colqohonn,  "be 
attended  with  greater  Inconvenbnces  than  at  present 
are  experienced." 

Another  class  of  British  writers,  with  more  truth, 
with  greater  force  of  argument,  and  with  more  evidence 
of  facts,  contend  that  "  poverty,  misery,  and  the  na- 
tional debt,  are  also  synonymous  and  identical  terms;" 
that  "taxation  incurred  to  pay  its  annual  interest 
(swallowing  up  thirty  millions  out  of  sixty  millions  of 
revenue,  to  satisfy  the  fund-holders),  oppresses  the  peo- 
ple, destroys  Industry,  and  is  equal  to  the  curse  of 
heaven  on  the  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manufkc- 
tnres  of  the  nation."  (McCulloch) :  "To  maintain 
that  this  enormous  taxatioir  enriches  the  nation,  be- 
cause it  abstracts  a  portion  of  its  riches,  is  both  a  plain 
contradiction  and  an  absurdity ;  taxation  being  always 
an  engine  of  destruction  to  all  the  productive  classes." 
"  To  attribute  to  the  debt  the  increase  of  business,  im- 
provements, etc.,  during  the  late  war,  is  an  error  of  the 
most  miserable  kind.  It  is  to  be  attributed  not  to  the 
increase  of  debt,  but  to  the  monopoly  of  commerce,  to 
the  discoveries  of  Arkwright  and  Watt,  and  to  various 
other  causes.  The  nation  did  not  improve  because  of 
the  debt,  but  in  spite  of  it ;  as  it  gave  birth  to  the 
nefarious  practice  of  stock-jobbing,  begetting  a  spirit 
of  gambling,  destructive  of  public  morals,  disgraceful 
to  the  nation,  and  hostile  to  the  pursuit  of  sober  indus> 
try."  "  No  wages,  no  part  of  the  lands,  belongs  to  the 
stockholders  or  diuipatom ;  nor  was  any  specified  prop- 
erty pledged  for  the  greatest  part  of  the  debt  contracted. 
The  lenders  had  not  at  the  time  any  property  mort- 
gaged to  them;  consequently,  they  can  not  have  at 
present  more  specified  rights  than  they  possessed  when 
they  loaned  their  money.  To  maintain  the  contrary 
is  a  dangerous  and  arbitrary  assun-ption."  "  They  ad- 
vanced money  when  its  value  was  depreciated  on  an 
average  otfifttea  per  cent.  They  never  entertained 
the  idea  of  receiving  payment  at  par,  when  the  loans 
were  contracted  at  exceedingly  low  prices."  "It  would 
be  both  folly  and  injustice  to  compel  the  nation  to  pay 
one  hundred  ounces  of  gold  to  the  fund-holders,  when 
tbey  loaned  less  tlian  eighty,"  "  I*,  is  equally  unjust 
to  exempt  this  sort  of  property  from  the  alteration  in 
value  to  which  every  other  kind  of  property  in  the 
kingdom  is  8ul]ject ;  and,  consequently,  the  reduction ' 
of  the  debt — that  millstone  which  destroys  the  industry 
and  vigor  of  the  people,  doubles  taxes,  and  spreads  pau- 
perism, crime,  and  wretchedness  throughout  the  coun- 
try—can be  eftisoted  without  any  violation  of  the  pub- 
lic faith."  "  The  nation  must  not  suffer  on  account  of 
the  errors  of  party  or  ministerial  men.  The  happiness 
of  twenty-four  millions  of  British  subjects  ou^ht  not  to 
be  postponed  for  the  sake  of  an  insignificant  portion- 
two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  stockholders." 

Before  we  enter  more  fully  on  the  subject,  wo  have 
thus  drawn  a  brief  summary  of  the  leading  argument* 
and  opinions  of  the  contending  parties  for  and  against 
the  existence  of  the  present  British  national  debt.     It 
is  not  difficult  to  anticipate  the  American  side  of  the 
argument ;  but  on  the  opposite  side  what  can  we  ex- 
pect, where  the  infection  of  gambliftg  is  so  strong  that 
Fopo,  who  know  iiis  countrymen  well,  declared — 
"Sltttetman  snd  patriot  ply  alike  fAs  tlocki; 
iVsresa  and  butler  share  alike  tlie  box; 
And  judges  Job,  and  bisKops  bite  the  town, 
And  mighty  dukts  pack  cards  for  half  a  crown." 

In  the  12th  century,  Richard  I.  pawned  the  reve- 
nues of  the  crown  for  the  payment  of  moneys  borrowed 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  fanatical  conquest  of  the 
Holy  Land.  Henry  III.  pawned  the  crown  jewels 
and  regal  ornaments  and  ivbes  of  state.  Edward  I 
borrowed  money  to  pay  the  debts  of  his  father,  in  order 


contributed.    The^ii/        ^^  ""mmees  of  those  who   f„L„  ■       ''  "P^'at'on  whatever  can  i   '    ,  .^"nerit"- 
public  dttl.     ''.*'^  ""'^^  """W  advanta"   0,  r r™''''"  """^  ««■"«  in   tird  T'"  P?*'^''  '""''i" 


STO 


1764 


STO 


than  nlnatmn  milltoni  of  tha  national  debt  were  re> 
deemed  in  1818.  Tlie  next  measure  was  tlie  reduction 
of  tlie  Ave  per  cents  into  fours.  The  hanic  at  that 
time  had  thirteen  millions  in  their  vaults ;  and  thcr 
increased  the  circulation  by  throwing  a  large  amount 
of  paper  into  market,  and  by  lowering  the  rate  of  in- 
terest from  S  to  4  per  cent.  By  the  union  of  gov- 
ernment and  banking  powers,  the  enormous  sum  of 
£U0,'i60fi'iS  of  6  per  cents  was  readily  converted  into 
£147,263,328  of  4  per  cents,  at  an  annual  saving  of  in- 
terest of  JE1,2'22,009  at  a  small  increase  of  capiul  only. 
In  1824,  4  per  cents  to  the  amount  of  je7C,806,882  were 
changed  into  an  equal  amount  of  stuck  bearing  an  in- 
terest of  8^  per  cent.  This  operation,  besides  effecting 
an  annual  saving  uf  £381,034,  had  the  advantage  of 
making  no  addition  to  the  capital  of  the  debt.  In 
1827,  £8,500,000  of  debt  were  created,  while  £2,8G6,528 
vrere  redeemed.  In  1828  the  sinking  fund  was  de- 
stroyed. On  the  nth  of  July,  it  was  enacted  that  for 
the  future  "  the  amount  of  the  sinking  fund  bo  the 
actual  surplus  of  the  revenue  over  the  expenditures." 
(Came  into  operation  6th  July,  1829.)  At  that  lime 
there  ware  no  surpluses,  but  a  large  deficiency  of 
revenue. 

But  although  one  of  the  three  elements  of  the  fund- 
ing system  was  thus  lost,  the  action  of  that  system 
was  not  on  that  account  discontinued.  A  prospective 
operation  was  contrived  in  May,  1830,  to  transfer  into 
H  per  cents  tha  fours  created  at  tlie  reduction  of  the 
flves  in  1822.  One  of  the  Lunditions  was,  that  the 
new  stock  should  not  bo  subject  to  redemption  at  any 
time  before  January  6,  1819;  and  an  option  was  of- 
fered to  the  holders  to  receive  £70  of  the  new  fives,  or 
£100  of  the  3i  per  cents,  for  every  £100  of  4  per  cent, 
annuities.  This  operation  was  called  prospective,  be- 
cause tha  advantage  of  the  plan  is,  that  when  the 
stipulated  term  shall  have  expired,  as  much  relief  may 
be  obtained  by  the  nation  from  every  payment  of  £70 
employed  in  canceling  5  per  cents  as  by  the  pay- 
ment of  £100  when  applied  to  the  discharge  of  3^  per 
cents,  both  bcin;;  redeemable  at  par:  annual  saving 
of  this  step,  £700,001).  In  1829,  £4,900,000  were  ere- 
ated,  and  £6,000,000  reduced;  £154,000,000  were  cre- 
ated in  1830,  and  £168,004,0)0  reduced ;  but  what  was 
the  result?  The  coniiiiitteu  of  1828  state,  that  "in  a 
few  years  [say*  the  4th  report]  which  preceded  the 
virtual  abandonment  uf  the  system,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  had  been  added  to  the  capital  of  the 
national  d^ht,  while  the  purchases  of  the  commissioners 
had  fallen  so  far  short  of  that  sum  that  tlie  unredeeni' 
ed  capital  of  the  unfunded  debt  was  greater  at  the  coni' 
mencement  of  1823  than  it  had  been  in  1818,  by  the 
sum  of  twenty-ti  ve  iniiliuns."  In  1819  twelve  millions, 
and  in  1820  thirteen  millions,  were  unwarrantably  taken 
from  the  sinking  fund.  The  actual  reduction  during 
the  peace  is,  according  to  the  Finance  Committee,  who 
declare  "  that  the  total  reduction  elTucted  from  181G  to 
1826  in  tha  national  debt  was  only  three  millions  and  a 
half." 

The  writer  from  whom  we  have  abridged  tha  pre- 
ceding facts  concludes:  "It  appears  that  this  enor- 
mous debt  (which  he  states  at  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  .flillions)  has  been  chiefly  raised  by  means  of  the 
Bank  and  the  Stock  Exchange,  aided  by  llie  deluiiun 
of  the  linking  fund;  and  that  it  has  been  principally 
expanded  in  wars,  most  of  them  undertaken  against 
the  true  interests  of  the  nation,  whose  topographical 
situation  renders  her  independent  of  continental  broils 
and  quarrels.  Its  amount  has  been  immensely  in- 
creased in  time  of  war,  while  the  reductions  effected  in 
time  of  peace  have  been  exceedingly  limite<l.  In  the 
flist  period,  of  twelve  years  peace,  ten  millions  were 
reduced ;  in  the  second,  which  lasted  ten  years,  only 
four  and  a  half  millions ;  and  in  the  last  and  longest, 
near  thirty  years,  the  amount  of  reduction  lias  lieen  so 
trifling  that  it  seems  almost  incredible.  When  we 
constdar  tha  very  inconsiderable  reduction  effected 


during  so  long  an  interval  of  peace,  the  most  alarming; 
forebodings  arise  for  tha  future.  Tha  British  Legisla- 
ture, tha  economists,  and  tha  reflecting  men,  so  numer- 
ous in  England,  have  in  this  sul^ect  an  unbounded 
field  for  the  most  serious  reflection."  These  wars  were 
conducted  through  the  agency  of  paper  money  and  tha 
funding  system.  Pope  has  very  happily  hit  the  expt- 
dienti  of  tha  British  ministry  in  the  following  lines : 

"  Bleia'd  paper  ereditt  Isst  and  best  supply. 
That  lends  corruption  lighter  wings  to  Hy ; 
Oold  imp'd  by  thee  can  compass  hardest  things. 
Can  pocket  states— can  fetch  or  carry  kings; 
A  eingle  leaf  shall  waft  an  army  o'er, 
Or  ship  off  senates  to  some  distant  shore." 

—Compiled  from  Hamillon,  Kaileg,  Pebrer,  PavliamenU 
ary  aulhm-iliet,  and  on  the  authority  of  manuscript  tablet 
obtained  froni  the  office  of  the  Britith  Controller  in  Lon- 
don, 

Stoppage  In  Tranaitu  is  the  seizure  by  the  seller 
of  goods  sold  on  credit,  during  the  course  of  their  pas- 
sage (transitus)  to  the  buyer.  This  principle  is  said 
to  have  been  established  about  1690  in  the  Court  of 
Chancery  (2  Vern,  208) ;  and  it  has  since  been  acknowl- 
edged in  the  courts  of  common  law.  The  transitus  is 
defined  to  be  the  passage  of  the  goods  to  the  place 
agreed  upon  by  the  buyer  and  seller,  or  the  place  at 
which  they  are  to  come  into  the  possession  of  the  buyer. 
This  definition  does  not  mean  that  the  term  transitu! 
implies  continual  motion ;  goods  are  in  transitu  while 
they  are  at  rest,  if  they  are  still  on  the  road  to  the 
place  to  which  they  have  been  sent.  This  doctrine  of 
stoppage  in  transitu  entitles  a  seller,  in  case  of  the  in- 
solvency or  bankruptcy  of  the  buyer,  to  stop  the  goods 
before  they  come  into  the  buyer's  possession.  Tha 
right  of  stoppage  in  transitu  is  not  confined  to  cases  of 
buying  and  selling.  A  factor  either  at  home  or  abroad, 
if  he  consigns  goods  to  his  principal  by  the  order  of  the 
principal,  and  has  got  the  goods  in  his  own  name  or  on 
his  own  credit,  has  the  same  right  of  stoppage  in  tran- 
situ as  if  he  were  the  seller  of  the  goods.  Questions 
of  stoppage  in  transitu  sometimes  involve  diflicult 
points  of  law.  The  right  of  stoppage  implies  that  the 
goods  are  in  the  possession  of  the  seller  or  factor  when 
ho  exercises  this  right.  Accordingly,  the  law  of  stop- 
page involves  the  law  of  possession  of  movable  things. 
— Boiin's  Cyclopedia;  Abhott  on  Shipping i  Cross  on 
Urn  and  Stoppage  in  Traiuitus;  Siinii'a  Leading  Catei; 
Russell's  Treatiee  on  the  Lawi  relating  to  Factort  and 
Broken. 

If  the  buyer  has  in  good  faith  and  foi^  value  sold ' 
the  goods,  and  indorsed  and  delivered  the  bill  of  lading, 
this  second  purchaser  holds  the  goods  frc^  from  the 
first  seller's  right  to  stop  them.  But  if  the  goods  and 
bill  are  transferred  only  as  a  security  for  a  debt  due 
from  the  first  purchaser  to  the  transferee,  the  original 
seller  may  stop  the  goods,  and  hold  them  subject  to 
this  security,  and  need  pay  only  tbo  specific  advances 
made  on  their  credit  or  on  that  very  bill  of  lading,  and 
nut  a  general  injiebtedness  of  the  first  purchaser  to  tha 
second.  Tha  question  has  been  much  agitated  whether 
the  right  of  stoppage  in  transitu  was  a  right  to  rescind 
the  sale  fur  non-payment,  or  only  an  extension  of  tha 
common-law  lien  of  the  buyer  on  the  thing  sold  for  his 
price.  And  it  seems  now  quite  well  settled,  both  in 
Kngland  and  in  Ibis  country,  that  it  is  tlie  latter;  that 
is,  an  extension  of  the  lien.  Important  consequences 
might  flow  from  this  distinction.  If  tha  sailer,  by  stop- 
ping the  goods  in  transitu,  rescinds  the  sale,  he  has  no 
further  claim  for  the  price,  nor  any  part  of  it ;  nor  can 
the  buyer,  or  any  one  representing  him,  pay  the  price 
and  recover  the  goods  against  the  will  of  tha  seller. 
If,  however,  he  only  exercises  his  right  of  lion,  he  holds 
the  goods  as  tha  property  of  the  buyer;  and  they  may 
be  redeemed  by  him  or  his  representatives  by  paying 
tha  price  for  which  they  are  a  security;  and  if  not  re- 
deemed, they  become  absolutely  the  seller's,  in  tha 
same  way  as  a  pledge  might  become  his ;  and  if  ha  fallg 


STO 


"^  Kent's  C«»,m„  v„"  ij    ^'"'""'''^  ^,  p.  637«'    t  ILV''  "  ""'  »'  "»«''  »<>  ^e  .leemed  ' V  T,  """''■ 


■-■=,  V.  u„  1,10  i«ttcli.  8  "'  » Mip on    A ccipetuer  sturn    X     ," ,  *^*°"'  P'operlv  so  calUrt  „ 


commodation  of  .he  ship's  c^w  ami     ""•^"™  «"'*  «=- 

Stranding,  in  .yavigal^.^i  P^wnger,. 
•hore,  or  on  the  beacli  '     "  "'"'"'«  "f  »  »hip  on 

much  diversity  o4i„Zf„',"^"»'='"y  matter,  and 
««pect  to  it.  It  would,  however  .  *"'"'""«<«  with 
•trilling  against  a  rock,  bannrl ''''"?'  """  "'«"'ly 
n«i  .nd  that,  to  cons.Uu'e  i't  he  T'  """"•""'■d- 
th.  rock,  etc.,  for  some  time  (  iwtnt T^  "' M  "l  "P"" 
Park  has  the  folloivin<f  observl,    ^  -*"    *'"■•  Justice 

'Itisnoteveo'touchVorlik'    '  °"  "'"  ""''•'•'"'  = 
in  the  sea  or  river  tl mf  ?vni         ^."P""  "  ««<»  body 

Thus  Lord  EllenC^ngh  heW  thT;"""'  »  """""^ff 
lish  «  stranding,  the  "hin  must  ^  ','"■''"''"  '"  «««b- 
me'«>y  atriking  on  a  ro^g  "n  ,'^  "«"<m«,y,  for  that 
<.».«  (us  in  the^case  thl'at  hrr"""f  """  "  """■' 
«"<!  «  half),  and  then  pas!L  „n  Th  "'T'  "  '""""" 
may  have  received  some  i  jJ'rv"  •  °"^^  "•«  «»»'" 
Tv>i-<i  Trii„_i._^       '^  nuiuB  injury,  is  not  <■  .. ■. 


mmmMmmm. 


termini  st^nd  „g'*m  a„s"S„"  TP""-'-  ^^ 
thing  analogous  trthat  ^  T^  "  ""^  "•»"=•  "  "O"'- 
which  has  been  applied  to  th!."'l"  ^"'^f"'  P''™'*. 
'^ndyo  with  the  sMp,  the™  s  „r^"'.!^  "  ^  ""'^ 
J.ot  be  enough  that  tile  h^  «  f„Va T""^-  ''  ""> 
her  beam  ends.  Everv  strikil  „^  !  "  ""»"'"'»  on 
duce  a  retardation  of-tl.e  si  ?,  '  V""™"''''"^' ?'»- 
force  of  the  elements  she  s  rl7.l,  ""? "  '^  "-^  'he 
Btationary,  it  is  immaterial  ,  heS?h1'  1""  '^™" 
on  the  muddv  bank  of  a  riv„r  "  ''"  ""  P"". 

.hore,  butaW  ,:-r;\   i;ir,r''.r"  ""'-' 


„   ^- "'«■  would  exceed  il,«  L'.u' -"'•""*•  'ho 

*~  Kext-s  Co,,.™.,  vol.  T;  %""''  "'  "■•  ""P- 
Sturgeon  rjaherv     ti,„  '. 

valuable,  and  well-known  fish  „f    Z^?''"  ''  '  '"ee, 
cral  species:  vi^.,  <hes7rri„ '*'"''''  "'"•aresev^ 

sevruga,  or  Acci,;,n,er.^^^',      '*''"J^"'»- '""«!  the 
»  plentiful  in  the  N^ht,      :''  ""•     'f"  »'urgeon 
'outhern  shores  of  ,|i  ,1",""'""  "^ers,  .„d  on'^'he 
th..  Mediterranean  e        b''?;'","  ''  "«  *'•"-  in 
est  abundance  on  the  n„r,h        .'"  '^°''""  '"  ""e  great- 
«nd  in  the  rivers  Wol«„":;\'^''i;f .'7' of  .he  C.,X. 
employs  a  great  number  of  hand,  »   ?  *""* '"  """'v 
object  of  national  industrv      n   ■    "'' ''  *"  important 
strictness  of  the  Lent,  n^jhe  gI'"!  '^k"""  ''"«"•  "d 
sumption  of  fish  in  «„":',•!  ?""'  ^'"'«'',  the  c«n. 
central  position,  and  the  fae  ,  .Ter.T '  ,"1 V'-""  "^ 
conveyance  by  the  Wnln..  ,,  """^'  aflbrdrd  for  their 
"shery,  and  those  onts^tribu.r'"'"  "'  "">  <^-»P'«n 
distributed  overa  vas  e,  en,  'f  ^        """'  ""  ''""y 
pickled  earcassesof   he  fish   °    •°""l''-'-     B'»ide.tho 
'be  roes;  and  isinglass  oHheT?  "  ^^P""'  '«»" 
sounds.     The  caviar  made  bv^K    l"""'^'  '™'»  'bo 
rect'>n<>^  . ■  m""e  by  the  L'™    r„ i..  , 


."ass  are  e^rt  d  i^To^tSn  "  ^"'  "  «-  "- 
belugas  are  sometimes  clTyTl  """•"""''''•  """^ 
from  1000  to  1600  lbs  a„d  vmJ^  '"*•  '«*'ghing 
Ihe  seal-fishery  is  also  pre.tl  iV  ?"''?  "•'•'  »'  »il 
m  the  Caspian-:  Th  rS^  win  2"^'^  Prosecuted 
count  of  the  mode  in  wCh  the  f  ''.  "  ""'""'^  »«- 
'he  Caspian,  and  in     7 rfle^  1 7 '' 'T*'''' »" '" 

eub-treasurv     Tho  ..  i  . 

peculiar  to  the  general  r,^""^  *>'*'«'"  ''»  one 
S.ates,  whe^by  th:Z'.r^r™rA  "^  '"e  United 


.boro;  buta-mZZx^;';:[|,17 -|^-"  '•'--  P-"ar  .n:^'^,„,S'=  -h-t^asu,^  sy.tem  i,  „„« 
may  happen.  I  can  not  look  o  tiu^  '  *"*"'"  "'«'  States ;  wherebv  fhT  e°''^™'"ent  of  ,he  United 
out  considering  the  oa«,«  co„  °,  i   ^'''"'fces  with-    public  f.  nds7s " l     ,f!iT'"  """  "fe-keeping  of  hf 

ll"*  «  the  clearrM  nnd  in<«t  .alirf.  .  '■"""res  "f  m«  ,,  „?   h"'  "«n>iiSho..l  ,1..  L-„i„n.     -nie 

W"  live  ,n>t  »|.;,  ,„  iZZS^^TV  ""•"•"1    W  C.  On  "Si    .    """"<  ""  ■"■'•  1»«7-JmJ 

better,  i„  onler  to  put  to  .-^st  a  .  d2,  "'  "  T'*"  ''^  «"''''»'  ""d  LtrZ^l^l^f^''  """""y'  '"  'be  po^ 
ject,  to  decide  eithe'r  that  ver;l\rik  n'^V/?" 'he  '"['■  '"*^-  ""I  '"ch  o  eV'l  "Tmt'u  a?"'™'  "'  """  "^^»- 
the  shore,  etc.,  by  which  da.n«™  :  .^  '^  ""  "  ""=''•  'h's  act  as  places  of  ,l.n„  "  r  ?'  ''*  Provided  for  in 
•hould  beconside'«=da   .ranXT  or,h  V°  ''^^':'P•    '''^'^hy  cons?  tu.ed  a.iXw/,'"'.''"'':"^  "'""">■'  "" 

«d  AvK«Ao«.  I^*''^'"-^'']-  Aban,h,.„„,.,,    ton,  ^,„  OrloVnX' l^ 'J^'^'Y'\?''''^ 


SUE 


1766 


BUG 


cnomiaot  diflkrence  in  favor  of  tbla  latter  ronte.  Tliii 
illfTtiTCnca  will  be  (till  grttaltr  If  we  romemlwr  that  a 
Ktralgbt  Una  on  tlie  chart  of  navigation  is  fai  from 
being  the  shortest  distance  from  one  port  to  another, 
and  the  seaman  can  only  reach  the  point  for  which  he 
in  steering  b.v  following  a  certain  number  of  successive 
courses,  approaching  as  near  as  possible  the  arc  of  a 
)(reat  circle.  Thus,  far  from  making  directly  for  the 
t^ape  of  Good  Uope,  vessels  leaving  Europe  or  the  At- 
lantic porta  of  North  America,  <n  rou<<  for  India,  must 
Hteer  for  the  Canaries  or  Azores,  in  order  to  Und  the 
trade-winds  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  to  make  thi' 
coast  of  Brazil,  and  sight  Cupo  I'rio,  or  put  into  har- 
bor at  Rio  Janeiro.  This  is  generally  the  route  for  the 
('ape  of  Good  Hope,  mure  justly,  perhaps,  called  the 
Cape  of  Storms.  They  then  cross  the  Agulhas  Bank, 
reach  Bourbon  or  Mauritius,  and  from  thence  steer  for 
India,  foUoMring  the  routea  allowed  by  the  monsoons. 
Vessels  in  the  Mediterranean  again  Lave  to  contend 
with  still  greater  disadvantages.  It  often  takes  them 
fifteen  days  to  reach  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  westerly 
winds  generally  prevailing  in  tills  quarter,  where  we 
nlso  find  a  rapid  How  of  the  ocean  waters  into  the  Medi- 
terranean, Thus  the  voyage  to  India  takea  at  least 
five  months,  or  live  months  and  a  half,  the  voyages 
home  being  ratlier  more  direct,  without  being  sensibly 
ahorter.  Ships  then  run  nearer  to  the  African  shore, 
by  reason  of  the  trade-winds  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere ;  the  place  of  call  in  tins  case  being  St.  Helena. 

If  we  now  examine  the  facilities  for  navigation  in 
(he  three  seas  near  the  Canal  of  Suez,  namely,  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Bed  Sea,  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  we  i 
And: 

That  in  the  Mediterranean  the  winds  blow  from  the 
north  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  change  south- 
east in  the  spring,  and  return  to  the  north,  passing  by 
the  west  and  northwest. 

That  nearly  the  same  takea  place  in  the  Red  Sea, 
where  the  north,  which  is  the  prevailing  wind,  heaps 
the  waters  in  the  direction  of  Babeimandel,  »o  that 
(luring  a  calm  we  observe  a  current  setting  northward, 
I'videnlly  arising  from  the  elevated  waters  in  the  houth 
endeavoring  to  recover  their  level.  Southerly  winds 
generally  succeed  a  calm. 

The  Gulf  of  Oman  has  two  monsoons — the  northeast 
monsoon,  which  generally  continues  during  tlie  winter, 
and  southwest  monsoon,  which  lasts  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  is  frequently  stormy.  The  change  from  one 
monsoon  to  the  other  is  there,  as  elsewhere,  accom- 
panied by  a  series  of  storms  and  gales. 

The  considerable  reduction  of  the  distance  of  Euro- 
|jean  ports  (h>m  tho!^  of  India  would  not  be  the  only 
advantage  to  trade  from  adopting  the  canal  between 
tlie  two  seas;  for  not  only  would  vessels  reach  their 
point  of  destination  much  sooner,  but  they  would  And 
places  of  anchorage  throughout  the  entire  route,  and 
also,  what  is  of  more  importance  still,  they  would  meet 
with  good  markets.  Tlie  navigator,  after  having  fal- 
lowed the  usual  easy  routes  of  the  Mediterranean, 
would  dispose  of  part  of  his  cargo  in  the  Canal  of  Suez, 
ur  at  Djedda,  would  purchase  ivory  at  Massarva,  Soua- 
ken,  or  Derbera,  which  he  would  exchange  in  India 
for  opium  to  take  to  China  in  exchange  for  silk  and 
tea.  He  would  complete  his  home  cargo  in  colonial 
merchandise  'rom  Manilla,  tb«  Isles  of  Sunda  and 
Ceylon ;  in  cotton  of  India  and  Egypt ;  in  coffee  of 
Abyssinia  or  Yemen ;  the  gum  of  Soudon  or  Hedjaz ; 
the  com  of  Lower  Egypt,  or  rice  of  Damiotta;  and 
these  numerous  operations,  which  now  require  years, 
would  be  accomplished  rapidly  and  without  danger 
with  small  capital  and  small  vessels.  In  short,  by  re- 
ducing the  time  necessary  for  the  operations  of  com- 
merce, we  reduce  the  general  expense. 

All  nations  would  take  advantage  of  the  importance 
of  the  trade  with  India,  China,  and  the  islands  of  the 
ocean.  Trade  with  the  Red  Sea,  although  less  consiil- 
er«bl«,  deserves  attention ;  but  as  there  is  scarcely 


any  carried  on  at  pnwnl,  It  It  very  little  knswn,  and 
could  only  acquire  importance  Uy  the  opening  of  • 
canal  between  the  two  seas.  The  Red  Sea,  which  is 
so  near  to  us  in  a  straight  line,  Ixcomes  far  distant 
when  we  have  to  double  the  Cape,  llabelmandel  Is  as 
far  from  us  a*  I'ondlcherry,  and  Houaknn  as  far  as  Ba* 
tavia;  Suez,  farther  still,  by  this  route  becomes  as 
near  as  Beyrout  by  the  canal  t  in  short,  the  two  routes, 
measured  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Souak«n,aro 
in  the  proportion  of  one  to  five, 

Very  few  European  vessels  are  now  met  with  In  tho 
Red  Sea.  Every  year  wo  sue  a  few  linlonging  to  tho 
I'arsces  of  Bombay,  and  manned  by  I.naears,  The  In- 
ternal trade  of  this  sea  is  now  carried  on  by  Aratilun 
barks,  called  itoiei,  or  houlrm,  construclud  at  Hiiuz, 
Ujoddo,  Kossair,  Souaken,  or  Muelia,  wllli  wood  from 
India  to  Singapore.  These  vessels  are  of  n  \iiry  small 
tonnage,  are  very  sharp,  and  liuvn  a  Imndsome  sheer) 
a  heavy  poop,  which  hinders  their  working,  and  lowers 
it  at  the  stern ;  they  carry  onu  mast,  rigging  a  tqiiara 
sail;  this  sail  and  yard  ure  struck  to  tho  foot  when 
they  lay  to ;  about  thirty  men  are  required  to  hoist  it 
again,  and  tliia  operation  can  not  bo  perforined  in  lesa 
than  half  an  hour.  Tho  tacking  of  these  sliips  Is  ai 
di(6eult  as  it  is  dangerous.  Tlie  dows  only  sail  In 
the  daytime;  they  got  under  way  aboul  sevon  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  sail  till  about  four  In  sight  of  the  coast, 
then  anchor  by  a  grappling-iron,  or  run  aground  on  th« 
sand. — London  Nautical  Maifatint,  Sea  also  ScnjUhtm 
Quarterti/  lieciew,  ix.  t>T. 

Messrs.  Conruil,  A.  Itunaud,  Megrllli  J.  M'I.«an,  and 
Lieusson,  the  inembers  iif  tho  inturiiullnnai  commission 
f:>r  cutting  a  canal  thruuuh  tho  Isllinius  of  Sues,  hav« 
terminated  their  investigutlnns  In  Egypt,  and  given  in 
to  the  viceroy  a  brief  preliminary  nipurt.  They  found 
insuperable  obstacles  to  directing  tho  oonal  on  Aiexan- 
dria,  and  unexpected  facilities  for  ostulillshing  a  port 
in  the  Gulf  of  I'elusium.  Tlioy  are  thoruforo  unani- 
mously of  opinion  that  a  direct  eonal  from  Suoi:  toward 
tho  Gulf  of  Pcluslum  Ih  tho  only  solution  nf  tlio  problem 
of  the  junction  of  tho  Rod  Sea  and  tho  Mediterranean. 
"  The  execution  thereof  Is  easy,  tho  success  certain,  the 
results  immense  for  the  commerce  of  tho  world."  Tho 
expense  of  tho  canal  and  of  the  works  connected  with 
it  will  not,  it  is  added,  exceed  200,U(W,0(IO  francs. 

Sugar (Fr./iucre,-  (jer.Xucktri  It,  Xucchrro )  Riiss. 
Sachari  Sp.  Azucar;  Arab.  Hukhir;  Malay,  Haolai 
Sans.  Sarkara),  a  sweet  grttiiiilalod  substance,  too  well 
known  to  require  any  particular  desorlpllon.  It  Is 
every  where  in  oxtonsiva  use,  ami  in  this  country 
ranks  rather  among  the  indisponsublo  necessaries  of 
life  than  among  luxuries.  In  point  of  commercial 
importance,  it  is  iocoiid  to  very  few  articles,  It  Is 
chiefly  prepared  from  tho  oxprcwed  Julrn  of  the  A  f  undo 
sMchanfera,  or  sugar-cane ;  but  it  is  also  procured  from 
an  immense  variety  of  other  plants,  as  maple,  lieet-root, 
birch,  parsncp,  etc, 

Speciet  (if' Sugar. — Tho  sugar  met  with  in  commerce 
is  usually  of  four  sorts ;  brown,  iir  muscovado  sugar ; 
clayed  sugar;  refined,  or  loaf  sugar;  nnd  sugar-candy. 
Tho  difference  botween  one  sort  of  sugar  and  anulher 
depends  altogether  on  the  dllHiront  niodi«  in  which  they 
are  prepared. 

Brown,  or  Mutcovado  iSui/ar.—Tbo  plants  or  canos 
being  crushed  in  a  mill,  the  juice,  having  jiassed  through 
a  strainer,  is  collected  in  tho  clariller,  where  it  is  first 
exposed  to  tho  action  of  a  gentle  fire,  after  being  "  tem- 
pered" (mixed  with  alkali),  for  the  purpose  of  facili- 
tating the  separation  of  the  liquor  from  Its  impurities. 
It  is  then  conveyed  into  the  large  evaporating  copper, 
and  suocessively  into  two  others,  each  of  smaller  size; 
tho  superintending  boiler  fhtcing  It  during  the  process 
from  tlio  scum  and  feculent  matters  which  rlne  to  the 
surface.  The  sirup  then  maches  tho  Jast  copper  ves- 
sel, called  the  "striking  tache,"  wheni  If  Is  boiled  till 
sufllelently  concentrated  to  be  cnpablo  of  granulating 
in  the  cooler,  wltenco  It  t*  transfurrud  with  tho  least 


SUG 

apex  downward.     The.? i^  ."l"  1""'?'. P«'»  *'">  the   o"„n«  "    re^  ?.""'!"«,  of  ft  ^.^1"^  """'"">' ! 


apex  downward.  The."  no  .h  "'?'  P"'»  *'">  the  oxno «  ^"^^  1"«ntitie,  of  ft  hfv.T  ","'"'""">' ! 
extremltv,  throuBhwhfrh^.  "''**  "."'a  "t  «he  lower  '^  ■'",''  '°  '"''ia,  whence  i.i.  '^"  '"  •»  «^ 
allowed  t-odra7n.*  Aft  •",,  ;.r  "r  """  '''"P  «eK'  ^^r'' '•■«'' -«"^ool"'™'P'^^^^^^^^^  'Si 
»on,e  time,  a  stratum  of  m„t     T  *""  continued  for   i,'',"  *""  «»  ^f.  MomIovI  r!:I^'*"'*""'*'»«»'. 


ed  from  canes  or  reo,U  ••  ,  ", ""'' "'  honey  extract- 
ity  of  NearchuB,^exander?^  ".'""•»"  ">«  author- 
India  yield  hon^y  Xu'  e:;'""1'  ?»'  "'-"»  '" 
waa  put  to  death  A.C.  C5,  a  Ss  t„  ^'"?""'>  ^"" 
wh,cb  shows  lio«r  little  was  S  I-  "'''"  "  '  ""y 
(Epist.  84):  ^,„„,  sa"  te  .•      '  ■'"•"'""  "spectiug  it 

Dioscorides  and  Pwr^.r.^?"'"-     ^  the  ancients, 


-"'-•  ^inea  in  toe  L 
ported  into  Venice  in  996  """*/  »m. 

■oaf-eugV^u^t'srrei^l"'^'::^'^'""*''-"^ 

ropean  invention    tL  Ji  '^^  *"  "»  «  "'odern  Eu. 

the  end  of  th  is'.h  „/th  ™,:'"?'  "'  «  Venetian  "bon 
tury.-MosELEv  D  6fi  t.^*'?l""8  of  the  16th  eel 
Grand  I^'Aus,vh'a?"shown^h«"'l'."  *'"•""''".  '»'  ^ 

■nto  and  used  in  Fran^  for  mffl"'  ''•*"  '"'""lueeS 
half  previously  ,o  tho^!^'  T?  ^^  «  '""tury  and, 
?f  the  process  of  rcfin^net  vff""^  t'  "■"  "'"'"^^V 

ao  "honev  colI„.,».  L„ '"v     4."''  W'"}-  describes  it   ,hLfJ"5" ''  """^nown  in  the  Ea«  ...  "f ': 


description  of  sug,  .  ^it  fo™.?,"  ""'  '."™'  P""^'"" 
of  concreted  honey/found  ulT  "'^'''  "  "  "»  *ort 
Ar«l>[«  l,'=i:„.  ...  y:  """t  "Pon  canes,    n  TnHio  ._j 


"on  the  teeth."    MTl'Unv  Zt  ",'  ^""^   '"'"P  «"««' !»  unknown  „  /If  ?"■""*  '"ear.     I.oaf  "? 
ected  from  canes,  nke  a  i^  „  "hv  "'  'i   ">«  °n'/»PeciDs  of  refine  ,.  .''  '"S^-^'n-ly  heinJ 


It,  brittle  iKjtween  the  teeth."    And  PiYnV  T""  V?  ""»'  |  '"mp  sucar  is  un 

^^r^  r""';  ''  "  """^  i"  ."edicinfon'iv  °'^'' T"  "^   ''"''"•^  «»  '«  HindoIta„b!.t'',r'"™  "''"g^-candy  1° 

sugar  was  singuUrfy  impeUct     Thl.       °^  "'"'"'"'"«  "^  the  p~v?nt  „?  1°" /„  "">  former  being  the  pr;S 


But  the  "''"'■  '"■  '•  ^^^• 

tion.     Sugar'can''noTl,«'!,u!^'''f ,"^  "''""'"'  ''ounda- 1  ^  ™"  raw  sugar  has  beirun  #„  "i V""  '"".■ "'  "''« 

out  the  aid  of  art       t^:  IZ'rf   T  "■"  """  ^^ith-  footed  from  China  to  S"  ^  .'T/v'"''  '"e^b'  ex. 
-"-    •      -  _,."'r"f''.""'l  native.     Instead    l«''w  in  1846  having  aSn.i'^  ,'5T„'"'"'' <■"' '»•• 

.pressed,  the  speculation  did  n^t'u^'tt'we'lM  ^\  ^"^ 
It  is  not,  f"l  whether  the  sugar  of  rh?„.  T  V  "•*. "  "  ''""''t. 
upposed,>tand  the  competu!::  "of^b    "J'^^.'''''^  «?  -'f- 


--.  vuu  Blu  or  art.  It  u  nn..n-  f  .  —  "  """ 
of  flowing  f„„„  the  plan,  t  „,  s  Zr  " -fr '  ^""«'" 
and  then  subjected  lo  a  'arin  v  „f  "'"''^ '''P'^'»«'. 
however,  quitesocIoL  n.hl  '"■''™'"'-  ^t  is  not 
that  the'^om.  tr  '  whoHv  r/''"r"^'"PP°'^'' 
mode  of  procurinrsuJr-Th„  '"'"'?'"'  ""'"^  the 
Statius,  ^    ^"-     ^''^  wmarkable  line  of 

f  "«"  P'rcov.U  Bin,ia  canm^SyXy.  lib.  I.  v  15 
ubeenconiecfiinxi  . .i.. 


-  ■"-"  -^"o^""  *»««•«  «,n«„_sy,v.  lib.  1,  V.  15,        Pe«ns  who  practiced  the  art  wh  ch  T"  *'"'  ""'  ''»"»• 


—  whether  the  suear  of  r<h.v.  —•n  '.  '. "  "  """"i- 
stand  the  competition  nt^TJi^  ^  »'''«  to  with- 
Vie  Privie  JK;",  H  'm  f/™f"  •»•'  Cuba.- 
was  imported  from  F^vn  i,  •  '•  '';.  **'*•  ^his  sugar 
the  Probabim;TtteXr"^''^'^'''''''  «»" 
pcans  who  practic  d  ,hl  „t  wh  d  T"  *'"'  ""'  ''»"»• 
pear  to  have  originated  in^h:'Ett  °Thr:'  '*";;'''/•*• 
already  seen.  he«n  in.„j...""  ."'■  ..The  cane  had,  aa 


suo 


1768 


SUO 


t 


tar}-.  It  alio  wm  carried  to  Hpnin  and  cnltlvatfid  by 
th«  8arac«ni  •oon  aftar  they  obtained  a  footing  in  that 
country.  Tb*  firat  plantation!  were  at  Valencia;  but 
Ihay  war*  afterward  extended  to  Granada  and  Murcia. 
Mr.  Tliumaa  WillouKhby,  who  traveled  over  tha  greater 
part  of  Spain  in  1U«I4,  ha*  given  an  intereiting  account 
of  Iba  itata  of  tha  Hpaniah  lugar  plantationa,  and  of 
tha  mode  of  manufacturing  tha  sugar.  Plants  of  the 
•ugar-cana  were  carried  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese to  tiie  Canary  Islands  and  Madeira,  in  tha  early 
part  of  the  16th  century ;  and  it  lias  been  asserted  by 
many  that  these  islands  furnished  the  first  plants  of 
tb*  sugar-cane  that  ever  grew  in  America. 

Barbadoes  is  tho  oldest  settlement  of  the  English  in 
tha  West  Indies.  They  took  possession  of  it  in  1627, 
and  so  early  as  1646  began  to  export  sugar  thenco  to 
England.  The  trade  of  Barbadoes  attained  its  maxi- 
mum in  1676,  furnishing,  it  is  said,  employment,  at  that 
period,  for  400  satl  of  vessels,  averaging  160  tons  bur- 
den ;  lint  this  statement  is  most  probably  exaggerated. 

Jamaica  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  liis  second 
voyage,  and  was  first  occupied  by  tha  Spaniards.  It 
was  wrested  from  them  by  an  expedition  sent  against 
it  by  Cromwell  in  1656 ;  and  has  since  continued  in 
the  possession  of  the  English,  forming  by  far  the  most 
valuable  of  their  West  Indian  colonies.  At  tha  time 
when  it  was  conquered,  there  were  only  three  small 
•agar  plantations  upon  it.  But,  in  consequence  of  the 
influx  of  English  settlers  from  Barbadoes  and  the  moth- 
er country,  fresh  plantations  were  speedily  formed,  and 
continued  rapidly  to  increase. 

The  sugar-cane  is  said  to  have  been  first  cultivated 
in  San  Domingo,  or  Hayti,  in  1606,  It  succeeded  better 
there  than  in  any  other  of  the  West  Indian  islands. 
Peter  Martyr,  in  a  work  published  in  1630,  states  that 
':i  1518  there  were  28  sugar-works  in  San  Domingo, 
established  by  the  Spaniards.  "  It  is  marvelous," 
says  he,  "  to  consider  how  all  things  increase  and  pros- 
per in  tho  island.  There  are  now  28  sugar-presses, 
wherowith  great  plenty  of  sugar  is  made.  Tho  canes 
or  reeds  wherein  the  sugar  groweth  are  bigger  and 
higher  than  in  nny  other  place,  and  are  as  big  as  a 
man's  wrist,  and  higher  than  the  staturo  of  a  man  by 
the  half.  This  is  more  wonderful,  that  whereas  in 
Valencia,  in  Spain,  where  a  great  quantity  of  sugar  is 
made  yearly,  whensoever  they  apply  themselves  to  the 
great  increase  thereof,  yet  doth  every  root  bring  forth 
not  past  5  or  6,  or  at  most  7  of  these  reeds ;  whereas  in 
San  Domingo  one  root  beareth  20,  and  oftentimes  30." 

Sugar  from  San  Domingo  farmed,  for  a  lengthened 
period,  tha  principal  part  of  the  European  supplies. 
Previously  to  its  devastation  in  1790,  no  fewer  than 
66,000  tons  of  sugar  were  exported  from  the  French 
portion  of  the  island. 

Introduction  and  Cutlitation  of  tha  Sugar-eant  in 
America. — Sugar-cane  occurs  in  a  wild  state  on  many 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  but  in  no  part  of  the 
American  Continent,  notwithstanding  a  contrary  opin- 
ion has  been  expressed.  Its  cultivation  and  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar  were  introduced  into  Europe  from  the 
East  by  the  Saracens,  soon  after  their  conquests  in 
the  9th  century.  It  is  stated  by  the  Venetian  his- 
torians, that  their  countrymen  imported  sugar  from 
Sicily,  in  the  12th  century,  at  a  cheaper  rate  than 
they  could  obtain  it  from  Egypt,  where  it  was  then 
extensively  made.  The  first  plantations  in  Spain  were 
at  Valencia,  but  they  were  extended  to  Granada,  Slur- 
da,  Portugal,  Madeira,  and  the  Canary  Islands,  as  ear- 
ly as  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  From  Gome- 
ra,  one  of  these  islands,  the  sugar-cane  was  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies  by  Columbus,  in  his  second  voyage 
to  America,  in  1493.  It  was  cultivated  to  some  extent 
in  San  Domingo  in  1606,  where  it  succeeded  better  than 
in  any  of  the  other  islands.  In  1618  there  were  twen- 
ty-eight plantations  in  tliat  colony,  established  by  the 
Spaniards,  wliere  an  abuniJanca  of  sugar  was  made, 
which  for  a  long  period  formed  the  principal  part  of 


tlie  Kuropean  supplies.  Barbadoes,  the  oldest  English 
settlement  in  the  West  Indies,  began  to  export  sugar 
In  1646,  and  in  the  year  1676  the  trade  required  four 
hundred  vessels,  averaging  160  tons  burden. 

The  intt  eduction  of  sugar-cane  Into  Florida,  Tex- 
as, California,  and  I^uisiana,  probably  dates  back  to 
their  earliest  settlement  by  tha  Spaniards  or  French. 
It  was  not  cultivated  in  tho  latter,  however,  as  a  staple 
product  before  the  year  1761,  when  it  was  introduced 
with  several  negroes,  by  the  Jesuits,  from  San  Domingo. 
They  commenced  a  small  plantation  on  the  banks  of 
tha  Mississippi,  Just  alwve  the  old  city  of  New  Orleans. 
Tha  year  fbllowing,  others  cultivated  the  plant,  and 
made  some  rude  attempts  at  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 
In  1768  M.  Dubreuil  established  a  sugar  estate  on  k 
large  scale,  and  erected  the  first  sugar-mlli  in  Louisiana, 
in  what  is  now  the  lower  part  of  New  Orleans.  Ills 
success  was  followed  by  other  plantations,  and  in  tho 
year  1766  there  was  sugar  enough  manufactured  for 
home  consumption ;  and  in  1770  it  bad  become  one  of 
the  staple  products  of  the  colony,  doon  after  the  IMv- 
olution,  a  large  number  of  enterprising  adventurers 
emigrated  from  tha  United  States  to  Lower  Louisiana, 
when,  among  other  ot{)ects  of  Industry,  they  engaged 
in  the  cultivation  of  cane,  and  by  the  year  1808  there 
were  no  less  than  eighty-one  sugar  estates  on  the  Delta 
alone.  Since  that  period,  while  the  production  of  cane 
sugar  has  been  annually  inrroosing  at  the  South,  the 
manufacture  of  maple-sugar  has  been  extending  in  the 
North  and  West. 

The  common  sugaiMMtne  is  a  perennial  plant,  very 
sensitive  to  cold,  and  is  therefore  restricted  in  its  cul- 
tivation to  regions  bordering  on  the  tropics,  where 
there  is  little  or  no  tnat.  In  tho  Eastern  hemisphere 
its  production  Is  principally  confined  to  situations  fa- 
vorable to  its  growth,  lieing  between  tho  fortieth  par- 
allel of  north  latitude  and  a  corresponding  degree  south. 
On  tho  Atlantic  siile  of  the  Western  Continent  It  will 
not  thrive  beyond  the  thirty-third  degree  of  north  lat- 
itude and  the'  thirty-fifth  parallel  south.  On  the  Pa- 
cific side  it  will  perfect  Its 'growth  some  five  degrees 
farther  north  or  south.  From  tho  flexibility  of  this 
plant,  it  is  highly  probable  that  It  Is  gradually  becom- 
ing more  hardy,  and  will  eventually  endure  an  expos- 
ure, and  yield  a  profitable  return,  much  farther  north, 
along  tho  borden  of  the  Mississippi  and  some  of  its 
tributaries,  than  it  has  hitherto  been  produced.  In 
most  parts  of  Louisiana  tho  cnnes  yield  three  crops 
from  ono  planting.  The  first  season  It  Is  denominated 
"  plant  cane,"  and  each  of  the  subsequent  growths  "  ro- 
toons."  But  sometimes,  as  on  the  prairies  of  Attaka- 
pos  and  Opelousas,  and  tho  higher  northern  range  of 
its  cultivation,  it  requires  to  be  replanted  every  year. 
Within  the  tropica,  as  in  the  West  Indies  and  else- 
where, the  ratoons  continue  to  yield  abundantly  for 
twelve,  fifteen,  and  even  twenty-four  years,  from  the 
same  roots. 

The  cultivation  of  this  plant  is  principally  confined 
to  the  West  Indies,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  Mauritius,  Brit- 
ish India,  China,  Japan,  tho  Snnda,  Philippine,  and 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  to  the  soutliem  districts  of  the 
United  States.  The  varieties  most  cultivated  In  the 
latter  are  the  striped  blue,  and  yellow  ribbon,  or  Java ; 
the  red  ribbon,  or  violet,  from  Java ;  the  Creole  crj-s- 
tulline,  or  Malabar ;  the  Otaheite,  the  purple,  the  yel- 
low, the  purple-banded,  and  the  gray  canes.  The  quan- 
tity of  sugar  produced  on  an  acre  varies  from  600  to 
3000  lbs.,  averaging,  perhaps,  <Vom  800  to  1000  lbs. 

Hitherto  the  amount  of  sugar  and  molasses  con- 
sumed in  the  United  States  has  exceeded  the  quantity 
produced,  consequently  there  has  been  no  direct  occa- 
sion for  their  exportation.  In  the  year  1815  It  was  es- 
timated that  the  sugar  mad  j  on  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi alone  amounted  to  10,000,000  lbs.  In  1818 
tho  entire  crop  of  Louisiana  was  only  25,000,000  lbs. ; 
in  1860  it  had  reached  the  enormous  quantity  of 
220,001,000  lbs.,  besides  about  12,000,000  gallona  of 


''?. '- 
.^1?:, 


T<-»Ai^4a;«b^»VjiS<ttld4V-*;^',.;;'>. . 


sua 


1769 


BUG 


EnglUh 
t  »ug»r 
■ed  four 

t,  Tex- 
back  to 
Krench. 
«  staple 
troduced 
tomlngo- 
tanka  of 
Orleana. 
lant,  and 
of  sugar, 
tato  on  • 
Louisiana, 
ins.     Hl» 
nd  In  the 
ctured  for 
me  one  of 
r  the  lUv- 
ivonturers 
Lonisians, 
ly  engaged 
1808  there 
n  the  Delta 
:ton  of  cane 
South,  the 
idlng  in  the 

plant,  very 

i  in  its  cul- 

iplcs,  where 

hcroispluro 

ituations  fa- 

rortieth  par- 

Icgree  south. 

;inent  it  Tfill 

lof  north  lat- 
On  the  Pa- 
five  degrees 

^Uity  of  this 
illy  becom- 
re  an  expos- 
irther  north, 
some  of  its 
oduced.     In 
three  crops 
icnomlnated 
_{rowth»"r»- 
,  of  Attaka- 
rn  range  of 
every  year, 
cs  and  else- 
jndantly  for 
rs,  from  the 

My  confined 
iiritius,  Bril- 
iippine,  and 
ftricts  of  the 
Irated  in  the 
Ion,  or  Java; 
[Creolo  crys- 
ple,  the  ycl- 
j.  Thequan- 
I  from  600  to 
llOOO  lbs. 
lolasses  con- 
Khe  quantity 
I  direct  occa- 
|l5  it  was  es- 
B  of  the  Mis- 
In  1818 
_0,0001bs.i 
[quantity  of 
n  gallona  of 


moUiiM.  Aecordlngto  the eenraa  of  IMO,  th« amount 
of  cane  and  maple  sugar  was  16S,100,80O  lbs.,  of  which 
119,947,720  lbs.  were  raited  In  Loulilana.  By  the  cen- 
■us  of  1860  the  oane  sugar  mails  in  this  countrr  was 
847,681,000  lbs.,  beildei  U,700,006  gallons  of  molasses  t 
maple-iugar,  84,249,880 lbs,,  amounting  to  281,830,880 
Iba.,  showing  an  Increase  In  tan  years  of  126,780,077 
\\M.—UMtad  ataltt  Patent  Offirt  Rtp,i1, 1850, 

AdiUUratio».—a\ieu  is  an  article  which  is  especial- 
Jy  lUbla  to  aduUerstlun ;  and  its  high  price  during  the 
Utt  few  years,  coupled  with  the  high  duty,  has  given 
•  powerful  stimulus  to  this  nefarious  practice.  Per- 
hapa  we  might  not  be  far  from  the  mark  were  we  to 
estimate  the  quantity  of  foreign  matters  Intentionally 
mixed  up  with  sugar,  and  sold  as  such  in  England, 


prevlonsly  to  the  lata  reduction  of  duties,  at  10,000  or 
12,000  tons  a  year !  Sago  and  potato  flour  are  the  ar- 
ticles which  have  been  most  extensively  used  for  this 
purpose.  When  mixed  with  sugar  they  give  It  a  whiter 
and  finer  appearance,  and,  unlete  the  dose  be  overdone, 
increase  its  price  about  i$.  a  cwt.  It  Is  extremely  dlf- 
flcult  to  deal  wltli  an  abuse  of  this  sort.  No  doubt  (be 
fall  in  the  price  of  sugar  following  the  placing  of  (he 
trade  on  a  proper  footing,  and  the  reduction  of  the  duty, 
have  leMened  the  temptation  to  adulterate.  Hut  thoy 
have  not  wholly  removed  it,  the  materUls  employed 
to  adulterate  being  decidedly  cheaper  than  sugar,  how- 
ever supplied.  In  this,  as  in  most  cases  of  the  sort, 
the  best  security  against  adulteration  is  to  deal  only 
with  grocers  of  the  highest  character. 


Annual  averago  of  14 
years— ISOf-lSUc 

1816 

1816 , 

MtT 

1818 

MM 

1«M 

mt 

isn 

isn , 

MU 

1815 

MM 

18»T 

1818 

13M 

1880 

Mil 

issa 

1833 

1834 

183S 

1838 

183T 

1888 


1840.. 
18«1.. 
lSi3.. 
1848.. 
1814.. 
1845.. 
1846.. 
184T.. 
1848.. 
1840.. 
18S0.. 
1851.. 
1858.. 
1868.. 
1864.. 
1856.. 
1856.. 
185T.. 
1858*. 


Qiuitll;  of 

Sagftr  coniumtt] 

Id  Iba  UnlM 

Klaidou. 


Ota. 
9,847,619 
1,613,326 
1,838,396 
8,680,091 
1,111,700 
8,111,013 
8,176,069 
3,419,146 
3,lSl,g!0 
8,406,100 
8,601,157 
8,17t,8S8 
8,783,607 
8,639,806 
3,079,167 
8,809,710 
4,057,110 
4,076,163 
8,879,910 
8,706,411 
8,028,661 
4,012,860 
3,693,144 
4,048,606 
4,011,146 
8,830,3113 
8,694,411 
4,057,900 
8,808,474 
4,018,.113 
4,119,44» 
4,856,680 
5,138,666 
6,805,633 
6,188,487 
6,080,824 
6,107,827 
6,571,016 
7,171,8.53 
7,487,689 
8,332.407 
T,617,iD7 
7,071,615 
7,419,517 
8,431,105 


N«tR«*tntt«  fte- 
•r»lni  from  Saor 
•rurth*  deduction 
or  DrawtMcka  and 
BoanUaa  oa  Susar 
aipoTtad. 


AvaniKe  Rata 
of  Duly  Mr 
Cwl.  paid  bjr 
Ilia  I'oniumar. 


e 

3,301,701 
8,464,41'i 
3,011,715 
4,434,061 
1,761,169 
3,900,639 
3,928,431 
4,183,997 
4,000,641 
4,417,476 
4,041,097 
4,170,073 
4,961,071 
4,060,114 
6,002,338 
4,896,171 
4,767,874 
4,080,606 
4,894,361 
4,414,346 
4,659,418 
4,067,020 
4,184,109 
4,700,676 
4,660,011 
4,580,936 
4,449,070 
5,114,390 
4,874,311 
6,070,326 
6,203,170 
3,674,471 
3,806,780 
4,405,237 
4,667,837 
8,912,170 
8,884,441 
3,970,141 
8,89.3,666 
4,033,836 
4,741,767 
6,083,600 
6,129,049 
6,058,1134 
6,040,400 


Avaraia  Priea 
par  Cwl.  la 


£ 
1 

1  10 
1  9 
1  7 
1  10 
1    8 


■.  il. 
1 
T 
1 
1 
1 
8 


4 
6 
4 
5 
4 
5 
1 
3 
4 
5  10 
4    1 


4 
4 

4 
4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

6 

6 

8 

6    1 

8  1 
0  14  0 
0  14  11 
0  I-'  1 
0  14  9 
0  13  1 
0  11  0 
0  11    1 

0  :n  10 
n  10  11 

0  11  8 

0  13  8 

0  14  3 

0  13  8 

0  13  6 


Avaraf  a  Priaa 

par  Cwl.  In. 

alaalvavf  Duly, 


0.  d. 
8  1 
1  10 
8  T 


1 

1  > 

1  10 
1  1 

1  16 
1  18 
1  U 
1  11  11 
1  11  6 
1  18  6 
1  10  T 
1  IS  9 
1  11  8 
1  8 


4  11 

8  8 


0  10 


14 

1  13  8 

1  10  1 

2  0  1 
1  10  8 
1  10  11 
1  13  9 
1  13  8 
1  11  8 
1  13  1 
17  8 

3  5 
6 
6 
6 


1  10 
5  0 
1 


5 
0 
7 

1  18  6 
1  7  10 


Ponutntlon  of  Iha 
Uullad  Klnidom. 


jC  a.  d. 
8  14  8 
4  11  5 
8  17  9 
8  16 
4  0 
8  10 
8  3 
0 

18 
0 

18  11 

6  10 
13    0 

111 

15  11 

16  11 

10  0 

7  10 

11  10 
18  10 

13  8 

17  7 
4  11 

18  7 

17  8 

3  1 

14  3 

4  10 
1    1 

18  11 
18  10 

7  5 

8  1 
1  10 

18    8 


18 
17 

17  3 
13    3 

18  11 
12  10 

0  1 
4  1 
9    2 

1  3 


17,166,000 
10,118,000 
19,463,000 
19,772,000 
10,070,000 
!I),BON,000 
!0,706,(HI0 
10,98.5,000 
11,320,000 
11,672,000 
11,901,000 
11,804,000 
11,606,000 
11,893,000 
23,200,(00 
23,836,000 
13,334,000 
14,083,000 
14,843,000 
24,561,1100 
14,820,000 
26,104,000 
i^80O,O0O 
2^fl76,000 
28,806,000 
26,201,1100 
16,510,000 
16,730,000 
17,<X)fl,000 
17,1,33,000 
17,577,000 
27,876,000 
28,139,000 
18,003,000 
17,366,000 
27,632,000 
27,418,000 
17,629,000 
17,570,000 
17,06.3,000 
lT,7ii8,000 
17,899,000 
18,154,000 
28,414,000 
18,084,000 


Avaraf  a  Qaan 
Itly  conauBia4 
by  aaeb  tpdl. 
vidua)  of  Iba 
PapalaUoa. 


LNi. 
18 
16 
16 

17 
18 
18 
17 
18 
18 
16 
19 
17 
1» 
IS 
19 
18 
IS 
17 
18 
18 
16 
18 
17 
16 
16 
17 
16 
17 
IT 
10 
21 
13 
25 
24 
15 
17 
19 
80 
84 
SO 
18 

lot 

85) 


*  For  eleven  montha  ending  30th  November.    For  t1i«  year  we  computo  the  consumption  at  9,146,187  cwta. 

NotK.— With  reference  to  the  perioil  from  1801  to  1314  Incluslvo,  it  Is  to  bo  obfervwl : 

1.  That  the  quantities  of  sugar  used  Id  the  distillation  of  spirits  at  various  times  durlnf;  that  period,  when  the  distillation 
from  com  waa  prohibited,  together  with  the  dulim  levied  ou  the  (luantitlcs  so  used,  have  been  excluded  from  this  statement 

1.  That  the  deetruction  of  the  records  by  firo  in  1814  having  rendered  it  impracticable  tn  obtain  an  accurate  view  of  the 
consumption  of  anjr  ainglo  year  prior  to  that  date,  the  annual  average  consumption  of  (lie  whole  period,  1801-1614,  is  exhib- 
ited as  the  aubstitute  for  such  iiiformation. 


Contumption  of  Sugar  in  Great  Britain.— The  follow- 
ing estimated  consumption  of  sugar  by  the  dilTerent 
classes  of  society  is  the  result  of  careful  official  investi- 
gations made  by  the  Board  of  Inland  Hevenue : 


Conanraad  hj 

England. 

Saolland. 

Oreal  Britain. 

The  upper  classes... 
The  middle  cloasea.. 
The  worUng  daises. 

23perct. 
87     " 
40     " 

llperct 
40     " 
38     " 

lit  per  ct 

38       " 

Total 

100  per  ot 

100  per  ct. 

100  perct 

Failure  of  the  Sugar-cane  m  Louuiana.—TiuA  there 
hM  beea  a  degeneracy  io  the  cane,  caused  by  ex- 


haustion of  the  soil  and  Injudicious  rotation,  is  ob- 
vious ^m  the  fact  that  the  same  lands  which  have 
been  under  cultivation  for  a  long  period  have  yielded 
more  than  three  times  the  amount  of  sugar  to  the  acre 
in  some  years  than  in  others,  the  productiveness  hav- 
ing been  in  those  cases  in  which  the  soil  was  in  its 
primitive  fertility,  or  when  enriched  by  guano  or  other 
appropriate  manures.  For  instance,  the  British  and 
French  West  India  Islands,  some  sixty  or  seventy 
years  ago,  yielded  from  8000  to  6000  pounds  of  sugar 
to  the  acre ;  at  present  they  do  not  yield  a  third  of  tbia 
amount  without  manure.    The  product  in  Louisiana, 


fi^.>,iSi,.;nF.^-iVV'- 


suo 


1770 


SUO 


fcrnwrljr,  oftan  rttched  *•  Mgh  lu  SOnO  or  4000  pound*  ( 
Mil  in  ■oine  caeai  even  to  UOUO  pounda ;  but  for  th* 
iMt  l*yi  yoan  It  hu  often  ranged  »•  low  aa  from  &00 
to  1000  poundi  to  Ihs  acre.  Acconlinn  to  Commodon 
r*m,  in  bU  "  E.tpadltton  to  Japan,"  bcfora  tha  lntr»- 
ductMHiof  giunolntu  Mauritiu*,  the  product  of  lugar on 
that  Uland  wa*  from  UOUO  to  26UO  puunda  to  tbu  aero ; 
but  till  Inoraaaa  iluoa  the  application  of  thli  fartiliur 
ha*  baan  ao  axtraordlnary  aa  to  be  scarcely  oredibla. 
In  ordinary  aeaaooa  the  produ  i  baa  been  from  OOOO  to 
7000  pound*,  and  under  peculiarly  favorable  oircurv 
itance*  it  has  even  reached  HUOO  pound*  to  >,be  acre. 

The  amount  of  raw  augar  aa  a  Rroas  produce  to  the 
acre,  in  aevaral  coontriea  of  the  globii,  ttom  good  aulhor- 
itiea,  la  aa  fullowai        ...  .    .., .^  ; 

Mauritius >■■<• •••  f^^  pound*. 

BnutI 6000  " 

Cube  4000  " 

Isle  of  Uonrbon 8800  " 

Ousdaloup* 1000  >' 

VemCnw ^ 1900  " 

Martlulciue 1T0O  >• 

IMiigel 1600  " 

HiUorolUgo 1100  " 

Loulnlwia 1000  " 


In  order  to  show  the  fluclnallona  of  the  augar-crop 
in  Louialana,  we  have  compiled  from  our  reoorda  the 
annexed  atatement  of  the  auRar  product  of  Louisiana 
for  the  past  twenty-thr*e  years,  showinf;  the  amount 
of  each  year's  crop  In  hogsheads  and  pounds,  with  tha 
gnu  average  value  per  hogshead  and  lulal,  the  pro- 
porliona  taken  by  Atlantlo  ports  and  Weatern  Htates, 
and  the  date  of  the  tirat  receipt  of  each  crop.  Ily  thla 
atatement  it  will  lie  seen  that  the  total  product  of 
Louisiana  fhim  1884  to  I8.'i6  Inclualvr,  a  period  of 
twenty-throe  yeara,  waa  8,072,71H  hof^sheads,  valued 
at  i2l)4,131,9M,  and  that  of  this  quantity  the  Atlantlo 
porU  took  l,li17,8t*a  hogsheads,  and  Iho  Western  Statea 
1,974,108  hogshead*.  The  crop*  from  1H2H  (which  i* 
•*  far  back  as  our  estimate*  extend)  to  188U  summed 
up  281,000  hogsheads;  which  would  make  the  total 
product  In  a  period  of  twenty-seven  years  4,25.1,718 
hogsbcada,  or  4,477,668,000  pounds.  Wu  would  hero 
remark  thiit  up  to  1H48  the  product  in  hogsheads  1* 
eatiniatoc  i  .)d  lOOO  pounda  taken  an  the  average  weight 
par  hogTi!i"<td,  but  for  the  crop  sirco  that  date  wo  have 
iaknii  tno  Jig 'ires  ot  Mr.  P.  A.  Champonler,  a*  we  find 
them  in  hi:«  annual  **atementa. 


Visn. 

Avtrst* 
llosiliaad. 

TuUI  Vslus. 

Riporia  troM  New  OrlMM. 

riiM  Rmlpk 
of 

N«»Cto» 

ToUll-ra|>. 

tftiwrtailTo 
AUaiiUr  portt. 

KipoiUil  to 

1834 

llonhMd.. 

Too.O'io 

80,000 
70,000 
66,000 
70,000 
116,000 
87,000 
110,000 
140,000 
100,0110 
200,000 
1811,660 
141,000 
240,000 
290,009 
947,028 
911,803 
286,647 
891,031 
44'.I,B'24 
846,636 
281,427 
78,970 

PoMldl. 

100.000,000 
80.000,000 
70,000,000 
06,000,000 
TO00O,000 

1I8,000,(MIO 
87,000  000 

(60  00 
90  00 
60  00 
09  60 
69  60 
60  00 

M  0.. 

$6,000,000 
9,700,000 
4,200,000 
6,069.600 
4.376,000 
6,760,000 

4,T8^oao 

8,600,000 
4,760,000 
6,000,000 
9,000,000 
10,966,760 
9,800,000 
9,600,000 
8,1)00,000 
19,8)16, 160 
19,678,180 
11,897,360 
16,462.683 
16,T26,o40 
18,O.60.'0 
la,l|l»,H90 
8,137,360 

Ht'X«h«adi. 

46,601) 

1,600 

26,800 

94.600 

96.600 

49,600 

88,6110 

28,000 

68.0<iO 

34.000 

101,000 

TO,OIIO 

45,800 

84,000 

90.000 

90,1)00 

46,000 

49,000 

R2,01PO 

1(10,000 

122,000 

8.1,133 

1,860 

llMihaada. 
44J«:I 

2;i.&oo 

36,000 

89,600 

8i,600 

68,000 

44,&:iO 

60,000 

O^IIOO 

69.000 

TO.OOO 

76000 

T0,000 

116,000 

108,000 

126,000 

128.000 

149,000 

200,000 

]8.\0C0 

143,000 

131,097 

39,576 

October  IK 
NovoiuberS. 
Novuinber  1. 
November  1. 
October  IT. 
October  ia 
October  14. 
October  18. 
October  19. 
October  99. 
October  8. 
October  4. 
October  T. 
October  9. 
October  6. 
Octobor  11. 
October  IT. 
Ortobcr  19. 
October  9. 
October  6. 
Oi-tober  4. 
OctolierlO. 
November  J. 

1836 

1830 

1887 

1838 

1830 

1810 

1841 

90,000,0 10          4  <  00 
140,000,000           "*  Ko 

1849 

1843 

100,000,000 
900.000,000 
186,660,0011 
140,00;l,000 
240,000,000 
920,(100,000 
260,769.00.') 

goMHoiio 

267.l3s,iifl0 

ae-'  1211,000 

4O.M6:l,0OO 

88.1.726,000 

264  66  ),ii09 

81.873,000 

•MOO 
46  00 
66  0.1 
70  00 
40  00 
40  00 
60  00 
60  00 
60  00 
4S00 
86  00 
62  00 
TO  00 

no  00 

1844 

1846 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

I860 

18,11 

1869 

1868 , 

1864 

1866 

1866 

ToUI.... 

8,079,716 

4,l»«,6«8,000 

204.181,228 

1,817,88:1 

1,074,103 

In  aeeking  a  remedy  for  the  evil  here  complained  of 
In  Louisiana,  the  mind*  of  luaiiy  have  very  naturally 
been  turned  to  the  project  of  repleiiisliing  the  canc- 
ficlda  of  that  State  by  the  importation  of  a  frosh  sup- 
ply of  cuttings,  of  such  varieties  as  may  be  found  best 
auitcd  to  the  soil  and  climate.  liesort  to  this  means 
of  restoration  should  be  promptly  made  on  a  liberal 
and  extensive  scale,  so  that  the  experiment  may  bo 
thorough,  and,  if  possible,  cITectual  in  its  results.  An 
intelligent  agent  should  bo  selected  for  the  purpose, 
well  acquainted  with  the  character  of  the  cane,  and  the 
nature  of  the  soils  and  climates  in  which  it  grows,  as 
well  as  with  the  best  modes  of  packing  and  tra^isport- 
ing  it  to  distant  parts,  either  by  land  or  sea ;  and, 
what  would  add  much  to  his  qualifications,  one  who  is 
also  acquainted  practically  with  the  cultr.re  of  the 
plant  and  the  manufacturo  of  sugar. 

Among  the  points  on  tills  continent  from  which  the 
cntlings  oould  be  obtained  might  be  Instanced  the 
valley  of  Ar.igua,  in  Venezuela,  British  Ouiana,  or  some 
favorable  locality  on  tlie  coast  uf  Brazil.  On  or  near 
the  Eastern  continent,  perhaps  British  India  or  the 
islands  of  Maritlus  and  Java  might  prove  suitable  posi- 
tions for  tha  procurement  of  tha  varieties  desired.  The 
agent  thus  emplo;)'ed  should  be  accurately  informed 
or  inst-ucted  with  reference  to  the  soil,  climate,  and 
elevation  alMn'o  the  sea,  of  the  lugar  districts  of  these 
countries,  as  well  as  to  the  age  and  healthiness  of  the 
eanes  from  whicli  the  cuttings  are  to  be  taken,  the 
port*  of  the  plants  from  which  they  ore  to  be  obtained, 


ond  the  proper  seasons  of  procuring  them  ani^  deliver- 
ing tlicni  at  some  accessible  point  In  tlie  United  States 
near  wlicre  they  are  intended  to  grow. 

The  varieties  of  cane  which  have  hitherio  been  most 
cultivated  In  Louisiana  aro  the  Striped-blue  Ulbbon ; 
the  Green  Ribbon ;  the  Yellow  Klbbon,  or  Java ;  the 
lied  Ribbon,  or  Violet ;  the  Reddish  Violet ;  the  Red 
striped ;  the  Creole ;  Crystalline,  or  Mnlnbar ;  the  Ota- 
heito;  the  Purple;  the  Yellow;  the  Purple-banded; 
the  Gray ;  the  Grayi.^li  White. 

The  Jltd-ttriped  cano,  which  was  originally  brought 
from  the  Dutch  colony  of  Java,  and  the  Violet  or  Hed- 
dith  Violet,  which  is  only  a  variation  from  the  former, 
are  believed  to  be  tho  only  two  varieties  that  will  gen- 
erally prosper  under  the  climate  of  the  sugar  districts 
of  tho  Southern  States.  All  tho  other  descriptions  are 
too  sensitive  to  cold,  except  in  the  warmer  parts  of  tho 
delta  of  the  Mississippi,  Florida,  and  Texas.  When 
planted  in  new  ground,  it  gives  a  certain  amount  of 
white  canes,  or  those  the  outside  of  which  is  of  a  gray- 
ish white.  When  cultivated  in  old  soil,  however,  it 
furnishes  a  good  yield  of  violet-red  cane.  Again,  on 
new  ground,  a  part,  say,  from  one-tenth  to  onc-flfteunth, 
of  the  striped  cane  becomes  white,  or  a  dirty  grayish 
white.  There  are  also  to  be  found  more  or  less  red 
stripes  on  some  portions  of  the  stalk,  or  on  the  joints; 
but  all  tha  rest  of  the  stalk  is  entirely  gray.  On  old 
ground,  on  the  contrary,  the  red-striped  gives  red  or 
violet  red  canes  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  above. 
The  tendency  of  this  cam  to  degenerate  rapidly  is  ro» 


Hua 


1771 


8UO 


m«rk«lil«  \n1y»tj[  part  n(  Amtrlc*.  Th«  other  Tirle- 
II**  «rii  Milt  Ml  lUlilu  III  diKrliiralH.  After  oiic«  ilog«n- 
(MlliiU,  III"""  imifii  lii.v«r  rm:uvor  their  oriKinal  lolor 
—I'nlflll  ((01*  Ittpnrl,  iMfif,, 

Haunf  whfnrf  Ih  Mufply  ,,f  Miunr  i,  .(. Ti..«,i._Th« 
W««l  IkiIIkii,  IIiiIi«iI  Hliii..,.)iiv«,  Urwll,  Uong*!,  Mau- 
rtUu),  NUlii,  Ihn  liiln  iln  Iluurlmn,  iiitl  ihi  l'hllip|iin<i, 
U*  thN  |irliliil|i«l  wiurt'M  whmca  tho  auppllca  r«<|uired 
rur  tha  Kiimtiatn  and  Amarlian  inarkola  are  derlvad. 
Th*  i|iiaMtlll«a  axtmrlKd  In  \m  fruin  theio  countriei, 
•Ntijualva  of  liiwlaawa,  uia>  Ira  rttlmalod  aa  folluwa: 

_    ,  ,   ^,  ttrllM  rnUnlfn 

W««  iHlllaa 

HaMrlili)* 


MaHrmiiii;,',",!;.',',',','.';:.';;;::;;: 

Ilpitnlth  CoUmUt. 


aso.ooo 


SitnMlm' 
III|)|||H«I 


OuM  Coftntti. 


SAO.noo 

txl.OOO 


HTATaniNT  nr  ma  total  gvANTiTT  or  Raw  add  Rwuin 
Hiiata  iMKiaTaii  into  iia«AT  I.bitain  ik  aAOH  or  tmi 
riva  ^  lAu  aNiMNu  IMM. 
Year  •nJlBff  Taw.  Tmm. 

JulT    i,\m B'MI.'iUli  |nor«*M,  iS,IM 

'■        IMiS 8M.  I !)S ;  di'cruw,  41,1/1 

1"«4 8  1.48'*:  Inrmur.  B",800 

JuD*IO,l><l» mH.tl*,  InrmM,  116,441 

iwo wt.aa-,  itonu*,  u,ta» 

ATaaAiia  l-ainia  or  Haowii  RcoAa  ix  tm*  Mo:iTiia  or  Jak. 
DAav,  MAaim,  Mat.  .Ivlv,  hamuiira.  ani>  NnTtiiiiia 
iM  TUB  I'oaT  or  Havana  loaiNii  Tiia  rni.Lowiii«  Tan 
YaAaa-wiTii  tuk  laAai.r  AviaAiia  V'ALva-laioaa  ■> 
ItaAL* 

M«rrli.    M«)r. 


4f!S,0(IO 


n,wo 

10,000 


100,000 


40,000 


10,000 

OB,  000 
100,000 
40,000 

100,000 
100,000 

i;6i6,ooo 


Tooa. 
4'><l,000 
106,UUO 


i_     .  .                     /'mtrh  CttlmUf*. 
I*rllnl<|na, . . , •> 
fiiadakmita v 
lladu  IIimiHhiii,  i'Iii ) 

/MnM  mit  Humlith  Colonitt. 

n.Thiiinaa , I 

Kt,(irua,  •lit.M.M / 

!l?f»ll, ,,. 
InlMMtatoa 
Ililiia,  HIaiii,  and  all  olhar  iiarla 

I'mdiiHllnH  itt  b««'.  rwit  mifinr  In  Iho 

wiirlrt    ,  

I'mdimtliin  tif  wifiiltiiHi  ami  nianiii.iuK- 
art,  (iflHcltialli'ln  Mie  I'nitoil  Hiatva, 

AHKriiHaln  lonii 

Oimtumitlhrn  t\f  flunitr  In  the  H'orW.— In  tho  aggrc- 
gatti  WH  afmll  tint,  liKrliapn,  \m  far  wrong  in  cMlmating 
tlia  |iiitiaiiltt|itlflii  or«)l,>orti!d  colonial  and  trop.cal  augar 
toi  th«  jfutt  1167  U  follow*  • 

ToOf. 

Tha  I'lillad  KlnDdntn 

Vraiiiw  ,,,:,,., 

I'lm  NKltinrlaHiln,  MxlKliiiit,  (lerinan^,'^ 
I'miwla,  Ailttrla,  lliiii|««r)',  nnd  Aim- 1 
Irian  llal>',  |ii>r  hiiii'li  iinrin,  ^locliid-  v  13&,000 
iiill  rK'ii|itMrt«  U>  KiiMla  and  Ltlior 

WIIHtrll'll    ,..,,:,,,,..,, J 

I'nr  Maiiwt  ThWH*  , . , 40,000 

l'iirAiit»t<r|t ,;  ,  16,000 

I'*-   lliialiiKli,    NIHtln,   Kdnl>,<ber((.~| 
and  'iHlnl'  lilittn  nil  llin  lliilll(^  CI-  I     i.nnn 
iiliidlnii  tliK  lit)i«rft»  frnm  Holland  f    "*''*" 
and  Ilia  llanm  Tiiwnii J 

TtlantKi  Vm>im,  Kluuie,  ei' rl^ooo 


I  \Mn.  Ptiuodi. 

1S48 144,13  i,TR8 

I8fi0 ll)4  4.S3,elS 

I8b8 449,4(I0,6M 

18tSS 44U,000,000 


fpaln.r;.-..,,. 

gsrtiiial ,,,,,, 

Dmiiimrli  and  i*»Mli<n 

Itair,  Mildly,  Malta,  Tiirii;)',  Urcure,) 

ami  Ilia  licvaiil  tiiititiMll)' i 

Unilud  aialKD        

Uanada,  Aiialralia,  I  »(m  ul  Ound  llnpe.l 

«l»,    ,,,..,,:  ,. , / 

Tntal  »«ti , , 


■  150,000 
BO.OOO 
10,000 

7n,0()0 

26,000 

00,000 

436,000 

»^noo 


1,6S0,000 

In  tha  «atinillt«  for  iho  ttnhn^)  gtatea,  tho  production 

of  nitna  aiiifNt'  U  Itti'liidcd, 

UTATaMan'r  iik  fiia  fiit«t,  (jttAKfitY  nr  baw  and  nariMD 
KiiUAH  aafiiHaii  rm  llnMMriitninpTinN  in  Obbat  IIbit- 
Ata  la  aAiii nr  rita riya  V«arb kn»inu  iseo. 


Coniumitlion  in  the  Cnilfd  titalt». — Tho  coniumptton 
of  augor  In  tho  United  Statca  liaa  been  very  variable, 
and  tho  Incriiase  of  conaumptlon  in  the  lait  half-doiert 
years— ainco  the  price  haa  been  low— la  very  great. 
Thia  will  bo  Been  in  the  following  lablca.  We  ahall 
tint  (how  tho  importation  of  foreign  angar.  In  thia 
account  wo  havn  aubtracted  from  tho  quantity  Import* 
ed  tho  amount  rt-txporltil,%Q  that  the  alatcment  b(lo<r 
gives  tho  prime  quantity  Imported  and  ubed  in  th* 
country  tor  the  years  given. 

KOBBION  HOUAB  lUrOHTID  ADD  COKaVHID. 

Yian.  Found!.       1 

18IIT 96,141,1)61 

1840 110,«41,107 

1841 16ll,8(i8.4T6 

1846 99,762,169  I 

It  will  be  leen  from  thia  that  since  184&,  a  period  of 
ton  yonrs,  the  impurtation  of  sugar  has  quadrupled, 

It  will  also  be  seen  that  from  1837  to  liW,  nnd  from 
1850  to  18(3,  In  each  period,  tho  Importation  of  sugar 
doubled.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  from  the  exhibition 
of  Iho  above  figures,  that  tho  reduction  of  prices  has 
liad  great  influonce  on  tho  importation  of  sugar.  Let 
us  now  turn  from  the  foreign  to  tho  domesti';  supply ; 
and  llrst  tlio  produ.  tion  of  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

The  Xru>  Meant  Price  Current  furnishes  the  number 
of  hogsheads  raised  in  tho  United  States  for  a  series  of 
years.  lieducing  It  to  pounds,  nt  1000  lbs.  to  the  hogs- 
head, w«  have  the  following  result  since  1837 : 

Vaan.  Prinda. 

184S 120,1  ,0,000 

1860 211  8118,000 

1S6S 449,B'.'4,00O 

1855 231,427,000 

table  that  the  production  of  cane 


Vaar  aiiitliiiL 

July   ft,  laVi 

"      lafW 

"      1*4, 

iliinu  no,  lahO 


Tnfll 

l)fl-',H7ri|  Incrensp, 
llflB.2119;  docreaw, 
tOI.IOi!  Increase, 
4!ll.'/nfli  liuTcaae, 


Tom. 
8R,o;2 

8,1130 
18,863 
4i.l01 


, , , .  1179,020 1  decrease,  63,677 

Tho  imporia  liavt.,  In  H  tutrllnl  degree,  corresponded 
with  tim  mii'llllitliltia  In  ('(iii<<liiiiptlun,  and  theso  tables 
abow,  notwiltinlltllillllK  tlm  largo  quantities  roceived 
ttom  tIm  (!iMltlM«tl(  inward  tlio  closo  of  last  year,  and 
tba  oarlliir  Hrrlvala  frnm  Ihc  colonies  in  tlie  present, 
that  (ha  iiM|inrl'  In  tlin  yt<nr  ondlng  tlio  ilOth  June  last 
waru  ll^«rly  StU,IM)Utails  less  than  In  the  preceding  twelve 

mpntbi, 


Yean,  Poundi, 

1S37    «5,noo,o«o 

1840 81,000.000 

lU'i 140,000,000 

1846 130  350,000 

We  find  from  ti, 
sugar  has  doubled  in  the  last  ten  years,  and  quadru- 
pled in  flftecii.  In  addition  to  this,  the  common  maple- 
sugar  averages  about  thirty  luillions  of  pouiula  per 
annum. 

Now,  taking  the  aggregate  of  sugar  imported,  and 
that  mai'o  in  the  country,  wo  have  tho  following  sup- 
ply, estimated  in  pounds,  for  successive  years: 
Total  .Suoab  bcpplt. 


Yoan.  Puundi. 

19a7 19l,141,8.« 

1840 2i7,('41.207 

1842 8311,863,476 

1816 316,402,9ti9 


Veara,  Poaada. 

)*48 404,120,768 

IBM 486,786,029 

1868 «27,424,e44 

1886 671,427,000 


It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  the  aTorage  consump- 
tion of  sugar  in  tlie  United  States  is  now  equal  to  nine 
hundred  millions  of  pounds  per  annum.  Deducting 
from  the  population  of  the  United  States  three  mill- 
ions of  slaves,  who  probably  use  very  little  angar,  we 
have  tho  conaumpuon  of  augar  equal  to  about  40  lbs.' 


BUG 


Iff! 


8UO 


nvtrtft  (tor  ttth  ptnon.     Hut  thii  contunipUon  of 

•iiX*r  hu  Mtuslly  trtliUil  In  Mn  yMra  I     Tbia  U  c*r- 

Ulaljr  •  vary  nxtraontlnary  fact,  (nil  Imlleatoi  •  ||r«*t 

rhang*  In  th«  halilu  of  living  amonK  ih*  p«opl*  of  thv 

Unltotl  SlaUs.     That  It  U  a  nal,  alitoluto  chanfft  in 

tba  bablU  of  life,  can  not  Im  ilouhtad.     Lit  ui  thow  lu 

magnlluda  by  comparing  lb*  iujraaM  of  population 

with  tiM  Incraaw  of  lugar : 

Vmi*.                          iMfMM  i*a*«la«M.      l*«f«M«  Nnr. 
IMO  lo  IMS It  far  oant  M  ft  Mat. 


IMAtalMO Id 

IMM)to  IWn  Ill 

Itm  tu  I8M « 


M 

IIM 
300 


Wa  than  aa«  that  tha  coniumptlon  of  iiigar  flur  out- 
ran* tha  lncroaaaof|iopulatlon.  In  tH40tho  coniump- 
tlon of  tugar  waa  but  16  Iba.  par  Indlvitluat  In  1863 
It  la  40  Iba. 

In  tha  parloci  of  twalva  yean,  tntm  1043  to  18A4  In- 
cluilva,  thare  baa  boon  a  itaaily  (llmlnution  In  thaj>rira 
of  augar,  but  not  onou){h  to  account  (ui  tho  clianga  we 
aa«  bars.  Tha  changa  of  prlc*a  In  Naw  Orlaan*  lugar 
haa  baan  ai  followa  s 


IMA  to  IMS. 
1MT  tn  IHAi) . 
1861  to  18M  . 


,  tM  par  boialMai]. 
,    41  '^ 


Tha  prlca  of  augar  to  tba  conaumrr  In  tha  Waat  haa 
dlmlnlthaJ  much  more  rapidly  than  thia.  Tha  In- 
craaie  of  ataamboat)  ami  tha  rapid  decllno  of  fk«lght* 
haa  produced  a  great  reduction  In  the  prlca  of  tropical 
producta  In  tba  Waat;  which  haa  Iwan  ateadlly  goiiiK 
on  for  thirty  year*.  The  effrcl  of  thU,  together  with 
tha  Increaaa  of  population  at  the  Waat,  haa  produced 
an  extraordinary  Increaaa  In  the  conaumptlon  of  augar, 
and  eipeclally  In  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  ThIa  Increaaa 
In  tho  Waatorn  Statea  la  (|utte  reniarkablo.  We  And, 
by  a  alatement  in  the  New  Orleana  Price  Currtnt,  that 
in  twenty  yeara,  from  1834  to  1864,  the  export  nf  augar 
from  New  Orleana  to  tha  Weatem  State*  amounted  to 
one  niilliun  ('it;lit  hundred  thouaand  hogabeada,  or  about 
ninety  thousand  hogabeada  per  annum ;  but  when  we 
examine  the  detail,  we  And  the  average  annual  IncreaA 
to  be  very  rapid.  Tailing  the  aKgregate  of  each  five 
yean,  we  have  the  (bllowing  reault : 

1S3S  to  1839,  Ineluaiva 18l,n00  bogahaad^ 

18»9lol*l«        "        1T8,SM>         " 

184fitalH49         •'        400.000  " 

185(1  to  18A4        »        80t,a00         " 

lS8tlnl844 UpereanL 

1845  to  1H49 80        " 

1860  to  1864 TO        " 

The  preaent  ooniumptlon  of  Louliiana  augar  In  the 
Weatem  Statea,  to  which  it  i*  carried  by  ateamlmata, 
•mount*  to  an  average  of  160,000  hogabeada  per  annum. 
Tbia  ia  mainly  dutribultd  through  tha  three  great  dia- 
tributing  polnta  of  the  Weat — Cincinnati,  Ix>ui«vllle, 
•nd  St.  Louia. 

Another  remariiabla  fact  in  the  oommeroe  In  augar 
1*  the  increaae  of  American  refined  augar.  At  the 
preaent  time  the  amount  of  refined' augar*  imported  is 
not  half  what  it  waa  twenty  yeara  aince ;  while  the 
•mount  of  sugar  exported  is  four  timea  aa  much. 

BoHnty  on  JCrportati<m  ofrrjintd  Sugar. — Sugar  re- 
fined in  the  United  States,  the  growth  and  production 
of  any  other  country,  is  entitled  to  an  allowance  of 
drawbacli  equal  to  the  amount  of  dutiea  paid  on  tho 
raw  article,  on  due  export'' ion  thereof  to  any  foreign 
port  or  place,  autject  only  to  the  proviaiona  that  no 
drawback  shall  be  alli>wod  on  any  nxporUtion  when 
lucb  drawback  shall  not  amount  tu  twelve  dollar*  or 
more.  To  entitle  the  exporter  to  the  benefit  of  said  al- 
lowance of  drawback,  *uch  exporter,  ai'  lea.it  six  hours 
previous  to  tlie  putting  or  lading  any  of  the  said  re- 
fined sugar  on  board  any  vessel  or  other  conveyance 
for  exporUtion,  ahali  lodge  with  tha  collector  of  the 
euatom*,  for  tiia  diitrict  from  which  luch  importation 
ia  to  be  made,  an  entry  letting  forth  his  intention  to 
•xport  tlie  same,  and  describing  the  marks,  numbers, 
•od  package*,  and  designating  tha  place  wliere  depoi- 


itad,  and  tha  name  of  tha  vitaaal  or  other  ronvaytnee  In 
or  by  which,  and  tha  port  or  place  to  which,  tha  aama 
la  intandad  to  l>*  exported.  ThIa  aniry  must  Im  aa- 
oordlng  to  form,  aihl,  upon  pmaentallnn,  Im  verlltad  by 
tha  oath  or  atnnnatlini  of  the  owner  ur  aKei't,  or  other 
protHir  officer  of  the  iiianufaclory  in  which  aurh  tugar 
may  have  bean  rellneil.  If  any  of  aucli  sugar,  after 
it  ahali  have  liern  ahipped  for  expnrialloi.,  thall  ba 
unahippad  for  any  purpoae  whatever,  either  within  llta 
iimila  of  the  ITiiited  Hialaa  or  within  four  laaguaa  of  tha 
coaat  thereof,  or  shall  ba  ralanded  within  the  lUillad 
Statea  from  on  board  the  vetaal  wherein  the  aama  shall 
bavn  Imiiiii  laden  fur  axpurlation,  unluM  the  voyoua  ahali 
not  be  pruceedml  on,  >r  shall  Im  altered  from  nareuliy 
or  dialraaa,  to  aavo  the  ahip  and  giwla  from  |wrl»hing, 
which  ahali  Iw  Immediately  made  known  lu  tlie  col- 
lector of  the  nettruKt  diatrict;  then  the  augar  to  un- 
ahippad, tugtiher  with  the  veasel,  her  boala  and  equl|k 
inent,  aliall  be  fiiri'aite<l,  and  may  ba  aeiivd  by  any  wl^ 
car  of  the  cuatonia  ur  Inapecllon, 

BL'OAR  TRADE  OF  TlIK  rNITFl)  «TATR«I. 
TMmaTa  into,  I'.xpnaT*  rBOH,  aid  ConauuiTioN  ur  Foa- 
iiiiN  HiTiua  IN  Tua  I  HiTin  HTATsa  rua  tui  riva  \  aiaa 
aiinniu  Tua  WItb  or  Jana,  I8B6.— (Kboh  TatAauav  Ita- 
roaia.) 


V»n. 

Iai>««. 

I'uuiija. 

r<lll«t|RIUllM, 

r^i.  — 

1861 

BWVOOU.CKH) 

S.INHJ.UrtO 

87tt,o<io,(ino 

1864 

467.(100.(1110 

U,(N  10.(100 

448.U(N>,(JII0 

IHSO 

4<14,0<)<),0(W 

IS.()l)(l,0(M) 

^tn.iHXi.noo 

1854 

46.'>,0(HI.UIIU 

&.>,(IO0,0O() 

4>i:i,0iK),00l) 

1866 

4T8,000,(MM 

.'il.UUU,UOO 

4I0,(I0*I,IK)U 

PaoDDOT  or  KnoAa  lit  rns  I'lriTRO  BTATxa— Kxm**  amh 
CoNaDHmoM  TniBXor.— (I'BOM  CUAHroMixa'a  anu 
TaaAauBir  Hxroara.) 


1861... 
1861... 

1863... 
1N64... 
1866... 


rr«£iito. 


'.67,(iOii,oim 
aiu.ooo.noo 

6()8.0(XI,UtH> 
l>ll!l,(HXI,U<K) 
{J(13,0lH),UUO 


Ciportf 


3,0(JU,000 

A.n()ii,ooo 
IujjOii.ojO 
1I,000,(H)U 

(no  dalt) 


rwnwwpUuli 

{i,'i6,(i<Hi,iifln 
87n,()()ii,(Hi() 

*VII,IHIU.(lOII 
bH'i.U(  III,(NIU 

'^ua,0(io,uuo 


HtnliMS. 

fitio 


8uoAa  Caor  in  Taxaa,  1866^ 

CoUBtlM. 

Braxoria: .'"StSo 

MtUiorda 8B8 

Wharton B-'O 

Fori  Hand 090 

Total b»!>» 


Thus  Texa*  produced  in  the  year  1835  a  much 
iMtter  crop  than  the  preceding  one,  say  0,887,900 
pound*  againat  7,613,000  pounda  during  the  proviou* 


Exroara  or  Suoxa  or  noMxaTio  roomirTiof  raoii  tu 
Umitsd  8TATxa  roa  Tua  YaAaaNDiNu  JdnkSO,  Im6T. 


DIMrliU. 


rattamaquoddr .... 
rortttnd  and  Falmouth 

Vermont 

Stiem  and  Ileverley 
Hotton  and  Cborlattown 

New  Bedford 

Frorldenca  

Naw  London  

Stonlngton 

Geneaee 

Oawago 

NloRsra 

Butulo  Creek 

Oawegatchlo 

Naw  York  

Chtrnploln 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

Norfolk 

Charleaton 

Naw  Orleana 

Detroit 

Chicago 

Ban  Frandaeo 

HInnaaote 

Total 


Brown  augar. 


Pouadt. 


850 

MMi 

112,168 

18!.ST3 
0,600 

iv.m 

6,000 

86,«T2 

6r>8.342 

iriO.340 

20.06 1 

l.CW) 

72,8H0 

852,328 

860 

»0,&77 

646 
19,262 

7,880 
921 

3^675 


2,1U6,412 


VtJu. 


80 

40 

10,044 

1,M4 
6U0 

too 

B.78? 
57.812 

u.\m 

2,042 

80 

«.4«8 

01,048 

4,1 

24,017 

■"78 
3,026 

m 
no 

"S43| 


R^iM4»«tar. 
Valu; 


«,7(XI 
I'J,;m7 
,047.860 
8.0UO 
7,707 


414,008 

28i2iB 

eij83 

0,660 

42,ri44 

687,862 

400 

"sin 

87 

lioflo 
4.sr« 


070 

2.044 

527,374 

880 

V(lii 


48,487 
8,140 
6.18.1 

i,oa 

5.45 

88,405 

57 

"  »i 
42 

8,171 
718 


H>0.012|a.l4(,(iaS|B88,20t 


8ITO 


1778 


81  ra 


linn  TUB 
ho,  1<B7. 


l«l  Wf ». 

k.       V.1... 

""     » 

IKI 

07fl 

1117 

?,(144 

lAC 

587,974 

m 

UtHI 

ii7 

VlU 

48,4«T 
(18|    8,140 

183     8. 183 

1,08.' 
5.45'. 

67 


pa|iM8, 


R! 
4> 

»,l7'l 


r«mwn  nv  Knrim  . 


*Rr<t)*  m  Iba  Ikilla  uiit  ,>iurtin 


l'.oi.ii,v„„,  ,„„  „„  , :„„„  ^,,^  „,  ^,  yj,^^  ^^^^  j^^  ^  j^ 


WUUki 


)t  •■^,H«4. 


NMMtM  t''KMMloni  l(  Nonh  Ai 
IXiiUti  Wm«  Ia4l«    .. 

««mburg    
nlUnil 
ItHlfh  WmHUIn 

""<':3  •,;;;;; 

i4iM !!i.';", 

OimhIa 
(Hh«rH'rttltk'Nar«k'Ai' 

ItrtlUh  Wm4  InJlM 

Ilrlllth  llniMliinia 

Ilrlllah  I'liiwHioni  In  AMn 

<Hhar  pnrlaln  Aftim 

I'nnth  Nurth  Aniirlau 

rniifh  WtitUdlM 

hpfto  Him 

Antral 

itaNiiiu ;; 

Tmlifr  In  Aito 

ii«rrt ..:; 

Hin  Itomlnaa 

Miitao,         

tJanlral  HcpiiUlt 

Mtw  UranxU 

TflMluaU  ( 

Hrtall 

Uniguar,  or  Ulaplalln*  Kapublle 

Vmiimi  Afraa,  or  Arianllm  Hapublla , 

OhIII    

KmiMlar  

••Il4vl<h  talMdi 

«)hliia  

Whala«aharl»a  

ToUl,  ra«r  l8e«-7 

from  warahotiaa 

Knl  ftnm  warahonaa 


Wl.aM 


t.OII 

l.WIII 

1,0'<B.6!8 

Ul.aitt 
4<i,7>lil 

I,44i|.8u7 

i4u,(m 

l,IB<l 
ingi» 

4,lt41 

ia,7n 


83,474 
l)«,7»l 
8,077 
1,D34 
40 
8.060 
6,888 


l.TM,IMT 

a.ooo 


t'J,l8s,«M 

"T6I8.808 

6.I6(),8».') 


«U| 

I1M 

•1I,MI 

I  J,  801 

8,«»7 

677,148 

18,080 

60 

1,140 

8U 

t,MT 


8,661 
T,6I'J 
844 
88.1 
» 
BI3 
4b» 


114,18) 
i,l«4 


7.11 


I|HS4^6U8 

8»i,o«n 


Wlll|«^«Uj«,l.  ..r  !,.,•.(., 


t44,U44 


800 


l,n,t  (ad  atiiar  artaaaC 


4«U,4lb 


1,800 
48< 

1,840 
i.MM 


8,486 


4-8.718 


8.810 
468,87* 


4T 


480 


W4 


nsw 


fwaa.la 

«A,5«A 
1II.44T 
6,000 

80,001 
180,000 


B7.84B 

t44,7BA 

88,808 

80  4M4 

10,478 

I.TM 
ll,0>t4 
8,8M 


888.464 

1,717 
8,800 

B87.»8t 
IS.MM 

107.718 
17.818 

108,804 

868,848 
9,0iB 
8,867 
8,M9 
iBon 


_*al«i__ 

tT,U4fl 
8,106 


S,IT8 

17,000 


6.180 
18.688 

8,6*0 
8,t7» 

1,818 

178 


n,B76 

816 
811 

40.488 
1,1*1 

18.40* 
4,614 

U.S84 

BV,<«4 
188 
488 
K* 
IM) 


$4X0 
46,687 


I  8,HM).4a<)  I  >84»,il63 

I    iitHiwia  I  »n8,wu 

I  ;,I87,H87  [    18i>,7tt» 


tiiwm  or  rniaiflK  8| 

ia*«  INTO  Tui  I'HiTiD  Statm  roB  mm  Y«4i  ikpino  Jvn  W, 

18BT. 

Wbaaaa  laifatM. 

PmikU, 

.1  othar 
iia,|. 

Valaa. 

Caaily. 
^.xnila  1  V.l„a. 

llira 
•aiar 

faaa. 

Browa. 

WblU,rla;«l,     1 

Kwwllah  Wtal  Inillai 

XHllh  Waal  India* 

Iiaburg 

Iraman 

lollin4 

luMli  Wtat  indl 

iilUihOolan* 

DiiKh  Kiat  Indlai 

lalMlum 

W,*MO 
878,'b06 

$7^040 

"mo 

8,773 

6,423 
1,800 

'486 
804 

U,6ll4 

4M,083 

1,019 

876.088 
B3A3.800 
8,689,746 

t30« 

18,811 

160 

""li 

18,1163 
8.18. 078 
1S0,(I8« 

ie7,o'78 

«ai,'844 

Kn>)M4 

tfaoUond 

raUnd '.!!!'.!!!!'.! 

.... 

..  • . 

'»,'p'«9 
10.163 

"mi 

1,839 
4'i 

8,044 

18,148 

1,038,863 

710.440 

864,870 

;;;; 

:::: 

(Unidi 

nrltllh  WMt  India* 

Irlllah  Oulin*  

Hrlllah  KoH  Indl 

rmiiM  nn  tha  Atlnnlla 

;*.'.". 

'.'.'.'. 

ino 

MS 

1,088 

'ifis 

63,731) 

837,810 

17.714.063 

1 3.736, 4II3 
8,388,68< 

:.■;■. 

:::: 

'nna*  on  tha  Mediurrwioaa 

'r*ll«li  WmI  liiild'a 

T,930 

701 

*     ' 

•• 

3600 

176 

•  a  a  a 

a  •  .  a 

'roniih  llninn* 

" 

4^0.044 

14,790 

.... 

Millllipin*  laland 

•  *** 

•  ••• 

.... 

81.48S,!IS7 

876.648 

•  a  •  a 

(lub* 

••fl«Kla« 

Nidain 

,,,, 

*•*. 

.... 

.... 

681 

88 

>;<9.M8.846 

33, 188,  ess 

708.704 

40,&6r 

.... 

.... 

•  ... 

.... 

37,341 

1360 

SI,3M,ai8 

4,703,887 

100 

"• 

ardInU 

890 

46 

rwAMalllai 

.... 

.... 

888 

48 

'  • 

.... 

lUM' 

•  at  t 

.... 

t... 

«6,2T-.' 

1171 

1,084 

100 

* 

t»n  ItomlnKo 

a  .  •  * 

,,.. 

a  •  t  • 

8I,IHK1 

1,BS8 

.a.. 

(••t<« 

•  ••a 

., ., 

.  •  •• 

81,831 

1,737 

<!«ntnl  Hapiibtla 

.... 

.... 

.... 

800 

10 

Vmi«*mI» 

•  •at 

. . . , 

87,816 

1,016 

»r*8H 

•  • , , 

.... 

19,101,761 

1,070,340 

837,307 

1D,0t5 

Dhlll 

ion 

69 

Itandwith  Irtand* 

11,164 

1008 

K  R.490 

40.164 

Ubin* 

Ti)««l,  )r«r  IV)fl-'7 

.... 

J.CBl      10,% 

S.,'.7«.50s 

lC8,8a7 

718.843 

««S.U08 

18,863  «mS7 

UMia 

H'.'84 

74,031.816 

«l48.ai4,0l4 

1,818.184| 

i(S«i,s^o 

T18 

1868,8061 


Til*  comporollv*  conaumptlon  of  lugtr  in  Europe 
•nd  AmtrIcA  It  ■  aulject  ofinlorut,  Mr.  M'Culloch, 
thn  pulltlcNl  (conninltt,  esllnmtcd  the  conaumption  of 
lURitr  In  Urait  llrltnln  at  24  lbs.  per  individual,  and 
Myi  till*  ll  much  more  than  in  consumed  in  France  or 
Mty  liart  of  the  continent.  At  present  the  consump- 
tion in  the  t/nllod  Mlates  is  40  Ihs.  per  individual ;  and 
tbui  wo  «M  It  lj  much  greater  than  In  Europe,  or  prob- 
ably u\y  put  of  lb*  world.    This  fact  is  conclusive, 


if  no  other  could  b«  had,  that  the  people  of  the  United 
States  live  more  comfortably,  and  even  luxuriously, 
than  any  other  people  in  the  world,  because  they  hav* 
more  real  income  to  expend  in  subsistence  and  its  com- 
forts. IIii;h  prices  tend  to  diminish  consumption.  But, 
on  the  otiier  hand,  the  capacity  to  consume  was  never 
so  great  as  at  present,  owing  to  the  general  prosperity. 
A  rapid  increase  of  papulation  will  also  have  a  tendency 
to  prevent  much  reduction  in  the  importation  of  lugar. 


SUG 


1774 


sua 


.vr'     *  -  r '.                     nBompTC  or  FoBiiait  Scuak  in  mm  Umitto  8tats». 

" 

VaoH  In  iAtnkmr  to  I1«t  Dkihus,  18M. 

Hhdi. 

•lid 

■•mil. 

BOIH 

•D<l 

Cum. 

-saS- 

ToUIToM 
o(IMO 
Poudi. 

At  New  York 

281,602 
38,088 
28,962 
28,866 
7,026 
19,073 

83J,1&1 
6104 

23,941 
1,009 
2,081 
8,019 
1,153 
8,208 

108,760 
78,800 
10,294 
16,082 
8.1,202 
8.942 

269,330 

189,386 

24,96) 

8  857 

401,088 

171,166 
88.6AT 
23,183 
19,196 
11,67» 
12,883 

Afc  Boston 

At  PhilMlslpbU 

AtBalUmore 

AlNew0rle4ai 

At  other  porti 

Total  receipt! * , . 

41,160 

2U4,t!89 
16,707 

876,663 
6,050 

Add  itook  *t  tU  the  porti,  Januarjrl,  1860 

!144,26.5 
12.866 

4I,V.->II 
198 

270,806 
13,012 

260,894 
46,6:19 

491,083 
466 

281,613 
9,601 

Deduct  exporU  and  ihlpmenta  iuUnd  to  Canada  frum  all  the  ports  In  1666 
Deduct  alock  at  all  the  porta,  January  1, 1857 

8»l,Iuti 
18,77(1 

41,768 

401,478 
4,000 

272,111 
16819 

8U,UU0 

240.100 
24712 
38,o;)l» 
27,831 
84  606 
24.1'0« 

41,769 

•;4,897 
1,647 
6,178 
U.600 
1,010 
3,226 

230,2-i6 

99,300 
86,228 
0,830 
1,661 
14.760 
8,089 

487,478 

176,096 

2110,366 

63.(81 

18,394 

8,297 

1,286 

265,203 

161,943 
81,720 
22,802 
18,080 
20,849 
14,287 

ITaoM  In  Janvabv  to  Sin  DaoiHua,  lUT. 
AtNev  York 

At  Boiton 

At  Philadelphia..  

At  other  port* , 

88(i,7t8 
18.770 

400,688 
89,408 

46.459 

161,103 
46.660 

408,2^0 
4,1-00 

269,180 
16,819 

Add  itock  at  all  the  ports,  January  1, 1857 

Total  iupply 

45.459 
746 

207.832 
20,037 

472,269 
80,278 

28.705 

8rt  1.0711 
28.410 

.>8l,0iU 

44,718 

181,7116 
18.189 

442,1110 
!i0,812 

267.304 
16,639 

44  713 

l6S,vri6 

421,704 

241,765 

Connmptlon  of  foreign  In  1886,  aa  above 385,298 

Consumption  of  foreign  In  1866 102,601 

Increau  In  1886 62,085 

Consumption  of  foreign  In  1856 386,293 

Add  crop  of  1866-'60,  of  Loulilana,  Texai,  Florida,  etc,  the  bulk  of  which  came  to  market  In  1850,  and 

assuming  the  stock  lit  January  each  year  to  be  equal 128,463 

Would  make  the  total  ponKtimptlon  of  cane  sugar  In  the  United  States  In  1866 878.700 

Total  consumption  of  iluuicstic  and  foreign  In  1856 877,763 

'     Increase  in  1866 1,008 

Consumption  of  foreign  In  1867.  as  above 

Consumption  of  fbrelgn  in  1866 

Decr«aM  in  1857 

Consumption  of  foreign  In  185T 

Add  crop  of  136ft-'67  of  Louisiana,  Texas,  Florida,  etc,  the  bulk  of  which  came  to  market  In  1887,  and 

Msnming  the  stock  1st  January  each  year  to  lie  equal 39,000 

Would  make  the  total  consumption  of  cane  sugar  In  the  United  States  in  1867 280,701$ 

Total  consumption  offoreign  and  domestic  In  1888 ^ 878,700 

Decrease  In  1887 97,995 


"The  foregoing  statistics  present  in  a  clear  and  con- 
cise view  the  extent  of  this  branch  of  our  co.'iinerce 
for  the  past  year.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  total 
receipts  of  foreign  unrefined  sugar  into  the  United 
States,  during  the  year  ending  December  81,  1857, 
were  269,180  tons,  against  receipts  in  1856  of  275,662 
tons,  and  in  1855  of  205,064  tons ;  and  the  quantity  of 
this  description  taken  for  consumption  in  1857  was 
211,765  tons,  against  255,202  tons  in  1856,  and  192,607 
tons  in  1855,  lieing  a  decrease  in  the  consumption  of 
foreign  in  1857,  aa  compared  with  1856,  of  13,527 
tons,  or  6^  per  cent. ;  while  the  total  consumption 
of  foraign  and  domestic  in  1857  was  280,766  tons, 
against  a  total  consumption  in  1866  of  378,760  tons; 
in  1856,  877,752  tons ;  in  1854,  385,298  tons ;  in  1858, 
872,989  tons;  in  1852,  816,217  tons;  and  in  1861, 
288,486  tons—making  a  decrease  in  the  total  deliver- 
ies for  consumption  in  1867,  as  compared  with  1866, 
of  97,996  tons,  or  26}  per  cent.  If  we  discard  entirely 
the  Melado,  etc.,  the  deficiency  in  the  consumption  of 
1857  will  be  considerably  greater,  as  it  would  then 
stand— Consumption  of  foreign,  320,644  tons,  against 
a  consumption  of  foreign  in  1856  of  266,292  tons,  de- 
crease isj}  per  cent. ;  or,  total  consumption  of  for- 
eign and  domestic  cane  augar  in  1867,  269,644  tons, 
against  a  toul  consumption  in  1866  of  878,760  tons, 
being  the  large  decrease  of  Sl-fi^  per  cent. 

"  We  reduce  our  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  sugar 
made  trom  molaaaea  during  the  past  year ;  the  high 
and  very  unusual  prices  which  prevailed  during  the 
largest  part  of  it  made  the  busineri  an  unprofitable 
00*.    After  tht  hnvj  decline  in  the  prioe  of  molasses, 


which  took  place  in  October,  manufacturing  was  te^ 
sumcd  with  considerable  vigor,  but  not  to  it  sufficient 
extent  to  repair  the  previous  large  deficiency.  An 
intelligent  observer  estimates  the  quantity  of  sugar 
made  from  molasses  in  1857  at  10,800  tons,  yielded 
from  46,000  hhds.  molasses,  against  11,876  tons,  from. 
63,000  hhds.  in  1866 ;  11,160  tons,  f^om  50,000  hhds.  in 
1855 ;  and  14,923  tons,  from  66,500  hhds.  in  1854 ;  if 
we  add  to  this  the  product  of  the  maple-tree  the  past 
year,  say  86,000  tons,  and  the  estimated  consumption 
of  California  and  Oregon,  6000  tons,  would  make  the 
total  consumption  of  raw  sugar  in  the  United  States 
in  1867,  832,066  tons,  against  a  total  consumption  in 
1866  of  412,136  ton«— making  the  decrease  in  the 
consumption  of  all  kinds,  say  19^^  per  cent.  The 
quantity  of  foreign  sugar  consumed  in  1867  by  the 
several  ports  (not  including  the  coastwise  receipts, 
they  being  embraced  in  the  calculation  at  the  original 
port  of  entry),  was — New  York,  142,187  tons;  Boston, 
28,111;  Philadelphia,  21,167 ;  Ilaltimorv,  18,869 ;  New 
Orleans,  20,448;  and  other  ports,  10,998 :  total,  241,766 
tons. 

"A  somewhat  novel  feature  in  this  trade  has  been  the 
large  importation  during  the  past  year  of  the  article 
known  as  melado,  etc.,  the  receipts  into  the  country 
having  reached  equal  to  about  70,000  hhds.— say  23,400 
tons  sugar  (deducting  50  per  cent,  from  weight,  to 
make  them  equal  to  ordinary  grades  sugar,  which,  It 
will  be  observad,  we  have  done  throughout  the  state- 
ment in  all  cases  of  receipts,  stocks,  and  exports). 
We  understand,  however,  that  tho  importation  of  thit 
article  has  proved  far  trom  lucrative,  and  the  probi^ 


SUG 


year  now  entered  upon  wHlTT  "  "■""  S""^*  'or  I 
.    "  Mercantile  cnterprl.,'!''' 1"^""""'^  •">«" 
nt,e,mo.t  p.rt,  of  ?he  e.^V  to  „^'  ""»«'""«  ">• 
this  article,  so  essential  to  the  ™'^7"''"'  '"PP""'  of 
ftmily  i  «,d  not  only  th"    hlr/""  °/  ""  »«"»•» 


•caree  a  fleld  left    .ni       ",'''''6'"'%  explored  .£i         j^'S  "nd  1867,  little  or  1        ^  "'"'•■■  "">n«hs 
■within  ihlv    1        ""S'oanedj  hence  w.  »!''"''   '"•''ed  to  nl.c.  nliT.   ?,  ""  "'R'""  «o  make  ..J 

•»  ».W.r-produein«  co«n1,ie;.   '"'*«''  "=«"=«'y  known   unexpmed  frost  LI^"!!^     «■"•  Ml  XZlyVj 

-nd\''d%^r;trsirtrr;:j'^-'-R"H..eo«J 


ci.llytheii;st1.;i;onr;erhasT^T''^^^^ 
transferring  this  article  from  ,,"  "^^  ,''"''"'«'>«  of 

necessaries  to  that  of  the  Wie  „f  p,'"'"*""  "^  "•• 
•umption,  as  we  have  seen  has  ,'"  "'  ■ '"'  "■"  -""• 
If  we  add  to  this  the  pmi'ajL^f"  8'""^  ^""oiled. 
country  the  entire  failure  of  the  fr  .u"'"'^  '""*"  »f  "lo 


"  y?"y  not  roach  that  njrari  -n,"  ""'"""  """'•.  «"<« 
valley  of  the  Mi«.i„i„r'i';.i  V^"  "^n'owptlon  of  iho 
""fghborhood,  *itl  sukI  a7'"t!5  ^"'^  O"*""'  ""d 
niated  at  160,000  @  It^o  L 1^^."?"  P"'**- '»  esli- 
@  2  0,000  hhds.  when  W  «,.''  ^"  '""  ""'^''"'l  208 
available  for  shlnmenT.l  .T  ^'t  Pi^vailed),  leaving 
*0,000  ®  90,000  ilhd.    '°  "'"  G-lf  and  Atlantic  ^^r"? 


paralleled  iioney  panic  .nd'vM""  ""''  "'■"»"  "" 
tion,  Which  .upeVe„ed'f«m  eariv  ?,"•"""  '='""~^ 
tbo  great  diminution  in  th^^^'uL"'"?'"  «"  "»% 
counted  for.  Brt^ad,  and  a  f^wotl^"  '. ''*'"'"-*•  «<=' 
we,  are  very  difficult  to  econol^  ."""''"  "^  """y 
valuation;  but  the  case  I«To-  "  '"'  "  •''"o"*  any 
.«mc,the'charac,eror.l!xu^''r.!.*''''»''««r-it''ai: 


here  for  consumption  in  j^7wi  148«;^?  ""<«"  ""'o™ 
A  by  no  means  insiamiflcanf  „......,.,      .  titv  of  fi„..L,    "^^^  ""' """'-'  ■ 


tion^oftr.?i'!K?re"-'''"'*"«'''«'e^ 
tte  past  year,  mayC  traced  t„  Z^"  '"  ""»  """"'>■ 
believe,  unprecedented  yfcTd  „;'''"  """'?'•  "">'  «« 
maple-trce.  The  season  was  one T.  """•"  '""»  «'« 
remembered,  extending  ov",  a  nfri^? '"""/'^''"'''o 
(three  to  four  weeks  bein/^L  ."^  .^  "'  "'"«  »«ek8 
farmers,  "inmlateS  b^  pricosZV°"«'''^'  ""''  "•« 
sugar,  labored  Indc.faSlvTth  "'*"'?' ""'""'■'' fo' 
the  result  is,  that  the  prWt  of  the  r?*!:  "i""'^' '  ""'I 
paat  ^.son,  of  this  desSlt'?!^"'^''  S'"""-  "'o 


paat  -eason,  Vf  this  desSlt'''''  ^""^^  S"""'-  "'o 

>""  after   defined;  buoyancv  clJ,'  f,'*"'"'''''"'"'™'  "  sWph. 
lasession.    ii.„ -„—'..      ■'""V'  elaslidly.  and  rn„fl,i "'"rpiy 


-...ution  58JU.  „„       "^"•ca  and  delivered 

tflyofforei^  hnSfn?  T\r°^ '^  »''ol«  qu.n- 
the  past  year      '^    '"'  """  "">  United  States  duriTg 

~;u;a7.t"c;rpTi!iit-  --'^  ^-'°^  '^^^^ 

not  only  deficient  but  .1^  .  "  '^^"  ^'""Id  prove 
that  the  field,  of  •cubiJolld.'"  '",''"'  '"""""f  "d 
erage  yield,  an  impet„  1,  ,1''T''',""™  «»  «v. 
foreign  trade,  seldom  if  ever  brf^'t'"  «'^"="  '»  'he 
Importation  of  the  fl,,t  .1,  ""^  ?"""^»*«''.  and  the 
P"."""'  in  its  history  The?,';""  *"  "'""»"  • 
prices  soon  told,  however  with  1'  •'  ""''  •""""«> 
the  consumption,  and  tTe^'ontrl  ,1.""L«  !*"'f  "PO" 


"The  supply  of  foreign  needed  is^v.™.^.  '''"'h  have  ruled  in  all  ih„  »''.''"",'""'"  '"  P^"="> 

measure  by  our  domestif crop  .nVheSo™,".".'^'"   "'"=''  ?'«"'<'  them  n  a  ve  y  .tri'nn"'/^''  ?""■  '""' 


SUG 


ffflTw. 


SUO 


iroall ;  thli  doUneM,  however,  wu  soon  followed  by  an 
Increased  activity.  It  liaving  been  latiiCkctorily  as- 
certained that  the  crop  of  Louisiana  would  be  a  very 
small  one,  refiners  entered  tlie  market  with  spirit, 
and  prices  advanced  on  ail  liinds  i  @  j  of  a  cent.  A 
firm,  buoyant  feeling  prevailed  throughout  the  month, 
though  at  the  close  a  falling  oif  in  the  demand  wiis 
observable ;  full  prices  were,  however,  realized  witbu'j  t 
difficulty,  holders  having  constantly  the  advantage. 
On  the  13th,  the  first  arrival  of  new  crop  melado 
reached  here,  and  sold  at  7i  cciita ;  and  on  the  15th, 
87  hhds.  ne-.r  Cuba  muscovado  arrived,  and  was  placed 
at  10  @  10^  cents,  the  opening  price  the  previous  year 


Thi  Rarox  of  Pbioks  or  bdoab  at  Niw  Yobk  dusmo  fodb  Yiais— 1854-'6T. 


being  7^  ®  8  cents.  The  sale*  and  resales  for  tfat 
month  were  76  hhds,  New  Orleans,  4800  hhds,  and 
18,600  boxes ;  CuU,  1850  hhds, ;  Porto  Rico,  280  hhds. ; 
English  Island,  286  cases  and  4328  bags  Brazil,  and 
618  hhds.  melado. — For  fhrther  information,  let  Db 
Bow's  Beview,  vii.  66  (R,  S.  M'Culloch),  iii,  244, 
294,  X.  218,  xii,  646,  xiii.  67,  176,  iv.  229,  888,  611, 
v.  319;  Southern  Quarttrig  Xevieui,  iii.  820;  North 
American  Jtevieie,  xl.  416;  £d'iUnirgh  Xeciew,  1.  426. 

The  following  table  shows  the  range  of  prices  of  so* 
gar  in  New  York  each  month,  and  average  value  of  th* 
various  descriptions  of  sugar  each  year,  for  the  past 
four  years:  ,     , 


Ytmn. 


1U4. 

Jsnniu7 

Februarjr 

Msrah 

April 

«^r 

June 

Juir 

August 

Septeinber 

October 

November 

December 

Average  for  tbe  jrear  . 

I8H. 

January 

Februsiy <..., 

Mirch 

April 

Mar 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December , . 

Average  for  tbe  year . 

iiu. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

"V 

June 

July 

Auguit 

September 

October  

November 

December 

Average  for  the  year . 

IMT. 

January 

February ,,.,", 

March 

April 

M»r 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


Average  for  the  year . 


OrlaMt. 


4   S  Bl 

4   @  6 

4  a  6t 

8t«  6 

it  9  f>i 

81  a  Bt 

319  Bt 

4(9  « 

*   9  »k 

6   9  6t 

4i9  « 


t4'«S 

4k  9  61 

4   9  « 

4   9  6 

419  6 

419  <( 

B19  «1 

B   9  Si 

6(9  8 

6(9  8i 

6(9  8( 

6(9  8( 

T(9  » 


$9-25 

8  9  9 
T(9  9 
T   9  9 

6(9  8( 
6(9  8( 
619  S( 
T(9  » 
8   9  9( 

8  9  9( 

8  910 

8  910( 

8  911 


$8'3a 

9   911 
9(911 


5(9   8( 


t»'04 


Cub* 
MuieoTftdo. 


4(9  B( 

4(9  B( 

4   9  6( 

3(9  B( 

4   9  B{ 

4   9  B( 

4   9  B( 

4(9  B( 

4(9  B( 

419  ■ 
4(9 


4   9  B» 


$4-83 

4  9  B( 

4   9  B( 

4   9  B] 

4(9  B] 

4(9  0( 

B   9  6( 

B(9  6( 

B(9  T( 

6(9  8( 

6   9  S 

6(9  8( 

6(9  8 


$6-01 

T   9   8 
U®   8( 
6(9   81 
6   9   8 
6   9  8( 
6(9  8( 
7(9   9( 
8    9  9 
T(9  «( 
T(9  »( 
I(  9  10( 
T»  9 10( 


8  910( 
8(910( 
8(  9  101 
8(911( 
9(9n( 
9(91I( 
T(910( 
6(  9  10( 
6(9  9( 
6  9  8( 
4(9  8 
B  9  Tl 


$8'lil» 


Porto 

Rfro.  I 


4(9  6 

4(9  6 

4(9  6 

4  9  6 

4   9  B( 

4    9  B( 

4  9  e( 

4(9  0( 

4(9  6( 

6  9  6( 

6   9  6( 

4(9  61 


$6-33 

4(9  6 

4(9  6 

4(9  6 

419  61 

6  9  «( 

6(9  61 

6(9  6( 

6   9  8 

T   9  8( 

6(9  8( 

6(9  8( 

T   9  8( 
$6'8T 


T  9  8( 
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11(918 
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i-68 


—Bee  Shipping  and  Commercioi  Litt,  Ne<r  York. 

Btet-roat  Sugitr. — ^The  manafactura  of  sugar  from 
beet-root  is  carried  on  to  a  very  considerable  extent  in 
several  parts  of  the  Continent,  particulariy  in  France 
and  the  north  of  Germany,  It  began  in  France  during 
the  exclusion  of  colonial  products  in  the  reign  of  Na- 
poleon, and  received  a  severe  check  at  the  return  of 
peace,  by  the  admission  of  West  India  sugars  at  a 
reasonable  duty.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that  it  would 
long  since  have  been  entirely  extinguished  but  for  the 
additions  made  to  the  duties  on  colonial  and  foreign 
sugars  in  1820  and  1822.  After  the  last-mentioned 
epoch,  however,  the  production  of  beet-root  sugar  be- 
gan rapidly  to  increase ;  and  such  was  its  progress, 
that  though,  In  1828,  its  produce  did  not  exceed 


nruU, 

whit*. 


6(9  6 
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819  — 

8(9  — 


$7  84 

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919101 
—  910( 


til  74 


4,000,000  kilograms,  it  amounted  in  1838  to  89,190,408 
kilograms. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  cane  was 
the  only  plant  known  to  contain  sugar.  In  1747  M, 
Marggraf,  director  of  a  department  of  the  Royal  Acade- 
my of  Sciences  in  Berlin,  first  called  attention  to  the  sac- 
charine substance  in  the  parsnep,  the  birch  juice,  and 
carrot.  At  a  Inter  period,  Parmentier  discovered  the 
same  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  com  and  chest- 
nuts. But  the  chemical  experiments  made  by  these 
savans  accomplished  do  practical  result.  Tet,  even 
before  Napoleon  I.  had  imposed  on  Europe  the  princi- 
ple of  absolute  prohibition,  the  necessity  of  a  substitute 
for  the  expensive  colonial  sugar  was  urgently  felt,    A« 


milted  as  a  fair  averaire  Th  i-i'  °"  e^orally  ad- 
favor  of  tho  cane  is  af  Mii/L  "'""""^o-  '-owevor,  in 
i^ed  in  consequence' of  ,h"„j?.:''?"  ^''^''tly,  equal" 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  i;""*^''  attending  the 
tUos.  derived  from^l  e  cdur^  of"'.?'' /"•''P'=""^«  "^ 
can«  90  per  cent,  is  liquid  1  j™  ner  r  ""  v"  ^°  "•« 
in  the  beet-root  96  Is  1  qui,  to  -.'^  "'•  """''  ""atter; 
filamentous  substance  The  o  T  "'"'•  °"'^  "f  ^oIW 
means  of  the  hydraulii  nrei,  j?^'^"':""''  of  juiee,  by 
therefore, -by  ,1  pr^eatl'  ?A"-  ™,^, 


In  Austria  . 

In  Bohemia .  

InPruMia...  

In  environs  of  iicMoVbere 


eanc.  Of  the  95Vcr  cent  of  T'''''J'-7''''''"^''fr""' 
tained  in  the  beet-S,  fro m  ^5  ITs'-"  "'""'"""y  ™"- 
average,  are  practical);- ga  "ed  l.l  .t'  •"'  """■'  «"  »» 
pression,  while  the  juice  ev.rl;^     r  P"""'  "^  «=<»"- 

1  °?'-'-/«PresentCnVfiT,:  :/["'«""  """  '" 
I"  engal  it  is  no  more  than  ao  Zi  '  J  ""  "''""S"- 
appliances  are  used  it  does  nit.  '  "",''"'"'"  «l>e  best 
10  per  cent,  of  saccllte  mattrut"?'  •'^'""'  °^""= 
contained  in  the  beet-roor  f  -',  *''"'' ''  absolutely 
»alized  as  s^e,!^',^^^^]'^  '»  8^  Per  cent,  ar^ 
cane  from  10  to  12  per  cent  Tf  ''"'  ™"'-  °*"  "■« 

i"  Bengal  only  7.    Hence  afti  ,"^7  ""  """^'="-  '"d 
..,..!„.   .,  ..•         "ence,  at  tins  stage  of  the  demon- 

Ve    VAltia    «P .    . 


.  -o  "tated,  th.  tur  cronToTb''^""""  "^  '''««^ 
'"the  same  period  as  three  „f  '""  P™''""" 
colonies  produces,  ™  "^  ""*'  «»""  aero  in  the 

t'ETSTALlIZABlE  SPOAB. 

In  I>>ui8lana . . .  Poa.d»       ! 

In  San  Domingo 1000       : 

InBongal 1066        '. 

InMnrOniquo... 1626 

In  \ertt  Cruz. . .       1680 

'n  Guadnloupe  . .   1880 

In  Isle  Boiirlwn    20OO 

;»,V'"'>a  .:: 83SS 

inUnuU 4000 

6000 


.tratio;?oft;;eVom=vf^!^''''r°'''''''''="'»^    Thu,r  ■'■■■■■■■■■:::::: ^    ■ 

further  the  .b~ml  "^'.""^-'i''"  m^difie?  sdl"  '""""'""'  "'  '  "  """""■"« 

Of  the  7i  to  sTper  cent  „V."  V"  °^  ""'  ''^'''-"'o    ' 
due,  in  the  for,^  S^n  ot  "!   l^rl^^.^-f' .".'«  -'' 


due,  in  the  form  S   nX, ."f  'T'T'  ^''«'"-'  '"«  "=^  ' 
consequenceof  modo™  ■         •  '"'  '"='="  diminished,  in 

per  cent.:;\Ycrite  Zm  o'l?-'  '"'"'"  '*  '»  ^ 
crystallized  and  maSbHusar  '  """"'■  "'  ^""'^ 

--^^-::Kii^:-ea^- 

Cryitailued    Mo-      1 
l«l.naI^.K^g,";'"'*"'"'»»».«<'ach™.- 10  4 

in;  *'"ir*"'"""»"hioApoiidVifjui™:;:  32 

(W  eiperiment),..'.' 

6U 


Prussia. 


I»   EPROPB. 

.£22 


B 
8 
6 

8 

I 


PmlnceMagi^bu.^- ^    3,;  g 

Bohemia.;.'.' J^  lO*- @ 

Wurtcmbcrff i,    5«-  @ 

France  and  Belgium' ; ; ; ;    ; ;  82    -*'  ® 

San  Domingo  '     „ 

Jamaica. . .  J 

Guiana         ° 

Porto  Kico ; ; * 

Cuba....         10 

10 


l»-  ®  £!B   Bs. 


104    _ 
18  1«* 


@      40    _ 


2*  @       8 


7».  @ 


8& 
6  4* 
6   Ru. 

20  li 


m,  '"    '»•  (9     20  148: 

Ihe  average  of  the  whole  is  £40  17,  n.. 
Europe,  and  ^£8  per  acre  fnr  .h       .    ,      P*'  *="  'or 


SUG 


1778 


SXJL 


ductiveness  of  the  land,  and  It)  lower  price  in  the 
colonies,  are  more  than  counterbalanced  in  Europe  by 
the  lower  rates  of  interest  on  the  capital  required  for 
the  purchase  of  these  lands,  and  the  erection  of  the 
factories;  the  more  intelligent,  eiUcient,  and  cheaper 
labor;  the  greater  abundance  and  cheapness  of  the 
important  item  of  fuel ;  the  advantages  of  a  home  mark- 
et ;  and  the  accessary  proDts  derived  from  the  culture 
of  beet-root,  in  the  shape  of  fodder  for  cattle,  we  re- 
serve for  a  concluding  article,  together  with  a  review 
of  the  practical  inducements  oll'crcd  to  the  cultivators 
of  beet-root,  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  of  the  Union, 

ilaple-tugar. — A  species  of  maple  {^Acertaccharinum, 
Unn.)  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar.  It 
grows  plentifully  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada, 
and  in  some  districts  furnishes  the  inhabitants  with 
most  of  tho  sugar  they  make  use  of.  Though  inferior 
both  in  grain  and  strength  to  that  which  is  produced 
from  the  cane,  maple-sugar  granulates  better  than 
that  of  tlie  l>eet-root,  or  any  other  vegetable,  the  cane 
excepted.  It  is  produced  from  the  sap,  whicli  is  ol>- 
tained  by  perforating  the  tree  in  tho  spring  to  the 
depth  of  about  two  inches,  and  setting  a  vessel  for  its 
reception.  The  quantity  afforded  varies  with  the  tree 
and  the  season.  From  two  to  three  gallons  may  bo 
about  the  daily  average  yield  of  a  single  tree;  but 
some  trees  have  yielded  more  than  twenty  gallons  in 
a  day,  and  others  not  more  tlmn  a  pint.  Tlie  process 
of  boiling  tho  juice  docs  not  differ  materially  from 
what  is  followed  with  tite  cane  juice  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  boiled  as  soon  after  it 
is  drawn  from  the  tree  as  possible.  If  it  be  allowed 
to  stand  above  twenty-four  hours,  it  is  apt  to  undergo 
the  vinous  and  acetous  ferniontation,  by  which  its  sac- 
charine quality  is  destroyed. — Uoi'oiiktte's  British 
America,  Timber  Trees  and  Fvuilt,  Library  of  Enter- 
taining Knowledge.     See  article  MAi'LK-suaAR, 

Chinese  Sugar-cane. — This  new  plant  seems  to  bo 
destined  to  take  an  important  position  among  our  eco- 
nomical products.  Its  seeds  were  sent  some  six  years 
ago  from  the  north  of  China,  by  M.  de  Montigny,  to 
the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris.  From  a  cursory 
examination  of  a  small  field  of  it,  growing  at  Verrieres 
in  France,  in  the  autumn  of  IS.'il,  Mr.  U,  J.  Browne, 
then  on  a  mission  from  the  U.  S.  I'atcnt  Oflico  for  col- 
lecting agricultural  information  and  products,  was  led 
to  ii\fer  timt,  from  the  peculiarity  of  the  climate  in 
which  it  was  growing  and  its  resemblance  to  Indian 
corn,  it  would  flourish  in  any  region  wherever  that 
plant  would  thrive.  From  this  source  ho  obtained 
sou.?  200  pounds  of  tho  seed,  which  was  distributed  in 
imall  packages  among  members  of  Congress,  with  the 
view  of  experimenting  with  it  in  all  parts  of  the  Union, 
and  thereby  ascertaining  its  adaptation  to  tho  soil  and 
climate,  and  its  economical  value  in  the  United  States, 
In  numerous  instances  the  results  proved  highly  satis- 
factory, as  it  attained  tlio  height  of  twelve  cr  fifteen 
feet  as  far  north  as  St,  I'liul,  Minnesota,  and  matured 
its  seeds  at  various  points  in  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Illinois,  The  following  year,  while 
in  Franco  on  a  similar  mission  as  abovo,  Mr,  Browne 
obtained  several  bushels  of  the  seed  of  this  plant,  grown 
from  that  reputed  to  have  been  brought  from  South 
Africa  by  Mr,  Leonard  Wray,  of  London,  and  which 
has  since  proved  to  bo  identical  with  that  obtained  in 
1864. 

There  appears  to  be  a  doubt  among  many  in  Eu- 
rope, as  well  as  in  this  country,  as  to  the  true  botanical 
name  of  this  plant.  M.  Louis  Vilmorin,  a  scientific 
cultivator  of  Paris,  provisionally  gave  it  the  name  of 
Ilokut  laccharatui,  which  had  previously  been  applied 
to  tho  common  broom-corn,  if  not  to  other  species,  or 
at  least  varieties,  of  some  allied  plant.  He  also  con- 
jectured tliat  it  might  bo  the  Sorghum  rulgare  (Andro- 
pogon  sorghum  of  others),  and  thought  that  it  might 
comprehend  a  variety,  as  well  as  Andropogon  cafra, 


bicoh,  etc.,  of  Kunth  Mr.  Wray,  who  has  devoted 
much  time  and  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant,  with  the  view  of  extracting  sugar  from  its  Juice, 
at  Capo  Nital  and  other  places,  states  that  in  tho 
southeast  part  of  Caffraria  there  are  at  least  fifteen 
varieties  of  it,  some  of  them  growing  to  a  height  of 
twelve  and  fifteen  feet,  with  stems  as  thick  as  those 
of  the  sugar-cane  {Saccharum  officinale).  M.  Vilmorin 
also  says  that,  in  a  collection  of  seeds  sent  to  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History  at  Paris  in  1840,  by  M, 
d'Abadre,  tliere  were  thirty  kinds  of  sorghum,  among 
tho  growth  of  whicli  he  recognized  several  plants  liav- 
ing  stems  of  a  saccharine  tiavor.  Others  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  common  broom-corn  {//olcus  sacchara- 
tus),  the  cliocolato  or  Guinea  com  (_SorghH''t  vulgare), 
and  the  Chinese  sugar-cane  (^Sorghum  saccharaluni),  all 
of  which  contain  more  or  less  saccharine  matter,  belong 
to  the  same  species,  but  arc  variations  caused  by  dif- 
ferences of  soil  and  climate,  or  by  a  disposition  to  sport 
after  tho  manner  of  Indian  corn,  and  other  plants  under 
cultivation.  The  Chinese  sugar-cane  diflTers  from  tho 
others  in  containing  a  far  larger  proportion  of  juice, 
and  consequently  is  more  valuable  for  fodder  and  other 
economical  uses. 

In  1T6C  a  plant  analogous  to  the  one  in  question  was 
experimented  upon  at  Florence,  in  Italy,  by  Pietro 
Arduino,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar ;  yet  It  must  have 
been  of  a  very  dlflferent  variety,  as  he  describes  its 
seeds  as  of  a  clear  brown  color,  while  those  of  the 
Chinese  sugar-cane  are  of  a  shining  jet  black,  and  in 
appearance  identical  with  those  of  the  Sorghuni  vuU 
gare  of  tlie  old  collections. 

Detcriplion  and  Habit  of  its  Growth. — The  Chinese 
sugar-cane,  when  cultivated  on  ordinary  land  in  the 
United  States,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  broom- 
corn,  grows  to  a  height  of  from  eight  to  sixteen  feet, 
while  in  Europe  it  does  not  attain  more  than  half  tliis 
altitude.  Its  stemi  are  straight  and  smooth,  often 
covered  wilii  a  white  bloom  or  down,  having  leaves 
somewhat  flcxuous,  falling  over  and  greatly  .resembling 
in  appearance  those  of  Indian  corn,  but  more  elegant 
in  its  form.  Where  cultivated  in  hills,  containing 
eight  or  ten  stalks  each,  it  puts  forth  at  its  top  a  conical 
pinnacle  of  dense  flowers,  green  at  first,  but  changing 
into  violet  shades,  and  finally  into  dark  purple,  at  ma- 
turity. In  France,  and  in  the  central  and  nortliern 
sections  of  the  United  States,  it  has  tlius  far  proved  an 
annual ;  but  from  observations  made  )iy  M.  Vilmorin, 
as  well  as  some  experiments  in  our  Southern  States, 
it  is  conjectured  that,  from  the  vigor  and  fullness  of 
tho  lower  part  of  the  stalks  in  autumn,  by  protecting 
them  during  tlio  winter,  they  would  produce  new 
plants  tho  following  spring.  It  stands  dearth  far  bet- 
ter than  Indian  corn,  and  will  resist  tlie  elfccts  of  con- 
siderable frost  without  injur}',  after  the  panniclcs  ap- 
pear, but  not  in  its  younger  and  more  tender  state. 
If  suffered  to  remain  in  the  field  after  the  seeds  have 
ripened  and  been  removed,  when  the  season  is  suffi- 
ciently warm  and  long,  new  pannicles  will  shoot  out  at 
the  topmost  joints  one  or  more  to  each  stalk,  and  ma- 
ture a  second  crop  of  seeds.  The  average  yield  of  seed 
to  each  pannicle  is  at  least  a  gill. 

Sulphor,  or  Brinuitone  (Fr.  Soufre;  Ger.  Schuie- 
fel;  It.  Zolfo,  Solfo;  Sp.  Azufrc;  Arab.  Kibreel),  a 
crystallized,  hard,  brittle  substance,  commonly  of  a 
greenisti  yellow  color,  without  any  smell,  and  tf  a 
weak  though  perceptible  taste;  its  specific  gravity  Is 
from  1-9  to  2'1.  It  burns  with  a  pale  blue  iiame,  and 
emits  n  great  quantity  of  pungent,  suffocating  vapors. 
In  some  parts  of  Italy  and  Sicily  it  is  dug  up  in  a  state 
of  comparative  purity.  That  which  is  manufactured 
in  England  is  obtained  by  the  roasting  of  pyrltos.  It 
Is  denominated  rough  or  roll  sulphur,  from  its  being 
cast  in  cylindrical  moulds,  and  contains  7  per  cent,  of 
orpiment.  The  Italian  roll  sulphur  does  not  contain 
more  than  8  per  cent,  of  a  simple  earth ;  and  i  v  there- 
fore, in  higher  estimation  than  the  English.    Wlien 


SUM 


im 


W..»nlpharl.p„ri(l„l.  it  receive,  ,h„  SUP 


e..t  from  the  Malay  p«„i„,ura'bvfl?'' af .°"  ""'  n»«>»I 
hav.nff  east  the  Java  Soa  ami  ,h  L"  ^'"'"  »f  Malacca, 
aratine  it  from  the  Jam.  of  Ja,?'™'' f  S""-'" -ep- 
In< "an  Ocean.  Length  nor  hwe?t'  t„"  "'""i:  ^'"^  "^'' 
mles;  breadth  CO  to  240  m  »?  tV  ""'"'«'«'  "00 
estimated  at  from  128,000  to  m  Jl?  '"■*  *""  ■*««" 
populafon  1,437,300,  m'ostlv  Jl„llT...T"?  "!'««; 


...i.  Zi     '°  """'ority  concederl  ♦„     "■•^"J^ienueU 

au  hority  must  be  ?ubordr«to  ,o  th^  »"Percargo,  such 
»'tho  vessel  and  carRo  wtnV  "'"""°''  '""e™" 
»rgo  extend  to  the^naviga ti„" 'ir '•"T?"  »' « '"Per- 
be  communicated  througMhecan.nl"  ""''.■  """y  ■""« 
cnco  only  to  the  destination  of ^f^"/"'  •'"'  ''•ve  refer- 

Wand  i,  mostly  Icvef  "r  undl?„,""'*'"  '""^  "'  'ho    MaItI   7.''' '  ^''""'•""^  ^^Z  i  278      *"'  ^±T 


coasts  thei^are-  many  sandv  a"d"'l"^'  ^".'"''"6  "-o 
erjed  by  the  Sialt,  Judrageri  jlr''p''?'  P'"'""  "»v. 
other  rivers  of  large  size  T.V  ^^1'  P»'«"'bang,  and 
explored  by  Europf:„r  'c,  ^at'^^^^^  '^^^  ""'« 
oppressive  than  might  have  bin  ^"  P'"""  "  '»'' 
day  the  thermomctei-usuanv  .T  "P^c'^d;  at  mid- 
86",  sometimes  rising  ^o/g"^  ^  ""''^oen  82°  and 
than  70°Fahr.  Bensofogs,  tllunlr  r""'"  ""'  "">'« 
spouts  off  the  coast  are  fre  ,u  nt  M  T^""''  '"'"''■ 
i»  occupied  by  dense  forests  p;^/"'''  "'  "«>  "'»"" 
sago,  millet,  cocoa-nuts  bl.  ."'"  ™"''"  "f "™, 
ance  of  tropi'cal  fruits  tiScT"""^'  ""  "bundl 
scented  ,vood,  teak  and  X^LZ'l^':',?,'''^'  «tans, 


on  the  face^'o'f 'T^^,','\'„7,;»'  "-eet  of  f„,h  ^,^, 
he  great  American  lakei  no  llT"  ^""''aWe  of 
ba  also  from  the  picturesoue^!^^"""  """aguitude, 
and  the  interest  and  value  alh."''^  "'  '"  ^'>"'"», 
features.  As  a  mir^ng  ^^io  "itl'i"^  '° ''[  «=<"««'»< 
Portant  in  this  country,  and  is  oh  T  "  '*" '"""  '"'- 
copper  and  silver,  as  wel" as  in  ,h  "  '""'  "^ ""•""'c 
At  the  present  mime^t  i  "1*"  llT'  I'J'""'  """»'»• 

-Z':i^!:^^Sfdr^^"-"-~ 

colomsts  successfully  cultivate  The  Vj"'"'   ''"^^uropean    degrees  ono„lnH        '"'""'''''  """  "-e  84th  and  92d 


,'"Y"  """">  "aic  and  other  timhp-  »^n  i  .7  V,'   ''*"' 
colonists  successfully  cuItivIteTh„  '•    '^  ''«Europea. 
cipal  article,  of  export  are  penneMo'",  '  """l "«'  P"""- 
lon  pounda  yearly,  goM  dust    ™        °"' "'"*""'"■ 
camphor,  in  the  north ;  n„tm  1  h?"  "\  "''P'"". 
the  Dutch  territory  of  n„„      /"   '''^'"'  ""<*  mace,  in 
«utta  percha    t7in  Palemi    "'  ""«' "=0™!,  benzoin" 
many  of  whiih  abides  ar?."®  u'"''  M«nankabow 
the  interior,  aid  I  "rt^ed  at  the"f '. '"^  """^^^  '"" 
European  manufactured  goods     'C  '"'   "1'""  """ 
i'orior  quality,  and  naihfl^a  1™  !.     '  ™*.'  °^  '"  '"- 
products.     TlleinhabtCsbufldthe?,"^  "'"  """''™' 
and  adopt  other  usages  T»hTc'  "'"^'"»'se.s  „„  posts, 
manufacture  gold  and  sHver  fii      '®"''''  """"'^     '''<'y 
sltill,  also  silk  and  cotton  fK  •  ''•""^  "''"^  "'" 
«"<!  domestic  ^ood"^"  f!,  "!\l""'-.-arcs, 


length  is  400°mil  ItsJ^r  „'.""•  ."»  ^"'"t 
miles,  and  its  mean  denth  h '\  ""^  •""''•"''  "  160 
f-  '•  Its  surface  is  aS  600  ft .'"  k '"'"'""'  "'  900 
tl.e  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  Us  llf  ''^'""'  "■»  '*^«»  "f 
the  level  of  the  sea      Th!  °'"  "  ^'^  '««  below 

thers,  who  first  exol;r.H^"S°'''"'  *■"»<=••  Jesuit  fa^ 
and  published  an'^at^lToftifp"  V"^  «'«'  lake, 
scribe  the  form  of  its  sho,^,  »  ",  ^f"'  '"  1636,  it. 
bended  bow  thenorit  ^  "'  ''""'ar  lo  that  of  a 
southern  the'ctrd  '^^^ ^'i;"  "»'"«  the  arc,  and  th^ 

">»-   graphical  p„,i,i„„  of^i,  shT^er   hh  .  "P'T  "'"  S'^i 


and  donTestic  goodrgoTer!,';''"^""'''''"--"". 

quej^d  basins,  ^nXC  a /d'r^°„y'''r5''''e,    '^^^oni^rir'^T^V'^^'^T'^-^^^''^^^^^^ 

which  territory  "  We"  r  ^toft  "  "r"  ""^'ir"'    -SVnd'ifdlfc'r  'i'  '^''T "  "^  '-kaVf'v"."  ^ 


cottons,  spices,  krise  and  o  i^r  J"!"  ^""i""-  "'"Pd  pices  and  b  etliircr»l  ''"'"''  "''"«  """"»  Pred- 
Celebes,  and  other  islands  of  the  ArT'  f"""  ■'^^"■hrgcs  of  this  Sty  ?fk  °''T. ''''='"*"''^«»  '«  'he 
island  is  divided  amomr  a  Imi  „  •*"''  P«'ago-    The    natc  mariner  ^f„^    ,'  ""•  """aten  the  unfortu- 

chiefbein^Acheen  Menankabol  nlhT'^'r?""'  '''°   '^-»horo  w  .h^atost"^„t-r  "  ^*°""  "po    « 

am  region,  Batak  Siak  I„n?i  •  n  ?     °  ''®""'''l  mount-   coves  or  lm«f  i,    i        '"ovitable  destruction.    Small 

along  the  oastfrl^l;;    t^'^^^S'  ""r"^-    "'S  ofld^l°:irs"  t"th"''^- 1"^'"""  "'  "^ 

and  that  she  should  not  wear  cold  or  p1'''°-:5  ^T^  '    """l  l»»cr  lakes  and  the  M«nH  ?"*'""«  '"'  ""'<"■'" 

it  feasts,    e.\cecdin.rl„  «„. .._  "     Perisn.     LamR  !,«.  k 


and  the  number  and  n  ,.  i.      ,  I  ""'  ^"'^'"  at  feasts, 


.-".c  iriues  would  soon  nerish      n,™.  u      V       "® 

partridges,  being  found    'n,hP°'T'''''' """^  '»■»« 

modera?enumbe?supo„  the  watr; ''''•''  ^'''  "» 
scarcely  begun  to  t.™.  .l„  .r:fi"''-    Aen^uUure  has 


ca^?r»e~S^"^~  -P^S^f  S^T?'-?"'^ 


SWE 


1780 


SWE 


chill  l>reezci  of  the  lake,  thrives  rnd  ripena.  Eaglish 
y  gruMa  have  not  yet  been  cultivated,  but  they  will  un- 

doubtedly thrive  as  well  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior  as  in  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  The 
native  grasses  ar«  abundant  and  good,  but  are  limited 
to  small  natural  prairies  or  to  dried-up  ponds.  The 
forests  are  also  filled  with  excellent  timber  for  build- 
ing puriMMOs ;  and  whore  the  growth  Is  of  mixed  tree  i, 
such  as  sugar-maple,  yellow  birch,  and  pines,  the  white 
and  yellow  pines  are  of  largo  dimensions,  and  furnish 
good  lumber. — Stt  Lakes,  Commerce  of. 

Swedsn  (^Seeriye),  a  country  of  northern  Europe, 
forming  the  east  and  larger  portion  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  one  of  the  kingdoms  composing  the 
monarchy  of  Sweden  and  Norway ;  situated  between 
lat.  55"  20'  and  69°  10'  N.,  long,  ll"  15'  and  24°  10'  E., 
bounded  east  by  the  Baltic,  the  tiulf  of  Bothnia  and 
Kussia,  south  by  the  Baltic,  west  by  Norway,  the  Kat- 
tegat, and  the  Sound.  Capital,  Stockholm.  The  soil 
in  not  generally  fertile,  and  the  corn  produced  was 
formerly  only  about  two-thirds  of  that  required ;  but 
from  the  great  improvements  in  agriculture  introduced 
by  the  government  within  the  present  century,  and  the 
general  introduction  of  the  potato,  the  produce  is  now- 
adequate  to  the  consumption.  Barley  is  cultivated  ns 
far  north  as  lat.  69°,  but  the  crops  frequently  fail.  Rye, 
hemp,  and  potatoes  are  grown  to  lat.  G6°  N.  Oats 
ripcii  to  63°  30';  wheat  and  hops  cease  to  be  cultivated 
with  advantage  beyond  lat.  62°  N.  Ono-fourth  of  tho 
surface  is  covered  with  forests,  but  the  produce  of  tim- 
ber is  small ;  much  is  used  for  fuel,  and  made  into 
charcoal  for  use  in  the  mines.  There  are  few  woods  to 
tlie  north  of  lat.  64°  N,  The  principal  trees  are  tho 
pine,  fir,  and  birch.  Fish  are  abundant  on  tho  coast, 
and  in  the  lakes  and  rivers;  tho  hcrring-llshcry  has 
greatly  declined,  but  lobsters  are  exported,  and  salmon 
is  caught  in  all  the  principal  rivers.  The  mining  dis- 
tricts of  .Sweden,  mostly  in  the  central  provinces,  ex- 
tend over  16,000  square  miles ;  the  chief  products  are 
iron,  which  is  distributed  over  nearly  all  tho  countr}', 
but  the  best  is  found  in  tho  loin  Upaala ;  tho  annual 
produce  of  all  the  mines  is  about  70,000  tons  of  bur 
iron.  Tho  richest  copper  mines  are  at  Falilun;  the 
annual  produce  in  all  is  about  1000  tons.  Gold  is  not 
now  sought  for,  and  silver  is  procured  only  to  a  small 
extent.  The  other  mineral  products  are  cobalt,  lime, 
coal  of  inferior  quality,  and  porphyry.  Manufactures 
•re  chiefly  contincd  to  articles  of  domestic  use ;  the 
principal  are  woolens,  sugar,  tobacco,  paper,  linens, 
cotton  (in  small  quantity);  tanning  is  an  important 
'  branch  of  industry.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  to 
some  extent  in  tho  ports  of  the  Baltic.  Distilling  and 
I  brewingare  extensively  prosecuted.  The  internal  com- 

merce of  Sweden  is  considerable,  and  Swedish  vessels 
visit  most  of  the  Atlantic  porta  of  America,  and  tho 
Mediterranean.  Government  is  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy.— See  NoBWAY. 

The  Swedish  monarchy,  comprising  Sweden  and 
Norway,  embraces  an  area  of  202,101  square  miles,  and 
contains  a  population  of  4,645,000  inhabitants,  viz. : 

Su>eden.—Kn^  170,006  squan;  miles  i  papulation,  3,316,B30 
yorway.—    "    122,008  "  "  l,8v!8,4ro 

Sweden  and  Norway  have  different  constitutions, 
though  they  are  governed  by  the  same  king.  Their 
commercial  regulations,  their  tariffs  of  duties,  their 
laws  and  revenues,  are  all  separate.  Several  treaties 
'  of  peac«,  amity,  and  commerce  have  been  negotiated 

between  the  IJnited  States  and  these  countries;  the 
latest,  that  of  July  4th,  1827,  being  based  upon  tho 
lilicral  prinoiple  of  entire  reciprocity,  as  well  with 
Sweden  and  Norway  as  with  the  smalj  but  flourishing 
colony  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  the  W«..  v  Indies.  The 
following  abstract  presents  the  principal  stipulations 
respecting  commerce  and  navigation : 

T'ba  citizens  and  subjects  of  each  of  the  two  high 
contntottng  partiei  may,  with  perfitct  security  for  their 
persona,  T«Mels,  and  cargoes,  freely  enter  all  the  ports, 


places,  and  rivers  of  tho  territories  of  tha  other,  wher- 
over  foreign  commerce  Is  permitted,  The  vessels  of 
both  nations,  iucluiling  tlioso  of  llio  Island  of  Ht,  Bar- 
tholomew, whether  laden  or  in  ballast,  to  bo  troatod  in 
the  ports  of  each,  on  their  entrance,  during  thuir  stay, 
and  at  their  departure,  upon  tho  same  footing  as  na- 
tional vessels  coming  from  the  same  place,  with  respect 
to  tho  duties  of  tonnage,  llght-hoiiaiis,  pilotage,  and  port 
charges,  ami  all  other  porquisltua,  duties,  and  (.'Imrgos, 
of  whatever  kind,  levied  In  the  mime  nr  lu  the  prullt 
of  the  govonunont,  the  local  UHlhuritli^s,or  any  private 
estalilishment  whatever.  All  murcliandiso  of  every 
description,  no  matter  of  what  country  It  may  bo  the 
produco  or  manufacture,  that  may  liu  linpurtod  into 
either  country  in  national  vossrls  (or  Into  Sweden  or 
Norway  in  vessels  of  tho  Island  of  St.  tiarlholumow), 
may  in  like  manner,  and  without  paying  other  or 
higher  duties  or  chiirgfls,  of  whatever  kind  or  denomi- 
nation, be  imported  In  tho  vussids  of  the  other ;  full 
and  perfect  reciprocity  and  oi|uaUty  In  this  rospnct  be- 
ing established.  Similar  rui'lproclly  atid  equality  be- 
tween the  vessels  of  oncli  of  lliu  high  contracting  par- 
ties, including  those  of  tho  IsIhihI  of  Nt,  Burtliolumow, 
in  respect  to  exports  from  oltliiir  country.  Is  established. 
This  equality  with  Iho  national  flatt  Is  applicable  to 
the  vcsselsof  tho  United  States  pruceodlitg,  cither  laden 
or  in  ballast,  to  tho  colony  of  Ht,  Bartliulomew,  in  tho 
West  Indies,  'whether  from  ports  of  tho  kingdom  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  or  from  any  other  placa  wlintso- 
evor,  or  proceeding  from  tho  said  colony,  either  laden 
or  in  ballast,  whether  bound  for  Sweden  or  Norway,  or 
any  other  placo  whatever,  'i'ho  coasting  trade  is  re- 
served by  each  party  to  Its  own  flag,  respectively ;  the 
navigation  from  ono  port  to  nnntliiir  in  tho  kingdom 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  or  bntwoon  those  two  countries, 
being  considered  such  coasting  trade  ns  respects  Swe- 
den. Duties  on  tho  navigation  botwiion  their  respective 
territories,  including  the  island  of  St.  Itartliolomew,  in 
tho  vessels  of  either,  lo  bo  no  higher  or  oilier  than  those 
imposed  on  every  other  nation ;  unil  no  prohililtlon», 
restrictions,  or  ditrurontlal  duties,  of  any  kind  or  de- 
nomination whatsoever,  to  bo  eslublislied  In  respect  of 
the  products  of  the  soil  or  Industry  of  olllicr  country, 
including  the  island  of  St.  llartlii)luniow,  which  flmll 
not  equally'  apply  to  articles  of  like  nature,  tho  gr  iwtli 
of  any  other  country,  'I'lin  privileges  of  transit,  and 
all  bounties  and  drawbacks  which  inuy  bn  all'>wed 
within  tho  territories  of  ono  of  tliu  lilgii  contracting 
parties  upon  tho  importation  or  nxporlutlun  of  any 
article  whatever,  shall  likewise  bo  allowcil  on  the  arti- 
cles of  llko  nature,  tho  prodmUs  of  tho  soil  or  Industry 
of  tho  other  contracting  party,  and  on  tho  Ituportiitlon 
or  exportation  made  In  Its  vessolt. 

Tho  11th  and  12tli  articles  axempt  from  Import  and 
navigation  dues  (pilotage,  wharfage,  and  light-dues  ex- 
cepted) the  vessels  of  either  party  arriving  In  the  ports 
of  the  other,  not  wishing  to  unload  any  part  of  their 
cargoes,  or  perform  any  act  of  trade;  and  the  privilege 
is  mutually  conceded  to  unload  in  tho  ports  of  cither 
such  portions  only  of  thulr  cargoes  as  the  captain  or 
owner  may  wish,  and  to  depart  with  tho  romalndcr, 
without  paying  any  duties,  imposts,  or  cliargoa  wlint- 
Boevcr,  except  for  that  r^rt  which  shall  bo  landed,  tlii' 
proper  entries  having  buon  niado  on  the  vesKol's  mani- 
fest. It  is  understood,  however,  that  all  duties,  im- 
posts, or  charges  whatsoever,  which  aro  or  may  lie- 
come  chargealile  upon  tho  vessels  llinmselvcs,  must  lie 
paid  at  tho  first  port  whero  tlioy  shall  break  bulk,  or 
unload  part  of  thoir  cargoes ;  but  that  hueU  duties,  etc,, 
shall  not  bo  paid  twico  in  the  ports  of  tho  samo  coun- 
try which  such  vostels  may  afterward  wish  to  enter, 
unless  national  vessoU  bo,  in  luch  cases,  iul^Jcct  to 
such  ulterior  dutloa. 

Article  16  atlpnlatos  that  on  dlrocli  voyagos  botwcon 
tho  two  countries,  rospeotlvoly,  *  bill  of  health,  granted 
at  tha  port  of  departure  by  an  offloor  having  competent 
power  to  that  oDkct,  will  oxompt  tho  tobioI  ft'om  any 


SWE 


1781 


SWE 


la  of 

Dnr- 
Lodlu 

•toy, 
11  no- 
cspect 
ii\  port 
mrK»». 
I  pr<ilH 
private 
t  every 
•  bo  Itio 
0(1  lilt" 
oilon  or 
lomow), 
other  or 
aenoml- 
licri  full 
iipect  1)0- 
inllty  1)0- 
itln«  pnr- 
lioloniew, 
tiibllsheil. 
illcnblo  to 
tlicr  iBilon 
ow,  1"  ll>n 
inmloin  of 
CO  wluitso- 
ithor  Ittilei' 
Nor-.vny,  or 
trade  1»  ro- 
itlvoly  1  tlio 
10  klngilom 

0  coimlrlci, 
upocts  Hwe- 
Ir  ri'spcetlvc 
liolomow,  in 
ir  tbaii  thoio 
.rohlliltlonn, 

Idiid  or  do- 
ln  rcKpcet  of 
IRT  country, 

IwblcU  fliall 

1  tbe  gr  <wtU 
transit,  and 

be  nll"«'8d 
coutroctlng 
itlon  of  any 
on  tlio  arll- 
or  indnitry 
Importfttlou 

J  Import  and 
Eght-dues  ox- 
*l  In  the  ports 
Iiart  of  tlielr 
|tho  prlvUoRe 
irts  of  either 
|o  captiln  or 
l  romolndcr, 
liorgon  wliHl- 
Tj  landed,  the 
fcisoVs  manl- 
ll  diitlei,  i"i- 
1  or  may  Iw 
Ivcn,  nunl  111) 
|«uk  bulk,  or 
|i  dutlo",  etc., 
I  same  couii- 
litli  to  enter, 
|s,  wljcot  to 

tgM  botvfcon 
ttlth,  granted 
lig  competent 
Lot  from  any 


other  quarantine  than  such  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
visit  of  the  health  officer  of  the  port  where  such  vowel 
shall  have  arrived.  Other  sanitary  regulations  are 
mutually  stipulated  between  the  lii^h  contracting  par- 
ties, equally  liberal  and  beneticial  to  coinnierco.  The 
treaty  of  1783,  so  far  as  its  stipulations  are  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  present  treaty,  is  revived ;  and  the 
usual  twclvo  months'  notice,  after  the  expiration  of 
nine  years  from  the  exchange  of  ratillcatlons,  is  pro- 
vided for.  A  separati  article  reserves,  on  the  part  of 
Sweden,  certain  commercial  privileges  to  Finland,  ap- 
idlcablo  to  the  products  of  that  duchy,  and  of  Sweden 
and  Norway,  respectively. 

The  liaherios,  the  mines,  and  the  forests  of  this  king- 
dom were  tho  early  sources  of  Swedish  commerce, 
llftcgregor,  in  his  Tariff  Regulations  of  Sweden,  cites 
from  Tuffcndorf,  ono  of  the  counselors  of  state  to  the 
King  of  Sweden,  the  following  passage,  written  in  1680, 
relative  to  tho  productions  of  tliis  kingdom :  "  Sweden 
produces  more  copper  and  iron  than  any  other  kingdom 
in  tho  Vvorld,  and  the  mines  are  fltCed  by  nature  for 
that  purpose,  being  surrounded  by  woods  and  rivers. 
There  is  a  silver  mine  in  Wcstmanland.     Finland 
brings  forth  pitch,  and  tar,  and  deal ;  and  Werman- 
land  [Carlstadt]  good  store  of  masts.    Tho  native  com- 
modities of  Sweden  are  copper,  iron,  tar,  pitcli,  masis, 
deals,  boards,  etc.     In  lieu  of  which,  Sweden  receives 
fron\  abroad  wine,  brandy,  salt,  spices,  cloth,  silks,  and 
woolen  stuffs,  lino  linen,  French  manufactures  of  all 
sorts,  furs,  paper,  and  such  like ;  all  which,  in  some 
vears,   surpass   in  value  the  commodities   exported 
iience.     To  recompense  this,  navigation  and  commerce 
has  been  encouraged  of  late  years  among  tho  natives, 
and  several  sorts  of  manufactures  are  made,  whereof 
those  made  of  copper,  iron,  and  brass  would,  question- 
less turn  to  tho  best  account,  if  those  artists  [black- 
smiths and  copper-sndths]  were  duly  encouraged  to  set- 
tle in  this  kingdom." 

The  general  character  of  the  resources  and  foreign 
commerce  of  Sweden  has  undergone  but  little  change 
slnco  tho  foregoing  was  written.  The  extent  and  value 
havo  varied  somewhat,  but  l)y  no  means  in  a  ratio  cor- 
responding with  the  more  enlightened  and  the  more 
liberal  commercial  policy  of  tlie  age.  Tliij  is  mainly 
owing  to  the  restrictive  tariff  policy,  which  still  obtains 
in  Sweden,  by  which  duties,  equivalent  in  many  cases 
to  actual  prohibition,  arc  levied  upon  many  articles  of 
prime  necessity,  both  for  immediate  consumption  and 
manufacturing  purposes. 

Tho  following  table  exhibits  the  general  foreign 
trade  of  Sweden  during  the  year  1854,  compared  with 
tho  general  result  for  the  preceding  years  designated : 
Navioatiom  or  Sweden  in  1854. 


COMHIBOl  or  8wlD«M  IN  18&4. 

Rli  Dollftn 

Connlrlti. 


Mil  mijff 


Countnet. 


Vcuelt. 


Norway 

Kinland 

Rnmla 

Prusaia 

Denmark 

Mecklenburg 

LObcck  

Hamburg 

llrcinen 

Hanover  &  Oldenburg 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Great  Brit,  and  Ireland 

France 

Spain 

Portugal 

Itnly 

Gibraltar 

Austria 

Algiers 

United  States 

VVciat  Indies 

Brazil 

America  Renerally .... 
K.  Indies  and  Australia 
Capo  of  Good  Hope . 
Total 


1,306 
l.KiO 
81 
8»7 
4,415 
171 
6:9 

on 

34 

a 

81 

2T 

1,34T 

lilO 

(10 
179 

33 


I.Mla 


IU.648 


5(i,:i'j« 

18,097 

1,21)1 

17,157 

8ri.814 

7,802 

2l,3r>l 

4,389 

2,173 

279 

8,938 

3.840 

125,411 

20,778 

10,812 

17,r)09 

8,586 


6,214 
1,260 
6,087 

i,940 


418,556 


1182 

1,442 

78 

330 

4,400 

142 

402 

33 

22 

5 

14t 

40 

1,778 

864 

73 

82 

10 

17 

2 

26 

35 


Lull. 


20,774 

15,990 

951 

10,470 

74.085 

6,!:  53 

19,801 

1,709 

1183 

181 

7,290 

S,829 

172,628 

40.826 

8,891 

7,268 

2,438 

2,772 

148 

3,770 

8,886 


37  4,,M6 

12  2,101 

20  8,442 

47  8,607 


10,674  42a,16H 


Import*.  Btporto. 

Norway i,uA'i,mO  2,241,000 

Finland 1,4KI,000  276,000 

ItusHla 806,000  138,000 

Pruula l,IC5,00O  2,630,000 

Denmark 2,027,000  7,101,000 

Mecklenburg 32,000  448,000 

I.Ubeck 19,120,000  4,021,000 

Hamburg 1,777,000  406,000 

Itrcmen 421,000  821,000 

Hanover  and  Uldenburg  .           I,0(M)  38,000 

Netlicriands 628,000  1,381,000 

llelgliim 131,000  889,000 

Oreat  Krltaln  and  Ireland    9,264,000  23,01 8,000 

Franco 7H3,000  8,088,090 

Spain 601,uOO  1,081,000      ■; 

Portugal 461,000  1,892,000 

Italy 206,000  857,000       '. 

Gibraltar 74,000     '' 

Austria 268,000     -.h 

Algiers 862,000       <- 

lulled  Gtatea 8,260,000  2,178,000     ' ' 

Weatlndlcs 801,000  ....         ■• 

nraill 6,071,000  688,1100 

America  generally 180,000    , 

East  Indies  and  Australia      699,000  434,000 

Capo  of  Good  llopo __iii:'  815,000       | 

Total,  ISM 62,437,000  52,810,000    '" 

"       1847 28,040,000  30,920,000    -i  ' 

"       1846 20.600,000  '.14,880,000    ■,., 

"       1840 18,308,000  20,487,000 

"       1830 11,160,000  13,337,000 

"       1821 11,148,000  12,161,000 

The  preceding  tabic  exhibits  tho  following  results : 

Increase  In  18,30  over  1821 1,183,000  rix  dolUn  banco. 

"         1840  over  1S80 14,268,000  " 

"         1848  over  1840 0,736,000  " 

"         1847  over  1840 18,480,000  " 

1854  over  1847 40,287,000  " 

Notwithstanding  tho  annual  augmentation  instka 
general  foreign  commerce  of  Sweden,  which  the  above 
summary  exhibits,  the  trade  with  the  United  States 
has  been  marked  with  hue  little  variation. 

Tlie  total  trade  with  tho  United  States  in  1847,  ac- 
cording to  Swedish  official  authorities,  amounted  in 
value  to  3,341,000  rix  dollars  banco,  or  3.58,880  rix 
lars  banco  less  than  1840,  while  it  exceeded  that  of  1' 
by  779,000  rix  dollars  banco.  In  the  trade  between  tlu' 
United  States  and  Sweden  and  Norway,  the:'e  are  but 
comparatively  few  American  vessels  employed.  Tho 
following  comparative  statements  will  show  the  pro. 
portion  between  American  and  foreign  (mostly  Swedish 
and  Norwegian)  tonnage  employed  in  this  trade.  A 
period  of  ton  years,  from  1846  to  1864,  is  gclected,  as 
oftbrding  a  fair  average :  American  tonnage  employed 
in  tho  direct  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
Sweden  and  Norway,  frotn  1845  to  1854,  47,638  tons. 
Average  annual  tonnage,  47(i3-8  tons.  Foreign  (chiefly 
Swedish  and  Norwegian)  tonnage  employed  in  the  trade 
between  the  United  States  and  Sweden  and  Norway, 
during  tho  above  period,  232,089  tons.  Average  an- 
nual tonnage,  23,2089  tons,  or  nearly  600  per  cent,  of 
foreign  over  American  tonnage  annually  employed  in 
tho  trade  between  the  United  States  and  Norway  and 
Sweden.  In  1847  the  imports  of  Sweden  amounted  to 
nearly  11,100,000 dollar8(UnitedSute8 currency).  Of 
this  sum  Swedish  and  Norwegian  vessels  floated  nearly 
nine  million  dollars,  or  four-lifths  of  the  whole.  The 
exports  reached  the  sum  of  $12,276,000,  of  which  the 
Swedish  flag  covered  over  seven  and  a  half  millions,  or 
about  three-fifths  of  tho  whole. 

The  following  are  the  principal  colonial  product* 
entering  into  tho  importa  during  1847,  in  kilograms  of 
2'20  lbs.  each. 

guear     ' kllogs.  8,08.6,000 

Ooff"  "       8.036,000 

Cotton  "       2,072,000 

Tobacco.::.:... "       1.212(J00 

nyc.M0t.d8 "      ,?»».«<» 

Wines  and  spbrite litres.    2,160,000 

Of  the  exports,  iron  occupies  the  next  rank  to  Um- 
ber. Tlie  quantity  exported  in  bars  reached  82,212,000 
kilograms,  or  about  185,000,000  lbs.  .  ^  ' 


-iT 


8WE 


1782 


8WE 


ItOH  (tMaiTTDIXa  C'AtT  AHS  OTIIIIk  STVIII.)   IMFKIITKn  INTO  I 

TM  UniTiP  Statu  rHoii  >t»Ei>r.N  anu  Nohwav. 

Ymk.  <'<•>  Vuliin. 

liMB 'IVIAW  J)«  ll,l«« 

MM SNl,t)il3  TIT.llH 

IMT '.W,464  fllW.TM 

lt4S 49(1,081  T4(l,0r9 

IMS ««S,IIB:i  Tilt.SOfl 

IBM 397,liai  l.OiR.MT 

ISSt 403,(108  M-.',961 

ISBl «80,8',it  118,674 

ISnS 181,(149  448,809 

ISM S()S,13T  6IO,«»t 

18BK 890,1500  814,4118 

ISM SHn,690  8TO,7S» 

188T 838,434  T4l,44« 

The  value  of  Iron  qntte  equals  the  entire  value  of 
import!  Into  the  United  States  from  Sweden  for  each 
year  during  the  period  8|)eciHed.  The  export  of  Iron 
ore  is  prohibited.  The  annual  average  quantity  pro- 
duced the  last  Ave  years  is  estimated  at  800,000  tons. 
The  quantity  manufactured  during  the  same  period  is 
stated  to  have  been  140,000,  and  100,000  tons  of  bar 
iron.  The  annual  average  of  the  latter  exported  was 
80,000  tons.  The  average  price  of  pig-iron  In  Sweden 
is  8  rix  dollars  banco  the  siteppund— 7}  skeppun(fa  to 
the  ton,  or  J21  the  ton.  The  iron  mines  of  Sweden  be- 
long to  Joint-stock  companies  principuliy.  Almut  two- 
flfths  of  the  pig-iron  is  purchased  and  manufactured 
into  bar-iron  l)y  iron-masters  who  own  no  mines ;  but 
the  remaining  three-flfths  are  manufactured  by  the  com- 
panies that  own  the  mines  themselves.  The  produc- 
tion of  pig-ircn  was  formerly  limited  to  a  certain  spec- 
ified quantity,  whether  the  capabilities  of  the  mines 
and  miners  would  admit  of  more  or  not.  Under  tills 
unwise  regulation  of  the  government,  which  it  is  said 
was  adopted  to  prevent  tlie  exhaustion  of  the  fuel  of 
the  kingdom,  the  coal  and  forests,  the  annual  produc- 
tion never  exceeded  90,000  tons.  These  limitations 
have  for  some  years  been  done  away  with ;  nor  Is  there 
at  present  any  limitation,  beyond  a  matter  of  form,  to 
the  manufacture  of  bar-iron.  The  following  statement, 
showing  the  exportation  of  iron  from  1834  to  1840,  is 
fW>m  Swedish  official  returns : 

Frnin  1S84  to  ISM,  annual  average TO.SOfl  tons. 

-            •'     188'itol94a             "               ....  81,80,1    " 
"     18M  to  184S  "  08,000    " 

In  1841 88,BM    " 

The  above  exports  were  destined  principally  to  the 
following  countries,  and  in  annual  average  quantities 
as  follows : 

Oreat  Britain  . . ; 83,000  tons. 

,      L'Dlted  States 19,880    " 

"     Penmark S,1l»    " 

France B,i00    " 

Small  quantities,  in  the  shape  of  cannon,  bomb- 
shells, et'-.,  are  sent  to  Norway,  Holland,  and  Den- 
mark. The  number  of  blast  furnaces  in  operation  In 
1860  was  220 ;  of  workmen  employed  in  mining  the 
ore,  6241 ;  of  mines,  586.  The  importation  of  cotton  In 
1851,  according  to  Swedish  official  authorities,  amount- 
ed to  7,989,428  lbs.,  against  1,8.92,481  lbs.  in  1841,  and 
794,434  lbs.  in  1881.  In  1H43  these  authorities  show 
■n  impurution  of  2,600,000  lbs.,  against  9,883,572  lbs. 
in  1863,  wiiirh  latter  amount  exceeded  that  of  the  im- 
portation uf  1862  by  1,24<,041  ilis.,  and  that  of  186C  by 
more  than  5,200,000  lbs,,  being  the  largest  of  any  pre- 
ceding year.  In  1848  the  amount  was  8,074,020  lbs. 
The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported  to  SwedcM 
in  1850  was  946,000.  against  $7600  only  in  1861.  It 
may  be  well  now  to  inquire  into  the  Otieration  of  the 
tariff's  of  the  two  countries  respectively  upon  the  lead- 
ing staples  of  each,  chiefly  with  a  view  m  ascertain  to 
what  extent  the  importation  of  snch  products  contrib- 
utes to  the  respective  customs  revenue  of  each  country-. 
The  character  of  the  commercial  legislation  of  the  two 
nations,  in  its  effect?  upon  the  imiwrtation  of  staple 
articlec  of  prima  necessity,  from  each  into  the  other, 
will  best  show  how  far  the  reciprocity  stipulated  in  the 
treaty  of  1827  has  lieen  carried  into  practical  operation. 
This  inquiry  may  lead  to  usefol  and  obvious  sugges- 


tions, especially  If  it  results  In  demonstrating  that  * 
imsitive  Inequality  exists  in  practice,  under  which  one 
government  derives  fully  one-fifth  uf  itn  entire  customs 
revenue  annually  from  a  cent-per-cent.  duty  on  a  lead- 
ing staple  of  the  other,  without  tendering  any  compen- 
sating equivalent  for  a  tax  so  oppressive. 

The  importation  of  unmanufactured  American  to- 
bacco into  Sweden  and  Norway  (including  direct  and 
indirect  importations)  amounted  in  1851  to  more  than 
0,600,000  lbs.,  which,  luider  a  duty  equal  to  ceni  per- 
cent, ad  valorem,  pai(l  Into  the  Swedish  treasury  about 
(3SO,000,  or  one-fifth  of  the  whole  customs  reveiiuo  of 
the  kingdom — i^nd  this  upon  the  single  article  of  to- 
bacco ;  while  the  entire  exports  of  Sweden  and  isoi  ■ 
way  to  the  United  States  (amounting  to  I|9fi7,2il7)  paid 
Into  the  Treasury  of  ihe  United  Status,  at  30  pci-  cert., 
but  a  triHe  more  than  9200,000!  In  the  mean  time, 
nearly  40,000  tons  of  Swtdi-ih  and  Norwegian  shipping 
were  carrj'ing  profitable  American  freights  on  every 
sea,  while  but  4000  tons  of  United  States  shipping  mode 
single  voyages  direct  to  Sweden  and  Norway.  Not- 
withstanding the  most  earnest  and  repeated  remon- 
strnncos  against  these  unequal  restrictions,  and  this 
mu-tided  reciprocity,  no  amelioration  has  yet  tiiken 
place  in  the  tariff  regulations  of  .Sweden.  It  is  true, 
some  reductions  have  been  admitted  in  the  tariff  of 
1862  on  certain  articies  which  enter  into  American  ex- 
ports. The  duties  upon  coffee,  sugar,  arrack,  and  un- 
dressed hides  were  severally  reduced  33^,  26,  12|,  and 
8)  per  cent.,  and  upon  rice  in  the  busk,  or  paddy,  16'G 
per  cent.  But  these  concessions  were  clogged  to  such 
an  extent  by  the  repeal  of  the  2ith  article  of  the  tariff 
of  1849,  that  American  commerce,  so  fur  from  gaining 
any  advantage  by  them,  will  be  found,  by  the  simple 
process  of  striking  a  balance  between  the  results  of  the 
reductions  and  of  the  repeal,  to  bo  subjected  to  new 
and  oppressive  burdens.  The  24th  article,  or  the  dif- 
ferential clause,  appended  to  the  tariff  of  1849,  reduced 
the  duties  upon  certain  merchandise  imported  and  ex- 
ported in  Swedish  or  Norwegian  vessels,  as  loUows : 
Swedish  vessels  navigating  to  distant  countries  will 
continue  to  enjoy  the  advantage  of  the  following  re- 
duction in  duties  of  customs  and  convoy  im|)Osts,  viz. : 

Of  15  per  cent,  on  the  produce  and  manufactures  of 
countries  situated  on  tbo  continent  of  America  north  of 
the  2&th  degree  of  north  latitude,  or  of  any  oi  the  for- 
eign colonies  in  the  West  Indies,  If  impotteU  direct 
from  thence  in  Swedish  ships ;  and  of  the  like  reduc- 
tion on  Swedish  produce  and  manufactures  exported 
direct  to  foreign  colonies  in  the  West  Indies. 

Of  25  per  cent,  on  Swedish  produce  and  manufac- 
tures exported  in  Swedish  ships  direct  to  the  island  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  to  places  on  the  east  coast  of  the  con- 
tinent of  America  south  of  the  2ath  degree  of  north  lat- 
itude, or  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  the  like  re- 
duction on  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  those  coun- 
tries imported  direct  into  Sweden  in  Swedish  vessels. 

Of  i^  per  cent,  on  Swedish  produce  and  manufac- 
tuies  exportud  in  Swedish  ships  direct  to  places  on  tho 
other  side  of  tho  Cajw  of  Good  Hope,  as  also  to  ports 
on  thj  other  side  of  Capo  Horn  ;  ancl  on  the  produce 
and  manufactures  of  those  ports  and  places  imported 
from  thence  direct  in  Swedish  ships.  Under  the  treaty, 
those  privileges  apply  equally  to  American  vessels. 

The  effect  of  the  repeal  of  Ihu  article  is,  that  ever)- 
thing  imported  from  America,  exiept  the  articles  above 
enumerated,  has  been  chargeable  ninco  1st  of  January, 
1853— the  day  when  the  repeal  took  "fIVct— with  duties 
15  per  cent,  higher  than  before  that  period.  Tho  re- 
peal of  this  clause  was  granted  as  a  concession,  to  silence 
the  united  and  vigorous  remonstrances  of  England  ami 
Holland  against  the  operation  of  tho  Swedish  tariff 
regulations.  On  the  article  of  tobacco  alone  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  is  burdened  with  additional 
duties  amounting  to  $36,000  per  annum— enough  to 
affect  materially  the  sale  of  this  American  staple  in  the 
market*  of  that  country  j  and  a  trifling  reduction  o.' 


'  iili£t^^iilA!J,^-K^!^iUl!,^':^lil?^. ;  Jl^^i)^dlLkil!ih>^Wft£d£^:iiiU'.^U'il^. 


SWE 


1788 


SVVK 


1  one 
tnina 
leiwl- 
ipen- 

in  to- 
t  and 

I  than 

II  pei- 
about 

iiuo  of 

of  to- 
ld Wot 
17)  paid 
•>•  cert., 
n  time, 
hlppinK 
n  every 
iig  made 
,.    Not- 
I  remon- 

and  thU 
et  taUen 
t  U  true, 
I  tariff  of 
irlcan  ex- 
i,  and  un- 
,  121,  and 

iddy.ieo 

ed  to  such 
f  the  tariff 
im  gaining 
the  simple 
suits  of  the 
ted  to  new 
,  or  the  dlf- 
(49,  reduced 
ted  and  ex- 
as  loUows: 
untrles  wUl 
lUowlng  re- 
ipo>t9,  VIZ. : 
ifacturcs  of 
pica  north  of 
•  ov  the  for- 
)rtcd  direct 
like  reduc- 
)g  exported 

39. 

id  manufac- 
[be  Island  of 
U  of  the  con- 
I  of  north  lat- 
the  lilie  re- 
t  those  coun- 
[ish  vessels, 
nd  manufac- 
^laces  on  the 
jlso  to  ports 
the  produce 
;es  Importe*! 
It  the  treaty, 
In  vessels. 
A  that  ever)' 
[rticlos  above 
V  of  January, 
.with  duties 
1.     The  re- 
[on,  to  silence 
[England  and 
LedUh  tariff 
[one  the  com- 
]th  additional 
,_-«nough  to 
,  stople  In  the 
reduction  '^'^ 


duty  upi'H  '  ii  the  only  acknowleilgmfnt  whlrh  the  ' 
governmv  .it  of  Sweden  lias  yet  made  of  tlie  inJuslUe  1 
of  these  oppressive  restrictions.  The  following  taldo  i 
exhlhits  the  working  of  the  existing  tf  y  l>etw'3cn  I 
the  United  States  and  Sweden  during  the  years  1HI5, 
1840, 1H17, 1H48,  and  1810,  so  far,  ut  least,  as  it  rolutcs  ' 
to  the  commerce  bttwcon  tlio  two  countries.  It  Is  | 
translated  and  compiled  from  Swedish  ulBclal  publica- 
tions: 


The  nlteratioMs  rernmineiided  by  thU  commtttte 
were  generally  adopted.  After  .linuary  1,  18ifl,  th* 
articles  pnihihited  by  the  tarilT  of  W)h  are  to  be  ad- 
mitte<l  at  a  duty  equal,  generally,  to  26  |)er  cent.,  ex- 
cept gunpowder,  pig-lron,  and  certain  kinds  of  brandy, 
Tol)aeco  remains  ns  under  the  tariff  of  1852,  and  will 
doul>tless  l>e  reserved  as  u  basis  for  such  negotiations 
as  the  Swedish  government  may  have  in  contemplation 
relative  to  iron  duties  In  the  United  States.    The  priii- 


IxroBT  ANi.  mmnT  Traub  or  SwrnitN  with  tu»  t'HiTim \  •'•P"!  reductions,  though   not  of  great  importance  to 

American  commerce  wltli  Sweden,  apply  to  tire-arms, 
cheese,  printed  cotton,  undyed  cotton,  yam,  codAsli 
(dried  and  salted),  logwood  (made  free"),  Indian  com 


siATKB  mniMii  TiiK  Vkaub  Hi'miriBn. 
Ki|i»m. 


1S45. 
\tW  . 

\M1  . 
1848. 
1841  . 


By  American 
T<miili|ia. 


Pttt'inl 
S6 
10 
!10 
W 


linporU. 

ny~trw«auh 

PerOnl. 

ni 

M 

no 

M 

51 


\ 


Anurienn 
initRKK. 
PirV.iilT  " 
»l 
U 
Vi 
10 


»yS«ii(llih 
TiinnitKfl. 


PerCiitl. 
lA 
OT 
80 
50 


TollACOO  IMPORTFO  I»TO  MWKIlBN,  WITH  TIIK    InorORTIOM 
FBOM  TIIR  I'HITKIt  StatFS. 


1845. 

1140. 
1847. 
184^. 

1849. 


ToIrI  Importt. 

PduiiiU. 


1Mr»rl  rroii)  riilled  SUtrti. 


Pidinili. 

9,490,11(^0 
2,ft2;!,IK)0 
1,1144,000 
2,180,000 
8,8r>S,0;lo 


I  _  l.«llf. 

I      P,iiinija. 

1,5Srt,IM)0   I  1,011,1)00 

1,fl!l'J,000  I  1,0711,000 

011,000  l,^^5,(loo 

1,303,000  1,4fl'i,0'iO 
l,40,'>,iioo  I  1,44'!,0<IO 


Nt«nii. 
Puundi. 

1,150,000 
001,000 
MO,(MK) 
01)0,000 

1,2.W,000 


The  following  statement  shows  the  amount  of  Amer- 
ican tonnage  arrived  at  Swedisii  ports,  and  amount  of 
Swedish  tonnage  arrived  at  United  States  ports  direct 
from  each  country,  or  from  foreign  nations;  also, 
amniint  of  Swedish  tonnage  arrived  at  transatlantic 
ports  from  the  Uiiited  States,  with  full  cargoes : 
American  Tosnaor  aruiveo  at  Swf.dish  Ports. 

In  IS+I 6600  toDS. 

In  1S45 1700    "  1 

In  1847 WOO    " 

In  1849 4000    " 

In  1849 3800    " 

Swedish  Toxmaok  AoarviD  at  Auerican  Torts. 

ln1S45 17,000  tons. 

In1S40 14,600    " 

In  1847 '^1,000    " 

In1848 17,000    " 

InlS4D 17,000    " 

BWEVIBU   TO.NSAaK   ARRIVED  AT   HtBOPEAS  I'OBTS  FROM  IIIB 
I'NITBU  ST.VTM. 

]nl84B 60,000  tons. 

In  1840 Sfl,000    " 

Jnl84X  00.000    " 

Inl84s'. 63,000    " 

-"iS4) M,m    " 

Ac,  ording  to  the  laws  of  Sweden,  each  triennial  Diet 
proposes  a  new  tariff,  whicli  is  designed  to  remain  in 
force  three  years ;  tho  king  having,  in  the  mean  time, 
constitutional  power  to  lower,  but  not  to  raise,  any  du- 
ties whatever,  provided  a  certain  sum  bo  obtained  from 
the  customs.     The  tariff  of  1852  continued  in  force  un 


(committee',,  recommendation  adopted),  salted  meat, 
smoked  or  dried  do.,  spermaceti  candles  (reduced  M) 
per  cent.),  rosin  (do.),  rice. 

DESCHIPTIOH    AXn  QPANTITIRS  op  CERTAIII  MRBCHANmsa  IM. 
POHTKII  INTO  HWEIIEK   IN  THE  YeAPS  1801    ANII   18M. 
Arllclei.  IHal.  lUI. 

8uRor,  liinf pounds        M.liOfl  821 ,808 

oll:cr  kliiili.      "       24,70iMi2(i  26,046,762 

ColTco "         0,0i;i,l»4  111,3711,004 

Oottuu "          7,180,428  8,030,631 

TolMcco  sloms •'         1,448,187  1,s68,fl8S 

Wiac8indiplrtt«..kanna         20li,U33  312,166 

Besides  the  articles  above  specified,  the  returns  for 
1862  show  an  increase  over  1851  In  the  following  de- 
scriptions of  merchandise,  viz. : 

IS5I. 

1)02,003 
8,001,674 


Arlleln. 

Cotton  yarn pounds 

Hides 

Llnnei'd-oU "  402,014 

Coal "  634,080 

CMtJtcel "  20,238 

Sulphuric  Bcld "  189,225 

8cRp "  140,403 


I  SSI. 

1,240,78!) 

8,4111,432 

1,1011,130 

683,418 

54,968 

190,834 

182,260 


The  principal  articles  of  which  tlie  importation  in 
1852  was  less  than  that  of  1851  were  cocoa,  fish  (dried 
and  smoked),  salt,  cheese,  spirits  of  turpentine,  tobacco 
(leaf  and  cut),  flsh-oU,  wool,  etc. 

The  exports  of  articles  of  domestic  produce  from  the 
United  States  to  Swcdon  and  Norway  for  tho  year 
ending  June  30,  1857,  may  be  thus  divided:  Cotton, 
$1,24U,042;  tobacco,  $84,871 ;  other  articles,  80,893— 
total,  $1,373,,S0G. 

The  navigation  returns  for  1852  show  a  total  of  7803 
vessels  entered,  with  an  aggregate  of  343,093  lusts.  Of 
the  total  numbier  of  vessels,  there  were  Swedish  4154, 
measuring  an  aggregate  of  133,903  lasts ;  1288  vessels, 
canying  In  oil  109,272  lasts,  under  the  Norwegian  Hag ; 
550  vessels  of  34,025  lasts,  belonging  to  Finland ;  and 
1311  vessels,  roeasuring  06,483  lasts,  under  foreign 
flags.— Com;  Kel.  U.  S. 

Principal  PorM.- -Gottenburgfi,  or  more  properly 
G6thaborg,  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Sweden,  border- 
ing the  Cattegat,  near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Gotha, 
lat.  57°  42'  4"  N.,  long.  11°  57'  45"  E.  Vessels  do 
not  come  up  close  to  the  city,  but  lie  in  the  river  or 


til  January  1, 1855.  In  the  Diet  of  1854  many  import- ;  barbor,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  shore—goods  being 
ant  reductions  were  recommended  by  the  committee  on  ,  conveyed  to  and  from  them  by  lighters.  The  depth  of 
revenue,  but  they  declined  recommending  any  precise  j  water  in  the  port  is  17  feet,  and  there  is  no  tide,  bar, 
change  on  tobacco  duties.    Tliey  referred  this  subject  or  sliallow 


to  the  king,  to  whom  a  recommendation  was  made  to 
enter  into  negotiations  with  foreign  governments,  with 
a  view  to  obtain  reductions  upon  Swedish  prv  luce  in 
exchange  for  lighter  tobacco  duties.  These  negotia- 
tions were  understood  to  refer  chiefly  to  iron  duties  in 
tho  United  States.  Among  tlie  reductions  proposed 
by  this  committee  are  the  following : 

Indian  corn  to  be  reduced  from  40  to  10  cents  per  barrel. 

Cotton  thread,  from  20  to  13  cents  per  pound. 

Wool,  from  6  cents  to  11  cent  per  pound. 

Dye-woods,  trom  1  per  cent,  ad  valorem  to  free. 

Hope,  from  20  to  13  cents  per  131  Iba. 

Salt,  from  30  to  14  cents  iier  barrel. 

Copper,  raw,  from  *2  lo  40  cents  per  S76 1  tw. 

Copier,  Pcftncd,  trom  $9  to  :f  1  00  per  875  lbs 

Copier  plates,  from  lH3  36  to  $2  70  per  375  lbs. 

Steam-engines,  from  20  and  10  per  cent,  to  5  per  cent,  ad 
valorem 


Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  Lake  Maeler  with  an  inlet  into  the  Ualtlc. 
The  entrance  to  tho  harbor  is  intricate  and  dangerous, 
and  should  not  be  attempted  without  a  pilot ;  but  the 
harbor  itself  is  capacious  and  excellent — the  largest 
vessels  lying  in  close  to  tlie  quays.— See  Stockholm. 

Bergen,  the  first  commercial  city  of  Norway,  sit- 
uated at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay,  in  lat.  60°  24'  N.,  and 
long.  5°  20'  E.  The  bay  is  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
rugged  rocks  and  islands ;  the  water  is  deep,  but  the 
entrance  to  the  town  is  difficult,  and  needs  a  pilot. 

J/onw/ndure*.— The  value  of  manufactures  of  all 
kinds  at  registered  factories  was :  In  1889,  $5,489,128 ; 
in  1846,  $7,084,947;  in  1848,  $8,808,848;  in  1849, 
$9,239,899;  in  1850,  $9,891,072;  in  1851,  $9,918,866, 
showing  an  increase  since  1889  of  $4,474,748 ;  sine* 


Tools  and  machinery,  not  specially  enumerated,  ftom  26  to  1  ^        ^^  $2,828,919 ;  and  since  1849,  of  $673,967, 
per  cent  ad  valorem.  !**• 


6  per 


SWE 


1784 


SWE 


r*  A'    CoMMiioi  or  Tni  U'mitiu  8tat»  with  Hwimc  and  NniwAV  rBOM  Outobm  I,  I8S0,  to  Jolt  t,  ISBT 

«i^^— ■■  I  '  I  I  — r.ir-: — r:x_-:_    —  ~ 1 —  


*  Nine  inonthM  to  Jtinu  80,  aud  thu  fiical  year  from  tliU  tlmo  boi^a  July  1, 


Tlio  importation  of  raw  cotton  into  Swcdnn  in  1B61 
amounted  to  7,S)8t>,428  lbs.,  bc-in^  lnrf{er  tlian  tlie  im- 
portation of  tlie  previous  j-enr  by  ll,'i;ih,68H  llis.  It  was, 
moreover,  tlie  largeat  quantity  over  iin ported  in  a  ain^le 
year,  except  in  1M48,  wlien  tlio  amount  was  8,074,020 
Iba.  ]n  1831  tlia  amount  im|iortod  was  794,434  ll»., 
and  in  1841,  1 ,882,431  lbs.  Tlio  amount  <if  cotton  twist 
produced  in  Sweden  in  1H51  wus  I>,00r>,n81  llis.  (chietly 
No.  2G),  and  was  valued  nt  (11,311,777.  In  1860  the 
quantity  was  r>,734,332  \h».,  and  the  value  $1,270,060. 
The  amount  of  cotton  cloth  manufactured  in  1861  was 
1,730,000  English  yards,  and  the  number  of  people 
employe'l  in  registered  cotton  factories  was  over  8000, 
In  1^  %i.e  value  of  exported  cotton  manufactures  wai 
146,000.  In  1861  it  decreased  to  $7600.  In  1860, 
imported  cotton  cloth,  170,000  lbs, ;  imported  cotton 
twist,  893,000  lbs. :  total,  1,003,000  lbs.  In  1851,  im- 
ported cotton  cloth,  195,600  lbs. ;  imported  cotton  twist, 
1,068,000  lbs. :  total,  1,263,600  lbs.  Tobacco  was  im- 
ported in  1851  into  Sweden  to  the  amount  of  4,141,699 
lbs.,  of  which  only  42,642  lbs  were  manufactured. 
Of  the  whole  amount  2,667,982  lbs.  came  direct  from 
the  United  States ;  the  remainder  chiefly  from  Uerman 
ports.  In  1860  the  importation  was  8,870,899  lbs. ; 
41,795  lbs.  manufactured.  At  79  tobacco  manufactories 
in  the  iiingdom  them  were  employed,  in  1851,  1277 
workmen,  and  the  sales  were  valued  at  $647,120;  con- 
listing  of  200,176  Il>s.  of  cigars,  2.760,728  lbs.  of  snutf, 
and  1,632,555  lbs.  of  other  prepared  tobacco;  in  all 
4,583,453  lbs.  Tobacco,  in  small  quantity,  and  of  very 
bad  quality,  is  grown  in  the  neighlwrliooti  of  Stock- 
holm, but  I  believe  in  no  other  piirt  of  the  kingdom. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the  accompanying  table 
and  tho  foregoing  notices  of  Swedish  woven  goods  refer 
only  to  the  registered  factories,  and  do  nut  exhibit  half 
of  the  actual  manufactures  of  the  kingdom.  None  of 
the  homespun  cloths  are  included,  for  which,  of  every 


description,  the  Swedish  peasantr}'  are  remarkable, 
and  of  which,  unfortunately,  it  is  impossilile  to  obtain 
exact  accounts  of  the  value  or  quantity.  The  province 
or  county  most  distinguished  for  these  pro<luctions  is 
that  of  Klfsborg,  of  which  Oottenburg  is  the  market. 
The  home-made  manufactures  of  this  province,  over 
and  above  the  amount  consumed  by  its  own  inlial>- 
itants,  were,  in  1860  and  1861  (inclusive  of  stocidngs, 
quilts,  and  ribbons),  og  follows : 

18C0— Cotton  KtuffK 4,842,000  Engliih  jards. 

"       I.lnenituffi ifI6,!00  " 

"       Woolen  stuffs 8»9,1T0  " 

"       Cotton  handkorcbl«& . . .  l,44S,!Ki8  pieces. 

1851— Cotton  stuffit 4,763,000  t^ngllsh  yards.  . 

"       l.liien  stuffs aiO.SilO  '• 

"       Woolen  stuffs 840,161  " 

"       Cotton  handkerchiefs  . . .  1,08S,S81  pieces. 

These  quantities  have  slightly  diminished  of  lata 
years,  and  the  registered  factories  are  accordingly  en- 
couraged. 

The  homespun  mannfactures  of  Gefleborg  whi'li 
were  sold  in  1849  amounted  to  1,423,883  yards  ;  those 
of  AVestmoreland  to  306,338  yards ;  and  those  of  Hol- 
land to  162,700  yartls. 

The  productions  of  other  provinces  are  not  given  r> 
liably ;  but  enough  Is  known  to  prove  that  the  amount 
of  such  fabrics  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the 
registered  manufactures;  and  their  productions,  es- 
pecially of  linen  cloth,  surpass  in  durability,  and  rival 
in  fineness,  tho  best  productions  of  the  factories. 

The  value  of  manufactures  of  all  kinds  at  registered 
factories  was:  In  1889,  $6,439,128;  in  1846,  $7,084,947 ; 
in  1850,  $9,891,072;  in  1853,  $10,151,724;  in  1854, 
$11,841,013 ;  and  in  1866,  $14,437,645.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  the  increase  in  ten  years  has  been  near- 
ly $7,000,000  (100  per  cent.),  and  in  twelve  months 
$2,600,000.  The  importation  of  raw  cotton  into  Swe- 
den in  1865  reached  to  14,783,629  lbs. ;  in  1868  the 


NVVK 


,. ' , """  "'iw.iw/i  i„..  v„i; "'"'"'  "'" 

«'•  li«v«  •H"»H«».*rt«|,,«     "  ,'    '1'"''  ''"<'"  no   «!.«!; 

•'«»«»  Im  (»?,(),  |„  ,^  ,f7  H  "W.  Hourly  twice  „„.«t. 
I »  h..,H.rU.lm.  „f  .m,„,.„,.t  ,"'''«  ««,  *,,!{,;«';. 
""  "•  ""*'*  »'»«H..»..,I  t„  4  f,  ,    ,T'„'"'"«'™  Into  Sw„. 

."";,"'?  •"''«'•«•(»  <'<»ii,„mi.,l  In  '  "'"'''"■■"''l.v  more  than 

;r«.mrl.«M«.r«,,',,,U,„  ,„,"•  '^^i',  ""'''^^h  "'i-  country 
«I;"V«  ih«  .,m,„«l(v  .■. r,„,2  .    T  "  «°°''"'  over  a"„ 

y«r.i„  w,..i.„  h,,„„;  „^';^f"  ;r-.  'f  »,329  e„«u,, 

""'*'' f  flifM  wefs  wov„,    ';.,/"  "'o  I*»vince  of 

:  '•-'"  «l.m.  ^.W  (;;•,"': ';<'l«?'''f.  i..  their 


No.  of 


i'ili'"!'  r"'  '•i™ 

Hnil-rlolti  ' 

'*i'»'kluK»...  I        ■ 

<  I'll™  prluiloi '" 

p-iitf«r 1 HI 

I'lmcco I       17 

''"piT. 
I-f'ather  . , . 
I'yi'-lioiwiia 

filUMg 

•  'liln. 

►jarihcn-waro 

I  ''""■'IT.  .'.','.'.'.' 

5*'«x  cniKli™.' 

"Iiwrln 

Hoap ^'  *  * ' 

KoiKj *" 

•lockii  ...""■ 
l;iayln|t«r.li; 
''•II  pajmr  i 

J-oloriaiidac'ldV." " 

'  ottchtH . .  10 

l,-"om.rmaich™,' '" 

r-nitliiia . . .        I 

V«rlou,,„   ,V  — y;^i^^j     » 


-.aai.wii 
n.  49 1, mil 

fl,IITMI8» 

4<,Mil 
W,T41 
ll4T.mil 

.  ll»,<fs 

T.8(l«,34(i 

'•i.4*'4,W| 

l,IIW.l)4T 

«,  1 14,11111 

H'll.lWl 

MO,"  1 1 

•»14,4(MI 

HD.rxlT 

l.<»4T,a()fi 

HI  .417 
310,4(11 

4n,iMi 

8«,»7.1 
WS,«.W 
I44S03 

lau.iM 

I'^iB.ffllO 

_UM,8.'I7 
III1.IHI4,1U 


MINI!  n,/M)(J 

fi«flsliMfj{  t,„„  ^g,       ^        ^     ...  w.„  province  of    —//  o  //  '  "i""»iont  to  40  .■phi,  Alj^^nr--'^ — •~:.:z::z.] 

_( ''mMmon  ,„  mt  i-|„«„  ^  .  ™°"  1  "mnirfuetures  of  Sweden.      ™'°"  ""  "">  "«"»  "nd 


i^ufit.  80,  iSgf.TT' 

im,,,,, 

'I'diiti,,, 

i*«p(,8«,|«fl| 

j»lll*... 

i»wi 

^<" ;. 

'f«(iii,,, 

L       i^w ;; 

'*Ja,     ,, 

l««0,         ' 


ISJO,  TO  Jnir  1,  I8ST. 

TonnHff*  rlfftrf  ,1. 


'»'»t«l,,,— pfJK^r, 


=-^  ■"•'"''         a,6M  7993;  ,,'is^        ■•••  TS 

°  <».  -4  the  fcca  year  from  tbla  ttaoleg.;:,  Julyl 


flWI 


1780 


SWf 


Svtduk  IKM(/Hrftf<.— TlinUlanilnrAl.  lUrtluilnintw 
U  tli«  only  iMiMniiliiii  of  the  NwhiIm  in  Anicrlni.  It 
liclongi  til  th*  Irawanl  K"'"!'!  *"''  '"  •Itimli'  inhtniUy 
In  Ut.  17°  M)'  N.,  *n<l  Iomk.  H'i"  'I'i'  W.,  ilUtunt  I'i 
niilv*  fruin  Ht.  Murtiii,  *nil  alMiut  MO  rnmi  Ht.  Chrintn- 
|ili«r.  It  U  about  H  intlti  lunt(.  )>>'  frcini  'i  to  11  inlli>it 
wliU,  unit  ciintalna  mi  snit  uf  alHUit  'i't  miiiurn  mllaii, 
t'i|iit«l,  OiintavU.  Th*  Idnnil  la  of  itn  IrraKular  iiliii|w, 
■ml  ilBt|ily  imUntctl  !>)'  niinieriiiM  uniiill  iiunily  hay*, 
•(•imrittacl  liy  UiM  uiiil  iitr*p  rucky  ucillvltiii  iif  mcrtl- 
iiritte  hiil)(lit.  In  tli«  lnti>rliir  it  lit  hilly,  liut  itn  liiftlciit 
nlovaliunjt  are  lut  than  llHK)  funl.  In  mcmt  piiria  it  la 
barren  ami  atariln,  but  hua  numiToua  wgil-iultlviititil 
vnllaya,  It  |im<lu<'iia  nil  tha  ala|ili<a  uf  tha  Waat  Inillca 
— cotton,  au|{ur,  tolmcco,  inill)((i,  i<t>-.,  anil  nlao  liKnuni 
vital  anil  irun  wood,  Ita  only  ux|xirta  aro  nittlo  anil 
iHims  aalt.  Water  la  icarcs,  ami  th*  iiihaUtant*  ile|i«nil 
for  aupply  on  the  raina.  Tlia  only  harbor  la  I,it  (.'iir«- 
nai{c,  a  aafo  ami  riiiiinioiliiiua  one,  ami  miii'li  rrei|iient- 
eil.  It  if  on  the  wvat  liile  of  the  iaiaml.  (ioae  by  la 
(iuatavia,  the  prinrl|ml  town,  a  thriving  filiirn,  having 
conslilerublo  cuminert'e  with  the  n«iKhlHirin){  iaiiimla. 
1'he  iHipulatlon  ia  eatimated  at  Iwtween  HOUU  and  wm, 
of  which  two-thinia  are  blacka.  Tlie  ainvea  were  eman- 
cipated on  the  9th  of  October,  1)M7,  nnd  on  (hia  ocniaion 
the  n(|{ro«a  tendered  lo  the  KhiK  of  Sweden  an  aildrraa 
of  thanka,  Ht.  llartholoiiiew  waa  aattled  by  tho  French 
In  Id-IN,  ami  was  ceded  to  the  Hwedp.t  in  17H'l,with  whom 
it  atill  remaiiia. 

Swedish  veaaela  from  tho  ialand  of  St.  Ilartholomew 
are  plareil  on  an  equal  footing  with  thiiae  of  the  United 
btatca  by  tho  treaty  with  Sweden  and  Norway  of  .Inly 
4,  1H27, — Sfe  Thkatikh,  C'iimmkiicial. 

8witB«rluid  (<ier.  ttchirtiu ;  Vt.  Lit  fluiut ;  it. 
//I  Mzxerii),  ■  country  of  Central  Kurnpe,  lietwren  l«t. 
45°  60'  and  47°  50'  N.,  and  long.  6°  66'  and  10°  HO' 
K,,  having  cuat  the  principality  of  i.ichtenatein  and  the 
'i'ynd,  aoutli  I.oinbanly  ami  Sanliiiiu,  weat  Fruiicr, 
north  nnd  northeaat  linden,  Wdrteinberg,  anil  Ilnvnria. 
l.ength  21U  milea,  breadth  75  to  MO  mile».  At  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  1000  tu  KHX)  feet,  the  climate  la  pure  and 
■alubriiiua ;  but  it  is  unhealthy  in  many  of  the  deep 
and  narrow  valleya.  Vegetation  '-orrosiKinds  with  the 
extreniea  of  climate.  In  the  Vnlaia  tho  lig  nnd  grape 
ri;ien  ut  the  fiM>t  of  ice-clod  niountnina,  wliile  ncur 
their  aummlta  ttuo  rhmludendron  and  the  Iklun  grow  ut 
tho  limit  of  the  anow  line,  'i'lie  com  raiacd  in  Switz 
eriand  ia  not  nearlv  aufliolentfor  the  Kupply  of  ita  |Hip 
ulatlon ;  the  moat  productive  cantons  are  thoae  of  tho 
north  and  weat.  Here  the  vine  ricvns  at  an  elevation 
of  1000,  and  in  gome  plarea  at  'ilOVi  feet  above  the  »en. 
It  Is  cultivatod  on  tbe  slopes  of  the  Jura,  and  In  the 
valley  a  of  the  Rhine,  Khone,  lleuws,  Limmnt,  nnd  Thur. 
Huckwhrnt  ripens  at  an  elevation  of  2200,  and  with  a 
sivuthrni  exposure  at  3000  feet ;  barley,  r}'e,  potatoes, 
and  [lilt  herbs  nt  IIMK)  feet.  Max  and  hemp  aro  exten- 
sivrli  Kfown;  irrigation  ia  Judiciously  managed  ;  uml, 
III  general,  agriculture  is  making  consideruble  prugreas. 
'i'lie  sio|i«»  of  the  .1  ura  and  of  the  Al|is,  and  tho  high  re- 
gions of  tbe  tablr-Und,  are  covered  with  valuable  tim- 
ber trees  the  oak,  bee«h,  larch,  and  birch.  The  pine 
grows  ti )  an  elevation  of  6700  feet,  shrubs  to  7 100.  Tho 
great  wealth  of  Switzerland  consists  in  its  rich  and  ex- 
cellent luiHturea,  whuh  in  summer  support  vast  num- 
bers of  rattle  ;  the  finest  breeds  are  those  of  the  Sini- 
nwiithal,  Gessenay,  tiruyere,  Zug,  and  Schwytz.  Tho 
cultivation  of  the  vine  is  an  important  branch  of  Indus- 
try in  tho  southwest  cantons,  and  wine  is  exported. 
Kirichiccuer,  cider,  and  perry  are  made.  C'lioese  is  a 
valuable  product ;  it  is  made  chiefly  in  (JeBsenay,  the 
SImmentlial,  and  the  binmenthal ;  that  culled  Gruycru 
is  much  esteemed  and  extonsi voly  exported. 

Switzerland  has  made  rapid  progress  in  manufac- 
turing industO'-  The  eust  and  northeast  cantons 
manufacture  cotton  goods,  thu  chief  seats  of  which  are 
Appenzell  and  St.  Gail.  Silks  are  woven  in  Zurich 
Bnd  Basle,  and  linens  ut  liern.    Neufuhatel  has  supe- 


rior printing  astablishmenta.  Watrhaa,  Jewalry,  anil 
inuaii'ki  iHixes  are  III*  prinrl|ial  maiiiifartiirea  uf  the 
Wf at  ranluna )  h»re  2il0,lNMI  walihea  am  liiailu  evury 
year.  The  niiiuti«r  uf  imlividuala  enipbiyed  In  Ihn  illf- 
ferentbranchimiif  tnduatry  in  iNlllwemi  Hilka, '<0,(NN)  | 
ciittima,  110,000 :  watchna  and  Jewelry,  l)0,(KHI ;  wmilaiia, 
|ia|ier,  leather,  iron  warea,  eti'.,  it),>m\  in  all,  200,000, 
Hwitterlaiiil  I'lnitnlna  a  |Mipulallon  of  2,!NMI,IIH,  and 
enibraiea  an  area  of  15,201  ai|iiur«  miloa,  I'nlillimliy 
It  la  divided  into  twunty-two  lantona,  aa  foUuwl  i 


Appi'iiat*!  , , . . 

Aaraau 

Ilwlu 

Ilcru 

Kri'ybiirg 

Nl.  iiall 

iilarus 

Ilrntiva 

(iriaimi 

l.iireniK 

NiHifrhalfl  . . . 
HrlialfhauaeB. 

Hrhwyta 

Holrum 

Tlrlun 

Thurgau 

I'ntvrwaldcD  . 

1  rl 

Valala 

Valid 

Ziif 

Zurloli 

Total.,. 


a.|n>r.  MIUi 

'  I',>|imU|Iuii 

imi 

M,>MW 

WW 

1110,190 

IHtt 

tll.lMA 

1,MT 

UAM\ 

MIA 

Wl.HIIO 

T*l 

IIW.MM 

VW) 

VO.IUT 

n 

tll.VM 

a,iHR 

NU,IUO 

MH 

iii'i.Taii 

111 

10,I1I» 

ii« 

■A,9TI 

BD'J 

44,  IM) 

MB 

A'l.mit 

l.ODT 

Ilt,ll»T 

970 

IM,S|'.I 

9IIII 

9A,l:ift 

m 

It.fiOO 

LOW 

»i,rwi 

1,IW 

\w,v* 

M) 

\t,VA 

Out 

IM),1II« 

1^3«l 

U.iitO.iiF 

A  more  moderate  tariff  than  that  now  levied  III 
Switzerland  upon  our  princl|ial  ataplea  could  not  bu 
desired.     Kor  instance, 

llmln  nfrrrry  kind  p.iya  a  duty  of  onljr  B  esDta  per  llOi  IIm, 

lllcv,  llcpiita " 

Htltril  iiMvlalona,  06  oents " 

I.iird,  W  ctiiitu ** 

firlpil  vcKi'tiilili'ii,  3  ri*uta ** 

WlmlKull,  0  nnlB 

WlialilKiiii^  W  wnl " 

'I'lilmi'co,  &S  ci'lUa *^ 

Wool,  raw  ur  romlied,  0  rrnta ** 

IVit  aud  pi'srl  aaliea,  t)  ccuta ** 

Koalii,  0  I't'iila " 

Tslluw,  tfronfa '* 

Tlie  commercial  relations  between  tlia  United  Htatas 
and  Switzerland  are  regulated  by  treaty,  exchanged 
Noveiiibor  Htli,  and  proclaimed  Novemlier  Ulh,  INA5, 
Article  1  places  citizens  of  cither  country  residing  in 
tho  otlicr  U|)on  a  footing  of  equality  with  native  cit- 
izens, subject  to  the  conatitutionul  uml  legal  pruvlalnna, 
us  well  federal  us  state  and  cantonal,  of  the  contrail- 
ing  parties.  Article  7  provides  for  tho  ap|Milntment 
and  jiowers  of  consuls  and  vice-consuls  In  the  large  cit- 
ies and  iiii|iortant  commercial  places,  in  tlie  countrivs 
of  the  contracting  parties  rospectively.  Article  H  pro- 
vides that  In  ail  that  relates  to  the  importation,  ex 
portation,  and  transit  of  their  respective  products,  tlin 
I'liitcd  States  of  America  and  tho  Swia.s  coiifeileratloii 
shull  treat  each  other  reciprocally  as  the  moat  favored 
nation :  thus,  neither  of  the  contracting  partiua  ahull 
impose  any  higher  or  other  dutiea  U|ion  the  imiHirtatimi, 
«x|iortation,  or  transit  of  the  natural  or  induatrUI  prixl- 
luts  of  the  other  than  are  or  shall  be  payable  upon 
the  like  articles,  being  the  produce  of  any  other  coun- 
try, not  embraced  within  its  present  limits.  Article  10 
provides  that  neither  of  the  contracting  parties  shull 
grant  any  favor  In  commerce  to  any  nation,  union  of 
nations,  state,  or  society  which  shall  not  imniediutil) 
lie  enjoyed  by  tho  other  party.  Article  11  pro\lile« 
that  each  country  shall  be  at  liberty  to  determiiiu  the 
manner  of  establishing  tho  origin  of  its  own  produiti 
destined  to  enter  the  country  of  the  other,  should  dif- 
ferential duties  be  established  by  either  on  the  proiliiiti 
of  uny  nation.  Article  12  provides  that  the  tarritoriea 
and  ports  of  each  country  shall  be  open  to  the  oiliiiU- 
sion of  ortieles  from  the  other;  such  articles,  wlioii  im- 
ported into  tho  United  States  under  the  national  lla){, 
or  undar  that  of  one  of  the  nations  most  favored  by 


«.iun,ip„^/^:^;;,X'''- minora      ^^y^'^r;;:-s:z^-''^''"^'^'"-"'"'^'i^i^'Zi 


I  .     •  ""t   "llTIIlg 

•""-•'--""""""""  '-'^  "'"■  ^-^«'» "^^  ^ «^'-H::^fc' iia'' H»^i" t;;;;:;:^[^ 

Y«™  "*;  ''*""<'  em'Tacing  thirteen  year. 


<l«l..|j.»  „r  /•„„,( ,,     t  i,|„h/ '  ,,""  ."'^™''.  '■'"",  and  other   IS3» «  nTJS  !  ^'""-  kiL 

-"•  «ll.Vr  ..{acem  etitrL""  '""'".'  "'"""81.  *  '.nee  1 1',^ ••  •  ■  i  i.S.C     n'i J  US 

fi'rjl«n  markiL.   '"'^"""'"^  ^'"'  'hoso  countries  in   wero  from  the'  United  SUte,      A^  ^'^'J^'^'^^''  ""• 


»m,um  to    he  „""/":,:  ""','.'>""-'•  ''-"■"ver,  sucl, 


-771 r—. —1 '"••■ 

I lirouKh  !■  rauco iKoiflTKi 

OfwhlchfromtlloL-DUed      '"''"^' 

rromothcnphce;:; : ; : : :  .T'*''*^'JJi 


1B,8 18,473  14,1178,857 

16,706,660  14,870,381 
= -^uii ;5'^'^ 1?>"J^        08,926 


SWI 


1788 


SWI 


vcxatioiu  and  expensive  tntnsitage,  epecially  throngh 
France.  The  oppression  of  tliis  burden  may  Ira  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  annual  average  aggre- 
gate value  of  mercliandise  on  which  transit  tolls  are 
paid,  proceeding  flrom  Switzerland,  was  in  18&3  nearly 
$8U,000,000 ;  and  the  value  of  that  proceeding  to  that 
republic  more  than  half  as  much. 

Switzerland  sent  in  transitu  to  France,  cotton  tis- 
sues to  the  value  of  nearly  $3,000,01)0  in  1852,  and  to 
the  value  of  nearly  i|4,00O,O0O  in  1853.  By  the  French 
tariff  such  fabrics  are  excluded  from  France  for  con- 
sumption. Since  1845,  Switzerland,  it  is  stated  offi- 
cially, has  quite  superseded,  in  the  marliots  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  the  yams  of  Ureat  Britain. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  quantities  of 
cotton  received  by  Switzerland  from  the  United  States, 
and  of  cotton  stuffs  sent  to  the  United  States  from 
Switzerland,  made  up  from  Swiss  official  sources : 
Cotton  fvom  tub  I'mitru  Statrb  to  Switzkrland. 

ISno 16,042,740  llH.  I  1853 19,066,200  lbs. 

ISM 13,72;l,320   "    I  18f)3 18,441,880   " 

Cotton  Stuffs  ihom  Switzeulamd  to  tub  Initfo)  Staibs. 

18B0 3,2-2«,30O  11m.  I  1853 4,077,020  lbs. 

1851.. S,SO!i,060  "    I  1S63 B,26»,1B0   " 

In  1865  Switzerland  returned  to  the  United  States, 
in  exchange  for  raw  cotton,  the  same  article  manu- 
factured, to  the  value  of  $212,700. 

In  Ma  branch  of  industry  Switzerland  is  said  to 
compete  succea-sfully  with  France.  Her  chintzes,  and 
al.so  her  embroidered  moussellnes,  are  superior  to  those 
of  Alsace ;  and  if  the  French  markets  are  closed  against 
their  admission  under  the  operation  of  restrictive  tar- 
iff's, they  find  an  ample  outlet  in  the  Levant,  or  across 
the  Austrian  territorj'  by  the  Danul)0.  They  also  find 
markets  in  North  t.nd  South  America,  the  liarbary 
States,  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  the  fairs  and 
markets  of  Central  Germany,  as  well  as  in  the  entre- 
pots of  the  Ilanse  To  wns.  The  manufacture  of  tobacco 
in  Switzerland  is  stated  to  employ  4000  persons,  and  to 
produce  about  9,000,000  pounds,  valued  at  $1,116,000. 
There  is  imported  of  the  article  annually  into  Switzer- 
land, and  produced  in  the  countr)',  as  follows : 

Imported 7,031,002  llM._Value $436,723 

l-roiluced 800,000  "  "     24,026 

Total.......  T,831,B02  "  "     $101,354* 

Of  this  there  is  consumed  in  Switzerland  6,740,502 
lbs.,  of  the  value  of  $558,000;  leaving  for  exportation 
1,091,000  lbs. ;  and  if  to  the  value  which  this  latter 
amount  represents  to  the  manufacturer  be  added  wages 
of  hands  and  other  expenses  of  manufacturing,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  raw  tobacco  costs  the  Swiss  manu- 
facturer about  six  cents  per  pound,  while  ho  expects  to 
realize  from  the  sale  of  the  manufactured  articlo  about 
72^  cents  per  pound. 

TOOAOCO  IHn>BTEI>  IHTO  SwinEBLAMD  DraiNO  A  SkBIES  OF 
YXARS. 

1847 llw.  2,606,712 

i848 "  3,87fl,S!l4 

,       184» "  6,428,159 

1881 "  7,2S4,'.;B7 

1882  "  7,166,912 

As  American  products  generally  reach  Switzerland 
via  Havre,  the  following  talile  is  subjoined,  exhibiting 
the  transit  trade  l)etween  France  and  Swii  .erland  dur- 
ing n  period  of  eigltt  years,  ending  with  1868 ; 


Vun. 

From  SwttMrlnnd. 

To  SwttttrUnd. 

1846 

1847 

$18,764,000 
14,a*),000 
16,182,000 
18,600,000 
18,414.000 
IK,  226,000 
18,786,000 
20  fi98,(KI0 

$10,416,000 
9,800,000 
9,114,000 
10,602,000 
8,1128,000 
8,028,000 
11,346,000 
10,788,000 

1848 

1849 

1880 

1861 

1862 

1863 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  above  statement  that 
the  chief  obstacle  to  trade  between  the  United  States 


*  The  flgiircK  Indicate  tho  rcUtlvo  qualities  of  Imported  and 
domeHtIo  tobacco.  Tiniii —imported,  6}  cents  per  pound;  do- 
■ustte,  8  omli  per  pound. 


and  Switzerland  is  found  in  the  restrictions  of  transit- 
age,  especially  over  the  territories  of  France.  If  Swiss 
manufacturers  could  have  their  goods  destined  for  the 
United  States  finally  examined  and  sealed  (ptombe)  at 
the  first  French  frontier  custom-house,  then  to  pass  on 
to  their  final  destination  under  the  protection  of  that 
seal,  unopened,  and  consequently  exempt  fron>  the  re- 
examination and  repacking  which  they  undergo  at 
each  post,  it  is  believed  that  the  trade  witli  tho  United 
States  would  all  pass  through  Havre,  instead  of  seek- 
ing, as  is  the  case  at  present,  the  more  circuitous  and 
expensive  routes  via  Liverpool  and  other  ports.  Such 
a  change  in  the  French  transit  regulations  woiUd  re- 
sult, also,  in  an  annual  augmentation  in  the  general  ex- 
changes between  tho  United  States  and  Switzeiland. 
Commercial  returns  from  Switzerland  are  uecessurily 
im|)erfect,  owing  to  tho  dilBcult}-  in  procuring  requisite 
stiitistics  from  tlie  various  ports  through  whicli  Swiss 
merchandise  reaches  the  United  States.  The  exports 
which  passed  through  the  consular  district  of  Uasle 
during  the  last  six  months  of  1864  for  tho  United 
States,  amounted  to  $728,689  35.  Tho  total  value  of 
merchandise  that  passed  through  the  consulate  at  Zu-> 
rich  for  the  United  States  was : 

In  18S3 $3,800,628 

In  1864 4,496,072 

The  following  statement  shows  the  values  of  the 
goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  sent  from  Switzerland 
to  the  United  States,  covered  by  invoices  authenticated 
at  the  consulate  of  Basle,  for  the  six  months  ending 
July  1st,  1855 : 

8ilk  goods $88d,8eA  09 

Watches  and  Jewelry 89,067  62 

Cotton 24,272  17 

Straw •  11,706  17 

Medicines 8,006  20 

CliMM  and  aplrlts «,161  26 

Silk  and  wool™ 13,361  OS 

rapcr-hangluga 

Leather 

Mathoraatical  iuRtrtiments 

Cloth 

Machinery 

Wooden  wsro 

C'ntlory 

ToUl $637,014  63 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  value  of  imports, 
the  produce  and  manufacture  of  Switzerland,  into  the 
United  States,  during  the  years  ending  June,  1853, 
and  1866 ;  to  which  is  added  a  statement  showing  the 
ports  from  which  said  imports  were  cleared,  with  the 
amounts  for  each,  made  up  from  United  States  official 
authorities : 
Value  of  toincipai  Iiu'Obtn,  tub  Pbodcoe  and  Manufac. 

'VUBBOr  BwITZBBI.ANn,  INCLUIIED  IN  TUB  IllPOBTATIONS  PBOM 

THE  IIanbb  Towns,  IIoiland,  Ueloich,  Fb'  nok,  and  En- 

OLAND.    T>l-RINO   TUB   YEASB    ENDINO    JuNB    M,   1853,    AND 

Jdne  80, 1806. 


2,980  60 

.<138  25 

S53  07 

684  60 

81  40 

23  00 

81  43 

l)e»criittlon  of  Merchandtw. 


Manufactures  of  wool. . . 
cotton . 


pllk,  etc. 

flnx,  llncnii,  clo, 
Iron  and  itocl , . 

brsai 

gold  and  Bllvcr. 

BlsM 

paper,  etc 

wood 


Watches . 

Watch  crj'stals 

Wearing  apparel 

nook*,  printed  and  otiicr , 

Buttons 

C^hoefle 

Clocks ■ 

I>rui^  and  medlchiM 

Hats  and  bonnets  of  straw,  etc. , 

Mathematical  Inatruments 

Miialcal  bona 

Optical  tnalnments 

Cordials 

Argol 

Total  talne  of  Imports 


ISS.1. 

$15,982 

323,632 

8,801,886 

8,862 

19,062 

326 

16,440 

167 

72 

2,704 

1,038,714 

8,r61 

5,844 

1,382 

446 

8,228 

842 

91 

S6l,l>4U 

1,324 

8,916 

2!4 

1,066 


$8,892.984 


Value. 

$0.',n26 

212,700 

4,346,534 

28,426 

1,'.I69 

14,510 

i,il54 

1,300 

2,573,410 

23,790 

6,040 

173 

6,702 
418 

1,069 

140,S63 

IIS4 

7,732 


6,S57 


$7,778,182 


swo 

8,T01,«)(M     estimated  „?"  *"  'W6,  88SfiH       f ''»»«•  180° 
without  any  ,  'i' r"''"«"«  'o  the  viewr„n!^,"V''  ^nd 


_       „  '™™  the  rJiiifB 


,     *TOT 

T03,342 

IIOB 

.    10,015 

2.1B(),324 


Imports  from  ♦!.„  TT  r~ '■-'-'-'~'!^"*JL*''T''S,W2"I  Ithni.       "°''' "®  ^'feots  of  sJ^'^^^^wantofatten' 


™  .Swrz,.,....  -.     other  EJ"•f'^  There  are  »«„?*'""«'»•'<' ™Wdlo 


—"  '""  two  eoun- 

Cotton. . 

I  i'loiir 

Fiirn ■ 

J'ow.... '.'.'.'.' (•      IXTI 

MrdandtaW "(M-s 

'otosh 8,9B,si 

Toliaccolfnf    l,22Tfl, 

Mauufaetured  ii^;,' 4«.218-r, 

'^w,  roHui,  and  StS^ 8,4n»-,s 


I  f.'otton stuffs.. 

«ik  stuff,  ;;;•  • 

straw  twisting^;     


31,(!0« 
81,864 
2(1,707 
2,T37 


I  .')(I„TO« 

'',(ir4 


b>v.    .^''  "■*  countn-  am?  I,     '"«'ches  about  fifteen 

and  hn.,  settlements  tn  n,i.  ^  "'*  «nipo. 

coverv  of'll.""^*^'''«»'ve  t^Ve''''  T  *■■  ^'-«'«iS 
,„„,!?  "/">e  gold  field,  ,„  j™f  ■     O"""  to  tho  dis- 


ttefoUowing  amount'  Of fes  m"T ''■«  J^^^^^^^^^ 

were  exported  to  the  UnUed  s2""""i"'"=''  "«'«'«'  n!?  I'""'""''  «"  the  t^st  'S*"'  ""P<'«''"<'ns,  havi 

y  the  former,  h,..,  i. .'.' 


^|;<Wcbaoks.fr„;„i^;-ii;^.;^^.         J3>3,      .. 

faif.8kins,oto::::: km  '. 

JIakingagrandtotaioV Sr-^^"     " 

e  sword  wa/oneVt feie^Y    "r-''"^^^^^  ''^^  .'^' ■•■■•••■  "^o  h^'''---'--    ^'r» 

e  Koman  sword,  wero  frmn   .    '""P'^'nents  of  war.     s« ",5S9  7ia    ?«? «"  o  ?22 


IS40.  .  Pmindp.      i  v.... 


•   «,197,'a91 


Th7: — /"  "y  the  Chinese  i«-o  '""  ""en  ftflm 
J;he  sword  was  one  of  t  «  '■•  '*  "•'^ — 1'«"'.  //ut 
The  Koman  swont  weJo  f,  ""l*''  ""Plements  of  war 
'""K-  The  broads,™,^  "  '."'""'y  ">  thirty  inches' 
adoption.     Th^.^^     .      ■""•  '^'"leier  are  of  n>n^      /  -.,™u,j,u  ,  »o,i»i,ao 

•word  of  Forrara  steel      Th   «'''^'  "'•'■='«'',  and  next  the   fl  "'  ""«  '«««>•  was  tL       ^"""'P-  ""W  Vic. 

"ctoria)  had  ,  population 


SYR 


1790 


SYR 


ef  197,168.  It  had  also,  at  the  same  time,  152,067 
acres  under  crop,  116,897  hones,  1,375,257  bead  of 
cattle,  and  7,896,895  sheep.  Daring  the  same  year 
the  value  of  the  imports  (mostly  from  England) 
amounted  to  XI, 663,981,  and  that  of  the  exports  to 
£1,796,012.  The  latter  comprised,  among  others,  the 
following  items,  viz. : 


M 


Wool 16,283,493  Ita.  Value,  £828,808 

Gold  bullion.      144,120  OS.  IT  dwt        "       469,836 

TaUow 84,464cwt.  "       114,168 

Hides "         86,626 

Whale  oU . . .  6011  tons.  "         2C,87T 


with  neat  cattle,  flour  and  bread,  Ixmes,  soap,  cedar, 
and  other  iroods,  etc. 

Harbor  Due;  etc. — ^The  colonial  Legislature  has  also, 
by  an  act  passed  in  1852,  suppressed  all  charges  on 
shipping  for  harbor  dues,  light-house  dues,  foes  on  en- 
tering and  clearing,  water  police  dues,  etc.  8}'dney 
is  therefore  really  a  free  port.  .9ee  articles  Austba- 
LIA,  Melbodkne,  and  Nrw  South  Wales. 

iloneye,  Weigkli,  and  Meatures. — ^Accounts  are  kept 
in  sterling  money ;  but  Spanish  dollars  are  most  abnnd- 
aat.  They  pass  current  at  6t.  each.  The  weights 
and  measures  are  the  same  as  those  of  England. 

Syra,  the  ancient  Syms,  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  whose  salubrity  and  fertility  have 
been  celebrated  by  Homer  (Pope's  Odyttftj,  book  xv. 
V.  488,  c:,c.),  in  the  group  called  the  Northern  Cy- 
clades,  fifteen  miles  west  from  tbe  greater  Delos,  its 
port,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  being  in  lat.  37°  26' 
80"  N.,  long.  24°  57'  E.  It  is  firom  nine  to  ten  miles 
in  length,  by  about  five  in  breadth.  Though  rugged, 
it  is  carefully  cultivated,  and  prrxluces  garden  stuffs, 
wine,  olives,  figs,  cotton,  etc.,  with  a  little  barley. 
The  population  in  1830  was  set  down  by  Mr.  Urquhart 
at  4500 ;  but  w:.  have  l)oen  assured  that  it  is  at  present 
(1853)  little,  if  at  all,  short  of  27,000. 

It  is  indebted  for  this  extraordinary' increase  of  pop- 
ulation to  the  convenience  and  excellence  of  its  port 
and  its  central  situation,  which  have  made  it  a  con- 
siderable commercial  entrepot.  Though  small,  its  har- 
bor is  accessible  to  line-of-bsttlo  ships.  The  holding 
ground  is  good,  and  it  has  in  its  centre  about  ten  fath- 
oms water.  Merchantmen  of  from  400  to  500  tons  bur- 
den moor  within  alxiut  100  yards  of  the  wharves.  Winds 
from  the  southeast  round  to  enst-northeast  throw  in  a 
heavy  swell ;  but  the  port  is  well  protected  from  winds 
from  all  other  points.  A  light-house,  with  a  revolv- 
ing light,  has  been  erected  on  Gaidoro  Island,  about 
1}  mile  southeast  from  the  port.  Host  part  of  the 
trade  that  formerly  centred  at  Scio  is  now  cnrried  on 
hen ;  and  the  island  has  not  only  received  numerous 
immigrants  from  Scio,  but  also  from  many  other  parts 
of  Greece.  Great  Britain  and  most  European  powers 
have  consuls  in  Syra ;  and  it  is  also  the  principal  seat 
of  the  Protestant  missionaries  to  the  Levant.  The 
town  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  harlwr.  The  oldest 
portion  occupies  the  summit  of  a  conical-sbapod  hill, 
probably  the  site  of  the  acropolis  of  the  ancient  city. 
— Set  Tot'RNEroRT,  Voyage  du  Levant.  But  the  new 
streets  and  houses,  of  which  there  are  many,  come 
down  to  the  water's  edge.  It  has  an  appearitnce  of 
great  bustle  and  animation.  Its  copious  spring  of 
pure  fresh  water  has  been  eulogized  liy  Clarke  (^Travelt). 
In  1848  no  fewer  than  468  vessels  were  registered  at 
Syra,  twlng  a  greater  amount  of  shipping  than  l>elong- 
ad  to  ony  Greek  port. 

Syria  (with  Paleatine),  a  large  division  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  mostly  between  lat.  81°  and  87°  K.,  and 


long.  84°  80'  and  40°  E. ;  bounded  north  b}  ui   Anut- 
nian  Mountains,  east  by  the  Euphrates  and  (ht  ^  nbian 
desert,  south  by  Arabia  Petroia,  and  west  by  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.     Estimated  area,  60,000  square  miles. 
Population   about  1,865,000,  mostly  Mohammedans, 
but  comprising  about  345,000  Groek  Christians,  260,000 
Maronites  and  Roman  Catholics,  176,000  Jews,  48,000 
Druses,  and  17,000  Metualis  and  Yezidis.     The  west, 
or  coast  ])ortion,  is  mountainous ;  the  east  chiefly  an 
elevated  plain.    After  the  Dead  Sea,  tbe  principal 
lakes  are  those  of  Tiberias,  or  Genesarcth,  and  Hu- 
loah,  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan ;  some  smiUer  ones 
exist  near  Damascus  and  Antioch.     The  surface  lieing 
very  uneven,  the  climate  and  products  vary  greiitly 
within  short  distances.     Along  the  coasts  the  beat  is 
great,  and  the  orange,  banana,  and  date  flourish,  while 
the  summits  of  the  mountains  are  seen  covered  with 
Bnnw.     In  the  north,  and  on  the  elevated  plain  east 
of  the  mountains,  the  climate  is  colder,  but  at  Aleppo 
fh>sts  dre  seldom  severe,  and  snow  rarely  lies  on  the 
ground  for  more  than  a  day  at  a  time.     Tho  com  is 
nearly  ripe  early  in  May ;  and  from  Jnne  to  Septem- 
ber summer  heats  prevail,  unbroker   l)y  any  rain, 
though  tempered  in  the  west  by  sea-breezes.     It  is 
stated  that  the  couittry  is  capable  of  pnMlucing  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  ten  times  its  present  population ;  yet 
such  is  the  rude  method  of  agriculture,  the  depressed 
condition  and  insecurity  of  the  rural  popidatlon, ,.,, 
the  uncertaint}'  of  taxation  and  government  re^    ■'■ 
tions,  that  in  bad  years  com  must  frequently  be  ir 
ported  from  Egypt  and  elsewhere.     Wheat,  baric 
maize,  millet,  lentils,  and  sesamum,  are  raised  in  t'uo 
plains,  principally  in  the  Haouran,  which  has  always 
been  considered  the  granarj'  of  S}-ria.     Cotton  and  the 
mulberry  flourish  on  the  coast,  and  silk  is  produced  on 
the  slopes  of  Lebanon.     The  cotton  annually  raised  in 
the  south  is  estimated  to  amount  in  value  to  £350,000 ; 
and  about  1700  cantars  of  silks,  10,700  cantars  of  to- 
bacco, from  8000  to  10,000  cantars  of  gall-nuts,  and 
300  cantars  of  madder  roots  are  annually  produced. 
Other  chief  products  are  sheeps'  wool,  olive-oil,  sugar, 
indigo,  scammony,  and  other  gums,  safflowcr,  dates, 
timber,  hides,  and  skins.     Sheep  and  other  live-stock 
form,  as  in  antiquity,  a  chief  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  in- 
habitants ;  and,  ;ill  merchandise  being  conveyed  on  the 
backs  of  animals,  it  is  estimated  that  the  transit  trade 
employs  80,000  beasts,  and  about  30,000  drivers.   About 
!!600  okes  of  sponge  fished  on  tho  coast  are  sent  to  tho 
ports  of  the  Mediterranean  annually ;  other  fisheries 
are  comparatively  unimportant,  as  is  mining  industry'. 
Damascus  has  about  40O0  looms  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  silks,  and  the  same  manufacture  is  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Aleppo.     Cotton,  and . 
some  woolen  fabrics,  shawls,  gold  and  silver  thread 
stuff's,  are  also  woven  there  and  elsewhere,  and  tho 
total  produce  of  the  looms  of  Aleppo  is  estimated  at 
il250,000  in  annual  value.  Gloss,  earthen-wares,  leath- 
er, and  sonp,  are  made  in  the  al>ovo  and  other  towns ; 
and  in  Palestine  great  numl>ers  of  religious  ornaments 
are  manufactured  for  sale.     Commerce  is  greatly  im- 
peded by  the  want  of  roads,  those  that  exist  being  mere 
mule  or  camel  tracks ;  also  by  tho  deficiency  of  good 
harlwrs.     But  as  .Syria  is  on  the  high  route  from  Bag- 
dad, Mosul,  and  I'>zcroum,  to  Mecca,  caravans  annu- 
ally traverse  it,  bringing  galls,  indigo,  Mocha  coff'oe, 
skins,  Cashmere  shawls,  and  other  Indian  manufac- 
tures, also  the  products  of  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Persia,  which  are  exclianged  here  for  European 
manufactures  and  cochineal. 


Rsfjaf^f,'-;  o  !.\t  V  -'^''' '  '''  '■''=■ 


..'It  '  '" '■ 


-M      u,    1,- 


TAC 


1791 

T. 


TAL 


Taoamahao  a  reain  ht«i 

=to„ upon it,-CMtKr^?ii-«'»h.v.  ^a'ii^p°!?'j^tcaj;uVb:.:.r:" .•»'«•" 


—  •"•  •luuiaiic  amell  1mi>i.,.._  Ii        "uen  pure.il 
musk,  .ad  dfawlvea  comSreh"  *''«  «'  '"vender  a'„ 

ingnoactioa  upon  it.-xTM  ok's  cf°-'7"'"'''"«^- 

Taok,  a  rope  nged  tn  „„  «        (■nfnulru. 
come  oftho  c^„;S::'.^5  .'CiM"  ^"-»^"  '"wer 
Jhen  the  wind  c««s.7the  S      *''^'"'P°"«''n 
J'',?*""* name Ualao given  to ?h     "'""'  "Wiquely. 

theextremity ofits  boom,  lie i^ti^^ '" "' ''''^"  *» 
«  ship  are  fun,i,hed  with  a  tackTn  '^k"""''"*'''"'''' 
formed  of  a  thick  wpe  Up.^n^tTZ'^f'''  «'''«''  " 
a  knot  wrought  upon  the  Inrf...     !.*"'''  """J  having 


HjSSSSS 


-;,  7  ,  "  ""*«'  extends  the  sail  t„\l'  ,  "  """"e 
To  lack,  to  change  the  cour..  i  ""^  ''«^ard. 
""'•"'I^o'tnm  the  ahpaCtVm  ^h  "'"'  '""'"'  «<> 
the  larboaM  tack  in  a  conh^L  •  i''°  ^'^board  to 
being  c.oa,^hauIed  on  the l^^^""-  Thus,  a  ship 
her  prow  suddenly  to  windw^!^  ^  ^^^'  ^  turning 
sion  of  the  wind  on  her  h.,?^!  "'=''''«  ""e  impres! 
off  nnon  »!..  i.i"  " -"."  head  «ails,  by  whi.i.  .^"KT.t 


"•ee  from  this  defect     tw.  .     '"•aafarasDoMii.i. 

>va8  taken  possession  of  by  tre "Ve  "r-'"';^  ^'''«  '»'"»<« 
The  ports  open  to  tnLi     *""'=•'  'n  the  vear  ]84fi 


.,  ..»,„Ba  ,„  ,j,g  clewnffhT     ..   '  °y  ^u'ch  it  is  ofP.^  1        ."*  "ependencies  coniln,    I   .  ""  "'and 


'Peoial  permission,  or  in  lie  „f^'''  "f^''  unless  by 
any  of  the  port,  Jf  the  isUnda  a,fir!'"j''  ""<='""  !« 
Protectorate  over  Tahiti  othe/th''''.V'*  "">  ^^^noh 
.tlr»"?'>«';  while''th?l  ^JA! '»'-  porta 


"»j/ to  f«.nrf„a;i.      °"  ■"««':•  eaUed  beating  or  tumi 


■ns  th^  l^en7hVrSl^'""^'='' '»  ^«^"  0  r,, 
'-?oal  regulation  howevfat!i'"l  ('"'"■'"''")  %      A 

•tion ,  and  they  aw  ^^^'~''^''  *"  •"»  immovable  situ!  iT,  T°^'"'^  °".  "'e  P  odiLeTth      ^i"^"'  ">«'■» 
IS  called  in.rf.- 7    ™<='"o  to  mechanical  «....—.-  I  -Abiiivai.  „.  -,„..  "'''>■ 


Thoapp,icati:„"^:f\ttlwTrm"'r'^'''»P-^-^ 
ja  called  hoMng  or  W^    r  "'"hanical  purposes 

the  anchor.,  cablea,  etr  ''•    ^"'"'"'  ""*'«  4liea 
ing  a  cS?ift^PPl™°»t  part  of  a  ship's  stern,  be- 
with  some  devK  IjlSC"  "'"''"^'  """""^^d 
Taffeta,  one  of  the  ni.rii«o»        .  I      "'" o«    I    ''"o "  i  J 

mercW  importance?  Ity^sTlfTTl^""'^^'  <=<""-  "»"  ""'onff  the  ancient*  b  ?^' '"'' "  =<""  ^^T  com- 
oua  founder,  Peter  he  Grea?  o  «  i"*  ''^:  "'  "'''»'^-  '"'^'"*'"  nations.  The  c„±'  '!?'•  •""■*""'  ""■""g 
eient  emporium  of  the  DoT  tC  £►*?  '^""■'  ""> «"-  '°"'«''ns  60  Attic  min«  TZ^  "i"  '  '""'=»' »' 'height 
rome  all  but  Inaccesaiw.  '  5  •  P°"*  "'  ^hich  had  be- 1  weighed,  accorfinf^,  'n  ?""'  ^"'<=  drachma  •  and 
i'derivedfroSe  ^1''  »"f  "^  ^''-'^  consequence  I  ir|  g^  ClUh  Tr  ^'•. ^'buthnot,  69  Ibri'l  o"** 
antrep6t  of  the  c^m^^To^C' '"'"!'"  '"  """'"ff  "•«  Attie^talen"  by  som7,  M 'f  ""•  '^''<'"'  ^as  anothe; 
that  great  river.     The  kll  !  "•"".'""'  "-"""^'l  bv   of  100  min»     Th^*     if  '"  "'"*'^'  "'  80,  by  othera 

tnes  comprised,  amnn^  ^.u!  "f?™  '9  ^W'Sn  coun-   Svrlan  t«l.„.  j-  fu,  *'■  1*'  e^ual  to  f  193  15..     -rZ 


TAT. 


1792 


TAM 


Euboean  of  CO,  the  Babylonic  of  70,  the  greater  Attic 
of  80,  the  Tyrian  of  80,  tlia  Eginiean  of  100,  the  Kho- 
dlan  of  100,  and  the  Egyptian  of  ')  minoi.  There  ia 
ftnother  talent  much  more  ancient,  /hieh  Dr.  Arbuth- 
not  calls  the  Homeric  leUent  of  gold,  which  seems  to 
have  weighed  six  Attic  drachms,  or  three  Dorics,  a 
Doric  weighing  very  little  more  than  a  guinea.  Ac- 
cording to  this  talant  some  eckon  the  treasure  of 
King  David,  particularly  that  mentioned  1  Chron.  xx. 
14,  which,  according  to  the  com  non  reclconing,  would 
amount  in  gold  talents  to  the  value  of  4647,600,000, 
and  the  silver  to  above  £342,000.  As  David  reigned 
in  Judea  after  the  siege  of  Troy,  it  ia  not  improbable 
but  Homer  and  he  might  use  the  same  numeral  talent 
of  gold.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  two  kinds 
of  talents,  the  little  and  the  greia  talent.  The  little 
was  the  common  talent ;  and  whenever  they  say  sim- 
ply taltntttm,  they  are  to  be  understood  of  this.  The 
little  talent  was  00  mino!  or  Roman  pounds,  the  mina 
or  pound  being  estimated  at  100  draclmiat  or  denarii. 
It  was  also  estimated  at  twenty-four  great  sesterces, 
which  amounted  to  £60.  The  great  talent  exceeded 
the  less  by  one-third  part.  Budoius  computes  that  the 
little  talent  of  silver  was  worth  £7b  itorling,  and  the 
greater  £99  <&>.  Sd.  sterling.  The  greater  of  gold  was 
worth  £1126  sterling. 

Talent,  as  a  species  of  money  among  the  Hebrews, 
was  sometimes  used  for  a  gold  coin,  the  same  with 
the  shekel  of  goM,  called  ulsu  ttater,  and  weigliiiig 
only  four  drachms.  The  Hebrews  reckoned  by  these 
talents,  as  we  do  by  pounds,  etc.  Thus  a  million  of 
gold,  or  a  million  of  talents  of  gold,  among  them  was  a 
million  of  shekels,  or  nummi ;  tho  nummus  of  gold  Ihi- 
ing  the  same  weight  with  the  shekel ;  viz.,  4  drachms. 
But  the  Hebrew  talent  weight  of  silver,  which  they 
called  Clear,  was  equivalent  to  that  of  -SOOO  shekels,  or 
118  lbs.  10  02. 1  dwt.  10^  grs.  English  Troy  weight., 
according  to  Arbuthnot's  computation. — E.  B,     Set 

C'    NS. 

Tallow  (Fr.**;/;  Ger.  Talg;  M.Serc,Sego;  Russ. 
Sato,  toplenoe ;  Sp.  Stbo),  animal  fat  mi^lted  and  separa- 
ted from  the  fibrous  matter  mixed  with  it.  Its  qual- 
ity depends  partly  on  the  animal  from  which  it  has 
Ijeen  prepared,  but  more,  perhaps,  on  the  care  taken  in 
its  purification.  It  is  firm,  brittle,  and  has  a  peculiar 
heavy  odor.  When  pure,  it  is  white,  tasteless,  and 
nearly  insipid ;  but  the  tallow  of  commerce  has  usually 
a  yellowish  tinge,  and  is  divided,  according  to  thr  de- 
gree of  its  purity  and  consistence,  into  candle  and  soap 
tallow.  Tallow  is  an  article  of  great  importance.  It 
is  manufactured  into  candles  and  soap,  and  is  extens- 
ively used  in  the  dressing  of  leiitlier,  and  in  various 
processes  ofthe  arts.  The  exports  of  tallow  from  Rus- 
sia amount,  at  an  average,  to  about  ,S,810.000  poods,  or 
137,160,000  lbs.  a  year.— Tkoobokski,  ■ftProduc- 
iives  de  la  Rmsie,  i.  233.  Of  this  immc  -upply,  the 
export  of  the  largest  portion  is  to  Engi.nd  ;  the  re- 
mainder being  exported  to  Prussia,  France,  the  Hanse 
Towns,  Turkey,  etc. 

We  borrow  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Borrisow,  on  the 
commerce  of  Petersburg,  tlie  following  details  with 
respect  to  the  tallow  trade  of  that  city  ;  Tallow  is  di- 
vided into  ditfercnt  sorts ;  namely,  white  and  yellow 
candle  tallow,  and  common  and  Sil)erian  lonp  tallow; 
although  it  is  allowed  that  the  same  sort  often  differs 
In  quality.  Tallow  ia  brought  to  Petersburg  from 
the  interior ;  and  the  best  soap  tallow  from  Siberia, 
by  various  rivers,  to  the  I^ke  Ladoga,  and  thenco  by 
the  ounnl  of  .Schlusselburg  to  the  Neva.  Yellow  can- 
dle tallow,  when  good,  should  be  clean,  dry,  hard  when 
broken,  and  of  a  fine  yellow  color  throughout.  The 
white  candle  tallow,  when  good,  is  white,  brittle,  hard, 
dry,  and  clean.  The  best  white  tallow  is  brought  from 
Woronesch.  As  for  soap  tallow,  the  more  greasy  and 
yellow  it  is,  the  better  the  quality.  That  fh>ni  Si- 
beria is  tha  purest,  and  commonly  fetches  a  higher 
flic*  than  tb«  other  aorts.    The  exports  of  toUow 


j  from  Peterp'imrg  in  1862  amounted  to  2,0fi2,101  poods. 
Formerly  the  oil  and  tallow  wareliouses  were  the  same, 
and  this  occasioned  great  difficulties  in  shipping,  be- 
cause all  vessels  or  lighters  taking  in  tallow  or  oil 
were  obliged  to  haul  down  to  the  ambure,  and  wait  in 
rotation  for  their  cargoes.  The  consequence  was,  that, 
«  hen  much  business  was  doing,  a  vessel  was  often  de- 
tained for  several  weeks  at  the  ambare  before  she  could 
get  her  cargo  on  board.  Now  the  tallow  and  oil  ware- 
houses are  separated,  and  every  article  has  its  own 
place,  \v  hen  a  shipment  of  tallow  is  made,  the  agent 
is  furnished  by  the  selector  (bracker)  with  a  sample 
from  each  cask.  Captains,  in  order  to  obtain  more 
freight,  usually  load  some  casks  of  tallow  upon  deck ; 
but  it  is  more  for  the  interest  of  the  owner  to  avoid 
this,  if  possible,  because  the  tallow  loses,  through  the 

'  'lieat  of  the  sun,  considerably,  both  in  weight  and  qual- 
ity. One  hundred  and  twenty  ])Ood8  of  tallow,  gross 
weight,  make  a  Petersburg  last,  and  63  poods  a  ton. 
The  value  of  the  tallow  exported  fron-  Russia  is  said 
by  M,  Tegoborski  to  amount,  at  an  average,  to  about 
8i871,000  roubles,  or  about  $15,500,000. 

ExpoBTS  op  nouKSTio  Tali.ow  fhom  tub  Unitku  States 

DVBINO  THE  YKAB  E-NDINQ  JUNE  30,  l^ST. 


Whither  «»porleJ. 


Danish  Woat  Indira 

Hamburg 

Uutch  West  Indies , 

Dutch  (rtiiana 

Kni!l»'.d 

Malta 

Canada 

Otlvr  llritish  North  Am.  I'osBuaslODS 

Brltliih  West  InditM 

DrltlRh  Honduras 

nritlfih  Guiana 

France  on  tlio  Atlantic 

French  North  .\nierlcau  rofiaeHiouf 

Cuba 

Porto  Rico 

Azores 

Haytl 

Mexico 

Now  Granada '. 

Venezuela 

ChUl 


Total. 


Value. 


S,T6II 

26,B8T 

186 

14,706 

1,778,452 

2,7B0 

1,456,568 

6Ja,110 

2,670 

2,700 

4,B71 

4ft,000 

.",163 

8S5,S16 

8,858 

1,100 

4,556 

12,1S2 

14,333 

207. 087 

676,561 

6,608,815 


$1,068 

8,320 

65 

1,724 

208,040 

368 

148,882 

60,878 

362 

270 

624 

4.841 

882 

1115,366 

1,010 

120 

604 

1,305 

1,736 

81,421 

60,006 


,')i6.'t2,28« 


iMFOTtTS   of  TAI.I.0W  ISTO  THE  UniTEP   PTAIES  FOB  THx. 

Year  EMiimu  .)usE  30,  1887. 


whence  (mportgd. 


Kngland 

lirlllah  West  Indies 

British  I'osscsstons  in  Africa 

British  East  Indies 

-Mexico 

Bueno  Ayros,  or  Argentine  Republic 

Sanunich  Islandii 

Total 


Pounda. 


21,710   I 

7,700 

541 

32,420 

974 

16,238 

86,965 


160,548 


$1,721 

4"T 

69 

2,  01 

89 

1,108 

6,1 44 


$12,51.7 


Tally  Trade,  the  name  given  to  a  sj-stem  of  deal- 
ing carried  on  in  London  and  other  largo  towns,  by 
which  shop-keepers  furnish  certain  articles  on  credit 
to  their  customers,  the  latter  agreeing  to  pay  the  stip- 
ulated price  bj'  certain  weekly  or  monthly  installment'-. 
In  London  there  are  about  sixty  or  seventy  tally-shops 
of  note,  and  from  600  to  600  on  a  smaller  scale.  They 
are  also  spread  over  the  country'  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, particularly  in  the  manufacturing  districts.  Tho 
customers  of  the  tally-shops  are  mostly  women,  con- 
sisting principally  of  the  wives  of  laborers,  mechar.ics, 
porters,  etc.,  servant  girls,  and  females  of  louse  char- 
acter. Few  only  of  the  more  respectable  classes  have 
been  infatuated  enough  to  resort  to  them. 

Tamarinds  (Ger.  Tamarinden;  Fr.  Tamarint;  It. 
and  Sp.  Tamarindo ;  Arab.  Umblie ;  Hind.  Tintiri),  tho 
fruit  of  the  Tamarindua  Inr'ica,  a  tree  which  grows  in 
tho  East  and  West  Indies,  in  Ara))ia,  and  Eg}'pt.  In 
the  West  Indies  the  pods  or  fniit,  being  gathered  when 
ripe,  and  freed  from  the  shelly  fragments,  are  placed 
in  layers  in  a  cask,  and  boiling  sirup  poured  over  them, 
till  the  cask  be  filled ;  the  sirup  pervades  every  part 
quite  down  to  the  bottom ;  and  when  cool,  the  ca.^k  is 
headed  for  sale.    The  Ewt  ladia  tamarinds  are  darker 


V«lu«. 

$1,003 

8,320 

BP 

1,T24 

203,9-10 

368 

14S,88a 

00,378 

303 

270 

024 

4.S4.I 

883 

106,806 

1,010 

130 

004 

1,305 

1,730 

81,421 

00,006 


2,  01 

89 

1,108 

6,1 44 


eoloicd  and  dri»r  and  ^  < ""  TAR 

"honld  be  pwierved  In  cC„^  **'""«  "^'"PPer.  They  in «  ''"<>rtl»ke  by  SIrFiWu  ^„1",7"  ••*••>• 
SON'S  DUpLatory  Thet m  ^■^?'"*'»  Jars^TaoM-  trv  C^*''"*'''*-  U""*"  JuSl  XI V^h'  *^  ''■«••  '- 
Introduced  into&^;iandiL^'V'''-'"«w«ven^JSitTY*'''  ""'«''  '"'P^ved  fa  fii.  ""WoftapM: 
to  flower:  fn,™3.f:?™'*'""»it»ometim..l.T'._?   Tapestkv,    Verv  ..,1°.'^  *'"«?— *"  GobeV« 


that  it  would  progper  to  ftvowbU  .  ",1^^  ^  '"ft"""! 
our  Southern  Statee,  and  wotiv.  "'*''""'' '»'»«'•  »' 

the  West  Indian  amnrt""  if"  "'"''»  S*""'!  but 

ety  dlffe„  ^^^^  from  tho'fe,;^  '^  ^  »°>y  •  vari- 

it.  fruit  and  the  aumber  otC'X^'  ^  ""  '»"»  «^ 

Tamploo,  or  eanta  An.  !i    « 


-«  me«tion.d;y^ri^.|^^^^^^  Of  nnu.!. 


GoBBLUf 

tape»try 


irL-^^^^^zz::^z'^,f.''j'^^7^ 


manufiicture  is , 


we  art.     For  thr,  tan«»«, """""««»«  ii  a  revival  of 
r^o*),  an  American  nW^il^'^^'r' •'(•'• 


pow^ 
ropa 


nient, 


A»«iei;butpriTc'^^»  tB^w^^'"-  --.■. 

""-"Aooor^fl^oo.    Th^.i!;:.?::'/.'^'.''?*"'  ft  1»  caUed 


_  over  South 

J-mTs  INTO  Taotioo  fboi.  to«  I  m^  .  t*  extenslvelv  nZ  i„  J^    '  «'  ""^  *«»y  of  diMstl™^ 

1^;;: m;^?;      fe«    \il^,'>T'^'"»-^9^^sn^liJ-^^'"^''^'>^- 


ss^5^^^ 


byofflcialroturns,tTm  mTf  I^k""  ""^  P"«  ^'". 

went  to  the  UnitJstetM  th'.  l^**'"'' ''''"  «2,000,000 

wriou,  drawbacktoth!^',      *"'"■=* '»E>«ope.    A 

tween  thU  port  and^he  uS^S  'f^^''^  ^ 

direct  rteam  convrvances     Th-  *'  '"""  "^ 

of  Tampico  has  ma^Tadvanta^!/*^^"'""  """«»" 
ta  he  republic,  in  coLeq^tS^e'onrL""^  ?"""  P"'* 
Luis  Potosi,  where  jroodg  canM  Vtoxmdty  to  San 
Je«  in  the  charges  ofCit).??,.'^  /*'"  "'  «<>  P"  oent. 
S«,  Lui,  bein/^he^lj'tf ''''"»  '""?  ^"^  ^ruz.  and  | 
the  section,  of  the  couStrt  "hii  ''"°"'P"'  P'"™'  « 
with  foreim  coed.  „^  ♦?    '""*  commerce  is  supplied 

Zacatecas,  these  bein^"hfn„W  '  ^'  ^.'"?'«'J"«to.  a-d 

the  republic.     ThVre  w.l  »'^T''"^  '"'"'"K  "tates  fa,,  .«„  ^  ,- • 

"««  of  English  ricXbl^''  '^''"i'  """^  '^'^     IW  l^h  ISta"  "■  ^«» 
quicksilver  flaslcs,^5''X^;'?f  "8  '"  ^-^Pi^"  «31      British  CM&::; 
tfregate  value  of  AS  4S9m-,  *    k°?  ""«««'  "fan  ag-     J>"  "» fje  Atlantic  .... 
6«^te  value  of  oK„"f^j,;?''^- added  to  the  .|:|  |  &  Zl^S  »'i?ii"~»«a 
of  «8,994, 772.  ""t^wara  cargoes,  makes  a  total 

Knimifs  op  AnsBinio  .„,  . 

o^Tx««oo„!?H?r,V?L;''S„^*'"'  "  ™  Pow 
-^ '"*  SMorao  Dkobmues  81, 1861 

'•'•'I""'-  It™.  I  viiu.  of  im~i rir^r — - — , 

lo«  of  KjTf 
porta. 

iosi+rr 

01,890 
tf0,4S0 


fianlsh  Wait  Indies.. 

uamburg 

HremtD  ,       

Holland,   '  ' 

Dutch  wWiidilM."" 
Dutch  GulMj...  :*•••' 

Dutch  l.:aat  Indies  .   "' 
i'Dgland. ... 

Scotland..     

Glbi-altar.  

Malta ; 

Canada. 


2r,s 

18,7 


I  American  ruiiBela . 
Mexican 
I  Spanish 
French 
Kngllsh 
Danish 


Total 


1100 

baAT^f;J,''^P;:»^»»»''«nningleatherwitati;ei 
Theweoftanwa.rtL'^    i'"*^  by  various  nations. 
Holland  by  WnZTrnVorT,'"'"  ""'""■«'  ^«-» 
was  discontinued  u™tU.|H,rtJni"«  """«*■'"'•'''•    " 
««  brought  into  EngUn^-'s'^:  r.l?/"'-  -">! 


improvements 


French  Guiana  .       

crnl^^irnd^"^™'"'--- 

Philipphio  lalauda' .' 

Cuba 

Porto  Klco..'" 

Portugxi .'.■.■;.■ 

Madeira 

Cap«  de  Verd  JBiandJ! 

Azores  ...  

Two  Siclliei'.' .■.■.' 

,T"f  key  in  Europe! '.'.'. 

Turkey  in  iVsta  r      

I'orta  in  Africa. 

Hayti ;;; 

San  Domingo..'. 

Mexico 

<;cntral  itep'nblk "J ." 

Neur  Granada....         

Vonesuela 

Braail 

f 'hill         ""PuWIc ' 


S^cfn!"^i\"en''^  »' weaving  borrowed  from  thel    eSo;:::::;;::""""-"--" 
^--nds.-<^,^L^^---jd)toS|).^^^^^ 


Total,  year  1SB6-T. 


TAR 


1794 


TAB 


Tar  li  an  tTtlo  of  gnat  eontintrcial  Impoftancs. 
TIm  procew  follomd  in  making  It  baa  Iwen  deacribed 
aa  (bllowi  by  Dr.  Clarke  i  "  The  sitiutlon  moat  favor- 
able to  tbe  proceaa  la  in  a  foreat  near  to  a  marah  or  bog ; 
baoaoae  the  roota  of  the  fir,  from  whlcli  tar  ia  princi- 
pally extracted,  are  alwaya  moat  productive  in  auch 
placea.  A  conical  cavity  ia  then  made  Izi  the  groand 
(generally  in  the  aide  of  a  bank  or  aloping  hill),  and 
the  foota  of  the  fir,  together  with  loga  and  bille'a  of 
the  aame,  being  neatly  truaaed  In  a  atack  of  tbe  aama 
conical  ahape,  are  let  into  thi*  cavity.  The  whole  ia 
then  covered  with  turf,  to  prevent  the  volatile  pact* 
Jrom  being  diaaipated,  which  by  meana  of  a  heavy 
wooden  mallet,  and  a  wooden  atamper,  worked  eep- 
arately  by  two  p.en,  ia  beaten  down  and  rendered  aa 
firm  aa  posaible  alwve  the  wood.  The  atack  of  billets 
ia  then  kindled,  and  a  alow  combuation  of  the  flr  takea 
place,  without  flame,  as  in  making  charcoal.  During 
this  combustion  the  tar  exudes ;  and  a  cast-iron  pan 
being  at  the  bottom  of  the  fUnnel,  with  a  spout  which 
projects  through  the  side  of  the  bank,  Iwrrela  are  placed 
beneath  thia  spout  to  collect  the  fluid  as  it  comes  away. 
As  fast  aa  ths  banela  are  Tilled  tliey  are  banged  and 
ready  for  immediate  exportation.  From  thia  descrip- 
tion M  will  be  evident  that  the  mode  of  obtaining  tar 
is  by  a  kind  of  distillation  per  deicemum  ;  tlie  turpen- 
tine, melted  by  flra,  mixing  with  tho  sap  and  Juices  of 
tbe  fir,  while  the  wood  itself,  liecoming  charred,  is  con- 
verted into  oharcocl." 

Tare,  an  abatement  vr  dedvction  made  from  the 
weight  of  a  parcel  of  goods,  on  account  of  the  weight 
of  the  chest,  cask,  bag,  etc,  in  which  they  are  contain- 
ed. Tare  ia  distinguished  into  rtal  tare,  customary 
tare,  and  average  tare.  The  first  is  the  actual  weight 
of  the  package ;  tbe  second  ita  supposed  weight  ac- 
cordiug  to  the  practice  among  merchants ;  and  the  third 
is  the  medium  tare,  deduced  from  weighing  a  few  pack- 
ages, and  taking  it  as  the  staadard  for  the  whole.  In 
floine  commercial  cities  tares  are  generally  fixed  by 
custom.  The  prevailing  practice,  as  to  all  goods  that 
cut  b*  unpacked  without  injury,  l)otb  at  the  custom- 
house and  among  merabanta,  is  to  ascertain  the  real 
tore.  Sometimes,  howover,  the  buyer  and  .seller  moke 
a  particular  agreemobi  about  it. 

Tare,  Vetch,  or  ntoh,  a  plant  ((uta  $ativa, 
Linn.)  that  is  cultivated  principally  for  Its  stem  and 
loaves,  which  are  used  In  tbe  feeding  of  sheep,  horses, 
and  cattle;  but  partly,  also,  for  its  seed.  Horses 
thrive  better  upon  tares  than  upon  clover  and  rye 
grass ;  and  cows  that  are  fed  upon  them  give  meat  milk. 
The  aeed  is  principally  used  in  the  feeding  of  pigeons 
And  other  poultr}-. 

TsxiO,  or  Tarlf.  First,  i<  list  of  certain  goods,  mer- 
chandise, etc. ;  then  a  list  .  duties  on  imports  or  ex- 
ports of  such  articles.  This  word,  like  many  others 
used  In  commerce.  Is  derived  from  the  Italian,  in  w^'ch 
it  is  tariffa;  this  again,  like  numerous  other  expres- 
•ions  relating  to  commerce  and  navigation,  comes  from 
the  East.  In  Persian  It  is  tarif;  in  Arabian  the  verb 
or/'slgnifiea  to  know,  which  in  the  second  form  Incomes 
tori/,  signifying  to  nuJce  hunnn.  The  substantive  de- 
rived from  the  verb  therefore  signifies  Mofi^cad'on.  The 
|>rlnciples  of  a  tariff  depend  upon  the  commercial  policy 
•f  tbe  state  by  which  it  is  framed;  and  the  details  are 
eoutantly  fluctuating  with  the  change  of  interests,  and 
with  the  vants  of  the  government  or  community,  or 
in  pursuance  of  commnrcial  treaties  with  other  nations. 
The  British  tarilf  underwent  seven  important  changes 
between  the  years  1772  and  1842 ;  viz.,  in  1787,  in  1809, 
in  1819,  in  1826,  in  1883,  and  in  1842.  Finally,  on  20th 
June,  1846,  the  myal  assent  was  given  to  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  noted  tariff— a  measure  which  canceled  the  du- 
ties on  several  hundred  articles,  and  pressed  upon  the 
eountry  the  adoption  of  f^e  trade. 

The  able  report  of  L.  D.  CamplMll,  of  the  House  of 
Bapiresentatlves,  1856,  to  the  Committee  of  Ways  and 
Mmbs,  if  a  juat  aad  comprebensive  exposition  of  tbe 


protective  (not  prohlbltlva)  sjitcm  t  and  as  iiueh,  and  ' 
as  being  tbe  report  upon  which  our  pressiil  tarilT  wat 
mainly  constructed,  we  need  not  apolnglse  fnr  givinc 
extended  extracts.  Tha  modarately  protective  tarilf 
ia  eaaentlal  In  the  early  oommerolal  and  ninnurnrturinif ' 
stage*  of  a  country.  And  the  fact  that  tn»  trait*  may 
at  some  fUtnr*  time  b*  advantageous  to  us  does  not 
prove  Its  present  neoesslty.  It  will  be  seen  that, 
tboBgh  generally  assenting  t<i  the  asserted  fnrt  that  the 
purpose  of  revenue  alone  can  Juitify  the  ini|>(ialtiin  -it 
duties,  yet  the  proofs  and  s^4tlatius  given  prove  too 
much,  and  prove  to  the  unprajudked  reader  that  dntlu 
are  not  alone  necessary  for  rtvanw,  but  May  be  neces- 
sary for  pcotactlon. 

Principle  and  Poliey  of  ih*  Propantion.—'Th*  pro- 
priety of  tb«  proposed  redaction  of  the  tarilT  of  duties 
upon  imports  la  mad*  bv  tba  President  a  annual  me** 
sage  to  rest,  flrat,  upon  th*;inneijp<e  that "  the  purpoaat 
ot°  revenue  alone  can  jvuMty  tlftlr  lm(ioslvi  n ;"  and, 
second,  upon  '.bo  policy  of  ''rmlaclng  the  tarllTof  du- 
'ties  upon  Imports,  as  tbe  mean*  of  raduoing  the  revenue 
to  the  amount  annually  needed  for  th*  prudent  and 
pconomical  -ulminbitratlon  of  public  aflfliirf ." 

Tbe  recommendation  of  the  mesaage,  thu*  analyiad, 
affords  a  prlncipl*  which  th*  President  contents  him- 
self with  saying  "  is  so  gtnerally  concailed,  that,  in  r*- 
ailjuating  the  impost  talde*  and  schsiluloa,  which  un- 
questionably require  essfntlal  nimllllciitlnna,  a  depar- 
ture from  the  principlta  of  the  present  tariff  is  not  an- 
ticipated," and  a/M/iiy  whicli  he  due*  not  in  any  man- 
ner undertake  to  verify  or  llluatrnta.  K  stands  in  tho 
message  as  a  positinti  aaaumed  without  proof,  or  as  too 
plain  to  require  demonstration. 

Renentte  limited  hit  JCrpeaditurtt.—yont  committee 
perceive  only  one  sense  in  which  the  President's  dor- 
trine  concerning  the  purpose  for  which  lm|Hirt  duties 
may  be  imposed  can  be  rsgarded  a*  generally  conceded. 
Imposts  emploj'ed  as  a  measure  of  taxation  must  be 
conformed  to  the  requirements  of  the  pulilic  revenue, 
or  they  miss  the  controlling  ol)ject  of  tiieir  Imposition. 

Taxes  of  every  kind  must  Ite  levied  at  once  up  to 
the  necessities,  and  within  the  limit*  of  government 
expenses ;  in  other  words,  the  gross  amount  of  revenuo 
must  t>e  regulated  liy  th*  demand  of  the  government 
for  ita  current  expenses ;  and,  wl'ere  liimign  Impurta 
are  selected  by  the  policy  of  the  nation  to  Imar  tlie  chief 
burden  of  its  support,  the  tax  im|iosed  must  Im  detorm- 
inpd  in  amouat  by  the  re(|uirtnMnt«  of  th*  national 
taeasur}-. 

Thus  fkr  it  is  conceded  that  th*  purpose  of  revenue 
alone  can  justify  their  Imposltlnni  and  thus  far  tho 
doctrine  of  tlie  message  Is  in  nccurtlance  with  the  sen- 
timents of  tho  American  people,  liut  tariffa  hnv?  other 
legitimate  purposes,  and  are  cuiuiile  of  other  and  lair 
portent  usas,  whil*  kept  in  strict  conformity  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  national  treasury. 

Impost  Si/atemt  of  all  Natiuni  protective  of  their  pro- 
ductive Industry, — Ottr  own  Policy  pertittently  governed 
by  this  Intention, ~The  protection  of  the  national  In- 
dustry', by  means  of  duties  laid  upon  fcireign  imports,  la 
one  of  the  purpoMs  which  characterixe  tho  Impost  sys- 
tems of  ail  tho  govemmonts  of  thu  earth,  wlioitn  rank 
entitles  them  to  consideration  ai  authorities  with  ua. 
This  policy,  since  its  adoption  by  the  first-class  na- 
tions, has  undergone  changes  corresponding  to  changes 
of  condition,  Imthin  Kuropo  and  America,  but  the  prin- 
ciple has  never  been  abandoned.  The  Continent  of 
Europe  holds  it  as  firmly  a*  ever,  and  Ureat  Hritain, 
by  working  it  to  Its  utmost  capacity  of  beneficial  serv- 
ice, has  thoroughly  justified  th*  thaory.  Her  expe- 
rience is  Its  most  perfect  demonstration.  In  the  United 
States  the  doctrine  has  its  disciples  and  supporters  oa 
numerous  and  influential  as  principles,  rightly  under- 
stood, ever  secured  among  an  Intelligent  and  |)<itrifltio 
people.  In  the  forty  years'  of  controversy  tii  which  It 
has  been  subjected  in  tnl*  rountry,  the  opposing  theory 
baa  n*v*r  obtaln*d  a  victor}'  or  a  ooncessluti  which  can 


,      nation  in  rospcct  to  »ll7h       ,  "''  """  "•«  Polic,-  of  thi 

protection ;  and  it,  iZ^tl  '""  ''^W  the  p„i„t  „"  ["'.'l^S  t",**"  '»  """« it*  princii.1  ,^"';''""^'  """"• 
the  „me  Intention  1Ji„'^''''t?«'^'-'-"'y  exprcs.eS  ^ll ?''^  "''^  "  '''^«>^^^mL^^r,!'"  "" 
operation  of  this  act  ^huZmTL'T'^'""'  "'  "'o        I    The  «^'''''  "'"''»  "I-ot:  ^  "'"  P"'" 

ness  for  any  of  the  purpoZ  »h-  !""''?''"'' '»»  ""At-    '-■-  '■     ^-'''""*  "'  'ho  iov.™ .    .    . 

•hould  answer.     The  Su^,!    •  "  F^^^'^  "'  '^post, 

in  f-ur  year,  ft^mtZty^^l':""' ^"' 't  declined 

«>3e  again  in  two  rear,  U)  ,"1^     1""'  "•  *'*'''">; 

ne^tyeartothirteenVndaha If   nnr.'"^?'  """'  ">« 

afterward  a  eighteen  .nUltil'    "th^'^ ^^^"^  >■""<> 

the  bualno...  „r  .•.-  '""""•     '"e  vicissitudes  in 


i-  The  ^Tenue  of  th  "'""  =  ' 

from  the  -ale,  of %"„„?;  1^!™,^'  "  *»  l'"  ""»ea 
pnJ  from  mi.cella„c„u"  ,o""^''  "^"'r  "P°"  '"'P-rt'. 
"";m"<  taxation,  direct  o'r  "S;;:'""""  "-«'»«  to 

amounting  i™Ihe  a"ve^  '"'  ^''^^'"^  ^""^  '"Port  duties 


«10  28  per  harreirin  isVi^  "f  """  '»  '837  „„, 
1836  twe'^ty.fivT'^iiiUr^V  „^' ^""^  '"  ««•  1" 
lands  were  sold;  In  1842  leR,.!  ""'*''  »f  P^Uic 
Jars'  worth.     !„'  183C  cotton  J  "  ""'"""'  »'  ''"•- 

in  1842  at  8-1  centTp^r  ^^  '^  t."'  ''''  ""''  P"  •''  - 
years  risen  one  hundred  nnrt  ■  .  *?'"'''  '""' '"  :« 
and  the  total  valu:tTL«e''nT:l""^-f..R»-<'s, 


„  r  --  operate  as  eaualiv  „.  -f!  'i"""  i**  ""posed 
Union  diseriminati:^;"  f,»»P«;»^Ie  tljroughou^tho 
or  section,  or  interest  " '""  "e"'""  any  class, 

'^- n.Krir„\rnd?oV:^J-''  and  limitations  of 
varied  rates  of  duty  an  I  c,,^'^^'  f""  •*«  """'Je'-t  to 
empt  from  duty,  in  "ch  "!""'"  ""'"«  "''all  be  ex. 
an    promote  ho^-ie  pSctT""  ",  !L^^«"  "-'  ^ster 


of  the  national  tretu,;^  ''/nTra""'"^'''"''™""'  ?  "'«  ea'      'trn't't'.'*!"  ."-^-"^"^  "    "  wL'^o? 

ISiTlii^  „»  ¥~  ~TT • 


Vean. 


1824. 

1S2S. 

1826., 

182T. . 

1828. . 

1829.. 

18.90. . 
1831.. 
1832. , 
1833.. 
1834. . , 
ISSfi... 
183S. . . 

issr. . . 

1888... 
1839... 
1840. . . 
1841..., 

Equal  to  1843. . . 
lS43-'44. . . . 
lS44-'46.... 
184(^-'4«. . . . 
iS46-'4r. . . , 
184T-'49.... 
1848-' 49. . 

i84n-'6(>.,  ■■ 

1860-'l 


T7 

105^ 
110 

ne^ 

140^ 
132i 

18e2-'83..  !?? 

J^IM :;    2V« 


iTfiiMorUndT 
in  Tli„u„„j, 

"84n 

1,218 

mi 

'.4S(.( 
l,nis{ 
i,5ir 

2,329J 
8,210J 
2,623  f 
8,!167M 
4,8,wW 
14,Wi 
24,877    ' 
«,770 
.1,082 
7,07«i  i  I 
8,292 
1,3061 
l,386jj 
1,107  < 
2,060 
2,077   ^ 
2,694tl  I 
2,488J,   ' 
.1,328  j'.. 
1,6S»  ) 
1,860  1 
2,382  ' 
2,1143  ) 
1,007  > 
8,471  ' 
11,4'I7  ) 


2,007,000 

2,SOS,000 
2,086,000 
T,213,000 


I  Tariff  „,1S24,  from  j„„„s„j3j^ 

(T«ri(fofl828,fr„„Spp,  J  jg,^ 

I  I?.c;a'^,",?'3"»«'' 1-1833. 
Wi  ow  20  JL,  '  """■'♦■nth  ox- 

I  "'"'■"'""  "'"'^•ner  Dec.  31, 1637. 
I  Onctenth  more  after  I),c  81,  1889 

!  Tariff  of  1842,  .fte,Auj^  80,  1842. 
lTariff„f]S4«,afte,D^  jjg^ 


TAR 


1796 


TAR 


of  Ikt  kightr  and  Inwtr  Tarifft  of 
Slendineu  of  the  Jurnuir :  Untteaai- 


Producfivmui 
thirty-Jfi'e  Yrnrj.  Steadituu  oftkefu 
neu  ojftke  latler. — Tlia  income  from  customa,  under  the 
same  UrKT,  rose  from  thlrtran  millions  in  1821,  to  Mv- 
•nteen  and  ■  httirmUliona  in  1822.  Under  tlie  tariff  of 
1824,  from  182fi  to  1828,  it  roM  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
tliree  and  a  quarter  mllliona ;  under  that  of  1(^28,  ftam 
1829  to  1832,  It  rone  gradually  from  twenty-two  and  a 
half  to  twenty-eight  and  a  half  roilllons.  Under  the 
Compromise  Act  of  18S8,  which  reduced  the  duties  un- 
der Mie  act  of  1832,  by  biennially  deducting  one-tonth 
of  the  excess  over  20  per  cent.,  from  and  after  the  81st 
of  December,  1833,  until  the  81st  of  December,  1641, 
when  one  half  of  the  remaining  excess  was  struck  off, 
and  on  the  80th  of  June,  1842,  the  other  half  thereof, 
the  revenue  fVom  tba  customs  rose  In  the- first  three 
years  of  its  operation  from  sixteen  to  twenty-three 
and  a  half  mllliona ;  In  the  next  year,  1837,  aunli  to 
eleven  mllliona — falling  twelve  and  a  half  millions  In 
one  year — and  rose  again  h.  1839  to  twenty-three  mill- 
Ions,  another  difference  of  i,  .t  clve  millions  in  two  years. 
In  1840  it  ran  down  nine  artd  a  half  millions,  and  In 
two  years  more  rose  four  and  a  half  millions. 

The  first  year  of  the  operation  of  the  tarilTof  1842, 
the  customs  amounted  to  no  more  than  sixteen  mill- 
ions ;  the  three  following  years  it  stood  very  steadily 
at  twenty-six,  twenty-seven  and  a  half,  and  twenty- 
six  and  a  half  millions,  respectively.  In  the  years 
imS-'il,  during  seven  months  of  which  the  present 
tariff  waa  in  operation,  the  customs  fell  two  and  a  half 
millions ;  in  the  following  year  of  famine  in  Europe 
they  rose  eight  millions ;  In  the  year  1848-'49  they 
declined  three  and  a  half  millions,  and  In  the  sue- 
ceeiling  year  Increased  eleven  and  a  quarter  millinns. 
In  the  year  1850-'51  they  rose  again  nine  and  a  half 
millions  above  the  preceding  year ;  In  1851-'62  they 
decline(9  one  and  three-quarter  millions;  In  1862-'53 
they  rose  01^  ">',i  and  three-quarter  millions ;  inl853-'54 
they  again  increased  five  millions ;  and  in  1854-'66  fell 
ele ve  i  millions, 

Fluctuationt  of  the  Customt,  and  Tmieney  to  Exceu 
under  the  tame  lotc-duly  Tariff.  —  In  this  lummary  it 
will  be  perceived  that  within  the  last  nini  j-ears  the 
revenue  from  customs  has  five  times  varied  from  the 
amounts  yielded  in  the  years  immediately  preceding 
these  several  changes,  from  eight  to  eleven  millions 
of  dollars'.  During  these  nine  years  the  present  tariff 
was  in  operation,  and  an  unvarying  rate  of  duties  was 
charged  upon  the  imports.  Its  changes  of  productive- 
ness to  the  revenue  havu  been  changes  of  increase.  In- 
deed, but  not  in  any  balancing  proportion  to  the  natu- 
rally increasing  expenditure  of  a  growing  population ; 
for  we  find  by  statement  No.  23,  of  the  Secretar)''s 
report,  that  the  consumption  of  foreign  imports,  per 
capita,  rone  in  tlie  first  four  years  of  the  period  from 
#G  UO  to  l|ilO ;  and  the  surplus  in  the  treasury  after  all 
ordinary  expenditures,  and  the  payment  of  over  forty 
millions  of  the  public  debt  besides,  is  conclusive  of  this 
point. 

Your  committee  have  not  in  these  statements  con- 
sidered the  causes  of  the  great  disparity  of  the  reve- 
nues yielded  to  the  treasury  by  the  different  rates  of 
duty  levied  upon  foreigp  Imports.  They  have  been 
looking  simply  to  the  question  how  far,  and  to  what 
effect,  impost  percentages  of  themselves  affect  the 
rerenne.  For  the  proposition  presented  for  their  con- 
sideration by  tlie  President  and  Secretary  embraces 
no  more,  either  of  facta  or  principles,  than  the  naked 
assumption  tli.it  the  i-eduction  of  the  percentage  of 
itself  must  work  a  reduction  of  the  revenue. 

"  Low  IMiet  field  the  larger  Revenue."  The  Doe- 
trine  and  JCiperience  of  the  Past. — That  this  doctrine  is 
not  in  accordance  with  the  facts  of  a  large  and  varied 
ei(|)erience,  covering  and  embracing  every  variety  of 
conditions  which  can  affect  the  question,  is  abundantly 
manifested  by  tlic  statistics  presented.  Indeed  the  di- 
rectly opposite  doctrine  has  Iwen  held  by  the  advo- 


eates  of  low  dutlei  In  all  controvendea  which  the  maU 
let  has  hitlierto  undergone.  In  IHtfi,  (lending  the  dis- 
cussion which  substituted  the  present  reduced  tariff 
for  the  higher  one  of  1842,  It  was  argued  by  the  Se(^re- 
tarj'  of  the  Treasury,  In  his  report  of  that  year,  that 
the  larger  revenue  la  produced  by  the  lower  rates  of 
duty.  lie  says,  "  The  revenue  from  ad  valorem  dutlei 
last  year  exceeded  that  realized  from  specillc  duties, 
although  the  average  of  the  ad  valorem  duties  was  only 
23'67  per  cent.,  and  tlie  average  of  the  specific  duties 
41-30,  presenting  another  strong  proof  that  lower  du- 
ties increase  the  revenue,"  And  again,  he  says, 
"  While  it  Is  impossible  to  adopt  any  lu'ritontal  scale 
of  duties,  or  even  any  arbitrary  maximum,  experience 
provea  that,  as  a  general  rule,  20  per  cent,  ad  vahrvx 
will  yield  the  largest  revenue." 

Xbis  jirinciple,  which  is  a  sound  one,  does  not  apply 
to  either  of  the  extremes  of  impost  rates,  fur  the  ono 
may  be  carried  up  to  the  point  which  is  prohlliitory,  or 
near  to  It,  and  the  other  down  to  that  which  would  be 
aa  nearly  nugutor}',  and  so  both  extremes  may  be  made 
to  operate  alike  upon  tlie  treasur}- ;  but  it  is  true  with- 
in a  comparatively  moderate  range  of  difierence — that 
is,  within  any  such  difference  of  percentage  as  any 
advocate  of  reduction  would  now  undertake  to  recom- 
mend. 

The  facts  which  our  financial  historj'  offers  In  sup- 
port of  this  doctrine  are,  In  general,  as  conclusive  aa 
these  following,  which  your  committee  select  from  a 
multitude  for  its  proof. 

Under  the  turlft'  of  1842  the  average  duties  upon 
protected  articles  waa  something  above  40  per  cent. ; 
the  average  monthly  receipts  from  customs  under  that 
act  amounted  to  $1,991,267.  Under  the  tariff  of  1846, 
with  tU  average  duties  below  80  per  cent.,  the  monthly 
receipts  during  the  first  two  years  of  its  operation 
reached  the  sum  of  $i2, 575,207, 

Mr.  M'alker,  In  his  report,  December  11, 1848,  page 
3,  say  a:  "As  the  high  duties  under  the  act  of  1842 
were  rapidly  substituting  the  domestic  articles,  and 
excluding  the  foreign  rival,  the  revenue  must  have 
declined.  From  this  disastrous  condition  we  have  been 
saved  by  the  tariff  of  1846,  yielding  from  reduced  taXe!> 
an  average  excess,  thus  far,  of  more  than  seven  mill- 
ions of  dollars  over  the  average  receipts  from  the  tur-, 
iri'ofl842." 

Twice  under  the  operation  of  the  Compromise  Act, 
once  after  the  second  deduction  was  made  u,)an  the 
rates  of  the  act  qf  1832,  and  once  after  the  third  deduce 
tion,  the  revenue  from  customs  rose  to  the  annual  av- 
erage of  the  high  tariff  of  1828.  And  in  the  year  1642, 
when  its  lowest  rates  were  nearly  touched,  and  the 
level  20  per  cent,  waa  nearly  its  maximum,  the  cus- 
toms stood  higher  than  in  five  of  the  previous  years  of' 
its  operation,  and  above  the  average  of  the  eight  pre- 
ceding 3'cars. 

The  average  annual  amount  of  the  customs  yielded 
by  the  tariff  of  1824  was  twenty-one  and  a  half  mill- 
ions ;  of  the  tariff  of  1828,  was  twenty-four  and  a  fourth 
millions.  In  a  period  of  twenty-two  years,  rising  five 
millions,  or  23  per  cent.  The  average  of  the  first  four 
}-ear8  of  the  tariffof  1840  was  thirty-three  and  a  fourth 
millions — 25  per  cent,  in  four  years ;  the  average  of  its 
second  four  years  was  fifty-four  and  three-fourths  mill- 
ions ;  rising  in  eight  years  twenty-seven  and  a  half 
millions  per  annum,  or  133  per  cent. 

The  average  annual  consumption  of  foreign  imparts 
per  capita  under  the  tariffof  1824  amounted  to  $5  20 ; 
under  the  tariffof  1828,  i&  21 ;  under  that  of  1842,  to 
$5  20;  while  under  the  lower  tariff  of  1846,  during  the 
four  years  of  its  operation  previous  to  the  influx  of  the 
California  gold,  the  consumption  rose  to  $6  50  per 
capita  of  the  population,  and  under  the  verj-  low  aver- 
ago  duties  of  the  whole  period  of  the  compromise  the 
consumption  stood  at  $7  28. 

These  facta  show  how  much  more  productive  of 
mvenue  the  lower  tariffs  rates  are  than  those  which, 


-'rn'  1  i i.ii,ii;>'irffii:iili-Alijii. i.'ftrv'f-^ffomt  ■ 


TAB 


1797 


»r  of  le„enlng  It?  pro.i,«i     *  ''"'^«'»  '"><«  custom. 

t«-.  it .,  thuf  n.j:ztvv'^  ^r-  -p^""  - 

clu'lve  experience,  that  «  „««  Z,  ''!/''•="  "'  »  con- 
ofduty  can  not  l»  relied  un^'  7"."""°"  °'">e  rate, 
timt  the  policy  ha.  Xlv.T   ',.■""'  ""  ""o  contrar! 

and  tbi,  Z  nfan  "ote      ^oiT "^  ""•«•"•  'ff'S' 
A  reduction  of  ,l„.i..  ._,.""?'"• 


TAB 


«.an,of.^^X:;trv?„r:.^--.^--   -A.  .11^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


*i      ,  V  *ne  coi 

"in  i«t  Januari-.  I8ju    "  .,  ., '"""'  "^«  effect  <in 

public  debt  waVnLld  ;  ^  ''1 ""''  '"' «''"«  3«ar  th2 
th.  '■'•.ur3o'f'.d. t,:",!''"?  ""'  •  "•'•"'.  In 
'"••  In  1884  th.  revenu.\J:"  """^  """""M  «f  doL 
«' public  Und.  TZTtSn^nr""""  "">  «"•   .t 

/«/!  ind  in  th.  year  iZ'  .T."""  '"  ">•  |.r.cedln« 
*  tt  balance  In  ih,  .„."       ,  "•  y»«» 


'■y  diminishing  the  awdl^j!  ''P**  ""■•  """"ey  >.  .  ke?  n?,  ^'^  '"""""«•  To  di.  J.„  'J!!"'^  »'  fort  v-.lx 
rate  of  i„ten,.1  to  ouf^w^^^^'"  ■  ?""  •"""•"«"■>«  it.'  ^1' °'  Sr''"",  "-""y  h.  a*^  f^'^S'',""'"^^'  '"  ' 
porter  obtain,  command  of  thl.       '"'""'•     T*"  im-    Eh   L"'""*  "•«  <"«po'lt  of  t  v^    ","1'  "»«•  *■• 

p^d.!""""'/'"'  '■--Ctir„'L''c''rr'  \V''  «-    ^^'Jtt[^'-   .  ^'"  -oh\e"ndlr  :-  f^^-i'"""* 
prod  ction  of  such  article,  it  ..,^!^      "ippled  In  the 
»"pplied  by  importation  a,mlddrir  ""'"""^>'  '»  '  ' 


.„  .k ^  ""I'onation,  and  adrtu  t.,.7    """'"^/  «o  i  ) 

to  the  cn,toma  as  auch  ,upplv T' •■  ?  '»""'<'''  ""re 
«nd,  therefore,  .o  Ion»  «gYh.  5"""  ■''r»«d  wUI  yl.M . 

orpurchasl^ff  ;uchKe^„„r^  '  "  ""  "«»"' 
»o  replacing  the  home^r^ucT  th« '' ,  '  """K"  ff°«<J». 
tinue  to  augment,  instead  of  ,H™.  fl?""  ""'  c""- 
Jow  ;  rates.  '       "  °'  <J''n'ai»hing,  under  the 

prot&^„'rc'tror:,'r'''-''''"'^»Md 

Jhere,  will  have  thTffec  "nder'l  '^  '"""'•  »'  '"-S 
'"8  large  taportatlonsrand  cml'?'".'?"^''-  "''"du?! 


*ith  the  State."    But  ili^h*. " V™'y-«'e''t  miliion; 

.y.^m  Of  national  Znce.,u:'tVrj^.r""' '" 
ofth.  human  constitution  'dVvl;''''  P""».V"'n« 
I'^ff  f  exhaustion.  I„  iVt^!'"  '  P«""  Into  th. 
I'cland,  and  custom,  fellV;  ','"?.""""""' ft"m  pub. 
f»rty-elght  -nillionsThe  ";,!'?■'''''  ""'""n-.  from 
October  of  that  lear  th.  <  ''"'^  ""d  "»  the  12th 
"ry  note,  was  auX'r  dT.^M"  T""- «' trli' 
"'•  -enrice.  of  the  goven^^m"  '^'','-'  '  •"  •"""clcncv  for 
rose  to  thirty  mUllf„sITw„K '"  m,  ^'  ^''  "■"  "venue, 
and  „  two  years  „„«  sunl^to  „'?'"'"  "  '."  '"» •'•'r. 

Zir."-"-"- '«" «'  -rjX",erL^r,r.d 


ingW^"ir;^rrrrj"''-»'-tari^ofi^^^^^^    ^''"•-     .  "  "'"""^^"Ol-cent.ln",-- 

ufacfuring  produ  •?,  Z  .«"  T  ''8'''='"t"r«i  and  man-    sam  °  T"'"^  "'"'«««".  "We  the  du/  "  ""  "P""'"" 


a  way.  .  ,   . „  ,„  i„, 

i|riser„r,:':?^  rzti^rK """  -"■"  ""-- 

den.8„d  lar5.  capitU  Tnh^  Zm'  ^"V"'^-,  which 
immense  amount,,  i„  the  ,Zf »  p  ,''.'""'"»  '"""a  1" 
diae,  to  swell  the  customs.  '  "' ''""'"''«'  ""rchan- 
,=t^"  V'?  '"""^'  »'^v«  mentioned  oro.nf  j-    •  ,         I  """'on..  '     '  °""  "  tnird  millions  to  two 


mended,  in  the  manner  and  fnJ^k  ^^^  '"  "'^'""-  PW  adaptation  to  fh.™  5^*?  '"'"'^  """J  their  hap. 
by  their  own  inherent  Wee,  tKj.''"'''""'^'^*''.  "ut,  the  unstead  Zs  of  th,Tn^"  °^  ""  '""'"O-,  againrt 
but  certain,  in  despite  o^.^'mSfni'l",?'''  """•'•  '"  "P^n-iiturrunder  ^h,  We',?'-'''  '""''"'Ju'tment 
dinarj-  and  extraordinary  to  S  3  '"^™'=««' "-  rates  of  duty  of  the  Mrtirni  '*""^'  *°  "P"""  the 
the  opposite  dir«.»i™r   :?' A"  "T^  mischievously  in   cla,.  „,  . 'Lil^*  P"?"="'"r  aystems  cited  of  th.  .-! 


TAB 


1708 


TAR 


th«  tteu  end  fl((ur«a  of  their  htitory  pnaent  them  ti) 
lu,  Kiid  thut  they  may  Mrv*  m  dikU  for  Um  liii|ulr}- 
b*fur«  ui. 

Your  coininlttM  »n  m  well  kwire,  and  fml  ■■  fsri'l- 
bly  ••  any  olijcctor  can,  that  whtre  a  numlwr  of  causm 
are  In  exUtanre,  and  co-operating  in  the  reiult,  eape- 
clally  whan  •everal  of  them  are  inter-ilependent,  and 
•unie  of  them  indeiwmlent  i>f  the  others,  the  difficulty 
of  <letemiining  their  rea|iectlve  «K*niil**  i*  great  in 
pruportlon  to  the  complexity  and  dU  enlty  uf  the  forces 
•t  work)  but  such  dlffloulty,  in  a  matter  of  the  vast 
faiiportanca  of  that  under  InvestlKution,  only  increasea 
lliH  necessity  for  end«avnrln)(  a  solution. 

I'he  Huctuatlons  of  tbii  niitlimul  revenue  during  the 
operation  of  the  low  taritt's,  und  its  fttradinens  under 
the  liiKher  ones,  occurrlnK  in  u  I'oiintiint  connection  In 
the  luit  thirty-live  years  of  our  lliiaiu'sl  experience, 
seem  to  admit  of  a  ( Inur  and  instructive  explanation. 

The  following  propositions,  which  enihrace  the  facts 
involved  correctly  and  sufllclently  to  cover  all  the  op- 
erative causea,  immediate  and  collateral,  Tery  fully 
satisfy  the  iniiuiry. 

A  tsrllTof  duties  ranging  generally  Inlow  the  point 
of  ade<iuate  protection  to  our  home  pioductlon,  induces 
krge  importations  by  the  effect  of  diminished  prices, 
to  the  extent  to  which  the  purchaser's  means  are  rel- 
atively increased,  and  to  tlie  further  extent  of  supply. 
Ing  tlie  vacancy  occasioned  by  withdmwing  from  thu 
mnrket  the  amount  ofcommodltlesof  home  production 
which  are  so  excluded, 

JCJftci  of  low  Tariffs  vpon  the  Incomafrom  Ike  pub- 
lic IjmiU. — In  181M,  the  llrst  year  of  the  reduction  un- 
der the  Compromise  Act,  the  im|iorts  for  consumption 
rose  three  and  a  half  millions,  and  tlie  revenue  fell  off 
twelve  miilioas. 

In  the  year  1886  the  imports  rose  again  thirty-five 
millions,  and  the  revenue  from  them  was  less  by  ten 
niUiions  than  in  the  year  1(183 ;  but  nearly  fifteen  mill- 
ions of  dollars  flowed  into  the  tren-^ur}-  that  year  from 
the  sales  of  the  public  lands,  bringing  the  total  reve- 
nue up  to  the  total  of  1888,  and  more  than  a  million 
.  above  it. 

In  the  following  year,  188G,  the  imports  for  con- 
tumption  took  another  rise  of  thirty-seven  millions ; 
the  customs  reached  within  five  und  a  half  millions  of 
the  highest  point  they  had  ever  attained  under  the  pre- 
ceding tariffs.  The  public  lands  rose  to  the  enormous 
amount  of  twenty-five  millions ;  and  the  total  revenue 
of  the  year  stood  at  seventeen  millions  atwve  that  of 
183il — the  highest  mark  of  the  high  tariff  years. 

Under  (he  loiceit  of  our  Tarijft  the  ffrealett  Exct$t 
atul  tht  grtatttt  Vrjiiitm-y  nf  Uerenue  both  reachtd. — 
For  nine  yoars  beforo  1884,  the  public  lands  had  never 
in  any  one  year  yielded  quite  four  millions,  and  the 
average  was  two,  or  nineteen  millions  in  nine  years ; 
but  in  three  years,  1884,  '86,  and  '8C,  their  pnxluct  to 
the  treasury  was  over  forty-four  milllonB.  The  cus- 
toms for  these  three  years,  under  the  compromise,  hud 
fallen  off  from  the  sum  of  eighty-one  and  a  half  mill- 
ions afforded  b}-  the  three  previous  years  of  the  higher 
tariff,  to  fifty-nine  milliouii — a  reduction  of  twenty-two 
and  a  half  millions ;  but  the  revenue  of  the  treusurj-, 
by  the  addition  of  thirty-six  millions  from  the  pubUc 
lands,  above  their  averu^^o  previous  yield,  amounted  to 
fourteen  millions  more  for  these  three  years  of  the  com- 
promise than  for  the  three  preceding  years ;  and  the 
proceeds  from  the  sales  of  lands  continued  for  three 
vears  longer  to  yield  ten  millions  mom  than  their 
product  under  any  higher  tariff  which  we  had  before 
or  since.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1839  these  move- 
ments had  exhausted  themselves.  The  customs  for 
the  three  following  years  run  down  to  forty-six  mill- 
ions, twenty-eight  millions  below  the  ordinal}'  ex- 
penditures of  the  period ;  the  lands  fell  to  two  roUlions 
per  annum,  and  the  principal  of  tbe  public  debt  con- 
tracted in  the  five  preceding  years  stood  at  ten  millions. 

The  operation  of  » tariff  of  dutiea  below  the  point  of 


protection,  with  the  long  run  of  nine  years  for  its  de- 
velopments, is  here  fully  prv^ciited.  All  the  causes 
which  could  afect  tha  results  hod  room  and  time  for 
their  iiiitural  action,  and  their  conibinsd  results  aro 
openly  exhibited. 

It*  first  effn  t  was  to  nsnrly  double  our  foreign  Im- 
portations In  three  years.  '1  his  had  the  effect,  by  re- 
duction of  prices  and  glut  of  the  market,  of  eruiiliing 
the  rival  nianufai-turing  Industry  at  home  \  mills  und 
work-shops  were  crippled  and  tkucd ;  the  capital  und 
lalior  driven  from  them  sought  employment  in  agri- 
culture ;  the  sales  of  pulillu  lands  amounted  to  more 
than  seven-fold  the  average  quantity  of  any  other  pe- 
riod of  ten  years  before  or  ten  years  afterward  |  and 
the  term  wound  up  with  a  general  bankruptcy  of  tha 
national  treasury,  and  of  the  |ieople,  bringing  with  It 
a  complete  iwlitical  revolution,  und  compelling  a  total 
change  In  the  fInanoUl  policy  of  the  government. 

Tha  Auctuntlons  of  revenue  uu<ler  It  are  strikingly 
marked  by  the  facts  that  the  income  from  all  souri'os 
never  afterward  rose  to  within  eight  millions  of  thut 
of  183U,  until  the  year  1860-'&1,  and  hud  not  fallen  so 
lq)v  ti*  in  the  year  1841  since  the  year  18*21 ;  It,  In  fact, 
touched  a  point  below  the  receipts  into  the  treaiury 
of  tho  year  1808.  Its  fluctuations  in  a  period  of  five 
years  touched  Iwth  extremes  of  the  revenue  of  the  na- 
tion, running  thivugh  thirty-four  years  of  change ; 
that  Is,  the  revenue  had  not  been  so  low  for  twenty- 
five  years  before  tho  year  1841,  nor  so  high  for  four- 
teen years  after  IHSiti. 

Urtatett  Fluctuation  in  J'ncn  under  the  lowett  Tar- 
ij/i. — The  business  of  the  country'  felt  theKe  vicissitudes 
In  our  foreign  commerce,  and  unsworrd  to  them  like 
their  echo.  Within  a  period  of  six  yeurs,  while  this 
tariff  was  developing  its  extremes  of  change,  from  1836 
to  18'l'2,  the  highest  and  lowest  prices  of  eighteen  years 
were  touched.  Cotton,  flour,  provisions,  tobacco,  com- 
modities of  all  kinds,  labor  and  real  estate,  went  up  in 
price  ahnost  in  the  exact  ratio  that  ini|iortjitions  in- 
vreuscd — ttiut  is,  to  nouriy  double  tho  uuiount  of  18.13, 
in  18'JC ;  and  in  IHii,  tho  imports  falling  to  one  hulf  in 
amount,  so  tho  property,  lul>or,  und  products  of  tha 
country  stood  ut  hiilf  tlio  nuirket  value  of  six  years 
before.  Kot  an  intcrett  of  the  country  on  which  Its 
national  or  individuul  welfare  depended,  but  hud  In 
that  brief  period  undergone  convulsions  unparalleled 
since  similar  causes  had  resulted  in  the  great  business 
catastrophe  of  1820-'-21. 

Such  is  the  history  of  the  policy  which  ul)andoned 
the  revenues  of  tho  government,  and  the  industrial  in- 
terests of  the  countr}',  to  the  operation  of  causes  not 
within  its  control. 

Uri'lut  Etpantion  of  Bank  Circulation  inieparable 
from  arceuiv*  Jmporti  of  foreign  Merchandite. — It  has 
been  customary  with  the  advocates  of  low  turilT  duties 
to  charge  the  inflation  of  prices,  the  rage  of  speculution, 
uud  the  resulting  revulsions  in  the  business  prosperity 
of  the  countr}',  to  excessive  issues  of  bunk  paper. 

The  fact  that  such  overissues  always  concur  with 
inordinute  rise  of  prices  Is  remarkable  indeed,  and  of- 
fers a  plausible  explanation  of  tlu  mischief;  but  tho 
other  fuct,  of  the  invariable  concurrence  of  greatly  en- 
hanced prices  and  excessive  bank  issues  with  tho  reign 
of  low  tariffs,  connect  these  phenomena  in  our  finnnciul 
history  in  a  category  of  relations  which  very  clearly 
shows  that  they  are  In  their  nature  insopurnble.  If 
thu  be  so,  the  government,  which  has  tho  direct  con- 
trol of  one  of  these  agencies  in  tho  mischief,  bus  an  in- 
direct but  al>Bulute  control  over  tho  others,  and  should 
exert  it. 

Fixed  liatio  of  Bank  luurt  to  foreign  Importt. — In 
1880  tho  bunk  circulation  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Galla- 
tin at  sixty-one  millions ;  in  April,  18il4,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasur}',  Mr,  Taney,  estimated  the  circulation 
at  eighty  millions.  In  the  four  years,  1880,  1831, 
1832,  an4  1833,  which  immediately  preceded  the  first 
reduction  under  the  Compromise  Act,  the  imports  cou- 


TAR 


17M 


TAR 


Min«4  •««»[•««« «"  twn  hwdrtd  M<l  nliMty-oiw  mill- 1  th*  Mghn  UriA  i  but  In  ill  inHMMt  li  eatuia  lo 


ports.— ^n 
Mr,  GuUo- 
IsecreUry 
lircultttion 
^30,  1881, 
the  first 
orta  f.on- 


|4ili<  At  lb*  «nit  ipf  th«  ni»t  llvii  ytnti,  1M7,  th* 
b«lib  «lr«uUlliiM  li«i|  nwirflim  to  on*  humlna  and  farty- 
nlli*  mllllitfi*,  nimI  tli«  Import*  for  mniiuinption  for 
IWM,  iKIIft,  INIMI,  mill  11(117,  i<i  fiiiir  liiinilred  and  tiffhty- 
•M  mlllUilia,  'I'liuii  (li*  Inirciinii  <J  the  liii|)«rt*  itmouiit- 
«d  t<i  in  fmt  Milt,  for  llin  |«rl<><l  uf  four  yc*n,  itnd  lh« 
iHvroNM)  III  iNm  ImiiIi  I'lrcuUtloa  tu  m)  \nr  c*nt,  i  uid 
It  w»  iwfal  til*  liiiir«**«<l  piirtiiMM  ur  iiulillc  Undii  of  the 
l«ttlir  loriii  uv*r  tin  rommr,  w*  have  the  proiMirtlon  of 
till)  ulriiuUllwn  In  til*  «X|«nilun  of  buiilu***  i>|wcul«> 
XUm»  liiilii««d  by  IIm  r*dUG«d  tarlflf  T*ry  *xMtl}r  bid- 
•tttwil, 

III  M»r,  IKII7,  lh«  buhliii,  ullh  on*  conMnt  all  over 
III*  llllliiM,  niiiipiitKlMl  ofwcl*  iwyment*,  and  did  nut 
MrtiMMviltly  ur  nirciituull »  rMuine  till  th*  iiiriiii;  of 
WHt  Ihfll  tlinlr  (ilriiiilatton  hid  fiillen  to  elKlity-thr*« 
mlUimiD  )  iDir  did  It  riM  hiKher  tlum  «i|{hty-nlD«  nilU- 
kill*  Nililln  tliirliiii  Iha  nperiitlon  of  the  tariff  of  ItM'i. 

Nilli'«  lim  yxiir  IIUO,  th*  Inoreii—  nnd  decreau  of 
biHik  i^riiMlntliiH  ht4d  no  exnrt  n  lutliitoth*  uveral 
lniitaHKtM  Mild  rat**  of  IlirroaHn  and  diminution  of  Im- 
port* fur  •'iilhiiiillilloll  Air  •ai'li  ypar  of  the  wholii  period, 
M  ilit^iilv**  II  illrsi't  and  un<|ueBtlonuble  connection  be- 
twil«il  tllntili 

Th*  )itliul«r  iit«t*mmt  appenilod  to  thU  report  ex- 
lillilla  tliH  I'litiKtHni'.r  iif  thin  connxi  tlun  for  every  ilnglo 
jfUtt  iilmtt  iltlimnUI  hlaturv  tlnce  18811,  and  for  periods 
of  y»lir*  biifiir*  ami  uliii'p.  In  a  riitlo  to  nearly  mathe- 
nwlltMl  that  lh«r*  leem*  no  dniilit  of  the  law  which 
ml**  Ilia  Mlllijfi't,  a*  tiler*  la  none  of  the  facts  which 
Mrv*  til  lUitHiniitrata  II, 

ll  will  Im  !<««<»,  by  reference  to  the  tabular  itate- 
RHiHliI  lif  Ihl*  r«p(irt,  how  little  (Hiwer  other  cause*, 
wlilull  wara  tllliliiillit»lly  nctlve  In  modlfylni;  the  re- 
*ultii,  liwl  It)  illatiirli  the  workliiK  of  that  one  which  is 
liar*  ai>KUIll«iil  In  !«  Ilin  principal.  The  expansions 
•lUt  omilrHi'tliiim  nt  linnk  tiredltn  and  issues  are  certain- 
ly iiilliiKiii'ail  by  many  other  causes,  but  the  fact  that 
tluty  Imva  iii'i'lirrail  ilurlnK  the  last  forty  years,  year 
hy  ¥mt,  III  Nil  lliyarlabiii  relation  to  llm  Huctuatlons 
In  III*  NIlliiMliI  of  nlir  foreign  lni|iorts, )((»  <  fur  to  estab- 
lull  Ilia  till*  I  ibiit  the  variations  In  our  imports  rule  the 
Mili'tlliitliilis  III  )iur  paper  cum  yi  and  this  law  is, 
ffloreiivtir,  s<i  «<n«rK«tlc  that  I*  jven  overrules  the  effects 
naturally  nNjiantiiil  from  the  large  supply  of  gold  fur- 
nUliail  tu  tllH  tuirretli'y  fnun  the  C'allfomU  mines.  For 
it  U  as  trilM  MS  ll  Is  surprising  that  since  1860,  as  bo- 
fura,  avMry  )  aar  iif  Inrrsused  lm|iort  has  been  marked 
by  ail  tuilllvalplll  lliornase  of  bank  riroulatlon,  and 
avaiy  yaar  uf  illinllilshed  lni|iorts  has  Im  u  marked  liy 
» illitiliilsliad  bank  vIroulMtiMn,  corresponding  in  amount 
a*  nearly  aa  it  Is  posslbia  tu  conceive  a  primary  and 
rullMtf  iiaiisa  nan  «p«r«t«  while  roliiur  and  subordinate 
«na*  ara  alsii  In  play, 

/*«'  Turlj/'ii  rniMmttlilii  Jhr  ixceuive  Hank  I$tut>.— 
That  low  liirllf  iliilles  are  resfionslble  for  the  excess  of 
^raltfll  iiii|ii>nHtliili*-tlinl  these  augmented  Imports  in- 
dlWfi  t.<i'i<aa|vti  blink  Issues,  and  excessive  hank  issues 
awall  prlvfis  liiorillliiitely,  In  the  series  of  dependency 
fthiull  U  liara  allagitil— Is  rendered  unquestionable,  by 
tba  fatit  thai  tliasa  enpanslons  of  imports,  paper  cir- 
Aulaliiin,  atiit  iirlces,  nnver  have  occurred  when  our 
tarilfit  warii  high  wiuugli  to  foster,  but  always  when 
tbay  wara  mi  ttiw  as  l«  discourage,  home  production, 
mwi  to  aulistltlita  Ilia  foreign  cummoditles  for  domestic 
prodmits  ill  iiiii'  iimrket. 

duimmrn  itf'  Ihn  llmnmt  which  ftirbid  the  Abandon- 
tmnl  uf' imilet'llfn  /liilim.—Your  committee  derive  from 
thin  iiivasljgatioil  of  tli«  effects  of  our  varied  tariff  sys- 
lanii  lltaiM  tjia  rovenue  the  following  conclusions : 

}.  'i'lia  illillliidlata  tffn'i  of  duties  lielow  the  rates 
wblflh  |ir«MM't  rnir  i>»n  Industry  from  the  rlvalrj-  of 
fonign  tiiinilllMitltia*  uf  the  same  kind,  is  a  proportion- 
al* anlmiliii>inatlt  iit  Slloh  imtiorts,  and  a  corresponding 
ifleraaae  ut  Ilia  ravenim  tlom  uustoms,  which  either  ap- 
ftowU,  «i|tml,  ur  uhihh]  lha  revenue  from  customs  of 


disappoint  any  *xp*ctaUon  of  a  rMluclInn  of  th*  oH* 
torn*  in  proportion  to  ih*  abat*m*nt  of  the  rat**. 

'i.  Th*  Incraaa*  of  imports  cons«qiMnt  upon  a  nia> 
Hon  of  diitle*  below  the  |iolnt  of  adequate  proteoUoa 
driv**  manufacturing  capital  and  labor  Into  aKricullur* 
and  trail*,  ami  by  thi*  mean*  vaatly  Increases  Ih*  r«T*> 
nuea  from  the  sale  of  the  public  lands  and  from  foielga 
conmierce,  and  thus  make*  up  all  daflclmcy  In  tb« 
customs,  and  i;reatly  ov*r|i*sa**  K,  and  so  tends  to  a 
plethur>i  ill  tlio  iraaaury,  Uiitaad  of  Umlting  Its  Inoont 
and  reatruiniiig  it*  ovartlow. 

8.  '1  h*  indirect  effects  of  ths  •am*  policy  is  lo  •»■ 
haust  th*  sources  of  national  and  ina'-hlual  pMS|i«rlly, 
and  by  Its  reaction  to  bankrupt  the  treasury'  and  pro*- 
trat*  th*  enterpris*  of  the  country,  leaving  d*l>t,  pulv 
lie  and  privaU,  to  punish  th*  cxtravoguuc*  which  It 
luduo*d  and  Indulged. 

Your  committee,  therefor*,  for  reasons  cogent  aa 
these,  nnd  many  othe/s  which  depend  upon  thrse,  but 
are  Irreleva  it  to  this  issue  of  mere  national  flnance, 
would  rarnl^tly  discourage  any  nieasur*  which,  (ltb*r 
In  principle  or  In  details,  aim*  at  relieving  the  treasury 
of  its  present  and  prospective  surfilu*  l>y  a  reduction 
of  the  present  ratea  of  lm|K)st  duties  below  the  |iolnt 
which  any  liranch  of  our  home  industry  requires  for 
its  security  and  prosperity.  To  guard  against  any 
lioKvllile  misconstruction,  it  must  b«  observed  that  by 
the  frequent  allusion*  of  this  report  to  axcesstv*  Inw 
IMirtationa  of  foreign  goods,  and  th*  Inliuencts  drawn 
I'ri.in  such  excess  of  iiii|iortation,  the  apparent  "  bal.  . 
mice  of  trade"  against  the  t'nitcd  .States,  which  the 
statements  of  the  Treasury  Department  exhibit  for  any 
single  year,  or  for  any  series  or  grouiis  of  years,  is  not 
taken,  or  ir'.eiided  to  any  etftct  or  purpose  fur  whioh 
the  dlffennce  in  official  'alue  between  our  Imports  and 
export*  has  been  used  by  dther  party  to  the  contro- 
v*r«y. 

The  total  value  or  valuatloi.  of  oar  Imports,  as  given 
by  the  department  statements,  irom  the  beginning  of 
the  government  to  the  UOth  June,  K'QS,  amounts  to  6988 
milliuns  of  lUiUars ;  the  ex|X)rts  for  t^e  same  period  of 
domehtic  and  foreign  merchandise  and  specie,  to  6170 
millions — a  difference  of  818  millions. 

No  conclusions  whatever  are  drawn,  either  as  to  ef- 
fect or  amount  of  effect,  from  the  data  whkh  oui  Inter- 
national  account  current  thus  offers,  or  seems  to  atTc. 
'ihe  discussion  which  this  point  would  awaken  baa 
been  avoided  as  wholly  unnecessary  to  thn  argument 
of  this  report,  and  possii'ly  imonclualve  and  uncertain 
fur  any  pur]iose,  hut  althoii^  'i  the  enonnous apparent 
balance  against  us  in  the  acco-uiit  of  our  foreign  trad* 
be  not  leliable  for  the  actiual  difference  in  our  ex- 
changes with  the  rest  of  the  world,  as  it  probably  la 
not,  yet  the  amoimt  of  the  national,  Stata,  municipal, 
railroad,  bank,  and  other  corporatimi  tocka  and  bonda 
held  by  foreigners,  should  b«  received  us  a  subsisting 
balance  of  debt,  resulting  from  a  past  balance  of  tradi?, 
which  it  must  represent. 

J'^ecli  of  the  preietU  Tariff  upon  Wool^^ffrotcen,  . 
ifanvfaclurer;  and  upon  the  Hevenue. — The  tariff  of 
1846  unhappily  raised  the  duty  on  all  imported  wools 
to  30  per  cent.,  while  it  reduced  thu  dutv  on  imported 
flannels  and  blankets  to  25  and  20  per  cent.,  and  on  Ihe 
coarser  woolen  fabrics  to  25  ))er  cent, 

Now  these  low-priced  manufactures  of  wool  being 
the  chief  in  quantity  and  value  of  which  wo  were  then 
capable,  the  business  was  prostrated  by  the  premium 
which  that  act  in  effect  offered  to  the  foreign  manufac- 
turer ;  and  the  nominal  protection  of  the  wool-growtr 
resulted  in  the  ruin  of  his  business,  as  In  that  of  Iha 
cloth-maker.  The  home  market  was  destroyed  for  Iha 
farmer;  in  the  foreign  be  could  not  compete,  and  tb« 
ttocks  were  sent  to  the  slaughter,  because  the  woolen 
factories  had  been  sold  at  auction  or  converted  to  oth«t 
services.  The  effects  of  this  policy  on  the  treasnty 
are  seen  in  the  fact  that  twenty-two  milUons  of  th* 


TAR 


1800 


TAR 


MrplM  In  lh«  InaMrjr,  M«iiaiuUt*d  in  th«  y»n  18M, 
18M,  Mwl  IHftA,  h*T«  emiM  flnm  eurtomi  upon  wooUni. 
In  1H44  wnolnu  ]rl<l<i«<t  •n,8i.1,495  In  tba  cottomi, 
oottona  t4,HAO,7ni  ■  In  IHbi  wooUni  yMilad  $a,(m,W, 
ootlonii  hut  •A,HM,y<M. 

The  cotton  manuhrtur*  wm  protaotol  t  tb*  wooltn 
wu  ii>H>nilon*d ;  ■ml  whllo  *ll  th«  Intcranti  d«p«iil(nt 
■pnn  it  h>T«  twcn  iurillMil,  tha  nivanaa  hu  haan  In- 
(Utcit  at  laMt  four  mllliont  par  annnm  daring  tha  iMt 
four  yaan  liayoml  what  It  wniiM  hava  racalvad  If  tha 
policy  of  tha  ((nvcrnmant  hail  haan  an  fiiandly  to  it  ai 
it  haa  (Man  to  tha  cotton  manufacturar ;  a  atriking  IW 
loftratlon  of  tba  law  that  tha  cartatn  rotthod  of  limit- 
ing tha  amount  of  taxaa  li  hr  limiting  tha  Hnionnt  of 
importa,  liy  dutlaa  adaqiiata  to  guarding  tha  homa-mnilr 
Mmmodity  agalnnt  «xtlnguliihniant  liy  tha  fiiralgn. 

t!T*miili(m  of  Ike  tuarter  tmil  finer  Wooltjrom  Duly. 
—Your  cummlttaa,  looking  »l  might  at  thn  queatioii  nt 
tlia  ravaniia,  tharafnra,  reconimenil  you  to  axcmpl  ^11 
wnola  of  thoaa  qualitlen  not  ganarally  grown  in  thix 
conntrj-,  coating  laaa  than  Aftaan  and  mora  than  fifty 
eanta  par  pound  at  tha  port  of  antry  in  th«  ITnitad 
fltataa,  from  duty,  retaining  tha  axbting  tariff  rato 
upon  tha  intarmadlata  qualltiaa,  and  at  tha  aama  time 
to  raiia  tha  dutlaa  upon  all  woolan  manufactorea  to  tha 
point  of  adaquata  protactlon. 

Tha  racommandation  to  fix  tha  duty  upon  all  iuch 
woola  aa  our  farmara  now  produce,  or  can  eaaiiy  pro- 
duca,  at  80  per  cant.,  and  to  ralM  the  dutlaa  npon  all 
woolan  falirics  Into  whoae  manufacture  auch  wool  en- 
tara,  la  made  for  tha  purpoaa  of  opening  a  market  at 
home  for  the  raw  material  which  it  can  not  find  abroad, 
■ad  diminiabing  the  cnttoma  flowing  into  the  treaaury 
ftom  woolen  Importa  to  thu  extent  which  auch  enhanced 
domaatic  production  will  replace  them. 

Magnilmhi  of  the  Woolen  Interett. — Special  eonald- 
•ration  to  thia  intereat  ia  here  given  becanaa  of  ita 
magnitude,  which  may  be  estimated  hy  the  fact  that, 
both  in  value  of  the  Importa  and  the  amount  of  duty 
jrleldad  to  the  treaaur}',  woolen  manufacturea  have 
bean  aqnal  to  thoaa  of  Iron,  greater  than  cottona,  and 
nest  in  importance  to  allka,  during  the  laat  tan  yeara 
of  our  financial  hiator}'. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treaaury,  noticing  tha  great 
progreaa  made  in  the  manufacture  and  production  of 
iron  elnco  the  year  IfMO,  atatea  the  fuct  that  the  Amer- 
ican production  in  the  year  1R50  wan  (>60,48B,656,  and 
tha  foreign  Import  of  the  aame  year  only  $I6,388,14fi, 
■nd  aaya :"  The  conclnaion  ia  inevitable,  that  the  pro- 
duction and  manuficture  of  iron  in  the  United  Statea 
within  a  ver}'  abort  period  of  yeara  will  exclude  the 
foreign  production  and  manufacture."  Of  cotton  he 
Mya :  "  That  already  the  American  manufacture  ia  in 
poueaalon  of  the  home  market  aa  to  all  coarser  fabrics, 
and  beginning  suoeaaaAUly  the  manufaeture  of  the  finer 
Ibbrica." 

These  are  the  good  parts  of  •  policy  of  protection  so 
moderate  that  without  the  help  of  a  number  of  lnd»- 
pendent  causes,  co-operating  with  the  imposed  duties, 
•Ten  these  branches  of  the  iron  and  cotton  manufac- 
ture, to  which  the  Secretary'a  report  Justly  applies, 
would  not  have  been  austained  in  the  past,  or  given 
■nch  flattering  promises  for  the  future.  The  protec- 
tion extanda<i  to  them,  and  which  now  appears  in  their 
proaperity,  covers  a  period  of  not  more  than  fourteen 
jraars,  and  haa  been  efflciently  operative  for  only  about 
half  of  that  time ;  yet,  with  all  favoring  iuflnences  con- 
curring, under  a  stable  policy,  the  enterprise  and  skill 
of  our  manufocturera  may  in  time  achieve  a  victor}- 
orar  the  competition  of  cheaper  and  mor«  abundant 
capital  and  labor  abroad. 

Dtprenion  nfihe  Woolm  Jnterttl.— Mat  onr  woolens 
ha^a  Ungulshed  to  the  verge  of  extinction,  while  these 
two  branches,  of  not  more  than  equal  importance,  have 
10  far  prosperiMl.  In  1846  we  imported  for  consumption 
♦10,000,000  of  woolens  and  $18,000,000  of  cottons.  In 
1856  we  imported  for  consumption  #22,000,000  of  wool- 


ana  and  only  |1A,IM)0,n00  of  cottons,  and  exported  of 
donia>tla  cottona  nearly  9H,000,0()0|  In  lh«  diia  caa« 
mora  than  doubling  our  danandance  upon  foreign  proa 
dit'tlnn,  and  In  tha  other  radaeing  It,  In  affect,  17  |)ar  el. 

Mow  wa  ara  Just  aa  capable  of  growing  wool  and 
mannfkctaring  it  aa  wa  ara  of  tha  eorras|iondln(  oatlos 
production  and  manufketnre.  Tha  territory  of  tha 
United  Statea,  adapted  to  wool-growing,  la  as  large  an4 
aa  (kvorable  aa  all  Europe  poaaassra  ami  ilavotea  to  th< 
pnrposa  i  and  If  thoaa  qualltiaa  of  the  article  which  w* 
do  not  or  can  not  proAtahly  cnltlvula  were  anamptad 
from  duty,  and  ao  affbrdad  equally  cheap  to  our  own 
aa  to  the  foraign  manufacturer,  there  la  no  natural 
eanaa  In  cxiatenca  to  prevent  the  imrae<llata  aatabliali* 
ment  of  woolen  factoriea  aufflclent  lu  otien  a  raniunar> 
atlng  market  for  our  fkmiara  to  an  almoat  unllmltad 
extent.  There  are  pnrtlima  of  the  I'nltnd  Htiitaa  in 
which  tha  flneat  uiid  IxiHt  wool  of  the  world  ban  already 
been  grown  ;  and  it  ia  poaailile  that  this  might  In  tint* 
be  brought  up  to  supply  our  entire  demand  for  auch 
first  quality  of  staple;  liut  it  ia  certain  that  all  tha 
qualitiea  between  th«  finest  and  the  couraaat  could  ha 
•upplivd  quite  up  to  the  demand  of  tha  market  within 
Ave  yeara  ftam  tha  aatabllahment  of  an  encouraging 
policy  i  and  C'ongresa  ia  imperatively  called  up<m  now 
to  decide  whether  so  vast  an  Intenat  as  this  shall  ba 
sustained  or  iKwIniyi'il. 

Prtileffiim  to  Mn  H  iKil-ifroiftr  ami  Itftmufarlmtr,  or 
PrHruclioH  lo  one  <>/  Ihe  ihrtt  gnatrrt  Uninehtt  nf 
A  merietm  Induitry. — As  the  question  now  stanils,  more- 
over, let  It  not  lie  overlooked  that,  If  tha  manufacture 
ahali  be  relieved  of  all  weight  which  tha  dutlaa  upon 
all  qnallties  of  wool  Impose  on  It,  by  placing  them  In 
the  (Vee  list,  thn  wool-growing  interasta  of  the  country 
may  be  seriously  injured.  If  the  manufacture  la  pro- 
tected, as  it  must  lie  by  a  duty  of  80  per  cent.,  tha 
agriculturists  will  be  taxed  that  much  upon  all  tha 
woolens  they  must  use,  while  their  own  intenata  in 
the  production  of  the  fabrics  are  destroyed  i  and  if 
woolana  shall  not  l>e  thus  protected,  then  manufacturar 
and  farmer  are.  both  overwhelm^,  and  the  country 
la  deprived  of  all  shan  in  one  of  the  thraa  graataat 
branchea  of  human  industry. 

The  consumption  of  woolens  is  at  least  equal  In 
value  to  that  of  cottons  In  the  United  Btates,  and  to 
anrrender  their  production  and  manufacture  todestnuv 
tion  ia  80  unwise  that  it  ia  not  to  lie  supposed  jiosailila 
to  an  Intelligent  people.  Let  a  homo  market  for  all 
the  wool  that  can  be  profitably  produced  in  this  oonn- 
ti^  be  created  by  a  change  in  the  present  tariff  which 
will  exempt  the  coaraeat  and  finest  qualities  ttom  duty, 
raise  the  duties  on  flannels,  blankets,  anil  those  fabriea 
which  require  the  middling  qualitiea  of  wool  which  tha 
United  States  can  supply  abundantly,  and  farmer  and 
manufacturer  will  lie  restored  to  that  pro«|ierity  of 
which  they  have  been  deprived,  and  the  revenues  will 
b«  reduced  by  the  diminution  of  importa  effected  by 
the  home  supply,  and  all  the  objecta  of  a  Just  and  wlsa 
legislation  will  be  equally  met. 

Reduction  of  the  Jlevemie  iy  Protection  of  the  Woolen 
Manufacturei. — The  customs  have  risen  on  woolens  in 
eleven  yeara  from  $8,818,496  to  (6,088,167,  while  thoaa 
on  cottons  have  fallen  from  $4,860,781  to  t,1,82B,VU4. 
Here  we  have  a  ratio  of  reduction  in  the  revenue,  from 
this  source,  which  under  parallel  circumstances  would, 
by  its  direct  operation,  reduce  the  annual  surplus  of 
the  treasury  at  leort  four  niillions. 

Add  this  probable  reduction  to  tha  Secretary's  esti- 
mate of  the  diminution  promised  by  his  proposed  A-ea 
list,  and  about  nine  millions  of  diminution  in  the  an- 
nual revenue  are  fairly  provided  for — Ave  milliona  im- 
mediately, and  four  milUoBa  Just  as  aoon  aa  factories 
can  be  built,  or  those  which  have  been  converted  fhim 
woolen  to  other  manufkctnraa  can  be  restored  |  and 
sheep,  which  by  natural  increase  more  than  double 
their  number  every  year,  can  b«  rwmd  to  supply  tba 
denandt 


In  V»l,,8  ivB  J  :.„;  ,'?""'f|'cture,  are  greatly  larger   ..  ^f  u'"""""  "^  "'«  most  «  kf,''*  '"*'-  ""cnling 
MmptUm  l,v  ?^i-^        ?""  *•">'«  of  wool    thT,:    *" '  ''  '"'"''«'•  '»  the  charaot^;     ^"i''  """"ority ;  and  it 

>^»taka  UC)"^  **  '"AwyW <*«  />-,  /..,         "?'  wnstimUon.  but  their  .,?i.T ''**''*""' '"  ^^ polit- 


TAR 


1802 


TAR 


Depandanee  upon  a  foreign  people  for  •  market,  either 
for  agrioulturid  or  mecbanioal  product!,  ia  industrial 
vaia^age. 

England  has  made  herself  tlie  worlc-shop  of  the  world 
hy  a  vicioualy  exaggerated  system  of  mannfactnring  i 
and  she  depends  day  liy  day  upon  the  world's  unnat- 
ural submission  to  her  system  for  her  prosperity. 

Turkey  abandoned  the  guardianship  of  her  pros- 
perity to  foreign  dominion,  and  has  sunk  from  the 
rank  of  a  flrst-rate  power  in  the  earth  to  the  rerj  verg* 
of  national  ruin.  Her  internal  trade  is  wholly  in  the 
bands  of  foreign  huciuters,  as  her  national  integrity 
is  under  the  guardianship  of  foreign  sovereigns.  A 
people  impoverished  by  a  system  of  the  lowest  and 
least  remunerative  industry,  and  degraded  in  ciiaracter 
and  spirit  by  its  necessary  ignorance  and  feebleness. 
Is  inevitably  at  the  mercy  of  its  superiors  in  these  re- 
spects. 

The  Americin  people,  of  the  same  lineage,  equal 
skill  and  enterprise,  superior  inventive  genius,  and 
holding  a  better  territory  by  all  the  difference  of  its 
extent  and  variety  of  climate,  soil,  and  commercial  re- 
lations, as  compared  with  Western  Europe,  can  not 
possibly  be  held  to  inferior  and  subordinate  industrial 
•vocations. 

The  necessary  command  of  our  welfare,  the  current 
disposition  of  our  own  atfairs,  imperatively  demand 
that  we  sb.tll  guard  ourselves  against  all  injurious  for- 
eign agencies  and  influences,  by  a  settled  system  of 
self-defense. 

Home  andfortigft  Market  for  Provuiotu  and  Bread- 
tti{ff's, — The  home  market  for  all  our  products  now  is 
at  twenty-seven  hundred  and  fifty  millions  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  millions ;  but  the  corresponding  two 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  imports,  for  which  we  ex- 
change our  surplus,  has  the  power  to  disturb  and  dis- 
tract our  currency,  domestic  exchanges,  and  domestic 
indnstr}-,  to  an  extent  which  puts  the  treasur}'  of  the 
nation  and  the  prosperity  of  the  people  at  tin  mercy 
of  every  fluctuation  in  the  market  of  London.  We 
must  conquer  our  independence  of  the  money  power 
of  Europe,  ard  we  must  control  our  national  finances 
into  conformity  with  our  own  necessities.  This,  it  is 
obvious,  con  be  done  only  by  bracing  the  home  market 
against  all  disturbing  agencies. 

The  mischievous  error  of  preferring  a  foreign  to  the 
home  market  for  bieadstuffs  and  provisions,  and  se- 
ducing the  agriculturist  into  the  policy  of  favoring  it, 
is  clearly  exposed  and  convincingly  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing statement ; 

The  popolatlon  of  Great  nrltain  and  Ireland  Is. .    ST,000,000 

American  broadstulb  and  pmvUioiu,  ahipped  to 
the  United  Kingdoin  Id  1§S6 $15,898,343 

Coiuuroptl  in  per  capita 07  ceata. 

Workmen  omploycd  la  making  the  Iron  Imported 
from  Oreat  ilritaiii  In  ISfiB 60,513 

Repreaenliiig  In  families  jf  Hvo  pereona  «ach. . . ,         S08,5S0 

Three  hundrud  and  two  tliousaud  Ave  hundred 
and  ninrtjr  |wnonji,  at  flAy-srvon  centa  each, 
worth  of  provtoli^na  and  breadatuffli $1T3,4TA 

Three  hundriHl  and  tho  thoiiHand  five  hundred 
and  ninety  Amcrlcima  would  conflumo  of  our 
proTlaiona  and  breadatntb  fifty  dollan  each. . .     tB,12},B0O 

or  within  a  trifle  of  the  whole  amount  taken  ftom  ns 
by  the  27,000,000  of  British  people  for  that  year. 

To  bring  the  iron  imported  in  1855  to  the  United 
States  tlio  equivalent  of  70  American  and  18  for- 
eign vessels  were  entirely  supported,  counting  the 
cargoes  both  ways.  The  tonnage  of  American  vessels 
average  931  tons  each,  and  they  carrj'  crews  of  24i 
men  each,  or  in  all,  Americans,  15C8 ;  18  foreign  ves- 
sels, of  783J  tons  each,  and  crews  of  21 1  men  each, 
equal  to  390  men.  Each  vessel  is  estimated  to  make 
three  trips  in  the  year,  carrying  six  cargoes.  The  ves- 
bels  represent  a  capital  equal  to  $50  per  ton. 

Araerlcfin  capital  employed  In  carrying  this  Iron  la 

66,110  toB«,  at  tSn J8  SRI  BOO 

BriUab  capital  in  18,303  tona  of  ahlpplng,  at  $50. .       6«o!lB0 
Total  cajiltal  hi  the  ihipplag $8,(118,660 


Parioaa  aoBparitd* 

803,B» 

1,960 

T.816 
819,866 


:  .,:■, "I  '       BuittABT  or  ElirLOT¥IMn       ••  S  ■'■*"■■ 
M«. 
Englishmen  In  manufacturing  . .  60,618 

Knglishmen  In  shipping 390 

Amorloana  in  ahlpplng 1,568 

Total m;5i1 

SuMMABT  or  Capital. 

Brltlah  la  production  of  Iron  . ; $T6,000,OAO 

British  In  abipplog 666,160 

T6,66d,lB0 

Americana  In  ablpphig 8,256,600 

Total  capital  supported $78,!itl4,660 

^uuAiT  or  BuAnsTTrrrs  akd  rnovisioNB. 
Consnmed  by  the  llrllkh  people  In  making  Iron, 

803,6lt0,  at67ocnta $172,410 

Inablpplng,     1,960,  at  $5 0,760 

804,640  $182,226 

By  Americans  In  shlpphig,  7815  men,  at  $60 nil0,760 

ToUl $472,976 

Had  the  Iron  been  made  in  the  United  States, 
802,690  persons  would  have  consumed,  at  $50  each, 
$16,129,500. 

The  result  is,  that  we  supported  in  the  importation 
of  foreign  iron,  in  the  year  ]86&— 

Foreign  capital .'.  i $75,660,150 

Foreign  people,  804,510.        •  > 

American  capital  3,268,600 

American  people,  TSIS. 
We  gained  »  market  for  breadstuffa  and  provl- 

alonaof 4,722,976 

And  ve  lost  a  market  for  breadatuffs  and  prorl- 

slonaof. 15,1211,500 

Loss  to  American  farming  hitereat,  a  market  for  $U,<IOO,a76 

The  facts  and  figures  of  every  other  kind  of  import- 
ed commodities  wliich  a  home  produ<!tion  would  ex- 
elude  are  data  for  a  similar  calculation  of  loss  to  the 
agricultural  interest  of  this  country. 

fntemaltoiuil  Kxchanget.  —  The  surplus  provisions 
and  ursadstcflTs  wliich  we  might  produce,  after  an 
evenly  b  Unced  and  independent  system  of  manufac- 
turing should  be  established,  would  be  the  legitimate 
subject  for  foreign  commerce,  contributing,  to  our  nec- 
essary exchanges  with  other  nations,  and  thus  to  the 
general  welfare  ;  but  shipped  at  such  a  loss  in  amount 
and  value,  as  they  must  be  while  they  are  injudiciously 
denied  a  home  consumption,  the  undue  amount  of  their 
vxport  measures  our  distance  from  a  healthy  system, 
and  (him  the  wealth,  prosperity,  and  independence 
wtiich  a  true  policy  would  secure  to  ns. 

Agricultural  home  Market  againit  the  foreign.  —  It 
is  only  the  least  profitable  of  the  farmer's  cro|>s  which 
will  bear  distant  voyages  in  search  of  a  market,  and 
all  excess  which  his  exports  find  or  make  abroad  foils 
back  in  diminished  prices  upon  the  hundred-fuld  stock 
which  he  sells  at  homo,  sometimes  scarcely  re|)airing 
by  the  whole  net  value  of  the  exports  the  diminution 
of  price  which  they  reactively  inflict  upon  the  domes- 
tic market,  for  his  green  crops,  fruits,  and  garden 
stuH'H,  his  poultry,  veal,  mutton,  and  dairj-  products, 
he  must  have  a  market  at  home,  or  he  must  abandon 
their  culture  for  sale.  His  land  may  be  made  to  yield 
him  thirty  or  forty  dollars  per  acre  in  transportable 
grain,  less  tho  cost  of  cultivation,  or  he  may  make  its 
product  marketable  abroad  and  worth  about  as  much 
by  feeding  it  to  stock ;  but  he  can  neither  diversify  his 
crops,  nor  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  land  against 
such  a  system  of  exhaustion ;  and,  above  all,  he  will 
not  be  able  to  make  it  yield  three  times  the  value  of 
such  crops  in  those  vegetables  which,  with  a  well-sus- 
tained home  market,  is  easily  efllected.  The  difference 
between  the  market  value  and  the  profit  of  a  farm  in 
the  Far  West,  and  one  of  an  equal  quantity  of  land 
adjacent  to  a  large  city,  illustrates  the  difference  be- 
tween a  market  at  hand  for  all  possible  agricultural 
products,  and  a  foreign  one  with  an  ocean  intervening. 

The  farmer's  wool  crop  has  l>oen  amply  protected 
for  nine  or  ten  years,  so  far  as  a  high  tariff  duty  upon 
imported  wool  could  do,  or  promise  to  do  it ;  but  his 
home  market  bat  been  destroyed  by  a  countervailing 


TAR 


1803 


TAB 


opportunity  of  a  foJi!ln  ™'  ?"  """"'■''Wnrer.     Th«  I  „»> 


»o  bett„  than  for  rhtt'l'el     •''-'-<' or  the.,  fl,?^^^^^^^ 

p4trfra„^-T.-r'-'--- rf^^^ 

ty-nino  million,  of  Mhn     Uh  ?  /""  "•«"»  «"  thir.  .h«k  "'"".  '"''  "o^"*"  8nffe„»  ^^  ""  ""nloiy 

of  national  in<iu"Jr?  I,  »  /  ";'""«  ""  "'«  department.   S^^     '»/''"■«<!«  it.     It  fa  utt«h.  r  "  *"  ''Sl'lative 

one  of  tlioao  (Irst  nrinclnl  "    r''«'o"8  science.     It  1,    „i,m„7.'    ""^ "  «onimodity  of  ttaip  la   f "^""  "'  ""o 
iboa.th.aataoVMr„:^'^^'-'''-nt^^^^^^ 


one  of  tlioao  drat  nrin^i^i""''  ™''«'oU8  «v.„..^„.     „  „  .  „. .,    ,  ™„,.  „, 

ible  aa  the  Tta  nf  „ii     P      *''''^''  «'»"<«  incontrov«rt     i     '.'"  '"  "Port  fa  ^^J\, 

the  truth  of  thfa  pl'lr  ,""^  '"'1"'0-  harpS  "  ^T''f '^"'  ""«  of  inter"  r    J '  ""'  """""on,!?.™! 
can  not  be  doubted  th^f.l'"  "'""'>■ '"I'l^rteT. ml  li    'lVT'^^""">^!)i<>  the  ex, '  t  i''","'"  P'«'''''^'»  or 

quirementa  of  o,  /.  ^  "  ''»»  '"'"  «'lj"8te<l  to  tCnf        *""  ""'' '"".  into  at  lea  ?  H  ,        "*  '""'«'*'''.  both 


:,;„  "'"  f'^«<=t  of  retainin.,  theaohr"!,"''^  'lepcndcnco,  "^      """  "  ""*'<?>  market  for  he, 


»  amount  to  which  it  I.,,.  X   "  ?T  *"''''°   "'«"'»  of  tho  whole  coun/™^  ohanges  in  the  movei 
m  «„„..i..  _  ".'"^r  ". '""  dimmished  th«  I  nm-i,..  .,^.  .   ..  '*  '^oxntrj',  and  eiven  ^,.  .1..  i^!,  "^ 


antlTcSXr^t'-rKr  1  "  r  «'-W  ^""^^^"ar  W^^^^f r '  f  P'«  ''""  ""^^^^^^^^  tt 
'iti.  i  but  it  fa  abSL; 'ce  L^^T  "'"f  '"  ^»"*^'"'   «"'te   th«t 't'",,:  &  "'"r"""^  '"^e  UniM 


TAR 


1804 


TAR 


«f  diUt,  that  tliMW  ii  nothing  tnbitantUl  raqaired  to 
be  norifleod  hy  an/  jut  of  tho  countr}-  for  the  good 
of  the  whole,  and  very  little  even  in  speculative  opin- 
ion to  be  compromised  to  elTect  an  agreement. 

The  people  may  be  agitated  and  divided  npon  oon- 
ititutional,  moial,  and  rellgiona  qaeatioM,  and  their 
&onnion  and  MtUement  will  have  proportionate  ef- 
flBCt  upon  the  general  harmonjr,  bat  the  measures  which 
cany  with  them  a  general  prosperity  will  hereafter,  as 
heretofore,  bear  them  through  every  strift,  and  secure 
the  generil  welfare. 

The  prosperity  ofnavlgation,  foreign,  coastwise,  and 
Internal,  are  necessarily  so  directly  dependent  upon 
the  productiveness  and  wealth  of  the  agricultural  and 
manufkcturing  business  of  the  nation,  that  the  sim- 
plest definition  of  its  functions  contains  the  proof  of 
our  ptopoaition.  It  is  the  common  carrier  of  all  ex- 
changes. Its  business  is  proportioned  to,  as  it  is  de- 
pendent upon,  production,  and  must  grow  with  all 
growth,  and  decline  with  all  diminution  of  the  prod- 
ucts demanding  its  agency. 

Xdalumt  o/tMe  Trailer  and  the  Laborer,  and  the  Com- 
ptntationi  of  a  general  Progrtu  for  all  C'Jkanget. — A 
lound  political  policy  looks  to  a  constant  diminution 
of  the  {Hoportionata  number  of  intermediates  between 
the  producer  and  consumer. 

All  the  modem  improvements  In  the  methods  and 
instruments  of  commerce  tend  to  the  accomplishment 
of  this  great  aim.  Time,  distance,  and  cost  of  trans- 
portation are  in  rapid  progress  of  abridgment,  and 
middlemen  are,  in  corresponding  ratio,  elbainated  by 
the  process.  Yet  all  these  movements  toward  a  bet- 
ter and  director  relation  between  men  whose  recipro- 
cating industries  require  improved  conditions  of  inter- 
eonrse  is  found  to  work  as  well  for  all  the  d^'i'io  "\t 
as  for  the  principal  functionaries  In  the  worl/.  j  '.-.- 
uarce.  Stsam  has  been  largely  substituted  for  ^  i  >r  \a 
and  brute  power  on  the  great  thoroughfares  ft  trade 
and  travel,  but  horses  have  increased  in  number  and 
value  in  direct  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  agency 
which  threatened  to  deteriorate  them.  Wages  and  de- 
mand for  human  labor  have,  in  like  manner,  risen  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  machinery  that  now  does  so 
much  of  tlie  work  which  formerly  belonged  to  them. 
All  the  natural  labor  in  the  nation  bears  but  a  small 
proportion  to  the  artificial,  which  has  so  largely  re- 
placed it  in  production  and  transportation ;  yet  that 
aatnral  labor  was  never  so  AiUy  employed  nor'  so  well 
rewarded  as  now;  and  the  same  law  holds  for  every 
business  function  of  society,  and  every  species  of  em- 
ploj-ment  which  has  any  legitimate  pUce  or  use  In 
human  life. 

STATmiwT  sBowrao  nn  Cbaxois  that  nAva  TAKn  flacb 
in  oca  TABirr  i'OLior  simob  toi  FoaMATioH  or  Toa  Ooh- 
mrcTioH,  via.  i 


lT»....July4, 

ITDO Anguit  10, 

1T91....  March  «,  

im.  ...Mayl,  Qeneral 

1TS4. . .  .Jane  0^  gpeclal 

"  "     T,  General 

.  Januarr  19,  General 

.March  8,  Oeneral 

.  Jnlx  8,  Special 

Mavl»,  Special 

t^M. . .  .March  9«,  IT,  Bpedal 

1813. . .  .Jnly  1,  Special 

.  Joljr  W,  Special 

.FebroarjrS,  Special 

.April  10,  SpecUl 

.March  S,  Spwtal 

•  Majr  M,  aeneral 

.Max  19,  Oenoral 

1830....  May  10,  Special 

ISil. . .  .July  IS,  SpecUl 

18SS....  March  S,  Special 

lS4t — Saptember  11,  Oeneral 

1M3. . . .  August  80,  Oeneral 

18M. . .  ..Tnly  SO,  General 

.March  19,  Special 

.AufUit  11,  Special 

.January  26,  Special 

.March  t,  Oeneral 


Chanultr  «f  Chaaff*. 
Flnt  Tariff  adopted. 
Oeneral  change. 
Oeneral      " 


'■■-h'< 


1T95. 

n»T. 

jsnol 


181S. 
181«. 
1818. 
Ut«. 
18M. 
1818. 


1MB. 

vm. 


..■  )  ..,u'i/>  f;,i 


A.-.iilM,  a-'-.A;  J. 


«..  •  'H.  ,--,»cU1. 

Jul}  '  L  ucneral. 
March  1,  Comp'ie. 


.4!    (1-  .i.M:  i.^- 


Year  1824.— The  tariff  change  of  this  year  created 
considerable  discussion  and  feeling.  The  duties  col- 
lected that  year  were  ^17,878,000,  with  a  population 
of  12,000,000,  or  «1  60  to  each  individual. 

1828. — The  general  change  this  year  was  accom- 
panied by  a  light  increase  of  duties ;  viz.,  #22,681,000. 

1682. — ^Another  general  change  took  place,  followed 
by  a  rapid  increase  of  duties  after  1834,  viz. : 

Vun.  DuUm. 

1888 $19,081,000  ' 

1884 16,114,000    $1  10  per  head.  :^ 

188S 19,891,0M)  , 

1888 18,409,009    $1  60  per  head. 

The  collapse  of  1887  led  to  a  reaction,  and  the  duties 
diminished  for  1837-'88,  showing  as  follows : 


VeAn.  DutiM. 

18W $13,4»9,000    '• 

1841 14,4ST,00«  *  > 

1841 18,lK7,n0O 

Population,  1840 17,06U,0«0 

Since  the  latter  date  the  duties  have  increased  firom 
(1  per  head  to  about  #2  60  per  head,  viz. : 


Yaui.  DutiM. 

18ST $11,109,000 

1888 1«,1G8,000 

1839 18,181,000 


Voan.  DnttM. 

194«-'4T $13,747,600 

1847-' 48 81,757,000 

lata-'*'} 18,846,000 

1849-'S0 39,668,000 

1860-'61 49,017,000 


Yeftrt.  Ptillaf. 

18B1-'B3 $47,389,000 

18fil-'B3 03,981,000 

1868-'B4 64,114,000 

mV4-'65 68,016,000 

i865-'66 64,022,000 


Since  the  year  1789,  the  aggregate  revenue  from  all 
Bonrces  has  been  f  1,886,740,(^4,  viz. : 

From  customs $1,817,161,699 

From  pabllo  lands 164,068,866   ..< 

From  mbcellaneon* 896,619,636 

total  returns $1,830,740,084 

Total  dlsbunements 1,837,711,046 

for  a  period  of  sixty-eight  yean ;  viz.,  fh>m  March  4, 
1789,  to  June  80, 1866. 

By  the  ConsMtotion  of  the  United  States  it  is  pro- 
vided that "  no  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress, lay  any  Impost  or  dutleB  on  imports  or  exports, 
except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
its  inspection  laws ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject 
to  the  revision  and  control  of  Congress." 

The  foUovring  statement  has  been  fkimished  showing 
the  changes  from  one  rate  of  duty  to  another,  as  made 
by  the  tariff  act  of  the  year  1857,  when  applied  to  the 
importations  of  the  year  ending  SOth  June,  1866 : 

V>Id<.       Rtle,  Act  of  1843.    RAta,  Act  «f  >W1.  '! 

$4,661  from  40  per  cent  to  16  per  cent. 


16,181 

ti 

80' 

1» 

to  16 

177,810 

ti 

40 

t4 

to    8 

821,869 

It 

80 

t( 

to    8 

11,663 

U 

26 

to    S 

440,013 

4t 

10 

tl 

to    8 

697,1119 

ti 

IS 

to    8 

163,276 

It 

96 

tt 

to   4 

1,205,860 

tt 

10 

11 

to   4 

170,170 

'* 

16 

II 

to   4 

8,3^6,313 

t* 

10 

it 

to   4 

1,666,980 

It 

80 

14 

Free. 

70,146 

tt 

15 

tl 

163,719 

(1 

20 

II 

1,646,716 

tl 

16 

190,778 

It 

10 

It 

6,019,471 

tt 

6 

11 

The  loas  of  reTcnno  by  additions  to  tbo  free  Hat 

la $1,14B,«18M 

LoM  of  revenue  by  transfers  to  Schedule  II,  or 

4percent. 776,6.16  67 

Lou  of  roToaue  by  tranafera  to  Schedule  0,  or 

8  percent 263,247  41 

Losa  J  revenue  by  tranafera  to  Schedule  E,  or 

16  per  cent 4,!;ll  80 

Subjoined  is  a  statement  exhibiting  the  revenue 
^  which  the  importations  into  the  United  States,  in  the 
year  ending  30th  June,  1866,  would  produce  under  the 
tariff  act  of  1857:* 


*  Thia  Includra  an  approximation  to  all  the  changea  mado 
by  the  new  tariff,  cjcccpt  bleached,  printed,  painuul,  and  dyed 
msnufftrtufpaof  cotton, nnd  of  dclAinc*  tninsfiTred  from  sched- 
ule D  to  t:  (or  16  tti  24  per  cent.),  and  of  japanuud  leather  or 
akina,  tranaferred  fhim  Hchedula  V.  to  I)  (nr  Ifl  to  19).  These 
changef,  raUIng  frum  a  lower  to  a  higher  achedulc,  would  In- 
crease the  aggregate  tibuve  given  equal  to  tho  dlfltrenoe  made 
by  the  transfer,  and  In  proportion  to  the  amount  of  auch  Im- 
portatlonH,  which  are  not  returned  In  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
acparatud  from  other  sloillar  gooda. 


TAB 


180S 


TAB 


|der  the 


|nd  dyed 

1  spht^d- 

lathpr  or 

These 

(ould  in- 

i  made 

Luch  Iw- 

Ih  toba 


Sehadiil*. 

VaIim  of  Import*. 

RftU  of  Duty. 

AiDMnt  of  DuUm. 

A 

$4,0(ll,6T5 

BO  per  cent. 

$1,20(1,472  60 

B 

80       " 

2,6(18,666  40 

C 

04,ir)»,Mt 

24       " 

S2,5'J8,21',P  76 

D 

11,074,205 

19       " 

13,604,110  35 

E 

85,288,S»T 

16       " 

5,'M8,334  66 

F 

6,902,847 

12            41 

707,081  24 

O 

6,160,422 

8       " 

492,833  76 

U 

Total.. 

3,663,06:) 

4       " 

942,122  00 

.f24S,T91,9^8 

$47,336,830  66 

Britiih  Tariff.— The  following  «re  acme  of  the  most 
important  regulations  of  the  British  tariff: 

Overpayments  of  duty  made  in  error  may  be  re- 
turned, if  claimed  within  six  years  after  date. 

In  cose  of  dispute  as  to  the  proper  rate  of  duty,  the 
Importer  to  deposit  the  amount  of  duty  demanded,  and 
such  deposit  shall  be  deemed  the  proper  duty  payable, 
unless  an  action  be  brought  or  commenced  within  three 
months.  In  the  event  of  such  action  being  determ- 
ined against  the  revenue,  fUU  indemnity  to  be  made  to 
the  importer. 

The  Board  of  Customs  may  remit  or  mitigate  penal- 
ties faicurred  through  inadvertence,  or  non-compliance 
with  existing  regulations. 

The  duties  on  the  following  goods  must  be  paid  on 
the  first  importation,  and  such  goods  shall  not  be  ware- 
housed for  home  consumption  or  exportation:  viz., 
com,  grain,  meal,  and  flour,  and  wood  goods  from  Brit- 
ish possessions. 

Diamonds,  bullion,  lobsters,  and  iWsh  flsh  of  Brit- 
ish taking,  may  be  landed  witliout  report  or  entry ;  no 
other  goods,  can  be  unshipped  or  lauded,  except  with 
the  authority  of  an  officer  of  the  customs. 

Where  ad  valorem  goods  shall  have  been  detained 
•s  undervalued,  the  officers  shall  give  a  written  notice 
of  such  detention  to  the  person  entering  the  same,  and 
of  the  value  thereof  as  estimated  by  them.  If  such 
goods  be  retained  for  the  use  of  the  crown,  the  value 
entered  with  an  addition  of  5  per  cent.,  and  the  duties 
already  paid  on  such  entr}',  to  be  paid  to  the  owner. 

Goods  not  entered,  or  landed  within  fourteen  days 
after  the  arrival  of  the  ship,  may  be  conveyed  to  the 
queen's  warehouse ;  &nd  if  the  duties  and  charges  due 
upon  such  goods  be  not  paid  within  three  months,  they 
may  be  sold,  and  the  overplus,  if  any,  paid  to  the  pro- 
prietor. 

Bonded  goods  to  l)e  cleared  within  five  }-ear8,  unless 
the  proprietor  desire  to  re-warehouse  them,  in  which 
case  they  shall  be  examined,  and  the  duties  due  upon 
any  deficiency  ascertained  and  paid. 

If  such  goods  be  not  cleared  or  re-warchonsed  within 
the  said  period,  they  shall  be  sold  to  defray  duties  and 
charges. 

No  person  shall  export  bonded  goods  in  any  ship  of 
less  burden  than  fifty  tons,  except  to  the  islands  of 
Guernsey  and  Jersey,  l)y  regular  traders  not  being  of 
less  than  forty  tons  burden. 

No  drawback  shall  be  allowed  on  goods  of  less  value 
than  the  drawback  claimed,  and  all  such  goods  so  en- 
tered shall  be  forfeited,  and  the  person  who  caused 
them  to  be  entered  shall  forfeit  the  sum  of  ^£200. 

No  tobacco,  cigars,  or  snuff  shall  lie  imported  into 
the  Channel  Islands  in  ships  of  less  than  120  tons  bur- 
den, nor  unless  in  hogsheads  or  chests,  each  contain- 
ing not  less  than  two  hundred  pounds'  weight  of  such 
tobacco  or  snuff,  nor  unless  in  packages  each  contain- 
ing not  less  than  one  hundred  pounds'  weight  of  such 
iigars,  tobacco,  or  snuff,  not  being  in  any  manner  sep- 
arated or  divided  within  such  package. 

The  island  of  :,'alta  and  it?  dependencies  shaU  be 
deemed  to  be  in  Europe. 

Any  pei»on  making  a  false  declaration  in  any  docu- 
ment relating  to  the  customs,  or  answering  untruly 
authorized  questions  put  to  him  by  the  officers  of  cus- 
toms, liable  to  a  penalty  of  jCIOO. 

In  case  tt  shall  appear  that  British  vessels  are  Bnl>- 
Ject  in  any  foreign  country  to  restrictions  as  to  the 
voyages  in  which  they  may  !)e  engaged,  or  the  articles 


Imported  or  exportad,  it  shall  be  lawAil  for  har  m^uty 
to  impose  similar  restrictions  npon  the  ships  of  such 
foreign  country. 

No  foreign  goods  npon  which  a  higher  duty  is  pay- 
able  on  their  importation  into  Great  Britain  than  on 
their  hnportation  into  the  Isle  of  Uan,  shall,  after  thay 
have  been  delivered  out  of  charge  of  the  customs  in 
the  said  isle,  be  shipped  into  Great  Britain. 

Comparatitie  Tariffs.— The  following  comparati^-e 
statement  exhibits  the  gross  amount  of  duties  received 
upon  the  principal  articles  of  foreign  and  colonial  mer- 
chandise in  Great  Britain  and  franco,  respectively, 
during  the  year  1866,  to  which  we  have  annexed  a  col- 
umn showing  the  gross  amount  of  duties  received  by 
the  United  States  upon  similar  articles  daring  the  same 
year: 


L'OiX)*  . 


Wlicat 

Data 

Rye 

Barley 

Indian  com. . 

Opium 

Rice 

Caasia  llgnea. 
Cinnamon . . . 

Cloves 

Maoe 

Nutmegs  . . . . 

Pepper 

rimenlo 

Rum 

Sugar 

Tallow 

Tea 

Watches 


QiMt  Briulo. 


«78,S90 

3,833,890 

1,027,006 

289,206 

7,006 

183,1480 

447,060 

10,605 

189,010 

2,876 

1,835 

8,946 

6,830 

63,276 

494,446 

6,016 

6,946,096 

26,018,386 

842,286 

27,611,206 

77,110 


rme*. 

CnltodSlalM. 

'4540,610' 

$11,807 

4,616,020 

11,872 

897,680 

6fl» 

4,010 

108 

965 

8,770 

SIS 

18,060 

,         , 

2,236 

ST,1«9 

40,720 

4,620 

67,830 

1,765 

6,343 

12,090 

21,231 

270 

9,663 

8,570 

180,463 

310,406 

96,820 

9,176 

140,808 

63,990 

288,494 

12,071.960 

8,720,106 

99,316 

309 

59,840 

T,864 

70,220 

380,076 

The  following  comparative  statement  exhlMts  the 
amount  of  duties  paid  on  the  articles  speohied,  in 
France  and  the  United  States,  respectively,  in  the 
year  1856,  all  of  said  articles  being  admitted  free  of 
duty  in  Great  Britain: 


Drimatone 

Cotton,  raw 

Cochineal 

Indigo 

FUx 

Guano 

Hemp 

IHdM 

Maho^ny 

Iron  in  ban 

Steel,  unwrougfat. 

IjdAd 

Spelter 

Tin 

on,  whale 

Oil,  palm 

Ollve^ll 

Beef,  salted 

Tork,  Halted 

Quicksilver 

Mlk.raw 

Tar 

Wool 


Prancit.      F  Uniud  SUtot. 


8,87".! 15 
4'  .8S0 

i';4,i7r- 

2'";,R16 

146,210 

24,^66 

26,836 

113,210 

125,135 

296,696 

296,680 

7,245 

9,930 

6,805 

41,676 

429,480 

8.2301 

6,986  f 

875 

20,166 

9,680 

1,636,730 


£4,626 

r'ree. 

•?4,9fl6 
1()6,374 

19,869 

Free. 
603,663 
404,164 

88,040 

',I!0.->,836 

422,747 

696,603 

2«.!iei 

728,1561 

1,634 

41,631 
141,149 

124 

726 
161,160 

4TO,'610 


The  total  amount  of  customs  duty  in  France  in  1856 
was  $35,330,405,  on  a  total  value  of  8397,066,235,  or 
8'87  per  cent,  on  the  whole  amount ;  the  total  amount 
in  Great  Britain  was  $131,034,220 ;  and  the  total  amount 
in  the  United  States  was  $64,022,8(58.  If  to  the 
$35,330,405,  the  amount  of  customs  paid  into  the 
French  treasury  in  1856,  we  add  $36,416,640,  chiefly 
realized  from  the  tobacco  monopoly,  but  made  up  in 
part  also  of  the  export  duty  on  wines,  we  have 
$71,747,045,  or  amount  of  customs  duties  received  by 
the  three  countries  in  1866,  as  per  existing  tariffs : 

Grf.t  Britain $121,034,290 

Krnnco  (including  revenues  tnm  tobacco  and  .,.  .„ 

vinei) 71,747,046 

United  States 64,099,868 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  comparative  taiiih 
of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain, 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Brazil,  in  regard  to  the  priaci-, 
pal  articles  exported  from  the  United  States. 


TAR 


TAR 


COMTABITIVI    STATUBIT    aXHIDITIRa   THI    IMVOB*    DtTTT    tITIlD   IM   ObIAT  BBtTA»,   FbAMOB,  AMD   HoLLAHD    OH 

QoODt.  MTabkh,  aho  McBouANuiaa,  or  tub  Ubowth,  Pboucob,  axd  MAJrorAomBB  or  Tin  Umitcu  HTATxai  also  tU 

I>DTT  OM   LIKB  OOOna,  WaBIS,  AMD  MbbOHAMDIBB  IHlVRTRn  IHTO  TBI    t'MITID  BTATBS. 


Aitlel*. 

Unltoa 

SUMS. 

0al;,a4 

nlwMn, 

QiMI  llriUla, 

rntnc*. 

Hollaad. 

QunUly  fad 
Uuty. 

Qnamlljr  sad  Duty, 

Qusntltir  aad  Dolr 

U  Prmrh  Veania.        |  In  rnr>a  VimIi. 

Ull,  spermaceti 

•>    whale  and  fish.... 
FUh,  dried  and  smoked 
Lumber  and  boarda  . . . 
Maaulkctures  of  wood  . 

Tar  and  pitch .. .  

Sklna  and  fun 

Beaf 

16  CIS. 

16 

16 

16 

24 

IS 

IB 

16 

8 

4 
IB 
18 
34 
18 
18 
34 

Fttt. 
16 
16 

16 
16 

14 

8 
16 
Free. 

19  and  34 

24 

SO 
8 

IB 

24 

24 

80 

24 

24 

18 

16 

18 

16 

24 

19 

16 

IB 

34 

34 

24 

34 
Fna. 

24 

IB 

24 

B 

18  and  24 

24 

24  and  SO 

16  and  24 

Free. 

24 
Free. 

24 

IB 

15 

Free. 

tt 

Ton.                $2  42 

10  per  Ct  ad  TaL 

Free, 
tt 

It 

Cwt              ti 

Free. 

Cwt       '        1 31 
61 

Frea. 
tt 
tt 
tt 

BnsheL                 S 
8 

tt                         s 
Cwt                      9 

Free. 
Bushel                 6 
Cwt                      9 

Free. 

Pound.                73 
318 

Free, 
tt 

Cwt                  830 
BOS 
Gallon.              8  63 
Cwt                      9 
BaneL             464 
Fret. 

i« 

Each.                  34 

Free. 
Doa.    (118  to  3  89 

Free. 

44 
U 

it 

4t 

Cwt                     61 

61  &  to  S  63 

liYee. 
Cwt                  3  42 

Free. 
10  per  ct  ad  Tal. 
Cwt                  7  26 
Pound.   6  e.  to      6 
10  per  ct  ad  Tal, 
Cwt                  2  42 

Frea. 

tt 

u 

Ponnd.                  8 
Uanuftctared. 
10  per  ct  ad  TaL 
Raw,     Free. 

Cwt                       $1  96 

8  91 

8  91 

SU  fret                   19 

IS  per  ct  ad  val. 

Cwt                        29 

100  pieces.  19  e.  to  46 

Cwt                      -  761 

1461 

"               24  0.  to  98 

"              24  e  to  98 

It                    :» 

Be.tol461 
>•                        128 
i461 
30  p-ir  ct  ad  Tal. 
80  per  ct  ad  val. 

1  Dntjr  fixed  monthly, 
according  to  price. 

DutT  name  as  the  grain 
of  which  It  Is  manu- 
factured, 
cwt                         B 
"                         98 
"                Be  to 691 
"           98  e  to  2  9! 
Frohluited. 
t. 
tt 
Cwt           IE  e  to  64 
"       t398to24084 

'i'rohibilc'd." 
32  gallons          88  83 

$2  15 
8  48 
4M 
19 
18  G.  c.  t  d  Tal., 
84 
19eto43 
194 
175 
481  c.  to  1  46 
481  c,  to  1  46 
82 
8  c.  to  1  61 
366 
1761 
20  p.  e  ad  val. 
30  p.  a  ad  vaL 

.'     [y    '"»  ■'.• 

6, 

108 

661  e  to     891 

$2  441  tn  A  421 

Probiblted. 

tt 

tt 

F^d.  to     T9 

$2  98  to  340  84 

Probiblted. 
88  39 

6 

3  98 

i69 

29 

Pnblblted. 

10  p.  e  ad  val, 

lOe  to27 

3G61 

48 

ProbibitVd. 

*21.^1to28»^ 

29  e  to  5  S8 

^'>38  o94  62 

8  e  to  21  81 

Ditto. 

$10"  .J  10  69 

$3  46  to  31  04 

4S  e.  tu  2  11 

$1V3  to  12  04 

65 

11 

leto      10 

i-roe. 

3161 

Free. 

tt 

Culic  cll.                       $0  20 

8  per  ct  ad  vaL 

Free. 
1  per  ct  ad  v>l. 
220  Iba.                             3  48 
"                                  30 
1  per  <t.  ad  val. 
1  per  ct.  ad  val. 
2201bs.                             131 
"                                 8  03 
"                     40eto    60 
80 
Frea. 
220  Ibh                             I  03 

».".    '  -::M 

8  bushels.                            9 

a  per  ct  ad  val. 

2201bs.                    9etol3 

Free. 

4  per  oU  ad  val. 

220  lbs.               28  c,  to   4  84 

$484tol613 

Ton.                                    401 

1  to  6  per  ct  ad  TaL 

220  lbs.                                  8 

14  B2 

Free. 

2t0  lbs.                           1  21 

2i  2-9  gallons.                 1  01 

2  02 

1  per  ct  ad  Tal. 

6  per  et  ad  val. 

220lbs.              $484tol613 

6  p.?r  ct,  ad  val, 

6  per  ct,  ad  val, 

220  lbs.                           6  4)> 

Free 

tt 

S20  Ib9.                                80 

1  ucd  2  per  ct  ad  val. 

220  lbs,                                  8 

40  e  to  1  61 

1  per  ct  ad  val.  / 

6  per  ct  ad  tbI. 

220  lbs.                             4  03 

3  to  6  per  ct  ad  val. 

0  per  ct  ad  val. 
6  per  ct  ka  V  \l. 

iOO  plecea.                      1  40 
Free. 

1  per  ct  ad  Tal. 
6  per  ei.  ad  vai. 
i  per  et  ad  val. 

Tallow 

Htdea 

Butter 

Cheese 

Pork  and  Baoon 

Lard 

Wool 

"    leaath«n20eip.lh. 
Wheat V... 

Indian  com  and  meal. . 

Rft,    oats,    and   amall 

grain ............... 

SUp  bread ,.. 

ABOf'M 

rK.*:.::::::::::::: 

Cotton 

"     manufactures... 
Tobacco 

"       manufactured. 
Hemp-seed 

Hemp,  manufactured.. 

"     refined 

Spirits 

Molasses 

Boer  ate.  ate. 

Cwt                          8 
3  441 

2  411 
Each  (Mt).              39 

ITohlbiled. 

10  per  s*-.  ad  TaL 
CsTt                        8 

3  88 
"                           C» 

08tlo   187 

Prohibited. 

Cwt      $1  9r  to  24  sr> 

let.)   4  89 

"         $4  89  to  92  92 

"            Be  to  20  54 

Same  as  raw  material, 

Cwt       99  e  t)  0  7S 

$7  83  to  29  34 

8(  OB.     4t  e  to    1  92 

Cwt       98etol2C4 

6!^1 

"                           10 

"           Stto        5 

Free. 

Cwt                      1 96 

Linseed  oil  

SplriU  of  Inrpentlne  . . . 
HaUoffUrandailk... 

Boota  and  shoes 

Cables  and  cordage 

gait 

Lead 

Iron.  dIb 

'•fill?:...:...:...: 

"    nails  and  caatings 
"    other  manufaet  . 

Copper  and  brass 

•>               »  manuf. 

Draga  and  medicines . . 

Wearing  apparel 

Booki 

Paper,  all  kinds.  

"     other  kind 

Bullion , . . . . 

Coal 

Ice 

India  mbber  mannfact 
tt            

From  an  •zamlnation  of  the  comparative  duties  on 
Ufflircnt  article*,  wn  find  that  the  tariff  of  Great  Britain 
more  nearly  approaches  tne  trade  than  any  other.  1  he 
United  States  and  Holland  follow  next  in  order,  and 
Spain  and  Braxil  are  the  nearest  the  other  extreme— 
making,  in  fact,  prot  ction  almoet  prohibition.  There 
is  a  great  want  of  uiiiformity  in  the  tariif  charge*  (gen- 
erally, wiih  the  exceotlon  of  those  of  the  Unit«d  Ijtates. 
In  the  tariffs  of  Spain  and  Brazil  the  duties  leera  to  bo 
levied  arbitrarily  in  regard  to  home  production,  etc., 
and  the  tariff  conaidn,  id  only  in  reference  to  the  maxi- 
mum duty  under  which  the  separate  article*  will  he 
imported,  and  the  lotiil  possible  maximum  revenue. 

In  the  articles  of  e'°ery-<Iay  coaiumptiou,  such  as 
flour,  provision*,  utc.,  the  tariff  of  Spain  shows  aln'.u*t 
a  prohibition,  while  artiktei  of  luxury  ara  admitted  on 
low  dutiei. 

The  commer.^  of  the  UnUed  State*  with  theae  coui;- 
'trie*  in  1857  was  in  proportion  to  the  total  commerce 
of  the  country,  aa  folio  r* : 


Yur  aadiaa  Juaa  80, 

Kttiorta  from 
Untlad  Slaiu, 

ImporU  iota 
Unlftd  8UIM, 

TaUI. 

Uroat  Uritnlu  . . . 
France  

$1S5,84.I,7H 
88,'i38,987 
10,7()8,097 
4,107,877 
6,644,326 
5,545,207 
112,hift,4(M 

$131,003,198 

47,792,8'i7 

3,728,016 

2,4ai),762 

6,060,311 

21,40a,73.1 

150,880,299 

$816,848,977 
86,031,814 
13,426,113 
6,877,639 
10,704,«87 
27,006,940 
268,256,703 

Spain 

Holland 

Relgluin 

Utazll 

Other  countries.. 
Total 

$JB2,9vlO,6S2 

$360,890,141 

$728,8&0,82S 

From  this  table  it  appear*  that  tho  six  countries  of 
Ti'ltich  we  have  given  a  tariff  summary  had  the  follow- 
ing pmportiim  of  the  commerce  of  this  country  for  the 
fixcal  year  1857 : 

In  the  exports  from  United  State* 60  per  cent 

In  the  Imports  Into  "  59       " 

In  the  total  commerce  uf    "  64       " 

If  we  bad  included  the  colonic*  of  the  above  conn- 
tries,  which  have  the  same  tariff  regulation*  a*  their 
mother  countriea  the  percentage  wo^dhave  been  ma- 
terially increased. 


mS, 


TAA 


1807 


TAR 


BO 


Id. 


Lntries  of 

^e  foUow- 

'  for  the 

reent. 


tve  conn- 

u  their 

Ibeennu- 


AN..  M.«;UAm.i,..  or  thb.!,;"™'^  l^Di^A«^„"/™  2  f""i?,"-<"™i"''  "»*"'•  O"  OOOM.  Wa»m. 

OOOI...  Wa«.,  AND  MK.CUA«m..'.«w!S.B  A^  Ml  ""to'S^^/jS     '^''""°  S""''    "^ ""~  -  "^^ 


ALSO  TO!  UUTT  OR  Llia 


AlllelM. 


Uil,  uperiuiiaitl 

whale  will  Ibb .... 
Flah,  dried  and  imoked 
Mimlwr  and  boards . . . 
.Manufaoturea  of  wood  . 

Tar  and  pitch 

Skint  and  fun 

Beef. 

Tallaw 

Illdea  

t.eatber >..... 

Butter ,. 

Ohecae 

Cork  and  baoon 

Urd 

Wool 

"    leuthani!Oe.p.lb. 

Wheat 

Indian  com  and  meal. , 
Rye,  oats,   and  luall 

grain 

Ship  bread 

I'otatoei 

Applee 

Rice 

Cotton 

"     manufactures,. 
Tobacco  

"       manufactured 

Hemp-ieed 

Hemp,  manufactured, , 
Sugar,  brown 

"     refined 

Spirits 

HolasMS 

Beer,  ale,  etc, 

Linseed  oil 

Spirits  of  turpentine. . , 
HaU  of  fUr  and  dlk 

Ounpowder 

Boots  and  shoes . . , . 
Cables  and  cordage. 

Salt 

Lead 

Iron,  pig 

"    nails  and  castings 
"    other  raannfact. 

Copper  and  brass  . . . 
"  "   manuf. 

Drugs  and  madlcinn , , 

Wearing  apparel 

Books 

Paper,  all  kinds 

lowclry 

Glass,  fancy 

"      «tlier  kinds 

Bulliin 

OOal 

Ice 

India  rubber  manufnct. 

t'nenumerattid 


(UtM. 

Daly,  Ml 

valortm, 


QatwUly  and  Duty . 


15  cts. 
ID 
15 
16 

•a 

15 
15 
15 

8 

4 
15 
16 
M 
IS 
15 
S4 

Free, 
16 
15 

15 
15 
24 

s 

15 

Free. 
I»and24 

24 

80 
8 

18 

'ii 

24 

80 

24 

24 

15 

15 

16 

15 

24 

10 

15 

15 

34 

24 

24 

24 

Free. 

24 

15 

34 

8 

<5iind24 

24 

34  and  30 
16  and  24 

Free. 

24 

Free. 

24 

15 


In  apanlih  Vw»la. 


ib  lbs. 


$U5S) 

Each,  i| 

15  per  ct.  ad  val. 
100  lbs.  121 

Uoien,  4 1-5  0.  to  0   ~ 
i6lba  811 

100  lbs.  S8i 

81  e.  to  1  80 
Si  c.  to  1  80 
8J 
lOT 
4( 
100 
C40 
4  TO 
Prohibited, 


Pound, 
25lba 
Pound, 
25  lbs. 
lOOIbsi 


15 


la  for'p  VfMcla. 


»U77i 
84 
Free. 

2 

IS  p.  c.  ad  Tsl. 
U 
4  c,  to  11  66 
381 
51 
2  78 
2  78 
101 
128 
5J 
1201 
8  67 
5  75 
Prohibited. 


'^  gallons,  |3  OT' 

"  9  68 

220  lbs.  1  m 

20perctadTaL 
2  per  et  ad  Tal. 
Ton. 

1  per  ct.  ad  val. 
<  per  cb  ad  vai, 


flUtoS 
$1 14  to  S 


25  lbs.     9te.  toll8| 
Prohibited. 

25  lbs,  II 
'  8 

100  lbs,  1  701 

87  e,  to  2 14 

•'       Site,  to  4  67 

I'rohiblted. 
ISperct  ad  vol. 

26  lbs.  Bl 
"    $16  96  to  120  24 

lot  c.  to    80 
"        (Mi  c.  to  1  60 
IB  per  cU  ad  val. 
16  per  ct  ad  val. 

25  lbs.  60{ 

40 
100  lbs.  SO) 

80  per  ct  ad  val. 

15  per  ct  ad  vaU 
Prohibited. 

100  lb>.  8  61 

Prohibited. 
100  Ibn,  96) 

421 
"  saUtp  2  66 
"  i2«Tto  i)28 
"  8Uc.  to  32  07 
"  $8  57  to  10  69 
"  $17  14  to  83  28 
Pound,  1  c.  :o  6  41 
Prohibited, 

26  lbs.  80)  c.  to  5  35 
'  2Uc.  to  315 
6  per  c;.  ad  val. 

Ksdi,     ei  c.  to  60  10 
26  lb>.  681 

Free. 

lOOIba  2) 

2U 

16  per  c*.  ad  tbI. 
Manufactured. 

15  per  ct  ad  val. 
Raw  


BjIglBlll. 


Qoutity  anil  Dyty. 


8<l 


320  lbs. 


14  c.  tol6«l 
Prohibited, 
3 

«  »' 
114 

$1  33)  to  8  28 
61i  c.  to  6  611 
Prohibited. 
18  p.  c.  ad  val. 
«i 
$2l8Stol4064 
51  c.  to  I  07 
$1  07  to  2  03 
18  p.  c.  ad  val. 
18  p.  a  ad  val. 
00) 
48 
107 
36  p.  c.  ad  val. 
18  p.  c  ad  val. 
Prohibited. 
8S6 
Prohibited. 
116) 
51 
*2  56to   8  03 
$3  33  to   4.24 
42)  c.  to  38  46 
$10  69  to  13  36 
$21  43  to  30  66 
1)  c  to  7  28 
Prohibited. 
96)  <!.  t     6  40 
25).'  ■     3  771 
val. 
c  lub016 

Ftee. 

10) 
26) 

IS  p.  c.  ad  val. 

18  p.  c.  ad  val. 


21  bushels. 

22  gallons. 
220lbai 


0)  c.  to  07) 

1-6  c,  to  1» 

1-5  e,  to  18 

122) 

184 

96 

•    '•         06 

B68 

968 

19 

18ito6S 

lU  to  19 

68 

2 

SO 

182) 

77 


Brull. 


Qusnlily  ud  Dstj. 


8)c. 


28)  c,  to 
82)  c.  to 
$34  63  to  57  48 
$1  92  to   6  71 
$0  70  to  46 18 
Ton.  4 

220  lbs.      $6  75  to  181 82 
82)  c.  to  88 
„  18  20 

22  gallons,      83  c.  to  1  63 

Prohibited, 
22  gallons.  S  48) 

»«    "  *M 

220  lbs,  m 

10  per  et,  ad  val. 
220  lbs.  s  49) 

18  per  ct  ad  Tal. 
1000  No.  4  04 

220  lbs.  6  49 

"  26) 

2  60) 
"  2  43) 

"  2r.6) 

•"         $182!>tal487 
"  '  8 

6  per  ct  sd  vai 
1  per  et.  ad  val. 
Free. 
Ton.  6  CO 

8  to  16  per  ct  ad  val. 
8  to  6  per  ct.  ad  val. 
2  to  12  per  ct  ad  val. 
10  per  ct  ad  val. 
Free. 


8  pinla.  |0  SS 

S5  per  ct  ad  val, 
9000s(|.  in.  6  63 

40  per  ct  ad  val. 
Cash.      (6)  e.  to  S  2T 

25  per  ct  ad  val. 
82  lbs.  .S9 

$1 17  to  1  63 
Pound.  8 

S  e.  to  4 
IS 
IS 
6 
33  lbs.  1  6B 

80  per  ct  ad  val 
80  per  ct  ad  val. 
81  lbs.  09 

20  to  80  per  ct  ad  val, 

l)ne«k,      S3  etc  99 
SStbsi  44 

128  lbs,  99 

per  ct  ad  val, 
per  ct  ad  val. 
per  ct  ad  val. 
4S 1-6  in.  sq.  7  c.  to  80 
32  lbs.  6  63 

60  per  ct  ad  val. 
2  per  ct  ad  va', 
40  per  ct  ad  val. 
SO  per  ct.  ad  val. 
60  per  ct  ad  val. 
80  [ler  ct  ad  val. 


Ton, 


2  per  ct  ad  val, 

3  per  ct  ad  val. 


!831 


XKW  TARIFF  A.    .■  oi'  THE  UNITED  STA-^ES. 

AW  ACT  aSOVCIMO  TRS  DUTV  OH  IMPOaTl,  AKD  FOa  OTUia  P       r>)h-:i 

Bt  it  enaeUd  by  the  Senate  and  Hoxiu  of  RepmetU'  '....-rr^ef 
lh»  Vniltd  Statet  of  Ameriea,  in  Congnta  aaaembted,  That  on 
and  after  the  1st  day  of  July,  1S57,  ad  valorem  duties  ahal'i  be 
imposed,  in  lieu  of  those  now  imposed  upon  goods,  wares,  and 
merchandise  imported  fi'om  abroad  into  the  United  States,  as 
follows,  vis.  : 

Upon  the  articles  enumerated  in  Rchedulce  A  and  B  of  the 
tariff  act  of  1846,  a  duty  of  30  per  cent.,  and  upon  those  enu- 
merated in  Schedules  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  and  H  of  said  act,  the  du- 
ties of  24  per  cent,  13  per  cent,  15  per  cent,  12  per  cent,  8 
per  cent,  and  4  per  cent,  respectively,  with  such  exceptions 
as  hereinafter  maide  ;  and  all  articles  so  imported  as  aforesaid, 
and  not  enumerated  in  the  said  schedules,  nor  in  Schedule  I, 
shall  pay  a  duty  of  15  per  cent 

Sio.  9.  And  be  it  further  enarted.  That  all  manufactures 
composed  wholly  of  cotton,  which  are  bleached,  printed,  paint- 
ed, or  dyed,  and  de  iaines,  shall  be  transferred  to  Schedule  ('. 

Japanned  leather,  or  skins  of  all  kinds,  shsll  bo  traniferred 
to  Schedule  I>.     Ginger,  green,  ripe,  dried,  preserved,  or  pick-  j 
led ;  ochreys  and  ochrey  earihs,  medicinal  roots,  leaves,  gums 
and  rosins  in  a  crude  state,  not  otherwise  provided  for ;  wares, 
chemical,  earthen  or  pottery,  of  a  capacity  exceeding  ten  gal- 1 
Ions,  shall  be  transferred  to  Schedule  £.  I 


3piutii. 

Pound. 

li 

Fjwh. 
Pound. 
Pair, 
128  lbs. 
I)  peck. 
I'i8  lbs. 


8S 

6) 

10 

28e.to362 

19 

24  c  to  5  89 

4  90 

li 
3  27 


2.'i  per  ct  ad  val. 
32  lbs.  26-1 

$3 10  to  16  78 

"n  per  ct  nd  val. 
nown.  6)  c.  to  16  84 
Pound.   2)  e.  to  19  60 

40  per  ct  ad  val. 

80  per  ct.  ad  val. 
Ream.        B  c.  to  1  96 
4  to  30  per  et  ad  val. 

40  per  et  ad  val. 
Each,       3  c.  to  16  69 

80  per  ct  ad  val, 

6  per  ct  ad  val, 
1728  lbs.  1  97 

SOperct  ad  val, 

SOperck  ad  val. 


Borate  of  Ihne  and  codelU,  or  t^w  of  hemp  or  8az,  shall  be 
traniferred  to  Schedule  F, 

Antimony,  crude  or  regul  > ' ,  '  ..rks  of  all  kinds,  riot  oth- 
erwUe  provided  for ;  campho, ,  -  ,.,e ;  cantharides  ;  CRr'ionate 
of  soda ;  emery,  in  lump  or  pul . ,.  rized ;  fruits,  green,  ripe,  or 
dried;  gums,  Arabic,  Barbery,  copal,  East  In.,  ►.  Jeddo,  Sen- 
egal, substitute,  tragacanth,  and  ail  other  g  :,>,  <iad  roshis  in 
a  crude  state;  machUiery  exclusively  deslg  •  .(>.  expressly 
imported  for  the  manufacture  of  flax  and  lineLf^  .odn;  sponges; 
tin  in  plates  or  sheets,  galvanlced  or  ungalvanised ;  woods, 
nsmely,  cedar,  lignum  vltie,  ebony,  box,  granadilla,  mahogany, 
rose-wood,  satin-wood,  and  all  cabinet  woods,  shall  be  trans- 
ferred to  Schedule  G, 

Acids,  acetic,  benzoic,  borscic,  citric,  muriatic,  white  and 
yellow,  oxalic,  pyroligoeous  and  tortaric,  and  all  other  acids 
of  every  description  used  for  chemical  or  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, not  otherwise  provided  for ;  aloes ;  amber ;  ambergris ; 
anise  seed ;  annato,  roucon  or  Orleans ;  arsenic ;  articles  not 
in  a  crude  state,  used  in  dyeing  or  tanning,  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for ;  ssahstlda ;  ai^phaltum ;  barilla ;  bleaching  pow- 
der, or  el;!  ■'■i  of  lime ;  borax,  crude  ;  boucho  leaves ;  brim- 
stone, crude,  in  bulk;  cameiis,  mosaics,  diamonds,  gems, 
pearls,  rubies,  and  other  precious  stones  (not  set);  chalk; 
clay ;  cochineal ;  cocoa,  cocoa-'iuts,  and  cocoa^hells ;  cork- 
tree bark ;  cream  of  tariar ;  extract  of  indigo ;  extracts  and 


'>.;*'l 

'^'^J'-, 


•t,'   m 


TAR 


J80« 


TAB 


y^  taeKi'.'<')-\  of  logwood  anil  other  dye  wooda,  not  otharwlM  pr<" 

ylAei  'ui'!  extitMl  of  madder;  fltat,  ground;  grlndi(< :  <'i ; 
gutia  |)''rcha,  unnunnfaoturod ;  India  rubber  in  bottlea,  linlii, 
or  ■hiF'i',  unmanufltcturcd ;  India  rubber,  milk  of;  InfiKi: 
laa  tplrlK ;  lac  lulphur;  laatlngi!,  cut  in  ttrlpa  ur  patten'  uf 
the  ilai  Jind  iliapti  fo;  thxt,  ■llppen,  booti,  booteei,  gatton, 
or  butli'P'i  urcluflivcljrf  not  con^biniM  with  In  I  a  rubber ;  rtny- 
ufkcturei  of  mohair  cloth,  lilk  twL't,  or  other  u  ^nuCiotur  ( 
Math  •ttl'.ulile  for  the  manr  'utnro  if  ihoea,  >  . '  in  iltpa  or  i«t  - 
tema  of  tl.o  aixe  and  ihatjn  for  ^.^.k;  •llppi»>,  buott,  bootei;*, 
gaiter*  a'  liuttoni  excluiivi'y,  .1 1^  wunlilneil  v  '  India  rn^ 
ber;  mnri-^  ,ir)'ttod  with  IIu^'H.  ;>>  i<m1  or  unboub^  •  olla,  palm, 
teal,  and  coe.in-'mt;  l>ru>9iiin  ti"   ;  wda  aib;  bi>Ii>.-  uf  all 

kind*;  watch  iT'^ioriali  and  unfl .  j  parta  qf  watches  and 

woad,  0?  yrif'.A  >•  lull  bo  tranifuvd  lu  Hchudale  H. 

die  n.  And  U  itf\irth$r  enu>!teJ,  That  0  '  rnd  after  the  1st 
day  ol  July,  iS6',  (ho  gooAt,  wart'p,  -.no  n  ■ ;  han-Mjo  -ii- 
tlonod  in  l^hotiule  1,  made  part  liter '.;f,  ihall  '■»  exf.-ijvt  iroin 
ciitty  and  ontitied  t-'  ii'o^i  entry. 

SramuLi  I.  All  liooki,  maps,  charts,  inatbc;iiatlctt:,  us'tlio. 
a]  ioatrumrnta,  phUosophical  apparatus,  and  >.1l  atu> .~  !trtl~lo« 
rhat«Ter  Imporleil  fbr  the  use  of  Ihi  United  .'^!:.to«. 

All  philoaupUienl  acparatua,  inutrumi'iits,  lx«');s,  tuaips,  ai-d 
c^artu;  sUfueii,  "tA'uary,  bust*  and  (onts  of  msrWo,  or  nio, 
Ainbaator.  h:  pladtur  u7 1'arls ;  paintlngii  and  drawings ;  itch. 
kK^;  iii'fciiiics  ofseulpturo;  cabiuutsofcuhis,  madal*,  genu, 
Mul  hn  »  iUiCt'.oos  of  antlquitlcs. :  proridid  the  same  Itc  spc- 
>  blly  ImporUif*.  ic  food  faith,  for  thK  uan  of  any  soeiet)  Incor- 
X»)nwi.  or cstubHshed for  philoaophiral  or  literary  v^i'posiM,  or 
for  t'.H  onc^niragement  of  the  fino  arts,  or  for  the  uao  ut  by  the 
oiKfor  jf  any  collego,  aeadomy,  school,  or  seminary  of  liuiralng 
li.  fni<  United  StatcH ;  animal  carbon  (boncblock) ;  uiiimuls. 
lIvluK,  of  all  kinds ;  art,-al,  or  crudo  tartar;  articlci  in  u  crude 
state  used  id  dyeing  or  tannins,  not  otbnrwlae  prorilM  for. 

Hark,  Peruvian  ;  bclln.  'Id,  and  bcll-metal ;  berric  ,  nut*, 
floB-em,  plan-'^,  and  rpgetabiee  used  exclusively  in  dy-lii;j;,  or 
Id  cumpoelog  ilyoe,  hut  no  article  shall  b-i  claaaed  aa  S''.c'.i  t'lat 
has  undOTgone  'ny  luanufacture ;  bismuth;  bitter  ap,blos; 
boltlDg.cloO)s  ;  bones,  burned,  and  boneduat 

lloolLA,  maps,  and  charts  Imported  by  &uthurity  of  the  ,Toiru 
library  f'oumittoe  of  Congross  for  the  use  cf  !he  Ubrarv  ■)i 
Congr('«*t :  pi'ovicted  tlut  if  la  any  case  a  contract  ahall  havf 
h«'ii  uade  with  any  bookseller.  Importer,  or  other  peraor..  for 
boukrt,  utapi,  or  charts,  in  which  contract  the  bookseller,  im- 
porter, </v  jther  pcfiicD  aforesaid  shall  ham' paid  the  duty,  or 
Incliidi'd  fho  duty  lu  auld  aoutract,  In  such  case  the  duty  shall 
not  b<a  rcmitttHl ;  bran.i  la  bara  and  ])if,^,  or  whitn  old,  and  fit 
o&lj"  to  be  rviaanu&ctured ;  Hraall-wood,  bruziletto,  and  all 
other  c>e-rocds  la  itlcka ;  bullion,  gold  and  silver ;  burr  stones, 
wrou,rIit  or  uuwronght,  but  uunianufacturrid. 

Cnblnets  of  :olns,  medals,  and  other  colloetioiu  of  antiqui- 
ties ;  colTee  and  tta,  wh€n  Imported  direct  from  the  place  of 
thflr  growth  or  pioductloo  In  American  vessels,  or  in  forcti^n 
vessels  entitled  by  reciprocal  treaties  *o  b«  pjiempt  from  dls- 
rrlmlnatlDg  duties,  tonnage,  and  other  charges ;  coffee,  the 
growth  or  pi'oduotion  of  the  poaMssions  of  tho  Netherl'-jidif, 
imported  from  the  N'olherlanda  in  the  same  manner ;  lolm*, 
gold,  nHver,  and  coppei ;  copper  ore ;  copper,  when  imported 
for  the  L'niled  States  .UInt;  copper,  in  pijjs  or  bars,  or  when 
U 1  and  St  only  *o  bo  remanufacturod ;  cotton ;  cutdi. 

Dragun's-blood. 

Felt,  sdheaive,  for  ahoathing  vessels ;  flax,  unmanufactured. 

Ciar  JeTi  seeds  and  all  other  seeds  for  agricultural,  horticul- 
tural, medicinal,  and  manufecturing  piirpoaea,  not  otherwise 
provided  for ;  glass,  when  ol  1  and  fit  only  to  be  remanufar. 
turcd  ;  goods,  wa^ec,  and  niercliundlse,  the  growth,  produce, 
nr  manuflicture  of  the  United  States,  exported  to  a  ioreipn 
muntry  and  brought  back  to  the  United  States  in  t!"<  ituv 
eonditloc  as  ^hen  'xported,  r.pon  which  no  draw;,  u  ,1  o" 
bou'.ily  has  been  allowed:  jmrid'd  that  all  regnt.  ••  („ 
ascertain  the  Identity  thereof,  proscribed  by  existi  oi 

which  may  be  prescribed  b."  the  Secretary  of  tho 
shall  b"  compiled  '.rlth  ;  guano. 

Household  e(f(>cts,  old  and  In  nae,  cf  nomonj  .  les 

fVoTP  foreign  coantries,  If  used  abroad  '..     .  .  "^ 
tended  for  any  other  p',rsou  or  pell  ons,  or 

Ice;  Ivory,  unmanul'actured ;  Juuk,  ti',- 

linae^,  but  not  eiiibracing  flaxaeed. 

Uladder  root ;  madi^er,  ground  or  pritiv 
charta ;  modela  of  Inveutiona  and  other  *r     -1  ' 
arts:  pmridM  that  no  article  or  arMeles  '.in  ;  ■ 
moflel  or  improvement  which  can  be  Utted  ?,  .  iv.' . 

^knm ;  oil,  spermaeetl,  whale  and  other  fiab,  of 
flsher(n>,  and  all  other  articK<s  the  produce  of  an< ''  C 

rulntings  and  statuary ;  palm  leaf,  iinmanufK 
Bonal  and  honaehold  effecta  (not  mr    handlse)  oi 
the  United  States  dying  abroad ;  planter  of  Taria  or 
of  lime,  nngrouud  ;  pluti  \i,  unmanufricttircd. 


it  In- 


Tuapa  and 

""•i  In  the 

li,..ni','  a 


of 
^'uiV'li'ite 


niigaa/«hMF".^r  Bal«T<n<.  omepl  vool;  rttwi  and  nsda, 
:>am.3nafaetiirt.i 

r-^Kt'thliiL'  e«p)wr, hnt  1  .  ;:  rpw  to  ba  eonsldered  aneh  and 
^d.ui'i^  t  free,  rir.ipt  In  ■).<  i<t"  ■■'■  furty-elght  Inches  long  and 
ft!  wAir.  Inoiioii  •Vide,  an  '  w  ,('  Ing  from  fourteen  to  thirty- 
fiinr  >>uuor.s  thntijuanifo  :;  1  '  '!iliig  nictal,  uotwhiilly  orlii 
imt  if  i-- . .,  unfi''  iiilt:.. ;  I  I  II  bolw,  and  al^vo  bol'al 
Mik,  r;'  jr  as  1  -  ud  fi-i m  '  ri^iMio,  uul  Mug  doubled, 
twhtid, or  ad>uieed  It.  ti  :>'<'i  luni  In  any  ray;  apecimeoa 
of  natural  history,  riliiot.>l')k'<  4 « 'bulauy ;  suhstauoea  oxpreaa- 
/  used  for  luauuroa. 

Tin  in  piga,  bail,  or  bloeka ;  tnrns,  shrubs,  bullis,  phiDts,  and 
roots,  not  othci  yUo  providud  fir. 

Wearing  apinrel  In  actual  u*o,  and  other  personal  effoota 
(net  merchandise);  profi'i<ilui<r!  imks,  liupli'ineiils,  lustra- 
muu:j,  and  tools  f  li.  n,  oi''.'U|<  iloii  ur  eiiipluynient,  of  p«r> 
Kous  arrlvlr;,'  t't  ilin  .  nltad  W,  iiiw  I  Jironfi/i'il  that  this  ox. 
I'luptlon  ahall  pot  bt'  viititruiid  to  liirludu  machinery  er  other 
»rtlolr>'  Inipuried  foi'  'Bii  la  n.y  uiauufiuiturlug  eatabliahmcnt, 
or  f '-j.'.li',. 

Hhoep'a  »  .  .,  rimaniifiwliired,  of  the  raluo  of  SO  eonta  per 
ycii.d  or  less  . '  thu  povi  \A  nxpnrtatlon,  and  hair  of  the  ul- 
ii»'-<.,  till  goat,  and  other  Uk»  animals,  tiuiiiaiiufacliirod  1  pro- 
iMca  ihat  any  wool  of  tho  ahnep,  or  Iiair  of  lliii  alpaca,  tho 
goat,  and  othor  like  aulniala,  which  shall  Iki  Imported  In  any 
othsr  tlian  the  ordinary  condition,  aa  now  and  hcrehifort  prac- 
ticed, or  which  ahall  ba  clutugud  in  Ita  character  for  tho  pur- 
)io»o  of  evading  the  duty  ir  which  Miall  Ihi  reduced  in  valuo 
hy  tho  Inlentiiiual  adniixtui'O  of  dirt,  or  any  furetgn  siibstaice, 
to  id  oenta  per  pound  or  hva,  shall  Im  sul||uGt  to  pay  a  duty  of 
ii  per  cent,  ad  volarsm,  any  tlilug  lu  this  aot  to  the  oootrarjr 
uutwithatanding. 

Km.  4.  And  be  it  further  enaated,  That  all  goodi,  waros,  and 
merchandhio  which  shall  he  In  the  public  stores  on  the  1st  day 
of , Inly  aforesaid,  shall  Ihi  sumuct,  on  entry  thereof  for  con- 
Kumptlon,  to  no  other  liity  tlwD  If  thu  aaniu  luul  been  Import- 
.'d  respiKtlvoly  after  that  day. 

Bio.  B.  .^nd  Iia  il  further  enaiied,  That  nn  the  entry  of  any 
gooda,  wares,  and  roerohandUo  liii|inrtod  on  and  after  thu  1st 
(lay  of  July  aforesaid,  the  decision  of  tho  ddteetor  of  tho  cus- 
toms at  the  port  of  linp<irlallou  and  "iitry,  as  !<■  Ilieir  liability 
to  duty  or  exemption  therefrom,  slinll  bo  fluul  and  conclui  Ivu 
against  tho  owner,  importer,  conslgniu',  or  agent  of  any  sncli 
gixxls,  wares,  and  merehandlso,  unh'ss  the  owner,  Imtxirter, 
consignee,  or  agent  sliall,  within  t4in  day*  after  such  entry,  i;iva 
notice  to  the  collector  In  wrltluK  of  Ilia  dissallsfnrtionwith  such 
decision,  setting  forth  tliiiridii  dlatlni'lly  and  i<|ii'i'lflcally  h^s 
grounds  of  objection  thereto,  aud  sliall,  wlltilu  thirty  daya 
after  the  date  of  such  deciiiliin,  a|i|M)al  Iharcfrum  t<i  the  Sec- 
retary of  tho  Tfeaaury,  wIumi-  decinluii  on  aneh  appeal  shall  bo 
final  aud  conclunive  s  and  the  said  n  « ids,  wans,  and  iiierchan- 
dliie  shall  be  liable  to  duty  or  exeiiipied  therefrom  anordlng- 
ly,  any  act  of  tjongress  to  the  contrary  notwltlialandlng,  uu- 
leaa  ault  sliall  bo  brought  within  thirty  days  after  such  docl/-'  m 
for  any  duties  Ihat  may  have  lawn  |iBld  or  nia'  her,  :;ftcr  bo 
paid  on  said  goods,  or  witliln  thirty  dnya  u'lir  :,.e  diitiea  ahall 
have  been  paid,  In  caaus  where  suoli  goods  shall  be  In  bond. 

AN  AOT  TO  AMXnn  Till  ■  ITt  iniltPimi  Tim  IiKTY  OK   IMrOMTS, 
»NU  ton  OTUUi    .  JIIIMlia,  PASHXIl  Jt.l.Y  110,  1S4(I. 

Dt  it  maeted  ly  tK.  8mal«  and  Uinim  nf  ttrprtmntativtit  nf 
the  United  Stale*  of  Ameriil,  in  CVmgraas  tuumiliM,  That 
the  eighth  section  of  the  act  approved  July  81),  1440,  and  en- 
titled  "  An  act  reducing  thn  duty  on  lni|iorls,  and  for  other 
purpoaiw,"  bo  auitmdi-d  lu  follows  ( 

Smi.  i.  And  lit  ii  further  enaettd,  That  It  clintl  lie  lawf"t 
for  tho  owner,  ivmslgiieo,  or  agent  of  Imtiurta  whli  ^  Imvo  IK" 
actually  purctiMwl  or  prociiriid  otherwise  than  by  purrli , 
on  entry  of  the  same,  to  make  audi  addition  In  thn  ix' ".   <• 
the  cost  or  value  given  In  the  Invnleo  aa.  In  his  op-  ■•    ,    najr 
raise  the  same  tn  the  Iruu  market  vai. I  of  such  i'  '..the 

principal  niarkrts  of  the  country  wIikiico  the  liiigv  ri(.:'.iin  al'.ill 
have  been  maile;  and  to  mid  tliento  all  ri»  »  I'.id  charges 
which,  under  existing  Uwa,  would  form  part  of  tl.'^  Irwo  value 
at  the  port  where  the  same  may  lie  iintereil,  iipc  i  trhlch  tlm 
duties  should  be  assessed.  Aud  It  shall  Ini  tho  dt'ty  of  llio 
collector  within  whoso  distriet  tlin  •anio  may  Im  imiKi-ted  or 
euttruil  to  cause  Ihe  duthiblu  v  v  'it such  ltii|iorts  to  be  ap, 
pralsud,  estimated,  and  aBeert>,.ii.Kl,  In  ari^irdan(.i  irltli  tli' 
pi'uvkli'US  of  exUtblg  laws ;  and  If  the  ap|»  iilsod  value  there- 
of shall  eioued by  10  per  c«nt  or  morn  the  valuo  so  diclared 
ou  the  entry,  then.  In  addition  to  tliii  duties  iiiipimil  by  law  on 
the  seme,  there  slial'  be  levied  ootiert^id,  and  (laid,  a  duty  of 
4(1  per  cent,  ad  valorem  on  such  appralaetl  valu.  i  I'romdcl 
neverlheleUtThti  under  no  clrcumstf.noes  shall  the'liiiy  ■ 
a^seasiHl  upon  t.n  amount  less  tlutn  the  Invoice  or  enter  ' 
uo,  any  law  of '  longnvs  In  the  wulrary  uotwlthstaudinii. 

Ai>prvi>ed  Mumh  1),  Ibbf. 


TAR 


1809 


TAB 


ing  itnil 

llilrty- 

\\y  or  bi 

II  bnl'H". 
IduUc'i 
lorluluO" 

ttitt,»n<l 

»t  cffo«t« 
*,  liutru- 

It,  of  P«T- 
;   ttlU    «X- 

f  cr  othar 
iltahroimt, 

I  ecnlii  pfl' 
of  tllP  il- 
iired  I  pro- 

t,,,!  In  uny 
Uiion  p«<!- 
'or  thu  pur- 
ad  In  »»luo 
I  Dubiitance, 
iy»dtttyol 
ho  oonlnuy 

I,  w»f««.  •o* 

iith«i«t<>»y 

rmf  for  con- 
heaa  Import- 

enlry  of  »ny 
jftor  iUi)  !•' 
of  of  tlw  oui- 
tholr  lUbllltr 
11(1  concta  Ivo 
it  of  »iiy  'O"'' 
ni«T,  ImU'irt*?'* 
iirhciitry,  t!lvo 
Hon  with  Kuch 
IMilttMlly  t\'-< 

III  llilrtv  'l»y" 
in  t.i  till'  Ki'"!- 
1. >)Miil  i-linl' *>" 
liiuiluiiTrli»u- 
oiii  secnrdlng- 
]i«t«nillng,  uu- 

wicliilccl'  in 

,.  hiT.  :.flcr  ho 

|,.«  diitiM  »h»U 

1m  In  bond. 

J  on  IMK>W»t 

[lO,  184A. 
r««!nta'fM«  0^ 
tjmiMcil.  ''■•"'' 
flHifl,  and  cn- 
\%ai  for  other 

|hnn  Im  l»«f"' 
liU^  h^'o  '^ 
I  by  Hirf>i . 
In  th()  I"'  - 

h  op'  ■    ■    ''"T 

|1-  r   thO 

l>  i>,id  eh*ri!i'ii 
loniriioTiihio 
Ipo  1  which  I'm 
lio  drty  of  tl'» 
Im  Impi'rtsd  or 
liortii  to  bu  up- 
LiK.!  r.Vth  th' 
Id  v»lu»  th<ire- 
|t,n  no  dc'cUrwl 
|.n('<l  t)y  Ifc"  "» 
l»l.l. »  duty  of 
tu.  :  iToirfil''' 
111  tho  'lixy 
lur  ^!nt^l^  " 
TumndlBK- 


COMPAIIATIVE  TAniFFS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  tSM  *«i.  1867. 


Alnyntho ;  »co  CordiaU 

Acctio  >cld  ;  8C0  Aeidn,  aettic,  etc.  . , 
Acctoua  Acid ;  nee  Acid,  (u^eloia,  ftc 
Acldii  of  every  doncrlpllon  iiaed  for  chrm- 

Ical  or  for  nianiifsctiirliii:  purpoaen,  not' 

otherwiHo  provided  for 1 

Adda  of  every  description  iiacd  fur  medic- 
inal pnrposet  or  In  tho  flno  aria,  not  oth. 

crwiHO  provided  for ! 

Acid,  hulphurlc ;  «co  Sulphuric  AM 

Adiiealvo  felt,  etc. ;  ice  Fell,  adhenive 

Alabaster  Htnlunry,  etc.,  for  nao  of  collcgea, 

CO. ;  aeo  l*hil<im)pbical  Appuratus,  etc. . 

AlabRHter  and  apar  omamcnta 

Alabatn ;  ace  Argentine ... 

Alcornoquo  — 

Ale,  beer,  and  porter,  in  caaka  or  bottica  . . 

Almonda 

Atoca  —  .' 

Alum 

Amber  beads ;  eco  Beads 

Amber 

Ambergris 

Ammonia 

Animoiiin,  aal ;  ace  Sal  ./iniiiionftt 

Anatto,  roncou,  or  Orleans 

Anchovies,  sardines,  and  all  other  fish  pre- 
served in  oil 

Angora,  Thibet,  and  otiier  goats'  hair  or 
mohiiir,  unmanufactured,  not  othenvl^. 

provided  for 

Animal  carbon ;  sec  Bone  bliick 

Animal  oils ;  pco  OiU,  A'ea/' «-/oof,  etc 

Animals,  living,  of  all  kinds 

Arise  seed 

Antimony,  crude,  or  regains  of 

Antiquarian  paper ;  ace  Aipcr 

Antiquities,  collections  of;  gee  PhiloaoiiMc- 

al  Aii]Htratttft,  etc 

Antiquities,  collections  of ;  sec  Cabinets  o/ 
Coina,  etc 

Apparatus  for  use  of  United  States ;  ecc 
Book9,  Maps,  etc 

Apparatus  for  use  of  collegt*,  etc  ;  ace  Phil- 
OHophical  Appamtua,  etc 

Apparel ;  sec  Clothing,  readu-made 

Apples,  bitter ;  sec  ItitU-r  Apples 

Arabic,  gum ;  see  Gum  Arabic 

Argentine,  alabata,  or  (icrman  silver,  man- 
ufactured or  unmanufactured 

Argol,  cr  crude  tartar 

Anns,  flro ;  see  M\uket» 

Arms,  aide ;  sec  Side  Arms 

Arrack  j  aec  CordiaU 

Arrow-root 

Arsenic 

.\rticle8  embroidered  with  gold,  sil\-pr,  etc 

Artlclea  worn  by  men,  women,  or  children, 
of  whatever  material  composed,  made  up, 
or  made  wnolly  or  In  part  by  hand 

Artlclea  of  metal ;  sec  Mamijactures 

Artlclea  of  leather ;  see  Manufaettires 

Articles  of  marble;  see  Manvfacturei 

Articles  of  gla-'^ ;  see  Mami/actures 

Article-  of  paplcr-mttch^ ;  see  Manv/acture^ 

Artirtea,  all.  Imported  for  the  use  of  United 
States ;  sec  Hooks,  Maps,  etc 

\rV  l,:fi  not  in  a  crude  state,  used  in  dyeing 
or  ■  nuing,  not  otherwise  provided  for  . . 

Ani  if  s  in  a  crude  state,  used  In  dyeing  or 
tauiiing,  not  otherwise'  provided  for 

.\rtiflvial  flowers  or  feathers;  sec  Feathers 

Ash    '.  i.i ;  SCO  Soda-ash 

Aai-Puit.    1 

Asafojlida 

Asses'  skins 

Aubusson  carpeting ;  seo  CVi  pets 

Ilucnn 

Balies,  'KWkings,  flannels,  and  floor-cloth, 
of  w.iatevcr  material  eomposcd,  not  oth- 
erwise provided  for 

llaisaiMS,  cosmetics,  essences,  extracts,  per- 
fumea,  pastes,  and  tinctures . 

Uananas  

Barbary  gum ;  see  Gtoji  Arabii 

liarillu 


Far  taut. 
100 
211 
20 


20 

10 

Fret. 

Ftic. 
40 
SO 
6 
30 
40 
211 
20 
30 
20 
20 
10 
10 
10 

40 


20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
30 

Free, 

Free. 


l»il. 


Hark  of  tho  cork-tree,  raanufartures  of;  see 
.Jf(ini'/(ic<i(re« 

Bark  of  tho  cork-tree,  unmanufactured ;  see 
CorJt-^rf«  Bark 

Barks  of  all  kinds  not  otherwlso  provided  for 

Bark,  Peruvian 

Bark,QullU 

Barley 

6Y 


Free. 


Free. 
30 
20 
10 


S 
30 
30 
100 
20 
15 
30 


SO 
SO 
30 
80 
30 
SO 

Free. 


I'er  Cent. 
SO 
4 
16 


15 
4 

Free. 

Free. 

8) 

24 

4 

24 

80 

4 

16 

24 

4 

4 

8 

8 

4 

80 

15 
Free. 
16 
Free. 
4 
8 
24 

Free. 

Free. 

Free, 

Free. 

24 

Free. 

8 

24 
Free. 
24 
24 
80 
15 
4 
24 


24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 

Free. 


20 

6 

30 
10 
20 
20 
SO 
SO 
20 


25 

30 
20 
10 
10 

SO 

16 
20 
IP 
15 
20 


Free- 

24 

4 

4 

4 

U 

i'. 

15 


19 

24 

8 
8 
4 

24 

8 
8 
Frco. 
12 
15 


Barley,  pearl  or  hulled ;  sec  Itarl  or  Hull- 
ed harl/iy 

Bars,  Iron ;  see  Iron  in  Bars . ! .   . . 

Bars,  .iti^ei ;  see  Steel  in  Bart 

liars,  brass ;  seo  Brass  in  Bars,  etc.  ..!... 

Bars,  copper ;  see  Comer  in  Pins,  etc 

Bar,  tin ;  aeo  Tin  in  Pigs,  etc 

Barytes,  aulphato  of  i  see  Sulphate  of  Ba- 
rytes 

Baskets,  and  nil  other  artlclis  composed  of 
grass,  cisii  r,  palm-leaf,  straw,  whalebone, 
or  willow,  not  otherwise  provided  for 

Bay  mm 

Beads,  of  omL-cr,  composition,  or  wait,  and 
all  other  beads 

Beans,  Vonilla ;  aeo  I'nni'lln  Beans 

Bed-sides ;  see  Carjiets 

Beds,  feather ;  seo  Floss  Silks,  etc 


Beef 


I'ef  t'eDL    Far  Cant. 


Beer,  in  casks  or  bottles !  sec  i4  If ,  Beer,  etc 

Beeswax 

Bells,  old,  and  bell-metal 

Bend  leather ;  aec  Leather,  tatmed,  etc. . . , 

Bcnzoates 

Benzoin,  or  Benjamin,  gum ;  sec  Gum  Ben- 
zoin, etc 

Benzoic  acid;  see  .4eit'«,  acetic,  etc.  ... 
Berries,  vegetables,  and  flowers,  not  other- 
wise provided  for 

Berries,  jtinlper ;  see  thiniper  Berries 

Berries,  nuts,  flowers,  plants,  and  vegeta- 
bles, used  exclusively  in  dyeing  nr  in 
composing  dyes ;  but  no  article  shall  be 
classed  as  such  that  has  undergone  any 

munufocturo 

Bichromate  of  potash ;  ace  ChroiiMte  . 

Bismuth 

Bitter  apples 

Bituminous  substances  in  a  crude  state ;  see 

iWii>4T(d  and  Bituminous  Substafices 

Black,  Frankfort ;  sec  *Vnn*/or<  Black. . . 

Black,  Ivory  ;  see  Ivory  Black 

Blank-lKH^ks,  Iraund  or  unbound 

Blankets  of  all  kinds 

Bloachlny  powder,  or  chlorid  of  lirae 

Blocks,  tin  i  sec  Tin  in  Ifgs,  etc 

Blooms ;  see  Iron  in  Bars,  etc. 

Blue  or  Homan  vitriol,  or  sulph.  of  copper 

Blue,  flg;  see  Fig  Blue 

Blue,  rrussiun ;  see  l^tssian  Blue 

Bone  block ;  see  Aiiivuil  Carbon 

Boards,  plunks,  f^taves,  Inths,  scantling, 
spars,  liewn  and  sawed  timber,  and  tim- 
ber to  be  used  In  building  wharves 

Bocklngs ;  see  Baizes 

Bodies,  bat,  of  wool ;  sec  Hat  Bodies 

Bologna  sausages 

Bolts ;  seo  /ro7i  in  Bars 

Bolts,  shln);lc  and  stave 

Bolts,  copper ;  seo  Copper  Bods,  etc. 

Bolting  cloths 

Bone,  manufactures  of;  seo  3lanu/actures 

of  Ilnne 

Bono  black 

Bone-dust 

Bones  and  bone  tips,  unmanufactured ;  see 

Horn  and  Horn  Tips 

Bones,  burned 

Bonnets,  tints,  braids,  etc.,  used  for  mak 

Ing ;  seo  Flats,  etc,  

Bonnets  composed  of  certain  materials ;  seei 

Hats  and  Bonnets 

Books,  maps,  and  charts,  imported  by  au- 
thority of  '.lie  J'Mnt  library  committee  of 
CongTLjs  for  tho  ,:i''.  of  the  library  of 

Congress   , .   

Books,  maps,  and  cbart.s,  mathematical  and 
nautical  Instruments,  philosophical  appa- 
ratus, and  nil  other  nrllcies  wlmtcver.  Im- 
ported for  the  use  of  the  United  Stales  . 
Books  as  personal  efi'cts  of  iwrsous  arriving 
in  the  United  States;  see  "Vnrinj  Ap 

parel  

Books  apeelnlly  Imported  for  societies ;  see 

PMloMphirnl  Apparatus 

Botany,  apeclmens  of;   see  Specimens  o/ 

Xatuml  Hislorg 

Hooks,  blank ;  see  Blanh  Books 

Uo-'.is.  printed,  rnRazInes,  pamphlets,  auJ 

periodicals.  UIiTstiutednewspapers,  bound 

or  unbound,  *>v .    therwlse  provldet"  for  . 

Books  in  course  of  printing  and  ropublia- 

tion  ;  see  ftriodioils 

Boraclc  add ;  see  Acids,  aettie,  etc 


20 


80 
30 


20 
80 
'iH 
20 
30 
20 
6 
20 
SO 

SO 
20 

20 

20 


6 
211 
20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 
20 
10 
6 
80 
20 
20 
20 
20 


20 

'25 
20 
SO 
30 
20 
20 
25 

80 
20 
20 

6 
20 

30 

30 


Free. 

Free. 
Free. 

Free. 

20 

10 

20 
80 


SO 

16 

80 

94 

16 

in 

5 

Free. 

^ 

Free. 

6 

Free. 

24 
94 

94 

16 
24 
10 
16 
24 
16 
Free. 
16 
34 

24 
4 

IB 
15 


Frco. 

16 

Free, 

Free. 

16 
IB 
16 
16 
15 

4 
Free. 
24 
15 
15 

4 
Free. 


15 
10 
16 
24 
24 

Free. 
18 

Free. 

24 
Free. 
Free. 


Free. 
24 
24 

Free. 


Free. 
Free. 


Free. 
18 


IK 
4 


TAR 

ITmriD  BTATia'  TAmm—ConUnufd. 


1810  TAR 

l'iUT«i>  Btatm'  'rAKin>«--Om(fniMd. 


ArllrlM. 


I      im.      I      IMT. 


Borato  of  Umn 

Hunx,  rrudo  or  IIdcaI 

Bonx,  nut  cruila 

BottUii,  IndU  rubber;  mw  InMa  Jlubber  in 
DoMtt 

nottonUf  copp4>r ;  too  Cornier  tloUmnt 

Ilottomii,  atlll ;  ICC  StHi  Bottomt 

Itoitcho  leavM 

lloio,  paper ;  nee  I'ltjirr  Hoztn 

Uoxn*,  fancy ;  ne«i  IMpfr  Kftxfti 

Box-wood,  tinnmnufacturcd 

Urarelvlo,  bralil>,  ehalnn,  ourln,  or  rlngloti, 
corapoaed  of  hatr,  or  of  which  hair  b  a 
conipommt  part 

BracoK,  ■uapvndem,  webbing  or  other  fab- 
rics, compofliMl  wnolljr  or  In  part  of  India 
rubber,  not  othcrwlHo  proWucd  for 

BralilH,  of  hair ;  Men  }trace\ett 

Itraldii,  for  niaklig  hata  or  bonDctsi  cec 
Ftiitit^  liraidn^  elc, 

BraldR,  cotton ;  ara  Cotton  Laffn.  etc. 

Brandy,  and  other  aplrlla  dlatUled  ttom 
grain  or  other  nmterlala 

llraaii,  ninniifar'turea  of;  aco  Slunu/acturea 

of  lliVtH 

Bruaa,  In  liam  or  piga 

Brai^o,  old,  and  fit  un'V  to  lie  remanufactM 
Brnalerri'  copper;  sec  (V^Rpe-irt  A'/iw/a, etc. 

Braxll  paato 

Brazil-wood,  Brar.lllctto,  and  all  dye-wooda 

In  atlcka 
Bnwia . 


Kricka ;  ace  I\xvi»g  and  HooJInj  THen,  etc, 

Brlmatonc,  roll ;  aco  lUAl  BHnititone 

Brlmatone,  crude.  In  bulk 

Briatlea... 

Uroad  window  glaaa  ;  aeo  ]t'tiulo«i  Olau. . . 

Bronco  liquor 

Bronxu  powder 

Bronze,  i-emtn  of;  aco  J'ML  -ophical  Ai*pa- 

ralus,  etc 

Bronze,  metal,  In  leaf;  ace  Mrtala,  Ihttrh, 

etc. 


Brooms  aud  bruabea  of  all  klnda 

Brushed 

BniaaeLi  earpeta :  aee  Carjuts 

Budj,  caaila ;  ace  ('iimila  Itudt 

Building  alonea 

Bulba  ;  aeo  Tree*,  Shmbt,  elc. ...... . 

Bullion,  gold  and  allvcr 

Burgundy ;  aee  Winen 

Burgundy  pitch 

Burned  atarch ;  aee  Gum  mhnlllute. . . , 

Burr  alonea,  wrought  or  unwrought,  but 
unmanufactured 

Uuala ;  ^co  I'Mlotophical  Aiinmtuii,  etc.  . ' 

Butter • 

Buttons  and  button-niouldt^  of  all  klnda. . , 

Cabinet  and  hoiiaclinld  furniture. ....    ' 

('ablncta  of  colna,  medala,  gcma,  and  all 
colleetlona  of  antlqultlea I 

Cables  and  cordage,  tarred  or  untarred  . . . ' 

Cadmium I 

Cake,  saffron ;  sec  Saffruii  and  Saffron  Cake] 

Calamine 

Calomul  and  all  other  merrurlal  prepara- 
tions   

Cameoa,  real  and  imitation ;  and  moaalcj<, 
real  nud  Imitation,  when  net  In  gold,  all- 
vcr, or  other  metal 

Cameos  and  niosalcN  yot  act 

Cameos  and  mocnlc;^,  Imitations  thereof,  not 
act 

Camphor,  refined , , , 

Camphor,  crude 

Candlea,  spermacell;  aco  Sptmuutti  Can 
diet 

Candles,  stearin  ;  aee  Ste'trin  Candten  .... 

<'andlca,  tallow  ;  aee  Talloif  Candlen 

Candl(«,  wax ;  see  H'or  Candle* 

Canes  and  sticks  for  walking,  finished  or 
nnAniahed 

Cantharldes 

Capers,  pk  kics,  and  sauces  of  all  kinds,  not 
otherwise  provided  fat 

Caps,  hats,  niufTs,  aid  tippet. i  of  fur,  and 
all  other  manufactures  of  Air,  or  of  which 
fur  shall  be  a  component  material 

Caps,  gloves,  leggins,  niits,  a<rf>ks,  stock 
Inga,  wove  shirts  and  drawers,  and  all 
similar  articles  made  on  IVamcr,  worn  by 
men,  women,  or  children,  and  not  other- 
wise provided  for 

Caps,  gloves,  legi<ina.  ;:<lta,  socks,  stockings, 
wove  shirts  i;i..>  il.i'>  !',  made  on  frames, 
composed  wholly  of     i<  <n 


Ptr  Ctnt. 

is 

26 

10 
SO 
90 
SO 
80 
80 
10 


BO 


M 
80 

80 
S5 

l«fl 

80 

6 

5 

90 

IB 

8 
90 

20 
20 
IS 
D 
80 
20 
SO 


20 
80 
30 
80 
20 
10 

Free. 

Free. 
40 
96 
10 

10 
Free. 
20 
26 
80 

Free. 
26 
20 
20 
20 

26 


10 

10 
40 
96 

20 

IS 

to 

80 
90 

(0 
80 


SO 


l*tr  Cent. 
19 

4 
10 

4 
16 
16 

4 
24 
94 

8 


94 


94 

24 

94 

10 

80 

24 

Free. 

Free. 

16 

19 

Free. 
15 
16 
15 
4 
4 
15 
16 
16 

F.ee. 

16 

94 

24 

24 

4 

8 

Free. 

Free. 

80 

19 

8 

Free. 

Free. 
16 
19 
94 

Free. 
19 
15 
16 
16 

19 


94 
4 


IB 
16 
16 
16 

94 


ti 


24 


24 

IB 


Allll'iM. 


!      IMS. 


Caps,  gloves, legglna,  mlts,  socks,  stockings, 
wove  shirts  (ind  drawers,  maile  on  frames, 
compoMHl  wholly  of  cotton,  worn  by  men, 
women,  and   children,  wlu<n   bleached. 


printed,  painted,  or  dyed 

<  jir))nnato  of  so<la;  sec  .S'al  .S'oifa,  etc 

t  itrtsin,  animal;  seo  Animal  Carbon 

Card  cases,  pocket-books,  sluil  boxes,  sou- 
rcnlrs,  and  all  slmlUr  articles,  of  what- 
ever material  compoaeil 

Cards,  playing;  sen  I'laiiinii  Cardi 

Carpets,  carpeting,  nearth-rngs,  bed-aides, 
and  ether  )nirtlous  of  carpeting,  being 
olther  Aubusson,  llrusselt*,  ingrain,  t^ax- 
ony,  Turkey,  VenetUn,  ^Viltun,  or  any 
other  similar  fabric 

Carriages  and  parts  uf  carriages 

Cassia 

Cassia  buds 

Castings  of  Iron 

Cast-iron  vessels ;  seo  /roll,  ewUy  Vesnel*  of 

Cast-steel ;  see  .S7ee/  in  liar* 

Ca8tltc-.Hoap  ;  aee  >S'tMl]>,  COHtiU,  etc 

Castor  oil 

Castorum 

Casta  of  marble,  nronze,  alabaster,  or  plas- 
ter of  I'arls;  seo  I*hito*irphieal  Appara- 
tus, etc 

Cayenne  ptipper 

Coaar-u-(tod,  luanufacturoa  of;  see  Jfatiu- 
/actun*  uf  Ci'dar-u'ooil 

Cedur-wno<l,  Uix-wood,  ebony,  granadllla, 
llgnuni-vltsn,  mahogany,  rose-wood,  and 
satin-wood,  and  all  cabinet  woods,  un- 
maniifaetunMl ;  see  iroorfs 

Cement,  lloman  :  see  lionuin  Cement 

Chains  of  hair ;  seo  Dmeelett,  Hraid*,  etc. , 

Chalk,  red,  pencils ;  see  lied  Chalk  Pendli 

Chslk 

Chalk,  French ;  see  Frewh  CiVtU 

Chalk,  red ;  seo  Ited  ChaUi 

Charts ;  see  Map*  and  Chart* 

Cheese 

China  ware ;  see  Rxrthe  i,  CAfrui,  and  SIom 
Ware 

China  matting;  seo  Malting,  Chitui,  etc. . . 

Chip  hats  and  bonnets ;  seo  Hal*  and  Bon' 
nets 

Chocolate 

Chlorid  of  lime ;  see  BItacMng  Pvu^er. . . , 

Chromato  of  lead 

Chromate,  bichromate,  hydrlodate,  and 
prussiate  ot  potash 

Chromic  add ;  seo  Acida,  aeetoit*,  etc. 

Chranonieters,  box  or  shlps\  and  parta 
thereof 

Cinnamon 

Citric  acid ;  see  Aeidt,  aeetic,  etc. 

Claret ;  aeo  Wine* 

Clay 

Clay,  unwrought 

Clocks  and  parts  of  clocks 

Clothing,  ready-made,  and  wearing  ap|iar 
el  of  every  description,  of  whatever  mate- 
rial composed,  made  up  or  manufactured 
wholly  or  In  part  by  the  tailor,  seamstress, 
or  manufacturer 

Cloth,  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
shoes,  buttons,  elc. ,  exclusively ;  seo  Jfati- 
v/aeture»  of  Mohair  Cloth,  etc.  

Cloths,  bolting ;  see  Dolling  Cloth* 

Cloves 

Coach  and  hamcaa  flimiture  of  all  kinds, , 

Coal 

Cobalt 

Cochineal 

Cocoa-nuts 

Cocoa  

Cocoa  shells 

Cocoa-nut  oil ;  see  Oil*,  J^mt,  etc. 

'  dculus  Indlciis 

'  odllla,  or  tow  of  hemp  or  flax 

^■•e  and  tea,  when  Imported  dlp^ot  from 

itlaco  of  their  growf- '~- .   ,i    'luctton, 

"flcan  vessels,  ot       '..j       'vessels 

!  by  reciprocal  tr.atlti.  i     be  ex- 

'I '  from  discriminating  duties,  onnage, 

1  -     >i  her  charges 

I',  the  girowtn  or  production  of  the  pos- 
si^sslons  of  the  Netberlanda,  Unportod 
from  tho  Netherlands  In  the  same  man- 

ner 

Coins,  gold,  silver,  and  copper 

Coins ;  seo  CaMnefa  qf  Coiiu 

Coir ;  sec  JtUe,  etc    

Coke  aud  culm  of  coal 


20 
90 
90 


80 


80 
80 
4(1 
90 
80 
80 
16 
80 
20 
20 


Free. 


40 


20 
90 
80 
80 
6 
90 
90 
10 
80 


26 


SO 
10 
90 

90 
SO 

10 
80 
80 
40 
6 
6 
80 


6 
26 
40 
80 


94 

S 

Free, 


24 

84 


24 
24 
4 
4 
24 
24 
19 
24 
16 
IB 


Free, 
4 


SO 


8 

IB 

24 

24 

4 

4 

4 

Free. 

24 

24 
19 

24 

IB 

is 

16 
16 

8 
4 
4 

80 
4 
4 

'84 


84 


4 

Free. 

4 

84 


90 

IS 

10 

4 

90 

4 

10 

4 

10 

4 

10 

.^ 

90 

16 

! ; 

Free. 


Free. 

Frci 

Free. 

Free 

FrM-. 

Fnc 

•"> 

.AO 

.0 

M 

m 


41. 

lUI. 

Cot. 

P«  Cu 

SO 

i'l 

ilO 

S 

!!0 

fne. 

SO 

U 

80 

U 

80 

S4 

BO 

84 

411 

4 

SO 

4 

80 

S4 

80 

84 

IB 

18 

1811 


IS 
IB 


Frco. 
4 

SO 


8 

15 

84 

84 

4 

4 

4 

Frop. 

24 

84 
19 

84 

16 

is 

IS 
IS 

8 
4 
4 

80 
4 
4 

'84 


24 


4 

Free. 

4 

24 

is 

4 
4 
4 
4 


Ftec. 


Frei: 
Fruo. 
Fn<> 


<''oll(!cllan>oran|taulMn.  /      T    '     ' 

„  •{  ^rvmu^Z!"" '""'  '»••'««»«.. 

Coiiu,  oto '  •  •«  Cabinets  qf 

<;orab,'or.uki„s  ""'•'■ '^'''"''•••:..:::.' 

t  omposKlon  of  gi,i  or  „.^''  •; 

provWml  for  """'''  ■""  "tlierwl,; 

J;OP»l,  Ifiiin  i  HueOinU 

tomr  arUclo«,  vomoL  '  ■«V,.i 

l;OPPiT  bott6iiia  .    

c:??:;a:s;l'Svi!i^iiiffr::::::| 

'"«''a:;'i".-'"''-'"'«'«n<viobe';,-: 

c^S^SkVioV-Ter^'r"  ••-■•■::::■•••  '''«r. 

a  jlmllar  .haracte?     '""""  "^""'^     ' " 
U-rd,,  cotton  ;«oCo;<;^.-C -;,■•• 

tork-troo  hark  . . .      " 

c;o,,„etic, ;  ,,„ m^„-^:c—^:---;. ■  • . 

CoUm.  \       ^'  "'<  "««  Oat  .^aii^i ^ 

£«.od;'ia.ro3;' -',"-.  ^-j^cacnii;, 

-when  bleached  uriD^H    "  *"  ^'"'".  eta 

fotton  and  Mky^wTi'^^"^  "'"iy^ 

of  cbief  v«l>  .„,'.",''',''  ^'"oe.  cotton' 

jS?»^/!S=kd/''-'^^-:: 

J;  ream  of  tartar         


TAR 

'■""TIB  RTATIta'  Ta«i.~^    ^ 


'>«(<.« j. 

fcfoTiii^ji^i/ir'/'"'''''  "^  •'.'■■■• 
I  Sr„X7:.«'--'"rr.r;erd 

,„""'»»»...,  '  ''""^'°"«  "too.'.,  wh"n 

IJolKanS^t  '^■;i«',<;^no.^i.•;:;;;•• 
l5S.^^6'^'"^«<^•ei^ 
M^'ned  jmip        M 

;;f,r?'.4%'"'-,-eW«;„L^;V,.; 

"yeloK,  arucles  ,         ;■• 

,  "tatoi,ec^rt.w'   .   .7'  °°'  '"  »  Ofudi 

I     »'h!"«aV^"eV»d  ••"»»  wJA.'au;,- an 
'  „en>I  "UbftanccT^fti?*^ '''"'•>'»'•<'  mln. 

'■'S/r'-  ""'"'■'"f«'ured';;^-^ii;-        *" 

4rnni2rr/-  ''"^ 

tmbrolderics  r. :V  ,j,- '   /  '  ' ' ' '"''.  ^'tc. . . . 
„'l'iiembmder.>i  «,    '  "   -^''•i"  "eovlrfi- 


84 
IS 


Free. 
Free. 


^^S2k^: , 

<«a  m,dfl State  eto^  "  ^  '  »«o^,/,w&, 
Orgtal,forw.toho,;;«,-oii«-c^,;,;„-. 
*'iidbcar         

?-^;;?^«r  •: 

turranu.,..     ™"'''     ■''''«'•,  ctirierf.eic.  I 

[;,';f>errofaiiki„L,-,V;.  .•■;:;•• , 


other  nieSl'         " '"«"  "'f"'''.  »llm,  or 

Kp«omsalt8;  seo',Vai/ii"Bi; 

Keacntlal  oils  •  »!  o5,7  -T"°™'  '•"■ 

ixtract  of  indigo  

Extract  o?,SC    "'""""'  '"»''''«'  for 

/Feldspar.  " ' '"^  ■ '<«» ''-.V**,  etc.  . , .  i       jj 

'  ™'-'«^'»Hi»'»i'V«Vhingv;.;«;i,-;:::;:|  ^^^ 


If. 

Tree. 


TAR 


1813 


TAR 


I  mm  KiAm'  TAum— CoNMniMf, 


"ArtKliT 


1  ir    '         

Fli  ->.     X  i  nxi  Mu-ikri»,  fte. 

Flra-onrken 

Klre-M^riwnt ;  11*41  f'ltiu  anil  Fir^^-Hirttnn  . . 
KIfa-woihI  ;  it'll  WiHxl,  unntami/tiftiirni . . , 
FUhf  pri'Nurvrfl  tii  oil;  m^  Anchuvi^t. ... 
FUli,  rur<'l|pi,  whvlliiir  I'rrdi,  ■iiiokocl,  itlt. 

ed,  itrled,  ur  iiloklvU,  UQi  uUiMwUu  pru' 

rtdedfur 


FUh  tflu4*f  ur  Ulntflua 

Kl«h  iklni 

Kbh  ulli ;  H«  'Mb,  twaT .  .fnof  <'  

Flan,  mMlluir,  "r  rn'.la     '    ...^  a-iutbitt, 

C»(na,«lc.         

FUnnrln  ;  iw  llatiu,  etc 

FUla,  bniiu«,  plalU,  unarturro  (nil  willow 

•qnarca,  Ui'oil  for  hukImk  hau  ur  lonnoli 
Flax,  mauiifttctiireri  oft  nuu  Manu/iuturf9 

of  ytax,  Blr. 

Flax,  uamaniifaotunHl 

Flax,  tow  of ;  ncn  CaiiUa 

Flax-wed 


Fllut. 

Flint,  tiround 

Floor-clotlu ;  sno  liaizes,  etc 

Floor  mattInK ;  apn  Matliiui.  China,  eta. . . . 
Flofit  RllkM,  fuathcr-ltfldf,  feather*  for  budi, 

ami  dowDN  of  all  klndH 

Flour,  wheat ;  m-o  IVhrat  aitit  When!  Flour 

Flour,  nre  j  »ee  Ryr  and  Jtyii  Flour 

Flour  oiKUlphur 

Flowcru  ;  nee  FmllifrH  and  t'lou/em 

Flowom,  u>c<l  exrhialvely  In  dyelnii,  etc. ; 

•eo  Ittrriin,  SuU,  <ite 

Flowera  not  otherwUe  provided  for ;  »«e 

Berritu.  ynjflabUii,  "tc 

Foolvrap  papiT ;  nee  l\iprr,  lUmv,  etc 

Frmmefl  and  rttli-ka  for  umtrellaa,  paraiol*, 

and  aun^ahadei*,  tiulibcd  ur  tinflnUhed  . . 

Frankfort  black 

French  chalk 

F"re«h  flih ;  «*  Fith,  /on  iiin,  etc 

Fruit  proaervi'd  In  lUKar,  hrandy,  or  roo- 

lasies ;  loe  ('trmjU» 

Fnitt,  green,  ripe,  ur  dried 

Fnllem'  eartn 

Fulminate*,  or  fulmlnaltng  ponden 

Furniture,  cabinet  and  hourieholil 

Fumltnro :  aee  Comjiomtion  TaMM-totM  . . . 
)  ur  manuiacturea ;  neu  Cajui,  Hatt,  Mufft, 

and  Tijrptlii  nf  Fur 

Fur  cen«;  gee  "%\>»,  etc,  t\f  Fw 

Fun,  ilnwued,  on  the  akin 

F*ura,  hattera',  dreaeed  or  undreiaed,  uot  on 

the  akin 

Fura,  nndreet4ed,  when  <-a  the  akin 

(lallp-ua,  ip'lil,  allver,  . ;  aee  Jittaulnt. . 
Qal[i)ona,  cotton  ;  aee  (  uthm  Coras,  etc, .  . 
tialvanlied  tin  plate* ;  aee  Tin  IHatt*,  gul- 

vaniitd 

Gamboge 

Uame,  prepared  ;  aee  Prepartd  yrgrlabU; 

Mtatt,  ete. 

Garden  aeeda,  and  all  <'ihcr  aee<la  fur  agrl- 

cnltural,    horllcultiual,   medicinal,    and 

manufacturing  purpoaea,  not  otherwUe 

provided  for  . . ; 

Gelatin  ;  b««  Jfomroni,  etc. 

Gema,  aot ;  aea  IHamtmU,  rtc,  Mt 

Oema  ;  are  PhilD'ophian  Apitarai\i»,  etc.. 
Oema,  not  act ;  '  '  rVmwoa,  etc.,  r.ot  Mt, . . 
Gema,  Imltuf'         f,  not  act    tw  Viamondt. 

etc  . . .     .  

German  all  t         •  Arijen^  nt 

German  «ti>.     «, ,  .>7«i  ifi  Bart,  ate 

Gilt  wan' ;  aee  Italed  and  i.tU  Wart 

Gtmpa,  cott'i:  ;  aee  Cotton  (  ordt,  etc 

Ginger,  grou  vl 

Ginger,  drle'l,  green,  ripe,  preaerved,  or 

pickled 

Glaaa,  cut 

Glaap,  roloreil,  utalned,  or  t.itnted 

Glaaa  rryatald  fur  watchea. ...   

Glaaaca  or  pel)bleH  for  apcctaclea 

Glaaa  tiiniblc:'*,  plain,  moulded,  or  preaatM), 

not  cut  or  punted 

Glaaa,  painting*    on ;    aco  I'aintinga  on 

OUuf 

Glaaa,  porcelain ;  aee  f\>reelaui  Olau 

Glaaa,  eompoiiltlona  of,  aet;  aee  Oompoti- 

timt  qf  GlttMi  or  Funtr,  when  tet 

Oian,  eompoaitioaa  of,  not  aet ;  aee  Compo- 

•fNotu  0/  QUt—  or  nmte,  not  tet 

GU«,  window ;  ace  Ifmdoui  aiat 

Ohaa,  wban  old,  and  fit  onlr  to  be  remann- 

fMMnd 


"TfiT 


P»  C'ml. 

to 

W 

10 
"0 
HO 
«l 


10 
M 
M 
10 

.'5 
10 

to 

90 

in 

10 

so 
s 

ft 

16 
SO 

S6 
10 

90 
'*) 
DO 


10 
SO 


40 


TUl. 


Free. 

Free. 

80 

24 

80 

14 

Free. 

Free. 

10 

4 

10 

8 

80 

14 

16 

11 

no 

14 

80 

14 

80 

14 

40 

IS 

40 

80 

SO 

14 

80 

14 

SO 

14 

so 

14 

so 

14 

80 

24 

SO 

84 

10 

8 

SO 

Ifi 

SO 


Nr  I'tnt. 
W 
M 
14 
14 
14 
811 


lA 
15 
IB 
10 

10 

I'J 

14 

IB 

Free. 

11 

IS 

4 
4 
111 
IB 

10 
IS 
IS 
IS 
14 


IS 
14 


SO 

24 

10 

IS 

so 

4 

10 

IS 

41 

80 

10 

8 

10 

8 

10 

15 

80 

24 

40 

BO 

SO 

14 

80 

24 

20 

IS 

10 

8 

10 

8 

80 

14 

80 

14 

IS 

8 

111 

IB 

SO 


Free. 


UiiiTiD  Htatw'  TARivrft— C'tmMfltitfd. 

ArtUU.. 

IMI. 

liM 

r.t  Cat. 

l*arl-ml 

(tUslrr*'  dUniondi,  Mt  or  not  nut ;  ih  /Ma> 

IS 

10 

IS 

IS 

tlUtibor  HultN  ;  ■•«  SntlH,  Kjtaom,  «t« 

ItloTM  iiiiUt)  on  frtiuuM;  iti'i  ''djM,  f/lovet, 

eU: ,  nuuitf  on  FmniM 

80 

24 

(llovfM,  wholly  of  cotton,  uucde  on  frumvii  { 

■CO  vajut,  Utoms,  ate...  wadt  on  FrnniM  , 

(tlov*!!,  whnn  bleftchetlf  printed,  palatad, 

10 

1ft 

or  dyed 

10 

S4 

(jiuo    

SO 

IB 

<Jhw»,  fliih     

IB 

UoaU'  hair,  mRDiiAirtnri'i  of;  leo  Jfanu- 

farturtut  f\f  fittatM'  7/«itV.  iitr 

IS 

W 

Oo»tii'  h»ir,  iinniaimflwturoil;  «<;«  Atujora. 

ThiM,  awl  utfur  tJftatH'  Hair 

10 

IB 

(UAd  embroMprltw ;  avn  Artielen  embroiiier- 

ffi  \eith  (hill 

so 

14 

troM,  maluifnrturoi  of;  tue   *'.<.nu/aetMrfn 

80 

S4 

Free. 
IB 
10 

Free. 

12 

(lold-lM>ut(!r«'  Hkln 

n 

(iooeU,  wari'N,  and  mcrrhaDdlitf,  tlio  growth, 
prodnri-,  or  nianni'actnru  of  thr  1'.  HUtrn, 

«x  portml  to  A  furulicn  mimtry,  and  broui^lit 

bnrk  to  tho  1*.  H.  In  thn  namu  condition  an 

wlimi  rxportml,  upon  which  no  drawbaclt 

or  biniiity  hail   bi>rn  alluwi-d,  prnvldod 

that  all  ri-t(nltttlonii  lo  wtctTlain  tli<   Iduu- 

tity  thiri'of,  pn-Hcrlbcd  by  cxiitinft  If^Tn, 

or  which  may  1ni  pri'tirrllH'd  by  tho  Secto- 
tary  of  tlto  TrcaHury,  shBll  be  compiled 

with 

Free. 

Fri'" 

OranadiUa   wood,   manufacturcti    of;    aoe 

M(iMt.faciurc»  0/  Cedar-wofxl,  etc 

40 

UU 

Uranadllla    wood,    unuiaaufncturodt    aee 

SO 

H 

Or  r  ■■ 

80 

b 

'...-    tionneta  ;  Rett  i/a/d     id  1:01     <•»«»- 

pn^fd  fif  Strttv\  t'tfl 

DO 

n 

arftRA  hMketa  ;  ico  UoHkelH^  rtc,  re      oMd 

80 

21 

(tnuK  cloth ... 

SB 
IS 

IIP 

(;ram!,  HUal;  «p<i  ./hV.  otc,  ummimo     rd 

w 

(iraw  mata  and  nmdiitK;  nt'0  Mattiiio,  CM- 

na,  etc 

IS 
10 
10 

.'0 
B 
10 

ID 

(Ireaio ;  icn  7'rt//oio,  otc 

H 

H' 

If' 

4 

firoun'l  plaitoruf  Tarb'.  »w  PUut.  0/  }'u     • 

V 

fium  tMmEolq,  or  llonjamtn 

80 

Guini,  Arabic,  Marbary,  ropal,  Kuat  Indl*. 

HonoKal,  iiibittitiito,  trnKi^canth,  and  all 

other  ^iinu  and  ruaina  in  a  erudo  atato  , . 

10 

K 

Free. 
20 

Frw. 

15 

10 

lf> 

<(Utla  porcha,  nnntaniifiictur(>d 

10 

4 

Hair,  luimaii,  I'lcanHcd  or  prepared  for  utie 

80 

14 

Hair  nf  all  klndn,  uui-k'ancd  and  unmaun- 

factiiri'd  .... 

10 

K 

Hair,  goata',  unniamifitcturod ;  aee  Angom^ 

Thibet^  and  other  OoaU  Hair 

10 

16 

Hair  of  the  alpaca,  the  goat,  and  other  like 

animal)*,  lu  certain  condition*;  aee  H'ooj 

10 

F'reo. 

Halt,  curled,  moari,  aca^wet'dfand  all  other 

vegetable  Hiibataocea  used  for  beds  or 

10 

ir« 

1  latr-cloth,  hair  aeattng,  and  all  other  man- 

ufacturea  of  hair  not  othcrwlae  provided 

for    

IS 

10 

Hatr,  hata,  etc.,  of;  aco  llatt  and  Bonneti 

80 
80 

"4 

14 

Hair  Mating ;  bcd  Ilair-cloth,  etc. 

15 

11) 

10 
80 

if> 

Hamesa  furniture ;  100  Coach  Furniture. . 

14 

HatR ;  lee  HaU  ami  Jionnetii,  etc 

80 

24 

HatA,  tl«ts,  bralda  fur  making ;  see  FlaU, 

etc 

80 
SO 

14 

Hat  bodten  of  cotton 

14 

Hata  and  t>«)nneta,  for  men,  womed,  and 

children,  compoHcd  of  straw,  latln-atraw. 

chip,  graHK,    palm-leaf,  willow,  or  any 

othtr  vegetable  snbHtance,  or  of  hair, 

whalebone,  or  other  material,  not  other- 

80 

14 

10 

16 

Hat  bodies,  made  of  wool,  or  of  which  wool 

iholl  be  a  component  material  of  chief 

10 

1.'> 

Hatters*  plush,  composed  of  lUk  aud  cot- 
ton, but  of  which  cotton  la  the  component 

SO 
80 

15 

Hearth  ruga:  aee  Carpttt 

14 

TAR 


«l. 

IIH 

('•■I. 

I'm  CmI. 

Hi 

10 

H 

io 

lA 

90 

VI) 

94 
15 
U 

SB 

W 

10 

1R 

80 

94 

80 

94 

00. 
IB 
10 

I'i 

■06. 

Kwo. 

40 

80 

«(1 
80 

80 

94 

80 

114 

lU 
10 

IV 

8 

ib 
v> 

4 


8 

IB 

II) 

4 

94 

K 

16 

Fmo. 

U. 


"4 
94 
1!) 

'n 

94 

94 
94 


94 

16 


IS 
91 


_W..'-F,„«.T„,^^,,,^ 


1813 


•  'llriM 


"""IM.  I"*  "fl  iim  i'Min 

..h,i,,«,«,um'i,,p";;7 

»(*/  A(*/fi«  , , ,    '  ,  ""■• '  "'"  Haw  //w, 

({"■•r ;,,, 

Ifca  a':,l,:"r';''"'''-::....i 
f:,,"'"; ' »- "-  ^''iUr^nri 

KhfUmiUf,  ,J  '  "•"  (lironuilf.  jii.l 


90 

Ift 

10 

90 

H 
8(1 


R 
80 


lis 

19 
8 

IB 

4 

94 

94 

4 

94 


TAU 


"X"  MalHni;,  ChlHa,\  '^' '''"''  j  '^"'"i' 


Kfip',;; 

,  '>".w".li.'''*"'"'<"""».urj.«i 

nniplrii,  

[Jin  .ulphiir. 

I  iJU  rt)i.,  


(mil. VC    ,  „r/""V'-"  ■ 

»f;r  iwl, ,  -Wi""'™,  ImllttHuw,  i^l 

.  fii'liil  IliM,"      '  ""   "'""■'  "'''"llu 
IimIIk  fMMi/.f,  0('(i.!(iim''.i:,'' 

ijiiMmiMif,,,.;,,,;!,,!  """•  •''""•. 
'•''•'"''•■■•c.  Midi.  „(■;;• 

3  »»  ""HI  (did  n,ri|  ,„„:■, 

lKW»,-'^'^^i:;;:;::::;: 


I'rw. 
90 
80 

90 

9n 
lit 

40 

80 
80 


1>W. 

IS 

94 

Itl 

80 

a4 

94 
94 


Mm, 


I.»r(( 

I  '.««llMir-','n,ri,i  .  


•lrlp« 
'  f.,i 


'■•'«'l,  nmmifaoiure,  of" •'  ll^'  u 

I     "/  //mw,  ,.|r        "  "'>  "M  f'inu/aeturr, 

Iki"!,  rlir.„ii«toof;';'oo'r 

1  T  "lii'eta 


IB 

10 

too 
w 

B 

90 

80 

90 

'fO 

B 

no 

9«    ! 
9A    I 

w 

9l> 
9» 


n 

90 
80 


iir  nliMt'i, 


vmiiln  ,. ,, 
jlyuWMillKHlH, 

iri'lfiini 


( •«<  *«»to;  /„rt„ 


vWwl  riir , ,  ''  ""'  "ilwrwljo  pro' 

te;*l'r,!^VSV/.m;;;:;;; 

Iron.  uJ.J,'  '!''>  "n  (lid  or  Mi-niu  »..„. 


10 

10 
80 

80 
80 

80 

■•I 

90    I 

eo   I 

10 
80 
80 

9n 

90 

90 
9il 


•'■»,nl.r«t,.of;  ',",  y, 


r,!''''"-".y'''»ii: 


8 
94 

24 

24 

24 

4 
4 

IR 
4 
4 

24 

24 

10 

]» 

IR 
TR 
IR 
IS 


I.fiiilrai.hot, 

I.inf,  K„|,i  „nj  ;j|-;  •  • 


«™  <.'oW  (ind"s/(re; 


(fW,  fMaiila 
ffun  , , 


iic  V.-7T  "'''y  "f-iw  a 


"/  Cnrt 


»™  Manii/nctHr'tHi 


te'iW;l!*'r"'"'"^'W'"i«;o,v;: 

'•i»)ji/t«  I  w„  i.u'^k' ihii^', ;;;;;; |    90 


80 
80 
80 

80 

80 
90 


\m  iii|ii! 

&'*"•''•'«  w**  ,//„„; ; ; ; ; 1     90 

'"w.  v"if«i»iii(./ «,;;;','';.'.'•■■■  •■ bo 


94 
24 
94 

24 

24 

IR 
]R 
IS 


'••nlluT,  mViliifaHurVH'  of-  '.VJ  ' « I 

■  f-PephpH '"' 

,  Pnlnioil,  or  .ly'ed      "  •"""hi.,!,  pri„,pj^ 
I-cmnniand  llmm.' 

'.No^u,pha.„o,;i,iir„,i„iVLi„'>^^;;i 

kirn's' i:u^';^'r?i«f^'*-^M;,>;,;.r; 

•"""•off  U„,|,    """"•■''■'"^.I'tf.. 

l.ln-vLi,„f||,     


80 
20 
20 
90 

to 

20 
90 

IB 

SO 

20 
20 
90 

90 
90 
80 

90 

20 

20 

90 

10 
80 
90 
10 
10 


ftr  I  nl 

19 
* 
M 
II 
4 

IB 

94 
4 
4 

4 

94 
It 
94 
IB 
IB 
IB 


4 
lA 
94 

94 

IR 
IS 
IB 

15 
IB 
IB 


34 
IB 
IB 
18 

IB 

Kreo, 

94 

IB 

24 

8 
IB 

8 
24 
8 
8 
8 


iLIn 


v)   ,.|-a 


"■*  ""'•1>-"»1  or  ,,in„„,\ 


Fivo. 
10 

.10 
90 
10 


,^!iS^^s:'^:'z"'i 


ftip^Wrt^;;;;;;;;:;;;;;:;;;;;:...... 


80 

80 

90 

B 

B 

90 

80 

20 
20 
10 


94 

24 

IS 

Frpp. 

4 

15 


80 
80 


10 

90 

'ree, 

95 


24 

15 

19 

8 

24 

24 
24 
15 

8 
15 
Free. 


10 


vi:,  lie.  ,.  '     ""•   "^  ''•«««/ 

'■IqueurH;  oce  Cmi'lal], «» 

. iqiior,  Iron  ;  „,,  /„,„  >;/■-• 100 

1.  corlo,.,  p„,t,.,  j„,      o/^^'"' 90 

,,^...o..,oV.i.,r;!^«tf,t;J!'!'---^ 

„fl»x and  nlnZS^  "'°  '""nufac.ure  of 

H£=o;-^-^--;. 

Maddra ;  goe  iri,,™ 

■Mapzlnes ;  ,«,  //oo<-» .' .' 

Malt .■;;■ 

"angani'so 90 

Maniin....        20 

Maniifartur'eV  of'ccd'nr"  wrUn  ",; " " ' '  i;.V  •         20 
••l"'ny,  niahoMov  r„V„       "j  BwiadHIa, 
wood  ^"''•''  f™'"-«'»od,  and  »atin- 

iiaaufactui^i'  of  jit  j  wo"  ./<;<' ;.;; ; I     ^ 


80 
49 


20 
B 
B 

40 

10 

40 


Free. 

4 

94 

16 

Frae. 

IB 
80 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 

4 

94 

94 

4 


8 
4 

Free. 

Free. 

SO 

8 

80 

8 
IB 
IB 
IB  . 


80 
94 


TAR 


1814 


TAR 


Uamii  ITAIM'  TAiirM-flMiHmwil. 


"ArBJCT" 


MuufkriimHi  i>r  ll)«  lark  nf  Ih*  n^k'trM, 
MFrpt  »irkt 

MuuntrliirM  uf  Ixmii,  •hi>ll,  hum,  pearl, 
Uorv,  or  vi^||i<ti\hli'  Ivory, 

MuiiinrHirM,  •rtli'liv,  rcMab,  aiid  warM, 


-far- 

p.r(<«;r 


out  otlu'rwUi'  provlilfd  for,  of  lirnii<i, 
,  ifotil,  Imn,  Ifftd,  BimUT,  pUiIni  . 
,ttii,  or<Hhi'r  nii-ial,  orof  whirli  Htliur 


.".'11; 


of  tliiMo  mt'taU  or  any  othi^r  iiU'tAJ  nhall 
be  llin  coinpfiiu'iU  iiiatorUl  of  rhU'f  valiiii 

ManufactnrMi  roiiiuo4*>il  wholly  of  <<otUm. 
bliarhccl,  priiiti'il,  palnli'il,  or  ilyi>(l 

MauufartiiriM  of  iiitton.  Iliivn,  tilllt,  wool, 
')T  worNtfd,  tf  i'iiil)rul(ii<rrr4  or  UmliuiinM 
Ui  tliu  lotini  or  *itlit>rwU4',  try  niat-hluury, 
or  will)  thit  noi'illo  or  uthitr  prucvM 

ilaaiiraeliirai,  artlrli'i,  vi^ucla,  ami  warca 
oflllaM,  <ir  iif  wlilrli  Klaaa  aliall  bv  a  com- 
fuiifut  luatitrlal,  not  otherwUo  pruvltled 


SfaitufActiiron  anil  artlrlna  of  li'atlwr,  or  of 
wtilrh  It'ntlit'r  aliall  Im  a  rmiipoiwul  part, 
not  uilicrwUd  prnvlilml  for 

^lallitfai'Mirra  ninl  artluica  of  iiiarl>li>,  mar- 
bli'  pavliiK  lllca,  |nil  all  otlx^r  niarbli< 
ninrc  advanciiil  In  niaiiitfartiiru  than  In 
alalx  or  hlorha  In  lh«  ninKli 

ilanufarturea  of  papt-r,  or  of  whirh  papvr 
la  a  f'oniimntMit  material,  not  otbnrwlae 
provhliid  fur 

ManufartiirM,  artklw,  and  wama  of  pa- 
ph-r-niarh  't 

.Manufaclnrca  of  w(nhI,  or  of  which  w(khI  la 
a  c«)nip(jnffnt  iwrt,  not  otherwla«  pn)vldiMl 
for 

.Vlanufarttirra  of  wool,  or  of  whIrh  wool 
■ball  Im*  thp  roinponi'iit  material  of  chief 
value,  not  otIierwU«  pruvliUd  for 

Manufartiirta  of  liair ;  am  Hatr-ebMh,  Hair 
Stalinii.  etc 

Manufarturra  of  fur ;  avu  Ca/Jt,  //aft,  Muf», 
anil  Tii>iMt§  i>f  f"iir,  etc 

Manufacttirea  compoacd  wholly  of  cotton, 
not  otluTwlM^  provided  for 

&lanufaeliire«  or  ifoata*  balr  or  mohair,  or 
of  whli'h  ({oAta'  hair  or  moliatr  aliall  bn  a 
eonipoueiit  material,  not  otherwlw  pru- 
rlded  for 

Manufacliirea  of  atlk,  or  of  which  allk  ahall 
bv  a  component  material,  not  othcrwiae 
provMM  fttr 

Maniifaetiirea  of  wonlud,  or  of  which  worat- 
ed  ahall  b«  a  nimiionent  mate-rial,  not 
otherwlao  provided  fur 

Manufactures  of  flax,  not  otherwlio  pro- 
Tldedfor 

Manufacturoa  of  hemp,  nut  othcrarlw  pro- 
vliled  fur 

Manufacturea  of  mobair  cloth,  allk  twlat,  or 
other  nianufactum  of  cloth  lultahlfl  fur 
the  inanufueluro  of  ahoea,  cut  In  illna  or 
patu-rna  of  ttio  aU.'  and  aliapo  fur  ilKjea, 
■llppem,  bo4ita,  laaiteea,  Knl^era,  or  bul- 
toni,  excluilvely,  nut  combluvd  with  In- 
dia rubber 

Manufacturea  of  laatlnKN  aiiltable  for  ahoca, 
boota,  boote('i<,  or  buttona,  cxclualvuly; 
aee  lAintinnii 

Manurea  nr  anbatanee.*  cxpreaaly  iiaed  for  . 

Mapa  and  rharla 

Manachlno ;  aeo  CordiUn 

Marble,  manufacturea  of ;  me  Xam^/aeturu 
tfMarUe 

Marble  paring  tile;  len  .tfuHi^/'acftirra  4^ 
Marblt 

Marble  In  the  ruugh  slab  or  block,  unman- 
ofacturod 

Marine  coral,  unmanufactured 

Marrow ;  ace  7V<f/uic,  Marrmr.  etc 

Matting,  China,  and  other  flour  matting 
and  mata,  made  uf  flaga.  Jute,  or  graaa. . 

Meal,  Indian  corn ;  lee  huiian  Corn 

Meata,  prepared ;  lee  Prtpared  Vtr/etabUa, 
tUaU,  etc 

Medala ;  ae«  raMncfa  <if  Coiivi,  etc. 

Medicinal  prcparatlona,  not  olherwiae  pro- 
Tldedfor 

Medldnal  druga,  roota,  and  leavea,  In  a 
erudo  state,  not  otherwUu  provided  for, 

Mercurial  preparntlons  ;  tee  Calmul  ,,. 

Metal  embrolderiea ;  ne  Articlet  embroid- 
tnd 

Hetab,  manufacturea  of ;  aec  ilttimfacturtt 
of  DroM.  etc 

Metah,  alWer  pUted;  tee  Silver-plated 
Mttal* 


SO 
10 


to 

DO 

(0 

BO 
80 

80 

00 
BO 


10 

100 

80 

80 

80 
211 
10 

as 


40 
Free. 


20 

as 


so 

80 


nwr~ 

■BrlW 
M 
B4 


B4 

14 

S4 

«4 
14 

14 

34 
14 

14 


SO 

34 

28 

19 

80 

14 

35 

IB 

15 

19 

16 

19 

36 

19 

10 

18 

80 

16 

4 

Free, 

l>ee. 

80 

14 

14 

16 
16 
8 

19 
18 

80 
Free. 

S4 

IS 
Vi 

34 

14 

34 


rMmm  ItraTia'  TainTt-f^MMniMrf, 


AMfeUa. 


Matal,  llulrh  and  kronae,  hi  i"f . 


,Metala,unmanuflicterml,ae.otliaffwlaa  pro- 
vided fop 


Metal,  type;  tea  TiifM  IhUl 

Mi-tallle  pena 

.Mineral  watera 

Mineral  anil  bltiimlnnua  aubalaneaa,  la  a 

rniile  atate,  not  otbarwlsa  proTldad  ftjf. 

Mineral  ki-l men 

Mineral^;  aee .VpartmaiMitr.Viiti'rnl Itiaturn 
MIU  inioli'  Mu  frames  |  aaa  Vapt,  UtmiD,  etc, 
Mils  nuilo  on  frainea,  when  wholly  of  col. 

ton  ;  aee  i'ttvn.  fjiiiem,  ale.  

—when  bk'aelied,  printeil,  painted,  or  dyad 
.Models  of  Inventloua  aiiil  other  improve. 

meiila  In  the  aria,  urovhted  lliat  iiu  artl. 

rie  ur  artlclea  aliall  ne  deeniml  a  modrl  nr 

Impntvement  which  can  lie  rttled  for  use 
Mohair  and  allk  Iwlat;  are  Silk  Tlilnl,  eti   { 
Muhalr,  mauufactiin>a  of;  aiw  Miitni/itfttirnt 

<\f  ihfatif  iiuir^  etc 

Molaaaes 

Mordant,  patent;  see  /\i(«ii(  MordaHl  .... 
Moaaira,  real  and  Imitations,  when  ant;  see 

fntnaoa,  etc 

Mosaics,  nut  set ;  see  rrtfneoa,  etc.,  ntit  art. 
.Mosaics,  ImltatioiiM  of,  not  set ;  see  Oiti- 

itiomlM,  etc.,  not  Hft 

Mosa  for  iieila  01  mattreasua ;  see  //iiir,rt<r(- 

n/.etc 

Moulds,  button;  see  HutUm  aiul  llutlon 

MouUi 

Muffs ;  see  rn}M.  UttUi,  Mttifn,  elc 

Muriatic  acid  ;  S4*e  AtriiU^  aretir^  vte 

Mualral    Inslrumeuta    of   all    kinda,  and 

strings  formiialcal  Instruments,  of  whip- 

gut,  entgiil,  and  all  other  strings  of  the 

same  material 

Muaie,  printed  with  lines,  bound  or  un- 
bound   

Muskets,  rides,  and  other  flre-arras 

Nails,  copper ;  see  Copptr  Jlmit,  etc 

Natron 

Natural  history,  specimens  of;  see  Spiii- 

films,  etc 

Neat'S'foot  oil ;  si«e  (hU,  Xrat»'/oot,  etc. . . 
Needles  of  all  kinds,  for  sowlug,  darning, 

or  knitting 

Newspapera,  llluatrated ;  aee  Hook;  els.  . , 

Nickel 

Nitrate  of  lead 

Nitrate  of  soda,  refined,  ate. ;  see  SaUpttrt, 

rtfliml,  etc. ' 

Nitrate  of  soda,  when  crude;  see  tidUpttrt, 

trhtii  crvde 

Nitric  add ;  see  iici'da,  ucefotis,  etc 

Nutmegs 

Nuts,  not  otherwise  provided  for 

Nuta,  cocoa ;  seo  Coeon-nufa 

Nuts  used  exclusively  In  dyeing,  etc. ;  set 

Btrrif.  SuU,  etc. 

Nuts,  Ivory;  see  Ivory Suli 

Nut-galls 

N ux  vomica 

(lakum 

(lata  and  oatmeal 

Ochres  and  ochrey  cartha 

Oll-elolh  of  every  description,  of  whatever 

material  comtxiecd 

OUa,  volatile,  essential,  or  cxprcaaod,  and 

not  othcrwiae  provided  for 

Oil,  outer ;  see  Ciulttr  Oil 

Oil,  spermaceti,  wbale,  and  other  flah,  of 

American  fisheries,  and  all  other  articles 

the  produce  of  alicli  flahcrles 

Oils,  hemp-seed,  llnsecil,  rape-seed,  and  all 

Diner  oUa  used  In  painting;  aee  lltmp- 

mtd  Oil.  tic 

Oils,  neat's- foot,   and  other  animal  oil, 

ipemiacotl,  whale,  and  other  flsh  oil,  Ibe 

produce  of  foreign  fiaherb's 

Oils,  palm,  seal,  and  cocoa-uut 

Oil  of^vltriol;  see  Sulphuric  Acid 

Old  or  scrap  Iron  ;  siw  Iron.  oUl.  etc  , , 
Old  pewter ;  see  Prvier.  when  oUI,  etc.. 
Ollvcoll  In  casks,  o>,lier  than  salad  oil . 
Olive  salad  oil,  and  all  other  oUve-oU,  not 

otberwtae  provided  for 

OU.ca , 

Opium 

Oranges,  lemons,  and  limes 

Orange  and  lemon  peel 

<  iricans  ;  sec  Anatto 

( imamental  feathers  or  flovem ;  see  Fitith- 

trtt 

Orplment 


'iwr 

FsrTial 

m 

to 
10 
10 
m 

10 

18 

Free. 


30 


Fnw, 

If) 

in 
lit 
iw 

m 
10 


10 

38 

80 
W 


80 
80 


Psrwa: 

18 


u 

1* 

nm, 
U 

IS 

84 


Vtm, 
84 

It 
84 

10 

14 

4 


15 

It 

34 

4 


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10 

4 

80 

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11) 

IB 

10 

• 

Free. 

I'rea, 

10 

IB 

W 

IB 

10 

8 

8 

4 

M 

IB 

10 

8 

8 

4 

to 

IB 

40 

4 

80 

14 

to 

4 

8 

Free, 

6 

4 

8 

Vtik. 

10 

t 

Free. 

Free. 

10 

18 

34 


80 

34 

80 

18 

e«. 

Frc*. 

10 

lb 

M 

18 

10 

4 

10 

4 

so 

34 

8 

4 

80 

34 

to 

34 

HO 

34 

10 

18 

10 

■i 

to 

18 

10 

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80 

84 

10 

8 

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110 

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110 

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110 

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84 

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•M;;;.r^wl,,.,,.p„p„.i,i;.i^j^_.. 


"I'Ulimrv..      


•  Mil,,-.  ,„  ^i,,;""''' ■  

,';  "'  '•'•''j  ""'n«niif,Vi;,r;;i 

<^^::!!^':X7/'"^f '■■■■:■::: 
;»p"i-  H.r,.(;,^, '" """"  '•I'T  iK.,«,. . 

''«|iiT  (uriKlii^,  "  ■ 

''oriUmimi 

I'»r««„|,  fruiii'i.i' ^'itiikl;, • '. :; 

'"■  KIM, ,  """"  '•" !  «"o  f'miiiM 

;"7;':';,"'"'  '''".'Uti^::::: 

??i',::&'"'^-'  • : 

j'livlliK  ,(„li,.,.'. 1 

;*«'  "!■  Illlll,.,!  h,Vl..y       

I'uMfl.  Ii..i...i^  '*i««,  «(c,  not  net 

il,iti„l  .™   '•  *"■•  "«"n'i"/i,  Mi-m/ 
I'Mfj,  Iri.rljit.'r  uf.' .' 

„  '<ri»«  nCi    '"" "'""' '-"'««'  stHU.., 

ir«iH;,S,'Jr''"''''»"''''''»«>yio'bo«;,;ii: 

{;|h«-(ii,p(m' ;:;;;;: 

{,j|;;.Wi,,«,,.^->V— vti: , 


TAR 


10 


Free. 
I  Free. 

24 


24 


['Unuiii,.  .       

«J,.u„d''"'''''''''"pi'.i.,,f(i;«.,;'ii; 
'■/'"i/T.!!:' '■''"'' '"^■•^'-ry-vi.i./l 

■  all,,  ivrii..  II  ,■  ',Tt,'""AV  lial-. . 
""•  '/V«  ki  "•;  m;.v  '  '>"lt«lv«nlin|  j 
<"■  /V-i/,;,.  "'""""Ill  i  wiu  Kniflvti^, 

"»ll"«,  MUliiufMrliir™  .  /       "  ■.; 

I 'i«  vin"j  "'"i'»n»f"'''ii.M : : 

'  taylnu  c«ru«  . . . . 

I  iiimljiigi) 

I'liinn " , 

I'liwh,  lmiior«''j ',,;,' //,i<w •»••;• 

'■""«hinK,r,";„r  '"'■"""•  •■"■•■  • 

|;;;;™i.iuKi.,.;,„„,;,— — ,^;,; 

I  l'»rt-»ln,.,  1  m.„  il-'/wM 

•;"t«Mliim Z  '     "  "■"''' 

iTwIoii.  .ton™,  iiut  net ;  ,«)  '     L  " 

I'rimen 

l'ru««Uiil)lii'ii'..  

''unilcc.stouo  . . . 
I'limpkliu  ... 
I'littv " 

qIi'i"?.'""'  '■  '™  *'"^*'  ^''''"«-  '••'•■ 

ulh",.  ^"'!'!Z  !""'"'"'■  •"""'*  *«'■ 

l;«|>e.«.(<(l ;  i™  Henm-'mj'. '. 

I«piNscod  oil;  »,.o  llfrnp-mid,  Klt'ilil 

n«w  .Ilk  i  ,ee  .Wt,  mii;  'oVii'.wwV;- 
"«r  (wooH,  etc.  .AAom 

i^aT^  "'"'  .",'■'"«  "'■'''»  ii"  Ji- .' '. '.  ■ 

licil-chalk  penclla  

IicdH!halk 

Itod-lMd;  .eo  fhi'l'e'i^ia'lM'Liid::'' 
IS'  """""f'ctured;  boo  Ratmi  itc 

,  lllm  or  iMddy .....".'."" 

I  Kiflca  J  see ilfiiketa.,',',',',\",\\\ 


"i'~-nar- 


Fn*. 


IB 


80 


IB 


10 


# 


f' 


TAR 

ITxiTKn  Statbi'  TABim— CVnMnunf. 


1816  TAR 

United  Btatks'  TABirrn— Conti'iiH^}. 


KlngleU  of  bnir ;  nee  BtomUIm 

RcdD,  iron ;  »ee  Iran  in  Barn,  He. 

Hodi,  copper ;  sec  Copr^  r  Jiodii^  etc 

lloll  brlnmtone 

Itonun  vitrica  ,  ace  Blue  or  Aonioii  Vitriol 

Koinan  crmont ^ 

KooflliK  »lRtn»,  etr. 

KoofliiK  tllcn ;  »cc  /Vti'fiij;  and  Ilooflm,  etc. 

Root,  iris  or  orris ;  see  inn  or  Orrii  Hi,iil. . 

Root,  licorice ;  Hoe  Lieorift  PttntP,  etc 

Roote,  rariiicinnl :  kcb  Medirinal  Drugs,  etc. 

Root,  madder ;  we  Madirr  Hoot 

Roots  lued  exclusively  in  dicing ;  see  Her- 
n«,  Xtila,  etc 

Rote-wood,  nunnfsctiircs  of;  see  Manii/ac- 
turiH  0/  Cedar-uroofi,  etc 

Ro9d-wood,  iinmanufHctured;  see  Woodn . . 

Rotten-stone 

Roncou ;  s i^n  A  natio 

Rough  raarhlc ;  sec  Marble  in  th»  rough. . . 

Rubies  and  imitations,  wlien  set ;  see  Dia- 
numds,  etc 

Rubies,  not  set :  see  Oinwos,  etc.,  not  fiet. . 

Rubies,  Imitations  thereof,  not  set ;  sec  IHa- 
motids,  etc.,  imitatiotu  thereof,  not  net. . 

Rngs;  see  Carpett 

Rye  and  rye  flour 

Baddlciy  of  nil  kinds,  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for 

Saddlery,  common  tinned  or  Japanned 

SalHower 

HafTron  and  saffron  cake 

Sago. 


Salad  nil ;  see  OIiM  Salad  Oil 

Sal  ammonia 

Salmon,  preserved 

Sal  soda,  and  all  carlwnatcs  of  soda  by 

whatever  name  designated,  not  otherwise 

provided  for 

Halted  ilsh ;  see  Fit^,  foreign,  etc 

Saltpetre,  or  nitrate  of  soda  or  potash,  when 

refined  or  partially  refined 

Saltpetre,  or  nitrate  of  soda  or  potash,  when 

crude 

Salts,  Kpsom,  Ulnuber,  Hochene,  and  nil 

other  salts  and  preparations  of  salts,  not 

otherwIsQ  prnvidod  for 

Sardines :  .<oe  Aiuhoviee 

Satsaparilln 

Satin-wood,  mhoufactui-es  of;  see  Manu- 

fttcturen  of  Cedar'trood,  etc 

Satiu-wood,  immanufftcturod ;  see  If'oorfs. . 
t'atin  straw  Imts,  bonnets,  etc. ;  see  llatM, 

BoiwetM,  etc 

Sauces ;  see  Capere 

Saxony  carpeting  :  sec  COrpett 

Scagllola  tojts  for  tables,  or  other  articles  of 

furniture 

Snantling ;  see  lloardn,  etc 

Scrap  iron  ;  see  7roH,  old  or  nera^t 

Sculpture,  specimens  of;  see  J^tlosojihical 

Af}piratiui,  etc 

Seallug-wnx 

Seatlag,  hnir ;  see  Hair-cloth 

Sea-weed  for  lieds,  mattresses,  etc. ;  sec 

Hair,  curletl,  etc 

Hewls ;  see  Garden  Seeds,  etc 

Seeds,  hi  -np-seed,  rape-seed ;  see  Hemp- 

need 

Scedlac 

Segars,  snufT,  paper  segars,  and  all  other 

manufactures  of  tnlmcco 

Senegal  gum ;  tee  (>'«ni  Arabic,  etc 

Scppla 

f^w'lng  silk.  In  the  gum  or  purified 

Sewing  needles ;  see  XeedUm  of  all  kinda , . 

Shaddocks 

Shear  cteel  -,  see  Steel  in  Bart 

Shekthing  paper 

Sheathing  copiier,  .lut  no  copiier  to  bo  con 

tidcred  such,  ond  admitted  free,  except 

In  sheets  of  forty-eight  Indies  long  and 

fourteen  inchra  wide,  and  weighing  iVom 

fourteen  to  thirty-four  ounces  the  stiuare 

foot 

Sheathing  metal,  not  wholly  or  In  part  of 

iron,  ungalvanlxcd 

Sheathing  felt :  se<i  Felt,  ^hetdve,  etc.  . . . 
Sheep's  wool,  on  certai.'  conditions  ;   see 

Wool 

Sheets,  s'lver- plated  metal;   sis  .S'f/iwr- 

plaledMe'al 

Sheets,  cooper ;  see  Caliper  In  Sheetf 

Sheets,  IndU  rublier;  ice  India  Ituhbcr, 

•tc 

HbMto,  lMt,i;  MO  Leadin  Hgt,  etc 


IS4>. 

I8». 

Per  Cf  nl. 

Psr  t-snt. 

80 

24 

SO 

24 

80 

15 

SO 

IB 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

26 

IB 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

B 

Free. 

5 

Free. 

40 

80 

20 

8 

io 

8 

10 

4 

20 

15 

SO 

24 

10 

4 

10 

8 

80 

24 

20 

IB 

SO 

24 

20 

15 

6 

Free. 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

SO 

24 

10 

8 

80 

24 

20 

8 

20 

15 

10 

8 

5 

4 

20 

15 

40 

an 

20 

15 

40 

so 

21) 

8 

30 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

40 

80 

20 

15 

30 

24 

Free. 

Free. 

OT 

24 

25 

19 

20 

15 

Free. 

Free. 

10 

8 

B 

4 

40 

30 

10 

8 

20 

15 

80 

24 

20 

15 

80 

8 

18 

12 

20 

IB 

Free. 

Free. 

Free. 

Free 

Free. 

Free 

BO 

Free. 

80 

24 

20 

IB 

10 

4 

to 

15 

AiUcIm. 


1844.      I      lUI. 


Sheets,  tin ;  see  Tin  in  I'lalCH  or  Shteta. . . 
Sheets,  tine,  spelter,  or  leutencgiio;  sec 

Zinc,  etc. 

Shell,  manufactures  of;  too  Manufartures 

<{f  Bone,  etc 

Shells  of  cocoa ;  see  Cocon  Shell* .... 

Shell  boxes ;  sec  Card-eaaen,  etc. 

Shells,  unmanufactured ;  see  TbrtofM  and 

other  .'■ihelU 

Shellac 

Sherry ;  see  Wine» 

Shingle  bolts  and  stave  bolts 

.shirts  made  on  fram^ ;  tee  Capa,  Qlovfa, 

etc 

.Shirts  made  on  frames.  If  wholly  of  cotion; 

see  Cai:a.  (Uore^,  etc 

—when  i>lcached,  printed,  painted,  or  lycd 
Shoes  composed  wholly  of  India  rubber  ... 

Shoddy ;  see  irns^c,  or  Shoddy 

Shot,  leaden :  see  Leaden  Shot 

Shmbs ;  see  Treea,  Shmhtt,  etc 

Side  arms  of  every  description 

Singles,  silk ;  sec  Silk,  raw,  nut  moi  e  wl- 

vnnced,  etc 

Silk,  nr- -.ufactures  of,  if  embroidt-rv'd ;  sec 

Mamtfacturea  of  Cotton,  Linen,  Silk,  etc. 

Silk  twist,  and  twist  composed  of  mohair 

and  silk 

Silk,  sewing,  nuriflr  J ;  see  Saving  Silk . . . 
Silk,  sewing,  in  the  gum ;  sea  Seieing  Silk 

Silks,  floss ;  see  Floaa  Silka 

Silk,  manufactures  of;  sec  Mamifaclurea 

ofS,!k 

Silk  and  cotton  halters'  plush ;  see  llattera' 

Plual, 

Silk  and  cotton  velvet  In  the  piece,  cotton 
chief  value ;  see  Velvet  compoaed  of  Cot- 
ton and  Silk 

Silk,  raw,  not  more  advanced  In  manufac 
ture  than  singles,  tram,  and  thrown,  or 

organsine  

Silk,  raw,  or  as  reeled  from  tho  cocoon,  not 
being  doubled,  twisted,  or  advanced  in 

manufacture  In  any  way 

Silk  twist,  suitable  for  the  manufacture  ex 
clusively  of  shoes,  cut  in  slips  or  patterns 
of  the  sIko  and  shape  for  shoes,  Itoots, 
bootees,  or  buttons,  slippers,  and  getters, 
not  combined  with  India  rubber  ;   sec 

Manufacturea  of  Mohair  Cloth,  etc 

Silver  embroideries;  see  Articlea  embroid- 
ered, etc .' 

Silver,  manufactures  of;  see  Mamtfacturea 

of  Braaa,  etc 

Silver-plated  metal,  in  sheets  or  ether  form 
Silver  leaf;  see  Gold  and  Sileer  Leaf. 

Sliver  coin ;  see  Coina 

Sisal  grass ;  see  Jute,  etc 

Sktus,  flsh  ;  see  Flah  Skim 

Skins,  furs  dressed  on  ;  see  Fura  dreaaed  on 

,Skin 

Skins,  gold-beatiTs' ;  see  Gold-beatera  Skina 

Skins  of  all  kinds,  japanned 

Skins,  tanned  and  dressed,  of  all  kinds. .. 
Skins,  raw,  of  all  kUids;  see  Baw  llidea 

and  Skina,  etc 

Skins  of  all  kinds,  not  otherwise  provided 

for 

Slabs,  iron  ;  see  Iron  in  Bara,  etc 

Slals",  marble ;  see  Marble  In  the  rough. , . . 
Slabs  of  Indlii  rubber,  unmanufactured  . . . 

Slates,  roofing ;  see  Footing  Slatea 

Slates  other  than  roofing;    see  Roofing 

Slatea,  etc 

Slate  pencils 

Smalts 

Smoked  flsh ;  see  Fish,  foretijn,  etc. 

SnufT;  see  Segara,  Snif,  etc' 

Soap,  Castile,  perfumed,  Windsor,  and  all 

other  kinds 

Soap  stocks  and'Cinffs ;  «p  ■  ThI.'"':; 

Socks  made  on  frames ;  see  Capa,  Olovea, 

etc ". 

Socks  made  on  frames,  wholly  of  cotton ; 
see  Capa.  Glovea,  etc.,  made  on  fAtmca, 

ichollji  of  Cotton 

—when  bleached,  printed,  painted,  or  dyed 

Soda,  sal ;  see  Sal  .Soda 

Soda,  cartMinatc-  of ;  see  ,Sal  Soda. . 
Sods,  nitrate  of,  refined,  etc. ;  see  .Saltpe- 
tre, refined 

Soda,  nitrate  of,  when  crude ;  see  Saltpetre, 

crude 

Soda  ash 

Sole  leather ;  see  Leather,  tanned,  etc. . . . 
Sonvenlra ;  lee  Card-caw* 


I'ur  C'rnl. 
15 


IB 


10 
30 

B 
5 
40 


to 

20 
20 
JO 
5 
20 

80 

IB 

30 

80 
30 
80 
26 

25 

20 


20 


16 


80 

30 
SO 
16 
Free. 
26 
20 

20 
10 
26 
20 


20 
30 
20 
10 
26 

25 
20 
20 
20 
40 

30 
10 


20 
20 
20 
20 

10 

R 
10 
20 
80 


Pir  Cast. 
8 

18  ■ 

24 

4 

24 

4 

4 

80 

Free. 

24 

16 
24 
24 
4 
15 
Free. 
24 

12 

24 

24 
24 
84 
19 

10 

16 

IB 

12 

Free. 


24 

24 
24 
13 
Free. 
10 
IB 

15 
8 
19 
16 


15 
24 
16 

4 
19 

19 
15 
IB 
16 
30 

24 

8 

24 


15 
24 

8 
8 


4 
4 

15 
84 


12 

24 

4 

24 

4 

4 

30 

Free. 

24 

16 
24 
24 
4 
15 
Free. 
24 

13 

24 

24 
H 
24 
19 


16 


12 
Free. 


24 
24 
13 

Free. 
19 
16 


15 

24 
S 

a 


4 
4 

16 


TAR 


Spsra ;  aeo  Bourdu,  Hani:  Vt'..' 

f  pernmcetl  ol ,  foro  ™  •  ../j'*''?' 


wir 


I'mtro  SiATM"  Ta 


BiFrg-rciiiSlrMarf. 


80 
80 


Free. 

Free. 
16 


80 
15 

24 

24 

Friio. 

Free. 
12 


'  I«  onrrnndi,,...       

,„  l<rovl,Io,l  tor           '^  '^""'^  ■""  "therwl, 
Tarinnd  leailn    


Free. 
20 


Spirit,  of  turpentiuo. .  "  ^: " 

sponges  . , , .  * 

Spunk " 


20 
2u 


Spunk, 
Squills. . 

Sturoh I       3Q 

20 
80 


Ko'^p'^'p'-r'"^''"'-''-"-;' 

K±,;S!sS-'-;<^.:::...., 

rif  i.Kj^^f  n>««„  ■  •  •  • 


Stlll-bottoms . 
Stockings    made 


Free. 

16 

16 

4 

16 

»0 

80 

4 

16 

8 

16 

16 

24 

Hi 

24 
Fri'f.. 

16 
Free. 

16 

12  I 
16  1 
24 


r^^n^Si^'iili'norn^-aVniJ 

Tar....  

Tartar;  SX;"  i-^Jf »' "/  J^^^ 
1  «««el«  of  K„l,|'  !n „„'''"'"  •  .• 

';™»fe!''»™">'p-iuc.i™;™ 


10 
20 


20 


8 
IS 


IS 


aiul] 


20 

20 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
6 

30 

Free. 

6 

16 

10 


I  T..i..„  i'"*  ".'  i"at(^»  or  Hlii>et.j  ' 


"n   framea'. 


-S^:^.^"o?^;- 


^'f'i'tf.j 


.10 
20 


80 


Stoekln^,w,,e„t,oac,.ed;p;,;;;.i;i-,-i;.i; 

!«":'-K'r'"^'-'''^V«e;.*;„™;i;     20 


20 


tonos^^burr.  "n.naaufacUmid  ;  Z /;„rr| 
stone  fotteiT:  'Jn V„«"'',-"""' 

Sugar  of  all  iinj], 

S>'!pI.ur;ir„„r'„fr°"'r.rltriol 


30 


10 
20 
10 


24 
16 


24 


16 
24 


24 


I  In.  nmiiiifiir.!. ......    ^_ 


S 
16 

8 


10  I  Free. 

30  I       24 

1»  H 

10  s 

1"  I          8 


''.5!utv,;it';r'''''"'"''«"'™»i'«virn 

;i  In  In  pigK,  liarn,  or  iVi.Vi;: 

I Inneil  «,(ldl,rv •  ...n  iv^ y /; 


'npi>ot«  ofci 


^''"  /iahatntt. , 


J~rsfr''S°--.V"«.i:;: 


milrni, 

>  Trf< 


80 
20 
20 

10 
80 
80 


24 

24 


«««,  raw,  not  viore  Hd- 

piriiH  of;  „,„  4)>i-,v>;-^;  j^ -I     s 


20 
20 


80 

16 
6 
20 
28 
80 

m 

40 

30 

r> 
!.-> 

!I0 

in 


Free. 

15 

16 
16 
16 
15 
4 
4 
Free. 

24 

Free. 
4 

8 
Free. 

19 


16 
16 


24 


24 


Free. 

16 

4 

24 

24 

SO 

24 

4 

12 

24 


Froo. 


Sumac. ..      '        '"^  ^'''^Aw. ...... . , 

Snn.«l,ad™".'  i™  '/Vrii;;.'  :.••.;  ■^:.  ■• ' :  ■  '■'■  '■  '■ 


Sun-shadee,   f: 


-}^^%t^'''^^' 


in 

20 
20 
20 
20 

In 
20 
2il 

<*  I 

80 


franiai  and  vi,a.    ,"'  "''ei;«   lor;    -...I 

„yr  ,  Tm'^ra^l^  ".'."  ."."'  "f  India  rui,:|       "^ 
cWyji^i.' .■.';.■' 


Sweetmeata;  seo 


24 
24 

Free, 

16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
4 

16. 

4 

4 

24 

U    I 

24     I 
80 


;  fleo  FmiHftt. . 


luriHMiiIni 
I     imufne  . . . 

Tiirii,.,  gr,,,,„  ;■;;.,■,■«;.;,;,;;.);•;, 

l^'fln^nndpndMlirpail  <,r<!t  .,' 

'  '''»l«l,  Milk,  or  « 

I ,    '"uL',.......  .■"  """  "'"""in  Hou  ,Vi(t| 

I  '!'yr"<  ini'tiii ,,', 

'Pviici-,  new  or  old 

I  1  inhrcllaH  .  

!|',','nr!'"n™""'"'""'''"l'l^'i"' 
I  PporleatliiT. 

j  Vanilla  Imiin  . .     

>eg,.,,u,,o    ,..,u„„„^,^    „„„.a„„Sircdi 


20 
20 


30 
20 
20 
80 
SO 
20 


25 
SO 
SO 


IS 

Free. 

24 
IB 
24 
24 
4 

16 
16 

24 

24 
15 
16 
24 
24 
16 
16 

24 
4 

SO 

24 

19 

is 

U 


'  -  f-s  r 


TAB 

TlmnD  BTATn.'  TAEirr»— ConMniud. 


1818 


TAS 


ArtlclM. 


VegeUblcfl  uied  excliufvoly  in  dyeing ;  seo 
BerrieSj  Ifuts 

Vellnro 

Velvet  iu  the  pieoCf  c^mpcMod  wholly  of 
ootton 

Velvet,  when  bleached,  printed,  painted,  or 
dyed. 

Velvet  in  tlie  piece,  compoHud  of  cotton  and 
ellk,  but  of  which  ootton  i«  Uic  compo- 
nent nia^rlal  of  chief  value 

Venetian  rarpetiu^; ;  aeo  Carpets 

Verdigri:) 

Vermlcclii ;  see  Macaroni 

Vermilion 

Veasela  of  cafit  iron ;  ticu  Iroti^  m«f,  etc . . . 

VeoAeU  of  metal ;  see  Alanu/acturea  of 
Brass,  etc, 

VeMcIa  of  gluKH ;  ikh'  Mami/dctures  of  Glasn 

Vinegar , 

Vitriol,  green ;  «i!o  Cmtperas , 

Vitriol,  white;  hco  White  Vittiot^  or  Svi- 
vhate  0/  Zinc , 

Vitriol,  oil  of;  gi-e  iivJphuric  Aeid. ..... 

A'olatile  oil ;  hcu  OUSt  volatiUy  etc 

AVafew 

"Wares  composed  of  earthy  and  mineral 
subftcauce«,  not  othurwiHo  provided  for ; 
Bee  ISarihtn,  etc 

■\Vare8,  Jupunncd  ;  Mt-e  Japanned  Wcares. . . 

AVares  of  metal;  Hctt  Mann/aetures  of 
BrasSt  etc 

Waren  of  glanH;  i>eo  Mani{f(U'tun^s  of  Glass 

W'arcA  of  papier-niacli'j ;  eee  Mam^facturcs 
of  J^pier-maelie , 

AVarefl,  plated  and  gilt;  bi-u  Plated  aivi 
out  WarfH , 

AVaatu,  or  eVoddy 

"Watcheii,  crystals  for;  see  Glwm  Criistals 
fifr  Watchfs 

Watches  and  parts  of  watchtw 

Vatch  nmtenuld  and  uiiflni><tied  purt^  of 
wafchefl 

'NVaterg,  mineral ;  aee  Mineral  Waters 

Water  colord 

Wax  iH'add ;  see  ileaila 

Wax,  t>ealiiig ;  bl*  Svaling-tcax 

Wax,  Imh'«'  ;  fee  lieestrax 

Wax  rniidlt-H  and  tapura 

Wearint?  apparel ;  mh!  dothimj,  readu-made 

Wearing  appurcl  In  actual  Utic,  and  other 
porHonal  enectfl  not  mcrcliandlHe,  profea- 
Hional  bookt>,  implemem  ,  inatrumentD, 
and  toolit  of  trade,  occupation,  ur  em- 
ployment, of  iH-'rAoui)  arriving  in  the  t. 
Statef ,  provided  tliat  thin  exemption  Hhall 
not  hv  construed  to  include  iimchinery  or 
other  articles  imported  for  nao  In  any 
manufacturing  of  tablbiliment,  or  for  Bate 

Webbing,  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of 
India  rubber ;  see  Braces 

Weld 

Whalelione  basketa  ;  nee  Bankets 

Whalebone,  the  produce  of  foreign  fljlicricH 


P.r  C'tnt. 

p.r  cm 

6 

Kree. 

80 

24 

20 

16 

20 

24 

20 

15 

80 

24 

20 

15 

SO 

24 

20 

16 

80 

24 

80 

24 

SO 

24 

80 

24 

20 

18 

20 

12 

10 

4 

80 

•34 

80 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

SO 

24 

ti 

4 

80 

24 

10 

8 

10 

4 

80 

24 

30 

24 

80 

24 

80 

24 

20 

15 

20 

15 

30 

24 

Free 


5 
80 
20 


Free. 
U 
15 


United  Statm*  TAnirr^—Continutd, 


Arttelei 


Whalebone  hata  and  bonnets ;  eee  Hatsand 

Bonnets 

Whale  oil,  foreign ;  see  CWte,  Neat*s-foot,  etc 
Whale  oil  of  American  fiahcrieB ;  see  OilSt 

Wermaceti,  etc 

Wheat  and  wheat  flour 

White  acid ;  aeo  Acids,  acetic,  etc 

^Vbito  and  red  lead 

White,  I'aria ;  eee  Whitimj,  or  I'aris  Whit* 

White  vitriol,  or  (>ulphate  of  iluo 

Whiting,  or  Taris  white 

Willow  batketj) ;  aeo  Baskets 

Willow  hata  and  bonnota ;  ace  Hats  and 

Bonnettt  qf  Slratv,  etc 

Willow  HQuartia  for  Uaia  and  bonnota ;  see 

Flats 

Willow  prepared  for  baaket-makoni*  uae; 

Bcc  Obier  and  Willotc 

Wilton  carpeting ;  see  Caipets 

Window  glrtH(>,  broad,  crowia,  or  cylinder. . 

Windsor  aoap ;  see  A'ortj* , 

WinoA,  Ihirgnncfy,  Cliampagne,  claret,  Ma 

deira,  port,  sherry,  and  all  other  wlueB 

and  imittitiona  of  wiuea ." 

Wiugt)  of  gold,  Bilver,  metal ;  see  Epaulets 

Woad  or  paatel 

Wood,  nianufacturet)  of;  aee  Manufactures 

of  Wood 

Wood,  unmanufactured,  not  otbcrwlse  pro' 

vided  for 

Wood,  fire ;  wee  PtrC'icootl 

Woods,  cedar,  granadllta,  ebony,  roahoga* 

ny,  rose -wood,  and  aalin-wood,  when 

manufactured • 

Woods,  namely,  -  edar,  box,  elwny,  lignum- 

vttft>,  granadil    ,  mahogany,  rose-wood, 

Batln-svoi)d,  anu  \ll  other  cabinet  woods, 

unnmuufactur«:_ 

Wooda,  dye,  extracts  or  decoctions  of;  see 

Extracts  and  Decoctions 

Woods,  dye ;  aee  Brazil-icood,  and  all  other 

Dye-ivoods  in  Sticks 

Wool,  manufactures  of;  flee  Manufactures 

of  Wool,  etc 

Wool,  unmanufactured,  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided fur 

Wool  costing  20  cents  or  less  per  pound  . . . 

Woolen  and  worsted  yam ". 

Wool  hata ;  aee  Hats  of  Wool 

Wool  hat  tK)di»s ;  see  Hat  Bodies  of  Wool. 

Woolen  listingB 

Worsted  manufactures ;  ace  Manufactures 

of  Worsted ■ 

Worka,  foreign.  In  course  of  republication ; 

see  Periodicals 

Yams 

Yam,  woolen  and  worsted ;  nee  Woolen  and 

Worsted  Vam 

Yellow  acid ;  see  Acids^  acetic,  etc. 

Zinc,  sulphate  of;  see  Whita  Vitriol 

Zinc,  spelter  or  teutenegue.  In  sheets 

Zinc,  spelter,  or  teutenegue,  unmnnufac- 

tured f 


far  Cnt. 

P<r lent 

BO 

84 

80 

10 

Free. 

Free. 

20 

15 

80 

4 

20 

IS 

20 

IB 

20 

15 

20 

16 

SO 

24 

SO 

24 

80 

24 

20 

IB 

80 

24 

20 

15 

80 

24 

40 

SO 

80 

24 

10 

4 

80 

24 

80 

24 

SO 

24 

80 


80 

8 

80 

4 

B 

Free. 

80 

84 

80 

24 

80 

Free. 

25 

19 

20 

16 

20 

15 

20 

16 

£;. 

19 

20 

IB 

20 

IB 

25 

19 

20 

4 

90 

IB 

15 

IS 

— For  disciuf '.ons  on  Protective  Tariff,  see  Xorth  Amer- 
ican Jteeiew,  xi.  223  (h.  Kvebett),  xxx.  ICO,  xxxii. 
127  (A.  II.  Everett),  xxxv.  265, 1  txlii.  90  (Bowen)  ; 
Amfrican  Whig Rerieir,  li.  iii.  (Gkeei.ky),  Iv.  215, 410, 
iii.  336,  V.  313 ;  Edinburgh  JiLview,  lxxr>,  221 ;  l)emo- 
craiir  Jteriew;  vii.  941,  ix.  329,  x.  357,  xiv.  291,  447 ; 
A  merican  Quartertg  Iteview,  x.  444,  xl.  816  j  Souikern 
Quarterly  Ueview,  ii.  682,  vi.  200,  viii.  213 ;  NiLBS's 
Heg.,  vols,  xvii.,  xix.,  xx.,  xxi.,  xxU..  xxlii.,  xxiv. ; 
Soilkem  Literarg  Messenger,  viii.  421.  The  speeches 
lit  Mr.  Clay,  Mr.  Adams,  and  other  statesmen,  may  be 
found  in  the  volumes  of  Nii.es'h  Register. 

Tazpaullng,  a  broad  piece  of  i-nrxvas  well  daubed 
with  tar,  and  used  to  cover  the  hutchr,--.y*  of  u  ship  at. 
sea,  to  prevent  the  penetration  of  the  rain  or  sea- water 
which  may  at  times  rutih  over  tlie  declcs. 

Tartar  ((Jr.  raprapof,  infernal;  because  it  is  the 
■ediment  or  dregs  of  wine),  the  substance  which  con- 
cretes upon  the  inside  oC  winc-cuslts,  It  is  called  red 
and  white  argcl,  according  tn  the  wine  from  which  it 
is  obtained.  When  purified  it  is  often  called  cream  of 
tartar:  it  is  a  bltartrate  of  potash. — See  Auuai.. 

Taaman,  Abel  Jan»en.  llistorj'  is  silent  in  re- 
gard to  the  early  days  of  this  navigator  and  geograph- 


ical discoverer.  He  was  a  Hollander  by  birth,  ancl 
appointed  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  to  the 
command  of  three  vessels  which  they  bad  fittel  out  at 
Batavia  for  the  discover)'  of  new  countries  and  a  more 
extended  commercial  power.  Tasman  sailed  Septem- 
l>er  6,  1G42,  and  the  lirst-fruits  of  his  enterprise  wod 
the  discovery  of  that  part  of  New  Holland  culled  Van 
Oiejien's  Land,  which  tlie  navigators  made  on  24th 
November.  IJarly  in  December  they  set  out  again, 
and  on  the  13th  they  first  saw  the  islands  of  New  Zea- 
land, on  which  the  natives  successfully  opposed  his 
luudlng.  After  visiting  several  islands  in  the  South 
Sea,  Some  of  which  were  previously  unknown,  he  re- 
turned to  Batavia,  June  l&tb,  fAS,  having  sailed  round 
the  southern  hemisphere  of  the  globe.  The  short- 
sighted policy  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  pre- 
vented the  publication  of  uny  account  of  this  voyage, 
but  a  map  or  chart  of  the  discoveries  of  Tasmn:  was 
preserveil  at  the  Stadt  House  at  Amsterdam,  a  i  ,'omo 
years  after  Dirl<  Rembramlts  pulilished  an  extract  from 
the  journal  of  this  enterprising  seaman,  of  which  later 
geogra|ihical  writers  have  been  content  to  avail  them- 
selves. In  1856  a  proposition  was  made  in  England 
to  restore  to  the  vhvle  district  hitherto  (but  unjustly) 


.t*'i>J(' 


,.:  !h)- 


TAT 


•'i 


1819 


TAX 


rce. 
15 
4 
15 
16 
IB 
IB 
U 

ii 

24 

IB 
24 
15 
24 


24 

4 


24 


24 
24 


80 


8 
4 

Free. 

24 

24 
Free. 
19 
IB 
15 
IB 

19 

IB 
IB 

19 
4 
IB 
12 


known  as  Van  Dlemen's  Land,  the  name  of  Tcumania, 
in  meritorlouB  honor  of  its  original  (liscoverer, 

Tatta,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Sinde,  situated 
about  60  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  sea,  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  western  bault  of  the  River  Indus, 
in  lat.  24°  W  N.,  long.  68^  17'  K.     Population  un- 
certain, probably  aliout  8U00.    The  streets  are  nar- 
row  and  dirty ;  but  the  houses,  though  built  of  mud, 
chopped  straw,  and  timber,  are  superior  to  tlie  low  huts 
seen  in  the  adjoining  towns  and  villages.     Being  situ- 
ated a  little  above  the  part  where  the  Indus  divides 
into  tlie  two  great  branches  by  which  its  waters  are 
pouinl  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  might  ho  supposed 
thut  iatta  would  be  a  place  cf  groat  trade.     But,  ow- 
ing to  the  uuwholesomeness  of  the  climate,  the  barbar- 
ism of  the  tribes  on  its  banlis,  and  other  causes,  its 
commerce  has  never  corresponded  with  what  might 
have  been  anticipated,  louliing  at  its  position  on  the 
map.     It  had  probably  attaiued  the  acme  of  its  proti- 
perity  in  the- beginning  of  the  IGth  century.     In  1555 
the  Portuguese,  by  way,  as  they  stated,  of  avenging 
the  treachery  of  the  King  of  Sinde,  inliumanly  uius- 
sacred  8000  of  the  inhabitants,  and  burned  the  town. 
— Conquetea  des  Portugau,  tome  iv.  p.  183.     It  is  prolj- 
able  that  Tatta  never  fully  recovered  from  this  dreiul- 
fnl  blow ;  but  Mr.  Hamilton  mentions  that  in  the  1.'  th 
century  it  was  extensive  and  po^iulous,  possessing 
mucli  commerce,  with  manufactures  of  silk,  wool,  and 
cabinet  ware.     The  decayed  state  in  which  wo  now 
find  it  has  been  a  consequence  of  the  misgovernment 
and  rapacity  of  its  present  rulers,  the  Ameers  of  Sinde, 
under  whose  s  .vay  irt  fell  more  tliau  50  years  ago.     In 
1685  tlni  Knglish  established  a  factor}'  at  Tatta,  in  the 
>  iew  of  facilitating  the  dis|)osul  of  woolens  and  other 
g^fods  in  the  countries  traversed  by  the  Indus ;  uud  the 
building  occupied  by  the  factory,  though  far  fnun  nmg- 
nificent,  woa  recently,  if  it  l)o  not  still,  the  best,  not 
in  Tatta  only,  but  in  the  whole  country  of  Sinde.     The 
chief  exports  are  rice,  slmwls  from  Cashmere,  opium 
from  Malwah,  bides,  ghee,  cotton,  i;outb'  wool  carpets, 
drugs,  etc.     Putchock,  an  article  largely  consumed  m 
Cliina,  is  a  peculiar  export  of  Sinde,    The  imports 
comprise  a  variety  of  articles,  but  the  quantities  are 
trifling  ■-  they  consist  principally  of  spices,  d^'o-stufl'.<. 
hardware,  tin,  iron,  etc.,  broadcloths,  Knglieh  cottons, 
bUUs,  etc.     But  at  present  the  trndo  is  quite  incon- 
siderable; and  no  one  could  beliove,  a  prior!,  that  the 
natural  emporium  of  so  great  r.  .''">'  as  tho  Indus, 
traversing  many  extensive  countries,  would  cut  so  in- 
signillcant  a  figure  in  the  tradini;  world. 

A  very  well-informed  party,  Ur  Buist,  editor  of  the 
Sombay  Times,  has,  in  his  work  on  the  late  pedition 
into  Afghanistan,  made  tho  following  observations  on 
the  trade  of  the  Indus : 

"  The  glowing  doscrii^tions  of  Biirnci;  appear  to  have 
given  a  very  exaggerated  idea  of  the  value  of  the  in- 
ternal traffic  of  the  countries  l^eyond  tlie  Indus.  It 
■was  forgotten  that  where  there  was  no  industry,  no 
manufactures  or  mineral  wealth,  no  sca-coost  or  rivers 


to  permit  exportation,  there  could  )>«  little  or  nothing 
to  give  in  exchange  for  Imports  ;  and  that  the  wants 
of  a  population  purely  nomado  must  at  all  times  b« 
simple  and  singularly  few.     The  wliolc  of  our  com- 
merce with  Persia  has  never  exceeded  two  millions 
sterling  a  year,  rarely  almve  one ;  the  total  of  our 
trade  with  Afghanistan  certainly  never  exceeded  a 
million  annually,  and  has  very  rarely  amounte<l  to 
much  more  than  the  half  of  one.     Besides  this,  the 
Indus  in  reality  was  never  closed  save  by  its  own  dan- 
gerous entrances  and  shallow  depth  of  water.     Lord 
KUenborough  has  opened  the  Indus  us  far  as  Mithen 
Kote  J  and  the  Sutlej,  in  continuation  of  this,  to  t'uo 
MarltUHda,  where  it  ceases  to  l)e  navigable  for  tho 
smallest  cnift.     Yet  tlio  gross  value  of  the  British 
goods  consumed  by  tlie  countries  adjoining  docs  not 
at  present  amount  to  a  quarter  of  a  million  sterling, 
and  will  not,  in  all  liltclihood,  be  doubled  for  ten  years 
to  come  ;  the  expense  of  maintaining  troops  between 
Kurraehce  and  Bukkur,  both  stationH  included,  ex- 
ceeding i;COO,000  a  year;  with  a  less  force  it  would  bo 
unwise  to  tliink  of  keeping  these  stations  at  all.     The 
great  line  of  traffic  was  not  along  but  across  the  Indus, 
by  the  Delhi  frontier,  or  parallel  to  it  at  a  distance  of 
100  miles,  by  Sonmeaneo  and  Kelat.     Tho  countries 
beyrnd  the  Indus,  besides,  have  always  been  open  to 
J'le  free  admission  of  every  variety  of  foreign  imports 
■ju  ]ia)  ing  a  moderate  fixed  duty.     The  chief  obstruc- 
tion in  reaching  these  is  irremediable  by  treaty,  and 
arises  from  the  attacks  of  tlie  plundering  tribes  in  the 
pusses,  which  can  not  be  restrained  save  by  the  pay- 
ment of  a  black  mail  or  subsidy." 

The  delta  of  the  Indus  has  little  in  common  with 
tlie  delta  of  tho  Nile,  except  its  shape.  Not  a  fourth 
part  of  it  is  cultivated,  and  its  few  inhabitants  prin- 
cipally lead  a  pastoral  life.  It  is  overgrown  with 
tamarislu  and  other  wild  shrubs;  and  though  inter- 
sected by  the  numerous  mouths  of  the  river,  its  surface 
is  dry  and  arid,  being  almost  destitute  of  fresh  water. 
Tax  (Welsh  Tasy;  Fr.  Tare;  Du.  Tare),  a  rate  or 
duty  laid  by  government  on  the  income  or  property  of 
individuals ;  an  impost,  a  tribute,  or  an  excise,  accord- 
ing to  the  method  of  collecting,  or  tho  property  from 
which  collected.  Tho  first  taxes  levied  on  the  people 
were  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legislator,  540  B.C. 
Tlie  first  class  of  citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver, 
about  i,T>5  sterling.  The  next  was  by  Uarius,  the  son 
of  Hystaspes,  -liich  was  a  land-tax  by  assessment, 
and  deemed  so  odious  that  Iiis  subjects  styled  him,  by 
way  cf  derision,  "  Darius  the  Trader,"  480  B.C. — 
U'Eun's  llislorif  des  Finances.  Taxes  in  specie  were 
first  introduced  in  England  by  William  I.,  10G7,  and 
he  raised  tliem  arbitrarily ;  yet  subsidies  in  kind,  as  in 
wool,  com,  and  other  products  uf  England,  continued 
til!  the  accession  of  Richard  II.,  1377.— IIaydh. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  several  taxes  of  all 
the  states  of  which  there  are  any  returns,  and  shows 
the  aggregate  of  the  taxes  of  each  »tate,  and  also  of 
the  separate  species  of  tax : 


ANM'Ai 


SUlei. 

Alalnma 

Connecticut 

Florida 

GoorKla 

Indiana 

Maiuo 

Mississippi 

Now  Hampaliire 

New  Jersey 

Xew  York 

North  ('arollna 

Pennsylrsula 

Ubode  Islaud 

South  (Jarollna 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisoousta 

Total,  eighteen  Ht»te« 


$428,690 
67,U4T 
B8,(il0 

2S)2,707 
5&'i,4'i3 

ssi.on 

779,168 
77,313 


114,  OSd 
1,536,062 

16,9r)t 
373,421 

74,83" 
1S8,.\13 
368,649 

93,983 


Taxes  in  the  I  sitfo  SrATKs,  1S,VI. 
County.  Heliool, 


$202,900 

1,101 

23,030 

ino.ooi 

449,616 
141,70.^ 
436,993 
84,8.')4 
190,085 

144^189 
l,0iffl,212 


85,065 

3,678 

229,285 

151,835 


$7,619 

48,669 

106 

ir>,Ti» 

90,730 
234,''4'2 

31,106 
144,178 

02,700 

43i340 
840,006 
60,U37 


88,930 
46,697 

75,980 


$2,^104 
80,444 

14,'027 
f4,S38 

1"2,747 
7.401 

160,745 
54,5.11 

66,'lli2 
36«,757 
45,^S7 
49,143 

96,809 

110,077 

9,194 


$3,l»00 
fO,117 

171,654 

6«3,S.'^7 

4,098 

250,913 

11'.i,014 

■  060 

810,867 

29,077 

20,817 

247,801 
20,809 
72,103 


AU  olhan. 


$12,029 

288,005 

2,876 

42,571 

53,153 

837,946 

80,979 

20l'!,9!l3 

171,Sa8 

si.'.lflfl 
847,831 
198,550 
1SS,781 

21,332 
14'>,763 
352,836 
167,375 


Total. 


/;6fi3,446 

660,843 

85,287 

622,492 

1,383,300 

1,758,037 

1,340,400 
909,906 
599,404 

7.100,256 
46,5,343 

6J)S9,«)5 
347,111 
632,162 
191,818 
719,414 

1,126,852 
670,409 


$2.5,065,129 


TEA 


1820 


TEA 


Ailam  Smith  layn  down  four  pfeneral  maxims  upon  ' 
the  subject  of  taxation,  which  arc  as  follows  :  "  1.  The  ' 
lubjectB  (if  ever}'  »tatc  otinlit  to  contrilmta  toward  tlio  ' 
support  of  the  government  ns  nearly  as  frossllilo  in 
proportion  to  their  rcnpectivo  aliilities  ;  that  is,  in  pro- 
portion to  till'  revenue  which  tlioy  roBp«ctively  enjoy 
uniler  the  pn)li'ction  of  the  state.  2.  Tl'i"  tax  which 
each  individual  is  iHiimd  to  pa)  ought  to  lie  eertnin, 
and  not  arbitrary'.  The  time  of  payment,  tlie  manner 
of  payment,  the  quantity  to  he  paid,  ought  all  lo  bo 
clear  and  plain  to  the  contributor,  and  to  ever)-  other 
person,  3.  Every  tax  ought  to  lo  levied  at  the  time, 
or  in  the  manner  most  likol)-  to  .pj  convenient  for  the 
contributor  to  pay  it.  4.  Kvcr)  tax  ought  to  bo  so 
contrived  as  both  to  tako  out  and  keep  out  of  the  pock- 
ets of  the  people  as  little  as  possible  over  and  aliovo 
what  it  brings  into  the  public  treasury  of  the  state." 

Tho  subject  of  taxation  is  ably  distussed  in  the  lulin- 
liirgh  lieview,  xxxill.  xc. ;  Jkmncralic  ll^i'ieii;  xx. ; 
Quarterli'  licrieu;  xxxv. ;  American  (l\iarlerly  tirghtcr, 
vlli.  Forfurtlier  articles,  .we  1)k  llov's  lin-ieio,  xlii.  i 
Ill-NT's  Meirhimis'  Magazine,  iv. .  iS'r  ulliem  liefirir, 
viii. ;  Xorth  American  Jieviac,  xix.  (Du  I'oscEAt;) ; 
Wealm,  Review,  xlvi.,  xli. 

Tea  (in  one  Chinese  dialect,  Chn,  in  another  Te ; 
Du.  Te;  Fr.  Thi^  It.  Te;  Uuss.  Tchai ;  Hind.  rhat\ 
JIalay,  Teh),  tho  leaves  of  tlie  tree  or  iihrub  (Then  ' 
rlridit,  I.inn.).  Tho  tea-plant  ordinarily  grows  to  ''.o 
height  of  from  three  to  six  feet,  and  has  a  genc:.il  re- 
semblance to  tho  myrtle,  as  the  latter  is  seen  in  con- 
genial situations  in  tlio  southern  countries  of  Europe. 
It  Is  a  jiolyandrous  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Colum- 
nifi r<n, and  han  a  white  blossom,  with  )ellow  stylo  and 
anthers,  not  unlike  those  of  a  small  dog-rose.  Tlio 
stem  is  bush)-,  with  numerous  branches,  and  very 
leafy.  Tho  leaves  are  alternate,  on  short,  thick,  chan- 
neled footstalks,  evergreen,  of  a  longish  elliptic  i'orm, 
with  a.  blunt,  notched  point,  and  serrated  exce[if  at  the 
baie.  These  leaves  are  the  valuable  part  of  the  jilant. 
Tho  r(im(7//n»,  particularly  the  Camellia  samtiqu(i,oi 
the  sumo  natural  family  as  tho  tea-tree,  and  very 
closely  resembling  it,  are  tho  only  plants  liable  to  lie 
confounded  with  it  by  a  careful  observer.  The  leaves 
of  the  particular  camellia  just  named  are,  indeed,  often 
used  in  some  jinrts  of  Chino  as  a  substitute  fur  those 
of  the  tea-tree.  The  effects  of  tea  on  the  human  frame 
arc  those  of  a  very  mild  narcotic ;  and,  like  those  of 
many  otner  n.iriotlcs  taken  in  mnall  quantities — even 
of  opium  it3e!f--they  are  cxliilarating.  The  green  vari- 
eties of  the  plant  possess  this  (piality  In  a  higlier  de- 
gree than  th>^  black ;  and  a  stronger  infusion  of  the 
former  will,  in  most  constitutions,  produce  consider- 
able excitement  and  wakifulness.  Of  all  narcotics, 
however,  tea  is  the  least  pernicious ;  if,  indeed,  it  lie 
80  in  any  d<  ^ree,  which  wo  very  much  doulit. 

The  tea  shrub  may  be  described  as  a  very  liardy 
ovcrgreen,  growing  readily  in  the  opi  .-■  air,  from  tho 
equator  to  the  45th  degree  of  latitude.  For  the  last 
sixty  year;  it  has  lieen  reared  in  this  coiintiy,  without 
difficulty,  in  grecn-liouses ;  and  tliriving  plants  of 't  are 
to  bo  seen  in  the  gardens  of  .lava,  Singapore,  Malacca, 
and  I'cnang;  uU  within  six  degrees  of  the  equator. 
The  climate  most  congeniil  to  it,  however,  seems  to  ho 
that  between  the  2.'ith  anil  -.'iid  degrees  of  latitude,  judg- 
ing from  the  success  of  its  cultivation  in  China.  For 
the  general  purposes  .if  commerce,  tho  growth  of  good 
tea  Is  confined  to  China  .  and  is  there  restricted  to  flvo 
provinces,  or  rather  parts  of  provinces;  viz.,  Fokien 
and  Canton,  hut  more  (Mrticularly  the  tirbi,  for  black 
tea;  and  Kiang-nan,  Kiang-si,  and  C'he-kiang,  hut 
chiefly  the  first  of  these,  for  green.  The  tea  districts 
all  lit-  between  the  latitudes  just  mentioned,  and  the 
115th  and  I'i'M  d«|f»«es  of  east  longitude.  However, 
almost  averi  proNiace  of  China  prixliices  more  or  less 
t«a,  but  generally  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  for  local 
oMiaumption  only  ;  or  when  of  a  sujierior  iiuality,  lilio 
•HM  of  tb«  Ana  wlaae  of  Kmnce,  losing  its  duvor.when 


exported.  The  plant  Is  also  exteniiTely  cultivated  In 
Japan,  Tonqutn,  and  Cochin-China ;  and  in  some  of 
tho  notintalnous  parts  of  Ava ;  the  people  of  whfch 
conntrj-  use  it  largely  as  a  kind  of  piekle  prtterred  in 
i>il.'  Bc.tanically  considered,  the  tea-tree  Is  a  single 
sjiecies  ;  the  green  and  bluck,  with  all  tho  diversities 
of  each,  being  mere  varieties,  like  the  varieties  of  the 
grape,  produced  by  difference  of  climate,  soil,  localit' , 
age  of  the  crop  when  talten,  and  modes  of  preparation 
for  the  market.  Considered  us  an  object  of  iigricul- 
tura.  \iroduce,  the  tea-plant  bears  n  close  resemblance 
to  tho  vine.  In  tho  husbnndr)-  of  China,  It  may  be 
said  to  take  the  same  place  which  the  vi;ie  occujiies  in 
tho  southcni  countries  of  Europe.  Li',  the  hitter,  its 
growth  is  chiefl)-  confined  to  hilly  ct.icts,  not  suited  to 
tho  growth  of  grain.  The  soils  capable  of  jiroducing 
the  finest  kinds  are  within  given  districts,  limited  and 
j-artial.  Skill  and  care,  both  in  husbandry  and  I  rep- 
aration, are  quite  as  necessary  to  the  production  of  good 
tea  :if  to  that  of  good  wine, 

CultivalioH. — The  best  wine  Is  prodrc")  only  in  par- 
ticular latitudes,  as  Is  tho  best  tea  (  ■•  ''.perh.ipb, 
tho  latter  is  not  restricted  to  n..  r~  ,  •  e.  Only 
the  most  civilized  nations  of  Eurn;.^  i  rica  have 
as  yet  succeeded  in  producing  /.'e  d  wines  ■  which  Is 
also  the  ease  In  tho  East  with  te.  'or  tho  agricultural 
ml  manufacturing  skill  and  Inn  ■'  the  Chinese 
are  there  iin({ue8tionably  pre-eminent.  These  circum- 
stances deserve  to  be  attended  to  In  estlmiilliig  the 
difficulties  which  must  he  encouniered  In  any  attempt 
to  propagate  tho  tea-plant  in  colonial  or  other  posses- 
sions. These  difficulties  are  ob»l<)i(»ly  reiy  great, 
and  perhaps  all  hut  insuperoble.  Most  of  the  at- 
tempts hitherto  made  to  raise  it  in  foreign  cou.itriea 
were  not,  Indeed,  of ,-.  sort  from  which  mucli  was  to  he 
expected.  Within  tho  last  few  years,  however,  con- 
siderable efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Dutch  govern- 
ment of  Java  to  produce  tea  on  the  hills  of  that  island; 
and  having  the  assistance  of  Chinese  cultivators  troin 
Fokieii,  wlio  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  emigrants 
til  .Ik  ,  a.  a  degree  of  success  has  attended  them,  bevcnd 
what  might  have  been  expected  in  so  warm  a  climete. 
The  llrazilians  have  made  similar  efforts;  havinf,  also, 
with  the  ossistance  of  Chinese  laborers,  attemiited  t( 
propagate  the  tia  shrub  near  Ilio  de  Janeiro ;  and  a 
small  quantity  of  tolerably  good  tea  has  been  jiioduced. 
Hut  owing  to  the  high  price  of  laiior,  and  the  quantity 
required  Ip  tho  cuitivation  and  manipulation  of  tea, 
there  is  no  probability,  e\ in  were  tho  soil  suitable  to 
the  plant,  that  its  culture  can  be  profitably  carried  on 
in  that  country.  It  may,  prrhaps,  succeed  in  Assam, 
where  its  culture  tr  now  being  attempted ;  for  labor  Is 
there  comparatively  cheap,  and  the  hilly  and  table- 
lands are  saiil  to  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  tea  distrcts  of  China  ;  but  wo  are  not  sanguine  in 
our  expectations  as  to  ^he  result. 

I'ultirittiim  nf  the  Tea-nlant  in  the  United  Slates.-- 
This  plant,  which  has  so  long  afforded  a  most  grateful 
beverage  to  millions  of  people  in  every  civilized  coun- 
try of  the  globe,  there  is  much  reason  to  believe,  may 
be  successfully  cultivated  in  favorable  situations  and 
under  proper  management,  for  local  consumption,  at 
least,  in  nn.st,  if  not  all  of  our  Southern  States.  This 
was  partially  realized  from  an  experiment  made  at 
fjreenville,  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  South  Caro- 
lina, by  the  late  Junius  Smith,  in  1848  to  1852.  lie 
imported  several  cases  of  bhii  k  and  giecn  tea  plants, 
of  (.'hinese  stock,  of  fro.n  five  to  seven  years'  giowth, 
and  planted  them  in  the  village  above  named,  wlicro 
they  remaineil  about  two  years.  On  their  removal  to 
a  plant<-tlon  in  that  vicinity,  in  March,  185],  Dr.  Smith 
stated  that  "  they  grew  reViarkably  last  summer,  and 
are  row  fully  rooted,  witli  fine  large  main  and  collate- 
ral roots,  with  an  abundance  of  librous  radicles.  They 
all  stood  the  snow,  eif,ht  or  rino  inches  deep  upon  the 
level  on  tho  iid  of  January,  and  the  severe  frosts  of 
winter,  without  the  glightest  covering  or  pp'tectiou, 


TEA 


1821 


•nd  without  the  lots  of  a  single  plant.  They  are  now 
oil  forming  part  of  the  plantation,  composed  of  thuja 
received  rrom  China  last  June,  and  a  few  planted  the 
first  weelt  in  June,  which  germinated  tlie  ITih  cf  Sep- 
tember.  AU  these  young  plants  were  thinly  covered 
with  straw.     Some  of  them  have  lost  their  foliage; 


TEA 


cthera  have  not.  The  stems  do  not  appear  to  have 
susUlned  any  injury.  The  fresh  buds  are  beginning 
to  shoot.  I  can  not  help  thinking  that  we  have  now 
demonstrated  the  adapUtion  of  the  tea-plant  to  the  soil 
and  climate  of  this  country,  and  succeeded  in  its  per- 
manent establishment  within  our  borden." 


T.XT  <K.H.UMm.  BT  ,AC»  I»»,V.™"a'  Or^n^^'pJJ^Ljx.'oT^  iSTl  TfsS^^.Z.rS^^'"'"'  """  '"  *'"""  *"*"• 


1901... 
1802... 
1803. . . 
ISOt. . . 
1805... 
1806... 
180T. . . 
180S. . . 
1809.;. 
IMO... 
WU... 
1812... 
1813... 
1814... 
1815... 
1810... 
I81T  .. 
19i8... 
1819., 
1820. . . 
1821... 
ISH. . . 
1823... 
182-1  . . 
18-25. .  . 
1820  ., 
(827  . 
1828.  . . 
1829. . . 
1830. . . 
1831... 
1838. .  , 
1833... 
1834. . . 
1835. . . 
1838. ,  . 
1881... 
1S38. .. 
13II9. . . 
1840... 
ISU.  . 
HW. . . 
1813... 
1844. . . 

lain. . . 

1816... 
1847. . . 
1818... 
1819. . . 
18,50. . . 
1861.. 
1853. . . 
1859... 
1854... 
1855... 
1850... 
1S6T. . . 
lS63t. , 


OatnUty  of  T«ft 

Imported  Into 

Ihi  UniUd 

Kingdom. 


Qu»nlltyofT«« 
coniumed  in  the 
Unit«d  Kingdom 


Ponndi. 
20,804,739 
27,9'S8,502 
30,818,134 
20,680,734 
28,538,826 
22,156,867 
12.0)9,236 
35, 747,224 
21,7<7,310 
1».  .»1,36« 
21,.;31,G40 
2S,r'18,153 

2M1o;660 
20,60'?,214 
30,284,380 
31,467,073 
20,005,728 
23,7511,4111 
80,147,»»4 
30,731,106 
27,362,700 
20,046,  SS5 
31,a3l,37T 
29,.146,6»9 
29,810,401 
39,740,147 
35,078,640 
30,514,382 
81,897,516 
31,048,928 
31,709,016 
B-2, 1)67,832 
83,043,980 
44,360,rriO 
49,807,701 
80,079,981 
40,418,714 
88,168  009 
28,021,88-2 
80,787,796 
40,742,128 
46,012,737 
53,147,078 
61,056,979 
61,767,142 
66,324,040 
47,774,7,'>5 
53,469,469 
60,5I2,!«4 
71.460,4-21 
00,800,5.36 
70,136,136 
85,792,03-2 
83,250,061 
80,200,414 
04,493,989 
07,021,818 


Amount  of 

Duty  racelvcd 

IntrnoD 


Pountis. 

23,730,150 
25,400,294 
24,877,460 
22,0,'S7,O4fl 
24,206,033 
22,24f,4S5 
23,819,420 
25,220,042 
21,006,843 
24,480,408 
22,4.M,Ma 
24,681,402 
2M09,865 
24,389,601 
2^917,853 
2-?,flJ3,992 
24,005,794 
20,627,531 
25,241,003 
25,712,935 
2fl,754,,')87 
27,.'>74,025 
27,093,015 
27,018,-295 
-il»,20-2,l74 
20,046,852 
29,931,178 
29,3n.'..V.'>7 
29,  WC  ■",'•> 
.10,010  '13,', 
•2n,9fl7,(l,\'i 
3I,.548,331 
3t,SJi.,0-20 
3l,',lfi",«M 
3(l,riM,()0( 
*I.U'-',2,'I6 
3»,C.'^.'JO0 
32,361,538 
36,127,-287 
32,2.V2.0-2S 
!I0,67B,0C7 
37,35'>,illl 
40,-2ll3,3!i3 
41,.1o3,770 

I4,i'i:i,iri3 

10  110,3^11 

l<:.:iM,821 
4>i.7.'ll,7-') 
50,021,5(0 
51,112,802 
53,949,060 
61,713,034 
68,834,087 
01,963,041 
63,4»,286 
03,273,212 
09,13-2,101 
07,10,5,860 


1,423,660 
1,632,467 
1,929,614 
2,6C9,739 
3,330,624 
3,446,071 
8,620,174 
l,90^205 
1,59-2,705 
3,U7,738 
3,752,111 
8,8-2t,980 
3,770,030 
3,968,055 
4,05S092 
8,302,497 
3,431,864 
3,872,094 
3,089,806 
8,5-20,912 
3,738,428 
8,946,530 
3,818,122 
3,90,5,477 
4,031,010 
3,738,043 
8,705,590 
3,448,843 
3,321,723 
3,387,097 
3,311,919 
3,«19,839 
3,441,102 
3,589,381 
3,83-2,427 
4,071 ,6;16 
.3.'22!I,8I0 
3,362,0,16 
3,058,803 
3,i:-2,804 
3  973,008 
4,0S9,967 
4,407,042 
4,u-24,193 
4,833,353 
6,112,006 
6,000,494 
5,329,992 
6,171,422 
5,596,901 
5,900,025 
5,984,172 
5,083,791 
4,780,149 
6,310,276 
5,536,620 
5,067,900 
4,774,536 


Averng*  Ratn 

of  Duty  por  Lb 

pud  bjr  ti)« 

Consumer 


cl. 
2i 

61 


2  4t 
2  9 
8  U 
lU 
U 
5 


2 

8 
3 

2  111 

3  4 
3  U 

2  lU 

3  B 
3  U 
2  lU 
2  9( 
2  11 
2  11 
2  9 
2  9) 
2  lot 
2  10 
2  01 
2  0 
2  T 
2  6i 
2  41 
2  3 
2  3 
2  2( 


ATornga 

Ptict  per  Lb 
in  Hood- 


Average  Prtre 

per  Lb  InclueiTe 

of  Duty 


2J 

2  2 

2  01 

2  U 

1  lOf 

2  1 
2  1 
2  1 
2  II 
2  2t 
2  2. 
9  oj 
2  2t 
2  2t 
2  2t 
2  2i 


21 

2  21 

2  21 

2  ik 

<i  21 

1  m 

1  o; 


9 
6i 
6 


•  d. 

8  0 

8  U 

2  101 
8  0 
8  1 
8  8 
8  4 
8  81 
8  B 
8  4 
S  4 

3  8i 
3  41 
3  51 
B  2 
2  lU 
8  01 
8  1 
2  91 
2  91 
2  101 
2  10 
2  10 
2  10 
2  91 
2  61 
2  6 
2  41 
2  2( 
2  81 
2  8 
2  21 
2  2 
2  U 
1  11 
1  7 
1  6} 
1  71 

1  81 

2  71 

2  n 

2  01 

1  41 


1   21 


d. 

21 

6 

61 

41 
10 

41 

31 

41 
10 

Rl 

8 
6 
4 

81 
St 

lU 
91 
0 
81 
61 
71 
81 
8 
71 
01 
U 

101 
81 
61 
61 
51 
61 
4 
2 
01 
61 
61 
81 
91 
0 
81 
21 
61 
6 
4 
31 
31 
21 
31 
51 
41 
21 
21 


6 
6 
6 
6 
0 
0 
0 
6 
5 
0 
6 
B 
5 
B 
5 
6 
6 
6 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
8 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
8 
B 
8 
B 
8 

a 
a 
a 

3 
3 
3 

2    10 
2    11 
2    Hi 
2    1 
2 


^opnlatioa 

of  tlie  United 

Kingdom. 


of 


16,828,000 
1^066,000 
16,171,000 
10,407,000 
16,677,000 
10,917,000 
17,154,000 
17,885,000 
17,002,000 
17,»11,000 
18,011,000 
18,270,000 
18,622,000 
19,832,000 
19,118,000 
19,463,000 
19,772,000 
20,070,000 
20,898,000 
20,705,000 
20,986,000 
21,320,000 
21,072,000 
21,991,000 
22,304,000 
22,006,000 
22,898,000 
23,200,000 
23,536,000 
23,834,000 
24,083,000 
24,343,000 
24,601,000 
24,820,000 
2,5,104,000 
2.5,390,000 
2-5,070,000 
26,896,000 
26,201,000 
20,519,000 
26,730,(K)0 
27,000,000 
27,283,000 
27,577,009 
27,876,000 
28,189,000 
28,093,000 
21,8.56,000 
27,032,000 
27,423,000 
27,529,000 
27,570,000 
27,003,000 
27,788,000 
27,899,000 
28,151,000 
28,414,000 
28,081,000 


A»er«g 

eOnan- 

Itty  eoniQined    1 

b/eac 

li  Indi- 

Yidualoflka     1 

Population.      1 

Lbe. 

Of, 

8 

9 

9 

6 

T 

5 

6 

7 

8 

6 

4 

5 

6 

6 

6 

8 

4 

6 

4 

4 

4 

6 

4 

4 

6 

B 

B 

4 

4 

4 

4 

6 

6 

7 

7 

15 

B 

4 

6 

8 

6 

6 

8 

8 

9 

11 

10 

12 

IS 

14 

15 

2 

0 

2 

2 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

T 

KecordB  destrofc^.  by  Arc. 


The  tea-plant  is  not  onlv  found  in  Cliina  and  Japan, 
chiefly  in  a  cultivated  stntc,  but  Is  iniligcnoua  in  the 
mountains  which  separata  Cliina  from  the  Burmese 
territories,  especially  in  Uppor  Assam,  bordering  on 
the  province  of  Yun-nan.  It  is  also  cultivated  in  Ne- 
pal, at  an  oleration  of  four  tlioiisaud  seven  hundred 
ond  eight\-four  feet  above  lienxal,  in  lot.  27''  42'  N. 

Tho  tea-pl-'int  loves  to  grow  in  vallpys,  at  the  foot 
of  mountains,  and  upon  tlio  banks  of  streams,  where  it 
enjoys  a  southern  exposure  to  tlie  sun,  though  it  en- 
dures considerable  variations  of  dryness  and  moisturo, 
and  of  heat  and  cold ;  for  it  llourlshcs  in  tho  eliinato 
of  Pokin  in  lat.  10^,  as  tvell  as  ahoiit  Canton,  in  23°  8' 
N.,  and  tho  degree  of  cold  ut  tho  former  piece  is  nearly 
an  severe  in  winter  as  in  some  of  our  Middlii  States. 

Mr.  Fortune,  who  had  freciueut  opportunities  to  in- 


t  For  eleven  montlis  ending  30th  November. 

8pc:;t  some  of  the  most  extensive  tea  districts  of  Can- 
ton, Fokein,  and  Cheklang,  states  thot  the  soil  of  those 
of  the  northern  provinces  is  much  richer  than  it  U  In 
Quantung.  "Tea  shrubs,"  lie  says,  "will  not  suc- 
ceed well  unless  they  have  a  rich  sandy  loam  to  grow 
in.  Tho  coi.tinual  gathering  of  their  leaves  Is  very 
detrimental  to  their  health,  and,  in  fact,  ultimately 
kills  them.  Hence  a  principal  object  with  the  grower 
Is  to  keep  his  biislies  in  os  robust  health  as  possible  ; 
and  this  can  not  be  done  if  the  soil  be  poor.  Tho  tea 
plantations  in  the  north  of  Cliina  are  always  situated 
on  tlio  lower  and  most  fertile  sides  of  tho  hills,  and 
never  on  tho  low  lands.  Tho  shrulis  are  planted  in 
rows,  about  four  feet  apart,  and  aboui  the  same  dis- 
taneo  between  each  row,  and  look  at  a  distance  like 
little  shrubberies  of  evergteens.    Tho  farms  are  amatl. 


TEA 


1822 


TEA 


■ach  conaUttng  of  flrom  one  to  four  of  flv«  acrea ;  in- 
deed, ever}'  farmer  hoe  his  own  little  tea  garden,  the 
produce  of  which  supplies  the  wants  of  his  family,  and 
the  surplus  brings  him  In  a  few  dollars  that  ore  spent 
on  the  other  necessaries  of  life."  In  Japan,  tea  u 
planted  around  the  borders  of  fields,  without  regarrl  to 
situation  or  soil, 

Speciet  of  Tea. — The  tea-plants  are  raised  fro  n  nuts, 
or  seeds,  usually  sown  where  they  are  to  lemain. 
Three  or  more  are  dropped  into  a  hole,  and  covered 
with  earth  four  or  five  inches  deep;  tliese  cun.e  up 
without  any  further  trouble,  and  require  little  cul  .are, 
except  that  of  removing  weeds.  The  leaves  aM  not 
collected  from  the  cultivated  plants  until  they  arr  three 
years  old  ;  and,  after  growing  nine  or  ton  years,  they 
are  cut  down,  in  order  that  the  young  shoots,  which 
will  then  rise,  may  alford  a  greater  supply  of  leoves. 
The  best  time  to  gather  the  tea  is  while  the  Itiivves  are 
small,  j-oung,  and  juicy.  The  first  gatheri:jf  usually 
commences  at  about  the  end  of  February,  when  the 
leaves  are  young  and  unexpanded ;  tliu  second  almut 
the  ..eginning  of  April ;  and  the  third  in  ,)une.  Tho 
first  collection,  which  only  conKists  of  fine  tender  loaves, 
is  most  esteemed,  and  is  called  by  us  "  Imperial"  tea. 
Tho  second  is  denominated  "  Tootajaa,"  or  Chinese  te.i, 
because  it  is  infused  and  imbilwd  after  the  Chinese 
manner.  The  last  gatherings,  which  are  the  coarsest 
and  cheapest  of  all,  are  diunk  by  the  people  of  the 
lowest  class.  Besides  the  three  kinds  of  tea  named 
atjove,  it  may  he  observed  that,  by  porting  these,  the 
varieties  become  stUi  further  multi|)lied.  Tlie  Chinese, 
however,  know  nothing  of  "  Imperial"  tea,  "  Flower" 
tea,  and  many  other  names,  which  in  Kuropo  and 
America  serve  to  distinguish  the  quality  and  the  priiw 
oi'  tho  article ;  but,  besides  the  common  ten,  tliey  dis- 
tinguish two  other  kinds,  namely,  the  "  Voui"  and 
"Soumlo,"  which  are  reserved  for  people  of  ttie  lirst 
order  of  society,  and  for  those  who  are  sick.  Tlie  prin- 
cifial  varieties  used  in  F^uropo  ond  in  tliis  country  are 
the  "Green"  tea,  which  is  the  "Bing,"  or  common 
tea  of  the  Chineso,  and  is  gathered  in  April ;  the 
"Voui,"  or  "Vou-tchc,"  a  delicate  kind  of  "  Young 
Hyson,"  which  dlflfors  only  from  the  otlier  in  i)eing 
gathered  a  few  weeks  earlier,  and  conpists  of  the  young 
leaf-buds  just  as  they  begin  to  unfold ;  and  the  %-ariuus 
descriptions  of  "  Black"  tea,  wliich  diminish  in  quality 
and  value  as  they  are  collected  later  in  the  season,  until 
they  reach  the  lowest  him'  ailed  by  us  "  Bohea,"  ami 
by  the  Cliinese  "  Ta-cha.  't  large  tea,  on  account  of 
:  the  maturity  and  size  of  the  leaves.  The  early  leaf- 
buds,  in  spring,  being  covereil  with  a  white,  silky 
down,  are  gathered  to  make  "  Pekoe,"  a  corruption  of 
tho  Cnntc'i  word  Pa-ko,  w  lute  down,  A  few  days'  lot- 
er  giowth  produces  whot  is  sometimes  styled  "  Black- 
leaved  Pekoe,"  The  more  fleshy  and  matured  leaves 
constitute  "  Souchong;"  as  they  grow  still  larger  nnd 
coarser,  they  form  "  Congo ;"  and  the  last  and  latest 
picking  of  all  is  tho  "Bohea."  Tho  variety  named 
ttl)OV«,  called  "  Voui,"  is  a  scarco  andexiKnsivo  urtiilc, 
and  the  picking  of  tho  leaves  in  so  young  a  state  docs 
f'l.isiderable  injury  to  tlie  plantotions.  The  summer 
rains,  however,  which  fall  copiously  almut  this  season, 
moisten  the  'arth  and  air,  and,  if  the  plants  are  young 
and  vigorous,  ihe>  soon  push  out  fresh  leaves. 

The  profess  of  gathering  tea  is  one  of  great  nicety 
oi-.l  importance.  Ench  leaf  is  plucked  separately  from 
tho  twig ;  the  hands  of  iVn  gatherer  are  kept  clean  ; 
and  in  collecting  seme  of  .,ie  liner  sorts,  it  has  been 
stated,  npori  credible  authority,  that  he  is  olili^d  for 
somo  weeks  previous  to  abstain  from  all  gross  food,  lest 
his  breath  or  ;>erspiiatioii  might  injure  tho  flavor ;  to 
weir  fine  gloves  whilu  at  work,  nnd  to  liatlio  two  or 
three  times  a  day  during  this  pttricKl.  In  the  general 
harvest  seasons,  the  natives  are  seen  in  tittlo  family 
groups  on  *he  side  of  every  hill,  when  the  weather  is 
Ary,  engogeu  in  gathering  tho  tea  leaves,  which  arc 
(tripped  off  Tttpidly  and  promiscuously  into  round 


basket*,  made  fbr  the  purpose,  of  apllt  bamlwo  nr  nt- 
■n.  When  ■  sufllelent  quantity  is  gathered.  It  Is  car- 
ried home  to  the  cottage  or  bam,  when  the  ojwra- 
tion  of  dryhig  Is  performed,  The  Chinese  dislike 
gathering  the  leaves  on  n  rainy  day  for  any  descrip- 
tion of  tea,  and  never  will  do  so  imleai  necessity  re- 
quires it.  Some  even  pretend  to  distlugulih  the*  tens 
made  on  a  rainy  \Vf  from  those  nude  on  a  sunny  day, 
Tho  prt>cesi  of  tolling  and  drying  the  leavog.  It  is  stated, 
can  only  be  lurnvil  by  actual  ex|iericnce ;  yet  the  sys- 
tem adopted  to  attain  this  «ih1  It  as  simple  as  It  is  i.H- 
caclous.  Let  It  lie  liuma  In  mind,  however,  that  the 
grand  object  la  to  exiicl  the  moisture,  and  at  the  samo 
time  to  retain  as  much  as  |iua«lble  of  the  aromatic  aod 
other  desirable  sscretluni. 

As  to  tho  dllfurencea  of  flavor  and  color  peculiar  to 
the  green  and  black  tens,  It  Is  well  known  that,  In 
many  instances,  tliey  are  |ira<luced  by  art.  In  de- 
scribing the  green  teas  grown  In  the  districts  of  Che- 
kiang,  Mr,  Fortune  reninrks  tliiit  "  It  mutt  not  bo  sup- 
posed that  they  urn  tliii  green  teas  which  ere  exi)ortc<l. 
The  leaf  has  a  mm'h  mure  nutiirnl  color,  and  has  little 
or  T10I10  ot  what  we  call  the  tieautirul  blinrht  upon  it, 
w!',lr)!  is  so  much  admired  in  Kurupe  and  America. 
Thora  is  now  no  doubt  that  all  these  blooming  green 
teas,  which  are  manufactured  at  Canton,  are  dyed  with 
Prussian  blue  and  gypsum,  Ui  suit  the  tastes  of  the 
'foreign  barbarians  I'  Indeed,  iho  process  may  bo 
seen  any<lay  during  the  seuKon  by  tho**  who  will  give 
themselves  the  trouble  to  seek  after  It,  It  Is  verj* 
likely  that  tho  same  Ingredients  are  also  used  In  dyeing 
tho  northern  green  teaa  for  the  foreign  market,"  The 
Cliinese,  It  Is  asserted,  never  use  these  dyed  teas  them- 
selves ;  nnd  certainly  Mioir  tastn  in  this  respect  is  more 
correct  than  oura.  It  Is  not  to  be  supponcd  tliat  tho 
dye  employed  can  produce  any  very  bad  cficcts  upon 
the  consumer,  for,  had  this  been  the  cane,  it  woidd  havo 
long  since  been  diacuvered.  As  to  the  opinion  that 
grem  tea  owes  its  verdure  to  an  Inflorcacence  ac»iulrcd 
from  plates  of  copper,  on  which  it  Is  supposed  to  bo 
curled  or  dried,  theru  Is  no  foundation  fortlio  suspicion, 
as  the  infusions  undergo  no  cimnge  on  tlie  addition  of 
volatile  alkali,  which  would  detect  tho  minutest  por- 
I  tion  of  copper  by  turning  the  liquors  blue.  And,  be- 
sides, the  drying  pans  niid  furnaces  used  throughout 
China  for  this  purisMo  uro  said  to  be  Invariably  made 
of  sheet-Iron, — I'attnl  Offiiis  Utjxirt. 

Advlterdlion  oJ'Tm. — It  inlglit  have  Itecn  ontlciiJtt- 
ted,  from  the  high  price  of  and  the  high  duties  In  some 
countries  on  tea,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  may 
be  mixed  up  with  foreign  sulistances,  that  it  would  not 
escape  aualtcratlim  (  anil  Ihu  rcconis  uf  the  courts  of 
justice  show  that  this  Is  the  case,  snveral  dealers  hav- 
ing been  convicted  of  this  |icriil('loiis  practice.  Tho 
adulteration  Is  usually  elfocted  either  by  the  Intermix- 
tiTc  ot  sloe  or  asli  leaves  witli  fresh  teas,  or  by  mixing 
tlie  latter  with  tea  that  has  been  already  used.  The 
penalties  on  such  oflTenaes  are  not  S[ieclllc ;  and  the 
best,  or  rather  tho  only,  security  un  which  ony  reliance 
can  be  pIiummI,  is  to  lie  found  In  the  character  and  re- 
spectability (if  thn  parties  dealing  hi  tea,  Kvcn  wero 
ha  influenced  by  nothing  else.  It  would  lio  extreme 
folly  In  any  porsou  currying  on  an  extensive  business 
to  engage  In  such  dishunent  practices,  for  they  can 
hardly  full  of  being  detected  j  nnd  the  ruin  of  his  tmsi- 
ness  that  woulil  follow  wiicli  ex|iosiiro  would  far  nuiro 
than  balance  whutevi'r  gains  ho  could  hope  to  make 
by  his  fraudulent  schemes. 

Tin  Tnuk  in  t'liimi, — Tho  tea  merchants  commonly 
receive  advances  from  tlio  prliwl|ial  nierchnnts  ami 
other  capitalists  of  ('anion  ;  but,  with  this  exception, 
are  altogether  Independent  of  Ihein  ;  nor  have  llio  lat- 
ter any  excluslvn  privilege  or  claltii  of  piT-emption. 
'I'hey  are  very  nuineroMs;  tliosu  eoiineclcil  with  thn 
(,Teen-tca  dinlricis  iiiono  iH'Ing  about  fonr  hundred  in 
nuiiilier.  The  lilack-tea  morchiints  arc  less  nmiicrou'", 
I  but  more  wosltby.    'H'ho  greater  part  of  tlio  tea  is 


JLI 


TEA 


IWS 


TEA 


Immonly 
lints  mill 
jirciitioli, 
.  tho  lat- 
I'lniition. 
rtllli  till 
lti<\rncl  ill 
|iiiicrou'<, 
tea  la 


brought  to  Canton  by  Unil  currlage  or  Inlanil  navlga 
tion,  but  chiefly  by  tbi;  first.  It  is  conveyed  by  por- 
ters ;  tho  roads  of  Oliinn,  in  tlie  Mulhcru  ])rovincc»,  not 


other  vegetable  productions,  is  Injured  by  Iceeping,  par- 
ticularly in  a  hot  and  damp  climato. 
There  acenis  to  lie  little  myster}'  in  the  selection  and 


generally  admitting  of  ivlied  carriages,  and  beasts  of  ]  piirchaso  of  teas;  for  the  business  is  both  safely  and 
burden  being  very  rare.     A  small  nuantity  of  black  t  efi'ictively  accomplished,  not  only  by  the  supercargoes 


tea  is  brought  by  sea,  but  probably  smuggled;  for  this 
cheaper  mode  of  tranaportutiun  la  discouraged  by  gov- 
ernment, which  it  deprives  of  the  transit  duties  levied 
on  inland  carriage.  Tho  length  of  land  carriage  from 
tho  principal  districts  where  the  green  teas  arc  grown 


of  the  American  ships,  but  frequently  l>y  the  masttrs; 
and  it  was  ascertained  by  the  sales  at  the  East  India 
House,  that  there  was  no  dlll'orenco  between  the  quali- 
ties of  the  teas  purchased  by  the  commanders  and  of- 
ficers of  the  company's  ships,  withont  assistance  from 


to  Canton  is  probably  not  less  thun  70l)  miles ;  nor  that  1  the  oflicers  of  the  factory,  and  those  purchased  for  tho 


of  the  black  tea,  over  a  mountainous  country,  less  thun 
200  miles.  The  tea  merchants  begin  t  j  arrive  in  Can- 
ton about  tho  middle  of  October,  and  the  busy  season 
continues  until  the  beginning  of  Marcli ;  being  briskest 
In  November,  December,  and  January.  Tea,  for  the 
most  part,  could,  previously  to  tho  late  changes,  only 


company  by  the  latter.  An  unusual  degree  of  goiHl 
faith,  indeed,  appears  to  bo  observed  on  the  part  of  tho 
Chinese  merchants  with  respect  to  this  commodity ;  for 
it  was  proved  before  the  select  committee  of  tho  ilouso 
of  Commons,  in  1880,  that  it  was  the  regular  practice 
of  the  hong  merohants  to  receive  back,  and  retuni  good 


b«  bought  from  tho  hong  or  licensed  merchauts ;  but    tea  for,  any  chest  or  parcel  upon  which  any  fraud  might 


soma  of  these,  the  least  prosperous  in  their  circum- 
stances, were  supported  by  wealthy  outside  mcrchanls, 
as  they  aro  called ;  and  thus  the  trade  was  consider- 
ably extended.  The  prices  in  tlie  Canton  marko»  vary 
from  year  to  year  with  the  crop,  the  stock  on  hand,  and 
tho  external  demand,  as  in  cnv  other  articlo  and  in  any 
other  market.  After  tlK  season  is  over,  or  when  tho 
westerly  monsoon  set;  „i^  during  the  month  of  March, 
and  impedes  tho  regular  intercourse  of  foreigners  with 
China,  there  is  a  full  in  the  price  of  tea,  not  only  arising 
from  this  circumstance,  but  from  a  certain  depreciation 


have  have  been  practicuil,  which  somcliiues  happens  in 
the  conveyance  of  tho  teas  from  Canton  on  bonnl  ship. 
Such  restitution  lias  occasionally  lioen  made,  even  at 
tho  distance  of  one  or  two  years.  Tho  company  enjoy- 
ed no  advantaj^c  over  other  purchasers  in  the  Canton 
market  except  that  which  the  largest  purchaser  has  in 
every  market,  viz.,  a  selectiou  of  the  teas,  on  the  pay- 
ment of  the  samo  jirices  as  others;  and  this  advanlugo 
they  enjoyed  only  as  respects  the  black  teas,  the  Amer- 
icans being  the  largest  purchasers  of  green  teas. 
Wc  herewith  subjoin  a  table  for  calculating  the  cost 


in  quality,  from  tlie  age  of  tho  tea ;  which,  like  most  |  of  tea : 

Co>irABi8o:<  or  mm  Cost  of  Tr-i  ma  I'ldOL  (1331  i.ns.  AvoiKPcrois),  with  the  Uatr  rsa  Pounu,  asi>  Tom  or  »  Cwr. 

on  1UU9  I'ocsus  VEU  Tox. 


Per 
PIcul. 

^KchsDiie 

4j.  jier  l>oUnr. 

GxchanKe4i 

.  -id.  per  Dol. 

UtclmnKe  it 

.W.  pernol. 

Kicliii{i)Ce  4i 

t<I.  per  U.il. 

Exehnnvali 

.  td.  i«r  Dol. 

Per  lb. 

Per  Toil. 

Per  Pound. 

Per  Ton. 

Per  Pouiul 

Per  Ton. 

Per  Pound. 

Per  Ton. 

Per  Pound. 

I'er  Ton. 

TteU. 

X     •■  d. 

Pence. 

X    <.      d. 

Pence. 

X     1.   d. 

Pence. 

X     1.     d. 

Pence. 

X      1.  J. 

iiO  — 

10 

42     U  U 

10-025 

41   12     « 

10-S113 

45  10  0 

11042 

40     7     0 

U-2M 

47    5  0 

t\  — 

101 

44    2  0 

U-liO 

t«  17     U 

11-375 

47  16  0 

11 -lift! 

49  in  101 

11-818 

49  12  3 

ii  — 

11 

40    4  0 

11CS7 

4!1     1    0 

12910 

50    1  0 

12-140 

51     0    3 

12-375 

51  19  0 

28  — 

111 

4S    0  « 

122IO 

51    tt    41 

12-4;)S 

52    G  C 

12  093 

ra   0  71 

12-130 

54    Oil 

24  — 

12 

no   SO 

12-7,'.0 

53  11    0 

13-0011 

!4  12  0 

13-2,',0 

55  13    0 

13 -5m) 

.'ifl  14  0 

25  — 

121 

62  10  0 

13-281 

r*  15  7i 

13-t)41 

,vi  n  6 

13-802 

57  19    J| 

1-1-003 

51    1  3 

20  r- 

13 

.M  12  0 

13  S12 

M    0    3 

14-0^1 

59    3  0 

14-^54 

00    B    9 

14-025 

61     8  0 

27  — . 

131 

50  14  0 

14-34-1 

GO    4  101 

14-025 

01    S  G 

14-:  ilO 

02  12    li 

15-1SS 

03  15  9 

23  — 

U 

5S  10  0 

14  SIS 

02    9    0 

15-100 

c;l  14  0 

15-4'!-. 

(■4  IS    0 

15-760 

04    3  II 

2D  = 

141 

GO  18  II 

ir>-400 

04  14    li 

15-708 

05  10  0 

10-(IIO 

07     t  lll{ 

10-31;; 

03  10  ,1 

80  — 

15 

on   0  0 

i.'>o;i7 

00  IS  ft 

10-2511 

OS    50 

10  'Mi 

0.1  11     3 

10  875 

70  17  0 

ni  — 

151 

fl(i    2  0 

10-409 

09     3    41 

10-71I1 

70  :o  « 

17114 

71  17    71 

17-438 

13    4  9 

32  — 

le 

07    4  0 

17  000 

71     S    0 

17-333 

■2  iO  0 

17-0110 

74    4    0 

IS -001) 

8,1  — 

101 

«9    0  0 

ITKU 

73  12    7i 

17-975 

75    I  0 

1S219 

70  10    41 

Is5;l3 

77  111  3 

.14  = 
38  — 

11 

71    8  0 

1S'(K12 

75  17    3 

IS -4 10 

77    7  0 

1S-T70 

TS  10    9 

19-125 

8ft    0  0 

it; 

73  10  0 

is-r-ai 

7S    1  101 

I'^-O.';-! 

70  12  0 

l!)-323 

SI  3  n 

19  CSS 

82  13  11 

80  — 

IS 

75  12  0 

io-i2;> 

go    0    0 

19  500 

81   18  0 

19-915 

SO    9    Oi 

85    1  0 

87  -• 

ISl 

77  14  0 

I'.fiViO 

82  11    U 

20-C41 

s4    3  0 

20  4-i7 

S-.  15  101 

•20-813 

f9  ir>  0 

89  — 

10 

70  10  0 

20-187 

S4  15    'i 

20-.'»:i 

SO    9  0 

20-97'.! 

at^  — 

20 

81  IS  0 

•JO-TIO 

87    0    41 

2l-l-:5 

.'iS  14  0 

21-531 

90    8    7{ 

21-933 

40  = 

84    0  0 

21 -2.^) 

80    5    0 

21-lX'O 

91    0  0 

22-1183 

92  15    (1 

41 

-5) 

48  ■ 

'50 

;8 ' 

'50 

02  • 

•(» 

80 

■81 

70 

'74 

70 

'  72 

i-MO 
.'>374 
4-.1S5 
4-0J5 
4-333 
4 

4-l'25 
4-8)4 
4-li:0 
4-0T4 
4-220 


Uohoa,  wliola  chests. . . 

"       half       "     ... 

"        quarter  '*     .... 

t'ongo,  chests 

8ouchong 

IVkoe 

Hyson 

Hyson  skin 

Twankay,  long  chests . 

GuDpowde'- 

Imperial 

Young  hyson 

Consumplhn  of  Tea  in  Europe.— 01  the  Continental 
states,  Russia  and  Holland  are  the  only  ones  in  wliith 
tho  consumption  of  tea  is  considerable.  In  1818  the 
imports  of  tea  into  Kuasia  amounted  to  2'i:V12'J  liood.s 
or  9,123,414  pounds,  in  chests,  and  IKJ.ilU  poods  in 
bricks.  Tho  former  consists  almost  entirely  of  the 
finest  varieties  of  black  tea.  Tlie  consumption  of  tea 
in  Holland  amounts  to  about  ;!,000,U()0  pounds  a  year, 
tho  duty  on  which  varies  from  1  Jc/.  to  iiil.  per  pound. 
Tho  consumption  of  France  docs  not  exceed  aSO.OOO 


twccn  l,5no,OlHj  and  2,(H)0,OilO  pounds,  the  greater  part 
of  wliicli  is  forwuriled  to  the  interior  of  Germany, 


Thus.  4a.  3J.  per  dollar,  1  tael  per  picul  is  ciiual  to  i  pounds.     Tho  importations  into  Hamburg  vary  be- 
Id.  per  pound. 
UsDAi,  NBT  Wr-iniiT  AM>  Meabcbemknt  op  a  CursT  nl 

PlFFE)lEKT  DKbCUllTKlSB  OP  TKA. 

Weiglit,  Solid  Mcni. 

,  catties  i;t3  fectS-UhO 

.       "        •>4 
40 
"        03  to  04 
.      "        CO  "  02 


I.MPOBTS  OP  'Tr.\  IN  THE  UsITF.ll  Kl.NOTIOM  IN  1651  ANB  185-3. 

iMi.  iss-;. 

nol!Crip(l,.r,  of  Te%. 


IMl. 

Poundi. 

2,000 

51,0».000 

■14.000 

91.000 

1.46,'>,000 

4,792.000 

82;i,U00 


nohca  

C»m;o 

i'oudioiif? 

,,  (iilniu 

8ouclion^',  I  loluiii?,  etc 

Vlowcrvaiid  black  l«nfpclcoo  . 

"     ,        fplnin 40,000 

Oi-aiigo  iwkoe  j^^„(„j 3,441,000 

Tvvsekiiv 11»,M0 

Hysonskin 49,000 

lly,}^,],        9,',T,1HN) 

Yoiuig  iiyson  .' '^'I^HI?. 

Imperial ,*;?•«» 

<:iinpo«-Oe'' H'.n,M 

Si.rf.3  ni'.il  .\s9um  tea 021,000 

For  cxportatk-n  only • .         

Totnl TI,501UiiiO 

OViU.lKK) 

/. 9,'2.80,000 

The  Ten  Trmh  of  the  United  .S/a(e».— Tea  is  the  chief 
articlo  imported  from  Cliin.i  into  the  United  States. 
The  cousnraption  of  tho  United  States  amounts  to  from 


Pcunde. 

43,l'oi;.iicft 

l.'l.OOO 

lOO.OIH) 

1.018,000 

2,169,0IH) 

822,lX(0 

4>,00ii 

2,091,000 

341.000 

88,000 

hOO.ODO 

2,001,1)00 

IH'3,n00 

4,183,000 

6,')2,n00 

7.000 


niiick. 


TEA 


1824 


TEA 


B0,<)00,000  to  82,000,000  pouiida  a  year.  Duties  on  Ua 
used  to  furin  one  of  the  largent  iteiiia  of  American  rovc- 
utto,  having  in  aonio  yunn  produced  $3,260,(100.  Thoir 
magnitude,  liowovcr,  was  Justly  coni|iluini'd  of;  and 
it  ii  probably  owing  to  this  circumsiuncu  that,  while 
the  consumption  of  tea  was  fur  several  years  pretty 
stationary  in  the  United  Mlates,  that  of  cotruc  increased 
with  oven  greater  rapidity  than  in  Kiigland.  Tlio 
Secretary  of  Iho  Treasury  uf  the  United  Slates,  in  liis 
Kepurt  for  18'i7,  observed :  "  Tho  use  uf  tea  has  become 
so  general  throughout  the  United  Stiites,  as  tu  rank  al- 
most as  a  necessary  of  life.  When  to  this  wo  add  tliat 
there  is  n  Ival  production  at  huino  tu  bo  fostered  by 
lessening  the  uuiount  of  its  Iniponatlon,  the  duty  upon 
it  may  safely  bo  regarded  a»  tuu  hlMh.  Upon  sumo  uf 
tho  varieties  of  tho  artlclo  it  cunsidorably  exceeds  100 
per  cent.,  and  is  believed  to  be  generally  above  tho 
level  which  a  truo  policy  points  out.  A  moderate  re- 
duction of  the  duty  will  lead  to  an  increased  cunsiimp- 
lion  of  the  article,  to  an  extent  that,  la  all  probability, 
would  in  tho  end  rather  benolit  than  iiijiire  tho  revenue. 
Its  tendency  would  be  to  cnlargu  our  trade  andcxports  to 
China— a  trado  of  progressive  value,  as  our  cottons  and  < 
other  urliclcs  uf  homo  production  (utiida  from  specie)  uru  I 
mure  ami  niuro  entering  into  it.  It  v."juld  cause  more 
of  tlio  tra<le  in  teas  to  centre  in  our  p}'ts;  tho  pres- 
ent rato  of  duty  driving  our  tea  sliips  nut  unfrcquently  ' 
to  seek  their  markets  in  Kurupc,  not  in  tho  form  of  re- 
exportation, but  in  the  direct  voyago  from  China,  li 
would  also  servo  to  diminish  the  rink  of  tho  United  . 
States  losing  any  portion  ol'u  trade  so  valuiible,  through 
the  policy  and  regulations  of  other  nations."  These  j 
judicious  suggcstiuns  luuld  not  fail  lo  oon^mand  attcn-  | 
tion ;  and  the  nourishing  statu  of  tho  revenue  in  sub- 
8e(|ueiit  j'ears  having  aduiitled  of  a  very  great  reduc- 
tion of  duties,  those  on  tea  were  wholly  repealed.  As 
was  to  lie  exptected,  the  consumption  has  since  rapid- 
ly increa.'scd.  The  whole  imports  from  China  to  the 
I'nited  Stales  in  IH.'jO  amounted  to  <ili,04H,72(i,  of 
which  tea  covereil  $G,80i!,4(>;(.  In  1861  tlie  total  im- 
ports reached  (llO,60U.,1'Jil,  of  which  tea  amounted  to  , 
♦0,645,11,.;  and  in  186;),  *10,67y,710,  of  which  tea 
covered  $8,171,070. 

KSTIMA'TK,  IN  I'OfUDS'  WHIUIIT,  OF  THE  tJO.\NTlTirB  Of  TKA 
KXI'ORTKn  HY  hKA  FROU  ('MIN.V  IN  IhM-'.VJ,  tflTClKYIMU 
TUK  CoUNTalXH  FOK  WUICII  Till!  HAMF.  WKIIK  HII:  .TKl),  AND 

TIIK  (Quantity  siiiiTep  fok  each. 

Count.lM.  PnunJf. 

Tho  I'liilcd  Kingdom CK.  KiO.uOO 

'I'ho  lulled  8t»le» 3».,-i.7.(HH) 

Au8tr»l!« S.HiO.OiK) 

llallsuil 1I,00«,000 

Ind  la WM),000 

Other  places 2,-.'0O,0iKI 

Total lia.slrtiooo 

Tho  exports  of  tea  to  Kussia  by  land  amount  to 
1 1,000,000  or  16,000,000  pounds  a  year. 

The  following  tables  ntlbrd  a  review  of  the  quautltics 
of  tea  imported  into  the  United  Slates  (tom  China 
since  the  cominoncenieiit  of  that  traile,  so  far  as  they 
can  1)0  gathered  from  various  oflicial  roturus  ; 

Y«an.  Pountla. 

1790 8,047,242 

1791 »to.',9r 

ITM 2,0I4,00S 

ITfS a.iioll.Ma 

171)4 2.4ilO,'J14 


over,  the  total  auount  imported  during  that  period,  and 
was  as  follows :  Teas  consumed  or  on  hand,  '26,717,917 
pounds ;  or  an  average  annual  quantity  uf  8,389,740 
pounds.  The  quantities  of  teas  of  all  kinds  imported 
into  and  exported  from  tliu  United  States,  from  18S1  to 
I8J3,  inclusive,  together  with  Iho  quantities  retained 
for  consumption,  are  shown  as  follows  i 

I     c 

Pound!. 
4,443,(15 
5,8115,588 
n.474,(M 
7,7^6,619 
i.,  173,740 
8,100,2-28 
4,24»,'^21 
6.2K9.581 
5,618,447 
0,8;3.(i91 
4  660.681 
8,6'17.844 
12,927,048 

If  from  tho  imports  are  deducted  tho  exports  for  each 
year,  an  average  annual  consumption,  for  the  entire 
period,  of  7,000,000  pounds  w  ill  be  given.  The  follow- 
ing statmient  shows  tho  Imports  and  exports  of  tor 
the  q>:.inllty  remaining  on  hand  or  consumed  each  ycii 
fro!u  18,11  to  18n,e.\clnslvc  of  001,319  pounds  impor'- 
I'd  <luring  the  entire  period  from  other  countries  than 
Cblua ; 


Veani. 

Iniporteil. 

Ki|.uil«d. 

c'oniniiitd. 

1834 

i.siir. i 

1886 

i'ounda. 
16,S8;',977 
U.4U.,I>7'2 
16,882,114 
16,i;8-2,3s4 
14,418,112 
9,fl4;i,817 
20,006,5(5 
11,660,801 
ll(i;397,'872 

Poundi. 
3.(81,;W8 
2,1  8;!,S(:6 
1.8,0,342 
2,5  N  -.'HA 
'.',435,302 
1,6.<2,083 
3,I'J3,49« 

000,^32 

I'oundl. 

I.X'i01,6«9 
12,il32,70« 
14,4^6,772 
14,47.1,9(8 
1I,9S'>.810 
7.757,784 
10  88i>,0i'0 

1837 

18:18 

1839 

1840 

1841 

10.89(1,«9 

Tolttl... 

17,3S0,t.65 

ufAon.so? 

Yoan.  Pounds. 

ISO.' 4,'J69,S'J8 

IStia 0,OM,5-29 

ISO-1 3,«22,V28 

I'-IS 5,119,441 

IHOtf 0,870,80(1 

17.5 2.374,118  i  18)7 8,108,774 

I7U(! 2,311l,'.5»      1^08 4,812,008 

1797 2,0»»,399      1S09 l,48-'090 

179H l,s;i(i.(:06  i  1810 7,880,467 

1799 4,.')015<1  I  1811 3,018,118 

ISnO 3,797.1i;!4      1812 3,06l),080 

1801 4,086,900  I 

Deducting  the  q-ianlitics  ascertained  to  have  been 
exported  from  the  United  Stales  during  tho  above  pe- 
rIo<l,  wo  find  tho  average  annual  consumption  in  tho 
country  lo  have  been  3,350,000  pounds  for  twelve  yean, 
from  1801  to  1812,  inclusive.  From  1813  lo  1820,  in- 
clusive, tho  total  amount  consumed  or  on  hand  can 
alone  be  given.     It  approximates  very  closely,  how- 


Tho  preceding  table  will  show  that  the  average  an- 
nual amount  consumed,  or  relaincd  on  hand,  during  this 
period,  was  12,752,1(13  pounds.  Tho  following  state- 
ment exhibits  the  values  of  all  iinporM  from  China 
into  the  United  .Stales  from  j  H;13  to  1841,  inclusive,  dls- 
llngui.'^hing  the  values  of  teaa ;  t  <go!thor  with  the  nu«i- 
bcr  of  vessels  and  the  tonnage  employed  in  tho  trade ; 


Voart. 

Nt.liibtr 
of  Vo,ul<. 

Tonnage. 

V.IUM  of 

111)  ports. 

Valun  of 
Tea.. 

1S33 

41 

15,3;i4 

!|!7,5ll,5TO 

$6,484,603 

1834 

4:i 

l.\65) 

7.8J'2,827 

6,217,949 

18.15 

86 

13,495 

f.,997,187 

4  5J2,8(i6 

1836 

43 

16,415 

7,824,810 

6,342,811 

18:t7 

42 

16,1(111 

8.9(15,337 

5,103,054 

133S 

29 

11.821 

4,704538 

3,4(17,166 

1839 

18 

7.3;)2 

8.G78,6II!I 

2,428,419 

1840 

35 

14.771 

0,6411829 

6,427,010  . 

1841 

Total. . 

S8 
iilB 

11,(86 

8.696,888 

8,4(16,24'. 

1'2'-Mft4 

*r.6,4'.  0.499 

*42,29l),..53 

From  the  preceding  tabic  it  may  bo  seen  that  the 
value  of  teas  reached  annually,  during  the  period  des- 
ignated, about  $4,008,89^,  and  co.islltutod  76  per  cent, 
of  the  <-uluc  of  the  entire  imports ;  while  the  trade  eni- 
ployeil  annually  about  thirty-five  vessels,  averaging 
390  tuns  each.  The  preceding  table  is  lonlinueil  as 
follows,  down  to  1855,  and  exhibits  generally  the  same 
proportion  between  the  value  of  total  imports  from 
China  into  the  United  States  and  the  value  of  teas: 


Yaan. 

Tonnage. 

Value*  of  lnil)nTU. 

VaJuae  of  Tm>.    | 

1S42 

1843 

1844 

12,4SS 
13,4t;0 

I5,8im 

21,682 
19,'J43 
17,775 
24,383 
19,418 
2,1,414 
38,(114 
78.086 
92,8(14 
70,4'.'0 
70,816 

$4.(:i4.6l5 

4.:'85,566 

4  0.81,258 

7,'.i'<5,914 

6.5'3.8!'l 

5,R«3,3I3 

8.0sU,496 

6.513.786 

C,.'.93,402 

7,066,1+4 

10,61>8,95fl 

10,537,710 

10,506,329 

11,048,726 

t4  31.7,101 
3.77(1.46) 
4,075.191 
5,730,101 
B,(tt'2,000 
4.'278,4t8 
0.217,111 
4,071,789 
4,.\S5,720 
4,0: 13,529 
7,144  500 
8,  I74('7il 
6,!>15,11S 
6,806,463 

1816 

1816 

18»7 

1848      

1840    

1S!>0 

1851 

18!S2 

I8.M 

18i4 

1856 

TEA 


<-■«■»*  Ma,,..-;"""  ^'  "•'■-(Mad,  •^■o^o;  J  >. 


18M 


TEA 


i'oon.i,. 
£'.M0,J0O 

5«,Sa8,K)0 

B3,IHI1,80.| 
«.U1T,2,)0 
"417,(100 


*>-iea,6B8 

18.B0«,388 
18,171,826 
J».888,6« 
18,«79,BOO 
Sl.T6r,800 
«8.T«0,800 
M,8a4,0OC 
«».»M,600 
JIWBOO 


It  Win  be  noticei'    v,.  .u  , ■ 

thoM  given  belo^,  the  u>t,  .  ''"'='  "R'M  with 
United  State.  T«,;„,yR^^'„;  ">8  t.k,ntrcraZ 
T«A  axpoETiD  nov  fm-. 


Canton. .  -„  .      '. 

^^■:====::::& 

Total.jrwtflSW-'M J!L'2:]£'» 

From  July  1  IBM  ,    t    *^.'»i,im 

Promc.nton... 

JromFoo-chow. 

rnm  SIungh«l,.;' ••■ ' 


W7,Mb 

•■• 6.«S7,wo 

The  exporu  to  Great  Rrit.il 7  J.' '  * ' ' '  "^^*^*^ 
*««>  01,031,800  p.u.1    i''^'i,i"''l!«.«'"  ye.r  18fiiW.'M 


13.S'20,O00 

12,816,000 

18,07S,00« 

H8')2,00O 

0.306,000 

18,«8g,uoo 

11,886,000 

14,706,000 

1S,T4S,OCO 

14,SM,000 

liS42,000 

14,269,000 

li4«,000 

14,418,(100 

'",T;!6,000 


»,0«0 
237,000 
47,000 

asfl,noD 

848,000 

46,000 

110,000 

sr  ■<  . 

124,000 

»8,noo 
26t,000 


■T  ima. 

,    i,m 

,987,IK)0 
,fl»4,t00 
,'IO,0')0 
4.^8l,0ll0 
4,B83,0"fl 
2,6.11,000 
3.400,00 ) 
2,l»liH,00.) 
,  3,80S,00(' 
2,330,001 
4,462,000 
I  ».SS7,I)00 
7.319,000 
«,4S2,00(,. 
7,801,000 
T,628,000 
fi.lS.^OOO 
1.184,000 
!',063,000 


Kilvvnuna. 
18.114,000  I 
IB.810,000 

i«.7ai,(K)o 

I?,3l8,00O 

17,700,000 

18,!18,000 

20,803,000 

1S.16«,000 

10.834,000 

18.226,000 

16.809,001) 

18.76«,000 

31,400,000 

82.880,000 

26.263,000 

29,277,000 

24,080,000 

*4, 796,000 

31,449,000  I 

31,987,000  I 


-■.  »*i«r[ou  rrom  China  to  tL  v^.i'  ,  """  "f 'ea 
Towns,  thoLavant.  the  Mnrii!  ^«"'e'l«mls,  Ilanw 
'he  last-named  ^'Jtt"^:^:"'""'"' «""  K"«.ia  t" 
8,4  2  000  kilograms;  and  in  *  ,  '"  T^r^  '»  1889, 
v-hich,  added  tothe^oulX    ■  •,'''*''r,''''''eram8 

ne:Uo'<5rV.rSir  fer  Vt^^/'a'".  «„. 
exported  to  the  former  fnr^!^  '815. '-0  1834  the™  were 

frams,  of  ^hich  2o"oM  klJ.  '^^^'  ^'"^S.OOO  kill 
In  183a-'34  the  Am«!    """8™""  were  re^-xported 
Europe  l.Oitmk^.Zr""^'''  '">"'  P^'^^l^'tt 
United  Sutca  ha,  largflyTn-       ■'"'"'.'""P"'"'  in  the 
on  the  tre,  liat  of  that  cour   .!^-  "^  '""^  ^  ^"3  pm 

£cJ^n:W&;;S'^i^ 'Reexports  Of  tea 


Ulilna . . 
Other  pImVs" 

l^'ylng  dutyj 
»•  non-pro.t 
duccn ) 

Total 


.reXrterflSm'c&t?!  '^  luantitie.  of  tea  ^--^^^-^^-^idm^yMrJ^^^.^ 

Towns,  the  Levant  the  Mem    '"'  ^*"«"'«nds,  Ilan,^  I-ronx.  „,  t.a  rr~~^~'^'^^'^^*-'**'^*»!! 

'ho  last-named  country  th"™"'^    »""  """'ia    t"  '™""'  '™.  aJ" w"' ^::",f"  «''""=«  -^h  t...  y.,. 

,442  000  kilograms^^Jdt,,  :\!^r?^">  1889:  "'  ""  '^---■^- -/^li*^?^^- '^^ 


Holland.., ;;; 

England  ..   ' 

Scotland.        

Ireland  ...,' 

C'«nai:»      

Jirit  Bh  Anstralla. . . . .' 

"  Itlsh  Kost  liidie,.       

c"ba™  ""  ""^  '*"'""'"•'•••.*.'.".■.■.■ 

OenlralRipniiui; ; ; ; ." 

"raail 

Sandwich  InlTOdi".;; 

China.  


Total, 


Poandi. 
■  23,018 
83 
6B63 
30 
63 
4,!^« 
878 
7S8 
1,000 
676 
40 
2a(0 
814 
666 
1,474 
360 

.  42,283 


$12,481 

»,7C8 
3 
18 
68f 
168 
148: 
22S. 
2S. 

n 
lets. 

167 

8».     : 

ISJt 

226 

»I7,81(( 


BUck, 
Pound*] 
'.UNt  489 

-  ^i)r, 
!.9:)!>,dl7 
.863,600 
.S6i,400 
.315,100 
•WO,  700 
.484  700 

17,200 


-  oAjjiTig  or  tea  ""«' — "  mw 

••en  -ears,  from   Impokts  of  Tka  rn.V  ",'„'!' ^'''''^'     *i^^ 


ToUI. 

Pounjf. 
2f'.702,B6S  I 
18,O02,2j8 

18. '71,828 
19,388,647 
18.672,3110  I 
21.767,830 
28,760,800 
34.33t,)00 
40,974  600 
27,8ii7,u00  I 


Dutch  Kast  Indies  ■^"""'l'. 

;'hlllp|,ino  Inlands. 798,436 

Cliina  . . .  630 

TolM     19:M628a 

'•«.3;i6,5Ji 


.f3,864 

136,120 

.        174 

S.018,702 

p;t67;8S5 


T„T.„.     ,  ,.  '".".u,w,    $5,r67,8?5 

'belrnptfeTr  :™  a^'C"  '""\"'-  ^^^  -".y 

proved  of  forthedero8io?./»T  "'"''=''  "'"^  ">«  .p-- 

»'„,  ,1, — ^-^^-L-J:i"':Hi:!iJJiW7,u00  1 1  ly  appropriated  to  fh»  ' ""''  "°  *»  I**  exclu.i't 

/i._.  an.1  .. r      ™"U11.      ineDackmrpttol,.!!  1 . 


Canton 

i'oo-ohow   ' 

8!ianghal...V,','. '.'.'.'. 

Total,  year  ISCl-w' 
5Z 


•long  three  port's  as   r  '".•"'""''  •"  ">«  '^•r 

furis,  as  sumption  or  exportation    TIip  n.^l""" '  r,"""'"  «"•- 

-     -  and  arranged  in  the  ChoVs^  bv  thT"  "*"'  '^  '°""» 

mg  to  their  respeetive  ™  hoM"^r  »Lf  ?''''''  '"''"'- 

aW=  the  officers  to  select  from  L  7  i  '*""'   '"  "  »"  en- 

of  packa;jes  for  tarin7anr„  »     '^/'^'''red  number 

'  to  be  allowed  on  K^t^lZX"  *'"'  '"""^'  "^ 


Ponndt. 

■    2,661.900 

S.400,800 

!:3.653,200 


TEA 


1826 


TEH 


Eirom  nr  Tc4.  Tini  DmowTii  or  roaiiow  ('ovirran 
raoM  TH>  ti«iTn>  matu  ro>  tiiB  Viab  mviMa  Jmc, 
10,  IbuT. 


WHIth*r  iipottotl 

RoHlan  I'utit  In  Nurtli  Amarlu. 

tlWMllali  WMt  Indlu 

DuUh  WHt  IndiM 

IlMnburt 

Otli«r  (lenuui  porU 

Diitrh  OuUn* 

EliKland 

Ulbraltar 

Ckiuda . 


iiii,oaT 

86 

11,660 

111 

iHi 

in 

TT.ai4 

U60 
9,0Tli.ll9 
Olbcr  BrltUh  N.  Anitiiuii  Pom.  1,oi.I,I)M 

Brtdih  Wnt  Indies W,046 

Brltlth  llondiiru (1,480 

IlriUih  MuUiia 8i4 

UrlUdi  PoHraloni  In  Afrlw  ....  188 

OU(«r  porU  In  Africa B,li6T 

Britlih  AnatnlU »,S0O 

Kranrr  >.»  the  Atltnlle 160 

Frenrh  N.  American  i'OMflwtoni.       fi2,80T 

Fninrh  Writ  IndlH 860 

C'intry  IiUndi 309 

€ab> 3,4S9 

Porui  lueo ana 

Portngal »S,89S 

Madeira 1,('2T 

Ctpa  de  Verd  lilandi 1,068 

Atoroa Sl,l«4 

Sardinia 4,036 

Turkey  In  Europe 4,000 

Turkey  In  Alia l.S'iO 

Haytl 6(14 

Mexico 84,0(l» 

Central  Kepul)llo 164 

NevOranada 8,RtT 

Venexuela ,....  6,400 

Draall «S2,O70 

Uruguay,  or  C'lipiatine  Kapubllo.  2.).M0 

Buenoi  Ayrei,  or  Argentina  Itep. .  19, TO* 

ClilU 66.631 

Peru 4,010 

Sandwich  Iilauda .'....  18,'.'4S 

China !iB,(100 

Whale.fUhorie , 4.038 

ToUl 8,8(17,471) 

From  warehouM 'ill,(i87 

Not  from  warehouH . .  8,84l,44'2 


Tal.'. 

li^BJa 

44 

4,986 

66 

6T 

10 

I7,(T8 

144 

aT«,ni 
u»,mi 

4,  (96 
8,660 
■tli 
U 
l,8i9 
1,000 

ino 

8,086 
140 

inn 

1,700 

171 

lO.lOtt 

684 

888 

io,r6i 

1,606 

1,660 

610 

STO 

I),II07 

71 

8,704 

1,444 

123,873 

R,0U7 

12.1148 
l.KH) 
8,728 
8,87T 
1.908 

»!  4il(>.'ill 

llii'i.SaS 

$1,417,876 


Dull/  on  Teat. — Tea  or  coflTee,  shipped  Trom  the  coun- 
trj  of  productiun,  but  not  for  a  distinct  and  spccitlc 
destination  to  persons  or  pU(X)s  in  the  United  Slates, 
and  transhipped  at  a  foreign  intermediate  port  for  the 
United  States,  is,  »n  Importation,  liable  to  a  duty  of 
20  per  cent.  But  if  originally  shipped  in  national 
vessels,  or  vessels  placed  on  that  fooling;  by  treaty,  for 
a  specific  party  and  placo  in  tlio  United  States,  (>om 
the  country  of  production,  and  so  imported  into  the 
United  States,  those  articles  nra  entitled  to  frea  entry, 
although  a  mere  transhipment  may  have  taken  place 
at  a  foreign  intermediate  port. 

Tea  or  coflSee,  entitled  to  free  entry  when  originally 
imported  into  the  United  States,  afterward  exported 
to  a  foreign  port  and  brought  back  as  part  of  the  re- 
turning cargo  of  the  exporting  vessel,  not  having  been 
landed  abroad,  is  entitled  to  free  entry  on  its  reimpor- 
tation under  these  circumstances.  Tea  and  coflec, 
when  Imported  direct  from  the  place  of  their  growth 
or  production  in  American  vessels,  or  in  foreign  ves- 
sels so  entitled  by  reciprocal  treaties,  are  exempt  from 
duty. 

Coffee,  the  product  of  a  possession  of  the  Nether- 
lands, imported  into  the  United  States  in  a  vessel  of 
the  Netherlands  direct  from  such  possessions,  or  from 
the  Netherlands,  is  admitted  free  of  duty  under  the 
iariir  law  of  1846,  and  the  first  article  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  Netherlands  of  August 
36, 1852.  Tea  or  coffee  imjwrted  direct  from  the  place 
■tt  its  production,  in  vessels  of  the  kingdom  of  IVussia, 
and  of  the  Hanseatlc  republics  of  Hamburg,  Hremen, 
and  Ltkbeok,  is  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  that 
imported  in  American  or  Dutch  vessels. 

Tea  or  coffee,  the  production  of  China,  imported  via 
Singapore,  is  admitted  to  free  entry,  if  it  l>e  satisfac- 
torily shown  at  the  time  of  entry  that  it  was  laden  un 
board  the  American  importing  vessel  from  Chinese 
boats  or  junks  in  Chinese  waters,  intended  in  good 


''.'*th  to  be  conveyed  therein  direct  to  a  specified  port 
'.(  ihe  United  Slates,  at  its  ultimate  destination, 

f  sak  Wood,  or  Indian  Oak,  the  produce  of  the 
rsrfoiia  frandit,  a  large  forest  tree  that  grows  in  dry 
and  elevated  districts  in  the  south  of  India,  the  Hur- 
man  ampire,  I'egn,  Ava,  Siam,  Java,  etc.  Teak  1 1  '■■ 
ber  is  by  far  the  bast  in  the  Kaat ;  It  works  easily,  aiul, 
though  porous,  is  stroug  and  durable;  it  is  easily  sea- 
soned, and  shrinks  very  little ;  it  is  of  au  oily  nature, 
and  therefore  does  not  injure  Iron.  Mr.  Crawfiird  suys 
that  in  comparing  teak  and  oak  logetbor,  the  ussful 
qualities  of  the  former  will  be  fuund  to  preponderate. 
"  It  la  equally  strung,  and  somewhat  more  buoyant. 
Ita  durability  Is  more  uniform  and  decided;  and  tu  in> 
sure  that  durability  it  flsmands  less  care  and  prepara- 
tion ;  for  It  may  be  put  in  use  almost  green  froui  the 
forest,  without  danger  of  dry  or  wet  rut.  It  Is  lit  to 
ondii.'4  all  climates  and  alternations  of  climate." — St* 
Tn«r>0()LD'8  Pr'mciplfn  of  Cnrpnilry;  CiiAWFURD'a 
EiMtm  Archiptlago I  iilcE.i'  Cyciijxztii'a.  The  teak  of 
Malabar,  produced  on  the  high  table-land  of  tho  south 
of  India,  is  deemed  the  best  of  any.  It  is  the  closast 
in  ita  fibre,  and  contains  the  largest  quantity  of  oil,  be- 
ing at  once  the  heaviest  tiid  the  most  durable.  Tbia 
special  of  teak  is  used  for  the  keel,  timliera,  sod  such 
parts  of  a  ship  as  are  under  water:  owing  to  its  great 
weight,  it  is  less  snitable  for  the  upper  works,  and  la 
not  at  all  fit  for  spars.  The  teak  of  Java  ranks  next 
to  tliat  of  }Ialabar,  and  is  especially  suitable  f(jr  plank- 
ing. The  Itangoon  or  Iturnian  teak,  and  that  of  Siam, 
is  not  so  close-grained  or  durable  as  the  others.  It  is, 
however,  tho  most  buoyant,  and  is  therefore  best  fitted 
for  masts  and  spars.  Malabar  teak  is  extensively  used 
in  the  buiIdIng-.\  nrds  of  liombay.  Ships  built  wholly 
of  it  are  almost  indestructible  by  ordinary  wear  and 
tear,  and  instances  are  not  rare  of  their  having  lasted 
fVom  80  to  100  years.  They  are  said  to  sail  indiffer- 
ently, but  this  is  probably  owing  as  much  to  some  de- 
fect in  their  construction  as  to  the  weight  of  tho  tim- 
t«r.  Calcutta  ships  aro  never  wholly  built  of  teak  j 
the  timbers  and  frame-work  are  always  of  nativewood, 
and  the  planking  and  deck  only  of  teak.  The  teak  of 
Burma,  being  co'ivoyed  with  comparatively  little  diffi- 
culty to  tho  ports  of  Bangoon  and  Maulmain,  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  abundant  of  any ;  and  It  is  mainly 
owing  to  tho  facility  with  which  supplies  of  It  are  uIj- 
taincd  that  shii>-bullding  is  now  carried  on  so  very  ex- 
tensively at  Manlmain.  It  is  largely  exported  tu  CaU 
cutta  and  Madras.— >Si!e  Rakoooh.  A  species  of  tim- 
ber called  African  teak  is  exported  flrom  the  west  coast 
of  Aflrlca;  but  in  point  of  fact  it  is  not  teak,  and  It  ii 
(lestituto  of  several  of  its  most  valuable  properties.  It 
is,  however,  for  some  purposes,  a  useful  species  of  tiiii- 
ber. 

Teaael,  or  Z\iUera'  Thlatle  (Ger.  WebmUnel, 
Kratzdulel;  Fr.  Chardim  a  curdiri  It.  Cardo  da  car- 
dure ;  Sp.  Cardeiichn,  Cardo  peinador).  This  plant, 
which  is  cultivated  in  tho  north  and  west  of  England, 
is  an  article  of  consideralile  importance  to  clothiers, 
who  employ  the  crooked  awns  of  the  heads  for  raising 
the  nap  on  woolen  cloths.  For  this  purpose  they  are  fix- 
ed round  tho  periphery  of  a  large,  broad  wheel,  against 
which  the  cloth  is  held  while  the  machine  is  turned. 
In  choosing  teasels,  the  preference  should  be  given  to 
those  with  the  largest  bur,  and  most  pointed,  which 
are  generally  called  male  teiueb.  They  are  mostly  used 
in  preparing'  and  dressing  stockings  nnd  coverlets;  the 
smaller  kind,  commonly  called  the  fullers'  or  drapers', 
and  sometimes  Ihc /ttnale  ttfuelt,  aro  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  tho  finer  stuHV,  as  clothe,  ratcens,  etc. 

Tehuantepeo,  Oulf  of;  a  bay  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  Central  America,  bounded  northwest  by  the 
state  of  Oaxaca,  and  northeast  by  the  republic  of  Gua- 
temala, lat.  16'  N.,  long.  94°  to  96°  W.  It  receives 
the  River  Tehuantupec  10  miles  south  of  the  town. 

The  Fithmtu  of  Tehuantipec,  states  of  Oaxaca,  Vera 
Cruz,  and  Tabasco,  is  the  narrowest  part  of  tho  land 


lilt 


TEH 


1827 


TEL 


port 

rftb* 
ndry 
I  Bur- 
ktl  II. 
r,  »nd, 
ly  •••• 
inlure, 
•il  Buys 

UMlul 

don  to. 
JO)  int. 
d  to  In- 
irepara- 
roiii  th« 
It  lit  to 
t."~-Sf 

VFVRU'* 

I  teik  of 
ho  ioutli 

l«  cloiMt 

ofoll,b»- 

l«.    TbU 
ind  lush 

Iti  gr«»t 
kt,  tnd  U 
inks  next 
f„r  pUnk- 
,t  of  8l»ro, 
ira.    ItU, 
l,e»t  fltltd 
lively  uMil 
allt  whoUy 
■  we»r  tnd 
vliig  iHted 
lil  Indlffcr- 
:o  »ome  de- 
[of  Iho  tlm- 
l\t  of  teak  \ 
jatlvcwood, 

'lie  ti'»k  of 

litllc  dlfB- 
Imin,  l«  the 
|t  U  niiilnly 

If  It  are  oIj- 

lio  very  «x- 

rted  to  Cal- 

Iciei  of  tlin- 

p  west  coMt 

[k,  and  It  il 

Iporllei.    It 
ciei  of  tlih- 

.  1  da  car- 
iThia  piMtt 
1>r  England, 
lo  dothlert, 
1  for  ral»lng 
Ihey  are  llx- 
|eel,again«t 
1  Is  turned. 
Ibe  given  to 
Tted,  ■whlcli 
\iiostly  used 
Uriets;  the 
lor  drapers', 
In  the  pr«p- 
Lclc. 
Itlie  Psclfto 
lest  by  the 
ll)licofGua- 
Jlt  receives 
le  town. 
Ixaca,  Vera 
V  tlio  l»n<« 


HTtWMlnir  lh«  nulf  ..f  Mf|il<-o  flrom  ihe  Pacinc,  and  Is  i  tlon  of  a  now  cutlom-lioui.,  tli*  foundation  of  whlck  l« 
A  ..V"'!!  f'"'^'"«'  mahoRany,  fustic,  log- 1  *lri.a.ly  UIJ.  On  tlio  wh„l.,,  what  with  nr.^.,ut  l.ii.l  • 
wiHirt,  i^nt  .m,  ilniga,  M.'ao  IntllRo,  Rum,  salt,  with  va- :  noss  and  ftilur.,  oxi«ictallun.,  our  Tchu.nt.pec  mlul- 
llmia  kliMli  «f  grain  i  and  ik  i.plan.l.  almund  with  line  '  lx>rs  are  ovidenlly  looklnij  nu.-Vnil.4  Ulatu  Coniulat 
MSlMrwi.     It  I"  lf»»flrMil  almost  throuirhout  hv  til.  I  l/.»„,.v;„-  '  •»  >-~ 


liiiont  throughout  hy  th«    Minatilhti. 
Ivdr  <  ..al«»"ialeo«.    Thin  is  nna  of  thf  plac.n  whore '      T>humlt,»,c  Il„„i,. 


Il  liaii  liwil  |ir>i|iinod  In  uiillci 

•Mail*  liy  a    mal,  of  v(hUh 
wiHilil  form  II  piiri. 

'I'lllH  li*w  lnli<r>nr«anl> 
fftalfiia  to  Hurjill,  aamKili   :,^ 
•01,  alt  (hit  wliiilliiK)  Incliiiled 
lu  VkmIoh,  IfllMo  llOi.iil"-': 
IHIIm  fntm  thit  AlUntl( 
ml  In  A  ilNy  and  a  Imlrti       Ui 
li«  tiialarlallr  dlinlninliixi    the 

Wimillallntl  llf  N  prtijl-rtilil     dllt 

MMohll,  alri-aily  tnrvoynd. 

Kriilii  llin  IMOUlh  of  Iho  rlviT  to  Minatitlan,  twenty 
mll«a,  Ilia  channol  la  ttxcrllant,  raiiarioua  enough  for 
th«  Urifcat  netian  alonniahlpa.  Th<i  depth  nf  wutcr  on 
Iha  li«r  «l  low  tlilit  Is  10  lo  l«  feet  (Mnjor  ll»ri\iiril says 
!»),  (till  «llly  ona  olwlfuilliiii,  n  largu  rock,  has  hctn 
llitiiiiVHri'il,  ami  llint  vaslly  Hvoidublc     From  Jlinatll- 


'  Alliiutlc  and  I'aclll 
river  and  some  lakos 

't  River  Coatsa- 

ilea  fVom  the 

'and  by  stage 

:  111  .ill  about  'iiO 

to  l>o  acranipllsh- 

'      distance  will 

ionrn  fio— on 

tnatltlan  lo 


The  fbilowlni,'  flgnrea  show  iIm- 
dlstanci'n  on  thu  Ti'huaiitt'pce  routu  fruni  New  York 
Uan  Francisco : 

rrnm  Nc»  Vork  to  tbt  mouth  of  Iha  OwtaaiMalM*  -    i 

TretiHli  ilistuiioo 1 

Vuntoni  In  Kan  Franelseo '.     ;,j 

TM.1 tHK 

Telegraph.  1  ■m^;  bofore  the  electric  telegrnpli 
had  liccn  liiio({lnod,  thu  art  of  rapidly  conveying  iiiiel- 
llKcnci'  fnim  point  tu  point  had  oixuplcd  the  allcniloii 
of  niankiud,  and  varlnus  expedl'  ills  for  Iha  acconi- 
plUhmcnt  of  Ihln  ol.Ji  it  had  hcon  devised.  The  most 
priniitlvo  modes  of  tclcyruphlnn  were  by  moon)  ot' 
signal-flri'i,  torches,  trumpets.  More  recently,  sliico 
the  Invention  of  gunpowder,  the  cannon  and  sky-rock- 
ets have  licon  used.  On  the  invention  of  the  aerial 
telegraph,  or  scmapho.-o,  thcHe  means  wore  abandoned. 
In  tbo  year  1084  Dr.  Ilooke  dcMribcd  a  plan  for 
an  acrliil  telegraph,  and  about  I'.'U  M.  .\roontont  in- 


UtI  111  Nld'hll  Iha  fiver  Ijccnincs  more  dlfflcnlt,  und  i  Btilutcd  experiments  with  the  sanu' end  in  view.  Hon'- 
IIHUI  Iw  truvarspil  by  steamboats ;  those  rontcmplaled  '  ever,  neither  of  these  plans  im  re  carried  into  effect ; 
»f«,  In  aliW  and  fashion,  not  dissimilar  trom  the  Cum- 1  an  I  It  was  not  until  ITIU  tli.u  the  semaphore  woj  ocl- 
linrlmid  Ulyiif  Imals.  The  /.rn/i«ra,  built  in  New  York,  ually  used.  In  that  year  un  aerial  telegraph,  the  in- 
MIMI  |)I*'<"I  on  Ihia  jmrtlon  of  the  river  a  short  time  vention  of  M.  Claude  Clmppfi,  was  enipbiyed  for  tho 
sIlliKi,  liad  proved  of  loo  large  draught.  The  current '  trunsmission  of  Intelligence  between  Paris  and  UUe ; 
It  ahiiill  Itco  mlbw  and  n  half  nn  hour— from  Suchll  to  ilie  conveyance  of  a  signal  from  one  i.f  these  places  to 
MlimlUlNh,  llllrly»«lx  hours.  These  uro  tho  termini  j  tho  other  occupying  only  two  minutes.  Semaphores, 
ef  Ilia  (ifiijonlcil  railway,  liy  which,  wlun  completed,  a  mostly  modlllca'lions  of  tho  plan  of  Chappe,  were  soon 
rtlsUili'H  of  Hi  miles  ulll  be  siived.  hi  use  throughout  Kuropc— in  England,  lii  17!i.'i;  Den- 

t'rilHt  dniillll  lo  Venlnsn,  ou  tlio  Pncinc,  IIIO  to  110  ,  mark,  in  tH(l2;  India,  lu  1K23;   Prussia  and  Austria, 
mll«»,  llw  fnillK  I'  by  Ihe  newly-iuadu  stagc-roiid  over    about  It*:!);  and  llussia,  in  1839. 
•  roMub.  wmtilliiies  mouutalnous  country.     Tho  heavl-        This  method  of  telegraphing  Is  still  in  use,  hut  U 
M«l  Witn  Ims  been  on  ibis  eiiil  of  the  road,  where  also   rapidly  being  superseded  by  tho  electric  telegraph,    lu 

lll#  HIvttr  I'licria,  fordnbln  nt  time*,  but  high  and  ^  1(<.V2  the  only  aerial  telegraph  line  In  Knglaad  was  be- 

inarsliy  In  Iho  rainy  season,  is  to  be  spanned  by  a  |  tween  Liverpool  and  Ilol.vhead.    This  has  now,  we  be- 

brliluii  N  mild  and  a  half  In  length.     Some  compeitsa- 

llnn  |ii  ttlNdii  on  tbo  other  side  of  tho  mountain,  hou- 

tiVHr,  by  Alt  iibl  road,  which  has  jiroved  available  from 

CbiVHl*  l'«M  lo  tile  Pacific  plain.    The  time  ci>ntracted 

furiitl  lilt)  ■lllgn'roKil  Is  live  miles  per  hour— twenty-six 

t«  Iwi-iity'idf^lit  bniirs  i  lictween  Minatitlan  and  Suchil 

IIm  |oi»<iit|jl>  by  slefltnboat  will  be  from  six  to  eight 

liuurs,  In  alt  aboiil  Iblrty-livo  hours,  or  a  day  and  a 

lialf  ffiim  owati  to  ocean.    The  harbor  of  Vcntosa  is 

tfiMil,  bit!  A  brpakwilter  will  be  necessary.     As  to  the 

liruhablf  aiiloMnI,  of  travel  and  business  un  the  Tohuan- 

iapmi  Mud,  when  In  full  operation,  we  have  no  further 

tnfiiriHatlon  Iban  Is  alreadv,  in  various  speculations, 

Ii«f»ra  lltil  |tnbll(li     The  shiirlesl  route  from  England, 

Haw  Viirk,  und  New  ( Irleons,  to  the  ports  of  tho  I'ocilic, 

Iha  lliNSt  rtntlKrln);  expcctalions  aro  of  course  entor- 

tiiwd  niApi'ilng  It. 
'fba  firiiMlIt  (lopiilallon  of  the  territory  of  Tehuan- 

(«p«i  It  fsllinalcd  at  riO.OOO,  desemdauts,  for  tho  most 

|i»r(,  i»f  lIlM  Dflglnal  Aztecs.     They  are  gregarious  in 


Ihalr  habltll,  livftli^  In  communities  numbering  3000  to 
iiHM)  iiiu'li,  tinil  illslant  from  each  other  five  to  ten 
inlb't,  Tlloy  ntP  Industrious,  kind-hearted,  and  do- 
tilla,  lm(  vufy  Ihflflless.  The  government  is,  of  course, 
that  wllb'll  At  any  time  our  miMe  Mexican  neiglilwirs 
may  cllltnt'*  to  have.  In  general,  the  rights  and  privi- 
IsgiM  tif  tlt«  fdd  !tpanlsli  colonial  towns  are  fully  en- 
Jnynl,  Tllln*  to  landed  property  ore  good,  and  always 
ratpmiltiit,  'flifi  town  of  Minatitlan,  tho  capital  and 
Bltl|iorl(im  llf  lilt!  Isrrllory,  has  at  present  a  population 


lievc,  been  superseded  by  the  establishment  of  electric 
commnniciition  between  those  tnu  pbiees. 

The  cost  of  working  the  aerial  telegraph  was  enor- 
mous. The  line  above  mentioned  cost  iu  tho  vicinity 
of  ill.'iOO  (about  ii^7500)  per  annum ;  and  a  similar  line, 
lietwecn  London  and  Portsmouth,  cost  X3300  (about 
$16,500)  jier  annum. 

These  telegraphs  were  necessarily  imperfect  |  being 
limited  in  their  power  of  conveying  iiitolligence,  ox- 
ccedinglv  slow,  ond  liable  to  total  interruption  by 
storms  of  ruin  and  snow,  fogs  and  darkness. 

The  ide.i  cf  tho  employment  of  electricity  as  a  means 
of  conveying  intelligence  to  a  distance  appears  to  havo 
been  lung  entertained,  and  experiments  to  ascertain  tho 
practicability  of  electrical  communication  between  dis- 
tant places  w  ere  early  mode  by  scientiflc  men  through- 
out the  civilized  world.  In  1729  Grey  ond  Wheeler 
discovered  th:it  a  current  of  electricity  could  be  niado 
to  flow  through  considerable  lengths' of  w  ire.  In  174(! 
Wincklcr  at  Lcipsic,  and  Le  Monnier  ot  Paris,  experi- 
mented oil  the  same  subject  of  the  transmission  of  tho 
electric  current  through  conducting  bodies.  In  1747 
Dr.  Watson,  in  England,  re|ieatcd  and  extended  theso 
experiments,  sending  a  current  through  two  miles  of 
wire  and  two  of  earth;  sending  shocks  across  tho 
Tliamcs  and  tho  New  River.  Dr.  Franklin  in  1748,  ond 
Do  Luc  in  1740,  repeated  many  of  these  experiments. 
In  addilion,  experiments  bearing  more  or  leas  on  tho 
suliject  of  electric  tc'egrophy  were  made  Ijy  Lesage  iu 
1774,  Reusscr  iu  17lil,  Cavallo  in  1795,  Ilctancourt  iu 


of  Abitllt  (IvK  Imndfoil,  The  commerce  in  the  native  1798,  Sflcmincring  in  1807,  and  Prof.  Oersted  in  1819. 
liroilHHit  ef  tll«  Coiinlfv,  mahognnv,  dvewooda,  colTce,  l  The  first  electric  telegraph  actually  opplled  seems 
tit«,,  if)  JurKg  «Md  Incf'posing.  The  last  <iiiartcr  Mr.  to  have  been  the  invention  of  M.  D.  K.  Salvo.  Hiim- 
P,  daarfd  lwelv«  American  vessels,  averaging  200  boldt  says  his  tclegroph  was  estaldished  between  Mad- 
Urn*  am*,  AHi)  ihP  Ibreign  export  business  was  about  |  rid  and  Aranjuuz  in  1798— a  distance  of  about  2fi  miles. 
Ill*  (l»m«,  Th«  government,  a  short  time  since,  ap-  j  In  I81C  Francis  Konalds,  of  Ilommersmith,  t^ng'*"^?, 
pr0prttt«4  (b«  ll»itd»ome  turn  of  f  50,000  for  tho  ercc- 1  constructed  a  telegraph  ot  eight  miles  m  length.    This 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


iti|2l  121 

■so  ^^"     IMHr 


Hi 


Ufft 
■■114 


6" 


Photographic 

Sdenc9s 

Corporation 


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4^  >i.  '^K\ 


n  Wfff  MMN  tf  Mtf 

HMtfTW^MV  UitO 


,tp. 


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TBL 


1828 


TEL 


tdegnph  wm  on*  of  tha  best  that  had  th«n  bacn  in- 
vented, and  was  capable  of  transmitting  intelligence 
with  coniideratile  rapidity.  In  1828  he  urged  the  Im- 
portance of  his  invention  for  government  purposes,  writ- 
ing to  Lord  Melrllle  on  the  subject,  but  without  effect. 

In  1827  Harrison  G.  Dyer,  an  American,  construct- 
ed a  telegraph  on  Long  Island,  using  frictional  elec- 
tricity.    The  line  was  about  two  miles  in  length. 

Previous  to  1809  no  mode  of  electric  telegraphing 
capable  of  any  extended  use  had  l>een  discovered.  The 
principal  cause  of  failure  seems  to  have  been  in  the  em- 
ployment of  frictional  electricity,  which  is,  on  account 
of  its  high  Intel!  I*.y,  confined  with  great  difficnlty  to 
conducting  Indies,  rapid  and  Incoutinuons  in. its  ac- 
Mon,  and,  from  its  small  quantity,  devoid  of  energetic 
force. 

Soemmering  made  a  step  forward  by  his  application 
of  galvanism  to  the  purposes  of  telegraphing.  In  1809 
he  constmcted,  at  Munich,  a  telegraphic  apparatus,  us- 
ing 85  wires.  The  sl(niais  were  made  by  the  decom- 
position of  water  in  85  tubes,  which  were  in  connection 
with  the  36  wires  of  the  line.  Telegraphs  employing 
the  pnrv,  galvanic  force  were  also  invented  by  Schweig- 
ger,  De  Haer,  K.  Smith  (Scotland,  about  1843);  Bain, 
1846;  and  Morse,  1849. 

Bain's  was  the  only  telegraph  on  thi*  principle  that 
was  extensively  used.  He  used  a  very  simple  appara- 
tus, receiving  the  galvanic  current  upon  chemically- 
prepared  paper,  where  it  made  a  light-blue  mark.  A 
comlination  of  dots  constituted  his  alphabet.  This 
telegraph  was  exceedingly  rapid,  being  capable  of 
transmitting  1200  letters  per  minute.  Tn  1860  alwut 
200  miles  of  telegraph  In  England,  and  i600  In  Amer- 
ica, were  worlced  under  Bain's  patents.  His  plan  hns 
gone  now  almost  entirely  out  of  use,  other  and  better 
instruments  superseding  It. 

The  property  which  lightning  possesses  of  reversing 
or  destroying  the  poles  of  the  natural  magnet,  and  of 
imparling  magnetism  to  iron,  had  long  been  known ; 
but  not  until  1820  was  the  fact  turned  to  any  useful 
purpose.  Professor  Oersted,  of  Copenhagen,  discov- 
ered, during  1819,  that  if  a  wire  charged  with  elec- 
tricity i:t  placed  parallel  to  a  magnetic  needle,  the  nee- 
dle will  deviate  from  its  natural  position,  tending  to 
assume  a  position  at  right  angles  with  tlio  conducting 
wire ;  and  that  this  deviation  follows  a  regular  law. 
Proceeding  on  the  groundwork  of  Professor  Oersted, 
.iiany  othet'  discoveries  were  made  by  Arago,  Ampere, 
Faraday,  Davy,  Sturgeon,  and  Professor  Henry. 

Arago  and  Ampere  in  France,  and  Sir  H.  Davy  in 
England,  discovered  that  a  current  of  electricity  would 
render  steel  magnetic ;  and  Ampere  found  that  by  coil- 
ing the  wire  in  the  form  of  a  helix  round  steel  the  ef- 
fect was  greatly  increased.  William  Sturgeon,  of  Lon- 
don, in  the  year  1825,  discovered  and  constructed  the 
electro-magnet.  The  electro-magnet  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  parts  of  the  electric  telegraph  now  In  use,  and 
has  entered  more  or  less  into  nearly  every  telegraph 
invented  since  its  discovery. 

Oersted's  great  discovery  gave  a  new  direction  to 
the  science  of  electric  telcgrapliing.  Ga'vanic  tele- 
graphs were,  in  turn,  discarded,  and  magneto-electric 
telegraphs  took  their  place. 

Amp&ro  was  the  first  to  make  use  of  Oersted's  dis- 
covery in  telegraphing.  In  1820  he  invented  a  tele- 
graph, using  3<>  magnetic  needles.  Ills  plan  was  not 
practically  carried  Into  eflTect. 

Baron  de  Schilling  invented  a  needle  telegraph  in 
1882,  at  St.  Petersburg.  His  instrument  had  five  nee- 
dles, whii'h,  b}'  their  vibrations  to  the  right  or  left,  In- 
dlcntcd  signals.  He  afterward  improved  his  instru- 
ment, u»iiig  but  one  needle. 

In  1^37  Dr.  Stelnhell  had  a  telegraphic  instrument 
working  a  distunce  of  12  miles.  His  telegraph  of  one 
wire,  and  either  one  or  two  magnetic  needles,  as  might 
be  desired,  made  permanent  marks  on  paper,  and  also 
telegraphed  by  sound.    When  writing,  his  needles  were 


(bmlihed  with  Ink-tubei,  and  by  thalr  motloni  marki 
were  recorded  on  paper;  when  telegraphing  by  sound, 
the  needles  were  made  to  strike  bells  of  different  tones. 
Ha  used  the  earth  as  part  of  tha  circuit.  This  waa 
very  nearly  a  perfect  instrument,  and  la  infinitely  su- 
perior to  the  mifiority  of  talegraphio  ipatrumanti  since 
invented. 

June  12, 1887,  Maur*.  Cooke  &  Wheatatone,  in  En^ 
gland,  obtained  a  patent  for  "improvements  in  giv- 
ing signals  and  sounding  alarms  in  diitant  places,  by 
means  of  electric  currents  transmitted  through  metal- 
lic circuits."  This  seems  to  have  been  the  first  tele- 
graph that  waa  patented  in  Europe.  Cooke  &  Wheat- 
stone's  first  telegraph  was  a  needle  telegraph.  They 
used  five  magnetic  needles  and  five  wires.  An  electro- 
magnet was  used  to  sound  an  alarm.  A  second  patent, 
taken  out  by  Cooke  only,  was  issued  in  April,  1888. 
These  instruments  were  found  to  be  very  imperfect, 
and  after  a  short  trial  were  abandoned. 

A  different  form  of  telegraph,  the  invention  of  tha 
same  parties,  having  but  two  needles,  has,  until  very 
recently,  been  in  general  use  in  England;  but  the 
Morse  system  is  now  being  adopted  there  and  upon 
the  Continent. 

The  list  patent  taken  out  by  Cooke  &  Wheatstone  i« 
dated  May  6, 1846.  During  Jie  same  year  an  act  of 
Parliament  waa  obtained  incorporating  "  Tha  Electrio. 
Telegraph  Company,"  working  these  patents. 

The  needle  telegraph  is,  comparatively,  very  slow; 
the  average  speed  per  message  being  but  14  words  per 
minute.  It  is,  however)  yet  extensively  used  in  En- 
gland. Cooke  &  Wheatstone  took  nut  a  patent  in 
America,  but  their  instrument  was  never  practically 
used  In  the  United  States. 

Since  Cooke  &  Whoatslone's  first  patent,  npward  of 
40  patents  have  been  taken  out  in  Fngland  alone. 
Very  few  of  the  instruments  since  invented  are  in 
practical  operation. 

Aforte't  Telegraph.— \n  the  year  1882  Professor  S.  F. 
B.  Morse  first  conceived  the  idea  of  an  electric  tele- 
graph ;  and  in  the  year  1836  he  had  a  telegraph  con- 
structed, the  basis  of  his  present  simple  and  beautiful 
Instrument.  In  Septeml>er,  1887,  he  exhibited  his  in- 
strument at  the  New  York  University,  working  through 
1700  feet  of  wire.     • 

Morse  applied  for  a  patent  in  the  United  States  In 
April,  1838.  This  application  was  afterward  with- 
drawn, and  his  patent  was  not  taken  out  until  June, 
1840.  In  1842  he  petitioned  Congress,  who  appropri- 
ated #30,000  to  his  use  for  the  construction  of  a  line 
between  Washington  and  Baltimore.  In  June,  1844, 
Morse  bad  his  invention  in  successful  operation  be- 
tween Washington  and  Baltimore  —  a  distance  of  40 
miles.  This  was  the  only  line  in  the  United  States 
constructed  under  government  patronage. 

The  Morse  Electro -magnetic  Telegraph  consists 
mainly  of  two  parts — the  receiving  magnet  and  the 
registering  apparatus.  The  receiving  magnet  is  sur- 
rounded by  flue  wire,  and  is  of  the  horseshoe  form. 
An  a^ustable  ar-iature  is  placed  befo-e  the  poles  of 
the  receiving  magnet.  The  main  circuit  passes  un- 
brrjhen  through  the  receiving  magnet  to  the  next  sta- 
tion. 

The  registering  apparatus  has  a  powerful  horse-shoe 
magnet  placed  vertically.  Alwve  the  poles  of  tha 
magnet  is  an  armature  attached  to  one  end  uf  a  mova- 
ble lever,  on  the  oilier  end  of  which  is  a  steel  style 
for  the  purpose  of  impressing  marks  on  paper  placed 
Immediately  above  the  style.  Intelligence  is  trans- 
mitted by  means  of  breaking  and  closing  the  main 
circuit.  For  this  purpose  a  small  key  Is  employed. 
When  this  key  Is  pressed  down,  the  current  passes  to 
the  receiving  magnet  of  the  distant  station,  causing 
the  receiving  magnet  to  close  the  local  circuit.  On  the 
local  circuit  being  closed,  the  registering  magnet  be- 
comes excited  and  attracts  the  armature  downward, 
causing  a  mark  on  the  paper,  placed  above  the  lever  of 


TEL 


only  in«triiin»„.  I.  _"'>»™Dient  was  for  nomo  fi~.  J 


•nd  in  1868.  This  Hk.. 7  t,  ""''"»<'  "  P«tent  in  wrn 
The  Huh  ""  '"''""""'•  """''*"""'» '» 


on^J  instrument  i„  use  ia  .h,  ^unt  '""''  "">««>«       The  H  '1"  '""  '"'''''"  «  •"'  '"  ""•''*"""  '»  i' 
SJJ^to.,..ter extent  th.n'i'.„r/[^-;U^.^^ 

«ke  those  of  the  piano-forte  i"a  sU  f"", "  »*'  "^  V» 
Inder.    Th!.  .kI*.  .  "■»''aftinclo«ii<i  h,, .  .*. 


ji^etho^Tr^VSforKU"^^^^^^^^^^ 
tader.    This  shaft  i,  m^o  to  fftT'"'*"""^ » V"- 


xuis  snati 

>ne«n«  of  a  treadle.  The's'h.fr  "^'^^  "P'^  by 
""»ged  that  the  cylinder  *S  L"  '^'""'''*  ««  ^ 
«h.ft  stiil  r«volves.'^  On  onHnS^  r'^^:'""'  '^''"e  the 
bras,  wheel  having  fourteen  tef.h""  "y""'''"  *»  « 
•rrauged,  that  when  the  .haft  ^^-  ^  'P'«g  is  so 
It  win  alternately  strike  ."to^thrf  t^^'T'  ^^o' '« 
•nd  pass  into  an  open  spacenhu.  «h  "*  '"■'"''  """>«' 
°S  ?!"*  <"°f'°ff  the  eleclrifcircuh  "'^"•f^^'^  ("^ak- 
two  lines  of  teeth  project,  fo,  h!1    •  ^"  ""'  "y'inder 

These  teeth  are  immediatelt  j,=?  !  '''""•'t  wheel 
by  pressing  down  a  key  theCtri?!.''*^''  «  '^^ 
Btopped.  By  making  the  cvl7„!i  °^  "*«  "i'wder  is 
»  rapidly  br'oken  anVclo*fj'"^^l'2^'"ve.  the  ci„n! 
koy  IS  depressed.  On  the  W  In  '?""■"■«  «"  a 
volution  goes  on  as  before      Th  "^^^  r'"""^-  "">  re- 


-v  »ii  lae  aavantaites  of  «ii  „.u  ^  ramoines  not 
bn  reduces  the  LboXhich  °  Wdrif""^  '-^"''"" 
^  (he  lowest  possible  point.  In  .l'^' .^''  '»  Porfom. 
requires  several  distinc?  electri«l  .  '""""  »>'"«'"»  't 
"ngle  letter.  In  the  H„i  ^'  '""Pu'ses  to  form  a 
uponthe„„„b.,V^e  Ho^„  which  i,  Zei 


breaking  of  the  circuu  soth.M  ''^  ^'^^  '^"'^ot 
Jhould  determine  a  letter  n'r*^  *''"="'=«'  '•np-'lso 
y,  more  parllcuIaHv^i''ceYhI°,?f  "**"  «  ""We™- 
quires  an  appreciable  time  to  cS„    ™?''^  *■"'  "  re- 
«ectr.city;  so  that  on  Ion"   dT." '""«  *'"""«!> 
okliged  to  send  a  less  „uS  „^  ."""."  "«"''''  bo 
given  time  than  on  a  short  .•'^''"«'  *«vesina 
'"b  es  this  and  other  ef^ecu  ,re  ^,"  "    ^''  """""'s"  d 
ducingthe  speed  of  traSssll      '  ""'"'  ""•^''ed,  re- 
If  every  wave,  ins.eadofretthr""  "''"«■"""" 
»  J«t  er,  it  is  evident  enoughThnf^^  ^''^'"'  P"""""'! 
>n.s,.o„  through  the  cable  wonMl"  "^T^  "^  '"""- 
'he  air-lineswith  the  systemTnil^  ""'"'  '»  ">«  of 
»Peed  of  the  air-lines To„,d  n7„  "  •""'•■"»  "'.t the 

,  l^"!h-^?'«™-es;t„^eZr„!?'*»■!•■w»• 


.v.u„„„  goes  on  as  before     Tl.7  *  '^.'«"sed,  the  re-  sneed  V.f  .k  "'.'""■«  'ys'ems  now  in  u^o.^.,      °* 


"o^  in  existence.  ^  "'=*""°ff  «>>«  of  any  telegrf  ph 


sThrLra  ttrH' » -»'vrbuti'^:  -:  -  "'«'-r^  """^'"^  '■""  °^v  teiig-i; 

•tely  on  different  «M..    »?u    "  """  admU^cI  titern     TJ        .  ""^  »»'"«  'mo.     Cloct  »«,t  *  S"*" 

t^fy:!l!l°'^'>''^}^^yibeiyZZ:lZfAT':\.    Tbis  is  about  the  speed  that  an  ordin 

^uchcs  the  kevs,  but  "not  b;!""  °     "'ll.''?!'*'- 


At  the  H  ""  P^'"'  =""'"'"'"8  aTarroVstWn  T  '=""■  ^"""y  '^««''-  ""  "'"""'•  *'""  ">  "ho. 

At  the  depress  on  of  a  kpv  ihL  .    """^  ^"'P  of  paper.       This  i.  .i,»  »  ^v 

crank  in  motio„;Spres«?th?:''V"''"'^^^^^^^^^ 

5«;""  the  letter  opposit? "ol    on  th'T'i'"  '^"'"J"^   "P"^"  "^  'he  Sument  «  ^J^  '."^'  '"'"'"  *''''  """o" 


„-7  "■ '  "t™""  to  those  in  (he  other     Th       '""^'''''e   attractive  power  of  the  n,.7„r.Y      *'*'''r°-'nagnet.   The 


-rf 


TEL 


1880 


TEL 


plac*.  Tha  annatim  ia  Mitorad  to  its  placa  by  maant 
of  a  larer,  which  acta  apon  it  at  tha  inataat  it  is  pulled 
away  from  tba  alactro-ma^et'i  polci.  ThU  arranga- 
ment  employ*  the  current  of  electricity  meivly  to  eflect 
a  slight  change  in  the  force  by  which  the  armature  is 
held  to  tha  magnet's  poles,  and  it  is  so  remarkably 
sensitive  that  tha  mere  contact  of  a  piece  of  zinc  agaipst 
a  copper  wire  has  been  found  amply  sufficient  to  work 
the  magnet.  From  its  sensitiveness  it  inquires  scarce- 
ly a  tenth  of  tha  battery-power  used  by  the  most  sensi- 
tive of  other  system*. 

Another  wonderful  and  beautiful  feature  of  this  in- 
strument is  its  power  of  writing  both  ways,  sending 
and  receiving  message*  at  the  same  instant  over  one 
wire.  This  instrument  thus  doubles  the  capacity  of 
the  wire,  making  it  do  the  service  of  two ;  transmitting 
uith  certainty  and  accuracy  200  letters  each  way  per 
minute,  an  actual  transmission  of  400  letters,  or  80 
words,  per  minute.  This  result  is  accomplished  by 
means  nf  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  batteries  and 
magnets,  so  that  the  current  from  the  transmitting  sta- 
tion does  not  influence  its  own  magnet,  while  it  affects 
that  of  the  receiving  station,  each  magnet  tbua  being 
placed  under  control  of  the  distant  operator.  , 

The  machinery  which  accomplishes  results  so  aston- 
ishing is  simple  in  the  extreme.  It  consists  mainly  of 
four  dock-wheels  used  to  turn  tho  type-wheel.  These 
wheels  are  governed  by  the  vibrating  spring  liefore  ex- 
plained. At  thu  moment  a  current  from  the  distant 
station  enters  the  magnet  the  armature  flies  ofT,  opens 
a  detent  which  causes  a  small  press  to  be  locked  to  tho 
wheel-work  of  the  instmmeiit,  and  then  to  press  a  strip 
of  pape.-  against  tha  letter  of  the  type-wheel  opposite 
the  press  at  t!>at  instant.  A  current  is  sent  upon  the 
lino  by  means  of  keys  arranged  like  those  of  a  piano, 
and  having  the  letters  of  tho  alphabet  engraved  upon 
tliem.  At  the  moment  one  of  these  keys  is  depressed 
the  magnet  of  the  receiving  station  is  made  to  act, 
and  the  press  to  print  the  letter  corresponding  to  tho 
'^  touched  key.  The  receiving  operator  fa»«  nothing  to 
<)o  but  to  tear  otf  the  messages  is  they 

This  instrument,  after  more  than  tci  jf  perse- 

vering tliought  and  labor,  ii.  at  last  pi  ,  snd  now 

fulfills  ail  the  requisites  of  a  perfect  telegraph  instru- 
ment—mora  than  realizing  all  thst  has  evn  been 
claimed  for  it  by  the  inventor.  Tiie  remarkable  in- 
genuity, toleut,  and  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
electrical  science  displayed  by  Professor  Hughes,  in  the 
invention  of  bis  beautiful  machine,  deservedly  place 
him  foremost  in  the  i  inks  of  tho  laborers  in  this  branch 
uf  art,  and  Justify  h>a  claim  of  having  invented  a  telo- 
Kraph  instrument  whiih,  for  speed,  neatness,  and  econ- 
omy, is  without  a  Hvul. 

The  numerous  advantage*  that  tho  Hughes  instru- 
ment possesses  over  all  other  existing  systems,  par- 
ticularly in  the  matter  of  speed  and  power  of  working 
on  long  circuits,  will  probably  give  it  the  preference 
in  tbe  selection  of  telegraphic  machines  with  which  to 
work  the  Atlantic  Submarine  cable.  Indeed  it  may 
well  bo  doubted  if  any  other  systiim  can  be  mada  prac- 
tically available  for  tliat  purpose. 

Tho  following  brief  summary  of  the  telegraph  lines 
of  the  world  at  the  close  of  tho  year  1857  will  furnish 
I'ome  idea  of  the  importance  of  tho  telegraphic  art,  and 
of  its  claims  to  public  attention : 

CnOed  Statn  bsvo  upwsrd  of  K,OMinlIe*of  telegrsph,  eni- 
}>loylng  a  uspltsl,  as  near  as  ran  liii  ascertained,  of  $4,O0U,U00. 
The  lUstnmients  used  are  th*  Ilugbes,  Hoiim,  and  Morse 
iiiacblDos. 

BritUh  Protinct*  hare  COOO  miles  of  telegrsph,  eniploylng 
a  capital  at  $fiOO,000. 

Ciba  and  Mexico  hare  short  and  unreliable  lines,  which  are 
controlled  bjr  the  governments. 

England  has  about  10,000  miles  oftelcgraph  lines— upward 
of  40,000  miles  of  conducting  wtie— employing  a  capital  esti- 
mated at  a  million  and  a  half  ponud*  sterling.  In  England 
the  government  has  the  power  of  ordering  all  goTcmment 
messages  to  takO' precedence  of  any  other  comuunicallous. 


and  wk*a  dsamed  neesssary  sll  lelsgropha  are  rsqnliad  to  fe* 
plaeed  at  tbe  sole  disposal  of  the  goverament.  Only  one  In- 
slanee  of  this  kind  has  octnrred ;  on  the  occasiou  ef  the  an* 
tidpated  Chartist  riots  In  April,  184». 

ytom*  hss  8000  miles  of  telegraph  in  eperstton,  nadsr  tha 
exclusive  eoutrol  of  the  govsroment. 

Mgtum.  has  about  BOO  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  eonstnistsd 
and  controlled  by  the  government. 

Qtrmani^  and  Austria  have  nearly  10,000  mile*  of  tele- 
graph, controlled  by  the  govemmentsi 

Pnuiia  has  about  4000  miles  of  tslegrsph  In  operation. 
The  wires  ors  mostly  underground— controlled  by  the  gov- 
ernnent 

ifoUoiHi  has  (00  miles  of  telegraph.  '.  ■'  <>  '  "n 

Sammy  and  Bamtrta  hare  government  Ihie*  of  shodt  ItOO 
miles. 

Xtaly  hss  2600  miles,  controUed  by  its  dUbrent  govern- 
ments. 

Sicitxerfaind  has  IBOO  miles,  under  control  of  tbe  Federal 
government. 

Spain  and  Portugal  have  some  800  miles— controlled  by  th* 
governments. 

Bnmia.—Ot  the  number  and  extent  of  Snsstan  telegraph 
Uaes  little  Is  known.  As  near  as  can  be  estimated,  they  ex- 
tend over  0000  miles— under  government  control. 

Indta  has  now  In  operstlon  SOOO  miles  of  telegraph,  con- 
structed and  controlled  by  the  East  India  Company. 

AxutraUa  has  tM)0  miles  In  operation,  and  SOO  miles  nearly 
or  quite  completed. 

BxoAnruLATioif. 

MUM. 

America 45,000 

England 10,000 

France 8,000 

Uernwny  and  Austria 10,000 

FniBSla 4v000 

Russia 6,000 

Kestcf  Europe T,6B0 

India 6,000 

Australia 1,200 

Other  parts  of  the  world , 600 

Total  length  of  telegrsph  lines...  06,160 
The  number  of  messages  passing  over  all  lines  in  tba 
United  States  is  estimated  at  about  4,000,000  per 
annimi. 

In  addition  to  the  land  lines,  numerous  submarine 
cables  have  been  laid  in  dilferent  parts  of  the  world. 
Annexed  is  a  brief  account  of  tho  different  submarine 
cables,  lengths,  when  laid,  etc. 

The  flrst  submarine  cable  was  laid  between  Dover, 
England,  and  Calais,  France,  during  August,  1660.  This 
cable  was  about  24  miles  in  length.  Electrical  com- 
munication between  England  and  France  continued 
uninterrupted  for  altout  a  month,  when  tha  cable  wa* 
broken.  Upon  examination  it  waa  found  that  the 
chafing  of  the  cable  against  rocks  off  Cape  Gricnez  had 
caused  it  to  part.  A  second  cable  was  immediately 
rclaid,  larger  and  stronger  than  its  predecessor,  which 
has  remained  in  good  working  order  up  to  the  present 
time. 

In  May,  1862,  a  submarine  cablo  was  successfully 
laid  between  Holyhead  and  Howth,  thus  connecting 
England  with  Ireland.  This  cable  is  64  miles  in 
length. 

During  May,  1858,  "  the  Port  Patrick  and  Carrickfei^ 
gus"  cable,  24  miles  in  length,  connecting  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  was  laid. 

In  June,  1864,  a  cablo  116  miles  in  length  was  laid 
between  Orfordness,  England,  and  the  Hague,  Holland. 
A  third  cablo,  76  miles  in  length,  was  laid  in  1862, 
between  Dover  and  Ostend. 

In  1864  cables  from  Italy  to  Corsica,  thence  to  Sar- 
dinia, were,  after  much  difficulty,  successfully  laid 
down,  a  distance  of  about  76  miles. 

Tho  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and  London  Tele- 
graph Company,  in  1866  made  an  attempt  to  connect 
the  islands  of  Newfoundland  and  Cape  Breton.  The 
attempt  was  unsuccessful.  In  1866  another  attempt 
was  made,  resulting  in  complete  success. 
.  Summary  ifStJmarine  Coij^.— The  following  Is  a 
oorreot  table  of  the  number  and  length  of  the  sub- 
marine cables  laid  down  in  different  part*  of  the 
world  t 


■&iT 


DoTwiodOiteiKl.. 

HoIyIi,«i„a„     ,^- 

B»«*«dMdH«H.nd.  :; 

gK.'e5S:!5?»--<i-.:: 

I««lT»iidCon<M... 

^^nleatadSudinlit 

»2ISSk':j^.'^ft^iwi:;:.-i  }2 

^2^^?S™""'«  Sound       » 

AcioM  the  Frith  of  Forth  /a^" .'. 

Sm)  . . .  .'•"•»•  («TOn  the  Black  ( 

Acroa  the  Gulf  of  «t"r  1 

AeroM  the  Stnlti  of  L- fc*""** 

AcroM  the  Boaphof uiTi  ».„j.V.  •  *  •  • 
AoTOMthe  OutofSSji  K»ndlll '. 

,  mil  j  K.^  Md  hwte"-  ""h  one  i 


■-■■^  the  HImImIdiiI  .t 


Bm.U  rirer^'SIii".'/ W'eht  (Euj.; 


1      ISM     «"t  the  entire  <««.;!!  t.K*"'^*  *««  "«"  3mSi22. 
•''•«%  wirnr  r.l.!  *^''  •»'"«lBlng  ,  ,to!l.«^ 

S  wi"j'''''''«-<''«»<ut  tt.isJToft'C'p''  *»« 

, "''  »»rts  per  min uta     tIl.   ,'^"  "  •»  l«Me  •ivht 
""""to,  and  ^wliX  ,!;fV'  « «•»  wort.  |„^' 

.      ,   fourteen  thonawdfof.  Z^'^^  '"'""'••  i  ••••<)? 
|M     one  word,  the  doubt.  a«  ?.   ?"?  *°'^»  P"  d.y.     I? 

Total  Her  mUe....    to 

fj'jKOOmUe. iSB 

Total  coet.  '•"»'*«'P«rmlle...        ^J'JJJ 

dUr  Junction  TeleCTanh  r.      ""  ^"opMn  and  In" 

»»  that  for  the  EuphwUeSin""'  "'""«''  '•  tb«  Mme 
port  of  Seleuela,  ortheX*  ^'^ir '''"•'^''  '^'»  '"• 
the  Persian  Gulf,  folIowinTth.l  S"""' '"  ">o  head  of 


*       «      1S87 

185)1 

isfia 

ISSt 
185S 


950^miC„W4-'rh"'' •'•^^ 
•U  Is  2660  miJer  Sm  ./  ""*  conducting  T  ^' 

»  capital  of  f360  0Mf„,,K ''^^^'P""  Company  wi3! 

Europe  with  America  ht^  I  ^"'^"^  «'  connecting  "1"  ""'connect,on  the^Iw '^''"'"^^''Pl'rate.i 
In  August,  1857  ar.,Z  .'"'"""'*°«  ^legraph  "„/  •^*.'""  "^  'cicgraphs  which  ?..*V'"'' "'"'  ">«  Au,trl« 
Atlantic  S«bn,arine  CaSr  '" .'".'"''' '»  CdoVnIhe  ?".^, ""  ""e  oTher  w Uh  a  «b  .  .^k**,' 1«» •oSeleucU? 
fcilure.  The  cable  was  &mn''"«, '"  «  disasfrot  Jort^^^r'"'"^  '""^  ""  p'"Un  Gu  ?'?  "i^ '""  ^« 
nearly  one  ton  ner  m!l»  ,  ■    '"  'cngth,  weiithinir  P  ■       ^""achee.    It  will  ,h.^         *"  "">  Indian 

atrain  of  over  flv'^'Lns  w'ir".''';  "'  ^'^''"S  a Xc?  f'"''  r""^  ^  ^'^^bhl^'^^  '"PP'y  "">  on" 

av^';!:arrS^-r.pi^^ 


L  i^.lft-^ 


,1851. .y 


TEN 


1882 


TEN 


Bjr  tha  act  of  February,  1857,  "all  fonoar  acta  an- 
thoriting  iha  ourranejr  of  foreign  gold  and  silver  coina, 
and  declaring  the  aame  a  legal  tender  in  payment  of 
dettU,  are  hereby  repealed." 

In  the  abeence  of  any  ipeclal  agreement,  the  only 
payment  iinown  to  the  law  U  by  cash.  The  tender 
should  properly  be  in  cash,  and  must  be  so,  if  that  is 
raqnired.  A  tender  of  a  larger  sum  than  ia  due,  with  a 
requirement  of  change  or  of  the  balance,  is  not  good. 
A  lawful  tendir,  and  payment  of  the  money  into  court, 
ia  a  good  defense  to  an  action  for  the  debt  But  the 
creditor  may  break  down  this  defense  by  proving  that 
he  demanded  the  money  of  the  debtor,  and  the  debtor 
refbsed  to  give  it,  subMquenUy  to  the  tender.— Pab- 
aoMa  oa  MmaiUUt  Ijcue. 

TwisrUfe,  the  largest  island  of  the  group  called 
the  Canaries,  lies  between  Canary  and  Oomera.  It  is 
of  an  Irregular  shape,  60  miles  in  length,  with  an  ex- 
treme breadth  of  80  miles.  Not  more  than  one-seventh 
is  eultlvable.  A  chain  of  mountains  traverses  the  isl- 
and in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  broadest  part  rises  the  celebrated  peak 
locally  known  as  the  Pico  de  Teyde,  which,  with  its 
supports  and  spuis,  occupies  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  island. 

The  Canary  Islands  are  In  the  Xorth  Atlantic  Ocean, 
between  lat.  87°  40'  and  39°  80'  N.,  and  long.  18°  80' 
and  18°  20'  W.    The  names  of  the  seven  principal 


TanariA SIT 

Oraad  Cellar* TS8 

Palma T18 

Laniarote StI 

Fuertaventura SM 

OomeiB IW 

UteiTo 81 


islands,  their  respective  area  in  English  square  miles, 
and  tbeir  population  in  1886,  are  given  In  the  follow- 
ing table : 

rmteUM. 

w,o«> 

•8,000 
81,000 

17,400 

18,800 

11,T0» 

4,400 

Formerly  the  total  annual  produce  was  estimated 
at  about  40,000  pipes,  of  which  2A,000  pipes  were  pro- 
duced in  Teneriflb.  Between  8000  and  9000  pipes  were 
exported.  The  chief  exports  are  wine,  cochineal,  barilla, 
and  orchiUa.  '  The  imports  consist  of  woolen,  silk,  cot- 
ton, and  iron  manufactures,  glass,  etc 

Principal  Pori$.— "nit  ports  of  Santa  Crui  de  Tene- 
riffii,  Orotana,  Ciudad  Real  de  loa  Palmes,  Anecilfe  de 
Langarole,  Puerto  da  Cabras,  and  San  Sebastian,  in 
the  Canary  Islands,  having  been  declared  free  by  royal 
decree  proclaimed  on  the  10th  of  October,  1862,  and 
vessels  of  the  United  States  and  their  cargoes  arriving 
in  said  ports  being  thus  placed  on  the  same  footing 
with  those  of  Spain,  no  discriminating  duty  is  levied 
on  Spanish  vessels  and  their  cargoes  arriving  from  those 
ports  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States;  provided  that 
on  every  such  arrival  the  required  consular  certificate 
be  filed  with  the  collector  of  the  port.— <See  Canabies. 


CoMUiBoi  or  TDB  L'kitid  Btatis  with  TnnBina  akd  Tsa  Camabibs,  raoii  Ootobbb  1, 1820,  to  Jiilt  1,  ISOT. 


Twn  Midlat 


Sept.  80, 1881 

1823 , 

1888 

1884 

1825..... 

1828 

183T 

1828 

1820 

1880 

Total. 


Sept  80, 1831. 
1888. 
1838. 
1884. 
1836. < 
1836.. 
18.flr. 


1839 

1810 

Total. 


Sept  80,1841 

18(8 

Omoa,  1843*.... 
June  SO,  1844 

1846 

1840 

184T 

1848 

1849 

18S0 

Total. 


Jane  80,1861., 
1868.. 
1863., 
1864.. 
1886.. 
1855.. 
18ST.. 


■iporli. 


Doawttie. 


«T4,828 
85,937 
58,008 
^42,846 
♦  70,880 
48,701 
48,143 
88,520 
48,839 
19,049 


•518,884 

$34,981 
14,507 
M,818 
10,088 
40,195 
21,897 
ST.5S8 
84.819 
15.578 
11,818 


$246,891 

$11,290 
19,723 

7,099 
14,498 

6,8P5 
18,071 
16,148 

9,921 
17,840 
10,684 


$119,006 

$13,540 
18,471 
18,215 
19,818 
48,811 
80,941 
89,027 


Tef  ign. 


$48,687 
10,140 
81,216 
10,144 
11,271 
81,741 
39,817 
8,561 
23,317 
610 


$284,445 

$3,446 

7,851 

16,866 

787 

11,710 

4,264 

7,648 

18,688 

ll,nS9 

11,579 


$94,265 

$3,499 

518 

8,025 

1,043 

4,'mO 

i,'l29 
664 

6,065 


$M,ni 

$6,639 

45 

1,000 

804 

8,066 

8,506 

915 


Total. 


$128,465 
116,077 
79,118 
62,989 
91,661 
84,508 
85,080 
41,080 
6e,18« 
19,650 


$760,760 

$88,377 
11,418 
89,668 
81,425 
61,906 
S6,9&1 
85,201 
58.305 
17,611 
23,3115 


$340,166 

$15,780 
18,241 
11,024 
16.535 
6,890 
17,912 
16,148 
11,160 
18,494 
15,689 


$149,m 

$19,170 
16,618 
84,215 
20,120 
46,297 
83.446 
89,943 


Inporti. 


$166,080 
241,195 
108,484 
05,679 
186,718 
178.899 
128,360 
282,740 
25,288 

99,CT8_ 

$l,61^7!5 

$125,158 
151,837 
148.090 
148,180 
106,801 
203, 0A3 
356,278 
151,866 
1<I4,756 

160.5'.:1 


«K73U,950 

$144,654 
91,411 
15,068 
61.653 
66.032 
61,0(6 
61,804 
35,061 
88.919 
S6,223 


$660,970 

117,718 
01.616 
84,021 
89,608 
45,166 
16,704 
44,066 


WhatwrikmwMla 
BalhMudSMclr 


Biport. 


$7,284 
8,600 

i,767 
6,240 
4,607 
4.316 
1,350 
8,103 


$48,313 


$6,976 
8,000 

.4,841 
3,fi61 
7.300 
13,640 
11,661 
9,0(j0 


$G2,870 


H840_ 
"$47340 

$6,600 


Import. 


$470 

600 

3,600 


4,064 
1,700 


$10,434 


$2,160 


678 
<70 


538 

mo 


$4,282 


$1,900 


$1,900 


$460 


*  Nina  months  to  June  80,  and  the  flical  year  from  tbla  time  begins  July  1 


Tonnaf  •  clMr«l- 


AnMricBii. 


8,003 
2,849 
3,396 
1,733 
8,067 
1,901 
1,168 
1,516 
1,714 
706 


21,037 

1,418 
085 
8,341 
1,826 
2,151 
1,615 
2,167 
3,177 
1,191 
713 


18,618 

1,100 
426 
486 
801 
467 
645 

8r6 

889 
918 
f47 


753 
7.'8 
1,048 
1,048 
3,147 
1.348 
8,748 


foFolgn. 


81 


180 
119 


841 


97 
861 
194 


1011 


478 


148 
887 


116 

236 

1876 


2734 

157 
1183 
1236 

isM 

1118 
1000 


T«iuieu«e,  one  of  the  United  States,  lies  between 
lat  86°  and  86°  SO'  X.,  and  long.  81°  80'  and  90°  10' 
W.  Its  mean  length  is  400  miles,  and  iu  mean  breadth 
114  miles,  containing  44,000  square  miles.  Population 
in  1790  was  36,691 ;  in  1800, 106,602 ;  in  1810, 261,727 ; 
in  1820,  422,818;  in  1880,  681,90i;  in  1840,  829,210; 
and  in  1860, 1,002,626.  The  soil  is  various,  but  gener- 
ally fertile.  'The  western  part  has  a  dark  rich  soil;  in 
the  middle  are  great  quantities  of  excellent  land.     In 


the  eastern  part  the  mountains  are  mostly  sterile,  but 
the  valleys  are  very  fertile.  The  country  has  a  great 
profusion  of  native  timber,  poplar,  hickory,  walnut,  oak, 
beach,  sycamore,  locust,  cherry,  sugar-maple,  etc.  There 
are  many  medicinal  plants.  The  soil  produces  abund- 
antly cotton  and  tobacco,  the  staple  commodities  of  the 
State ;  also  grain,  grass,  and  ft-uit.  The  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  State  contains  the  principal  mineral  deposits, 
among  which  are  ores  of  iren,  copper,  lead,  and  beds 


it: 
to: 


TEB 

orooal.    MlnertUprin  '  'td'  • 


wttom  will  .Mow  the  worm      ""PP"  "Pon  •ve.Mri 
«'  <Je8truotion.    All  kl^d,  ?f  "*?  ">  ?"»"•  Jta"  o  k 

to  Florence  i„  A  abSma  2  6  „.!'«»'"''  '»'  'tWlTta  S^-""  •"'-"•'«' "oJ?'d?"  ""  ""'tom.Sf  .Wp, 

boats  800  farther.    It  Zt^J,.l  '^^ash vilk,  and  fo,  h..u   ""PP®'-    To  preserve  „ll.?^^  ""*  *"""•  '"rface 

•ton,  Clinch,  French,  Broad  3?'  *"«'■•    The  Hoi-  a,«.n """'='"  »"  P"e»  doe?  n^  il,  ""■  •"»*  «"'«in.. 
of  the  Tennessee,  ObiorForkM  n"'"'**'""''«n"b°     coaTu?''  P^^^^d  'he  Care.  .4t.T.-<„,^5*"*"«  " 


•»w»jr  uu  mues  from  tha  Mi-.i  .  T  "  "iver  in  Ken 
•ton.  Clinch,  French  Broad  tn??'  '*"'"•  Th"  HcS-' 
of  the  Tennessee ;  ObiorForkMn  "'**'»"  '"•""bes 
fa  the  weslem  part  of  the  sSfe  «''?'"' ^""rive" 

38cotto„^.ctori;,t^uh'.XI;:M^^^«'-'<'^"l«6o, 


-—-■",  provmed  the  «>••....  .  v— /.  vnarnne  fa 
««al  Ur  or  zinc  paint  Ih'r.n"!  **'"  ""««  with  hot 
koep  the  .hellih'^Xtw:^"  be  found  excellent  to 

*»  (c«tch)  a^d  gaX     nT'™"'  "»"«'  of  caee. 
tained  by  boiling  fhe^^.  „V/'  ""'""1  tbat  it  isZ 

tC''."::':..^"''»teh^:X"?b!nrr"^^^^^ 


WMt.  makinf  piX„  »hh  "  ^^^'>'  ^3  establishl Lf  ^""r  ^.""'^b it  co„eai„,Cre  re.V.M"^"  ^^'on 


'/"•ir 

V,   • 

•     .1-,  -  <x 

•  '■:'■'■  .'       TEX 

'JM 


1884 


■  K  .'ijirHi.Jilr, 


TBX 


»     (  ,..ir 


•nftirtimaU,  Md  Immum  all  th«  flrtt  kttampti  toward 
tba  north  wan  althar  mad*  from  Uaxico  or  fttim  th* 
panintula  of  Florida,  «o  theM  two  namoi  prvralled, 
and  dividad  tba  wboU  raglun  among  each  othar.  The 
gnat  caiu|iuron  of  th*  north,  Narvaaa  and  Dt  Soto, 
antarad  ftvm  Cuba  and  from  tba  panintula  of  Flori- 
da. Tha  aamaa  i'mmcia  AwticAtI,  Titmt  Gara^,  Go- 
biemo  d*l  But  d»b»  Pabiuu,  dlaappaaiad  aoan  aftar, 
and  erarjr  tiling  ronnd  tba  wbola  Qulf  of  Moxloo,  up 
to  tha  Palma  Rtvat  In  tha  watt,  waa  eomprtaad  nndar 
tha  ganaral  nama  of  Florida.  At  toon  at  Maslean 
travdart  travenad  tha  Falmi  Rlvar  they  eonildered 
thami«:vti  to  bo  in  Florida.  When  Moicoto  (IMS) 
mada  hit  axcunlon  from  tba  Red  River  weitward  to 
tha  centra  of  Texat,  ha  found  there  innumerable  hardi 
or  bnflUoet^  and  called  tbit  country,  from  which  he 
returned  to  the  eait.  La  Protinda  de  lot  VaqutrM 
(the  province  of  tha  Herdt).  Soma  autbort  eonia- 
oaentljr  gave  that  nama  to  what  we  now  call  Texat. 
The  Spanlarda  in  Uextco  eommonly  called  all  thoae 
wild  Indiana  to  the  north  of  the  cirilliad  empire  of 
Uonteanma  lot  Imlie*  bnum  (tha  tavage  Indiana), 
or  Lot  ChkMmteat.  The  whole  oonntry  north  of  the 
Palmi  River  wai,  thereftore,  rerjr  aflan  datlgnated  at 
"the  Province  of  tha  Chicbimeoai,  or  of  the  Savage 
Indiana"  (£a  Provincia  4»  ht  Okiehimteat,  or  dt  far 
Miot  bravot).  It  wat  a  cuttom  from  which  alto  grew 
out  the  nama  of  th.i  Rio  Bravo.  When  tha  French, 
under  La  Salle,  arrived  on  the  coattt  of  Texat  (1686), 
they  took  poiieition  of  it  under  the  name  and  aa  a 
part  of  their  great  country,  ia  NouttUt  Frtmea  (New 
France);  which  name,  according  to  their  notions, cov. 
ered  at  much  ground  aa  the  name  of  Florida,  according 
to  the  Spaniib  ideaa;  that  it  to  lay,  the  whole  eattom 
half  of  North  America  The  French  from  thii  time 
considered  Texat  to  be  a  part  of  their  dominion  aa  far 
aouth  as  the  liio  nravo,  and  called  it  also  Louisiana, 
when  they  had  erected  tbair  Mississippi  colony  after 
1690,  and  had  given  to  it  officially  that  name  after 
1712.  AU  their  old'mapt  of  Louisiana  go  as  far  down 
aa  Rio  Bravo,  and-  indude  Texat.  Meanwhile  the 
Spanlarda  had,  however,  taken  actual  poasetdon  of 
that  province,  and  gave  another  name  to  it 

Some  believ'j  the  word  Texat  to  be  Indian,  and  tay 
that  when  Alonzo  do  Leon,  in  1689,  arrived  among 
them  be  heard  them  often  use  tbe  word  Texas  as  a 
term  of  love  or  friendship.  Others  suppose  that  the 
word  it  Spanish,  and  that  it  Implies  some  indication 
of  "  tbe  manner  of  tbe  Indians  in  constructing  or  covers 
Ing  tents  or  wigwams."  But  this  teemt  a  not  well- 
founded  tnppotltion ;  for  tbe  Spaniih  word  Tija  (pJur. 
Tqjas)  does  not  appear  to  have  any  thing  to  do  with 
a  covering  of  a  tent  or  wigwam ;  it  meana  simply  "  a 
tile."— See  Voaki  m,  Ilulory  of  Ttxat. 

The  ilnt  Frenchman  who  pronounced  this  name,  in 
the  year  1719,  La  Ilurpo  (an  olBver  in  Louisiana,  well 
known  by  his  travels  and  writings),  received  it  evi- 
dently through  the  Spaniards.  He  calls  the  country 
of  the  Cenis  Indians  Imi  Ttkai.  Some  old  French 
authors  write  also  La  province  de  LaMiiat.  In  the 
year  1727,  for  tbe  first  time,  a  separate  "governor  for 
tha  province  of  Texat"  alono  was  nominated ;  but  this 
province  extended  then  only  as  far  south  as  tbe  River 
Medina.  The  southwestern  part  of  our  present  Texas 
belonged  itill  for  a  long  while  to  "the  province  of 
Coabuila."— ToAKUM,  1.  393. 

It  is  supposed  that  with  this  establishment  of  Texas 
at  a  new  and  separate  government  for  itself  (in  1727) 
was  also  connected  an  introduction  of  a  new  name — 
of  Lai  Nuevai  Fjliyimit  (the  new  Philippines),  given 
to  this  government  in  honor  of  King  Philip  V.  At 
least  neither  Barcis  nor  any  other  author  used  this 
name  boforo  this  time,  while  we  afterward  find  it  re- 
peatedly in  official  papers  and  documents.  The  old 
and  popular  name  of  Lot  Ttxat  was,  however,  used  be- 
aides  it.  'We  see  both  names  still  on  maps  of  a  very 
^te  date ;  *»,  for  instance,  on  a  Mexican  map  of  tbe 


year  1818,  Prvmtia  4t  Tttm  •  JVfaamu  F9ipimii  (tba 
province  of  Texas,  «r  tha  new  Philippines).  Until 
18iM,  tha  dominion  of  this  nama  did,  however,  tonth. 
ward,  not  reach  the  Rio  Bravo.  The  province  of  Coa- 
haila  and  of  Nnave  SanI  Ander  took  away  the  whole 
touthwattam  quarter  of  Teaaa,  at  far  eatt  and  north  at 
the  Rla  Medina  and  tha  loureee  ef  tha  Colorado  and 
Braiot.  Kattward,  toward  Lonbiana,  the  province  of 
Texaa  and  Kaw  Phllipplaet  estonded  to  the  nilghbor- 
heoAof  the  Red  River,  and  on  tha  thorra  of  the  Mexi- 
can Gulf  to  the  Rio  Calcatlu,  and  tometimet  aa  far  aa 
tha  Memnentau.  In  the  year  1834,  under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Mexican  Be^nblle,  the  old  connected  prov- 
tneaa  of  Coahnlla  and  Texaa  were  again  melted  to- 
gether Into  one  ttatojunder  the  name  of  El  Etiado  dt 
Ttmu  jf  Coaktiila.  •  The  southern  part  of  our  Texat, 
abont  tba  lower  Rio  Bravo,  at  far  northcatt  u  tha 
Medina  River,  wat  not  yet  included  in  thit  name.  It 
baoama  •  part  of  the  new  created  £itado  it  Tamauli- 
pat.  Sometimes,  and  on  some  naps.  It  was  tried  at 
this  period  to  apply  to  tha  whole  of  Texat  the  name  of 
Fredonia,  which  wat  tbe  particular  name  of  Auitin'a 
colony.  Thit  hat  been  done,  for  instance,  in  that  oth- 
erwisa  excellent  Dktietmairt  dt  Gtogntphle,"  edited  by 
a  society  of  French  geographers.  In  tbe  year  1886 
Coabuila  and  Texas  were  divided  again,  and  Ttiatbt- 
camt  a  itparate  and  independent  Stale,  which  waa  (1846) 
annexed  to  the  United  States,  and  received  then,  after 
thewaref  1846,  its  present  boundaries.  Theiebounda- 
rias  extend  <h>m  this  time  along  tbe  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Bio  Bravo  in  the  south  to  tha 
mouth  of  tha  Sabina  In  the  eatt.  To  show  how  far  and 
in  what  manner  the  boundaries  of  tliis  name  and  State 
were  extended  toward  the  interior  does  not  belong  to 
our  hydragnq>bical  researches. — J.  Q.  Kouu 

The  general  aspect  of  the  country  It  that  of  a  rttt 
inclined  plane,  gradually  tloping  from  the  mountatna 
eaitward  to  the  tea,  and  traversed  by  numerous  riven, 
all  having  a  southeast  direction.  It  may  be  naturally 
divided  into  three  regions ;  the  first,  which  Is  level,  ox- 
tends  along  the  coast  with  a  breadth  varying  f^om  100 
to  80  miles,  being  narrowest  at  the  southwest.  The 
soil  of  this  region  Is  principally  a  rich  alluvion,  with 
scarcely  a  atone,  and  tingularly  free  from  stagnant 
swamps.  Broad  woodlands  fringe  tbe  banks  of  tbe 
rivers,  betweelk  which  are  extensive  and  rich  pasture 
landa.  The  second  division,  the  largest  of  tbe  three, 
it  tbe  nndnlating'prairie  region  which  extendi  for  150 
or  200  mllei  farther  inland,  itt  wide,  grassy  tracti  al- 
ternating with  others  that  are  thickly  timbered.  Lime- 
stone and  sandstone  form  the  common  substrata  of 
this  section.  The  third,  or  mountainous  region,  situ- 
ated principally  on  the  wet,:  and  southwest,  forming 
part  of  tbe  Sierra  Madre,  or  Mexican  Alps,  Is  but  li^le 
explored.  At  Itt  ramote  extremity  it  consists  of  an 
elevated  table-land,  resembling  the  vast  steppes  of 
Asia,  except  in  their  superior  fertility.  The  mountain 
sides  are  clothed  with  forests,  and  then  are  few,  if  any 
dlitrlcta  of  country  of  the  same  extent  as  Texas,  with 
■o  little  unproductive  land. 

The  principal  rivers  In  the  State  are  the  Sabine, 
Neches,  Trinidad,  Brazos,  Colondo,  Guadtloupe,  San 
Antonia,  Nueces,  and  the  Rio  Grande.  The  Neches  is 
navigable  for  small  steamboats  for  mora  than  100  miles, 
Trinidad  River  for  800  or  400  miles,  and  the  Brazos  for 
half  that  dlstanos.  Tbe  Rio  Color«<lo  is  obstructed  by 
a  taft  10  miles  from  Its  mouth ;  It  will,  when  removed, 
be  navigable  for  steamboats  200  miles  to  Austin  City. 
The  San  Antonia  and  Neucet  are  navigable  fbr  only  a 
short  distance ;  but  the  Rio  Grand  del  Norte,  a  noble 
stream,  having  a  course  of  1800  miles,  will  most  prob- 
ably, though  in  parts  broken  by  rapida,  become  here- 
after an  important  commercial  channel.  Galveston 
Bay,  into  which  the  Trinidad  flows,  is  about  86  miles 
in  length,  and  flrom  12  to  18  miles  wide.  Tbe  Gulf  of 
Mexico  bounds  its  southeastern  liorder,  on  which  are 
many  bays  and  lome  good  harbora.    Tbe  Texan  year 


.    t 

u(ttN 
Untn 
•ontb- 

whot* 
lorth  H 
4oand 
rinccof 
ilghbor- 
g\l«xl- 

llfM-U 

I  domtn- 
(dpfo*- 
Blted  to- 
r^lado  de 
t  T«xM, 
It  u  th« 
•me.    It 
Tamai'li- 
I  tried  at 
B  name  of 
r  An«ttn'i 
1  that  oth- 
edludby 
year  1888 
1  Texo$be- 
iraa(1846) 
then,  after 
laebounda* 
of  Mexico, 
outh  to  the 
liowfaraod 
le  and  State 
)t  belong  to 

at  of  •  T«»t 

e  mountaina 

eroni  rivert, 

ht  naturally 

I  to  level,  ox- 

Ing  from  100 

hweit.    The 

[iuvion,  with 

>ni  itagnant 

ianki  of  the 
rich  pasture 

Sr  the  three, 
fends  for  160 
sy  tracts  al- 
ired.    Llme- 
kubstrata  of 
[region,  sUo- 
jest,  forming 
|,isbutWle 
msists  of  an 
steppes  of 
le  mountain 
|4  few,  If  any 
Texas,  with 

I  the  Sabine, 
laloope,  San 
TheNechesis 
tn  100  miles, 
le  Brazos  for 
fjstructed  by 
len  removed, 
kustin  City. 
le  tor  only  a 
|rte,  a  noble 
1  most  prob- 
Lscome  here- 
I   Galveston 
i)ut  85  miles 
iThoGnlfof 
1  which  are 
irexan  year 


THA 


188ft 


is  divided  into  wet  and  dry  teatoas;  the  former  lasU   mines  have  been  wrought  in  the  mountains,  and  bit* 

frnm  l)«o«mlier  to  Marrh.  anil  fh» !■•*>*  h«.M  u..»k  «.    mail  and  lall  ai«  almnffant* 


ttom  Ueoemlier  to  March,  and  the  Utter  from  March  to 
December.  8now  is  •elilom  icen  except  on  the  mount- 
ains. The  country  Is  in  moat  parU  covered  with  a 
luxuriant  native  grass,  and  it  It  amply  supplied  with 
timber,  among  which  are  the  live  oak,  white,  black, 
and  post  oak,  hickory,  walnut,  sycamore,  caoutchouc, 
•to.,  and  on  the  high  lands  pine  and  cedar.  The 
"  Cross  Timbers"  ate  two  lines  of  continuous  forests  of 
great  extent  Cotton  and  sugar-cane  are  the  great 
agrioul.  jral  sUplcs,  libth  of  which  attain  to  great  per- 
faction.  The  grains  chiefly  cultivated  are  Indian  com 
and  wheat.    Peaches,  mcloni,  tigs,  oranges,  lemons, 

{line-apples,  dates,  olives,  grapes,  etc.,  grow  abundant- 
y.  Ureat  numbers  of  cattle  ind  horses  are  reared, 
and  vast  herds  of  buffaloes  and  wild  horses  wander 
over  the  prairies,  while  deer  and  game  are  abundant. 
Among  Its  minerals  are  coal  of  a  superior  quality,  iron 
ore,  limestone,  granite,  slate,  g)psum,  etc.    'silver 

FoBBieM  t'OMinaoa  of  thi  Statb  or  TaxM,  raoM  .Imv  I,  IWB,  to  Jciv  1, 186T,  snowim  aijo  tok  DisTto(it  Toi- 

MAoa  IN  lc>46. 


Jlfmii/ucfMrM,  <re.— There  were  In  the  Slate  In  18M 
one  woolen  ftictory,  with  a  caplul  Invested  of  $8000, 
employing  four  males  and  (bur  females,  manufacturing 
14,000  yards  of  cloth,  etc.,  valued  at  •15,000;  two  e». 
tablishmenU  with  a  capital  of  416,000,  employing  35 
persons,  and  making  200  tons  of  Iron  castings,  etc., 
valued  at  (55,000 ;  88  flouring  and  grist  mills,  riU  saw- 
mills, 32  Unnories,  34  printlng-ofUces,  three  tri-weekly, 
two  seml-wcekly,  and  82  weekly  pulillcatlons.  Capital 
invested  In  manufactures,  |Gia,238 ;  value  of  manufao- 
turcd  articles,  |1,202,685. 

The  principal  places  In  the  Sute  are  Austin,  the 
capital,  Galveston,  Houston,  Washington,  Matagorda, 
San  Kolipe  de  Austin,  San  Augustine,  Nacogdoches, 
San  Antonia  de  Bexar,  Corpus  Chrlsti,  and  Brown- 
vUle.  There  were,  January  1st,  1850, 86  mllM«fta4> 
road  built. 


YMM<»lla| 

DoiMtk. 

ronlfn. 

Tote). 

ImpMla. 
To«J. 

TMiiaff* 
Am«rku. 

•l..»l. 
ronlta. 

nMiK 

RifUUrtd. 

Taaiu(». 

KnralhlAiid 
Llri>M4 

June  80, 1846 

M47 

1848 

184!) 

1880 

Total... 

June  80,1851 

1861 

1858 

1854 

1885 

1866 

186T 

♦12.089 
82,791 

$181,611 

24,088 

$148^610 
82,701 
24,088 

$17,266 
t9,8zO 
H024 
16,640 
28,650 

608 
117 
780 

loss 

2,B0tl 
6,8S7 
2,067 
1,681 

'boo 

"087 

$;4ssi) 

$78,442 
220,884 
6!),1,1I18 
782,448 
604,067 
1,281,025 
1,401,875 

$180,470 

$483,741 
460,768 
582,001 
222,004 
089,664 

$261,889 

?18|n7B 

1,020,681 

1,314.440 

916,961 

104,880 

1,491,876 

$188,416 

$r4,718 
77,R92 
281,460 
231,423 
202,86S 
821,884 
809,774 

2877 

863 
2.'«0 
J7B1 
48T5 
4024 
7804 
«t>10 

ll,7Ti 

1,470 
6,100 
8,226 
4,83.1 
6,(140 
8,906 
6,102 

■••■ 

!;;; 

— fifM  HrAsiSB  Couxiiis  for  oommerce  prior  to  the  jcar  1846. 

Thaler,  a  German  silver  coin,  flrst  coined  in  Joa- 
chlmsthal,  a  valley  in  Bohemia.  The  value  of  the 
thaler  is  about  seventy  cents.— 5ee  Coins,  Geruaky, 
and  Dollar. 

ThamM  (TamuU),  the  principal  though  not  the 
longest  river  of  England,  through  the  south  part  of 
which  it  flows  mostly  in  -n  easterly  direction.     It 
rises  under  the  name  of  the  Isis,  about  two  mUr      -  u  rh 
ofClrencester,  and  876  feet  above  the  sea,  flowft      ii-.t 
■outh  to  near  Crlcklade,  then  east-northeast  post  Ler '  - 
lade  to  near  Oxford,  and  southeast  past  Oxford,  Ab- 
ingdon, and  Walllngford  to  Reading,  after  which  Its 
course  is  mostly  eustwanl  to  Graves^ nd.    A  few  miles 
beyond  th'  \  It  expands  into  an  estuary,  which  at  Its 
Junction  with  the  North  Sea  at  the  Nore,  between  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey  and  Foulness  Point,  Is  fifteen  miles 
across,  and  has  on  Its  opposite  banks  the  towns  Sheei^ 
ness  and  Southend.     Total  course  estimated  at  216 
miles.    At  Dorchester  It  receives  the  Thamer  fkvm  the 
north,  and  thenceforth  assumes  its  proper  name ;  other 
principal  aflluents  are  the  Chumet,  Coin,  Wainrush, 
Evenlode,  Cherwell,  Colne,  Brent,  Lea,  and  Boding 
from  the  north,  and  the  Cole,  Konnet  (its  chief  afflu- 
ent), Wey,  Mole,  and  some  smaller  rivers  trom  the 
south.     The  Mersey  joins  its  estuary  at  Sheemess. 
Its  basin  is  of  less  size  than  that  of  the  Severn,  but  no 
river  in  the  world  has  more  commercial  importance. 
The  tide  flows  up  it  for  about  eighty  miles ;  it  is  nav- 
igable for  ships  of  any  burden  to  Deptford,  for  vessels 
'   of  200  tons  to  London  Bridge,  and  for  barges  180  miles 
farther,  where  It  is  united  by  the  Thames  and  Severn 
Canal  with  the  Severn,  below  aioucester ;  it  is  also 
connected  witli  all  the  centre  of  England  by  the  Ox- 
ford and  Warwick  and  Grand  Junction  Canals,  and  by 
other  canals  with  Bristol,  Basingstoke,  Arundel,  etc. 
Under  the  Romans  it  formed  the  north  boundary  of  the 
province  of  Brilannia  prima. 

The  Thames  to  the  richest  river  In  the  world.  It 
has  been  erroneously  said  that  its  name  Is  Isis  till  it 
arrives  at  Dorchester,  when,  being  joined  by  the 


Thame  or  Tame,  It  assumes  the  name  of  Thames. 
What  was  the  origin  of  this  common  error  can  not 
now  be  traced :  poetical  Action,  however,  has  pcriietu- 
ated  the  error,  and  invested  it  with  a  kind  of  cbsslcal 
sanctity.  It  was  called  Thames  or  Toms  lieforo  It 
came  near  the  Thame, — Camdev.  The  river  rose  so 
high  at  Westminster  that  the  lawyers  were  brought 
out  of  the  hall  In  bor.ts,  a.d.  1285.  Again  it  rose  to 
great  height,  1736, 17-17, 1752,  and  1701.  Tlio  conser- 
vation of  the  Thames  was  given  to  tho  mayors  of  Lon- 
don, 1489.  Tho  Thames  was  made  navignblo  to  Ox- 
ford, 1624.  It  ebbed  and  flowed  twice  in  three  hours, 
1658.  Again,  thrCe  times  in  four  hours,  March  22, 
1G82.  Again,  twice  In  three  hours,  November  24, 
1777.— iSm  article  Tu.vnel. 

Thermometer.  The  invention  of  this  instru- 
ment is  ascrilied  to  several  scientlftc  persons,  all  about 
the  same  time.  Galileo,  1597. — Libri.  Invented  by 
Drebbel  of  Alcmaer,  a.d.  1609. — Boerhaave.  Invent- 
ed by  Paulo  LarpI  in  1609. — Fuloestio.  Invented  by 
Sanctorio  In  1610. — Borglli.  Fahrenheit's  thermom- 
eter was  invented  about  1726;  and  the  scale  called 
Reaumur's  soon  after,  1780.  The  mode  of  construc- 
tion by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits  was  invent- 
ed some  years  subsequently. — Havdx. 

Thimble.  This  simple  yet  useful,  and  now  Indis- 
pensable appendage  to  the  ladies'  work-table,  is  of 
Dutch  Invention.  The  art  of  making  them  was  brought 
to  England  by  John  Lofting,  a  mechanic  ft^m  Hol- 
land, who  set  up  a  work-shop  at  Islington,  near  Lon- 
don, and  practiced  the  manufacture  of  them  in  various 
metuls  with  profit  and  success,  about  1695. — t.'.YDW. 

Thread  (Ger.  Zwim ;  Du.  Garm ;  Fr.  Fil;  It. 
Rffe;  Sp.  into,  Torzal;  Buss.  IViiki),  a  small  line 
made  up  of  a  number  of  fibres  of  some  vegetable  or 
animal  substance,  such  as  flax,  cotton,  or  silk ;  whence 
its  names  of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk  thread.— See  Cottok 
Mani'factdre. 

Tide  Gauge,  a  mechanical  contrivance  for  regis- 
tering the  state  of  the  tide  continuously  at  every  In- 


TID 


1886 


TID 


■Ual  of  tlnw.  In  the  Philo$.  Tnmi.  for  1«M,  than 
U  •  daacripllon  of  k  vary  coin|data  Mlf-rggUUring 
nsehlM  for  thli  purpoaa,  arsctad  at  BrUtorby  Mr. 
Bant.  Tha  principal  parU  ara  an  alght^y  clock, 
which  tuma  a  vartlcai  cyllndar  raroTvIng  onca  In 
twanly-four  boura  i  a  whaal,  to  which  an  alUmatf 
motion  U  cnmmunlcatad  by  a  float  rlalng  and  fklling 
with  tha  tida,  and  connactad  with  tha  whaal  by  a  wire 
paulng  ovar  a  pullay,  and  kapt  conitantly  itralnad  bv 
•  countarpolia  i  and  a  amalt  drum  on  tha  aama  axia 
with  tha  whaal,  which,  by  a  auipandlng  wlia,  com- 
mnnlcatai  ona-alghtaanth  of  tha  vartlcai  motion  of  tha 
float  to  a  bar  carrj'lng  a  'pancll,  which  deicrlbea  a  curve 
on  tha  cylinder,  and  thereby  marki  the  fluctuation!, 
and  the  time  and  height  of  high  water. 

Tldca,  the  alternate  riae  and  fall  of  tha  watera 
of  the  ocean.  The  moon  It  the  principal  agent  In  the 
production  of  tha  tides  |  but  they  are  modlfled,  both 
with  reapact  to  their  height  and  the  timea  at  which 
they  happen,  by  tha  artkm  of  the  aun.  The  efftct  of 
the  planata  la  InapprecUlde.  Homer  la  the  earlleat 
profline  author  who  speaka  of  the  tidea.  Posldoniua 
of  Apamea  accounted  for  the  tldea  firom  the  motion  of 
the  moon,  about  79  n.c. ;  and  Caaar  apeaka  of  them  In 
hia  fourth  l>ook  of  the  Galllo  War.  The  theory  of  the 
tldea  was  flrst  aati^rnctorlly  explained  by  Kepler,  A.D. 
1S98 ;  but  the  honor  of  a  complete  explanation  of  them 
waa  reserved  for  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  laid  hold  of 
this  class  of  phenomena  to  prove  universal  gravitation, 
•bout  1688. 

The  attractive  force  of  a  body  on  a  distant  particle 
of  matter  var}ing  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance, the  particles  of  the  earth  on  the  side  next  the 
moon  will  lie  attracted  with  a  ((roster,  and  those  on  the 
opposite  side  with  a  smaller  force,  than  those  which 
are  situated  intermediately.  The  gravitation  toward 
the  earth's  centre  of  the  particles  nearest  the  moon 
will  therefore  be  diminished,  and  consequently,  if  at 
liberty  to  move  among  themselves,  they  will  rise 
above  the  general  level.  Jn  like  manner,  the  moon's 
attraction  on  the  most  dlslint  partlclea  being  lesa  than 
on  the  central  ones,  their  relative. gravitation  toward 
the  centre  will  also  be  diminished,  and  the  waters  will 
consequently  be  heaped  up  on  the  side  of  the  earth 
which  is  turned  away  fh>m  the  moon.  Hence,  if  the 
earth  were  at  rest,  the  ocean  would  take  the  form  of  an 
oblong  spheroid,  with  its  longer  axis  passing  through 
the  attracting  body ;  and  it  may  be  shown  ftnm  the- 
ory that  the  spheroid  would  be  lik  equilibrium  under 
the  Influence  of  the  moon's  attraction,  if  the  longer 
*emi-axis  exceeded  the  shorter  by  about  58  Inches. 
But  in  consequence  of  the  rapid  rotation  of  the  earth 
about  its  axis,  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium  '•»  never 
Atlly  formed  ;  for  before  the  waters  can  take  their 
level,  the  vertex  of  the  spheroid  has  shifted  its  posl- 
tl  "I  on  the  earth's  surface.  In  consequence  of  which 
ail  immensely  broad  and  veij-  flat  wave  is  formed,  which 
follows  the  motions  of  the  moon  at  some  Interval  of 
time.  In  the  open  sea  the  time  of  high  water  Is,  in 
genera],  ftrom  two  to  three  hours  after  the  moon's 
transit  over  the  meridian  either  above  or  below  the 
horizon.  The  tidnl  wave,  it  is  to  be  observed,  Is  en- 
tirely diflTerent  from  a  current :  the  particles  of  water 
merely  rise  and  fall ;  but  except  when  the  wave  possea 
over  shallows,  or  approaches  the  ahore,  there  la  littla 
or  no  progressive  motion. 

The  watera  of  the  ocean  are  affected  in  a  similar 
manner  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  under  the  influence 
of  which  they  have  a  tendency  to  assume  at  every  in- 
stant the  form  of  an  elongated  spheroid ;  but  although 
the  attractive  force  of  the  sun  is  immensely  greater 
than  that  of  the  moon,  yet,  by  reason  of  the  greater 
distance  of  the  sun,  the  difference  of  the  efl'ect  on  par- 
ticles situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth  (on  which 
dUTerenoe  the  phenomena  depend)  is  very  much  less. 
The  solar  tides  are  therefore  comparatively  small  with 
napect  to  the  lunar  tides,  and,  in  fact,  are  never  per- 


ceived as  diatlnct  phenomena,  bat  become  smaibla 
only  trom  the  modlllcatlons  which  they  priKluca  in  the 
heights  and  times  of  those  which  primarily  depend  on 
tha  moon.  At  tha  sysygles.  when  the  sun  and  moon 
oome  to  tha  meridian  tugetner,  the  tidea  are,  ctltrit 
pariint,  the  highest ;  at  the  quadratures,  or  when  tha 
sun  and  moon  are  00°  distant,  tha  tidea  are  least. 
Tha  former  are  called  tpring  tidu,  the  latter  neap  lidii. 
Although  we  are  not  in  possession  of  data  to  enable 
us  to  computH  the  exact  helghfreithar  of  the  spring  or 
neap  tidea,  yet  their  relative  heights  in  the  open  ocean 
probably  correnpond  very  nearly  to  the  elllptlcities  of 
the  spheroids  of  equilibrium  that  would  be  formed  un- 
der the  action  of  the  two  iiodles  exerted  separately. 
Mow  the  elllptlclty  of  the  aqueous  spheroid  formed  by 
the  moon's  action  Is  about  Ave  feet,  and  the  elllptlclty 
of  that  formed  by  the  sun's  action  about  two  feet ; 
therefore,  the  spring  and  neap  tides  bring  the  sum  and 
diflTerence  of  the  separate  elTects,  the  average  spring 
tide  will  be  to  the  average  neap  In  the  ratio  of  about  7 
to  8. 

Tht)  apparent  time  of  high  water  at  any  port,  in  tha 
afternoon  of  the  day  of  new  or  MX  moon,  in  what  la 
usually  called  the  ftlablithment  of  tht  port.  Mr. 
Whewell  calls  this  the  rtilgnr  enteblishment,  and  the 
mean  of  all  the  Intervals  of  tide  and  transit  for  a  half 
lunation  he  terms  the  eorreettj  establishment.  Thia 
corrected  estebllshment  Is  consequently  the  lunltldal 
Interval  corresponding  to  the  day  on  which  the  moon 
paasea  tha  meridian  exactly  at  noon  or  midnight. 

The  two  tides  immediately  following  one  another, 
or  the  tides  of  the  day  and  night,  var}',  both  In  height 
and  time  of  high  water,  at  any  particular  place  with 
the  distance  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  the  equator. 
As  the  vertex  of  the  tide  wave  always  tends  to  place 
itself  vertically  under  the  luminary  which  produces  It, 
it  is  evident  that,  of  two  consecutive  tides,  that  which 
happena  when  the  moon  is  nearest  the  lenith  or  nadir 
will  be  greater  than  the  other;  and  consequently, 
when  the  moon's  declination  is  of  the  same  denomina- 
tion aa  the  latitude  of  the  place,  the  tide  which  cor- 
responds to  the  upper  transit  will  be  greater  than  tha 
opposite  one,  and  rice  terta,  the  difl°erences  being  great- 
est when  the  sun  and  moon  are  in  opposition,  and  In 
opposite  tropics.  This  is  called  the  diurnal  inequality, 
because  Ite  cycle  Is  one  day ;  but  it  varies  greatly  at 
different  places,  and  its  laws,  which  appear  to  be  gov- 
erned by  local  circumstances,  are  very  imperfectly 
known. 

We  have  now  described  the  principal  phenomena 
that  would  take  place  were  the  earth  a  sphere,  and 
covered  entirely  with  a  fluid  of  uniform  depth.  But 
the  actual  phenomena  of  the  tides  are  inflnitely  nofe 
complicated.  From  the  interruption  of  the  land,  and 
the  irregular  form  and  depth  of  the  ocean,  combined 
with  many  other  disturbing  circumstances,  among 
which  are  the  inertia  of  the  waters,  the  friction  on  the 
bottom  and  sides,  the  narrowness  and  length  of  the 
channels,  the  action  of  the  wind,  currents,  difference 
of  atmoapheric  pressure,  etc.,  great  variation  takes 
place  In  the  mean  times  and  bright  of  high  water  at 
places  differently  situated ;  and  the  inequiilitirs  above 
alluded  to,  aa  depending  on  the  parallax  of  the  moon, 
her  position  with  respect  to  the  sun,  and  the  declina- 
tion of  the  two  bodies,  are,  in  many  cases,  altogether 
obliterated  by  the  efflscts  of  the  disturbing  influences, 
or  can  only  be  detected  by  the  calculation  and  com- 
parison of  long  aeries  of  observations. 

By  reason  of  these  disturbing  causes,  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty  to  trace  the  propagation  of 
the  tide  wave,  and  the  connection  of  the  tides  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  In  the  I'hilomphical  Trani- 
actioni  for  18D2,  Sir  John  Lubbock  published  a  map 
of  the  world,  in  which  he  inserted  the  times  of  high 
water  at  new  and  full  moon  at  a  great  numlier  of  places 
on  the  globe,  collected  from  various  sources,  as  works 
on  navigation,  voyages,  sailing  directions,  ete. ;  and. 


TID 


TID 


initbl* 

InUia 
end  on 
1  Diuon 

etttrii 
If  n  th* 
s  lent. 
ip  liJu, 

prlng  or 
in  ocMn 
:ltlr>  of 
mti  un- 
xratcly. 
nn»(l  by 
lUptlclty 
wo  feet; 
■um  and 
^  tpring 
if  about  7 

)rt,  In  the 
ia  what  te 
iirt.    Mr. 
t,  and  the 
for  a  half 
int.    ThU 
B  lunltldal 
the  moon 
,lKht. 
e  another, 
h  In  height 
place  with 
le  equator, 
da  to  place 
produeea  It, 
that  which 
Ith  or  nadir 
lacquently, 
denomlna^ 
-which  coT- 
ir  than  the 
,„ilng  great- 
tion,  and  In 
Uintqualit]/, 
greatly  at 
to  bo  gov- 
(perfectly 


I  becomes  a 
l)a(;at\an  of 
lides  In  dif- 
li'rn'  Trant- 
Ihed  a  map 
lea  «f  high 
Ir  of  places 
h,  aa  works 
Tetc;  and. 


U  order  that  the  march  of  th*  tide  wave  nlyht  be  l  otefflatloiu  pndHeed  nnder  the  direct  ageney  of  the 
liwied  mora  r«adlv,lh,Um.e  ware. xproaaed  In  Green-  sun  and  moon  In  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  iwinlie  • 
wkh  lima  a*  well  aa  the  time  of  th*  pUce.  In  tha  certain  lnt*rval  of  tlm*  for  Ihalr  traaifkr.  It  bUowa 
^.'7"^'!!!!  .  1  ??i  •  ^''•''•"  P«oi*cut*d  I  that,  In  g*n*ral,  th*  tide  la  not  ilu*  to  th*  moon's  traa- 
'  sit  Immsdlalaly  pncadlng,  but  I*  regulatwl  by  Ih*  po- 
sition which  th*  snn  and  ntoon  had  when  thay  d*l*rm- 
ln*d  the  primary  tide.  The  time  eUpeed  betwe*a 
th*  original  formation  of  the  tide  and  lu  appearance  et 
any  plac*  la  calltd  th*  agt  of  th*  tid*,  and  aumetimes, ' 
afUr  Oamottlll,  th*  rttenf.  On  th*  shores  of  Bpahi 
and  North  America  th*  tid*  Is  a  d^y  and  a  half  old )  in 
the  port  of  London  it  appear*  to  be  two  days  and  • 
half  old  when  It  arriv**. 

VtlocUji  lifAt  Tid*  Wat* — In  th*  open  ocean  the 
crest  of  tha  tide  travel*  with  anormoaa  velocity.     If 
th*  whoU  aurfao*  w*r*  unilbrmly  covered  with  water, 
the  summit  of  th*  tid*  wav*,  b*lng  mainly  govamed 
by  the  moon,  would  evtry  wh*i*  follow  the  moon'* 
transit  at  tha  same  hit*rval  of  thn*,  and  consequently 
travel  round  th*  earth  in  a  little  mora  than  twenty- 
four  hoiirs.    But  the  cireumferance  of  the  eaith  at  the 
equator  being  about  V>,Vf<)  miles,  the  velocity  of  prop, 
agation  would  therefore  be  about  1000  mlUs  per  hour. 
The  actual  velocity  Is  perhaps  nowhere  equal  to  this, 
and  is  very  dlfferant  at  different  pUcea.     In  Utltude 
G0°  south,  where  tliere  Is  no  Interruption  from  Und 
(excepting  the  narrow  promontory  of  I'atagonia),  th* 
tide  wave  will  complete  a  revolution  In  a  lunar  day, 
and  consequently  travel  at  the  rate  of  G70  miles  an 
hour.    On  examlnUig  Mr.  Wbewcll's  map  of  cotidal 
lines,  it  will  be  seen  tliat  the  great  tide  wave  from  th* 
Southern  Ocean  travels  fh>m  the  Cape  of  Oood  Uopo 
to  tiie  Axons  In  about  twelve  hours,  and  from  the 
Axores  tu  the  aouthemmost  point  of  Irelund  in  three 
houra  more.     In  the  Atlantic  the  hourly  velocity  in 
some  cases  appears  to  be  10°  of  latitude,  or  near  700 
miles,  which  is  almost  equal  to  the  velocity  of  sound 
through  the  air.     From  the  south  point  of  Ireland  to 
the  north  point  of  Scotland  the  time  la  eight  hours, 
and  the  velocity  about  IGO  miles  an  hour  along  the 
shore.    On  tho  eastern  'oust  of  Britabi,  and  in  shal- 
the  pole  of  the  earth,  and  finally  end  its  course  on  the  I  lower  water,  the  volocit\  is  less.    From  Buchanneas 


thU  subject  at  greater  Ungth  i  and  availing  himsalf  of 
hpriori  (OBsiderations,  aa  well  aa  of  a  maaa  of  informt- 
tloB  eoll«)t*d  in  th*  hydrographn's  offlo*  at  th*  Ad- 
■ilralty,  ln**rt*d  In  th*  map  a  series  of  colidal  Imts,  or 
Unas  along  which  high  water  takes  plac*  at  the  same 
Instant  of  tlm*.  But  these  cothlal  lines,  as  Sir  J. 
Lubbock  remarks,  are  entirely  hyiwthetlcali  for  w* 
hav*  f*w  opportunltlos  of  determining  the  time  of  high 
water  at  a  dUtanoe  from  th*  coast,  though  this  is  soma- 
tlm**  poaaible  by  means  of  a  S4>lltary  isUnd,  as  8t. 
Halena.— Lubbock's  £V*m<iKary  Tnalitt  on  Ik*  Tidt; 
1880. 

According  to  Mr.  Whewell's  deductions,  the  general 
progress  of  the  great  tid*  wave  may  li*  thus  described : 
It  Is  only  in  the  Southern  Ocean,  between  tha  lati- 
tudes of  80  and  70  degrees,  that  a  zone  of  water  exists 
of  sufficient  extent  to  allow  of  the  tide  wave  being 
formed.     Suppose,  then,  a  line  of  contemporary  tides, 
or  eolidiU  Una,  to  be  formed  In  the  Indian  Ocean,  as 
the  theory  supposes,  that  Is  to  say,  hi  the  direction  of 
the  meridUn,  and  at  a  certain  distance  to  the  eastward 
of  the  meridian  In  which  the  moon  is.    Aa  this  tide 
wave  passes  th*  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  it  sends  ofT  a  de- 
rivative undulation,  which  advances  northward  up  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  preserving  always  a  certain  proportion 
of  its  original  magnitude  and  velocity.     In  traveling 
along  this  ocean  the  wave  assumes  a  curved  form,  the 
convex  part  keeping  near  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  and 
ahead  of  tha  branches,  which,  owing  to  the  shallower 
water,  lag  behind  on  the  American  and  African  coasts ; 
BO  that  the  cotidal  lines  have  always  a  tendency  to 
make  very  oblique  angles  with  the  shore,  and,  In  fuct, 
run  nearly  parallel  to  it  for  great  distances.    The 
main  tide,  Mr.  Whewell  conceives,  after  reaching  the 
Orkneys,  will  move  forward  in  the  sea  bounded  by  the 
ahores  of  Norway  and  Siberia  on  the  one  side,  and 
those  of  Greenland  and  America  on  the  other,  will  pass 


shores  In  the  nelghl>orhood  of  Behring's  Straits.  It 
may  even  propagate  its  influence  through  the  straits, 
and  modify  the  tides  of  the  Xorth  raciflc.  But  a 
branch  tide  Is  sent  off  from  this  main  tide  into  the  Ger- 
man Ocean ;  and  this,  entering  between  the  Orkneys 
and  the  coast  of  Norway,  brings  the  tide  to  the  east 
coast  of  England,  and  to  the  coasts  of  Holland,  Den- 
mn  'k,  and  Germany.  Continuing  Its  course,  part  of 
it,  i.t  least,  passes  through  the  Strait  of  Dover,  and 
meets  in  the  British  Cl<:nnel  the  tide  from  the  At- 
lantic, which  arrives  on  the  coast  of  Europe  twelve 
hours  Liter ;  hut  in  passing  along  the  English  coast, 
another  part  of  it  is  reflected  from  the  projecting  land 
of  Norfolk  upon  the  north  coast  of  Germany,  and  again 
meets  the  tide  wave  on  the  shores  of  Denmark.  Ow- 
ing to  this  interference  of  different  tide  waves,  the 
tides  are  almost  entirely  obliterated  on  the  coast  of 
Jutland,  where  their  place  is  supplied  by  continuel  high 
water. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  tides  are  very  small,  but 
there  are  not  sufficient  observations  to  determine  the 
forms  and  progress  of  the  cotidal  lines.  Off  Cape 
Horn,  and  round  the  whole  shore  of  Terra  del  Fuego, 
from  the  western  extremity  of  the  Strait  of  Magol- 
haens  to  Staten  Island,  it  is  very  remarkable  that  the 
tidal  wave,  instead  of  following  the  moon  in  its  diurnal 
course,  travels  to  the  eattward.     This,  however.  Is  a 


to  Sunderland  it  is  about  sixty  miles  an  hour;  from 
Scarborough  to  Cromer,  thirty-five  miles ;  from  the 
North  Foreland  to  London,  thirty  miles ;  from  London 
to  Richmond  thirteen  miles  an  hour  in  that  part  of  the 
river.— WuEWE^^  J'hil.  Tran*.,  1888  and  JH8C.  It  i* 
scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  aliove 
velocities  refer  to  the  transmission  of  the  undulation, 
and  are  entirely  different  ftom  the  velocity  of  tha 
current  to  which  the  tide  wave  gives  rise  in  shallow 
water. 

Theorg  of  the  T*!**.— The  theory  of  the  tides,  con- 
sidered as  a  consequence  of  solar  and  lunar  attraction, 
was  first  sketched  by  Newton  in  the  Principia.  In 
the  3Cth  and  37th  propositions  of  the  third  book,  he  de- 
termines the  forces  of  the  sun  and  moon  to  elevate  the 
waters  of  the  ocean,  on  the  supposition  that  the  sea  la 
a  fluid  of  the  same  density  as  the  earth,  covering  the 
whole  terrestrial  surface,  and  which  takes  at  everj-  in- 
stant the  figure  of  equilibrium.  He  assumes,  without 
demonstration,  that  this  figure  is  an  elongated  sphe- 
roid. One  spheroid  he  supposes  to  be  formed  under 
the  action  of  the  sun,  another  under  the  action  of  the 
moon ;  and,  by  reason  of  the  smallness  of  their  eccen- 
tricities, they  may  be  conceived  as  superposed  the  one 
on  the  other.  From  these  suppositions  he  deduced  the 
general  phenomena  of  the  ebb  and  fiow  of  the  sea; 
and  by  comporing  his  theory  with  observations  of  the 


portlal  phenomenon ;  and  a  little  farther  to  the  north  heighU  of  the  spring  tides  made  at  the  mouth  of  tho 
of  the  last-named  places  the  tides  sot  to  the  north  and  j  Avon,  near  Bristol,  he  determined  the  ratio  of  the  at- 
w**t.     In  the  Mediterranean  and  Baltic  seae  the  tides  '  traction  of  the  moon  to  that  of  the  sun  to  be  nearly 


are  inconsiderable,  but  exhibit  irregularities  for  which 
it  is  difllcult  to  account.     The  Indian  Ocean  appears 
to  have  high  water  on  all  sides  at  once,  though  not  in 
the  central  parts  at  th*  same  time. 
Since  the  tides  on  our  coasts  are  derived  fh>m  the 


4-48  to  1 ;  whence  he  deduced  the  mass  of  tho  earth  to 
be  to  that  of  the  moon  as  39788  to  1,  the  density  of 
the  sun  to  that  of  the  earth  as  1  to  4,  and  the  d^^uslty 
of  the  moon  to  that  of  the  earth  as  11  to  9.  Newton'e 
theory  was  defective  in  many  points  of -view,  hut  4fty 


TID 


1H38 


TID 


JTMH  tlapMd  kaAiM  II  wwWt4  •njr  linpfnvMMitl.   In  i 
ITM  tk*  inl^iMil  W  Ik*  IMm  Wkt  |mt|in««il  m  •  ftiti 
qMtUiMi  by  Ik*  rrMMk  AawlMiy  of  ItalMMt,  «ht*h 

Cwmiliiw  to  ik«  MUImto4  liMllMt  of  OmM 
Mill,  MMUwtn,  iMl  Kaltr.  MacUwIm't  ICMajr 
b  rwnMkabW)  M  wtohiNm  •  4mimmI»*IImi  of  ih* 
lk«i]i*w  MIMWW4  lijf  Mtwtoa,  IkM  tk*  •UljM*  •pkMnM 
•llbiiU  an  MalllbriiM  wUm  tk«  MtkM  *ttk»  4i«tafk. 
log  IbrMi  I  ikoM  af  UmimhiIU  •■4  XhIwi  ikMgk  tk*y 
Ainiltk  M  MW  Minatpia  •!  t^wU  tr  itaiHw.MipMt* 
■rtkMfy, 


in  f^i  w  tkMfy,  ratof  m»n  Into  4«talli,  *a4 
•«Ntoln  nwny  wtM  UlMtnlkHMi  Tkal  vf  BmmmIII, 
Imlawl,  ountolni  •  toliU  wkkik  kM  Mrv«d  m  lk« 
for  tU  lk«M  (Mt  pvnijr  Mi|rirl««l)  wkkkHMvi 
liMn  fonMd.  Tk*  MM  InMrtMM  tto*  |«  Ika  liMorjr 
of  tk«  Mm  wm  takm  bjr  Ltplito,  wiw  Int  liMtod 
lk«  NitjMi  M  •  m««mI  qwatiM  of  kytfndjniMnlM, 
•nd  •Itomntod  to  iM«m  lh«  |iflai'l|Ml  iAminmiui  (htm 
iba  M|iMllaM  of  lk«  molkiM  of  iuMt.  Bui  In  Md*r 
to  ilmpllfy  tk«  MjiMlton*,  wkkk  «■•  of  •  vwy  compll- 
Mtod  nalHto,  k«  wh  fonad  to  k«v«  rMMiurwato  iIm 
kypolkMk  of  •  HmM  Mvwlng  Mllnly  »  ibhiraU  of  • 
lOKttkr  luffMw,  MMl  ooniMinwnlly  Iko  roiulta  woro  for 
fhm  npfMontliifr  iko  arliMl  okoorvaUnnt  nf  Iko  tldoi 
■loarBorl,  'l'koUl«l>r.TkoiMW  Y<i«ini|(A)H^.  iii^., 
mrtitit  TiOM)  oaloniM  U|iImo'i  motkoil  la  tko  mora 
ganaral  cam  of  an  uraan  eovarlBK  a  tiart  only  of  tbo 
aaith'a  lurfkva,  anil  mora  or  Um  Inanuiar  hi  Ha  form, 
and  attomplatl  alio  to  Inolwla  In  kla  oalaMlallon  tko  (f> 
footo  of  kydraalU  fHollmi  on  tka  Umaa  and  ma|tnUnd*i 
oflkolldaa, 

Jmhunc*  <\f  AlmMfktrU  IStmtr*  and  IViW*.— Bo. 
(kki  Iho  uumoruui  cawM*  nf  Irragulirlty  dapondlng 
on  Iho  hxial  iilruum»tonco«,  Ika  tklaa  aro  alao  alfoclM 
by  tha  lUta  iif  Iho  almiMphoN,  M  DlaaK  Iho  btlghl 
of  high  waUr  varioa  Invarwly  aa  Iha  hajgbl  of  Iha 
banimvUr,  and  rliwt  mora  Ihan  algkl  Inthaa  for  a  foil 
of  alwul  half  an  biek  of  Iha  baminotor.  Al  Llrarpool, 
a  fall  of  una>lonlh  of  an  Inok  fai  Iha  l«fomator  «orro> 
aiionda  to  a  rlaa  In  Iha  lllvar  Maraay  of  aboul  an  Inch  i 
and  al  Iha  London  lluok*,  a  foil  of  ona-tonlk  of  an  inch 
ocrraaiMMida  to  a  rlaa  In  Iha  Thamaa  of  aboul  aavan- 
lanlba  of  an  ln«b.  Whh  a  low  baromator,  Iba  lldaa 
may  Iharcfort  lia  axiMolad  lii  ba  high,  and  tit*  ttna, 
Tha  Uda  la  alao  llabia  to  \m  dUlurhml  by  winda.  Sir 
J,  Lnbbook  alMaa  Ihal,  In  Iha  violani  hurrksana  of 
January  8,  IMNO,  "  Ihara  waa  no  llda  al  OalnaborottRb, 
wblob  I*  Iwanly'Ava  mllaa  up  Iha  TnnI— •  elnium> 
alanoa  mknown  l>aforai  Al  Sallmarah,  only  flva 
mllaa  up  Iha  Ouia  fhtm  Iha  llumbar,  Iha  llda  wani  on 
obMng,  and  navar  llowad  till  Iha  rivar  waa  dry  In  aomo 
pUcoa  I  whila  al  Datond,  lowant  which  Iha  wind  waa 
blowing,  oonlrary  aflboU  wata  obaarvad.  During  atrong 
noilhwaatorly  galaa  Iha  llda  marka  high  walar  earllar 
hi  Iha  Tbamaa  Ikan  olharwiaa.  and  dnaa  nol  giro  ao 
much  wator,  whIla  Iha  abMlda  runa  oul  lala,  and 
marka  lowar  t  bul  upon  Iha  galaa  alialing  and  Iho 
waalbor  modarallng,  Iba  lldaa  pul  hi,  and  riia  much 
kighar  whIla  Ikav  alao  run  longar  hafora  high  waler 
la  roarkad,  and  with  mara  valooUy  of  currant  t  nor  do 
Ibay  run  oul  ao  long  or  ao  lew.—BBANnN'a  rVe^xaitfa. 

The  ttilat  obNrrallona  of  Iha  Paclflo  ooaat  hava  eaa- 
nally  M  to  a  dalarmlnalkm  of  graal  adanline  intor- 
aai,  that  of  Iba  avaraga  daplh  of  tha  fatlflo  Oeaan  be- 
Iwaan  tha  ooaata  of  Japan  and  OalUbnla.  On  tha  tsd 
of  Dooamhar,  1M4,  an  aarthquaha  ueourrtd  in  Japan 
by  which  Ika  town  nf  Mmoda,  In  tha  Inland  nf  Mlphon, 
waa  daatroyad.  from  tha  Imparfwt  accounta  which 
havo  roaohad  ua,  II  ai>paan  that  al  nina  a.m.  on  that 
day  tha  aavaia  ahooh  of  an  aarthquaka  waa  foil  on 
board  tha  Huaafain  (Hgato  Mum,  than  lying  In  tha  haN 
bor  of  HImoda,  Hal?  an  hour  lalar  tha  aaa  came  Into 
tha  bay  In  an  Immanaa  war*  Ihlity  foat  In  halght, 
overwbalming  tha  town  and  Ihan  raeadlng.  Thia  ad- 
vanoa  and  raeaaalon  ooourrad llva  llmaa, and  by  sao 
P.M.  all  waa  again  quial,  Tha  daplh  nf  tha  aoa  dnr> 
lag  Ibata  obanfM  variad  tnm  laaa  Ihan  algbl  to  mora 


than  flirty  foal.  Upon  Iba  aama  dav  an  aMraordlnarv 
rlaa  and  foil  of  walar  waa  obaarvad  al  faal'a  laUwl,' 
nno  of  Iba  Honin  lahinda,  and  Iba  IMa  annHnaad  to 
riao  and  foil  daring  Iha  day  al  Intorvala  of  llftoan  nU»< 
utoa,  gradually  laaaaabig  nalil  avanhig.  •- .lawriaw) 
Jotmttt  ^ Mcimm,  January,  UtM  [l^rof.  Ha<  hu J, 

Tba  foUawing  labia  aoolalna  Iba  iw  bad  dau  for  Iba 
principal  iMal  alamanU  of  a  nombar  of  poinu  on  Ika 
coaal  of  tba  Unltad  Matoa,  with  addlMona  In  Iha  laMaa 
pabHakad  Uat  yaar,  fWralahad  by  Iba  dlaanaalona  af  Ika 
tidal  obaarvalkma.  Tbaaa  alaiuanta  aro  aalaclad  fotm 
a  largo  numbar  ot  raaulto  obtolnad  In  Iha  |in>gfaaa  of 
Iba  Coaal  (urTay,  aniy  Ikoaa  atationa  baing  rapoilad, 
aa  a  ganaral  mla,  wbara  Iha  obaarvaltona  aalandad 
Ikroagb  al  Uaal  two  luaalioaa. 

UanaAi.  Tina  Ttau  ma  Tna  Voxn  u»  ma  Umnn 
■laTaa. 

'      I  "(WVU  fi%  "I 


Coait/nm  IWiiami  to 
NrntYmk 

forUanJ 

l^irtanHHiUi 

Nawburyport 

Kaltni 

Boaloo  LIfht 


aiiiiiii  ill 


Nanluoksl 

Kdaartmrn f...< 

iloIinM'i  llok 

TaraanUB  Uor» 

Wood'a  Uote,  loatb  atda, 
aorth  tUp. 

DM  Itland  Uifct 

NawBadfardhaitwr..., 

NCWnd  a ****tai 

folalJadilh 

Moolaukrotail 

gaidy  Hook 

NawVork 

liana  ialanil  fibwMt 

WalehllUI 

Rtonlagton 

UtUa  Gall  laland 

Naw  Loodoo 

N*«  llaTea 

Ilrtilceporl 

(irilcr  nay,  Loag  Idaad 

Fand'aPolDl 

NtvKocbaUa 

TbrograNcok 

CimM  of  Xnt  J*nt\). 

CoM  Bartoc  Inlat 

Capaliar , 

JMamnv  Aq/  oad  /Naer. 
Dclawar*  Ilrinkwalar. . . 

HlfMaa 

»:« liland  Ughl 

Maboo'i  Uitab 

NawL'aitIa 

PhOadalpUa,  Nary  Yard 
"  WalBuWak.  whf. 
CAaanfMaA*  Halt. 

Old  I'otait  C'omforl 

Point  Lookout 

Aaoapolla 

llodklnUshI 

Ualtlmoie 

JanMa  Rlrar 

Biebmond 

CuatH  nf  A'oriA  CoroMnn, 

ft'ouM  CorsUao.  Qtat- 

gla,  and  FhrU*. 

Ilaltaraa  Inlet 

Daaafort 

HmlthTllla 

Gharlaatoo 

RaTannah  Hivar 

Kavannah  city 

8t.Aug«ittBa 

tape  Florida 

Band  Kay 

Kay  Waal 

Tampa  Uay 

Cedar  Keya  

WtMem  Caad. 

tan  rirgo 

Xao  I'edro 

tian  Lull  OUapo. 

Montarey 

f<an  Frandaeo 

Aatorla 


Mataia 

New  Hampalilra 
MaaaaahuaaMa  , 

1)0.     . . . 

D&    ... 

Do.    ... 

Ua    ... 

Do.    ... 

Co.    ... 

tio.    ... 

1)0.      ... 

Do,    ... 

Do.     ... 

Do.  ... 
Iilaod . 

Uo.  ... 
Naw  York.... 
New  Jfntj, . . 
Naw  York.... 


Khoda  leland . . 
Conneelleut..., 

New  York 

lioaBeallail.'.., 

Do.    .... 

Do.  .... 
NawY'ork 

Do,     ... 

Do.     ... 

Do.    ..., 

Naw  Jeraay. . . , 
Uo.    .... 


Delaware 

New  Jeraey. . . . 

Do.  .... 
DeUwara 

Do.  .... 
PanniTlrania . . 

Do 

VIrsinU 

MaryUnd 

Do.    .... 

Do.    .... 

Da  .... 
VlntloU 

Da    .... 


a« 
ia 
>i 

(■3 
!»■« 
It 
I'O 
11 
«'« 
B'* 
IB 
41 
18 
I* 
SI 
I'O 
4'8 
41 

IT 
IS 
I'S 
«« 

68 
«B 
TB 
TT 
T'6 
T-8 

44 

48 

SK 
4D 
«« 
BD 
«'B 
81 
B'V 

SB 
1-4 
04 
I'O 
18 
S-O 
!■» 


Nortb  Carolina, 

Do 

Da  . . , . 
Fontb  CarolbM. 
Georgia 

Da  . . . , 
Florida 

Da     .... 

Da    . . . . 

Do 

Do 

Ua    .... 


CaUromto.. 
Da    . 

Da    ....I  8-T 

Do.    ....'  8'4 

Da    ....'  B'O 

Oreg.  Territory  8'1 


9* 

»<1 

10-8 

10't 

It's 

84 

IB 

1« 

t-B 


HI 
4'« 
4'8 
ST 
IS 
88 
•■4 

81 
8-4 
H» 
8  1 
84 
SO 
9-t 
B'O 
8-8 
I'S 

B4 
0-0 

4'B 
8'S 
T'O 
8'« 
B'V 
TO 
88 

B'O 
l-B 
I'O 
IB 
IB 


SB 
18 

I'l 
I'S 

14 
4'0 
S'4 

9-4 

II 
18 

t'l 
61 
4'T 
6'4 
l'4 
8'S 
41 

IS 

4'8 

B'O 
8'S 
61 
60 
84 
B'S 
6'1 

I'O 
O-T 
0'9 
0-8 
0-S 


•  ••Jl 

ittr~ 

1 

t 

tUv 

r^ 

urn 

T4 

9* 

n 

»«! 

»* 

1U« 

T« 

10« 

«I 

118 

HB 

»« 

It 

8B 

K 

1-6 

18 

la 

f-0 

Bi 

8"i 

4« 

IS 

4'« 

81 

IT 

l-t 

tn 

14 

n« 

40 

0'4 

1-4 

»i 

1-4 

ll'4 

Jl 

24 

88 

8  1 

11 

A< 

B1 

80 

4T 

P-4 

B'4 

SO 

«4 

8-fl 

«0 

14 

»1 

0  4 

8'« 

0« 

4'8 

4-B 

80 

«'3 

8-« 

T-0 

B'l 

t't 

BO 

(li) 

14 

TO 

B-1 

«'« 

B'l 

80 

lo 

l-B 

O'T 

10 

O'fl 

1'8 

0-8 

IB 

O'* 

9-1 

1'8 

8  8 

91 

Bfi 

8'« 

S'8 

48 

HO 

B-tt 

7« 

BB 

4-T 

8'B 

1-T 

1'9 

SO 

n-8 

S8 

07 

1-T 

10 

10 

1« 

BO 

9  8 

4-7 

9-9 

n't 

9'4 

4-8 

9B 

48 

9'R 

7  8 

4'B 

TID 


FWiaMalli,  N.  II.. 


18 

«T 

tV'S 

49 

Bl 

4B 

88 


Omioo, 


nitbaM  biui. 


WdJS:rc;;'l'i"~''':::.':^ 


I    '•■'"    ,   Huh 


m  lioM 


To  Mount  HoiM  Jli» 'Ul.h V. 

I      Rock.  fUrhn^   i>  1  T""  •  wmoi^nt 

'"•^•* oxSi5'--«'^;3 

North clUBMl.,,   

'  Hpiith  channel. .. .  

'1  "YjoVNewVorr- ""'  °""  "'1 
M.fi.Mpch,„n„,;p-— j;i'''^'j^., 


OattwuvBi^. 


I><)>irin  Btrer. 


Cb«P«k»ai7. 


Opposlto  (;h«it»r     

Iter  off  Hog  LLnd" 

Krom^G«.„w,oh  Pii„V  upi  Phiiae,:, 
From^„p<,.tV,;i;-i-ii'y'^.^. 


EllMbeth  RiTer,  V«. 
I  "•»««»«  Inlet,  k  c. 


Oor»eok«  Jnttt. 
UMotort,  N.  c. , 
CkpeFear 


I'p  to  Norfolk 

Between  Xorfolk  and  m^^m ' 
Over  northern  bar         ^  ^ 

Over  (outhem  bar  

OTcr  northern  bar 

Over  loiithern  bar      

Overbar 

Entranco  to  fhinnel' .■.'.■.■.' 

Neir  Inlet  bar 

tMaIn .hlpchannei,  Ca"^' Fw RlWr 


•  The dantl.  I-   u        •i::'™neiMAp6Fear River 


t  Beandtog,  varying  between  10  and  IB  fcthoo* 


TID 


1840 


TID 


Rvov 

TO  Tin  SunBWtnmiire  ot  tot  Uiiitb>  Statm*  Coaw  SmiTW. 

-CoHUnmi. 

riMM 

^AN  WATBB  IM  OHAHMaL  WAV, 

*a<lMcUla..-<rrM.  Coart  Somr 

'  MMa.        1  (pila«TI(ta. 

Wia.r.1 

>llli!lti.|w.Wr.  1 

IVatar. 

Ctttt  Fmf 

WMtem  rlD 

FmL 

8 
10 

I 

• 

n 

10 

1 

11-6 

18 

W 

19 

SO 

IT 

19 

81 

11 
IT 
83 
SI 
16-6 
S4 
14 
19 
T 
S8 

ST 

sc 

80 

S8 

80 
ST 
SO 
ST 
80 

IB 
11 
45 
64 
4B 
80 
10 
11 
18 

T 

ISS 
SlB 
SS 
81 
SO 
SI 
88 
IS 
IS 
19  B 
18 
16 
14 
lB-9 

96 
IS 

95 

9 
10 

8 
18 

T8 
16 

ST 

14 

TB 
IS 
9 

4 

FmI. 
IS-B 
14-6 

lO'S 

80-8 

18  ■« 

lt'8 

IB'8 

18-8 

l«-8 

18-8 

S« 

86 

ST 

84 

S8 

88 

IT* 
831 
441 
STl 
981 
80-6 
19-9 
84-9 
11-6 
861 

88-4 
81-4 
81-4 

89-4 

81-4 
S8'4 
81-4 

88-4 
81 '4 

16-4 
184 
46-3 
664 
46  2 
81 'S 
18'6 
18-8 
14-8 

9-9 
18-6 
886 
89 
88 
81 
88 
8T 
13 
80-3 
80-8 
193 
11-8 
16-8 
16-6 
106 
181 
106 
101 
111 

91 
141 

8-T 
16  8 

88-4 

16-4 

9 

131 
101 

4-9 

9-6 

6'T 
S6T 

8'T 
10-8 
9-8 
68 
11 '8 
18-6 
18  « 
18  6 
196 
166 
18-4 
80-4 

10-6 
16-6 
8T-6 
80  6 
14T 
83-8 
136 
186 
6-6 
886 

S6'T 
29'T 
89T 

8T-T 
89 -T 
26T 
19T 
86 -T 
89 -T 

UT 

W-T 

44S 

63 '8 

448 

39-8 . 

91 

10-6 

11-6 

6'6 

IS'S 

83-8 

8TT 

SOT 

I9T 

SOT 

86T 

11  T 

1ST 

19-8 

ITT 

16T 

18-7 

14-9 

9 '3 

118 

93 

8-8 

9-8 

T-8 

19-8 

T-S 

14T 

86'T 

18T 
T-S 
IIT 

8-T 
8-8 

IS 
IB 

11-8 
81-8 
181 
ITl 
16-1 
131 
lT-6 
19-4 
866 
26-6 
37-6 
846 
86  6 
SS-6 

18-S 

33-8 

44-8 

27-8 

33-6 

31 

80-8 

26-8 

18 

26-6 

29 
88 
8S     ' 

SO 
89 
29 
SS 

80 
88 

IT 

13 

464 

66-4 

464 

81-4 

18-6 

13-6 

14-6 

96 
14 
83-7 
29-3 
89 -8 
81-3 
22-3 
87-8 
134 
80-6 
311 
19-6 
lT-6 
18-6 
16-8 
lO-T 
184 
10-T 
10-3 
11-9 

9-3 
14-8 

8-9 
164 

28  8 

168 
11-8 
13-3 
10« 
B 

-1800. 

1861, '61,  and 'B8. 

|-1880. 

186B.   .  .:                 ..     .. 

1&66. 

Ilea  Barret,  ITTT. 

1866. 

1866. 

1886. 

1861  and  '68. 

Captain  Gilmer,  V.  8.  En- 
gbieera.-1866, 

^18SSand'86. 

1866. 

.  Captain  Mackay,  U.  8.  Top. 
&i.audCoaatSur.-in& 

1866. 
ISBOand'Bl. 

1830  and '61. 

1864. 

1864 

.1869. 

Colonel  Kearney,  U.  Statea 
.    Topographical  Englueen. 

I  From  184T  to  '68,  loeloaive. 
il848. 

il848. 

il861. 

18.tl. 
1861. 
1S6L 
1868. 
1883. 

}lS68. 

il868. 

1868. 
1863. 
1868. 
1868. 

Otorgrtowu,  8.  C 

Chtffcfton,  &  C 

ikAtiheMiin  

Entranoe   to  Yflnyth  Bay,  But  ftod 
BouttMuk  Pam 

Anehonge  inilde  of  North  IsUnd 

Mala  bur 

North  channel '. 

Haffltt'a  channel 

Maffltt'a  chuinel 

^ttHl(«ral 

Channel  up  to  Northeaat  bisnofa 

t>te«eatruin 

SttaMth ....  i .'.... . 

Soatheut  chimnel 

Eut  CtlADDel 

Cbannel  up  to  eUy  (Wrecka  and  Oarden 
Bank)  

M.  SlMA'a      

Over  bar  at  entrance 

tM«r  Btr  uid  Inlet . 

M.  M«r7'a  Ktrer 

M.  JoWa  River,  Fh. 
Key^Mt 

Turtle  Kiver,  up  to  Uljrtbe  laUnd 

On  |)|ir     

Cbmnnel  no  to  St  HarT'i 

Over  bur  at  entrance 

Channel  paBslng  up  toward  Jaeluonvllle 

Main  ship  channel  to  middle  buoy  on 

ihnali 

•foiWgfc 

East  channel,  enterlnit 

Oncourae  N.N.W.  half  W.  (light  on 
O'llara'a  Obaervatorj),  and  paaaing 

From  fourteen  feet  ahoala  to  anchorage 
At  anchorage 

Weat  channel 

Northveat  channel,  up  to  abreaat  N.Vr. 
light 

Northweat  channel 

<Mtf  Km» 

Southveat  channel 

*iRi^::..;::.:: 

A  VMnKflTCOnT .  • 

nMMeoht 

Channel  at  middle  buoy 

t'p  to  Fort  8t  Mark'a ". 

Channel 

M«Mt«Atr»dRl7ert 

tItiipUitiliihtithcA.. 

e«t  UltM  harbort. . . 

Mfmiaatypineltat.... 

S6iflfc«««t  Paaat 

MWtMMt  Paint 

*Off  wharf  at  Penaarola 

Over  outer  bar 

Main  ahip  channel  to  Fort  Morgan 

To  the  upper  fleet 

Channel 

Northweat  channel 

Anchorage,  Man.of-irar  harbor 

Ship  channel 

South  I'am 

Shell-bank  channel 

raan  A  Ijoutre,  north  channel 

South  channel 

Over  bar,  north  entranoe 

Over  bar,  aouth  entranoe 

Kntering'. 

miMR*i>iit  Pamt 

Mtt^Miirl*  Ray 

('hanncl 

>vcr  bar,  outside  of  Grand  Plaa 

Orand  paaaace  to  Indispendence  Taland. 

Channel  inside  and  north  of  Ship  lalaod 

Shoal  light  •■hip 

Channel  north  or  Ship  ^hoal,  one  mile 
tnm  beach  of  Demkre  laland 

wlKMtim  liiiyt. ..... 

OalveatuU  Itay 

Afmmn  Phnnf 

H(V  f  rndnw 

Rio  Grande 

*  tW^yJftg  bctweon  80  and  24  foot  of  water. 

t  fhe  M^at  tidea  ^Kcur  at  the  moon'a  grcateat  declination,  and  are  applied  In  the  column  headed  "  Spring  Tidca." 


ilMgf.  ofthf,  Tide.— The  difference  of  level  between 
Mdfh  MKf  km  water  is  sffSected  by  various  eausea,  but 
^1«1fy  hf  tb«  conflfjuration  of  the  land,  and  ia  very 
4M<Mre«rt  «{  different  placei.  In  deep  inbenda  of  the 
lAleWy  ttptn  in  the  direction  of  tb-)  tide  wave,  and  grad- 
UttHf  eMrtncting  like  •  funnel,  the  convergence  of 


the  water  caases  a  very  great  increase  of  the  raiige. 
Hence  the  verj'  high  tidea  in  the  liriatul  Cbannel,  the 
Bay  of  St.  Malo,  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the  tide 
is  said  to  rise  aometimes  to  the  height  of  100  feet. 
Promontories,  under  certain  circumstances,  exert  an 
opposite  influence,  and  diminish  the  tide. 


TID 

1841 

«-i»..«.„i,iiiv::U?s.".""-::.':: B"«  rSn~Kr-hS^f-sSJ  J!S. 

SSX& ISSr:.-.'::'::::.-::;:::  |     ^    S  (f^rtjlri  >»■ 

I^^^SSs£j^iSS^S=^::i  S'  l:  i*  H  il  !  h'S 
""•asS^SisS^Srig  »•  *<:;  »  gj  j;,  ,», 
».^,.,„"jt    •""'"'■ ''•"ClS?s^»»55vsr-^^  .■;::    ■■■■    ■« 

»„««:: 711 ......  a^-,.      ~.JK^'-^'^~/Sa\X'~'a^-'*S' 

of  the  equatorial  calms-tL,    ."'''*  "''■8'''»'S  '"      sV^'V-'k-.': «*»        " 

-Sup^^-j^^^^^r^lr^      ;;  Sfc:::  •■•■•••••  g   ■: 

nf  ,  ■   '^""'Wl — Ihavethnii,.i,t.i  " '"i 'uey  are  /  *  Incli  plant    170        ■< 

H'ggins,  of  the  liw'     ?«"""*'  "'e  mast,.    Canteen        ^'T*'  ^^.OOO  tons,  or  48  0^  7  \  """*  <"»  an  ac^V 
m  1...  ],o  l,.f  li  "  ~»  &  »;m,  ion  OoitilS'   •"•  "»)■  in.-,,  V±m  .,„'"';■ .  """  i 


TIM 


1842 


TIN 


bending,  as  employed  in  this  new  application,  is  based 
on  end-pressure,  whicli,  in  condensing  and  turning  at 
tlio  same  time,  destroys  tlie  capillary  tulws  by  forcing 
tliem  into  each  other.  These  tubes  are  only  of  use 
when  the  tree  is  growing ;  and  their  amalgamation  in- 
creases the  density  of  the  timber,  the  pressure  being 
so  nicely  adjusted  that  the  wood  is  neither  flattened 
nor  spread,  nor  is  the  outer  circumference  of  the  wood 
expanded,  tliough  the  inner  is  contracted.  Now  the 
error  of  the  former  process,  as  expounded  by  com- 
petent judges,  has  arisen  from  the  disintegrating  of 
the  fibre  of  the  wood  by  expanding  the'  whole  mass 
over  a  rigid  mould.  Wood  can  be  more  easily  com- 
pressed than  expanded ;  therefore,  it  is  plain  that  a 
process  which  induces  a  greater  closeness  in  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  piece  under  operation — which,  as  it 
were,  locks  up  the  whole  mass  by  l(nitting  the  flbres 
together — must  augment  the  degree  of  hardness  and 
power  of  resistance.  The  wood  thus  becomes  almoi<t 
impervious  to  damp  and  to  the  depredations  of  insects, 
while  its  increased  density  renders  it  less  liable  to  ttke 
fire ;  and  the  present  method  of  cutting  and  shaping 
timlxir  being  superseded,  a  saving  of  from  two  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  material  is  brought  alwut.  The  action 
of  the  machine  throws  the  cross-grains  into  right 
angles ;  the  Icnots  are  compelled  to  follow  the  impulse 
of  the  bending ;  the  juices  are  forced  out  of  tlie  ceils 
of  the  wood,  and  the  cavities  are  filled  up  by  the  inter- 
lacing fibres.  In  the  same  way,  you  may  sometimes 
see  in  the  iron  of  which  the  barrels  of  muskets  are 
made  a  kind  of  dark  grain  which  indicates  that  the 
paf^icles  of  tlie  metal,  either  in  the  natural  formation 
or  in  the  welding,  have  been  strongly  clinched  in  one 
another.  The  specimens  are  always  greatly  valued 
for  their  extraordinary  toughness,  as  well  as  for  a  cer- 
tain fantastical  and  mottled  beauty. 

Another  of  the  gowl  results  of  this  new  method  is 
that  the  wood  is  seasoned  by  the  same  process  as  that 
which  effects  the  bending.  The  reasoning  of  the  wood 
is  simply  the  drying  of  tiie  juices,  and  the  reduction 
of  the  mass  to  its  minimum  size  before  it  is  employed, 
so  that  there  shall  be  no  future  warping.  But,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  the  compression  resorted  to  in 
the  American  system  at  once  expels  the  sap ;  and  a 
few  hours  are  sufiicient  to  convert  green  timlJer  into 
thoroughly  seasoned  wood.  Here  is  an  obvious  sav- 
ing of  time,  and  alM  of  money ;  for  the  ordinar}-  mode 
of  seasoning,  by  causing  the  wood  to  lie  waste  for  a 
considerable  period,  locks  up  the  capital  of  the  trader, 
and  of  course  enhances  the  price  to  the  purchaser. 
Time  also  will  be  saved  in  another  way,  in  searching 
for  pieces  of  wood  of  the  proper  curve  for  carrying  out 
certain  designs.  "  How  delighted,"  says  Hr.  Jervis, 
the  United  States  inspector  of  timber,  "will  the  ship- 
wright be  to  get  clear  of  the  necessity  of  searching  for 
crooked  pieces  of  timber  t  There  need  no  longer  be 
any  breaking  of  luts  in  the  frame,  as  we  have  been 
wont  to  break  them.  We  shall  see  numliers  one,  two, 
and  three  futtocks,  at  least,  all  in  one  piece."  An 
English  engineer  (Mr.  Charles  Mayhew)  remarks,  that 
one  of  the  advantages  of  the  American  method  is  that, 
"  in  its  application  to  all  circular,  wreathed,  or  twisted 
■work,  it  nut  only  preserves  the  continuous  grain  of  the 
wood,  witich  is  now  usually  and  laboriously  done  by 
narrow  slips  of  veneer  glued  on  cores  cut  across  the 
grain,  with  many  unsightly  joints,  ill  concealed  at 
best;  liut  it  will  materially  reduce  the  cost  of  all 
curved  work,  whkh  now  varies  according  to  the  quick- 
ness of  the  sweep,  and  will  give  the  artist  greater  free- 
dom in  Ills  design,  bj-  allowing  him  to  introduce  lines 
which  are  now  cautiously  avoided  in  order  to  prevent 
the  cost  of  their  execution."  Dr.  Hooker,  Mr.  Fair- 
bairn,  Mr.  Kennie,  Mr.  Gallway,  civil  engineer,  and 
other  eminent  scientific  men,  confirm  these  judgments. 
A  f<|)eciinen  of  bent  oak  now  lies  before  us,  and  ex- 
hibits a  beautiful  continuity  in  the  sweep  of  the  flbres. 
Timber-bending  has  reached  a  new  stage  of  develop- 


ment; and  it  is  not  too  much  to  anticipate  that  it  will 
have  considerable  influence  on  the  industrial  arts. 

Tin  (Ger.  BheH,  Weutblech;  Fr.  Fer  blanc;  It. 
Latta,  Sanda  ttagnala ;  8p,  Hoja  de  lata ;  Rnss.  mucha, 
Shut ;  Arab.  Betai ;  Sans.  Ti-apu  and  Jianga),  a  metal 
which  has  a  fine  white  color  like  silver ;  and  when 
fresh,  its  brilliancy  is  yety  great.  It  has  a  slightly 
disagreeable  taste,  and  emits  a  peculiar  smell  when 
rubbed.  Its  hardness  is  between  that  of  gold  and 
lead.  Its  specific  gravity  is  7*29.  It  is  very  malle- 
able ;  tin-foU,  or  tin  leaf,  is  about  -j^j^th  part  of  an 
inch  thick ;  and  it  might  be  beat  out  into  leaves  as 
thin  again,  if  such  were  required  for  the  purposes  of 
art.  In  ductility  and  tenacity  it  is  very  inferior.  A 
tin  wire  0-078  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of  support- 
ing a  weight  of  84-7  pounds  only  without  breaking. 
Tin  is  ver;'  flexible,  and  produces  a  crackling  noise 
when  bent.  It  may  be  readily  alloyed  with  copper, 
zinc,  etc.,  forming  verj*  valuable  compounds. — Tiium- 
son's  Chemiilry. 

The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for  this  article 
for  more  than  1100  years  before  the  Christian  era.  It 
is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them  commercial  Im- 
portance in  the  ancient  world.  Under  the  Saxons, 
our  tin  mines  appear  to  li^ve  Iwen  neglected ;  but  after 
the  coming  in  of  the  Kormans,  they  produced  consider- 
able revenues  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall,  particularly  to 
Richard,  brother  of  Henrj-  III. ;  a  charter  and  various 
immunities  were  granted  by  Edmund,  Earl  Richard's 
brother,  who  also  framed  the  stannary  laws,  laying  a 
duty  on  the  tin,  payable  to  tlie  earls  of  Comwcll. 
Edward  III.  confirmed  the  tinners  in  their  privileges, 
and  erected  Cornwall  into  a  dukedom,  with  which  he 
invested  his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  1337.  Since 
that  time,  the  heirs  apparent  to  the  crown  of  England, 
if  eldest  sons,  have  enjoyed  it  successively.  Tin  mines 
were  discovered  in  Germany,  which  lessened  the  value 
of  those  in  England,  till  then  the  only  tin  mines  in 
Europe,  a.d.  1240. — Andehsox.  Discovered  in  Bor- 
barj-,  1640 ;  in  India,  17*0 ;  in  New  Spain,  1782.  En- 
gland exports  at  present,  on  an  average,  1500  tons  of 
unwrought  ti^,  besides  manufactured  tin  and  tin- 
plates,  of  the  value  of  about  £400,000. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  are  found  in  comparatively 
few  places ;  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  only,  ones 
are  Cornwall,  Galicia,  Erzgebirge  in  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
the  Malay  countries,  China,  and  Banca  in  Asia.  They 
are  peculiar  to  primitive  rocks,  generiiUy  in  granite, 
either  in  veins  or  beds,  and  are  often  associated  with 
copper  and  iron  pj-rites.  Tin  is  much  used  as  a  cover- 
ing to  several  other  metals :  iron  is  tinned,  to  prevent 
its  rapid  oxydation  when  exposed  to  air  and  moisture ; 
and  the  same  process  is  applied  to  copper,  to  uvuici  the 
injurious  effects  to  which  those  who  are  in  tlic  hahit  of 
employing  co<<king  utensils  made  of  this  metal  ore  al- 
ways liable.  The  solutions  of  tin  in  the  nitric,  muri- 
atic, nitro-sulphuric,  and  tartaric  acids,  are  much  used 
in  dyeing,  as  giving  a  degree  of  permanency  and  bril- 
liancy to  several  colors,  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
no  other  mordants  with  which  wo  are  at  present  ac- 
quainted :  tin  forms  the  basis  of  pewter,  in  the  com- 
position of  which  it  is  alloyed  with  lead ;  when  rolled 
into  thin  sheets,  it  is  called  tin-foil,  and  is  applied,  with 
the  addition  of  mercnrj-,  to  cover  the  surface  of  glass, 
thus  forming  looking-glasses,  mirrors,  etc.;  iind  in 
combination  with  sulphur,  it  constitutes  what  is  called 
mosaic  gold. — Joyce's  Chtm.  JUin.  Tin  plates,  known 
in  Scotland  by  the  name  of  ichile  iron,  are  appiicablo 
to  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  They  ore  formed  of 
thin  plates  of  iron  dipped  into  molten  tin.  The  tin 
not  only  covers  the  surfoce  of  the  iron,  but  penetrates 
it  completely,  and  gives  the  whole  a  white  color.  It 
is  usual  to  add  about  one-tenth  of  copper  to  the  tin,  to 
prevent  it  from  forming  too  thick  a  coat  upon  the  iron. 
— Thomson's  Chtmirtry. 

Urituh  Tin  Tradf.— The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  have 
been  worked  from  a  verj*  remote  era.     The  voyages 


^Account  o/theSdllu  /,i^^"  ^"'"terides ;  but  BorI».r      i*'  *«"'•  <>'  KMln  t 

that  they  are  the  iScllIv  V.i    i"*  »'''«"  critics  31.  .i^""  ®^  "••  <»  are  usn»ll 

remit,,  of  00™^^^'';!"  "J"  "">  ^«"  XT  ^f  P"^"'=«  «urgeTd ' 

thage,  the  British  tin  trade  ivt  ^«»'™otion  of  Car  ^fuK  "'  "-ling  the  ore  ♦„  V -;"'  »e». '"«  Practlca- 
!llP~A"i"  in,porta„^f\:^lhjr«?  always  JeS'n^^ 

"  not  alloSh''"' ':'«'' it-'- 

the  n,e  of  the  8oIutio3  tfn^-''  ''■"'  ""l-aint^d  3   f ''^''^«'"'.  the  motll  «"    *"'!T,'''<'  '"'"'  «PpIie<l  t„7ti 
fl'^ing  that  color.    The  belt  „V^l:''"^"«a^^^^^^^ 
r™'".  were  also  made  of  »    ^^^  """'«"' mimrs  or   T?'''' ^'-^'^  "ore  sS^^^^  P'o"uced  it,  by 

tm,  and  tin  was  „,edt  the  ^al?"?  °'  ''"PP^^XuT/''''^''  -™  pro^  ^d t.^"  ^?'«"'*  th'o 

'_evoa  have  beer;™^!;!!",!!!'^-  ".^  Cornwall  a„J«;yf"°^'heann«oVp„^S:/ote?''!-r''''-S 


ed  of  peculiar  importance  L!'"'=''  ""'  "'»«?»  reckon         **'"«  """'""l ;  and  th,'°  ''"S''""'  for  the  pu^.^ 


!n».  1       ""'™  m  labit- 

"•troductionofEuroZn 

"".ua'l  pro^;eo;';T"8 -timate  has  Cl 

ingtin:  ^  ""''"""«»•  "tates  «uS 


Junk  C'oylon 

Qupda 

rem '][  '*" 

Salnngoro  . .  "  " 
Malacca . ' ' ' 

Total  picula 


Piciili. 

2,000 

8,000 
3,000 
4,000 
IT,000 


^Vest  t'oisT  ov  r„„  \t I'^i'W 

J'alianK  i'Tf 

fingkcn *•     ^.WW 

"--::::::::;:;:;;; ■■■■■■■::::::  ffl 

TotalplcuU 35.000 

.  03,000 


In  n,Zi      ^'t"»«^<«  -fi'Mow.  ""'^  vessels,    skill  anrt  m.  i-    '^™' 

m  modem  times,  the  «n      •  „•  machmery. 

Devon  have  been  ^nmlh    wT/k"''''  "'^  Cornwall  and  ^J'""^  """""""■>  P 

gradually  increasine  till  i,,  '"'  I'rodiice  went  nn 
r«.m  1730  to  1800  !;S  r,T'''"'''A'-"-r 
ve^r,  T  ''*"•"  ">«  produce  fell  „«•"'■  .  ^"''»S  «"« 
years  ending  with  1815  it  »„  .  '  ""^ ''or  the  five 
under  3000  tons  a  yeai-  nT-  "'ry^  consideraWv 
rif' ?  -"•■'•e'able7ncrea^^\^V''« '-t-mentG 

S-=^^rr-^^'E'--^  I^Ucanb-    - ^ 

eastern,  and  comnrih.T''™  "''''-  ""d  to  if^  on^lX"  ""China,  Hindostan  tdTh'"  ™'?"""Pti«n  of 

"n,  or  tin  Ta  ^^"r.      "'"^'  ""'  '=onseque«lv  is  /.^    '  ^  ^ J  '"  "">  P""""™  of  Banea  a™  /h      '"'i"l°'  I""'' 


--j^    '"wirix.      Alain v  fin  "-&-"«  uiw  irom    itr 


TTT 


1844 


TOB 


it  flndi  iti  v»y  to  Chins.  It  ihonld  be  added,  that  of 
late  yean,  and  chieBy  owing  to  the  veiy  low  price  and 
abundance  of  German  spelter  (zbic)  in  the  Indian 
marliet,  this  commodity  has  occasionally  Ijeen  fraud- 
ulently mixed  with  tin.  The  Chinese  brokers  of  Can- 
ton, however,  are  sufficiently  expert  to  detect  the  adul- 
teration; and  it  is  believed  that  this  discreditable 
practice  has  lately  ceased.  The  price  of  tin,  talcing 
the  market  of  Singapore  as  the  standard,  has  fluctuated 
of  late  years  from  14  to  20  Spanisli  dollars  per  picul ; 
equal,  at  the  exchange  of  4i.  per  dollar,  to  HTt.  and 
C7<.  percwt.  Atan  average  of  these  prices,  the  annual 
value  of  the  whole  Malay  tin  will  bo  about  £240,000 
per  annum. — CnAWFUBD'a  llittory  qfthe  Indian  Archi- 
pelago; Dr.  IIuBsviKLD'a  JUS.  Statittical  View  <if  tit* 
Itland  of  Sanca;  Singapore  Chronicle;  Canton  Be  jit- 
ter, etc. 

ExpOBTB  Of  nomsTic  Tin  noM  tbi  ITmnn  States  tob 
Tiui  Vkae  indimq  Jdnb  80,  18ST. 

WUtliat  nportod.  V>lua. 

Cansdk $41T4 


Other  Dritbh  North  American  roannluna, 
British  Weit  Indies. 

Aiorei 

]*ort«  In  Africa 

Mexico 

Pandwich  IiUndi. . , 

Wbale-lbheriea 

ToUl 


618 

2Sa 

06 

\K 

60 

864 

.  $06851 


Expon  or  rouuoM  Tin  feom  Tna  rHixro  States  iob  TnK 
Ykab  i!:<mi«)  JCMB  80, 186T. 


Whithn  •zportad. 


( 'anada 

Other  liritUh  N.  A.  Tom. 
BriUih  ^Vcit Jndlea 

"»y« * 

Mexico 

Ne»  Granada 

Sandwich  Islands 

ToUl 

From  varehoau 

Not  from  vamhouse 


IdPIii 
and 


7S838 
6T 


UT4 


$«t48 


1808 
4286 


I>  FUUi 
ud  ShMtj, 


$22,!I4« 
3,326 

830 
8,681 
8,010 

2T4 
2,441 


»84,90T 


24,488 
10,474 


M»nufae> 
turei  of,  not 
tpecifltd. 


$14,420 


180 


$14,660 


14,2«S 


luroKTS  or  Tin  and  MANrrAoxBRKs  or  Tim  into  tub  Udited 
States  fob  tiir  Ybab  znvino  Jvkx  30, 185T. 


'WhtDCa  Importad. 


Hamburg 

Bremen 

Holland 

Dutch  l'!ait  Indies 

Belgium 

Englaad 

Seotlaad 

Canada 

Other  British  N.  A.  Poss. 
British  West  Indies  .... 

British  Giilsna 

BriliihEast  Indies 

Franco  on  tho  Atlantic  . 
Franco  on  tho  Medlter'n 

Philippine  Islands 

Cuba 

New  Urtinada 

Bncnoa  Ayrcs 

Chill 

Pern" 


Total. 


InPlm 
and  Ban. 


6,240 

STT.MT 
66,684 
ST.STl 
8T,T8S 


641 
401,171 

3!),4S8 

i.'wn 

" '  61 

63 

84,602 

818 

1,028,210 


In  riatta 

and 
Shaala. 


2,493 


2,601 
4,792,763 


1,627 
236 

"is 


4,789,638 


•is 

1,116 


4,627 
2,763 


21 


12,830 
5 


21,426 


Oltar 
Manu. 
faftaraa. 


407 
8,608 


6,370 
16,480 

"« 


4,84^ 


31,922 


Tithes  are  the  tenth  part  of  the  increase  yearly 
arising  and  rennwing  from  the  profits  of  lands,  tho 
stock  upon  lands,  and  the  personal  industr}'  of  tho  in- 
habitants, and  are  offerings  payable  to  the  Church  by 
law.  Under  the  Jewisli  system,  the  tenth  part  of  the 
yearly  increase  of  tlieir  goods  was  due  to  the  priests. 
—Xumhert,  xviii.  21 ;  Deut.,  xiv.  22  j  Levit.,  zxvii, 
30,  32. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian  Churoh,  offer- 
ings were  made  by  its  members  at  the  altar,  at  collec- 
tions, and  in  other  ways ;  and  such  payqients  were 
cnjoiiaed  by  decrees  of  the  Church,  and  sanctioned  by 
general  usage.  For  many  centuries,  however,  they 
were  roluntaiy.    But  wh«a  the  Chuioli  had  incfmsed 


in  power,  and  began  to  number  among  its  members 
many  who  adhered  to  it  because  it  waa  the  prevailing 
religion,  it  was  found  necessar}-  to  enforce  certain  fixed 
contributions  for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  re- 
ligion. The  Church  relied  upon  the  example  of  the 
Jews,  and  claimed  a  tenth.  Meanwhile,  the  conver- 
sion of  temporal  princes  to  Christianity,  and  their  zeal 
in  favor  of  their  new  faith,  enabled  the  Church  to  ob- 
tain the  enactment  of  laws  to  compel  the  payment  of 
tithes.  In  England,  the  first  instance  of  a  law  for 
the  offering  of  tithes  was  that  of  Offo,  King  of  Mercia, 
toward  the  end  of  the  8th  ceiitur}-.  He  first  gave  the 
Church  a  civil  right  in  tithes,  and  enabled  the  clergy 
to  recover  them  as  their  legal  due.  Tlie  law  of  Offa 
was  at  a  later  period  extended  to  the  whole  of  England 
by  King  £thelwtilph. — Puideaux  on  Tilhet ;  BouN'a 
Cyclopedia. 

Tobacco  (Da.  TobaJc;  Dn.  Tabah;  Fr.  Tabac;  Ger. 
Tubacki  It.  Tobacco  i  Pol.  Tvbaka;  Russ.  Tabak;  Sp. 
Tabaco;  Arab.  Bujjerbhang;  Hind.  Tumbdtu;  Malay, 
Tambrdcoo),  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Nicotiana  iabacum, 
a  plant  indigenous  to  America,  but  whicli  succeeds  very 
well,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  most  parts  of 
the  Old  World.  The  recent  leaves  possess  very  little 
odor  or  taste ;  but  when  dried,  their  odor  is  strong, 
narcotic,  and  somewhat  fetid ;  their  taste  bitter  and 
extremely  acrid.  When  well  cured,  they  are  of  a 
yellowish  green  color.  When  distilled,  they  yield  an 
essential  oU,  on  which  their  virtue  depends,  and  which 
is  said  to  be  a  virulent  poison.  The  loaves  are  used 
in  various  ways ;  being  chewed,  smoked,  and  ground 
and  manufactured  into  snuff.  It  is  in  the  last  men- 
tioned form  that  tobacco  is  principally  used  in  Great 
Britain ;  and  though  the  contrary  has  been  often  as- 
serted, its  use  does  not  seem  to  be  productive  of  any 
perceptible  bad  consequence. 

Hitlorical  Sketch. — Tiie  taste  for  tobacco,  though 
apparently  administering  only  to  a  frivolous  gratifica- 
tion, has  given  birth  to  a  most  extensive  commerce, 
and  been  a  powerful  spur  to  industry.  Being  a  native 
of  the  Kew  World,  its  introduction  into  Europe  dates 
only  from  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century.  Seeds 
of  the  plant  were  sent,  in  IfiCO,  from  Portugal  to  Cath- 
erine do'  Medici,  by  Jean  Nicot,  tho  French  emiussador 
in  that  country,  from  whom  it  has  received  its  botan- 
ical name.  The  notion,  at  one  time  so  general,  that 
the  specific  appellation  totiacco  was  derived  from  its 
having  been  imported  fh)m  Toliago,  is  now  universally 
admitted  to  be  without  foundation.  Humboldt  has 
shown  that  tobacco  was  the  term  used  in  tho  Ilaytian 
language  to  designate  the  pipe,  or  instrument  made 
use  of  by  the  nati/es  in  smoking  the  herb;  and  the 
term,  having  been  t.-^nsferred  by  the  Spaniards  from 
the  pipe  to  the  birb  itself,  has  lieeu  adopted  by  the 
other  nations  of  tlie  ancient  world. — £«sai  Politique  mr 
la  Kouvelh  E$pagne,  vol.  iii.  p.  50,  2d.  ed.  Tobacco 
is  believed  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  England 
by  the  settlers  who  returaed,  in  168G,  from  the  colony 
which  it  had  been  attempted  to  found  in  Virginia, 
under  the  auspices  of  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh,  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Harriott,  who  accompanied  this  expedi- 
tion, gives,  in  his  description  of  Virginia,  an  account 
of  tlie  tobacco  plant,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  used  by  the  natives ;  adding,  that  the  English, 
during  the  time  they  were  in  Virginia,  and  since  tlieir 
return  home,  were  accustomed  to  smoke  it  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Indians,  "and  found  many  rare  and 
wonderful  experiments  of  the  virtue  thereof." — Hak- 
LuvT,  vol.  i.  p.  75.  Baleigh,  and  other  young  men  of 
fashion,  having  adopted  the  practice  of  smoking,  it 
spread  among  the  English ;  as  it  bad  previously  spread 
among  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  French,  and  other 
continental  nations.  But  it  made  its  greatest  progress 
in  England  after  the  foundation  of  the  colony  at  James- 
town, in  Virginia,  in  1607.  The  soil  of  the  colony 
being  found  particularly  well  fitted  for  the  culture  of 
tobacco,  cmuUdendda  quantitief  wen  ri^lsad  and  sent 


iobucco  nlanta  h.A  i  '""-but  dunnir  the  wl».,    ;V.*^  ProvoloHt  In  J.'n„i,.„,i 

Klond,  and  we^  foS'd^^"  ""'^  '""•'loced  into  P„     '^"''"1  «t  lejft"  .l^^"'-?"  "'■  "  Z  \,T,^U 
Their  cultivation  ZiJ'de:?''"  "'■""ka%;^,'^-  ,'•«'««.  ».y  the  praetH  „f  l^^"'*'""  »«■!  nl.fi 


—~  y.uuc  Journal-  "  fn  a^  . — ,  '"""no  (p.  1421 
""-y,  in  HolIandXeden  nir'"','  '»'>™-  «"'l  fJer- 
practice  of  smolciigTobac '„"'•■;'''  "'"'  «"«i.i,  tho 
»nd  poor,  the  learn^ed  a„7,r::""  "',"""«  """ch 
to  the  East,  we  shall  find  ti\!Ht'''"'T-     If  wo  pa,, 


plantation  tobacco,  b  Vi„,  ef/^i''^  "^ '«^«nue,  "n   to ?htV'"?'''"« '»  »"«" 'art  1  to ^^V    '"  '?"  l'""«0 
the  use  of  native  tobacco    h.v,    '',"'"'"•'•  P^hiW tin^   fn  rf  ^'"''  '^»  «'"'»  "nd  uTnL,,,.     T'     ''  "o  P"" 

and  a  mn,?.,*  .._     .   ^"'na  the  habit  i>nTi.,ii,.  t .. 


J-ons  carried  into  cfrec''t.TiraT''"  *°  '"»  ""  P~vl 
Restoration,  bv  the  act  PhVi  ,'7*'  confirmed  at  the 
ed  that  all  'tobacco  pLtaU  " 'V  %f-  «•"<=•>  O"-' 


the  herb, moked.  In  Chi'na  tU  h".'  ■?""  *""  »l'«cle«  of 
and  a  modern  traveler  l„.T  .  '"''"'  "V^My  prevail,  • 
'  "t  every  Chtlff  il^"  ^'O' (I.arri^)",;:  X' 
nine  5'ears  ■»■«!.«      "="""o,  from  the  aao  of  »i„i.t 

sUI.e^p„rro?^X?ri;'T?fP'°''"'''e'M'maU 
the  use  of  whicrma'  „ll''""""='=°  »""  «  PiMh 
•-•t  this  tender  age  Thf,""""  7"  ""t  "naoqu^iX 
nt  an  earlv  n.,:„^  •._^'"'  P"™lenco  of  tl.«  L„' .  !  ' 


planters :  but  thtir  r„„i  •  .  ^  "'^  solicitations  of  tl       !     '"  *'"<'cr  age.     Thi,  "      7°  ■""  "naoqualnted 

conciliate  or  LtfitThe  Atf"\"^' "»' -""cht 

lection  of  a  revenue  from  »  f  '  ""  *°  '^''"i'ate  the  col    ni  i^-^^j'"'  "«  ""  evidence  thntf.'',  "i''""'''"'  to 


used  finely  by  tfe  SnL^^T-^"'  ^■"-  "36i  and  1,  fv'T,""^'"  "■"  "odel  ofXir,  „„^'  !'.'"i"=''  """m  to 
hacco  was  flrftZjT.  "^'  '"  ^'»c«tan  in  1520  t1  ^ '  ""  •"eparation  of  the  Tl'l  .  '^""''' '  "'"'-  '""t- 
of  Elizabeth  V^fi^!'o^"S'''»'' in  the  seventh  vrr"""^^^  'T'^"'  "''W'  «ro 

Walter  Ci'hl^''^;  ^r  John  HawkinT  fe"  P^'^-'i-'Mhat  'hey  ruid"''^  P^ '"'"''''' i''P. --o 
tioned  ^TJ  ^^  ^''"  Francis  Drake  flr„„i  *'^  Mrom  America  bv  «avnrp  Po^^My  derive  alfthis 
co.5!nVto"^;8«"' introduced  it 7n  E„g,a"nd"  'T'h"'  ">«  P'-tL  ofUokS'  T^'""^  ^  ^n" 

-•r'-exA':4^«,  it  was  n,Sct„t  i?r:.ei:r,^fr'' "^^^^^^^^^^^ 

the  year  16M     1      f/"'  '»  l-*  G«-  Wrf  per  I,,    "  '"  ^'''™'  <^'"'n».  «nd  other  plf     "■"'  """"^  ear- 

eWdbySj^//"'"vatio„,vasprohr£ii'*li^  The 


--•".  jiaaaea  i;  William  Tv 


*i  ■ 


TOB 


1846 


TOB 


''/^  it  wai  to  take  can  that  all  tobacco  plantation!  without 

the  privileged  districtii  should  lio  destroyed.     The  gov- 

^  eminent  flxed  the  price  at  which  the  cultivator*  of 

tobacco  were  oblij^ed  to  sell  it  to  its  agents.  The  sale 
of  the  manufactured  tobacco  was  funned  out ;  and 
eigart  were  not  nllowed  to  be  sold,  except  at  the  royal 
tttancat.  No  one  was  i^llowad  to  use  cigars  of  his  owu 
mannfacture.     This  oppressive  monopoly  was  estab- 

,  lished  in  1764.     It  has  been  continued,  from  the  dlfH- 

culty  of  supplying  the  revenue  which  It  produces,  by 
the  revolutiontkry  governments. — IlnMDOLDT,  NouvtUe 
Aj|pa^i«,  ill. -19 ;   Foimshtt's  Xotet  on' Mexico,  nota 
116,  London  id, 
y''  Cuba  is  celebrated  for  Its  tobacco,  particularly  its 

cigars.  These  consist  of  the  loaves,  formed  Into  small 
rolls,  for  the  purpose  of  smoking.  Formerly  their  Im- 
imrtntion  into  Kngland  was  prohibited ;  but  they  may 
now  be  imported  on  paying  an  exorbitant  duty.  Ha- 
vana cigars  are  usually  reckoned  the  best.  Previous- 
ly to  1820,  the  cultivation  and  sale  of  tobacco  were 
9ut)Jected  to  the  same  sort  of  monopoly  in  Cuba  as  in 
Mexico;  but  at  tho  period  referred  to  the  trade  was 
thrown  open.  In  consequence  of  the  freedom  thus 
given  to  the  business,  the  production  and  exportation 
of  tobacco  are  both  rapidly  increasing,  though  hardly, 
perhaps,  so  much  as  might  have  been  expected,  tho 
culture  of  sugar  and  coffee  being  for  a  while  reckoned 
more  profltable ;  that,  however,  is  no  longer  the  case. 
— See  Cuba  for  Exports. 

United  Statee. — Previous  to  the  war  of  Independ- 
ence, Its  culture  had  spread  into  MaryUnd,  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Louisiana,  from  which  nearly  all  Europe 
waf>  supplied ;  but  at  present  most  of  the  sovereigns 
of  the  Old  World  derive  a  considerable  part  of  their 
revenue  from  tho  cultivation  of  this  plant.  Independ- 
ent of  Its  production  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States 
"<  of  the  Union,  tobacco  Is  extensively  cultivated  In 

Mexico,  the  >Spanish  Main,  Cuba,  Brazil,  Trinidad, 
San  Domlngc,  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  China,  Australia, 
the  Philippines,  and  Japan.  It  has  also  been  raised 
with  success  In  nearly  every  country  In  Europe,  Egypt, 
Algeria,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Canaries,  and 
numerous  other  Islands  in  the  ocean,  Canada,  New 
Brunswick,  and  on  the, western  coast  of  America.  The 
principal  varieties  cultivated  in  tho  United  States  are 
the  Virginian,  the  large-leaved,  tli«  dwarf,  the  Cuba, 
and  the  common  green  tobacco. 

In  1622  there  were  raised  in  Virginia  60,000  lbs. 
The  amount  exported  from  that  colony  in  1639  was 
120,000  lbs, ;  annually  for  ten  years  preceding  1709, 
28,868,666  lbs. ;  annually  for  several  years  preceding 
the  Revolution,  66,000  hogsheads;  in  1768,  70,000 
hogsheads;  from  North  Carolina,  in  1763,  100  hogs- 
heads; from  Georgia,  in  1772,  176,732  lbs.  The 
amount  exported  from  the  United  Colonies  In  1772 
was  97,799,263  lbs. ;  In  1780, 17,424,267  Ibo. ;  from  the 
United  States,  in  1787,  99,041,000  lbs;  in  1791, 101,272 
hogsheads,  81,122  lbs.  manufactured,  and  16,689  11)8. 
of  snuff;  in  1800,  78,680  hogsheads,  467,713  lbs.  man- 
ufactured, and  41,463  lbs.  of  snuff;  In  1810,  84,134 
hogsheads,  496,427  lbs.  manufactured,  and  46,640  lbs. 
of  snuff;  in  1820-'21,  66,868  hogsheads,  1,332,949  lbs. 
manufaciured,  and  44,662  lbs.  of  snuff;  in  1830-'31, 
86,718  hogsheads,  3,6i39,866  lbs.  manufactured,  and 
27,967  lbs.  of  snuff;  In  1840-'41,  147,828  hogsheads, 
7,603,644  lbs.  manufactured,  and  68,663  lbs.  of  snuff; 
in  1860-'61,  95,946  hogsheads,  7,236,368  lbs.  manufac- 
tured, and  37,422  lbs.  of  siiuff. 

According  to  the  census  returns  of  1840,  the  amount 
of  tobacco  raised  In  the  United  States  was  219,163,319 
lbs. ;  of  1860,  199,752,646  lbs. ;  showing  a  decrease  in 
its  culture  of  19,410,673  lbs. 

Great  Britain.—  it  is  assumed  by  British  statisticians 
that  the  yearly  cousumption  of  tobacco  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  amounts  to  26,000  tons;  about  one  half 
of  which,  it  Is  supposed,  is  smuggled,  owing  to  the 
excessive  duties  (upward  of  1000  per  cent.)  levied  on 


the  article  under  the  tariff  system  of  that  kingdom. 
The  quantity  of  cigars  and  snuff  Imported  does  not  ex- 
ceed two  or  three  hundred  weight  per  annum.  The 
following  table,  compiled  from  parliamentar}-  returns, 
shows  the  imports  of  tobacco  Into  the  United  King- 
dom, and  the  quantities  entered  at  each  port,  during 
the  year  1860: 


Port.. 

L.>r. 

And  Clyan. 

ToUl. 

Tom. 

7,033 

0,870 

486 

414 

200 

140 

8 

Tuiu. 
483 
140 

"t 

'86 
4 

Torn. 
8,120 
7,010 

436 

491   , 

200 

106 
7 

]  jverpool 

Urlatoi 

GlaRgoir 

I.clth 

Uthor  places 

ToUl 

16,700 

004 

10,804 

The  following  return,  transmitted  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  for  the  year  ending  January  6, 1868,  shows 
the  annual  consumption  of  tobacco  In  the  IJnited  King- 
dom, and  duty  levied  on  the  same  : 


ForU. 

L»r. 

MUDUfMl'd 

•ndriinn. 

ToUl. 

Dlljr. 

Torn. 

4,709 
2,766 
780 
«8t 
804 
877 
841 
970 
268 
2BS 
170 
158 
147 
183 
110 
8 
004 

Tom. 

09 

8 

i 

8 

'i 

6 
S 

To««. 
4,831 
2,708 
780 
039 
OOT 
877 
841 
270 
263 
230 
179 
163 
147 
189 
110 
13 
807 

noll«n. 

8,704,040 

4,003,100 

1,877,426 

l,ll'<,8fl6 

1,077,836 

086,666 

603,920 

470,810 

466,020 

422,670 

810.600 

279,540 

200,126 

288,860 

204,000 

40,076 

1,0(18,866 

Liverpool 

llrlttol 

tilasgov 

Dublin 

Bclfait 

Newcastle 

Cork 

Limerick 

Lelth 

I'restdn 

Chester 

lihfelds 

Watcrford 

Londonderry  .... 

Southampton 

Other  places 

ToUl 

13,000 

00 

19,760 

22,808,7(16 

The  following  table,  exhibiting  the  exports  of  to- 
bacco from  Great  Britain  for  1862,  will  show  tho  quan- 
tities and  destination  of  that  article  supplied  by  En- 
gland to  foreign  countries,  relatively  to  the  quantities 
imported.  Total  quantity  imported  15,700  tons,  or 
86,168,000  lbs. 

Extorts  fsom  CinEikT  Uiitaim,  1859. 


PIlCM. 

West  coast  of  Africa  . 

Hhda. 
.  1726 
.    227 
.     184 

.    i-.o 

.       od 
.      61 
.      44 

.       39 
.      80 

Flaeei. 

ilhdi. 
....      81 

Holland 

....      20 

Malta 

....      17 

Senegal 

Oucmser 

Uberia 

....      16 

Alexandria 

Bahla 

....  14 
....     '10 

Antwerp 

64 

....      29 

Gibraltar 

ToUl 

....  2002 

The  foregoing  table  shows  that  In  1862  there  were 
exported  from  Great  Britain  about  2,602,000  lbs.  (al- 
lowing 1000  lbs.  to  tho  hogsliead)  out  of  the  35,168,000 
lbs.  Imported,  showing  the  amount  retained  for  con- 
sumption to  be  32,666,000  lbs. 

Qdahtitiks  and  Vaiok  op  Tobacco  (kaw)  ixpobted  fRoii 
THK  Unitei)  States  to  Gbeat  Dkitaim  and  Ibblahd  feoh 
1330  to  1855. 


pVenM. 

Qu.iilltjr.1      V«lu«. 

Y.«ri. 

quMitity. 

V.lu.. 

Ilhds. 

DolUn. 

Ilhdi. 

Doll  an. 

1830. . . 

2i),9>l 

1,633,071 

1843... 

21,060 

1,202,010 

1831... 

20,786 

1,883,830 

1844... 

30,189 

3,900,190 

1833... 

30,393 

2,.146,4r)rt 

1845. . . 

20,10) 

1,085,037 

1833... 

28,834 

2.2.W,107 

1840... 

37,043 

3,423,323 

1834... 

30,083 

3,037,020 

1847... 

3,),746 

2,683,776 

1885. . . 

37.633 

8,400,63'» 

1843. . . 

23,801 

2.200,!'37 

1830... 

38,365 

4,69!i,443 

1841... 

21,857 

1.771,123 

1387. . . 

31,733 

1,870,868 

1850... 

30,020 

8,025,B'«) 

1888. . . 

25,733 

9,867,303 

1851... 

23,0V3 

8,4,1S,3W 

1839. . . 

80,330 

6,404,007 

1363. . . 

17,00 

2,519,225 

1840... 

27,130 

3,237,830 

1863... 

82,230 

3,433,423 

1841... 

43,131 

6,114,330 

1854... 

17,004 

2,140,^143 

1849. . . 

36,000 

8,912,907 

1865... 

24,203' 

8.517,700 

■  There  were  also  exported  cases  and  bales.  Included  lu  the 
column  of  value. 

The  duties  on  Imported  tobacco  yield  to  the  British 
government  over  four  nod  a  half  milUons  sterling  an- 


I  lO.gM 


Duly. 


Dolhn. 

8,T64,«40 

4,003,160 

1,877,455 

1,11S806 

1,077,S35 

0«6,66S 

602,220 

478,810 

4BS,0<iO 

422,570 

316.660 

279.540 

200,126 

238,860 

204,1160 

40,076 

1,6(18,865 


llhdi. 
81 
20 
17 
15 
14 
•10 
64 
22 


Value. 


Dollitn. 
1,262,616 
2,900,126 
1,9*6,037 
2,423,223 
2,683,775 
2,260,1137 
1,771,123 
8,02,'S.5S5 
S,45S,S85 
2,612,225 
3,438,423 
2,U«,fl42 
3.617,760 


TOB  _ 

nu«IIy.    For  tho  flft,.  ,  ^*^'  Tnu 

•Bgre««Ki  duties  coUoct^T'  '"""  ""1  to  MM  th«  i  .i  • 

ffl:;;: "Xrvff-   -^^...      ^/^f- -ftbT^rhlr^"''*''"^^^^^^^^^ 

'       1810.:;      ; l<),8lS       *»«««  »P«'^''I«tloD."  '- """^""■ne  an  artlcl,  of 

•""■-•'--         1.3iiinnn       I     1  he  Bverage  price,  f™  .i.    , 

q-oted  «,  folCPf^"'  '■"  'he  l„t  flv.  year,  may  be 
Far  for  lOK.  ' 

10  to  14      ..  .  " 

13  to  25      .. 
I»to30      .. 

«"<»  close  of  ,1,0  y,^'  ^i'^P  ''M  disposed  o^b.,„„ 
Ba    the  Price,  wc^'rro^  J'*"  Carl.^he  -nd  ^!Z 

« verage  it  costs  the  planter  Z  ''"T"  "">*  »»  «■. 
kilograms  j  and  in  fi.rTi,  • .'  ""^  '^  florins  ner  M 
constantlyCll^^",^-  ev,den^^^  »^"•e  fact^',,^ 

c<  Itivation  of  that  crop  T ,.  ""''  •'«^'"«'J  'o  the 
'obacco  in  the  Grand  Du.hv  '=''"»'"»P"on  of  f„«i„ 
certaineiL  .h.„  .,:.     ^""'J'  can  not  be  rn.^„.i™  *" 


1810..    11,815^005  *-iM,im 

1816  ;; 30,3»,S  &"*> 

.     1820..         ; 17,966,'S»  2-2S'S!S 

1825....       16,7l66oo  »'??i'"*? 

1830,...   1S,701,'OM  MI'*** 

1M6.:        ;;: 1!',M3,000  »"«» 

1840 21.I10000  ffi'SSJ 

1846 83,006,000  ffi'""* 

>««>^....:::.-::::;;:::;  ??;?&  S« 

T^He  Changes  in  the  import  d„ti;;„crea;'S,:,. 


^«y  for  1861 

"      1862.   

1863., 
1864. 
1886.. 
1866.. 


]801-'2 
1803... 
1804...    ' 
1806...   ' 
ISOO . . 
ISTO  . . .   ' 
1812.....' 
1813 .... 
1816....    ■ 
1819 ...     ■ 
1895..      ■■ 
18-'fl . .      " 
1838 . .      " 
1842... ■■ 


Ainarlfjin, 
<l. 


7 
7 
8t 
"I 

•H 

"h 

3 


_-..„„,„„  o,  ,n„j  _  ^oiuieu  CO  the 

3   i  ..   «       ('"•'""•cointheGranS^Ducllv.     "''''"^''''''"^fo'eiffa 

,  ^Vo  have  no  means  of  a,.„,L'  •  "   »         Jl""'""'"'  "><>«>  bein„  „!]  L?  «  "."'  '"'  '""*«>/  «^ 

cigars  smoked  awav  in  the  UnT^'S'""  "">  value  „f    '  '>»^-«  h-ard  the  qu^nt"tve,t  '  l""  ""'•"'"  "^  "- b'^ 
D„f;:^^-nf^-•«vatt."ortlt't— ^^^^    T"r  preaent  h    h      ^"~"^^'«»» -'•!»' 


»  J Z"  ""^"y  in  the  UnitB,l  e.  ?  '^'""^  of 

i?arf6»._The  cultivation  of  ,j    '"'"  ""nuallj-. 

t"    nL^/f""""  '^'"'  commenced  X     V'"  ''"""' 
iiie  present  centurf'      I*  h  "  the  early  nnrt  nr 

the  last  twenty  ,!2ars  an?  S'"?"^ '"creased  whhin 
commencement'^of  «,e  ;xt'  tr'''="^'>'  '"  "1"  «  tl" 
to  tlje  United  States,  andXh"  "^ ^'""""'^  ^'W 
the.  last  twelve  yean  has  «h  ""P""*  *"">«  during 
ment  no.  t^ ,.y     "  "^'  shown  a  i-nn.»..-..        "» 


SO«<lcr„ps,are  ; XdTn:' 1^'"'''^°' '"  "">  '"ce  of 
•"tport  demand.  The  shtno,  "J'"'""  ""y  the  active 
""'1  who  have  now  Is  P^'"'  "'«""  '»  A^clcl" 
"e  large  and  ready  ZJhL  "  ?"  """■"factorie. 
P-y  high  price,  ^CaS""''.''!'  "•«  "^^t  kS 
I^rtant  customer,  and  the  iW^  "'?'■   "  "  ^^-y  im- 


the.  W  ■t;erve7;rhas''st''  «''P««  t^Te  dSg  P-^'  *  pri^eT^riS-'/r 'hTS  uS 
"anting  importance  In  th,  r"  ?  constantly  aZ  I^tant  customer,  and  the  iW^  '■''^'•'  "  "  ^^-y  im! 
now  from  18\000  to  20  OOn  ^''''"•'  ^"'hy  there  afe  ™"tf«cted  with  some  of  th„  n  T**  'f""  ""%  last  faU 
cultivation  ofTbacco'  it  •"''  "' '"""  "'"^^ted  "  th^  ?'  WO.OOO.OOO  of  dgar/  V^""?"  'igar  nmn^ufactorii^ 
pa  atinate  which  yeTds  the  J'"r'°"'"'>' '•'cB^^^^^^^^ 

wore  superior  to  all  others!     ^ "     ^'"'  '""  ^"o  "ops      Sa  S'l'^.'^'f^"  ""«'™': ." .' .'  10?°"""  ^■'  ^?  """Sf «".. 

-^"''^'^*«'«Co'm.'iete."^^     "  "        " 

1        -*'  fCttlCP         Th 

[■nonopoly  in  iZ:::Z7nSfJ'''^  """  '"•"""« 

„„.,K,o    ..         |orlT*'^!'''««"~s^^^^ 

(Ti,        ,.  isnnnn   ..  "' about  $25  444  flnn_  .1.     .' ■'^'i""i<'00  franc. 

The  cultivation  and  produce  of  tLXl  "^'cnue  derived  fC7h.'"«  ""  '"crease  over  the 

parts  of  the  Badish  palati.mte  rl  "  ^""""^  '"  "ome    rope.    The  tobacrnl  '"  ''','' '"«""»  countries  TeI 
where  they  reach  for  m  lea   bin    I'T  Scekenheim,    comme/ced  fpZ  """."T'^'-  ""dor  the  r^^,i  ,  "tern 
ftrent  person,,  gcnoraTly  ^'S  "  ^T'^'^  "^ "if'    '"f'  ''tate™K"the «'  '""  ''"■     '"«  ^»"»- 
Bavanan  palatinates ,  tobaS irc^.!  ,"   i'!, ^''*"  ""d   ^^^ ">'« articir?" ouZ,  J^  7""  "^ ''''""•'<'  ""crived 
Si    T^  '"-"ll  piece,  o7~    ,?''',""'^'"''c-P«" rCoooT  '^"'^''■"''»*''''''^'''  = 

annum;  some  not  more  than  6  ™f        ^  ^"^  cwt-perifd 8,406  soi    ilg? 1|,102,2I« 

not  niore  than  3,  and  e,t"l"!i-iA"''c'''c"iafeJn,    m. ••■•:•• »?n     »^' i i ;; ! ! ; i ; ; !     Iffi« 


..  „,,uo, 

The  crops  of  18,51  iverp 
1852. .       ■ 
185,1..    ■ 
1864...' 
1866.. 
1858.     ■ 


100,000  cwt 

200,'0(J0 

160,000 

150,000 

UO.fJOO 

180,000 


not  "o^eThan'     ™nTer  do"'-'-'-  «"" "''■crs, again 

•"" "" ' -  -  •  i  o"irv„"t  'Y^^b'^^^^^^^^^^  two.fifth,':;',,, 

and  c„n.X"',„^„"f  "•'-etc-    three.^^^^^  usually  f^m 


Soi^^E??"^^ 


Commnn  .T''  ""•*  «P«rted  to  Snain  Fn  i   T  ""    "">  '<"'«cc 

'cpdlSedt  i"E  S"™^*-t^^  -,"-  --0  co^isum.- 

!■  ~m  1844  to  m,  ..J'^!^^:  .  I  bacco  nSmitt^d^t  a' morKfr '"""''  -""  "^  «- 


^•"eu  m  a  loose  statp  '""""y   in  r  ranoe.     Were  f  Ji«  n,„»     -■- -■■>' --uuico  consn 


The 
fsc 


a,  folIow,r    •^  '  P*"'*'  "'"''"'c".  i»  cstimaW 

M«i7land  tobacco. ...  o  «       . 

>lrglnla        "         "  6 cents  per  Ih, "•*. 

Kentucky      '*      ^"^  **         r 

Wiasouri        »      T-7  " 

7'6  "  rrt 


TOB 


1848 


TDB 


The  profit*  rMlliad  by  tho  rigu,  one  year  with  an- 
other, average  nearly  460  per  vent. 

Ntlherlanih. — The  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  the  Neth- 
erlandt  is  iul)ject  to  no  reitriutions,  with  the  exception 
of  the  exciso  duty,  to  which,  like  all  other  product!,  it 
i«  liable.  From  IttOO  to  1900  niorKcns  (equal  to  SUOO 
to  8800  ncrei)  are  annually  devoted  to  tobacco.  Tho 
tobacco  land  is  altuated  in  the  provinces  of  Quilder- 
land,  Overyuel,  Utreoht,  and  Zealand.  The  average 
quantity  of  tobacco  produced  on  each  morgen  is  about 
4600  lbs.  Tho  toUl  crop  Is  estimated  at  fkom  8,000,000 
to  0,000,000  lbs.  per  annum. — Annales  flu  Comment 
f'nirieur,  No.  640.  Tile  quantity  reserved  for  homo 
consumption  is  about  2,000,000  lbs.,  of  which, 

Hmokliig  tobacco,  about 900,000  lbs. 

Snuff 700,0(10  " 

C'ovem  for  ctgan 400,000  " 

Besides  the  above,  tho  Xotlierlunds  export  to  for- 
eign countries  about  0,000,000  lbs.  of  tobacco : 

ill  tho  leaf 6,000,000  Ibii. 

Manufarturcil 1,000,000  " 

The  following  table  show»the  annual  tobacco  ex- 
port trade  of  Holland : 

Tho  lihontah  provinoea 680,000  kilograms. 

RiiuU  and  Ureat  Urluln 400,000         " 

Sardhila 260,000         " 

Norway  iind  Denmark 80,000         " 

Nsplra  ; 60,000         " 

Koman  Ktatcs 60,000         " 

Spain  and  Purtugal 80,000         " 

The  total  quantity  of  tobacco  grown  in  the  Nether- 
lands is  distributed  as  follows : 

Klloirrainii. 

For  tho  inaniifartiiro  of  anuff  and  rhcvlng  tobacco.  1,8t6,0(N) 
I'orclKan  and  cigar  covers 1,776,000 

Average  price  of  the  former,  from  1-1  to  82  florins 
for  common ;  SO  to  90  florins  for  the  best,  per  100  kilo- 
grams. Average  price  of  the  latter,  from  14  to  82 
florins  for  common ;  CO  to  90  florins  fur  the  best,  per 
100  kilograms.  The  planters  of  Amhom,  and  some 
other  districts,  have  during  the  past  few  years  ap- 
plied themselves  to  the  raising  of  a  very  light,  clear, 
yellow  tol)acco,  for  cigar  covering,  for  which  they  o]>- 
tain  a  verj*  high  price.  For  this  purpose  they  employ 
a  very  active  fertilizer,  with  a  view  to  the  large  and 
rapid  grofvth  of  the  plant,  which  they  dry  by  the  sun 
with  great  skill  and  management.  The  average  quan- 
tity of  foreign  tobacco  annually  imported  is  from 
22,000,000  to  26,000,000  lbs.,  chiefly  from  the  follow- 
ing places : 


76,009 
30,000 
80,000 
60,000 
146,000 


A  third  part  of  the  tobacco  imported  from  foreign 
countries  is  consumed  in  the  Netherlands,  the  other 
two-thirds  are  exported.  Germany  and  Belgium  re- 
ceive tho  larger  portion,  which  consists  altogether  of 
Virginia,  Marj'land,  Kentucky,  and  some  Java  tobacco. 
Besides  the  imports  aliove  designated,  Hamburg  sup- 
plies Holland  annually  with  large  qu^tities  of  tobacco 
of  American  growth.  The  toliacco  manufactories  in 
Holland,  of  the  first  class,  are  numerous.  They  are 
chiefly  located  at  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam,  though 
many  similar  factories  are  scattered  throughout  the 
provinces.  The  first-class  factories  employ  upward 
of  a  million  of  operatives.  The  average  consumption 
of  tol>acco  in  Holland  is  about  two  kilograms  (4-408 
lbs.)  for  each  individual,  or  0,000,000  kilograms,  or 
upward  of  18,000,000  lbs.  for  the  whole  population. 
Germany  oflTcrs  the  principal  market  for  the  Dutch 
tobacco  trade,  though  considerable  quantities  are  ex- 
ported to  the  Levant,  Italy,  Austria,  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, Surinam,  etc. — C.  D. 

Tobacco  is,  next  to  salt,  probably  the  article  most 
universally  coniamed  by  men.     In  one  form  or  an- 


Maryland.... 

6,600,000  kilo. 

Vnrlnaa 

Kentucky 

1,780,000    " 

Manilla 

Virginia  

1,400,000    " 

(  olombla 

.lava 

800,000    " 

limcil 

Porto  Klco . . . 

360,000    " 

Havana 

Cuba 

130,000    " 

Tobacco  atenia 

Han  Domingo. 

120,000    " 

other,  but  moat  generally  in  the  form  of  fame  or 
smoke,  there  is  no  climate  in  which  it  la  not  consumed, 
and  no  nationality  that  has.  not  adopted  it.  'I'o  put 
down  it*  use  has  equally  baffled  legislators  and  moral- 
ists ;  and,  in  the  words  of  Pope  on  a  higher  subject,  it 
may  be  said  to  lie  partaken  of  "  by  saint,  by  savage, 
and  liy  sage."  The  civilized  Kuropean  and  American 
nations  are  the  smallest  consumers  of  tobacco  of  any 
people,  in  consequence  of  its  being  every  where  with 
them  an  object  of  heavy  taxation,  of  its  being  very 
generally  a  foreign  commodity  or  high-priced,  because 
raised  in  uncongenial  climates,  and,  finally,  its  being 
for  the  most  part  confined  in  uae  to  tho  male  sex. 
The  Aaty  on  the  importation  of  raio  tobacco  amounts. 

In  the  I'nited  Statea  to. . .    80  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Inllelgliimto 13-9  "  " 

In  Great  Britain  to 083-8  "  " 

tin  Ilanoror  to 9-6  "  " 

lu  lloiatein  to 10  "  " 

In  Holland  to 8-5  "  " 

InKutala  to 161  "  " 

In  Switzerland  to 8  "  ■' 

lu  Koli-Vcrein  to 46  "  » 

— German  Cuitom  Union, 

Statement  "  reipecting  the  Tariff  Dutiet,  Keitrietiont, 
Prohibitiotu,  and  Cuitom-houie  Regulattona  applicable 
to  American  Tobacco,  in  the  principal  commercial 
Countriet  of  Europe." 

BBEMEKfcrip«o  Tariff  Dutg of  i  of  1  per  Cent.— Im' 
port  duty  is  levied  at  the  rate  given  on  the  invoice 
value,  with  the  addition  of  freight  and  insurance 
charges.  All  foreign  vessels  (American  excepted) 
must  be  entered  at  this  port  by  a  licensed  ship-broker, 
the  exemption  in  favor  of  American  vessels  having 
been  conceded  by  the  Bremen  Senate  in  1862. 

Grrat  Britain  leviei  a  Duty  ofTi  Cents  per  lb.,  and 
6  per  Cent,  additional. — Tobacco,  snuiT,  and  cigars  are 
prohibited  to  bo  imported  into  Great  Britain,  nnless  in 
vessels  of  not  less  than  120  tons  burden,  and  into  ports 
approved  by  the  commissioners  of  customs.  These 
IMtrts  are  Ix>n<Ion,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  Hull,  Lancaster, 
Cowea,  Falmouth,  Whitehaven,  Plymouth,  Newcastle, 
Southampton,  Preston,  and  Swansea,  in  England; 
Aberdeen,  Leith,  and  Greenock,  in  Scotland ;  and 
Dublin,  Belfast,  Galwuy,  Limerick,  Londonderry', 
Newry,  Sligo,  Waterford,  Wexford,  and  Drogheda,  in 
Ireland.  Duties  alike  frAm  all  countries  and  in  all 
Iwttoms.  The  consumption  of  tobacco  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was : 


Yean. 

ConiumptiDD. 

RCTenua. 

Population. 

t'oiiiiim|i- 
llon  per 

1821 

1831 

1841 

18.'>1 

Piltmda. 
16,6:18,152 
10,638,841 
22,800,360 
28,062,978 

8,122,683 
2,004,iW2 
8,^S0,103 
4.486,768 

21,282,960 
24,410,439 
27,010,672 
27,462,262 

Ounces. 
11-71 
12-80 
18-21 
1«-S6 

In  1863  tho  duty  amounted  to  X4,7&1,780,  or 
$28,000,000. 

Framce.  —  Tobacco  a  GovemmetU  Monopoly.  —  In 
1629  the  first  duties  on  the  tobacco  trade  were  levied. 
In  1674  Louis  XIV.  established  the  first  monopoly  in 
Europe.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  prohibited  ex- 
cept in  six  departments.  From  1811  to  1862  there 
were  sold  by  the  government  1,808,888,076  ll>8.,  which 
brought  a  clear  revenue  of  $482,288,484.  The  ex- 
penses of  the  administration  wera  24  per  cent,  ad 
valorem.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  June  24, 1822, 
American  produce,  if  imported  direct  to  France  in 
United  States  liottoms,  is  admitted  on  the  payment  of 
the  same  duties  as  apply  to  similar  importations  from 
countries  out  of  Europe  in  F'rench  vessels.  The  origin 
of  the  merchandise  must,  however,  be  duly  authenti- 
cated and  certified  by  tlie  collector  at  the  port  of  ex- 
portation, and  by  the  French  consul.  American  to- 
bacco is  purchased  by  the  commissioners  of  the  r^gie 
for  the  government  factories,  and  is  admitted  either  in 
French  or  American  vessels  free  of  duty.  In  foreign 
vessels  the  duty  is  |1  86  per  100  kilograms  (221  lbs.). 


TOB 


IMO 


TOB 


direct  tr.de  UUeen^h!  t^^  ''  ^^  221  '**  -In  tl,    I  ""•'  ^^ch  if  roe  Wrte.?  '"T  """*"»  I-  «2  7«  S??? 

SA-niKu.-^  6<,.e„  r;,'^^'""  l^y  Molgium     ^     "erives  amount  to  38  l^rtTontuyT'  ''"«''»'» 
revenue  can  not  be  rnlo,,i  V  i  ^'""'Vw'i'— The  n„„„  i    .    '^«'(fiuin  produces  in.,     i       ?  "**  ''"'"«■ 

oly  exists  .inc.  1784     The  ^^'^'i'-The  monop-  1,"    ^IT'^  ""■""'"y  f  "omK^"'*^'"*"  "»•. 

amounts  to  76  per  cent    '/"'l  "^  ""e  governmeT  ^:,   ^^^  '"'"»<:«<' factories  l„,h?'*^  '"  35,000,000 

celpt.  amounted  taMM  tol  -™ '"""•    ^''«'  »T"l  "t"  '""P>»J'nent  to  •' o^e  "m  '  """""y  ""  »«^^ 

•10,610,106.     Til.  rnn.,      •?''39,421,  and  In  1  sL  f  „  ^'■'""«''  'mports  vearlv  f^    ,1  ""  "Pemtlvca." 

in  1862,  61,805  8fl7  ii        ,  ' '  '"  l^^l,  W  217  fi7H  ii  "^  ""d  ro-exporte,I  t„  «v>,  •        """""Pictured  in  that 

SwKn.,»  7,.?;^    "■..'°'^»  "cense  to  im.„w         "•'"»-       ^''•"•inual  tobacco  cronnfp      .   . 

''"''"°P°'R'"'lais8bout26,000,000 
The  nnniinl  />«« . . 


8.  «t,io,uuU,UOO 

Wo;"":!r;r"or;b'j^.T  .■»  «p«in  isabout 

soyernment  factories  from  th.  it  ,  '  .""P""'"'  '"r  the 

,    In  J'ortugal  the  culture  o^to^.f ""  .*"»""• 

,„^  luiiuw  of  tobacco  is  prohibited  by 


S^en,  '  "^^  P*""  =«at.  less  than  in       Tl  •  "  {"^"aioued  by 

CWntbim  Sov!?""  "»=   I"'™™  S^ATE.^""*"  ^o-   f"'''  inhabitant  of  the  j/l.    -J      "'""■'  2*  ""  !  for 
I  ___Cou5i,u.: — -—I — T — ™J^^^i.  \  EAB  1855.  Slecklenburir  Schwor!„        ■  Vr     '  ^^^  inhabitant  of 

Verein,  1  lb. .  for  each  inL^V^*  'i"'"'  "'  "'*  ZoU. 

for  each  inha'bKf  lus  riff^'^^'f '  *  »""- ' 

I  habitant  of  Spain  3  oimJl       '  ^,"""™!  '^r  each  in' 

'"  I'^SO  was  199,752  515  Ih,    7?  .  ^°"^''  StUes 

>!»  data  from  which  The  averaco  ann,,.  1  ""-:.<^""«"  «/1850. 

,,f;"m  n,„n„Hy  K"s(185J,  '52,  '53)was2.i  54q  /iS  "  P'"""  "^  "'ree 

,te;--i )  d"-.g  th:!:„:^te'i^'^^^ 


Holland....  ,,,„, 

Spain.     17,124,000 

'  '    7,624,000 

Belgium 

'  '  a,3u,ooo 


31046,001) 


*1S,207,4<)3. 
Avenigonnniinlre%-. 

I  .„°.'^1*"',0«',000. 
$21,696,000. 

I    eniic  from 

I   "h;  *4,6oo, 

$33,741).        ' 

No  data  from  which 

iniiBAiift^t..  ...  . 


3,713,000 
830,000 


1*7,600,01)0. 

$8S,,W6. 

•No  data  from  „hlch 

'    »    ascertain    the 

i-haro  „f  the  mo. 

wWch  thia  quantl- 
'yhoarH;  the  whole 

_?2,26'),000  yearly. 


,  B  ">,,  anme  ncrioa  was  14  fion  hnn  n    — .      *"■"•" 

l""'!,  18,«fi0,000  lbs.,  on  which  til!  „• '  """  "»'- 
I  amount  of  duty  was  $24"9  5  tto  L?  ""'''^^  r""«' 
I  ll's.,  on  which  the  averal  «„'""»  ^'S'""'-  -l.SZ^iOOO 
I  «40,(;00j  and  into  th„  T  S."'  """""n'  of  duty  was 
on  which  wastid  an  rrJ"""*''^''^''««'  'K 
#12,643  91.        ^  '"'""e"  ""nual  amount  of 


— "I 

order, 
and 


TOB 


1850 


TOB 


tb«i  EngUnd,  th«  Papal  Statu,  anil  Spain,  In  thair  or- 
dar,  produoa  tha  grantait  nal  tavanua  par  haad  i 


AiMiri* 

Koll-Vvri'ln 

Htxuiir-Vi'relo  (lUn-i 
ovrr  and  (lldrnburg,  - 
BOW  ddditd  tu  fnf  ituT)) 

rraoca 


Pbrtufal 

Rpaln 

HardlRla 

Tiuoanjr 

Papal  HUU-a. . . 
Two  Hk'llli^a  . . . 

EnRland 

Holland 

Itolgluin 

Dunniark 

(•wrden 

Norway 

I'nltnd  HUtca* . 


Arcrafft  l 


FiwiiJi.' 
«Tft 
»'70 

12 -O) 

B'60 
160 
8 '60 
4-76 
S'70 
8  SO 
2  00 

■410 
8-26 
0-00 
8-00 
48T 
0-41 
T'OO 


DoIUn. 
<,0(I2,<WII 
1,482,800 

02,100 

1B,191,7«I 

1,421,400 

1,520,700 

0,840,410 

1,2a<),|i«0 

424,850 

1,480,200 

841,110 

11,786,000 

31,060 

14(1,070 

52,440 

TB,*IO 

116,010 


10  M 

6  1-1 

a  MO 
4t 

s  i-a 

46  2-8 

48  2-n 

27  1-4 

24  »-10 

50  2-5 

7  1-1 
T8  4-6 

1 

8  1-5 
2  1-8 
1  1-8 
4  1-8 


HT*T«iiai<T  nuiaman  THa  (jdantity  km  VAVVt  or  To, 
iiAM'o  a.iiH>aTn>  *i<RVii.i.r,  rami  1811  tci  InB7,  invlv- 
aiva. 


— Cor,  Nal.  IntiUigtnrtr. 

•  Ilypathptlrnlljr. 

According  to  tha  United  Statea  Ccnsua  Report,  tho 
number  of  Iba.  of  tobacco  in  the  year  18S0,  produced 

{)er  acre,  waa  aa  follows  :  Kentucky,  676  Ibi, ;  Mary- 
und,  050  lbs. ;  Mlaaourl,  776  Iba. ;  Ohio,  730  Iba. ;  Ten- 
neaaee,  7fiO  Iba. ;  Virginia,  CCO  Iba.  The  wholo  num- 
ber of  acrea  for  cultivation  of  tobacco  at  the  aama  time 
waa  400,000,  which  at  nn  average  of  000  lbs.,  five  acrca 
would  produce  210,000,000  Iba.  annually.  The  gmsa 
product  for  the  same  year  waa  eatimated  to  be  worth 
(>l,'),»H'.>,r>Hr>,  being  alwut  one  half  the  duty  levied  on 
Ureat  itritain  on  27,000,000  Iba.  only,  £vc^^  State 
in  the  I^nion  pnxluccs  tobacco  more  or  lean.  Dela- 
ware, Maine,  Kho<le  laland,  and  Vermont  produce  so 
little  that  it  was  not  enumerated  in  tlie  year  1860. 

THK  TOnACOO  THADK  OF  THK  UNITKI)  HTATE8. 

iMPOaTa  o»  ToBAfMio  into  tn*  fxiTini  Stat«h  roa  Tiia 
Vkabh  knuinu  ,li'!<ii  80,  1863,  '54,  '55. 


I.t» 

4,2.«B,630 
713,;i42 


IMI. 

Cuba 

Otli,  plac(.'0 
Total... 

ilU4. 

'niM 

(nh.  pUcea 
ToUl...|&,8«i,618 
lUi. 


rulu , 

0th.  pl«(!<'« 
Totnl... 


5,008,872 

4,661,187 
810,4M 


3,713,780 
fl4'>,lis 


4,308,104 


llolUn. 
764,520 
01.274 


866,803 

700,871 
04,(26 


704,8J0 

523,112 

I)0,!:fl4 

01 4,070" 


l.la 
1,060 
40,432 


42,082 


18.008 
74,701 


02,30J 

000 
2J,75i 
22,360 


DoJIi. 

285 

7,215 

1,W 

1,800 
nj047 
14,010 

55 


cl»«». 


K- 

777,044 
104,413 


15^ 
2,800,020 
415,315 


M81,4S7 

71,882 
_81.086 
163;618 

157,300 
4,074'21S,710 


4.72'.l^0,019  3,438,097 


Vaan. 


Iflll.. 
1811.. 
VMi. 
IM4. . 
1B1B.. 
I8M,. 
181T.. 
18M.. 
1810. , 
1880.. 
1881.. 
1881.. 
188a.. 
1884.. 
1880,. 
I8M.. 
18BT. . 
1888.. 
1889.. 
1840.. 
1841.. 
1841.. 
IMS.. 
1844.. 
1848.. 
1840.. 
1847.. 
1848.. 
184'>.. 
I860.. 
1851,. 
1851.. 
1868.. 
1864.. 
1855.. 
1850.. 
1867.. 


Total. 


Hngihcadf. 


To,8sr 

88,160 

«»,000 

77,88» 

7^tl84 

(4,098 

100,016 

90,178 

77,181 

88,810 

80,718 

100,806 

88, 153 

87,970 

04,868 

100,041 

100,182 

100,508 

78,9fB 

119,484 

147,828 

168,710 

94,454 

168,041 

147,168 

147,1198 

18^7A1 

180,006 

101,611 

145,729 

Il6,t>46 

137,007 

169,868 

116,107 

•150,218 

110,101 

16fl,848_ 

4,1(17,602 


ValM. 


$6,1)48,902 
6,221,888 
«,m,072 
4,8eo,06« 

6,115,028 
6,847,208 
6,577,118 
6,209,900 
4,082,974 
6,580,808 
4.802,888 
6,909,700 
6,755,068 
0,505,800 
H,li50,577 
10,068,640 
6,7116.047 
7,a'J2,029 
I>,832,II48 
0,888,057 
11,570,708 
0,640,766 
4,060,070 
8,807,266 
7,400,811^ 
8,478,270 
7,242,080 
7,661,122 
6,804,107 
9,061,028 
0,110,251 
10,031,288 
11,810,810 
10,010,040 
14,712,468 
12,'.i2 1,843 
10,001,772 
$801,101,715' 


Avcrafl 
Cmi  Mr 
H«|nln«4., 
*84  41 
74  82 

68  45 
OJ  84 
80  48 
88  42 

66  75 
54  78 
64  60 

60  00 
50  41 
r.O  17 

69  20 
74  00 
87  44 
02  24 
57  82 
78  48 

114  47 
82  71 
85  07 
00  11 
40  24 

61  60 
60  75 

67  28 
53  84 
67  78 
67  17 
08  28 
90  09 
78  17 

70  81 
70  42 
97  04 

104  50 
13'J  40 


*  III  addition  to  thla  i  xpnrt  of  150,218  ho|!>licada  for  the  (!»• 
ral  year  nniling  ,hiiio  30,  1856,  tlicru  waa  an  export  of  11,018 
hnlea  and  18,300  enana,  the  vniue  of  which  la  Included  In  the 
general  auni  of  $14,712,408. 

KxroBTS  or  Tohaoto  nioM  Tiia  Unitid  Btatkb  ?on  xna 

YlAB  r.MDIRU  JUKK  80, 


3,311,026 

2,700,210 
613,807 


3,884,080 

2,531,453 
007,514 


Raw  tobacco,  1885 $613,111  $00,004 

Knuir 63  4,074 

Clgira 2,K11,453  8,413,09T 

Total $8,064,018  $3,584,636 

From  this  we  aee  that,  except  to  a  limited  extent, 
all  our  foreign  tobacco  comes  from  Cuba,  and  of  this 
four-flftha  la  in  cigara. 


D0MMtl«. 

lau.                       1 

Ilh4a. 

raaaa.  I  Balaa. 

Dollaia. 

a8,(l58 

17,124 
28,841 
40,800 
80,824 

1,400 

27 

248 

2,006 

8,690 

2,407 

08 

60 

870 

9,4111 

2,497,780 
1,068,782 
8,468,132 
4,108,605 
8,574,119 

Holland 

Kngland 

Franco 

Utiier  plaoea 

Total  domeatic 

Foreign,  all  placea 

Total  domeatlo  and  foreign 
exporta,  Iba 

160,118 

18,M6 

12,918 
181,270 

14,712,468 
14,110 

14,726,684 

DomaaUa. 

8U. 

mi.          1 

Hhda. 

Dollan. 

Hhib.   1    Dalian.    { 

Ilaiiao  Towns 

Holland 

8^368 
25,070 
17,435 
15,102 

32,ll,s2 

120,107 
077,009 

2,182,M0 
1,85(1,330 
2,110,722 
1,852,710 
8,01.1,720 

6J,S61 
23,38:i 
81.220 
15,71!0 
30,0ti| 

2,822,348: 
1,110,808 

F.ngland 

3,28,5,022 

France 

Utbcr  placca 

Total  domeallr , . . 

Foreign,  all  placea .... 

Total    donipatlc    anil 

forel>fn  exjwrti(,  IIh. 

l,070,I,-t8 
3,02(i,(if)3j 

10,010,(140 
06,938 

10,111,('84 

I5'.i,863 
601,447 

ii,8i«,riiiH 

84,304 

.. 

11,408,083 

E.xroRT8  or  MAXrr.'CTCEKD 

TouAcco  rBOM  ma  I'nited  Btattj  roa  the 

Ykars  1858,  1864,  and  1856. 

Dnnaalle. 

lajs. 

mM. 

I8«6.                    1 

Bouir. 

.Vliuiufart'd 

Value. 

Snulf. 

Muiafarl'it. 

Valua, 

Snair. 

Mannratl'il.l     Valua. 

i.bi. 

I.I>|. 
9,841,508 
488,017 
1,184,054 
1,0,10,7(17 
1,180,858 
3,708.088 
10,r)(ll,O.I2 

$607,804 
62,788 
18.5,299 
100,099 
272,475 
487,035 

$l,670,i  00 

218,.100 

|!1,8.I9,809 

Lb.. 
10 

7,773 
18,984 

2,571 

8,718 
Ji,.130 
'311,287 

7,756 

1,457,834 
418,355 

2,.530,823 

1,853,382 
062,418 

3,850,845 

$304,685 
M,840 
875,155 
181,000 
120,014 
51  ,'.,124 

-Lb..- 

liidis 

18,800 

832 

.10,18(1 

7,804 

Lba. 
2,790,419     $001,810 

878,1101        42,278 
1,858,8(10       841,375 

8f>2,709       121,5111 

I,i;t9,204     2:if.,:iiis 

8,505,123       467,700 

Britlah  West  Indlea 

17,112 

7,048 
1,486 
2,008 
11,027 
89,U1 

Canada 

Dritiah  American  I'olonlea 

Aitalralla 

Other  pUuiea 

Total  

10,278,162 
478,108 

$l,5f)0,H27 
200,400 

72,534   0,025,282  *l,fiOO,(Hls 
....      1      112,503 

Foreign,  all  plaeca 

Total  domeallo  and  foreign  exports. . 

54,042 

10,740,860 

$1,760,798 

.... 

....      |$1,002,i;01l 

Agreeably  to  olHcial  statementa  received  at  the  1  200,000  hogsheads,  of  1200  lbs.  each,  of  which  foreign 
State  Department  at  Washington,  tho  annual  average  countriea  annually  take  162,000  hogsheads,  leaving 
produce  of  the  States  of  Mar}-innd,  Ohio,  Virginia,  aliout  40,000  per  annum  for  our  Iiunie  consumption, 
Tiwneitee,  Kentucky,  and  Miasouri,  U  estimated  at  i  which  are  manufactured  into  fine  cut,  smoking,  and 


tdi  for  tlio  *"■ 
tporl  of  W,'J18 
Deluded  In  tlio 


kTM  Toa  Till 


6li  ii,822,34H! 
JtS   B,t8&,9!i'i 

01  8,oa>'.M>"; 


n,4«B,»S3l 


I1S6&. 


Viila«. 

$801,811)1 

S4I,37I> 
1     lai.MH 

__|      4ftU»8 

Isl  ilTf*"'"''"* 
■     I      V,2,M3 

[$l,0»'i;««l| 

Ihich  fortign 
Inds,  leaving 
lonsumptlon, 
DoUng,  and 


TOB 

ohtwlng,  plug  ohtwing  tolwcoo,  and  muff. 


Th.  .veruge  cn.p-  of  the  U.t  fmv  y..r«  li.v.  I>«.n  of  Me.l-l«f  t«l..ccn  hnvc  lH.«n  ini.nufacture.1  .t  horn, 
undtr th.  aliuv.  .•.tliiwto,  the .X|-,rt.tlon«  .m.ll.r,  th.  ,  Int.. Sp,„l,h .iRar^  price.  f,.r  «««a.|..uf  wr,ip.«r.  r«ii«. 
horn*  c.m.umptlun  for  the  1. Uv.  um,  .omowhat  Urger ,  \ng  at  20  to  116  o.nt»,  and  Hll.r.  nt  lU  to  la  ciit.  p«r  I  ". 
•nd  for..Kn  con.umm  of  the.,  kind.  U»ve  l««n  con^  I  .ml  a  corre.pondlnK  Incr....  in  th.  Importation  and 
p«ll«4  to  .ub,tltuta  other  foreign  IoImioco.,  not  a.  de-  con.umptlo.i  of  lU  needful  concomlUnti  the  N.»nUh 
•iralile  to  th.in  im  our  prtMluco,  to  nupply  th.  d.lli  Ion-  tohucco  fn.ni  th«  iiland  of  Cuba,  for  llll.n.  lua  tak.n 
clet  In  our  d.liverie..     I  hu.  It  will  Ira  perceived  that ,  place. 

of  the  large«t  product  of  lolmceo  of  our  own  growth  but  \      The  importation,  of  tbU  «ort  of  tobacco  w.re— 
one-fcurlh  I*  required  to  »upply  the  homo  -Icnmnd,  !  ip  iw,,,  ^,000 1|»  ;  v.l„e,  $3.K.,,K)n,  duty  u.lJ  under  »0O.(H)O 
while,  If  th.  production  coidd  be  doubled,  furel({n  coun- 1  >n  t^M,  '«,n"i»        "  m,im        ••  •'      m,!m 

trt.i  Would  be  ready  cu.tomen  for  the  greuteat  part  of    ',"  1!?'^  ''J-'!?!!        "  «".000        "  ••      l*viO» 

It,  a.  our  tobacco  leaf  i,  of  .uch,«cullar.tyio  and  .(uul-    mK.wlIlIS        "  mm       "  "     IM 

Ity,  that,  Uko  cotton,  or  the  leaf  tobacco  of  the  l«l.    In  l«w,  45,000        "  bl^im       >•  ••     Wm 

and  of  Culm,  It  1.  indigcnou.  to  the  noil  and  climate,    '"  '**"'  ■*"'"**        "  OOO.iHX)        "  ••     inu,00« 

no  other  noil  pro<lucing  the  same ;  and  therefore  Its  '      To  "how  the  extent  of  the  export  of  leaf  tobacco 
culture  i.  confined  to  certain  sections  of  the  country,  '  on"!  cigars  from  Cuba,  a  large  portion  of  which  Is  Im- 
•nd  attempts  In  others  have  proved  unsuccessful.     He- '  ported  into  this  country  for  cigar  manufacture  and  con- 
tidu  the  above  described  sorta  of  leaf  tobacco,  live    »'imptlun,  we  give  th.  following  statement : 
States  of  the  Union  produce  a  limited  quantity  of  leaf,    i)ia!<titim  or  i.mr  Toiiacixi  and  Liuabi  axpuatni  rnoa 
inoatly  used  for  tho  manufacture  of  cigars,  namely, 
Connecticut,  Now   York,   Ohio,   Pennsylvania,   and 
Florida.     The  average  yield  in  those  States  has  been 
of  late  years  aa  follows : 


In  (Jonncctlcut 6,000  cmo.  of  050  IIm.  cacti. 

In  Now  York 2,000     '•  "  " 

III  Olito 6,000     "  »  » 

III  rennsylvauU 2,ono     "  »  » 

In  Florida 'i.llOO     "  "  •> 

Total 10,000     "  "  «i 


Ve.n. 


<  uiiA  rauM  1844  T<>  1'<M,  iiotii  incLusiva. 


Tobafrfl. 


I      PmiiliU. 

IW..  0,S76,«SO 
1S40..I  4,010,133 
IsriO..!  7,078, us 
1S81..I  0,436,l>91 


('l|>n. 


m. 
101,440 
l'i3,780 
211,040 
S7o.ai:i 


IHtlJ. 
IsM. 
ISM. 


■  ...« 


0,737,413 
8,030,7117 
»,S0S,150 


('I|UI. 


M. 

I4'i,ria7 
8;i7,9aii 

!II1,»I3 


I  From  thU  we  see  that  tho  exportation  of  leaf  tobacco 
'  from  Cuba  has  been  steadily  Increasing,  but  not  In  th. 
Deduct  from  tho  above  one  quarter,  or  -lOOO  cases,  """">  proportion  with  the  exports  of  cigars. 
of  the  most  inferior  grades,  called  tillers,  and  now  used  '  ^'''''*  '"  "'''  we  give  the  production  of  tobacco  in 
mostly  for  the  cutting  of  smoking  tobacco,  and  It  leaves  ,  "'«  '"'»"'* »'  P»"»  1"™-  ""'y  »  o""'"  P""*''"*  "'  "''It'' 
12,000  cases,  or  about  4,000,000  lbs.  for  the  use  of  tho  1 "'  Imported  Into  and  used  In  this  country : 
clgar-maker.      In  former  years,  aliout  one-third  of    |SJJ-  a^MtO I  m'  fl«'K'M;4 


these  crops  were  bought  for  exportation,  chleliy  by  1  ]840 a,43ii,ii40 1  1S52 li.Mojno 

German  buyers;  but  for  tho  last  few  years  the  con- i  1S60 a,UI3|309  |  1853 3,7U3,4B7 

sumption  for  the  inanufacturo  of  cigars  has  so  consider-  \  The  fact  has  now  Ijecoroe  Incontrovertible,  that  to 
nbly  increased,  that  of  the  produce  of  the  flrst  four  sustain  this  branch  of  iudustry,  the  use  of  the  finer 
States  very  little  Is  exported — uur  manufacturers  pay-  grades  of  foreign  material,  to  improve  the  (|Uality  uf 
ing  higher  prices  than  exporters  are  willing  to  give ;  our  own  product,  is  indispensable.  The  census  return 
and  only  of  the  crop  of  Florida,  about  one-half  to  two-  of  I860  gives  the  number  of  tobacconists  and  c'gar- 
thlrds  is  annually  exported,  leaving  from  three  to  three   makers  In  the  United  States  us  10,82S. 


and  one  half  millions  of  lbs.  of  leaf  of  our  own  growth, 
called  Spanish  seed-leaf  tobacco,  for  the  home  con- 
Bumptlon  of  the  cigar  manufacturers. 

The  manufacturing  of  cigars,  at  prices  to  rival  tho 
foreign  fabric,  having  become  next  to  impossible,  a 
great  many  operatives,  who  made  fair  wages  for  their  I 
own  and  their  families'  support,  were  forced,  in  conse- 
quence, to  turn  to  other  employments,  particularly  so 
in  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut.     Uther  manufac- 
turers gave  their  attention  to  lictter  grades  of  cigars,  : 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  medium  between  the  ! 
common  Qerman  and  finer  and  high-priced  Havana 
cigar.     Tho  American  cigar-makers,  being  noted  for  I 
their  excellent  workmanship  and  tasty  stylo  of  pack-  i 
ing,  succeeded  in  furnUhing  an  article  as  handsomely 
made  as  the  fine  Havana,  similar  to  it  in  a])peBrance  1 
and  flavor,  although  not  of  as  fine  a  quality,  at  a  more  ; 
moderate  price  than  tho  latter,  aa  palatable  to  the  great  \ 
majority  of  smokers,  who  are  disinclined  to  use  tho 
common  German  fabric,  and,  finding  the  genuine  Ha- 
vana too  expensive,  content  themselves  with  the  fair 
medium,  and  thus  Iracamo  the  great  patrons  of  this  | 
branch  of  trade.     This  class  of  cigars  are  made  from  | 
onr  own  seed  leaf  and  Florida  toliacco  for  wrappers, 
and  fnmi  Havana,  Sagua,  Cuba  or  Vara  (all  the  prod-  > 
uco  of  the  island  of  Cuba),  for  fillers,  and  now  the  con-  \ 
'  sumption  of  this  sort  reaches  300  to  400  millions  of  I 
cigars  a  year,  varj-lng  in  prices  from  $12  to  $22  per  | 
thousand.'     From  1H48  to  1H51,  five  thousand  cases  of 
seed-leaf  wrappers  annually  were  sufficient  to  supply  1 
Uie  wants  of  the  cigar-makers  for  homo  use ;  the  value  { 


Tobacco. 


8Ule«  .nil  T»rrtlorln. 


AlalMms 

Arkaniian 

Callfomla 

Columbia,  District  of. . 

Connecticut 

Ui'laoaro 

Florida 

Georgia 

IllluoU 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Mulno 

.Maryland 

MaflsacluLett. 

Altchigan 

MlKHUslppl 

MUtjouri 

New  HamiMhlro 

Nuw.TtTsoy 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

I'cnnHylrnnlft 

Khode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennepaee 

Tcxa. 

Vermont 

Virginia 

\Vl:ioonflln 

■p  y   (Now  Mexico  . . . 

|-C  -Oritton 

Ha   tttah 

ToUl 


Foundii. 
273,  sol 
148,48} 

471,067 

272 

76,274 

182,804 

664,320 

1,820,806 

8,070 

63,430,000 

119,824 

80 

24,810,012 

a4,l>66 

1,002 

83,471 

0,007,018 

lis 

1,022 

744 

10,772,360 

6,042,276 

826,018 

817 

61,519 

2.1,650,432 

■ '  686 

75,347,100 

115 


isu. 


Pounds. 

164,900 

318,086 

1,000 

7,800 

1,287,024 

99S,'0I4 

423,024 

S41,80t 

1,044,020 

6,041 

65,601,100 

2fl,87S 

21,407,497 

138,240 

1,246 

40,000 

17,113,734 

61 

SIO 

83,189 

11,084,786 

10,454,449 

012,651 

74,286 

20,148,982 

66,897 

6«,663,m 

1,26S 

8,467 

316 

TO 


221005:419  1  201,380,863 


TOB 


18AS 


TOB 


A  aoH*MMTIVI  •T«T««mi 

nr  ma 

Mtnrn*,  iMMwni. 

Am  l>n'i>iiaiH  n*  TnMivm  m  t.iTnrtm,  vm  lAn  TM  YiAit. 

MMk  lit  Itmut, 

InipxMa 

l|.,ma  1  ••. 

IMUttlu 

•liKk  lui 
H.IIP" 

VltalaU 

iKIaMa. 
llrtM 

ll»lll> 

iiih.f 

l'..ik 

Uli 

r.ini 

IkImI 

KlIMl 

i-miuIm 

T.MI 

i<M»... 

KM 

liliu 

MOi 

|M,i/T 

4MII 

SMI 

t!MV 

yiiN 

iiTtii 

ATun 

taUU 

IIHI 

l;i.'j'>& 

4!l4ft 

Wilt 

•ill  I 

mn 

lil,itiu 

lil.ur.A 

\nltn. . . 

m.iiM 

till  J 
l««l 

A«M 

uiw 

KtviT 

IJ.fiM 

4il.'l9 

IKll 

■JllfJ 

'^imi 

tl,4AII 

I7,4IVJ 

I«ftl  .. 

\1,»» 

Mtitt 

IW4 

Uift 

111,1141 

MM 

i.rii 

litllT 

«-iim 

l«,4M 

IN>«1 

i*m... 

l^|>4l 

IIMI 

Kill 

I4III 

HH'I 

iii,'ii)a 

M41I 

IViUI 

•ilKW 

niU't 

14,014 

iii,ia<i 

IIIM... 

lll,T«<l 

ITM 

•  4M0 

lira) 

II4I0 

I4,«TS 

*ntitt 

IIIM 

'is^a 

BlUI 

I4'i|a 

14,111111 

IMM... 

li'ltll 

««Jil 

111  III 

l;iW) 

IIHI.'I 

H.UfW 

MT4 

IIMt'J 

VIlftH 

iwn; 

1      It 

ll,«7 

t«lA., 

'»,Wf 

Mtn 

ll«IT 

Iii4n 

airj 

ll.iwT 

4M« 

IIIVJ 

II4II0 

rr 

r.   ■.« 

10,11(1 

IMMI... 

|il,f|K 

Mrm 

IWTll 

1III4I 

«Til 

I«,li4a 

4llT^ 

IMO 

IWM 

V 

n.<'i 

IILNMA 

I«ftl... 

lii.ntu 

IHWVi 

MDII 

1IIHI6 

IIM'i 

1«,IH>4 

ftiiTll 

llT'iH 

«|<M 

II.'  ' 

li.MM 

TliD  M»\  «niiiwl  •iilut  Ml  Mvpr|HHil  nml  thulr  ilUlrlliiitlnn  wrm  im  Mlowii 


l-'ur  1mmii«>  iiriit    , 

I'ur  Iri'laiul  ami  NnilUitil , 

CiMMlwUll , 

I'arioiHiridliin ,, 

I'lrtnl  miIm , 


lUII 

i>»i. 

itft? 

KM. 

IM4         ~IMT  "T 

t,IV) 

■,niti 
yT,lw  1 

'i,vii:i 
'J,iin7 
vi.m  ' 

tt.WI 

«,ri 

I4,M4  " 

n.i 

•  '  ;..! 
It  III' 

X  .  ■ 

ii,nA« 

Kvn 

H.OM 
U,IA| 

,1  •'; 

1l,4IM 
lt.ni»l» 

"IM, 
"tltS" 
l,M> 

t,MA 

l,IH,« 

iit.iri 


IIM. 


R.i.TO 

5,r'iii 

t,N)| 

lt,l<IM 
iS.lUlft 


tUUTMUM  «>Vt  or  MKwn  im  IWT.  -l.ituOMii. 
Vfi 


Vot  hiiim  UM  .,,,,., 

Pnr  IrcUnit  mi4  N«rtMl4  ,,■■,■•• 

For  t'lHiilttlin  , , , ,, 

Kur  i>|»irUlluii 

T.1UI 


I'luriMAriii  l>Tiit>K  AT  liirMlwni,  on  |i«i,ii  Rui'i.rmvR  nr  that  in.i  i 


1»,IIM 


Tim  ('iiANNm.ii  nr  ConiiriiPTioN, 


orvinltiU  li'«r, 

*•  Dll'IIIIUPlI , 

lirWraliTII  linf 

"  llllilllMMl ,, 

ur  M»ry Uiid , 

TuIaI , 


1IT4  RgtliKl  mm  In  Ktil,  mm  in  lfU«,  I^AT  in  IMU,     OTT  In  tWa,  1,401)  In  lAU, 


ilM 

NaT 
Till 


miu 

Tun 
unni 
mi 


lilA'J 

a4T 

M4tl 
M*l 

H3kl9 


H'i;l 
tltT 
68IM 


I.VIT 

4,n:i!i 

4,01111 

TIW 

ll,(Mfl 


l,Vi3 

B,IISO 
QUO 

11,1  tit 


FAarici  'i.Atit  Of  MUr  Aim  W«>4ttMi  Tmun'n  iMi-nRTKii  i>r«ii>u  riiH  i.aut  tin  Yeau,  amo  tiu  Htook  on  Hai.i  at  tui 

I '■.•■KM  nr  KAni  Ykan.— luvoaTi, 


-  — : 

~1W. 

i>i« 

I'M 

H»l. 

l«M. 

IKM. 

Iii4. 

IIU. 

"fuM. 

IMI. 

VlnitnHl  >r  

l>       •inniMii'il    (iiKi 

■^I.W 

4.il'<H 

Ui 

I.'iti 

I,0M 

l,-^4:i 

i.oiw 

H.HOII 

4,0il 

l.HTll 

inivi 

H.iirxi 

l,TI»8 

i.mi 

1,A41 

i,n«s 

«,42l 

2,(111 

K,flft'i 

•i,'m 

Kenliicky  li>i)f 

H.MIO 

n.nw 

1,I1T1 

i,'M« 

B.OST 

1,100 

1,M1) 

1,S(i8 

2,'JOA 

■>       almiiMiiii) 

n,ftM 

4,4TII 

n,ii4i 

4,Mft 

A,SH 

4,008 

6,(181 

«,iiia 

H,lfl4 

8,841 

Murylitnit  iiiiil  i  ililu 

T«M ,.......• 

Hit 
*HI,4TT 

IM 

'  lii.Hiia 

1,41111 

I.SIW 
10,1(41 

l.llM 
"lll,4.ir 

I.IIIT 
14,  JITS 

l.Tnl 

|JVI,W>0 

1,1103 

1,044 
IH.IUh 

1,»4) 

19,004 

HTIM-KIl   <>M    HANn   AT    LlVTOWlOU 


**~'^"""           '      *          ■..-.- 

IM" 

VinlnUlMf......... 

'*           ■iHIMMMnl 

t,««H 
li,rt:in 

Kantimky  l>'i>r 

H,'i'iri 

•'       ■toiiimnil , 

T.IKIO 

MMjrUnil,  i<l«, , ,  1 1 . , 

114 

Tuliil,.,,,,..,; .. 

li),llu 

lai>. 

11,^1 1 
II,  I'iii 

0,4(MI 

rii 

lii,iihn 


miw 

lliHHIl 

ii,4M 
4,IIT5 
T,240 
1,9«» 
IT.iO'J 


lUI. 


a,2W 

1,010 
H,ft2S 

T,ri4'J 

TOl 
"lft,041 


UM. 


1,084 
1.8,'ifl 
H,T»1 
fl,ITll 
1,M> 
18,7011' 


IKt3. 

*T,140 
1,841 

4,r>'2'J 

(»,l4llO 

l,loT 


1,100 
1,1174 
0,440 

_l,llft 

ri,*jrriO,SHB 


IMS. 
ll.lfH 
1,MI 
MO 
4,06ft 
1,IW0 


IKM.      I      IK.M. 


^081 

1,820 

l>04 

8,410 

j|,084 


1401 
UiOT 
Brtll 
IMl 


10,»«IU  I    1881) 


ktoulu  III  l.iiiijiiii,  Rlat  liiHiunilxir, , , , ., 

II        Llvfriiiuil ,1.1 

•I        lirlilii),  IImIIi  mill  Nwnutl*, 

•I         HrolUlhl 

"        IruUml 

TaUl  ln<iri«t  Hrlinln 


r  '«i».  1  i"»i. 

int.        tH.1 

I«M. 

il,M4- 

"miV 

IlM. 

III5I 

•'i,iw,"ii3rM8 

n,Tfl"    n  I'Ha 

10,041 

\\M\ 

10,820 

'  ;'  tfa  1  w,04i 

1»,'.21 

10,220 

10,880 

|I,NHS 

'I  '     1,2011 

t,K»                « 

2,100 

l.TOO 

1,612 

1,«0U 

1,.    •         1,8T0 

l,4'l         i.BOO 

1,800 

1,800 

1,021 

170 

i,b  .        linn 

l,20i)  1     1,4110 

1       liOO 

1,100 

1,000 

8110 

1  40,f»4J  41,4!Mj 

flO,S,'>0  1  80,MS 

rit.ofr 

94  8(ti 

20,428  J  28,1101  1 

I'uvjnwy  I 

HIlKIK  IMI 


UM.  IDSI, 

i>i,i*iiiiirv AniiT  noon 

luiiiiirit'il  iliirlMK  I'i  iiuitillK  IHhT    T024  Mlfl-Msn 

lMlv«ml  ••  "  4(lM  <m^ 

NIflrk  iin  aiil  Iliwi'MlliKr, ,.,  UINISImIm  HSWI 


OrMk  ami  1'iirkKV  i 
Nliu'k  nil  Uiilnniwrv 


liniiiirli'ililiirlliu  12  nun 

lllllvillfll  "  " 

KtiM'k  nil  9t<t  lii'i'imilnT. 


KM,  HJT. 

. . .   hll2H  »tiVI 

iik  wAia  Tnon       tiMT-i20on 

n  tllOT  BOOS 

It  may  )>«  Imro  hIiiIkiI,  ok  liii|Hirl.iint  in  the  export 
trsdu  of  tnlmi'un,  itnil  iin  ii  ii|ii<i'liii('il  nriha  llloi|iiulitlrii 
nftliu  tiirilf  iliitlxit  nil  tnliiiiiiin  In  h'.iiriiim,  that  the  Nor- 
watfiaii  tiirllf,  whii'h  illlViirii  In  inony  onenliiil  pnrtlcu- 
Inrt  from  tliiit  nf  Nwinltin,  iiilinlta  liilMn'o  I'onnliloralily 
lower  I  nn<l,  nwlnu  t<i  tllU  fuel.,  nuil  tu  the  mlvantOKea 
rnaultlntt  frnm  illtnirimt  wnlKlitu,  It  In  rniiiiil  that  tn- 
b«oou  liliulim  miiy  Im  InijHirtnil  Into  Murwny  at  n  rate 
nearly  llil'll  per  cunt,  li'im  llian  liitii  Hweilen. 

The  rollo>y|ni{  IaIiIh  t<)ihllilfi«  the  pricaa  current  at 
Liverpool,  Unceiulwr  III,  fur  the  ytttt  1850,  '66,  '07 1 


Ll  Kiiwol  Ffitw. 


Vlridnla  li'af  i 

(Irdlnary  and  fiidi'd 

Onlluiiry  Miiind 

Fair  leafy,  dry 

(■nod  1  iimtuiiie 

Finn  Irliih 

Stemmed : 

Onllnary  nhort  dry 

I'alr  dry  Ifafy 

(■oml  do,  with  lulMtaiice. , 

1  Ino  IrUli 

Wo'tcrn  leaf: 

Ordinary 

MIddllnR  tn  flnp,  dark 

Flno  dry  and  cnlory 

Stemmed  : 

Ordinary 

Mlddllnic 

1  Ineoolury 

Maryland*  : 

Iiry  leafy  and  aweet 

Colory  and  fine 

Paraguay 

Ureck  and  Tnrkey 


Nnmln. 

61 « 
8  rt 

eiM 

T(#T| 

Nnmln. 
Tl«  8 
8|(i«  0 


41(31 
6IM  61 
Ok4  .. 

I|«  .. 
8  «*  .. 
8K4  0 

6|(a  .. 

8  a  81 

(*  .. 


a  (SNom 

8  a  .. 

0  (k    01 
to  (4  . . 

10  U  11 

Nominal. 

11  A  12 
IB  C4  . . 
14  «  15 

Nominal. 

81i<«    Ui 
10  (•*  . . 

10  ra  II 
1U«%  11) 

18  (4  181 

9  (S(    81 
»  A  11 
0  e«  10 
9i@  ■■ 


Mti 


Nniulnal. 
T|(«  ■> 
81  (»  '} 
II  («  fi* 

10  (4tni 

v.nilaal. 
1"    <ill 
11!    *  .. 
12  «al31 

Nominal. 
t\(A  8) 
II  (,i1UI&ll 

10  (»   .. 

11  (1*111 

12  (Aia 

T  (a  8 
0  (am 

1»  (410 


■Irak  llil 

llMMi. 

'■ 

taf. 

It 

"rtiir 

«u 

lit,9nn 

nu 

IT.tfHi 

M 

l^,lv«l 

U 

III.IIIU 

IB 

U,<n;l 

tl 

1'1,'rtT 

J» 

in.iiB 

■l 

111.  WW 

l>,MM 

IIM. 

t 

r.To 

1 

a.rtiD 

I 

I,M1 

1 

i.hm 

l_. 

T1.K*- 

tuui  iri(>. 

iiptfii,  ttd. 

Ts.iitii 

a,TM 

1,M| 

a.noa 

ia,aM_;- 

«. 

mil. 

fj- 

a,aTft 

B'J 

2,296 

tia 

2,2AA 

M 

8,au 

44 

),S4I 

46 

19,0M 

lUt9 
14111 
1(i«T 
OilTT 
_lb!H_ 


~ 

. 

IHST. 

sr 

1ll,82B 

w 

K.IVis 

)i 

I.DOU 

11 

770 

M) 

SiUI 

'IJ 

2a,iK)i 

••:ngl«nil . . . .    

Hl'iilUnrl  ...  • 

Wlbmltar  ..  

<'*atila  ,..,  

ll'IINIi  Au.ir»|(,      

llrllUh  U.l|,„|i„;, 

'  111)11 ...        

I""rt.i  III..,,. 

Two  HiciiiM, ' ; 

AuRtrlit ...       • 

Turki.vii,  v.i;;;;; , 

Port.  llHMr«.    

Iln.vll "• 

''•0  Duiiilngo 

Mexico. ... 

l>ntr»l  Kop'ilhiii"" 

Niiw  ()r*niiil(       

VmiPBiiol,  ..     

IKrMll 
Chill 
IVrii 
China .'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ' 
ToUl,  jrnar  18a«-'T.''|."',"| 

-  - •.in 

-     •     T  """""'■'irMiau,  1H6T 

Whlik.... .. .         7         ■„„■>  ,         -         "")  '"ol. 


/"•••■"I.".'::;;;:      ^~'    •«> 
:::::: «,•«»     «•«« 


»7(S,M» 

121046 

Ur.Mll 

IM 

t  i4a,2a(i 

M,Tl2 
IJIM 

t»M) 
KIM 


«,b|ii 

I2,iinff 

114 

IIABUft 

11,82(1 

2IM 

1,722 

lit 


"^"^'  ^M  ;KiiE4,Vaij 


Wkiik«r  aiiwili^. 

iKiiMiirrrTT.T!  " — 

/••nijinvMtriidiM; 

lumburu 

Ilrpmon...,     

■lollanil  ...     

I)ulch  Wet  liiji'i'  • 

Dutch  (I Ulan..... 

|l)<l|(liim 

I'^glaud  .... 

Mcolland 

Olbraltar. ...     

Malta... 

H'tnada 

BrltUh  N.  Am.VwV.' 

I.  '.'■""■>'''"•"•.. 

•rltMiUiilana...  i 

IHHl''"!"""''"'*^™.'      .  I 

UriiWil-uHt  111,11,,, r"'™! 

fraace  on  the  Mfditcr'n 
Jrepoli  .v.  An,.  IW,, 

;>ln  0.1  Iho  MoUllorr'n 

I  iiha 

IVrto  IdcV.  ""  I 

V?Pi."'«  Vera  lnUn'o,','; 

"Krtlnla  ...' 

Tiifki'yln  KiiTOM..      I  I 

r"';k.;ylnA.la...      •'    "iJ 

J  "Ml  In  Africa  .     I     *™'l 

liaytl 

MeilM. 

Central  /teimbilc".' 
Vw  Or»„a,|„ 
"■Kiifin,.!,, 

H»»all 

I  nipiav,..; I 

:*3fj»"n"iieilibiic.'.":: 

j'^fti.... ' 

pvii«iu.ii,i,',,y,^,;- 


Rnuir. 


'ml 


IB 


vi.iih.n,port,j.  ll|.r,  l«M»r.,i«„4  „,|,„ 

Kiitr     777! ^^    ^ — — 

Anli.i  •  i|ii,Vi;,' ; . 
lliu»l»n  I'oM.  In  .v"a„'.' 

MWJ.,1..:,  ,„„1  N„?»V"'- 

[Mr<!rncn 
■'iilch  w, 

jKllldl  (Ju 

""Wuni. 
I  "Bland.. 
'-"'Itnd.. 

Malta 

'  anada  , . . 
Ilrlllnh  .N.  A 
llrlil«|,  Wwi 
"rlll«li  llomh 
llrlilKh  I'oM,  1,    , 
;rl(j.bAu.tr«,„.. 
Irlll«h  Kant  l.i.iiift, 
Irnne,.  on  tbi>  .\  |,„',ie 
Iranw  nnllw.M,,||t,   ' 
M  rmicli  .V.  Am.  / 
I  nnch  Wi'it  In.i 
I'orlo  Kloo. 
I'orliipii 

I'npprto  Vord  laiai 

"ircllnla  ... 

I'll',)  (ilpllici! . . . 

nirlwy  in  Kiinmo 

Piirltpy  In  A«U  . 
I'orlB  in  Africa  . 

Ilnyll 

I.MoxIco ." 

Vcivtiranada.'.'.' 
Vcncauela . . . . 

Ilrnjll ■■ 

[rujfimy.  ortiipi; 
,''|;fno.Ayr™... 

rum "" 

Samlnlch  Is'lini'. 
I'lilna 

Mhalo-flslieriM .'.'.'.'" 
ToUI .'.'_' 

FromwarohouM. 
Ijiot  from  warehou^" 


6,241 

4,927 


11«,7H« 
108,36; 


UfiO.lOl  »241,888 
W>2,877  1(K;b18 
31)7,284]     76.887 


TOK 


1854 


TON 


Kxrom  or  roiinoM  Tobacco  n»ii  Tnn  Triimm  Statts 

FOB  THE   YlAII  KNlllHO  JUNK  80,  1867. 


Whitbtr  aiported. 

(Inmnnafiicliirflil. 

Bnulf. 

Piniiidt. 

Villin. 

I'uiinili.i  Vain*. 

11,651 

896 

11,1T6 

M,23a 

2,m 

$1,6SII 

18S 

2,128 

0,760 

"046 

'7S0 

'mo 

(nhtr  Cicrmaii  porta 

«;Mtl    

f»crn 

Sandwich  lilanda 

Total 

TT,,Tfl3 

$14,287 

1280 

$860 

Ffotn  warohouio 

7!i,fl60 
6,103 

13,180 
1,151 

Mil 

7sa 

2110 
166 

Not  from  warelioinc 

RrroKTB  OF  cNUANcrAorcREn  nouKHTin  ToiiArco  prom  tub 
t'NiTKD  States  foe  the  Yeae  eniiino  iJuke  80, 1867. 


Wliitbat  aiporUd. 


Asiatic  Rii^flla 

Rt'i§^lan  Twaoaa.  In  \.  Am. . . 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Swedish  West  Indlvs 

I>enmark 

f>aniMh  West  Indies 

Hamburg 

Firemen 

Holland 

iMifch  West  Indies 

I>nfch  ffiilana 

llelKinm 

F:nglnnd 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Mbraltar 

.Malta 

f'anada 

Other  Rritlah  N.  A,  I'osaeaa.. 

i  Rrltioh  West  Indies 

jBrltinh  Honduras 

iHrlliKh  <iniana 

I  British  roaseaaions  In  AfHca 
'llrltlah  Anntralla 

Iiritish  Kaat  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

France  on  tho  Mediterranean 

French  N.  Amer.  rosaessiona 

French  Weat  Indies 

French  (Sulsna 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  tho  Mediterranean. 

V'anary  Islands 

I^'nlin 

.Forto  Hlco 

FortiiRal 

!Wadelr» 

f 'apn  de  Vcrd  Islands 

j Sardinia  

jTnacnnv 

Two  Sicilies 

lAnstria 

lAnstrian  roaat^aaions  in  Italy 

iTnrkcy  iu  Ktirope 

iTnrkey  in  Aala 

I  Forts  In  Africa 

liraytl 

I  Me»ico 

^New  (tranada 

]  VcncEtiela 

iBrnEll 

I  rnRiiay,  or  (laplatino  Ifcp. . 
iArnenlinc  Kepuhlic 

<hm 

Tern 

Sandwich  lalands 

Other  islands  In  the  I'aciflc  . 


68; 

61 
683; 


10 


Valaa. 


40 
6 


174 
320; 


I        I 

SOOj 

1,200 

84,871 

1,982 

16,275 

16,013 

l«l,720l 


46,046    300    8,524    4,016,3116 

nr  «r.O.  nnn      1   nan  AAO' 


27,768;  .. 

190 

1,969,008 

16i  .. 

25 

8,036 

69:  .. 

7,949 

6,346'  .. 

688 

9H257 

2»,37fl|  218 

92 

4,6il4,105 

832    .. 

131,887 

160!  .. 

20,407 

832  j  042 

8 

6.^841 

766'  109 

25 

110,802 

811  1(181 

460 

181,964 

137      13 

23,786 

660      16 

281 

114,019 

26]   .. 

00 

6,365 

183    100 

28,708 

l'.>4'  202 

120 

60,976 

166;    20 

22,882 

....       14 

4^10 

10,146     .. 

40 

9S6,0!.2 

1,824    .. 

121 

8'1S,709 

1 

16 

liiio  .. 

24 

107,886 

or.  .. 

20,877 

7,436    .. 

1,099,414 

117    .. 

27,631 

20    .. 

6,912 

IS;  .. 

8,212 

»12f>'       5 

27,000 

876'   .. 

121,369 

221   .. 

4,2110 

82     71 

92 

22,471 

6,14'i    .. 

982,124 

2,11:1:1    .. 

887,4011 

4,144'   .. 

876,208 

1,6118,    .. 

151,096 

6,0f4:    .. 

1,086,893 

83i    . . 

2,091 

41j   .. 

a'o" 

10,186 

],72,il     86 

984 

402,069 

88   964 

8,996 

97,760 

100 

2,740 

670    .. 

1,660 

36,345 

I60I   .. 

41 

28,226 

801  .. 

0 

14,462 

6    .. 

1,000 

....  1     75 

l.O.W 

3|   .. 

1,167 

23,018 
202 

....  1  111 

20 

4,808 

....  '     60 

12 

1,680 

Total,  year  18,'i6-'7 1,%0,S48  5031  14,432.20,260,722, 


— For  articles  on  tolpacco,  see  American  Qiinrterh/  tlf- 
ririr,  i.K.  liMi;  I)K  Bow'h  Ilerii-u;  xil.  0.%',  ii.  219,  xi. 
'X<4 ;  Hist'h  Mcrckanis'  Magazine,  x.  72,  xv.  521,  xvi. 
,'((•6.  On  tobaeeo  trade,  see  Amerimn  Almanac,  ISilti. 
Tokay,  a  town  of  northeast  Hiingarr,  county  of 
Xeinplin,  on  tlie  right  l)ank  of  the  ThcUs,  at  the  influx 
of  the  llo<lro((,  4.3  miles  north-northwest  of  Debreczin. 
F'npiilntion,  5700.  It  i-t  cclelirntert  i»  liolnj^  the  entrc- 
(Hit  for  the  fjiinous  Tokay  wine,  prxluccil  in  the  hilly 
tract  called  the  flegyalla,  in  the  county  of  Zeniplin, 
lat.  4H°  N.,  Iietween  the  Rodrog  and  llernad  rivers, 
Th«  wine  of  premier  quality  is  liuught  up  for  the  im- 
p«riiil  cellars,  and  only  the  secondary  and  inferior 
fiprowths  are  ex|)ortod.    Much  uf  the  wino  sold  us 


Tokay  Is  produced  In  other  parts  of  Hungary.  In  man- 
ufacturing the  genuine  Tokay  wine,  the  dried  grapes 
are  carefully  separated  from  tite  others,  and  three 
sorts  of  wine  are  produced.  The  bett  is  the  Essence : 
this  is  tho  oily  juice  which  runs  from  the  f^uit  with- 
out any  pressure.  When  this  ceases  to  run,  the  grapes 
are  moistened  with  common  Tokay-must,  and  trodden 
out:  this  gives  the  Ausbnich.  A  second  infusion  of 
Tokay-must  on  the  remaining  grapes,  pressed  by  hand, 
gives  the  Hanlat  (Masklass). — See  IlEtiDEnsoN  en 
Winet ;  Kncy.  Amev. 

Tokena  (Bank).  These  were  silver  pieces  issued 
by  tho  Bank  of  Kngland,  of  the  value  of  5».,  January 
1,  1798.  Tho  Spfinish  dollar  wos  at  first  impressed 
with  a  small  profile  of  George  III. ;  it  was  stamped  on 
the  neck  of  tho  Spanish  king.  Tokens  were  raised  to 
tho  value  of  bs.  6il.,  Novemljer  14, 1811.  Bank  tokens 
were  also  current  in  Ireland,  where  those  issued  by  the 
Bank  of  Ireland  passed  for  6«.  and  lesser  sums  until 
1817.  They  were  soon  after  called  In,  on  the  revision 
of  the  British  coinage. 

Toll,  from  the  Saxon  Tolne ;  in  German  ZoU  (coll- 
ed in  law  Latin  Telonium  and  Tolmttim,  with  many  other 
variations,  which  may  bo  seen  in  Ducange,  all  which 
I..atin  terms  are  derived  apparently  from  reTiufiov, 
"collection  of  tribute  or  revenue").  Tolls  may  be 
considered  n  payment  in  money,  or  in  kind,  fixed  in 
amount,  made  either  under  a  royal  grant  or  under  n 
prescriptive  usage,  from  wliich  the  existence  of  such 
a  giant  is  implied,  in  consideration  of  some  service 
rendered,  benefit  conferred,  or  right  forborne  to  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  party  who  is  entitled  to  such  payment. 

An  ancient  toll  may  be  claimed  by  the  owner  of  a 
port  in  respect  of  goods  shipped  or  landed  there.  Such 
tolls  are  port  tolls,  more  commonly  called  port  dues. 
The  place  at  which  these  tolls  were  set  or  assessed  was 
anciently  called  tho  Tolsey,  where,  as  at  the  modem 
Exchange,  the  merchants  usually  assembled,  and  where 
commercial  courts  were  held. — Boiin'h  I'ycJop. 

Marino  tolls  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the 
Stade  on  the  Elbe,  A.n.  1109.  Tlicy  were  first  de- 
manded \)y  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  iSound, 
1341.  Toll-bars  iii  England  originated  in  12C7,  in  tho 
grant  of  a  peifny  for  every  wngon  that  passed  through 
a  certain  manor ;  and  the  first  regular  toll  was  collect- 
ed a  few  j-ears  after  for  mending  the  rond  in  London 
between  St.  Giles  and  Temple  liar.  Tolls  were  also 
gathered  for  repairing  the  highways  of  Ilolbom  Inn 
l.ane  and  Martin's  Lane,  1341!.  Toll-gates  or  tum- 
])ikes  were  used  in  166:1.  Numerous  acts  relating  to 
tolls  and  turnpike  roads  have  been  passed  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  several  States  of  the  L'niled  States. — 
Haydn. 

By  order  of  the  London  Court  of  Common  Council, 
the  tolls  taken  at  the  several  bars  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, for  the  wagons,  carts,  etc.,  not  being  the  property 
of  ft  citizen  of  London,  were  aliolished  December  25, 
ltli'J4.  These  tolls  had  brought  on  annual  revenue  of 
only  id.  on  each  cart,  or  about  idOOO. 

Ton,  a  weight  used  in  (irent  Britain  and  this  coun- 
try, usually  of  2240  lbs.,  but  sometimes  of  2000  lbs., 
called  a  short  ton.  By  net  uf  Congress  it  is  decided 
that,  unless  specified  to  the  contrary,  a  ton  weight  is 
to  be  understood  as  two  tluiusand  two  hundred  and 
forty  lbs.  avoirdupois. — iS'ce  WF.KiiiTS  and  BliiAsuuK.i. 

Toiinage,  in  Commercial  uurigatioii,  the  niimlier  of 
tons  burden  that  a  ship  will  ciirry.  Tonnage  lins  long 
been  an  ofliciul  term,  intended  <iriginnlly  to  express 
tho  burden  that  a  ship  would  curry,  in  order  tliiit  llio 
various  dues  and  customs  which  are  levied  upon  ship- 
ping might  bo  levied  according  to  the  size  of  tlio  ves- 
sel, or  ruther  in  proportion  to  her  cupability  of  carrying 
a  burden.  It  ha."  hence  arisen  tliiit  the  term  "  ton- 
nage," as  applied  to  a  ship,  has  become  almost  synony- 
mous with  that  of  size.  It  is,  indeed,  the  only  term 
used  to  give  iin  idea  of  tho  magnitude  of  merchant 
ships,  wliich  are  invariably  spoken  of  acconllng  to 


vessel  by  which  to  levy  dues .  t^   "  "'  "  "'"'^■''""t   threl  Li"  T'"^'  "'"'l  deduct  frl°."  '''""''<=-<leck- 
quired  thus  fur,  either  onthf'  "'""'  ""  ♦hat  i,  re-    h  ."""' ">e  breadth  Z/l-      '"  ""'*'  'enK«l» 

or  an  approximation  to  he  ern.f ''^''  "'"  <"'«'»  "i^o     '"'™°"' ^^  '""■''^''r  in  .se  .m 

may  be  the  actual  disnlacl?^?   """'  "^  "'e  ship,    tj  I      F« .       ^""""f'N-^'  ?»k''t<'^??'J,V?,?.'=I"«  nations  po« 

V'ge,  might  be  easilyTval ,    ,  '?  "■""''' ''«  '•'«  ton^  j      J     '!^  T^f''  "' "-e  deck/      '^"""  "'"  '"""S  t" 
feet  of  restricting  vetse  fto    /'T  T"'"  '">^''  ">»  e^'   Mar^oill"'™", 'i""-"  '<"  »«>  l""^       I  ^. "?«""'• 

stem  nnrt  stem  of  the  veZis  ''"  '''^°  "^  »•>" 


-.e  to  £rei;„;;m'Sr:f  ^;r  ••"  T-""- 

"ccount  of  the  draught  of  Lt.r     v^"^     ^"  '"'"'^t 
would  also  be  necessfn^wlltbH  1'?,  "''.'•.  ?'  "«'•*, 


-^a,;:b:;s^'::,:;-'--itheri;ad^;;^  ''xt,r""'f"'°-^^"     '"" """  "^"'" 

«mall  in  proportion  to  tMrfl„  ""'"^  ""«'"  ''^  S  '  v.7-Th!  Ir''  H.f "  "^'  f""''*''  """a-v  „  «5. 
naKo  were  to  express  t  d»Lrt„ce"K-  ''  '^  ""'■  ''"'''l-'"'  » :  M  a  he ,  ''^  "'"  '"^""'"""  "'  *^^'^^- 
di»p  .cements,  that  is,  the  ex  e  ,  of  ,he  r? r''", '"'»  '*■'  f-'-'^mas t;  3d  a  „  '  in7'h'',r' '  '''' "  ''''  f""' '"'aft 
mcnt  over  the  liirht  or  H,„  .1  i  •  ,  ''""'  'I'splnce.  former  T),,^  j,  •'  1 .  "^  "'  ''"'f  "aj-  lictwoen  tl.o  m.., 
although  this  H-oul  i  be  the  nT  7°"'""  "^  "'«  ''"'"'"ff.  '  ta™n  ''t  tll^h„'"^''V  "'  '^'"''''  "'«  three  bi^adt t  „r^ 
-•  even  matl.e„.l.X'  '^^f  ^^-^t  ■„  "r""'""  ( '-^    ^dt"'":.^  ":;;;--  ^'^^  -«  «  "ovei'wllh  tt 

Cm:!!^;  nS  --rf  ^^  r^^f  ;SS  l  .^  J^'i:;^  -  -  -  each  section,  the  haif  „f  ,he  ..m 

^i-ace  or  capacity  t'ti, ';,:';:'«?  ,!;!r '" ''" "'"  "•"'''J^^'  ^^^i  ;T",:;ri"r,r™-"t.:  is  added  *:;;,■: 

openmgs  would  be  nfforde    f.T/        F'  """"er'i'is   the  height  of  no   ,1  ""''''"«  '"""  '9  multiplied  bv 
''ecanse  the  manner  of   „„  "•""''"l-i't  evasion;  I  area,  of     ,.  f,,r        "T  "'"  ""'"•      Then  half  the 

»l.aoe  must  be  S  c:  ,V    7  u'l.''';  ''7./"'  ""-^  i  ""'"""  ""on""  n'd'Tm  "'"""•  '^  """'■"  '"'"'^  »f 
wh'eli  will  not  come  withi  ■     '^  '"  ^""'''  «P"™    length  wliic  ,  H  1  ''  ""'"  ''  "'"Itiplied  bv  tlio 

measurements;  0 "  t      0!  v      ,  ^'T  "^  '"«  ""''"e-'    ^la^^Vd  ,v  1     vl     "V'"  """'^  f^""'  "a<h  otl  er 
a  form  that  th^  „,«„,  re    "  ,       ""'  "  '''''^  ^^ ""-^  '  "v  "H   '  n    t  of      7  "n".'"'*''™  '^"''''-  '""'■'«'■''  «>I'" 

the  same,  shall  if7l,»  .  "i   .•      ''""™'  '»  measure   tancefmmfil  .'"''' "'^''''"  section  bv  half  its  dii 


TON 


185Q 


TON 


reuel  tn  the  above  manner  in  Bur((os  cubic  feet,  it  is 

to  be  divided  by  il-'f^,  and  the  result  -will  be  the 

"/^  amount  of  displacement  of  such  vessel  in  tons  of  Bur- 

'^  gos  measure,  because  each  ton  is  reclioned  equal  to 

Portugal. — For  singU-decked  resielt,  the  length  is 
measured  from  the  cabin  bulkheads  to  the  forecastle 
bulkheads.  The  depth  is  measured  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  keelson  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
beams.  The  extreme  breadth  of  the  deck  is  consider- 
ed the  breadth.  The  continued  product  of  these  three 
dimensions  will  give  the  contents  in  cubic  feet,  which, 
divided  by  57-1^^,  gives  the  tonnage. 

Vtuelt  of  two  Decks. — In  these  vessels  two  distinct 
/  operations  are  made;  one  fcr  the  hold,  the  other  for 

the  middle  deck.  For  the  hold :  The  length  is  meas- 
ured from  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit  to  the  stem-po^t. 
The  l)readth  is  the  extreme  breadth  of  the  upper  deck, 
deducting  two  feet.  The  depth  is  from  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  keelson  to  the  under  surface  of  the  beams. 
For  the  middle  deck :  The  length  is  considered  as  half 
of  that  for  the  hold,  the  other  half  being  allowed  for 
cabins,  etc. — the  breadth  as  before ;  and  for  tlio  depth, 
the  height  of  the  middle  deck  to  the  under  surface  of 
the  beams. 

The  foregoing  is  the  method  adopted  at  Lisbon ;  but 
at  Oporto  the  length  of  tlio  vessel  is  taken  from  the 
second  timber  at  the  bows  to  the  ttem-post ;  the 
breadth  at  the  widest  part  from  tJio  insido  of  each  bul- 
wark on  the  upper  deck  ;  and  the  depth  from  the  up- 
per surface  of  tlie  keelson,  to  the  lower  surface  of  the 
beams  of  the  upper  deck  at  the  main  hatchway. 

If  tlie  keelson  be  more  than  ordinarily  thick,  allow- 
ance is  made  accordingly ;  and  where  tliero  are  two 
decks,  the  thickness  of  the  lower  deck  is  also  deducted 
from  the  depth.  The  length  is  then  multiplied  by  the 
breadth,  and  the  product  liy  the  depth. ,  Tlio  produrt 
^  is  then  divided  liy  !)0,  the  number  of  Portuguese  culiU' 
feet  contained  in  a  ton,  and  the  result  is  tlio  tonnage 
of  the  vessel. 

Napi.ks. — for  retseh  vith  two  ileckt,  the  length  is 
measured  from  one  end  of  the  vessel  to  the  other,  over 
all.  The  length  is  also  measured  from  the  after  part 
•f  the  stem  to  the  rudder  hatch,  under  the  poop.  The 
mean  between  these  two  lengths  Is  multiplied  by  the 
extreme  iTcadth  of  the  vessel.  The  depth  is  then  taken 
from  the  bottom  of  the  well  to  the  lower  surface  of  the 
up|>er  or  jxHip  deck ;  aud  the  above  product  being  multi- 
plied by  this  depth,  and  divided  by  94,  gives  tlio  ton- 
nage. 

for  tingle-decked  vetaeU,  the  tonnage  is  found  by 
multiply  ing  the  extreme  length  by  the  extreme  breadth, 
and  the  product  by  the  extreme  depth,  and  divided  by 
94,  ns  alwve. 

Nktiikhi,asi)s. — The  length  is  measured  on  deck 
from  the  stem  to  the  ctern-jmst.  For  the  bre.idth,  tlio 
hold  is  divided  into  four  portions,  mid  two  measure- 
ments taken  at  each  of  the  three  divisions :  Ist,  across 
the  keelson,  on  a  level  with  the  up|)cr  surfuoo,  from 
ceiling  to  ceiling ;  2d,  the  greatest  brcuiltli  of  the  hold 
at  each  division.  The  nieuu  of  these  six  measure- 
ments is  considered  the  breadth.  The  depths  arc  taken 
at  cnch  of  the  foregoing  points  of  division,  from  the 
upper  surface  of  the  keelson  to  the  lower  surface  of 
the  upper  deck  between  the  lieams,  and  the  mean  of 
these  three  is  resumed.  Tliu  length,  breadth,  and 
depth  are  then  multipllc<l  together,  ami  two-thirds  of 
the  product  is  considered  as  the  tonnage.  Allowaneo 
for  provisions  and  water,  cabin  and  ship's  stores,  vary- 
ing fnini  -fipif  to  -fil^j,  is  deducted  from  the  depth  be- 
fore it  is  multiplied  by  the  length  and  breadth. 

Nob  WAY.  —  From  the  after  part  of  the  stem,  the 
length  of  the  ship  is  taken  to  the  inner  part  of  the 
stern-post.  Dividing  the  length  of  the  vessel  into 
four  equal  parts,  the  breath  is  measured  at' each  of 
tbeie  dlviiions.    The  depth  of  tbe  vesael,  from  tlie 


imder  luiface  of  the  upper  deck  to  the  keelson,  is  taken 

at  the  above  three  points  of  division.     Then  multiply 

the  length  by  the  mean  of  the  three  breadths,  and  this 

product  l>y  the  mean  of  the  three  depths.     The  result 

of  the  foregoing  is  divided  by  242J,  if  there  be  no  frac- 

I  tional  parts  of  feet ;  but  if  there  are,  the  calculation  is 

made  in  inches,  and  the  divisor  becomes  822,776,  the 

result  thus  obtained  being  the  burden  of  the  vessel 

I  in  wood  lasts,  of  4000  Neva  lbs.  each.     To  reduce  these 

I  into  commerce  lasts,  one  of  which  is  equal  to  6200  Neva 

lbs.,  it  is  multiplied  by  10,  and  divided  by  18. 

KoBsiA.— Length  of  the  keel  in  feet,  multiplied  by 
the  extreme  breadth  over  the  sheathing,  and  thu  prod- 
uct multiplied  again  by  half  the  breadth,  and  divided 
by  94,  gives  the  number  of  Knglish  tons. 

United  States.— If  the  vessel  be  double-decked, 
the  length  is  taken  from  the  fore  part  of  the  main  stem 
to  the  after  part  of  the  stem-post,  above  the  upper 
deck ;  the  breadth,  at  tbe  broadest  part  above  the  main 
wales,  half  of  which  breadth  is  accounted  the  depth. 
From  the  length  three-fftht  of  the  breadth  is  deducted ; 
the  remainder  is  multiplied  by  the  breadth,  and  the 
product  by  the  depth.  The  last  product  is  divided  by 
95,  and  the  quotient  is  deemed  the  true  tonnage  of  such 
ship  or  vessel.     See  page  1855. 

If  the  ship  or  vessel  be  single-decked,  the  length  and 
breadth  are  taken  as  above  for  a  double-decked  vessel, 
and  three-fifths  of  the  breadth  are  deducted  from  the 
length.  The  depth  of  the  hold  is  taken  fhim  the  under 
side  of  the  deck-plank  to  the  ceiling  in  the  hold. 
These  are  multiplied  and  divided  as  aforesaid,  and  the 
quotient  is  the  tonnage.  At  some  places  a  system  of 
measuring,  called-  carpenter's  tonnage,  appears  to  be 
adopted.     The  rule  is  as  follows : 

For  vessels  with  one  deck,  multiply  the  length  by  the 
breadth  of  the  main  beam,  and  the  product  by  the 
depth.  Divide  this  second  product  bj-  95,  For  double- 
decked  vessels,  take  half  the  breadth  of  the  main  beam 
for  the  depth,  and  work  as  for  a  single-decked  vessel. 

At  New  Orleans,  the  mo<le  at  present  in  use  is  to 
take  the  length  from  the  stem  to  the  after  part  of  the 
stem-post,  on  the  deck.  Take  the  greatest  breadth 
over  the  main  hatch,  and  the  depth  from  the  ceiling 
of  the  hold  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  deck  at  the  main 
hatch.  From'  the  length  deduct  three-fifths  of  the 
breadth,  multiply  the  remainder  bj'  the  actual  breadth 
nnd  depth,  and  divide  by  95  for  a  vessel  with  a  single 
j  deck  ;  but  if  the  vessel  have  n  double  deck,  half  tha 
I  breadth  of  the  beam  is  considered  ns  equivalent  to  the 
depth,  and  is  multiplied  accordingly. 

Tonnage  J)ulie». — liy  an  act  of  Congress,  May  31, 
1830,  it  is  ordered  that  no  tonnage  duties  shall  be  paid 
by  ships  or  ves.<el8  of  the  United  States,  of  which  the 
officers  and  two-thirds  of  the  crew  shall  be  citizens  of 
the  United  States;  and  all  acts  imposing  tonnage  du- 
ties on  such  ship  are  repealed. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  the  27th  )Iay, 
1848,  extending  privileges  to  American  vessels,  bound 
from  one  port  to  another  in  the  United  States,  tourh- 
ing  lit  u  foreign  port  for  certain  purposes,  a  bond  for 
the  return  of  the  seamen  and  crew  list,  prescribed  b}' 
law  in  cases  of  vessels  bound  on  a  foreign  voyage,  is 
required,  and  the  seamen  must  ail  lie  accounted  for. 

American  vessels,  owned  by  Americans  or  others, 
without  register,  are  subject  to  a  tonnage  duty  of  one 
dollar  per  ton,  and  10  per  cent,  additional  duty  on  the 
cargo,  us  foreign  vessels. 

American-built  vessels,  owned  wholly  or  in  port  by 
foreigners,  are  subject  to  tonnage  duty  of  thirty  cents 
|ier  ton,  and  10  |>er  cent,  additional  dutj'  on  cargo,  un- 
less exempt  by  treaty. 

American  vessels,  on  arrival  from  foreign  ports,  are 
subject  to  a  tonnage  duty  of  fifty  cents  per  ton,  unless 
the  officers  and  two-thirds  of  tbe  crew  for  the  whole 
voyage  are  American  citizens. 

Tbe  discharge  of  seamen  fh>m  an  American  vessel, 
although  by  mutual  oooHnt,  certified  by  a  oonanl,  will 


United  States 
France, 

Turkey,  from 
8  princ.  ports 


2.12l,S2n 
l.flSi,325 

*'3,833 
472,173 
«l],S(i8 
<l-'ll,37s 
1>"73,S!I8 
7H5S« 
"■*3,13(J 
2-fl,200 
3I!2,24S 
478,014 
47n,!P04 
2.'3,4.'i4 
27(1,020 
2ir>,8n 
40-1,010 
34l,,5il4 
312,0  13 
310,701 
3"3,S1S 
3S3,111 
373,0il;i 
300,200 
310,009 


]  7,887:447 
8,242,7.13 
».2:i2,sso 

I  S,278,105 
2.641,785 

l,23!i,4i2 
1.'I20,871 
647,102 
!l  14,194 
632,114 
p7,l'49 
841,680 
846,184 

428,750 


isi«; 

I.''>2.9:387 
7,47!i,fl4s 

'.070,821 
4.008,781 
2,307,490 

3.410,4(10 
1.418,715 


453,649 
637,954 


'riissia 

Ilambiirg, 

BreraDn  . . 

Chill 

Sweden. . . 
Norway  . , 
Denmark  (pr.) 
Spain 
Krazll 
Two  Sicilies 

•  Vear  ending  June  30, 1S57     +  losT    .  .  — , 

Th-estatisticsarehelaJI  '^'^ 

In"!  «':!."'?  »".-  the  ciVra  '.:^" 'i-htained, 


274,220 
333,834  , 
2''3,310   t 
631,024 
341,'S18 
324,823 


JSl.Slfl 
T74,C10 
4SS,0fl0 
60!),922 
020,000 

200,880 
428,384 
431,479 
339,309 


834,213 


Ton  I  '"'i*''""wl  eilificB.     ~  ^'""  """^  '"  H'c  same 

;V'th  greater  cxpeditioni"  ,"Se"'e  ''»<>  macl.inen: 

rncted  by  M.  luC^i^  the  t  """'"  '"f"'  •>»»  ''een  re" 
g"'ts  Occidental  rub,  i.  '""*'  '^"""'  ^r  mineral 
"Seeing  in  their  cn-'^te-"""  ^Wl.ire ;  ^h^'^"" 
Properties,  ,. ere  ar^„^,±^'  ,  ,'""  """  ">"»'  of  S 
.Kofflo  <ie  Lisle.  Ti"^^^  ""f"  o""  «P*oie3  b v  J 
'^land  in  the  Ked  Sea,  wS  '"P"^-  ."^^ived  fro,^  fn" 

nt  fro''  ^^  """"■="  "^3  S  l\Z"""\  """'  ">  «nS 
ent  from  oujs.  One  vnrilf  i^  ""nernl  very  differ 
'""ted  chosolite       Coior'^^f  <'"topa^  thev^de„„m: 

'ow  into  flesh  red  and  Vri„         '  '™m  deep  wine  lel 
fron,  3.4G4  to  3-C41  It^"™""  .'"''•     ^P^^'fio  fc^avit 

ofa  beautifnfye  ,„J^„  P;"'""S  "f  the  topaz,  a  gem 
wme  yellow,  o'f  diff^en  ^  '  re" ^i' •  T'''^'"""--  ^^ 


to  the  tonnage  ome'?Vt   -^^^  "">  ^""'^"o!  in  re^arf  b""  "'"■"  '''""'ond),   m.t  1^'  "■•"""'  ^^'''"  ''^  th;' 
States.       ^"      ""•  ^ "'""'  S'»tes, ...  ^r^/efeuX^   7*?',"'^"' ""  '''ara   'e^  S^'  ^'T^^"^''"" 

=ng-xiri£=ai^:r='&ir^^ 

nominees,  who  lr„^    ',?''.  r'"^  ""owed  to  a„Dot;    1    ,  ""''  ''''''  ^''ould  bo  formed  In  d  r""'  ''^P"',  and 
wl'ole  annuitvbeTn      •..""'"'  ^^vivorshin  bv  thl    .    "   "  '"^'"  "'"'  one  well  c nt      r, ^     ','."  ""™"'- 

mm^mmsmm- 

mfmmmmms 

g  j^  "i  i<ej.    ihe  I  dom  occurs  naturally  b  of  ««„/"'     '"=''  ^'^"^  *«'- 

^' "  "^^  "ne  <:r"nson  color,  tinged 


TOR 


1858 


TRA 


with  a  rich  broirn ;  it  ia  extremely  rare,  and  generally 
taken  to  be  a  variety  of  ruby,  for  which  I  have  seen  it 
ofTered  for  sale.  Its  price,  from  its  scarcity,  is  quite 
capricious ;  it  has  an  exquisite  pleasing  color,  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  glare  of  the  artificial  pink  topaz. 

Blue  Topaz  ia  also  a  beautiful  gem,  of  a  tine  celes- 
tial blue  color.  It  has  occurred  of  considerable  mag- 
nitude; the  finest  specimen  known  I  brought  in  the 
rough  from  Brazil ;  when  cut  and  polished,  it  weighed 
about  1^  oz.  Smaller  specimens  are  not  uncommon, 
and  when  light-colored  are  often  taken  for  aqua-mari- 
naa,  from  which  they  may  always  be  distinguished  by 
their  greater  weight  and  hardness,  etc. 

White  Topaz  is  familiarly  called  Mincu  Nova.  It 
is  a  beautiful  pellucid  gem,  and  is  used  for  bracelets, 
necklaces,  etc.  It  possesses  greater  brilliancy  than 
crystal ;  and,  from  its  hardness,  has  been  used  to 
cover  paste,  etc.,  and  to  form  doublets." — Mawe  on 
Diamonds. 

Top-maat,  the  second  division  of  a  mast,  or  that 
part  next  alx>ve  the  lower  most.  Top-gallant  mast, 
the  mast  next  above  the  top-mast,  and  is  generally 
the  uppermost  most.  Top-sails,  large  sails  extending 
across  the  top-maat.  Top-gallant  sails  are  extended 
above  the  top-sail  yards,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
top-sails  are  extended  alx>ve  the  lower  yards. 

Tornado  (Spanish),  a  violent  hurricane  or  gust  of 
wind,  which,  arising  suddenly  from  the  shore,  veers 
round  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  and  indeed  has  been 
described  as  blowing  from  all  points  at  once.  Tor- 
nadoes are  usually  accompanied  with  thunder-storms, 
and  are  generally  of  short  duration.  They  are  frequent 
in  the  Chinese  seas  and  tlie  West  Indies,  , 

Toronto,  city,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Canada, 
is  situated  on  Toronto  Boy,  in  the  township  and  coun- 
ty of  York,  lat,  43°  32'  N,,  long,  79°  20'  W,  It  is  45 
miles  northeast  from  Hamilton,  1C5  miles  west  from 
Kingston,  363  miles  fh)ni  Montreal,  643  miles  from 
Quel)ec,  and  1363  from  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 

The  bay  is  a  lieautiful  sheet  of  water,  separated  from 
the  main  body  of  Lake  Ontario,  except  at  its  entrance, 
by  a  long  narrow  strip  of  sandy  beach,  the  southwest 
termination  of  which  is  known  as  "  Gibraltar  i'oint." 
The  city  was  founded  in  1704  liy  Governor  Simcoe, 
and  is  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  being 
above  three  miles  long  by  one  and  a  half  wide ;  tlio 
streets,  wliicli  are  straight  and  wide,  intersecting  at 
right  angles.  The  esplanade  fronting  the  bay  extends 
for  a  distance  of  two  miles.  In  1817  the  population 
amounted  to  1200 ;  in  1830  to  28G0 ;  in  1842  to  15,336 ; 
in  1850  to  25,166;  in  1852  to  30,763;  and  in  1864  to 
over  40,000.  The  cit}'  is  liglited  with  gas,  and  is  well 
supplied  with  water,  by  companies  incorjrarated  for 
those  purpos'.  s, — See  Thadk.  From  Toronto  the  cap- 
ital was  removed  to  Quebec,  and  in  1857-'58  was  finally 
establislied  at  Ottawa,  formerly  Bytown, 

Tortoiae-Bhell  (Fr.  Ecaille  de  Tortue ;  It.  Seaglia 
lie  Tartaniga ;  Ger.  Sckilpad ;  Malay,  Sinik  kumktim), 
the  lirown  and  yellow  scales  of  the  Testudo  imbricaia, 
or  tortoise,  a  native  of  the  tropical  seas.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  manufacture  of  combs,  snuff- 
boxes, etc.,  and  in  inlaying  and  other  ornamental  work. 
The  l)est  tortoise-shell  is  that  of  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago ;  and  the  finest  of  this  quarter  is  obtained  on  the 
shores  of  the  Spice  Islands  and  New  Guinea.  When 
the  finest  West  Indian  tortoise-shell  is  worth,  in  tlie 
Ix)nduii  market,  4G«.,  the  finest  East  Indian  is  worth 
60*.  per  it).  I'nder  the  latter  name,  however,  a  great 
deal  of  inferior  shell  is  imported,  brought  from  various 
parts  of  tho  East  Indies.  The  goodness  of  tortoise- 
shell  depends  mainly  on  tho  tliickness  and  size  of  the 
scales,  and  in  a  smaller  degree  on  the  cleaniess  and 
brillianc)'  of  the  colors.  Before  the  opening  of  the 
British  intercourse  with  India,  the  greater  part  of  the 
tortoise-shell  which  eventually  found  its  way  to  Eu- 
rope was  first  carried  to  Canton,  which  then  formed 
the  principal  mart  for  the  commodity.     It  is  still  an 


article  of  trade  fW)m  that  city ;  but  the  imports  and 
exports  are  inconsiderable,  Singapore  being  now  the 
chief  mart  for  this  article.  Its  price  at  the  latter  va- 
ries from  760  and  900  to  from  1000  to  1600  dollars  per 
picul,  according  to  quality. — Ckawfubd's  Indian  Arch- 
ipelago ;  Singapore  Chronicle ;  Canton  Register. 

Toulon  (TVfu  Martius),  a  commercial  and  important 
militar)'  and  naval  port  of  F  ranee,  department  of  Var, 
on  a  fine  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  40  miles  southwest 
from  Draguignan,  Lat,  (of  observatory)  43°  7'  6"  N., 
long.  5°  66'  E,  Population,  40,000.  Mean  tempera- 
ture of  year,  62°-2  ;  winter,  48°-5  ;  summer,  75°-2 
Fahrenheit.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  defended  by  a 
double  line  of  bastioned  fortifications,  and  strengthen- 
ed l)y  forts  on  the  adjacent  heights.  The  French  con- 
sider it  impregiiable.  It  has  a  tribunal  and  chaml)er 
of  commerce,  tribunal  of  marine,  school  of  navigation, 
commercial  college,  and  public  library.  The  streets 
nro  watered  by  numerous  tountains.  Around  the  har- 
bor are  immense  magazines  and  arsenals,  ship-building 
docks,  rope  and  sail-works,  and  the  bagne  or  convict 
prison,  usually  occupied  by  4000  to  6000  culprits. 
Toulon  was  originally  a  Roman  colony  ;  it  was  taken 
by  the  constable  of  Bourbon  in  1624,  and  l)y  Charles 
V.  in  1636.  It  was  given  up  to  the  English  in  August, 
1793 ;  in  December  of  the  same  year  it  was  taken  liy 
the  French  republicans,  after  a  memorable  siege,  dur- 
ing which  Napoleon  commenced  his  military-  career, 
Toulon-sur-Arroux  is  a  commune  and  village,  depart- 
ment of  Saone-et- Loire,  eighteen  miles  north-northwest 
from  CharoUes,     Population  about  1700, 

Toys  (Ger.  Spieketig,  Speilsachen ;  Du.  Speelgoed; 
Vt.  Jotiets,  Bimbelots ;  It.  Traslulli;  Sp,  -Dijes,  Jtiguetes 
de  ninnos ;  Russ,  Ignishki)  include  ever}-  trifling  ar- 
ticle made  expressly  for  the  amusement  of  children. 
How  frivolous  soever  these  articles  may  appear  in  the 
estimation  of  superficial  observers,  their  manufacture 
employs  thousands  of  hands,  and  gives  bread  to  many 
families. 

Children's  toys  are  brought  in  immense  numbers 
from  the  hilly  regions  of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switz- 
erland, The  forests  supply  abundance  of  timber  at 
very  low  cost ;  and  the  peasant  mountaineers,  simple 
and  frugal,  employ  their  leisure  hours  and  the  time  of 
their  children  in  fabricating  these  articles.  Dealers 
are  sure  to  be  found  who  will  drive  a  trade  in  these 
trifles  in  some  conntr}'  or  other.  The  A  rt  Union  Jour- 
nal, a  few  years  ago,  gave  some  curious  information 
concerning  the  better  kind  of  carved  German  toys : 
"  The  best  German  toys  come  from  the  town  of  Soiine- 
berg,  on  the  southeastern  frontier  of  the  forest  of  Thu- 
ringia.  It  has  a  population  of  4000  inhabitants,  of  wliich 
the  greater  part  are  emploj'ed  in  the  trade.  The  prin- 
cipal toy-merchants,  numbering  about  thirty,  provide 
themselves  with  goods  from  many  hundred  different 
makers  of  common  articles,  resident  in  the  town  and 
its  vicinity  ;  these,  again,  are  furnished  by  the  neigli- 
boring  villagers  with  the  requisite  roughly-prepnrcd 
articles  in  wood,  whicli  are  fitted  up,  carved,  and  paint- 
ed l)y  the  makers  in  the  town.  Every  j-ear  about  26,(100 
cwts.  of  these  goods  are  exported  to  almost  everj-  |)nit 
of  the  world,  but  the  manufacturers  are  confined  to  the 
use  of  wood  or  pasteboard,  or  these  two  materials  com- 
bined. The  factory  from  which  the  best  toys  are  de- 
rived is  that  of  Adolph  Fleischmann,  who  employs 
none  but  first-rate  workmen ;  and  it  is  interesting  to 
notice  the  many  admirable  pro<luctions  these  unedu- 
cated artists  produce — mo<lels  and  groupings  of  figures 
that  would  cast  no  discredit  on  the  otelier  of  a.  Builey 
or  a  Wcstmacott." 

Trade,  Board  of.     See  Board  of  Tradk,  p.  312. 

Trade-ixrinda  (so  called  from  their  favoring  com- 
merce), easterly  winds  which  constantly  prevail,  with 
slight  variations,  within  the  tropics.  It  is  a  common 
notion  that  the  northeast  trade-wind  blows  exactly 
from  the  northeast  point  neorly  to  the  equator,  when 
it  gradually  becomes  more  and  more  easterly,  till  at 


TRA 


1859 


TRE 


irts  and 
now  the 
ittcr  VII- 
llars  per 
an  Arch' 

mportant 
itofVar, 
oiithwest 
7'5"N., 
tempera- 
ler,  75°-2 
ded  by  » 
rengthen- 
rench  con- 
\  chainlier 
lavlgation, 
:he  streets 
id  the  har- 
ip-building 
or  convict 
10  culprits. 
;  was  taken 
by  Charles 
1  in  August, 
as  taken  by 
e  siege,  dur- 
itary  career, 
lage,  depart- 
th-northwest 

u.  Speelgoe^ ; 
)yV»,  J«gM'" 
y  trifling  ar- 
t  of  children, 
appear  in  the 
•  manufacture 
jread  to  many 


length  it  Mows  due  east ;  and  so  with  the  southeast  I  Issue  of  Treaauiy  Notes  to  the  extent  of  t4,D00,0OO, 
trade.    Fhis  notion  is,  however,  erroneous.  The  trade-    repayable  one  year  after  date,  and  receivable  in  the 


jRADK,p.al2. 

Ifavoring  coni- 
\  prevail,  with 
i  is  a  common 
Idows  exactly 
l-qtiator,  when 
Lterly,  till  at 


winds  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  extend  to 
about  28°  of  latitude  each  side  of  the  equator,  so  that 
a  ship,  after  passing  30°,  may  expect  to  enter  them 
every  day.  But,  on  first  entering  them,  they  will  be 
found  to  blow  from  the  east,  or  even  a  little  southerly, 
and,  as  you  advance,  to  draw  round  gradually  to  north- 
east, and  even  north,  at  the  southern  limit  of  the  north- 
east trade,  where  it  is  commonly  represented  as  being 
due  east.  This  limit  varies  with  the  position  of  the 
sun,  reaching,  when  the  sun  has  a  southern  declination, 
to  within  three  or  four  degrees  north  latitude  j  and,  as 
the  sun  acquires  a  more  northern  declination,  receding 
ten  or  twelve  degrees  from  the  equator.  At  this  point 
the  mariner  enters  the  region  of  catms  and  mriableii,  as 
they^re  called,  where  the  wind  has  more  or  less  south' 
erly  direction,  and  sometimes  blows  freshly  from  the 
south-southwest.  This  region  varies  from  150  to  550 
miles,  and  is  subject  to  heavy  rains.  On  passing  this 
range  the  southeast  trade  begins,  and  is  subject  to  the 
same  phenomena  as  the  northeast,     ~ 


mean  time  for  government  dues,  and  liearing  6  V-ft  per 
cent,  interest.  These  were  authorized  by  act  of  Con- 
gress, June  30, 1812.  Treasury  Notes  were  also  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  A.  J.  Dallas,  Secretary  of  the  Treasurj-,  In 
Januarj',  1815.  He  reported  that  the  Troasurj'  would 
require  for  the  fiscal  year  Ji'IO,iK)«,124  In  addition  to 
the  ordinary  revenue  (see  Fundimj  Ni/ilim,  If.  S,,  p. 
607),  of  which  115,000,000  was  to  lie  In  Treasur}-  Notes 
at  5  2-5  per  cent,  per  annum  (or  about  IJ  cent  jwr  day 
for  every  hundred  dollars). 

Up  to  December  4,  1819,  the  amount  Issued  wa« 
186,680,794,  viz. : 

By  act  of  20th  .Itmc,  1813 !}B,0flO,n0O 

"        25111  Kebruarv,  1813 B,Ofl<),00() 

"       4tli  March,  1814 10,000,000 

"        2l'>lh  Uccciiihcr,  1814 8,318,400 

24th  Fclniorjr,  1816 8,30i',304 


Total !)<  80,080,704 

Of  this  amount  all  were  redeemed  prior  to  Ootolier 
_  1, 1824,  except  $19,766.     Further  Issues  of  Treasury 

^  ,^  _,.  ,  ,,,.  ,,.  '"'"V""  *""  I  Notes  was  made  under  acts  of  mh  October,  1837;  21«t 
south  of  the  northeast  and  the  southeast  trades  wester-  May,  1838 ;  and  2d  March,  1839.  From  the  year  1812 
ly  winds  will  be  found  generally  to  prevaU,  though  less!  to  Slst  December,  1843,  the  total  IsM.e  of  Treasury 
regular  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  hemi- 1  Notes  was  $84,611,833,  and  amount  received  from 
sphere ;  and  It  has  lieen  remarked  that  the  average  of 
the  passages  made  by  the  Liverpool  packets  from  New 
York  out,  for  a  period  of  six  j-ears,  was  twenty-three 
days,  and  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  that  Is,  from 
east  to  west,  thirty-eight  days.— E.  A.    See  Winds. 

Trade-winds  is  a  name  given  to  certain  remarkable 
a'-rial  currents,  on  account  of  their  sinal  aid  to  naviga- 
tion. In  those  parts  of  the  Atlantic  nnd  P.icinc  oceans 
which  are  remote  from  the  influence  of  the  land,  be- 
tween the  limits  of  about  28°  or  30°  north  andsouth  lati- 
tude, there  is  a  constant  easterly  wind.  On  the  north 
side  of  the  equator  it  Idows  from  between  the  north  and 
east,  and  on  the  south  side  from  the  south  and  east,  ac- 
cording to  the  distance  from  the  equator ;  these  winds 
are  called  the  northeast  and  southeast  trode- winds,  and 
are  the  cold  currents  of  air  flowing  fr  .n  the  poles  to 
the  equator,  altered  In  direction  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  upon  its  axis.  The  direction  and  extent  of  the 
trade-winds  vary  with  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in 
different  parts  of  the  world  their  course  is  entirely  al- 
tered, the  most  remarkoble  modification  shown  be- 
ing the  monsoons. — Sec  Monsoons  ;  also,  articles  At- 
lantic Ocean,  Giilk  Stream,  Currents,  Winds. 

Tragacanth,  a  species  of  gum,  the  produce  of  tho 
Aslrafialtts  tragncaniha,  a  thorny  shrub  growing  in 
Pp'oia,  Crete,  and  the  islands  of  tho  Levant.  It  ex- 
udes about  the  end  of  <Tune  from  the  stem  and  larger 
l)ranches,  and  soon  dries  in  the  sun.  It  is  inodorous, 
impressing  a  very  slightly  bitter  taste  as  it  softens  in 
the  mouth.  It  has  a  whitish  color ;  is  semi-transpar- 
ent, and  in  verj'  thin,  wrinkled,  vermiform  pieces ;  it 
Is  brittle,  but  not  easily  pulverized,  except  in  frosty 
weather,  or  in  a  warmed  mortar. 


loans  $98,360,112,  viz. : 

Venn. 

I.um. 

rreuiury  Niitei. 

■IMl. 

1312 

1813 

$10,032,400 

20,039,035 

16,080,540 

14,8.57,423 

1,867,636 

8,040^000 
6,000,000 

B,bi5',760 
11,383,406 
11,883,863 

$2,83r>,6lH) 

0,094,8011 

8,297,806 

20,400,897 

8,130,840 

734,612 

8,705 

2,291 

824 

324 

2,0^2,989 

13,710,820 

3,8ri7,2ifl 

6,680,647 

7,903,500 

8,425,329 

1,618,160 

$12,887,900 

20,184,436 

!n,U77,»n 

85,204,820 

0,404,480 

734,542 

8,705 

3,201 

8,040,834 

5,000,824 

2,992,089 

12,710,820 

8,867,370 

6,689,547 

18,050,317 

14,8fi8,786 

18,401,608 

1814 

1816 

ISIO 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1837 

1838 

1830 

1840 

1341 

1843 

1843 

1         Total 

$98,!i«0,n2 

!F84,011,833 

[T1n2,1i7  1,040 

Of  the  issues  between  1837  and  1843,  there  were 
outstanding  September  30,  1847,  #239,789.  Further 
emissions  were  authorized  bj'  act  of  Congress,  un- 
der date  of  23d  July,  1846,  and  28th  January,  1817; 
$10,000,000  by  the  act  of  1846,  not  cxc  .  .ling  6  per 
cent.  Interest ;  and  $23,000,000  by  the  act  of  1847 ;  and 
a  further  issue  by  act  of  December,  ]8,W. 

In  March,  1858,  the  bills  for  tho  new  issue  of  Treas- 
ury  Notes  were  opened  at  the  Treasury  Department. 
Tho  result  was,  that  $2,600,000  were  taken  at  rates 
varj-Ing  at  3J,  3},  4,  4J,  4J,  and  4}.  The  remainder 
of  the  ,5,000,000  was  taken  in  5  per  cents.  Some  of 
the  bids  were  for  permanent  investment,  while  others 
were  for  speculation. 

There  Is  a  species  of  Treasury  Notes  In  common  use 
It  should  be  chosen  I  In  Kngland,  known  as  F.xchequer  liilla.  These  wore 
in  long  twisted  pieces,  white,  very  clear,  and  free  from  first  created  in  tho  year  1096,  two  years  after  tho  In- 
all  other  colors ;  the  brown,  and  particularly  tho  blnck  [  corporation  of  the  Bank  of  Kngland.  They  have  been 
pieces,  should  be  wholly  rejected. — Tmojison's  C/iem- 1  issued  annually  ever  since.  These  l)llis  bear  an  iiitcr- 
istri/;  Thomson's  Dispensatory;  Mii-ucrn's  Oriental'  est  of  1(/.,  li,2  or  2^  pence  per  day  on  each  XlOO, 
Commerce.  \  equivalent  to  1 J  0  3  per  cent,  per  annum.     Of  these 

Treasury  Notes.  A  species  of  Treasurv  Notes,  i  bilU  there  were  issued  in  1852,  i:i7,742,800,  at  \\d. ; 
termed  Continental  currency,  was  Issued  by  order  of  1853,  ^17,742,500,  at  Irf.  (^  2(?. ;  1854,  4:16,029,000,  at 
tho  Continental  Congress.  This  depreciated  rapidly,  j  2^  ;  1855,  £17,183,000.  These  are  a  favorite  liivest- 
and  no  provision  was  made  afterward  for  Its  re<Iemp-  ment  for  short  periods.— .Sfi"  E\iiie<jiikr. 
tion  l)v  Congress.  The  amount  issued  was  estimated  In  1768  tho  F.mpress  Catharine  tho  Second,  of  Rus- 
at  $400,000,000 ;  Mr.  Jefferson  calculated  that  the  real  sia,  established  the  Banque  d'Assignat,  to  issue  govorn- 
vaUie  given  for  these  notes  was  only  $72,000,000.  The  I  ment  notes  payalde  to  bearer.  The  amount  at  first  is- 
assignats  of  the  French  Republic  during  tlio  revolu-  sued  was  40,000,000  of  roubles.  In  1786  the  amouftt 
tion  were  authorized  by  the  National  Assembly,  In  :  was  extended  to  100,000,000,  and  they  soon  after  rap- 
.\pril,  1790.     At  one  period  thev  amounted  to  the  enor- ;  idly  depreciated. 

mous  sum  of  eight  miilards  of  francs  (8,000,000,000),  1  Treaties,  Commercial.  By  a  commercial  treaty 
or  equivalent  to  neariv  .£,S50,000,000  sterilng.— Am-  :  is  meant  a  treaty  between  two  independent  nations, 
son's  History  of  Kurope.  In  Mav,  1812,  Mr.  AUwrt  for  facilitating,  and  most  commonly  also  regulating, 
Gallatin,  Secretary  of  tho  Treasurv,  recommended  the  tho  commerce  carried  on  between  them.    During  tuo 


TBE 


1860 


TRE 


Sliddla  Ages,  and  down,  indeed,  to  a  comparatively  re- 
cent period,  foreigners  resident  in  a  oountr}',  wlietlier 
fur  commercial  <ir  otiier  purposes,  were  for  the  most 
part  suliject  to  very  Imrsli  treatment.  At  one  time  it 
was  usual  in  Kngland  to  malce  aliens  liable  for  tlie 
debts  nnd  crimes  uf  eucli  other;  and  the  practice,  for- 
merly so  common,  of  laying  heavier  duties  on  the 
goods  imported  and  exported  by  aliens  than  by  Brit- 
ish Bubjecta,  is  not  even  yet,  we  grieve  to  say,  alto- 
gether abandoned.  In  France  and  some  other  coun- 
tries, during  the  14th  and  16th  centuries,  a  stranger 
was  incapalilo  of  bequeathing  property  by  will ;  and  the 
whole  of  his  personal  as  well  as  real  cstute,  fell,  at  bis 
death,  to  the  king  or  the  lord  of  the  barony.  This  bar- 
barous law  was  known  by  the  name  ot Droit  d'Aubainr, 
and  was  not  completely  ubolished  in  France  till  a  very 
late  period. — Koiikiitson's  C/iarlea  V.,  vol.  i.  Previ- 
ously to  last  century,  the  laws  with  respect  to  ship- 
wreck, though  inlinitcly  more  humane  than  they  had 
been  at  a  more  remote  period,  were  calculated  rather 
to  promote  the  interest  of  the  sovereign  of  the  country-, 
or  the  feudal  lords  on  whose  territories  shipwrecked 
vessels  might  be  thrown,  than  those  of  the  unfortunate 
owners  or  survivors.  The  most  serious  obstacles  were 
then  also  opposed  by  the  prevalent  insecurit}',  nnd  tho 
arbitrary  nature  of  the  tolls  which  the  lords  were  in 
the  habit  of  exacting,  for  tho  transit  of  commodities 
through  the  territories  of  one  state  to  those  of  another. 
The  practice  of  confiscating  shipwrecked  property  con- 
tinued in  France  till  1681,  when  it  was  abolished  by  an 
edict  of  Ix>uis  XIV.  It  was  at  one  time  common  in 
Germany,  to  use  the  words  of  M.  Bouchaud,  "  pour  Ics 
pridicateurs  do  prier  Dieu  en  chaire,  qu'il  se/aue  bicn 
del  iiatijrar/es  nir  Uura  cutet .'" — Theorie  del  Traith  de 
Commerce,  p.  lift.  And  the  fact  that  the  celebrated 
jurii-t  Thomusius  wrote  a  dissertation  in  defense  of  such 
prayers,  aflTords,  if  possible,  a  still  more  striking  proof 
uf  the  spirit  of  tho  period. 

Under  such  circumstances,  it  became  of  much  im- 
portance for  commercial  states  to  endeavor  to  obtain, 
i)y  means  of  treaties,  that  protection  and  security  for 
the  persons  and  properties  of  their  subjects,  when 
abroad,  against  unjust  treatment  and  vexatious  ex- 
actions, which  they  could  not  have  obtained  from  tho 
laws  of  the  countries  in  which  they  might  happen  to 
reside.  Thus  it  was  stipulated  l)y  Edward  II.,  in  li)25, 
that  the  merchants  and  mariners  of  Venice  should  have 
power  to  come  to  England  for  ten  years,  with  liberty  to 
sell  their  merchandise  and  to  return  home  in  safety, 
"  vilhout  having  either  their  persont  or  goods  stopped  on 
account  of  other  people's  crimes  or  debts." — Anderson, 
anno  1325.  The  commercial  treaties  negotiated  during 
the  loth,  IGth,  and  17th  centuries,  are  full  of  similar 
conditions ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  by  provid- 
ing for  the  security  of  merchants  and  seamen  when 
abroad,  and  suspending,  with  respect  to  them,  the  bar- 
barous laws  and  practices  then  in  lorce,  they  contril>- 
uted  materially  to  accelerate  tho  progress  of  commerce 
and  civilization.  <'ommerciuI  treaties  wore  also  ne- 
gotiated at  a  very  early  period  for  the  r  gulation  of 
neutral  commerce  during  war,  and  for  downing  tho  ar- 
ticles that  should  lie  deemed  contrabard,  or  which  it 
should  not  be  lawful  for  neutral  shirs  to  convey  or 
c.irr,-  to  either  be11i^■erent.  These  urr,  obviously  points 
that  can  only  lie  dec'ded  b}'  express'  stipulations. 

Instead,  however,  of  contining  I'ommerciol  treaties 
t<i  their  legitimato  and  (-roper  pi.rposc.s — the  security 
(if  merchants  and  navigatb.-s,  ur.d  tho  facility  of  com- 
mercial transactions — they  v  -y  soon  began  to  bo  cm- 
ployed  as  engines  for  promoting  the  commerce  of  one 
country  at  the  expense  of  another.  For  mure  than 
two  centuries,  those  engaged  in  framing  commercial 
treaties  have  principally  applied  themselves  to  secure, 
sither  by  force  or  address,  soma  exclusive  advantage 
in  favor  of  the  ships  and  products  of  their  particular 
countries.  Hence  these  compacts  are  full  of  regula- 
tions as  to  the  duties  to  he  charged  on  certain  articles, 


and  the  privileges  to  be  enjoyed  by  certain  ships,  ac- 
cording as  they  were  either  produced  by  or  belonged 
to  particular  countries.  It  was  in  the  adjustment  of 
these  duties  and  regulations  that  the  skill  of  the  nego- 
tiator was  chiefly  put  to  the  test.  It  was  expected 
that  he  should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  state 
of  every  brunch  of  industry,  both  in  his  own  countr}' 
and  in  the  country  with  which  he  was  negotiating; 
and  he  was  to  endeavor  eo  to  adjust  tho  tariflT  duties, 
that  those  branches  in  which  his  own  country  was  de- 
flcient  might  bo  beneflted,  and  those  in  which  the  oth- 
er was  superior  might  be  depressed.  The  idea  of  con- 
ducting a  negotiation  of  this  sort  on  a  fair  principle  of 
reciprocity  is  of  very  late  origin ;  success  in  circum- 
venting, in  overreaching,  or  in  extorting,  from  fear  or 
ignorance,  some  oppressive,  but  at  the  same  time  worth- 
less privilege,  was  long  esteemed  the  only  proof  of  su- 
perior talent  in  negotiators. 

In  on  able  tract,  attributed  to  Mr.  Eden,  afterward 
Ixird  Auckland,  published  in  1787  {llistorictd  and  Po- 
litical Remarks  on  the  Tariff  of  the  French  Treaty),  there 
is  the  following  outline  of  the  qiuilitications  necessar}' 
to  the  negotiator  of  a  commercial  treaty :  "  Besides  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  trade  and  reciprocal  interests 
of  the  contracting  parties,  he  ought  to  be  precisely  ac- 
quainted with  their  several  kinds  of  industr}-  and  skill ; 
to  discover  their  wants,  Co  calculate  their  resources, 
and  to  weigh  with  nicety  the  state  of  their  finances, 
and  the  proportionate  interest  of  their  money;  nay, 
further,  ho  should  be  able  to  ascertain  the  comparative 
population  and  strength  of  each  country',  together  with 
the  price  and  quality  both  of  first  materials,  and  also 
of  the  labor  bestowed  upon  them :  for  this  purpose  he 
should  inquire  into  the  operations  of  every  class  of 
merchants  and  manufacturers  concerned  in  the  trade ; 
should  consult  their  expectations  on  each  of  its  several 
branches ;  and  collect  their  hc|)es  and  fears  on  the  ef- 
fect of  such  a  commercial  revolution,  on  the  competi- 
tion of  rival  nations.  A  good  treat}'  of  commerce,  in- 
dependent of  the  art  of  negotiation,  is  pronounced,  by 
one  who  well  knew  the  extent  and  difliculty  of  the  sub- 
ject, to  be  a  '  matter-piece  o/skilt,' " 

It  is  visionary  to  imagine  that  any  nation  will  ever 
continue  to  grunt  to  another  any  exclusive  advantage 
in  her  markets,  unless  she  obtain  what  she  reckons 
an  equivalent  advantage  in  the  markets  of  the  other. 
And  if  a  commercial  treat}'  stipulating  for  an  exclus- 
ive privilege  be  really  and  buniifde  ob^civcd  by  the 
countr}'  granting  the  privilege,  we  may  be  sure  that 
the  concessions  made  by  the  country  in  whose  favor  it 
is  granted  are  sufficient  fully  to  countervail  it.  Those 
who  grasp  at  exclusive  privileges  in  matters  of  this 
sort,  or  who  attempt  to  extort  valuable  concessions 
from  the  weakness  or  ignorance  of  their  neighbors,  arc 
uniformly  defeated  in  their  object.  All  really  bene- 
ficial commercial  transactions  are  bottomed  on  a  fair 
principle  of  reciprocity ;  and  that  nation  will  always 
flourish  most,  and  have  the  foundations  of  her  pros- 
perity best  secured,  who  is  a  universal  merchant,  and 
deals  with  all  tho  world  un  the  same  fair  and  liberal 
principles. 

As  early  as  1783,  Mr.  Pitt,  then  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  proposed  a  bill  in  the  British  Parliament, 
based  upon  tho  liberal  principle  of  "admitting  to  all 
tho  ports  of  the  British  dominion  American  vessels 
loaded  with  goods  the  growth  or  produce  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  same  terms  as  British  vessels  or  goods ;'' 
but  tho  proposition  at  once  startled  the  fears  of  the 
British  merchants,  who,  with  the  aid  of  Lord  North, 
Mr.  Fox,  and  Lord  Sheffield,  succeeded  in  transfer- 
ring the  whole  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the  king 
and  his  council.  The  consequence  was,  that  an  order 
was  immediately  issued,  not  only  excluding  American 
vessels  from  all  participation  in  tho  colonial  trade, 
but  prohibiting  the  exportation  from  the  United 
States  of  provisions  and  fish,  even  in  British  bot- 
toms. 


THE 

Alx-lalchapollo..;; "^0  I  Grand  All,  '""'"""  to  them :  "    '"""'"owing  foring 

Alt  ItoU.tadt .  ™  "' 18«        S'.'r.'^'/tl'o....      8»     g'-'-lnU'VAIlfne  '*''' lOW 

ife^l^L'!-'-^''!;.::::.:::;.- JJi'S  i X:\S7/'''° ••••■'•■  S  i»p<-«™oT: ::;;;; >i!? 


Abo,  ponco  of  . , 

Alx-ln-Chiipollo  .... 

AU-l«.Cli«polle,  pcaco'oV 

AKormiinii,  peace  of 
Alt  KaUstadt  ...... 

America,  peace  with 
Amienn,  peace  of 

Armed  Neutrality 

Arras,  treaty  of. .       

Arras,  trcatyof.. 

AiiKuburg,  league  of.'.'.'"" 
Itaden,  peace  of . 

Uarrier  treaty.... 

Uanle,  peace  of     

nassein,  Incllo...' 

nayonne,  treaty  of.' 

Uojlflum,  treaty  of  Lii'idoi.'" 

ilelBrado,  peace  of. 

llerlln,  peace  of  , . .     

Horlin  de«ree ■ 

llerlln  convention 

Ureda,  peoco  of. . .  

Ilretlgny,  peace  of.' 

Bucharest,  treaty  of 

J^ambray,  league  of 

Cambray,  peace  of.     

J;?!?"'":™'"!",  treat';  o'f::;;  • 

Larlowltz,  peace  of. . . 

Carlsbad,  congress  of 

tateau-Cmibrosi^  peace  of" 
Chaumont,  treaty  of  " 

Uiunar,  India....     

(-'Intra,  convention  of 

( •„?m,"'"'i"'  ""'"■"ntl'o'n  of  ' ' ' 

I'Oalitlon,  second,  nmln.:t  i.     ' 
Ooalitlon.  tblr,!  nlV'.'f,''™'":' 


Orand  AllUnco . 

P,'™™'!'-'"'!yofr';'„'d'o'i 

"ague,  treaty  of  the 

«Kuo,  treaty  of  the 

"lie,  treaty  of,        ' ' 

Hamburg,  peaee'^j; 

Hanover  treaty. .     

"piiSS""^"-:: 

Hubertabc.g,p,.'--„v::;; 
Kiel,  tredty  of. 

uyb.ch.congrc.;',v;::: 

J-olpsIc,  aillan'co  if 

l-eobcn,  peace  of.   

I  W«bon,  -oace  of,   

frT'r^uSSU''rJ«'« 

''Ulieck,  peace  of  (""•key).  ]S40 

i;''"";"''''.  peace  if.' V''^» 

Madrid,  trcatyof.  

I  '|?'>""'n  treaty. 

Jlllan  decree  .        

I  Munster,  pence  o'f' 

2»ntes,  edict  of 

Jl'""'''"'-g.  trcatyof 

««,  trcatyof...'^;' 

2™Wion,  poaceof.:: 

J^yon,  treaty  of. .     

ontt^"?*^  »'•"-::: 

'  "rls,  peace  of  i 


IdSD 

1829 

1050 

1009 

1010 

1702 

172« 

17S4 

1816 

170.1 

1548 

1SI4 

1721 

1B70 

1031 

17117 

lfl«8 

18il) 


.  1801 
•  1B20 

nm 

1807 
104S 

10:8 
ir.6j 

1519 
I07S 
1510 
1532 
1000 
1703 
1790 


ooami"o7t^rr«s;v^™"«'  ^i^  i  i^!::^?'"^^^^''^'-'''-  nil 

coS"t^'  •"«'"'"' 1-™-:::  \tu  %,'r/<'/r.'-'::::::::;:'''  1^1? 

l'«Maro,vItz,  peace  of  5 ™9 

™wu,  trcatyof.      "'8 

e tersburg,  p'eace  of' .' ]^i 

'eersburg,  trcatyof "«2 

'■iteraburL'.  tr«..i-» 1772 


<;OnHans,  treaty  of. 

tonstautiuoplo,  treaty  uf 

Oopciiliagen,  peace  of      "  ,-.- 

<  rcssy '_  ' loi; 

IJrosden  ....'.'..', 164 

J^amily  compoct '^^ 

fontaiupbleau,  pea'c'c'ef }l'' 

tonta  ncbleau  treaty  „f Jf  i 

Jontainobleau,  concordat' k't 11^' 

Friedwald,  treity  of  ^^''' 

f  ucssen,  peace  of      "^1 

Obenl,  pacification  of U'P 

Si?ruT°''™''^''^'"'»i.::isi4 

isoi  , 

1ms  treaties,  conventions  or       •'""'',''  ^'"""'  «""«« 

nations,  all  of  which  are  ,  fn  t  "I'l'^'-^'s'"  fo'eign 
of  tho  stipulations  and  'n°  '  "  ""  '"'""''"™ 
spectivoly,  or  by  virtue  of  '''"'''''''  ""^f-^'"  "- 
other  local  regufatioi,  "L"  „^";i«''  7.V»i  orders,  or 
"'en  s,  01,  tho  one  side  »,.  „f  "  /  ^"""'P'  eovern- 
President  of  the  Uiiit,.,?^  Proclamations  hv  the 

ficulty  of  referriii"  "i„',  t;-"  f  "'""•  '^'-  "if- 
certainingat  a  gla",ce  the  nrl  •  ",  ""■  "•'-"'"•^''  "■'  of  a.s- 
"'orcial  regulatLr  t  ,:";: r°'" '"'"'°  -'"■ 
Ar.e„,l "•'""'"-'""  -"trr,  is  Ob. 


"-■-burg,  treaty  of 
■  acraburg,  treaty  of.     ' " 
Potersburg,  treaty  of 

!  {.'"'•It;,  convention  of 

I  "oland,  partition  of.     

,V»Bniatic  .Sanction.    

jragranlio.s.-,nclion. 

\  ;/"S"o,  peace  of  .. .   

I  rml.iirg,  peace  of. . . .' '  •  .•-™ 

''"I'lie  good,  league  fo'rih;;;;:;J^2« 


l/rcneoii,  treaty  of  the 
gnjdniple  Alliance 
Had.  adt,  peace  of  "" 

iiatisbon,  peace  of... 

«  ftSr^""-":::::;: 

gfr'flf- peace' of"; 

«orod   peace  of... 

SmalcolJ,  |c„g„„of 

Stockholm.        

2'^„='',''«|ra,pewi'o'f 

ffj'om,  treaty  of 

8tockl,olm,tre»tjof; 

i,''»J»*»r,  truce  of  

Teschcn,  peace  of.     

«'i«ln,  peace  of.... 

™«lt,  peace  of 

T°'?.""».  treaty  of  ;:: 

S^/S"/;:::''"""" 

Troycs,  treaty  of       

,.,"j;'"'"""I">y,  peace  if.'.' 

Uni,  peace  of . .. 

Urecht,  union  of. . ; 

•itrecbt,  peace  of       

Valentay,  treaty  of .' 

vprsailles,  peace  of. .      

>onna,  treaty  of .. .  

Vie!!!;"' ',''''„'">"'' ""i^eV 

V  cnna,  peace  of. 


.   , u,.»  country,  is  o 

Argentine  Confederation  ,  ,    ,„ 

Austria >'"'.»■  10aud2T,  IS.W 

tWgium '. August       27' lsi(i' 

™livia '//[ November  I;i,' 1S4S' 

™rueo -November  fto' 1S30 

Chili ' 'lino  0.1)  isrifl 

Cbina ..,.'. "ny  10,'  18:i'> 

Costa  liica.     Jnly  81844 

Denmark July  10,'  issi' 

Kcuador..       April  --''"'■ 

Finance. 'uno 

Great  Uritaiii '''""^ 

fJuatemala  .    •'"'y 

Hanover Slarcii 

Holland ''"ne 

Hanso Towns.'.'.' August       zo,  mwi. 

Japan...  December  20  1827* 

Mechlenbiirg  's'c'li'w'e'ri,', ;\''"''^''         ^l,  1S64,' 

'    '  o,  J8JI,  and  February     2, 1345, 


■■-""",  iieaceof 

Vienna,  treaty  of,  Marcl'i'i','! ' ' ' 
^l™na,treatyof  M"yOl''■■• 
vossem,  peace  of . .  

Warsanr,  treaty  of     

«arsaiv,  alliance  of 

^Jc,,t,ninstei-,  peace  of';; 

,V.™'P"n'l»,  peace  of. . 

>Vilna,  treaty  of  

n  orms,  edict  of. . ; .■•"" 

wurtzbiirg,  treaty  of ;;:;;;;;;;;;  ji'i'i 

f-""ecS'f^i:^t::i^  iT'  ""^  '■-»- 

l-oen  prepared;  andit  wH  e  "  i  ,""'"  "'''""''«  l'"" 
oreign  trade  of , I  Unite  I  S  'a  ^  r,'"''°''«"  '»  ">e 
the  footing  on  whicl.  „u  tm , ',:  "  ''■' '"  """"•'" 
placed  in  foreign  conr^risvrul""!  .'''"*■"'"''"  ""^ 
«-ul  the  treatment  to  w  del  t  n  '  "■™""'  "^i". 

tion  of  such  foreign  eo'?        ™"">"^rce  and  naviga- 

'^t";o  ports  of",r.rnrd"&^ 

i"  «lpb'betl:^;rrr'b:t!r'''''■VT'''-»-  -™"eed 
States  comnier  ia  t'reatt  a,!',  ""'  T^  "'"  ^"'«od 
<la.os  of  such  treatie"     "eem-   ;:  '"  """■  ^""*  ^^ 


Ufa 

1718 
ITU 
1T1»T 
ItfJM 
1800 
1658 
180« 
IMT 
1570 
11179 


1795 

...  17fU 
...  1013 
...  1529 
...  18.<I4 
...  1570 
...  1«30 
••.  1719 

..  171M 
■■■  1818 
...  1004 

..  1779 
..  1595 
..  18(IT 
..  1798 
..  ISl.'i 
..  1717 
...1008 
..  18^0 
..  142II 
.  1S28 
.  1020 
.  1579 
.  1713 
.  1813 
.  1822 
.  1TS3 
.  17iB 
.  1731 
.  1737 
.  1809 
.  1815 
.  1810 

1SI5 

170.! 

i:(-8 

1083 
1074 
1710 
1048 
15«1 
1.5-i 


20,  lSi.'C. 

1.1,  18.1!). 
24.  1S22. 

•%  1815. 

3,  1849. 
1",  1S4II. 
20,  IS,').>. 


^lorocco  . 
Muscat 

-NiMv  (rraiiada ;;;;; 

Oldenburg... 
I'cni 

I'ortugai .;;; 

Prussia  

Kussla  ...     

•^'nn  Salvador; 

Sandwich  Island.s'  ' 

i^nrdlnia.... 

.Siaii 

Sn-cden  and  xinv'ay, 
■Sivllzorhnd 

Tripoli....       

Tuui  


Turkey  . ; i'ebruar 

Tiio  ,<icilics  .'.'.' .Miiy  

Venezuela Ycceraber  1,1845 

January  20,1836; 


.   .Scplenilici.  la  1(538 

•  ■•'^'■Ptemlier  21,  1833; 

•  I'l'ccmber  12,  1840 

•  MiircU         10,  184J 

■  i"X  20,  IS61; 

■  April  23,  1841 

May  1,  1828. 

October        0,  183.2. 

■'"'y    ,        2,  1863. 

neccmb.^r  20,  1849 
November  20,  1838' 
April  14,  18:«; 

J"'y  4,  1827. 

Jovcmbcr    9,  1855 

•  ii"P«  4, 1805. 

•  iebruary    24,  1324 

■  ,*tay  7,  1830. 


TRE 


1862 


TRE 


In  addition  to  ths  preceding,  commercial  treatiei 
were  concluded  by  the  U.  States  with  Japan  in  1856 
and  1868;  with  Chins  In  18fi8|  with  Persia  in  1860; 
with  Slum  In  18&(! ;  and  with  Paraguay  in  1858-'69. 

On  the  24th  of  May,  1828,  an  act  was  passed  by  the 
Congress  of  the  United  Statei,  respecting  commerce 
and  navigation  with  foreign  nations,  in  the  following- 
words:  "Be  U  tnacttd,  etc.,  That,  upon  satlsractory 
evidence  being  given  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  by  the  government  of  any  foreign  nation,  that 
no  discriminating  duties  of  tonnage  or  Impost  are  im- 
posed or  levied  In  the  porta  of  the  said  nation  upon 
vessels  wholly  belonging  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  upon  the  produce,  manufactures,  or  merclian- 
dise  imported  In  the  same  from  the  United  States,  or 
from  any  foreign  country,  the  President  is  hereby  au- 
thorized to  Issue  his  proclamation,  declaring  that  the 
foreign  discriminating  duties  of  tonnage  and  Impost 
within  the  United  States  are,  and  shall  be,  suspended 
and  discontinued,  so  far  as  respects  the  vessels  of  the 
said  foreicm  nation,  and  the  produce,  manufactures,  or 
merchandise  Imported  Into  the  United  States  in  the 
same,  from  the  said  foreign  nation,  or  from  any  other 
foreign  country ;  the  said  suspension  to  take  eflect  from 
the  time  of  such  notiflcatlon  being  given  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  and  to  continue  so  long  as 
the  reciprocal  exemption  of  vessels  belonging  to  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  and  their  cargoes,  as  afore- 
said, shall  1)0  continued,  and  no  longer." 

By  virtue  of  proclamations  issued  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  In  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  the  law  above  recited,  vessels  belonging  to  Tus- 
cany, Bra^til,  and  Chili,  are  admitted  Into  the  ports  of 
the  United  States  on  the  same  terms  as  American  ves- 
sels, with  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  their  own,  or 
any  other  country;  similar  reciprocity  being  granted 
in  those  countries,  respectively,  to  vessels  and  cargoes 
of  the  United  States.  The  dates  of  the  proclamations 
of  the  President  respecting  these  countries  are  as  fol- 
lows: Tuscany,  September  1, 1836 ;  Brazil,  November 
4,  1847;  Chili,  November  1,  16JJ0. 

By  tho  President's  proclamation  of  June  7,  1827, 
vessels  of  the  Pontifical  states  are  admitted  into  the 
ports  of  the  United  States  on  the  same  tcmis  as  Ameri- 
can vessels  only  when  laden  with  the  produce  and 
manufactures  of  said  Pontifical  slates;  and  by  similar 
proclamation  of  April  20,  1847,  French  vessels  In  bal- 
last, or  laden  with  tho  produce  of  St.  Pierre  and  Mique- 
lon,  and  coming  directly  from  those  islands,  are  treated 
In  ports  of  the  United  States  as  national  vessels.  Liko 
favors  and  privileges  are,  of  course,  conceded  to  vessels 
of  the  United  States  In  the  Pontifical  states,  and  at 
the  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  respectively. 

Summary  pfTrentiea  with  the  I'nited  Statei. — Argen- 
tine  Con/tderatiim.~Treat\ei  of  July  10  and  27,  1853, 
both  proclaimed  April  9,  1856.  The  former  relates  to 
the  navigation  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay,  and 
the  latter  establishes  and  regulates  friendship,  com- 
merce, and  navigation  between  tho  Argentine  Con- 
federation and  the  United  States.  Duration  of  both 
undefined.  United  States  vessels  enter  all  tho  places 
and  ports  on  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay  which  be- 
long to  the  Argentine  Confederacy,  and  which  are  open 
to  commerce,  on  the  pay  nicnt  of  the  same  custom-house 
duties,  harbor,  light,  police,  and  pilotage  dues  that  are 
paid  by  the  vcss  is  of  tho  most  favored  nation.  Tliis 
restriction  to  equality  with  tho  vessels  of  tho  most 
favored  nation  Is  qualified  and  enlarged  by  tlio  treaty 
of  July  27,  1853,  which  equalizes  the  vessels  of  the 
United  States  in  nil  the  places,  ports,  rivers,  and  terri- 
tories of  the  confederation,  with  the  national  flag,  as  to 
tonnage,  liglit  or  harbor  dues,  pilotage,  salvage  in  case 
of  shipwreck,  or  any  other  local  charges  whatever. 
Merchandise  introduced  into  any  part  of  tho  territories, 
ports,  or  places  of  tho  Argentine  Confederation,  in  ves- 
sels of  the  United  States,  is  treated,  in  respect  of  duties 
and  all  other  charges,  as  if  imported  in  national  ves- 


sels ;  and  If  suoh  nMrcbandisa  b«  of  the  growth,  prod- 
uce, or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,  it  is  subject 
to  no  other  or  higher  duties  than  similar  merchandise, 
the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  any  other 
country.  In  regard  to  exports,  United  States  vessels 
enjoy  equality,  as  to  drawbacks  and  bounties,  with  tho 
nat'onol  flag.  The  province  of  Buenos  Ayrss  having 
seceded  from  the  other  provinces  of  the  Confederation, 
decrees  have  been  Issued  by  the  federals  power  which 
aflect,  in  some  respects,  the  commercial  regulations  of 
the  republic.  The  latest  decree  of  this  kind  Is  one 
imposing  heavy  dllforentlal  duties  on  foreign  merchan- 
dise introduced  Into  tho  other,  or  fluvial  provinces, 
through  the  port  of  Buenos  Ayrcs.  This  decree,  should 
It  b«  carried  Into  eflbct,  will  divert  from  this  port,  here- 
tofore the  general  depAt  for  tho  trade  of  the  other  prov- 
inces, such  foreign  merchandise  as  is  destined  for  the 
different  points  on  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay  rivers. 

Autlria, — Treaty  of  August  27,  1829,  to  continue  In 
force  ten  years  from  February  10, 1831,  with  the  twelve 
months'  notice  stipulation.  United  States  vessels  are 
treated  an  national  vessels,  coming  from  the  same 
places.  In  Austrian  ports,  whether  in  the  direct  or  In- 
direct trade.  Tho  same  duties  are  charged  on  Importa- 
tions into  Austrian  ports,  whether  of  merchcndise  the 
growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  United  States, 
or  of  any  other  country ;  and  these  duties  are  no  higher 
than  on  similar  merchaudiso  from  any  other  country. 
Any  favors  hereafter  granted  by  either  party  to  the 
commerce  or  navigation  of  another  country  to  become 
common  to  the  other  party  on  like  conditions.  The 
treaty  establishes  perfect  equality  between  the  flags  of 
tho  two  parties  In  tho  ports  of  each, 

Belgium. — Trcoty  of  November  10,  1846,  to  continue 
in  force  ten  years  from  the  30th  March,  1846 ;  each  party 
reserving  the  right  to  renounce  the  treaty  after  the  ex- 
piration of  that  period,  on  giving  to  tho  other  twelve 
months'  notice  of  Its  Intention  to  do  to.  United  States 
vessels  pay  the  same  duties  of  tonnage,  pilotage,  anchor- 
age, buoys,  light-houses,  clearance,  brokerage,  and  all 
other  charges,  ns  Belgian  vessels.  This  equality  ap- 
plies, no  matter  whence  the  vessel  comes.  The  Belgian 
government  guarantees  restitution  for  any  duties  levied 
by  Holland  on  United  Slates  vessels  navigating  the 
Scheldt.  Steam-vessels  of  tho  United  States  engaged 
in  regular  navigation  between  the  United  States  and 
Belgium  are  exempt  from  the  payment  of  duties  of 
tonnage,  anchorage,  buoys,  and  light-bouses.  Vessels 
of  both  parties  ci\joy,  as  to  coasting  trade,  equal  privi- 
lege with  tho  mosf.  favored  nation.  The  treaty  re- 
stricts the  equality  of  flags,  as  to  duties,  to  the  direct 
trade,  but  contains  a  clause  providing  that,  "  It  Is  well 
understood,  1st.  That  the  goods  shall  have  been  really 
put  on  bonrd  in  tho  ports  from  wliich  they  are  declared 
to  have  come ;  2d.  That  putting  in  at  an  intermediate 
port  by  uncontrollable  circumstances,  duly  proved, 
does  not  occasion  tho  forfeiture  of  the  advantage  al- 
lowed to  direct  importation."  In  the  indirect  trade, 
the  flag  of  the  United  States  Is  placed  on  an  equality 
with  the  flag  of  the  most  favored  nation — except  the 
nation  of  production — as  to  Import  duties.  Tho  im- 
portations of  salt,  and  of  tho  produce  of  tho  national 
fisheries,  are  excepted  from  this  equality.  A  law  of 
the  Belgian  government,  of  June  8, 1863,  provides  that 
"  the  government  is  empowered  to  allow  vessels  pro- 
ceeding from  trans-Atlantic  countries,  or  ttom  a  port 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  to  touch  at  an  inter- 
mediate port,  whether  for  tho  purpose  of  receiving  or- 
ders or  carrying  on  commercial  transactions,  by  dis- 
charging or  receiving  cargoes."  This  law,  while  it  ra- 
mains  in  force,  suspends  the  practical  operation  of  that 
article  of  the  treaty  restricting  the  equality  of  flags  to 
the  direct  trade ;  under  its  operation,  tho  flag  of  tho 
United  States  Is  equalized  with  the  Belgian  flag, 
whether  the  vessel  proceeds  from  a  port  in  the  United 
States  or  not. — See  Report  from  Department  of  Slate, 
£x.  Doc.  No.  2,  84th  Congress,  1st  session,  p.  ISu. 


TRE 


1863 


TRE 


b,  prod- 
subject 
DandiM, 
y  other 
I  vcsaels 
with  the 
I  having 
leratlon, 
er  which 
Btlons  of 
id  is  one 
mcrchan- 
irovlnces, 
>e,  should 
)ort,here- 
ther  prov- 
id  for  the 
lay  rivers, 
ontlnue  in 
the  twelve 
trcBsels  are 
the  same 
Irect  or  in- 
in  importa- 
mndise  the 
ited  States, 
e  no  higher 
er  country, 
arty  to  the 
^  to  become 
tlons.    The 
the  flags  of 

,  to  continue 
1;  each  party 
after  the  ex- 
other  twelve 
Inltcd  States 
lagc,  anchor, 
rage,  and  all 
equality  ap- 
The  Belgian 
duties  levied 
jigating  the 
ites  engaged 
I  States  and 
of  duties  of 
Vessels 
equal  privl- 
e  treaty  rc- 
[0  the  direct 
,  "  it  is  well 
„  been  realljr 
are  declared 
ntermcdiato 
uly  proved, 
vantage  al- 
llrect  trade, 
an  equality 
ixccpt  the 
,.     The  im- 
^ho  national 
A  law  of 
[rovldes  that 
]vcB«cl8  pro- 
from  a  port 
at  an  intcr- 
rccoiving  or- 
jons,  by  dis- 
wbilo  it  rs- 
Ltion  of  that 
of  flags  to 
flag  of  the 
slgian  flag, 
the  United 
i(  of  S<ate, 
p.  1S5. 


«  /'''''""'•-^"""y.  Of  K""!"*!  convention  of  peace,  I  cers  may  be  sent  on  board  as  a  guard,  at  the  expense 
i«?,I!  ItrdHimir""'  "l  ""^'K?"""'  »f  NovemlKT  IM,  |  of  the  cus.oin-liouso ;  ai„l  within  forty-clKht  hours  after 
18B«.  HatlHcatloiis  exchanRod  May  28, 1838,  and  proc- ,  a  ve.«.l  .liall  Imvu  cast  aiuhor,  tlie  proper  officer  niuti 
lamalion  of  tlio  President  of  the  UiiltiMl  State.  iMued .      .   '.       •     l" 


October  3  of  the  sanio  year.  To  continue  in  force 
twelve  years  from  date  of  ratlllcation,  and  further,  for 
one  year  after  cither  parly  gives  llio  other  notice  of  its 
Intention  to  renounce  it.     'Iho  vessels  of  tlio  United 


deposit  the  ship's  papers  in  tlio  hands  of  the  American 
consul,  who  will  forthwith  coiiinuiiileate  to  the  super- 
intendent of  customs  tlio  imino  anil  tonnage  of  such 
vessel,  tlio  names  of  lior  men,  ami  tlie  elmracter  of  the 
cargo ;  after  wlikli  tlio  suporiiitciidont  will  give  a  per- 


StatcsvlsitiiRlhe  coasts  or  co.intrie,  of  Uoiivlu"  (the  mit  for  discharging ;  or,  if  tho  master  so  desire,  h,. 
port  of  Coblju)  are  placed,  as  to  all  charges  and  privi-  i  may,  within  twonty-four  hours  depart,  without  briak- 
logcs,  on  a  footing  of  c.iualiiy  wid,  the  vessels  of  the    ing  bulk,  for  another  port;  In  which  case  ho  will  not 


niofll  favored  nation.  .Should  United  States  vessels, 
either  of  war  (public  or  private),  of  trade,  or  einployl 
ed  In  the  lisheries,  whether  through  stress  of  weather, 
want  of  water  or  provisions,  pursuit  of  pirates  or  oiie'- 
mios,  bo  forced  Into  the  rivers,  bays,  or  porta  of  Itollvia, 
tlioy  shall  bo  received  and  treated  with  huinaiiitv,  and 
all  favor  and  protection  shall  be  given  to  tlieni  suitable 
to  their  respective  exigencies.  Jlercliaiidisc  and  aril- 
clos  of  commerce  of  every  kind  and  description,  the  iiii- 
portallon  of  which  is  not  prohibited  to  all  other  nations, 
iiiiportod  in  vessels  of  tho  United  States  into  iloilvla' 


ore  suliject  to  the  same  duties  as  siiniiar  merchandise  |  to  bo  paid  on  such  part  only,  lioods  a 
and  articles  imported  in  the  vessels  of  tho  most  favor-  transhipped  from  on  board  one  vessel  to 
ed  nation.      Iho  merchants  and  citizens  of  the  United  \  less  there  bo  some  particular  oicaslon  1 


lie  liable  to  pay  tonnage  or  other  diilics  until  ho  pro- 
ceeds to  discharge  at  such  other  port.  Tonnage  duties 
to  be,  on  vessels  of  over  luO  tuns,  fj  mace  (74  cents)  per 
ton;  150  tons  or  under,  1  niaco  (II J  cents),  paid  only 
at  one  port.  Unlleil  States  vessels  may  Import  and 
c.tport  all  kinds  of  niercliandise  not  prohibited  In  tho 
tarilV.  No  now  restrictions  or  monopolies  to  bo  created. 
Unties  to  bo  paid  in  Syecc  silver  or  in  foreign  money. 
Oischarging  corgo  without  a  permit  subjects  the  cap- 
tain to  a  fine  of  t.'jOO,  and  tho  conliscullon  of  the  goods 
so  landed ;  but  if  part  of  cargo  only  is  landed,  duties 

are  not  to  be 
another,  un- 

,,  1,        ■  .  .       .  • —  —  """"'  particular  occasion  for  doinc  so, 

States  are  allowed  to  llmna^o  for  theniselvea  all  their  j  which  occasion  shall  be  ccrtilled  by  tho  consul  to  the 
commercial  Iransactiona,  whether  of  consignment  and  ,  superintendent  of  customs.  Imported  goods,  havini; 
sale  of  their  gooda,  or  with  respect  to  tho  purchase  of  ,  paid  duties  on  their  resale  or  transit  in  any  iiart  of  the 
their  return  cargoes,  ot  loading  and  sending  olf  their  •  empire,  aro  subject  to  tlie  imposition  of  no  other  duty 
vessels.  This  convention  is  styled  the  "  I'eru-Uolivian,"  |  than  they  were  accustomed  to  pav  at  the  date  of  the 
and  was  ncgoliate<i  when  these  two  rcpublicj  were  con- ,  treaty.  It  is  also  provided  that  vessels  forced  in  any 
federated  under  one  governincnt.  I'cru  having  at  a  :  way  to  take  refuge  in  any  port  other  than  one  of  tho 
BUbseqitcnt  period  rc-eslabilalicd  its  independcnco  of  free  ports,  shall  receive  friendly  treatment,  and  the 
llolivia,  disavowed  tlio  convenlion,  and  a  new  treaty  means  of  safety  and  security.  The  linpottalion  of 
was  entered  into  with  that  repi»biic.  It  is  still  in  '  opium  is  prohibited,  but  a  ia'rgo  contraband  trade  is 
force,  however,  as  regards  Bolivia.  Dy  a  decree  of  1  regularly  carried  on  in  this  article  through  the  conniv- 
January  27,  1853,  tho  Uoliviau  government  declared  I  aiico  of  Cliineso  officials.  Saltpetre  and  spelter  arc 
free  to  the  cominerco  and  mercantile  navigation  of  all  1  government  monopolies,  and  cun  bo  sold  only  to  the 
tlie  nations  of  tlie  globo  tho  waters  of  the  navigable  '  government  merchants.  Rico  and  other  grains  are  free 
rivers,  which,  flowing  through  the  territories  of  Bolivia,    of  duty.     Should  a  difference  arise  as  to  tho  value  of 


empty  into  the  Amazon  and  Paraguay ;  and,  by  vircuo 
of  a  treaty  of  iJuno  14,  ln5(i,  between  Brazil  and  I'ara- 
giiay,  tho  navigation  of  the  Up|icr  Paraguay  river  was 
made  free,  and  Bulivin  ojiciicd  to  an  Atlantic  market. 
Jioi-neo, — Convention  of  June  23,  1850,  ratllied  July 
11,  1853 — establishes  pcrjictuul  peace,  friendship,  and 
good  understanding  between  the  citizens  and  subjects 
of  the  two  contracting  parties.  No  higher  duty  than 
one  dollar  per  registered  ton  to  be  levied  on  American 


clocks,  watches,  jewelry,  or  of  other  meTchandiso  on 
which  there  is  an  ad  valurem  duty,  anil  the  parties  can 
not  agree,  the  question  may  witliin  twenty-four  hours, 
but  not  afterward,  bo  referred  to  tho  consul  of  the 
party  interested,  to  be  adjusted  by  him  and  the  super- 
intendent of  customs. 

C'/iili. — Convention  of  amity,  peace,  commerce,  and 
navigation  of  Slay  Iti,  1832 ;  ratifications  exchanged, 
and  proclamation  made  .\,iti\  '20,  1834.     To  continu'' 


vessels  entering  tho  ports  of  the  Sultan  of  Borneo ;  and   in  force  twelve  years  from  date  of  exchange  of  ratifiia- 


this  flxcd  duty  to  bo  in  lieu  of  all  other  charges  or 
duties  whatever.  Importations  in  United  States  ves- 
sels sulijuct  only  to  the  same  duties  as  apply  to  similar 
importations  in  vcssc's  uf  tho  most  favored  nation ;  and 
no  prohibitions  exist,  either  as  respects  ini|)ortatioiia 
or  uxportations ;  the  latter  of  which,  if  the  produce  or 
manufacture  uf  tho  sultan's  dominions,  to  be  always 
cxoni|it  from  duty.  Citizens  of  the  United  States  are 
permitted  to  enter,  |)ass  through,  and  trade  in,  all 


tions,  with  the  usual  stipulation  providing  for  tweh 
months'  notice  after  that  period.  Vessels  uf  the  Unitod 
States  arc  placed  on  an  equal  fooling  in  respect  of 
charges  and  privileges  with  those  of  tho  most  favored 
nation.  Vessels  driven  into  Chilian  ports  by  stress  of 
weather  or  other  compulsory  causes,  to  lie  protected, 
and  favored  in  every  respect,  until  they  are  placed  in 
a  condition  to  continue  their  voyage.  Imports,  the 
produce  or  manufacture  of  any  country,  not  prohibited 


parts  of  the  sultan's  dominions,  and  to  enjoy  all  the  :  to  be  imported,  subject  to  tlie  same  duties,  charges,  and 


privileges  granted  to  the  citizens  of  tho  most  favored 
nations.  Tliey  may  also  purchase,  rent,  occupy,  and 
acquire,  in  n  legal  manner,  all  kinds  of  property  with- 
in the  dumiiiions  of  the  sultan. 

China. — Treaty  concluded  July  3,  1844,  and  procla- 
mation made  by  the  President  of  tlie  United  States 
April  18,  184ti.  Nut  limited  as  to  duration ;  the  Unit- 
ed States,  however,  reserving  tho  right,  after  the  ex- 
piration of  twelve  years  from  the  date  of  the  conven- 
tion, to  open  iiegoliations,  should  it  bo  deemed  neces- 
sary to  do  so,  for  such  niodilications  in  the  articles  re- 
lating to  conimorce  and  navigation  as  may  lie  requisite. 
Vessels  of  the  United  States  may  enter  any  of  tho  live 
ports  open  to  foreign  commerce,  viz. :  Canton,  Auioy, 
Foo-cliow-Fu,  Niiigpo,  and  Slianghai,   but  no  other 


fees  under  tlio  United  States  flag  as  when  imported  in 
vessels  of  the  moat  favored  nation.  Citizens  and  mer- 
chants of  the  United  States  arc  allowed  to  manage  for 
themselves  their  own  commercial  operations.  All  fa- 
vors granted  to  tlie  citizens  or  flag  of  any  other  nation 
to  become  common,  on  similar  conditions,  to  the  citi- 
zens and  vessels  of  the  United  States ;  exceptions  be- 
ing reserved  by  Chili  in  favor  of  Bolivia,  the  Central 
American  states,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  the  Argentine 
Confederatiun.  Tho  government  of  tho  republic  of 
Chili  notilied  that  of  tiie  United  States,  under  date  of 
October  31, 1850,  that  no  other  or  higher  dntics  of  ton- 
nage or  impost  would  be  imposed  on  vessels  of  tlie 
United  States,  no  matter  whence  they  came,  or  of  what 
origin  might  bo  their  cargoes,  than  were  levied  on 


porta,  under  penalty  of  confiscation  of  vessel  and  cargo,  i  national  vessels  under  like  circumstances ;  consequetit- 
Whoil  American  vessels  shall  have  entered  port,  olli- ;  ly,  the  United  States  flag  is  now  placed  on  a  footing  of 


THE 


1864 


THE 


iquillty,  both  In  tha  direct  and  Indirect  trade,  with 
that  of  Chili. 

('(Mln  Him. — 'I'n-aly  of  amity,  rommcrce,  and  navi- 
gation, July  10,  IHAI.  rorpetiiii  amity  oitabllshcd, 
and  Iho  itllpulation*  relating  to  navl){atlnn  and  com- 
mnri'o  may  liu  nlin)){ated  at  thn  expiration  of  seven 
yearn,  nftur  the  lapin  of  twelve  months  from  the  time 
that  nolit'u  (u  that  effiiet  shall  Imvo  lioenKlvcn  liy  cither 
party  to  the  other.  Vessels  of  the  I'nited  Slates  arc 
placed  on  an  eipial  fontlns  with  national  vessels  In  the 
ports  of  Costa  Hica  as  to  tonnage  duties,  light  or  liar- 
iior  dues,  pllolO'{e,  salva;;n  in  ruso  of  damage  or  shlp- 
wroclc,  or  any  other  local  chargeii.  Mnii-packets  of  the 
United  .States  have  lilicrty  freely  and  securely  to  conio 
to  all  harbors,  rivers,  and  places  to  wlileli  other  foreign 
ships  of  the  same  description  are,  or  may  be  permitted 
to  come ;  to  enter,  anchor,  and  remain  there,  and  refit, 
subject  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  the  country.  The 
coasting  trade  reserved  by  each  party,  respectively,  to 
its  own  (lag ;  and  all  favors  hereafter  granted  to  otlur 
nations  by  either  of  t' o  two  parties  to  become  crmmon 
to  the  other.  Imports  In  I'nited  .States  vosselu  u° 
articles  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufiicluro  of  ll'o 
United  .States,  to  bo  subject  to  the  same  duties  as  if  ii.i- 
ported  in  national  vessels ;  and  these  duties  to  bo  >io 
higher,  nor  other  than  are  charged  on  similar  lmpo;ts 
the  growth,  produce,  or  nianufacturo  of  any  other  for- 
eign country ;  similar  ci|uality  of  tlag  as  to  exports. 
By  a  decree  of  August  ill,  18!>l,  the  local  commercial 
legislation  of  Costa  Itica  was  completely  remodeled  and 
materially  ninditied.  Liberty  of  comnierco  to  tho  ves- 
sels of  all  nations  is  granted ;  certain  descriptiona  of 
merchundi.io  nionopolizetl  by  tlio  government,  and 
other  descriptions  which  art.  prohildtod,  bolug  speci- 
lied;  among  the  latter  licing  'ncl'idod  rum,  lirc-anns, 
and  munitions  of  war,  whid'  -"n  bo  imported  only 
upon  special  permission ;  and  l.i .  former  consisting  of 
tobacco,  gunpowder,  and  saltpetre,  wl'Ich  can  bo  ad- 
mitted only  on  govcnmcnt  account. 

Denmiirk. — Convention  of  friendship,  commerce,  and 
navigation  of  April  2G,  lK2ti ;  ratilied  Augu'jt  10,  Itc.'U ; 
proclamation  made  Uctolwr  M  of  the  sumo  year.  Vch. 
•els  of  tho  United  States  permitted  to  frequent  all  the 
coasts  and  countries  of  Denmark,  no  matter  whence 
thej-  may  come  or  how  they  are  laden,  on  terms  of  tho 
mo.tt  perfect  c(|uiility  us  to  tonnago  and  otiicr  chargcn, 
with  the  national  ting,  tho  coasting  trade  excepted, 
which  Is  reserved  by  each  contracting  party  to  its  own 
Hag,  This  equality  of  flags  not  to  apply  to  tho  north- 
ern possessions  of  Denmark,  viz. :  Iceland,  tho  Fcroc 
Islands,  and  (irocnland,  nor  to  the  direct  navigation 
lictwcen  Denmark  and  the  West  India  colonics  of  his 
Danish  majesty.  In  passing  tlio  Sound  or  tho  Delta, 
United  States  vessels  to  pay  the  same  dues  as  the  most 
favored  nation.  United  States  vessels  permitted  to 
import  into  any  part  of  his  Danish  majesty's  dominions 
merchandise,  whether  of  the  growth,  produce,  or  manu- 
facture of  the  United  Slates,  or  of  any  foreign  country, 
on  the  same  terms,  and  willi  the  same  privileges  as  to 
duties,  charges,  and  fees  of  every  description  whatever, 
as  apply  to  similar  imports  under  the  national  flag; 
and  should  the  merchandise  be  of  the  growth,  produce, 
or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,  to  be  suljject  to 
no  other  or  higher  duties  than  similar  merchandise  of 
any  other  foreign  country.  Tills  equality,  however, 
not  to  apply  to  tho  Danish  possessions  of  Iceland,  tho 
Keroe  Islands,  nor  to  Greenland ;  nor  tho  flags  to  be 
equal  In  the  direct  trade  between  Denmark  and  her 
West  India  colonies.  Klcrchandisc  in  United  States 
bottoms  to  pay  at  the  Sound  and  Belts  tho  same  duties 
as  similar  merchandise  in  vessels  of  the  most  favored 
nation.  In  consequence  of  the  onerous,  and,  as  the 
Unlied  States  think,  the  illegal  taxes  upon  the  navi- 
gation and  commerce  of  the  United  States  at  the 
•Sound,  notice  was  given  April  14,  18!>u,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  article  11  of  tho  treaty,  of  the 
desire  of  the  United  States  to  terminate  the  same  at  tho 


expiration  of  twelve  months  from  that  date.  Tho 
treaty  accordingly  "ceased  and  delermlni'd"  April  14, 
1H5(I,  and  the  commerce  of  the  United  Slates  wiih  Den- 
mark is  now  unprotected  liy  any  treaty  stipulations. 

t'.ninilor. — Treaty  of  June  111,  IdaO;  ralltlcatlons  ex- 
changed April  1),  1N42;  proclamation  made  by  the  I'resi- 
dcnt  of  the  United  Stales  September  'i'l,  of  the  same 
year.  To  continue  in  force  tw  elve  years  from  the  date 
of  rntillcalions,  and  after  the  expiration  of  that  period 
until  the  end  of  one  year  after  either  of  tiio  parties 
shall  have  given  notice  to  the  other  of  Its  intention  to 
renounce  it.  Vessels  of  the  United  Slates  placed  on  a 
fooling  of  equality  in  the  ports  of  Kcuador  with  tho 
national  flag,  no  matter  whence  they  come,  certain 
privileges  in  favor  of  vessels  liuill  in  tho  dock-yard  of 
(iuayaqull  being  reserved ;  but  these  privileges  also  to 
be  accorded  to  vessels  of  the  I'nited  States,  should 
they  ever  bo  granted  to  Spain,  or  to  Mexico,  or  the 
other  Illspano-American  republics.  Any  favors  here- 
after granted  to  the  commerce  or  navigation  of  other 
countries  to  become  conmion  to  those  of  tlio  United 
Stales.  Iniporlsin  vessels  of  the  United  Slates,  wheth- 
er of  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  United 
States  or  of  any  other  country,  subject  to  the  name 
duties  and  charges  as  if  imported  in  natioral  vessels ; 
and  merchandise,  tho  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture 
of  tho  United  States,  admitted  on  the  same  terras  as 
similar  merchandise  of  any  other  foreign  country. 
United  States  comnierco  entitled  to  any  privileges 
hereafter  granted  to  Iho  commerce  of  any  other  foreign 
nation.  In  all  lawful  commerce,  whether  as  respects 
imports,  exports,  duties,  lirawbacks,  etc.,  tho  United 
Slates  flag  enjoys  an  equality  with  the  flag  of  Kcuador ; 
the  coasting  trade  and  thi.  reservation  in  favor  of  ves- 
sels built  at  <iuayaquil  excepted.  Such  vessels,  when 
under  the  naliunal  Hag,  arc,  by  decree  of  August  '23, 
1845,  exempt  from  tonnage,  anchorage,  and  other  port 
dues,  and  are  entitled  to  a  reduction  of  i)  \xr  cent,  on 
all  produce,  merchandise,  etc..  Imported  by  them,  for 
consumption,  into  any  of  the  ports  of  tho  republic. 

fiance. — Convention  of  iluue  "J'i,  18l"2,  to  be  In  force 
for  two  years  from  October  I,  1822;  and  after  the  ex- 
piration of  that  time,  until  one  of  tho  parties  shall  have 
declared  il.s  intention  to  renounce  it ;  which  declaration 
shall  lio  made  «t  least  six  months  before  it  can  tako 
ofl'ect.  Kquality  of  treatment.  Tonnage  and  other 
navigation  dues  In  French  ports  upon  American  vessels, 
five  francs  per  ton ;  in  United  Stotes  ports  upon  French 
vessels,  94  cents  per  ton.  The  navigation  duty  of  94 
cents  per  ton  Is  payalilo  by  American  vessels,  no  mat- 
ter from  what  port  they  may  have  last  proceeded ;  but 
tho  equality  of  treatment  as  to  cargoes  with  the  French, 
flag  is  applicable  only  when  tho  voyage  has  been  direct, 
anil  the  origin  of  tho  merchandise  Is  attested  by  certifi- 
cate from  the  custom-house  at  the  port  of  departure, 
vited  by  tho  French  consul  nt  such  port.  In  Frencli 
ports  nn  extra  duty  on  articles  of  the  growth,  produce, 
or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,  imported  In 
American  vessels,  at  20  francs  per  ton  of  merchandise; 
in  United  States  ports,  upon  similar  products  of  Krnncc, 
imported  in  French  vessels,  an  extra  duty  at  $1)  75  per 
ton  of  merchandise ;  these  extra  duties  not  applicali!n 
in  either  country  to  merchandise  of  the  other  destined 
for  transit  or  re-exportolion.  Should  this  convention 
lie  continued  in  force  after  two  years,  the  ndditiuiml 
duties,  at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  to  lie  reduccil 
one-fourth  of  their  amount,  and  successively  from  year 
to  year,  so  long  as  neither  nation  shall  give,  tho  six 
months'  notice  of  its  intention  to  renounce  it.  Neitlicr 
party  having  given  the  notice,  the  additional  duties 
ceased  to  exist  by  tho  annual  reduction  of  one-foiirlli, 
from  October  1,  1827.  By  virtue  of  a  ministerial  de- 
cree of  December  17, 1851,  American  vcsiicls  laden  with 
cotton  for  Fronce  may  touch  at  English  ports  without 
losing  tiie  beneflt  of  direct  importation,  provided  bulk 
be  not  broken,  and  no  operation  of  commerce  bo  trans- 
acted.   Navigation  and  comnierco  between  the  United 


Poper..  Amonff  tho  ZZTfJ''T'""'''^  f">'"  ''or 
,vc,.el.i„  b«llast,.„,.hor  l^'^rt' "  ""'  <''«/  «re-! 
'"S /'O  cargo ;  vessel,  of  wnr  ami  '^'  "''  """  '"''='""•«- 
V'^ckn,  not  <li„,.l,argi„g  overt  cntv';'"' "',""  "'  """""- 
ve.,ol,  reooivins  o' boar^for  /x'^^^^^^  "^""'^O'  «"" 

cone  u<le<l  ,,„„„  5,  ra,ilie,I     u'e  9   t^T'^T  '"""•'"'    "f  "'-'Hive   Fl°""'  '-'^'f'  «"<'.  i"  H.o  nav  [•,, 
I'rosulentrif.hoir.:.   ...    """''  •'.  n'"l  proclaimed  l)V  NeU  na  .    .1  '  "^  "l''"l'«o<I  with  IFn,,  J.    •  *" 

eniher  II   ,uk,     'r    !'.'.'  ""  '»  "10  (0II3  colIe,'.„,i  .. ' '^""  J'a'iovciim 


'""ir  carKoos.     1,..  „,„  .„:■;■,"■."',"  \  '""•"  N<ale,  «,„i 

^^''InK  tra,Io  of  (Jr  „t  1  r  talVf "'"'  '''"•""  ^  "«> 

W,8ul,JeetonU  .0  the   an  ""     >"''■'""''  '"  '''"^■'«" 

i^^'-.-^fC:^:^-^,^-;'-,,,,.^ 


gaiPli^giii 

»nt,sl,  govcrnntent  from  t  n„  1  '^'"''""">«  of  tho  same  on  Tnite  StnfL  ^,''""'P"'"'  «''»'over,  tho 
Merchandise  imported  to  Brit  ,h  '".  «^"'''"«'«^^''-  in  tho  diro  t  Ir  1^^.?^',"'"  "'  °"  """""'"-  "''<>'  or 
f'tato,  bottom,  Liat  eo  i,t  rf  ■'  '■  I"""'!, '"  '^''"""'  "H  other  roloctlnl'?''' '.  ""."  P'''"''  ^"«""v  i" 
"■o-iuce,  or  n.anufaetureT  t  Vnlf^^  /''"  *''™""''  ^own,,  in  ve'  ,e|  ' orTr  •?'?  'i"  """  "^ ""=  """n'" 
»«mo  du.ie,  aro  charged."  h  he  i't^^-'"  T"/"«  ""•"«  """^■'.  ^ha  4  '  „  '  f  f  •*;"''  ''"'J^'"  '»  '"> 
States  or  British  vessel.  Jl  ■  '.'"1""^'°''  '"  I'nitcd  flag  of  the  I  nnl 'i-  '  ' "'  *'""'"''  imports  under  tho 
""'Br  foreign  co nntrv      'iV  i    ""'.''".'"  ''™''"^''  °f  ""v   sealie  tow„ J  ?rl  ,''"'"'•«  ^''^''  ""«  "^  "'o  three  n„„! 


TRK 


1860 


THE 


If  Awnail  •(rlualvcl/  liy  «  I'ldain  or  rlilniin*  nfany  or 
•lllmr  tit  III*  lUiiwi  'I'liwMi,  Mill  iif  wlili'li  ihii  iiiiitiiir 

tlmll  •Im)  Im  »  i'UImm  oI  »ny  or  vlllinr  nf  ll i,  uiul 

priivliliiil  llitt  llirvii-rimrlht  iif  (li*  iri'w  uliill  Im  rltl- 
miiii  iir  iiiil|)»iil>  iif  miy  nr  ullliur  iif  iIh'  mIiI  rn|iiili||rii  or 
tuwiii,  iir  iif  Diiy  ur  ullliur  uf  ilia  iiOliii  of  llm  Uuriiiiinli: 
('uiifiiilirullntl.  'I'lilt  |irlvlli'K«  •■Turnii  In  lliu  tla^  of 
llitt  IIkiimi  Tuwii*  4  UrKo  •hum  uf  iIim  larryliiK  trailu 
bulwui'ii  (Im  lliilii'il  Hialti*  miil  lli«  (li'rinaii  uliiut, 

IMIiuiit,--'lt«ii\y  uf  AiiKiiiit  l^il,  \MiJ,  aildllLiiial  to 
tlul  uf  .laiiimry  III,  INllll,  mil  tiilinlKiiiliiK  fur  arllcliiii 
1  mill  'J  iif  tlia  Ullrr  Imnlv  ntlmr  itrtliltri;  ami  |iru- 
vlilliiK  llial  tli»  iliiralliiii  iif  lliu  iii>w  IruHly  aliali  Im 
lliiiltiiil  III lli«  Ivriii  iif  I wi< y viifK froiii  tlm  iU|«  u( rutlllia- 

llniK  Kaliriinry  'iti,  |NA;||,  ttjili  ilm  umial  twi'lviui Ilia' 

liullra.  Vi'nwl*  iif  lliu  I'lilliit  Nlati'ii,  wlii'iii'ciiiiiivi'r 
I'uiiiliiu,  aru  IrualiMl  In  Hiitili  iiiiriK,  Iiu'IikIIiik  alto  IIii< 
furultfii  |iiiMi'aa|iiiia  III  lliilliiiiil,  IK  nalluiial  vcnaiiU, 
wllli  rua|iui!l  III  ililllna  i)t  luiiiiii((i'.  Iiurlior  iliioa,  ll^lit- 
lioiiau,  |illulii|(«,  i|iiHranlltiii,  nr  ullinr  |i(irt  rlinrui't  uf 
any  klml  wlmluvnr  Ilin  luitalliiK  Irniln  ami  iialluiiul 
llaliurlna  liuliiu  rnanrvml,  I'.iillrii  i'i'rl|irii<'lly  Kuiiruii- 
leml  lu  lliu  lluti  of  IliK  lllillnil  HUlra,  ami  iH'rliirt  I'ljiial- 
lly  »llli  lliu  iialliiiial  lla((i  aa  In  llii'  iliiltra  uf  liii|iurt 
unit  •'kiMirt,  liulli  lu  iMili'ii  |iiirla  In  l'iiirii|ia  anil  in  tlioau 
uM>iili!li  |iiiaaiiaaliiiia  ulinmil.  All  illHVri'iillal  ami  ilia- 
I'riiiilmillnu  iliitlua  aa  rKaiiui'la  IIik  iIhk  nni  aliullaliiHl. 
Tliu  i'i|iiallly  aa  in  vil|>iirl  iliitli'a,  al  l|iiilnli'il  In  tlin  Inmty 
of  INAi,  a|i|illita  iiiily  ttliiiii  lliu  vraaula  iif  lliu  IjiiIIimI 
Htulu*  t'luar  fur  lliu  aiiiiiu  (lurla  aa  nnllunal  vpsaula. 
Tliua  lliu  uxiiiirt  ililly  mi  rnllfu  III  Jiivu  la  lliu  luiiiu 
wliuii  ux|inrliiil  III  I'lllliiil  Niali'a  liiilluiiia  iia  wliun  i>x- 
liortuil  ill  Hiilrll  vvaaula,  ulluii  liulli  Ililvu  lliu  auinu  iloa- 
liilillliiill  liilt  ll'lliu  Ihilrli  \ua>('l  prui'i'i'ila  lu  Aiiialir- 
iluiii,  mill  lliu  I'nlluil  Nliilua  vunaul  rlunra  lor  lluilun, 
tliK  foriiiiir  i>i\Joya  a illairiliiinatliiK  lirlvticgn  In  rcapact 
uf  III!'  iiimiiiiil  iif  iliily, 

,/iiji'iH.-  Trualy  roiiitiiili'il  Manli  III,  Ih5I;  rnllllcn- 
tloiia  I'Xi'liiiUKuil  {''uliriiiiry  Vl,  \xti!i\  hikI  iiroiltiinnliuii 
niiiilii  liy  III"  I'riialiluiilofllin  Itnlivil  Mlnlua.liinu  'i'iof 
tlm  kiiiiiii  yuar,  Ainirli'nii  viiaaula  |iurinltlcil  lu  cnlor 
tint  porta  of  lliikoiiiiilii  ami  Nlimiila,  nnil  no  olliur  porln 
uf  lliu  .liipiinuaii  uiiiplru,  iinlfaa  In  illalruaa,  or  foreoil  liy 
tiruaa  of  Huallmr,  'lliu  unly  cliarKu  fur  nili'rinK  ia  for 
|illoU|(u,  lliu  rulua  of  wlili'fi,  for  llin  port  of  •Himniln, 
urn  iia  fullnwai  Viiaanla  ilrawiiiK  over  IN  fuut  piiy  ^lo; 
ovor  lit, ami  juaa  llian  IN,  i||0|  umli'r  III,  i|o.  Vcgacla 
of  till'  I'liliuil  NUlua  Nri>  purniltli'il  lo  uxcliiiiiKa  only 
Uolil  nmi  allvor  lolii,  hihI  nrtii'lpa  of  K»oiln  fur  other 
artirlra  of  |{i|Oi|a,  linilur  ailrll  ruKlilnlluiia  ua  aliall  lie 
tuiiipoi'urlly  uatalillaliuil  liy  lliu  ,lnpanuaH  )("V'"'ii'<irnl. 
Wooil,  walur,  priivlillona,  i  ual,  iiml  ^ooila  reiiuiruil,  cnii 
only  Ihi  proiuiruil  llirniit(li  lliu  iiKOncy  or.lapiiiicao  ot)i- 
t'ora,  appoiiiluil  for  llliit  piirpoau,  Ai  a  iiiuuna  of  upi'ii- 
iii^  tliu  roiiiinuruu  of  iliipiin,  or  uvuii  of  tliu  porta  optin- 
uil  In  Aliiiirlrull  vtiaauU  vl/„,  Hliiioila  nnil  llnkodailc 
— tlio  truaty  Im*  pro\ ml  tnliilly  liiclllclnit.  Tlm  treaty 
Krnnia  tlia  prlvlluun  to  alilpwrurkiul  pi'raona  ami  otiior 
Kitiiuna  of  Hid  l^nlluil  Nlalua,  llvliiu  tuniporurily  at 
Hiinoila,  to  BO  wliurn  tliuy  pluaau  wllliln  tliu  limits  of 
tiivuii  •liipiuiuau  niljua  friiiii  n  aniall  iiilami  in  tlio  har- 
lior,  ami  ut  llitkoiluilii  hIiIiIii  llmlta  liuniil'lur  to  liu 
(luliiiuil,  "  |,lvlii|{  luiiipiirarlly"  liua  livon  ili'llnuil  hy 
tliu  .lupaiieaii  uiilliorlllua  lo  mean  "u  aojourii  of  four 
or  llvM  liaya  on  aliiiri',"  Wooil  iiml  watir,  ami  such 
auppliua  aa  uuiiM  Im  liuil,  liiivu  lii<i>ri  fruuly  aold  at  pretty 
Kuoil  pritea;  liut  purmlaaluii  to  Iruilu,  In  a  nicrcanlilo 
•uiiao,  Ima  liuun  nliaoluli'ly  refiiai'il,  'lliu  privileges  of 
tlila  trualy  uru  aitlil  in  tiavo  bcun  rsconlly  extended  to 
all  natioiia, 

Mickleuliui'ii  iVi'/iHirrtn,— I  ii'i'Urntlon  of  ncuession  to 
treaty  willi  lluiiiivur,  lliiiiiinliur  li,  |Nt7,  lo  conllnno  in 
fori'uuntll.lnnu  III,  INi'iN,  ivllli  llio  uaiinl  twelvu  inonllia' 
nolii'u  ttipiilalloii  nfliir  lliiit  pnrlod,  and  a  comlilimiul 
•ixniontlit'iiolluitliy  llni  I'lilli'ilNlulea,  IfncontiiiKomy 
•lioiild  oiriir  I'i'iidurInu  It  ixpiiillunl,  In  the  oplniun  of 
tbtt  Kvviirilllivilt,  Ut  ranvuna*  tliv  treaty.     VcaaeU  of 


III*  Ihillail  Htaira  auliji'it  lo  llin  aama  dutlf)  In  Iha 
porta  uf  lh«  (irami  liinliy  of  MviklenlinrK  Hihwrrln 
aa  national  vuaaula;  Ihu  cuaalhiK  Irada  IwInK  raaorvuil. 
'I'lila  npiallly  appllua  unly  In  veaavla  huilt  witliln  llir 
rcapri-llvii  Ivrrllorlua  of  raili  parly,  or  Uwhilly  run- 
dpinnvil  aa  pritua  of  nar,  or  ailJudKeil  In  li«  forfrlli'il, 
uli'.niid  lii'luoKinK  wholly  to  litltriia  of  raih.  Inipor- 
Ulliiiia  of  artlclua  th«  KM»th,  prndun, nr  nianufaiiiiri' 
of  Ihu  UniUd  iSutea,  anltji'it  lo  no  hiuln'r  diilira  Ihnii 
almiiar  arllelca  th«  Rrowlli,  prmluip,  nr  inanufarlMir 
of  any  other  foreign  coiiiitry  ;  aiirh  diitirs  to  Im  the 
>iiini<,  Mhelht'r  inipurlcd  In  vi'bW'Ib  of  iho  Unili'd  Ntaira 
III  In  national  veaaela.  T  hia  ci|iialily  la  applirulilu  lo 
Ihu  iiidir'Tt  aa  wull  na  to  the  dlreit trudu.  Ilv»),lea  Ihu 
alipulalliins  coiilaliiud  In  Ihu  Ircaly  »llh  llannvur,  olh- 
ir  uriirira  are  ailduil.  Import  duly  on  riiw  cotton  mid 
paddy,  Ihu  prodmu  uf  lh«  I'nitcd  iSlalra,  ia  aliolitliud 
hy  the  treaty ;  and  maxlinuin  ralca  of  import  duly  on 
loliaiTo,  riiT,  and  wlinh'-oil,  and  for  tranait  on  Iha  Her- 
lln-llumhurK  ruilrond,  are  pruaurihcd. 

Mijeiiii. —  i'ruaty  of  A|iril  6,  IHIIt,  revived,  as  lo  gen- 
eral alipulalions  rclaliiiK  to  coninieruu  ami  navlKalJnn, 
hy  arliclu  17  of  the  trtuly  of  l-'ehruary  2,  ININ,  and  lo 
I'liiilinuo  in  force  frnni  date  of  ralillialion  of  aitid  treaty 
(Muy  :ill,  IN  IN)  for  n  puriiid  of  elKhtyeara,  willi  I  he  uaii- 
al  allpulutlon  providing  for  twelve  montlis'  notice  alter 
that  period  hy  either  |iarly  wiahiiiK  lo  riiiuuiice  it, 
VeiaeUof  the  L'nilud  .Slates  may  enter  all  the  open  portn 
of  the  Mexieun  repuhlli'  on  the  same  terms,  as  lo  ton- 
nage duties,  IIkIiI  er  harhor  dues,  pilolaKe,  talviiKu, 
ami  all  other  loeul  eharKes,  as  apply  lo  national  vca- 
aela.  The  eousling  trade  is  reserved  liy  each  rounlry, 
respectively,  lo  its  own  IIhr.  I'liilcd  States  vessels 
may  Import  into  Mexiiun  ports  merchandise,  ihe 
growth,  produce,  or  inunufucluru  of  the  United  States, 
on  the  same  terms  as  If  Ihe  said  merrhandisc  were  Im- 
ported under  the  national  lla|{ ;  the  duties  of  import 
In  lie  no  higher  or  other  limn  levied  on  similar  nier- 
cliundise,  Iho  Kronth,  produce,  ur  manufacture  of  Ihe 
must  favored  nation. 

.\fonmo. — 'I'rcoty  concluded  Scplcmlierlll,  IS.'IB, and 
proelumatiun  thereof  made  hy  the  President  of  the  I'nitid 
(States  .laniiary  !I0,  INit7 ;  to  continiio  In  force  lll'ly  years, 
wilh  the  u^ual  stipulation  requiring  twelve  nioulhn' 
notice  after  iHat  period  hy  either  party  vtishlnR  lo  re- 
nounce it.  I'nited  Stales  vessels  permitted  to  put  into 
liny  pons  In  the  domiiiiiina  of  the  Kinperor  of  ilorocco 
fur  provisions  or  other  supplies,  without  any  interrup- 
tion or  molestation,  and  to  put  in  for  repairs,  and  to 
land  and  reload  their  cargoes,  without  paying  any  duly 
whatever.  Should  American  vessels  he  vast  ashore  on 
any  part  of  Iho  coasts  of  Morocco,  either  by  stress  of 
weather  or  other  cause,  to  be  permitted  to  remain  un- 
disturhed  until  the  coniinnndor  may  think  proper  lu 
prnceed  on  his  voyage.  Importations  from  the  I'nitcil 
States,  and  American  eommerco  generally,  to  be  un 
the  same  footing  as  tliose  from  Spain,  or  from  Iho  mu.st 
favored  nation  for  the  time  being.  Masters  forhiddiii 
lo  transport  tlieir  cargoes  on  board  other  vesFcln. 
Merchants  of  tlio  rnited  Slates  allowed  lo  employ 
such  interpreters  and  other  agents  as  they  shall  think 
proper ;  and  American  citizens  permitted  to  pass  and 
repass  the  country  and  sea-ports  w  hcnevor  they  please, 
without  molestation.  The  larilVof  duties  is  often  ar- 
bitrarily raised  in  Morocco.  'Iho  general  rale  U  Id 
per  cent,  on  imports,  excepting  ecrlaiii  specilied  arti- 
cles, on  which  specilic  duties  uro  levied.  (Tolmcco  is 
a  monopoly  of  the  government,  and  thn  trade  is  usual- 
ly rented  out  ut  rates  reaching  as  high  as  $100,CO0  per 
annum.  Were  the  trade  in  this  article  freed  from  the 
pressure  of  this  monopoly,  its  importation  from  Ihe 
Unilod  States  would  he  largely  Increased.) 

jWiucot.— Treaty  of  September  21,  I83;>;  President's 
proclamation  issued  Juno  24,  1837.  Kstahlisbes  per- 
petual  peace  lictwuen  the  I'nited  States  and  his  iniycsty 
Ihe  Sultun  of  Muscat  and  his  dominions.  Vessels  of 
the  United  Statca  pay  &  per  cent,  duties  on  the  car- 


niK 


fluK, 


-.  ,  "  ri,a,.ho.  «„„u..llv  luvlr' ,'•'"''"'•: '"'"■''"■ 
■»a  l«  c«rrK.<l  «u  .liiullvfru  ,.  i  ".""  ♦'.""".I'Kii,  I  ,„i,J„,.  ,   '.T'"  "'  '""""  "f  "»i  riili..,i';,"",  ""  """ 


.i».i  «K«"  I. ; "' ;  ',  ,r,i","", •  1  ;,';',"'  »""*■"'".• ««.;»"",:: " ;" '»" 

cod  ll,.„u  .li,,ulut„cl  i„  t|.„  ,  "  r  '■'""■«"»  ""*'■■'•  "X. 


cocci  lh.„u  .lipulutml  i„  tl.„  tr"u 
Amu  llnmtuta 'l'ii.„tv  ,^t  1 1         , 

tlf^.th.„t|.„r,tw„lve;no,^:'    r.'   ''^•'''''".V»houl,h,,, 


:  "  ;'"''-  "f  ''..Lurt  o     V:;  "7"''  7  «'  '"  «u«,„„„. 

^;'«';t  culc.„.|«r  ;:.,'';::;"'''''  '!"-x|.ir..lo„! 
"'"  Unit".!  .SUI,..,  if  I  '|„    .  r/     •     •^"•■""'•"""fl'.  of 

-mil  li„vu  «ooc.,»  to  I|.,m1  T  ''"  '■'""=''  •'<"»'"" 
"'"  P"i U  of  entry  of  IVru  > ,  .  """"-n'  "'  '*••■"  ««  '« 
'"«notla.rfortl,..,„,r,;,7'  ■''/'?■  """  "•""' '"'»  P"'l 
"»'l  "Imll  1,0  per.,      To"  n    ''■','''''""'»'''' '•-■'l"i»«l 

'■"■•  -luu,,  or  my  UuU  j  «"  ,?^";«  ""^  '°»"»««  or  l,„r. 
-oM  or  b»rt.ror  ■■(;,"  7'"  "''""  'I'"  ''r.id..«„ 
^•■"omption  fro,,,  tonn««„  a  ZT'T"^'  "'"'  "''« 
l'"rl<!rM,ppli,,,„r„oJf.  *     ,!''''-l'"f  '''"•■"'  '»  "'••'l  «r 


o»t  ruKa,-.l  to  the  port  or  t,  Irv   ;,   ''''"'''"'^^'  ""l- 

port,  of  tl,o  .opuMIc  by  nin.L      .        ''''"-'"  '"'"  "'° 
nf  w«atl,or,  to  Lo  \nZZt2T  uT'-l''^'''"' »''"« 

tlmn  uru  lovie.1  U|,o,i  sioiiUr  art ,.  !.  ,,     **        "'"  """-'''   '■■'•i,i„e,it  restrlLl,  N  1' ,        "-'"  "'  "'»  '"I'mviaii  «ov 

tee  to  No>v  (i,-aiiada  tho  „,.  f.. ./     '"  "' .^'"''*  B'laran-   vuars  f,oi„  <I„„.  ,TT,l     ■'  '"  «"'"'iiuo  i„  force  siv 

rUory,a,.cll.,rso>tt;taV^,';:'';^^^^^^^ 

tl'e  »Hmo.     The  stipulatio,,"  of   1,1    r"a       ' ''  ^'  ?■"'  "'"'"  '"•^■'•'  S'^'^'"    u  o  '  1'?^"'    '«  '^o'"™'  ti„g  panic, 

inlerost  provi.lu  that  tl,o  coa,t ,  ^t  , ulc s  ,alN  ",  ""^'^    ^'"'""f  ''"""«         Po'eo,^,V'r''f  "'■ ''"""«"'  ('^ 

More  recent  c.mct,,,o,,t.,  boueve         ,  "  '^  "*-'"'S '''"^''^''^^'''"'^^^^^^^  '  """  ""«'  "■- 

iluty  of  10  cents  nor  ton  ,„.  lii      '    ■  '     "  *  '"""««e    the  kinirJom  of  I>,J,       ,       ,    "  "'"  ""portal  on  into 


THE 


1868 


TRE 


of  the  treaty,  or  which  may  hereafter  l)e  granted  tiy  ci- 1  mcrco  with  Prussia,  and  Sweden  and  Norway  |  but  they 
ther  of  the  high  contracting  jiarties,  iis  respects  coin-  do  not  affect  tho  general  reciprocity  stijiulated  in  the 
merco  and  navigation,  is  to  apply  to  llic  otlier  party,  treaty.  Tho  treaty  establishes  entire  reciprocity  bc- 
freely  if  it  has  been  freely  granted,  and  on  similar  i  tweou  tho  flags  of  tho  two  countries.  July  22,  18u4,  a 
eqnivalonts  where  it  has  been  conditional.      Uy  virtiie  '  treaty  was  concluded  between  liussia  and  tho  United 


of  the  reciprocity,  as  it  respects  navigation,  I'ortugnose 
vessels  aro  exempt  from  tonnage  duty  in  tlio  ports  of 
the  United  States.  In  the  indirect  trado  with  Portu- 
gal, imports  under  tho  United  .States  flag,  aro  subject 
to  difforential  duties. 

I'ruitin. — Treaty  of  Jlay  1,  1828,  to  continue  in 
forco  twelve  years,  with  the  usual  stipulation  reciuiring 
twelve  months'  notice  after  lliat  period  by  either  party 
desiring  to  renounce  it.  United  Slates  vessels  to  bo 
treated  in  Prussian  ports,  as  to  the  duties  of  tonnage, 
lijht-houses,  pilotage,  salvage,  and  port-charges,  as 
well  as  to  all  other  duties,  fees,  or  charges  whatsoever. 


States,  establishing  the  principle  that  "free  ships  make 
free  goods,"  and  containing  a  stipulation  to  tlie  cllcct 
that  other  notions  may,  by  a  formal  declaration  of  a 
desire  to  accept  and  be  governed  by  tho  principle,  be- 
come entitled  to  all  the  resulting  rights  and  privileges. 
Tho  liussian  government,  under  date  November  28, 
185(J,  olflcially  signilics  to  the  government  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  its  adhesion  to  the  principles  announced  in 
tho  reply  of  tho  latter  governrtient  to  the  declarations 
of  the  Congress  at  Poris,  April  16, 18oG,  in  reference  to 
privateering.  The  conununication  of  the  representa- 
tive of  tho  Russian  government  at  Washington  thus 


as  national  vessels.  Tlio  coasting  trade  reserved  to,  conveys  tho  concurrence  of  tho  emperor:  "  His  maj- 
cach  country.  Cargoes  under  tlie  United  States  flag,  esty  entirely  concurs  in  tho  views  of  the  government 
whatever  the  origin,  or  whencesoever  imported,  to  bu  of  the  United  States  which  the  Hon.  Mr.  Marcy  has 
sulijcct  to  the  same  duties  and  charges  only  as  if  ini-  j  laid  down  in  his  equally  lucid  as  temperato  note  of  tho 
ported  under  tho  national  (Ing.  Like  equality  as  to  2Hth  of  July.  The  proposition  of  tho  federal  govem- 
e.xportations.  Articles  the  growth,  produce,  or  nianu-  mcut,  in  tho  opinion  ol  iiia  imperial  majesty,  deserves 
farttiro  of  llio  United  Stotos,  to  l>e  subject  to  the  same  so  much  the  more  to  be  taken  into  consideration  that 
duties  as  like  articles  tlio  growth,  produce,  or  manufae- 1  the  honorable  Secretary  of  State  orgues  not  for  the  ex- 
turc  of  any  other  foreign  country.  Two  treaties  of  '  elusive  interest  of  tho  United  States,  but  for  those  of 
amity  and  commerce  wero  entered  into  between  the  I  tho  whole  of  mankind.  Tho  undersigned  is  according- 
Uniiod  States  and  Prussia  prior  to  that  condensed  above  j  ly  instructed  to  notify  tho  Hon.  Mr.  Marcy  that  his 
— one  of  July,  August,  and  September,  178.');  and  tlie  majesty  the  emperor  accepts,  for  his  part,  the  condl- 
other  of  July  11,  17U9.  Hy  article  12  of  the  treaty  of  ,  tion  under  which  the  United  States  consent  to  the  abo- 
^fay  1,  182H,  the  12tli  article  of  the  former  treaty,  and  lition  of  privateering— namely,  that  tho  private  prop- 
from  the  18th  articlo  to  the  2-lth,  inclusive,  of  the  lat-  ertyof  tho  subjects  and  citizens  of  the  contracting  par- 
ter,  with  tho  exception  of  the  last  paragraph  in  article  I  ties  shall  in  times  of  war  be  respected  l)y  their  respect- 
19,  aro  revived,  in  so  far  as  they  do  pot  atlect  treaties  j  ivo  naval  forces,  as  well  as  by  those  of  all  the  powers 


or  conventions  concluded  liy  either  party  with  other 
)>owpr9,  during  the  interval  between  tho  expiration  of 
the  treaty  of  1711!)  and  the  commencement  of  tlio  treaty 
of  1828.  Articles  12  of  the  treaties  of  1785  and  1799, 
respectively,  relate  to  tho  principle  of  frco  ships  mak- 
ing free  goods.  In  reference  to  this  point,  articlo  12 
of  the  treaty  of  1828  provides  that,  tho  parties  being 
still  desirous  to  establish  botw-en  themselves,  or  in  con^ 


which  may  join  in  this  declaration." 

iS«»  Nalrndor. — Convention  concluded  January  2, 
1850.  To  continue  in  force  twenty  years,  if  neither 
party  notify  tlie  other  twelve  months  before  tho  expi- 
ration of  that  j)eriod  of  its  desire  to  reform  any  of  its 
stipulations;,  and  beyond  twenty  years,  until  twelve 
months  shall  have  elapsed  after  such  notice  shall  liavo 
been  given  by  either  parly.     Vessels  of  the  United 


cert  with  other  maritime  powers,  further  provisions  to  j  States,  no  matter  whence  they  may  have  come,  or  how 
insure  just  protection  and  freedom  to  neutral  naviga-  I  laden,  to  be  treated  in  the  ports  of  San  Salvador,  as  to 
tion  and  commerce,  and  which  may,  at  tho  same  time, !  all  duties  of  tonnage,  light-house,  or  any  other  charges 
advance  the  causes  of  civilization  and  humanity,  en-   of  whatsoever  denomination  or  character,  as  national 


f;a.;e  again  to  treat  on  this  subject  at  some  future  and 
convenient  period. 

yji/Mio.— Treaty  of  December  0  [18],  18.1>,  to  con- 
tinue in  force  until  January  1,  18i)9,  with  the  usual 
stipulation  for  twelve  moiitlis'  notice  to  renounce  it  by 
either  party  desiring  to  do  so.  No  such  notices  hav- 
ing been  given,  the  treaty  continues  in  force.  United 
Stales  vessels  arriving  in  Unssian  ports,  either  laden 
or  in  ballast,  to  be  treated  on  the  same  fooling  as  na- 
tional vessels,  coming  from  the  same  place,  with  re- 
spect to  duties  of  tonnage.  In  regard  to  light-house 
duties,  pilotage,  and  port  charges,  as  well  as  to  the  fees 
and  perquisites  of  public  oflicers,  and  all  other  duties 
and  charges  lovieil  upon  vessels  of  commerce,  tho  Unit- 
ed States  flag  is  placed  upon  the  footing  of  the  most  fa- 
vored nation  with  which  Kussia  has  no  s|)eeial  treaty 
stipulating  for  entire  reciprocity.  Any  favors  hereaft- 
er granted  to  the  navigation  of  any  other  foreign  nation, 
to  l>eeome  common  to  tho  United  Slates  on  similar  or 
equal  conditions.  All  kinds  of  merchandise  and  arti- 
cles of  commerce,  being  tho  growth,  prwlnce,  or  manu- 
faeiure  of  the  United  Slates,  may  lie  imported  into  Rus- 
sian ports  on  the  same  terms  as  apply  to  similar  articles 
the  produce  or  nmniifacturo  of  any  other  foreign  coun- 
try J  and,  whether  the  imports  lie  of  tho  growth,  prod- 
uce, or  manufuctuioof  the  Uniled  States,  orof  any  oth- 
er foreign  country,  perfect  equality  is  granted  with  tho 
national  dag.  Any  favor  hereafter  granted  to  the  com- 
merce of  other  foreign  nations  to  become  common  to 
the  commoree  of  the  United  States.  Certain  special 
privileges  to  bo  retained  by  Russia  in  reference  to  corn- 


vessels.  From  this  equality  the  coasting  trade  is  ex- 
cepted, which  is  reserved  to  the  national  flag ;  but 
should  any  favors  of  navigation  be  granted  hereafter  to 
any  other  foreign  nation,  it  will  immediately  apply  to 
the  flag  of  tho  United  States.  Imports  into  San  Salva. 
dor  in  vessels  of  the  United  States,  no  matter  whence 
imported  or  of  what  origin,  to  be  subject  to  the  same 
duties,  charges,  and  fees  of  every  desi;i  iption,  as  similar 
imports  in  vessels  of  San  Salva 'or;  and  if  these  im- 
ports consist  of  articles  the  grov.'.h,  '■.roduce,  or  man- 
ufacture of  the  United  States,  to  bo  liulject  to  no  liigher 
or  other  duties  than  similar  import  <,  i  ho  growth,  prod- 
uce, or  manufacture  of  any  other  f'/iign  nation. 

Sandwich  Islands. — Treaty  concluded  December  20, 
1849;  ratifications  exchanged  Auf;ust  24,  1850,  and 
proclamation  made  by  the  Prcsideni  of  tho  United 
States  November  9, 1850.  Establishes  f.  !rpetual  peace 
and  amity  between  tho  United  States  ond  the  Hawai- 
ian Islands,  and  provides  that  the  treaty  shall  continuo 
in  force  ten  years,  with  the  usual  stipulation  providing 
for  twelve  months'  notice  by  either  party  wishing  to 
renounce  it  after  tliat  period.  Urited  States  vessels  in 
direct  voyages,  if  laden,  or  in  resptt*  of  any  voyage,  if 
in  ballast,  to  pay  tho  same  duties  of  icnnuge,  harbor, 
light-houses,  pilolagc,  quarantine,  or  other  navigation 
charges  of  whatever  kind,  thit  are  paid  by  national 
vessels.  Steam  vessels  employed  in  carrying  the  pub- 
lic mails  of  the  United  States  across  the  Paciflc,  or  from 
one  port  to  another  therein,  to  have  free  access  to  tho 
porta  of  tho  Sandwich  Islands,  to  refit,  refresh,  land 
passengers  and  their  baggage,  or  for  any  purpose  per- 


ports  in  Un  ted  S  a  1       '  ,"'"  *"'"«  P'"™-     A Jl  ^^  ,      ",""""°"»  "^  >v«f  ">  an    no^on    ''  '"•<"'""'^'i  «» 

mmmmmwi 

«n.l  perfect  equalitv,  «s  to  i    S"  l  f       "  ^-^'P'o^i'-V   'lutv  of  a  per  cent  Lf'^'  "'"'  »  S""""!  iinnort 
c.«rges,bct.oe,ui;e';„Vo     r   n^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

•^       w  inpou  to  be  subject  to 


THE 


1870 


TRE 


the  same  duties,  charges,  and  privileges  as  tlie  vessels 
of  the  most  favored  nation.  United  States  vessels 
destined  for  Tripolilan  ports  must  be  provided  with 
proper  passports;  to  examine  which,  nut  wore  ihan 
two  persons,  besides  the  rowers,  are  nllowrd  to  proceed 
trom  any  Tripolltan  man-of-war,  or  to  ^o  on  l>oard, 
unless  permitted  so  to  do  by  the  American  captain. 
In  case  of  distress.  United  States  vessels  may  put  in, 
land  and  re-embark  cargo,  and  repair,  without  the  pay- 
ment of  duties.  The  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  Tripoli — the  protection  to  bo  given  to  Amer- 
ican merchants,  masters  of  vessels,  and  seamen — the 
right  of  establishing  consuls  in  the  regency  of  Tripoli, 
and  the  privileges,  immunities,  and  jurisdictions  en- 
joyed by  such  consuls,  to  be  on  the  same  footing  with 
those  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

Too  Sicilio. — Treaty  of  December  1, 1845,  to  bo  in 
force  ten  years  from  date,  either  party  reserving  the 
right  to  terminate  It  after  that  period,  on  giving  twelve 
months'  notice  of  Its  intention  to  do  so.  When  import- 
ing articles  of  the  growth  or  the  manufacture  of  the 
United  States,  American  vessels  to  be  on  the  same 
footing  as  to  duties,  charges,  etc.,  with  national  ves- 
sels. This  equality  as  to  navigation  dues  applies  only 
In  respect  of  direct  voyages  If  laden,  or  of  any  voyage 
if  In  ballast.  Merchant  vessels  of  the  United  Stales, 
forced  by  stress  of  weather,  or  other  similar  cause.  Into 
Sicilian  ports,  to  be  exempt  from  port  and  tonnage  du- 
ties, provided  no  operation  of  commerce  is  carried  on. 
Tlio  coasting  trade  Is  reserved  by  each  country  to  Its 
own  vessels.  The  direct  importation  of  articles  of  the 
growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  United  States 
to  be  subject  to  the  same  duty,  whether  imported  In 
vessels  of  the  United  States  or  in  those  of  the  Two  Sic- 
ilies. In  the  Indirect  trade,  importations  under  the 
tlag  of  the  United  States  into  the  ports  of  the  Two  Sic- 
ilies to  be  subject  to  differential  duties.  A  decree  was 
issued,  December  18, 1854,  by  the  King  of  the  Two  Sic- 
ilies, extending  to  the  indirect  trade  of  such  foreign 
nations  as  would  be  willing  to  reciprocate  nil  tlic  ad- 
vantages of  the  national  flag.  Under  the  act  of  1828, 
previously  given  at  length  in  the  article  Sicily,  page 
1714,  the  government  of  the  United  States  has  recip- 
rocated the  privileges  thus  granted  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Two  Sicilies ;  and  the  flag  of  the  United 
States  is  therefore  equalized.  In  Sicilian  ports,  w  ith  the 
national  flag  in  the  indirect  trade. 

7\ir*pj/.— Treaty  concluded  May  7, 1830,  and  ratifled 
February  2,  1831.  Not  limited  as  to  duration.  Ves- 
sels of  the  United  States  to  be  treated,  in  ports  of  tlie 
Ottoman  empire.  In  like  manner  as  vessels  of  the  most 
favored  nation ;  to  have  the  same  liborty  to  pass  the 
canal  of  the  Imperial  residence,  and  to  go  Into  and  come 
from  the  Black  Sea,  either  laden  or  in  ballast ;  and 
may  be  laden  with  the  produce,  manufactures,  and  ef- 
fects of  the  Ottoman  empire,  except  sucli  as  are  pro- 
hibited, as  well  as  with  those  of  their  own  country. 
United  States  vessels  must  sail  under  their  own  flag, 
and  are  prohibited  from  lending  tlieir  tiag  to  the  ves- 
sels of  other  foreign  nations,  or  to  those  of  the  rajahs. 
Importations  into  Ottoman  ports  in  vessels  of  the 
United  States  to  be  sulycct  to  the  same  duties,  charges, 
etc.,  as  importations  under  the  flag  of  the  most  favored 
nation.  American  mercliants  established  in  the  states 
of  the  Sublime  Porte  for  purposes  of  commerce,  to  be 
at  liberty  to  employ  tevisars — brokers  or  factors — of 
any  nation  or  religion;  such  merchants  or  other  Amer- 
ican citizens  residing  in  the  Turkish  dominions  not  to 
)>c  amenable  to  Turkish  tril)unals  for  offenses  commit- 
ted, but  to  be  tried  by  their  own  minister  or  consul, 
and  punished  according  to  his  sentence.  By  virtue  of 
the  most  favored-nation  stipulation,  vessels  of  thn  Otto- 
man Porto  are  admitted  into  United  States  ports  on 
the  same  terms  as  American  vessels.  Duties,  accord- 
ing to  the  tariff  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  are  based  upon 
the  ad  valorem  principle ;  and  tlic  treaty  nations  usual- 
ly name  commissioners  every  Ave  or  six  years,  who,  in 


concert  with  a  commission  named  by  the  Sublime  Porte, ' 
regulate  the  "fixed  values"  of  merchandise  Imported. 
The  present  rates  were  fixed  by  a  British  commission 
of  this  character;  and,  in  regard  to  many  articles  of 
American  Importation,  especially  cottons  and  rum,  the 
mode  of  valuation  works  a  practical  discrimination, 
which  can  be  remedied  only  by  the  action  of  an  Amer- 
ican commission  remodeling  existing  valuations,  as  re- 
spects the  manufactures  of  the  United  States. 

Tunis. — Treaty  of  August,  1797,  modified  by  conven- 
tion of  March  26,  1799,  and  by  subsequent  treaty  of 
February  24, 1824.  Establishes  perpetual  peace  and 
friendship  between  the  United  States  and  the  Bey  of 
Tunis.  Vessels  of  the  United  States  permitted  to  en- 
ter all  the  ports  of  the  kingdom  of  Tunis  on  paying  the 
usual  duties  which  are  paid  by  the  vessels  of  the  most 
favored  nations.  Should  the  government  of  Tunis  have 
need  of  the  services  of  an  American  vessel  not  previous- 
ly engaged,  it  must  have  the  preference  on  paying  tho 
same  freight  that  is  usual  with  merchants  for  the  same 
service.  Commerce  with  Tunis  under  the  United  States 
fing  to  be  conducted  on  precisely  the  same  footing,  as 
to  import  duties,  fees,  and  all  charges  whatsoever,  as 
is  commerce  under  the  flag  of  the  most  favored  nation, 
American  merchants  to  bo  ^lermltted  to  establish  them- 
selves, transact  their  own  business,,  or  appoint  their 
agents,  factors,  etc..  In  the  territories  belonging  to  tho 
kingdom  of  Tunis, 

Venezuela. — Treaty  of  peace,  friendship,  navigation, 
and  commerce,  concluded  January  20,  188(1;  ratified 
>Iay  31,  and  proclamation  made  by  President  of  the 
United  States  June  30,  of  the  same  year.  To  continue 
in  force  twelve  years  from  date  of  ratifications;  and  fur- 
ther, until  either  party  gives  twelve  months'  notice  of  its 
intention  to  renounce  it.  Vessels  of  the  United  States, 
no  matter  whence  they  come,  or  with  what  laden,  to  bo 
on  a  footing  with  national  vessels.  The  same  equali- 
ty, including  bounties,  duties,  and  drawbacks,  to  apply 
in  regard  to  exportation  or  re-exportation.  Vessels 
of  tho  United  States  shipwrecked,  foundered,  or  in  any 
other  way  dainoged,  on  the  coasts,  or  within  the  do- 
minions of  Venezuela,  to  receive  oil  necessary  assist- 
ance and  protection.  AVhatcver  may  be  imported  in 
Venezuelan  vessels  may  also  be  Imported  in  vessels  of 
the  United  Stofes,  and  on  the  same  terms,  as  to  duties 
and  all  otiier  charges.  The  same  equality  as  to  ex- 
ports. Articles,  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture 
of  the  United  States,  to  be  subject  In  Venezuela  to  no 
higher  or  other  duties  than  similar  articles,  the  growth, 
produce,  or  manufacture  of  any  other  foreign  country. 
All  favors  hereafter  granted  to  other  foreign  nations  to 
apply  equally  to  the  United  Stales  on  similar  condi- 
tions. The  customs,  tariffs,  and  commercial  regula- 
tions of  Venezuela  are  subject  to  frequent,  and,  occa- 
sionally, onerous  changes.  The  latest  of  these — that 
of  April  27,  186C — Imposes  an  extraordinary  contribu- 
tion upon  certain  imports  and  exports,  to  take  effect 
from  and  after  July  1, 185fi.  Among  the  exports  thus 
affected  are  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  hides,  quinia,  sarsa- 
parilla,  dye-wood,  etc.  The  extraordinary  ini|ioit  duty 
is  20  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  regular  dulios,  and  15 
per  cut.  on  all  articles  that  are  Included  in  the  free 
list,  excepting  gold  and  silver  In  bars,  bullion,  or  dust, 
printing-presses,  printed  books,  machinery,  etc. — Com. 
Relat.  U.  If. 

Trebizond,  anciently  Trapczus,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  u  trapezium,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
southeast  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  lat.  40°  1'  N..  long. 
39"  \i'  hi"  E.  Poiuilation  variously  estimated  nt  from 
15,000  to  30,000.  The  town  is  built  on  the  declivity 
of  a  hill  rising  gently  from  the  sea.  It  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity;  and,  from  the  year  1203  to  the  final 
subversion  of  the  Eastern  empire  by  Mohammed  II.  in 
tho  15th  century,  was  the  seat  of  a  dukedom,  or,  as  it 
was  sometimes  called,  an  empire,  comprising  the  coun- 
try between  the  Phasls  and  the  Halys.  Its  fortifica- 
tions are  still  of  considerable  strength,  at  least  for  a 


tre 


Turkish  city     Tho  "  ^^"^^ 

■fo na  has  two  portf  r? '*"°''^*  ''««   u,    ,  v"!  ?"-?•     Tl.o  thicL,      '  jV."  '  ?™  '"""o  to 


of  groat  0... 
0.10  on  the  east  side  of  aln,^?;"'  ""«  <>"  the  west  1  '    ""'^''^  P'»Portione<  t„  th^ .       ?  "^  ""'  «rec-na  Ms   . 

Ships  moor  ,vftrotettV:''r'''--'-ne^^^^ 

hawser  and  ,trea„f  and"  r    '"  ^  "°"''.  "".I  a  Joo  j     !?"•     '-'»",  in  S>v  „  ,  J,™  i"-""'  ""'l  to  he  2600 

.0  northwest ;  hit  th:.;'  ,„""'( tl,'"  ''T''' ^  ^--    '"^ret  '"T"'"'  "orentr'soo"'  "''"""""•' " ««» 
n»,  near  Trebizo„,l/anr<; ,  j"!'  "•  P'  '«>-a{  Plata" r^ "!"'"'•«  '"from  <l"     e  '        ""'"'"  •"""»  "f 

Turks,  and  the  exclusion  nf  ?f  .^""^'"""nople  bv  (1.^    l'""  ?»«-  82,59«.     It  is  ,1  wl    •   '"  "'"  """ts  of  tho 

of  Western  Asia  must  bo  satisfo  i  !  V  °™'"  »  ""P    which  v"'  ?''  "  '""•"3'  "'  ersected  I  v        ''  ^""^^^ 
natural  emporium  of  all  tl,p  '  '       '""  ""«  <:ity  is  the    1  „    '"'''''  ""t  ''rawi,,.,  morl  . .       '  "  """•'-  ''n'o 
of  the  Black  Sea,  from  kL      ""."  "•  "'»  '""'theast     h„   ?"'"  "^ '"'"' «"'!  unfoaT    Th   ,'  '","''  ^  '<="  '"'='" 
Warheker  to    imasiann  .^    ""  "'<'  <'ast,  roumlTv T^" '«'' ""'""innttvlin  si°     L    ^''"''a'-l'W  of  Trieste 
P"ncipal  city  ofT^enia' ■!  ''T    ^'^-^™'™    < he  hlT"^     'M' Pro.ec;e7  f^'     Sb"' >""' '""•' -"' 
southeast  fron,  Trch^onl'    L  '"'  "'"""  ^^^  ""•  •    xtt,    T"""'  '=''  ™"«"  fl    the  i^' *''""'' "^  "'« 
t'nguishcd  by  their  sun^ri„     ,    •  '"""-'haiits  are  dis     """^"^^a- "'♦'■» -'--•■      -      "'  "'«   I'"""-""  "— 
onterprise  an'd  acdWt"?  "  p  ^^'''T'^-  »"''  "Ah   r" 
derived  most  part  of  UcirM^^S"-;"""' Period  thev 

niodities  by  wav  of  <5 1     '"PP''"  of  European  com     .,    "    ■   '-"  •'  >-"nunuea  n„.      ^ 

"'"■g.howeverrbut.heZn""  ."'..^'''"^^'""'■''^Ple.  no'  llTV""^  ''''"'  «"'  ieUes^l  'h"''''  '""^  ''«'' 

at  so  convenient  a  nl?tr  't/7- ''''-""f  "''•'''"4  hem   0  f^"""-     »"  "'"  "o   l>  si  b  of  ,1  ""'"""'"'^^  < 

them  resort  to  suchXanf        L""'"  "-•»"'''  ''ave  Z      C     "''  "PP™P"'atod  excl  ,  •   5  ''°  '""i'  "  «  ''"^ 

tioned ;  and  it  mav  «iri  '  "?/'"'''  "'  "'"'o "ow m"       S'l!"":"''"''-     ^' '«  "a"  d  rZ,  ' '"f '^'^ P^^f""'- 

the  period  durinr^h  eh    hn"  f"'P"'<--  «»"si.le  2   I  •''  '""'■'''  "■a-'ohoHses,  «„    ev  ^',''"/' i^ '""'■"'■^hed 

that  efforts  were  no7.  ^         ^^'l"''  ''^^''  ''a^  heen  onon     I'h-    "  ''"""'•''''  *»'•  the  use  of  n^'f   "'''  "^  -"^^'mno. 

course  with  A™  „„   (       "■"'''^  ""'^'ablish  an  im  r'   t^.n'"  T^"  ^"^  ""'^  h,  def,,^/  ^"^7'  «"<'  goods. 

parts  of  Persia     ihr^'"l  "'"'  "'«  "»'''"ve"  t   '',•  r.^^r^''^"''^" '"""H,^"      ti^'f!!,  ^  "'«  '/"ays; 

however  to  hnvA  ?      ^     ""'  channel.     ^Yo  w  Ju  ,     .'"""^'Pal  defects  of  the  nor?  If  , '^"""'  ""t-     The 

thi.hasCn'r,  ":it'''-'v't'"".hel",;::  4"  ;:,:,r 

tie^  that  neoessari;::^"..^  '''""'""»  ""'  "'ffic  l!      7  Tbr  1"'  T^''  ''''^•^'^^^MrC^^^ 

^^=;t^hrr"^'5::ss::tr  n 

«=''sf"l      Th  'noli"?;;;;'''  """•"  "'an  ordinari  Is"      '       .""  ""'  ^^''""^  «"'!  Prop  r  Z"^  ^?'"^'  "''<="  "•» 
at  the  moutrof  tt    .,     '^"^t''P"tof  Ke,Iout  Ka -it™'^^  «">".  '<"»  v    bT,      P-^^"'™""  of 


fheresa,nttheextremtvnf  r,"'"  J''"P™s  MarL 
'"entioned  below  hL,L'""'  ""=  n«wlight-h„f,  ' 
-ith  the  mole,  fo;„  "a  e^  c"  „t°r""^'?"-  '  "«  P  ,' 
ngth,  being  „  conti,er„,:r?:'?'''''f '""='■" 
stones  ,v,ih  stairs  and  jetties  for',/  ''  '""•  ''«»n 
enibarkation.     On  the  nnr, .    ■  i     ^°  «on™nience  of 

or  l,„,i .  ""'  north  side  of  the  nnr, ;      j    , 

>Priatod  e.xclnsivelvfnr   i/.'  "  ".'"'"='' 


.of  the  oxemption  granted  (i  isV.  f  T  1  ™'"»l''»nce 
"''^^^  to  tho  south  of!  ho  ca-«i  '"'"'"" ''™^-- 
charged  in  the  other  pa  „f  ,,,"'*"'.  ^""^  "'«  <i"tm 
o-nption  having  ceasid  at  H,  ••''."'"■     J^"'  the  e.x 

the  trnn,.P„..  °.r    "°"  "'  the  period  roferr«,l  ,„   „..,, 


:;.,   ™st-nortlieast  win.l,  known  1  - .      '"^'"'"ncfi  of 

'he  access  to  the  port  i^  nfl  ,  ■  '°  """"'  "^  ^oro 
^hallow;  and  ther'o  I  'g  J^^^  ):  "'^'".'  ''T  any  bare; 

™-  «  to  7  and  10  fa'tho  ,s  w  ^7''  's  """:•""''' '" 
vessel  may  beat  in  bv  ni-h  o,  b  i'  ^'""'  ^ailing 
'ani  from  the  northea     o,C  •  ''■■"■'■■  "•^'"Pt -'l  Wow 

a^  better  anchor  inT'CT;^:T''^l!:!'  '"o 


«n    next  tX?'  ''"  "  ""^  ^^  "-  "-'  important  ■    ]'"  '"'^'""  "■'"'  •'"«  ">»  aS  *i;;'onh'e?"«l'  ■""'' '» 

,  .  I  house  n,  ti.„ ._-    ..      _"'  "I'wrantine.     The  light- 

1  mole  is  106 
1  and  mav 


7"  next  to7r  ^'  :Z  "X:""r  "■"'  """-'-' ;    ^  a^r  ST  """Tr^"'  "f  '-•-     S 

bawls,  beans,  galls,  tchr''t:"r'' ''''''":'  "''^-     "«"al  ypa"  1 1 ,     '^"1';,'"  ""'.''-P"'  "f -ate'r 

y  estimated  in  1846  at  Xl  9  P,  J  'T  ,""•?'  ™''"'   "<"•  to  wh   I     h  v  „ T      ^'^  "  '^™'^''''"«'^ 

nai,,,  ec..„  .„,  ,,.„.,,„,  .^„^^,^^  Pins  b;^:^,'J; --!;;jy  or  th^'S;:  n^ 

>-     t'-;nith.     i  he  light  is  intermittent ;  , 


TRI 


1872 


TRI 


be  seen,  supposing  the  oyo  of  the  observer  to  bo  clovn> 
ted  12  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  about  I'J  nuulioal 
miles,  or  from  Pirano  on  the  side  of  Istria,  and  the 
shoals  of  Grado  on  the  Italian  coast.  A  light-house 
has  also  been  erected  on  the  point  of  Salvore,  b^iaring 
fl-oin  Trieste  west  by  south,  distant  about  18  uiilus. 
The  lantern  is  elevated  about  103  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  From  this  point  Pirano  Bay  opens,  where 
vessels  may  anchor  in  safety  in  all  sorts  of  weather. 

Trieste  has  no  command  of  internal  navigation ;  but 
being  the  most  convenient,  orratlier  the  only  sea-port, 
not  merely  of  the  lUyrian  proviiias,  but  of  the  Duchy 
of  Austria,  and  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  she  pos- 
sesses an  extensive  commerce.  This  has  been  in- 
creased by  the  facilities  aftbrded  to  all  sorts  of  mercan- 
tile transactions  by  the  privilege  ot  porta  franco  con- 
ferred on  the  town,  and  a  considerable  o.vlent  of  con- 
tiguous country.  Under  this  franchise,  all  goods,  with 
but  very  few  exceptions,  may  be  imported  into  and  ex- 
ported from  the  city  free  of  all  duties  whatever.  For- 
eign products,  when  talieii  for  consumption  from  Trieste 
into  the  interior,  are  subject  to  the  payment  of  duties 
regulated  by  the  interior  tariff  of  Austria.  These  are 
very  various,  consisting  partly  of  the  raw  and  part- 
ly of  the  manufactured  products  of  Austria  Proper, 
Illyria,  Dalmatia,  Hungary,  and  Italy;  with  foreign 
articles  imported  and  warehoused.  Among  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  raw  produce  may  bo  specified  corn, 
chiefly  wheat  and  maize,  with  rico,  wine,  oil,  shunmc, 
tobacco,  wax,  etc. ;  silk,  silk  rags  and  waste,  hemp, 
wool,  flax,  linen  rags,  hides,  furs,  skins,  etc.  The  prod- 
uce of  the  mines  makes  an  important  item,  consisting 
of  quicksilver,  cinnabar,  iron,  lead,  copper,  brass,  lith- 
arge, alum,  vitriol,  etc. ;  the  forests  otC'arniolafurnisli 
tinil>er,  for  ship-building  and  other  purposes,  of  excel- 
lent quality  and  in  great  abundance,  with  staves,  cork 
wood,  box,  hoops,  etc. ;  marble  also  ranks  under  this 
head.  Of  manufactured  articles,  the  most  important 
are,  thrown  silk,  silk  stufTs,  printed  cottons  from  Aus- 
tria and  Switzerland,  coarso  and  fine  linens,  and  all 
sorts  of  leather.  Under  this  head  are  also  ranked  soup, 
Venetian  treacle,  liciimrs,  etc.,  with  jewelry,  tools  and 
utensils  of  all  sorts,  glass-waio  and  mirrors,  Venetian 
beads,  rcfmed  sugar,  and  a  host  of  other  articles.  Of 
foreign  articles  imported  and  rcshipped,  the  most  im- 
portant are  sugar,  coffee,  and  dye-stuffs.  Trieste  is 
also  a  considerable  dcp6t  for  all  sorts  of  produce  from 
the  lUack  Sea,  Turkey,  and  Kgypt. 

Cutlonu  Jiegulatiom. — The  custom-house  at  Trieste  | 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  entry,  reporting,  | 
etc.,  of  vessels.     When  a  ship  arrives,  she  is  reported 
to  the  health  office ;  which  publishes  a  list  of  arrivals 
and  departures,  with  a  statement  of  their  cargoes,  as  ' 
they  appear  in  the  manifests.     Ships  are  cleared  by 
the  same  office,  the  masters  being  assisted  by  the  con- 
suls of  the  counlry  to  which  tliey  belong.     As  soon  as  j 
a  vessel  has  performed  quarantine,  she  loads  or  un- : 
loads  without  any  interference  or  inspection  by  tlie  ; 
customs  officers,  or  by  any  one  else.     Goods  unsuscep-  i 
tiblc  of  contagion  may  Ije  landed  during  quarantine. 
Being  a  free  port,  the  banding  and  warehousing  sys- 
tem is,  of  course,  unknown  at  Trieste. 

Quaranline  is  strictly  enforced  at  Trieste,  and  the  es- 
tablishments for  facilitating  its  performance  are  com- 
plete and  efficient.  Tlie  Board  of  Health  at  this  port 
is  the  central  or  principal  one  for  the  Austrian  states; 
and  maintains  an  active  correspondence  with  all  the 
principal  ports,  botli  in  the  Mediterranean  and  else- 
where. Tliere  arc  two  lazarettos — that  called  St.  Teresa, 
or  Lazaretto  Xuovo,  is  appropriated  to  vessels  from  the 
Levant  and  Kgypt,  which  are,  for  the  most  part,  sub- 
jected to  the  long  or  full  quarantine  of  forty  days.  It 
is  spacious,  and  properly  guarded ;  having  a  sufficient 
number  of  military  and  medical  officers  and  assistants ; 
with  extensive  quays  and  magazines  for  housing  and 
Riring  goods,  dwelling-houses  and  apartments  for  resi- 
dent officers  and  passengers,  etc.     It  is,  in  fact,  one  of 


the  most  perfect  estaolishments  of  the  kind  in  exist- 
ence. The  other,  or  old  (TeccAio)  lazaretto,  contigu- 
ous to  the  great  mole,  is  appropriated  to  sliips  and  pas- 
sengers performing  a  quarantine  of  not  more  thaf 
twenty-eight  days;  and,  tliougli  inferior  to  tlie  for 
nier,  is  sufficiently  capacious  and  convenient.  The 
sanitary  offices,  including  that  of  harbor  master,  are 
near  the  centre  of  the  port ;  where  also  are  moored  ves- 
sels uuder  observation  for  a  term  not  exceeding  eight 
days.  Here  also  are  facilities  for  communicating  livd 
voce  with  persons  under  quarantine ;  and  spacious  ware- 
houses, with  adequate  guards  and  other  officers.  But, 
notwitlistanding  these  conveniences,  if  a  vessel  arrive 
having  an  infectious  malady  on  board,  she  is  not  al- 
lowed to  enter  cither  lazaretto  at  Trieste,  but  is  sent  to 
an  island  near  Venice,  fitted  out  for  the  purpose,  where 
assistance  may  be  afforded  with  less  risk  of  propagating 
infection. 

Caretninff,  Slot  is,  etc. — Timber  at  Trieste  is  excel- 
lent, workmen  good,  and  their  wages  moderate ;  so  that 
it  is  a  very  favorable  place  for  careening  and  repairing. 
Water  is  very  good,  but  rather  scarce;  so  that  if  a 
largo  supply  be  required,  due  notice  must  be  given. 
Ships  are  served  in  regular  rotation.  Beef  is  very 
good,  but  rather  high  priced.  Butter  and  cheese  are 
dear ;  and  fuel  is  excessively  so.  On  the  whole,  there- 
fore, Trieste ,can  not  be  considered  as  a  favorable  place 
for  the  provisioning  of  a  Fhip, 

lianking. — There  are  no  pul)lic  banks  at  Trieste,  The 
Bank  of  Vienim  has  an  office  here,  but  it  is  merely  for 
tlie  exchange  of  its  notes  for  cash,  or,  more  frequent- 
ly, of  large  notes  for  small  ones.  These  notes,  being 
guaranteed  by  government,  are  legal  tender,  and  in 
general  circulation,  but  no  other  company  is  allowed 
to  issue  notes  to  bo  used  as  a  circulating  medium. 
There  is  not,  however,  any  deficiency  of  currency. 
Banking  business  is  transacted  by  private  companies, 
or  by  individuals,  who  are  subject  to  certain  regula- 
tions, and  are  obliged  to  lay  before  competent  authority 
an  attested  statement  of  tlie  capital  embarked  in  their 
conccnis.  Their  business  principally  consists  in  pro- 
curing bills  of  exchange  from  other  places  for  the  use 
of  the  merchants  of  Trieste,  or  in  discounting  (in  which 
latter  operation  they  have  many  private  competitors), 
at  the  rate  of  from  4  to  6  per  cent,  per  annum,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  paper  offered,  and  in  propor- 
tion to  the  scarcity  or  abundance  of  cash. 

The  Austrian  official  returns  of  imports  from  the 
United  States  for  Trieste  alone,  it  is  seen,  exceed  the  . 
returns  for  all  the  Austrian  ports,  as  per  United  States 
Treasury  Reports.  More  than  three-fcurths  of  the  for- 
eign commerce  of  Trieste  is  carried  on  along  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  remainder  is  distributed 
between  England,  the  United  States,  Brazil,  Mexico, 
the  Antilles,  Russia,  and  the  Netlierlands.  The  diieut 
trade  between  the  port  of  Trieste  and  the  two  Americas, 
the  Indies,  and  China,  has  within  a  few  years  liccuinr 
more  active,  and  the  tonnage  specially  employed  liv 
this  port  in  such  direct  trans-Atlantic  commerce  iiotu- 
bly  augmented,  in  consequence  of  tlie  successful  compe- 
tition on  the  part  of  the  states  lying  on  the  basin  of  tlie 
Mediterranean  with  Trieste  fur  a  portion  of  this  trade. 

Tlie  average  annual  value  of  the  general  commerce 
of  Trieste  during  the  preceding  ten  years  was  :  Imports 
140,000,000  fri-ncs;  and  exports  76,000,000  francs;  a 
total  of  210,000,000  francs. 

The  figures  from  1H39  to  1849  show  nn  increase  in 
imports  of  70  per  cent.,  and  in  exports  of  8  per  cent. 
The  great  difl'erence  between  the  increased  values  of 
total  imports  and  exports  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  produce  or  manufac- 
tures of  Austria  finds  its  way  to  foi  ign  countries 
through  the  port  of  Trieste,  Most  of  this  kind  of  mer- 
chandise destined  for  the  East,  the  United  States,  and 
South  America,  is  forwarded  by  the  lower  Danube,  by 
the  Flbe,  and  by  Hamburg  and  Bremen.  Besides,  this 
difference  can  not  be  regarded  aa  an  evidence  that  the 


ne«r  channela  to  th   ,  J'  '"'  ^«>y  great      l„    ""'  "^      F""*5  sUto,' «? 

manuft.cture,  of  the  United  «,,'.'"  "''  P'oduc  2d      ^'^'l^'-'-': '« 

principal  citief^rCo  '  1°,"'''''  T"«»'e  wUh  ^J' 

•  «rgo  German  tr  Je  '^'it"""  "f « *'  th,  entreat  of 

ffluoication  witi,  the  Levant  r^  ""J^^'  «<cam  com 
•ndria;  and,  when  the  nL  ""'.'"""""Pie,  an^Aw" 
•h.U  have  b'een  e"tibll£e7"^!:'  i'"*  '»  C  ft 
•»ton«ve  depfit  for  the  rat'  I^?'?.'*'"  become  an 
States.     During  the  four  ye^r,  „^."»'»  of  ".e  United 


Dutcli,     

j;»i»»  stita.:: 

«»n««tio.,.. 

8p«nl.h.,.      ' 

I  nuasUo      "" 


^r,rpsr .^i;:?;^""' 

i^liiill-#ii£*- 


vr  iT  """ng  the  four  V9,„T  .-  ""  "^  "'^  United 
Yorli  received  direct  from  ?r 'r*^"^ "'"'  '«»3.C 
value  of  12,085,282,  annxDnr,^  >««'chandi8e  totZ 
place  goods  of  'the  va?ue  ofTl  aI"  "■='  ">  ">«  »«™a 
'"ff  summary  exhihi..  .u     *''°80,575.     Tha  fnii" 


1846.. 
1«7. . . 
1848....' 
1849.,.. 
1850. .     ■ 
18.51..     ■ 

i8»a...  " 

1863...   ■' 

1854..     ■■ 
18U.. 


U,f8i 

u,a  I 

i7,8ia 

80,658 

21,124 

Hioi 

«r,08i 

a.817 

'  2a,6s« 

•  81,081 


M«,8IS 
1,260,258 
1.328, 7M 
J,*>8,80» 
l,fise,as2 
),<l7S,gS« 


^'M,i!20agam8t  1,631  6611  »h„.        °  '*»'  "'roe  vo.r. 
a  space  is  fnnn,i  »„  i  '  .   -''  ""' '"urease  within  .  ^i    ' 


S;:;:::::::::::::;S  »:: ^^ fe- =,^ar^"■«:U^^^ 

1846...: :::;; ^i  's^o..  ::;: i^   to i848, .mounted t^4l6  7n«^'°' '"''«»=». froriSfl 

-S-ttuSHr-'  '"«  '"^'' n-ber  that  R^^^^^^^^^ 

under  the  Grtk  fll^"  tVl"""'"^  '""  33«6  ves  elf   ri'  '.'  ^''""^  ^"^  tsw  3  e^Z"""^?"'''"''^"*"^ 

Belgian  flag.     The    'latli^  "'"'"'^'"'  ^8,  undo^   IS.  f!,'''.*"''  Greece,  E^pl  r?" '  ^■''«'-928  'on.' 

ihe  relative  importance  of  the  flag  „f   f!^' '""' "»""  fron.  25  ,74?tona  t  ^«?''  *'"'  B'ack 


CoimlriM. 


American  . . . 

I  Belgian  .... 

I  Braiilian.      ' 

Danish....  

I  French.       

g„'«,1JS,":«"i™ii:::: 

I  fJsapoHtan  ..'.' 

Holland...       

I  j['"'key  ...  I  B^ 

Pontlllcai  s^^; 191 

Mrusslan |  6 

Russian...     

Sardinian.. 

I  Spanish..       

I  1    .Total..'.' 

I  ^MWan  . . . . . . ; 

Total,  isiw'.' 
_TotaU856. 

"~        6C" 


13 


2,319 

15» 


6,733 

729 

990 

2,910 

2,030    ,        ,.      .        .       - 


16 


'S I .?;  1 3 


ilsT 


1.SSI 


9,636 
",724 
.,24.'> 
1,2.14 
2,010 

-,'9S« 
5,721 
9.227 


8,030 
2,486 


17,641 

20,1,W 


41 


13 


1,974 

6,033 

2,074 

100 

siio4 

1,227 
6,033 
J,946 

949 


IB 
160 

06 
20B 
18 
69 
12 


13 

4 

26 


988,'«28 


l.MT 
IS» 

'liS4 
1,T8T 
20,000 
23,667 
22,411 
1.9SS 
T,flBff 
l.«eO' 
JO* 

siioi 

,22T 
-.602 
1,783 


_4«56 
6287~ 


4«5!l 


# 


TRI 


1874 


TRI 


The  treaty  of  1829,  between  the  United  Statsi  and 
Austria,  establiihei  a  perfect  reciprocity  of  commnrcial 
intercourse  between  the  two  cuuntrles.  Its  principal 
stipulations  are  ai  follows : 

There  shall  be,  between  the  United  States  territories 
•Bd  those  of  Austria,  a  reciprocal  liberty  of  commerce 
and  navigation.     All  the  ports,  places,  and  rivers  of 
the  territories  of  either  power,  open  to  foreign  com- 
merce, shall  be  open  to  the  inhabitants  of  each  re- 
spectively.   Austrian  vessels  arriving,  either  laden  or 
In  ballast,  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  and,  recip- 
rocally, vessels  of  the  United  States,  either  laden  or  in 
ballast,  arriving  in  the  ports  of  Austria,  shall  be  treat- 
ed, on  their  entrance,  during  their  stay,  and  at  their 
departure,  upon  the  same  footing  as  national  vessels 
coming  from  the  same  place,  with  respect  to  the  duties 
of  tonnage,  light-houses,  pilotage,  and  port  charges,  of 
whatever  kind  or  denomination,  levied  in  the  name  or 
to  the  profit  of  the  government,  the  local  authorities, 
or  of  any  private  establishment  whatever.     All  kinds 
of  merchandise,  and  articles  of  commerce,  either  the 
produce  of  the  soil  or  of  the  industry  of  either  country, 
which  may  lawfully  be  imparted  Into  each  respective- 
ly, shall  be  admitted  on  payment  of  the  same  duties 
and  charges,  of  whatever  kind  or  denomination,  as 
are  applicable  if  imported  under  the  national  flag. 
This  equalization  of  import  duties  and  other  charges 
to  apply  to  the  vessels  and  cargoes  of  each  country 
respectively,  whether  they  clear  directly  from  the  ports 
of  the  country  to  which  they  belong,  or  from  the  ports 
of  any  other  foreign  country.     The  produce  or  manu- 
facture of  either  country  shall  be  admitted  into  the 
ports  of  the  other  on  the  same  terms  as  the  like  arti- 
cles, being  the  produce  or  manufacture  of  any  other 
foreign  country ;  and  no  prohibition  shall  be  imposed 
on  the  importation  or  exportation  of  any  article,  the 
produce  or  manufacture  of  either  country,  to  or  from 
the  ports  of  the  other,  which  shall  not  equally  extend 
to  all  other  nations.    The  vessels  of  both  powers,  re- 
spectively, shall  be  admitted  into  the  ports  of  either, 
on  the  same  terms  as  national  vessels,  with  the  produce 
or  manufacture  of  their  own  or  of  any  other  country. 
An  exact  reciprocity  shall  be  observed  in  the  ports  of 
the  territories  of  either  power,  in  respect  to  the  vessels 
of  the  other  exporting  or  re-exporting  merchandise  or 
produce  of  any  country  not  prohibited ;  and  the  fume 
bounties  and  drawbacks  shall  be  allowed,  whether  such 
exportatio.i  or  re-exportation  be  made  in  vessels  of  the 
one  party  or  of  the  other.     The  coasting  trade  is  re- 
served by  each  power  to  its  own  vessels,  respectively. 
All  favors  hereafter  granted  by  either  party,  in  respect 
of  navigation  or  commerce,  to  any  other  nation,  shall 
become  common  to  the  other  party,  freeiy,  if  it  was 
freely  granted  to  such  other,  or  on  similar  terms  if  it 
were  conditional.     The  consuls,  vice-consuls,  agents, 
and  commissioners  of  each  of  the  high  contracting  par- 
ties shall  ei^oy,  in  the  porta  of  the  other,  the  same 
privileges  and  powers  as  those  of  the  most  favored 
nation.     The  treaty  to  continue  in  force  for  ten  years, 
with  the  usual  twelve  months'  notice  by  either  party 
desiring  to  terminate  it  after  that  time. 

Tmnage  Vutiet.—Oa  the  24th  January,  1864,  the 
central  maritime  government  of  Austria  issued  public 
notice  that  from  that  date  the  tonnage  duties  in  force 
at  the  port  of  Trieste  should  be  extended  to  all  ports 
throughout  the  empire  open  to  commerce.  These  du- 
iies  are  regulated  by  orders  dated  8th  November,  1846, 
ami  are  as  fbllows : 

n.Kr. 

National  venela,  ISO  tons,  or  ol.'  ^r per  ton,  0    1 

National  vcMOls,  100  tons "       0    4 

National  veHselft,  over  100  tons '  **       16 

Foreign  vcaacla,  without  regard  to  tomiaga      "       10 

A  mercantile  btute  in  New  York,  long  engaged  in 
the  direct  trade  between  that  port  and  Trieste,  fur- 
nishes the  following  statement  of  charges  on  a  vessel 
of  1000  tons  burden,  entering  the  latter  port : 


ri.  Ki. 

100  0 

BO  0 
IBl 
11    0 


Cooparan,  at  6  kreutasrs  per  ton 

Pilolaa*,  at  I  knutsera  pel  wn 

Heallh  department  upon  arrival  and  at  departure 

Marina  tutituU. . ...  • ^ 

Ught-houae  dues,  T  kieutaers  per  ton "»  4° 

TotalazpaiiaeonavaasaloflOOOtons Ml  U 

According  to  otHcial  returns,  the  value  of  the  Im- 
ports Into  Austria  during  the  year  1857  amounted  to 
281,932,922  florins,  producing  an  amount  of  duty  of 
19,179,777  florins.  The  value  of  tho  imports  fall  short 
by  7,498,880  florins,  a  diminution  which  explains  a  fall- 
ing olf  in  the  duties  to  the  amount  of  1,770,422  florins. 
The  exporU  In  1867  represonUd  a  value  of  231,018,109 
florins,  bringing  In  duties  to  the  amount  of  494,717 
florins.  Upon  these  Agures,  as  compared  with  the  re- 
turns of  the  preceding  year,  a  falling  off  of  20,417,491 
florins,  and  of  108,977  florins,  is  observable, 

COMMDOB  or  m  Post  or  Tanm  im  185T. 


COBBtriM. 


Great  BrIUIn 

Uanae  Towni. .... 
United  SUtaa  .... 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Spain 

France 

Greece 

Ilanuver 

Netherlands 

Ionian  Islands. . . 

Mecklenburg 

Moldavia 

Naplee 

Oldenburg  

Roman  States  . . . 

Portugal 

Pruula 

Samnlotea 

Sardinia 

Scrvia 

Sweden  and  Norway. 

Tuscany 

Turkey 

Total  iaillng  vessels 


Austria 

Qreal  Britain 

Netherlands 

Turkey 

Total  iteamers... 
Grand  Total. . . 


VmmIi.  I      Tom. 


6T 

16,808 

• 

1,168 

46 

16,188 

8,MS 

898,886 

S 

88( 

18 

8,161 

IT 

4,661 

to 

8,081 

SM 

S6,«1T 

« 

880 

N 

»,6T4 

« 

i,K6 

a 

501 

10 

1,840 

617 

40,88T 

a 

416 

S98 

11,868 

1 

410 

8 

t,84S 

s 

180 

41 

6,866 

1 

^188 

40 

10,188 

n 

1,061 

66 

8,868 

i;t45 

847 

38 

9 

1 


497,017 

183,648 

86,684 

898 


8ei,681> 
T4T,T06 


64 

T 

4T 

8,166 

9 

18 

16 

90 

911 

9 
69 
66 

8 

8 
688 

4 
894 

1 

■8 

1 
88 

1 
41 

6 


Ton*. 


9,T88 

844 

8T 

1 

1 


80,896 

1,068 

80,886 

804,641 

488 

6,840 

6,84T 

8,808 

89,416 

886 

ii,iwa 

8,608 

1,019 

1,171 

87,811 

786 

88,636 

410 

8,763 

119 

6,690 

118 

11,348 

961 

4,101 


617,998 

11»,4.13 

16,681 

400 

361 


866,816 
773,814 


Coiuuias  or  Vamoa  roa  thi  Yiab  1867, 


Foreign  vesaels, . . . 
Coasting  and  Austrian 

vessels ■ 

Roman  coast'g  vaassls. 
Total 


T»9 

'8676 

177 


161,614 

800,446 

7,678 


466,688 


CUnod. 


VoMOlo.  I      Toni. 


816     161,671 

8668     804,719 

161         7,111 


4636 


473,613 


Value  of  importa teat  18,480,300 

Value  of  exports "    13,110,860 

Generai  Jitmarlct. — ^The  development  of  the  maritime 
commerce  of  Austria  datea  back  ae  far  as  1815,  or, 
rather,  from  that  period  down  to  1880;  during  which  it 
gradually  attained,  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  steam  naviga- 
tion, a  high  state  of  prosperity.  The  great  commercial 
activity  of  the  empire  is  principally  aoncentratcd  at 
the  port  of  Trieste ;  Venice  and  Fiume,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  it  respects  foreign  trade,  being  but  subsidiary  to 
this  vast  entrepot.  Besides  these,  Austria  possesses 
on  the  Adriatic,  26  ports  of  secondary  rank,  which 
claim  importance  chiefly  from  their  extensive  coasting 
trade.  The  principal  of  these  are  Chioggia,  15  miles 
south  of  Venice;  Rovigno,  in  Istria;  Zara,  Spalato, 
and  Ragusa,  in  Dalmatia.  This  city  was  founded 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  and  once  ei^oy- 
ed  an  extensive  trade,.  Tt  still  exports  manufactures 
of  silk,  leather,  rosoglio,  anchovies,  etc.  It  continued 
tb  be  a  republic  under  the  successive  protection  of  the 
Greeks,  Venetians,  and  Turks,  until  1800,  when  it  was 


ri.  K». 

100    0  ' 

DO    0 

rtun     1 81   . 

18    0 

n««o 

55ru 


porta  on  the  Croati, 
ff«  ports.     Prior 


rnt 


ClMIW).                 1 

ll. 

Tom. 

M 

90,8»5 

7 

2,088 

47 

80,28S 

M 

804,l»41 

it 

4W 

1» 

6,840 

16 

B,!47 

SO 

S,80> 

SI 

80,41« 

i 

333 

fi 

11,N0 

15 

8,(S08 

8 

1,019 

8 

1,S7» 

38 

87,818 

4 

TS5 

94 

83,5S< 

1 

410 

■8 

2,763 

S 

319 

38 

6,690 

1 

188 

41 

18,343 

6 

961 

M 

4,101 

88 

617,998 

44 

889,413 

87 

86,628 

1 

400 

1 

363 

83 

866,816 

71 

773,814 

-..»r,  equally  beneficial  to  tLT-"'^""<'»'edbv  an  ?"'•  ""  "i"  «(! 

«  ..-namely,  the  ne^.ari.^thlt""'"  ^""".erce ofVul"    ""-^hanrtise  before  ^ 
Ist  February,  1852      r,.  .     "  "*"'  '"lo  oner«ti„„         ""  *<"  modi/Jed  anrt  „.i; — "' 

2  florins  30  fcreutzi.  „^ '"'^.^'^'  o"  "'"'"'nufactured  w       ""' '"  ""'«  »»rl<  1  ho  M;^    ,"  '"  '^°"'»'  "P,  «n,i  re 


lbs.;. hat  heingtC;   I"  f  ?;',!'''•' ^'"^ 

ner.     Several  articlerir     ■  "'"  '^'■"■■'»'''"'  "oll-cent  in  r"        '"  '''''""«''  "'  thj  adohtl^ ,    ,?f ""'  ''"""f 

mittedbythetariffoM  ?  ""'""""'  l^^' «"•,  are  ad  " rn   •" ''  '•"  ""derstand  whffti           •'''''^''"'^ 

for  example,  alum   Lf "'"'""''"  "'ore  moderate  fhT '^"^                                             "  """'  b" 

imiba    n»..-        '  "',e''""al  rated  at  72i  wn,        '  ,    '  PO^'O"  of  (he  tariff  .1       ^'"''""'""'nerated  in 


TBI 


1876 


vm 


of  IK2,  M  wall  M  tha  adoption  of  tha  prsMnt  Urilf 
(of  lH.'i4),  ara  let  forth  in  an  article  which  appaared  in 
the  ofllcial  Journal,  piibliahed  at  Vienna,  of  tha  16th 
Docemlxr,  1868. 

In  refarenca  to  tha  treaty  with  Pruaala,  thia  artlole 
holda  the  following  lanKuage :  "  Other  cooiideratlona 
induced  a  revision  of  the  taiiff  of  1862.  The  treaty 
with  Pruaala  ii  tlia  first  step  in  reforming  tho  com- 
mercial policy  of  the  empire,  From  it  must  result,  at 
no  very  distant  day, an  Austro-Oarman  Customs  Union; 
and  a  general  reduction  in  tarltT  dutiea  ia  the  moat  flt- 
tio);  prelude  to  so  desirable  an  event.  Biesldea,  the 
commercial  treaty  of  August  7,  1862,  aoncluded  with 
Parma  and  Hodena,  removea  all  obstacles  to  an  Austro- 
Italian  Customs  Union ;  and  thus  the  event  referred 
to  (an  Austro-Oermaii  Customs  Union)  would  present 
a  guarantee  for  the  prosperity  and  peace  of  the  conti- 
nent. The  changes  and  modillcations  which  could 
contribute  to  this  end  should  command  our  most  seri- 
ous consideration.  These  are  principally  such  ra<luo- 
tions  in  tariff  duties  as  are  demanded  by  the  beat  in- 
terests of  commerce — not,  however,  to  an  extent  that 


might  Ib  any  w«y  prove  detrimental  to  the  industrial 
resourcsa  of  the  empire.  Succeeding,  aa  it  docs,  a  ro- 
itrictive  system,  in  operation  for  more  than  half  a  cen-< 
tury,  the  uriff  of  1862  is  still  encumbered  with  onerous 
duties  and  oppressive  reatiiclions,  repugnant  to  a  great 
association  of  states  accustomed  to  the  most  liberal 
system  of  commercial  policy.  Besides,  the  augment- 
ed exports  of  18K2  and  1863  demonstrate  tha  wise  policy 
of  a  general  reduction  of  tariff  dutioK,  and  furnish  in- 
contestal>l«  evidence  that  auch  a  mcasuiu  will  most 
effectually  repair  tha  evils  of  pasi  commercial  legisla- 
tion." The  preceding  remarks  contain  .-k  summary  of 
the  otHcial  expoii  already  referred  to,  and  explain  the 
motives  that  Induced  the  general  rcmodiflcation  of  'he 
Austrian  tariff.  The  aliolition  of  the  government 
monopoly  of  tobacco  would  remove  the  most  serious 
and  the  only  remaining  restriction  on  American  com- 
merce. The  customs  union  with  the  Uormanio  states, 
so  much  desired  by  Austria,  will  accomplish  this,  if  it 
should  not  be  effected  before  that  event  shall  happen. 
—U.  a.  Com.  Jtehtioiu.  The  following  is  an  exhibit 
of  the  commerce  of  tlie  U.  S.  with  Austria  for  B7  years : 


CoHiiaaoB  or  nn  Ukitbo  CiAToa  wim  Taiaara  akd  ornan  AvsTaiAX  Posts  om  Tna  AnaixTio,  raoH  Ootobkb  1, 1820, 

to  .Jolt  1, 18U 


YwnMulliit 

Eiporl.. 

laipoito. 

W)i«rtoftli.r4«  ilD 
•iiUhn  •ii4  il|i«la. 

T«nU|«  el«w«4.        1 

DomMllo. 

Vonlri 

ToUl. 

Taltl. 

Kiport. 

inroit. 

Amtrlcftn. 

Portlfj. 

Sept.  80,1821 

1829 

1898 

189* 

1«36 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1880 

Total. . . 

8ept80,188l 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1885 

1836 

1837 

1888 

1839 

1840 

Total... 

Sept  80, 1841 

1849 

«mo«.,    1848* 

Juno  80, 1844 

1846 

1846 

1S47 

1U3 

1849 

IS60 

Total... 

June  SO,  1851 

1859  

1863 

1854 

1865 

1856 

IS.W 

$Sl,t81 
38,752 
96,097 

6.6:>6 

8,S3i 

13.387 

42,671 

119.233 

41)9,288 

8I0,8>1) 

$,308,680 
436,968 
919,618 
618,067 
643,663 
973,938 
934199 
206v266 
980,3110 
90;i,26l 

$ll40,uei 
475.790 
945815 
624  'SO.) 
66i,402 
987,320 
270,793 
824,483 
689,483 
694,130 

$929,7^2 
274,376 
189.187 
249,867 
106,88) 
198,169 
108,546 
937,878 
101,896 
132,0.3 

'.'.'.'. 

$9.H,189 

9,20) 

18,289 

167,717 

3,033 

4,000 

10,804 

'"400 
912 

1,8.6 
3.B6I 
3,sl8 
9.136 
8,246 
'     1,879 
9,090 
8,008 
6,884 
4.069 

'i99 
232 

$9117,0118 

$'J76,66t 
199  911 
14^.,   17 
618,609 
818,876 

1,188.431 

1,833,87.1 
043,223 
429,6TS 

1,6»Oi!15l5 

$4,113,66^ 

$263,808 
980,775 
408,447 
9M,72S 
384,1138 
82'.),(i74 
878,291 
125,740 
169,971 
196,904 

$6,UO,06u 

$539,869 

1,I86.C8D 

e54,C0t 

1,4738,7 

1,302.413 

1,968.106 

l,6)l,5Jl 

703,  Ilia 

692,249 

1,780.691)  J 

$1,036,076 

$161,009 
863,097 
814,011 
630,614 
492,607 

1,099.1199 
62  J,  46,5 
072,373 
477.539 
878  865 

$2",M0 
.44,150 

$296,068 
$1,900 

32,000 
41477 
3,800 

7',9i9 
1,600 

31,678 

4,916 
6.497 
8,804 
7,630 
6,609 
8,044 
9,179 
4,974 
3,06'.) 
11,898 

411 

1,591 
1,701 
3,3U7 
9.618 
4.931 
12,919 
978 
9,874 
6  0S1 

$1I,9»4,U81 

$1,268,776 

748,179 

400,240 

1,287,286 

1,483,108 

1,104.468 

1,176875 

l,70l,4!'5 

943,489 

1,179,890 

$4,639,866 

$52,r80 
136,696 

uaoso 

1C8,736 
368,776 
S66,143 
78  348 
107  797 
4>l,876 
312,111 

$11,634,397 

$1,311,786 
884,706 
679,178 
1,426,020 
1,801,873 
1,470,611 
1,348,733 
1,8«),999 
1,400,8C6 
1.492,1101 

$4  788,737 

$418,606 
413,210 
72,96V 
t39.0S9 
321,650 
870,719 
187,341 
885.818 
41)9,1-8 
4(i7.6!)l 

$46,450 

$40,5'J6 

$3,038 

'7,883 
1,287 
8,900 

50,189 

10,860 
10,690 

8,679 
10,807 
15,470 
13,S62 

7,861 
10,299 
11,170 

6.!I08 

38,745 

1,901 
361 
1,789 
3,918 
9,108 
8.841 
5,279 
4,098 
5,758 
6,389 

$ll,9il,3IIS 

$3,265,678 
2,408,53il 
2,062,481 
l,697,.'ilfl 
1,977,6  ( 
3,288  788 
3,173,065 

$.',169,669 

$330,804 
3'*,S81 
171,804 
I()6.9:0 
129,974 
906,1)65 
989,610 

$13,419,902 

$2,496,467 
3,783,<ilO 
3,284.988 
1,903,609 
1.890,801 
9,444,843 
9,466  681 

$;f,'.88,U64 

$730,788 
808.749 
628,667 
741,919 
496.983 
476541 
429.365 

.... 

$16,808 

$147,736 
93,'000 

10'J,702 

10,179 
14.094 
11.736 
13,015 
9.817 
16,916 
16,181 

42,416 

18  371 
1S,4()0 
9,244 
5,401 
7,029 
6,68i 
1,614 

Nino  iiioiHiis  to  June  30,  and  the  fiscal  year  Urom  this  time  kegli'S  July  I. 


Trinidad.  Trinidad  is  separated  from  the  main 
land  of  South  America  by  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  It  is 
about  90  miles  long  and  60  miles  wide,  with  an  esti- 
mated superflcial  area  of  2020  iiquan!  miles.  Capital, 
Puerto  d'Espatla.  Trinidad  appears  at  a  distancu  like 
an  immense  ridge  of  rocks  along  its  whole  north  (Vont ; 
but  on  enterini;  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent, variegated,  richly  luxuriant  panoramas  that 
nature  ever  formed  ia  presented  to  the  eye  of  the  voy- 
ager. To  tha  east  the  waves  of  the  mighty  Orinoco 
dispute  for  the  empire  of  the  ocean  with  contending 
billows,  and  the  lofky  mountains  of  Cumana  rise  from 
the  horizon  in  stupendous  mi^esty;  and  on  the  west 
appear  tha  cape,  keadlanda,  mountains,  hills,  valleys. 


and  plains  of  Trinidad,  enameled  with  eternal  verdure. 
The  fecundity  of  the  soil,  its  gigantic  vegetation,  its 
beautiful  rivers,  enchanting  slopes,  forests  of  palms, 
groves  of  citrons,  and  hedges  of  apices  and  perfumes, 
its  fine  azure  skies  and  elastic  atmosphere,  have  each 
and  all  combined  to  crown  the  isle  with  the  appellation 
of  "  The  Indian  Paradise."  The  island  is  evidently  a 
section  of  the  opposite  continent ;  the  same  strata,  the 
same  rocks,  fossils,  etc.,  aro  common  to  both.  Its 
formation  is  evidently  volcanic,  and  in  many  parts 
volcanic  action  is  still  going  on,  as  indicated  by  its 
mud  volcanoes  and  other  cognate  developments.  The 
precious  metals  are  not  found  here,  nor  indeed  are  any 
others,  except  in  small  quantities.   Coal  ik  found  about 


TBI 

fl»«mll(nfromtli««horfl   n  .  .  ^®^'  ^.  - 

cover.  .,,  „„.  of  h,,  ,?.'"'•'"">'.  <"  Pitch  lA.  »hl  t  '"''  ""''  '>r  '"•'  »><.  .    • 

Trinity  Bona*     '11,^?  n   .  !   '   "'"  "'''oh  countn- 1.  1   .    ^'''>'  '"eemed  in  Phi 


Undivided  Trinity  «„h?A  ,   '"  '"""  Glorion,  »lj     •  ""•^"'"o'ion, 

iMUtution  to  whoM  men,be«  i  ^°""'^  "'  Kent" -a  i„  .  '"r""  '"  '••'si't  iuchc,  ?„  T  '^=«'  '"  '«ngth,  .„!. 
•nont  of  .o.ne  of  the  Cu™'  '",""""''  "'«  "'ana^  ? „'""«!''.  «■"'  two  or  Co  i;cU  ?"''•«"'"«•  A  '.^an 
«eamen  and  »hippin„of  En„ r^?"?"'  '"'""''Is  of  thJ  h  °""""''>'  »'"•  Tl  .  aul^?"  '"ei"l>,  is,  however 
toff  ther  with  the  ho^L  "f  th  ''    ^'"' """"  ""ord,    K.T"""'  "»  "»'  ''?  any  Icilf  h""  *''"'"'  «'  ""'rh' 


«PP«aranco  of'anTm";;;'''     

•»  much  aa  two  ?'"."'.""<">•    Some. 

"8''t  inchc,  fn  circum?„ '"  '*"«"'•  «"•• 

toff  ther  with  the  ho^L  "f  th  ''    ^'"' """"  ""ord,    K.T"""'  "»  "»'  ''?  any  Icilf  h""  *''"'"'  «'  "«'  ««" 
"royed  by  tire  in  17u         ."""  ""'Poration  we«  rf  '      "'  "P""  Propertie.  i„  !,'".'  '''Pe"''  "pon  iu  ... 

««ional  mention  of  it,  purDol^  'f";  w«go  and  the  oo-  ^.m""*?^''  '"  "■«  'f«de     ?,  ^ri,'""*  '"''  ^"-^ 

wor  period.     A  sim  ij^"  '^-  !  '  '"  ''"ouments  of  a  for  *' ''  '"''«■•  out  by  th«  h..  '" '''•"''w  water  the  an 

;v.a  afterward  taUblhedaTlV'-f"'  '"•  '"^o  Pu  PoIe  '  J^  T""™''  »P«"d.     Vhe^it"' '?  ""'P''  "«•"" 

Newe.atl^„po„.T/„e  i"",^' """. 'nd  "'o  another  ai  l'^,'""'  «""  -moked  ovej  ^1'"'  ' ''  e""'"-  dried 

«1  bj-  the  Emperor  cZ7eT'»'i°"<'f  that  found-   ""..h"""  'L'"  ''"'«">  shore. 'f  K.     n*!"-^ '' ''"I'd 
who,  observinir  the  nnn.         ^-  "  Seville,  in  Snain    ^  "'.'"""''""•«»  of  Austrnli.  V  ^°^.  C"'"««.  and  the 

ignoranco  of  seamen  csLl  k  1  J'''  """'oned  by  the   nH     '*''  °"  "'"  »''»"!.  ofThe  t,*'.^^''  'UccessfuUy 
tratacion,  lectur«ron'„.f    ''''"''  »'  "'o  «/m  rfe  a™!     u  ''"™  8oe.  to  China.     ,',.'"'""•"•    The  whole 

tha  «»min.tioro;:tr Sor-  T  '  """'■"'i-^  ietii'T  "'•.?'"  "^ "^-^""""ry tu";*;!,'"  *'««-' 
al8o  directed  book,  tn  h„  •""  '."'"'  mariners;  having  «.'  "°  distinguished  J^A  •  ,  """"  '*'"i'  va. 
the  usocf  naviKa^'"  '"'published  on  that  suMe^rfof  «'''!''''':  ''»"«"  » %.W  na?P  ,"^'"  ''^''«  Wflve 
the  iocorporat  o^,?h","  founTn"  "«  '"  """«  -X ilf^,  IT  P"™'  «="  variety  ffi  '  ^.^  '»  .'""rteen  ,i„e, 
ProbaWe'^h.t  wftirHenrv  vr , '"  ^'"'  ^'"""  ^*'»-  "  i»  Iv  .n  p,  •'"""•  ^'■''  qian1^^,?„f  I!*""'""'  ''>'  »«"- 
afterward  carried  nToeffiTV-  ^':'''""'"«<'  the  schemeC^.'"""'™'"  ^fo^o^^ar  ."ibo„  fe*.""!'  «"'»"''- 
of  forming  efficient  v^  effect  by  hi.  son,  Henry  Virr     7,\l  """  P"™  usually  varv,v„  ,"'  '"^  P'^uls,  or  8333 

the»iir.tl:*riSr.\l^''''"?''^«-'^Uhc^^ 

During  the  reign  of  He„,Tvm  Tk"  "'  "'"'"'=  »-'^'^    steratl^'"^''^'  '''"•  '"'  P  '  «     Sf  "",:7'">'''  '- 

w«ch  and  Deplford  w««  r      I"  "■*  *"'»'«ls  at  Wool     ?  1  ■ ,       fP""  "f  tripang  from  M.  »,  '  ''"'  •  '"n- 

ministered.  It  i,T  •',"',"''y"d  economically  ad  \fo^'  '^"'''t',  goata'-halr  .ackim?  n^^"^  j  '  '""•' 
ofthe"wI  :,  ''^''"efoMh,  however  (n  fc,^^  I  ""^^ '""ther,  and  DotMh  ti,  *^'  P^Pa^d  skins, 
thaTn.  *'"'*'""«  Marine  Fund  "    Th;  1./       f "'  P""'"'»  of  Central  Afi^iT^     J  u*'*'  '°«^"'"  "ith  the 


TRI 


1878 


TRO 


Tht  Mvlgation  ind  coinmere*  of  tht  two  prineli  al 
porU,  for  *  turiai  uf  year*,  ira  thus  givtn  by  Kronch 
uuthorlliu  I  In  184U  thii«  tiiturcd,  Turkiih  veanln, 
108;  Unak,  a&;  Tiucan,  14;  Mallcw,  14;  Krencli,  14; 
KuuUn,  4 ;  Englith,  U ;  ttardlnlan,  1 ;  Auatrtan  and  Si- 
cilian, each,  1.  ToUl,  1U6  v«u«li ;  of  which  167  wero 
Iniloi^  with  uiarchandlu  valued  at  1,872,000  fraiici, 
OurhiK  tho  lame  yaar  thcra  cleared — Turklih  vcmcU, 
78;  (Ireok,  ii;  Tuuaii,  Hi;  Maltese,  18;  trench,  14; 
l^nglUh,  8{  Uuiaian,  2;  Sardinian,  2  j  Auatrlan  and 
Sicilian,  each,  1.  Total,  161)  veieeli ;  of  which  121  were 
laden  with  produce  valued  at  083,000  franci.  In  the 
port  of  Uan){azi  there  entered  the  aanie  year  142  vat- 
uU,  a(  which  lU  wero  laden,  rrovialona  (chletly  bar- 
Icy)  and  tobacco  are  extenah'ely  and  proHtably  Im- 
ported Into  Tripoli.  This  trade  is  chieriy  monopolUed 
by  the  Turks,  (ireeks,  and  Kussians.  The  vessels  of 
these  oountrlos  trade  with  the  ports  of  the  Levant,  car- 
rj'ing  to  those  places  cargoes  of  salt  taken  on  board  at 
Zoara, 

Coiuua<ii4L  MoTutaiiTt  or  rna  RaaanoT  or  TairoLi  in 
Ufil  iUiD  1854 

ISSt.  1U4> 

Imports ftancs  l,8«6,6oo       9,2t>T.00O 

ExporU "      8,81T,0()0       «,M4.00() 

Totol "      8,812,000       5,82I,0UU 

Navigation  returns  for  this  port  io  1861  are  con- 
densed as  follows : 

Entered S04  vesHia 18,860  tona 

t'leared »»1       '•     16.8TO    " 

FoaaioK  TiAnc  or  TairoLi  in  18.^i  and  1833. 


Couli<«. 

lUl. 

orU. 

ItipofU.              1 

i«4a. 

)Na». 

iHita. 

MalU 

Turkey 

Frftnei. 

1.618.000 

4'l4,a0.l 

162,000 

IH4,000 

TUI.OOO 

664.1)00 

4000 

6,000 

15i),lt4 

Kranca. 
I,6A|,000 
3»0.IIOt) 
V86,(KX) 
22«,(K):l 
Trt.lHW 
807,000 

*6,'(i00 
7TO.600 

rraora. 

S.ia3,3'iU 

1,360.0(10 

60,000 

310.000 

8:i7,87» 

278,000 

26,000 

26,0(10 

4.000 

KruiM. 
2,608,(100 
,4M.0Ofl 
1&0.(K)0 
OOT.Mi 
861,00(1 
614,000 

'6,()00 

1  Egypt 

1  Tunis 

I  Tuaeanv 

1  Franoa 

Algeria 

Roman  statea 

Auatria 

Tha  duty  exacted  In  the  Tripolitan  ports  la  four  pi- 
iMtres  per  80  kilograms — equal  to  about  eight  cents  per 
ton.  Pilots  are  not  often  employed ;  when  required, 
the  captain  of  the  port  must  furnish  them  free  of  ex- 
pense. Quarantine  regulationa  the  aame  as  at  Con- 
stantinople. Notwithatanding  Tripoli  is  tributary  to 
the  Ottoman  empire,  there  ia  a  separate  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  that  regency,  ratilied  June  4, 
1805,  placing  the  commerce  between  the  two  countries 
on  the  footing  of  the  most  favored  nation.  —  Com.  Hel. 

r.  a. 

Titatiu. — By  the  treaty  ooncludnd  with  Tripoli  June 
4,  1805,  It  is  stipulated  that  the  consuls  and  agents  of 
both  nations,  respectively,  shall  have  liberty  to  exercise 
their  religion  In  their  own  houses ;  and  those  of  the 
same  religion  shall  not  lie  impeded  in  going  to  the 
consul's  house  at  tho  hour  of  prayer.  The  consuls 
shall  have  liberty  and  personal  security  given  them  to 
travel  within  the  territories  of  each  other  both  by  land 
and  sea,  and  shall  not  bo  prevented  from  going  on 
board  any  vessel  that  they  may  think  proper  to  visit. 
They  shall  have,  likewise,  the  liberty  to  appoint  their 
own  dragomans  aixl  brokers.  In  case  of  any  dispute 
ariaing  between  the  contracting  parties,  no  appeal  shall 
be  made  to  arms,  nor  shall  war  be  declared  under  any 
pretext  whatever;  but  if  the  consul  residing  at  the 
place  where  the  dispute  shall  happen  shall  not  be  able 
to  settle  the  same,  tho  government  of  the  country  shall 
state  It*  grievances  in  writing,  and  transmit  it  to  tho 
other ;  and  the  period  of  twelve  calendar  month*  shall 
be  allowed  for  answers  to  be  returned,  during  which 
time  no  act  of  hostility  shall  be  permitted  by  either 
party;  and  in  case  the  grievances  are  not  redressed, 
•nd  a  war  should  be  the  event,  the  consul*  and  citicens 
or  subjects  uf  both  parties,  respectively,  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  embark,  with  their  elfocts,  unmolested,  on 


board  of  what  vessel  or  vassals  they  shall  think  proper. 
If  any  disputes  shall  aris*  batween  cillxans  of  tho  li  tilt- 
ed Htatea,  or  any  peraons  under  tholr  prnloctlon,  auili 
diaputas  shall  be  settled  by  the  consul  of  the  United 
Stales  in  the  same  manner  as  slated  above,  hi  Moroc- 
co. Tha  same  provision  la  made  in  the  treaty  with 
Tripoli,  In  respect  of  homicides,  as  in  thu  treaty  with 
Morocco,  The  care  of  the  property  of  cltizena  of  the 
United  Statea  dying  In  tho  rcgoncy  uf  Tripoli  Is  to  Im 
committed  to  tho  care  of  tho  consul,  unless  otherwise 
disposed  of  by  will ;  and  no  hinderanco  Is  to  Im  inter- 
posed to  tho  execution  of  any  will  that  may  appear. 

"The  commorclol  intercourse  of  tho  United  States 
within  this  consular  district  is  dependent  suloly  on  the 
regulations  of  the  mother  country.  Thuao  regulations 
are  set  forth  In  the  tariff  settled  between  Turkey  and 
(Jroat  liriuin  on  tho  aist  of  October,  IH.'iO,  and  which 
applies  also  to  tho  United  Status,  under  that  clause  of 
our  treaty  with  Turkey  which  secures  to  us  all  tha 
privileges  of  "  tho  most  favored  nations."  Tho  com- 
merce of  tho  United  States  with  this  regency  stands  on 
tho  samu  footing  as  that  of  the  most  favored  nations. 
It  ei\joys  no  exclusive  prlvllen*  nor  sulTers  any  pecul- 
iar restrictions.  Thero  Is  only  a  port  charge  of  about 
three  cents  tho  ton,  which  Is  levied  equally  on  foreign 
and  national  vessels. 

"  Tho  true  par  or  intrinsic  valuo  of  tho  piastre  of  this 
country  Is  121  >ous,  French ;  but  we  reckon  It  at  12^ 
cents.  The  present  lioy  has,  however,  issv.  I  a  gold 
currency,  composed  of  pieces  of  100,  80,  40,  '/.',■  and  10 
piastres  each,  which  are  about  30  per  cunt,  dellclunt  In 
weight ;  and,  consequently,  In  gold  money  tho  piastra 
is  worth  only  ten  cents.  Tho  Christian  population  re. 
fuse  to  accept  this  new  gold  curn!n<!y  at  its  nominal 
value,  but  the  arbitrary  power  of  tho  bey  com|iuls  its 
circulation  among  his  own  people,  and  prices  have  ad- 
vanced nominally  already  since  its  appearance,  without 
other  apparent  cause.  Whether  absolute  power  can 
otTbct  tho  magical  work  of  maintaining  In  fVen  circula- 
tion two  curruncies  of  the  same  denumlnations  and 
names,  but  of  different  intrinsic  values,  remains  to  be 
seen. 

"  The  duties  on  exports  to  tho  United  States,  as  to  all 
other  countries,  are,  on  oil,  2^  piastres  the  metal,  which 
is  about  6-08  gallons.  United  State*  liquid  measure. 
Thus  we  have  6^^  cents  per  gallon.  This  oil  is  olive- 
oil,  and  is  of  a  quality  highly  esteemed  in  Knrope. 
The  exportation  of  horses  and  camels  is  prohibited, 
and  only  allowed  as  a  special  favor  to  individuals  or 
governments.  Tho  exportation  of  grain  is  generally 
confined  to  the  bey  himself,  who  consequently  makes 
his  own  price.  A  very  largo  portion  of  the  oil  is  also 
exported  by  tho  bey.  Tho  Import  duties  en  goo<ls  of 
tho  United  States  ire  established  at  3  per  cent,  wl 
vahrtm  by  treaty.  Tho  internal  taxes  on  the  products 
of  the  soil  are  levied  at  10  per  cent.,  but  thn  manage- 
ment of  assessors,  by  assessing  the  crop  in  its  growing 
state,  frequently  causes  the  actual  tax  to  exceed  this 
rate.  Besides,  there  are  octroi  duties,  more  cr  leas 
heavy,  on  all  articles  of  produce  solil  in  the  cities  for 
consumption."— Com.  Htl.  U.  S.     flee  Tbkatiks,  Com- 

.MEnOIAL. 

Tron  Weight,  the  most  ancient  of  the  weights 
used  in  Scotland  ;  and  though  Its  use  is  now  prohibit- 
ed by  law,  it  is  still  occasionally  employed  in  some  of 
the  rural  (listricts  in  weighing  wool,  cheese,  bntler,  etc. 
Tho  tron  pound  was  not  a  woll-delined  weight,  but  va- 
ried from  twenty-ono  to  twenty-eight  ounces  avoirdu- 
pois. 

Trough  of  tha  Bea,  In  Marint  latupmgt,  tho  sur- 
face of  water  between  two  waves.     * 

Troy  Weight,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  vhc  dif- 
ferent kinds  used  in  Britain.  The  pound  English  Troy 
contains  twelve  ounces,  or  5780  grains.  It  is  used  in 
the  weighing  of  gold,  silver,  and  Jewels;  the  com- 
pounding of  medicines ;  in  experiinoiits  in  natural  phi- 
losophy ;  in  comparing  dillbrent  w«igbt9  with  each  oth- 


been  for   he  Jf.  ,       """"'  "^  "">"'•>.     fh« 

"'""P-i  ...d  the  w'  rk"  ;n?„'°h:''"'"»"  *«™l.ou.' 
^  her  got  their  wage,  «cou  "lid  r   "."•P'''y'"'">t  have 

'"""".v,  or  they  have  Z  .i?.  '  """"  '""'vingany 

"•"pre..  underiiandngTh.  •^^l.T"'^'  •'"•  "  '""'t  or 

v«rehou.e,  „r  ,hop,  o"  the"  ll^V  '"  "!""'  "  "'« 

ftllffl  '''"■"'''"=''  *'th  "'■  ""•'''  "tidei  at 


ure^  weight,,  etc.,  .hould"^,!;"'  t^'^K  '!""  '^-"*»- 
der  hi,  predecessor,.    1,,  i™r       '  "  they  had  b,,en  Un- 

"•  Im,  t  *a,  determine  ItWth^e'n'"'"'"^  "'"*'"'''' 
E«.terl,„g,  should  bo  round  a„i^,h''7'i  P"l"'>-.  '••aHed 
weight  taken  from  the  middle  of  n!  '"''"",'"«''' the 
these  ponny.weight,  were  to  n,aU  '"•     '"'"'>• "' 

~a:d%7r",i;ot„^°r"'f""^^^^^^^^^^^ 

mMmmkmmm 


TITN 


1880 


TITN 


qwilllUn  «N  •  moitanil*  rMlilsnc*  ta  deny,  iikI  ruy 
wsnlpulailmi,  'i'h*  prlniil|ial  imttet  li  th*  lUlillll}' 
to  •lirlnli  M<1  warp.  Th*  wnoil  U  In  ceninion  uM,  on 
aruouni  nt  !(•  aliumliincw  atiil  iliaaiinnM,  for  Iha  nianii- 
fkatur*  iif  auinmnn  fMrnlliini,  ihlnKiM,  anil  ilry  liimlMr. 
TuiUl.  Tha  alaUi  at  I'unli  immmum  iiaarly  the 
aama  natural  a'trantatfaa  of  •nil  anil  I'llmaln  an  Moroeco. 
In  anrlunt  llniaa  It  wa<  nnn  nt  llin  Hraiiarloa  of  Itoma, 
•upplylMK  whaal,  inaUu,  liarlay,  ollvat,  irrapai,  liataa, 
and  otiiir  frulia,  'I'oliaiMi*,  oolton,  ami  Iniligo  liava 
rai'antly  liaan  IntroditMil  at  arllnlaa  nf  eiiltura,  and 
•mall  <|iiaiillllat  of  •allVon  ami  npluni  an  alMi  ralMd. 
Tlia  principal  inaniifa<''iira«  nf 'I'mhU  am  of  r*<l  cap*, 
•  xpnrtMl  tu  all  paria  M  lh><  Madltnrranaan  |  of  aoap,  at 
HMa  ahlaHyi  ami  of  wimlan,  allk,  ami  llnan  fabrira, 
•mi  moniniu  Inalhar.  Tha  oUM  Import!  Iiy  aaa  arc 
eodhlnaal,  raw  •Ilk,  tolhv,  ■ii|(ar,  Npanlah  wool  (to 
roaka  liirhnui>Ati,  or  rail  i'ap«),  wln"«,  iparV,  alo.  t-'ara- 
ya«4  arrlva  annually  froni  Cantral  Africa,  hrlngInK 
•lavai,  Miima,  oalrli'li  faalhxra,  koI'I  duat,  gam,  and 
Ivory,  whii'h  ara  Iwrlarad  A>r  inaniifactnrad  Rooda, 
•pkna,  ami  tfiiiipnwdari  wlilla  othcra,  from  (!onatantl- 
noplu,  lirlnit  wax,  drini  akina,  nattla,  and  ahmip,  in  r«. 
turn  fur  inutllna  ami  olliar  wnvan  fkbrlca,  Tunli  man- 
tlaa,  iiiliinUI  prodim*,  nMvnnia,  cto, 
-  Thar*  ara  no  cittli'lal  iir  rallalila  data  fVnm  which  tho 
ralun  of  tlia  Kunnral  foralun  mport  Iraria  of  'I'unla  can 
at  tho  praaant  lima  lio  KalharcMl,  'I'hn  folluwinK  atatu- 
HBDt  of  Ilia  avnratfa  annual  pxpnrta  la  liaaad  u|ion  an 
aatimala  niada  liy  Iha  Kram-h  ntnaul,  and  found  In 
MAi'iiitNUUN'a  <!iimm*rniU  Hripilmlimt  i 

Praii«. 

oiivaniu , ,,,,, a.iNiu.iino 

Wo'ii , i.soo.noo 

Itad  i<ii|i«  aarhiiiieliaa) l,Nfln,lKX) 

Olliar  wnij  una , nno.ooo 

Whiai  ami  (miaa , lao.ouo 

MiiU,  Ualua,  ula »0,OUO 

Sallla , , llNt.onO 

»«nfa* , sno.noo 

^ai.,., 40.000 

HIdaa,, , , IW.ow 

Sanna ,,.,,.., Bo.ooo 

fcap An.ooo 

KiaybanU'  laiilli  aiul  (iilit  ilatt 400,000 

Tolat  avaraK*  of  nxporta  n,VAll,0<Hi  franci,  or  nearly 
$},OUl),ta)i).  Tha  principal  port  ia  I  unit,  (itualod  on  n 
lalt  lake,  I'oininunlitatInK  wlih  iho  aca  by  a  canal  or 
itralt.  l.arKa  ahlp*  amtlior  In  tho  road  or  bay.  The 
otiiar  I'hlitfpuriaaro  llla«r(«,  Karliia,  llammamot,  SCax, 
and  (iurhla.  'I'hn  i'oniMi«ri!lal  rcUtlnna  Iwtwecn  tlio 
Unitail  Htalma  anil  Tuol«  am  rntfulatnd  liy  treaty  of 

I'clwuary  W,  IM'M.      .Vrr  'I'nKATIK*,  CoMMKnriAI..    No 

otHoinl  data  am  at  haii,|  upon  which  to  ba<>a  an  oati- 
niata  of  tlm  iih«rai't«r  or  vallin  of  tli«  trade  between 
tha  I!nltAd  Niato*  and  Ihia  r«K**«^y'  There  li  no  di- 
rael  Iriiilu,  It  l«  liuliavod,  liatwpun  tha  United  Htatea  and 
Tunl>,  I'uniliixri'lal  inovninanla  paialiiK  mainly  by  way 
of  Malta  and  Maraollla*.  MacKreK"'  tt'^"'  •  atatcmeat 
of  ihii  lMi|Hirlii  Into  and  nxporla  f^oin  Tunla  in  1839,  of 
whiuh  ili'i  fullowliiK  U  a  jiuinmary  i 

ImiiorM a  Oay.iiiKI  plaalrai  =-  30  ranta  each.* 

KaparU D.llTll.fHiO      •■ 

Talal     nt,48h;ii$Hl       ••      :;:r|n.3(l<l,IB0 

In  llua  tout  tha  Unltod  Htatea  llgiired  fori 

Imparw  fniai  t'unl «|ia,(lon  ulaalrea. 

Kaporta  Ui  Tiiiili Ua.'NIO      •' 

Towl SrM,ooO      •■       r:tl!l*,IWO 

In  IiiHil  thara  anlarad  1141  vaaiela,  with  an  aggregate 
of  K»,I|-.M  lona  ;  and  lliara  rlrariid  Bfll  vetaeia,  measur- 
ing an  agKragala  of  mi,436  ImD,  The  trade  is  con- 
dM«ta.|  nhlaflr  undar  tha  llrltl»h,  Malleae,  French, 
Nuapolilan,  Hardlnlan,  Tiinlalan,  and  Aaalrlan  flaga. 
Th"na  Import  win*,  aplrlK,  Iron,  eugar,  roflbe,  cotton, 
beana,  and  nianufa<-tur<<d  gooda ;  and  carry  back  wool, 
kldea,  wax,  Irarilla,  aitonga,  oil,  almonda,  aaltcd  flih, 
autii,  bunna,  data*,  corn  ami  maal,  wax,  loap,  titsuea 
of  waol,  atn.,  ami  jiwchaa, 

•  'fua  prwiit  valiia'vf  iFa'^plaatre  la  abuui  lil|  ecnia 


■  tmmk.   ' 

a<M».M«MU<tr 

iii 
u 

to 
lit 

"  iijiij 

Thm  anibority  ellad  givaa  the  navigation  dutka  In 
the  .IliraranI  porta  of  Tunla  aa  fbllowii 

llaUo 

Aiicliuraan  ilutlaa  . 
I'apUIn  ufpiirt  lai 

Water  tat 

Udabualil  lax 

Tola! .^ 

llealdea  theaa  flxed  rhargea,  there  are  alao  Incidental 
txpnnaei  paeullar  to  Tunla,  vU. :  lat,  All  veaaeii  which 
enter  tha  Ooietta  (.'anal  for  repain,  or  for  any  othtr 
purpoee,  pay  an  entrance  and  departure  duty  of  |ft,  and 
01  i&  beaidea,  daily.  If  the  veiael  la  alMiva  60  torn;  3d. 
A  vetaei  taking  In  liallaat  fkt>m  the  land  la  taxed  |S7S  | 
Bd.  On  every  vetiel  which  llnda  itielf  unaafb  in  the 
roadataad,  on  account  of  the  bad  quality  of  iti  cabla, 
or  ttom  any  other  reaaon,  and  wlahea  to  get  nnder  tha 
•halter  of  the  mole  of  the  (loletta,  aduty  of  12  carouhea 
(1K|  centa)  per  ton  !•  Impoaed  to  long  aa  It  romaina 
there,  renewable  every  ilx  montha.  llealdea  tbia  duty, 
the  captain  of  the  port  recelvea  76  centa.  In  addition 
to  tho  furegoing,  tha  following  Information  i>  con- 
dcnaed  from  official  return*  communicated  to  thli  De< 

fiartment :  The  total  port  charges  on  entering  the  Q<^ 
etta  (the  hart)ur  of  Tunla)  amount  to  $il  fiO  for  tighti, 
anchorage,  li-slth  officer,  etc.,  fcr  vutacla  of  over  80 
tuna;  under  30  ton),  one  half  that  charge.  Thoia 
charge!  apply  aliko  to  all  voucli,  either  Tunialan  or 
foreign. 

Export  dutiei— Inconiiderable,  however— are  levied 
upon  oil,  wool,  and  loap. 

The  import  dutiei  on  goodi  and  merchandlie  ara 
regulated  iiy  treaty,  and  amount  to  8  per  cent.  Tha 
article)  (h)in  tho  United  Statca  which  naually  And  • 
good  market  in  Tunis  are  rum,  tobacco,  iniall  freights 
of  flour,  cheap  cotton  fabrlce,  provialona,  cheese,  salt 
beef,  dried  beef,  hama,  pickica,  and  biacnit;  but  It 
would  not  lie  advisable  to  risk  largo  cargoes  of  theta 
articles.  Tho  coasting  trade  Is  permitted  to  all  for- 
eign vcsaels,  without  paying  any  other  duty  than  thote 
named  in  tho  tarllT.  The  i|uarantinn  regulatione  are: 
Quarantine  of  obsorvatlun,  fixed  at  10  days,  is  only  re- 
quired 7  or  8  days,  though  the  vessel  pays  for  10;  and 
when  coming  from  any  port  In  tiio  Medtturranoan,  she 
pays  |1  '26  per  day.  Ilesides  this  tax  others  are  levied, 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  (25  02).  On  vessels  froi" 
tho  Levant,  these  taxei,  according  to  Macgregor,  ar.i 
levied  fbr  20  days,  and  amount  to  202  p.  8  c.  ($S0  5:i). 
These  are  tho  rates  at  the  port  of  Tunis.  At  tho  other 
ports  the  quarantine  of  oliscrvation  is  usually  10  days ; 
expenses  nearly  the  same. — Com.  Ret.  U.  S. 

With  the  exception  of  certain  privileges  granted  to 
Qreat  Drilain  and  8pain,  no  privileges  permitted  to 
the  commeree  of  foreign  nations  are  denied  to  the 
United  States.  By  treaty,  Great  Britain  obtained  tlie 
privilege  of  exporting  annually  for  the  support  of  the 
garrison  of  Gibraltar,  on  payment  of  a  duty  of  $6  per 
ox  (though  the  flxed  duty  is  |tO),  2000  nxrn  Spain. 
when  fonnidalde,  obtained  by  treaty  the  following 
privileges,  vii;. :  tho  exportation  of  oxen  on  paying  a 
duty  of  (S  per  ox.  Instead  of  |I10 ;  fowls  at  I  .'■  rents  per 
dozen  instea<l  of  (I  ;  pulso  at  W  cents  per  1  k  bushel 
instead  nf  90  cents ;  and  a  proportionate  reduction  on 
all  other  eatables.  These  privileges,  however,  are  at 
present  disregarded.  No  restrictions  are  imposed  on 
the  commerce  of  other  nations  nor  on  that  of  tha 
United  States. 

The  port  charges  and  dncs  levied  on  vessels  of  the 
United  States  aro  simply  the  anchorage  dues,  which  are 
exacted  according  to  the  tonnage  of  the  vessel.  Tha 
U.  S.  Consul  says,  "  I  am  led  to  think  that  the  re- 
strictions which  obstruct  a  direct  trade  with  the  Unit- 
ed .Slates  are  the  high  duties  levied  in  the  United  .States 
on  produce  in  general  of  this  country.  If  such  duties 
were  reduced  to  a  trifling  amount,  as  they  aro  in  Great 
Britain,  a  powerful  and  salutary  influence  would  ba 
the  result.     Take,  for  example,  the  coarse  wool  of  tbtl 


TUN 


«"'•«.    li«m..v«CHv"«'lr  Into  „„„,„„,  ■  TI;R 


-      — .      ••"miiKi  cniln.li,      ,     "  V    inio  our  lnan«»  •iy«% 


Him   ho  .,„„„,  which  ex.;/!';;'''"''  ^'-n  bo  n,,."  .,  I  '.Z]"'''  f  "'«  'r.^:  ^.t.'^'!";,'  •••«'!  .".I  TuV„? 


'UHU,  tho  capital  of  ih  ^'  '' 

inl«  li  iotnewh.t  In  .i.„  .1  "'  ■*"   *■■■     llio  ll.v  ..if  1 1  '""  »'I"-Im  p,^  ,  ,|,;,^.  ^^^y-'J"^  Tiinl.  p.y  no  ,||„y, 


on  ._ 

Tunu I. .„„„,„.^ •  "K- « J. V.  K.  Tho n.;;? 


"orthMM g,|„, .  K„.  ,,.„... K.'"'"""'' '»  tli.  north  .„.   !  :...^n«l«.     Tl..'  o»HI..    .""•^'  ...  ^ 


18  i,,l  „.  'i       •"'  "'""'«  '»  mile,      T      ,""'«°''""' 
JH  mllp,  j«e,   ,„,,  ^  "lie..     I  h„  I,      ,^ 

10  0  4  f.th«„„  „,(„,.  "7   ,  "^'  "'T  ""  "^•^  I"  fro 
7  f-'et  w.t«r.     Tho  port  ',  ,  '5' "'",'"'  ''""P^'''.  «l«.Mt 


"•  Mini  Willi 

f 'ho(;r«ve„.„,, Tunnel  liwC^f^'"'  *'"""  "'BO.     Kr, 
''"»  lH«t  wonderful  Clcr.akl  ''^  "''  "'"'"'  •"  '«!« 


--"ginroushlhoiurrowlnf       "••"'■ '''«""»!,    ,,r  h„r'^*"»"' "••<•  .Manchester  .f       .'''"''''«•• 
I«ffuon  from  ,ho  ,«» •  ti, .  '  "' '"'"'  »"P«rullni..  il,.      V   , '■""■•'•"nd Tunnel  limCit     '  *'"""  ''«0-     Kr« 

'"  which  there  i,  at  il   t  ,::  7,:""  !»  "  ^^"y^aia,  ^      7,  V'?'"'  ''■"-'  ScM    '"ATT  """"  "'""^ 

"not,  ho,v,ver,rth  ,t,r,e  ^""'  ''""""  «  'i-  Soe'r)'  *■'"  '"'""  P«««CrMrH,r,r ''''''-'  '-d 

»  tiornble   I)iii-,f.,.    ,  "^"/"'"flnti  to— a  |  vewnl.  ,V  ,'  '^'"'  '''"ntft  Timnrl      Ti        ,    "  "  ^*>  '"^  — Hxri,» 

I«tio.i  ofTuni,  h.,L„r    T"  ""^"ffhto,.     ■!  i, ',',,,     '•'"''''"mii,  lo,(wo  f„,,  ;„,'"'''  '^V'""  "'Uroad,  ," 

whole,  excellent      ti'  ,   '   "'*  '  """(o  Is.  on  ihn    '"'^"'"'^  of  ancient  or  modern  (In    ^"'""""nary  con- 
It  .elJ„r"  r*  "'*""""-<""•«"•  "•  THy,,,  "y  1'^,  >'2a  '  fl      njt    'ofro'T"  'r'''"'''"-- 

mmmmmmmm 

•'the  S    X«6o".„''''"'"P''-'P«"^^^^^^^^^^ 


TUR 


1882 


TUR 


wilhoot  and  whltiiih  within.  It  is  imported  cloven  in 
tiie  middle,  lengtliwiae,  and  tlie  lieart  or  woody  matter 
talien  out.  The  best  is  ponderous,  not  wrinltled,  easy 
to  breali,  and  discovers  to  tlie  eye  a  large  quantity  of 
resinous  matter.  At  first  it  makes  an  impression  of 
rweetncbB  on  tiie  taste;  but,  wiien  chewed  for  some 
time,  betrays  a  nauseous  acrimony.  It  is  used  in 
medicine,  but  only  to  a  small  extent. — Lewis's  Hat. 
iftdica. 

TurbUh  (mineral),  tbo  name  given  by  chemists  to 
the  sub-sulphate  of  mercury. 

Tmbot  (^I'leuroneclet  maxmuf),  a  well-known  and 
highly  esteemed  species  offish.  Considerable  quanti- 
ties of  turbot  are  now  taken  on  various  parts  of  the 
ooasts  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  Orkneys  to  the  Land's 
End,  yet  a  preference  is  given  in  the  London  markets 
(0  tlMM  caught  by  the  Dutch.  The  latter  are  said  to 
bare  sometimes  drawn  as  much  as  ^£80,000  in  a  single 
year  for  turbots  sold  in  London. 

Turkey.  The  countries  included  under  the  above 
general  designation  of  Turkey,  the  Levant,  etc.,  are 
Turkey  (European  and  Asiatic),  the  pachalic  nr  vice- 
royalty  of  Kgypt,  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  and  the  re- 
public of  the  Ionian  Islands — a  group  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, off  the  west  coast  of  Greece  and  Kpirus,  con- 
sisting of  seven  principal  and  several  smaller  inlands. 

The  Ottoman  empire  includes  Turkey  in  Europe, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Kgypt,  and  the  other  tributary- 
states  in  Africa  and  Asia.  Prior  to  the  Greek  revolu- 
tion, Turkey  in  Europe  possessed  an  extensive  mari- 
time frontier  (nearly  two-thirds  of  her  boundary),  hav- 
ing many  excellent  sea-ports.  The  dismemberment 
of  Greece,  and  other  subsequent  political  changes,  and 
the  cession  of  Itessaraliia  and  a  part  of  Moldavia  to 
Russia,  have  considerably  reduced  the  limits  of  the 
dominions  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  lu  Africa  her  power 
is  almost  annihilated,  and  even  in  Asia  her  authority 
is  considerably  weakened.  Algeria  has  lieen  wrested 
from  her  t>y  France ;  Egypt  merely  acknowledges  her 
sovereignty  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute ;  and 
the  ArabUns  scarcely  rtcognize  the  sultan  as  the  head 
of  their  religion.  The  limits  and  area  of  the  Turkish 
empire  are  not  exactly  defined,  and,  consequently,  \ery 
different  estimates  have  been  formed  of  the  extent  and 
population  l>oth  of  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey.  The 
most  recent  authority  estimates  the  urea  of  Turkey  in 
Europe  at  210,000  square  miles,  and  its  population  at 
about  15,000,000 ;  and  that  of  Turkey  in  Asia  at  437,000 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  16,000,000. 
Turkey  in  Europe  possesses  a  soil  romariuibly  fertile, 
and  a  climate  highly  favorable  to  the  production  of  the 
vine,  olive,  maize,  wheat,  and  rice,  vegetables  of  every 
description,  fruits,  tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  the  mulberry, 
various  trees  from  which  the  most  valuable  gums  are 
extracted ;  and  in  the  southern  part  the  sugar-cane 
and  the  cotton-tree.  To  these  add  the  rich  pasturages 
for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  every  variety  of  game 
and  fi»h,  with  a  great  abundance  of  mineral  riches,  to-  i 
gether  with  the  geographical  position  and  excellent 
harlwrs  of  European  Turkey,  and  a  general  idea  may 
lie  formed  of  her  great  natural  resources.  The  prin- 
cipal species  of  grain  cultivated  in  European  Turkey 
is  Indian  com.  liice  is  cultivated  along  the  banks  of  ' 
the  Maritza  and  other  marshy  tracts  in  the  southern 
province!),  but  not  in  sufiicient  quantities  for  consum|>- 
tion.  The  deficiency  is  supplied  by  Egypt  and  Asia 
Minor. 

Turkey  in  Asia  possesses  almost  every  natural  ele- 
ment of  industrial  and  commercial  greatness  ;  but  agri- 
culture is  wholly  neglected,  and  productive  industry  is 
altogether  unknown. 

About  nine-tenths  of  the  extensive  surface  of  Egypt 
is  sterile  and  unproductive.  The  remaining  one-tenth, 
being  irrigated  by  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  yields 
the  richest  and  most  luxuriant  crops,  which,  with  the 
Tartous  couimodit!..j  that  pass  through  Egypt  from 
Arabia,  India,  and  Nubia,  form  the  elementa  of  a  large 


export  trade.  The  crops  of  Egypt  are  wheat,  Indian 
com,  maiie,  rice,  flax,  hemp,  clover,  cotton,  indigo, 
sngar-cane,  tobacco,  oranges,  and  the  most  delicioui 
fhiits. 

The  sea-ports  of  Tuiicey  in  Europe  are  as  follows  t 
Constantinople,  one  of  the  safest  ports  in  the  world, 
and  capable  of  affording  shelter  to  1200  of  the  largest 
class  ships ;  Salonica,  at  the  l)ottom  of  the  gulf  of  that 
name,  an  excellent  roadstead,  and  much  frequented  | 
and  Enos,  the  port  of  Adrianople,  on  the  Maritxai 
Gallipoli  and  Rodosto,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  Varna, 
on  the  Black  Sea ;  and  Ibrahilow,  Taultcha,  Galati, 
and  Jassaktchl,  on  the  Danube,  are  ports  of  consider- 
able commercial  activity. 

On  the  island  of  Candia  there  are  two  ports,  Gandim 
and  Canea,  but  their  harbors  are  neither  conimodiout 
nor  safe.  Besides  these,  there  are  several  other  ports, 
which  afford  excellent  shelter,  and  in  the  possession 
of  a  more  industrious  and  commercial  people  than  the 
Turks  would  attract  considerable  trade. 

The  sea-ports  of  Turkey  in  Asia  are  Erekli ;  Scutari, 
opposite  Constantinople ;  some  indifferent  iwrts  on  the 
Sea  of  Marmora ;  and  Smyrna,  the  principal  port  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  tho  most  important  in  foreign  com- 
merce. 

In  Egypt  the  sea-ports  are  Alexandria,  Rosetta, 
Damietta,  and  Cairo,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Kile ;  and 
Suez  and  Kosseir,  on  the  Red  Sea. 

The  principal  exports  of  Turkey  are  wool,  goats' 
hair,  cattle,  horses,  hides,  hare-skins,  wheat,  raw  cot- 
ton and  sillc,  tobacco,  raisins,  figs,  almonds,  mastic  and 
other  gums,  gall-nuts,  valloneu,  leeches,  honey,  wax, 
saffron,  madder,  anise  seed.  Unseed,  turpentine,  saf- 
flower,  orpiment,  meerschaum  pipes,  whetstones,  car- 
pets, silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  leather,  copper,  and  me- 
tallic wares,  with  Arabian,  Persian,  Indian,  and  Ctu- 
neso  goods. 

Next  to  Constantinople,  Adrianople  and  Salonica  are 
the  chief  centres  of  trade ;  the  former,  being  a  prin- 
cipal depot  for  goods  brought  to  Constantinople  from 
England,  France,  and  Italy,  supplies  all  the  fairs 
throughout  Koumelia  and  Bulgaria. 

Next  to  Smyrna,  Aleppo  is  the  chief  seat  of  com- 
mercial movements  in  Asia.  Caravans  bring  to  this 
mart  pearls,  shawls,  Indian  and  Chinese  goods,  from 
Bussorah  and  Bagdad ;  camels  from  Arabia ;  cotton 
stuffs  and  thread,  morocco  leather,  goats'  hair,  and 
galls,  from  the  pachalics  of  Mosul,  Diurbekir,  Orfa, 
Aintab,  etc. ;  furs,  goats'  hair,  wax,  gum-ammoniao, 
etc.,  from  Asia  Minor;  silk,  Mocha  coli'ee,  soap,  scent- 
ed woods,  ambergris,  drugs,  and  pearls,  from  Syria  and 
Arabia ;  rice,  coffee,  and  Egyptian  produce,  from  La- 
takia ;  silk  manufactures  from  Brusa  uud  Damascus ; 
European  and  United  States  cotton  stuffs,  woolens, 
printed  muslins,  hardware,  watches,  wrought  amber, 
and  fuf,  from  Smyrna  and  Constantinople. 

The  treaty  of  Adrianople  o|)ened  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  the  passage  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  and  Hellespont  is  free  to  the  flags  of  all  nations. 
The  importation  of  all  articles  of  foreign  commerce  is 
admitted  at  extremely  moderate  duties.  These  are 
only  5  per  cent.,  viz. :  3  per  cent,  on  goods  when  laud- 
ed, and  2  per  cent,  on  their  being  admitted  to  consump- 
tion. The  duties  on  exports  of  native  production  are 
12  per  cent.,  of  which  9  per  cent,  is  paid  when  the 
goods  arrive  at  the  port  whence  they  are  to  be  export- 
ed, and  3  per  cent,  on  their  being  shipped.  This  is  a 
very  liberal  tariff;  though  a  reduction  of  the  export 
duty,  even  should  the  import  duty  of  6  per  cent,  be 
raised  to  10  or  12,  would  result  most  favorably  to  the 
commerce  of  Turkey  with  foreign  countries. 

CoMlantinople.  —  The  harbor  of  Constantinople  is 
deep,  well  sheltered,  and  sufficiently  capacious  to  af- 
ford safe  anchorage  for  1200  of  the  largest-sized  ships. 
Scutari,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  one 
mile  distant  from  Constantinople,  is  the  place  of  ren- 
dezvous for  caravans  from  PersU,  Armenia,  and  other 


of  I 


of1 


ofl 


of  I 


TUR 


States  could  succMlr"'"'"  "'"'  «''i'=l>tho  Unib,,! 
port  a«,  Englanrta'^^^^^Pete  in  the  trade  ^f"  ^.^ 
former  import  iron,  colontunll;  ^  ''*  ^«««e>'  of  the 
tissues,  and  from  TresteCf "."''' '=<>«on  and  woo  en 
produce,  such  as  co  o„  'sulT'l'r''''  "'»»  « 
tobacco,  etc,  and  the  vuriouf  1  "J'""'""''  """.  rice 
•Iways  found  in  abunSanee  T^h '"=""'"'"*'' ar 


houses  of  that  nort     "fi."'"'  '"  '"»  extensive  ».«"    .'"""K"  at  some  distance  Inl.iij  "•', •™K't«do  280E. 
^ir'' ConstanSpie^^  ~-f  jes,els\rh  ^^  L^^^^^^^^^^^ 

'»?>'.599,  „,t„j87«-  ~'K'  vessels,    in  latu'^^'f/o^MheSoulineh  (o,  S?m„uSf 

:%t!.!"i""«  r-s?  t  '  r  h^  ''l.o  -.b-  onele^iirf.i''^'"  ^'^'W' 


This  Urge  increase,  both  to  th.  '"  "*"'  *»'*'6,0M. 
'fade  with  the  port  of  <Li  •  *  '"*'«'  »nd  outwuS 
evidence  of  .h.Tpl^'"  {-^"-r  be  r.g^r^^'Z'^ 

of  the  Danube,  in  latitude  «<5  26'  v^',""  '^ »«"  l>«nk 
Though  at  some  distance  1„1,„^  JJ-' longitude  28°  E. 
«o  be  the  port  of  the  Da„u  "  n?*"*''  ™»y  be  .aS 
mouth.  „,...^,     """nul*.     Ofthethi^eprincipJ 


fl92n.  ■>     •""•""'■nopie  m  IS;,)  «.„.. 

we™  f"rAusS'/-o"'  ""'"■»»»  °Sni,?:r'''  I !?'»"'"''« «°Vo'"S)'"v'"'''r.''  (»'  »"<idi;rmouSr 

ft;om  the  United  States  5  j/™?  ''"'^"-  W;  and  10  t^  J/  '*'P"'  "^  »«"  at  iu  ent«„  ''"!'«•  *""- 
these  countries  rcspeS;  i  '"'  ''"'"  ""signed  "„  whe^  I  ""'j  ^'"■"  "•«  bar  up  to  0'?"™!""'  ^""' 
Constantinople  during  185^ '"  ™"^'in«  the  trade  of '  Tut . ,  t"  ""^  ^^  feet.  LiZe«  a»  f  '.'"'"  ''  "">- 
British  flag  there  entfrpHi'  •  """  Siven :  Under  thi  I  ^''ut  *""  '»  P«ially  un3  !"  '"  "'"oMd  with- 
vessels  a^,  OaTteTrets^Ktr ^^'^^^^^^^^  r""""  """  '' "-^•"Mui;:'-''-  ^o-" 
236  sailing,  and  85  steam  vessoh      7''"^  ""'^'»  flag;  " 


""  "••  *ue  quays. 


th»7  r '     1       , '  P^Tellcd  by  steam      r.  •      "  '»'""g  °""  ^P'"""") 

that  Constantinople  requires  an^,?'„   \ "  estimated       'S«J'ma.-This  nort  .h  ", 

t.on  alone,  about  6,500,000  it,  Tl^^'  ^"^  e°nsump-   of  Turkey  i„  AsK  ^^  "'    "  " -™a.  empo-:a„ 

"J '"«"- 30».000  lbs.  if  p.,tr  an*:,  '"'••^•^"<''«''«  'l''^   "^  ^"S"  ^"^en  c'ai'"   ""  ^''^"f '  harl,or,  .Tsh  « 
cheon,  of  rum,  and  larj  n  r.,?f.''  T'":  2000  pu„.  I  quays.     Us  orLt". 'r^,  """l,  '"'"'■ar.r.  .;„,„  ,„'X 


Portofcutz. 

%  Austria.  -. 

Tow  (pla,ir^;,.;; ^r^^       ilWsM 

'Swjrmo.-Thisnort  fhL"i  ,      '^^'^       WsMM 

te.!nAsKt:^^sr:^!»'-rv- 


„.  .    =— I —'"iwu  lus.  of  ticiinpp  „„  I    -'.   '-"","W  10s.    ""  "ir, 


"Otontca Next  »«  1-1 

.ted  at  the  bottom  of^^eTulS'V^t"'™  (»'"'- 


.  .,  -.uco  uiauuer.  woiil  i...- 1  — "^  '  '^"pper, 
sk/ns,  vallonea,  oliveloM  < '  t'"''"  S"""'  ''air  and 
'■aisins.and  nut-gaUs      I„  3'  «■""»•  '(""Ke.  <i«s, 

•:'i?";'-i  "-'ais.  rar:!^^ir» -■-«<>'.- an*:; 


Ve«n, 


^/iTf      V     """om  of  the  (iulf  nf  sfi   '.    ,    "™  i"""-  """•«.  and  nut-eall,      i„    ^  '  *"™'  s|>onge,  (i,r. 

of  Macedonia,  is  the  most  ,lZL^tZT\'^  '"P""'  T"^  "^  <^m,m{l^  J.^JT.  eomprise' colei  (u^^ 

Europe.     In  1850  it,  marithiM^     "^^  "'^ ^'"•''ey  in  '"^  ''"''ri'^^s ;  mL.  l^""     1'^'^ '  *°'''en.  'otton,  an^ 

'^ard  of  «3,500,000,  vL      al^HoT"  "a'-l'edu,,.  indigo,  spiri  s,  iod  L' i     "!:'*  manufactured,  sugar 

of  this  port  is  chiefly  engrossed  h,    .'  "^"J^'S"  '^a^e   Ported  into  the  United  Sta!.,'"''^''''*'  «'  «"«l  im- 

r-s^oo,-:iS^:3e^^^^^^^^ 

•ndstavcs.    Colonial pS and ;!"""/*""'•  """•"».'  —     -    - 

are  supplied  to  this  port-tho  fi.rl     r''^"''"'''"'«<'»'is 

third  hands_by  FnZ„,i   ''^T"'e'■  from  second  and 

thing  .0  prcven't  the'   ,  .trstat:'!'-     There  is  2' 

in  the  trade  in  this  spec  es  of  m      f"'".P»rticipati„g  ' 
Austria  nor  England  could  p1  ""'"'"<"'«•     Neither 
'n  supplying  the  vast  „,      .TP""  *'"■  "•'»  country 

and  the  chea^p  white":  ^^^'^0  »  "'""'"'  P'""-  I      K        .k - >    '-.-, 

qu-red  for  consumption  fn'*.      "■"""'  *''''=''  "e  "•»-'„  •      '"  *''"  Argentine  republic  the  Uni,      c 
to  the  supplies  needed  .  !  ?"'""•     In  addition  I  ™'"''  ""e-tlii.xl  of  its  raw  woo       v     .  M  ■^'"''"  >*■ 

100,000 inhabitant,  c.  •  "'^*'  "'«  '"'"''r  wants  of Tt^  ""'''  ''urkev,  i„  t  is  "^^M  ^"I' '"  """ ™''nt'T 
of  colonial  and""'  ,'t'"'''™  '^"""^'"'s  large  nuantft  es  *"'  '»  «""•"  n  mV^f  th.'  "!"•'  """  ""■""  !''»<=«  Is 
of  Parlep,  /tea  "/rl""''' «""'''•'■"  "'«  veariy  fi  "   «<'-  amounting  to  m^'  «5  n,,"""?  r"'"^'  '''"?''«- 

and  woolen  cloths  will  1?*    ^^P"™  "f  French  cotton    ,!^^*''222;  "f  «hich  Tarkev  in  A.i.  ..      v'  /"'''"'  «' 


From  Turkey    ~  "^l ^ — ^ — 

iQpvj    /  »,351,2ft:tf      il72  0(9l  91  KoK  A*         '1  o",tHI 

MeR™g«to...faY,r.8i^,W^J5^^ 

Um,„„,av„j^<3l?r';S!^:^f^^;?]il;^»'|M 


,The„«:Va  io^  "r^r^^:'?^;'',"'''"^^^        "  IsT'  "' ''">''  "—the™-, 

*l.e  following  rcsul"   '™'  '^'^  "">  •>■«'»'  I853-'4  exhibit   "'''' -"easuring  4.S04  ton,.-*„  Smvrva 

I  „.J.!'.^?">"'"-.°f  "•-  |K,rt  du„„g  mi  .„.„„„ted  u, 
f  dollars.     Th:.  >»j .. 


"IB  following  results : 


-d  teX':thXhX^t'"''f  ^'■"^"'  ^"'"•■"' 
nnder  BritishT  French  and  ?„i?''"'™J'*'''  "  '"'"'"""» 
the  same  prop;,rtron    '        ^""""""'  ""«'• ''"'  "«'  in 

'A'^-^:-^::t-5''«i-»fs^^^^^^^^ 

.Mentble  increase  i„^  the  i^^  t% ''TaruroT 


1  his  trade  was  thm 


n.„Vr  7""""ce  Of  this  port  duri 

Idrtitdr"'""""^  "'•'»"-• 

r.rrat  Ilritaln. ...  ,^  ^. 

Aiwlria..,,  °I|M«,li«8  franca. 

Fraim  13,S8«,80)t      " 

Inltctl  Htatiii T,;iM,lT7      '• 

R.i.,la  MrB.I)45  .. 

Holland     »,M7,9»8  " 

Sardinia.' »11,10,1  " 

Tuscany      «2I,»I)6  " 

IWglum     *W,»B  .4 

■ I'ff  701  '* 

/?.r<'«.-Deyrout  is  the  sea-port  of  Uamascu,, ««, 


TUR 


1884 


TU.'t 


In  IMS fr»n<MS8,i 

Inl8B8 '•      20,868,861    ao,S6«,8(!a 


tha  chief  eentn  of  the  tnde  of  SyrlA.  Iti  Imports  eon- 
(iit  of  muglini,  cottoni,  tin,  hardware,  dotha,  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  msDufacturea.  Its  exports  are  silk,  galU, 
madder,  gums,  wine,  and  oils.  The  imports  at  this 
port  In  18S1  amounted  to  about  $4,000,000,  and  Its  ex- 
ports to  98,000,000.  During  the  same  year  there  en- 
tered and  cleared  2354  vessels,  measuring  an  aggregate 
of  219,277  tons.  The  commercial  movements  of  the 
port  of  Bej'TOut  and  Its  dependent  trading;  town8,Tripoli, 
Calffa,  and  Latakia,  amounted  In  1853  to  a  total  of 
45,689,142  fhmcs,  or  an  increase  over  1652  of  4,600,000 
fhincs.  The  following  summary  for  these  years  Is 
taken  from  French  official  authorities ; 

Imnorta.  Rxporti.  Total. 

T40    il.SM.'tna    45,689,141 
41,130,741 

The  tonnage  employed  in  the  trade  of  Beyrout  the 
same  years  was :  In  i85,<<,  209,861  tons ;  and  in  1852, 
241,978  tons.  This  decrease  is  owing  to  a  falling  off 
in  the  coasting  trade,  especially  in  cereals,  occasioned 
by  the  short  crops  of  1863. 

In  the  general  import  movement,  England  holds  the 
first  rank — tissues,  cotton  }'am,  and  cotton  goods  gen- 
erally, being  the  chief  imports  from  Great  Britain  into 
Syria.  France  occupies  the  second  rank ;  the  imports 
from  that  country  into  Beyrout  in  1853  amounting  in 
value  to  3,674,726  fhincs.  Next  to  France  comes  Aus- 
tria. The  returns  show  a  value  of  6,714,242  fhincs  as- 
signed to  imnorts  under  the  Austrian  flag ;  but  these 
figures  incluv^e  the  value  of  all  the  merchandise  im- 
ported in  the  Austrian  steamers  that  ply  between  Con- 
stautlnople  and  Smyrna.  The  actual  Imports  from 
Austria  into  Beyrout  amount  to  about  one  half  of  this 
sum.  Trieste  furnishes  but  little  for  the  consumption 
of  SjTia.  The  imports  into  Syria  from  that  entrepot 
do  not  exceed  150,000  francs,  and  consist  of  colonial 
wares,  and  German  tissues  purchased  in  the  warehouses 
of  that  city.  Egypt  supplies  Syria,  through  the  port 
of  BeyiDut,  with  grains,  especially  rice,  to  a  value  of 
about  2,467,950  francs.  During  the  past  few  years 
mercantile  bouses  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Phila- 
delphia have  established  Aaact  relations  with  Syria. 
The  washed  and  unwashed  wool  of  that  countrj-  forms 
the  basis  of  their  operations.  In  1854  the  first  cargo 
of  refined  sugar  from  Boston  arrived  at  Beyrout.  The 
fuccesa  which  has  attended  this  enterprise  will  most 
probably  leail  to  an  important  trade  in  this  description 
of  merchandise,  in  exchange  for  wool  and  other  Syrian 
products.  The  chief  obstacle  to  an  immediate  expan- 
sion of  this  trade  appears  to  b«  the  duty  of  80  per  cent, 
with  which  the  raw  wool  is  burdened  in  the  United 
States,  leaving  but  a  small  margin  for  profit  on  the 
importation  of  this  leading  product.  How  important 
this  trade  with  Syria,  as  well  as  with  Turkey  gener- 
ally, and  other  wool-producing  countries  might  be- 
come, may  be  inferred  from  the  following  statement 
of  facts.  In  1855  there  was  imported  into  the  United 
States,  as  already  sUted,  18,584,415  lbs.  of  wool.  The 
annual  production  of  wool  in  the  United  States,  assum- 
ing that  the  quantity  returned  for  1850,  as  per  United 
States  census,  affords  a  fair  average — amounts  to 
62,616,959  lbs.  This,  added  to  the  quantity  import- 
ed, gives  71,061,874  lbs.  The  quantity  annually  ex- 
ported reduces  this  figure,  say,  in  round  numl>ers,  to 
70,000,000  lbs.  for  consumption  in  the  different  and  i 
numerous  manufactories  in  the  United  States.  How 
much  of  this  is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets 
there  is  no  means  at  hand  of  determining  with  anj-  ac- 
curacy ;  but  it  is  stated  in  a  publication  of  high  author- 
ity— the  Scientific  Amtricun — that  in  tlie  village  of 


Thompsonville,  Connecticut,  alone,  there  is  used  annu- 
ally in  the  manufacture  of  Brussels,  Axmlnster,  and 
other  costly  qualities  of  carpeting,  10,000,000  lbs,  of 
wool,  or  more  than  one  half  the  whole  quantity  im- 
ported, and  one-seventh  part  of  the  aggregate  quantity 
importied  and  grown  in  the  United  States. 

The  value  of  the  foregoing  statement  of  facts  will  be 
better  understood  when  it  is  added  that  the  United 
States  import  annually — taking  the  importations  of 
1855  as  an  average — woolen  manufactures  of  various 
descriptions  to  the  value  of  $27,000,000,  of  which  En- 
gland furnishes  nearly  two-thirds.  The  total  num- 
ber of  woolen  manufactories  in  the  United  States  in 
1860  was  1559 ;  capital  invested,  $28,118,650 ;  lbs.  of 
wool  consumed,  70,862,829;  value  of  raw  material, 
$25,765,991 ;  hands  employed,  males,  22,678 ;  females, 
16,674 ;  value  of  products,  $43,207,515-— in  which  are 
included  82,206,652  yards  of  cloth,  and  4,294,336  lbs. 
of  yam,  besides  blankets,  hats,  etc.  Were  the  raw 
material  supplied  in  sufficient  quantities,  the  census 
of  1860  would  probably  add  100  per  cent,  to  the  pre- 
ceding figures.  The  foreign  trade  of  Beyrout  is  car- 
ried on  principally  by  large  class  str-'mers,  under  the 
Austrian,  French,  and  British  flair';  which  visit  this 
port  regularly,  and  finll  always  <iliii<  ;  ^ight,  con- 

sisting of  the  products  of  Syria  u  .  st  region 

which  lies  between  Sksneroom  '-'.  -f  .ivcrs  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris.  The  prosperit,  .  ^. ,.  lOUt  and  the 
surrounding  country  is  indicated  by  the  fact,  that  while 
the  population  was  only  8000  in  the  }-ear  1844,  it  is  now 
estimated  at  between  50,000  and  60,000.  The  steam- 
ers of  the  Austrian  Lloyds  Company,  in  March,  1656, 
are  said  to  have  numbered  59,  with  10,000  horse-power, 
and  a  measurement  of  nearly  30,000  tons.  The  United 
States  consul  at  that  port,  writing  under  date  of  Octo- 
ber 5, 1856,  says :  "  I  learn,  upon  the  best  authority, 
that  the  people  of  this  country  consider  the  cloth  man- 
ufactured in  the  United  States  superior  in  quality  to 
that  of  England ;  but  since  the  pieces  of  American 
goods  do  not  uniforml}'  contain  the  same  number  of 
yards  like  the  English  pieces,  they  are  slow  to  pur- 
chase, owing  to  the  power  of  old  ideas  and  habits.  It 
would  be  of  great  service  to  the  manufacturers  if  they 
understood  this  fact,  and  would  regard  it." 

Candia. — The  commerce  of  this  island  is  conducted 
through  the  ports  of  Retino,  Canea,  and  Candia.  Its 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  olive-oil,  barley,  wheat,  wine, 
raisins,  cotton,  flax-seed,  almonds,  Indian  corn,  and 
soap.  The  agricultural  productions  of  Candia  are  es- 
timated at  a  value  of  18,500,000  francs  per  annum. 
Its  manufactures  amount  in  value  to  about  6,000,000 
francs,  of  which  soap  appropriates  4,000,000,  and  coarse 
cloths  for  consumption  2,000,000  francs.  There  are  on 
the  island  47  soap  factories,  which  yield  annually  about 
13,000,000  lbs.  of  soap ;  and  8000  oil-presses  in  active 
operation.  About  40,000  lbs,  of  silk  are  produced  an- 
nually on  this  island,  of  a  quality  equal  to  that  uf 
Adrianople, 

The  imports  and  exports  during  a  period  of  four  con- 
secutive years  were : 

Imporla.  Eiportt. 

In  1848 »l,nfo,l9B  »8«.tlM 

In  184'J 1,078,1130  l,l!37.4UO 

In  ISM 1,164,215  2,007, ^46 

Inl861 618,680  8711,174 

Total  number  of  vessels  arriving  in  the  (Kirts  of 
Candia  in  1853, 117.t,  measuring  an  aggregate  of  50,747 
tons.  The  imports  during  the  same  year  reached 
$1,028,212,  and  the  exports  $1,972,713.  "  The  naviga- 
tion and  commerce  of  Candia  for  1854  and  1856  are 
shown  in  the  subjoined  statement : 


rnta. 


('«!!(!• 

IIMlOO 

Candia 

ToUI  'or  ISM. 
•r.ii.l  for  1884. 


No.  <lfV«iMl«. 

««7 
135 

SIT 

Iblt 
881 


ImpofUUoiM. 


Toiu. 

"Sl,44ir 

6,148 

J0,«84_ 

47,501 

41,122 


VWloc 


$1,111,766  80 
207,448  80 
878.480  (10 


$1,6;i7,6W  60 
1.070,971  00 


No.  of  VawlT 


646 

13S 

_225_ 

inbt 

801 


Kipottatioor 


Tont. 

T8".41T~ 

6,1167 

10,li«4 


44,438 
40,063 


Valu«. 

jfYiTRao  ii« 

857,665  20 

5m*,28o  00 

"$1,780,616  16" 
1,007,660  00 


Ini 


-.£^IL^\..   V  - 


■  bbb. 


HTO 


S3,S45 

13,352 

8,526  i 

.  ■     863 

6,000,000 


*T0,6!6  84 
J''"  48 
>3,S80  00 
3,100  00 
1,800  00 
4,000  00 


TUB 

cutting  from  Suez  to  the  M^T,''^"'='P'«<''«  direct 
t^nce  into  the  Medii*,^  "•"^''•'nmean.  The  en 
;iU  have  M  fan„  b^r^T.^'"  ^  "^^'-l  P""  S^3 

P°rt  of  Sue.,  wiU  alw  W       •"  ""  ^"^  Se-  «!>• 

export  trari?„lt'i"ToM'"  '!;?  '"""■"•"'<"'  of  .he 
Ittle  probability  of  l^'''°t"«'".''».«nd  there  .eem. 

•  ncetheconsumVion„fXe  u!t'M '"""^l' '~""''" 
lew  than  it  used  to  be.  On  ,hi  ntf  "t"""  '""^h 
trade  to  and  from  EngUndh^h.  ""'"■'">•>''■'  direct 
»eems  likely  ,0  increase  Th,  mrtr"""'"*^'  *»"<* 
«i9ts  Of  olive^il-  and  th«  :  ''""' ""Port  trade  con. 
•'kaIi,car.he„.;a°rS:'S'r'=f'«''»-B'S 
The  manufaeturea  cinsumJd  in'fh.  •*  ^^7  chemicals. 


BrltUli" 
Ionian  . 
Turkish 
Orcek. . , 

French 

Austrian . . 
Sardinian  . 
Russian ...  7 

Tuscan q 

Syrian....  ' 
Neapolitan 
American  . 
Samloie . . . 
Norwegian  , 
Papal 

Total. 

"•tionslillM. 


Tom, 
419 

1,320 

3,622 

10,894 

630 

4,ST7 
613 
S93 
147 


2,866 

100 

1,618 

78 


Toni. 
l,8lf 
3,762 
16,427 
4,897 
2,4M 
763 
1,134 


levi«l  on  their  staple  exL/nf  .  '"'  ^^  P"  ""^  an, 
;o«P;  etc.,  it  can  acarce^Tbe  e^^^"!? T^'  ""^"^"^ 
wm  mcrea^  to  any  con.fderlb,e  «t.  /""?  ""'  "»"* 
in  •  consular  return  ftom  C«l  A  ".'•  ^'  ^  ""ted, 
thew  dutie,,  a.  well  a,  ottCd^:.^^  '  "'''««''■>  o' 
tend  to  ..tabliah  a  highly  w,3,°»  "7  »Uk>  would 
lc«  intewourw,  with  the  'rt'"°''"l'"'*=tAmer. 
probably,  to  compete  with  «,at  „r  r  """»•  ""fie'e"', 
F»nce.  In  consequence  of  th!  f  ^'**'  ^^^n  «nd 
upon  the  IwMiing  prXctil  A'!"""  °<"»ta«l  duty 
Britain,  th,  coi^iSt,!  °^  """  '■"'«<»  ^  Gw.t 
f«rt  increaaipg.  ^  ""ercoupie  with  EngUn" ta 

*^{^^^.n7t»^Zl't  '-ty  between 
back  as  May  7, 1830  T?.  „^  °I?°  P""*  dates  as  far 
"-*  it  l«  "no   ll^Ud  «C?"!!  •""^"^o'.dectws 

quently  regulates^hT^nt^ro^u™!^';''"'"  ""<*''  '""^^ 
•t  the  present  time.     Ito  p  S?''''''''''  ""e  countries 

."*-""»  the  merchants  of  ?thJ^/„rr'^"'  '"«'"<» 
ln«,s,  ports,  etc.,  of  the  other  ,h»n?' '"  "■«  P^v- 
•nd  other  impost,  that  are  'Ihtr^' ""' '"»"  <>"««« 
most  friendly  or  f,  "  "  j°  P*',"!  by  the  merchants  of  the 

vessel,  of  the  UnKateT.tn'h""'  !"""  «'<'«'»»' 
the  canri  of  the  imnerial  !!.m  ' """"  '"«"y  to  pass 
ta  the  Black  Sea  K      ""dence,  and  go  and  come 

fcyo,«i„atirK„7:?^;r"^''"''»°f»'>Vm" 

r«fo«»  aysten.,,  viz  'rm'5,!ff'''"  »  ba«,d  on  an  arf 
"percent., Including  asffih'^?'""v ""^ "Pot" 
vlue  of  merchand."!'  may  t  A,'"'"'?"  """«"•  The 
five  years  by  commissioner  on  7hen.V"?'':  ^'""  " 
ent  governments,  conjointly  wrthal^*  °'  ""  ''"«"- 
that  purpose  by  the  TurkiZ a!v      **"''  appointed  for 

St.teshavohitLrt^lpZ^ednT'"''-'-.  '^"o  United 
•djustment  of  valuaW  '!*.":?  f""!"'""'"'"''"' this 

to  the  Department  thTtthe  eli  iSf  ^•"'  '»P'»»«ted 
i»h  merchandise,  esneci  Jh- If  *  'valuation  on  Brit- 
Jects  to  heavy  dSriS-    ^1  «'^'  «°d  ">»),  .ub- 

DnitedSta,e,,^owt^7hTeCot&  '«"=""  <>'"'■'' 
"d  prices.  Since  the  return  „f  ^"^««n«e  in  weight 
ments,  tending  to  facUi^  ^  ^  •'*'™'  ""any  improve- 
cial  tatercou^e  Vt  ty  ZhV^r^'  "■«  ""^""'^ 
been  completed  or  projectTd     aJ    '^. '"'"'""'  ^ave 

house  system  has  underirone  pt^!"?  "'.'""' ""«  %ht-  earned  oS  by  Turk'iihmi;:!;:"  \"T  "'  ""'  "'and  is 
•nd  uniform  Jight^uesSishn",r'.TP'"'' ■"«»'»-  '""'  ""anned  by  Turk,  Th^t"  ''  IV*""''  """'d 
"d  Dardanelles,  viz  •  In  ni  .^  C"/  ""'  ^o^Phcrus  timo  have  been  ewl'^  ^  '^''l'  of  Candia  and  Re- 
•2  fiO)  for  eveo-'lM  t;„s  i  h^f  /'^"^«"'  *^  a-d  twelve  fLt  of  wate??!  I  '".Ji''"  ^*»''''  "'""'"g 
per  100  tons  fo?  ^h  enten*„  ""f":  "  ^"^  P'"tres  Warping  buovrhave^''"'^  "■/  '"""'^  «t  Retimo 
%  At  ConstanUnopL  the«  LiL""*  ""■  """"  «"«»■  «'"'  ''arb^or  of  Canea  an^f^""  T"."  ""'  •'"""^''  of 
»o  port  charges ,  but  a  smaU  fee^'  ^""^''^  'P*«'"''«.  P'""'' '"  the  St  h^j  ^rVj'^^''  J"'' '»««"?  "een 

j^-'ough  the  ooS:^^t:-s:;:r  br:sK5^?r^^ 

'-.  "..  or^nnecting  the  Medi.erran.n  with  thelKft."'^  '''^  ") '"-^^r •'c^^; 


I8S«. 


Greek 

French.... 

Austrian  . . 

Sardinian  . 

Russian... . 

Tuscan 

Syrian 

Nespoliun  . 
American  .. 
Samioto  . . . . 
Nors-egian  . 
I'opol 

Tot»I. . . 


187  I 
2,060  1 
8,341 


170 

300 

7,210 

1,600 

107 

1,888 


2      'ioi 


840 


60 


'  148  I    6,637 


TUR 


1886 


TUR 


CoHiinai  c    TBI  Uhitid  Statu  with  Thixbt,  tiir  Litamt,  no.,  vbom  OoTom  1, 1620,  to  Jolt  J,  186T. 


V«M«  Md'.ar 

Uopt.  SU,  18S1 

18M  

18SS 

18M 

1885 

1846 

182T 

1828 

18» 

1880 

ToUI. . . 

BepU  1)0,1881 

1889 

1888 

1834 

1885 

1886 

1837 

1888 

1839 

1840 

Total. . . 

Sept  SO,  1841 

184i 

Omoa.,    1843* 

June  80,1844 

1845 

18«  

184T 

1848 

1849 

1860  

Total... 

JanoS.'.lSSl 

1869 

1883 

1864 

1886 

1860 

186T 


KiporU. 


PoMltfn. 


Tolil. 


Import*. 


ToUI. 


WhoMof  lh«r«  WH  io 
Bullion  Olid  ajwalo. 


Ktport. 


Import. 


Toonogo  eloond. 


1,303 
1.418 
1,8T« 
9,183 
1,81T 
1,893 
8,109 
603 
687 
9,88T 


forolgB. 


$30,883 

«,1!M 

4,817 

96,171 

84,873 

40,837 

131,734 

78,374 

97,«0O 

78,801 


$400,^7 
406,  m 
669,788 
884,967 
864,  nOl 
971,498 
470,396 
194,607 
47,384 
337,639 


«4a7,880 
411,821 
664,660 
400,428 
J98,964 
818,388 
609,060 
909,041 
74,084 
418,340 


(S»&,680 
364,677 
703,761 
471,238 
840,709 
421,032 
783,128 
49S,r>33 
2«n,2;)7 


$187,006 
68,000 


60,000 


t!i1,B7B 
13,870 
70,881 
48,830 
22,600 
4,D0>. 
ll,6Sr 
11,4(16 
488 
48,018 


$401,834 

$38,608 
64,729 

167,808 
62,488 
63,202 
99,086 
86,669 

142,448 
88,320 

119,746 


$3,872,078 

$908,804 
681,886 
618,471 
891,92'. 
916,899 
634,94!) 
74,063 
116,461 
266,064 
186,878 


»3,833,»12 

$836,807 
746,608 
686,67) 
383,679 
280,094 
634034 
111,312 
967,909 
349,874 
976,61H 


$8,190,377 

$621,608 
993,699 
78)1,044 
669,611 
887,663 
978,371 
693,161 
I!<6,'>33 
6'o9,190 
603,476 


$877,360 

$900,984 
196,621 
108,466 
186, 18S 
116,663 
196,193 
81,670 
114,830 
198,87,> 
904,307 


$8,184,694 

$170,612 
76,618 
68,014 
97,945 
49,546 
73,910 
66,679 
110,391 
86,190 
63,844 


$4,009,044 

$380,646 
202,036 
176,479 
988,884 
166,099 

.  900,108 
197,242 
996,161 
978,0U6 
967,741 


$276,006 

$2e,6no 

2,100 
96,461 
96,840 

2,71^ 
98,000 

"800 

"i.m 


$320,168 

$6,868 

4,81!) 

3,674 

821 

7,360 

9,760 
4,282 
2,630 


$0,340,066 

$614,879 
370,248 
182,864 
886,866 
731,617 
760,998 
677,710 
406,028 
874,064 
801,023 


$112,811 
$900 


86,976 


$1,437,478 

$162,204 
966,826 
207,388 
919,496 
794,289 

1,404,768 
627,481 


$860,299 

$66,629 
6i),371 
79,981 
106,702 
163,780 
106,667 
78,166 


$9,936,777 

$927,733 
8I«,I06 
987,333 
326,198 
968,039 

1,611,496 
606,646 


$6,266,180 

$901,236 
666,100 
727,616 
803,114 
790,889 
741,871 
781,860 


$86,176 


$31,654 


$9,800 
93 


9,000 


$4,82;: 


17,266 

9,986 
4,803 
4,814 
2,246 
8,010 
3,631 
484 
1.298 
9,232 
2,187 


208 


1760 


27,237 


1909 


9,819 

.... 

1,815 

.... 

1,633 

. .  •  • 

2,773 

.... 

1,897 

...* 

8,208 

1,118 

1,!)6« 

230 

1,019 

300 

9,689 

91,780 

630 

4,r68 

3,909 

329 

4,865 

8,948 

669 

8,469 

1'09 

13,400 

1846 

7,661 

Nine  months  to  June  30,  fiai  the  Sacsl  jrcar  ft'om  this  time  bvglni  Jr'j  1. 


Tnrkey  Red,  a  fine  and  durable  red  dyed  upon 
calico  and  woolen  cloth  :  the  coloring  matter  used  in 
its  production  ia  madder,  but  the  process  for  producing 
it  in  perfection  ia  tedious  and  complicated. — See  Ban- 
tBOFT  on  Permanent  Colort. 

Tuimerio,  the  root  of  tht  vurcuma  hnga.  It  ia 
externally  grayish,  and  internally  of  a  deep  lively  yel- 
low or  saffron  color,  vei^'  hard,  and  not  unlL'  e,  either 
in  figure  or  iizc,  to  ginger.  Tliat  should  be  preferred 
which  ia  large,  new,  resinous,  difficult  to  break,  and 
heavy.  It  is  imported  from  Bengai,  Java,  China,  etc. 
It  has  a  aomewhat  a  >  'natic  and  not  ver}*  agreeable 
amell,  aiid  a  bitterlsli  litly  acrid,  but  rather  warm 
taste.  It  used  to  be  >  considerable  estimation  aa  a 
medicine ;  and  is  extensively  used  in  India  for  culin- 
ary purposes,  entering  into  the  composition  of  curr}- 
powder  and  other  articles:  in  Europe  it  is  only  used 
as  a  dye.  It  yields  a  beautiful  bright  yellow  color, 
which,  however,  is  extremelj-  fugitive,  and  no  means 
have  hitherto  been  discovered  of  fixing  it.  It  is  some- 
times employed  to  heighten  the  yellows  made  with 
weld,  and  to  give  an  orange  tint  to  scarlet ;  !)Ut  the 
■hade  imparted  by  the  turmeric  soon  disappears, — 
Lewis's  Mat.  Med. ;  Bancroft  on  Colon. 

Turpentine  (Ger.  Tvrpenlin;  Fr.  Tiribentkine ;  It. 
Tremtnlina;  R\ut.  Shpiclar ;  Pol.  7>»j)fn<yn«).  There 
are  several  speciea  of  turpentine,  but  all  of  them  pos- 
sess the  same  general  and  chemical  properties. 

1.  Common  Turpentine  is  a  resinoua  juice  which  ex- 
udes from  the  Scotch  fir  or  wild  pine  (Pi'nut  ti/lre»tru). 
The  trees  which  are  most  exposeid  to  the  sun,  and  have 
the  thickest  liarks,  yield  it  in  the  greatest  abundance. 
They  Iwgin  to  produce  it  when  about  forty  years  old. 
The  bark  of  tho  tree  is  wounded  and  the  turpentine 
flows  out  in  drops,  which  fall  Into  a  hole,  or  sort  of  cup, 
previously  dug  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  holding  ulmut 
1^  pint.     It  ia  puriAed  by  Uiing  exposed  to  liquefy  in 


the  sun's  rays,  in  barrels  perfora'ed  in  the  bottom, 
through  which  it  filters.  In  the  Soithem  'States  the 
collection  of  turpentine  b  chiefly  coni  ded  to  negroes, 
each  of  whom  has  the  ch.'irge  of  frrm  3000  to  4000 
trees.  The  process  lasts  u!!  the  j  ear,  although  the 
inctsioni  are  not  made  in  the  trt  !s  till  the  middle  of 
March,  and  the  flow  of  the  turpei  tine  generally  ceases 
about  the  end  of  October.  The  t  oxes  are  emptied  five 
or  six  times  during  the  year,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
250  boxes  will  produce  a  barrel  weighing  820  lbs. 
Turpentine  has  u  strong,  somewhat  I'-agrant  odor,  and 
a  bitter,  disagreeable  taste :  its  consisicnce  is  g  'euter 
thon  that  of  honey ;  its  color  dirty  yellov ;  and  U  is 
more  opaque  than  the  other  sorts. 

2.  Venice  Turpentine  is  the  prcdu^o  of  the  larch 
(Pinut  larix).  It  is  obtained  l>y  boring  a  hole  into 
the  heart  of  tho  tree  about  two  fert  from  the  ground, 
and  fitting  into  it  a  pmall  tube  through  which  the  tur- 
pentine flows  into  vessels  prepared  for  its  reception. 
It  is  purified  by  straining  through  cloths  or  hair  sieves. 
It  is  more  fluid,  having  the  consistence  of  new  honey, 
a  yellowish  color,  and  is  less  unpleasant  to  the  smell 
and  taste  than  the  common  turpentine.  Genuine 
Venetian  turpentine  is  principally  obtained  from  the 
fore.Hs  of  Baye,  in  Provence ;  but  much  of  that  to  be 
found  in  tho  shops  comes  ttoxa  America,  and  is,  per- 
I  haps,  olitnined  from  n  different  species  of  fir. 

8.  Canadian  Ualiam,  or  Tinpentine,  is  obtained  from 
incisions  in  the  bark  of  the  Plnus  baltamea,  a  native 
of  the  coldest  regions  of  North  America.  It  is  import- 
ed in  casks,  each  containing  about  1  cwt.  It  has  a 
I  strong,  not  disagreeable  odor,  and  a  bitterish  taste  ;  is 
I  transparent,  whitish,  and  has  the  consistence  of  copai- 
VB  balsam. 

4.  Chian,  or  Cyprtti  Turpentine,  is  obtained  from  the 
Piitacia  terebinlhut,  a  native  of  the  north  of  Africa 
and  the  aouth  of  Europe,  and  cultivatad  in  Chios  and 


TUR 


1887 


TUR 


SOS 


isoa 


800 

"mo" 
'sis 


l>02 
184B 


;  the  UTch 
a  hole  into 
the  ground, 
ich  the  tur- 
j  reception. 
Jhair  sieves. 
Inew  honey, 
)  the  smell 
Genuine 
td  from  the 
f  that  to  be 
land  is,  per- 

Itained  from 
\a,  ft  native 
|t  is  import- 
It  has  a 
Lih  taste ;  is 
te  of  copai- 

^d  from  the 
.  of  Africa 
I  Chios  and 


in  tlTi.^!.!?  ?*  r*  "^? '"  ""  ***  "^  "^  »'»'•  *»'■"  «*''•  •  '••W'"  »'  •»>««  l«,!!00,000  bar. 
nd  nur^rt  u  ^''^^' ^I!^  '*  ""bwKluently  rel.  ro.in.  Upon  this  ..timaU  the  vaU.  V  Ih.  .pWU 
rl  U  U  d„vL  !!J  !  !J^™"'  "*?''  '  ""*••   jforP*"*!"'  ••""•»">'  produced  in  the  HUto  of  North 


the  tree 
(trained  and 

erateiy  warm  taHe,  devoid  of  acrimony  o'  bitternMs, 
and  a  white  or  very  pale  yillo»  color-  it  is  alwnt  as 
consistent  as  thick  honey,  If  dear,  transparent,  and 
tenacious.  From  its  comparative  high  price,  Cliian 
turpentine  Is  seldom  procured  genuine,  twing  for  the 
most  part  adulterated  either  with  Venetian  or  common 
turpentine.  The  different  species  of  turpentiue  may 
be  dissolved  in  rectified  spirit,  or  pure  alcohol ;  and  by 
distillation  they  all  give  similar  oils,  which,  ftrom  their 
being  distilled  (and  not  from  mv  r  semblance  to  alco- 
hol), are  termed  spirit  of  turpentine.  If  the  distilla- 
tion be  performed  with  water,  the  produce  is  an  essen- 
tial oil,  the  common  spirit  of  turpentine ;  and  if  the 
distillation  be  carried  on  in  a  ntort  without  water,  the 
product  is  more  volatile  and  pungent — a  concentrat<-d 
oil,  as  it  were— and  is  called  the  ethereal  spirit  of  tur- 
pentine. The  residuum  that  is  left  in  both  cases  is 
•  brownish,  resinous  mass,  brittle,  capable  of  being 
melted,  highly  inflammable,  insoluble  In  water,  but 
mixing  fi'eely  with  oils :  it  is  the  common  rosin  of 
commerce. — Library  of  JCnlerlainin;/  Knowltdge,  Vegt- 
table  Sttbttancts ;  Thohsom's  Ditpetuatory. 

Exports  or  Spieits  or  Tdbpkntink  prom  tih!  Vhitid 
8t*«8  roa  Tilt  YK*a  esbino  June  30, 18ST. 


Carolina  is  upward  of  $14,000,0U0— nearly  equal  to  th* 
value  of  the  annual  agricultural  product  of  the  Stat* 
of  Maryland.  Add  to  tbis  the  value  of  rosin  w^ieu 
converted  into  oil,  which  at  the  present  narlint  value 
would  be  •19,200,000,  and  w«  find  a  resource  In  thU 
natural  product  of  over  #88,000,000  In  tlie  HtaM  of 
North  Carolina  alone ;  anc"  *l  estimate  does  not  in- 
clude the  Ur,  pitch,  and  ni.^htUa,  which  are  neceaiary 
and  raerchinubl*  articles,  and  would  larifely  Increase 
the  amount, 

ExpoBTs  or  Rosin  AMD  TvariMTiiia  nnu  tmi  (Iiirran 
tSTATis  roa  Tua  Yxae  wiDiNa  Jdks  SO,  18ST. 


Whltlwf  <iporUd. 


atlloni. 


PruMHla 

Swedrn  and  Norway 

D»Dt«h  West  Indies 

llamhurg 

Itremen 

Holland 

Dutrh  Guiana 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Ilelgium 

England 

Scotland 

rilbraltor 

MalU 

Canada  

Othor  I'ritUh  North  A.  Posacaslont 

Ilritlah  West  Indies 

Ilrltlnh  IIoDduras 

Hrltiah  (iulana 

IlritlHh  PoflflefiHlons  In  Africa 

IWIish  Australia 

Ilrltiith  (.oitt  Indies 

l-'muco  on  tlio  Atlantic 

France  on  the  MediterranuBn 

French  North  American  I^oflseflBiona 

tVench  West  Indies 

Spain  on  ihe  Atlantic 

.'<paln  oil  the  Mediterranean 

rttlll|iplnc  Islands 

Cuba 

I'orto  Kico 

I'ortugal 

.Madeira 

.Sardinia 

Turkey  in  Asia 

i'orts  in  AfHca 

Iloytt 

Mexico 

i.'cntrai  itepubllc 

Now  liransda 

\'i;ne2ucla 

liraail 

I'ruguay,  or  Clsplatine  Republic... 

Arge'^tlno  Itepubllc 

t  hill 

i'orii 

Kcnador 

Sandwich  Islands 

()t1\er  lalands  In  the  I'aciflc 

(  hlna 

Whale-fldherles 


Valua. 


T.OlK) 
1,405 

197,863 
47,502 

159,8;s 

30 

1,38!) 

63,039 

749,974 

33,308 

8,000 

1,000 

17,043 

3,513 

0,0;i9 

262 

7,708 

3,04.5 

6,06^ 

2.'>,53a 

6,01  lO 

13,070 

84 

967 

1,6S5 

1,240 

1,59J 

26,350 

1,0S» 

4,520 

200 

6.361 

3,730 

1,100 

1,208 

1,421 

V.'5 

M7 

1,5:10 

32,80 1 

10,030 

111,72.1 

63,084 

2,300 

530 

2,766 

75 

1,920 


$3,646 

«3S 

636 

02,728 

23,268 

64,483 

23 

863 

23,166 

86'i,7!)4 

16,219 

870 

625 

11,683 

1,955 

2,99« 

215 

8,809 

2,782 

3,6J6 

15,831 

3,000 

5,119 

4') 

439 

871 

664 

l.OOO 

13,690 

61)4 

2,333 

76 

2,607 

1,396 

716 

796 

660 

60 

807 

777 

18,096 

6,770 

10,318 

27,887 

1,485 

380 

1,8,16 

1,519 


Whliho  «ii»fM4. 


liutsia  on  the  Daltio  and  North  Mas 

Primla 

Sweden  and  Norway '. . . , 

DcnmarE 

Danish  West  Indies '.!!!','.','. 

Uamburg , .,.' 

Bremen 

Holland 

Dutch  Weat  Indies 

DutchOulana 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Delglum 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

Canada  

Uthcr  Uritisn  North  A.  Possessions 

Urltlnh  Wrat  Indies 

Brltiah  Guiana 

Ilrlllah  Poaaesslona  lu  Africa 

Britlah  AuatralU 

Brillah  East  Indlea 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

Franco  on  the  Mediterranean 

French  North  American  I'assesiiona 

French  Weat  Indies 

French  GuUna 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean . . . , 

Canary  Islands 

Cuba 

Porto  Rico 

I'ortugal 

Madeira 

Sardinia 

TwoSIcUica 

Austria 

AuatrUn  Poaaesi  .jns  In  Italy . . , 

Turkey  la  Europe 

Turkey  In  Aaia 

Portj  In  Africa 

Haytl 

Mexico 

New  (iranada 

Vencstiela 

Itraiil 

Uruguay,  or  Clsplatlne  Republic 

Argentine  Republic 

thili 

Peru 

Sandwich  Islands 

other  Islands  In  the  Pacific 

Chins 

Total,  l8.'S6-'57 


Bsiwh.  T  " 


1)04 

11,464 

108 

S,MS 

45 

47,696 

28,3>ii 

63,467 

16 

ilO 

175 

70,164 

271,484 

82,427. 

4,536' 

8,446 

8,6n'j 

10,620 

2,408 

48S 

6 

420 

6,866 

6,861 

88,477 

4,728 

10 

166 

11 

1,061 

1,208 

75 

1,107 

13 

8,101 

216 

8,243 

1,366 

8,.:'> 

2,2v. 

1,300 

1,626 

676 

86 

184 

6 

1,027 

18,046 

1,180 

»70 

2,10* 

660 

4 

« 

25 


641,517 


Villa*.  _ 

"tl.'llW" 

21,6*0 

175 

9,6fl1 

Iff 

102,^3 

61,666 

102,76t 

in 

48 
848 

126,057 

793,044 

77,638 

7,0H2 

6,904 

6,240 

46,168 

8,71);i 

633 

6 

602 

11,605 

13,670 

67,380 

7,731 

26 

20O 

22 

2,243 

2,886 

1»6 

8,603 

21 

8,80,1 

BS7 

6,736 

2,443 

7,664 

4,434 

2,513 

8,IM)5 

1,361 

71 

402 

II 

8,015 

26,314 

1,969 

1,640 

4,616 

1,826 

6 

80 

6(> 


!|il  t>4«,573 


2 

Total I  1,622,177  I  *741,346 


Oil  of  Tiirjifntine  is  tlie  essential  oil  drawn  from  tur- 
pentine liy  (listillatiun.  There  are  two  sorts  of  this 
oil :  the  best,  red ;  and  the  second,  white.  It  Is  very 
extensively  used  by  house  painters,  and  in  the  manu- 
fucture  of  varnish,  etc.  The  distillers  have  been 
charged  with  using  it  in  the  preparation  of  gin.  Oil 
of  turpentine  is  verj-  often  adulterated, 

Turpeth  Mineral  (from  its  yellow  color,  which 
resembles  tlie  powdered  root  of  the  Conrolvului  tur- 
The  manufacture  of  spirits  of  turpentine  in  the  |  pelhiim),  the  yellow  tub-ptrtulphate  ofmtra:ry. 
State  of  Alabama  was  commenced  within  the  last  eight  j  Tuiquoise  (Ger.  Turkiu ;  Fr.  Tunptoite. ;  It.  Tut^ 
years,  and,  altbaugh  upon  a  very  limited  scale  at  first,  !  china;  Sp.  Turqueia\tL  precious  stone  in  considerable 
the  annual  product  has  now  reached  upward  of  1,600,000  estimation.  Its  color,  which  is  its  principal  recom> 
gallons,  and  that  of  rosin  to  above  130,000  barrels,  niendation,  is  a  beautiful  celestial  blue,  which  migrate! 
In  North  Carolina,  where  the  business  has  been  car- 1  into  pale  blue,  and  is  sometimes  tinged  with  green, 
ried  on  for  a  much  longer  time,  it  is  estimated  that  the  '  Specific  gravity,  3-127.  It  is  destitute  of  lustra, 
aimual  product  of  spirits  amoimts  to  800,000  barrels, !  opaque,  and  does  not  admit  of  a  high  polish.     It  I* 


TUB 


1888 


TUS 


math  worn  in  MckUcM,  and  vmy  put  of  omuMatal 
Jewalrjr,  from  Uw  Blia  of  a  pin'i  h«ad  to  that  of  an  al- 
mond ;  it  contraitt  beautifully  with  brilliants  or  paarli 
Mt  in  fins  gold. — Maw3  oh  Dianandi,  R«al  turquois> 
••  aro  azolutlveljr  fumiahed  by  I'enia.  The  minei 
whnnca  thay  ara  obtainad  ara  licuatad  near  Niihapora. 
Thay  ara  tha  property  of  the  orowa,  and  are  tarmad  to 
the  higheat  bidder.  Thay  brinfr  a  rant  of  flrom  jCSOOO 
to  JSXlva  a  year.— Fbabbb'*  TnmtU  <m  the  Shont  of 
Ikt  Caipitm. 

Tnrtle.  Thli  word  la  uied  to  algnlfy  a  species  of 
dove  (Cohmtba  turtur),  and  also  a  genua  of  Cttclonian 
reptiles  (fiheUmr,  Brongn). 

Toaoany.  The  Grand  Duehy  of  Tuscany  com- 
prises an  area  of  8566  square  miles,  and  contained  in 
1854  a  population  of  1,815,686  inhabitants.  Its  chief 
port  is  Leghorn,  situated  on  the  HadHerranean,  anJ 
poaseasing  extensi%'e  artificial  facilities  for  commercial 
enterprise;  indeed,  the  harlrar  is  entirely  artiflcia). 
Strictly  speakin<;,  Tuscany  is  an  agricultural  courtry 
—the  valley  of  the  Amo  being  generally  considered 
the  most  fertile  in  Europe.  The  system  of  culture  is, 
however,  imperfect ;  and  tha  constquanca  is,  that  the 
grain  raised  is  insufficient  for  home  consumption.  Tus- 
cany has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  mineral  produc- 
tions. Iron  abounds  in  the  island  of  Elba ;  copper,  ar- 
gentiferous lead,  sulphur,  mercury,  alum,  coal,  marble, 
and  alabaster  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  Grand 
Duchy ;  and  borax  is  supplied  in  great  abundance  from 
the  borax  lagoons  of  Volterra. 

The  manirfkctures  of  Tuscany  ara  in  a  highly  flour- 
ishing condition.  These  consist  of  straw-platting  and 
the  manufacture  of  straw  hats,  and  manufactures  of 
silk ;  the  principal  seat  of  this  latter  branch  of  indus- 
tr}'  being  at  Florence,  in  which  city  alone  there  are 
upward  of  4000  loom".  There  are  also  manufactures 
of  wool,  es|)ecially  of  woolen  cloths  and  carpets ;  man- 
ufactures of  linen,  of  paper,  alabaster,  marble,  porce- 
lain, hardwares,  and  of  metal,  Tha  internal  taxes 
levied  on  every  branch  of  productive  industr}'  through- 
out the  Tuscan  territories  liave  long  fettered  the  com- 
mercial activity  of  the  country.  Furniture,  machin- 
ei3',  books,  live  stock — in  fact,  every  article  in  daily 
use,  has  to  bear  enormous  duties.  Ever}-  waUed  cit> 
has  its  own  system  of  taxation,  so  that  tbt)  manufao 
tures  of  one  town  are  burdened  with  oppressive  duties 
(pclroi)  before  they  can  be  admitted  fur  sale  into  an- 
other. Such  a  system  necessarily  results  injuriously 
to  the  commercial  enterprise  cf  Tu&cany ;  ami  its  ef- 
facto  are  perceptible  in  the  stagnant  condition  of  the 
foreign  c(    merce  of  that  courtry.     The  chief  exports 


of  Tuseanjr  an  oliva^tU,  hides,  itiaw  lutti,  borax,  rag*, 
wool,  hemp,  potash,  coral,  marble,  tallow,  oork,  build* 
ing4imbar,  and  paper ;  and  the  chief  imports,  colonial 
produce,  salt  Ash,  and  British,  German,  Swiss,  and 
French  manufactures.  The  usual  exports  of  tha  United 
States  to  Tuscany  are  naval  stores :  value  thereof  in 
1854,  «8078,  an^  in  1856,  $2930 ;  spiriU  from  molaasfs  > 
value  in  Wii,  •6958,  and  in  18b6,  •41,288 ;  manu/ao- 
tuns  not  enumerated,  to  tha  amount  of  between  $2000 
and  $8000.  Id  1866  the  exports  of  cotton  from  tha 
United  States  to  Tuscany  amounted  in  value  to  $4804, 
and  of  tobacco  to  $171,621,  The  imp.^rte  nf  the  United 
States  from  Toscany  are  chiefly  silk,  piece  goods,  oUv»- 
oil,  almonds,  flgs,  soap,  small  quantities  of  opium,  and 
rags  i  this  latter  article  averaging  annually  soma  six 
million  pounds. 

There  is  no  commercial  ».rasty  between  the  United 
States  and  Tuscany ;  but  American  vessels  enjoy  per- 
fect aquality,  as  nspecte  navigation  and  import  duties, 
with  Uis  Tuscan  flag— similar  privileges  having  been 
granted  to  the  Tuscan  flag  In  tha  ports  of  the  United 
States,  par  President's  proclamation,  Sept.  1, 1886. 

The  general  foreign  trade  of  Leghorn  in  1851  waa, 
in  tmporta,  $14,442,900;  and  in  exports,  $10,808,120. 
This  is  a  Calling  off  lh>m  tha  general  trade  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  of  $988,720.  This  diminution  in  the  for. 
eign  trade  of  Leghorn,  which  is  every  year  becoming 
more  and  more  perceptible,  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  a  large  portion  of  the  extensive  trade  with  Lcm- 
bardy,  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  PontiOcal  states,  her«< 
tofora  tha  principal  source  of  the  commercial  prosper- 
ity of  this  port,  has  passed  from  Leghorn,  and  is  now 
carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Genoa,  Trieste,  and 
Ancona,  Besides,  the  port  of  I.Aghom  has  of  late 
years  been  much  neglected,  and  offen  neither  induce- 
ments nor  proper  facilities  to  foreign  6ags,  Ships  of 
heavy  draught  can  not  enter  the  harbor,  especially 
if  Is.den ;  and  there  ara  no  suitable  warehonset,  not 
even  for  the  marble  of  Carrara,  one  of  the  leading  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States,  To  these  causes  of  the  de- 
cline of  tha  trade  of  Leghorn  is  to  be  added  a  tax  of 
3  francs  86  oantimes  tor  every  person  who  goes  ashore, 
should  he  remain  but  an  hour.  The  merchant  marine 
of  Tuscany,  in  1861  comprised  700  vessels,  measuring 
27,000  tond — averaging  less  than  40  tons  to  the  vessel. 
In  the  year  1849  there  entered  the  port  of  Leghorn 
1282  vessels  (exclusive  of  467  steamers),  of  which  26 
wen  American ;  and  there  cleared  1189  (exclusive  of 
464  steamen),  of  which  24  were  American,  In  1851 
the  arrivals  ware  3418  vessels,  of  which  23  wen  Amer- 
ican, 


COMHmoi  BnwiSN  tu«  I'mitkii  Sta'S*  aio>  Tdscant,  (xmBiTiNo  TH«  Valub  or  Exroan  to  amd  Impobts  raoH  XAoa 
I'ovnav,    Nn  tub  Tohnaob  or  Ambbicam  and  roBEiaii  Vcssbls, 

Vmh. 

VbIdc  of  Eipnrti  frum  Ub1i«4  SUIm. 

Valu*  of 
IniDorti  from 

TMCADy. 

Ain*Hr«n  Tonnas*. 

Foreisii  TooBSS*.         \ 

Domaittc 
Produn. 

Fowiffn 
Produce. 

TotAl. 

KnUrad  Iht 
Uoiled  SUtM 

IMffArtd  from 
Iht  V.  HmtM. 

Unlsrod  tho 
I'r.iltil  StftiM 

CUtrtd  from 
lhall.8IAIai. 

18416 

»6;i;'7 

30,076 
45,064 

17,607 

15,173 

11,736 

826,917 

426,6<I6 

337,400 

$23^468 

22,640 
87,032 
42,660 
6,:>83 

80,076 
6.>,139 

17,667 

37,813 

48,767 

26:),586 

431,178 

337,400 

$9i6,5<» 
886.617 
1,162,717 
1.700.604 
1.696,801 
1,750,000 

3,387 
6,416 
6,323 
7,599 
6,701 
^210 
11,0!I8 
16,696 
12,406 
16,819 

343 
1,956 
3,668 
1,586 
2,637 
1,618 
1,302 
2,1!I2 
2,386 
2,898 

1,412 
600 

1,636 
3,304 
7,871 
4,710 
4,153 
1,226 
4,819 
7,012 
1,963 
2,56T 

255 

315 

°666 
('60 
486 

236 
224 
387 
237 
381 

1847 

1843 

1849  

ISBO 

19,M 

IS.VJ 

IS.%3 

1854 

1R56 

1850 

1887 

Quarantine. — The  quanntine  regulations  of  Leghorn 
an  the  most  rigorous  of  any  other  port  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Ships  approaching  leghorn  are  visited  by 
two  guards  sent  from  the  health  ofBce,  one  of  whom 
always  acts  is  pilot.  Tha  moat  recent  authority  in 
the  possession  of  the  Department  on  this  subject  thus 
sums  up  the  quarantine  regulations  of  this  port,  so  far 
as  they  relate  to  vessels  arriving  l^om  American  ports : 

i^H'  "f  ituararUine. — According  to  cases  of  suspicion 
for  arrivals  from  Ainorica. 

Clean  BUU — Day  of  Obtervation. — Fint  division ; 


from  the  equator  to  the  tropic  of  Caucer ;  from  lit 
December  to  Fabruar}-  inclusive,  seven  days ;  from  Ist 
March  to  November  inclusive,  ten  days ;  vessels  of 
war  two  days  less  than  merchant  vessels.  Second 
division :  from  the  tropic  of  Cancer  to  Charleston  in- 
clusively, and  from  the  equator  to  all  South  America, 
five  day3,  trota  Ist  December  to  Februat}-  inclusive ; 
seven  days,  from  1st  March  to  November  inclusive. 
Third  division:  from  the  United  States  between 
Charleston  and  Canada. 
DmhlfulJiiUt  of  Health— Dai/i  rf  Quanmtine.—lat- 


TUS 

arpt»o  of  St.  Roch  all ...  ^^  TVP 

Jst  Marcl.  to  Novem  '  -T'"' "«'"«'«"  d^vs  f„^m  I  "  P"^"""  «>">  manuS '^"' '"/."l  »«'=''«'  "'  their 
susceptible  commodUi^r  .'"'''"'^•"''  '"'nty-fiie  'dlv,  T"  ''>""«''«n8Ta"o  ,1  uU  "f  '^''  '^""*''  ^''t". 
posed  to  IH,  S^an-  ''„d"^i'  '""  K"'"".  ''"Uimo  ^  ,'J    "^^  """"trie,,  that  Ty  atteltf  *"^  "'"  '""•  »' 

"  long  quarantine,  three  m.^irr"'  ""  '"''J-'cted  to  tin  „f ,  "^ '"  '"'  """Bgled  fnia,  Cl^"  ;..  '^''''  ""■»• 
made;  and  when  merX  ,  "'  '""»  «■•«  (inerullv  1 1  u.  n"°"™"8''' "'"'ala  ironuhat  ■^'''"  "P"'^ 
extraordinary  cMo^!^    .".''"  '"'lection,  two     li  •  ' '".f  >  '»  H«dostan    the  M„i      TP''" '«'"«  Pn>- 


mundant  of  the  port  dermTnTt?: "«"-"- 'h^  con." 
pensation.  The  vossela  of  a^  „„,;  "",""■»'  "t  com- 
or  foreign,  pay  the  aame  nuar inf  "?'  "''^"'er  Tuscan 
art.,  for  each  wnitarv  Wsit  80  "  '?  ""'^  '^'"'»''  "uc" 
boat  convoying  the-l.el  Ih  „ffl  !  "  "I!"  ^^  ««  ^"r  the 
per  day,  58  cents ;  or  48  cents  if  f    ,  •  "^  *""''  Suard, 


.--__,,„„  loins ;  or  48  cents  iff    i  •  "  S"aru,    panv'a  t<.r.i*„  • '        """i  'o  t" 

»^?r?t.e„ty.c'^rj;t^ri::!s«'«^or^^  --  - 

'"icane  i„  the  CtinZtZ'UZT.l^""^''  »' 


'y«en.otirS^--f,_,^  „...„„, 

of  tutenag  from  Chin""to  Calr,.  ''  ""^'^Potatlon 
now  been  totally  superseded  tt,  """*''  '""•»" '"" 
'«■••     Of  this  Intt.r  .V'foughout  India  by  su-l 

from  Great  BrS  insTo";^'  t','"™.  ""^  «S 
pa-/?  territories  ar^dCeyoVnG^^.'  '."'"''  ^''»»- 
quantities  furnished  bi-^IamJi'"  p"'-' '''"''''» ''''' 
^erp,  and  other  CWinntaltrt.^'  ^"'"''"»'  ^-t- 


ror  eyery  tv.^;;  .!|iZr  ofer'tt":  ^'■''  ««  "'  "«' 
yomo  embraces  an  urea  nf -J-ff  "^"Pacity—C.  D. 
taming  a  population  inIsM  fj  'jl""™  '""^»-  '^o'"  I  "iweM'"' ''''?'"""'  '""'-^^  STo„;r"""'"  "■■ 

7^^:sr-:i;^i-tha„.rma,  d^ 
p-™Krmi^;  £^~s^^ 

«een>  to  ho  inexha"st^^"  ^Tj^  "'  ^'"f™.  "l"*  known,  biarJher-.'  ''"  ''""'  "  "<"  ""S" 
states  being  inland,  and  buf  i,  .'"'''  "^  ''""'  these  '  befor.  \e  CbZi  P'"'"' '"" '^^'^  "^'n  1690  ve«« 
basis  for  commercXt'':;^^'7PP'''d  with  any !  is  sii^,^^^^^^^^^^^ 

considerable.  By  treatv  nf  n!  '  '.  ^  """"«•  ''^'V  in-  no  notice  of  T.,,  '""^'  mentions  Sidon,  he  takes 
states  of  Panna  /nd  Mc  1  m  adredT.''  I'V^'^^"  '  "^ '^e  tther^  ty '  tn,  ^'■'''  ^'"'""^  -«  »ed'  b 
tria,  and  duties  aro  uonZl.T<  ""' '"""  of  Aus-  the  latter  w,,I  ^nf  Ji  """  "  ""  ™nclu8iye  proof  that 
rates  and  in  the  same  manner  h^^k'"""^"  "'  '"e  same  '  proph^  ilaTah  I  "\™"^'''^""«  emporium  The 
Za<.ra.-This  litt  e  Z?fT  "•"'"  "'■ """  «™Pire. ,'  from  700  t„  mn'  ■'"•"","''■-  ""J  Ezekiel,  Who  Hourished 
October  Jl,  1847  ""i^  .''f  «,«as  annexed  to  Tuscany  '  a  d  v  .f       ■  K^"'  ^^'''">  ^'rist,  represent  Tvrt. 

some  ininort-nn"    f,"' ,"  "^  oil  and  silk  is  acouiri„„  >  .  "  .:V°" f"  """"';'^'>  Nebuchadnezzar.  thVinl,,.!.!.™  ..! 


Lucca  became  ruWrw"""-!^'"'''''''  '^'^  ^"^o  «>  i  haX'Z'n'?  '"^'  T;  '"^"  <"•  "■"  n.ainTand"."bu, 


'J  lertUe,  and  the  cultu™  J"  -i  ,  "  '^  exceeding.  Babilonian  m^^  ,  k  xt  ■  "  '^iKtliened  period  by  the 
some  iniportancel'he  forn,  "I  •"""  '"''  '«  ""^qxiring  conyeved  t^,l'°T^  Nebuchadnezzar,  thVinhabita  its 
ed  the  best  i„  it„  !"  „^"™f,^  ''!"'&  eenerally  e'steem- '  lUrildilnl  f '''  ""''  '^'"  Koods  to  an  island  a  . 
Tl.e  imports  o?L,S'  Thit"    "!'"  "  ^'^  quality.  I  nj y  d   „  i' '  !  '"T  h"  ""'^  "'-^  ^'"'  founded,  wlSch 

jalt  fish,  hemp,  flax  coMo,  J.  "^  '  V"'"  ""'*  'P''"'.  entitled  KJ;„  , "',''  '">'  ™'' «"  "-at  account, 
facturcs.  Salt  an,f  V ?.  ' ''""''  ""'I  ^^ous  manu  new  i.»„  '''*  ^  '^and  the  other  simply  Tyre.  The 
o'i'^s,  and  1^1^^^^"''"  ''''"'  e«vernme„t  in™! '  a„Tit  J' ™""''"'''  '"  """"''-  "^f-ding  iL  llol^, 

value  of  about  ®]60 "no   "'  °'".^-«.'V»  ««  annual '  Tyrians  to  '!;-™i,J^.J'''•?"™  ""''''  ''>'  ""e 


rmg  industry  Lucca  ,V  e!!!?^  ""^^ '"'^^™' '^  "'^ir  commercial  skiU  and 


yn?ii»  ^1-    t       "•''ports  were 


TYR 


1890 


TYR 


foumlntlon  of  Aloxundria,  by  diverting  the  eommerce 
thiit  had  fonnorly  centred  at  Tyn  into  a  new  cliun- 
nel,  );Hvn  lier  an  irn^pnrulilo  lilow ;  and  slie  gradually 
douliniMl,  till,  cnnHintently  with  the  denunciation  of  the 
pniplutt,  hor  |iuliu'0!i  htive  liccn  luveled  with  the  duat, 
and  aha  has  lierama  "a  place  fur  the  apreading  of  neti 
In  tlie  inidat  of  the  aea." 

Cummerer. — PhiDnicin  was  one  of  the  amalleat  roun- 
tricB  of  antiquity.  It  occupied  that  part  of  the  8}Tian 
cooat  which  atretchea  from  Aradna  (tlio  modem  Kouad) 
on  tlie  north  to  n  little  lielow  Tyro  on  the  aouth,  a  dia- 
tanco  of  aliout  CO  leuguea,  Ita  breadth  waa  much  leaa 
conaidcralil«,  lieing  for  the  moat  part  Iwundyd  by  Mount 
Lilianua  to  the  enat,  and  Mount  Carmel  on  the  aouth. 
The  aurface  of  tliin  narrow  tract  waa  generally  rugged 
and  mountainoun ;  and  tlio  aoll  in  the  valleya,  though 
modoratol"  Ottile,  did  not  alTuril  sufficient  aupplies  of 
food  to  feou  the  popubition.  LilNinua  and  iti  depend- 
ent ridges  were,  however,  covered  with  timber  suitable 
for  ahi|)-building ;  ond  l>oaidea  Tyro  and  Sid<m,  Phoe- 
nicia po98e8»o<l  the  porta  of  Trl|)oli,  llyldoa,  I)or}-tua,' 
etc.  In  thia  situatiim,  occupying  a  country  unalde  to 
supply  them  witli  autHcient  quantitiea  of  com,  hemmed 
In  liy  mountains,  and  by  |K.werful  and  warlike  neigh- 
bors on  the  one  hand,  and  having  on  the  other  the 
wide  cxpanae  of  the  Mediterranean,  studded  with  isl- 
ands, and  surrounded  by  fertile  countries,  to  invite  the 
entcr]>ri8e  of  her  citiitens,  they  were  naturally  led  to 
engage  in  moritime  and  comnicrviul  adventures ;  and 
became  the  boldest  and  most  experienced  murinera,  and 
tlio  greatest  discoverers,  of  ancient  times. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity,  n  considerable  trade 
aeema  to  have  licen  carried  on  l>etwcon  tlie  Kaetom 
•nd  Weatem  worlds.  The  apices,  drugs,  precioua 
Btonea,  ami  other  valuable  products  of  Aral)ia  and  In- 
dia, huvo  alwaya  been  highly  eateemed  in  Europe,  and 
have  been  exchanged  for  the  gold  and  silver,  the  tin, 
wines,  etc.,  of  the  latter.  At  the  first  dawn  of  authentic 
history,  we  tlnd  rhoonicin  the  principal  centre  of  thia 
commerce.  Her  inhaliita<ita  are  dcaignated  in  the 
early  aarroil  writinga  by  the  name  o>'  Canaanltes — a 
term  which,  in  the  language  of  the  f^at,  means  mer- 
chants. The  products  of  Araldo,  India,  Persia,  etc., 
were  originally  conveyed  to  her  by  companies  of  trav- 
eling mercliants  or  caravans,  which  seem  to  hare  been 
constituted  in  the  name  way,  and  to  have  performed 
exactly  the  same  part  in  the  commerce  of  the  Eaat,  in 
the  days  of  Jacob,  that  they  do  at  present. — Gen. 
xxxvii.  26,  etc.  At  a  later  period,  however,  in  the 
reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  the  Phtcniciana,  having 
formed  nn  alliance  with  the  Hebrews,  ac(|uired  the 
ports  of  Elath  and  Ezion-gol)er,  ut  the  northeast  ex- 
tremity of  the  Red  Sea.  Hero  they  fitted  out  fleets, 
which  traded  with  the  ports  on  that  sea,  and  probably 
with  those  of  Southern  Arabia,  tho  west  coast  of  India, 
and  Ethiopia.  Tho  ships  are  said  to  have  visited 
Ophir;  and  a  great  deal  of  erudition  has  lieen  expend- 
ed in  uttempting  to  determine  the  exact  situation  of 
that  emporium  or  countr}-.  Wo  agree,  however,  with 
Ileeren,  in  thinking  that  it  was  not  the  name  of  any 
particular  place,  but  that  it  was  a  sort  of  general  des- 
ignation given  to  the  coasts  of  Arabia,  India,  and  Af- 


rica, bordering  on  the  Indian  Ocean ;  somewhat  In  the 
same  loose  way  aa  we  now  uae  the  terms  East  and 
West  Indies. 

The  distance  of  the  K«d  Sea  firom  TjTe  Iwing  ver}' 
considerable,  the  conveyance  of  goods  from  the  one  to 
the  other  l>y  land  must  have  l)e«n  tedioua  and  expenf- 
ive.  To  lessen  this  inconvenience,  the  Tyrlans,  short- 
ly after  they  got  possession  of  Elath  and  Ezion-f^lier, 
seized  npon  Rhinoculura,  the  port  In  the  Mediterranean 
nearest  to  the  Ked  Sea.  The  products  of  Araliia,  In- 
dia, etc.,  Iieing  carried  hither  by  the  most  compenrl'iug 
route,  were  then  put  on  board  ships,  and  conv-ycd  by 
a  brief  and  onay  voyage  to  Tyre.  If  we  'xcept  the 
transit  liy  Eg}-pt,  thia  was  the  shortest  and  moat  direct, 
and  for  that  reason,  no  doubt,  the  cheapeit  channel  by 
which  tlie  commerce  between  Southern  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope could  then  be  conducted.  But  it  is  not  believed 
that  the  Phoenicians  possessed  any  permanent  footing 
on  the  Ked  Sea  after  tho  death  of  Solomon.  The  want 
of  it  docs  not,  however,  s„'em  to  have  aensilily  affected 
their  trade ;  and  Tyre  continued,  till  the  foundation  of 
Alexandria,  to  be  the  grand  emporium  for  Eastern 
products,  with  which  it  was  abundantly  supplied  by 
caravans  from  Arabia,  tho  bottom  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  from  Uabylon,  by  way  of  Palmyra. 

The  commerce  of  the  Phoeniclana  with  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  was  stiU  more  extens- 
ive and  valuable.  At  an  early  period  they  established 
settlements  In  Cyprus  and  Rhodes.  The  former  was 
a  very  valuable  acquisition,  from  its  proximity,  the 
number  of  its  porta,  ita  fertility,  and  tho  variety  of  its 
vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Having  passed 
successively  into  Greece,  Italy,  and  Sardinia,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  explore  the  southern  ahotea  of  France  and 
Spain,  and  the  northern  shores  of  Africa.  They  af- 
terward adventured  upon  the  Atlantic,  and  were  tho 
first  people  whose  flag  was  displayed  beyond  the  Pil- 
lars of  Kercules. 

The  commerce  and  navigatfon  of  Tyre  probably  at- 
tained their  maximum  from  C50  to  &60  years  before 
Christ.  At  that  period  the  Tyrians  were  the  factori 
and  merchants  of  the  civilized  world,  and  they  enjoyed 
an  undisputed  pre-eminence  in  maritime  affairs.  Tlie 
]irophet  Ezel(iel  (chop,  xxvii.)  has  deacribed  in  mag- 
nificent terms  the  glory  of  T-'re,  and  has  enumerated 
several  of  the  most  valuable  productions  f.iund  in  her 
markets,  and  the  countries  whence  they  were  hi  ouglit. 
The  fir-trees  of  Senir  (Hermon),  the  cedrrs  of  I-e lianon, 
the  oaka  of  Baaban  (the  country-  to  the  east  of  Galilee), 
the  Ivory  of  the  Indies,  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt,  and 
the  purple  and  hyacinth  of  tho  isles  of  Elisliah  (Pelo- 
ponnesus), are  specified  among  tho  articles  used  for  lier 
ships.  The  Inhabitants  of  Sidon,  Arvad  (Aradus), 
Geliel  (Byblos),  served  her  as  mariners  nnd  carpenters. 
Gold,  silver,  lead,  tin,  iron,  and  vessels  of  brass ;  slaves, 
horses,  mules,  sheep,  and  goats ;  pearls,  precious  stones, 
and  coral ;  wheat,  balm,  honey,  oil,  spices,  and  gums ; 
wine,  wool,  and  silk,  nr«  mentioned  as  being  broii;:lit 
into  the  port  of  Tyre  liy  sea,  or  to  its  markets  iiy  land, 
from  Syria,  Arabia,  Damascus,  Greece,  Tarshisli,  nml 
other  placea,  the  exact  site  of  which  it  ia  difficult  to 
determine.— i6tee  M'Ccllocu's  Com,  Diet, 


omi  or  tholSth  century 

.eroea  hin,  fro,,,  violent  r„l7„ 'L»,  ^T''  h"",.,  lo  ^f '"o  '•''"«<"  of  mo,.„  „|„  "IT'^^':'  »'«  'r«ver«.,, 
veryaiidont.  U  appear/ by  ,h^,  ^"'''«="«»«ro  Mou,,,T''"''''"  '"»»  of  N,' '  h  ^""«'"">io..  an.l  ,1." 
K  (hat  u,nl,rella,  wire  ,i8eX\       '""'"S'  «'  Porscpo!    ,i„  ".'""'""■    ^  l"^» '  divide  ih.'  '""""•  "'»  Kockv 

to  be  carried  ^-yZ^^t'^T^r  -«•=  "-'^-• 

trios  ami  cupboards  shows  tho  p,'.'^''''"'-"""'  In  pa„. 

nmbrc  a.     It  U  ,ai,l  thaMh'   „5  """"  """'<"'  bv  a , 

umLrella  in  the  street,  "f  fo,"l  '"'"""  «'"'  "»<^'l  »" 
Jona,  nan,vay,  who  ,i  ed  j "'"  L?  7^  "">  "-ennvol/n" 
years  the  .nanufacture  of  Zhro\~,T''-  Of  ""'o 
by  tho  use  of  steel  rib,  in,?o^do  ^h  TV'""'  '"'P^ved 
o'lnffs  are  mainly  connned,„  ?^"'"''"""-  ''"tov. 
and  alpaca.         ^  ™"""'"'  '»  '^"tto,,,  silk,    ;   ,,    ^ 


WhUherejporUa. 
Ulbraltar  , . . 
C'nnaila 

Amra  .. ,,  

Ha^ll ;■• 

Mflxico . .     

J;'ontr«lIiep;,biii;:; 

Jiow  Uranadi, .  

HauilHicli  luittiids'.' .',■.".■ 

Totol 


tlicir  highest  elevation,  in. I,  ^"f  ^'"'^  ">ey  reach 
westerly,  k„„w„  a  ",  „  c'^/''^ ''r"»'^^l'lng  off noTh"^ 
Ad,rondaol<ero,,p/i„  jf„^"'«^''l  Mou„,„in°  a„d  (,,, 

"°  Green  Mountain  knlr' "?'«'"=''  eIovaU„",t 
7"  and  the  Can.  •"  in^  "  7  "v  ^^'"'''"^^  »  »«„  ■ 
"'«  White  Mountains   a,    ?„  rllf'"  ''""'l'""'"  i " 

lupoBTs  op  rMiiEPi,»«   u    *"uj         """<"•  mountain  liTln-no     ,  """^  <'o«st  are  som„' 

Y«AEENmNaJfNEU0;is57""-*'"'="«^"'i»''oaTM    ""ivo  voleanocs  """' '""''  """1  furnish  some 

Ha.nbHrg v.,„.  .  '^''o  l*''ssissii,ni  R!v„.,... ,,_       . 


V«lue. 

Ktl 
432S 
'^03 
ISS 
31) 

05 

6.'3 

U 

■  *tis40 


Hamburg.. 

Uronion . . . 

HelRlura  . . 

Knglaiid  .. 

Scotland . . 

•js'iada aai, 

BnlT  °1u"'°  '^""■'ti'^  •  ■ '. ^i 

N^ora^^^r'™''"''"-'-'-'-''--'."::::  ''■■S 

Total,  year  ISWjL'OT -iri!!! 

»««.-» ■ *«*.3W 


V«lo., 

$4S 

2,l)-0 

B.noi 
Sf)l) 
4i 


--— *t /cur  isoo-'ftj 


^"oSrs.Sj-j"^:""'™-^"".ote. 

,  "^  """.erous  .ribut:,.ieTL     ;:  ';if  '"•'"■"'';•  ''i'  "•  a.ul 

I  on  (he  carlh's  surface      Tl,!  "  "'"*'  f"'"'"  'ract, 

I'niled  States  is  he  sbVh       ""y  "°"=''  f''"""-"  of  "  e 

f^cls  along  the  e  tire  U l"  '.'•"'"""'  '''""'-  «bich  IZ 

»f  from  50^0  in     n„s  ,.";;  d,,™"?'-  "■'■"' "  '"-«'I<h 

«°  jS  a.fa1'o„**''?-?'.^«ri<'«-     I-at.  25"  20'  and    """'"  '"'-'■-■"-•"urfa^'ti'trva;''?'  "'l"  ''^=-""  « 

mmmmmm 


UNI 


1802 


UNI 


muUtcd  w«teri  rrom  MichlKan,  piiM  through  thn  St. 
riair  Strait  anil  Lake,  and  tho  Dotroit  Intu  l,aka  Kris; 
whence,  paaaInK  over  (he  )ir«c:l|ilra  of  Niiiifara,  aii'l 
through  Niagara  .Slralta,  enter  Uiilurlo ;  Lake  Ontario 
haa  its  outlet  liy  the  inagnitli'vnt  81.  Lawrence,  tliriiugh 
Canadian  territory.  Intu  the  Allanlie  Ocean.  'I'liu  ful- 
lowing  Is  a  taliiil.ir  tlutcniunt  of  tlio  nxtiint  of  these 
fresh-water  sean,  with  their  ili'|ith  und  ulovatiuni 


LUm. 

Mm 
l.uitk. 

Brudlh. 
Mil-.'"" 

*H.i'  Mlln. 

Miiui 
thplK. 

rtii.' 

i^nperlor 

41K1 

H  1 

;W,iHiii 

UIH) 

69S 

.MlohlKsn  . . . 

am 

TO 

'iH,4'iO 

lUOfl 

tlH 

(treeii  Hay  . . 

IIXI 

») 

'i,0{N) 

IQOO 

678 

Huron 

940 

80 

'^11.41X1 

llJflO 

MS 

"MUlr  .... 

to 

14 

atio 

JO 

670 

Krlii 

840 

40 

8,000 

M 

6M 

Untarlii 

ISO 

80 

1,800 

era 

tat 

Lake  Champlain,  lying  l)etwc«n  Now  York  and  Ver- 
mont, it  1'28  miles  long,  and  from  1  to  10  wide,  and  dis- 
charges its  Wiiiera  through  the  Snrel  into  the  >St.  Law- 
rence. It  is  computed  that  thesn  lakes  con'ilii  11,0(10 
ouhic  miles  of  water — aquantity  more  than  live -sovonths 
of  all  the  fresh  water  of  the  earth.  The  exte.it  of  the 
country  drained  by  them  from  thfl  northwest  angle 
of  Lako  Superior  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  including  also 
the  area  of  the  lakes  themselves,  is  estimated  at  335,6 1. '> 
gi]uara  miles. — Ste  Lakes,  Commrne  "/• 

Hirrri. — The  water  courses  of  the  United  States  arc 
on  an  extensive  scale,  and  alfurd,  witti  the  groat  arti- 
ficial connecting  links,  a  system  of  inlanii  navigation 
unsurpassed.  First  In  order  are  those  uf  the  Atlantic 
slope,  the  waters  of  which  enter  directly  into  tlio  ocean ; 
the  principal  of  these  are  the  Penotiscot,  tbo  Kcnnulx.'C, 
the  Mcrriniac,  the  Connecticut,  the  Hudson,  the  Dela- 
ware, tho  Susquehanna,  the  Potomac,  the  Jumcs,  the 
Capo  Fear,  tho  Great  Pedcc,  tho  Savannah,  the  Alta- 
maha,  and  St.  Johns,  etc.  These  are  all  navigahh^ 
streams,  some  for  a  great  dintancn  inlanil.  Second, 
the  rivers  entering  tho  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  Sea  of  Cortez. 
The  Appal.ichicula,  tho  Mobile,  the  immense  Mississip- 
pi, tho  Sabine,  the  Trinity,  tho  Brazos,  tlie  Colorado, 
and  the  Kio  Grande.  Tho  rivers  entering  the  Pncilic 
are  tho  Columbia,  the  Sacramento  and  Sun  Joaquin, 
tho  Colorado,  and  Gila,  the  latter  two  disclmrging  tlielr 
waters  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  Tliere  arc  many 
rivers  entering  the  great  lakes,  and  also  the  St.  I.,aw- 
ronco,  tho  great  artery  of  Canada. — <S'e«  rivers  uiuler 
proper  names. 

A  remarkable  analogy  exists  in  tho  structure  of  the 
land  ill  tho  United  States  and  Central  ond  Northern 
Europe.  Gneiss,  mica,  schist,  and  granite,  prevail 
over  wide  areas  in  tho  Allughanica;  and  on  the  Atlan- 
tic slope,  and  in  thn  high  and  middle  latitudes  of  the 
continent,  Silurian  strata  e:aend  over  3000  miles.  The 
Rocky  Mountains,  also,  are  mostly  Silurian,  except  tbo 
east  ridge,  which  is  of  stratilied  crystallino  rocks, 
amygdaloid,  and  ancient  volcanic  produetions.  Tiic 
coast  range  has  tho  same  cimracteristics,  with  i\n- 
mensc  tracts  of  volcanic  rocks,  both  ancient  and  mod- 
cm.  chiefly  olisidian.  In  North  America  vulcanic  ac- 
tion is  entirely  confined  to  tho  coast  and  highlands 
along  tho  Pacillc;  but  within  the  United  States  at  the 
present  day  this  action  is  dormant  (with  tho  exception 
of  Mount  St.  Helens),  although  its  activity  is  very 
apparent  both  to  tho  north  and  south — to  tbo  north  in 
Mount  St.  Elias,  and  to  the  south  in  the  Mexican  vol- 
canoes. Tho  principal  minerals  produced  in  tho  Unit- 
ed Slates  aro  iron,  coal,  copper,  lead,  and  gold,  willi 
a  great  numl)cr  of  loss  importance.  Since  1818  llie 
great  field  of  gold  gathering  has  been  California,  where 
large  quantities  have  been  obtained  with  littlo  labor, 
and  both  silver  and  quicksilver  abound  in  tho  same 
state.  Silver,  however,  is  mostly  obtained  from  tho 
lead  and  copper  mtnes  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  and 
Lake  Superior  countries,  where  it  is  found  in  condii- 
nation  with  these  metals.  The  principal  deposits  of 
gold,  otherwise  than  those  of  California,  occur  in  tho 


primary  rocks  between  the  Hiver  Rappahannock,  in 
Virginia,  and  the  Coosa,  in  Alabama;  but  it  has  bvou 
found  ill  •mailer  i|uantities  as  far  north  as  Maine. 
Gold  and  silver  abound  also  in  New  Mexico  and 
Western  Texas,  anil  probably  in  the  Meallla  territory. 
Tho  coal-lieids  of  tlie  States  aro  of  protllglous  extant. 
Nearly  one-fourth  of  tho  country  between  tbo  Alls- 
gbaniea  and  the  Miasissippi  Is  composed  of  co«l-bedf; 
and  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois,  coal-mining  ho*  becomo  uf  vast  importance  to 
goneral  industry.  Tho  ascertained  areas  of  tho  coal 
formation  in  tho  undor-montioned  States  are  as  fol- 
lows: In  Alabama,  IMUO  square  miles;  Georgia,  160; 
Tennessee,  laOU;  Kentucky,  ia,&00;  Virginia,  21,105; 
Maryland,  550;  Ohio,  11,900;  Indiana,  7700 ;  Illinois, 
44,000;  Pennsylvania,  16,437;  Michigan,  6000;  and 
Missouri,  UOOO :  total,  133,132  square  miles.  Coal  has 
also  been  found  on  the  Pacillc  slupe— in  Cuiifurnia, 
Oregon,  and  Washington — nnd  the  mineral  will  no 
doubt  bo  found  in  Texas  and  tho  adjoining  country.  Aa 
a  general  remark,  it  may  be  stated  that  tlie  coal  east 
of  the  highest  Alieghanies  takes  the  form  of  anthra- 
cite, while  west,  and  in  tlie  valleys  of  the  great  central 
rivers,  it  is  bituminous.  Iron  is  equally  abundant 
with  coal,  and  is  uauuliy  found  in  Juxtapn-ition  with 
it.  Tho  principal  scuts  of  iron  mining  are  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  and 
Northern  .Michigan;  and  it  is  also  extensively  mined 
in  Northern  Now  York.  Pennsylvania,  however,  is 
pre-eminent  in  this  industry,  and  produces  at  least  one 
half  tho  iron  mined  in  the  United  Stales.  Copper  is 
mined  chiefly  in  Northern  Michigan,  but  to  a  less  ex- 
tent in  Connecticut,  New  York,  Tennessee,  North 
Carolina,  etc.;  and  rich  copper  mines  exist  also  In 
Now  Mexico,  near  tho  head  of  tho  Gila  Uiver.  I^ead  is 
worked  chlciiy  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa;  on 
the  Missisisi|ipi,  and  for  many  miles  around  tho  terri- 
tory, in  which  aro  included  Dubuque,  Gulena,  and 
}Iincral  Puiiit :  and  in  these  regions  upward  of  80,000 
tons  arc  annually  produced.  (Willi  respect  to  other 
mineral  products  refer  to  file  States  severally.) 

Uittoriciil  Sumntarij. — ICighteeii  new  Slates  have  been 
admitted  into  tlie  Union  sinco  tho  confederation  of  Ike 
original  thirteen  colonies,  as  follows : 

1.  Vermo'nl,  which  furmcd  a  part  of  the  territory  of 
Now  York  and  New  Hampshire,  was  admitted  on  the 
4th  March,  1791. 

2.  Kentucky,  which  was  formerly  a  port  of  Virgiuiu, 
was  admitted  on  tlie  1st  Juno,  1792. 

3.  Tennessee,  formed  from  tho  territory  coded  to  the 
United  States  by  North  Carolina,  and  which  afterward 
was  known  as  tlio  "  Ten  itory  south  of  tho  Ohio  Riycr," 
was  admitted  on  tho  1st  June,  179U. 

4.  Ohio,  tho  first  State  formed  from  tho  "  Territory 
northwest  of  tho  Ohio  River" — a  territory  which  had 
l>ccn  ceded  to  tlio  United  States  by  Virginia  and  othui' 
claimants,  and  which  was  erected  into  a  government 
AS  carlv  as  17S7,  was  admitted  on  the  29th  November, 
1802. 

5.  Louisiann,  a  part  of  the  vast  territory  of  tho  same 
name  purchased  of  Franco  by  the  United  States  in  1803, 
and  subsequently  known  as  tho  Territory  of  Orleans, 
was  aduiittcd  on  the  8th  April,  1812. 

G.  Indiana,  the  second  State  formed  to  tho  northwest 
of  Ohio,  was  admitted  within  Its  present  limits  on  the 
nth  Decemlicr,  1816. 

7.  Mississippi,  which  was  formed  from  tho  territory 
coded  to  tlie  United  States  by  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  was  admitted  on  the  10th  December,  1817. 

8.  Illinois,  tho  third  of  the  Northwestern  States,  was 
admitted  on  tho  3d  December,  1818. 

9.  A  Inbama,  tho  second  State  formed  from  the  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  cessions,  was  admitted  on  the 
14tli  December,  1819. 

10.  Maine,  originally  a  province  of  Massachusetts, 
but  having  been  permitted  to  frame  a  State  government 
by  that  State,  was  admitted  on  tbo  16tb  March,  1820. 


IJNI 


.n.  c....o„.  ,v..  ..Imittert        hr,r;'  T  ""  '"""•'- 

18.  AlKAujm,,  11,0  f,„,r„,  s, ,,    ''*"' JinB,  |n;w. 
rllory  northwe.t  „f  the  Ohio    I       ""''  ''»"'  «»"•  t«r. 
tho  2«lh  June,  l«37.  ""  "'"«•■'  *"  •'Imltted  „„ 


1898 


UNI 


vs.  rexa,,  which  ha  I  "  ""  "<!  M»r^  )«,?     , ,,"-  •''''<"1  r<..,»f,|vclv  ..!  ''*'•  '"'"'  »l'«l  i  In 


r«.omio„  „f  both  llouicoril"'  "''"'""■'''  ''y  »  J"i' I 
c«mli.r,  J«16.  "'  Ungress  on  the  29lh  Do- 

10.  loua,  the  fourth  .1(ni»  » 

of  uu..u„„,  w..  ...uS/Sm:  '""  ;^-"-r 

17.  nunmim,  tho  flfth  St.,"  ,  "'■'™»'l'«r,  l«lfl. 
rllory  nor.hwo.t  of  tho  OmI  p/'"'"""'  '"'"'■n  do  t„r 
tl.o  2«th  May,  18 IH         ""'"  "'^'"•.  ««.  admlitid  «', 

for'l.'Sara  of Ifc'-Jrir  '■'"'' «-""«"  «.  «  «.«.. 
_    "o.Ules  theie  thirtv-ono  s ... 


j;«'"X';hKr;:;,;:''''«'''"'''«'''.«^ 

""■'  not  oxMoil  8M  B"''*f"'"'«ni'»  w»,  achieved  f  |7«'n 


Hoildes  these  thirtv-ono  Si». 
aentativc,  to  Co„«rc "^  Z\  ,•  '*'''*  "«nd  repre 
popuUtl,.,,  there'.«rr,o'v  "r«  „:  ''"m""""  ">"'" 
ernniontf,  which  are  .1  vie  I  '.■?'!  .f'"^  '''■pcndcit  gov 
State,."  Such  arc  ehe'rerritorL"'rn  •"■"'«  I'""'"' 
l»Klon,  Utah,  New  Mexico  I.IM  ^"'«»"'  ^V""'- 
Titory  of  Nobr«,ka  i,  not  ','?""":«"'',"'•  'i'ho  Tor- 
vast  territory  Hot  apart  for"  ho  uT"""^'  ""'  '""  "'» 
existence,  but  each   r.„ii  """"""'y  SRcreMfn 

".nit^  i,  Kovernrbyt'rn  >r  •  """^    '«  -" 
A4:t:r87''--'«'''"'oaTc;r,toryo„thoi.h 

6:^^':S:j;:'^'-w,i«.o,a„d, 


■-"-laj^Z  -,^"'^«.nd,H,;r,hrj^^-;^ 

'»  '««  Toxa.  wa,  anue'^,,  '^''."'""•.y  «' Oregon,  etc 

I?'-"  mile,,  an,    ifv  r.r l:'""  ""  ""*  "'V^ 

Mexico  „,,„„a  of  ,-.i..2'„55';2l  'T  """'*'"•'  *"h 
Incorporated.    Thii.  ,  T,""'"""nal  „,uaro  iuIIk.  wa. 

f';'«  do-bio  itri,'!'" '«"'""/  »'  "">  U"lT.U 

;'«nco,  and  thu,  ha.  t  ncrea  '      °'"-'  >""'  »'  "•  «»- 

"'in  sixty  year,.     T,,„  ,,       '"''"'''"''•-f"' «., 

m.thorl,yir„,"  ^/„'°  '^»"»  ore  given  upon    h' 

"fi'Sor.  tr>.»,y   ""  ''■•"'"fy",  m,p  of  Kw^;'.  *'"■''' 
'mitywlil,  .<i,;,i,V,t 

'*''"""' "■'•"'ywiihkxicu:: 

Total '" .---■ 

Tho  terrllorlnl  «,.     .     •   ! '■'.Wa.tifla 

-"ly  ten  U™:V,''C:;«  "public  U,  therefore. 
„V";'°  "^"""-Ino.!,  thre*'e  time  L  „?™'  "^itain  and 
of  franco,  Drllain,  Austria  Prn 'if  •'  "'«  ^^ole 
B«l«»in,,  Holland  and  Vnn'n^'"'  **'"''".  I'oftUKal 
"«!'  time,  a,  C  «"  t  e  R  I'n"'"'"'.^^  »"«  ""a^ 


M.«00 
31«,c)00 
Sim.  068 
8:'!!.  068 
21,690 


'^"nedi„i:;f^,-f-^.«^r«rt  0,'or;- ;-.,    -^^ 

Bros,  m-J-'53.  """'>  "' "'»  session  of  Con-    one-,  ITh  1        "'?°  "'  "'"  «"«i»n  en,,,  re  In  ?•    ^ ' 

greased  sufflciontly  to  iustif    ,,!?  """".""»"  ''as  pro-    and  \tlan  in        "       '"'■«*  "  "'«  »'op<-»  of  ho  Paclfl„ 
— ™  Wtai^Abba  or  T,„  ,»,„„  g,„,^ 


I'aclflo  aiope 

Atlantic  •lopopropir" 
Northern  Uko  rc^on 

«u'f region ..;;;; ..:; 

■Mi»r.^'p;/'jLXv\,rfr'^''- 

AggroKate.  


Am.  In        I    "•I"  "f  *r..  oTeiJiT 

llj..  Mil..  Hlni._  .......    .•"'• 


(!27.0(K  I 
1,6M,09J 


,<|Un  Mll«. 

idfl.oua  " 


!l.'>2.C02 
:'I7.M2 


27,,'SOO 


20  «g 

i7-63 

3  83 

II  09 

41-47 
21  8A 
62-56 


--—~~J-LL I  Zl.i'XK)  I 

Thus  over  two-fifih,  of  tbn       .•      i      ~  ~ '-'-^^-^ ^L'Ai.m.tiau 


UNI 


ItM 


UNI 


In  rdironiU,  I'lirt  Vtiiciiiivar  on  tlio  (luluinliU,  In 
Or*KiiM,  (junliHii  mill  lliintiin  ii|iiiii  iha  AlUntic,  lluil- 
miii't  lUy  oil  IImi  imlrnnia  tiiirlli,  «nil  llaviint,  Vura 
('run,  tliil  lliii  illy  iif  Mimliii,  on  tlin  rxtrunia  •iiutli. 
'lliu  vtrluun  umal  li«alil>,  iliic'llvll|i>t,  (ml  tnlile-lainU 
on  llm  imilliiiint  liu  iiiilliti*l«>  ■•  fullowi  i  MlialHlppI 
IimIii,  l,lill,M>*l  >ii|iiiir«  nilliiii  Hi,  l.nwrancu,  'ITA.IUO; 
lluiUuii'ii  llu>,  l,n;7,'JI)il|  M«i'kiiiiiilii  h»An,  H\m,'MI; 
I'ai'llW  ilurlMl)',  l'iU,(XKl|  AtUiillu  ilvaivll/,  'iTUiTUU 
•i|ii»rt  iiilli'ii. 

Mr.  Ktrliy,  In  liln  llrcunifiliienl  liirliimnry,  glvcii 
,  tliii  rulluwhiK  NHurnuiitMt  VHlli'y  uf  llm  Oliln,  'JUU,0(M) 
•>iH*rii  mll»  I  Vitllxy  of  (III!  MI»alMl|i|il  prupur,  Ihu.UOU; 
Vitllay  uf  dm  Ml»i>iiil,  rilNi.lMIU;  anil  iliu  Valley  uf  llio 
Liiwur  MlanUallipl,  UaU.INH).  'I'ulal,  1,21U,UUU  utuaru 
uillxa. 

Mflulanant  Maury  luniiiaroa  lliu  banlni  of  th«  Ulil 
Wurlil  wllli  tliiiaii  ttlili'li  IK"  itraluad  Into  (bo  Uulf  uf 
MaxiMi  anil  (  arllilixaii  nuuii, 

MadlMirraiiaan  In  I'.iintw .,, LICADoo 

KlU MiMMH) 

hipliritliil ll'iMMHi 

Inriii* Om.flOil 

•  Imigm ,,, Arfism 

Irraitiolily Oiniiio 

iHliir.uf^lnilU I^-."<|" 

( )f  Wjiluni  lliiri.iw,  lOiliic,  nW T»",')'K) 

TuUI  <>r  Mnilltnrraiiuan  liiilla  and  W.  Canye. . .  B.kM.ikhi 

Ilaaiii  nf  MlaalMhilil l«i,IKIil 

llailiKlii  Kliirlila  anil  Timaa MIV.ikhi 

iraliMiiiiil  laiiiral  Aniprli'it DM.unn 

Aiiiaaiin 1,Tli«,lllNi 

Drtiiuoii  anil  all  .>lh«n  iif  llii>  (  ,i  llilwan  Moa 7lln,0(ii>  \ 

Tutaliifdulfaml  CarllilinanHaa 4,'^HIhh) 

MllkrgiH'ii  In  aipiam  inllna ~444,uou 

l.luiUiiimnt  Manry  reinnrka, "  Tim  nrca  of  all  lliu  val- 
luya  tvliliii  am  ilraliiml  liy  (li«  rlvura  of  Kuropo  wlilcli 
uinpty  Into  tliu  AlUnlli',  all  llm  valloyt  tliat  aro  ilrnincil 
l>y  till)  rivara  iif  Aala  wlilrli  empty  Into  tlio  Inillaii 
Oinan,  anil  i>f  all  llm  vallnya  tlial  aro  ilralnod  by  tho 
rivura  uf  Afrliit  anil  I'.urupn  wlilcli  empty  Into  the 
MiHllturraiiunii,  ibma  nut  luvrr  an  extent  of  territory 
1.1  uruAt  «*  (liKt  lili'liiili'il  In  lb"  vnlleya  drained  by  tbo 
Ainurlnaii  riviira  alutin,  wliicb  dlicbarga  tbonisclves 
Inlii  una  I'xntral  ana," 

Dr.  ratturaiin,  uf  I'lillailxliilila,  mado  tlio  centro  of 
rtpi'timliillrn  fHiiiuliilliin  of  tlio  llnlun  in  1840  in  the 
liortliwuatiirn  ualriiuillv  of  VlrKlnlo,  nnd  itatea  that  It 
had  travtlnd  woalwanl  iilncn  17110,  when  itwaa  in  llal- 
tlniure  niuiilv,  Marvlaiid,  1M2  inlica  In  very  nearly  the 
•aiiifl  paralliil  of  liilltiiiln, 

Tlio  fulluwIiiK  laliln  will  abuw  tho  area  included 
within  tlia  lavsral  i|iiu)(rapliti:al  divlaluna  which  arc 
iittiiiudi 
A  11*4  III'  TUN  aavtiNAii  naN*T  inviaiona  or  tub  Ukitxk 

HtATKa. 


ty  divlalona  Inrludnd  within  tlia  orifanUad  Htaioa  and 
Terrltorlea,  but  It  la  Inipoaalbia  to  kIvo  any  aatlafac* 
tiiry  alali'inent  of  tliuir  arraa.  Ily  ri-rrrrnia  to  (ho  ata« 
llatlcal  tablna  of  Iheaa  couiitlea  In  the  IJullail  Statea 
Ci'naua  Itepurt,  it  will  b«  found  how  llaldn  they  aro  to 
obanK"*!  *iid  alao  what  chaugta  w«ra  actually  tflected 
liutwiu'ii  IHIO  and  It^.ill. 
AaiA  or  Til*  KTATia  and  TaaaiToaiia  of  tui  t'«iT«D 

HTATta. 


|iir  T»rrtl»'f]f, 


Arta  InrliiiM  la 

a<litRr« 
Mll». 

PfrC.cit.  of 
tuUI  Ari-K. 

4«M 

riiii  Miatna , 

1,4114.  iiir> 

Thii  Tnrrllorliia, , , 

f.47?,(i01 

BO'U 

NiinaiavuliiililhiK  htali'a  nut  Ti^ril.i 

lurloa ; 

Mlitvi'linlillitH  Hlnl/<a  lint  Tiirrllorli'a  . , , 

(U.'.WT 

20  RO 

SM.WIR 

29  111) 

Ni'w  i:ii|il«iiil  Mlnli'a 

Miilillu  illalxa 

(ir>,i)iis 

2'il 

1  \iM* 

8110 

Koiii  Imrii  Hlatna , 

«M,7l)li 

8 -SI 

HitulliwiiMttil'ii  Ntaf r<N , , . , 

474,  HH. 

1(115 

Niirlhimiili.rfi  HlHlna  ,  

ll:iMl||.i 

l!)-4fl 

Caatoftliu  MI»aM|i|il 

»«6,f.I() 

29 -48 

Itulwucu  tiiii  Mliialmiliitil  ami  lloclijil 

Moimlaliia , / 

Wuaturilm  Mla>lMliiitl '. 

l,Sno,881 

40  •S8 

2,070,  mo 

TOM 

Nui1lii>nal|>iii|ii»il"!IO' 

1,»TI),(I7I 

87  10 

rliiiilli  uf  lalilniliilKl''  tUl' 

UAA.IiHti 

(no,2im 

82  DO 

Want  lit  llm  ll<ii<liy  Mminlalii 

29M 

Kwt  iif  llm  lliii<li  y  M labia 

s.nos.iir.T 

TOM 

Am*  In 
aiiu«r« 
Mlln 


Tim  llnltnd  Mlalxa  lunaltt  at  the  present  tima (1808) 
of  tliirly>unu  Indopniidotit  Htatea  and  nina  Torritoriet, 
iiiuludliiK  ttia  Ulatrli'l  of  Columbia,  whose  areas  will 
bo  found  in  thfl  tabid  annexed,  prepared  at  the  Topo- 
irniphical  lluruRU,  It  Is  tbo  only  offlcial  sUtemeof. 
Tli«r«  w«rH  Ui  K)M  ilkUaa  buoditd  uia  twenty  coun- 


AUImnia 

ArkallMW 

I'nliriinil* 

Iiiliilila,  Ulatrtutuf 

r'nnnflctlcnt ^ 

Dulawar* t 

I'lurlils 

Ilinrul* 

Mllnola 

Iiiillaim 

Iiullan  Tar,  (&  of  Kauaoa) 

WA 

Kaiti'nM 

KMititrky 

UuiUlana 

Malt 

Mitryland  

MaHHiirliiiMtta 

MU'lilKiin 

Mlniii'Miln  Territory 

Mlaalaalnpl 

MlaaiMirl 

Niihraaka  Territory 

Nuw  IUin|iNlilro 

\i!iv  \li\i,ii  Territory .., . 

Si'ii  Vcirk 

Vi'w  .li-rary 

Nurlh  <'iiri>llna 

ihlo 

(iri'K""  Ti'rrltory 

IVtiuHylvKiilu 

Illindii  NUiid 

■ioiitli  <!iirullna 

ri>i)tii'ai*t>o 

'I'fxaa 

Mali  Ten1tory...» 

Mi'Klrila 

ViTinnnt  

WnalilnRton  Territory... 

NVIaconalii 

Arcit  nlitalnuil  by  treaty 
will)  Mvxlro 

AuKn-KHte 


M.  Itlh 

IfiA.UMli 

(HI 

4,(1TI 

2. 1211 

IW.IKI 

no.4iiA 

lULhlf.! 

Tl,127 
MI,U14 
1I4,7(W 
87.WI 
4I,2M 

ni,7«ii 

11,124 

7,hO(l 

IM,248 

Idll.IWi 
47, 1 M 
87.8HI1 

CBA.KH2 
0,2811 

207,007 
47.00(1 
R,.120 
M),7n4 
ll!i,V04 

lS5,nui 

4a.lNiO 
1.8118 

8li,;i«fi 

4(1.000 
287,  ^ '4 
2«'.M70 

01,862 

10,212 
128.022 

53,1124 

J7,r.flO 


I'nl'aal. 
.if  ItiUl 
Ar*a. 

I71I 
17'* 
but 

Wift 
0O7 
2  02 
1  ON 
1  80 

1  IS 
2 '42 
178 
8  11 1 
1-28 
140 
1(18 
088 
OliO 
lilt 

^■(l^ 

161 

2  JO 
II  44 

0-82 
7-oft 

ir.o 

018 
I  78 
1  .'18 

0  80 

1  ^7 
om 

101 
1  M 
8  00 
li'17 
210 

can 

410 
184 


!,iiii8.ai:6 


Xaakaf 

atiiiM,  •!*., 

Tarrlliirially 
— ««— 

18 
T 

40 

IT 

as 

18 
14 
18 
20 

10 
10 
0 

28 
IM 
SO 
82 
3S 

m 

0 
22 
11 

1 
84 

4 
SB 
l>6 
21 
•J7 

B 
21 
81) 
81 
86 

B 

t 
11 
83 

8 
17 


The  Territory  of  Nebraska  ronstltntcs  one-ninth, 
Utah  one-elovenlh,  Texas  one-twelfth,  New  Mexico 
onc-foiirtcentb,  Oregon  one-sixteenth,  Missouri  and 
Virginia  a  little  mora  than  one-flftlcth  each,  South 
Carolina  one-hundredth,  Masrachusctts  ono-tbrco  hun- 
dred and  eightieth,  and  Rhode  Island  one-two  thousand 
throe  hundredth  part  of  the  national  area. 

In  addition  to  the  above  States,  it  is  proposed  to  add 
to  the  I'nion  tho  States  of  Minnesota  (the  bill  for  the 
admission  having  already  pai>scd  the  Senate),  Kansas, 
Oregon  (nnd,  when  this  territory  shall  be  more  devel- 
oped, a  further  division  of  Oregon  will  take  place,  add- 
ing Olio  or  mora  States),  Ontcnagnon  (including  tho 
northwestern  part  of  Slichignn,  and  embracing  territory 
as  large  In  extent  as  New  York  State),  Nebraska,  and 
AViishington.  It  Is  also  proposed,  when  Texas  shall 
increase  sufficiently  in  population  to  make  a  division 
of  that  Stato  advisable,  to  divide  it  into  one  or  two 
more  States.  Katios  of  representations  for  Congress, 
1790  and  1800,  1  to  83,000;  1810,  36,000;  1820,  40,000; 
1830,  47,700;  1840,  70,080;  1850,  93,420.  Act  of  1«J0 
llxes  tho  number  of  members  at  233,  to  which  afterward 
was  added  1  for  California ;  Massachusetts,  Ithodo  Isl- 
and, Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Alabama, 
Tennessee,  Kttntncky,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Texas,  South 
Carolina,  and  Georgia,  1  memlier  each  for  largest  frac- 
tions. Future  ratios  of  apportionment  to  be  determined 
by  tho  Secretary  of  Interior,  by  dividing  tho  number 
283  into  whole  reprf tenia! ive  population,  giving  States 
with  largest  fractions  members  to  mako  up  the  total. 
Members  fh>ra  new  States  admitted  shall  be  in  addition 
to  the  233  until  tho  next  censui. 


'■orci.ATiriN,  I'nrn 


Nankaf 

KlalH,  •!•., 
T»trll.ifl«llj 

~  "ftl 
IM 
T 
411 
»T 
M 

n 

M 

Id 

•m 
to 

ID 
0 

m 

!UI 
O'i 
3S 

in 

0 

'ii 

11 

1 

84 

4 
!B 
fi 
11 
« 

5 
21 
OS 
81 

•m 

8 

I 

11 

83 
8 
IT 


ArkuriMi 

<.'«Mri)mi» . . . .     

<;«rolln«,  .Nurlii'","" 
<;«rtj|lii»,  Huiiili  ..  " 
<;"|iinibl»,  l)|ilr|,ij; 

Dc'Uwtrg         

Kiorhu .;; 

iiiirinN .,..;; 

'iiilUii*. ,.'.',',' 

Iiiilliii  Wrrtton".'," ' 

I'twn. ' ' ' 

iJ  •"«!'•  ■I'l'rriti.fT.' 


UNI 


ms 


■j.m 


lllll'ky 

I'niilalana 
Aluliifl  . , . 
M«ryl,ii,| ._,_ 

Ml 


T'l.iii8 
W.BOT 

Hiiii.naa 

"<l«,BilT 
MlHJ 
•'IM.TUil 
UlAI-i 
«r<4ft 

i.i,.,.f""'"'^;i"V.i.;,iv„,^t::^t;;' 


ma  iw 

»!,«.« 

MVIjiuif 
■iTlr,*) 
IITIMI 

•i(in,ii<i) 

TI.IW) 

47,  ■.'(1.1 

»vi  n7i 

•♦fl.ii.'it 

MT.IM 


■n»iM 


iT,4ll.l 
",l»W) 

lll.llfi!) 
T,«.i8 

It,ll7n 

UO'i 

3.1)81 

II.V6J 


ll.DNr 

'i.'illll 

"B,  II I II 

"'l.tWi 


T0l,4lf 
"A  411 1 

Btl,si:i 


Ml««l««l..|.l..  '^•■j      „„«.":"< 

MlniKiiirl  .         

Niilira,lta  TenlVoVV 
Nf"  ll«iiip.l,|rB..        I 

No*  Me,|p„  ■iVrrll.Vr; 

"ow  Viirk  .,..  'I 

Noiv  .lw,„y'_'_" _'_■"'■  "I 


nir.ca 

flI.Wfl 
3.IM8,3jfi 

Ohio...",  '  I     ,  4iW,fi09 

i'ri'iron  ToVrflo'rV ." "  "         "'fi^'i 

l'i"llny|v,|,i.      ' .,     Ii,ll3« 

KlioJo  l-Undl  I    ■'.yM.lflo 

Tiiniii' — 
Te«M 

I'tuli  Ti.rrltoi-V '?••"" 

Vl.gl„ia  .  '"'^ 11,8311 

Voriiiiiiit.      WlHiM 

-^">J— •■••••.iT^iJsrMiR 


'LIS!    «H^^i  M 

U7M  oojiu         !?"»•"'»  I 

■..BNirV ""'"".'K''l.  .•Iiu'iv 

0»  •   ■  8»7,(1M 


m!?;:.;7;7'""':'V2i»''"U,;.;, 


Total 


»»N»,T,  o,   I.OPUW„„« 


Ve>n. 

iroo, , 

1800.. 
1810.. 


W«Ui  Mij  Tttrllorl, 

Alahania 
Arltaniw.. 
<-'»llfornl« . . 

C;oliimbla,I)|,'trtoto>: 

•  onneotloiit  i 

IX-luKraro , , . 

Florida 

••liorala 

llllnoia.. 

Indiana  . 

'""o .... 
Kontuc'.  ' 
Louisiana . . 

Maino " 

.Uaryland  .'.'.'.' 
JI»".«<!hinelti  .■ 
Michigan,... 

MlMllHlppI  .      ■ 

Mlaaourl... 

New  York  P'-'^' 

Toxaa 

Vermont 

VIrKlnIa  ...'■ 

Wiscormln. .   

Mlnni'sofa  ToiVito^ 

I  Orejfon  Torrltorr       ' 
(jtah  Territory. 


s7A«T^""-="'n«l''"TB, 


••  Jf»  IMO. 
■  •  ;•«  1830. , 
•  «»1     1840.. 


Statkb. 


UNI 


1896 


UNI 


ft»,  mnkliiK  4,047,721  for  1791,  4,169,162  for  1792, 
«nd  80  on  for  every  year  until  1850,  Mr.  Darby,  the 
well-known  ceograplicr,  arrived  at  resulti  which,  when 
compared  with  the  particular  census  years,  showed  at 
follows : 

T#ftr>.  EitlniAletL  C«a««f. 

180O e,'.g|,4a8  6,3(»,li25 

ISIO T,0:<MM  T,2393U 

]8!H 9,r>35,lS2  «,638,181 

1S30 12.811.118  12,8«3,0S0 

1840 n.21T,T0«  17,009,463 

1880 23,I3S,U04  23,191,878 

AosmoATK  PorrLATioN  or  the  I'mitxii  Statxs  fob  iacb 
Ykar  raoM  ITiiO  to  18(IU.— ( i  ue  ({ate  rsoii  1840  TO  18S0 

IS  ASBCMED  AS  DATA  FOa  TUK  KEXT  DiCADE.) 


tttn.  AmtngaU. 

1790...  !i,»4»,8i7 

1791...  4,M9,(K)0 

1792...  4,173,024 

17i«...  4,3r)0,'il0 

1794...  4,431,272 

1795...  4,6«l!.329 

179«...  4,706,604 

i797...  4,818,919 

179S...  4,99«,706 

1799...  6,148,994 

ISOO. ..  6,305,926 

1801...  6.473,407 

1802...  6,640,17« 

1808...  6,a>4,39S 

1804...  «.009,'.>4« 

1805...  «,  197,897 

1800...  < 393,634 

1S07...  «,595,M« 

am...  8,803.1)28 

1809...  7.01S.282 

m«...  7,239,814 

ISIl...  7,449,900 

1S12...  7.«6l!,206 

1818...  7,888,729 


YeAra.  Atr^regnla. 

ISU. ..  8.117,710 

1S1&...  8,3.'>:i,838 

1S1«...  8,6'.I5,80« 

1817.„  8,845.312 


1819... 
1819... 
1820... 
1321. 


9,102,000 
9,300.201 
9,038,131 
9,fti0,flll0 


13-.'2...  10,2l1,84S 
1S28...  10,610,0'3 
1824...  10,818,069 
1826...  11,136.727 
1828...  11.402,088 
1827...  Il,7n8,013 
1828...  12,14378.1 
1829...  12,499,087 
1830...  12,8110,020 
1831...  13,'234.9ni 
1832...  13.014.420 
1833...  14,0C4.TS9 
1834...  14,400.360 
1836...  14,819,425 
1830...  1,6,244,.144 
183T...  16,081,447 


1838 


1841 
1842. 
1813. 
18U. 
1846. 
1840 


Afgr«KAt«. 

10,181,087 
1839...  10,698,030 
1840...  17,069,463 
17,000,752 
18,148,689 
18,713,479 
19,296,971 
19,890,574 
20,616,871 
1847...  81,164,444 
1848...  21,812,893 
1819...  13,491.305 
1850...  28,191,878 
1851...  28,878,717 
18.62...  24,676,304 
1863...  25,298,120 
18M...  26,041,890 
IS^'S...  26,807,511 
27,595,002 
38,400,074 
20,242,139 
80,101,867 


1S.V). 
1857. 
1«S8. 
1859 


1800...  80,986,861 


The  national  census  was  conducted  under  the  direc- 
tlon  of  the  Secretary  of  State  until  the  formation  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  (March  8,  1849),  when  it 
was  made  a  subordinate  branch  of  that  office.  The 
statistics  were  obtained  by  the  marshals  of  the  district 
courts  prior  to  1850,  and  special  deputies  appointed  un- 
der them.  Several  months  were  usually  devoted  to  tlie 
labor ;  and  the  returns  thus  obtained,  being  snl^ject  to 
the  errors  arising  from  changes  and  removals  in  tli3 
interim,  consequently  were  not  always  reliable. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  progress  of  popu- 
lation from  the  year  1860  to  the  close  of  the  century : 


Yun. 

1861.. 
1802.. 
1363.. 
1864. . 
1366.. 
1866.. 
1867.. 
1S08. . 
1809.. 
1870. . 
1871.. 
1872.. 
1878. . 
1874.. 


Aiswr«t». 

82,024,400 
82,989,252 
88,978,928 
84,998,825 
35,038,23< 
36,089,877 
87,170,968 
88,286,080 
89,434,608 
40,017,708 
41,830,239 
43,091,582 
44,334,064 
46,716,586 


Vt*n. 

1875., 

.  ^mz 

Yarn 

1S8i) 

1876.. 

.  48,499,003 

13(10 

1877.. 

.  49,954.0r.2 

1891 

1S78.. 

.  61.453,291 

1892 

1879. . 

.  52,9U0.889 

1S93 

1830.. 

.  54,580,7!ir> 

1SP4 

1881.. 

.  56,224,399 

1895 

1882.. 

.  67,911,130 

1806 

1683.. 

.  59,048,403 

1837 

1884.. 

.  61,447,010 

1898 

1686.. 

.  63,291,353 

1890 

1880.. 

.  «5,19n,192 

1!I«0 

1887.. 

.  67,146.917 

1901 

1883.. 

.  69,160,294 

..  71,5^122 

..  73.382,186 

. .  75,578,039 

. .  77,840.848 

..  80,170.063 

..  82,681,844 

. .  86.068.784 

. .  87,010,647 

..  90,228.663 

..  «2,n36,7'.a 

..  9,'S,723,799 

..  98,695,612 
..101,668,877 


AgricuHurt. — The  following  table  will  show  the  rela- 
tive numb<;r  of  farms,  and  quantity  of  acres  in  each  in 
the  several  States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States, 
as  well  as  the  value  of  farms  and  implements.  The 
unimproved  land  embraces  such  as  is  in  occupancy  and 
necessar;,'  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  Improved,  though  not 
itself  reclaimed.  Meadow-lands  in  all  of  the  States, 
ore  therefore  regarded  improved. 


Fabhino  Lands  asd  IjiraoTEUEMTB  or  tue  Umiteb  Stated,  1860. 


StAtaa  wd  Tarrltoriaa. 


Favma, 
rianto- 
dona,  a'lC. 


A«rea  of 

Improred 
Land. 


Acraa  of 

unimproTad 

Land. 


.Avaraga 
NumlMr 
of  Aerca 
toaaeU 
Fann. 


Caah  ValM 
of  Farma. 


Valua  of 
Pariiiing 

ImpIemanU 
and 

Machinery. 


Average 
Valua  of 
Farma. 


Average 
Valua  of 
FarmLng 

ImplemanU 
and 

Maehtoary. 


Average 
Valua  of 

Farma,  Inv 

planitnla, 

and 

Machinery. 


Alftbaina 

Arkanms 

Cilifornla 

Columbia,  DUtrlct  of. . 

Oonnoetkut 

Dclaw^ro 

Florida 

(iear^\% 

(Itlnnis 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

lionisiana 

Maine 

Maryland „ 

Ma'JsachtiMtts 

Michigan 

MisiiMippt 

Missouri. 

New  If arnpshlro 

New  .Terwy 

\«w  York 

North  Carolina. ........ 

Ohio 

Penni.ylTanIa 

Rhode  lalaiid 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconiin 

MInnesoti  Territory . . . 
Now  Mexico  Territory. 

OrcKon  'i'erritory 

Utah  Territory 

TiUI,  1860 


4I,9M 

17,763; 

872; 

267 

22,446 

0,063 

4,304  i 

51.7591 

76.:os; 

93.890 

14.806 

74.777 

18,422 

40,700 

21,S«0 

84,069 

84,089 

83,96(1 

64,4.% 

29,229 

28,9061 

170.0211 

60,963, 

143,307 

127.577 

6,335! 

29,9117 

72,7361 

12,198 

29,703] 

77,013 

20,177 

167 

8,750 

1,104 

920 


4.435.iil4 

78l,r)30 

32,464 

16,267 

1,703,178 

680,862 

349,049 

0,378.479 

5.039,515 

5.040,513 

8i4,08i 

5,908,270 

1,510,026 

2,0.39,610 

2,797,90,-) 

2,133,436 

1,929,110 

3.444,358 

2,938,425 

2.251,438 

1,707,991 

12,408.964 

6,4.58,976 

9,861,493 

8,6i8,619 

8.'i6,487 

4,072,651 

6,176,173 

613,976 

2,601,409 

10,800,136 

1,045,499 

6,035 

100,201 

1.12,867 

16,833 


7,702,067 

1,816,084 

8,861,631 

11,187 

016,701 

376,282 

1,246,240 

10,442,900 

0.997,801 

7,740,879 

1.911,882 

10,981,478 

3,399,018 

2,616.797 

1,380,446 

1,222,.')70 

2.4.54,780 

7,040,001 

0,794,246 

1.140,926 

;« 1,965 

0.710.120 

15.M3,008 

8.14«,flOil 

0,294,723 

197,461 

12.145.049 

13.803,849 

10.862,863 

1.524.418 

16,702,176 

1,981,159 

23.840 

124,870 

299,951 

80.610 


140 
4406 
103 
100 
153 
371 
441 
153 
130 
186 
227 
372 

97 
212 

Ofl 
129 
309 
179 
110 
116 

lis 

369 
125 
117 
103 
Ml 
201 
942 
1,39 
340 
148 
184 

77 
372 

51 


$04, 

16, 

3, 

1 

73, 
18,: 
0, 
95, 
90, 

130. 
10, 

155, 
75. 
51, 
87 

109. 
61 
64. 
03. 
68, 

120, 

554, 
07, 

358, 

4o: 
17. 
82. 
97, 
10, 
«3. 

316. 
28, 

1 

2, 


,328,224 
,265.246 
,374,041 
,730,400 
,720,422 
,830,031 
,323,109 
,753,446 
13.1,290 
;386,173 
,0.'>7,667 
,021,262 
.314,398 
,801,743 
,178,646 
,076,347 
,872,440 
.738,034 
,226,643 
>,246,997 
1,237,611 
,540,042 
',391,700 
,768,003 
,870,099 
',070,802 
,431,634 
:,851,212 
,660,003 
),367,2i7 
t.401,643 
1,628,663 
161,048 
,663,922 
,849,170 
811,799 


$5,126,(S0:l 
1,601,290 
.  103,4-3 
40,220 
1,892,641 
610,279 
058,795 
6.894.160 
0,406,661 
0,704,414 
1,172,869 
6,109,037 
11,570,938 
2,284,567 
2,403,443 
8,209,684 
2,891,87. 
6,702,927 
8,981,526 
2,314,125 
4,426,608 
22,084,920 
3,931.632 
12,760.686; 
14,722,6411 
497,2011 
4.130,.15l| 
6,360.210; 
2,151,7041 
2,739,282! 
7,021.772t 
1,041.508 
15,^81 
77,0601 
183.423. 

84.2sa, 


$15.38 
860 
4443 
0481 
3240 
3114 
1409 
1850 
1201 
1453 
1126 
2073 
8648 
1173 
3183 
3202 
1.521 
1013 
1161 
1890 
6030 
3  60 
1192 
2496 
811i7 
3170 
•-761 
1346 
1357 
2129 
2810 
1414 
1081 
441 
244S 
.337 


$122 
90 

118 

161 
84 
84 

163 

114 
84 
71 
79 
69 

863 
49 

113 
94 
86 

170 
73 
79 

186 

129 
69 
68 

116 
92 

138 
74 

176 
93 
91 
81 

102 
21 

167 
91 


$1666 
1'50 
4601 
0032 
3324 
3198 
1022 
1904 
1346 
1524 
1204 
3142 
0611 
1222 
4101 
3290 
10110 
1782 
1284 
1969 
6216 
8879 
1201 
2683 
8312 
3262 
2389 
1419 
1633 
2221 
21101 
1495 
1183 
402 
2006 
423 


1,419,075  113,032,614  180,5'i8,000|  203  |$D,271,676,426|$I6I,66;  033  $2.-58 


$105      I 


The  dverago  numl>cr  of  acres  embraced  In  each 
form  in  the  nnited  States  is  20,3,  valued  at  92258,  and 
npon  each  farm  there  is  an  avera):^  of  $105  in  imple- 
ments and  machinery.  In  Louisiana,  so  complicated 
is  the  sugar  process,  the  average  machinery  is  $863  to 
th«  farm.  By  another  table  prepared  by  sections,  it 
woald  seam  that  only  about  one-thirteenth  of  the  whole 
area  of  the  organized  States  and  Territories  is  im- 
proved, and  about  one-eighth  mora  is  occupied  and  not 


improved.  In  New  England  about  twenty-six  acres  in 
the  hundred  are  improved,  in  the  South  sixteen  acres, 
in  the  Northwest  twelve,  and  in  the  Southwest  Ave. 
In  the  South  the  number  of  acres  to  the  farm  is  largest, 
but  the  value  per  acre  is  most  in  the  Middle  States. 
The  average  value  per  acre  for  the  Union,  improved 
and  unimproved,  is  flM4.  The  whole  number  of 
acres  occupied  is  293,560,614,  or  nearly  one-sixth  part 
of  the  national  domain.— Cen«u«  Rtfort  of  1860. 


UNI 


IMlddIo  Stales. . 
Southern  States  . . , 
Nor  h'*"'!""' State."'; 
K^i^,*"";"''™  States..  ■"• 

(Tex«« I  I 

Tot»l. 


Who).  A,„ 
"» AcTn. 


"•'*.36l(,'il60 
'•.''•«3ii,840 

«2»,266,fl 
'fi-'.M2ri 


,  1850. 


'"''""''•I'Jn^^iiii^ 


H.160,6.14 
20,200,008 
2«,(114,2S9 
15.428,730 
32,043,607 
802,880 
043,(140 


prored, 
jwrc.ol. 


i^T?!  I 


"•a  2;???  85.72    T'^S-l-lor 


#lllir 


17-17 


D6S  I 


'",ie»,373    10-07  ,,;  ";         350,283      IM-fli  '""«> 

33,772,07(1    ion         ^J.i        22».008       otw         i^lOS 
«.0lla,790   K        ?:^1'       170,S3d'     """     '"""-^ 


'MiiSMu 


200 

■•.840,2141      K)8 
"•■852,308        .42 


mriii, 


18M  I  iia;.];'; 

09 
714 


12.1 


108._ 
7!»-4» 

67  71      I  888 
6-40 


,  278-67 
166-41 


S-84 
r     «' 
11 -i 


•28       183 


t..I ,a,^ 11-'      Mulet.         U..1..        fnu--  iniF  Other  fot»I  , 


•158,001 

60,107 

21,719 

8>4 

26,879 


J  Alabama  . . 

Arkansas...'.'.' 

L'aliCarnia     

Columbia,  uiitriif  of  •■ 
I  Connecticut . . . .  ' ' 

I  Delaware       

riorida  .,..",'.'; 

1  Georgia     

Illinola...'"'." 

J  Indiana... 

I  'oira ■_■_" 

I  Kentucky  ..','.' 

I  I^uisiana  ...'.' 

J  Maine 

I  Maryland  ! ! " 

J  JJ»»»achu8ettV ' " 

Michigan 

Mississlpj 

I  Missouri  . 

NewHamps'hi're;;'-- 
I  nev  .Jersey 

-VewYork.     

North  CaroliM. ■;;;•• 
I  Ohio 

Pennsylvania'.' 

Rhode  Island  .     i-';'"""!  ».soJ 

South  Carolina    oS'^^S         1 

Tennessee .        L*"^- 171  37,4S3 

Texas....;:: PJO.636  7.5;803 

Vermont...     ' 

Virginia....   

I  "isconsin. ..;::"" 

,  Minnesota  Terrf'f'n'-',.'  1  — ••■*■ 

New  Me.tico  tIHuL S60 

Oregon  TcrJo""'"^ «■"!> 

Li^Terrltory      »■"« 

^ I     2,429 


Other 

C'tlle. 


Neat 

Cellla. 


Tol»l 
N'eal      I 
_  CnUle.    I 

WO?    T 
728,0)6 
292,710 
202,0691 

-63,211!      63,883 


Slirep. 


118,081 
884,414 

«;6.274  oi,4,u43 
619,980  l,]oo'4Q3i 

.??'M9  14!i;9C0 
78.,098  1,102,091 
3?i'248|    110„^33 


liua.  I 
871,880 
91,260 
17,674 
ISO 
174,1811 
27,803 
2ii,3II 
860,436 
894,043 


42,10 


70,7601 
■  01,0,57 
•  27-2,403 

30,179 


83,223 


430,5.'7 
36,'),129 
8,024 
129,921 
341,409 


ii?   Ji'275     62 


21,4831 


14 
8,6.')4     1; 
420 


o,.  I     -.■1''2 
.886  |326,43S 


m  3o;3",s  ft?; 


■'>44;4U9 
M0,224 
18,6,18 
193,244 
259,466 
217,811 
146,128 


37,30(1 
C5,:!81 
61,627 
8,13:1 
20,507 


327,266 
225,7141 
282,574 
185,190 
6.'.1,I97 
433,876 
215,602] 
220,202, 


451,57;, 

177,902 

188,661 

746,435 

304. 9S9 

762.611 

3.84,756 

I60,4S8 


700 
403.462 
39,247 
„7,|.8 
267,107 
895,072 
675,982 
l-'..364 
.068,240 
98,072 
649,264 
267,922 
37,S,-;26 
M.OLS 
12S„%7 


\9jl.24l3.453;r^ 
617,371     R'Aoln 

1.217,874  3,K 


874 
8.400 


.80,465     211  201 
■61,400  1,877  039  1 
« 1,4021     6^3  61n 
740,0,i7  1,35S,94?i 
50i.l96  l.ins.wo  1 
^  ".3,5       36,201 

Iff* 


1,172,665 

30,891 

57-2,608 

822,S6i 


1,S22,&',7 

44,296 

285,561 

811,691 

100.630, 

',014,122' 


348,0lS 

617,3  0, 

219.2&', 

6.118.777 

63S,(i7(i 

2,028,401 

l,767,OkO 

!'0,140 

23^81 

74i;,'.83 

i.esi.'sio 


lAlaliama . 

{Arkansas  . 

(CaHfomla  1    "-".mi 

ColumbU,  liis'trict  if ?-™l 

Connecticut       '""'•• I,6;i5 

Delaware 70,472 

Fl,ir<da           66,201 

Georgia 2(i9,453 

Illinois...   

■Indiana . . 


Whe.t,  Builiels. 


l»*l.  I 
S.')S,062l 
10.'>,878j 


1««.  . 
61,008 
6,219) 

6,0St 

737,424, 

33,646 

305 

60,693 

8S,197i 

129,621 

3,792 


2,fl6,'5,«- 
6S6,J8» 

,     8.184 

1.268,738 

604,618 

66,686 

3,820,044 


,965 


93,809 

1,494,629 

1,876,189 

640,968 


■';..i3o|  5.i6;„oo 

,;;'2.!'86  11,212,616 

164,630       211943 
_67/i85|      107i702 


'  16,671,fl6l| 

(13,213,07 

3,0flRl 

96s,  .IM 

I  4,56.1,092 

496,800 
10,109,710 
'.116 


4,805,160  6,013,873 
^•1""  44,7.181 
.'l.iii--  ' 


170,2i)3 

4.'>S,030 

8],2M 

1-25 

ItM 
210 


230,993 
1,4S2,799 
1,965 


10,087,241 
6,66.'5,014l 
1,524,345 
'  8,201,311 
,    89,637 
M8I,0S7 
2,242,161 
1.166,146 
2,866,066 
,  1,603,288 
'  6,278,070 
973.881 
I  3,378,063! 
26,563.814: 
I  4,062.0781 
,13,473,742 
21,6.38,160 
216,283 
2,3-23,166 
7,703,086 
199,017 
I  2,.W,7S4 
10,179,144 
3,414,672 
30,583 
6 
<),2U 
10,900 


UNI 


1898 


UNI 


The  annexed  tables  embrace  the  returns  of  agricul- 
tural products  according  to  the  census  of  1840  and 
1660.  The  quantity  of  wheat  in  1860  is  believed  to  bo 
understated,  and  the  crop  was  also  short,  RouRh  rice 
is  returned  for  1850,  and  clean  rice  for  1840.  Correc- 
tions have  been  made  in  the  cotton  and  sugar  returns 
since  the  publication  of  the  Quarto  Census,  pounds 
having  been  intended  by  the  enumerators  in  many 
cases  where  they  returned  bales  or  hogsheads.  It  is 
Impossible  to  reconcile  the  hemp  and  flax  returns  of 
1810  and  1860.  Xo  doubt  in  joth  cases  toiis  and 
pounds  have  often  been  confounded.  In  a  few  of  the 
States,  such  as  Indiana  and  Illinois,  the  returns  of  1850 


were  rejected  altogether  for  insufficiency.  Letters  from 
Kentucky  entitled  to  high  credit  state  the  water-rotted 
hemp  for  that  year  to  be  not  a  third  as  much  as  the 
census  gives,  and  the  dew-rotted  to  bo  about  22,000 
tons.  In  this  case  the  whole  hemp  crop  of  1850  may 
have  reochod  35,000  or  40,000  tons,  and  that  of  1840 
25,000  to  80,000  tons.  By  the  manufacturing  sched- 
ules it  appears  that  18,270  tons  hemp  were  consumed 
by  the  manufacturers  of  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  and 
by  tho  receipts  at  the  cities  of  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati, 
and  Now  Orleans,  with  proper  deductions,  that  fourteen 
or  fifteen  thousand  tons  hemp  were  exported  in  the 
rough  to  other  States. 


AaBiain.TcaAE  rBonnoTioNs  or  tus  States  Ami  Tebkitobibs,  1340  and  1850. 


8UI«i  And  T«rritorlM. 


Alalnma 

AricanBas 

California 

Columbia,  District  of . 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia  

IlllnoU 

Indiana 

fowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Mnsflacliuaettii 

Miclilgau 

MlBHlsHlppl 

MUiioiirt . 


UaU, 

Uushela. 


IndiAo  Cum,  Ouiheli. 


Irfah  «R4l  SwMt  PotatMi,  Bubtll. 


IiUh. 


IMO.  IK.IO.       I        lUO.       I 

1,4UU,363  2<),7t>4,0.|H  i!fl,!l47,(W4| 


139,553 


15,751 
1,453,303 


Ncir  llampalilro I,*ii),il4 


8,8»3,!);i',i 

13,9:10 

fl6,'M 

l,ftSft,(14!l 

■937;405!  3,1I5,M3 

13,83«    l,»lW,8(li) 

l,010,030!3«,0a0,099 

4,983,0as:.'J7,04a,i)84 

5,»Sl,«fl5  53,004,863 

310,385!  8,050,799 

7,155,974  5^,073,591 

lll7,36;i  10,200,873 

l,n70,*»    l,75i),n50 

3,5:l4,allil0,7W,863 

1,319,680:  3,34.'>,49(l 

2,114,051    6,041,130 

6«W,034  33,440,r),VJ 

2, ?;!4,n  17  30,314,537 


New  .leraey. 

Now  York 

^'orth  Carolina . , . 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Inland 

Soutk  Carolina . . , 

Tenneaaec 

Texas 

Vermont 

VirgiuU 

Whcoutin 

j  rMlnoesota. . . . 
^  J  New  Mexico . . 

fc  '^  Oregon 

-^  ti;i«h 


.•{,0i:',SJ4 
3i'.'ra,'!47 
3,1&3,J11 


1,573,070 
8,7,V.(,704 
17,SBS,4lW 
27,941,051 


14,393,103  5.t,078,095 

20,641,S1949,S.16,314 

171,5171      639,301 

1,4S6,20S'10,371,4.'«4 

7,035,678  52,270,393 

0,028,970 


2,332,584 

13,461,002 

400,614 


3,032,896 
36,254,310 

i,oa8,»7» 

10,725 

366,411 

2,918 

9,a)9 


4,840,632 

89,486 

1,600,441 

3,099,3{>'.li 

898,974 

20,906,123 

23,634,211 

2S,IKS,887 

1,400,'J4I 

39,847,120 

6,9,52,913 

1160,528 

8,233,080 

1,809,192 

2,277,039 

13,101,237 

17,339,534 

1,162,572 

4,361,975 

10,972,380 

23,813,703 

.33,668,141 

14,240,023 

4.')0,418 

14,732,805 

44,930,188 

1,119,678 
34,677,601 

879,359 


I8i0. 

240,001 

103,832 

9,292 

28,292 

2,689,725 

240,642 

7,838 

227,379 

2,614,801 

2,083,337 

376,120 

1,492,487 

96,632 

3,430,040 

704,9.39 

3,63.5,381 

2,36;»,897 

261,482 

939,006 

4,304,919 

3,207,230 

15,398,303 

030,318 

6,0,57,769 

,6,980,732 

051,029 

136,494 

1,007,844 

94,04,5 

4,961,1)14 

1,310,933 

1,402,077 

21,145 

8 

01,326 

43,908 


TolAl. 


IH&U. 

6,475,204 

788,149 

1,000 

8,4»T 

80 

6,5.443 

757,226 

6,980,428 

157,433 

201,711 

0,248 

098,170 

1,428,453 

208,993 

'],i77 

4,741,796 

335,508 

698,(116 

B,l 

5,00,5,709 

137,991 

62,172 

4,337,460 
3,777,710 
1,833,163 

1,813;634 
879 
200 


00 


I8S0. 
6,731,208 

081,981 

10,303 

81,789 

2,089,805 

30,5,1186 

706,064 
7,318,307 
2,072,'Jli4 
2,285,048 

282,803 
2,490,660 
1,524,085 
8,436,040 

!17!1,933 
8,6S,5,3*4 
2,301,074 
6,003,277 
1,374,511 
4,304,919 
3,715,251 
16,403,997 
8,716,037 
6,245,760 
0,032,004 

081,029 

4,473,900 

3,845,500 

1,426,808 

4,981,014 

3,130,567 

1,402,950 

21,345 

8 

91,320 

44,028 


IrUhADdSwMt. 


12,085 
8,414,238 

200,712 

204,017 
1,291,306 
2,026,620 
1,826,704 

234,063 
1,066,088 

8!I4,341 
10,392,280 
1,0,88,4:13 
6,3.36,663 
2,109,208 
1,0.30,100 

783,768 
0,306,«0« 
2,072,009 
30,123,614 
2,000,2.'!0 
6,806,031 
0,635,003 

011,973 
2,608,813 
1,904,370 

8,86ii,V5'l 

2,944,660 

419,603 


Barley, 
Biuheli. 
IBsS 
8,983 
177 
9,712 
78 
19,039 
50 

11,691 
110,795 
48,483 
25,0:i3 
06,343 

161,781 

745 

112,386 

76,349 

228 

9,631 

70,260 

6,493 

3,686,059 

2,7.35 

864,353 

106,534 

19,875 

4,833 

2,787 

4,776 

43,150 

26,437 

209,692 

1,210 

6 

'l,799 


SUlM  snd  TarrltoriM. 


Bnrtey, 
UiulifU. 


Duek^rbeat,  Biuli«la. 


Htjr,  Ton*. 


Hops,  Pound*. 


Clover- 
•e«d. 


Othor 
(•rau 

S«edB. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

('allfornia 

Columbia,  District  of. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

(ieorgla 

Illinois 

ludiaea 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

lioulsiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Martsacbuaettd 

Michigan 

Misdissiiipl 

MISHuurl 

Now  ilainpshiro 

New  .lersoy 

Now  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennayivaata 

Itliudu  Island 

South  Carolina 

Teunmseo 

Texaa 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

•  I'Minnesota 

^  I  New  Mexico 

Ite:::::::::: 


ISW. 

7,093 
760 

"294 
83,759 
6,300 
80 
12,070 
82,251 
28,016 
723 
17,401 

86.5,1  ill 

3,5.11 

16.5,3):. 

127,!",j 

1  ,■■■:: : 

0,iOi 
;    l.^'jo 

i.liiil 

2,1.  •■.9i''' 

:V4 

9'-'.      ■ 

91..'.  u: 

60,490 

.8,007 

4,309 

M,'781 
87,480 
11,042 


843 
175 

' '  873 

239,397 

8,615 

55 

26) 

194,694 

149,740 

53,610 

10,097 

3 

104,623 

103,071 

•1 -IS  895 

4;v,"n 
i,i-'i 

'.«..•:!•: 

3,IF   •  ►' 

16." '1 

O^'-,  I'jO 

3,llM,<i93 

1,348 

28:i 

19,4'i7 

6:) 

209,819 

214,308 

70,873 

616 

100 


63 
88 

272 

303,043 

11,390 

■  ■  141 

87,834 
49,019 
6,313 
8,100 

6lV6l3 

73,008 

br,!)oo 

113,699 

61 

15,318 

105,103 

a50,117 

2,387,836 

15,391 

033,139 

2,113,743 

2,970 

79 

17,113 

238,416 

243,839 

10,664 


1850. 

82,085 

8,070 

9,083 

9,370 

616,131 

80,1,59 

2,510 

23,  U9 

601,959 

40.3,230 

89,056 

113,747 

25,789 

76.'.,S39 

157,956 

651,807 

404,934 

19,6;i4 

110,025 

693,954 

435,950 

8,798,797 

145,0,53 

1,44.1,143 

1,842,970 

74,418 

20,936 

74,001 

8,:t54 

300,153 

860,098 

976,669 

9,010 

"bts 

4,806 


|li<0. 

13,718 
636 

'i,'331 

430,704 

23,433 

1,197 

10,970 

164,932 

173,039 

17,953 

83,300 

24,051 

«91,:i53 

IIIO.OH 

ri69,8RS 

130,806 

171 

49,033 

490,107 

33.1,801 

8,137,047 

101,809 

1,022,037 

1,311,043 

63,449 

24,013 

81,233 

80(1,730 

864,708 

80,038 


1940. 
276 
167 

""l8 

664 

843 

14 

261 

8,651 

02,796 

8,243 

4,309 

136 

40,120 

1,870 

131, 6'6 

10,603 

473 

4,130 

257,174 

2,133 

2,530,299 

9,340 

03,731 

22,lH3 

377 

26 

1,039 

7 

288,023 

11,500 

16,980 


1840. 

828 


23 

4,873 

T4« 

"  773 

17,743 

38,6.)1 

83 

742 

115 

30,940 

3,3.57 

251,706 

11,391 

154 

79!l 

343,425 

4,631 

447,260 

1,003 

62,196 

49,481 

113 

93 

859 

43,137 

10,B'.)T 

183 


1850. 

l:is 
00 

"""8 

13,841 

2,626 

"  133 

8,437 

18,320 

849 

3(e30 

0,007 

16,217 

1,003 

16,989 

8» 

019 

820 

23,230 

88,222 

670 

103,197 

126,(180 

1,329 

870 

6,01>0 

10 

760 

29,72T 

483 


1850. 

617 

430 


10,623 

1,403 

3 

423 

14,3,30 

11,061 

3,006 

21,431 

97 

0,314 

2,801 

5,035 

0,288 

633 

4,340 

8,071 

63,061 

90,493 

1,278 

37,310 

63,913 

3,708 

80 

9,118 

14,036 

23,438 

8,003 


99 


1860. 

a,!t6S 

nr 
9,Tia 

76 
10,090 

11,6(11 
110,705 
46,483 
25,003 
06,343 

161,781 

745 

113,385 

76,340 

328 

0,«31 

70,260 

6,403 

3,686,050 

3,736 

B64,853 

106,634 

18,876 

4,593 

2,737 

4,770 

43,160 

26,437 

200,803 

1,210 

6 

'1,799 


other 
(ir&RS 
Soedi. 


1960. 

647 

430 


10,028 

1,403 

3 

42S 

14,380 

11,961 

3,000 

31,481 

07 

0,314 

2,601 

6,085 

9,386 

633 

4,348 

8,071 

03,061 

08,403 

1,376 

37,310 

63,913 

8,708 

30 

9,118 


83 


^vst 


1900 


UNI 


AotlOCLTtRAI.  PlODCOTIOnS  Or  Tim  fiTAm  AMD  TOItlTOBin  OV  Tni  17.  R.,  1840  AMD  18M, 


8UIM  ud  T'lTllorin. 


Alabanu 

Arluoau 

CtUfornU 

Columbia,  Uiitilct  of . 

Conneotlout 

DeUvarc 

Florida 

(legrgis , 

IlllnoU 

Indiana 

Ion 

Kentucky 

Loulilana 

Maine 

Maryland 

MauachnietU 

Michigan 

MUiUslppt 

Mluourl 

Nev  Ilumpahlce 

New  Jertey.  

New  York 

North  (Jarollna 

Ohio 

Pennaylvanla 

Khodn  Taland 

South  Carolina 

Tennt^aaee 

Tcxaa , 

Vermont 

Virginia 

VViaconaIn 

ji  I'Mlnneaota , 

)g  !  New  Mexico 

1  Oregon  . 


1  Utah  . 


RIee, 
Poundj. 


I  NO. 
1«,010 


4Sl,4aC 
13,384,  i'39 


10,370 
8,004,634 


nT,i(»6 

60 


9,310,388 


00,694,801 
T,»I7 


8,060 


Tobneeo,  Poondi. 


laio. 

1U4,U9» 

21S,tf!'6 

l.WIU 

T,S0U 

i,SC7,034 

0)8,014 

413,934 

841,304 

1,044,030 

0,041 

65,601,190 

90,818 

!11,40T,'4»T 

188,940 

1,246 

49,900 

17,118,784 

60 

810 

83,189 

11,984,780 

10,464,449 

919,061 

74,986 
90,143,939 
00,807 

60,803,997 
1,908 

8,407 
896 
70 


u-m. 
378,809 
148,439 

(i6,5no 

471,067 

979 

75,974 

109,994 

50(330 

1,830,300 

8,070 

68,430,909 

119,894 

30 

94,816,019 

e«,96S 

1,609 

83,471 

9,007,913 

116 

1,099 

744 

16,779,863 

6,949,976 

896,018 

817 

61,619 

99,660,431 

"k5 
76,347,100 
115 


Woo],  rounda. 


lUO. 

667118 

189,696 

6,590 

636 

487,464 

67,7^ 

93,947 

900,019 

9,150,113 

3,010,987 

378,898 

9,997,483 

100,897 

1,364,034 

477,438 

635,136 

9,048,983 

65),6I9 

1,097,104 

1,108,470 

876,39« 

10,071,301 

970,739 

10,190,871 

4,481,670 

199,099 

487,933 

1,304,378 

131,011 

8,400,717 

9,860,705 

963,963 

85 

89,901 

99,030 

0,399 


"30,863 
64,943 

" "  '7(.7 

889,8/0 

64,404 

7,385 

87I,d03 

660,007 

1,9£T,919 
93,039 

1,786,847 
40,983 

1,405,661 
483,901 
941,906 
158,376 
176,196 
569,966 

1,960,517 
897,907 

9,846,906 
695,044 

3,686,315 

3,043,664 
183,830 
999,170 

l,060,/!39 

3,69!»,'936 
9,633,874 
6,777 


BID:  CocooBI, 
i'oucdi. 


WInt,  Oalluu. 


18(0. 
1(17 


6 

818 

47 

887 

946 

1381 

99 

969 

39 

7 

108 

9 

180 

191 

2S 

im 

920 
1d69 


193 
1933 


1840. 

I,6.l3i 
95 

'osi 

17,6SS 
l,463t 

194} 
9,999} 
1,160 

870 

'787 
817 
911 
9,900) 
1,741 
906 
91 
70 
410} 
1,960 
l,785f 
3,014 
4,317) 
7,2091 
463 
9,080 
1,917 

4,986 
8,101 


Ia6». 

1^30 

86 

69,066 

8«3 

4,909 

14n 

io 

100 

9,907 

14,066 

490 

8,098 

15 

734 

1,431 

4,688 

1,664 

407 

10,603 

344 

1.811 

9,173 

11,053 

4.S,?<)7 

25,530 

1,013 

6,880 

93 

99 

663 

6,408 

113 

9,°3'03 


I  MO. 

177 


95 

9,666 

899 

8|647 

474 

10,965 

9,°9b9 
9,884 
9,930 
7,535 
103 

' '  7i 

99 

94 

9,410 

0,799 

38,769 

11,534 

14,338 

808 

043 

053 

' '  94 
13,911 


ValuaefVaaa. 

ily  Ooodi. 


IMO. 
«1,066,11» 
489,760 

'i'MO 

990,169 

69,116 

90,906 

1,467,680 

098,667 

1,989,803 

36,966 

9,699,469 

66.190 

804,397 

176,060 

981,949 

118,966 

683,946 

1,140,544 

638,308 

301,636 

4,036,547 

1,413,949 

1,353,987 

1,803,093 

51,180 

080,703 

3,886,661 

674,648 

9,441,679 

19,567 


AoTCAi.  Cbops  rat  Acss,  ox  the  Atebaoc,  ae  ammNSD  nv  Tira  Ccvbub  Marshals  or  .'UK  U.  S.  ron  1819-60. 


Whaat, 
Buih. 


Rya, 

Buah. 


lodlaa 
Cora, 
Buah! 

Gala, 
Buah. 

Poani^. 

To. 
baeco, 
Pouda. 

16 

Vi 

33 

13 

41 

31 

90 

30 

i860 

... 

10 

18 

83 

29 

S3 

30 

89 

86 

94 

18 

676 

lO 

1400 

.  ^ 

27 

90 

93 

91 

650 

31 

90 

83 

96 

18 

19 

84 

96 

77K 

30 

80 

33 

90 

37 

95 

17 

10 

30 

91 

730 

90 

93 
80 

.... 

ii 

19 

1760 

31 

19 

7!!0 

30 

.  .. 

33 

90 

13 

IS 

«eo 

30 

86 

8aa4 
CotUn, 
Pooada. 


Paia 

a!id 
Baana, 
Bofh. 


Iriah 
PoU- 
toea, 
Buah. 


Swaal 
Pola. 
loaa, 
Buah. 


Bar- 
lay, 
Buah. 


Bgek- 
wbaal, 
Duah. 


Toaa. 


Hopa, 
Lbr. 


Hamp, 

daw- 
irotUd. 


Alabama' 

Arkansas 

Connecticut . . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Oeorgia 

Illbids 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine  ........ 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . 

Michigan 

Mississippi .... 

Missouri 

N.  Hampshire . 
NewJoraey  ... 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode  Island . . 
South  Carolina 
Tennessee..... 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia  

Wisconsin 


5 
in 

ii 

16 
5 
11 
19 

14 
8 

io 

13 
10 
10 

9 
11 
11 
11 
19 

T 
13 
15 

'k 

1 
15 
13 

7 
14 


596 

700 


35(> 
50U 


559 


050 


19 


800 
760 


19 


18 
90 


00 
'85 

ire 

195 

115 
100 
100 
130 

190 
75 
170 
140 
106 

no 

990 
75 

100 
06 
76 
75 

100 
70 

liO 

950 

178 
76 

125 


900 
100 


400 


05 
176 


45 


IS 


90 
10 


15 
95 


14 


16 
29 


20 


25 
T 


650 


775 


760 


1000 


960 


NcMOCB  or  COTTOS,  BtroAB,  liuni,  TonACOO,  and  Himp  Plamtatioss  id  tub  Ukitid  Statu. 


StaUa. 


.Vlafaama 

.Arkansas 

r:orlda 

<  ^eorgla 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

.Maryland 

Mlaalssinpl  . . . , 

MU  mrl 

Nrrth  Carolina 
.South  Carolina, 

Tennes.-ee 

Texas' 

Vlginia 

ToUI 


Mo.  of  Cotton  Plan- 

tatlona  ra'alog  flva 

Balaiand'trar. 


10,1IH) 

9,175 

990 

14,578 

91 

4,205 

is'i'io 

'9,''iv 
11,599 
4,043 
8,963 
108 


74,031 


No.  of  Suifar 
PlaoUra. 


No.  of  Rtra  Planta- 

ttona,  aaeh  raiain|f 

90,000  Lba.  and  orar. 


968 
i653 


IW 


9681 


80 


36 
416 


661 


No.  of  Tobacco  Plao- 
tatiotis,  aach  railing 
300  I.ba.  and  ovar. 


6,987 
l',7M 

3,916 

6,817 


16,746 


No.  of  Hamp 
PlanUia. 


1630 


4S07 


8837 


UNI 


1901 


UNI 


650 


There  are  In  the  Southern  Statw  74,031  cotton  plant- 
ationa,  including  all  prodncors  of  more  than  flye  bales ; 
2681  sugar  planters,  including  the  smallest;  681  estates 
making  more  than  20,000  pounds  of  rough  rico  each; 
15,746  tobacco  estates  of  3000  pounds  each  and  over,  in 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia;  8327  hemp  plant- 
ers in  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  Only  such  States  are 
taken  as  are  considered  crop  States, 

AoBiooiToaAL  I'BomjcTioss  OF  TUB  Unitto  Staim  and 

TUKIB  ANNUAL  VAIBB,  ACCOUUISO  TO  TUR  C'KNSns  OF  1S50. 


We  give  tha  eittmatei  of  thn  agrloultural  prwluoU 
of  the  United  States  for  the  year  18ft&,  ■■  furnithed  In 
an  official  form  from  the  Patent<i(nc«.  They  can  not 
be  regarded  as  strictly  correct,  but  they  are  as  nearly 
so  as  possible.  It  will  be  si.'en  that  the  crop  of  loiliar 
corn  for  the  year  is  estimated  in  value  at  #UU0,UU0  ai>  J, 
while  the  wheat  crop  is  estimated  at  only  t'J'17,(0Oi000. 
The  cotton  crop  is  estimated  at  $180,000,000,  while  the 
liay  and  fodder  crop  is  estimated  at  (160,000,000. 


Artictal. 


Indian  corn bush. 

Wheat " 

Cotton balea 

Hay tons 

Oata biiih. 

Butter lbs. 

Cheese " 

Potatoes,  Irish bush. 

Potatoes,  sweet " 

Wool lbs. 

Tobacco " 

Cane-sugar Iihda. 

Rye bush. 

Orchard  products 

Buckwheat bush, 

Peas  and  beans " 

Market  garden  products 

Hemp tons 

Rice \b». 

Barley bush. 

Molasses Kails, 

Beeswax  and  honey It)s, 

Clover-seed 'bush, 

Maple-sugar lbs. 

Hops " 

Flax-seed buah. 

Orass  seed  (besides  clover)    " 

Flax lbs. 

Wine galls. 

Silk  cocoons lbs. 

Live  slock  over  one  year  old, 

annual  product 

Animals  slaughtered 

Poultry  on  the  basis  of  1840 

Feathers 

Milk  (not  included  in  butter 

and  cheese) 

Eggs 

Cord-wood  on  the  basis  of  1840 
Home-made  manufactures,  one 

half  for  agricultural  part. 
Small  crops,  basis  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and for  onions,  carrots,  etc 
Hcsidutim  of  crops,  not  con- 
sumed by  stock,  corn  fodder, 
cotton  seed,  straw,  rice  flour, 

and  manure 

Cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs,  under 

cue  year  old 

Add  for  orchard  and  garden 

ftroducts  of  cities,  nut  included 
n  above— milk,  butter,  poul- 
try, horses,  cows,  etc.,  in  cit- 
ies and  towns 

Tots'      •!'.,  products^  194!)-'50 


5'Jli,()IO,()O0l 

100,435,000 

2,500,000 

13,S1S,000 

140,000,000 

313,346,000 

105,536,000 

05,797,000 

33,20S,000 

52,500,000 

200,000,000 

237,000 

14,188,000 

8,060,000 
0,219,000 

34,000 

216,000,000 

6,107,000 

13,700,000 

14,853,000 

403,000 

34,253,000 

3,4',I7,000 

602,000 

410,000 

7,709,000 

221,000 

10,800 


Viluei. 


*2UO,030,WIO 

100,430,000 

98,004,000 

90,870,000 

43,970,000 

60,130,000 

0,343,000 

20,319,000 

19,135,000 

16,750,000 

13,593,000 

12,3(8,000 

7,804,000 

7,724,000 

0,970,000 

5,703,000 

5,280,000 

6,243,000 

4,000,000 

3,018,000 

3,,MO,0OU 

2,378,000 

2,346,000 

1,713,000 

1,224,000 

844,000 

834,000 

773,000 

444,000 

6,000 

176,000,000 

65,000,000 

13,000,000 

2,000,000 

7,000,000 
5,000,000 
20,000,000 

13,74  .,000 

6,000,000 


100,000,000 
50,000,000 

16,000,000 


Vr-aKTADLR  Paonmrrs, 
Indian  com bush,     000,000,000  at  $0  DO, 


Wheat 

liye " 

Itarley '* 

Oata » 

Buckwheat " 

Potatoes,  all  sorts  " 

Vlax-seed ** 

Beans  and  peas ,    ** 
Clover  and  grass)  „ 

seed f 

like lbs, 

Sugar  (cam) " 

Sugar  (maple) . ,  " 

Molasses " 

Wine " 

Hops 


106,000,000  , 

14,000,000  , 

0,000,000  , 

170,000,000  , 

10,000,000  , 

110,000,000  . 

68,000,000  , 

0,500,000  , 


1  60, 
1  00, 
0  90,. 
0  40,, 
0  60., 

0  37,, 

1  26., 
4  00.. 


(300,000,000 

247,600,000 

14,000,000 

6,040,1100 

(M,iio<i,n(io 

6,WK),ono 

41,2611,000 

73,(KIO 

18,000,<NIO 


|»1,399,197,000 


1,000,000..     8  00.,  8,000,000 

200,000,000,,     0  04,.  10,000,000 

505,000,000,,     0  07,.  Bft,:iB0,0iH) 

84,000,000  . .     0  OK. .  2,00(1,000 

14,000,000..     0  80..  4,200,000 

2,500,000..     100..  3,600,000 

1,600,000  . .     0  15, .  B26,0(HI 

Orcliard  product 46,000,000 

(Jardcn  product 60,OIH),000 

Tobacco lbs.       190,000,0110  . .     0  10. .  10,0<H),000 

Cotton "     1,700,000,000..     0  08..  130,Oflo,(KKI 

llemp Ions              34,500  ,.  100  00. .  3,4B{VK)fl 

I'lnx lbs.  800,000..    0  10,,  m>,im 

Hay  and  fodder,  tons       10,000,000  ,,  20  00. .      1(I0,00(I,IHH) 

I'asturage 14!l,0l«),000 

Total iT7368i5iJO,lio5 

DouESTio  Aniuals  and  Aniuai.  I'souu(rr*, 

,      ...  V.lu.tlon-  Total  Vslst. 

Horned  cattle 21,00 1,000,  at  $20  each   $430,000,000 

Horses,  asses,  and  mules  5,  lihi.ooo,  at  $U0  cneli     300,0iin,fKK) 

Sheep 28,r)00,00fl,  at  $2  each         47,00i),000 

Swine 32,000,000,  at  *6  each       100,000,000 

Poultry 200,000,000 

Slaughtered  animals 200,000  000 

Butter  and  cheese....    600,000,000  Ihi.,  .it  16c.        76,000,000 
Milk  ((exclusive   of  I 

that  used  for  but- >  1,000,000,000 gals.,  at  loc.     100,000,000 

ter  and  cheest  * . . ) 

Wool 00,IW0.0001b<.,  at.lfiir.        21,000,000 

Beeswax  and  honey..      10,000,000  l|)».,  ot  15c.  2,4(10,000 

Silkcocoono I>,im,iit$l 6,000 

Tolol $1,631,-105,000 

The  aggregate  for  1857  will,  no  doubt,  prove  much 
larger.  It  is  quite  apparent,  from  the  fui-egolng,  that 
this  is  an  immense  country,  and  that  our  resources  are 
of  vast  extent  and  magnitude. 

i  From  official  statements  a  comparison  is  nmdo  of  tlio 
extent  to  which  the  various  crops  are  raised  in  ICiigland 
and  Wales  an<l  the  United  States.  And  from  this  1( 
appears  that  England  and  Wales  together  have  only 
19  per  cent,  of  the  fallow  culture  of  the  United  Slates, 
and  only  33  per  cent,  of  the  improved  land. 


Lamd  aoiuallt  ccltitatkd  in  Tni  ^iCTEBAL  Cbofs  of  toe 
United  States,       :i-&0, 

Producta.  Acres. 

Indioncorn 31,000,000 

Meadow  or  pasture  lands — that  pruportiun  which 
is  regarded  improved,  and  exclusive  of  hay 

crop 20,000,000 

Hay 13,000,000 

Wheat 11,000,000 

Oats 7,500,01)0 

Cotton 6,000,000 

Kye  1,200,000 

Pcas"and  beans 1,000,000 

Irish  potatoe 1,000.000 

Sweet  potatoes 750,000 

Buckwheat 000,000 

Tobacco 400,000 

Sugar 400,000 

Barley 300,000 

Rico, , 176,000 

Ifemp 110,000 

Flax, 100,000 

Orchards '. P"',"00 

Gardens BOU.oOO 

Vineyards,,,. 560,000 

OtherprodncU 1.0(10,000 

Improved,  but  not  in  actuol  cultivation 17,247,014 


Total  lmproT«a  lands U3,U33,<>U 


Wheat 

Oats 

Uyo 

Irish  potatoes 

Peas  and  hems 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Indian  corn 

Barley 

Cotton 

Sweet  potatoes 

Buckwheat 

Marigolds 

Vetches 

Total 

And  the  total  number  of  Im- 
proved lands  in  gross,  etc, 


Kagluid. 


s.s-i:.<4fl 

1,;!0-.  7s2 

72,V2I 

192,287 

773, 1S8 

2,267,200 
192,287 

2,0fl'7',776 


177.  IM 
218,651 


11,071,781 


37,324,016 


tfiliUd  HtaMi. 


Aeni. 

11,000,000 

7,600,000 

1,200,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 


81,000,000 

300,000 

8,000,000 

760,000 

000,000 


69,350,000 


118,o:l2,UI4 


From  this  comparison  we  can  deduce  that  the  Unit- 
ed States  has  about  five  times  as  many  acres  in  cultiva- 
tion, and,  if  the  same  skill  in  cultivating  and  sowing 
were  used,  should  bo  able  to  maintain  five  timet  lh« 
population,  and  that  without  having  resource  to  Mjr 
more  wild  lauda. 


fSAVT" 


■^-ffy]y^,j'f^!S'^^. 


UNI 


1002 


UNI 


BrATSiiiMY  or  thi  RKomrra  i^to  nn  HATUfUi  '''iu«r«T  moM  Cbumvi   iTnmcAi.  Rhvfhi;*,  Dinor  Taxm,  atto 

SALK  or  PUULIC  LANDB,  TOaRTIIKB    *  ■■rtl    I'lIK   I'llL  INMTII*!  i   Or  V.A   t      1 1  KP  STATU,    EXCI.VaiVB  Of  I'AYURMTS   OH 
AOOODNT  or  TIIK  I'DIILIO    UKIIT,  ANU  FllilM    TlKbT   K01>I>S,  t'nAOTIOMa   I'.l  »  1; 


1TS»-'91.. 

iToa. . 

ITDB.. 

1T94 

1T06. . . . 
ITIIO.... 
ITOT. . . . 
1703. . . . 
"TOO.... 
i*W.... 
1801.... 

i8oa,... 

'  18()8.... 
I'lOJ.... 
1SI». . . . 
l!<0«. . . . 
1807. . . . 
1303,... 
1809.  .. 
1910.... 
ISll.... 

isia.,.. 

1813.... 
i814.... 
ISIS.... 

isio.... 

ISIT.... 
191S.  .. 
-Sill,... 
IS20. . . . 
1831,... 
1823. . . . 
1333  ... 
1834. . . . 
1338. , . . 
1836. . . . 
1''37.... 
1S38. . . . 
1839. . . . 
1830. . . . 
1831.... 
.  1833, . . . 
l«3'l. . . . 
18.14. . . . 
183S. . . . 
1830. . . . 
■  IS3?.... 
1833. . . . 
1839. . . . 
1840. . . . 
1841.... 
1S43. , . . 
«mo9.ofl843 
lS44t... 
lSi»K.. 
lS4flt... 
1847t. . . 
1848t. . . 
1849*. . . 
l.SSOt. . . 
l.S.'SU... 
lS53t. . . 
lSS3h.. 
18B4>. .. 

:s8B^... 

IRIWt. . . 

18ft7+  .. 


PI 


".1,473 

■■.,:•  1'., 071 
*,■.' '  1 '.HM) 

1,  y,i>j> 
^,^•>•.wl 

C,.M!i',!m'' 

i,r>iii,i  V) 

7,10i.H"2 

0,01 

9,(IS(l,l.n;i| 
10,7ft(),77'.i 
13,438,3110 
11\4T'.1,4I8 

]i,o'j8,4(iri 

12,93(1,  J87 
14,0«7,0US 

15,84«,,Vi3 

10,303,W>;> 
7,311(1,(131 
8,ft8;i,lllill 

13,313,33.1 
8,U5'(,7iM 

1,"(,234,(133 
B,1I!I8,7V3 
7,3S3,U-t'.' 

l!fl,3S3,iMS 
17,17tl,3s'i 
3(I,3,S3,(1(IU 
15,O0.'),013 
13,004,447 
17,689,703 
1!I,08S,433 
17,878,33(1 
30,038,714 
33,341,331 
19,713,483 
23,305,534 
33,081,900 
31,933,391 
24,334,443 
28,405,337 

39,(i33,r>o;i 

10,1!14,»57 
19,391,311 
33,409,940 
11,109,390 
10,158,8(10 
33,137,935 
13,499,1.03 
14,487,317 
18,187,909 
7,040,8+4 
2«,18.S,RII 
37,538,113 
20,713,0(1-. 
23,747,8iH 
iil, 757,010 
38,340,73.s 
39,00S,«8(' 
49,017,50'* 
47,339,330 
t.S,991,S05 
04,334,190 
63,036,794 
n',:,J8,803 
03,876,905 


In    f  111 

8>1«  .  1  1 
Lanil  .,  .1  : 
Minrelli,.    , 

neoua. 

t20:i,ll43 

337,7.10 

274,09(1 

.... 

a37,7Ki 

.... 

■ll.%390 

•4,83« 

i.;i.  <9l 

811, 't41 

(it .   ill 

li,JO!t 

77",13(i 

l,Wi  030 

444] 

l,6Si,377 

t(17,T'30 

Si-  1114 

1S8,03S 

t  ;;■«■.) 

|.:.5,(i7U 

lOl.i.VJ 

417,6^7 

43,1111 

W^  ,194 

7n,.805 

7i»,l).lO 

47,784 

400,103 

27,370 

017,939 

11,503 

143,362 

19,879 

090,6411 

9,!Hla 

!,040,33S 

6,703 

-10,438 

8,601 

8;i5,0M 

3,8S'.',483 

1,I.W,97I 

0,840,733 

l,-jv;,9,-,9 

9,378,341 

{,717,985 

4,513.388 

i,ir;i;,320 

1,319,013 

l','S.,1,505 

313,341 

3,274,433 

137,847 

i,o;,'..--.72 

98,377 

1,31'>,<100 

S8,(il7 

l,8;i::,:.S3| 

14,5811 

91i;,.vj:i! 

4(;,H05 

084,1 1',| 

28,103 

l,3l0,  nil 

28,238 

l,3:i3,7-.<> 

23,513 

1,4115,945 

19,071 

1,oi8,:i()o 

26  S38 

1,5!7,,,'5 

29,141 

2,339,:i;ii; 

17,44)1 

3,310,815 

18,433 

3,033,381 

3,1.53 

3,907,083 

4,310 

4,8f.7,0OI 

14,71.3 

4,757,001 

1,099 

4,877,18(1 

.... 

0,803,5.50 

*  • .  * 

8,314,184 

.... 

7,201,1 l> 

.... 

S,4;i4,.'15(i 

. .  *• 

1,470,395 

*>  •  • 

],4.0,o.')S 

1,018,482 

3,320,948 

..  .■ 

2,341,031 

.... 

3,780,579 

^ . .  • 

2,598,930 

. . .  t 

3,079,079 

.... 

3,737,008 
3,707,112 

3,'395,412 

.... 

3,389  oon 

3,4"6,709 

9,326,614 

Ufijr  !3fl 

0,'  ■;    .'781 

4 -,■:■■"•>< 

vll  i  I. 
\  c'ufaii^n  Ui 

>iid  MiKal- 
InneouM. 


>  ;,I1.I9, 17.1 
3,n6l;,014 
4,5.13,012 
r>,ll76,lK> 
1>,9?(1,210 
7,».-,114 
8,l!(l9,e83 
7,703,383 
7,339,5><S 


*1,(KI,4(1I 
054,357 


Hlli< 
E,  .', 


(aval 

.nidbliah. 

nivut. 


J'<;ih,ll, 


47.'..»5(l|  1,287,01.11 
705,W.IS  3,738,540 
1,307,087    2,,57S  (V.9 


T79,4  ' 


74,0, 


1,  ;kM")4l  1  .94,056 
l,in,039|  i,j!l(),M37 
l,n8-.),893.   ij  5-13,098 


lo,934,i;nl  i,na7,fl'.3|  2,(?.5|n4i 

03     i.7;.\177 


i2,n(.'C',s.-3 

1<),..!.J,163 
11,0- ■,, 131 
13,5ll,\.113 
16,6fl8,S09 
10,369,409 
17,(I38,831> 
7,749,835 
9,399,787 
14.1103,433 
9,074,908 
14,008,889 
11,017,335 
1.5,411,034 
47,4(13,204 
82,780,803 
2l,(l03,5fl!i 
33,871,270 
10,779,331 
14,315,790 
19,481,901 
20,049,630 
18,993,009 
21,343,900 
24,703.845 
al,3!10,fl41 
34,343,604 
24,334,970 
24,280,888 
37,452,097 
81,107,040 
83,003,844 
21,070,774 


3,191,0(19 
S,70S,6SS 


1,438,280 
1,315,804 
1,101,145 
1,307,291 
1,083,088 
1,729,435 
2,208,(139 
2,898,871 
2,989,743 
3,618,937 
3,835,839 
3,007,312 
2,693,033 
2,323,131 
1,907,99(1 
3,033,(194 
7,15.5,30,s 
2,748,514 
2,000,178 
2,314,77: 
2,S80,0.53 
8,093,214 
8,228,410 
8,004,340 
4,574.841 
5,061 ,7MI 
4,399,779 
3,730,107 
6,888,871 
6,534,25:1 
5,000,703 
4,99.1, 502 
5,r>Sl,87S 
0,490,881 
0,775,025 
2,807,289 
5,231,747 
6,008,207 
0,7.83,01  HI 


l,3i,.,l.i9 

94!,:i!,8 

l,07iV!l7 

991,180 

1,640,431 

1,604,011 

3,190,986 

8,771,109 

2,5f.'.,098 

2,259,747 

12,187,040 

19,900,302 

20,008,300 

15,394,70(1 

10,476,412 


11,3^5,421 
0,154,518 
5,1S1,114 
5,0:i.'i,187 
5,25'<,296 
5,270,2.55 
.5,092,831 
0,243,230 
5,075,742 
5,701,203 
0,250,53(1 
0,752,089 
0,94:1,2.')! 
7,9^2,877 
13,090,153 
10,004,43s 
9,430,.113 
18,400,110 
19,417,374 
19,980,312 
14,20'<,9SI 
11,(131,43S 
13,704,''83 
9,1S.S,409 
4,15,8,.184 
8,231,3:7 
9,133,20. 


18,033,840 
19,873,984 
.30,399,043 
10,993,858 
15,957,612 
19,043,907 
8,(106,820 
2'<,6ll4,519 
29,709,134 
29,499,347 
30,340,790 
35,430,760 
31,074,841 
48,376,798 
53,312,979 
49,728,386 
01,837,574 
73,549,705 

06,00.1,930  34,183,4S7!l8,900,f>a5 
73,918,141  3.5,3, ■-!,:i:)i:20,S31,034 
6''.,031,6I3  37,5:il,923|24,02(),049 


0,715 

6,5s5,ll70|27;82o;i03 
1.1,017,040  17,290,930 
1.1,839,735' 12,801, 784 
17,872,907111,811,793 
17,379,7(S  13,424,075 
17,175,797  15,470,820 
2.5,1107,373  14,343,0.84 


AtrLr«RA(e 

uf  (..ipoDj 

Ituraa. 


t.570 
68 

(il,** 

4 1  (',502 

274,784 

883,033 

1,881,348 

2,8&S,0S2 

8,418,710 

2,111,424 

915.503 

1,215,231 

1,189,8X1 

1,697,6(KI 

1,049,041 

1,722,004 

1,884,008 

2,427,761 

1,064,244 


0,(40,000 


Debt.       I  Populalton. 


ll(1,919,5'(ll 
1,877,904 
1,7111,1170 
8,.'iO(l,547 
4,35O,0f>S 
2,531,|i30 
3,823,591 
4,023,323 
0,480,101 
7,411,37(1 
4,981,0(19 
U,737,(to(' 
4,003,826 
4,452,859 
0,857,224 
0,081,1011 
4.984,572 

o,riO  1,3:19 

7,414,072 
6,311,083 
6,.5:i3,004 
17,829,4119 
»8,0'<2,397 
40,127,(180 
30,953,571 
23,:i73,432 


!f75,403,470  4,049,0(10 
77,337,934  4,1711,034 
8(1,363,034  4,:i(lll,310 
7N,437,4(l5  4,431,273 
80,747,587 1  4,.500,:i3fl 
8;i,703,173i  4,7(15,504 
S3,004,479i  4,8.ts,919 
79,328,529  4,990,706 
/s,408,(170l  5,148,1.94 
83,970,294;  6,305,926 


8,814,698 


3,847,040!  10,30(1,373 
4,387,990|13,184,6;i0 
3,319,243' 10,723,47 


2,904,582 


9,827,042 
9,784,151 
1.5,.3;!il,145 
ll,490,4f<l 
4,318,902;  13.002,310 
4,203,8is;vJ,254,397 
3,918,7s0l  12,500,041 
3,308,745!l2,061,4.S9 
3,289,429  13,320,6.34 
3,sf>0,18:i  13,803,708 
8,9.'i(i,370  10,M4,I1,SS 
3,901,367  ;33,049,31IS 
a.lt.'il^SOO  18,430,407 
3,^ll4,939il7,OII5.419 
6,-1111,703, 29,0f).5,244 
0,'.,i3,()60, 81,793,687 
5,975,771  31, 5,8,785 
6,835,1KI3!25,4S8,547 
0,134,460  2:1,337,773 
0,(K)1,077  30,19C  •  10 
8,.397,343;e  !,30i,.i:i7 
3,072,718  10,098,391 
6,490,991  19,900,(155 
0,228,fl39|31, 370,049 
0,4.50.802, 20,813,2110 
7,931,033, .V.t,451,177 
9,400,737  42,811,970 
9,809,8|8l57,031,00i 
7,9a3,313l43,0(l2,10.-i 
8,9,87,798  4.8,0(I,'),S79 
8,928,230  40,(107,890 
10,891,040!43,543,2(!:i 


h3,fl;l8,051 
80,712,083 


82,3'.3,lt)0 
75,723,371 
09,318,.399 
0fi,190,31S 
67,033,1113 
53,173,317 
48,0fl.5,5s8 


81,487,840 
99,K:i:t,000 
137,334,934 
123,491,905 


6,473,407 
6,040,170 

6,824,393 
6,008,340 
0,197,897 
0,.398,684 
0,6115,346 
0,803,638 
7,018,383 
7,3:19,814 
7,449,900 
7,600,200 
7,8SS729 
8,117,110 
..<.:)5:i,:i38 


8,.'>li 


),80fl 


8,846,313 
9,103,000 
9,800,301 
9,03'<,131 
9,930,000 
10,311,343 
10,610,018 
1(1,818,059 


10,708,192 
13,281,841 
14.077,047 
12,720.8601 


11,01H,2I' 
50,306, 39. 


91,01.5,500 
89,987,438 
93,540,077 
90,875,877 
99,309,778 

S3,r88,483'ii;i35,737 

81,Cr>4,(K10  11,403,088 

73,987,367111,798,013 

07,475,(l44ll3,l43,783 

68,431,414113,499,087 

48,605,400il2,800,030 

39,123,193!l3,2:i4,931 

24,32li,235i  1,1,014,430 

7,001,0119  14,(KI.1,7S9 

4,700,0,83114,490,350 

87,733'l4,MI9,43t. 

87,613;i5,344,344 

l,878,224jl5,081,447 

4,857,000  10,131,087 

11,988  738  1«,51i3,0il0 

5,l2.i,07S!i7,      1,4.53 

0,737,898 


1.5,038,480 

20,898,963 

30,148,990 

10,801,047 

34,2.50,495 

45,0.59,069 

05,804,450 

04,704,093 

04,338,338 

63,.50(1,396 

«7,r>00,395 

60,3361 

44,9i6. 

..9,9" 


17,0110,763 
18,14S,689 
18,713,479 
19,396,971 
19,S9(1,.574 
30,515,871 
31,1.54,444 
21,812,893 
22,491,305 
33,191,870 
33,873,717 
34,575,004 
36,398,120 


00,173,4(121  3.\90:      1 


04,87fi,,'27| 


*  JncliiiUng  Uepartniont  of  tlin  I  ■ 
Bud  Treasury  Notoa,  nor  tlio  nnuunl 

6TATEWKNT  BDOWIVa  THE  AMOrtTT  '. 

.luLV  1,  1867,  TUB  Am     •      VAii 

AWD  TUB  A.MOUNr  0UT6r.^     ■ 


and  8iuco  1860.     Tho  ulwvo  table  dot      .ot  incluil 
.ja  tuxouut  of  tho  public  debt. 


l!Mi|28,400,974| 
,.-eipta  from  Loans 


Loana. 


1842 

1840 

1S4T 

1848 

Texan  Indemnity 


Texas  dabt 

Old  funded  andi 
unfunded  dabtf 
Treasury  notes. . 

Total  Nov.,  1867. 


rubli 
July  I. 


,.  Jhia  TiKiiT  ON 

:iEI>P.EMRD    BINOE, 
lUEE  IT,  1S67. 

•."»d~ 


3,  if*  ,6.14 

84,0(1  .,•' 
11,172,611.  I'll 
10.844,341    . 

S,489,'100  00 


28,r>37,37ri  73 
800,029  99 

.  4,118  54 

108.281  04 


29,060,386  90 


t      cu. 

114,270  82 

I  ■■"rt  00 

■;8;i  .  • 

Hi   ,     !«•       ' 


Ouutandliitr 

Nov  IT,  laat. 


I  Cla, 
2,383.304  11 

8,700  00 
8.412,700  00 
8,903,iUl  80 

a4(!i,ooQoo 


150  00 
M»i."  j2  8U 


24,074,106  91 
268,963  42 

114,118  54 

107,061  M 


25,166,164  61 


Commerce. — By  tlio   Constitution   of    the   United 
States,  it  is  provided  tliat  Congress  slmll  hove  power, 


t  l*'ort''.  ; c'lr  luulog  Jnue 80. 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  ditics,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises, to  ])ay  tlio  debts,  and  jirovide  for  tlie  common 
defense  and  general  welfare  of  tito  United  States;  but 
all  duties,  impo«t!<,  and  excises  bIioU  bo  u'  T'lrm 
ttiroughout  th :  nited  States;  2.  To  borrow  money 
on  the  credit  of  tiiB  United  Statfi;  g  To  r.j,ilato  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes;  4.  To  establish  a 
unifoi  :n  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the 
subject  of  bankruptcies,  throug)  out  the  il>^i(j''  States ; 
5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  tlie  value  ''  cri  t,  raid  of 
foreign  coin,  and  fir  the  standard  ''..'^lus  md 
Measures;  6,  To  provide  for  the  pun. 'I'  -iit  <.i;"  mn- 
terfeiting  the  securities  and  currtnt  ct,  .flic-  •■■■! 
States;  7.  To  establish  post-oftices  .u.i  jvjt-i  i.t: 
S.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  aiu  i  ,sf'  .  '.i, 
by  stciiring,  for  limited  times,  toau'how  !".;1  '■■  .   :■:  -ij 


I  Populntfon. 


4,IT!1,II24 
.!,llllll,'Jll) 
4,4:il,'J7'J 
4,r)Ull,lll!9 

4,Tor>,ri(t4 

•l,S4s,1110 

4,(i'.IU,TII5 
5,11S,!.'.I4 
r),i)llf),(l!!S 
ri,4ia,4(l7 

5,()4'i,n« 

6,S24,;)1I3 
0,(H)'1,340 
O.lftT.SilT 
0,!)!l8,0a4 

c,s():i,r>28 

7,(I1'<,289 
7,!J;ili,R14 
7,44i>,«00 
7,«ll(l,'J0fl 
7,SSS,729 
R,1I7,710 

s,:ir):i,:i38 

8,f>'.i.'>,S(K) 

8,845,;iia 

9,102,000 
0,3«rt,201 

i),flaf,i3i 

9,1120,1)00 
10,211,348 
in,MO,fllS 
,...  10,818,059 
,433'll,13r),737 
,0«0|11,4«2,088 
,367111,798,013 
,044  12,14;i,783 
,414  12,499,887 
i,40(ill3,«U«,O20 
i,t92  13,234,931 
18,014,420 
14,IHI4,789 
14,40«,3(>0 
,..-  |4,819,42f. 
■,r>13jlft,a44,344 
I,224il5,{i81,447 
:,«00ll0,131,087 
I  738  lfl,ri;iB,fl30 
,078'!7,  ■■  ),4M 
"■■■  17,Ui«l,7B2 
18,14S,RS9 
18,713,479 
19,296,971 
19,89«,&74 
20,t)ir),871 
21,1M,444 
21,812,893 
22,491,306 
23,191,870 
23,873,717 
24,r»i6,004 
26,2(18,120 
2ii,o.",sno 

.6;  6.0(1 


335,(W2 

1,290,978 

fiS.'->,92ll' 


8,604,131, 

0,845,102 

100,843 

6,829,279 

13,478,871 

123,499 

698,278 

230,840 


UNI 


1004 


TJNI 


STATuraire  ixinnTiiia  ma  Valoti  or  iiAiiDrAonmiD  AaTiai,u  or  DOMmna  Pioinroi  m-nnTni  now  Tin  Ukitbi  Statu 

Tl)  ruKRIUM  CODNIHIXR,  rBOii  JuNi  80,  1819,  TO  Jdnr  80,  ISfiT. 


T' 


ArllolM 


w« 

Koflnnd  iitgir 

(^hooulute 

SlpirlU  frnin  grain 

Hpiriti!  from  molAMOB 

Mptrlti  from  other  maturUlt . 

Moluttet 

VIncKAr 

n™r,  ale,  porter,  »ni!  clilor. 

Unaenil  oil  And  aplrlta  of  turpentinu 

Unloll 

llouiclioUI  furniture 

CnachtiN  and  other  carriages , 

ir«u 

Soddlerjr 

Tallow  candloa  and  soap,  and  ottiur 

candluii 

Snuff  and  tobacco 

Leather,  boots,  and  ahoea 

Cordagtf 

O  unpuirdcr 

Salt 

l^ead 

Iron— pig,  bar,  and  nolU 

**      cai^tlqgj 

**      alt  innnufiicturcfl  of 

Topnev  an<I  I»ro»  ■ ,  raanufaetiirefl  of. 

MiMllclual  (IruKd 

Cotton  ploco  i^oods : 

**     prhitiHi  or  colored 

**      uncolored 

'*      twiiit,  yarn,  and  thread  .... 

"      othor  mouiuacturofl  of. 

Ilcmp  Aiitl  flax : 

*'    cloth  and  thread 

'*    bag4  and  all  manufactures  of 

Wearing  apparel 

l-^rtiien  and  xti  lo  ware 

('omiu  and  buttons 

Urushcfl 

Miljlard-tablee  aud  apparatna . 
Umbrellas,  parasols,  aud  fuU'.-thadc^ 
Manufactures  of  India  rubber 
Leather  and  morocco  (not  sold  per 

pound) 

I'lre-onglues  arid  apparatus 

I'rlntlng-pri'sAei  and  types 

M  us{c;il  Instrumcuts 

Hooks  and  maps 

I'aper  and  stationery 

Faints  andvarulxh , 

Manufactures  of  glass 

Manufactures  of  tin 

Mannfaclnrea  of  pewter  and  lead. . . 
Manufactures  of  marble  and  atone, . 
Manufactures  of  gold  and  sliver,  and 

gold  leaf 

Quicksilver 

Artlfli^lal  llowera  and  Jewelry 

Trunks  

Mrlcks  and  lime 

Articles  not  enumerated 

ToUI 

Gold  and  silver  coin  and  tiulUan. . . 
TotaU 


ISM 

— r~ 

lli9,ns» 
IW.flSd 

4S314 

ii,i37 

11,183 

B'3,«51 

330,741 

STS.'OJB 
»fi,723 
«S,fl71 
3u,a;i8 

6I)4,0(» 
649,S33 
1113,618 

61,867 
190,353 

TM03 

13,7.17 
164,210 

7»,31S 

1,077,7(19 

1116,000 

884,73J 

000,031 

8,774,417 

17,405 

838,U81 

1,183 

10,6.1.') 

307,033 

15,044 

23,rs7 

3,S37 

3,306 

S,3'.I6 


9,!3DO 

8,14:< 

89,343 

31,034 

119,476 
09,6.10 
e7,5;i7 

130,0S3 
13,600 
33,033 
34,510 

4,683 

i5,'3S3 
10,370 
10,31^ 

8,8«i>,071 


ISll. 


16,190, 4.'>l 
3,040,019 


17,243,130 


I 

133,886 
3ri,68S 

SO, 
3S  i.iW'i 

10,H30 

10,916 

67,976 

145,410 

803,830 
199,421 
103,768 
80,100 

009,783 

1,143,647 

4.')8.8.?8 

63,064 
1M,2,%7 

61,434 

11,774 

316,063 

104,436 

1,876,021 

91,871 
851,686 

1,000,601 

6,671,670 

37,300 

«26,80S 

1,047 

0,370 

1,311,894 

33,090 

37,334 

8,867 

1,798 

13,360 


13,309 

9,488 

71,401 

M,700 

153,913 

165,004 

ii'.>,834 

(6,430 

27,833 

10,430 

41,449 

63,63] 

13l',bi3 

12,307 

33,045 

3.793,341 


■Jil,  |>*0,(iO7 
lS,00J,t)80 


38,366,647 


l)l,4'>9 

149,931 

8,367 

48,737 
838,941 

13,168 

13,220 

48,063 

163,887 

480,183 
172,416 
80,463 
47,987 

660,064 

1,816,633 

438,708 

63,903 

121,680 

8;i,31fl 

83,736 

118,024 

1»I,8.S8 

1,093,807 

103,089 

203,863 

936,404 

6,139,391 

34.718 

671,688 

5,408 
8,154 
350,338 
18,8111 
28,883 
4,885 
1,083 
8,340 


18,617 

16,784 

47,781 

07,733 

217,809 

119,686 

86,369 

194,634 

33,430 

18,480 

67,340 

80,333 

ll'4.738 

15,(138 

13,639 

2,877,659 


isu. 


I 

113,602 
876,78(1 
10,230 
141, 
839,331 

17,683 

20,4,13 

6-1,077 

363,960 

7l4,'6fW 

184,497 

91,261 

49,38J 

681,363 

1,671,6110 

678,708 

103,310 

180,049 

119,739 

6,540 

131,998 

230,430 

3,0)7,334 

103,306 

837,073 

1,030,107 

0,030,486 

23,5:14 

783,643 

3,924 

13,8611 

83.1,733 

63,686 

81,896 

6,613 

1,673 

0,188 


6,448 

9,663 

83,359 

53,897 

143,604 

123,313 

83,030 

170,601 

23,983 

14,064 

47,628 

11,878 

66,°SI7 
27,143 
82,035 

3,783,7011 


l,H,>i«3,«3i:39,5.i9,9;i0 
37,437,837(23,548,636 


66, 800,768 148448,466 


« 

87,149 
870,4'i8 

13,367 
283,919 
80,1,966 

iai,'u48 

10,946 

63,603 

1,034,829 

703,197 

344,633 

170,404 

58,811 

891,660 

1,651,471 

8,0,666 

194,(170 
212,700 
]69,0J6 

30,874 

808,127 

46,1,775 

8,473,407 

113,108 
454,789 

1,147,780 

4,139,14'l 

4>,316 

433,985 

34,456 

65,361 

234, 3S8 

8^535 

8,  ,634 

..,601 

3,404 

11,668 


17,018 

6,697 

88,012 

120,128 

187,386 

1'.I2,889 

.121,833 

329,476 

80,760 

10,478 

83,837 

1,811,618 

443,383 

60,471 

23,678 

83,314 

4,973,084 


30,841,411 
33,334,560 


66,088,977 


• 

61,906 
636,463 
2,771 
384,144 
l,448,'.i80 
10),836 
13  l,33il 

17,381 

45,069 
1,180,783 

82,946 
8118,969 
390,626 
177,914 

64,886 

1,111,849 

1,5110,118 

1,063,406 

316,367 

860,051 

166,879 

14,398 

383,437 

8110,181 

8,158,596 

6,10,700 

788,114 

3,618,656 
3,007,370 

836,360 

3,606 

84,003 

233,801 

33,119 

83,049 

10,860 

4,910 

8,441 

1,409,107 

86,045 

14,839 

80,405 

106,867 

297,313 

185,637 

163,0:i6 

3(14,679 

14,379 

6,333 

163,640 

9,061 

806,119 

33,048 

86,303 

57,393 

J,ni4,432 

35^S]l3,3ii9 

63,967,418 

83,790717 


T 


IStl. 


74,908 

B(Hl,444 

1,476 

600,946 

1,829,181 

98,484 
164.680 

36,084 

48,086 
896,338 
161,333 
983,042 
870,269 
386,082 

81,84 

1,200,764 

1,899,207 

1,818,811 

867,183 

644,974 

811,496 

87,513 

880,980 

288,310 

8,686,713 

184,846 

l,0«a,8J4 

1,906,845 
4,616,204 

834,300 


85,233 
378,832 
66,690 
83,668 
8,386 
2,778 

B,r- 

1,098,638 

8,768 

89,088 

67,817 

183,817 

393,503 

308,013 

317,179 

316,489 

13,610 

6,638 

tC3,876 

6,116 
681,724 
20,336 
83,4')7 
64,397 
3,661,613 


811,970,9!i3 
44,143,379 


75,119,371 


r 

91,988 

868,306 

1,983 

1,348,334 

1,816,688 

180,011 

108,008 

80,783 

48,783 
796,490 

03,499 
879,443 
476,894 
364,203 

46,383 

1,243,604 

1,468,663 

1,, 31 1,709 

386,168 

898,344 

190,699 

68,634 

807,318 

389,967 

4,l'i7,687 

607,064 

836,909 

1,738,088 
8,716,839 

ei4,V53 

l,flC6 

83,687 

833,443 

B4,3.'M 

89,799 

7,834 

733 

6,846 

643,512 

3,119 

31,624 

63,747 

137,743 

377,047 

334,707 

223,330 

179,11(10 

6,683 

4,818 

111,493 

16,477 

666,430 

28,llT() 

37,7+3 

6S,1M)8 

3,293,733 


39,(>.')3,3«7 
00,078,363 


8.1,731,019 


The  power  of  Cnngrcu  In  layin;;  ta.tca  is  not  nocoa- 
sarilyor  naturall)  incongistcnt  with  that  of  the  St'itcs. 
£ach  may  lay  a  tax  on  tho  samo  property  without  in- 
terfering with  the  aclioi.  ot  :he  other;  for  taxation  is 
hut  taking  small  portions  from  the  mass  of  property, 
which  is  susceptiljle  of  almost  infinite  division.  In 
imposing  taxes  for  statn  purposes,  a  State  is  not  doing 
what  Congress  is  empowered  to  do.  Congress  is  not 
empowered  to  tax  for  those  purjioscs  which  are  within 
the  exclusive  province  of  the  States  "Vhen,  then, 
each  government  exercises  the  power  of  laT/don, 
neither  is  exercising  the  power  of  tlia  otV.-r  t 

when  a  State  proceeds  to  regulate  commerce  'vi,li  . 
eign  nations  or  an.ong  tho  several  .Slates,  it  is    <    > 
rising  tho  very  power  which  is  granted  to  Coi    : 
and  is  doing  tho  very  thing  which  Congress  is  a     '  i- 
ized  to  do.     There  is  no  analogy,  then,  between  the 
power  of  fixation  and  the  power  of  regulating  com- 
raerce.— STOBT. 

Domcflic  'fradf. — And  first,  among  the  States.  It 
is  not  It'  :l,"  '  that  th'  power  of  Congress  extends  to 
the  reguUtl.  I  /navigation,  and  to  the  coasting  trade 
•nd  fisheries,  within  u  welt  u  without  any  State, 


wherever  it  is  connected  with  the  commerce  or  inter- 
course with  any  other  State,  or  with  foreign  nations. 
It  extends  to  tho  regulation  and  govorAment  of  seamen 
on  board  of  American  ships,  and  to  conferring  privi- 
leges upon  ships  built  and  owned  in  l':o  I'lnud  Slates, 
in  domestic  as  well  as  in  foreign  trade.  It  extends  tu 
quarantine  laws,  and  pilotage  laws,  and  wrecks  of  the 
sea.  It  extends  as  well  to  the  navigation  of  v  'cls 
engaged  in  carrying  passengers,  and  whether  ' 
vessels  or  of  any  other  description,  as  to  the  >  i  ^,1 : :  u 
of  vessels  engaged  in  traffic  and  general  cc'  iin^  b:i>  1- 
ness.  It  extends  to  "'<>  laying  of  embargoes  as  i  ,1  on 
'loinestic  as  01;     >  voyages.     It  extends  to  tho 

onstructiou  of  lighi.-lH  iscs,  the  placing  of  buoys  and 
tjeacons,  the  removal  of  obstruction  to  navigation  in 
creeks,  rivers,  sounds,  and  bays,  and  tho  CBtaMishti\cnt 
of  securities  to  navigation  against  tho  !r-  o  uf  the 
ocean.  Iteictendsalsc to thedesignatioiofap.!  .icular 
port  or  ports  of  entry  and  delivery  for  the  pu.  o  "t 
foreign  commerce.  These  powers  have  been  ;..iruy 
exerted  by  the  National  Goremmiv't  undo;  a  tj  ^item 
of  laws,  many  of  which  commen  ■■  d  with  the  .arly 
estabUihineiit  of  the  Constitution ;  mid  they  havu  ^on" 


i.'(S.fl.r.  II 'JJfK     ,''>""!  injIs'XV^'Sf'  i  S7|    ST'a'h.Vl  15«,230    s{^fJ    isa.^'ssoM 

r«^^i  ^s  ^.5c  si  r  ^'''  -^'^ 

^•orthc•a^M•■••      «-««S      ,3>Vi„      /■"nS      '"H   lOS-^lO       CMis 

^'^^T^^tor^'S^'  'It    -'t"""l  ^'^^il  ^'--i  ^S^\ 


rmi 


1000 


ITNI 


8c«iiUT  trAnmMT  or  thi  Vixtm  or  m  r.xmnn  nr  tiii  Odowtii,  I'lionmm,  and  MAHViAtnvu  o*  «■■  ITinnt> 
8TATW  uumNu  Till  V>«»  (Miiixa  .luHi  80,  1867. 


PaouDOT  or  rai  Bia. 
rUxrlMi 

oil,  •IXTItlACftl 

on,  whalii  And  otlior  bh 

WhAlxboDfl 

HpflnuAcittt • , 

HporiiiArDtl  randlM • 

Kith,  ilrliid  or  muokud 

KUh,  ploklad 

$2,066,080 
212,806 

4,1-  1  688 
610,, 116 
688,408 
822,754 

8,168,424 

208,610 
1,6U,572 

696,387 

68,331 

1,118,041 

$l,2irt,i'*H 

IMil.lUU) 

1,807,829 

84,017 

16,121 

670,848 

IU,888 

•8,78i),«44 
14,699,711 

T6,0fl0,«34 
131,5V9,85) 
20,260,779 

48,0117 

606,566 

i-u.ii.ocT  0      III  t'onur.  . 
Wood: 

$lil  Ta«,.<88 

rihlngUw 

lluarda,  plank   and  ■cautlluu 

Ilt'wn  timber 

Other  lumlwr ■,• 

Oak  tiark  and  other  dyo < 

All  luaiiuftirturcfl  of  wood 

Naral  WIohm  i 

Aahna,  put  and  pearl t 

Olnieng 

MkUuand  fur« ,•■.•1 

PkonooT  or  AotioDLTCu.                    i 
Of  Animals  t 

Beef 

Tallow 

Illdo. 

Homed  cattlo 

llutter 

$1,218,848 

632,'J>iil 

024,807 

144,841) 

693,084 

647.423 

2,8011,^07 

4,611,44' 

5,144,105 

m,(Mr7 

6,525 

106,627 

171,189 

12,768 

(jheeio 

Urd 

Wool          

Ilogi            

lIorscA • 

Mulei 

8he«p   

VefeUble  Food : 

Wheat    

$22,240,857 

25,882,818 

6,184,600 

967,791 

115,828 

680,108 

563,266 

206,818 

186,280 

77,048 

9,190,400 

Flour , 

Hje,      it,  and  other  imall  gralu  and  pulH 

lH)tatoo8 

Apples • • 

Onions t 

Kloe 

.... 

Cotton 

$626 

830,166 

W0,019 

84,852 

Tobaeoo * *•> 

Other  agrieiiUoral  I>roduct<i : 

Flax-seed 

Brown  stiRar 

Hops     

HAHVrAOTUIIIS. 

Iteflned  sncsi" 

$808,308 

91,083 

1,982 

1,948,234 

1,210,036 

120,011 

108,003 

80,788 

28,738 

18,909 

64,144 

741,348 

879,448 

478,394 

180,714 

78,404 

46,222 

87,748 

677,808 

630,086 

11,526 

1,447,027 

808,244 

497,714 

813,998 

186,168 

190,899 

68,634 

68,890 

C'hocolp.''          , 

Spirits  ■           «ln 

gplrlta  ''■.           >la»«c        

JlaU  of  fur  or  silk 

Hats  of  pnlm-loaf 

gaddkry 

Trunks  and  valises 

Adamantine  ana  other  candles 

Soap 

SnulT 

Tobacco,  manufactured 

Ounpowder 

Leather 

Boots  and  shoes 

8ait .■.'.'.*;;.■.".■.!.; 

Lead 

IroOiPlg 

Inw,  h«r... 


ITNI 


1907 


*'uiiii'|^' ;,/ "....," 

{i»pp^"M'K'ii;^''"^'»t::;:''' 

Cotton  u|m»  Ooml,  ,  

whit..„,h„Mh.ndu;k-;:;;: 

*''°'''"''"»""fcii»n.^„>;  ••••'•'•■■•'.■; 

Jlniiihon  (if  nil  n  "i  ■•• 
Bllll«r.l.  I'M  "^  ";'«•• 


«--*o..._- ;;;;pii^!-^^  ^_^^ 


l>;"">-"«..n:ir,''«x."."" 


terf^"-;.:^'""'-------:::::::-" 

I '"loks  and  inauii        

I  irolit  ami  ,i|„,,,  .' ,    * 

Tin  . , . ; '""•""'•oturM  oO. , 

I  M7,i!l'*""'^»*'i''. '. •••••••'•'•'.■.'.'. • 

L^i""  "L"'"'""  • 

°t*S&'Xr"'i-.v;;. "■■■••:::: 

m\l"     ■■'■    .         """"'f"'^'"«.'if 

I  (JU-oAko 

|co»l....  •••-.'.'.■,■ 

lice..,.;; 

Kiltt>''"te;;:;:: .•;:::;::;:: 

I        Moniifacturort        '"' •  

"•w  produce..  ;.'.■;;; 

~— -I'^^kywiastl'iij""' 


*P:fl"orM.,rl,.„d,„ 

Gold...,  

Silver..'.'. 

Spade:         

Gold..  

Silver..; 

^t......'--":H".ndWr„voinenuin-i,;i 

t'oflce .' 

Copper:  

Oo.S''?'^"''^°-'-»'--": 

Adhe."i.„"aT/«ct»red  z;;;;; 

lS^^??^^-^™^^"r'-'-'-- 

(£!«?:  ^sr"--;:::::::;;::::::::::' 

Artlclc( 


•rMiKT 

<l<i7,(ift4 


♦ii,U5,in  I 

I, (MM 
.'13,087 

;i83,4« 
a4,vii« 

SS,7BV 
I.t'.!*  I 

Tiia 

•,«41 

S.IIV 

?1.M4 

6ii,7« 

1»T,74S 

ilT7,847 

>!H,Tl)7 

2ii3,8«» 

W,070 

l»,-»77 

4,S18  I 
111,40,1  I 

831,180 
819,387 

.  oj.iM ; 

M$0,U8o 


<ir,0(M,4K 


Valui. 
>l\345j 

1I>1,6S5  ; 


0.888,4M 
91(),W1 

W.TT7,a7» 
«1|800,080  I 
««,«0  ' 

3,29J,7Ja  I 
»S3S;9<iC,0M-| 


""'-•'«  or  J 

M«m|ftcl„re,„7"v„';/.''"''".<«. 
Wnnkotn ... 


"mniioen . . 

'&X^Sm^>^-«;:;;-' 


10  ' "O"" 

™r  ortlcky  nnt  .;.i;,'  i:  •.■••. ' 


247 

,      2.IM7 

82,386,873  ' 

Ml, 311 

1.440„^I4 

62,173 

20,I,',8 

P8,0()2 

3,241 

T4S,373 

63,714 

413,780 

88,4iS9 

336,604 

1.201,476 
27il,026 


Valw. 

$1,080,973 
l|740,8i(9 

ll,30e,<«g 
102,147 
6US,«40 
108, 770 
119,836 


■— s™.  wminario,  of  learning  ™i"','^'- 
'^'1  other  arii.V •       "°'"f'  "'^''oob, 

T^:":"::":; -•*'"«  ;-ia.;:;:;;;::;;_ 
^S2S'?--^^SJ;a.;d  ♦"•-.- 

2,240,3Mi 


,  , Ku.in!.l."'""'°'"P'>cifled:::;;; 

'?*'»«",''n>l  bockini; •....'.■.' 

•••rpeting:  °    

|'»rirfb"™gralil'.Id"'i?"'  "fwel.,  Tnr 
. .  Iffri-aloed  . .  ^f "'"'•■''.  \  eaoiian  ,nd  oihe; 
Not  ,,„,<,|fled ......" 

I'lecegiwds.  

lolvets  

"o'ifry  Md  '  ^?,?  e^'loon.  . . . 678,2»4 

-?^is5SiH''"-"::-v'-   "- 

"We  goods. ..  "  ■ 

|w.'^;''.r.""*''"»'i«o-n'f;4'i«;; 

Jl>t<  and  Iwnncl's 

»Wac,„r,«notapec,fled-::: 

R«iv. .■.';; .'.■,' 

llolllng-clo'tii's' .' .' .'.'.'.■.■.■ 

«"at."te':;?  tr^^"-'- ; 

I-lnen»,  bleached  n,      ,.,  o«a,»B3 

Hosiery,  and  «wi"7  unbleached . . 

^^!s£sr  ■■■■■■■■■  ^'^^ 

ciotSi^r  '»««'t":"'.!!?'.'^-.-;.-^.«.ven,'::;;      sjo.«, 

lieady-made  HM9 

Article,  of  „-;::;;;;;;;;;■.. 3^,,^^ 

IiWl,'j;7 


1.784,1(18 
8»7,W4 

S1,«I,0S3 
«78,2»4 
213,824 
210,287 
101,183 
,.11,478 
1,729,618 

«^.0«7,369 
839,299 
211,728 

.  161,192 

*,442,52S 

80,612 

963,734 

67,602 

1S80,24« 
603,993 

9,976,338 


UNI 


1008 


UNI 


llMatl^ll'fH  Mf  MarnhMiltM.  VftllM. 


Thra»l  anil  ln»i'rlln|l< . , , 

I'utiiiii  liiwrllnK<i  irlniiiilflK*,  Inwa,  hralila, 

fUt 

Kniliri>M»r<«  iil  wnili  mlloii,  iillli,  itiiil  lliirn  .... 

KliHir  I'liilli,  iwlniit,  iMlNlril,  tto 

IM|.tili>lh<>/iill  klriiU    

liwUna  i>iiil  iiiiiliiilr  I'l'illi  tiif  aliiiiia  *nil  biiltunii , 

lliinnir  I'lnlli  ami  itminy  IwK' 

MnltliiM,  <  liliiKao  anil  utlirr,  nl  ll»i|a,  Hr 

lUU,  I  »|ia,  mmiiiiU,  l<'l»l<,  llrklilii,  HUlU,  (tc  i 

of  li'uliiirii,  •!»»,  nhlii,  i(r*M|it(. 

MaHuhKiiirna  nt  lri>ii  miil  Ntatl  i 

M  wkula  •H4  rlllKa 

I'IniHiriiu  iM  apMlHml . , . .  >  > 

Hlik  iiriiu • , 

Nwitltfa 

VnUxry 

Ultwr  iiMiiHlWlHriM  mil  irurn  uf,  not  apavl' 
Ami ,,.,.1 

I '*u  lit  lainiiat  wini II I •  > 

Nklla,  aiilk'a,  iMka,  tiUl , .,.,, 

I  Iwlii  iwliliw  . . , , I 

Mill  Mwa,  iiriaia-«Ul|  mill  uU  a»«i 

A  lu'luira  aiul  |Mrta  llivnaif , , , , i 

AnvlUaitil  |Mrt«  llwrmif.,, 

Iron,  iMr i iii..i •....•■.. 

ibal , 

I|IM» 1.1  >■ 

MMM  ii*iiiiiiftiiii*iiiiM*iiiiiii*«i«if 

V\m 

<  Mil  Ulil  aiin|l I , , 

IlKllnatil 

Htiiol    mal.aliii*!',  «i4  ttarnMN 

AlllllllIT I,,,,,.  I, 

I'lijiiHii ,  mill  iiimiuAuitnrni  iif  t'nptwr  i 

III  |iIk«i  iMra,  auil  ulil 

Ulru II , 

ilriiRl«ra' ,1,,, 

Cuiipnr  laitUiimii ,.,• , 

Mmiiiriti'liii'i'a  iif,  niit  aiHMillliiil , 

Iliiila  ami  iHilla 

NalU  ami  >|ilkM i 

nraaa,  ami  iiiaiiiifaiUiirmi  iif  llr«M  i 

III  |ilii<,  Iwra,  ami  iilil 

WIr 

Mliiwt  ami  riiliiiil  1 1 

Maiiiifai'liiri<a  iif,  iii>(  lun  Iflinl , 

TiDi  ami  iiiaiiiirai'iiinM  uf  i'ln  i 

III  iilKaaM  Iwra  ,,  n.iiii.nii 

rialna  ami  ilHiiila  ,,,, 

Kiill 

M»iiiihiiliiri<a  lit,  iiiit  ayiii<IA«<l 

liMil,  ami  iiiamirttrliirna  uf  1,4-ail  i 

I'lii,  Iwr,  ali««t,  anil  wlil 

miiit 

V\v»* , 

M»niiAi<iliirt>a  uf,  nul  lyMlllMl 

I'tWllT,  ulil 

Maiiurai'liirna  itf  i , , , 

illne.  mill  iiianuAMiliirn)  nt  '/Atui  i 

III  |i>||4 I,.,...  1. 1  1. 1 

Hllii-ta I 

Salla 

«*iHilu<r ,,,,,, .,,,.11 

^aniifmliirM  uf  llnltl  Rfiil  Mlver  i 

Kiwiiliil'i  wlHHa,  Imw,  gullwiiia,  trcwiM,  Ua- 
aHla,  iilit,  , , , 

liiilil  ami  allviir  Inaf, 

jHwalrf,  mal  iir  imIUtliiiM  of 

<it)|iia,  ant  ,,,,,.,,, 

iilliorwlafl  ,,,,,, 

Maiiufai'tiiriM  uf,  wit  apmlllril 

OUiiUtra'  illaimiiiila,,  i  ,i 

Cloeka I 

chroniimuixra , , , , 

WaKiliua,  ami  (wrta  itf , , . ,  i  > 

Maialllii  pKiia , , , , , , , ,  i , ,  ■  i 

I'uiia,  III  jMika  anil  iillinf wIm  , , 

llutluiia,  iiuilal,.,,, , ,,,, 

All  iiilmr  aii4  InitUKi  muiilila 

Ulaaa,  antl  iimiiuAMtiirm  i>f  IIIm*  i 

mimrdil 

I'aliiliNiia  Mil  Klaaa,  (HtrciiUIti,  aail  colornd, . . 

I'lillalinil  iiUUi , , . , 

Maniifailiiriiaiir,  iml  a|m«lfl(<il 

lilaaawarn,  I'llt 

"         ulalii. ...... ,,...., 

Wahili  nrntula  .,,..........,,,,, 

llotUiM , 

lleinUiilitia  ,,,,,,,,,,, 

Wlndiiw  ulaaa,  liniml,  i^rnwii,  tnd  oyllndor. . 
P(|iar.  ami  iiiaiiiifantiinia  iif  l'«pi<r  i 

Writliiu  |ia|wr, , , , , , . .  i ,  1 1 , ,  i , , 

■'laying  larila  ,,,,,,,, , 

l>»|ibir-itMiii|i4,  »rtl<il«ia  miiI  warm  of 

i'apair.haniituKa, 

I'tyw  iMluuf  b«iM . . , . , 


|3'Jt,U«t 

l.l'J!l,TA4 

4,  Ml,  176 

»,»U 

U«,T«I 

II0,IIS4 

i,i»u,i»;t 
iior,M7 

«,»*>,»5  < 

HI, ITU 

MlilTR 

»,'iii4 

!IB0,a9ll 

S,l«l,M't 

4,47ft,A4n 
«,I«N 
IW.TM 
9UII,l'ii 
47,'JI)7 
g'i,tiHii 
flT.U'iil 

4,4'JS,ua.^ 

H(IO,>IO| 

B'i4,IITft 

l,(ISU,,1Sl) 

l,IMI,74ta 

tit.asii 

T,4Bft,M(l 

l,77ft,'i'.l'i 

86!l,8'i'J 

l,«00,ftl3 

IWt 

i,aBs 

4,SM 

180,704 

iO 

1,7W 

is.isa 

4,M8 
118 

iog,o'is 

4,78»,R39 

lll,&'2-J 

9,806,708 

16,437 

128 

8,070 

8,874 

670 

HT04 

640,460 

1,468 

447,813 


40,488 

99,609 

603,06,1 

4,437 

800,367 

78,131 

SOS 

79,147 

10,449 

8,893,039 

108,061 

60,110 

18,178 

919,871 

943,709 
88,783 
696,061 
149,904 
119,040 
T9,7B8 
89,170 
89,926 
80,309 
641,093 

843,940 
17,281 
83,948 

364,691 
86,900 


MoMiiAa*  HrtTaMiNT  nr  Xumrn^—Vontinuti, 

ll«arrl|>llun  i.f  M«r.>l,«(kjlt«, 

rajH^r  aii'l  nmniifMi'tiirtia  of  I'aia^r  : 

l'a|»'r,  am)  iiiaiiiiruturiv  uf.  But  aptolAtuI  . . 

HIaiili  Uh  <a 

raretiiiiriit 

ITIiilril  liiMika,  MacaaloM,  •*<'•  < 

In  Kniillali 

In  olhwr  UM|{tiatfi.a 

IVrliHlliala  ami  llliiatralixl  n«wana|Mra 

■  ■rrliMllrala  ami  ulliiir  wurka  In  IIm  coura*  uf 

rapiibllmllon 

Kngravliiga    

Matlimiiatlial  Inntriirauuta > 

Miiatral  tliHtruniiillU «•«, 

|iagut>rri>i)ly|Hi  plaUw ,,, ,, 

Ink  anil  Ink  ptiHilura 

l.eatluT,  auil  niaiuiraoturpa  of  l,i,atlMr  i 

'rannifil,  bfml,  aoli^,  anil  uppur 

Hklna,  lanuwl  and  droaauil 

Hklvi'ra 

Ilwita  ami  alimia 

Olovra  f.ir  m«n,  wuinvu,  and  ohlldren 

ManufartiirHa  iit,  not  apeclflud 

Warra  -<  liliia,  porcelain,  canhnn,  and  alono, , , 

I'IuUhI  iirifllt 

,Taimiim'd 

llrUaniila 

sllvur-pUtmt  nii'lal 

!^llvi!r  or  platiMl  wire 

Haildli'ry  -  cmiinion,  tlnnvd  or  Japaunad 

I'laloil,  liraaa,  nr  pollahad  atuul 

l-'iira— umlroaard  on  tliii  akin 

llatt.TM*  fura,  druaa,!d  or  undrcaaod,  not  on 
thii  akin 

I  >ri'aa«.d  on  tho  akin 

Maiiiifactiin'a  of  fur 

Wooil,  iimniiraRttirea  of: 

(  abliiKt  and  lioiiauhold  furnltiini 

C'odar,  mahogany,  roai>,  and  aatln-wood. . , . 

Willow 

Otlinr  niauuractnraa  of 

Wiioil,  iiumaniifRcturod  ! 

<  'viUr,  gmnadllla,  nialiogany,  rtMP,  and  aatln         618,261 

Willow 41,773 

1'  Ira-wood  and  otiior,  not  apuclflud 90,467 

llyn-wood  In  allck 8(10,048 

Dark  or  tho  cork-troc— corka 9un,b79 

IJnmanufaclund 17,6ti9 

Ivory — tnanufavtiirea  of 17,289 

'       I'nmanuravlurod 607.480 

Marblu  -mannfactiir«a  uf 26,268 

i:nmanufBclurod 201,978 

Durr  aloniM 111,211 

tjulckailvcr 961 

llruahpa  and  brooma 983,008 

lllark-lvad  pimriU 83,089 

Slatoa  of  all  kinda 00,170 

Itnw  htdivi  and  akina 10,010,090 

llooU  and  ahoca  other  than  leather 80,626 

India  rubber— manufacturi'a  uf 180,686 

Unmaniifacturod 889,06H 

Hair— inanufactiirea  of 199,l>71 

I'nnianiiracturod 468,706 

(Iraaa  cloth 48,804  , 

Urabrellaa,  paraaolf,  and  aun-ahadea  of  allk  and 

other    «B,B00 

Unmanufactured  Articlea : 

I'lax-aeed  or  llnaeed 8,008,824 

Angora,  Thibet,  and  other  goata'  hair  or  mo- 
hair    BIB 

Wool 9,196,744 

Wlnea  In  (,'aaka : 


Valaa. 

1I8,29N 
1H,H84 
6,76(1 

««II,B«T 
179,0N4 
80,497 

820 

189,!MI9 

114,926 

4(4,374 

111,908 

47,734 

1,006,468 

809,978 

68,194 

127,661 

1,609,839 

461,161 

4,(137,004 

1011,824 

40,333 

8,1184 

i.ona 

9,948 

89,731 

196,104 

618,799 

1,679,088 

914,4116 

49,966 

47,090 

16,186 
176,484 
1101,179 


Burgundy 91,027 

Madeira 6B,8S0 

Bhcrry  and  8t.  Lucar 804,000 

Port.. 407,604 

Claret 600,403 

Tencriifo  and  other  (.'unary 606 

Fayal  and  other  Aaorea 4,704 

mcily  and  other  Mediterranean 133,804 

Austria  and  other  of  Ueriuany 97,269 

lied  wlnea  not  eoumenited 6lNi,&97 

White  wlnea  not  enumerated 962,684 

Wine  In  Ilottlea : 

Burgundy 7,004 

Champagne 1,149,409 

Madeira 9,734 

Sherry 11,13'.! 

I'ort 10,837 

(Maret 806,807 

All  other 973,249 

Rplrlbi,  foreign  diitlUed : 

Brandy 9,627,209 

From  grain 1,126,100 

From  other  materiala 918,1107 

Cordtala 99,390 

Iker,  ale,  and  porter— In  caaka 921,990 

inboltlea 098,650 

Honey «».«« 


■rim 

MolaaatiH 

Oil  anil  |i„„; 

"ixriiiaii 

\S  hull,  ai 

Ulm|,.|,„ 

OU-ollvii,  1,1 

"    In 

Caatiir . , . 

MnaiH'ii  , 

UalH'.aeeil 

•  ■aim 

'Veafa-f,,, 
Kaa,.|ill,|  , 

tea  ami  niir,,, 
thi'lr  p, 
Iri'Bly  at 

Teaa 

<'offeo.,, 

l-oooa 

Sugar -brown' 
JVhlie,  .u, 
loaf  and  ot 
<'anily 

Ffult.    ilmimib 
•  urranta . 
I'riinea  , . .  ' 
Wuiiia  . . . . 

'wk-.....: 

»>»'ea..,, 
Jbilalna  . .  " 
Orang,.,,  j,,,',; 
JMIier  green  I 
I'reacrvnl  tti 
Nuta... 

Wplcea-Maco'.;.' 
Nutmega.  .,\ 
Clunanion  . ' 
C'lovca  ... 
•'"PI'er,  bu,'.i,' 

III  "       "■"'•• 
'  Iniinlo 

t-'aaalil . .  . .    " 

•""Kir,  Krou'ni 

I".      I  Coot... 

I  amplior-nriiUo 
Kidneil., 

(.andloa-.^wax  ami  I 

('hccao 

«o«P-lH'rfu','„',.;i;'' 

Tan„T'.""'""""f 

•■^'arch.. ,.■.'.'.■,■ 

Arruw-root 

Huttor...      

lard  ..,.'. 

Ijeef  and  nor'lc' 

/fe^^-J-'hcrbico 

Xallpetro-cnldi".;" 

'-"IK". "':''!'.  :""""* 

Woad  or  paaUi'l ;;.■;■■ 

I'oehlneal  

Madder. ,    

"""■-r'^wbloVsimigi 
B^^OthcrBum.....* 

Commcrcinl  /!tm,l„ 
f''»n  aeneral  Hf„„,„ 

ofl«(v  trcatieaofcoM, 
"oiMnto  tho  porta  0 
;™,  a,  American  vo 
f«ct.,rosof(heiro«n< 

^""i,  (Denmark,*)  y 

(IIanU.urg,Bromon.an 
s"' /?"'"I«niIa,  01,1, 

;^'o  Sicil,es,f  Venezuc' 

'"'^'' "",'"""<'"' day  of  A 
„  t  By  iloerco  of  Uccoi  ilJ 

^'^^"•'flaglsoflbredbyt,^ 
'"""^  appiie,  to  the  dirci 


wu 


ITK 


TTNI 

ll>i>rl|>Um  af  MiKhladlM. 


1900 


irNi 


VnliK 

«»,1WMT5 
413 

tT.JHl) 

u,im 
ii47,:uio 

Ill'i.tWI'i 

M.iMI 

a3T,sHi 


Mommm  ,  

Oli  knd  Hnno  "f  ^rilun  I  Ulilog i   

H|ifrtltNri>ll , ... 

SMiith' itiiil  iillirr  Bull !!.'.',".',"  I 

Wlmli-tmiltf .^ 

OU— ollvii,  It)  <'«fk« ,     '*"• 

"    In  buttlw ■_"! 

<  niilur ',',',',', 

I  4llri<1-||      ••••!••.• 

Ilaiu'-n-rd  dnil  hginp-wied ••••••.. 

l-ulm '■.',■■■ 

Ninl'i.riMit  (nil  lAlwr  MlintI ',',',',', 

KiMflllUI  flllR, •  •  •  •  • 

Ten  >ii<l  nilTi'ii  fnim  (ilao'a  ullu  r  lii'nii  liiowVof 
tlii'lr  priNlticiluii,  ami  unt  i'iri<iih<il  liy 
Inaiy  ullpulallonii  i 

Tca« 

Coffito I*" 

Coma .',','.." 

Hutfar    hriiwn ...,'.,' 

WliUo,  I'layi-tl,  or jxiwilHrnd WW, 

Uiaf  a?Ml  otluT  ri-flnad \\\\ 

t'anily \\\ 

Hlni|i  iif  migar-ranu ," .' 

Frult4i^  alnionda *' 

t  urraiila ' ', '.  ] 

rruneit ] 

riuiiw ' 

Kign ;" 

oatM I]"  I 

}lnMn» '.*. 

<  >rani^>rt,  htiiiimi*,  anil  Ilmoi ' ,' 

( lllicr  Kri'cn  fruit 

ITMcrvi'il  ftrult 

NuUi \ ,.".■ 

KplcOT  -Maco ''[ 

Nutmi'K'* [','.', 

('liinniii'iu [\[[ 

(Jlovi'H , '.].'[ 

I't^pptT,  black .'.'.'*"* 

"    r.Mi ;;; 

riiitcnto 

CftMHla 

GliiKiT,  {{ritiind 

"       root 

Camphor— criidu *, 

Kcfliiod 

(.'andlm — wax  and  MtHU'iiian*tl 

Btcarln  

(;heciO 

Hoap— iMTfumod 

Otlicr  than  pcrfunird ', 

Tallow 

Starch ',', 

Arrcw-root .' 

Ilnltor 

lard 

Ilccf  and  nork 

llama  and  otlicr  bacon 

Itrhitlca 

Saltpetre— crudo 1,150^4113 

lli'flni'd,  or  partly  rcflncd 30'i 

Indigo l,010,fioi) 

Woad  or  iiantol l/jdl 

Cochineal 44a,T(i7 

Madder l,37fi,4T2 

(lunii— Arabic,  Senegal,  etc 143,3S0 

(Jther  Bunw 4M,43'2 

Horax W,S44 


11,3115 
8ll,^)IU 
1HT,()10 
42,0 1 4,1)114 
Ni1,N'iO 

IW,IIIN| 

l,SsT 

4.'.'St 

'jiiii,iiiir> 

ltil,4H 
1IIH,'.IM4 
11H,I)M 
81'i,'i(IT 

17,(I4S 
0:17,41111 
(I4i,r>44 
lM,l.i7 
l(l'i,Ii.'i7 
lS,1,14t 

'i(l,7til 
Sri4,ll37 

ls,MW 

(iA,ii:i'i 

27ll,'.N7 

'.'  41)11 

34l,i>(i:i 

8ai,8S3 

»'J 

it,  193 

50,314 

31 

1I,IW7 

0J,ls7 

i4a,H'ji 

51,607 

130,030 

13,607 

0,0:16 

85,751 

ld,0.%4 

420 

3,014 

7,204 

280,581 


RlIMMAIT  »T»T»»r<IT  or  iMmaTt 
llrailplln  „l  Mar>h4liil'i». 

<  "opn^ra* 

Vrrdlurln  , W,\[ 

llrlniniiiiiK    cruda ,' 

iinihd ."!.'!!'.'.!'.! 

(  hliirld  of  lima  or  blneklng  powdar! ! 

Huda  a«h 

Hmia,  Ml !i, ',"!.'!!"! 

H.«l«,  rarboDaki  of ' ' ' 

Ilarllla ...,,. 

Hill  phalli  of  barjrtca .','."!!.'!! 

Arid*,  ae«tlr,  oU' 

Vlirliil  -liluii  (ir  Komao  . ..   .      '*'•••••»»•••« 

niiof .,!.!.'! 

Kiilpliatnufiiiilnlo* ',','.',','. 

I.lrorlci'— root ••••••.. 

I'aHtH '* #•••»,., 

Dark  -  I'eruvUii  and  Uulil'a '''"'.'.'. 

(illier ; 

I»  Ty  and  bono  black  ....!','.', 

"plii'n ■" 

(Mail '..,'.!!,'!!! 

liiinpowdcr •••.!«!.'!!!',' 

Aiinu !!*!'*'" 

1  'ibaiTo— unnianiifuclurtdV,'.',' '. 

Hmiir 

<;igar« .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' 

Manufartimid,  other  than  iniiij'iind'clgaM 
Palnln  -dry  dchni 

lied  and  white  lead '.'.'..'. 

Whiting  and  I'arU  whita .'.",'.'.'  . "" 

l.Uliargo *  *" 

KuKnf  of  lead ......!!.!!!', 

(crdagc-larred  and  cabin ....!.!'.!!!! 

L'litnrreil .'.""* 

Twliiu  and  nelni'H '  '.'.'.",'.*,'.'.'*'"* 

leinp,  nnmaniifaclured 


CwMnufl. 


*>iii> 
»<i.44a 

li,AUll 

IA'i.3:io 

Vi,M  5 

Md.MId 

l,<IN4,nVl 

N<l,4ha 

«4,'l'/4 

BI.IMH 

4N,MT 

To,  371 

S,H||4 

im 

I4»,««4 

43.(iV| 

IHI3,5A( 

IIMI.W3 

IbH.HliR 

•im 

4«II,4A> 

33,671 

0,888 

84,b8< 

l,36N,8aA 

3,038 

4,331,1108 

1H,I<08 

10,153 

1 13,075 

30,1011 

17,731 

B6,7l5 

S3,OIjO 

84,433 

60,li67 

433,633 


MiihUla,  mm,  and  other  h'e'nip  of  India.."!!.'.'!."       3  Bfts'sol 
.line,  .sl»al  Ktaipi,  enlr,  ete !  'ssi'ojs 


In,  or  low  of  hemp  or  lUi 
I'liix,  iiniiiiiiiufacturud 


834,338 
03,530 

Hag"  of  ull  klniU 1448,186 

(■oai. !!!!!!!!!!!!! 

llreadHtnffii— wheat 

Uarley 

(lata 

Wheat  Hour. . . 

Itye-nual  .... 

Oat -meal 

rotatuea 

I'lith,  dried,  imu.    , 

I>rlcd  or  am       i 

Salmon 

Mackerel 

Ilerrlngn  and  ahjid  . . . 

Allolher , 

Value  of  nierrlundlAo  nut  eniimciup'd 
ceding  abiitract: 

At   »  PIT  cent 1,874,084 


lilt' 


Ihcpre- 


3,038,688 

773,688 

OOU 

3,088 

110 

477 

8,070 

Vfl 

8T,6'3 

C8,807 

8,040 

144 

«,81S 
4,888 


At  10  percent. 

At  15  iiiT  cent. 

At  20  per  eent. 

At  25  per  cent. 

At  30  per  cent. 

At  40  per  lent. 

Paying  dlltlca $204,100,836 

Irec  of  duty 00,720,306 

Total <ti30tl,8U(>,141 


648,018 
1,8!!8 
3,004,767 

183,408 
8,864,645 

641,816 


Commercial  Rtgulit'wnt  of  the  Viiited  Statet,  comjnUtl 
from  Ctnn-al  Reijulatiom  of  the  Tn  asury  Viparlment, 
and  from  other  official  A  iithoiiliin. — Vessels  lielonging  to 
the  followliii;  nations  aro  adinil  led,  iindcr  tlio  prnvisiuns 
of  law,  treaties  of  conimorce  nml  navijjation,  or  conven- 
tions, into  tho  ports  of  tlio  United  .States,  on  llio  same 
terms  as  Anicricitn  vessels,  with  the  produce  or  inanu- 
factnrcs  of  their  own  or  any  otlier  country : 

Argentine  Confederation,  Austria,  BclRium,  Brazil, 
Chili,  (l)eninarl<,*)  Kcuador,  Great  Britain,  Greece, 
No>v  (iranada,  Gualcinoln,  Hanover,  Hanse  Towns 
(Hamburg,  Dromcn.and  I.ilbecli),  Mei.l(lcnburg  Schwe- 
rin,  Nctlierlanda,  Oldenliurg,  Peru,  Prussia,  Russia, 
San  Salvador,  Sardinia,  Swetion  and  Norway,  Tuscany, 
Two  Sicilies.t  Venezuela. 

*  Tho  treaty  between  llie  United  States  and  Denmark  ex- 
pired on  the  14th  day  of  April,  ISeO. 

t  By  decree  of  December  IS,  1864,  equality  with  tho  na- 
tional flag  Is  offbrod  by  tho  government  of  the  Two  Slclllca  to 
the  vessels  of  smcIi  nations  as  reciprocate  the  favor.  This 
equality  appliea  to  the  direct  and  indirect  trade. 


Vessels  IclonRing  to  the  following  nations,  with 
which  tlie  United  States  have  reciprocal  treaties  on 
the  footing  of  "  the  most  favored  nations,"  or  with 
wliich  reciprocity  exists  by  virtue  of  an  act  of  Congress 
of  tho  2ltli  day  of  May,  18'i8,  are  admitted  into  the 
ports  of  tlie  United  Stales  on  the  same  terms,  as  re- 
spects tonnage  or  navigation  duties,  as  American  ves- 
sel.s,  with  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  their  own  or 
any  other  country :  Bolivia,  Costa  liica,  Mexico,  Mus- 
cat, Ottoman  empire,  Portugal,  and  Uruguay. 

The  Rights  ofCommcrcr.—"\»  the  end  of  tho  law  of 
nations  is  the  happiness  and  general  perfection  of  the 
general  society  of  nianl<ind.  it  enjoins  upon  every  na- 
tion fhc  punctual  oljscrvauce  of  licnevolence  and  good- 
will, as  well  as  of  justice  toward  its  neighbors.  They 
ought  to  cultivate  a  free  intercourse  for  commercial 
purposes,  in  order  to  supply  each  other's  wants  and 
promote  each  other's  prosperity.  The  variety  of  cli- 
mates and  productions  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and 
the  facility  of  communication  Iv  means  of  rivers,  lakes, 
and  the  ocean,  invite  lo  n  lib-,  .al  commerce,  as  agree*- 


Vj^ 


~lf7!^T^--' 


UNI 


1910 


UNI 


ble  to  the  Uw  of  nature,  «nd  extromely  conducive  to 
nation*!  amity,  industry,  and  liappineu.  Tlie  nu- 
meroui  wonts  of  civilized  life  can  only  be  supplied  by 
mutual  exchange  between  nations  of  the  peculiar  pro- 
daetions  of  each ;  and  who  that  is  familiar  with  the 
English  classics  has  not  dwelt  with  delight  on  the  de- 
scription of  the  extent  and  blessings  of  English  com- 
merce, which  Addison  has  given  with  iuch  graceful 


simplicity  and  such  enchanting  elegance  in  one  of  tfas 
Spectator's  visits  to  the  Royal  Exchange  ?  liut  as  ev- 
ery nation  has  the  right,  and,  if  disposed  to  exercise  it, 
of  judging  for  itself  in  respect  to  the  policy  and  extent 
of  its  commercial  arrangements,  the  general  freedom 
of  trade,  however  reasonably  and  strongly  it  may  lie 
inculcated  in  the  modern  school  of  political  economy, 
is  but  an  imperfect  right." — Kent's  Commentai-iet. 


STAnsTioAL  Viiw  or  mi  Couhibcx  or  rni  Vitmo  Statis,  axBiBiTina  thi  Valus  or  Exroars  to  anq  Tmpobts  vboh 

aAOB  TOBIIOH  CODHTBT,  AMD  TUB  TONNAQB  Or  AjiBXIOAN  AMD  rOBBlnM  VXSSXLS  rOB  TUX  YXAR  XHDIMO  JCNE  30, 1868. 


Valmaf  JEipwIi. 


AmTtfn  Toan^s*.    |     Forilgn  Tonnagt. 


DoniMUa 
Produce. 

Tmlga 
Product. 

Volna  of  Im. 

Eolcnd 

Cloand 

Enlartd 

Claand 

ToUL 

porti. 

Uio  CnlUd 
SUM. 

fromlho 
U.  SUIM. 

tlia  I'olUd 
staUa. 

fromUio 
V.  Slalaa. 

4,26*3,664 

T2,800 

4,38B,I»44 

2,0^1,660 
2,206 
19,611 

12,911 
626 
182 

21,608 

aVse 

1,887 

26,519 

26,621 

62,040 

182 

.... 

2,646 

47,008 

2,S2« 

40,884 

64,007 

2,678 

2,447 

1,528 

1,617 

6,100 

•  >  •  • 

6,100 

■  •  *  • 

■    ■10 

•    •    0 

.... 

426 

496,121 

6,891 

608,002 

626,210 

6,091 

1,868 

8,763 

1,848 

82,583 

106 

82,639 

88,882 

3,975 

2,654 

too* 

.... 

86,179 

*  *  •  • 

86,179 

9,028 

0  0  •  • 

1,121 

748,363 

46,461 

794,824 

826,S98 

28,501 

22,816 

3,767 

416 

2,279,330 

1,281,873 

8,636,703 

8,712,292 

0,242 

1.052 

60,606 

60,374 

8,617,467 

64,614 

8,033,464 

1,058,461 

9,676,918 

54;6I4 

8,371,607 

10,462,194 

60 

2,328,142 

26,058 

26,611 

112,164 

267 

12,293 

80,413 

1,049 

:&,016 

838,068 

20,008 

18,330 

817,748 

18,099 

860,847 

4.14,656 

6,807 

10,081 

1,602 

1,004 

264,290 

7,741 

272,081 

22^814 

6,019 

6,779 

796 

806 

270,361 

237,762 

608,123 

817,998 

7,822 

9,897 

1,032 

],f09 

8,192,808 

1,620,093 

8,818.f>)l 

8,777,996 

89,201 

27,974 

6,740 

4,431 

16I,M3,7I4 

11,707,880 

168,281,044 

90,444,611 

838,308 

863,484 

828,721 

854,461 

8,124,861 

104,442 

8,228,998 

6,100,767 

16,81!0 

28,711 

06,816 

87,375 

1,307,936 

277,876 

1,.':88,811 

11^280 

1,884 

18,298 

10,122 

18,726 

403,461 

16,665 

419,119 

92,238 

1,441 

8,486 

2,184 

1,162 

67,846 

2,33:) 

60,184 

51,214 

424 

2,782 

.... 

13,063,465 

3,".fi.%7S9 

17,029,264 

11,581,871 

1,844,717 

1,364,580 

922,920 

1,012,368 

6,978,494 

046,979 

6,622,478 

4,224,048 

171,024 

242,407 

3!!0,020 

475,.",29 

6,46.',202 

105,496 

6,667,6'.)8 

1,907,7.18 

10l,3.".2 

117,ii74 

89,429 

82,702 

419,746 

82,S61 

4,%2,6?6 

412,310 

7,605 

6,430 

4,070 

2,010 

881,521 

2,980 

884,601 

829,687 

1,4(18 

1,061,647 

6,783 

12,708 

4,853 

3,5t8 

441,216 

2,811 

448,827 

8,227 

18,564 

880 

2,971 

8,110,411 

86,279 

8,205,690           06,284 

8,402 

60,:!81 

8,819 

10,878 

l,ir8,466 

8^250 

1,278,708 

12,140,788 

98,2I!3 

53,375 

4,732 

7,482 

30,013,271 

1,162,621 

31,176,892 

82,900,796 

221,076 

201,815 

10,412 

7,766 

1,502,396 

63,630 

1,566,025 

2,391,726 

19,r:55 

17,(.72 

2,477 

8,489 

147,938 

20,602 

177,640 

91,072 

240 

1,135 

8,100 

2,782 

622,436 

10,642 

633,078 

103,fi,S9 

8,100 

27,226 

2,886 

1,410 

82,666 

748 

88,808 

49,411 

,      2,207 

1,687 

•  0   .  . 

.... 

27,616 

834 

27,f60 

864 

744 

1,040 

2,054.369 

24,208 

2,078,637 

66.'),010 

16,683 

29,333 

2,217 

0,833 

6,%VS,:99 

77,209 

6,603,008 

2,458,667 

21,247 

20,581 

24,935 

62,a87 

79,796 

981 

80,776 

2,629 

1,842 

1,4')9 

2,401 

67,649 

17,350 

74,999 

3,038,999 

23,!!89 

8,122 

932 

11,678,167 

2,760,024 

14,433,191 

27,214,846 

608,521 

649,389 

61,354 

11,887 

1,012,048 

298,302 

1,910,850 

4,458,686 

03,818 

40,034 

9,065 

2,214 

269,484 

10,008 

279,402 

142,086 

8,777 

6,680 

1,071 

1,676 

19,806 

612 

20,818 

80,199 

0    •     •    • 

870 

475 

■  •  •  . 

46,460 

2,414 

48,874 

2,286 

1,011 

1,947 

1,211 

218 

130,698 

6,288 

136,S83 

4S,209 

3,0(iit 

6,819 

1,862 

2,267 

2,779,368 

183,686 

2,968,053 

201,458 

8,672 

16,886 

0,518 

4,706 

682,396 

8,690 

690,986 

1,3!)6,631 

2,259 

1,737,328 

15,0  ^ 

1,931 

8,065 

218 

625,374 

'4b',869 

666,243 

41,684 

4,,')26 

15,297 

8,708 

910,76» 

206,048 

1,110,817 

898,105 

7,608 

8,591 

2,066 

1,061 

1,058,699 

8,543 

1,067,242 

5,817 

•  •  •  • 

6,748 

e  .  0  . 

743 

8,060 

.... 

8,060 

42,218 
132,007 

.... 

800 

138 
890 

.... 

609,985 

1,860 

611,846 

112,311 

1,207 

6,600 

•  .  ■  • 

877 

273,420 

83,112 

826,582 

974,591 

10,907 

4,277 

817 

>*  0  . 

107,637 

660 

108,197 1         98,083 

0    •     •     • 

2,828 

2,817 

•  •  •  . 

1,767,066 

136,384 

1,1>04,29« 

1, 617,249 

18,477 

14,096 

630 

824 

1,978,866 

248,744 

2,227,609 

2,188,662 

49,679 

83,108 

4,786 

2,161 

112,427 

6,001 

118,428 

190,870 

2,781 

8,441 

070 

1,187 

2,786,862 

629,978 

8,31^826 

6,477,405 

66,646 

68,578 

7,489 

1,1,213 

116,611 

19,861 

134,962 

132,427 

7,796 

8,428 

969 

425 

1,489,683 

100,084 

],68S,667 

B,(i!t9,72l 

110,126 

119,766 

1,179 

863 

1,194,294 

73,632 

1,267,926 

8,601,847 

26,180 

16,294 

8,164 

641 

4,73^834 

218,  fla 

4,964,706 

16,962,3S6 

89,676 

86,245 

19,611 

8,975 

662,067 

26,061 

678,128 

621,888 

3,781 

18,864 

924 

690 

766,048 

130,561 

904,694 

S,72^21S 

17,»7 

f5,170 

261 

1,216 

1,68.),I87 

292,364 

'-"JS'Si* 

2,665,263 

16,760 

28,657 

■^■^I 

7,846 

12,378 

.... 

12,073 

88,688 

270 

833 

603,827 

82,083 

086,909 

1,000,641 

08,180 

86,605 

8.858 

8,699 

13,700 

1.1,700 

326 

994 

.... 

.... 

606,104 

113,229 

71'>,3.13 

845,346 

11,109 

15,302 

708 

678 

8,007,748 

2,689,603 

6,697,361 

10,870,636 

121,444 

82,486 

49,988 
1,444 
1,036 

67,972 

16,814 

10,096 

45,201 

10,177 

'eiws 

2,063 

1,813 

0C6 

261,300 

4,046 
3'0,8S6,142 

266,036 

86,023 
2.\69« 

40,049 

272 

4,396,042 

84,268 
4,49»,n83 

.... 

293,758,  v:7'.i 

l«4, 644,421 

282,618.160 

2,209,40:) 

2,312,76!) 

388,986,066 

28,976,617 

362,960,("-2 

860  900,141 

4,7'cl,870 

4,581,912 

2,164,946 

2,490,170 

RnsnlB  on  the  Baltle  and  1^'.  Sets. 

RusiU  on  the  ISItck  Set. .  

Aslttic  Rustit 

Riinitn  PoisenioDB  In  N.  Am. . . 

Prumit 

Sveden  tnd  Norwajr 

Siredtih  West  Indies 

Denmirk 

Danlih  West  Indies 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Other  Oermtn  ports 

Molltnd 

Da teh  West  Indie 

Dutch  OuUnt 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Belgium 

England 

Seotltnd 

Ireland 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

Canada 

Other  Dritiih  North  Am.  Fou.. . 

British  West  Indies 

British  Iloniluras 

British  Guiana 

Other  British  Poss.  In  South  Am. 
Britlah  I'oBsessions  In  Africa. . . . 

British  Australia 

British  Eist  Indies 

Krance  on  the  Atlsntle 

France  on  the  Mediterranean  . . . 
French  North  American  I'oss.  . . 

French  West  Indies 

French  Ouitna 

French  Possessions  In  Africa. . . . 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spc'n  on  the  Mediterranean  .... 

Canary  Iilands 

Philippine  Islands 

Oubu 

Porto  Rico 

Partii(!al 

Madeira 

Cape  do  Verd  Islands , 

Azores 

Sardinia 

Tuscanv 

Papal  Slates 

Two  Sicilies 

Austria 

Austrian  Possessions  in  Italy. , . . 

Ionian  Republic 

Greece 

Turkey  In  Europe 

Turkey  In  Asia 

Egypt 

Other  ports  in  Africa 

Haytl 

San  Domingo 

Mex'ro 

Central  Republic 

New  Granada 

Teneauela 

Braall 

Uruguay,  or  Cisplatlne  Republic. 
Buenos  Ayres,  or  Argentine  Rep. 

Chni 

Bolivia 

Pern 

Eeuador 

(iandwich  lalandx ,, 

China 

Other  ports  In  Asia 

IslandB  In  thn  Pacific 

Whale-fisheries 

Uneertain  places 

Total  to  June  SO,  1888 

Total  to  June  80, 19BT 


2,071 
10,818 

1>* 
VI56 
8,489 
2,782 
1,440 

V,MO 

0,338 

62,a8T 

S,401 

iV,8n 

2,214 
],«T6 

"iis! 

2,261 

4,166 

218 

8,168 

1,061 

148 


871 


824 
2,151 

1,IR7 

42B| 

8BS 

6411 

8,015 

690 

1,216 

1,845 

8,66»| 

"bis 

1     10,606 
"006 


2,490,11"' 


UNI 

OimiAL  Statbiikt  or  ronian  Ihtobti 


1911 


UNI 


^^haocf  ImporUd. 


iw  nrao  TBI  UwTm  Btitm  mn  rai  riioAi.  Yiai;  nDiira  Jmn  80, 1888L 


Hu^Bia  on  the  Uultic  and  N.  Heau 

RuMla  on  the  Black  Sea 

Asiatic  Russia 

Kusslan  Posseasiona  in  N.  A.. , 

Siredan  and  Norway 

Swedish  West  Indlei 

Denmark 

Danish  West  Indte 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Other  Gorman  ports 

Holland 

Dutch  Went  Indies 

Dutch  Uulana 

Dutch  Kast  Indies 

Belgium 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

Canada  

Other  British  N.  Amer.  Poss, . 

British  West  Indies 

British  Honduras 

UritUh  Guiana 

Other  British  Poss.  in  S.  Am. 
Briil.ih  Possessions  in  Africa. , 

British  Australia 

British  ICast  Indies 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

Franco  ou  the  Mediterranean 
French  N.  Amer.  Possessions 

Freuch  West  Indies 

French  Guiana 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Canary  Islands 

Philippine  Islands 

Cuba 

Porto  Rico 

Portugal 

Madeira 

Cape  de  \'crd  Islands 

Azores 

Sardinia 

Tuscany 

Papal  ato tea 

Two  Sicilies 

Austria 

Austrian  Possessions  in  Itnly. 

Ionian  ilepubiic 

G  rceco .    

Turkey  in  Europe 

Turkey  la  Asia 

Egypt •...., 

Ports  In  Africa 

Ilaytt 

Siin  Domingo 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

New  Orauda 

Venezuela 

Braail 

Uruguay,  or  ijisplatlne  liepub. 
liueaps  Ayres,  or  Argent  Kcp. 

Chill ;. 

Bolivia 

Peru 

Sandwich  Islands 

Other  Islands  in  the  Pacific. . . 

China 

Other  porta  In  Asia 

Whale-flsberie 

Uncertain  places 

Total  toJuno  80, 1958.... 

Total  to  June  80,  l^ST. . . . 

Total  to  Juno  80, 1856. . . . 


$284,171 

2,20S 

100 

10,968 

CO 

8,431 

V6|982 
116,365 
400,962 

776,6(11 

134,690 

23,710 

268,244 

132,754 

9,886,300 

118,573 

1,110 

40,604 

23,869 

11.261,018 

4,047,109 

637,037 

80,I17S 

4 1, 3 '8 

BsKoSl 

18,013 

4,727,403 

2,253,841 

747,485 

811 

74,295 

26,U77 

6,019 

83,397 

216 

73,265 

4,968,007 

75,307 

28,012 


26,957 
53,832 
507,219 

185.074 

209,481 

5,710 

21 

15,345 

r,o,8i6 

W3,297 

82,896 

675,733 

2,080,  S4C 

3,554 

4,615,853 

C0,[I5-! 

1,262,820 

1,739,142 

14,313,710 

31,131 

941,670 

2,220,391 

3S,053 

S21,299 

152,618 

03 

7,679,053 

9,572 

80,6>3 

13,270 


$1,777,489' 
i9,Bn 


$30,319,275 
(!0,7'29,306 
56,95.\706 


626,160 

35,451 

9,023 

808,963 

8,590,921 

10,061,233 

5) 

1,661,641 

209,969 

196,.^98 

649,764 

8,646,242 

80,668,242 

6,042,106 

114,114 

45,634 

22,345 

813,963 

177,779 

1,270,701 

332,238 

289,359 

1,493 

607,06.3 

47,230 

7,41,1,320 

30,640,965 

1,044,240 

90,261 

29,344 

23,434 

6,57,891 

2,428,270 

2,313 

2,960,734 

22,240,839 

4,380,279 

119,044 

30,199 

2,2,16 

21,253 

233,070 

8'9,4«3 

2,259 

],Ril,6.'M 

186,714 

101 

42,1 

117,t)o» 

1,496 

831,294 

10,187 

1,021,511 

93,716 

"AS  16 

361,607 

71,409 

1,837,396 

l,8ii2,7ft"> 

2,038,070 

5:)0,7,'.7 

1,793,548 

434,872 

179^243 
192,927 
32,423 
2,991,493 
1U,872 

12,423 


$2,061,661) 

2,206 

19,611 

64,007 

625,210 

83,883 

9,028 

825,896 

8,712,392 

10,452,194 

60 

2,328,142 

434,666 

226,314 

817,998 

8,777,996 

90,444,011 

u,160,767 

11^280 

92,238 

61,214 

11,631,571 

4,224,948 

1,907,738 

412,316 

829,697 

1,4!'8 

1,061,647 

65,254 

12,140,783 

82,900,796 

2,391,725 

91,072 

103,639 

49,411 

503,010 

2,453,307 

2,529 

8,033,981 

27,214,846 

4,4.'),'),r)S0 

142,1160 

80,199 

2,2.'!6 

43,209 

291,468 

1,396,681 

2,269 

1,737,323 

390,196 

6,817 

42,218 

132,907 

112,311 

971,691 

93,093 

1,697,249 

2,138,51)2 

199,370 

5,477,466 

132,427 

3,099,721 

8,001,847 

10,952,386 

021,R3S ' 

2,7»,218 

2,6.55,263 

39,069 

l,000,,'i41 

5v>,ur> 

32,490 
10,570,6:16 
121,444 
86,623 
2.'),612 


$1,788,073 

2,206 

16,691 

7,878 

470,843 

83,883 

9,028 

812,613 

478,609 

8,288,337 

l,4l'3|i44 

414,2.'9 

196,126 

678,087 

8,131,283 

63,999,605 

642,288 

29,000 

79,474 

61,214 

6,022,602 

1,041,824 

1,393,429 

870,713 

150,327 

82i;489 

4.5,678 

11,719,842 

29,216,4V0 

1,965,9111 

1,770 

77,982 

49.411 

450,187 

1,4:iO,6B5 

2,529 

?,9.T4,461 

26,7'.'4,976 

3,830,  (IfS 

29,166 

30,1  no 

2,266 

41,42;) 

84,439 

1,212,003 

1,921 

1,274,613 

108,u09 

6,317 

lb6",!)30 

112,,11l 

917,077 

366 

1,571,217 

2,123,.5.",7 

141,807 

4,112,,'i85 

119,042 

,1,023,913 

2,891,997 

14,457,001 

,')3 1,247 

2,&W,241 

2,389,469 

993^393 
832,069 
21,003 
9,383,568 
61,569 
86,623 
23,776 


$202,293,875 
294,160,915 
257,084,236 


$282,613,150 
360,890,141 
314,639,942 


1203,700,016 
259,116,170 
249,972,612 


$278,687 


4,020 
46,139 
154,867 


18,288 

8,2.13,784 

7,163,857 

60 

914,998 

20,8!)t 

29,189 

189,911 

646,728 

S6,44B,04« 

4,618,479 

86,280 

12,764 

4,989!6ot 

8,175,624 

614,809 

86,604 

178,860 

1,408 

240,189 

19,691 

420,P41 

8,684,306 

435,924 

69,302 

28,787 

118,728 
968,112 

io'.'iSS 

1,419,871 

619,483 

112,000 


6,790 
267.020 
184,683 
43S 
462,815 
290,686 

42^219 
26,977 

bV'eu 

92,717 
20,032 
02,026 
57,603 

1,364,890 

12,788 

78,8(18 

719,8.50 

2,495,386 
90,641 
74,977 
266,794 
88,068 
7,148 
13,286 
11,483 

1,181,971 
69,875 

'  \m 


$2,187,483 

669,002 

884,928 

8,712,292 

10,452,194 

60 

8,806,109 

8,777,996 


127,589,668 


85,S3«,«43 


8T,72«,e« 


222,720 

291,468 

1,396,681 

2,259 

1,737,323 

402,013 

42,218 
182,907 

1,086,902 

08,088 

1,597,249 

2,185,662 

199,370 

6,477,4C5 

182,4'27 

8,099,721 

8,601,947 

16,962,381) 

621,888 

2,726,218 

^,6^^263 

S8,603 

1,000,641 

845,345 

32,486 

10,870,838 

121,444 

86,623 

56,692 


$79. '.113,134 
101,778,971 
64,067,430 


$282,618,160 
860,890,141 
314,639,943 


SuuHART  or  iHrOBTS,  Ykaj  18!»-'57. 

Countries  Impori«. 

England $123,473,629 

France 43,792,!>/7 

Cuba 4,5,243,101 

Braall 21,460,733 

Canada 18,291,934 

British  East  Indies 10,708,214 

Bremen 10,723,523 

China 8,350,932 

Scotland 7,216,1 1 1 

Otlier  countries 71,r)05,337 

Total $'300,b96, 141       100  00 


This  sutnmary  shows  that  80  per  cetit.  of  the  total 
imports  for  18,')6-'u7  was  to  countries  from  which  we 
imported  over  2  per  cent.  Of  the  total  of  this  80  per 
cent.  51  per  cent,  (ngainst  GS  per  cent,  of  e.xports)  camq 
from  countries  on  the  west  coast  of  Europe,  thereby 
showing  a  bKlancc  of  trade  in  our  fo'.or  in  "ar  com- 
merce  with  these  countries.  A  similar  examination 
of  our  trade  with  Cuba,  Brazil,  and  China  would 
show,  on  an  average,  an  aggrot;alr  balance  of  trade 
against  the  United  States  of  ovvr  fifty  mllUons  of 
dollars. 


MS  „ 

Mr 


UNI 


1912 


ma 


COHHEBOX  or  THE  USITBD  STATES  Willi  TIIll  PRIUCIPAI.  OOllHKBCIAt,  ConrTBIM,  llXmBITINO  TIIK  AOOBKOATB  VaI.ITR  OF  Im- 
rOETH  PBOM    EACH  COUNTET,  EACH  YSAtf,  niBINa  A  PEBIOU  OF  TIIIBTY-BEVKN  OONSEOUTIVB  YEABS,  FBOH   1821   TO   185T, 

uotu  inclusive. 

Values  of  Ihpobtr  ihto  tm  Chited  States  fbom— 


Ureit  BrIUIn 

Kranc« 

Spain 

Ntthnlandi 

Swedan 

Danniark 

Portoial 
and 

Ymii. 

uid 

»iul 

•nd 

and 

and 

aud 

China. 

D«p«ndAnctei 

D«p«iitleneias. 

DependcnrlM 

Depflndenrl«l 

nflpandcnriei. 

Dependenclas. 

Dependencies. 

1831 

$2P,2TI,93S 

$6,00(1,68 1 

$9,063,723 

1112,934,272 

$1,30'.1,800 

$1,099,7311 

$748,423 

$8,111,961 

$990,168 

18M 

B9,.OT,82» 

7,069,342 

12,370,841 

2,708,102 

1,644,907 

2,636,400 

681,290 

6.242,686 

1,778,766 

1328 

34,072,578 

0,005,343 

14,233,6.10 

2,125,.637 

1     l,503,ftVl 

I,8i4,6;i2 

633,036 

6,611,428 

1,981,026 

1834 

3J,750,340 

9,007,413 

18,857,007 

2,:165,525 

1,101,769 

9,110,600 

001,792 

6,018,602 

9,627,830 

1825 

42,894,812 

11,336,631 

9,800,237 

2,206,378 

1,417,698 

1,539,6:12 

733,443 

7,638,116 

2,739,626 

1820 

32,212,8511 

9,638,890 

9,093,420 

2,174,131 

1,992,132 

9,117,104 

708,203 

7,422,180 

2.816,648 

18i7 

3:1,068,374 

9,443,6J2 

9,10fl,:l(» 

1,722,070 

1,228,042 

2,840,171 

869,001 

3,017,183 

1,038,558 

18-JS 

.T6,6'.>1,434 

10,237,516 

8,107,.M6 

1,990,431 

1,940,783 

2,374,0<10 

433,666 

6,839,108 

2,044,392 

182J 

27,632,082 

9,010,970 

0,801,374 

1,017,334 

1,303,961 

2,080,177 

087,809 

4,080,847 

2,274,976 

1830 

20,804,084 

8,240,336 

8,373,081 

1,860,706 

1,398,040 

1,671,218 

471,043 

8,878.141 

1,873,278 

1831 

47,068,717 

14,737,636 

11,701,201 

1,661,031 

1,120,73:1 

1,662,210 

SOT.^W 

8.083,206 

3,493,301 

1832 

4J.41«,924 

12,764,016 

10,3113,290 

2,8:)3,474 

1,160,894 

1,182,708 

436,204 

6,344,907 

2,806,090 

1838 

43,(188,805 

13,:i02,913 

1:1,431,207 

2,347,34:1 

1,200,8.19 

1,100,872 

66,'>,137 

7,641,670 

2,227,720 

1831 

r)i,a70,298 

17,.V)7.244 

13,527,414 

2,127,380 

1,120,641 

1,084,303 

0.19,122 

7,8:  2,327 

3,3f>5,856 

1886 

M,n49,3U7 

28,:)li2,634 

1.6,017,141 

2,903,718 

1,310,6118 

1,403,1102 

1,126,713 

6,987,187 

3,841,943 

1886 

80,022,916 

37,0311,236 

19,346,090 

3,801,514 

1,299,00:1 

1,874,340 

072,070 

7,324,816 

4,994,820 

183T 

6J,28I,657 

22,407,317 

13,927,871 

3,370,828 

1,4«3,87S 

1,200,900 

928,291 

8,90.6,337 

5,642,991 

183S 

4>,051,181 

13,037,149 

l.\971,394 

2,194,238 

9(K1,790 

1,044,80.6 

726,068 

4,764,630 

2,847,358 

1839 

71,000,361 

33,234,119 

1:1,270,795 

8,473,220 

l,6flO,14J 

1,540,763 

1,182,323 

3,078,699 

4,849,160 

1840 

il9, 130,021 

17,9118,127 

14,011,047 

2,320,890 

1,276,4.63 

970,078 

639,894 

0,040,829 

2,621,483 

1841 

61,099,038 

24,187,444 

]0,:il0,3ll3 

2,410,417 

1,229,041 

1,034,321 

674,341 

8,988,383 

2,449,964 

1842 

;iS,fll3,04S 

17,223,390 

12,170,,6S3 

2,214,620 

914,170 

684,821 

847,084 

4,934,646 

2,274,019 

1S4S 

23,978,882 

7,830,137 

0,989,6114 

816,.641 

278,074 

48,6,286 

71,309 

4,3S8,.666 

1120,866 

1S44 

48,4W,122 

17,9,%2,412 

1:1,776.451 

2,130,330 

4i%K>:i 

039,610 

267,016 

4,931,965 

2,136,386 

1S45 

41,903,726 

22,009,914 

10,5I0,,'>44 

1,897,023 

640,067 

783,233 

601,734 

7,286,914 

2,912,837 

I84J 

49,000.422 

24,3:m,832 

12,370,432 

1,971,030 

730,160 

753,927 

W7,474 

6,693,881 

8,149,864 

1S4T 

72,7W,31I 

26,100,417 

1«,3S.!,975 

2,480,634 

613,098 

847.223 

410,180 

6,533,343 

3,029,186 

1'44S 

0S,9;i5,979 

28,287,791 

17,:i83,307 

2,172,100 

704,002 

686,365 

235,877 

8,0=3,196 

0,993,280 

1S49 

07,337,933 

24,463,(!09 

16,110,027 

2,307,561 

767,328 

868,346 

414,884 

6,618,785 

7,742,864 

1S8J 

a-),  117,607 

27,030,20.'* 

l.'>,8rt4,743 

2.732,500 

1,035,310 

267,080 

470,820 

6,693,462 

8,787,874 

18M 

105,323,079 

31,707,410 

22,972,23:1 

8, 124,007 

990,2!13 

974,781 

604,098 

7,066,144 

10,008,364 

1K.2 

102,710,820 

25,909, 119 

24,223,283 

3,290,364 

779,732 

208,8.'* 

404,342 

10,593,960 

8,171,411 

iss;i 

143.219,200 

33,.62:i,9irj 

20,030,320 

2,549,019 

464,203 

184,417 

549,098 

10,673,710 

13,843,465 

IS5t 

103,018,0  6 

3,6,972,030 

26,401,333 

3,370,793 

6.37,708 

294,141 

804,108 

10,606,329 

10,906,898 

1S6S 

129,874,434 

31,8  11,906 

20,.:il7,446 

8,603,444 

881,129 

237,009 

43.6,411 

11,048,796 

12,1190,110 

18M 

1,M.»6J,V49 

40,241,393 

33,432,700 

4,018,436 

881,4:17 

220.1,63 

300,242 

10.454,436 

14,488,612 

1861 

103,523,0'20 

48,000,868 

67,432,845 

4,049,870 

756,894 

286,368 

633,714 

8,366,032 

15,871,184 

Values  of  Iiifobtb  i.vto  the  Umited  States 

feom— 

Venesueln, 

1 

Argentine  He- 

Ye?t.. 

Rusiia.           Italy.f 

Ilayll. 

Bfaill. 

Mexico. 

N.  liraniida, 
nnit  Kciador. 

America. 

puUlo  and 
I'm^uay. 

Cl:!!l. 

Delgium. 

1321 

$1,3.VJ,19J    l$:)73.403 

$2,246,2.67 

$006,120 

.... 

1829 

3,307,328   11,562,033 

2,341,817 

1,486,867 

.... 

.... 

1823 

9,263, -77   11,31.1,440 

2,.162,733 

1,214,810 

1324 

2,909,e83  |l,029,43:l 

2,247,2.35 

2.071,1]9 

.... 

.... 

1325 

2,007,110  'l,.«r>4,023 

2,008,329 

9,166,707 

$4,044,647 

$1,337,0.60 

$56,789 

$749,771 

$239,609 

1320 

9,017,109   '1,120,749 

l,r>ll,S36 

2,11)0,673 

3,910,118 

2,079,724 

204,270 

622,709 

629,949 

1827 

2,080,077    1,013,120 

1,731,30.) 

9,060,971 

6,231,807 

1,N')0,243 

261,342 

80.006 

184,693 

1323 

2,733,302  11,007,417 

2,103,6^6 

3,097,752 

4,314,258 

1,484,866 

204,770 

317,400 

781,863 

.... 

183.1 

2,218,995    1,409,633 

1,7.19,309 

9,838,467 

6,020,701 

1,266,310 

311,931 

916,190 

410,118 

1830 

1,021,839  1    940,2.'  1 

1.697,140 
i;630,,67S 

2,491,400 

8,23.6,241 

1,130,006 

302,833 

1,;13 1,883 

132,636 

1831 

1,003,323  ;l,704,264 

2,37.6,829 

.6,100,746 

1,207,184 

193,6114 

928,103 

413,758 

1332 

3,261,383    l,61:i,796 

9,063,336 

3,SIK),346 

4,293,954 

1,439,182 

233,310 

1,,600,171 

6S1.628 

1333 

2,772,880       999,134 

1,740,063 

8,039,0.13 

6,462,318 

1,624,622 

267,740 

1,377,117 

834,180 

$139,028 

1334 

2,696,810  11,422,063 

9,113,717 

4,729,909 

8,000,068 

1,727,183 

170,908 

1,4:10,118 

787,409 

186,079 

13.15 

3.398,245  ]  1,4.67,977 

2,347,.VV1 

6,.674,4fl6 

9,490,440 

1,062,704 

216,460 

878.013 

917,096 

341,907 

1336 

2,778,8.'>4  ;1,970,246 

1,323,019 

7,210,190 

6,616,819 

1,696,660 

]!'I6,304 

1,0,63,603 

811,497 

430,009 

13.17 

2,816.110    1,327,131 

1,440,3,60 

4,991,393 

8, 6,64,00  J 

1,667,346 

103,402 

1,000,002 

1,180,166 

649,009 

1333 

1,S91,.II6       044,2.13 

1.276,702 

3,191,233 

3,.660,709 

1,616,249 

1,'>,6,014 

1,029,5:)9 

942,096 

239,923 

18BJ 

2.393,394    1,133,297 

1,377,939 

6,992,968 

3,127,153 

2,073,216 

192,845 

1,1,60,640 

1,136,641 

4116,701 

1840 

2,672,427   :i,1.')7,29'i 

1,252,324 

4,927,2:10 

4,176,001 

1,.')72,643 

189,IU1 

787,904 

1,016,859 

274,807 
«T4,s.63 

1341 

2,317,443    1,161,2.30 

1,809,634 

6,302,063 

3,234,057 

2,156,121 

130,911 

1,967,747 

1,280,980 

1843 

1,:160,106  ;    (•S7,.-i23 

i,'!06,997 

6,943,814 

l,g05,69« 

1,720,658 

124,994 

2,417,r)41 

831,039 

619,53! 

1343 

7«-.',S;lS  '    .394,604 

h:w,447 

3,947,663 

9,782,406 

1,.307,013 

132,167 

916,241 

8f>7,666 

171,096 

1.341 

1,051,419    1,0.16,920 

1,441,241 

6,833,390 

2,387,003 

1,028,096 

139,010 

l,Wi6,!'6'> 

760,370 

0:14,777 

1346 

1.492,203    2,172,479 

1,330,307 

6,034,59:1 

1,702,936 

1,440,196 

06,209 

1,771,271 

1,123,690 

709,603 

134! 

1,670,054    2,032,740 

1,642,902 

7,441,803 

?,356,691 

1,676,043 

1I0,7:13 

S2.'),086 

1,276,900 

830,372 

1347 

924,673    2,0|s,,'k')2 

1^91,630 

7.096,160 

746,818 

1,479,180 

80,681 

.364,019 

1,710,90:1 

94S,32.'i 

1943 

l,:il:i,"31    2,234,129 

1,307,174 

7,992,048 

1,631,247 

1,438,907 

13,273 

l,M9,lfll 

1,310,+M 

1.326,001 

1349 

311,233    2,123,078 

901,724 

3,414.363 

2,216,719 

1,. 672,060 

riO,lll7 

1,789,761 

1,817,723 

1,844,293 

1869 

1,611,673    2,927,911 

1,644.771 

9,324,42.1 

2,13,6,366 

2,612,239 

201,4.'.9 

2,063,877 

1,796,877 

2,404,964 

18.61 

],:192,733    2,330,623 

l.SS  1,903 

11,625.804 

1,304,779 

8,162,693 

149,S.')6 

3,234,490 

2,734,74c 

2,377,0:10 

1362 

1,631,62,1    2,926,936 

1,370,672 

12,230,28.1 

1,049,200 

2,372,391 

808,3.'>6 

2,141,339 

2,002,100 

2,064,li4:! 

1263 

1,27s601    2,846,206 

1,088,624 

14,817,961 

3,107.986 

8,189,308 

6:K1,937 

9.489,021 

2,214,2.62 

2,7:12,103 

1351 

1,644,2.15    3,109,421 

2,357,262 

14,110,337 

3,463,190 

4,003,703 

2,300,422 

2,012,160 

3,.132,167 

:i,402.241 

1S65 

2.10. 113*  3,709,'iOI 

2,616,626t 

1.6,218.936 

2,832,330 

6,429,094 

280,4i):l 

2,787,890 

3,613,390 

3,:198,090 

1360 

330,531    3,411,.')70 

1,9S4,4.^6 

19,202,0:.7 

3,.6C8,631 

0,012,616 

24ll,8.')3 

9,083,197 

2.407,319 

:i,  100,6 11 

1867 

1,519,420    3,602,914 

2,400,116 

21,460,783 

6,986,887 

6,344,490 

238,000 

3,162,770 

3,742,439 

6,iKio,::il 

The  figurca  for  18.'i5  aru  the  agi;ri'i;atn  of  tliouc  given  In  " Commerce  miil  XavlKatlon"  for  Hiissia  on  tho  Haltic  and  Noirh 
Kca?,  on  the  Black  Sia,  anil  In  American  anil  Asiatic  ltn»>la,  all  unibraceil  in  jirlor  n-portu  nmlcr  the  hIiibIo  ti»i.    lin.uia. 

t  Italy,  fuh'ciini'ntly  to  1644,  1<  niailc  to  I'lnbrari' a/i  llin  Itiiiinn  Blate«— ^:icll)•,  Sardinia, 'I'n^'ciiny, 'I'rliHti  e.,\  ;  Imt  after 
1866,  It  emhrac™  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  rapal  state.i,  an.i  Two  Sicilies,  only. 

t  llavti  after  1S;)6  einbrace.i  the  utals  glv, n  In  •'  Commerce  and  XavlBatlon"  for  Ilaytl  and  .8»n  Uomlngo  (Dominican  lie- 
pilblic),'  which  were  embodied  In  forinor  reporta  lUlder  the  single  title,  Ilayti. 

From  these  tables  it  nppear.i  tlint  the  principal  in-  Towns.     Tlie  .South  American  states  that  show  an  in- 

cicasQ  in  tlio  countries  of  Europe  was  in  Ureal  nrilaiii  crease  are,   Brazil,  Argentine    Kepublic,   and   Chili, 

ami  its  dcpen'lcncie.i.  Frame  niid  its  dependencies,  The  countries  in  the  nortli  of  Europe  geuorally  show  ■; 

Spain  and  its  dependencies,  Uulgiuin  and  the  Hanse  decrease. 


1822.. 

1823... 

1824. 

1326.. 

1S20. . . 

1837.. 
[1828.. 
1839. 
1830., 
1331. 
1833. 
1333., 
13.14. 
1336.. 
1330.. 

isa7.. 

■  1833,. 

1339.. 

1840.. 

l-^l... 

1842.. 

'''43... 

18+4... 

1345... 

l'*4'i... 

•347..., 

1843.. 

1349..  ' 

13,60...  ■ 

1861... 

1853.. 

126a...' 

'864. . . ; 

I3.'>6. 

;i36o..""' 

11867..  " 


t^tey 


V-y^ff^' 


UNI 

StniMiBT  Statbmptp  n,  , 


1913 


KJDtamHo 

J^ioD  or 


;3??|S|  «    ••■     •••• 
;^h;S;  S  P:q  ^^^t 

1,0^,003,  20.h'S 

1-ni'e^i    1743S 

1,1127,2U  2,51)6574 

1,15.'>,557  2,517,273 

STO.MO  2>,  .,kI 

,  ''■M,370:  1,7|(2  LNSI 

1>-1'I5,7J0  2,,.'37,n.',0' 

J.1S7,142  7,44 IS  3' 

.2!"i,T73  2  W3'77S| 

l.f  3,S15  3,372,4,W 

I,«4-,29n:;,r.i2,'.lol 
J\^';.»n3    3,021  042, 

'2.2An52,  4,2;?V73 
^■j4,62.S,  5,54,'),207| 


Argentine  Re.^ 
l;V''l"c«nd    ' 


C-lilU. 


Bolginui. 


2,SS(i,^S4 
2-.-13I,lfti 
;.S37,;.58, 
•'■'i'S.SlSi 

•%2fi.'i,o,,i 
!',"29,221 
C,"41,(ia'-, 
•l,''''''0,323 
2,104,197 
2,787,302,' 
I     2,.'>lr,,34l 
2,ii30,C20| 
l,f>34,233 
1,471,937 
1,794,833 
l,l.';-',.-«] 
1,531, ISO 
092,428 

2,0.(0„S«<'' 

2,012,827.' 

1„''^1,7<3' 

2.284,92!!; 

■l,Wi<,S''4l 

3,l.'W,4S6i 

2,"22,S04 

3,702,2:i!) 

■1,6I6,20(l' 


i0s5,:)47i 

2.:!(i:i,2u7i 

700.997, 
2."8,1S,1.    ,„, 
2,.^M,;,S0,l,2(i2  170 
3.3M,0OC,    '390  02 
',"='2,443     137.02 


$99,.i22 
111' 774,' 
224,77,> 
l.W,272; 
23.9,S.',4' 
2-'>0,||8 
•W0,4!,7 
3.'i.'.,:)07 
•'''S.OIli 
1  '4,l4!i; 
18.3,793,' 
189,.')l,s 
IS^OCSl 
243,040 
210,241 
217,940 
H9,9I3, 
«9,4(J0, 
n2,90(i 
I,''"),270| 
07,040 
120,25.3 
»«,BOSi 
'>0,378, 
l.'!«,219l 
70,192l 
203,3;il 
47J,.Ms' 
•"40,33o; 
30-!,Sfl4 


«673,520,'jl92i45S 
':'  ,204    l,702,(iOI 

'•20,li,',2    1.421  iqf 

i:')o  o.—  ,V  "*,''^4I 
,5.30,114 
1,30s'  l,^, 

',221,11!,  , 

,40:i,940$l,d,if-ij,| 

„  ,    oq-oi-    „  '4\222 

273,872  1  iHifJ  2,284,060 
2«0,99^i'*7o'q??  ''l''v'-'S7 
40630.1  ii',}?^*    1,'  14,961 


029.8. , 
0511,779 
020,:iii5 
0!l!l  7.,.,. 
!'7I„S37 
7ftS,9IS 
•'I84,!li)3 


411.';)29       70s-io|  i'.f'l."73 

3,120,557      sS.''?:'^^«<" 
i'»2,190   2  339  I-i'il 

1,274,082   2193.^ 

1,391.599  .■!,4-0'-",57 
1,811,192  2sot'74.  ( 
2,'il9,979   21107;^  I 


•  Tho  flgn.'P,  fiTricT."     '---'■--''l-:*".'*».,528    5,54,5,2071 


in"  fnp  Tr.,  ..*.       .  '  ftiter 


f,*>2,oi2i 
4,203,770 
3,208„W3 

'',006,894 
3,927,240 
0,'>0O,62.i 
',044,320 


i  li„  V.    J"-""  ■^""•illiiii   'I 


T|,pf„|,      .  '  "i'"™  under  tl„.  8in„ 

i  lie  followniff  tables  exhibit  i„n        ■  "•"■•  ■  ■=- v'-u.uRfln  Re. 


o'^p^amr^wispm^n 


"Wgi^firTgfi?'   r  a-Kr^K'^^V^I''^  '\^0i   ' 


UNI 


1914 


UNI 


..     STATmnNT  UillBITIHO  TUH  OWMS  VAI.UK  OP  EXTOBW  *H7>  lUPOBTB  0»  T1I«  1 

NITKD  STATKB  PBOM  1790 

TO  1831. 

Y«»ri 

8«pt.30. 

e.port.. 

Impirb. 

ending 
8<pl.  30. 

Kiporii. 

Iwportj. 

Dowyuttic 

KureiKn 
Marclianaiu. 

ToUI.               Totil. 

DomeflOc 
rrod»e«. 

Kurttlsn 
MircbnndlM. 

Tut.l. 

Total. 

ITOO. . . . 

$ll).il'18,(IOO 

il6!)il,iri(l 

.■|i'.'ii,'JO.'i,I,-»iii  )f.':!,»iM),O0«  ilSiW.... 

$41,863,787 

If  60,883,830 

$101,630,9031*129,410,000 

1T91.... 

i-',r>i)o,oflo 

518,(141 

1'.|,(I18,1IJ1 

■.<!I,8(I0,(IIMI  '  1807 

4'<,.;:i9,698 

6'J,043,66H 

108,343,161      1,38,600,000 

1798. . . . 

1,1,000,0011 

1,T6S,1P1I8 

l!fl,7l>;i,098 

31,600,000     1808.    .. 

O,48:),M0 

18,997,414 

88,480,90(/ 

50,990,000 

17M. . . . 

a4,ooi),ooi) 

8,10.1,512 

afl,lcl;i,5r8 

31,100,000  :   1899.... 

31,408,708 

80,797,581 

58,203,838 

69,400,000 

1794. . . . 

a«,50o,oou 

0,680,83:1 

33,080,833 

34,6i    ,t»0  '!  1810.... 

48,300,675 

84,891,895 

00,767,970 

86,400,000 

1796. . . . 

;i»,5flo,ooo 

8,499,472 

47,;)H'.l,47a 

09,750,228  1  1811.... 

46,894,043 

16,088,790 

61,816,838 

63,400,000 

1708. . . . 

40,704,0;)7 

JB.iiCO.OOO 

(17,004,097 

81,430,104 

1818.... 

80,032,109 

8,495.127 

33,687,880 

77,0:iO,00O 

1797. . . . 

2fl,8SO,'inO 

■,r,oot),oflo 

M,8."i(l,80« 

76,070,406 

1818.... 

28,009,138 

8,847,806 

27,858,!i97 

28,00.'),(KI0 

1798.... 

88,627,01.17 

.:!t,ooo.oun 

01,687,0.17 

0S,661,7(I0 

1814.... 

6,782,878 

]45,i«ri 

0,087,441 

18,0(,6,000 

1709.... 
ISOffl.... 

aS,U8,0'i8 

*'5,S2:i,OllO 

78,008,682 

79,009.143 

1816.... 

45.974,403 

6.';:3,86o 

61,667,763 

113,041,874 

ai,840,IH)3 

,'19,1110,877 

70,971,789 

91,8,63,708 

1810.... 

04,731,836 

17,1.3h,16« 

81,980,468 

147,103,(100 

1801.... 

47,473,804 

4I),«4J,731 

94,116,1186 

111,303,611 

1817.... 

69,313,600 

19,358,009 

87,071,660 

99,860,000 

1808.... 

3fl,70S,18;p 

36,774,971 

78,493,100 

70,333,333 

1318.... 

73,364,437 

19,480,096 

93,281.183 

18J,760,00O 

1808. . . . 

4'i,806,Dai 

13,t94,072 

66,800.033 

04,0110.000 

1819.... 

60,970,833 

10,105,688 

70,142,581 

87,128,000 

1804. . . . 

41,407,477 

80,831,697 

77,099,074 

68,oi'a,;")o  1 1880. . . . 

51,693,040 

I8,(HJ8,089 

09,091,060 

74,460,000 

1808.... 

49,387,008 

63,179,019 

96,500,081    189,000,000  j|  1881 .... 

43,071,894 

21,308,498 

64,974,8881     68,636,784| 

Gkhxbal  Statimint  of  Tm  jmnjut  fobeion  flo.vuEBcii  AND  Navkjation  of  toe  Unitid  ^1 

TO  July  1,  19.'>7. 


c-BOM  OOTUUtB  I,  1880, 


Yean  enJlngf 

KxporU. 

Imprirla. 

Whereof  (li 
Bullton  e 

J . , 

Tonnage  cleared 

D..ni»llf. 

FrtMlnn. 

■folal. 

Total. 

Kiport. 

Import. 

is;rKi4,8Tio 

Ainerfran.        Kortjgn. 

Sept.  30,  1981.... 

$43,671,894 

$81,308,499 

$04,974,393 

$08,69fi,784 

$10,478,06.1 

804,947 

83,073 

1882.... 

49,971,079 

2'.',89a,308 

73.100,891 

,98,841,611 

10,810,180 

1  "Ci  810 

813,74,9 

97,490 

1923. . . . 

47,168,408 

87,613,038 

-  ,uJ9,030 

77,679,807 

(i,."7;i,987 

.  ,8110 

810,701 

119,740 

1924. . . . 

69,049,600 

8,S337,167 

f6,936,fl57 

80,649,007 

7,014,653 

8,iif  0,836 

019,878 

108,663 

1936. . . . 

00,944,748 

38,.6:)0,84;' 

99,636,399 

00,340,076 

8,982,034 

6,1fjO,706 

900,800 

95  "80 

1828. . . . 

63,065,710 

24,639,618 

77,636,388 

84,974,47  f 

4,704,63.1 

0,880,000 

1163,018 

9      17 

1887.... 

69.981,091 

■-'3,403,130 

88,384,987 

79,t94,0(ls 

8,014,880 

8,161, 1.'IO 

880,648 

131,850 

1888. . . . 

60,669,609 

8I,6M,017 

78,804,090 

68,509,984 

8,843,470 

7,499,741 

81.7,404 

161,030 

1889.... 

r)5,700,198 

l(i,669,47S 

78,369,071 

71,403,684 

4,984,030 

7,403,018 

fe,lM,0li4 

$09, 144,(1  tfi 

f4(,799 

133,000 

1830.... 
Total 

69,408,089 

14,.3.97,4I9 

73,S49,6'IS 

70,970,93(1 

2,178,773 

971,700 

183,130 
1,140,074 

51530,104,918 

$889,0  tl,834 

$706,749.7.V.' 

$798,038,487 

$71,073,494 

9,060,017 

Sept  80, 1831.... 

$01,377,057 

$30,033,686 

$91,310,.'>9:i 

$103,191,18^ 

$9,014,'.I31 

$7,305,946 

973,604 

371,004 

1832. . . . 

03,137,470 

84,039,473 

87,170,943 

101,039,30(1 

6,080,340 

6,907.604 

974,866 

887,605 

]9.'i8.... 

70,317,098 

10,988,756 

90,140,433 

109,113,311 

8,611.701 

7,070,308 

1,148,100 

497,039 

1334. . . . 

81,024,108 

83,318,811 

104,336,973 

180,531, :I38 

3,070,759 

17,911,033 

1,184,020 

677,700 

ISiW. . . . 

101,189,088 

80,50-4,4'>6 

131,693,577 

140,.996,74'J 

0,477,775 

13,131,447 

1,40«,517 

080,934 

1330.... 

106,910,090 

81,740,300 

139,003,040 

199,090,036 

4,.')84,3:i0 

13,40((,SSI 

1,316,6'3S 

674,781 

1937. . . . 

95,604,414 

al,K64,062 

117,41O.3T0 

140,09:1,817 

5,970,249 

10,510,414 

1,8.10,088 

7i:fl,2(l2 

133S  ... 

90,033,881 

13,453,706 

108..l<;i,010 

113,717,40(1 

3,609,040 

17.747.110 

1,408,761 

004,100 

1339. . . . 

103,6.33,891 

17,494.r>86 

181,(189,410 

102,0i)8,13'.! 

8,770,743 

5,6;i6,170 

1,477,929 

811,8311 

1340.... 
Total 

113,396,034 

19,190,318 

i;i8,09,'),'.)4(; 

107,141,611, 

8,417,014 

8,898,813 

1.047,'J09 

700,480 

!it998,999,009 

$1'J0,4!»1,9U4 

$l,(l'JJ,il41.0(.i3 

$1,308,070,094 

$60,839,803 

$107,400,'8«u 

18,139,909 

6,71,9,470 

.Sept.  30,  1941. . . . 

$100,388,728 

$1.''>,469,09I 

$131,851. 9(K1 

$137,940,177 

$10,0.34,388 

,$4,099,033 

1,()34,16e,      730,,949 

1918. . . . 

98,969,900 

11,781,639 

I04,(l'.ll,.6:l4 

100,102,097 

4,813,639 

4,097.(110 

1,6;i0,46ll      74(i,41'7 

,Iiioe30,1813*... 

77,793,793 

0,5.53,097 

84,340,480 

04,763,799 

l,63f,J91 

23,3flO,K)'.i 

1,209,088 

688,049 

1344.... 

99,716,179 

11,494,907 

111,800,046 

108,486,036 

6,4.64,814 

6,830,4311 

2,010,024 

900,814 

1945.... 

99,399,770 

1.'>,340.930 

114,040,000 

117.864,,604 

S.000,4!15 

4,()70,'.'43 

8,063,977 

030,8"6 

1916.... 

103,141,893 

ll,34!i,(J83 

113,499,610 

131,091,797 

n,006.'8CS 

3,777,73'; 

8,'281,029 

908,179 

1947.... 

150,637,404 

8,011,189 

15'<,049,628 

140,646,0.19 

1.907,034 

24,131.'iMl 

8,808,393 

l,170,0i;6 

1949. . . . 

138,904,181 

81,132,316 

in»,O30,436 

154,999,988 

1,6,841,010 

0,3C0,8'.'4 

2,401,380 

1,104,169 

1949. . . . 

13  ',660,965 

13,099,906 

14,^,76,^930 

147,957,439 

6,4ft4,04S 

0,061  ,'8  Ki 

8.763,784 

1  376,70.1 

I960.... 
Total 

136,946,918 
$1,181,453,801 

14,96l,90t 

161, 998,7-30 

178,138,3lN 
$1,307,793,783 

7,683,004 

4,028,708 
$80,000,  l.'iO 

8,032,789 

1,738,814 
10,791,849 

$189,106,788 

$l,800,504,„'i8 

$05,010,081 

•20,774,804 

.lane  30, 1961.... 

$190,899,719 

$81,699,803 

$819,399,011 

$310,324,9.38 

$30,472,762 

$5,4r>3.698 

3,200,619 

1,929,536 

1988.... 

103,369.084 

17,880,:W3 

809,0,69,306 

'.'18,016,442 

48,074,135 

6,606,044 

3.830,6'.l0 

8,047,576 

1863.... 

813,417,097 

r(,5S'',lfl0 

230,970,167 

807,978,041 

'87,4,96,875 

4,'i   1,.3S2 

5,700,789 

2,898,790 

1954. . . . 

853,390,97'! 

84,9,60,194 

378,341,004 

804,688,381 

41,381,604 

0,769.697 

8,911.393 

8,107,81  . 

1356.... 

3-'fl,709,.V)3 

88,449,393 

87.6,160,840 

201,409,630 

5(;,347,.'H3 

8,069,813 

4,flO,V,   ;9 

2,110,382 

1966. . . . 

310,590,330 

(0,378,1579 

3i.'0,964,90S 

314,030,943 

46,746,496 

','207,038 

4,688,.-ifl4 

2,462,109 

1867.... 

339,0,96,005 

8.\975.617 

808,900,093 

.300,890,141 

09,136,088 

18,401,799 

4,051,812 

8,400,170 

Nlue  months  to  June  80,  and  the  fiscal  year  fium  tliU  time  begins  July  1. 


Tlio  following  tablo  shows  tlie  extent  und  progru,is 
of  the  lake  tonnage  of  the  llditeil  .States  for  the  jeara 
1855,  IV)*!,  1H57.  This  Ijranch  of  our  shipping  has  ac- 
(iuired  such  importance  as  lo  require  a  separate  state- 
ment of  it.i  progress  and  extent.  Tnhlo  of  vessels 
built  at  the  American  lake  ports  in  the  year  1857,  in- 
cluding lalies  Krio,  Ontario,  Huron,  and  Michigan. 


11l.i5. 

18S6. 

18t7.             1 

No. 

Tons. 

No.    1     Tom. 

No. 

Tone.     \ 

Hteftnii'M.. ., 

3 

1.0115 

3 

2,000 

6 

4,l'8(l 

IYoih41*m.  . . 

s 

4,'813 

88 

1'J,766 

83 

11,976 

T^A           

4 

861 

6 

896 

16 

1,418 

HftrKt         . 

<2 

T78 

6 

3,4.38 

3 

1,'304 

Hrtgs 

8 

1,748 

1 

434 

8 

8(i9 

SchooncrH . . . 

105  1  28,763 

181 

34,929 

90 

88,043 

SC')W1    

T^ifi.... 

5 
140^ 

416 

liW 

87,489 

157 

63,860 

48,598 

Tttii  gives  our  lake  tonnage  an  increase  in  three 
years  of 


11  steamers 7,916  tons. 

Ri  propellers 99,814    '■ 

24tug8 ■....     2,669    " 

Total  Steam 39,817    " 

10  harks 4,478  Ions. 

9brlB« 8,045    " 

827  schooners 08,637    " 

TotiilBnil 109,100    " 

(ironil  total 139,377    •' 

The  value  of  this  new  tonnage  is  as  follows : 


Yean. 

Slaam. 

Sail. 

Total. 

1865 

$395,000 
1,133,000 
1,320,'JOO 

$1,813,300 
1,004,41)0 
1,439,300 

$1,009,300 
2,7.30,4fi0 
5,743,500 

1850 

1867 

Total.... 

$2,947,'..:00 

$4,841,060 

$7,099,860 

The  total  tonnage  on  the  lakes  in  the  Fall  of  1857  was 
.'">88,8(i8  tons,  and  the  value  of  the  same  was  $15,195,100, 
or  nearly  forty  dollars  per  ton. 


UNI 


,      and  North  Sea,     ''} 
Asiatic  Kusala.  ' 

«;.».«.  po,m„n;a-„v 

Sureden  and  Norway ' ' ' 

urniitrr''""'^''' 
I  Bronion... 

Uiitcli  VVcgi,  r'n'rti  ■  •  ■  • 
Wutcl,  Oulana  ; 

J  "elgiuni 

I  •■"ngl.iiid  . . .  

Scotland 

I  Ireland 

Cillirultar 

I  -Miilla ; 

Canada .     

/,  TIP'  W'ost  Indloa 

I,''.''K''«ulana.... 

,  Oier  port.  In  Africa    • 

"'"iiii  Kurt  ;„j|,.s 
I  franco  a.i  tl,e  .V(l„„',i,. 

'fvcMchv '5*=  *'"•''''-■'■•»: 
iririci  N.  Anier.  I'oss 

n.nc  ,  West  Indies 

-  ';i-L"icli«niaim. 

I  '■■'-■"Hi  I'oM.  inAfr!r 

I  Sp;i  n  on  the  Atl«,    „ 


80       21,1 


133 


I,.1II3 
!,(i51 


j,(ill 


18,:: 
10,l,_ 
S,TTI. 

»,asr 

8ii3,4S4 

Bs,rr 

I8,2::i 
8,43 


07 

"as 

106 

"  878 

31) 

1.H3 

'  Vlll 

38S 
^'■)3 
275 
"04 


8,1546 


43 

lie 


117,074 
ll,43(t 
l-.',703 
13,.',|]1 
I4,0:;6 
60,;)S1 
.'>3,S75 
20,i,Sl.', 

1,13.') 

2r,«s 
i,c8r 


21,0:i5 
773 
485 1 


T,'i83l 
■*,77-i| 


107 


'«     S  ( 


'143 

4{>4 

637 

l,.'*!  ' 

l,50n  I 

6,'l|0 

4 

1,0-' 


Tom. 


M,l»5j 

'Afi7x 
8,1)04 

'AToii 
yUHt 

»!''!" 

«2,()3'.( 

B!(,4M 
.'I8,()li4 
l,C49 
43,1)40 
ll,')«fi 

l>,r«f, 
IO,SO« 

8T,(iS;| 
0,047 

ti7i 


10 


"('••.II  uii  tne  Atlanlii.     I       nXl         8ii4 
fP"".  on  the  .Med   er.„'         PJ     P-'S.) 

'  li  llppino  I-/ai„i«   ""  :         hi&a 


R4i! 


!ii,o:i:) 
1,671 

200 
.'IS 
(iO 
173 
440 ; 
03 

inj 

2041 
13;) 

10 
204 


[  ,,,•'','"■)' IsmiiiiN... 
I  ','1  llppino  I-|«i„i8 

'  "ha  . . . 

I'orlr.  dlco.'; 

'  'yiuiitti 

I   .'Inilclra  

<:apo^d„v.Mii^,;,i- 

I  Sardinia .' 

I  Tusciinv      

Tivo.sl6ilies.',' 

Aiiatria ...  

Austrian  iWin  Y,' ■,;. 
'  ,';'"«nl!o,„,l,)le..       * 

.'."f'yin  Asia. 

I'-pl't ■ 

"nj'tl 

ManlJomlngi';;." I      '■•"I      33,lii,,|    jg,],! 

•f'tral  liepuhlic |      '  JU  |     «-•*. " -^^  |    ?  43-  I 

ae»  (Jittuada  . 

I  Veueznoln  

Urazil " 

Jji'ilgiiay.'.' 

J  "iiPHos  Avr.'a' 

Chill  ...  '    ' 

Uollvia..; 

Peru ." ■■ 

I  Kciiador 

|l^;«..da.rtl,e,Wc'; 

whaie-flsheVies.' :::;;;:   ml 

1°**'  Cleared,  18S7J6<JlT7n-i-  tt— ^^-^^L-:!2:i^l 
lotal  entered  lSft7  ."ol.  'i  'p,'"'',".'!.'!  iMTTST 
?»ja>  clear'i^d,'  I'^fl'^s     1'',^^  f-^.^  11/,'^^ 


1.7 
218        0'; 


SO 


29S 


22 1      10, 


61)0 


'"TisTZSTlTKai" 


3-7    ilMI.!J7  .J' 


20l>,4il3  10 
"'0,170 


,.  Tho  above  table  gives  „s  n    ,  , -^^^^i^^^^^y^^iiyi^wljM       t''?M  .%^i' '"    '^'^ 

"onal  eliaracter  of  ,,,,  '  "^"'^  "''''''*  of  the  nn  I  i     ^^T  ' — ^-Lil!Z'i?'.'-8l«j277,>.r, ,    ..,,;:, 

r  ;^,;;7ir.t J'-'ao^^  oieabkd  rRo.«  the  Cvir^  f,  •'" 


I  Canada 

I  K'lRland 

Cuba  ., 

I  'V-f'^h  WosViniVios: 

L5;^>MJranada  


.^______  _  '..r.!/  rno.\I  Ti 

i.i;).'!,.'« 


UNT 


1916 


UNI 


BTATimiNT  BUOWTNO 

Tn»  Natioatiom  o»  BAon  Stati  and  Tkbhitobt  fob  tiib  Y«An  iifniNa  .Tcm  BO,  IftM. 

Tooanit  tnUrtd. 

Am«riran  Vcm#1i. 

Fonlin 

/tttlt. 

ToUl  Amtrtean  uid  Koraiyn,         | 

Ndik. 
tier. 

Tom. 

Crcwi. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tom. 

Crowi. 

Num. 
txr. 

Tom. 

('rtwi. 

.<|FII. 

Doy.. 

Man. 

Hoyi, 

Mon.        Uoji. 

Matno 

New  Hampshire 

878 

6 

832 

1,319 

78 

121 

4,076 

4S3 

4 

395 

2 

105 

140 

194 

114 

212 

li6 

054 

312 

470 

21 

74 

14 

128 

2 

06 

116,121 

2,7«2 

19,147 

428,898 

15,139 

27,919 

2,411,087 

117 

144,081 

845 

118,483 

420 

73,422 

23.8.;h 

44,.'I7S 

02,450 

80,778 

433,7^7 

66,108 

80,761 

11,304 

28,678 

4,221 

100,014 

o28 

11,151 

4,396,012 

4,410,033 

4,721,370 

4,63l,21i 

8,749 

69 

904 

It, 699 

007 

1,118 

7:i.  f  60 

6 

4,080 

28 

8,048 

10 

2,337 

062 

2,367 

1,201 

2,4,')9 

1,089 

1»,2S0 

2,760 

3,0,'>6 

385 

997 

139 

4,099 

10 

6(KI 

141, Ml7 
144,«r>7 
1 01, 002 
154,305 

4 
6 

"io 

73 
97 

140 

426 

32 

239 

2,668 

68 

61 

4,610 

29 

109 

'  'is'o 

1 

»4 

10 

136 

08 

45 

48 

886 

253 

621 

14 

&l!,liO 

•     :.,J2|i 
«';,i<,v2 

384,070 

10,774 

10,382 

1,124,020 

3,070 

24,083 

38',32-2 

102 

18,910 

2,091 

43,470 

25,015 

7,718 

36,051 

1M,200 

31,013 

136,303 

2,928 

22.260 

4,0:;5 

48,.^32 

419 

2,490 

2,20;',4U3 
2,3l2,7.'i9 
2,4'>l,040 
2,4!IO,170 

2,752 

173 

1,060 

16,9*16 

416 

893 

66.044 

163 

972 

i,'7'36 

5 

731 

79 

1,800 

936 

438 

1,012 

n,^s') 

1,8.54 

7,823 

180 

925 

105 

2,065 

25 

134 

102,470 

103,777 

110,707 

119,807 

0 
16 

'so 

859 

"2 

2.-i 
83 

803 

87 
031 
3,S87 
131 
182 
9,4811 

30 
647 
4 
676 
3 
269 
150 
830 
182 
267 
173 
9110 
M6 
901 

85 
104 

23 

266 

5 

77 

107,231 

6,021 

43,099 

812,908 

26,913 

8S,30l 

3,636,107 

8,787 

10.8,164 

845 

156,810 

622 

92,3.32 

^^950 

128,605 

69,993 

70,108 

115,832 

589,047 

80,121 

222,0M 

14,287 

50,829 

8,8511 

148,641! 

747 

13,041 

6,501 

282 

1,90* 

81,606 

1,rJ2 

1,711 

128,813 

168 

6,001 

28 

5,084 

21 

8,068 

1,031 

4,60-1 

2,1.10 

2,877 

8,001 

17,809 

4,014 

1I,47.'< 

571 

1,922 

BU4 

6,7<i4 

41 

034 

10 
2t 

'ri 

1 
80 
050 

"i 
"2 

223 

Rliode  IflUnd 

New  York 

New  Jcriey 

PcnnsylranlA 

DelawAra 

Distrkt  of  Columbia. . . 
VirgliiU 

North  Carolina 

.South  Carolina 

Florida 

Aluhania 

Mldllijan 

llliiiola 

00 

337 
406 
833 
883 

» 

127 

3 

11 

10,037 
10,155 
ll.ll'.'l 
10,900 

Oregon  Territory 

Waahington  Territory  . 
Total  entered,  l'i57-'.%8 
Total  cleand,  lS!J7-'88 
Total  entered,  1850  '.'i? 
Total  clenreil,  166fl-'67 

10,7:16 
11,124 
11,3114 
11,135 

lOKO 

1047 
1240 
1212 

.o,:72 
•J  1,270 
22,.32S 
•.'2,104 

«,00.'>,046 
B.802,702 
7,180,310 
7,071,382 

244,373 
248,4.34 
2;  7,^^69 
274,172 

1417 
14-2 

2075 

ETATIUEilT  or  THE  TONNAOE  OF  Till  UnITKK   RTATKS  AHNDAT.LT,  FBO.V  1703  TO   1814,  IHCLUStTI. 


Year  eniiinK  Deeemtior  31, 


1703. 
1704  , 
1795. 
1706. 
1707. 
H:9S. 
17119. 
1800, 
1801. 

i&m. 

1SC3. 


Reglitrrdd 

Hull 
TonnRtTO. 


307,734 
43S,S03 
6«.,47l 
670,7:13 
6117,777 
003,370 
602,107 
669,921 
032,907 
500,380 
697,157 


KiiroUe.)  (infl 

LirflnMil  Hail 

Tonnage. 

^KTiilllir  ' 
189,756 
218,494 
2.'.,'>,li:o 
279,130 
294,1-53 
277,213 
302,571 
814,070 
831,724 
852,016 


ToUl 

Tonnage. 


620,704 
028,018 
747,966 
831,8;iO 
870,013 
898,328 
989,409 
072,402 
947,677 
892,104 
940,172 


Vcar  ending  December  31, 


1804. 
1806. 
1806. 
1807. 
1 808. 
1809. 
1810. 
1811. 
1812, 
1813. 
1814. 


Reglitered 

Sail 
Tonnage. 

~6f2,6:r«~ 
749,841 

808,205 
,848,.T07 
7ll9,0.')4 
910,0,VJ 
934,209 
70S8,')2 
700,024 
074,853 
674,033 


Enrolled  and 

l.lrenieil  .Hall 

Tonnage. 

"~309,874~ 
891,027 
4'10,461 
420,'j41 
473,.'-;4J 
440,222 
410,515 
40:l,050 
609,373 
401,776 
481,677 


Total 
Tonnage. 


1,0-12,404 
1,140^08 

l,2li.s,7l0 
1,208,543 
l,':42,.W0 
l,.H.'>0,23t 
1,424,-84 
l,-;3:',502 
I,'.'C.1,!I97 
l,100,fl2» 
1,159,210 


Com-An-ITIVR  ViKW   or    tub  KEniBTRRKn    AND  KNnOI.LEn  To.NNAOE    Of 

rirn  r.  Rtatrs  rniiM  1815  to  18.57, 

INOT.UStVE, 

Yean. 

Keg  liter 'd 
Touni  . 

Rntolled 
Tonnage, 

T  lal 

Tonnage, 

KeglHlerod  Ton- 
nage in  the 
WhaKtBihery, 

steam 
Tonnage. 

1'ruiiotlion.ol 

tlie  enroMod  Tonnage  emplo 

ye.l  in  tito 

t'liasting 
Trade, 

Cod- 
flibery. 

-Mnokerel- 
Hehery, 

Wliiile- 

tl-fbery. 

1^15 

8,')        >« 

5I3,8:13 

i,3i;8,127 

4- 16,006 

'20,510 

.... 

1 .29 

ISIO 

SOD.iKP 

6n,4,',3 

1,372,213 

470,079 

87,879 

.... 

1108 

18:7 

8,W.724 

5',I0,1S3 

1.3:19,911 

4,871 

431,457 

53.01  0 

.... 

840 

1813 

600,08-1 

01 9. 005 

1.2  5,18t 

16,134 

,MI3,140 

5I,.'.5I 

614 

1SI9 

01'2,9:iO 

047,821 

1,26!I,T51 

31,700 

5. '3,550 

O.'>,044 

0  6 

IS'O 

Cl!i,0|7 

001,113 

1,230,100 

35,391 

f3:>,080 

0il,842 

1053 

isn 

010,8"0 

07:1,00.' 

1,29S,9,'.8 

20,070 

I-W,4I5 

5I,3.')1 

1924 

ifiI2 

023.1,50 

096,.'4a 

l,.".24,0',i',l 

45.449 

573,080 

5^,4')5 

SI33 

1823 

03:i,920 

0  9,1144 

1,3:10,505 

39.918 

24,879 

,'.00,403 

07,021 

686 

1824 

00  I,!i72 

72.1,1110 

1,3.59,103 

3.1,105 

21.009 

r>S  i,2'23 

0^,4I0 

ISO 

1825 

700.737 

722,:l.'3 

1,423,110 

35.379 

23,001 

587.273 

70,0-20 

.... 

1826 

737,073 

790,212 

l.Ml.ii'O 

41,767 

34.0iS 

00l!,420 

(:-.i.7oi 

220 

1327 

747,170 

873,437 

l,ll'20,007 

46.0.53 

40.107 

732,937 

74043 

328 

1828 

8 12,019 

928,772 

1,741,391 

61,021 

39.418 

763,022 

74,047 

.  -  . . 

180 

IS.'O 

050, 142 

010,054 

I,'.'0O,79- 

57,284 

t>4,o,;o 

6ll8„3;.8 

101,796 

. , 

1330 

670,075 

fll.'),«ll 

1,101,770 

3S.9U 

64.471 

610,078 

01„56» 

r6,973 

793 

1831 

620,451 

017,3114 

1,207,816 

83.315 

34,4.15 

631.723 

09,977 

40,210 

481 

1832 

636,98,1 
781,0.'(i 

75;,4liO 
85,1,  i'.>:, 

1,430,4.50 
1,0;W,14'J 

72.808 
10l,lr>8 

90,813 
101,819 

049,027 
741,198 

54,027 
02,720 

47.420 

4,S,7'26 

377 

473 

1833 

1S3( 

857,4:18 

901,403 

1,763,907 

108,000 

122  815 

783,013 

M,403 

01,082 

304 

1815 

8S.5.S.'I 

9!i0,ll8 

1,824,040 

97,040 

122,815 

792,301 

7'2,374 

04,44.1 

vm 

897,774 

9S4.3'.'8 

1,882,102 

144,080 

Mxrm 

873.02;; 

02„107 

04,4'25 

1573 

I8:i7 

810,417 

1,030  233 

1,810,0.36 

l'27,24a 

l.')4.7iJ4 

'156,080 

80,5,51 

40,810 

1394 

1838 

8'i2,5:)) 

1,173,047 

1,9i'6,6:!9 

119,029 

193,413 

1,041,105 

70,0(14 

60,049 

6229 

I88.I 

S3<     ■' 

1,26i.'284 

2.096,418 

131.816 

204,033 

1,1.53,661 

7-2,-.')8 

nf>,f83 

4:l9 

1840 

8:m,;o4 

i.230,9:.9 

•2,1*1,704 

130,926 

201,83;» 

1,170,0 '4 

70,O3.'i 

':S,269 

1841 

S45.3.13 

1,134  0») 

2,130,744 

1.57.405 

17,5,083 

1,107,01,7 

00  ,551 

11,3-21 

1842 

975, 36  < 

1,117.031 

2,09-2,390 

181,012 

220,001 

1.045,7.'>3 

54  804 

l6,o:o 

377 

184;t 

1,009,315 

1.14'.>,'297 

2.l.'i8,002 

1,52,374 

236,307 

l,07(i,ir« 

01, 2-24 

11.775 

143 

1844 

1,003,704 

1,211,330 

2,230,0',I6 

168,293 

273,170 

l,lo;i,fil4 

85,2-24 

16,170 

321 

1845 

1,09.'),  17.' 

l,S2l,»i9 

2,417,002 

190  6'6 

320,018 

1,190,898 

fl9,8J5 

21.418 

206 

1846 

1,  i:io,'.'s.5 

1,431,7  8 

2,662,031 

183,981) 

347,8:13 

1,289,870 

7'2.5I6 

30,103 

4:i9 

1847 

1,241.312 

1,597,732 

2,839,015 

193,8.58 

404  841 

1,4.52,6-13 

70,177 

81451 

1843 

l,:iO),sso 

1,711,1. 1.^5 

.3,iM,04l 

192,179 

427.391 

1.6'iO,!lR3 

8.',i>r)l 

+;„'.58 

432 

!S41 

1.438,941 

1,895,073 

3,3:+l,015 

130,186 

402.304 

1,730.410 

42,970 

73,a'-.3 

1»50 

i,.'>3'.,7i1 

1,040,743 

8,63,5,484 

140,016 

525,!'4« 

1,7.'>5,79fl 

85,040 

58,111 

.... 

laM 

1,726,  .307 

2,04'i,132 

3,772.4.19 

131,644 

RS3,007 

1,3:4,317 

87.475 

50,531 

1852 

1.8»fl,«3 

2,233,902 

4,113,440 

193.707 

fl43,'240 

2,008,021 

10-2,0.59 

72,516 

1863 

2,103,674 

2,803,336 

4,407,010 

193,'202 

.14.097 

2.134,2.10 

109,-227 

51,S50 

18.54 

2,333,819 

2,409,083 

4802,902 

181,901 

676,607 

2,273,000 

102,194 

36,141 

.... 

1868 

2,K)'>,l,3rt 

2,070,804 

6,212,001 

180,773 

770,285 

2,491.108 

102,9-27 

21.6'24 

70 

1866 

2,401,402 

2,380,249 

4,871,652 

189,213 

673,077 

2.211,935 

9.5,816 

29,886 

S47 

185T .-. 

2,463,967 

2,470,875 

4,940,848 

196,771 

708,784 

2,800,899 

104,67'2 

2«,82T 

TO      , 

1813 
1819 


18'22 
1823 
1824 


1827 

IS'28 

1823 

1S30  i 

1831 

1S32 

1833 

1834 

1833 

1830 

1837 

IS33 

1339 

1840 

1841 

1842 

18*3 

18(4 

1846 

18(6 

isir 

1843 


1851 
lSf.2  I 
1865 
18,54  I 

1866  I 
1856 

1867  I 
1863 


IJNI 

Co«w.*Ttr»  ««,i„^^  1917 

r—  ^ ""^--""-x»„  Ko„„„,  ,,,„^^,  UNI 


enaete '  " 
Stuti 
laws  „,  „i, 

provisions.     Suilinm,':"'-"' """'^  "''  ■"■otcctini 

ments  of  tl.o  co„,„rr  •"  ",  ,  V''"  !'™'"l'i<ory  enact! 


"-."f  other  na^ion^r ': ,  ;:;:™:;i':'"<  "-'«a<ion  fci,; 

rovisions.     Suili  i,,-,,,.;",-     """-"•"'">*,'  or  nrotcctine     '"'in.         ""I 


Tp^j^rafnC^y 


URU 


1918 


URU 


'  The  limited  apaco  allotted  to  the  artlela  Uvitrd 
Statks  ill  tills  work  procludua  any  attempt  to  give  nioro 
than  tliuBtnlijitU'aurilio  production,  cominorce, anil  nav- 
igation of  tl;u  I'liited  8lat«K  proper.  Under  their  sep- 
arate licaiii  arc  given  tho  imports  and  exports  of  every 
articloof  coninicrce— asC'oTi'o:*,  Kiikaustukpn,  Kick, 
SuuAH,  TonAO'o,  etc.;  also  the  trade  of  tncli  individual 
State  under  its  proper  head ;  and  under  thoir  proper 
be»  >he  commercial  law  ond  the  latest  statislies  re- 
garding tho  Uniteil  States  in  subjects— as  Coinh,  Com- 
MKiu'K,  Canals,  Consuls,  Kailuoaiis,  TuLKonArii, 
Siiiri-INO,  ToNNAOK,  etc.  To  all  of  which  reference 
is  made  for  more  particular  inforniatiou  rejjanling  the 
United  atat«i. 

Vnignay.  This  imall  republic,  known  also  as  the 
Bandu  Oriental,  or  tho  CIsplatine  Kepubiic,  lies  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  estuary  of  the  Kio  do  la  Plata, 
and  contains  a  population  estimated  at  120,000 — tho 
least  of  any  of  the  South  American  States — of  which 
about  1(1,000  reiiido  at  tho  capital,  Montovideo.  Tho 
Boll  of  Uruguay  is  fertije,  well  iratered  by  largo  rlve'o, 
and  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  grezing  and  agriculture. 
Animal  products  are  tho  staple  domestic  exports,  and 
consist  principally  of  hides,  dry  or  salted,  of  horned 
cnttle  and  horses ;  tallow,  grease,  bones,  animal  carbon, 
boms,  horse-hair,  i-ow-tails,  sheep-skins,  and  wool. 

Though  there  is  no  treaty  existing  l>etweon  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  Uruguay,  our  commercial  intorcourso  is 
on  a  footing  of  C(|ualily  with  thiit  of  other  countries; 
being  favored  by  no  privileges,  and  being  subjected  to 
no  restrictions  not  common  to  all  other  foreign  na- 
tions. This  intercourse  is  regulated  by  the  legislation 
of  the  republic,  and  during  tho  past  few  years  has  un- 
dergone several  liberal  and  important  inoditlcallons. 
Prior  to  1849,  an  exorbitant  impost  of  $15  per  barrel 
was  levied  on  tho  article  of  flour.  By  decree  dated 
April  6th  of  that  year,  this  duty  was  reduced  to  $2  50 
per  barrel,  with  a  provision  tiiat  "this  impost  shall 
last  no  longer  than  necessary  to  pay  the  debt  incurred 
on  the  article  of  flour,  tho  liquidation  of  which  shall 
commence  iromediately."  By  subsequent  decrees  of 
April,  1862,  tho  export  duty  on  horse-hides,  dry  or 


salted,  and  the  transit  duties  npon  all  merchandlsa 
were  abolished;  and  the  former  duty  of  20  centr  per 
hide  on  ox  and  cow  hides,  dry  or  salted,  was  reduced 
to  7i  cents  per  hide.  By  tho  now  tariflf,  however,  of 
October  11,  1863,  now  in  force,  the  duty  on  flour  ia 
fixed  at  86  per  cent. ;  and  all  products  of  tho  country, 
and  all  foreign  nierchaiidise  free  of  import  duty,  or 
that  has  paid  such  duty  on  importation,  are  frea  of 
duty  on  being  exported.  Tho  transit  duty  is  also 
abolished.  This  tariffhas  been  superseded  by  another, 
bearing  date  July  19,  1866.  The  provisions  referred 
to  remain,  however,  quite  the  same. 

The  port  regulations  nro  lilioral — vessels  being  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  port  twelve  <lays  without  entering 
at  the  custom-house,  and  to  land  samples,  so  as  to  dis- 
pose of  a  part  or  the  who.'o  of  their  cargoes.  Should 
they  leuvc  within  that  period  without  effecting  a  sale, 
they  are  subjoct  only  to  pilotago,  health-visit,  bill  of 
health,  anil  stamps. 

A  treaty  ofcomniercc  and  navigation,  etc.,was  .  )icd 
between  England  and  Uruguay,  July  17,  184.i  '  •''ch 
expired  toward  the  close  of  185.'!,  and  was  not  leiiewed 
at  the  latest  dates  tiom  Montevideo.  With  Franco  A 
preliminary  treaty  was  concluded  April  8, 1836,  to  con- 
tinue in  force  until  another  treaty  should  bo  .T^reed 
upon ;  or,  should  none  such  be  subsequently  entered 
into,  then  to  continue  fifteen  years.  The  treaty  with 
Engiaml,  now  lapsed,  was  based  upon  a  principle  of 
reciprocity;  and  that  with  France  is  upon  tho  princi- 
ple of  the  most  favored  nation.  The  merchant  marine 
of  Uruguay,  it  is  Iwlieved,  comprises  but  few,  if  any, 
vessels  of  more  than  sixty  tons  burden.  It  consistB  of 
about  (>00  vesiicls  of  between  twenty  and  fifty  tons 
each,  averaging  each  about  six  men,  or  from  1800  to 
2000  men  in  all.  These  are  mostly  engaged  in  the  in- 
ternal and  coasting  trade,  tlie  letter  chiefly  with  Bra- 
zil ;  which  trade  is  also  open  to  foreign  vessels,  on  tha 
payment  of  the  discriminating  li.nnage.  Besides  the 
above,  there  are  five  vessels,  all  of  foreign  construction, 
under  tho  Uruguayan  flag,  measuring  in  the  aggregate 
about  J500  tons,  which  make  voyages  north  of  tha 
equator. 


COMMniOB  or  TUI  t'NIIBB  StATFS 

VITII  I'eUOOAT  (rOEMKBlT  C'lBFLATlMB 

HinrnLioJ,  feom  Oct.  1 

1830,  TO  July  1, 185T. 

Vwn  anil  Inn 

KipotU. 

Importf. 

Whireofthtn  wmIh 
Hiilll„ii  aiul  Simla. 

Tonnas* 

clflared. 

Dultwitlc. 

KortlKH. 

Tolm). 

ToUI. 

Kiporl. 

ImjiMft. 

Aninrlean. 

Forelnn. 

.-iept  BO,  1831 

.... 

.... 

il50 

.... 

1832 

$3,326 

$3,326 

.... 

87!) 

.... 

18.11) 

,  .  ,  , 

.... 

.... 

H129 

.... 

1834 

1885 

•■;: 

.... 

.... 

^t 

'849 

1836 

, 

6,734 

.... 

18ST 

7.81)4 

7.804 

$10,610 

8,602 

436 

18B8 

86,702 

$24.,'>(<7 

00,329 

18,031 

$U.'>0 

.... 

8,112 

170 

1839 

60,««3 

88.302 

89,300 

626,482 

7,875 

8,6.10 

262 

1840 

Total. . . 

Si.Wi 

(•,7,628 

149,730 

494.4<I2 

81,607 

$7.Sfl7 

8.197 

230 
1,446 

$180,061 

$180,497 

$810,648 

$1,148,975 

$40,192 

$7,807 

42,171) 

Sept.  80,1841 

$140,031 

$16,193 

!!1I66,224 

$846,234 

.... 

$600 

10,107 

1842 

201,999 

07.908 

209,907 

681,9I.S 

$10,432 

4,0'.l7 

14,216 

sis 

9  mos.,    1843" 

219,670 

7.VW9 

i!i6,126 

121,7iiJ 

IMW 

•  .  •  • 

0,86S 

.19.1 

June  30, 1844 

394,2m 

07910 

462,170 

144,703 

26.674 

2t,088 

12,619 

1,169 

184B 

140,080 

Ki.lM 

167.136 

2((,;i73 

23,9114 

8,262 

014 

184ii 

210,41)0 

1,1,493 

226,004 

20,472 

5..M6 

8,0(10 

B.,'i99 

:i(i3 

1847 

180,6:10 

60.303 

236.889 

112,810 

83,300 

1,806 

8,.'..  10 

7S0 

1848 

039,869 

4:1,861 

88:1, 721 

623,064 

2,692 

40'J 

11,949 

4413 

1849 

134,038 

13.08.) 

147.727 

79,924 

8,600 

2,:i45 

2.0il5 

1860 

Total... 

60,024 

I,6H 

01,542 

S67 

1.107 

$2,022,321 

$374,W7 

$2,3U6,30a 

$1,966,611 

$1I7,'.I81 

$32,511 

71,247 

12,2b2 

June  80, 1861 

$.12,711 

$13,078 

$16,789 

$1C  114 

$12,500 

1,820 

a7 

1852  

181. 1.V) 

11,917 

193.073 

49..  07 

2.906 

3..')37 

18M 

2'J«.0S8 

12.:;68 

308.446 

302,(180 

8,700 

l.«,')6 

ISM 

460.8.W 

6.M02 

612,967 

46T,i79 

.... 

17.8;)2 

1.751 

185,'. 

394,fl,'i7 

27,516 

422,172 

242.70!) 

8,200 

lO,^"* 

O.lO.-i 

1850 

6I7.S49 

33,4S0 

651,329 

.101,036 

4,333 

.... 

12,784 

535 

IS.'.T 

976,370 

29,802 

1,000,172 

868.297 

.... 

22,412 

2,027 

<  Nine  iiiontlia  to  Juno  30,  and  th^  fiscal  year  fh>m  this  time  begins  Juljr  1. 
In  1861,  tho  number  of  vessels  under  the  I'nited  i  States  in  1854,  according  to  official  returns  of  Uruguay, 
States  flag  which  entered  the  port  of  Montevideo  was  consisted  of  rum,  ■I5;i  barre's;  spirits  of  turpentine, 
seventy,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  22,0I.T  tons;  '  202  barrels;  starch,  2556  casks  and  boxes;  rice,  2169 
and  the  number  cleared  was  thirty-nine,  with  an  aggre-  j  casks;  refined  sugar,  1V97  casks:  codfish,  312  lioxt-s; 
gate  tonnage  of  12,701  tons.     Imports  from  the  United   tubs  and  buckets,  629  dozen;  bitamen,  133  barrels; 


clii 


wild  ''" 


""'entitle  tho  holdc^  0  e,  nrl  ,T  ''^''""""■'.  ami  w       Sl"'"""!'''^'  *-"«-"l.     B„   so  'T-T™'"'  ^'>'^^'e, 
Poj-a  of  (frace  aro  In       f  "'"  ""'ecoilcut  parti. ,     t        ,  '""P'"  "'"i  die  y„,rU,.     "  ""''"""'I  were  t|,c 

".<mec„„ay,.  ''■''""'"''''•>'''»''»'<■- a  half  „,a,,eeetc?,f„r  ""'  ^"'  ^S   '"     '  %;''7,|aw»  wa. 


-■""•lation 

nnt  modes  of  eomr   'i„,  .• 

Allplacoa    ;.,\, '"'"'"•'• 
«!"fl-''i]Iscom    .      ,'      ..C"'"'" '.'"""""■'of "fgotia. 

"»■'  fro-"  'he  |,ir,h  of-  '*•,'■■  ■"'"•!  ^^-^koncd  in  a  'e. 

^>n  a  bill  dra.  .,  t  "'^^'^"'"•"OMr.Seeidavs 
PVablo  at  a  place  „„V.:'.  .';:™  "^  "f  "ne'styli,  7.a 
feckoned  from  tho  •      °  "'   '^ "'"  "—  '■'    ■ 


-•''ored  a„d^'a?;;;;rsed  ^,.r  -■- 

was  sfronfjlvurr J  ,„.(!„»     ''"  '""^"g"  "f  (he  Lin 

CImncelior.     I.o,d 'li  ■ou^hal?'"'""'"'  "'"'  "-n  Lord 

»»  n-errantilo  ami  n  ora!  Z,  I'?'"""'^^  "'••'  W",  loth 

.      ,    ...  „...„.  one  style,  „„d  I  '"'.'J^t"-""  ""'"'i^edtlmt  f  """"'■     ^'"^  ^'"Vns  of 


■  v^  d  awn    „7h"*''  '°  '"'"'^'  «'«•    ogr^a    tC'  ''^''".'''  "^-"-V  had  be  *n 
-™^-'Par-lt.e„fo„nd„ece«a^Cte3etCaL^:! 


USA 


1020 


UTA 


time.  At  tlia  time  of  the  coiiimorclal  fat:  .<%<  in  th« 
yoarj  IN8U  aiiil  1H37,  It  wai  fuiiiKl  that  tlio  ){re*toit  ru- 
llef  whii'h  was  oxperiencuil  was  tlio  renult  of  a  provU 
•iiiii  which  had  been  Introtlucoil  nut  lonK  proviuualy  Intu 
tho  act  fur  the  ronewal  of  the  llanic  cliartur,  onabilnK 
lliu  Hank  of  Kligianil  to  Uispcnsu  with  tbu  uaury  lawa." 

Many  people,  iu  their  avoralun  to  any  mudlllcallun 
of  the  uaury  lawa,  are  undar  the  conviction  that  If  the 
price  of  money  la  nut  rvKuIatcii  by  law,  thuy  will  l>o 
compelled  to  pay  an  onurnious  tax(runKliiK  '''»•>  '^^  to 
7!)  per  cent,  per  annum)  un  luana  uf  money.  Thoao 
who  aerloualy  reflect  upon  tho  ninttur— who  have  any 
practical  or  faniliiar  knowledge  of  the  lawa  of  trade- 
are  unanlnioua  in  their  opiniona  that  all  ahacklea  of  the 
kind  ahould  be  permanently  removed. 

If  we  examine  tlio  uaury  laws  of  tho  dilTorent 
States,  we  wilt  llnd  In  all  elaborate  and  atringent  en- 
aclmenta  providing  punishment  and  penalties  fur  the 
exercise  of  every  one'a  Inalienable  right;  namely,  that 
of  using  their  properly  to  tho  l>est  advantage. 

Wo  give  a  aynopsia  of  the  uaury  laws  of  the  United 
Statca  as  they  are  now  in  force. 


N.  Ilanipahlro.  A 

Vermont fl 

Muaacliunotta.  0 

KIkkIi!  laland..  0 
Connecticut. . .  0 
New  York  . . . .  T 


New  Jersey  ...  9 


rennaylvania  , 

Dcifiivare 

Mnrylani] 

Victrliiia  . . 


SUtM.  f'«irftl  Int.  PcnHltltfl. 

Maine 0  per  cL  Loss  of  oxrciia  of  In  tcrost  and  law 

coats. 

Ijoatorthrcuthnt'HexceaaoftritorRHt. 

I.o^s  of  exroaa  of  interi'Mt. 

Losa  of  throii  tlme.i  ttin  wholo  tutor- 
cat  and  law  coHta. 

I,o»a  of  exccna  of  intcieat 

I.oia  of  all  Interttat. 

Korfoltnre  orconlrart  j  anil,  In  I'rim- 
iital  action^  lino  not  exoeuiUui; 
$1000,  anil  imprimniMtU  not  ex- 
ceeding tlx  monthn. 

Contract  volil,  and  principal  and  In- 
tereat  forrdtod. 

I'rinclpiil  and  Inliin^at  forrelted. 

I ..  iclpal  and  Iiiturt'Ht  fui-feltcd. 

Luaa  of  exresa  of  Interest. 

Uauriona  contracta  voi<l. 

I'rinclpul  and  inlercat  forf  itud ; 
and,  If  niiiry  la  paid,  dnnln.:  Ilio 
amount  of  principal  and  Intcreal. 

I,oaa  of  Intereat. 

Ix>.<ta  of  Intereat. 

Li>BS  uf  lnt4MX>Ht. 

Loss  of  IntercHt. 
Ivoaa  of  Intenjst. 
10  per  cent,  allowed  on  contract. and 

luas  of  Interest  If  execcdlnif  this. 
Ixj.M  of  five  tiuu'S  the  lntcro.it. 
10  per  cent,  allowed  on  contracts. 

1-orfeltura  of  oxceaa  of  Interest. 
Load  of  Intoroat. 
liOsa  of  Intereat 
10  nor  cent,  allowed  on  contractii. 

Forfeiture  of  eiccaa  of  Intereat. 
10  per  cent  allowed  on  contracts. 

Forfeiture  of  eicoa  of  intereat. 
10  per  cent  allonod  on  contracts. 

Forfeiture  of  cxceaa  of  Intereat. 
10  per  cent,  alhtwed  on  contracts. 

lorfelturo  of  exceaa  of  Intereat. 
Liable  tu  an  tndlctuient  for  inisile- 

mcunor.     Forfeiture  of  uauriona 

Intereal,  and  fined. 
12  per  cent,  allowed  on  contracta. 

lorfelturo  of  all  Interest. 
Losa  of  luterest. 
No  penalty. 


North  Uaroilna  0 

South  Carolina  T 

<<eorgla T 

Alabama vS 

Arkanima 0 

Florida « 

Illinola a 

Indiana 6 

Iowa 0 

Kentucky 6 

Louisiana 8 

Michigan 7 

Mlsalsalppi....  0 

Mlaaouri 0 

Ohio 0 

Tonncaace. ...  6 

Tixns 8 


■Wisconain 
California 


..19 
..10 


From  this  synopsis  we  aeo  that  the  usury  laws  of 
New  York  are  the  most  rigorous,  and  incliidn,  in  crim- 
inal actioiiM,  a  fine  of  $1000  and  imprisonment  of  six 
montiis ;  in  merely  civil  actions,  a  forfeiture  of  contract. 

California  is  tho  only  State  that  providu.s  no  penalty. 
The  Torriiories  aro  also  not  subject  to  any  usury  laws. 

No  argument  is  needed  to  prove  that  such  absurd 
laws  arc  clogs  on  tho  commercial  prosperity  of  tiio 
country,  and  that  in  financial  revulsions  like  the  pres- 
ent they  ctrcctually  prevent  the  exercise  of  any  com- 
mercial elasticity.  A  parallel  could  bo  found  liy  sup- 
posing restrictive  laws  against  selling  flour  above  $5 
per  barrel ;  we  would  then  run  as  good  a  chance  of 
starving  as  our  merchants  do  of  commercially  ttarving 
for  want  of  money  whci>  ■  'u'ro  is  an  abundance  around 
them,  but  when  the  lega       erost  does  not  pay  capital- 


ists for  the  rUk.— i.9r«  arlicln  Dankh,  Commbrcb,  Ik- 
TKKHsr,  etc.  For  Uaury  Lawa,  Discuasiona  un,  etc., 
ace  l',itinlmri)h  Rtvirw,  xxvil.  WJ  (^Uefenao  of  > :  Anuri- 
can  Qiiarltrly  Ueeitw,  xjiW.  177,  xxi.  Itftj  A'o/  /  /li/i'i'. 
mm  Hrvieu),  xxxix.  HW  (A.  II.  EvittiKTr);  Wuctoiw./V 
Afiii/ii:ine,  xxiv.  OH;  llnnktri'  Mmjaiine,  New  York, 
iv.  6HI  (^'  )IIN  VViiii'iM.K),  «8;i  (J.  It.  M'Ci  i.i.ocii), 
v,  781,  Hlli,  vlil.  Hli,  ix.  m-iM  OI'VliKAU),  «Uj 
IIvNT't  .1/  n-liniit't  MaijtaiM,  ill.  61ll,  v.  40,  llu| 
Ihm.  Htv.,  wvii.  '221-:i^H;  Uuar.  Hev.,  xxxiil.  IHii. 

Utah,  a  territory  uf  the  United  States,  moatly  cuni> 
priaod  In  lliu  Ureat  California  llaain,  and  extending 
from  the  creat  of  the  Kocky  Muuntaina  on  tho  eaat  to 
tlie  Sierra  Nevada  on  tlio  weal.  It  has  Oregon  on  the 
north,  California  on  tho  west,  and  New  Mexico  on  the 
south.  Area,  2(W,776  square  nillea.  In  186U  It  wai 
divided  into  seven  counties,  and  the  number  of  dwell- 
ings and  populaliun  wero  us  fullowa :  Dwellings,  'i'Mi ; 
wlilte  inliabilants,  U,33l) ;  free  culurud,  24.  The  euuii- 
lies  erected  since  1H50  are  Deaerut,  Green  Uivur,  Mil- 
lard, Jual>,  and  Wuahington. 

Tho  eastern  portiun  of  Utah  is  drained  by  the  Colo- 
rado Itiver  of  the  (iulf  of  Culiforiiia.  Its  valley  hai 
been  but  imperfectly  explored,  but,  as  far  as  our  knowl- 
edge exists  uf  it,  a  very  small  purliuii  uf  it  only  can  be 
brought  into  cuitivatiun.  The  remaining  purliuii  uf 
Utah  is  comprised  in  the  Oreat  Basin,  and  forma  a  dis- 
tinct and  most  peculiar  region.  Tlie  rivers  nil  termin- 
ate within  its  limits,  in  lakes  with  nn  visible  outlets. 
Tho  Ureat  .Salt  Lake  is  about  il&  miles  broad  and  70 
lung,  anil  i  ho  waters  contain  mure  salt  than  can  be  held 
in  suiutlou ;  hence  its  borders  abound  witli  crystallized 
salt,  and  tliu  bottom  of  tlie  lake  is  incrusted  with  it. 
No  living  creature  can  exist  in  its  waters.  Tlie  valleys 
aro  susceptible  of  cultivation,  and  aro  very  fertile, 
wliero  they  can  bo  irrigated.  Timber,  although  scarce, 
is  very  durable.  Iron  ore  exists  in  the  mountain 
ridges,  and  several  furnaces  are  already  in  operation 
smelting  it.  The  temperature  is  more  uniform  in  the 
(ircat  Salt  Lake  valley  than  on  tliu  Alliintic  coast;  it 
rarely  fails  below  zero.  There  is  but  little  rain,  ex- 
cept on  tho  mountains,  from  .March  to  October. 

There  wero  in  this, territory,  in  1850,  10,3!I3  acres 
of  land  improved,  and  ilO,,';li>  uf  unimproved  in  farms; 
cash  vaiuo  of  farms  1^311,709,  and  the  value  of  Imple- 
ments and  machinery  $81,288.  Live  stock — horses,' 
2429;  asses  and  mules,  32j;  milch  cows,  48G1 ;  work- 
ing oxen,  A2CU ;  other  cattle,  2489 ;  sheep,  32C2 ;  swine, 
914;  value  of  live  stock,  l).)l(!,9(;8. 

Agricultural  Vroducts,  etc. — Wheat,  107,702  bushels 
produced;  rye,  210;  Indian  corn,  9899;  oats,  10,900; 
bnrley,  1799;  buckwheat,  832;  peas  and  beans,  2:<9; 
putatnes,  43,968 ;  sweet  do.  IX)  bushels.  Value  of  prod- 
uce of  market  gardens,  $23,868;  pounds  uf  butter 
made,  83,309 :  of  cheese,  30,998 ;  molasses,  58  gallons ; 
beeswax  and  honey,  10  lbs. ;  wool,  liis.  produced,  9222 ; 
flax,  560;  hops,  50;  tobacco,  70;  tons  of  hay,  4805; 
clover  seeds,  2  bushels ;  flax-seed,  5 ;  value  of  home- 
made manufactures,  (1392;  of  slaughtered  animals, 
4ifi7,985. 

Tho  capital  is  Fillmore  City,  but  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  City  is  where  tlie  legislature  meets,  and  it  is  also 
tlie  residence  of  tho  governor.  The  other  towns  are 
Palmyra,  Springvillo,  Prove,  Cedar,  Parowan,  Manti, 
Ijchi,  Hrownsviiic,  etc. 

Utah  was  a  part  of  Alia  California,  which  was  cod- 
ed to  tho  United  States  at  fho  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo  February,  18(8.  Previous  to  tiio  Jlexican 
war  this  territory  was  only  known  and  occupied  by 
trappers  and  Indians.  About  tiio  time  of  the  opening 
of  the  war,  tlio  Mormons  were  driven  from  Nauvoo, 
Illiouis,  and,  after  making  a  temporary  sojourn  at 
Council  lilufTs,  Iowa,  they  settled  in  Utah.  They 
organized  a  government  under  tito  title  of  the  State  of 
Desoret,  but  the  United  States  established  a  territorial 
government  in  1850,  by  which  the  territory  is  nominally 
under  subjection. 


cioii 


VAL 


mi 


VAL 


me.     The,  'P»'"'""'ihuAi,.^»77™n.    v„ 

Wchujm,,,,  ""f'MKht    ".h     1"''    •''"' 

»!«  iniiir...  1.  •tl.l,„n,.,r""^''»i'l»r.    An, 


Mdtriibl 
v«ne.     '...„ 
of  (li«  aoor/i 

'">»!<  injuros  it, 
ft"  Vroiixdi  an.) 
""I's,  anil  I, 
«nlul,.,  if  i,  ^    .,f^ 
""'P  can  iiiih    t,!,. 

""'""'"'s'oofvalu 
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VAL 


1922 


ported  Avrn  Chili  to  tho  UnitmJ  States,  from  18&0  to 

1856,  botli  inclusive: 

Vun.  TilM. 

186U $1,008,044 

1861 ; 1,867,101 

1S62 l,W4,48r 

18S8 1,M7,811 

1884 1,S«7,20« 

18BB 1,883,484 

In  1862  the  imports  into  Chili  reached  in  value 
(16,847,832;  and  the  exports  from  Chili  amounted  to 
(14,087,666.  Compared  witVi  the  preceding  year,  im- 
ports ibil  off  #537,640,  while  the  exports  of  1862  show 
an  increase  over  those  of  1K61  of  (1,941,227.  This 
perceptible  advance  in  the  export  trade  of  Chili  in 
1862  is  attribnted  to  the  increased  activity  In  working 
the  copper  mines  of  Coquimbo  and  the  silver  mines  of 
Copiapo,  as  also  to  several  heavy  shipments  of  flour 
and  other  products  to  California. 

Tbe  following  tabular  statement  exhibits  the  num- 
ber of  foreign  vessels  and  their  tonnage,  and  the  num- 
ber of  national  vessels,  that  entered  Chilian  ports  from 
1844  to  1851,  both  inclusive  : 


Y«n. 

Poralgn  VmmU. 

Tonnsg*. 

Chilian  VeiHli. 

1844 

1487 
146S 
1628 
1484 
1897 
1777 
2809 
2861 

a74,«li8 

889,889 
388,867 
860,097 
343,480 
698,289 
740,426 
686,188 

14i9 
14S6 
1689 
1631 
1523 
1841 
1784 
890 

1845 

1840 

1847 

1848 

1849 

18B0 

1861 

The  number  of  vessels  that  cleared  in  1860  was  249V, 
making  an  aggregate  of  (entered  and  cleared)  6096 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  1,442,425  tons. 
The  number  cleared  in  1851  was  2206,  which,  with  the 
2061  given  in  the  table,  makes  a  total  of  4656  vessels, 
measuring  in  all  1,288,978  tons.  This  shows  a  falling 
oflT  in  1851  of  640  vessels,  and  208,4't7  tons.  It  will  be 
perceived  that  the  number  of  national  vessels  that  en- 
tered Chilian  ports  rn  1851  is  put  down  in  the  table  at 
899.  It  must  not,  however,  be  inferred  fW>m  this  that 
the  merchant  marine  of  Chili  actually  counts  that 
number  of  vessels.  The  figures  merely  indicate  the 
number  of  times  the  national  merchant  flag  entered 
Chilian  ports  during  the  year.  Still,  within  the  past 
few  years  the  merchant  marine  of  Chili  has  largely 
increased.  Starting  from  1848,  this  increase  is  found 
to  be— of  vrMels,  100  per  cent.,  and  of  tonnage  over 
900  per  cent  This  is  shown  by  the  following  state- 
ment: 

v.._  .  No.  of       4(ii»(«to 

1848 106  12,828 

1848 119  20,031 

V     1860 188  97,601 

1881 183  84,617 

1868 318  41,809 

An  official  dispatch  to  the  British  government  from 
Chili,  under  date  of  September  l.S,  1866,  states  that  the 
returns  of  Chilian  trade  for  1863  and  1864.shows  a  great 
increase  in  both  branches  of  import  and  export;  but 
that  the  markets  were  considerably  affected  by  the 
high  price  of  provisions,  which  commenced  in  1854,  and 
continued  -up  to  the  date  of  the  dispatch ;  owing  main- 
ly to  the  large  exportation  of  wheat  to  Australia,  where 
it  broughtju  high  as  $80  per  quarter  of  eight  bushels. 
Wool  may  be  said  to  be,  after  copper,  the  chief  article 
of  import  into  the  United  States  from  Chill.  The  fol- 
lowing tabular  statement  exhibits  the  quantities  and 
valuds  of  wool  imported  into  the  United  States  from 
Chili,  during  the  five  years  ending  with  June  80, 1856, 
together  with  the  aggregate  quantities  and  values  of 
the  same  imported  from  all  other  countries  for  the 
same  period — as  given  by  United  States  authorities : 


Ytui. 

Fn>lli«llCo«nlHin. 

ValoM. 

Pron  ChMli 

ValuM.' 

Pouaili. 

Pwinda. 

1S51 

83,548,491 

$8,833,157 

2.100,8411 

$128,650 

1863 

ia,B4l.2»8 

l,9i)fl,711 

1,803.189 

169,616 

1Q8S 

21,006,079 

2,669,718 

8,664,300 

268,196 

1884 

20,200,110 

3,R82,18B 

1,887,447 

161,066 

18E8 

18.834,418 

2,072.189 

2,848,902 

817,864 

In  1848  a  decree  was  passed  by  the  Chilian  govern- 
ment providing  for  the  establishment  of  a  statistical 
board.  Since  that  period  full  commercial  returns  have 
been  regularly  published,  under  the  title  of  Ettadittica 
Comercial  da  la  Jtepubiica  dt  Chile.  From  these  publi- 
cations the  fallowing  tables,  exhibiting  the  general  for- 
eign commercial  movements  of  Chili,  iVam  1844  to  1861, 
have  been  compiled : 

TaBULAB  OOMPAlATIva  STATaMOHT  XXmsiTIIla  TBI  >oa- 
IION  IMPOBT  AHS  EXPOBT  TxADI  OP  C'HILI,  THE  PBIM- 
OIPAL  O'OUHTBiaS  PABTIOIPATIMQ  TnBBIIH,  AKD  TUB 
SUABE  ASSIONBD  TO  BAOII,  IN  1S61,  AMD  ALSO  TUB  TOTAl. 
TBADB  FOB  A  PEBIOD  OP  XIQUT  TBABS. 

CmiBtrlM.                            ImMrta.  Eipotti. 

France  *nd  colonies $l,7d6,929  $661,118 

Belgium 198,373  2.496 

Holland 402,089  68,739 

OennsnT 1,089,868  469,1D6 

England  and  eolonle 4,819,864  4,648,290 

Denmark 1,390 

Sweden  and  Norway 8,081  2,194 

Spain  and  colonies 146,510  74,853 

Portugal 18,168 

Saidlnla 74,410  21,809 

China 329,348  42,847 

United  States A«94,2I1  8,618,238 

Mexieo \     23,837  7,632 

Central  America 43,241  108.613 

Ecuador 130,783  43,774 

BnzU 624,817  618,898     . 

Peru 1,616,644  1,179,547 

Bolivia 436,988  309.902 

Urugusr 10,383  61,318 

Argentine  Conrederallon...         170,636  46,624 

Polynesia 68,910  59.383 

NevGrsnoda 325.483 

Other  oonntrtes 7.80i 

Total  year  1861 $15,884,97^  $12,146,119 1 

"       "     1860 11,788,198  12,420,269 

"       "     1840 10,722,840  10,603,447 

"      "     1848 8,001,367  8,853,596 

'■   "  1847 10.068,849  8,442.098 

"   "  1846 10,149,136  8,115,1!8S 

"       "     1846.; 9.104,764  7,601,163 

•'       "     19*4... 8,696,674  6,087,023 

TABVLAB  COHPABATrri  Statxhbht  xxhiditimo  p/.ktioo- 

LAB  OlSCBIPTIOMS  OP  TUB  PRIHOIFAL  ABTICLKS  OP  il  KB- 
OUAHDISB,  AND  TOB  BBSPXOTIVE  VaLDCB  THKBEOP,  Ili- 
POBTBD  INTO  TBB  FOBTB  OP  CUILI  PBOH  1849  TO  1861, 
BOTH  INOLDSIVJS. 


Ale  and  porter -,  .^ 

Books,  printed 

Calicoes 

Coulmeres .' 

Chairs 

Cloth 

Clothing 

Coal 

Cotton  checks 

'•     drlllingi 

"      handkercbieiii 

"      colored 

••      shawls 

"      and  wool  shawls 

"     silk  and  wool 

"     stockings 

"     tickings 

•'     thread 

"     unbleached 

"     white 

"     and  woo'    

Crape  shawls 

Drugs  and  medicines 

Earwen-ware 

Household  fUmiture 

Iron,  assorted 

Jewelry 

Lostlngs 

Uanots,  assorted 

Machinery 

Paints  

Ribbon 

Rico 

Saddles 

Shoes  and  boots 

Silk  shawl!  and  handkenblefs 

Soap 

Sugar,  refined 

"      crushed  

Tea 

Tobacco 

Woolen  goods 

*■       shawls 


I84S. 


$10,61)7 
33,834 

666JS12 

328,469 
86,846 

170,661 
43.629 

346,800 
14.628 
26,448 

103,950 
66,287 
76,289 
71,627 
49,966 
66,678 
27,186 
69,611 

681,201 
1,039,888 

166.849 

102,849 
86,681 
71,293 
22,870 
77,836 
88,608 
36,115 
13,978 
14,1169 
17,466 
89,094 
70,840 
17.!iT8 
86.867 

169,948 
73,227 
96,428 

326,490 
31,873 

861,760 

92,949 

87,421 


lato.   I    lijiT 


$10,033 

36,330 

486,627 

288.714 

82.656 

171,217 

18.406 

263,246 

16,166 

43,276 

92,689 

56,666 

82,833 

101,931 

43,204 

52,423 

31,450 

67,026 

476,604 

748,051 

160,534 

120,281 

29,061 

77,865 

46,689 

180,737 

31,76S 

12.815 

10,409 

4,000 

19,906 

45,606 

Ba.69!i 

16,8811 

21,268 
822,517 

69,224 
400,969 
836,684 

91,913 
G87,340 

6.>,714 
118,073 


$18,068 
86,490 

616.148 

286,674 
3<.l.878 

164,572 
19,477 

236,473 
17,506 
28,698 
66,642 
9.077 
66.267 

118,737 
42,387 
66,890 
38,498 
47,688 

6I5,8'.'6 

800,S72 

169.4'8 
98,'.'73 
29,084 
S4,0a9 
62,(121 
8,^.802 

100,983 
lf),(:66 
16.4,')4 
89,150 
13,547 
53.81!t) 
OS.'.'IS 
19.15'.' 
43.778 

162.507 
66,427 

603,129 

800,141 
49,676 

669,065 
77,018 

143,801 


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BiKult 

liMU....  

jpoutosi..;; 

Nun....  

Dried  ft.„,(;;  •■•..... 
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Hldsr  ' 


etc., 


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8)0,01 


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""■ » loreign  port     Th.      ' """  '"a^  Chi  «   ""«,"""       Vdiw    V??'-«e«  Ckiu  "  '""«  one  yea 


Wlifications  h«Wn»  1  ^   "'  ''■^•'y  of  MaiTia  ^"""J   fiHSffft/*-  ,*  .       '>'''<'e>  Of  he  »»T  '   ^•'^  *onId  each 
«.deAp„-,2jY^«^ ''««"  exchanged  -n^lfi  "»h  ^^l  S^^^  ff  ''"'  ..»e 

«odMed  and  el  Iar«d  "  ''"''  ^'""'n  XSmlTrT"  »"«'*  "iHil  f 'f'    B^""  of  Wow"'"''  "^""^ 

flfH-Sflfih^i...  ."""'J   tut.  8UDnn«!-„ 


VAN 


1924 


VAN 


Piicas  hkve  been  often  affected  by  vartationa  in  the 
cost  and  supply  of  gold  and  silver,  whether  arising  from 
the  exhaustion  of  old,  or  the  discovery  of  new  mines, 
improvements  in  the  art  of  mining,  changes  of  fashion, 
etc.  Hence  it  is  that  tables  of  the  prices  of  commodi- 
ties, extending  for  a  considerable  period,  communicate 
far  less  solid  information  than  is  generally  sopposod, 
and,  nnloss  the  necessary  allowances  be  made,  may  lead 
to  the  most  unfounded  conclusions.  The  real  value 
of  any  commodity  depends  on  the  quantity  of  labor  re- 
quired for  its  production ;  but  supposing  that  we  were 
to  set  about  inferring  this  real  value,  or  the  ultimate 
sacrifice  required  to  obtain  the  commodity,  from  its 
price,  it  might  happen  (had  the  quantity  of  labor  re- 
quired for  its  production  declined,  but  in  a  less  degree 
than  the  quantity  fcquired  to  produce  gold  and  silver), 
when  its  value  would  appear  to  rise  when  it  had  real- 
ly diminished.  When,  however,  the  rate  of  wages,  as 
well  as  the  price  of  commodities,  is  given  upon  authen- 
tic data,  a  table  of  prices  is  valuable,  inasmuch  as  it 
shows  the  extent  of  the  command  over  the  necessaries 
and  conveniences  of  life  ei\joyed  by  the  bullc  of  the 
community  during  the  period  through  which  it  ex- 
tends. Those  desirous  of  detailed  information  as  to 
the  prices  of  commodities  in  Great  Britain  in  distant 
times,  may  consult  the  elaborate  tables  in  the  third 
volume  of  Sir  F.  M.  Eden's  woric  On  the  Poor,  and 
the  fourth  volume  of  MAcPiiRRsoil's  AnnaU  of  Com- 
merce. Aruiitiinot's  Tahiti  of  Ancient  Coint,  Weight*, 
Measures,  Pricei,  etc.,  are  well  known,  but  the  state- 
ments are  not  much  to  be  depended  upon.  The  Traite 
de  Sfetrologii  of  M.  Paoctos  (4to,  Parjs,  1780)  is  the 
best  woric  on  this  cui.ous  and  difficult  subject  See 
also  Tooke's  Hietory  of  Pricv,  vols,  i.-vi.,  which  is 
the  most  complete  history  of  prices  extant. — See  arii- 
del  Commerce,  Golo,  Monet,  Piuces,  etc. 

VanoonvAr  (or,  more  properly,  Quadra  an(t 
Vancouver)  Island,  British  North  Amerira,  be- 
tween lat.  48°  20'  and  61°  N.,  and  long.  128*  and  128° 
W.,  separated  from  the  main  land  by  Queen  Charlotte 
Sound  and  the  Qalf  of  Georgia.  Length,  northwest 
to  sontheait,  800  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  75  miles. 
Estimated  area,  16,000  square  miles ;  and  population, 
11,468.  Surface  mountainous,  and  richly  wooded.  On 
its  west  coast  are  Nootka  Sound,  and  many  other  har- 
bors. This  land  was  named  in  honor  of  George  y>-.n- 
couver.  This  British  navigator  was  bom  about  1760. 
He  served  as  midshipman  under  Captain  Cook,  in  his 
second  and  third  voyages.  In  1790  he  was  appointed 
to  command  the  expedition  to  «x;;^'are  the  western 
coast  of  North  America,  to  ascurvoin  whether  any 
navigable  communication  existed  bet'.veen  the  Atlan- 
tic and  PaclAc  oceans.  Of  this  voyage,  which  occu- 
pied from  1790  to  1795,  he  compiled  an  account,  but 
died  before  its  entire  completion,  May  10,  1798.  The 
island  is  intersected  by  high  mountain  ranges,  but  it 
has,  notwithstanding,  a  considerable  extent  of  level 
and  undulating  land  susceptible  of  cultivation.  Soils 
very  various,  being  principally,  however,  of  a  friable 
description.  The  best  is  a  black  vegetabla-mould, 
producing  a  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  Climate  pe- 
caliarly  mild ;  but  in  winter  the  rains,  accompanied 
with  violent  thunder-storms,  are  heavy,  and  almost  in- 
cessant. The  bays,  rivers,  and  a(\jacent  seas,  swarm 
with  a  variety  of  flsh,  includlug  salmon,  sturgeon,  her- 
rings, etc.,  with  seals,  sea-otters,  tortoises,  etc.,  and 
the}*  are  also  resorted  to  by  whales.  The  liarbors  of 
the  island  are  consequently  well  situated  for  carrj'ing 
•0  an  extensive  and  protltablo  fishery,  and  well  fitted 
for  ship-building.  The  mineral  riches  of  the  island 
have  been  very  imperfectly  explored.  Bods  of  ooal 
are  to  be  met  with  in  Its  northeast  parts.  In  various 
localities  the  beds  have  been  found  cropping  out  at  the 
sntfaoe,  and  large  supplies  have  been  obtained  with 
but  UtUc  difficulty  and  little  expense.  The  native  in- 
habitanta  subsist  principally  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
especially  the  Utter,  and  by  cultivating  the  potato. 


They  are  remarkable  for  indolence  and  fllth;  their 
heads  are  flattened  when  young  by  artificial  means ; 
and  ineir  legs  are  ill  formed,  those  of  the  women  being 
(Vequently  swollen.  A  settlement  established  by  the 
English  at  Nootka  Sound  in  1788  was  suppressed  in 
the  following  year  by  the  Spaniards,  an  outrage  which 
nearly  occasioned  a  war  with  Spain.  Since  then  it 
has  l>een  almost  wholly  neglected,  till  within  these 
few  years  that  some  establishments  have  been  formed 
npon  it  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Latterly  it 
has  been  proposed  to  make  it  the  site  of  a  colony  that 
should  prosecute  the  seal  and  whale  fishery,  for  which, 
as  already  stated,  it  is  supposed  to  be  peculiarly  well 
situated ,  and,  with  a  view  to  the  realizing  of  this 
prqject,  it  has  been  made  over  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  on  condition  of  their  establishing  a  colony 
within  Its  limits  in  the  course  of  the  five  years  follow- 
ing 1848.  Coal  is  procured  at  the  settlement  of  Na- 
nalmo,  where  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  made 
a  large  purchase  of  land  and  commenced  an  extensive 
coal  work.  Two  valuable  beds  of  coal,  varying  from 
live  to  seven  feet  in  thickness,  are  found  within  100 
feet  of  the  surface ;  the  coal  Is  bituminous,  and  is  great- 
ly prized  for  domestic  consumption  and  for  steaming 
purposes.  The  produce  of  tiiese  works  may  be  In- 
creased, by  increasing  the  number  of  hands,  to  any 
desirable  extent.  Another  source  of  wealth  and  en- 
terprise may  be  found  in  the  magnificent  ship  spars 
produced  on  Vancouver's  Island,  which,  in  point  of 
size  and  comparative  strength,  are  probably  the  most 
valuable  in  the  world,  and  may  be  procured  in  any 
numlier,  oven  wero  the  demand  to  include  the  supply 
of  spars  for  the  whole  British  navy.  The  oil  exported 
from  this  colony  is  procured  from  the  native  tribes  in- 
habiting the  west  coast  of  Vancouver's  Island,  and  is 
manufactured  by  them  from  the  whale  and  dog-fisli ; 
it  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  has  a  high  character  in 
California,  where  it  brings  from  two  to  three  dollars  a 
gallon,  in  consequence  otits  retaining  its  fluidity  and 
burning  freely  in  the  coldest  weather.  It  is  estimated 
qi'antity  equal  to  10,000  gallons  was  purchased 
ue  natives  of  the  west  coast  last  year ;  and,  con- 
.  ig  tho  imperfect  means  they  possess  for  taking 
cue  nsh  and  trying  Qut  tho  oil,  it  is  not  unreasonable 
to  propose  that  with  the  use  of  proper  means  the  re- 
turns of  oil  would  be  greatly  increased.  The  oil  trade 
is  carried  on  by  a  few  enterprising  individuals  who 
live  among  the  Indians,  and  collect  the  article  as  it  is 
manufactured  by  the  natives.  The  number  of  ships 
with  cargoes  which  between  July  6,  1854,  and  July  5, 
1855,  entered  inward  was  25 ;  tonnage,  4054.  In  bal- 
last, S ;  tonnage,  260.  Cleared  outward  with  cargoes, 
16 ;  tonnage,  2350.  In  ballast,  9 ;  tonnage,  135a  Port 
Victoria  has  five  ves.sels  belonging  to  it,  and  Vancou- 
ver's Island  is  a  rising  and  nourishing  little  colony,  all 
the  more  to  be  cherished  as  its  people  seem  to  be  on 
good  terms  with  the  natives  and  encourage  them  in 
industrial  pursuits. 

Van  Diemen'a  Land,  or  Taamanla,  a  large 
island  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  forming  part  of 
Australia,  lying  between  lat.  41°  20'  and  43°  30'  S., 
and  long.  144°  40'  and  148°  20'  W.  It  is  supposed  to 
contain  about  27,000  square  miles.  This  land  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Dutch  navigator  Tasman  in  1642,  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Anthony  Van  Dicmen,  at  that 
time  governor-general  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies ;  but  it  is  now  frequently  called  Tasmania, 
from  its  discoverer.  Previously  to  1798,  it  was  sup- 
posed to  form  part  of  New  Holland,  but  it  was  then 
ascertained  to  l)e  an  island.  It  was  taken  possession 
of  by  tho  British  in  1803 ;  and  in  1801  Hobart  Town, 
the  capital,  was  founded.  The  surface  is  generally 
hilly  and  mountainous ;  but  though  none  of  tho  land 
be  of  tho  first  quality,  there  are  several  moderately 
fertile  plains,  and  a  good  deal  of  the  hilly  ground  U 
susceptible  of  iieing  oultirated.  On  tho  whole,  how- 
ever, it  Is  not  supposed  that  more  than  about  a  tb^rd 


1S4I.. 

1M9.. 

1843.. 
3844.. 
IMS.. 
1846, . 
1847... 
1848. 


<«,05T 
81,490 
68,002 


»SS,36« 
881,081 
8ST,4e3 
T05,2«o 
«2,98S 
820,662 
661,233 
724,608 
_ro4,164- 


Jorti. 

876^166 

S67,007 

680,601 

632,609 

430,880 

403,790 

422,218 

"82,686 

dm- 


—,081 

84,214 

82,038 

»2,601 

88,462, 

78,294 

86,940 
01- 


77,«w 

86,701 

88,201 

82,866 

8S,0S4 

73,766 

71,422 

70480 


180,768 
126,210 
181,78d 
121,728 


sSd'ZT''.""'"  SpS''  VLX"""".""™""'"^  |4.""j7;;,TTi.T  "P^""'  oni»  «ddi.?/  """"Often 

s~>  «~  *..M  h  ..J  (.;  ~  S«  **.,  „  ^ 

* "v  not  exceed. 


fi 


VEL 


1926 


■  YEN 


lag  830),  and  iti  solvent  power  over  some  of  the  more 
intractable  realm  Is  sometimes  improved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  camphor.  In  order  to  prevent  the  agglu- 
tination of  the  resin,  it  is  often  requisite  to  mix  it  with 
sand  or  pounded  glass,  by  which  the  surface  is  much 
increased,  and  the  solvent  energy  of  the  spirit  faclli- 
'tated.  The  proportions  in  which  the  several  ingredi- 
ents are  used,  and  tba  selections  for  particular  pur- 
poses, are  influitely  various.  The  following  are  a  few 
good  varnishes,  in  illustration  of  tlieir  varieties:  1. 
Spirit  Vamitk. — Sandarach  4  oz.,  seed  lac  2  ox.,  elemi 
1  oz. ;  digest  the  whole  in  a  quart  of  moderately  Warm 
alcohol,  and  when  dissolved  add  Venice  turpentine  2 
oz.  2.  hoc  VamxA. — Seed  lac  8  oz. ;  digest  for  four 
days  in  a  warm  place  with  a  quart  of  alcohol,  and  then 

strain  through  Aannel.   8.  Turpcntint  Vamitk Mastic 

12  oz.,  mixed  with  6  oz.  of  pounded  glass,  and  digested 
in  a  quart  of  oil  of  turpentine,  adding  at  intervals 
about  half  an  ounce  of  camphor  in  small  pieces.  When 
the  mastic  is  dissolved,  add  to  the  warm  fluid  an  ounce 
and  a  half  of  previously  liqueAed  Venice  turpentine, 
and  stir  the  whole  together.  4.  Copal  Vamith. — Copal 
which  has  been  previously  molted  by  gentle  heatSoz., 
oil  of  turpentine  20  oz.  (measure):  put  the  oil  into  a 
flaslc  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  add  tho  powdered 
copal  in  small  portions  al  a  time,  so  that  it  may  Ih) 
gradually  dissolved;  let  it  stand  a  few  days  to  clear, 
and  then  pour  it  off,  and  if  too  thick  for  use,  add  tn  it 
a  little  warm  oil  of  turpentine.  This  varnish  dries 
slowly,  but  is  very  durable.— .See  arUcU  P.\iiiTS.  . 

Vellom,  a  species  of  line  parchment.— <S«e  Parch- 
ment. 

Velvet,  a  rich  kind  of  stutrall  silk,  covered  on  the 
outside  with  a  close,  short,  fine,  soft  shag,  tho  other  side 
being  a  very  strong,  close  tissue.  Tho  nap  or  shag,  call- 
ed also  the  velveting  of  this  stuff,  is  formed  of  part  of  the 
threads  of  the  warp,  whicli  tlio  workman  puts  on  a  long 
"^narrow-channeled  ruler  or  needle,  which  ho  afterward 
cuts  by  drawing  a  sharp  steel  tool  along  the  channel 
of  the  needle  to  the  ends  of  the  warp.  Florence,  Genoa, 
and  some  other  cities  of  Italy,  are  most  noted  for  the 
ma.inflsctare  of  velvet.  There  are  cotton  velvets  manu- 
factured in  imitation  of  the  silk  ones  in  England. 

Venemela,  a  republic  of  South  America ;  its  terri- 
tory Jies  chiefly  between  lat.  2°  and  12°  N.,  and  long. 
60°  an!»  78°  W.,  having  on  the  east  British  Guiana,  on 
the  south  Brazil,  on  the  west  New  Granada,  and  on 
the  north  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  chief  wealth  of 
Venezuela  consists  in  its  rich  and  extensive  pastures, 
its  mines  of  the  precious  metals,  and  of  lead,  iron,  cop- 
per, etc.,  and  its  valuable  forest  timber.  The  agricul- 
tural and  other  products  of  the  country  which  enter 
into  its  foreign  commerce  as  articles  of  export  are 
coffee,  cocoa,  cured  hides,  indigo,  fustic,  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, cattle,  mules  and  horses,  and  specie.  These  form 
the  basis  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Venezuela,  and 
are  exchanged  for  tissues  of  cotton,  thread,  silk,  and 
wool ;  flour,  provisions,  hardware,  soap,  furniture,  glass- 
ware, brandies,  wines,  etc.  Conformably  to  the  law 
of  May  6, 1849,  the  ports  open  to  foreign  commerce  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  namely :  ports  open  for  im- 
portation and  exportation ;  ports' open  for  importation 
for  local  consumption  only,  and  for  exportation ;  ports 
open  for  exportation  only.  This  organization  was 
simpliBcd  by  a  decree  of  April  16, 1854,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  translation : 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  in  the  province  of  Guiana ;  La  Guay- 
ra,  in  that  of  Caraccas;  Puerto  Cabello,  in  that  of 
Carabobo;  La  Vela,  in  that  of  Coro;  Maracaibo  and 
Barcelona,  in  the  two  provinces  bearing  those  names, 
are  declared  ports  open  to  commerce,  both  for  importa- 
tion and  exportation,  without  any  restriction.  Cuma- 
na,  Carapano,  Cariaquito,  and  Barrancas,  in  tho  prov- 
ino*  «f  Cumana;  Pampatar  and  Juan  Oriogo,  in  the 
prorince  of  Margoerita ;  Soledad,  in  tho  province  of 
Barcelona;  and  Cumarebo,  In  that  of  Coro,  are  de- 
clared-ports open  to  commerce  for  importation  for  local 


consumption  only,  and  for  exportation.  The  custom- 
houses of  the  ports  open  for  importation  for  local  con- 
sumption only  can  not  clear,  under  a  eortlHcate,  for- 
eign produce  for  other  ports,  open  or  not  to  commerce, 
except  the  custom-houses  of  Cumana,  Carnpano,  and 
Cariaquito,  which  are  allowed  to  deliver  cockots  (cer- 
tificates of  cargo),  the  two  former  for  the  ports  of  Cari- 
aco  and  Rio  Caribe,  tho  others  for  thn  ports  of  Irapa 
and  Yaguarapara. 

In  the  year  1803  the  exports  of  Venezuela  were  es- 
timated at  a  value  of  nearly  (7,000,000 ;  of  this  amount 
La  Ouayra  exported  $2,500,000,  Cumana  and  Barce- 
lona $1,500,000,  Maracaibo  and  Angortura  $1,000,000, 
Carupano  and  the  smaller  ports  tho  remainder.  These 
amounts  are  In  Venezuelan  currency  —  in  which  ail 
values,  derived  fh>m  Venezuelan  ofHcial  sources,  are 
generally  slated.  The  dollar  of  the  United  States  is 
equivalent  in  value  to  $1  SI)  in  the  present  currency 
of  Venezuela.  The  dollar  of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  Cen- 
tral America,  and  of  Cuba,  is  (hat  of  the  United  States. 

Internal  Commerce.— 'tho  Blver  Orinoco  is  now  navi- 
gated as  high  up  as  Nutrias,  in  tho  province  of  Vari- 
nas ;  and  the  productions  of  the  fertile  countries  water- 
ed by  this  magnificent  river  are  thus  added  to  the  com- 
mercial wealth  of  the  republic.  A  recent  communica- 
tion from  Puerto  Cabello  afibrds  the  fulloiving  facts  : 
"  Several  mercantile  firms  of  Puerto  Cabello  have  ap- 
plied for  and  obtained  from  the  Congress  of  Venezuela 
u  charter  for  a  railroad  to  run  neariy  west  from  that 
city— (4  miles— to  San  Felipe,  in  the  province  of  Bar- 
quisimeto.  The  estimated  cost  is  $1,400,000  (United 
States  currency),  exclusive  of  land,  which,  for  the  most 
part,  will  be  afforded  firee  of  expense.  Tho  govern- 
ment gives  all  the  public  land  and  timber  which  may 
be  required,  either  for  tho  road  or  buildings,  and  ad- 
mits the  tools,  Iron,  etc.,  free  of  duty  ;  subscribes  for 
$186,916  of  the  stock  ($250,000  in  Venezuelan  cur- 
rency). Tho  provinces  of  Barquisimeto  and  Corabobo 
togetiier  take  $67,290  of  the  stock.  Of  the  grades,  70 
per  cent,  will  be  below  80  feet  to  tho  mile,  and  only  6 
per  cent,  above  60  feet.  There  will  be  15  bridges,  es- 
timated to  cost  $104,590.  Tho  charter  is  to  continue 
40  years  as  an  exclusive  privilege,  and  40  years  more 
the*  right  of  property  In  the  road  is  guaranteed  to  the 
company;  after  which  it  reverts  to  the  government. 
The  road  must  be  commenced  within  two  years  from 
1st  July,  1855,  and  be  completed  within  four  years  from 
tho  date  of  its  commencement.  John  Dougherty,  of 
New  York,  chief  engineer  of  the  road,  estimates  the 
annual  net  income  at  $242,222.  San  Felipe  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Yariciu  River,  and  Is  a  commanding  point 
for  tho  collection  of  the  products  of  the  interior.  Puer- 
to Cabello  is  the  best  harbor  In  Venezuela." 

Tho  provinces  of  Varinas,  Apurc,  and  the  two  Guy- 
anas,  are  now  brought  into  direct  communication  with 
the  sea;  and  by  the  establishment,  in  1845,  of  a  line 
of  steamers  under  the  auspices  of  a  company  from  the 
United  States,  specially  chartered  by  the  Venezuelan 
government,  and  by  means  of  the  240  sailing  vessels, 
with  a  capacity  of  36,000  tons,  which  annually  ascend 
as  high  as  Angostura  (Ciudad  Bolivar),  some  250  miles 
from  tho  sea,  there  is  but  littlo  room  to  doubt  that 
Venezuela  Is  about  to  enter  upon  a  career  of  commer- 
cial prosperity.  At  present,  the  annual  exports  from 
Apure  and  Varinas  consist  of  dry  hides  (about  100,000), 
buckskins,  coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  cocoa;  and  from  tlio 
latter  province  between  1,000,000  and  2,000,000  pounds 
of  tobacco.  The  value  of  this  trade  to  tho  United 
States  will  be  perceived,  when  it  is  known  that  nearly 
all  the  hides  offered  In  the  Venezuelan  markets  are 
taken  by  this  country. 

The  value  of  the  total  trade  of  Venezuela  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  80,  1846,  has  already  been 
given.  For  the  year  ending  December  81,  1845,  it 
reached  a  total  of  $8,021,040,  and  the  navigation  em- 
ployed 8209  veseels,  measuring  in  tho  aggregate  190,732 
tons. 


VEN 


jAuitria. 
pelglum  .... 

jSardlnU..'."* 

IHanieTowiu' .'.■■■ 
I  Denmark  . 

{Spain.... 

It'rance....   ' 

t'nItodSUtM;.""' 
pro»t«ritaln..."" 

NoirOranada.'.""' 
JJethcrland,..."- 
Other  places.....'; 
JTolanssil'oi 


logol 


83 

42 

US 

124 

615 


105 


2,015 
14,257 
B,621 
6,U60 
10,112 
28,7J7 
23,033 


ii,»M  1 1  l8t  July,  1849,  to7h/Ti.  ?'■'"«"  countries.    Fro™  .^ 

'eoched  OCO  117  11,;.'  ""^  ^''P"''"  of  ri„  Ij,,  ' 
tjonal  vessel  /5200IU  "1  "'  •".2«  v k"  4°'^" 
e'en  vessels,  fiM  917 1,  '•'  "'?'"='»  «t  «I5810  •  a„d  i^  ? 
from  which'  raw'  cotto-f-  ''"'■"="  "'  «38.438  Th  Lw"": 
Setherwith  thequ^Xr'  "^^O'^^in  isiO^TZ 
''ere  as  follows  T'""""  "Po^e"  during  tbatpeld 


11,680 
8,350 
11,224 
10,876 
81,874 
81,829 
826 
472 
22 
10,7S8 


jPi'ertofabilJo.. 

Madirin 

l-«Gua»r«.." 

I^Vcla....    

Uudttd  Bollvi;" 
iiio  Coribe . 


00,698 
4,600 
2,800 
2,000 


VEN 


1928 


'VEN 


that  of  H36,  enterad  Into  in  the  vtry  tnflinojr,  poUUeal 
M  wall  ai  commercial,  of  Venezuela. 

Ill  1810,  four  ,vcars  after  tlie  ratillcation  uf  thli  treaty, 
the  Unitoii  States  exported  to  that  country  20,084  bar. 
relt  of  flour,  valued  at  tti'iBOI.  I"  1851  our  ex- 
porta  of  that  article  reached  40,0'i7  barrels,  valued  at 
$318,733;  showing  an  Increau  In  the  quantity  and 
value  of  that  one  article,  which  we  exchanged  for  the 
hides,  colToo,  and  indigo  of  Venezuela,  of  100  per  cent. 

Tlie  hides  Imported  Into  the  United  States  in  1840 
amounted  in  valuo  to  $288,372.  In  1864  they  reached 
as  high  as  $l,6'2.'l,r>D6;  siiowing  an  increase.  In  that 
•ingle  article  of  our  Imports,  of  over  400  per  cent.  A 
more  li!>eral  tariffof  duties  on  our  flour  and  cotton  goods 
lu  the  ports  of  Venezuela  would  continue  to  augment 
still  more  largely  this  growing  trade.  The  Justice  of 
such  a  measure  will  bo  olivious  when  it  Is  considered 
that  the  principal  article  which  the  United  States  im- 
port from  Venexucla  (hides)  is  suliject  in  our  ports  to 
a  duty  of  6  per  cent,  only ;  while  tho  principal  arti- 
cle which  wo  fumisli  in  exchange  (Hour)  is  taxed  in 
Its  ports  with  a  duty  of  t4  per  barrel,  which,  at  a  value 
of  from  {112  to  ^10  per  barrel  (Its  average  price  in  tlie 
Venezuelan  markets),  is  equal  to  26  (jj  80^  per  cent., 
besides  sundry  other  duties  which  are  superadded  be- 
fore the  article  can  get  into  maricct.  These  facts  are 
lutnciently  suggestive  without  further  comment.  Du- 
ties are  levied  on  a  valuation  basis,  though  many  ar- 
ticles in  the  tariff  are  liable  to  speclflc  duties.  In- 
stead of  spnciiying  each  extra  charge  separately,  these 
heavy  imposts  can  be  best  illustrated  by  an  actual 
case: 

Custom  duties  on  100  Inrrels  American  flour  landed 
•t  the  port  of  Ls  Ousjm,  at  $4  per  barrel  import 
duty $400  00 

10  per  cent,  on  amount  of  duties  on  account  of  late 
Internal  war 40  nO 

2  per  cent,  on  amount  of  duties  for  irharfage 8  fM 

•  percent,  road  tax 8  80 


$t&T  Oil 
<0  per  cent  on  aggregate  amount ;  contribution  ex- 
traurdinary Ol  S2 


•J  SO 


i  per  cent  for  the  new  church  on  $4ST  09  ... . 

Total  dutiei,  extras,  etc $65141 

Navioatiok  Dcib. 

Tonnage  duties $0  8Ti  per  ton  z=  $0  M  (U.  S.  cur'y.) 

Anchorage 18       "      =      12  " 

Water 12        "      =        0  " 

LIght-bonse «       "      =       4(  " 

Kntrance T        "    '=        A  " 

Clearance » OO       "     =  1 54  " 

ToespUInoftheport..    8  00       "     =  126  •' 

To  beaUh  ofHoer 800        "      =  2  2|i  " 

To  Interpreter 800       "     =  5  35  " 

The  ton  is  Venesnelan  measurement,  gonerolly  IH 
per  cent,  more  than  that  of  the  United  States. '  The 
value  of  Venezuelan  money  diflers  considerably,  as  al- 
ready noted,  from  that  of  tho  other  South  American 
states,  though  of  tho  tame  denomination.  The  follow- 
ing are  tlie  legal  values  of  some  of  the  foreign  coins  in 
circulation  in  Venezuela,  as  flxed  by  the  law  of  May 
80,  1848: 

One  dollar  of  the  United  Slates  equal  to $1  &4t 

Ono  dollar  of  Peru  equal  to 1  84( 

One  ilollur  of  Mexico  equal  to 1  S4) 

yivc-frunc  ploce  of  Knincc  equal  to 1  28 

One  ahilllng  of  Great  Britain  equal  to BU 

One  guinea  of  Great  Britain  equal  to 060 

—Com.  Xel.  U.  S. 

Articles  noted  free  in  the  tariff  pay,  in  lieu  of  all  ex- 
tras, 15  per  cent.  One  of  the  greatest  impediments 
heretofore  existing  to  the  increase  of  American  trade 
with  Venezuela  was  the  restriction  imposed  on  the 
transitago  of  American  merchandise  imported  express- 
ly for  the  marltets  of  New  Oranada.  Some  years  since, 
Maraoaibo  was  declared  a  place  of  deposit  for  such  mor- 
cfaandii*  a  measure  of  the  greatest  importance  to  com- 
merce, as  nearly  half  the  importx  at  that  port  are  des- 
tined for  San  Josi  de  Cucuta,  in  New  Granada.  Tho 
privilege  thus  granted  was  tnbscquently  rendered  nu- 


gatory by  MT«re  restrictions  and  onerooi  duties.  A 
more  liberal  decree,  however,  has  very  lately  been  pro- 
mulgated (August  10,  1865),  which  must  necessarily 
largely  augment  tho  imports  Into  Venezuela,  and  thus 
promote  the  general  commerce  of  the  republic— <S<« 
arlidet  Cahacoaii  and  L.A  Quayha. 

Venice  (It.  Venttio)  Ger.  Venedio;  ancient,  Vtne- 
M),  a  fortified  city  of  Austrian  Italy,  formerly  the  capi- 
tal of  the  republic  of  that  name,  on  a  cluster  of  small 
islands  toward  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Adriatic, 
in  lat.  45"  26'  68"  N.,  long.  12°  20'  81"  E.  Population 
in  1861  about  128,000.  The  commerce  of  Venice,  one* 
tho  most  extensive  of  any  European  city,  is  now  com- 
paratively trifling;  and  the  population  is  gradually 
diminislilng  both  in  nurtibers  and  in  wealth.  Ilor  Im- 
ports consist  of  wheat  and  other  sorts  of  grain  from  tho 
acyoiiiing  |)rovinces  of  Lombardy  and  tho  Ulack  Sea; 
olive-oil,  principally  from  the  Ionian  Islands ;  cotton 
stuAli  and  hardware  from  England ;  sugar,  coffee,  and 
other  colonial  products  ttom  £ngland,t  he  United  States, 
Brazil,  etc. ;  dried  fish,  dye-stuffs,  etc.  The  exporta 
principally  consist  of  grain,  raw  and  wrought  silk,  silk 
goo<ls,  glass  wares,  Ixwks,  paper,  woolen  manufactures, 
fruits,  cheese,  etc.,  the  products  of  the  a(\joining  prov- 
inces of  Italy,  and  of  her  own  industry ;  but  her  manu- 
factures, so  famous  in  thn  Middle  Ages,  are  now  much 
decayed.  The  origin  of  Venice  dates  from  the  period 
of  tho  invasion  of  Attila  In  462,  when  a  number  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Venetia,  and  other  parts  of  Italy,  taking 
reftage  in  the  islands  of  tho  Adriatic,  formed  a  confed- 
eration to  oppose  the  barbarians.  In  097  they  elected, 
as  tho  head  of  thoir  government,  a  doge  or  duke  (dux). 
The  Venetian  states  formed  themselves  into  a  republic 
In  809.  In  997  they  took  possession  of  the  town  of 
Narenta,  a  nest  of  pirates,  and  thus  commenced  their 
maritime  power;  they  afterward  sul^ugated  all  the 
towns  of  Dalmatiu.  Tho  crusades  were  a  source  of 
aggrandizement  for  Venice,  At  tho  end  of  the  12th 
century,  tho  Venetians  made  themselves  masters  of 
part  of  the  Morea,  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  and  Crete.  Dur- 
ing two  centuries  they  monopolized  the  commerce  of 
India  by  the  route  of  Gg}'pt ;  but  they  lost  this  on  the 
discovery  of  tho  passage  by  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope. 
The  state  attained  tho  height  of  its  prosperity  in  the 
15tb  century.  It  began  to  decline  at  the  beginning 
of  tho  IGth  century,  and  its  overthrow  was  completed 
by  the  French  in  1797.  By  tho  treaty  of  Presburg  in 
1805,  it  was  mado  over,  with  the  provinces  of  the  con- 
tinent, to  tho  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  was  held  by  the 
French  till  1814,  when  it  reverted  to  Austria.  In  1818 
the  Venetians  revolted  against  the  Austrians,  and  held 
the  city  for  several  months.  The  government  of  Venice 
comprises  eight  delegations,  which  benr  tho  names  of 
their  capitals :  Venice,  Padua,  Vicenza,  Verona,  Kovi- 
go,  Treviso,  Belluno,  and  Udine.  Population  in  1860, 
2,281,782;  do.  of  provinces,  298,425.  Tho  Gulf  of 
Venice  is  formed  by  the  Adriatic,  on  tho  northeast 
coast  of  Italy,  bounded  by  the  Piave  and  Brenta. 

Port ^The  islands  on  which  Venice  is  built  lie  with- 

in  a  line  of  long,  low,  narrow  Islands,  running  north 
and  south,  and  inclosing  what  is  termed  the  lagoon,  or 
shallows,  that  surround  the  city,  and  separate  it  from 
the  main  land.  The  principal  entrance  from  the  sea 
to  the  lagoon  is  at  Malamocco,  about  1^  league  south 
from  the  city ;  but  theroaro  other,  though  loss  frequented 
entrances,  both  to  the  south  and  the  north  of  this  one. 
There  is  a  bar  outside  Malamocco,  on  which  there  are 
not  more  than  10  feet  at  high  water  at  spring  tides ; 
but  there  is  a  channel  between  the  wwtem  point  of  the 
bar  and  the  villag«  of  San  Pietro,  ^ich  has  16  feet 
water  at  springs,  and  14  at  neaps.  Merchant  vessels 
usually  moor  off  tho  ducal  palace;  but  sometimes  they 
come  into  tho  grand  canal  which  intersects  the  city, 
and  sometimes  they  moor  in  the  wider  channel  of  the 
Giudecca.  Vessels  coming  fh>m  the  south  for  the  most 
part  make  Plrano  or  Rovigno,  on  the  v^oast  of  Istria, 
where  they  take  on  board  pilots,  who  carry  them  to  tho 


V«u>. 

1861  . 
18&2.. 


VEV 


mo 


•t  thf  b«f,  »h|,„  ,  '"  ^"^»'Mmt  .l«||L?/'""  "wno or  ,3 


VER 


J/'«.'y._f„r„..,     .  ^''■""'"•v.li 'thorn"  "*^''»«"» given!      '"  "*^  ««'P«*d  wi,h 


«n.n«..  .„*.  '''•  ■'  'm>m,l ,,.    "T.^'M  or  lon.i,       n,.,,„.      '    ^ 


'he  c^rn'.r;;;,';;';;;!"';""!,  v«i;r;,';',;7-'  >voii 

TI.0   «i«l»porM,nrC;';j;ow.n(ll.tVa^^^^^ 


ro  ftir  <.„.-   ,.  '.r."'»"'«'n- 


186,4«» 
18tf,kt3 


'?«  Vo  i,  c,.t  ^.r."!;^ ,  Jh  .  mv  .eon,  slJZ."'?'* 
»  following  ,,,t     «'•"««  wh,„ 


C'ereti, 

Wlve-oli;.         

d«Itedfl,h.. 

<-o»l.,.        

8«lt.,.     

Dried  (hjiV,;-;; 

J,»l»l  (fli  kind,    

Lrn       ^'•'P'ri'ta." 

^n«nd.t4i  ...;;•;• 

'rDmaiMt....!.^  


„  'nun. 
8.1ii8,ll00 
*.*"I,400 
i«l,600 

?-«»o,»flo 

1.891,600 

1.069,200 

1.084,900 

968,»00 

881,200 

Tftt.BOO 

«T,900 

,  ««3,fl00 

l.«4,800 


Thomoggio  or'»  """■^""'-'^o/i'rfr       F«   ''"•""'''■"toV<i;::;;::--"------',« 

mmmmmm 


!"«Koorv.„iJi.r,';.. 


'%'it-W.a.beene«ote<.o'L'?,;:SrSeot 


VER 


1980 


VER 


tha  CmU*  of  fUn  Jum.  Tin  light,  which  li  •  NYolvInK 
•W  of  (TMt  powir  mil  lirlllUno}',  U  davitoil  79  fMt 
■bov*  Ina  Uvil  of  tha  m«. 

For  •  ouiiiliUrnlilii  narlotl  nttat  tha  town  of  Vara 
Crui  hail  lliniwn  iilf  ifia  H|ianUh  yoko,  tlio  C^aatla  uf 
Ban  Juan  irUlloa  ooiitliiuail  In  pomMwiilfln  of  tlio  flpin- 
larda.  During  thli  Intarval  tlm  loniniari'o  of  Vara 
Crui  wai  almoit  enllraly  tranafarrcil  tu  tha  purt  of 
Alvarado,  11  Uaguaa  to  tha  aoutliaait.  Alvarado  la 
httlll  upon  tha  lah  lianh  of  a  rivar  of  tho  aania  name. 
Tha  har  at  tha  mouth  of  Ilia  river,  aliout  li  mile  lie- 
low  tha  town,  ranilara  It  Inaocaaallila  for  vaatali  draw- 
ing aliova  10 or  Iti  faat  wator,  l<arga  ahlpa are  olill)(ed 
to  anchor  In  tha  roadt,  whiira  Ihay  ara  oxpoaed  to  all 
tha  violanca  of  tha  north  wlndu,  loading  and  unloading 
hv  maana  of  llghtera.  Alvarado  la  aupiKtiwd,  but  proba- 
liy  without  much  foundation,  tu  lie  a  llttio  healthier 
than  Vara  Crua.  Tha  trada  has  now  moitl/  levartad 
tu  Ita  old  oliannal. 

Tha  commercial  Intaroouraa  of  the  United  Htatea 
with  Varat'rua  doponda  now  tolely  on  tha  regulation! 
of  tha  mother  iiountry  (I.  r,,  tha  capital},  aLocal  logla- 
I  itlon  haa  nothing  to  do  with  It,  oxcopt  aa  regard!  a 
fdw  unimportant  harlior  duiii),  and  immlolpal  taxea  ini- 

fioied  by  tha  "ayunlanilont»"(rl(.N  tuuncll).  The  ex- 
iling rvgulalluni  ar«  parinancnt  in  name,  but  may  bo 
Mgardadailaniporary  inraot,  lielng  liable  to  Imi  changed 
at  any  moment  by  arbitrary  decree,  or  utterly  doatroy- 
ad  by  "  prenanolamanlo."  There  are  no  privllegaa  per- 
ndttad  tha  commarea  of  other  natlona  which  are  denied 
tu  tha  United  Htatea,  nor  are  there  any  reatriutlona  im- 
pOMd  on  the  ouinmorco  of  other  natlona  and  not  on  that 
of  tha  Unltad  Huloa.  It  la  imdoratood  that  tho  Danlah 
commarolal  trtaty  U  thn  looat  favorable  to  Mexico; 
but,  practically,  all  nation*  may  lie  regarded  aa  on  an 
ui|ual  footing.  Mexico  takea  cara  to  make  no  national 
diitlnotlona,  but  aim  very  frequently  aolla  apcclal  privi- 
lege! to  Individual,  a*  In  the  caae*  at  Han  Ulaa,  Mata- 
Cnimaafla  or  Tiia  tlnimu  MATaa  with  tub  Vat*  oa 


moral,  and  Maiatlan.  At  Vera  Crua  an  immanaa 
amount  of  raw  cotton  la  being  imported  ftrom  New 
Orlaana,  on  tha  payment  of  about  one  half  the  duty  ln> 
dlcated  by  the  exltting  tariff—"  parmita"  to  import 
that  article  at  a  greatly  reduced  rata  having  b«en 
granted  to  favored  Individuala.  Tha  regular  duty  la 
throe  centa  per  pound,  but  permlta  can  now  ba  bought 
up  at  aecond  hanil  at  two  centa  par  pound. 

Yard  [Oape]  XaUnda.  The  Cape  Vard  lalanda 
ara  alluated  IMO  miipit  wvtt  iif  (  upe  Verd,  between  lat, 
14°  «'  and  17°  13'  N.,  and  luii,;  W°  45'  and  26°  W 
W.  The  Archipelago  cunalala  u(  tha  folluwing  ton 
lalanda:  8al,  lioavlata.  Mayo,  Santiago  (St.  Jamaa), 
the  largeat.  Forgo,  Urava,  Urande,  Kombo,  St.  Nicolao, 
and  St.  Luxla ;  and  four  ialeta,  llranco,  Uozo,  8t.  Vi- 
cente, and  8t.  Anttlo.  Aroa  eatimatod  at  1U80  aquaro 
mlloa.  Population  in  1850,  8U,738.  Tha  white  popu- 
lation in  the  whole  Archipelago  la  to  tha  colored  aa 
one  to  twenty.  The  aurfaoa  of  tha  lilanda  la  In  gener- 
al mountalnoua,  and  lomo  of  their  peaka  have  a  con- 
aiderable  olovation.  The  volcano  of  Fogo  la  01&7  feet 
In  height.  The  aoll  la  extremely  varioua,  but  mo!tly 
fertile ;  tho  abaenco  of  treea  and  tho  icarclty  of  water  are 
the  cauaea  of  frequontand  aovere  diitroaa.  Chief  vege- 
table producta,  maize,  rice,  and  French  beana.  Cofl'ue, 
introduced  In  1700,  ba*  completely  aucceeded;  tho  cot- 
ton shrub  Is  indigenous ;  indigo  grows  wild,  and  tobacco 
is  cultivated  In  some  of  tho  islands;  tropical  fruits  are 
abundant.  The  sugar-cane  and  the  vine  are  culti- 
vated, but  the  manufacture  of  wine  Is  prohibited.  Tho 
climate  of  these  islands  Is  piuch  varied  by  extreme 
heats  and  droughts,  no  rain  falling  during  some  periods 
for  three  or  four  years.  Hence  the  population  arc  fro- 
quently  subject  to  diati-css  and  suffering.  These  visita- 
tions have,  on  several  occasions  during  tho  past  few 
years,  strongly  appealed  to  tho  sympathies  of  tho  civil- 
ized nations  of  tho  world  In  behalf  of  the  87,000  In- 
habitants of  thoao  islands.— i9re  article  Mexico. 
Vkbd  Islands,  fsom  Ootobxb  1,  ISiO,  to  Jclt  1, 1S6T. 


n4,ii4i 
iM.nns 

M.OIU 

tMi,nTil 

S  l.flOII 

no.nio 
ti.iMi 

M.SiO 
DO.IMM 

"lajciBr" 


iirorti. 


I  IB. 
M, 

m, 
w, 
m. 

•T. 

M,l 
T7, 

111,1 
1fi'l*,l 


4llt 
RM 
Oilil 
Bll 
449 
VIO 
901 
»4I 

\m 

All 

iiTir 


MA,OM 

T(W,B07 

M,W7 

m,Wi 

IXI,C.MI 

nt.rn 

TI,nM 
101, Tim 
««,«4T 
4T,0ia 


$nT,4TA 
»t,4«B 
ill,2TB 

iio,naT 

A«,4M 
BI,4IR 


TSST 

t>,S83 

It.oin 

ll.tllS 
18,007 
»,9l)0 
l4,llUi 

»,tn 

18,471 
7,778 

»ta,iin7 

10,487 

44,087 

il6.8S« 

117,747 

8,144 

»7,SS7 

8,033 

8.4m 

9,809 

^187,004 

118,990 
1I,B20 
4,078 
B,909 
9,884 
0'!6 
17,848 
«,840 
8,816 
9.107 


|0»,98O 

t9,487 
0,«t 
1,804 
2,908 
8.190 
9,994 
1,8»B 


"TwT 


70,778 
83,006 
79,084 
70,080 
48,002 
lOl^lOK 
71,290 
8'J,0I)6 
68,838 


$0M,I29 

$68,080 
80,9116 
907,020 
106,807 
130,187 
76,466 
164,088 
10l»,g74 
86,K» 
8^49<) 


41,104,970 

•80,159 
116,080. 
B7,90R 
70,637 
68,438 
81,783 
88,033 
106,679 
06,409 
40,210 


$721,371 

160,018 
frt.076 

94,870 
82,946 
69,013 
68,700 
04,603 


Import!. 


ToUI. 


liiOI,UUO 
47,429 
60^840 
«6,80S 
80,609 

104,120 
77,426 
62,063 
20,400 
83,768 


$018,626 

$08,043 
87,700 
8S,318 
40,088 
10,706 
18,813 
88,843 
20,174 
80,628 
80,848 


$101,796 

$42,001 
17,800 
4,713 
4,830 
7,670 
867 
9,300 
926 
1,863 


$82,080 

$1,880 
18,199 
41,063 
8,086 
94,800 
86,010 
96,806 


Whereof  tliflr*  woa  In 
BulHoii  ind  Hpeele. 


BipoH. 


^7,626 
2;'i77 


$0»,8U9 


S400 

1,463 

1,960 

076 

4,100 

8,836 

800 

680 


$18,203 

$8,003 
800 


10,000 
1,000 
1,676 


$22,878 


$4,100 

"sio 

8,443 
480 


Import 


$8,900 
17,078 
17,419 
80,149 
89,060 
91,448 
94,000 
17,646 
7,008 
16.467 


$21b,4U0 

$32,827 
97,tl81 
11,670 
90,028 
0,087 
r>,492 
16,073 
0.390 
4,100 


$180,104 

$0,800 
8,701 
8,200 
8,000 


J,200 


$21,404 


$18,067 

1,600 

7,000 

19,068 

19,000 


Tonnaf •  eUond. 


826 
1,040 

089 
1,781 
9,080 

764 
9,120 
9,433 
8,208 
9,098 


18,930 

1,900 
8,048 
6,844 
8,891 
9,043 
2,087 
8,726 
3,224 

8ato 

9,9119 


8i,86.'» 

1,000 
8,910 
1,809 
1,097 
4,960 
1,004 
1,708 
4,1184 
2,714 
1.880 
23,047 

1,606 
1,028 
9,181 

4,aoi 

6,748 
3,188 
2,002 


yoFoian. 


67 
184 

"ss 


2W 

230 
lU'i 
810 


2148 

6':8 


1140 


4870 


107 
Hifi 
170 
648 
240 
20;« 
4778 
Oil 


8020 


730 
1169 


248 
400 
646 


'  Nine  monUia  tu  June  80,  and  tho  flacal  year  from  this  tlmo  begins  July  1, 


f 

\tmd. 

. 

rmipi. 

"hi 
"m 

280 
lO'i 
810 

2i48 

6C8 

'I'vii 

48Tlt 

— 

I 

1 

'ifii 

8S3 

no 

648 

240 

2038 

4T78 

Oil 

-5529 

780 
11B3 

I 
J 
J 
I 

"248 
400 
546 

clenu,  and  various  «av«  of  „/      f  ''""""'  '<>  "lo  an 
1  ho  „e.t  v«,d,«,i,  U  made  «  C.ndl?"'  '"k  """"^•'"'' 


Worn,,  but  moro^.u UaiWe  ?' ?  '?  "^'"'-    The  .o 
Wool  ,  ,h„ „    ,„  pro TcUon    . r'"';''^  """  ""•«" 
•ro  raUed  In  great  nun  C' on  P'  ''"""• «'"'  «"le 


copper,  and  forrnC    M.  .  T  ?"  •"'««''  for  corroding   »,     ?''*'' '"  B""'  ""nil«,r,  •  ,'„„Jn '^'  ''"""• «'"'  «"le 

exported  In  oak     of  aboutr';"'''^''-    '' '' «ene'^S  I  ^  funJant.  and  valuab    '  S^^^^ 

«I»o  manufactured  In  ilT      ""•  ""'eh'  each,     lit   c. '.'"'"  "^  "bounds  in  .ever  J,"' ,",'''  "''*>  ««  work- 

fu«o  of  elder,  etc     The  i     ."     •^'  ^^  "'='""  «' the  ri    «  ""'  ""' ''""»  "'o  «ulpl  u»  '  n  """!  ""»"«hout  the 

cf  from  the  CnJandTirn  "' T-^'S''- '»jXe^ 

»«",  and  11,  forming""!,  'fi'bb  V  "'",'  "'^'"' "»  "o'       T hi""'""?'  '"""«•  occuV        "'^  "-nufacturcd. 

"'  "'  ^\™?»'»  '»™  T„,  Umrn,  fiT^„.  &'"■"""'  «'«'  "•"ohincr;   *o  t'o'c,""'!  "'«/•''•»<'  of  iml 


Jlonihurg.... 

I'^Rland ...    

Brlil.hAmeri«,iVoVonIc.; 

Spain..'.".".';;;;;;;;;; 

Total 


Poundi, 

•  i.oar 

700 
200 

•  80,801 
■  _  220 

8a,R48 


V>lua. 

$803 

IDS 

41 

0007 

85 

$1'«;0 


r--...v..„  am,  mach  ncrv  fto  Tan  „c,7.      .  '"™  or  im- 
^S^^ahural Product/  ./..     •mi.  ' 

!!T;'«''''y  valleysaboundnSthSn^l^ir'^'r  r"""^  morhf/pu'bllcat fi;!,'  "J^'^'^""^.  «1  -"eWy 
ire  mostiv  rn..»„,i  ._...,*•  """ »?""«« and  brooks.   Jannarv  isk/ <>..".'• .  "here  were  on  the  1st 


terjecte^b/val^VCdK-r'^'-^"'''"^ 
and  are  mostly  covered  wi.hol     '''""8' «'''' ''""''s, 

mit.,  from  which  thevi>Z  /•■■?"."'  '"  "■«''  sum- 
riven, an, InconsJd  r  ,,  "^^otof'th  " «' "f""-  ^he 
■newly  an.all  tributars'o?therIn. """'"» «""'"« 
»he  W,t  aide  ,ro  laZ.  and  th«  .h"""!?''"  "'««  <>» 
"ffccr,  and  the  three  principal,  viz., 


Januar   TssflV"''.  "T'-    ^here  were  on   he  1,1 

factures,  JS.OOrST?!  valae  if  "'P'"^'"'  '"  """>"- 
$8,670,920  '  The  rrinci„„l  °f,  ""'"''.'^''^""red  article,, 
Montpdier,thrcapUa"B''uri,J^t:"  MM*,';\^'»"'  *" 
tUboro,  Norwich, ttfbatfKfflon.'^'^"'- 


VR« 


im 


'^m 


r«m««  ('Mnraww  ar  tn*  Ktati  nv  VmrnoiiT,  nuia  nirmim  1.  inn,  m  .Tvtr  t,  IKBT,  ■nowm  alm  Tin  Diitkiirt 

rniiii4ul  IK  IMI,  liMI,  IMI,  iKB  IIAI, 


n 

1 

•tf-m,                  -    1 

tmffit^            Tmh(< 

IUf»l 

Dtauto 

TMMkf*. 

Vmm<*4Iii« 

DMMrth, 

rmlf*. 
»>l',4T» 

TMI. 

"i'lM  11311 

DIM.  14'! 
VIM.IM 
BIW.IM 
ll'i4.Wt 
l,IAI»,441 
WMI.HIO 

»  «.ii;» 

TMll. 

imrl.u. 

rml(ii. 

Raflatnxl. 

Kunltad  tm* 

i.i<iH>a. 

Al|ll,U,in 

lis 

KM 
I4|i 

">(<*.  •»'l 
»4I>,«I« 

IIM.ItO 
WM.IM.ll 
WHIM 
M4,tll| 
l,VAi,44l 
MH.DIII 

•  M  ii;u 

ItA^'iCiH 

ft^sin 

KV.OIW 
n}T,IKW 
KM,  ATI 
t<il,IAI 
IM.IM 
III*,  Ml.) 
IIIMUIO 
tWM 

win.iAd 
in.:ifa,4ia 

IMt.mie 
nAii,«iiii 

141, MM 
IIMI.AT4 

iimviil 
«lA,niii 

VIII.MA 

«li«,M;i 

ll,M,Vlt4 

4««,T4» 

liA.llitf 
MI.W* 
IW.IMl 

iai,NA4 

iw.inii 

«W,«AII 
IM.HTH 
1T7,5»1» 

Vl'A.UIlV 

i4ii.()nu 

-     »ii|- 

NIU 

'ma 

«.B 

i4',iui 
iv.wn 

40 
40 

"lift 

an 

'•'•'•'• 

lati  — 

TbUI.., 

■•pi.  W.  IMI 

IM» 

l«».l 

1M4 

I«M 

I«ij« 

IMT 

lUl 

tM* 

IMil 

TuUI, , , 

8»I,S0,IMI 

IM'i 

tmon.   IM4il* 

jMlUOJlMt 

IK8;;;;::: 

iaj;;::::: 
laS:;;;::; 

Tual,,. 

JumWiIOSI.,,,,, 
IMI...   . 

IWIIt 

IKM 

IIAA 

IMil 

IMT 

lK,iir,rT4 

»|«.I9T 

mu.siio 
aii.BK) 

8:14.BT1 

aiK.iAi 

IMIM 

tan.dvi) 
lai.oAo 

llltlKOII 

a<«.ibn 

il.M.fiu 

|iM.snii 
iii4,«Ta 

AiB,7«U 

ai'i.mii 

VIT.HAB 
46«.»4« 
B4'i.44'J 

■i:ia,4iT 
4IH,AIB 
4I>4.<IT 

4i1:c2mI 
»o,iini 

I4.«W 
IIMlllI 
8A,700 

ua.M>a 
aii,u4& 

'i7.0ll 
W  4Hi) 
44.Ti!a 
Ai.(.N4 

— iJT' 

'.'.'.'. 

aiT 

tll.»^9 
T.«l« 

miiT 
yiATvii 

DM  Ml 
IWAOl 
1I0JJIR 

«H4,*IM 

IM.HHI 

M,  lAT 

li:^u,4ru 

»J77,MT 
NIT.AOII 
IWUTI 

4iaMi; 

A4'J,a07 
40!),KS(I 
Bt4,WN 
6114  IW 

ass.HOii 

480,000 

|U,1MU,4UI> 

('Mll.78l> 

tHIO.Him 

B8,IIIIU 

nT.isa 

81,1107 

m.ssB 

«8'.I,«4I 
8IMI,II06 
147,741 
4IM,0IHi 

BM,VM 

18,600 

lA.BM 
A4.I184 
6i,1t» 
70.TM 
7'i,IM4 
T4,4ia 
O'.'JIH 
81,073 

'aiB 
i,7Ha 

'•'■'•'■ 

4880 

«T«I.TI3 

(l»,IM4 

I«V.IITA 
Bin.iilt 
N«'>,AI4 

iCTiK-iiT" 

11.741 

I.IAMM 

«,fpT'i,W4 

Mil.  MB 

II«,4AI 

lJ;h8;i.H6-- 

(Tin.fti* 
ufM,iia 

II4.IIT 
l,4IAV44 

'i,wn,4(W 
i,iiai.4Aii 

I14<I,4T0 

"{i.V5t,4()0" 
|WI,>d8 

iiia,M» 
iM.Aia 

ii:i7,«7» 

N)i,A»a 
i,Adii,im 

'.(,7110,198 

64'J,4ltO 

104,114 
4y,ll7a 
l4,4U'i 
1111,808 
ll.liHU 
liO,IB7 
Vl.M'J 

9,lUg 

n,TM 

14.000 
«.044 
lO.IAI 

H.4iia 

10.787 

ii.ofu 

'■'■'■'• 

aw9 

'  H\n»  mull 

Ih*  In  Jun«  1 

0,  tiHl  the  Bm 

Kl  yetr  fruiu  tl 

lU  tiiuu  lif 

ulna  July 

1. 

Ilurliylon,  Voriiiuiit.  U  (hit  |irlncl|i»l  port  of  tho 
Stale.  lU  oommarr*  by  Lake  ClliiintilaIn,  on  a  bay 
of  which  tba  town  la  liulll,  la  liniHirlanl,  anil  Iti  con- 
neutiona  hy  rallruA4  and  ataaiiilxiat  alTimt  It  every 
facility  In  Ita  proaai'Ullun,  Tbn  harlmr  of  llurlinHton 
la  till)  liait  on  the  lake,  and  mure  veiiM<l«  navlgatliig  the 
lake  are  ownad  Imre  than  at  any  other  |ilai«.  It  li 
ea«y  of  acMaa  from  the  north  ami  nuiith,  and  to  protect 
it  from  the  wa«t  wliiila  •  hraakwatcr  UOO  fevt  Iohk  wsa 
ereciad.  Juniper  laUnil  U  dUtant  four  nillei  from  tho 
wharf,  and  eontalna  alavan  ami*  of  ftrniind.  A  llght- 
bouaa  wm  eractoil  on  tliU  Inland  in  tuid  |  It  la  In  tho 
form  of  •  truiiL'atud  oonn,  thirty  fnnl  lilijh.  eighteen  feot 
Id  diaiuatar  at  th«  haaa,  aod  twelvn  at  tiio  lop.  and  la 
kept  llf{hlad  at  nitfbt  dnrlntf  thn  aeaaon  of  navlgatlun, 
from  the  middta  of  April  to  tbn  Ut  of  Docemhur.  Diir- 
lington  liM  an  aslantlvo  and  fnrillo  hwk  ooiintry,  and 
the  meroantlla  hualnata  of  Iba  place  amount*  to  aliout 
f  1,000,000  annually,  Tonnago  In  18fi»,  M;0)  In  18M 
it  wai  7M  (one, 
YttMlM.  Hh  aiikln  Hiiiiii  and  Tii!«;<.u>r, 
VlotOria  (formarlv  ii«||nd  Atutralta  TMx  and 
Port  FblUp),  a  HrilMi  cuhmlal  territory,  coinpris- 
ing  all  the  part  of  Aiiatralia  miuiIi  of  the  rivers  Mur- 
rumblgeo  and  Murray,  liatwaitn  lal.  M"  and  90°  S., 
and  long.  UV>  and  IMT  K.,  having  on  thn  northeast 
New  South  Walea,  on  tbn  wnst  tlio  nolony  of  itoiith  Aus^ 
tralla,  and  on  tlm  aniith  tho  oc-oan  a:id  llass's  Hiralt, 
aoparating  it  from  TMinanIa,  Area,  ON.UOO  square 
miles.  Pupulalion  In  INAI,  77,fliri,  „t  which  40,202 
ware  maks,  and  111,11!)  fmiiaiMj  In  1856,  Son.ooo,  ond 
of  tliasa  it  ia  astlinatiwl  that  liOim  am  aborigines.  The 
territory  darivnd  ita  fonnitr  namn  from  the  fine  bay  of 
Port  Philip,  near  Ilia  iitnirn  of  Its  roMt  line)  besides 
which,  hero  aro  tba  inlnts  >Vael«rn  Port,  Corner  Inlet, 
taka  King,  Port  Fairv,  awl  Portland  Hay,  most  of 
wblcb  adbrd  gooil  am.Twragn,  and  aro  the  Kats  of  in- 


ciplont  towns.  Surface  mostly  undulating  or  level, 
separated  into  diflTorent  river  basins  by  hill  chains. 
Temperature  at  Port  Philip  ranges  from  82°  to  VO"  in 
the  year,  and  may  average  about  01"  Fahr.  Soil  more 
fertile  general!/  than  in  New  South  Wales,  though 
around  the  borders  are  extensive  tracts  of  bar'cn  land. 
For  aliout  60  mites  from  the  coast  the  country  is  al- 
most every  where  of  high  fertility ;  there  is  also  much 
good  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilumo  and  llovvll ;  and 
although  hitherto  tlio  corn  raised  has  been  liiadc(|uato 
for  home  consumption,  and  a  supply  has  bean  imported 
from  Tasmania,  this  ooiony  bids  fair  to  kccoino  a  thriv- 
ing agricultural  region.  Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  are, 
however,  the  principal  occupations  of  the  population, 
and  In  1861  the  live  stock  in  tho  province  amounted 
to  6,000,000  shoop,  16,600  horses,  and  390,000  horned 
cattle.  In  tho  same  year,  100  acivs  were  planted  with 
vines,  and  1300  gallons  of  wine  were  made,  chiefly  near 
Geelong.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  salt  from  the 
lakes,  pumice-stone,  lava,  and  other  volcanic  products 
abundant  in  the  western  plains,  are  other  chief  articles 
of  produce.  Some  veins  of  coal,  and  ores  of  copper, 
load,  and  manganese,  have  been  met  with  near  the 
coast ;  but  few,  if  any,  mines  are  at  present  wrought. 
Tho  principal  towns  are  Mcllwurno  and  Geelong.  Tho 
colony  was  formerly  called  Australia  Felix,  and  was  at- 
tached to  New  South  Wales.  It  was  formed  into  a  dis- 
tinct colony  in  1850,  under  the  name  of  the  Province  of 
Victoria.  It  was  first  settled  by  the  British  aliout  183^1. 
Tho  commercial  relations  of  tlio  United  States  with 
the  Ilritish  posscasions  in  Australia,  Now  Zealand,  and 
tho  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  are  regulated  by  the  orders  of 
the  local  governments,  within  the  limits  prescribed  to 
their  authority  by  the  legislation  of  tho  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment. The  repeal  of  the  British  navigation  laws  abol- 
ished all  the  restrictions  upon  foreign  commerce,  which 
before  that  period  secured  to  the  British  merchant  the 


flor  order  Ir"""'  "">''  •••n,l,rd.  ,h.     *''!  "•""«1- 


j.,...|,»|0 
«»,(kift,J78 


low. :  ^"^  "•""ff  JUMO  80,  1867,  ««r.  ,.  fot 


I"  M...no.,«.  ..„„  1 ,1!,". */•'!','"'  j"  JJ20. 1.  „;. ; ':  r;!':  r";  '''"'"■ 


^  su::- 'r^^::^; M^;^^«4'«^"'^ter:"'«i^-^ 


t  ">m  \ew  york. 

'  *>hoonen"::;:;'"-  ?i    ;:     ••  i"? .. 

■■kl!„        "  "0  " 

Sehooneri" .'■■.' ^'        "  "  127    ■'.' 


■""  »«l(l,  'tovcl^  plant  f  I   ',•„'"' """PProaclied  it 
not',  I18  ,lavo,l  thoin  at  ll  0  S  r'l'"''-  "  "on,  «,„|  1 

for  first  quality  flo,,r     .     "  "'"  "•''«''  marltot  di7™  v.^'~'''"^^'''('*tKTic)  for« T    .?"''■  I-^t-^lff- 
^ays  comiiinnri  1  '°  'narltcts  of  Victoria  ami  ni'   '"*""'PR"'h  'osliarewiih  Z,!.  •..,'"''  "■"•  kintlJy 


VIO 


1984 


VIR 


EzroBT*  or  VnntoAB  wttm  Tin!  ITmnD  Stari  ros  th> 
YiAm  niDiNO  JiMB  80,  I8ST. 

WhtUicrctportad.  OallcM.  Vtlw. 

SwedUh  Weat  liKlIra M)  «U 

Dkiilah  Wut  Indiei MO  60 

Dutch  Weit  IndiM D,0T4  OW 

nutehOutank *u\  75 

Canada 53,074  S.SfiO 

Other  Brillsli  North  American  I*oia,  33.149  0,749 

Ilritlah  Weil  Indlei 23,118;  8,.'I1.S 

BrltUh  Hondiiru l.Son  218 

BriUihOulana 10,660  l,6e» 

Brltlah  Foaaewloiu  In  Aftica 8,62S  600 

Other  porta  In  Africa 6:i9  101 

Biltlah  Eart  Indlei 1,688  804 

French  West  Indies 600  60 

Cuba 18,864  S,881 

Porto  Rico 890  68 

HayU 2,860  487 

Mexico 6,860  1,086 

Central  Bepubllc 40  6 

KswOranada 6,881  918 

VenexueU 890  133 

ArgenUne  Kepubllc 6,840  818 

Chill 10,750  1,684 

tferu 16,167  2,68B 

^ndwlch  iBlsnds 2,422  485 

China 2,867  888 

Whale-a«herie« 7,754  784 

Total,  1866--67 280,u66  $30,788 

There  were  no  imports  of  vinegar  into  the  United 
States  for  the  year  1857. 

Viol  and  Violin.  As  the  lyre  of  the  Greelcs  was 
the  harp  of  the  moderns,  so  the  viol  and  vielle  of  the 
MIddie  Ages  l)eeame  the  modem  violin.  The  viol  was 
of  \  drious  sizes  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  and  was 
anciently  very  much  in  use  for  chamber  airs  and  songs, 
That  of  three  strings  was  introduced  into  Europe  by 
the  jugglers  of  the  13th  century.  The  violin  was  in- 
vented toward  the  close  of  the  same  century. — Abbe 
Lexolbt.  The  fiddle,  however,  is  mentioned  as  early 
^  as  A.D.  1200,  in  the  legendarj-  life  of  St.  Christopher. 
It  was  introduced  into  England,  some  say,  by  Charles 
II.  in  1684. 

Virgiiiia,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America,  lies 
between  lat.  36°  33'  and  110°  43'  X.,  and  between  long. 
75°  26'  and  83°  40'  W.  It  is  370  miles  long,  and  200 
miles  broad  at  its  greatest  breadth,  containing  61,362 
square  miles.  Population  in  1790,  747,610;  in  1800, 
886,149;  in  1810,974,622;  in  1820, 1,065,366;  in  1830, 
1,211,272;  in  1840,  1,289,797;  and  in  1850, 1,421,661. 

Earlg  Ilulory, — ^The  coast  of  the  country  which  we 
now  name  Virginia  is  said  to  have  been  Ivnown  to  tho 
old  Northmen.  Ono  of  them,  Gudio''  Gudlaugscn,  is 
said  to  have  sailed  In  the  year  1028  so  far  to  the  south. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  called  the  country  lluUramim- 
naland,  the  Land  of  the  Whitemen,  wliich  may  bo  con- 
sidered the  oldest  and  first  name  under  which  these  re- 
gions became  ever  known  to  the  Europeans. 

The  Spaniards,  sinuo  1620,  included  the  land  under 
the  names  of  Terra  de  Ayllon  and  Florida,  and  the 
French,  since  1563,  under  the  name  otNaurilU  France. 
The  English  invented  the  name  Virginia  at  first  (1 583) 
for  the  country  lying  round  Pamlico  and  Albemarle 
Sound.  They  composed  this  name,  it  Is  said,  for  two 
reasons :  first,  because  it  was  dUcovercd  in  tho  rcign 
of  their  Virgin  Queen,  Elizabeth ;  and,  secondly,  "  be- 
cause tho  country  seemed  still  to  retain  tho  virgin 
purity  and  plenty  of  the  lirst  creation,  ond  the  people 
there  the  primitive  innocence." 

They  extended  this  name  at  once  over  a  great  part 
of  the  cast  coast,  and  particularly  over  tho  vicinity  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  which  was  already  discovered  from 
tho  Roanoke  settlements,  and  Arhich  we  see  included 
under  the  name  c.  Virginia  on  the  lirst  map  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1590. 

When,  since  1606,  the  Chesapeake  Ray  was  better 
explored  and  settled,  and  when  it  became  the  principal 
centra  of  tho  English  settlements  on  the  cast  coast,  this 
region  was,  par  excellence,  called  Virginia,  sometimes 
Now  Virginia,  while  tho  former  settlements  and  coun- 
try round  Albemarle  Sound,  then  forsaken,  were  some- 
times (for  instance,  on  a  map  of  Captain  J.  Smith)  call- 


ed Oald  Virginia.  This  was,  however,  more  a  popu- 
lar manner  of  denomination.  The  official  or  legal 
name  of  the  country  was,  in  tho  year  1606,  by  King 
James  I.  thus  confined :  He  called  Virginia,  or  the  Vir- 
ginian territory  or  coast,  the  whole  east  coast  of  North 
America,  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  forty-fifth  de- 
gree of  north  latitude.  This  whole  territory  was  di- 
vided by  the  royal  patent  into  two  parts,  a  northern 
and  a  southern.  'The  southern  commenced  in  the 
south  at  34°  north  latitude,  and  ended  in  the  north 
at  about  40°  north  latitude.  It  was  called  the  First 
Colony,  or  tho  Southern  Settlements  in  Virginia,  or 
Virginia  proper. 

When  Captain  J.  Smith  and  Prince  Charles  invent- 
ed nnd  introduced  (1616)far  Northern  Virginia  the  new 
name  of  New  Kngland,  the  appellation  Southern  Vir- 
ginia disappeared,  and  was  changed  to  Virginia. 

By  tho  separation  of  tho  territories  of  Maryland 
(1632),  of  Carolana  (1629),  and  of  Carolina  (1668),  tho 
name  and  province  of  Virginia  lost  a  great  deal  of  their 
former  extension,  and  received  at  last  their  present 
limits,  between  38°  and  86^°  north  latitude,  so  far  as 
our  coast  is  concerned.  The  changes  of  the  boundaries 
toward  the  interior  regions  have  no  interest  here  for 

us.— KOIIL. 

Phytictd  Features,  etc. — As  regards  surface  and  soil, 
this  State  may  Ixi  divided  into  four  sections.  The 
eastern  includes  a  tra>:t  of  about  100  to  120  miles  in 
width,  and  is  generally  low  and  level,  and  in  come 
places  marshy.  It  has  a  light  sandy  soil,  mostly  cov- 
ered with  pines.  West  of  the  line  of  the  head  of  tide- 
water the  country  becomes  undulating  and  hilly,  until 
it  attains  one  continuous  mountain  elevation  known  as 
the  Blue  Ridge,  crossing  the  entire  width  of  the  State. 
The  alluvial  lands  in  this  tract  are  for  the  most  parf 
very  fertile,  those  of  James  River  cspeciall)'  l)eing  un- 
usually productive.  The  third  section  includes  the 
valley  lietween  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  This  tract,  though  in  parts  broken  by 
mountains,  is  generally  the  most  fertile  and  healthy 
part  of  the  State.  The  fourth  section  includes  the 
country  between  the  Alleghany  chain  and  the  Ohio. 
This  portion,  though  in  many  places  wild  and  broken, 
has  a  great  deal  of  fine  fertile  land,  and  vast  deposits 
of  coal,  iron,  salt,  etc.  Gold  is  found  in  Fluvanna  and 
Buckingham  counties  and  vicinity;  and  many  valu- 
able mineral  springs  exist. 

There  were  in  this  State  in  1850, 10,360,136  acres  of 
land  improved;  and  16,792,176  unimproved  land  In 
farms;  cash  value  of  farms,  $216,401,613;  and  the 
valucof  Implements  and  machinery,  $7,021,772.  Live 
■S/orl;.— Horses, "72,403;  assesand mules, 21,483;  milch 
cows,  317,619;  working  oxen,  89,613;  other  cattle, 
669,137;  sheep,  1,310,001;  swine,  1,829,843.  Valuo 
of  live  stock,  $33,656,659. 

Agricultural  Producti,  ffc.— Wheat,  11,212,616  bush- 
els ;  rye,  458,930;  Indian  com,  35,224,319;  oats, 
10,179,'l43;  barley,  25,437 ;  buckwheat,  214,898 ;  pcos 
and  beans,  621,679;  potatoes,  1,316,933;  sweet  pota- 
toes, 1,813,634;  rice,  17,161  lbs. ;  value  of  products  of 
the  orchard,  $177,137;  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$18,3,047;  pounds  ofbuttermado,  11,089,359;  of  cheese, 
436,292;  maple-sugar,  1,227,666  lbs.;  molasses,  40,822 
gallonn;  beeswax  and  honey,  880,767 ;  wool,  2,860,766 
lbs.  produced;  cotton,  8947";  flax,  1,000,460;  silk  co- 
coons, 617;  hops,  11,506  lbs.;  iobacco,  50,803,227; 
hay,  369,098  tons;  hemp, 88  tons ;  clover  seeds,  29,727 
bushels;  other  grass  seeds,  53,428;  flax-seed,  52,818 
bushels ;  and  were  made,  5408  gallons  of  wine ;  value 
of  home-made  mannfactures,  $2,150,812;  of  slaughter- 
ed animals,  $7,502,986. 

Hivert,  etc. — The  Potomac  River  separates  Virginia 
from  Maryland.  James  River  is  tho  largest  which  be- 
longs to  this  State.  It  is  500  miles  in  length,  and 
flows  from  the  mountains  in  the  interior  behind  the 
Blue  Ridge,  through  which  it  passes.  It  is  navigable 
for  sloops  120  miles,  and  for  boats  mucli  farther,  and 


VOY 


flows  Into  Che8ani..t.  n  ^^SS 

the  Potomac  J„8t  before  f,'?''' «''<'»''ndo.-.l  enters    W  T.^'"'''' ^"v.  latll","'',''"'  \^  ""hs  from  th« 


im «.209,8&2 

IgOH »-2iO,47S 

180? 4,696.o;7 

Igoo 3.324,(110 

a::::;:ljlj!« 

Total...  r$3§-jjg;^j- 

I  Sept  80,1831....  ,-,,„„„. 

1832..       •■  *i'^?»'^ 

1833.     .:••  I'jS^!" 

1834.. K'iJ2'^-» 

iSSl ftOHW, 

isw:::--    S'».?28 


l&ST. 
1838.... 
1839....   ' 

1840 ; 

Total.. 


S,6:iti,T10  I 
8.977,8Pr> 
6, 1  S3, -124 
4, 70'.!  07 
*-lS,30i,f,|5l 


$489 
10,734 

s.wa 

13.S6S 

9.C18 

148.012 

3,604 

8,;;33 

3.772 

S,2,'i8 


Onioi,    ]|«; 8,745,227 

j«n<,8o.i|«.;:;::;    ^;S 


18(6.. 
184«.. 
1>''47.... 
]8«.... 
1S49. . 

I860..,;; 

1   tal. 


2.101,045  I 
8. 62,'^,  903 
S.646.66S 
3,fl79,8SS 
8  30fl,4.)2 
3.413.158 


(June80,I881 |  jarq-j... 

iX 3,.3n2,f,(t| 

is? 4.762,218 

iSS I  6.489,022 

-^^1i:^.i:jA^  T,23l,33l» 


$1,370 
6. 159 
2,fl.'j5 
19.l'41 
3,6,18 
330 
12.700 
l.r>B4 
4,310 
2. 4^8 


$2,024 
2,!'S0 
4.230 

SS.rm 

6,745 

16,979 


«M)Tii;2io- 

3,217,089 

4.000,788 

8,277,564 

<■  129,620 

4.690,732 

4,067,933 

.''.340,185 

3.787,431 

4,7!i].t84 

itiSissi^ojr 

$4,159,475 
4,610.050 
4.407,687 
6.483, 098 
0,004,003 
0.192,040 
3,702,714 
3,980,228 
6,187,190 
__4J78^) 

$48,622,271 


*l,078,.l'„ 
804.102 
081,810 
039.787 
663.602 
038,488 
431,70.5 
8K,23S 
396.862 
__40BJ8J 
$0,0(il,3!i8~ 


*»,0,'!0,280 
3,76il,.3,S6 
1.967,106 
2,942,279 
2,104,681 
3,.5£9,299 
6,0'8,374 
3,081,412 
S.S78.7S8 
.'!.4lr>,040 
^3M43,I00 


"  "'  Iw^  ™^-- ^^Ks^oa  xna 


$488,622 
C63,«39 
090,391 
837,826 
091,258 
1,100,814 
8!.1,802 
177,142 
9I.'i.4fi2 
645,086 

"IriaiTaiir 

$377,2.17 
310,705 
187,002 
207,064 

207,  CW 

209,004 

880,)ii7 

21,^08l 

241.(.'i5 

420  5:  9 

¥2,8.  6,002 

$652,rS3 
7.'i5,8;;8 
.'il9,lin4 
1,270,210 
8.'i5,405 
09>,sr5 
l..''>.W,lf.4 


J.646 
J,  122 
28,800 
46,677 
41,309 
60,734 
63,S85 
42,r,'-,8 
40,020 


48,719 
66,183 
40  527 

49,8(:8 
43,092 
42,012 
29.397 
18,779 
41,494 
_48,400 
420;83r 


0,4S3  I 
7,413  1 
9,.'!20  I 
8,070 

7,010 

8,069  I 

7,S43 

7,278 

0,771 


T2;216' 


',637 


12,,W9 


6.1,910 

46,122 

34,943 

44,100 

SO,  180 

48,571 

0,1,110 

48,420 

(S.ns9 

42,091 

.14.101 
37.3S4 
.1.'>.901 
02, 00,1 
4S.790 
43,679 
00,224 


Vv,   -        -' ■y,''J:'_l      7,249,709       1  .-tin' ,,Y  ™.0»0         24,04S 

^'-  ■""""-  to  j„„e  ^J^dr^StiJ '"^-^^^ 

»PEn.v8.  ''  "■""  '"■Sins  J"iy  1 


I41,3'81 

9,833 
10,518 
4,353 
7..143 
4,621 
7,103 
3!iir.72  I 
10,r72 
10,689  I 
23.307 
1::U,171 

31,180 

29,089 

27,000 

30,007  , 

22,94.' 

24,043  ,' 

22,500 


13,156 


10,337 


"  "'"  "mo  boBJns  July  1. ' — ^ J 

■^^~<^^  p£CXSi  tSr'-'- K 

vo.v«ge  ro„„.,  „,o  „.orI.I  y^^^r^llT"'''':  ^Le  fln,t 
Spanish  squadron  which  h„,i  i  •'  "  '*">'  Pa"  of  a 

?f  Magellan  (.ho  wtt  ituuhe' P  -n  "''' """'"•'•n^ 

_^^__^  _;^L^^^,         ma  skirmish)  i„  151!)-'20     The  em^r  "PP'"*  ^"''"<'' 

^'"««-^oat^^^^^^^;^-'|-^J.^^^^^^ 


WAG 


1936 


WAR 


'«..^'. 


w. 


Wages.  The  wages  of  sandry  workmen  In  En- 
gland were  fint  fixed  by  act  of  Parliament,  26  Edward 
III.,  1860.  Hay-makera  had  but  one  penny  a  day. 
Master  carpenters,  masons,  tilers,  and  other  coverers 
of  houses,  had  not  more  than  8d.  per  day  (about  9d.  of 
the  present  currency,  sterling),  and  their  servants  Hd. 
— ViNER's  atattOei.  By  the  23d  Uonty  VI.,  14-14,  the 
wages  of  a  bailiff  of  husbandry  was  23>.  iii.  per  annum, 
and  clothing  of  the  price  of  &«.,  with  meat  and  drinli ; 
chief  hind,  carter,  or  shepherd,  20«. ;  clothing,  it. :  com- 
mon servant  of  husbandry,  1S«. ;  clothing,  iOd, :  woman- 
servant,  10«. ;  clothing,  4>.  By  the  lltb  Henry  VII., 
1495,  there  was  a  like  rate  of  wages,  only  with  a  little 
advance ;  as,  for  instance,  a  free  mason,  ii^aster  car- 
penter, rough  mason,  bricklayer,  master  tiler,  plumb- 
er, glazier,  carver,  or  joiner,  was  allowed  from  Easter 
to  Michaelmas  to  take  G(<.  a  day,  without  meat  and 
drink;  or  with  meat  and  drink, 4k  ;  from  Michaelmas 
to  Easter,  to  abate  \d.  A  master  having  under  him 
six  men  was  allowed  Id.  a  day  extra.  The  following 
were  the  wages  of  harvest-men  in  England  at  different 
periods 


Vmh. 

1360 

14fl!l 

IMS 

Per  Dlam, 

t.    d. 

0    1 

0  a 

0    4 

Y«>n. 

174') 

1701) 

17S8 

1704 

1800 

P«r  Diem 
«.   d. 

II  10 

1     0 

1     4 

1     0 

. .  *2    0 

lfl»2 

1088 

0    0 

0    8 

1710 

0    9 

1841) 

a  » 

Wake,  the  track  of  a  ship  which  she  leaves  in  tlie 
watet.  A  vessel  directly  astern  of  another  is  said  to 
bo  in  her  wake. 

Wales,  a  peninsular  portion  of  South  Britain,  on 
its  west  side,  between  lot.  51°  23'  and  63°  26'  N.,  and 
long.  2°  41'  and  5°  17'  W.,  liaving  on  the  east  the  En- 
-glish  counties  of  Chester,  Salop,  Hereford,  and  Mon- 
mouth, and  on  other  sides  the  Bristol  and  St.  George's 
channels  and  the  Irish  Sea. 

Agriculture  is  extremely  backward.  Barley  ond 
oats  are  the  chief  grains  raised  ;  the  culture  of  potatoes 
and  turnips  is  extending.  Farms  mostly  small,  aver- 
aging in  South  Wales  only  from  50  to  CO  acres,  whore, 
however,  the  tenantry  are  fur  better  lodged  than  in 
the  north.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared  for  the 
English  markets.  The  number  of  sheep  is  estimated 
at  1,250,000,  and  the  annual  produce  of  wool  at  10,000 
packs.  A  hardy  small  breed  of  ponies  is  reared,  es- 
pecially in  the  counties  of  Montgomery  and  Merion- 
eth. The  mining  interest  is  highly  important.  Iron, 
copper,  lead,  silver,  slate,  limestone,  and  in  the  south 
Urge  quantities  of  coal  are  raised,  which  lust  product 
is  extensively  exported,  and  used  in  large  quantities 
on  the  spot  for  smelting  both  British  and  foreign  ores. 
In  lit40  South  Wales  had  132  furnaces  in  oi)cration, 
consuming  annually  about  1,430,000  tons  of  cuul,  and 
prwlucing  506,000  tons  of  iron ;  and  North  Wales  12 
furnaces,  consuming  110,000  tons  of  coal,  and  ]iruduc- 
ing  26,500  tons  of  iron.  The  principal  iron- works  are 
at  and  around  Merthyr-Tydvil,  Tredegar,  Aberdure, 
and  Rhualwn ;  at  Swansea  largo  quantities  of  Amer- 
ican and  other  copper  ores  are  reduced.  Manufactures 
of  woolen  fabrics,  especially  of  flannel  and  hosier}-,  are 
ver>'  generally  pursued  in  the  cottages  of  the  peasantry, 
particularly  in  North  Wales,  where  Welshpool  is  the 
chief  mart  for  these  products.  The  cotton  manufac- 
ture has  extended  into  some  of  the  northern  counties ; 
and  in  1847, 1860  hands  were  employed  in  wooleri,  cot- 
tun,  and  silk  factories.  A  manufuctor}-  of  slate  articles 
exists  at  Bangor.  Trade  principally  in  tho  export  of 
mineral  produce,  cattle,  and  woolen  goods.  Frbicipal 
ports,  Swansea,  Newport,  Cardiff,  Caernarvon,  and 
Beaumaris ;  besides  which  Holyhead  is  a  chief  packet 
station  for  communication  with  Ireland,  and  Milford  is 
a  naval  port,  and  the  seat  of  a  government  dock-yard. 
—Set  arti'-l'.t  Eholaiid  and  Qbbat  Bbitauc. 


Walnuts,  the  fnilt  of  the  Jughtt$,  or  v*liint4re«, 
of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  The  walnut  is  a 
large,  handsome  tree,  with  strong  spreading  branches. 
The  fruit  is  a  pretty,  large,  smooth,  ovate  nut,  contain- 
ing an  oily  kernel  divided  into  four  lobes.  The  nut 
has  been  always  held  in  high  estimation ;  it  was  called 
by  tho  Romans  JovU  jjiani,  the  acorn  or  mast  of  Jove, 
and  hence  the  name  of  the  tree. 

The  walnut-tree  is  indigenous  to  PersU  and  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Caspian  Sea.  Previously 
to  the  very  general  introduction  of  mahogany,  the 
wood  of  the  walnut-tree  was  generally,  and  is  yet  ex- 
tensively'  used  in  making  of  furniture.  It  is  much 
used  by  turners,  and  is  sujierior  to  every  other  sort  of 
wood  for  tho  mounting  of  guns.  Great  numbers  of  wal- 
nut-trees are  annually  consumed  in  the  Haute  Vienne 
and  other  departments  of  FrancOf  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  wooden  shoes  or  clogs  used  by  the  peasantry. 
Tho  nuts  are  either  gathered  when  ripe,  being  served 
up  at  desserts  without  any  preparation,  or  they  are 
plucked  green  and  pickled. — Poiukt,  Ilisiiire  Phito- 
tofMque  de»  Planles,  tome  vii. ;  Kees'  Cyclojmdia,  etc. 

Wampum  (from  Wampi  or  Wompi,  signifying,  in 
the  Massachusetts  Indian  language,  white,  the  color  of 
the  shells  most  frequent  in  wampum  belts),  shells,  or 
strings  of  shells,  used  by  the  American  Indians  as 
money.  These,  when  united,  form  a  broad  belt,  which 
in  worn  as  an  ornament  or  girdle.  It  is  sometimes 
called  wampumpague,  or  Kampeague,  or  wampampeague, 
of  which  wampum  seems  to  be  a  contraction. 

Wangheea,  sometimes  called  Japan  canes,  a  spe- 
cies of  cane  imported  from  China.  They  should  bo 
chosen  pliable,  tough,  round,  und  taper ;  the  knots  at 
regular  distances  from  each  other,  and  the  heavier  tho 
lietter.  Such  as  are  dark-colored,  badly  glazed,  and 
light,  should  ba  rejected. — Milbuhn's  Orient.  Com, 
See  article  Cane. 

Warehousing  System.  By  this  system  is 
meant  tlie  provisions  made  for  lodging  imimrted  ar- 
ticles in  pulilic  warehouses  at  a  reasonable  rent,  with- 
out payment  of  the  duties  on  importation  till  they  be 
withdrawn  for  home  consumption.  If  re-exported,  no 
duty  is  claimed. 

Kxpediencg  and  Origin  of  the  Warehouting  Sgstem. — 
It  is  laid  down  by  Dr.  Smith,  in  one  of  his  justly  cele- 
brated maxims  on  the  subject  of  taxation,  that  "  every 
tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner 
that  is  muf't  likely  to  be  convenient  for  the  contril>u- 
tor  to  pay  it." —  Wealth  oj" Nations.  No  one  can  doubt 
the  soundness  of  this  maxim ;  and  yet  it  was  very 
strangely  neglected,  down  to  1803,  in  the  management 
of  the  customs.  Previously  to  this  period,  the  duties 
on  most  goods  imported  had  either  to  bo  paid  at  the 
moment  of  their  im|)ortation,  or  a  bond,  with  sufficient 
security  for  their  future  payment,  had  to  be  given  to 
the  revenue  officers.  Tho  hardship  and  inconvenience 
of  such  a  system  is  obvious.  It  was  often  very  diffi- 
cult to  find  sureties ;  and  the  merchant,  in  order  to 
raise  funds  to  pay  the  duties,  was  frequently  reduced 
to  tho  ruinous  necessity  of  selling  his  goods  immedi- 
ately on  tlieir  arrival,  when,  perhaps,  the  market  was 
already  glutted.  Neither  was  this  the  only  ineon- 
venlcnco  that  grew  out  of  this  system ;  for  the  duties 
having  to  be  paid  all  at  once,  and  not  by  degrees  as  the 
goods  were  sold  for  consumption,  their  price  was  raised 
by  tho  amount  of  the  prollt  on  the  capital  advanced  in 
payment  of  tho  duties ;  competition,  too,  was  dimin- 
ished in  consequence  of  the  greater  command  of  funds 
required  to  carry  on  trade  under  such  disadvantages ; 
and  a  few  rich  individuals  were  enabled  to  monopolize 
tho  importation  of  those  commodities  on  which  heavy 
duties  were  payable.  The  system  had,  besides,  an  ob- 
vious tendency  to  discourage  tho  carrying  trade.  .It 
prevented  this  countiy  from  becoming  the  entrepot  for 


7 ""   "UCn    n., 

Storage  business" 
in  stores  of  this  class 


WAS 


1088 


WAT 


Ohio  Railroad.  Ut.  (of  tlie  National  Olxiervatory)  88° 
88'  89"-8  N.,  long.  77°  2'  48"  W.  from  Greenwich, 
England.  It  is  296  miles  from  the  ocean  by  the  course 
of  the  river,  88  fh>m  Baltimore,  and  226  from  New 
York.  The  population  in  1800  was  8210;  in  1810, 
8208 ;  in  1820, 18,247 ;  in  1830, 18,827 ;  in  1840,  28,864 ; 
in  1850,  46,000;  and  in  1864, 46,000. 

The  Navy  Yard  is  situated  on  the  "  Anacostia,"  a 
branch  of  the  Potomac  Kiver,  at  the  southern  termina- 
tion of  Eighth  Street,  east.  It  covers  an  area  of  about 
twenty  acres,  and  is  inclosed  by  a  substantial  bricit 
wall,  having  a  principal  entrance  at  the  foot  of  Eighth 
Street,  through  a  handsome  arched  gateway.  The 
mechanical  o|)erations  of  this  establishment  are  various 
and  extensive,  and  the  skill  of  the  workmen  and  the 
•zcellence  of  the  materials  employed  have  been  satis- 
factorily tested  in  every  sea.  Anchors  of  various  sizes, 
for  the  naval  service,  are  manufactured  by  the  use  of 
two  heavy  steam-hammers  (termed  the  "Nasmytb 
Hammer"),  one  of  which  weighs  3600  lbs.,  the  other 
2240  lbs.  The  forges  for  this  work  are  kept  in  blast 
by  a  fan-blower  attached  to  the  steam-engine  in  the 
macliinist's  department.  There  is  also  in  operation, 
in  the  anchor  department,  a  direct  action  steam-ham- 
mer (called  the  "  Kirk  Hammer"),  in  connection  with 
a  blast  furnace  for  working  up  into  looms  and  l>ars  all 
the  scrap  iron  of  the  navy.  The  massive  chain  cables 
are  made  in  another  shop,  which  is  provided  with  a 
powerful  hydrostatic  press  for  testing  their  strength. 
— See  article  DisTnicr  of  Columbia  for  commerce  of 
Washington. 

Waahington,  a  territory  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  lies  between  lat.  46°  26'  N.,  long.  108°  80' 
and  124°  30'  W.  Area,  113,821  square  miles.  It  is 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the 
Pacilic  Ocean  on  the  west,  has  Oregon  on  its  south 
border,  and  the  British  possessions  on  the  north.  The 
entire  population  in  1860  was  1201 ;  in  1864,  estimated 
at  6000.  It  is  divided  into  six  counties,  viz. :  Clark, 
Lewis,  PacUic,  Pierce,  Stevens,  and  Thurston.  The 
country  west  of  the  Cascade  Range  is  the  only  portion 
yet  settled  by  a  white  population ;  it  lias  a  diversified 
surface,  and  the  valleys  iHirdering  the  streams  have  a 
luxuriant  soil.  The  streams  are  small,  the  Cowlitz 
and  other  small  streams  entering  the  Columbia  River 
on  the  south,  the  Cbickeeies  entering  Gray's  harlmr 
on  the  west,  and  a  number  of  other  streams  entering 
Puget  Sound  on  the  northwest.  I'uget  Sound,  Hood's 
Canal,  and  Admiralty  Inlet  abound  with  fine  harbors. 
The  Cascade  Range  crosses  the  territory  from  the  south 
(at  the  Cascades,  on  the  Columbia  Kiver)  entirely  across 
it  to  the  north,  rising  in  several  peaks  above  the  snow 
line,  as  Slaunt  St.  Helens  (an  active  volcano),  Mount 
Rainier,  Mount  Uofcer,  etc.  East  of  this  range  little  is 
known  of  the  capabilities  of  the  country  as  an  agricul- 
tural region,  although  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  being 
well  adapted  for  stock  raising.  It  is  drained  by  the 
constituents  of  tlia  Columbia,  consisting  of  Kooskoosky 
and  I'eloose  rivers  of  the  Lewis  Fork,  and  Spokane, 
Okunagaii,  Uairier,  and  Yakima  rivers  of  Clark's  Fork, 
and  (Juthalacodes  entering  the  Columbia  River. 

The  Strait  of  Juaa  de  t'lica,  including  the  waters  of 
Admiralty  Inlet,  Hood  Canal,  and  I'uget  Sound,  with 
the  Archipelago  of  Arro  up  to  the  49th  parallel,  were 
ail  surveyed  by  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion. The  whole  is  unBur|>asBed  by  any  estuary  in  the 
world.  They  comprise  many  very  fine  hnrlrars  and 
safe  anchorages,  are  entirely  free  from  dangers,  and 
cover  an  area  of  about  2000  s()uiro  miles.  The  coun- 
try by  which  these  waters  are  surrounded  is  remark- 
ably salubrious,  and  oSen  cverj-  advantage  for  the  ac- 
commodations uf  a  vast  commercial  and  military  ma- 
rine, with  conveniences  for  docks,  and  many  sites  for 
towns  and  cities,  at  all  times  well  supplied  with  water, 
and  capable  of  being  provided  with  ail  needful  supplies 
from  the  surrounding  oountrj-,  which  is  well  adapted 
for  agriculture.     This  strait  is  ninety-five  miles  in 


length ;  average  width  eleven  miles  (entrance  eight 
miles  In  width) ;  no  dangers  exist,  and  it  may  be  saloly 
navigated  throughout.  This  territory  was  separated 
flrom  Oregon  in  the  year  1868,  and  constituted  a  separ- 
ate territory. — Harpeu'b  OaieUeer. 

Watohea  (G«r.  Uhren,  TVucAmuArcn ;  Fr.  Mon- 
Irtt ;  It.  Oriuoli  da  tana,  o  da  eaceoccia  i  Sp.  Jlehjet 
de/altriguera ;  Russ.  KarmannAe  lichoiU),  portable  ma- 
chines, generally  of  a  small  size,  and  round,  fiat  shape, 
that  measure  and  indicate  the  successive  portions  of 
time,  having  for  the  most  port  their  motions  regula- 
ted by  a  spiral  spring.  When  constructed  on  the  most 
approved  principles,  and  executed  in  the  best  manner, 
a  watch  is  not  only  an  exceedingly  useful,  but  a  most 
admirable  piece  of  mechanism.  It  has  exercised  the 
genius  and  invention  of  the  most  skillful  mechanics, 
as  well  as  of  some  of  the  ablest  mathematicians,  for 
nearly  three  centuries.  And,  considering  the  small- 
ness  of  its  sire,  its  capacity  of  being  carried  about  un- 
injured in  every  variety  of  position,  the  number  and 
complexity  of  its  movements,  and  the  extraordinary 
accuracy  with  which  it  represents  the  successive  por- 
tions of  time  as  determineil  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis,  we  need  not.wonder  at  Dr.  Paley  having 
referred  to  it  as  a  striking  specimen  of  human  ingenu- 
ity. Spring  watches  are  constructed  nearly  on  the 
same  principle  ais  pendulum  clocks.  Instead  of  the 
pendulum  in  the  hitter,  a  spring  is  used  in  the  former, 
the  isochronism  of  the  vibrations  of  which  corrects  the 
unequal  motions  of  the  balance. 

JIutorical  Notice. — The  invention  of  spring  watches 
dates  from  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  centur}',  and 
has  been  warmly  contested  for  Huygens  and  Hooke. 
The  English  writers  generally  incline  in  favor  of  tho 
latter.  Dr.  Hutton  says  {Slalhtmatical  Dictionary, 
art.  Watch)  that  the  words  "  Kob.  Hooko  invonit, 
1668,"  were  inscribed  on  the  dUl  plate  of  a  watch  pre- 
sented to  Charles  II.  in  1676.  But  Montucla  aHirms 
{Itittoin  det  Mafhematiquet,  tome  ii,  p.  413,  ed.  1800) 
that  Huygens  mode  this  "  belle  dicouverle"  in  1660,  and 
presented  a  spring  watch  to  the  states  of  Holland  in 
16.')7.  Comparing  these  statements,  it  certainly  ap- 
pears that  the  claim  6f  Huygens  to  the  priority  of  the 
discovery  is  the  better  established  of  the  two.  We  do 
not,  however,  be'lieve  that  either  of  those  distinguished 
persons  owed,  in  this  respect,  any  thing  to  the  other. 
The  probability  seems  to  be,  that  tho  happy  idea  of 
employing  a  spring  to  regulate  the  motion  of  watches 
occurred  to  them  both  nearly  at  the  same  time. 

Improvement  of  Watchet. — Owing  to  the  facility  with 
which  the  longitude  may  be  determined  by  the  uid  of 
accurately  going  watches,  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
have  them  made  as  perfect  as  possible.  In  this  view, 
liberal  premiums  have  been  criven  to  the  makers  of  tho 
liest  marine  watches,  or  chronometers.  In  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  Parliament  ofTered  a  reward  of  ;e20,OUO 
to  any  one  who  should  make  a  watch,  or  other  instru- 
ment capable  of  detemintng  the  longitude  at  sea,  with- 
in certain  limits.  This  magnificent  premium  was 
awarded,  in  1764,  to  the  oeIebi,-ute<l  John  Harrison,  for  a 
marine  wntch,  which,  being  tried  in  a  voyage  to  Hur- 
badoes,  determined  its  longitude  with  even  more  than 
the  required  accuracy.  Other  premiums,  though  of 
inferior  amount,  were  subse<|uently  given  to  Messrs. 
Mudge,  Arnold,  Earnshaw,  etc.  Since  1822,  two  prizes, 
one  of  .£800  and  one  of  £200,  have  been  annually  given 
to  the  makers  of  the  two  chronometers  adjudged  to  lio 
the  best,  after  having  been  submitted  to  a  twelve- 
month's trial  at  tho  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 
And  to  such  perfection  has  the  manufacture  attained, 
that  some  of  the  chronometers  employed  by  naviga- 
tors, though  carried  into  the  most  opposite  climates, 
have  not  varied  to  the  extent  of  two  seconds  in  their 
mean  rate  of  going  throughout  the  year. 

Watch  Manufacture.— the  watch-making  business 
is  largely  carried  on  in  London ;  the  artists  of  which 
have  attained  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence  in  this  do* 


WAT 


1939 


WAT 


it 

ly 

ad 
ir- 

Ml- 

)j« 

n»- 

ipe, 

I  of 

uU- 

mo»t 

iner, 

most 

ithe 

inlos, 

18,  for 

iit  un- 
•r  and 
ilinary 
,0  por- 
e  6artl> 
having 
Ingonu- 
ou  the 
I  of  the 
former, 
recta  the 

watches 

tar)',  an* 
1  Hooke. 
,or  of  the 
Uctiotwry, 
a  invonit, 
ftUtch  pre- 
cla  affirms 
1  ed.  ISOO) 
1 1050,  and 
floUand  In 

■Wtnly  ap- 
,rityofthe 

lo.  We  do 
ltlnguW»ed 

the  other. 
Ipy  idea  of 

of  watches 

ime. 

tcmtywitn 
■  the  aid  of 
portance  to 
\  this  view, 
Aersoftlio 
1  the  reign 
of£20,0UO 
Ither  instru- 
itsea,wlth- 
smioin  was 
irriBon,foro 
rage  to  War- 
k  more  than 
, though  of 
to  Messrs. 
two  prizes, 
luaUy  given 
[judged  to  1)6 
[o  a  twelve- 
Greenwich, 
ire  attained, 
J  by  naviga- 
[ite  climates, 
inds  in  tlicir 

ling  business 
Ists  of  which 
Ice  in  this  dor 


at  least  18  per  cent,  on  the  dockf,  which  fa  a  parinir 
buslnen.  There  are  doubtless  many  similar  agents 
mthe  exporUtlon  of  the  article,  which  Is  an  advanUse 
to  ourselves ;  and  for  this  reason  we  desire  to  see  it 
fostered,  and  again  take  its  place  among  the  industrial 
products  of  our  country.— &e  Homt's  Merclumli'  Maa- 
aztne,  Januarj-,  1867. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  clocks  Im- 
ported  into  and  exported  from  the  United  SUtes  dur. 
mg  the  year  ending  Jone  80,  1866,  derived  ftam  the 
annual  rej^rt  of  the  Secretory  of  the  Treasury : 

Hamburg  .^".!'.''."; '*^-     «■'"««'■ 


Bremen  T i  jwi 

Belgium ;: ''JflJ 

Ji^W '■'■'■  i».»«« 


Ireland 
t'anadk  . 


CO 


- — g 

France Ko  RTT 


Papal  States 

Mexico 

Now  Granada 
VGOrzuela. . . 
China 

Total. , 


$4200 

IMS 
483 


IT 

141 

4 

ITS 
W 


lupoEis  OF  Watcito  and  Paets  or  Watoiiks  mm  the 
I  niteh  States  for  tuk  Ykab  kniiiho  Ji;nk  80.  185T. 


Whenta  lmpor1«d. 


RuBalan  Pom.  In  N.  Amcr. 

Hamburg 

Ilremcn 

Holland '.','.■. 

Dclglum 

Kngland 

ffcolland 

Canada  

France 

Cuba I, 

New  Granada 

VencKucla 

Urarll 

Total,  1866-'5T 


Wnlebtt  uid 
parli  of. 


Value. 

$1,S!0 

1,2T9 

103,02» 

M 

18 

2,463,«)8 

8,T18 

309 

l,106,ei>4 

KO 

2,118 

140 

1,4W 


Waleh  Crjitab. 
"ValuaT 


16,430 


$98,  ITS 


8,9m 


partment.  There  may  be  about  14,000  gold  and  85,000 
silver  watches  annually  assayed  at  Goldsmiths'  Hall, 
London  (Jacob  on  the  Prtdou,  Metal,,  vol.  11.  p.  418) 

under  £600,000.  The  manufacture  Is  also  carried  on 
to  a  considerable  extent  at  Li^rerpool,  Coventry,  Edin- 
burgh,  etc.  Watch  movements  used  to  be  extensively 
manufactured  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire;  but  latteriv 
we  believe,  the  manufacturers  have  been  withdrawina 
to  Liverpool.  On  tho  Continent  watches  are  prinoi- 
pally  manufactured  in  Pari,,  Geneva,  and  in  Neuf- 
chatel.  Some  of  the  French  and  Swiss  watches,  par- 
tlcularly  the  latter,  are  excellent ;  but,  generally  .ieak- 
Ing,  they  are  slight,  and  inferior  to  those  made  In  Lon- 
don.  Paris  and  Geneva  watches  are  largely  exported 
to  foreign  countries,  and  are  every  where  in  high  es- 
timation, particularly  among  the  ladles.  Watches 
impressed  with  any  mark  or  stamp,  appearing  to  be  or 
to  represent  any  legal  British  assay  mark  or  stamp,  or 
purporting  by  any  mark  or  appearance  to  be  of  the 
manufacture  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  not  having 
the  name  and  place  of  abode  of  some  foreign  maker 
abroad  visible  on  the  frame  and  also  on  the  face  or  not 
being  in  a  complete  state,  with  all  the  parts  properiv 
fixed  in  tho  case,  n-ay  not  be  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom,  even  for  the  purpose  of  being  warehoused 
— 8and4  »ri«.7K.,c.ft2,§68. 

Watchei  m  CAimi.— Large  numbers  of  European 
watches  are  Imported  into  China  s  and  it  may  be  worth 
mentioning,  as  a  curious  Instance  of  the  diversity  of 
tastes,  that  the  Chinese,  as  well  as  most  other  Eastern 
nations,  who  can  afford  it,  uniformlly  mar  vatchet  m 
pair*  /  This  sort  of  extravagance  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  watches,  but  extends  to  a  variety  of  other 
articles.  Shawls,  for  example,  are  invariably  worn  in 
India  in  pairs  of  exactly  the  same  pattern ;  and  it  is 
hardly  possible,  indeed,  to  find  a  native  dealer  who  will 
sell  a  single  shawl. 

Watches  and  Clocl-t — Out  of  thirty-one  clock  man- 
ufactories in  New  England  in  1862,  four  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  nine  have  stopped  by  failure,  and  five 
have  stopped  manufacturing  on  account  of  small  prof- 
its. There  are  still  thirteen  factories  making  clocks, 
but  only  six  of  them  are  runnuig  full  time,  and  with  a 
full  complement  of  hands.  These  six  will  produce 
about  95,000  clocks  this  year.  The  remaining  seven 
factories  will  make  about  48,000  clocks,  so  that  the 
total  production  of  clocks  this  year  will  not  exceed 
143,000. 

The  Jerome  Manufacturing  Company,  in  1853  and 
1854,  produced  each  year  4'!4,000  clocks.  Thus  they 
must  have  produced  more  than  an  average  of  one  clock 
per  minute.  The  factory  of  J.  C.  Brown,  during  1851 
and  1852,  issued  from  80,000  to  100,000  clocks  annu- 
ally, making  a  total  from  the  two  establishments  of 
over  500,000  clocks  each  year.  The  Ansonia  Com- 
pany manufactured  about  150,000  last  yeor.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  all  the  thirteen  factories  now  run- 
ning will  make  hardly  one-fourth  of  what  was  pro- 
duced by  three  of  the  large  factories  now  standing  still. 
The  question  naturally  arises.  What  shall  we  do  for 
low-priced  clocks  in  the  future  ?  There  is  still  a  large 
amount  of  fancy  clocks  on  hand,  but  the  wooden-frame 
"ogee"  and  "sharp-top  Gothic"  clocks  are  not  being 
made,  and  there  is  comparatively  none  in  the  market. 
The  wooden-frame  clocks  can  not  l)e  made  for  the  prices 
that  they  have  been  ,<old  at.  It  is  estimated  that 
nearly  half  a  million  of  dollars  have  been  lost  in  sell- 
ing clocks  under  the  cost  within  the  last  three  years. 
Tho  clocks  for  exportation  have  amounted  to  nixiut 
one  million  of  dollars  annually,  which  aided  us  in  the 
exchanges  with  tho  old  coimtry.  As  an  Instauce,  we 
know  one  house  that  imports  shawls,  linen,  collars, 
and  lace  goods  firom  Scotland,  and  makes  its  exchange 
in  clocks.     But  if  they  were  to  send  a  bill  of  exchange 

it  would  cost  them  from  7  to  8  per  cent. ;  but  sending  I  Is  more  fiuid  than  water  that  is  not  pure.    

out  clocks  at  6  per  cent,  profit  or  more,  it  makes  them  I  color,  smell,  or  taste.    4.  It  wets  more  easily  than  the 


■  I  $3,623,1)39  I  n,8ao 


*82,1T0 


Water.  It  may  be  thought  unnecessary,  perhaps, 
to  say  any  thing  in  a  work  of  this  sort  with  respect  to 
a  fiuid  so  well  known  and  so  abundant.  But,  besides 
being  an  indispensable  necessar)-  of  life,  water  is,  in 
most  large  cities,  an  important  commercial  article.  It 
is  in  the  latter  point  of  view  principally  that  we  mean 
to  consider  it.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  mode  of 
supplying  different  places  with  water,  and  its  price, 
necessarily  varj-  In  every  possible  way,  we  shall  limit 
our  remarks  on  these  subjects  to  the  metropolis  only. 
The  few  remarks  we  intend  to  offer  of  a  general  nature 
will  apply  indifferently  to  any  populous  place,  the  sup- 
ply  of  which  with  water  occasions  a  considerable  ex- 
pense. 

Qualili/  of  Water.— Vr.  Ure  has  made  the  following 
statements  with  respect  to  the  quality  of  water: 
"Water,"  says  he,  "is  a  very  transparent  fluid,  pos- 
sessing a  moderate  degree  of  activity  with  regard  to 
organized  substances,  which  renders  it  friendly  to  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  life,  for  both  which  it  is,  indeed,  in- 
dispensably necessar}-.  Hence  it  acts  but  slightly  on 
the  organs  of  sense,  and  Is  therefore  said  to  have 
neither  taste  nor  smell.  It  appears  to  possess  consid- 
erable elasticity,  and  yields  in  a  pereeptible  degree  to 
the  pressure  of  air  In  the  condensing  machine.  Native 
water  is  seldom,  if  ever,  found  perfectly  pure.  The 
waters  that  flow  within  or  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  contain  various  earthy,  saline,  metallic,  vege- 
table, or  animal  particles,  according  to  the  substances 
over  or  through  which  they  pass.  Rain  and  snow 
water  are  much  purer  than  these,  although  they  also 
contain  whatever  floats  in  the  air,  or  has  been  exhaled 
along  with  the  water}'  vapors. 

"  The  purity  of  water  may  be  known  by  the  follow- 
ing marks  or  properties  of  pure  water :  1.  Pure  water 
is  lighter  than  water  that  is  not  pure.    2.  Pure  water 

"It  has  no 


WAT 


1940 


WAX 


waten  conMatng  ineUlUc  and  earthy  salta,  called  hard 
watora,  and  feels  softer  when  touched.  6.  Soap,  or  a 
aolutlon  of  soap  in  alcohol,  mixes  easily  and  jwrfectly 
with  it.  6.  It  is  not  rendered  turbid  by  adding  to  it  a 
solution  of  gold  in  aqua  rtgia ;  or  a  solution  of  silver, 
or  «f  lead,  or  of  mercur}-,  In  nitric  acid ;  or  a  solution 
of  acetate  of  leud  in  water. 

"Water  was,  till  modem  times,  considered  as  an 
olementaiy  or  simple  sulutance ;  but  it  is  now  asceN 
tained  to  be  a  compound  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen." 

To  evaporate  water  enough  annually  from  the  ocean 
to  cover  the  earth,  on  the  average,  five  feet  deep  with 
rain ;  to  tran9|)0Tt  it  from  one  zone  to  another)  and  to 
precipitate  it  in  the  right  places,  nt  suitable  times  and 
in  the  proportions  du«,  is  one  of  the  offices  of  tlie  grand 
atmospherical  machine.  This  water  is  evaporated 
principally  from  the  torrid  zone.  Supposing  it  all  to 
come  thence,  we  shall  have  encircling  the  earth  a  belt 
of  ocean  three  thousand  miles  in  breadth,  from  which 
this  atmosphere  evaporates  a  layer  of  water  annually 
sixteen  feet  in  depth.  And  to  hoist  up  as  high  as  the 
clouds,  and  lower  down  again  all  the  water  in  a  lake 
sixteen  feet  deep,  and  three  thousand  miles  broad,  and 
twenty-four  thousand  long,  is  the  yearly  business  of 
this  invisible  machiner}-.  What  a  powerful  engine  is 
the  atmosphere!  and  how  nicely  adjusted  must  be  all 
the  cogs,  and  wheels,  and  springs,  and  compensationt 
of  this  exquisite  piece  of  machinerj',  that  it  never  wears 
out  nor  breaks  down,  nor  fails  to  do  its  work  at  the 
right  time  and  in  the  right  way ! 

In  his  annual  report  to  the  society  (Trantaetioru  of 
Ihe  Bombay  Geographical  Society  from  May,  1849,  to 
August,  18&0,  vol.  ix.),  Dr.  Buist,  the  secretary',  states, 
on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Laidly,  the  evaporation  at  Cal- 
cutta to  be  "  about  fifteen  feet  annually ;  that  between 
the  Cape  and  Calcutta  it  averages,  in  Octolwr  and 
Novcmlxr,  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  daily ;  be- 
tween 10°  and  20°,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  it  was  found 
to  exceed  an  inch  daily.  Supposing  this  to  be  double 
the  average  throughout  the  yr;ar,  we  should,"  continues 
the  doctor,  "  have  eighteen  feet  of  evaporation  annu- 
ally."— Mauuy,  Phy.  Geog. 

Water/or  Ship: — Various  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  art  of  preserving  water  on  board  ships. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  the  charring  the  inside  of 
the  casks  in  which  the  water  is  kept,  and  tho  substitu- 
tion of  iron  tanks  for  casks.  The  latter,  being  made 
of  the  required  shape,  may  bo  conveniently  stowed 
into  any  part  of  the  ship.  In  men-of-war  the  iron 
tanks  serve  as  ballast,  tho  water  being  brought  up  by 
a  foreing-pump.  Water  is  found  to  preserve  better  in 
them  than  in  any  other  sort  of  vessel.  Urip-stones 
may  be  employed  with  much  advantage  in  the  purifi- 
cation of  water.  When  water  is  taken  on  board  from 
a  river  into  which  the  tide  flows,  it  should,  of  course, 
be  raised  at  low  ebb. — See  article  Aijukduct  for  an 
account  of  the  supply  of  water  in  New  York  given  by 
the  Croton  Aqueduct.  See  articles  Gdi.k  Stream, 
HARnoKS,  Ocean,  Tideh,  etc. 

'Water-olocka.  The  first  instruments  used  to 
measure  the  lapse  of  time,  independently  of  the  sun- 
shine, were  deptydnr,  or  water-clocks.  These  were 
most  probably  vessels  of  water,  with  a  small  hole 
through  the  bottom ;  through  this  hole  tlie  water  ran 
out  in  a  certain  time,  possibly  an  hour ;  after  which 
the  vessel  was  again  filled,  to  be  emptied  as  before. 
This  invention  was  a  manifest  improvement  on  the  old 
sun-dials,  whose  perpendicular  gnomon  gave  hours  of 
different  length  at  tho  various  seasons  of  the  year. 
.Something  similar  to  the  hour-glass  wus  occasionally 
used ;  and  Alfred  the  Groat,  probably  ignorant  of  these 
methods,  adopted  tho  burning  of  a  taper  as  a  measure 
of  time. — H  AYua. 

Water-line,  the  boundarj-  of  any  horizontal  sec- 
tion of  the  bottom  of  a  ship.  The  uppermost  one  is 
called  the  load  water-lino ;  the  lowest  the  light  water- 
line. 


'Water-losged,  a  nautical  term,  denoting  the  state 
of  a  ship  when  a  quantity  of  water  having  been  re- 
ceived into  the  hold  by  leaking,  etc.,  she  has  in  a  great 
measure  lost  her  buoyancy,  and  yields  to  tb«  effect  of 
every  wave  passing  over  the  deck. 

Water-millfl,  used  for  grinding  corn.  Invented  by 
Belisarius,  the  general  of  JustinUn,  while  besieged  in 
Kome  by  the  (ioths,  a.d.  IU6.  The  ancients  parched 
their  com,  and  pounded  it  in  mortan.  Afterward 
mills  were  invented,  which  were  turned  by  men  and 
beasts  with  great  labor;  and  yet  Pliny  mentions 
wheels  turned  by  water, — Haydn, 

'Water-waya,  strong  pieces  of  wood  extending 
round  the  ship,  at  the  junction  of  the  decks  with  the 
sides,  to  carry  off  the  water. 

Wave.  The  common  cause  of  waves  is  the  friction 
of  the  wind  upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  Little 
ridges  or  elevations  flnt  appear,  which,  by  continuance 
of  the  force,  gradually  increase  until  they  become  roll- 
ing mountains,  where  the  winds  sweep  over  a  great 
extent  of  water.  In  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
waves,  or  rather  a  swell,  are  met  with  so  vast,  that  a 
few  ridges  and  a  few  depressions  occupy  the  extent  of 
a  mile.  But  these  are  not  so  troublesome  to  ships  as 
a  short  swell  with  more  perpendicular  waves.  The 
slope  in  the  former  is  so  gentle  that  the  rising  and 
falling  are  scareely  felt,  while  the  latter,  by  the  sud- 
den plunging  of  the  vessel,  is  often  destructive.  The 
velocity  of  waves  has  relation  to  their  magnitude. 
The  large  waves  just  mentioned  proceed  at  the  rate  of 
from  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour.  It  is  a  common 
error  to  suppose  that  the  water  itself  advances  with 
the  speed  of  the  wave ;  but,  in  fact,  the  form  only  ad- 
vances :  the  substance,  with  the  exception  of  a  little 
spray,  remains  rising  and  fulling  in  tho  same  pluco 
with  the  regularity  of  a  pendulum.  When  a  wave, 
however,  reaches  a  shallow  bank  or  beach,  tho  water 
becomes  really  progressivo ;  because  then,  as  it  can 
not  sink  directly  down,  it  falls  over  forward.  No  wave 
rises  more  than  ten  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water, 
which,  with  the  ten  feet  of  descent,  gives  twenty  feet 
for  tlio  whole  height  of  the  wave  above  the  next  de- 
pression. A  wave  coming  against  any  obstacle  may 
bo  dashed  upto  a  much  greater  elevation. — E,  A,  Seo 
American  Journal  of  Science,  ix.  (W.  Scobesby).  <S«« 
also  articles  Ocean,  Tidkh,  Water,  etc. 

Wax  (Ger.  Wach$i  Fr.  Ci're;  It.  and  Sp.  Cera; 
Kuss.  llo«^'),  a  vegetable  product.  Several  plants 
contain  wu.x  in  such  abundance  as  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  extract  it  from  them.  But  all  that  is  known 
in  commerce  consists  of  beeswax.  The  honey  is  first 
pressed  from  the  comb,  and  the  wax  is  then  melted  into 
cakes.  It  has  a  slight  odor  of  honey,  is  insipid,  and 
of  a  bright  yellow  hue.  It  is  brittle,  yet  soft,  and 
somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch.  It  is  often  adulter- 
ated with  earth,  pea  meal,  resin,  etc.  The  presence  of 
the  former  may  be  suspected  when  the  cake  U  ver}' 
brittle,  or  when  its  color  inclines  more  to  gray  than  to 
yellow ;  and  the  presence  of  resin  may  lie  suspected 
when  tlie  fracture  appears  smooth  and  shining,  instead 
of  being  grlhuluted.  Wax,  when  bleached  or  purified, 
is  white,  perfectly  insipid,  inodorous,  and  somewhat 
translucent ;  it  is  harder,  less  unctuous  to  the  touch, 
heavier,  and  less  fusible  than  yellow  wax.  It  is  some- 
times adulterated  with  the  white  oxyd  of  lead  to  in- 
crease its  weight,  with  white  tallow,  and  with  potato 
starch.  Ilie  first  is  detected  by  melting  the  wax  in 
water,  when  the  ox}'d  falls  to  the  bottom ;  tho  pres- 
ence of  tallow  is  indicated  by  the  wax  being  of  a  dull 
opaque  white,  and  wanting  the  transparency  which 
distinguishes  pure  wax ;  and  starch  may  be  detected 
by  applying  sulphuric  acid  to  tlie  suspected  wax,  us 
the  acid  carbonizes  the  starch,  without  acting  on  tlio 
wax.  — Thomson's  CAemiWry,  and  l>r.  A.  T.  Thom- 
son's Di$pen$atory. 

Beeswax  is  prepared  by  draining  and  washing  the 
honey-comb,  which  is  then  melted  in  boiling  water, 


ress  is  so 
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,   Wear.t 
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WAY 


1941 


WEI 


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i-E.  A.  Seo 
Iesby).    ^«« 

„  Sp.  C"""' 
Lral  P^""'" 
Ike  it  worth 
Lt  is  known 
loney  is  first 
ri  melted  into 

InslpW.  and 
i-ct  soft,  and 
Iften  adulter- 
B  presence  of 
Jcako  U  very 
I  gray  than  to 
Ibe  Buspected 
^Ing,  Instead 
Ed  or  purified, 
Li  Bomowhut 
■to  the  touch, 

I  It  is  Bomo- 
|of  lead  to  in- 

II  with  potato 
Ig  the  wax  in 
Im;  the  ptes- 
VmgofaduU 

ittrency  whw' 
ly  be  detected 
Xcted  wax, »» 
Lctingontho 
1  A.  T.  TiioM- 

1  vrasUlng  the 
tolling  water, 


strained,  and  cast  Into  cakes.  English  and  foreign 
wax  are  found  in  the  market ;  the  latter  being  chiefly 
imported  from  the  Baltic,  the  Levant,  and  the  coast 
of  Barbarj-.  Fresh  wax  has  a  peculiar  honey-Uke 
odor:  its  epeclflc  gravity  is  -96.  At  about  160°  It 
fuses,  and  at  a  high  temperature  volatilizes,  and  bums 
with  a  bright  white  flume.  It  is  bleached  by  being 
exposed  in  thin  slices  or  ribbons  to  light,  air,  and  moist- 
ure,  or  more  rapidly  by  the  action  of  chlorine ;  but  In 
the  latter  case  It  does  not  answer  for  the  manufactm« 
of  candles,  which  is  one  of  Its  principal  applications. 
Wax  candles  are  made  by  suspending  the  wicks  upon 
a  hoop  over  the  cauldron  of  melted  wax,  which  is 
successively  poured  over  them  from  a  ladle  till  they 
have  acquired  the  proper  size,  so  that  the  candle  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  layers  of  wax ;  the  upper  end  is  then 
shaped,  and  the  lower  cut  off.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  cast  wax  candles  in  moulds,  but  when  thus 
made  they  bum  irregularly.  Bleached  or  white  wax 
is  generally  adulterated  with  more  or  less  spermaceti, 
and  sold  at  different  prices  accordingly;  in  this  case  it 
has  not  the  peculiar  lustre  of  pure  wax,  and  Is  softer 
and  more  fusible.  It  Is  also  largely  adulterated  with 
stearin  or  stearic  acid,  which  Is  detected  by  the  odor 
of  fat  or  tallow  which  it  evolves  when  highly  heated, 
and  by  its  crumbly  texture ;  it  may  also  be  separated 
to  a  certain  extent  by  ether  or  alcohol.  'Wax  is  in- 
soluble In  water,  and  scarcely  acted  upon  by  the  acids, 
so  that  it  forms  a  good  lute  or  cement :  boiling  alcohol 
and  ether  act  partially  upon  it,  and  deposit  the  portion 
which  they  had  dissolved,  on  cooling.  Some  varieties 
of  vegetable  wax  appear  to  contain  two  distinct  prin- 
ciples, which  Dr.  John  has  termed  cen'n  and  myricin; 
the  former  soluble,  and  the  latter  insolutile,  in  alcohol. 
Heated  with  the  fixed  alkalies,  wax  forms  a  difiicultly 
soluble  soap. 

ExroBTB  OF  Wax  fbom  the  I'NiTzn  States  fob  Tna  Yeae 

K.NIIISII  JCSK  30,  185T. 


KxpotTs  or  wKAiiNa  An-Aan.  fsom  n»  Vrnno  Statbi 
roa  Tui  Y«A»  iMuiNu  Jen  80, 1861. 


WliilhgrBniurlf<l. 


Ureiiien 

lloUanil 

Ilclgium 

England 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

Canada 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

France  on  the  Medltorrancna 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic /. . 

Cuba 

I'ortiigal 

Aufltrian  FoaaeBRions  in  Italy 

Neiv  Uranada 

Venezuela 

Brazil 

I'cru 

.Sandwich  lalanda 

China 

Total,  1S50-'5T 


I'ouiitlj. 


io,4!)a 

7,4'19 

19,-»!)T 

81,ft:8 

1,U4(1 

],*I5 

12.'5 

106,277 

r>,(iOi) 

S,4iB 

11,010 

CflO 

],il67 
12,737 

4,900 
38,736 

6,120 
48 

1,011(1 


al6,3TS 


V>lue. 


$3,112 

1,889 

6,S33 

22,1(K) 

303 

400 

8 

30,302 

1,600 

2,307 

2,900 

171 

690 

6,179 

1,772 

11,603 

2,043 

14 

360 


!191,9S3 


'Way,  the  sea  term  for  progress.  A  ship  in  prog- 
ress is  said  to  have  iroy  upon  her ;  when  stationar)', 
to  have  no  tray. 

VTealth.  This  is  a  relative  term ;  for  as  there  Is 
only  a  certain  amount  of  property  in  a  countrj',  so  the 
possession  of  a  large  share  by  one  man  is  the  poverty 
of  others.  The  instances  of  wealth  in  the  early  ages 
are  many  and  most  extraordinary.  The  mightiest 
conflagration  of  wealth  on  record  is  that  of  Sarda- 
napulus,  where  riches  amounting  to  one  thousand  four 
hundred  millions  sterling  weredcstroyed. — Athen.f.us. 
Cajcilius  Ifidorus  died  nt  Rome  possessed  of  •1110  slaves, 
.1000  oxen,  200,000  head  of  other  cattle,  and  money 
equal  to  three  millions  sterling,  8  B.C. — Unh.  Hist. 
See  articles  Basks,  Coins,  Gold  Monev,  etc. 

■Wear,  to  put  the  ship  on  the  other  tack  by  turning 
her  round  with  her  stern  to  the  wind. 

'Wearing  Apparel,  generally  considered  to  in- 
clude only  the  clothes  and  personal  property  actually 
worn  upon  tho  person,  and  as  such  it  is  admitted  free 
of  duty  into  the  United  States, 


WhlUatrciporttd. 
Asiatic  Kuuiu 


Valw. 
$2,231 


liunalan  l-uaaeaaloni  in  North  America! '. " '        n'ina 
lianlah  Weat  Indies "'S! 


668 


t  Indies ^_. 

Hamburg " „Si 

Holland 

Ili'lglum 

KnRland 

Houiland 

MalU 

Canada '.'. '.'.'jt'. 


6,nOB 

180 

1,«I0 

1,614 

200 

890 

47,121 


Uritiah  Weat  Indlea 'fro 


llritlah  llunduraa  . 

llritlah  (iulana 

IlrltUh  AiiBlralla... 
llritlah  Kaat  Indies. 


179 

62 

306 

0,601 

SlIO 


600 
Itll) 
4,382 
449 
402 
160 
164 


Franco  on  the  Atlantic 677s 

Franco  on  the  Mediterranean        '" 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

(  nba 

I'orto  Itlco 

Sardinia " 

'I'woSlcmea 

Turkey  In  Aala '.■.■.■.".'.■.■.■.■.■■■■  ,„ 

rortafn  Africa :....:        ,,JSJ 

'W' 782 

Mexico 2  45, 

Central  Hepubllc '. !!!.'!!!".  '660 

New  ({ranada 116  848 

Veneauela :;::;;  a'gjg 

Uraall 'ij^j 

Argentine  Hepubllc !!!'.'.!*.".'.'. i  83B 

ii"" .'  11,'484 

}"•': 1,008 

Lcuador '^gg 

Sandwich  lalanda ,',  ...  69  748 

Other  Islands  In  the  I'acmc '.'.'.'.'.'.'.        8 773 

China 23(14 

■\Vbalc-flaherlcB 29  133 

Tot*' $833,442 

Weaving,  the  art  of  forming  cloth  In  a  loom  by 
the  union  or  intertexture  of  threads.  The  art  of  weav- 
ing appears  to  have  been  practiced  in  China  from  the 
earliest  antiquity— more  than  a  thousand  years  before 
it  was  known  in  Europe  or  Asia.  Poets  assign  tho 
art  to  the  spider.  Women  originally  spun,  wove,  and 
dyed ;  and  the  origin  of  these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  an- 
cient nations,  to  different  women  as  women's  arts. 
The  Egypti.ins  ascribed  it  to  Isis;  the  Greeks  to  Mi- 
nerva  ;  an'l  the  Peruvians  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Capac. 
In  most  Eastern  countries,  the  employment  of  weaving 
is  still  performed  by  the  women.  Our  Saviour's  vest, 
or  coat,  had  not  any  senm,  being  woven  from  the  top 
throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  Perhaps,  says  Dr. 
Do<ldridge,  this  curious  garment  might  be  the  work 
and  present  of  some  pious  women  who  attended  him, 
and  ministered  unto  him  of  their  substance, /.ttie,  viii. 
3.  The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may 
be  seen  in  Calmet's  Viciivnary,  under  the  word  Vett- 
ments.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at  York, 
where  they  manufactured  ■«-oolens,  which,  says  King 
Edward,  "  may  prove  of  great  benefit  to  us  and  our 
subjects,"  1331.  Flemish  dyers,  cloth-drapers,  linen- 
mukers,  silk-throwsters,  etc.,  settled  nt  Canterburj", 
Norwich,  Colchester,  Southampton,  and  other  places, 
on  account  of  the  'Juke  if  Alva's  persecution,  1667. — 
See  articles  Cottc.v  Manufactk bes,  Woolen  Manu- 
factures, and  Manufactuues. 

Weights  and  Measures.  Weights  are  used  to 
ascertain  the  gravity  of  bodies— a  quality  depending 
partly  on  their  magnitude,  and  partly  on  their  density. 
Measures  are  used  to  determine  tho  magnitude  of 
bodies,  or  the  space  which  they  occupy — For  an  ac- 
count of  the  weights  and  measures  used  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, see  articles  under  these  heads. 

Weights  and  measures,  and  the  stamping  of  gold 
and  silver  money,  were  invented  by  Phydon,  tyrant  of 
Argos,  895  n.c.  et  teq. — A  mndelian  Marbles.  Weights 
were  originally  taken  from  grains  of  wheat,  the  lowest 
being  still  called  a  grain. — Chalmers.  The  standard 
measure  was  originnlly  kept  at  Winchester  by  the  law 
of  King  Edgar,  a.d.  972.     Standards  of  weights  and 


(>:,!».. 


WEI 


1042 


WEI 


UMMttNi  wwe  prOTldad  furtha  wholn  kingdom  of  En- 
gland by  the  ahsriffii  of  London,  H  Itirliurd  I.,  1107. 
A  public  weighing-machine  wan  8«t  up  in  (.ondon,  anil 
nil  coinnioditifia  nrdored  to  be  welglied  \iy  the  city  of- 
licer,  called  the  weigh-muster,  who  was  to  do  Juatice 
between  buyer  und  seller,  statute  8d  ICdward  II,,  1800. 
— Stowe.  The  drat  statute,  directing  the  use  of 
•volrdupois  weiglit,  is  that  of  24  Henry  VIII.,  1532.— 
Philoiophical  Trmuactioiu,  vol.  65,  art.  it.  The  French 
adopt  the  metre  of  8'28084,  or  the  lO-millionth  part  of 
tl>e  distance  from  the  po^  to  the  equator,  as  tlio  st.ind- 
ard  of  measure ;  and  th* kilogram,  equal  to  2265  lbs. 

avoirdupois,  as  the  standard  of  weight Haydn. 

Neither  the  magnitude  nor  the  weight  of  any  bc<ly 
can  be  determine<l,  unless  by  comparing  it  with' some 
other  body  selected  as  a  standard.  It  is  impossible, 
indeed,  to  form  any  idea  In  respect  of  magnitude  or 
weight,  except  in  relation  to  some  doflnite  apace  or 
weight  with  which  wu  are  acquainted.  Wo  say  that 
one  article  weighs  1  ll>.,  unotlior  2  ll)s.,  a  third  8,  and 
90  on;  meaning  not  only  that  these  weights  are  to 
each  other  as  1,  2,  8,  etc.,  but  also  that  tli«  weight  or 
specific  gravity  of  the  first  is  equal  to  the  known  and 
determinate  weight  denominated  a  lb.,  that  the  second 
is  equal  to  2  lbs.,  and  so  on. 

Stttudard*  of  Weight  and  Meamre. — Standards  of 
lineal  measure  mustbavo  been  fixed  upon  at  the  earli- 
est period,  and  appear  to  have  consisted  principally  uf 
parts  of  the  human  l)ody — as  the  cubit,  or  length  of 
the  arm  from  the  elbow  to  tlie  tip  of  the  middle  linger ; 
the  foot ;  the  ulna,  arm,  or  yard  ;  the  span  ;  the  digit, 
or  finger;  the  fathom,  or  spaco  from  the  extremity 
of  one  hand  to  that  of  the  other,  when  they  are  both 
extended  in  opposite  directions  ;  the  pace,  etc.  Large 
spaces  were  estimated  l>y  measures  formed  out  of 
multiples  of  the  smaller  ones ;  and  sometimes  in  day's 
Journeys,  or  by  the  space  which  it  was  supposed  an 
ordinary  man  might  travel  in  a  day,  using  a  reason- 
able degree  of  diligence.  But  lineul  measures  can 
only  be  used  to  determine  the  magnitude  of  solid  liodies ; 
the  magnitude  of  bodies  in  a  liquid  ur  fluid  state  has 
to  be  determined  by  what  are  called  measures  of  cujiac- 
ity.  It  Is  probable  that,  in  the  infancy  of  society, 
shells,  or  other  hollow  Instruments  afforded  by  nature, 
were  used  as  standards.  But  the  inaccuracy  of  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  referring  to  them  must  soon 
have  become  obvious;  and  It  early  occurred  that  to 
obtain  an  accurate  measure  of  liquids  nothing  more 
was  necessary  than  to  constitute  an  artificial  one,  the 
dimensions,  and  consequenUy  the  capacity,  of  which 
should  be  determined  by  the  lineal  measures  previous- 
ly adopted.  The  determination  of  tlio  gravity  or 
weight  of  different  bodies  supposes  the  invention  of 
the  balance.  Nothing  is  known  of  tho  steps  which 
led  to  its  introduction ;  but  it  was  used  in  tho  remotest 
antiquity.  It  seems  probable  that,  at  first,  cubes  of 
some  common  lineal  measure,  as  a  foot,  or  tho  fraction 
of  a  foot,  formed  of  cop|>er,  iron,  or  some  other  metal, 
were  used  as  standards  of  weight.  Wlien  the  standard 
was  selected,  if  it  was  desired  to  ascertain  the  specific 
gravity  or  weight  of  any  given  article,  all  that  was 
necessary  was  to  put  it  into  one  of  the  scales  of  the 
balance,  and  as  many  cubes  or  parts  of  cubes  on  the 
other  as  might  be  necessary  to  counterpoise  it.  Weights 
have,  however,  been  frequently  derived  from  grains  of 
com.  Hence  in  this,  and  in  some  other  European 
countries,  the  lowest  denomination  of  weight  is  a  grain; 
and  82  of  these  grains  are  directed,  by  the  ancient 
statute  called  Compositio  Afenmrarum,  to  compose  a 
pennyweight,  whereof  20  make  an  ounce,  12  ounces  a 
pound,  and  so  upward. 

In  every  countrj'  in  which  commercial  transactions 
sre  extensively  carried  on,  the  importance  of  having 
weights  and  measures  determined  by  some  fixed  stand- 
ard becomes  obvious  to  every  one.  But  as  the  size  of 
lUffeient  parts  of  the  human  body  diflTers  in  diflTerent  in- 
dividoals,  it  is  necessary  to  select  some  durable  article 


— a  metallic  rod,  for  example — of  the  length  of  an  or- 
dinary cubit,  foot,  etc.,  and  to  make  it  a  standard  with 
which  all  the  other  cubits,  feet,  etc.,  used  in  mensura- 
tion shall  correspond.  These  stanilanhi  have  always 
been  preserved  with  the  greatest  care :  at  Home  tliey 
were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  and  among  the 
Jews  their  custody  was  intrusted  to  the  family  of 
Aaron.— Pauctor,  Mitrolngie,  p.  228.  The  principal 
standards  used  In  the  ancient  world  were  the  cubit  of 
the  Jews,  from  which  their  other  measures  of  length, 
capacity,  and  weight  were  derived;  and  the  foot  of 
the  Greeks  and  liomans.  In  England,  ancient  his- 
torians toll  us  tliat  u  uew,  or  rather  a  revived,  standard 
of  lineal  measure  was  introduced  by  Henry  I.,  who  or- 
dered that  the  ulna,  or  ancient  ell,  which  corresponds 
to  the  modem  yard,  should  be  made  of  the  exact  length 
of  his  own  arm,  and  that  the  other  measures  of  length 
should  be  raised  upon  it.  This  standard  has  been 
maintained,  without  any  sensible  variation.  In  1742 
the  lioyal  iiocbty  had  a  yard  made,  from  a  very  care- 
ful comparison  of  the  standard  ells  or  yards  of  the 
reigns  of  lienr}'  VII.  and  Elizabeth  kept  at  tli«  Ex- 
chequer. In  1768  an  exact  copy  was  made  of  the 
Royal  Society's  yard ;  and  this  copy  having  been  ex- 
amined by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
reported  by  them  to  be  equal  to  the  standard  yard,  It 
was  marked  as  such ;  and  this  identical  yard  is  de- 
clared, by  the  act  6  Geo.  IV.,  c.  74,  to  bo  the  standard 
of  lineal  measure  in  Great  Britain. 

Utti/ormitg  of  Weighln  and  MeMbres. — Tho  confusion 
and  inconvenience  attending  tho  use  of  weights  and 
measures  of  tho  same  denomination,  but  of  different 
magnitudes,  was  early  remarked ;  und  there  is  liardly 
a  country  in  which  efforts  have  not  been  nuido  to  re- 
duce them  to  the  same  uniform  system.  Numerous 
efforts  liave  been  made  having  this  object  in  view,  und 
enjoining  tho  use  of  the  same  weights  and  measures, 
under  very  severe  penalties.  But,  owing  to  tlie  in- 
veteracy of  ancient  customs,  and  tho  difficulty  of  en- 
forcing new  regulations,  those  statutes  have  always 
had  a  ver}-  limited  influence,  and  the  greatest  diversity 
has  continued  to  prevail,  except  in  lineal  measures. — 
See  article  Decimal  Weioiits  and  Mkasuuej),  p.  610. 

Invariable  or  Natural  Standard). — As  tho  standards 
adopted  in  most  coun(ries  have  been  in  a  great  degree 
arbitrary,  it  has  long  been  the  opinion  of  scientific 
men  that,  to  construct  a  more  perfect  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  some  neural  and  unchangeable  basis 
should  lie  adopted.  It  has,  indeed,  been  contended 
that  the  measures  of  the  ancients  were  deduced  from  a 
basis  of  this  sort ;  and  that  tlie  stadium  always  formed 
an  aliquot  part  of  tho  earth's  circumference,  that  part 
diflTering  among  different  nations  and  authors.  But 
no  learning  or  ingenuity  can  induce  any  one  to  believe 
what  is  so  obviousi}'  incredible.  The  ancients  had  no 
means  of  determining  the  earth's  circumference  with 
any  thing  like  tho  accuracy  required  to  render  it  the 
great  unit  of  a  system  of  measures ;  and,  what  is  equal- 
ly decisive,  no  ancient  author  ever  makes  the  slightest 
allusion  to  any  such  standard. 

In  modem  times,  however,  the  idea  of  seeking  for 
a  unit  of  weight  and  measure  in  some  unchanging 
natural  object  has  been  practically  carried  into  effect. 
The  standards  that  have  been  usually  pro|)osed  for 
this  object  have  been  some  aliquot  part  of  the  quadrant 
of  the  meridian,  or  the  length  of  a  pendulum  vibrating 
seconds  .in  some  given  latitude.  The  standard  of  the 
second  pendulum  has  been  in  so  far  adopted  into  the 
existing  system  of  weights  and  measures  established 
in  Great  Britain  by  tlie  act  of  1823,  that  the  length  of 
the  standard  yard,  as  compared  with  that  of  a  pendu- 
lum vibrating  seconds  in  the  latitude  of  London,  is 
specified  in  the  act  as  follows : 

"  Whereas  it  has  been  ascertained  by  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  his  majesty  to  inquire  into  the 
subject  of  weights  and  measures,  that  the  said  yard 
hereby  declared  to  be  the  imperial  standard  yard, 


WEI 


'<  ~«»d=,;2"«»-'»b.«,.ii,„. 

?  vessel  ooiitnln... .  1!:'.'.''^  IW«»MrB,     r/>«  Ji""- ,'  I  ?  P"'''«l''y  the  result  of  S"  '"  ^  ^^'gl^ed, 

i'  clear,  a,  vet.  »h..k  "\??'*'*»»ness  or  fraud  -.  n„,  .-.' 


"4"m,  una  Oia  busha  /•„, :,  "•""''"™  ««  «ia irallon  for  l.   ,.?'..  '"*  ''""'X's articles  i^tlZ  V    '''""w's}, ac 
»  vessel  ooutalnC  6S«7a^' "T'"*'    'J''- VCn  h    t  r'""''^'  "■"  «»•"'  of  oareies '  "  /     ".  '^  *""«''«''' 


WKI 


1944 


WEI 


lb*  itondtrd  turn  whijh  »c.e\i\»nt  or  nantlRanct  hu 
divUMil.  Wfii/Mi  1  rinUmr  BAok*  KK)  roll - 
14400  ilrMhma,  Thi  ruti  iIihk  not  «|ip«iir  tu  h«  ayt- 
Itmilluklly imImIIvIiImI,  Th*  Imrirlt, ippllml  to  watgh- 
liitf  (llli,  b  tvliUntly  Itm  nkt,  iinilvr  (i  .i|Mtrlal  n«mn, 
llr^  t'ajtaeilfi  t  •nUli  34  ruli.  l^tngtH;  I  guth—i 
lUritti,  'I'ht  Yurklih  pin  U  ntnirilly  unod  fur  nlotha ; 
k  b  very  llttU  toiiKir  than  lh«  <l*nn,  liul  nut  cnrrvU- 
tlva,  A/ifttrian  i  4(K)  iM|uar«  kiimIi  ~  1  frililan  nl  rliach, 
or  unllury  avr*. 

(luiunt.—  Wriyhl  i  1  Iwnda  -  3  brnda^ffa  ~  8  aggaha 
•■-  rti  ■•"■<>  *  pUu  0'  ■Mil  -  111}  ((ulnto  l«l  agulragci 
-  U'i  inadla-talilu  4*  akay.  Tha  Unt  denomination, 
which  la  thn  ii|iai'lal  welifht  tot  gold  duiil,  In  only  theo- 
ratliittlly  cnnnei^tad  hara  i  lit  aotual  value  aa  reported 
U  nearly  half  a  grain  U»  than  the  -^  of  the  benda. 

Ai'Arr/Vi.  —  Till*  Anglo-Amerlcnn  negro  colony  at 
(,'a|ia  Maturadn,  aa  well  aa  the  Indopondent  one  of 
Mary  hind  at  Ciiiia  I'almnn,  imto,  It  may  be  auppoied, 
■tandanU  frotn  tiia  Unltod  Ntatea. 

J/orocco,-  All  the  dniwndiini'liM  of  thU  eni</lre,  along 
the  weatarn  itouat  of  lliirliiirv,  nan  tli"  "^Ixhta  nod  ca- 
IMt'lty  uioaauraa  of  Hpaln.  'I'hnre  are  aeverni  Indlgen- 
Hiia  meaaiiroa  of  length  given  In  the  Ulotlonnry,  but 
they  are  without  uniformity. 

Tripull,— In  thia  appanaga  of  the  Tu:kleh  empire, 
aa  well  aa  In  the  de|iendatii'iaa  of  Foiian  and  Dnrra, 
tli«  walghta  and  nieaauraa  appear  t<i  he  of  European 
derivation.  Welghli  i  1  oantUM  ^  tOO  roti  ~  1000  ucnn 
- 13800  Urnilnl.  The  nietlcnt,  a  aiieclal  weight  for 
gold  anil  allver,  haa  in  ronncctlon  with  thn  othera,  un- 
leaa  It  be  derived  In  theory  from  an  ancient  rttl  or 
pound  of  Vi  uaiin  or  uuncea,  The  actual  weight  la  re- 
porle<l  aa  being  exactly  ^JUr  of  the  Venetian  pound, 
from  which  It  mav  have  originated.  f.iqiiM  Cnimcilyi 
The  niataro  for  oil  la  given  liy  gallona  In  the  Diction- 
ary i  from  Ita  re|Hirted  weight  rom|iarrd  with  the  aver- 
age apecillu  gravity,  at  ordinary  tcmiwraturea,  of  that 
■ubatanca,  llr;/ ('iijuifity  i  1  nallao-  31)  tllierl. 
~Tmi$,--Wfighli  1  caiitam  =  100  rotl-lHOO  uzan- 
13«f)0  nietlcal  or  termini.  In  thla  ayotcm,  where  the 
aame  denonihmtlnna  ap|)aar  to  lie  lighler  than  the  Trl- 
(Hilltun,  the  tnetlcal  and  man  are  aiMclllc  woighta. 
Liquid  Vtimrilii  la  determined  by  weight.  I>ry  Citpac- 
it)/ :  I  oallau '  1(1  (|ulba  11)3  aiilm  or  anh.  length  t  1 
plo  (woolen)  1 1^  pic  <allk)  1^)1  plo  (linen).  But 
thean  laat  pro|Kirtluna  appear  altogether  accidental.  In 
thla  enumeration,  the  remaining  Kuropean  aettlements, 
via.,  thoae  of  France  on  oppoalta  aidea  of  the  continent 
In  Henegamldii  and  the  lain  of  lloiirlion,  and  thoae  of 
Denmark  anil  Holland  In  Oulnen  and  AahantI,  have 
Iteon  omitted  |  partly  liecauan  the  weighta  and  moaa- 
urea  of  the  motlinr  conntriea  would  be  naturally  ac- 
cepted among  the  aettlera,  but  chlnHy  liccauae  of  the 
Inalgnillcancu  In  iHtpuJatlon  and  trade  of  the  actual  ea- 
tabllabnienla.  't  he  Inaular  ajipnnagea  of  the  Imam  of 
MuacaC  (viit,,  (julloa,  /analbur,  Hocotra,  etc.),  on  the 
eastern  aidn  of  the  continent,  are  pnaacd  over  fur  aim- 
ilar  reuaonai  while  ihn  native  powera,  from  Slorocco 
through  and  aniuiiil  to  Madngaacar,  are  too  uncivilized 
or  t<Ki  Inacceaaible,  to  have  or  to  yield  any  thing  of  In- 
tereat  In  reajiect  to  walghta  and  meuanrea. 

II.  AMRnicA,— Thla  continent,  for  the  preaent  pnr- 
poae,  la  liaat  divided  (Inatead  of  the  uaual  diatlnctlona 
of  North,  Central,  and  N<iuth)  Into  Independent  and 
Colonial  Anierli'a. 

Bmtil.—\n  thla  tmpira  the  original!  of  woighta  and 
meaaurea  are  from  Portugal  i  and  the  actual  atandarda 
are  In  general  Idenilcnl,  though  there  are  n  few  varla^ 
tiona,  Uith  In  value  and  denomination,  ahown  In  the 
Dictionary, 

Uayti  itr  Sim  /Jumiw^o,— Thia  i»iland,  which.  In  the 
numeroiia  revolutlona  of  ptdlcy  that  It  haa  imdergone, 
haa  been  recently  miKlllled  from  a  republic  Into  a  form 
more  ahaolute,  and  nominally  an  empire,  retains  the 
impraaa  of  Ita  douliln  cohmlxatlon  from  Hpaln  and 
Franca,  oa  well  aa  In  the  namet  of  locolltle»~on  the 


waatam  side  FNnch,  on  tha  eaatam  Spanish— aa  In  th* 
weights  and  meaaurea  used  there. 

ii/cxi'«i.— Under  this  repuldic,  aa  well  aa  under  tha 
nunieroua  govemmenta  which  are  continually  shifting 
or  springing  up  In  the  terr*torles  of  Ontral  and  South 
America,  and  which  it  would  require  a  specUl  and  con- 
temporaneuua  research  to  aignalize  and  verify,  tha 
weights  and  meaaurea  of  Hpain  have  bean  throughout 
and  are  still  recognised  |  with  only  auch  kical  variations 
as  other  causes,  besides  the  ceaaation  of  European  con- 
trol and  intorcourae  with  a  |Mrent  power,  might  \m  ex- 
(incted  naturally  to  proiUuo.  Uf  courne,  thia  conipr»- 
hensive  Mold  for  the  influence  of  the  Spanish  system 
does  not  Include  vast  tcrritorlea  (auch  aa  I'atugonUi, 
for  instance)  which,  although  claimed  by  foreign  or 
domeatic  powers,  are  yet.  In  fuct,  domineered  over  by 
varloua  Indigenoua  tribea,  more  or  less  nomadic  and 
unclviliied.  Of  aystematio  weights  and  measures  In 
those  territories,  there  are  none  In  modern  timea ;  and 
ancient  ones  (auch  aa  In  Mexico  and  I'eru),  which  re- 
cent reaearchea  have  partially  ayatematized,  are  omit- 
ted, aa  nuither  certain  nor  of  practical  application. 

Vnilfd  Statet  o/ America.—  Weight :  1  Mint  or  Troy 
pound  — 12  ounces  =  340  pennyweight -6760  grains; 
1  apothecary  pound  ~  13  ounces  ~  DO  drachms  =  388 
scruples = 6760  grains ;  1  commercial  pound  — 16  ounces 
-360  drama  =  7000  grains;  1  long  ton  =  30  cwt.=80 
quarters =2340  commercial  pounda;  1  short  ton =20 
cwt.  =  3000  commercial  pounds.  In  the  actual  gov- 
ernment standurda  the  ounce  Troy  la  divided  decimally, 
down  to  the  joAm)  part.  Theso  weights  are  Identical 
with  thoae  of  England.  In  both  countrica,  they  ro- 
poae,  in  fact,  upon  actually  existing  masses  of  metal 
(brass)  which  have  been  Individually  declared  by  law 
to  be  the  units  of  the  system.  In  scicntiilc  theory, 
they  are  supposed  to  rest  upon  a  permanent  and  uni- 
versal law  of  Nature — the  gravitation  of  distilled  water 
at  a  certain  temperature  and  und«r  a  certain  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  And  in  thU  aspect,  the  origination 
is  with  the  grains ;  which  must  bo  such  thut  263,458 
of  theso  units,  In  brass,  will  bo  In  just  equilibrium  with 
a  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water,  when  the  mercurj'  stands 
at  80  inches  in  n  barometer,  and  Iw  a  thermometer  of 
Fahrenheit  at  62  degrees  both  for  the  air  and  for  the 
water.  Unfortunatejy,  the  expounders  of  this  thev>ry 
In  England  used  only  the  generic  term  bnut,  and  fail- 
ed to  deflne  the  speciflc  gravity  of  the  metal  to  bo  em- 
ployed :  the  consequence  of  this  omission  Is  to  leave 
room  for  an  erior  of  ibu*ii(H)  '"  everj-  attempt  to  repro- 
duce or  compare  the  results.  This  is  the  mintmHin  pos- 
sible error :  the  maximum  would  bo  a  function  of  the 
diflcrenco  In  specl!?c  gravity  between  the  heaviest  and 
lightest  brass  that  can  be  cast. 

Liquid  Copacity :  1  gallon  =  2  holf  gallons =4  quarts 
=  8  pints  =  10  gills.  The  gill  is  not  among  existing 
standards  of  public  authority,  though  It  is  used  in 
commerce.  Thcro  are  other  denominations  higher 
than  the  gallon,  such  as  barrels,  hogsheads,  pipes,  etc. ; 
but  these  are  only  vemeh,  not  meaauns,  and  are  always 
gauged  and  sold  by  their  actual  capacity  In  gallons. 
The  gallon,  In  fact,  is  almost  exactly  equivalent  to  a 
cylliider  7  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  high.  In 
theory,  it  must  contain  Just  231  cubic  inches ;  and, 
filled  with  distilled  water  at  the  temperature  of  maxi- 
mum density  (say  89°-8  Fahr.),  weighs,  according  to 
the  official  rejrart,  at  that  temperature  and  at  80  inches 
of  the  barometer,  8-339  commercial  or  avoirdupois 
pounds ;  or  more  nearly  &8372'1764  grains.  It  is  in 
the  temperature  only  that  this  unit  difi°ers  from  tha 
former  wine  gallon  of  Great  Dritaln.  The  apothecaries 
use  the  same  gallon,  but  divide  it  dilTercntly,  as  fol- 
lows :  1  gallon  -  8  pints  — 128  fluid  ounces  =  1024  fluid 
drachms  =  61440  minims  (or  drops) =281  cubic  inches. 
These  are  graduated  measures ;  they  also  use  somc- 
timea  the  following  approximate  ones  fW>m  vessels  in 
domestic  use :  1  tea-cup  =  2  wine  glassea  =  8  table- 
spoonk~82  teft-spoon8=4  fluid  ounces. 


J'-n-MaS  inch. 

i>y  tho  foot  and  .ubdivn'"'"-'"'  ""•l  "rt^lcl     I '"   ^'"■'«<I»'  jl„?""»l''«'f"  or  st   i"^?'-  «»"'«.loc,, 

Hon  sccnis  to  i,„  .1..    ."'."'«  'brmer  Kn„n.i.' ..  " 


,, ■:"•"•"" miles =84a787r,.r.       """"eal    eaeun  -  11    ll„n      ,  "'"  "-'<-"koni 

-  i  pots =4  nfnfes=«:h'„.  '■'•''"'  "» 


»as«re,  „f    been  /o  lo„  «".:/ 5'!!'"'^  «'"''n«ed  Jj '/l^"' » -• 


WKI 


1040 


WKI 


Uiuutt  I  1  Ibuiw  l'iiM)||riilni  iif  mllbt«  10  MM>|  1  iw) 
(ur  a  iMMtilful)  U»  iirittiK  af  inllUt  i  sikI  I  Imtl  VM 
grdna  of  itillUt.  'I  It*  illvlaliiii  uf  tlm  tliiMMi  liilo  10  mu 
Mil  4'(W7ft  l4iat  wiiulil  iMNi  l»  Inclli'Mfi  two  illlTantnt 
iy>Uiil>t  liul  M  llw  riiiii|>ilii  iiilllot  uiiil  iiur  own  an 
iiul  uf  llio  MNia  (Im,  wo  bora  no  •Un<Unl  nf  cuai(>trl- 
•uii  ur  ■InUriiiliiittliiii, 

I^HI/lhi  Th«ru  »r«lwii  lliiMNMir  vulilUi  una  fur  ||*n> 
tral  lua,  III*  iAli«r,  wlilrli  U  j^  liinu'r  tliaii  llio  rnrnitr, 
•Ki'lu^lvtly  for  villi  li»,  (tlk*,  «iii|  nllixr  wuvnn  fuliriin, 
1.  Mcri'ori',— I  nun  ID  Hint  IM)  truiini  IMill  lhiio«i| 
Itliuiiuioroll)  IUUu~1iN)|iImii  l(NM)ly.  ».  llulM- 
•ra'.Klr.  -I  iimil  tUasti  WMikh  IMMbuuv)  1  tliuiio 
(iir  cubit)     UMitii     |lM|ilMn     IIKNi  ly. 

Ai/raruiHi  TbU  U*i  iwrl*ii  I*  atiio  umd  liy  land- 
uiaaaurara  In  HMug  tba  M|iiara  nimtant  of  IhihI,  'rb«}- 
iiiinatlniaa  uia  •niithar  aarlaa  Oallail  mmi/  liu;  In  ciin- 
lrai||>lliii!llon  tii  llm  riintif/  H//ii,Jual  Klvan),  In  wblub 
Iba  tail  la  ai|iMl  lu  III)  tbimi',  Tba  mail  In,  tlinrvrnra, 
lU  |iar  i!<nl,  binxar  In  IbU  Unl  wrlsn  i  nnil  Itn  auiwr- 
Aiiial  liutitiiiit,  wh»n  atiiiarixl,  '21  |iar  cunl.  )(r«nlar, 

IliHrrnifii  'I'baaa  ara  vary  vaMiia  ami  only  a|ipMx- 
iiiialai  I  lUin     !i  ly  <    ralbar  laaa  Iban  balfa  inlla. 

llivmiik,-Wrii/hli  l\\»  iliatly  HKItl.al.  /.my**,- 
1  liainbuu  •  ya  labn  61)4  |ial||at.  Itinrrniy :  I  lulii»{ 
■  iti»\tui\iMU-  7MMUbn,  Hut  tbaao  ara  by  no  nivana 
certain, 

CkiiM.—  Wnight  I  AliiliMt  avary  tbln^  In  ( 'liltm  (llm- 
lu<r,  lli|iil'la,  llvii  atiHltifli'.)  la  aiibl  by  walxbt,  nrtunl 
nr  niimlnal.  t  ablk  ij^tam  4  k»nn  'M)  yin  I'.'n 
kiiii  ur  rally  I  Iban-  lilliiiinKur  t»*l  lioicbti-  IIH40 
lul  IIIHIIU  ahu,  ur  kariiula  uf  K'ubi.  I'bn  walijbta 
lilMva  tba  )  In  aru  wnly  itiiiiiliuil  ami  fur  ai'i'uuiit ;  anil 
Ibiiaa  laibiMr  tba  taal  arn  Kanorally  ilcnulail  by  tbn  ail- 
JuneU  U,  ho,  («W,,/}|/,  utr.,  /.  p,,  una  Irnlh,  one  bund- 
ri'iltb,  HUH  tiMMiauiiilth,  all'. 

Ikiliiirilyi  Tbla  la  ri'i"'lHliiil,  aa  bflfora  aubl,  by 
wiiitibli  tbn  Hulatliii'  '  I  nirrMH>v<,  wbli'b  b.ivs  l>ern 
uibi|ita<l  fur  tba  luitiv  '  'iii«  uf  viiniiiiari'a  for  xniln  ami 
a'auila,  varv  eimtiiliurtiily  In  cima*i|iiani'ii  nf  tba  lrr«K- 
ularlly  iit  tba  u  ,i«rUI  (l..inl>uu)  uf  wblcb  tliay  aro 
nulla,     Tba  tlianry  la  aiiii|inaail  to  U  na  fullowa  i  1  |ilnK 

ft  y u  Hi  bilk  i»  ablk  Ml  Uil  i  I  tnii  ^  10  ablnic  - 
100  kii|i  ^110  yank  iOIKIcbauk  IINNIOrbflU'llNMMH) 
taut  lOOOOOU  bwal  IKNHNNHI  auk,  or  ift»\nt  of  mnlzo. 
Of  ulltbaaa,  Ibara  ara  only  fuurartual  mcHaurea;  viz,, 
tba  tau,  tba  abliitf,  (Ini  liitlf-ablnK,  ami  tba  kop.  Tbeae 
ar«  ulao  u|iun  tarn  illlfarnnt  iiiiHlulaa,  illatlnxulabed  liy 
Iba  ailjuut'ta  <Ai  unil  limf/i  ami  In  proiiortliiimle  ca|mc. 
Ity  aa  100  tit  lift  raa|wiitkaly,  It  may  Iw  aup|Hiaed  tbat 
tba  latlar  war*  liitandail  for  /i>/h/i/  tii«aaiir«a  ;  and  tbeir 
•varaifa  uuntanta  ara  ao  railunail  Mi'unlbifily  In  the  Die- 
tiuniiry, 

Unf/thi  1  VM'lOrhaiinK  100  cblk  — 1000  tann - 
loiiuo  fan,  Tba  ulilk,  lUxil  by  Iba  Miitbamatlcal  Ikian) 
ttt  I'akin  ^lI'l'iA  limhaa  '  mwd  by  IrndaaniPn  In  Cnutiin 
—  HtM  to  14'N1  Invhi  umiiluynd  by  angineers  of 
public  worka  12'7  ini'ltaai  and  tbat  by  which  di 
tauiiiia  ara  iwiutlly  niaaaiirad     U\  Imthaa. 

lliiumrn!  I  to  Vt  fan  li(f»  taun  V60 II  or  miles; 
1  II  -  Wia  KntflUb  fa«t,  Tbla  la  tba  rnunt  alnce  the 
llitarvaiitbin  of  KuniiHMli  nwlliamnlb^lana  at  I'ekln, 
Tba  furinar  uaail  lu  Iw  I  to  I  Ol^  II  -=  TtliWO  po  ^  HWiftOO 
chiki  1  II-  \H\n\  Kn^llah  faat.  Homa  ambiguity 
■riaaa  from  tba  uaa  of  tba  Mmn  wofil,  II  (probably  tnm 
Kurupasn  Igiiuruiii'a  of  tba  langiMKa  in  not  dlacrimin- 
uth  i{  batwaan  almlUr  but  not  bbmllral  tarma),  aa  a 
iortar  rnanaur..  tba  X,  ,4  ih«  fnn.  The  i<nm«  ambl- 
tf  alty  axtanda  Itaalf  alnii  to  tba  following  aarlea, 

Agnimn  ■  ".  ulna  100  man  400  k«k  -  looo  fan  = 
2-1000  |to.  '\ut  Diaaa  urn  ao  uniinrtaln  tbat  Ibey  have 
uut  baen  givan, 

•SolitI  iltiuiiivi  ara  proiliuita  «f  tba  rlieung,  which  i< 
generally  In  tbla  Mrlaa  140  Kngtiab  faat, 

lliiulotm — Tba  walgbta  and  maaaiirpa  of  the  In- 
dlgeimua  guvarnnianta  uf  thia  vaat  country  (auch  aa, 
tot  luatuiva,  Hlndb,  Napaul,  and  the  confederated 


HIkhi,  ate),  ara  altbar  too  lltlia  known  or  too  uncar- 
lalu  to  admit  of  any  nvatani,  '  II  tbat  will  In  ib<>ia  I* 
to  give  tba  ralalln'\<  u(  the  prim  Ipal  inaaauroa  In  com- 
miin  uaa,  wbara  I'.ii'ni  oun  ibimlnalUm  pravalla  or  Ku- 
rupaan  coniinarra  \t»t  I'ntnlilUlMil  Itaalf, 

Hriluh  I'litttuiiiiu:  h<mliiiD.—\y»ighii  1  candy --a 
110  mauniU  or  niauna  HOO  aenr  ^4000  pUia.  ihf 
I'liparilg:  I  citnily  N  puru  liMailouila,  fiUituKii.— 
Wright:  1  niiiun  or  maumi  III  aear  1140  cbattttc-: 
l)-il)0  alciu.  Ihy  r'u/xiii/y .  1  |>alllM  4  ralk  04 
kbuunkA  !l'i0  cbattao,  Lmiiih:  1  haul  or  covid  '8 
((lieria  T'^IJaob.  Itmrnirg :  fcuaa  4lMN)baut,  A^-i^ 
nun,'  1  lilggah  'iO  cottab  lUO  chaltack  aa  i.iuO 
«|Uare  rovlij,  Tba  rbiitturk  la,  In  fact,  «  •  vf  o  ft 
cuvid  In  length  liy  4  covId  in  width,  ik  •■  r 
Wtighl :  I  gan-i  W  candy  or  haniay  '  iiO  ii.an  ■  I  oi 
maim  -  »300  vlaay  i  I  vlaay  40|iurur  '  jOraiabnn. 
Iiiy  ( '(i/xwiVv ;  1  g«rci)-H0  |iara  lOO  ir'.'.  WOO 
pudily  2.'>liOO  uUui'k.  Im/uuI  ./niri'ly,  i.ae  >'  .ry, 
la  dalvmibipd  by  wnl|r't|  aii>  'annnitnatloiu  ^re 

the  aanie  aa  In  Mia  lall  r.  '  •  ■  1  cuaaaney  —  .'4 
iiutony     '210  ai|iinre  cov'''. 

llnnith  I'u—rnumtt  Stramiiifi  ami  Trani/wbar  — 
The  WelghtH  ami  i  laaurna  here  are  legally  ti  'isn  uf 
llanmark,  and  liy  ciiatom  thoae  uf  CaUutla  and  Mud- 
raa  reapecth'  tv . 

t'rmrh  /'o».  mi'o»<  ;  l^omlkhirg. — Tba  colonial  do- 
numlnutlunH  and  dlvlainna  iira  Identical  with  tliuan  uf 
Mailraa,  although  the  valuea  am  dlfTcnint, 

PoHuiputn  I'tmnninHt;  fi'i  ri.  —  Here  Purtugiieaa 
welgbta  and  mcaaurva  arc  cm,  liiyed, 

Jninn.— Wright !  1  plcul  Uio  catty  1000  tttel  = 
HiOOO  niaa-'  liuioOO  cundorliie.  The  connection  uf  the 
utbor  tiieiiauroa  la  not  known. 

Ottoman  Aiia;  Alejipn,  Smgrna,  rtr. — The  weigbta 
and  meaaurea  here  are  an  variant,  or  aro  rather  an  nilx- 
cd  up  with  the  uiiita  and  valiica  of  foreign  coniuicrco, 
ai  nut  tn  ndiiilt  uf  aatlafartory  cluaaillcutiuii. 

J 'rriia.— Wright!  1  batman -0  ratel  300  dirbem 
■-  ISIIO  liiaacaia,  Tbla  la  the  liatmnn  of  'I  auria ;  that 
of  Nliirax,  which  la  twice  the  value,  apjieara  pMperly 
to  lie  part  uf  the  aumo  ayatem.  The  other  measures 
are  unayateniatic. 

,Siam.—  Wright:  1  plcul  =  100  catty  =  2000  t»el  — 
WKH)  tlcal.  J)rg  Ciij>aritg ;  1  cohl  =40  ceatl --  lOOO  sat. 
length:  1  vouab^aken^sok.  Itintrarg:  1  roOneng 
=  2000  voiiah. 

IV,  Kviiiii-K. — Auftrinn  Kmpire:  I'ifnnn. —  Weight: 
1  pfuiid  =  2  mark-  4  vierling  or  vlording-  Hi  unM  = 
32  loth  =  12M  quent=612  pfennig.  Apothecaries':  1 
pfund~l)  mark -12  unze=U6  dracbma=2HH  acrupcl 
=  6700  gran.  The  mark  la  Identical  In  Imtb  scrioa, 
and  is  the  unit  of  gold  and  silver  weight,     1  centner 

■>  stebr  =100  pfund.     Liquid  Capaeilg :  I  fuder  — 82 
i'  I'r     i;'4  v1  rtel=1812  (im|ierial)  mass;  1  ni»s8  =  2 
mu"  i»      I    .  iiie)=8p(lff.     />~' fcpnciVy;  lniuth=S0 
♦j1=240  Bi  1  achtel  =  2  mOhl- 

J  '  .Mnnassel  =  10  lM;cber  =  128  probmetzo, 
1  klBlter=6  fuss =72  zoll=864  llnie  =  10308 
Itinerary :  1  meilo  =  400O  klafter = 24000  fuss. 
Agrarian:  1  Joch  or  jochart- 3  mctze  =  676  square 
nithe  =>  1600  square  klafter  =  57600  square  fuss, 
Prague. —  Weight:  1  centner=6  stein  =;  120  pfund. 
The  lower  sulidlvisiona  are  as  in  Vienna;  but  their 
values,  as  well  as  of  the  terms  just  given,  corres^nd 
with  a  lighter  pound  than  the  imperial  standard,  I.uptid 
Capacity:  lfass=:4elraer  =  128  plnte=6128eldel.  Dry 
Ciipneity:  1  strich-4  viortel=16  massel  =  192  seidel. 
Agrarian:  1  Joch  of  Vienna =2  strich. 

Vtnetinn  Lombardg :  Milan.— Weight:  Posogrosso: 
1  libbra— 4  quarto  =  28  oncla.  Peso  sottile:  1  libbrft 
=  12  0Dcia=:288  denaro=6912  grano.  Gold  and  sil- 
ver are  by  the  mareo,  subdivided  aa  follows :  1  marco 
=8  oncU  =  192  denaro  =  4608  grano.  Apothecary:  1 
libbra  peso  sottlle-12  onela=9fl  drttcbma=288  icru- 
polo = 6912  grano.  In  1808  the  French  kilogram,  with 
decimal  aubdivkions,  was  Introduced;  which  Is  the 


ni-tiii 
punkt. 


WBi 


WKl 


"•0.1 

••«»  flalum  i^H^j  1047 

*»'»    )a  .,,1/    ,!?""''■• 


vuluoH  of  »/•«„, .i""^''™e"'"'le  in  tli«  ,,,.  J.  _*"f  I  "»rori«n  unit  ,.h„  "•.-*,?' "f  o«ii«  ^  i  ,„;,,,«.  ,h 

rtk  ^»  I.'. 


WEI 


1948 


WET 


V ^hcr  or  Iflcher,  Lenrflk:  1  olle=2  »chnh  =  2i  zoW. 
Ititurary:  1  riitho- H  (tUa=10  schuh.  The  usual 
mails  contains  iH424  Khonish  feet.  Agrarian  ■  1  mor- 
gan =120  square  rutho— 110720  square  scliuh. 

Cracoiv, —  iVeight;  1  funt  =  '2  mark =48  skoyciec. 
Apothecary  weight  is  that  of  Nnmberg,  Liquid  Ca- 
pacity: 1  8tangiow=2  beczka=;72  garnlec=;28  kwart. 
Dry  Capacity:  1  korzec=2  polkorzow=4  cwierc=32 
garcy  nr  gariiiec,  lAagth:  1  stopa=12  calow=:144 
liniow  ==  1728  punkt.  The  other  measures  are  those  of 
Poland. 

Denmark. — Weight:  lpun(l  =  2  mttrk=lC  unze=32 
lod  =  128quintin=612ort ;  G2pund=weight  of  1  cubic 
fod  of  rain-water  at  16|°  centigrade.  Gold  and  silver 
is  weighed  by  a  pund  nearly  (i  per  cent,  lighter  than, 
but  not  aliquot  with,  the  commercial  pound,  and  is 
subdivided  like  this  last,  only  more  minutely,  into 
8192  as =65530  gran.  The  royal  Mint,  however,  uses 
the  mark  of  Cologne.  Apothecaries'  weight  is  that  of 
Niiml)erg.  1  la8t  =  l(ii-  9kippund  =  144;f  waag— 325 
lispund =433^ bismerpund —  5200  pund;  1  8kippund  = 
20  lispund=320  pund.  Liquid  Capacity:  1  aam=:4 
anker=20  viertel=40  8tQbchen=77J  kando  =  156  pot 
=G20pagel.  Dry  Capacity :  1  toende=4fjcrding=8 
■kieppe=32  fjerdingkar=:i44  pot.  Length:  laln=2 
fod  =  24  tommo  =288  linio.  The  fod  represents  J^  of 
the  pendulum  iHsating  seconds,  in  a  vacuum,  nt  tho 
level  of  the  sea,  under  the  mean  parallel  of  45°  north 
latitude.  Itinerary:  1  miil=  2400  ro<lo= 4000  favn  = 
12000  oin-  24000  fod.  Agrarian:  1  pflug~8  tocndo 
(hartkom)=32  toende  (Hi1del;ind)  =  04  8kieppo=25G 
f jcrdingkar  =  768  album  =3072  pcnge  =  17920  square 
rode =1792090  square  fod.  The  measures  of  Holstein 
are  chiefly  those  of  IIaml)urg,  and  those  of  Norway 
differ  only  locally,  not  systematically,  from  the  Danish. 

France. —  Weight :  1  kilogram  =  100  hectogram  =  100 
decagram = 1000  gram = 10090  decigram = 100000  centi- 
gram =1000000  milligram.  Tho  unit,  or  kilogram,  is 
th«  weight  of  a  cubic  decimetre  of  distilled  water  at 
the  temperature  of  maximum  density,  taken  at  4° 
centigrade,  or  39°-2  Fahrenheit.  1  tonneau  =  10 
quintal=100myriagrams  =  1000  kilograms.  Apothe- 
cary weight  has  not  been  so  symmetrically  and  uni- 
formly constructed.  In  the  French  pharmaceutical 
Codex,  the  gramme  has  been  adopted  as  tlio  key  of  tlie 
system,  and  is  considered  as  equivalent  to  J  of  tlie  old 
dnichmr.  Tho  onci",  haliitually  of  8  draohmcs,  is  then 
32  grams.  Rut  as  this  number  is  irrational  with  a 
decimal  division,  a  compromise  lias  lieen  made  at  fol- 
lows: 1.  1  double  livre  (kilograni)=2  livre=4  demi- 
livro  =  8  quartcrons  (of  4  oncesi  — '  1IK)0  grams.  2. 
1  once  =8  gros,  or  drachmo:=640  grain-  1280  domi- 
grain  =  32  grams,  instead  of  31;^  grams,  as  it  niurt 
have  been,  if  the  same  binary  division  liad  liecn  carried 
through. 

Liquid  and  Dry  Capacity :  1  kilolitre  -  10  hectolitre 
=  100  decalitre  =  1000  litre  =10000  decilitre  =  100000 
centilitre  =  1000000  millilitre.  The  unit  or  litre  is  the 
cubic  decimetre ;  tho  kilolitre  is  therefore  a  cubic 
metre.     Tlie  myrialitre  =  10  kilolitre. 

Length  anil  Distance:  1  myrianietro =10  kilometre 
=  100  hectometre  =  1000  decametre  =  ]00(X)  metre  = 
100000  decimetre  =  1000000  centimetre  =  10000000  mil- 
limetre. The  metre,  or  unit,  is  assumed  to  Iw  the  ten- 
milliontli  of  the  quadrant,  or  the  forty-millionth  of  the 
whole  circMiuferenco  of  the  glolie,  measured  over  the 
poles.  Tlio  actual  value  assigned  to  it,  in  spite  of  the 
pains  taken  in  the  gcodetical  ami  artistical  operations, 
is,  after  all,  owing  to  the  nature  of  tho  very  operations, 
to  lie  considered  as  only  a  near  approximation.  The 
provisional  metre  of  17'Jo  is,  in  fact  (as  more  recent  in- 
vestigations show),  nearer  the  most  prolialilo  value 
aimed  at  than  the  one  adopted  in  tlie  law  of  1799. 
Uut  tho  utmost  error  is  only  aliout  -^^^  of  tlie  length, 
or  absolutely  less  than  -^^^(^  of  an  inch. 

Agrarian:  1  hectare  =  100  are  =10000  centiare  or 
aquare  metres.     This  part  of  tiis  gystem  adroiti  the 


same  decimal  multiplication  and  aubdivisions  oa  the 
others  in  theor}- ;  but,  in  point  of  fact,  the  intermedi- 
ate terms  have  been  rejected. 

Solid:  1  deca8tere  =  10  store  =  100  declsterr  The 
stere  is  the  cubic  metre ;  and  its  content,  therefore,  is  'he 
same  as  the  capacity  of  the  kilolitre.  The  terms  given 
are  all  that  are  retained  in  tho  nomenclature.  The 
names  even  of  the  old  measures  of  France  having  been 
interdicted  since  1840  by  law,  their  relations  and  com- 
binations are  of  no  remaining  practical  interest.  The 
terms  and  values  will  be  found  in  the  Dictionary. 

Frankfort. —  Weight:  1  pfUnd=2  mark  =  16  unze  = 
82  loth  =  128  quentchen  =  512  pfennig =1024  heller. 
There  is  also  a  commercial  pound  for  retail,  called 
ailber-pfund,  about  8  per  cent,  lighter  than  the  iforraer, 
but  similarly  divided.  Flour  and  malt  are  weighed 
by  a  pound  of  32-]^  loth  silbcr-pfund,  meat  and  butter 
liy  33  loth  of  the  same  system,  and  lish  b}'  one  of  85 
loth.  Gold  and  silver  are  reckoned  by  Cologne  weight, 
und  drugs  and  medicines  by  the  apothecary  pound  of 
Numberg.  Liquid  Capacity:  1  fuder=6  ohm=120 
viortel  =  480  cich-mass  =  540  neu-mass;  1  mass  =  4 
schoppen.  Dry  Capacity :  1  matter  or  achtel  =4  sim- 
mer =8  metze  =  I6  sechter=64  gescheid=256  mAss- 
chen  or  viertel  =  1024  schrott.  A  malter  of  wheat 
weighs  from  175  to  190  lbs.  flour  weight ;  rye,  165  to 
480  lbs.  flour  weight;  barley,  160  to  165  lbs.  flour 
weight;  oats,  95  to  110  lbs.  flour  weight;  Hour,  143 
Ills,  flour  weight.  This  includes  tho  tare  of  the  sack, 
which  is  reckoned  at  8  flour  pounds.  I,engih :  1  work- 
schuh=12  zoll  =  144  linie ;  1  rutho=12J  werkschuh= 
10foldfU88  =  10Ozoll  =  1000  linie.  Agrarian:  1  hufe 
=  30  morgen  =4800  sqiiatc  r«tho  =  480000  square  feld- 
fuss.  Solid,  for  fire-wood  :  1  klafter=6  W.  long  X  7 
W.  high  X  3  W.  deep = 126  cubic  wcrkschuh  ;  1  stecken 
=aj  werk8chuli,cubcd=43j  cubic  wcrkschuh. 

dreat  Britain.  —  The  imperial  standards  adopted 
since  1825  altered  onlj'  the  value  of  the  capacity  meas- 
ures. Tlio  weights  and  the  long,  agrarian,  and  solid 
measures  are  identical  with  those  of  the  United  States. 
Capacity  measures  are  the  sanie,  botli  for  liquids  and 
things  drj-.  Tho  origination  of  tlieso  is  with  the  gal- 
lon, which  contains  10  jiounds  avoirdupois  of  distilled 
water  at  30  inclics  of  the  barometer  and  02°  Fahren- 
heit both  for  the  air  and  tho  woter.  Kight  of  such 
gallons  make  tho  bushel.  The  old  subdivisions  and 
nomenclature,  as  far  as  applicable,  are  retained. 

Weight :  Troy  and  aimthccarj'  have  been  given  under 
the  head  IWiTKi)  States.  Avoirdupois:  1  ton =20 
hundred-weight  =  80  quarter  =  2240  pound  =  .35840 
ounco=57,1440  dram.  Wool:  1  Iast  =  12  8ack=24 
wey  =150  tod  =  312  stone  =  624  clove =4368  pound. 

Liquid  Capacity:  Old  wine  measure :  1  tun=2  pipe 
=  3  puncheon =4  hogshead  =  0  tierce  =8  quarter-casks 
=252  gallon  =  1008  quart  =2016  pint.  Old  beer  meas- 
ure: 1  butt =1 J  puncheon  =-2  hogshead  =3  barrel =6 
kilderkin  =  12  firkin  =  108  goilon.  Ale  measure  was 
tlie  samo  as  to  the  gallon  and  its  sulidivisions  ;  liut  tlie 
(irkin  of  ale  was  only  8  gallons,  and  the  hogshead  of 
ale  48  gallons,  instead  of  9  and  M  gallons  respectively. 

Dry  Capacity:  Old  measure:  1  iast=2  wey  =  10 
quarter =20  coom=80  Imshcl  ~  1120  peck =640  gallons 
=  5120  pint. 

Length:  1  yard  =  3fept=.36  in<hes  =  ]08  barley-corn 
=432  line,  ("loth  measure  :  1  French  ell  =  1 J  Knglish 
cll  =  li  yjinl  =  2  Flemish  ell =6  quartcrs=27  nail  =54 
inch. 

J/amhurg. —  Weight:  1  pfm!d=2  mark  =  16  unzo= 
32  loth=  128  quentchen  =  512  pfennig.  Gold  and  sil- 
ver are  weighed  by  the  mark  of  Cologne,  and  medi- 
cine by  NOrnberg  apothecary  weiglit.  1  schilfpfund 
=  2i  centner  =  20  liespf und  =  280  pfund.  This  is  sea 
freight ;  wagon  weight  is  also  called  schilT|)fund,  but= 
820  pfund.  /liquid  Capacity:  1  fuder==4  oxhoft=5 
tonna=6  8hm=24  anker =30  einier=120  viertol=240 
BtQbclien  =  480  kanne=960  quartier=1920  Ossel;  1 
fass,  for  whale-oil =1}  tonne =7J  stechkanne=i20 


=60 fasa -10/,. .""'"' "oinis-o*.      '"".'orwheiin  j  ^  "Jil 


_fhe  indications  of  th„    ,  '  "  'h«  prinL,,       •'"'"='■-   Ioth  =  72«     '*'"^'"-  1  pfund-^'^    P*'  '"«'<'»,      ""■■"' 


_^^/"»«  C-awf/.^j^  .  ^  "«  ""he^    been  given  Cfi  """"'"""ons  of  iS'? ""^ «'™ce. 


WEI 


1950 


WEI 


Lijuid  Capacity :  I  fuder = 6  ohm = 12  eimer = 24  anker 
=720  qvart  — 1440  ussel.  The  elmer  contains  3840  ou- 
bio  loUe  or  inches.  Dry  Capacity:  1  last, for  wheat 
and  rye =4  wiapol =0  malter =72  scheffel  =  288  viertel 
=1162  inetM=4J>08  mi>,sschen ;  1  last,  for  luirley  and 
oat* =48  scheifel.  The  schcSel  is  ^  of  the  eimer  in 
absolute  capacity,  or  8072  cubic  zoUe.  Length :  1  fuss 
(rheiufuss)=-12  zoU=144  linie=1728  scrupel.  This 
unit  lias  been  established  at  139, 13  lignes  de  Paris. 
The  oUe  is  2&|  zoUe.  Itinerary:  1  rutho=10  land- 
fuss  =12  rhelnfuss.  The  landfuss  Is  also  subdivided 
decimally  into  10  zoU = 100  linle = 1000  scrupel ;  1  post- 
meile  =  2000  ruthe  =  24000  rheinfuss.  Agrarian:  1 
morgeii  -180  square  ruthe=23920  square  rljeinfuss. 
Solid:  1  khifter=6  F.  long X 6  F.  high X 3  F.  deep 
=108  culiic  rheinfuss;  1  haufen=4}  klaftcr  =  18  F. 
long  X  9  F.  high  x  8  F.  deep  =  48«  cubic  rlieinfuss. 
The  old  values  and  denominations  wliich  are  still  re- 
tained, as  well  in  the  capital  as  in  several  principal 
cities,  are  given  under  those  heads. 

Roman  Statet. — Under  this  name  is  intended  whot 
has,  until  recently,  been  known  as  the  State  of  the 
Church.  Late  events  have  shown  this  lost  title  to  be 
uncertain.  Two  principal  cities  comprehend  all  that 
is  systematic  la  weights  and  measvres.  Bologna. — 
Weight:  1  libbra=12  oncia=9ti  ottava  =  192  ferlino  = 
1920  carato=7fl80  grano.  This  weight  serves  also  for 
gold  and  silver,  though  the  new  Italian  metrical  |xiund 
(the  kilogranr.y  is  also  employed,  as  well  as  the  libbra 
of  Komi.  In  Ferrara,  use  is  still  had  of  the  marco  of 
Milan.  Apothecary :  1  libbra =12  oncia  =9G  drachma 
=288  scrupoIo=6912  grano.  This  libbra  weighs  11^ 
commercial  oncie.  Liquid  Capacity:  lcorba=2mezza- 
carba=4  quarterono  or  quarterole  =  GO  boccale=240 
foglietta.  Dry  Capacity :  1  corba  =  2  stajo  or  staro= 
8  4Uarterone=32  quorticino  or  quurtucciono.  These 
two  corbe  are  of  the  same  capacity.  Agrarian:  1  tor- 
n:itura=140  square  pertica  =  14000  square  \Ak.  Home. 
-.—  Weight:  1  libbra  =  12  oncia  =  288  denuro  =  6912 
grano.  The  same  weight  servos  for  gold  and  silver, 
and  for  medicine.  Liquid  Capacity :  1  botta  =  16  barilo 
=512  boccale =2048  foglietta  =8192  quartnccio.  The 
barile  for  oil  contains  only  {  of  the  above,  or  28  l>or- 
cale.  But  oil  has  a  proper  measure,  viz. :  1  soma  =  2 
mostello  or  pelle=20  cugnatello=80  boccale.  Dry 
Capacity:  1  rubbio=2  rubbiatella=4quarta=8quar- 
tarella=12  8taja=16  starello=22  scorzo =88 quartnc- 
cio. Length  and  Distance :  1  canna  (ordinary)  =  2 
braccio=6  pi6=8  palmo=24  linea ;  1  canna  (archi- 
tects', etc.)  =  71-  pio = 10  palnio =120  oncia = 600  minuto 
=1200  decimo;  1  canna  di  ara  =  l}  braccio  di  aTa  =  9 
palnio  di  ara ;  1  catena  =  10  stajolo — 57  J  palmo  (archi- 
tects'). Agrarian:  1  rubbio=4  quttrta  =  7  pezza  =  lG 
acorzo  =  32  quartuccio  =  112  square  catena  =  11200 
square  8tajulo= 370300  square  palmo  (arcliitectf>'). 

Ruuia  in  Europe:  St.  I'eteriburg. —  Weight:  1  funt 
=  12  lana  (2  loth=96  zoiotnic=921fi  do'li.  This  is 
used  forgoM  and  silver  also,  ami  the  Nnmlwr);  weight 
by  apothecaries.  1  packen=3  l><a'kowitz=30  pud  = 
1201)  funt.  Liquid  Capaci'y :  1  vedro=4  tsclietwerk 
=-8  osmuschka=88  tscharkey.  Since  1819  the  vedro 
=  100  tscharkey.  1  sarokowaja  =13tnnkcr=40  vedro. 
iJry  Capacity:  1  tschetwcrt=2  08min=-4  pajak  =  8 
tsfhctwerik  =  32  tschetwerka  =  C4  gurnetz.  Length 
and  Distance:  1  archine=2  stopa  =  '24  ver8chok=32 
(luletz.  This  was  the  old  measure.  Within  the  In.it 
twenty  years,  both  the  English  foot  and  the  Rhine 
foot  have  come  into  use ;  and  shicc  1H81  the  former 
has  furnislied,  it  is  believed,  the  normal  standard  of 
value.  At  present  the  archine  is  divided  into  16  ver- 
schok.  1  verst=500  sachine  =  l.'iOO  archine  =24000 
verscliiik.  The  sachine  is  7  feet  exactly.  liesides 
the  vurst,  tlie  nieile  of  Lithuania  is  also  used,  equiv- 
alent to  'iHit'M  rheinfuss.  Warsaw. — The  legal  weights 
and  nii!itsuri'.s  of  I'uland  are  supposed  to  Iw,  since  1H81, 
»ulM)rdiniitif  to  those  of  the  Uussian  empire,  of  which 
it  forms  a  port.     The  establishment  in  1819,  while 


Poland  had  still  its  own  Legislature,  and  which  rested 
upon  the  French  metrical  system,  is  nearly  as  fol- 
lows: Weight :  1  funt = 16  lana = 82  loth = 48  skoycieo 
=  128  drachme=384  Bkrupulow=9216  granow=60688 
granlkow  =  406604  milligraramow.  The  milligram- 
mow  is  exactly  the  milligram  of  France.  The  apothe- 
cary pound  is  868^  grams  of  France,  and  divided  like 
Nttmberg  weight.  The  old  funt  of  Warsaw  proper 
was  -^  lighter ;  and  the  old  quintal  was  of  6  kaniinieck, 
or  160  funt.  The  new  kaminleck  is  of  25  Amt.  Liquid 
Capacity :  1  stangiew  =  2  beczka  =  60  gamiec  =  200 
kwarti=800  kwaterki.  The  kwarti  is  the  litre  of 
France,  and  the  beczka,  therefore,  the  hectolitre.  For- 
merly the  beczka  was  divided  into  36  gamiec,  and  144 
kwarti.  Dry  Capacity:  1  korzec=4  cwierc=82  gar- 
niec  or  garcy =128  kwarti  =  612  kwaterki.  The  kwarti 
is  the  same  for  nil  capacity ;  and  the  korzec  is,  there- 
fore, 128  litres  of  France.  Length:  1  lokiec=2  stopa 
=4  cwlerc=24  calow=288  liniow=576  millimetrow 
=676  millimetre  of  France  ;  1  8znuraw=10  pretow  = 
100  precikow  =  160  stopa=1000  lawek=1800  calow. 
The  precikow  is  the  geometrical  foot,  used  by  survey- 
ors. Itinerary  distances  are  measured  by  the  verst 
of  Russia,  8  of  which  (=20633  stopa)  make  the  unitary 
league.  Agrarian:  1  wloka= 80  morgow= 90  square 
sznurow=9000  square  pretow= 900000  square  preci- 
kow. 

Sardinia. — The  weights  and  measures  of  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  which  can  not  bo  called  sj'stemotic,  will  be 
found  in  the  Dictionary.  Duchy  of  Genoa. — Weight: 
1  libbra  (peso  scar8o)=12  oncia =288  denaro=6912 
grano.  This  is  the  ordinary  weight  of  commerce, 
which  is  used  also  by  apothecaries.  The  rottolo  is  1  j 
libbra.  The  peso  grosso  is  10  per  cent,  heavier  than 
the  peso  scarso,  and  has  sometimes  its  rottolo.  Gold 
and  silver  are  weighed  by  the  marco  of  Turin.  The 
rubbio,  or  quarter  of  the  centinajo,  has  26,libbra  in 
either  weight.  Liquid  Capacity:  1  mezzaruola  =  2 
barilo  =  100pinta=180  amola.  Dry  Capacity :  1  mina 
=8  quarto— 96  gombetta.  Length:  1  piedo  liprundo 
=  12  oncia = 144  punto = 1728  atomo ;  1  piedo  manualo 
=8  oncia ;  1  canna=4^  braccio=10  palmo=6f  piedo 
manuale.  But  this  last  is  hypothetical.  The  land 
surveyors  use  a  canna  of  12  palmo,  which  is  properly 
a  canella.  But  oanno  are  found  of  all  lengths,  from 
8  to  12  palmi.  Turin.— Weight:  1  libbra =11  marco 
=  12  oncia =96  cttavo=288  denaro=6912  grano  = 
166888  granottino.  For  gold  and  silver  the  marco  is 
divided  as  under:  1  marco=8  oncia=192  denaro  = 
1152  carato  =  4608  grano  =  110692  granottino.  Tho 
apothecary  pound  is  1^  marco,  and  is  divided  like  tho 
same  weight  at  Bologna.  Liquid  Capacity:  1  carro 
=  10  brenta=360  ptnta=720  boccale  =  1440  quartino. 
Dry  Capacity ;  1  sacco = 3  stajo = 6  mina = 12  quartiere 
=48  copello=960  cucchiaro.  Length:  The  smaller 
measures  are  divided  ns  at  Genoa.  1  pertica=2  tra- 
bucco  =  10^  raso  =  12  piedo  liprando.  Itinerary ;  1 
miglio  =  1800  tcsn=438.'^  piedo  liprando =0500  piede 
manuale.  Agrarian :  1  giornata  =  100  tavola,  or  square 
pertica=400  square  trabucco= 14400  square  picJo  li- 
prando. 

Sarony. — For  the  weights  and  measures  of  tiiis  king- 
dom, where  there  has  been  no  recent  estalilislmicnt, 
will  be  taken  what  prevails  at  Leipsic.  Weight :  1 
pfund=2  mark=lG  unze=82  loth  =  128  qucntloin  = 
616  pfennig-- 7680  gran.  Gold  and  silver  are  by  tho 
mark  of  t'ologne.  Apothecary  weight  is  tlint  of  NOm- 
berg.  Tho  centner,  or  hundred-weight,  consists  gen- 
erally of  110  pfund,  l>ut  for  live  stock  it  is  only  102 
pfund;  that  called  herg-geirirht  at  the  mines,  is  111 
pfund ;  and  stahl-getricht,  for  iron  and  steel,  is  118 
pfund.  Liquid  Capacity:  1  fuder  =2^  faBs--=4  tonne 
=  6  ahm  =  12  eimer  =  14  anker=7o6kanno=1512niis- 
sel  =  6048  iiuarticr.  The  fuder  of  Dresden  is  similarly 
divided,  but  is  smaller,  containing  only  672  kanne  of 
Leipsic.  Dry  Capacity :  lwispol=2maUer=24  schef- 
fel =06  viertel  =384  metze=1636  masschen.     Length : 


MO'weiaht-  ,  ,.,    ''""''""ies  iihtmL      f     ''''''''''f'   (ht*  Zi    ^Z'*^'' '' ''"Wed  into  %      *"■ ''  ''""or  irold 


--"  .lura;  i   quintal   nni.l        ''"*'"*' * 

'■'     '■■"»*'.'•»;  J)W(W    ,,'J  '♦"''*''"*  liHSiO  anrf  iL  '"''  '^'"  gardens,  3(10 . 


WEI 


1952 


WEI 


p«r  cant.  ihort«r  th«n  the  rheinfusi.  Oth«r  measarea 
ue  thoM  of  Zurich.  Zurich. — Weigkl:  1  pfund=18 
nii>eK86  loth =144  qusnten;  1  pfund  (of  Antorf,  for 
gold  and  tUver,  etc.)==2  mark=16  unze=82  loth=128 
quent = 613  pfennig.  This  weight  ia  }  of  the  commer- 
clil  weight.  The  apothecary  pound  is  that  of  Lucerne. 
Liquid  Capacity!  1  eimer  (lauter-niass)=4  viertel  = 
80  kopf=60  mass=l'20  qu&rtli=240  stotzen.  The 
•imer  (stadt-mass)  for  wine  in  retail  is  sul>divided  in 
the  same  manner,  but  is  10  per  cent,  smaller.  1  eimer 
(trabes  mass) =4  viertel=:82  kopf=64  mass  =:  128 
qu>rtli=2S6  stotzen.  This  eimer  (which,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  for  wine  unrefined,  as  the  lauter-mass  is  for 
fined  wine)  is  -^  larger  than  the  latter.  Drg  Capac- 
ity: 1  maUer=:4  matt=16  viertel=64  vierllng=266 
infisBli=676  immi.  The  malter  for  grain  generall}-, 
■nd  all  dry  seeds  and  fruits  (gtaite  frucki),  contains  12^ 
cubic  feet ;  that  for  oats  and  for  green  articles  (legu- 
minous growth,  rauhefrucht)  contains  12-j^  cubic  feet. 
Lmglk  !  1  fuss  =  12  zoll  =  144  linie  =  13,1  lignei  de 
Paris.  The  same  fuss  is  divided  decimally  by  sur- 
veyors. The  architectur.M  foot,  since  1820,  is  xj^ 
longer,  but  divided  like  the  ordinary'  fuss.  1  rutbe= 
2  clle  =  10  fuss.  Agrarian;  The  ordinary  juchart  = 
400  square  rutbe=4000  square  fuss.  There  are  also 
juchart  in  the  same  variety  (except  the  very  smallest), 
and  similarly  applicable  as  at  Bern.  SiJid:  1  klaf- 
ter.for  fire-wood=C  F.longXC  F.highx4  F.deop  = 
144  cubic  fuss.  There  are  also  klafter  of  72  and  108 
cubic  fuss,  the  billets  being  2  and  3  feet  long  respect- 
ively. The  klafter  for  turf  (torb-klafter)  contains  12 
kerb  of  6  cubic  fuss,  each=72  rul)ic  fuss.  In  1828  a 
new  system  of  weights  and  measures  was  proposed  and 
adopted  for  the  Cantons  of  Aarau,  Basle,  Bern,  Frei- 
burg, Lucerne,  Solothum,  and  Vaud,  which  rested  upon 
the  metrical  system  of  France ;  but,  except  in  the 
Canton  of  Vaud,  it  has  not  l>cen  generally  carried  out. 

Tuscany. — Weight ;  1  libbra  — 12  oncia = 96  drachma 
=  288  denaro  =  6912  grano.  The  same  weight  an- 
swers for  gold  and  silver,  and  for  apothecary  use.  Tlie 
legal  centiuajo  or  cantaro  (as  in  all  the  cases  liitherto 
not  specially  mentioned)  is  lOO  libbre ;  but  the  can- 
taro for  wool,  meat,  and  salt  fiah  is  yet  160  libbre. 
Liquid  Capacity:  1  baTiIo=20  flaseo=40  boccale=80 
mezzetta=160  quartuccio,  weighing  133^  libbra;  1 
barile  for  oil,  or  orcio=lG  fiasco  =  32  boccale  =  61  mez- 
zetta  ~  128  quartuccio,  weighing  120  libbre.  The 
soma  for  oil  is  2  barile.  The  barile  of  alcohol,  brandy, 
•nd  rum  weighs  120  libbre.  Dry  Capacity:  1  moggio 
=8  sacco=24  8tajo=48  mina=9G quarto  =  384  meta- 
della=768  mezzetta  =  1536  quartuccio =3072  bussole. 
Length:  1  canna=4  braccio=8  palmo=80  soldo =960 
denaro ;  1  canna  (architects'  and  surveyors')  or  pertica 
=2i  passetto  =  6  braccio=10  palmo=60  crazia  =  100 
soldo = 300  qnattrino= 1200  denaro.  Itinerary:  1  ca- 
vezzo  =  2  passo  =  6  braccio ;  1  miglio  =  566}  canna 
(architects')  =  28331-  hraccio  =  6666|  palmo.  Agra- 
rian: 1  saccato  =  10  stajolo=13}  stioro  =  165  pannro 
=  660  square  pertica  =  16500  square  braccio. 

Wiirtemberg.  —  Weight :  Divided  as  the  Prussian, 
from  which  it  differs  but  slightly  in  value.  Gold  and 
silver  are  weighed  by  the  mark  of  Cologne,  and  medi- 
cine by  the  apothecary  weight  of  Numberg.  Liquid 
Capacity:  1  fuder=6  «imcr=96  immt-960  mo8s= 
3840  sr'ioppen.  The  eimer  is  of  a  ciitTerent  capacity, 
according  as  it  is  for  clear  or  unreflncd  wine,  Tlie 
latter  is  nearly  4}  per  cent,  larger  than  the  former. 
Dry  Capacity:  1  scheflbl  =  8  siniri=32  vierling  or 
viertel~64  achtel  =  128  mu8sUin  =  2fi6  ecklcin  =  1024 
viertelein.  IxMglh :  1  fuss  -- 10  zoll  =  100  Unit)  =  1000 
punkt.  This  measure  was  established  in  1806,  when 
the  fuss  was  fixed  at  127  lignes  de  Paris.  Tlie  elle  is 
not  aliquot  with  the  fuss,  being  214|^  lignes  de  Paris. 
1  ruthe=l)  klafter=10  fuss.  This  is  the  modern 
division.  In  the  older  habits  there  was  1°,  a  rutha 
of  16  fuM !  2°,  one  of  12  rbeinfuia ;  and  3°,  ona  of  16 


rheinfnss.  These  different  lengths  affected,  of  conne, 
the  value  of  the  acre.  Agrarian:  1  morgen=4  vier- 
telmorgen  =  884  square  ruthe  =  88400  square  fuss. 
This  is  the  legal  measure,  which  corresponds  in  value 
with  the  old  count  of  150  square  ruthe  (of  16  fuss  in 
length)  to  the  niorgen.  There  is  also  the  little  mor- 
gen  (old  measure)  of  160  square  ruthe  (No.  8) =33750 
square  rheinf uss ;  and  the  great  morgen  (old  measure) 
containing  400  square  ruthe  (No.  2) =57600  square 
rheinfuss.     1  juchart  or  jauchert  =  1^  morgen. 

The  variations  in  the  computation  of  the  mile,  the 
gallon,  the  hhd.,  and  the  barrel,  are  so  great  in  variouB 
countries,  that  we  give  a  list  by  way  of  comparison. 
Milk. 
MlgUo,  since  1803...  Aniitr.  Lombardjr.     0-6914  miles. 

d'ltalia Milan llt.38     " 

"        Naples 1-15311      " 

"        Home 0-9353     " 

"        Turin 1-5T44     " 

"        Tuscany l-0i)7«     " 

Venice 1-139T      " 

Denmark 4-«S         " 

Holland 8-MM      " 

"        8-4631     " 

"        0-6314     " 

Sweden 6-6336     " 

"      6-0316     " 

1  " 

1-1428      " 


1-2fK)60  gallons. 

0-08506 

ik 

0-03506 

ii 

1 

ii 

0-06970 

it 

1-22078 

ti 

0  94199 

ti 

3-6S109 

li 

1 

li 

1 

i( 

0-12556  bnsbola. 

0-12360 

0-12451 

0-12660 

0-13904 

0-12500 

Mill 

Myi,  old  mcasuro. . . 

**     marine 

"     Ipgal,  Xotlierl. 

Mil 

"  of  Norway "      

Mile,  legal Great  Britain 

"      marine '* 

»     Ireland 1-2T2I 

"     Hcotland 1-1373     " 

"     United  Ktates  ... .    1  " 

"     of  land England  and  U.  S.         640  acres. 

Mliha I'ortugal l-27SSmlle8. 

"     marine "        1-1507      " 

Mtlla Spain 0-8648      " 

"    marine "    11530     " 

Mllle,  old  measiiro..  Franco  and  liclg..    1-2111      " 

"      marine "  11507      " 

"      metrical "  0-6214     " 

Oauxjs. 

Imperial,  since  1825. . . .  Croat  llrltaln 

For  wine,  Saxon England,  1000 

»         Itumford  ....         "         1266 

"         Wlncliestor . .         "        1266 

"         Guildhall....         "        after  1406 
For  ale  and  beer,  1803..         "        11111826. 

For  wine Ireland 

For  liquids Scotland 

For  wine E.  and  W.  Indies.. 

For  liquids United  States 

For  com,  Saxon England 

"        Kumford ......        "        

"        Winchester..        "        

"        Guildhall....        " 

Imperial,  since  1826  . . .  Great  Rrltain 

For  com United  Statce 

Darrki.. 

For  lamp  oil Clnclnnnll  4.1     gallons. 

For  wine  and  biandy. .  Urcat  llrltain. . . .  81-5      " 
'         -    -       .i  ...     ,^.^^)      I. 

"  ....  36-0      " 

London 30-O      " 

"       29-0      " 

"       36-0      " 

"       27-5      " 

"       34-5      " 

"       32-5      " 

Uraniiy,  etc United  States....  81-5      " 

For  corn Maryland 5     bushels. 

Forflah ''         220  pounds. 

Forfloiir "  106  " 

Forllmo "         320  " 

For  salted  provisions  . .         "         31-0  gallons. 

IIOOSHEAn. 

For  wine,  etc  . . .  England 63           gallons. 

Ofelaret "        59 

Forale "        59-6'l744      " 

Forlwer "        65-0-2213      " 

Old  measure Scotland 57-20746      " 

For  liquids United  States 63 

For  tobacco,  net  .  Kentucky,  mean.  1200 

"               "  .  Maryland,     "     .  SOO 

"               "   .  Missouri        "    .  moo                " 

"               "  .  Ohio              "     .  750                " 

"              "  .  VlrgtnU        "    .  1300               " 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  preceding  article  we  are 
indebted  to  the  able  work  of  J.  H.  Alexander,  Esq., 
entitled  Universal  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures, 
Ancient  and  Modem,  reductd  to  the  standards  of  the  U. 
S.,  to  which  we  rafar  for  mora  extended  information. 


For  beer,  before  1803. 
For  ale,  etc  . . . 
Barcelona  wine 

Claret 

Lisbon 

Madeira 

Port 

.sherry 


pounds. 


Milioi 


I'nimlpw 
("bltiiH  . 
(iradus  . 


I'cnilna . . . 
Sex tori us. . , 

Modlu, 


WEI 

AncitfU  Wtiqht,  and  \r.  ^^^^ 


WEL 


Atllo  obolug  . 

Attio  drachma 

I«»»crmlna 

Orentcrmlna 

JMcdlcnl  mlna. 


•  -^  S fl  '■•'.'•'-""I 

"'•'■*  Br.  ArbiHhnot. 
I..      "Arh.'^f"'^"""". 


Medlmus.  

,  "uw*.  I 

Cab.,,.' 

(Joiner  ,'.'."■_'  _' i . ! ,' ," 


Old  Orock  drachm 

Old  fJreck  mlna  (         --:""'"nniiu 

I'tolenialo  miim  oVcieo;;;™ '"'2«  dn 

A«a„dHa„,„,„ao/Lr™ii-;    ?io1  t" 

Roman  denarius..  i    519_.  ''°- 

O^aariusofNero,..    1    «2  M  t  "'•  f""- 

^'w-i.:::::::::-    ^,  fe""^'"- 

J  ;„..!    V'ristlanl. 

!'»•"'««  of  10o« |43H    i^.tt'n""'- 

dllii         '  7"»-WIl. 

8cu.rrraK  M...snB,3  o.  tear,,    '/;;,  '■"""""'• 

Palm I"L'?«'. 

^      Span ..!!'"..'.  I .'  ] 

I.esscr  cubit . . 

Sacred  cubit. . ..'.'.'.' 

Fathom 

Eieklel'a  reed .' .'  i 

Arabian  pole  .  

SchoBnus 

Stadium,       

Sabbath  day'Vjoiii^eK '.'.'.'.'.'..' 


f Phah  . . . 
La  tech . . . 

J-'orom  ) 

iier/ 


Chodier 

«°»-'M.:,„a».,„,;;,"";j;';;-- '""^ 

I'«n.Ina..  ^-^'^""'""^t  ant  rTuttor,.) 


U-19*)  * 

■  s-au 

■  I01B3 
""nUili  l'„\, 

\«,  '■"'"> 

"Incli.  Butl,,!. 
1-09«| 

6-4sor 

•Jiurler, 

1-8702 


I'omina. 
f,'-'»tarlu8, 
'-oiglua , , . 

t'rna 

Amphora,',' 


t.'ule»s , 

Cotylu,. 
Acitca  , , 

*-'lOU8,.] 

Mctcotca 


''""''""^""■'OB  !:;,,;„: 


Caph  , 

Log. , , , 
lab, . . , 

"In.... 
■Senh . . ' 
Hath, , , 

Coron, . . . 


•'—M^a;,  ;„„---■ 


Kngll.h  Pi„h' 
-  ■       O.M7(i9"' 

■•       l-ll'ftlS 
••      T-1713 

'"'•"  <inl/oM. 

•  .iissf.r 

•  Tina 

llhdi, 

■      SiToa 

Kii?ll"li  Pint. 

•  0-S742 
M«3 
6-8900 

Win,  ,;,„ 

10-3350 

""ell"!!  Plnh. 

•  O-SOia 

•  1-UJS 
■      4 -6:133 

*'»•  u«ll. 

•  i-7a!» 

'      8-4450 
10'8350 
Ilhdi, 
1-6405 


_^  Hhd,, 

^8  following  table  ah™   .u  ^'^*^ 

-«nou,  articles'to  attr  ""■  »'"»•'- of  pound,  of 


Eastern  mile  . 

lanwang 

I>»y«  Journey 41.M         |  „„„„• 

iCon    1 '-'r-        r'^^i"""^-  BO 

■     liochmcf "'^^^ 

nichaa,.,. 
Orthodoron 
Spithamc, ,, 
Tons 


Wheat . , . 

5;orn,  shelled ;,  M 
f  "Don  the  cob,,  n 
!'ats .' ^ 

llMckivheat ,';,""  53 
'""h  potatoes,   ' '  m 


JJ  pounds, 


Pons 

J'j-gmo . . 

I'.vgon 

I'echya.. . 


Sladlos) 
Dulos   (  ■     - 
Millon  . . 


I'nimlpos 
f  "bitua  . , 
'•radua  . . , 


-••      802187 

•  •      T.66403 

■•  831015 

••      9-06583 

••  12-0875 

Engllih  Peel. 
■•       l-(}0729 
■•       M£^)3 

•  1-26911 

•  1-51993 
BaglMi  Pua. 

1  ■00729 

100-72910 
.  805.S333 


Onions....  ,, 

'teana  "'  Pounda. 

Hran.,, ™      " 

<;'loverseed,';""  ??      '' 

/.'■"othyseed,'."5 
Hoj-seed,,        'S 

'"'"p-ecd:  ,':.-^ 

I  '""grass  see,       ,4 
JJfted  peaches.,.  3I 


V     r     L  '  """U  peaches .      3J     .. 

"''o-    B.ilt,,  1855    nankm'  \ln      ■  "•  ^'•bxa.vdeb 


Weld,  or  Dyer's  Weed  rr!,  ,.;  ^'  ^"'^"s,  8vo 
,  r  "'perfect  bienn  a'l,  withTman  r"':/"''  ^"''"H  S 

fml  from  80  many  cause  "nrdul     -^  ""'^  "  "»"«  to 


Knsliih  Peel. 
1-211875 
1-4505 
2-4175 

Pjlpen. 
0-007 

120.875 
1M7 


Passua,.,  "" 

Stadium  ..  - 

Mlliaro  .     

Ji<''0(0 

8e»t«riui::;:;;;;;;;;_-- ^"o'-wi"* 

Modluj..  ,  1CU9 

sopllihPetk 

en  i^i« 


:.,,■-  ""™a  to  niaturitv  and  ,.■'■'""  """"ners  be- 
fml  from  so  many  cause  "and  u1     -a  ""'^  "  "»"«  to 
.tl'at  its  cuItivntionThv  n„        "'"^^^  '°  ".xhaustin^ 
"  preferred  to  aIUt"er  ub  taTc^r-  ""'■''■''''''■    '^"^ 
green  lemon  yellow.    It  is    ™        ^'""S  '^o  lively 
I  "  ■'  fo«nd,  when  employed  t?„:r' fr"^'^« '  ""^ 
grade  and  interfere  wiH,ma.ld",.nf         •''""«' '»  do- 
jellows.  and  to  stain  the  part  wal?fTl  ""•"  »""'' 
."enee  quercitron  bark  is  now  Ini       ?•     '"'P'  "''i"- 
'ng,  to  the  almost  total  e  "clusrn'^  7"",'? '""^"-P^i-"- 
I  ''owever,  employed  in  dye  ^  ,1,f  *'";     "  "  -"i". 
ana  in  paper-sta^.^^f^^^- ^^^^^^^^^^^ 


WES 


1954 


WES 


West  Indies  (Antilla  or  AniSle*),  an  Archipalago 
of  bland*  which  e.-ttend  firom  the  Gulf  of  Florida  to 
the  Gulf  of  Paria,  and  form  part  of  tha  division  Cen- 
tral America,  lietween  lat.  10°  and  28°  N,,  and  long. 
69°  and  86°  W. ;  bounded  on  the  north  and  eaat  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  on  the  south  by  tlie  Caribbean  Sea,  which 
leparatea  tbein  from  the  north  coast  of  South  America. 
The  northwest  group  contains  the  largest  islands,  or 
Greater  Antilles,  as  Cuba,  San  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Rico.  The  other  group,  or  Lesser  Antilles, 
stretching  from  north  to  south,  consists  of  Guadaloupe, 
Martinique,  Barbadoes,  Trinidad,  etc.  The  Bahamas 
form  a  third  group.  The  Lesser  Antilles,  from  Porto 
Rico  to  the  Uulf  of  Puria,  are  by  somo  writers  called 
the  Windward  Islands,  and  the  smaller  group  along 
the  coast  of  Veneiuelii,  the  leeward  Islands  ;  but  in 
British  charts  the  M'indirard  Iilanda  comprise  those 
between  lat.  10°  and  15°  N.,  and  the  Luaard  those 
between  lat.  16°  and  19°  N. 

LuwAsn  Islands. 

Virglii  laleb Rcdonda. 

Angutlla MontBcrrat 

St  Martin Antigua. 

St  Ilartholomcw Hartmda. 

Saba (iuadaloupo. 

St  EiuUtlus Tho  .Saiolca. 

St  Christopher Dcuada. 

Nevla Maric-Cialante. 

Dominica 

WiNDWAaU  ISLANDO. 

Martinique C'ura(oa. 

Bt  Lucia lluen  Ayre. 

Barbadoeii Ixw  lto<|uoa. 

Bt  Vincent Orchilla. 

Itcqula lllanca. 

The  (ircnadlnes Tortuga. 

Grenada .'^alada. 

Tobago Margarita. 

Trinidad Cubagiia. 

Oruba I  ocho. 

The  total  area  of  the  Archipelago  is  93,100  square 
miles.  Population,  3,684,0U0.  The  lesser  Antilles 
are  of  volcanic  origin.  Climate  of  the  whole  tropical, 
but  modified  by  the  surrounding  ocean  and  the  elevated 
knd  of  many  of  the  islands.  Sugar,  coffee,  cotton, 
dye-woods,  and  spices,  are  the  chief  products  and  ex- 
ports. Of  these  Ulaiids,  France  possesses  Guadaloupe, 
Martinique,  Deseada,  Marie-Galante,  and  part  of  St. 
Martin;  to  Spain  belong  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico;  to 
Denmark,  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John ;  to 
Holland,  St.  Eustatius,  Salui,  Cura^oa,  and  part  of  St. 
Martin ;  to  Sweden,  St.  Dartliolomew  j  Hayti  is  gov- 
erned by  rulers  chosen  from  the  citizens  of  each  of  its 
two  governments ;  Margarita  and  adjacent  isles  belong 
to  the  republic  of  Venezuela ;  and  Angiiilla,  Antigua, 
Barbadoes,  Dominica,  Grenada,  Jamaica,  Montserrat, 
Nevis,  St.  Christopher,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago, 
Tortola,  Trinidad,  Baiiamas,  and  Bermudas,  belong  to 
Great  Britain.  Columbus  landed  on  St.  Salvador, 
Bahama  group,  in  October,  1492 ;  and  the  Arcliipelago, 
under  the  erroneous  impression,  at  the  time  of  discov- 
er}', that  it  formed  part  of  Asia,  was  called  the  We$t 
Indift. 

Particular  descriptions  are  given  under  the  heads 
of  the  various  islands,  and  we  shall  therefore  limit  this 
article  to  the  statistics  of  tlie  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  the  several  West  Indies. 


AaEAs  or  Tua  Wkbt  Ikdies. 

klftnUi. 

San  DomlnKo 


Arra  In  Ba.  MUm. 

20,000 


a~„i  I,    (i:uba 4«,383 

rrrlnlilad a.020 


6,251) 
8*U 
778 

3,082 
4!I4 

aai 

SS2 
600 
192 

26 

Total  square  miles »!,*)« 


•Jamaica. 

t,ceward  IntandR 

Windward  Islands 

Ilahamas 

Turks  Inland  and  (  alms  . 

"«-■  {'.irinrqr.;:::;:. 

Dutch  Wi-at  IndiM 

Danlih  WcKt  Indlci 

Swedish  West  IndlM. 


Srititk  Wut  Tndiu. — There  are  several  small  islands 
in  the  West  India  group,  but  they  are,  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view,  too  unimportant  to  require  a  separate  or 
more  special  notice,  l>eing  all  comprised  under  some  of 
the  consular  districts  for  which  full  returns  of  trade, 
|)ort  regulations,  etc.,  are  given  in  the  preceding  irages. 
American  trade  with  the  West  Indies  .'s  placed  on  iin 
equal  footing  with  that  of  the  most  favored  nations. 
Indeed,  in  some  of  the  islands,  as  in  Canada,  American 
vessels  are  allowed  privileges  that  are  not  sanction- 
ed, if  not  expressly  withheld,  by  the  colonial  rcgulu- 
tions  of  the  mother  countr}-.  In  both  these  divisions 
of  the  British  North  American  possessions  they  are  ad- 
mitted, to  a  certain  extent,  to  the  benefits  of  the  conct- 
ing  trade ;  thus  proving  how  impossible  it  is  for  tlio 
lauther  countr}'  to  frame  commercial  regulations  adapt- 
ed, in  all  respects,  to  the  wants  and  necessities  of  lior 
colonies  in  distant  quarters  of  the  globe,  the  effect,  if 
not  the  design,  of  which  would  be  to  embarrass  and 
clog  their  intercourse  with  the  neighboring  markets. 

The  act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  18  Victoria, 
chap,  xxix.,  sees.  4,  5,  6,  clothes  the  governor-general 
of  the  East  India  possessions  with  ample  powers  to  ad- 
mit to  the  coasting  trade,  in  that  part  of  the  glol)e,  oil 
foreign  vessels,  whenever,  in  his  opinion,  the  require- 
ments of  commerce  or  the  interests  of  her  majesty's 
subjects  in  the  East  Indies  may  demand  such  a  conces- 
sion. By  virtue  of  this  authority,  the  coasting  trade 
of  these  vast  possessions  is  now  thrown  open  to  every 
flag.  A  similar  net  in  favor  of  the  West  India  and 
North  American  possessions  would  seem  to  be  more 
Imperatively  demanded,  even  as  a  boon  to  British  sub- 
jects in  these  parts,  particularly  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  but  few  of  the  staple  articles  of  food  are  ])ro- 
duced,  and  such  as  are  imported  are  necessarily  bur- 
dened with  the  taxes  and  imposts  incident  to  reBlii))- 
ment  coastwise,  and  transportation  into  the  interior, 
l)efore  they  reach  the  consumer.  Such  a  measure 
would  1>e  productive  of  the  happiest  results ;  and,  while 
it  would  impart  additional  stimulus  to  American  en- 
terprise, it  would,  at  the  same  time,  cheapen  all  tho 
necessaries  of  life  to  the  North  American  subjects  of 
Great  Britain,  who,  by  reason  of  their  geographical 
proximity  and  their  different  staples  of  trade,  are  tho 
natural  cUHtomera  of  the  United  States. 

Official  returns  received  at  the  Department  of  State 
represent  American  commercial  intercourse  with  tho 
British  West  Indies  generally  ns  being  on  the  moat 
satisfactor}'  footing.  Indeed,  nothing  seems  wanting 
to  render  that  intercourse  wholly  unembarrassed,  save 
a  modification,  if  not  a  total  repeal,  of  the  protectivo 
tariff  now  in  force  in  Great  Britain,  in  favor  of  aonio 
of  the  staple  productions  nf  these  islands. 

Daniih  West  Indies. — Tho  colonial  possessions  of 
Denmark  are  the  Faroe  Isionds,  Iceland,  Greenland, 
and  the  islands  of  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  .^t. 
John,  in  the  AVest  Indies.  Tranquebar  and  Serum- 
pore,  in  the  Fjist  Indies,  were  sold  to  the  Englisii  Ku^t 
India  Company  in  1846.     The  extent  and  populatimi 

of  these,  in  1860,  were  as  follows : 

S<i.  Miln. 

ruroc  Islands *15 

Iceland 88,200 

(^  rranland 3,»M 

West  1  lid  led  ; 

Banla  <  ruz 

ht.  I'homas 

St  John 

Total 

Dutch  Wett  fndiet. — Tho  principal  island  is  t^ira- 
^ao,  or  Cura^oa,  in  tha  Caribbean  Sea,  belonging  to 
the  Dutch,  off  the  north  coast  of  Venezuela.  Lat.  12^ 
N.,  long.  69°  W.  Length,  forty  miles ;  breadth,  six 
to  ten  miles.  Population  (1849)  of  tUira^oa  and  St. 
Eustache,  26,811.  Shores  bold ;  surface  hilly ;  soil  not 
rich,  and  deficient  in  water,  yet  s  good  deal  of  sugar, 
indigo,  tol)acco,  and  maize  are  raised.  Principal  port 
is  Santa  Anna,  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  island,  tho 
entrance  to  which  is  narrow,  but  the  harbor  secure. 


T4 

23 

21 

42,703 


ropuUtion. 

8, 1  hi) 

60,0(10 

l),400 

23,720 

]8,«C« 

2,229 

HUM 


ComiBioii  or 


WES 


1955 


'^J^^'T.n^^^^,^ 


i8s«. i    !';??•■»" 

isis 2,074  708 

ism:;:--    iZi^ 

Sept.80,1841...  4Q10,  „„ 

1842 »».11>1,033  1 

June8M8« 2.M2,30.I  I 

isS flU,2Is 

i8«:: »5M 

iSl 3.!I3«,S34 

Total...    $37,7]-;^ 

■"•""""■Jgj $3,943,6.0, 

1,^3 3.812,13;) 

lis *.O50,O27 

iSs f  79S,I51  ' 

lis? 4.«3,(K13j 

CoajIEBCB  op  TUB   Vy 


82,840 
l»T,031 
43,80(1 
120,218 
00,042 
88,000 

*1'',311 
23,307 
25,071 
21,828 
30,720 
82,474 
20,141 
4'>,347 
203,0.17 
173,044 

*522;35r 

*t51,945 
7:i,!l50 
100,081 
1^3,277 
232,9ii2 
61,0+4 
62,803 


TpUl. 

»2«Mir 

«8,I4I 

],M7,»«7 

1.771,003 

1.947,04« 

2,110,802 

6!K),576 

28,866 

«.521 

1,901 

!|Mui7iir 

«1.*«1,263 
l,08i.,270 
l,S14,0li6 
1.696,63» 
1.838,327 
I.8«,43fl 
«,ll8,0fl4 
2,200,852 
2,563,475 

*^l'.«74;t5r 

$3,231,994 
8.237713 
2,357,980 
*,I30,040 

*,124,22() 

<.947,5,',7 

8,993,3.12 

♦,834,883 

«,  133,931 

3,791,440 
$^^3TJ3i3a- 


$■4,103,609 
8,892,08.) 
♦,102,008 
4,909,675 
6,021,1.13 
♦,484,652 
6,084,918 


Imporu. 

$927"; 

88fi, 

1.844,1  _. 

2,753,067 

2,487,122 

2.204,412 

895,'2o7 

123,'.J!I1 

240,224 
$11,934,716 

$1,803,301 

1,422,237 

1,368,239 

1,163,609 

1,161„W 

1.285,2,S7 

1,451,31)... 

1,"35.S.1S 

941,0  9 

_J.04'<,1(1', 

*12,70,),l  34 

$S.V>,l'm 
820,481 
837,830 
087,900 
'82,530 
833,678 
947,932 
1.158,.'«i3 
997,80.', 
J. 120,!  68 

»Mi24,93r 


WE8 

r«o»  Owo,m  ,,  ,g^^ 

'       '51''?'*''  'k 


»^JciT  1,  M6T. 


91,003,371 
1,030,517 
1,044,204 
1,120,417 
1.613,070 
2,28.5,248 
2,653,0;i8 


ilti 1.14)041 

J||J 1,281243 

}I|? 1,3.11,004 

iffl 1,463,611 

llil 2,202,465 

18?? 1,942,'mio 

^'*'" 1,63.8,0''2 

Total. 


I  $18,269,023 

["""•'"•J^fl I    $1,431,071. 

is?? 1,393,490 


Eiporlj. 

$4«5,4STi' 
«28,256 
631,092 
698,302 
668,177 
676,001 
638,190 
603,0.34 
282,401 
_220,723 
$5,336,569 


PBOM  OctouEB  1, 


Tout. 

$M»l777i 
2,281,75;) 
1.862,154 
1.847,943 
1.849,425 
2,067,005 
2,0«l,3.il 
2,810,419 
2,224,411 
1,90S,745 


Wlie«, 


1,300,504  1 

2,110,066 

1,412,765         66  70. 

2,067,900  '"■* 

2,899,341  47V,sn 
66,209 
"    200 


2,250,123 


1834. 

183S... 

1836. . . . 
18.">r. . . . 
1833.... 
1839.... 
1849. . . . 


Total, 


1,084,202 
1,26,5,881 
1,320,3.12 
1,124,64.' 

949,769 
1,014,381 

918,931 
$11,768,432" 


.  'mos.,    1843* 
Juno  30, 1844 

1845. . .' 

1846... 

1347..., 

184S. . . . 

184).., 

1850... 


791,923 
672,163 
783.192 
833,513 
959,4.52 
836,672 
876,90) 
727,197 
807,14) 
■f8,IlS,019" 

I  Judo  30.  ISM  I 

I  'la™ $902,687 


01.1,481 
928,924 
84.1,111 
817,2;iO 
J,419,0IS 

'  Klae  moathj  to  j 


$224.5;)2 
282,341 
267,200 
354,303 
201,316 
210,092 
233,850 
227,417 
303,154 
JS0,.",18 

*"2,4S5n9r 

$83.5'57 
157,260 
74,540 
87,1.10 
16!l,926 
166.404 
1.52,631 
76,874 
.54,149 

114,818 

$I.137;379" 

$12.5,602 
120,6.17 
41,100  1 
34,020  I 
46,3,'.3 
60,511 
97,677 


$1,645,677 
1,676,831 
1,540,870 
1,4,19,010 
1,457,190 
1,536,4<4 
1,8.58,492 
1,177,186 
1.317,536 
1.099,449 
$I4;253;630" 

$852,495 
941,088 
746,098 
870.322 
994,42 1 
1,125,916 
98),  303 
!'53,S4;1 
781,.14.i 
9Jl,X,8 

$!',245,39S" 

$1,028.2^)  I 
931,1,16  i 
"64,641 
962,9.50 
883,404 
90ii,Si)l  I 

1,516,6:'6 


053,206         61 
1,606,834         20 

*iW4;is5'raj6;' 


*i''??''Si'       $40, 


™»ml,M20,™j„„,_jggj 

,.•''"'•'•««  in 
^wiandSpecia, 
Import. 
$30,1,56? 
177,559 
842,097 
631,522 
156.093 
166,642 
26,1,312 
176,007 
164,732 
247,326 
$2313^64 


1,119,366  ,      „, 

1.133,700  24 

1.621,826  J2' 

1,282,902  07 


303 
33,045 


1.826,309 


7'S3 

12,114 

,6,56 


1,104,087         is' 


31,643 


1,617,747 
1,46,5,761 


,434 
100,467 


_969J77l      21, 


165,227 


$13,360,; 


,429 


$242,479  I 
9T,!,S7  I 
11.5,783 
83,873  , 
71,807 
11,075  I 

2r3.835  | 

20,1.841 
48,997  ,' 

140,187 


*'V"IK!??       $'0.9.11 


'.605  rjT;^^! 


Anienctn. 
4fl;299" 
43,288 
33,932 
86.458 
37,780 
♦3,684 
♦4,853 
67,9,32 
66,738 

62,635 

♦1,730 

39,762 

33.642 

38,767 

36,!)70  I 

82,966 

31,667 

88,168 

3,1,563  1 

27,700 


i_yoniga, 
«38  I 
220 
66.')  I 
826 
718  I 

1,070 
810  I 

2,411 

1,299 


2,708 
3,803 
8,512 
1,737  I 

681 
8,231 
6,199 

719 

3,607  I 

1,197  I 


684,321         55; 


♦85,28! 
624,447  1 


683 
4,290 


760,399  67 
''6-'.6I4  100' 
846,743         4? 


11,980 
995 
270 
000 


635,73S 

33),I41  , 

207,459  1    27; 

$6,272,092  I  $0T5;9~7r, 


34,0.16  I 

S,!'43  ', 


f23,\S)4 
191,745 
184,497 
286,044 
225,303 
22,5,628 
281,559 


$243,.5S0 
161.987 
338,325  I 
235,754 

4S,'l00  I 
469,048 


unc  30,  aad  'U.  fl.„r,Wfrom  thlTtl^-^^J 


$93,303 
105.482  I 
167,224 
102,113 
82,877 
91,020 
127,2,"fl  I 
181,831 
12,379 
68,li00  I 

$13,9,14 
9,143 
7,916 
8,413 
22,155 
8,030 
2,260 


348,920  lIpsT 


29,464 
26,740 
23,0.16 
24,543 
28,920 
27,964 
22,1,56 
2,5,579 
2,5,5:)7 
19,376 
253,379 

18,233  1 

20,498 

14,032 

22,846  I 

24,247 

21,875 

21,334  I 


♦27 
700  I 
853  I 
863 
1,457 
1,375 
4,316 
4,065 
6,420 
2,690 
'2i;676 


WES 


1956 


WES 


Coimnuii  or  nii  rniTiEi)  HTATm  with  tui  I)rTi.'ii  Wmt  Indim,  r»n»  noTniim  I,  UiO,  to  Jviy  1|  18ST. 


YMfi  mdlnf 


Biroitt. 


~1>oiiimU«. 


$.160,S0S 
MD.flTi) 
SfSl.'JftH 
871.3*) 
«3-.',il4n 

86»,SIT 


l|iU>,TM 

1M.70* 

IhT.Oflfi 

1II.9H4 

IT.ftM 

M,4J« 

44,103 

41.ai« 

IS.iWI 

__  4'i,li»S 

$867,708' 

$40,274 
4A,(U4 
64,0»8 
02,136 
84.  Ill) 
«T,427 

nn,s7« 

4<I,II1A 
70,075 
42,010 


$fiei,»ll 

$84,194 
]5,»SI 
in,Kl|l 
I!l,84S 
83,708 
14,507 
Ifl,!),"* 
22,147 
B<l,2n2 

r>a,083 


$274,004 

$138,080 
I7,7«rt 
ls,7S0 
22,005 
7,010 
0.328 
10,770 


— v^sx — 

$«S3,I>43 
l,O7s,770 
812,H2S 
7«I,7M 
574,2H« 
40l,r>5l 
431,735 
450,!i59 
80S.541 
801,7118 
"$8;B01,27i 


$410, 
404, 
842, 
840, 
408, 
473, 
822, 
251, 
853, 
802, 


$3,0  Ui, 


$332,8 18 
207,231 
215,7r.O 
n23,2sO 
337,788 
270,164 
233,riOI 
838,813 
867,318 
421,1118 


$8,110,S20 

$504,087 
317,445 
270,047 
808,445 
240,266 
S20.!<82 
886,206 


Inpsrlf. 


$67^,470 
552.601 
400,186 
634,078 
4'I8,841 
630,875 
518,254 


Whrncpf 


Kl|Hirl. 

If34,300 

22,4.M 

8,700 

8,000 

"17 

'2,200 
$08,187' 

$70 


56,000 
22,808 

23,430 

47,026 

17.137 

$107,130 

$20,068 
6,4',:S 

' '  042 
17,906 
6,332 
6,225 
8,009 
34,018 
41,204 


lhi,r«  w  ««  In 

mi,)  HfvfU. 

int|)t>rt. 
$10^570 
137,328 
118,202 
(4,408 
74,087 
87,141 
107,810 
89,018 
148,1127 
127,3110^ 
$1,020,508^^ 

$73,2il7 
86,072 
41,162 
63,404 
60,18 1 
25,510 
40,872 
86,315 
08,700 
_  82^342 
$471,950" 

$62,003 
40,084 
53,804 
04,260 
27,50:1 
80,16.1 
18,847 
IIO,.^ 
89,040 
43,037 


$141,719 

$168,6M 
1,800 
4,000 
11,425 
0,200 
0,600 
7,320 


$484,110 

$20,860 
20,007 
28.070 
11,012 
15,041 
6,854 
4,033 


Tunn«(«  •Uartd. 

rortiifn. 
^S2'8~ 
827 
1244 
1406 


18,i98 
25,641 
10,788 
10,071 
14,800 
12,733 
13,374 
11,506 
12,217 
11,048 
166,400~ 

11,430 
0,511 
11,478 
11,200 
8,215 
8.624 
0,208 
2,048 
4,020 
8,700 


07,386 

0,060 
t,254 
3,704 
4,081 
6,085 
6,047 
4,870 
7,8!i4 
14,198 
9,288 


06,007 

7,087 
4,977 
6,988 
7,926 
0,222 
7,810 
8,051 


Oil 
212 
823 
303 

_  '''*'*_ 
6033 

1C4 
80 
80 

181 

'22.3 

503 

16S 

441 

J 158 

8083~ 

720 
528 

248 
89 


113 
M:) 
867 
101 


800 
715 
400 
600 
00 
004 
4S6 


POMMBIICI  or  TBI   I'NITKD   8TATU   WITH   TUK  FUMOU  '\Vl8T   IMIIIE8,  TBOH   UOTOIIEIt  1,  1820,  TO  JCLY  1,  1867, 


YMra  •odtof 


BlportA 


Sept.  30, 1821 

1829. 
1823. 
1824. 
1826. 
1826. 
1827. 
1823. 
1829. 
ISSO. 

ToUI. . . 


Sept.  80,1831 

1882 

1833 

1884 

1886 

1836 

1831 

1838 

1880 

1840 

ToUI. 

Hept.  30, 1841 

1842 

OmiM.,  1843*... . 
JuuoSO,  1844 

l'H5 

1840 

1847 

1848 

184 1 

1860 

Tottl. . 


JnoeSO,  1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864. 

1865., 
1866. 

I86I., 


$9,019,520 


$704,833 
005,7113 
013,710 
501.170 
540,4,')3 
471.927 
5i>6,o08 
430,008 
5S,'..flltf 

4s:i,.'iitt 

""$6,511, 480 

$.381., WO 
40.V.397 
281,8'>8 
.'iSI..V,8 
642.4.')5 
018,112 
60.(,120 
40.l,3.'>3 
180,731 

200,377_ 

$4,890,663 

$2«0,5:o 
42!'.84') 
S6.'.5I3 
56I..V>5 
S'0.837 
472,119 
720,779 


$20,702 
25,.50« 
85,738 
60,5!12 
12,'*«4 
8,025 
1,364 


$429,108       $0,448,094 


$13,044 
19,182 
24.346 
10,0S4 

84,:)o:i 
.30.173 
61,706 
!18,K80 
105.006 

30,«.5li 

$376,353" 

$40,!idfl 
23.009 
13.108 
8.5,078 
21,«4'< 
17,500 
84.o:i'< 
20,571 
14.207 

18,201_ 

'$239,bS6 


$4,629,488 

$310.2S1 
4.V>,U4 
801,251 
012,027 
409,701 
476,144 
781,143 


$671,842 
678,867 
611,242 
410,072 
447,208 
417.836 
414,203 
810,C60 
702,708 

836.261 

$4,804,858" 

$108,216 
100,100 
i;!6,021 
374,005 
415.032 
34.8,236 
161,306 
127,0.30 
71,460 
76,084 


$2,096,818 

$22,909 
46,287 
52,340 

101,086 
44,484 
66,188 
60,689 


Whtraof 
Bullion 


lli«r«  WNa  In 
«n<l  Spacla. 


Etport. 

$4,800 
1,570 

'8,000 
2,801 
4,110 
000 
8,405 

'$24,^52" 

$8,842 

1,123 

4,529 

800 

16,822 

18,868 

9,996 

14,200 

63,006 

1,494 


$120,039 


$4,050 
0.4-15 
4,090 


$15,491 


$1,000 
7,475 

"100 


$1,<;41,781 

$181,124 

152,110 
98,604 
70,(  60 

ir>3,l!03 
112,027 

122,170 
70,604 
48,209 

101,423 


$1,100,016 


,8(18 
201 
,000 
105 

,!P* 
4:11 
513 
OOil 
750 

030 

$4,292,328 

$18,604 
42,702 
23,1111 
87,518 
42,637 
61,736 
61,107 


$09,< 
11fl,'i 

02,1 
2.50,1 
191,! 
216,.| 
114,( 
100,( 

80,1 

6:i,( 


Tonnif*  ele«red. 


Anigrlran.    |    KiirelKn. 


48,306 
45,229 
30,112 
86,'.82 
48,580 
4:1,047 
50.031 
64,043 
65,019 
47,129 


450,047 

.<)5,334 
20,077 
27,307 
20,900 
22,024 
18,465 
21,514 
23,108 
34,36:i 
25,012 


201,410 

22,154 
09,700 
24,000 
37,375 
8.3,150 
81,698 
22,716 
21,148 
7,486 
11,227 
240,748" 

10,888 
10,!'65 
13,202 
13,570 
17,287 
17,416 
80,588 


2,326 

5,(i37 
4,143 
4,530 
4,137 
4,317 
4,325 


28,876 

2,264 
4,448 
0,710 
6,314 
2,083 
2,of)7 
2,270 
1,871 
1.22s 
1,2.'>5 
'30,102'" 

4«7 
I.ISO 

103 
2.263 
1.204 
1,701 
2.,'.27 
2,170 
2,780 

211 


14,752 

871 
2,110 
4.741 
6,007 
1,072 
1,842 
1,906 


Nine  moatlu  to  June  80,  ud  the  fianl  jrew  from  tbU  Urns  begbu  Juljr  1. 


I'SiiiiruiJ,  In;| 

iiaa,, 

WiO, ,'" 


««pt.  no,  jnoi, 

'  i*in.,'," 

"*■'"•. . . , 
""'■«. , . 

INflh, ,, 
"*M.,, 

111(11,,, 
'"<".,,;,' 

Total , 
ISxl'tao,  )»,<|, 

';'"'».,  |H4B», 

JUBoBO,  |((44, 

Tuldl" 
|junoBO,I<jB), 

"*:'.,,'," 

!<*«■», ,      ' 
ISW), , ,  " 

'wr.,,  ' 


'"-w,',',','" 

"*^3..,,  ' 
"*i4, , ,  ' 
l«2ft,,,    " 

i*»iir, , , 

ISO,} 
1S3». 

Tol«I., 
I  8oi)t.  BO,  ISBl 
I  IH,')a,.""' 

ISM.   .      " 

J8i(6, 

Is.'W, 

l»i.18, , , 
JSBD, , ,  ' 
'*■*''. . , .' 
Total 

Sopl.  30, 1H4I 

OniM.,    j.s^ii* 
Jiiuo3l),  ]s+< 

1H4(I 

IN-tN 
IHtf), 

T«(«l 

JunoBO,  TSBI 

)'«3,',"" 
I8.M       ' ' 

18B6. 
lSfi« 
18BT, 


,,  ,        .-.    I      ii«,(i4r,      IB,;;."," 


.  .  '  "iDliS  7noiJ  )",11I3  '"i"! 

'"»"  mouii,,  ,„  ,,.„,  ;^  J2'l  \       12,oM  I     i^iio         .^'^^ 


WIIA 


1058 


WIIA 


frtnth  W*tt  tmliu.—'tUm  fullDwIng  talilo  kIvxh  tha  i  tkiii,  with  «  layer  of  fat  or  bluhbrr,  which  hi  a  litrf(i) 


ginnnl  trwli  of  I'riitiiw  with  It*  culiinl««,  in  Irt.U : 


MtrlhiUiHD 

tluii'l*l<iup«  .., 

HHirUin 

N<lui>K»l •• 

I'ltVI'IMIII 

llHlU 

MgWr*.,, 

W.  I'Urrn  •ml  Mbiimlnn,  dtti.  . 
I>li<4  M»yi>tui  «ii>l  Mitiliigaariir 


liiti'itrU. 

j(iirtj,lM 

NM.IItl 

M,'<ii:i 

MMl.T'ill 

«i7,nui 

«,«i7 


ftT0,M4 
IIH4,IM« 

|S4.<I44 

i,n;tR,Mii 


Tha  tr«iU  tii  lliiurltnn  Inlnml,  Oiiynnii,  MarMnlqiie, 
•nd  (iuitilulnu|M,  nut  anil  hnmn,  ■•n|il<>ye(l  in  IMfl,  ioi 
■hi|)«i  III  INI'J,  All  I  In  MM,  IMf  In  IN&l,  OOi;  in 
IHAsI,  077 1  III  IMA:!,  ftil3.  Tha  moan  uf  tbs  ilx  yearn, 
6)1A  vntMla, 

HmUitK  WoM  Mifi.—'thn  Manil  nl  Ht.  liartholomew 
U  tha  only  |H)i)>««ilnn  of  tha  Mw«(te«  In  Amsrica.  It 
haluiiK«  to  tlin  linnwanl  K"»i|'<  ■"■'I  '*  "itiiate  centrally 
In  lat,  17'^ao'  N,,  ami  lonK.  <li^  M'  W.,  illiitimt  t«r«lvo 
mlUa  rroiii  Ht,  Murlln,  anil  aliuut  thirty  from  8t.  Chriv 
lopbar.  It  It  alioiit  nlifht  mile*  lon^'  l>y  from  two  to 
tlira*  inllaa  wtiln,  iiiiil  contalnn  an  area  of  alHiut  twonty- 
llva  «i|U«r4  iiillai.  IJapltal,  OiiAtitvla.  Tho  UUnil'U 
of  an  lrr«;(iitaf  aliaita,  anil  deeply  inilenteil  hy  niiiner- 
oui  •mall  naiiily  liayn,  aaiiaratnil  liy  liiild  and  ntcop 
rotlky  iiix'llvltlait,  nf  iiniiUMte  hnl|(ht.  In  the  inturiiir 
It  U  hilly,  Imt  It*  loMe^t  •lavutlun*  are  lenii  than  llMX) 
faat.  In  iiiii«t  purtK  It  la  barren  and  ■terilo,  but  Ims 
nuinaruiw  w*ll-4tiiltlvatad  valleyn.  It  prodiicea  all  tho 
•taplet  of  the  Went  Itiillen'i'iitton,  augar,  toliacco,  in- 
(lltfn,  atii,,  and  alto  ll|(iiuin  vltio  and  iron-wood,  lu 
only  «X|Hirt« ar« niltln  and  mnna  nalt.  Water  U acarco, 
and  the  iiilinbltiint*  depand  for  lupply  on  the  rain.H. 
Tha  only  harltiir  U  l.a  Ottontgis,  a  aafe  and  conimodU 
oua  unn,  and  min'li  rrei|iientpd.  It  la  on  the  vrnnt  dU'i 
uf  tha  laland.  (,'loiin  by  U  Ouatavia,  tho  .iriiiulpul 
town,  a  IhrlvinK  plai'n, — Ki<r  nrtiulea  on  Ilritl^  'i  mun- 
ciputlan,  llrltlah  (!iilnnl«<,  «ti-.,  aee  Edrct.e  Jheieio 
( Itll  aarlail),  Iv,,  Ix.  t  Chriitinn  Qim-lerig  NpeHatur,  x. ; 
H'n^aKii'a  ilni/nunii,  vlli.  i  tUlinhurgh  Kn:,  xix.,  xll., 
xlv.,  xl.  i  Qmrlfrlg  lim.,  xxxli.,  xxxviil.  (Suutiiry), 
xlv,  I  Wutminitfr  Hfieirw,  I,  \  lli.AcKwouD'a  Slag., 
xiv,,  XV,,  xvl,,  XKxl,,  xxxlv.,  Ixlll. 

WiUll«boil0,  a  •iilittancn  uf  tho  nature  of  horn, 
adlierliiK  In  thin  purnllel  laininn)  to  the  upper  Jaw  of 
the  wliala,  'rhe«a  vary  In  Atn  from  three  to  twelve 
feet  In  leiif(th  ;  the  breadth  of  the  largunt  at  the  thick 
end,  whara  tliny  are  attached  to  the  Jaw,  la  about  a 
foot,  They  ar«  iixtromaly  elaitic.  All  above  alx  feet 
In  laiigth  la  calli'il  <i;it  brnu.  ThU  article  won  lirat 
known  In  Knglaiid  alamt  the  year  lUli:).  It  may  bo 
worth  whlla  til  riiinark,  iia  evincing  tlin  ignoranca  that 
•t  una  time  pravailml  with  retpoct  tii  tlio  whiilu,  that,  by 
an  old  KnglUh  fninlul  law,  tliu  /<ii/  of  ull  wliuloi  belong- 
•d  to  tha  i|Um'ii,  u«  n  pnri|uiiilti<,  to  furnlih  her  miije.i- 
ty't  wardrolm  with  whalebone  !— IIi.ai^kstonr,  vol.  i. 
|>,  !t:i:i,  Thn  lm|Hirt  of  whulcbuno  Into  the  United 
Ntotan  fur  «  nuinliar  of  yearn  puat  liaii  been  an  follows : 


fMllrtl. 

IMT n,!tii,<i<io 

IMt l.nii:i,iHiii 

|)14'I tt,!-*!,!!!! 

tXBit S.Nid.Jlhl 

W)\ !l,flll),r)H) 


Pound!. 

iwi i.ans.uoo 

isfiii ri,(i;>3,aoi) 

liBt 8,«.V10« 

Hri5 S,71)V,BnO 

\VA «,3S7,4ilO 


—Hm  WliAI.K.KlnilKiiiKH.     Whiilebone  first  became 
in  une  In  Kuro|ia  In  the  17tli  century.— *«  p.  390. 

Whale -flahery.—  ir/i'i^:  (r'.iHimon),  tiio  nalmna 
Ini/fifHiit  of  Mnnii'iin,  a  iiiarino  animal  of  the  cetaceous 
•peclua,  and  the  largoit  of  all  thwio  with  which  men 
are  «ci|imlnliiil,  The  whale  jns.  It  la  afnrmod,  been 
found  una  hiiiiilrnil  and  aixty  feet  in  length;  but  this 
U  niOKl  probably  nn  oxaggerallon.  In  the  Northern 
•oas  it  In  at  prii«i  nl  nnldotn  found  at)0ve  sixty  feet  long : 
lieinK,  tiuwaver,  generally  killed  before  it  arrives  at  its 
full  (f-owlli,  lhi«  li  no  proof  that  tho  animal  may  not 
formally  hava  attained  to  a  much  larger  size.     Tbo 


llnh  is  from  twelve  toelgliturn  iiiihea  thick.  In  young 
whales  this  fatty  mailer  resemblus  bog's  lanl,  but  In 
old  onus  It  is  of  a  reddish  color.  I'liis  is  the  valuable 
part  of  the  whale,  and  the  desire  to  possess  It  has 
prompted  man  to  attempt  the  capture  of  ibis  mighty 
animal.  The  blubber  yields,  by  expression,  nearly  Its 
own  weight  of  i  thick,  viscid  oil  (train  oil).  The  com- 
mon whale  Is  now  rarely  found,  except  within  the  Arc- 
tic circle ;  but  at  a  former  period  it  was  not  unfrci|uent- 
ly  met  with  on  our  coasts.  There  Is  a  good  account 
of  tho  common  whale,  and  of  the  manner  In  wblch  tho 
fishery  Is  carried  on,  in  Mr.  John  I^vini/.i  Voymje  to 
Spilibtryen,  one  of  the  shortest,  clieupcst,  and  best  of 
the  innumorablo  books  published  on  this  hackneyed 
suljcct, 

1.  Thf  .Iptitn  Whale  (tho  Cachahit  or  P'yietrr  mic- 
rocrplialiiii).—'lihe  principal  species  are  the  black-head- 
ed with  a  dorsal  tin,  and  tho  rMiiiiil-licadcd  without  a 
lln  on  the  Itack,  and  with  llstubt  in  the  snout.  This 
whale  is  kn.  wn  at  a  distance  I'y  the  peculiarity  of  his 
"spout'ngi"  or  "blows."  lie  can  bo  easily  detected 
by  whahiti  0.  ,  if  he  happens  to  bo  in  company  with 
other  sporii..]  of  whales.  He  blows  the  water  or  vapor 
from  his  .i' :  '.r'ls  in  a  s'.iigle  column,  to  tliu  height,  per- 
haps, of  twilvo  feet,  inclining  in  a  forward  direction,  in 
an  Aiigin  of  forty-llvo  degrees  with  the  horizon,  and 
visible  for  several  miles.  Tlicre  is  also  a  wonderful 
regularity  as  to  time  in  which  he  "blows,"  perhaps 
once  in  ten  minutes.  He  remains  on  tbo  lurfaco  of  tho 
water  from  forty-live  to  sixty  minutes,  and  under  wa- 
ter about  the  same  time.  Uiilc»s  tho  wimie  is  fright- 
eiiod,  whalemen  make  i|ulta  correct  calculation  as  to 
the  chances  of  overtaking  him,  or  meeting  him,  or  when 
lie  will  rise  to  the  surface  after  lie  has  "  turned  flukes." 
When  tho  sperm  whale  Is  near  ho  can  be  easily  dislln- 
guished  by  tho  form  uf  bis  bead,  iinliko  any  other  va- 
riety of  whale  Its  head  is  enormous  in  bulk,  being 
fully  more  than  one-third  of  tbo  whole  length  of  its 
body,  and  It  ends  like  an  abrupt  and  steep  promonto- 
ry, and  so  hard  for  several  fcot  from  its  front,  tlmt  it  is 
(I'uito  difficult,  If  not  impossible,  for  an  iron  to  enter  it ; 
us  inipcrvioiis,  indeed,  to  a  harpoon  as  a  bale  of  cotton. 
Ilesides,  the  sperm  whale  has  a  hump  on  his  back, 
which  distingivshes  him  from  others.  This  hump  is 
farther  forward  than  the  hump  on  tho  finback  whale. 
K^perm  whales  have  been  captureil  from  seventy  to  nine- 
ty feet  in  length,  and  from  thirty  to  forty-five  feet  in 
circumference  round  tho  largest  part  of  their  bodies. 
It  is  supposed  by  whalemen,  from  their  appearance, 
that  they  live,  or  some  of  them  at  least,  to  a  great  age. 
Uiio  writer  on  this  subject  thought  that  the  sperm  wbalc 
would  attain  tho  age  of  many  hundred  years,  and  even 
to  a  thousand  years.  This,  however,  is  mere  conjec- 
ture, because  there  are  no  dates  or  facts  upon  which  to 
found  a  correct  opinion. 

It  is  supposed,  that  as  tho  sperm  whalo  advances  in 
age,  his  head  not  only  retains  its  ordinary  proportions, 
and  to  appearance  becomes  enlarged,  but  the  truth  is, 
tho  other  parts  of  bis  body,  especially  his  extremities, 
do  actually  dimininb  in  bulk  and  circumference.  In 
somo  instances  more  oil  has  been  taken  out  of  the  iioail 
of  a  s|>crni  whale  than  from  the  other  part  of  his  body. 
Tho  principal  food  of  tho  sperm  w  hole  is  "  squid,"  a 
molluscous  animal.  "This  is  an  animal  of  so  curious 
an  order  as  to  merit  a  word  of  special  notice.  The 
principal  peculiarity  of  this  molluscous  tribe  is  the  pos- 
session of  powerful  tcntacula  or  arms,  ranged  round 
tho  mouth,  and  provided  with  suckers,  which  give  thcni 
the  power  of  adhering  to  rocks,  or  any  other  substan- 
ces, with  surprising  tenacity.  Somo  of  tbis  trilie  at- 
tain to  a  groat  size,  and,  as  large  as  tbo  whale  is,  will 
furnish  it  with  no  contemptible  mouthful.  In  the  gul- 
let of  one  sperm  wlialo  an  arm  or  tentaculum  of  a  sea- 
squid  was  found  measuring  nearly  twcnty-sovon  feet 
long."      Wholemcn  frequently  discover  large  masses 


hodlaa  uf  whalas  «r«  covered,  iiniuediately  under  the  :  or  Juuka  of  squid  floating  about,  probably  torn  in  pieces 


•'/  wlmiei  In  Ui«lr  ^^    l 

!•  •alil  that  .m,    r      ""•""''  '">i  o,  „„!    ■."""P*''- 

"nKUl.lio,!  I.y  wl,.|..  ",7     '"'""■  ""'l  wlil.l,  . 

"•  «l>«nn  I,,  „,„  f„,|„;.|,  ''    '•l«  't  «halo  .ll/r„„  /  '  ,° 


1039 

WHA 

I      *.  tioiiikttui  ft'kaJ,      'II  ■ 

'  i«  ■l.oci,,  call,,,  ,,       ' ""  <'rot.|,|«,„|  ^1^1     '''"'" 
•iifli  a.  tho  "  Soriiir    ••  .     "■""■'  "0  ""acho    ,„^;  ""' 


«li«".nc<.,  oven  ^   ..^     "^  "'"'  "'o  water  to  al  I'    ^IV""  ™'-«  <I.«t  ha/     ;lt',l  .r''^'"'  """  '«""  'ho 

'i'"o  riKht  whale  ;  ';;       Zht"""''"'  """  ''-51^^        wS  ''''.7^' '"  """'>■  <-'e    Pel -»-"<»>  of  ,h, 
mouth  or  head  ««  (i.„  *'"'  <"■  lonioiid  will.  1 1      I  '"""'f  "  wcro  (hat  iI,a  ,.  i ' ,  "'^^-■"lo  want  of  flsh 

of  attaek„t::&„:x;^^''""■ '-''"»"  a^^^^ 

Ho  will,  however    Xn    ?"■' '"  '''»  »'>»""ou,  fl.,ke      !,„?,    """''  ""  '""K"  Mt  the  ]    ■  i?    'Y'  "'  '«'"'"« 
wlialenien  say,  .„  ,    !?".'""'•''''  "'•''^''  «™und,'-  „  J  '^I'^f"  "™'>y -leMroye, ,  ee  ,Ji„  f  i  "^'''"' '''«  ^^^^^ 

time  for  remaim-,,7on    ,,       'J'"'"'  '"'^•''  "o  re  Jiar    ,,",,''*''"''  '"■'"g  "''liKcd  to  ..i.      'u'".'"  """««; 
thov  "  hren,.h  ..  5.?  "'"  "'"f"^"  of  the  «■«»„/„'!      '"  !""'<''  "f  Newfo„„dI„n    .'X       ""''>  Prey  upon 


»f-^:ai:u;::,r:::;:;i^rtirthJ"°""'    ^ 


WHA 


lOOO 


WHA 


tiiilitrk  In  tvtry  toinm«rrUI  pnrtnll  lh*t  gitv*  my 
liu|i*a  of  iUCiMM,  (igtrly  miUrtil  on  thU  new  <MrMr, 
tnj  Milt  iwl  ililiM  (liuj  ii|uiilly  for  tli*  |>iirnoMi  of 
lialilnil  •nil  iif  iIiIWiim  annlntl  tli*  mUclit  or  olhtri. 
Till)  Uitumvy  I  iiiiiimnx  liavlnif  ■lt«mpl«l  to  vlntllrau 
ill  |irtl«niluiii  I'l'  rnrc*,  Mvur.il  unrountari  took  |>liice 
lii'iHi'tiiithnlr  ililiia  mill  tlniM  uf  tin  Dnlcli.  T'h*  inn- 
vii'llijii  itt  Uii||lli  Ihiimiiiii  K«iiiiral  that  tiMr*  w«i  nmm 
•iioui|li  for  all  imrtlM  In  lli*  Norllicrn  miu|  anil  Inor- 
il«r  It)  iivoM  ill*  rhitni'«  of  iimilnK  ^ito  eolllilun  with 
till  h  iiilwr,  llMy  |iiirr«M  H|iliiilivruin  mil  the  ■iljiirtiit 
oi'imi  Into  illilrlrl*,  wliltih  warn  maiwellvi'lv  aaalKnail 
to  Ilia  I'JiKllali,  Duli'li,  IUinliurK>ir«,  Kri'noli,  iuiiea,  ate. 

'Iliu  Diili'li,  liKliig  thiia  laft  to  prixai ut«  Ilia  llalicry 
wllliout  liavliiH  lliulr  atlantloii  ilUarteil  liy  lioatlla  at- 
tX'lia,  a|wtii|||y  «ci|iilrail  •  ilmlili'il  iiii|rarlorlly  ovor  all 
tliair  riiiiipiitllora.  Wlian  tlia  Kurii|iflaiia  llrat  b«Ki»>  ^ 
priiaariitatlia  Hillary  nil  til*  cimat  of  Nplt/.li«rt|<in,wbale« 
warn  atary  wlwra  fuuml  In  vast  niinilmra. 

Khi'oht  im  WiiAi.iNii  iir  TiiK  i:N(Tr.ii  Ktatr* 

L'llNalll.  AT  I'AITA,   INM. 

"C'»aavi.«T»or  tiir  I'aiTiin  HTATia,\ 
'■  fAllA,  Hfiilfmbtr  I,  >HM.         f 

"HlH,— I  liava  tlm  liniior  to  aiilnnlt  lu  tha  Depart- 
liwiit  uf  Hlatu  II  mport  on  wlinlnra  anil  tliu  wlmllnK  iiy»- 
taiii,  na  pur>uail  nml  ciirrlml  on  from  aavoral  (wrta  In 
tha  I'nttail  Htalaa;  mil  I  hupo,  altlivUKli  I  alinll  lin 
t:iiiii|i«llail  to  Ko  aoiliawliat  Into  ilntuil,  tlio  todlouanom 
tliuri  friiiii  hIII  Ii«  ooinpanaatail  for  liy  llie  Information 
vunialiii'il, 

"  I  faal  lonflilant  that  tlHiri  la  no  hranoh  of  trailo  or 
aniurprlaa  antiirail  Into  In  tli«  Itnlloit  itatci  In  which 
au  htu»  » I'upilal  la  lnv*tt«il  that  la  ao  llttlo  iinilcratoml, 
«xri>pl  liy  tlia  linniniliata  |Mir>ona  concornod.  Kvcn  In- 
ti.'lil.<i'iit  niari.'haiili  Inolliar  porta  who  Kpnculate  In  tho 
ri'iiiilu  of  a  whalliiu  voyaKs  know  llttla  and  cnro  lesa 
frmii  whaiM'it  and  liy  what  nioniia  limy  iiro  taken.  I 
•hull,  thurafora,  not  conlinn  niyaoif  to  ineri'ly  ({'vinft 
thii  iiiimlixr  of  vnaaola  and  innii  nniploynd,  tha  amount 
of  tonnuun,  avtiroKM  i|iiantity  of  oil  taken,  etc.,  hut  do 
iiiv  ulnioal  til  lay  liafiira  you  an  nxarl  account  of  the 
wliulu  ayalmii,  tlin  ailvancninnnl  and  improvenienlsin- 
trmliii'ixl  Into  nioilarn  whaling  on  tha  aim  hand,  and 
Ihu  al'uaaa  and  acta  of  iiijiiatli  v  on  tha  other. 

"  Kmiii  aflar  tha  war  of  IHIIJ  wn  iniiy  dale  the  com- 
mitncainanlof  Aniarli!anwlialln((  in  the  I'licillR.  Com- 
moijora  I'ortMr,  in  that  arraiiit  yet  liold  ex|i«dltion  In 
tha  h'tt'j;  liy  ilnatroyinK  the  Kiifflinh  wlinlu  fleet  on 
thia  aide  of  land,  Kavn  Ilie  lin|Mtiia  and  luid  tho  foun- 
dation to  a  Viiat  Irudn,  which  tlio  ICii.ilcrn  ^Statoa,  with 
their  I'liarai^tiiriatli)  eimrgy,  and  aapcclnlly  Maaaachii- 
aatia,  eaxarly  ((ia>|K<d,  and  from  whicli  they  have 
raupi'd  iiiillionaof  prollt, 

"  At  tliat  perlnd  i  donld  whi-thcr  there  would  have 
nuiiilii'riid  nioru  lliun  ten  or  l»clvii  Ainirii  nn  whalers 
In  thia  ocuan.  Hut  »t  tlin  cloan  of  the  war  EiiKliiih 
capll.iiUta  nn  lliia  hranch,  having  cither  liccn  ruined  or 
fauriiiK  to  aKuin  liitruat  their  veaaela  aofar  from  home, 
and  for  ao  imiK  n  time,  Ifft  tho  I'aclllc  free,  and  consc- 
<(ucntly  Iha  Ainnrli'un  trader  found  thia  linmonac  apuce 
entirely  at  hi*  di«|N»al, 

"Kor  many  yuara  ao  aiicrcajful  worn  tho  voyagea, 
■nd  ill  riiinparutiviil;'  ao  tliort  n  ajiiice  of  time  wore 
lliey  pi  rfiirined,  that  nuthliiK  hut  old,  cundcnincd  mer- 
chant vaiaiila,  palcliud  ii|i,  aoinctlincs  newly  rigged, 
witli  Iha  iiucaa«ary  lioata  and  whaliiiK  gear,  were  aciil 
to  thia  coant)  hut  latterly,  that  la,  within  tlio  laat 
twelvu  yimra,  it  ureal  ihantfo  haa  taken  place,  and  a 
much  aufHirior  iA»»»  of  V8<aela  liua  hccn  cimatruciod. 
Thia  U  owInK  to  tliti  lircumatancn  llial  whales  have  ei- 
ther iici'oiiia  inilidi  iiiora  acarce,  which  lomo  of  the  moat 
experiniiced  inaatara  alllrin.  or  they  have  liecomo  more 
knowing,  morn  eaulloiia,  and  wljder,  na  others  ei|unlly 
•xperlnnced  aaarrt.  In  all  prolialjilit.v,  a  combinutiun 
of  theao  cauM*  wouhl  b«  iioarf  r  the  truth.  Tho  apcrm 
wlittlu  la  tiidowed  with  an  extraordinary  aculenesa  of 
htariiitf,  and  tlia  aiiiatleal  aplnsh  of  a  paddle,  or  an  or- 


der glvan  in  too  loud  a  tone,  will  la  tha  alKnal  for  ln< 
atant  diaappaaranca ;  and  aa  ihay  are  either  tauKlit  hy 
nature  or  axptriencu  that  tliay  can,  and  vraaala  cun  not 
go  'dead  in  ihn  wind'a  rya,'  they  dart  olf  In  llmt  ill> 
raotlon  and  are  aoon  loat  to  alffht.  It  hua  liceii  found, 
tharefurn,  that  a  fait-aailing  clipptr,  aUliniigh  alie  can 
nut  com|Hila  with  the  wiiule  wlien  tliuroughly  ahiriiiuil, 
yet  wiiaii  he  la  aeun  from  aloft  aha  can,  l<y  i|uitk  auil- 
iiiK  and  projier  manoiivriiiK,  gi\t  mora  rapidly  wltliin 
luwarinK  diatance,  and  tliareiiy  huva  a  (treat  advant- 
age over  the  uhl  tuha  th.il  formerly  wont  to  aaa.  Many 
full  and  numlieraof  Imif  clip|Mira  have  lieen  of  late  years 
added  to  tha  whaiinK  Heat,  and  othera  are  annually  lia- 
hiK  liuiit.  Aa  a  matter  of  rouraa,  new,  IIkIiI,  and  ciiiii- 
modioua  veaaela  render  tho  laliora  of  the  aaaiiien  much 
laaa,  and  tlieir  comforla  mui  h  Kroater. 

"  There  is  no  more  of  that  evcrlaating  punipiiitf, 
patching,  and  calking ;  tlieaa  have  been,  more  or  leaa, 
duno  away  with.  Tlio  men  have  dry  Ijunka  to  alecp 
In,  and  »liau  not  ciitting-in  whulet  or  trying  out  oil, 
their  work  ia  comparatively  liglit. 

"  It  wua  niiu  I'ouiid  that  the  ayatem  of  iiad  beef,  bad 
pork,  and  wurao  blacuit,  turned  out  In  tiie  end  an  un- 
prolltable  ecouomy ;  for  good  men,  accustomed  tq 
wholcaiimo  food  at  home,  ami  shipped  at  amull  lays 
or  ahurea,  would  dcnert,  with  the  hope  of  liettering 
themaclvea,  and  the  maatcr  would  conaei|uently  bo 
compelled  lo  take  any  daaa,  whether  good  or  bud,  to 
nuke  up  his  conipletncnt,  giving  at  tha  aamo  timo  liot- 
ter  lays  and  a  largo  advance.  I  am  sutialled  that  there 
aro  no  veasela  afloat,  aa  a  general  rule,  that  have  iiel- 
tor  provlaiuns  and  in  greater  abundance  than  whalers. 

"liesido  tiie  salt  provisions  and  small  stores,  theso 
veaacia  touch  at  some  poit  at  least  every  six  nuinth:, 
and  lay  In  largo  supplies  of  fresh  meal,  vcgelaliloa, 
nnd  fruita.  On  ono  occualon  1  knew  a  mailer  lo  liny 
Home  sixty  Imrrcla  of  sweet  potatuca,  paying  a  higli 
price  fui'  Ihein,  altiuiugh  told  thai  they  won)  too  old  to 
keep.  Ilia  reply  was  that  there  wore  no  others  to  lie 
had  (which  waa  a  fact),  and  if  we  took  tliem  on  board 
tho  men  would  lio  satlstled,  oven  if  lie  had  to  tiirow  Ihcm 
into  the  aoa  in  two  days.  It  will  bo  perceived  from 
the  rorogoing  that  there  has  lieen  consideralilo  Improve- 
inunt  III  the  building  of  voiscla  and  tho  caro  fur  thii 
comfurta  of  tlio  iiicii,  and  I  wish  sincerely  my  report 
could  cense  hora.  I  should  lio  only  too  glud  if,  over 
tho  picture  which  I  shall  bo  now  compelled  to  sketch, 
I  could  draw  n  curtain.  I  would  be  glad,  for  tiio  snkn 
and  iianio  and  reputation  of  our  countrymen  engaged 
in  wlialiiig;  but  I,  having  lm|>o»vd  upon  myself  this 
(which  I  conceivo  to  lie  not  a  tu»k  but  a  sucrcd  duty), 
will  not  shrink  from  doing  Justice  to  the  mariner,  aft- 
er having  liestowed  that  pruUo  which  was  duo  to  tiio 
owner  and  muster. 

"In  order  lo  make  myself  thoroughly  undorstooil, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  that,  generally  speal^- 
ing,  when  a  veswl  U  bcini(  fitted  nut  for  a  whaling 
voyage  to  tlin  Tacilic  Ocean  from  tho  United  States,  u 
shipping-master  is  applied  to,  wlio,  if  ho  has  not  on 
hand  a  aufliclcnt  number  of  men,  immediately  sriids 
his  riinnn-  througli  tho  iiitt!rior  of  SIa8»acilU^ctt8,  New 
llanipsliire,  Vermont,  New  York,  and  oven  us  far  ua 
Ohio,  to  pick  up  what  are  termed  green  hands.  As 
theso  shipping-masters  inuku  largo  proflta  upon  cacli 
ond  every  man  whom  they  procure,  tiicy  use  every 
means  in  their  power  to  excite  tlio  fancy  and  stimulatn 
the  ambition  of  thoso  whom  chancu  may  throw  in  their 
way.  They  return  to  the  port  with  ten  or  fifteen  line 
able-bodied  young  men,  who  aro  sliipped  liy  the  iirop- 
cr  authority,  and  aro  then  told  they  cau  amuse  them- 
selves at  their  boardlng-huuao  until  tlio  day  of  sailing ; 
and  that  the  shipping-master  has  orders  to  supply  them 
witli  clothing  adapted  to  and  iioceasary  for  the  voyage 
they  are  about  to  undertake. 

"  The  time  of  sailing  arrives.  All  hands  are  hud- 
dled nn  board.  Tlieir  chests,  into  wliieii  tiicy  have  li.ul 
no  chance  of  looking,  are  put  into  tho  forecastio  wlicu 


rrir.  -"»'"« count,,. ,[ 

"  per  cent,  Iniiiranrn  ....  11,".  f." o.i  .).y 


.  4000 

"'""  to  be  recelrcd  .t  iho  end  of  ror.ee     '   2?!'  I  „  "'-" 

and  honestly  put  un-  thnt  l""^'^  •"""'  Propcrlv r^"""""  "' "'""cy naW  lo  m '^'' •••  • 

"gift  to  encournftc  the  younc  m„,?          '■''""'"  ">  «'   ,."""«•-  cc  ..?:."'""^''  '""'"><'.  Including  in, 
fession  for  whM,  i ^"""8 .man  m  coiitimm  «  „,„  I  Value  of  ti,„  „„„..■.■;■ * 


"n  'lio  day  of  ..  ||„r°  '7,'  '"":'«  to  «..»,„,, 
each • °"|"ft  at  tlio  rate  of  $26,000 

" •flO,5J5,000 

f'Bl.SOO 

l,<!Ofl,000 
■«13,126 

T08,0OO 


-—  "«j  ciotncs  ij  ven  on  »),» ,.  "->  I'lvnnced, 
t«'o.t  upon  these  various"  ,m.7T;  """^  »"  "'«  in- 
»B.ft  to  encourage  the  yoS!^f''°'!'^"'™  ">«',.•""«•-''''•■••:. '  ■"'™'»'''  '""""""«  'n- 

"«  ftW  monthly  wages?    A      '.??,"  •"='"««•>  the  «),„i„  !.„,?", L';"<M"8 

"  .^1     anil  llio yearly  profli ...  °'P""'  '"vestal    " 

*I2,206,421 


WHA 


1968 


WHA 


STATUiniT  or  Tin  SotrrniBH  WiiAU-riamiiT  oaruid  oh  riou  Ouat  nBiTAin  simok  1819 :  sxHiniTiiio  thk  total 

NUMDEB  or  Suira  annually  absent  rBOH  (iBEAT  UUITAIM  ON  WllALlHO  KxrEUITIONS ;   THE  TOTAL  NUMUEB  Ur  .SlIIFB 
TBAT  ANNUALLY  BETUBNED  TO    CiUEAT   llBITAINi    ANU  THE  ANNUAL  IMI'OBTS  OIT   ^PCBU   ANV  COUHON  UIL,  WITH  TUI 

Pbioes  or  BAcn. 


r«in. 


1819. 
1820. 
1821. 
18  ji. 


1823'. 
18?4. . 
1826. . 
18261 
18iT.. 
1828. . 
182!). . 
1830.. 
1S31.. 
1832. . 
1833.. 
1S34.. 
1835. . 
1838.. 
183T. . 
18.tS.. 
1839. . 
1840. . 
1841.. 
1842. . 


flhipi 

alHo. 


112 
l:i7 
128 
118 

114 

90 

83 

73 

80 

83 

92 

104 

10S 

lUO 

110 

90 

89 

82, 

88 

R4 

77 

72 

07 


HIilp* 
r«tunied. 


40 
39 
B9 
41 

^T 
42 
Si 
88 
29 
20 
2C 
SB 
27 
80 
19 
27 
83 
2a 
IS 
21 
22 
IS 
20 
16 


fpcrm  Oil  imiiurtad. 


BrlUab. 
6S91 
B9-28 
4381 

ea96 

4176 
8216 
44S5 
4167 
613!) 
6070 
8161 
4021 
6U3I 
428,') 
8118 
3801 
4269 
2249 
3310 
2027 


Tuim. 
8678 
'2717 
3600 
GOlt 
ColonUI. 
2!I6 
IM 
66 
888 
334 
116 
818 

4^:8 

1B76 
1589 
26(18 
8710 
2260 
'J716 
2661 
24.14 
132  J 
17i!l 
1904 
8711 


1718 
1173 


roliiiniin  1)11 
in)|iur1«il. 

Ttiiii. 
4tS6 
6)61 
4.'i70 
1970 


DrIUih. 

Ii23 
742 

1104 
454 
065 
l.W 
102 
410 
192 
402 
220 
149 
BU 
119 
881 
20 
170 
724 
101 


ColonUI, 
668 
618 
412 
289 
474 
888 
478 
904 
1402 
1785 
2246 
2894 
8137 
4180 
42J3 
7904 
6315 
6270 
6433 
!!3I7 


i'rU'ii  »f 

PrirB  ot 

Siterni 

eoliilnun 

Total  Vulii. 

llll 

Ull 

of  ltu|(oru. 

yer  Tim. 

p«r  Tiln, 

I 

X 

JC 

(•B 

38 

475,885 

71 

26 

81S.43i 

0) 

19 

30  J,  190 

61 

22 

B5ll,!l84 

46 

21 

383, 6  ;o 

40 

22 

273,011) 

4S 

80 

2B6.498 

55 

8( 

8.'i9,S27 

70 

27 

867.468 

79 

25 

276,073 

74 

27 

408,(182 

72 

43 

892.049 

75 

43 

684,747 

61 

28 

498.801 

62 

25 

487,28.5 

65 

23 

496,044 

76 

28 

68S,36;» 

80 

82 

697,0:8 

84 

35 

616  576 

84 

25 

721,840 

(5 

25 

6:)1,S80 

104 

26 

687,542 

98 

81 

088,406 

80 

40 

804,680 

•  Th«  ihlps  for  this  and  tlio  succccJUig  ycara,  as  for  tlio  previous  »ncs,  do  not  iiiclinlo  colonial  sliliis,  but  tlioso  from  Ilrlt- 
Bln  only.  *  t  From  this  year  romnionccd  tlio  imperial  measure. 


But  sinc«  tbon  the  fishery  has  rapidly  docUned,  and 
is  now  quite  inaignilicnnt,  Tliis  is  seen  from  tho  fol- 
lowing account  of  tho  eliips  and  their  tonnago  cleared 
out  for  the  Southern  whale-fishery,  viz. ; 

_    1860 8  ships 2310  tons. 

1881 B     "     1908    " 

186i 4     "    1503    " 

French  Whnle-jUheri/. — France,  which  preceded  tho 
other  nations  of  Europe  iu  tho  whale-fishery,  can  hard- 
ly bo  said,  for  many  yi^ars  post,  to  have  had  mucii 
share  iu  it.  In  1784  Louis  XVI.  endeavorrd  to  revive 
the  fishery.  With  this  view  ho  fitted  out  six  ships  at 
Uunl(irl(  on  his  own  account,  which  were  furnished 
with  harpooDors  and  a  number  of  experienced  seamen 
brought  at  a  great  expense  from  Nantucket  Tho  ad- 
venture was  more  successful  than  could  have  been  'ca- 
souably  expected,  considering  the  auspices  under  which 
it  was  carried  on.  Several  private  individuals  follow- 
ed the  example  of  his  mi\josty,  and  in  17U0  Franco  had 
about  forty  ships  employed  in  the  fishery.  Tho  Bev- 
el utionary  war  destroyed  every  vestige  of  this  rising 
trade.  But  since  tho  peace,  government  has  made 
great  efibrtx  fur  its  renewal ;  anil  at  present  high  boun- 
ties are  granted  to  all  vessels  fitted  out  for  tho  whale- 
fisheries,  but  especially  to  those  engaged  in  tho  sperm 
fishery.  These,  however,  have  nat  been  so  successful 
in  forcing  ships  into  this  trade  as  might  have  been  an- 
ticipated ;  for  it  appears  from  tlie  official  accounts  thut 
in  1852  the  aggregate  burden  of  the  ships  cleared  out 
for  tho  whale-fishery  amounted  to  only  2llUli  tons. — 
Adminittration  (let  Domncs,  1852,  p.  400 ;  M'Cui.Loiii'.s 
Diet. 

Anwrkan  Whalc-JUhery. — For  a  lengthened  period 
the  Americans  have  prosecuted  tho  whale-fishery  with 
greater  vigor  and  success  than,  perhaps,  any  other  peo- 
ple. They  commenced  it  in  1C90,  and  fur  about  fifty 
years  found  an  ample  supply  of  fish  on  their  own 
shores.  B<it  tho  whale  having  abandoned  them,  the 
American  navigators  entered  with  extraordinary  ardor 
into  tho  fisheries  carried  on  in  the  Northern  and  .South- 
erii  oceans.  From  1778  to  1785  Massachusetts  employ- 
ed annually  183  vessels,  carrying  1.1,820  tons,  in  the 
former;  and  121  vessels,  carrying  14,026  tons,  in  the 
latter,  Mr,  Burke,  in  his  famous  speech  on  American 
affairs  In  1771,  adverted  to  this  wonderful  display  of 
daring  enterprise  as  follows :  "  As  to  tho  wealth,"  said 
be,  "  which  the  colonies  have  drawn  from  the  sea  by 
their  flsbcrica,  you  had  all  that  matter  fully  opened  at 


your  bar.  You  surely  thought  thcso  acquisitions  of 
value,  for  they  seemed  to  oxcito  your  envy ;  and  yet 
the  spirit  by  whi<  li  that  enterprising  employment  lias 
been  exercised  ought  rather,  in  my  opinion,  to  have 
raised  esteem  and  admiration.  And  pray,  sir,  what 
in  tho  world  is  equal  to  it  ?  Pass  by  the  other  parts, 
and  look  at  the  manner  in  which  tho  New  England 
people  carry  on  tho  whale-fishery.  While  we  follow 
them  among  tho  trembling  mountains  of  ice,  and  be- 
hold them  penetrating  into  the  deepest  frozen  recesses 
of  Hudson's  Bay  and  Davis's  Straits;  while  wo  are 
looking  for  them  beneath  tho  Arctic  circle,  we  hear 
that  they  have  pierced  into  the  opposite  region  of  po- 
lar cold — that  they  are  at  the  antipodes,  and  engaged 
under  the  frozen  serpent  of  the  South.  Falkland  Isl- 
and, which  seemed  too  rciuoto  and  too  romantic  an  ob- 
ject for  tho  grasp  of  national  ambition,  is  but  a  stage 
and  resting-place  for  their  victorious  industry.  Nor  is 
the  equinoctial  heat  more  discouraging  to  them  than 
the  accumulated  winter  of  both  poles.  Wc  learn  tliat 
while  gome  of  them  draw  the  line  or  strike  the  harpoon 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  others  run  tho  longitude  and 
pursue  their  gigantic  game  along  tho  coast  of  Brazil. 
No  sea  but  what  is  vexed  with  their  fisheries  ;  no  cli- 
mate that  is  not  witness  of  their  toils.  Neitlier  the 
perseverance  of  Holland  nor  the  activity  of  France  — 
not  the  dexterous  and  firm  sagacity  of  Bnglish  enter- 
prise— ever  carried  this  most  perilous  mode  of  hardy 
industry  to  tho  extent  to  which  it  has  been  pursued  by 
this  recent  people— a  people  who  are  still  in  the  gristle, 
and  not  hardened  into  manhood." 

Vniled  State)  Whale-jUhenj. — Tho  first  Bpcrm  whale 
taken  by  the  Nantucket  whalers  was  killed  by  Chris- 
topher Ilussey.  He  was  cruising  near  the  shore  for 
"  right"  whales,  and  was  blown  otf  some  .listance  from 
the  land  by  a  strong  northerly  wind,  wticn  he  fell  iu 
with  a  school  of  that  spociei!  of  whale,  and  killed  one 
and  brought  it  home. 

At  what  date  this  adventure  took  place  U  not  fully 
ascertained,  but  it  is  supposed  that  it  was  not  far  from 
1712.  This  ovent  imparted  now  life  to  tho  business, 
for  they  immediately  began  to  build  vessels  of  about 
forty  tons,  to  whale  out  in  ibs  "  deep,"  as  it  was  then 
called,  to  distinguish  it  from  "  shore  whaling."  They 
fitted  three  vessels  for  six  weeks,  carried  a  few  hogs- 
heads—  snlHcient  to  contain  the  blubber  of  ono  whale 
— and  tried  out  tho  oil  after  they  returned  home. 

In  1715  there  wore  six  vessels  engaged  in  the  vrhal- 


Ing  business— all  .!„„„    ,  *968  ___ 


wl'ale-fisher..  '.. '!""■"""  vessel,  em- 


—, —sv.  .cMcis  ivere  built  I™.        ""l"""  wa 


wore  let  at  sen,  and  ii.  „     ''«K''"6  to  i[,is  J":    "■  "^^  ""''  •"^"cht  in  w  U"'°  "'«  Unima  Siain. 

J>om  this  dato  ,„„n  :■:.  __  K^T^ R^^^^Si-ERi^n  V 


lS5f). 

i«r)i 

1S5-.'.. 
1S53.. 
1554. 


2.S92 


'J?^         928,483 
3,077         „?*•*' 1 


2,«4'.» 
1,041 


„.  ,200 
3,910,600 
1.269,U00 


JU,837        3.44f.«nn 


1S4,'01B 


.44f,S00 


toward  ,he  wl.alcfisl,";     '''^'^'>'«'>"ford  was  tunLj 

iTom  this  date  until  ii!„ 
obs,r„c.i„„,  .,.h  lb   extS^^^         ""  >«— "t 
has  occurred  io  impede  tf^radl      T  "^  ^S'^-'l^, 
terest  given  to  this  ente    ris/  „    f  ?'"'  "'ofeasing  i„ 

iiie  Whole  number  of  V      i 
fishery  ia  this  country   as  S"^'"'' '"  "'°  ^'''"'o-       I'  «ni  be  s,;;;7P"T'''--^-^^^^^^^!iJ-i-i^?!^  I 

o^-r„ited's^;^:--p--;w.aL^.,|.j;^-rr;^'s£^^^ 

siderable  shipment,  of  bone  tTlT  '"'?'='»•     Co„. 


iK4,oiB       sfnrAX^ 


ivT.."*'"''"'''  ••.7rT(T(r 

l»«rtnioutli . .  ■  ■  ■ '         ,' 

WMtport "•         i 

Mattnpuisett...."        , 
SIpplcan  ...  I       '' 

llolnios's  Iloli." 
I  n«ntucket.... 
Kdgartown  .".".'"" 
J'rpvliicetown. 
Orleans 

I  Gloucester.." ' 

Ileverljr "' 

I  Lynn .".■" 

I  Uoslon  .. 
f«ll  River.""" 
I'rovidenee  . .  " 
Warren,  Rl...'; 
^ewUndon.... 
I  J-"'''  Spring  . . 
Stonlngton  . .      ' 

t»reenport ' 

Mystic 

J  Sag  /larbijr',"" 
I  New  York...'.".' 
„  Total  In  mr,  I 
Ueoolpi,  in  I86(). 
'  '         "18,^1..' 

"  18-.2. . 
"  1S83.. 
"  1864. . 
"  3866. . 
■'  1866. 


2"       ,     -.:. 

"       U2.! 


-»p  "'-nor^vbicb   vn  7e  d'sHll'r  7'"''  '"  ""o 
'I'o  iniport  of  tliis  article  the  n,         '^"''"'"  <»  «duco 

nn;  .peculators'  hands/on  LtofT  "'  '"P"""'' 
j  g"  en  as  follows :  '"  of  January,  isig,  is 

N'ew  Bedford  . 
f  I'arlmouth . . 

Wcstport .'." 

Mnttapoieeit 

SIpplcan  ... 

New  London  .' ' ' 

Aantiicket..     " 
I  Sng  Harbor  .""' 
I  KiiBartoi™ . . ."  " 
Warren  .  "  i 

j;°^n«ndi;nA:i„ceii„:„| 

Jlonington  . . . ' 

■New  York.... 

I-'almonlU  . . 

Newport  .. 

FallHlvcr...'.'; 
I  Hevorlv.... 

lloliiiea's  Hole" 
I  Salem ' 

Total.... 

,    Th7fSi„;^i7„^:eL-''^^-l'^3?iLi:^^| 
I  _J!^         rsi;::;;;r?i!r-pyj;jjj— — 

"•troh. 

9T1 

17.40T 


l,'i«0 

T,VC3 
2,  TOO 
2,610 
1,000 
3,242 
2,266 
6,600 

eoo 


17,801) 
6,000 


I  Spgrnt  otlT 
Ilitrreti. 
29,05a 
37.231 


WHA 


1964 


WHA 


The  increased  shipments  of  oil  during  1867,  as  com- 
pared with  the  totals  fop  1856,  were  less  the  result  of  an 
actual  foreign  demand  than  a  desire  on  the  part  of  our 
Importers  to  sustain  the  market  here  I>y  reducing  the 
ttock.     The  effect,  however,  was  direcliy  the  opposite 
of  what  had  been  anticipated,  for,  by  overstocking  the 
London  market,  prices  declined  there  very  rapidly,  and 
our  home  markets  were  left  without  the  competition 
resulting  ftx>m  a  domestic  and  foreign  demand,  and 
prices  of  oil  declined  to  a  lower  point  than  they  have 
been  since  18-19.     The  demand  for  bone,  however,  has 
been  unusually  active,  owing  to  the  fashionable  pro- 
pensity of  the  ladies  to  "spread,"  and  the  price  bf  this 
article  advanced  to  a  higher  point  in  1867  than  was 
ever  before  known. 

We  annex  a  comparison  of  the  average  prices  of 
sperm  oil  and  whalebone  for  seventeen  years : 

Y«.r.. 

SpgrmOil.     |   Wlinla  ON. 

WLtliboni. 

1S41 

100  C. 
94 

78 
63 
901 

8S 

87J 
1001 
lOJ  9-10 
120  7-10 
1271 
1281 
124J 
14S1 
177  2-10 
102 
liSl 

801  c. 

811 

38i 

841 

801 

82J 

881 

SO 

39  9-10 

49  1-10 

45  5-16 

681 

Ml 

r,,st 

71  3-10 
791 

7^1 

VJc. 

191 

23 

S5i 

40 

33J 

84 

30} 

31  8  10 

84  4-10 

841 

60i 

341 

39  1-5 

461 

(S 

971 

1842 

1S43 

1844 

1845 

1840 

1847 

1848 

1819 

1350 

1851 

185i 

1853 

^S.•A 

1S86 

1850..., 

1857 

lUFOKTATIOIfS  CiT  SpaiH  OiL,  WllAtl  OIL,  AMD  WBALKDONI 
INTO  TUH   L'MITXD  STATU  IN   1867. 


Porti. 

»p«rni  oil. 

Wb«i«  oil. 

WhKleltond. 

New  IJcdford 

Uirrell. 

41,108 

5,5IK) 

.144 
4,705 

403 

809 
2,012 
61.440 
3,610 
8,4.'>6 
1,1110 

6S0 

568 
1,981 
1,800 

692 

201 

103 

480 

131 

8:6 

113 

700 
108 
863 

6S 

94    , 
840 

20 

Barrali. 
12?.302 

17,417 

40 

890 

1,800 

63 

2,143 

149.044 

28,0S3 

6,786 

6,876 

8.331 

8,959 

3,712 

11,203 

8,299 

371 

2,050 

4.8S6 

104 

8,930 

813 

800 

2,650 

6 

' '  '40 
20 

I'oundH. 

l,i)5J 
103,200 

2,100 

3,'w)0 

20,'7do 
l,479,b60 
t-9.000 
20,300 
20,100 
18,400 
88,700 

5,800 
306,80;) 

6,000 

8,100 
17,8:10 
14,600 
10,000 
14,500 

2,100 

17,'2'o'o 

NVoetpoi't 

Wftreham 

Hipplcan 

MattapolBett 

Dia.  of  New  Uodford . 
New  London 

Kdgartuwu    

Warren 

I*rovincetown 

Oreenport 

Cold  Spring 

StouingtoQ 

Mystic 

Holmea'a  Hole 

Fall  lliver 

PMIadelphla 

Total  for  1867.... 

7.S.140 

2311.1141 

2,068,8,'iO 

The  imports  of  oil  anil  whalelmne  the  product  of  for- 
eign fisheries  into  the  United  States  for  the  year  end- 
ing JuneSO,  1857,  were  as  follows:  Oil,  $17,280;  whale- 
bone, $252;  spermaceti,  $413;  total,  $17,945. 

COUMEBCE  OF  THE   I'NITED  .STATES  WITH  TUB  WHAlK-riBIIEB'KS  EOE  THE  YEABS  1836  AND   1857. 


Vtari  taiHag 

Kxiioru. 

Imiturtc. 

Tminage  eleared.               | 

Uumeitlc. 

Fgralipi. 

Tulal. 

T.>1»L 

Aiuaricnn. 

Koralgli. 

.)  line  80,  1856 

$a2:l,04,'> 
496,253 

$22,290 
21,010 

$li4-.'  3.1,')          1         .*.'>.S  Oft" 

6;,74» 
67,1183 

070 

1857 

617.208 

107.1.30 

ExroBTB  or  Oil,  Woalioohe,  an»  Spebmaceti  (the  Pboduot  or  the  Fibdbbieb  of  the  United  States)  fiom  tdb 
United  States  fob  tub  Yeab  endinq  June  30,  1857. 


WhlUiir  tiportid. 

Spamtftratl  Oil. 

Whale  an 

d  other  Fiah. 

Whalabono. 

Spermaceti. 

jporniacctiCaudlea.| 

Onllont. 

Value. 

Gallons. 

Value. 

Pound*. 

Valba. 

Pound!. 

Value. 

Pounda. 

Value. 

liiissia  on  the  Ulaclc  Sea  ... . 

64 

7,"6l5 

"ilo 

084 

i,'a88 

721,887 
51,744 

26.'so') 

2,3S0 

101 

'  "410 

ilo'e'i 

432 

"I'eo 

1,383 
'  '3«1 

t,m 
"iio 

iDuu 
I'i'ws 

■ '  '6'2i! 
1,175 

'2,"9'92 

l,078,0;i2 

84,541 

Hmv. 

0,033 

210 

"'461 

'2,'8'77 
670 

' '  '240 
1,787 

■  ■  '674 

'8,'8(HI 

■  ■  '270 

"803 

4l641 

643 

80.801 

40,362 

161,208 

10,330 

8,176 

81 

6,681 

186 

'6^012 
10,310 

"883 
3,186 

107',388 

6,421 

260 

'5,967 

2,886 

128 

503 

848 

80 

171 

«,431 

"484 

"277 

'$702 

'3!5i4 

610 

20.481 

C6,8U 

104,717 

0,457 

2,642 

«7 

.     4,490 

208 

'4,866 
0,127 

2,714 

80.409 

4,282 

182 

'5',0D» 

2,446 

121 

893 

662 

66 

197 

7,129 

"eoa 

"S68 

' '  'l'«0 
711,037 
884,076 

10,107 
100 

'i.'aoo 

277,277 
■i,'617 

' '  '200 

027.'2'in 
4,148 

'i,'l'60 

750 

19,508 

'"600 

' '  'o'ao 

1,902 

"■$'.10 

4C4.66'i 

193,002 

6,683 

*) 

'i.'sofi 

197,294 
"'9'so 

' '  '140 

42f).'8'60 
2,64S 

' '  1 .20 

800 

13,331 

■  ■  '219 

' '  '372 
848 

6,049 

07,484 

r,260 
l',658 
3. 306 

'746 

'eio 

$V,206 

2'9',94.' 

"261 

"654 

■l',S63 

"279 

"ioa 

"iso 
"ioi 

191 

180 

706 

1,072 

1,260 

29',SS9 

' '».% 
860 

6,8i6 

'  'boo 

"350 

384 

16,783 

830 

"450 

«I7 

6,680 

12,754 

'2',oi8 

is'iii 

'8,760 
1,681 

"900 

'$65 

"si 

77 

92 

236 

416 

500 

8,070 

'298 
ISO 

liiisi) 
"136 

'iii 

200 

6,;no 

302 

'iii'i 

70 
2,050 
4,791 

■701 

6',0&3 

'oso 

672 
'456 

SiTcdcn  and  Norway 

Danisli  West  Indies 

Itremon 

Holland 

Iluteli  Woit  Indies 

Dutch  Qulana 

HelRium 

I'.nj^land 

Scotland 

Gilirnltar 

Other  British  N.  Am.  P«n. . 
Drltiah  Weit  Indiea 

Di-itlsh  Honduras 

UritUhOulana 

British  I'oasi-sBlons  In  Africa. 

Other  portj  1  ii  Africa 

Uritl.li  Australia 

Kraneo  on  the  Atlantic 

France  on  the  Mediterranean 
French  North  American  I'osa 

French  Guiana 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean . 
Cuba 

I'orto  Kico 

i'ortugal 

Madeira 

(j'ape  de  Verd  Iilandi 

Ilaytl 

VeneaueU 

nraxil 

Argentine  Depublic 

lUilIl 

F«aador  

Sitndwieh  Islands 

China 

Whale-lUberies 

Total  year  1866-'5T 

819,061 

$1,216,888 

414,4M 

$8«S,6<6 

2,042,890 

$1,807,822 

80.087 

$84,11171104,676 

$35,121 

cd 


no  I 


the. 


WHE 


1966 


T7HE 


AoooimT  or  mm  Atsbaoi  Pkioh  or  n«Tnmi  Comn  <nim  Itmmu.  QrAnTCB,  n<  Knslxmd  ahd  Walzr,  ■nioi  ITTl,  as 

AlOnTAINID   BT  TBI    KlOKITIB  Or  C'OBN    KBTDBN*. 


Ymii. 

Wh..i.- 

B»l< 

•t. 
5 

1 

a 

4 

t 
1 

4 
1 
6 
8 
2 
8 
8 
0 
1 
4 
8 
6 
8 
10 

1 
9 
B 
4 
2 
0 
3 
10 
0 
4 
4 
0 
6 
8 
4 

0 
1 
8- 

UaU. 

R,.. 

Yun. 

whmi. 

B*rl«y, 

MU. 

Rj.. 

ITTl 

X    f.    i. 
3    0    T 
3  12    3 
2  12    7 

2  14    8 

3  9  10 
1  19    4 
a    6  11 
3    3    8 
1  14    8 

1  16    9 
3    6    0 
3    9    8 
3  14    8 

a  10  4 
a  3  1 

3    0    0 
3    3    5 
3    6    4 
3  13    9 
3  14    9 

a  8  T 

3    3    0 
3    9    3 
a  12    3 
3  15    2 
8  IS    T 

2  13    9 

3  11  10 
3    9    0 
6  13  10 

5  19    6 
3    9  10 
8  18  10 

3  3    3 

4  9    9 
3  19    1 

3  IB    4 

4  1    4 
4  17    4 

6  6    6 

4  in   3 

X    f. 

1    6 
1    6 
1    0 
1    9 
1    « 
1    0 
1    1 
1    8 
1    0 

0  IT 
OIT 

1  8 
1  11 
1    8 
1    4 
1    6 
1    8 
1     3 
1     3 
1    6 
1    6 

1  11 
1  11 
1  IT 
1  15 
1    7 
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3  19 
8    8 
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2  8 
2    2 

X    •.    d. 

0  IT    3 
0  16    8 
OIT    8 
0  18    4 
0  IT    0 
0  16    B 
0  16    1 
0  15    T 
0  14    6 
0  1.1    2 
0  14    1 

0  16    T 

1  0    6 
0  18  10 
0  IT    8 
0  18    6 
0  IT    3 
0  16    1 
0  16    6 
0  19    5 
0  18    1 

0  16    9 

1  0    6 
1    1    8 
1    4    6 
1     1  10 
0  16    8 

0  19    B 

1  T    6 
1  19    4 
1  IT    0 
1    0    4 
1    1    6 
1    4    3 
1    8    4 
1    T    T 
1    8    4 
1  13    4 
1  11    6 
1    8    7 
1     T    T 

X    ..    d. 
I  16    4 
1  IT    9 
1  14    4 
1  16    4 
1  13  10 
1    T    8 
1    8  10 
1    9    3 
1    4    0 
1    2  10 
1    7    8 
1    9    8 
1  16    0 
1  13    2 
1    8  10 
1    8    0 
1    8    6 
1    8    6 
1  10    9 
1  16    0 
1  12    7 
1    9  10 

1  16  a 

1  IT    8 

2  'iV '  6 
2    8    4 

1812 

X   >.   d. 
6    6    6 
5    9    9 
3  14    4 
8    6    7 

3  18    6 

4  16  11 
4    6    3 
8  14    6 
8    7  10 

2  16    1 

3  4    7 

2  IS    4 
8    S11 

3  8    6 
2  18    8 

2  18    0 
SOB 

3  6    8 
3    4    3 
3    6    4 
2  18    8 
2  13  11 
2    6    2 

1  19    4 

2  8    6 

2  15  10 

3  4    7 
3  10    8 
3    6    4 
3    4    4 
2  IT    8 
2  10    1 
211    3 
2  10  10 
2  14    8 
8    9    9 

2  10    6 

3  4    8 
3    0    8 
1  18    6 
3    0    9 

X    •.    d 

8    6    9 
3  18    A 
1  IT    4 
1  10    8 
1  13  11 
3    9    4 
3  18  10 
3    5    0 
1  13  10 
1    6    0 
1     1  10 
1  11    6 

1  16    4 

2  0    0 
1  14    4 
1  IT    T 
1  13  10 
1  12    6 
1  12    T 
1  18    0 
1  13    1 
1    T    6 
1    9    0 
1    9  11 
1  12  10 
1  10    4 
1  11    6 
1  19    B 
1  16    6 
1  12  10 
1    T    0 
1    D    6 
1  13    8 
1  11    8 

1  13    8 

2  4    2 
1116 
1    T    9 
1    8    B 
1    4    0 
1     8    6 

X    ..  d. 
2    4    6 
1  18    < 
1    6    8 
1    8    7 

17  3 
1  12    6 
1  12    5 
1    8    3 
14    3 
0  19    6 

0  18    1 

1  3  11 
1    4  10 
1    5    8 
16    8 

18  3 

1  a  6 

1    3    9 
1    4    6 

1    B    4 
10    6 

0  18    6 

1  Oil 
1    2    0 
1    8    1 
1    8    1 
13    5 
1    5  11 
16    8 
1    2    6 
0  19    8 

0  18    4 

1  0    7 

1  a  6 

1    8    8 
1    8    8 
1    0    6 
0  IT    6 
0  16    6 
0  18    T 
0  19    1 

X    •.    d. 

8  18    T 
8  11  11 

2  4    8 
1  18    1 
8    6    1 

3  18    8 
3  16    4 
3    9    0 
3    3    0 
1  13    0 
1    0  10 
1  It  10 
3    1    6 
3    3    8 
3    1     1 
3    0    3 
1  14    3 
1  14  10 

1  16  10 

2  0    0 
1  14    T 
1  12  11 
1  12    0 
1  10    4 
1  18    4 
1  14    9 

1  16    1 

2  2    0 
1  IT    0 
1  16    9 
1  13    0 
1  10    T 
i  13  11 
1  12    6 

1  16    0 

2  9    0 

1  "6 '  8 
1    8    8 
1    6    6 
1    9  10 

1TT2 

1813 

1T78  

1814 

1TT4 

1816 

1TT6 

1816 

nT6 

1817 , 

JTTT  

1818 

1TT8 

1819 

1TT9 

1830 

1T80 

1821 

1T81 

18i2 

1T83 

1828 

1T83 

1824 

1T84 

1826 

1TS5 

1826 

1T86 

1827 

1T8T 

1828 

1T83 

1829 

1T89 

isoo 

1T90 

1831 

1T91 

1832 

1T93 

1883 

1T93 

1834 

1T94 

1836 

,1IJ5 

1836 

ITM 

183T 

1T9T 

1838 

1T98 

1839 

1199 

1840 

1800 

1841 

1801 

1842 

1802 

1843 

1808 

1844 

18M 

1845 

ISilO 

1846 

1806 

184T 

180T 

1848 

1808 

184V 

1809 

1840 

1810 

1851 

1811 

1S52 

NoTr. — Thu  Imperial  builicl  contains  2218192  cubic  inclicn,  tho  Winchester  hnahol  21B0'43  cubic  inchea,  the  former  being 
about  on«  tblrtx-ioeond  part  larger  than  the  latter.— 5«  WiionTf  and  Mbabdbis. 

BRITISH  GRAIN  TRADE. 

Aoootmr  bhowino  thb  QiriirTiTiEa  or  thb  niFFBiiitNT  Varii!tik9  or  Foreioh  awt)  Cot.owiai.  Obain  KNrEKEn  fob  Cok- 
bVMmoN  iH  Tne  ['nitei>  Kinodom  im  kacii  of  tiik  eiouteeh  Years  e?(1iiho  with  1852,  with  tiie  total  (Quantities 
so  entebbi>,  and  the  annual  Kntbies  at  an  Avbuaue  of  TiiR  ADovB  I'EBioo ;  with  a  rimilar  Account  fob  Indian 

(.'OEM    AND  MeAI.    FOB  TIIE  TEN  AND    BETBN  YBABS    BNDIHa   WITU   1852 (COliriLXD   rSOli    TABIOUB  rABLIAHBHTABt 

I'ArEBS.) 


Y»n. 

Wh<at  >nd 

Barley. 

OaU  and 

Rye  anil 

Paaa  and 

Beaaa  and 

Total 

Indian  Cora 

Flour. 

Oat'iiiflal. 

Ry«-tii«at. 

Paaoiaal. 

Bean-msal 

•nUred. 

nod  HCAl. 

(iuMUn 

MuarUni. 

Qttart«n. 

guartan. 

goartora. 

Qoarlan. 

Qaartari. 

QoArtan. 

1835 

2S,B64 

I36,^63 

176,14-! 

8 

25,184 

69,8.'4 

430,560 

*  •  a  B 

1836 

80,10T 

110.021 

97,197 

18 

80,923 

8T.T96 

400,00T 

183T 

244,2T2 

4T,47S 

834,024 

19.576 

8T,015 

109,0T6 

842,038 

•  a  •• 

1838 

1,818,4T5 

8.102 

1I,0T2 

2,6lT 

11,618 

64.240 

1,986,114 

1839 

2,T  11,723 
3,401,436 

594,301 
619,801 
222  83T 

Bil2,T8'J 

152,182 

1TO,2TO 
159  46T 

153,n9T 

4.616,263 
8.829,120 

1840  

BIT  06) 

1,857 

12n,6IT 

1841 

3,A4T,808 

2T918 

518 

132,867 

26T,63T 

8,209,685 
8,48T,296 

1843 

2,089,646 

49.969 

396  437 

28  616 

80  460 

43,279 

1843 

930,623 
988.515 

223.643 
l,020,T6fl 

45,3.%4 

258,236 

2,724 

2S,T79 

4.\883 
106.376 

45,T0i 

!2r..680 

1,858,129 
2,0'.>8,36O 

10,21?B 

38,711 

1844 

1845 

316  615 

299,430 

68T.434 

28 

81,735 

19T,919 

1,493,160 

42,296 

1846 

8.962,028 

404.644 

779.443 

1.710 

181,801 

209,RT4 

4.641,399 

767,009 

184T 

4,612,110 

T8>,68i) 

1,T88,06T 

261,510 

193.078 

476,253 

8,105,6(14 

4,023.918 

1S4S 

2,193,T&'S 

8SS,925 

872,563 

65.481 

1M.771 

448.704 

4,624,18:) 

1.63T,419 

1849 

n,6T.',5M 

1,644,88^ 

1,87.'>.58.5 

259.986 

283.092 

482,012 

9,M8.7i)5 

2,'2W,!161 

18.V) 

4,84S.8.%4 

l,023,itOT 

1,163.97'.) 

93,431 

1T9,T88 

441,612 

7.740,821 

1.2T6.S16S 

1881 

B,«7.%.67T 

8'>6.3SI0 

l,193.6ll<l 

23,002 

98,602 

Sis.r^io 

7,T3n.8?8 

1,8»8.T48 

1852 

4.ia'>.8T6 

624.062 

982.378 

9,5T6 

ia5.51T 

872.r.75 

6,2^9,784 

1,471,097 

Totaia 

Arerage  annual  con-) 

44,814,968 

9,428,090 

11,354,876 

98:1,284 

2,lt>3,6J8 

4,10i,»8j 

72,811,315 

13,321,942 

sumption  for  the  18  - 

2,489,720 

6>8,8I6 

080,793 

61,849 

121,530 

228,216 

4,040,739 

1,832,194 

years  endInK  1852.) 

Areraj^  annual  coo-) 

sumption  for  the  7  - 

4,231,185 

870,780 

1,163,546 

99,510 

1T2,393 

303,366 

6,030,T!)8 

1,800,101 

years  ending  1R52.) 

Wo  give  here  ns  an  intercstlnjf  statement,  and  ua 
showing  the  present  liberal  system  of  Groat  Britain  in 
regard  to  the  importation  of  wheat  from  the  United 
.States,  the  tariff  impart  duties  on  wlieat  in  the  princi- 
pal countries  that  import  from  the  United  States. 

ro.tatr{aa.  Import  Pnttoa  on  Wlitat. 

Austria Vet  centner  (110  pounds),  16t  cents, 

llelgium 18t  cents  per  230  pounds. 

nraEll  30  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

Chill 25  per  cent,  ad  valiTim  when  tmder  )S  per 

2^  bnahela — otherwise  free. 

China 6  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

Peru 76  oeuts  per  (anega  of  185  bushels. 


Ooanlrioa.  Import  Dotlea  on  Whaat 

France Tariff  regulated  by  average  monthly  prices 

of  M-heat  in  home  market 
Uroat  nritain,,..  24  cents  per  (luarter  (8  bushels*.     Nirth 

American  PosBeasionB  free. 
Ilanae  Towns. ...  )  to  1  per  cent  ad  valorem, 

Holland $3  20  for  1  last,  or  85-20  buihels. 

Mcilcn Rencrally  proiiiblted. 

New  (tranada , , ,  I-'rce, 

Nonv'ay 1  toende  (8-94  bushels),  68  cents. 

Bpain Generally  prohibited. 

Culia $5  per  quintal  (101  pounds).     22  per  cent 

In  favor  of  Spanisn  vessels. 

Sweden Per  4-15T  bushels,  60  cents. 

United  States, ...  16  per  cent  ad  valorem. 


F-v^^f^^WJJ^ 


■./■■■/iT.^^ 


Hy.. 

X    1     il 

8  IH  T 

8  U  11 

2  4  S 

1  18  1 

3  6  1 

2  18  8 

2  16  4 

3  9  0 

3  3  0 

1  13  0 

1  0  10 

1  It  10 

3  1  6 

3  3  B 

3  1  1 

2  0  2 

1  14  3 

1  14  10 

1  16  10 

2  0  0 

1  14  7 

1  12  11 

1  12  0 

1  10  4 

1  13  4 

1  14  9 

1  15  1 

2  2  0 

1  IT  0 

1  16  9 

1  13  0 

1  10  1 

i  13  11 

1  12  8 

1  16  0 

2  9  0 

1  6  8 

1  8  8 

1  6  6 

1  0  10 

10,2?5 

38,711 

42,295 

757,609 

4,0'23,918 

1,637,419 

2,2fi5,»6l 

1,270,(16-! 

1,808,748 

1,471,097 

13,321,942 

1,882,194 


1,890,101 


WHE  ,• 

WMAiAin>wira„,,,„  1967 

Sweden  a;,dN---" nx&  '':.T,"J^^n.lr',lI^~-'~J»i!n.r<m^^^^^ 


jlttissla .... 
Sweden  »;,d  Nor;;- 
Denmark  ' 

UVUMli  .,   

'lolglum . . .' 

[FrBnee.,..     

Spain 

Italy,.,       

Malta., 

IGreeco,...        

Turkey,  incluuinKsV;,-' 

"■?' "'EMt  Indies       ••• 

Total 
.  WAeat 


3:i.Uli,S 

liTs 

(i9,804 

059,61)8 

126,521 


14  89a| 


>-'i.ml 

5,940 
"1,787 
-8, 156 

i2,5!)l 

i3,0r8 
8,3a8 
0,010 
017 
83,170 
H,67a 
4,129 

45,340 

2,765 

'*'"■'!'      J..  ■ 
I80.25J     Uii 

:9^,„J  e,,;; 


raaTaN 


54(1 

.834 

^,202 


>,C31 


,103 

r,i06 


i2n,( 
on 


P"co  of  wheat  i,  freaue„°.:'!L*'.^1"?J'«"a3-ear.  7u.  i  ^^^'  «!«•  ^vhich  restr«r„nf  2'  "^  '""'"^  ""'a^n 


Tiieforei  „''''•''''''  ■"'•"^""■ies.  '  ""''  ^  P" 

«>J<=o  in  Han,I,urg.     mf/, "'''  '^'"'  in  great  ab„„,7   ,'.■"" '':"K''''m  was diWded     7   »"!' "'^'""^  '""'o  which 


tenclingitsconveyan  efrorp'^'  •"""'■=  >-''"'"^eVat 
«  quarter,  and  prevent  •,">'"'' '"""nnt  to,  Tis" 

•I"pme„,sofwheatfr„f?;:i'r'Z'''e'>.    InlV    Zl 


quarters  of  whieh  40^  ^i  "fT""."'^'"  '»«"■      0     ^oH  •"""  ^'•'"■»  ''«reh  "use   'i^" „"""  'f  »»meti,ne« 
.  'V^ncA  meat  Trad  -It?'      '  ^"«'''''"''-  '  h„.  ►!  '  "  ""'  "dmissiblo  excen/?   ^  P'"-"'^'''ar  port, 

K"'<=n  by  the  Marqui,  7.    ?'^''"''"  '™n'  "'e  account        ^  '^°"  ''^"'^^  to  another  n?f  ?"'''''  "  '"'«''  d ntv 

lsequalto30franc/snl  :     ,  "'^'"n'«53cent^  wMniV   ,   *"""*  ^'•'"■»  ^ra*  _ti,» 

ing  the  importation  of  „  J''^™"<"'»  wpenses  attend'  !'^„- '".""'  "-^P""'"  "f  carriage'  or'*'  *■'""'^•'='■- 
Undon  may  bo  tlk.n  .  ^''"'"  »f  French  wheat  i,?  f.  "!"  '»  ""^  sea-norts  and  ?h'  '"  ™nveyanco  of 
""•    FrancCholt;   .a?""""',""' ''''°»'  ^  a  i '     L^'.^.S-  !',<'-"'er,  to^heVrain.^^•   '°  """.  ^""is"-. 

ban,  Quesnay  Exninf  r'  •'?'"""«'  Earned  by  Vau  I  nS"'""^: «"'"  "'«  '»  ^  V™"^'-^^    carriage  frc 


Th '""™<"  price.  "'•".oaioninj 


statisticians  fullv  con  P  rT  "  P^n^Pally  brought  from  Vn  h  ■  ''^f  "' 
produce  of  the  hir  ™t  L  '.  ,  TT''"'"'  '"  ""^  'onthofCralolCr '','''• 
'ated,  from  return.  0.   n.  '„:?"*  »'«  ""cep.ible  of  an    n  l„«'^^: 'f  ..!"PP'"« 


firm  tbi«  remark      'rh„     ^°""'  statisticians  fullv  con     vTT  "  I'^n^'Pally  brought  from  Vnih""  r""i'l'""  a 


WHE 


1968 


WHE 


tnnd  during  th«  night,  and  they  take  advantage  ofths 
period  wlieu  the  peaaantry  are  not  occupied  with  the 
harvest,  )o  that  the  charge  on  account  of  conveyance  is 
comparatively  trifling. 

Both  soft  a.id  hard  wheat  are  exported  fVom  Odessa; 
but  the  former,  which  is  by  far  tlie  most  abundant,  is 
only  brought  to  England.  Supposing  liritish  wlicat 
to  sell  at  about  UOj.,  Odessa  wheat  in  good  order  would 
not  be  worth  more  than  52«.  in  Iho  London  marltet; 
but  it  is  a  curious  fact,  that  in  tliu  Mediterranean  the 
estimation  in  which  tlioy  are  licld  is  quite  the  reverse ; 
at  Malta,  Marseilles,  Iisgliorn,  etc.,  Odessa  wheat 
fetches  a  decidedly  higher  price  than  Dritlah  wlieat. 

The  hard  wheat  brought  from  vho  Itlack  Sea  comes 
principally  from  Taganrog.  It  is  a  very  flue  species 
of  grain;  it  is  full  10  per  cent,  heavier  than  llritish 
wheat,  and  has  less  than  half  the  bran.  It  is  used  in 
Italy  for  making  macaroni,  vcrmiccili,  and  things  of 
tliat  sort ;  little  of  it  has  found  its  way  to  England. 

The  voyage  from  Odessa  to  ISritain  is  of  uncertain 
daration,  but  generally  very  long.  It  is  essential  to 
the  importation  of  wheat  in  a  good  condition,  that  it 
should  bo  made  during  the  winter  months.  When  the 
voyage  is  made  in  summer,  unless  the  wheat  be  very 
superior,  and  be  shipped  iu  exceedingly  gooil  order,  it 
is  almost  sure  to  heat,  and  has  sometimes,  indeed,  been 
ii^ured  to  such  a  degree  as  to  require  to  be  dug  from 
the  hold  with  pick-axes.  Unless,  therefore,  means  lie 
devised  for  lessening  the  risk  of  damage  during  the 
voyage,  there  is  little  reason  to  think  that  Odessa 
iviicat  will  ever  be  very  largely  imported  into  liritain. 

Tlie  entire  expense  of  importing  a  quarter  of  wheat 
from  Odessa  to  London  may  bo  estimated  at  from  IG3, 
to  IHt.  The  exports  of  wheat  from  Odessa,  and  other 
„  ports  on  the  Itlack  Sea,  to  Constantinople,  the  Levant, 
Italy,  the  south  of  Franco,  etc.,  have  latterly  been  very 
largo  indeed.  In  18'lti  the  exports  from  Odessa  only 
amounted  to  l,27U,u02  quarters,  and  iu  1847  to  2,016,G'J2 
ditto :  the  latter  being,  wo  believe,  the  largest  exporta- 
tion that  ever  took  place  in  a  singlo  year  from  any 
single  port.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  in  England,  above 
40(),0U0  quarters  of  the  above  quantity  were  shipped 
for  that  country,  but  the  speculation  entailed  a  heavy 
loss  on  the  importers.  Tlie  price  free  on  board  at 
Odessa  considerably  exceeded  lO^.  a  quarter. — E.  U. 

I'nited  SliUet. — When  wo  see  the  growth  of  wheat 
keeping  up  with  the  progrc.is  of  population  in  tlio  old- 
est States  of  the  Union,  we  need  have  no  apprehension 
of  a  decline  in  tlie  cultivation  of  this  important  crip. 
Tlio  amount  of  flour  exported  from  New  Jersey  in  17S1 
was  6124  barrels ;  from  I'hiladelphia,  iu  1752,  125,'JtJO 
barrels,  besides  80,&0O  bushels  of  wheat;  inl767,rj8,81() 
barrels,  besides  807,500  bushels  of  wheat;  in  1771, 
252,744  barrels ;  from  Savannah,  in  1771,  i2lX)  pounds ; 
from  Virginia,  for  some  years  annually  preceding  the 
Kevolution,  800,090  bushels  of  wheat.  Tlio  total  ex- 
ports of  flour  from  the  United  Stales  in  17'Jl  were 
ClU,(i81  barrels,  besides  1,018,339  buslivis  of  wheal ;  in 
1800,  GJ3,0J2  barrels,  besides  211,853  bushels  of  wheat ; 
in  1810,  798,431  barrels,  besides  325,924  bushels  of 
wheat:  in  1820-'21,  1,056,119  barrels,  besides  25,821 
bushels  of  wheat;  in  1830-'31,  1,800,529  barrels,  be- 
sides 408,910  bushels  of  wheal;  in  1810-'41,  1,516,817 
barrels,  besides  868,685  bushels  of  wheat;  in  1845-'4(;, 
2,289,476  barrels,  besides  1,613,796  bushels  of  wheat; 
in  184»5-'I7,  4,382,496  barrels,  besides  4,399,951  bush- 
els of  wheat;  in  1860-'51,  2,202,335  barrels,  besides 
1,020,725  buAhela  of  wheat.  According  to  the  census 
of  1840,  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  rniountod 
to  84,823,'i72  bushels ;  in  1849,  according  to  i.  ;>  census 
of  1850,  100,503,899  busliels,  although  in  souk  of  the 
largest  wheat-growing  States  the  crop  of  1849  fell  far 
below  the  average.  The  production  of  the  year  1857  in 
the  United  SUtes  is  estimated  at  about  200,000,000  of 
bushels. 

In  the  State  of  Ohio,  especially,  there  waa  great  de- 
ficiency, ai  woi  made  apparent  by  the  retunu  of  the 


wheat  crop  for  the  ensuing  year,  made  in  pursnanen  of 
an  act  of  the  Legislature  of  tliat  State.  From  the  al- 
most universal  returns  of  "  short  crop"  by  the  mar- 
shals in  that  State  in  1819,  which  fell  below  that  of 
1839,  2,000,000  bushels,  and  the  ascertained  crop  of 
1850,  wo  are  fully  satisfied  that  the  average  wlieat  crop 
of  Ohio  would  appear  SO  per  cent,  greater  than  shown 
by  the  census  returns.  The  saino  causes  wbicii  oper- 
ated to  diminish  the  '.vhcat  crop  of  Ohio,  were  not  with- 
out their  oflects  upon  that  of  other  States  bordering  on 
the  upper  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

In  the  London  exhibition  very  little  wheat  was  ex- 
hibited equal  tu  that  from  tlio  United  States,  especial- 
ly that  from  Genesee  county,  in  the  State  of  New  York 
— a  soft,  white  variety— to  the  exhibitor  of  which  a 
prize  medal  was  awarded  by  tlio  Koyal  Commissioners, 
and  recently  transmitted  to  Mr.  Uill  by  the  President 
of  tho  United  States,  tlio  chairman  of  tho  American 
Executive  Committee.  The  red  Mediterranean  wheat 
exhibited  from  the  United  States  attracted  much  nt- 
t^'nlion.  Tho  wheat  from  South  Australia  was  proba- 
bly superiur  tu  any  exhibited,  while  much  from  our 
own  country  fell  but  little  behind,  and  was  unquestion- 
ably next  in  quality. — Patent  Office  liiport. 
Statement  siiowind  rna  anni  ai.  Avubaoii  Kxronr  I'mra 

OK  I'LODB  AT  N«W  VoBK  VBUU  I8UU  TII.I.  .ItiNa  80,  1%6; 
ALSO    IIIB    ANNUAL    AVRllAOK    i'BlOE    OF    I'LOUB    IN    TUB 

Cities  or  IIusto.n.  Nkw  Vobk,  riiiLAi>Ei.rniA,  Kalti- 
MOBK.  New  Obleanb,  and  8t.  I.ouib,  tbou  18(10  till  June 
80,  ISDB. 


Prir.. 

N«w 

Fhlln- 

IJalU. 

N.  oi- 

SI. 

Viiin. 

1800 

Do«ton. 

Voik. 

dalpliii. 

ti)ur«. 
$1142 

leaM. 

LouU. 

$10  (Kl 

*I100 

$9  38 

»'J76 

.... 

.... 

ISOl 

13  00 

12  10 

10  14 

10  85 

1142 

18119 

9  00 

8  17 

0  19 

6  94 

700 

.... 

.... 

1803 

Too 

765 

0  01 

6  76 

0  60 

.... 

.... 

18(4 

7  76 

8  07 

7  15 

781 

7  33 

.... 

.... 

1805 

13  00 

112.'> 

9  69 

10  15 

12  (8 

.... 

.... 

1800 

•7  50 

8  •-■5 

7  13 

7  15 

7B3 

.... 

.... 

18(lT 

8  SB 

7  73 

0  70 

7  10 

7B0 

.... 

.... 

18118 

0  00 

0  25 

6  15 

5  59 

5  75 

.... 

.... 

1800 

7,M 

7  03 

0  7'J 

0  43 

0  50 

.... 

.... 

1810 

8'.'B 

0  42 

8  77 

9  87 

9  40 

.... 

.... 

181! 

10  .-iO 

10  42 

9  05 

10  40 

10  07 

.... 

181'i 

10  75 

10  no 

908 

9  96 

10  13 

.... 

.... 

1818 

13  IK) 

14  «7 

7  70 

9  29 

1017 

$18  50 

. .  *  ■ 

1814 

14  60 

14  .57 

7  70 

7  07 

8  50 

900 

181.% 

;i  25 

8  95 

8  17 

8  08 

792 

9  00 

1816 

7  87 

9  40 

9  84 

9  7B 

8  07 

0  80 

181T 

14  75 

12  27 

1172 

12  12 

10  31 

12  60 

1818 

10  25 

10  fK) 

9  42 

OSS 

9  69 

10  83 

.... 

1810 

8  00 

7  70 

0  70 

7  19 

050 

9  02 

.... 

isao 

6  87 

6  25 

4  81 

4  94 

4CB 

0  20 

.... 

1831 

4S6 

4  42 

4H5 

4  92 

404 

0  28 

.... 

laii 

7(H) 

0!'4 

o:;o 

0  48 

0  30 

6  76 

.... 

1S23 

7  75 

TS4 

0  93 

0  90 

0S9 

0  08 

18'24 

0  02 

007 

5  03 

6  02 

BB4 

6  26 

.... 

18V6 

6  87 

6  67 

6  19 

600 

488 

4 '.11 

1820 

6  25 

6  24 

6  00 

4  00 

4  78 

4  49 

18J7 

800 

BC4 

6  14 

6  27 

6  16 

5  12 

. . .  • 

1828 

650 

0  14 

5  50 

629 

548 

6!lfl 

1S29 

6(10 

6  81 

atA 

0  25 

6.37 

7  20 

I8!I0 

7  25 

6  26 

5  08 

4  83 

4  86 

4(8 

isai 

6  0.' 

OOB 

5S4 

5  82 

5  61 

5  47 

1S32 

5  87 

0  20 

5  5.7 

6  02 

8  79 

0  84 

18;l8 

660 

611 

6  70 

5  8.'. 

6  09 

5  23 

$193 

18:14 

6I>0 

6  42 

6  07 

5  21 

4  99 

5  19 

450 

IS36 

0(10 

0  4-' 

0  00 

5  75 

5  84 

0  35 

0  25 

isaii 

760 

8  50 

7  7^ 

7  41 

9  92 

8  .'.5 

8  110 

1R3T 

10  25 

10  18 

009 

9  76 

9  43 

9  10 

9  12 

1838 

9  50 

8  1;6 

8  02 

7  81 

784 

8  07 

7  07 

1883 

S75 

7  20 

7  40 

0  89 

0  0,% 

0  57 

7  19 

1810 

BHT 

5  61 

B17 

6  22 

6  0U 

4  1'3 

4  03 

1841 

6  20 

6  77 

6  39 

5.34 

5  31 

6  Its 

4  75 

1842 

0  00 

6  07 

5  07 

B47 

8  20 

4  54 

4  50 

1843 

4  60 

4  87 

6  07 

400 

4  36 

4  18 

3  75 

1844 

4  76 

6  13 

4  01 

4  34 

4  31 

44t 

450 

1845 

4  61 

5  32 

8  00 

4  09 

4  03 

4.13 

4!'3 

184(1 

BI8 

5  53 

6  19 

4  79 

4  53 

4BS 

4  60 

1817 

6  96 

7  17 

0  80 

0(i2 

0  21 

684 

4 '.'3 

1848 

0  22 

0  43 

671 

6  07 

6  82 

4  70 

5  25 

1849 

8X5 

0  00 

4  90 

484 

4  8S 

4  01 

5  43 

1860 

600 

600 

4  80 

4  07 

4  89 

8  31 

0  28 

18BI 

4  77 

6  25 

419 

4  38 

4  18 

400 

4  88 

1S62 

4  24 

5  20 

4  90 

4  23 

4  20 

4  10 

5  23 

laMl 

BOO 

0  27 

6  61 

8  47 

8  39 

848 

B03 

18.%4 

TS8 

9 '.'5 

8  02 

8  14 

818 

TOO 

0  09 

1865 

1010 

10  25 

900 

9  02 

9  87 

9  36 

7  83 

Note.— The  price  of  flour  for  Now  Orleans  and  St.  Ixmls 
could  aot  be  obtahwd  for  earlier  yean  than  those  reipectWely 
givea. 


WIIE 


1969 


WHE 


KTO. 


ino  TiiH  rEonroTiOK  or  Graix,  Wimt, 

in   UtrrEBKUT  (JOONTEIM. 


$1 OT 


4fiO  I 
0  '25  1 

on  I 

7  87 
T.U  ' 

4CS  1 

4t>a  I 

3  75  1 
460  ' 
4 '.'3  I 
4  60  I 
4  1-3  ' 
5 ''5  1 
6  43  ' 
B'26  1 
4HS 
5 '23  I 
6  03  ' 
OCO 

;83  I 


I  ■•'3 
i64l 

i«J 

1S3  I 

I  as 
^6* 
i;o 

1611 
iSl  1 
kOO\ 

iw\ 

>4S 

roo 


AualrUa  Enipira . . 


Biltlih  Empire. 


Fnnee  , 


,,,,  "''" '«,0«4,6'J1  lira. 

;;''""'•,••••,• 'i"'  a,4(i«,94« 

tyo  anil  umlzu ,,rn  10,()«6,7s  I 

"'«)' <ir8.  4,t>40,lilil 

"'"',•,•  ■, qm.  0,021,813 

I.BHm«lii,  18«. .  00,Q45,OIH)  i|™. 

); '  ,>"" qra.  IS.m.OOO 

""'oy („.  Ii,')ii5,ooo 

Outs  »nd  rye ,,r».  80,600,0()0 

l>e»n«  »nil  pca« qn.  'i,0»,OuO 

Value  of  aBrlcullurnl 

^P"^"" £  215,m8,RU 

Splndlm No.  '27,BS8,DO0 


Fniulk. 


Buulan  Empire. 


Vnited  Stktei . 


BaTUla 

Belgium,  1840. 


BniU.... 
Deiunark . 


Kgypt,1834. 


Oreeoe,  1346 , 
Uaraliurg . , . . 


Holland . 


Mexico 

Fapal  States . 

Portugal 


BiidlnU. 


Hpalu. 


Swuden  4  Norway. 


Turkey , 


I'lO 6i,7a8,48J  qiii. 


PrtHlue*. 


184!). 


U.BUl.Vr^  iirH. 


23,U'27,7S1 
13.0:19,444 

6,":il,4!i7 

10,8>1,391 

2,021,340 

53,095,900 

819,530,000 

£73,024,900 

20,874,900 
51,IB0,U00 

308,227 
28!),4;6 
2118,946 
800,24& 


Whcut qm. 

Moulin  and  ryo qti, 

Barley qr,. 

0«t« qrs. 

M»1m qr«. 

I'olatOQi qm. 

Production  of  whm .  .galls. 
Estimate,  1846 ....   - 

Grain x 

I'otatogt Ji 

Kxported,  1549. 

Danttlc qrs. 

Stettin qr,, 

Kunlg»borg qm, 

.Memul qrs. 

Average  cstlnmtud  prodnce, 

1818 6J,622,«0U  qn 

Exported. 

Wheat qr«.  il,865,222 

Hye qrn.  106,738 

Itarloy qr».  110,507 

Oats qrs.  170,835 

18i8 118,652,440  qrs. 

15,7;i5,575 

4,890,891 

23,187,500 

1,253,800 

74,618,750 

218,009,000 

174,617,495 

62,650,102 

2,065,257 


Two  Sicilies, 


China  . 


COLOHIXS. 

British  rossetslons. 

Indies 

Canada 


6,964,860 
2.800,843 
1,983,088 
1,243,284 
4,2&4,88« 
3,680,486  qrs. 

187,608 
1,'281,680 
1,(130,023 
1,013,007 
2,813,811 
Oslsli,  IHI. 

180,083 

157,l!)l 

8,000,000 
70,000 

1,400,090 
10,000 
80,000 


Wheat qrs, 

Ilarlcy  and  rye qrs. 

Oats qrs. 

Uuckwhcat qra. 

Indian  corn qrs. 

Tobacco  produced  . . . 
Prod,  of  agriculture., 
l^od.  of  live  stock . . . 

1950-'61. 

Cotton  crop bales. 

Average  estimate. 

Grain qrs.  1,990,924 

Potatoes qrs.  2,181,818 

Wheat qrs.  1,068,045 

Itvo qrs.  ],920,427 

Barley qrs.  083,049 

Oats qrs.  2,319,473 

Potatoes bushels.  61,899,107 

Sugar  produced tuns.  1 10,000 

CoBfee  exported bags.        1,673,256 

Estimate  production  In  Denmark  and 
Holstcin  ...  7,9:3,210  qrs.  grain. 


Wheat qrs. 

Ilarlcy qrs. 

Hy« qra. 

Data  and  nialr.u qrs. 

Wine  exported galU. 

Sweden,  1887. .      

Wheat qrs. 

Ityo qrs. 

Oats  and  peas qrs. 

Ilarlcy qrs. 

Potatoes irs. 

IblsOa  Kiporl,  IMT. 

Wheat qrs.  31W,658 

Harley qrs.  805,8iW 

Indian  corn. qrs.  62'.>,017 

7,404, 188  qrs.  grain. 
I  Wheat  and  mulzo  . .  .qnk 

Dllve-oll tons. 

■fllk qrs. 

t'otton tons. 

Linseed .qrs. 

Exported  June  80,  1840-60. 

Tea 83,246,800  lbs. 

Great  Urltnlu lbs.         68,006,800 

Other  countries lb».         2'J,288,600 

Jnly  1,  1860,  to  May  20, 1951. 
Groat  lirltaln lbs.         60,193,300 

1860. 

Indigo niaunds.      110,000 

1847,  total  value. . . .  £2,676,588 

Un.  V.lufc 

Wheat 7,558,773  i;i,'222,785 

llarley 616,727  68,019 

Oats 7,066,780  440,983 

Ityo 440,203  60,208 

Maize l,137,N'i5  142,2m 

lluckwheat  . . .     432,578  86,614 

Peas 1,763,880  V!19,230 

Potatoes 4,781,881  856,829 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  Hides pieces.  811,991 

8klns pieces.  261,664 

Tallow lbs.  434,483 

Wool lbs.  1,010,SUT 

1848. 

KIshcriCB £  08,9(9 


Australia 

New  South  Wales  . 
Ceylon 


\Vlieat qrs. 

Rye qrs. 

Uarley qr^ 

tWs qrs. 

Hcans  and  peas qrs. 

Wheat qrs. 

Beans qrs. 

Uarley  and  maize  . .  .qrs. 
('otton,  Egyptian..., cwt 

Cotton,  foreign cwt. 

Linseed qrs. 

Currants tons. 

Exported  to  Groat  Britain  from 
Ilanseallc  Towns. 

Sugar c»t.  3,622 

1349,  average  of  nine  years, 
2,987,876  qrs. 

Wheat irs. 

Rye qrs. 

Uuckwhcat qrs. 

Uarley qrs. 

Oats qn. 

Indian  com (irs. 

Tobacco lbs. 

Oil lbs. 

Produce,  1849,  8,123,851  qrs.  grain. 

Wheat qrs.  680.160 

Barley qrs.  213,330 

Rye qrs.  621,980 

Maizo qrs.  1,660,814 

Oats qrs.  41,601 

Average  produce,  6,358,125  qrs. 

Wheat....!... qrs.  2,609,375 

Indian  com qra.  1,616,625 

Barley qr«.  446,876 

Chestnuts qra.  848,760 

Sice VI.  *12,600 

61 


874,106 

1,965,430 

2,200,238 

'2,884,725 

493,711 

630,000 

600,000 

450,000 

0,000 

200,000 

87,600 

18,920 


445,736 

962,719 

330,091 

483,930 

821,400 

8,293,750 

1,940,000 

113,025,000 


Spanish  Possces. 
Cuba 


Dutch  Fosses9lons. 
Java 


Exported  to  Great  Britain,  1850. 


Cotton lbs. 

1860. 

:4ugar  produced tons. 

Total  value  of  agrlcul- 

tuml  produce $ 

1S60. 

Indigo cwt. 

Pepper cwt 

Cocliineal lbs. 


807,303 

250,000 

0,821,921 

831,480 
661,605 

186,636 


Peoddciios  or  Wheat  im  the  sevebai.  States  or  thb 

UMON  IX  1810  AND  1850. 

luo. 
Biuhtls. 

83S,llf)'i 


States  sad  Territories. 

Alabama 

Arkansas 106,873 

California .... 

Columbia,  District  of . .        12,147 

Connecticut 87,000 

Delaware 315,165 

Florida 412 

Georgia.- 1,801,8,10 

Illinois 3,335,393 

Indiana 4,040,376 

Iowa 161,693 

Kentucky 4,803,152 

Louisiana CO 

Maine 848,160 

Maryland 8,346,793 

Massachusetts 157,023 

Michigan 2,157,108 

Mississippi 196,626 

Missouri 1,007,386 

New  Hampshire 422,124 

KewJcmoy 774,203 

New  York 12,286,418 

North  Carolina 1,960,886 

Ohio 16,671,061 

Pennsylvania 13,213,077 

Rhode  Island 3,093 

South  Carolina 908,3.'>4 

Tennessee 4,569,692 

Texas 

Vermont 40,\900 

Virginia 10,100,716 

Wisconsin 212,110 

Minnesota  Territory 

New  HixUo  Territory 

Oregon  Territory 

Utah  Territory ■■.• 

ToUl 83,613,270 


1850. 

Bnshtle. 

204,044 

199,689 

17,228 

17,870 

41,762 

482,511 

1,027 

1,088,634 

0,414,676 

6,214,4.^8 

1,630.681 

2,142,82? 

417 

296,269 

4,494,680 

31,211 

4,925,839 

137,990 

2,991,662 

185,6E8 

1,601,100 

13,121,408 

2,130,103 

14,487,851 

16,307,691 

49 

1,060,277 

1,019,380 

41,729 

635,956 

11,212,018 

4,286,131 

1,401 

196,610 

911,943 

107,709 

100,486,841 


WHE 


1070 


WIIE 


EipoBTt  or  DOMMTio  WiiiAt  AMD  Flodb  rioH  Tim  I'MiTni  Btatm  roB  Till  YiAB  xNDiNa  Jmni  BO,  IffiT, 


Wbllliar  (iliortod. 


Bmhtli. 


Valut. 


Ilarnli. 


Tins 


Aildic  lliiHia 

KuHlan  rniuMlont  in  North  Aintiica 

Sweden  end  Norwejr 

gwcdlih  Weit  IndiM 

Denlnh  Weit  Indiei 

Hemburg 

Bramen 

Holland 

Dutch  Wcat  Indlee 

Dutch  Oulen* 

Dutch  Rait  Indlei 

lielKluin 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Olbralur 

MalU 

Canada 

Other  llritleh  North  Amorlcan  I'oMceelone. 

Ilritiih  \\>it  Indlee 

Uj  itiali  llonduree 

IlritlBh  (•uiana 

Uritieli  I'ueecealonii  In  Africa 

Other  porta  In  Africa 

Urltliih  Auitralla 

British  KMt  Indies 

Franco  on  the  Atlantic 

Frincp  oil  the  Moditerranean 

F.vnch  North  Auioriean  roseeselone 

F rcncli  Weet  Indiee 

French  tiulana 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean 

Canary  Islands 

Cuba 

Porto  UIco . . . .  „ 

Portugal 

Madeira 

CajM  do  Verd  IsUnds 

Aiercs 

Sardinia 

Two  Sicilies 

Austria 

Turkey  in  Kurope 

Turkey  tn  Asia 

Haytl 

San  Domingo 

Mexico 

Central  IteiMibilo 

New  Uranada 

Veneauela 

Brazil 

Uruguay,  or  Cispiatlne  Kepublic 

Argentine  Kepublic 

Chill 

Peru 

Ecuador 

Sandwich  Islands 

Other  Islands  in  the  Pacific 

China 

Whal«*flsheries 

Uncertain  places 

ToUl,  1J56-'5T 


110 


12,648 
2,000 


ST4K>9 
8,6611.084 
1,(119,629 

138  ma 
24,930 

1,666,641 

142,668 

14,3'JB 


9,100 

1.400 

36,932 

631 

1,14«.09I> 

880,129 


861,617 

89S.07T 

4,T70 

7,90T 

869,801 


12,103 
210 


$128 


10,4T0 
a,12S 


417,501 

13,436  826 

1,644,787 

232,466 

41,696 

1,867,457 

221,660 

23,012 


20,868 

2.000 

64,683 

1,040 

1,860.821 

616,676 


604,060 

640,002 

7,076 

10,171 

toe'.oM 


17,476 
440 


1,631 


t,60S 


14,&70.!l»l 


»22.240.S67  ■ 


60 

ino 

979 

4.502 

84,79f( 

1,688 

6,201 

4,477 

18,827 

6,600 

2,030 

6,008 

1,027,066 

121,160 

92,272 

46,80] 

478 

118,867 

430.281 

245.641 

16,641 

50,017 

19,03T 

10,029 

118,866 

2.879 

166,644 

29,260 

6.824 

88,011 

249 

72,1181 

156,660 

2.386 

46,146 

22,203 

68.671 

2,209 

697 

801 

1,738 

12,8:>S 

10 

1,168 

4.028 

fill.OiV 

656 

24, 08  J 

010 

16,901 

47,888 

607,)  84 

72,061 

(SO.Oll 

6,689 

1,910 

788 

8,664 

6.18 

11,t.00 

1.333 

4,814 


U,712,U6a 


»7»> 

1,303 

e,34.'i 

80.430 

2A3,ejO 

10,l'67 

89,228 

30,2^8 

104,!i02 

60  876 

14  6411 

85,710 

6,llOB,7(iO 

887,149 

164,0'29 

810,167 

0,7li2 

717,246 

8,B81,Kai 

1,683,027 

96.707 

a:io,77» 

ira,'.'Mi 

76,070 

81'3,07a 

22,704 

1,001.505 

198,1142 

43,4ti9 

284,106 

1,862 

400,188 

•12(1,717 

15,791 

324,410 

162,2'.  6 

461,148 

16,312 

4,300 

S,10S 

12,006 

84,407 

90 

8,50.') 

29.279 

872.01- 

4.224 

170.038 

4.990 

120,141 

861,174 

8,900,407 

812,471 

378.S10 

53,620 

15,mO 

6.804 

80.8S2 

5.878 

la-i.riSO 

17,946 

29.W)9 


$26,8s2.3IO 


EzroBTa  or  roMioM  Wheat  and  Fi.ni-B  raoH  tub  Uhitkd 

STATKC  rOB  TIIB  YeAB  K.NIIINa  ,lDME  30,  185T. 


wbiHiai  nportad. 

Whmt. 

Whaal  rkxir.        | 

Huibal. 

Valut. 

Cwl. 

Valaa. 

Kii|;land 

36,070 

6,173 

41.843 
10,678 
81.105 

:(&0,302 

li.'ll3 

*07.4r6" 

.Vl7.0e4 

8'».331 

45.C85 

640 

3,365 

"mo 

60.i%<r 

2.662 

47,818 

«21Q,203 

1.925 

14.440 

s,';(io 

$■228,677 
$10,248 
218,420 

.Gotland 

British  N.  Adi.  Posi. 
Spain  on  tb«  Atlantic 
China 

Total 

From  warehouso  .... 
Not  from  warehouse  . 

Tho  imports  of  wheat  inJo  the  IJniteil  .Sidles  aro 
merely  nominal,  Icing,  for  tho  year  on(!lng  June  80, 
1857,  as  follows : 

Whanca  Imparlad.  Buhala. 

IlamburK 834 

Sandwich  Island) 800 

Otherplacea _24 

Total i;6i 


Valna. 

$."«8 

204 

27 

$909 


FoiTnerly  the  export  of  brcadstuirs  from  tho  United 
States  \rss  principally  made  up  of  flour,  but  of  late  years 
it  has  liecn  fuunti  advantageouB  to  ship  wheat  in  bulk, 
especially  from  the  interior  grain  markets,  without 
transhipment;  and,  as  may  bo  seen  from  the  pieced- 


ing  statement,  at  present  the  export  of  wheat  is  nearly 
equal  that  of  flour. 

The  consumption  of  the  country,  per  the  census  lij;- 
ures  of  produi;t,  population,  and  export,  for  the  years 
1840  and  18&0,  und  the  rate  of  increase  in  population 
being  known,  tho  results  arc  as  follows : 


Vain. 

PupalaUoii. 

at<^  Buhala. 

Actual        I 
Kipurt. 

IMO 

17.009.056 

23.?67,7J6 
24.023.916 
24.780,100 
25,530,290 
20,292,480 
27,048,073 
27,804,863 

04,165,447 
64,1  )2,080 
64.413,806 
66,730,815 
80,37V,(I26 
98.0-28,>:!>C 
94,670,865 
97,817,020 

ll,l'.iH,(i:.s 
8.S;7,(in  ; 
12.948.49(1  1 
IS.tfflO.OsO 
18.95S,9'.(1 
28.148.59.') 
7.821.5'(4 
30,flOO.(:(Ki 

1850. 

18.M 

1862 

18(H! 

1854 

18M 

1856 

Yaara. 

Saeil. 

Crop. 

Ptlra  In 
Naw  Ymk. 

lf)40 

8.482.727 
11,470.022 
12,000,000 
11,680.803 
12.500.000 
13,000,0(10 
13,500,000 
13.5no.OOO 

84.827.272 
101,470,023 
110,032,304 
117,511,501 
121,136,048 
133,172,285 
114.091.989 
140,317.000 

$6-44 
6  021 
6C8 
4  37 
4-!'4 
9-25 
9-50 

1S50 

1851 

1852 

IS.'iS 

1864 

1886 

1856 

r  <■ 


Win 


AiioiniM  n» 


19T1 


WHI 


t 
1 
t, 
w 
11 

117 
TS 
srt 

ino 

M4 

B(* 

,(14« 

,41.9 

.,10« 

i,8«'i 

<,l«l 

ii.in 

;4.ll0 
!»,*.  ft 
J1,U» 
16,81'1 

4.!»'>0 

3,W5 

I'i.liml 

84,4(n 

00 

8,60''> 

4.'W* 

I  n»,03« 

4.W0 

146,141 

861,1" 

1  mHi,4«7 

Bl«.«» 

8:8.si« 

1B,V40 
B,SM 

B,«"8 
lO-l.tiSft 

n,»-» 

S9.N>» 

■g^^iaiS' 


bat 


Is  nearly 


J  con«u»  t'H- 

pt  Uie  >■<•«" 

populatio" 


Till  I  Nit>ji  *iiMm  niuiNii 

YlAM,  IIAlin    KNIIINll  UN   TIIH 


*    I'KllKPIl    cir    TIIIITYHIk 

'"^11  II.  ,IUNI. 


v«i tl„,„ 

M»hut||r|un«. 

Mn.mt 
Tflii,n4n 
MH,(na 

l.iKIT.II'il 

l,0'i'i,4M 

NiJ.ViH 

l>T4,bUS 

t.«I.ll« 

Wl'i.OM 
761,77(1 
IIII.8I4 
IHIh,4'<» 
l,VI7,ai1J 

Wt,in 

VI  1,0 14 
M4,!IUI 

7ini.tiio 

l,iMii.r>in 

(Kiri,4it 

7ii(),tMri 

1,045,0117 
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tt,7iw,vr>ii 

Il,l4i,4a7 


v«iii.„rwiitM' 

■nil  tu 
MtnudelurM, 

»».4T(i,"l)ftf~ 
B.'iHT.'^HS 
Mfti,4n7 
B,»77,iM 
4,40a,«7» 
4,41 1. HTO 
4,«4(1.7(i4 
4,4*4,774 
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fl.B'M.ooa 

I0.7III,V0I 
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8,8!6.I10 
7,4IU,Wi 
14,508.0811 
8,ll«0.ri6S 
N,0lh,7til 
'<,ail»,414 
7,048,491 
A.IOI.004 
18.717,88: 
8J.78II,487 
10,4S-2,asO 
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8,074,488 

ii,Hi)4.:ug 
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Il',tp91.sl7 

4o.aie,i)t>« 
ri,M8,iia7 

46,581,411 
48,U8'2,Kt 


i?,!:"r:±r'i;C*:^"r.V  «"«mT.'^roi  !  T"'""'  <^^^<  •»«>  of  Ule  year,  no  .mail  prcportlon 

or  «iiBar  ond  molanHi,  aildlng  merely  enough  of  malt 
to  Induce  the  chemical  conversion  of  the  starch  in  tha 
unmaltcd  groin  into  grape  sugar. 

Uiirlng  the  gerniiuation  of  barley  (as  In  iu  convw- 
«ion  Into  malt)  a  peculiar  substance  \»  gennratcd  In  tha 
grain  called  dintlnte,  which  acts  chemicallv  on  the 
starch  of  ttio  grain,  converting  it  first  into  a  kind  of 
gum  called  dnlrine,  and  then  Into  n  sitcet  substance 
Identical  In  composition  with  grapo  &%ar.  It  has 
been  found  that  this  diastase  can  convert  iOOO  parts  of 
•Urch  Into  grape  sugar;  and  it  Is  of  this  valuable 
property  that  the  distiller  avails  himself  when  ho  adds 
mat  to  his  raw  grain.  To  save  the  more  expensive 
article  malt,  ho  uses  only  so  much  as  experiment  has 
proved  will  suffice  to  change  the  slarcli  of  Iho  raw 

Ti""..  ■?,'"""  **""'  "'''"^''  "'"'  "  '"  •>'»  mash-tun. 
1  Mil  distiller,  therefore,  to  prepare  the  sncdiarlno  fluid 
for  his  operations,  has  to  go  tlirough  all  the  processes 
or  brewing  before  ho  gets  It  ready  for  the  still.— See 
ortiifc  BnKwiNd, 

Tht  ilantifartitn  of  H'AW-j.-Clncinnatl  has  become 
the  greatest  whisky  market  in  the  world,  and  the  Ohio 
Valley  the  most  Important  whisky-producing  region 
with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  distilleries  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cincinnati  arc  on  a  large  scale,  and  they  are 
said  to  exhibit  many  Improvements  devised  by  Invent- 
ive genius.  Steam  is  made  to  perform  nearly  all  the 
labor.  Few  men  are  employed,  and  thcv  do  little  else 
than  look  at  Iho  machines  as  they  perfo'rm  tho  work. 
The  quantity  of  com  consumed  In  a  single  distillery  in 
Cincinnati  is  about  one  thousand  bushels  per  day,  from 
which  about  4000  gallons  of  whisky  are  produced. 
This  gives  for  this  single  establishment  a  consumption 
of  312,000  bushels  of  corn  per  annum,  and  a  production 
of  1,218,000  gallons  of  whisky.  Wu  have  not  tho  data 
upon  which  to  base  an  eal'lmato  of  the  quantity  of 
whisky  produced  in  tho  Ohio  Valley,  Tho  quantity 
sold  In  the  Cincinnati  market  annually  is  aliouf  220,000 
barrels,  or  about  9,000,000  gallons.  This  is  probably 
not  more  than  one  half  tho  production  of  Ohio  and 
Indiana  alone.  Wo  presume  that  Iho  production  Ig 
18,000,000  gallons,  and  lind  the  consumption  of  corn 
averaging  four  and  a  half  million  buslicls.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  production  of  whi.sky  In  tho  Ohio  Valley 
is  50,000,000  gallons  per  annum,  involving  a  consump- 
tion of  ':?,500,000  bushels  of  corn,  the  average  value  of 
which  IS  $5,000,000.  The  demand  for  the  article  is 
great,  and  daily  increasing. 

White  Sea.  The  entrance  to  tho  port  of  Arch- 
angel, situated  nn  the  right  bank  of  the  Dwina,  about 
thirty  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  interrupted  by  a  bar, 
over  which  vessels  drawing  more  than  fourteen  feet  of 
water  can  not  pass.  Larger  ships  discharge  and  load 
outside  the  bar.  The  trade  of  Archangel  extends  as 
far  as  Silicria,  and  along  the  coasts  of  the  White  Sea, 
cast  and  west.  Previous  to  the  founding  of  St.  Peters- 
burg this  was  tho  only  place  of  maritime  commerce  in 
the  empire.  Since  that  period  its  trade  has  consider- 
obly  declir  ed.  The  Uivcr  Dwina  is  connected  with 
tho  Volga  and  Neva  l)y  canals;  but,  owing  to  tho 
rigor  of  tlie  climate,  the  port  of  Archangel  is  open  only 
*•■„.«  T.,1.. ..  o._. — 1...     j(j  jn,pQft8  consist  of  colo- 


Whlp,  III  "OH  UiiKuagp,  a  ropo  passed  through  a 
ilngln  bliic'k  or  piilUy, 

Whirlpool,  a  vorltix,  eddy,  or  gulf,  where  the 
water  has  »i'lr«uliinii(iili)n.  Whirlpools  are  produced 
by  tha  iiiiwiliig  of  ciirruins  which  run  in  different  dlrec- 
tloiii.  Tlitilr  ilaiig.'r  in  nnvlgntlon  is  well  known,  but 
li,  porhapi,  not  ciiiml  in  the  (|ri<ad  which  sailors  enter- 
tain of  them.  Hoiiin  (if  Ihn  most  celebrated  aro  tho 
Kiirlpui,  iioar  tho  I'lmsi  of  Ni'HroponI ;  tho  Charvbdis, 
in  tlie  Htralts  of  HIclly ;  nnd  the  Maolitrom,  on  tho 
norlhori,  cnint  of  Norway, 

Whirlwind,  «  revilivlnx  column  or  mass  of  air, 
supposed  witli  must  proliablHty  |o  be  produced  by  tho 
nioBting  two  eiirriiMU  of  «lr  blowing  in  opposite  di- 
rectloni,  hut  aicrllied  liy  Mime  lo  electricity.  It  is 
analogous  to  tliu  wnMp.ml,  Wlum  tho  opposite  cur- 
rents liave  Ilia  sutiin  vidcidty,  tlic  circulation  will  l)0 
mainlalned  at  tliu  sanio  spot;  liut  If  the  motion  of  ono 
of  them  la  more  rapid  than  Hint  of  tho  other,  it  will 
transport  'ho  wlilrlliitf  luotloii  with  lis  excess  of  celer- 
ity, and  •  progrnsilvs  ainl  rotatory  motion  aro  thus 
maintained  at  tha  •aiiin  llinn.  Whirlwinds  generally 
occur  in  summer,  ami  am  iiiusl  vinlmit  in  tropical  coun- 
tries, wliora  tlioy  frunuinilly  produce  most  destructive 
eifecti, 

Whlaky,  a  aiilrlt  olitaliisil  l.y  distillation  fron, 
corn,  sugar,  or  mola..e«,  though  gonerally  from  the   „y„,„,  »,„  ciima.e,  u.c 
former.     W  lilsky  U  llm  mlmiml  iiih'it,  If  wo  may  so  '  from  July  to  September 


term  It,  of  Scotland  anil  Irfliiiiil ;  but  that  dlstillo'd  in 
tho  former  is  gonorally  rtu'koiii"!  mperior  to  that  of  tho 
latter,— .Vf«  Si'iimn,  Whlnky  Is  a  corruption  of  the 
Irish  word  uii|iialiAugli.  This  ardi-nt  spirit  may  be 
manufaclureil  from  'larloy  malt  alone ;  from  the  raw  or 
unmalted  barlev  mlxad  wllli  from  a  third  toa  ninth  of 
malt ;  ft-om  a  inlxtura  of  raw  barley,  wheat,  rye,  or  oats, 
with  from  a  sixth  tu  a  ti'iith  of  barley  malt ;  01  from  a 
mixture  of  raw  Imiloy,  ur  big,  wllii  sugar;  or  from 
sugar  or  luolasaas  aloiiu,  Wlimi  liarloy  malt  is  alone 
used,  tho  prooaasea  aro  sliiiplo,  and  tlio  spirit  produced 
has  a  inoro  agreeable  llavur,  ninl  Is  tnoro  esteemed ; 
but,  in  conaei|ueno«  of  tlio  lioavy  duty  on  malt,  dis- 
tUlert  bav«  beon  inUueod  tu  ttmploy  largo  quantities  of 


ninl  goods,  salt,  woolens,  and  hardwares.  In  1852 
there  entered  this  port  715  vessels,  Aviiii  an  aggregate 
of  66,922  tons ;  of  which  85  were  laden  and  630  In  bal- 
last. These  all  cleared  with  freight.  Of  the  arrivals 
there  were  under  the  English  flag  273  vessels,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  24,297  tons. 

Archangel.  OUitr  Porii. 

Imports  In  1852 francs.    1,'JB2,(X10  201,000 

Er-jorts  In  18BJ "      20,881,000  BBO.OOO 

Totsl,  yc»r  1852. . . .      "      22,103,000  757,000 

Total  custom-house  receipts  from  the  Ave  ports  of 
tho  White  Sea,  in  1852,  984,000  francs.  These  ports 
aro  Archangel,  Oneg,  Kola,  Kcml,  Sounsky.  The  im- 
ports of  Archangel  consist  of  dry  and  salted  lish,  sugar, 


WIO 


1973 


WIN 


wliiai,  ami  iillinr  lli|iii>r>,  mIi,  anit  p«Url«i.    Tha  •>• 
porta  itrii  (la^,  lliiinia,  llnaiiiiil,  tlinbar,  tar,  ctr. 

Wlgt.  I  lin  wl|{.|r«(tii  la  iiliii  iif  tlin  liKiat  curloui 
I'Uiiilui'liiil  vtllli  iiiiiiiiil'iii'tiiriia  III  liiilr.  Tim  Kri'iirli  aro 
fuiiioiia  III  llila  i|i'|iiirliiiniit.  Tlicro  U  a  ri'giitur  Imlr- 
linrvoil  ill  ■iiiiici  iif  llin  I'lililral  illatrlcti  of  Franco ;  I'uria 
llriiia  aoMil  Macula  liilii  tlioaii  illatrlcli  III  tlio  ■|irlti|{  ut 
til*  ymtr,  wlm  |iiiri'liuan  llin  licniltlfiil  trcaaea  wliicli  tlio 
t'uuiilry  iiiiilili'iia  liHvn  Imi^ii  iMill'.vatlnK  fur  that  |iur- 
|MMtii  tlilt  liulr-<:ri>|i  la  a«  iiiiuli  nii  annual  all'air  aa  • 
(iurn<('rii|t  In  tlii<  lli'Ma,  Tim  |irk'u  paid  U  about  tliruv- 
puiiL'ii  (Kiiullali)  piir  iMini'U)  liiit  tim  nKcnta  uauall/  pay 
for  tliu  liair  wllli  rililiuna,  liaiidkon^lilara,  and  ulliur 
trillkiila,  ul  faira  iiml  timrknia.  Nut  tliu  Inaat  curious 
funturu  la,  lliiil  \la  at(iriita  can  dlatliiguiali  tlio  lialr  of 
uiiu  dialrli't  from  that  of  aiiuthur  nut  far  dUtant— an 
olbiiiiKruplilial  f<iat  wlilcli  iiilglil  puzzlo  a  Icariiud 
natiiralial--Mnd  nllarli  a  inoiioy  valim  to  tlila  dlirurcnco. 
If  It  liii  trui',  na  la  aaatirlail,  thai  tno  liundrud  tliuuiaiul 
pounda'  wiiImIiI  iif  u  iinmn'a  linir  la  lliua  annually  gold  In 
llm  i'(Mintry  dlatrlila  nf  Kraiicc,  It  inimt  Lu  ndinillod  to 
fiirin  A  viiry  alnuular  kind  of  cuninmruo.  Tim  a)(iinl!< 
orl  uml  t'liiaii  tlni  liair,  and  timn  dlapoao  of  It  tv  tlio 
I'ai'la  llriiia  ut  uliniil  diiiililo  tlm  I'lirinur  pricv.  Tlicn 
iiinma  llin  art  of  llin  pi<riii|ult>r  to  faaliion  thli  lialr  Into 
\tlua,  iwrilkca,  and  nalpa  •iiiiiii  of  nliicli  coinniand  a 
vury  lliiil  prlc.  Of  tlio  "  traniparont  wiga,"  the 
"  vuiitllatlliK  \i\u»,"  lliu  "  hald  <vliito  wIk*,"  llm  "ku>- 
aainiir-pnrlliiK  wli{a,"  ilia  •■  fronts  with  each  hnir  llxod 
•upuralnly,"  iiml  hIIkt  wonilurs  of  wi)(-iiiakliii;i  wo 
liavu  liiii'ii  nliundnntly  liifurinod  by  our  advortlaing 
puruiiuliira, 

Wind-mllU.     They  nro  nf  groat  antiquity,  and 


tho  basin  of  Ilia  Mliaiaslppl.  Thprrfure  It  Momnd  to 
Im  citabllahcd  with  innm  drgrt'ii  of  probability,  or,  if 
that  pxproasion  bo  too  ationi;,  with  soniethinK  liko  ap- 
parent plauailiilily,  that  tliu  rnin  winda  of  llm  Miaata- 
alppl  Valley  do  nut,  us  a  geimrul  rule,  got  their  vapors 
from  tho  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  niir  from  tha  Uulf  of 
Mexico,  nnr  from  tho  Krcat  liikcn,  nor  from  that  part 
of  tlm  ruclllc  Ocvau  over  which  tho  iiortheuat  tradc- 
wlnda  pruvall. 

Soulhtiut  Triiilf-winih . — Aflor  llm  northcaat  trades 
have  blown  out  their  season,  uhhli  in  India  ends  in 
April,  tho  greut  arid  pliilns  of  Central  Aniu,  of  Tartary, 
Tlilbet,  am*  Mongolia,  becomo  hcnleil  up;  they  rarefy 
tho  air  of  tlm  northeast  tradcx,  ami  cuuao  it  to  osceiid. 
This  rarefaction  and  ascent,  by  Ihelr  demand  for  an  In- 
draught, arc  felt  by  the  air  uliich  tho  southeast  triido- 
wlnds  bring  to  tlio  equatorial  Doldrums  of  the  Indian 
Ocean:  it  rushes  over  into  Iho  norlhrrn  hemisphere  to 
supply  tlm  upward  draught  from  tliu  healed  plains  as 
tlm  roulbweat  niomioons.  Tho  forces  of  diurnal  rota- 
linn  aasUt  to  give  these  winds  their  westing.  Thus 
Iho  southeast  trades,  in  ccrtuin  parts  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  aro  converted,  during  tho  summer  and  early 
autumn,  into  southwest  monsoons.  Theito  the'-  .oiiie 
from  tho  Indlim  Oeoun  and  Sea  of  Araliia  loaded  with 
moisture,  ami,  striking  wltli  It  perpendicularly  upon 
tho  (ihauta,  precipitate  upon  that  narrow  strip  of  land 
between  this  range  and  llm  Arabian  Sea  an  aincuntof 
water  that  is  truly  astoiii»hiiig.  Hero,  then,  are  not 
only  tho  conditions  for  causing  mora  ruin,  now  on  the 
west,  now  on  the  east  Me  of  lliis  miinnlaln  range,  but 
the  eoiiditions  also  for  the  most  copioua  precipitation. 
I  Accordingly,  when  wo  come  to  consult  rain-gaugoa, 


aoinit  writers  aliilo  Ihiiiii  to  bo  of  Human  Invention;  but   and  to  ask  ineteorologicul  nbset^'cra  in  India  about  the 


certainly  we  urn  Indubled  for  Iho  wind-mill  to  the  Hara- 
euns,  Tlixy  are  anld  to  liavo  been  originally  Intro- 
duced liilii  Kuropo  by  tho  knights  of  .St.  John,  who 
took  tliM  liint  friiiii  what  timy  hud  seen  In  tho  crusados. 
— ll.tUKli,  Wiml-milla  woro  llrat  known  in  Spain, 
rraiine,  and  (leriiiaiiy.  In  Ili'.M.i.—ANiiKiiso!*,  Wind 
aaw-mllla  weru  Invenleil  by  a  Dutehnian  In  1U33,  whon 
unit  waa  aruclnd  near  the  Htraml,  In  Ix)iiilun. 

Windows.  <V(ii  lii„«sa.  There  wero  Windows  In 
I'uitipeil,  A.ii,  711,  as  la  evident  from  Its  ruins.  U  is 
curtain  that  wlinlowsof  sonio  kind  were  glazed  so  early 
as  tlia  third  century.  If  not  before,  though  the  fashion 
waa  not  lntrod>i>i'il  iinlll  It  was  dune  by  Ueiinct,  a.ii. 
li!l:l,  Wlndowa  of  glaaa  weru  used  In  private  houses, 
but  tlm  gluaa  wiia  imported,  1777. — Andkiisun.  In 
Kiiglaiid  ai'Miil  IMliHI  houaea  now  havo  llfty  windows 
and  up(  •<!  In  eai  h  ;  about  ',!7.i,0UU  have  ten  windows 
uml  upward  g  and  TiU,\W)  have  seven  windows,  or  les.) 
than  seven,  'Iho  winduw-tax  in  England  was  llrst 
enaelod  In  order  to  defray  the  expense  of  and  doficicncy 
III  the  re-eoiiinge  of  gold,  7  William  III.,  inu5. 

Wlnda.  The  prevailing  winds  in  tho  Caribbean 
Hua  and  suiilllern  parts  of  ;lm  Clulf  of  Mexico  are  the 
iiiirlhimal  Irude-wliiils.  They  liavi  their  ullices  to  por- 
foi'lii  In  the  rivnr  baalnsof  inter-lroplcal  America,  and 
the  ruins  which  tImy  may  discharge  into  tho  Missls- 
sippi  Valley  now  and  then  are  exceptions,  not  the  rule. 
The  winda  friiin  the  north  can  not  bring  vapors  from 
the  great  lakes  to  make  rains  for  tliu  Mississippi,  for 
two  reaaiina  i  )«t,  Tlio  basin  of  the  great  lakes  receives 
fruni  the  atinoaphern  morn  water  in  tho  shape  of  rain 
tliun  tliuy  give  liaek  In  the  shape  of  vapor.  Tho  >St. 
I.awreiieii  jilver  I'urrles  olV  tho  excess.  2d.  Tho  moan 
I'liiiiatii  of  the  Inku  country  Is  colder  than  that  of  the 
Mlasiaalppl  Valley,  und  lliorcfure,  as  a  general  rule, 
lli«  tnnipnratiiro  of  tho  MisalsiUppi  Valley  i«  unfavor- 
.iIiIh  for  condensing  vapor  from  ihut  iiuarlcr.  It  can 
not  eoma  from  tho  Atlanlie,  because  the  greater  part 
of  the  MlaalaaippI  Valley  la  to  tho  windward  of  the 
Atlantic,  The  winds  that  blow  across  this  a(«an  go 
to  Kurupe  with  thnir  vapors;  and  in  tho  raeiflc,  fVom 
Iho  parallels  uf  (,'allfornla  down  to  tho  equator,  the  di- 
rocllou  uf  tilt  wlutl  tX  lb*  lurfaco  U  from,  not  towurd, 


fall  of  ruin,  they  tell  us  that  on  tho  western  slopes  of 
tho  Uhauts  it  sonietlmea  reaches  tho  enormous  depth 
of  twelve  or  lirtcen inches  in  one  day.  Were  the  Amies 
stretched  along  tho  eastern  instead  uf  the  western  coast 
of  America,  wo  should  have  an  amount  of  precipitation 
on  their  eastern  slopes  Ihot  would  lie  truly  astonishing; 
for  tho  water  which  the  Ama/.on  and  the  other  mi^jcstic 
streams  of  South  America  return  to  the  ocean  would 
still  bo  precipitated  l>etwecn  the  sea-slioro  and  tho 
crest  of  these  mountains.  These  winds  of  India  then 
continue  their  eoiirse  to  the  Himalaya  range  as  dry 
winds.  In  crossing  this  range,  they  are  subjected  to  a 
lower  temperature  than  that  to  which  they  were  ex- 
posed in  crossing  tho  (thuuls.  Here  they  drup  more 
of  their  moisture  in  the  shape  of  snow  and  rain,  and 
then  pass  over  into  the  thirsty  lands  beyond  with 
scarcely  enough  vapor  in  them  to  make  even  a  cloud. 
Thenco  they  ascend  Into  the  upper  air,  there  to  become 
counter-currents  in  the  general  system  of  atmos|iherical 
circulation. 

Rain-u-indt  are  the  winds  which  convey  tho  vapor 
from  the  sea,  where  it  is  taken  up,  to  other  parts  of  tho 
earth,  where  it  Is  lot  down  either  as  snow,  hail,  or  rnin. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  trade-winds  moy  bo  regarded  ns 
tho  evaporating  winds;  and  when,  in  the  course  of 
their  circuit,  they  arc  converted  into  monsoons,  or  the 
variables  of  cither  hemisphere,  they  then  generally  be- 
como also  tho  rain-winds — e^pecially  the  monsoons— 
for  certain  localities.  Thus  tho  southwest  monsoons 
of  the  luilian  Ocean  are  tho  rain-winds  for  tho  west 
coast  of  H  indostan.  In  like  manner,  tho  African  mon- 
soons of  the  Atlantic  are  the  winda  which  feed  tho 
springs  of  the  Niger  and  the  Senegal  with  rains.  Upon 
every  water-shecl  which  is  drained  into  tho  sea,  tho 
precipitation,  for  the  wholo  extent  of  the  shed  so  drain- 
ed, may  bo  considered  as  greater  than  the  evaporation, 
by  tlio  amount  of  water  which  runs  olT  through  tho 
river  into  the  sea.  In  this  view,  all  rivers  may  bo  re- 
garded  as  immense  rain-gauges,  and  tho  volume  of 
water  annually  discharged  by  ony  one  as  an  expres- 
sion ■of  the  quantity  which  is  annually  evaporated  from 
the  sea,  carried  luick  by  the  winda,  and  precipitated 
tbroDgbout  the  whole  extent  of  the  valley  that  k  drain- 


WIN 


1978 


WIN 


0 

f 

I'- 
ll- 

in 
of 
irt 
lie. 

ilo» 
t  In 

»ty. 

rery 
oiul. 
n  In- 
nulu- 
i(\lnn 
L're  to 
in»  a» 

loU- 

'lUui 
ini\iun 

early 

■     .OIKO 

III  with 
y  upon 
'ot  luiiil 
iriint  of 
are  not 
(  on  ll>« 
line,  but 
liitullon. 
i-nauROS, 
iilioul  llio 
slopes  of 
lus  iloptl> 
llio  Anilei 
itcrn  coast 
.(•ipitatlon 
tonlsliliiRi 
;r  nittjcsllc 

;an  woulil 

!  anil  tlio 

India  then 

ige  as  ilry 

]cctcil  to  a 
were  cx- 

1(1  rop  moro 

|l  rain,  and 
yond  with  . 
■n  a  cloud, 
to  become 
losplierlcal 

J  the  vapor 
liarts  ot  tlio 
Vl.orrnln. 
fcgarilcd  as 
1  course  of 
Ions,  or  the 
Inerally  hi:- 
^onaoons — 
i  monsoons 
Ir  the  west 
trlcan  nion- 
Bi  feed  tlio 
lina.    Upon 
lio  sea,  tho 
Ted  so  drain- 
taporation, 
lirouBh  tho 
Ininy  ho  re- 
Ivoluuio  of 
Ian  expros- 
Vratod  from 
Iroelpitated 

lat  la  drain- 


ilrj  for  Mch  loonlliy  ni„|  ,,.„„„  Bi.,irrnllv  il.ro.i^hout 
iiieli  a  hash.,  wo  ,ho.iM  l»,  onal.l,.,!  lo  .Iciornilm.  with  ! 
■ome  dcKroe  of  prolMihlUiy  „t  i,,„„^  „,  ,„  „,^  '  ^, 
the  ocean  from  «hl.h  -ncl,  rain,  »,,r„  evaporated. 
And  thus,  notwlth^tan.lloK  nil  th.  nddk,  rnused  l,v 
moiinlaln  chains  nii.l  other  imuveii  «urfn.T«,  wo  mlithl 
delect  tho  general  course  of  (he  atntosphi'rk-M  .•IroiVln- 
tlon  over  tho  laml  as  wnlj  «,  (|,„  ,e,^  „,„,  ,„^,,„  „,^ 
Koneral  course,  of  etrculiitlo,,  |„  each  valley  ««  ohvloi,. 
to  tho  mind  of  the  phllosophi.,  ^,  |,  the  current  of  the 
Mississippi,  or  of  any  oilier  great  river,  to  his  senses 

These  liivesllK«ilons  as  to  the  raln-wlnds  at  sea  In. 
dieate  that  the  vapors  which  supply  the  snurcet  of  tho 
Amazon  with  rain  are  taken  up  from  the  Vtlantic 
Ocean  hy  the  nr>rlheast  and snuthooil  trade-wlnds  •  and 
many  clrciimHtauces,  ,omo  of  which  have  already'l.cen 
detailed,  tend  to  show  that  the  winds  which  feed  the 
Mississippi  with  ruins  Ret  their  vapor  in  tho  southeast 
trado-wliid  region  of  the  other  hemisphere.  For  In- 
•tanee,  wo  know  from  ohservatlon  that  tho  trade-wlnd 
regions  of  the  ocean,  heyond  the  immediate  vidnitv 
of  tho  land,  are,  for  tlio  niosi  part,  rainless  regions,  and 
that  the  trade-wlud  zones  may  lie  descrllied,  in  a  liye- 
tographlc  sense,  as  tho  evaporatiui,'  regions.  They 
also  show,  or  riitlier  Indicate,  ns  ii  general  rule,  that 
leaving  tho  polar  limits  of  tho  two  tra<le.wind  svstoms', 
and  approaching  the  nearest  pole,  tho  precipitation  is 
greater  than  tho  evaporation  until  tho  point  of  maxi- 
mum cold  is  reached. 

And  wo  know  also  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  south- 
east and  northeast  trade-winiN,  which  come  from  a 
lower  and  go  to  a  higher  temperature,  are  tho  evapo- 
rating winds,  I.  «.,  they  evaporate  moro  than  they  pre- 
cipitate; while  those  winds  which  come  from  a  higher 
and  go  to  a  lower  temperature  are  the  rain-winds,  i  «., 
they  precipitate  moro  than  they  evaporate.  That  such 
Is  the  case,  not  only  do  researches  indicate,  but  reason 
teaches,  and  philosophy  intimates.  These  views,  there- 
fore, suggest  tho  Innuiry  ns  to  tho  sufficiency  of  the 
Atlantic,  after  supplying  the  sources  of  tho  Amazon 
and  its  triliutaries  with  their  waters,  to  supply  also  tho 
sources  of  the  Misaisiippi  and  tho  St.  Lawrence,  and 
of  all  tho  rivers,  great  and  small,  of  North  America  and 
Europe.  A  careful  study  of  the  rain-winds,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  WInil  and  Ctirrenl  C/ini'ln,  will  probably 
indicate  to  us  tho  "springs  in  the  ocean"  which  supply 
the  vapors  for  the  rains  that  are  carried  off  by  those 
great  rivers.  "All  the  rivers  run  into  the  sea;  yet 
tho  sea  is  not  full ;  unto  tlic  place  from  whence  the 
rivers  come,  thither  they  return  again."  — M.vunv'3 
PAi/$.  lleng. 

Wind-sails,  in  a  ship,  are  made  of  common  sail- 
cloth, and  are  usually  twonty-flvo  and  thirty  feet  long 
according  to  tho  size  of  the  ship,  and  are  of  the  form 
of  a  cone  ending  obtusely.  When  they  are  made  use 
of,  they  are  hoisted  by  ropes  to  about  two-thirds  or 
more  of  their  height,  with  their  bases  distended  circu- 
larly, and  their  apex  hanging  downward  in  the  hateh- 
■waya  of  tho  ship.  Above  each  of  these  one  of  tho 
common  sails  is  so  disposed  that  the  greatest  part  of 
the  air  rushing  against  it  is  <lirected  into  tho  wind- 
•ail,  and  conveyed  into  tho  body  of  tho  ship,  to  pro- 
duce ventilation,  etc. 

Windward,  in  sea-Ianguago,  denotes  any  thing 
toward  that  point  from  whence  tho  wind  blows,  in  re- 
epcct  of  a  ship :  thns  windward  tide  is  tho  tide  which 
runs  against  the  wind. 

■Wine  (Ger.  Wrin;  Fr.  I7n;  It.  and  Sp.  I'ino; 
Port.  I'inAo;  Ituss.  Wino,  Winmjradnoe mnoe ;  Lat.  IV- 
M«i»  Gr.  Oirof ;  Arab.  Khtitnr),  the  fermented  juice  of 
tho  grape,  or  berries  o'  the  vine  (I'lVij  rmi/fra).  The 
vine  is  indigenous  i<>  Persia  and  the  Levant ;  but  it  is 
now  found  in  mcJit  tomperato  regions.  Tho  limits 
within  which  it  is  cnltivatod  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere of  the  Old  World  vary  from  about  15°  to  48°  and 
fi2° ;  but  in  North  America  it  is  not  cultivated  farther 


It  Is  rarelv  gro^n  at  a  greater 
nlMiiide  than  n00()  f,.et.     From  Asia  tho  vine  was  In- 
li.ilmrd   into  (ireece,  and  thence   Into  Italy.      The 
I'hoceans.  who  foundeii  Marsiillos,  carried  the  vino  to 
tlie  ..outh  of  France  |  but  it  is  donbtful  whether  it  was 
introduced  into  llurgundy  till  the  ago  of  the  Anloninsi. 
The  ancient  writers  give  ijm  most  coiKradlctory  ac 
counts  with  rcspert  lo  the  Inlrodudlon  of  ih.i  vino  into 
(iiinl.— iVif  Ihe  lenrneil  anil  rrnllnU  work  </{.>;  OhanI) 
I''  Ai'^SV.  I'lV  J'rim  ,lei  frarn'iii.     The  spcirs  of  Vith 
in  lim  iious  to  North  America  is  very  dlderent  from  tho 
liiM  liiii/era.     In  favornblo  seasons  llie  vino  ripens 
in  the  open  air  In  Kngiand;  and  In  the  lllh  and  lath 
centuries  c  onsiderable  quanlilies  of  inl'.rlor  wino  were 
made  from  niillvo  grapes.     VIneyarils  ale  now,  how- 
ever, unknown  in  (Ireat  llrilnln ;  hut  tlm  grapes  raised 
in  hot-houses,  and  used  in  desserts,  are  exn  llent.     Tlio 
vine  grows  in  every  sort  of  soil ;  Inil  thiit  «  hleh  Is  light 
and  gravelly  jiecnis  host  suited  for  the  production  of 
line  wines.     It  succeeds  extremely  well  In  vo'  anic 
countries.     Tho  best  wines  of  lluly  are  prodiited  in 
the  neighliorhood  of  Vesuvius;  the  fnm.pusTokiiy  wino 
Is  also  made  in  a  volcanic  district,  as  are  soveial  of  tho 
best  French  wines;  many  parts  of  the  south  of  Franco 
bearing  evident  murks  of  extinct  volcanoes.     Ilermll- 
ngo  is  grown  among  tho  iUMh  of  granlle  rocks.     Tho 
most  favorable  situation  for  a  vineyard  is  upon  a  rising 
ground  or  hill  facing  tho  southeast,  and  Iho  situation 
should  not  be  too  conllnod ; 

-npertos 

Itucchus  amat  roUoit. 

The  art  of  expressing  aiol  fermenting  tho  Juice  of 
the  grnpe  appears  to  have  liecn  practiced  fnmi  the  re- 
motest niititiiiity.  The  suered  writings  tell  us  that 
Noah  planted  a  vineyard  soon  aflor  the  deluge  (fi'en.  Ix. 
'.'0) ;  and  a  modern  l.aliu  poet  ingeniously  represents 
tho  vino  ns  a  gift  from  Heaven,  to  console  mankind 
for  the  miseries  entailed  upon  them  by  that  grand 
catastrophe! 

Oienla  vastatis  ergo  quuin  ccrneret  arvis 
Dosoluta  llous,  nubis  fellcia  vlnl 
Dniia  dcdit;  trlstes  hoininiim  que  niuncro  forlt 
IteliquisB,  niundl  solutus  vlte  rulnsm  I 

(■(inifrti  /Viprf.  IttiMliaim,  lib.  il. 

Sprciet  o/lVin.i. — There  are  many  varieties  of  vines ; 
and  tills  circumstance,  combined  willi  dilfercnces  of 
soil,  climate,  mode  of  preparation,  etc.,  occasions  an 
exticuio  variety  in  tho  species  of  wine.  But  between 
places  Immediately  contiguous  to  each  other,  and  where 
even  a  careful  observer  would  hardly  remark  anj  dif- 
ference, the  (lualitics  of  tho  wines,  though  produced  by 
the  same  species  of  grape,  and  treated  in  the  same  way, 
are  often  very  dllTerent.  A  great  deal  evidently  de- 
pends upon  the  a.'.pect  of  tho  vineyard ;  and  it  is  proba- 
ble that  a  good  deal  depends  on  peculiarities  of  soil. 
But  whatever  may  bo  the  cause,  it  is  certain  that  there 
arc  wines  raised  in  a  few  limited  districts,  such  as 
Tokay,  Johnnnisbcrger,('onslantia,  tho  best  Burgundy, 
CTiampngnc,  tTaret,  etc.,  thot  no  art  or  care  has  hith- 
erto succeeded  in  producing  of  equal  goodness  in  other 
places. 

The  leading  character  of  wino  must  ho  referred  to 
the  alcohol  wliieli  it  contains,  and  upon  which  its  in- 
toxicating powers  principally  depend ;  not  exclusively, 
however;  for  some  of  tho  lighter  wines,  if  brisk  and 
cffcrsescent,  seem  to  derive  from  Ihe  admixture  of  car- 
bonic acid  a  peculiar  exhilarating  power  not  directly 
proportional  to  their  alcoholic  contents.  And  again, 
we  find  other  wines,  among  which  certain  Burgundies 
stand  foremost,  which  are  eminently  healing,  though 
not  very  strong.  The  following  table  shows  tho  quan-' 
lily  of  alcohol  (of  tho  specific  gravity  of  M25  at  60°),  by 
ine'i  "Hire,  contained  in  100  parts  by  measure  of  the  re- 
spcei've  wines.  Some  other  vinous  and  spirituous 
liquoi  s  have  been  added,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  rel  it  ion  which  they  bear  to  wine  in  the  proportion 
of  alcolol  which  they  contain. 


WIN 


1074 


WIN 


I'mtnmiim  nr  *ri>iT  nm  dan. 


t.M«w it*! 

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»    IftKII 

I.  MiMiialM,,  'i>M 

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m  41  M.  MiimiiiKi)' . 


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a.  I'lirrMitvliw.  unriA 

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II.    l,<U'lir)r|il» 

I  MM,,.,  mill 

II.  l.'siiaUnlU       M'fO 

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II,  •'     imili  la  M 

III,  I.UIhim I'«V4 

14.  Malaya  iliWMi  |a«( 

m,  llii«*lla< I4'W 

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141. 

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•JKI.  firaiw  arliia  . 
III.  l.'almfalla., 

■H.  Vliluiila  ,,',', 
IX  All*  fliira  , 
U  Malatfa  . 
M.  WlilloHariiil 

laya 

M.  Uiiiiallliiii , , , 


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mill 


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wllia It  M4 

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laviiraffa  of 
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Liiiidnn 
inanufactn- 

riTl IIM 

ftl.  Tokiix II  HS 

M.  KliliT  Willi'  . .  N'TO 
III.  CtilrrdiliitM'at 

avuraui'', . ,    9'i1 
(.'lilar  ilowi'Kt 
arrraKO    .,    6-11 
14.  rarrr  lavrraifa 
of  roiiriaro- 

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M.  Mfail T',1'i 

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M.  l,ondun|jr»rtar 

I  laveraui  1  .  • 

rill,  Loliiloli  •malt 

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aiit'l I'M 

It-WM.  Ilrandr t>3  3» 

«l.  Hum MI<M 

m.  (lln Mao 

111),  Ik^otfh    will  a- 

kr M'SS 

14  Irlaliwlilaky.  R3i)U 

It  II  naraaaary,  Imwi'vnr,  to  obaorvo  that  the  propor- 
tion u(  ali'oliul  III  till)  aaina  wine  varioa  iimtvrUlly  ac- 
curiliutf  1(1  tli«  aifi  »(  Ilia  Kino  and  otiicr  circumstaii- 
c«i,  tiiil  tliat  itlnaa  liatln.:  tlio  name  i|uuiititics  uf  al- 
eohiil  ill  aaitli  may,  ixitwiihutamliiiK,  dlD'er  cucntiall}' 
In  ovarv  iitlinr  rrapai  1,  i'ractlcally  wines  arc  distill- 
guUltail  \iy  lliair  uulor,  hanlnsM  or  softnoii  on  tlio  pal- 
ata,  tliair  arunit,  ami  their  behiK  aliU  or  ofrvrvcscing. 
Ill  iiiaiiy  I'laaa,  |mi,  the  Kama  variety  of  wlno  may  be 
dUtliiKulaliail  liitu  a  niiiuliar  of  sub-varieties,  diirvring 
morn  ur  laaa  In  iina  or  morn  >•(  lhe««  particulars.  Tliua, 
\if  tlia  taaa  of  I  liaiiipaKiir,  nuiiie  varietirs  are  red,  and 
bihari  wlilla  ur  atraw-tolomil ;  some  are  dry  and  others 
iwaet;  tba  aroma  of  on«  rarlrty  differs  from  that  of 
anotlisri  and,  wbll«  soma  are  allll,  otbi^ri  have  every 
dilfarnnt  lUKrim  of  olTflrvetclnK  power.  The  same  vu- 
riaty  aitlst*  In  lia  caan  of  riarats,  and,  indeed,  of  al- 
mutt  Bvary  dasi  riptlon  of  wIim. 

TIm  itlltnrani'ei  In  (b«  i|ualiti«s  of  winoi  depend  part- 
ly nil  iliiTaraNi'ai  III  tb<)  vines,  but  mora  on  the  difler- 


ancaa  of  tba  soils  In  wbivh  Ihay  ara  planted.  In  tha  tx- 
posuro  of  tba  vInayai'.U,  and  in  Iha  Irualinant  of  Iht 
Urapes,  and  the  inwis  uf  nianufarluriiiK  tbu  win*. 
TliuuHh  tba  vina  grows  in  avary  tort  of  soil,  a  ritlnti 
((round,  or  Kenlly-tlopinK  bill  failiiK  tha  auulb,  with  a 
loiiaf,  Kravally,  or  ruthor  vulcanic  soli,  is  by  far  iha 
Ixat  situation  for  a  vineyard.  It  la  in  such  situations 
that  ail  the  llnsst  winas  ara  producrd. 

It  wuuld  Im  usalata.  In  a  work  of  Ibis  kind,  to  attempt 
cbaractvriitiiiK  the  dlH'emnt  sorts  uf  wine  nsvd,  I'orland 
sherry  liavo  lonif  ei^Joyed  a  decided  prrpunderanca  in 
tbu  inarkats;  and  it  niunt  li«  adniided  that,  when  of 
Koud  i|Uillty  and  spariiiKly  used,  tliey  are  very  unax- 
captlunablu  wines.  Hut  they  are  often  harsh,  and  bava 
Ihu  disidvantaxa  of  bciiiK  strong  and  beatinK,  so  that 
they  can  nut  liu  taken,  tu  any  thInK  Ilka  excess,  by 
most  pcrsuns  with  impunity.  They  are  well  cnuii|;h 
for  a  K'a'a  or  two,  but  they  are  not  wines  for  conversa- 
tion or  tociuly.  It  is  not  prolnlile,  indeed,  bad  it  not 
lieen  fur  tbu  blKii  dlirerenllal  duties  with  wliich  French 
winej  were  su  long  buriiened,  liiat  lii«  use  uf  port  and 
sherry  would  ever  ba\a  been  so  Keiieral  {  and  since  tha 
alioliiion  of  tlia  diireranlial  duly  in  1X31,  French  wines 
have  Ijegun  gradually,  tbuui(h  slowly,  to  make  their  way 
from  llio liigbcst,  towbieb  Uiev  bavn  bitberlo  been  inust- 
lyconlined,amung  the  niiddlc  i  lasses.  They  are,  Indrad, 
superiur  in  almunt  all  reapei  sa  to  every  other  variety. 
Tlie  best  growths  of  claret,  Cbampigne,  and  llurgundy, 
seem  to  unite  all  Ihu  qnuiiiies  required  lu  cunstllutu 
perfect  wlnen,  Ilud  tiiey  been  known  in  antiquity,  wo 
uppreiiend  they  w  oubl  have  engrossed  most  part  of  Ibo 
praise  su  profusely  luvinheil  on  the  I'ramnlan,  Cccuban, 
Kulernian,  and  oilier  reiiuwnod  wines  of  llreoc«  and 
Kumc— lln.vNUK'H  />iii. 

Anvitnl  ll'i'iiei.  — The  wines  of  Lesbos  and  Chios 
among  tlie  (jreeks,  iinil  tiio  Kulernian  and  Ceiuljun 
among  tiic  Homans,  have  uci|uired  an  immortality  uf 
renown,  (ireat  uncertainty,  however,  prevails  as  to 
tbu  nature  of  these  nines.  l>r,  Henderson  thinks  that 
the  most  celebrated  of  llioni  ail,  the  Falurnian,  ap- 
proached, in  its  most  essential  characters,  near  to  Ma- 
deira. In  preparing  their  wines,  tlio  ancients  often 
inspissated  thcih  till  tiicy  liecamo  uf  the  coiisistenco  of 
buney,  or  even  thicker.  These  w  ere  diluted  with  water 
pruviuusly  lo  their  licing  drunk  ;  ami,  indeed,  tbo  lialilt 
of  mixing  wino  with  water  seems  to  have  prevailed 
much  mure  in  antiipiity  than  in  niudern  times. 

Mixlern  ll'i'ncs.— The  principal  wines  made  use  of  in 
Kngiand  arc  port,  sherry,  claret,  Clmmpagno,  Madeira, 
bock,  Mursula,  Cape,  etc. 

I'ort,  the  after-dinner  wlno,  is  produced  In  tbo  prov- 
ince of  I'pper  Uouro,  in  Portugal;  and  is  shipped  at 
Oporto,  whence  its  name.  When  it  arrives  in  En- 
gland, it  is  of  a  dark  purple  or  inky  color;  has  a  full, 
rough  body,  with  an  astringent  bitter-sweet  taste,  anil 
a  strong  iluvor  and  odor  of  brandy.  After  it  has  re- 
mained tome  years  longer  in  the  wood,  tbo  swectnisii, 
roughness,  and  astringcncy  of  the  flavor  abate;  Imt  It 
is  only  utter  it  has  been  kept  10  or  15  years  in  Imtili' 
that  the  odor  of  the  brandy  is  completely  aubilucij,  ami 
the  genuine  aronia  of  the  wine  developed.  When  kept 
to  tuo  great  an  age,  it  becomes  lawny,  and  loses  its 
peculiar  flavor.  During  the  process  of  melioration,  a 
considerable  |)urtiun  of  tlie  oxtractivo  and  culurln^' 
matter  is  precipitated  on  the  sides  of  the  vessels  in  tliu 
form  of  crust.  In  some  wines  this  chaiigu  occurs  niudi 
earlier  than  in  others,  A  large  quantity  uf  brumly  is 
always  niixod  with  the  wine  shipped  from  Oporto  fur 
Kngiand.  Cicnuino  unmixed  port-wine  is  very  rarely 
met  witli.  We  have  been  su  long  accustuincd  to  the 
compounded  article,  that,  were  It  pussildo  to  procure  it 
unmixed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  wuuld  bo  at  ail  suit- 
ed to  our  taste.  According  to  Mr,  Brande's  analysis, 
on  which,  howcyar,  owing  to  tho  dilferences  °n  tbo 
quality  of  tho  wine,  no  great  stress  can  bo  laid,  port, 
as  used  In  I:;ngUnd,  cuntaius  about  23  per  cent,  of 
alcohol. 


Oporto 
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,n.\  Chioi 
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liius  ofltn 

islsteIKO  of 
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[il,  t>>o  liftl''"- 
lo  provnilod 

IICB. 

Ue  u«o  of  in 
10,  Mailoi". 

Iln  »l>o  r'*>^'' 
livet  m  y."- 

I.  ),a»  ft  f»"; 

\t  tftile,  ""'1 
If  il  lias  r<-'- 
■o  sweetii''"' 
lute  5  l.ulji 
Irs  in  V"i'^'" 

T  WlicM  kept 
L,i\  \ou»  >» 
[flioration,  » 
li„a  coloriiiK 
lesseW  in  tlio 
1  occurs  »>"'■' 
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lu  Ororto  for 
r  verv  rarely 
loniccl  to  ti'O 
1  to  \)tocuro  It 
Vu  ttl  aU  suit- 
ht'*  an«ly»>»> 
tncea  "n  tlw 
to  1»W.  V"''; 
[per  ce»l-  « 


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llnlilK 

lUiMuiiflla 

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lllH/'KII 

h<t|i>K«i* 

IIiIiImI 

liiii'iMM  Ayr» 

t-'H|iti  Vera 

Cuilla 

('I'KrN 

(  lilim  '..., 

<'ii|l<MltlilK(Ml 

Ccirk 

('innNtmU *. . . 

Diilillii 

Kliilniirii 

(ii'unik t. 

Illliriiltitr 

(HllRgow 

lion , 

Oiithi'iibiirg 

lUlirHi 

lliiiittiirK 

Iliivre 

laUnd  afCorlHO  , 
ili'riiDy 

KrnKiirdH 

l.i'llh 

I.lbmi 

I.ivi'i-pool 

I^nilon 

Miimo 

MiirunhHO 

MiimtilllcM 

MayaKiui 

Mi'ini'l 

Moiamblqiifl .... 

Mogadnr 

Huntrvhli 

""J'      -Mile 

Nttnlbiindlanil... 

Sxw  Vork 

(.•aim 

1  n-tt.||.l 

f»ni 

Ifarahlba 

Tcrnamburo  , . . . 

Potoraburg 

I'lyniouUi 

I'oolo 

rnrtu  Ali^Kro  . . . . 

rurlimoiith 

({ucbee 

Krndora 

WK»--- 

Rio  (irande  .... 
Itio  do  .lanolro . . 
Klo  la  Vlata .... 

|{oH«n 

8am 

Hantoi 

Hndovejr 

BliiKaporo 

SllKO 

Hoderham 

Southampton . . . 

Stavani;cr 

Htockholm 

Mt.  Tliomaa  . . . . 

Toulon 

Wlaardlngon. . . 
Total 


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I'M,  ilurinR  tht  admlnlitratlon  nf  tha  Marquii  Pom- 
bal.     A  cartaln  txlant  of  Inrrltury  waa  niarliai!  out  by 
Ita  t'harlsr  aa  thi>  only  illatrli't  on  llio  Duuro  In  wliirh 
wlni'  could  lia  ralaiicl  fur  axpurlnllon  s  (ha  aliaoluta  illi- 
poaal  of  Ihu  winoa  raiiail  In  thia  illatrlrt  waa  plai'ad  in 
the  lianiln  nf  thi'  lompany,  who  wi-rf  furllitr  aulhoriaoil 
to  lU  tho  prli-i'i  In  ho  pulil  fur  lh«ni  to  ilie  ciiltlvalora, 
to  praparii  thorn  for  axportatiun,  and  to  llx  Ihn  prii-a  at 
which  thoy  alioulil  ho  auld  to  fondKnara !     It  ix  ohvloua 
that  n  company  wlih  aurh  powiira  could  not  Iw  any 
thiiiK  vIm  than  an  intuhrnUa  nniaanco.     What  could 
ha  mora  arl)ilrnry  and  unjust  than  to  intanilct  tha  ax- 
port  of  all  wlnca  ral«>d  out  of  (h«  llndia  uf  tho  coni- 
pany'j  territory?     lut  ov«n  In  lla  own  dlnlrlct,  ill 
prnroedinm  worn  opprawivo  ami  lujurioun.     Tha  com- 
pany annually  llxcd,  hy  a  lUt  of  th<dr  own,  two  rat» 
of  prlcM— ono  for  Iho  riiihii  li  ftihirin,  or  wina  for  ex- 
portiillnii  ;  Ihoolhi'rfornnAodV  iiimo,  or  wine  for  home 
consunipllun  -at  which  thu  cnlllviitora  wore  to  Iw  paid, 
wholavcr  ud({hl  ho  the  (piallly  of  thidr  winea!     Thoy 
had,  Ihcroforo,  no  uiollvo  to  exert  auperlor  skill  and 
InKonully ;  lint  cnnientcd  lliomiMdvea  with  endeavor- 
InK  to  raiiv,  at  the  hii^t  poAalblo  rx|iun»e,  ti.o  ^reateat 
aupply  of  vinho  ilf/iitoriii,  for  which  tho  company  al- 
lowed tho  hlglieiit  price.     All  emulation  waa  thus  «f. 
fccluolly  cxtlnKuisheit,  and  the  proprietors  who  poa- 
scsiod  vineyards  of  a  superior  i|uallty  adulterated  (hair 
wines  with  Inferior  urowlhn,  so  us  "to  reduce  (hem  to 
the  avcraRo  slandaui.     "  In  Ihit  way,"  says  l>r.  Hen- 
derson, "  tho  liner  products  of  the  I>ouro  vintaRos  havu 
romoineil,  in  a  (jreut  measure,  unknown  to  us;  and 
port-wine  has  come  to  bo  const  Jcrcil  as  a  nln|;le  lii|Uor, 
if  I  nmy  luo  tlw  expression,  of  nearly  luiiform  tiavor 
and  strength;  virylni;,  'tis  true,  to  a  certain  extent  In 
quality,  hut   ^1  always  appruuchluK  to  a  dellnlte 
standard,  am    udmiltinK  of  few  degrees  of  excellence, 
The  manipulations,  Iho  adndxtures — in  one  word,  (ho 
ai/u((iTO(iim.« — (o  which  the  best  wines  of  the  (.'Imo  do 
Ibmro  arc  ^ulljcclcd,  havu  much  the  8an\e  olTcct  as  If 
alt  the  growths  of  Burgundy  were  to  ho  mingled  in  one 
imineuso  vat,  and  sent  into  (ho  worl !  an  the  only  true 
Dursundian  wine.     Tho  delicious  produce  of  Itomanee, 
Ohambcrtin,  and  tho  t'los  Vougeout,  would  ilisappcar, 
and  in  their  places  we  should  lind  nothing  better  tlian 
a  sccoud-rato   llcaune  or  Macon  wine."— //iWnry  of 
AncifiU  ami  Mudrni  lime*.     Not  only,  however,  did 
tho  Oporto  Wine  Company  deteriorate  the  iiuality,  but 
thoy  also  raised  tho  price  of  their  wines  to  an  enor- 
mous height.    .Secured  against  the  competition  of  their 
countrymen,  anil  enjoying  down  to  1H31  a  nearly  aU- 
wlutc  monopoly  of  tlio  British  markets  for  red  winea 
l)y  means  of  tho  high  duties  on  those  of  Franco,  they 
tilled  their  pockets  at  our  expense.    At  the  very  mo- 
ment when  tho  company  were  aldpping  wine  for  En- 
gland at  X40  a  pipe,  they  frequently  shipped  the  same 
wine  to  other  countries  at  £20.— Flehtwood  Wii- 
r.i.iMS  on  Ike.  Wine  Trade.     And  tho  authuntic  tablet 
published  by  Tlalbi  show  that  the  price  of  wine  was 
trebled  and  quadrupled  under  the  management  of  this 
corporation.— A'Mdi  Stalulique  $ur  le  Jloi/nume  da  Por- 
tugal. 

It  is  long  since  the  injurious  influenco  of  the  com- 
pany on  tho  commerce  of  England  was  distinctly 
perceived  and  pointed  out.     So  far  back  as  1707,  the 
Board  of  Trade  laid  a  memorial  before  his  majesty  in 
council,  in  which  they  si  ite,  "With  respect  to  many 
particular  regulations  of  the  Oporto  Company,  which 
I  wo  think  justly  objected  to  by  the  merchants  as  highly 
!  grievous  and  oppressive,  wo  have  not  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  enter  into  a  minute  description  of  them,  being 
of  opinion  that  ono  general  and  fatal  objection  lies 
against  them  all;  viz.,  that  they  all  contribute  to  ea- 
tablish  in  the  company  a  monopoly  against  your  ipuj- 
Oporto  Wint  Company.— Tho  quality  of  tho  wine   esty's  subjects  from  whi*  by  treaty  they  have  »  right 
shipped  from  Oporto  has  been  materially  injured  hy   to  be  exempted."    But  notwithstanding  this  authorl. 
the  monopoly  so  long  enjovcd  bv  the  Oporto  Wine   tativo  exposition  of  tho  injury  done  to  the  EnglisU  by 
Company.    This  company  w»»  originally  founded  in  1  this  monopoly,  and  the  experience  which  every  subs*. 


It 

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ISC 


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SUHMABT  or  THE  KXPORTATION  0»  OlL,  II«A!inV,  ASB  WlJtX 

ra»)i  I.ianoN  thi  Yeam  srxcinsn. 


Vun. 

IIU. 

Bn»ndy. 

Wina.       1 

ISM 

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ripn. 

4i0« 

M9 

npM. 
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Pll<«. 

27.647 
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17.790 

1866 

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694s 

108 

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WIN 


1976 


WIN 


quent  year  afTorded  of  Us  mischlevoaa  influence,  luch 
WBs  the  invuleracy  of  ancient  prejudice,  tliat  it  was  not 
till  1831  tliat  we  tooli  tliat  step  wliicli,  liad  it  been 
tal(cn  a  cotitury  before,  would  have  rid  ourselves  of  its 
•vils  as  well  as  a  host  of  others,  by  equalizing  the  du- 
ties on  French  and  Portuguese  wines,  and  putting  an 
end  to  the  ii^urious  preference  given  to  the  latter  by 
the  Methuen  treaty.  In  1833  Don  Pedro,  whose  daugh- 
ter had  been  raiHed  to  the  Portuguese  throne  mainly 
by  the  intervention  of  the  Knglish,  issued  a  decree 
•bolishing  the  Old  Oporto  Company.  And  it  might 
have  been  supposed  that  once  abated,  the  nuisance 
would  not  have  been  again  revived.  But  such  was 
not  the  case.  A  new  wine  company  was  subsequently 
established,  with  privileges  little  less  oppressive  than 
those  of  the  old  company.  And  as  the  taste  for  French 
wine  had  made  little  progress  among  us  in  the  interval, 
we  suffered  from  the  monopoly  and  adulterations  prac- 
ticed and  sanctioned  by  the  new  company,  as  we  hail 
done  from  those  of  its  predecessor.  Its  mischievous 
influence  being  further  aggravated  by  a  heavy  export 
duty  on  wine  sliipped  to  any  port  in  Europe,  was  lat- 
terly so  intolerable,  that  to  defeat  it  considerable  quan- 
tities of  port  were  imported  by  the  circuitous  route  of 
the  United  States.  However,  the  firm  remonstrances 
of  the  Hritlsh  government,  and  the  growing  dissatis- 
faction of  the  Portuguese  themselves,  have  at  length 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  more  equitable  and  less 
illiberal  system.  In  October  3852,  the  new  company 
was  abolished,  equal  duties  (about  14s,  a  pipe)  were 
imposed  on  all  wines  exported,  and  considerable,  though 
not  entire,  freedom  was  given  to  the  trade. — For  fur- 
ther details,  tee  article  OroKTO. 

Sherry  is  of  a  deep  amber  color ;  when  good,  it  has  a 
fine  aromatic  odor ;  its  taste  is  warm,  with  some  de- 
gree of  the  agreeable  bitterness  of  the  peach  kernel. 
AVheu  new,  it  tastes  barah  and  fiery ;  it  is  mellowed 
by  being  allowed  to  remain  4  or  6  years  or  longer  in 
the  wood ;  but  it  docs  not  attain  to  its  full  flavor  and 
perfection  until  it  be  Icept  for  16  or  20  years.  It  is  a 
ver}'  strong  wine,  containing  ubout  W  per  cent,  of 
alcohol.  It  is  principally  produced  iu  the  vicinity  of 
Xeres,  not  far  from  Cadiz,  in  Spain.  It  is  very  ex- 
tensively used  in  England  as  a  dinner  wine.  Dry 
sherry,  or  anwntillailo,  when  genuine  and  old,  fetches  a 
very  high  price.  Perhaps  no  wine  is  so  much  adulter- 
ated as  sherry.  With  the  exception  of  Marsala,  the 
consumption  of  sherry  has  been  far  more  influenced 
than  that  of  any  other  wine  by  the  reduction  of  the 
duties  in  ll<25.  In  1852  the  quantity  retained  for 
home  consumption  amounted  to  2,600,857  gallons,  be- 
ing 458,(X)0  gallons  more  than  double  the  quantity  re- 
tained for  consumption  at  an  average  of  1823  and  1824. 

The  province  of  Valencia,  in  Spain,  produces  a  great 
variety  of  wines.  Large  quantities  of  a  strong,  sweet- 
ish red  wine,  called  licnicarlo,  from  the  port  -whence  it 
is  shipped,  is  exported  to  Cette.  It  is  thence  conveyed, 
by  the  Canal  of  Languedoc,  to  Ilordeaux,  where  it  is 
mixed  up  with  the  poorer  sorts  of  the  wines  of  the 
Gironde,  to  which  it  gives  color,  body,  and  durability. 
The  \'at  di!  I'eiVu,  a  pleasant  red  wine  of  La  Mancha, 
taid  by  Swinburne  to  be  "  the  most  drinkable,  for  com- 
mon use,  of  any  in  Spain"  {Travelt  in  Spain,  p.  819,  4to 
ed.),has  probably  been  commended  beyond  its  deserts. 
But  in  whatever  estimation  it  may  be  held  in  its  native 
province,  we  doubt  whether  it  is  ever  likely  to  be  ac- 
reptable  to  foreigners.  When  carried  to  the  coast,  it 
is  conveyed  in  goat  skins  smeared  with  pitch.  This 
gives  it  the  olor  de  bota,  by  which  it  ii^  disagreeably 
distinguished. 

Ctartt,  the  term  generally  used  in  England,  though 
not  in  France,  to  designate  the  red  wines,  the  produce 
of  the  Gironde.  Of  these,  Lafitte,  Latour,  Chuteaa- 
M»rg*uxi  •1(1  Haut-Drion,  %rc  so  generally  and  de- 
wrvedly  esteemed,  that  they  always  sell  at  20  to  80 
per  cent,  higher  than  any  others  of  the  department 
The  first-mentioned  ia  the  most  choice  and  daltoata, 


and  is  characterized  by  its  silky  softness  on  the  palate, 
and  its  charming  perfume,  which  partakes  of  that  of 
the  violet  and  the  raspberry.  The  Latour  has  a  fuller 
body,  and  at  the  same  time  a  considerable  aroma,  but 
wants  the  softness  of  the  Lafitte.  The  Chjiteau-Mar< 
gaux,  on  the  other  hand,  is  lighter,  and  pi'sseeses  all 
the  delicate  qualities  of  the  Lalitte,  except  that  it  has 
not  quite  so  high  a  flavor.  The  Ilaut-Drion,  again, 
has  more  spirit  and  body  than  any  of  the  preceding, 
but  is  rough  when  new,  and  requires  to  be  kept  six  or 
seven  years  in  the  wood  ;  while  the  others  become  fit  for 
bottling  in  much  less  time. 

Among  the  second-rate  wines,  that  of  Rozan,  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Margaux,  a|)proachcs  in  some  respects  to 
the  growth  of  the  Chuteau-Margaux ;  Gorce,  in  ths 
same  territory,  is  little  inferior  to  Latour;  and  the 
vineyards  of  Lcoville,  Larose,  Uran-Mouton,  Pichon- 
I.ongucvlllo,  and  Calon,  In  the  canton  of  Pauillac,  af- 
ford wines  of  good  flavor,  which,  in  favorable  years, 
have  much  of  the  excellence  of  the  liner  growths,  from 
which,  indeed,  some  of  the  licst  can  w  ith  difliculty  be 
distinguished.  Among  the  third  and  fourth  class  wines 
ore  those  of  Pauillac,  St.  Jiilicn  de  Itegnac,  St.  Estcphe, 
Canon,  St.  Emilion,  the  wines  of  Ilaut  Medoc,  etc. 
These  have  each  some  distinguishing  peculiarity ;  but 
it  requires  a  comwitseur  to  ditcrimiuatc  between  the 
cognate  varieties.  In  good  j'ears  the  quality  is  very 
superior.  The  aroma  of  the  first  growths  is  seldom 
fklly  developed  till  after  they  have  been  kept  eight  or 
nine  years ;  but  the  secondary  qualities  come  to  perfec- 
tion a  year  or  two  sooner.  The  color  often  grows  darker 
as  the  wine  advances  In  age,  in  consequence  of  the  depo- 
sition of  a  portion  of  its  tartar;  but  when  well  made, 
and  thoroughly  fined,  it  seldom  deposits  any  crust. 
See  the  valuable  work  of  Dr.  IIkndkkson  o»  Ancient 
iindModern  Wines;  and JfLi.iicN,  Tupographiede  Vifftio- 
bles.  Bordeaux  wines  are  very  rarely  exported  in  a 
state  of  purity.  We  have  given  in  the  article  Bor- 
deaux some  account  of  the  treatment  to  which  those 
shipped  for  England  are  subjected,  and  to  it  we  beg  to 
refer  the  reader. 

Champagne — so  called  from  the  province  of  France, 
of  which  it  is  the  produce — is  one  of  the  most  deserved- 
ly esteemed  of  the  French  wines.  The  wines  of  Cham- 
pagne are  divided  into  the  two  grand  classes  of  white ' 
and  red  wines,  and  each  of  these,  again,  into  still  and. 
sparkling :  but  there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  flavor  of 
the  produce  of  different  vineyards.  Sillcry  is  univers- 
ally allowed  to  be  the  best  of  the  still  wines.  It  is 
dry,  of  a  light  amber  color,  has  considerable  body,  and 
a  charming  aroma.  "  Le  corps"  (says  M.  Jullicn),  "  le 
spiritueux,  le  charmant  bouquet,  et  les  v.rtus  toniques 
dont  il  est  pourvu,  lui  assurent  la  priority  sur  tons  les 
autrcs." — Topoffraphie  de  lout  let  Vi/jnoblei.  Dr.  Hen- 
derson agrees  with  Jullicn  in  considering  it  as  one  of 
the  wholesomcst  of  the  Champagne  wines.  The  spark- 
ling wines  are,  however,  the  most  popular,  at  least  in 
England.  Of  these,  the  wine  of  Ay,  five  leagues  south 
from  Khcims,  is  perhaps  the  best.  It  is  lighter  and 
sweeter  than  Sillery,  and  has  an  exquisite  flavor  and 
aroma.  That  which  merely  creams  on  the  surface 
(demi-mouueux)  is  preferred  to  the  full  frolhing  wine 
{grand-mousteux).  Being  bright,  clear,  and  sparkling. 
It  is  as  pleasing  to  the  eye  as  it  is  grateful  to  the  palate. 

"  Ccmia  mlcantl  eoncolor  ut  vitro 
Latex  In  aums,  gemniena  asjilcl, 
Sclntlllct  cxuUIni ;  utque  dulccs 
Nsrlbus  illecebrss  proplnet 
"8uc.-i  Istentls  proditor  hslitiisl 
Vt  spuma  motu  Isctea  turbido 
Crystslllnum  l«DtlB  rcfcrre 
Hex  oculls  propcrat  nltorcm." 

HaotTilllers,  about  four  leagues  from  Itheims  and 
one  from  Epernay,  used  formerly  to  produce  wine  that 
equaled,  and  sometimes  surpassed,  the  wine  of  Ay. 
Hut  it  is  no  longer  cultivated  with  the  same  care ;  so 
that,  though  still  very  good,  it  only  ranks  in  the  second 


WIN 


1977 


WIN 


M  and 
ne  that 
of  Ay. 
ire  i  so 
JBecond 


class.    The  best  of  the  red  wines  of  Champagne  are  .  qualiflo  dans  certains  pays  de  loim  qui  aidmt  i  la  qha- 


thoso  of  Verzy,  Verzenay,  Mally,  Bou7.y,  and  St.  Ilusle, 
"  lis  ont  une  bello  couleur,  du  corps,  du  spirituoux,  et 
Burtout  beaucoup  do  finesse,  de  stvo,  ct  do  bouquet." — 
JUM.iES.     The  Cl.os  St.  Thierry,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bheims,  produces  wine  wUicli,  according  to  Julllcn, 
unites  the  color  and  the  aroma  of  Burgundy  to  the 
lightness  of  Champagne,     The  province  of  Cham- 
pagne produces  altogether  about  1,100,000  hectolitres 
of  wine;  of  which,  however,  the  finest  growths  malce 
but  a  small  part.    The  principal  trade  in  wine  is  car- 
ried on  at  Kheims,  Aviso,  and  Epcmay.    The  vaults 
in  which  the  vintages  are  stored  are  excavatiil  in  a 
rock  of  calcareous  tufa  to  the  depth  of  30  or  10  feet. 
Those  of  M.  Meet,  at  Epernay,  are  the  most  extensive, 
and  tow  travelers  pass  through  the  place  witlioul  go- 
ing to  see  them.     The  briskest  wines  (_gmnda-mou»- 
teux)  kcdp  the  worst.— Jullies. 

Burgundy. — The  best  wines  of  this  province,  though 
not  so  popular  as  those  of  Champagne,  probably  be- 
cause they  are  very  apt  to  bo  injured  by  a  sea-voyage, 
enjoy  tlie  highest  reputation.  "  In  richness  of  flavor 
and  perfume,  and  all  the  more  delicate  qualities  of  the 
juice  of  the  grape,  they  unquestionably  rank  as  the 
first  in  the  world ;  and  it  was  not  without  reason  tiiat 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  in  former  times,  were  desig- 
nated as  the  pirinctt  dea  bans  fi»»."— Henueuson.  SI. 
JuUien  is  not  less  decided:  ''Lcs  vins  dct  ircmiers 


lit6,  sent  toujours  nuisiblcs  aux  vins  de  llourgogno." 

Koman6-Conti,  Cliambertin,  the  Clos  Vougeot,  and 
Rlchebourg,  are  tlio  most  celebrated  of  tlic  red  winei 
of  Burguiidy.     Cliambertin  was  the  favorite  wine  of 
Louis  XIV,  and  of  Napoleon,     It  is  the  produce  of  a 
vinayard  of  that  name,  situated  seven  miles  south  from 
Dijon,  and  furnishing  each  year  from  180  to  160  pun- 
cheons, from  an  extent  of  about  C5  acres.     It  has  a 
fuller  body  and  color,  and  greater  durability,  than  the 
Koman6,  with  an  aroma  nearly  as  fragrant.    The  white 
wines  of  Burgundy  are  less  numerous,  and,  consequent- 
ly, less  generally  known,  than  the  othcis;  but  they 
maintain  the  highest  rank  among  French  white  wines, 
and  are  not  inferior  to  the  red  cither  in  aroma  or  flavor. 
The  entire  annual  produce  of  wine  in  Burgundy  and 
Ucai^jolais  may  at  prci  cnt  bo  estimated,  at  an  average, 
at  nearly  3,&00,000  hectolitres,  of  which  about  750,000 
suffice  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants.    Since 
the  revolution,  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  been 
greatly  extended  in  the  province.    Many  of  the  new 
vineyards  having  necessarily  been  planted  in  compar- 
atively unfavorable  situations,  a  notion  has  been  gain- 
ing ground  that  the  wines  of  Burgundy  are  degenera- 
ting.   This,  however,  is  not  the  case.     On  the  con- 
trary, the  quantity  of  bons  crui,  instead  of  being  dimin- 
ished, has  increased  considerably ;  though,  as  the  s''.,i- 
ply  of  inferior  wines  has  increased  in  a  still  s'..:ater  do- 


crus,  lorsqu'ils  proviennent  d'une  bonne  annee,  rcunis-  gree,  the  fine  wines  bear  a  less  pwinTtion  to  the  whole 
sent  dans  do  justes  proportions,  toutes  les  qualitea  ^ui  than  they  did  previously  to  the  revolution. — Jullikn, 
conatituenflea  vins  parfnUs;  ils  n'ont  besoin  d'aucnn  The  principal  trade  in  Burgundy  is  carried  on  at  Dyon, 
mfilango,  d'aucuno  preparation  pour  attcndre  Icur  plus  Gevrey,  Chulons-sur-Saone,  etc.  Besides  the  above, 
haut  degro  de  perfection.     Ces  operations,  quo  Ton  |  Franco  has  a  great  variety  of  other  excellent  wines. 

ACCOCNT  or  THE  QUANTITIES  ASP  VAI.tlR  or  THE  WiSEB  EXPORTKD  FBOM  FbASCE  IS  1S52 ;  niBTlSariSnlNa  BKTWKEH 
THOSE  CI'  THE  CtlBONDE  AS1>  THOSE  OF  OTHEB  DKrAET.HESTB,  AND  UETWEKN  THOSE  EXPOSTEU  IN  (;aBI>S  AND  UoTTLES; 
AND   SrECIFYlNO  THE  QOANTITIEB  OF  THOSE  SENT  TO  EACH  COUNTET  AND  THEIB  TOTAL  VALUE.— (AOUINIBTEATION  SES 

DoUANES  roE  1854,  p,  241.) 


CouotrlM  to  which 
•iport«d. 


Of  other  nepartrngrita. 


QiiRiitity. 


liussla 

Sweden 

Norway 

Denmark 

German  League  , , , 

Holland 

BelBium 

Hanae  Towns 

Hanover 

Mecklenburg  Schweriii 

England 

Spain  . . , 

Austria  ." 

Suriliulan  SUtes 

The  Two  Sicilies 

Tuscany 

Roman  States 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Kgypt 

Algeria 

.Mauritius 

Iiiilia,  Knglish 

"      Dutch 

"      French 

United  States 

llaytl 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 

St.  Thomas 

Brasil 

Mexico 

Venezuela 

Now  Granada 

Pern 

Chill 

Hlodela  Plata 

Uruguay 

Ouadaloupe 

Martinique 

llourbon 

Senegal 

t/ayonne 

Flsherica 

Guatemala 

Other  places 

Totals 


llectulitrea. 

•i'2,S40 

1,'J37 

2,514 

3,r>8(! 

31,040 

7S,1'.)2 

fiS,3(B 

nS,530 

14,908 

2,5:;6 

10,1T4 


Quanlity, 


2,30T 
51,942 
3,125 
3,014 
1,M'.> 
101,970 

3,'{39 

6,207 
3,080 
1,359 

8,'l89 

6,574 

17,157 

25.600 

a.233 

T,4'2» 

86,010 

10,210 

2,7!)4 

1,608 

o.'afo 


■  29,682,004 


090,807 


UectoUtrci. 
18,549 
4,fU3 
2,003 
7,720 
9,163 
14,013 
3'>,30' 
65,111 


10,416 
2,746 
9,212 

527,058 

89,'7's;) 
7,679 

120,299 
3,5S3 
T.430 

407,930 

2,850 


Va^ue^ 
Fraaci. 


20,082,064 


00,204 
3,789 
2,940 

42,'6'lO 


20,039 
14,755 
9,635 
20.004 
17,943 

i,"343 
41S9 


38,304,132 


Wine  in  Botllai. 


Of  the  (ilronde. 


qimntity. 


10,021 

1,6118,605 


Heetolltrei. 
814 

102 

'iii 

884 

042 

459 

2,727 


4.970 
480 

218 


371 

581 

2,223 

1,080 

24,405 

l',9i2 
205 

4,636 
629 

3,260 

8,097 

070 

1,062 


283 
801 


1,033 


8,072,610 


urother  n<)parlnienta. 


Qaantil.r 
Hectolitre*. 
7,,324 
600 


6,689 

lo,Biio 

2,900 


10,,366 
815 
420 
1,033 
677 
438 

aoe 

6,->2 
993 
563 
617 

'422 


19,101 
057 
1,000 
870 
«14 
578 
521 
417 
910 
779 

"469 


634 
1,972 


Vrtliie. 


10,284,658 


38,304,132  I     60,000     |  tf , 


,072,010   I    74.172        19.294.068 


'^^■^'^W^r^T^K^-^  ■n:-.'T 


■i.-jv.'i'y  :j^,T, «  f ,■  r  ■ 


;,  1  jFT  i;?:;--*:'?.  'trw-C^n  S-" 


WIN 


1978 


WIN 


Thia  makes  a  total  export  of  2,419,601  hectolitres, 
vorth  95,403,464  francs,  or  ^£3,816,000.  Alwut  ten 
years  ago  the  exports  did  not  exceed  1,600,000  hecto- 
litres, BO  that  tht^re  has  been  a  large  increase  in  the  in- 
ter\'al.  And  were  France  to  adopt  a  liberal  commer- 
cial policy,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  to  how  great  an  ex- 
tent her  exports  of  wine,  in  the  production  of  which 
she  is  immeasurably  superior  to  every  other  country, 
might  be  increased.  Exclusive  of  the  above,  there 
were  exported  from  France  in  the  same  year  18,968 
hectolitres  of  vim  de  liqueurs,  valued  at  2,001 ,836  francs. 

The  total  produce  of  the  vineyards  of  France  is  es- 
timated at  about  86,000,000  hectolitres  (770,000,000 
imp.  gallons),  worth  640,000,000  francs  (£21,600,000). 
We  beg  to  refer  the  Teader  to  the  article  Borue.mjx 
for  an  account  of  the  influence  of  the  French  system  of 
commercial  policy  on  this  great  department  of  indus- 
try. The  question,  whether  the  wines  of  Champagne 
or  Burgundy  were  entitled  to  the  preference,  was  agi- 
tated during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  with  extraordi- 
car}'  keenness.  The  celebrated  Charles  Coifin,  rector 
of  the  University  of  Bcauvais,  published,  during  this 
controversy,  the  classical  ode,  partly  quoted  above,  in 
which  Champagne  is  eulogized,  and  its  superiority  vin- 
dicated with  a  spirit,  vivacity,  and  delicacy  worthy  of 
the  then.e.  The  citizens  of  Rbeims  were  not  ungrate- 
ful to  the  poet,  but  liberally  rewarded  him  with  an 
appropriate  and  muniricent  donation  of  the  wine  he 
had  so  happily  panegyrized.  Grcneau  wrote  an  ode 
in  praise  of  Burgundy;  but,  unlike  its  subject,  it  was 
flat  and  insipid,  and  failed  to  lirocure  any  recompense 
to  its  author.  The  different  pieces  in  this  amusing 
controversy  were  collected  and  published  in  octavo,  at 
I'aris,  in  1712.  —See  Le  Graxu  d'Aussv,  Vie  Privee 
del  Franfait,  and  the  Biographie  Vnivertelle,  art.  Corn s 
(Charles).  Erasmus  attributes  the  restoration  of  his 
health  to  his  having  drunk  liberally  of  Burgun<ly ;  and 
has  eulogized  it  in  the  most  extravagant  terms.  An 
epistle  of  his,  quoted  by  Le  Grand  d'Aussy,  shows  that 
Falstaft'  and  he  would  have  spent  an  evening  together 
more  agreeably  than  might  have  been  supposed :  "  Le 
premier  qui  enseigna  I'art  de  faire  ce  vin  (Bourgogne), 
ou  qui  en  fit  present,  ne  doit-il  point  passer  plutut  pour 
nous  avoir  donnu  la  vie  que  pour  nous  avoir  gratifie 
d'uno  liqueur." — I'l'e  Privee  del  Franfaii. 

Bordeaux  Vintage  of  1856.— The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  yield  of  wino  in  the  Gironde  in  years  uf  full 
crop,  compared  with  the  actual  yield  of  1856,  and  the 
prices  ruling  at  the  close  of  the  year : 


lus. 
Ch&teau  Latour,  Bl.  Ijimbcrt . 

Chitvnu  Lsfitc,  PsulUac 

Motitoh.  Ilrune,  rsuillac 

(^niaud,  I.aroae,  St.  JuUon  . . . 
I'lchon  LonguevUle,  St.  Lam-  i 

bert \ 

Cos.  Dostoumel,  St.  Esteppe  . 
I^agrange,  Cabarrus,  St.  J  alien 

Kir\ran,  Cantenae 

\a  Lagune,  Ludon 

.Milon,  Duhart,  I'aulllac 

I'onle*.  Canet,  PauiUac 

•lurine,  Fftutllan 

Ilruno  Devez,  St.  Laurent. . . . 
Chateau  d'AuEac,  I.abarde  . . . 

< 'us.  I.abory,  8t.  Otcplio 

Lynch,  Muiiraos,  I'aulllac 

Diicaasc,  Mouiua,  Pauillac  . . 

Canteniorle,  Macau 

Sulberg,  MacDanlel,  Margaux 
liut. 

Chateau  Ijifitc,  Pauillac 

Moiilon,  Ilrune,  Pauillac 


Full  Crup 

Crop 

Price  per 

of  former 

of 

Ubl.offour 

Vonrj. 

IS5«. 

Hhda. 

Bbl>. 

Bbla. 

Krann. 

8U 

ai) 

r)ll(^o(*^700 

!•« 

BO 

MOOSfilOO 

80 

30 

6000 

180 

23 

4000 

100 

n 

4000 

IM 

30 

8T00 

226 

45 

8000 

46 

H 

8001) 

8'i 

4 

8000 

r<o 

23 

2400 

140 

36 

2000 

90 

20 

2000 

so 

IS 

2000 

75 

21 

20OO 

90 

21 

2000 

00 

26 

2000 

no 

80 

2000 

100 

30 

2000 

35 

8 

20011 

1'.6 

60 

300O 

80 

83 

2800 

Wum  WiHis. 

Priet  per  Bbl. 
of  four  llhdi. 

ises.  Entre-deuz-meres francs  .126(^  8so 

Cotes "      4A0«$  000 

IVIlt  I>reignu: "  800 

Petit  lloutoc •'  1000 

tfadtira — so  called  from  the  Mknd  of  that  name — Is 


a  wine  that  has  long  been  in  hi<;h  estimation  in  this 
and  other  countries.  Plants  of  the  vine  were  conveyed 
from  Crete  to  Madeira  in  1421,  and  have  succeeded  ex- 
tremely well.  There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
flavor  and  other  qualities  of  the  wines  of  Madeira :  the 
best  are  produced  on  the  south  side  of  the  island, 
Though  naturally  strong,  they  receive  an  addition  of 
brandy  wlien  racked  from  the  vessels  In  which  they 
have  been  fermented,  and  another  portion  is  thrown 
in  previously  to  their  exportation.  This  is  said  to  be 
required  to  sustain  the  wine  in  the  high  temperature 
to  which  it  is  sulijccled  in  its  passage  to  and  from  In- 
dia and  China,  to  which  large  quantities  of  it  are  sent, 
it  being  found  that  it  is  mellowed  and  its  flavor  ma- 
terially improved  by  the  voyage.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, necessarily  follow  that  the  wines  which  have 
made  the  longest  voyages  are  always  the  best.  Much 
must  obviously  depend  on  the  original  quality  of  the 
wine ;  and  many  of  the  parcels  selected  to  be  sent  to 
India  are  so  inferior,  that  tlie  wine,  when  brought  to 
London,  does  not  rank  so  high  as  that  which  has  been 
imported  direct.  But  when  the  parcel  sent  out  has 
been  well  chosen,  it  is  very  much  matured  and  im- 
proved by  the  voyage ;  and  it  not  only  fetches  a  high- 
er price,  but  is  in  all  respects  superior  to  the  direct 
Importations.  Most  of  tlie  adventitious  spirit  is  u. 
sipatcd  in  the  course  of  the  Indian  voyage. 

Madeira  wines  may  be  kept  for  a  very  long  per'  i 
"  Like  the  ancient  vintages  of  the  Surrentine  hills,  l- 
are  truly /rniiWma  t-tna,  retaining  their  qualities  un- 
impaired in  botli  extremes  of  climate,  sufTcring  no  de- 
cay, and  constantly  improving  as  they  advance  in  age. 
Indeed,  they  can  not  be  pronounced  in  condition  until 
they  have  been  kept  for  ten  years  in  the  wood,  and 
afterward  allowed  to  mellow  nearly  twice  that  time  in 
bottle;  and  even  then  they  will  hardly  have  reached 
the  utmost  perfection  of  which  they  are  susceptible. 
When  of  gooil  quality,  and  matured  as  above  described, 
they  lose  all  their  original  harshness,  and  acquire  tliat 
agreeable  pungency,  that  bitter  sweetishness,  which 
was  so  highly  prized  in  the  choicest  wines  of  antiquity, 
uniting  great  strength  and  richness  of  flavor  with  an 
exceedingly  fragrant  and  diffusible  aroma.  The  nutty 
taste,  which  is  often  very  marked,  is  nut  communica- 
ted, as  some  have  imagined,  by  means  of  bitter  alm- 
onds, but  is  inherent  in  the  wine." — Henderson, 

The  wines  of  Madeira  have  latterly  fallen  into  dis- 
repute in  England.  The  growth  of  the  island,  when 
greatest,  was  very  limited — not  exceeding  20,000  pipes, 
of  which  a  considerable  quantity  went  to  the  West  In^ 
dies  and  America.  Hence,  when  Madeira  Was  a  fash- 
ionable wine  in  England,  every  sort  of  deception  was 
practiced  with  respect  to  it,  and  large  quantities  of 
spurious  trash  were  disposed  of  for  the  genuine  vintage 
of  the  island.  Tliis  naturally  brought  the  wine  into 
discredit,  so  that  sherry  lias  been  for  several  years  the 
fashionable  white  wine.  It  is  diflicult,  however,  to  im- 
agine that  adulteration  was  ever  practiced  to  a  greater 
extent  upon  Madeira  than  it  is  now  practiced  upon  sher- 
ry. It  is  not,  therefore,  improbable  that  a  reaction  may 
take  place  in  favor  of  Madeira.  The  quantity  entered 
for  homo  consumption  in  England  in  1827  amounted  to 
308,295  gallons,  whereas  the  quantity  entered  for  home 
consumption  in  1852  amounted  to  only  69,730  gallons. 

Afalfiuey,  a  very  rich,  luscious  species  of  Madeira,  is 
made  from  grapes  grown  on  rocky  grounds  exposed  to 
the  full  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main on  the  vine  till  they  are  over-ripe.  The  trade  in 
Madeira  wine  is  carried  on  at  Funchal,  the  capital  of 
the  island,  in  lat.  32°  37'  N,,  long.  17°  6'  W.  Weights 
and  measures  same  as  at  Lisbon.  Madeira  is  said  to 
have  suflcrcd  very  severely  from  the  disease  that  has 
recently  attacked  the  vine. 

Tenetiffe  wine— so  called  from  the  island  of  that  name 
— resembles  Madeira,  and  is  not  unfrequently  substi- 
tuted in  its  stead ;  but  it  wants  the  full  body  and  rich 
flavor  of  the  best  growths  of  Madeira. 


ing  the  grape,  wilu  U  U.^trf '  /^''-^^fe  -n,-^  "■=-  --'1  Prevent  tur"  "-■""> 
new  mm,  or  must,  bei,«  !,!  *  "'""'I  '/«»»(»/»&   f-''  ^""^'^t  is  not  ZZTJ^    fP"  '"'•'" 

same  berries,  and  siiluecii,.,,  ,i  '''"*"''*  mm  umiL  Ji^  '""'  "' ^'SfyindiflfernnT  T  """"» '«> 
Preas.  Of  these  varC  f '^'?  '"  "'«  *'.'K  it  "'*  *'"«  "  Produced  from  ,?"."'^-  '^'"'^i 
">  very  arnall  quant  .?''     ^''h  .•*''"/<  *^  «M  '!  ?'.."»  ""'4uisl      t^.^""^  '^'""^  •"  the 


«T«',.'r..'!«:^"'«  produced  fro,r;;;:  "^e-"  «- 

"I"  "''"general, 
ihoughmuchof 
'"  the  corn-fields 


:Cn     S"""'""  's  seen  i„  t„„i:  ^'^»  '  "'"I  ''«  /»((«';  C  ""'^'  Pftuctive  districts   ho  „  „     'P'"  """ 

/"^<an  .^V„«.._The  Sicilian     ,  '  *''   t'f^^' P™''"™  »f  vtC^^^^  ""<!  the 

j..!.,  from  the  town  (U,c  a         r^'"*  **''*  ^m  M,,.   '^/"  «"  gf "ons  of  ,vin„l  tt '  L  e"'' '"  '''""'  '■™'» 

consumption  having  i^"!i'"'j'/'"'  ''''W  Ztt   "r*'*""  before  no    ed  uX   "'  ''"°"  "^ '"'^ 

Mther  decliniZ     »r  ^  ^''^'  '"'»'»Wr,  hlL,  tf'\'^*''''f  <"  the  apSe  nV  t      ■""^  "'""''  ■■''ff'"'d  to  the 


«iner  declinino-      »r       V   •''  ""»aVisr,  it  has   i,^  """'^  <»■  the  aotifudn  At  t,      ■ '  '^"ffa™  to  th 


WIN 


1980 


WIN 


to  ferment  with  the  Juice.  SometL  u  this  is  sufflired 
to  continue  during  eight  or  ten  cava  in  a  vat  before 
the  liquor  is  drawn  off,  and  sometimes  still  longer,  as 
the  longer  it  continues  the  darlior  th".  wine  l)ecomcs. 
The  best  wines  are  produced  'i  the  district  near  Va- 
rase,  on  the  sunny  slopes  of  ttie  hilh  round  the  lalccs 
of  Como  and  Garda,  and  in  the  Val  Callcppio,  in  tlie 
province  of  Ilorgamo.  The  wines  of  the  localities  of 
Sassella  and  Inferno,  in  the  Valtelline,  maintain  the 
ancient  renown  of  the  Khn^tian  wines,  relished  by  Au- 
gustus and  celebrated  by  Virgil. 

The  wine  of  the  Venetian  provinces  is,  upon  the 
whole,  of  a  much  better  quality ;  its  superiority  is  ow- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  to  a  better  choice  of  the 
kinds  of  grapes  that  are  planted,  and  to  the  more  care- 
ful prepaictinn  of  their  juice.  The  Iwst  qualities  avu 
pnMlueeil  in  the  province  of  Treviso,  in  the  Derici  und 
Euganran  1 1  ilia,  between  Vicenza  and  Padua,  in  some 
dlsti'iciK  of  the  province  of  Udine,  and,  above  all,  in 
the  province  of  V'erona,  well  known  for  its  \'alpolicella, 
the  Iwst  common  wine  in  the  khigdom. 

There  is  no  old  wine  in  the  country,  except  in  small 
quantities,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  few  amateur  propric~ 
tors.  The  wine  of  each  vintage  is  sold  in  the  course 
of  the  following  yeor ;  ond  when  any  nf  it  is  kept,  even 
though  it  should  nut  have  liecome.  or  shown  a  tenden- 
cy to  become,  vinegar,  it  will  sell  at  a  lower  price  than 
new  wine,  because  it  is  milder,  and  less  agreccble  to 
the  taste  of  the  cbiisunier. — E.  li. 

Previous  to  1851,  the  annual  quantity  of  wine  pro- 
duced in  the  kingdom,  in  average  years,  was  8u.837,705 
gallons,  of  which  52,8'!H,201  gallons  woro  produced  in 
the  Venetian,  and  .H,S,0I4,502  in  the  Lombard  provinces. 
The  produce  of  Ix>mbardy  not  being  sufficient  for  the 
consumption  of  i's  population,  nearly  4,402,000  gallons 
c  '  tar  more  were  imported  either  from  the  Venetian 
provinces,  which  produced  much  more  than  was  re- 
quired for  their  own  consumption,  oi'  from  the  neigh- 
boring states  of  Modcna,  Piedmont,  and  the  Papal  ter- 
ritory, according  to  the  respective  local  produce  and 
prici'S.  But  since  1851,  when  the  oidium  attacked  all 
the  vines  of  the  country,  the  produce  has  so  fearfully 
diminished,  that  in  18S6  the  government  found  it  nec- 
edsary  to  grant  a  reduotion  of  the  direct  land-tax  on 
lands  chiefly  cultivated  with  vines,  in  proporttcii  to 
the  ascertained  amount  of  loss.  The  whole  produce 
of  r  ambardy  in  1862  was  reduced  to  11,004,834  gallons, 
and  that  of  tlio  Venetian  provinces,  in  1854,  to  7,638,31 1 
gallons  of  wine.  The  respective  loss  of  each  province 
was  as  follows : 


Gov«RNMK»T  or  Milan. 
Gallotit  of ' 

Mantua 10,S47,406 

Milan 3,800,68:. 

UreseU 3,«74,S43 

Pavia S.2«4,J3U 

nergamo iMiM  t 

Como Z.OCi.aOS 

Cremona '.'.ii«3,170 

Sondrlo 'i..T2r>,l!H) 

I^odi l.DD.'.PIO 

Total iUi,4i)ii,U&l 

GOVKBNUBMT  OF    VCNIOK. 


rotlncfld  ui 
ISSl. 

:t,43:i,077 

998,976 

747,778 

fiDl.lia 

1,'M7,090 

l,!i83.a'>3 

l.fiSlJ.-SO 

90,614 

if(H.4C4 

l-.t,lUU,X13 


tialloni  of  Wine  prodn«ad  la 
1847.  18(4. 

radora 10,4^4,80«       2,6,11, 119 

VIeenia 9,904,860       1,320,680 

Udine 9,674,V!00       1,210,632 

Verona 8,683,770  600,290 

Trev!«o 7.483,287  748,329 

RoTigo 8,961,740  862,164 

Venezla 2,761,209  028,282 

Belluao 306,174  187,082 

Total 53,lU9,3i8        7,MS,81l 

Winu  of  Gitece  and  Cypnu. — The  soil  in  most  parts 
of  (jrceco  and  of  tho  Grecian  islands  is  admirably  fitted 
for  the  growth  of  the  vine ;  and  in  antiquity  they  pro- 
duced some  of  the  chohost  wines.  But  the  rapacity  of 
the  Turks,  and  the  insecurity  of  person  and  property 
that  has  always  prevailed  under  their  miserable  gov- 


ernment, has  effectually  prevented  the  careful  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine,  aiid  has  occasioned  in  many  places 
its  total  abandunmcnt.  It  may,  however,  lie  fairly 
presumed,  now  that  Greece  has  emancipated  herself 
from  the  iron  yoke  of  her  oppressors,  that  the  culture 
of  tho  vine  will  attract  somu  portion  of  that  attention 
to  which  it  is  justly  entitled,  and  that  at  no  distant 
period  wi.,e  will  form  un  important  artiilo  of  export 
fVom  Greece.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  has  tho  destru  :tiva 
influence  of  Turkish  barbarism  and  misgovcrnment 
been  so  apparent  as  in  (.'nndia  and  Cyprus.  While 
these  two  renowned  and  noble  islands  were  pussicssed 
by  tho  Venetians  they  supplied  all  Kurope  with  the 
choicest  dessert  wines.  Becci  affirms  that,  toward  the 
end  of  tne  ICth  century,  Candia  sent  annually  200,000 
casks  of  malmsey  to  the  Adriatic,  whereas  at  present 
it  hardly  produces  sufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  its 
few  impoverished  inhabitants. — HENnEiisoN.  The 
wines  of  Cyprus,  particulorly  those  produced  from  the 
vineyard  called  the  Con.mandery,  from  its  having  be- 
longed to  the  Kniu'hts  of  Malta,  were  still  more  highly 
esteemed  than  those  of  Crete.  In  the  eailier  part  of 
last  century  the  total  produce  of  tho  vintage  of  the 
island  was  supposed  to  amount  to  above  2,00P,0n0  gal- 
lons, of  which  nearly  onj  half  was  exported;  but  now 
the  wine  grown  and  exported  does  not  amount  to  one- 
tenih  part  of  these  quantities!  The  oppression  of 
which  they  have  been  the  victims  has  reduced  tho 
peasantry  to  tho  extreme  of  indigence,  'i'lio  present 
population  of  the  island  is  not  supposed  to  exceed 
(;0,000 — a  number  insufficient  to  have  peopled  one  of 
its  many  ancient  cities ;  and  small  as  this  number  is, 
it  is  constantly  diminishing  by  the  inhabitants  avail- 
ing themselves  of  every  onpcrtunity  of  emigrating. 

Capt  Wines. — The  famous  Constantia  wine  is  the 
produce  of  two  contiguous  farms  of  that  name  at  the 
base  of  Table  Mountain,  between  eight  and  nine  miles 
from  Cape  Town.  The  wine  is  very  rich  and  luscious, 
though,  according  to  Henderson,  it  yields  in  point  of 
flavor  and  aroma  to  the  muscadine  wines  of  Languedoc 
and  Koussillun.  But,  with  this  exception,  most  pt.rt 
of  the  Cape  wines  brought  to  England  have  an  earthy, 
disagreeable  tnste,  are  often  acid,  want  flavor  and  aro- 
ma, and  are.  In  fact,  altogether  execrable. 

American  Wine. — The  extent  of  our  terriiorj'  over 
which  the  wine  culture  moy  be  advantagcousl;  dif- 
fused has  long  aflbrded  a  subject  of  much  speculi  tion. 
It  eit  y  attracted  the  attention  of  tho  first  colo  lists, 
who  not  only  attempted  to  form  vineyards  of  the  Eu- 
ropean vine,  but  to  make  wine  from  our  own  nat.'ve 
grapes.  Altiiough  tho  subject  has  been  zealously  anu 
sedulously  pursued  at  various  periods  sinou,  all  those 
dwelling  on  the  easterly  half  of  the  continent  who  have 
made  trial  of  the  foreign  grape  have  never  been  able 
to  bring  their  designs  to  perfection ;  and  those  w)io 
have  tested  their  skill  in  our  native  varieties  have  only 
met  with  partial  success ;  yet  a  degree  of  perseverance 
and  enthusiasm  seems  to  have  pervaded  all  the  vota- 
ries of  this  delightful  pursuit,  and  a  warm  and  mutual 
interchange  of  views  and  sentiments  has  existed  among 
them,  which  has  been  comparatively  unknown  in  oth- 
er species  of  culture.  Although  tho  oporators  in  re- 
cent times,  fl-om  being  interspersed  over  so  great  an 
extent  of  territory,  are  consciiuentl)-  more  widely  sep- 
arated, still  the  connecting  link,  by  a  friendly  co-oper- 
ation in  one  common  cause,  may  justly  r.nd  appropri- 
etely  assimilate  their  uniied  exertions  to  that  joyous 
period  in  the  history  of  Franco  when,  during  the  reign 
of  Probus,  thou.sai'ds  of  all  ages  and  sexes  united  in 
one  spontaneous  and  enthusiastic  cfibrt  for  the  restora- 
tion of  their  vineyards.  Indeed,  when  the  far  greater 
limits  of  our  domain  are  considered,  the  combined  ef- 
forts of  our  fellow-countrymen  can  not  fail  to  produce 
eftects  even  more  important,  from  the  great  extent  of 
their  induence,  and  cause  each  section  of  our  republic 
reciprocally  to  respond  to  the  efforts  of  others,  with  all 
their  attendant  advantages  and  blessings. 


yrm 


mmmmmsm 

Census  on  that  interest     'n,,"'"  '"  ""^  Seventh  uV""""^'  "'""g  botlT  Z?     ,"  «'"''P'=  '-■"'ture  1 1^ 

Jons.     This  quant  tv  do    ,  rf7""l'«:«d  60,718  ™      «  ^»  f ".voted  to  wine  gro  vL  f,  """Pf  ""vely  small 
lonves  100  511   „.\r    ''°"'<=''--<'   from  the  a..J„°    ,       "'"  ^"''e'l  States  «.n»-^' "'°  P^'i'i'^e  of  winp!„ 

---.  bj  fhi  ?:";;,  t/^'i;  "Pt-  ^^  "-^  s:;  zt  z' ''''  "--■"-  h":"i;:t^'>«»-r  «^™- 

only  38,000  gallons     T.  •  '^'''-"""'^ating  a  ^in  of    t      ^""'"orman,  at  Cine  n,  l/i  °^'^f?-^''s.  Lon;u„.orth 
«''nt.  but  u!oer;„  pl^  :  ;; '-■'''Kv  an  °Mdfrt t^  ^ 

«'S  has  yet  been  mar  ,1!      ,   ""  "Miderable  procr      T     ^  ""''  "■''''•«'.  "ince  the  n^  rfoubtless  bo 

production  the  !,„«„<    T"^  '"^^^^""^  ''y  a  Kw   si  '° ''?^\"'°  P^""""""  a  fai,  n  1(1^™   ^'^  P"'™^  of 

value  or  invoioo  .    .     /  "'"  '*"'««  of  France     Th         ?"''-*'  '""eased  to  such  „,,  '  l"<«l"(.'tion  has 

The«„  '  ^'7"'™  ™»'  of  'be  article  «.n/J!f„',.  Ji"'    estimated  the  v.l„„„/ '''.'.''     '=■'''<'"'  that  «„d„m„,f 


WIN 


1082 


WIR 


ctea,  WM  found  to  contain  Oi  per  cent.  Buchanan 
■tatea  that  the  proportion  of  alcohol  in  the  American 
wines  Is  about  the  saniu  as  In  the  wines  of  Franco  and 
Germany.  Brandc,  however,  contcudi  that  the  French 
Graves  wine  contains  lI)-94,  Harsac  13-86,  Sauterne 
14-22,  Rudesheimer  of  1800  Vi'ii,  and  Hocic  14-37  per 
cent,  of  alcohol. 

The  prices  of  American  wines  may  be  considered 
high.  Ten  to  twelve  bottles  of  stored  still  wine  cost 
from  fS  to  $8,  and  sparkling  wine  liroiight  (12  in  186i. 
Kew  wine  ranges  from  40  cents  to  (1  10, 

Of  the  recent  'orritorial  acquisitions  of  the  United 
States,  California,  and  dorida  will  probably  ere  long 
be  ranked  among  the  wine-producing  States.  In  Cali- 
fornia the  efforts  of  the  old  Catholic  missionaries  to 
cultivate  the  grape  resulted  satisfactorily,  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine  from  the  domestic  grape  of  Florida 
was  also  attended  with  success.  Sir  John  Hawkins 
reports  that  in  1694  the  settlers  in  Florida  realized 
twenty  hogsheads  of  palatuble  winn  from  the  native 
grape.  The  good  results  which  were  anticipated  from 
this  discovery  were,  thanks  to  the  political  disturbances 
in  which  that  colony  became  involved,  never  realized. 

In  Canada  West,  where  certain  species  of  wild  grapes 
are  very  abundant,  the  manufacture  of  wine,  recently 
inlnxluced,  has  been  attended  with  the  most  signal 
success.  Buchanan's  Journal  pronounces  it  superior 
to  the  imported  port-wine. — JV.  ¥.  JCee.  Pott. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  production  of 
wine  in  the  several  States  of  the  Union  in  the  years 
1840  and  18.'>0,  according  to  the  census  returns : 


Pboddotion  or  Wimi  in  tiii  I'NiTan  ^tatis  in  1840  AMD 
I860.— (t'tusus  RimaT.) 


BUtw  ud  TcrritoriM. 

1840. 

177 

"JO 

},<66 

812 

8,6.i7 

474 

10,2C5 

s'.ioi 

2,884 

2,286 

7,f*S 

198 

"ii 

23 

94 

0,416 

0,7(19 

58,762 

11,624 

14,828 

803 

043 

668 

'  'I'i 
18,011 

IflMI. 

U>Uoni, 

2'.'0 

86 

68,066 

son 

4,269 

145 

10 

7»« 

2,097 

14,066 

420 

8,01'8 

IB 

724 

1,481 

4,688 

1,064 

407 

10  608 

844 

1,811 

9,172 

11,068 

48,i07 

26,690 

1,013 

B,SW) 

92 

»9 

669 

B.40S 

113 

2,808 

('•iifornlA     

Colunibia,  Utatrlct  of.. 

Florid* 

Illlnou 

Kentucky 

I.oulBlana 

Maine 

Maryland  

Masiachuselta 

Micliigsn 

Mluluipiii 

Hiisoiiri 

New  Ilampshlie 

Now  Joftiey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Itliodo  Ibland 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont 

Virginia 

New  Mexico  Territory. 
Totaln..... 

l-J4,7»4 

!i21.24U 

W 

INK,  SriBITa,  ETC 

,  IHPOBTID   ANHDALLT  INTO  TUB 

L'nited  STA-rat,  pboh  1843  to  1867,  inclusive 

Dalt. 

WIRB  tM  »•■«.                                                                                                               1 

MiMrs. 

Rberry. 

SIsUy. 

Port.                 1               Cl«r«l. 

Othar  rail  WIna. 

Utiloiu. 

^V.lu.. 

Uallou. 

VrUu. 

(■•Iloiu. 

v>la«. 

Olllont. 

Valun.    I   (lillonf. 

Vilua. 

Oallona.  I     Valua. 

1»4«'.... 

|i.9ttf 

$.1,076 

4,086 

Cj,491 

14,679 

$11,617 

88,603 

$J6,714 

878,896 

.1I1U4.6WM 

.... 

l-vt* 

16,I.'^4 

ilO,57B 

IS.OOS 

23,418 

81,18) 

16,000 

223.615 

166,S78 

0V3,198 

218,'«9 

340,387 

$00,006 

1846 

101.170 

14.1,237 

23.616 

88,289 

llfl.MO 

46,033 

260,608 

102,868 

1,061,802 

■.^49,033 

495,66-* 

143,210 

IMO 

10»,7D7 

122,836 

26.638 

41,761 

209,131 

74,000 

372,628 

148,895 

«B1,361 

249,708 

064,646 

316,821 

I'i46t.... 

117,117 

128.613 

14.Bltt 

26,19-! 

21,281 

8,938 

60,001 

6-A861 

294,438 

111,463 

1,072,680 

828.814 

1847t.... 

13,8116 

6,717 

77,621 

6«,0C1 

02.031 

IViiW 

8,075 

3,791 

691,660 

119,844 

639,4,';4 

119,411 

TS4S 

44,034 

21,630 

21.'..936 

ln!t,lS3 

loo.siu 

07,864 

601,123 

170,134 

1,2.7,071 

221,410 

781,078 

180,928 

1849 

11)3,971 

106,.W> 

170.704 

I2,S,510 

130.861 

32,231 

711,268 

272,700 

1.912,701 

203,830 

994,168 

221,177 

19-)0 

303,128 

160,01)0 

212,002 

118,962 

SI, 123 

24.933 

6>6,2n 

306.364 

1,919,760 

207,446 

1,469,260 

205,088 

la'.i 

168,941 

116.006 

2f>0,277 

IM.Oftt 

301,010 

98,075 

702.(107 

340,849 

1,940,121 

280,383 

1,246,201 

230,727 

1853 

216,08;) 

103,017 

lOS.ClO 

97.0,S0 

91,746 

22.603 

014,513 

240,238 

2,702.012 

4(  8,380 

1,17'2,S10 

229,360 

I8'>3 

226,403 

1  OB  628 

313,048 

1BB.810 

190,206 

45.704 

36i,701 

iW.OWi 

2,03!I.Sfl2 

4<.2,827 

1,874.416 

377,482 

18.')4 

120,891 

64,270 

41.\--1  8 

241,028 

68.870 

23,101 

393.(97 

177,986 

2,045.474 

407.0('6 

l,S.%4,8ir. 

4f>!>,196 

1885 

71,912 

46.446 

3H.i,3: 8 

•i()8.414 

197,700 

6.'>,8M) 

180,460 

07,087 

1,371,400 

440,031 

i,Bi9,r<o& 

469,1.86 

18.'^ 

41.393 

32.031 

398,3'.>2 

i70,817 

184,104 

61.961 

264,816 

161,7'2» 

l,BI6,01,S 

661,440 

697,R34 

288,111 

1S.')7 

i(Ki.:i6,i 

66  8S0 

[6l4,649j 

364,!H)6 

280,846 

183.8.14 

[m.i\oj 

407.504 

1,897,108 

663,403 

1,186,293 

B00,B27 

Data. 

WIRB,  BMiRDV,   AMD  QBAIM   arilltTa. 

OTHin 

aaiRiTa,  laia,  alb,  and  portbr 

i 

Ulhar  whiU  Wiaa.   '            Rrandy. 

1 

Oialo 

Bpirita. 

other  Splillt. 

Baar,  Ala,  and  •'-rtar 
6oin  Knglan ;. 

Baar,  Ala,  aud  foilar 
tTitm  Hi-ntland.    ■ 

Uallona. 

Valua 

OalUna. 

Valua. 
$116,207 

(iallma. 
26'J.ri 

Valua. 

Galloni. 
I35,3..9 

Valua. 
$32.1105 

Iiall,>n-.   1     Valua. 

lialloni. 
7,428 

Value. 

I84,T.... 

12.i,H82 

*2S.205 

1(1', 832 

$1-21.647 

6,:.012 

$,'.7,IS  8 

$6,335 

1S44 

268,414 

i,%,(li:0 

7.-12,610 

006  0;)3 

416,0. ,j 

171,015 

210,477 

78  0-27 

107,489 

10-2,167 

19.-.  80 

18,343 

1846 

601,736 

211.1.S3 

1.081,314 

819,450 

000,311 

•202,513 

■-70.484 

78.067 

79,302 

73,729 

-.'6.711 

21,2(4 

1846 

70,1.8118 

310,241 

963.147 

839,231 

677,785 

S46.3,52 

■2-21,814 

81,713 

117,021 

110,397 

;j8,404 

30,8:)1 

1816t.... 

618,-^67 

290,730 

.381,108 

8f),5,4,M 

1.30,323 

8fl,n7o 

66.477 

28.862 

46,146 

4-2,087 

2,161 

1,896 

IS47{..    . 

278,4Si 

69,831 

6>3,309 

676,631 

327,636 

143  54'.i 

100,747 

67,800 

182,157 

67.805 

16,376 

8,6f>7 

1818 

840.687 

193,3,'>8 

1„'I7U,1I1 

1,1.^5, 0,8.1 

676,683 

3-27,493 

228,671 

76,943 

130,IKI8 

101,171 

89, -.82 

21,6.33 

184!) 

071.8.16 

210,130 

2,06k00l 

1,347,614 

706,'^76 

827,957 

.'>4'2.492 

14,5.784 

146.478 

118.233 

62,297 

!10,I88 

MVM 

1,088,801 

215,:U13 

4,146.802 

2,069,637 

761,188 

801,078 

339.16;) 

113.779 

lr,3,73B 

129,967 

62,866 

4I.70O 

1851 

1,085  374 

20;>.847 

3.163,783 

-.M2»,(I70 

984,417 

364.204 

;i0().214 

100,85!! 

275336 

189,010 

88,179 

66,736 

1852 

9.36,870 

19.5.870 

■2,7,M,810 

1,702,7-29 

866.301 

294.380 

369,077 

98,040 

202,838 

186,904 

110.762 

67,804 

18,'.3 

1,276,290 

3' 15,287 

3.8.54.966 

3.251.408 

1,060,4.')6 

424,0:18 

;i36,477 

106,501 

807,4-20 

V  84, 847 

131,367 

77,414 

isfll 

I,379,.S83 

3SO,'204 

2.1.V.'.Slifl 

-2,2,56,34« 

1,197,->;;4 

,'>04.,'i6!i 

:l9:i,5S3 

12S,30s 

825,671 

424,875 

270.(K54 

128,607 

1866 

1I89.,'154 

322,'<'57 

1.024,497 

1,479.362 

l,10»,61-2 

,'.75,60(1 

■  ;97,572 

161.878 

019,262 

669,000 

345,010 

188,457 

1856 

517,136 

18;l.499 

1,71.5.717 

2,850,34-i 

1,632,1-20 

773,276 

772,6114 

2R8,»94 

79-2.  ln6 

r>04,146 

3.59, 4K6 

193,000 

lSf)7 

721,417 

306.739 

1,618,828 

2,527,-262 

1,988.037 

1,125,160 

4*3,495 

218,907 

1,048,903 

619,7-27 

875,706 

221,810 

Nino  months. 


t  Five  months. 


t  Seven  inonthn. 


There  were  no  exports  of  wine  of  domestic  produc- 
tion from  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  t86r>-'57. 

The  exports  of  foreign  wine  from  the  United  States 
for  the  year  ending  June  80, 18&7,  were  as  follows : 

Value. 

Madeira $6,101 

Sherry  and  8t.  Lucar 11,908 

Port.. 14,081 

<!laret 27,601 

Sicily 0,316 

Red  wine  unimumerated 54,848 

Whit*  wine  unenumerateU 8,646 

VbaupHK* S>il40 


WingB.  In  naval  matters,  passages  along  the 
sides  of  the  ship  between  the  fore  and  after  coclipit. 

Wire.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is  ascribed 
to  Itodolph  of  Nuremberg,  a.d.  1410.  Mills  for  this 
]iurpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nuremberg  'n  lifi;i.  Tlio 
first  wiro-mill  in  F.ngland  was  erected  at  Mortluke,  in 
1068.— MoiiTiMBii.  T!io  astonishing  ductility,  which 
is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of  gold,  is  no  way 
more  conspicuous  than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  -18 
ounces  of  silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold  weighing 
only  one  ounce,  ia  uiuolly  drawn  into  a  wire  two  yards 


V«lu«. 

$f>o,'6'.io 

148,210 
310,821 
328.814 
1H»,411 
180,928 
221,177 
2tJ6,(i88 
230,727 
229,350 
377,482 
4f)!),195 
459,1 8S 
286,111 
500,M!T 


1 

In, 

•lid  tarter  1 

I.S< 

iilUnd.    ' 

■. 

Value. 

2,H 

$fl,a»f> 

1« 

18,il4B 

n 

21,214 

M 

39,8;!! 

51 

1.89.5 

Tft 

8,0,'>7 

»2 

21,633 

07 

30,(88 

ISO 

41.790 

79 

60.736 

.W 

67,804 

r>7 

77,414 

W4 

128,007 

ll« 

lSS,4f)7 

Wl 

193,000 

100 

221,310 

"".  /I  aim 

'<»«:.0f.J0«Ml,U0EO,.Tn.    1. 

I  Vear>  ending  I   ^■«I^o^l.     J"  r 


•  ■  I  *3ll,404 
••  ir4,((.',7 
••34,'..  4»;! 
■I  f)i'iM44 


"and  improve,,  a^riS^iii';  ^^  1,0,5,409  aero,  „f 
fern,,;  cash  valuoof fun  ;s.it«'^'"''''""^<=''  '"-"I  in 
"f  .mplemen,,,  and  mac  reVy  s  • .'. "  4  "»"  "'« ^-"l"" 
-Horse,  30.17!);  us8cs  "„    'i';'"'A«-^-     «"«  «oci 


barley,  209,fi92^  huoku-i,     ''™'*''''9;  oats,  3,41.|  cr^.     ,     P  '^■''  '"  "■''Pross  (1,„  wad.J.  ^  ^''"'»"'  ''V  ina- 

20,657;  PoU.oo  ,     t  '  5,?'«/«'  P««»  «"-'  b^a  V  f^' l^-'-'-^ennent  am    ^^^^  -  '"nne.i  i„T„ 

ofproductanf.i,.'''*"'^' potatoes  RTQ.  ,.  i    '        '""'  '«  tie  dver      \v        .  "'"  "'".^'Powder  whirl. 

of  choose,  400,283  -uah  '"'""='  """>«■  •''.C33"750  '  IfTi'^."  ""'s'"  a-I  deep  b1.  o  "r"  "  "  '■"«l"'l''o 
9874 gallon.,;  .ees^-a  "Z  i"^"'  *""''''« !  '"oI«es'  i  Tf "  .  ''•''"«"'«  '"  vervXra'l  '"  n  '  ""  "">  ^1"^ 
253,903;  flax  68  mT  """J'™'-'.''.  l;i'.,U05  bs  •  ,™n?'  ~"1'"^""e"'of.Tmentat!l?  ■  ^'"' '"»'  n.ethod, 
'ons  of,'276  66..'  ni',  '"!f '  '^''^''-  'ohioco,  12^.  ""J'  ""  «"'»o  >eryill  understood  -h"'  T''"'""''"  "f'^ad 
other  K^a3see,N    03',.'  '^"'r  ■'«""^-  '*^3  tu.h  2'   'Tf'  "^ ''  ™»  ""verbeS.li.'Ii^'r.r '""»«'  of""" 

flows  centraUv  ami  ""'?  """"'  '^'"'in  ,  ,„  S  'il  ' !' ".» l'™^P=ct  that  nnvi .  nrlvtn^  Th'*'  '»  """  "■»« 
border.  It  if ka  ,  r"  """  '^"«*i»«ippi  on  i  1.  'j  '"  '"  P^^foraUon  wiil  "^.^n  "'"•""•?  '""■*• ''«  """"o 
""h  River  where  a':?'",'"  ""-'  P-^'-S"  of  F^  ^.Nell  T^  i'"'"""''«»-  «  ri  a    .^-^  "l"/''  "'"'"  '"  Sood- 


woo 


1084 


WOO 


iMTOlTii  or  Wuoi>  AND  MANurAflTtiBiii  or  Wood,  nro.,  into  the  I'nitid  !<tatm  fob  tub  Ybab  inDino  .ItniB  DO,  186T. 


Whonca  Impoitad. 

Maiiiifarliirx  of  WimhI. 

.  — 

I'limanufwlurad  Wood. 

, 

Coilu. 

tinman- 
ufa>. 

tilTfd 

lork. 

Caliloat 

•nd 
lloaHllolil 
ITuniltara, 

Ctitar, 

Kaa>,  and 
iailn. 

Willow. 

Dlliar 

Mann. 

(aalursa 

of. 

Cadar,  Of»n- 
adllla,  Ma- 

hosany,  Koaa, 
aadibllln. 

Willow. 

Klr....»>l  1 
and  nihtr  < 

not 
aparlll.d.  1 

wo.nI  In 
■llak. 

UuuUn  I'uM  In  N.  Am... 

Swoden  anil  Norwny 

Panliih  WcMt  Indict  .... 

I'liiilo 

072 
783 

■"so 

1,8S0 

■"ia 

"426 
80,443 

"'b5 
262 

"lis 
600 

"'fl's 
101 

2,'2'07 

■$8'i8 
807 

■  '241 

4,706 

00 

"'so 

7,'408 

no 

'"85 

'"68 
"606 

'  ■  'l7 

J«,'8'68 

112,240 

80 

'  'oBO 
1,6U6 

■ '  'is 
' '  'I'o 

■"l7 
64,006 

' '  11 

"  "o 

21 

'  ■  '96 

818 

■|61 

6i,'ii»n 

110,KU6 
1,168 

' '  '4'J 

4.880 

66,l.'80 

1,040 

113 

JMOB 
8,76i 

468 

"'S6 

"m 
i.oio 

80,642 

OS 
■"lo 

82 
170 
187 

"l'44 

' '  '20 
7,247 

■"is 

14 

1,130 

■■■(is 

i,'08.'. 

1,408 

030 

64 

8 

1.'!,771P 

■»6!1 
845 

'  'doB 

'  'm8 

" '  '78 

7.866 

28,881 

111 

Si,'li80 

ioo'dm 

1,801 

104,'4'04 

83,248 

43,813 

800 

2111 

tOW.I 

164,840 

$8!  807 
688 

•20a 

$6m 

■ '  10 
18 

i.'ui 

57 

i,'J62 

7 

8,2S8 

■ '  '21 

'  '.138 

1,4-8 

lOi) 

"Vl 

■  ■mo 

780 

'  'M8 

1.030 

0,801 

187 

i,'s23 

1.786 
1.44'> 
2,061 

' '  '26 

■$110 

is.'i'so 

1,610 
7110 
260 

T.B1I8 

"   '2 
1,400 

82.'^t;« 

'27  ,(.'•4 
S» 

r)24 

4,70.'> 

0,'l'4'4 

80 

« 

ji'lHl 

O.IIIO 

828 

Bio'iiiB 

2.877 
6',212 

0.004 
20.f»!l 
81, .',22 

9.011 
88.877 

$.S00.04'> 

'$144 
6,704 

i,'700 

iiw's 

26.'()8i 
88,flU» 

*9.m 
22,'JSO 

im'm 

'  m 

'  m 
6,012 

"JSS 

"$88 

"i7i 

608 

' '  'itt 
'"11 

10 

'  'alio 
1 '1^674 

4,ab6 

llolUnd 

Dutch  Weat  Indici 

Dutch  (liilan> 

Dutch  Guat  Indlca 

Dolgtum 

Ulb'-altar 

Other  llritiah  N.  A.  I'oiii.. 

Ilrltiih  Wuillndioi 

Ilrltlih  llonduru 

Uritlih  Uulani 

Ilritlali  l-iiM.  in  AfHca  . . . 

inhcr  portH  in  Africa 

Dritiah  Auatralla 

llritiah  Kaat  Indies 

France  (in  the  Atlantic. , . 
fVancc  on  the  Mcdiler'n. . 
French  Ciuiana 

Hpain  on  tlio  Atlantic 

Hpiiln  on  tho  Mcdiler'n.. . 

riiillppinc  lilanda 

Cuba 

rurtUffHl 

Madeira 

Atiin-B 

Anatria 

llayf  

■  Han  Domingo 

Mexico 

Central  Kcpiibllo 

Braill 

Chili 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 

Total  yonr  1SM-'B7.. 

»47.8»fl 

$16.18.') 

$176,484 

$8111,1711 

$»IS  •.•>i 

$41,773 

$211,467 

$jo;i.r>72 

*17.01I2 

Tne  natives  of  tlie  Isthmus  of  Uarien  pick  out  tiie 
fibres  from  aomo  of  thn  palms,  and  use  them  as  nails ;  in 
lome  spociinens  they  arc  as  hard  as  rose-wood.  Some 
of  the  smallest  palms  are  imported  into  this  country 
for  walking-sticks,  under  the  names  of  partridge  and 
Penang  canes.  Of  the  four  or  fivs  hundred  varieties 
of  palm-trees  known  to  exist,  only  a  very  small  num- 
ber are  imported.  The  palm  woods  so  imported  are 
sparingly  employed  for  cabinet  and  marquetry  work, 
for  billiard  cues,  for  snuff-boxes,  etc.  Tho  twisted 
palm  walking-sticks  am  the  central  stems  or  midril>s 
of  the  loaves  of  the  data  palm :  they  are  twisted  when 
tj-rccr.,  and  stretched  with  heavy  weights  until  they 
ore  thoroughly  dry.  Thn  nut,  or  fruit,  of  many  of  this 
group  of  plants  is  applicable  to  uses  in  the  arts ;  such 
as  tho  betel-nut  or  areca-nut,  whose  substanco  is  made 
into  necklaces,  tho  tops  of  walking-sticks,  and  other 
small  objects;  tho  cocoa-nut,  whoso  shell  yields  the 
fibre  or  coir,  now  used  in  England  for  a  great  variety 
of  purposes,  and  the  hiinl  portion  of  tho  shell,  which  is 
tunied  into  cups,  vases,  buttons,  otc. ;  the  coquilla-nut, 
the  shell  of  which,  bcin-^  hard  and  cluso-tcxtured,  is 
turned  into  knobs  of  umbrellas  and  parasols,  small 
toys,  etc.  With  respect  to  tho  simple  wants  and 
primitive  arts  of  the  people  among  whom  tho  palms 
and  bamboos  grow,  tho  uses  of  those  plants  are  very 
numerous ;  of  tlio  Cocoi  nueifera,  or  cocoa-nut  palm,  for 
example,  tho  fruit  is  eaten,  the  husk  of  the  nut  sup- 
plies coir  for  cordage,  tho  leaves  are  used  for  making 
bukets  and  mats,  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  yields 
wood  fitted  for  joUta  and  other  kindt  of  carpentry,  and 


dilfercnt  portions  of  the  plant  arc  made  to  yield  oil, 
sugar,  palm  wine,  and  arrack. 

IJut  it  is  the  exogenous  or  true  woods  which  render 
the  inoro  important  services  to  man,  so  far  as  regards 
the  stem  or  wood  itself.  The  fibres  do  not  appear  to 
difler  in  size  or  bulk  so  much  as  in  density  and  dis- 
tance; these  two  last-named  difTerences  give  rise  lo 
the  distinction  between  hard  and  soft  woods  —  the 
former  comprising  oak,  mahogany,  eliony,  rose-wood, 
etc. ;  and  the  latter  willow,  alder,  deal,  etc.  Another 
classiflcalion  is  that  which  springs  from  the  direction 
of  the  fibres;  if  tho  annual  or  longitudinal  fibres  be 
tolerably  straight,  and  very  little  interwoven  with  the 
medullary  rays  or  interrupted  by  knots,  the  wood  be- 
comes  elastic  and  easily  rent ;  such  are  lance-wood, 
hickory,  ash,  etc. ;  but  If  tho  fibres  ar.i  more  crossed 
and  interlaced,  the  wood  becomes  less  clastic,  and  more 
rigid  and  tough ;  such  arc  oak,  beech,  mahogony,  etc. ; 
and  if  the  fibres  be  entangled  to  a  still  greater  degree, 
they  produce  tho  non -clastic,  totigh,  cross-grained 
woods,  such  as  elm,  lignum-vitic,  etc.  Another  mode 
of  classification,  traced  with  sonic  minuteness  by  Mr. 
Iloltzapffel,  is  that  which  is  determined  by  the  beauty 
of  the  surface  presented  by  woods.  The  knots,  occa- 
sioned by  the  Junction  of  a  branch  with  the  stem;  tho 
curls,  proiluced  by  the  confused  filling  In  of  the  space 
between  the  forks  or  springings  of  the  branches,  os  in 
tho  yew;  the  gnarled  appearance  of  the  roots,  formed 
at  the  points  o(  junction  of  tho  rootlets  or  arms  of  the 
root  with  the  body  of  the  root  itself,  as  In  walnut  wood ; 
the  pollard  growUii  of  the  oak  and  other  trees,  which 


..'.' 

2r,M5 

42,678 

«... 

10,0«4 

^.  »k 

1,34S 

•  ••• 

1T,18« 

•  ... 

1,906 

8.299 

124,188 

woo 


1966 


WOO 


KavoH*  M  Wnnn  «ii»  kUiiuyAorvMt 

or  Wnoi>  or  inatiaii  raoiicanoN 

rniiM  Till  1  Nitah  "TATiia  ron  Tiia  V«aa 

KaiiiNu  .liiNM  :ill.  lltflT. 

niMHM„iar 

M«aufa«lur«i 

«iIWwhJ 

1/ 

•ir»4l  WiKM*. 

Wklikn  .•|«rl«4. 

(aliliMi 

Nllli 

Willow. 

(Hliai 

M.nil- 

I  p>Uf,  urviiH- 
.lilU,  Ma. 

WIII.M. 

mill  III >i*r 

i)).wiii>a 

lluu«b..l<l 

fa.larta 

'ritaSr' 

mil 

liiflllek. 

ranlliin. 

teUs. 

uf. 



•f«AlH«(l. 

«l>'i,li|8 

likiUtn  i\u  lUllomI  \orih  i^oJ'"; 

.  *  •  • 

(i,4MI 

•  •  •  * 

, , , , 

.  •  •  * 

$800 

.  >   •   • 

. .  » • 

rVUMtA • « .  >  <  •  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 « t « 

. .  •  • 

a  •  a  a 

a  •  •  a 

.... 

III.IIOO 

llirmlKri  niiil  NiirviiJ'  ...,,...•  i  ••>•••• . 

• .  1 1 

•  ••  • 

.  aa  t 

.... 

4,T»S 

111,180 

Ilwilili  W«»llntll« 

• .  •  • 

•  a  •  a 

11.10 

Ilaniliiini 

•  .  •  i 

aa  •  . 

4.100 

1117,816 

Ilnninn i , , 

.... 

VII.I4I 

411,627 

llulUiiil 

. .  t  • 

•  1  aa 

.... 

10,ti04 

VII.  148 

IIhIiiImim 

Kniltnil 

.... 

'  .  a  •  a 

III.Mii 

6fi.'.':i2 

.a.. 

•  •  .  • 

4,«I6 

61,1(8 

128 

airar* 

Nriiilmiil 

.   •  •  • 

•  •  aa 

.  >    I   > 

i>,i:>8 

(Ilbniur 

.... 

.... 

iiin 

v.aim 

MdU 

. .  •  • 

l,no!i 

1,(188 

0,247 

I'tnwU 

•T4 

td'M 

8,0V9 

.... 

.... 

213 

DihiT  llrUlnli  Siinh  AtnurloM  I'nM, ,,. 

.... 

4M 

8,7(8 

019 

1610 

llrUUli  Wi'>i  liiilli'* 

1  • 

•  •  •  • 

24 

0,IRO 

ItrliUli  AiitlrKll* 

8,9(17 

llrllUli  i:au  liiillga . 

.... 

.... 

14,041! 

$'.N|| 

80B 

6,478 

I'Vuticii  liii  Ihn  AtUttllr < 

»nn:> 

.... 

.... 

.... 

l,fl!IO 

.... 

86,71iS 
i:i>,l)4s 

Vnimi  uii  tliii  MgillMrruMan 

H|mIii  iiii  Itin  AtUlitlii 

•  •  •  • 

.   •    .   . 

l,4(>8 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

"m 

.... 

8,(H:0 
06 

(.■nnry  ItUuida 

t'uU 

a. .a 

23,4«!l 

<  .  .  . 

...  a 

li:8 

I'urliigal , , , 

.... 

860 

.... 

6,'.  34 

Aiiiriw ,,, 

.   •    •   • 

2,079 

,   ,   ,   , 

...  1 

VT 

Munlliilii  

V4<l 

.  .  .  • 

9,B8(» 

Two  NlitlllH 

0,6W 

4,242 

AutlrU , 

^,,, 

4,628 

2,276 

63.169 

AunlrUii  I'liMi'Mliiiia  III  Italy 

.  •  •  • 

•  ■  •  t 

a  .  a  a 

4,li7B 

Tiiilii'v  III  Kiir<i|ii< ,,,, 

a  .  .  . 

.... 

.... 

...  a 

014 

Tiirki')'  III  Aaiit 

l.luO 

a  .  .  . 

a  .  i  a 

7,148 

Mmlr. 

1,488 

.... 

76(1 

ik'oi) 

.... 

.... 

.... 

' '  '7's 

Itnir.ll 

1  iriiKiiK)',  iir  1  '|ii|ilalliii<  ll(-|iiilil  Ir 

a*,  a 

8116 

.... 

a  t  a  . 

214 

liiiriinii  Avri<«,  I'r  AriiKiitliiD  lli'inibllo  . . 

•  •  a  a 

84U 

a  .  .  • 

8I1U  1 

•  hill 

1,1611 

160 

.... 

Haiilwli'li  lilHiiila , 

m 

9 

.... 

....    1 

<  bliia ...  

1,41'H 

....     1 

-  WlialK  Itnlii'i'liia 

Total,  ji-ar  l»M  '67 

from  wari'lioiian  ,.,,,,,,,,,,, 

• .  •• 

1.10.) 

.... 

....    1 

irmi 

$74 

11)^4 

.t»6.WS 

l|lll>'.f.74.' 

$  KM 

>.8ii 

«        2i. 

«>M|H.I4.1   1 

$17.5114 

1(140  »iS 

»4(l<.8 

y..4ll.8<H  ; 

Not  (Vioii  Mrtrt'loiiiHfl , 

$.'T4T 

m 

iiu 

17.724 

i(K),au_ 

__.j_.j__7^r8: 

,     637.886 

WoolKior.  l»'"//«(  I>ii,  Wall  T)a.  lUU;  Swcd.  h'll; 
Vr,  hiiiir  I  1 1,  and  Mp.  hinni  I'urt.  /,</,  IMa;  Buss. 
Wuliia,  flr/irrtl  I  I'dl.  M'rliin!  Lai.  I.ana).  a  kind  of 
loft  liair  or  iliiwn.  'I'lin  lnriii  U  not  vrry  well  dcflnrd. 
U  la  npiilli'd  liiilli  to  Ilia  lino  liiiir  of  niiiinnls,  as  bIioc|i, 
ralililt.,  miinti  aiici'lca  of  koiiIp,  IIiu  viciiun,  cic. ;  and  tu 
lino  vuuiiulilo  llliri'i,  an  I'liiluii.  In  lliis  artidu,  liuw- 
•vsr,  w>i  ri'fi'r  only  lo  ilia  wool  of  idiecp — an  articlo 
wlili'li  liaa  luihllniti'd,  from  tlio  curllcKt  period  down  tu 
(bo  prnaiinl  day,  lo  liu  of  primary  IniporUnco,  liuving 
alwayi  fornuMl  llin  principal  part  of  the  cluthiiit;  of 
ininkind  in  moat  ti'inporalu  ri'iflonn. 

^piiiri  11/  W'wil,  It  liai  liocn  cuntomary  to  divide 
wool  into  I  wo  Kri'Ml  iliiaaan — lonK  and  abort  wool* ;  and 
lllSMi  HKuIn  liilo  aiiliui'dliiatii  claaaen,  ancordhi);  to  the 
lluanuaa  nf  llm  lllirc.  .Sliort  woid  la  used  In  tlio  clolli 
limniirni'luro  i  and  la,  tliurvforp,  frci|nontly  called  cloth- 
ing wool.  It  may  vary  in  IciikIIi  from  ono  tu  thrco  or 
fuur  liii'lii'ai  if  It  l>"  lonu<-r.  It  re(|uirei  to  be  cut  or 
brokt'ii  to  proparii  It  for  llio  manufacture.  'I'Uc/dting 
propurly  of  wool  la  known  to  every  one.  Tbu  prov-'cus 
orbttt-inaklnt;,  for  uxamplr,  dcpemla  entirely  upon  it. 
Tbit  wool  of  wlili'li  liata  nru  made  is  nuitbcr  spun  nor 
wuvi'iii  bill  locka  of  it,  bciiiK  tborongbly  intermixed 
and  coiii|iri'a>io|  In  warm  water,  cobcro  and  form  a 
•olid,  li'iiai'lnii*  aiilwlanco. 

(lotli  and  woiib'ii  i^oods  nrn  made  from  wool  possessr 
Ini;  tbit  pnijiiirly ;  tbu  wool  Is  carded,  spun,  woven, 
and  tliKii,  UdiiK  put  in  ibe  fiiliin^-iiiili,  tbc  process  of 
fultiiiK  lakua  plniii,  Tlie  slrokcs  of  tbo  mill  make  tbc 
ilbrea  cobi'rn  ;  llm  piece  aubjcclcd  to  the  operation  coii- 
trictx  III  lenKtli  and  lireadlb,  and  Its  texture  becomes 
muro  coinpiiiil  and  uniform,  'Ibis  process  Is  essential 
to  (bu  beauty  Mini  slronKll'  of  woolen  cloth.  But  tbo 
loiiK  wool  of  wlilcb  atulla  and  worsted  are  made  Is  de> 
prlved  of  Its  fvllInK  proportlos.     Tbia  Is  done  by  pass- 


ing tbo  wool  tbroiigb  beated  iron  combs,  «bieb  takes 
away  tbo  lanilno)  or  fenlbery  purt  of  tlie  wool,  anil  up- 
proxiniatcs  it  to  tbe  nature  of  silk  or  cotton.  Longer 
combing  wool  may  vary  111  length  from  three  to  eight 
inches.  Tbo  shorter  combing  wools  are  principally 
nscd  for  hose,  and  are  spun  softer  than  the  lung  ('(iiiit>- 
iiig  wools ;  tbo  former  being  made  into  what  i.s  called 
hard,  and  the  latter  into  toft  worsted  ram.  The  liiie- 
nesa  of  tbo  hair  or  filiro  can  rarely  be  estimated,  at  least 
for  any  useful  purpose,  except  liv  the  wool  sorter  or 
dealer,  accustomed  by  long  habit  lo  discern  those  mi- 
nute din'urences  that  are  quite  inappreciable  by  com- 
mon observers.  In  sorting  wools,  tlieio  arc  frequently 
eight  or  ten  dlflbrcnt  species  in  a  single  lleeee;  niid  if  t  lie 
beat  wool  of  ono  fleece  bo  not  equal  lo  tbe  tiiiest  sort, 
it  is  thrown  to  a  2d,  3d,  or  'Ub,  or  to  a  still  lower  tort, 
of  an  equal  degree  of  Ijncness  witli  it.  Tiio  best  b'.n- 
glisb  short  native  fleeces,  such  as  the  flno  Norfolk  and 
Soiitlidown,  are  generally  divided  by  the  wool-sorter 
into  tbe  following  sorts,  all  varying  in  niicneas  from 
each  other:  viz.  1.  rrinio;  2.  Choice;  n.  Super;  -1. 
Head;  5.  Downrigbts;  C.  Seconds;  7.  Fine  .Mib;  «. 
Course  Alib;  9.  I.ivcry;  10.  Short,  coarse,  or  lircecli 
wool.  Tbo  relative  value  of  each  varies,  according  to 
tbe  greater  demand  for  coarse,  flne,  or  middle  cloths. 

The  softness  of  the  fibre  U  a  (piality  of  great  imporl- 
ancc.  It  is  not  dependent  on  tlic  fineness  of  tiie  fibre ; 
and  con.sists  of  a  peculiar  feel,  approaching  to  that  of 
silk  or  down.  Tbe  dilTerence  in  tbe  value  of  two  pieces 
of  doth  made  of  two  kinds  of  wool  equally  riiic,  bin 
one  distinguished  for  its  softness  and  tlio  otlier  for  I  lie 
opposite  quttlity,  is  sucb,  that,  with  the  same  procef* 
and  expense  of  manufacture,  the  ono  will  bo  worth 
from  20  lo  25  per  cent,  more  than  the  other.  Jlr. 
liakcwell  sbowod  that  tbo  degree  of  softness  depends 
principally  on  the  nature  of  tbe  soil  on  which  sliecji 


Woo 


^^^mmm 


""•■mUm  „t  |,;„. 


o'o'h  i«  Moved  (liov  1.7  """  ^o"'  wrter  v„t°  K     ""''   """•  "no     ti     '"  ""'""'I"  lo  V,rZ    '  '"""'^'M-     Th" 

IPiiiiM^ 

.:.":.  ^'"=  "lioness  othl^°"'    '•"  '>«'  to  bo  rt,.„i    '"  "'').''"emn(s  aro  l„in"     .V'""  "  """-o  inter«M-„' 


"<  it  ha,  been  a,,e,t„i„,;^^»™»rsc,  rough  kind  of  hai^T^^  "  "  ''"'.  ^   IT 

0    much  ,lcge„era(o,  ,h    e„  '     '"  "'""'"•"""ro  of  coar,'  l„^  "  )""'''  "'^ '"  "  "I  „' 


" ""™'"tliocdosoofl„ 

^«s^,  which  is  naturlly  /llrr''  •>''""'>to,  .hcaW        "'"""'■"«'''«  »fcoX'clo^'"^'"''''"V'"  "'"in 

'.''»  '"'tcher  n,»,^:.  ?.,'""  P""l"eo  of  ,v„r,l   .....  ..r'PMf''«"rc  unless  some  e.Ztt,       ''"™''  "^  "'«  "■«„.■. 

I '"'  '  evi»ed.     Prince  A  bo     h "    '^'""''-"'  '"^'•■'•''  '''  ™" 
-  ...........  sne-.  .  ..-  /""'^'"■'  "•'■'  "-     "       "'  '"""'  ^'^'""•""  ""-' 

porter  the  CoJm-  „"";""':','!'  »"yoined  to  ,he  -.  ,>,  / '"  ''"•"•"■"^'-rinKp™;;';;?  T?'''  "'"°  ""^s"l'j<;ci;d 


woo 


1088 


WOO 


MMh  •  mod*  of  ni«nMh«turt  for  milMty  mU  woulil  b« 
(|ulU  illfpru|iartUiiisU  In  Ih*  r«iull  ubulntd  t  liiil  ih* 
prinoa'a  prHlMwurlliy  uIiJmI  wit  ■luwtrmi  liy  ihuwlng 
Ihtl  tlw  CiMliiiitrf  liMt  ran  Im  tntni\,  mil  (hit  l\\a 
AMiiy  i!uv«rlii||  ti*n  Ik  wniMuhl  liiln  oliilh.  Th*  •rti. 
eln  priMlucnl  fri>iil  ilm  wwil  in  (|iiMtUiii  noiiaUUtl  uf  a 
pUm  of  wliila  itliitli,  with  (Ilk  warp  and  CiMlinitrt 
wuft,  wuvcM  Willi  •  lirmiiuliHl  lltfum  |  ■  pIcc;*  of  linilUr 
ahttm'fi,  l>ui  i)y«il  I  iwu  iliawli  mail*  wliully  of  th* 
Cwhmara  wunli  itnil  a  plnva  of  emt—  wuulan  cluth 
ma4a  trnm  ilia  kamp  or  lialr."***  CAaiiNKM*. 


5 


11 


! 


!  4i<<<ii 


r4f4  pt*t 


:t 


ummmMMun 


-Tb«rt  il  prulNibl/  no  •rtlclt  tb«  Imports  and  coo- 


•uraptlon  of  which  hava  incrauud  ao  raplilly  aa  wool. 
In  1X21)  thu  aiitira  quantity  of  fiiralKn  uiiii  coUmial  wool 
conauiiiad  In  Iha Unltad  KlnKilom  wa«  7,nui,77:i  jiounda, 
Tha  duty  wai  than  Ik/,  a  |ioiind  on  furalgn,  and  \J.  • 
pound  on  colonial.  Tha  duty  wua  raducad  In  IX'H,  and 
aifaln  In  IS'iA.  Tha  rata  Hxad  wn>  It/,  a  pound  nn  for- 
alfin  wool  of  a  vulua  aliova  l«.  tha  pound,  and  iJ.  • 
puuiii!  on  that  of  liiwar  vulua.  Thaaa  dutlnt  continued 
until  repealed  liy  HIr  Kobert  IVel.  After  tlio  ffrrat  ra- 
duollon  in  IH'ii  the  contumption  Inrrcnicil,  and  In  INM 
reached  3a,U)M,fl'.tO  poundii ;  in  1HI2  the  (uniiuinptlon 
bad  further  rlten  tu  -tAtHHIiOIlO  pouixU,  when  the  lup- 
ply  from  Aualralia  beRan  to  ba  filt.  Hut  from  that 
tlina  forward,  and  after  the  duty  wan  reiMalrd,  the  iin- 
portatinn  Inrreitaed  at  n  rata  wliUh  no  one  could  liavt 
contemplated,  until  in  IHlii  It  reached  no  leae  a  i)uan> 
tity  than  I'.'O.'iO.HOH  pounda.  In  tha  lait  conipleto 
your  for  which  we  liiive  the  accounia  (IH57)  the  (|uun« 
tIty  recoiveil  from  Auitrnlia  hud  rlxcn  to  iO,'2W),KtS 
pounda ;  from  India  the  Iniporta  in  the  auina  period  liad 
riaen  from  2,44 1,  a70  pounda  to  in,.170,7-ll  pounda ;  from 
(lie  Clips  It  had  rlaon  from  7 .>l,7'll  pounda  to  14,2H7,H28 
iminda.  Much  haa  been  the  rapid  Increaae  in  tlie  aun- 
(>ly  from  Indiri  that  It  ia  now  obout  equal  to  the  «  hole 
Austrnliiin  prmluctloni  only  twelve  yeara  a)(o.— Aon- 
doti  Kcanomitl,  January,  1851). 

An  A'xniTNT  or  tiir  <ji;ANTiTiEa   or  Rnnr  Axn  LsHvtl 
Wool.,   ronriuN    anu   loumiAi.,   luroarao   into   Uhiat 

llHITAIN  IH  Tni!  YlCAIl  I'tM,  limTINUUlmilNIl  TIIK  CollNTIima 
rlUlM    WMinil    tUf.t    I  AUK,    ANII    TUa    (jUAKTITIU    UltOUUIIT 

rilou  XAi'ii. 

BliMp  KnJ  t.Anil>a* 
linparlf.  WutiJ,  rur«l|fii 

ftnd  rolonUV 

Rumla,  northern  port* b»t,ll07 

Kiiiolnn  porta  wltliln  tliii  llluck  8ea lt,3I2,1S0 

Denmark,  Including  Irelnml 1,667,(110 

I'niula 42,«11 

Ilunaeatle  Towni 8,2I0,II'J(I 

llnltand 142,089 

IlelKlum 400,789 

Kr»nce 00«,»14 

I'orlugal  proper 2,SAn,033 

Himln 8S3,l!iO 

C}lbr«lt«r 44S,1'20 

Hnrillnlan  tnrrltoriea 14,liNJ 

To«c«ny 40S,1^7 

I'lilMl  tcrrllorlci 15S,IW4 

Naplen  anil  BIrtIv 2211,430 

AiKlrlan  terrttorle 49R,sn4 

MnltA 181,JBB 

TiirkUh  lioiiilnlona 891 ,240 

Kiiynl,  Hyrtn,  anil  l>ale>llno 1,741,002 

MoiiKco 1)67,010 

HritUh  po5<H<Miilnna  In  Hoiith  Africa e,810,Ml 

llrllliili  tcrritorlea  In  India 4,540,(120 

China •0,64« 

Wnat  Auntralln B68,MIS 

Roiith  Aiiitralla B,S02,60S 

New  UoHlh  Walea 14,772,189 

Victoria 17,20»,IW1 

Van  Dlemen'a  Land 6,198,083 

NnwZcalanil  809,203 

United  Htatea 604,017 

Ilraill 170,946 

Duenoa  Ayrea  or  Argentine  Republic 86.1,104 

Chill..... liifl/m 

Peru l,67^«44 

All  ollkir  placea 4^13S 

Total 81 ,2»8,7»3 

Of  late  yeara  Russia  has  bccomo  of  primary  import- 
ance amontf  tho  wool-exporting  countries,  especiuUy 
from  her  ports  on  tho  Black  Sea.  Provided  tranquil- 
lity could  bo  maintained  in  South  Africa,  the  probabil- 
ity is  that  it  would  in  no  very  lengthened  period  rival 
New  South  Wales  ns  a  wool-oxporting  country.  Al- 
paca, and  other  wools  of  that  sort,  coma  from  Peru  f 
goats'  wool  comes  principally  from  Turkey,  but  the 
best  is  that  of  Thibet. 

Unittd  /!(a<M.— Analogous  In  the  uses  for  which  It 
serves  to  cotton,  wool  i»  a  product  of  only  losi  Import- 
ance to  the  prosperity  of  the  country  than  that  leading 
staple  of  our  agriculture  and  commerce.  It  is  a  very 
gratifying  fact  that  though  the  number  of  sh«<;p.  has 


w'loro  «lrcniiouii  oxorH,,,,.  i         ""»«"■  Imsnii,  „u     \ 
'iff  tl.at  (lio  woiuh   nr        ^'""^'"'-"00|,,T8in    i  '"' ' 


1841....  «"«lC,ly. 

1841J ;;;;••  i"",!'"!'.  i.mnio/io 


lau 

184J_9  minlbg 

isio.'.';; 

18M..     

18U....   

1848....   

1810  

isao, 


V«lu.. 

$i,iioi,ur)3 

T'IT,4S3 

24,S.()iKi 

.  8JI  400 

'.l.l4,!iai 
f6.1,fl."2 
"■'17.084 

70'  brought  into  ,"hVj„'^;7",";'"  ./>.  -,u«„,i,rof 


'■'"'"tio'S^ 


I  liliii,|),'),n 
.".ftir.ido 

14."OH.«iio 
j'8,8:i.j,04n 
ln,fi6,S,i;47 

8,400,1(11) 
Il„'l4l,4i>!) 

18,UJl.,'r()4 


•'U(»,i,?;i« 

»,/vn,ar, 


Total!. 


,.  I«M. 

1  !""'"8 

''  l'*J.M6 

7  %'i" 

,'  «7,4ft4 

*  l'I,7(H 

a.T247 

i)»n,nio 

'■'.iBo.iia 

.  37;i,8i)N 

i'.-H7,483 
100.  NOT 

1.364,0114 
4T7,4ai 

■^M'm 
l.««,ltt. 

'.l'«,47(l 

,  •■'Tn.sM 
ii'.OTi.aoi 

,„»70,TT8 
4.4SI,57o 

I.sn4,ar8 
„  wi.oir 

3.40(1,717 

!«,8(l(;,7g6 

ltlVl,S«8 

-— J^ 

'^AAio.uog 


Furolgi 


wool  , 


■♦'■-'(1,6(17 
■■.3<7 


W 


U'dfT 


»J....T7rr- !'«"Sr j v.,~-LlI~: mr~~~ J!Z^'  '*H  1856. 


I  England 
I  I'Vunce  , 
I  Turkey 

K),;^''""°«<'PuiiiVo' .■:;;.■;• 

I  OtIicrpiicM.'.'.W"; 

_  Total.... ",' 


_J'«inili. 

3.NS4,,'! 
2,'.iii6,s 
4,351,2 
e.T4\8„ 
2,604  30; 


,887 


V.l,„ 

«773.45ir 
'^''O.SOO 
■■17:',OI2 
6^8,6,',3 

•-6r,.i:m 

4lO,llSS 


4,  .Mo, 


12,487 


m 


<I,2M,0  8 
1,S,',7,447 
«,3l  7,6,18 


4llO,s 
161. ( 


.111^,744" 
1:11. 6<i4 
38J,,-Mji 

o-'r,:i8 
3ir,S(u 

'■■ifl.8t4 
^i^7j7F37 


.  Woolen Manufeo*,  -L«Aoflo,,,8j^^i^^5^,-^-^^^[    8.M7       |     su.sm 

mmmMmwmms 


mssmmmmm 


»"  J-.  1715.    Greater  in 


woo 


1990 


WOO 


Yorkshire  in  1786,  tlian  in  all  England  at  tlie  Revolu- 
tion.— ClIAI.MGRS. 

Woolen  Goods,  Varieties  of. — ^The  variety  of  goods 
wliicb  como  uiuUr  tlio  designation  of  woolen  manufac- 
tures is  obviously  increasing  every  year.  "  Broad- 
clotti"  and  " naiiow  clotli,"  " Clarendons"  and  " Pe- 
tershams," "  Ca-hiuercs,"  " Coshnierettes,"  "kerseyo," 
"tweeds,"  "taitttns,"  " llnacy - woolseys,"  "angolas," 
"  vicunas,"  "  Venetians,"  "  llamas,"  "  Sardinians," 
"Himalayas,"  "moleskins,"  "doeskins,"  "beavers," 
"  trowsurings,"  "  vesting*,"  "  coatings" — there  is  real- 
ly no  end  to  the  names;  for  the  manufacturers,  not 
content  with  having  distinguishing  names  for  particu- 
lar materials  and  particular  modes  of  manufacture, 
conjure  up  now  names,  on  any  or  no  grounds,  for  the 
sake  of  novelty.  Many  of  the  names,  however,  might 
bo  made  signillcaiit  of  really  curious  novelties  in  the 
manufacture.  Thus  there  is  a  new ' '  bis-uniquo  cloth," 
of  donble  thickness,  the  two  surfaces  having  different 
patterns,  so  tliat  the  wearer  may  have  cilhor  side  out- 
ward at  his  pleasure.  There  is  a  cloth  wholly  made 
from  beaver  fur — soft,  light,  and  warm — for  winter 
garments.  There  is,  os  a  third  example,  the  comicnl- 
ly-named  Irish  "  rumswixile,"  a  very  e.\celleat  brown- 
ish fk-ieze  made  of  undycd  foreign  wool. 

Shoddy  Trade. — The  greater  nunilicr,  perhaps,  of  our 
readers  may  never  have  heard  of  that  branch  of  the 
woolen  manufacture  called  the  shoddy  tmde,  which  has 
grown  up  of  luto  years,  and  is  now  of  very  considerable 
value  and  importance.  It  is  principally  carried  on  at 
Dewsbury,  in  Kngland,  in  the  centre  of  the  clothing 
district.  Shoddy  cloth  is  fabricated  either  wholly  or 
partly  of  old  wool;  and  instead  of  being  neglected,  or 
used  only  as  manure,  old  woolen  rags  arc  now  every 
wliure  carefully  coUectcl,  and  conveyed  to  Dewsbury. 
After  being  subjected  to  v.^rious  processes,  they  are 
tgrn  to  pieces  by  the  aid  of  powerful  machinery,  and 
reduced  to  their  original  state  of  wool ;  and  this  wool, 
being  respun,  cither  with  or  without  an  admixture  of 
fresh  wool,  is  again  made  into  cloth  I  Formerly,  shod- 
dy cloth  was  used  only  for  padiling  and  such  like  ])ur- 
poses;  but  now  blankets,  flushings,  druggets,  (.ar)icls, 
and  table-covers,  cloth  for  pilot  and  Petersham  great- 
coats, etc,  are  either  wliolly  or  partly  made  of  shoddy. 
The  clothing  of  the  army,  and  the  greater  part  of  tliat 
of  the  navy,  consists  principally  of  the  same  material, 
Avhich,  in  fact,  is  occasionally  worn  by  every  body. 
I^argo  quantities  of  shoddy  cloth  are  exported.  Great 
improvements  have  been  eficcted  of  late  years,  not  only 
in  che  fabric  of  tho  cloth,  but  also  in  the  dyes :  this  is 
r^pecially  seen  in  the  cloth  for  soldiers'  uniforms,  which 
is  no^onger  of  a  brick-dust  color,  hut  makes  a  much 
nearer  approach  to  scarlet.  The  beautiful  woolen  table- 
covers  are  made  wholly  of  shoddy,  being  printed  by 
aqua  foriit  from  designs  drawn  in  linden  and  >Ian- 
Chester,  and  :ut  on  holly  and  other  blocks  on  the  spot. 
The  analogy  between  this  manufacture  and  tint  of 
paper  is  so  striking  thit  it  must  force  itself  on  the  at- 
tention of  every  one,  the  vilest  and  most  worthless 
nmterials  being  converted  in  both  into  tho  most  beau- 
tiful and  useful  fabrics.  Tho  shoddy  trade  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  (greatest  triumphs  of  art  and  civilization. 
Though  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  it  is  rapidly 
extending  it.<clf.  It  is  most  activo  in  summer,  and  is 
much  more  languid  in  wiiiter. 

United  Stales. — The  development  and  growth  of  our 
woolen  manufactures  depends  now  entirely  upon  our 
tariff.  To  enable  our  mills  to  compete  with  foreign 
mills,  wa  must  liave  a  tariff  to  counteract  the  hostile 
legislation  of  those  foreign  countries  which  overrun  our 
market  with  their  fabrics.  When  England,  France, 
Prussia,  and  Austria  import  wool  for  their  broadcloths, 
free  of  duly,  thinUnitcd  States  must  do  the  same;  or 
these  European  nianufaoturers,  in  whose  favor  our  tax 
*i>  imported  wool  operates,  will  surpass  us  so  largely 
in  our  own  markets,  that  wo  shall  bo  compelled  to  stop 
all  eur  broadcloth  spindles.    This  has  been  the  efl^ct 


of  tho  tariff  of  1816  upon  our  woolen  manufactures;' 
and  the  prospt.ct  of  relief  to  be  afforded  by  Mr.  Camp- 
boll's  bill  will  give  life  to  this  decaying  branch  of  our 
industry. 

Tho  relations  of  the  tariff  to.  our  woolen  manufac- 
tures has  attracted  so  much  attention  of  late,  that  the 
following  table,  showing  the  rate  of  duty  tiNcd  on  wool 
by  the  various  tariffs  enacted  by  Cdiigress  since  1789, 
will  bo  found  interesting. 

TABirr  DirriEB  on  uipobtxd  Wool  fboh  1T99. 

Jnn-jary,  1789,  to  Aprlt,  1810— free. 

April,  18IU,  tu  Mu}-,  1S24— 15  per  cent,  nd  valorem. 

May,  18i4,  to  June,  18tI6 — contiiig  under  10  cents  per  lb.,  15 
per  cent,  ad  vnloreni. 

May,  1824,  to  June,  1825— costlnf;  over  10  cents  per  lb.,  20 
per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1825,  to  June,  1836— costing  under  10  cents  per  lb., 
15  t>cr  cc.it.  ad  valorem. 

June,  1825,  to  June,  1320— costing  over  10  cents  per  lb.,  25 
per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1826,  to  June,  1828— costing  under  10  cents  per  lb., 
15  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

.fune,  1826,  to  June,  1828— costing  over  10  cents  per  lb.,  30 
per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1828,  to  June,  1829— 4  cents  per  lb.  speclflo,  and  40 
per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1829,  to  June,  1S30— 4  ceuts  per  lb.  specific,  and  46 
per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1880,  to  Juno,  1832—4  cents  per  lb.  siicclflc,  and  BO 
per  cent  ad  valorem. 

June,  1832,  to  June,  1842— cocLIng  underScontspcr  lb.,  free. 

June,  18;i2,  to  June,  1842 — coutliig  over  8  cents  per  lb.,  4 
cents  specific,  and  40  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

June,  1842,  to  July,  1846 — costing  under  T  cents  per  lb.,  C 
per  cent  ad  valorem. 

June,  1842,  -  July,  1846— costing  over  T  cents  per  lb.,  S 
cents  spcclfir,  and  uO  per  tent,  nd  valorem. 

July,  1S4«,  to  Marcb  3,  1857— all  wool  SO  per  cent  ad 
vnloi-eni. 

March  3,  1857,  woo!  24  per  cent  Less  than  20  cents  a 
pound,  at  thft  place  of  exportation,  free. 

Tho  fluctuation.^  in  this  table  are  remarkable,  and, 
considering  their  frequency  and  the  extremes  to  which 
tlicy  run,  it  is  surprising  that  capital  should  have  been 
invested  in  woolen  manufactures  in  this  country, 

"  The  statistics  upon  the  production  and  importation 
of  wool,  a..J  manufactures  of  wool,  have  been  prepared 
with  care,  in  order  to  place  the  questions  connected 
with  tho  production  and  importation  of  wool  and  manu- 
factures of  wool,  involved  in  the  proposition  to  admit 
wool  as  a  raw  material  free  of  duty,  fully  and  fairly 
before  Congress.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  1840,  accord- 
ing to  tho  census  of  that  year,  we  manufactured  woolen 
goods  to  the  value  of  f 'iO,COG,099 ;  and  that  in  addition 
wo  imported  manufactures  of  wool  to  the  value  of 
$8,652,785;  making  our  consumption  of  the  manufac- 
tures of  wool  $29,349,784,  and  the  consumption  of 
tl  71  94-100  for  each  person  tlien  in  the  United  States, 
Tho  census  of  1840  does  not  give  tho  number  of  facto- 
ries devoted  to,  nor  tho  capital  employed  in  the  mdhu- 
facturo  of  wool.  The  census  of  1860  shows  there  were 
1559  factories  in  tho  United  States,  with  28,118,()60  of 
capital  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  wool,  with  the 
particular  States  in  which  tlie  factories  were  situ- 
ated :  also  that  the  inanufactnrcs  of  wool  amounted  to 
|43,'207,&45,  and  we  imported  manufactures  of  wool  to 
the  value  of  (16,970,575,  making  our  runsuniption  of 
manufactures  of  wool  $60,184,120,  and  the  consumption 
of  f  2  591  for  each  person  in  tho  United  States.  If  wo 
estimate  the  increased  value  of  our  woolen  manufac- 
tures since  1860  .t  the  ratio  of  the  increase  between 
1840  and  1850,  it  give*  our  manufactures  of  wool  at 
(56,406,786,  for  the  year  1865 ;  and  wo  And  the  value 
of  our  iiiiportations  of  manufactures  of  wool  for  186^') 
to  lie  $28,297,(184,  making  our  consumption  $79,70  J,170, 
and  $2  93  18-100  as  tho  consumption  of  each  person 
then  in  tho  United  States.  These  tables  also  show,  at 
tho  periods  of  1840,  1860,  and  1856,  the  volue  of  tho 
wool  produced  in  tho  United  States,  and  also  tho  value 
of  wool  imported  into  the  United  States  at  the  same 
periods,  less  the  exports  of  wool.  They  also  show  the 
I  value  of  tho  wool.  In  the  imported  manufacturos  of 
I  wool,  at  each  of  those  periods,  estimating  the  value  of 


,  '■iis'and  . 
,  llnri.so  To 
I  FiMhoe... 
I  Olhor  pla'i 
Tut  a 

Kriglanil . 

.  'fniiion . . 

I  t'liuico. .. 

I  Oilier  pliic, 

Tu(«; 

I  i.     ,    '*"■ 
r.NglaiKi  . . 

"lemon . . . 

f'mnc,!.,. 

I  O'li'T  place 


mm§mmMwmm 

m^mmmmmM 


O""  a...l  will  manufa^c  „  e  for  'l  """  "'"<'"  ""rpeopt    *'""'«''  "  """J  ''een   rapped  f  "?"*''  «<"" 
a>vs  are  arranged  so  a,  „,   '"^'wolves,  if  our Sff    ^.^''^S"  "'«  growl  .of!    .  "''  «"'"''«<!' 
"■?!•;.  »"d  i-  fair  oTo'erra^f  !!"'"•'-'«  Ss'    Jr  c?'^«"^\p'--""-      atl/r'r  "  '"'"-"-" 
n.=, l''™:''°."'«"-mp<.seda"n:"'r.?'.'^'"e  nation,.     '1^1.1'"""  ™«Bod  l>i.i;o;?,.!."'.!il"'^'^''ow  that  the 


advantage  over  us  thevw  ,"":''  ^'■'=''  »f  ''"'r-     TIlJ   ''°^  """'''  ^-^  ^neouraZt  h,  ""'''•  "»'»''« 

ao  mil- >„..  !-  r    "V   "111  continn/.  . ,    •'         ""S  I  tiusinpco  ! i  ""easo  g^d  exte   rl  »h 


sume  more  n.anufa"°n L'  °?'  ""■"  "«  P'oducc,  a,.d  co ,     r  ''''" /^'^'""""ffVall,  f  '  ,hV'l''"  «"''  indispensable 


woo 


1992 


WOO 


BzposTi  or  Wool  and  MASDrAorinuB  of  Wool  or  roanoK  PBODoonoN 

■MDINO  JVNI  30, 1857. 

raoH  *na 

UxiTn>  Statu  wot  mi  Yiab 

WhlllHrnpnM. 

1 

t 

Jill 

1 

1 

Is 

as 

III 

1 

1 

u 

1 

■8" 

a  S 
SB- 

a 

1 

1 

AHtutIc  KiimU 

Kuwluii  IViiwciiii.  In  N.  Am. 

Swcdiii  Slid  Norway 

Danish  VVoat  Indlea 

$300 
°SS4 
220 

$1,1110 
1,019 

•'807 
800 
791 

9,'ri.l8 
8,979 

4,032 

1,728 

4«i 

4,6«2 

i,026 

■  T92 

420 

10,443 

277 

$373 
"687 

9,9TB 
1,237 

8,'401 
406 

■■'85 

82,075 

483 

1,735 

466 

l6,'68S 
1,782 
3,605 
1,927 
2,925 
472 
88S 

$701 
■722 

'm 

1385 
2385 

'372 
'878 

■$48 
■493 

■iio 

i478 

$3,'do'6 
2,5S9 

i,'0(JS 

l6,'825 
701 

i,'M8 

$649 

$2S(US3 
6,0D4 

2,'0l'2 

4,753 
■  ■  '84 

i,'476 

$32 
090 

■534 

$219 
'280 

Brciiiun 

Scotland 

Canada 

$283 
.... 

Other  UrltlHh  N.  Am.  Pom. 

ISritUh  llondunui 

UrttUh  Australia 

France  on  the  Atlantic 

French  North  Amer,  Pom.  . 

Cuba 

Porto  Jtlco 

Turkey  in  Asia 

Porta  In  AfHca 

Haytl 

Mexico 

Central  Republic 

New  Granada 

Vener.ucla 

Chill 

Pom 

Sandwich  Islands 

China 

Totol,  1866-'6T 

$'8S 

$320 

$47,145 

$«3,li6J 

S!W,10i( 

27,054 

*6<18S 

$2184  i  $2i.U52  1 

$II4'.I  1  $2.13,1112 

$IS00 

$4911 

From  warehouse 

Not  from  warehouse 

....  1  i'na 

$288  1    694 

$35,037 
ll.lOS 

$;t7(K) 
2988 

$536  1  $17,697   1   ....   :  $184,608 
'  1648  1      3,855  |  $64')  I     100,314 

$1224 
82 

$219 
280 

iKFOBTi  or  Wool  asd  MAHurAonrBCs  or  Wool  imto 

ruB  UiaixD  Statbi  roB  tub  Ybab 

BMDXMC 

JUNS  30,  185T. 

Whence  Imported. 

8| 

4 

h 

Si 

m 

i 
1 

m 

-1 

1 

3 

1 

1^ 

III 

i 

.S„o 

ll 

|||. 

1^ 

1 

* 

* 

• 

* 

• 

* 

• 

* 

« 

« 

« 

BussIaonthoDaltIc) 
and  North  Seas. .  / 

1,612 

.... 

•  a  a. 

.  a  a  a 

.... 

RuMia  on  Bbuk  Sea  . 

43,6-26 

•  ate 

a  a  t  a 

.... 

.  a   .  . 

Danish  West  Indies. 

3, 3118 

. . . 

•  •  a  ■ 

.  .     • 

,  , 

Hamburg 

ISl 

976,271 

63.8*1 

1«0 

87,775 

285,606 

85,627 

8,S98 

5,8!)!) 

2?S 

39 

5JG 

1,588,381 
11,219 

154,503 
2,086 

28t} 
8 

199,109 
3,998 

790,826 
1,774 

36,211 

228 

27,fi22 
415 

9,807 

600 
226 

Holland 

Dutch  West  Indies  . . 

1,960 

•  .  a  a 

.... 

.  a   .  . 

Dutch  Guiana 

2-8 

a.  •  a 

.... 

Uelgium 

90!),831 

l'2,920 

•   a  • 

4.5,651 

18,445 

83's 

8,104 

82 

1,104 

498 

104,736 

6,771,082 
42,439 

782,449 
332,083 

1,692,883 
542 

1,872,722 
11,414 

T,1B0,118 
1S3,002 

68,177 

694,116 
5,0T3 

06,896 
817 

2,138,691 
19,830 

Scotland 

Ireland 

.   e   •  a 

.... 

•  a  .  • 

683 

...   a 

..  a  a 

a   .   .   . 

Gibraltar 

8,670 

.  .   •  . 

.... 

a  .  •  s 

.... 

.... 

.... 

C67 

Malta 

02,319 

a  .  .  a 

.  a  .   . 

a  a  a  . 

a  a   .  . 

.  a  •  a 

anada  

6 

1,402 

168 

217 

22 

845 

8 

2,181 

72 

196 

Other  Urit.  N.  A.  Poa 

4V 

.... 

.  a  .   . 

1,790 

S38 

14 

71 

a  a  a  a 

a   .   .   a 

British  West  Indies. . 

04^ 

, , , , 

.... 

36 

.a   a. 

a.  .. 

..aa 

108 

British  Honduras 

762 

•  .  a  a 

s  .   ■  a 

.... 

.  a  a  . 

a  a   .. 

British  Guiana 

6.615 

.  a   a. 

.... 

...  a 

a  a  .  . 

.  a  .  a 

.... 

British  I'os.  in  Africa 

168,42t; 

.... 

a   i   a  . 

...  a 

...  a 

17 

a  .   .   a 

Other  (lortJi  in  Africa. 

•  •  • 

84 

.•a. 

.... 

...  a 

a   .   .  a 

.... 

a   a   a  a 

Britirh  Australia  .... 

4.56 

41 

.... 

.  a   •   . 

British  VABt  Indies . . 

8,o«;> 

l'8.896 

a  .  .   a 

a  a   a  a 

182 

88 

France  on  the  Atl'tlc. 

.18 

364 

1,659,479 

883,973 

3i.4.V!! 

86,772 

3,022,828 

OoC 

72,811 

22,760 

20,496 

France  on  the  Med'n. 

165,816 

6,868 

..  a  a 

..  a  . 

.  .   a  . 

Spain  on  the  .Med'n.. 
flilUpplne  Islands  . . 

1,04(1 

81 

.... 

a   .   .   . 

a   a  .  a 

•   •   e   • 

8»8 

a  .   .   a 

a..s 

.a.. 

•  aaa 

.... 

...s 

Cuba. 

2,452 

. .  > , 

a  .  a  a 

.  a  .  a 

a   .   .   . 

Aaorcs 

3ir, 

a  .    •   • 

e  a  •   • 

.  a  .  • 

.  •  a  ■ 

340 

s  a  .  a 

.... 

.... 

a  a  .  a 

Tuscany 

30,477 

81S 

2 

.  a   .  a 

•  a  a  . 

a... 

aa   .. 

a   .   a. 

22 

Austria 

860 

.  .   a  ■ 

1>? 

*.  .a 

885 

.  a  a  . 

.... 

aaa. 

•   a   a  . 

Turke)-  in  Kurope  . . . 

5.185 

.  .  a  • 

,. 

a   a  a  a 

...  a 

a  .  a  a 

Turkey  In  Asia 

806,382 

a  .   .  » 

2"0 

.... 

.  a  a  . 

s  a   a  ■ 

.... 

461 

Mexico 

3,054 

a   -  ■    < 

a  a   .  . 

...» 

•   .  •• 

.... 

aaa. 

Central  Republic .... 

809 

.  a   .  a 

*.i  a 

.... 

a  a  a  • 

New  Granada 

31V 

4  .  -SO 

J.,li' 

61 

s 

SJ58 

00 

.  a  .  a 

Vaneauela 

llfl 

. . . 

• .  .• 

.... 

.... 

.... 

a   .   .   . 

a  •  .  a 

Bnutil 

14.466 

.... 

.  a  a  ■ 

a  a   .  . 

a  a   .   . 

.... 

a   .  a   a 

a  .  a  . 

Uruguay 

10,102 

... 

... 

.  a  .. 

a.,  a 

...   a 

a.   .. 

..a   a 

Argenline  Kepublic. . 

694,7.')(i 

.... 

.... 

.  .   a  a 

.... 

.   .  a  a 

.  a  .  a 

364,610 

878 

a  .  •  . 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.  a  a  * 

Sandwich  Islands  . . . 

1,061 

408 

. . . 

a   .   a  a 

.  a   a  a 

...   a 

12a 

.  •  a  . 

China 

Total.  18Be-'B7. . 

12.080 

6 

86,294 

1ft 

T9 

575 

2,126,744 

11,009,606 

2.246,851 

l,U81»,97a 

ij40,aiu 

n.i;60,oa9 

lUlt,]4Ti81B,47o|I06.77D 

2,181,896 

lYlAB 


1 

$21» 
'280 

$40;i 

280 

Maryland..     ''■••'"/         «  'iTM*     TM'sJi  .i''^'        64s  s«7     *■'*'"*       2  412  1 

Virginia    •'•I       «S     i      ii?*'''      A«  (iX '"■'"     8  282  r?I       *"         Isr 

Tennosseo •••  {  "J'™'      TO9W    •■•  18,060  ,|  190  1 

^"""«^ky •  •  ■  4  MM      ^W  ■■■■I        80  M         ]6  16 

Total,  I860  h-r-i-  ®     %«(»::••  S.S'iO  'S  10  | 

'^1-™  o.  Woo,.  0.  ^yT'  '•■'"*'  ^'^''^.'^SS^'^^^-^^-^f-^l-      "SI 

r»'  have  come1rL?.!."'^*•«f'^,f1;;ltT'!''«V  I'her^^^^^^^^^ 
guished  I 

•nd  hffau.     m  nnth" 

"'«  person,  a,i,i  pro,,','', 
'»  most  rii.u  „.  .1  '  ' .'  ' 


«  vessel  »h.>,rwoM    ;    :t'r'*''«'^»/C^^  ''"  « 

'■able  to  answer  for  tboJ.,    f^"''  '»*te  fiw  i««l    "*"  '""'^  str 

.'^eck  were  ove.-y  wl™!:^:.":"?  «?<h  5«W  LllT!  1 1!?  """'^"es  predicateur,  JefZ  Sit!,?";'™''' °» 

Drie»r  tk"  ''"  '""'''™ffe9  «ur 


WRE 


1994 


WRE 


% 


the  n\gn  of  Heniy  I,,  when  it  wm  ruled  that  if  uny 
perann  escaped  allvd  out  of  the  ship  it  shouid  be  nc 
wreclc.  And  after  various  niodillcations,  it  was  de- 
cided, in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  that  if  goods  were 
cost  on  shore,  having  any  marlcs  by  which  they  could 
be  identifled,  they  were  to  revert  to  tlie  owners,  if 
claimed  any  time  within  a  year  and  a  Jay.  By  the 
statute  27  Edw.  III.,  c  18,  if  a  ship  be  lust  and  the 
goods  come  to  land,  they  are  to  be  delivered  to  the 
merchants,  paying  only  a  reasonable  reward  or  Sal- 
vage (which  see)  to  those  who  saved  or  prcsck  ved  them. 
But  these  ancient  statutes,  owing  to  the  confusion  artd 
diyrder  of  the  times,  were  very  ill  enforced;  and  the 
disgraceful  practices  previously  ailudod  to  continued 
to  the  middle  of  last  century.  A  statute  of  Anne  (12 
Ann.  St.  2,  c.  18),  confirmed  by  the  4  Geo.  I.,  c.  12,  in 
order  to  put  a  atop  to  the  atrocities  in  question,  orders 
•11  head  officers  and  others  of  the  towns  near  the  soa, 
upon  application  made  to  them,  to  summon  as  many 
hands  as  are  necessary,  and  send  them  to  the  relief  of 
any  ship  in  distress,  on  forfeiture  of  jEIOO  ;  and  in  caw 
of  any  assistance  given,  aalvage  ia  to  be  assessed  by 
three  Justices,  and  paid  by  the  owners.  Persons  se- 
creting any  poods  cast  ashore  aie  to  forfeit  treble  their 
value ;  and  if  they  willfully  do  any  act  by  which  the 
ship  is  lost  or  destroyed,  they  arc  guilty  of  felony  with- 
out benefit  of  clergy.  But  even  this  statute  seems  '.lot 
to  hav<  been  sufficient  to  accomplish  the  end  i^i  view ; 
and  in  1763  a  new  statute  (26  Geo.  II.,  c.  10)  was 
enacted,  the  preamble  of  which  is  as  follows :  "  Where- 
as, notwithstanding  the  Rood  and  salutary  laws  now 
in  being  against  plundering  and  destroying  vessels  in 
distress,  and  against  tailing  away  shipwrecked,  lost, 
or  stranded  goods,  many  wiclted  enormities  have  beeut 
committed,  to  the  disgrace  of  tlie  nation,  and  the  griev- 
ous damage  of  merchants  and  mariners  of  our  own  and 
^  other  countries,  be  it,"  etc. ;  and  it  is  tlicn  enacted, 
that  tlio  preventing  of  tlie  escape  of  any  |)cr9on  en- 
deavoring to  save  his  life,  or  woumling  him  with  in- 
tent to  destroy  him,  or  putting  out  false  liglits  in  order 
to  bring  any  vessel  into  danger,  shall  bo  rapital  felony. 
By  ttie  same  statute,  the  pilfering  of  any  goods  cast 
■shore  is  mkfle  v^tty  larceny. 

Ilutes  of  Wrecking  al  Key  Wett.  Florida. — 1.  No  ves- 
sel nor  master  thereof  shall  be  r>igularly  employed  in 
the  business  of  wrccliing  on  the  coast  of  l'°luriilii  witli- 
out  the  license  of  the  judge  of  said  court ;  and  before 
licensing  an}'  vessel  or  master,  the  judge  sbu^l  lie  sat- 
isfied that  the  vessel  ia  sea-worthy,  and  properly  and 
sufficiently  fitted  and  equipped  for  the  business  of  sav- 
ing property  shipv;rccl(cd  and  in  distress,  and  that  the 
master  thereof  is  trustworthy,  and  innocent  of  any 
fraud  or  misconduct  in  relation  to  any  property  ehlp- 
wrecltcd  or  saved  e«  said  coast. — Act  of  C'ongrcu  etlub- 
lishing  the  Court,  1847. 

2.  All  vessels  of  the  burden  of  ten  tons  and  upward, 
regularly  employed  in  the  business  of  wrecking,  must 
be  licensed  by  the  judge.  The  license  shall  state  tlic 
names  of  the  owners  and  masters.  The  clerk  shuil 
keep  a  register  of  licenses,  stating  the  name  of  the  ves- 
sel, owner,  master,  and  date  of  the  license.  Every 
change  of  owner  or  naster  must  bo  approved  of  by  the 
judge  and  registered  by  the  clerk.  For  furnishing  tlie 
license  and  keepiufr  the  registry  the  clerV.  sliall  be  en- 
titled to  receive  f-.om  each  vessel  two  dollars  a  year. 

8.  No  license  will  .e  granted  in  favor  of  any  owner 
or  master  of  any  wrecking  vessel  who  shall  give  or 
offer  to  give  to  the  master  or  mate  of  any  wn-ckod 
vessel  any  part  of  the  salvage,  or  any  sum  in  lieu  there- 
of, or  any  unlawful  nresent;  or  who  shall  give,  or 
offer  to  give,  or  secmt  io  such  master,  any  proportion 
of  the  wharfage,  storai^,  or  commissions,  or  any  sum 
or  thing  in  lieu  thereof,  to  induce  him  to  employ  such 
master  or  owner  of  the  wrecking  vessel  as  his  agent  or 
consignee,  or  to  use  his  t  -harf  or  store,  or  lo  purchase 
his  goods;  or  who  shai'  make  any  other  arrangement 
i;Uh  the  master  or  mate  of  any  wrecked  vessel,  where- 


by and  with  Intent  such  master  or  mate  may  make 
any  money  for  his  own  use  out  of  the  wrecli  of  his 
vessel. 

4,  Licensed  wrecking  vessels,  including  the  smaller 
as  well  OS  the  larger,  shall  be  admitted  to  assist  ut  a 
wreck  in  the  order  in  which  the  vessels  themselves  ar- 
rive, if  further  assistance  be  needed,  unlesj  some  good 
cause  shall  exist  for  the  contrary ;  and  the  master  of 
any  vessel  deeming  his  vessel  and  crew  excluded  with- 
out sufficient  cause,  may  apply  bv  petition  to  the  court 
for  a  distributive  shiire  of  the  salvage. 

6.  In  anysalvagu  ca  tsc,  upon  petition,  stating  fac^s 
and  circumstances,  showing  that  the  master  of  nny 
vessel  has  voluntarily  cast  her  away,  or  luis  fraudul^int- 
iy  abandoned  her,  or  haj  been  guilty  of  any  other  gross 
or  barratrous  misconduct  in  relation  thereto,  or  has 
fraudulently  colluded  with  the  salvors,  or  iias  accepted 
or  agreed  to  accept,  nny  part  of  the  salvage,  or  any 
thing  in  lieu  thereof,  or  nny  unlawful  present  from  any 
salvor,  or  employs  as  his  agent  cr  consignee  any  per- 
son entitled  to  c  share  of  the  salvage,  knowing  him  to 
bo  so  entitled,  or  stands  in  any  other  relation  to  the 
property  incompatible  with  a  proper  and  independent 
discharge  of  his  duty  in  the  prutectiou  of  the  rights  of 
the  owner;  in  every  such  case  the  court  will,  upon 
notice,  an'',  the  hearing  of  such  petition,  and  U[on 
being  satisfied  by  proof  of  the  truth  thereof,  appoint 
and  admit  the  resident  agent  of  underwriters,  the 
proper  consul  ar  some  other  suitable  person  to  intervene 
in  the  cauee,  :is  amicui  curia,  tor  the  protection  of  the 
interests  of  the  absent  owners,  by  himself  or  by  his 
proctor,  without  stipulation  for  costs,  and  to  answer 
and  defend  the  libel,  and  to  object  to  any  item  of  costs 
or  charges,  and  generuily  to  do  whatever  may  be 
deemed  necessary  to  protect  the  rights  and  interests 
of  such  owners. 

6.  No  master  of  any  vessel,  wrecked  or  in  distress, 
can  lawfully  make  nny  money  out  of  his  vessel  nr 
cargo,  or  out  of  the  business  growing  out  of  the  dis- 
aster. Every  agreement  whereby  any  muster  senks 
to  make  such  money  is  contrary  to  law,  and  void ; 
and  if  made  with  salvors,  worlis  u  forfeiture  of  salvage 
Every  master  reoaiving  any  sum  of  money  or  other 
thing  for  any  n'atter  connccled  with  his  voss»d  or  cargo 
or  the  disaster,  may  be  compelled  to  account  therefor 
under  oath,  in  a  Court  cf  Admiralty  or  Equity. 

7.  Every  agreeuient  to  give  the  master  of  a  wreck- 
ing  vessel,  or  otlicr  person,  nny  money  or  thing  for 
his  recommendation  or  elUirts  to  procure  any  l)uslness 
for  any  wharf,  or  s'nrc,  or  commission  merchant,  is 
contrary  to  law,  und  void. 

8.  Wreckevs  v.'ill  be  entitled  .o  salvage  for  services 
rendered  in  saving  any  vcssil  or  cargo,  altnou^h  sucli 
vessel  may  have  been  voluntarily  cast  away,  or  bored, 
or  otherwise  destroyed  by  the  master;  provided  they 
do  not  in  any  munner  connive  at  or  kno-.vingly  assist 
liim  in  his  design,  and  provided  th^y  make  a  full  state- 
ment to  the  cour,,  of  their  knowledge  of  the  facts  in  the 
case.  But  if  they  in  any  manner  knowingly  aid  or 
assist  the  nmstcr  to  destroy  jus  vessel,  or  oonceal  theii 
knowledge  of  facts  or  circumstances  showing  such  a 
design ;  or  if  they  give  or  agree  to  give  the  master  any 
part  of  tlie  salvage,  or  oilier  sum  of  money,  or  incke 
him  any  unlawful  present,  or  help  him  in  any  manner 
to  make  any  money  out  of  the  wreck  of  liis  vessel,  their 
salvage  will  be  forfeited. 

9.  It  shall  be  tho  duty  of  the  master-wrecker,  or 
first  boarder,  on  flr^t  boarding  a  vessel  on  the  reef,  or 
in  distress,  to  hand  this  license  and  these  rules  to  tho 
master,  and  !cav?  the  same  with  him,  if  ho  shall  so  de- 
sire, long  enough  to  be  read  and  understood  liy  him. 

10.  Tho  first  set  of  salvors  are  entitled  to  save  the 
property,  and  have  the  right  to  exclude  all  others  as 
long  as  they  have  the  means  of  saving  it,  and  act  in 
good  faith.  But  if  tho  services  of  a  second  set  become 
necessary,  sich  second  set  are  entitled  to  bo  admitted 
co-salvors  without  being  required  to  make  an  consort' 


'»"■ 


Wre 


•hip  or  other  ajtreomonf     „,  ^^^^  «~ 

have  no  right  to  exo^,?  .u  ^'"  ^^ond  set  J,o  ^"^E 

Ji.  1  he  masters  6fwr..|,,„"-  '      Jhenart.^ ^ 

Sut'rn^:'"'''  '"  «"  ""  I'oaM  fe:;"-»""» .'hall  not  a!lo„ 

•ny  of  thf  cargo        """■  °'  '"'*»SC3,  or  to  "m!  "'  !T^"'  »„.ck*d  it  I °"  ,"'?  C«n,,li«n  ,),„""''  ,f;''=«''  ''^ 


torostod  against  his  oZrl' Z'^TT'  "--""- 

Id.  TI18  crews  of  wrecl((.,lv„,°'^''<'osps. 
that  ,^.ey  are  notdischarg  *    ::»?"'''.''''  ""'-'"eel 
dut^_  0,.  account  of  the  vf  ss»I  °" 'i""'  ""'^'e^  or  their 


«ons  is  distributed  n  ontldv  as  f"  i"^  '"''^'  <""•  eoUi- 
February  154 ;  March,  9«f  AprU  -^ •a/''"^ '•^•'  ^1" '• 
32i  July,  48 ;  August.  51 :  S„na.'i'i^''-r' «'  ;  June, 


doubt  foldt;d     S"^'  "S''  °f  t^em  a"P2  .1  «' 

g»  off,  and  probabiv  more •  67  ^'"7"  '"  ''"^o  ''^o,^ 
of  then,  raised ;  6  run  dotvn'-  n  ^"""'l"'''^  "^  '""k,  4 
«ftor.vard  carried  in;  3  Z'(  2  n/."^"'''''  ^  "'''''e'n 
"'««'ng,  no  doubt  fot,ndered      n    •"■"  "■«'"^'';  16 

Of  the  4cK.e;seIs'q?4  "''•'■"  ^"  l'"i»lio<I  ll^^ff'"^  '"  "'»  '"'ervaj  a  a,  avfi  ^  "'.'  "■"^''»'' 

entire  number,  w  e„J t^'j\°f,r'?^'3;  ^no-third  the        1'   Jm'""  '?"  '''"""n^d  o^;  "f  .7f/.8«  and 

life,  no  doubt  l^ka    e  tl  "'"?"'« ^'•'""^^orof     0''";^'°,""'  ^■''''"'  "^  'h    i'l'?/-     "<="««-  if™ 
Of  these  wieckB  fiflr  1  °^"'"  '>'»"'  '""^oa  vor-l  ;    ^     fi  "^  \'''  "  "ot  exact/    v,.   f  ?',f"?  »  ^-o"  ■'    Tllo 

lundy;  5T1?,!^?V^,^"''^!  n  upon  the  Isle 'fi'''""'"'^' """'<='•<'"'•     InlT59  fnr.      '   ^"""etobe 


WRI 


1996 


TUC 


indiapetisable  to  CTiahle  any  individual  to  bo  appoint- 
ed to  ttir  command  of  a  aliip.  Duriiij^  (lie  war  with 
France,  t'.,  xSlps  of  tho  line  went  to  (lie  bottom,  br- 
aides  1°  111  '-Kun  iiliips,  80  frigates,  and  a  vant  ninnb<:- 
of  sinalloi'  vemiels.  And  llie  Iomci  suetuincd  by  tin 
Tmviea  of  I'Mnre,  Spain,  Holland,  Ucnnmrk,  etc.,  must 
I»»ve  verj-  Ki^atly  exceeded  tboso  of  ours.  Hence,  as 
Mr.  LyoU  lias  oliservcd,  it  is  pri.iiablo  tli^i.  a  greater 
Dunit>cr  of  monuments  of  t''  '  >klll  ind  indt  try  of  man 
will,  in  the  lourso  of  ages,  be  cMi^  ted  toge<!>ei'  ii.  the 
bed  of  the  oi<n<)  than  will  I  c  s">"i  nt  one  ti>  on  the 
surface  of  tho  >  MH'inent. — I'riw-.)'  n  of  Geoltigi/. 

VTrlting.  i'i- tures  wcr'  !!■  i  uibtedly  ihc  iir«t 
easay  towaii>  wiii/iig.  Tlio  jiu-l  ancient  rcnuins  of 
writing  whlcii  buvo  lieen  transmitted  to  m»  aro  upon 
hard  hubbtunccr ,  ajch  aj  ttonca  uiul  met.:!'  used  bv 
the  ancients  for  edic;.-  and  matters  ■■  nablit  iiotnii,  ly. 
.lYtiiotes,  or  Hermes,  if  said  to  have  wiittcn  a  bl.itury 


of  (ho  (Egyptian*,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  hloro- 
Riypliirj,  ittl' A.c.  -Ubiier.  Writing  is  sni.l  to  hav« 
ijeeii  t«iiq;ht  to  thr  J  .I'liis  I  ; 
nor,  K  o;.''.f  I'hcer  ii.iii,  H\]  : 
:«v.'.,  i"';  'oundor  if  Oad.u 
Plianr  in<  letteia  into!!.' 
iKHudintiiiH  wore  written  " 
.1,::.-  -l'--iiM  .  n  'iree!.  : 
talile-biuilts, Rv.d    ontinivit  :l 

ryuawaaltnown. — .v«cl'Ain  .iii;,Paii(i;mknt. PArnR, 

'•  (  rfould  clieck  tho  petty  vnidty  of  tlioio  who  alight 

gou<t  pcnniansliip,  as  below  tlio  notjco  of  a  scholar,  by 

reminding  them  tiiat  Mr,  i'lx  vnis  distinguished  by 

till'  clcarncaa  and  (irmnets,  Mr.  i'rofesaor  I'orson  by 

!  tho  cfu'ectncsa  and  olc" -nee,  f<i  ■   Sir  William  Jones  by 

\  the  ease  and  b  :ji  ly,  uf  ixa  chpTaCtcrs  they  rcapcctive- 

'  ly  employed."— Ob.  i'.lisB. 


iiropa,  dauglitor  of  Age- 

•■— I'liucviiiiiKH.    Cad- 

149')  ii.c,  brought  the 

-V()SHii:.s,     The  com- 

til.Ica  of  atone,  1491 

'  iti.mat)'  used  waxed 

if  them  lung  after  p^ 


Y. 


TTacht,  i.rmerly  o  vessel  of  state,  usuaUy  cmploy- 
eil  tc  ciininy  jririce!",  emijassndors,  and  other  great  per- 
«ii'vn(,".3s  from  'ii;?  kingdom  to  another.  An  tho  prin- 
(Tijjiil  <K  si;;n  of  a  vnrht  is  tc.  accommo<late  the  piissen- 
({ers,  it  is  usually  fitted  with  a  variety  of  convenient 
npartiiitafs,  with  suitable  furniture.  Private  plcas- 
ure-i'oat.i,  when  sufflciently  large  for  a  uta-voyiiije, 
are  also  termed  yachlt.  A  more  nimlem  use  of  tlie 
term  is  to  designate  the  model  lioats  built  for  H)i<'.ed 
and  for  racing. 

Yachts  of  ttio  present  day  include  lioth  steam  anl 
sailini;  vessels.  Tho  yacht  America,  built  liy  Mr. 
Steers,  of  New  York,  and  afterward  the  winner  of  tlci 
prize  at  the  yacht  rare,  22d  August,  IMt,  at  Cow ca,  in 
Knglnnd.  gave  American  ship-wrights  a  wider  reputa- 
tion than  l)eforo.  Veasels  lielonijing  to  the  British, 
American,  French,  and  Russian  yacht  clubs  are  re- 
leased frci^  quarantind  upon  the  same  conditions  is 
ships  of  war  i^  iiritiah  ports. 

By  acts  of  Congress,  the  Secrctarj-  of  the  Treasury 
la  autiiorized  to  cause  yachts,  used  and  employed  ex- 
clusive!} OK  piea»i.re  vussels,  and  designed  as  models 
of  iia"al  ai-;!iit.jctun',  and  entitled  to  ha  enrolled  as 
Americtn  vi^asels,  to  l>e  licensed  on  terms  which  will 
authorize  then  tJ  proceed  from  port  to  port  of  the 
United  States  without  entering  or  clearing  at  the  cus- 
tom-house. iSuch  license  shall  be  in  such  form  as  the 
Secretarj-  of  the  Treasure  may  presenile  :  Providt  J, 
such  vessels  tt  enroll<<J  and  licensed  shall  not  he  al- 
lowed to  transiKirt  me.-chandiso  or  carry  passengers 
for  pay  :  And  pi-ovidcd,  further,  that  the  owner  of  any 
such  vessel,  liefore  taking  out  such  license,  shall  give 
■  liond,  in  such  form  and  for  such  amount  ns  tho  Sec- 
retarj- of  the  Treasnij'  shall  prescrilie,  conditional  that 
the  said  vessel  shall  not  engage  in  any  unlawful  trade, 
nor  in  any  way  virln'o  the  revnuo  laws  of  the  United 
Status,  and  shall  comply  with  tho  laws  in  all  other  re- 
spects. 

All  such  vessels  shall,  in  all  respects  excep'.   .9 
sbot-e,  be  subject  to  the  laws  of  tlie  United  Stati-  ■ 
■hall  \)o  liable  to  tieizuro  and  forfeiture  for  an; 
tion  of  the  provisions  of  thij  act. 

All  BMh  licensed  yachts  shall  use  a  signs'i  M 
form,  sizj,  and  colors  prescribed  by  ' ,  ■  "'set' 
'.he  Navy;  and  the  crners  thcit^of  sh;.^  .'.  • 
'lemiit  the  naval  architects  in  the  r  .oi,.;. 
United  States  to  examine  and  copy  tb  i.  ■  Oul . 
yikChts. 

Ttinan,  or  Taaaon,  a  French  set  .'vn  .m 
the  limits  of  the  British  presidency  of  X  ^'.fi^, 
near  tlie  bifurcation  of  tho  Godavery  («  river  ri 
the  Deccan),  and  the  river  or  harbor  of  Coiin' 
ibout  nine  miles  above  the  embouchure  of  th  '  ' 
mouth  of  the  Godaverj*  is  c  structed  ii. 


■  uf 

'les 

;  'he 

< t  said 

vilhln 


banks,  which  preclude  the  entrance  of  ships ;  but  the 
Coringa  liiver  has  a  deep  channel,  which  admits  of 
vessels  of  200  tons  burden  proceeding  as  higli  as  Ya- 
nan.  The  French  territny  dependent  on  the  factory 
stretches  along  the  banks  of  the  two  rivers  a  distance 
of  six  miles,  and  contains  an  area  of  8147  acres,  which 
in  188C  were  classified  as  follows : 

I. and  under  ruUivatlon ttcrcs  4310 

Svonds  niid  fon'fitfl *'       1^63 

llarrcn  land "       915 

rubllccstatca "     2700 

The  population  in  1840  was  C880.  Lat.  16°  4-1',  and 
long.  82°  16'. 

Yard,  a  long  measure  used  in  England,  of  3  feet, 
f^r  36  inches. — flee  Weights  and  Measi;«es. 

Tani(Cer.  Gam;  Uu.  Oaitn;  Fr.  Fil;  It.  Filato; 
Sp.mio;  Port. /Vo;  Iluss. /'rns^d),  wool,  cotton,  flax, 
etc.,  spun  into  thread. — 6'ee  articlet  Cotton,  I.inan, 
Wool,  etc. 

Tear,  Lunar.  This  is  the  space  of  time  which 
comprehends  twelve  lunar  inontlis,  or  4.'>4  days,  8 
hours,  48  minutes,  and  was  in  use  among  the  Chal- 
deans, Persians,  and  ancient  Jews.  Once  in  every 
three  years  was  added  another  lunar  month,  so  as  to 
make  tho  solar  and  lunar  year  nearly  agree.  But 
though  th^  months  were  lunar,  the  year  was  solar  • 
that  is,  the  first  month  was  of  thirty  daj"  a»i '.  the 
second  of  twenty-nine,  and  so  alternn'el}  ,  and  the 
month  added  triennially  was  called  the  second  Adar. 
The  Jews  afterward  fillowed  the  Koman  manner  of 
computation. — Havi>   ,     .SVc  Almanac,  Calenpab. 

Vucatan,  a  [leiaisular  state  of  Mexico,  Central 
America,  mt  stly  between  lat.  17°  80'  and  21°  80'  N., 
and  long.  87°  and  01°  W.,  having  north  and  west  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  east  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  landward 
British  Honduras,  Gunteniala,  Chiapas,  and  Tabasco. 
Area,  7364  square  leagues,  or  Ii2,947  square  milei. 
Population  in  IH.W,  fi80,y4t!.  Surface  nioftl.  ijvc'. 
fertile  in  the  south,  liut  deficient  in  regular  supni'i' 
.)f  water,  though  so  inundated  in  »"mnieras  gr'"  •> 
I  impede  agriculture,  in  which,  ns  wci.as  man:,  »,-s, 
it  appears  to  be  behind  the  more  northern  \.  '-ticiis  of 
Siexico.  Cattle  are  numerous.  Other  chief  n  urcea  of 
wealth  are  maize,  cotton,  rice,  toliacco,  pepptr,  sugar- 
cane, dye- woods,  liides,  and  soap,  mostly  exported  from 
Campeachy  and  Sisal.  It  is  divided  into  five  depcnd- 
enricb  niid  eighteen  distri<-*>  Principal  cities  and 
towns,  Blerida,  tho"  capital,  V  udadolid  Isam.il,  ''ara- 
peachy,  and  Tekae.  It  also  comprise,  tho  remarka- 
ble ruins  of  Uxmal,  Chi-chen,  Kabah,  and  /ayi.  The 
Day  of  Yucatan  is  e  name  sometimes  given  to  the  sea 
immediately  north  of  the  Bay  of  Ilondur  s.  The 
Channel  of  Yamtan,  between  that  rountry  and  Cu(,i. 
!  is  120  miles  acioss. 


i 


■/'^••^' 


^''-  -^^4^^ 


ZAP 


,  and 


1997 


ZAN 


f.'.* 


tliecurrant     'ri,?'*'".'''"'"'"ilfmfod  tn  (i,„  f. ■'  ""'"n  account  .0:.^,--— "  I'-upnetora  are 

i"  'ioT,  will  ^,.„  V  1 ;  ,    ^  'wpoil  Hiat  tlii,  ,,,„;„   '""'"n        Zanzibar  or  T'a^^l    1.   '^  aliundant. 

*ions  under  Crcntv  „m  !?"'"'•     ""  l'J-  ve,scl"!*>  IT      V**'  ^o''  "i"  Africa     tL/"'  '  P°«8ession9  on 

twatv.  In'^  ,IT,  "^  '""'»"»  wLich  are  1?  ,  '""""V  <■»■■  KuroneanH  a  ««"ation  is  very  un- 
•t«nd,,„„atb  Lh''  ^"'""""n  "-  An.oril""fl"  i^^''  ««  -"h  Au,  h '^^/^.^^n^iJerable  trade  JTcar- 
"g-Jar  intercour''':;?'''^^^^  l"  """  ^''^  S^a- 


,^f^''  ■ 


#Ar 


ZEA 


1008 


20L 


The  principal  prmluce  of  tlio  luliiml  li  cloves — tho 
annual  prmluce  Iwing  from  2,(HM),0(I0  to  11,000,000  lln., 
of  which  the  Bultan  hiinsclf  producru  iiliout  1,000,000 
Iba.  Tho  value  of  American  traile  with  /unzil)ar 
may  bo  eiitimate<l  at  about  (1,U00,0<H}  annually ;  it  U 
carrii'il  on  cliictly  from  Salem,  MuaiHichuBetta.  Out- 
ward cargoaa  ioniii«t  almost  exclu»ively  «f  Now  Kn- 
glnnd  manufactured  cotton  KOodH,  tho  consumption  of 
Thicli  reaches  un  annual  uveruKe  of  about  (iOOO  biiles. 
Tho  return  cargoes  are  composed  of  ivory,  guni-copul, 
cloven,  hides,  and  some  minor  articles.  Voyages  from 
the  I'nited  States  usually  Dcciipy  a  year— vensols  al- 
ways calling  at  the  IVmiun  (iulf  and  ports  of  the  Ited 
Sen.  In  1851  there  were  ten  or  twelve  American 
vessels,  uf  alwut  2&0  tons  each,  regularly  engaged  in 
this  trade.  The  relations  existing  between  American 
houses  (several  of  which  have  been  for  years  estab- 
lished nt  Zanzibar)  and  the  sultan  and  his  officials  are 
of  the  most  friendly  and  lil>eral  character.  The  stip- 
ulutions  of  tlio  treaty  with  tho  I'nited  States  are  faitli- 
fully  observed,  aiui  -very  dcsiralde  commercial  facility 
freely  extended  to  Am,^rican  commerce. 

Zea,  Indian  Corn,  or  Maise.    .Sk-  IfAiy.r.. 

Zedoary  ((ier.  Zittvir;  !•>.  Zeiloairf,  !t.  Ztdo- 
ariu;  Up.  Ccdoaria,  A en\).  Jiuiear ;  Hind. -Virftisi), 
tho  root  of  a  plant  w  ilcli  grows  in  Muiuliar,  Ceylon, 
Cochin  China,  etc.,  ot  whicu  then  are  throe  distinct 
s|>ecies.  It  is  brought  !<ome  in  pii  c  ^s  of  various  sizes, 
externally  wrinkle*!,  and  >  fan  ash  <  dor,  but  internally 
of  a  brownisli  red.  Those  i..  'ts  '  hich  arc  heavy  and 
free  from  worms  are  to  lie  clioseu,  rejecting  those 
which  are  decayed  and  brolten.  The  odor  of  zedoary 
is  fragrant,  and  somewhat  like  that  of  cjuiplior ,  the 
tarite  lilting,  aromatic,  and  bitterisli,  witli  some  degree 
of  acrimony.  It  wos  form -rly  employed  in  medicine, 
hut  is  scarcely  over  used  uy  modem  practitioners.  - 
SIlLni'iiN's  Oriint.  Cvm. 

Zinc,  or  Spelter  (<!or. /.(!<• ;  Vr.Zinr;  H.Zinrn; 
Sp.  Zinco,  Cinck ;  Huss.  tiihpinuUr ;  Ijit.  /.iiinmi),  a 
nietul  of  u  brilliuut  white  color,  with  a  shade  of  blue, 
connwscd  of  a  uunilicrof  thin  |ilates  adhering  together. 
When  this  metal  is  rubbed  fur  some  time  lietween  the 
fingers,  tliey  acquire  a  peculiar  taste,  and  emit  a  very 
perceptible  smell,  it  is  rather  soft ;  tinging  the  fin- 
gers, when  rublied  U|Hm  them,  with  a  lilack  color.  The 
sjiecilic  gravity  of  melted  zinc  varies  from  (>«61  to  7"1, 
the  liglitc.it  being  esteemed  the  purest.  When  ham- 
mered, it  becomes  as  high  as  (-lUOM.  This  metal  forms, 
as  it  were,  tho  limit  liCtween  tho  brittle  and  the  malle- 
able metals.  Its  malleability  is  l)y  no  means  to  i*- 
comiuired  with  that  of  copper,  lead,  or  tin ;  yet  it  Is  not 
brittle,  like  antimony  or  araenic.      When  struck  with 


iMroRTS  Of  /mo  nnro  ma  I'nitkh  Ptatzs  roi  nn  Vr»i 
mniiiu  .IfNs  !l(i,  Vtil. 


Whtnm  liii|<(irt«il 


liennisrk 

Kanlnh  West  Indies. 

llamhiirK 

HulUnrt 

Ilutrh  VVrat  Indies.. 

llelKlion 

KlUJlullil 

MriiHiiiiil 

llrlllKli  N.  Am.  Toss. 
IlrltiHh  Wiwt  Indies  . 
Frsnro  on  tliu  Atlantic 
Total,  IStSl-'til. 


In  Pl«t_ 
v«lu»'. 


tIM 


mi 


11,011) 


in,3IKl 


4'44,7ft4 


StiHta. 
"Viiliii."" 
#»,»68 

13o',M» 
O.tllK 

8W,«!1T 

V.ixa 

4 


$i>4a,tiso 


_N.IU. 

VsTw." 


$2870 
11 


$'i4MI 


Zine  Paint, — The  zinc  paint,  now  brought  beftre  pub- 
lic notice,  Illustrates  at  once  tho  ingenuity  shown  In  de- 
vising means  for  remedying  an  evil,  and  the  difficulty 
of  applying  the  remedy  in  opposit  ion  to  popular  custom. 
AVIiitc-lead  is  deleterious  to  health,  and  nothing  has  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  it  otherwise.  Hence  attempts  are 
being  made  to  find  a  substitute ;  and  zinc  seems  at  pres- 
ent the  best  fitted  for  this  ofHce.  Tho  manufacture  of 
the  white  oxyd  of  zinc  is  a  beaiitifnl  example  of  chem- 
ical action,  ftletallie  zinc  is  heated  in  a  furnace  to 
which  a  current  of  air  is  admitted ;  tho  zinc  vaporizes ; 
the  vapor  passes  into  a  series  of  chambers ;  and  here  it 
collects  on  tho  wails  as  a  light  downy  flocculent  oxyd, 
which  Is  scraped  ofT  and  removed.  When  ground  up 
with  linseed  oil,  tho  oxyd  foms  n  white  paint,  which 
may  be  the  ground  or  substance  for  other  colors  used  la 
house-painting.  Then  comes  tho  rivalrj'  between  tho 
two  "  whites" — the  oxyd  of  zinc  and  the  carbonate  of 
lead.  The  chemical  virtues  of  the  former  are  insisted 
ujion  ;  but  the  advoi'iitcs  for  the  latter  have  not  failed 
to  point  out  the  qualities  in  which  it  is  unquestionably 
the  lietter  of  the  two — especially  in  drj'ing  more  quick- 
ly than  tlio  zinc  white,  and  hi.ing  more  "  body"  or 
substance.  One  among  many  propo^ied  nuides  of  ap- 
plying tho  zinc  white  .  in  iloor-cloth  painting.  In 
this  manufacture  oil  paint  is  iaid  on  thickly,  first  with 
n  brush  and  afterward  through  the  medium  of  carved 
blocks.  Tlie  quantity  of  jiaint  consumed  is  so  large, 
that  the  white-lead  contained  in  it  becomes  a  sad  ene- 
my to  the  men  employed  in  the  processes ;  and  henco 
a  recent  attempt  has  been  made  to  adopt  zinc  white 

s  a  substitute. 

Zoll-Verein.  The  Germanic  confederation  of 
t  tales  for  purposes  of  commerce  came  into  practical 
ooeration  liy  the  treaty  of  March  2'2,  1833.  Trior  to 
tliat  period,  tlie  states  of  which  the  union  is  composed 
did  not  allow  of  the  Introduction  of  merchandise  across 


their  respective  frontiers  without  tho  payment  of  du- 
ft  hammer,  it  does  not  break,  liut  yields,  ami  becomes  tics  ;  numerous  prohibitions  existed,  and  the  commer- 
.«omcwhat  flatter;  and,  by  a  cautious  and  e<iunl  pres-    cjul  relations  between  sovereignties,  whose  territories 


sure,  it  may  lie  rcduccil  to  tliin  plates,  which  are  supple 
and  elastic,  but  can  not  be  folded  without  breaking. 
When  heated  to  aliout  400^,  it  Iwcomes  s<.  brittle  that 
it  may  be  reduced  to  jKiwder  i"  a  mortar.  It  possesses 
a  certain  degree  of  durtilhx ,  and  may,  with  care,  lie 
drawn  out  into  wire.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  a  wire 
whose  diameter  is  ei|ual  to  -^(-jth  oi  an  !nch  is  capulile 
of  supporting  a  «  eight  of  aliout  20  lbs.  I'inc  has  never 
lieen  found  in  a  state  of  purity.  The  w(.rd  zinc  occurs 
for  tho  first  tinio  in  the  writings  nf  faracelsiis,  who 
died  in  l.Ml ;  Imt  tlie  method  of  extracting  it  from  its 
ores  was  not  known  till  the  early  part  of  last  icntiiry. 
— TiioMsds'H  C'AcmiVi'y.  The  compounds  of  zi-  nd 
'  op|ier  are  of  great  importance.— Ven  llnASS. 

The  discovery  of  this  metal,  so  far  as  the  fact  i  | 
known,  is  due  to  the  inodinis.  It  Is  said  to  have  lieen 
1  mg  known  in  Chlr.a,  however,  and  is  noticed  by  Ku- 
ropean  writers  as  early  as  A. I).  1231  ;  though  the  met n- 
od  of  extracting  it  from  the  ore  was  unknown  for  near- 
ly 600  years  after.  A  miiio  of  zinc  was  discovered  in 
Yorkshire,  Kngland,  in  1809.  Zincograpliy  was  intro- 
duced  in  London  shortly  after  the  invention  of  litho- 
graphy became  l.nov.i  in  Kugiaad,in  W17. — Uaydw. 


were  contiguous,  were  fettered  with  oppressive  and 
vexatious  restrictions.  To  introduce  a  better  system 
of  commercial  jiolicy,  and  ti  remove  all  .innecessary 
liurdcns.  which  only  tend  to  clog  commercial  enterprise 
and  choke  up  the  natural  channels  of  trade  between 
neighboring  powers,  these  iude|iendent  sovereignties 
have  becon'e,  for  commercial  purposes,  a  consolidated 
govoniment ;  one  line  of  cuttonia  on  the  geofipl  I'  u' 
bi'undary  has  been  established  ;  one  tariff  of  duties  on 
imports,  exports,  and  transit,  is  enforced  for  all ;  and 
the  revenuu  thus  derived  is  distrilmted  among  tho 
memlicrs  of  the  confederation,  in  proportion  to  tiic  po|i. 
ulation  of  each. — For  exception  to  this  mode  of  distrii 
v.'-K.'x  the  revenue,  see  Fuakkfoht-on-thk-Maine 

origin  of  this  custom^  "iiion  may  bo  trai':.i  to 
t.iiin.'    |p"1itical  as  well  .ucrcial,  having  tiicir 

ex -i'  i.jt  long  antwior  ti.  thii  ii  aty  of  18;i.3.  Ininic- 
d'  I'i'i;-  lifter  its  or';anizati<in,  with  I'russi.t  at  its  head, 
h  '  'een  proclaimed,  alarms  were  spread  throughout 
England,  based  upon  the  mistaken  idea  that  the  "  " 
federation  was  planned  under  the  influence  of  :.ussi;., 
as  a  part  of  her  grand  political  scheme  against  llritisL 
prosperity  and  influence;  a  fallacy  »bich  for  a  thnr 


iJ."."'".".  '"""I"'- 1  nmiu:T.!'"'y  »i'i'ro«ci,c,i  tho  II"' "'"onbur, :    ,    ^,  - 


"'""I     )y   th«    h-fB,,),  ,?'''"••'''-''' 'loi'bly  quick' 


Countriei. 


j  [nllavarla.. 
|n  Saxony . 
In  I'rii»i.|,i 


Tota 


«-l,nnii 
210,000 
1M.000 
5'   ,iirt' 


( oniunipiionr^oiwuiiipr] 
of  AiiisncBti  ,  Won  of 
I     c:yiton.      "■«»  Indii 
~ — , L^^ottnn,    j 

10,2(10 


B>Ui. 

S(1,0.VI 

!w,roo 
3;t,oflfl 

20,100 

I3,C00 

S,000 

__2,20fl 

15S,"(!r)« 


80,000 
13,000 
0,200 
8,T0O 
4,000 
••,'.'00 


11,1,. 
«•,;.'.» 

73,700 

'i«,oiml 

20,300 

l7,:ioii 
7,1100 

O.lOil 


"^"""d  wi.hi,,  tTZ\iy  I':' !"'"'"  "'"""or  in. 


wnu,  iiri(lB|.  (|,„  ■■-  w>  .„,u„  univorsities 

«lt«'l  M<)  lletl,  ttirt,     , ,  ,1    ^  "'"'«  """nan ,-,■■  had  l-c 
K^ymumnU    X  ',:,'"'"  "^  "'"  '"ver  l  Germ"" 

mnm,,  H,|,|,,|,  |,„|  ,  ™    '    ''"  "l'pn'l,c.„,,ion,  and  «,, 

,'*'"' '•"^'irt.. ..Mk„   .,„;;"'!"'• """ now  Pr.J: 

iilanv  1111,1^.  ..  V  "»i  riMifq  III  i,f,i„_,„  .._,.    ,.  '» 


J"st  reIi!.T,r/uH?,Iefrf  ,tV"'P'':5  ""^'"rding  to  tlie 
-cotton  ,na„„f.„„ne,  «"i  h  ,/ f"/  '/■''•  "m„l,ered  208 

Anioiitr  ( ,0  rpo-iil.  ,i„       ■     ' '■'"-"™  IJalos. 
vi'ln. " ,h:„  ,  """,'"  °7f '  ■"  ^oll-Vercin,  it  i,  pr„. 

IV  be  evfnn.ln.i  ;„  ... 


thoso  cun-,1,1.'' "'"lOMo  fmind'fur  her  f,!",;''"'''''    """"'"' ''™is 'n  the  taii/T"iV,'7 '" '"7'*'''°'''"'''''' 

"""'"   '".I  Citur,,  I  r    ,.r  t    ,    r  '"  "''''y  '  '■"'■™-    Ar     o"  ^-a  „f     '''  '^'^  ''"=''  """""o"  to  bo  i, 


of  tl  „„'!'"  ■"'"'  '"''"•"  |.roi.m.i-lf     ,    T        """'•'■' '  '^"'■™-     Article"  ''3  „f  •  ""''  """ation  lo  bo  i„ 


•  rwalii,  Iluv,i|.„,  ',l'iU(„,„|„„.,       V  V,     '""KJonis      v  diis  .,wi,.i„  ,m  ,'""80  or  niodiiicatioii  of  duties  " 
Vera     "  r  1  '":;•;'"  <''"-""-..  ,m,„cI„  ;;,'     ''■^„';f-  ™"»'™3  to  reciprooato'vi        r?  I  rr"f '"''''•''='■ 


ZOL 


2000 


ZOL 


liehii  »n  In  many  pari*  «r|unl,  and  in  ionm  iiu|i«rlor, 
to  lh«M  of  Vraiicn,  'I'hn  null,  tlioUKli  In  sonic  parU  ut' 
Ihr  II'  ■  U ''>l  mill  fkLky,  I*  Ken«rull>  furillr,  an<l  pru- 
1' ,  .iiii<    >  ' ' 'n  11  and  I'nllnury  vaunUblo,  listlilon 

liiiini', 'I   << icv,  inaUo,  alv,  I  wlilla  In  tlie  Ulioniili 

'Oiinlrtti  tfiiii  :n  ionii'  iiarta  iuutli  of  CuloKne,  vinu- 
yarili  aru  oaliinilvnly  lulllvaltti,  wlilrli  pruiluuo  tliusv 
•yniiiiiliU  anil  I'Mdl  wlnvi  ti'narally  culled  lloei'  and 
ITiimIIk,  tliai'iiimuMiplliin  uf  tvlilili  in  ^upldly  iiieroaaliiK 
in  lliu  t'nUvilKluliM.  Tli«  pliynlrnl  aspect  of  the  utatu* 
of  tlio  cunfudiirai')'  prramilj  iiIiiiikI  every  fuatura  uf 
lialural  «r  vuhlvaliid  appaaraiuv,  "The  lowlandi), 
lllilit  (ulla,  and  alluvium  uf  tliu  north;  th«  hilly  coun- 
try uf  NaaMU)  till)  iinilula'liiM*  nC"  ^iphnlln,  of  tho 
MvMilia,  and  wan  ••!  'I  ^  i('>  ,  >.  .i  mifhlau  '  if  tlic 
lllack  Kurrtt,  and  tli  i  UiicnMald,  'i'huiiiiKia,  uiiil  buu- 
bla,  vf  l>arni»l  .ill,  Wurtimiliart(,  aii'l  lladuu,  to  tlio 
•uuth)  llin  moiinlalnii  of  (l"i  llarx  and  Tauiiua;  thv 
Krx>)|<il'lri(i<  uf  Haauny  |  tho  vall>iyii,  pluina,  and  lioi((ht4 
ufHIInnUi  Ilia  plalnii  anil  Alps  uf  llnvarin  ;  thf  Ithiiip, 
DanulMi,  KIImi,  and  nunioroui  othnr  rivors ;  roiki,  rurn- 
lluliU,  vinayarilii,  and  pailurvs,  aru  tho  prhiclpul  aspect 
uf  (lin  I'uiifiidnratlun," 

In  fai^lllili'S  fur  cuminari'ial  intorcnmiiiMnicathm,  nn- 
tura  liaa  Irnxn  viiually  bonntlful  to  Ocrniaiiy.  Aliuut 
•Ixty  navli(alda  rivtri,  or  brancihai  of  riverx,  intersect 
lliia  I'uuntry.  Tliay  aro  Konarally  rniincctod  by  moans 
of  I'anals  and  railroads,  sumo  of  which  aru  still  in  proj;- 
rtas  of  cunalrni'tlnn, 

Tlia  Khlnn,  frum  llanicrollpntnaviKatlonto  thnorcun, 
may  Ixi  runsldcri'd  onn  vast  port,  tho  principal  onlri'- 
pAla  uf  whii'li  arc  ("oloifno,  t'oMontz,  Maycncp,  am! 
Fraiikfurl-uiMlii'-Malni'.  Tho  Daaubo  carries  down 
tha  produ<!0  uf  Oarmany  to  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the 
lllaek  H«a.  'I'ha  Kiln',  navlffnidn  from  Bohemia  to 
llaniliurK,  and  (u  (ho  s''a,  waters  Iluhomla,  Saxony, 
and  I'ruasia,  ami  la  ronnoclcd  with  tho  Danube  liy 
.  rallruad,  at  a  puint  whoro  that  river  is  navlKublo  tu 
lAntt,  Ihi)  capital  uf  I'ppor  Austria,  from  which  steam- 
koala  ply  tu  Vienna  ami  the  lllaek  8ca.  Tho  Moinel, 
and  Us  nunierinia  liranelies,  briiiK  duwn  tho  timber  and 
oilwr  pruiliieo  vf  I'ulan,!  and  liithiiania  tu  tho  porta  of 
tlia  Jl«ltle)  and  tlia  Oder  and  Vistula  flow  through 
I'ruaala,  and  ara  tiavlgabla  lu  tlio  liallic. 

On  th«  .kt  of  •)  anary,  iHfi'l,  the  Uerman  riiatoms 
ITnlon,  or  Ilia  KollA'anln,  entered  upon  the  third  pe- 
riod uf  llanklstenro.  The  i  r~t  continued  eight ycara — 
from  the  vu'imani'ement '>!'  IH!M  tu  thccnlof  18-11;  the 
neiond,  twelve  yeara—friii.  the  eommenn  nient  of  1H4'J 
to  iba  and  uf  Utb'i ;  aud  the  third,  upon  wbicb  It  entered 


ul  the  beginning  of  IH&I,  la  to  continue  alio  for  tweWe 
.wars.  Iwu  facta  uf  importance  mark  Ibo  romniencc- 
iiiunt  uf  the  third  periud :  one,  the  acceaalon  of  tha  8teu- 
ur-\erelii;  the  otiier,  the  coiicluslun  of  a  rommerclal 
treaty  iMtweon  Austria  and  I'russia,  which  may  be  re- 
garded aa  the  liuslsof  a  future  Auatru-Uermanie  Cuatoma 
League.  The  fuliouing  recapitulation  of  facta  con- 
nected with  lli'se  two  Imporlnnt  eventa  aro  compiled 
from  ulllcial  dii<  umeiita,  and  iiiu  deemed  necesaary  to 
a  clear  eumprelie.ision  of  tho  present  aa  well  aa  of  the 
prnspuclive  i/ii^u<  of  the  ZolUVcreln.  On  tho  7th  of 
Sipleniber,  W>1,  the  twu  kingiluma  uf  I'msula  and  uf 
Hanover  toparatoly  concluded  a  treaty  of  a  ciisloma 
union,  which,  ten  years  licfurc,  had  been  a  subject  of 
fruitluaa  neguiiation,  reserving  the  question  of  a  union 
between  their  Kapoctlve  I'ualoma  Aaaoclationa  (the 
Zoll-Verelu  and  the  Sluucr-Veniu).  Aa  the  atipula- 
tions  of  thia  treaty  would  rai|uira  a  reconstruction  of 
tha  ZuU-Vcreiu,  and,  consoi|uc  i ' '-,  a  reiniucintion  of 
tlio  treaty  of  1841  between  the  uld  meuibors  uf  that 
league,  tho  Prussian  cabinet,  in  tho  following  Novem- 
ber, gave  notice  of  thia  renunciation,  not  fur  the  pur- 
|K»e  of  retiring  from  a  league  so  lienellcial  in  all  ita  re- 
aulta,  but  with  n  view  of  reorganizing  it  on  a  new 
basis.  '1  he  rruasian  government  further  gave  notice 
that  It  would  aoon  communicate  propositions  to  that 
end,  and  that  a  confei«nce,  or  cong.  ess,  to  take  the 
subject  into  consideration,  would  aasenil  la  at  Ilorlin. 

The  following  statement  will  prove  interesting,  aa 
exhibiting  the  revenue  and  population  of  the  Zoll-Ver- 
ein  from  Its  commencement  down  tu  tlie  year  1851 : 

VtsnL  Pupulatloa.  R*T*nut  In  Tlislan. 

ItUVi ii:i,4'H,l'iU  14,Me,T'iS 

tsao 2:i,4Ts,)2o  iB.Rsn.iso 

WC,        '.5  lVI,iili\  lS,4(ti,RT8 

liwl  »>  :rio,8B8  IT.WT.HlS 

ISW S6,i*H.BI0  S0.4l»,'.ST 

ISGO '.fl.iHS.Ml  S0,86».488 

1940 S«,(14S,0i(l  81,6(10,191 

1S4I S7,184,ll«  S«,S1'ft,4M 

18tS i(7,.^^8,710  28.789, 7U4 

1848 27,020,815  '  «,702,028 

1R4» !i8,408,18a  ,60.794 

184B S8,40I»,6M  tl.-i.rM 

184« SS,ft08,48«  2ti,Jlil'J«» 

1817 20,401.1181  87,834,068 

1K48 2(i.4flO,7M  m.OHS.lM 

1810 , 2v,,4(ll,flM  .4,144,678 

IKfti) 29,S0n,0im  KB.B'.ROM 

1861 i9,VlS:M6  i«,64^6S7 

— Com.  Rtl.  V.  S.  For  tho  port  regulations  uf  rrusala, 
ttt  I'Hi.'gf)iA;  and  for  more  extended  information  re- 
garding tho  atatea  composing  the  Zoll-Verain  tho  read- 
er ii  referred  to  the  articles  on  the  states  separately. 


'^ 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX ^ 


♦ 


ASAMnoNMBMT,  1057 

Acuillii,  1452. 

Aiw)tHn.»,  iro,  ir.)  io-)o 

■Acet/o  ndd,  5.  '  "■"• 

Acl.l   IL'O;),  i.Wl,  ifloo 
A<  JUHtmcnt,  \m,  HU7 

Adulteration  „f„„,„Vl7fi'- 

7'*™'k''' lit,  29i    7,r,| 

Africd,  271    .ri-,    ji,  ,• 

7«(),  «(w,  M32  iat  «l!i"',',':">'  '■'■''■. 

nn<t  iiieaMiiR.,)     '  '•*"  (""Wits  , 
AWciin  (;ompa,„.  a(,- 
Apites,  230.       ■ '       • 
AkoiiI",  (HB,  1o,')1 
AKricuIturc,  24fi  eo?  rni   <,,„ 

JUi'l,l«0^,  lH9,i     •^**'*'2,81D, 
A«uur.li(.|i(p,  .188.  '  , 

,  1034,  13«i,  iVo"'    ■<39   (cotton),! 
Ao.  IfiH.  212.  «90,'ll5<)   l-io  ' 

A  oxaiKlria   ^77,  584    '•  *''*• 

Aliens,  1009,  1847 
A  lunce  Holy,  984. 
A  oy«,  425  (copper). 
Allspice,  1,531,  'lV48. 
Almanac,  23«. 
..Aljiuctt  wool,  1987 
Amazon,  34. 
Aml)aa8ailor,  590 

^  173«J,  1754,  i944'  '^"'  "-Soutl., 

Americm,  co .urce,  385  I 

American  whale-ilshervl  <).!•> 
American  wines,  1980^'''"'- 

A.nrWor-  ■       ' 

A^^^^-lam,  Bank  of,  121;  canal. 

Ananas,  1532. 

Anchors,  226,  271,  428  ins  t-j- 
Ancient  coin,'  352       '       *'  '''■**• 

f^^'^l -commerce,  789. 
Ancient^wi„e.,,,a7,. 

Annuities,  1039,  ,o«3,  IO07,  X079, 

Antilles,  1964. 
Antwerp  383. 
Aquafortis,  7,  1 444 
Aquamarine,  16(i    " 

A?a"bif9^2W"ft«". 

Ar.Wa'r65f8Y7""'"^^'»38^ 
6L 


A  rim,  02. 
Arc  iai,^I  ,3^ 

Arel.,,,e|„«„;f„jJ«- 

1M9.""""'  '«».  802,  892,  1,47 
Anient  .HpirK,  17 

Arw'ii'l  laini.s,  1229  12110 

'^;i;'y9,f''^^'?2i9,ii72 

AriiM,  |,-,20.  ■  ' 

Arliaiisas,  i;)9  ,7,  , 

'Vrmaiiient,  2,07 
Armed  iiciitnilitv  w? 

Ar!!nalfnel,,7fir 
ArjKicial  pearls  Iin- 

A.slie«,  1,071/ 
'l7iHi,5f.«3U03<Mll2,io5«, 

%^^^-    '^-WBVand,,, 

Asplialliim,  180 
As-ai-,  499. 

Atheii.s,  380. 

:J;J-;;-3[olc«rapi,,  ,735,13,1. 

Attar  of  roses.  1(147 
Auotion,  257.  ' 

I      1754,  1789,  ]93i"''»'l'"«,  I68G, 
I  Australia  Koliy    "o,„v 

^fra.^  loli  ^88 '''•"-»■  "^«- 
Azmmtl,  compass,  397. 
A-tof,  hca  of,  l4(jo'. 
Azores,  ti54. 


Bal'vloiiian  carpets,  275 
"""m,  974,  1613.    ' 
^'Icn,  Duchy  of.  1847  la-r 
i  naKKa«e,  (iO((87ti.       '  "^^• 
J  JjaKs,  919. 
"aila  (neutral  port),  513 
HaillaKe,  I48|.       ^'     "■ 
Hulance  of  trailc,  631 
«alc.  Cotton,  4G0.      ' 
Balize,  985. 
nallast,  565. 

BalmofUilead,  87,  819 


,  "aim  of  Peru  88 

"anana,  1637.    ' 
"'inea  tin   1843. 

'  Hank  of  Chit,,,!  J.:' 
"ankru  ,ic  .  S-*'!'  "'  '«■ 

„12«3,  1274  r4i«'',;?8-l»7«,109«' 

anks,  Provinclai   114 
anks,  ,s,.otch,  liJ  '"•  . 

jjaracoa,  497. 

jiarbadoes,  865. 

""'">0'   States.     ,s„   ... 

Marlicr's  |,olo,  52 
"arce/oiia,  1742 
"iirL'es,  184.      • 
I lar  cy,  219,  1898. 
'^arratl^•,  1043 
Barrel,  19,-,2, 
"ass-wood,  1261. 
Jiatavia,  I141. 

'^S^'''^"  (-""-),  1179,  1847, 
Bavarian  Ijcer,  158 
;;yofAlKSai;,,s,*'84. 

I%«fHon,f'u'r„s  685 
«-co,,s,  1238, 1251^*- 

"ear-skins,  768. 
Beaver,  282,  764,  770 
J«l«uin  Aral,,  i^73  • 
»«'f,  283,  490,  875 

Beet  sugar,  716,  1776 
Be.nnK,  500.  '  " 
Be  em,  1490. 

b1"7oS"^""-'""'-'^221. 

"7ii;.  230,  236,  508, 579, 989. 1024, 
Benzoic  acid,  6. 
Benzoin,  88. 
Benzole,  1470. 
{'.'carbonate  of  potass  9S 

«!chedeMer,^77.  • 
Bi«lit  of  Benin,  669. 


-      a^M.. 


2003 

rillU  iif  liodili,  livil,  I7<M. 

mii<<>ruiiiii/,  t;iw, 

lll»iirra|ili)',  fi<M, 
Uln'li  i'i4MiHr>,  'iM, 
Ulriliii»li,  IIHM, 

iiui'uit  (iii««ii,  i;m7, 

lllltar  ('uoiiiiilK'r,  IIMI. 
Illtiiinvn,  'til,  lllMII, 
ItllllMlnoUilnul,  IIIN, 

liUrk  Hon,  INI,  r<iii,  Hiin,  1710. 

llliKlmilM,  I  mm, 

Iliiia  Ink,  mvi, 

lilii«  vlirliil,  ll!(7. 

JitNiK,  VN.  IA7,  Wt,  'iM,  fi7,  483, 

(MHi,  Mf>,  Htm,  771),  MI7,  iiKir*,  mm, 
1I7«,  I'ilii,  I'jiii,  [w,,  i,'mr>.  IIMI, 
iftiw,  iwi,  ia>7,  tnvi,  \m<,  nw, 
lN7!i,  iimii. 

IMii,iii>,  iiri7, 

liolitiii,  III,  iii'i  roiiiK),  110(1, 11109, 

lioinlmv,  Vill,  IO';i 
IImiiiI>'47iI, 

ll<ilM'-<lll>t,   IMN, 

lliioli-ki'i'pliiif,  ';NI,  1117,  1100. 

Ibxiki,  1117,  Rl/M,  llVO, 

ll<><illi>,  nil, 

lliNiU  mill  •liiiM,  llOII,  1710. 

Iliiriii'lii  iii'lil,  <l, 

ll'inm,  M. 

liiiriu'o,  iir>r>.  mn. 

ll'Hi|i||iirua,  '101, 

iici.toii,  urn,   mm,  11271,  1710, 

Ih;h», 
lloiiliMiitt  M<ii,  MiT, 
Mniumiry,  MMfl   1,W   IfljO. 
Ilnllillll'i,  Htm,  iil,  I77'i, 
lI'Mirlxiii  MniKJ,  7!l,  lllll, 
llowliuml  wlmlix,  lUAIl, 
llrniulv,  lim,  IMtl, 
llriiM,  U. 

Iir.uil,  lui,  Nil,  nsw,  inr>,  1.-17,  4iin 

(nillntlV  lillN,  I  UNI,  I  111-/,  lAM, 
I.V.»,    1(1117,    I7M,    I«I7   (lnflff>, 

mill,  inn, 

llri'iti'lii<ii  iif  rxvciitix  l«w»,  1012. 
llri-uiUliiir<,  2IN,  iMtn,  Dili,  H'M,  IW12. 
lliKiikwiiU'r,    lli'litwiirv,    Alli,    001, 

u;i7,  II 10,  121M, 
llr«Mii>ii,  illll,  UNO,  1017. 

llri<Mlllt(.      Srr  IlKNII. 

I«rl<luin,  1)02,  71H,  1270. 
llrliiiHliiiin,  I77N, 

MrllHltl.      Mrr  <)mK«T  llHITAtK. 

UrIiUli  ('<il<iiili'»,  II,  ir>l,  imi,  190, 

341,  21)7,  JHKi,  IMHI,  111)2,  4»A,  (lAI, 
mft,  Nil7,  N7H,  NNII,  Oiil,  lldft,  12110, 
limi,  IIUMI,  lllll,  illlK),  lANM,  1063, 
1717,  172:.,  III2I,  llii'iri. 

Ilrilloll  (llllllllll,  ININ. 

Itrlll>li  iNiirtli  Aini'rli'nn  I'mmMlnnn, 
HNII,  IIM,  1(17(1,  HOI,  1104,  1462, 
ir<HM,  |ll(|,'|    I  (KIN,  I72fi. 

Itrlllali  liirlir,  INOi'i. 

llilil.h  Ihi  IrHilc,  INI2. 

llrliMi  iri'itll)'*,  INiii. 

Ilrlll.li  Wx.l  IikIIcx,  IIOO,  065. 

llrllMi  wiHil,  lliNN. 

Itniknrii,  lllll,  1012. 

llriiKi'",  IIN2, 

llniiowii'k,  lltK'liv  of,  UNO. 

Ilruiiawick,  lii'iirMila,  WW, 

llruiiliio,  021. 

liriinu'U  ciiriH'l,  277, 

llni»>'lii  liii'o,  Iiri7, 

lliilililiia,  r'liiiii  icrHdl,  807,  1177, 
I7!lll, 

llui'i'DiuMn,  74N, 

lliKikwhi'itl,  2111,  16IIN,  ItsOH. 

lluaiiiiit  Avrio,  1172, 

lllllMflltf,   llt!HI(i.li||,i.). 

Ilullloii,  71,  li2N',  I67M. 

Hunk,  'illlt, 

Hooyi.,  I2IW   1262. 

IturKiiiiil)',  1077. 

lliiniinli,  1026, 

iiurliiii  nIii,  I6H, 

UuiulMm,  4,  72)1, 

Uutter,  2U4,  477,  fiOR,  8tS,  1809. 


INDKX. 

Culitaiii,  271,  I2H,  OKI,  Nn7,  OM,  066, 

1fH7,  IHMO. 
('<ioa<>-iiul,  IMIl,  »a2. 
I'ltiilii,  1712. 
CaillUrl,  ItWO. 
Ciilni,  2711,  4I11I. 

CaUutlu,  IIINI,  1021,  1027,  1478. 
I'Nli'iiiliir,  1127. 
Citlironiiii.  177, 1114  (n>lii>.),nir>,  811,1, 

NIKI,  loril,  l.'iT.'i,  IMfl,   loot,  1621 

(rillr>iii<N),  lii;0,  IHIM, 
Cullan,  I2HI,  1610, 
CiiliiK,  6r)4. 
I'miirla,  27^ 
ritiii|ii'urliv,  087. 
('aiiiiihur,  2111. 
('•limln,  140,  2M,  075,  706,  883,  000, 

1 164,  I17H   11(76,  1(102,  1014  (r»ll- 

mmU),  10(13. 
(iiinmlUii  liiilauni,  IXHO, 
CuiinU,  21  {\Ui\  .Ht'u  (iml  Nilr^,  30 

(Alliiiitic  uikI   I'iK'illi),  212,  2IW, 

002,    70,1,   HI2,    076,    1165,    1428, 

IIV),  17(16. 
CaiiiiriiH,  1743,  18.12,  1048. 
CiiiiiUit,  1107,  iN84. 
Cniiilli'X,  MhK. 
CiiiK-ii,  1026,  101)6. 
CuiiiM',  2H. 
(Imiliin,  1102,  1090. 
(.'miiilflKiiK',  II 10,  1028. 
rupo  iiIiH'H,  20. 
('iipnCiKl  ll^ht,  I'.' to. 
Citpc  (In  Voril  Ixliinil*,  1080,  1043. 
('ii|ifl  IliitlcriiK,  1247. 
<'u|m  lliiylipii,  0(11,  004. 
Ciipp  llpiiry,  1247. 
Citpit  lliirii',  001. 
I'Apn  (if  Ci(XHl  Hope,  208,  300,  C37, 

II  IH,  lllll). 
Ciipo  lt(»niiiil,  1248, 
r.ip..  wliiPK,  1080. 

•  '(ipital.  1)76. 
(•(ip.,  !I47. 
«'aptiilii^l002. 
('(iralK,  ( 1. 

CnrnviiiiK,  00  220,  242,  600. 
CarlKPiilc  (loHl,  0. 

•  'iirdcnne,  4117. 
Ciirdiiial  I'dliits,  397. 
CardiiiK-oxx'hliK'a,  404, 
VaritK,  7.W,  lOOl). 
Cnrihlicaii  8ca,  015. 
(.'ar|H!ln,  711,  1162. 
CurriaKii  (if  ttood'*,  1700. 
CarrlnKcs,  312,  921. 
('ar*a)r«nu,  1410. 
CarthaKC,  880. 
('nshniPre,  1702,  1087. 
('ftBpiaii  Hen,  1050. 
CanKln  Imrk,  1748. 
I'aHtliic,  Oiill. 
Catcclm,  1K1I8. 
Caldptrlc  HVHli'iii,  1224, 
(.'at-skiiiH,  (09. 

Cnvciinc,    741,   012    [pepper,   800, 

1612,1747].  ••'    " 

Caymuii  I^laiidx,  1120. 
('i'h(iii».  1641. 
('('iitral  Aiiicrion,  842  (coius),  432, 

007,  1442,  10K4,  1918. 
rcvloii,  229,  1)37,  870. 
CliaKres,  1112. 
('haiiipaini)*,  1970. 
Cliaiiiplaiii,  l^kc!,  1240. 
Cliaiiiicl,  010. 
Cliarcoal,  70O,  1104. 
CliarHcs,  Coiixular,  414, 
Oiarlpston,  1788,  1810. 
Clianiirt,  41). 

Cliartpr  p.irtv,  11),  762,  1708. 
ChnrtK,  827,  "518,  1001,  1317,  1846, 

1398. 
ChasInK,  001,  1029. 
Cheese,  224,  477,  608,  1890. 
ClK^rlMjurK  Ureakwaler,  988. 
OhpsapeHko.  anil  Oliiu  Canal,  263. 
Cheaapoaku  Day,  610,  027,  1889. 


rhntniil,  091. 

ClilapHu  (Mexlpol,  136), 

I'klhua,  1363. 

Chilli,  Mlr.l(»lah,  570. 

Chill,  ,'M2  (I'oliK),  IN«lll,  101.1,  1921. 

China,  08,  '..I.'  |C(ii'lilii,  331],  Mi 
(coldi),  I2H,  nil  (cdtinn  inanuric 
liircp.),  'YMI,  iWn,  0911,  (107,  021, 1127, 
WH,  12116,  11IH7,  U44,  1478,  Iftli-J, 
1057,  lOON,  1719,  1720,  1725, 1820, 
IN22,  IN4II,  iMdll,  IU13,  104(1. 

Chlna-tfraii-,  ll('>7. 

Chliia-liik,  10112. 

Chlna-warp,  1642. 

Chlnihu  Manila,  899,  902,  1S17. 

Chlni'hilla,  7(10. 

ChliicM  Juiika,  200. 

Cliln(*M(i  Hii^ai'-cant*,  1770. 

ChipMiiu  Manil,  IHIl. 

I  hiiy  riKit',  2911. 

ClimiKildKy  of  connncrcial  law,  1180. 

Chroiioini'tcrii,  I2H0. 

CItiarn,  4HH,  1861. 

Cincinnati,  974. 

Ciiinuinnn,  287,  288,  870,  174*. 

Cinq  CiKlf*   IKM. 

Clutilullnn  Ki'pulillr,  1018. 

CllUuna,  Nalurallzml,  1U09, 

Citric  acid,  0,  1208. 

(;ilrnii,  10.6, 

Civic  coinpanlcn,  300, 

Clttinm,  Court  of,  470, 

( lanit    1970,  19H2. 

Claved  (lUKar,  1707. 

CliinatcH,    480   (.cotton),    674,    618, 

Clo.kiii  12S0,  1988. 

Cloth,  081,  846,  1297,  1087. 

ClothlnK,  ■!>4I. 

Clover-Ncpil,  050,  1898. 

Cloven,  1749. 

Clyde,  821. 

(,'oak.     Ste  floKK. 

Coal,  3.W,  408,  767,  788.  1104, 1144, 
1403,  1470,  i018. 

Coal  Kan,  700, 

Coal  oil,  1470. 

CoantlnK  trade,  073,  808,  809. 

Coaiitof  the  I'niled  .Stated,  1838. 

Coant  Burvcy,  670,  945,  1242,  1817, 
1838. 

Cochineal,  260,  507. 

(Jocoa,  001. 

Cocoa-nut,  287,  370,  1483. 

Co(I-li«lierle»,  (i06,  (S72,  742. 

Collcp,  287,  870,  489,  098,  954,  900, 
1307,  1548,  1080,  1820. 

Colimne,  01,  02,  00,  0,6,  272,  806, 
4911.  610.  ,641,027,  81)0,  1031,  KHKI, 
1361,  1300,  1511,  1670, 1054,  1080, 
1701. 

t'oitiK,  2,  3,  4,  8,  12,  28,  47,  03,  09, 
70,  80,  100,  203,  286,  423,  427,  4H.1, 
604,  513,  526,  612,  564,  6,66,  504, 
607,  0,63,  084,  700,  770,  887,  897, 
91.1,  1119,  1209,  1280,  11)24,  1,628, 
1001,  1003,  1026, 1646,  1040,  1661, 
1(>97,  1704,  1724, 1780, 1760, 1701, 
183,6,  1854. 

Coke,  356,  759,  1104. 

Cold  current  of  Okotak,  601. 

Collins  sleaniers,  1754. 

C4>lli»lon,  1018. 

Colottnc  water,  .682. 

Cidoniljia,  832,  008,  1408. 

('(dimial  slavery,  1727. 

Cidonies,  380,  7"lO,  740  [British,  878, 
98M,  10201,  [Dutch,  1397],  [Span- 
ish, 1740J. 

Colored  ulass,  827. 

Color  of  the  ocean,  1468. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  1219. 

Columliia  Kiver,  1479,  1841. 

Colunihus,  Christopher,  799. 

Columhus,  UieRo,  1120. 

ColwcU  on  free  trade,  749. 

Commandite  en  companies,  890. 

Commcrw,  60,  68,  278,  302  (colo- 


J;'"i«r(l  s„ 
Currants,  i 
t'Wrency, 


Coniniarclnl  |»||rv,  4iw 

|,«ni|iii..l8,,  Afrln,,  li 
,S""'I'«"Im,  |)ut,.|,  „„• 
(oiniiaiiliii   I.',...  I .  ■ 


«,     ' ""T"'  "urcii,  11).  ,  > 


J, .' <l»|i«llu,     ,Vm  p,„. 
'ri'riu  luriM.i,i|iw   iHNii 


tVin,,.nlf«,  Nnrthw,,,  7,14 
;";"l"""-,  It"". I  i,-H 

Comnii,,     H,'t,    07;.  V.iJ    V... 

Coniptt,,,  Aziiniiih,  89 

tm,i,,«„,  Variation,  of  «»«  ^' 

CoticJi  .l„||«,  -iHS.'    '"■ 
<;Omie<tl.ut,  177,  10,14   ,72, 

Mmshiiitliiople  m.  m'i 
Concu  ar  ngeiu,.  41?. 

im"' """'  "■""' " 

Coiitraliaiiil,  130H.  Km 
(m.fr««t,  71,  21X1,' 618    ,„,2 
Convoy  ,104,  4»4.       '     '"' 
Cook   t'MptaIn,  802. 
Coollo  tnido,  1728. 
Copenha^Bn,  m. 
<;opp„r,  48,  m,  (i03,  1703 
Copiwr  coins,  280 
J,opi.fir  HlioathInK,  1703, 
Copyright,  J90.    ' 


fjania«cii,,  273 

tt^!!!;««ni{..i;5, 

,  ,  «»l,  l(,wl    "'  ■""•  '"'».  fiM,  043, 
I    '«:  ,3""-.    'H    0.3,    1„«^ 

'«o^  >aS'■*'•"'«• 
'J^;l;:;^«"';7■6,77s. 

'  {»'*1  letter.,  Imi. 


20U3 
K«rth.  r»7 

J»"«  In.llf,,  Hrllh"'  V.    r 

tf'a;'"*V'^:'^uV7i,, 


''^^-•""'•■"''^'•H.7o,,8Hja::;:'S^ 

C(Hitral.an(l.  lanH   ir.m  :  l)r.|,i„.,.  "  ',"."  "j  '.  ""n  Ciiiiul.  ^.',:i 


-—..I,  .imi>.  Uotrolt,  1358        ■    — 

^Td"^,.^'".   «3,   876,    1806,   1898,    {J^^^^fr;;;.';™"', voyage,.  ,043, 
Cornelian,  16.  Uianiomk  37  i?^'"'""™-  10«3. 


l^onlivainer,  S8, 
I'orfli,  1085. 
'y'orn,     "■ 

1071. 
Cornelian,  16. 
Corporatlonn,  898. 
Coruna   Towor  of,  1220. 
Cosmet  c».  1B4<1      u"n 

Cotton 

OK?'  .',t'.'',  '•"'  ""^a,  874,  917   91.V  ,  n~V<  ""'1  la 
Bm,  13(i«,  ,419   i;..   ,',.;;'•  :;:?fi  ^>oik.var(N  A') 

'ff\n     una •.  n_  .  J     Mi-llllil—     1..  * 


I     ore.,),  IM.^  ^*"'«'"»  ""■I   nicail: 
l>o  Soto,  i;i,i2_  • 


U  anioiirls,  37,  594. 
"jl'loniaev,  407. 

'•'WCOUMt,"l08 

&^;;^^;:^"?i:ii>"37. 


Cotton  carnota,  27(1. 

l;0  on  einf.roi,ierle.,,  693. 

X'''»"ff'""H«x,eti„(i79. 

l^olton  splnninif,  «o 
Ootton-wood,  225 
Courten's  As«,w|ation,  575 

CourtofAtlmlraltv   10 

Court  of  He  I'„„(|j;<;  yj^ 

Cow,,  22,^  1897.      • 

Jjracotv,  Commercial  system  of  I  l«n 

Cream  of  tartar.  58   I'iiM     °'>  "S". 

Credit  Fonder,  74,}.' ''*'**• 

Oredt,  Letters  of,  1204 

Crdd  t  Mobiller,  122  124  TK- 
Credits,  378.  '       '  '*"• 

Crimea,  1460. 

Cronstadt,  1667. 

l^rossley's  carpets.  278. 


Ki5r""™'^''^S'i»«i, 

IJrUk'H,  2l,i,  3,58.  482  4«i   r,r  ^~„ 

,R""'j"i""'IIWiM227. 
Dry-ilocks,  549 
I'ry-rof,  «J8. 

^^^l^•92l!l|-a'"• 

Bun.lce,  12(i3  "  ^"''■^• 

Uutch  39  [Oolonie,,  3681,  fEnst  In 
""  Con>p„„y,  40,  '396J  '9V6  1132 

Hutch  Colonies,  40.  1,54  3M  qto 
nutch  cominere'ial  iol lev  39'  839' 
I)i.cli(;uia,m,911,'l49l.'  ■  »• 
Dutch,  Trade  if  tl,;,  311 

Dutch  TradinK  Company  39 
Duties,  237,  5«3„'i44,,'i56U(i2  ,40, 
Over's  weed,  1953         "'"«^.  "81. 


>!(/9l3""'^'"  ("""".).  «9. 

J.I<'<trot.vp|„|,,  im; 
J;li>ineur,  527,  535 

Kma!::ri'ilii^'«<'.  '«<«■ 

'  f;i>"lon,  028.  •        • 
'  {•;"iJKrant«,  925,  I  m 

f;n<lor.en>e„,   „;^;,'ty- 
'V'K'iio,  «,i.|. 

I'i89  19,i7      '  '"'"•   '^'«.   Hoi, 
j?n)fll»li  (Jolonies,  ,300 

[iiiKronsi,,^,  ,;9,i.  ™'  '"8. 

[Jiirollincnt,  1627 
I'l'l.uiniH.tlal  eurff',    ,-., 

Rrje,  Uke,  Hfl. . 

j;-fle,  Port,  16J , 

Iwsenenot'row'    ,,;, 

ijwntlai ,  'Is,  I  j,.,;     • 
Ksscqul, '    I     > 
Ktching    '.; 
Kunme,    ■.■:x 
fcuxino  ^  a,  ,(,. 
IvxchanKo,  Hill, ,      ,,   . 
hxehanrfc,  K„ya|  ,(,j,i 

Exports,  1904. 


ll.)l 


'PH. 


Foctor,  213. 
Factoiros,  259. 


J.alse  keel   1148. 

{•.eathcrs,  655,  585,  1004 

[r'<  Consular,  414. 

J,?'   "ft  770,  948, 

tieM  beet,  1311. 

riliferec,  am. 

rniance.    See  Bavito  ..j  i» 

Fin'-ack  whaler  1m9'""'*^<"'"- 
riiiiand,  H70,  1054    " 
;;ire-arms,  153-1. 
^|re-hrick,  212. 
Hre-cscape,  1208. 
fire  insurance.  10,W 

*'re  Wand  li^ht,  124S. 
f.ir-tree,  1532. 


.— ■,  Jill,  n,m  1877 

S.-*.**.'-.  (-.H  / 17,  721,  741    843 


'o^o,  18S1. 
J;"nard  steamers,  1751 
Currants,  889,  1997 
Currency,  1870, 1579. 


P)-e.woods,  i54, 1161 


HOI,  1105,  V4-',^,\liV^28S' 

,f?^!^^i.iS''^-.^ 

Ffteh,  .Toll,,,  7fi3|'      ""• 

|J,jxedoils,  1466.  jji 

I  nags,  1309.  ^* 


2004 


INDEX. 


Flai.1er8,  882. 

Flax,  713,  966,  1092,  U47,  1261, 
16o5,  1899. 

Fleet^  C84. 

Floatmi;  anchor,  44. 

FloatinK  breakwater,  942. 

Florence  oil,  1472. 

Florida,  143,  177,  1034,  1151,  1249, 
1840. 

Florin,  982; 

Flour,  208,  486,  490,  694,  875. 

Fluctuations  in  prices,  102,  1586. 

Fluoric  acid,  6. 

Fog  signals,  1252. 

Fonseca,  Bay  of,  986. 

Foo-chow,  689. 

FooK:how-foo,  260,  1700. 

Food,  1336. 

Food,  Adulteration  of,  11. 

Foreign  bills,  174. 

Foreigners,  599. 

Foreign  exchange,  625. 

Fowling-piecps,  919,  1354. 

Fox-slcins,  768. 

Fractions,  Decimal,  616, 

France,  192,  229,  250  (canals),  277, 
287,  295,  337  (coffee),  841  (coins), 
368  (colonies),  375,  455  (cotton), 
ft49,  665,  765.  897,  952, 1033, 1071, 
1102,  1157, 1180, 1229, 1285, 1294, 
1324,  1387.  1438,  1450,  1494,  1609 
(railroads),  1777,  1805  (tariff J, 
1825,  1847,  1855,  1864,  1918,  19o6 
(West  Indies),  1962  (whale-tish- 
enO,  1977  (wine). 

France,  Biinli  of,  121, 1948  (weights 
and  measures). 

Erance,  Commercial  system  of,  1180. 

Francis's  lifo-ljoats,  l'il8. 

Frankfort,  Commercial  system  of, 
1181. 

Franking,  1569. 

Franklin,  ijir  Jolm,  802. 

Free  trade,  385. 

Freight,  82,  291,  1045,  1588,  1607, 
1619,  1629,  1693   1707. 

I'rench  bills  of  exchange,  172,  174. 

French  Colonics,  284,  868,  741,  744, 
897,  912,  1321,  15-11. 

French  East  India  Company.  578, 
1541. 

French  fairs,  649. 

French  (jniana,  912. 

French  light-houses,  1229. 

Frei.ch  whale-Usher)-,  1962. 

French  wheat  trade,  1967. 

French  wine  trado,  1977. 

Fresnel  lights,  1220,  1230. 

Frifsland,  978. 

Frobishf  r,  892. 

Fruits,  295,  477,  499,  fiU,  660,  908, 
1203,  1261,  1311,  l.m  1(77,  IWS, 
1532,  15,17,  15.38, 1540, 1593, 1604, 
1634,  1792,  1793. 

Fuel,  1104,  1242,  1508. 

Fuerteventnra,  250. 

Fullers'  thistle,  1826. 

Funding  system,  1703. 

Funds,  400. 

Furnaces.  1099. 

Furs,  283,  016,  145j,  1509,  1661. 

Galati!,  61.3,  775,  1883. 

Galena,  1193. 

Gallic  acid,  6. 

Gall-nuts.  1456. 

Gallon,  1952. 

Galveston,  1840. 

Gas,  700,  1227. 

Gauge,  775. 

Gauge  fur  ti<les,  1835. 

Gauntlet,  78.3. 

Gay  Head  light,  1246. 

Geilney's  Chunncl,  New  York,  1434. 

General  average,  1046. 

Genoa,  881,  1680. 

Oeodesy.  822,  Mi). 

Ueoipraphical  longitude,  1270. 


Georgia,  148,  177, 438  (cotton),  1084, 
1634,  1688,  1840. 

German  bills  of  exchange,  174. 

German  Commercial  Union,  818, 
1596,  1998. 

German  fairs,  640. 

German  iron  manufactures,  1103. 

'  German  wines,  1979. 

Germany  [Banks  of,  122],  842 
(coins),  510,  -^6,  597,  649,  747, 
922,  i«8,  1103,  1179,  1289,  1470, 
1554,  1693,  1648,  1979,  1998. 

Ghent,  52. 

Gilt  balls.  Three,  52. 

Gin,  785,  1147. 

Gin,  Cotton,  442. 

Ginger,  1747. 

Glaciers,  1005. 

Glass,  47,  483,  681,  1751. 

Glass,  Engraving  on,  611. 

Glauber  salts,  26. 

Gloves,  716. 

Glut,  524. 

Gold,  86,  79,  241,  272  [coins,  o45], 
853,  365,  383,  626  1031,  1167, 
1342,  1361,  1537, 1574, 1581, 1686, 
1634,  1680,  1803. 

Gold  Coast,  913. 

Gold  discoverj',  78. 

Gold  laco,  1158. 

Gold  size,  835. 

Gold  standard,  627. 

Gold  thread,  835. 

Gold  wire,  835. 

Gonaives,  961. 

Good  Hope,  Cane  of,  267,  209,  887, 
1118,  1943. 

Grace,  Days  of,  515,  6,38,  84.1. 

Grain,  68o,  1267,  1466,  1402,  1C60, 
1749,  1905. 

Grain  Coast,  14. 

Grained  leather,  1196. 

Gramme,  1152. 

(Jrand  Bank  fishcrj-,  666. 

Grass  seeds,  956. 

Great  Britain,  251  (canals),  816 
(coal),  317  (coins),  861  (colonies), 
875,  884,  425  (cupper),  430  (com 
laws),  453  (cotton),  469  (cotton 
manufactures),  599,  601.  048,  667, 
675,  997,  1019,  1033,  1087,  1100, 
1181,  1192,  1231, 1263, 1266, 1274, 
1438,  1451,  1511,  1554,  1610  (rail- 
road.*), 1704,  1719,  1753,  1771, 
1805  (tariff),  1825,  1842,  1846, 
1865,  1913,  1036,  1948  (weights 
and  measures),  1955  (West  In- 
dies), 1960  (whale-fishery),  1966, 
1988  (wool). 

Grecian  coins,  352. 

Grecian  wines,  1981. 

Greece,  859,  380,  1181,  1502,  1900. 

Grcytown,  1684. 

Ground-nuts,  1454. 

Guadalouiic,  741,  1326. 

Gunno,  1271,  1517, 

Guatemala,  1865. 

Guayania.  1.547. 

Gu»ya(|uil,  614. 

Guerrero,  1354. 

Guiana,  835,  1943. 

Guiana,  British,  741,  808. 

Guiana,  Dutch,  1494. 

Guiana,  Frencb,  284. 

Guild,  91.3. 

Guinea,  1944. 

Gulf  of  St.  I.awrence,  1178. 

Gulf  Stream,  326,  500. 

Gums,  16G,  778,  782,  819, 1162, 1156, 
1470.  1476, 1661,  1685, 1791, 1838, 
1859,  1886. 

Gum  Senegal,  1097. 

Guns,  1534. 

Gutta  percha,  267,  1026. 

Hair,  243,  1972. 
Halibut-fishery,  673, 
Hamac,  927. 


Hamburg,  Bank  of,  121,  931,  1181, 

1948. 
Hams,  83,  1643. 
Handkerchiefs,  92,  467. 
Hanover,  946, 1181,1761, 1865, 1949. 
Hanse  Towns,  211,  882,  457  (cotton), 

526,  922,  930,  1180,  1289,  1866, 

1918. 
Harbors,  477,  601,  606,  860,  1257, 

1644,  1839. 
Harbors  of  reftige,  937,  940. 
Harburg,  929. 

Hardware,  605,  606,  714, 1387, 1612. 
Hargreavcs,  James,  463. 
Hartshorn,  24. 
Hartshorn,  Spirits  of,  24. 
Hats,  716. 
Havana,  484,  497. 
Haven.    See  Harbor. 
Hay,  1898. 
Hayti,  267,  842  (coins),  841,  1119, 

1181,  1644,  1674, 1767, 1918, 1944. 
Hazcl-nnt,  1464. 
Health,  Bill  of,  178. 
Hemn,  714,  887,   919,  1147,  1627, 

1656,  1890. 
Herrings,  604,  668,  678,  848,  1406. 
Hesse  commercial  sj-stem,  1182, 
Hides,  602,  1195,  1516,  1726. 
Hill,  Rowland,  1666. 
Himalaya,  1011. 
Hindostan,  163,  222,  498,  782, 1010, 

1161.— See  India. 
Hispuniola,  957. 
Histor)'  of  Commerce,  879. 
Hogs.    See  Pokk  Tkadk. 
Hogshead,  1952. 
Holland,  89,  248  (canals),  378,  882, 

al34,  1182,  1396,  1649,  1806  (tar- 
iff), 1849,  1866,  1949. 
Holland,  New,  76. 
Ilolstein,  Duchy  of,  680. 
Hoiro  market,  1801. 
Honduras  Ilailwa}-,  986. 
Hong  Kong,  261. 
Hong  merchants,  259,  264. 
Honolulu,  1675. 
Hooghly  River,  231. 
Hooks,  676. 
Hops,  17,  1898. 
Horizon,  Artificial,  62,  637. 
I  Horse  aloes,  29. 

Horses,  707  1897. 
I  Hose  and  hosiery,  1761. 
I  Hospital,  895,  lfi02,  1694. 
i  House  telegroph,  1828. 
I  Hunnillas  Island,  901. 
Hudson,  Henry,  519, 
Hudson  River,"  1428. 
Hudson's  Bay  Cunii  ..nv,  766,  802. 
Hughes  telegraph,  1821'. 
Humbor  River,  997. 
Humboldt,  86,  04,  Tt. 
Humboldts  Current,  601. 
Hungarian  wines,  999. 
Hungaij-,  881. 
Hurl-Gate,  966. 
Huron,  Lake,  1168. 
Hu'^'cns,  astronomer,  670. 
Hy  Iriodic  acid,  6. 
Hydrocyanic  acid,  7. 
Hydrography,  291,  323. 

Ibrailla,  777. 

Iceland  moss,  1.381. 

Illi.iuis,  137.  177,  253,  283,  296,  779, 
1034,  1193. 

tnnnigrants,  694. 

Imports  and  exports,  629, 1799, 1907, 
1910. 

Impost.    See  Takiff  and  Taxes. 

Impregnation  of  liml)cr,  662. 

India,  British,  20,  10.1,  222,  280,242, 
276,  281,  383,  441  (cotton),  461, 
498,  675,  .576,  616,  O.TO,  791,  972, 
989,  1004,  1027,  1161,  1301;  1)1,34, 
1474,  1675,  lOGO,  1703,  171'2,  1725, 
1754,  1818. 


Kane,  D 
K-'it  on  I 
i><'''t  "U  I 
jS^nf  on  s 
■^ent  on  c 


Indelible  ink,  1082 


INDEX. 


India  mail,  20. 

Indiana,  ihj,  177,  253,  IOS4 

Indian  berrj-,  330.       '        " 

Indmn  corn,  210,  .29,  ,306,  ,898^ 

Indian  Rlue,  829. 
Indian  Ocean,  165,  500 
India  rublwr.  267  OTo  'ion-,  . 
n'ligo,  234,  b67,  1013'  ^^^^'  '"«''• 
Indoraemeut,  168.  179 
Inl(,  1025.  '     ■*• 

InJf,?274'!''«'"""'2*^-975. 

Insolvency,  150,  1345. 
Insolvents,  I60 
Inspection  of  drugs,  557 
Insurance  aKcntsfl'o53 
Insurance  clubs,  1042 
Insurance,  Fire,  1208* 
Insurance,  Life  8,  49  ior,7 
Insurance,  Marn„'  %\i^fn 


'Kent on  contracts,  420. 
Kent  on  embassac^ors  fiqi 

Kentonlawofiie'ntra,  189S 
Kent  on  piracy,  1534  '  " 
Keno„p,^4-IJ3^- 

Ken     "Sn??-. 

Kento„'sXlSfG75''"'^''28- 

Kento„8ea,169'o''^'*- 

Kiachta,  1657 
Kingston,  I123. 


Labrador,  1404,  1608 
fa<i?,  713,  836,  1093 
{-atl'ng.  Bill  of,  ire  • 
J-agan,  684. 


•nrerest  on  depositi  ion 

Inter^ceanic  Railvviy,  986 

In  transitu,  1764.      '''     "•  ,-•■..».>.,  ...w 

I'lnique,  Island  of,  901    mon  f-ititudo,  324"51<)  r,pn  -„. 

,.S.f,U^«-   ^»^'.   «nV^tj&[-[;^"»  Warof,1043. 

Irish  bai.lcH   119.  563.  {'"»»,  Corn,  430 

Irish  jlainaslcs,  510.  {-""s  of  commerce  37i 

Irish  linens  1263.  J-'ws  of  merchant  1  «j7 


*ce   Teih. 


We  of  Wight," 477 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  1484 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  1706     • 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantehec  1826 
ItaianbllhofexchaEm- 
Italian  fairs,  649.         '^  '        ' 
Italian  wines,  1971) 

,  1013,  lOo'o,  1979       ^'  ""'•  "««. 
Ivory  Coast,  I4.    ' 

Jaconet,  467. 

Jamaica,  364. 

■Jamaica  pepper,  1531. 

Jamaica  rum,  1050. 

Japan,  1144,  1159  1007  ia<.c  ' 

Java,  154,  ?37       '      '''■  ^'''^• 

JelFery'a  ^lue,  829. 

Jenny,  Spinning,  463 

Jersey  CiV  14li 

Jetsam,  684. 

Jettison,  1046. 

a;;oii;:::^^:-"'-s--, 

Jewish  measures,  1953 
Jobber,  Stock,  1761.  " 
Jo°pp«!ni9!''"""""''^''3!)4. 

Juniper  berries,  165. 
Junks,  268,  1146. 

jSr"""'^'""^"''- ''«<'• 

Juvia-tree,  205. 

Kane,  Dr.  E.  K.,  898. 
K-nt  on  admiralty,  n. 

Ken   "'"  "|f"''K''»"'cnt,  13. 
J^ent  on  aliens,  22 
l^ent  on  contraband,  419, 


559, 


•101,  417, 


J.azarettos,  1601 
I-Ciii ,  539,  779. 
J-™d,  niack,  181. 

;  paf,  Gold,  836.'      •'^• 
J'Cague,  Hanseatic,  930 

f-eewardi^iands,  19,04 
Le;,'al  temlor,  97  ITn  ibqi 

.,,  !   '"Khom,  1888.    '        '  '^^'- 

'"",  j  lenses,  123; 

'""     letters,  1558. 

'setters  of  marque,  1589 

,  507,  Sr4,  18h,  'l^s''  ^' 
Level  of  the  oican   iTls 

Liability  of  e„rrier:,,'^;'S- 1,06 
I.  beria,  4«G  (cotton),  luj.|  " 
Life  annuities  49  ' 

Life-boats,  1214,  1237 
Life-buoy,  222,  1212   joo- 
L;fe  insurance,  S,  4!)'  in^!;  ,0— 
■ife-preservers,  429.'         '  ^*'" 
Light-houses,  481     n-iS 
.ilfi7,  ]«77.  ' 

Light-ships,  1229  1037 

Lignum  vira?,  (<!)8    "    ' 

Lime,  285,  851,  920 

Limerick  l.ice,  115;' 

L;m.tedn,r(norships,  1496 
Linen,  510,  541    Si",   fine V-  ,..„ 

,.n3.'851.'l092,n6  JL     '""' 

Liquid  gluo,  829 

Liiuor,  m,  Ml,  819. 

Lisbon.  1975. 

Lithogranhv,  611. 

Liverpool,  Sl8,  602,  1755 
I  Liverpool  docks,  51S 
I  Live  stock,  1593,  1x97 
i  Llama  wool,  29. 

'.Iiiyds',  1041,  1991, 
Loans,  1763. 


755,    870, 


2OO0 

Loans  Maritime,  1394 

J^.l'lolly  Bav,  841  .  •" '^-  '•'■ ' '' 

J^l'os  fslanas,  900  909     '  '"'"'.■'•■•■'■' 

J-ocomotives,  1606'  ,     ■•'"."''■. 

Logarilhiiis,  1389  '  "  '    '■  ' 

LOB-liook,  1708.    ■ 

l-ogwood,  961 

l-ong-boat,  184.     ' 

Spcppef  JbfJ'*'  ''''  ''''  ^282. 
I^oin,  461 

fosses,  1042,  1057 

Louisiana,  140    iro    .»„  , 

,  682, 1084,  1417     V?,/~"°'>). 

fObec'k,  526,  118^  ^"'*'  ^^^^- 

Lucayas,  83 

fneca,  1183,  1889 

Lucifer  matches,  1333 

^1-^--  206,  365,Tl6,  1536,  ,842. 
Lunar  eclipse,  1281 
Lunaryear,  1996.   ' 
Luxuries  and  taxes,  I8OI. 

JJice,  1747. 
MacKere'-fisher^-,  672 
^Jadcira,  1978,-l'a82 
Maaras,  231, 
Magnctj  1270. 
^agnetic  needle,  397 
Magi^tic   telegraph.- 

Magj-ars,  999 
Mahogaiiv,  985. 

MatV25,^''6'7rVl„P»---. 
i^i  1839.   '"'    '"•*'   ^^>   12^5, 

Maize,  420. 

*|"  aga   1741. 

Jla  aysia,  H58. 

^lalic  acid,  6. 

Malmsey  wine,  1978. 

Malstroem,  1272 
i\falM7,  608, 
(Malta,  1183. 
I  Maltese  oranges,  1477 
lManl,atta„I.ii,„;,,;j73,, 

iK"-""'' ^"26;  1743 

1016     9fiQ   iVo''^'/''''  8Gf  929 
I     1785:19m'    ''''"'''' ^3=^».  "52; 

Maps,  176,  291,  327,  79..,  1001,  ,288, 

Marianne  Islands,  1159 

Marine  gl„o,  S29. 

Jlarine  liospltals,  993  1691 

Jfarine  protests,  1709    '         '  ^'^''• 

I  Mariners,    to  Se,i.mi:v 

JIainierscompas.«,  397   ' 

I'JonT^'"""'    "8».    1332    I398 
I      IMO,  1629,  1673,  IB!  0  fegi  ^^^^' 

Markets,  524,  648  '         ' 

Jlarmora,  Sea  of,  401,  414  613 
I  Marquette,  1362.  '       ' 

(Marriage  of  aliens,  592 

Mamed_^™.HiawoU347. 


Marten-skins,  767 
Martha's  Vincvard,  1217 
Martinique,  368,  745,  1326 
Marylainl,  90,  134,  177,  295  10^5 

ifiioV  ^f''   '""O,   15.30  (pilots? 
IflO  (railro,i,)s),  1710  1889        '^' 
Masters,  1692,1707        '"""'• 
I  Mastic-tree,  9' 6. 
Matanzas,  497. 
I  Maupertuis,  571.  'T'h 


2006 


INDEX. 


Maurltins,  1M5. 
Miiur}-  on  Atlantic,  78. 
Maury  on  currents,  BOl. 
Maur}'  on  Dead  Soa,  516. 
Maur}'  on  deserts,  638. 
Maury  on  trade  winds,  1373. 
^lavaKbez,  1547. 
M'Clure,  Captjiin,  802. 
Meadow  saffron,  358. 
Measures,  8,  47,  2«8,  296,  498  [Dec- 
imal, 5171,654.  663,  696, 726, 1152, 

1194,  1266,  1358, 1494, 1609, 1512, 

1533,  1941. 
Meat  biscuits,  1337. 
Mecca  273. 

Mecklenburn,  1183,  1648,  1866. 
Meconic  acid,  0. 
Mediterranean  Sea,   14,  441,   500, 

619,  737,  815,  1309,  17-14. 
Meerschaum  ivipcs,  1533. 
.Mclljoume,  1933. 
Mercantile  actions,  374. 
Mercantile  laws,  02o,  1450. 
Merchandise,  1752. 
>rerchant  adventurers,  12. 
Merchants,  50.">,  .'.54.  1653, 
Merchants,  Customs  of,  50&. 
Merchants,  I^wa  of,  1347. 
Mercury,  1604. 
Meridian,  .'■)70,  1279. 
Merino  wool,  1988. 
Metals,  424  (copper),  830, 1015, 1 192, 

1306,  1113,  1522,  1537,  1733, 1842. 
Mexico,  36,  3-12  (coins),  437  (cotto.i), 

469,  832,  1120,  1161,  1724,  1745, 

1793,  1845,  1866, 1913, 1929, 1944. 
Mezzotint,  611. 
Michigan,  178,  539,  1035. 
~Michigan,  Lake,  1165. 
Middle  Ages,  Commerce  of,  381. 
Mile,  1952. 

Milk,  477,  .^08,  690,  094. 
Mineral  alkali,  26. 
Minerals,  621. 
Mines,  240,  602,  709,  1089. 
Mining  |Coa<,  814 1,  483,  688,  696, 

699,  949,  1098,  1167. 
Ministers,  Foreign,  407,  690. 
Mink,  767. 
Minnesota,  773. 
Minors,  Law  of,  1847. 
Mint,  340, 346, 353,  1277, 1511, 1579, 

1680. 
Mint  valuation  of  gold,  340. 
Mississippi  River,  35,  139,  682,  915, 

1249,  128/,  1.594,  1417, 1423,  1810. 
Mississippi  srueniu,  1178. 
Mississippi  St:ite,  178,  439,  1035. 
Missouri  River,  l:r>3. 
Missouri  State,  143,  178, 1035, 1107, 

1110,  1664. 
Mobile,  1249,  I8l0. 
Mobilier,  Cndit,  480. 
Mocha,  337. 

Modena,  1183,  1889,  1949. 
Moftadore,  1378. 
Mohammedan  Status,  417. 
Molasses,  48H.  1420, 1548, 1651  1768. 
Moldavia,  775. 
Money,   15,  72,  427  (coppi'r),  544, 

626",  764.  1078,  1203,  1474,  1586, 

1792,  1919,  l!i:i6. 
Money  orders,  1 .559. 
Monv)polics,    377,    624,    696,    1583, 

1848. 
MonUuk  Point  light,  1246. 
Mont  de  I'iclr,  12(1.1,  1504. 
Montreal,  245,  1603. 
Mooring,  46. 
Mores,  1502. 

Morocco,  1368,  1866,  1944. 
Morocco  leather,  1 198. 
.Morse  Udegraph,  1828. 
Mortar  rockets,  1214. 
.Mothcr-of-iH-url,  1607. 
Motintain  flax,  37. 
Moant    Desert    Kock    light- house 

1246. 


Mulben3--treo,  714. 
Mule-jenny,  465. 
Mnlcs,  708,  1897. 
Muriatic  acid,  6. 
Murrhino  caps,  1543. 
Muscat,  1866. 
Muscovado  sugar,  1766. 
Muakrat,  767. 
Muslins,  467. 
Mustard,  1747. 
Muster-roll,  1708. 

Nankeens,  463. 

Naples,  779,  1471,  1718,  1856. 

Nassau,  Duchy  of,  1188. 

Natal,  14. 

National  debt,  764. 

Notions,  Law  of.  See  Law  of  Na- 
tions. 

Naturalization,  22,  1009. 

Nautical  Almanac,  28. 

Naval  stores,  61,  257,  280,  875,  916, 
917. 

Navel  oranges,  1477. 

Navesink  light,  1247,  1434. 

Navigation,  28,  167,  247,  896,  483, 
516.  669,  676,  915,  919,  971,  979, 
1199,  1279,  1291,  1811, 1831,  189H, 
1462,  1536,  1601, 1626, 1629, 1633, 
163.5,  1646,  1661,  1697. 

Navigation  laws.  979. 

N&vigation,  Ijiws  of,  1317,  1766. 

Navigation,  Steam,  1752. 

Navigat :,rs,  308,  610. 

Nuvy,  681,  684. 

Navy  yard,  653. 

Neat  cattle,  1897. 

Needle,  Magnetic,  897,  518,  642. 

Negotiable  paper.  Set  Piiiiminsory 
NoTKS  and  Bji.ls  or  E.\cii anui'.. 

Nesis,  Birds',  179. 

Netherlands  I  Bank  of.  38,  121],  .343 
(coins),  382,  974,  979,  982,  1856, 
191.3. 

Neutral,  419,  1056,  1323. 

Neutrality,  Armed,  60,  626. 

Neutrality,  Breach  of,  1050. 

Neva  Kiver,  16S7. 

New  Bnmswick,  1668, 1669. 

New  England,  128, 1617  (railroads). 

Newfoundland,  333,  605,  664,  667, 
1663,  1669. 

New  Uranada,  280,  343  (coins),  832, 
1484.  1867. 

New  Hampshire,  17G,  1035,  1889. 

New  Holland,  76,  804. 

New  Jersey,  135,  177,  263  (canals), 

1035,  1247,  1678. 
New  Orleans,  1288,  1840. 
Newport,  Rhode  Island,  1839. 
New  SiMith  Wales,  78,  838,  1789. 
NcwspaiKTs,   12    (advertisement.*), 

1558. 

New  York  City,  582,  1247,  1369, 
1,390,  15.30  (pilots),  1678,  1755, 
1776,  1839. 

New  York  State,  130,  177,  221,  2.53 
(canuls>,  996,  1015,  1246  (light- 
houses), 1496,  1616  (railroads), 
1671    18.19. 

New  Zealand,  804. 

Nicaragua,  36,  1626. 

Niger,  H05. 

Nile,  18,  21,  4.i;»  (cotton). 

Nineteenth  wnturj-,  Evcuts  of,  392. 

Ningpo,  260,  1700. 

Nitrate  of  imUsh,  1672. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  1520. 

Nitric  acid,  7. 

Nouh's  ark,  58. 

Nomini.l  "xchunge,  625. 

Norfolk,  Virginia,  1839. 

Nortli  America.  S'4,  227,  S(i3  (colo- 
nies), 371,  384,  4:18  (cotton),  800. 

North  American  Fur  l^niiipanv,  772. 

North  Cnrolinii,  142,  177,  2«<,  853, 

1036,  124M,  1737,  18;W, 
North  I'acillc,  802. 


North  Polar  Sea,  1839. 
North  Sea.    Se«  Aiicrio  Oceak. 
Northwest  Company,  765.    ' 
Northwest  passage,  58,  802,  1148. 
Norway,  165,  304,  343  (coins),  842, 

1183;  1272,  1760,  1780, 1866. 
Notes,  Bank,  98. 
Notes,  Promissory,  1029,  1450. 
Nova  Scotia,  669,  921,  U03,  1668. 
Nutgalls,  1031. 
Nutmegs,  1747. 
Nutria,  768,  770. 
Nuts,  205,  281,  295,  780  1800, 1684, 

1726,  1936. 

Oajaca,  1364. 

Oak,  428,  780,  1266.  > 

Oak  bark,  163. 

Oakum,  241. 

Oats,  686,  1897. 

Observatories,  670. 

Ocean,  Arctic,  67. 

Ocean,  Atlantic,  78,  241,  600,  915. 

Ocean,  Indian,  1024. 

Ocean,  Pacific,  600,  1481. 

Ocean  steam  navigation,  1763, 1767. 

Odessa,  1686,  1967. 

Ohio,  186,  178,  306,  809,  974,  1086. 

Ohio  River,  1363. 

Oil-cloth,  682. 

Oil  of  turpentine,  1887. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  7. 

Oils  [Camphor,  2241,  229,  282 
[Clove,  811],  [Cod  liver,  3341, 
[Shark,  834  ,  3<3,  483,  616  [Fit- 
.xel,  774],  780,  1227,  1242,  1405 
[Olive,  1471],  [Palm,  1483], 
[Raj.e,    1625],    [Whale,     1958], 

Oil-stone,  988. 

Oil  trade  834. 

Okotsk,  Cold  current  of  the,  501. 

Oldenburg,  930,  1867. 

Olibanum,  700. 

Olive  oil,  1467,  1997. 

Olives,  887. 

Ontario,  Lake,  246,  1162. 

Open  policies,  1047. 

Opium,  284,  261,  689,  1013,  1021, 

1296. 
Oi)obalsam,  87. 
0(M.rto,  1561,  1975. 
Orilnance,  258,  899,  605  rSurvcy, 

571],  917,  918. 
Oregon,  369. 
Ores,  llOO. 
Oriental  carpets,  276. 
Orinoco  River,  1408. 
Ornaments,  567. 
Orris  root,  1098. 
Ostend,  52. 
O.ilrich  feathers,  0.57. 
Otter,  76K. 

Otto  of  roses,  75,  1647, 
Over-insuruncc,  1047. 
Overland  m.iil,  20. 
Owner  of  ships,  1706, 
Oxalic  acid,  7. 
Oysters,  287. 

Pacilic,  500,  778,  1540,  1732,  1827, 

Pucilic  liailroud,  1621. 

I'nck,  86. 

I'uinted  glass,  .*<27. 

raintiiig.  tiOO,  75,5,  1470. 

I'uhils,  422,  782,  UU4,  1,501,  1998. 

I'nit4i,  1520. 

I'iilcrnio,  1716. 

pHleslinc,  17'JO. 

Palm  od,  14119,  1717. 

Palms,  KM. 

I'.inam.i,  37,  60,  51.1.  1410. 

Panama  Islbmus,  'Mi,  37,  1  111. 

I'apal  Donnnions,  :MH, 

Paper,  1605,  1626,  ll!35. 

I'iipor  nioiiev,  72,  102,  628. 

Para,  31. 

l'aral)oloid»l  mirrors,  1224. 


Paraguay,  72. 

I  arana  River   mto 

Parasols,  18«/.     '"' 

Pjiiah-arrack,  60 

Piris,  719.       ' 

Parm«,  1184,  1889,  ms 

Pur  of  exchange  fii/"**' 
Pafr,'.  Edwar<r«)j(  ' 
i^arsons  on  deinurram/  Ms 
Parsons  on  factors,  W       ' 
Parsons  on  frejgb,'  yli' 
Papons  on  seamen',  eTi 
ParUcular  ayeraue   mfi 
Purtnershin  «„ /f. '"";■. 


1680. 
Passncrts,  416,  69)  ifaa 
PatillpsWand  90,'."**' 
i'awnbrokers,  62,  lUM 
Peach  wood,  ut^  ^*^'^' 
Pearlashcs,  24 

W^7^fiYor'«?uw,im 

Peddlers,  95e. 
PeKn-,  771), 


INDEX. 


2007 


j>'«W.  17,0.')  '  j  Koman  SI""" "f*".  1953. 


Pencris'  Le^   igj  ^77  j, 
Peiinsyivaiiia  m'u-^'J^/       , 

Penny  postage,  ISO^;  ' '^**'' 
Pensacola,  683,  1248 
Pensions,  49. 
Pepper,  284,  300,  J7)s  ma 


fWidtt,,,  1042. 


1647 

Periodicals,  H26,  um  ma 
Persia,  «7,  223,  mitk'^^- 
Persian  caravan.s,  274 
Persian  Gulf,  laoe. 
Persian  walnuts,  i.WO 

'"2i,'&7''': «« 

Peru,  Balsam  of,  88. 


-•—■■ail  oral 
Kome,  381. 

""pees,  Uc  of,' 1156 
19I3,l!i5i!'*''"'^'»2.1S24,l«(;8. 

Cia'h;rp™^S'°'^^-^''="''>f-''«^- 

Kus.siun  Pni ■ 


Kus.siun  Company  SD'i 
Russian  fairs,V».'^- 
"iissinii  LanliArf   ,,-, 


'S<*'*-''  ""•«.  ">29  1«0 

(,flT/<j/rtw    las/:  '/ii 


833     1700     p"'."'" '»'",  650. 


*'j^a    '"■'-   '*^»-    '^0, 

Sables,  707. 
Sails,  267 

Saint  Ilarlholomcw,  1786  1958 
h'tlair.  Lake,  11G3.      ''•"**■ 
»f•HeIena,  965,  1C63. 
St.  Jago,  497. 

ioiuian  walnuts    '.Sftft  t'ftrtnii;./,  ...'■""'  """•  1  o.  ,  '" '1  306. 

^,  i«^,2*i;  ^•(«,to,  ^  0:^iz;s:'^*i'-       ^^t:^  ^«.  ^78, ,394, i4«: 

Peru,  .iaisa'm  o'  88.  ' '  i  te';'%f  V«i;  «4,9,  1802.    !  Il'  ?&'--«-■  1477. 


reru,  Ualsam  of  88. 

Peruvian  Ijark,  /52  1410  i     /wfrt^l  f/ilj  if2"»  (''"""'s),    343  I  S 

Pest.hnn,„..  ,A,.  ''  '*W'       !  )(M  YAii  li^"'  *"2-  1048,  no,  St'  Th""'"'  "'*'• 

(^::  ***^'  ^'^^  "59, 1868;  1949;  In-. J^j^j-.-I^o- 


Peruvian  Ijark,  I5 

Pest-hoiises,  I601.  ,     ..„„ 

Petit  Manan,  1246.  L 'f*»^ 

lots), /839.'         '   '""'  »6»«   (l>i-     '«*,))„  ,,';',  7- 


*  ■lusjjiiuric 

Piastre,  19. 

Pico,  655. 

Piedmont,  1685. 

Piers,  942. 

Pilcliard  (ish'-rj',  60<. 

P|  Bruns  to  Mecca,  273. 

1 'How  lace,  115(5 

P;lotage,  2,32,  871. 

Pimento,  1748.' 

Pinnaces,  184. 

P'Pes,  390,  1348. 

Pii-ate,  214,  216. 

Pi.ia,  381. 

Pitch,  222,  609,  1392   179,  ,go„ 

Pitch  coal    1144  '  *'"'''  ****' 

PittslmrKh,  II07. 

i  aster.  Court,  476. 

1  liiinl)aKo,  181. 

fef'Alenjon,  1157. 

'ointlaco,  1157. 

Po  icios,  1047,  1051. 

Polynesia,  1469. 

Ponce,  1647. 

i.oppv,  1176. 

{  opiilation,  285,  622  726  18«r 

Porcelain,  716,  1642  '  '*'*' 

Port  Ir^'l  '^■''  '■'*".  «7«.  m, 

poni^r'i^'  '•"*■  '^'-^ 

J  ortlami,  Maine,  1.S06   18*1 


(mk<,)h».  m,  1348,  1680, 


w  ^*'  1»^^.  I  ■'"■■"tvifii  Islands 

,, '"«  il.iyi,  1485  ',„,"• ,'"'».  109«,  .Santa  Cruz,  530 

»"'«,  ?«,  845,  i.»7  Sardinia,  229,  468  (< 

llittxisi.ii  I  ..il    ..,.,'•  n«J    mill ', ,.„„'■ 


^a  ad  oil,  1472. 
gal  Ammoniac,  24. 

,     616,%."''  ^'«^' ^21  (contract), 
Sal  Eni.\um,  25. 
Salmon,  140,5. 
Salonica,  1883 
Salt,  604,  710,  "1713. 

faUofrfat^r-'^''-^^^- 
Saltpetre,  26. 
Salvage,  3. 

957,  1544,1708,  1914     '  ^"^^   '^'' 
oan  Francisco,  240,  I841 


■j-.,.,-wm(isv  (972. 

Jf''?.*Hk/  J7i9.  I  """aiiiian,  »09,  1840 

«  ^%S  "7'''.  J*?  (Canada),    Savoy,  1685. 

W  fii*'/-^,  tqifi,;,.  Saxe-Attenl,urp,  1185. 

,7'}  .'»«.^i !',  21,  ,047,  1367  Saxe- Wcnmr,  1 185, 

'}*««»<■,  m  ,1    (t,M  I  '^^alo,  (iuiiter's,  919 

""*'"-  '■'-  '-'—     ■-  '"^cavago,  1481. 

■Schiiifl.Qni  ..:..   ^1 


118i;78^^'S^'^»"),7«8,780. 

Sardinian  carpets  975 
Sargasso  Sen,  500 
Savaiiiiab,  809,  1840 
Savings  l.aiiks.  148  " 


j,  '"-',  i"!<f,  J(,-,9,  1801 

|||;;-/*iL.„,„U042;,795. 


■'"*"■.     I"!-*,    11 

Sclavonia,  998. 
,  Scotch  ale,  159. 

Scotch  banks,  117. 
I  S'^"t^'li  liKliUioiises,  1241 
I  N<'otch  linens,  1263 
I  Scotch  pines,  ],W2. 
I  Scripture  measures,  1953 


'W 


2008 

Scotland,   2A2  (canRia),   311,   666, 

697,  820,  8-«i,  894,  966,  1071,  1202, 

1263,  1611  (iiiilroada). 
Scurvy,  1336. 
Sea,  Caspian,  281. 
Sea  charts,  291. 
Sea,  Duad,  615. 
Sea  of  .Azof,  1460. 
Sea  of  Marmora,  401,  414,  618. 
Sea  of  Okoc^k,  601. 
Sea  elug,  1877. 
Sea  soundinipi,  827. 
Sea-island  cotton,  443,  444. 
Sea-worthy,  lOIB. 
Soal  Island,  1J71. 
Seals,  668,  768,  1406. 
Seal-skins.  768. 
Seamen,  4U7,  410,  lAt.  638,  643,  692, 

993   1010,  1605,  i;09. 
Search,  Klt,ht  uf,  1899. 
Seas,  971,  1394,  1457,  1711. 
Seasoning  tinibor,  660. 
Seas,  Sovereignty  of  the,  1789. 
Seeds,  274,  311,  443,  498,  680,  956, 

969,  1204,  1264. 
Segiirs.     See  Ciu,\ns. 
Seguin  Island  light,  1245. 
Seigniorage,  C28. 
Seizure  of  vessels,  388. 
Seneg.il,  741. 
Senegi'.l  gum,  916. 
Seventeentli  century.  40,  290. 
Slmnghai,  2.jn,  260,  302. 
Shark-liver  oil,  334. 
Shawls,  243,  281,  711. 
Sheep,  708,  1348. 
ShefllciJ,  605. 
Shellac,  liriO,  IC92. 
Shell  gold,  886. 
Shells,  289,  477,  991,  1868. 
Shcrilf:*,  84. 
Sherry,  1976,  1982. 
Shipping,   217,    111,  421,  481,  !il8, 

542  658,  717,  ':'i,  738,  856,  858, 

1159,  1242,  lt!.)li,  1910. 
Shipping,  I.iws  of,  2, 10,  )3,  78,  183, 

200,  222,  291,  856,  407,  o25,  643, 
690,  592,  697,  750,  8(ir>,  877,  979, 
lO.lO,  1165,  12IW,  1239,  1319,  1331, 
13;!9,  1633,  1589,  1601,  1627,  1629, 

,   1673,  1692. 
Ships,  44,  5.',  68,  86,  16,1,  107,  101, 

201,  226,  243,  266,  271,  272,  276, 
397,  414,  425,  428,  4S.%  477,  483, 
615,  538,  551,  657,  096,  699,  756, 
779,  782,  919,  920,  927,  947,  949, 
956,  965,  084,  1016,  1146,  1148, 
1152,  1154,  1176, 1195,  ll!,9,  120,3, 
1210,  1253,  1278,  1291,  1311,  13.10, 
1333,  1390,  1392,  1.S95,  1.S96,  1489, 
1456,  147(>,  1480,  1;>82,  1590,  1602, 
1624,  1627,  1629, 16,^5,  1636,  1647, 
1650,  1661,  1090,  1698,  1703,  1729, 
1751,  17.58,  1779,  1791,  188.3, 1841, 
1871,  1916,  1037,  1940,  1978, 1990. 

Ships,  Docking,  6,^0. 

Ship's  papers,  332,  1708. 

Ship  worm,  188.3. 

Shipwreck.     See  WuF.rKi. 

Shipwreck,  Escape  from,  1210. 

Shoals,  329. 

Shoddy  trade,  1990. 

Shoes!  Makers  of,  428],  1196. 

Siam,  92,  15ll,  318  (coins),  18G9. 

Silierla,  1056. 

Sicilies,  Two,  1116, 1185, 1319, 1182, 

1879,  1951. 
Sicily  wine,  1982. 
SIdon,  379. 

Sierra  Leone.  914,  1207. 
Sight  hill,  178. 
Signals,  1252. 
Sift,  303,  607,  684,  714,  861,  1093, 

1699. 
Silk  carpets,  276. 
Silk   niaiiiifacturcs,   218,  610,  714, 

1119,  1294,  I3«8,  15;i8,  168!«,  1791, 

1801. 


INDEX. 

Silver,  36. 298  [  coins,  846],  858, 883, 
1167,  1574,  1579,  1664,1724. 

Silver  lace,  1158. 

Simodu,  1183. 

Singapore,  266,  919. 

Singles,  1718. 

Sixteenth  centurj-,  890. 

Sksrrj'vore  Rooks,  1222. 

Skins,  283,  502,  764, 970,  M67,  1196, 
1465. 

Sliughter-houses,  8. 

Slave  labor,  337. 

Slave-trade,  1123,  1717. 

Snicaton,  936. 

Smyrna,  614,  1888. 

SnufT-bozeg,  499. 

Soap,  715. 

Socotrin-,  29. 

Soda,  26. 

Somera'  Isies,  166. 

Soigtium,  1778. 

3oui.i|  dues,  527  584,  688,  931, 1864, 

Soundings,  601,  1194. 

South  America,  33,  832,  909,  1491, 
1517. 

South  Carolina,  142,  l"",  290,  488 
(cotton),  1030,  1248,  1638,  1840. 

Southern  Ocean,  1589. 

.South  Polar  .Sea,  1639. 

South  Sea  bubble,  397. 

Soutli  .Sea  Msher>-,  1961. 

Spain,  22, 151,  ld7,  228, 261  (canals), 
280,  359,  882,  457  (cotton),  487, 
066,  831,  950,  1033,  1186,  1300, 
13.39,  1609  (railroads),  1674,  1807 
(tariff),  1849,  1865,  1913,  1951, 
1957  (West  Indies),  1976. 

Spanish  bills  of  exchange,  175. 

Spanish  Colonies,  359,  365,  367, 
1312,  1957. 

Spanish  (ly,  258. 

Spanish  grain  trade,  1967. 

Special  partnership,  396. 

Speculation,  377,  1684. 

Siwlter,  1998. 

Spermaceti  trodo,  1964. 

Sperm  wlnile,  1958. 

Spices,  275,  281,  807,  808,  311,  370, 
498,  695,  820,  843,  1296,  1886, 
11.54,  1531. 

Spindles,  463,  679. 

.Spinning,  59,  228,  461,  468,  C79. 

Spinning-jenny,  69,  46.3. 

.Spirit!.  17,  60,  545,  608,  707,  785, 
814,  1093,  1289,  1050,H«71. 

.Spirits  of  ha'tsliorn,  24. 

Spirits  of  turpt'itine.    ijee  Tobpbn- 

TI.1I!. 
.Sponges,  1731. 
Spruce  pine,  1532. 
.Stado  dues,  923,  930. 
Stages,  312,  1606. 
.Stamps,  470,  1557. 
Stanilurd  uf  coins,  340, 
Starch,  690. 
Sutioncry,  1186. 
Statues,  I'oundery  of,  699. 
Steam-engine,  761,  1600,  1752. 
Steamers,  21,  3-57,  621,  869,  1G41, 

1656,  1752. 
Steam  navigation,  760,  762,  821. 
Steel,  48,  505,  510. 
Strrlnig  silver,  349. 
Stock  companies,  894,  1145. 
Slock  •  xchanpe,  1472. 
Storax,  88. 
Store,  Ilill  of,  179. 
Stores,  Naval.   See  NxVAt  8T0n«B. 
.Storms,  1001. 
Straits  of  Dover,  556. 
Straits  of  (JibralUr,  817. 
Stranding,  1040. 
Straw  hat»,  048. 
Sublime,  I'orte,  1645. 
Submarine  tclegrapb,    3e«  Tsi.E- 

(illAI'll. 

Succorv,  298. 

Sue/.,  Isthmuaof,  21. 


Sugar.  235,  489,  490,  694,  707,  716, 
781,  954,  1018,  1316,  1385,  1869, 
1420,  1616, 1627,  1648, 1640, 1645, 
1712,  1903. 

Sulphate  of  lime,  920. 

Sulphuii"  acid,  7. 

Snlphurouo  acid,  7. 

Sumac,  1711. 

Sumatra,  887,  1618. 

Srnda  Islands,  1779. 

Su|>erior,  Lake,  426  (copper),  1164. 

Supply,  522,  1588. 

Surmam,  911. 

Survey,  Coast,  821,  570. 

Suspension  piers,  042. 

Svanberg's  fexnnsition,  672. 

Svosh  Channel  lights,  14.34. 

Sweden,  249  (canals),  348  (coins). 
426,  459  (cotton),  604,  843,  1108, 
1186,  1448,  1759,  1849,  1869,  1918, 
1951,  1957  (West  Jr''»'\ 

Sweet  potato,  ib71 

Swine,  1593,  I '37 

Switzerland,  4,58  <  '1, 1180, 

1869,  1951. 

Swords,  510. 

Sycamore,  226. 

Syria,  16P. 

Tabasco  (Mexico),  1852. 

Table  Dav,  268. 

Tallo*,  1666. 

Tamaulipas  (Mexiroj,  1353. 

Tandwjr  lace,  1167. 

Tampico,  1358. 

Tunnirg,  546,  1196,  J838,  1921. 

Tapestrj-  829. 

Tar,  1892. 

Tares,  27. 

Tarifl-,  12,  232,  237,  387,  418,  503, 
644,  556,  680.  718,  738,  742,  7J,', 
749,  865,  966,  1082,  1142,  1169, 
1356,  1396,  1407,  1551,  1670, 1592, 
16.-)3,  1729,  1786,  1874,  1990. 

Tartar,  68 

Tartaric  acid,  8. 

Tasmania,  1924. 

Taxes,  71,  724,  1486,  1684,  1844. 

Tta,  264,  266,  308,  691,  1161,  1657, 
1699,  1702. 

Teak,  1718. 

Tchuantepee,  Isthmus  of,  36. 

Telegraph.  73,  602,  1253,  1283  (At- 
lantie,  1735J. 

Temperature,  618. 

'i'^nipcraturc  of  ocean,  89,  1458. 

Tender,  Legal,  97. 

Teneritfc,  25,5,  1978, 

Tennessee,  139,  178,  1036. 

Terec'ra,  655. 

TexoB,  178,  242,  439  (cotton),  780, 
10.16,  174.5,  1772. 

Thames,  549,  845,  '881. 

Thermometer,  153,  1113. 

Thilwt  wool,  281,  1703. 

Thrcod,  Gold,  835. 

Thread  lace,  li.56. 

Thrown  silk,  1718. 

Tidal  harbors,  939. 

Tides,  ,327,  616,  930,  1S?G. 

Tiles,  212. 

Til-tree,  700. 

Timber,  559,  058,  943,  1152,  117n, 
129i,  1330,  1391,  1466, 1759, 1833, 
1984. 

Timber  pie.-s,  (;42. 

Timber,  Strength  of,  944. 

TImbuctoo,  805. 

Timothy  hav,  9,57. 

Timothy  scc'ds,  957. 

Tincal,  191. 

Tin.ied  iron,  780. 

Title  to  ships,  170<i 

rol)acco,  91,  487,  488,  631,  7.10,  874. 
876,  961,  982,  1419,  1548,  1686, 
1732,  1741,  1788,  1900,  1908. 

Tokav,  1979. 

Tolu,'  88. 


Tooko  on  France,  746      '  ^**- 
rooke  on  sold,  833.     " 
looke  on  prices,  1686. 

Toronto,  1376. 

fowerofCoruiia,  1220 
Trade,  1584.        '  * 

Trade,  Balance  of,  84  eqt 

Trade,  Board  of.  is"!'    *^- 

Tramroads,  1605. 
iransit  duties,  237 

San'it?" Si'"'  '«"•'  "85- 


2009 


INDEX. 

Sf£'?^^(^^-  l^e,53. 

1233.  *"'"='  "8ht.hou.o  system,  wS^^^SS,  1937. 

United  State,  rs  wf?*K'^'' waro.  674 


UnUcIsS"  ""«'■"•  J530. 


fcW;^^065 


United  States  E'l'""'  A^^^-        I  ivlH  'llT  '^'^^'',  6^9."" 
United  Stat„f,J''P"'8,  1627. 


^ha  ebpno  trade.  lixJ 


j~;-;;4l-;,^™«.  aaSSjs^  sa-&"?^*"" 

fc^^'-O- notest  640  """''  ^'»'-        ,1941.    ''"'""=«"''»  and  measures,       685  ^fSM">.  236.  296  6]]  m 

}.'l'.l'«  Canada',  245 


Trf"'  of  Pv.f.  7(1 

Trinidad,  49V.' 

Trinity  House,  357.  1268  1977 

Tripoli,  1869,  ISU  '    ^"' 

Innil'i'Z  (I'aru),  J520 

,],""'«,  11S«,  18  0,  i944 

liirkpv,     6,    276    'ita  r    •    ■. 
(<V.n,,any),   4i(     iof  "ko,'',''"''' 
'>'■'•   •'•'.'••«,««     777    ilsT'iM?' 

n-ln    .,,!„ '-'.'j.  J?"',     lr'j/5, 


Lriu  acid,  8. 
Urufjuav,  I374 
IjruKuay  Kiver',  H73 
ll^anacx,  638.  " 

'•;'"ry,  1067,  1072. 
Utrecht,  978. 

'  Vdkncia  oranges  I477 
''"'"Ilia  oak,  M56. 


//■;,\   .;"'    "''".   777.  il87     I     •'    ,V'''''"i  1309. 
T,' t'"'  P-";  ".'io,  1870  187i     i   0'  i  X"'""!'.  oak,  M56 

,{,  rkey  l,err/os,  l«b.  '  "*'''  '■"»•    J.^'-wuver's'lslaml  757 

rZk^'  "l'/'"^*"'  '-^76.  ),"»  I'ionicn's  Und  m  1»,  o 

Inrki.y  0  /-stone  088  Variation  of  fh  ,        '  *'"^'  ^^'8. 

Turk|,s,.  f„irs;65'0^-  }>".(-("  ii^H.™",')';^''!  .l^?,  ■ 
Inrnips,  162o. 

Tyre,  379.  380.  '         ' 


Tyre,  379,  380. 


Under  currents,  501. 

I  IK  erwriter,  1037,  1054   1070 

IJn,  crwriter's  duhs,  1042        '  (  ;,'""<^''  turpentin.'Yssft 

VmU;l  Provinces,  978.  i  Vermont,  1036     '""'  "  '• 

«'--''Bfi'"*™'  3«7,  -m   419   (ifio     l-T^^-    *<■  Ships 

M^^'^lJ^te  f  i5  &:'2f  ■  «^^'  ^^^^,  n« 


Varni-    '  A  inr''";F-"„'''  ''27,  39S. 

J^egetaMe  ivor  -.'lus 
Velluin,  1494.  •■''*'• 
Velocity  of  tides    ■  ;37 


Unied  it  """""'"- 2W 

uSs{r"-'.^^.l«38. 

'  nitod  htatos  ooins  Via 

I  ii.i'vd  States  ColoViie,   qi;.?  1  ,'.'."«<"•  1G95. 

^-^^:'  States,  Co.i^^«^-^  ,,0,  I  ^K%^f(ra 

l-niterl  l^.'"'  "^oisular  .system  406  '  w"'"!'?''  '■-^'  '^OO. 

U  le    i"!^'  '^°1'P«'.  ''Se.         •  *""■ ,  JJ-;'^;.  ,^™tral.a„d  „f,  418, 

'>Vatclie<.,3U6,  310, 'l280;  1787. 


THE  E.VD. 


v',".".  a'^rt  tartar,  25. 

volatile  salts,  24 
I  V"  »i,  619,  ](;57. 
I  -Villaic  li^riit,  ].j.,- 

'  oyages,  1013.       ' 

Wages,  1695. 

tei:^%;^'^<""'-''o. 


»vna  ebono  trade,  igei' 
Whale-tislicries   Ms^V.   - 

^Vhitejish  1357. 
"  hte-Ieaii,  I194. 
Wicks,  267.         • 

Win,?"  "'■"'P'''  278. 
n  iidow  curtains  "inq 
|.!ndow«las.,,826''^- 

1858:   ''■   '''  ""l.   1372,   1838 

^J.indward  Island,   1954 
Wine,  12,  I'l-)  Tyo'-^f*-  „ 

™'^7X!  ii-Vgi?-  256,  289,  .qo9, 
1307,  M7(!  is'^,  ^•J'*7,  999,  1299' 

;\>,Goi:,;'',!,f'l'0^>18Hl903: 

"12,    176  ]o'fi?^f:,«.  083   991; 

"!•<  17ft  K99' 182,?' ,^«??.'«4' 
1879.         '''"''' ^*'''^18i;),  1841 

1883,' lSoo'*^'^"'''l'89, 1800, 
IJ.ool,  Cashmere,  281 

^:Gs:^^!!"^?r^^3^276,2«,, 

1-02,  1799,  iioj/'  •''1.  «5I,  1538; 

'']^J^M«;^^'.  1058,  1166,1209, 

I  ^>rns,  35r,  461. 

I'^'l';.  I'iscil,  663. 
5ed(!„,  1144, 

j  iiicatan,  1161,  1,352. 

I  Zanto,  1085. 

j  &alaii.|,  588  978 

Zinc,  203,  !27,  1889. 

$",',''"i?r.ipli.\,612. 

IC8V'i7^;'=>»».  813,929,1583, 
j  /ones,  573, 
Zuyder  Zee,  249. 


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Edition      To  whi^h'l^  ^iJ''«"'>».  nn'j  l"o"S;' 
Sheep,  T6  Mntr""" "  «"""' «  Sugecsllvo Ke™' 


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Il.tl 


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INCOMPARABLY  THE  BEST  WORK  ON  THE  SUBJECT. 

•Unda  first  af  our  phy«lologloal  treatUe*.— London  Medical  Times. 
DtwrvM  to  bn  In  the  library  of  every  student  of  physlology.-AthoMOUiu. 


Mnp", 
.  SI  -I*- 
|j,lu»Un. 

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Itli'S.    i 

DGEP. 

ismo, 

ISmc 


bla. 


Dkiii'ER'S  PHYSIOLOGY. 

HUMAN  FHTMOTOOY,  STATICAL  ANJl  DYNAMICAL ;  or,  The  Condition, 
nnd  tourtfl  of  llio  LIfo  of  Man :  being  the  Text  of  the  I.octuros  delivered  in  the  Medical 
1)1  urttn      of  the  Univoriity.    By  John  W.  Duapeb,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  ProfoMor  of  Chemis- 
try snd  I'liynlology  In  the  University  of  New  York.    Illustrated  by  nearly  800  fine  Woo* 
cull  fVom  I'lii)     ;ril|)li».    Now  Edition.    8vo,  650  pages,  Muslin,  $4  00 ;  Sheep,  |4  25. 
Two  yort  iijo  lliii  (Inl  pdlll-.n  of  thii  work  wu  piibllnhsil.    Slnco  that  time  Mvural  thouttnd  coplej  hare  been 
dlapoHd  of  I  U  liM  boon  liilroSucod  u  a  toit-boolc  In  many  of  our  medical  Mliools,  and  hai  been  very  favorably 
rwnlvail  by  tlio  (infoiolon  and  the  public,     rhli  iucccm  provoa  how  completely  Iho  work  ha«  aooomplibed  lU  ob. 
J(i«t  iif  krlliKlliK  llio  "clonco  on  which  It  troata  to  tho  coraprchen«lon  of  iho  gcnoral  reader,  without  any  iaorlAro  of 
lit  lililll  wli'lltlllo  poaltlon.    At  a  representation  o(  tho  present  state  of  Phynlology,  embodying  all  the  recent  foreign 
dl«««»iirt«»  In  »  form  not  othorwlsn  acccsilblo  to  the  student,  It  has,  In  lesj  than  i  year,  been  adopted  as  a  text-book 
In  »  mi^urlty  nf  American  t.'ollpgei, 

(Iritat,  howovi'f,  a*  lis  aiircess  In  that  respect  has  been,  the  favor  axtendcd  to  It  by  tho  reading  and  edneated 
oliissiia  generally  la  atlll  mure  striking.  They  have  appreciated  the  manner  In  which  It  brings  knowledge  on  a  sub- 
JmH  «f  lh«  lilghest  Importance  to  tho  well-being  of  society  to  the  cii»y  comprehension  of  persons  not  familiar  with 
ineilleal  inalWra,  'i'liey  hn-n  found  U  to  be  a  book  not  alone  adapted  to  the  University  or  College,  but  suites',  to 
the  liistruetlufi  of  overv  '  r^il  of  a  family.  The  numerous  I'liolographle  engravings  U  contains  tend  greatly  to  a 
riear  llluslrttinn  of  the  <  arlum  topics  It  dlscuises,  eiia!illng  those  who  havo  only  the  opportunity  of  casual  atudy 
I'l  fulliiw  Oiu  Auilmr  In  hi'  di  xriptlojs  without  any  dlfUcully. 

of  all  the  •olmccit,  none  mon  more  clearly  homo  to  us  than  Physiology.  It  explains  to  ns  how  "  fearfally  and 
wonderfully  we  are  made,"  tenches  us  how  tho  varloui,  purls  of  our  syitcm  act  In  a  state  of  health,  and  enables  ns 
to  understand  the  pauses  of  our  ailments  and  dlscajcs.  There  Is  no  class  of  society,  and,  Indeed,  no  Individual, 
wild  limy  nut  pmlllnbly  become  nc'iualnlcd  with  11,  It  Is  therefore  to  the  general  reader,  as  well  as  the  Protesaloii, 
lliat  tills  book  la  ulfered, 


Aliiiok  Ihatlafiillof  Inl  < 
liiK  vliiws  and  novel  eip 
niakn  "ur  alni^'rn  aeknowloili'  - 
frixli  uoii'.rlbiithina  lie  lias  ,''  • 
of  tliK  laws  of  llfii,  and  the  now 
lu  tliu  atudy  of  ll<  inyi<lurln~  ; 
yuiid  all  priivliMH  tienllie^  II 


,  eontalnln,;  many  atrlk- 
.111  lllnitratlons.  Wo 
•Its  to  the  author  for  tho 
I'llifd  to  our  knowledge 
>> '  ''so  he  h>is  imparted 
t  U  lull  and  thorough  bc- 
we  havo  seen.    As  to  dc- 


serlii'tve  didall  and  tlio  ent..i'  ihcory  of  organization,  it 
eoiiipi'ttlh'iidi  tho  laldSt  discoveries  and  embo  llai  tho  lat- 
uNt  ooilcliiiiluiia  of  »olnnei'.— ,V'/r/A  Amtrkan  R-vieie. 

It  Is  ail  iirluliial  and  liiierc^tlng  work,  rich  in  expcri- 
ntimt,  ftirtlte  fii  iiug^i-stl'iii,  and  flcholir-liko  in  compjsl- 
tluii,— Wn'ii'i  IU«imU mill  Niir/l'-nl  Jaurnil 

VV'i  I'U"  from  Urn  •iireey  of  tills  work  with  an  imprci- 
•loii  of  gruat  power  and  vaim,  We  am  satUfled  tliat 
Draiiei'a  I'liysloliigy  wlli  tf  o  i  u  important  place  ot 
lUioft,  nnd  will  add  one  mtiro  ■  ti't»  lunnbr-r  of  American 
tad-h'i'ilis  wllleli  tmiy  bo  plii<  i  !  side  by  side  with  the 
bati,  ol^  tliortn  iibtnliied  from  abro  "1.— f/iiljifs/ji/iia  Mali- 
ml  Kmnndhv, 

1)1',  Dmiior'a  I'liysiolony  hpciUnps  thn  greatest  work 
KVHr  IMIM"!  from  llin  Atnci  icnii  press.  It  rnuks  witli  thi' 
kiudrod  (ilntman)  work  "f  I,>'linmnn,  but  Is  much  more 
roiwlublii  and  iil.ilh.  Tlio  rcudiiif!  and  studying  of  it  Is 
worth  tho  rimdIiiK  and  sin  lyiii;;  nil  tlio  medical  pnirticni 
of  llio  last  iiuarlor  of «  ceiilnry.-  -S''.  /<ouis  Meii-alani 
Nuri^ii'iU  .Ailli-ii i/. 

\  I'oiiiploto  oKiHialtloii  of  till  ■  once  In  Its  presjut 
«tat.i,  iiiiiliraeliiK  llio  latnst  vlcwa  pnlillslicd  in  I'rancc. 
I'.iiglaiid,  lleriiiiiiiy,  adiipled  to  pMri'S'lioial  nnd  non-pro- 
I'ussloiial  iiLidiT*.  'thflfiinl  lliiijiom  ll'raU. 

A  iirofoiiiid  and  eoinpri'lioiislvo  treatise  ofinin's  iihvs- 

leal  life  Ibt.Miiihall  ItH'liang'S    u  work  highly '.i  innraliie 

lo  lilmwil  lii'T  Ilia  profession.  •  .fiom/im  Rfkclk  R'nar. 

riila  work  liai  nil  Ih"  graphic  dislinclncs.'   of  oral 

laaeliliii;,  -littnUm  HcoiunnM. 

An  It  book  f'lf  iHieaslofiiil  reference,  1'  will  bo  prized  by 
i*v,*ry  w-ilMnforined  person  —fiin'ton  Standnni 


U»  nrraliKmiiitO'  Is  ■ii',  :  '  il 
standi  lli'st  of  our    I'    > . 
«vi(  rttwanwl  (jiu  '!■ 

iVobiibly  llio  Ill's  11  ' 
t'hrinllim  ''/iroiii'*!"  li  ,..i»ili'i 

(;uiiip)i"l  auil  I'll  ill,  enil"  ■ 
most  liitiiruilinu  and  valmvii: 
UU 


1.1  in  its  width  ofvlcvit 
treatises.— /iomion  ilfd- 

•till'',  lirforo  the  public.— 
■'•i«). 

ii  ininionsc  amount  of 
I.,  tlir  — f'oiiyreja/ioinil- 


Tho  gieat  amount  of  Information  logically  arrranged 
and  clearly  stated  In  this  comprehensive  yet  compant 
work  renders  'I  oreenilncntly  lit  to  bo  adopted  as  a  text- 
book In  all  Inn'uui  .v  .  '  '^nmlng  In  which  Physiology 
forms  part  of  a  course  of  instruction,  and  generrl  readun 
win  find  It  Hie  nio^t  Interesting  and  u.sefiil  com|ienilliim 
of  the  science  f  tr  prlvste  study. — Commcrcicl  Aiit:erHner. 

It  coiistiUites  an  admirable  book  for  students  while  in 
attendance  on  lectures ;  at  the  same  time  it  wil.  be  found 
well  adapted  to  tho  general  student,  who  Is  without  an 
o;-al  teaciier,  and  yet  is  Eceking  to  know  and  nndeictand 
the  physieiU  laws  of  his  being. — ^Imcrican  Meii.  (fazefte. 

Fur  above  elementary  works  in  scope  and  character,  it 
KceiiiB  fitted  to  secure  a  wide  circulation. — London  Ex- 
aminer, 

It  would  do  excellent  service  as  a  text-book  In  schools 
and  colleges,  and  la  a  valuable  contribution  to  every  li- 
brary in  the  country.— iV.  1'.  Chronide. 

Il  Is  the  largest  nnd  most  complete  treatise  on  Physl- 
oioj;y  ever  published  in  our  country,  and  will  be  received 
and  honorod  as  a  etandard  of  high  authority  In  colleges 
and  academies,  and  among  professional  men.— /^/iflattpj- 
jiAia  Christian  Obnttser. 

Written  In  an  easy,  Huent  style,  and  is  a  work  that  de- 
serves to  be  in  the  library  of  every  student.  —  London 
Athmurum. 

Ueyoiid  question  iho  best  presentation  of  this  great 
subject  accessible  to  the  mass  of  jVmerican  students, — 
yjtV/iDKMid  Central  I  I'fabyterian. 

Wo  sliould  he  sorry  to  tee  Its  knowledge  confined  to 
the  colieslnto  class,  when  a  diffusion  of  more  accurate 
physiological  knowledge,  even  among  our  educated  class- 
es, is  cxccedlncly  desirable.- Pro(«i?aii«  CAiirc/iinan. 

The  pupils  of  our  public  and  private  schools,  who  have 
been  well  drilled  in  the  sciiool  physiologies,  will  take 
great  interest  In  pursuing  the  subject  In  Ihls  more  ci' 
tended  treatise.  -Memphis  lledical  Hemnler. 

Can  not  fail  to  be  useful  to  the  physician  and  student, 
and  deserves  a  place  in  colleges  and  libraries.- /..utnemn 
Ofi.wner.  .   .      .  , 

Sime  of  tho  wood  engravings  are  very  choice,  being 
rem.ukablo  for  the  delicacy  of  their  detail,  and  for  the 
multiplicity  of  objects  condensed  in  a  given  space.— Cin- 
ciniwfi  Medical  Observer. 

It  1  iiisl  be  read  with  interest  and  profit  by  those  within 
and  without  tho  profession.-Ciii'  innati  Cotltgt  Journal. 


ILvRPIR  A  ItftiiTltllllit  >'-''<  •cn'J  I '. 


,  ■bo     n'nri-  III  Mail,  postage  pmi  {.for  any  distance  in  the  United  Statta  under 
„,  0.1  nitei),  oil  receipt  of  the  price. 


HARPER'S    KKAaAZXNE. 


A  fan  of  the  numerous  Ojnniom  of  the  Prtu. 


N0  M*(>iilni)  In  f'uropo  nr  Amfrlrt  !•  »  well  known ; 
nna  hM  liaU  u  m*nv  ri>>il«nf  knd,  we  nmruft^ly  ujr, 
llonii  liM  rtu-rlvfrf  iM>  UrKfl  «  tribute  of  ■dnlrKtluii  ft-ooi 


tb(  milllfili'il  clMMii,  tlmt  itrll||l\t  In  »  henllliy.  dWtnil- 
llftd,  vlnvatlriK  (wrU'illrftl  lllrmtiiro.  It  nut  unly  rovrn 
»  lirowlir  Kririnid  limn  any  ihiilUr  piilillcatlon,  but  It  In 
iniirn  illnllitrlty  planrtrd  an  a  pfipiiUr  edurator  In  all  the 
dtt|farlniiiiitii  ni  an  avrei^ahl*  and  Intttrurtlvc  mUcellany 
tlian  any  w'<rli  of  wliloh  wo  have  knowledgn.  In  tliu 
IVilithnr  fiirnii  nf  hlft«rf,  In  artlcli'i  of  llluatralvd  travel, 
In  bli<||r»|ihli'al  portrailurr,  In  orory  varlcly  of  eiiay, 
fy'ini  thn  Kraroful  aliptrh  of  manneri  and  fuiitoma  tu  tlip 
dldactlr  pxiifialllim  of  grrat  moral  toplra,  in  pleaiiant 
atortafl  and  atilinatad  iiiirratlveit,  It  la  tun  fun-nioit  &lag- 
•  ■Ina  III  tho  dar.  Tlii'  llriildo  never  hnd  a  nmro  do- 
lllhlful  rMmpanliin,  nor  tho  nillllin  a  more  entertalnlnn 
fiTand,  than  lUi^or'a  Magiiinf,  —  MMhoiiUt  Pwt—tant 
(ll«lllin«r«;, 

K«eh  miinlli  It  ||1addriM  ua  and  onr  houicliotd,  to  lay 
nidhltiH  "f  III*  iii'lKlibora  who  e njny  it  with  u«.  Twenty- 
flvn  i»<nla  liuyi  it~-thn  rlieapfat,  richeit.  and  moallaitlng 
luiiirjr  tut  llio  mnmy  that  wn  knuw.  Three  dollara  ae- 
■■unia  It  for  imn  year:  end  what  three  dollara  over  wont 
an  lurl  INil  the  iianio  amount  in  clotlieii,  eating,  drink- 
ing, furniture,  and  hnw  much  of  a  aubatantial  thing  la 
oliUlneil  >  If  Ideaa,  faria,  and  aentlnienta  have  ■  uione- 
inty  value  i  above  all,  If  the  humor  that  refreahea,  the 
lileaannlilra  that  bring  a  gentle  imlle,  and  brighten  tho 
jwanign  of  a  truth  to  your  brain  ;  and  the  happy  eumbi- 
nation  of  Ibn  real  and  the  Imaginative,  witliout  which 
nr  nnn  ran  lit*  a  life  above  tho  animal,  are  to  bo  put 
IntM  ttia  Ncaln  op|io»ite  to  dutlarit  and  cents,  then  you  may 
Iw  e«rt«ln,  Itoil  if  Harper  <vero  three  or  four  timea  as 
dtf*r.  It  woiiM  amply  repay  itt  ,  -l~e.  II  la  a  Magaaine 
Bropnr,  with  the  Idea  and  purpose  nf  a  Magsilne  -not  a 
iWftk.  not  a  aelentlfle  jterioiiirnt,  nnr  yot  a  su|>plier  (>f 
llfhl  K'xtalp  and  eloilty  Hiu^rdotci^  -but  a  Magarlne  tliat 
taillM  every  form  uf  Interesting,  (ilgnifled,  and  altrtctlvo 
ill«r»turiln  in  grup.-.Vuuf/irni  Times. 


lUrpor'a  Hafasino  alms  to  give  iKt  beU  reading,  no 
matter  where  It  may  onme  from ;  and  whenever  lis  con- 
ductors can  prucuru  from  American  authors  better  liter- 
ary matter  than  thev  ran  Dud  elsewhere,  they  gel  It,  and 
they  pay  prires  for  It  which  would  hstuniali  aumo  uf  the 
Lngiish  Magaiinia.  -.V.  )'.  l}ail\i  '/Yniea. 

The  aueceaa  of  Ibis  purlodlcii  la  whallvunpreri<dentpd  ; 
but  wher,  ^a  consider  the  large  Amount  of  rcadlof?  mat- 
ter It  Bupjiles  —  much  nf  it  of  the  highest  merit  in  re- 
spect both  nf  Its  literarr  charactrr  and  uf  ihe  entertain- 
ment and  information  It  is  adapted  to  Impart  — ita  ail- 
mlrahlo  typogranhy,  and  the  low  price  at  wlilili  it  Is 
■ohl— tho  general  favor  which  It  baa  obtained  might  have 
l)i>en  expected  from  a  community  sutllcicntly  instructed 

j  to  appreciate  lt.<  escellences.— JoHmfll  o/  Comnures. 

I     The  most  extrsurdiuAry  B<'rial  publication  of  tb«  world, 

I    -  The  London  I'uMUher'e  Cirrular. 

I  Tho  luost  popular  munlhly  in  tho  world.  It  has  be- 
come one  of  the  literary  wonders  of  tbla  country.  Al- 
most exclusively  composed  of  the  works  of  American  an> 
(bars  and  artUts,  It  pays  Its  oontrlbuturs  some  twonty- 
flve  linndrcd  dollara  monthly.    It  Is  a  hapiiy  clreum- 

I  stance  that  It  alms  at  the  highest  standard  of  lltiraturo 
and  tho  purest  morale  in  nil  iti  pages.     It  Is  not  n  mat- 

'  ter  of  surprise  that  a  Magazine  pn-wnting  monthly  suf-h 
an   Immense  amount  of  popular  and   tisefui  reading 

I  ahonid  have  a  olrculation  of  a  hundred  and  thirty  thou- 
sand or  more.— iV.  K.  Obierwr. 

I     This  popular  Megan  ne,  while  It  does  all  that  IsUwfnl 

<  to  cuurt  popularity,  never  descemls  to  enter  for  It  by  niin- 

;  isterlng  tu  opinions  or  nropensltlea  Injurious  to  good 
morals  or  social  order.  Though  not  exciuiively  a  rcllg- 
louBwork,lt  Is  nlwnys  auxillnrv  to  llible  truth  and  B<mud 
morality.— ,V,  Y.  Chiiitian  Adiwale  aiuljournat. 

I  Kach  number  containing  as  much  matter  as  a  mhnnr 
of  Macautny'e  Uintm-y  (\f  Kwjtrttuly  and  Rold  at  the  ridic- 
ulously low  price  of  twenty-five  cents. — London  Tiniee. 

I     't'Me  most  luipular  and  successful  "erlodical  over  li- 

I  sued.  — iVeie  OrUana  Delta. 


HARPER'S    WEEKLY. 


A/ew  of  the.  numerous  (pinions  of  the  Press. 


"  llarp-r's  Wtekly"  Is  well  filled  with  original  and  se- 
Itelail  matter,     lis  leading  articles  arc  ucll  toned  and 


timed,  and  Its  Mlustrmtlnns  ore  far  ahead  of  any  Journnl 
of  the  kind  In  tl>"  'ountry.  Its  iwn  portraits  of  distin- 
guished living  fiii'Ti  ore  of  thomwlves  worth  the  prlee  of 


the  vidnme.— .V.  Y,  ChHMIan  Aihncate  and  Journal. 

We  Itavs  bsd  a  few  attempts  to  establish  a  tirvt-cUsH 
lllHStralrd  iiapcr  In  this  country.  In  emulation  of  the 
"  l,<mdoii  Illustrated  News."  lint  none  of  them  have 
anjovad  tlm  idvantaga  nf  an  adequate  combination  uf 
puliliahers'  nMiiireea,  with  money  capital,  until  "Har- 
per's Wri'kly."  The  pictorial  matter  of  this  splendid 
•h««t  la  >'  ispnmacbed,  as  a  whole,  by  that  of  any  other 
■mong  Itx  40(1,  perha|is,  nut  lurpasaed  cisewherv.— A'.  Y. 
Ktamlner. 

It  would  h»  diflleull  for  any  weekly  paper  In  these 
t)nlt<'d  Wales  to  eomiieto  wllh  "llHriier's  Weekly." 
I.Iks  Ibeir  Mnnlhly,  II  Is  exncily  ada|iled  to  the  literary 
eaimrltles  i.nd  thn  nemis  uf  tho  masses  at  the  present 
llniui  *hd  II  will  And  Its  way  to,  and  shed  light  around, 
■nsny  boniss  which  elan  would  have  hardly  received  a 
gleam  ol  Inlelllgenre.  Its  vast  profusion  of  lllustrallons, 
fre-li  and  orlglnHl.  catch  the  cursory  eye,  while  the  con- 
dfliisatl'ifi  and  lucid  arrangement  of  the  Immense  variety 
of  riirrent,  local,  and  foreign  news,  enable  the  render  to 
follow  the  course  with  ease,  and  instruct  liinmulf  readily 
nn  ail  toidra  worth  talking  about.  The  size  ami  general 
appearance  nf  thn  paper  In  like  the  most  popular  uf  Lon- 
don Jonmala.  Kntertalnlng  Action,  liglit  slietches,  and 
pi'lusnt  and  bumorous  anecdotes  form  prominent  feat- 
nrea.  Arrangements  have  lieon  made  by  Ihe  publishers 
fnr  •  new  romance,  from  tho  pen  of  Hlr  Kdward  Unlwer 
l.ylt'lti.  which  he  ranks  among  the  best.  It  vill  po  pub- 
IMied  III  snccesNlve  numberatn  "  Harper's  Weekly,"  and 
may  Iw  Katlcipttcd  as  •  rare  literary  treat,— .Y.  1'.  Jk'x- 
prsH. 


Our  eonlenipomry,  "Harper's  Weekly,"  has  secured 
tho  new  novel,  "What  will  be  do  with  It?"  by  llulwer. 
which  will  no  doubt  be  tho  masterpiece  of  the  great  nov- 
elist, It  opens  ailmlrably.  We  sny  mo  arc  glad  that  our 
contemporary  baa  secured  this  great  work,  for  "Har- 
per's weekly"  deserves  as  large  a  nieasun^  of  success  as 
tho  Monthly.  It  Is  by  fur  tho  best  pa|>or  of  Its  kind  we 
ever  had  In  thl«  country,  and.  In  respect  of  reading  mat- 
ter, Is  considerably  ahead  uf  tho  "Illustrated  1/iudon 
News. — .V.  Y.  Ledger, 

In  external  appearance  It  Is  fnuUlcu.  It  Is  printed  on 
the  finest  and  wlilteat  nf  paper,  and  with  clean,  sharp  cut 

.  type,  so  that  it  Is  quite  a  luxury  to  look  upon,  for  eyes 
wearied  and  balfblindcd  with  the  villainous  printing  of 
many  of  our  city  dallica— .Yeie  I'orit  Kmngelitl. 
We  like  tho  "Weekly"  very  much.     Its  oditorlnl  Hr- 

I  tides  are  calm  and  candid ;  its  sclentiflc  department  is 
full  of  Interest  to  practical  people ;  its  stories  are  admira- 
bly told;  its  illustruiions  arc  good;  Us  chat  is  iilennant, 
and  its  nonsense  is  very  sensible.  It  Itut't  trashy,  nor 
silly,  nor  lovc-»lcky.     It  can  bo  carried  Into  the  family 

!  witn  safety. — }'^owleiKC  Pout. 

Very  handaome — Just  what  was  wanted — full  of  newR, 
Rclenco,  criticUm,  stories,  facts  for  the  hour,  and  mate- 
rials for  Ihe  fireside  and  the  study Corresponient  Doe- 
Ion  Tranarrii)!. 

;      The  beet /iimilii paper  ire  ever  mw.     Its  pages  embrace 

'  a  grvat  variety  of  reading  mntter,  and  its  articles  on  thn 
leading  topics  nf  the  day  aro  wrlttt'u  wltli  an  ability  which 
would  do  credit  to  the  "Thunderer"  of  tho  Dritlah  press 
—the  London  "  Times."  In  point  of  Illustrations,  It  Is 
ahead  of  any  of  our  pictorial  slicets. — .Veto  London  Adr. 
Fresh,  S|iarkllng,  and  vivadoua.  Its  circulation  Is 
probably  tho  greatest  snccess  ever  achieved  by  any  pub- 

,  lication  at  lucb  an  early  period  of  Its  existence.— ifrooJt- 
lyn  KagU. 


My 


■n. 


mn..  Sheep  extra,  $i  oo 


Pr„f  ,_.^ ,.,.-..:'ir""."'''''l  NvTi;H\r    p.. 

■pjiUl •    '^C" 


—  •  ■  --  » I ... ,  ,,.„, 


iw"L""  •?•',"'"•'■'"•■  5'.wr'  '  "''™  """""eJ. -Prof 

"^Itli  olcarnoas  «n,I  brcvi  v      i  ?   "V'''''-'''  "rMidoim,  i 

ITof.  Looinis's  Naturul  I'S       '  ?"•"'"""■;.',  iV. 
tarywork  on  llils"ubK,v|    ri'I/''^" '?  ""'  l^"«  Ho,„,.„ 

■■vuy  subject  wiwhlcliit  , 


,     Among  tho  n  ,«.."">"  "aitii  Time.      "' '"'  ""«■ 


o^'m  Wconf' '  '•'''"""•      '2"-,  3m'     g^  ''"^,,»";  I  ELEMENTS  or  ANALYT.ra. 


nomelrij  mnrt  i  .It  ' ;     '^"'•f '™.  *1  60     Tim  i' '        ., 


DICTIONARIES  AND  WORKS  OF  REFERENCE, 

PDBLUKIID  IT 

^    HARPER  61,  BROTHERS,  FRANKLIN  SQUARE,  N.  Y. 


** 


AWDRDWia  LATIW-imaLnK  LXXIOOIT.  Fmin-leil 
«ii  lliK  Uriirr  Lniiii'drmiiin  It'ilrmi  ol  Dr  Wm.  Fmcurin. 
Willi  AililllliiiK  mill  Cotrtrlioiiii,  lYiim  Iha  Ltilronii  urilea- 
imr,  Kai'i'liiUll,  ^nlwUtr,  UwrfM,  Ac.  Ruyil  Hvo,  Hhmp 
•ilrn,  •/)  INI. 
Tli«  iipM'in  "t  M.|>'.liin.  tmlli  In  Ikli  twnUf  «n<l  in  Orcftl  Rrluin,  It  aiiM- 

tl»IIM  IM  114  <<iV'rf,  M   Ikl  ttMt  l^ltfM  *■!  Iillb|ltlll«|  fit    W^  Uu|U*|*.— M. 
•fl'lUll'i,  l'nl't'«f  •(  l.mfUtifl  In  ll—n-r  l\illti,i,  /arfini... 

Tit*  •tiia'|>l«l«'l  r'llltf'M  If)  l^f  vMalmUrjr,  lh«  iihilc«i)ptilr«|  Arrknftm*nt 
'if  Ilia  ilalliililiiiM,  III*  ahitiifliinl  nffMft^M  111  t)i«  Romiin  •ulhuri  whirh  ffu|i- 
■•'ii|  lliMM  ill  rtniiliiiM,  III*  i4'il|inillMi  III  llw  w<ir'U  m  rlnMirftl  •*?  olhtrwbii. 
Willi  III*  |iait'i.|  1.1  wlilili  **rli  wiiiil  U|.*;^i,  «nil  I1i«  iik«  AlUntliMi  In  111* 
')**lllll|l  .if  ivllwlil**  wliUli  riiii*  llifN'mli  III*  wli.,U.  Hll..tri.|)iitr  rolmlltlllii  » 
Ifimii  i>r  *ii'>llMiiiiii4  nlil.lt  blmiiii  ihl*  l.pilriiii  r*t  «liiiTii  *nv  <>l>i*r  uf  Iji* 


aui4  |ii»(  I  li«»*  MifH     I'M 


.  N.  HuMua,  Okflla  CW(<||>,  Uliu. 


ANTKOir'S  OLAMIOAL  DIOTIONART.  Conlalninx  an 
Aniimiil  iif  Ihn prliii'l|iiil  I'riiiMT  Nnmca  iiirntloneil  In  Anrknt 
Auihiira,  ami  liili-iiili'il  In  rlin'iilnin  till  iha  lin|iortoiit  rnlrila 
auiiiiaiiliiil  Willi  lliii  Miiiiiraiiliy,  lllalorv,  Illntraptiy,  Mytlioi- 
uiy, ami  Kliia  A rta  iif  llw  (Irwlia  anil  Rimianii,  rom'tlnT wlih 

•II  A iiinl  iifiha  I'lilna,  Wrlihla,  and  Mi'aanri'H  iirihr  An- 

almila,  wilti  Tahular  Valiua  ofiliu  aamr.     Huynl  Hvu,  sheep 
•Ufa.  It  INI. 

Til*  •■  ..J.*  ..r  llil*  •»•)  Kiitk  I*  ».ff  •itofialv*.  •nil  rnn.iirliM  InfnTmallcn 
r**iHi«liai^  111*  iii,.|  l|ii|...,|,i,|  l„,B,|,«i  „f  ,|,„i„j  li,.,,|*,.  ..*      lUr*  niuy 

II*  rmiig  II  * I.I.I*  Km  ,  ..|..i>(.|ia  ,1  ah,!,,,!  Ili..,ji,,,h»,  l.'lilnrr.  Ill..«r«- 

lihr.  aii.l  M>lli'.l..ilr      'I'l.*  il*|.»ilni*it)  i.f  11.*  Km*  An*  ri.rlii*  mi  *lillr.ily 
r«*l.iia,  «.ii'i.N.l.iK  lrl'>tfi*|'lil**  Iif  NiiriHiil  iirlkt*,  «inlcrilirbiimiiii<.ii 
Tli.ia-'ft  l*i.'rt  ..  ■    ■    •■  


i*)|.*ll|.Arh- 


•nly  liiill*|>*ti*ntil*l(itlineli 
I.I  111*  i.r(if*flali.n«l  iiiMti. 
IhMl  NliiM  III  V*  *iiin|il*l*      II  h**  ti**ii  pru- 


hIIv  iimIiiI  I.I  111*  i.r.if*flali.n«l  iiiMti,  anil  r>.nii*  a 

■  'ttl  IhMl  NllIM  III  V* 

*it  lltrlln,  iin*  of  Ih*  IcaillnK  it  hulan  lu  Uarniany, 


lll*li  i.t...|.i 

•r  aii.|  i|.i.|h..i,  i,.|i  miilni 
»*u«ar|.  pail  iil  ...i*  |,|,ftf,j 
ai»i»<*.|l.>l').i(  H.hkU.i 
"a  mu'l  Hirallaiil  ttiirit  h 
III    Alilli'Hi  liM*  ilHia  iimtM  tiir  Mmnit  rUaali-*!  arli....1  llt*r*liir*  than  RRf 

liall  iliuii  Kiitll n      III,  l...,|,.ar.  a.lii.lraMv  a.lllnl.    Hi.  maiiu  «a  an 

««ll.if  Mf  Ilia  >»l I  *l*.a|fa  *r*  ...  wall  iti).lanil.HHl  anil  aiiprsrlMI.-.'.  In  titi* 

aiiiiiilrii,  a*  w.ll  *.  in  bu  „»|,,  ||,,|  „„ .„iUUuii  tiniil.l  b*  tuuaitluuiu  — 

iMMva  .4fiiai«*M». 

ANTHON'I  tATtN-BNaLMH  AND  ENOLISH-LATm 
l)|i;'ri'lNAIIV,  (tif  lllii  nan  111  SrlliHila.  Clilrlly  from  llio 
l^aali'iiiia  iir  t'riMiiiil,  lli'iirni.*,  unil  Kallailiniiilt  Snml!  4la, 
Hliiiii|i  uMia,  <H  INI. 

Til*  »!.*.*.  "..ii-ll.  I  iif  a  ai-'wl  l.ati..r,n  flf*  )i*r*  attpatfttl  Thaworil  tub* 
«»«a.  I  1.  1.1  ..I.  I  1.1  rllalliivl  r,|,|l,|,,  wliirh  (taaily  larlllUI.*  Ih*  wi.rk  ..f 
III*  I'liln.l  nil*  |.H«  III  hiali*  lta.ui#iil  t*f*r*itrB  li.  hi*  ili.-lii>tiiiiv.  Tli* 
j»»*il(|,..(|l..  1.11  ».»il  lanU'i  fai.dill.  Itiaillail.aiilll..  JHfuniiil'panai.f 
Ml*  wwr.l  alvait.  Willi",  it  II  U  a  Hallralir*  W'lrd,  lU  llrri'k  or  l.atla  Mul  i.r 
iKIaliMl  l>  al*ii  »i>>ii  I  ainl  ih*  ilaanllliwanbtlar,  -i»iipr*b*Mi>r  aadror 

'Ill*  •iili..l*r.l..|.  ii  iii.Mii*ir,  lliarrlll-lainaiHinil,  III*  rulaa  of  prununciatlon 
•uir*«l  aii'l  >alii*lil»      //«ii/.,fri  H,i»Mirmi>. 

BHATCDt'B  BIf  OYOLOraniA.  A  Dinlnnary  nf  Srirnre. 
lillnrnliiM".  ami  An.  I'lTiiii.flalnii  Iho  Illatury,  DraiTlpciun, 
ami  Niiinililli'  rrliiri|i|in  iil  i.*iT)f  Ilrancli  of  llunmn  Kniml- 
»illl«.  Willi  Ihn  llifiniiiiiii  ami  Ilinnlllim  n|' nil  iho  Tmii-i 
III  Ki'iiiirnl  UK"  lllilalriiliil  liy  nuiniruua  Kngravlnga  on 
WiWil  1*11.  Nliiii>|i  cirn,  |<  iKI 
Till*  valii«.lilii  w..flt,  fm  iti.i'ii'i.l*  lufnriiiuli'in  np..R  a  vmI  variety  of  a.ib. 

.I*/I*,  brailirl.l  .If.  |.i  II.H  prioiil  .la;  ami  rafafiillv  iligeaUiJ,  ia  uiiriviituj  aihl 

ua«aiial*4     -^ili'i  Ifa^iia* 
rbaiMiiJ  aiiit ii.',  r..pi'..i. 

*tti'«iiaii'ia  1.1  fail*  wi.l  1*111' 

t/»l«il  aN4  •l|iUliii'il      timn 


rllli'.iil  ptiillilly.  II  lilt**  But  fiiniUli  a  h«lj 
bill  *  il*v*lupiii«Dt  vf  priariplas  w«ll  tllur- 


OOIB'H  MtNUTURB  tBXtOOIf  i>rilipKnji!lahI,iinKUaiie. 
(tliin,  MilHJiii.  fill  ri'iila  I  riM'krl  linoh  Dirm,  (I  (10. 

A  ainvaalMill  lull*  liiNiiHal )  rianr  In  ll.i.  Ivp"|rnipi.  v.  rh.I  r.>  iinall  thut  It 
.way  l)*i<*ril*i|  11.  ;..*  ii'..|ii.t.  fl  rimiHlii.  r..pl.iii«il«llnlti{m*,Myllal.ie  divl*. 
|.*H,  iiii'l  lliM  NiifniifriMliiiit  ..f  i>nrli  wi.r'i ,  ^Hrli  f»%*  111  lumiunijcil  by  •uun.l 
maalai*.     II  l«,  la  Iriilli,  "aiHfiwMt  lN/ar*<i  " 

ORABB'N  BIVaM«H  MYNONYMS  Mplnlnrd.    Willi  copi- 
iHi*  llliMlriili'iii*  mill    I'hpliiniiiiiiiia.  drawn  itom  tlio  beat 

WriiiTi.     Hni   Hiii'.'ii  I'tirn,  I'J  nil. 

Til*  W..1I1  ii.f.,i*  M  l<  wall  lalriilalF.I  In  farllllali'  lb*  Inqnirtr  la  hl«  r*. 
aaawh**  III! .  Ill*  |i.iwar,  iitlMlli.  aii.l  ln*nlilni|  i.f  ..nr  iNiianKir*.  Wbcruvfr 
Iha  Klllfllali  llinauiiif*  li  apnlvn,  llil*  btitill  will  priir*  nfutllily,  anil,  B*xt  Iti 
Uia  Hlbl*  «||>1  (>Ul|...|tar)'i  •ln/ul.l  bar*  a  plae*  In  avery  buiuabiilil. 

BAnPBn'K    UTATHTIOAL    OAZBTTBEH    OF   THE 

Wlllllill,  imrili'iiliirly  iliairlliing  llio  Iiiiili'il  Stiitca  of  Airiir- 
ln*,  I'niiinlii,  iVi-w  llrunawiiii.niid  Novn.;roila.  IlyJ.l.'Ai.- 
VInHmiiii.  Ilhlairali'il  liy  Ki'Viti  Mnna.  To  he  coiiipletiil 
In  mm  ml  or  in  'I'lii  Hiiiii-iiionllily  Nunihera,  at  50  cents 
eai'li      lliiifal  am  %'t  m 

Tina  aiiili  lilt*  Una  iin.l.fliiki-it  In  Biiprly  a  want  wblrh  It  ilally  bi-o.iminif 
Di'.r*  liiiini..|l*l*  ami  iii*..|..  ami  II  U  I>*IIi.t*.|  Ibal  II  rcmlalna  i>  Inrn.  r 
•  iniiiiiil  ..f  li.w  aailtal'.itl.l.  ii.alliit  Mi*n  li  bi  b»  fnnn.l  In  any  olbar  publi'.n. 
ll.ia  b*frl.,f.if*  11llkr1.1l  III  III*  pntilir 

'Hi*  .  Ill.ir  I,..,  ariililii.l  l.di,  .li<.|.i|.l,|..na  ■iiilrilrn.lr.I  .Irarriptinna,  with, 
■iril.  II  1*  l,i.|l*>B.|,  aminina  any  Ihlna  •laenlMl  I.,  a  full  onrl  it.la.iual*  Irnl. 
ln*nl  .If  lb*  •  .1.  .*.  I*  i.|..|iiiai..|  Tlwwnrb  will  nialaln  ■<.>  an  lara*  aitU  B*- 
riirala  iimii.,  full  ii,.r.ii.,,  „,.)  ||,|,  n(  |h*  pla<*l  laid  down,  ag  arraiinad  ai 
Id  (atllllaki  laiMHillala  iaf*Kn**. 


lUDDBLL  AWD   BOOTT'I   aKEEK-BNaLIBH   LEU- 

CdN,  haaeil  u|ion  111"  IliTinan  Work  nf  Kbancii  I'»»«)w. 
With  Correclioiii  anil  Aildiliiina,  ami  tbi  Inaertlon,  In  Al- 
phabetical Ordir.of  Ih  'io|ier  NaiiM?»  miurnng  In  the  prin- 
cl|nl<'r<Tl(  Auihora.by  laxHY  L>iiiiit.tH,  MA.  Uiiyil  tlvo, 
Uhinp  eitra,  •>  UU. 

Knr  many  y*Hra  1  mail*  ua«  of  .aiow**  nr*ali  and  (1  irman  I.*il*on  ni  Iha 
bail  tli*n  atUiil.  On  Ilia  ap|.j*ri  -i-  »f  Llddal.  an.l  ai-nll'*  Lsilmn,  It  wai 
avid.nt  Ibnl  th*y  bail  rftl*li<*il  Ilia  •■in  i.f  I'aaaow,  li«>«ld*a  aildlna  lu  II  lb* 
!  b*«l  I  i.arai-larbll**  nf  Knalla*!  acbi.  r*blp.  1  ba**,  a*roidln«ly,*var  aliii.* 
I  mail*  bahlliial  tun  nf  thair  work,  aialnly  In  ynar  *dlll.*l,  and  ll  a*rv*d  *■  t)i« 
b«ila  i.f  lb*  .-iBMlL'ai  purlltifl*  uf  my  nwn  l.i<ilr.in  uf  Ih*  N*i"  T*ilaRt*ni  I 
kniwnul  Ibal  I  ran  aay  anv  tl.lna  wblil.  muld  ninr*  fully  *ipr.a*  my  »*tl. 
Dial*  ul  lliH  hlKh  vain..  ..I  ill*  .«"rk  In  .iiivallnn  — KawAlo  ItuaiNtuN,  D.U., 
LIj.U,  l/alwi  rliWuyiiwI /f*»il*af|r.  ;vn*  >*r*. 

RIDDLE  AND  ARNOLD'S  ENGLISH-LATIN  LEXI' 
CON,  ftiunilrd  on  the  Ocnniii-I.alin  IMciinnnry  of  Dr  i'.  K 
Oiuaiiia.  Firal  Aini-rlran  Killtlon,  larenilly  revlii'il,  iind 
contalnlnn  ■  eoploua  Ulctlonary  nf  Proiar  Nainca  iroiii  iliu 
heat  8ourc»,  by  CiiA*I,r.a  Antiion,  I.L.U.  Itoyul  bvu, 
Sheep  ekira,  t3  UO. 

II  niiiil  iitp*rw<.l*  *v*ry  almilar  worV  now  In  oaa  in  iahmili  and  c.i1I*f«a 
Ihrniitrh.  ul  In*  Unlt*d  aiaUa,  at  it  baa  alr**dy  dun.  lu  Kntflaad.— (uarl** 

II  la  111*  only  FnirlUb-Lalln  lUrllnnary  tl'it  a  itiidenl  ran  rnnanll  with  a 
rvaMin.tbIa  bi.p*  uf  tlndlna  what  h*  WMnIa,  or  wllh  any  <«rtainly  v(  b*iBK 
atilf  tu  trual  what  b*  llBda.— iVarfain'a  Jffl^aiia*. 

ROBINSON'B  GREEK  LEXICON  OF  THE  i'EW  TEST- 
AMKNT.  A  new  Edition,  reviaed,  and  in  ureal  part,  ro- 
wrltlcn.     Royal  Hvn,  Mualln,  %i  5(1  \  .Sheep  citrn,  $  I  75. 

II. iw  r.>innletaly  tbia  vnlnm*  iiiiiiilia.l  a  a'**!  vmnl  m  th«  lni<ul..|{ifal  llt- 
•raliir*  t.f  lb*  day  our  r*Hdi.ni  will  rtadllv  Judaa,  frnni  lb*  fart  tbnl  Ihraa 
rival  adiliuiii  uf  it  w*r*  apvcdity  rviirinle.l  In  Lnndon  and  Rdinb.iriili,  b*- 
aid**  l>«u  Biib**iiu*nt  Bbri.tiiiiii>ntii.  Th«  flratodition  havlnBb««n  *ih.iUNli..i, 
rir.  R.ibinann,  durititf  lb*  laatlhra*  y«*ri.  baa  r..nr*nlrRI*ii  hi*  labor*  npun 
th*  pri>|.«ratiua  of  In*  pniB*nl  adilii.n  of  111*  laxirnn  A  ronipariaun  of  wblrh 
a  it'i  till'  lltil  iinprRBaioti  rnnble*  u*  In  nlti.»t  Iha  Irutlifni  arour^ry  ..f  lit*  au- 
Ibof'..  MtHlenieni  UiRt  it  U  ln.la«d  "anvw  *diii»ii,  rrvtiwd  and  p*rlly  rnwrll- 
ti.li,"  Mn.l  w-i.  tnual  Rdd.  With  uiuRt  valuabl*  Rddltluaa  and  iniprovoniauU. — 
darrA  t>f  KngUnd  Ht9U». 

SMITHS  DIOTIONAHY  OF  ANTIQUITIES.  From  the 
beat  Aiilhorltlea, and  iinbmlyliit  nil  llii'  niint  DiacoveruH  of 
the  moat  einliient  (frrmiin  I'tiiloloKlhla  and  Jurlata.  Firat 
American  Edition,  corrocti'tl  iinil  enlariied,  iiiiilioiiiaininK  nlxo 
iiunierous  Articica  relutive  to  tlif  lloiuny,  .MimTiiIofry,  Mini 
/miliiity  of  the  Ancionia,  by  CiiAiibi;.'!  Asthon,  1.1,.U. 
Riiyul  Hvo,  Shivp  e»lia,  $4  (HI. 

Aa  R  dirllonary,  11  U  Ih*  b«kl  ai.l  In  llie  rludy  uf  rUaalral  ant'iuily  v  '  -h 
wa  piMw***  In  our  iRnauRR*.  VNbtabl*  h*  tbi*  dli-liuiiHry  niiiat  t.a  In  I  lu> 
dunt  uf  RRciant  lil*rRtur«,  it  will  bo  nl  ararraly  I«w  »*rvlro  lu  Iho  Rtuilent  of 
Rnricnl  an.  fur  lb*  lIIuttrRlluni  bRv*  been  selected  wllh  care  and  Judgment. 
— ^lAfHaum. 

SMITH'S  NEW  OLASSIOAL  DIOTIONART  of  Gm-k  and 
Roman  DtoKraptiy.  Mytliology,  anil  (icoKraphy.  EdlK-'l  hy 
CifAKi.FH  AnTitoN,  M..I>.     Ilovial  Hvo,  Shfpp  cxlra,  %-i.  .'lO. 

TM<  ilicliutinry  r(ini|>TiR<»i  tlio  •Hiro  BubjArlB  n%  aru  ninlAlneU  in  Ilia  well. 
knoM  n  (lirllfMlMrv  or  l*cnt|>rlerf ,  Bvniilmg  Hit  errora,  >uii|ilylni[  it*  ileflr  ifiKNM. 
hikI  fihlbitinv,  in  %  cimriis  fumi,  lliv  r*;ult  of  tli*  lRbi)n  uf  Rctiiiliin.  It 
wit]  tliiii  luiibly  ft  wftDt  thM  bM  long  b«tn  fftt  tiy  ttiidfnu  ud  pcnoua  cti- 
(iigiiil  Id  tuilioo. 

WEBSTER'S  OCTAVO  DICHON-ARYa  Exhlblllnir  tho 
Origin,.  Orthofiraphy,  Pruiiiin<-laiion,  and  Dcfliiition  or 
VVonlH.  Towhlch  ani  added  a  SynopHln  ofWordn  difl'iTL'iit- 
ly  pronounri'd  by  dlirtTpnt  OrthoepiHta,  and  Walkcr'H  Koy  tu 
tno  ClaHNicnl  Pronunciattan  of  Oreek,  Latin,  and  Seripturo 
Proper  Nnnu'fl.  A  new  Ktlition,  nsviwd  and  eidartfcd,  hy 
CiiAL'NiKY  A.  OooDRKii,  D  1).,  ProliBsor  in  Yiiln  CoMijre. 
WUh  thti  Addition  of  a  Vocahulury  of  Modern  ticojrriiphirid 
NameN,  with  their  Pronunriulion.  This  Edition  contnitis  oil 
tho  U'oidN  in  tho  Quarlw  Edition,  and  aUo  an  arran^'i  nuiit 
of  SynoiiyniH  under  thu  lendintt  VVorda — a  new  and  minor- 
tant  ftmtiire,  and  not  to  bo  Ibund  lu  any  ulhcr  Work,  ovo, 
Sheep  extra,  $3  5U. 

Tub  Adtamtaoii  nr  rniii  Epitiom  jiaa, 
1.  It  hRah<i«n  mn«le  n  Virt'ionatf  cf  Syn'^fm»~n,  n»w  and  T«ry  Important 

f«aturp,  not  to  ho  fuiiml  In  tlt»  lAritufnTin  in  nny  Bimllnr  work. 
I  9  Stfvvral  thouiinn<l  Mitilitiunat  vordt  hrivn  hetn  Inrorpornted  in  (his  nil- 
.  tinn,  f nitirHriiiK  all  the  tt'tnt  i/ivrn  in  tkt  r>ctnl  iJitUn  IN  fKt  i/uartit  fiTUi. 
'  3.  Tim  Spnofiit  and  It'alter'i  A>y  to  tin*  rlnwlral  rronunclBlum  (if  Crtilt, 
I  Lalin,  niid  Hrri|>lur()  |iro|wr  nanii>»  Iihva  Wr>n  ravlM  <1  with  murh  run-  iiml 
I  frrviitiv  iin|iroved  ;  also,  a  roniplett  VofahHlary,  |ivlnf  tfaa  pronuiiriiiliun 
I  uf  iDotlem  (li>o|[Taphli-al  namri,  hru  breu  addcif. 

4.  tirciit  Rll.<nlion  h»»  !«■»■  n  clvt- ii  In  the  reviitiun  tn  the  ;ir..«uiifM(fi..fi.     A 
'  lartfi*  mintb^r  *>t  wnnU  hnvlnu  Iwnr  mpelltd,  it  will  now  ha  found  to  ba  a 
!  roniiilrlfl  Pronoutifinff  /JiV/ioaarw. 
I       6.   rheutm<Mit  cure  Iir«  been  gUfn  in  nv^n,- department  of  th^'Work  loren- 

der  it  the  m«t  perfect  and  latiifartury  ev^r  ufferwl  to  lh«  pultlic,    Cuntii.i. 

(irinir  its  cninprchantivenaai,  Ita  uumeruun  riMntlal  ImprtivcnipnlN,  ami  Its 

{[•iieriil  utilltv,  ramhinvd  with  Ita  poriHltillty,  it  will  ^t  found  on*  of  Ibt 
I  muat  indispetuabla  and  chaspMt  tMwka  uf  tfa«  llmv. 


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